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  <row Id="1" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4" CreationDate="2012-01-18T20:25:50.403" Score="171" ViewCount="13939" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a computer programmer, I have noticed an interesting phenomenon: If I am stuck on a particular problem in my work, often if I stop thinking about the problem and do something else, the answer will suddenly come to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this phenomenon? How does this work? Has any research been done on this? How is it that taking a break from a problem sometimes allows you to figure out the answer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; I remember now where I heard about this phenomenon: on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.charlierose.com/view/interview/12025&quot;&gt;Charlie Rose Brain Series&lt;/a&gt;, Eric Kandel of Colombia University says (at 43:20 in)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[The unconscious] can do many processes at the same time. You can either focus on one&#xA;  thing  or another, you can't focus on two or three things at the same time. Because&#xA;  consciousness is very limited in what it can do; unconsciousness is much broader. And&#xA;  although we know very little about the true nature of creativity, one emerging theme that&#xA;  comes out of this is that, if you're trying to solve a mathematical problem... if&#xA;  you're trying to solve any intellectual problem... you keep on focusing at it, you may&#xA;  get stuck. Taking a break, taking a shower, going for a walk, playing golf, you come&#xA;  back refreshed. And often doing the other activity, &lt;em&gt;boom&lt;/em&gt;, the idea will come to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then they change the subject! What is the concept he's talking about, and where can I read more about how it works?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-06-09T17:36:52.447" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T10:33:30.110" Title="How is it that taking a break from a problem sometimes allows you to figure out the answer?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="88" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-18T20:34:32.127" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe that &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/a/4319/561&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; excellent answer can shed some light on why you might be unable to figure out the problem. The answerer described it as mental exhaustion, mental fatigue or mental stress. This, though does not explain why you will suddenly see the solution, but I would guess that the tired part of the brain will continue working on the problem in some way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:46:43.487" LastActivityDate="2012-01-18T20:54:02.517" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-18T20:43:30.160" Score="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Emotions are a very powerful problem solving blockers. Here is why:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Strong emotions (when you are upset, stressed, etc) disconnect partially your frontal lobe from the rest of the brain. Your frontal lobe is responsible for fonctions such as problem solving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moving away from the source of the emotion reduce it, and you get reconnected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/papers/382/rvb-aisb1.pdf&quot;&gt;an interesting paper&lt;/a&gt; about problem solving and emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Performance and data from some cognitive models suggested that emotions, experienced during problem solving, should&#xA;  be taken into account. Moreover, it is proposed that the cognitive science approach using both theoretical and experimental data may lead to a better understanding of the phenomena. A closer investigation of AC T-R cognitive architecture&#xA;  (Anderson 1993) revealed some properties analogous to phenomena known from the activation theory of emotion. A&#xA;  model of the classical Yerkes-Dodson experiment was built to test the predictions. The study explained such psychological phenomena as arousal, motivation and conﬁdence within the mathematical notation. The inﬂuence of changes&#xA;  in these motivational states, controlled by emotion, on information processing has been investigated and it is shown that&#xA;  the dynamics corresponds to the well-known optimisation methods, such as best-ﬁrst search and simulated annealing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other potential problems that prevent you from solving a problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cognitive_Psychology_and_Cognitive_Neuroscience/Problem_Solving_from_an_Evolutionary_Perspective#Fixation&quot;&gt;Fixation&lt;/a&gt;: Previous experience or familiarity can make problem solving less easier&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot;&gt;Confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;: Tendency of people to favor information that confirms their beliefs or hypotheses.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic&quot;&gt;Availability heuristic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic&quot;&gt;Representativness heuristic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user26" LastEditorDisplayName="user26" LastEditDate="2012-01-19T07:16:06.347" LastActivityDate="2012-01-19T07:16:06.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-18T20:50:22.583" Score="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you're talking about a classic example of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incubation_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Incubation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Incubation is defined as a process of unconscious recombination of thought elements that were stimulated through conscious work at one point in time, resulting in novel ideas at some later point in time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a great article by John F. Kihlstrom: &lt;a href=&quot;http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/Underwood96.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Intuition, Incubation, and Insight: Implicit Cognition in Problem Solving&lt;/a&gt;. Basically it is believed that Incubation or stopping conscious thought on a problem allows one to find more creative solutions to a problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In these cases, Wallas argued, thinkers enter an incubation stage in which they no longer consciously think about the problem. Wallas (1926) actually distinguished this phenomenon between two forms of incubation: &quot;the period of abstention may be spent either in conscious mental work on other problems, or in a relaxation from all conscious mental work&quot; (p. 86). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Wallas believed that there might be certain economies of thought achieved by leaving certain problems unfinished while working on others, but he also believed that solutions achieved by this approach suffered in depth and richness. In many cases of difficult and complex creative thought, he believed, deeper and richer solutions could be achieved by a suspension of conscious thought altogether, permitting &quot;the free working of the unconscious or partially conscious processes of the mind&quot; (p. 87).1 In either case, Wallas noted that the incubation period was often followed by the illumination stage, the &quot;flash&quot; (p. 93) in which the answer appears in the consciousness of the thinker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kihlstrom's references contain many good experiments backing up the claims made.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A reason incubation may work is because it releases &quot;&lt;strong&gt;fixation&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;; that case of being &quot;stuck&quot; which is a sort of mental rut which prevents one from thinking of new answers or methods of solving a problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We become stuck on an idea that we believe &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; work but doesn't, which may hold us back from thinking of a different solution which actually does work, one we may have previously not considered or disregarded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A great dissertation by Bo T. Christensen &#xA; covers both ideas of Fixation and Incubation in depth: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.interruptions.net/literature/Christensen-Dissertation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Creative Cognition: Analogy and Incubation.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="18431" LastEditDate="2018-07-16T10:33:30.110" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T10:33:30.110" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11" CreationDate="2012-01-18T20:52:34.623" Score="9" ViewCount="539" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, I work on a project where there is a chance that the whole project will become irrelevant before it is finished. I have noticed that even though I believe that the risk of this happening is small, it will significantly influence my motivation sometimes, though not on every project where there is such risk. On the other hand, when gambling, one is willing to do things, when the chance of reward is practically neglectable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any psychological experiments that can shed some light on why we react irrationally in these situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-09T23:21:00.547" LastActivityDate="2012-04-29T04:53:25.010" Title="How is motivation influenced by chance of reward?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="578" CreationDate="2012-01-18T21:09:13.490" Score="28" ViewCount="5240" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have watched a number of times &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&amp;amp;v=u6XAPnuFjJc&quot;&gt;this excellent video&lt;/a&gt; where Dan Pink discusses the science of motivation. The video states that the higher incentives, the lower performance for non-rudimentary (not easy and quick) tasks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why is this true for non-rudimentary tasks, but not for rudimentary tasks? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does anyone know any theory, which can help explain this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-05T23:14:41.657" LastActivityDate="2013-10-11T06:18:48.857" Title="Why do higher incentives lead to lower performance for non-rudimentary tasks?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="113" CreationDate="2012-01-18T21:24:08.003" Score="5" ViewCount="742" Body="&lt;p&gt;Certainly, you have reading comprehension passages on the SAT, GRE, and LSAT. &lt;strong&gt;But beyond that point, is it really possible to measure reading comprehension through multiple-choice tests?&lt;/strong&gt; There are multiple motivations for why an author may make argument X, and multiple interpretations of his exact argument, which may be affected by the immediate circumstances that made him write that argument at that particular point in time (and while we may know a bit about the society that he lived in, chances are that we'll probably never know who he intended the book to be written for - hell - some people probably intended to write a book to impress some potential lover [and hell, maybe some passages in the book are motivated to attract the sympathy of that lover] even though they pretended to write it for the greater good of society). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean, all you have to do is to look at courtrooms. There, people pretty much argue about what people (in a case with precedent) actually meant, and there's usually no concrete (and correct) answer. And people who study the life of a particular philosopher may have multiple interpretations of why philosopher X wrote passage Y, and what X really meant in writing passage Y. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plus, it's oftentimes very interesting to read the writing of someone you know REALLY well because you know their life so well that you can dream up hypotheses of what prompted them to write passage X at time Y (and you also know his social network so you could imagine what audience he had in mind, and what audience he might have secretly hoped to impress without mentioning it). And perhaps because of this, reading comprehension is not a skill with a single scale, since people are better at understanding some people than they are at understanding others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean, I guess the ultimate test of reading comprehension would be to test someone on one of Immanuel Kant's books, or on some recent postmodernist book (made artificially difficult to read/parse), and then ask him &quot;well, what is Kant trying to get at&quot;? But is that really a valid test? Or maybe one where you have to dissect the entire structure of a book where X is pretending to be Y pretending to be Y pretending to be X (of course, such books are rarely written, but theoretically possible). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Alternatively, wouldn't someone with exceptional reading comprehension be better at reading crappy writing?&lt;/strong&gt; (because they're probably more able to process multiple thought-streams at once - which includes possible fragmentary/jumbled ideas?) A common assumption in reading comprehension tests is that the writing is &quot;perfect&quot;, but this is frequently not the case, and people (especially older people) can get attention lapses when writing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-04-29T15:52:31.570" LastActivityDate="2012-04-29T15:52:31.570" Title="Beyond a certain level, is reading comprehension affected more by psychological intuition than by verbal intelligence?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-18T21:27:03.727" Score="6" ViewCount="638" Body="&lt;p&gt;WORDSUM is a measure of vocabulary ( &lt;a href=&quot;http://unpleasantfacts.com/wordsum-sample-test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;see sample items here&lt;/a&gt;) where the test taker has to select which of a set of words has the most similar meaning to a target word.&#xA;There's been some discussion of how the test is &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2010/05/wordsum-iq/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;strongly correlated with IQ&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I think that it wouldn't be &lt;em&gt;that&lt;/em&gt; difficult to lower the correlation between vocabulary and IQ, if you got higher-IQ people to study less vocabulary words, or lower-IQ people to study high vocabulary words. It seems like &quot;an accident of history&quot; (although some &quot;accidents of history&quot; do have high probabilities of happening).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, what hidden latent variables could be responsible for the high correlation between WORDSUM and IQ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="53" LastEditDate="2012-01-20T05:32:26.463" LastActivityDate="2017-05-25T00:18:05.897" Title="What hidden latent variables could be responsible for the high correlation between WORDSUM and IQ?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6" CreationDate="2012-01-18T21:30:57.107" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;High incentives (especially related to time needed to finish a task) makes one very concentrated but at the same time leaves little opportunity to look outsid the box (i.e. to develop a creative approach, sometimes needed to complete a non-rudimentary task). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a popular science/economics talk, see also:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_pink_on_motivation.html&quot;&gt;http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_pink_on_motivation.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="28" LastEditDate="2012-01-18T21:46:53.273" LastActivityDate="2012-01-18T21:46:53.273" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-18T21:46:04.177" Score="25" ViewCount="794" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some intellectual, cognitive and perceptual tasks can be solved collaboratively. It is common knowledge that group performance is better than that of each single individual due to exchange of information (and without going into issues of motivation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One widely known phenomenon is &lt;em&gt;Wisdom of Crowds&lt;/em&gt; - when a group decision is much more accurate due to the averaging of individual biases. However, it is not the only possibility. Sometimes, a task can be divided into parts (and each participant works efficiently on his/ her own). Sometimes there are tasks too difficult to solve but easy to demonstrate that an answer is correct (and it suffices to have only one person in the group who answers correctly to make the group decision correct).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am interested in is, how the group performance scales with the group size?&#xA;(The measure of performance can be error rate, time needed to complete a certain task or the deviation from the right answer.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is motivated by one of my recent works, &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1109.2044&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;arXiv:1109.2044&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT (clarification):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am the most interested in low-level cognitive tasks (e.g. perceptual or linguistic), especially two-choice decisions (but also multiple choice, counting of blobs, solving a puzzle...). However, other quantifiable measures for cognitive task (including, say, time to complete a certain programming project vs number of programmers) are of my interest as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to the relation to my paper, I am curious if I miss an important reference or if my theoretical results can be supported (or undermined) by any existing experimental results (or even related in other context).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="9512" LastEditDate="2021-04-25T01:08:15.197" LastActivityDate="2021-04-25T01:08:15.197" Title="Performance of a group solving a cognitive task: How does it scale?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;collaboration&gt;&lt;wisdom-of-crowds&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="11" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5" CreationDate="2012-01-18T22:20:04.560" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our subjective estimation of probability is affected by many irrational factors, one of which is the accessibility of exemplars (Availability Heuristic). Since we usually hear about lottery winners, and not so much about those who didn't win, we over-estimate the probability of winning. It may be similar with your estimation of the probability of the project becoming irrelevant - it is affected by how easy it is for you to imagine the project failing, something that can be affected by lots of irrational factors (like how self-confident the project leader is, or even worse, how much you like him/her).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_gilbert_researches_happiness.html&quot;&gt;Dan Gilbert has a nice TED talk&lt;/a&gt; mentioning the Availability Heuristic in lottery and other similar biases in estimating gains and probabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="11" LastEditDate="2012-01-19T03:04:19.310" LastActivityDate="2012-01-19T03:04:19.310" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-18T22:29:36.150" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are describing is a mental bottleneck (or that is the term coined by David Rock Anyway - I actually wrote about it (in the context of Dual N Back training &lt;a href=&quot;http://profitawareness.com/blog/2011/11/dual-n-back-training-to-break-mental-bottlenecks/&quot;&gt;in this blog post&lt;/a&gt; - to quote myself &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A bottleneck happens when you can't solve a problem because you can't&#xA;  remove a bad thought from your brain.  A bad thought is something you&#xA;  know doesn't work, but you keep thinking about anyway, simple because&#xA;  your brain lacks the energy to get rid of it and replace it with&#xA;  something new.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially by taking a break from the problem you are allowing the bad thoughts to leave your brain, quite similar to rebooting a computer.  Once the bad thoughts are gone you can load everything fresh and your brain is no longer burdened by inhibiting the bad thoughts, so you can devote more brainpower to solutions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="49" LastActivityDate="2012-01-18T22:29:36.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6" CreationDate="2012-01-18T23:10:50.437" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a fundamental concept in motivation illustrating this effect- a bunch of studies have been done which I don't have the time of digging up citations for now, but the central findings are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If the incentive (external reward) for a non-trivial task becomes too salient, the individual is driven to complete the task for that reward and will not, &lt;em&gt;generally&lt;/em&gt; utilize the same extent of cognitive resources in solving that task. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conversely, if an individual genuinely wants to solve the problem/complete the task out of pure self-motivation, they will utilize a greater share of cognitive resources in solving that problem.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The different perceived locus of causality in intrinsic motivation leads to a different set of cognitive processes being activated generating differences in performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good summary article you should read is &lt;a href=&quot;http://mmrg.pbworks.com/f/Ryan,+Deci+00.pdf&quot;&gt;(Ryan &amp;amp; Deci, 2000) in Contemporary. Edu. Psyc.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8" LastEditorUserId="8" LastEditDate="2012-01-19T14:59:50.757" LastActivityDate="2012-01-19T14:59:50.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6" CreationDate="2012-01-18T23:41:03.590" Score="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you have to be careful with the proposition that &quot;rewards do not increase performance on non-rudimentary tasks&quot;. The experiments that Dan Pink cites involve experiments where participants are in a room and are supervised by an experimenter while they complete a task. This social pressure by the experimenter may well be enough for participants to be focused and diligent in completing the task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But in the real world:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;people often have &lt;strong&gt;time to prepare for situations that involve high stakes rewards&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, performance on exams often have major rewards tied to their outcome. A major goal of exams is to motivate students to study hard for the subject matter.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;effort and time on task is often not fixed&lt;/strong&gt;. Employees can do overtime if the task is hard but the rewards are good (or if the pay implies that the extra effort is expected). They can engage in less off-task behaviour. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;people choose the tasks they do at all&lt;/strong&gt;. When people choose a career, it is assumed that among many other things, that many will consider the probability of getting a job and the likely salary and conditions (i.e., rewards). When a person chooses to work for a particular employer, salary relative to other potential employers is often an important factor. Thus, rewards can influence whether an individual engages in a particular activity at all.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I think one needs to be careful when generalising the meaning of these experiments to work and other contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of theories that might explain the results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes%E2%80%93Dodson_law&quot;&gt;Yerkes-Dodson curve&lt;/a&gt; and related models suggest that the relationship between arousal and performance is an inverted-u relationship and that the peak of the inverted u varies with task difficulty (i.e., greater arousal is optimal for simpler tasks).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-18T23:50:47.997" LastActivityDate="2012-01-18T23:50:47.997" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="112" CreationDate="2012-01-19T00:10:34.473" Score="17" ViewCount="3789" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/&quot;&gt;IPIP&lt;/a&gt; is an example of a public domain scientific personality inventory that can be used for research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any good public domain scientific measures of intelligence?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Requirements&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do not&lt;/strong&gt; link to the kinds of hits you get when you type &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.com.au/search?gcx=c&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;client=ubuntu&amp;amp;channel=cs&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;amp;q=free+online+iq+tests&quot;&gt;&quot;free online intelligence tests&quot; into Google&lt;/a&gt; (i.e., tests where you can only do the questions and get summary normative feedback at the end)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Full text of instrument should be available, ideally with some form of test manual&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Information about test has been published in a refereed journal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Test is freely available for use for scientific purposes, and ideally can be modified, adapted, &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-12T12:30:56.397" LastActivityDate="2020-11-30T06:24:17.030" Title="Public domain scientific intelligence test available for use in research" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T00:22:16.860" Score="39" ViewCount="3101" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sharing data is an important part of science (e.g., see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/research/responsible/data/index.aspx&quot;&gt;APA discussion&lt;/a&gt;). It's also often useful to be able to have access to datasets when teaching students how to analyse data in the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What online data repositories for research are available in the cognitive sciences (e.g., psychology, psychiatry, cognitive science, etc.)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally, it would be good to include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a link to the repository&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;an overview of the size of the repository&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the disciplinary content of the repository&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;whether there are restrictions on access and use&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T19:51:03.540" Title="Online data repository of research in the cognitive sciences" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="20" CommunityOwnedDate="2012-02-20T13:22:38.343" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T00:32:42.690" Score="10" ViewCount="267" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been working on modeling some phenomena involving real-time control in an environment with inherent rewards (specifically, playing a 'pong'-like game), and it's increasingly looking like reinforcement learning by itself won't cut it computationally (I'm currently using a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stanford.edu/group/pdplab/pdphandbook/handbookch10.html#x26-1290009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;temporal difference back propagation neural network&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One possible supplemental learning mechanism is to also have the model predict the environment's future state, from which it can learn from in a supervised manner using standard feed forward back propagation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My current thinking on synthesizing these mechanisms is to have the input layer feed into a hidden layer, which in turn feeds into &lt;strong&gt;both&lt;/strong&gt; a reward predicting layer and a separate state predicting layer. In training this net, I simply change the weights via reinforcement learning first and then change them again to account for the state prediction error via back prop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So my question is this&lt;/strong&gt;: Are there any problems you can foresee arising from this architecture? Additionally, has this combination of learning mechanisms been done before, and if so was it done in a similar way?       &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T08:31:38.667" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T08:31:38.667" Title="Are there any connectionist models that integrate reinforcement and  fully supervised learning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="82" CreationDate="2012-01-19T00:34:56.117" Score="12" ViewCount="485" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember hearing about the old &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive_theory&quot;&gt;'drive' theory of motivation&lt;/a&gt; in Psych 101, and despite continuing my cognitive science education for another 4 years, that's the last theory of motivation I've heard about. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any modern theories of motivation at mechanistic level of explanation?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only stuff on motivation I find these days are along the lines of Pink's book &quot;Drive&quot;, which talks of &quot;purpose&quot; and &quot;mastery&quot; as motivators, but doesn't discuss the actual mechanisms underlying them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-09T07:50:40.037" LastActivityDate="2017-03-20T17:42:39.873" Title="Are there any modern mechanistic theories of motivation?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="141" CreationDate="2012-01-19T00:46:33.853" Score="5" ViewCount="166" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen a few neuroscience accounts of visual navigation and many A.I. projects, but no psychologically plausible accounts that actually solve the computational problem (i.e. produce a &lt;strong&gt;working&lt;/strong&gt; model).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously I realize that to ask for a &lt;em&gt;general&lt;/em&gt; cognitive model of visual navigation would be too much, but surely someone has done some work on a small sub-domain (e.g. driving, navigating in video games, navigation in specific animals).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any computational account along these lines would be appreciated, though a connectionist account would be preferred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-20T18:00:49.683" LastActivityDate="2013-05-22T23:12:05.187" Title="Are there any cognitive models for visual navigation?" Tags="&lt;connectionism&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="20" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="70" CreationDate="2012-01-19T01:07:18.217" Score="18" ViewCount="965" Body="&lt;p&gt;Call it a nerd crossover, but I've always been curious about how we play games on a mechanistic level. However, even coming from a rational viewpoint video games seem like a fruitful domain of study, since data collection is simple and complete, environmental variables can be easily manipulated, and the task is far richer than typically used in cognitive psychology experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, have any psychological theories been formed by/applied to in this domain? It seems like eye-tracking and cognitive modeling approaches are both particularly well suited to this domain, but any work in cognitive science on the phenomena involved here would be interesting to see.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only things I've found are the interesting experimental work on &lt;a href=&quot;http://adrenaline.ucsd.edu/kirsh/articles/perceptiveactions/perceptive.pdf&quot;&gt;semantic actions in Tetris&lt;/a&gt;, and some modeling work done on &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/papers/457/lee03.pdf&quot;&gt;unreal tournament within the ACT-R community&lt;/a&gt;. It should be noted however, that the latter example uses a video game environment as decent simulation of reality and thus models an &lt;em&gt;agent inside the game&lt;/em&gt;, whilst the former focuses on the game from the &lt;em&gt;player's point of view&lt;/em&gt;. This might be a personal bias, but the latter seems much more fruitful and more in line with the spirit of my question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-14T03:27:28.550" LastActivityDate="2015-09-14T18:09:26.403" Title="Any work being done on Perception, Action, and/or Cognition in Video games?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;" AnswerCount="11" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="22" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T01:36:51.757" Score="13" ViewCount="625" Body="&lt;p&gt;After all, while psychometricians definitely have above-average IQs, they probably don't have IQs over, say, 160.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If psychometricians already know what the right answers are (and how to obtain the right answer), then wouldn't they score very high on the tests, even if they're not THAT smart? (making it possible for other people to score high on the tests if they studied psychometrics as well?) The format of the test isn't going to vary that much from administration to administration. Of course, the tests are timed, but it's entirely possible that the practice the psychometricians get from writing the tests could easily make them better at each of the subsets of an IQ test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="28" LastEditDate="2012-01-21T13:40:04.270" LastActivityDate="2016-12-20T10:16:22.003" Title="How is it possible for psychometricians to develop IQ tests for people smarter than them?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="23" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1027" CreationDate="2012-01-19T01:41:47.383" Score="13" ViewCount="4788" Body="&lt;p&gt;One person makes the claim over at his response to the Quora question &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quora.com/Do-people-with-Aspergers-have-above-average-IQs-simply-because-the-ones-with-below-average-IQs-simply-get-diagnosed-with-autism-instead/answer/Darrin-Blankenship&quot;&gt;Do people with Asperger's have above-average IQs simply because the ones with below-average IQs simply get diagnosed with autism instead?&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;No. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intelligence testing as most neurologically typical people understand&#xA;  it, is heavily biased toward individuals with expressive and receptive&#xA;  language ability which is often impaired in persons with autism to a&#xA;  greater degree than in persons with Asperger's.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As an example: imagine an intelligence test that was written in&#xA;  English being administered to a person who grew up speaking French.&#xA;  That person might be quite bright but would likely score very low.&#xA;  There have been numerous documented studies of the effect of language&#xA;  bias in intelligence testing that makes the idea of standardized&#xA;  intelligence testing a questionable endeavor. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From personal experience, my own son has rather severe language&#xA;  impairments and, if tested with a written or verbal test, would almost&#xA;  certainly have an MR diagnosis in addition to his autism. However,&#xA;  when tested with strictly non-language based testing methods, has&#xA;  proven himself to be quite bright (in the empirical sense, that is.&#xA;  Watching him spend 30 seconds on a strange computer before finding his&#xA;  favorite YouTube videos shows that he knows quite well what he's&#xA;  doing). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is he right when he says that &quot;Intelligence testing as most neurologically typical people understand it, is heavily biased toward individuals with expressive and receptive language ability which is often impaired in persons with autism to a greater degree than in persons with Asperger's.&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And could IQ tests be biased against Aspies in other ways? Could they also be biased in favor of Aspies in certain ways as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-06T17:31:39.430" LastActivityDate="2018-02-06T17:54:02.360" Title="Are IQ tests &quot;biased&quot; against individuals with Asperger's Syndrome?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="25" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22" CreationDate="2012-01-19T02:15:24.310" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: &#xA;construct a usable chair out of toothpicks. Now, I certainly can't do this, but I can verify your answer easily enough&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long answer:&#xA;Verification of answers is often a lot easier than producing answers. And thats not just anecdotal, there are computational and psychological reasons behind this fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Computationally - complexity is different for solving a problem than for verifying it. For example the clad of NP problem cant (probably) be solved in poly time, but they can be verified in poly time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologically - think recall versus recognition. Recognition just involves your brain lighting up when it sees the right answer, whilst recall or production requires an extensive search at the very least&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the answer is that the test makers don't have produce the answers themselves, and certainly not under test conditions. They simply have to be able to see that the right answer is right (either produced via a group, a computer, or a genius).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, remember that no one question separates high IQs from low. Perhaps a 140IQ could answer one of the hardest questions, but not all of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, remember than IQ isn't a single dimension, perhaps the test was written by one expert in each dimension, which could then identify a genius in all dimensions &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastActivityDate="2012-01-19T02:15:24.310" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="26" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8" CreationDate="2012-01-19T02:25:00.367" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd probably reframe your question to be slightly broader, such as &quot;why do vocabulary tests correlate so highly with estimates of general intelligence (i.e., &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt;)?&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, here are a few thoughts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Verbal ability measures, including vocabulary tests, are often part of IQ tests. Thus, some of the correlation may flow from our conceptualisation of intelligence as requiring verbal aptitude.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ability tests tend to intercorrelate; these correlations are generally greater within a domain (e.g., verbal, spatial, etc.), but even across domains, correlations are observed. Thus, whatever drives correlations between any ability test and general intelligence may also partially explain the vocabulary-IQ correlation. However, this isn't the complete story, because certain tests (from memory, e.g., Raven's Progressive Matrices and Vocab) correlate more with g than others. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People with greater intelligence may be more likely to seek out verbal stimuli, be provided with verbal stimuli, and retain and understand verbal stimuli, all processes which over many years would accumulate into a greater vocabulary. Similarly perhaps, relatively stable environmental factors might simultaneously increase intelligence and vocabulary.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd be keen to read any specific studies which involved a vocabulary based intervention and see whether (a) this was successful in increasing vocabulary test scores, and (b) whether the intervention lowered the correlation with vocabulary and intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-05-25T00:18:05.897" LastActivityDate="2017-05-25T00:18:05.897" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="27" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20" CreationDate="2012-01-19T02:39:39.490" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few tasks that come to mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Space Fortress by &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogworks.cogsci.rpi.edu/research_projects/active&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The CogWorks Lab&lt;/a&gt;, an &lt;em&gt;&quot;action video game that requires constant shifts of attention, memory retrievals, visual tracking, fine motor control, and dynamic decision making...&quot;&lt;/em&gt;:&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There was a whole program of research built around this game: see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?gcx=c&amp;amp;client=ubuntu&amp;amp;channel=cs&amp;amp;q=space+fortress&amp;amp;um=1&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=N&amp;amp;tab=ws&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Scholar results&lt;/a&gt; and a discussion &lt;a href=&quot;http://jtoomim.org/brain-training/the%20space%20fortress%20game.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;(Mane, &amp;amp; Donchin, 1989).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kanfer-Ackerman Air Traffic Control Task: &#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;see &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?gcx=c&amp;amp;client=ubuntu&amp;amp;channel=cs&amp;amp;q=Kanfer-Ackerman+Air+Traffic+Control+Task&amp;amp;um=1&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=N&amp;amp;tab=ws&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Scholar links&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A number of researchers have done cognitive modelling using this simplified air traffic control simulator. It's not a commercial video game, but a lot of the ideas around rules and points are the same.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-11-19T18:30:21.837" LastActivityDate="2012-11-19T18:30:21.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="28" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T02:52:09.957" Score="6" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is well known that the correlation between personality measures obtained from self-ratings and ratings by others are imperfect. There are many different traits that could be rated (e.g., well-being, personality, performance, intelligence, self-esteem, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a good reference that summarises the correlations between self and other ratings across a wide range of psychological constructs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-29T13:48:58.470" LastActivityDate="2019-11-22T06:44:15.033" Title="Summary of meta-analytic correlations between self- and other-report measures" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="29" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="156" CreationDate="2012-01-19T03:00:50.570" Score="26" ViewCount="660" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamification&quot;&gt;Wikipedia defines Gamification&lt;/a&gt; as &quot;the use of game design techniques and mechanics to solve problems and engage audiences.&quot;&#xA;Khan Academy has received attention (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://gamification.co/2011/05/26/quests-skill-trees-for-learning-with-khan-academy/&quot;&gt;see this post&lt;/a&gt;) for incorporating some elements of gamification into its online learning system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any scientific papers that seek to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;integrate the ideas of &quot;gamification&quot; into models of education and cognitive psychology?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;critically and empirically evaluate the ideas of gamification for educational purposes?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T14:50:39.333" LastActivityDate="2017-08-05T06:03:41.820" Title="Have ideas of &quot;gamification&quot; been applied to education?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="30" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="224" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:00:35.917" Score="5" ViewCount="830" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read research reporting that &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=Au2KHXQs2JUC&amp;amp;pg=PA59&amp;amp;lpg=PA59&amp;amp;dq=lower%20iq%20increased%20variability%20reaction%20time&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=f8TCnLaqmB&amp;amp;sig=wTYAnMbuFmn_HqrS3uxXsCgCUec&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=XuwYT_uGCsamiQL22fCdCA&amp;amp;ved=0CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=lower%20iq%20increased%20variability%20reaction%20time&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;lower IQ is correlated with higher variability in reaction time&lt;/a&gt;.  But such research does not seem to disentangle the possible effect of ADD, in which case you might have a separate cluster that does not follow the general trend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, &lt;strong&gt;if ADD/ADHD subjects are given a cognitive test on different days, will the variability in their outcomes be higher than that in controls?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-01T02:13:47.543" LastActivityDate="2012-02-04T03:48:26.340" Title="What is the effect of ADD/ADHD on performance variability on cognitive tests over time?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;reliability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="31" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="154" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:02:47.393" Score="4" ViewCount="1480" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a follow-up question to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quora.com/How-does-posture-affect-cerebral-blood-flow&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;an answer on Quora&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the upright posture, venous outﬂow is considerably less pulsatile&#xA;  (57%) and occurs predominantly through the vertebral plexus, while in&#xA;  the supine posture venous outﬂow occurs predominantly through the&#xA;  internal jugular veins. A slightly lower tCBF (12%), a considerably&#xA;  smaller CSF volume oscillating between the cranium and the spinal&#xA;  canal (48%), and a much larger ICC (2.8-fold) with a corresponding&#xA;  decrease in the MRI-derived ICP values were measured in the sitting&#xA;  position. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uic.edu/labs/pimlab/reprints/jmri_alperin_posture_neurophysiology.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't quite get the answer though. I know that the cerebral blood flow distribution is more complex than we think, but does the overall blood flow increase or decrease with an upright posture? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-04-16T16:10:43.877" LastActivityDate="2012-04-16T16:10:43.877" Title="How does posture affect cerebral blood flow?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="32" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:04:23.833" Score="1" ViewCount="1208" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm specifically interested in whether or not their &lt;em&gt;maximum&lt;/em&gt; ability to feel an emotion decreases as they grow older (so by that I'm meaning - let's ignore the effects of tolerance induced by life experience for now).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-19T04:11:38.023" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T02:14:15.103" Title="Do people feel emotions less strongly as they grow older?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;aging&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2012-01-23T23:35:35.377" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="34" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="146" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:07:55.013" Score="9" ViewCount="1483" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's some interesting discussion at this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wrongplanet.net/postt157561.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wrong Planet thread&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I was wondering whether people with ADD or Asperger's Syndrome are more likely to show a logistic pattern in their learning curves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IXyKy.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-06T00:35:09.993" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T00:35:09.993" Title="Do people with ADD or Asperger's Syndrome often show different learning curves than neurotypical individuals?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="36" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:14:06.580" Score="9" ViewCount="4735" Body="&lt;p&gt;Supposedly, people of higher levels of intelligence do learn faster than people of lower levels of it. But this is an awfully coarse observation, and different people can learn at drastically different speeds in different environments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="625" LastEditDate="2015-04-26T21:10:25.693" LastActivityDate="2019-01-17T01:56:55.787" Title="Does IQ affect learning speed?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="37" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:16:36.123" Score="9" ViewCount="393" Body="&lt;p&gt;In other words, how do the brains of those with BPD differ from those who don't have BPD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder&quot;&gt;The Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; doesn't even contain any possible explanations whatsoever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-01-24T14:20:54.223" LastActivityDate="2012-01-24T14:20:54.223" Title="What is a neurobiological explanation of borderline personality disorder?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="38" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:19:30.470" Score="13" ViewCount="486" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's definitely progressive interference and retroactive interference, which are basically two ways that old memories and new memories can interfere with each other. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But on the other hand, do these types of interference &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; have to happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T23:22:47.890" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T23:22:47.890" Title="Is there a practical limit to the amount of knowledge a human can learn?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="40" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:27:36.993" Score="20" ViewCount="1736" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain injury might apparently produce two &quot;independent&quot; consciousnesses, and I'm wondering where the original person's &quot;consciousness&quot; would &quot;transfer&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We had a debate on this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/iee9g/if_you_become_a_splitbrain_patient_which_side/&quot;&gt;over at Reddit&lt;/a&gt; some time ago, but it didn't really get resolved. What's &lt;strong&gt;more&lt;/strong&gt; important is that Christof Koch (one of the top researchers in the field) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.klab.caltech.edu/~koch/glossary.html&quot;&gt;explicitly said that splitting the corpus calloseum would produce two conscious minds in one skull&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;About two hundred million fibers that keep the two cortical&#xA;  hemispheres in constant communication. These are cut in split-brain&#xA;  patients, creating two conscious minds in one skull.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-12T19:15:05.770" LastActivityDate="2019-03-24T20:00:17.180" Title="If someone becomes a split-brain patient, which side will &quot;maintain&quot; the continuity in their consciousness?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="42" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:35:59.150" Score="2" ViewCount="414" Body="&lt;p&gt;I asked the same question at Reddit &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/jfdml/are_endstage_alzheimers_patients_still_conscious/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, but none of the responses were convincing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So here's the thing: to the extent of what we know about consciousness, are end-stage Alzheimer's patients still conscious? I will use &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.klab.caltech.edu/~koch/Elsevier-NCC.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Christof Koch's attempt to define consciousness&lt;/a&gt;, as explained below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is the character of the NCC? Most popular has been the belief&#xA;  that consciousness arises as an emergent property of a very large&#xA;  collection of interacting neurons (for instance, Libet 1993). In this&#xA;  view, it would be foolish to locate consciousness at the level of&#xA;  individual neurons. An alternative hypothesis is that there are&#xA;  special sets of ``consciousness&quot; neurons distributed throughout cortex&#xA;  and associated systems. &lt;strong&gt;Such neurons represent the ultimate neuronal&#xA;  correlate of consciousness, in the sense that the relevant activity of&#xA;  an appropriate subset of them is both necessary and sufficient to give&#xA;  rise to an appropriate conscious experience or percept (Crick and Koch&#xA;  1998).&lt;/strong&gt; Generating the appropriate activity in these neurons, for&#xA;  instance by suitable electrical stimulation during open skull surgery,&#xA;  would give rise to the specific percept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So do end-stage Alzheimer's patients lose these types of &quot;neurons&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-02T19:46:55.850" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T19:46:55.850" Title="Are end-stage Alzheimer's patients still conscious?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2012-05-30T05:17:21.960" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="44" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:38:59.317" Score="15" ViewCount="1495" Body="&lt;p&gt;Elephants and whales have brains that are much larger than those of humans. It is presumed that much of their brain is used up for their larger bodies (after all, there is a allometric scaling between brain weight and body weight in mammals).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do elephants and whales really need super-large somatosensory cortices to map to their larger bodies?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have we mapped out the parts of the brains of a whale or elephant to see which parts of the brain are mapped to which parts of the body?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With whales in particular, they don't even have arms or legs, so I wouldn't expect them to have large regions of the brain devoted to, say, fine-motor skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, it is apparent (to many people) that whales and elephants don't have drastically higher intelligence than humans. So their extra brain regions have to go somewhere. Where do they go to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I asked the same question &lt;a href=&quot;http://sl.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ilb2w/what_do_the_superlarge_brains_of_whales_and/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, though I'm not convinced by any of the answers provided.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T02:55:06.387" Title="What do the super-large brains of whales and elephants map to?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="45" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="67" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:42:09.623" Score="3" ViewCount="184" Body="&lt;p&gt;If one implants electrodes into a monkey's brain in order to allow the monkey to control a mechanical arm, then is the monkeys able to move &lt;em&gt;both&lt;/em&gt; it's natural &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; it's mechanical arms at once?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens if, say, the same signal might tell the mechanical arm to move up, and the natural arm to move down?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-02T19:46:52.183" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T19:46:52.183" Title="What are the effects of implanting electrodes into the brains of monkeys?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="46" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T04:43:45.330" Score="7" ViewCount="1068" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-back#Dual_n-back&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Dual N-Back task&lt;/a&gt; is the only task I'm aware of &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.ketyov.com/2011/07/working-memory-and-cognitive.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;that has empirical support showing that it improves working memory&lt;/a&gt;. It appears to improve working memory through multitasking, although this multitasking must fit certain criteria, namely that you can't learn the task so well that you can eventually &quot;automate&quot; it without going into working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I'm wondering whether other forms of multi-tasking such as playing Starcraft II (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://lesswrong.com/lw/6sj/experience_with_dual_nback/4jme&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;my earlier thoughts&lt;/a&gt;) and driving with a cellphone can also improve working memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A possible follow-up question: if not, what differentiates the type of multitasking found in the Dual N-Back task from other types of multi-tasking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-03T06:47:20.470" LastActivityDate="2017-12-25T19:24:49.093" Title="Can intense multitasking improve fluid intelligence/working memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="48" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T05:06:08.350" Score="7" ViewCount="302" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Possible Duplicate:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/20/any-work-being-done-on-perception-action-and-or-cognition-in-video-games&quot;&gt;Any work being done on Perception, Action, and/or Cognition in Video games?&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any research studies that show this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quora.com/Scientific-Research/Are-there-any-research-studies-showing-that-expert-computer-gamers-like-SC2-players-have-unusual-physiological-mental-characteristics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a thread on Quora&lt;/a&gt; for some initial discussion, but few research articles so far.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For decades, a different game, chess, has held the exalted position of&#xA;  “the drosophila of cognitive science”—the model organism that&#xA;  scientists could poke and prod to learn what makes experts better than&#xA;  the rest of us. StarCraft 2, however, might be emerging as the rhesus&#xA;  macaque: its added complexity may confound researchers initially, but&#xA;  the answers could ultimately be more telling.   “I can’t think of a&#xA;  cognitive process that’s not involved in StarCraft,” says Mark Blair,&#xA;  a cognitive scientist at Simon Fraser University. “It’s working&#xA;  memory. It’s decision making. It involves very precise motor skills.&#xA;  Everything is important and everything needs to work together.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Blair, the Simon Fraser University scientist running the SkillCraft&#xA;  project, asked gamers at all ability levels to submit their replay&#xA;  files. He and his colleagues collected more than 4500 files, of which&#xA;  at least 3500 turned out to usable. “What we’ve got is a satellite&#xA;  view of expertise that no one was able to get before,” he says. “We&#xA;  have hundreds of players at the basic levels, then hundreds more at&#xA;  level slightly better, and so on, in 8 different categories of&#xA;  players.” By comparing the techniques and attributes of low-level&#xA;  players with other gamers up the chain of ability, they can start to&#xA;  discern how skills develop—and perhaps, over the long run, identify&#xA;  the most efficient training regimen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Both Blair and Lewis see parallels between the game and emergency&#xA;  management systems. In a high-stress crisis situation, the people in&#xA;  charge of coordinating a response may find themselves facing competing&#xA;  demands. Alarms might be alerting them to a fire burning in one part&#xA;  of town, a riot breaking out a few streets over, and the contamination&#xA;  of drinking water elsewhere. The mental task of keeping cool and&#xA;  distributing attention among equally urgent activities might closely&#xA;  resemble the core challenge of Starcraft 2. “For emergencies, you&#xA;  don’t get to train eight hours a day. You get two emergencies in your&#xA;  life but you better be good because lives are at stake,” Blair says.&#xA;  “Training in something like Starcraft could be really useful.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-03-02T15:40:04.103" Title="Do expert computer gamers have unusual physiological or mental characteristics?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2012-11-19T18:48:33.573" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="50" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="36" CreationDate="2012-01-19T05:18:39.717" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few quick points:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a massive empirical literature that shows that fairly strong correlations are obtained between IQ and important real world outcomes, perhaps most notably educational and job performance, often in the r = .5 range (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iq-tests.eu/iq-test-Practical-validity-800.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here for a summary&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Correlations with learning are complicated by what we mean by learning. In particular, if we define learning as the improvement in performance between two time points, then we have what is sometimes called a &lt;em&gt;difference score&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;gain score&lt;/em&gt;. While this is an intuitive way to think about learning, gain scores often have slightly counter-intuitive properties. For example, on some tasks, gain may be negatively correlated with initial performance levels. This makes sense when you think that those who perform poorly initially often have more to learn. However, initial performance typically correlates well with final performance after a period of learning.&#xA;As such, correlations of gain scores with ability can be a little strange also.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might want to read some of &lt;a href=&quot;http://kanfer-ackerman.gatech.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Philip Ackerman&lt;/a&gt;'s work on ability-performance correlations over practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's some further discussion of the change score issue in learning here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ackerman, P. L. (1987). Individual differences in skill learning: An&#xA;integration of psychometric and information processing perspectives.&#xA;Psychological Bulletin, 102:3-27. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2019-01-17T01:56:55.787" LastActivityDate="2019-01-17T01:56:55.787" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="55" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="152" CreationDate="2012-01-19T05:35:12.443" Score="7" ViewCount="533" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've often heard it said that almost everyone thinks that they are a better than average driver.&#xA;If this is true, it could be explained by a number of theories.&#xA;Some of these are outlined in this &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority#Explanations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on illusory superiorty&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had a few questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has anyone researched the actual correlation between self-perceived and other measures of driving ability?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has anyone developed a model of the degree to which any bias is due to different causes (e.g., different values of speed versus safety; perceptual differences of others versus self; etc.)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-20T01:08:47.130" LastActivityDate="2020-04-25T07:47:09.007" Title="What is the relationship between self-perceptions and actual driving ability?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;attribution&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="56" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="137" CreationDate="2012-01-19T05:38:08.970" Score="8" ViewCount="2376" Body="&lt;p&gt;This article in Time magazine suggests that engaging in challenging mental tasks may be associated with lower rates of mental decline in older adults.&#xA;The article states that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In one study, presented last year at the Cognitive Neuroscientist&#xA;  Society's annual meeting, psychologist and neuroscientist Helena&#xA;  Westerberg of the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm compared the&#xA;  cognitive abilities of 45 young adults (average age 25) with those of&#xA;  55 older adults (average age 65). She found that after five weeks of&#xA;  computerized training on tasks ranging from reproducing a series of&#xA;  light flashes to repeating digits in the opposite order that they were&#xA;  given, the older group was able to reach the same level of working&#xA;  memory, attention and reaction time that the younger group had at the&#xA;  outset. (Notably, the younger group had even greater improvements by&#xA;  the end of the training period.) &quot;The program is always pushing them&#xA;  to do better,&quot; says Westerberg, who notes that an advantage of&#xA;  video-game training is that the programs' difficulty level continually&#xA;  adjusts upward to match players' evolving abilities. &quot;They have&#xA;  feedback and can see their scores.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This might suggest that scientists and professors might have less decline in fluid IQ with age. Is there any support for this idea?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-23T05:21:04.037" LastActivityDate="2012-02-21T06:36:07.290" Title="Is the decline of fluid IQ with age less severe for professors and scientists than it is for other people?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="57" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-19T05:40:48.373" Score="14" ViewCount="8439" Body="&lt;p&gt;While performance on intelligence tests aim to measure an underlying relatively stable trait, there are presumably a range of transient factors that could temporarily lower or possibly even raise scores on such tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Possible factors might be: alcohol, sleep deprivation, mood, test taking anxiety, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any studies so far that have assessed the degree to which such transient factors can influence performance on intelligence tests?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do such studies suggest such affects depend on other factors such as gender, personality, and presence/absence of ADD/Asperger's?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-01-24T21:01:54.573" LastActivityDate="2016-05-04T11:17:43.070" Title="What transient factors affect performance on IQ tests?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="60" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="72" CreationDate="2012-01-19T05:50:13.863" Score="11" ViewCount="6146" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a correlation between high IQ for example over 125 and creativity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is creativity improved or does its importance simply diminish?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe there could also be confounding variables as well? It can be easier to be creative if you're not the best in the world in something (surprisingly enough), since then it might motivate you to get off the beaten path.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T07:51:18.907" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T07:51:18.907" Title="Is there a correlation between high IQ and creativity?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="64" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20" CreationDate="2012-01-19T06:20:37.963" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2005.10.004&quot;&gt;Playing action video games improves performance&lt;/a&gt; in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subitizing&quot;&gt;subitizing&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Multiple_object_tracking&quot;&gt;multiple object tracking&lt;/a&gt;, both of which are abilities involving attending to multiple objects at once. Note that it's a causal relationship; people who don't play action video games show improvements in those two abilities after playing for a while.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-8765.2009.01054.x&quot;&gt;playing action video games is associated with perceptual learning&lt;/a&gt;, suggesting that &quot;avid video game players are better able to form templates for, or extract the relevant statistics of, the task at hand&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="58" LastActivityDate="2012-01-19T06:20:37.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="65" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="45" CreationDate="2012-01-19T07:16:17.453" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is indeed possible, but I haven't seen it done experimentally for reasons other than feasibility. Namely, since the &lt;strong&gt;exact same signal&lt;/strong&gt; controls both arms, the amount of interesting learning to be had is significantly less than if the signal controls only one arm (e.g. tries to learn to pick up a banana with the mech arm whilst his real arm whacks him in the face).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the standard paradigm of having the monkey control a mechanical arm via neuronal impulses is scientifically valuable because it allows for insights into how we come to know our body in order to manipulate objects in our environment. This two arm procedure doesn't seem to test any conceivable hypothesis about the brain and behavior, so its probably closer to animal torture than science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if you added electrodes into a separate patch of brain to test if the monkey had enough neuroplasticity to adapt its brain towards controling the new arm &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; remain control over both its natural arms, then I can start to see some reasons for trying this out. Still haven't seen anyone write about actually doing this though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastActivityDate="2012-01-19T07:16:17.453" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="66" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="45" CreationDate="2012-01-19T10:22:47.683" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Theoretically at least, &lt;strong&gt;yes&lt;/strong&gt;, it is entirely doable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the central nervous system including the brain, sensation, decision and reaction form a feedback loop comprising of different types of nerves. Afferent neurons sense an input such as an external stimulus, interneurons are the connectors in the local circuit, while efferent neurons carry motor signals that activate an organ.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are apparently referring to a &lt;strong&gt;motor signal when you say 'the same signal'&lt;/strong&gt;. Assuming such a signal is generated in some way and then transmitted to the organ(s), it is thereafter &lt;strong&gt;a purely mechanical process&lt;/strong&gt; where the organ responds with a movement according to the signal.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It does not matter if the &lt;strong&gt;signal is multiplexed&lt;/strong&gt; over to more than one organ, or if the organ happens to be &lt;strong&gt;natural or artificial&lt;/strong&gt;. All that matters is the design of the artificial organ.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is as far as the control systems part of it is concerned. However, the overall functioning is a bit more complex -- e.g., generating the intended signal, and multiplexing it to heterogeneous external organs.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="78" LastEditorUserId="78" LastEditDate="2012-01-20T05:43:34.893" LastActivityDate="2012-01-20T05:43:34.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="67" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="45" CreationDate="2012-01-19T11:33:29.280" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The interface between the brain and the hand is not like a USB computer port, and we don't unplug the biological arm and plug in a mechanical one instead. We implant electrodes to just a tiny fraction of the neurons in M1 (about a hundred, out of millions), and use their signals to control the mechanical arm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the answer is &lt;strong&gt;yes&lt;/strong&gt;. The monkeys don't lose any dexterity in their biological arm because of the Brain-machine interface (BMI). Actually, during the BMI experiments, they usually move their biological arms all over the place. There is no reason why, after enough training, they couldn't control the mechanical arm almost completely independently of the biological arm and at the same time, like you control your digits (almost) independently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="78" LastEditDate="2012-01-20T05:29:12.973" LastActivityDate="2012-01-20T05:29:12.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="68" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="71" CreationDate="2012-01-19T13:02:59.080" Score="69" ViewCount="18509" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a question inspired by &lt;a href=&quot;https://chinese.stackexchange.com/q/737/76&quot;&gt;this recent question&lt;/a&gt; on the Chinese Language &amp;amp; Usage website.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone asked why they needed to learn how to write Chinese characters, since today we mostly use computers or text messages to do so. Several users replied that writing Chinese characters help remembering them more easily, including for reading purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, another user argued that there was no reason to believe that it was true, and that writing characters doesn't necessarily help one remember them (compared for example to simply reading them and looking at them). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that the case? Does writing generally help remember glyphs (or more generally information) or not? Is there any conclusive research about this or about the relation between writing and memorizing in general?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="63" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:06.487" LastActivityDate="2014-09-06T16:44:17.460" Title="Does writing something down help memorize it?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;writing&gt;&lt;encoding&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="36" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="69" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="73" CreationDate="2012-01-19T13:37:37.153" Score="18" ViewCount="2614" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a well known fact that the earlier children are exposed to languages the better, as young children have a better ability to learn new languages than adults. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why is this? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;At what age does a human's mind start to lose this ability? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What causes the change? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does this phenomenon have a name?        &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-14T03:30:56.830" LastActivityDate="2012-04-23T05:15:25.187" Title="How is a young child able to learn language so easily?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="70" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20" CreationDate="2012-01-19T14:01:58.683" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Video game training has long been shown to influence perceptual-motor skills, but also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12774121&quot;&gt;visual selective attention&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt; although it might well involve a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15106651&quot;&gt;mix of pre attentive and attentive processing&lt;/a&gt;. I have no difficulties imagining there are some key studies on fastest adaptation in children as compared to older people, where effects are probably expressed differently depending on culture and/or early exposition to new technologies. However, I've noticed that video game were successfully introduced in rehabilitation service (e.g., Drew &amp;amp; Waters, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mendeley.com/research/video-games-utilization-novel-strategy-improve-perceptual-motor-skills-cognitive-functioning-non-institutionalized-elderly/&quot;&gt;Video Games: Utilization of a novel strategy to improve perceptual motor skills and cognitive functioning in the noninstitutionalized elderly&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Rehabilitation&lt;/em&gt; 4(2):26, 1986) as well, which means that such positive effects extend beyond childhood&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt; Green and Bavelier also authored a chapter, &lt;a href=&quot;http://vision.psych.umn.edu/users/csgreen/Publications/csg_CNofVGP.pdf&quot;&gt;The Cognitive Neuroscience of Video Games&lt;/a&gt;, in &lt;em&gt;Digital Media:Transformations in Human Communication&lt;/em&gt; (Messaris and Humphreys, ed., 2006, ISBN 978-0820478401).&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="88" LastActivityDate="2012-01-19T14:01:58.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="71" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="68" CreationDate="2012-01-19T14:47:18.263" Score="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, writing increases the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modality_effect&quot;&gt;modality&lt;/a&gt; and attention given to a piece of information. Increasing the effort and the ways that you have experienced a bit of information helps you encode that information better; this is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_%28memory%29#Maintenance_and_elaborative_rehearsal&quot;&gt;Elaborative Encoding&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally the more &lt;em&gt;deeply you process&lt;/em&gt; a thing the more likely you are to properly encode the memory for future retrieval. Simply looking at characters is very shallow processing; writing and &lt;em&gt;constructing&lt;/em&gt; them is relatively deep. This is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modality_effect&quot;&gt;Modality Effect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Explaining how things work and showing others or doing a task is also a much better way to remember things than just reading about them; in the case of remembering Chinese Characters there's less you can &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; other than write them, but practice methods like writing a brief paper can help you learn to use them. This is why essays are a common task in language classes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note however that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer-appropriate_processing&quot;&gt;Transfer-Appropriate Processing&lt;/a&gt; is also relevant: retrieval is more likely when we attempt to retrieve information in a similar or appropriate context to when encoding occurred. Therefore writing symbols could arguably be a bit less appropriate way to learn to &lt;em&gt;read&lt;/em&gt; symbols; however it is an extremely relevant way of learning how to write and &lt;em&gt;construct&lt;/em&gt; those symbols.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've found some general reference sites eluding to this effect such as this post on Lifehack: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lifehack.org/articles/productivity/writing-and-remembering-why-we-remember-what-we-write.html&quot;&gt;Writing and Remembering: Why We Remember What We Write&lt;/a&gt;, but could not find experimental results supporting this specific idea. I know my advanced course on Memory covered this specifically but I don't recall exact studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="153" LastEditDate="2014-02-28T12:35:13.700" LastActivityDate="2014-02-28T12:35:13.700" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="72" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="60" CreationDate="2012-01-19T15:07:33.473" Score="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.4219/jsge-2005-473&quot;&gt;The Threshold Theory Regarding Creativity and Intelligence: An Empirical Test with Gifted and Nongifted Children&lt;/a&gt; found results that do not support this &quot;Threshold Theory&quot; of creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results of divergent thinking tests (administered to 228 intermediate school students, of whom about 43 percent were gifted) and calculated correlations between creativity and intelligence measures did not support the threshold theory which posits that creativity and intelligence are related only up to an intelligence quotient of about 120.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.prufrock.com/IJP/c.abs/the-journal-of-secondary-gifted-education/volume16/issue2-3/article473&quot;&gt;Can Only Intelligent People Be Creative? A Meta-Analysis&lt;/a&gt; by Kyung Hee Kim found a negligible correlation of IQ and creativity and does not support the Threshold Theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The mean correlation coefficient was small (r = .174; 95% CI = .165 – .183), but heterogeneous; this correlation coefficient indicates that the relationship between creativity test scores and IQ scores is negligible. Age contributed to the relationship between intelligence and creativity the most; different creativity tests contributed to it secondly. This study does not support threshold theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several studies dispute the claims of Threshold Theory but the most interesting is probably &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/29/16/5319.full&quot;&gt;Biochemical Support for the “Threshold” Theory of Creativity: A Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Study&lt;/a&gt; which appears to show some support for the idea in a fairly rigorous biochemical method.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is at best contentious support for the threshold theory, and perhaps more importantly the association between creativity and IQ seems rather weak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="28" LastEditDate="2012-01-19T20:36:56.557" LastActivityDate="2012-01-19T20:36:56.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="73" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="69" CreationDate="2012-01-19T16:29:25.337" Score="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's theorized that there is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_period#First_language_acquisition&quot;&gt;Critical Period&lt;/a&gt; of language development in children below the age of five (roughly, as age ranges always are in Developmental Psychology). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably the most significant and readily verifiable finding is that a &lt;strong&gt;critical period exists for the learning of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme&quot;&gt;Phonemes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Research has suggested children readily differentiate phonemes from all human languages at very early ages; less than 5 years old. There is much debate in Linguistics on this matter and &lt;a href=&quot;http://applij.oxfordjournals.org/content/8/2/162.abstract&quot;&gt;many articles covering the discussion&lt;/a&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After this Critical Period most children and adults can only accurately differentiate and produce phonemes present in their native languages and have difficulty producing and differentiating phonemes from other languages. This is why when learning a language late in life learners often struggle with pronunciation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A classic example of this is the difficulty native Japanese speakers have with English L and R sounds. As L2, late-in-life second language learners they struggle differentiating the actual sounds and thus producing the different sounds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some interesting theories in what can overcome this deficiency in learning &quot;late&quot; (L2) second languages, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~skang/371/DownloadablePapers/BongaertsEtAl97.pdf&quot;&gt;Age and Ultimate Attainment in the Pronunciation of Foreign Languages&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://rudar.ruc.dk/bitstream/1800/2844/1/Project%20incl%20frontpage.pdf&quot;&gt;Teaching Second-Language Phonetics to Adults&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition Noam Chomsky has some interesting interviews and publications about language development in children, such as his &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/1987----.htm&quot;&gt;interview with Lillian R. Putnam&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that Chomsky's opinions and theories are controversial, particularly his concept of a &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition_device&quot;&gt;Language Acquisition Device&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, which is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_nativism&quot;&gt;Nativist&lt;/a&gt; to an extreme. There is much material on Chomsky's &lt;a href=&quot;http://academics.tjhsst.edu/psych/oldPsych/language/chomsky.html&quot;&gt;Theories of Language Acquisition&lt;/a&gt; but I would take his theories with a grain of salt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Critical Period has been found to apply even to children learning sign language. A good overview on this situation is &lt;a href=&quot;http://idiom.ucsd.edu/~rmayberry/pubs/ACFOSmayberry.pdf&quot;&gt;The critical period for language acquisition and the deaf child's language comprehension : a psycholinguistic approach&lt;/a&gt; by Rachel I. Mayberry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The critical period hypothesis for language acquisition (CP) proposes that the outcome of&#xA;  language acquisition is not uniform over the lifespan but rather is best during early childhood.&#xA;  The CP hypothesis was originally proposed for spoken language but recent research has shown&#xA;  that it applies equally to sign language&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-14T04:20:58.977" LastActivityDate="2012-02-14T04:20:58.977" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="74" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="150" CreationDate="2012-01-19T17:04:24.327" Score="10" ViewCount="1690" Body="&lt;p&gt;There has been much research into how top-down processing works, such as the suggestibility of patients to mishear lyrics based on what the patients are told they are. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research to show that this behavior is evident at a young age, specifically less than about 10 years old?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="94" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-01-26T01:55:50.627" LastActivityDate="2012-01-26T01:55:50.627" Title="Do children show top-down processing as much as adults do?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="75" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="38" CreationDate="2012-01-19T17:15:05.183" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Taken from a purely practical viewpoint, there is a finite number of neurons in the brain, with a finite (though large) number of connections between them. As such, a brain can only contain a finite amount of information. The more that one attempts to learn, the more that the connections between neurons will get obscured as a single memory  or idea becomes mapped to a multitude of different related pieces of information or memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evolutionarily, the brain attempts to condense related information to allow for the processing of new and possibly more important data. If you tried to learn everything about every single chair in existence, your memories of different chairs would blur together as your brain tries to force similar things to be considered one memory, especially concerning things that are neither life-threatening or of obvious physical gain. This conclusion is drawn from various theories in Evolutionary Psychology, principally &quot;The cognitive system operates at all times to optimize the adaptation of the behavior of the organism&quot; (John R. Anderson 1990 p. 28). A short summary of these theories can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=esDW3xTKoLIC&amp;amp;lpg=PA5&amp;amp;ots=N5Kt-onnlR&amp;amp;dq=evolutionary%20psychology%20memory&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PA784#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=memory&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; starting on page 783&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="94" LastEditorUserId="94" LastEditDate="2012-07-05T16:55:35.917" LastActivityDate="2012-07-05T16:55:35.917" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="76" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="40" CreationDate="2012-01-19T19:50:31.093" Score="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;If by continuity you mean, &amp;quot;a feeling that I am who I was before the operation, (perhaps with some changes)&amp;quot;, then it seems that each hemisphere would separately maintain continuity, in the same way patients after massive strokes and other sudden brain injuries don't usually feel &amp;quot;they are a different person&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research by Turk et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1279.005/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2003&lt;/a&gt;) suggests it's just the left hemisphere, because only the left hemisphere has the 'interpreter' module.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, other research by Turk et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v5/n9/full/nn907.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2002&lt;/a&gt;) find that both hemispheres of a split brain patient recognize his own face, similar to Sperry et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/002839327990006X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1979&lt;/a&gt;). I think these face recognition tests tell us less about the 'feeling of self' than tests of access to autobiographical memories before the operation, and their emotional content, but I couldn't find any such studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good review of the field instead was done by Uddin in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810010001753&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2011&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sperry, R. W., Zaidel, E., &amp;amp; Zaidel, D. (1979). Self recognition and social awareness in the deconnected minor hemisphere. Neuropsychologia, 17(2), 153–166. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(79)90006-X&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Turk, D. J., Heatherton, T. F., Kelley, W. M., Funnell, M. G., Gazzaniga, M. S., &amp;amp; Macrae, C. N. (2002). Mike or me? Self-recognition in a split-brain patient. Nature Neuroscience, 5(9), 841–842. doi:10.1038/nn907&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Turk, D. J., Heatherton, T. F., Macrae, C. N., Kelley, W. M., &amp;amp; Gazzaniga, M. S. (2003). Out of Contact, Out of Mind. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1001(1), 65–78. doi:10.1196/annals.1279.005&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Uddin, L. Q. (2011). Brain connectivity and the self: The case of cerebral disconnection. Consciousness and Cognition, 20(1), 94–98. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.09.009&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-01-09T00:50:33.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="77" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1325" CreationDate="2012-01-19T21:38:35.183" Score="13" ViewCount="8624" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is very difficult for the normally-coordinated person to be able to pat his/her head and rub his/her stomach at the same time (or pick a similar activity).  It seems to be possible to maintain the separate hand motions over the short term, but keeping the movements separate is almost impossible to keep up.  One ends up either rubbing the head while rubbing the stomach or patting the head while patting the stomach before long.  Effectively, there seems to be a &quot;locking&quot; between the motor cortices across the hemispheres during bilateral movements of the arms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given all of this complex coordination that is possible between the two arms/hands, what are the structures within the brain that are called upon to strengthen the coupling between the two arms during bilateral movements?  Why do the hemispheres try to lock their activity rather than letting both arms act independently?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-07-09T19:47:25.240" LastActivityDate="2019-05-17T18:10:52.360" Title="What structures in the brain are called upon to strengthen coupling between bilateral movements?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;synchronization&gt;&lt;coordination&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="78" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="225" CreationDate="2012-01-19T23:14:49.907" Score="38" ViewCount="3657" Body="&lt;p&gt;For those new to the internet, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troll_%28Internet%29&quot;&gt;trolling&lt;/a&gt; is an activity where one person intentionally tries to upset other members of the same community, presumably for entertainment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has been informally addressed in the media, normally positing that the anonymity of the internet gives rise to more extreme behaviors, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;but is that the explanation research supports? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And if it is, how does the process of enabling occur?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And more broadly, why do people derive pleasure from the anger of others within the same group?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lastly, is this behavioral phenomenon unique to the internet era, or are there historical predecessors involving similar causal mechanisms?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T04:28:51.110" LastActivityDate="2019-12-22T00:36:35.873" Title="What is the psychology behind trolling?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="79" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="78" CreationDate="2012-01-19T23:34:04.543" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/30/opinion/30zhuo.html&quot;&gt;an article by the NY times&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Trolling, defined as the act of posting inflammatory, derogatory or&#xA;  provocative messages in public forums, is a problem as old as the&#xA;  Internet itself, although its roots go much farther back. Even in the&#xA;  fourth century B.C., Plato touched upon the subject of anonymity and&#xA;  morality in his parable of the ring of Gyges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychological research has proven again and again that anonymity&#xA;  increases unethical behavior. Road rage bubbles up in the relative&#xA;  anonymity of one’s car. And in the online world, which can offer total&#xA;  anonymity, the effect is even more pronounced. People — even ordinary,&#xA;  good people — often change their behavior in radical ways. There’s&#xA;  even a term for it: the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_disinhibition_effect&quot;&gt;online disinhibition effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2012-01-19T23:34:04.543" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="80" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3585" CreationDate="2012-01-20T00:46:08.960" Score="9" ViewCount="306" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformational_leadership&quot;&gt;Transformational leadership&lt;/a&gt; is sometimes recommended as a way of motivating and inspiring followers in contrast to more &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_leadership&quot;&gt;transactional styles of leadership&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a large pop-psych literature on leadership, but I'm specifically interested in scientifically rigorous empirical evidence supporting or not supporting the value of transformational leadership.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the empirical support for transformational leadership?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-20T05:50:21.530" LastActivityDate="2013-06-04T10:46:00.707" Title="What are the benefits of transformational over transactional leadership?" Tags="&lt;leadership&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="81" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-20T01:06:15.513" Score="9" ViewCount="132" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concept of &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employee_engagement&quot;&gt;employee engagement&lt;/a&gt;&quot; is popular in organisational consulting&#xA;settings. A quick &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.com.au/search?gcx=c&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;client=ubuntu&amp;amp;channel=cs&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;amp;q=engagement%20survey&quot;&gt;Google for &quot;engagement survey&quot;&lt;/a&gt; will yield many results.&#xA;However, in some respects the concept often seems defined in terms of some combination of satisfaction, commitment, and motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the concept of employee engagement add anything new over and above satisfaction, commitment, and motivation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To the extent that it does overlap with previous constructs, does it still have value?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-01-23T02:56:04.777" LastActivityDate="2020-06-03T03:36:01.793" Title="Does the concept of employee engagement add anything over and above traditional concepts?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;commitment&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="82" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18" CreationDate="2012-01-20T04:31:53.980" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Motivation is a massive topic, and it's difficult for me to know what would count as a 'theory' of motivation as it's currently construed.  For instance, at one level, we might consider motivation to be the processing of incentive salience on perceived stimuli: you see a cheeseburger, something makes you want it, and so you pursue it.  One way of talking about what it means to want this cheeseburger is called &lt;i&gt;incentive salience&lt;/i&gt;; see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9858756&quot;&gt;Berridge 1998&lt;/a&gt; for a great review on this topic with a focus on the contentious role of dopamine, and some pretty amazing experiments that pry apart wanting from liking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coming from the opposite direction, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0521000998&quot;&gt;Carver and Scheier's&lt;/a&gt; cybernetic model has proved quite influential in describing motivation, and its hedonic consequences, in terms of progress during goal pursuit.  This goal-centrality dovetails with some of the achievement goal theoretic constructs, one of which (mastery) you mentioned with regard to Pink's book; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.rochester.edu/research/apav/publications/documents/2005_Elliot_Aconceptualhistoryoftheachievementgoalconstruct.pdf&quot;&gt;Andrew Elliot&lt;/a&gt; did a nice review here.  For an even more meta computational formulation, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/&quot;&gt;Juergen Schmidhuber&lt;/a&gt; has for years been proposing an  all-encompassing model that might be grand enough for your tastes, although it is woefully untested by empirical work and, from what I can tell, seems to be considered kind of fringe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could go on, but suffice it to say that theories of motivations -- or pieces of theories -- are nearly as numerous as the stars.  The real trick is in unifying them in a coherent system that makes sense at multiple levels of abstraction and isn't just some hodgepodge collection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="98" LastEditorUserId="98" LastEditDate="2012-01-20T04:44:36.893" LastActivityDate="2012-01-20T04:44:36.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="84" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-20T04:44:07.957" Score="11" ViewCount="641" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to measure the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory&quot;&gt;working memory&lt;/a&gt; of a non-human animal? And if so, have there been any studies that have quantified the working memory of animals, and that have compared that to the working memory of humans? Or are the two not comparable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-01-20T22:58:53.027" LastActivityDate="2019-12-14T08:33:09.360" Title="Is it possible to measure the working memory of a non-human animal?" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="85" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="108" CreationDate="2012-01-20T11:08:36.150" Score="12" ViewCount="125940" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although I have listened some songs hundred of times I can't sing the lyrics to any of these songs from beginning to end without pauses. However I am able to whistle the whole song without difficulty. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems &lt;a href=&quot;http://ask.metafilter.com/154586/Why-cant-I-hear-lyrics&quot;&gt;other people&lt;/a&gt; are complaining about this annoying condition as well. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ask.metafilter.com/154586/Why-cant-I-hear-lyrics#2217320&quot;&gt;This particular answer&lt;/a&gt; claims it is quite likely related to the interhemispheric communication:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I also find that when I take the supplement &lt;strong&gt;piracetam&lt;/strong&gt;, my ability&#xA;  improves. (It has in fact improved over time anyway)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Piracetam has something to do with interhemispheric communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any answers for what causes this condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="77" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-11-16T17:15:08.947" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T22:14:39.520" Title="Why are some people unable to easily memorize the lyrics to a song?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="86" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="84" CreationDate="2012-01-20T11:24:47.373" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sure. For example, working memory can be assessed using &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/101/13&quot;&gt;the &lt;strong&gt;delayed match to sample&lt;/strong&gt; task&lt;/a&gt;. Here are examples from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jocn.2006.18.5.749&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;monkeys&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bne/107/5/715/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rats&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11131788&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pigeons&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/spackled/2010readings/Giurfa.Honeybees.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bees&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with &lt;strong&gt;comparing them&lt;/strong&gt; is that the actual stimuli used for each species are different (e.g. odors for bees, shapes for monkeys) and this is known to affect the results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In humans, if you run similar tasks, just with small verses large sets of possible stimuli, for example digits verses general words, you can get very different results. Even if you did try to use the same stimuli set, the result will probably not be &quot;subjectively&quot; equal to that of a different species. Think of yourself trying to do the odor task of the bees; it's not a fair game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other seemingly small changes in the paradigm can also affect the results, for example a delay between the trials, etc. So the only way to seriously compare them would be to conduct the same experiment, by the same lab, of different species. I personally don't know of any research that was directly aimed at comparing them. Maybe someone using (lesioned) animals as a model for dementia would know more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-01-20T22:58:54.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="87" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="85" CreationDate="2012-01-20T14:20:38.670" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;It likely depends on the cue presented; the study  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735607079722&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Memory and metamemory for songs: the relative effectiveness of titles, lyrics, and melodies as cues for each other&lt;/a&gt; found these interesting results for what portion of Melodies, Titles and Lyrics were correctly remembered vs cues that presented part of the melody or lyrics or the title of the song.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nHW8n.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some related information is on the blog Cognitive Daily in the posts &lt;a href=&quot;http://scienceblogs.com/cognitivedaily/2009/05/how_do_we_remember_songs_by_on.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How Do We Remember Songs&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://scienceblogs.com/cognitivedaily/2005/11/words_or_musicwhat_do_we_remem.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Words or music—what do we remember better?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-01-20T14:20:38.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="88" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20" CreationDate="2012-01-20T14:50:24.007" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://vision.psych.umn.edu/users/csgreen/Publications/csg_CNofVGP.pdf&quot;&gt;The Cognitive Neuroscience of Video Games&lt;/a&gt; (C. S. Green, D. Bavelier, 2004) is a good if somewhat dated overview of cognitive research on video game players. They note that ordinary video game users show a number of differentiated and improved mental skills:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Video game play has been shown to dramatically&#xA;  enhance visuo-motor skills.  In particular, video game players have been shown to&#xA;  possess decreased reaction times, increased hand-eye coordination and augmented&#xA;  manual dexterity.  Video game play has also been shown to improve spatial skills such as&#xA;  mental rotation, spatial visualization and the ability to mentally work in threedimensions.  In addition, video game play has been shown to enhance numerous aspects&#xA;  of visual attention including the ability to divide and switch attention, the temporal and&#xA;  spatial resolution of visual attention, and the number of objects that can be attended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hci.usask.ca/publications/view.php?id=231&quot;&gt;BrainHex: Preliminary Results from a Neurobiological Gamer Typology Survey&lt;/a&gt; is a study that mapped personality types to &quot;gamer archetypes&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The model presents seven different archetypes of players: Seeker, Survivor, Daredevil, Mastermind, Conqueror, Socialiser, and Achiever. We explain how each of these player archetypes relates to older player typologies (such as Myers-Briggs), and how each archetype characterizes a specific playing style. We conducted a survey among more than 50,000 players using the BrainHex model as a personality type motivator to gather and compare demographic data to the different BrainHex archetypes. We discuss some results from this survey with a focus on psychometric orientation of respondents, to establish relationships between personality types and BrainHex archetypes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their archetypes present an interesting insight into personality types as mapped to certain kinds of gamers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="203" LastEditDate="2012-02-21T15:43:12.370" LastActivityDate="2012-02-21T15:43:12.370" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="89" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="37" CreationDate="2012-01-20T14:57:46.880" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mssm.edu/static_files/MSSM/Files/Research/Programs/Mood%20and%20Personality%20Disorders%20Research%20Program/imaging_genetics.pdf&quot;&gt;The Neurobiology and Genetics of Borderline Personality Disorder&lt;/a&gt; indicates that a good deal of research has been done but a specific mechanism causing it has not been pinned down. It appears to be largely genetic which would strongly suggest a neurobiological/nature basis as opposed to a &quot;nurture&quot; related cause.&#xA;(emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In summary, the neurobiological research that has been the most useful in &#xA;  shedding light on the physiology underlying borderline personality disorder has examined &#xA;  this multifaceted disorder by examining simpler dimensions of behavior separately, &#xA;  including impulsive aggression and affective instability. &lt;strong&gt;Evidence suggests that impulsive &#xA;  aggression involves a deficit in serotonergic activity&lt;/strong&gt;. However, the specific mechanism &#xA;  underlying this remains unknown. It is clear that this component of behavior is &#xA;  substantially genetically encoded, and so new research has focused on elucidating the &#xA;  specific receptors underlying impulsive aggression through the examination of genes &#xA;  coding for specific receptors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-01-23T23:58:43.470" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T23:58:43.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="90" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1115" CreationDate="2012-01-20T15:08:26.003" Score="11" ViewCount="515" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a psychological condition is the result of irregular brain structures or neurotransmitter imbalances we say the condition has a neurobiological basis; this is analogous to the classic &lt;strong&gt;Nature&lt;/strong&gt; in the Nature vs Nurture discussion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the term for a condition which does &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; have this sort of (apparent) neurobiological basis? This would be a condition caused by &lt;strong&gt;Nurture&lt;/strong&gt; effects such as psychologically traumatic events. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is there&lt;/em&gt; a distinction? Technically both would induce physical changes in the brain, but I often see &quot;neurobiological basis&quot; used as if there were a different sort of basis for a condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-09T04:41:51.283" LastActivityDate="2012-08-09T04:41:51.283" Title="What is the term for a psychological effect which does not have a neurobiological/genetic basis?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="91" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="44" CreationDate="2012-01-20T15:10:05.710" Score="15" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;With whales in particular, they don't even have arms or legs, so I wouldn't expect them to have large regions of the brain devoted to, say, fine-motor skills.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ah, but they also have a complete three dimensions to move in, unlike us humans who only have about 2.5 dimensions to move in.  Also, they have a number of different &quot;limbs&quot;: tail, multiple fins, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Yet, it is apparent (to many people) that whales and elephants don't have drastically higher intelligence than humans. So their extra brain regions have to go somewhere. Where do they go to?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why not?  How do you accurately measure an intelligence that is structurally different from yours?  You have to know how that intelligence works, and for that to happen you need to overcome the language barrier (which is still an issue with cetaceans, since many people think they're just dumb animals!  Maybe some cetaceans are like primate apes.  Maybe others are like primate humans!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rickhanson.net/wp-content/files/papers/cetaceans_brains.pdf&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a pdf overview of Cetacean brains.&#xA;I hope this answers your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few parts pulled from the article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cetaceans have very large brains, yes, but humans hold the top of the proportion scale: our brains are larger in comparison to our body size than most other species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cetacean brains are, for the most part, like other brains.  That is, they are there for the processing of cognition (among other things).  A large part of this processing power goes to echolocation.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding similarities between primate and cetacean brains:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the expansion of the insular and cingulate cortices in cetaceans is&#xA;  consistent with high-level cognitive functions—such as attention,&#xA;  judgment, intuition, and social awareness—known to be associated with&#xA;  these regions in primates. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This view is further supported by the&#xA;  observation that the anterior insular&#xA;  and anterior cingulate cortex in&#xA;  cetacean species having the largest&#xA;  brains exhibit a large number of large&#xA;  layer V spindle neurons, similar to those originally reported&#xA;  to be unique to humans and great apes. These particular neurons are&#xA;  considered to be responsible for neural networks subserving aspects of social&#xA;  cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, though specifically regarding dolphins:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Laboratory studies of bottlenose&#xA;  dolphins have documented&#xA;  various dimensions of their&#xA;  intellectual abilities. These include&#xA;  an understanding of ... (declarative knowledge); an&#xA;  understanding of ... (procedural&#xA;  knowledge); an understanding of ... (social knowledge); and&#xA;  an understanding of ... (self&#xA;  knowledge). All these&#xA;  capabilities rest on a strong foundation&#xA;  of memory; investigations have&#xA;  demonstrated that bottlenose dolphin&#xA;  auditory, visual, and spatial memory are&#xA;  accurate and robust.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Field studies have documented&#xA;  impressive cultural learning of dialects,&#xA;  foraging sites, and foraging and&#xA;  feeding strategies in cetaceans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, to recap, the cetacean brain lends itself to, among inumerable other things, advanced auditory (sensory), personal (self), and interpersonal processing (social).  Also, dolphins, and maybe other species as well, have advanced memory and language processing capabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastActivityDate="2012-01-20T15:10:05.710" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="92" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="57" CreationDate="2012-01-20T15:47:55.160" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had a course which was about IQ; I never read an article about it, so I can't quote studies (I can look up the references if you like).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are indeed a lot of factors that can influence ones score on an IQ test. These are some transient factors that came to my mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The setting: was the test taken at home, at school, at a totally unfamiliar place? Test scores tend to be higher when a child can take it at home.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The part of the day: was the test taken in the morning, in the afternoon, or in the evening? I think (I should look this up) that scores tend to be lower if IQ tests are taken in the evening. Perhaps if you're a morning type, you're better in the morning than 'evening people', who are better in the afternoon than in the morning. But this is speculation (I know I've read &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; about it, but I can't seem to find it now).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Motivation/Attention: this really can play a big role in the results. That's why good tests (e.g. the WISC) have a zone for remarks. Children with ADHD score better when they are given more pauses during the examination.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hormones: there is some evidence that there's a hormonal influence (testosteron, estrogen, congenital adrenal hyperplasia).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Test taking anxiety: this can indeed influence the score negatively. It's important that the test leader says 'good job' or something like that. Normally, this isn't according to the guidelines of the test, but it's acceptable here, since you would underestimate the ability.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9" LastActivityDate="2012-01-20T15:47:55.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="93" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="90" CreationDate="2012-01-20T15:55:58.503" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is my own conjecture:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would think a &lt;strong&gt;Nature&lt;/strong&gt;/neurobiological/genetic disorder would be classified as some sort of &quot;Structural Disorder.&quot;  Maybe the &lt;strong&gt;Nurture&lt;/strong&gt; side would be something like &quot;Processing Disorder&quot;? (this is assuming we're talking maladaptive effects)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is our science even to a point where we can differentiate between a neurobiological disorder and a severe psychological disorder though?  Maybe some neurobiological disorders start as unchecked psychological disorders.  Or maybe our metacognitive capabilities are such that we can self-regulate ourselves (most likely with professional help) out of a neurobiological condition.  Maybe it's all somewhere in between.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-12T03:19:16.337" LastActivityDate="2012-06-12T03:19:16.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="94" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="95" CreationDate="2012-01-20T16:28:56.563" Score="18" ViewCount="44728" Body="&lt;p&gt;From Developmental psychology 101 I remember an experiment where the person conducting the experiment would pour liquid from a tall, narrow container into a short, narrow container and ask a child if the volume of the liquid had changed... or something similar to that. I can't remember if it actually involved pouring the liquid or just showing two containers. I remember it was used to determine if the child had reached some critical threshold and learned a specific skill, but my memory is very hazy on the details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Who invented this experiment?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How did it work? is my description accurate?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the name of the skill it's testing for?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-15T03:13:01.153" LastActivityDate="2016-10-20T22:54:30.870" Title="What was the experiment where you pour liquid from a tall container to a short one and ask a child which has more?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="95" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="94" CreationDate="2012-01-20T16:40:10.967" Score="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;This effect is referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/HumBeh_p049.shtml&quot;&gt;Piaget's Theory of Conservation&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piaget constructed an experiement where children would be shown a tall, narrow glass of colored water (to make it clearly visible in a clear glass) and two shorter, wider glasses of the same exact size. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A single amount of water would be distributed in both small glasses. If a child is asked &quot;which has more&quot; they're likely to reply they have the same amout of water, as they look identical. However after pouring the water from one short glass into a tall glass, if you ask the child again they are likely to say the tall glass has more water because it &lt;em&gt;looks&lt;/em&gt; bigger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interesting thing is not that the child assumes the taller glass holds more liquid but that they fail to understand &lt;strong&gt;conservation&lt;/strong&gt;: the fact that the water from one glass is going to be the same amount after being poured into any other container. It's as if they did not realize the water came from the same glass.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a video recreating &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d_trtZ5Xkp4&quot;&gt;Piaget's Conservation Experiment&lt;/a&gt;. It's common for developmental psychology courses to explain or show this experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-01-20T20:07:35.827" LastActivityDate="2012-01-20T20:07:35.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="96" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="155" CreationDate="2012-01-20T17:21:34.237" Score="16" ViewCount="1183" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has there been any research proving, disproving, or exploring the concept of conscious activation of specific brain regions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To elaborate on this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read that performing processing tasks causes the brain to reinforce that type/kind of processing or thinking.  For example, visualizing performing a task fires the same neurons as actually performing the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, &lt;strong&gt;has there been research into the idea that mental models and biofeedback mechanisms can result in conscious control over the activation of particular brain regions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, with biofeedback and practice, can I consciously, measurably, and significantly increase activity (blood flow, electrical activity, etc) in the frontal lobe?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-15T22:27:54.233" LastActivityDate="2017-03-07T19:47:06.160" Title="Research suggesting conscious control over brain region activation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="99" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="122" CreationDate="2012-01-20T20:12:45.740" Score="12" ViewCount="9379" Body="&lt;p&gt;The main ways of memory retrieval are recognition and recall. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why has it been found that recognition is &quot;easier&quot; to perform, meaning it is usually faster or is more likely to yield an accurate retrieval?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-24T00:24:33.683" LastActivityDate="2014-11-24T00:24:33.683" Title="Why is recognition easier than recall?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="100" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1127" CreationDate="2012-01-20T20:33:50.093" Score="9" ViewCount="2108" Body="&lt;p&gt;I asked &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/4315/is-mental-exhaustion-something-real&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; question a long while ago, but I never got an answer to whether mental exhaustion can be measured. If mental exhaustion could be measured, it would mean that I would have a way of knowing the performance I can get out of my brain in a day. I would be able to know what is best for refilling my brain with energy (maybe TV is your best option after all...;) ) As far as I understand, different parts of the brain gets used for different purposes, so they should get exhausted at different times, so the measuring would have to be on specific regions of the brain or performance of the brain in various fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:46:43.487" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T02:13:01.877" Title="Can mental exhaustion be measured?" Tags="&lt;mental-exhaustion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="101" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="103" CreationDate="2012-01-20T20:51:54.500" Score="5" ViewCount="5138" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/84/is-it-possible-to-measure-the-working-memory-of-a-non-human-animal&quot;&gt;This question&lt;/a&gt; talked about how a &quot;delayed match-to-sample task&quot; can be used to measure an animal's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;working memory&lt;/a&gt;. What is a delayed match-to-sample task and how can it be used to measure working memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-01-25T14:45:43.637" Title="What is a &quot;delayed match-to-sample task&quot;?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="102" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="106" CreationDate="2012-01-20T21:32:31.280" Score="15" ViewCount="736" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both disciplines have historically been at each other's throats, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_behaviorism&quot;&gt;Radical Behaviorists&lt;/a&gt; like B.F. Skinner often completely reject cognitive psychology at a philosophical level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that today Behaviorism has largely fallen by the wayside but certain principles like Operant Conditioning remain entirely valid. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are these two philosophies/schools of thought incompatible or part of a greater whole? Is Behaviorism still relevant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-08-02T11:42:45.153" LastActivityDate="2012-08-02T11:42:45.153" Title="Is Behaviorism incompatible with Cognitive Psychology?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="103" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="101" CreationDate="2012-01-20T21:34:00.700" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This kind of task is generally used when studying short-term memory. Typically, a subject is presented with some stimuli, followed by a probe item after a varying delay; subjects is then asked to recall (information retrieval) if the probe item was presented before (information encoding). A famous example is &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/psychology/psy300/sternb.html&quot;&gt;Sternberg experiment&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such tasks can rely on non-verbal material, which makes them good candidates for behavioral studies with animals, but see&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Paule MG, Bushnell PJ, Maurissen JP, Wenger GR, Buccafusco JJ,&#xA;  Chelonis JJ, Elliott R. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9761587&quot;&gt;Symposium overview: the use of delayed&#xA;  matching-to-sample procedures in studies of short-term memory in&#xA;  animals and humans&lt;/a&gt;. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1998&#xA;  Sep-Oct;20(5):493-502.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some on-line demonstration can be found on the CANTAB testing battery: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.camcog.com/cantab-tests-delayed-matching-to-sample.asp&quot;&gt;Delayed Matching to Sample (DMS)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="88" LastActivityDate="2012-01-20T21:34:00.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="106" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="102" CreationDate="2012-01-20T23:59:12.273" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think cognitive scientists would say that these views are compatible, insofar as cogsci admits results from behaviorism as valid results to be explained by understanding the cognitive constructs underlying them.  Obviously (they would say) we have minds, our minds arise from physical processes in our brains, and as such have internal states that sometimes explicitly manifest in behavior, but other times do not manifest in any way that is perceivable.  This is not a problem for non-behaviorist cognitive scientists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hardcore behaviorists, however, cannot be so accommodating.  Internal and non-manifest mental states are &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; admissible in their theoretical universe, and so what most cognitive scientists would have no difficulty in describing as a state change in some internal mental edifice, behaviorists must reframe as some kind of 'mental behavior' in the same way they tried to do with 'verbal behavior.'  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, if one is very rigorous, and pushes very hard on this behaviorist view, it is either rendered nonsensical, or becomes an excessively ornate re-statement of normative cognitive science in behaviorist language.  What this accomplishes I have no idea, although, to be honest, this seems to be nearly a straw man at this point.  Hardcore behaviorists are increasingly hard to spot in the wild.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="98" LastActivityDate="2012-01-20T23:59:12.273" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="107" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1075" CreationDate="2012-01-21T00:19:46.513" Score="10" ViewCount="215" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read Minsky's book &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emotion_Machine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Emotion Machine&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, where he explains how the mind can be seen as a set of resources interacting and self-interacting based on several levels of change. The explanation is in fact a little deeper, but I won't be able to do the book justice in three sentences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it seems to me that when it comes down to the &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;, Minsky backs himself up by saying &quot;evolution did so&quot;, but hasn't provided tests or studies that verify such claims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How does the evolutionary mechanisms help prove/disprove Minsky's theory?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="43" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T17:14:54.863" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T19:23:39.187" Title="How does evolution help in Minsky's theory of a resourceful mind?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="108" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="85" CreationDate="2012-01-21T00:38:09.747" Score="14" Body="&lt;h3&gt;From an information processing perspective, I'd conjecture the following points:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Many songs have lyrics that are difficult to decipher. If you can't &lt;strong&gt;decipher the words&lt;/strong&gt;, then you wont be able to recall them. If you decipher alternate words, then this may reduce the degree to which the words have semantic meaning, and therefore the ease with which the lyrics can be retained and recalled.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Even when the words of the lyrics are readily discernible, lyrics vary in the degree to which (a) they have easily &lt;strong&gt;discernible meaning&lt;/strong&gt;; (b) follow standard grammatical structures; (c) repeat lyrics, etc. Recalling meaningful sentences that follow standard grammatical structure is much easier than recalling random words, and increasing the depth of processing (i.e., greater meaning) of the material should also help with recall (see this discussion of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;level of processing effect&lt;/a&gt;). There would probably also be a range of other effects related to properties of the lyrics which would make a given song easier or harder to recall (e.g., rhyming and rhythm in lyrics might make lyrics easier to discern).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Practice is a fundamental effect in recall. Thus, the more &lt;strong&gt;times a person has heard a  song&lt;/strong&gt;, the better they should be at recalling. However, I think this should be qualified with the above points. If a person has heard a song 100 times without actually being able to decipher some of the words or understand their meaning, then that practice may be largely wasted.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Practice also applies to &lt;strong&gt;recall&lt;/strong&gt;, and this would be closely related to &lt;strong&gt;context&lt;/strong&gt; effects. Thus, if practice always occurs within the context of the music being played with singer present to assist with any forgotten lyrics, then the person has never practiced in the absence of such cues and may be dependent on the cues. Practicing trying to recall the song without the song in the background, and then with feedback on failed sections would presumably be more effective than just singing along.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;All the above also relates to the distinction in the expertise literature between &lt;strong&gt;deliberate practice and play&lt;/strong&gt; (see, Ericsson, Krampe, &amp;amp; Tesch-Romer, 1993, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plavolleyball.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Role-of-Deliberate-Practice.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;). When people listen to songs, the aim is typically to have a good time rather than to learn the lyrics. Deliberate practice in contrast would involve a deliberate effortful practice regime aimed at learning the lyrics. For example, it might involve a detailed study of the semantic meaning of the lyrics, then repeated recall of the lyrics without assistance, and then correcting on failed sections (e.g., think of an expert pianist learning a piano piece and working on difficult sections, etc.).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Individual differences&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You ask the question of why some people appear to be better than others at recalling lyrics. It's an empirical question as to whether there is a domain general difference.&#xA;Presumably, it would reflect a combination of the above effects: e.g., different levels of practice; different levels of understanding of the song lyrics, and perhaps also some more&#xA;general ability related to verbal recall.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Recalling melody versus lyrics&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You also ask about why you can recall the melody but not the lyrics. hearing a melody does not require you to understand the lyrics, even if understanding the lyrics might act as useful cue. Thus, in the context where a person does not completely understand the lyrics, he or she may have years of practice hearing the melody, but almost no practice with a semantically meaningful understanding of the lyrics.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There would also presumably be a wide range of variables in the person that would make them better at recalling a melody (in particular, pitch perception, singing, and musical ability come to mind as factors that should simplify the task of learning a melody).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Then one could also look at characteristics of the melody which made it harder or easier to recall (e.g., degree of repetition, simplicity of intervals, familiarity of the intervals and structure, etc.).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-01-21T00:38:09.747" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="109" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-21T01:07:00.680" Score="29" ViewCount="10106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've often used &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/&quot;&gt;Inquisit&lt;/a&gt; to run psychological experiments online. The software enables delivery of stimuli (e.g., text, images, etc.) and collection of reaction times. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously general purpose programming languages provide one avenue for delivery of online experiments. There's also a good listing of software for psychological experiments &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychology.org/links/Resources/Software/&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. I've also seen &lt;a href=&quot;http://volition.leeds.ac.uk/psytoolkit/&quot;&gt;PsyToolkit&lt;/a&gt; which is GNU licensed software for programming psychological experiments, but I'm not aware of any online option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any open source options for online delivery of psychological experiments, particularly ones that enable reaction time measurement?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-04-30T20:46:51.520" LastActivityDate="2018-01-08T11:01:23.440" Title="Open source software for running Internet psychological experiments that collect reaction time data" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="12" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="20" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="110" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="34" CreationDate="2012-01-21T01:42:06.317" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is very broad. But from my reading of the literature, my hypothesis would be that there wouldn't be a difference in the degree to which learning curves are logistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a very general sense, learning generally involves the accumulation of a vast number of smaller components. Some components are easier to acquire than others and some yield greater gain more rapidly. In many domains, processes like this presumably give rise to learning curves where the rate of learning declines monotonically with practice and approaches an asymptote. If the performance is operationalised as reaction time, then three parameter power ($y = a + b^{-cx}$) or exponential functions ($y = a + b\exp(-x)$) often provide good fit. See a discussion &lt;a href=&quot;http://acs.ist.psu.edu/papers/ritterS01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If performance is operationalised as amount of knowledge, then the task is a little more difficult in terms of defining a natural metric of performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, from the literature that I've read looking at differences between younger adults and older adults (e.g., see work by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychology.gatech.edu/people/faculty/hertzog_christopher.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Christopher Hertzog&lt;/a&gt; or high intelligence and low intelligence individuals (e.g., see work by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychology.gatech.edu/KanferAckerman/PhillipAckerman.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Phillip Ackerman&lt;/a&gt;), differences in learning curves tend to be expressed more in level and rate of learning. I.e., If there is a variable related to learning, then it tends to be correlated with initial and final performance. I.e., older adults and low intelligence individuals perform more poorly initially and after practice than younger adults and high intelligence individuals after equivalent amounts of practice.&#xA;In general, I don't see why the fundamental mechanisms of learning would be all that different at least as is expressed in the learning curves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, most empirical papers that look at differences between groups, whether it be non-clinical versus clinical samples or any other group comparison often focus on overall performance. Furthermore, if you look at group level learning curves, the logistic function at the individual level could easily be smoothed out at the group level if the timing of the s-shape in the curve was different across individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-26T00:31:38.020" LastActivityDate="2012-04-26T00:31:38.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="111" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="136" CreationDate="2012-01-21T02:31:38.453" Score="47" ViewCount="4034" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen a fair few studies over the while that suggest caffeine increases arousal in the short term and that for some tasks, this will also increase performance (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.foodinsight.org/Resources/Detail.aspx?topic=Fact_Sheet_Caffeine_and_Performance&quot;&gt;there's a few citations here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as with most drugs, habituation leads to withdrawal effects and adjustment, so that in some senses once a person gets used to caffeine, having a regular dose of caffeine may just bring a person to something like a normal level of functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, in a general sense, &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;for someone used to consuming a certain level of caffeine, does having that regular quantity increase arousal or performance over and above the level that would be obtained at that moment had the person never got in the habit of consuming caffeine in the first place?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-09T05:42:51.430" LastActivityDate="2012-07-26T07:32:40.117" Title="Does caffeine improve performance for habituated consumers?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="112" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15" CreationDate="2012-01-21T02:44:08.510" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pebl.sourceforge.net/index.html#about&quot;&gt;PEBL&lt;/a&gt; is a free open source programming language to help construct psychological experiments. A wiki and developer community provide some documentation and support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PEBL has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://pebl.sourceforge.net/battery.html&quot;&gt;Psychological Test Battery&lt;/a&gt; of many common or simple psychological tests so you may be able to use it out of the box without constructing your own test. PEBL includes free versions of many accredited and popular psychometric tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many of them represent the only Free version of proprietory tests available anywhere. They include a free Iowa Gambling Task, a free version of the TOVA®, a free Wisconsin Card Sort Test®, a free version of Conners Continuous Performance task, and a number of other useful tasks, with more to come.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one of the included tests does not suit your needs, you or a programmer can create your own tests with PEBL's programming language which is customized specifically to create psychometric tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-01-21T02:52:27.980" LastActivityDate="2012-01-21T02:52:27.980" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="113" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7" CreationDate="2012-01-21T03:11:54.923" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The assessment of reading comprehension is not my main area of interest, but some of the many articles on the topic of assessment of reading comprehension may be reflevant. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=measurement+of+reading+comprehension&amp;amp;btnG=Search&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;as_ylo=&amp;amp;as_vis=0&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;measurement of reading comprehension&quot;&lt;/a&gt; on Google Scholar (e.g., a couple of the pdfs of reviews &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/17663/ctrstreadtechrepv01978i00091_opt.pdf?sequence=1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.lancs.ac.uk/people/uploads/katecain20090609T123758.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This entry in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://literacyencyclopedia.ca/pdfs/Assessment_of_Reading_Comprehension.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;literacy encyclopedia on assessment of reading comprehension&lt;/a&gt; might be a good starting place.&#xA;The article has a the following quote of a definition of reading comprehension:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 2009 Reading Framework Committee defines reading   comprehension as ...“an&#xA;  active and complex process that involves understanding    written&#xA;  text, developing and interpreting meaning, and using meaning as&#xA;  appropriate to   type of text, purpose and situation (National Center&#xA;  for Educational Statistics, 2005, p.    2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Here are a few general points:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Multiple choice testing has the benefit of being reliable given a sufficient number of items. Of course, questions could be raised over the breadth of what it measures (i.e., validity issues). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Familiarity with the content should increase reading comprehension. Thus, to build on your question, a philosophy student should comprehend more Kant, than a non-philosophy student holding general reading ability constant. A similar argument could be made where the reader has insider knowledge about what the author is trying to say.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some texts are more difficult to comprehend in general, whether it be because the text is poorly written (e.g., grammar, spelling, stylistic issues) or because of the complexity of the material.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Implication of the Rasch model to questions of measurement:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A basic model of responding to multiple choice questions based on Item Response Theory (IRT) is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasch_model&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rasch model&lt;/a&gt;. It basically says that the probability of an individual getting an item correct is a function of their ability and item difficulty. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So according to this model, increasing the difficulty of the reading comprehension items would affect all individuals roughly equally. As can be shown with IRT the reliability of measurement can be increased by setting the difficulty of items to a level that discriminates between individuals. I.e., if items are too difficult, everyone gets the item wrong, and we don't learn much; likewise, if the item is too easy, everyone gets the item right, and we don't learn much.&#xA;Relating this to your question, including poorly worded writing or really difficult subject matters would only increase difficulty, which would not directly affect measurement of individual differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the Rasch model is generally simplification of the real world. In general, I think it takes you a long way in understanding the factors driving test performance. However, in some cases you might have reading items which some individuals understand better than others and this factor is unrelated to ability (e.g., a reading that embodies cultural assumptions shared by only some individuals). It is for this reason that reading comprehension tests should probably avoid content where a subgroup is likely to possess substantially more domain specific knowledge on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-01-21T03:11:54.923" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="114" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="29" CreationDate="2012-01-21T03:59:57.857" Score="11" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are a few videos and some links here on &lt;a href=&quot;http://gamification.org/wiki/Gamification_of_Education&quot;&gt;gamification in education&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sarah  Smith- Robbins has an article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.educause.edu/EDUCAUSE+Review/EDUCAUSEReviewMagazineVolume46/ThisGameSucksHowtoImprovetheGa/222665&quot;&gt;gamification in education&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gamifyingeducation.org/&quot;&gt;http://www.gamifyingeducation.org/&lt;/a&gt; is a website devoted to the topic; the site has a listing of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gamifyingeducation.org/category/papers&quot;&gt;research papers here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-01-21T03:59:57.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="115" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22" CreationDate="2012-01-21T07:49:08.757" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a comment above, Kris hopes for a more obvious answer to the question than the [very good] answers zergylord gave.  So here's one more explanation that strikes me as almost too obvious to mention: test making and test taking are temporally asymmetric.  One can spend fifteen minutes creating  a question that must be answered in less time.  This kind of time differential is extremely diagnostic -- a smart person and a dumb person might both be able to solve the missionaries and cannibals problem, but the smart person does so much more quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="98" LastActivityDate="2012-01-21T07:49:08.757" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="116" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="99" CreationDate="2012-01-21T12:16:16.487" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not. At least not always: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&amp;amp;uid=2005-09647-002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;In this famous experiment Tulving and Thomson&lt;/a&gt; show that under certain circumstances recall can be better than recognition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that the reason why recognition is &lt;em&gt;usually&lt;/em&gt; more accurate than recall, is the context. Usually, the context in the recognition test is very similar to the conditions in the learning phase - the subject sees a list of words. In the free recall test, the context is different - the subject is not given any external stimulus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tulving and Thomson changed that in their experiment: the context of learning was more similar to the recall test, which resulted in higher performance in the recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This indicates that the encoding in memory has some context specificity. Items that were encoded using a visual stimulus will be easier to recognize or recall if the same or similar stimulus is presented during the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note:&lt;/em&gt; I interpreted the word 'easier' in the question as 'more accurate' because typically accuracy is measured, and not the 'ease' of the recall/recognition, which could be defined in many different ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tulving, E., &amp;amp; Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological review, 80(5), 352-373. &lt;a href=&quot;http://gureckislab.org/courses/spring12/lhc/readings/TulvingThompson1973.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2013-03-28T04:32:30.433" LastActivityDate="2013-03-28T04:32:30.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="117" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="118" CreationDate="2012-01-21T15:47:19.340" Score="15" ViewCount="1032" Body="&lt;p&gt;Scytale's assessment, from the science fiction novel &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune_Messiah&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dune Messiah&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (1969)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When a creature has developed into one thing, he will choose death&#xA;  rather than change into his opposite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While reading some discussions on &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackoverflow.com/&quot;&gt;Meta Stack Overflow&lt;/a&gt;, it dawned on me that it might not be the best format to start constructive discussions. Once people pick sides in a discussion, they have a very high tendency to stop approaching the discussion from the other angle. People will dislike certain parts of a proposal, and then become vehemently against the entire thing, instead of trying to participate in resolving the issues they raise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this an established psychological phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-20T09:43:42.463" LastActivityDate="2012-06-01T05:02:02.460" Title="Do people have a tendency to stick to one opinion after they formed it?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="118" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="117" CreationDate="2012-01-21T16:24:43.527" Score="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes.  But why should it be so?  One can approach the question from a number of directions. For instance, Cass Sunstein &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/pss/1290382&quot;&gt;talks about&lt;/a&gt; how information cascades can create the path-dependent effects you describe: person A says something, which steers person B toward the same opinion, with the result that group decision-making heavily overvalues inputs of early responders.  (James Surowiecki also did an excellent &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0385721706&quot;&gt;popular science treatment&lt;/a&gt; of this topic.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So much for the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bartleby.com/100/420.47.html&quot;&gt;hobgoblin of little minds&lt;/a&gt; for groups.  Within the individual, the topic has been addressed through the dissonance literature, in which cogitation contrary to an established position carries unpleasant consequences, both &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=mGciFLxz588C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA237&amp;amp;dq=The+role+of+affect+in+cognitive+dissonance+processes&amp;amp;ots=DgArzZPSd9&amp;amp;sig=Mk8SERoM-x2leZCh0RnjpTRWRZc#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=The%20role%20of%20affect%20in%20cognitive%20dissonance%20processes&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;hedonic&lt;/a&gt; and adaptive.  Particularly, maintaining a consistent set of mental beliefs seems to be important for efficient &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.socialemotiveneuroscience.org/pubs/hj_hj2002pspb.pdf&quot;&gt;action selection&lt;/a&gt;, possibly as a consequence of the way semantic information (including motor control programs) is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.mcgill.ca/perpg/fac/shultz/personal/Recent_Publications_files/diss96.pdf&quot;&gt;represented in the brain.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The result of all this is that, as you suggest, people establish a position, and then are motivated to keep it, which is not news.  What is surprising is that this annoying behavior is probably highly adaptive and a consequence of our neural architecture for knowledge representation and decision-making.  In other words, a feature and not a bug.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="98" LastActivityDate="2012-01-21T16:24:43.527" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="119" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16" CreationDate="2012-01-21T21:08:42.357" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.adni-info.org/&quot;&gt;ADNI project&lt;/a&gt; (2004–ongoing) aims at characterizing change in cognitive functions and brain structures with age, with a particular emphasis on Alzheimer's disease and neuroimaging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the website,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The overall goal of this huge project is to define the rate of&#xA;  progress of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease, to&#xA;  develop improved methods for clinical trials in this area, and to&#xA;  provide a large database which will improve design of treatment&#xA;  trials. We expect that this project will provide information and&#xA;  methods which will help lead to effective treatments for Alzheimer’s&#xA;  disease, leading to effective prevention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Data that are collected include: demographics, clinical data, neuroimaging (MRI/PET) data, and a wide range of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.adni-info.org/Scientists/CognitiveTesting.aspx&quot;&gt;cognitive tests&lt;/a&gt;. (More on &lt;a href=&quot;http://adni.loni.ucla.edu/about-data-samples/&quot;&gt;ADCS website&lt;/a&gt;.)&#xA;Details about protocols, available data can be found under &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.adni-info.org/Scientists/ADNIScientistsHome.aspx&quot;&gt;ADNI Scientist's Home&lt;/a&gt;. In particular, data are available on &lt;a href=&quot;http://adcs.org/&quot;&gt;ADCS&lt;/a&gt;. Please note that you must write an application to get the data (as is often the case).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="88" LastEditorUserId="952" LastEditDate="2013-12-24T19:51:03.540" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T19:51:03.540" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2012-01-22T09:16:46.970" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="120" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16" CreationDate="2012-01-21T21:25:18.617" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nihpromis.org/&quot;&gt;PROMIS project&lt;/a&gt; (funded by NIH) built upon a large scale US epidemiological study to assess patient-reported chronic disease outcomes. Data were collected on general population and multiple disease populations in different centers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the website,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Patient Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) is a&#xA;  system of highly reliable, precise measures of patient–reported health&#xA;  status for physical, mental, and social well–being. PROMIS tools&#xA;  measure what patients are able to do and how they feel by asking&#xA;  questions. PROMIS’ measures can be used as primary or secondary&#xA;  endpoints in clinical studies of the effectiveness of treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Its penultimate goal is to build a calibrated and cross-cultural item bank to assess patient reported outcomes (in particular, disease-specific quality of life, mental health, social relationships and personality traits), for adults and children. The main domains that are covered are described in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nihpromis.org/measures/domainframework&quot;&gt;Domain Framework&lt;/a&gt;. Data are publicly released, but you have to write a short application to access them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="88" LastActivityDate="2012-01-21T21:25:18.617" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2012-01-22T09:16:39.233" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="121" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="125" CreationDate="2012-01-21T21:40:08.567" Score="14" ViewCount="311" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a typographical error that I make and do so every time I try to type a certain word. Whenever I try to type &lt;em&gt;remember&lt;/em&gt;, I type &lt;em&gt;remeber&lt;/em&gt;. I do this every time. This is different to a regular typo because most typos happen at random, whereas this mistake is guaranteed to occur. It's not a spelling mistake, because I know how to spell remember, I just don't press all the required keys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could it be related to touch-typing? I don't make the typo when I peck out the keys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder whether it is related to muscle memory, because there are many words with the pattern 'e_e', such as &lt;em&gt;here&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;there&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;gene&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;theme&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;scene&lt;/em&gt;, etc. So where I reach the second &lt;em&gt;e&lt;/em&gt; my motor system is primed &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; to push the key that came before, i.e. &lt;em&gt;m&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that knowledge of spelling and knowledge of typing are not strongly linked in this case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a mechanism by which I have learnt this mistake?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="105" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-11-19T19:20:06.057" LastActivityDate="2017-01-18T14:07:54.357" Title="What type of learning mechanism produces a consistent typo?" Tags="&lt;communication&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;procedural-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="122" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="99" CreationDate="2012-01-22T05:27:37.937" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not familiar with the paper Ofri cites, but will agree with the OP that recognition is generally considered to be an easier task than recollection, and successful recognition considered weaker evidence for any particular memory phenomenon.  One common explanation is that recognition can manifest psychologically simply as a result of the increased cognitive fluency brought about by priming -- see for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.princeton.edu/sites/opplab/papers/alteropp09.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alter &amp;amp; Oppenheimer 2009.&lt;/a&gt;  Priming effects are &lt;em&gt;extremely&lt;/em&gt; robust -- subjects will show priming on an image they saw once, a year ago, for less than a second.  (See &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mit.edu/~tkonkle/www/PAPERS/Brady_2011_JOV.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brady et al. 2011&lt;/a&gt; for review.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If recognition amounts to the psychological state wherein some stimulus is slightly easier to process than another, and this effect can be achieved with essentially no cognitive work, but rather as a manifestation of a kind of &lt;a href=&quot;http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic472736.files/Zajonc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;mere exposure&lt;/a&gt;, then it seems clear why recollection -- which requires a complex dance of inhibition and excitation in order to activate some target thought or memory from amongst a host of competitors (see for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.memorycontrol.net/abb2000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anderson et al. 2000&lt;/a&gt;) -- should be the more difficult of the two processes to accomplish, as, in fact, it generally seem to be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alter, A. L., &amp;amp; Oppenheimer, D. M. (2009). Uniting the tribes of fluency to form a metacognitive nation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13(3), 219-235.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brady, T. F., Konkle, T., &amp;amp; Alvarez, G. A. (2011). A review of visual memory capacity: Beyond individual items and toward structured representations. Journal of Vision, 11(5).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson, M. C., Bjork, E. L., &amp;amp; Bjork, R. A. (2000). Retrieval-induced forgetting: Evidence for a recall-specific mechanism. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 7(3), 522-530.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="98" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-28T04:34:13.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="124" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-22T07:01:39.313" Score="6" ViewCount="2120" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a follow-up question to: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/32/do-people-feel-emotions-less-strongly-as-they-grow-older&quot;&gt;Do people feel emotions less strongly as they grow older?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically - I'm wondering - has anyone ever made an empirical measurement of how strongly someone felt happiness, sadness, anger or grief? Is it also possible to compare intensities of emotion between different people? And if so, how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T05:43:05.690" Title="How to measure emotional intensity?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="125" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="121" CreationDate="2012-01-22T11:34:53.020" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a scientific literature on typing. It's been a while since I've read the articles.&#xA;You might start by reading this excellent review of research and findings on transcription typing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.virginia.edu/cogage/publications2/Pre%201995/Perceptual%20Cognitive%20and%20Motoric%20Aspects%20of%20Transcription%20Typing.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salthouse, 1986: Perceptual, cognitive, and motoric aspects of transcription typing. PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General model of typing&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Salthouse (1986) presents a model of the typing process&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;1. INPUT: Convert text into chunks&#xA;2. PARSING: Decompose chunks into ordinal strings of characters&#xA;3. TRANSLATION: Convert characters into movement specifications&#xA;4. EXECUTION: Implement movement in balistic fashion&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few other relevant points that Salthouse supports with multiple references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;The rate of typing is nearly the same for random words as it is for&#xA;meaningful text.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Successive keystrokes from fingers on alternate hands are faster than&#xA;successive keystrokes from fingers on the same hand.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Letter pairs that occur more frequently in normal language&#xA;are typed faster than less frequent pairs.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interkey interval varies with the context of the letters in a word.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These points basically state that typing involves various forms of motor chunking, that the word is a central chunk but that there are also many other lower level chunks (e.g., typing &quot;ion&quot; and &quot;ier&quot; is quite  common in English).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Errors&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a discussion of typing errors in the paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Salthouse mentions the taxonomy of typing errors proposed by  Wells (1916) of &quot;substitutions, intrusions, ommissions, and transpositions&quot;, and also cites empirical estimates of prevalence of different types of errors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Many substitution errors involve adjacent keys.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Most transposition errors are cross-hand rather than within-hand&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suggest you have a read of the paper to get a deeper understanding of the types and proposed causes of typing errors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Specific thoughts regarding your question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perhaps in contrast to what you say, typos are not random. Rather, there is structure to the errors. For example, &quot;Teh&quot; is a common typo. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Obviously, having an incorrect belief about the spelling of a word could result in repeated errors, but I understand you are not talking about them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;So, with regards to a specific word that you frequently mistype, you might want to think whether there are characteristics of the word that make it difficult to type. Also, as you say, if you learn the wrong chunking at some point, you may need to unlearn this pattern.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wells, F. L. (1916). On the psychomotor mechanisms of typewriting. The American Journal of Psychology, 27(1), 47-70.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-01-18T14:07:54.357" LastActivityDate="2017-01-18T14:07:54.357" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="126" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="124" CreationDate="2012-01-22T14:25:01.673" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since things like happiness, sadness, and grief are highly subjective, so I don't think there's any way you could measure those variables directly.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could operationally define those emotions, such as measuring happiness by the number of hours someone spends doing something they enjoy, but you can imagine all of the confounds involved with that.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, you could define a general scale (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_scale#Partial_list_of_pain_measurement_scales&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; for a list of those having to do with pain) and rank how people score on it.  Then, you could use principles of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-parametric_statistics&quot;&gt;non-parametric statistics&lt;/a&gt; to compare your rankings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also measure known anatomical correlates (e.g., activity in the amygdala as a basis of fear via fMRI), but so many emotions/feelings/other background processing overlap in certain brain regions that the validity would have to be shown through good controls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-01-22T14:25:01.673" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="127" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-22T19:37:53.227" Score="31" ViewCount="52314" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've caught myself writing (typing) &quot;possible&quot; instead of &quot;possibly&quot; a few times over the past few days, while I do intend to write &quot;possibly&quot;. Only upon rereading the sentence I notice my mistake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not a typo. I am able to touch-type on a qwerty layout on which 'e' and 'y' are both written using a different hand, and different fingers. The keys are two keys apart from each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A simple google search for &lt;em&gt;&quot;psychology writing wrong words&quot;&lt;/em&gt; didn't show up any immediate relevant results. I did read about a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudian_slip&quot;&gt;Freudian Slip&lt;/a&gt;, but it seems highly unlikely I would make such a mistake due to an &lt;em&gt;&quot;unconscious ('dynamically repressed'), subdued, wish, conflict, or train of thought&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any psychological phenomenon explaining why I would make such an error?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-03T08:54:36.153" LastActivityDate="2019-04-03T20:21:33.893" Title="Why do you sometimes write down one word while actually intending to write another?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="14" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="129" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="461" CreationDate="2012-01-22T21:33:57.203" Score="27" ViewCount="1543" Body="&lt;p&gt;For many people time seems to run faster as they get older. That is, for an old person an hour, a day or a year seems to be shorter than for a young person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any hard data for such phenomenon?&#xA;And if so, what is the cause?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To name a few possibilities it can be about the reaction time (so one have more or less 'turns' in a minute), the relative time comparing to one's age, ways in which memory changes with age or habits (younger may live more active life). Of course, there may be different causes for different time scales. However, I haven't found anything but anecdotal data and home-made theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:37:03.023" LastActivityDate="2020-11-12T06:05:46.220" Title="Perception of time as a function of age" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="130" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="32" CreationDate="2012-01-23T00:42:19.357" Score="8" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Deconstructing your question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a difference between the ability to experience an emotion and tendency to experience an emotion.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a difference between proportion of time that an individual experiences an emotion and the intensity of that emotion.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Obviously, you could take many approaches to answering this question. Emotions can be viewed from various perspectives including physiological, psychological, and behavioural.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Some empirical evidence&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did a quick search on Google Scholar for &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=panas+longitudinal+study&amp;amp;btnG=Search&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;as_ylo=&amp;amp;as_vis=0&quot;&gt;'panas longitudinal study'&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PANAS (see Crawford and Henry 2004, &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abdn.ac.uk/~psy086/dept/pdfs/BJCP_2004_PANAS.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt; for a a review) is a commonly used self-report questionnaire that aims to measure the frequency with which various positive and negative emotions have been experienced over a given time frame.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this interesting article by&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.agencylab.ku.edu/~agencylab/manuscripts/%28Kunzmann,%20Little%20and%20Smith%202000%29.pdf&quot;&gt; Kunzmann, Little, and Smith 2000, PDF&lt;/a&gt; called&#xA;&quot;Is age-related stability of subjective well-being a paradox? Cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence from the Berlin Aging Study&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The opening section of the article reviews the empirical literature regarding stability and age related trends in self-reported positive and negative affect.&#xA;The following are a few interesting points from the article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Costa et al. 1987 found correlations over 10 years for positive and negative affect of r =.42 and r=.43 respectively. I.e., there is fair amount of stability in individual differences in the experience of emotions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When Kunzmann et al's review of the literature they cite several large scale studies that showed at the group-level no age effect on negative affect, although a couple of studies suggested their might be a small decline in negative affect with age. These studies varied in the years of life that were of interest, but typically looked at differences between early, middle and older adulthood.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kunzmann et al also review the evidence for positive affect. The story sounds a little complicated with some studies suggesting a decline in positive affect and others not.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As I've seen before, it seems like cross sectional studies sometimes show bigger effects than longitudinal studies.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-23T02:14:15.103" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T02:14:15.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="131" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="28" CreationDate="2012-01-23T01:06:23.053" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are a few correlations between self-other report.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Job Performance&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peer-rated with supervisor-rated job performance&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;r = .62 (Harris and Schaubroeck, 1988)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-rated with supervisor-rated job performance&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;r = .35 (Harris and Schaubroeck, 1988)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-rated with peer-rated job performance&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;r = .36 (Harris and Schaubroeck, 1988)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Personality&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a meta-analysis by Connelly and Ones (2010) that summarises Big 5 self-other correlations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ejzXk.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ejzXk.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;connelly and ones 2010 self-other agreeement&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It shows a few interesting things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some traits may show greater self-other agreement. This is sometimes attributed to greater observability and lower evaluativeness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Closer relationships have stronger correlations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a study by Costa and MCrae (1988)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-rated with spouse-rated Neuroticism&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;r=.54 and r=.54 (Costa and McCrae, 1988)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-rated with spouse-rated Extraversion&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;r=.60 and r=.53 (Costa and McCrae, 1988)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-rated with spouse-rated Opennness&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;r=.52 and r=.60 (Costa and McCrae, 1988)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Other resources&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Donaldson, S. I. Grant-Vallone, E. J. (2002, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cgu.edu/include/understanding%20self-report%20bias.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;): discussion of self-report bias in organisational research.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harris, M. M. &amp;amp; Schaubroeck (1988). A meta-analysis of self-supervisor self-peer, and peer-supervisor ratings. Sample size ranged from 984 to 3,957, and number of correlations averaged ranged from 11 to 36.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Costa, P. T. &amp;amp; McCrae (1988, &lt;a href=&quot;http://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/~broberts/Costa%20%26%20McCrae,%201988.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;). Personality in adulthood: A six-year longitudinal study of self-reports and spouse ratings on the NEO Personality Inventory. It's not a meta analysis. N = 167 for spouse ratings.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Connelly, B. S., &amp;amp; Ones, D. S. (2010). An other perspective on personality: Meta-analytic integration of observers' accuracy and predictive validity. Psychological bulletin, 136(6), 1092.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2019-11-22T06:44:15.033" LastActivityDate="2019-11-22T06:44:15.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="100" CreationDate="2012-01-23T01:54:21.197" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a several perspectives of mental fatigue. Here are a few starting points:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a huge literature on &lt;strong&gt;burnout&lt;/strong&gt; (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnout_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; for a review, and Maslach et al, 2001, &lt;a href=&quot;http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/fss/2006-1104-200110/maslach_01_jobburnout.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;) for their annual review of psychology article. Burnout refers to a rather chronic form of emotional and mental exhaustion. Burnout is often assessed in research using questionnaires, but obviously it could be clinically assessed. Of course, your question seems more concerned with short term fatigue rather than longer term fatigue, and cognitive fatigue rather than emotional fatigue.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are a lot of studies looking at &lt;strong&gt;fatigue and work hours&lt;/strong&gt; (see this &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=fatigue+and+work+hours&amp;amp;btnG=Search&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;as_ylo=&amp;amp;as_vis=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;google scholar search&lt;/a&gt;). Such studies are often conducted within the context of human factors, occupational health, and work stress perspectives. You might like this one by Folkard et al (2003, &lt;a href=&quot;http://occmed.oxfordjournals.org/content/53/2/95.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;) on shift work, safety and productivity, it has some graphs relating time of day and time since break to productivity (i.e., not exactly answering your question, but marginally relevant).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You could look at the literature on &lt;strong&gt;vigilance&lt;/strong&gt; that discusses the general deterioration of vigilance skills over time (see this &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigilance_%28psychology%29#Vigilance_decrement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia discussion&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T01:54:21.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="134" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="81" CreationDate="2012-01-23T02:27:59.140" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few basic observations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Typical self-report measures of engagement and job satisfaction tend to be highly correlated (I'll try to find a reference later, but I think in the r =.7 range).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As with many organisational psychology terms that bridge the scientific-practitioner divide, engagement has been operationalised in a wide range of ways.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/iops.2008.1.issue-1/issuetoc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Volume 1, Issue 1 of Industrial and Organizational Psychology&lt;/a&gt; has a focal article and a large set of accompanying commentaries on the meaning of engagement and its value as a concept. See this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=the%20meaning%20of%20employee%20engaagement&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;ved=0CDoQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fdownload%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.182.2845%26rep%3Drep1%26type%3Dpdf&amp;amp;ei=9sQcT_yaBe-QiQfVnL3kCw&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNGznVxDg4hMtsGrBjpqtjvJkgLYCg&amp;amp;sig2=S3vWaVrw3u4tZgd6BMeIFw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pdf of the focal article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T02:27:59.140" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="135" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="129" CreationDate="2012-01-23T02:38:20.683" Score="18" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Wikipedia on time perception&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception&quot;&gt;&quot;time perception&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. In particular, the section on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception#Long-term&quot;&gt;long-term time perception&lt;/a&gt; cites a couple of articles.&#xA;    * The articles makes the common point that a unit of time as a proportion of one's life decreases with age. A few empirical studies are also cited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Ukraintseva (2001)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ukraintseva (2001) wrote an article devoted to the topic and makes several interesting points about time perception over aging. E.g.,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ukraintseva argues the rate of aging decreases with age and that this may have relevance to experience of time.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ukraintseva also suggests that living may be slower in some sense with age citing examples of slower &quot;metabolic rate, rate of cell proliferation, physical, mental alertness, and the rate of living in general&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Graf and Grondin&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Graf and Grondin have an article that reviews the literature on the psychology of time perception and discusses age related differences. However, the article seems to focus more on aspects of performance rather than the subjective experience of time slowing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They cite a few studies that suggest that in relation to judging time intervals, older adults may be less accurate. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Personal musings&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My own random musings (treat them as you wish) suggest that topics such as flow, goals, rhythm of life, and boredom might also be relevant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A feature of being immersed in a state of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29#Sense_of_Time_Distortion&quot;&gt;flow is a sense of time distortion&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As we get older, perhaps we start to set more long term goals, and this might shape the experience of time and change.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased levels of routinisation and automaticity might also decrease awareness of time passing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perhaps knowing how to avoid boredom would be relevant to time passing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Graf and Grondin &quot;Time perception and time-based prospective memory&quot; in TIMING THE FUTURE - The Case for a Time-Based Prospective Memory (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldscibooks.com/etextbook/5937/5937_chap1.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ukraintseva (2001) Aging and the subjective sense of time. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/SVUAging.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The above are just a few quick points (it's not my area):&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-08T11:37:51.633" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T11:37:51.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="136" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="111" CreationDate="2012-01-23T03:30:21.597" Score="32" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Nehligh's 2010 review&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nehlig (2010) wrote a systematic review article called &quot;Is caffeine a cognitive enhancer?&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://iospress.metapress.com/content/lw1630245745v088/&quot;&gt;link to publisher, no PDF&lt;/a&gt;).&#xA;On page S89 to S90 Nehlig reviews the evidence of caffeine as a cognitive enhancer within the context of a history of caffeine consumption:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In&#xA;  caffeine non-deprived young (20–25 years) and older subjects (50–65&#xA;  years), 250 mg caffeine slightly offset the decline in performance&#xA;  found in the placebo group on a digit span memory test. However,&#xA;  caffeine did not improve performance in the immediate word recall&#xA;  task in either age group [11]. Caffeine (12.5–100 mg) given after&#xA;  overnight abstinence improved cognitive performance in a relatively&#xA;  difficult and stressful task involving rapid visual information&#xA;  processing and using a high load of working memory in 11 males and 12&#xA;  females, aged 18–56 years. The effect was more marked in individuals&#xA;  with a high habitual caffeine intake [78]. In 68 volunteers&#xA;  consuming a regular daily amount of caffeine, 2 mg/kg caffeine&#xA;  improved the speed of encoding new information in a categorical search&#xA;  task [79]. Likewise, in a study comparing 24 non-consumers (20&#xA;  mg/day) to 24 consumers of caffeine (217 mg/day), there was no&#xA;  baseline difference between group performances. Caffeine improved&#xA;  numeric working memory reaction time and sentence verification&#xA;  accuracy; alertness was also increased, but in general caffeine tended&#xA;  to improve more the performance in non consumers [80]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In adult&#xA;  subjects, a higher habitual caffeine intake with no additional&#xA;  caffeine administration on the day of testing was positively related&#xA;  to better performance on incidental verbal learning and visuospatial&#xA;  learning tasks [15]. There was also an association between estimated&#xA;  caffeine intake and performance in a choice reaction time task, and in&#xA;  delayed recall of a verbal word learning task [81]. In the former&#xA;  study, older sub- jects appeared to benefit more from higher caffeine&#xA;  intake [15], while this was not the case in the latter study [81].&#xA;  Also, in real life activities, regular caffeine consumption might&#xA;  benefit cognitive functioning in a non-working population [82].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Smith's 2002 review&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another good review is provided by Smith (2002, &lt;a href=&quot;http://intraspec.ca/Effects-of-caffeine-on-human-health.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;).&#xA;The main claim relevant to the present question argues that coffee remains beneficial despite habituation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It has been claimed that the positive eﬀects of caﬀeine really reﬂect&#xA;  removal of negative eﬀects of caﬀeine withdrawal. This view cannot&#xA;  account for eﬀects observed in non-consumers or nondeprived&#xA;  individuals. In addition, there is little evidence of caﬀeine&#xA;  withdrawal impairing tasks which show improvements following ingestion&#xA;  of caﬀeine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article is worth reading if you want to read about the relevant empirical evidence and some of the limitations of existing research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[11] Rees K, Allen D, Lader M (1999) The influences of age and&#xA;caffeine on psychomotor and cognitive function. Psychophar-&#xA;macology (Berl) 145, 181-188.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[78] Smit HJ, Rogers PJ (2000) Effects of low doses of caffeine&#xA;on cognitive performance, mood and thirst in low and higher&#xA;caffeine consumers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 152, 167-&#xA;173.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[80] Haskell CF, Kennedy DO, Wesnes KA, Scholey AB (2005)&#xA;Cognitive and mood improvements of caffeine in habitual con-&#xA;sumers and habitual non-consumers of caffeine. Psychophar-&#xA;macology (Berl) 179, 813-825.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[81] Hameleers PA, Van Boxtel MP, Hogervorst E, Riedel WJ,&#xA;Houx PJ, Buntinx F, Jolles J (2000) Habitual caffeine con-&#xA;sumption and its relation to memory, attention, planning&#xA;capacity and psychomotor performance across multiple age&#xA;groups. Hum Psychopharmacol 15, 573-581.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[82] Smith AP (2009) Caffeine, cognitive failures and health in a&#xA;non-working community sample. Hum Psychopharmacol 24,&#xA;29-34.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Smith, A. (2002). Effects of caffeine on human behavior. Food and chemical toxicology, 40, 1243-1255. &lt;a href=&quot;http://intraspec.ca/Effects-of-caffeine-on-human-health.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-26T07:32:40.117" LastActivityDate="2012-07-26T07:32:40.117" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="137" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="56" CreationDate="2012-01-23T05:16:34.613" Score="10" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Seattle Longitudinal Study:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might want to have a read about The Seattle Longitudinal Study of Adult Intelligence.&#xA;There's a summary of the study on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.memory-key.com/problems/aging/seattle-study&quot;&gt;this website&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;To quote the website:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Seattle Longitudinal Study of Adult Intelligence has followed a&#xA;  group of more than 5000 people for well over four decades. The program&#xA;  began in 1956 and participants have been tested across a whole gamut&#xA;  of mental and physical abilities at seven year intervals since that&#xA;  date.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regards to preventing cognitive decline the website suggests that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The following variables may reduce the risk of cognitive decline in old age:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;absence of chronic diseases&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;a complex and intellectually stimulating environment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;a flexible personality style at mid-life&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;high intellectual status of spouse&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;maintenance of high levels of perceptual processing speed&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If these general points are true, then presumably an argument could be made that scientists and professors have more complex and intellectually stimulating environments. However, the age related declines may be most pronounced in what are potentially post retirement ages (e.g., 60 or 70 +), where the environment would be different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Some general points&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Professors and scientists have some of the highest levels of intelligence among the professions (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iqcomparisonsite.com/Occupations.aspx&quot;&gt;this table&lt;/a&gt; based on this working paper by Hauser, 2002, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/cde/cdewp/98-07.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;). Thus, if everyone did decline cognitively at an identical rate, people from such professions would still tend to have higher intelligence (e.g., a 10-point decline from  130 is 120, versus 90 to 80). So, people with initially high intelligence even with decline can still be intelligent. However, this initially high intelligence is most likely due to genetics or some undefined source than to the stimulation of the profession itself.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thus, indirectly, the above points (high intelligence of scientists and professors) and potentially environmentally stimulating environments suggest that they will be more intelligent at older age. But my guess is that most of that effect will be due to base line differences in intelligence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-21T06:36:07.290" LastActivityDate="2012-02-21T06:36:07.290" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="138" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="46" CreationDate="2012-01-23T06:11:17.453" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, I'd hypothesise that &quot;memory-training&quot; programs will not lead to domain-general increases in fluid intelligence nor working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As general background, you might want to check out the &lt;a href=&quot;http://snitkof.com/cg156/index.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;literature on expert memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Practice is very effective at improving performance on the practised task. Transfer is real and does exist, but it is often small in effect. &#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Let's take the study by Ericsson, Chase, and Faloon (1980). After 230 hours of practice a participant, SF, was trained to increase their digit span (i.e., the sequence of random numbers they could recall) from 7 to 79 numbers. One might think that SF had increased his working memory. However, talk aloud protocols suggest that SF was using sophisticated domain specific mnemonic strategies (e.g., linking running times to random numbers). The skill did not generalise to other memory stimuli.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The expertise literature is filled with examples of experts seemingly defying the limits of human ability. Yet, such achievements tend to be domain specific and achieved through substantial practice. For an excellent review of the expertise literature, see Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Romer (1993).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is very difficult to modify very large domain general abilities.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, my general advice is for people wanting to improve their working memory or fluid intelligence is to instead focus on what domain specific ability they want to improve and focus on practicing that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. A., Chase, W. G., and Faloon, S. (1980). Acquisition of a&#xA;memory skill. Science, 208(4448):1181-1182. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/chasepapers/Acquisition%20of%20a%20Memory%20Skill.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, T., and Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of&#xA;deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance.&#xA;Psychological Review, 100:363-406.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-07T05:39:46.793" LastActivityDate="2012-09-07T05:39:46.793" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="139" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5" CreationDate="2012-01-23T06:32:01.210" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The prospect theory works/describes two stages in decision making under risk*.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Stage 1:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clustering/grouping of the outcomes based on some heuristic. i.e the group the possible outcomes into groups and then choose  a reference point out of these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Stage 2:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now they switch to the expected utility theory,and act as a rational agent that makes a decision based on the expected value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospect_theory.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The formula that Kahneman and Tversky assume for the evaluation phase&#xA;is (in its simplest form) given by&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$U = \sum_{i=1}^n w(p_i)v(x_i) = w(p_1)v(x_1) + w(p_2)v(x_2) + ... + w(p_n)v(x_n)$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$U$&lt;/span&gt; is the overall or expected utility of the outcomes to the individual making the decision,  &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x_1, x_2, ..., x_n$&lt;/span&gt;  are the potential outcomes and  &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p_1, p_2, ..., p_n$&lt;/span&gt; their respective probabilities.  The function &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$v$&lt;/span&gt; is the value function that assigns a value to an  outcome.  The function &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w$&lt;/span&gt; is a probability weighting function and expresses that people   tend to overreact to small probability events, but underreact to medium and large probabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Losses hurt more than gains feel good (loss aversion).&#xA;This differs greatly from expected utility theory, in which a rational&#xA;agent is indifferent to the reference point. In expected utility&#xA;theory, the individual only cares about absolute wealth, not relative&#xA;wealth in any given situation. The function  is a probability&#xA;weighting function and expresses that people tend to overreact to&#xA;small probability events, but underreact to medium and large&#xA;probabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this is constrained by the assumption that the probabilities of outcomes are known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To apply to your case, with any meaningfulness, you'll have to try to quantify the probability of failure in both cases and also assign a weight to the quantity of upside.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess is even though gambling has 50% probability you see the immediate(short time span) big wad of cash as high utility while the upside of finishing the project with a reward over a longer time span seems to reduce/lower the apparent utility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd recommend &lt;a href=&quot;http://lesswrong.com/lw/9wr/my_algorithm_for_beating_procrastination/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this algorithm&lt;/a&gt; to combat this. I am only trying it myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="73" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-04-25T21:13:10.850" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="140" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="127" CreationDate="2012-01-23T06:36:03.637" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few thoughts (this is not my area):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_error&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;speech errors on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; is informative. The article provides a review &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_error#Psycholinguistic_classification_of_speech_errors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;types of speech errors&lt;/a&gt;. The classification of speech errors is presumably similar to writing errors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What I take from the article, and other research on errors, is that there is plenty of structure to errors. I think an information processing perspective would be more helpful in explaining writing errors than a Freudian perspective. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taking an information processing perspective on your specific example (&quot;possible&quot; versus &quot;possibly&quot;), it makes sense that these words could be confused on the basis of their semantic and spelling similarity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T06:36:03.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="141" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19" CreationDate="2012-01-23T06:40:43.927" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder if any of the work using Act-R would be relevant.&#xA;See these Act-R publications with accompanying PDFs on&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/publications/index.php?subtopic=2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;visual search&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/publications/index.php?subtopic=23&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;spatial reasoning and navigation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(apologies if they're not relevant, this is outside my comfort zone)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T06:40:43.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="142" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10" CreationDate="2012-01-23T06:51:15.757" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a big topic. The relationship between group size and performance on a cognitive task is going to vary by several factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a few thoughts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The form of interdependence adopted by the group on the task will matter. When everyone can just work independently (e.g., taking calls in a call centre), then it makes sense that output would increase almost linearly with increasing group size, in the absence of motivation or learning issues.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In the context of project teams, software teams, and so forth, I imagine the issues would be a lot more complex and that in some situations increasing group size might even reduce performance of the team. There a few articles cited &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.teambuildingportal.com/articles/systems/teamperformance-teamsize&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; that discuss this.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A classic study in the context, albeit from a motor task, of the relationship between group-size and group performance is that by Ringelmann (see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringelmann_effect&quot;&gt;wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt;) that looked at rope pulling power as a function of group size. The basic finding was that average pulling power declined with group size. This has been interpreted as evidence of social loafing, but their are also coordination issues as well.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some tasks are heavily influenced by the performance of the weakest or strongest member. For example, a musical group will often sound bad if only one member plays poorly. Or other tasks it will be strongest member, as you say if you have are playing at a trivia night, and you have one person with all the right answers on the table.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="11" LastEditDate="2012-01-23T15:27:09.910" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T15:27:09.910" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="144" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="175" CreationDate="2012-01-23T11:15:22.043" Score="14" ViewCount="8391" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's the difference between these two terms when used in the context of cognitive psychology? To the best of my knowledge, research on 'Goal Oriented Behavior' refers to the subset of motivation that involves translating explicitly construed goals into actions the agent can perform in order to accomplish these goals (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Means-ends_analysis&quot;&gt;means-ends analysis&lt;/a&gt;). However, its hard for me to grasp when this is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; the case insofar as theories of motivation are concerned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So are these terms effectively synonyms with 'Goal Oriented Behavior' simply being the more modern verbiage? Or is 'Goal Oriented Behavior' a special subset of Motivation? Or is the relationship between the two terms something else entirely (perhaps each is used in a different field of study).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-22T00:08:18.353" LastActivityDate="2021-02-02T11:50:54.190" Title="Motivation vs Goal Oriented Behavior" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="145" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="153" CreationDate="2012-01-23T12:03:47.347" Score="10" ViewCount="682" Body="&lt;p&gt;Within the confines of cognitive psychology, what is the difference between these two tasks? In the literature, playing chess is generally seen as &lt;a href=&quot;http://octopus.library.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/tiff2pdf/simon/box00064/fld04878/bdl0001/doc0001/simon.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the exemplar of problem solving&lt;/a&gt;. But recently (thanks to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/20/any-work-being-done-on-perception-action-and-or-cognition-in-video-games&quot;&gt;this site&lt;/a&gt;), I've stumbled upon quite a few articles expounding the merit of using &lt;a href=&quot;http://jtoomim.org/brain-training/the%20space%20fortress%20game.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;video game playing to study complex &lt;em&gt;skill acquisition&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. This difference in terminology (i.e. chess is a problem to be solved whilst playing a video game like pacman is a skill to be acquired) has me completely confused as to when completing a task is considered a skill acquired/mastered vs. a problem solved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2020-11-16T18:44:41.857" Title="What is the difference between solving a problem and acquiring a skill?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="146" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="34" CreationDate="2012-01-23T16:13:49.710" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although I don't know any publications exactly on that matter it is possible to be true.&#xA;So please treat this as a speculation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People with Asperger Syndrome (or High-Functioning Autism) have higher attention to detail and tend to build more rigid structures in their minds (while neurotypicals may have more error-tolerant but less efficient structures). So it is very possible that the learning curve for AS starts slowly and then have sharp leaps. In the initial stage they may see merely a collection of facts (while neurotypicals can manage to work with them as they are less demanding when it comes to the self-consistency and structure). However, when it 'clicks' and one understands pattern of the structure it may give a considerable advantage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, it may be also about time spent &lt;em&gt;learning&lt;/em&gt;. Once a person with AS feels safe in a topic, (s)he may like to learn it even, while for a neurotypical there is no so much fun in learning more details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to the relation of skills and cognitive style and Asperger Syndorme, the following references may be useful: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Samuel J. Umland, Karl Wessel &quot;Cassandra Among the Cyborgs&quot; in Darren Tofts &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.es/books?id=LNyvD79vNVEC&quot;&gt;Prefiguring Cyberculture: An Intellectual History&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hsu-Min Chiang, Yueh-Hsien Lin, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361307083259&quot;&gt;Mathematical ability of students with Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism: A review of literature&lt;/a&gt; (2007)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first one is an essay relating cognitive styles of: people with AS, nerds and science. The second shows that there is high variance in mathematical skills among people with AS (so most are below average, but some are way above).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my experience, the effect is very well visible when it comes to presenting knowledge. Nerdy people typically are bad at presenting topics they don't understand well. Neurotypical do it much better (perhaps because they make 'didactic lies' much easier, or they are not concerned so much by 'chaos' or lack of self-consistency, or they are better at repeating catch-phrases). At the same time nerds understanding a topic well often understand it really well (knowing a lot of connection, analogies, what is exact and what approximate, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="28" LastEditDate="2012-01-24T14:17:09.003" LastActivityDate="2012-01-24T14:17:09.003" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="147" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="127" CreationDate="2012-01-23T18:27:34.790" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As an addition to Jeromy's answer, I would like to point out that I sometimes think of them as muscle memory flaws. I have no evidence to back this up, but I'll explain my reasoning. The suffix 'ble' is quite common in English language, so when you type the 'bl' for ('bly' in 'possibly'), without thinking you add the 'e' instead of the 'y', because your fingers are used to the pattern of 'ble'. Of course you can type the (perhaps) less common 'bly' but then you'll need a bit more attention, to inhibit the 'bly'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this sound reasonable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9" LastEditorUserId="9" LastEditDate="2012-06-02T20:53:00.863" LastActivityDate="2012-06-02T20:53:00.863" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="148" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="145" CreationDate="2012-01-23T19:23:26.127" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This might be a very unscientific answer, but isn't problem solving a type of skill. More specifically, that different kinds of problem solving, are different kinds of skills. I mean that in order to solve chess problems one will utilize the chess-problem-solving-skill? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T19:23:26.127" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="149" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="144" CreationDate="2012-01-23T19:29:47.300" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One example, I can think of, which is an example of motivation, which does not need to be driven by wanting to accomplish a goal is doing arts. The motivation to play an instrument might be to learn how to master the instrument, but is might as well come from enjoyment of earning how to master the instrument. In the latter case, it is not so important whether one will ultimately master the instrument, because it is the process of learning it, which is the fun part. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T19:29:47.300" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="150" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="74" CreationDate="2012-01-23T19:52:00.237" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Much evidence suggests &lt;strong&gt;children do not show as much top down processing as adults&lt;/strong&gt;. This depends on your definition so I'll state that I generally mean that use of top-down processing appears to increase as a child develops.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the abstract explaining the results of the study &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18702576&quot;&gt;Developmental increase in top-down and bottom-up processing in a phonological task: an effective connectivity, fMRI study.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emphasis mine:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In older children, top-down control process may selectively enhance the sensitivity of the LTC to bottom-up information from the FG. This may be evident especially in situations that require selective enhancement of task-relevant versus task-irrelevant information. Altogether these results provide a direct evidence for a &lt;strong&gt;developmental increase in top-down control processes in language processing&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this the case? Generally speaking children need to develop a greater understanding of the world around them before they can put Top-Down and Bottom-Up processing to good use. Piaget framed this in terms of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html&quot;&gt;Schemas&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piaget's Stages of Development (which are contraversial mind you) suggest strongly that children start &lt;em&gt;almost&lt;/em&gt; at a clean slate and build up schemas as they develop and learn. A younger child simply hasn't had the time to build up schemas for every situation, thus they won't always have a relevant schema to process information in a proper top-down fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that other studies suggest that older children have an advantage in some tasks because they learn when to &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; apply top down processing. Younger children may simply not &quot;know&quot; the relevance of each processing method as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As stated in &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.umass.edu/~psyc241/Department%20research/cognitive/KyleCavechildrensearch.pdf&quot;&gt;Visual search in children and adults: Top-down and bottom-up mechanisms&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The authors argued that with increasing age, children became able to consider multiple dimensions when making relevant comparisons. One interpretation of these data is that the older (but not the younger) children were able to switch off the top-down system to allow salience to emerge via bottom-up processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-01-23T22:57:21.670" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T22:57:21.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="151" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="198" CreationDate="2012-01-23T20:10:19.140" Score="7" ViewCount="670" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am very interested in procrastination, because it is such a clear sign of lack of motivation. I have a hypothesis about why we procrastinate, which I would like to get tested by you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The assumption for this hypothesis is that we are more likely to procrastinate on tasks, which we are not good at, or which does not yield a sufficiently large boost in status.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this assumption is correct, then I believe that a group of people, where all members are able to do all tasks, would become more efficient if those group members who were less efficient at solving a task would procrastinate and never get it done, so it could get solved by someone who is better at it. Similarly, it would be good if the whole group procrastinate on tasks, which do not yield a sufficiently large boost in status, because this way the group can allocate more status to tasks that are more important and this way avoid having the members do tasks, which they just felt like doing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are individuals more likely to procrastinate on tasks that they are not good at?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are individuals more likely to procrastinate on tasks when the rewards in terms of status boost for successfully completing the task are low?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does procrastination serve a functional role in efficiently allocating tasks in groups?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-18T01:05:09.727" LastActivityDate="2013-04-01T01:38:16.187" Title="Is procrastination greater when skill is low and rewards offer low status boost and does this lead to efficient  task allocation in groups?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="152" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="55" CreationDate="2012-01-23T20:41:25.913" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The results are mixed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's well known that in general people will consider themselves above average in most areas, and driving is no exception &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369847804000440&quot;&gt;Do expert drivers have a reduced illusion of superiority?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Expert police drivers rated themselves as superior to equally qualified drivers, to the same degree as novices, Cohen’s d = .03 ns. Despite their extensive additional training and experience, experts still appear to be as susceptible to illusions of superiority as everyone else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02543.x/abstract&quot;&gt;Drivers' Ratings of Different Components of Their Own Driving Skill: A Greater Illusion of Superiority for Skills That Relate to Accident Involvement&lt;/a&gt; also suggests that good appreciation for hazard perception results in higher self-percieved safety even when skill is controlled for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Also, ratings of hazard-perception skill related to self-perceived safety after overall skill was controlled for. We suggest that although drivers appear to appreciate the role of hazard perception in safe driving, any safety benefit to be derived from this appreciation may be undermined by drivers' inflated opinions of their own hazard-perception skill. We also tested the relationship between illusory beliefs about driving skill and risk taking and looked at ways of manipulating drivers' illusory beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0001457586900448&quot;&gt;Age differences in male drivers' perception of accident risk: The role of perceived driving ability&lt;/a&gt; suggests that younger (male) drivers consider themselves equal to older drivers, youunger drivers are involved in more accidents:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although young drivers' estimates of accident involvement in the next year were higher than those of older drivers, young drivers gave lower ratings of accident risk for specific driving situations which demanded fast driving reflexes or substantial vehicle-handling skills. Young drivers rated their own risk of an accident and driving abilities as being the same as for older drivers. However, they saw their peers as being significantly higher at risk and having poorer abilities than themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457597001000&quot;&gt;Confidence in, and self-rating of, driving ability among older drivers&lt;/a&gt; suggests there &lt;strong&gt;is no correlation&lt;/strong&gt; between confidence and driving performance &lt;strong&gt;for older drivers&lt;/strong&gt;. This seems to go against most results but other studies were not focused on older drivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;No relationship was found between confidence and adverse driving events or driving performance. Understanding the relationship of confidence and self-rating of driving ability to driving patterns, adverse events and driving performance may provide additional insights into identifying older drivers at increased risk for problems and formulating intervention strategies to help lower risk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall it appears that &lt;strong&gt;young drivers&lt;/strong&gt; are likely to have excessively high confidence in their own ability. There isn't much evidence to suggest that higher or lower confidence actually correlates with a specific skill level.  Older drivers seem to have better driving skill and less overconfidence, but I have not seen results controlling for age and correlating driving ability with confidence except the study on older drivers which showed &lt;em&gt;no correlation&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-01-23T20:48:50.190" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T20:48:50.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="153" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="145" CreationDate="2012-01-23T22:29:25.227" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;To take your concrete examples, there are several broad distinctions relevant to comparing a task like chess and a task like playing Pac Man.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Cognitive versus psychomotor skill&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Research on learning and task performance is divided into various domains of tasks. Two such domains are cognitive, of which chess would be an example, and psychomotor, of which Pac Man would be an example. Video games vary in the relative importance of cognitive versus psychomotor skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You might want to read the Annual Review of Psychology article by Rosenbaum, and Carlson, and Gilmore, 2001, &lt;a href=&quot;http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/rosenbaum%20(2001)%20acquisition%20of%20intellectual%20and%20perceptual-motor%20skills.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt; &amp;quot;Acquisition of intellectual and perceptual-motor skills&amp;quot;. The article provides an overview of the similarities and differences between cognitive and psychomotor skill acquisition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Traditionally, the word &amp;quot;skill&amp;quot; has had psychomotor connotations. But ultimately the defining feature of a skill is that it is acquired through practice, and this applies well to cognitive as it does to psychomotor tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Learning versus performance&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some research focuses on how learning occurs, whether it be studying the relationship between practice and performance, examining changes in the errors made over time, and so forth (e.g., see this review by Heathcote et al &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03212979.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;, called &amp;quot;The power law repealed: The case for an exponential law of practice&amp;quot; which is on the mathematical functional form of the learning curve).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Other research focuses on performance itself. What are the cognitive processes that underlie performance? In such studies, learning is often a nuisance factor.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thus, in the case of both Chess or Pac Man you could focus on either the process of learning or on performance itself (whether it be of a novice or expert).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Task complexity and time frames of learning&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Research in skill acquisition can broadly be distinguished in terms of the typical time frame it takes to acquire the skill of interest.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Typical skill acquisition research that is done in the lab involves tasks where meaningful learning can be observed in hours or perhaps days.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some other skills can take years to acquire, and this is broadly studied in what is sometimes referred to as the &amp;quot;expertise literature&amp;quot;. There have been many studies of chess within the expertise literature. See for example this paper on &amp;quot;the role of deliberate practice in  chess expertise&amp;quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.utm.toronto.edu/uploads/tx_researcherprofile/TheRoleOfDeliberatePracticeInChessExpertise2005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt; by Charness, Tuffiash, Krampe, Reingold, &amp;amp; Vasyukova, (2005).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;With regards to this distinction, Pac Man presents some difficulty. No doubt one could study meaningful learning in the short term, but also that it might be possible to focus on the learning that might occur for a true Pac Man master who had devoted years to perfecting the art of escaping ghosts and eating little pellets.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="27081" LastEditDate="2020-11-16T18:44:41.857" LastActivityDate="2020-11-16T18:44:41.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="154" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="31" CreationDate="2012-01-23T22:39:38.907" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Blood pressure decreases as one stands up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A model of cerebral blood flow has been created in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www4.ncsu.edu/~msolufse/OlufsenTranOttesen.pdf&quot;&gt;Modeling Cerebral Blood Flow Control During Posture&#xA;Change From Sitting to Standing&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The characteristic features are that after standing up for 60 s, the pressure (both systolic and diastolic values) drops signiﬁcantly from a mean pressure of approximately 95 mmHg to a mean pressure of approximately 58 mmHg. At the same time, the blood ﬂow velocity also decreases followed by an increase. However, it should be noted that while the mean velocity decreases, the decrease is not as big, because of a large widening of the pulse-amplitude (systolic value minus diastolic value).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other studies back this claim up such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC439673/pdf/jcinvest00399-0107.pdf&quot;&gt;Cerebral Circulation In Various Physologic States&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although our studies have not revealed a quantitative relationship between alterations in the arterial pressure and cerebral blood flow in the same&#xA;  person, there was a definite fall in cerebral blood&#xA;  flow with the fall in effective cerebral arterial&#xA;  pressure on standing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specific studies on posture and blood flow have also been performed to learn how to the best way to reduce blood pressure, which is important in head injury patients.&#xA;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://thejns.org/doi/abs/10.3171/jns.1992.76.2.0207?journalCode=jns&quot;&gt;Effect of head elevation on intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure, and cerebral blood flow in head-injured patients&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There was no statistically significant change in CPP, CBF, cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen, arteriovenous difference of lactate, or cerebrovascular resistance associated with the change in head position. The data indicate that head elevation to 30° significantly reduced ICP in the majority of the 22 patients without reducing CPP or CBF.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that Inter-Cranial Pressure (ICP) was significantly reduced in most patients without reducing Cerebral Blood Flow (CBF). This means changes in pressure &lt;em&gt;do not&lt;/em&gt; always equate to changes in blood flow of the same relative magnitude.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading more into those articles will give you more insight into the complexities of how the flow changes in posture, but unless you have a more specific question I believe that covers what you asked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-01-23T22:52:50.727" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T22:52:50.727" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="155" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="96" CreationDate="2012-01-23T23:04:10.563" Score="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes! Recent work using fMRI has shown that subjects can indeed control localized brain regions through practice [1]. Some regions that have been tested include the rostal &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ACC&lt;/a&gt; [2] responsible for pain perception, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parahippocampal_gyrus&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PPA&lt;/a&gt; responsible for representing locations, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusiform_face_area&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FFA&lt;/a&gt; responsible for representing faces. Repeated experiments seem to suggest the phenomenon is robust, and that the technique may not be particular to regulating any specific brain region but could work on many brain regions given the proper experimental design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typically, these experiments work by utilizing real-time fMRI, a technique that allows real-time biofeedback of brain activation to be presented to a subject in an fMRI scanner. In these experiments, a subject may specifically be instructed to &amp;quot;up-regulate&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;down-regulate&amp;quot; activation in a brain region by performing a specific task. For instance, a subject can &amp;quot;up-regulate&amp;quot; activation in the fusiform face area (FFA) by mentally picturing faces. Consequently, feedback is presented to the subject (e.g., as a 'thermometer') indicating level of activation of the FFA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, subjects become better at up-regulating or down-regulating activation in specific brain regions by attending to feedback-- even moreso than subjects who do not receive biofeedback. This is reflected both in the fMRI images and subjective reports from the subjects. This technique has potential implications for rehabilitation, e.g. giving chronic pain patients another tool to cope with their disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The technique has even been used to up-regulate abstract, distributed patterns across the brain. For instance, Stephen LaConte and colleagues have used a machine learning technique called support-vector machines to classify abstract patterns such as 'craving' or 'not craving', represented as a distributed pattern of brain activity. Using real-time fMRI, smokers have been able to learn to control their cravings through instruction and biofeedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe similar findings have been shown using EEG as well, though I am not as familiar with the literature. However, there is evidence that subjects using an EEG brain-computer interface to control an on-screen keyboard become better with practice, which suggests that they are able to manipulate their brain patterns in order to perform the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;de Charms et al. (2004). Learned regulation of spatially localized brain activation using&#xA;real-time fMRI. NeuroImage, 21, 436-443. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.christofflab.ca/pdfs/deCharms_2004_Neuroimage.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.christofflab.ca/pdfs/deCharms_2004_Neuroimage.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;de Charms et al. (2005). Control over brain activation and pain learned&#xA;by using real-time functional MRI. PNAS, 102,&#xA;18626–18631. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stanford.edu/%7Efumiko/publications.files/Hoeft(Maeda)_2005PNASdeCharms.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.stanford.edu/~fumiko/publications.files/Hoeft(Maeda)_2005PNASdeCharms.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-12-19T01:56:52.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="156" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="29" CreationDate="2012-01-23T23:17:38.327" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;A popular lit review [1] discusses some game concepts that have been empirically tested to support the idea of gamification. In some cases, these may be very hard to quantify. For instance, the article cites &lt;em&gt;fantasy&lt;/em&gt; as one gaming characteristic that engages gamers. Other characteristics, such as having &lt;em&gt;clear, well defined rules/goals&lt;/em&gt; seem easier to objectify.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors also cite &lt;em&gt;mystery&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;challenge&lt;/em&gt; (something hard but not too hard, with levels of increasing difficulty), &lt;em&gt;sensory stimuli&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;user control&lt;/em&gt; as important attributes as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Garris et al. (2002). Games, Motivation, and Learning: A Research and Practice Model. Simulation and Gaming, 33, 441-467. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://scottsdale.brainadvantage.com/PDF/Games,%20Motivation,%20and%20Learning.pdf&quot;&gt;http://scottsdale.brainadvantage.com/PDF/Games,%20Motivation,%20and%20Learning.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-01-23T23:17:38.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="157" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="124" CreationDate="2012-01-24T00:31:59.060" Score="8" Body="&lt;h3&gt;States versus traits&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In general, it's important to distinguish between emotional states and emotional traits (i.e., the tendency for a person to experience a given emotion, e.g., see trait positive and negative affect scales). Thus, as a side note, there's a lot of research that looks at emotional traits in areas such as personality trait theory and research on subjective well-being (e.g., this chapter by Lucas and Diener, &lt;a href=&quot;http://commonsenseatheism.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Lucas-Diener-Personality-and-subjective-well-being.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;).&#xA;It sounds like your question is concerned with measuring emotional states.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General measurement strategies&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many options for measuring emotional intensity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;subjective&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;behavioural&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;physiological / neurological&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both subjective and behavioural measures could be obtained by self-report or other-report.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Experience sampling&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;With regards to measuring the intensity of emotional experience, you may want to read up about experience sampling studies (see the review by Schimmack (2003), &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3psyuli/PReprints/JH03AffectESM.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;). Experience sampling studies use a variety of scales; a common one I've seen involves the use of a grid with hedonic tone on the x-axis (negative to positive) and activation on the y-axis (passive to active). The benefit of experience sampling is that the time between event and measurement is short. Thus, issues related to recall are reduced.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Of course, one could challenge such a measure on the basis that it is subjective. However, that is an issue of measurement validity. There are many real challenges, but limitations of measurement are not fatal. Evidence can be collected and arguments can be made to justify validity. And even when there are some issues of measurement, meaningful findings can often still be obtained.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Comparing emotional intensity across individuals&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I agree that there would be issues related to frame of reference effects when it comes to comparing self-reported emotional intensity across individuals. That said I still think that self-report measures would be informative, and that a multifaceted approach combining physiological with other-report and self-report would also be useful.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lucas, R. E. &amp;amp; Diener, E. Personality and subjective well-being. &lt;a href=&quot;http://commonsenseatheism.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Lucas-Diener-Personality-and-subjective-well-being.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schimmack, U. (2003). Affect measurement in experience sampling research. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4, 79-106. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3psyuli/PReprints/JH03AffectESM.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-02T04:59:23.980" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T04:59:23.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="158" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-24T03:02:44.117" Score="7" ViewCount="15531" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my experience the definition of insanity is thus:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Insanity&lt;/strong&gt;: The state of being seriously mentally ill, mad, and/or irrational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a proper scientific definition of this term? While mentally ill is relatively easily to pin down, the others criteria seem subjective. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any test or method that can be used to prove a subject to be either sane or insane? How can any such test give objectively accurate results for this or another similar definition of insanity? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="33" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-01-26T00:33:27.893" LastActivityDate="2018-10-31T20:50:52.467" Title="What is the definition of sanity? How can I prove someone either sane or insane?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="159" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="158" CreationDate="2012-01-24T03:22:37.890" Score="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sanity is an explicit &lt;em&gt;legal&lt;/em&gt; definition. It is generally &lt;strong&gt;not a psychological term&lt;/strong&gt;. This is Wikipedia's definition of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanity#Law&quot;&gt;Sanity&lt;/a&gt; which aligns perfectly to my understanding of abnormal psychology. (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In criminal and mental health law, &lt;strong&gt;sanity is a legal term denoting that an individual is of sound mind and therefore can bear legal responsibility for his or her actions&lt;/strong&gt;. The official legal term is compos mentis. It is generally defined in terms of the absence of insanity (non compos mentis). It is not a medical term, although the opinions of medical experts are often important in making a legal decision as to whether someone is sane or insane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologists are often called in to determine &quot;sanity&quot; but they deduce whether one fits the &lt;em&gt;legal&lt;/em&gt; definition based on any &lt;em&gt;psychological disorders&lt;/em&gt; the individual might have. &quot;Insanity&quot; in this sense could be considered to be one of many psychological disorders that would cause one to be unable to function in a court room and understand their rights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insanity_defense#Temporary_insanity&quot;&gt;&quot;Temporary Insanity&quot;&lt;/a&gt; was a previously common but largely ill regarded legal excuse in the earlier days of psychology. It is not a psychological term nor does it have a psychological definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll note &lt;strong&gt;the DSM does not include diagnostic criteria for sanity.&lt;/strong&gt; It is not a term commonly used in research or psychiatry because as you suggest it is much too broad of a concept. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research on &quot;insane&quot; people is as uselessly broad as it would be on &quot;silly&quot; or &quot;dumb&quot; people. Instead research is conducted on specific conditions or measures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has some information on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanity#Psychiatry_and_psychology&quot;&gt;Sanity in Psychiatry and Psychology&lt;/a&gt; but note these are very outdated ideas and I'm not aware of any current researchers who respect these theories as valid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-01-24T03:22:37.890" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="160" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-24T16:22:34.430" Score="8" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;Folk explanations of human behaviour often refer to &quot;high status&quot; or &quot;low status&quot;, and the phrase sometimes pops up in more formal contexts (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/151/is-procrastination-greater-when-skill-is-low-and-rewards-offer-low-status-boost&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, one of the most cited sources cited as exposition of these concepts is a popular &lt;a href=&quot;http://peopletriggers.wordpress.com/2010/04/22/the-status-transaction/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;book on improvisational theatre&lt;/a&gt; rather than a research publication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What body of research, if any, addresses these concepts more rigorously?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="102" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-09-14T15:27:32.527" Title="What research gives insight into the terms &quot;low status&quot; and &quot;high status&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="161" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="160" CreationDate="2012-01-24T17:48:40.123" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a really broad question - what you seem to be asking is: what research addresses social hierarchies, competition, and neurological/psychological/physiological effects of perception of social status.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's interesting to note that social status signals likely developed before language, as they are a means of non-verbal communication (language is quite new, evolutionarily-speaking).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the most broad sense, the answer to your question is that research on social psychology and social neuroscience, particularly that related to hierarchy, dominance, and perception of social standing, is what you're looking for.  This is the 'body of research'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Past this point, I'm not sure what you're asking...  Are you wondering in what brain structures this type of behavior appears to originate?  Or are you more interested in the cognitive processing going on behind the scenes when people mentally alter their internalized social standing?  Or are you looking for a jumping off point?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are particularly looking for the neural basis of this behavior, check out the links below.  All relate to the neurological basis of social processing in the human brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Original answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm at work so I don't have a lot of time to put together a comprehensive answer, but here are some articles:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1285&amp;amp;context=psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Perigenual anterior cingulate morphology covaries&#xA;with perceived social standing&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2430590/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Know Your Place: Neural Processing of Social Hierarchy in Humans&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jbfreeman.net/pubs/Freeman_PBR.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Cultural Neuroscience of Person Perception&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/2/3/159.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Using neuroimaging techniques to explore the relationship between social status and health&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ccnl.emory.edu/greg/Berns%20Conformity%20final%20printed.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neurobiological Correlates of Social Conformity and&#xA;Independence During Mental Rotation&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/content/72/5/450.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neurobiological Pathways Linking Socioeconomic Position and Health&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the record, the Google search used to find these was &lt;code&gt;neural correlates of perceived social +status&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="46" LastEditDate="2012-09-14T15:27:32.527" LastActivityDate="2012-09-14T15:27:32.527" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="162" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="163" CreationDate="2012-01-24T19:44:00.300" Score="10" ViewCount="2722" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember a case study about a girl who could not feel pain due to lacking certain somatosensory receptors; she went on to burn herself on a radiator because she could not feel her flesh burning and suffered many other injuries due to the loss of the sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What term describes this deficit? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-01-25T00:09:12.403" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T03:32:25.743" Title="What term describes people that cannot feel pain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="163" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="162" CreationDate="2012-01-24T22:53:25.237" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Analgesia&lt;/strong&gt; is the term used for inability to feel pain.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Hypoalgesia&lt;/strong&gt; is the term for low sensitivity to pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hereditary sensory neuropathy&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;Congenital insensitivity to pain&lt;/strong&gt; are two known syndromes that contain these deficits as their symptoms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2012-01-24T22:53:25.237" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="164" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="162" CreationDate="2012-01-24T22:54:27.777" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you may be referring to &lt;strong&gt;congenital analgesia&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital_insensitivity_to_pain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia defines this as&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP), also known as congenital analgesia, is one or more rare conditions where a person cannot feel (and has never felt) physical pain. The conditions described here are separate from the HSAN group of disorders, which have more specific signs and etiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The girl you reference &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=Z5s9_g42e1gC&amp;amp;pg=PA50&amp;amp;lpg=PA50&amp;amp;dq=congenital+analgesia+radiator&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=bOY7_8R1nK&amp;amp;sig=WcomEQtoU4rOo48HAknrifBuBfk&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=7TYfT9jyHtPatweTr5U9&amp;amp;ved=0CDwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=congenital%20analgesia%20radiator&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;is mentioned in &lt;em&gt;Pain: the science of suffering&lt;/em&gt; By Patrick David Wall&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One such case was studied over a period of twenty years up to the time she was a student at McGill University in Montreal. A strong pinch to the foot failed to produce a withdrawal or to provoke pain. When pinched and asked what she felt, she replied in a calm way that &quot;it feels like a very strong pressure, and I know that if you pinch much harder you will injure my foot&quot;&#xA;  All her other body sensations-touch, pressure, warm, cold, and movement-appeared completely normal.&#xA;  [...]&#xA;  Unusual accidents do occur in such people in novel situations.&#xA;  For example, as a child in the deep Canadian winter, she climbed up to look out of the window and knelt on a hot radiator, one could still see line scars on her knees as an adult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/pain4.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a very interesting article from HowStuffWorks&lt;/a&gt; which refers to this same girl:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Congenital analgesia is a rare genetic disorder where the individual is unable to feel pain. You might think this sounds like a good thing, but it's actually a life-threatening condition. Pain serves as a warning against injury, so people who don't feel it can be severly injured or hurt by things that most of us would react quickly to. &lt;strong&gt;For example, Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall describe a girl who got third-degree burns on her knees by climbing on a hot radiator.&lt;/strong&gt; There was no signal for her to stop. Researchers are trying to reproduce this condition by genetically altering mice so that they can study the genetic contributions to pain perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="142" LastEditDate="2012-01-26T05:28:08.890" LastActivityDate="2012-01-26T05:28:08.890" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="165" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-25T06:36:39.243" Score="8" ViewCount="373" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the works/papers/results/theories any expert in cognitive science should know, even if they're outside his/her specific field of expertise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One paper/theory per answer please, and state why do you find this work important to know (and ideally, not just because it has lots of citations, or because everyone teach it at Cognitive Science 101)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-09T23:20:17.677" LastActivityDate="2012-02-09T23:20:17.677" Title="What are the &quot;Must Know&quot; papers of Cognitive Science?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="14" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2012-01-25T13:44:32.227" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="168" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-25T14:20:14.633" Score="10" ViewCount="225" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering to what extent &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_proof&quot;&gt;Social Proof&lt;/a&gt; helps the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_rate&quot;&gt;Conversion Rate&lt;/a&gt; of websites and marketing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically I'm wondering what effect Social Proof would have on Conversion Rate for a sample task in an online context. Lots of marketing material espouses it's effectiveness but I would like &lt;em&gt;academic research&lt;/em&gt; on the matter. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's some basic research I've found that shows yes, people do things their friends do (such as some of the studies referenced in the Wikipedia article) but this is not specific to new methods of Social PRoof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What quantitative research has been done in regards to &lt;strong&gt;social proof effects website conversion&lt;/strong&gt; with modern Social Proof techniques like Facebook likes and Amazon customer reviews?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-14T17:39:01.160" LastActivityDate="2013-09-27T14:08:45.003" Title="What is the effect of Social Proof on Conversion Rate?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="169" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="181" CreationDate="2012-01-25T16:25:07.447" Score="56" ViewCount="28767" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs&lt;/a&gt; (shown below) is a popular concept and is often taught in basic psychology courses, and often less objectively taught in Business and Marketing courses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common problem with Maslow's Hierarchy is the difficulty of testing the theory and the ordering and definition of needs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia article and most general sources about the topic do not discuss experimental tests regarding the Hierarchy nor am I familiar with any despite the theory's popularity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What research exists that investigates Maslow's Hierarchy directly?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3XtRv.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;maslow&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="20" LastEditDate="2012-01-25T20:45:07.537" LastActivityDate="2019-08-11T12:59:12.857" Title="Does evidence support Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="20" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="172" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="968" CreationDate="2012-01-25T22:43:06.400" Score="12" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is considerable research reporting activity of unit recordings from grid cells in the Entorhinal cortex (e.g. [1]) - typically of rats running around in enclosed spaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any information on the upper-limits of the physical distance represented by the spacing between grid cells (and hence presumably an upper-limit of the distance between place cells) in a single 'space', in any species?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Sargolini F et.al. &lt;em&gt;Conjunctive representation of position, direction and velocity in entorhinal cortex&lt;/em&gt; (2006).  Science 312: 758-762.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="132" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-08-08T20:42:02.447" LastActivityDate="2012-08-08T20:42:02.447" Title="Has an upper-limit on the physical spacing represented by grid cells in Entorhinal cortex been probed?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="173" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17" CreationDate="2012-01-26T03:33:23.840" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure I fully understand your design; perhaps you can clarify what you want your network to learn, why TD-learning &quot;isn't cutting it&quot;, and what you mean by 'reinforcement' and  'prediction' learning. In particular, TD-learning &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; a reinforcement learning model, and it &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; reward based on predicted (and not just observed) outcomes. However, you seem to be describing reinforcement and prediction learning as orthogonal models, so again, I'm not sure I understand correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a general suggestion, you might consider using an Elman/Jordan network (e.g. recurrent neural network/RNN). Rather than relying on knowledge of only the current state to make a prediction about the next state, RNN can learn to recognize sequences of events. This is especially useful for predicting future states in a task that unfolds over time (e.g. [1]). I suggest this mostly because you say your task is a 'real-time control' task, but without more knowledge of your task I don't really know if this is appropriate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your suggestion of using two different learning mechanisms to modify a single set of weights-- I don't have the answer, but it seems counterintuitive to me. You're using two different optimization techniques on a single set of data. If the techniques disagree, your network will probably never learn its connection weights. If they agree (i.e., converge on the same answer) then I'm not certain you're adding any value by having two learning mechanisms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Elman (1990). Finding structure in time. Cognitive Science, 14, 179-211. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://synapse.cs.byu.edu/~dan/678/papers/Recurrent/Elman.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://synapse.cs.byu.edu/~dan/678/papers/Recurrent/Elman.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-01-26T03:33:23.840" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="174" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="28" CreationDate="2012-01-26T05:30:38.717" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some side notes to your question: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The amount of self-other-agreement depends on the acquaintance of the perceiver with the target (the more acquaintance, the more agreement) and on the &quot;visibility&quot; of the trait (extraversion can be relatively accurately judged by strangers; Neuroticism can only be judged by well-known others; Vazire, 2010)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Using the Social Relations Model (SRM; Kenny, 1994) more detailed informations about the processes in self- and other ratings can be revealed. For example, one can meaure the amount of assumed similarity (i.e., how much do perceivers generally think that the others are alike to oneself), or the consensus of multiple other-ratings.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beyond the pure self-other-correlation it might be interesting to see which rating is more valid in terms of predicting external criteria.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kenny, D. A. (1994). Interpersonal perceptions: A social relations analysis. New York: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vazire, S. (2010). Who knows what about a person? The self–other knowledge asymmetry (SOKA) model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 281–300. doi:10.1037/a0017908&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="80" LastActivityDate="2012-01-26T05:30:38.717" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="175" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="144" CreationDate="2012-01-26T05:40:18.827" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Major theories of motivation distinguish between implicit and explicit motives - the first refering to (relatively) unconscious, automatically operating motives, the second refering to motives and goals which are accessible for self-reports (McClelland, Koestner, &amp;amp; Weinberger, 1989). Explicit motives are translated into conscious goals, whereas implicit motives influence spontaneous, uncontrolled, and long-term behavior (without goal-planning behavior).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, 'Motivation' referes to a larger process (e.g., selective attention, comparison of set points with actual situations, the processing of situational incentives), where the translation into goals and actions only is the last part of a sequence of processing steps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concerning your question, I would say that 'goal oriented behavior' indeed is a subset of motivation, namely explicit motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., &amp;amp; Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96, 690-702.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schultheiss, O. C. (2008). Implicit motives. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, &amp;amp; L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology: Theory and research (3rd ed.). (pp. 603-633). New York, NY US: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="80" LastActivityDate="2012-01-26T05:40:18.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="176" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="169" CreationDate="2012-01-26T06:12:30.710" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The hierarchy of needs is an observation made by Maslow. It's generally assumed as the model to go by because most people can agree with the list and its order. Therefor it's no longer just a hypothesis, it's a theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quick Google search brings me to this online book: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scribd.com/doc/8703989/Maslows-Hierarchy-of-Needs-A-Critical-Analysis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.scribd.com/doc/8703989/Maslows-Hierarchy-of-Needs-A-Critical-Analysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That you can read for free. I glanced several pages of it and it's basically a critical look at the model, Maslow's life and the implications of the model on the individual and society as a whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On page 79, an update to the model is proposed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/73o1E.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="146" LastEditorUserId="20" LastEditDate="2012-01-26T14:13:34.553" LastActivityDate="2012-01-26T14:13:34.553" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="178" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-26T10:14:50.160" Score="9" ViewCount="2281" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the current suggested normative, mechanistic or phenomenological models for explaining &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_position_effect#Primacy_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;primacy effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; as was observed by Solomon Asch (1946) on personality impression,  list-of-words memory recall and other forms as was reviewed extensively in one example of primacy in wine tasting by Mantonakis et al. (2009)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Mantonakis, A., Pauline Rodero, Isabelle Lesschaeve, and Reid Hastie (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/20/11/1309.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Order in Choice: Effects of Serial Position on Preferences&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;Psychological Science November 2009 20: 1309-1312, doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02453.x&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Asch, S.E. (1946). Forming impressions of psychology. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41, 258. &lt;a href=&quot;http://homepages.vub.ac.be/~ptheuns/SOC203syllabus_files/Asch%20OriginalArticleForming%20Impressions%20Of%20Personality%201946.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="155" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2013-04-03T00:31:20.363" LastActivityDate="2013-04-03T00:31:20.363" Title="What are the current suggested models for Primacy Effect in memory recall or personality impression?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="179" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="151" CreationDate="2012-01-26T10:26:30.233" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe that Dan Ariely's experiment contradicts your assumption, since he shows that avoiding procrastination makes you better in the task. Thus, the correlation between performance and procrastination is in the opposite causality from what you propose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://bookoutlines.pbworks.com/w/page/14422685/Predictably%20Irrational&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://bookoutlines.pbworks.com/w/page/14422685/Predictably%20Irrational&lt;/a&gt; for details.&#xA;copy pasted from there:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The Experiment&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ariely conducted an experiment on his class.  Students were required&#xA;to write three papers. Ariely asked the first group to commit to&#xA;dates by which they would turn in each paper.  Late papers would be&#xA;penalized 1% per day.  There was no penalty for turning papers in&#xA;early.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The prudent response is to commit to turning all three papers&#xA;in on the last day of class. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The second group was given no deadlines;   all three papers were due in the last day of class. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The third group was directed to turn their papers in on the 4th, 8th, and 12th weeks.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;   The Results?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Group 3 (imposed deadlines) got the best grades. &#xA;Group 2 (no deadlines) got the worst grades, and Group 1 (self-selected&#xA;   deadlines) finished in the middle. Allowing students to pre-commit to&#xA;   deadlines improved performance Students who spaced out their&#xA;   commitments did well; students who did the logical thing and gave no&#xA;   commitments did badly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These results suggest that although almost&#xA;   everyone has problems with procrastination, those who recognize and&#xA;   admit their weakness are in a better position to utilize available&#xA;   tools for precommitment and by doing so, help themselves overcome it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="155" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2013-04-01T01:38:16.187" LastActivityDate="2013-04-01T01:38:16.187" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="180" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="197" CreationDate="2012-01-26T11:28:19.923" Score="6" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Background&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lee and Anderson (2001) published an article in which they argued  that learning a complex skill can be understood in terms of learning various component skills. They did this by performing a hierarchical task analysis on the Kanfer-Ackerman Air Traffic Control Task.&#xA;They then re-analysed a dataset where participants performed the task over repeated trials. By examining key logs, they were able to extract out the speed with which overall goals were achieved (e.g., landing planes) as well as subtasks (e.g., moving planes through the hold patterns, etc.). They then analysed the relationship between practice and performance (i.e., the learning curve) for both the overall task and the subtasks. Specifically, they fit three parameter power functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm currently doing some research exploring similarities and differences between overall and subtask learning curves, and I'm keen to identify other papers that have modelled subtask and overall task performance. However, the learning and performance literature is pretty broad and crosses multiple disciplines, and thus, somewhat challenging to search. I've also tried the &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?cites=11799180207397881632&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cited by link for the article on Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What, if any, other studies have been published that have modelled the relationship between both practice and subtask performance, and practice and overall task performance?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My preference is for studies where the dependent variable is task/subtask completion time, but any dependent variable representing performance would be interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lee, F. J. and Anderson, J. R. (2001). Does learning a complex task have&#xA;to be complex?: A study in learning decomposition. Cognitive Psychology,&#xA;42(3):267-316. &lt;a href=&quot;http://actr.psy.cmu.edu/papers/245/fjl_jra_2001_a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-28T08:38:40.113" LastActivityDate="2012-01-31T23:57:24.860" Title="Studies modelling learning curves of an overall task and subtasks" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="181" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="169" CreationDate="2012-01-26T12:11:21.910" Score="38" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mahmoud A. Wahba, Lawrence G. Bridwell, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073%2876%2990038-6&quot;&gt;Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory&lt;/a&gt; (1976), &lt;a href=&quot;http://larrybridwell.com/Maslo.pdf&quot;&gt;or a free pdf scan here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Its abstract says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The uncritical acceptance of Maslow's need hierarchy theory despite the lack of empirical evidence is discussed and the need for a review of recent empirical evidence is emphasized. A review of ten factor-analytic and three ranking studies testing Maslow's theory showed only partial support for the concept of need hierarchy. A large number of cross-sectional studies showed no clear evidence for Maslow's deprivation/domination proposition except with regard to self-actualization. Longitudinal studies testing Maslow's gratification/activation proposition showed no support, and the limited support received from cross-sectional studies is questionable due to numerous measurement problems. The difficulties with testing the theory are discussed and the conceptual, methodological, and measurement problems of the studies reviewed are detailed. The implications of the findings and future directions for research are outlined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="159" LastEditorUserId="28" LastEditDate="2012-01-26T23:42:14.813" LastActivityDate="2012-01-26T23:42:14.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="182" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="99" CreationDate="2012-01-26T12:51:38.280" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of evidence that our brains work most fundamentally as pattern-matching engines ( simplistic, but sufficient for the purpose ). Which would definately favour recognition, because this involves matching a newly perceived pattern with an already stored one, something that we do well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recall, OTOH, involves keyed data access - that is, identifying the links via another piece of information - when you saw something, or a tray that used to have objects on. The cognitive processes are not as good at this because the way the information is retrieved is not based on time or place, which are abstract entities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So &quot;did the face look like this one&quot; will produce quicker responses than &quot;how big was his nose&quot;. This is why photofit and sketches are so important - they trigger recognition. Of course, this form of recognition - of faces - is so strongly wired that it can produce a lot of false positives. But that is identification accuracy, rather than recognition accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastActivityDate="2012-01-26T12:51:38.280" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="183" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-26T13:43:54.593" Score="10" ViewCount="515" Body="&lt;p&gt;Beta blockers essentially reduce physical effects of anxiety and panic disorder, but there is no proof that there is a direct effect on anxiety. Some scientists believe there is an indirect effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the cognitive explanation of the fact that a reduction in symptoms causes a reduction in anxiety?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user26" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-09T08:05:14.863" LastActivityDate="2012-05-09T08:05:14.863" Title="Cognitive explanation of why beta blockers are effective for anxiety" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="184" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="127" CreationDate="2012-01-26T16:03:45.060" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_error&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;speech error taxonomy on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; that &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/140/13&quot;&gt;Jeromy Anglim links to in his answer&lt;/a&gt; is pretty comprehensive. If you're interested in learning more, I would suggest reading some articles by Gary Dell (e.g., Dell, 1986). He is, in my opinion, &lt;em&gt;the&lt;/em&gt; expert in this domain. He has used neural networks to explain speech errors of different types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When mentally planning the next word in a sentence, we must choose the appropriate &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemma_%28psycholinguistics%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lemma&lt;/a&gt;. By selecting the units in a neural network that correspond to a certain lemma, it spreads activation to the corresponding morphemes, which in turn spreads activation to its corresponding phonemes. When the activation of a phoneme unit exceeds a certain threshold, it is selected for utterance (e.g., spreads activation to the motor units that allow us to speak).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this model is susceptible to retroactive and proactive interference: if we have just spoken another word that requires a different morpheme, its activation may exceed that of the target morpheme because of (for instance) undue attention or neural noise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same model can predict typographic errors as well: phonemes spread activation to orthographic units, which spread activation to the proper motor units which control our fingers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, speech errors rarely violate the rules of syntax, morphology, or phonology (even though they may make little sense semantically). Psycholinguists can use this fact in order to infer the structure of linguistic rules without having direct, conscious access to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Dell (1986). A Spreading-Activation Theory of Retrieval in Sentence Production. Psych Review, 93, 283-321. Retrieved from&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://tinyurl.com/nunr8ho&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://129.237.66.221/P800/dell1986.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-09-12T21:59:35.423" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="185" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="158" CreationDate="2012-01-26T16:26:54.510" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ben Brocka&lt;/strong&gt; makes many fine points. Insanity is a &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;legal&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; definition and what constitutes insanity will vary state to state, even jurisdiction to jurisdiction. What makes sanity so hard to quantify is the fact that so often, in a forensic setting, it comes down to the discretion of a jury of one's peers or the Court to accept or deny insanity as an explanation for a specific instance of behaviors. Laypeople (persons who are not mental health professionals) bring their &lt;em&gt;personal&lt;/em&gt; understanding and definition of insanity to the determination process, at least minimally on an unconscious level, and these are strong biases on which to predicate an untarnished, comprehensive determination of sanity, or lack thereof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Almost always, the establishment of sanity focuses on this general question: Did the individual understand &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;at the time he/she was committing a crime&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; that what he/she was doing was wrong under the law? This may seem basic and obvious, but it's not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You wanted to know which specific tests or evaluation criteria might be used in determining sanity. I can speak only from a forensic point-of-view, based on my experiences in my state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The determination of sanity will almost always start with a comprehensive psychological or psychiatric assessment. It is at this level that the presence of underlying &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_i#Multi-axial_system&quot;&gt;Axis I&lt;/a&gt; criteria -- mental illness, substance use disorders, learning disorders -- and Axis II -- typically personality and intellectual/learning symptoms (and note that learning disorders and intellectual dysfunctions are not the same thing) -- disorders are determined. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During this process, a person's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Assessment_of_Functioning&quot;&gt;General Assessment of Functioning&lt;/a&gt;, or GAF, score is determined. This score is used as a general indicator of a person's ability to function in society and maintain self-efficacy. The lower the score, the lower a person's abilities are seen; however, note that this is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; an intelligence assessment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence testing may be part of the process of determining sanity. Tests frequently used are the Woodcock-Johnson, the Weschler (adult and child versions), and the Stanford-Binet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A substance abuse evaluation often occurs at this point; there are tons of testing instruments for substance abuse assessment, and the criteria examined from a forensic point-of-view is less focused on the individual than on community safety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychological assessment is similar to psychological testing but usually involves a more comprehensive assessment of the individual. Psychological assessment is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;a process&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; that involves &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;the integration of information from multiple sources&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, such as tests of normal and abnormal personality, tests of ability or intelligence, tests of interests or attitudes, as well as information from personal interviews. Collateral information is also collected about personal, occupational, or medical history, such as from records or from interviews with parents, spouses, teachers, or previous therapists or physicians. A psychological test is one of the sources of data used within the process of assessment; usually more than one test is used.* (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_test&quot;&gt;CITATION&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Before diagnosing a psychological disorder, Clinicians must study the themes, also known as abnormalities, within psychological disorders. The most prominent themes consist of: deviance, distress, dysfunction and danger. These themes are known as the 4 D's, which define abnormality. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathology&quot;&gt;CITATION&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other specific tests used might include the MMPI or the MMPI-II, the PCL-R (Hare). How can psychology be measured objectively? First, I think it's important to understand that a thorough psych assessment is like a snapshot of the big picture. You cannot measure the properties of a person as you might a rock, but the testing instruments are highly &lt;em&gt;highly&lt;/em&gt; specialized, and should take into account an individual's willingness to report their symptoms and history accurately and honestly (which is different than being &lt;em&gt;unable&lt;/em&gt; to self-report due to mental illness or another factor). In other words, psychological and forensic tests have 'lie scales,' which gives the assessor a comparison point -- how open is the subject being in relation to the overall picture put together from not only test scores and information, but also collateral information? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is &lt;em&gt;extraordinarily&lt;/em&gt; difficult to successfully malinger to the trained eye. For example, I had an individual under my supervision who had successfully avoided offender accountability for years because he maintained he was illiterate. He made the mistake of emptying his pockets on my desk; there was a Lotto card among his items -- it was a crossword puzzle Lotto card, where a person had to write the words in (as opposed to scratching the letters out from a pre-printed card). A person who is not genuinely mentally ill, learning disabled, or intellectually challenged cannot continuously keep up the ruse, because they &lt;em&gt;don't know what it really feels like&lt;/em&gt; to have any of those conditions, and eventually they make a mistake. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="165" LastEditorUserId="165" LastEditDate="2012-01-26T19:35:30.153" LastActivityDate="2012-01-26T19:35:30.153" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="186" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="187" CreationDate="2012-01-26T20:34:06.890" Score="26" ViewCount="4917" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently saw &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504803_162-57359443-10391709/jake-hanging-out-with-a-teenage-einstein/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;an episode of 60 Minutes about Jacob Barnett&lt;/a&gt;, a 13 year old boy who is currently attending advanced physics classes at a local university and was portrayed by the show as being a child prodigy/genius. In the interview, he demonstrates how he's able to perform mathematical transformations in his head by visualizing the numbers as colored shapes. As he explains in the linked clip:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is &lt;code&gt;2 * 27&lt;/code&gt;:&#xA;  &lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ylIEy.png&quot; alt=&quot;This is 2x27&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He visualizes multiplying 2 by 27 as a series of colored triangles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a known phenomenon, and if so, does it have a name? Do other individuals visualize mathematics like this? Or is this just a 12-year old kid... embellishing (to be polite) his thought process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T09:45:36.080" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T09:45:36.080" Title="Is there a term for individuals who can &quot;visualize&quot; numbers and advanced mathematics?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="187" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="186" CreationDate="2012-01-26T21:27:21.233" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sounds like a form of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia&quot;&gt;Synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;, in particular it sounds like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_form&quot;&gt;Number Form Synesthesia&lt;/a&gt; mixed with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme%E2%80%93color_synesthesia&quot;&gt;Grapheme-color Synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A number form is a mental map of numbers, which automatically and involuntarily appears whenever someone who experiences number-forms thinks of numbers. Number forms were first documented and named by Francis Galton in &quot;The Visions of Sane Persons&quot;. Later research has identified them as a type of synesthesia. In particular, it has been suggested that number-forms are a result of &quot;cross-activation&quot; between regions of the parietal lobe that are involved in numerical cognition and spatial cognition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It doesn't seem exactly like what he does but it could be a form of it. It's hard to imagine just how it would be to perceive the world as a synesthesic person does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It sounds like he's learned to apply his visual-spatial skills to &quot;arrange&quot; the number forms to aid his calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Synesthesia is covered in detail in the book &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=fl6wX4xzb_kC&amp;amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;Synesthesia: a union of the senses&lt;/a&gt;, though I'm not aware of any specific case studies on individuals with this exact set of skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A term to describe people with Synestesia is &lt;strong&gt;Synesthesic&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-02-03T20:30:06.963" LastActivityDate="2012-02-03T20:30:06.963" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="188" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="186" CreationDate="2012-01-27T00:09:35.290" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have number Synesthesia, actually, and numbers do indeed appear as a specific pattern inside my head -- I have never &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; seen numbers this way, and have even drawn my number map for my own edification and to show people what I'm talking about when I try and explain my synaesthesia to them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Numbers are not individual digits to me; they are one huge entity. I am the opposite of this young man though -- I couldn't calculate myself out of an open door! In fact, I have significant deficiencies when it comes to numbers, math, and equations. It may as well be a foreign language, seriously. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, I am in the gifted range of intelligence (not being pompous; just putting my Synesthesia in context) and have an almost freakish ability to remember details, names, faces, and facts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also have some characteristics of perfect pitch and recall music in the correct key. Music and numbers are related, and perfect pitch is within the scope of Synesthesia (some argue it &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; a form of Synesthesia; others believe it's not). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, yes, the term is Synesthesia, and there are, I believe, five basic kinds.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="165" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-01-27T15:37:34.923" LastActivityDate="2012-01-27T15:37:34.923" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="189" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="169" CreationDate="2012-01-27T00:33:56.517" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neher (1991,  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uk.sagepub.com/fineman/Reading%20On/Chapter%2004c%20-%20Neher.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;) summarises and critically evaluates the theory. From the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This critique of Maslow's theory of motivation examines all of its&#xA;major components. The theory is summarized and its basic propositions&#xA;are analyzed in the light of internal logic, other relevant theories,&#xA;and related research. This examination points up many deficiencies in&#xA;Maslow's theory, which enjoys wide acceptance, especially among&#xA;humanistic psychologists. Suggestions are made regarding modifications&#xA;to the theory that would remedy many of its more serious problems but&#xA;at the same time preserve its perceptive insights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neher, A. (1991). Maslow's theory of motivation: A critique. Journal of Humanistic Psycholgoy, 31, 3. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uk.sagepub.com/fineman/Reading%20On/Chapter%2004c%20-%20Neher.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-01-27T00:33:56.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="192" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="249" CreationDate="2012-01-27T20:43:46.100" Score="13" ViewCount="829" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyslexia&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia article on Dyslexia&lt;/a&gt;, it sounds very negative. The article defines Dyslexia as a learning disability, which I understand it is classified as. However, knowing individuals with dyslexia, they do not consider themselves to have a disability, they say that &lt;em&gt;their brains process information differently&lt;/em&gt;. Not &lt;em&gt;worse&lt;/em&gt;, just &lt;em&gt;differently&lt;/em&gt;. And I can attest to the fact that some of the people I know who are Dyslexic far exceed my abilities in certain areas, namely music, picture / visual / spacial skills, memory, timing, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia article mentions no &lt;em&gt;benefits&lt;/em&gt; to dyslexia. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have any studies been done on benefits of dyslexia? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, what were the findings ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-28T04:17:52.933" LastActivityDate="2013-10-28T16:53:37.707" Title="What are the benefits of dyslexia?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="193" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-01-27T21:31:23.027" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A branch of psychology which seeks to classify and characterize mental disorders.  Aberrant or socially maladaptive thought patterns are the earmarks of many of these disorders, but the extent to which they are socially abnormal is evaluated subjectively based on customs and social practices. For questions related to treatment consider the tag &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/psychiatry&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'psychiatry'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;psychiatry&lt;/a&gt; and for somatogenic disorders --- &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neurology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'neurology'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neurology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/142921631X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1111343659&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; for possible texts (others can be found on Amazon).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-17T20:27:08.530" LastActivityDate="2012-06-17T20:27:08.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="194" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-01-27T21:31:23.027" Score="0" Body="For questions about this branch of psychology which seeks to classify and characterize mental disorders.  Aberrant or socially maladaptive thought patterns are the earmarks of many of these disorders, but the extent to which they are socially abnormal is evaluated subjectively based on customs and social practices. For questions related to treatment consider the tag psychiatry and for somatogenic disorders --- neurology." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-13T12:09:56.447" LastActivityDate="2012-10-13T12:09:56.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="195" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-01-27T22:04:40.607" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2012-01-27T22:04:40.607" LastActivityDate="2012-01-27T22:04:40.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="196" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-01-27T22:04:40.607" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2012-01-27T22:04:40.607" LastActivityDate="2012-01-27T22:04:40.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="197" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="180" CreationDate="2012-01-28T06:14:20.097" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been interested in this issue from another direction, namely, in how to model the acquisition of hierarchically decomposeable behaviors of the type you describe; and how these behaviors, once acquired, can be used as 'high order primitives' to bootstrap other learning.  This is an important issue for artificial intelligence and machine learning, in particular, as a way to address the combinatorial explosion involved with learning complex tasks in realistic domains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fias.uni-frankfurt.de/~triesch/courses/reinforcement/papers/BartoEtAl-NIPS2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Barto et al. (2004)&lt;/a&gt; provide a nice overview that amends the standard reinforcement learning paradigm to take these hierarchical ideas into account, and includes an algorithmic implementation for a simple but non-trivial domain.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/5473/1/ims.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Oudeyer et al. (2007)&lt;/a&gt; expand on how hierarchicality can make behavior acquisition more efficient, and implement their algorithm in a robot in a developmental setting.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027708002059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Botvinick et al. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; provide a more recent review of the state of this work, as well as an overview of possible neural correlates of some of the processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taken together, these references may possibly be useful to you as dispatches from domains other than the one you're exactly interested in.  I've found such disparate formulations to be fertile sources of inspiration and synthesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="98" LastActivityDate="2012-01-28T06:14:20.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="198" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="151" CreationDate="2012-01-28T08:22:07.467" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a starting point, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://my.ilstu.edu/~dfgrayb/Personal/Procrastination.pdf&quot;&gt;Steel (2007) meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt; in the highly regarded &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; is  an excellent starting place for learning about the theoretical and empirical literature on procrastination. However, a lot of the literature seems to be focused on procrastination as trait, rather than treating procrastination as a task specific, temporally varying phenomena (which I think is what is more relevant to your question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Defining procrastination&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before we can talk about the causes and consequences, we should define &lt;em&gt;procrastination&lt;/em&gt;.&#xA;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procrastination&quot;&gt;wikipedia article on procrastination&lt;/a&gt; cites Steel (2007) who defined procrastination as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;to voluntarily delay an intended course of action despite expecting&#xA;  to be worse off for the delay.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, we should be clear that procrastination is not intentional stalling with the aim of getting out of a task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Skill, difficulty, and procrastination&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Steel (2007) suggests that procrastination may be greater when:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;people have low self-efficacy, fear of failure, and perfectionism&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-efficacy may be due to an actual lack of skill or may be a bias in thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a utility perspective, for a constant level of reward, having lower levels of skill on a task or doing a task that is more difficult, increases the cost of obtaining the reward.&#xA;I can also see a specialisation argument, whereby people seek out domains that they are good at because the link between effort and reward is shorter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary, I think there is reasonable theoretical support for the idea that being bad at a task whether through lack of skill or inherent task difficulty may increase procrastination (or even task avoidance).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Rewards and procrastination&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd be more comfortable defining your question in terms of rewards rather than specifically focussing on social status. Social status is one, albeit very important, type of reward. However, I think as a starting point, it would be easier to think about the rewards provided by the task. Also, it is probably also worth thinking about the flipside, the punishment (or loss of rewards) that flow from not doing a task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In reviewing the literature, Steel (2007) suggests that procrastination may be greater when:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the task is aversive in itself&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;rewards are more distal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also implied by the concept of procrastination that the person does want to do the task in the longer term, whether this be out of obligation or for another more material reward.&#xA;That said, greater reward and less distal rewards should reduce procrastination. Also, increasing the punishment and temporal proximity of not completing the task should reduce procrastination (as perhaps many all-nighter before an assignment is due can attest).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More broadly, there is a school of thought typified by &lt;a href=&quot;http://lemire.me/blog/archives/2009/11/11/procrastination-can-be-your-friend/&quot;&gt;this blog post by Daniel Lemire&lt;/a&gt; that sees procrastination as sometimes representing an adaptive indicator that one should focus on different tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, in a broad sense, reduced rewards for task completion should both increase procrastination and task avoidance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Functional role of procrastination&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, in broad terms there is a theoretical argument suggesting that reward structures and the distribution of skill should lead to specialisation whereby people generally will tend towards doing tasks to which the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_cost&quot;&gt;opportunity cost&lt;/a&gt; is less than that for others. That said, there is a difference between procrastination and task avoidance in that task avoidance implies someone does not want to do the task at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, while the above analysis touches on the empirical literature, it is largely driven by a theoretical analysis grounded in concepts of rationality and utility maximisation. I'd be interested to read about what specific empirical studies have been conducted to test some of these ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin 133 (1): 65–94. &lt;a href=&quot;http://my.ilstu.edu/~dfgrayb/Personal/Procrastination.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-01-28T08:22:07.467" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="199" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-28T13:32:53.710" Score="23" ViewCount="8078" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a general intelligence test which meets the following requirements:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;available online for free  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;there is a table which translates &quot;points&quot; to IQ (I don't want a hidden online evaluation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it should be a reliable test (I am not looking for any sample tests like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mensa.org/workout&quot;&gt;Mensa Workout&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps I should add, that I don't want to use the test to measure intelligence. I am a mathematics teacher and just want to have a complete IQ test to develop some problems for my classroom about probability and statistics based on an authentic IQ test-design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="187" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-10-08T08:43:58.293" LastActivityDate="2021-03-19T05:11:24.123" Title="Free online intelligence test with norm table, high reliability, and must be printable?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="200" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="199" CreationDate="2012-01-28T16:40:12.803" Score="12" Body="&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Online Test&lt;/strong&gt;: Try &lt;a href=&quot;http://iqtest.dk/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;iqtest.dk&lt;/a&gt;. It is basically a copy of Raven's Progressive Matrices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This test is developed with the aim of measuring your Intelligence Quotient (IQ). The test is Culture Fair, i.e. it minimises the effect of cultural variables, such as language, mathematics, etc. The test is based on logic, but is furthermore designed to test learning capability, memory, innovative thinking and the ability to simultaneously address several problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The test measures the general intelligence - g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The calculation of IQ is based on answers from more than 250,000 people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="189" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2021-03-19T05:11:24.123" LastActivityDate="2021-03-19T05:11:24.123" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="201" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="202" CreationDate="2012-01-29T16:08:09.553" Score="12" ViewCount="850" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading an older article on bilingualism (Kim, Relkin, Lee, &amp;amp; Hirsch, 1997) for a seminar. They were interested in the spatial separation of two languages in early and late bilinguals.  They determined activated regions and their overlap in two conditions and across two groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To determine these areas, they first excluded all voxels where BOLD response difference to baseline was not above their empirically derived false positive rate (p&amp;lt;0.0005) and then used all these voxels as if they had the same activation to determine the &quot;centre-of-mass&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They then calculated the distance between the centroids in the two conditions to measure spatial separation and counted the overlapping voxels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have some issues with this method:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it seems as if they're throwing away a lot of information by discarding all voxels where activity was not above chance level and maybe more importantly by treating all significantly activated voxels as the same even though there may be significant differences in their activation level &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;minor: it's volumetric, not mass, so it should be centre of volume, right? It may be a misunderstanding of the workings of fMRI on my part.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also demonstrated that the derived distance held up well over two orders of magnitude in significance level, but still they didn't differentiate between highly and not-so-highly-but-still-significantly activated voxels. Is this still state-of-the-art?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;My questions:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are different ways to calculate centroids without discarding so much information but still backing up the conclusion inferentially (some sort of spatial confidence area?)?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What are their drawbacks (my lecturer says they all have some, so you can just as well use the above-mentioned multistage method, but this seems like the easy way out)?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What is a well-tested method to test spatial separation of activity for two conditions? I'm not asking about demonstrating functional separation, but once you don't treat voxels as on-and-off anymore, calculating degree of overlap becomes less trivial.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kim, K.H.S. and Relkin, N.R. and Lee, K.M. and Hirsch, J. (1997). Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages, &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.colorado.edu/MCDB/MCDB3650/SecondLanguage.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="118" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-12-23T02:45:36.430" LastActivityDate="2012-12-23T02:45:36.430" Title="What are different ways to determine centroids of fMRI activation, their drawbacks and perks?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="202" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="201" CreationDate="2012-01-29T20:43:42.193" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question gets close to something that might alternatively be posted to stats.stackoverflow.com. Personally, I've always felt that application of Null-Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) methods to neuroimaging data does a particularly good job of highlighting their scientific deficiencies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, these days I'd use Generalized Additive Modelling (GAM) to analyze data from an individual's scan and if aggregating multiple spatially normalized scans I'd use Generalized Additive Mixed effects Modelling (GAMM). In both approaches, I'd use an AIC-adjusted likelihood ratio to evaluate the strength of evidence for differences amongst groups/conditions in the activity patterns discerned by GAM. &lt;em&gt;A posteriori&lt;/em&gt; investigation of any evidence-supported differences can be achieved by visualization and parametric bootstrapping of confidence intervals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt; want to &lt;em&gt;explicitly&lt;/em&gt; evaluate evidence for a group difference in the distance between activation areas, then one approach is to assume an a priori model for the activation, say a mixture of two trivariate gaussians with a parameter that specifies their separation, then use something like hierarchical Bayesian modelling to establish credible intervals on the difference between groups on the separation parameter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="51" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-04-27T03:15:53.163" LastActivityDate="2012-04-27T03:15:53.163" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="203" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="204" CreationDate="2012-01-30T01:13:21.450" Score="4" ViewCount="359" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representational_systems_%28NLP%29#Sensory_predicates_and_eye_accessing_cues&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NLP visual model&lt;/a&gt;, fast flickers of the eyes in left/right and the 4 diagonal directions map to simple cues related to how a person is thinking. Thease are &quot;visual constructed&quot;, &quot;visual remembered&quot;, &quot;auditory constructed&quot;, &quot;auditory remembered&quot;, &quot;kinesthetic&quot; and &quot;internal dialogue&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same directions are generally mapped to the same cues but not always, additionally the left/right is reversed in the left handed. There are other cues such as in the neck that indicate further when combined with cirtain eye cues, not to be confused with observation of muscle twitches when thinking about an associated action that also occurs in NLP.&#xA;Sequences of these combine to indicate thought processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Have these propositions about these cues been scientifically tested?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If so, what are the results?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="202" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-08T23:12:14.830" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T23:12:14.830" Title="Has the neuro-linguistic programming visual model been scientifically tested?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;neuro-linguistic-prog&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="204" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="203" CreationDate="2012-01-30T03:00:02.807" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there's been scientific tests. No, they did not support the propositions. However, some supporters of the propositions argue that existing empirical tests have methodological problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a discussion of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming_and_science&quot;&gt;scientific evaluation for NLP on wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; that cites several review articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quoting the Heap (1988) review &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming_and_science#Heap.27s_review&quot;&gt;as quoted in Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Michael Heap (1988) conducted a systematic review of the research&#xA;  literature on NLP and found that it was lacking in evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The present author is satisfied that the assertions of NLP writers&#xA;  concerning the representational systems have been objectively and&#xA;  fairly investigated and found to be lacking. These assertions are&#xA;  stated in unequivocal terms by the originators of NLP and it is clear&#xA;  from their writings that phenomena such as representational systems,&#xA;  predicate preferences and eye-movement patterns are claimed to be&#xA;  potent psychological processes, easily and convincingly demonstrable&#xA;  on training courses by tutors and trainees following simple&#xA;  instructions, and, indeed, in interactions in everyday life. Adding,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Therefore, in view of the absence of any objective evidence provided&#xA;  by the original proponents of the PRS hypothesis, and the failure of&#xA;  subsequent empirical investigations to adequately support it, it may&#xA;  well be appropriate now to conclude that there is not, and never has&#xA;  been, any substance to the conjecture that people represent their&#xA;  world internally in a preferred mode which may be inferred from their&#xA;  choice of predicates and from their eye movements. […] These&#xA;  conclusions, and the failure of investigators to convincingly&#xA;  demonstrate the alleged benefits of predicate matching, seriously&#xA;  question the role of such a procedure in counselling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heap, M. (1988). Neuro-linguistic programming, In M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices. London: Croom Helm. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mheap.com/nlp1.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-30T03:20:38.350" LastActivityDate="2012-01-30T03:20:38.350" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="205" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="68" CreationDate="2012-01-30T04:25:14.753" Score="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm going to disagree with Ben here. My colleague &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/putnam.html&quot;&gt;Adam Putnam&lt;/a&gt; has spent several years researching whether it's best for memory to speak, write, or even think particular responses out loud. His research has continued to turn up no differences between these different modalities, despite what we know about transfer-appropriate processing and elaborative encoding. He has a paper in preparation on the topic, and I'll be sure to link it in should it be accepted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other research on the production effect, however, does suggest that &quot;producing&quot; a response should lead to better memory than just reading it. Theories suggest that producing a response increases the distinctiveness of that particular memory. Distinctiveness has less of an effect, though, when the same manipulation is applied to multiple items (e.g., the produced memory is less unique if surrounded by other produced memories). There are several theories out there that explain why this might be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/research/&quot;&gt;Our lab's research&lt;/a&gt;, though, on the bottom line, shows that it's not the way that you record your answer inasmuch as whether or not you're testing yourself as you do so. For instance, consider the Chinese character you want to learn, imagine it, and then check yourself -- that should be very similar to considering the character, writing it down, and then checking yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-30T05:41:12.880" LastActivityDate="2012-01-30T05:41:12.880" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="206" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="99" CreationDate="2012-01-30T04:34:17.940" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;A quick explanation for why recognition may seem easier than recall is due to advantages that come into play for recognition that aren't present for recall. In particular, on a recognition test, subjects are presented with what are called &quot;copy cues&quot; -- in other words, duplicates of studied items. When studied items actually show up on the test, subjects are able to use two types of processing to respond: (1) recollection, which is careful, controlled responding that is based on retrievable episodic and contextual detail (present in both recognition and recall) as well as (2) familiarity, which is quick, heuristic-based deciding (generally more readily available in recognition memory). These processes are not unlike Kahneman and Tversky's famous processing types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ofri's answer is a good one, however -- it's very interesting to spot situations where recognition is actually less successful than recall. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_failure_of_recallable_words&quot;&gt;Recognition failure of recallable words&lt;/a&gt; is one such instance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-01-30T04:34:17.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="207" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="302" CreationDate="2012-01-30T07:02:06.840" Score="29" ViewCount="1276" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have come across a lot of articles that suggest learning across disciplines would improve cognitive abilities. This is more often referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_disciplinary#The_term_and_concept&quot;&gt;Integrative Learning&lt;/a&gt;. Also, nowadayas a lot of emphasis seems to be placed on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinary_Studies&quot;&gt;Interdisciplinarity&lt;/a&gt; and cross-disciplinary research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus (putting it plainly) if a economist learns psychology, his brain can draw inferences from psychology that could help his cognitive abilities in dealing with economics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this true and supported by facts?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If this is true, does the brain automatically interrelates concepts or we need to train the brain in a particular manner?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does this depend on age? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="204" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T14:53:06.960" LastActivityDate="2013-12-13T15:30:53.463" Title="Does learning one discipline improve performance in another discipline?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;transfer&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="208" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="211" CreationDate="2012-01-30T12:16:57.933" Score="7" ViewCount="498" Body="&lt;p&gt;In an interview with &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/RABjorkPublications.php&quot;&gt;Robert A. Bjork&lt;/a&gt; this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wired.com/geekdad/2012/01/everything-about-learning/&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; suggests interleaving skills is better than focusing exclusively on one skill at a time. How much of a difference does the research indicate that it makes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="103" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-30T22:57:37.493" LastActivityDate="2012-01-30T23:27:23.167" Title="How much more efficient is interleaving skills when learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="209" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="226" CreationDate="2012-01-30T12:26:13.443" Score="6" ViewCount="255" Body="&lt;p&gt;In an interview with &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/RABjorkPublications.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robert A. Bjork&lt;/a&gt; this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wired.com/geekdad/2012/01/everything-about-learning/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; claims that it is easier to recall information where it occurred:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Similarly, studying in only one location is great as long as you’ll only be required to recall the information in the same location. If you want information to be accessible outside your dorm room, or office, or nook on the second floor of the library, Bjork recommends varying your study location. And again, these tips generalize.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How much of an effect does this have with:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Memorizing random facts&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Recalling the details of an event that occurred at the location&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="103" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-30T23:02:30.187" LastActivityDate="2012-02-01T04:17:14.103" Title="Effectiveness of recalling information in the same location it was learned" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="210" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="209" CreationDate="2012-01-30T12:47:02.373" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the tradition expressed in a well documented (references at the end) popular science book about memory, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/13/books/review/book-review-moonwalking-with-einstein-by-joshua-foer.html?pagewanted=all&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Moonwalking with Einstein&lt;/a&gt; in which the author trains himself from zero to become the American memory champion, the memory palace technique (also known as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;method of loci&lt;/a&gt; where loci is place in latin) is the one used by most competitive memory practitioners. It consists in recalling random facts (your question 1) by staging them into an imaginary location. Other aspects of the technique involve imagining an actor or agent in these places, but this element is used as a reminder for the type of information involved: the place itself is the key to memorising. Therefore the answer to question 2 is that details of an event are much easier to remember at the location where they occurred, when recalling this location.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="206" LastEditorUserId="206" LastEditDate="2012-01-30T14:52:23.073" LastActivityDate="2012-01-30T14:52:23.073" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="211" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="208" CreationDate="2012-01-30T14:39:11.933" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it would be unfair to reduce this effect to a single number-- most certainly, it depends on the task at hand, as well as a number of other factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To give a rough idea, though, you may want to look at Richland et al. (2005) who found roughly a 25% increase in retention on a knowledge test when using interleaving. Also noted in this article,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Interleaving has been shown  to be more effective for producing&#xA;  learning than blocking or  massing learning (A1A2A3A4A5B1B2B3B4B5) on&#xA;  many  diverse sets of stimuli including word pairs (Battig, 1979), &#xA;  motor patterns (Shea &amp;amp; Morgan, 1979), and word translations &#xA;  (Richland, Bjork &amp;amp; Finley, 2004)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/RABjorkPublications.php&quot;&gt;Robert Bjork&lt;/a&gt; claims that interleaving is only one intervention among a class of &quot;desirable difficulties&quot;, or things that might make your task seem harder but will improve it in the long run. Other such desirable difficulties include &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.msu.edu/course/psy/101/altmann/karpickeRoediger08.pdf&quot;&gt;generation&lt;/a&gt; (e.g., fill in the blank rather than multiple choice; see Karpicke &amp;amp; Roediger (2008)) and the spacing effect (studying at regular spaced intervals is more effective than studying everything all at once). Bjork has shown that interleaving is not just an artifact of the spacing effect--after all, interleaving requires spacing--but that its contribution to retention is in addition to spacing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you head on over to Bjork's &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/RABjorkPublications.php&quot;&gt;lab webpage&lt;/a&gt; you'll see that he has a decades of research publications available free for download.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Richland, Bjork, Finley, &amp;amp; Linn (2005). Linking Cognitive Science to Education: Generation and Interleaving Effects. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gse.uci.edu/richland/Site/Publications_files/5-CogsciIddeas2005.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Karpicke, &amp;amp; Roediger (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning. Science, 319, 966-968. Retreived from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.msu.edu/course/psy/101/altmann/karpickeRoediger08.pdf&quot;&gt;https://www.msu.edu/course/psy/101/altmann/karpickeRoediger08.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-30T23:27:23.167" LastActivityDate="2012-01-30T23:27:23.167" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="212" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-30T21:44:21.350" Score="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check out the book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0932633420&quot;&gt;The Psychology of Computer Programming by Gerald Weinberg&lt;/a&gt;.  Originally published in 1971 it was recently produced in a Silver Anniversary version.  I own an original copy and read it again about every five years. Weinberg and Glenford Myers both wrote amazing texts which will be useful forever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Weinberg, the situation you are describing is specifically addressed, and his explanation says it is the result of knocking down preset pathways cognitively, then when you have to reestablish them you have cleared some cognitive assumptions placed there in the initial thinking of the problem. He also identifies the simple event where you begin to explain the problem to another only to suddenly discover the solution whereas it eluded you for hours before.  This, again, results from employing different neuronal circuitry when we speak out loud versus when we are doing slow thinking (a la Daniel Kahneman, Thinking Fast and Slow).  Weinberg's work is &lt;strong&gt;full&lt;/strong&gt; of fun explanations and examples of how weird software engineering psychology can be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="209" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-02-02T19:46:49.143" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T19:46:49.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="213" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-30T22:52:02.780" Score="11" ViewCount="1068" Body="&lt;p&gt;My motivation for this question is dog-based, but I suppose it would apply equally well to humans. &lt;strong&gt;How do animals recognize their own kind, particularly where there is large variation in appearance?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The background is that I am reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20020168&quot;&gt;&quot;Discrimination of human and dog faces and inversion responses in domestic dogs (&lt;em&gt;Canis familiaris&lt;/em&gt;)&quot;&lt;/a&gt; by Racca et al. (2010; &lt;em&gt;Animal Cognition&lt;/em&gt; 13: 525-533). These authors show that when dogs are presented upright objects, human faces, and dog faces, they spend more time gazing on novel objects and human faces than they do on familiar ones. However, they spend significantly more time gazing on familiar dog faces than they do on novel ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This got me thinking how a dog &quot;knows&quot; another face belongs to a dog. Acedotally (which I realize is worth approximately nil in science), my dog reacts very differently to seeing another dog in an adjacent car compared to a person. Given that there is so much phenotypic variation in dogs, how does it know that other animal is a dog, and not a cat or very large rodent? I could understand a lion recognizing another lion, because all lions look more or less the same. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="210" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-06T05:06:03.550" LastActivityDate="2016-05-14T21:57:19.233" Title="How do animals recognize other animals of their own species?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="214" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="738" CreationDate="2012-01-31T02:46:15.983" Score="32" ViewCount="1916" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the reasons artificial neural net algorithms like cascade correlation (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.iastate.edu/~honavar/fahlman.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;) have been generating interest is because they start with a minimal topology (just input and output unit) and recruit new hidden units as learning progresses. The draw from cognitive science (especially a lot of developmental psychology work) is an analogy to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurogenesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuorogenesis&lt;/a&gt; (in fact, you will see this analogy mentioned in most papers that use CC-NN). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the CC algorithm is not meant as a biologically reasonable algorithm (neither the weight update nor unit recruitment rules are local, for instance), So my question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there popular neural network algorithms that start with a minimal topology and recruit new hidden units, and update network weights in a neurobiologically plausible manner?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Related questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/318/29&quot;&gt;How are newly created neurons recruited into existing networks?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-09-17T22:35:27.837" Title="Neural networks with biologically plausible accounts of neurogenesis" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurogenesis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="17" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="215" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-31T03:01:28.710" Score="14" ViewCount="308" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are currently used biologically plausible computational models/frameworks of early learning in children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I have used &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/9t456l7160427430/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cascade correlation neural nets to model pronoun acquisition in children&lt;/a&gt;, but in hindsight, I consider this framework to be &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/214/29&quot;&gt;not neurobiologically plausible&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there existing computational frameworks that have been used for early-learning and development in children that have a reasonable biologically justification?&lt;/strong&gt; For example: just being a neural net model is not a reasonable justification, but a neural net model witch has local update rules (like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hebbian learning&lt;/a&gt;) and models neurons more realistically (instead of just saying they are a sigmoid function without any further biological justification) would be fine. General non-connectionist frameworks with empirical justification are also of interest, even if they don't have a solid reductionist account.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Notes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have asked an &lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/q/1385/33&quot;&gt;alternate version of this question on Linguistics.SE&lt;/a&gt; that focuses on language acquisition instead of general learning, but considers both children and adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-09-17T22:34:34.373" Title="Computational models of early learning in children" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="216" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-31T04:02:54.047" Score="16" ViewCount="2206" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Pavlonian (classical) conditioning,  conditioned responses of an animal may vary. Some animals focus on the unconditioned stimulus (ie. food/location of food) while others may focus on the conditioned stimulus (ie. lever or button). These behaviors have been termed 'goal-tracking' and 'sign-tracking' respectively, as defined by Flagel et al. (2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are some known examples of this variation between different species?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does the variation within a species differ across species? Do some species exhibit more or less variation than other species?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Flagel SB, Watson SJ, Robinson TE, Akil H. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16972103&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Individual differences in the propensity to approach signals vs goals promote different adaptations in the dopamine system of rats.&lt;/a&gt; Psychopharmacology, Vol. 191, No. 3. (April 2007), pp. 599-607, doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0535-8 (&lt;a href=&quot;http://sitemaker.umich.edu/terryrobinson/files/flagel_07.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;free PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastEditorUserId="20907" LastEditDate="2018-12-21T18:56:34.397" LastActivityDate="2018-12-21T18:56:34.397" Title="How does goal-tracking and sign-tracking behaviour vary across species?" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="217" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="218" CreationDate="2012-01-31T10:33:53.123" Score="9" ViewCount="2312" Body="&lt;p&gt;Genetics is obviously an important cause of whether someone becomes extraverted or introverted. But what percentage is genetics and what percentage is the environment? What factors in the environment are most important in determining this trait?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="103" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-01-31T11:10:31.227" LastActivityDate="2012-02-01T04:41:06.663" Title="What are the main causes of whether a person becomes introverted or extraverted?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="217" CreationDate="2012-01-31T11:02:08.183" Score="9" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Heritability estimates of Extraversion (and other Big 5 factors)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The introduction section of  Loehlin et al (1998) provides a narrative review of heritability estimates of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot;&gt;big 5 personality&lt;/a&gt; traits (i.e., one of which is extraversion).&#xA;A brief extract gives a flavour of some of the research that has been conducted:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A recent heritability analysis of the Big Five dimensions as measured&#xA;  by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory&quot;&gt;Revised NEO Personality Inventory&lt;/a&gt; of Costa and McCrae (1992)&#xA;  used a total of 660 monozygotic (MZ) pairs and 380 dizygotic (DZ)&#xA;  pairs from pooled Canadian and German twin samples (Jang, McCrae,&#xA;  Angleitner, Riemann, &amp;amp; Livesley, 1998). For all five traits a simple&#xA;  model involving only additive genes and nonshared environment fit the&#xA;  data. Estimates for the heritabilities of factor scales for [Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness,&#xA;  Neuroticism, and Openness] were .50, .48, .49, .49, and .48, respectively. These&#xA;  estimates are obviously very similar—in partic- ular, the heritability&#xA;  of Agreeableness is quite in line with the rest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also mention other twin studies, with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability#Estimating_heritability&quot;&gt;heritability estimates&lt;/a&gt; for Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness respectively as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;                       E    A    C    N    O&#xA;Waller (1999):        .49  .33  .46  .42  .58&#xA;Riemann et al (1997):  60  .57  .71  .61  .81&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, in summary, it seems that such estimates for the heritability of extraversion are around 50%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Side Point&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;While inventories like the Myer-Briggs Type Inventory often categorise individuals, into categories, I find a continuous approach to personality traits provides a more accurate description of an individual. Using such an approach, people have a score on an extraversion dimension that is roughly normally distributed (or at least continuously distributed) in the population.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Limitations&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I realise this only partially answers your question. It doesn't discuss the dynamic environmental-genetic interactions that cause personality traits , nor does it take a critical perspective on issues related to the measurement of extraversion, and the estimation issues related to heritability. Hopefully, it is a useful starting point.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jang, K. L., McCrae, R. R., Angleitner, A., Riemann, R., &amp;amp; Livesley, W. J. (1998). Heritability of facet-level traits in a cross-cultural twin sample: Support for a hierarchical model of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1556–1565.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Loehlin, J.C. and McCrae, R.R. and Costa, P.T. and John, O.P. (1998). Heritabilities of common and measure-specific components of the Big Five personality factors. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality&lt;/em&gt;, 32, 4, 431-453. &lt;a href=&quot;http://socionics.org/forums/storage/9/421602/hedirity.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Riemann, R., Angleitner, A, &amp;amp; Strelau, J. (1997). Genetic and environmental influences on&#xA;personality: A study of twins reared together using the self- and peer report NEO-FFI&#xA;scales. Journal of Personality, 65, 449–475.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Waller, N. G. (1999). Evaluating the structure of personality. In C. R. Cloninger (Ed.), Personality and psychopathology (pages 155-197). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press. &lt;a href=&quot;http://genepi.qimr.edu.au/contents/p/staff/CV250.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-01T04:41:06.663" LastActivityDate="2012-02-01T04:41:06.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="220" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-01-31T20:32:12.053" Score="2" ViewCount="733" Body="&lt;p&gt;While studying artificial neural networks, I stumbled upon the following question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any hard-wired axioms in the brain that must exist equally in every conscious mind?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could imagine that, since neuron can't change their principal behavior, simple signal-modulating functions should always work the same way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By axioms I don't necessarily mean the axioms known from math, but functional units that do not rely on further microscopic elements. Like if you say neurons functioning is also influenced by proteins - ok than turn to protein level. At some point there should be a level reached where things (neurons, proteins, atoms) should always work the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But of course the mathematical axioms are a good way to prove that some functions evaluate to the same result in different brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example if you teach addition to a child then you would first show the child  one apple then two, then three, etc. Although abstract logical rules like the commutative property possibly reside in more complex structures, nobody needs to be taught in counting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This possibly also fits in philosophy - I wasn't quite sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="224" LastEditorUserId="224" LastEditDate="2012-02-02T09:00:54.313" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T15:31:50.433" Title="Are there axioms in the mind?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-03-29T13:42:22.843" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="221" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="250" CreationDate="2012-01-31T21:33:29.737" Score="12" ViewCount="583" Body="&lt;p&gt;In perceptual learning (line length/orientation discrimination, visual target detection, tone frequency discrimination, etc), when training people or animals to perform a task better, is there an optimal schedule for controlling task difficulty, to acheive maximal improvement?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At least 3 reasonable schedules come to (my) mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Easy to difficult - In education it is the custom to begin with easy examples or problems, and gradually progress to more difficult ones. Maybe this should work in perceptual learning as well.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interleave different difficulties&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Always the most difficult possible&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been a rigorous comparison of such schedules and their effect on the rate of learning, and the maximal performance level achieved at the end of training?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2012-02-03T10:36:25.367" Title="How does task difficulty schedule affect the rate and efficiency of perceptual learning?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;&lt;training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="222" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="180" CreationDate="2012-01-31T23:57:24.860" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on the Anderson cite, I'm assuming you've looked a bit more at the ACT-R literature-- task analysis is a common prerequisite for creating ACT-R models and you'll find lots of tasks modeled as a series of sub-tasks in a goal hierarchy. Offhand, though, I don't know any ACT-R articles that look specifically at your question of interest...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a different note, Catrambone (1998) may be of interest to you-- in this article, he looks out how breaking down math problems into sub-goals helps students learn the material better. One claim is that breaking a problem down into smaller components helps transfer when a novel problem is made up of some (but not necessarily all) of the components. It eliminates reliance on rote performance, which often requires cues from previous steps in order to transition into subsequent steps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Catrambone, R. (1998). The subgoal learning model: Creating better examples so that students can solve novel problems. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 355-376. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.prism.gatech.edu/~rc7/jepg1998.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-01-31T23:57:24.860" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="223" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="652" CreationDate="2012-02-01T02:28:28.847" Score="20" ViewCount="516" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychology in the time of Freud was occupied with dreams.  Relaying these to one's analyst was an important part of treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fast-forward to less than 100 years later, and we know so much about the importance of sleep in consolidating memories during REM &lt;sup&gt;[1][2]&lt;/sup&gt; and slow-wave sleep &lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt; (among countless other references I have omitted).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let us assume dreaming is largely relegated to REM (ignoring dreams experienced during stage 2 sleep). &lt;strong&gt;If we recall our dreams at a later time then is it detrimental to any subsequent process of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;memory consolidation&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If our dream represents a state through which our brain is passing to consolidate memory, what is the effect of recalling that intermediate state and potentially storing it back in long-term memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ishikawa A, Kanayama Y., et al (2006). Selective rapid eye movement sleep deprivation impairs the maintenance of long-term potentiation in the rat hippocampus. &lt;em&gt;Eur J Neurosci.,24&lt;/em&gt; (1),243-8.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Louie K, Wilson MA. (2001). Temporally structured replay of awake hippocampal ensemble activity during rapid eye movement sleep. &lt;em&gt;Neuron,29&lt;/em&gt; (1),145-56. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gatsby.ucl.ac.uk/%7Eahrens/tnii/louie01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ji D, Wilson MA (2007) Coordinated memory replay in the visual cortex and hippocampus during sleep. &lt;em&gt;Nat Neurosci, 10&lt;/em&gt;(1),100-7. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.phys.mcw.edu/documents/RewindingthetapeduringsleeptoPresent.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T05:55:23.197" Title="Does dream recall disturb the processes of memory consolidation?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="30" CreationDate="2012-02-01T02:43:46.527" Score="7" Body="&lt;h3&gt;General thoughts on factors influencing test-retest correlations&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a theoretical perspective, it makes sense that groups that experience temporary states that lower state intelligence or lead to a poorer test taking orientation would have lower test-retest cognitive test correlations. By lower state intelligence, I'm referring to states of being such as are observed with extreme sleep deprivation, alcohol intoxication, or while on psychedelic drugs that would temporarily lower actual cognitive functioning. By test taking orientation I'm referring to motivation and concentration issues related to taking a test. Because such factors are transient, they may be present in one test session and not another, and as such would be a source of error in measurement and would reduce test-retest correlations. In groups where such factors are greater or more prevalent, then test-retest correlations should be reduced more than other groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A clinician that administers a high-quality intelligence test should be aware of these transient factors when administering the test. If a test-taker is not taking a test seriously, is distracted, and so on, then the scores may have to be disregarded. Some studies might use group testing protocols that don't pick up these issues. And perhaps sometimes teasing out what is transient and what is permanent may be difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, latent ability on a task is conceptualised in terms of an individual applying reasonable and normal levels of effort, under normal and healthy conditions, in a normal and reasonable environment. Under such conditions, a person is not able to improve their performance (discounting practice and cheating effects), but there are many ways that performance can decline. Sackett et al (1988) talks about the difference between typical and maximal performance. Test performance is meant to be conducted under conditions of maximal performance, where the test taker is meant to be applying maximal effort to the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Thoughts about ADHD&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research does show that in general individuals diagnosed with ADHD tend to score lower on intelligence tests. Frazier et al (2004) peformed a large-scale meta analysis and found that healthy participants scored on average 0.61 standard deviations (i.e., &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_size#Cohen.27s_d&quot;&gt;weighted d&lt;/a&gt;) higher on full scale IQ than ADHD participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder#Signs_and_symptoms&quot;&gt;symptoms of ADHD&lt;/a&gt;, such as being easily distracted, experiencing boredom on a task, and other problems related to sustained attention would make the administration of some cognitive tests difficult. &#xA;It is possible for any measure of an individual's IQ to fall below what the person is capable, where such an effect can be due, in addition to random variation between testing sessions, to systematic variability in transient factors. Thus, it seems plausible that individuals with ADHD could more frequently experience such factors, and as such, experience lower test-retest correlations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Caveat&lt;/strong&gt;: ADHD research is not my area. I imagine there are some  empirical studies that have compared test-retest correlations of tests between ADHD and other groups. I just haven't found them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Frazier, T., Demaree, H., and Youngstrom, E. (2004). Meta-analysis of&#xA;intellectual and neuropsychological test performance in&#xA;attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology, 18(3):543.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sackett, P. R., Zedeck, S., and Fogli, L. (1988). Relations between&#xA;measures of typical and maximum job performance. Journal of Applied&#xA;Psychology, 73:482-486.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-02-01T02:43:46.527" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="225" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="78" CreationDate="2012-02-01T03:35:31.970" Score="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a few references to the scientific literature on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troll_%28Internet%29#Trolling.2C_identity.2C_and_anonymity&quot;&gt;trolling in the wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some psychologists have suggested that flaming would be caused by&#xA;  deindividuation or decreased self-evaluation: the anonymity of online&#xA;  postings would lead to disinhibition amongst individuals (Kiesler et al, 1984). Others&#xA;  have suggested that although flaming and trolling is often unpleasant,&#xA;  it may be a form of normative behavior that expresses the social&#xA;  identity of a certain user group (Lea et al, 1992; Postmes et al, 1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kiesler, S. , J. Siegel and T.W. McGuire (1984). &quot;Social psychological aspects of computer-mediated communication&quot;. American Psychologist 39 (10): 1123–1134. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.39.10.1123. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mendeley.com/research/social-psychological-aspects-computermediated-communication/#&quot;&gt;LINK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lea, M., T. O'Shea, P. Fung and R. Spears (1992). &quot;'Flaming' in Computer-Mediated Communication: observation, explanations, implications&quot;. Contexts of Computer-Mediated Communication: 89–112.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Postmes, T., Spears, R., &amp;amp; Lea, M. (1998). &quot;Breaching or building social boundaries? SIDE-effects of computer-mediated communication&quot;. Communication Research (25): 689–715. &lt;a href=&quot;http://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/martin.lea/papers/1998-EJ%20Postmes%20Spears%20Lea%20Boundaries%20CR.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-02-01T03:35:31.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="226" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="209" CreationDate="2012-02-01T04:17:14.103" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon you are referring to is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situated_learning&quot;&gt;situated learning&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recall of information from memory is facilitated by retrieval cues; the more retrieval cues you have, the easier it is to recall an item from memory. Location (and pictorial information information in general) is perhaps such an effective cue because of the amount of information that it construes. You might say that a picture has higher entropy relative to, e.g., a sound, in that a picture can be easily recalled yet it conveys much more. A room contains numerous details-- the placement of furniture, the color of the walls, the books on the shelf-- all of which may act as retrieval cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason these seemingly meaningless details are such helpful retrieval cues can be linked to the idea of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_learning&quot;&gt;Hebbian learning&lt;/a&gt;, which is often summarized by the mnemonic, &quot;cells that fire together, wire together&quot;. When you study in a room, neurons are firing in response to stimuli in the room, while other neurons fire in response to the content you are learning. Thus, when you are again tested in that same room, the stimuli in the room fire the same neurons, which act as retrieval cues. If you study in a different location, you would have no retrieval cues-- which is why Bjork suggests varying your study location.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that this has an effect on both memorizing random facts as well as events that happened in a particular location. However, events tend to be more memorable for a number of other reasons. For instance, they are experienced (rather than simply read off a page). There is some evidence that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiographical_memory&quot;&gt;autobiographical memories&lt;/a&gt; are treated differently than &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_memory&quot;&gt;semantic memories&lt;/a&gt;, both at the cognitive and neural level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-02-01T04:17:14.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="227" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="293" CreationDate="2012-02-01T05:10:39.013" Score="8" ViewCount="3419" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the classic review of intelligence research (&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~broberts/Neisser%20et%20al,%201996,%20intelligence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;), Neisser et al (1996) write the following&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stability&lt;/strong&gt;. Intelligence test scores are fairly stable during&#xA;  development. When Jones and Bayley (1941) tested a sample of children&#xA;  annually throughout childhood and adolescence, for example, scores&#xA;  obtained at age 18 were correlated r = .77 with scores that had been&#xA;  obtained at age 6 and r = .89 with scores from age 12. When scores&#xA;  were averaged across several successive tests to remove short-term&#xA;  fluctuations, the correlations were even higher. The mean for ages 17&#xA;  and 18 was correlated r = .86 with the mean for ages 5, 6, and 7, and&#xA;  r = .96 with the mean for ages 11, 12, and 13. (For comparable&#xA;  findings in a more recent study, see Moffitt, Caspi, Harkness, &amp;amp;&#xA;  Silva, 1993.) Nevertheless, IQ scores do change over time. In the same&#xA;  study (Jones &amp;amp; Bayley, 1941), the average change between age 12 and&#xA;  age 17 was 7.1 IQ points; some individuals changed as much as 18&#xA;  points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typically, IQ scores are standardised for age and thus remove age related differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the  relationship between age and raw intelligence test score at the group-level from around age 5 and into adultyhood?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I've read, I understand that at the group-level intelligence increases monotonically with age during childhood and that it levels-off at some point (perhaps around 18?). Also, below a certain age (e.g., in infancy), completely different tests are required to measured intelligence. I also understand that individuals may experience various trajectories (e.g., some might plateau earlier, etc.), but I'm interested in the group-level. Thus, an ideal answer would probably provide a sense of the functional form of the increase in intelligence over childhood and adolescence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My first thought for an answer was to look at the test manual for a standardised child intelligence test, such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Intelligence_Scale_for_Children&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WISC&lt;/a&gt;, but I don't currently have easy access to that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jones, H. E., and Bayley, N. (1941). The Berkeley Growth Study. Child&#xA;Development, 12, 167-173.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moffitt, T. E., Gabrielli, W. F., Mednick, S. A., &amp;amp; Schulsinger, E (1981).&#xA;Socioeconomic status, IQ, and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal&#xA;Psychology, 90, 152-156.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N.,&#xA;Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Sternberg, R.&#xA;J., and Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American&#xA;Psychologist, 51:77-101. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/Correlation/Intelligence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T21:27:18.283" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T21:27:18.283" Title="How does raw IQ change over the lifespan at the group-level?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;aging&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="228" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="231" CreationDate="2012-02-01T08:30:12.083" Score="24" ViewCount="1538" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some languages have multiple expressions to identify, address, comprehend, and interpret a single concept and/or experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are limits placed on understanding and describing aspects of cognition due to the finite lexicon being used to explain a mental concept or experience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does language create a bottleneck situation where the available lexicon used to define certain aspects of cognition and its experiences are inadequate for understanding the true definition of that experience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="228" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-15T02:54:29.507" LastActivityDate="2012-05-15T02:54:29.507" Title="Does language and/or culture affect an individual's cognitive capacity?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="229" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16" CreationDate="2012-02-01T10:07:46.893" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR/studies&quot;&gt;ICPSR&lt;/a&gt;) provides 8000+ data sets. Topics include aging, criminal justice, education, or health. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, here is my favorite, the summary of the &quot;500 Family Study&quot;. This study includes questionnaire, cortisol, and experience sampling data:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The 500 Family Study was designed to obtain in-depth information on middle class, dual-career families living in the United States. To understand the complex dynamics of today's families and the strategies they use to balance the demands of work and family, over 500 families from 8 cities across the United States were studied. To address different issues facing parents with older and younger children, families with adolescents and families with kindergartners were included in the sample. Working mothers and fathers are now splitting their time between their responsibilities to their family, and to their respective occupations. This study of 500 families explores how work affects the lives and well-being of parents and their children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="80" LastActivityDate="2012-02-01T10:07:46.893" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2012-02-20T13:23:54.037" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="230" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="78" CreationDate="2012-02-01T11:06:28.297" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article, &lt;a href=&quot;http://cognitionandculture.net/blogs/olivier-morin/conversation-hackers/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Conversation Hackers&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, by the International Cognition &amp;amp; Culture Institute describes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trolls happen to possess to an extreme degree a motivation that is common to all humans: a motivation to argue. That motivation is specific to argumentation itself, and can be satisfied even when the usual goals of argumentation – convincing someone of thinking or doing something – have not been met at all. We readily argue with people we have no realistic hope of convincing. Trolls are special because 1) this motivation is very powerful in them and 2) they don't just seize occasions of satisfying it as they present themselves ; sometimes, they deliberately create these occasions, by setting up rigged conversations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article mentiones Sperber and Mercier's &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dan.sperber.fr/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/MercierSperberWhydohumansreason.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;argumentative theory&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; of human reasoning, which is a fascinating paper in its own right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mercier, H. and Sperber, D. (2011). Why do humans reason? arguments for&#xA;an argumentative theory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 34(02):57-74. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dan.sperber.fr/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/MercierSperberWhydohumansreason.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="102" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-12-22T00:36:35.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="231" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="228" CreationDate="2012-02-01T13:35:12.967" Score="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a hot topic of debate, so my answer will be an incomplete one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are actually two separate questions here. One is on language and the other one is on environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Language:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My answer is no; different languages do not limit the conceptual repository of human mind. The current ongoing debate is partially on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_language&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pirahã language&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Everett&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Everett&lt;/a&gt; studied this language and after seeing that it does not have syntactic recursion, he claimed that it demonstrates that Pirahã community somehow could not think recursively. Of course this is a very simplified view and may be a little misinterpreted and/or a provocative understanding of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sapir-Whorf hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;. But I believe that the main problem is on the theoretical grounds of grammar. Steedman's &lt;a href=&quot;http://groups.inf.ed.ac.uk/ccg/publications.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;CCG&lt;/a&gt; shows a very powerful alternative way of looking to grammars. It is computational and combinatorial. I don't know any particular studies on Pirahã with combinatorial grammars, but that would be an interesting issue to investigate. My personal opinion is that this thinking of &amp;quot;language effects the way of thinking&amp;quot; is also a bit dangerous and open to manipulations too much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Environment:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Environment definitely affects the cognitive abilities. There are several studies on this. You can search the internet for papers such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.york.ac.uk/res/wml/gathercole%20%281999%29.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gathercole (1999)&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/%7Ejgc/554/gleitman_newport.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gleitman, Elissa, Newport (1995)&lt;/a&gt;. These are the ones that came to my mind immediately. One of the facts is that late exposure to language entirely limits the grammatical abilities. Environmental feedback is also essential. It may be hard to observe physically impaired children but there are also studies that focus on deaf children in hearing families in the absence of sign language. These are interesting studies, but the bottom line is: yes, environment affects cognitive abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="230" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T00:03:08.803" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="232" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="238" CreationDate="2012-02-01T13:58:57.367" Score="57" ViewCount="13603" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you've ever read &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_Brown&quot;&gt;Encyclopedia Brown&lt;/a&gt; books, you'll be familiar with the backwards writing in the back of the book that explains the solution to the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I was in my mid-late teens (I don't remember the age exactly) I decided to teach myself to read/write upside down (and backwards?). I can read most text fairly well when the page is upside down (and have no problems with the upside down unicode text people post on Facebook), and I am able to write upside down with relative ease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, since developing that skill I have fairly extreme difficulties remembering how to write lowercase b's and d's, and I've had to use a trick I've heard dyslexics use and I remind myself that a 'b' points towards the end of a word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no problems reading words with the characters, or typing them on the computer when I want a 'b' or a 'd', only when I'm writing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Did I give myself a very limited form of dyslexia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="231" LastEditorUserId="952" LastEditDate="2012-07-12T11:25:29.983" LastActivityDate="2021-01-24T10:24:43.383" Title="By learning to read and write upside down, what did I do to myself?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;transfer&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="207" CreationDate="2012-02-01T15:32:00.827" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There can be real isights from cross-disciplinary study, because the patterns of thinking and problem solving differs between differet disciplines. So an issue that someone cannot see an answer to might be very clear to someone from a different discipline, because they view problems in a different way. I am sure that some of the physicists who have made breakthroughs in the last 50 years have had insights from other disciplines, but I cannot find examples at the moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in your example, if an economist learns psychology, he can put his psychological approach to issues to use in his economics, and vv, meaning that he might be able to do well at both of them. A lot of &quot;performance&quot; at a discipline is about seeing things in different ways, and so seeing resolutions to issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastActivityDate="2012-02-01T15:32:00.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="234" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="220" CreationDate="2012-02-01T19:45:15.033" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think we should first clarify the difference between simple mathematical operators and a complete formal axiomatic system. I think it is very clear that exponentiation, square root or multiplication operations are taught. They represent a higher level cognitive ability than simple addition and subtraction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the level of more innate abilities, we can still claim that some numeric tendencies do exist in the human infant. Moreover, these are shown to exist in primates, and even rodents (for instance, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&amp;amp;id=1999-15530-003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brannon &amp;amp; Terrace, 1998&lt;/a&gt;). It is argued that in infants, numbers are represented in two distinct systems; one is responsible for small numbers and their relations, and the second responsible for mass amounts of items (have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15242690&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Feigenson, Dehaene, Spelke, 2004&lt;/a&gt;). Briefly speaking, infants can differentiate 2 items from 3 items or 1 item; on the other hand they can distinguish 40 items from 80 items better than they could 60 or 70 items. So this second system operates on a relatively macro level. Moreover, first system not only provides a comparison operator, but addition also. So, infants can understand that two individual objects make 2 objects. For instance, suppose you have a box and three dolls in it. If you remove two of them, they can understand that there is still one more in it. To summarize, numeric abilities at least partially seem to have innate roots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not surprising at all. In evolutionary terms, it is not hard to see that counting objects can be essential, up to a certain point. For instance, it is very important that prey should recognize whether there is a single hunter or two of them. As another example, it is equally important to recognize whether there are 100 or 200 footsteps on the ground, but not that important whether there is 100 or 105 footsteps. There are surely cognitive abilities with innate roots; one other such ability is human face recognition for example. Infants can detect an upright human face right after they are born.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is such information represented? It does not have to be in an axiomatic fashion. Neurons have a very simple structure themselves, but networks of neurons are capable of great things. They can be represented in states of a dynamical system, like associative memory. Or they can be represented by simple feedforward structures. It is very hard to distinguish that. My primitive claim is that assuming innate formal axiomatic systems is against the rule of parsimony. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="230" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-02-02T15:31:50.433" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T15:31:50.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="236" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="239" CreationDate="2012-02-01T21:14:59.157" Score="6" ViewCount="263" Body="&lt;p&gt;Certain languages have words that do not literally translate into any another language.  There is already a small loss of information in this sense.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotions are a personal experience and the gravity and meaning of them are dependent on the person who experiences them.  The same goes for all conscious experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how much information is lost when one person is trying to convey these personal experiences with another person?  Will actions carry more relevant data than words when explaining a personal experience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any way to quantify the loss in translation of experiences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="228" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T21:34:27.623" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T21:34:27.623" Title="How much information is lost when conveying an experience or emotion to another person?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="237" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="236" CreationDate="2012-02-01T22:30:10.613" Score="6" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So how much information is lost when one person is trying to convey these personal experiences with another person? Will actions carry more relevant data than words when explaining a personal experience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe this really depends &lt;strong&gt;completely&lt;/strong&gt; upon both &lt;em&gt;what specific words you use&lt;/em&gt; to describe the experience / emotion as well as &lt;em&gt;the experiences and memories&lt;/em&gt; of the person with whom you are speaking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To convey an emotion well you must trigger a sense of empathy in the person you are speaking to. If you just say, &quot;I feel happy&quot;, you're unlikely to convey nearly as much detail as if you describe that feeling in a way which triggers an emotional response in the listener.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, compare the following two statements:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am sad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is quite broad and will likely trigger a wide range of emotions in the person reading / hearing it, if any emotions are triggered &lt;em&gt;at all&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;O woe! O woeful, woeful, woeful day!&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Most lamentable day. Most woeful day That ever, ever I did yet behold!&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  O day, O day, O day! O hateful day! Never was seen so black a day as&#xA;  this.&lt;br&gt; O woeful day! O woeful day!&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;em&gt;- William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, 4.5&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was just one quick example I could find. I'm sure if you peruse &lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;English Stack Exchange&lt;/a&gt; you could find much better examples, but my point is: the second paragraph conveys &lt;em&gt;a lot&lt;/em&gt; more emotion than the first (contrived) statement. Therefore, to answer your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there any way to quantify the loss in translation of experiences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not really, not that I can see anyway. &lt;em&gt;The way the experience translates just depends on far too many factors&lt;/em&gt;. What words did you use? What did the person you were speaking with interpret those words as? What are your shared experiences? What are the other person's memories and experiences like? Are you evoking a sense of emotion for them? If so, what memories are you drawing on? These factors, and a lot more, will determine what they feel when they hear your words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2012-02-01T22:30:10.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="238" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="232" CreationDate="2012-02-02T00:25:33.253" Score="51" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Negative Transfer&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common scientific term to describe what you are talking about is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_Transfer&quot;&gt;negative transfer&lt;/a&gt;. I.e., where learning one skill actually results in lower performance on another skill. This is contrasted with positive transfer, when learning one skill facilitates performance on another skill. In general (although I don't have refs on hands) positive transfer is generally a greater effect than negative transfer. Negative transfer tends to be localised to particular aspects of the task (e.g., b's and d's).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a extended encyclopedia entry see Perkins and Salomon's (1992) article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://learnweb.harvard.edu/alps/thinking/docs/traencyn.htm&quot;&gt;transfer of learning&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Research on Mirror Reading and Writing&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's even research specifically on reading and writing upside down and back to front (e.g., see google scholarfor &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=mirror+writing&amp;amp;btnG=Search&quot;&gt;'mirror writing'&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=mirror+reading&amp;amp;btnG=Search&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;as_ylo=&amp;amp;as_vis=0&quot;&gt;'mirror reading'&lt;/a&gt;). I haven't read much of this literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To take but one article, Gottfried, Sancar, and Chatterjee (2003) discuss acquired mirror writing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They note, perhaps relevant to your question, that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Young children, developmental dyslexics, and some healthy left-handed&#xA;  adults may produce mirror text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume that in the above cases (as opposed to your case where it is acquired with deliberate practice), writing in reverse is involuntary, in which case I suppose you could describe writing a few letters back to front involuntarily as representing a symptom shared with some developmental dyslexics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an interesting historical aside, they note that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Perhaps the most celebrated mirror writer, Leonardo da Vinci,&#xA;  generated over 5000 notebook pages in reverse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, you're in good company.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gottfried, J., Sancar, F., and Chatterjee, A. (2003). Acquired mirror&#xA;writing and reading: evidence for reflected graphemic representations.&#xA;Neuropsychologia, 41(1):96-107. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pad2.wikihow.com/images/c/c6/Acquired_Mirror_Writing_and_Reading_226.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perkins, D. and Salomon, G. (1992). Transfer of learning. International&#xA;encyclopedia of education. &lt;a href=&quot;http://learnweb.harvard.edu/alps/thinking/docs/traencyn.htm&quot;&gt;FREE LINK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-02T01:16:02.520" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T01:16:02.520" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="239" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="236" CreationDate="2012-02-02T11:06:55.010" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Communication is always a lossy and inexact process. If I am trying to convey information to you - the times of trains, for example - I can use dates and times that I can be confident that you will interpret the same way I do. But you may not - I may say the train leaves at 8:40, and you assume I mean the morning, whereas I actually mean the evening. So while there is a consistent and standardised worldview that I share, I can have reasonably high confidence in this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to emotions, these are, by definition, more subjective. The shared worldview is much smaller, and the chances of the words having the same meaning between us is significantly less. Because most words actually have emotional resonances, there is always this danger, but when the emotional resonance is the intention, this is an issue. I can only be sure of communicating the emotions to you if we share the same emotional language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This language is build though our experiences, memories, make-up etc, so to share a language, we need to share all of this - effectively impossible. To measure the difference, we would need to do a substantial comparison of the relevant worldviews of the two communicants. Given that most people cannot even start to quantify their own dominant worldview, this does not seem likely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Just noted - you referred to experiences not emotions. However the same applies, because our experiences are communicated emotionally.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T11:06:55.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="240" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="257" CreationDate="2012-02-02T12:07:16.650" Score="3" ViewCount="1331" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dynamicresources.net/reverse_movie.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reverse Movie Technique&lt;/a&gt; (also konwn as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.hawaii.edu/~lady/archive/phobia.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The NLP Fast Phobia/Trauma Cure&lt;/a&gt;)  is named as such because it involves playing a traumatic event backwards through your head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the technique effective at dealing with traumatic events?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In particular, is it more effective than playing the event forward through your head?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="103" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-07T13:06:10.427" LastActivityDate="2012-10-13T11:00:08.977" Title="How effective is the  NLP Reverse Movie Technique in dealing with traumatic experiences?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;&lt;neuro-linguistic-prog&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="241" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="248" CreationDate="2012-02-02T14:49:00.407" Score="62" ViewCount="14467" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is slightly left-field, but I am interested in the Cognitive Science implications of this question: Many people, myself included, are &quot;leg jigglers&quot;, meaning we often sit jiggling or bouncing a leg - usually to the irritation of those around us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The evidence that I have seen is that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it is not related to Parkinson's&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it is semi-involuntary - I can stop, but I do not consciously do it, and the speed of the jiggle is not something I am controlling&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it might be correlated to performance in tests&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and it is related to ADHD.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience, it does seem to help my concentration. but I don't know if this is biological or cognitive - that is, a physical help, or an outlet of my consciousness while I am focusing on something. I would like to know if anyone has any scientifically valid evidence for relating cognitive focus to leg jiggling?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastEditorUserId="4726" LastEditDate="2014-04-01T13:54:12.440" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T04:40:26.993" Title="Is leg jiggling a focus aid?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="16" FavoriteCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="242" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="247" CreationDate="2012-02-02T16:02:00.733" Score="15" ViewCount="1089" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I am reading some works about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans&quot;&gt;Caenorhabditis Elegans&lt;/a&gt;. A C.elegans has 302 neurons and we already know the function and connection of every one of their neurons so that we can exactly reconstruct it by computer programs. Also, C.elegans have a couple of sensory inputs, and a kind of intelligence (they can learn something).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is: what can we learn from C.elegans, so that we can understand Human brains?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To specify, I want to know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What's the relationship between C.elegans and Human beings (or primates)? Is there any route in the terms of evolution?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the neural system of C.elegans still exist in human brains, as either a working or an idle part? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a computer scientist working on artificial intelligence. My purpose is to clarify the mechanisms of the Human brain. I hope C.elegans could help but I don't know much about biology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="185" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-20T12:30:34.047" LastActivityDate="2012-03-20T12:30:34.047" Title="What can we learn from the neural networks of C.elegans to understand human brains?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="243" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="246" CreationDate="2012-02-02T18:53:13.557" Score="21" ViewCount="2070" Body="&lt;p&gt;Human beings are inclined to &quot;praise&quot; the unknown, and are often afraid of the unknown. This inclination has led to the creation of mythology and many gods. To this date we are still carrying this habit on our daily lives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Oh, look at these &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_circle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;crop circles&lt;/a&gt;, aliens must have created them!&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Oh, he can bend the spoon! He must have &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/x_NuZDaR46I?t=131&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychic power&lt;/a&gt;!&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Nah, earth must be &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.photoshopmagazin.com/yarisma/3556/calisma/17303?m=ajax&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;standing over the oxen horns&lt;/a&gt;, otherwise it would fall down!&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;It makes sense! You adjust your balance with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Balance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the wrist band exerting bioenergy&lt;/a&gt;! Here I come!&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I can gain 6 pack with this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;amp;q=6%20pack%20weeks&amp;amp;tbm=isch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nano-Ultra-Mega-AB-Shaper.&lt;/a&gt; It has &quot;nano&quot;, so it must be working, no?&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Since we are surrounded by energy, some chosen ones might bend it right? We call it &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reiki&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reiki&lt;/a&gt;!&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Since you have a BS degree. You must be a heck of a genius! Now can you please answer this question of geography/history/so on?&quot; (I usually encounter such questions from ignorant people. They regard me as Mr. Know it all, as they don't know what university infact is.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and most striking example of all is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_the_gaps&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;God of the Gaps&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To further exemplify my claim, Wikipedia quotes &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_the_gaps&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;God of the Gaps&lt;/a&gt; as a variant of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;argument from ignorance&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The term God-of-the-gaps argument can refer to a position that assumes&#xA;  an act of God as the explanation for an unknown phenomenon, which is a&#xA;  variant of an argument from ignorance.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0805074791&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newdualism.org/papers/R.Larmer/Gaps.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; Such an argument is&#xA;  sometimes reduced to the following form:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;There is a gap in understanding of some aspect of the natural world.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Therefore the cause must be supernatural.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One example of such an argument, which uses God as an explanation of&#xA;  one of the current gaps in biological science, is as follows: &quot;Because&#xA;  current science can't figure out exactly how life started, it must be&#xA;  God who caused life to start.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this answer is rather specific and not satisfying for me. I think there lies a cognitive bias that drives human beings to prefer to praise/fear the unknown over showing reasoning and critical thinking when we are faced to the unknown. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gCQIGiXf0JA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This scene&lt;/a&gt; from The Gods Must Be Crazy is spot on! Don't miss it :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does scientific research support the claims made above about the importance of this tendency to praise or fear the unknown?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there an exact term for this tendency? Is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam%27s_razor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Occam's Razor&lt;/a&gt; the right term for this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What does scientific research tell us about why humans have this tendency?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="77" LastEditorUserId="20723" LastEditDate="2019-08-26T03:44:40.183" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T03:44:40.183" Title="Why are people inclined to praise or fear the unknown?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;religion&gt;&lt;cognitive-science-of-religion&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="245" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-02T21:41:43.127" Score="12" ViewCount="3035" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few years ago I wrote a research paper for college on neural networks.  At the time IBM's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Brain_Project&quot;&gt;Blue Brain&lt;/a&gt; was the clear winner. Some rumor went around that they were close to emulating a brain the complexity of a cat; &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.discovery.com/tech/cat-brain-computer-hype.html&quot;&gt;this has since been debunked&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the time their research was groundbreaking and previously even emulating the brain of a C. Elegans &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.skeptic.com/reading_room/artificial-intelligence-gone-awry/&quot;&gt;seemed far-fetched&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Describing the complexity of neural networks is &lt;a href=&quot;http://math.bu.edu/people/mkon/pppp11.pdf&quot;&gt;complex&lt;/a&gt; but I'll define &lt;strong&gt;number of synapses&lt;/strong&gt; or neurons as an easily measurable scale of complexity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the most complex working artificial neural network? What is the relative complexity of this network compared to an animal's brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="408" LastEditDate="2012-04-14T00:27:57.887" LastActivityDate="2012-04-14T20:09:57.030" Title="What is the most complex artificial neural network created to date?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="246" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="243" CreationDate="2012-02-02T21:46:12.840" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0393064492&quot;&gt;&quot;Six Impossible Things Before Breakfast: The Evolutionary Origins of Belief&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, Wolpert (2007) discusses the evolutionary origins of belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I haven't read it yet, &lt;a href=&quot;http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=5817998&amp;amp;page=1#.TysB0LEgfB0&quot;&gt;abc news reviewed the book&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Wolpert argues that our wide range of beliefs, some of which are&#xA;  clearly false, grew out of a uniquely human trait. Alone in the animal&#xA;  world, &lt;strong&gt;humans understand cause and effect&lt;/strong&gt;, and that, he says, led&#xA;  ultimately to the invention of tools, the rapid rise of sophisticated&#xA;  technology, and of course, beliefs. Even the earliest humans&#xA;  understood that many events that shaped their lives resulted from&#xA;  specific causes. Therefore, there must be a cause behind every event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We want to believe there is a reason for it all, and that leaves&#xA;  us predisposed to believe in some things for which there is little or&#xA;  no evidence. If a certain belief makes sense out of an otherwise&#xA;  senseless event, then it must be true, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T21:46:12.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="247" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="242" CreationDate="2012-02-02T22:09:13.187" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Caenorhabditis elegans is probably not an ancestor to Humans. As found in &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb01293.x&quot;&gt;Sponge proteins are more similar to those of Homo sapiens than to Caenorhabditis elegans&lt;/a&gt;, certain sponges were found to have more similar protein structures to humans than C. elegans suggesting the sponges are the ancestor. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For your second point, it depends what you mean. The actual, exact sort of network in C. elegans doesn't exist as a &quot;part&quot; in Human brains nor would it even if humans had C elegans as a direct ancestor; the network would have evolved considerably. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic structure of the neural network as a connected net of neurons and the basic functionality has of course remained through all organisms with developed neural networks. Like all life, &lt;a href=&quot;http://weboflife.nasa.gov/celegans/questionsshow.htm#exist&quot;&gt;certain related developmental processes exist&lt;/a&gt; between humans and C. elegans, which is why studying them (and most any other animal) is often relevant to Human research of similar biological or psychological areas of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/current-biology/retrieve/pii/S0960982204005482&quot;&gt;C. elegans can even learn&lt;/a&gt;, showing it is a very complete model of a neural network, despite it's simplicity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;C. elegans is not studied because it is an ancestor or because it has any particular relation to the human mind, but because it has an &lt;strong&gt;extremely simple, completely functional neural network&lt;/strong&gt;. There are complete maps of C elegans' neural network and even &lt;a href=&quot;http://ims.dse.ibaraki.ac.jp/research/C_elegans_en.html&quot;&gt;online tools to search the synapses of C elegans&lt;/a&gt;. There are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biologie.ens.fr/bcsgnce/&quot;&gt;whole websites dedicated to research on C. elegans&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar to fruit flies, C. elegans also provide a great vector for developmental research because they have a lifespan of a couple weeks instead of decades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some great further reading is the introductory &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biologie.ens.fr/bcsgnce/spip.php?article2&quot;&gt;Why use C. elegans to study the synapse ?&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-02-02T22:09:13.187" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="248" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="241" CreationDate="2012-02-02T23:20:14.523" Score="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've also observed this behaviour in friends, and was curious to see what research has been done on the topic. Here's what I found (summary at the end). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Sechrest and Flores (1971) study of leg-jiggling&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sechrest and Flores (1971) performed an observational study of the prevalence of leg-jiggling &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;leg jiggling was defined as a vertical, rhythmic movement of one or&#xA;  both legs while the subject was in a seated position&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their findings, albeit based on varying-quality data were that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;leg jiggling is more common in the Philippines than in the United States&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;individual differences exist in prevalence of leg jiggling &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;people may jiggle their legs more when alone than in company&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;leg jiggling appears to be more prevalent in males than in females &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;leg jiggling is facilitated by type of sitting position. Specifically, legs uncrossed makes leg jiggling a lot easier and more likely.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They tentatively concluded that leg jiggling is a symptom of tension and classified it as a nervous mannerism. They also suggested, given cultural differences, that it may be acquired through imitation of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Leg jiggling as communication&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith and Naryan (2008), in their conference abstract, discuss features of leg jiggling and conclude that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;while so far we can only speculate about the causal and&#xA;  functional properties of jiggles, they are clearly substantially&#xA;  rule-governed, sensitive to both formal and semantic aspects of&#xA;  ongoing discourse, widespread - both patterns were observed in all&#xA;  discourse contexts, and both languages - and deserving of further &#xA;  attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Restless leg syndrome&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a disorder called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restless_legs_syndrome&quot;&gt;restless leg syndrome&lt;/a&gt;. From the description the leg movement is voluntary but the desire to move the leg sounds much stronger than what we are talking about with normal leg jiggling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Fidgeting&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mehrabian and Friedman (1986) did a general study of fidgeting where leg jiggling was classified with a wide range of other fidgeting behaviours. &#xA;Fidgeting was defined as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;engaging in manipulations of one's own body parts or other objects, such actions being &#xA;  peripheral or nonessential to central ongoing events or tasks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They developed a self-reported fidgeting scale and proceeded to correlate the scale with a range of other measures. Given the composite nature of the scale, it is difficult to say what correlates leg jiggling specifically has with other measures. And even if such correlations were known, it would only say something about what types of people jiggle their legs rather than the effect leg jiggling has for those that do jiggle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Student concentration&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Appleton (1969) in a study of student concentration suggests&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Individual styles and habits reveal personal means of coping with the&#xA;  profound isolation of the concentrating state. Leg jiggling, for&#xA;  example, may be an outlet for sexual tension or a method of exercise&#xA;  and movement. Many students find the physical inactivity demanded by&#xA;  heavy work loads to be extremely difficult to bear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Summary of links between leg jiggling and focus&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in relation to your specific question on leg jiggling facilitating focus, the research that I've found is fairly limited. Researchers have noticed that leg jiggling is used by students when studying in order to deal with the otherwise, long periods of no movement. This is consistent with my own thoughts that it might be related to a general desire to increase circulation. Several researchers have also posited that leg jiggling may be  a way of dealing with stress, which arguably might assist with concentration. But ultimately, it looks like more research is needed on this topic, particularly experimental evidence on the effects of leg jiggling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Appleton, W. S. (1969). The struggle to concentrate. Amer. J. Psychiat, 126, 256. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ad-teaching.informatik.uni-freiburg.de/zbmed/Germany%20PLC/AJP/Entpackt/ajp_126_2.pdf/256.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mehrabian, A. and Friedman, S. (1986). An analysis of fidgeting and&#xA;associated individual differences. Journal of Personality,&#xA;54(2):406-429.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sechrest, L. and Flores, L. (1971). The occurrence of a nervous&#xA;mannerism in two cultures. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. Asian Studies, 1, 55-63. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.egadconnection.org/Occurrence%20of%20a%20nervous%20mannerism%20in%20two%20cultures.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Smith, N. J. &amp;amp; Narayan, S. (2008). Fidgeting is Not Random: Rhythmic Leg Motion, Speech, and Gesture.9th Conference on Conceptual Structure, Discourse, &amp;amp; Language (CSDL9) &lt;a href=&quot;http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1291504&quot;&gt;LINK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-03T06:51:35.117" LastActivityDate="2012-02-03T06:51:35.117" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="249" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="192" CreationDate="2012-02-03T00:38:12.467" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not my area, but I did a little research and found a few things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Silverman (2000) has an interesting article discussing children who are gifted but also have a learning disability. The article makes a number of interesting points about how other skills are often developed in order to compensate for a given disability (e.g., like how people who are vision impaired are better able to use their remaining senses).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In relation to dyslexia, Silverman summarises the work of Ron Davis. Specifically, Silverman  stated that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ron Davis (1994), in The Gift of Dyslexia, describes the benefits of&#xA;  dyslexia. He lists the basic abilities that all dyslexics share:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;They can utilize the brain’s ability to alter and create perceptions (the primary ability).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;They are highly aware of the environment.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;They are more curious than average.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;They think mainly in pictures instead of words.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;They are highly intuitive and insightful.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;They think and perceive multi-dimensionally (using all the senses).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;They can experience thought as reality.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;They have vivid imaginations. (p. 5)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I haven't read the book, and I'm unclear on the degree of empirical support for these claims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Davis, R. D. (with E. M. Braun). (1994). The gift of dyslexia. Burlingame, CA:&#xA;Ability Workshop Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Silverman, L. (2000). The two-edged sword of compensation: How the&#xA;gifted cope with learning disabilities. In Uniquely gifted: Identifying&#xA;and meeting the needs of twice exceptional learners, pages 153-159. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pegy.org.uk/Two-edged%20sword%20of%20compensation%20PEGY%20pdf.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-02-03T00:38:12.467" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="250" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="221" CreationDate="2012-02-03T01:25:48.130" Score="8" Body="&lt;h3&gt;General pedagogical ideas around optimal difficulty&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many theories of instruction suggest that learning is optimal when an appropriate level of challenge is maintained. If a task is too easy, there's little to learn. If a task is too difficult, the learner can be overwhelmed. The implication for practice is that task difficulty should increase in conjunction with the increased skill of the learner. Of course, we can think of exceptions to these ideas, such as the value of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overlearning&quot;&gt;over-learning&lt;/a&gt;, and the general idea of exposing people to challenging problems to motivate further learning. This also still leaves open the question of precisely how fast difficulty should increase for a given learner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Academically, I've seen these ideas expressed in several places:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Practice_%28learning_method%29#Deliberate_practice&quot;&gt;Deliberate practice&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: This is a concept drawn from the expertise literature. It is posited that amount of deliberate practice (rather than amount of simple experience) is one of the key factors that discriminates experts from non-experts (see Ericsson et al 2006). &#xA;A key aspect of task difficulty relates to the sequencing of task difficulty with practice. &#xA;Ericsson et al (2006) writes that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The core assumption of deliberate practice ... is that expert&#xA;  performance is acquired gradually and that effective improvement of&#xA;  performance requires the opportunity to find suitable training tasks&#xA;  that the performer can master sequentially... Deliberate practice&#xA;  presents performers with tasks that are initially outside their&#xA;  current realm of reliable performance, yet can be mastered within&#xA;  hours of practice by concentrating on critical aspects and by&#xA;  gradually refining performance through repetitions after feedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenge_Point_Framework&quot;&gt;Challenge point&lt;/a&gt; in motor learning&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;Guadagnoli and Lee present a framework for thinking about optimal difficulty in motor learning. Their framework suggests that optimal learning is achieved by maintaining task difficulty at the point where it provides optimal information (where learning is possible, but it is not too difficult as to be overwhelming).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Research on task difficulty and perceptual learning&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a review article Ahissar and Hochstein (2004) also suggest easy to difficult is the most effective regime for perceptual learning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As found in our studies, training is more effective if subjects start&#xA;  with easy conditions and gradually move to more difficult con-&#xA;  ditions. The importance of beginning training with easy conditions was&#xA;  first found by Pavlov. When Pavlov reinforced a dog’s salivation&#xA;  following its seeing an ellipse but not following its seeing a circle&#xA;  (Figure I, rightmost pair of stimuli), the dog could not avoid&#xA;  generalization and salivated at sight of the circle, as well. Only by&#xA;  using very elongated ellipses, and training along the continuum, from&#xA;  left to right, was it able to achieve good performance for small&#xA;  circle/ellipse differences. This phenomenon was subsequently termed&#xA;  ‘transfer along a continuum’ (of different degrees of difficulty).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ahissar, M. and Hochstein, S. (2004). The reverse hierarchy theory of&#xA;visual perceptual learning. Trends in cognitive sciences, 8(10):457-464. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cvcl.mit.edu/SUNSeminar/Hochstein_TICS04.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. et al. (2006). The influence of experience and deliberate&#xA;practice on the development of superior expert performance. The&#xA;Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance, 10(3):683-703.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ida.liu.se/~nilda/Anders_Ericsson/Ericsson_delib_pract.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Guadagnoli, M. and Lee, T. (2004). Challenge point: a framework for&#xA;conceptualizing the effects of various practice conditions in motor&#xA;learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 36(2):212-224. &lt;a href=&quot;http://sciwebserver.science.mcmaster.ca/kinesiology/images/stories/Guadagnoli202620Lee20JMB202004.pdf&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="38" LastEditDate="2012-02-03T10:36:25.367" LastActivityDate="2012-02-03T10:36:25.367" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="251" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="276" CreationDate="2012-02-03T01:33:55.077" Score="19" ViewCount="1522" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the early 90s Tversky &amp;amp; Shafir observed several violations of rationality in human participants, in particular violation of the disjunction effect and sure-thing principle. This has lead to much work on questioning the rationalist assumptions of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_economicus&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Homo economicus&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Example&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of the violation they saw was in the Prisoners' dilemma: if a person knew their partner defected then also defected (only a 3% cooperation rate), if a person knew their partner cooperated then they usually still defected (only a 16% cooperation rate). However, if they were not sure if their partner defected or cooperated, then they cooperated at much higher rates (a 37% cooperation rate). This violates the naive rationalist expectation of some % between 3 and 16 in the unknown-condition case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shafir &amp;amp; Tversky explained this effect through &lt;em&gt;quasi-magical thinking&lt;/em&gt;. Even though the participants knew they had no causal effect on their partner's choice, when the choice was unknown they still &amp;quot;did their part&amp;quot; to cause a favorable outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that given the false-belief that your actions magically effect the outcome of the other participant's decision, it is no longer irrational to cooperate at a higher rate when you don't know the partner's decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;em&gt;H.econ&lt;/em&gt; is still a popular model in economics. For some, this is a pragmatic choice (&amp;quot;the assumption holds in most situation and allows us to build nice models, so we are okay with it being broken &lt;em&gt;sometimes&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot;), but others have strong justifications for why rationality is still a good principle. What is a popular way for rationalists to defend against the apparent violations of rationality brought up by Tversky and Shafir that go beyond false-beliefs or quasi-magical thinking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shafir, E., &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1992). Thinking through uncertainty: Nonconsequential reasoning and choice. Cognitive Psychology, 24, 449-474. &lt;a href=&quot;http://uwch-4.humanities.washington.edu/Texts/JOSH-H/Philosophy%20Guides,%20Analysis%27%20and%20Resources%20(ver.2)/Preference,%20Belief,%20and%20Similarity%20Selected%20Writings%20(Bradford%20Books).pdf#page=720&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tversky, A., &amp;amp; Shafir, E. (1992). The disjunction effect in choice under uncertainty. Psychological Science, 3, 305-309.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-11-11T10:16:45.200" Title="What are popular rationalist responses to Tversky &amp; Shafir?" Tags="&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="252" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="253" CreationDate="2012-02-03T02:13:10.840" Score="28" ViewCount="3293" Body="&lt;p&gt;After asking the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/245/what-is-the-most-complex-artificial-neural-network-created-to-date&quot;&gt;What is the most complex neural network...&lt;/a&gt; I realized I don't really have a good metric of &quot;complexity&quot; in a general sense. The simplest measure would likely be count of neurons or number of synapses, but that fails to take into account the structure of the network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A couple measures of complexity are discussed in the paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://math.bu.edu/people/mkon/pppp11.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Complexity of Predictive Neural Networks&#xA;&lt;/a&gt; but they are very specific to a single task. One is the amount of work needed to learn a certain thing, and the other is how many neurons are needed to approximate a certain function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rough, animal based measures are often employees for the sake of grabbing headlines; such as the incorrect claims that &lt;a href=&quot;http://bluebrain.epfl.ch/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Blue Brain Project&lt;/a&gt; had emulated a neural network &quot;as complex as&quot; a cat's brain. C. elegans is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.csi.uoregon.edu/projects/celegans/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;common and seemingly attainable&lt;/a&gt; level of complexity for an artificial neural network. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Animal based measures are relateable to the layman but seem questionable, especially when comparing a neural network to that of an animal who's neural network has not been completely mapped (&lt;a href=&quot;http://ims.dse.ibaraki.ac.jp/research/C_elegans_en.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;as C. elegans has&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is a meaningful measure by which artificial neural networks can be measured? How are such networks currently compared? Can any such metric appropriately measure complexity of such a system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-02-09T02:43:14.820" Title="What is an effective metric of complexity for an Artificial Neural Network?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="252" CreationDate="2012-02-03T03:15:27.830" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;The standard complexity metric in theoretical computer science and machine learning, in particular in statistical learning theory, is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VC_dimension&quot;&gt;Vapnik–Chervonenkis (VC) dimension&lt;/a&gt;. It is of interest because it gives us a very good tool to measure the learning ability of a neural network (or any other statistical learner, in general).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good introduction to the use of VC dimension for studying neural nets is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eduardo D. Sontag [1998] &quot;VC dimension of neural networks&quot; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://mathsci.kaist.ac.kr/~nipl/mas557/VCD_ANN_3.pdf&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There, the author shows (for instance) that a network with one hidden layer, $n$ inputs, and $\tanh$ neurons has VC dimension of $n + 1$. He also explain some basic technique for how to upper-bound the VC dimension, and for how to use it for dynamic neural nets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-29T03:25:17.360" LastActivityDate="2012-06-29T03:25:17.360" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="254" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="201" CreationDate="2012-02-03T03:55:02.680" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Great question!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To start, you are absolutely right-- a 1997 article on fMRI is considered very old as far as the field is concerned. Statistical techniques have improved dramatically since then so, while I haven't read the article in question, it's safe to assume that there are probably lots of things they would do differently if the study was conducted today. In fact, there are often quite a few ways of analyzing the same data; some of my answers below reflect my own experience using AFNI (SPM users may use different techniques).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;it seems as if they're throwing away a lot of information by&#xA;  discarding all voxels where activity is not above chance level and&#xA;  maybe more importantly by treating all significantly activated voxels&#xA;  as the same even though there may be significant differences in their&#xA;  activation level&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Following the standard mass-univariate approach to fMRI, there is not much you can do about throwing away voxels that aren't below alpha level. Not doing so would inflate your Type I error rate. There are alternatives to the mass-univariate approach, such as multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA), but each technique has its own strengths and weaknesses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as treating all significant voxels the same-- that's not quite true. They usually are treated the same qualitatively-- that's just how classical hypothesis testing works. A p-value less than alpha means you can reject the null, otherwise you can't. There's no middle ground. Besides, voxel activations are all relative anyway (using the cognitive subtraction technique), so absolute activation levels are not always informative. However, you can use activation levels to determine the centroid! So let me jump to that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What are different ways to calculate centroids without discarding so&#xA;  much information but still backing up the conclusion inferentially&#xA;  (some sort of spatial confidence area?)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After performing a mass GLM to determine significant voxels, voxels can be clustered. In AFNI, this is done using a k-neighbors approach; e.g. if I set my cluster size to k=20, all voxels that don't belong to a cluster of minimum 20 contiguous, significant voxels will be eliminated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The center of each cluster is most often reported as the &lt;em&gt;peak&lt;/em&gt; activation in the cluster (see? not all activations are treated equally). Sometimes, it is reported as the geometric center of mass-- and yes, that's volume, not real mass. Peak is usually more informative because it's more likely that the task your measuring is functionally localized at the peak, rather than the center of mass. However, center of mass may give you a better idea of the spatial extent of your cluster. There are probably better justifications, but that's what jumps to mind...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is a good method to test spatial separation of activity for two&#xA;  conditions? I'm not asking about demonstrating functional separation,&#xA;  but once you don't treat voxels as on-and-off anymore, calculating&#xA;  degree of overlap becomes less trivial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, spatial separation is usually not important. Some functional regions are much larger than others-- there may be 'little' functional difference between voxels that are largely separated in the motor cortex. But the same spatial separation between voxels of two different cytoarchitectonic structures may have radically different functions. I may be missing the point here though, if so, please clarify and I'll try to help...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-02-03T03:55:02.680" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="256" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-03T06:23:50.813" Score="6" ViewCount="246" Body="&lt;p&gt;The disjunction effect (or violation of the sure-thing principle) is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A dis­junc­tion effect occurs when peo­ple pre­fer x over y when they know that event A obtains, and they also pre­fer x over y when they know that A does not obtain, but they pre­fer y over x when it is unknown whether A obtains or not. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/001002859290015T&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shafir &amp;amp; Tversky 1992&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This effect has been studied extensively since 1992. However, the papers I've read did not come with the raw datasets. &lt;strong&gt;I was wondering if there are datasets of this effect available online.&lt;/strong&gt; A meta-analysis that synthesizes many experimental results would be a good alternative. Of particular interest would be datasets where the effect was observed in two or more different settings (say once with PD and then with repeated bets, etc) with the same participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Related questions:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/251/29&quot;&gt;What are popular rationalist responses to Tversky &amp;amp; Shafir?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/16/29&quot;&gt;Online data repository of research in the cognitive sciences&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1548/29&quot;&gt;Human behaviour in one-shot perfect information games&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-08-16T04:15:56.587" Title="Online datasets for the disjunction effect and violations of the sure-thing principle" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="257" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="240" CreationDate="2012-02-03T06:35:16.197" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Reverse Movie Technique (RMT) is a particular form of what is sometimes called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;exposure therapy&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolonged_exposure_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;prolonged exposure therapy&lt;/a&gt; or imaginal exposure therapy. It seems like &quot;Reverse Memory Technique&quot; is a niche term that isn't used in the scientific literature (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=%22reverse%20movie%20technique%22&amp;amp;btnG=Search&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,5&amp;amp;as_ylo=&amp;amp;as_vis=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;0 hits on Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;). So, if you are wanting to get a scientific answer to your question, I'd check out the literature on &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?q=imaginal+exposure+therapy+&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;btnG=Search&amp;amp;as_sdt=1%2C5&amp;amp;as_sdtp=on&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;imaginal exposure therapy&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (195 hits at time of posting) or &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=imaginal+exposure+therapy+&amp;amp;btnG=Search&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;as_ylo=&amp;amp;as_vis=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;imaginal exposure therapy&lt;/a&gt; without quotations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, there are a few links in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder#Psychotherapeutic_interventions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia PTSD article to evaluations of psychotherapeutic interventions&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To take one example of evaluation research, Taylor et al (2003) compared the efficacy of exposure therapy, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_movement_desensitization_and_reprocessing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EMDR&lt;/a&gt; and relaxation training on 60 participants with long term PTSD. They found all three techniques were effective when comparing pre- and post- intervention scores, although for some symptoms (i.e., reexperiencing and avoidance symptoms) exposure therapy was more effective.&#xA;You might also find the literature review in the article useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taylor, S., Thordarson, D., Maxfield, L., Fedoroff, I., Lovell, K., and&#xA;Ogrodniczuk, J. (2003). Comparative efficacy, speed, and adverse effects&#xA;of three ptsd treatments: Exposure therapy, emdr, and relaxation&#xA;training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(2):330.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://digilib.bc.edu/reserves/sw856/taylor856.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note that this is not my area of expertise, so anyone reading this, don't see it as clinical advice.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-09T00:15:16.347" LastActivityDate="2012-02-09T00:15:16.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="258" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16" CreationDate="2012-02-03T07:07:36.330" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dvn.iq.harvard.edu/dvn/&quot;&gt;IQSS Dataverse Network&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; looks good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the website:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Access the world's largest collection of social science research data&#xA;  here by searching across or browsing through one of the virtual data&#xA;  archives (called &quot;dataverses&quot;) listed below. You may also create a&#xA;  dataverse of your own, backed up in perpetuity by the Henry A. Murray&#xA;  Archive, which may easily be customized to appear as if it is on your&#xA;  web page, but in fact is served by the IQSS Dataverse Network. This&#xA;  means that all the scholarly credit, web visibility, and access&#xA;  control for the data devolve to you, but all the work, preservation&#xA;  guarantees, and software and hardware upgrades and maintenance are&#xA;  taken care of by IQSS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At time of posting it lists &lt;code&gt;Dataverses: 390 | Studies: 42,018 | Files: 674,076&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-02-03T07:07:36.330" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2012-02-20T13:24:02.863" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="260" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-03T10:36:27.237" Score="9" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;In most places that I've worked, when some sort of problem arose or corrective action needs to be taken, one of the first responses is to send mass emails at an organization or team level and set up mandatory group training sessions. Sometimes, this is in place of an effort to correct individual actions that led to the problem on a personal level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does the use of broad messages (email, group training, individual training mandated for all individuals) have an impact on behavior that is equal to or greater than the use of individually-focused efforts?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize that in some cases, the occurrence of a problem could indicate a lack of training that does need to be addressed at a larger level to minimize future occurrences. I also realize that that some incidents might be accidental - the person realized that they did or didn't do something and personally took corrective action to prevent it in the future. However, I'm especially interested in cases where an individual performed some type of action (or inaction) that led to the occurrence of a problem and did not take corrective action on their own and if group-oriented messages have a chance of changing their behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-07-25T22:49:04.883" LastActivityDate="2012-07-25T22:49:04.883" Title="What are the considerations for using wide-reaching messages and training over individual-focused efforts for changing behavior?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="261" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="243" CreationDate="2012-02-03T11:06:06.160" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this is slightly tautologous, because we all turn to &quot;belief&quot; to explain the things that we don't understand. Scientists turn to their beliefs just as much as religious people, because belief is the thing that covers those thigs we don't understand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The real question is why do people - of all sorts - not use their beliefs as a starting point to explore and understand. Belief is the idea that everything is explicable within our existing worldview - in fact, wider than this, within the limits of our ontology - and belief is the expression of this to events we do not yet understand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One example in cosmology is the idea of &quot;Dark Matter&quot;. This is an extension of belief that everythign is explicable to say that there is something we do not understand. Naming it Dark Matter does nothing about explaining it, just defines it as something that is not yet understood. Defining God as He Whom Explains That Which We Do Not Understand is the same process. The real challenge is to progress into understanding that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(and, to make my position clear, I do believe in God, but not a God of the gaps)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastActivityDate="2012-02-03T11:06:06.160" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="262" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-03T12:46:03.207" Score="21" ViewCount="3331" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although adult brains are malleable and even undergo limited neuorgenesis, the extent of the neuroplasticiy is much lower than in children. This is most obvious in language acquisition, and recovery from brain trauma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there formal models (computational or mathematical) that explain &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; our brains so drastically reduce in plasticity with age?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a highly malleable brain is supposed to help us adapt and deal with a constantly changing environment, then naively one would expect it to be advantageous to maintain a malleable brain for your whole life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Background from critical-period in language acquisition&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is an example of formal models that I am already familiar with that answer a related question (critical-period in language acquisition). I am interested in answers in this spirit, but that can address not just language-acquisition but the general decrease in neuroplasticity.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of the critical period for language acquisition there are evolutionary models by Hurford (1991) and Komarova &amp;amp; Nowak (2001). However, neither model generalizes easily to the case of neuralplasticity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hurford's model uses neutral drift to explain the upper bound on the critical period of language acquisition because of the need for second language acquisition in life is largely unnecessary. However, the need to adapt to your environment is necessary throughout life, so plasticity should not be under neutral drift.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of Komarova &amp;amp; Nowak, the upper bound is due to a trade-off between the cost of learning (driving critical period down) and the importance of learning a language accurately (driving critical period up). This balances out and allows for an ESS due to dimishing returns: once you've learned a language pretty-well it becomes more costly to invest in learning further than the returns from better learning. However, adapting to a constantly changing environment is not a single static task, and thus it is not clear why your returns would diminish. Further, it is not clear how keeping high plasticity is more costly than maintaining lower plasticity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Notes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;This is a question of &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;, not &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt;. Although it is very interesting to know &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; the plasticity of adult brains decreases, in this question I am interested in &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; this is the case over the hypothetical &amp;quot;keep as malleable as a baby&amp;quot; alternative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Both Hurford (1991) and Komarova &amp;amp; Nowak (2001) provide formal evolutionary models that I do not describe in detail. I am interested in formal models like this, although they need not be evolutionary. An answer on the level of rhetoric (especially if it is evolutionary rhetoric) is not nearly as interesting to me as a formal model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hurford (1991) and Komarova &amp;amp; Nowak (2001) are meant as examples of work that answer the potentially easier question of critical period of language-acquisition. I am interested in the more general question of decrease in neuroplasticity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hurford, J. R. (1991). The evolution of critical period for language acquisition. Cognition, 40, 159-201. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ling.ed.ac.uk/%7Ejim/crit.per.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Komarova, N. L. &amp;amp; Nowak, M. A. (2001). Natural selection of the critical period for language acquisition. Proc. R. Soc. London. B, 268(1472), 1189-1196. &lt;a href=&quot;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/268/1472/1189.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-02-02T21:09:51.667" Title="Why does neuroplasticity decrease in adults?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="265" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-04T00:22:25.867" Score="16" ViewCount="1781" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Background&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to capture detailed information from the images in my visual memory, mainly text.  My daily life requires reading many documents on varying topics. I want to increase my reading speed and comprehension so that I can see text blocks as a whole; that is I see them not as meaningful text, but an image to be processed later. Perhaps then I would be able to iterate over the images in memory faster than I can with my eyes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, when I need to remember the details of a topic, I can visually remember the location of the text in the document, but I can't recall details such as whole sentences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to improve my visual memory by this simple exercise: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;chose a random image from flickr &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;have a look at it for a few seconds &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;eyes closed, try to rebuild the image from memory &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but normally I can not remember many of the details from the image, even if it's not very detailed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I try this exercise with text blocks, I mostly end up &quot;reading the block&quot;. It's hard to treat a text block as an image without reading it. So I normally fail at visualizing it in my memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it possible to improve reading speed, reading comprehension, and visual comprehension through visualisation exercises like those above?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If not with the above exercises, are there other exercises that can improve such skills?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="271" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-02-04T20:36:10.930" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T05:28:47.540" Title="Is it possible to improve reading speed and visual comprehension by doing exercises?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="266" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="281" CreationDate="2012-02-04T01:00:46.317" Score="7" ViewCount="8800" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a practice session is too long, there will presumably be a point where no further significant gains can be made without a break. At what point will this be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update&lt;/strong&gt;: This question was originally about the length of an initial training session, but it has since been rescoped to cover training sessions in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="103" LastEditorUserId="103" LastEditDate="2012-02-06T12:30:42.687" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T12:30:42.687" Title="What is the optimal length of a training session?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;training&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="267" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-04T01:49:32.120" Score="6" ViewCount="1705" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that the head size of human beings has evolved to be relatively similar, yet there is still some amount of variation. While I'm sure the correlation is not absolute, I read that larger heads do imply larger brains. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, my questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the correlation between head size and brain size?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the relationship between brain size and mental processing ability (e.g., intelligence, emotional responses to certain stimuli, reaction time, etc)? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why might these correlations exist or not exist?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="33" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-04T11:46:12.203" LastActivityDate="2013-03-10T02:35:15.547" Title="Is variation in human brain size related to mental functioning?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="268" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="267" CreationDate="2012-02-04T03:03:39.020" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Kinda : p&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The overwhelming consensus is that it has more to do with brain/body mass ratios.  If you are an elephant, you need a lot of wiring to control everything, and that all takes room.  Humans have the best ratios by far.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, think about a child prodigy vs an adult.  One clearly outmatches the other in terms of brain size.  In some brain structures, size or density &lt;strong&gt;does&lt;/strong&gt; increase with expertise.  But overall, you need to understand that these are really complex networks and size/space is only one factor affecting their performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="273" LastActivityDate="2012-02-04T03:03:39.020" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="269" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="265" CreationDate="2012-02-04T03:14:05.430" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not really.  There is some evidence showing n-back improves working memory, but it's fairly weak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you are trying to do is speed-reading, which doesn't work either.  Almost all speed reading techniques (suppressing inner voice, reading blocks of text at a time, etc) don't perform any better than skimming.  Speed reading methods generally just trade speed for comprehension and retention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only trick that does help is Rapid Serial Visualization Presentation (RSVP).  RSVP shows words sequentially, so you don't have to wait for your eye to move from word to word and back across lines of text.  You might be able to double your reading speed, but it's pretty tiring and I believe all of the studies were rather scoped.  I doubt that using RSVP all day would improve long-term retention that much, as you need to elaborate on what you are reading in order to retain it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="273" LastActivityDate="2012-02-04T03:14:05.430" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="271" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-04T03:43:33.230" Score="10" ViewCount="165" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whenever I start a new research project, I typically have to find questions and scales that have proven validity in measuring constructs of interest (e.g., psychological / political science / social science scales). This can often be quite time consuming, and often there are issues of cost and copyright to consider.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are general tips for efficiently and cost effectively locating measures for a given construct?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any databases that make it easy to locate such measures?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there anything like a StackOverflow/PatternLibrary/Best Practices compendium of measures or advice on locating measures?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="273" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-07T20:37:41.590" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T11:52:41.467" Title="How to efficiently locate existing psychology and social science measures?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="276" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="251" CreationDate="2012-02-04T10:58:03.697" Score="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know 2 explanations to such seemingly irrational behaviour in cognitive science. Both of them don't really justify the usage of the simple reward-maximizing model in economics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Rule Rationality versus Act Rationality&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Act Rationality&lt;/strong&gt; is the notion that &lt;strong&gt;every decision&lt;/strong&gt; an agent makes is made in order to maximize his utility. &lt;strong&gt;Rule Rationality&lt;/strong&gt; is the notion that decision making follows rules. These rules are rational, in the sense that among all possible rules, the chosen rule is the one that &lt;strong&gt;on average&lt;/strong&gt; (over choices made) maximizes the agent's utility. Importantly, not every decision is optimal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the example you stated, this can be seen as the following: Usually, my actions towards others affect their actions towards me. In this specific game it is not the case, but people cannot take that into account, because of their rule. Their rule says &quot;Assume people are good, try to cooperate, and defect only as a last resort, or if the gain is very high&quot;. If they are told explicitly what the other player has chosen, than it is obvious that their choice cannot affect his (so they compute the utility of both choices and choose the higher one). If they're not told the other player's decision, then they assume their decision will affect his to some extent, &lt;strong&gt;because that is the way it usually works in the real world&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://carbon.videolectures.net/2008/pascal2/eccs08_jerusalem/aumann_rrvar/eccs08_aumann_rrvar_01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A presentation by Nobel laurate Robert Aumann on the subject&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This explanation is closely related to the concept of '&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_rationality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bounded Rationality&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;' that assumes rational decisions with some bounds on the amount of information or processing power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Relation to Homo economicus&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This explanation contradicts the assumptions of &lt;em&gt;H.economicus&lt;/em&gt; - Actions are not taken to optimize a utility function in every situation. Actions are taken according to rules (that are themselves optimized perhaps during evolution to optimize &lt;strong&gt;average&lt;/strong&gt; reward).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Unknown optimization function&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People choose optimally, just not trying to optimize what you think they are. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if we add some 'reputation' that the agent has, and he is also worried about how his choice will affect (in addition to minimizing the time spent in prison, in the prisonner's dillema), perhaps we can explain the result you mentioned. When the 'time in prison' outcome is clear (other person's choice is known) then it gets a high weight in the combined optimization problem. When the 'time in prison' outcome is not clear (other person's choice is not known) then it gets a smaller weight (no point in working too hard to optimize goals you can't predict) and the reputation result (I want to be perceived as a 'good'/'cooperating' person) is given more weight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This explanation is more 'rationalistic' by nature: It &lt;strong&gt;assumes&lt;/strong&gt; behaviour is an optimization problem - we (the experimenters/scientists) just don't necessarily know the optimization function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Relation to Homo economicus&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This explanation is somewhat consistent with H.economicus. The problem is, we don't know the utility function in the general case. It can be very complex, and take into account different factors in different situations. This means that the H.economicus' basic assumtion (optimizing some utility function) is correct, but it makes the model less useful by making the specific function used not known in the general case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="38" LastEditDate="2014-11-11T10:16:45.200" LastActivityDate="2014-11-11T10:16:45.200" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="267" CreationDate="2012-02-04T15:09:07.643" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;One relatively recent review on this topic is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2668913/&quot;&gt;Rushton &amp;amp; Ankney (2009)&lt;/a&gt;. They report that there have been a large number of studies with varying results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;28 studies, covering a total of 1,389 subjects, used brain imaging techniques to estimate the size of the brain. Correlations with general mental ability (GMA) ranged from 0.04 to 0.69, with an unweighted mean of 0.40. Weighting the correlations with the sample size produces a mean of 0.38.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;59 studies, covering a total of 63,403 subjects, used external head measurements to estimate the size of the brain. Correlations with general mental ability ranged from 0.02 to 0.55, with an unweighted mean of 0.21. Weighting the correlations with the sample sizes produces a mean of 0.20.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;6 studies used Jensen's method of uncorrelated vectors to distill &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt;, getting a mean correlation of 0.63.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last point probably needs some explaining. The &lt;em&gt;g-factor&lt;/em&gt;, or &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; for short, is the quantity that IQ tests are designed to measure. The name &quot;g factor&quot; comes from the fact that it is a common, general factor which all kinds of intelligence draw upon. For instance, &lt;a href=&quot;http://119.93.223.179/ScienceDirect/Cognitive%20Sciences/05-03/sdarticle_013.pdf&quot;&gt;Deary (2001)&lt;/a&gt; analyzed an American standardization sample of the WAIS-III intelligence test, and built a model where performance on the 13 subtests was primarily influenced by four group factors, or components of intelligence: verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed. In addition, there was a common &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; factor that strongly influenced all four. The model indicated that the variance in &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; was responsible for 74% of the variance in verbal comprehension, 88% of the variance in perceptual organization, 83% of the variance in working memory, and 61% of the variance in processing speed. In other words, if a person has a lot of &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt;, then (s)he is likely to also get a high score on tests measuring all subtypes of intelligence. This is possibly because &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; is something in the brain that all the subtypes of intelligence benefit from. But note the word likely - the correlation is not perfect, so it's still possible to have a high &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; but be worse than average in some subtype of intelligence. It's just less likely than the converse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now experts might be cringing at that previous paragraph, because I talked about an individual having a lot of &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt;. Technically, &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; is something that is computed from the correlations between various test scores in a given sample, and there's no such thing as the &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; of any specific individual. The technique doesn't even guarantee that &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; actually corresponds with any physical quantity, as opposed to something that the method just happened to produce by accident. So when you want to measure someone's intelligence, you make a lot of people take tests that are known to be strongly &lt;em&gt;g-loaded&lt;/em&gt;. That means that the performance on the tests is strongly correlated with &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt;. Then you take their raw scores and standardize them to produce an IQ score, so that if e.g. only 10% of the test-takers got a raw score of X, then anyone getting the raw score of X is assigned an IQ indicating that they're in the top 10% of the population. And although this still doesn't tell us what an individual's &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; score is, it gives us a score that's closely correlated with &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt;. IQ also seems to predict a large number of things like life outcomes and performance in a variety of tasks and so forth. See e.g. Jensen (1998) for (much) more on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So now that I've explained all that, what does the &quot;6 studies used Jensen's method of uncorrelated vectors to distill &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt;&quot; bit mean? Well, if I'm understanding the paper right, then the 28 + 59 other studies calculated the correlation between brain size and IQ. In other words, between brain size and performance on some particular intelligence test, that ultimately measures performance on one or more &lt;em&gt;subtypes&lt;/em&gt; of intelligence. Subtypes which are closely, but not perfectly, correlated with &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt;. The 6 studies were different in that they attempted to calculate the actual correlation between &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; and brain size, which is different from the correlation between IQ and brain size. Which one is better? Here I must admit that my expertise isn't sufficient to answer the question confidently, but I'd suppose that it depends on what you're trying to measure. If you want to know the extent to which the common factor influencing all the subtypes of intelligence varies between brains, then you want to use the estimate where &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; has been extracted. If you want to know how much brain size seems to correlate with mental ability in practice, you might want to use the correlation with IQ. Neither is more correct than the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other findings from the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The brain volume–GMA correlation is equally strong in males and females.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is also found in people of East Asian, East Indian, European, Turkish, African, South American, and Amerindian descent.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Studies using a narrow age range of younger or older samples show the same magnitude of correlation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Many studies appear to show that the size effects are manifest throughout the brain and not specific to any particular region; however, other studies show GMA centered in the frontal brain regions. Two studies found support for both positions - the more &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt;-loaded subtests were distributed throughout the brain but concentrated most in the frontal lobes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The correlation between head size and GMA is found both within families and between families. From the paper: &quot;the within-family finding is of special interest because it controls for most of the sources of variance that distinguish families, such as social class, styles of child rearing, and general nutrition, that differ between families.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Body size and brain size are correlated. The average correlation is 0.2 for MRI studies, or 0.3-0.4 for studies that use skull measurements. But body size and GMA are also correlated, at around 0.20-0.25. There is disagreement about whether the size of the body should be controlled for when estimating brain size/GMA correlations, but a correlation is found regardless of whether or not body size is controlled for. In other words, both relative &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; absolute brain size are correlated with IQ.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The brain size/intelligence correlation is also found in non-human animals, both within a species (e.g. rats) and between different species (e.g. species of birds, species of primates).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brain size is also environmentally sensitive: for instance, rats raised in complex environments have thicker cortices and larger brains than rats reared in impoverished environments.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The paper also reviews results showing that brain size and GMA are correlated with age, socioeconomic position, sex, and population group differences, but those aren't relevant for the question so I won't go into them here.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deary, I.J. (2001) Human intelligence differences: a recent history. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 5, 127–130.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jensen, A.J. (1998) &lt;em&gt;The g Factor – The Science of Mental Ability&lt;/em&gt;. Praeger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rushton, J.P. &amp;amp; Ankney, C.D. (2009) Whole Brain Size and General Mental Ability: A Review. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 119(5), 692-732.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="262" LastActivityDate="2012-02-04T15:09:07.643" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="278" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-04T17:18:24.917" Score="13" ViewCount="1331" Body="&lt;p&gt;As suggested in the answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/221/how-does-task-difficulty-schedule-affect-the-rate-and-efficiency-of-perceptual-l&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;, experimental results show that training is most effective when it follows an easy-to-difficult schedule. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What theories and specifically computational models account for that?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the simple computational models commonly used to demonstrate learning classifications for example, there is no such effect, as far as I know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Binary Perceptron&lt;/a&gt; - Typical examples (closest to the cluster means, or far apart along the optimal separating vector) are the most informative, leading to a prediction that &lt;strong&gt;easy trials would result in faster learning&lt;/strong&gt;. &#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some learning algorithms only update the network when an error is made, leading to a prediction that &lt;strong&gt;more difficult trials would result in faster learning&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_vector_machine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Support Vector Machinces&lt;/a&gt; (SVM) - only the few most difficult examples affect the final result, again leading to a prediction that &lt;strong&gt;more difficult trials would result in faster learning&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naive_Bayes_classifier&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Naive Bayes classifier&lt;/a&gt; - Typical examples help estimating the parameters with less errors, leading to a prediction that &lt;strong&gt;easy trials would result in faster learning&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-03-28T04:34:53.117" Title="Why is training better when following an easy-to-difficult schedule?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="279" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="497" CreationDate="2012-02-04T23:35:55.917" Score="3" ViewCount="215" Body="&lt;p&gt;I asked a similar/related question a couple days ago about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/228/does-language-and-or-culture-affect-an-individuals-cognitive-capacity&quot;&gt;how language and/or culture affect an individual's cognitive capacity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for materials, if any, on the subject of a language's relationship with the level of comprehension of consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if a specific language doesn't have the right words to describe the biological aspects of visual perception, will the individual using that language be able to comprehend all aspects of consciousness as well as an individual using a language which has the words to describe the event?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/026269154X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Rediscovery of the Mind&lt;/a&gt; by John Searle and it discusses some issues of how our current state of understanding consciousness is a function of the scientific progressions of society.  He talks about how we could be misunderstanding/misinterpreting the fundamentals of consciousness when we use out-dated and/or inaccurate definitions &amp;amp; concepts as a scaffold for defining current theories of consciousness.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any books, studies, theories, or relevant materials on this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="228" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2012-02-25T22:36:27.293" Title="What is the relationship between language and the level of comprehension of consciousness?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="280" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="278" CreationDate="2012-02-05T03:53:42.377" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Interesting question. I've written up a discussion of the model-based training literature and how it relates structuring task difficulty with practice. That said, I feel it's only a start and my apologies that it is more pitched at cognitive tasks than perceptual tasks.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;A summary of model-based training systems&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fu et al (2006) have a paper on &lt;em&gt;real-time model-based training systems&lt;/em&gt;, in which they review some of the work on model-based training systems:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There has been a long history of applying cognitive theory of learning&#xA;  and skill acquisition to model-based training systems (e.g., Anderson&#xA;  et al., 1995; Graesser et al., 2004; Hill and Johnson, 1993; Sleeman&#xA;  and Brown, 1982). The key idea of a model-based training system is&#xA;  that instructions should be given based on a cognitive model of the&#xA;  competence that the trainee is being asked to learn. In other words,&#xA;  the cognitive model should incorporate the underlying skills that&#xA;  allow the model to per- form the task the trainee is expected to&#xA;  perform. Based on the model, the system can monitor actions of the&#xA;  trainee and infer the intentions of the trainee by mapping actions of&#xA;  the trainee to components of the model. In other words, a model of&#xA;  com- petence provides an explanation of actions as trainees interact&#xA;  with the system. Immediate feedback or real-time instructions can then&#xA;  be given to the trainee to facilitate learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;John R. Anderson and colleagues on cognitive tutors using the computation model ACT-R&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson et al (1995) summarise their work on cognitive tutors teaching LISP programming , geometry and algebra. Their system incorporates eight instructional design principles a few of which pertain to task difficulty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, let's look at the design principles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;represent student competence as a production set&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;communicate the goal structure underlying the problem solving&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;provide instruction in the problem-solving context&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Promote an abstract understanding of the problem-solving knowledge&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Minimise the working memory load&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Provide immediate feedback on errors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Adjust the grain size of instruction with learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Facilitate successive approximations to the target skill&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think principles 5 and 8 directly relate to structuring task difficulty with practice, and probably others relate more indirectly.&#xA;Minimising working memory (i.e., principle 5) requires providing instruction in manageable components. &#xA;Facilitating successive approximations (i.e., principle 8) involves progressively providing less support to the learning and is an example of increasing task difficulty with practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anderson, J.R., Corbett, A.T., Koedinger, K.R., Pelletier, R., 1995. Cognitive tutors: lessons learned. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 4, 167–207. &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/papers/129/CogTut_Lessons.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fu, W.-T., Bothell, D., Douglass, S., Haimson, C., Sohn, M.-H., &amp;amp; Anderson, J. A. (2006), Toward a Real-Time Model-Based Training System. Interacting with Computers, 18(6), 1216-1230. &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/publications/pubinfo.php?id=782&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Graesser, A.C., Lu, S., Jackson, G.T., Mitchell, H., Ventura, M., Olney, A., Louwerse, M.M., 2004. Auto&#xA;tutor: a tutor with dialogue in natural language. Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers 36, 180–193. &lt;a href=&quot;http://141.225.218.248/web-cslwebroot/autotutor/publications/AddPaper/BSC503-graesser.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hill Jr., R.W., Johnson, W.L., (1993). Designing an intelligent tutoring system based on a reactive model of skill acquisition. Proceedings of the International Conference on AI and Education, Edinburgh, 1993.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sleeman, D., Brown, J.S., 1982. Intelligent Tutoring Systems. Academic Press, New York.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-05T04:06:00.613" LastActivityDate="2012-02-05T04:06:00.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="281" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="266" CreationDate="2012-02-05T05:12:56.320" Score="10" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Principles of optimal practice duration from the expertise literature&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The expertise literature and its discussion of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Practice_%28learning_method%29#Deliberate_practice&quot;&gt;deliberate practice&lt;/a&gt; provides substantial guidance on the question of optimal practice duration.&#xA;As Ericsson et al (2006) summarised:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;elite performers search continuously for optimal training&#xA;  activities, with the most effective duration and intensity, that will&#xA;  appropriately strain the targeted physiological system to induce&#xA;  further adaptation without causing overuse and injury.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regards to optimal practice length, Ericsson et al (2006) stated (with key points bolded by me) that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although the detailed nature of deliberate practice will differ across&#xA;  domains and as a function of attained skill, there appear to be limits&#xA;  on the daily duration of deliberate practice, and this limit seems to&#xA;  generalize across domains of expertise. &lt;strong&gt;Expert performers from many&#xA;  domains engage in practice without rest for only around an hour&lt;/strong&gt;, and&#xA;  they prefer to practice early in the morning when their minds are&#xA;  fresh (Ericsson et al., 1993 ). Elite musicians (Ericsson, 2002) and&#xA;  athletes (Ericsson, 2001, 2003 c) report that the factor that limits&#xA;  their deliberate practice is primarily an inability to sustain the&#xA;  level of concentration that is necessary. Even more interestingly,&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;elite performers in many diverse domains have been found to practice,&#xA;  on the average, roughly the same amount every day, including&#xA;  weekends, and the amount of practice never consistently exceeds five&#xA;  hours per day&lt;/strong&gt; (Ericsson, 1996; Ericsson et al., 1993 ). The limit of&#xA;  four to five hours of daily deliberate practice or similarly&#xA;  demanding activities holds true for a wide range of elite performers&#xA;  in different domains, such as writing by famous authors (Cowley, 195&#xA;  9; Plimpton, 1977), as does their &lt;strong&gt;increased tendency to take&#xA;  recuperative naps&lt;/strong&gt;. Furthermore, unless the daily levels of practice&#xA;  are restricted, such that subsequent rest and nighttime sleep&#xA;  allow the individuals to restore their equilibrium, individuals&#xA;  often encounter overtraining injuries and, eventually, incapacitating&#xA;  “burnout.” In some domains of sports, such as gymnastics, sprinting,&#xA;  and weight lifting, the max- imal effort necessary for representative&#xA;  performance is so great that the amount of daily deliberate practice&#xA;  is even further limited by factors constraining the duration of&#xA;  produc- tion of maximal power and strength.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Implications for the specifics of your question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, based on the expertise literature,  four or five one-hour sessions of deliberate practice in a day with plenty of rest between and at night would be optimal if the aim is to maximise learning on the focal task in the shortest period of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I wouldn't define optimal duration of practice in terms of amount of the task learnt. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, in the real-world, the optimality criterion can vary between people. The expertise literature assumes that the goal is to maximise learning on the focal skill. However, in the real-world, a person may be learning a number of things, and also need to accomplish tangible outcomes at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cowley, M. (Ed.) (195 9). Writers at work: The&#xA;Paris review interviews. New York: Viking.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. A. (1996). The acquisition of expert performance: An introduction to some of the issues. In K. A. Ericsson (Ed.), The road to excellence: The acquisition of expert performance in the arts and sciences, sports, and games (pp. 1–5 0). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. A. (2001). The path to expert&#xA;performance: Insights from the masters on how&#xA;to improve performance by deliberate practice.&#xA;In P. Thomas (Ed.), Optimizing performance in&#xA;golf (pp. 1–5 7). Brisbane, Australia: Australian&#xA;Academic Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. A. (2002). Attaining excellence through deliberate practice: Insights from the study of expert performance. In M. Ferrari (Ed.), The pursuit of excellence in education&#xA;(pp. 21–5 5 ). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. A. (2003c). The development of elite performance and deliberate practice: An&#xA;update from the perspective of the expert-performance approach. In J. Starkes &amp;amp; K. A.&#xA;Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport exper-&#xA;tise (pp. 49–81). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. Th., &amp;amp; Tesch-Romer, C. (1993 ). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 3 63 –406. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plavolleyball.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Role-of-Deliberate-Practice.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. et al. (2006). The influence of experience and deliberate&#xA;practice on the development of superior expert performance. The&#xA;Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance, 10(3):683-703. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ida.liu.se/~nilda/Anders_Ericsson/Ericsson_delib_pract.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Plimpton, G. (Ed.) (1977). Writers at work: The Paris review. Interviews, Second Series. New York: Penguin.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-05T05:43:00.357" LastActivityDate="2012-02-05T05:43:00.357" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="283" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="260" CreationDate="2012-02-05T15:16:04.673" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first thing that comes to mind when reading this is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_of_responsibility&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;diffusion of responsibility&lt;/a&gt;. Because responsibility has not been explicitly assigned, as it would be in a one-on-one meeting, people tend to feel like they do not need to do anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="284" LastActivityDate="2012-02-05T15:16:04.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="284" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="278" CreationDate="2012-02-05T16:05:45.683" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another way of thinking about this is that by progressing easy-to-hard, different intermediate knowledge structures are called into existence in the course of processing.  These knowledge structures, built from an agent's encounter with easy problems, can prove useful in its encounter with subsequent and more difficult problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This idea has been around for a long time in a variety of cognitive traditions.  It's intimately related to developmental theories of, for instance, Piaget, and Mandler (2006); and to the schema literature, which is vast, but of which Minsky (1986) and Schank &amp;amp; Abelson (1977) are exemplars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is all very vague, though.  The best (or at least, the most precise) way to think about knowledge progression is through hierarchical reinforcement learning.  The idea there is that most non-trivial tasks are inherently hierarchical; and so learning how to do a task requires one to learn how to do its constituent sub-tasks.  The more tasks you learn how to do, the greater the 'toolbox' you will be able to bring to subsequent tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to the original question, easier examples of some task induce the acquisition of the controllers (knowledge structures) that will aid the performance of later, more complicated, tasks, and the acquisition of later and more complicated knowledge structures.  Oudeyer et al. (2007) and Barto (2009) describe this process in detail, the former using a situated robotic agent.  (If we replace 'controllers' with 'rules' then the process becomes comparable to the rule search and chunking process used in ACT-R and Soar, as mentioned in Jeromy Anglim's answer)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barto, A. (2009). Skill characterization based on betweenness. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 22.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mandler, J. M. (2006). The Foundations of Mind: Origins of Conceptual Thought. Oxford University Press, USA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Minsky, M. (1986). Society of mind. New York, NY: Simon &amp;amp; Shuster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oudeyer, P.-Y., Kaplan, F., &amp;amp; Hafner, V. V. (2007). Intrinsic motivation systems for autonomous mental development. Ieee Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, 11(2), 265–286.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schank, R., &amp;amp; ABELSON, R. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="98" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-28T04:34:53.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="285" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="265" CreationDate="2012-02-05T19:20:18.357" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the abstract &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2283921&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Eye fixations predict reading comprehension: the relationships between reading skill, reading speed, and visual inspection&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;A discriminant function analysis showed that fixation duration was a successful predictor of reading comprehension, but that the number of fixations, regressive fixations, reading speed, and vocabulary were not reliable predictors. A multiple regression analysis revealed that reading speed was predicted by the number of fixations, the average fixation duration, and the duration of the final fixation upon the sentence, but there was no relationship with reading ability. Highly skilled readers are those who can extract information efficiently, but are not necessarily those who have fast overall reading rates.&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="289" LastActivityDate="2012-02-05T19:20:18.357" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="286" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="243" CreationDate="2012-02-05T19:46:02.273" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is speculative, but most humans are uncomfortable with not knowing, this is the root, for example, of premature cognitive commitments and of curiosity.  So many people tend to adopt any available explanation to settle the discomfort of not knowing.  I think a potentially more interesting question is why so many people have trouble exchanging a belief for a better explanation, anyone who has tried explaining the reasoning behind atheism to a religious person has run into this - they accept your arguments, but continue to believe as before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="289" LastActivityDate="2012-02-05T19:46:02.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="287" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="304" CreationDate="2012-02-05T22:58:46.960" Score="12" ViewCount="880" Body="&lt;p&gt;Jaak Panksepp's book (Amazon link &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/019517805X&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) is a phenomenal and highly readable systems-based introduction to not only affective neuroscience, but the neuroscience of motivation in general.  The problem is that the book is fourteen years old (don't be fooled by the copyright from the Amazon link, which is for the softcover edition) which makes it from the ice age in neuroscience terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a comparable but more modern reference?  I am not a neuroscientist; even if I were, trying to assemble a corpus of journal papers would be a lengthy and redundant process; and even if I accomplished it, my hodgepodge primer would lack the larger synthesis that makes Panksepp's book so good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there anything good that covers similar ground written in the last five years?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; It suddenly occurred to me that, thanks to the wonders of the internet, I could ask Jaak Panksepp directly.  It turns out that his followup book, &quot;Archeology of Mind&quot;, is indeed intended to be a kind of update and spiritual successor to &quot;Affective Neuroscience.&quot;  So the best followup to Panksepp will be the next book by Panksepp.  Now if it would hurry up and get released...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="98" LastEditorUserId="98" LastEditDate="2012-02-11T18:54:22.817" LastActivityDate="2014-01-21T06:56:22.570" Title="Modern replacement for Panksepp's &quot;Affective Neuroscience&quot; book?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="288" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-05T23:46:07.767" Score="32" ViewCount="3022" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a mathematics and physics student very much interested in cognitive science. Recently I've been hearing about &quot;a new approach&quot; in cognitive science via dynamical system theory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are some good examples of using differential equations to model cognitive phenomena?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What papers would you recommend?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="293" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-25T22:39:06.157" LastActivityDate="2017-10-08T16:03:20.113" Title="What are good examples of applying dynamical systems in cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="16" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="289" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="288" CreationDate="2012-02-06T00:18:44.730" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given your background and interest in modeling, I would highly recommend &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0521674107&quot;&gt;The Cambridge Handbook of Computational Psychology&lt;/a&gt;. The book provides an overview for several of the prominent modeling paradigms in cogsci, including dynamical systems, as well as many concrete examples--albeit most using other computational paradigms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dynamical systems, to my knowledge, are most used in the field of motor control. Though to be honest, dyn systems is not 'my' paradigm, and most of my knowledge comes from the aforementioned book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, the chapter &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://fog.its.uiowa.edu/~icdls/dft-school/documents/DFT_Publications/cambridge_chapter_schoner.pdf&quot;&gt;Dynamical Systems Approaches to Cognition&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by &#xA;G. Schoner gives this example that has always stuck in my mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A highly illustrative example comes from the orientation behaviors of&#xA;  the common house ﬂy (Reichardt &amp;amp; Poggio, 1976; Poggio &amp;amp; Reichardt,&#xA;  1976). Flies orient toward moving objects, which they chase as part of&#xA;  their mating behavior. Detailed analysis revealed that the circuitry&#xA;  underlying this behavior forms a simple controller: a motion detection&#xA;  system fed by luminance changes on the ﬂy’s facet eye drives the ﬂight&#xA;  motor, generating an amount of torque that is a function of where on&#xA;  the sensory surface motion was detected. If the speck of motion is&#xA;  detected on the right, a torque to the right is generated. If the&#xA;  speck is detected on the left, a torque to the left is generated. The&#xA;  level of torque passes through zero when the speck is right ahead. The&#xA;  torque changes the ﬂight direction of the ﬂy, which in turn changes&#xA;  the location on the facet eye at which the moving stimulus is&#xA;  detected. Given the aerodynamics of ﬂies, the torque and its on-line&#xA;  updating generate an orientation behavior, in which the insect orients&#xA;  its ﬂight into the direction in which a moving stimulus is detected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T00:18:44.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="290" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="288" CreationDate="2012-02-06T02:37:17.627" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a similar background to you, and have found a lot of interesting things in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;evolutionary game theory&lt;/a&gt; (you can follow &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;links&lt;/a&gt; from my profile for more). But on the specific content of your question: I have come across to uses of dynamic systems on the opposite ends of cognition. Beer's work on modeling minimal cognition, and Busemeyer &amp;amp; Townsend's work on human decision making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Minimal cognition&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beer's work models simple cognitive agents as dynamic recurrent neural networks. He then either hand-builds the agents, or evolves them, and analyzes them from a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situated_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;situated cognition&lt;/a&gt; perspective by treating them as dynamic systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Beer, R. D. (1995). On the Dynamics of Small Continuous-Time Recurrent Neural Networks. Adaptive Behavior, 3(4), 469-509. doi:10.1177/105971239500300405&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Beer, R. D. (2003). The Dynamics of Active Categorical Perception in an Evolved Model Agent. Adaptive Behavior, 11(4), 209-243. doi:10.1177/1059712303114001&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Minimal cognition research tends to use dynamic systems much more heavily than other fields I am familiar with. &lt;a href=&quot;http://minimalcognition.wordpress.com/about/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This blog&lt;/a&gt; provides a very thorough survey of papers in the field. A short 'manifesto':&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harvey, I. (1997). &lt;a href=&quot;http://minimalcognition.wordpress.com/2012/06/19/cognition-is-not-computation-evolution-is-not-optimisation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognition is not Computation: Evolution is not Optimisation&lt;/a&gt;. In Artificial Neural Networks – ICANN97, Gerstner, W., Germond, A., Hasler, M, and Nicoud, J-D (eds). Springer-Verlag LNCS 1327: 685-690. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/inmanh/CogCompEvOp.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Human decision making&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Busemeyer &amp;amp; Towsend on the other hand try to describe how humans deliberate and make decisions. One of the key aspects they want to capture is not just the outcome of human decision making (with all of its flaws and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/251/29&quot;&gt;irrationality&lt;/a&gt;) but also the deliberation time. To do this, they introduced &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_field_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;decision field theory&lt;/a&gt; which models human decision making as a stochastic dynamic process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Busemeyer, J. R., &amp;amp; Townsend, J. T. (1993) Decision Field Theory: A dynamic cognition approach to decision making. Psychological Review, 100, 432-459. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://mypage.iu.edu/%7Ejbusemey/psy_rev_1993.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Busemeyer, J. R. &amp;amp; Diederich, A. (2002) Survey of decision field theory. Mathematical Social Sciences, 43, 345-370. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/Publications/techreps2000/242/242.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Development&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Esther Thelen and Linda Smith wrote a nice book examining human development from a dynamic systems approach:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/dynamic-systems-approach-development-cognition-and-action&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/dynamic-systems-approach-development-cognition-and-action&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-10-21T17:32:07.937" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="291" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="288" CreationDate="2012-02-06T02:39:16.563" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Great to hear you're interested in applying your quantitative background to cognitive science; the field can definitely use more individuals like you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure to what degree these models might be meet your definition of &quot;dynamical systems&quot;, but here are some off the top of my head:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;stochastic models of human response time and accuracy in 2-alternative speeded choice experiments. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newcl.org/publications/DonkinCrossFitsRevision2.pdf&quot;&gt;Here's a recent paper&lt;/a&gt; that does well to summarize two dominant models in this field.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~clcl/Papers/Holowords_BRM.pdf&quot;&gt;Holographic models of semantic memory&lt;/a&gt; (includes dynamic encoding and retrieval processes)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jeff Hawkins' (yes, that Jeff Hawkins) very cool Hierarchical Temporal Memory Model (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.numenta.com/htm-overview/education.php&quot;&gt;lots of info here&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="51" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T02:39:16.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="292" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-06T02:42:59.700" Score="5" ViewCount="356" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to build a system that has the ability to gather data from the internet in order to build a cognitive model of the human brain. The model should be able to answer the questions required by a robot. Also, I would like to apply an AI &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inference_engine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;inference engine&lt;/a&gt; to get more important information to the robot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If I want to do build such a model, what &quot;skill list&quot; do I need? What skills would be most important? What &quot;opensource project&quot; might be helpful?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;added:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank everyone who encourage me. You let me have more brave to build a human brain mind model(not brain structure). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me introduce myself.&#xA;I have some CS and EE background and now research on robotics area. I love cognitive science so much so I want to figure out how to let robot really have the mind like human to achieve goal more clever. Thank the hint of @Jeromy Anglim, I give a video youtube example:&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVAlt0FYmiI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;James and Rosie Preparing Popcorn and Sandwiches&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That video shows two robot cooperate together to make a sandwich with cognitive architecture(CRAM or Cogito) based on ROS(&lt;a href=&quot;http://ros.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Robot OS&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ros.org/wiki/APIs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ROS map&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qziUJcUDfBc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ROS Navigation Video&lt;/a&gt;) system. After reading their papers I found that they just using database or downloading web page instructions or using very well structured pages which are for human (ex.&lt;a href=&quot;http://research.cyc.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CYC&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;http://openmind.hri-us.com/login.jsp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;OpenMind Indoor Common Sense database&lt;/a&gt;,Semantic web,ORO,SUMO,Wikipedia,&lt;a href=&quot;http://images.google.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;google images&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.germandeli.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;germandeli&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also I found that many free resources,any article on WWW should be most important database. The most important thing is how to build a system that can read natural language and have a model (maybe based on CRAM cognitive architecture) to understand it,because CRAM has a very good knowledge processor(KNOWROB,M. Tenorth and M. Beetz, “KnowRob — Knowledge Processing for Autonomous Personal Robots,” in IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent RObots and Systems., 2009.). If perhaps, I want to collect all linux opencourse libraries to make it more fast and robust. I also begin to take &lt;a href=&quot;http://see.stanford.edu/see/lecturelist.aspx?coll=348ca38a-3a6d-4052-937d-cb017338d7b1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;online machine learning course&lt;/a&gt; on stanford. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My goal is to build a human mind model can learn,have some innovation,and find intelligent solutions to dedicate itself to human society.But my first step is to find a way that robot can try to understand all kinds of data on the WWW (any data that it can't understand just warn the first 10,and ignore others), and structure them as an intelligent interaction system which can answer knowledge or skill questions which can be search on google. The most important of that system is try to use all information on the web clever with robust libraries( I don't want to reinvent wheels).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know it is a long term project, but I loving and willing to achieve in my whole life. &#xA;Because this is an integration project and any success in that will make a big change in the world just as ROS in robotics also an integration project and very active on most top robotics research centers and in the beginning on industry now. I know My own energy is not enough for this purpose, but I can gather all the power of opensource and volunteers in the world to do it together~^^ (Now is the day which techs are really enough for this project like computer speed,WWW,advanced research papers,opensourse libraries,free opencourseware lessons,..., what a lack is a group of excellent people volunteer to make it become true to help anyone who use this project.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="174" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-19T17:36:40.473" LastActivityDate="2012-10-19T17:36:40.473" Title="What skills are required to build simulations of the human brain?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;nlp&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2012-04-03T23:43:43.643" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="293" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="227" CreationDate="2012-02-06T03:21:55.120" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, the introduction section of McArdle et al (2002) provides a good literature review on the topic (see link to PDF in references).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Early research by Jones and Conrad (1933)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McArdle et al (2002) extract a quote from Jones and Conrad's (1933) summary of the literature based on large cross-sectional studies and also the classic Army alpha tests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The chief characteristic of the curve may be summarized as involving&#xA;  a linear growth to about 16 years, and a negative acceleration beyond&#xA;  16 to a peak between the ages of 18 and 21. A decline follows,&#xA;  which is much more gradual than the curve of growth, but which by&#xA;  the age of 55 involves a recession to the 14-year level. (p. 239)&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Cattell on Crystalised and Fluid Intelligence&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, see Figure 1 in McArdle et al (2002) which extracts a diagram from Cattell (1987) that shows Cattell's theorised relationship between age and two types of intelligence, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;crystalised and fluid&lt;/a&gt;. The theory suggests that fluid intelligence increases at a faster rate and peaks at around 18 and then shows a steady decline, whereas crystalised intelligence increases throughout the life span, with the rate of learning decreasing over time, and arguably approaching a plateau around 50 before commencing a very gradual decline around 60.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cattell, R. B. (1987). Intelligence: Its structure, growth and action. Amsterdam: North-Holland. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jones, H. E., &amp;amp; Conrad, H. S. (1933). The growth and decline of intelli-&#xA;gence: A study of a homogeneous group between the ages of ten and&#xA;sixty. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 13(1), 223–275&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McArdle, J., Ferrer-Caja, E., Hamagami, F., and Woodcock, R. (2002).&#xA;Comparative longitudinal structural analyses of the growth and decline&#xA;of multiple intellectual abilities over the life span. Developmental&#xA;Psychology, 38(1):115.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iapsych.com/wj3ewok/LinkedDocuments/McArdle2002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;NOTE: After posting the question, I did a little research and found the above research. I've self-awarded the answer for sake of closure, but I'm happy to award to someone else with a better answer.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-06T03:53:05.767" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T03:53:05.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="294" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="207" CreationDate="2012-02-06T03:27:22.547" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my personal experience, your questions are not easy to answer. I try to answer your questions by my best effort:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;1.Is this true and supported by facts?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, I would says that in your example(economist learns psychology), in the first sight it seems not related too much, but in deep feeling, any discipline will strong connect to human. It exist a very big system that include all the disciplines, so any discipline just a part of system. For example, economist needs to know the money works in the society. When he just thinking about that question, he may get the first spirit layer of answers that someone really needs an object so he use money to buy it. And in some opportunities, he learn psychology and find that many people buy things not for really needs but for desires or other people encourage him. In this concept, it shows that when you learn more and have more deeper feelings, you can see more details of the same thing,and it will really help you lift your origin thinking level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;2.If this is true, does the brain automatically interrelates concepts or we need to train the brain in a particular manner?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both are right, because of different motivation. &#xA;   First,&#xA;      you can try to think this: When you see something A, you may just see at a glance. But in later maybe some objects or cases that let you remember A, in this time,your brain just collect them together automatically. What I want to say is : It just a glance maybe have many impacts. If you try to focus to learn something, they will carve more deep in your mind, and get more opportunities to get it out for your work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second,&#xA;      Focus,calm down,...etc, such of ways that you are really familiar with. So you may use these method,but you haven't aware of that because it is not so hard for forming a habit. In these particular manners, you may get more chances to learn more and deep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;3.Does this depend on age?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually, it is not dependent on age but depends on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do you focus on learning?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For how long can you learn without taking a break?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How familiar are you with the subject you are learning?&#xA;...etc&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you feel I haven't answer your question totally, feel free to ask more questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="174" LastEditorUserId="3652" LastEditDate="2013-12-13T15:30:53.463" LastActivityDate="2013-12-13T15:30:53.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="295" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="265" CreationDate="2012-02-06T04:36:21.310" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a general discussion of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_reading&quot;&gt;speed reading methods&lt;/a&gt; on Wikipedia, but let's look at some specific articles and see what they say about reading speed and comprehension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Bell's review of the reading speed and comprehension literature&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Bell's (2001) review of the empirical literature, he makes a number of points, which seem reasonable to me:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A few studies have shown that you can increase reading speed with various &quot;speed reading techniques&quot; (e.g., Hill, 1981, Richard, 1982).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;However, &quot;techniques ... employed on speed reading courses ... tend to cause readers to suffer lower levels of reading comprehension...&quot; This is a within-person phenomena. People who read particularly slowly often have low comprehension, but this is not relevant to the question of whether an individual should increase or slow down their reading speed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Several authors recommend reading at the right speed, neither too fast nor too slow (e.g., Coady, 1979).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Part of being a skilled reader is about adapting reading strategies, particularly with regards to the speed / comprehension trade-off, to the nature of the text and the reading goals in the situation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Discussion of reading expertise&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a massive literature on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_comprehension&quot;&gt;reading comprehension&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;For example, take Pearson et al's (1992) list that states that expert readers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Search for connections between what they know and the new information they encounter&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Monitor the adequacy of their models of text meaning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Take steps to repair faulty comprehension once they realize they have failed to understand something&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Learn early on to distinguish important from less important ideas in text they read&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Are adept at synthesising information within and across texts and reading experiences&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Draw inferences during and after reading to achieve a full, integrated understanding of what they read&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Sometimes consciously, and almost always unconsciously, ask questions of themselves, the authors they encounter, and the texts&#xA;  they read.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The key feature of this list is that expert readers employ strategies related to constructing meaning. They don't pertain to exact strategies for moving the eyes over the page and the process of visualising text, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Implications for increasing reading speed&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the basis of the above, I don't think trying to integrate whole blocks of text visually would be a useful training exercise for helping a person achieve his or her reading goals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to reading, I think it's more important to think about your goals than to focus on reading speed. Why do you need to read the text? What are you hoping to get out of the text? How will this information be used?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bell, T. (2001). Extensive reading: Speed and comprehension. The Reading&#xA;Matrix, 1(1). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/bell/article.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Coady, J. (1979). A psycholinguistic model of the ESL reader. In R. Mackay, B. Barkman, &amp;amp; R.R.&#xA;Jordon (Eds), Reading in a second language (pp 5-12). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hill, J.K. (1981). Effective reading in a foreign language. English Language Teaching Journal, 35,&#xA;(pp 270-281).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pearson, P., Roehler, L., Dole, J., and Duffy, G. (1992). Developing&#xA;expertise in reading comprehension. What research has to say about&#xA;reading instruction, 2:145-199. &lt;a href=&quot;http://eltweb.nysut.org/iqweb/medialibrary_files/Graduate%20Courses/EDNY%20726%20Reading%20Comp/developing%20expertise%20in%20reading%20comprehension.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Richard, W. (1982). Improving Reading Speed in Readers of English as a Second Language. JALT Journal, 4, (pp 89-95).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T04:36:21.310" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="297" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="213" CreationDate="2012-02-06T05:31:30.490" Score="3" Body="&lt;h3&gt;The obvious: animals use a variety of senses&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a wikipedia article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intra-species_recognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;intra-species recognition&lt;/a&gt;. The article states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Different species may employ different methods, but all of them are&#xA;  based on one or more senses (after all, this is how the organism&#xA;  gather information about the environment). The recognition may happen&#xA;  by chemical signature (smell), by having a distinctive shape (sight),&#xA;  by emitting certain sounds (hearing), or even by behaviour patterns.&#xA;  Often a combination of these is used....&#xA;  Intra-species recognition systems are often subtle...&#xA;  Sometimes, too, intra-species recognition is fallible&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this is all fairly obvious, true, and not that helpful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;A few articles of possible relevance&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mateo (2004) has a review of recognition systems in animals if you want a more general theoretical framework.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pfennig (1998) discusses intra-species recognition and the relationship with mate selection.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Musings on your particular question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your particular example of two cars driving along with windows closed, we are probably excluding senses of smell and sound and requiring the dogs to rely exclusively on sight. &#xA;I wonder whether &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;prototype theory&lt;/a&gt; or some other human visual categorisation theory would apply to dogs also?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mateo, J. (2004). Recognition systems and biological organization: the&#xA;perception component of social recognition. In Annales Zoologici&#xA;Fennici, volume 41, pages 729-745.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anzf41/anzf41-729.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pfenning (1988) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1689351/pdf/QDFMNXT22PV2K5J2_265_1743.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I'm way outside my expertise here. I tossed up whether to post this at all. I figured I'd post in the absence of another answer a week after posting. The above represents what I found from a little research.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T05:31:30.490" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="298" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6" CreationDate="2012-02-06T05:35:24.577" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;One thing to think about is what's meant by &quot;performance.&quot; In basic cognitive tasks (e.g., memory experiments), changing the payoff matrix (and thus motivational factors) often influences bias but not discrimination -- in other words, upping the ante, so to speak, makes individuals more conservative (or careful) but doesn't much change their overall performance. One example: When incentives are low, an individual might attempt to answer 10 questions and get 5 correct; when incentives are high, an individual might attempt to answer 20 questions and get 10 correct. In a sense the latter is performing better -- after all, he or she is getting 10 more questions correct -- but is also making more mistakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just another way of thinking about things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastEditorUserId="203" LastEditDate="2012-02-06T15:10:43.700" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T15:10:43.700" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="299" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="266" CreationDate="2012-02-06T05:38:08.347" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Experimental psychologists have really grappled with this question, because boundary conditions make a huge difference. One valiant effort is found &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xge/140/3/283/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;in a recent paper by Rawson and Dunlosky at Kent State University&lt;/a&gt;, who put forth a &quot;3 x 3&quot; recommendation: Practice to your desired criterion three times, then repeat practice at 3 regularly spaced intervals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rawson, K. and Dunlosky, J. (2011). Optimizing schedules of retrieval&#xA;practice for durable and efficient learning: How much is enough? Journal&#xA;of Experimental Psychology: General, 140(3):283.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-06T05:56:16.420" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T05:56:16.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="300" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="207" CreationDate="2012-02-06T06:02:00.303" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two types of learning - knowledge and skills.  Knowledge can be used in many different contexts, but skills are extremely narrow and precise.  For example, subjects trained in memorizing numbers do not have any better ability at memorizing lists of words than untrained individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;We tend to think that practicing mental tasks must also have some sort of general benefits beyond the particular tasks being practiced.  At present, however, one of the few well-supported conclusions of cognitive psychology is that this simply does not happen, however much we would like to believe it does (Woodworth &amp; Schlosberg, 1954); baron, 1985c).  The specificity of practice effects has been known to psychologists (and ignored by everyone else) since Thorndike and Woodworth first discovered it in 1901.&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, knowledge learning develops a different sort of skill,&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;An expert in a certain field can develop all sorts of ways to represent complex ideas in terms of a word or two, a mathematical symbol, or a visual image such as a graph.&lt;/blockquote&gt;that could transfer in the narrow circumstance that the &quot;condensed&quot; representation would be useful to the individual - for example, as in your question, in using psychology to extend or understand economics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quotes from Jonathan Baron's book, &lt;i&gt;Thinking and Deciding, second edition&lt;/i&gt;, 1994, New York: Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;references in quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baron, J. (1985c).  What kinds of intelligence components are fundamental? In S F Chipman, J W Segal, &amp;amp; R Glaser (Eds), &lt;i&gt;Thinking and learning skills. Vol 2: Research and open questions.  Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Woodworth, R S &amp;amp; Schlosberg, H. (1954). Experimental psychology&lt;/i&gt;.  New York: Holt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="289" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T06:02:00.303" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="301" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="262" CreationDate="2012-02-06T06:16:53.257" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have a specific reference for this, but from what I remember reading several years ago, most of the early plasticity in children's brains is more the result of pruning the abundance of neural connections present at birth than of creating new connections.  As the number of existing connections decreases, the plasticity would necessarily decrease as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="289" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T06:16:53.257" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="302" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="207" CreationDate="2012-02-06T07:10:27.663" Score="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer to this question will depend on how you construe 'cognitive abilities.'  For instance, for certain formulations the answer is trivially yes: an economist who learns psychology may come away with psychological knowledge that could help his economics, like how to space out his studying to maximally improve retention; or how to deal with the cognitive dissonance of causing widespread financial collapse.  Demonstrations of transfer in the other direction -- from economics to psychology -- are even easier to demonstrate.  Our department, for example, has in recent years seen an influx of psychology graduate students whose backgrounds are in much more mathematically sophisticated disciplines.  These students are able to leverage their mathematical skills to great advantage in what has, in past years, sometimes been a field with excessively 'fluffy' methodology.  But in both these instances -- psych --&gt; economics and economics --&gt; psych -- we're talking not so much about 'transfer' of knowledge as of literal re-use.  If you buy paper plates for a picnic, can you also use them inside your house?  Of course you can.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question gets harder when we zoom in further.  If we accept as given that the techniques of economics would be useful in the field of psychology, what about the atomic cognitive units which collectively constitute the edifice of economics knowledge?  Does the way of viewing the world one adopts when one has knowledge of economics, or the process of abstract thinking and symbolic manipulation one must acquire in the course of it, help with other disciplines in ways that do not directly relate to full-blown techniques one learns in economics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The short answer is that nobody knows, so far as I'm aware.  Which doesn't mean that people don't have strongly held beliefs.  For many years students spent years learning Latin because it was thought to have various beneficial effects, though these have never been demonstrated to my knowledge.  Coming back to the economics example, the issue is that nobody seems to know what it even means to know economics.  Aside from the specific ability to solve economics problems, what kind of cognitive capacity can an economics expert demonstrate?  We have only begun to be able to answer this question with regards to mathematics (c.f. Ansari et al, 2005.) or to much of anything else.  Our sense of what mental representations are -- of what knowledge is built from -- is extraordinarily primitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are substantive reasons to continue to believe in the possibility of non-trivial transfer.  The most compelling of these is the study of metaphor, for which the canonical work is probably Lakoff &amp;amp; Johnson's (1980) phenomenal and very readable book (see also Bowdle &amp;amp; Gentner, 2005; Holyoak &amp;amp; Thagard 1997 for more technical treatments.)  The idea is that knowledge structures representing one thing can sometimes be mapped onto knowledge structures representing another thing.  When such a mapping can be found, one is able to make additional inferences on the second thing that correspond to inferences based on the first thing.  According to these theorists, the ability to make inferences about the world that flow from these kinds of metaphorical transfer account for a large part of our intellectual ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example might be useful.  A prominant metaphor, according to Lakoff and Johnson, is &quot;An argument is a war.&quot;  According to this metaphor, we might understand a destination domain (argument) in terms of a source domain (war.)  This mapping between the two domains allows us to structure the former in terms of the latter.  Wars have winners and losers, for instance; wars end when one side surrenders or is destroyed; one succeeds in war by hurting one's enemy; and so on.  By extension, then, an argument has a winner and loser; an argument ends in surrender or destruction; and in an argument the goal is to hurt your opponent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This construction of what it means to have argument, and of how one should conduct onself in the course of an argument, would lead to very different results than, say, the metaphor &quot;An argument is a dance.&quot;  It's clear, from this formulation, how consequential is the choice of metaphor in constructing one's attitude to and behaviors during an argument.  Metaphors are not simply colorful language (the argument goes) they are instructions for how we might leverage certain knowledge structures and behaviors (those involving war, in this case) for application in a completely unrelated domain (an argument, in this case.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most powerful idea latent in this metaphorical construction of cognition is that metaphorical extension is not only (or even mostly) about language -- any knowledge representation can potentially be aligned with another, and the tools and circumstances governing the use of the former could (potentially) be used to gain 'experience' in the latter automatically, for free. (See Durso et al., (1994) for a nice example of how this might culminate in an 'insight' experience.)  And in fact, DARPA has been very interested in this kind of 'bootstrap learning' looking for ways where experience in a relatively cheap (in dollars or risk) domain might be leveraged to benefit a more expensive domain, although the results of this work have not yet lit the world on fire.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concerning the automaticity of this process, the answer seems to be both yes and no.  Insofar as people do use some kind of metaphorical extension to understand the world, and to apply knowledge across situations, then the process occurs automatically, at least to some extent.  (Note that the details of this process are still very much in question.)  But even if it is automatic, Chrysikou (2006) showed that the cross-pollination between disparate types of knowledge can be improved by conscious effort.  In her study, subjects who spent ten minutes performing the &quot;creative uses&quot; task (in which they generated novel and unusual applications for various objects; for example, a creative use for a toothpick might be as a javelin for a grasshopper) solved significantly more insight problems than subjects who did not perform the CUT beforehand.  One theory for these results is that the process of coming up with creative uses energized the machinery used to create ad hoc categories (see Barsalou 1983), and that the ability to blend disparate forms of knowledge in these dynamic bundles is an important component in  problem-solving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems relevant to the original question in that whatever benefit is automatically gained simply by possessing a varied store of cross-discipline knowledge, seems to be enhanced by purposeful engagement and cross-linkage between these cognitive components, an enhancement that manifests concretely in increased problem-solving performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All that being said, in my opinion the extent and mechanisms of cross-domain transfer are still largely undetermined.  Despite the considerable theoretical literature in support of it, at this point the proponents of deep transfer are running on faith as much as anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: Note that an &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/284/98&quot;&gt;earlier question&lt;/a&gt; on this site explores some of these same ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ansari, D., Garcia, N., Lucas, E., Hamon, K., &amp;amp; Dhital, B. (2005). Neural correlates of symbolic number processing in children and adults. NeuroReport, 16(16), 1769.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barsalou, L. W. (1983). Ad hoc categories. Memory &amp;amp; Cognition, 11(3), 211–227.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bowdle, B. F., &amp;amp; Gentner, D. (2005). The career of metaphor. Psychological Review, 112(1), 193–216.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chrysikou, E. G. (2006). When Shoes Become Hammers: Goal-Derived Categorization Training Enhances Problem-Solving Performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32(4), 935–942. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Durso, F. T., Rea, C. B., &amp;amp; Dayton, T. (1994). Graph-Theoretic Confirmation of Restructuring during Insight. Psychological science, 5(2), 94–98. Association for Psychological Science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Holyoak, K. J., &amp;amp; Thagard, P. (1997). The analogical mind. The American psychologist, 52(1), 35–44.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lakoff, G., &amp;amp; Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. The University of Chicago Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="98" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T17:08:32.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="262" CreationDate="2012-02-06T09:59:50.207" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you mean is that you want teenage existentialist angst to last for life? The neuroplasticity of younger children comes at a cost, which is not really knowing ones place in the world, because the world model you are building is constantly changing. Getting a world model broadly settled then enables you to move on in life and do more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we retained the same level of neuroplasticity for life, we would never actually do much, because we would never have a clear model of life to build on. The result of the moulding and structuring of a young persons brain is to produce something adapted for the rest of their life. The flexibility is important because their precise situation may require different adaptions to other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The real issue is that, even 100 years ago, once a person was adapted for life, their world would not change substantially in their lifetime. Today that is not the case ( Alvin Tofler, Future Shock, is a classic explaining this ). But keeping the plasticity for longer would, if anything, probably make the situation worse, not better, as the influential 20-somethings built a world around their own ever changing perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T09:59:50.207" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="304" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="287" CreationDate="2012-02-06T10:15:04.790" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was about to recommend &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Psychology/CognitivePsychology/?view=usa&amp;amp;ci=9780195342161&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Oxford Handbook of Social Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, by Decety and Cacioppo (Oxford University Press, 2011) which has an entire part (10 chapters) dedicated to the neural basis of emotion regulation, motivation, and social interactions. However, I just noticed Panksepp's forthcoming book, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abbeys.com.au/book/the-archaeology-of-mind-neural-origins-of-human-emotion.do&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Archaeology of Mind: Neuroevolutionary Origins of Human Emotions&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which is probably worth to look at.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="88" LastEditorUserId="88" LastEditDate="2012-02-06T11:52:22.933" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T11:52:22.933" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="305" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="292" CreationDate="2012-02-06T13:06:42.900" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;how to build a system that can read natural language and ... understand it&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure you appreciate what you are wanting here. Just this one piece requires an understanding of the processes of the mind that I don't believe we are at yet. There is a lot of material about how we MIGHT achieve this, but you would need to appreciate the whole cognative processing model ( or rather, find one of the models that you like best ), and be able to mirror it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also, I think a requirement in here to automatically search the web and identify good quality answers. Well, if you do this, I am sure that Google will be very interested in you. Most people are poor at doing this reliably, so trying to enable a computer system to achieve this is probably not practical at this moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the most important thing you need is an entire research department. The requirement you have is so diverse that it needs many different people working on many different areas. You would need, I woudl say, PhDs in cogsci or similar, and AI, as a minimum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This all sounds very negative, but actually, I think it is a good question, because it is important to understand the scope of the answer, for everyone who works in machine intellegence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T13:06:42.900" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="306" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="262" CreationDate="2012-02-06T14:52:08.053" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another reason for reduced plasticity in adults is that learning something different in the presence of an existing knowledge structure is more difficult than learning from a &quot;blank slate&quot;. In a sense, you get interference from the known language (for example). One person who has developed this argument computationally is Jay McClelland in the context of native Japanese speakers learning the English /r/-/l/ distinction (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~jlm/papers/McCandlissEtAl02.pdf&quot;&gt;McCandliss et al., 2002&lt;/a&gt;), though I think the principle may apply more generally. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is that &quot;reduced plasticity&quot; is just a consequence of interference from the established knowledge rather than a fundamental change in plasticity. Part of the argument is that you only see reduced plasticity when there is a conflict between the (for example) first language and second language; aspects of the second language that match the first language are learned very quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastEditorUserId="299" LastEditDate="2012-02-08T16:51:23.060" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T16:51:23.060" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="307" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="292" CreationDate="2012-02-06T15:17:32.383" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schroedingers Cat nailed a couple of important points and I need to expand it further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the important roadblock in the creation of an absolutely intelligent machine is the fact that human brain is still not decrypted. There isn't a holistic cognitive model that describes how the brain functions, reacts or take decisions. Even in case such a model is inferred, it still cannot be put into real use since human decision is based on knowledge and the environment (popularly called culture). So a machine being rational is hard to prove since human themselves cannot prove their rationality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Technically, there are three problems&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Language - Almost all programs use one or the other form of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-free_grammar&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Context Free Grammar&lt;/a&gt;. Humans always use context while speaking. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Computationally it isn't feasible to do a simulation model similar to brain. Just assume a choice of 2 items among a set of 10 items. You have a possible 2^10 combinations. Think of 100 conditions and your computer would go into limbo.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Most of the AI engines built today are a far cry from those proposed by their forefathers. You must have read the &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.in/books?id=8jZBksh-bUMC&amp;amp;q=artificial%20intelligence%20a%20modern%20approach&amp;amp;dq=artificial%20intelligence%20a%20modern%20approach&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=A-0vT5KICJHorQfroMTTDA&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;AI: A modern approach&lt;/a&gt;. They are mostly built for a particular domain and aren't absolutely intelligent&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And regarding your robot searching Google for the answers, its already possible by using the Google API's to search for answers but it won't fulfill your requirement. Google uses the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PageRank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PageRank&lt;/a&gt; technology for its results, which is more of a machine learning technique and is still far from true semantic search.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's hope though. I am just in the same situation (coincidentally I have subscribed for both machine learning and natural language processing, though all courses are indefinitely postponed). I could suggest learning the following&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Artificial Neural Networks&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Natural Language Processing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Probabilistic Models&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unsupervised machine learning techniques&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Advanced pattern discovery&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also suggest a change in your original model. Instead of searching Google to find the answers, it would be better you download the stack exchange data dump and start analyzing the patterns since those answers are given by true humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feel free to ask more questions. There are more things to be questioned than to be answered in this field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="204" LastEditorUserId="204" LastEditDate="2012-02-07T15:16:36.480" LastActivityDate="2012-02-07T15:16:36.480" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="308" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="278" CreationDate="2012-02-06T16:52:51.310" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;SVM training is typically done in a batch processing, and thus the order of data presentation doesn't matter. You should consider &lt;strong&gt;online learning algorithms&lt;/strong&gt;, for example, the perceptron learning rule. These algorithms are in general stochastic gradient descent optimization procedures, and easy examples early on with larger learning step would be much more efficient (faster convergence towards the correct answer) than learning with difficult examples first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T16:52:51.310" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="309" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="345" CreationDate="2012-02-06T21:35:07.590" Score="9" ViewCount="263" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm faced with a UX problem of looking for ways to position a website to increase attendance at future &quot;real world&quot; events, and I'm remembering a study once conducted along these lines (details a bit hazy):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;University students were given a presentation on the benefit of receiving flu shots and instructed on where to go to get them. One session's group received no further materials, while the other's group were given a map and asked to pick a time to report. The attendance rate in the latter group was substantially higher than the former.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't seem to find mentions of it online anywhere, though, and if anyone could point me towards more information on this or any other related study it would be highly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="304" OwnerDisplayName="Samuel Hulick" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-04-29T15:51:56.857" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T19:46:54.840" Title="Study on commitment and follow-through" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;commitment&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="310" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="309" CreationDate="2012-02-06T22:34:31.960" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10810730701615198&quot;&gt;an article by O'Keefe and Jensen (2007) that seems somewhat relevant&lt;/a&gt;. It's a meta-analysis that finds, according to their abstract (p. 623):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;...in disease prevention messages, gain-framed appeals, which&#xA;  emphasize the advantages of compliance with the communicator’s&#xA;  recommendation, are statistically significantly more persuasive than&#xA;  loss-framed appeals, which emphasize the disadvantages of&#xA;  noncompliance.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference appears quite small, however; maybe not what you were looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;O'Keefe, D. J., &amp;amp; Jensen, J. D. The relative persuasiveness of gain-framed loss-framed messages for encouraging disease prevention behaviors: A meta-analytic review. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Health Communication&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;12&lt;/em&gt;, 623-644.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-02-06T22:34:31.960" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="311" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="312" CreationDate="2012-02-06T23:21:54.900" Score="19" ViewCount="846" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for scholarly, peer-reviewed articles that discuss natural language processing (NLP) involving chat or text messaging lingo/acronyms and the affect of chat participants based on language and emoticons. Anyone have a good recommendation? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am already familiar with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/abs/1010.3003&quot;&gt;recent work&lt;/a&gt; involving using Twitter to assess the general mood of society as a means of predicting the stock market. They used the Google-Profile of Mood States (GPOMS) that measures mood as Calm, Alert, Sure, Vital, Kind, or Happy. I am looking for other examples that assess general affect, ideally by applying more scientific psychometric tests to NLP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not trying to use the data for prediction. I am seeking to use machine learning algorithms to classify/categorize conversations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bollen, J., Mao, H., Zeng, X-J. (2011).  Twitter mood predicts the stock market.    &lt;em&gt;Journal of Computational Science, 2&lt;/em&gt;(1),1-8.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jocs.2010.12.007&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="307" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-19T17:33:09.713" LastActivityDate="2012-10-20T09:49:17.743" Title="How to classify and understand emotions of people using chat and text messaging lingo and emoticons?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;nlp&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="312" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="311" CreationDate="2012-02-07T03:34:07.017" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;The field that is doing this work you describe is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentiment_analysis&quot;&gt;sentiment analysis&lt;/a&gt;.  From Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A basic task in sentiment analysis is classifying the polarity of a given text at the document, sentence, or feature/aspect level — whether the expressed opinion in a document, a sentence or an entity feature/aspect is positive, negative, or neutral. Advanced, &quot;beyond polarity&quot; sentiment classification looks, for instance, at emotional states such as &quot;angry,&quot; &quot;sad,&quot; and &quot;happy.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.uic.edu/~liub/FBS/sentiment-analysis.html&quot;&gt;an introductory course&lt;/a&gt; (lots of good references on this page)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This work is in the general area of sentiment analysis, opinion extraction or opinion mining, and feature-based opinion summarization from the user-generated content or user-generated media on the Web, e.g., reviews, forum and group discussions, and blogs. In our &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.uic.edu/~liub/publications/kdd04-revSummary.pdf&quot;&gt;KDD-2004&lt;/a&gt; (Minqing Hu and Bing Liu. &quot;Mining and summarizing customer reviews.&quot; Proceedings of the ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery &amp;amp; Data Mining, Seattle, Washington, USA, Aug 22-25, 2004.) paper, we proposed the Feature-Based Opinion Mining model, which is now also called Aspect-Based Opinion Mining (as the term feature here can confuse with the term feature used in machine learning). The output of such opinion mining is a feature-based opinion summary or aspect-based opinion summary. The area is also related to sentiment classification. Our current work is in two main areas, which reflect two kinds of opinions (or evaluations)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Mining regular (or direct) opinions. Ex: (1). This camera is great. (2). After taking the drug, I got stomach pain.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Mining comparative opinions. Ex: Coke tastes better than Pepsi.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of your actual goals, scroll down to &lt;a href=&quot;http://nlp-s11.utcompling.com/assignments/sentiment-analysis&quot;&gt;extra credit&lt;/a&gt; on this page, and you'll find an exercise that goes through a scenario close to what you describe with emoticons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of peer-reviewed, Chmiel A, Sienkiewicz J, et al (2011). Collective emotions online and their influence on community life, PLoS One, 6(7), e22207. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchObjectAttachment.action;jsessionid=632B1932DB1134A8B5CD898D126C551B?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0022207&amp;amp;representation=PDF&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;.  I'm sure there are others in mainstream NLP journals, but I'm for want of a database that lists them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-02-07T03:46:05.763" LastActivityDate="2012-02-07T03:46:05.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="313" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="314" CreationDate="2012-02-07T09:22:51.403" Score="11" ViewCount="812" Body="&lt;p&gt;In both my last year of high school and my freshmen year at the university, I got strong recommendations to study using mind maps - especially because this is apparently better to cope with &lt;strong&gt;large amounts&lt;/strong&gt; of new information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is mind mapping effective in learning and reflecting on information?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, how does mind mapping help in learning and reflecting on information?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user317" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-07T22:18:29.337" LastActivityDate="2019-11-25T12:01:45.857" Title="Why are mind maps recommended for study and recap?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="314" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="313" CreationDate="2012-02-07T13:19:42.750" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Concept mapping is a way of reviewing the material, depending on the study it may be significantly better than other forms of review, though not all studies I read found that superiority.  The most popular theory for its claimed superiority is that it also organizes the information better for recall; most of the papers that found concept mapping better than the other forms of review tested had the subjects create their own concept maps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the reading I did was several months ago, and I don't have references readily available; but I was Googling metacognition recently and found a paper, that says concept maps work by improving metacognition, though they are only marginally better for that than rereading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Joshua S. Redford, Keith W. Thiede, Jennifer Wiley, Thomas D. Griffin.  Concept mapping improves metacomprehension accuracy among 7th graders.  Learning and Instruction (2011), doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.10.007&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="289" LastActivityDate="2012-02-07T13:19:42.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="315" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="313" CreationDate="2012-02-07T14:57:02.940" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;An excellent question! &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/331/6018/772.full&quot;&gt;A 2011 paper in &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; by Karpicke and Blunt&lt;/a&gt; in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://learninglab.psych.purdue.edu/&quot;&gt;Cognition and Learning Lab at Purdue University&lt;/a&gt; gets at this issue. They offer that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Concept mapping is considered an active learning task, and it serves&#xA;  as an elaborative study activity when students construct concept maps&#xA;  in the presence of the materials they are learning. Under these&#xA;  conditions, concept mapping bears the defining characteristics of an&#xA;  elaborative study method: It requires students to enrich the material&#xA;  they are studying and encode meaningful relationships among concepts&#xA;  within an organized knowledge structure.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They go on in their paper, however, to demonstrate that concept mapping is far less efficient than an even simpler technique: repeated retrieval (e.g., self-testing). Practicing retrieval, they argue, &quot;enhances learning by retrieval-specific mechanisms rather than by elaborative study processes.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Karpicke, J.D., &amp;amp; Blunt, J.R. (2011). Retrieval practice produces more learning than elaborative studying with concept mapping. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;331&lt;/em&gt;, 772-775.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-02-07T14:57:02.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="242" CreationDate="2012-02-08T02:02:20.033" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some important relationships between the c. elegans nervous system and the human nervous system that should be pointed out here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neurons in both animals communicate with each other via synapses that use special molecules called neurotransmitters to convey activity.  All major neurotransmitters used in humans are also used in c. elegans (Glutamate, GABA, Acetylcholine, Dopamine).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Because of the genetic similarity of c. elegans to humans, you can &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrd/journal/v5/n5/full/nrd2031.html&quot;&gt;splice human genes into their genomes and have them produce human proteins&lt;/a&gt;, which interact with c. elegans proteins and provide an isolated way to study their activity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The basic principles of excitable membranes formulated by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model&quot;&gt;Hodgkin and Huxley in 1952&lt;/a&gt; are applicable to understanding and modeling the nervous systems of both creatures&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Because of these facts, the creation of a system to simulate the nervous system of the c. elegans represents a lower bound of complexity of a system needed to simulate the human nervous system.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="325" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T02:02:20.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="318" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="321" CreationDate="2012-02-08T04:00:54.177" Score="29" ViewCount="766" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand, the basics of neurogenesis (abstracted down to the level that makes sense to a computer scientist) is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neural &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progenitor_cell&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;progenitor cells&lt;/a&gt; differentiate into new neurons that have zero (or very few) synaptic connections, but are sensitive to the local chemistry.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;(Optional)&lt;/em&gt; Sometimes (such as in adult neurogenesis in the olfactory bulb) these immature neurons-to-be are produced far away from where they are needed and follow standard pathways to migrate to the correct brain region&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The immature neuron extends dendrites towards upstream neurons and starts to develop an axon&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The immature neuron extends axon towards downstream neurons, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The neuron matures and becomes indistinguishable from the network it joined.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've eliminated many of the biological details, since I want to just capture the details (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Adult_neurogenesis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;more info&lt;/a&gt;). The part that seems to be not well described, and &lt;strong&gt;my question, is&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do neurons select where to make their initial dendrite and axon connections?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How/when does a given network notify the progenitor cells that they should differentiate?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Partial results&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cecchi et al. (2001) proposed a model where the new neurons produce initial connections randomly, and then the only the ones that contribute to the function of the network end up firing frequently and surviving, and the rest die. This inspired by the observation of high death rate among immature neurons. However, there is not biological evidence to support that the initial connections are in fact random, and I hope that there has been more evidence gathered since the early work in 2001.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Notes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;This question is motivated by &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/214/29&quot;&gt;the search for computational models with a biologically reasonable account of neurogenesis&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for some sort of abstract local explanation to my questions at-least at the rule-of-thumb level. For examples, if I was asking about plasticity of established connections (and not neurogenesis in particular), then Hebb's &amp;quot;neurons that fire together wire together&amp;quot; would be a sufficient answer, although &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike-timing-dependent_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;STDP&lt;/a&gt; would be a better one. However, I do not need all the biological details, just the high level rule if one is known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cecchi GA, Retreanu LT, Alvarez-Buylla A, Magnasco MO – “Unsupervised Learning and Adaptation in a Model of Adult Neurogenesis” Journal of Computational Neuroscience; 11:175-182; 2001 [&lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/0105070.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;preprint&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-03-08T19:47:37.730" Title="How are newly created neurons recruited into existing networks?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;&lt;neurogenesis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="319" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="313" CreationDate="2012-02-08T05:16:21.777" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it's important to keep in mind the different effects that one might achieve using mind mapping, with regard to the way mind maps are being evaluated in the literature mentioned so far.  While retrieval ability is easy to measure and certainly a useful metric that approximates one important aspect of learning in an academic setting, retrieval isn't everything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My own experience (n=1) is that mind mapping is probably not a great use of time when preparing for the kinds of evaluations usually required of one in college.  Mind mapping has, however, proved remarkably beneficial to my ability to index information, and to see relationships between different things.  This is crucially different from the retrieval model described earlier: I am not trying to prepare myself to reproduce some given body of facts; rather, I want a tool to help integrate new information with what I already know, or else help explore the connections between disparate elements in my knowledge store.  For these pursuits mind mapping has been a superb tool.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect that the benefits of mind mapping may be related to the benefits of the Creative Uses Task described by Chrysikou (2006), for the same reasons I described in my answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/207/98&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;, namely, the elaboration and schematic connection between far-flung semantic contents.  How is the industrial revolution like an old-fashioned donut?  I have no idea, but framing a context that meaningfully interprets both things can elicit a more profound understanding of the logical path between them.  Further, this process has more than once been the cause of an insight, or reorganization of conceptual knowledge, a la Durso et al. (1994); less personally, it's a flavor of combinatorial activity that features heavily in many models of creativity (c.f. Thagard &amp;amp; Stewart, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chrysikou, E. G. (2006). When Shoes Become Hammers: Goal-Derived Categorization Training Enhances Problem-Solving Performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32(4), 935–942.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Durso, F. T., Rea, C. B., &amp;amp; Dayton, T. (1994). Graph-Theoretic Confirmation of Restructuring during Insight. Psychological science, 5(2), 94–98. Association for Psychological Science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thagard, P. (2011). The Aha! experience: Creativity through emergent binding in neural networks. Cognitive Science 35, 1-33.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="98" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T05:16:21.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="320" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="341" CreationDate="2012-02-08T05:44:58.810" Score="4" ViewCount="822" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of journals use APA style for journal article submissions. In 2009 APA released the 6th edition with several changes to the 5th edition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What's a good summary of the important changes in the 6th edition?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or, alternatively, what is a good online resource listing these changes?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="21788" LastEditDate="2019-10-10T12:43:47.563" LastActivityDate="2019-10-10T12:43:47.563" Title="What are the major changes in the APA Publication Manual from 5th to 6th editions?" Tags="&lt;publication-process&gt;&lt;apa-style&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="318" CreationDate="2012-02-08T07:43:29.487" Score="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a huge body of literature on axon growth cone guidance which will give you some insights into how the biology works.  Unfortunately, incorporating it all into a model is probably going to make it unwieldy unless your express purpose is to model the physiology, which doesn't seem like the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hong K, Nishiyama M. (2010). From guidance signals to movement: signaling molecules governing growth cone turning. Neuroscientist, 16(1),65-78. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is pertinent because it explicitly mentions adult neurogenesis, as much of the subject is devoted to the developing nervous system in models like the developing chicken.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kolodkin AL, Tessier-Lavigne M (2011).  Mechanisms and molecules of neuronal wiring: a primer.  Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol, 3(6), 1-14 &lt;a href=&quot;http://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/content/3/6/a001727.full.pdf+html&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To call Marc Tessier-Lavigne a leader in the field of neuronal growth would be an understatement.  This article also covers some of the cues of synaptogenesis as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Simpson HD, Mortimer D, Goodhill GJ (2009).Theoretical models of neural circuit development.  Curr Top Dev Biol, 87, 1-51.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regrettably, I do not have access to this article, but it appears to be more along the lines of computationally realistic representations.  It does state that their models for synaptic strengthening are based on Hebbian Learning, so that's at least in line with what you presumed that you needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In searching for more computational models, ephrins and integrins are two of the cell surface agents that are heavily involved in the process, so any abstractions of those would make for a good model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T07:43:29.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="324" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-08T15:36:18.797" Score="5" ViewCount="496" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, I would like to stress that I am &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; a cogsci person and I have almost no background in those areas of science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is whether there exists a definition of a phenomenon I recently encoutered: A person is shy, but &lt;strong&gt;only&lt;/strong&gt; in confrontational situations - has no &lt;strong&gt;social phobia&lt;/strong&gt; regarding making friends and so on. Furthermore, this &amp;quot;shyness&amp;quot; is only demonstrated towards strangers, i.e. the person in question has no problem confronting somebody they know. Lastly, the problem occurs only in person, not over the Internet or telephone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All in all, the question is - is this phenomenon described somewhere? And most importantly - does it have a name? Maybe it has already been defined and studied by someone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Meaning of confrontational&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By 'confrontational' I mean 'having different opinions' or 'having to sort out a disagreement'. To provide an example illustrating the problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;After being ripped off at a restaurant (food bad, late, cold, etc), the person prefers to let the whole thing go and pay rather than argue with the waiter (thus avoiding an in-person confrontation). But,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If the person were ordering a pizza over a phone and it did not arrive for an hour, they would have no problem calling the restaurant and discussing the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not a native speaker :) Hope the above description clarifies the problem a little bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user330" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-04-29T21:25:22.810" Title="Defining shyness towards strangers in confrontational situations" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="325" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-08T15:53:56.383" Score="12" ViewCount="287" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many experiments in cognitive psychology and other domains ask for confidence ratings (e.g., on a 0-100 scale, 100 meaning &quot;I'm sure I experienced this stimulus&quot;). What accounts describe how these decisions are made? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Review papers of this issue would be particularly helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-27T07:47:52.273" LastActivityDate="2016-11-14T17:54:06.627" Title="What processes underlies confidence ratings in cognitive decision-making?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="328" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="330" CreationDate="2012-02-08T17:41:45.997" Score="13" ViewCount="2253" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am very curious as to if any research has been done in this area, or if such a question even &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; be researched given the current tools and methods available to cognitive scientists. When one dreams, one may experience interactions with other characters, be those characters based on people one knows in their waking life or characters new to the dreamer. I'm interested to understand more about how the interactions between the dreamer &lt;em&gt;within the dream state&lt;/em&gt; and these characters inside the dream work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do the characters in one's dream actually have their own &lt;em&gt;thoughts&lt;/em&gt;? That is, does the mind &quot;sandbox&quot; each character, keeping track of what each dream character is thinking? When characters in a dream speak or act, what determines what actions they will take? Are their words and actions simply based upon a sense of empathy, or does the mind somehow maintain separate &quot;conscious states&quot; for each dream character? (A better word for that is appreciated, if there is one)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, as I suspect, is this concept simply too abstract for us to research given our current level of technology and understanding about how dreams work at a fundamental level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; As an alternative way of asking this question, has any research been done looking for possible relationships between characters within a dream and other better-understood areas of personality, for example multiple personality disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-02-08T17:53:50.910" LastActivityDate="2015-10-11T17:45:44.467" Title="Do characters in a dream have their own separate thoughts or identity?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="329" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="324" CreationDate="2012-02-08T17:51:24.283" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;(caveat: I am not a trained psychologist, so talk to one before taking any advice from people online!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This isn't really a definition that I know of for this (beyond social phobia, or confrontational anxiety), though that's not a bad thing.  Something that exists does not need a label to exist, and labels often shortcut and/or constrain our mental processing of a thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, from a psychology perspective (not a CogSci one; just being explicit), there's probably a good chance the person has had multiple negative experiences with regards to &lt;code&gt;confrontation&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;in-person communication&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The brain has a remarkable ability to create discrete boundaries around fuzzy relational systems, so I suspect that whomever this person is, there is a perceived threat (most likely subliminally processed) which stimulates the anxiety.  In-Person communication is very different from vocal-only communication, and would include a lot more visual and social processing, which in turn can bring up mental links to past experiences that match what's being processed in the moment.  If there are negative associations with those visuosocial links, you'll experience anxiety due to the possiblity of a repetition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the person from a restrictive, socially conservative culture?  Is there a history of controlling and/or fickle parents?  Or a long time spent in/around aggressive, insecure people who personalize everything?  These (and a lot more!) are all things that can create the sort of anxiety you're describing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But really, a trained psychologist is whom this person should be talking with.  A trend like this can result in intense social isolationism unless addressed early.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T17:51:24.283" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="330" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="328" CreationDate="2012-02-08T17:54:06.870" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;EDIT:  To address the changed question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar to how mental visualization stimulates the same neurons/blood flow that actually seeing something does, I suspect that brain scans will show similar processing occuring during the dream interaction as occur during real interactions.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference is that the brain is creating the entire subjective experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The crazy thought is that there isn't a difference though: subjective experience is ALWAYS completely constructed by the brain, though it's constructed through nerve impulses from external inputs such as electromagnetic waves (sight) or physical waves (sound).  During sleep, the body is paralyzed to prevent us from acting out our dreams (which WILL happen if the paralysis is lifted), which implies that sensory data is still coming in (or being generated) and we are simply mis-perceiving it and then trying to catch up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was my answer to @alan2here's original question.  It mostly still applies, though is also a mixture of philosophy, psychology, and cognitive neurophilosophy (EDIT: i.e. uncited, lol)&#xA;Take this as you will:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off, this is definitely a philosophy question, but I'll try to stay within the bounds of Cog Sci. No promises though...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my understanding, the mind does not create consciousness. While this is a very thorny issue, and one I'm not super familiar with, I believe a generally accepted view is that consciousness is a (by-)product of the sheer complexity of the human brain coupled with governing systems and feedback loops (and a hell of a lot more of course!). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, the perceived barrier between the self and separate beings is just that: perception. Differences in physical properties aside, there are no real barriers between anything. Air is just as much a molecule as plastic, and behaves in a remarkably similar manner. The difference is semantics (not unimportant to subjective beings, but objectively the difference is inconsequential). We just can't see it, and we're conditioned to ignore it, so we see a vast gulf of nothingness where there is actually incredible hidden complexity. Also, the notion of self is a misguided one that we're given through culture. As many Eastern philosophies will tell you, the self is a lie! (just like cake).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To address the actualy question though (kinda), I think you unintentionally answered it yourself with this phrase: sentient seeming entities. The 'people' in your dreams are amalgamations of 'people'-like semantic attributes your brain has constructed from your experiences. These seem like real people and can act like real people, but that's because you've met and experienced real people. If you have never met real people, it's very doubtful that any people-like dream constructs will be created (unless generated from mirror reflections).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, I have to add this caveat: dreams and dream science is still an incredibly unexplored black box. We still don't have a clear idea about why dreams occur and until then, this question is literally unanswerable. In fact, everything I've said may turn out to be false, but we don't really know. That's why this falls under philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'll leave you with this: assuming that the human mind is an individual entity (and cannot connect with other people through undiscovered mental (physical, likely subatomic and certain microscopic) means), then the people in your dreams do not exist anywhere else nor to anyone else. Therefore: does it matter? It's a completely subjective experience, so only you can decide how to perceive it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="46" LastEditDate="2012-02-08T18:00:38.640" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T18:00:38.640" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="331" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="333" CreationDate="2012-02-08T18:17:40.007" Score="1" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;What resources are there for consumers who wish to get a detailed analysis of their personal brain function?  (besides consumer EEG machines...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, how do I get access to an fMRI scan?  What's the current price range for such a thing?  Do I have to be a grad student/researcher? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, how do I get a detailed analysis of anything that could be interesting/out of the ordinary?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-08T23:23:17.873" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T23:23:17.873" Title="How can consumers  obtain an image and analysis of their own brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="332" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="336" CreationDate="2012-02-08T18:25:45.113" Score="8" ViewCount="345" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many areas of life we have a choice between multiple options: if we are hungry and we want to go out to eat, we have a number of places to choose from (McDonalds, etc).  However, we also still have the 'Zero Choice' (my terminology) of not eating out at all and getting food some other way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my personal life, I've noticed (perhaps falsly) that a fair number of people, once they've made a general choice (in the example: eating out), they disregard the 'Zero Choice' (not eating out) and become fixated on the sub-choices (where to eat out).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a noticable difference in mental activity between people who don't consider the 'Zero Choice' and people who do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Original Question: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In my life I've noticed that people rarely see the 'nothing' choice. &#xA;  Rather than choosing &lt;code&gt;this&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;that&lt;/code&gt;, there is also the choice of&#xA;  &lt;code&gt;neither&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;both&lt;/code&gt;.  People I've interacted with often weigh their&#xA;  &lt;code&gt;both&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;this&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;that&lt;/code&gt; options fairly well, but many completely&#xA;  miss the &lt;code&gt;neither/nothing&lt;/code&gt; option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;More specifically, I've seen this in a couple girlfriends I've had and&#xA;  a couple guy friends also.  When trying to decide what to do, they'll&#xA;  settle on a type of activity (active/passive -&gt; general category -&gt;&#xA;  couple options) and then choose between a couple options.  However,&#xA;  rarely in these options do they include the idea of something&#xA;  completely different.  Meanwhile, this is something I do without&#xA;  thinking; other options are always present to me, and I have no&#xA;  difficulty in seeing, weighing, or choosing the &lt;code&gt;neither&lt;/code&gt; option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These are poor examples and for that I apologize; but is this a&#xA;  recognized phenomenon? What neural differences are there between&#xA;  people who process the &lt;code&gt;nothing&lt;/code&gt; option and people who don't?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Has this even been researched at all?  Cursory Googling (the most&#xA;  available to me right now) has revealed nothing; I could be searching&#xA;  for the wrong thing though...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-09T02:45:28.940" LastActivityDate="2020-06-03T14:46:03.997" Title="Why do some people seem to disregard the choice of doing nothing (The Zero Choice)?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="331" CreationDate="2012-02-08T18:27:08.600" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The easiest way to get an fMRI (and many other brain) scan is to volunteer to be a participant at your local university, hospital, or research center. They will let you keep a picture of your brain, provide some interesting information at de-briefing, and usually even give a bit of monetary compensation for your time. Since the research group has to have an MD on board in order to do these tests, they will also notify you if they detect something abnormal or dangerous in your scan. The only caveat is that the selection criteria for being a participant are usually a little bit more involved than in a standard psychological study. Thus, you might have to volunteer for a few studies before you are selected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want further analysis, you might consider companies &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainimageanalysis.com/default.html&quot;&gt;like this&lt;/a&gt;. There you can submit your brainscans after you've received them for further analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-08T18:35:28.993" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T18:35:28.993" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="334" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-08T19:57:56.147" Score="6" ViewCount="182" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have something like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area&quot;&gt;Brodmann Areas&lt;/a&gt; in mind, but any complete list of cortex regions would do. I'm primarily interested in human brains here. Ultimately I'd like enough information to be able to build an NxN matrix containing boolean &quot;innervates&quot; entries. Numbers representing an &quot;innervation strength&quot; would be great too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="335" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-08T23:57:41.113" LastActivityDate="2012-03-31T03:15:25.680" Title="Is there a complete cortico-cortical connectivity map based on a useful partitioning of the cortex?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="335" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="334" CreationDate="2012-02-08T23:29:44.547" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes-- you may be very interested in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.humanconnectomeproject.org/&quot;&gt;Human Connectome Project&lt;/a&gt; (also &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Connectome_Project&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;), whose goal is to map human brain connectivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the primary tools used to map functional and anatomical connections is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_MRI&quot;&gt;diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)&lt;/a&gt;. Unlike the more often used T2-weighted images, DTI allows researchers to image white matter tracts directly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The data from the HCP is available for free to researchers, but you need to apply for access. See their website for details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T23:29:44.547" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="336" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="332" CreationDate="2012-02-08T23:32:32.150" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;More generally, you are asking about a common tendency to substitute a sub-set of  alternative actions for the entire set without realizing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond the contribution of pure habit, it seems to be related to several common decision making biases, including attentional bias and focusing effect, though it doesn't exactly match any.  I don't recall seeing this investigated directly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Zero choice&quot; is a poor choice of terminology, it evokes the &quot;null hypothesis&quot; (as Ben Brocka alluded to in the comments), which in decision making usually means &quot;do nothing&quot;, not a call to consider a broader set of alternatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="289" LastActivityDate="2012-02-08T23:32:32.150" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="337" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="339" CreationDate="2012-02-09T00:15:45.490" Score="43" ViewCount="50443" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newscientist.com/blog/lastword/2008/05/eye-level.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The following&lt;/a&gt; is a common scientific statement, which you don't have to google long for to find:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The eye views images upside-down in the manner of a camera lens, but&#xA;  our brains reinterpret this input to allow us to see things the&#xA;  correct way up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8EDa8.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My first question is quite straightforward: &lt;strong&gt;Is this statement valid?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't understand why you should come to the conclusion that your brain should 'flip' the image. Wouldn't your brain be able to cope just fine without flipping it? If anything I would suspect the brain to &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; flip the image, if there is no reason to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order for this statement to be valid, I would expect a scientific theory/experiment from which can be concluded that the brain does process the vision in such a way that, after it being processed all subsequent processing occurs on the 'inverted' image. That seems to me to be the most logical interpretation of 'to flip'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T08:27:14.100" LastActivityDate="2019-04-19T15:32:19.690" Title="Why would the brain flip the images perceived by your eyes?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="14" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="338" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="251" CreationDate="2012-02-09T00:23:20.053" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;@OfriRaviv provided a great answer, but I thought I'd add a third alternative I am aware of for completeness.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Tversky &amp;amp; Shafir result is only a violation of classical probability. This approach to probability usually goes unquestioned (since people often assume &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_logic&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;classical logic&lt;/a&gt; is the only reasonable logic), but could be put under scientific scrutiny. In physics, this scrutiny lead to the development of quantum mechanics and the associated &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_probability&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;non-commutative (or free) probability&lt;/a&gt; (see also: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uni-math.gwdg.de/mitch/free.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;more technical lecture notes&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, this approach has also been pursued in cognitive science (most notably by &lt;a href=&quot;http://mypage.iu.edu/%7Ejbusemey/home.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jerome R. Busemeyer&lt;/a&gt;) to develop a theory of &lt;a href=&quot;http://mypage.iu.edu/%7Ejbusemey/quantum/Quantum%20Cognition%20Notes.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;quantum decision-making&lt;/a&gt;. Note that this approach does not assume that the brain is quantum mechanical in the physics sense, instead it questions if the assumption of classical logic is reasonable, or if human behavior is better modeled by non-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_axioms&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kolmogorov probability&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this setting, the behavior displayed by humans is rational in accordance to their system of probability. This is similar to, but subtly different from, rule-rationality versus act-rationality in Ofri Raviv's answer. In particular these dynamic models of decision-making can explain the observed 'violations of rationality' in Tversky &amp;amp; Shafir.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Busemeyer, J. R., Wang, Z., &amp;amp; Townsend, J. T. (2006) &amp;quot;Quantum dynamics of human decision making.&amp;quot;  Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 50, 220-241. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://mypage.iu.edu/%7Ejbusemey/QD.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pothos, E. M. &amp;amp; Busemeyer, J. R. (2009)  &amp;quot;A Quantum Probability Explanation for Violations of ‘Rational’ Decision Theory&amp;quot;. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 276 (1165),  2171-2178. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://mypage.iu.edu/%7Ejbusemey/quantum/QDT.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Busemeyer, J. R., Pothos, E. &amp;amp; Franco, R., Trueblood, J. S. (2011) &amp;quot;A quantum theoretical explanation for probability judgment ‘errors’&amp;quot;.  Psychological Review, 108, 193-218. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://mypage.iu.edu/%7Ejbusemey/quantum/PJudge6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-02-09T00:23:20.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="339" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="337" CreationDate="2012-02-09T00:35:17.823" Score="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not meaningful to talk about your brain processing something as 'right-side up&amp;quot;' or 'upside-down'. The 'images' in your brain are just collections of neural activations, and not actual pictures. Thus they cannot have an orientation. The only meaningful way to test your question is to try flipping the input the brain receives and seeing if it can cope.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fortunately, the brain &lt;strong&gt;is&lt;/strong&gt; capable of flipping your visual field if required as measured through &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_adaptation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;perceptual adaptation&lt;/a&gt; experiments using inversion glasses. This has been demonstrated very drastically in studies, by for instance requiring a participant to wear inversion glasses for a long time. At first they are confused, and unable to orient themselves and do basic tasks, however after enough time the brain can adopt enough to even do activities like riding a bike. This suggests that from the only way you can measure things (i.e. behaviorally) the brain is capable of adapting to an upside down world (some participants even reported that after extended use the world even seemed &amp;quot;right side up&amp;quot;). This is functionally equivalent to the brain being able to process your visual information in either orientation. If it is capable of processing in either orientation, the question of &amp;quot;does my brain flip the image&amp;quot; becomes a pseudo-question and unanswerable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Taylor, J. G. (1962). The behavioral basis of perception. New Haven: Yale University Pres&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Harris, C.S. (1965) &amp;quot;Perceptual adaptation to inverted, reversed, and displaced vision.&amp;quot; Psychological Review 72(6): 419-444. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/wang18/www/psych334/readings/harris1965.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Di Paolo, E.A. (2003) &amp;quot;Organismically-inspired robotics: homeostatic adaptation and teleology beyond the closed sensorimotor loop&amp;quot;, {Dynamical systems approach to embodiment and sociality: 19-42 [&lt;a href=&quot;http://liris.cnrs.fr/enaction/docs/documents2006/dipaolo-hart.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-02-09T00:56:07.640" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="340" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-09T02:01:33.780" Score="7" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm very interested in how people size one another up in social situations and in particular what we key in on when we are making these judgements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Let's make an imaginary experiment.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I make several video tapes of actual business meetings just prior to when they begin. I edit the videos so that all explicit characterizations of the people are cut out (e.g. you wouldn't here one person address another person as &quot;sir&quot; or &quot;ma'am&quot;). I also get several simultaneous camera angles on each meeting. So basically you're seeing the people freely interact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, I want &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; as the subject to watch the videos and tell me what you think the people are like. Who's the leader? Who is smart? Who is ineffective? Who is conniving? Etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next, I ask you &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; you made each of these judgements, and I attempt to elicit very explicit rationale - such as &quot;people who slump in their seats seem ineffective to me&quot; or &quot;people who hold their chins higher seem like leaders to me&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can anyone point me to discussions of real experiments similar to this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular I'm interested in&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How accurate humans tend to be in quickly &quot;sizing up&quot; people.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How aware people are of why they are making these judgements and aware of what they are cueing in on.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is it that they are actually cueing  in on? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm more interested in all types of social appraisals, (intelligence, wealth, honesty, etc.), but I'm most interested in appraisals of leadership qualities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="68" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-29T13:53:04.640" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T07:07:19.510" Title="Accuracy of social judgements of observers watching business meetings" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;leadership&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="341" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="320" CreationDate="2012-02-09T07:48:05.687" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you're going to be submitting articles to APA journals you should have access to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apastyle.org/manual/index.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA Publication Manual 6th edition&lt;/a&gt;. And it is useful to use a template (see here for discussion of &lt;a href=&quot;https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/2628/how-to-apa-6th-in-latex&quot;&gt;6th edition LaTeX packages&lt;/a&gt;) and a citation system that supports the rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are changes that permit new things (e.g., longer abstracts, bullet lists, and keywords are permitted, single-spaced tables) and there are new suggestions (e.g., stronger encouragement to report confidence intervals; you can say &quot;subjects&quot; if you want; &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot; are recommended over &quot;the researchers&quot;).&#xA;However, if you already know the 5th edition, then  changes of particular interest are those  where compliance with the 5th edition would actually lead to violation of 6th edition rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Changes that stood out to me:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Provide two spaces at the end of sentences (but this doesn't make much sense if you use LaTeX)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Formatting of headings have changed and are simplified so that five-heading papers have the same first four headings as four-heading papers&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Figure captions are now placed on the same page as the figure below the figure.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tables and figures now appear before appendices&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Footnotes are now placed on the same page that they are referenced.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Report p-values to two or three decimal places exactly and those less than .001 as &lt;code&gt;p&amp;lt;.001&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References changes that stood out to me:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Include city and state for book publishers even if city is well known&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Provide &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apastyle.org/learn/faqs/what-is-doi.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DOI&lt;/a&gt; with any references that have a DOI&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General summaries of changes from 5th to 6th edition&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course there are lots of little changes, check out some of these references for some other reviews of changes and resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ocls.cmich.edu/APA%206th%20Edition%20CHANGES.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Dugan has a good summary of the changes in the 6th edition&lt;/a&gt;: mentions changes to end of sentence spacing, running head, headings, bias, repeated citation of same source in same paragraph, recording publisher location, references with 6+ authors, and DOIs.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.editavenue.com/writingtip.asp?cid=93831&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ace-editor provides an overview of changes&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apastyle.org/learn/tutorials/brief-guide.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The APA has a tutorial on the 6th edition&lt;/a&gt;. My preference was to mute the voice over and just read the text.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sample papers in 6th edition: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apastyle.org/manual/related/sample-experiment-paper-1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one experiment paper from APA&lt;/a&gt; and a &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/page/3/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;two experiment paper from APA&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.csun.edu/plunk/apa.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;another example with commentary&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.apastyle.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;official APA style blog&lt;/a&gt; has a few posts on 6th edition changes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=major%20differences%20between%205th%20and%206th%20editions%20of%20apa%20manual&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=5&amp;amp;ved=0CEUQFjAE&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fcon.ufl.edu%2Fresearch%2Fdocuments%2FSynopsisofChangesin6thEditionAPAManual_005.doc&amp;amp;ei=u2UzT-qlC8GSiAeKjMmWAg&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNFlyX0P_-boSxzWq-xqHrcvfne1ng&amp;amp;sig2=B3kH4f3yRSrtXsI4gyk9GA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fairly extensive set of notes listing changes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.people.vcu.edu/~jldavis/resources/apa/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jody Davis lists changes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.msstate.edu/org/msera/download/RITS_17_1_APAImpact.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hughes (2010) et al&lt;/a&gt; provide an academic review of the changes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.indwes.edu/ocls/apa/APA6eGuide.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;General set of guidelines on APA 6th edition from Indiana Wesleyan University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hughes, G., Onwuegbuzie, A., Daniel, L., and Slate, J. (2010).&#xA;Editorial: Apa publication manual changes: Impacts on research reporting&#xA;in the social sciences. Research in the Schools, 17(1). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.msstate.edu/org/msera/download/RITS_17_1_APAImpact.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:36:12.327" LastActivityDate="2012-02-09T07:48:05.687" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="342" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="324" CreationDate="2012-02-09T20:48:03.127" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;That sort of non-confrontational attitude has been researched as an aspect of interpersonal conflict-resolution style/mode/behaviour. The bulk of the research seems to have been conducted in the field of organisational psychology (which is not my field) since it's particularly relevant to how business is conducted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I've been able to glean from Google Scholar, Blake and Mouton were the first to publish on this topic, defining five interpersonal conflict-handling styles: competing, collaborating, compromising, &lt;strong&gt;avoiding&lt;/strong&gt;, and accommodating. Avoiding is simply defined as withdrawing from the conflict situation. Since then other researchers have developed a number of alternatives. The Thomas-Kilmann version dropped one style, compromising, and placed the rest along two dimensions, assertiveness and cooperativeness. This is the result:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/v5VT5.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;conflict-resolution style matrix&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on your description, your friend could be described as having an &lt;strong&gt;avoidant conflict-resolution style&lt;/strong&gt; when dealing with strangers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting topic for me because I'm somewhat like your friend. I'm quite introverted and I suspect your friend is too to some degree, since there is a link between introversion and having an avoidant interpersonal conflict-resolution style. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In business contexts it's not surprising to find that people who show a high need for dominance are averse to using an avoidant conflict-resolution style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what the research says about why your friend might choose a different style of conflict-resolution with friends. I'll see what else I can find.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Blake, R.R &amp;amp; Mouton, J.S. (1964). &lt;em&gt;The Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership Excellence&lt;/em&gt;. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thomas, K.W. &amp;amp; Kilmann, R.H. (1974). &lt;em&gt;The Thomas–Kilmann mode instrument&lt;/em&gt;. Tuxedo Park, NY: Xicom&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schneer, J.A. &amp;amp; Chanin, M.N. (1987). Manifest Needs as Personality Predispositions to Conflict-Handling Behavior. &lt;em&gt;Human Relations, 40&lt;/em&gt;, 575-590&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wood, V. F., &amp;amp; Bell, P. A. (2008). Predicting interpersonal conflict resolution styles from personality characteristics. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences, 45&lt;/em&gt;(2), 126-131.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="58" LastActivityDate="2012-02-09T20:48:03.127" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="343" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="344" CreationDate="2012-02-09T22:33:08.847" Score="10" ViewCount="483" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's an effective strategy employed by horoscopes and &quot;psychics&quot; where they say vague statements like &quot;You like being with friends but you value your time alone&quot;; statements that basically &quot;cover their bases&quot; in multiple extremes and thus apply to just about anyone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a typical example in high school our Psychology teacher gave us a &quot;handwriting evaluation&quot; which gave our &quot;personality types&quot; based on our handwriting; the results were just random statements. Everyone got the same statements but most of the class claimed their results were accurate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the name of these types of statements or the bias by which people tend to believe them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-04-16T16:12:39.040" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T00:47:52.670" Title="Bias by which we tend to accept vague descriptions of ourselves" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="344" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="343" CreationDate="2012-02-09T22:37:04.737" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forer_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Forer Effect&lt;/a&gt; after &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram_Forer&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bertram Forer&lt;/a&gt;. &#xA;Wikipedia describes it accurately:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Forer effect (also called the Barnum Effect after P.T. Barnum's observation that &quot;we've got something for everyone&quot;) is the observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. This effect can provide a partial explanation for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, and some types of personality tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forer gave the results of a &quot;personality test&quot; to a group of his students composed of random vague statements compiled from horoscopes. Students were asked to rate it's accuracy on a scale from 0 to 5, and the mean score was 4.26.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forer discussed these findings and the &quot;experiment&quot; in his article &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/?&amp;amp;fa=main.doiLanding&amp;amp;doi=10.1037/h0059240&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The fallacy of personal validation: a classroom demonstration of gullibility.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-02-10T13:06:39.643" LastActivityDate="2012-02-10T13:06:39.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="345" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="309" CreationDate="2012-02-10T02:07:35.003" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The study you are looking for is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Leventhal, H., Singer, R., &amp;amp; Jones, S. (1965). Effects of fear and&#xA;  specificity of recommendation upon attitudes and behavior. &lt;em&gt;Journal of&#xA;  Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;2&lt;/em&gt;(1), pp. 20-29. doi:&#xA;  10.1037/h0022089&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study is mostly how you remember (though it was tetanus instead of the flu). Critically, the manipulation was intended to increase the the availability of receiving a tetanus shot by having rehearsed the steps needed to get one. Students were given a map of the campus with the health center circled, and were asked to review their schedule and find a time they might be able to go--however, they did &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; make an appointment. Thus, the commitment was only to themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are, of course, a wide variety of ways to increase consumer &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compliance_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;compliance&lt;/a&gt;, including  the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_in_the_door&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;foot-in-the-door&lt;/a&gt; strategy, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Door_in_the_face&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;door-in-the-face&lt;/a&gt; strategy, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;framing effects&lt;/a&gt; to name a few.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a wide body of literature in social psychology on the idea of influence. I highly recommend two books on the topic, both of which are leisure reads:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/014311526X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nudge&lt;/a&gt; by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein (which mentions the Leventhal study!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0205609996&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Influence: Science and Practice&lt;/a&gt; by Robert Cialdini. There is a chapter specifically on Commitment (ch 3) which also talks about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mendeley.com/research/compliance-without-pressure-the-footinthedoor-technique/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;classic foot-in-the-door paper&lt;/a&gt; (below), more in line with the commitment strategy you suggest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Freedman, J.L., &amp;amp; Fraser, S.C. (1966). Compliance without pressure:&#xA;  The foot-in-the-door technique. Journal of Personality and Social&#xA;  Psychology, 4, 195-202.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-06-06T19:46:54.840" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T19:46:54.840" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="346" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="610" CreationDate="2012-02-10T14:36:57.070" Score="9" ViewCount="413" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispatial_neglect&quot;&gt;Hemispatial Neglect&lt;/a&gt; patients are known to have &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anosognosia&quot;&gt;Anosognosia&lt;/a&gt; meaning they don't recognize their disability. These patients neglect either their left or right field of vision entirely, as if they couldn't see anything on that side of their body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do these patients react when directly confronted with the fact of their disability? &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispatial_neglect#Treatment&quot;&gt;Hemispatial Neglect can be treated&lt;/a&gt; as it is an issue of attention not lack of sensation. Are these patients able to focus on the neglected area (before treatment) if explicitly told to do so? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia notes a delusional form of the disorder:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neglect may also present as a delusional form, where the patient denies ownership of a limb or an entire side of the body. Since this delusion often occurs alone without the accompaniment of other delusions, it is often labeled as a monothematic delusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So some patients may outright deny that the neglected side of their body exist, but this does not seem to exist in all cases of the disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-08T20:24:44.277" LastActivityDate="2012-08-09T12:13:27.953" Title="How do Hemispatial Neglect patients react when told of their disability?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="347" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-10T16:02:52.390" Score="5" ViewCount="340" Body="&lt;p&gt;The classic case of &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/sindex/g/stimgen.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stimulus Generalization&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Albert_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Little Albert&lt;/a&gt;. The About.com link also explains it in terms of dogs. I note that in both cases, it seems highly likely that the subject (dog or infant) is &lt;em&gt;unable to discriminate stimuli&lt;/em&gt; or unable to determine which &lt;em&gt;part&lt;/em&gt; of the stimulus is relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been studies on stimulus generalization in adults? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I wonder if stimulus generalization results from the inability to determine what part of an unconditioned stimulus (white rat) is associated with the conditioned stimulus (loud noise). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that discrimination can be caused by conditioning with relevant stimuli and extincting non-relevant stimuli, but would an adult human generalize fear to a general stimulus or a specific one and why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-06T13:06:20.347" LastActivityDate="2012-09-06T13:06:20.347" Title="Is stimulus generalization acquired due to inability to discriminate stimuli?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="348" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="343" CreationDate="2012-02-10T16:14:07.683" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias (&lt;a href=&quot;https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;) also seems relevant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias (also called confirmatory bias, myside bias or verification bias) is a tendency of people to favor information that confirms their beliefs or hypotheses. People display this bias when they gather or remember information selectively, or when they interpret it in a biased way. The effect is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs. For example, in reading about gun control, people usually prefer sources that affirm their existing attitudes. They also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People have various beliefs about themselves, and automatically seek confirmation for them. A vague description can be interpreted in many ways, and if people are presented with a vague description of themselves, they are likely to pick an interpretation on the basis of its compatibility with their previous beliefs. Since any vague statement was interpreted by searching for the most accurate-seeming meaning, it will be deemed accurate almost by definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="262" LastActivityDate="2012-02-10T16:14:07.683" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="349" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="350" CreationDate="2012-02-10T22:10:57.150" Score="6" ViewCount="468" Body="&lt;p&gt;Every implementation of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-back&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dual n-back&lt;/a&gt; that I've ever seen uses the set of letters 'C', 'H', 'K', 'L', 'Q', 'S', 'R' and 'T'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="353" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T10:27:00.867" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T10:27:00.867" Title="Why do dual N-back games use certain letters?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="350" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="349" CreationDate="2012-02-11T09:28:36.183" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The set is not always the one you suggest. There are many implementations that don't even involve letters, but use random shapes, numbers, spatial locations, or other stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.unibe.ch/unibe/philhuman/psy/apn/content/e5616/e5621/e6314/e6333/files6334/Jaeggi_et_al2007_ger.pdf&quot;&gt;Jaeggi et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;, they used spatial locations for the visual task, and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The auditory material consisted of eight German consonants (c, g, h, k, p, q, t, and w) spoken in a female voice and &lt;strong&gt;selected on the basis of their distinctiveness&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(emphasis mine).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/30/9/3297.short&quot;&gt;Takeuchi et al. 2010&lt;/a&gt;, they used numbers and locations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Dual” N-back task. In this task, the number stimuli consisted of numbers, 1 to 4, presented in a random sequence in one of four places on a line. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2012-02-11T09:28:36.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="351" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-11T16:54:05.840" Score="33" ViewCount="2851" Body="&lt;p&gt;I, like many computer programmers, love to listen to music while I work. I have always believed that music helps me stay focused and motivated, and improves my performance on many types of tasks, espescially &quot;busywork&quot;. However my company's CEO disagrees with me, and believes that music is a distraction and leads to reduced productivity. Have any studies been done on whether listening to music while performing a task improves or hinders one's ability to perform that task? Is there a consensus in the cognitive science community regarding this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2018-11-15T05:23:52.873" Title="Is there evidence that listening to music can aid/hinder concentration or performance?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="18" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="352" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="418" CreationDate="2012-02-11T21:34:31.323" Score="9" ViewCount="670" Body="&lt;p&gt;As you might have known, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron&quot;&gt;Mirror Neurons&lt;/a&gt; are hypothetically the neuron pair - each of which is carried by other person - that make people to share their feeling although one of them just observes the action instead of take a part in the action. ( &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/video/3204/w01-220.html&quot;&gt;This short video&lt;/a&gt; is a succinct summary of this neurons, for more see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/vs_ramachandran_the_neurons_that_shaped_civilization.html&quot;&gt;this TED Talk&lt;/a&gt; )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the excerpt from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal &#xA;  observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron &quot;mirrors&quot; the behaviour &#xA;  the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Such neurons have been directly &#xA;  observed in primate and other species including birds. In humans, brain activity &#xA;  consistent with that of mirror neurons has been found in the premotor cortex, the &#xA;  supplementary motor area, the primary somatosensory cortex and the inferior parietal&#xA;  cortex.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering the impulsing effect of Mirror Neurons for the observer, could all these remotely perceived entertainments be taking advantage of these neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="77" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T02:01:16.827" LastActivityDate="2012-02-17T18:37:20.900" Title="Do porn and other remotely perceived entertainments work because of Mirror Neurons?" Tags="&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="353" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-12T01:02:09.360" Score="3" ViewCount="348" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is behaviour I'm looking for information about, below are two examples of this behaviour, although the 2nd example is from fiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first example is featured on the TV show QI, &quot;Jumping Frenchmen of Maine&quot; refers to various symptoms, one is that those affected &quot;obey any command given suddenly&quot;, there is also the suggestion that unexpectedness and a firm authoritative voice are factors too, it seems to be to do with the startle reflex although information on the startle reflex in related conditions (that arn't that related) such as Tourette don't seem to provide much information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other example is from the book Ella Enchanted where Lucinda gave Ella the gift of obedience, which turns out to be a curse because Ella must now obey any order given to her. She does not have to obey when people say 'I wish' or 'Will you', this is relievent as they are not instructions, they are requests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there more information avalible specifically about this symptom, in either the Jumping Frenchmen of Maine or other disorders?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Others have related thease behaviours to submission, although information about submissive behaviour shows it being to do with seeking out degrading situations or wanting others to make you do things or wanting others to make you want to do things, or even lacking motivation to make decisions for yourself, none of which are relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somone with the condition I've covered above would probably, for example, try and avoid most people because it would be so dangerous. Imagine if having been told to do something you then had to do it immediately, by that point it would be &quot;what you are doing&quot;, even if not what you want to do, any harmless comment could cause you harm or cause you to think differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps there is something psychologically significant about instructions, especially by authority figures, have you ever been told to do something and then almost started moving to do it before thinking about what was said, I suspect everyone is more susceptible during daydreams or hypnotic states, if caught during the right moment in mental processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some, being instructed to do something has the opposite effect, inducing an instinctive reaction of resistance, even if the instruction is then obeyed, but this still shows a strong psychological reaction. This could be to do with how following instructions and being good at listening to instructions is often established and enforced frequently at a young age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To recap, those affected:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Must obey commands but not if they are in some respect questions or suggestions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;More so if given suddenly, unexpectedly, in a firm voice and authoritively.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Apparently to do with the startle reflex.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not, at least standard, Tourette.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not, at least standard, Submission.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Apart from where told what to think one would not want to obey.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Please help me tag this question correctly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="202" LastEditorUserId="51" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T11:50:04.430" LastActivityDate="2014-05-30T06:21:07.687" Title="Obey any command given suddenly, as in the Jumping Frenchmen of Maine" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2014-05-31T11:29:52.540" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="354" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-12T01:05:54.737" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T01:05:54.737" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T01:05:54.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="355" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-12T01:05:54.737" Score="0" Body="Natural Language Processing is a field of research concerned with Linguistics, Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science. NLP is generally considered computer processing of human languages used in a natural manner. " OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T01:53:36.523" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T01:53:36.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="356" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="848" CreationDate="2012-02-12T02:38:11.837" Score="24" ViewCount="2887" Body="&lt;p&gt;John Perry's &lt;a href=&quot;http://chronicle.com/article/How-to-ProcrastinateStill/93959/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;theory of structured procrastination&lt;/a&gt; can be summed up as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some people are inherently predisposed to be procrastinators across a wide range of domains&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Such procrastinators are still capable of being productive&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They can achieve this because they work on less-important (but still important) tasks in order to avoid working on (procrastinate) on more-important (or seemingly more important) tasks.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If you are a procrastinator and want to still get things done, expand your workload/to-do list.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first point seems to be well supported since procrastination is regarded in the literature as a personality trait (Steel, 2007). The second point also seems reasonable, although I am not sure of empirical support for it (although I can think of plenty of anecdotal evidence). The real interest for me, is the mechanism proposed in the 3rd and 4th point. (Note that Perry is not the only one to propose such a theory, see for instance Aaron Swartz' &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aaronsw.com/weblog/productivity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;HOWTO: Be more productive&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Has it been observed that procrastinators who are successful achieve this success by expanding their workload and working on medium importance task at the cost of high importance tasks they want to procrastinate on?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Steel, P. (2007) &amp;quot;The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure.&amp;quot; Psychological Bulletin 133(1): 65–94. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://my.ilstu.edu/%7Edfgrayb/Personal/Procrastination.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-12-23T23:04:56.650" Title="Is there experimental support for John Perry's &quot;Theory of Structured Procrastination&quot;?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;procrastination&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="357" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-12T03:42:45.030" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the function and structure of both biological and artificial neural networks (ANNs), and for the applications of ANNs to modeling in cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T04:25:55.830" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T04:25:55.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="358" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-12T03:42:45.030" Score="0" Body="For questions about the function and structure of both biological and artificial neural networks (ANNs), and for the applications of ANNs to modeling in cognitive science." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T04:25:57.703" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T04:25:57.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="359" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-12T03:46:44.230" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A mathematical approach to psychology concerned with analytic modeling of motor/perceptual/cognitive processes and quantifying stimulus and response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T04:25:51.180" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T04:25:51.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="360" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-12T03:46:44.230" Score="0" Body="For questions about the mathematical approach to psychology concerned with analytic modeling of motor/perceptual/cognitive processes and quantifying stimulus and response." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-14T10:24:41.193" LastActivityDate="2012-10-14T10:24:41.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="361" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-12T03:48:55.180" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;An approach to cognitive science that models mental/behavioral phenomena as an emergent process of interconnected networks of simple units.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T04:25:46.843" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T04:25:46.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="362" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-12T03:48:55.180" Score="0" Body="An approach to cognitive science that models mental/behavioral phenomena as an emergent process of interconnected networks of simple units." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T04:25:48.950" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T04:25:48.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="363" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-12T03:53:26.530" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about experimental and theoretical methods, procedures, and tools used while conducting research in the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T04:25:59.463" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T04:25:59.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="364" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-12T03:53:26.530" Score="0" Body="For questions about experimental and theoretical methods, procedures, and tools used while conducting research in the cognitive sciences." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T04:26:01.463" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T04:26:01.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="365" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-12T03:58:27.087" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The study of cognition in animals other than humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T04:25:42.070" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T04:25:42.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="366" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-12T03:58:27.087" Score="0" Body="The study of cognition in animals other than humans." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T04:25:44.643" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T04:25:44.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="368" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="351" CreationDate="2012-02-12T12:22:16.293" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;It basically depends on how the particular musical performance is perceived by the listener. Cognitive process of listening seems to be comprise several layers, which follows a bottom-up direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First step is to decode relevant signal(s), among a complex package of sound. This is where the irrelevant noise is eliminated. Can music be eliminated in this level? Highly unlikely, but still possible. I do not know of a particular experiment but when the music is being played in a far destination, or with a low volume, or if the participant is highly concentrated to the task; then it may be eliminated in this step. But the key point in this step is that the term &quot;noise&quot; refers to aperiodic background sounds. Therefore, my first impression is that music, being periodical, must decrease the task performance. &lt;a href=&quot;http://umass.academia.edu/CharlesClifton/Papers/573672/5_Comprehending_spoken_language_a_blueprint_of_the_listener&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cutler and Clifton (1999)&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;gives an overview on the entire listening process. Second step is the grouping of different sound sources. There is also modelling studies that aims to explain this phenomenon (&lt;a href=&quot;http://webpages.mcgill.ca/staff/group2/abregm1/web/pdf/2004_%20Encyclopedia-Soc-Behav-Sci.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bregman, 1990&lt;/a&gt;). Steps in listening continues further, but those steps are beyond the scope of this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there are other studies also. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S019188690200096X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ylias and Heaven (2003)&lt;/a&gt; showed that the background noise negatively effects reading comprehension. So far so good. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735607076444&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cassidy and MacDonald (2007)&lt;/a&gt; showed that task performance on silence is greater than in low arousal music, and that is greater than noise, and that is even greater than high arousal music conditions. This is interesting, because it now introduces the affective state of the listener into the equation, which makes it a lot more difficult to handle. Another result is that the effect of the noise here is comparable to the effect of background music. But we have to note that the details of the noise in this experiment is not given in detail, only commented as &quot;the everyday noise&quot;. It would be more conclusive if we just know whether it is the background sound of a television (periodic) or a traffic noise (aperiodic).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Combining these references, I cannot easily conclude that music is taken as a &quot;noise&quot;. It seems that music reduces the task performance, by negatively affecting a later step in the listening process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ending note: There are several semiformal-informal studies on the web also. They study directly the &quot;work/office performance&quot;, therefore I must say that they lack a little bit of a controlled environment. In such environments we can even confidently say that music improves our performance in particular situations. But what we miss is that office environments comprise several unhandled parameters that makes it hard for scientific experimental setup (i.e. listening music may improve the performance if your office mates chit chat next to you).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ending note 2: I was interested in this topic a time ago. So I welcome more recent references or comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Cutler, A., &amp;amp; Clifton, C. (1999). Comprehending spoken language: A blueprint of the listener. The neurocognition of language, 123-166.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Bregman, A. S. (1984, July). Auditory scene analysis. In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (pp. 168-175).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ylias, G., &amp;amp; Heaven, P. C. (2003). The influence of distraction on reading comprehension: a Big Five analysis. Personality and individual differences, 34(6), 1069-1079.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Cassidy, G., &amp;amp; MacDonald, R. A. (2007). The effect of background music and background noise on the task performance of introverts and extraverts. Psychology of Music, 35(3), 517-537.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="230" LastEditorUserId="17798" LastEditDate="2018-11-15T05:23:52.873" LastActivityDate="2018-11-15T05:23:52.873" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="369" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="214" CreationDate="2012-02-12T15:06:15.933" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of a particular network model for this job (so my answer will be an incomplete one), but I believe that any Hebbian learning based associative memory can easily be structured to simulate neurogenesis. These unsupervised networks are actually nonlinear dynamic systems that can be understood in terms of their phase spaces. Phase space is the realization of the dynamicity of the network in time. It contains (possibly) several stable states, called minima.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider an n-node network. When you add the n+1th node and connect it to the rest of the network via a certain number of connections, what you (hypothetically) see is that the phase space is not reshaped entirely; but it changes smoothly. An important thing to clarify (thanks to Artem Kaznatcheev), is that number n should have a considerably big value. Imagine the extreme case, where n is 1; then the entire structure will be gone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not that good at its mathematics, but in principle, this allows neurogenesis to be simulated on this kind of networks that implement dynamic systems. One can develop algorithms that recruits or removes nodes and connections paralled to training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How to add nodes: I believe that the answer to this particular question does not effect the neurobiological plausibility of the model. We can even assume that the nodes are there, but not used (due to prior unnecessity), and now we need them and recruit them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, as an end note, I must say that I have not developed such a such a metwork before, so I am unable to share my experiences here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="230" LastEditorUserId="230" LastEditDate="2012-02-12T15:57:09.253" LastActivityDate="2012-02-12T15:57:09.253" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="370" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-12T21:39:13.983" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about modeling processes from cognitive and neurobiological theories via algorithms and computer simulations, and also about confirming experimental results with theoretical/statistical constructs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information about models based on cognitive ideas, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive model&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For models of biological neural networks, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neuron.yale.edu/neuron/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuron&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://genesis-sim.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;GENESiS&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T14:14:56.473" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T14:14:56.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="371" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-12T21:39:13.983" Score="0" Body="For questions about modeling processes from cognitive and neurobiological theories via algorithms and computer simulations, and also about confirming experimental results with theoretical/statistical constructs." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T14:15:00.343" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T14:15:00.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="372" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-12T21:40:35.357" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the nervous system. We welcome all Neuroscience-related questions, ranging from &lt;strong&gt;macroscopic&lt;/strong&gt; to &lt;strong&gt;microscopic&lt;/strong&gt; down to the &lt;strong&gt;molecular level&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Anatomical&lt;/strong&gt; questions are welcomed, as well as functional (&lt;strong&gt;physiological&lt;/strong&gt;) questions of the nervous system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For information on the division of labor between this site and Biology.SE on this subject see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/questions/128/the-neuroscience-and-neurobiology-tags&quot;&gt;The neuroscience and neurobiology tags&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/questions/23/are-questions-about-neurobiology-on-or-off-topic&quot;&gt;Are questions about neurobiology on or off topic?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/questions/119/splitting-up-questions-on-neurobiology-between-cognitivesciences-se-and-biology&quot;&gt;Splitting up questions on neurobiology between cognitivesciences.se and biology.se?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a comprehensive textbook, see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., &amp;amp; Jessell, T. M., Siegelbaum, S. A., Hudspeth, A. J. (Eds.). (2013). Principles of neural science (Vol. 5). New York: McGraw-Hill.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Squire, L. R. (Ed.). (2013). Fundamental neuroscience. Academic Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2021-01-26T21:06:18.617" LastActivityDate="2021-01-26T21:06:18.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="373" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-12T21:40:35.357" Score="0" Body="For questions on the structure and function of the nervous system. " OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-20T09:04:31.827" LastActivityDate="2017-12-20T09:04:31.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="374" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="351" CreationDate="2012-02-13T10:26:42.173" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I realise this is anecdotal, but the answer to this does vary between people. My wife likes to have nothing to listen to while studying or concentrating. I like to have the TV on normally, or Chill Radio, whereas by youngest son has metal music on - not what most people would consider conducive the thought of any sort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that my wife finds that music or sounds are distracting - she needs to put effort into focussing. I, OTOH, find that the sounds help my focus, but eliminating other distractions - becasue I am in control of the sounds, they are not distracting. Youngest son enjoys the music, so for him it is just pleasant background to studying. Incidentally, my wife and I differ on having a tickign clock in the bedrooom too - she cannot stand it, whereas I fid it soothing and calming, and helps me get to sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am sure that I have seem studies that back up these sorts of differences, and that they are about differences in the way we think and process information. Cannot find anythig ATM though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastActivityDate="2012-02-13T10:26:42.173" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="375" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="318" CreationDate="2012-02-13T16:32:48.463" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the dentate gyrus, which is probably more closely analogous to a feedforward hidden layer in a memory network, here are some answers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Axon and dendrite connectivity is essentially local and can probably be assumed to be initially random within that local region.  That is, a neuron integrating into the DG at the midpoint (along the long hippocampal axis) will have its dendrite arborize in that same location, thus receiving cortex inputs from the region of the cortex that topographically projects to that area.  Likewise, its axon will target CA3 neurons at the midpoint of the hippocampus.  For this reason, the general connection statistics of a newborn neuron will ultimately be similar to a neighboring neuron; though the (likely) competition between young and old synapses and the high synaptic plasticity of young neurons will distinguish the two neurons computationally.  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In the DG, the rate of neurogenesis is regulated by some external conditions, such as running and (likely) affect/mood.  These can probably be thought of as predictive indicators of future need of neurons.  Network activity is probably more critical for the survival of neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The OB is most likely at least somewhat different on both these points.  One should take into account that newborn OB neurons are not &quot;typical&quot; neurons (in the abstract NN sense) by any means; OB-GCs rely more on dendro-dendritic communication (no axon) and are inhibitory.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="365" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-04-29T05:02:04.563" LastActivityDate="2012-04-29T05:02:04.563" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="377" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-13T20:32:48.693" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about definitions, names, and terms used in the psychology &amp;amp; neuroscience literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-03-30T07:55:55.633" LastActivityDate="2018-03-30T07:55:55.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="378" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-13T20:32:48.693" Score="0" Body="For questions about definitions, names, and terms used in the psychology &amp; neuroscience literature." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-03-30T07:55:35.237" LastActivityDate="2018-03-30T07:55:35.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="379" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-13T20:35:21.107" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the scientific study of the effects of pharmaceutical and general drugs on perception, behavior, mood and cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopharmacology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychopharmacology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a sense of how the field is evolving see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychopharmacology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuropsychopharmacology&lt;/a&gt; which is a movement to combine psychopharmacology with modern research on neurotransmission.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an accessible text, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B001FA0OFK&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/psychiatry&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'psychiatry'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please limit questions to scientific inquiries only, &quot;self-help&quot; questions are discouraged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-03T11:05:15.983" LastActivityDate="2013-08-03T11:05:15.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="380" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-13T20:35:21.107" Score="0" Body="For questions about the scientific study of the effects of pharmaceutical and general drugs on perception, behavior, mood and cognition." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T13:08:53.207" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T13:08:53.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="381" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-13T21:01:20.730" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Industrial and organizational psychology is the application and extension of psychological principles to humans operating within the context of business, industry, and other organizational structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-13T21:23:48.020" LastActivityDate="2012-02-13T21:23:48.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="382" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-13T21:01:20.730" Score="0" Body="For questions relating to the application and extension of psychological principles to humans operating within the context of business, industry, and other organizational structures." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-13T12:10:17.057" LastActivityDate="2012-10-13T12:10:17.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="383" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-13T21:21:04.513" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Social psychology is the empirical and theoretical study of how perception, feelings, behavior, and cognition are affected by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Questions are addressed both from the individual perspective (American school) and group perspective (European school).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-15T17:49:21.853" LastActivityDate="2014-06-15T17:49:21.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="384" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-13T21:21:04.513" Score="0" Body="For questions about the empirical and theoretical study of how perception, feelings, behavior, and cognition are affected by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Questions are addressed both from the individual perspective (American school) and group perspective (European school)." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-15T17:49:21.853" LastActivityDate="2014-06-15T17:49:21.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="385" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-13T21:46:38.867" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about techniques for measuring psychological and neural properties. Includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits, as well as neural structure, organization, activity, and complexity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-13T21:51:39.140" LastActivityDate="2012-02-13T21:51:39.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="386" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-13T21:46:38.867" Score="0" Body="For questions about techniques for measuring psychological and neural properties. Includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits, as well as neural structure, organization, activity, and complexity." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-13T21:51:41.340" LastActivityDate="2012-02-13T21:51:41.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="387" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-13T22:07:28.170" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;code&gt;reference-request&lt;/code&gt; tag is for questions where the author needs to know the name/the link to a specific article/survey/book on the topic. It should be applied when the question is looking for &lt;em&gt;a specific paper&lt;/em&gt;. For example, &quot;What was the paper about &lt;em&gt;topic&lt;/em&gt; from &lt;em&gt;university&lt;/em&gt;?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-06T02:13:45.423" LastActivityDate="2013-09-06T02:13:45.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="388" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-13T22:07:28.170" Score="0" Body="For questions where the author is looking for a specific article/survey/book on a given statement/conclusion. It should NOT be applied merely because answers with references are desired. " OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-04-26T18:37:50.950" LastActivityDate="2020-04-26T18:37:50.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="389" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-14T04:24:03.457" Score="5" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;Developing children are in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_period&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;critical period&lt;/a&gt; during which they are much better at learning certain tasks like speaking a language. After the critical period ends, children have a qualitatively more difficult time learning these tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What specific changes in a child's brain are responsible for the drastic difference in learning during and after the critical period?&lt;/strong&gt; Are these changes just to the plasticity and rate of neuorogenesis? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Notes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The best understood critical period is &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/73/29&quot;&gt;phoneme recognition and production&lt;/a&gt;; I am fine with answers that are specialized to this task. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is important to explain how the neurobiological changes produce a change in learning that seems so &lt;em&gt;qualitatively different&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;sudden&lt;/em&gt; compared to the gradual decreases in learning at other times.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Related questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/69/29&quot;&gt;How is a young child able to learn language so easily?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/262/29&quot;&gt;Why does neuroplasticity decrease in adults?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/215/29&quot;&gt;Computational models of early learning in children&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-06-13T20:17:58.013" Title="What neurobiological changes are associated with the end of the critical period in children?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="390" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="391" CreationDate="2012-02-14T17:11:16.093" Score="7" ViewCount="1345" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing a study on why it is difficult to remember passwords. I would imagine that it would be easier for people to remember a password like &quot;strawberryhouse&quot; than &quot;$tr@wb3rr!&quot;, even though the former has more characters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that backs up that idea?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="373" LastActivityDate="2016-12-14T22:14:57.370" Title="Is it easier for people to remember longer words than words mixed with symbols?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="390" CreationDate="2012-02-14T21:20:23.240" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;One basic explanation would be a chunking one -- that it's easier to combine several words into a single memory unit than letters and numbers. In 2000, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dtserv2.compsy.uni-jena.de/ws2011/instrpsy_ue/11495691/content.nsf/Pages/17EB13C52C952FD2C125792700655C87/%24FILE/Baddeley%20%282000%29.pdf&quot;&gt;Alan Baddeley proposed the episodic buffer as an important component of the working memory (WM) system&lt;/a&gt;. According to Baddeley, the episodic buffer imbues WM with the ability to join information together, even when that information is of different modalities (e.g., sight and sound). Even though &quot;$tr@wb3rr!&quot; may be as memorable as the word &quot;strawberry,&quot; with enough practice &quot;strawberryhouse&quot; can be just as facile (and a stronger password to boot).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another concern is that while you'll likely always remember &quot;strawberryhouse,&quot; only remembering the gist of the alphanumeric password (&quot;I remember it sounds like 'strawberry'&quot;) can lead to verbatim errors of recall (&quot;Was it '$tr@wb3rr!,' '$tr@wb3rri,' or &quot;$tr@wb3rry?'&quot;). I can find some empirical support on this track if it's useful, too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component of working&#xA;  memory? &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Science&lt;/em&gt;, 4, 417-423.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-02-14T22:40:04.370" LastActivityDate="2012-02-14T22:40:04.370" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="392" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="390" CreationDate="2012-02-14T23:17:25.037" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe this phenomenon is best viewed through the lens of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/88/5/375/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interactive activation model for word recognition&lt;/a&gt; (McClelland &amp;amp; Rumelhart, 1981), which was put forth to explain a similar phenomenon, namely the ability to more easily recognize letters within a word as opposed to to letters not comprising a word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the image below illustrates, this ease of recognition comes from the top down influence of the known word concepts on the possible identities of the letters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jRykE.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, to tie this back into your original question, we can view the task of remembering a password as one of converting a stored concept into a character string (i.e. something like the interactive activation model without the bottom up line component). If your concept is &quot;strawberry&quot;, then there's a strong top down influence to choose 's' as the first character of the password, since that's the most common first character of &quot;strawberry&quot;. Now many have formed associations between 's' and '$', so perhaps the latter might get some response, but not nearly to the extent of the actual letter, since &lt;strong&gt;letters are far more commonly used within words than symbols are&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;McClelland, J.L., &amp;amp; Rumelhart, D.E. (1981). An interactive model of&#xA;  context effects in letter perception: I. An acccount of basic&#xA;  findings. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;88&lt;/em&gt;, 375-407.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="20" LastEditDate="2012-02-15T03:14:35.573" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T03:14:35.573" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="394" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="96" CreationDate="2012-02-15T03:01:01.393" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;A minor addition to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/55/jeff&quot;&gt;Jeff&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are ongoing researchs on controlling brain's response (e.g amygdala) to negative situations and using this techniques for psychiatric interventions (e.g. for anxiety disorders, depression). [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are different possibilities for learning adaptive coping strategies with simple, stuctured biofeedback training setups. But scaling/portability issues about equipments using for brain response/training studies have not yet solved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stanford study suggests girls can 'rewire' brains to ward off depression &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/february/depression-brain-imaging-020912.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/february/depression-brain-imaging-020912.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="375" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T03:01:01.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="395" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="443" CreationDate="2012-02-15T05:52:45.360" Score="9" ViewCount="199" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine an experiment like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A participant is asked to optimize an unknown function (let's say minimize) .&#xA;On each trial the participant provides several input values, and receives an output value.&#xA;Now also imagine that the output is noisy, in that the same inputs lead to an output plus a  random component. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To think of but one of many possible specific examples imagine the following function&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$Y = (X -3)^2 + (Z-2)^2 + (W-4)^2 + e,$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where $e$ is normally distributed, mean = 0, sd = 3. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On each trial, the participant would provide a value for $X$, $Z$, and $W$.&#xA;And they would obtain a $Y$ value based on this underlying function. Their aim would be to minimise the value of $Y$.&#xA;They have not been told the underlying functional form.&#xA;They only know that there is a global minimum and that there is a random component.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in reading about the strategies used by humans to do this task in experimental settings. Note I'm not directly interested in how computers do the task or how programmers and mathematicians might complete this task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are some good references for learning about the literature on how humans learn to optimize noisy multi-variable functions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are some of the key findings on how humans optimize noisy multi-variable functions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-25T22:40:41.180" LastActivityDate="2012-08-25T22:40:41.180" Title="How do humans optimize noisy multi-variable functions in experimental settings?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="396" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="183" CreationDate="2012-02-15T06:06:07.647" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One possibility is related to the Two-Factor theory of emotion. The theory describes how emotion is a product of both cognitive and physiological factors. Essentially, the mind tries to determine what emotion it is feeling by analyzing the body. By antagonizing epinephrine, they kind of inhibit the sympathetic nervous system. So, when a person would otherwise feel anxiety it would be associated with the effect of epinephrine. Without that cue, they would possibly interpret their feelings differently, as feeling less anxious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/69/5/379/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/69/5/379/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T06:06:07.647" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="397" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="57" CreationDate="2012-02-15T07:54:01.760" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are two transient factors I know (but there definitely are more!):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The color red (either presented as a color, or as a word) induces an avoidance motivational state, leading to an impaired IQ test performance [1][2]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype_threat&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stereotype threat&lt;/a&gt;: Inducing a negative stereotype of a group (e.g.: Women are bad at math) causes members of this group actually to perform worse. This works with gender, race, age, etc.&#xA;[3][4]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]: Elliot, A. J., Maier, M. A., Moller, A., Friedman, R., &amp;amp; Meinhardt, J. (2007). Color and psychological functioning: The effect of red on performance in achievement contexts. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 154-168.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2]: Maier, M. A., Elliot, A. J., &amp;amp; Lichtenfeld, S. (2008). Nonconscious avoidance motivation mediates the negative effect of red on intellectual performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1530-1540.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3]: Gerstenberg, F., &amp;amp; Imhoff, R. (in press). 'Women are Bad at Math, but I‘m Not, am I?’Fragile Mathematical Self‐concept Predicts Vulnerability to a Stereotype Threat Effect on Mathematical Performance. European Journal of Personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4]: Smith, J. L. (2004). Understanding the process of stereotype threat: A review of mediational variables and new performance goal directions. Educational Psychology Review, 16, 177-206. doi:10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034020.20317.89&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="80" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T07:54:01.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="398" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="271" CreationDate="2012-02-15T11:52:41.467" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/science/programs/testing/find-tests.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA has a general tutorial on finding psychological tests&lt;/a&gt; with a range of tips.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Finding measures&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psyctests/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychTESTS&lt;/a&gt; is a new product by the APA that aims to make it easier to find psychological tests. It is a subscription service. Thus, you would probably have to pay for it yourself or get it through a university or other body that subscribes to it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Read the method sections&lt;/strong&gt; of the articles that you are incorporating in your introduction and literature review. If you are going to do research you'll need to familiarise yourself with existing research. See what measures have been used in the past. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/ask&quot;&gt;Ask a question on cogsci.se&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: Well formulated questions asking for recommendations for measuring particular psychological constructs are welcome on this site.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Measures on a budget&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some tests are free to use. Academics and others often make such tests available on their website (e.g., the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IPIP&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For tests developed by academics, you can often just contact the academic by email and ask for permission to use the test. Be clear, be polite, be professional. In some cases they might ask that you share any data from the test with them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For commercial tests, you may wish to contact the publishers to find out whether they permit free or discounted use for research purposes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Whether to create your own test&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also as a general point, there is often a decision between whether to buy a test or build your own. Sometimes, the construct being measured is sufficiently novel, that there is no existing measure. However, if the construct does have an established and validated measure, there are strong arguments to use it. Building a well validated psychological test takes substantial time and resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T11:52:41.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="399" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-15T16:08:57.307" Score="12" ViewCount="5954" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any way by which individuals with normal color vision could &quot;see&quot; the effects of Deuteranopia or any of the common &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_blindness#Types&quot;&gt;colorblindness types&lt;/a&gt;, say by using special lenses or anything? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Color vision deficits can be approximated via filters on &lt;em&gt;images&lt;/em&gt; or video, but is there any way, via special lenses/eyeware or lighting that normal color vision participants could be made to actually perceive a scene as if they had a color vision deficiency from a normal colored object or representation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-02-17T22:25:11.980" LastActivityDate="2016-04-27T10:34:04.260" Title="Simulate colorblindness in non-colorblind individuals" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="401" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="389" CreationDate="2012-02-15T19:27:07.327" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The truth is, we don't fully know. There are likely a number of factors. One of them seems to be the Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF). This molecule seems to be involved with maintaining and encouraging neuron growth. In Rats with a transgenically accelerated rise in BDNF levels, the critical period began earlier, and finished earlier as well (Huang et al., 1999). This doesn't exactly get at the heart of the question, because clearly there is some interaction between experience and expression of this gene. It's a good starting point, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Huang, Z.J., Kirkwood, A., Pizzorusso, T., Porciatti, V., Morales, B., Bear, M.F., Maffei, L., &amp;amp; Tonegawa, S. (1999) &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867400815093&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BDNF Regulates the Maturation of Inhibition and the Critical Period of Plasticity in Mouse Visual Cortex&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;, &lt;em&gt;Cell&lt;/em&gt; 98(6): 739-755. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81509-3&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-06-13T20:17:58.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="402" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="399" CreationDate="2012-02-15T19:42:46.893" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;One possibility would be to apply those image filters to a live video stream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aside from that, you could consider &lt;a href=&quot;http://vladdolezal.com/blog/2009/ir-goggles/&quot;&gt;infrared goggles&lt;/a&gt;. Not an exact simulation of colorblindness, but it does apparently make red and green into the same color. And if anything, it would let people see the world in differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-02-15T20:33:24.357" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T20:33:24.357" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="403" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:07:13.180" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about techniques to directly or indirectly image the structure, function/pharmacology of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of techniques:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;functional MRI &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Functional_MRI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(1)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(2)&lt;/a&gt; - detects blood oxygenation levels&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;optical imaging, NIRS - based on wavelengths of light that are reflected&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;structural MRI - uses the different rates of precession of atomic nuclei (which can vary based on the amount of water the tissue contains, in certain paradigms of MRI imaging)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PET&lt;/a&gt; - detects gamma emitting tracers injected into the body&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;CT scanning - can be used with contrast agents for brain imaging&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuroimaging&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journals.elsevier.com/neuroimage/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuroimage&lt;/a&gt; is one of the more popular peer-reviewed journals in this area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T13:35:10.330" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T13:35:10.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="404" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:07:13.180" Score="0" Body="For questions about techniques to directly or indirectly image the structure, function, or pharmacology of the brain." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T13:35:11.000" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T13:35:11.000" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="405" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:10:06.530" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The study of what actions an agent should take in a stochastic environment in order to maximize a cumulative reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-15T22:12:23.597" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T22:12:23.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="406" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:10:06.530" Score="0" Body="The study of what actions an agent should take in a stochastic environment in order to maximize a cumulative reward." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-15T22:12:26.683" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T22:12:26.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="407" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:12:27.417" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the interaction of biological (or artificial) evolution and the cognitive agents that are influenced by it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-15T22:12:41.303" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T22:12:41.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="408" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:12:27.417" Score="0" Body="For questions about the interaction of biological (or artificial) evolution and the cognitive agents that are influenced by it." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-15T22:12:43.953" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T22:12:43.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="409" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="416" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:19:09.857" Score="6" ViewCount="183" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What psychological theories predict whether individuals will underestimate or overestimate when responding to particular kinds of general knowledge quantity questions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, I have seen an unpublished study in which people were asked to guess the weight of the fuel in a certain space shuttle, and almost everyone wildly underestimated the weight. Then in another question they were asked to guess the weight of the horse which won the last Kentucky Derby and the responses were distributed fairly evenly around the truth. Why is this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that the heuristics and biases literature must be relevant here, but I haven't found any citations that allow me to make predictions which are sufficiently specific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-16T01:58:47.090" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T19:42:26.377" Title="What causes systematic under- or over-estimation of general knowledge quantities?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="410" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:21:12.743" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about models and theoretical idealizations of cognitive processes in humans or other animals. Examples include computational, mathematical, and conceptual models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-15T22:21:42.363" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T22:21:42.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="411" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:21:12.743" Score="0" Body="For questions about models and theoretical idealizations of cognitive processes in humans or other animals. Examples include computational, mathematical, and conceptual models." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-15T22:21:45.437" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T22:21:45.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="412" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:29:16.740" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The process by which new neurons are generated and integrated into existing neural circuits in both developing and adult individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-15T22:50:02.380" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T22:50:02.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="413" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:29:16.740" Score="0" Body="The process by which new neurons are generated and integrated into existing neural circuits in both developing and adult individuals." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-15T22:50:05.423" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T22:50:05.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="414" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:32:35.270" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the ability of the nervous system to enact changes in structure and connectivity in response to input from the environment.  These important changes govern the processes of learning and memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/learning&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'learning'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;learning&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/memory&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'memory'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuroplasticity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For mechanisms governing neural plasticity, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Spike-timing_dependent_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spike Timing Dependent Plasticity&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Models_of_synaptic_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Models of synaptic plasticity&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Long-term potentiation&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Long-term depression&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_synapse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Silent synapses&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T14:15:02.887" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T14:15:02.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="415" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:32:35.270" Score="0" Body="For questions about the ability of the nervous system to enact changes in structure and connectivity in response to input from the environment.  These important changes govern the processes of learning and memory." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T14:15:05.163" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T14:15:05.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="416" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="409" CreationDate="2012-02-15T22:50:03.047" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;One theory that may explain this is is Kahneman and Tversky's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anchoring heuristic&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you ask how much fuel the space shuttle needs, most people don't have the proper background knowledge to answer this accurately. Instead, they'll rely on a piece of information they do know--e.g., how much fuel a car needs--and adjust from there. Responses will be biased towards the anchor. Since a car requires very little fuel in comparison (~12 gallons), people will tend to underestimate the true response (~&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/information/shuttle_faq.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;500,000 gallons&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you first told them: The cruise ship The Norwegian Dream holds roughly 350,000 gallons of fuel, and &lt;em&gt;then&lt;/em&gt; asked how much fuel weight the space shuttle needs, their answers will likely be closer to the truth. (Though there is the confounding variable of size-- larger vessels need more fuel, but even small vessels will need a lot of fuel to launch into space).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to horses, people have more accurate anchors-- such as a human, or an elephant-- and will tend to make more accurate judgments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although there are certainly more cues that people use to make size judgments, a complete theory must take into account one's background knowledge. Thus, even the anchoring heuristic   is limited in that we must know what people are likely to use as an anchor for any given question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-06-06T19:42:26.377" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T19:42:26.377" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="417" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="395" CreationDate="2012-02-15T23:52:17.773" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This seems related to the literature on &lt;strong&gt;multiple-cue probability learning (MCPL)&lt;/strong&gt;. In this paradigm, a typical task presents subjects a list of cues and values, and asks them to predict the probability of certain outcomes. This paradigm has a decent amount of literature both in the JDM (judgment and decision making) community as well as the human factors community. To see the relevance, consider a doctor who has to diagnose a patient (provide treatment) based on a finite set of cues (symptoms).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empirically, human judgment of this type has been modeled using Egon Brunswik's &lt;strong&gt;probabilistic functionalism&lt;/strong&gt;, perhaps more commonly known as the &lt;strong&gt;lens model&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;social judgment theory&lt;/strong&gt;. This is a useful methodology for comparing human judgment to true ecological correlations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ATCkz.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The image of above depicts the lens model. To give an example, consider the task of a college admissions board who must decide who to admit. The environment/criterion might be their final college GPA, and cues might be high school GPA, SAT scores, writing sample, etc. You can use multiple regression to find the 'true' ecological weights of these cues on the environment criterion, and similarly you can do the same for the admission board's estimate of a student's success (if they were to estimate GPA).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An admission board will (hopefully) observe the effect of different cues on success, and revise their cue weights with experience. Unfortunately, people are typically not so good at this task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some common findings: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People tend to use no more than 3 cues, even if they claim that they use more.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People are typically outperformed by a bootstrap model of themselves&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People are often outperformed by a unit weight model of themselves: In other words, if you simply set the highest observed cues weights (on the right hand side) to 1, and all others to 0, you may get a better predictor of outcome. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I take from this is that people will probably have little chance of success at estimating cue weights from a complex equation such as the one you present. However, you could measure these cue weights iteratively to observe learning rates and do other fun stuff-- even if we are all better off being judged by computer algorithms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-02-15T23:52:17.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="418" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="352" CreationDate="2012-02-16T02:14:14.893" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it is likely the case. I agree that the idea of a &quot;mirror neuron&quot; is a bit dubious, as it implies that the function of those neurons are related to mirroring. It's probably the case that they represent the actual movement, and their activation in witnessing the action is tangential to that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your question, research was done on this exact topic, with positive results. Mouras et al. found that the magnitude of erection achieved by participants watching erotic videos correlated to the activation of regions known to contain &quot;mirror neurons&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811908006897&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811908006897&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2012-02-16T02:14:14.893" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="419" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="347" CreationDate="2012-02-16T02:36:25.873" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you think of the stimulus being represented by a distributed set of features (Tanifuji et al., 2001), then I would not say it was a &lt;em&gt;failure&lt;/em&gt; to discriminate. During the conditioned response training for Albert, all features were present as the stimuli. It wasn't that he couldn't discriminate the features, just that each of the features were trained as conditioned stimuli.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect that an adult would think of the rat symbolically, and the conditioning would be done on that mental rat symbol. The individual features would likely not produce fear. Children of Albert's age are not thought to have yet developed symbolic thought (DeLoache, 1987). So, the conditioning would be done on the visual components themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://anon.cs.rochester.edu/users/faculty/dana/tanifuji.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://anon.cs.rochester.edu/users/faculty/dana/tanifuji.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/238/4833/1556.short&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastEditorUserId="377" LastEditDate="2012-09-06T02:00:38.587" LastActivityDate="2012-09-06T02:00:38.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="420" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="334" CreationDate="2012-02-16T03:26:41.237" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might be very interested in a paper by Felleman and Van Essen (1991). In the paper, they analyze the connections between many cortical areas, and create a database to store the connection values. They also have some interesting things to say about hierarchical connections and cortical layers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/1/1/1.1.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/1/1/1.1.abstract&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2012-02-16T03:26:41.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="421" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="422" CreationDate="2012-02-16T04:58:01.133" Score="9" ViewCount="1168" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the experiments that are always taught as prime examples of social psychology in action is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_prison_study&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford Prison Experiment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 1971, Zimbardo accepted a tenured position as professor of psychology at Stanford University. With a government grant from the U.S. Office of Naval Research, he conducted the Stanford prison study in which 24 normal college students were randomly assigned to be &amp;quot;prisoners&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;guards&amp;quot; in a mock prison located in the basement of the psychology building at Stanford (three additional college students were selected as alternates, only one of which participated in the study). The two week planned study into the psychology of prison life ended only after 6 days due to emotional trauma being experienced by the participants. The students quickly began acting out their roles, with &amp;quot;guards&amp;quot; becoming sadistic and &amp;quot;prisoners&amp;quot; showing extreme passivity and depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Zimbardo&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Philip Zimbardo&lt;/a&gt; article&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize there have been scores of scholarly articles written about the subject in the intervening time, but most of the abstracts dealt with the aspects of social psychology that were pertinent even in the last decade with the atrocities at Abu Ghraib.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of that is painful yet certainly necessary to ponder, but I'm curious about the cognitive aspects of the study.  What facets of, for example, motivation does this study (and others like it) bring out?  What can be said about our sense of logical reasoning under these circumstances?  What sorts of qualia could one use to model this behavior in an agent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-02-17T10:54:00.637" Title="What can cognitive psychology tell us about the results of the Stanford Prison Experiment?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="422" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="421" CreationDate="2012-02-16T09:54:40.067" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've always thought of Stanford Prison Experiment (and Abu Ghraib) as a situation in which group think forms a sort of feedback loop. If you agree that people behave within context of a group, and the context is created by the group itself (Hogg, 1998), then you can see what is happening. The context may at first be in line with the larger group (the University, or Military, or American culture in general). Within the smaller group however, individuals may &quot;push the limit&quot; of acceptable behavior. But in doing so, they are changing to context of the group. For a person to &quot;push the limit&quot; again, would be to act in an even more extreme way. The situation feeds back upon itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question remains, as you pointed out, what motivation starts this movement in the first place? There is no reason to think it couldn't feedback upon itself in the &lt;em&gt;other&lt;/em&gt; direction, either. There is some underlying feeling that is amplified by this group think. In the Hogg article, the researches essentially seeded that motivation experimentally. But in a normal situation, it can be virtually anything. Intuitively, I would say in the prison experiment the initial seed was just a desire for the students to act out the roles they were given. Prisoners obey the guards. Each time the limit of acceptable behavior was pushed, the context that defined acceptable behavior was changed too. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myers (1977) describes something similar, which he calls polarization. In his research, he showed a tendency for people to not only conform to the group standards, but also try to exceed them in, &quot;the socially preferred direction&quot;. This phenomena, plus a tendency to act within the context of a group, can lead to runaway behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/gdn/2/1/48/&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/gdn/2/1/48/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022103178900495&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022103178900495&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2012-02-16T09:54:40.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="423" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-16T13:01:23.580" Score="4" ViewCount="414" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asperger_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;read through the Wikipedia article on&lt;/a&gt; and looked at the diagnosis of Asperger Syndrome (AS) and am still not sure how it is connected with autism. It seems like compared with autism it is really hard to distinguish between an average person and someone with AS. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only criteria seems to be that people with AS are anti-social and do not have some other more serious psychological disease. Is there some sort of way of using neuroimaging to show a significant difference in the brains of an average person and someone with AS?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="383" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-02-16T20:49:50.697" LastActivityDate="2012-02-16T20:49:50.697" Title="What is Asperger's Syndrome?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2012-02-16T21:03:09.213" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="424" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="423" CreationDate="2012-02-16T15:59:27.323" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Asperger's syndrome is at the mild end of Autism Spectrum Disorders, meaning that it has similar characteristics, but in milder form. In that sense, it is between Autism and typical development. People with Asperger's are not just &quot;anti-social&quot;, they have a &lt;em&gt;clinically significant&lt;/em&gt; impairment of social interaction. They also exhibit repetitive behaviors and restricted interests (more than just &quot;I like dinosaurs&quot;, this would be a fascination with dinosaurs to the exclusion of most other things). Importantly, like other ASD variants as well as other mental health disorders, Asperger's is defined behaviorally, not neurologically. That means the diagnosis can be made by a trained clinician on the basis of the individual's behavior, not a brain scan. Presumably, there are neural correlates, but even if we knew what they were, they would not be the diagnostic criteria. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2012-02-16T15:59:27.323" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="332" CreationDate="2012-02-16T16:31:38.373" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reminded of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_fixedness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Gestalt idea of &quot;functional fixedness,&quot;&lt;/a&gt; which, as defined by Wikipedia, &quot;is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.&quot; When functional fixedness occurs, individuals get caught up in that particular use and ignore other alternatives. That's almost what's happening here; one gets caught up in the choice (traverses down the flowchart, if you will) and doesn't consider alternatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also possible (although I don't have any evidence on this) that it's cognitively less demanding to weigh similar options (e.g., Restaurant A vs. Restaurant B) than different ones (e.g., Restaurant vs. Dinner At Home).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-02-16T16:31:38.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="427" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="428" CreationDate="2012-02-16T17:45:18.860" Score="10" ViewCount="1260" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several years ago, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger2008_AR.pdf&quot;&gt;my adviser wrote an article discussing the observation that a hundred years of studying memory had not resulted in the discovery of a &quot;law&quot; of memory&lt;/a&gt;. He wrote (p. 247):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When one reads or hears the claim that “repetition improves retention”&#xA;  or that “generating information enhances recall” or that “forgetting&#xA;  follows a power function” or all other statements of the form that&#xA;  “variable X has a consistent effect on variable Y,” one can be certain&#xA;  that the claim is both true and false. It is true in that conditions&#xA;  can be found under which the rule holds (otherwise the claim would not&#xA;  be made), but false in that a skeptic can always say: “Very nice work,&#xA;  but your ﬁnding depends on many other conditions. Change those and&#xA;  your effect will go away.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has the story changed since 2008? Can anyone cite a proven true law of memory? If not, what's the closest thing memory has? &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer-appropriate_processing&quot;&gt;The idea of transfer-appropriate processing&lt;/a&gt; is the closest I can name, is there something more substantial? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-07T18:16:43.587" LastActivityDate="2012-09-07T18:16:43.587" Title="Are there any laws of memory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="428" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="427" CreationDate="2012-02-16T18:26:19.770" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Memory is only a psychological construct. In reality there is only the brain, and the physiological functions of the brain. &quot;Memory&quot; is just a way to conceptualize some of these functions. For this reason, it's unlikely that a law will ever emerge. Part of the reason is that memory can refer to so many different things, biologically. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even when you get down to the actual biology, laws are not really the standard. Biology is a messy thing and virtually no laws exist that couldn't be contradicted. Something as basic as the cell theory could be reasonably argued against. Viruses are not cellular, yet an argument could be made for them being alive. It isn't the current thinking, but it's not an absurd proposition either. If psychological phenomena are a result of biology, and no laws exist in biology, I think it's reasonable to say no laws will exist in psychology either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps one of the strongest ideas about memory is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hebbian learning&lt;/a&gt;. But even that is just a simplification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-02-18T15:13:36.107" LastActivityDate="2012-02-18T15:13:36.107" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="429" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="423" CreationDate="2012-02-16T18:41:14.927" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD-10&quot;&gt;ICD-10 (International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems)&lt;/a&gt;, &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F84.5&quot;&gt;Asperger's syndrome (F8.45)&lt;/a&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A disorder of uncertain nosological validity, characterized by the same type of qualitative abnormalities of reciprocal social interaction that typify autism, together with a restricted, stereotyped, repetitive repertoire of interests and activities. &lt;strong&gt;It differs from autism primarily in the fact that there is no general delay or retardation in language or in cognitive development.&lt;/strong&gt; This disorder is often associated with marked clumsiness. There is a strong tendency for the abnormalities to persist into adolescence and adult life. Psychotic episodes occasionally occur in early adult life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asperger_syndrome&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; that you are pointing to also makes it clear:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It differs from other autism spectrum disorders by its relative preservation of linguistic and cognitive development. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is no consensus if there is difference between Asperger's Syndrome and High-Functioning Autism. Perhaps also there is no clear distinction between clinically-significant autistic traits and complete absence of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Currently autism and Asperger's Syndrom alike are not fully understood on neurobiological basis (there are ongoing research, for a review see e.g.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://ane.pl/pdf/7017.pdf&quot;&gt;E. Pisula, The autistic mind in the light of neuropsychological studies (2010)&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://nature.com/autism&quot;&gt;a special issue of Nature on autism&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the premise &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The only criteria seems to be that people with AS are anti-social and do not have some other more serious psychological disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is clearly false.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastActivityDate="2012-02-16T18:41:14.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="430" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="427" CreationDate="2012-02-16T21:27:29.307" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article you cite does a wonderful job of tearing down an excellently crafted strawman. It is true that it is very difficult to meet his extremely precise measure of a &quot;law&quot;. The two problems are &lt;em&gt;Who is proposing &quot;laws&quot;?&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Why are these criteria fair&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have almost never heard of anyone in any psychological field posit that their theories are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law&quot;&gt;scientific laws&lt;/a&gt;. I have never seen an article so boldly state &quot;X will cause Y in all possible cases&quot;, the brain is simply too complex and this is why research always includes information about it's sample, measure and test procedures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of effort is put into &lt;em&gt;generalizing theories&lt;/em&gt; but attempting to &lt;strong&gt;generalize to the level of an absolute law is impractical&lt;/strong&gt; and often unhelpful; maybe repetition doesn't help retention of knowledge &lt;em&gt;when the participant is on fire&lt;/em&gt;. This is why the generalizability of results are always investigated and why no &lt;em&gt;sane, accredited&lt;/em&gt; psychologist attempts to say their theories hold in all possible situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, the guidelines Roediger, H.L. (2008) set, specifically expecting a &quot;Law&quot; to stand up to variance in all factors of Jenkins’ (1979) &quot;tetrahedral model&quot; are compeltely unmeetable for a number of reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the primary problems with his expectations is they require a law to generalize to images, episodic events, written words, ect. &lt;strong&gt;There are different types of memory.&lt;/strong&gt; Episodic memory, Semantic Memory, Procedural Memory, working/short term memory vs Long Term memory, different types of memory function differently and operate in different parts of the brain. Memory loss affects different types of memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia for example generally don't affect Procedural memory but mostly &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia#Episodic_versus_semantic_memory&quot;&gt;Episodic Memory&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bottom line, Roediger, H.L. (2008) expects The Law of Apples to apply to Oranges. The reason no Law of All memories exists because different types of memory are fundamentally different, and any attempt to generalize something to all possible types of memory would be absurd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He is right in so far as the field of memory is complex and universal laws don't exist for it, but no one active in the field seems to be &lt;em&gt;making&lt;/em&gt; these assumptions. If you are looknig for these laws you are simply looking for the wrong thing, and should rather learn more basic things about memory, like the types of memory, types of learning ect, before you continue any investigation into the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-02-16T21:27:29.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="431" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="438" CreationDate="2012-02-16T22:07:07.813" Score="8" ViewCount="1546" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes I have difficulty remembering the specifics of an event, specifically if I'm tired or possibly have recently consumed alcohol. A close friend of mine has gotten me in the habit of specifically trying &lt;em&gt;not to think about the details&lt;/em&gt; of what I'm trying to remember if I am unclear on them at any given moment. The reasoning is, if one starts to think about varions on what happened, trying &quot;too hard&quot; to remember the details of an event, then one might alter one's memory by the very act of trying to remember. Instead, I try to stop thinking about the details of the specific memory, and sometimes they will just come to me suddenly (often hours r days later).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have any studies shown such a phenomenon to exist? Is it possible to create a false memory by trying to remember something that eludes you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2012-02-17T15:56:01.420" Title="Is it possible to create a false memory by trying to remember something that eludes you?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="434" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="431" CreationDate="2012-02-17T10:49:49.410" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, the real name in this field is Elizabeth Loftus, and from &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1996-29546-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; study, (which I vaguely remember learning about in first year psych) it appears that suggestions by others can lead to a belief in false memories. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, whether or not this can happen as a result of self-suggestion is, I believe, an open question (i have anecdotal evidence for myself, but that's probably not appropriate for here). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22" LastActivityDate="2012-02-17T10:49:49.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="435" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="421" CreationDate="2012-02-17T10:54:00.637" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Stanford Prison study is probably one of the greatest (and worst) experiments ever to have been carried out in the field of psychology (its social psychology, BTW). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Its worth noting that the results have been controversial given the involvement of Zimbardo himself in the study (as the warden). A much, much better study is &lt;a href=&quot;http://ncpsychology.weebly.com/uploads/4/7/8/4/4784501/reicher__haslam_original_study.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Haslam and Reicher's&lt;/a&gt; replication  for the BBC. This version was much better controlled and recorded, and if I were looking to model the behaviour of agents in this situation, I would probably start there. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22" LastActivityDate="2012-02-17T10:54:00.637" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="436" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2011-06-13T17:15:46.603" Score="20" ViewCount="2493" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've watched the amazing &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rrkrvAUbU9Y&quot;&gt;TED talk&lt;/a&gt; where Daniel Pink lays out the contrarian notion that greater extrinsic motivators are unimportant (and sometimes detrimental) in comparison to three intrinsic motivators: Autonomy, Mastery, and Purpose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is he wrong? I've only found some criticisms of the study he based the former on (that greater material rewards do not work for &quot;cognitive&quot; tasks) on a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rationalskepticism.org/sociology/drive-the-surprising-truth-about-what-motivates-us-t7942.html&quot;&gt;similar discussion board&lt;/a&gt;. That's not what I'm really concerned about, though. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My main question is: &lt;strong&gt;Are the three motivators of autonomy, mastery, and purpose the most important aspects to motivation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Apophenia Overload" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-02-20T21:25:46.983" LastActivityDate="2012-10-01T11:02:43.753" Title="Are autonomy, mastery, and purpose the most important motivators?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="437" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="431" CreationDate="2012-02-17T13:16:46.997" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are two links to a couple of Elizabeth Loftus's papers about the issue: &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/599/1/199802009.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Memory Distortion and False Memory Creation&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://webfiles.uci.edu/eloftus/Loftus%26Hoffman89.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Misinformation and Memory: The Creation of New Memories - PDF warning&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="289" LastActivityDate="2012-02-17T13:16:46.997" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="438" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="431" CreationDate="2012-02-17T15:56:01.420" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger%20and%20McDermott%201995.pdf&quot;&gt;A seminal paper by Roediger and McDermott (1995)&lt;/a&gt; observed that studying (similar to thinking about) materials was associated with a high likelihood of false recall and false recognition of materials similar to the studied items. This research has spawned hundreds of follow-up studies, none of which address your question entirely but converge on a plausible explanation: As you try to recall the specifics of the event, you likely recall a number of things that actually occurred (e.g., you were drinking rum, there was a pretty girl in the corner, and it was getting late). Considering these true specifics, however, according to this line of research, may introduce associated memories which never actually occurred (e.g., the pretty girl winked at you). Think these thoughts long enough and you'll have what's called a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source-monitoring_error&quot;&gt;source monitoring error&lt;/a&gt; -- that is, you'll conflate thinking about the pretty girl winking &lt;em&gt;with a memory that she actually did wink&lt;/em&gt;. That might be why you feel as if you had fewer false memories when you don't consider specifics -- there are fewer opportunities to make false associations. (It's also interesting to note that repeated testing, while improving &quot;correct&quot; memory, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger&amp;amp;Marsh2005.pdf&quot;&gt;also enhances false memory&lt;/a&gt;. I can provide more links if you're interested.) If you're interested in other things that cause false memory (at least in these laboratory studies), &lt;a href=&quot;http://memory.wustl.edu/Pubs/2001_Roediger.pdf&quot;&gt;here's a link&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of this is research my group is associated with, generally because I'm most familiar with that literature. I like this line of studies (called DRM studies) because they show false memories can be generated in a matter of moments (or &quot;the morning after&quot;). Loftus's work is fascinating, too, because she uses more naturalistic materials, those more pertinent to real life. Definitely two sides of the same coin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leave a comment if I can provide more info.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-02-17T15:56:01.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="439" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="352" CreationDate="2012-02-17T18:37:20.900" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;To use &quot;mirror neurons&quot; explain why people enjoy watching porn is problematic when you consider that people (a least men, Cerny and Janssen, 2011) seem to enjoy watching porn where the actors are solely of the opposite sex. That is, people seem to be enjoying watching porn (or even looking at erotic pictures) when there is nothing really to mirror. As the phenomena of erotic movies is a (evolutionary) quite recent phenomena it makes sense to be aroused when seeing someone have sex as that usually would be a good proxy of that sex was either happening or about to happen. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cerny, J., &amp;amp; Janssen, E. (2011). Patterns of sexual arousal in homosexual, bisexual, and heterosexual men. &lt;em&gt;Archives of Sexual Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9746-0.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="397" LastActivityDate="2012-02-17T18:37:20.900" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="440" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="399" CreationDate="2012-02-17T18:56:16.170" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;One online tool that is easy to use is Vischeck (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vischeck.com/vischeck/&quot;&gt;http://www.vischeck.com/vischeck/&lt;/a&gt;) which, in addition to transforming pictures, also can transform whole web pages so that they appear to you as if you were color blind. While it is not experiencing the &quot;world&quot; as if you were color blind, it at least transforms part of the &quot;reality&quot; people navigate in. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="397" LastActivityDate="2012-02-17T18:56:16.170" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="441" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="436" CreationDate="2012-02-17T18:59:20.150" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;That was an interesting TED Talk, I enjoyed it. Motivation is a very complex, but fascinating thing to think of. You're asking if those three things he listed are the most important aspects to motivation, but I'm not sure the answer can be straightforward. So let's talk about what motivation &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; first, before talking about how those three things relate to motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can think of motivation as simply the urge for an organism to do something. But what determines &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; things the organism wants to do? Activities are done in the pursuit of value. Value itself is an internal thing; determined by the individual and the context the individual finds himself in. Actually defining &quot;value&quot; is a can of worms we don't need to open here. The point is, when a person finds an activity or object valuable, they will pursue it. I think of it from the perspective of neurobiology, and if you're curious you can look into Samejima et al. (2005), and Kawagoe et al. (1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, let's think of the two types of motivators he listed, extrinsic or intrinsic. In the context of value, an extrinsic motivator is when value is placed on an external object. The motivation is to acquire the reward, and the actual activity is made into an obstacle to obtaining it. With intrinsic motivators, value is placed on the activity itself, so the behavior is to perform that activity. An excellent demonstration of this is in what's called the over-justification effect. Lepper et al. (1973) tested children under different reward situations, and found a significant drop in a coloring activity when a big prize was promised beforehand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, to get back to this guys three criteria. Autonomy makes sense right away; when a person can choose their own activity they will choose one they find valuable. Additionally, because they chose it, they will likely value it further. This was shown in a kind of funny/sad study by Brehm (1956), where housewives were allowed to choose an item they would supposedly get for free. Their ratings of the value of each item swung significantly towards the item they chose, when compared to their initial ratings. They were never actually given the item, causing one woman to cry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mastery is a little more complex. The &lt;em&gt;amount&lt;/em&gt; of effort a person is willing to spend on a task is proportional to the magnitude of the reward. By mastery, Pink is actually talking about progress. Consider those little window file transfer boxes, and how they estimate the total time something will take. They look at the current rate of progress, and use that to estimate the total. People do the same thing. If they are making no progress on a topic, they calculate the amount of effort required to complete it to be monumental. If they are making rapid progress, the amount of effort seems far less. Expectancy-value theory has some interesting things to say on this topic, read Wigfield and Eccles (2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Purpose is probably the most esoteric, but it is still perfectly possible to understand. Purpose is a feeling that the activity has value in a larger context. Again, value is an internal thing. It is something we construct. Part of the value we assign to an activity is based on the results that activity will have. Feeling that our actions have absolutely no value in a larger context could destroy the value we place in that activity itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I like his three criteria, but there are many ways to understand thing like motivation. Like I said in another thread, these psychological constructs are not absolute. They are just ways of thinking of how we work. There are no laws, and no &lt;em&gt;right&lt;/em&gt; way to deconstruct them. These three criteria is just one way to deconstruct motivation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brehm, J.W. (1956) Postdecision changes in the desirability of alternatives.&#xA;&lt;em&gt;The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52&lt;/em&gt;(3),384-389. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0041006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kawagoe, R., Takikawa, Y. &amp;amp; Hikosaka, O. (1998).  Expectation of reward modulates&#xA;cognitive signals in the basal ganglia.  &lt;em&gt;Nat Neurosci. 1&lt;/em&gt;(5), 411-6. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hms.harvard.edu/bss/neuro/bornlab/nb204/exam/Kawagoe.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/1625&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lepper, M.R., Greene, D. Nisbett, R.E. (1973) Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the &quot;overjustification&quot; hypothesis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28&lt;/em&gt;(1),129-137. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0035519&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Samejima,K., Ueda, Y., Doya, K., Kimura,M. (2005). Representation of action-specific reward values in the Striatum.  &lt;em&gt;Science 310&lt;/em&gt;(5752), 1337-1340. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1115270&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wigfield, A.,Eccles, J.S. (2000).  Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.  &lt;em&gt;Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25&lt;/em&gt;(1),68–81. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-01T11:02:43.753" LastActivityDate="2012-10-01T11:02:43.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="442" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-18T00:02:03.900" Score="10" ViewCount="537" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Rescorla-Wagner_Model&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rescorla-Wagner model&lt;/a&gt; is one of the most commonly discussed mathematical models of classical conditioning. It was wildly popular when it came out in 1972, and very successful. The same math, is used in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_rule&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;delta-rule&lt;/a&gt; which is a special case of back-propagation with a single layer. In neural network research, the back-propagation algorithm has been refined and replaced over the years. However, for basic classical conditioning, I am not aware of any significant advances over the RW-model. It is still often cited as &lt;em&gt;the&lt;/em&gt; model for classical conditioning in textbooks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is well know that there are numerous conditioning experiments the RW-model cannot explain, for a detailed references, see pages 370 to 378 of Miller et al. (1995). Hence the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a modern refinement of the Rescorla-Wagner model that addressed all 23 failures listed in Miller et al. (1995)?&lt;/strong&gt; How does this refinement relate to refinements of back-propagation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, R.R., Barnet, R.C., &amp;amp; Grahame, N.J. (1995) &amp;quot;Assessment of the Rescorla-Wagner model.&amp;quot; Psychological bulletin 117(3): 363-386 [&lt;a href=&quot;http://graulab.tamu.edu/J-Grau/Psyc606/Papers/MillerBarnetGrahame.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-04-13T12:53:33.800" Title="Refinements of Rescorla-Wagner model of classical conditioning" Tags="&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="443" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="395" CreationDate="2012-02-18T00:50:38.393" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a bit of a tangential answer, but hopefully still useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we give humans noisy data, we can basically think of them as some sort of &lt;strong&gt;Bayesian inference machines&lt;/strong&gt; that try to figure out what the function that data came from looks like. The important thing we then need to know, is how strong of a &lt;strong&gt;bias&lt;/strong&gt; (prior) humans have towards expecting certain relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, it seems that humans are extremely biased towards positive linear relationships. I think this will make it very hard for them to optimize data presented as in your question, because they will constantly assume it comes from a straight line. This is really well captured by the following figure from Kalish et al. (2007):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uf0c5.png&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 3 from Kalish et al. (2007)&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experiment that generated the above picture is rather different from the one you describe, but we can think of it is a very particular type of noise. A person at stage &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n$&lt;/span&gt; is given 25 &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$(x,y)$&lt;/span&gt; pairs from the function at stage &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n - 1$&lt;/span&gt;. The person is then tested by being given an x value and asked for a y, 25 times. The results of this are passed on to the person at trial &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n + 1$&lt;/span&gt; as the training data. Thus, we could think of the errors of person at stage n as noise/errors (although systematic errors) for the person at stage &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n + 1$&lt;/span&gt;. As you can see, it doesn't take much of this noise to lose all structure of the function you started with and revert to the natural bias of a positive linear relationship. In fact, in condition 1 participants are already completely confused about the U-shaped function after strage &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n = 1$&lt;/span&gt; (so the first participant, with no error already has a hard time understanding the function from &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$(x,y)$&lt;/span&gt; pairs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kalish, M. L., Griffiths, T. L., &amp;amp; Lewandowsky, S. (2007). Iterated learning: Intergenerational knowledge transmission reveals inductive biases. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 14(M), 288-294. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://cocosci.berkeley.edu/tom/papers/functions.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-06-29T03:27:26.970" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="444" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="228" CreationDate="2012-02-18T05:18:23.433" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what you mean by cognitive capacity, but I absolutely believe that language shapes the way we think. The collective nouns, verbs, and phrases of a language are the categories by which a culture interprets things. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider seizures. Our culture may call them seizures, and a doctor might posit that their cause is epilepsy (or something). That's how we would approach understanding the phenomena. In another culture, they could say that the person is possessed, and they might posit that they cause was an evil spirit. That's their understanding of the phenomena. It might be easy to dismiss that, but if you think about it you'll see that most of us only understand epilepsy as much as they might understand how the spirits work. It's just a word used to explain something. Even the word epilepsy itself, actually means to be taken upon and seized. In it's original usage it was implied that some otherworldly force was doing the seizing. Can you imagine if the other culture I invented had created modern science? Surely their terminology would revolve around the term for &quot;seized by an evil spirit&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or consider something as basic as color perception. To us, it feels absolute and more an attribute of external reality than anything internal. But even how we understand color is variable with language. Heinrich (1972) looked at the Eakimo and found that the way they categorize color was significantly different from ours, and follow language lines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another reason why I think that yes, language defines understanding, is seen in modern science. Modern science is almost &lt;em&gt;defined&lt;/em&gt; by the rapid and dizzying creation of new language. As we build a finer grained understanding of things, new terms need to be created to even understand the topic, let alone discuss it. Consider Organic chemistry, where a virtual new language has even been created to describe molecules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last point I have to make is that &lt;em&gt;there is always another distinction to be made&lt;/em&gt;. We haven't gotten to the bottom of anything yet, and I don't suspect we will for a long time if ever. Our words are categories, which means they contain multiple things that are similar to some degree. House is a broad word, a large category. Mansion, hovel, etc... are more narrow words, less inclusive categories. And so on. How fine a category could we make to describe homes? Theoretically we could have a word that perfectly describes each individual house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The words available to us define how we can think of and communicate things. Different cultures have different words available to them, and thus think of things differently. I had a very interesting conversation with a Catalan friend about words in that language that have no correlate in English. it was very enlightening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/2011/09/30/140954025/science-diction-the-origin-of-the-word-epilepsy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.npr.org/2011/09/30/140954025/science-diction-the-origin-of-the-word-epilepsy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/pss/30029324&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/pss/30029324&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2012-02-18T05:18:23.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="445" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="743" CreationDate="2012-02-18T16:54:03.203" Score="11" ViewCount="263" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Spike-timing_dependent_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spike timing dependent plasticity&lt;/a&gt; (STDP) is a property of synapses that modifies their efficacy based on timing relationships between action potentials in the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic neuron. A pre-synaptic neuron firing in a brief period &lt;em&gt;before&lt;/em&gt; the post-synaptic neuron fires potentiates the synapse. When the pre-synaptic neuron fires &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; the post-synaptic neuron, the synapse is depressed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perceptually, we only really see (or hear, or feel) a sequence of events. To infer causation from that requires some mechanism. Kushnir and Gopnik (2005) claim &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/16/9/678.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;even children do causal inference&lt;/a&gt;, which leads me to believe that it is not merely a skill learned later in life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, &lt;strong&gt;does any direct or circumstantial evidence exists that links STDP with causal inference&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tamar Kushnir and Alison Gopnik (2005) &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/16/9/678.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Young Children Infer Causal Strength From Probabilities and Interventions.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological Science September 2005 vol. 16 no. 9 678-683 (doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01595.x)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-09-17T22:34:02.347" Title="Is there evidence that STDP is responsible for the ability to infer causation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="446" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="337" CreationDate="2012-02-18T17:24:55.067" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think part of what makes this question confusing is the use of expressions like &quot;what the eye sees&quot;, &quot;what the brain sees&quot; and &quot;what the frog's eye tells the frog's brain&quot;. Nobody sees anything except the experiencing subject. When one stops thinking that the brain (or some visual-system part of the brain) observes the image on the retina, then the question of whether anything is being flipped becomes meaningless. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As regards perceptual adaptation, it is interesting to note that it is not universal. In Sperry's famous frog-eye-inversion experiment, the frogs never adapted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Roger W. Sperry (1943). Effect of 180 Degree Rotation of the Retinal Field on Visuomotor Coordination. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Experimental Zoology&lt;/em&gt; 92 (3): 263–279&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="404" LastActivityDate="2012-02-18T17:24:55.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="447" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="462" CreationDate="2012-02-18T22:31:21.753" Score="14" ViewCount="302" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've gathered the standard rational for a visual system utilizing saccades from perception textbooks: the neural cost of processing an entire scene at a high level of detail would be prohibitive, but low-fidelity images aren't good enough to function in the world. Thus you have an retina with a high-fidelity center which can sample the scene by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccade&quot;&gt;saccading&lt;/a&gt; around, presumably guided by a combination of information about the low-fidelity surround and the beliefs and goals of the perceiver.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I've yet to find a detailed theory that answers the question of &lt;strong&gt;how the next saccade target selected.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clarify, by 'detailed theory', I mean a theory that describes the &lt;strong&gt;mechanisms&lt;/strong&gt; used to accomplish the computational feats described in the standard textbook explanation I mentioned above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="20" LastEditDate="2012-02-20T23:11:27.547" LastActivityDate="2012-02-20T23:11:27.547" Title="How do humans control saccades?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="448" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="472" CreationDate="2012-02-18T23:04:47.583" Score="9" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;For those unfamiliar, the 'cognitive conception of language' refers to a claim made by some theorists that, in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.philosophy.umd.edu/Faculty/pcarruthers/Cognitive-language.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;words of Carruthers&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;besides its obvious communicative functions, language also has a direct role to play in normal human cognition (in thinking and reasoning).&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've found such accounts extremely intriguing, especially that of &lt;a href=&quot;http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/papers/rolelang.htm#2.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Daniel Dennett (1994)&lt;/a&gt;, who basically claims that language is what turns our massively parallel brain into a decent serial processor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm distressed that such discussions are generally tethered to the Philosophy of Mind and despite my efforts, I've yet to come across any empirical evidence or cognitive models that are for or against such hypotheses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, do such studies exist (or are underway)? Or is there something fundamental to this subject that keeps it only in the realm of armchair discussion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Carruthers, Peter (2002). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.philosophy.umd.edu/Faculty/pcarruthers/Cognitive-language.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The cognitive functions of language.&lt;/a&gt; Behavioral And Brain Sciences 25 (6):657-674. (DOI: 10.1017/S0140525X02000122)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dennett, Daniel C. (1994). &lt;a href=&quot;http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/papers/rolelang.htm#2.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The role of language in intelligence.&lt;/a&gt; In Jean Khalfa (ed.), What is Intelligence? The Darwin College Lectures. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-15T06:40:31.547" Title="Any attempts at testing or modeling the 'cognitive conception' of language?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="449" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-18T23:07:15.207" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions involving psychological changes taking place during the lifespan of an individual, not just during infancy or childhood, and using multiple approaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Developmental psychology&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T13:35:06.710" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T13:35:06.710" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="450" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-18T23:07:15.207" Score="0" Body="For questions involving psychological changes taking place during the lifespan of an individual, not just during infancy or childhood, and using multiple approaches." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T13:35:08.020" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T13:35:08.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="451" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-18T23:10:46.560" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The ability to understand that others have mental states such as beliefs, desires and intentions that are different from one's own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-19T00:56:24.803" LastActivityDate="2012-02-19T00:56:24.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="452" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-18T23:10:46.560" Score="0" Body="The ability to understand that others have mental states such as beliefs, desires and intentions that are different from one's own." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-19T00:56:27.207" LastActivityDate="2012-02-19T00:56:27.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="453" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-18T23:14:54.573" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A school of thought that maintains that behaviors can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-19T00:55:56.287" LastActivityDate="2012-02-19T00:55:56.287" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="454" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-18T23:14:54.573" Score="0" Body="A school of thought that maintains that behaviors can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-19T00:55:59.110" LastActivityDate="2012-02-19T00:55:59.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="455" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-18T23:18:18.983" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about changes with time in cognition, perception, and emotion in adults. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-19T00:55:37.397" LastActivityDate="2012-02-19T00:55:37.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="456" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-18T23:18:18.983" Score="0" Body="For questions about changes with time in cognition, perception, and emotion in adults. " OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-19T00:55:40.173" LastActivityDate="2012-02-19T00:55:40.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="457" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-18T23:22:52.643" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the systematic modification of behavior in response to external stimuli (classical conditioning) or as a consequence of own behavior (operant conditioning).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-19T00:56:06.520" LastActivityDate="2012-02-19T00:56:06.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="458" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-18T23:22:52.643" Score="0" Body="For questions about the systematic modification of behavior in response to external stimuli (classical conditioning) or as a consequence of own behavior (operant conditioning)." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-02-19T00:56:08.270" LastActivityDate="2012-02-19T00:56:08.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="460" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="752" CreationDate="2012-02-19T17:34:02.527" Score="11" ViewCount="572" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachromacy&quot;&gt;Tetrachromacy&lt;/a&gt; is a condition of having four colour channels. There is a hypothesis that some women posses 4 different types of cone cells (each with different &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opsin&quot;&gt;opsin&lt;/a&gt; responsible for different absorption spectrum) and can process them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite some initial research (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.klab.caltech.edu/cns186/papers/Jameson01.pdf&quot;&gt;Jameson et al., &#xA;Richer color experience in observers with multiple photopigment opsin gene (2001)&lt;/a&gt;) I have found surprisingly little follow-ups. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the current status of tetrachromacy in humans?&lt;/strong&gt; Is it sufficiently confirmed by the experiment, refuted or unresolved? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am aware that among medical researchers positive 'deviations' can attract less attention than deficits or diseases. Moreover, they may be more prone to methodological mistakes as it is easier to measure deficits against standard criteria. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-04-19T12:37:01.543" LastActivityDate="2012-04-19T12:37:01.543" Title="What is the current status of tetrachromacy in humans?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="461" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="129" CreationDate="2012-02-19T20:42:35.047" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is &quot;hard evidence&quot; regarding how timing and the subjective experience of intervals changes as a function of age. McAuley et al. (2006) ran a battery of different timing and time perception tasks on participants of ages ranging from 4 to 95 years. One finding that relates to your question was that children in the range of 4 to 7 years preferred and, when asked to tap, produced sequences where the inter response interval was much shorter (around 300 ms) than that for adults (around 500 ms). One interpretation of this finding is indeed that small children prefer living on a faster time scale than grownups. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Referenses&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The time of our lives: Life span development of timing and event tracking.&#xA;McAuley, J. Devin;Jones, Mari Riess;Holub, Shayla;Johnston, Heather M.;Miller, Nathaniel S.&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology: General&lt;/em&gt;, Vol 135(3), Aug 2006, 348-367. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.135.3.348&quot;&gt;doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.135.3.348&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogsci.northwestern.edu/speakers/2006-2007/papers/mcauley_etAl_2006.pdf&quot;&gt;free pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="397" LastEditorUserId="28" LastEditDate="2012-02-19T22:22:36.760" LastActivityDate="2012-02-19T22:22:36.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="462" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="447" CreationDate="2012-02-20T06:05:18.643" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Treisman &amp;amp; Gelade's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_integration_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feature Integration Theory&lt;/a&gt; suggests that we are able to process an entire visual scene in parallel at the level of individual features. For example, in a visual search task, the time required to find a blue circle in a field of red circles is &lt;em&gt;independent of the total number of circles&lt;/em&gt;. However, focused attention (typically foveal) is required to integrate independent features into a cohesive object. Thus, if searching for a red circle in a field of blue circles and red squares, search time grows linearly with the number of total objects. This is because the target is made up of two features (circle and red) which need to be integrated in order to be identified-- requiring saccades around the scene.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several theories of visual search use this distinction to model visual attention shifts. Most notably, Jeremy Wolfe's Guided Search and Itti &amp;amp; Koch's visual attention model. The basic premise behind both models is somewhat similar: low level feature receptors respond automatically and in parallel to the entire visual field. Thus, there are many individual feature maps that represent &lt;em&gt;bottom-up saliency&lt;/em&gt; of locations in the visual scene. This bottom-up saliency can be sufficient to trigger a saccade; for instance, a feature map that responds to local motion is beneficial for an organism to identify moving predators. Thus, areas with motion are given high value because they have a history of providing information that is beneficial to an organism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During task conditions (such as visual search), &lt;em&gt;top-down saliency&lt;/em&gt; maps may also be created based on knowledge of what things in the environment have value. If I am searching for my umbrella, I know that it is blue and long and straight, and this information can be encoded in the feature maps that drive saccades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, saccades are directed at targets that have a high expected value. (It has even been shown that the velocity of saccades is proportional to the expected value of the target: Shadmehr, et al.) This value is determined from a weighted evaluation of both top-down and bottom-up feature maps, available pre-attentively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;exact&lt;/em&gt; location of a saccade is determined through a process called spatial pooling, which attempts to determine the 'center of gravity' of a target, again using low level feature maps. While saccades are amazingly quick and accurate, there is of course some error in final saccadic position which often require smaller saccades to reach the target. It has recently been suggested that this series of saccadic movements emulate Fitts' law with regards to speed-accuracy tradeoffs. A great, thorough review of the current state of saccadic eye movements can be found in Kowler, 2011.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is obviously quite a bit of detailed information that I haven't covered here-- out of the references cited, I would start with section 3 (&amp;quot;Saccades&amp;quot;) of the Kowler article, then move on to the Itti &amp;amp; Koch article for more concrete details on their specific model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wolfe, J.M. (1994). Guided Search 2.0. A revised model of visual search. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 1, 202-238.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Itti, L., &amp;amp; Koch, C. (2001). Computational modelling of visual&#xA;attention. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 1-11.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shadmehr et al. (2010). Temporal discounting of reward and the cost of&#xA;time in motor control. Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 10507-10516.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kowler, E. (2011). Eye movements: The past 25 years. Vision Research,&#xA;51, 1457-1483.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;** Note I cite Guided Search 2.0 because it is a good exposition of the whole theory, though the theory itself has progressed to 4.0&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-02-20T14:20:55.200" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="463" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-20T10:48:22.670" Score="12" ViewCount="306" Body="&lt;p&gt;What &lt;strong&gt;open access&lt;/strong&gt; journals that publish research in cognitive science/psychology exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from PLOS ONE, are there any other open access journals that publish research in cognitive science/psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Where should I start looking for them?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="406" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-02-20T15:14:38.750" LastActivityDate="2015-11-19T07:52:20.393" Title="How can I find open access journals for cognitive science research?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;publication-process&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="13" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="464" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="463" CreationDate="2012-02-20T15:23:35.777" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.doaj.org/&quot;&gt;Directory of Open Access Journals&lt;/a&gt; is a great place to start when searching for Open Access Journals in any field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can browse through journals for the specific subject areas like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.doaj.org/doaj?func=subject&amp;amp;cpid=128&amp;amp;uiLanguage=en&quot;&gt;Psychology&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.doaj.org/doaj?func=subject&amp;amp;cpid=32&amp;amp;uiLanguage=en&quot;&gt;Neurology&lt;/a&gt;, or you can &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.doaj.org/doaj?func=home&amp;amp;uiLanguage=en&quot;&gt;search for journals or articles containing certain keywords&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DOAJ lists articles in multiple languages as well, not just English journals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-02-20T15:23:35.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="465" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="574" CreationDate="2012-02-20T23:08:17.987" Score="10" ViewCount="1002" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that assesses whether males or females judge faces of the opposite sex with a greater internal consistency? That is, is the standard deviation of attraction ratings for a specific opposite sex face on average smaller when looking at a specific gender?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T14:23:11.223" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T14:23:11.223" Title="Are there sex differences in inter-rater consistency of attractiveness ratings  of opposite-sex faces?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;reliability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="466" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="483" CreationDate="2012-02-20T23:29:45.853" Score="10" ViewCount="527" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've often heard that the process of saccading can be described as a statistical sampling technique. Specifically, the standard textbook definition of the function of saccades seems to be that the field of vision is too complexity to known in its entirety, so we look at a representative sample of it in order to form a generally adequate representation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this conceit seems to be made purely on a loose analogy to much more well defined problems than vision (e.g. anything soluble via &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method&quot;&gt;Monte Carlo Method&lt;/a&gt;), and in the perception literature I haven't found any proposed mechanisms by which this integration of sampled information could occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is this: If eye saccading is best thought of as a sampling process, then &lt;strong&gt;how does he brain integrate the sampled information?&lt;/strong&gt; And if not, then what are some viable alternatives to &lt;strong&gt;how the brain makes use of the sequence of images producing via saccading?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastActivityDate="2012-02-27T05:00:05.327" Title="How does the brain act on the information gained via eye saccades?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="467" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-21T13:08:38.747" Score="2" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Possible Duplicate:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/20/any-work-being-done-on-perception-action-and-or-cognition-in-video-games&quot;&gt;Any work being done on Perception, Action, and/or Cognition in Video games?&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the relationship between computer game performance and measures of ability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="415" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-09-14T15:38:32.223" Title="What is the relationship between computer game performance and measures of ability?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2012-11-19T19:51:24.887" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="469" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20" CreationDate="2012-02-21T14:21:41.340" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;although this is self promotion in a sense, I completed a PhD in which I tried to look at all the research linking computer game performance to other cognitive abilities. The last &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758%2FBRM.40.4.969&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paper published&lt;/a&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; as a result of this summarises some of the research I found and also what I found in using computer-game-like cognitive tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a fascinating area and I think we will some great work in the near future on this. I'd love to hear of any other work out there too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt; &#xA;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; McPherson J., Burns NR. (2008) Assessing the validity of computer-game-like tests of processing speed and working memory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="415" LastEditorUserId="9295" LastEditDate="2015-09-14T18:09:26.403" LastActivityDate="2015-09-14T18:09:26.403" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="470" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20" CreationDate="2012-02-21T15:04:09.507" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just like brain training research - see this great recent study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature09042&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Owen et al. 2010&lt;/a&gt; - there is little good evidence to show any causal long term and generalisable effects of playing video games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, to answer the original question: I found that video game players had higher speed and reasoning ability in a small sample paper based on my PhD research developing &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mendeley.com/research/assessing-the-validity-of-computergamelike-tests-of-processing-speed-and-working-memory/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;computer-game-like ability tests&lt;/a&gt;. (McPherson, J., &amp;amp; Burns, N. R. 2008)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who like playing games might be good at things required for playing games. Just like people who really like and are good at certain sports might often have the right skills and body type to be good at it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The research showing training effects often involves short term improvements and tasks very similar to the training tasks - this is important. Short term non-generalisable improvements are not the same as psychological traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Owen, A. M., Hampshire, A., Grahn, J. A., Stenton, R., Dajani, S., Burns, A. S., ... &amp;amp; Ballard, C. G. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature09042&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Putting brain training to the test.&lt;/a&gt; Nature, 465(7299), 775-778.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;McPherson, J., &amp;amp; Burns, N. R. (2008). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mendeley.com/research/assessing-the-validity-of-computergamelike-tests-of-processing-speed-and-working-memory/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Assessing the validity of computer-game-like tests of processing speed and working memory.&lt;/a&gt; Behavior research methods, 40(4), 969-981.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="415" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-11-19T19:06:37.460" LastActivityDate="2012-11-19T19:06:37.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="472" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="448" CreationDate="2012-02-21T18:08:48.877" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a quite active line of research (and debate) in experimental psychology and cognitive science on this. It often goes under the rubric of the &quot;Sapir-Whorf hypothesis&quot;. I only know some of the work in this domain, but I would suggesting checking out research (experiments, not just armchair discussion) by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~lera/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lera Boroditsky&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://sapir.psych.wisc.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gary Lupyan&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2012-02-21T18:08:48.877" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="473" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-22T05:12:50.397" Score="8" ViewCount="810" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=positive%20self-statements%3a%20power%20for%20some,%20peril%20for%20others&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;ved=0CCUQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19493324&amp;amp;ei=5XdET6zKCo-SiAfaofmaAw&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNFZLPrlxzW_s2djkxdXnkqssxQ7Ww&amp;amp;sig2=ZZ3jjuz1v4XEU-IknzSeYQ&amp;amp;cad=rja&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Positive Self-Statements: Power for Some, Peril for Others&lt;/a&gt; by Wood (2009) positive self-talk is beneficial when the person has a reasonable level of self-esteem in the statement, but harmful when they don't. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2009/07/08/got-low-self-esteem-dont-ditch-the-positive-self-talk-just-yet/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsychCentral article, &quot;Got Low Self-Esteem? Don’t Ditch the Positive Self-Talk Just Yet&quot;&lt;/a&gt; by Summer Beretsky points out a few issues with the methodology:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Limited sample size&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Short &quot;bursts&quot; rather than more concentrated time to convince themselves&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not controlling for whether they believe in the statement they are proclaiming&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any other studies that deal with these issues?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Wood, J., Elaine Perunovic, W., &amp;amp; Lee, J. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19493324&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Positive Self-Statements: Power for Some, Peril for Others&lt;/a&gt; Psychological Science DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02370.x&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="103" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-04-05T22:01:57.723" LastActivityDate="2012-04-05T22:01:57.723" Title="Is positive self-talk beneficial for those with low self-esteem?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="474" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="463" CreationDate="2012-02-22T06:26:35.737" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another resource is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sherpa.ac.uk/romeo/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sherpa/Romeo&lt;/a&gt; which aims to be a site to help you &quot;find a summary of permissions that are normally given as part of each publisher's copyright transfer agreement&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, here's what it says about Journal of Applied Psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Author's Pre-print:   author can archive pre-print (ie pre-refereeing)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Author's Post-print:      author can archive post-print (ie final draft&#xA;  post-refereeing)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Publisher's Version/PDF:      author cannot archive&#xA;  publisher's version/PDF&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;General Conditions:&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Pre-print on a web-site&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Pre-print must be labeled with date and accompanied with statement&#xA;  that paper has not (yet) been published&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Copy of authors final&#xA;  peer-reviewed manuscript as accepted for publication&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Post-print on&#xA;  author's web-site or employers server only, after acceptance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Publisher&#xA;  copyright and source must be acknowledged&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Must link to APA journal&#xA;  home page or article DOI&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Article must include the following statement:&#xA;  'This article may not exactly replicate the final version published in&#xA;  the APA journal. It is not the copy of record.'&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Publisher version&#xA;  cannot be used&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;APA will submit NIH author articles to PubMed Central,&#xA;  after author completion of form&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Wellcome Trust authors may comply&#xA;  using Paid Option.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I'd always double check the accuracy of the information on the site with the actual journal home page and the actual publishing agreement that you sign.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-02-22T11:33:15.197" LastActivityDate="2012-02-22T11:33:15.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="476" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="482" CreationDate="2012-02-22T15:31:01.063" Score="18" ViewCount="25423" Body="&lt;p&gt;A common problem is that when offered too many choices, consumers give up and make &lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt; choice. Too many options results in no sale where fewer options might have resulted in more sales. It's like the cognitive load of so many choices makes the decision impossible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've heard it called Decision Paralysis or &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_paralysis&quot;&gt;Analysis Paralysis&lt;/a&gt;&quot; but these terms don't seem to have a root in cognitive science. Is there a formal or generally accepted term for this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-23T00:48:08.157" LastActivityDate="2018-08-03T22:11:57.033" Title="What is the term for when too many choices results in inability to decide?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="477" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="485" CreationDate="2012-02-22T15:49:56.483" Score="10" ViewCount="211" Body="&lt;p&gt;Normally, when an individual is more confident in a particular response (e.g., memory decision, general knowledge answer), he or she is also more likely to be accurate. There are also studies in which higher confidence is generally demonstrated to be unassociated with higher accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies which demonstrate that the more confident an individual is, on average, the more likely he or she is to be &lt;em&gt;incorrect&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-02-23T00:54:50.120" Title="When is higher confidence predictive of less accuracy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="478" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="476" CreationDate="2012-02-22T15:51:22.087" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In HCI terms, which is where I come from, this would probably be called information overload. It is the situation where a person is presented with so much information that they cannot process all of it successfully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Cognitive terms, the term probably works best because it is caused, I believe, by insufficient short term memory being available to successfully process what is needed from a page, so the decisions about what to do cannot be made. In a similar way, if too much information is given to a person - even if expressed in terms of &quot;you could do this, or you could do this... &quot; then they cannot dismiss the options enough to narrow it down. Without this, decisions cannot be made.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastEditorUserId="203" LastEditDate="2012-02-22T15:59:26.143" LastActivityDate="2012-02-22T15:59:26.143" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="480" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="481" CreationDate="2012-02-22T19:11:57.250" Score="25" ViewCount="3005" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several apps and sites offer flashcard-based learning that repeat the cards you do poorly on over a period of time (the more inaccurate the answer the closer to each other the repetitions are). One example of this is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.supermemo.com/english/smintro.htm&quot;&gt;Super Memo&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there rigorous empirical support for these types of flashcard systems working?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do they exploit a known function of memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="426" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-01-17T01:24:53.873" LastActivityDate="2017-01-17T01:24:53.873" Title="Are spaced flashcards effective for learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;mnemonic&gt;&lt;encoding&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="481" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="480" CreationDate="2012-02-22T19:27:46.743" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's lots of research out there on flash cards and they are a proven, effective study aid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Flash Cards work because of the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetting_curve&quot;&gt;Forgetting Curve&lt;/a&gt;&quot;; rehearsal and retrieval before you forget an item strengthens the memory before it decays allowing one to optimize encoding into LTM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lKZuc.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.1537/abstract&quot;&gt;Optimising learning using flashcards: Spacing is more effective than cramming&lt;/a&gt; is a good summary of why Spacing helps retention, highlighting why it's effective in education and should be emphasized over cramming, which current educational models (finals, tests) currently promote.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacing_effect&quot;&gt;Spacing&lt;/a&gt; is effective for &lt;strong&gt;Long Term Memory&lt;/strong&gt; as opposed to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cramming_%28memorization%29&quot;&gt;cramming/massing&lt;/a&gt; which is only effective (but it IS effective) in the short term as shown by the above forgetting function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-02-22T19:27:46.743" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="482" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="476" CreationDate="2012-02-22T21:07:06.417" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Paradox_of_Choice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paradox of choice&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. See these resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=g422yyua-P8C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA1&amp;amp;dq=%22paradox+of+choice%22&amp;amp;ots=vyOzyHzzFf&amp;amp;sig=8SiCNH7NRJKZHeCnXjUJzIdg1xo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The paradox of choice: why more is less&lt;/em&gt; By Barry Schwartz&lt;/a&gt; (Google Books)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://information-marketing.net/BrandingAdvertisingMarketing/Quotes/ParadoxOfChoice_Quotes.doc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Excerpts from the above book by Barry Schwartz&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;code&gt;.doc&lt;/code&gt; format)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://students.sfu.ca/health/mentalhealth/mentalhealthpapers/Hupper_2004.pdf#page=110&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Positive Psychology in Practice&lt;/em&gt; chapter 6 &lt;em&gt;Doing Better but Feeling Worse:&#xA;The Paradox of Choice&lt;/em&gt; by Barry Schwartz and Andrew Ward&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;code&gt;.pdf&lt;/code&gt; format)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I actually haven't been able to find anything in my search just now, but I remember some claims about a year ago that recent experiments had suggested that the original results were somewhat over-blown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="289" LastEditorUserId="11592" LastEditDate="2016-05-13T00:18:57.037" LastActivityDate="2016-05-13T00:18:57.037" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="483" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="466" CreationDate="2012-02-22T23:22:51.583" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;A good place to start for a &lt;em&gt;high level&lt;/em&gt; understanding of all perception and action is Jaoquin Fuster's &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1990.tb48901.x/abstract&quot;&gt;perception-action cycle&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. As he says, it's a &quot;cybernetic cycle linking the organism to its environment&quot;. He describes two moieties of the brain, posterior sensation moiety, and the anterior behavioral moiety. Information cycles between perception, interpretation (in the posterior moiety), action plans (in the anterior moiety), and actual movement. The movement is perceived, and the cycle continues. This is a good frame for thinking about how saccades work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your actual question then is opening a big ol' meaty can of worms. How the brain makes use of the sequence of images produced by the saccades, is actually two questions. First, how does the brain perceive images? Next, how are saccades relevant to this? In the context of the perception-action cycle, we're then looking at how the posterior moiety interprets visual information, and how the anterior moiety acts on that interpretation. Without writing 10,000 words, I'll try and give a thumbnail sketch of this. Then I'll try and circle it back to answer your specific question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, how does the brain interpret visual images? Here we only really need to understand that the posterior moiety creates &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/1/1/1.1.abstract&quot;&gt;distributed and hierarchical&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; cell assemblies representing increasingly complex sets of features.  Distributed because the cell assemblies are &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763499000172&quot;&gt;sparse&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, as in they consist of many scattered members each representing a different feature. In some way these are bound together to form the gestalt of the object. Hierarchical because cortical regions are connected in a way where successive regions integrate features from previous regions. So, basically a hierarchical set of cell assemblies are activated and thus the sensory information is represented in the mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One point before moving on: these &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016622369290039B&quot;&gt;cell assemblies are temporal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. They represent information over time. It's not so obvious in vision, but for other sensory modalities it is. What does a single configuration of cochlear activations mean? Or a single configuration of touch sensors? Not much. It means vastly more in temporal sequence. A melody, or a hand patting your shoulder. Vision is not different, the confounding thing is that each individual configuration carries so much information it's easy to think of the visual system as a static system. But it isn't. Saccades themselves are helping create temporal information, by focusing on successive things. If you think in terms of the activity of the retina, instead of the static external scene, you'll see that saccades are an integral part of making visual information temporally dynamic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of this, I don't think it is optimal to think of saccades as a procession of images. On the level of the retina, or V1, this might be true. But throughout the perceptual moiety, these images are bound together. Each saccade doesn't present a radically new image, it elaborates an already existing image within the mind. The higher hierarchical regions are binding the information from each saccade into a framework. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ok, so if the posterior moiety understands the scene, how is it translated into an action (like a saccade)? I believe the answer is the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://physrev.physiology.org/content/80/3/953.short&quot;&gt;route through the basal ganglia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The basal ganglia helps &quot;select&quot; motor behaviors. To put it very simply, the perceptual moiety is the input, and the output goes to the anterior motor moiety. Through mechanisms that are unclear, a transform is done where a saccade movement is disinhibited that will move the eyes to the bit of the scene that it wants to see next. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize I'm shooting kind of wide here, so let me know if you want to know about something more specific. I'm just not sure that your current question can be answered narrowly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fuster, J.M. (1990). Prefrontal cortex and the bridging of temporal&#xA;  gaps in the Perception-Action Cycle. &lt;em&gt;Annals of the New York Academy of&#xA;  Science&lt;/em&gt;, 608, 318-336.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Felleman, D.J., &amp;amp; Van Essen, D.C. (1991). Distributed Hierarchical&#xA;  Processing in the Primate Cerebral Cortex. &lt;em&gt;Cerb Cortex&lt;/em&gt;, 1, 1-47.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sakurai, Y. (1999). How do cell assemblies encode information in the&#xA;  brain? &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience &amp;amp; Biobehavioral Reviews&lt;/em&gt;, 23, 785-796.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Engel, A.K., Konig, P., Kreiter, A., Schillen, T.B., &amp;amp; Singer, W.&#xA;  (1992). Temporal coding in the visual cortex: new vistas on&#xA;  integration in the nervous system. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Neurosciences&lt;/em&gt;, 15,&#xA;  218-226.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hikosaka, O., Takikawa, Y., &amp;amp; Kawagoe, R. (2000). Role of the basal&#xA;  ganglia in the control of purposive saccadic eye movements. &lt;em&gt;Physiol&#xA;  Rev&lt;/em&gt;, 80, 953-978.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-02-23T00:04:03.030" LastActivityDate="2012-02-23T00:04:03.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="484" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="614" CreationDate="2012-02-22T23:35:02.613" Score="11" ViewCount="339" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hcamag.com/newsletter/content/122549/&quot;&gt;little bit of discussion in the media&lt;/a&gt; about  Facebook being used in selection and recruitment settings. &#xA;Assuming an employer can gain access to a person's Facebook profile, have any scientific studies been conducted to assess the following questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does Facebook activity predict job performance?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, what does Facebook activity measure as seen by correlates with existing scales (e.g., personality, intelligence, integrity, etc.)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-02-23T00:45:28.533" LastActivityDate="2012-03-20T11:07:14.207" Title="Does Facebook activity predict job performance?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;selection-recruitment&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="485" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="477" CreationDate="2012-02-23T00:33:45.060" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may not answer your question directly, but is related:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning-kruger_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kruger and Dunning&lt;/a&gt; (1999) conducted a study in which people performed a variety of 'tests' in different domains, such as logical reasoning, grammar, and humor. After taking a test, participants were asked to judge their performance relative to other test-takers, and to estimate their objective score on the test (how many questions were answered correctly).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What they found was that the subjects who performed the &lt;em&gt;worst&lt;/em&gt; actually overestimated their performance the &lt;em&gt;most&lt;/em&gt;. If you take their performance estimate as a proxy for confidence, then  it supports your hypothesis-- but only to a relative degree. That is to say, participants who performed poorly did not estimate their ability to be better than good performers and vice versa; however, those who performed the worst were more confident in their ability. It's a bit confusing, and D&amp;amp;K can explain it better-- there's actually a paragraph in their article (second to last) which relates their findings to work on overconfidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The explanation that Kruger and Dunning give for this effect is that the metacognitive ability to assess one's performance is a correlated with actual performance on the same task. Thus, somewhat paradoxically, those who perform poorly may be unaware of their poor performance, due to their inability to predict how well they did.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vLyXG.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kruger, J., &amp;amp; Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How&#xA;  difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated&#xA;  self-assessments. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 77,&#xA;  1121-1134.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-02-23T00:54:50.120" LastActivityDate="2012-02-23T00:54:50.120" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="486" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-23T05:05:04.700" Score="18" ViewCount="1718" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has anyone validated, proposed or tested a single-item  state-based positive affect or happiness measure? I am particularly interested in something for tracking mood every day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="415" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-07-27T19:49:14.077" LastActivityDate="2013-05-06T16:23:53.473" Title="What is a validated single-item measure of mood?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="487" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="480" CreationDate="2012-02-23T05:19:26.067" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Flash cards work for two main reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;they serve as retrieval practice&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;they force the student to space practice out&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both of these reasons have been demonstrated to enhance learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Retrieval practice, sometimes called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testing_effect&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;testing effect&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, has been shown by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/&quot;&gt;Roediger and colleagues&lt;/a&gt; to promote learning above and beyond additional study. For instance, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger&amp;amp;Karpicke%282006%29Psych_Sci.pdf&quot;&gt;in a 2006 study by Roediger and Karpicke&lt;/a&gt;, some subjects studied material several times then took a test (SSST, where S = study and T = test), whereas other subjects studied material less then took a several tests (STTT). After a brief delay, memory was shown to be better for those who had self-tested relative to those who hadn't. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Karpicke_Roediger_2007_JML.pdf&quot;&gt;In a 2007 study by Karpicke and Roediger&lt;/a&gt; that actually used flash cards, the memorial benefit was always greater when individuals self-tested rather than merely restudied -- and importantly, best when individuals continued to self-test even when they thought they had the information down cold. This suggests that you shouldn't &quot;drop out&quot; flash cards from the deck if you get them right once or twice. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger%20&amp;amp;%20Karpicke%20%282006%29%20Review.pdf&quot;&gt;Another 2006 Roediger and Karpicke paper&lt;/a&gt; provides additional evidence in more applied contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The spacing effect is also a powerful influence, here, as well. &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/index.html&quot;&gt;Research by Bjork and colleagues&lt;/a&gt; on a parsimonious (yet slightly circular) idea called &lt;em&gt;desirable difficulties&lt;/em&gt; provides one theoretical example for why this is so. Learning is most powerful when it is most difficult, and spacing out your study (or, as above, your test) provides that information with time to decay (or be interfered with by other memories) such that when retrieval is successful, it is rather potent. Note that one concern with spacing is that if study is pushed too far out, successful retrieval cannot occur, leading to no benefit to memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-02-23T15:13:24.507" LastActivityDate="2012-02-23T15:13:24.507" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="488" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="501" CreationDate="2012-02-23T05:22:47.063" Score="18" ViewCount="717" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we are to view pleasure and pain as being essentially synonymous with the more mechanistic concept of reward and punishment (i.e. as a part of learning and motivation system) then do we understand how this actually occurs at a neurobiological level?  At least in &quot;lower&quot; animals, pain seems to simply cause an aversion response. Pain motivates the animal to stop whatever it was doing (possibly stopping the pain), and to avoid in the future repeating similar responses to those that preceded (and therefore were possibly causal toward) the incident that caused pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This sort of thing is not that hard to replicate in computational models, so it is clearly nothing magical.  Obviously, the subjective &quot;experience&quot; of pleasure and pain gets more into philosophy of mind and that's not what I am asking about. I am only concerned about the mechanism which can explain outwardly observable behavior -- especially in simpler animals -- such as the basic stimulus-response-reward/punishment learning that a mouse or bird can do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do we understand the mechanism by which a pain signal causes the brain to suppress recently followed decision paths, and a pleasure signal causes the brain to reinforce them?&lt;/strong&gt;  Or is this still completely mysterious at this time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="429" OwnerDisplayName="rob" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-11-03T20:45:10.080" LastActivityDate="2018-08-26T06:54:24.913" Title="Do we understand the non-subjective mechanisms behind pleasure and pain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="17" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="489" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="334" CreationDate="2012-02-24T01:54:07.297" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Currently, no such high-level maps based &lt;em&gt;directly&lt;/em&gt; on human cortex exist (as far as I can tell). The closest model organism for which high-level maps exist is the &lt;strong&gt;macaque&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In 1991, Felleman &amp;amp; Van Essen published the first extensive analysis, which includes a noteworthy connection diagram (see p. 30).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In 2010, IBM (Modha &amp;amp; Singh) published what appears to be a complete set of connection diagrams.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Felleman, D.J. &amp;amp; Van Essen, D.C. (1991) Distributed Hierarchical Processing&#xA;  in the Primate Cerebral Cortex. Cerebral Cortex 1:1-47. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://brainvis.wustl.edu/resources/FVE_CC91.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Modha, D.S. &amp;amp; Singh, R. (2010) Network architecture of the long-distance pathways in the macaque brain. PNAS 107:13485-13490. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/107/30/13485.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;] [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/suppl/2010/07/13/1008054107.DCSupplemental/sapp1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;supplemental pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="421" LastEditDate="2012-03-31T03:15:25.680" LastActivityDate="2012-03-31T03:15:25.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="491" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="486" CreationDate="2012-02-24T12:28:11.127" Score="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many single item measures of mood can be found in the literature. Those two are based on the idea that affect is bidimensional and that one's current state can be reported using a grid:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Russell, J.A., Weiss, A., &amp;amp; Mendelsohn, G.A. (1989). Affect Grid: A Single-Item Scale of Pleasure and Arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57 (3), 493-502. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Larsen, J.T., Norris, C.J., McGraw, A.P., Hawkley, L.C., &amp;amp; Cacioppo, J.T. (2009). The evaluative space grid: A single-item measure of positivity and negativity. Cognition and Emotion, 23 (3), 453-480. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also want to look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://studiolab.ide.tudelft.nl/studiolab/pmri/&quot;&gt;http://studiolab.ide.tudelft.nl/studiolab/pmri/&lt;/a&gt; [Disclaimer: I know the people who developed it]. It is conceptually similar to Russell's AffectGrid but purely non-verbal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, it seems necessary to mention the Self-Assessment Manikin. Technically, it's not a single-item instrument (the original version has three, many people use only the first two) but it is very popular. Main publication is Bradley, M.M., &amp;amp; Lang, P.J. (1994). Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25 (1), 49-59. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edited (a long time) after comment: Most authors in this field argue that mood or affect are fundamentally bi-dimensional, if not more, so it makes sense that measures would also be bi-dimensional. The closest you can come to a single Likert-type item would perhaps be the SAM valence scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another issue is that traditional psychometrics is almost entirely focused on dealing with item-specific variance, i.e. how to select items to build a scale, how many items are needed to reach a given level of reliability, how to model latent constructs using different items, how to equate scales or build population norms, how to adapt scales to different populations, etc. There is not much you can do with single items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consequently, it's not very complicated to create a new “valence measure” by drawing some smiling faces, altering the response format or slightly changing the wording. If the new measure is not completely idiosyncratic, you will obtain some level of correlation with other valence measures but beyond that what could make it a “valid” or superior measure of mood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastEditorUserId="432" LastEditDate="2013-05-06T16:23:53.473" LastActivityDate="2013-05-06T16:23:53.473" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="492" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-02-24T16:31:18.687" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive psychology is a subdiscipline of psychology exploring internal mental processes. The tag is meant for questions focusing on the interaction of many internal mental processes. If your question involves only one of &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/memory&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'memory'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;memory&lt;/a&gt;,  &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/attention&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'attention'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;attention&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/language&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'language'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;language&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/decision-making&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'decision-making'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;decision-making&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/perception&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'perception'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;perception&lt;/a&gt; then use the associated specialized tag instead of cognitive-psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T18:19:26.097" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T18:19:26.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="493" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-02-24T16:31:18.687" Score="0" Body="For questions focusing on the interaction of many internal mental processes. If your question involves only one of memory,  attention, language, decision-making, or perception then use the associated specialized tag instead of cognitive-psychology." OwnerUserId="203" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T18:19:14.953" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T18:19:14.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="494" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="496" CreationDate="2012-02-24T17:38:14.803" Score="15" ViewCount="404" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for references that deal with the issue of how various kinds of semantic knowledge are (or might be) represented neurally.  Most of the discussion of this topic seems skewed by social psychologists, who talk in very high-level terms of how various semantic constructs (such as goals) might be represented based on behavioral observations (cf. Eitam &amp;amp; Higgins, 2010).  But it's been hard to find accounts that are both closer to the metal (that consider neural plausibility) and also high-level (that treat semantics more complex than associative strength between generic nodes.)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone point me to good material on this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eitam, B., &amp;amp; Higgins, E. T. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00309.x&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Motivation in Mental Accessibility: Relevance of a Representation (ROAR) as a New Framework.&lt;/a&gt; Social and Personality Psychology Compass, Relevance of a Representation, 4(10), 951–967, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2992320/pdf/nihms216171.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;free pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="98" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-15T08:09:57.677" LastActivityDate="2016-07-06T01:06:28.637" Title="References for biologically plausible models of knowledge representation?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="495" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="44" CreationDate="2012-02-24T18:38:50.167" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think what is happening is a balance of evolutionary cost and resource cost.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evolutionary cost is the amount of &quot;effort&quot; that natural selection spends refining a feature.  Effort that could be spent refining other features, such as making it a more efficient swimmer, etc....so it is by no means free.  If you can get the same capabilities with less generations of tweaking, it's all the better.  Evolutionary costs are higher on animals that have longer generations and that there are fewer total animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Resource cost is how much energy a feature uses, as well as such costs as the high rate of childbirth deaths caused by big baby skulls squeezing through small pelvises.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume that everything else being equal, larger brains produce more cognitive capability.  But on a large animal, there is far less selection pressure to get the maximum &quot;I.Q points per pound of brain,&quot; since the relative resource cost of a large brain is much lower on large animals.  So whale brains use largeness, rather than super-sophistication, to get the right level of cognitive capability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remember, whales ARE smart, because that intelligence comes cheaply due to the low cost of brain size on a large animal.  They might be the equivalent to, say, an orangutan.  But unlike the orangutan, they don't have the same pressure to keep the brain small, which would have much larger evolutionary costs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="429" LastActivityDate="2012-02-24T18:38:50.167" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="496" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="494" CreationDate="2012-02-24T20:37:38.607" Score="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my experience, the term &quot;semantic knowledge&quot; (or semantic memory or conceptual knowledge) is generally used to refer to knowledge of objects, word meanings, facts and people, without connection to any particular time or place. The neural basis of this kind of knowledge is more or less agreed to depend on a distributed network of cortical brain regions (e.g., Martin, 2007; Patterson, Nestor, &amp;amp; Rogers, 2007). Tim Rogers and Jay McClelland (e.g., Rogers &amp;amp; McClelland, 2004) are among the leaders in developing biologically plausible computational models of semantic memory (and many others are working on it as well).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goals are usually put in the domain of &quot;executive functions&quot; or &quot;cognitive control&quot; and generally associated with prefrontal (and frontal) cortical regions. I know somewhat less about this area of research, but there are definitely biologically plausible models being developed, including by Botvinick and Plaut (2004) and you might find what you're looking for in the work of Munakata and O'Reilly (e.g., Munakata et al., 2011)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Botvinick, M. M., &amp;amp; Plaut, D. C. (2004). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.111.2.395&quot;&gt;Doing Without Schema Hierarchies: A Recurrent Connectionist Approach to Normal and Impaired Routine Sequential Action.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological Review, 111(2), 395-429, &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.24.3773&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot;&gt;free pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Martin, A. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190143&quot;&gt;The representation of object concepts in the brain.&lt;/a&gt; Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 25-45, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.stanford.edu/~jlm/pdfs/MartinAnnRevPsych07.pdf&quot;&gt;free pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Munakata, Y., Herd, S. A., Chatham, C. H., Depue, B. E., Banich, M. T., &amp;amp; O’Reilly, R. C. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.07.011&quot;&gt;A unified framework for inhibitory control.&lt;/a&gt; Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(10), 453-459.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Patterson, K. E., Nestor, P. J., &amp;amp; Rogers, T. T. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2277&quot;&gt;Where do you know what you know? The representation of semantic knowledge in the human brain.&lt;/a&gt; Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8, 976-987, &lt;a href=&quot;http://brainadvantage.com/PDF/Memory%20systems%20-%20Nat%20Rev%20NeuroSci%202007%20-%201.pdf&quot;&gt;free pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rogers, T. T., &amp;amp; McClelland, J. L. (2004). &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.es/books?id=AmB33Uz2MVAC&quot;&gt;Semantic Cognition: A Parallel Distributed Processing Approach.&lt;/a&gt; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-02-14T09:54:55.847" LastActivityDate="2014-02-14T09:54:55.847" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="497" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="279" CreationDate="2012-02-25T22:28:50.377" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;One thing that comes to mind is the discussion over why English-speaking people think submarines cannot swim, while they think airplanes can fly.  Supposedly in Russian, though, they do refer to submarines as &quot;swimming.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meanwhile, we ask whether computers can think, without really realizing that this question turns out to be simply a question about semantics, just like the question of whether or not a submarine can swim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Edsger Dijkstra said: &quot;The question of whether a computer can think is no more interesting than the question of whether a submarine can swim.&quot;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing is, some words we use we consider, by definition, apply only to humans or animals.  We seem to be more concerned about the pedigree of the thing, than its actual behavior or function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We use the word &quot;conscious&quot; similar to the word &quot;swim&quot;....it, almost by definition, only applies to living things.  On the other hand, the word &quot;aware&quot; is much more commonly used to refer to something a machine or object might be capable of.  For instance, a thermostat is &quot;aware&quot; of the current temperature in the room, or my computer is &quot;aware&quot; of the other computers on the network.  There is a very real thing we are describing about the thermostat and the computer, and we aren't being metaphorical.  (note that the computer is even aware that one of those computers on the network is actually itself.  Is is therefore &quot;self aware&quot;?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People use lots of words in everyday speech that fall into this grey area of metaphor or anthropomorphism.  We say a magnet is &quot;attracted&quot; to metal, without it feeling like we are anthropomorphizing or speaking metaphorically...we just define &quot;attract&quot; in a way that can apply to both objects, animals and humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, people instantly understand what we mean if we say the magnet &quot;wants&quot; to stick to the metal, or that a magnet &quot;doesn't like&quot; having its north pole pressed against the north pole of another magnet... but, if you ask them, they might say we are being poetic in our speech by applying those terms to a simple object like a magnet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As time goes on, more and more words that formerly applied to only people or animals, will start being used to describe things going on in machines.  A cameras &quot;sees&quot;. A security system &quot;notices&quot; a person moving in the room. A computer &quot;makes a decision&quot;.  A thermostat &quot;tries&quot; to get the temperature in the room to match the one set on its dial.  Siri &quot;understands&quot; what I said.  My Tivo &quot;thinks&quot; I will like a show.  Obviously these aren't just changes in the definitions of words, they go hand in hand with advances in technology that results in our having occasions to meaningfully use the words to apply to non-living things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, to get to the point, yes, I think the language we use absolutely affects comprehension of consciousness.  The more we get comfortable using the word &quot;conscious&quot; (and all these other words, &quot;think,&quot; &quot;aware,&quot; &quot;try,&quot; &quot;like,&quot; &quot;want,&quot; &quot;decide,&quot; &quot;detect&quot;) to refer to things a machine is capable of, the less we will see the concept of consciousness as being mysterious and magical.  I think that the &quot;hard problem&quot; of consciousness will not be &quot;solved&quot; by science, instead, science, technology, and the evolving way we use language to describe machines will gradually make the problem seem non-existant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="429" LastEditorUserId="429" LastEditDate="2012-02-25T22:36:27.293" LastActivityDate="2012-02-25T22:36:27.293" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="498" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="466" CreationDate="2012-02-27T00:04:09.940" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's begin by being clear about terminology and what is involved in eye movements at a basic level. Saccades are eye movements. Fixations are when your eyes are still. No visual information is gathered during saccades - we are functionally blind when making saccades. The easy way to demonstrate this is to try staring in a mirror and watching your own saccades. You can't do it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, though Preece's response is very detailed from a more neurological perspective, I'd like to offer an answer from the perspective of eye movement researchers. The easy way to get into eye movement research, and the perspective of eye movement researchers, is to read something like the Scholarpedia article on the topic: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Eye_movement&quot;&gt;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Eye_movement&lt;/a&gt; . If you'd like to read actual papers, head over to some of the reviews by Keith Rayner that are cited in that link. They are very detailed and thorough and will serve as a good starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next, your point of &quot;Specifically, the standard textbook definition of the function of saccades seems to be that the field of vision is too complexity to known in its entirety, so we look at a representative sample of it in order to form a generally adequate representation,&quot; is only really half of the story, and its worth being explicit about what this actually means. The reason that we fixate objects in the world around us is to use our fovea to gain a high-quality, colour, high-resolution inspection of those objects. Visual acuity (and colour vision) drops off in the periphery very rapidly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now.. to get to your question! What you are &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt; asking about is something called &lt;strong&gt;trans-saccadic integration&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;trans-saccadic memory&lt;/strong&gt;. It's all about how we piece together and integrate the information gained at successive fixations at different points in the world around us. David Irwin and colleagues have done extensive work along these lines, and a good starting point is the wikipedia page and its references: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsaccadic_memory&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsaccadic_memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-02-27T05:00:05.327" LastActivityDate="2012-02-27T05:00:05.327" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="463" CreationDate="2012-02-27T00:07:56.430" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One thing that hasn't yet been mentioned: if you find a paper you want that's not open access, many researchers nowadays put pdfs of their work on their personal sites. The easy solution is therefore to google the name of each author, starting with the first, plus something like &quot;Publications&quot;, or if they have a common name, add &quot;Publications, Psychology&quot; to the search terms. Google scholar seems to often be able to do this and help you hunt down the papers easily as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, let's not forget that you can just email the first author and they'll send it back to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastActivityDate="2012-02-27T00:07:56.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="500" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="488" CreationDate="2012-02-27T09:10:30.167" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neurobiology is not my field of expertise, but this paper seems relevant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kent C. Berridge, Chao-Yi Ho, Jocelyn M. Richard, Alexandra G. DiFeliceantonio (2010) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lsa.umich.edu/psych/research&amp;amp;labs/berridge/publications/Berridge,%20Ho,%20Richard,%20&amp;amp;%20DiFeliceantonio%202010%20Tempted%20brain%20eats%20Brain%20Res.pdf&quot;&gt;The tempted brain eats: Pleasure and desire circuits in obesity and eating disorders.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Brain Research&lt;/em&gt;, 1350, 43-64.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What we eat, when and how much, all are influenced by brain reward mechanisms that&#xA;  generate “liking” and “wanting” for foods. As a corollary, dysfunction in reward circuits&#xA;  might contribute to the recent rise of obesity and eating disorders. Here we assess brain&#xA;  mechanisms known to generate “liking” and “wanting” for foods and evaluate their&#xA;  interaction with regulatory mechanisms of hunger and satiety, relevant to clinical issues.&#xA;  “Liking” mechanisms include hedonic circuits that connect together cubic-millimeter&#xA;  hotspots in forebrain limbic structures such as nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum&#xA;  (where opioid/endocannabinoid/orexin signals can amplify sensory pleasure). “Wanting”&#xA;  mechanisms include larger opioid networks in nucleus accumbens, striatum, and amygdala&#xA;  that extend beyond the hedonic hotspots, as well as mesolimbic dopamine systems, and&#xA;  corticolimbic glutamate signals that interact with those systems. We focus on ways in&#xA;  which these brain reward circuits might participate in obesity or in eating disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may also be interested in these two book chapters:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, Kyle, Stephen V. Mahler, Susana Pecina, and Kent C. Berridge. “&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lsa.umich.edu/psych/research&amp;amp;labs/berridge/publications/preprints/Smith%20Mahler%20Pecina%20&amp;amp;%20Berridge%20-%20Pleasure%20chapter%20proofs.doc.pdf&quot;&gt;Hedonic Hotspots:&#xA;Generating Sensory Pleasure in the Brain.&lt;/a&gt;” In &lt;em&gt;Pleasures of the Brain&lt;/em&gt;, edited by Morten&#xA;L. Kringelbach and Kent C. Berridge, 27–49. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A vital question concerning sensory pleasure&#xA;  is how brain mechanisms cause stimuli&#xA;  to become pleasurable and liked. Pleasure&#xA;  is not an intrinsic feature of any stimulus,&#xA;  but instead refl ects an affective evaluation&#xA;  added to the stimulus by the brain. That is,&#xA;  as Frijda expresses it (Frijda, this volume;&#xA;  Frijda, 2006), a pleasure gloss or hedonic&#xA;  value must be actively ‘painted’ on sweet&#xA;  or other sensations to make them pleasant.&#xA;  Brain mechanisms of pleasure, whatever&#xA;  they are, must take a mere sensory signal&#xA;  and transform it into a hedonic and ‘liked’&#xA;  reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Finding the brain mechanisms responsible&#xA;  for painting a pleasure gloss is a major&#xA;  challenge for affective neuroscience (Barrett&#xA;  and Wager, 2006; Berridge, 2003b; Damasio,&#xA;  1999; Davidson, this volume; Davidson and&#xA;  Irwin, 1999; Kringelbach, 2005; Kringelbach,&#xA;  this volume; LeDoux, 1996; Panksepp,&#xA;  1991; Peciña et al., 2006). Fortunately,&#xA;  progress on fi nding hedonic generators in&#xA;  the brain is being made. In this chapter we&#xA;  focus specifi cally on the neuroanatomical&#xA;  hedonic hotspots in the brain where neurochemical&#xA;  signals actually contribute causally&#xA;  to the generation of pleasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aldridge, J. Wayne, and Kent C. Berridge. “&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lsa.umich.edu/psych/research&amp;amp;labs/berridge/publications/Aldridge%20&amp;amp;%20Berridge%202010%20Neural%20coding%20of%20pleasure%20chapt%203%20in%20Pleasures%20of%20Brain.pdf&quot;&gt;Neural Coding of Pleasure: ‘Rose-tinted Glasses’&#xA;of the Ventral Pallidum.&lt;/a&gt;” In &lt;em&gt;Pleasures of the Brain&lt;/em&gt;, edited by Morten L. Kringelbach&#xA;and Kent C. Berridge, 62–72. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pleasure is not a sensation. What is it then? Nico Frijda's answer in the &quot;pleasure questions&quot; section of this book (which he suggested a number of years ago) epitomizes an emerging consensus among many psychologists and neuroscientists (Frijda, Chapter 6, this book). He notes that pleasure &quot;is a 'pleasantness gloss' added to whatever is pleasant&quot;. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Here we ask: how is a &quot;pleasure gloss&quot; encoded in brain activity? Where in the brain is this glossing operation performed and how does it work? Is it possible for neuroscientists to recognize the signature patterns of neural activity that represent a pleasure gloss? These are difficult questions that are only beginning to be addressed. The &quot;pleasure gloss&quot; metaphor, applied to the transformation of neural signals for a stimulus, is like a varnish that is applied on top of a dull object to transform it into a shiny one. Adding hedonic tone to the signal passed on to downstream structures, the neural gloss effectively gives the entire brain a &quot;rose-tinted&quot; hedonic perception of the stimulus as pleasant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the context of neural firing signals, our idea is that a particular pattern of neuronal spikes or action potentials in crucial neurons may apply a glaze of pleasure on what might otherwise be an ordinary sensation or action signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="262" LastActivityDate="2012-02-27T09:10:30.167" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="501" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="488" CreationDate="2012-02-27T17:32:20.470" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think part of the answer to your question is going to include the dopamine &quot;reward&quot; pathway in the basal ganglia. In particular, a leading theory of dopaminergic function is the &lt;strong&gt;predictive reward error&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;reinforcement learning&lt;/strong&gt; hypothesis. In this theory, dopamine neurons signal expectations about the outcome of particular stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some key experiments are outlined in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9658025&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schultz, 1998&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.ou.edu/~fagg/umass/classes/691c/papers/Schultz_98.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;). First, an unexpected reward elicits a short activity increase in dopamine neurons. Second, if a conditioned stimulus (CS) precedes the reward, the dopamine neuron fires in response to the CS but not the reward. That is, the dopamine signal is now a predictive reward signal. Third, if the CS is presented and then the reward does not occur, the response to the CS occurs but the dopamine neuron depresses activity immediately after the reward &lt;em&gt;should have happened&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the theory goes that dopamine neurons are not simply saying whether a reward has occurred, but rather as a learning signal that adjusts predictions about rewards. If an unpredicted reward occurs, the neuron signals a positive error (&quot;Oops, that was a reward I should know about!&quot;). If a predicted reward occurs, the neuron signals no error at the time of the reward (&quot;shrug, I knew that was going to happen&quot;). If a predicted reward does not occur, the neuron signals a negative error (&quot;Aw shucks, guess that bell doesn't mean food after all.&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A somewhat updated revision of the theory is outlined in a review by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2022&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Redgrave and Gurney, 2006&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.people.vcu.edu/~mreimers/SysNeuro/Redgrave%20-%20Dopamine%20and%20context.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;). Importantly, they note that dopamine neurons suppress their activity in response to noxious stimuli (the &lt;strong&gt;pain&lt;/strong&gt; aspect of your question). They also raise some tough questions about how exactly this dopamine signal interacts with other parts of the brain to mediate the learning suggested in the theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As with basically all neurobiology theory, a full understanding of how this signal that we detect in individual neurons translates into a coherent behavioral response program is a long ways away. But the basal ganglia, in general, are sometimes thought of as an action selection system (or &quot;decision path&quot; selection to use your words), so the ability of dopamine neurons to signal expectations is relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="442" LastEditorUserId="442" LastEditDate="2012-11-02T15:21:04.640" LastActivityDate="2012-11-02T15:21:04.640" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="502" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="40" CreationDate="2012-02-27T21:12:42.140" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The fact that these people don't exhibit a lot of change in behavior, and report no real difference after the operation (other than in contrived tests) suggests that our idea of a single conscious &quot;self&quot; is simply wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This sort of question is probably never going to be answered to anyone's satisfaction, any more than you could answer questions about what happens if your brain is duplicated on a computer, or your body is destroyed and then recreated by a Star Trek transporter.  Is your consciousness continuous after Scotty beams you up, or is it a completely new mind with copies of your memories, and your old self died back on the surface of the planet?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think in any of these cases there is really a coherent question, but it only seems like it is.  Our brain has a built in concept of &quot;self&quot; that is core to our thought process, necessarily so.  A manmade autonomous vehicle would have the same -- it has to model it's environment, and must include itself in that model, but with appropriate differences, based on the fact that it controls itself in ways it doesn't control other things.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think what is happening with this sort of question is that it is exploiting our tendency to erroneously assign a sort of tangibility to the idea of self, that extends beyond the actual context or perspective where it makes sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="429" LastEditorUserId="429" LastEditDate="2012-02-28T01:40:11.853" LastActivityDate="2012-02-28T01:40:11.853" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="504" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4170" CreationDate="2012-02-28T07:46:27.367" Score="13" ViewCount="695" Body="&lt;p&gt;The popular media has offered such examples as &quot;Eve&quot; (based on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Costner-Sizemore&quot;&gt;Chris Costner-Sizemore&lt;/a&gt;) and &quot;Sybil&quot; (based on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Ardell_Mason&quot;&gt;Shirley Ardell Mason&lt;/a&gt;) as sufferers of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder&quot;&gt;dissociative identity disorder&lt;/a&gt; (at one point known as &lt;em&gt;multiple personality disorder&lt;/em&gt;).  Doctors and psychotherapists have wrestled with how to help patients dealing with this diagnosis, but in reality, there is often doubt cast upon the validity of the symptoms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies such as Boysen (2011) offer a retrospective analysis of the origins of symptoms and treatments presented in the literature in the 80s and 90s in an attempt to categorize the outcomes.  However, there's no comparison with control cases, i.e., those who may have faced persistent, horrible abuse or other similar situations and not developed symptoms of the disorder.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there recent &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case-control_study&quot;&gt;case control studies&lt;/a&gt; that have been done in this area of research?&lt;/strong&gt;  Is this careful retrospective analyis as far as we have progressed in determining whether these dissociative identities are a &lt;strong&gt;medical condition or artifacts&lt;/strong&gt; of psychotherapy and popular press exposure? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Boysen, G.A. (2011) The scientific status of childhood dissociative identity disorder: A review of published research.  Psychother Psychosom 2011;80:329-334. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000323403&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-11T21:31:16.510" LastActivityDate="2013-08-16T14:57:59.373" Title="Is dissociative identity disorder a medical condition or artifact of psychotherapy?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20" CreationDate="2012-02-28T09:44:59.943" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not my research field, but I'm also very interested in this topic. As far as I know there has not been much research done but two articles of interest are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Washburn, D. A. (2003). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03202541&quot;&gt;The games psychologists play (and the data&#xA;they provide).&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Behavior research methods, instruments &amp;amp; computers&lt;/em&gt;,&#xA;35(2), 185-193. Psychonomic Society Publications. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a (rather old) review article of how computer games have been&#xA;used in psychological research.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Frey, A., Hartig, J., Ketzel, A., Zinkernagel, A., &amp;amp; Moosbrugger, H. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2006.02.010&quot;&gt;The use of virtual environments based on a modification of the computer game Quake III Arena® in psychological experimenting.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Computers in Human Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 23(4), 2026-2039.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a study where they used a modified version of the Quake III engine to look at a quite diverse set of variables. I find the use of Quake III to investigate navigation behavior the most interesting part of the study.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="397" LastEditorUserId="28" LastEditDate="2012-02-28T13:41:03.893" LastActivityDate="2012-02-28T13:41:03.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="506" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-28T10:44:54.753" Score="15" ViewCount="3124" Body="&lt;p&gt;I find the IPad to be a great piece of hardware that is easy to bring along and that has an intuitive touch interface. This would make it an ideal platform for many cognitive tests such as n-back. As the IPad seems to have a short response latency (observation based on the plethora of music aplications available) reaction time tests should also be able to work ok.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any cognitive tests, or test suits,  available on the IPad (and possible the Iphone).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="397" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-04-30T20:47:06.357" LastActivityDate="2015-07-10T08:01:44.443" Title="Are there any cognitive test (or test suites) available on the iPad?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="11" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="507" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-02-28T11:11:01.587" Score="9" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;Knowing that sleep quantity and quality affects cognitive performance across many domains, why aren't pre-test sleep measures or intra-test measures of arousal a standard part of all cognitive test paradigms? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="446" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-06T18:02:11.913" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T18:02:11.913" Title="Why aren't sleep measures consistently measured as mediators/moderators of cognitive performance?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="508" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="509" CreationDate="2012-02-28T12:22:12.747" Score="25" ViewCount="5070" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've used &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pstnet.com/eprime.cfm&quot;&gt;E-prime&lt;/a&gt; to create computer based psychology experiments (you know, the kind where you for example show a number of pictures to the participant and record their responses to them, for example keypresses) for Windows. However, I'd now like to create similar experiments in OS X.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I search Google for this, I find a couple of different hits but it's hard to evaluate the quality of these programs. What's a good program to use for this purpose?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-04-11T16:28:14.717" LastActivityDate="2018-01-11T21:15:24.770" Title="How can I create computer based psychology experiments using OS X?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="11" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="508" CreationDate="2012-02-28T13:59:41.413" Score="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;My research group has gone pure python for coding experiments; we've been burned too many times by glitches and implicit behaviour in boxed experiment-building software to bother trusting it. Moving from a point-and-click experiment design interface to pure code does have a large learning curve, and you want to be careful to model your own code on well validated code from others (esp. for ensuring that you're implementing timing properly, which can be nuanced). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be tempting to hire CS students to code your experiments, but the danger there is they don't come to the table with the same experimental design background as you do and we've encountered some implementation errors as a consequence (ex. failing to check for input during dead time between stimulus presentation, etc). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I recognize and indeed support the push to specialization in cognitive science, I do think that in the same way that we require all researchers to have a bit of background in statistics, we should also require all researchers to have a bit of background in coding, not least because it helps engender a mindset amenable to considering formal models of mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="51" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-04-27T03:15:09.247" LastActivityDate="2012-04-27T03:15:09.247" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="510" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1112" CreationDate="2012-02-28T21:49:45.980" Score="22" ViewCount="18670" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Skinner, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement#Positive_and_negative_reinforcement&quot;&gt;positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in altering behavior&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As Skinner discussed, positive reinforcement is superior to punishment&#xA;  in altering behavior. He maintained that punishment was not simply the&#xA;  opposite of positive reinforcement; positive reinforcement results in&#xA;  lasting behavioral modification, whereas punishment changes behavior&#xA;  only temporarily and presents many detrimental side effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;From the different combinations of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment and negative punishment, which has been shown to be the most effective in behaviour modification?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Also, does combining stimuli like positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, become more effective?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="443" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-14T14:12:08.510" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T14:12:08.510" Title="Positive and negative reinforcement and punishment effectiveness" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="511" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="507" CreationDate="2012-02-29T04:50:52.367" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Measures of arousal surely do play a role in subject performance on a wide variety of cognitive tasks. Generally, scientists can safely ignore this factor as it is assumed to introduce &lt;em&gt;random noise&lt;/em&gt; between participants. From a hypothesis testing perspective, scientists are much more worried about factors that introduce &lt;em&gt;systematic bias&lt;/em&gt;, or factors that skew performance in one condition but not another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, consider a psychologist that is testing whether some intervention has an effect on performance. If we assume that arousal levels throughout the sample are randomly distributed, it should not affect our ability to detect an effect of our independent variable. In fact, there are potentially infinitely other factors that may affect performance on a cognitive task. To name a few: prior experience, mood, fatigue, cognitive load, intelligence, or attention. Each one of these factors in turn is the result of numerous other incidental variables (for instance, my mood may be affected by the weather, or how long it's been since I've eaten).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be infeasible to test for all of these factors, but again, if we assume that each measure is randomly distributed throughout a sample, it won't make a big difference-- in fact, it's somewhat statistically convenient:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many psychological measures are normally distributed, which allow us to run statistical tests that assume normality (e.g., t-tests!) The reason this is so is because what we are measuring is actually the sum of many &lt;em&gt;independent and identically distributed&lt;/em&gt; (i.i.d.) variables-- such as arousal, experience, attention, etc. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem&quot;&gt;Central Limit Theorem&lt;/a&gt; tells us that the sum of all of these factors lead to a normally distributed measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is still important to know when and how sleep measures may affect performance. In knowing that information, scientists can watch out for situations in which arousal may cause systematic bias between conditions, a potential confound. But in general, it often just doesn't really matter for the tests we are conducting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-02-29T04:50:52.367" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="512" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4339" CreationDate="2012-02-29T05:31:03.390" Score="17" ViewCount="508" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand why people have sometimes have the ability to sever ties with valuable connections, e.g., people that have up until that time meant a lot to them.  Colloquially, people use the term &amp;quot;throw it all away&amp;quot;, and I'm wondering if there's any truth to that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hoarders, on the other hand, can place a lot of value on objects that are generally considered to be refuse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking into hoarding and it's associated disorders, I found some very recent information in Wang et al (2012) regarding some of the neural substrates of acquisitive behavior (which forms some of the physiological basis of hoarding).  These researchers found activation in the orbitalfrontal cortex (OFC), a common substrate of obsessive compulsive disorder, associated with acquisitiveness, and activation in the nucleus accumbens (a motor nucleus within the basal ganglia often associated with addictive behaviors) when possessive participants valued a popular &amp;quot;hot&amp;quot; item. There was also activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which is associated with monetary valuation of a stimulus, during &amp;quot;disposal&amp;quot; of items that they had acquired during the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, &lt;strong&gt;is the treatment of people like property an earmark of any notable (Axis II or otherwise) DSM disorder?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, &lt;strong&gt;in the case where we assume those that do treat others as property to be acquired and disposed of accordingly, do these same anatomical regions in the OFC govern this behavior?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wang, J.M., Seidler, R.D., et al (2012),The neural bases of acquisitiveness: Decisions to acquire and discard everyday goods differ across frames, items, and individuals. &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychologia, 50&lt;/em&gt;:939– 948&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T11:17:29.340" Title="Do the neural substrates behind motivation to retain/dispose of property govern whether certain people view their friends and partners as possessions?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="513" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="508" CreationDate="2012-02-29T21:38:02.147" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I use Adobe Flash. My colleague Yana Weinstein has written a book on Flash Programming for the Social &amp;amp; Behavioral Sciences that should be out next month. I'm a contributor and helped write some of it! &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/141299635X&quot;&gt;Check it out by clicking here.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-02-29T21:38:02.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="515" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2012-03-01T06:25:12.110" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if it can measure reaction times but Tatool, developed at the University of Zurich, is an open source experiment platform that can be run from the web:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tatool.ch/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.tatool.ch/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="406" LastEditorUserId="406" LastEditDate="2012-03-02T05:33:43.730" LastActivityDate="2012-03-02T05:33:43.730" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="516" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="518" CreationDate="2012-03-01T06:44:48.190" Score="12" ViewCount="1414" Body="&lt;p&gt;Eidetic memory, often called &quot;photographic&quot; or &quot;flashbulb&quot; memory, is often associated with amazing feats of recall.  Is the mechanism behind this phenomenon an aberration of the visualization of a scene or the way that such visual information is encoded into long-term memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We often associate such accurate recall with those that exhibit savantism.  Kim Peek, the model for the character in Rain Man, is not autistic, but according to an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/savant_syndrome/overview_of_savant_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;overview article&lt;/a&gt; (actual reference pdf &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/system/files/savant_article.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;), 50% of savants are autistic.  Is there any neurophysiological or anatomical reason why this might be true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-12T19:20:01.160" LastActivityDate="2012-09-12T19:20:01.160" Title="What are the purported mechanisms of eidetic memory and why is it comorbid with autism?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="517" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-01T09:02:26.720" Score="5" ViewCount="516" Body="&lt;p&gt;The closest thing I found to this is social anxiety or agoraphobia, which is a fear of socializing or a fear of public places, respectively.  However, I think the idea that strangers can cause discomfort by default is more a symptom of avoidance personality disorder.  What is the difference between agoraphobia and avoidance personality I wonder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Agoraphobia seems more like avoidance personality disorder than social anxiety disorder, and yet more often agoraphobia is confused with social anxiety disorder than vice versa.  At least, if you go to Wikipedia, more information is found about social anxiety disorder than avoidance personality disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My curiosity stems from the fact that a huge part of having avoidance personality disorder must involve seeking treatment, yet I read in a lot of places that people who suffer from it fail to seek treatment.  Since treatment of avoidance personality disorder seems to be so ubiquitous, it would be very easy for somebody with the disease to find somebody to help.  So what's the reason that it's not diagnosed more and if perhaps it is diagnosed more often and I just don't know about it, what explains why there is no widely understood treatment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user449" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-12T13:54:41.213" LastActivityDate="2012-03-18T04:39:37.707" Title="Is there a psychological model or theory that describes strangers in the vicinity unknowingly causing discomfort?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="518" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="516" CreationDate="2012-03-01T09:11:45.197" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my very brief skim of the field, it seems like the consensus is that savants have access to the kind of low-level information processing which non-savants do not. I'll summarize one such theory in some detail, since it's the one that I've happened to read. But I'm not an expert in this field and this is just one of the theories, the rest of which I haven't studied. I'll provide some pointers to the other theories at the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Snyder (2009) speculates that &quot;savants have privileged access to lower level, less-processed information, before it is packaged into holistic concepts and meaningful labels&quot;. This is something that everyone would in principle have the potential for: savants are accessing information that is present in everyone's brain, but not normally available for introspection. As some supporting evidence for this idea, Snyder notes that savant-like abilities can sometimes be artificially induced in healthy individuals by inhibiting a part of the brain, and that savant abilities are known to appear spontaneously and suddenly in childhood or as a result of brain injuries. Once acquired, savant abilities typically do not improve by training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I have argued that the extraordinary skills of savants are latent in us all and that they can be induced artificially owing to the inhibiting influence of low-frequency rTMS, that is, by turning off part of the brain, not by exciting it. My hypothesis is that savant skills are facilitated by privileged access to raw, less-processed sensory information, information that exists in all brains but is inaccessible owing to top-down inhibition. Thus, autistic savants tend to see a more literal, less filtered view of the world. Their ‘skill’ or performance does not depend on active learning, but simply on an effortless ‘reading off’ of this less-processed information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Snyder does not explicitly draw the connection between this and memory, but I would infer the connection to be as follows. Non-savants mostly consciously process information that has been packaged into holistic, high-level concepts, and it is these high-level concepts that are stored into memory. When we try to recall something that happened, we cannot recall specific details, because they were never stored into memory in the first place. Savants think more in terms of low-level details, so that's also what gets stored in memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the autism connection, Snyder proposes that a lack of high-level concept formation and seeing things mainly in terms of low-level detail is what autism essentially &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt;. High-level concepts allow us to order the world and understand it, and autists are lacking in those kinds of concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why are all autists not savants? There are many varieties and degrees of autism, and it is conceivable that a lack of high-level concept formation could be caused by many different things. Some of those things could also cause more widespread damage to other systems. Snyder's suggestion is that autist savants represent autism in its &quot;purest&quot; form, uncontaminated by other disorders. (And why are all savants not autists? Presumably because they have access to both low-level &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; high-level concepts.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How well-supported is this theory? Writing in the same issue as Snyder, Happé &amp;amp; Frith (2009) note that Snyder's hypothesis is &quot;controversial&quot;, but note that a lot of other theorists also propose explanations which seem to imply some sort of focus on low-level processing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several authors in this issue offer hypotheses for why autism should be associated with talent, with remarkable consensus that the ability to process local information plays a key role. Happé &amp;amp; Vital (2009) suggest that detail-focused attention and memory predispose to the development of talent, both in the general population and in autism. Baron-Cohen et al. (2009) suggest that superior sensory acuity across modalities underlies such detail focus, which in turn fosters the tendency to explore and master closed systems (e.g. the calendar). With the enhanced perceptual functioning theory, Mottron et al. (2009) propose that locally orientated processing and, specifically, detection of patterns in the environment, underlies the high incidence of savant skills in autism. Plaisted Grant &amp;amp; Davis (2009) also emphasize the qualitative differences in perceptual and cognitive processing in ASD, and make tentative links to underlying neural systems. These very different theorists share the view that an ability to attend to and process featural information plays an important part in predisposing to special skills of a savant sort. This view is upheld, for example, in a detailed case study of a prodigious mnemonist and calculator with Asperger syndrome and synaesthesia who shows a preference for local processing and an unusual pattern of brain activation while remembering digits (Bor et al. 2007). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, Neumann et al. (2010): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One way to approach the question of how savants achieve their&#xA;  astonishing abilities is to investigate their brain activity during&#xA;  savant skills demonstration. Most theoretical accounts act on the&#xA;  assumption that some lower-level (perceptual) information processing&#xA;  mechanisms are enhanced in contrast to [41,7], or at the&#xA;  cost of higher-level operations [65,20,56,16]. Thus, single aspects&#xA;  of perception or lower-level information processing are preferentially&#xA;  processed or accessed resulting in a local or early processing&#xA;  bias that is benefiting for the development of savant skills. This is&#xA;  associated with an enhanced memory trace for these features [41].&#xA;  Treffert [61], assuming different brain mechanisms, postulated a&#xA;  model that implies compensatory right-hemispheric functioning&#xA;  after left-hemisphere damage and reliance upon lower-level procedural&#xA;  memory due to damage of higher-level memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So at least some version of this theory seems to be right. See the references below if you want to look more into the other theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Happé, F. &amp;amp; Frith, U. (2009) The beautiful otherness of the autistic mind. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364(1522):1345-1350. &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1345.full&quot;&gt;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1345.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neumann N, et al. The mind of the mnemonists: An MEG and neuropsychological study of autistic memory savants. Behav Brain Res (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://ki.se/content/1/c6/10/06/19/Neumann_2010_BBR%5B1%5D.pdf&quot;&gt;http://ki.se/content/1/c6/10/06/19/Neumann_2010_BBR%5B1%5D.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Snyder A. (2009) Explaining and inducing savant skills: privileged access to lower&#xA;level, less-processed information. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364(1522):1399–405. &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1399.long&quot;&gt;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1399.long&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References cited in the quote from Happé &amp;amp; Frith:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baron-Cohen S., Ashwin E., Ashwin C., Tavassoli T., Chakrabarti B. (2009) Talent in autism: hyper-systemizing, hyper-attention to detail and sensory hypersensitivity. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 364, 1377–1383. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0337. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bor D., Billington J., Baron-Cohen S. (2007) Savant memory for digits in a case of synaesthesia and Asperger syndrome is related to hyperactivity in the lateral prefrontal cortex. Neurocase. 13, 311–319. doi:10.1080/13554790701844945. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Happé F., Vital P. (2009) What aspects of autism predispose to talent?. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 364, 1369–1375. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0332. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mottron L., Dawson M., Soulières I. (2009) Enhanced perception in savant syndrome: patterns, structure and creativity. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 364, 1385–1391. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0333. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plaisted Grant K., Davis G. (2009) Perception and apperception in autism: rejecting the inverse assumption. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 364, 1393–1398. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0001. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References cited in the quote from Neumann et al.:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[7] Bölte S, Hubl D, Dierks T, Holtmann M, Poustka F. An fMRI-study of locally oriented&#xA;perception in autism: altered early visual processing of the block design&#xA;test. J Neural Transm 2008;115(3):545–52.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[20] Happé F. Understanding assets and deficits in autism: why success is more&#xA;interesting than failure. Psychologist 1999;12:540–6.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[56] Snyder AW, Mitchell DJ. Is integer arithmetic fundamental to mental processing?:&#xA;the mind’s secret arithmetic. Proc Biol Sci 1999;266(1419):587–92.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[41] Mottron L, Dawson M, Soulieres I, Hubert B, Burack J. Enhanced perceptual&#xA;functioning in autism: an update, and eight principles of autistic perception. J&#xA;Autism Dev Disord 2006;36(1):27–43.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[61] Treffert DA. Extraordinary people. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, Inc.; 2006.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[65] Waterhouse L. Speculations on the neuroanatomical substrate of special talents.&#xA;In: Obler LK, Fein D, editors. The exceptional brain.NewYork: The Guilford&#xA;Press; 1988. p. 493–512.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="262" LastActivityDate="2012-03-01T09:11:45.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="519" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-01T16:04:55.257" Score="6" ViewCount="214" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am constantly bombarded by allegations that almost every relatively unusual event is the result/proof of some conspiracy/plan set by a specific powerful entity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The typical reasoning behind such claims follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;X happened because there is Y beneath it, and this event is the very proof of this fact!&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot; Homosexual marriages are quite common today, because armageddon is&#xA;approaching!&quot; &quot; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot; Our country can't develop further, because USA,&#xA;China and other developed countries are afraid of us!&quot; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot; 9/11! Whom else might have done this? of course the Saddam/Usama Bin&#xA;Laden/Iran/Pakistan/etc!&quot; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot; Oh Have you recognized the verses  on this song when you play it backwards? &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backmasking#Satanic_backmasking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This is the     proof of Satanists&lt;/a&gt;!&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot; Oh look at these &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LlHHNCidd-k&amp;amp;feature=fvst,&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cards published in 1995&lt;/a&gt;. This is the exact&#xA;life we are living in today. Damn you illuminati!&quot; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot; Omg I can see it, Here is the proof that Jesus was real. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=jesus%20face&amp;amp;um=1&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;source=og&amp;amp;sa=N&amp;amp;tab=wi&amp;amp;ei=25pPT8_4M8HZ8APX9onwBQ&amp;amp;biw=1366&amp;amp;bih=647&amp;amp;sei=3ppPT7L0HcTu8QP-77TwBQ#um=1&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;safe=off&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;sa=1&amp;amp;q=jesus%20face%20bread&amp;amp;pbx=1&amp;amp;oq=jesus%20face%20bread&amp;amp;aq=f&amp;amp;aqi=&amp;amp;aql=&amp;amp;gs_sm=3&amp;amp;gs_upl=6333l7183l4l7754l5l5l0l1l0l2l251l545l2.1.1l4l0&amp;amp;gs_l=img.3...6333l7183l4l7754l5l5l0l1l0l2l251l545l2j1j1l4l0&amp;amp;bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&amp;amp;fp=7240731f1f10dfac&amp;amp;biw=1366&amp;amp;bih=647&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How else a face would&#xA;appear on a toast&lt;/a&gt;? What is that you are holding? A Tortilla. May&#xA;I look at that a bit closer? &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=jesus%20face&amp;amp;um=1&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;source=og&amp;amp;sa=N&amp;amp;tab=wi&amp;amp;ei=25pPT8_4M8HZ8APX9onwBQ&amp;amp;biw=1366&amp;amp;bih=647&amp;amp;sei=3ppPT7L0HcTu8QP-77TwBQ#um=1&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;safe=off&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;sa=1&amp;amp;q=jesus%20face%20on%20a%20tortilla&amp;amp;pbx=1&amp;amp;oq=jesus%20face%20on%20&amp;amp;aq=6&amp;amp;aqi=g10&amp;amp;aql=&amp;amp;gs_sm=1&amp;amp;gs_upl=8199l8199l12l14167l1l1l0l1l1l0l0l0ll0l0&amp;amp;gs_l=img.1.6.0l10.8199l8199l12l14167l1l1l0l1l1l0l0l0ll0l0&amp;amp;bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&amp;amp;fp=7240731f1f10dfac&amp;amp;biw=1366&amp;amp;bih=647&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ohhh, again&lt;/a&gt;!&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the name of this attitude of over-reductionism everything to some specific thing? A cognitive bias? Defense Mechanism? &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straw_man&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Straw man&lt;/a&gt;? &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reduction ad Absurdum&lt;/a&gt;? Even maybe &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chewbacca_defense&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chewbacca Defense&lt;/a&gt; [ This question encompasses the title of the question as well.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, is there any term for &quot;that specific thing&quot; people reduces everything to? I want to be able to say &quot;you associates everything to illuminati, because illuminati is your X&quot; What term may I use here for X?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE: Other question of mine sounds related to this one. If you are intrigued by this question, check that one as well: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/243/why-are-people-inclined-to-praise-or-fear-the-unknown&quot;&gt;Why are people inclined to praise or fear the unknown?&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="77" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-03-02T13:01:33.703" Title="Why is it common for people to default to a single causal source to explain new phenomena?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="520" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="508" CreationDate="2012-03-01T21:50:51.743" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would recommend Matlab and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychtoolbox.org/HomePage&quot;&gt;Psychophysics Toolbox&lt;/a&gt;.  It lets you display all sorts of stimuli in full-screen mode, and it lets you capture key strokes and mouse clicks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15" LastActivityDate="2012-03-01T21:50:51.743" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="521" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="519" CreationDate="2012-03-01T23:38:12.127" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't quite know an agreed upon word for this type of thing, but I do know what you're talking about. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a very basic level, we use previous beliefs to interpret new information. In a way, it's at the core of how we perceive at all. I don't necessarily see these types of fallacious thinking as exceptions. Their belief about the order of the world is different, and so they interpret individual events differently. The examples you listed seem like instances of this happening. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anything, it's just simplistic thinking, or a tendency to over-synthesize information. Illuminati type conspirators need to bring a bunch of disparate information into a model that makes sense, so they form connections between things that don't really connect. It probably doesn't help that they expose themselves to a lot of information presented in a way that strongly suggests some sort of Illuminati presence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But don't forget that we do the same thing. Many times, the difference is that those around us also agree with the assumptions we make, so we don't even notice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2012-03-01T23:38:12.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="522" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1113" CreationDate="2012-03-01T16:04:19.847" Score="15" ViewCount="390" Body="&lt;p&gt;Visual perception is a huge topic, much of which is relevant to the work of a designer. I have identified topics in visual memory, visual cognition and colour perception that are relevant, and I'm sure there is more I don't yet know of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would be a good place to start for a designer looking for concepts of perception to be aware of when designing? For example, what books (or other accessible resources, such as web pages, applied research topics) exist that are suitable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm very interested in learning more about visual perception and how it pertains to graphic design. I work predominately in print and environmental graphic design but any area of graphic design should be equally applicable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="455" OwnerDisplayName="Ryan" LastEditorUserId="611" LastEditDate="2012-06-11T09:45:35.300" LastActivityDate="2014-05-27T00:40:54.213" Title="What concepts of perception should designers be aware of when designing?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="21" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="523" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-02T01:22:24.907" Score="17" ViewCount="5295" Body="&lt;p&gt;After seeing &lt;a href=&quot;http://vimeo.com/34696162&quot;&gt;this talk&lt;/a&gt;, the question popped in my mind. The idea is that as soon as a system is complex enough or intelligent enough, it able to act on its own. It seems to be a common belief. For example, you can find it in the movie &lt;em&gt;Terminator&lt;/em&gt;, where &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skynet_%28Terminator%29&quot;&gt;skynet&lt;/a&gt;, an advanced computer, becomes self aware and decide to eradicate humanity. The same is true with the  &lt;a href=&quot;http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/HAL_9000&quot;&gt;HAL&lt;/a&gt; in &lt;em&gt;2001: A Space Odyssey&lt;/em&gt;, where the computer decides to act despite receiving the opposite orders from the astronaut.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe what is said in this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/antonio_damasio_the_quest_to_understand_consciousness.html&quot;&gt;ted talk&lt;/a&gt;, where Antonio Damasio explains that consciousnesses is not a great product of the neocortex, but rather a trick achieved by other older parts in the brain (essentially the brainstem). If, in addition, you believe that human intelligence and cognition takes place in the neocortex (as in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory-prediction_framework&quot;&gt;Memory-prediction framework&lt;/a&gt; model, introduced in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.onintelligence.org/&quot;&gt;On Intelligence&lt;/a&gt; by Jeff Hawkins), it doesn't make sense that intelligence is linked to consciousness, self awareness, freewill or emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is: is there any scientific evidence for this link, is there any paper about it ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="451" LastActivityDate="2012-03-02T10:00:13.130" Title="Does super-intelligence necessary lead to consciousness, self awareness, freewill or emotion" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="524" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="526" CreationDate="2012-03-02T02:54:08.850" Score="9" ViewCount="419" Body="&lt;p&gt;Egosyntonic thoughts/ideas are those that are consistent with self-image, and egodystonic thoughts are recognized as inconsistent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in obsessive compulsive disorder, the patient will often recognize that their behaviors are strange or absurd, but convincing a patient with severe symptoms of schizophrenia that their thoughts are potentially aberrant is not an easy task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;ego&quot; of these two concepts, as it were, seems to be an earmark of a Freudian frame of reference, which I think that most scholars can agree is a dog that's had its day.  The concepts of egosyntonic and egodystonic still have some utility.  Is there any terminology or characterization that frames these concepts in terms of cognitive psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-12T07:55:50.487" LastActivityDate="2013-06-12T07:55:50.487" Title="What is a more modern interpretation of the terms egosyntonic/egodystonic?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="525" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="727" CreationDate="2012-03-02T05:46:05.843" Score="7" ViewCount="550" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_field_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Decision field theory&lt;/a&gt; is usually presented as a dynamic cognitive model of decision making. However, in its basic form, the theory seems to only be concerned with behavior (decisions) and stimuli (initial set of choice and their associated risk/utilities). In particular, although we can view the dynamics as the change in 'preferences' with time, it is equally easy to view them as actions that would have happened if we forced the decision-maker to stop deliberating at that time point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I do not see why DFT would force us to prescribe internal mental states to the decision maker and more than a clearly behaviorist model such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rescorla%E2%80%93Wagner_model&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rescorla-Wagner&lt;/a&gt;. In other words, it seems like we can interpret DFT (at least as initially presented by Busemeyer and Townsend (1993) without any recent neurological grounding) purely in behaviorist terms, as a behaviorist theory. Hence my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there literature that provides purely behaviorist interpretations of decision field theory (or other similar models of decision making)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Busemeyer, J. R., &amp;amp; Townsend, J. T. (1993) Decision Field Theory: A dynamic cognition approach to decision making. Psychological Review, 100, 432-459.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-04-14T20:55:16.320" Title="Behaviorist interpretations of decision field theory" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="526" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="524" CreationDate="2012-03-02T05:56:33.973" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive dissonance theory seems to be exactly what you're looking for. It seeks to explain how and why people hold incongruous or dissonant beliefs. I guess egosyntonic beliefs would be consonant with self, egodystonic would be dissonant. Anyway, I'll just link you to the Wikipedia page:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2012-03-02T05:56:33.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="527" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="523" CreationDate="2012-03-02T06:35:36.873" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Great question. It really hits cognitive science in some tender spots, though. None of those terms you listed in the question have any sort of consensus within the field. The only one we are approaching an understanding of is probably emotion. Consciousness and free will are... tricky. I honestly don't believe there will ever be an agreed upon definition of consciousness that satisfies. It's just a term, and it does not spring from study of the brain. It's like if physics were still tied to trying to explain things in terms of the &quot;ether&quot;. There is no physical evidence of this &quot;ether&quot;, and so it has been abandoned. But it might be hard for people to abandon consciousness as easily, for obvious reasons. I understand the essence of what you're asking, but it's really not easy to answer. I'll try though. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first thing to understand, is that the brain has &lt;em&gt;evolved&lt;/em&gt;. This means that over a long time, tiny exceptions built up to create our brain and thus our minds. They are unreasonably messy. Speaking of any artificial system in terms of our own mental system is pretty much a mistake (at best), or deceptive (at worst). To say that the internet becomes self-aware is to go too far in anthropomorphizing it. Our minds are inherently tied into the crazy messy brains that produce them. Even our idea of free-will is not some omnipresent universal phenomena, it's just an artifact of how our brains are constructed. We make choices under certain measurable conditions, it isn't magic. For the most part, free will is only &lt;em&gt;virtually&lt;/em&gt; true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question assumes certain things that are really hard to articulate, but which are not exactly true. Intelligence and cognition sort of happen in the cortex, as in Hawkins model, but it's really not the full story. If you built a big HTM system like Hawkins describes, it would be inert. Consciousness, free-will, emotion, and self-awareness are not properties of the cortex, they are properties of the brain (of which the cortex is a part), and the body as a whole. We are self-aware because we have apparatus that can perceive ourselves. If you built an HTM system, and fed it weather data, it would not become self aware because it would not be perceiving itself. It would not have emotion because there would be no systems impelling the system to act in one way over another. The factors you list are related to &quot;intelligence&quot; as defined by cortical size, but they do not solely depend on it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the fallacious assumption in your question is very related to the idea that living things exist on an evolutionary ladder. And that we are the &quot;highest rung&quot; on that ladder. As if we let other creatures evolve more, they would become more like us. It is a sort of deterministic belief that as we construct increasingly intelligent machines, they will become more like us. Make them smart enough, and they will begin exhibiting things that we exhibit. It's simply not true. We eventually will be able to build systems that could be considered self-aware, or having free-will, or whatever, but it will be because we intentionally design it to do so. These properties will not emerge on their own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2012-03-02T06:35:36.873" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="528" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="523" CreationDate="2012-03-02T10:00:13.130" Score="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the other response noted, a lot of the answers will depend on how you define the terms. Here, I will use Legg &amp;amp; Hutter's (2007) definition of intelligence, where an agent is intelligent if it can achieve a large variety of goals in a large variety of environments. For instance, a chess-playing robot is great at achieving the goal of winning at chess when it is in the environment of a chess game where nobody cheats or does anything else odd, but it fails miserably at just about everything else. So it has low intelligence. In contrast, a human can achieve many different goals in many different environments, from hunting food in a rainforest, to repairing solar panels while wearing a space suit on Earth's orbit. So a human has a considerably higher intelligence. See the paper for a formalization of this intuitive definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that a system can be exceedingly complex, or good at one thing, without necessarily being intelligent in this sense. Complexity does not imply intelligence by itself. But let's suppose that a system were intelligent in this sense? Well, let's tackle each of your terms in turn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-awareness.&lt;/strong&gt; One widely-used definition for self-awareness is being &quot;aware of themselves as a differentiated and unique entity in the world&quot;. For instance, Rochat (2003) discusses the development of self-awareness in babies and very young children:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;All parents also notice an important change at around 2 years of age when children&#xA;  manifest ‘‘self-consciousness,’’ the so-called secondary emotions such as embarrassment or pride&#xA;  in very specific situations such as mirror exposure or competitive games (Kagan, 1984; Lewis,&#xA;  1992). Prior to the second year, an infant placed in front of a mirror will typically smile, coo, and&#xA;  explore in apparent delight of the perfect contingency between acted and seen movements&#xA;  bouncing back at them from the polished surface of the mirror (Amsterdam, 1972). By 2 years, the&#xA;  specular image is associated with radically different behaviors. Toddlers become typically frozen&#xA;  and sometime behave as if they wanted to hide themselves by tucking their head in their shoulders&#xA;  or hiding their face behind their hands. They show embarrassment. This is a robust phenomenon&#xA;  and one is naturally tempted to ask what it means psychologically for children in their development. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It appears indeed that by 2–3&#xA;  years young children do start to have others in mind when they behave. The expression of embarrassment&#xA;  that children often begin to display in front of mirrors at around this age is the&#xA;  expression of such ‘‘self-consciousness.’’ They behave not unlike criminals hiding their face to the&#xA;  cameras. Their behavior indicates a drive to vanish from the public eyes, as if they came to grip via&#xA;  the experience of their own specular image of how they present themselves to the world. Not only&#xA;  do they discover in the mirror that it is themselves, they also realize that it is themselves as&#xA;  perceived by others. The malaise might come from the realization of a fundamental discrepancy&#xA;  between how the child represents herself from within, and how he or she is actually perceived by&#xA;  others as reflected in the mirror.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So self-awareness implies an understanding of the fact that there is such a thing as a &quot;me&quot;, which is separate from the world as a whole, and which others will perceive differently than it will perceive itself. There can also be varying levels of self-awareness, ranging from the level 1 self-awareness that newborn infants have (&quot;immediately after birth, infants are capable of demonstrating&#xA;already a sense of their own body as a differentiated entity: an entity among other entities in the&#xA;environment&quot;) to level 5 self-awareness involving a theory of mind and an understanding of the fact that others may have false beliefs about something while you yourself have a true belief of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would a superintelligence necessarily need to be self-aware, in any of these senses? I'd say that it would. While there are lots of goals that could plausibly be solved without any kind of self-awareness (proving mathematical theorems, for instance), many seem impossible to solve without it. Pretty much any social activity requires you to have a model about others as distinct from yourself, as well as an ability to model their beliefs and attitudes towards yourself. So in order to really be capable of solving many goals, you need to be self-aware. On the other hand, if it was a narrow intelligence that had been built to &lt;em&gt;only&lt;/em&gt; solve theorems of math, it probably wouldn't need self-awaraness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Emotion&lt;/strong&gt;. There are many theories of emotion. For instance, the &lt;em&gt;Information Principle&lt;/em&gt; says that &lt;em&gt;emotional feelings provide conscious information from unconscious appraisals of situations&lt;/em&gt; (Clore et al. 2001). Your brain is constantly appraising the situation you happen to be in. It notes things like a passerby having slightly threatening body language, or conversation with another person being easy and free of misunderstandings. There are countless of such evaluations going on all the time, and you aren't consciously aware of them, because you don't need to. Your subconscious mind can handle them just fine on its own. The end result of all those evaluations is packaged into a brief summary, which is the only thing that your conscious mind sees directly. That &quot;executive summary&quot; is what you experience as a particular emotional state. The passerby makes you feel slightly nervous and you avoid her, or your conversational partner feels pleasant to talk with and you begin to like him, even though you don't know why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So this theory says that emotions are both a source of information about unconscious appraisals, and a way to bias your behavior on the basis of circumstances. For instance, in happy moods (when things are presumably going well), we tend to rely more on our pre-existing routines and heuristics, while in sad or frustrated moods (when things aren't going so well), our minds switch to a more analytical mode of thought where we're more likely to take apart our existing beliefs and routines to find whether there's something wrong with them (Schwarz, 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would a superintelligence have something that we would consider to be akin to &quot;emotions&quot;? I would think that it might or might not, depending on its architecture. Thinking for a moment about humans, maybe a human with a vastly larger working memory capacity wouldn't need to have the subconscious appraisals packaged into summaries in the form of emotions, but could just constantly review their un-summarized conclusions while also thinking about other things. Maybe such a human could also learn to consciously control the style of their information processing, and adapt either heuristic or analytical thought as seemed reasonable. Arguably, such a human wouldn't need emotions. So it seems plausible that a superintelligence wouldn't necessarily have them either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free will.&lt;/strong&gt; Okay, now we are getting into tricky territory. There are lots of definitions about free will, so I'll merely say that the &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/&quot;&gt;computational theory of mind&lt;/a&gt; seems to be the majority view in cognitive science. If you accept the computational theory of mind, then you also consider the human mind to be a kind of a computer executing certain algorithms. Then on most accounts, if you would consider a human to have free will, you would probably also consider a machine intelligence to have free will, and vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Consciousness.&lt;/strong&gt; This is another vague term, and people mean different things by it. Copeland (1993) notes at least three possible meanings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Baseline sense&lt;/em&gt;: an entity is conscious if it is capable of perceiving the world via sense organs of some sort, and if it is capable of performing inner activities such as reasoning, deliberating, judging, hypothesing, planning, and so on.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Consciousness as internal monitoring&lt;/em&gt;: an entity is conscious if it is capable of observing and reporting on itself. For instance, I am not simply thinking looking up Copeland's definitions and typing a summary of them: I also know that I am doing so, and can think about this fact.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Phenomenological consciousness&lt;/em&gt;: an entity is conscious if there's something that being that entity &quot;feels like&quot;. Pain and pleasure are not &lt;em&gt;just&lt;/em&gt; algorithmical responses that modify an entity's behavior: they &lt;em&gt;feel&lt;/em&gt; painful or pleasant. This is the hardest category to really express in words, but hopefully everyone understands what's meant.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A superintelligence would most definitely need to be conscious in the baseline sense: if it couldn't collect information from the world and make plans on that basis, it wouldn't be much of an intelligence. It would probably also need be conscious in the sense of being capable of internal monitoring, for otherwise it might not really be self-aware, and we already concluded that self-awareness is necessary for (broad) intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about phenomenological consciousness? Chalmers (1995) has a pretty convincing (to me) thought experiment, where he says that a human who was changed into a robot, replacing one neuron at a time with an artificial one, would remain phenomenally conscious. But that argument presumes that the human retains their &lt;em&gt;mental&lt;/em&gt; architecture unchanged. If we built a mind that had an entirely different mental architecture as humans did, would it exhibit phenomenal consciousness? There are lots of arguments, but the essential gist is that nobody knows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Indepedent goal-directed behavior.&lt;/strong&gt; But there's one more thing that your question seems to be implying, which wasn't fully covered by any of the terms above. You seem to also be asking whether an intelligent system might &lt;em&gt;start doing things which conflict with the desires of its creators&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer seems to be yes. Omohundro (2008) argues that even a chess-playing robot, if it were intelligent enough and if it were not designed carefully enough, &quot;will resist being turned off, will try to break into other machines and make copies of itself, and will try to acquire resources without regard for anyone else’s safety&quot;. Suppose that the robot has &quot;winning at chess&quot; as its goal. Now, it will exhibit these behaviors because, if it is turned off it might not be able to play any more chess, if it can make copies of itself those copies can continue to play chess even if some were turned off, and extra resources will help it in making sure that it can always win at chess. Omohundro also mentions a number of other drives which will arise as natural subgoals of almost any other goal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Armstrong et al. (forthcoming) have an extensive discussion about &quot;Oracle AI&quot;, an artificial intelligence which would be built to be safe, as it was built to only answer questions and not do anything else. But even this is harder to do than it might seem. Even trying to program the Oracle AI to want to stay within a specific physical box requires a number of definitions about what constitutes its physical location and what constitutes the Oracle AI itself (is it still staying within the box if it makes remote copies of itself?), and it might plausibly discover theories of physics in which those definitions became meaningless. Note that all of this presumes that we actually understand the OAI well enough to &lt;em&gt;be able&lt;/em&gt; to specify its goals with such detail. If we don't, then that plan fails right away. Probably the best existing review article about this topic is Muehlhauser &amp;amp; Helm (forthcoming).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Armstrong, S. &amp;amp; Sandberg, A. &amp;amp; Bostrom, N. (forthcoming) Thinking inside the box: using and&#xA;controlling an Oracle AI. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aleph.se/papers/oracleAI.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www.aleph.se/papers/oracleAI.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chalmers, D.J. (1995) Absent Qualia, Fading Qualia, Dancing Qualia. In Metzinger, T. (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;Conscious Experience&lt;/em&gt;. Imprint Academic. &lt;a href=&quot;http://consc.net/papers/qualia.html&quot;&gt;http://consc.net/papers/qualia.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clore, G.L. &amp;amp; Gasper, K., &amp;amp; Garvin, E. (2001). Affect as information. In Forgas, J.P. (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;Handbook of affect and social cognition&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 121–144). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Copeland, J. (1993) &lt;em&gt;Artificial Intelligence: A Philosophical Introduction&lt;/em&gt;. Blackwell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Legg, S. &amp;amp; Hutter, M. (2007) Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence. &lt;em&gt;Minds &amp;amp; Machines&lt;/em&gt;, 17:4 391-444. &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/abs/0712.3329&quot;&gt;http://arxiv.org/abs/0712.3329&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Muehlhauser, L. &amp;amp; Helm, L. (forthcoming). The Singularity and Machine Ethics. &lt;a href=&quot;http://commonsenseatheism.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Muehlhauser-Helm-The-Singularity-and-Machine-Ethics-draft.pdf&quot;&gt;http://commonsenseatheism.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Muehlhauser-Helm-The-Singularity-and-Machine-Ethics-draft.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Omohundro, S. (2008) &quot;The basic AI drives,&quot; in Wang, P. Goertzel, P. and Franklin,&#xA;S. (eds.), &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the First AGI Conference. Frontiers in Articial Intelli-&#xA;gence and Applications&lt;/em&gt;, Volume 171 (IOS Press) 483-494. &lt;a href=&quot;https://selfawaresystems.files.wordpress.com/2008/01/ai_drives_final.pdf&quot;&gt;https://selfawaresystems.files.wordpress.com/2008/01/ai_drives_final.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rochat, P. (2003) Five levels of self-awareness as they unfold early in life. &lt;em&gt;Consciousness and Cognition&lt;/em&gt;, 12, 717-731. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychology.emory.edu/cognition/rochat/lab/5%20levels%20of%20self-awareness.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www.psychology.emory.edu/cognition/rochat/lab/5%20levels%20of%20self-awareness.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwarz, N. (2010) Feelings as information. In Van Lange, P. &amp;amp; Kruglanski, A. &amp;amp; Higgins, E.T. (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology, Sange. &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.ict.usc.edu/~gratch/CSCI534/schwarz_feelings-as-information_7jan10.pdf&quot;&gt;http://people.ict.usc.edu/~gratch/CSCI534/schwarz_feelings-as-information_7jan10.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="262" LastActivityDate="2012-03-02T10:00:13.130" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="529" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20" CreationDate="2012-03-02T15:40:04.103" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The whole of the research on this topic has some very, very serious methodological flaws, which mean there is currently surprisingly little evidence that video games or expert gamers are somehow 'special'. In particular, there are serious concerns regarding &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_characteristics&quot;&gt;demand characteristics&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Don't just take my word for it, take a look at the extremely comprehensive and detailed paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00226&quot;&gt;Boot et al. (2011)&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;It's open access, too!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a choice quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One possible factor that could lead to the spurious conclusion of&#xA;  gaming beneﬁts on cognition is differential expectations for experts&#xA;  and novices. If gamers are recruited to a study because of their&#xA;  gaming experience, they might expect to perform well because of their&#xA;  expertise, and a belief that you should perform well can inﬂuence&#xA;  performance on measures as basic as visual acuity (Langer et al.,&#xA;  2010). Imagine that you are recruited to participate in a study&#xA;  because of your gaming expertise, and the study consists of game like&#xA;  computer tasks. If you know you have been recruited because you are an&#xA;  expert, the &lt;strong&gt;demand characteristics&lt;/strong&gt; of the experimental situation will&#xA;  motivate you to try to perform well. In contrast, a non-gamer selected&#xA;  without any mention of gaming will not experience such demand&#xA;  characteristics, so will be less motivated. Any difference in task&#xA;  performance, then, would be analogous to a placebo effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Almost all&#xA;  studies comparing expert and novice gamers either neglect to report&#xA;  how subjects were recruited or make no effort to hide the nature of&#xA;  the study from participants. Many studies recruit experts through&#xA;  advertisements explicitly seeking people with game experience,&#xA;  thereby violating a core principle of experimental design and&#xA;  introducing the potential for differential demand characteristics&#xA;  (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00226&quot;&gt;Boot et al., 2008&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.09.005&quot;&gt;Colzato et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;;[Karle et al., 2010&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20064634&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;). The&#xA;  problem is ampliﬁed because gamers often are familiar with media and&#xA;  blog coverage of the beneﬁts of gaming, so they expect to perform better when they have been recruited for their gaming expertise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Boot, W. R., Blakely, D. P., &amp;amp; Simons, D. J. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00226&quot;&gt;Do action video games improve perception and cognition?&lt;/a&gt;. Frontiers in psychology, 2.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Boot, W. R., Kramer, A. F., Simons, D. J., Fabiani, M., and Gratton, G. (2008). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.09.005&quot;&gt;The effects of video game playing on attention, memory, and executive control.&lt;/a&gt; Acta Psychol. (Amst.) 129, 387–398.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Colzato, L. S., van Leeuwen, P. J. A., van den Wildenberg, W. P. M., and Hommel, B. (2010). DOOM’d to switch: superior cognitive flexibility in players of first person shooter games. Front. Psychol. 1, 1–5.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Karle, J. W., Watter, S., and Shedden, J. M. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20064634&quot;&gt;Task switching in video game players: benefits of selective attention but not resistance to proactive interference.&lt;/a&gt; Acta Psychol. (Amst.) 134, 70–78.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-11-19T19:44:09.523" LastActivityDate="2012-11-19T19:44:09.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="530" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-02T18:53:25.250" Score="8" ViewCount="1773" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apple based their &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_4#Display&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Retina Display&lt;/a&gt; on the following claim, as cited by Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The display has a contrast ratio of 800:1. The screen is marketed by Apple as the &quot;Retina Display&quot;, based on the assertion that a display of approximately 300 ppi at a distance of 12 inches (305 mm) from one's eye, or 57 arcseconds per pixel is the maximum amount of detail that the human retina can perceive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However some have stated that the resolution of the human retina is &lt;em&gt;significantly&lt;/em&gt; higher than Apple's claim:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Soneira stated that the resolution of the human retina is higher than claimed by Apple, working out to 477 ppi at 12 inches (305 mm) from the eyes, or 36 arcseconds per pixel.[44]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My impression of the human eye's &quot;resolution&quot; has been that it's significantly higher than the &quot;Retina&quot; display.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any objective evidence that supports or refutes Apple's claim that the Retina display matches human eye resolution? Have any studies specifically been done to determine whether humans can differentiate &quot;Retina&quot; displays and higher resolution displays at the same distance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-07-05T03:00:01.723" LastActivityDate="2012-07-05T03:00:01.723" Title="Is Apple's iPhone Retina Display really accurate to human eye resolution?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;devices&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="531" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-02T18:56:52.813" Score="7" ViewCount="1073" Body="&lt;p&gt;A common reason to use Conventions and standards in Human Computer Interaction is to limit the cost of Context Switching. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I searched to find &lt;em&gt;general&lt;/em&gt; evidence of the cognitive costs of context switching but didn't find much, just specific articles like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.brown.edu/~jchen/publications/CMV-ieee.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; that don't have very useful or generalizable results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the cognitive cost (time spend, cognitive load ect) of switching contexts, such as switching from mouse input to keyboard input?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T19:55:33.030" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T19:55:33.030" Title="What is the cognitive cost of switching contexts?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="532" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-02T19:05:11.290" Score="18" ViewCount="844" Body="&lt;p&gt;An ages old complaint is that new technology harms memory. Why remember something when you can look it up? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a course on Human Memory I distinctly recall an interesting discussion on phones and memory, and an interesting point came up; even though smart phones mean we no longer remember &lt;em&gt;phone numbers&lt;/em&gt; as often as we used to we have to remember &lt;em&gt;passwords&lt;/em&gt;, userids and other trivial bits of information which keeps our encoding skills sharp. However I don't recall and &lt;em&gt;studies&lt;/em&gt; to support this hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any recent studies to suggest whether users of portable digital tools like smartphones actually perform worse on any memory-related psychometrics?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And no I'm not talking about these extremely questionable &lt;a href=&quot;http://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/23/news/la-heb-cellphones-pregnancy-teens-20110523&quot;&gt;Cellphones Harm Memory in Mice&lt;/a&gt; stories the media has picked up on. I'm not concerned with electromagnetic radiation's effects on the brain, but rather the effect of having easy access to external information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-03-03T16:28:49.503" Title="Does any evidence show that Smartphone users have poorer memory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="533" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="532" CreationDate="2012-03-02T22:37:07.640" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;One relevant study by Sparrow et al. (2011) that came out last year in Science was on the &quot;Google effect&quot;: When subjects expected that they'd be able to have later access to information, their memory was poorer for it. We can extrapolate to smartphones -- if individuals know they have information at their fingertips, they don't need to worry so much about retaining that information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Betsy Sparrow, Jenny Liu, and Daniel M. Wegner (2011) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2011/07/13/science.1207745&quot;&gt;Google Effects on Memory: Cognitive Consequences of Having Information at Our Fingertips&lt;/a&gt; Science 1207745 Published online 14 July 2011 [DOI:10.1126/science.1207745] (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~wegner/pdfs/Sparrow%20et%20al.%202011.pdf&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-03-03T13:14:22.270" LastActivityDate="2012-03-03T13:14:22.270" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="534" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-03T03:50:43.807" Score="20" ViewCount="3157" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard patients who complain of &quot;brain fog&quot; (and fatigue) claim a reduction in &quot;brain fog&quot; (and more mental clarity) when they get fewer hours of sleep (usually less than 5.5 hours).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here I'd define brain fog as a lack of mental clarity, slow and muddled thinking, trouble stringing thoughts, drowsiness, a reduced ability to focus, a feeling of drifting off, and a reduced ability to shift attention.  Delirium (without hallucination) could be a close medical term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Any theories on why this may happen?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is anyone familiar with any research regarding less brain fog with less sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read in a paper by MacLean and Datta (2007) that sleep deprivation has been successfully used to treat depression, but not so with anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Indeed, in clinical studies, sleep deprivation has been an effective&#xA;  form of treatment for major depressive disorders in humans (Clark et&#xA;  al., 2001; Giedke et al., 2003; Gillin et al., 2001); but deprivation&#xA;  has shown little or negative results in patients diagnosed with&#xA;  anxiety disorders (Dinges et al., 1997; Labbate et al., 1998). Results&#xA;  from recent REM and total sleep deprivation studies in rodents&#xA;  demonstrate the anxiogenic effect of disrupted sleep (Silva et al.,&#xA;  2004; Suchecki et al., 2002a; Suchecki et al., 2002b).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depression and delirium are two distinct things, and I'd be interested in hearing more about how sleep deprivation effects delirium -- since it seems that brain fog is not a widely used term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Robert Ross MacLean and Subimal Datta (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1994477/&quot;&gt;The relationship between anxiety and sleep-wake behavior after stressor exposure in the rat.&lt;/a&gt; Brain Res. 2007 August 20; 1164: 72–80. Published online 2007 June 27. doi:  10.1016/j.brainres.2007.06.034&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to update this as I learn more (until I get a reasonable answer), in attempt to both log and share what I'm learning on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using imaging, he found that a small area of the cerebral cortex in&#xA;  the front of the brain  — the anterior cingulate cortex — which was&#xA;  consistently overactive in depressed patients, quieted to normal&#xA;  levels of activity after the patients were deprived of sleep. And when&#xA;  the patients were allowed to sleep, the activity in this area returned&#xA;  to the elevated levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;SEJNOWSKI, T. (2010, April 7). &lt;a href=&quot;http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/04/07/in-sleepless-nights-a-hope-for-treating-depression/&quot;&gt;In Sleepless Nights, a Hope for Treating Depression&lt;/a&gt; - NYTimes.com. Opinion - Opinionator - NYTimes.com.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A study in rats suggests that individual neurons take a nap when the&#xA;  brain is forced to stay awake, and that the basic unit of sleep is the&#xA;  electrical activity of single cortical neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Colwell, C. S. (2011). Neuroscience: Sleepy neurons? Nature. Nature Publishing Group, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited. All Rights Reserved. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v472/n7344/full/472427a.html&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v472/n7344/full/472427a.html&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="459" LastEditorUserId="459" LastEditDate="2012-04-29T14:30:57.050" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T03:13:16.810" Title="Is there a reduction of &quot;Brain Fog&quot; with fewer hours of sleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="532" CreationDate="2012-03-03T10:09:37.163" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, there doesn't seem to be any straight-forward answer to this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/533/21&quot;&gt;research mentioned in Andy's answer&lt;/a&gt; does affirm that there is a loss in memory but there is a difference between searching Google and looking a phone number on smartphone. In case of Google search, you most probably select a link at the fourth or fifth variation of your search. But in case of smartphones, you are just going to have a look at the address book to get your phone-number.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keeping in view the wider context of the question, cognition is most probably regarded as an action happening within the mind. Simply put it, we reach a decision by using our cognitive skills alone without any reference to any external source at the time of decision. This is not the case. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If an external source is always going to aid our process of cognition, it could well be constructed a part of our cognition provided we can always have access to it and could replicate the cognitive process in an exact manner. From your question, the address book in a smartphone can be considered part of our wider memory provided we can always have access to it and hence can be regarded as aiding in our cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since it is difficult to draw a line between the internal and external cognition processes, generally checking an external source for information seem to imply a loss of memory. It must be noted that memory isn't lost only the memory about the phone numbers is lost since you have created a reliable external cognition source that could look phone numbers for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The seminal article, &lt;a href=&quot;http://consc.net/papers/extended.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Extended Mind&lt;/a&gt;, by Clark (1998), gives a much better explanation and would open up other avenues for thinking within this context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Clark, Andy &amp;amp; Chalmers, David J. (1998). &lt;a href=&quot;http://philpapers.org/rec/CLATEM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The extended mind.&lt;/a&gt; Analysis 58 (1):7-19. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://consc.net/papers/extended.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HTML&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="204" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-03-03T16:28:49.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="536" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="531" CreationDate="2012-03-03T15:01:55.257" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depending on your exact definition of what you call a &lt;em&gt;&quot;context switch&quot;&lt;/em&gt; there is some research available. There is plenty of research on a more high-level (multi-tasking) definition of context switches. Usually when I read about context switches they refer to this higher level concept, unlike the study you linked to which compares the cost of switching between two separate views of the same data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Organizational contexts&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Existing research suggests that people organize their work in terms of much larger and thematically connected units of work. González and Mark (2004) introduced &quot;the concept of working spheres to explain the inherent way in which individuals conceptualize and organize their basic units of work. People worked in an average of ten different working spheres. Working spheres are also fragmented; people spend about 12 minutes in a working sphere before they switch to another.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Individuals spend part of their day on a set of activities that is not&#xA;  connected with any specific working sphere but rather related to the&#xA;  management of all of them. We call these activities metawork. People&#xA;  spend an average of &lt;em&gt;44 1/2 min. per day&lt;/em&gt; conducting metawork, and&#xA;  similar to working spheres, this work is also conducted in shorter&#xA;  chunks of about six and a half minutes at any one time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Czerwinski et al. (2004) from Microsoft Research found &quot;that the reinstatement of complex, long-term projects is poorly supported by current software systems&quot; by conducting a diary study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Beyond simply remembering, successful prospective memory requires&#xA;  recall at the appropriate  moment in time. Increasing numbers of&#xA;  interruptions and items to be remembered can wreak havoc with both&#xA;  aspects of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospective_memory&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;prospective memory&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, and hence, can reduce an office&#xA;  worker’s daily productivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Subjects reported that more complex tasks, especially those that&#xA;  lasted longer and included more documents, were more difficult to&#xA;  switch to. Tasks that required “returning to” after an interruption&#xA;  were rated significantly more difficult to switch to than others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Victor M. González and Gloria Mark (2004) &lt;a href=&quot;http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=985707&quot;&gt;&quot;Constant, constant, multi-tasking craziness&quot;: managing multiple working spheres&lt;/a&gt;. DOI=10.1145/985692.985707 (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ics.uci.edu/~gmark/CHI2004.pdf&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Mary Czerwinski, Eric Horvitz, and Susan Wilhite (2004) &lt;a href=&quot;http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=985715&quot;&gt;A diary study of task switching and interruptions.&lt;/a&gt; In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems (CHI '04). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 175-182. DOI=10.1145/985692.985715 &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/985692.985715&quot;&gt;http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/985692.985715&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cse.unr.edu/~syco/papers/hci/Misc/StudyOfTaskSwitchingInterruptions_Horvitz.pdf&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2012-03-03T15:01:55.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="537" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2011-08-31T10:25:34.877" Score="26" ViewCount="736" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a person looks at a bright light source, such as a light bulb or perhaps the sun for a period of time, and then looks away and closes their eyes, they typically see a bright patch in the shape of the light source for a period of time. The amount of time varies, but can last for many seconds. What explanation can be provided for this effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Rajesh D" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-03-03T17:46:42.503" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T03:49:23.310" Title="Why does the human visual system produce a bright patch after staring at a bright light source and looking away?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="538" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="537" CreationDate="2011-08-31T13:18:27.033" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human eye is an interesting device. One of the most amazing things it does is to adjust for the brightness, and it can do so over 10 orders of magnitude.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a signal processing perspective it can be explained as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a few different ways that this is done, but the most basic way is a high pass filter, with a cutoff of about .25-.3 Hz. So, if you look at a bright source of light for a period of time, then you will see the signal as too bright, until the filter can reset back to a zero mean signal. After that, the image will go away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are of course many subtleties, but that is the primary effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To illustrate this, I've included 2 plots, the first of a signal changing over a long period of time between 2 extreme values, the second of one changing quickly over time. These plots came from a class which I took and learned how to model the neuron of a fly's eye, which behaves very similar to a human eye. The signal at 0.5 corresponds to a gray type signal value, it's an artifact of some of the other processing steps. This is a complex model, but the crux of it is a high pass filter with a time step of 3 seconds. Time prior to 40 is to allow the filter to normalize prior to injecting a signal, it prevents having to know the initial conditions very well of the system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/m302E.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second figure shows what happens with a more typical transient time, on the order of 10 Hz. Note that the signal is passed through almost without any delay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/R0g8I.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="461" OwnerDisplayName="Pearsonartphoto" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-03-03T18:13:11.957" LastActivityDate="2012-03-03T18:13:11.957" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="537" CreationDate="2011-08-31T13:38:47.743" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In your eye there are light receptors of two types: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;rods&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cones&lt;/a&gt;. Rods are sensitive to the level of brightness, but cannot discern color, while cones are not very light sensitive, but they allow for color perception. Both of these are types of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;photoreceptors&lt;/a&gt; which transduct physical light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The physical response of rods and cones to light isn't immediate, and therefore there's a certain &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transient_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;transient response&lt;/a&gt; of each photoreceptor to light. When the light you're looking at is too bright, some of your photoreceptor cells go into a kind of &quot;saturated&quot; state, and it takes a long time, because of that transient behavior, for them to stabilize back to &quot;seeing&quot; darkness again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Phonon" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-11T03:49:23.310" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T03:49:23.310" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="540" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="537" CreationDate="2011-08-31T14:25:09.007" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;The persistence that you observe when you look at a bright light for a short period of time is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_blindness&quot;&gt;flash blindness&lt;/a&gt;. The phenomenon is related to your retina's response to the burst of light. Quoting from the Wikipedia article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Flash blindness is caused by bleaching (oversaturation) of the retinal pigment. As the pigment returns to normal, so too does sight. In daylight the eye's pupil constricts, thus reducing the amount of light entering after a flash. At night, the dark-adapted pupil is wide open so flash blindness has a greater effect and lasts longer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Jason R" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-03-03T17:57:57.747" LastActivityDate="2012-03-03T17:57:57.747" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="541" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="542" CreationDate="2012-03-03T16:41:31.820" Score="22" ViewCount="1525" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detection_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;signal detection theory&lt;/a&gt;, one typically uses &quot;signal&quot; and &quot;no signal&quot; responses to analyze the data (that is, the analysis is based on a discrete choice for each trial, generating the four possible outcomes &quot;hit&quot;, &quot;miss&quot;, &quot;false alarm&quot; and &quot;correct rejection&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any standard way to also incorporate response time into the signal detection analysis? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" OwnerDisplayName="Speldosa" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-05-24T08:04:32.267" LastActivityDate="2017-05-24T08:05:53.170" Title="Can response time be incorporated into signal detection theory?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="542" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="541" CreationDate="2012-03-03T19:12:04.200" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd suggest checking out the &lt;a href=&quot;http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022249610001173&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Linear Ballistic Accumulator&lt;/a&gt; (Donkin et al., 2011) model for a scenario like this. While LBA can be used to model any number of alternatives in a speeded choice task, to model signal detection you'd want to model just two accumulators, one for the &quot;signal&quot; response and one for the &quot;no signal&quot; response. With this scenario, response bias will manifest as a difference between the accumulators in terms of their distance from starting point to criterion, while discriminability will manifest as the mean drift rate (which will probably be the same across the two accumulators). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Donkin, C., Brown, S., &amp;amp; Heathcote, A. (2011). Drawing conclusions&#xA;from choice response time models: A tutorial using the linear&#xA;Ballistic accumulator. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Mathematical Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;55&lt;/em&gt;, 140-151.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="51" OwnerDisplayName="Mike" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-04-28T17:58:09.330" LastActivityDate="2017-04-28T17:58:09.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="543" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="541" CreationDate="2012-03-04T04:27:10.557" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to Mike's answer, see the Ratcliff diffusion model E.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ratcliff, R., &amp;amp; Rouder, J. N. (1998). Modeling response times for two–choice decisions. Psychological Science, 9, 347–356.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ratcliff, R., &amp;amp; Tuerlinckx, F. (2002). Estimating parameters of the diffusion model: Approaches to dealing with contaminant reaction times and parameter variability. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 9, 438–481.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="463" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-05-24T08:05:53.170" LastActivityDate="2017-05-24T08:05:53.170" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="544" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="548" CreationDate="2012-03-04T11:05:47.270" Score="13" ViewCount="6414" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, people say that they are &quot;running on autopilot&quot;, meaning that they are doing the things that they normally do, without any real conscious involvement. I have read that it is not uncommon for people to drive routes that they regularly drive without any conscious memory of it - I have occasionally done this myself, and it is very unnerving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But how do we do this? How can we achieve the level of co-ordination and reaction that is required to drive a vehicle for a significant period without involving our conscious mind? I realise that we do a lot of things sub-consciously, but it seems that learned tasks like driving should require at least a minimal conscious engagement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Incidentally, I am not suggesting that this is dangerous in any sense. I don't think it is. I am just surprised as the level of functioning we are capable of achieving sub-consciously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-04-19T12:03:42.460" LastActivityDate="2012-08-25T18:52:47.543" Title="Running on autopilot" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;automaticity&gt;&lt;procedural-memory&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="545" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="544" CreationDate="2012-03-04T14:42:26.440" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is nothing surprising or unusual in this.  It is a straightforward application of skilled learning (the driving or whatever), habit formation (route following), and having your conscious attention on something else.  Back in the 1990s, when I was doing landscaping, I used to make good use of this effect by consciously reviewing things I had recently read while doing routine work.  It can be a problem when you slip into a habitual behavior without realizing it and you end up following an old route and find yourself at the wrong location.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another reason for not remembering the particular, most recent, trip is that it tends to merge into all the almost identical trips you have made.  Several times when this has happened to me, I have been able to reconstruct (how accurately is another question) the most recent trip by trying to remember extremely specific details that often change from trip to trip.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only specific references I have right now are for habit learning, which I was reading a couple weeks ago, these two are the best general articles on habit learning that I found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;David T Neal, Wendy Wood, and Jeffrey M. Quinn (2006).  Habits—A Repeat Performance.  Current Directions in Psychological Science  Volume 15—Number 4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wendy Wood and David T Neal (2007).  A New Look at Habits and the Habit–Goal Interface.  Psychological Review  Vol. 114, No. 4, 843–863.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="289" LastActivityDate="2012-03-04T14:42:26.440" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="546" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-05T09:45:03.750" Score="12" ViewCount="1943" Body="&lt;p&gt;My interest is in how problem-solving decisions are made, and what, if any skills could be taught to increase people's ability to make effective decisions?  Effective, in this case, means that an external observer finds the decision a sufficient and satisfying solution to the problem given the thinker's current understanding of environment, context, and resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand the &lt;em&gt;Information Principle&lt;/em&gt; of emotion takes the position that emotions are a &quot;summary&quot; of all that the unconscious notices about the current situation. (See this &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/528/464&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt; for an excellent overview.)  Given the breadth of its perception, and the faster processing time of its systems, emotion is tremendously powerful as an advisor. The reward system is triggered when a desired choice is contemplated, so is the role primary, rather than advisory? &lt;strong&gt;Is conscious thought -- what we come up with when we &quot;think about our decision&quot; -- always &lt;em&gt;post hoc&lt;/em&gt;, used only for coming up with a way to explain what our feelings told us we wanted?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding skills to increase effectiveness, I wonder at the value of learning to overcome our initial emotional response to allow the more deliberate conscious processes to make a real contribution.  I have heard that trauma victims with absent emotions dither about the smallest decisions, so I'm not talking full suppression.  Is anyone aware of research into the effect of trying to achieve some balance here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="464" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T02:37:39.070" Title="Is Decision-Making Emotionally Based, with Rationalization as the only Conscious Component?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="547" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-05T17:18:12.313" Score="15" ViewCount="50291" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can a person become dependent on sleeping (more than they otherwise physically &lt;em&gt;need&lt;/em&gt;) in a way that fits the definition of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_addiction&quot;&gt;addiction&lt;/a&gt;, in the same way some psychology professionals may describe a person as being addicted to other standard needs, such as food, work, exercise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, is there a way to determine whether the &quot;need&quot; for more sleep is due to actual physical needs or due to an addictive response?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any studies on this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="467" LastEditorUserId="525" LastEditDate="2012-03-17T15:52:01.207" LastActivityDate="2013-03-19T10:04:20.410" Title="Can sleep become addictive?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="548" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="544" CreationDate="2012-03-05T19:50:50.997" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you describe is the textbook definition of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;habit&lt;/a&gt;: routines of behavior that are repeated regularly and tend to occur subconsciously. These are triggered by some external (say, being behind the driver's well of a car) or internal (say, being upset) stimuli. This activates chunks of procedural memory, which attempts to carry out a task that was usually associated with the stimuli (keeping the car on the road; eating a cake).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;chunking&lt;/a&gt; is best understood for factual memories, a similar procedure is believed to apply for how procedural memories become a habit. Obviously, this is a highly researched topic, mostly because of the connection to addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A final minor point is to be careful with terminology. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/992/29&quot;&gt;Subconscious is a vague term&lt;/a&gt; that should typically be replaced by unconscious or preconscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Annotated references&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wood, W., &amp;amp; Neal, D.T. (2007) &amp;quot;A new look at habits and the habit-goal interface.&amp;quot; &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, 114(4): 843-863. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://dornsife.usc.edu/wendywood/research/documents/wood.neal.2007psychrev.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A relatively well know article that shows a model of how habits are shaped and interfere with or aid conscious goals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barnes, T.D., Kubota, Y., Hu, D., Jin, D.Z., &amp;amp; Graybiel, A.M. (2005) &amp;quot;Activity of striatal neurons reflects dynamic encoding and recoding of procedural memories.&amp;quot; &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; 437, 1158-1161 [&lt;a href=&quot;http://neuro.med.uchile.cl/docencia2008/Barnes_Procedural_Memories.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A look at the neurobiology of chunking of procedural memory and habit formation in rats. Stresses how easy it is to reactivate old habits.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Graybiel, A.M. (2008) &amp;quot;Habits, Rituals, and the Evaluative Brain.&amp;quot; &lt;em&gt;Annual Review of Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; 31: 359-387 [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www-3.unipv.it/dsffcm/pagine/labs/perin/oldstuff/kiro/rituals%20basal%20ganglia.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reviews evidence for the involvement of basal ganglia–based circuits in procedural chunking and habit formation. Show that habits form for both overt behaviors (say, backing your car out of the driveway) and cognitive behavior (say, general route planning).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dehaenea, S., Changeux, J.-P., Naccachea, L., Sackura, J., and Sergent, C. (2006) &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661306000799&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conscious, preconscious, and subliminal processing: a testable taxonomy&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10(5): 204-211. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://documents.univ-lille3.fr/files/espaces/pers/81/P5181/public/M2%20PPNSA/Attention%20cours%201/Dehaene-2006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Explains the difference between unconscious, preconscious, and subliminal and how to test for them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-08-25T18:52:47.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="549" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="550" CreationDate="2012-03-05T20:06:28.760" Score="3" ViewCount="646" Body="&lt;p&gt;We've all heard that listening to classical music and such while studying can be beneficial, but I was wondering about actually playing an instrument? If I were to absentmindedly play my accordion while reading a textbook, would it have any benefit to either my absorption of the material or ability to play music without having to focus on it? Or is this just a bad idea?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, have there been any studies relevant to this, or is there any other data on the subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="468" LastActivityDate="2012-03-17T16:20:10.223" Title="Is it a good idea to play an instrument while studying? If so, what are the benefits?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="550" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="549" CreationDate="2012-03-06T04:47:27.630" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Multitasking research suggests that people can't really multitask. I don't have any evidence to back this up, but I suspect that it's much better for your instrument skills than your studying. The accordion detracts from your focus and attention while you work, perhaps even if it doesn't feel like it. At the same time, though, that exercise may improve your ability to, say, sing and play at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T04:47:27.630" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="551" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="517" CreationDate="2012-03-06T04:55:59.767" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The technical term for having a fear of strangers is &lt;strong&gt;Xenophobia&lt;/strong&gt; (this term also applies to having a fear of foreigners or immigrants). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM lists Social Anxiety as one of three types of phobias. Social phobia, DSM 300.23, is an irrational anxiety elicited by exposure to certain types of social or performance situations; it can lead to avoidant behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Agoraphobia with a history of panic disorder, DSM 300.21 and agoraphobia without a history of panic disorder, DSM 300.22, is an irrational anxiety toward being in places from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing. Note: the DSM is moving away from having agoraphobia as a diagnosable psychiatric disorder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For those interested, the third phobia the DSM lists is called a Specific Phobia, DSM 300.29. A specific phobia is a persistent and irrational fear in the presence of a specific stimulus, which commonly elicits avoidance of that stimulus, i.e., withdrawal. There are five subtypes for specific phobias:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;animal type - cued by animals or insects&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;natural environment type - cued by objects in the environment, such&#xA;as storms, heights, or water&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;blood-injection-injury type - cued by witnessing some invasive&#xA;medical procedure&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;situational type - cued by a specific situation, such as public&#xA;transportation, tunnels, bridges, elevators, flying, driving, or&#xA;enclosed spaces&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;other type - cued by other stimuli than the above, such as of&#xA;choking, vomiting, or contracting an illness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you to &lt;a href=&quot;http://phobialist.com/class.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Phobia List&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://theanxietypit.com/agoraphobia-dsm-iv-tr-criteria/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Anxiety Pit&lt;/a&gt; for the above information on agoraphobia, social anxiety, and specific phobias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although agoraphobia is not considered a codable disorder anymore -- I believe it is slated to be removed from the DSM V -- here is the diagnostic criteria for agoraphobia from the DSM IV (current version):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AGORAPHOBIA&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;1. anxiety about being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult (or embarrassing) or in which help may not be available in the event of having an unexpected or situationally predisposed Panic Attack or panic-like symptoms.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;2. The situations are avoided (e.g., travel is restricted) or else are endured with marked distress or with anxiety about having a Panic Attack or panic-like symptoms, or require the presence of a companion.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;3. The anxiety or phobic avoidance is not better accounted for by another mental disorder, such as Social Phobia, Specific Phobia, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, or Separation Anxiety Disorder.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the diagnostic criteria for Avoidant Personality Disorder:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AVOIDANT PERSONALITY DISORDER&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;Individuals with this Cluster C Personality Disorder, DSM 301.82, are socially inhibited, usually feel inadequate and are overly sensitive to criticism. A pervasive pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation are present, beginning by early adulthood and manifest in a variety of contexts, as indicated by four (or more) of the following:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;1. Avoids occupational activities that involve significant interpersonal contact, because of fears of criticism, disapproval, or rejection.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;2. Is unwilling to get involved with people unless certain of being liked.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;3. Shows restraint within intimate relationships because of a fear of being shamed or ridiculed.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;4. Is preoccupied with being criticized or rejected in social situations.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;5. Is inhibited in new interpersonal situations because of feelings of inadequacy.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;6. Views self as socially inept, personally unappealing, or inferior to others.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;7. Is unusually reluctant to take personal risks or to engage in any new activities because they may prove embarrassing.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I were to compare agoraphobia to avoidant personality disorder, I would say agoraphobia is about the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;perceived physical safety&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of the person with agoraphobia, which when threatened causes intense emotional distress. With avoidant personality disorder I would postulate that the disorder revolves around the individual's &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;perception of how they are perceived&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, rather than on their physical safety. A person with agoraphobia might be anxious and frightened to leave the house because they might be involved in a car accident. A person with avoidant personality disorder may be reluctant to leave the house and go to a new social situation for the fear of personal rejection. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="376" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T04:55:59.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="552" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-03-06T17:46:51.600" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions that study the effects of video-games on the brain/mind or that use video-games as a methodology for studies in the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-06T18:46:58.237" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T18:46:58.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="553" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-03-06T17:46:51.600" Score="0" Body="For questions that study the effects of video games on the brain/mind or that use video games as a methodology for studies in the cognitive sciences." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-03-06T18:40:35.367" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T18:40:35.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="554" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-03-06T17:47:49.027" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about writing and publishing in the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-06T18:47:11.950" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T18:47:11.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="555" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-03-06T17:47:49.027" Score="0" Body="For questions about writing and publishing in the cognitive sciences." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-06T18:39:51.390" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T18:39:51.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="556" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-03-06T17:49:47.400" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions on the debate between innate or genetic factors (nature) versus environmental factors (nurture) in the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-06T18:47:29.203" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T18:47:29.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="557" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-03-06T17:49:47.400" Score="0" Body="For questions on the debate between innate or genetic factors (nature) versus environmental factors (nurture) in the cognitive sciences." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-06T18:39:43.480" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T18:39:43.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="558" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="484" CreationDate="2012-03-06T18:36:49.187" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The paper referred to in the OP's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hcamag.com/newsletter/content/122549/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;media link&lt;/a&gt; is free online. It reviews the literature and  presents its own new studies as well:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;KLUEMPER, D. H., ROSEN, P. A. and MOSSHOLDER, K. W. (2012), &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00881.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Social Networking Websites, Personality Ratings, and the Organizational Context: More Than Meets the Eye?&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00881.x&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My takeaway&lt;/strong&gt;: Yes, Facebook activity can be used to predict the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Big Five personality traits&lt;/a&gt;, which, in turn, can predict job performance, but HR people aren't necessarily qualified to make a valid assessment. That, and the usual &quot;but more research is warranted&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="421" LastEditDate="2012-03-06T19:34:26.960" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T19:34:26.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="559" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-06T18:50:11.697" Score="4" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can asaccadia (i.e., lack of saccades, due to neuronal or muscular damage) be overcome? Do other muscles (e.g., neck) compensate? Are the resulting gaze patterns the same as for saccades, and are they involuntary the way saccades are?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversely, in normal vision, is the saccade-fixation system specially wired, or is it merely the optimal way to visually examine the world?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="421" LastEditDate="2012-03-06T22:41:26.087" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T22:45:32.743" Title="Asaccadia adaptation" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="560" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="559" CreationDate="2012-03-06T22:45:32.743" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hmm... Saccadic eye movements typically occur several times  per second.  I doubt that one's neck can move with such frequency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In normal vision, saccades are necessary because of the anatomy of the eye. There is a region of the retina called the fovea, where the density of cones peaks sharply. In fact, there are virtually no cones outside the fovea, and the density of rods also falls off as we move away from the fovea.  This means, that at any given moment we only see a very small region in the center of the field of view in color and at a high resolution.  If you stick out your arm in front of your face, and look at your thumb, your thumbnail would fill your fovea.  Everything else is the periphery, which is blurry and gray.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why do you have the illusion that you always see a vivid picture of the world in full color?  Because of the saccades.  Your eyes constantly move, and sample the visual field at a high resolution. Multiple fixations produce multiple images which are clear and colorful in the center, and blurry in the periphery.  Your visual system integrates these images into a seemingly coherent and vivid view of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Google &quot;change blindness&quot; to see demonstrations of this illusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15" LastActivityDate="2012-03-06T22:45:32.743" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="561" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="852" CreationDate="2012-03-07T02:17:34.673" Score="5" ViewCount="1544" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems absurd, but from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosensitive_epilepsy#Television&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; on Photosensitive Epilepsy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some PSE patients, especially children, may exhibit an uncontrollable fascination with television images that trigger seizures, to such an extent that it may be necessary to physically keep them away from television sets. Some patients (particularly those with cognitive impairments, although most PSE patients have no such impairments) &lt;strong&gt;self-induce seizures by waving their fingers in front of their eyes in front of bright light or by other means.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia fails to give a citation as to the existence or commonality of this, but it still strikes me as odd. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have any studies (case studies or preferably experimental results) validated that some PSE patients want or enjoy seizures? Is there some attraction to the causes of these seizures in the patients that causes this behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-05-11T11:06:52.520" Title="Do some Photosensitive epileptics desire seizures?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="562" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-07T13:51:37.753" Score="9" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a lot of research about how interruptions affect cognitive performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any studies that have looked at the effect of merely expecting to be interrupted (withou being actually interrupted) on performance? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What does these studies conclude about the effect of merely expecting an interruption on performance?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="472" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-14T03:43:50.717" LastActivityDate="2012-05-14T03:43:50.717" Title="What is the effect of merely expecting an interruption on performance?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="565" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13745" CreationDate="2012-03-07T14:25:52.013" Score="13" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taste_aversion&quot;&gt;Conditioned taste aversions&lt;/a&gt; (CTAs) or Garcia effect are a byproduct of feeling ill after we've consumed a certain food. These aversions is present even if the illness is not related to ingestion and are difficult to extinguish in humans. This makes sense in light of the fact that in model systems like the rat they are entrenched in brainstem circuitry (Mickley et al., 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;With such a deep association taking place, does the likelihood of extinguishing these aversions via &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_therapy&quot;&gt;cognitive therapy&lt;/a&gt; (e.g., CBT) decrease dramatically?&lt;/strong&gt;  What would be a possible inroad into treating  human subjects with such an aversion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mickley GA, Wilson GN, Remus JL, Ramos L, Ketchesin KD, Biesan OR, Luchsinger JR, &amp;amp; Prodan S. (2011).  Periaqueductal gray c-Fos expression varies relative to the method of conditioned taste aversion extinction employed.  &lt;em&gt;Brain Res.&lt;/em&gt;;1423:17-29. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2011.09.033&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2011.09.033&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T06:08:04.850" LastActivityDate="2016-04-13T12:20:15.023" Title="What do anatomical substrates of conditioned taste aversion tell us about  treatment?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="566" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20" CreationDate="2012-03-07T14:28:19.967" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends on what you mean by &quot;recent&quot;.  I assume you know of the following?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Green CS, Bavelier D.  (2003) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v423/n6939/abs/nature01647.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Action video game modifies visual selective attention.&lt;/a&gt;  Nature. 2003 May 29;423(6939):534-7, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/people/alex/pub/articles/PougetDhttp://www.bcs.rochester.edu/people/daphne/VisionPDF/GreenandBavelier2003.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;free pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As video-game playing has become a ubiquitous activity in today's&#xA;  society, it is worth considering its potential consequences on&#xA;  perceptual and motor skills. It is well known that exposing an&#xA;  organism to an altered visual environment often results in&#xA;  modification of the visual system of the organism. The field of&#xA;  perceptual learning provides many examples of training-induced&#xA;  increases in performance. But perceptual learning, when it occurs,&#xA;  tends to be specific to the trained task; that is, generalization to&#xA;  new tasks is rarely found1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Here we show,&#xA;  by contrast, that action-video-game playing is capable of altering a&#xA;  range of visual skills. Four experiments establish changes in&#xA;  different aspects of visual attention in habitual video-game players&#xA;  as compared with non-video-game players. In a fifth experiment,&#xA;  non-players trained on an action video game show marked improvement&#xA;  from their pre-training abilities, thereby establishing the role of&#xA;  playing in this effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="474" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T03:21:41.367" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T03:21:41.367" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="567" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-07T14:46:31.693" Score="2" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in the creation of chunks (aka configural nodes) from smaller chunks and input features (only interested in System 1 cognition).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unitization studies (e.g. Goldstone (&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/909/3/doodlesold.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;)), suggest that we start with generic features, and slowly combine them into more specific chunks. As we do this unitization, we wouldn't store all of the learned combinations --- a mere 10 input features can be combined in 3.6 million configurations!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simon suggested generic elements get overwritten by more specific ones at each exposure. but what would you do with the predictions/rules learned about a given chunk? Transfer them to the newly created specific chunk? What if they do not apply at that more specific level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nosofsky was suggesting a rule-plus-exception model, where the more generic elements are always stored and their predictions are recorded as general rules; When those predictions are broken, more specific chunks are stored to explain the exceptions to these rules. What does it mean for predictions to be broken? In a probabilistic environment like ours, sometimes a prediction is correct, sometimes it isn't -- updating the weight of the prediction seems much more reasonable than deeming it invalid in favor of an 'exception'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When do I chunk two co-occurring features? When do I chunk those two with a third? Do I delete the 2-feature chunk in favor of the 3-feature? What do I do with the memories associated with the deleted chunk?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="475" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-12T12:20:30.573" LastActivityDate="2012-04-11T12:56:25.053" Title="Combinatorial woes" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="568" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="544" CreationDate="2012-03-07T16:12:21.193" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;A more computational explanation can be found in the expectation-based reasoning literature. The theory suggests that people are always generating expectations of what they expect to sense (see/hear/smell/feel etc) in the near future. These expectations are matched against observations. If expectations and observations match, then all is good. When they don't match, cognition is alerted. In this view, predictions flow top-down and errors (discrepancies between the prediction and the observation) flow bottom-up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lee, T.S., Mumford, D. (2003) Hierarchical Bayesian inference in the visual cortex. Journal of Optical Society of America, A. . 20(7): 1434-1448.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hohwy, J., Roepstorff, A., &amp;amp; Friston, K. (2008). Predictive coding explains binocular rivalry: an epistemological review. Cognition, 108(3), 687-701. ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/136548/&quot;&gt;http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/136548/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="476" LastActivityDate="2012-03-07T16:12:21.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="569" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="546" CreationDate="2012-03-07T21:10:54.857" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;An interesting perspective to clarify the interplay between rational and emotional can be found in the 'risk as feelings' approach. Here is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&amp;amp;id=2001-16969-005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; and here the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Virtually all current theories of choice under risk or uncertainty are cognitive and consequentialist. They assume that people assess the desirability and likelihood of possible outcomes of choice alternatives and integrate this information through some type of expectation-based calculus to arrive at a decision. The authors propose an alternative theoretical perspective, the risk-as-feelings hypothesis, that highlights the role of affect experienced at the moment of decision making. Drawing on research from clinical, physiological, and other subfields of psychology, they show that emotional reactions to risky situations often diverge from cognitive assessments of those risks. When such divergence occurs, emotional reactions often drive behavior. The risk-as-feelings hypothesis is shown to explain a wide range of phenomena that have resisted interpretation in cognitive–consequentialist terms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Loewenstein, G.F., Weber, E. U., et al (2001) Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin, 127(2):267-286.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="477" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-04-24T11:12:45.273" LastActivityDate="2012-04-24T11:12:45.273" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2012-03-07T21:24:11.063" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.limesurvey.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Limesurvey&lt;/a&gt; is worth checking out (more suitable for questionnaire style tasks, but very flexible and with some coding it should be possible to, eg. record RTs)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://wextor.org/wextor/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wextor&lt;/a&gt; could be another possibility - it allows building more complicated designs, has not been developed for a bit, though...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="477" LastActivityDate="2012-03-07T21:24:11.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="571" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="541" CreationDate="2012-03-07T21:26:44.623" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;You should probably also check out:&#xA;Pleskac &amp;amp; Busemeyer (2010). Two-stage dynamic signal detection: A theory of choice, decision time, and confidence. Psychological Review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I believe Busemeyer has a dynamic signal detection theory paper but I don't know that it has been published.  The Pleskac &amp;amp; Busemeyer paper probably draws on this unpublished manuscript.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="480" LastActivityDate="2012-03-07T21:26:44.623" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="572" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="525" CreationDate="2012-03-07T21:34:13.103" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe you are correct in that the theory could be interpreted as purely behavioristic but there is no such paper that specifically does that.  I think this is largely due to the fact that the products of the cognitive revolution are the prime users and purveyors of the theory. Going the other way, DFT is also not a biologically plausible implementation; hence, it is a model that falls into the central -- that is algorithmic -- level of analysis (to use David Marr's terminology).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="480" LastActivityDate="2012-03-07T21:34:13.103" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="573" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-08T07:43:05.630" Score="8" ViewCount="604" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_factor&quot;&gt;Impact factors&lt;/a&gt; are scores assigned to journals which indicate how often, on average, articles are cited. Impact factors &lt;a href=&quot;http://thomsonreuters.com/products_services/science/science_products/a-z/journal_citation_reports/&quot;&gt;are published in Journal Citation reports of Thomson Reuters&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These reports however, do not indicate whether journals are open access or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if there &lt;strong&gt;is any open access journal&lt;/strong&gt; in the cognitive sciences with &lt;strong&gt;impact factor &gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="406" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-03-08T14:18:03.997" LastActivityDate="2012-03-10T14:14:42.590" Title="Are there any open access journals in the cognitive sciences with impact factor &gt;1" Tags="&lt;publication-process&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="574" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="465" CreationDate="2012-03-08T09:22:33.790" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a very large literature on this, and it features many subtle points, but I will try to summarize some general themes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, subjects are very &lt;strong&gt;consistent at ranking pictures of others&lt;/strong&gt; for attractiveness (thus, eliminating the popular notion of &amp;quot;beauty is in the eye of the beholder&amp;quot;). For instance Cunnigham et al. (1995) found a correlation of .9 between individual rating and the average rating of pictures of women. This correlation remains high even if the rater and photo are from different cultures. Further, &lt;strong&gt;men and women tend to find the same features good-looking&lt;/strong&gt; (i.e. heteresexual men and women, deem similar women as good-looking). Johnston &amp;amp; Franklin (1993) let 20 male and 20 female subjects use a genetic algorithm to generate female faces that they deemed good-looking. With the exception of the lower lip (females preferred a larger lower lip) there was no statistical differences between the qualities of the faces produced by male and female subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;strong&gt;women have a higher variance in ratings of sex-objects&lt;/strong&gt; (opposite sex for heterosexual, same-sex for homosexual females) than men (Jankowiak et al. 1992; Townsend &amp;amp; Wasserman 1997). But this should be taken with a grain of salt because attractiveness &lt;strong&gt;rankings have much higher variation when ranking males as opposed to females&lt;/strong&gt;. Schulman &amp;amp; Hoskins (1986) found that ratings of female photos had statistically significant lower variance than male photos for both male and female raters. Thus, the effect could partially be in that both sexes are worse at judging attractiveness of males.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, the hardest is judging attractiveness in oneself. Rand &amp;amp; Hall (1983) found that females has a .5 correlation between their self-perception of attractiveness and the rating of male judges. Men are much worse, with only a .1 (almost chance) correlation between self-attractiveness ratings and the ratings of female judges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The story gets even more complicated, because women respond differently to how they load features when producing ratings depending on if they are looking for a short-term or long-term partner (Widerman &amp;amp; Dubois 1998) and even where they are in their menstrual cycle (Penton-Voak &amp;amp; Perrett 2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due to the complicated interaction of all these factors (and more!) &lt;strong&gt;I don't think there is (yet) one final and definitive answer&lt;/strong&gt; to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cunningham, M., Roberts, A.R., Berbee, Anita, P., Druen, P.B., &amp;amp; Wu, C. [1995] &amp;quot;&amp;quot;Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, the same as ours&amp;quot;: Consistency and variability in the cross-cultural perception of female physical attractiveness.&amp;quot; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68: 261-279.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jankowiak, W.R., Hill, E.M., &amp;amp; Donovan, J.M. [1992] &amp;quot;The effects of sex and sexual orientation on attractiveness judgments: An evolutionary interpretation.&amp;quot; Ethology and Sociobiology 13(2): 73-85.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Johnston, V.S., &amp;amp; Franklin, M. [1993] &amp;quot;Is beauty in the eye of the beholder?&amp;quot; Ethology and Sociobiology 14(3): 183-199.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Penton-Voak, I.S., &amp;amp; Perrett, D.I. [2001] &amp;quot;Male facial attractiveness: Perceived personality and shifting female preferences for male traits across the menstrual cycle.&amp;quot; Advances in the Study of Behavior 30: 219-259.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rand, C., &amp;amp; Hall, J. [1983] &amp;quot;Sex differences in the accuracy of self-perceived attractivness.&amp;quot; Social Psychology Quarterly, 46: 359-363.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Townsend, J.M., &amp;amp; Wasserman, T. [1997] &amp;quot;The perception of sexual attractiveness: sex differences in variability.&amp;quot; Archives of Sexual Behavior 26(3): 243-268.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wiederman, M.W., &amp;amp; Dubois, S.L. [1998] &amp;quot;Evolution and Sex Differences in Preferences for Short-Term Mates: Results from a Policy Capturing Study&amp;quot; Evolution and Human Behavior 19: 153-170.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-03-08T09:22:33.790" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="575" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="573" CreationDate="2012-03-08T09:47:22.010" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Relatively specific for &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.sjdm.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Judgement and Decision Making&lt;/a&gt; the Journal (Impact factor: 1.632) of the JDM Society might be of interest.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.doaj.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Directory of Open Access Journals&lt;/a&gt; might be of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="477" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-03-10T14:14:42.590" LastActivityDate="2012-03-10T14:14:42.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="576" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="573" CreationDate="2012-03-08T14:27:15.497" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.frontiersin.org&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frontiers&lt;/a&gt; is an example of a collection of different open access journals where you find some high-impact publications within the cognitive science field. They have A LOT of journals within the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.frontiersin.org/Neuroscience/about&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.frontiersin.org/Psychology/about&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychology&lt;/a&gt; field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what Frontiers themselves says about impact factors of their journals:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thomson ISI requires at least three complete years of publishing, plus a few of other criteria, before issuing an impact factor for a specific journal. In the case of Frontiers, this condition has so far been met by only three of our Neuroscience journals. Impact factors are issued for the preceding year involving complex criteria that evaluate the previous three years' citations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The impact factor for Frontiers in Human Neuroscience was 1.58 in 2009&#xA;and 1.94 in 2010, indicating substantial growth year over year. We&#xA;expect to see this growth in Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience&#xA;(2.58 in 2010) and Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience (3.58 in 2010),&#xA;as well as a number of impact factors issued to other Frontiers&#xA;journals in 2012. We expect these impact factors to continue to rise&#xA;in 2012 as well as to have Thomson ISI issue several more impact&#xA;factors to Frontiers journals in June 2012.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in this case &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.frontiersin.org/Human_Neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Frontiers in Human Neuroscience&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.frontiersin.org/Computational_Neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.frontiersin.org/Cellular_Neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; would probably be three good answers to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-03-08T14:52:33.167" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="577" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="436" CreationDate="2012-03-08T15:12:28.680" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Motivation has sometimes been defined as ‘the willingness to put effort into achieving goals’-if we dissect this statement- goals are important (clear, well-defined, achievable, SMART, inspiring , valuable etc) , efforts are important (Can I put the needed efforts -self-efficacy; can the efforts lead to outcome- outcome expectancy; are the efforts themselves enjoyable-enjoying the journey ) and the willingness is paramount (do I really want to invest in this goal, what is my goal commitment given the expectancy X value).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we follow the above, then clearly many things are important for remaining motivated- from clearly defining and setting appropriate goals to getting appropriate and timely feedback- are efforts leading to outcome- to confidence in ones ability to Pull this off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Viewed another way many of the above things can act as motivators- or at least the absence of them prove demotivating. We may pause here and reflect on Herzberg's differentiation between hygiene factors (like pay) the absence of which demotivates people and Motivators (like achievement and recognition) the presence of which pulls you towards your work and make you productivity, happy and engaged - or rightly motivated   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dan Pink extends and modifies the Self determination theory of Deci and Ryan  which explores motivation as applied to workplace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The original SDT focuses on factors of Autonomy, competence and relatedness that lead to more engaged and motivated workforce. Daniel Pink replaces relatedness (a factor assessing whether your work provides opportunity to build relationships and connect with people) with purpose (the ability to find higher meaning behind daily work by connecting the dots).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I like both the original SDT framework and how Dan Pink puts it and believe that all the four factors of Autonomy, Mastery, Relatedness and Purpose are required to motivate your workforce (pull factors); while the presence of hygiene factors like good pay etc are required to prevent them from being demotivated (push factors).&#xA;In my own experimentation as a senior manager in Cisco, I have found that these factors do drive performance a notch high.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="409" LastActivityDate="2012-03-08T15:12:28.680" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="578" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6" CreationDate="2012-03-08T15:42:11.127" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;A theory which I believe explains this is the ground-breaking work that Carol Dweck has done on mindsets and how they relate to performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To recap, People can have either a fixed mindset where they view abilities as fixed, are more driven by performance goals and use helpless strategies when confronted with tasks beyond their capabilities. If given a choice between task beyond their capability and one beneath their capability they will choose latter. If forced to do a task beyond their capability, they will not persist too long and give up early- and not put too much effort as putting efforts shows that they don't have the talent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other mindset is a growth mindset which sees abilities as malleable, are more driven by learning goals, and use mastery or hit-and trial and persistent strategies when confronted with a task beyond one's capability.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that one can be put into a growth or a fixed mindset by very easy manipulations like praising for effort rather than talent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that fixed mindset is also performance driven, there is a high probability that rising the stakes high focuses one on performance goals at the cost of learning goals and primes one with a fixed mindset.  Ask any person preparing for a high stakes exam whether he wants to learn the subject matter or get good score and you'll see what mindset a high stakes competition entails.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that performance motivation or fixed mindset is detrimental for hard task (task just beyond ones abilities); its no wonder that performance deteriorates as rewards loom large for non-rudimentary tasks.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="409" LastActivityDate="2012-03-08T15:42:11.127" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="579" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5" CreationDate="2012-03-08T16:18:56.353" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One reason for different outcomes in the 2 cases you highlight may be due to the different regulatory focus (higgins).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not letting project go scrap is a preventive focus and as such comes with all the baggage that preventive regulatory focus has. One basically wants to avoid an undesired outcome and sees things as loss-nonloss (see the relation with prospect theory).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Winning a lottery on the other hand is a promotional focus- one wants to achieve a desired outcome and sees things in terms of profit-nonprofit.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now motivation or goal commitment is usually operationalized as commitment = Expectancy X  Value. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider a preventive focus- the goal is a necessity goal- commitment is constant (say 1 on  a 0-1 scale); as expectancy or chance of the outcome changes (the outcome becomes probable) , the Value of the goal adjusts (its no longer that important to work hard to prevent that project from going scrap) , but the commitment remains constant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider a  promotional focus - there we get a multiplicative effect of expectancy on value. The moment expectancy is sufficient enough, the goal that is now within reach becomes more valuable and the commitment increases multiplicative and exponentially rather than linearly.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All this has been experimentally demonstrated and is theory backed. In your case the preventive focus of 'project not scrapping' does not increase your commitment to the goal, rather makes the goal seem less valuable as the chances of not scrapping increases. On the other hand gambling is a promotional focus; as you make a hit and falsely believe that you are close to hitting the jackpot , you continue getting sucked into more gambling, and commitment keeps increasing and the value of jackpot also keeps increasing.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="409" LastActivityDate="2012-03-08T16:18:56.353" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="580" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-09T09:14:39.010" Score="11" ViewCount="185" Body="&lt;p&gt;The probability that people percept may be different from the real one due to a number of factors, including the form in which their are presented, their context and biases (due to misinformation or wishful thinking).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question if there is any research showing the subjective probability judgement of being correct ($p_\mathrm{perceived}$) as a function of actual probability of correctness ($p_\mathrm{real}$) for situation were people estimate the chance that they are right in a test/trial (e.g. in a two answers forced choice task)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I am interested mathematical models with foundation in experimental data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T01:25:14.673" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T21:22:23.060" Title="Perception of probability of being right" Tags="&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="581" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="580" CreationDate="2012-03-09T16:23:59.770" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;You'd probably want to take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/handouts/sdt/sdt.html&quot;&gt;signal detection theory&lt;/a&gt;. This is a set of tools that you use to analyse how well a person (or an animal, or a machine) is able to discern trials where there is a signal present (e.g. a picture is shown that has been shown before, a tumour is present in an x-ray image, a dot on a radar is an enemy aircraft) from trials where there is no-signal present (e.g. a picture is shown that hasn't been shown before, a tumour is not present in an x-ray image, a dot on a radar is not an enemy aircraft).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether a person perceives a signal or not is not always easy to discern. There will always be a certain interplay between the hit rate and the false alarm rate (in that you for example, if you always answered &quot;signal&quot;, would have a perfect hit rate, although your false alarm rate would be terrible), and based on a number of criterias (time pressure, instructions, reward structure et cetera) one can manipulate the response patterns of a certain individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been attempts to create models where accuracy, speed and certainty all are taken into concideration; see for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://research.chicagobooth.edu/cdr/docs/pleskac2010.pdf&quot;&gt;Plescak and Busemeyer (2010)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastActivityDate="2012-03-09T16:23:59.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="583" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-10T20:36:50.147" Score="7" ViewCount="217" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that a lack of response to punishment is often considered useful in diagnosing conditions or symptoms. A good example of this may be in diagnosing psychopathy, in which a lack of response to punishment seems to be a defining characteristics. For &lt;a href=&quot;http://underlore.com/TBA/?p=1694&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Their behavior does not reform in response to punishment; they will&#xA;  impulsively commit crimes despite knowing the consequences they will&#xA;  likely face. They are among the worst of repeat offenders.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems odd to me that punishment is considered significant, since in many cases a person we consider capable of making their own decisions may not agree that they have done something wrong, in which case why would the punishment be expected to have any effect? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, how is observing a lack of response to punishment useful in diagnosing any kind of psychological condition? Is the assumption that most people will respond in an expected way to punishment? If so, what is that based on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="491" LastEditorUserId="491" LastEditDate="2013-12-05T09:03:41.063" LastActivityDate="2013-12-11T03:27:59.190" Title="Why is a lack of response to punishment in adults considered significant in diagnoses?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="587" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1616" CreationDate="2012-03-10T23:33:57.600" Score="27" ViewCount="19696" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some different claims being made that pedophilia is a sexual orientation rather than a mental disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the moment there seems to be a growing group of psychologists advocating that pedophilia is, or at least should be considered a sexual orientation rather than a mental disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.good.is/post/is-pedophilia-a-sexual-orientation-a-psychologist-breaks-down-what-makes-a-jerry-sandusky/&quot;&gt;For example&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;GOOD: You're a member of a growing group of psychologists who say&#xA;  pedophilia should be considered a sexual orientation. Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Quinsey: Part of the definition of pedophilia is a person has a&#xA;  preference for a particular kind of partner. [...] pedophiles,&#xA;  unlike other men, show substantial sexual interest in prepubescent&#xA;  children. As far as we know—and many people have tried—these sexual&#xA;  interests are not modifiable by any method that’s been tried yet. So&#xA;  it appears like pedophilia is a sexual orientation. [...] You also can’t modify that&#xA;  interest; it’s stable through adulthood, just like pedophilia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lifesitenews.com/news/pedophilia-a-sexual-orientation-experts-tell-parliament/&quot;&gt;Another example&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Pedophiles are not simply people who commit a small offence from time&#xA;  to time but rather are grappling with what is equivalent to a sexual&#xA;  orientation just like another individual may be grappling with&#xA;  heterosexuality or even homosexuality,” emphasized Van Gijseghem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“True pedophiles have an exclusive preference for children, which is&#xA;  the same as having a sexual orientation.  You cannot change this&#xA;  person’s sexual orientation.” He added, however: “He may however&#xA;  remain abstinent.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also an advocacy/support group for people attracted to minors, B4UACT, who state in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://b4uact.org/faq.htm#stereotyped&quot;&gt;section from their website&lt;/a&gt; (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why do you say that minor-attracted people are stereotyped?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Popular beliefs about minor-attracted people are not supported by the&#xA;  evidence. Research shows that they are no more violent or aggressive&#xA;  than the general population, nor do they suffer from psychopathology&#xA;  or personality disorders. &lt;strong&gt;As a group, they do not share any particular&#xA;  characteristics or behaviors other than their feelings of attraction.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I understand things mental disorders tend to have observable associated symptoms, while a sexual orientation would not as it is just an instinctive attraction (in the general sense of the term).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there studies that suggest that pedophilia is a sexual orientation? Do traits typically associated with a mental disorder apply to pedophilia?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="491" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-31T03:35:49.370" LastActivityDate="2019-09-20T20:46:45.233" Title="Is pedophilia a sexual orientation or a mental disorder?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="587" CreationDate="2012-03-11T01:01:18.613" Score="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it's important to clarify that pedophilia is currently classified by the DSM IV as a &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;paraphilia&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. A paraphilia is as a &quot;recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors generally involving non-human objects, the suffering or humiliation of oneself or one's partner, children, non-consenting persons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The word &quot;paraphilia&quot; is considered by most to be pejorative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It's interesting to note that until 1973, homosexuality was classified as a paraphilia&lt;/strong&gt;. It was considered as deviant as pedophilia is currently. Today, homosexuality is classified as a sexual orientation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The current edition, DSM-IV, categorizes pedophilia as a disorder only if the sexual fantasies or urges involve prepubescent children (defined as 13 or younger), if they last at least six months, if the individual has acted on them, or if they cause marked distress (including legal problems). The DSM-IV also specifies that a person be at least 16 years old and at least five years older than the prepubescent child.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The draft version of DSM-V, now undergoing review, proposes several changes to the diagnosis of pedophilia. One is to expand the definition of this disorder to include hebephilia, an attraction to children who are going through puberty. The hybrid category, pedohebephilia, would consist of the pedophilic type (attracted to prepubescent children, generally younger than 11), the hebephilic type (attracted to pubescent children, usually ages 11 through 14), and the pedohebephilic type (attracted to both). In another significant change, the draft suggests that the use of pornography depicting prepubescent or pubescent children for six months or longer should be considered a symptom of pedohebephilia.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The key points the article makes are these:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  - &lt;strong&gt;Pedophilia is a sexual orientation and unlikely to change&lt;/strong&gt;. Treatment &#xA;     aims to enable someone to resist acting on his sexual urges.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  - &lt;strong&gt;No intervention is likely to work on its own&lt;/strong&gt;; outcomes may be better&#xA;     when the patient is motivated and treatment combines psychotherapy&#xA;     and medication.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  - Parents should be aware that &lt;strong&gt;in most sexual abuse cases&lt;/strong&gt; involving children, &lt;strong&gt;the perpetrator is someone the child knows&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletters/Harvard_Mental_Health_Letter/2010/July/pessimism-about-pedophilia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Pessimism About Pedophilia&lt;/em&gt; - &lt;em&gt;Harvard Mental Health Letter&lt;/em&gt; - Harvard Health Publications - Harvard Medical School - July 2010&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article goes on to discuss that regardless of classification (paraphilia versus sexual orientation) the focus on pedophilia will have to be on treatment to prevent the pedophile from acting out on his/her sexual urges. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anecdotally, when in a training on community sex offender management probably, oh, five years ago, the trainer classified three main sexual orientations: homosexuality, heterosexuality, and pedophilia. I remember being so taken aback by this, as I had never even remotely thought of pedophilia as a sexual orientation. In this training, bisexuality was not represented as a sexual orientation, but a note was made of it between homosexuality and heterosexuality on the triangle-shaped chart the trainer was using. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the Wikipedia's entry on sexual orientation, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) has stated, &quot;some people believe that sexual orientation is innate and fixed; however, sexual orientation develops across a person's lifetime&quot;. The APA also says that &lt;strong&gt;&quot;most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_orientation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia - Sexual Orientation&lt;/a&gt; Note: the article elaborates, so you might want to read it in its entirety. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think there is the impression that if pedophilia is classified as a sexual orientation then it is somehow condoning pedophilia. I disagree that this is true. Assigning &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; sexual orientation is merely a classification; it just so happens that pedophilia would be, technically, a &lt;em&gt;criminal&lt;/em&gt; sexual orientation. I personally see validity in the classification of pedophilia as a sexual orientation, having had a good deal of training that focuses on sex offenders, and pedophiles in particular most of the time. That said, I recognize it's a very controversial topic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edited to Add:&lt;/strong&gt; I wanted to update this answer with information about pedophilia as a sexual orientation and the difference between pedophilia and (child) molestation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, I want to reiterate &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;regardless&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of classification (paraphilia versus sexual orientation) &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;the focus on pedophilia will have to be on treatment to prevent the pedophile from acting out on his/her sexual urges&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. You might be interested in this quick read, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dcj.state.co.us/odvsom/sex_offender/SO_Pdfs/No%20Known%20Cure%20position%20paper%20FINAL%20Aug%202011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;No Known Cure&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These statistics are circa 2008 and the source is the trainers from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://dcj.state.co.us/odvsom/sex_offender/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Colorado Sex Offender Management Board&lt;/a&gt; (SOMB). The following chart shows the proposal for classifying pedophilia as a sexual orientation, rather than a paraphilia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FiGTD.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Pedophilia As a Sexual Orientation&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heterosexuality (non-deviant), homosexuality (non-deviant), and pedophilia (deviant) are defined as the three main sexual orientations. I included bisexuality (non-deviant) as being on the spectrum of sexual orientation, and child molestation (deviant) separate from the sexual orientation spectrum, because molestation is often an opportunistic event rather than an ingrained paraphilia or orientation, and can be non-preferential when it comes to victims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why would pedophilia be considered a sexual orientation? (The following is from my notes and I cannot cite specific sources for, say, MRI studies). Pedophiles are sexually attracted to &lt;strong&gt;children&lt;/strong&gt;. It is not a matter of seeing pedophiles who are attracted to the same or opposite sex; it is a matter of being attracted to &lt;strong&gt;children&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;in general&lt;/em&gt;. Often pedophiles will fixate on prepubescent boys, but if you look at a pedophile's offense history (if they are involved in the criminal justice system) you will find a preponderance of male victims. However, a male-fixated pedophile will also have sexual contact with females when males are not available, which &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; circumstantial, but the point is pedophiles are sexually aroused by &lt;strong&gt;children&lt;/strong&gt;. Pedophilia is like heterosexuality or homosexuality in that &lt;em&gt;it is innate&lt;/em&gt;. It it not a &lt;em&gt;sought after&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;chosen&lt;/em&gt; sexual orientation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MRI studies have shown there are brain differences in pedophiles; there are areas of the brain that are &quot;missing&quot; or show dark spots or &quot;holes&quot; where gray matter should be. (I'm sorry my notes don't specify which part of the brain is involved)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In comparison, persons who molest a child, but who are not pedophiles, are more opportunistic about their crime(s). As far as sexual orientation goes, a pedophile's orientation is to children; a molester's orientation is to his/her peers, whether heterosexual or homosexual. A pedophile's attraction to children is permanent; a molester's is temporary. The average number of pedophiles who had sexual contact with a child by the age of 19 or younger is 74%; the average number of molesters who had sexual contact with a child by the age of 19 or younger is 57%. The average victim target for pedophiles are males under the age of 13; for molesters, the average target are females approximately the age of 13. Pedophiles are typically not in a relationship or marriage, or are in a marriage of convenience; molesters are typically in a relationship or marriage. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, in opposition to the position that pedophilia is a sexual orientation, there are also statements like this from the SOMB, the same board that provided the training on pedophila as a sexual orientation. Go figure! Anyhow, it says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sexual offenses are defined by law and may or may not be associated with or accompanied by the characteristics of sexual deviance which are described as paraphilias. Some sex offenders also have co-existing conditions such as mental disorders, organic disorders, or substance abuse problems.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Many offenders can learn through treatment to manage their sexual offending behaviors&#xA;  and decrease their risk of re-offense. Such behavioral management should not, however,&#xA;  be considered a “cure” and successful treatment cannot permanently eliminate the risk&#xA;  that sex offenders may repeat their offenses.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dcj.state.co.us/odvsom/sex_offender/SO_Pdfs/No%20Known%20Cure%20position%20paper%20FINAL%20Aug%202011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;No Known Cure Position Paper&lt;/a&gt; -- Colorado Department of Safety, Division of Criminal Justice, Sex Offender Management Board  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this information is useful and not just a lot of jargon to wade through.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edited to Add:&lt;/strong&gt; Per your request, a couple paragraphs on paraphilias and mental disorders. Currently, the DSM-IV-TR classifies paraphilia as an Axis I mental disorder (you will also find mental illnesses on Axis I, such as mood disorders, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, and dysthymia or unipolar depression). The DSM-IV-TR does differentiate between a latent paraphilia, consenting adults engaging in sexual activity that includes paraphilic interest(s), and an active paraphilia &lt;em&gt;in which harm is caused to another person&lt;/em&gt;. It is only the latter that is classified as a mental disorder. Is it inherently a mental disorder to have a paraphilia? No. It becomes a mental disorder when acting upon one's paraphilia causes victimization and harm to another person. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, some studies have found a solid co-morbidity of paraphilia and other Axis I mental illnesses. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12375492&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A DSM-IV Axis I comorbidity study of males (n = 120) with paraphilias and paraphilia-related disorders&lt;/a&gt; (US National Library of Medicine, National Institute of Health). One interesting statistic from the aforementioned paper: &lt;em&gt;The prevalence of any ADHD in the sex offender paraphiliacs was 43.3%, and nearly 25% of offenders were diagnosed with ADHD-combined subtype&lt;/em&gt;. Of course one sentence is out of context, so I encourage you to read the abstract in full. As a major symptom of ADHD is impulsivity, I found it a fascinating correlation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="376" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-01-31T04:38:13.267" LastActivityDate="2014-01-31T04:38:13.267" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="591" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="567" CreationDate="2012-03-12T03:47:28.630" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently Tom Griffiths and I worked on the problem of how to use distributional cues from the raw sensory data given by the environment to form representational units (features). The basic idea is to form a probabilistic model over possible feature representations. The model uses the observed data and a bias towards simpler feature representations (those with fewer features) to infer a feature representation. The tricky thing is forming a probabilistic model  over the complex, infinite-dimensional space of feature representations and once that is defined, the practical part of inferring the feature representation given a set of observed objects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more details on how to do this, what it means theoretically, and experiments testing some predictions of the approach, take a look at our recent article in cognitive psychology, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2011.08.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;doi&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, if you're interested, we've done some work looking at inferring transformation-invariant features, &lt;a href=&quot;http://cocosci.berkeley.edu/joe/tibp.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;. We're nearly ready to submit a larger article on this line of work. Send me an email if you're interested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="498" LastActivityDate="2012-03-12T03:47:28.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="593" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="541" CreationDate="2012-03-13T15:44:48.153" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe you may be looking for Fuzzy SDT which allows for the incorporation of response time  into SDT, among other things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hancock, P.A., Masalonis, A.J., &amp;amp; Parasuraman, R. (2000) &quot;On the theory of fuzzy signal detection: theoretical and practical considerations&quot; Theor. Issues In Ergon. Sci. 1(3):207-230&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://stephenrice.us/papers/Hancock,%20Masalonis,%20Parasuraman%202000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="503" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-04-27T12:38:22.710" LastActivityDate="2012-04-27T12:38:22.710" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="594" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1373" CreationDate="2012-03-13T17:03:50.847" Score="11" ViewCount="629" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some important thresholds of frame rate in video playback that effect whether or not animation appears fluid. This wikipedia page about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_rate#Visible_frame_rate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Visible Frame Rate&lt;/a&gt; suggests that a framerate of 60 hertz doesn't quite provide enough information fast enough to be seen as fluid in some cases:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, fast moving objects may require higher frame rates to avoid judder (non-smooth, linear motion) artifacts&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When exactly does a higher framerate become necessary? What studies have shown what kinds of motion cause this &quot;judder&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T20:13:36.377" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T20:13:36.377" Title="Under what conditions does 60hz video produce visual artifacts?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="596" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="506" CreationDate="2012-03-14T10:45:59.740" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://fingerfriendlysoft.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;FingerFriendlySoft&lt;/a&gt; has created an app for all iOS devices (that is, iPod touch, iPhone and iPad) that is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://fingerfriendlysoft.com/#nBackSuite&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;N-back Suite&lt;/a&gt;. This is, as the name suggests, an app which lets you take &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-back&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the n-back test&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Included are both the single and the dual n-back test and you can chose different amounts of n (from 1 to 10), five different speeds, and different type of stimuli for the two tasks (color, letters, images, 3x3 matrixes, and sounds).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also export your results to a tab delimited text file that you can analyse using statistical software (or by hand if you feel a bit masochistic), for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.r-project.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;R&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, I guess, with this example in mind, that the answer to your quesion is &quot;yes&quot; :)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8g8Uw.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="86" LastEditDate="2012-03-14T11:21:26.640" LastActivityDate="2012-03-14T11:21:26.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="597" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="541" CreationDate="2012-03-14T14:17:07.790" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As per self-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_focus_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;regulatory theory&lt;/a&gt; people can have two types of regulatory focus: promotion and prevention. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Promotion focus&lt;/strong&gt; is an eagerness-strategy where if we draw an analogy with SDT, one is more eager to detect signals even though there may be a few false alarms. One is ok with errors of commission. This type of motivation will reflect in seeded responses and is in direct opposition to accuracy that is modeled by the other preventive focus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;preventive focus&lt;/strong&gt;, you are more vigilant and on-guard , more focused on avoiding failure or in terms of SDT, ready to miss the signal but not miss out a correct rejection. The more cautious approach will lead to less fast repose but more accurate response bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, the way I think speed or response time is to be incorporated in SDT is by pitting it against accuracy and it measuring and indicating the propensity to detect signal even at the cost of false alarms.The more the response time is less for a subject the more eagerness or promotion related focus he has - of detecting signal or achieving success. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this is lay mans integration of response time/ speed  with SDT; if you are looking for more mathematical models , perhaps the other answers will work better.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="409" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-04-27T12:41:21.880" LastActivityDate="2012-04-27T12:41:21.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="598" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="506" CreationDate="2012-03-14T17:47:51.007" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say there are no such tests/toolboxes, that would allow you to properly conduct any cognitive testing on iPhone, iPad or even using web-based applications. There are some games that attempt to do it, like the one suggested by @Speldosa, but nothing really serious. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the moment there seem to be no way to control and record different variables (like reaction time) as tightly as with desktop application, like &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychtoolbox.org/&quot;&gt;Psychtoolbox&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neurobs.com/&quot;&gt;Neurobehavioural System Presentation&lt;/a&gt; (you will find plenty of problems there anyway). What's more, iPhone and iPad are tightly controlled platforms, and developers are limited in getting access to some user parameters and data. For example getting informations about parameters like brightness/contrast or volume would be important for cognitive testing apps by default. But it's unlikely to be possible with the current Apple policy (I would bid more for Android devices, as they are much more open for such purposes). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree tho that touch panels are promising platform. I imagine people do work on that in some labs, using jailbroken devices, but I am not aware of anything available in the public domain at the moment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another issue is novelty of using touch devices. People didn't tested them yet in terms of proper psychophysical accuracy, it's still undiscovered area. Potential seem to be very promising (think eye tracking using iPad camera for example), but we shall see what comes out of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastActivityDate="2012-03-14T17:47:51.007" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="599" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="600" CreationDate="2012-03-15T05:09:20.323" Score="26" ViewCount="3609" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probabilistic approaches to modelling cognition are increasing in popularity and being encouraged within the field (&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mit.edu/cocosci/Papers/ChaterTenenbaumYuille-TICS06.pdf&quot;&gt;Chater, Tanenbaum, &amp;amp; Yuille, 2006&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are some of the arguments against or drawbacks (other than scalability/intractability) to using this approach?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-13T11:17:36.207" LastActivityDate="2012-10-13T11:17:36.207" Title="What are some of the drawbacks to probabilistic models of cognition?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="16" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="600" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="599" CreationDate="2012-03-15T06:00:08.363" Score="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probabilistic approaches of this sort are usually referred to more specifically as the &lt;strong&gt;bayesian&lt;/strong&gt; approach and Chater and Tanenbaum are definitely bayesians (I have not read much by Yuille and can't comment). &lt;a href=&quot;http://lesswrong.com/lw/1to/what_is_bayesianism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bayesianism&lt;/a&gt; is more than just increasing in popularity and being encouraged; it is considered one of the big-4 approaches to cognitive-modeling, with the other 3 being: connectionism, rule-based, and dynamic systems. The bayesian approach has many positives and produced many great results, but since your question is about the drawbacks I will focus exclusively on that. Two major drawbacks are: neural grounding and rationality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neural grounding&lt;/strong&gt; is a weakness that plagues all of the big-4 and cognitive science in general. The idea is that as we build models of the mind, we want to eventually &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/90/29&quot;&gt;ground them in the brain&lt;/a&gt;; this is a standard feature of reductionism. The bayesian approach is often summarized as &quot;probabilities over rules&quot;, and suffers from the same difficulty of neural grounding as the rule-based approach did. It is often not clear how the brain implements this sophisticated bayesian inference (but the field is well aware of this problem, and works hard to resolve it). Is this a game killer? Not really, connectionism is often considered the more 'biologically-plausible' alternative, but most popular connectionist models can be just as &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/214/29&quot;&gt;easily questioned on their biological viability&lt;/a&gt;. The issue can also be sidestepped completely by saying that we do wish to address cognition at a different level that biological implementation (sort of how thermodynamics can have laws without the specific grounding provided by statistical mechanics). An example of this on our site is looking for &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/525/29&quot;&gt;behaviorist interpretations of models&lt;/a&gt; (note that decision field theory falls more into the dynamic systems approach, so it isn't a perfect example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me, the much more prominent weakness is &lt;strong&gt;rationality&lt;/strong&gt;. Bayes rule is inherently rational -- humans are not; a bayesian has to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/251/29&quot;&gt;use various hacks to account for human irrationality&lt;/a&gt;. Connectionism does not suffer from this drawback, and neither do some exotic approaches like &lt;a href=&quot;http://mypage.iu.edu/~jbusemey/home.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Busemeyer&lt;/a&gt;'s quantum cognition (I provide a sketch in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/338/29&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;). If you want to see why models based on classical probability have a difficulty explaining aspects of human irrationality, take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://mypage.iu.edu/~jbusemey/QD.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Busemeyer, J. R., Wang, Z., &amp;amp; Townsend, J. T. (2006)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-03-15T06:00:08.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="602" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="599" CreationDate="2012-03-15T18:10:19.163" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Artem gave a very good answer, but I want to add one more weaknesses of probabilistic/Bayesian models: they are not mechanistic. This is related to Artem's point about neural grounding, but is a little different. The issue is that probabilistic models don't really provide insight into the underlying mechanism that produces the observed behavior -- if you ask the question &quot;why does it work?&quot;, the Bayesian model's answer is &quot;because cognition is Bayesian&quot; and that's it. Models that allow structure (and behavior) to emerge from interactions of lower-level elements provide more insight into cognitive mechanisms (though not necessarily neural mechanisms). I think (at least some) connectionist and dynamic systems models try to do this. To read more about this, check out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McClelland, J. L., Botvinick, M. M., Noelle, D. C., Plaut, D. C., Rogers, T.T., Seidenberg, M. S., and Smith, L. B. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~jlm/papers/McCEtAl10TiCS_LettingStructureEmerge.pdf&quot;&gt;Letting Structure Emerge: Connectionist and Dynamical Systems Approaches to Understanding Cognition&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 14, 348-356.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2012-03-15T18:10:19.163" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="604" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="613" CreationDate="2012-03-17T00:23:54.597" Score="7" ViewCount="4122" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.chrisdendy.com/executive.htm&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; today that stated that people with high IQ's that have trouble with social skills, memory, being punctual (on time), emotional control, and &quot;growing up&quot; are likely to have issues with Executive Function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, what is the difference between Executive Function and IQ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="521" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-03-20T10:00:52.270" LastActivityDate="2019-01-14T00:57:20.770" Title="What is the difference between IQ and Executive Function?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="605" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1855" CreationDate="2012-03-17T07:36:13.767" Score="9" ViewCount="288" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a preface, let me assume that the entirety of mental states and their corresponding behaviors in a person are entirely reducible to the physical activity of neurons sending a variety of chemicals across synaptic clefts at appointed times. There's no extra-logical, metaphysical sense of being that guides our actions e.g. spirits, soul stuff, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond this provision, which is obvious, is the overarching question of how particular networks in the brain control various structural and behavioral faculties in the mind. For example, if we place a person in an MRI and ask them to count to three, we expect to find activation in a portion of the parietal lobe. &lt;strong&gt;Just how fine-grained is this activation?&lt;/strong&gt; If we ask the same person to do the same counting at a different time, will a different network in the same area of the brain be used? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first question has a corollary to it; a kind of role reversal: &lt;strong&gt;given a sufficiently detailed picture of a person's brain, is it possible to more or less describe what the person is doing or thinking?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user523" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-12T04:21:40.747" LastActivityDate="2012-11-23T03:23:59.730" Title="Is performance reducible to brain activity in an unambiguous way?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="606" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="547" CreationDate="2012-03-17T16:06:48.307" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not aware of any studies on this topic.&#xA;I think this is a tricky question because of the nature of sleeping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypersomnia does not fit in with physiological nor psychological dependence because of the following (from the proposed DSM-V revision, but similar enough to the DSM-IV-TR) symptom:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The sleep periods are non-restorative (unrefreshing) or so prolonged in length that this causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, sleep would not fit in with the class of substance-related disorders. I cannot see one having impaired control over or compulsive use of sleep. Can one really derive that much pleasure, and thus, a reward response from sleep? Would one have a tendency to keep increasing the dose, to chase &quot;a high&quot;? Abrupt cessation of sleep after excessive &quot;use&quot; may trigger negative feelings but if one were to, say, give the sleep-craving individual stimulant medication, I doubt serious withdrawal effects will take place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only proposed behavioral addiction for the DSM-V (at least I think at this point) is Gambling Disorder, or pathological gambling. The proposed criteria are as follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A.    Persistent and recurrent maladaptive gambling behavior as indicated by five (or more) of the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;is preoccupied with gambling (e.g., preoccupied with reliving past gambling experiences, handicapping or planning the next venture, or thinking of ways to get money with which to gamble&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;needs to gamble with increasing amounts of money in order to achieve the desired excitement&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;has repeated unsuccessful efforts to control, cut back, or stop gambling&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;is restless or irritable when attempting to cut down or stop gambling&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;gambles as a way of escaping from problems or of relieving a dysphoric mood (e.g., feelings of helplessness, guilt, anxiety, depression)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[Not relevant.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lies to family members, therapist, or others to conceal the extent of involvement with gambling&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;has jeopardized or lost a significant relationship, job, or educational or career opportunity because of gambling&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[Not relevant.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can a psychological dependence on sleep fit in with the above criteria if one were to mold it to pertain to &quot;pathological&quot; sleeping?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could not think of analogous &quot;Sleep Addiction&quot; criteria to match that of Gambling Addiction's A-6/A-9 symptom points, but from the above, it appears that a psychological dependence /can/ apply to a dependence on sleep(ing). From this loose argument alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Preoccupied with sleep. [Sure.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Needs get an increasing amount of hours of sleep to achieve the same response. [Eh. I was thinking &quot;resorts to increasing doses of sedatives to achieve longer periods of sleep&quot; but felt that ventured into substance abuse territory.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has repeated unsuccessful efforts to control, cut back, or stop (ha) [excessive] sleep. [Sure, why not.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is restless or irritable when attempting to cut down on sleep. [Can see this happening.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sleeps as a way of avoiding problems or of relieving dysphoric mood. [Most definitely, this symptom reminds me of some subtypes of Major Depressive Disorder. But I digress.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lies to family members, others, to conceal the extent of excessive sleep. [Why not.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has jeopardized or lost a significant relationship, job, or educational or career opportunity because of excessive sleep. [Can easily see this.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I can interject my own opinion on the matter, I just cannot see anyone developing a physical need for sleep. Our basic biological or evolutionary make-up does not allow for that, I feel. But I know little about, say, narcolepsy - but to my knowledge they find their excessive sleepiness unwanted and detrimental. Nor can I see potential for one to become psychologically dependent or addicted to sleep. I just can't see someone deriving pleasure from more and more sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="48" LastActivityDate="2012-03-17T16:06:48.307" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="607" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="549" CreationDate="2012-03-17T16:20:10.223" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a reason why (at least where I'm at) it it illegal to hold and talk on a cell phone while driving. Not that hands-free talking really makes any difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One loses efficiency or what-have-you when attention needs to be shared amongst different activities that require cognitive control. By shared I mean more that time slices need to be divided amongst the activities. Attention is really a fascinating thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can mindlessly listen to music while studying. But I know that I really don't pay much attention to the music, especially because most often I choose to listen to songs I know well and really like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can one really &quot;mindlessly&quot; play the accordion? Other than the physical movements that can in a sense be automatic, can one really determine what notes to play &quot;mindlessly&quot;? I am trying to picture a musician who has painstakingly spent hours upon hours memorizing a piece of music and I guess one's playing can reach the point of almost &quot;mindless&quot; playing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if so, I think the attentional resources that studying demands would not allow enough attentional resources for playing an instrument...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="48" LastActivityDate="2012-03-17T16:20:10.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="609" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="517" CreationDate="2012-03-18T04:39:37.707" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the answer to that question can be teased out if one knows the reason &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; the presence of or noticing strangers in the vicinity leads to feelings of discomfort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do you mean by &quot;in the vicinity&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social psychologists have studied what is called &lt;strong&gt;proxemics&lt;/strong&gt;. If we simplify it, one can say that they study the concept of &quot;personal space&quot;. Mostly focused on two people interacting with each other, but there is also research on what is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_mapping/&quot;&gt;cognitive spatial mapping&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can think of multiple &quot;diagnoses&quot; that can be tossed around and played with. Schizoid personality disorder. Schizotypal personality disorder. A mild form or some pervasive developmental disorder (Asperger syndrome, for example). If the discomfort is not rooted in a fear of embarrassment or feelings of social ineptitude, it is harder to proximate the root of the discomfort, harder to put a label on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a tangential note, going back to the topic of &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/85/1/117//&quot;&gt;proxemics&lt;/a&gt;, people tend to have social conventions on what the appropriate distances away from others are; given the environment, closeness of the relationship, distance between or amongst people and yourself, etc. It is interesting to note that the same phenomenon (uh, exaggerated word) occurs in social interaction in a virtual world sort of setting. A well-known example is the study of proxemics in &lt;a href=&quot;http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1421909/&quot;&gt;Social Life&lt;/a&gt;. When someone does not follow convention or simply violates another's personal space, even in Social Life, it generates discomfort. But I digress. Sorry, tangential ramble.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="48" LastActivityDate="2012-03-18T04:39:37.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="610" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="346" CreationDate="2012-03-18T20:11:37.243" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It’s probably best to ask clinicians since papers usually don’t go into very specific details about patient interactions, but in general this is what I can conclude based on a bit of research. Neglect often co-occurs with other impairments as there can be a range of causes (such as stroke) arising from damage to various brain structures; so it should be considered “as a cluster of deficits characterised by lateralised spatial bias” &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0960201044000101#preview&quot;&gt;(Manly, 2002)&lt;/a&gt;. Besides severity of neglect, these co-occuring impairments would also affect the type of reactions neglect patients may show.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patients with neglect due to right-hemisphere damage show hypoarousal, flattened affect, and emotional indifference &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neurology.org/content/28/3/229.short&quot;&gt;(Heilman et al., 1978)&lt;/a&gt; which may explain why many are unconcerned about their disorder (anosodiaphoria) and act indifferent toward their disorder &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/105/3/543.full.pdf&quot;&gt;(Denes et al., 1982)&lt;/a&gt;. Similar to emotional impairment, there is also a strong associated lack of awareness of their disorder (anosognosia)  among neglect patients (&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/co-neurology/Abstract/2002/02000/Empathy_and_social_emotional_factors_in_recovery.14.aspx&quot;&gt;Eslinger et al., 2002&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mdconsult.com/das/citation/body/324129965-2/jorg=journal&amp;amp;source=&amp;amp;sp=14390652&amp;amp;sid=0/N/14390652/1.html?issn=0028-3878&amp;amp;issue_id=15139#abs&quot;&gt;Buxbaum et al., 2004&lt;/a&gt;). Sometimes, even after improvement due to therapy and training, patients may still not acknowledge their impairment (Manly, 2002). Patients that are unaware of the disorder usually react with denial (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14640749308401056#preview&quot;&gt;Bisiach, 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jocn.1992.4.4.345&quot;&gt;Berti &amp;amp; Rizzolatti 1992&lt;/a&gt;). In one study, which uses mirrors to flip objects in the left visual to the right, patients “behave as if the object were behind, or in, the mirror — as if the left side of their world did not ‘exist’” &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982206003629&quot;&gt;(Turnbull, 1997)&lt;/a&gt;. Neglect is more likely associated with right-hemisphere damage compared to left, and both anosodiaphoria and anosognosia occur at higher rates in neglect patients with right-hemisphere damage compared to left &lt;a href=&quot;http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/content/22/1/46&quot;&gt;(Stone et al. 1993)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastActivityDate="2012-03-18T20:11:37.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="611" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-19T08:15:00.620" Score="12" ViewCount="440" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://research.chicagobooth.edu/cdr/docs/pleskac2010.pdf&quot;&gt;&quot;Two-stage Dynamic Signal Detection: A Theory of Choice, Decision Time, and Confidence&quot;&lt;/a&gt; from 2010 by Pleskac and Busemeyer, a random walk model is presented for situations where a discrete choice is made (that is, signal present/not present, yes/no, 1/0 et cetera). Here, if there is no time pressure involved, a threshold value is set which has to be reached before an answer is given. Contrary, if there is a time pressure involved, the value at the last time point is used to decide which answer is given, even if the threshold point hasn't been reached at that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder whether there are any extension of this model which can incorporate situations with &lt;em&gt;more&lt;/em&gt; than two choices (from 3 alternatives and up to a fully continius choice space). I guess you just could incorporate more dimensions (the model referred to above is two-dimensional), but if the answers are non-independent (for example, when using a rating scale), I guess the random walk function would have to be fairly complicated. That is, if strong evidence is accumulated for number 3, how much evidence should be added to 4 and 2? Should evidence be subtracted from 1 and 5? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-03-19T13:20:04.513" LastActivityDate="2012-11-17T03:04:52.100" Title="Is there a random walk theory that can account for situations with more than two choices?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="612" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="892" CreationDate="2012-03-19T15:26:51.290" Score="18" ViewCount="1467" Body="&lt;p&gt;I watched &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/dxqsBk7Wn-Y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;last night's episode of 60 minutes&lt;/a&gt; (and &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/q8cXus7SNQY&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;part 2&lt;/a&gt;) about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosopagnosia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Prosopagnosia (Face Blindness)&lt;/a&gt; and found it absolutely fascinating. They mentioned in the segment (Around &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/q8cXus7SNQY?t=322&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5:22&lt;/a&gt; into the second part of the online video) that &lt;a href=&quot;http://mcgovern.mit.edu/principal-investigators/nancy-kanwisher&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nancy Kanwisher of MIT&lt;/a&gt; has studied the MRI scans of people without Prosopagnosia and found that the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusiform_face_area&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fusiform face area&lt;/a&gt; lit up on an MRI when an individual was shown an image of a face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nancy Kanwisher then goes on to state the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I really did not expect to see a fusiform face area [on an MRI scan of a patient with Prosopagnosia]. [...] And we looked at the data and his face area was beautiful, it was textbook. [...] It tells us that the problem is not that this thing [(the fusiform face area)] does not exist, there it is!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/a00z7.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Image of a MRI scan of a patient with Prosopagnosia&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The image shows an MRI scan of a patient who has Prosopagnosia, demonstrating that the patient does have a fusiform face area. However, &lt;strong&gt;it was unclear to me whether the fusiform face area of an individual suffering from Prosopagnosia is &lt;em&gt;less active&lt;/em&gt; when presented with a face than that of an individual without Prosopagnosia&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What did Nancy Kanwisher find with regards to that? Does the fusiform face area in individuals with Prosopagnosia exist but remains dormant? Or is it just as active but for some other (probably unknown) reason simply fail to relay the proper information to the rest of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="21781" LastEditDate="2019-04-09T04:41:59.933" LastActivityDate="2019-04-09T04:41:59.933" Title="Does the fusiform face area in patients with Prosopagnosia (face blindness) show lower activity under an fMRI?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="613" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="604" CreationDate="2012-03-20T10:05:47.663" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I mentioned in my comment: IQ is a measurement that is believed to correlate with certain aspects of 'intelligence'. Executive function is &amp;quot;an umbrella term for cognitive processes such as planning, working memory, attention, problem solving, verbal reasoning, inhibition, mental flexibility, multi-tasking, initiation and monitoring of actions.&amp;quot; The two are not directly comparable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However there are measures of executive function through tests like Wisconsin card sorting, verbal fluency, and trial making, cognitive estimates test, verbal fluency for animals, simplified six element (Burgess et al., 1998; Ardila, Pineda, &amp;amp; Rosselli, 2000). Burges et al. (1998) found that these load on 3 main factors: inhibition, intentionality, and executive memory. Ardila et al. (2000) found that these tests do not correlate well with IQ tests and concluded that traditional intelligence tests are not an appropriate metric for executive function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, Mahone et al. (2002) studied normal and ADHD children and found that some measures of executive function (Rey Osterrieth Complex Figure, Variables of Attention – Visual&#xA;Test, Letter Word Fluency) correlated moderately with IQ. In fact IQ scores accounted for a greater proportion of variance in the EF measures (~10% of the variance) than the diagnosis of ADHD (~0.4% of the variance). They also found that measures of executive function at average IQ differ between children with ADHD and those without. However, this effect disappears for children with above average IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me this discrepancy suggests that we don't know how to measure executive function very well. This is to be expected, since a huge umbrella term like executive function is a tell-tale sign that we are lumping a lot of things we don't understand well together under one umbrella until we learn more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ardila, A., Pineda, D., &amp;amp; Rosselli, M. [2000] &amp;quot;Correlation Between Intelligence Test Scores and ExecutiveFunction Measures.&amp;quot; Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 15(1): 31-36.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Burgess, P.W., Alderman, N., Evans, J., Emslie, H., &amp;amp; Wilson, B.A. [1998] &amp;quot;The ecological validity of tests of executive function.&amp;quot; Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 4: 547-558.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mahone, E.M., Hagelthorn, K.M., Cutting, L.E., Schuerholz, L.J., Pelletier, S.F., Rawlins, C., Singer, H.S., &amp;amp; Denckla, M.B. [200] &amp;quot;Effects of IQ on Executive Function Measures in Children with ADHD.&amp;quot; Child Neuropsychology 8(1): 52-65.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-03-20T10:05:47.663" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="614" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="484" CreationDate="2012-03-20T11:07:14.207" Score="5" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Summary of Kluemper et al 2012&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had a read through the article by Kluemper et al (2012) mentioned in the answer by John Pick. The following summarises some key points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After discussing the broader context of using social networks to measure personality, Kluemper et al (2012) cited the findings of a couple of existing studies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Karl, Peluchette, and Schlaegel (2010) found that social network users high in&#xA;  conscientiousness were less likely to post problematic content&#xA;  (e.g., substance abuse, sexual content), while Amichai-Hamburger and&#xA;  Vinitzky (2010) found a relationship between self-rated extraversion&#xA;  and number of Facebook friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study by Kluemper et al (2012) involved two studies. Each study involved getting ratings on around 250 participants including self-report &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot;&gt;Big 5 personality&lt;/a&gt; and then getting three raters to read through the participant's Facebook profile and then fill out a measure of Big 5 personality. Self-other correlations for the same personality factors ranged from .16 to .44. This supports the idea that Facebook profiles can be used to get at least an approximate measure of personality.  It should also be mentioned that these self-other correlations are a fair bit lower than those obtained by Costa and McCrae (1998) when using the NEO, and a single knowledgeable other-rater (e.g., in the r=.5 to .6 range). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meta-analyses have generally found a positive but weak correlation between Big 5 personality and job performance (e.g., Barrick &amp;amp; Mount, 1991). In combination with the results from Kluemper et al, this may suggest that personality measures extracted from Facebook profiles might predict job performance. However, given the relatively low self-other correlations, this still requires further empirical testing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, extracting Big 5 personality using three raters reflects only one rating strategy. Thus, there are many other useful measures and measurement strategies that could be explored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amichai-Hamburger, Y. &amp;amp; Vinitzky, G. (2010). Social network use and&#xA;personality. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1289–1295.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Barrick, M. R., &amp;amp; Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions&#xA;and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1–&#xA;26.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Costa, P. T. &amp;amp; McCrae (1988, &lt;a href=&quot;http://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/~broberts/Costa%20&amp;amp;%20McCrae,%201988.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;). Personality in adulthood: A six-year longitudinal study of self-reports and spouse ratings on the NEO Personality Inventory. It's not a meta analysis. N = 167 for spouse ratings.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Karl, K., Peluchette, J., &amp;amp; Schlaegel, C. (2010). Who’s posting Facebook&#xA;faux pas? A cross-cultural examination of personality differences. Inter-&#xA;national Journal of Selection and Assessment, 18, 174–186.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kluemper, D. H., Rosen, P. A. and Mossholder, K. W. (2012), Social Networking Websites, Personality Ratings, and the Organizational Context: More Than Meets the Eye?. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00881.x &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00881.x/full&quot;&gt;URL&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-03-20T11:07:14.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="615" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="473" CreationDate="2012-03-20T12:24:14.257" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just to be clear, Wood et al (2009) summarise their propositions on page 861:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Thus, we propose that positive self-statements have the potential to&#xA;  make one feel worse if they lie outside one’s latitude of acceptance,&#xA;  are self-discrepant and thereby highlight one’s failures to meet one’s&#xA;  standards, and arouse self-verification motives. We further propose&#xA;  that positive self-statements are especially likely to backfire for&#xA;  the very people they are meant to benefit: people with low&#xA;  self-esteem. Such people, by definition, see themselves as failing to&#xA;  meet standards in more domains or in more important domains than do&#xA;  people with high self-esteem. Moreover, self-verification motives&#xA;  should bias people with low self-esteem to reject positive&#xA;  self-statements, but encourage people with high self-esteem to&#xA;  accept them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the literature review, Wood et al cite several articles related to attitude formation and self-relevant feedback. They mention one particular study, where&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Eisenstadt and Leippe (1994) asked participants to identify a trait&#xA;  they would like to possess but believed they lacked. When Eisenstadt&#xA;  and Leippe later told participants that they actually did possess that&#xA;  ideal trait, participants felt worse, rather than better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eisenstadt, D., &amp;amp; Leippe, M.R. (1994). The self-comparison process&#xA;and self-discrepant feedback: Consequences of learning you are&#xA;what you thought you were not. Journal of Personality and Social&#xA;Psychology, 67, 611–626.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wood, J., Elaine Perunovic, W., &amp;amp; Lee, J. (2009). Positive Self-Statements: Power for Some, Peril for Others Psychological Science DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02370.x&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-03-20T12:24:14.257" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="616" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="40" CreationDate="2012-03-21T03:22:24.153" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consciousness research in Neuroscience is relatively new, so there isn't yet any consensus on how consciousness works precisely (or an agreed upon definition).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that the current majority view is that consciousness is distributed throughout the brain (while I can't track down a reference), so transecting the Corpus Callosum won't &quot;transfer&quot; consciousness anywhere, it will remain everywhere, though presumably a little less coherent after the split.  Keep in mind that there are many other pathways between the hemispheres besides the Corpus Callosum - such as thalamocortical circuits, those via the midbrain and brainstem and of course external sensorimotor feedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree with @rob - in that the question can't be answered satisfactorily now, though I think it can be once interpreted in the context of a future concrete definition of &quot;consciousness&quot; and an understand of its mechanisms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="132" LastActivityDate="2012-03-21T03:22:24.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="617" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="612" CreationDate="2012-03-22T12:10:58.330" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, though not necessarily in the way that you are meaning - some prosopagnosics will have damage to the area in question, so you could say the activity is lower because there is not much left of it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quick google reveals this paper: &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/20/8/1878.abstract&quot;&gt;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/20/8/1878.abstract&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's recent so will probably review the evidence you are interested in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastActivityDate="2012-03-22T12:10:58.330" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="618" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-22T14:45:29.020" Score="10" ViewCount="1797" Body="&lt;p&gt;In real-world problem-solving tasks that many people call &quot;complex&quot; (like flying a jet, programming, fixing a car, fighting a fire - the type investigated by the naturalistic decision making community) what are the key characteristics that separate problem solving in these types of tasks and problem solving in &quot;toy&quot; or &quot;experiment&quot; tasks where one or two stimuli are presented to participants? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the characteristics that make complex problem solving complex?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there levels of complexity that can capture the differences?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="492" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-27T11:43:20.687" LastActivityDate="2015-04-27T11:43:20.687" Title="What are the characteristics that make complex problem solving complex?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="619" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-22T23:54:42.920" Score="15" ViewCount="2356" Body="&lt;p&gt;When developing a model of a biologically-plausible neural network, it is important to know all the circumstances under which neurons can fire. But, I am limiting this question to random firing. In what ways, if any, can neurons fire randomly, i.e., without (or regardless of) presynaptic input?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for something like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Between 0 and 6 days of age, rat cortical neurons randomly fire at an average rate of once every 30 minutes. The rate decreases to 0 by age 12 days. Reference: &lt;em&gt;here&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(That's just an example)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In what ways can neurons fire randomly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-17T22:33:50.320" LastActivityDate="2015-05-25T22:49:35.073" Title="In what ways can neurons fire randomly?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="621" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="737" CreationDate="2012-03-23T03:20:51.280" Score="2" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may be a long-shot, but I'm looking for a paper that I vaguely remember reading a few years ago. Unfortunately I can't remember many details about the paper or its content, and thus my multiple attempts at keyword searches have failed. I'm posting this question in the hope that someone recognises the few details I do remember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper presented more than one experiment, but the one I'm trying to recall involved a colour wheel/pie displayed in the centre of the screen. The slices of the pie were each a different colour and the colours would change a few times throughout each trial. There were only a small number of slices/colours. The observer's task was to count the number of times the colours changed. While doing this the observer also had to perform another task, for which the stimuli were shown on the rest of the display, in peripheral vision. I can't remember what the other task was, though it may have been a multiple object tracking task or a visual search task. The paper may have been about the effect of attentional load on working memory, though I'm not sure about that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="58" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T10:37:25.700" Title="What is the study with the dual-task experiment that involved a colour-wheel change detection task?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="622" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="791" CreationDate="2012-03-23T04:24:20.173" Score="14" ViewCount="470" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in modeling human brain spiking activity. How does the very first spiking activity begin in the fetus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine all spiking activity is initiated by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_neuron&quot;&gt;senses&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_oscillation&quot;&gt;internal oscillators&lt;/a&gt;. Am I right? Or are there other initiators of spiking activity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-17T22:33:38.433" LastActivityDate="2012-09-17T22:33:38.433" Title="How does neural spiking begin in the fetus?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="623" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="619" CreationDate="2012-03-23T07:59:36.050" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Answering the question in the manner that you are asking for would require quite an exhaustive list.  However, a fundamental concept in all of this is having a &amp;quot;leak&amp;quot; channel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NALCN is the only nonselective channel found in the 24-TM channel family and is equally permeable to Na+, K+, and Cs+. [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The majority of the ions transported by the channel are sodium.  This slow influx will have the same effect on voltage over a longer period of time as would a rapid influx, a depolarization of the membrane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NALCN is found in all animals studied, from humans to &lt;em&gt;D. melanogaster&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt;, snails, sea urchins, and the placozoan &lt;em&gt;Trichoplax adhaerens&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it is likely that this channel is conserved in the evolutionary ladder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NALCN mutant mice have a severely disrupted respiratory rhythm and die within 24 hours of birth. Brain stem-spinal cord recordings reveal reduced neuronal firing. The TTX- and Cs(+)-resistant background Na(+) leak current is absent in the mutant hippocampal neurons. [2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This addresses your &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/622/how-does-human-brain-spiking-activity-begin&quot;&gt;other question&lt;/a&gt;, this leakage makes the membrane voltage more permissive to initiation of rhythmic discharge and other oscillatory behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to whether anything fires &amp;quot;randomly&amp;quot;, I would say that neurons can fire with a given distribution [3], but this is governed by all the different channels which operate and their conductances (inverse of resistance) rather than just by chance alone.  Remember, if a neuron fires randomly, it's not likely to have much effect on a post-synaptic cell unless it's time-locked to a series of other action potentials arriving at the same spot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Ren, D. (2011).  Sodium Leak Channels in Neuronal Excitability and Rhythmic Behaviors.  Neuron, 72(6):899-911. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22196327&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22196327&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Lu B, Su Y, et al (2007). The neuronal channel NALCN contributes resting sodium permeability and is required for normal respiratory rhythm. Cell, 129(2):371-83. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17448995&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17448995&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Webb TJ, Rolls ET, Deco G, Feng J. (2011) Noise in attractor networks in the brain produced by graded firing rate representations. PLoS One, 6(9):e23630. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchObjectAttachment.action;jsessionid=99F7CEF93E0890017707B03D742116EC?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0023630&amp;amp;representation=PDF&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-03-23T07:59:36.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="624" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="618" CreationDate="2012-03-23T14:30:38.460" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The complexity of the environment certainly is an issue. According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0136042597&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Artificial Intelligence - A modern approach&quot;&gt;AI - A modern approach&lt;/a&gt;, the environment may be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;observable / partly observable&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;deterministic / stochastic / strategic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;episodic / sequential&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;static / dynamic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;discrete / continuous&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;single agent / multiple agent&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Agent_environment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WikiDoc&lt;/a&gt; for a short overview.&#xA;In my oppinion, these criteria apply also to human problem&#xA;solving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another issue is the type of problem to be solved.&#xA;A measure for complexity may be the number of steps&#xA;that must be anticipated to solve the problem, e.g.&#xA;solving a chess endgame is more complex than solving&#xA;tic tac toe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="315" LastActivityDate="2012-03-23T14:30:38.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="625" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-23T16:53:30.223" Score="6" ViewCount="206" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1/how-is-it-that-taking-a-break-from-a-problem-sometimes-allows-you-to-figure-out&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; it is described that intentionally &lt;em&gt;not thinking about a problem&lt;/em&gt; can allow the subsonscious to find an answer to the problem; this is known as &lt;em&gt;incubation&lt;/em&gt;. I have heard and read it a few times that if you want to solve a tough problem you can read/think about it just before going to bed and let the brain come up with a solution while you sleep.  (I can find no references for this at the moment, however. Sorry)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, there have been few cases that provided a solution during sleep. (Benzene structure is one which I remember) Is it mere chance or false advertising, or is the brain really capable of incubating on an idea during sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A robotics guy I saw on TED claimed that he used to keep a notebook by the bed, so that he could jot down the ideas if any came to him during sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can one's brain incubate on an idea while sleeping? Can one train one's brain to incubate on a specific idea during sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="546" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-03-29T03:51:18.003" Title="Can one incubate on a specific idea in one's sleep?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="629" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="632" CreationDate="2012-03-24T21:12:41.300" Score="13" ViewCount="7610" Body="&lt;p&gt;I noticed something strange when I looked at &lt;a href=&quot;http://inventors.about.com/od/astartinventors/a/Famous_Inventor.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;about.com's list of famous historical inventors&lt;/a&gt;. You can see that most of the inventors are men, and only a few are women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can this be explained by &lt;em&gt;cognitive science&lt;/em&gt; in terms of men's brains having better abilities for inventing something? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or is this due to social factors or something else?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="554" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-11-19T19:22:50.167" LastActivityDate="2017-06-28T02:25:46.600" Title="Why have historically most inventors been men?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="630" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="634" CreationDate="2012-03-24T22:41:26.403" Score="14" ViewCount="1149" Body="&lt;p&gt;In doing a bit of background reading for &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/629/why-most-of-the-inventors-are-men&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; I came across a section in the book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0393927954&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind&lt;/a&gt; on page 602 stating:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are no sex-related differences in biological primary mathematical skills, even in nonhuman primates&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And later defines &lt;em&gt;secondary&lt;/em&gt; mathematical skills as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the kinds of math taught in schools in the industrialized world&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it doesn't define what &lt;em&gt;primary&lt;/em&gt; mathematical skills are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone explain what is meant by the term?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of The Mind, 2nd ed. M. S. Gazzaniga, R. B. Ivry, G. R. Mangun.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="105" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-03-25T13:36:10.633" Title="What are biological primary mathematical skills?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="631" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="508" CreationDate="2012-03-24T23:24:32.583" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another option is to program in C/C++ using the &lt;a href=&quot;http://users.ugent.be/~masteven/tscope/index.html&quot;&gt;Tscope&lt;/a&gt; library.&#xA;If you're not experienced with programming, it's a bit tricky at first, but I'd say it pays off in the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tscope is a C/C++ experiment programming library for cognitive&#xA;  scientists. It is distributed under the Gnu Public License, and is&#xA;  intended to run on Windows 2000 and XP platforms. It provides&#xA;  functions for graphics, sound, timing, randomization and response&#xA;  registration. Restricted Linux and Mac OS X versions are also&#xA;  available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://users.ugent.be/~masteven/tscope/introduction.html&quot;&gt;introduction page gives a broader overview of features&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-03-25T13:43:35.070" LastActivityDate="2012-03-25T13:43:35.070" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="632" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="629" CreationDate="2012-03-24T23:26:09.327" Score="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;A large part is cultural, because, until recently, the people with the best education and most of the money have been men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sexism kept women out of schools for a long time. It also kept pushing women into what were perceived to be more appropriate studies (nothing technical) when they were allowed into schools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have a look at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexism&quot;&gt;sexism&lt;/a&gt; page at Wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some evidence, as discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_differences#Brain_and_nervous_system&quot;&gt;this Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt;, there are differences between male and female human brains. Especially in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial%E2%80%93temporal_reasoning&quot;&gt;spacial temporal reasoning&lt;/a&gt; regions and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broca%27s_area&quot;&gt;language&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area&quot;&gt;areas&lt;/a&gt;. As well as Wikipedia, in the book Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of The Mind&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;, the authors state that human females are less good at the maths people are taught at school, which is linked to spacial reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this disparity is across the species as a whole. It is an average. Inventors, by their very nature, are not average. Thus the neurological differences are not the main contributing factor to why you see more men in your list than women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of The Mind, 2nd ed. M. S. Gazzaniga, R. B. Ivry, G. R. Mangun. Page 602&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="105" LastEditorUserId="105" LastEditDate="2012-03-24T23:52:21.027" LastActivityDate="2012-03-24T23:52:21.027" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="633" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="629" CreationDate="2012-03-25T03:36:24.370" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is a big topic, which I don't feel I can do justice to, but here are a few thoughts nonetheless. It's also important to see how resort to biological arguments could help to perpetuate such gender differences.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Brain is not behaviour&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain differences are irrelevant if they do not manifest in behaviour. Thus, to show that size of structure of the brain varies between genders may be suggestive. However, to use this to explain gender differences in the historical differences in inventors is a big leap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Empirical evidence for gender differences&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best data I've seen examining the size of gender differences on a wide range of psychological variables was the summary of meta analyses by Hyde (2005). &#xA;Hyde puts forward&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the &lt;em&gt;gender similarities hypothesis&lt;/em&gt;, which holds that males and&#xA;  females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables.&#xA;  Results from a review of 46 meta-analyses support the gender&#xA;  similarities hypothesis. Gender differences can vary substantially in&#xA;  magnitude at different ages and depend on the context in which&#xA;  measurement occurs. Overinflated claims of gender differences carry&#xA;  substantial costs in areas such as the workplace and relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, check out the first section of Table 1 of Hyde (2005) where you can get a summary of meta-analyses of gender differences in cognitive ability. In general the differences between males and females tend to be fairly small, and there are several meta-analyses that found females to have slightly superior ability to males. Furthermore, such studies don't prove whether the generally small differences observed will change in the future should society change in its treatment of males and females.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;What makes a great inventor?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine that all sorts of factors related to social context, individual traits, and learning experiences would be related to the emergence of great inventions. &#xA;Furthermore, the emergence of great inventors is often seen within a broader historical context, which encompasses periods of time where women's access to education, access to career opportunities, and role expectations provided minimal opportunity to become a great inventor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the expertise literature would provide a reasonable lens for thinking about what it takes to become an expert. E.g., check out some of the articles by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Ericsson&quot;&gt;K. Anders Ericsson&lt;/a&gt;. It emphasises the importance of spending thousands of hours of practice and effort in acquiring the skills required to become an expert. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, we might switch the question around to say, what causes someone to spend thousands of hours devoted to learning and developing skills relevant to making a great invention?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hyde, J. S. (2005). The Gender Similarity Hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60, 6, 581, 592. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.careerpioneernetwork.org/wwwroot/userfiles/files/the_gender_similarities_hypothesis.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-03-25T03:36:24.370" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="634" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="630" CreationDate="2012-03-25T03:57:23.440" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term seems to come from David C. Geary's 1995 article. Here's the abstract with full-text link below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An evolution-based framework for understanding biological and cultural&#xA;  influences on children's cognitive and academic development is&#xA;  presented. The utility of this framework is illustrated within the&#xA;  mathematical domain and serves as a foundation for examining current&#xA;  approaches to educational reform in the United States. Within this&#xA;  framework, &lt;strong&gt;there are two general classes of cognitive ability,&#xA;  biologically primary and biologically secondary&lt;/strong&gt;. Biologically primary&#xA;  cognitive abilities appear to have evolved largely by means of natural&#xA;  or sexual selection. Biologically secondary cognitive abilities&#xA;  reflect the co-optation of primary abilities for purposes other than&#xA;  the original evolution-based function and appear to develop only in&#xA;  specific cultural contexts. A distinction between these classes of&#xA;  ability has important implications for understanding children's&#xA;  cognitive development and achievement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can read more about David C. Geary's articles on mathematics on &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.missouri.edu/~gearyd/articles_math.htm&quot;&gt;his website&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Geary, D. C. (1995). Reflections of evolution and culture in children's cognition: Implications for mathematical development and instruction. American Psychologist, 50, 24-37. &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.missouri.edu/~gearyd/GearyAP.htm&quot;&gt;FULL TEXT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-03-25T07:00:35.843" LastActivityDate="2012-03-25T07:00:35.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="635" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1584" CreationDate="2012-03-26T00:32:58.623" Score="11" ViewCount="600" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theage.com.au/national/health/fertility-clock-ticks-for-men-too-20120325-1vsip.html&quot;&gt;the following in the paper today:&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dr Karin Hammarberg ... said that while most&#xA;  children are born healthy, &lt;strong&gt;large studies of parental age were starting&#xA;  to show higher rates of birth defects and autism in children born to&#xA;  men over 40&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A recent review of paternal age published in the Asian Journal of&#xA;  Andrology said an American study of 132,000 men found children of&#xA;  those over 45 were nearly six times more likely to have an autism&#xA;  spectrum disorder compared to children born to men under 30.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The review also pointed to a Dutch study of 60,000 births which found&#xA;  children born to men over 40 were three times more likely to have&#xA;  autism and a US study of 5 million births which showed men over 50 had&#xA;  a 15 per cent higher chance of having a baby with birth defects&#xA;  including congenital heart disease and cleft palates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, my first thought was that the age of the father must be highly correlated with the age of the mother. Thus, an alternative explanation is that the higher prevalence of birth defects for older fathers is due to the fact that older fathers typically have babies with older mothers. Of course, the same argument could be made for the reported higher prevalence of birth defects in older mothers (i.e., they're having babies with older fathers).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent is paternal age associated with prevalence of birth defects after controlling for maternal age?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent is any association between paternal age and prevalence of birth defects causal? (maternal age is the main covariate that I could think of, but there might be other important confounding variables)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-04-05T21:59:30.533" LastActivityDate="2012-09-07T00:17:27.043" Title="To what extent are correlations of father's age with birth defects and autism causal?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;aging&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="636" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="830" CreationDate="2012-03-26T04:02:27.317" Score="18" ViewCount="2760" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading the comments of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theage.com.au/national/health/fertility-clock-ticks-for-men-too-20120325-1vsip.html&quot;&gt;following article on paternal health and birth defects&lt;/a&gt;. Someone made the following comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The other thing is that mens interest in being a father is nowhere&#xA;  near a high priority as women's is to be a mother.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While this seemed like uninformed opinion, it seemed to raise an interesting question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any scientific empirical evidence to suggest that males and females differ in their desire to have children?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-07-10T09:22:37.857" Title="Do men and women differ in their desire to have children?" Tags="&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="611" CreationDate="2012-03-26T18:46:44.950" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Instead of having a single integrator with two bounds for two choices (symmetric random walk model), you can have many competing integrators each with a bound (race model). For example, see Fig 2. of &lt;a href=&quot;http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/eprint/JUj7dUJvjUWqeGwIFqzV/full/10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113038&quot;&gt;Gold and Shadlen 2007&lt;/a&gt; and references therein.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the continuous choices case, it is important to understand a limit of discrete choices can be very different from a continuous choice. For such a limit to make sense, there should be a notion of similarity between the choices, and I don't think those race models would generalize easily. A high dimensional continuous attractor dynamics is more likely to support such theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2012-03-26T18:46:44.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="638" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="619" CreationDate="2012-03-27T00:46:14.767" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Closely related to random firing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurotransmitter-filled &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicle_%28biology%29&quot;&gt;vesicles&lt;/a&gt; are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocytosis&quot;&gt;released&lt;/a&gt; not only &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_synapse#Neurotransmitter_release&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;en masse&lt;/em&gt; when a neuron fires&lt;/a&gt; but also &lt;strong&gt;individually at random intervals&lt;/strong&gt;. Nobel laureate Bernard Katz, who studied &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction&quot;&gt;NMJs&lt;/a&gt;, observed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the absence of any form of stimulation, the end-plate region of the&#xA;  muscle fibre is not completely at rest, but displays electric activity&#xA;  in the form of discrete, randomly recurring &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-plate_potential#Miniature_End_Plate_Potentials_.28MEPPs.29&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;miniature&lt;/em&gt; end-plate&#xA;  potentials.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For chemical synapses in general (not just NMJs), such potentials are known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential#Miniature_EPSPs&quot;&gt;miniature excitatory postsynaptic potentials&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1970/katz-lecture.pdf&quot;&gt;Katz, B. (1970) On the quantal mechanism of neural transmitter release. Nobel lecture.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-03-27T00:46:14.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="639" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-27T08:20:57.080" Score="9" ViewCount="663" Body="&lt;p&gt;The psychology literature suggests that 'good parenting' in early childhood is a crucial helping factor in brain development of child. (e.g., see &quot;Social Intelligence&quot; by Goleman.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where people grow up without 'good parenting' do they tend to, potentially unconsciously, offer similar 'bad parenting' to their children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By bad parenting, I mean any abusive and neglectful parenting behavior. Examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Getting drunk and beating wife in front of children (abusive). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Never appreciating any success of kid (neglectful). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does bad parenting breed bad parenting?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="560" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2013-03-31T13:30:06.923" LastActivityDate="2013-10-20T11:40:31.900" Title="Do victims of parental abuse and neglect become abusive or neglectful parents?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="640" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-27T08:51:51.380" Score="2" ViewCount="1548" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you read a book and you want to remember it you can encode the information into mental pictures with associations. This is a technique for remembering the content.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/y6T19.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;memorable image&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is when you encounter abstract concepts. How would you deal with them to create pictures that are more memorizable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a branch of memory science dealing with encoding techniques?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question was inspired by a HowToLearn.com article by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.howtolearn.com/experts/pat-wyman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pat Wyman&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.howtolearn.com/2011/07/how-to-remember-everything-you-read&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How To Remember Everything You Read Using Mental Pictures&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="554" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-03-28T11:24:11.520" LastActivityDate="2012-03-28T20:00:19.580" Title="Encoding of abstract concepts in memory" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;mnemonic&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="641" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-27T11:42:39.543" Score="7" ViewCount="424" Body="&lt;p&gt;By brainwashed I mean indoctrinated with some political, religious or other type of propaganda.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume that you can't be aware of this, because the lack of that awareness is the point of propaganda - to make you believe that something is true/false etc. But there must be a logical way to determine if you are brainwashed. Like &quot;your&quot; arguments following certain patterns maybe?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="564" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-03-27T11:50:43.653" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T01:05:51.363" Title="How can one find out if he/she is brainwashed?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="642" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="641" CreationDate="2012-03-27T12:45:35.623" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there is a strong argument that everyone is brainwashed, in the sense of having accepted ideas and principles that they cannot provide a-priori justification for. It is something of the definition of a worldview, which we all need to survive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if you take it to the perspective of &quot;have we had our worldview changed by external sources&quot;, the answer is also yes, for many people. We have all had a moment of realisation that something we had read or heard is important and significant, and we change our understanding - slowly or quickly - towards an acceptance of that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only real definition of brainwashing is whether we have had our worldview changed against our will. That is a far more difficult question. Does watching TV constitute &quot;against our will&quot;? Or reading controversial things on the internet that challenge us? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a good question, but I think there needs to be much clearer definition before a clear answer can be arrived at.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-03-27T13:36:54.957" LastActivityDate="2012-03-27T13:36:54.957" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="643" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-27T14:57:17.857" Score="40" ViewCount="10860" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing some casual reading about dream interpretation (meaning I'm reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_interpretation&quot;&gt;the wikipedia entry&lt;/a&gt;) and the article mentions that there are several ways of thinking about dreams from a psychological standpoint:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In modern times, various schools of psychology have offered theories about the meaning of dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the text offers no judgement of which of these approaches is currently believed to be most &quot;accurate&quot;. It simply lists various scholars and their theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I want to know is: which approach is considered the most &quot;correct&quot; by the scientific community and why? Is there a reason to take one of the listed methods of interpretation more seriously than another as a casual layman?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I'm not asking for your subjective answer. I'm looking for any evidence as to whether a specific method is more successful or more pursued by the profession and community in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="565" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-14T16:31:23.223" LastActivityDate="2019-08-12T06:25:56.293" Title="What is the current &quot;accepted&quot; science behind dream interpretation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;jung&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="8" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="644" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="690" CreationDate="2012-03-27T16:33:36.317" Score="16" ViewCount="731" Body="&lt;p&gt;Inspired by this question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/599/what-are-drawbacks-to-probabilistic-models-of-cognition&quot;&gt;What are some of the drawbacks to probabilistic models of cognition?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know more about the biological plausibility of Bayesian models of cognition. Is there any neural evidence that rejects Bayesian models of cognition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="548" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-09-17T22:33:29.493" Title="Biological plausibility of bayesian models of cognition" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="645" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="643" CreationDate="2012-03-27T16:53:55.563" Score="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, there is no accepted science to dream interpretation. In fact, there's no science to it at all. Evidence has shown that indeed, dreaming draws material from people, places, and things in our lives, but there's absolutely no scientific data out there (that I'm familiar with) that links dreams to anything meaningful in our actual daily lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anything, dreaming and sleep is an opportunity to &quot;replay&quot; patterns of neural activation that occurred during the day, leading to consolidation of long-term memories. I wouldn't take anything on that Wikipedia page seriously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Other arguments for why we sleep and dream:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) We may sleep to repair our brain or maintain homeostasis within the system. This would suggest that there's a substance in our body which requires sleep that increases its need over time. This possibility is evidenced by the fact that you can die of sleep deprivation -- but evidence against is that some amount of deprivation doesn't set you back all too far. (Also, why does sleep feel restorative, if it's only maintaining homeostasis?) There's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nih.gov/researchmatters/october2013/10282013clear.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;increasing amount of evidence to suggest that improved circulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain during sleep serves to clean the brain from toxic metabolic byproducts of daily activity.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) It's also possible that sleep and dreaming serves the body's overall safety. This argument stems from value long-ago in sleeping during the dangerous nighttime, when predators and other dangerous animals generally have the upper hand over man. This seems reasonably vestigial in humans, though...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3) It also may be the case that sleep and dreaming is effective for conserving our neurak energy over the course of the day. Indeed, slow-wave sleep is associated with reduced cortical activity -- but then again, REM sleep features high activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(4) An even more powerful possibility is that neural reprogramming is dependent on sleep. This is evidenced by consolidation effects that occur while we rest, and the fact that less interference occurs during the sleeping hours (see Jenkins &amp;amp; Dallenbach, 1924, if you want to read a real classic). There are many minimal sleepers out there, though, that are high functioning, so what does that mean for this theory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2014-11-29T17:50:45.540" LastActivityDate="2014-11-29T17:50:45.540" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="646" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="641" CreationDate="2012-03-27T16:56:40.723" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is just lay theorizing, but I would try and find a measure of my attitudes at a certain point in time (e.g., an old journal entry, a blog post, an essay) and compare the reasoning in that to current reasoning. If I identify huge changes in personal ideology between that old bit of material and current thinking, I should perhaps ask a third-party to attempt to objectively determine whether that discrepancy reflects a natural maturation process or something more perverse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-03-27T16:56:40.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="640" CreationDate="2012-03-27T16:58:25.947" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Read &quot;Moonwalking with Einstein&quot; by Foer or watch or listen to transcripts of the world's memory experts, such as Ben Pridmore. You'll notice that they have their own special techniques to make abstract concepts more memorable. These individuals have increased difficulty with less concrete themes, however, and it may be best to process the to-be-remembered items not by focusing on imagery but, perhaps, semantic meaning or another sort of deep encoding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-03-27T16:58:25.947" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="648" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="641" CreationDate="2012-03-27T20:25:48.103" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;As Schroedinger's Cat pointed out, there's no clear dividing line between &quot;brainwashing&quot; and the normal processes of growing up in or assimilating into a culture or social group. Even in the case of deliberate, forced procedures, it can be unclear -- for example, the US military has recruits do drills and engage in synchronized practices that we know to affect thoughts, feelings, and beliefs, but most people wouldn't call that brainwashing. However, you could look into military training practices, as well as techniques used by abusive cults, and see if you've been subjected to those at any point in your life. That might answer your question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way would be to think about the criteria you would use to describe a thoroughly un-brainwashed person, and work from there. For example, do you believe that you should be able to cite a preponderance of evidence for all of your beliefs? That you should have a clear and volitional explanation for your life choices? You can then work toward those goals, questioning or changing your beliefs as necessary. Be aware that hardly anyone really meets these criteria! We all absorb cultural values and prejudices, use unconscious heuristics to make decisions, and make choices that we rationalize later. But you could certainly work on moving in a more rationalist direction if you want to. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="567" LastActivityDate="2012-03-27T20:25:48.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="649" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="643" CreationDate="2012-03-28T08:14:04.180" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe that the current view is that when asleep, the mind processes the events of the day, the issues of note, and classifies them, storing the relevant events in memories linking these to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dreams are then the process of replaying and connecting events to others, making links to other memories, which is why sometimes solutions can come when asleep, because conenctions re made. Also, this is where nightmares come from, as links are made to other negative or disturbing experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience, this makes sense, which holds no scientific basis whatsoever, but I find it a comfort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-03-29T12:46:22.537" LastActivityDate="2012-03-29T12:46:22.537" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="651" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="654" CreationDate="2012-03-28T16:16:47.583" Score="8" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in modeling human brain spiking activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there cases in which neural spiking completely ceases in an organism and yet later resumes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've considered:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;hypothermic drowning, but medical reports (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/125/5/1948.full&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) on the topic suggest that recording a patients' EEG or other indicators of spiking activity is not a priority when trying to revive a patient.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptobiosis&quot;&gt;cryptobiosis&lt;/a&gt;, but haven't found any relevant studies.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="421" LastEditDate="2012-03-28T17:38:50.997" LastActivityDate="2012-12-03T03:06:33.877" Title="Can neural spiking in an organism temporarily cease?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="652" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="223" CreationDate="2012-03-28T16:29:10.227" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not aware of any study that specifically addresses &lt;em&gt;dream&lt;/em&gt; recall, but there is a growing literature about &quot;memory reconsolidation&quot; or &quot;post-reactivation plasticity&quot;, the idea that memory reactivation (recall) can temporarily return a memory to a state of high fragility and susceptibility to interference, after which a process similar to consolidation makes it more resistent again. Most  memory reconsolidation work has been with animals, but there are a few studies with human subjects [1][2]. [3] is an interesting paper about (re)consolidation of motor memory during slow-wave sleep. [4] and [5] are good reviews of the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Hupbach, A., Gomez, R., Hardt, O., &amp;amp; Nadel, L. (2007). Reconsolidation of episodic memories: A subtle reminder triggers integration of new information. Learning &amp;amp; Memory, 14(1-2), 47 -53. doi:10.1101/lm.365707&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Forcato, C., Burgos, V. L., Argibay, P. F., Molina, V. A., Pedreira, M. E., &amp;amp; Maldonado, H. (2007). Reconsolidation of declarative memory in humans. Learning &amp;amp; Memory, 14(4), 295-303. doi:10.1101/lm.486107&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Walker, M. P., Brakefield, T., Hobson, J. A., &amp;amp; Stickgold, R. (2003). Dissociable stages of human memory consolidation and reconsolidation. Nature, 425(6958), 616–620. doi:10.1038/nature01930&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Nader, K., &amp;amp; Hardt, O. (2009). A single standard for memory: the case for reconsolidation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 224–234. doi:10.1038/nrn2590&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[5] Schiller, D., &amp;amp; Phelps, E. A. (2011). Does Reconsolidation Occur in Humans? Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 5. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00024&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="404" LastEditorUserId="404" LastEditDate="2012-05-12T12:10:59.347" LastActivityDate="2012-05-12T12:10:59.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="653" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="90" CreationDate="2012-03-28T16:29:49.197" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I alluded in the comments, I think your question is underpinned by a more fundamental worry of the &quot;best level of description&quot; for psychological phenomena. If you a &lt;strong&gt;reductionist&lt;/strong&gt; then you believe that all of psychology is best explained in terms of the activity of neurons (or systems of neurons if you are of the system perspective; note that some do not consider this reductionist. However, it does reduce to the physical basis).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, Putnam and Fodor (and I suspect most proponents of strong AI) argue for &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_realizability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multiple realizability&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: mental states and psychology can be implemented in various physical substrates, not just biological neurons. If you subscribe to this view, then it is natural to expect the best level of description of psychology to be independent of the specifics of a physical implementation (think algorithm-analysis in theoretical computer science). Since brains are physical things that implement minds, you would believe that a neurobiological basis does exist, but its details are irrelevant to your theory. Note that many theories in psychology can be viewed at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/525/29&quot;&gt;macro- or &lt;strong&gt;behaviorist&lt;/strong&gt; level&lt;/a&gt; and as I suggested earlier: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/600/29&quot;&gt;many theories in cognitive science lack a solid neuronal grounding&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have a physics background, then the weak analogy I would make is &lt;em&gt;thermodynamics versus statistical mechanics&lt;/em&gt;. Thermodynamics is a macro-level theory that can exist without micro-level detail. However, eventually thermodynamics found a micro-level grounding in statistical mechanics. Does that mean we abandon thermodynamics and only study stat mech?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your &lt;strong&gt;nature vs. nurture&lt;/strong&gt; distinction, if we accept mutliple realizability then we can use the above ideas to try to formalize the terminology. We can think of &lt;em&gt;nature features&lt;/em&gt; as ones that are best described at the level of the specific implementation of the human brain, and &lt;em&gt;nurture features&lt;/em&gt; as ones that are best described on a macro-level that would apply to any reasonable implementation. I don't know if this idea has been deeply studied or if it has any interesting bearing on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nature vs. nurture debate&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-03-28T16:29:49.197" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="654" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="651" CreationDate="2012-03-28T19:38:11.697" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your link to Wikipedia's cryptobiosis article mentions that Tardigrades are capable of reducing their metabolic activity to 0.01% of normal levels, and their water content to 1%, a state which they can maintain for up to 10 years. Possessing a &lt;a href=&quot;http://jbs.lu.lv/arhivs/faili/tardigrada_nervu_sistema.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;considerable nervous system&lt;/a&gt;, it is almost certain that Tardigrade neurons are not active at all during that period, especially since neurons are some of the most energy-demanding cells. Some nematodes, which apparently are also cryptobiotic, would be a similar case. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another relevant context would be hypoxic insults to brain tissue. Hypoxia-induced neurological damage results partly from a cascade of glutamate-release that is caused by diminished ATP production in neurons. According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeb.biologists.org/content/205/23/3579.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a study by Bickler and Donohoe (2002)&lt;/a&gt;, some animal's neurons, in order to preserve ATP levels, are equipped to block action potentials at the onset hypoxic incidents. See the section &quot;Why does the lack of O2 kill typical neurons rapidly?&quot;--they even cite a study that performed EEGs (as you suggested) on anoxic turtles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether it is anything-but-rare for spike trains to be completely inhibited during the course of regular nervous system function is another question, and I wish I knew the answer.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Bickler, P. E., &amp;amp; Donohoe, P. H. (2002). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resp.2006.03.004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Adaptive responses of vertebrate neurons to hypoxia.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of experimental biology, 205(23), 3579-3586. &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeb.biologists.org/content/205/23/3579.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-12-03T03:06:33.877" LastActivityDate="2012-12-03T03:06:33.877" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="655" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="311" CreationDate="2012-03-28T19:45:07.897" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would search under the topic of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_computing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;affective computing&lt;/a&gt; especially in &lt;em&gt;detecting and recognizing emotional information&lt;/em&gt; and then specialize on &lt;em&gt;NLP&lt;/em&gt; methods in this area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a few articles of interest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://larifari.org/_/writing/CHI2003-PoseidonsEye.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Visualizing the affective structure of a text document&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://larifari.org/_/writing/IUI2003-AffectSensing.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A model of textual affect sensing using real-world knowledge&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://larifari.org/_/writing/AAAICompAesthetics2006-Saurus.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Saurus: an emotionally-weighted thesaurus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gouldstone, J., Liu, H., Lieberman, H., Ishii, H. (2006). Saurus: an emotionally-weighted thesaurus.  &lt;em&gt;Computational aesthetics: Artificial intelligence approaches to beauty and happiness&lt;/em&gt;, Technical Report WS-06-04.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liu, H., Selker, T., Lieberman, H. (2003). Visualizing the Affective Structure of a Text Document. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems&lt;/em&gt;, CHI 2003, April 5-10, 2003, Ft. Lauderdale, FL, USA. ACM 2003, ISBN 1-58113-637-4, pp. 740-741.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liu, H., Lieberman, H., Selker, T. (2003). A Model of Textual Affect Sensing using Real-World Knowledge. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the 2003 International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces&lt;/em&gt;, IUI 2003, January 12-15, 2003, Miami, FL, USA. ACM 2003, ISBN 1-58113-586-6, pp. 125-132. Miami, Florida.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="554" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-20T09:49:17.743" LastActivityDate="2012-10-20T09:49:17.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="656" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="640" CreationDate="2012-03-28T20:00:19.580" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;My first psychology professor always encouraged us to try and relate new concepts to concrete examples (hypothetical or real). When that is not possible, I find that elaboration (adding further information that depends on the idea) is a good way to help remember an abstract concept. Of course, both of these methods can be time and effort intensive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6" LastActivityDate="2012-03-28T20:00:19.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="657" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="625" CreationDate="2012-03-28T20:40:54.130" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/106/25/10130.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; study found that REM sleep &quot;enhances the integration of unassociated information for creative problem solving&quot;, and to an extent that surpasses the benefits of &quot;quiet rest and non-REM sleep&quot;. try a google scholar search for '&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.ca/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=psychology%20sleep%20%20incubation%20&amp;amp;btnG=Search&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,5&amp;amp;as_ylo=&amp;amp;as_vis=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychology sleep  incubation &lt;/a&gt;'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagusstoff&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the experiment that yielded the first discovery of a neurotransmitter&lt;/a&gt; was famously claimed to have been conceived of during a dream and was conducted during the middle of that same night. The scientist, Otto Lowel, had failed to successfully document the same dream nights prior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6" LastEditorUserId="6" LastEditDate="2012-03-29T03:51:18.003" LastActivityDate="2012-03-29T03:51:18.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="658" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="680" CreationDate="2012-03-28T22:22:50.190" Score="12" ViewCount="234" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to make a survey and I'm having trouble to find a scale to measure the adoption of norms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The people who fill in the survey have to think about a situation in which they were ashamed. For example, they stole something, got caught and the entire school knew of it. &lt;strong&gt;I'd like to measure to what extent they have adopted new behavioural norms to handle the situation differently in the future&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g., not steal). The most convenient scale would be a likert scale, which is easy to analyse statistically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read dozens of papers about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recidivism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;recidivism&lt;/a&gt;, norm incorporation, norm adoption, ... but none of them seem to measure how I'd like to do it. My survey has to be backed up by literature, but in this case, after many hours and hours (for the past several weeks) I can't seem to find what I'm looking for. I'm disposing of a university account that has access to most academical papers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I was looking at recidivism, the scales I found were just asking demographic questions and other questions to assess whether or not the subject would be doing the same crime again. It weren't questions that you could ask to see if the subject had incorporated new social norms. Other research about norm adoption/incorporation just handles the subject as such without assessing it. Maybe there is a common used term for norm incorporation which I can't seem to find (not a native speaker)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="570" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-04-02T02:56:31.230" LastActivityDate="2012-04-02T02:56:31.230" Title="Measuring the adoption of norms" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;norms&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="659" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="960" CreationDate="2012-03-29T11:35:16.363" Score="11" ViewCount="1219" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that bias exists, and that it affects our judgment and perception. This effect has to do with user's experience in life. That experience is taken care of by the brain, and if you counter a situation again, you have a predefined pattern of how to react. This can be changed over time, if other experiences is added. Wikipedia defines &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias&quot;&gt;cognitive bias&lt;/a&gt; as: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a pattern of deviation in judgment that occurs in particular situations, leading to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, or what is broadly called irrationality. Implicit in the concept of a &quot;pattern of deviation&quot; is a standard of comparison with what is normatively expected. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other disciplines, measurement is a valuable tool. One would wish for a scale of deviation from &quot;what is normally expected&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to quantify cognitive bias?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-03-29T13:45:14.387" LastActivityDate="2012-09-20T11:27:35.173" Title="Is it possible to quantify cognitive bias?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="660" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="708" CreationDate="2012-03-29T12:48:32.727" Score="16" ViewCount="10896" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a good way to analyze reaction times and accuracy together, other than &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivariate_analysis_of_variance&quot;&gt;MANOVA&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have data from an experiment in which participants had to respond to stimuli in two different conditions in a within-subject design. And my impression is that some subjects differ in accuracy between those two conditions, while some others differ in reaction time. &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;How can I test such a hypothesis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="571" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-03-30T00:11:10.563" LastActivityDate="2014-04-18T22:39:39.597" Title="How to analyze reaction times and accuracy together?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="661" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-03-29T14:20:46.183" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive bias is a pattern of deviation in judgment that occurs in particular situations, leading to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, or what is broadly called irrationality. Implicit in the concept of a &quot;pattern of deviation&quot; is a standard of comparison with what is normatively expected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions having the bias tag regards cognitive bias in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="566" LastEditDate="2012-03-29T14:53:11.153" LastActivityDate="2012-03-29T14:53:11.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="662" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-03-29T14:20:46.183" Score="0" Body="For questions about systematic patterns of deviation in judgment from normative decision-theoretic expectations." OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:18:18.337" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:18:18.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="663" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="660" CreationDate="2012-03-29T14:43:02.083" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;MANOVA is definitely a bad idea given that one dv is continuous and the other is binomial. After exploring a number of different approaches to combining RT and accuracy data, I've come to conclude that the best current approach is to use linear ballistic accumulator model (e.g., see Donkin et al 2011). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The LBA is a simple (structurally and computationally) framework that lets you speak to the different processes (info processing efficiency vs response criterion) that jointly contribute to RT and error data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Donkin, C., Brown, S. &amp;amp; Heathcote, A. (2011). Drawing conclusions from choice response time models: A tutorial using the linear ballistic accumulator. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 55, 140-151. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newcl.org/publications/crtmtute-revision.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="51" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-08T10:54:32.290" LastActivityDate="2012-10-08T10:54:32.290" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="664" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="659" CreationDate="2012-03-29T15:36:37.263" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bias can be quantified in many different ways. In human memory research carried out in the cognitive psychology tradition, there are simple ways to think about it. One basic measure of cognitive bias is merely called &lt;em&gt;bias&lt;/em&gt;, and it's a measure of the absolute accuracy of an individual's probability judgments. You average probability judgments across a given subject, then average performance, and subtract one from the other. The magnitude and direction of this discrepancy could be argued to reflect a task-specific cognitive bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's not useful without a concrete example. Say I ask you 10 questions tapping your general knowledge about the world (e.g., &quot;Who invaded Rome by crossing the Alps with elephants?&quot;) After you respond, I ask you to rate your confidence on a scale from 0% (not at all confident) to 100% (entirely confident). We do this for nine more questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After you've taken this short test, I can easily calculate your bias by averaging your accuracy across the 10 questions (say you get 2 wrong, so 80%) and subtracting your average confidence across those questions (say it's 73%).  It's a 7% difference, and you were more accurate than you were confident, so your bias is said to be 7% -- you were &lt;em&gt;underconfident&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are lots of other ways you can think about this. Say, for instance, you weren't interested in overconfidence or underconfidence, but rather, just the degree to which your performance differed from your estimations. Here you could just use the squared value of the difference to represent probability accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-03-29T15:36:37.263" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="665" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="666" CreationDate="2012-03-29T15:50:31.337" Score="9" ViewCount="2033" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basic question here from a behavioral researcher: What are the major structures of the medial temporal lobe (MTL)? Can anyone link to a good diagram of these structures?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-03-29T21:25:40.500" Title="What are the major structures of the medial temporal lobe?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="666" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="665" CreationDate="2012-03-29T21:25:40.500" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;The MTL consists of (note that some structures overlap):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;cortical areas, which can be categorized in at least three ways:&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;portions of two gyri&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;entire &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parahippocampal_gyrus&quot;&gt;parahippocampal gyrus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;anterior medial side of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusiform_gyrus&quot;&gt;fusiform gyrus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;five named cortical areas:&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perirhinal_cortex&quot;&gt;perirhinal cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;parahippocampal cortex (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parahippocampal_gyrus&quot;&gt;parahippocampal gyrus&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entorhinal_cortex&quot;&gt;entorhinal cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/CentralDirectory.aspx?ID=167&amp;amp;questID=2302&quot;&gt;presubiculum&lt;/a&gt;*&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/CentralDirectory.aspx?ID=2304&amp;amp;questID=2302&quot;&gt;parasubiculum&lt;/a&gt;*&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;five &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area&quot;&gt;Brodmann areas&lt;/a&gt;: 27, 28, 34, 35, 36&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus&quot;&gt;hippocampus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala&quot;&gt;amygdala&lt;/a&gt;*&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;* indicates that not all literature includes this component in the MTL&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I didn't find a diagram of only the MTL. The best diagrams I found were (not shown here because I don't own the copyright):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0071402357/156721/figure350_1.gif&quot;&gt;Figure 1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://introspectional.com/section2/images/limbic3a.gif&quot;&gt;Figure 2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neuropolitics.org/TemporalLobe.gif&quot;&gt;Figure 3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brodmann, K. (1909) Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde in ihren Prinzipien dargestellt auf Grund des&#xA;  Zellenbaues. Leipzig : Johann Ambrosius Barth.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Squire, L.R., Stark, C.E.L., &amp;amp; Clark, R.E. (2004) The Medial Temporal Lobe. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 27:279–306&#xA;  [&lt;a href=&quot;http://whoville.ucsd.edu/PDFs/383_Squire_etal_%20AnnRevNeurosci2004.pdf&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-03-29T21:25:40.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="667" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="660" CreationDate="2012-03-29T22:56:56.380" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently had similar problem and I used inverse efficiency (IE) scores. These scores&#xA;were derived by dividing the response times by correct response rates separately for each condition, carried out in such a way that the higher the score was, the worse was the performance. So you get something like &quot;corrected reaction time&quot; scores. Here is example of paper that uses it - check Experiment 2 on page 144:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Petrini, K., McAleer, P., &amp;amp; Pollick, F. E. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.gla.ac.uk/docs/download.php?type=PUBLS&amp;amp;id=1482&quot;&gt;Audiovisual&#xA;  integration of emotional signals from music improvisation does not&#xA;  depend on temporal correspondence&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Brain research&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;1323&lt;/em&gt;,&#xA;  139-148.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastActivityDate="2012-03-29T22:56:56.380" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="668" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="660" CreationDate="2012-03-30T12:39:15.957" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a variety of models solving accuracy and RT that have been pretty well tested and LBA is probably fine (I haven't used it).  If you don't want to go that far there is a rather simple way to analyze data controlling for SAT that has much better mathematical properties than IE scores (which, as Mike said were named by me, but offhandedly proposed by Townsend &amp;amp; Asby, easily conceptualized as related to older rate of information scores holding information constant, and probably popularized most by Shore).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first problem with the IE transformation (rt in ms ÷ proportion correct) is that it assumes a linear relationship between RT and acc.  That's clearly not the case.  While one can often achieve a linear relationship between a predictor and RT, the relationship between a predictor and accuracy is invariably an ogive.  One can make it much more linear by transforming accuracy to logit or log-odds scores (keep in mind accuracy, and in most cases even RT, are COMPLETELY arbitrary representations of what they measure).  Furthermore, rt has much better statistical properties represented as responses/second than seconds/response.  So, taking 1/rt in seconds would make that data more normal.  Therefore, logit / inverse RT scores might be a better transform.  But it's still a transform into some unknown score... I think we could call it Linearized Inverse Efficiency (or L.I.E) :)... OK, it's not actually inverse efficiency anymore since it's not an inverse rate but an accuracy corrected rate.. how about A.C.E, accuracy corrected efficiency?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But... if you're going to go that far, why not just model the logistic regression on RT in each condition?  You could then hold the RT constant for each condition (maybe the grand mean) and look at the changes in predicted accuracy across conditions.  That would be a reasonable way to combine the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only issue I've run into with that last one is that it's all about the leading edge of your RT distribution.  You need to hack off everything after accuracy asymptotes.  If what you intended to measure is the immediate response to a stimulus then that's perfectly fine.  If you want to capture something about the tails of the distributions it might not be well represented, but you could look at that separately.  You could keep that later data by just making the logistic regression quadratic.  On the flip side, one advantage you get is that you actually make use of all of the early low accuracy RTs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This method does require those low accuracy RTs so you do, in general, have to encourage speed in the experiment.  That should also be done with any transform or model of RT and accuracy because you have to have some accuracy variance to work with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(one thing I haven't tried, which would probably work, is just entering RT into a multilevel logistic regression of accuracy.  If you include it as an interaction term you can then examine the predicted scores holding it constant.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T08:07:43.113" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T08:07:43.113" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="669" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-30T15:05:21.520" Score="2" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;In one of Karl Lashley's 1950 papers, it is pointed out that information is not stored locally in certain area of the brain. Instead, it's stored distributively over the structure of the brain. I'm curious about how, in detail, is it stored in &quot;structure.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what's the process when neurons try to encode information &quot;distributively&quot;? How do the brain retrieve these distributed information?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="574" LastEditorUserId="1003" LastEditDate="2014-06-08T08:59:40.263" LastActivityDate="2014-06-23T10:13:39.760" Title="Where do our memories get stored and how are they retrieved again?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-04-28T14:51:35.277" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="670" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="669" CreationDate="2012-03-30T15:14:19.480" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Long-term potentiation (LTP)&lt;/a&gt; is thought to be a major mechanism of long-term learning, in which neurons throughout the brain undergo permanent physiological changes (e.g., migration of AMPA receptors to neuronal terminal buttons) that allow maintenance of the memory trace. A simpler version of this would be the famous aphorism (and oversimplication) regarding Hebbian learning -- &quot;cells that fire together wire together.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-03-30T15:14:19.480" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="671" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="506" CreationDate="2012-03-31T05:09:58.390" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;@Jeromy Anglim: I'm actually creating a serial response time task (a widely used learning task) for the iPad now. We hope to get it up in the appstore soon but I'm using it along with a few others for my master's thesis. We're almost done putting the finishing touches on the task and hope to post a youtube video soon of the task. We're not intending to make any money off of the app and will be providing the source code for empirical scrutiny and maybe improvement of the paradigm (once it comes out). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As per the general discussion concerning RT and psychophysical properties of the iPad: In my task I am not necessarily concerned with the perceptual delay appearing AFTER you've touched an object. Rather I'm more concerned about the delay in the iPad's speed of registering a touch on the screen as I'm saving response time based upon the participant touch. I'm not very familiar with the steps involved in the touch registration process but assume a piece of the overall 100 ms delay is in the time it takes for the iPad to register the touch. I also assume that this would be a relatively small proportion of that 100ms. However, I then have to worry about the time at which the iPad's hardward and then iOS &quot;grace&quot; my app with this information (about this, I'm completely clueless). As my task is about visuomotor implicit learning I may expect to see differences across time on the order of tens of milliseconds and so am certainly concerned about the touch registration delay from: screen touch &gt;&gt; hardware &gt;&gt; iOS &gt;&gt; my app.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any ideas on this second form of delay? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="575" LastActivityDate="2012-03-31T05:09:58.390" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="672" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="674" CreationDate="2012-03-31T11:07:48.260" Score="33" ViewCount="6099" Body="&lt;p&gt;George A. Miller published &lt;em&gt;&quot;The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information&quot;&lt;/em&gt; in 1956 and is one of the most highly cited papers in psychology.  It &lt;em&gt;supposedly&lt;/em&gt; argues that the number of objects an average human can hold in working memory is 7 ± 2. This is frequently referred to as Miller's Law.&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've learned this in school as well, and I often use the magic number seven when it comes to grouping of elements in more logical units. However recent research question Miller's Law stating that the correct number a human being can hold in working memory is three or four&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/piq.20099/abstract&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. In my daily life, I can see that this is more likely. When I go shopping, I need to write a shopping list if there are more than four things I need to buy and by this not forget what it was I'm supposed to buy. &lt;em&gt;One could argue that my working memory is worse than average, but I would never agree to such a statement.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the question remains and is puzzling my mind... &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Is The magical number 7 still valid?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia article on Miller's Law&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/piq.20099/abstract&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Jeanne Farrington EdD, &lt;em&gt;&quot;Seven plus or minus two&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T18:37:49.203" LastActivityDate="2018-10-17T09:59:22.670" Title="Is The magical number 7 still valid?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="15" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="673" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-31T13:07:40.157" Score="8" ViewCount="379" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading a few articles and papers about individuals identifying with groups and their behaviors and attitudes, however I haven't yet found an answer to one of the questions that I was trying to learn about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does a strong identity association with a group (or multiple groups) indicate about the person as an individual (preferably from a social or IO psychology perspective), if anything?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was looking to learn about were to see if a strong identity association with groups could possible be indicative of their ability to function well on other teams or if they are more suited to particular roles on a team (management, coordination activities as opposed to other team functions) as opposed to someone who tended to not have strong identity associations with groups. I'm also interested in their development as a person, especially with regards to relationships (friendship, romantic, at the workplace, out of the workplace).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4" LastEditorUserId="4" LastEditDate="2012-04-01T11:44:39.200" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T08:54:23.087" Title="Can an individual having strong identity associations with groups be used to infer anything about them?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="672" CreationDate="2012-03-31T14:44:19.337" Score="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I recall, the &amp;quot;magic&amp;quot; of the number seven is that George Miller had to give a 1h-presentation while not having enough research on one particular topic to talk about this long. So he tried to connect unrelated lines of research, with the only connection between them being that they show cognitive limitations of similar magnitude (&amp;quot;7+/-2 items&amp;quot;). However, the comparison was not very serious and mostly rhetorical.&#xA;So I guess the short answer is: No it is not valid, and it has never really been.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an short article that answers your question in more detail:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cowan, N., Morey, C.C., &amp;amp; Chen, Z. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/255060875_The_Legend_of_the_Magical_Number_Seven&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The legend of the magical number seven.&lt;/a&gt; In S. Della Sala (Ed.), Tall tales about the mind &amp;amp; brain: Separating fact from fiction (pp. 45-59). Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And here is Millers original article, it's actually fun to read:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, G. A. (1956). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/users/peterson/psy430s2001/Miller%20GA%20Magical%20Seven%20Psych%20Review%201955.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information&amp;quot;.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological Review 63 (2): 81–97.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="571" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T13:44:05.213" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="675" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="658" CreationDate="2012-03-31T19:21:06.170" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you have spent hours and hours trying to find a scale, that may or may not exist, I think you need to move forward and think different. You have access to some of the worlds collected knowledge as a student, but can't find anything useful. Either the scale your looking for is not present or it is not enough recognized by the research community to bubble up to the surface as you search. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have two options. (1) Find another research area, witch would lead to waste of time since you have already spent a lot of time on this research topic. (2) Invent the scale yourself, because that's how we build knowledge. That’s very easy to write, but much harder to invent and implement. Still, you have (probably) already an idea of what to measure and how to do it. If it were my teacher in school they would roll out the red carpet if I even tried to do something this bold. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make it easy, you can use a nominal scale where you just categorize different adaptations to norm without order. Just make distinct definition of each category, based on knowledge from the papers you have already read. If you are confident that these things can be ordered, use an ordinal scale which can be as simple as (1) adapts norm completely, (2) does not fully adapt the norm and (3) does not adapt norm. This can of course be extended - but the more you divide the ordinal scale, the more crucial is the definition. The good thing about the ordinal scale is that it does not take into account the distance between each element, just the position. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that this is not what you expected as an answer to your question, but I want to help you the best way I can. Hope this helps. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good start on measurement: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_measurement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_measurement&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="566" LastActivityDate="2012-03-31T19:21:06.170" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="676" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="677" CreationDate="2012-03-31T21:58:38.150" Score="22" ViewCount="12715" Body="&lt;p&gt;This happens to me frequently. I'll say, &quot;Oh you know that guy... uhh... I can't remember his name. But he starts with a 'Z'.&quot; You can remember part of the word but not the whole word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a term for this situation? What causes it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="578" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-11-03T14:52:11.630" LastActivityDate="2013-12-02T05:56:39.260" Title="Is there a term for trying to remember a word, but only remembering its first letter?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="676" CreationDate="2012-03-31T22:08:03.627" Score="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue&quot;&gt;Tip of the Tongue&lt;/a&gt; phenomenon. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People in a tip-of-the-tongue state can often recall one or more features of the target word, such as the first letter, its syllabic stress, and words similar in sound and/or meaning. Individuals report a feeling of being seized by the state, feeling something like mild anguish while searching for the word, and a sense of relief when the word is found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a very common phenomenon, and it presents itself in several similar forms, as the Wikipedia description notes. Remembering just the first letter is a common form but not the only cue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a couple of suggested causes, but generally the problem is failure to &lt;em&gt;completely&lt;/em&gt; retrieve information you &quot;know&quot; is in fact there. The Wikipedia article has some information on the general theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-03-31T23:45:37.123" LastActivityDate="2012-03-31T23:45:37.123" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="678" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="681" CreationDate="2012-04-01T01:02:41.460" Score="10" ViewCount="3155" Body="&lt;p&gt;While looking into &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/658/421&quot;&gt;another question on how to measure the adoption of norms&lt;/a&gt;, I came to wonder whether there are any standard tests to measure psychopathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the accepted standard tests to measure psychopathy?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2020-03-09T21:06:24.940" Title="Are there any standard tests to measure psychopathy?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="679" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="678" CreationDate="2012-04-01T01:04:09.833" Score="8" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hare_Psychopathy_Checklist&quot;&gt;Hare Psychopathy Checklist&lt;/a&gt; is often used to assess psychopathy in clinical settings. NPR has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/2011/05/26/136619689/can-a-test-really-tell-whos-a-psychopath&quot;&gt;good, but unscientific read&lt;/a&gt; that ponders the validity of the Hare test and its reliability in predicting criminal recidivism.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The online &lt;a href=&quot;http://personality-testing.info/tests/LPS.php&quot;&gt;Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale&lt;/a&gt; is a test of psychopathy for research situations.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Hare, R. D. (2003). Manual for the Revised Psychopathy Checklist (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Miller, J. D., Gaughan, E.T., Pryor, L.R. (2008) The Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale: An Examination of the Personality Traits and Disorders Associated With the LSRP Factors. Assessment 15(4): 450-463.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-04-01T01:04:09.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="680" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="658" CreationDate="2012-04-01T01:26:30.103" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes -- I would look into the literature of &lt;strong&gt;attitude change&lt;/strong&gt;. I think this research would be relevant to your hypotheses.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here's the Wikipedia article for attitude change&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://libproxy.wustl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;amp;db=psyh&amp;amp;AN=1980-10978-001&amp;amp;site=ehost-live&amp;amp;scope=site&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here's a representative paper from that literature that might be useful&lt;/a&gt;. At any rate, I don't think the phrase &quot;norm adoption&quot; is the right wording for what you're studying in English. Does this help?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2012-04-01T01:26:30.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="681" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="678" CreationDate="2012-04-01T03:30:02.333" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Hare Psychopathology Checklist is considered the current gold standard for measuring potential psychopathy. If you're interested in psychopathology, the book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1572304510&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Without Conscience&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Robert Hare, Ph.D., is a fascinating read. He has a second book called &lt;em&gt;Snakes In Suits&lt;/em&gt;, which I have not yet read, so I cannot recommend or not recommend it. Dr. Hare has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hare.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;website&lt;/a&gt; with a lot of fascinating information and links about psychopathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyhow, the Hare Psychopathology Checklist is abbreviated as the PCL. There is the regular PCL (First Edition), the PCL-SV (Screening Version), the PCL-R (Second Edition - Revised - Adults), and the PCL-YV (Youth Version). &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Only a clinical professional specifically trained in administration of the PCL or PCL-R can give an accurate assessment and interpret the results.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; When I was working with offenders, I sent exactly three individuals to have a PCL-R assessment and all three times the offender came back as having exceptionally high psychopathy scores. When you work with offenders you learn what the psychopathy vibe feels like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;primary&lt;/em&gt; purpose of the PCL, any version, is to determine if psychopathy is present. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;There is no perfect test to predict recidivism in any population&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;; there are simply risk factors that, when combined together, demonstrate a lesser or higher presumption of risk for recidivism, and risk is dynamic (see below). If I may quote from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://dcj.state.co.us/odvsom/sex_offender/SO_Pdfs/No%20Known%20Cure%20position%20paper%20FINAL%20Aug%202011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Colorado Department of Safety, Division of Criminal Justice, Sex Offender Management Board&lt;/a&gt;, as I did in my answer regarding pedophilia, I think this sums up recidivism in psychopaths quite nicely: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Risk is dynamic&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Treatment and supervision systems must be flexible enough to impose greater external interventions during periods of high risk and reduce interventions as offenders internalize and demonstrate risk management skills.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The presence of certain character or personality disorders is a risk factor for sexual re-offense. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Mental health science has no identified cure for personality disorders.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; As a result, long-term treatment and supervision may benefit adult sex offenders with&#xA;personality or character disorders to maintain changes and refrain from sexual re-offense.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dcj.state.co.us/odvsom/sex_offender/SO_Pdfs/2012%20ADULT%20STANDARDS%20FINAL%20C.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Prediction of the risk of re-offense&lt;/a&gt; for sex offenders is in the early stages of development. Therefore, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;it is difficult to predict the likelihood of re-offense or future victim selection&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;John Pick&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/679/21&quot;&gt;listed the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale in his answer&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When working with offenders, we administered a self-answered test called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncsacw.samhsa.gov/files/SAFERR_AppendixD.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ASUS&lt;/a&gt;, which addresses risk factors. As well, we administered the Level of Supervision Inventory &lt;a href=&quot;http://cospl.coalliance.org/fez/eserv/co:3043/cr752v231998internet.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(LSI)&lt;/a&gt; which also looks for risk factors in offenders on community supervision (I'm being vague here because both the ASUS and the LSI are copyrighted material). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hare.org/references/main.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;There are &lt;em&gt;hundreds&lt;/em&gt; of articles on psychopathy and a variety of topics&lt;/a&gt;. The website &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mattloganhalo.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HALO&lt;/a&gt; works with law enforcement in topics in forensic psychology, including psychopathology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="376" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-05-28T17:01:05.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="683" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-04-02T02:10:48.563" Score="10" ViewCount="1568" Body="&lt;p&gt;O'Boyle and Aguinis (2012) wrote a paper arguing that individual job performance follows a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_distribution&quot;&gt;Paretian distribution&lt;/a&gt;  rather than a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution&quot;&gt;normal distribution&lt;/a&gt; (put simply, a very long tail to the right, rather than a bell-shape).&#xA;The abstract was as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We revisit a long-held assumption in human resource management,&#xA;  organizational behavior, and industrial and organizational psychology&#xA;  that individual performance follows a Gaussian (normal) distribution.&#xA;  We conducted 5 studies involving 198 samples including 633,263 researchers, entertainers, politicians, and amateur and professional&#xA;  athletes. Results are remarkably consistent across industries, types&#xA;  of jobs, types of performance measures, and time frames and indicate&#xA;  that individual performance is not normally distributed—instead, it&#xA;  follows a Paretian (power law) distribution. Assuming normality of&#xA;  individual performance can lead to misspecified theories and&#xA;  misleading practices. Thus, our results have implications for all&#xA;  theories and applications that directly or indirectly address the&#xA;  performance of individual workers including performance measurement&#xA;  and management, utility analysis in preemployment testing and training&#xA;  and development, personnel selec- tion, leadership, and the prediction&#xA;  of performance, among others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are they correct in claiming that most researchers assume that individual job performance is normally distributed?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are they correct in claiming that the Paretian distribution provides a better fit to individual job performance than the normal distribution?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reference&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ERNEST O’BOYLE JR. HERMAN AGUINIS (2012). THE BEST AND THE REST: REVISITING THE NORM OF NORMALITY OF INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE. Personnel Psychology Volume 65, Issue 1, pages 79–119, Spring 2012 &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01239.x/abstract&quot;&gt;PUBLISHER SITE&lt;/a&gt;; also see &lt;a href=&quot;http://homepages.indiana.edu/web/page/normal/21420.html&quot;&gt;UNIVERSITY PRESS RELEASE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-02T04:11:08.587" LastActivityDate="2017-12-15T17:22:55.007" Title="Does individual work performance follow a Paretian distribution?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="685" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="686" CreationDate="2012-04-02T18:39:16.623" Score="3" ViewCount="225" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am in the process of researching the Nature vs. Nurture debate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I was searching for articles on it, I discovered something known as the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identical_Strangers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Identical Strangers&lt;/a&gt;&quot; experiment (that probably was not it's real name, but it is the name of the book that the twins wrote about it). It was an experiment done in the 1960s where 2 identical twins were separated at birth and raised in different homes. The study looked at how they developed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I noticed when looking it up that there was something that said that details about the full experiment were locked away until 2066. My question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any part of the experiment that has been documented (it can even be from the adopted parents, it doesn't necessarily have to be from the study itself) that is publicly available, or is all of it locked away at Yale University for the next 54 years?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="579" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-13T18:21:11.253" LastActivityDate="2015-05-13T18:21:11.253" Title="How much information on the &quot;Identical Strangers&quot; experiment was actually released?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;&lt;twin-study&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="686" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="685" CreationDate="2012-04-02T22:05:08.383" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;To learn about other twins reared apart, investigate the earlier &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/250/4978/223.abstract&quot;&gt;Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart&lt;/a&gt; and the ongoing &lt;a href=&quot;http://mctfr.psych.umn.edu/twinstudy/&quot;&gt;Minnesota Twin Family Study&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To pique your curiosity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jim Lewis and Jim Springer stand out in the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart because some of their two histories were strikingly identical; several notable examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1st wife: &quot;Linda&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;2nd wife: &quot;Betty&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dog: &quot;Toy&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cigarette: Salem&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Job: Sherrif's deputy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;built a circular white bench around a tree in the yard&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Bouchard Jr, T.J., Lykken, D.T., McGue, M., Segal, N.L. &amp;amp; Tellegen, A. (1990) Sources of human psychological differences: the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart. Science 250:223-228. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.d.umn.edu/~jetterso/documents/ScienceMNTwinStudies.pdf&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Holden, C. (1980) Identical Twins Reared Apart. Science, 207:1323-1325. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/207/4437/1323.extract&quot;&gt;extract&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-04-02T22:05:08.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="687" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="599" CreationDate="2012-04-03T03:01:19.833" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;This should perhaps be a comment, but I don't have the reputation. The other two answers mention that a major drawback to the Bayesian approach is its lack of biological plausibility. However, see for instance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v9/n11/abs/nn1790.html&quot;&gt;Bayesian inference with probabilistic population codes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ma, W.J. and Beck, J.M. and Latham, P.E. and Pouget, A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Nature Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 2006&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors propose a method by which populations of neurons may actually represent probability distributions. I don't know how convincing I find the construction, but it may be worth looking into if you're curious about the subject. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may also be worth mentioning that while neuroscientists do seem to use the word &quot;Bayesian&quot; to refer generically to probabilistic approaches to reasoning, &quot;Bayesian statistics&quot; or &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_probability#Objective_and_subjective_Bayesian_probabilities&quot;&gt;Bayesian probability&lt;/a&gt;&quot; is a bit more than Bayes' rule. By itself, Bayes' rule is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayes%27_theorem#Statement_and_interpretation&quot;&gt;just a mathematical identity in probability theory&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="578" LastEditorUserId="376" LastEditDate="2012-04-03T18:53:31.853" LastActivityDate="2012-04-03T18:53:31.853" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="688" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="692" CreationDate="2012-04-03T20:48:27.560" Score="19" ViewCount="2867" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested if there are studies dealing with text understanding and POS (part of speech) coloring, or coloring syntactic/semantic information. The studies should solve the questions like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Which combination of colors improve/deteriorate understanding and reading of texts?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How many colors should be in the scheme for positive/negative effects on reading and understanding of text? Which POSs should be preferably colored?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are there types of people who are more efficient with/without coloring?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that a few colors with good combination could be beneficial. &lt;strong&gt;Has somebody conducted research to test the effect of highlighting on reading comprehension&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZJbMF.png&quot; alt=&quot;sytactically colored text&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On this text you can see that many colors that don't go together can make the reading process even worse and distracting. Can this be changed to improve the reading process, instead?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few events inspired me in the following order:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I started learning Chinese and their characters seem to have positive effect on my comprehension.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I've read a NL (natural language) article in English in a programming editor. I was used to colors for various programming languages.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I searched the Internet and found the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.linusakesson.net/programming/syntaxhighlighting/index.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A case against syntax highlighting&lt;/a&gt; but don't agree with all the author's arguments or opinions. When you have only a few carefully chosen colors it's beneficial for programming so maybe could be for NL comprehension as well. A few colors could underline the basic thought and help to draw attention of the reader. When I read a scientific text for which I have not passion I'm often bored because don't know where it directs and colors and images help me a lot to concentrate and skimming over the basic thoughts could help with decision if it has sense to read it at all. This does not hold for fiction and poetry where we read for pleasure rather than getting information.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="554" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-07T16:59:24.287" LastActivityDate="2013-06-01T19:31:08.907" Title="Effect of words highlighting on reading comprehension" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="689" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="530" CreationDate="2012-04-03T22:31:26.683" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Until peer-reviewed data on the topic is published, all we have to go on is blog posts from vision and display researchers. The best posts I've seen so far are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Artal, P. (2012) &lt;a href=&quot;http://pabloartal.blogspot.com.au/2012/03/is-display-resolution-of-new-ipad.html&quot;&gt;Is the display resolution of the new iPad adequate for the eye?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Artal, P. (2012) &lt;a href=&quot;http://pabloartal.blogspot.com/2012/04/what-have-in-common-apple-retina.html&quot;&gt;What have in common the Apple “Retina” display and our retina? Probably, only the name.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Soneira, R.M. (2012) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.displaymate.com/iPad_ShootOut_1.htm&quot;&gt;New iPad Display Technology Shoot-Out&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize: Some people can see the difference in some cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-04-03T22:31:26.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="690" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="644" CreationDate="2012-04-03T22:51:24.583" Score="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;When performing certain tasks, people’s inferences approximate Bayesian inference to a remarkable degree. For example, when people receive both haptic and visual information about the size of an object, they combine this information in a manner that very closely resembles Bayesian inference, taking account of the uncertainties associated with the visual and haptic information (e.g., Ernst &amp;amp; Banks, 2002). This optimality can be observed in many perceptual (Knill &amp;amp; Pouget, 2004) and sensorimotor (Kording &amp;amp; Wolpert, 2004, 2006) tasks and across a range of information sources (e.g., including prior beliefs and multiple sensory inputs). These findings suggest that there must be biological mechanisms that either implement Bayesian inference or implement something that very closely resembles it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time, there is no consensus regarding &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; this is done. While there are proposals about how neural populations might perform Bayesian inference (e.g., Ma, Beck, Latham, &amp;amp; Pouget, 2006; Knill &amp;amp; Pouget, 2004; Kover &amp;amp; Bao, 2010), it is difficult to evaluate these proposals at present: the available neuroscientific evidence is quite limited. Moreover, because the most compelling evidence for Bayesian inference is limited to low-level perceptual processes, it is possible that higher-level inferences are implemented by biological mechanisms that do not perform Bayesian inference. Indeed, given the computational difficulty of Bayesian inference in general, it seems all but inevitable that many biological mechanisms will not implement Bayesian inference exactly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt; biological mechanisms must perform something like Bayesian inference, but researchers have only begun to explore how this happens, and the extent to which high-level perception and cognition rely on Bayesian computations remains unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Knill, D. C., &amp;amp; Pouget, A. (2004). The Bayesian brain: the role of uncertainty in neural coding and computation. Trends in Neurosciences, 27 (12), 712-719. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/people/alex/pub/articles/KnillPougetTINS04.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kording, K. P., &amp;amp; Wolpert, D. M. (2004). Bayesian integration in sensorimotor learning. Nautre, 427, 244-247. &lt;a href=&quot;http://klab.smpp.northwestern.edu/wiki/images/2/28/Kording_Bayes_integrate_sensorimotor_learn_2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kording, K. P, &amp;amp; Wolpert, D. M. (2006). Bayesian decision theory in sensorimotor control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10 (7), 319-326. &lt;a href=&quot;http://klab.smpp.northwestern.edu/wiki/images/1/18/Kording_2006_Bayes_decide_theory_sensorimotor.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ma, W. J., Beck, J. M., Latham, P. E., &amp;amp; Pouget, A. (2006). Bayesian inference with probabilistic population codes. Nature Neuroscience, 9 (11), 1432-1438. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/people/alex/pub/articles/mabecklathampougetnn06.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ernst, M. O., &amp;amp; Banks, M. S. (2002). Humans integrate visual and haptic information a statistically optimal fashion. Nature, 415, 429-433. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v415/n6870/abs/415429a.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[link&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="586" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-04-04T13:16:44.197" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="692" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="688" CreationDate="2012-04-04T16:59:26.020" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can speak to this question somewhat from a cognitive psychology standpoint. We memory researchers would think of text highlighting like this in terms of &lt;em&gt;distinctiveness&lt;/em&gt;. (An article by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/tq105k754u2m12j5/&quot;&gt;McDaniel and Bugg (2008)&lt;/a&gt; may shed some light.) Simply put, highlighting a word in a different color than the rest of the text draws what we call &lt;em&gt;item-specific processing&lt;/em&gt; towards that word. You'll have a better memory for it, for sure -- and maybe this ties into goals more relevant when writing code.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Increasing item-specific processing, however, comes with a cost: It detracts from &lt;em&gt;organizational processing&lt;/em&gt;, which is involved with interrelating sentence (or code) elements, memory for order, and so forth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that the more items that are made distinctive, the less of a benefit making an additional item distinctive provides (e.g., if words are multicolored already, making a new word red or green doesn't really do anything to the distinctiveness of that word).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So when you use a lot of different highlighting colors, like in the example image, two things are happening: (1) too much distinctiveness is being used, washing out benefits from distinctiveness; and (2) increasing item-specific processing for individual items damages memory and processing for the structure. In essence, the example given is the worst of both worlds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question, it might make sense to only use highlighting (or colors, fonts, etc.) to highlight key points, etc.; much like what we already do in writing for the web. Like anyone who highlights a textbook knows, it doesn't do any good to highlight an entire chapter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-04-05T07:29:53.300" LastActivityDate="2012-04-05T07:29:53.300" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="694" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3653" CreationDate="2012-04-05T07:56:16.067" Score="3" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question regards the phenomenon where a user can switch context on the same tool seamlessly, and as it seems without thinking. The only practical use of the phenomenon that I know of is the switching of input languages on the same keyboard, but there are probably other real world examples. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often these users don't type the way I do (looking at the keyboard), still they are very skilled in both Swedish, English and Icelandic keyboard setups. Is this a kind of automated process, such as the use of a piano from a professional concert pianist who does not need to think, only play with what is learned from hours and hours of exercise? I believe it is related. but not the same. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm asking of what this mechanism of switching context is and why it works seamlessly for users. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An image of the Icelandic keyboard setup: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dMLCf.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Icelandic keyboard&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Image from &lt;a href=&quot;http://farm8.staticflickr.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://farm8.staticflickr.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-07-26T00:47:03.867" LastActivityDate="2013-06-17T14:12:52.533" Title="Why can a user seamlessly switch from one language input to another on the same keyboard?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="695" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="644" CreationDate="2012-04-06T18:01:16.893" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a fruitful discussion of this, which includes some useful links in the comments section, you might want to read &lt;a href=&quot;http://lesswrong.com/lw/6q0/psychologist_making_pseudoclaim_that_recent_works/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this LessWrong post&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whatever human decision making is at this moment in time, it is something that can be quantified and studied. And as a result, we will be able to determine Bayesian methods for making better decisions, given our current architecture and our preferences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think questions like this are slightly misguided in the following way. Humanity took a tiny step toward Bayesianism and then totally dominated the world-wide ecosystem in an evolutionary millisecond. Are we &quot;very&quot; Bayesian? Well, what do you mean by &quot;very&quot;? We certainly employ Bayesian methods more so than a hermit crab or a dolphin, but we have a long way to go if we want most of our decision making to be enacted through genuine Bayesian reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I would say that &quot;being Bayesian&quot; can fall on a spectrum. Humans are not near the 0%-Bayesian end of the spectrum, but probably also not near the 100%-Bayesian perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more interesting questions is whether humanity should strive to engineer itself to specifically be more Bayesian. Some see a perfect Bayesian reasoner as a fixed point of Darwinian evolution (because the universal Solomonoff prior is not computable, it's reasonable to think such a fixed point cannot physically exist, but that doesn't mean we shouldn't try to get there anyway.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="596" LastActivityDate="2012-04-06T18:01:16.893" CommentCount="19" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="696" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="697" CreationDate="2012-04-06T19:49:20.533" Score="7" ViewCount="2434" Body="&lt;p&gt;During a discussion with my officemate I told him that I read somewhere that the &lt;a href=&quot;http://imgsrc.hubblesite.org/hu/db/images/hs-2009-25-i-1920x1200_wallpaper.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;gas pillar in Carina nebula&lt;/a&gt; looks like a cat punching the dog; ever since then, every time my wallpaper slideshow switches to this wallpaper, &quot;cat vs dog&quot; is the first thing that comes to my mind. We were curious whether there is some dedicated terminology for this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I learned via Google that this is a meme called &quot;What has been seen cannot be unseen&quot;, I wonder what is the term for this phenomenon in cognitive science? Like a memory bias during the perception of something? Or it is that people tend to visualize some new concept/picture/term as something they are more familiar with subconsciously?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="597" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-04-06T23:10:25.760" LastActivityDate="2018-12-29T08:54:47.947" Title="What is the term for &quot;What has been seen cannot be unseen&quot; in cognitive sciences?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="697" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="696" CreationDate="2012-04-06T20:40:43.560" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most relevant term would be &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironic_Process_Theory&quot;&gt;Ironic Processing&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ironic processing is the psychological process whereby an individual's deliberate attempts to suppress or avoid certain thoughts (thought suppression) render those thoughts more persistent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a result of a failure of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_suppression&quot;&gt;Thought Suppression&lt;/a&gt; or more generally &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivated_forgetting&quot;&gt;Motivated Forgetting&lt;/a&gt;. It appears &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_suppression#Empirical_work&quot;&gt;Thought Suppression doesn't work well&lt;/a&gt; and generally the attempt to not think about X results in a sudden increase of thoughts about X. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since you have a sudden increase of thoughts about the &quot;suppressed&quot; thought, you're strengthening retrieval of it, and you might even be conditioning that thought with the reason you don't want to remember it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-04-06T20:40:43.560" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="698" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="651" CreationDate="2012-04-07T02:10:12.543" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;When hamsters are cooled sufficiently, their brain electrical activity ceases. When the hamsters are later revived, brain electrical activity resumes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Gerard, R.W. (1953) What is Memory? Scientific American. Sept. 1953:118-126.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-04-07T02:10:12.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="699" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="701" CreationDate="2012-04-07T15:33:48.320" Score="16" ViewCount="1367" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are currently using Inquisit to conduct Internet experiments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally, we would like to implement something that is strictly browser-based, &lt;strong&gt;without any extra plug-ins or downloads&lt;/strong&gt;. We also require reaction time measurements. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there anything open source out there like this?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/109/29&quot;&gt;This question&lt;/a&gt; has outlined various methods that don’t fulfill all our requirements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="368" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2020-03-10T23:59:34.967" LastActivityDate="2020-03-10T23:59:34.967" Title="Software for online psychological experiments that don't require users to download anything" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="8" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="700" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="696" CreationDate="2012-04-07T17:52:28.583" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps &quot;visual one-shot learning&quot; is what you're looking for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question reminded me of images like this &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Cmrcd.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;this&quot;&gt;, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which typically take first-time viewers some time to figure out, but on second viewing the subject &quot;pops out&quot; immediately, even if considerable time has elapsed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an even more striking example: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://www.uncg.edu/~whanthon/optical_illusions_may06/dallenbach_cow.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;This&quot;&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the phenomenon was described in L. Gregory's &quot;The Intelligent Eye&quot; (1970). [1] looks like an interesting paper (it's where I got the term &quot;one-shot-visual learning&quot; from) - though I can't seem to figure out how to access the full text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Mogi, K., Sekine, T., &amp;amp; Tamori, Y. (2005). Slow and fast processes in visual &quot;one-shot&quot; learning. Perception, 34, 15-16. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.perceptionweb.com/abstract.cgi?id=v050495&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;URL&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="404" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2018-12-29T06:54:23.467" LastActivityDate="2018-12-29T06:54:23.467" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="701" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="699" CreationDate="2012-04-08T00:40:09.307" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://wiki.inf.ed.ac.uk/WebExp/WebHome&quot;&gt;WebExp&lt;/a&gt; is a client/server based psychology/linguistics experiment creation/running system written in Java.  It is freely available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A subject types in the appropriate web address and they see the experiment pages that have been created; obviously you have to have access to a server on which the experiment software+configuration files are running.  It supports timing and works quiet well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="605" LastActivityDate="2012-04-08T00:40:09.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="702" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="660" CreationDate="2012-04-09T13:14:04.070" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another possible approach is using EZ-diffusion model suggested by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ejwagenmakers.com/2007/EZ.pdf&quot;&gt;Wagenmaker, van der Mass and Grasman (2007)&lt;/a&gt;. Quoting &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.stanford.edu/~jlm/pdfs/BrownHeathcote08.pdf&quot;&gt;Brown &amp;amp; Heathcote (2008; p. 4)&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This model is extremely simple, with just one source of variability in&#xA;  evidence accumulation—within-trial randomness—and simple linear&#xA;  accumulation (although evidence for one response does count against&#xA;  the other). The EZ-diffusion model is even simpler than the LBA, but&#xA;  it is incomplete. Wagen- makers et al. proposed the EZ-diffusion as a&#xA;  descriptive rather than process model, with the aim of adequately&#xA;  describing data as simply as possible. The tradeoff in developing such&#xA;  a simple model was that it could not account for some of the empirical&#xA;  phenomena in choice RT, such as the relative speed of correct vs.&#xA;  incorrect responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastActivityDate="2012-04-09T13:14:04.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="703" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-04-09T14:05:32.727" Score="2" ViewCount="12567" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the time I was able to write I have been writing upside down, as in literally turning the page 180 degrees and writing. The funny thing is, I can't write the right way up! I am left handed which would probably make this more clear but to this day I find it really weird! I can easily read upside-down mainly because I've always had to write upside down! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've never been trained to write in this way nor do I know anyone who can write like me! I've always been comfortable writing this way. I know nothing is wrong with me, but I am curious to know if there are other cases like me or maybe even explainations? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="610" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-04-14T11:19:20.007" LastActivityDate="2012-07-11T12:24:29.637" Title="Are there known cases where people can write upside down?" Tags="&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2012-09-14T16:35:48.330" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="704" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1237" CreationDate="2012-04-09T17:12:49.213" Score="8" ViewCount="166" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to measure the change in emotional state in response to a question. For example, asking the question, &quot;What is your favorite color?&quot; would be fairly benign; I would not expect any change in emotional state. However, I would expect a strong emotional response if I asked &quot;What type of person do you hate?&quot; or &quot;Have you ever smoked marijuana?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally, we would measure this immediately after asking the question. &lt;strong&gt;Does anybody have any suggestions on how this can be done, or how it has been done reliably in the past?&lt;/strong&gt; I have access to surveys and special cameras (thermal, pupil analysis, etc) if it helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; To clarify, I'm more interested in measuring the level of emotional arousal more than measuring what specific emotion somebody is feeling. For example, I don't care if somebody is frightened or angry, just the extent to which the emotion caused arousal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="373" LastEditorUserId="373" LastEditDate="2012-06-20T18:31:29.080" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T00:30:27.407" Title="Method for evaluating how emotionally evocative a question is?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="706" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-04-11T09:03:32.650" Score="6" ViewCount="1110" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am &lt;strong&gt;looking for free software to build experiments that do not heavily rely on accurate timing&lt;/strong&gt; (where I use &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychopy.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychoPy&lt;/a&gt; and heard a lot of good things about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogsci.nl/software/opensesame&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;OpenSesame&lt;/a&gt;) but more on an easy way to implement different types of items and response options.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, for example, an experiment which starts in presenting some texts to the participants, then some questions contingent on this text and on what participants entered before (potentially more than one question per page with different response options) followed by some standard questionnaires. How would you implement such a study?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Background and motivation&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I used to do such things using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.empirisoft.com/medialab.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MediaLab&lt;/a&gt; which unfortunately is proprietary software. However, implementing items and questionnaires was easy. You could program a simple html page (even using variables and placeholders) using html forms and MediaLab would present this page using ie engine in fullscreen and collect the responses. Those responses could then be used or handed over to DirectRT for response time experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Currently I am using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychopy.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychoPy&lt;/a&gt; to control the screen and data collection and code all questionnaires and such stuff per hand using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wxpython.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wxPython&lt;/a&gt;. It works, but designing questionnairs in wxPython is a lot less handy and more difficult than programming html pages with html forms and definitely nothing for people not too profficient in coding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any ideas or hints would be really appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I read &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/508/604&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;What's the best program for creating computer based psychology experiments under OS X?&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, but my question concerns specific implementations. Furthermore, I work on Windows 7.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-04-12T12:03:13.410" Title="Free software to run questionnaire based experiments" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="707" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="703" CreationDate="2012-04-11T09:10:20.750" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;When lefties write left to right they face three difficulties:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They risk smudging what they have already written&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The natural way to hold a pen means it is likely to dig in to the paper, rather than be drawn across it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They tend to slope the letters backwards. I don't really understand why, but righties can demonstrate this for themselves by writing lefty&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rotating the paper alleviates these problems to some extent. I've noticed many lefties do it, though not to the extreme you describe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="615" LastActivityDate="2012-04-11T09:10:20.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="708" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="660" CreationDate="2012-04-11T09:15:29.047" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;A paper comparing the performance of Inverse Efficiency Scores and diffusion models for the quantification of RT and accuracy can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/j75285147721k511/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rach et al. (2011) &quot;On quantifying multisensory interaction effects in reaction time and detection rate &quot; Psychological Research&#xA;Volume 75, Number 2, 77-94, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00426-010-0289-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;DOI&lt;/a&gt; , &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.staff.uni-oldenburg.de/hans.colonius/download/rach_diederich_colonius_OnQuantifyingMultisensoryInteractionPsychRes2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-08T10:49:37.303" LastActivityDate="2012-10-08T10:49:37.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="709" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="699" CreationDate="2012-04-11T13:44:17.367" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.projectimplicit.net/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ProjectImplicit&lt;/a&gt; will be what you want. It is also Java based and runs fully in the browser. It is by the Harvard guys that did run the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_Association_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;IAT&lt;/a&gt; via web and collected ten thousand datasets this way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.projectimplicit.net/services.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;See here for their services&lt;/a&gt; (I am not sure if it is free but seems so at least for non-commerical research). If you like it and use it perhaps you can post some infos afterwards here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="604" LastActivityDate="2012-04-11T13:44:17.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="710" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="703" CreationDate="2012-04-11T16:29:30.003" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Leonardo da Vinci wrote both upside down, and in a mirror image.  He did the latter partly to make it harder for others to read his journals and copy his ideas (he was doing his research in a time when it was forbidden by the church), but also to avoid smudging his writing.  He was also left-handed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090114092559AA6G277&quot;&gt;Here is someone&lt;/a&gt; who also writes upside down and backwards.  And &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mothering.com/community/t/590452/writing-upside-down-backwards&quot;&gt;here is a case&lt;/a&gt; of a mother asking if she should be concerned because her 2 1/2 year old daughter writes upside down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="408" LastEditorUserId="408" LastEditDate="2012-04-11T22:35:36.893" LastActivityDate="2012-04-11T22:35:36.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="706" CreationDate="2012-04-11T23:07:28.990" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you're looking for a platform on which to implement &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_adaptive_testing&quot;&gt;computerized adaptive tests&lt;/a&gt; (since subsequent questions are contingent on prior responses).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychometrics.cam.ac.uk/page/300/concerto-testing-platform.htm&quot;&gt;Concerto&lt;/a&gt;, which is based in R and MySQL, but allows some flexibility in presentation (it says it uses HTML directly, but you could probably couple it with another language).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-04-11T23:07:28.990" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="712" PostTypeId="7" CreationDate="2012-04-11T23:31:32.480" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive Sciences - Stack Exchange is for researchers, academics, students, and&#xA; anyone else needing expert answers to advanced questions in the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have questions about ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive science &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychology (e.g., cognitive, social, developmental, biological, applied,&#xA;clinical, organizational, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychiatry&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuroscience and neurobiology&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... then you're in the right place to ask your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-04-12T13:16:31.637" LastActivityDate="2012-04-12T13:16:31.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="713" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="706" CreationDate="2012-04-12T02:18:09.730" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You'll want to look into &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychtoolbox.org/HomePage&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsychToolbox 3&lt;/a&gt;, a very capable Matlab/Octave toolbox intended for running high-precision behavioral psychology experiments. If you don't have access to Matlab, you can use &lt;a href=&quot;http://octave.sourceforge.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Octave&lt;/a&gt; (which is available for Windows 7; see link) to run your experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The toolbox itself is a platform for creating interactive experiments, ranging from simple question-based surveys to highly complex, precision visual displays. For the purpose at hand, I would build a simple function that displays text using PsychToolbox's &lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.psychtoolbox.org/DrawText&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;DrawText&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.psychtoolbox.org/DrawFormattedText&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;DrawFormattedText&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt; functions and monitors responses using the &lt;code&gt;Kb*&lt;/code&gt; functions; see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.psychtoolbox.org/KbDemo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;KbDemo&lt;/code&gt; page&lt;/a&gt; for an overview. Each of these has their own demo showing how to use the function (the aptly-named &lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.psychtoolbox.org/DrawSomeTextDemo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;DrawSomeTextDemo&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.psychtoolbox.org/DrawFormattedTextDemo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;DrawFormattedTextDemo&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt; functions, and the &lt;code&gt;KbDemo&lt;/code&gt; one mentioned earlier); simply check the source code of the demos to see how they work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will mention that PsychToolbox has learning curve, and requires familiarity with Matlab/Octave programming. That being said, with the above functions, it should be pretty easy to create a generic &quot;survey&quot; function which accepts however many lines of text (one question, however many answers), displays them to the user, and monitors and records feedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="620" LastEditorUserId="620" LastEditDate="2012-04-12T12:03:13.410" LastActivityDate="2012-04-12T12:03:13.410" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="714" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3152" CreationDate="2012-04-12T06:22:10.650" Score="10" ViewCount="316" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies about the long term effects of having high expectations of oneself on one's happiness? Does crashing after failing to reach unrealistic goals significantly impact long-term happiness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="606" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-12T06:44:14.650" LastActivityDate="2013-02-01T12:50:21.013" Title="What is the effect of high expectations on long-term happiness?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="716" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-04-13T03:06:20.113" Score="13" ViewCount="280" Body="&lt;p&gt;Biological neurons have a trade-off between high information transfer (high firing rate) and energy conservation (low firing rate). One would suspect that the maximization of this function has a single solution, and that the mean firing rate and variability should be similar across all neurons. Yet this is far from the case. Is there a principled computational explanation for this variability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="623" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-17T22:33:15.687" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T07:11:22.060" Title="What explains variability in the mean firing rate across biological neurons?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="717" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="716" CreationDate="2012-04-13T06:29:28.730" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not sure whether the three assumptions on which your question is based are really valid. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) Why should a high transformation transfer be linked to a high firing rate? Depending on the role of a single neuron within a group, not firing might carry as much as information as firing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) Energy conservation might not be linked to the behavior of a single neuron, but rather to the organism as a whole. For instance, if the constant firing of a neuron stops your legs from constant (dis-functional) shaking, the energy &quot;wasted&quot; on the firing neuron can lower the energy consumption of the system as a whole. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3) Although not explicitly stated, your question might suggest that the mean firing rate of a given neuron is relatively constant over time. This is not necessarily the case, as the firing characteristics of neurons are &quot;tuned&quot; over time, depending on its activity. This process is called homeostatic synaptic plasticity and has received much attention recently. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a review see: &#xA;Turrigiano GG. (2008) The self-tuning neuron: synaptic scaling of excitatory synapses. Cell. 422-35. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2012-04-13T06:29:28.730" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="718" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="621" CreationDate="2012-04-13T08:06:11.277" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your description sounds a little bit like Experiment 3 from &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hollingworth, A., Richard, A. M., Luck, S. J. (2008) Understanding the function of visual short-term memory: Transsaccadic memory, object correspondence, and gaze correction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, Vol 137(1), 163-181. &lt;a href=&quot;http://mindbrain.ucdavis.edu/people/sjluck/pdfs/Hollingworth%202008%20JEPG%20Gaze%20Correction.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See Fig. 7 on page 172 for a picture of the display utilized in this experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T10:37:25.700" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T10:37:25.700" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="719" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="245" CreationDate="2012-04-13T14:30:23.257" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;A (probably incomplete) list of ongoing whole brain simulation projects can be found at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.artificialbrains.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.artificialbrains.com/&lt;/a&gt;. However, based on the information reported on this site, it is sometimes hard do distinguish what already has been achieved and what is still in the planning stage. Nevertheless it gives a good overview to start with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-04-14T20:09:57.030" LastActivityDate="2012-04-14T20:09:57.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="720" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="748" CreationDate="2012-04-13T15:32:00.297" Score="12" ViewCount="577" Body="&lt;p&gt;On &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;Cross Validated&lt;/a&gt; there is a great question about &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/125/what-is-the-best-introductory-bayesian-statistics-textbook&quot;&gt;best introductory books for bayesian statistics&lt;/a&gt;. Also, Jeromy Anglim &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeromyanglim.blogspot.com/2012/04/getting-started-with-jags-rjags-and.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;blogged recently about use of JAGS, rjags, and Bayesian Modelling&lt;/a&gt;, with some very nice collection of tutorials relevant to the above question. Lots of those resources are single-shot tutorials, covering just some limited scope of programming and modelling. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of resources that cover a broader range of topics with some background information and coding tutorials, only two sources stand out from the list:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Michael Lee and Eric Wagenmakers &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ejwagenmakers.com/BayesCourse/BayesBook.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Course in Bayesian Graphical Modeling for Cognitive Science&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;free and aimed at the beginners, but it's a bit rough (looks like a draft, which authors kind of confirm on their website).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;John Kruschke &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~kruschke/DoingBayesianDataAnalysis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Doing Bayesian Data Analysis: A Tutorial with R and BUGS&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I can't check (cause' someone stole it from my library), but opinions about it are highly positive.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those two books could potentially hit the spot in terms of sufficient coverage of basic needs for beginner bayesian acolyte. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What else do you advise as a simple, practical, compact, and thorough introduction to bayesian modeling for a cognitive scientist?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2012-04-18T05:15:22.123" Title="Introductory resources on bayesian modeling for cognitive sciences" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="672" CreationDate="2012-04-13T18:23:12.987" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;While their answer may not be any more useful in everyday life and while the results are within the specific domain of visual short-term memory, &lt;a href=&quot;http://csjarchive.cogsci.rpi.edu/proceedings/2011/papers/0039/paper0039.pdf&quot;&gt;Sims, Jacobs, &amp;amp; Knill, 2011&lt;/a&gt; provide a more detailed (and less arbitrary) answer than either &quot;7 +/- 2&quot; or &quot;about 4&quot; items by using &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate-distortion_theory&quot;&gt;rate distortion theory&lt;/a&gt; to model optimal lossy compression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="624" LastActivityDate="2012-04-13T18:23:12.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="722" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="84" CreationDate="2012-04-14T13:41:45.063" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sure, visual working memory capacity has been assessed in humans, chimps and mac using a change-detection tasks and trail-making tasks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the chimp Ayumu at Kyoto University easily outperforms all humans on a simple number sequencing task. In the task, the numbers 1-n appear briefly on the screen in random positions and then the numbers must be touched by the participant in numerical order. Ayumu can sequence more than nine digits in less than 200 ms, according to the 2007 paper. In contrast, human performance was at chance levels at that exposure duration. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another visual working memory task, the change-detection task, colored shapes appear on the sample screen, disappear for some brief amount of time (typically about a second) and then reappear. 50% of the time all the squares are the same, 50% of the time one square has changed. The subject indicates if a the test screen matches the sample screen. This a delayed-match-to-sample task. To measure memory capacity, the sample and test array sizes are increased, 2,4,8, etc.  Humans and rhesus perform equivalently on this task, in that both species are able to perform at or above 80% correct for array sizes of about 3~4 items. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/06/13/1104666108.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;earl miller study&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://io9.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;io9&lt;/a&gt; published a pop-sci discussion of the chimp study, &lt;a href=&quot;http://io9.com/5883579/this-chimp-will-kick-your-ass-at-memory-games--but-how-the-hell-does-he-do-it&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;This chimp will kick your ass at memory games — but how the hell does he do it?&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://games.lumosity.com/chimp.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;links to a flash game by Lumosity Games&lt;/a&gt; that replicates the original study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="501" LastEditorUserId="24544" LastEditDate="2019-12-13T05:01:01.630" LastActivityDate="2019-12-13T05:01:01.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="723" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-04-14T13:57:29.270" Score="6" ViewCount="340" Body="&lt;p&gt;A common claim thrown around is that red and orange are great for restaurants because it stimulates hunger. However, I've heard time and time again that this does not work in web design because you need a &lt;em&gt;whole room&lt;/em&gt; to be red/orange to stimulate hunger; one such claim is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.streetdirectory.com/travel_guide/32812/interior_design/how_to_use_color_schemes_to_sell.html&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; but I can never find an academic source to back this up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How much of a color is necessary to actually provoke this reaction? Is it feasible for on-screen design to actually evoke hunger or is that a misapplication of this finding?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T03:51:32.570" Title="How much red/orange is needed to stimulate hunger?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="724" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="699" CreationDate="2012-04-14T15:11:13.290" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you want to deliver visual stimuli with accurate timing, don't use this method as the general consensus is that flat screen monitors can not yet be fully trusted for timing (though tests are being done, and some monitors may be ok, the jury is very much out on this one). For example, if you want a stimulus up for, say 500ms, or some smaller number like 50ms, delivering experiments via the web will not work - or at least, you'll have to throw loads of people out. I could see one method would be to let vast numbers of people take part and then ditch their data if their machine didn't meet certain requirements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastEditorUserId="440" LastEditDate="2012-04-14T15:27:42.940" LastActivityDate="2012-04-14T15:27:42.940" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="727" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="525" CreationDate="2012-04-14T20:55:16.320" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am pretty sure that you will not find a paper that tries to give purely behaviorist interpretations of decision field theory (or other similar models of decision making), because that would not make sense at all. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you noted in your initial question, decision field theory is a &lt;em&gt;cognitive&lt;/em&gt; model, i.e., it tries to explain overt behavior in terms of internal (mental) states of the organism. Its goal is to &lt;em&gt;understand&lt;/em&gt; and model decision making and predict behavior (e.g.  by making assumptions about the process of information accumulation, the allocation of attention, or about how choice biases might affect information accumulation). Thus, the focus of this theory is not the observed behavior, but rather the mental &quot;mechanisms&quot; it is based on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Behaviorism has neither the intention, nor the concepts to interpret mental states. A behaviorist's account to decision making would only be concerned with describing the (statistical) relation between stimuli and choices/decisions, neglecting internal states of the organism at all. Therefore you will have a hard time to find a behaviorist's paper commenting on a cognitive models, because the latter are concerned with a topic that rests in the behaviorist's black box. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless there will be behavorist's papers about decision making, but this is a whole different question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2012-04-14T20:55:16.320" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="728" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="611" CreationDate="2012-04-14T21:05:37.617" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Diederich &amp;amp; Busemeyer (2003) presented a diffusion model for three choice alternatives (p. 314). The paper is a tutorial for calculating diffusion models with (discrete) matrix methods. The extension to three choice alternatives is reached by defining a two-dimensional diffusion process on a triangular plane (state space).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, Wollschläger &amp;amp; Diederich (2012) presented the &lt;strong&gt;2N-ary choice tree model&lt;/strong&gt; which models multi-alternative choices by random walks on decision trees. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Diederich, A. &amp;amp; Busemeyer J. R. (2003). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022249603000038&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Simple matrix methods for analyzing diffusion models of choice probability, choice response time, and simple response time&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 47(3), 304-322. doi:10.1016/S0022-2496(03)00003-8 (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/publications/techreps2002/249/249.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;preprint pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wollschläger LM and Diederich A (2012) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.frontiersin.org/Cognitive_Science/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00189/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The 2N-ary choice tree model for N-alternative preferential choice.&lt;/a&gt; Front. Psychology 3:189. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00189&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-06-25T15:10:57.337" LastActivityDate="2012-06-25T15:10:57.337" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="730" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="742" CreationDate="2012-04-14T21:57:30.017" Score="3" ViewCount="333" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for research surrounding the scientific study of music and emotion and its effects on the brain. In particular, are there known parts of the brain which activate when playing or listening to music? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a specific field of study based around music and cognitive science?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="426" LastEditorUserId="426" LastEditDate="2012-04-17T08:46:21.723" LastActivityDate="2012-05-16T05:05:07.617" Title="Is there a field of research based around music and emotion in the brain?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="731" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="736" CreationDate="2012-04-15T11:29:05.127" Score="8" ViewCount="1854" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am designing a memory experiment with a deceptive critical trial, wherein an item is swapped without the participant's knowledge.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the best way to determine if the participant has noticed the swap, without actually informing them of it?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I.e., asking the participant 'did you notice the swap we just made' is rather informative about the possibility of a swap :)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Current thoughts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a statement at the beginning asking them to mention any inconsistencies noticed&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a direct question directly after the swap, and &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a direct question at the end of the experiment &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the first and second are likely to induce noticing (the latter by comparison to earlier memories that otherwise would not have been performed) and the last to potentially under-report.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="629" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-16T05:25:11.363" LastActivityDate="2012-04-16T17:28:48.663" Title="How to assess participant awareness of experimental deception without inducing awareness?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;deception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="732" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-04-15T11:55:22.357" Score="5" ViewCount="1448" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for some examples to understand what people call their intuition at work when making their decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;We learn to type and then after some time we begin to type&#xA;by automatically knowing position of alphabet on the&#xA;keyboard.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;We learn to ride a vehicle and then after some time we ride it without&#xA;having to think.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are these the examples of what we call our &lt;strong&gt;intuition&lt;/strong&gt;? If not, how do they happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user630" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-04-19T08:35:52.157" LastActivityDate="2012-04-19T08:35:52.157" Title="Is learning to do a task automatically an example of intuition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;&lt;automaticity&gt;&lt;procedural-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="733" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="732" CreationDate="2012-04-15T12:07:26.180" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, these are not examples of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition_%28psychology%29%20&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;intuition&lt;/a&gt;, but examples of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;procedural memory&quot;&gt;procedural memory&lt;/a&gt; (or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automaticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;automaticity&lt;/a&gt;). Procedural memory is the ability to perform certain tasks without conscious awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-04-18T13:55:48.073" LastActivityDate="2012-04-18T13:55:48.073" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="734" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="720" CreationDate="2012-04-15T12:44:39.253" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the fairly recent book &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item1162573/?site_locale=en_GB&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The Cambridge Handbook of Computational Psychology&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, chapter three is devoted to bayesian modeling. It's written by Thomas Griffiths, Charles Kemp, and Joshua Tenenbaum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't read this chapter yet myself but will update this answer when I have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastActivityDate="2012-04-15T12:44:39.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="735" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="747" CreationDate="2012-04-15T13:20:06.597" Score="11" ViewCount="10319" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am still not very clear with what the Stanford Prison Experiment conducted by Zimbardo was trying to conclude about from the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Wikipedia, it says the conclusion was to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;demonstrate the impressionability and obedience of people when&#xA;  provided with a legitimizing ideology and social and institutional&#xA;  support. The experiment has also been used to illustrate cognitive&#xA;  dissonance theory and the power of authority.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does this have any relation or impact on the Conformity theory? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that the experiments by Sherif and Asch have concluded the theory of Conformity quite clearly. The Zimbardo's one however seems somewhat implicit. The notes that I read seem to put the Stanford Prison experiment right after the ones by Sherif and Asch. So I believe it should have some relation with the Conformity theory. But I cannot see clearly how is it related to the Conformity theory, particularly in the context of Communications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="592" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-04-15T16:52:38.417" LastActivityDate="2018-08-09T01:48:12.147" Title="How is the Stanford Prison Experiment connected to Conformity?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="736" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="731" CreationDate="2012-04-16T01:35:52.130" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Procedures like this are often called &quot;funnel debriefing&quot; procedures, and they basically consist of an extended version of what you already had in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You begin with some very general questions about the nature of the experiment (e.g., &quot;Do you have any initial thoughts or reactions about this experiment?&quot;), then move on to some questions that are slightly more specific, but still not fully revealing (e.g., &quot;Why do you think we showed you X?&quot;, &quot;Did you notice anything unusual or inconsistent about task Y in the experiment?&quot;), and finally terminate with direct inquiries of awareness (e.g., &quot;Did you notice that we swapped one of the images during task Y?&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These questions may or may not be accompanied by recall or recognition tasks where awareness is gauged through participants' performance on the memory task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately there is typically little or no standardization (at least that I have seen) of how extensive these procedures should be, or for how to score and otherwise handle the results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="463" LastActivityDate="2012-04-16T01:35:52.130" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="737" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="621" CreationDate="2012-04-16T06:49:26.620" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I eventually tracked it down by going through every single result of every possible relevant search I could think of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Makovski, T., &amp;amp; Jiang, Y. V. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0016453&quot;&gt;The Role of Visual Working Memory in Attentive Tracking of Unique Objects&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 35(6), 1687-1697.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2792568/&quot;&gt;available for free on the NIH site&lt;/a&gt;. It was experiment 4. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2792568/figure/F5/&quot;&gt;Figure 5 gives an illustration of the stimuli&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="58" LastActivityDate="2012-04-16T06:49:26.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="738" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="214" CreationDate="2012-04-16T06:50:55.947" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of any NN algorithms that match your definition entirely, and I have looked for them (previously and recently). Here are some papers that I think are close or in the direction that you are exploring.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bio.vu.nl/enf/vanooyen/papers/vanooyen_nat-rev-neurosci_2011.pdf&quot;&gt;Using theoretical models to analyze neural development&lt;/a&gt; (review)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3233694/&quot;&gt;An Instruction Language for Self-Construction in the Context of Neural Networks&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2001780&quot;&gt;Evolved neurogenesis and synaptogenesis for robotic control: the L-brain model&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://Modeling%20new%20neuron%20function%3a%20a%20history%20of%20using%20computational%20neuroscience%20to%20study%20adult%20neurogenesis&quot;&gt;Modeling new neuron function: a history of using computational neuroscience to study adult neurogenesis&lt;/a&gt; (review)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first two links are computational neuroscience papers that discuss relatively complex models of neurogenesis as it relates to neurodevelopment (rather than adult neurogenesis). Some of these models (inlcuding the second paper) do not even involve network activity, and, in their current form, likely none of them are capable or suited for solving practical problems. The third paper is probably closest to what you are looking for (but I don't have access), and the fourth is as its title suggests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many network models of neurogenesis focus on neurodevelopment. A fairly obvious conclusion seems to be that the reason for that is that neurogenesis' most important biological role is in neurodevelopment. I have thought alot about using neuroscience to derive NN algorithms that are both biologically plausible and functional, and have considered neurogenesis within that context. My present conclusion is that, outside of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroevolution&quot;&gt;neuroevolution&lt;/a&gt;, neurogenesis is not currently an ideal focus for NN modeling, because its role in learning and computation seems to be mostly limited to a special case (the hippocampus) that is not well understood (despite its obvious importance).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In regards to cascade correlation, I suspect that a similar effect may be achieved in some biological NNs using only synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity. Basically, if you have very many neurons and new learning is confined to a minimal number of synapses that are subsequently protected from future modification, then the effect might be the same as always confining new learning to newly-added neurons (as in CC-NN). Such a case would be consistent with &lt;a href=&quot;http://Rapid%20formation%20and%20selective%20stabilization%20of%20synapses%20for%20enduring%20motor%20memories.&quot;&gt;these&lt;/a&gt; findings, for example. In such a model, it would not be biologically plausible, and perhaps not desirable, for each neuron to be connected with each neuron in the preceding and following layer, and thus a system for determining the pattern of exploratory connections would be required. To do that, one could draw from neurodevelopment models such as the above (in order to bias the targets of synaptogenesis, to seed initial connections of the network, or both) or, alternatively, try to derive algorithms that approximate observed connectivity patterns of biological networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6" LastEditorUserId="6" LastEditDate="2012-04-20T19:06:15.890" LastActivityDate="2012-04-20T19:06:15.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="739" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="746" CreationDate="2012-04-16T09:19:39.347" Score="5" ViewCount="1354" Body="&lt;p&gt;The two terms &quot;Social Roles&quot; and &quot;Social Groups&quot; sound similar and I don't know if these terms are often just used interchangeably. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a specific difference between &quot;Social Roles&quot; and &quot;Social Groups&quot;?  Social Groups have group norms. But Social Roles appear to have social norms too. But again, what's the difference between the norms that the two terms have, &quot;Group Norms&quot; and &quot;Social Norms&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="592" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-04-29T06:43:52.640" LastActivityDate="2012-04-29T06:43:52.640" Title="Difference between &quot;Social Roles&quot; and &quot;Social Groups&quot;" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;norms&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="740" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="243" CreationDate="2012-04-16T16:09:46.983" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like to debate these ideas, and will share my thoughts here.  But I don't know if this is really appropriate for what this site was intended for based on the &quot;warnings&quot; I see above.  The editors should feel free to delete my comments if they run too speculative for the intent of this site....  This is all speculation despite my common writing style of talking as if it were fact....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I approach these questions from the idea that the human brain is a reinforcement learning machine.  It's fairly easy to create broad explanations for theses sorts of questions by tying everything back to this idea.  I'm using reinforcement learning machine in the sense of the AI machine learning use of the term, which falls fairly directly from the behaviorists ideas of classical and operant conditioning.  I am an engineer and computer scientist so I talk from that perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear, in this sense, is just (at the broadest levels) avoidance behaviors.  We learn to use any behavior that allows us to stay away from the things that punish us - that cause reduced expectations of future rewards.  Thoughts are just behaviors of the brain as well, which are also subject to all the same conditioning effects of our external actions.  So we will naturally, be conditioned to try and avoid thoughts that produce reduced expectations of future rewards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me side-bar for a moment and point out something many people who have not studded reinforcement learning fail to understand.  These sorts of machines don't just learn when a &quot;bad&quot; event happens.  They don't just learn when they are hit with a stick.  There's an indirect learning at work which creates a far greater complexity to the process.  They are at their core, reward prediction machines.  They constantly predict expected future rewards.  (Basic TD learning).  The &quot;stick&quot; events, train their prediction system.  It accumulates statistics based on every time something bad or good happens, and uses that to predict expected future rewards.  Behaviors, then, our conditioned not by the sticks and carrots, but by the prediction system.  Any behavior which causes a drop in the expected future rewards by the internal prediction system, is punished (it's odds of being repeated in the future drops).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the behaviors that emergent from such indirect learning, are all about tricking the prediction system into &lt;em&gt;predicting&lt;/em&gt; a better future for the agent.  The complexity of the behaviors that will emerge, then are tied directly to how good the prediction system is at predicting the future.  AI program attempting to use reinforcement learning often fail to look very intelligent due to the fact that they have failed, to implement high quality reward prediction system, which is itself, trained by reinforcement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, back to fear now.  Humans understand and use cause and effect.  This is a direct fall out, of having a brain that conditions behaviors based on predictions of future rewards.  The behaviors that emerge from such training will use cause and effect to their advantage to control our perceived view of the future based on the things we can change now, to effect the future though that causality chain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We don't like getting hurt.  So we learn the signs in the environment that predict something bad will happen, and we change our behavior to prevent it.  We see our hand moving towards a fire, and the brain is able to predict the a hand near a fire is a predictor of future pain (from being burned).  We move our hand away from the fire, and it make our &quot;predictor&quot; produce a reduced expectation of a burn, so that action of moving the hand away from the fire is reinforced, even though we did not get burned (this time).  We learn behaviors to stay away from fires in this way.  Of course, there are other conflicting rewards for being near fires (like the food that results from cooking), so we end up balancing our behaviors and simply become careful around fire, vs running in fear from it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, in life, we are often caught off guard.  We are hurt by something that we had not seen before, or that we simply failed to predict.  We learn that we can use cause and effect to avoid most of these bad things in life, like keeping our hand away from wire keeps us from being burned.  But when we come across a new situation, stimulus signals very different from what we have dealt with in the past, we find the odds of being hurt goes up.  When dealing with a new environment we have not experienced, we do not yet now know to leverage the causality of the environment to prevent the bad things, or to acquire the good things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our prediction system knows, that if we wander into an something we are unfamiliar with, or odds of being hurt rises.  It can use this as a cause and effect prediction.  That is, the less we know about our current environment, the higher the odds that something will hurt us.  Because our reward prediction system can predict this correlation between an unknown environment, and higher rewards, the system can learn behaviors, to avoid the unknown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We will be conditioned to stay in the &quot;safe and known environment&quot;, and stay out of the &quot;new and unknown&quot;.  This attraction to the familiar, on one side, simply become behaviors to avoid the unknown on the others.  This translates to a simple &quot;fear&quot; of the unknown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, this all works well, because our internal prediction systems are able to pick up the sensory clues from the environment to guild our actions.  But, we can just as easily learn, to fool our prediction system.  If the brain senses something dangerous like a fire, it will raise it's predictions of being burnt in the future.  But we can also learn to close our eyes, and block the brain from seeing the danger.  However, the brain is smart enough to not fall for that trick.  Once it sees the fire, it understand the danger.  And it understands that when we close our eyes, the fire and the danger are &quot;still there&quot; despite not being able to see it.  However, it's not prefect, and this sort of trick does work &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt;.  So, when we see something really bad, we have a learned response to just look away, to close our eyes, or turn our head, exactly because this &quot;trick&quot; does work.  It takes the stimulus away from our reward prediction hardware, and as such, makes the future look a little better than it did before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the system can learn behaviors, to trick its prediction system, which is only harmful in the long run, but the low level system is not advanced enough to understand that. It's where are intelligence shows it's limits.  The reward prediction system is not always smart enough to recognize it's being &quot;tricked&quot;.  When it can recognize the trick, it will not fall for it.  It will likely return higher expectations of future bad things happening, because it's being deceived so it can't do it's job a well.  But when the trick is good enough, that it does not recognize it's a trick, such &quot;tricks&quot; will emerge in our learned behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All this adds up to the simple result that we learn to fear the unknown, because we learned that the more unknown there is in the world, the higher the odds of being hurt in the future becomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then we find the tricks.  Language behaviors are a large part of what humans do.  We not only learn to deal with the environment by using our hands and body to manipulate our environmental.  We also learn to talk about our environment.  The better we understand some aspect of our environment, the more words and language we have to talk about it.  We use our langue to guide our actions, and we now that the more we can talk about our environment, the more we are likely to be able to guide our actions in a &quot;safe&quot; direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When faced with an unknown, just talking about it, helps us better determine how to act in the situation.  But it also triggers our prediction system to reduce the odds of future dangers.  We just the act of talking, &quot;tricks&quot; our prediction system, into making us &quot;feel better&quot; about the future.  Our talk might be nonsense (for a given situation), but if the talk is good enough to fool the prediction system, it still makes us feel better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So we develop these behaviors of rationalizing about an known, just because it tricks our internal reward prediction system into making the future look brighter for us.  The better the &quot;story&quot; we put together in our random talking, the better the trick works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Superstitions, mythology, rationalizing, all emerge from such a behavior learning system just because it is able to trick the internal reward prediction system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The learning system can't tell the difference between a behavior learned that address the real danger (like learning to move our hand away from a fire), and from the tricks that only subverts the prediction system into predicting a bright future, rather than doing what needs to actually create a real brighter future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humans have a very advanced prediction system. It can pick up very subtle and complex clues from the sensory environment, and produce a highly accurate prediction of the rewards, and dangers, we are likely to run into.  But it is  only a learning machine, with finite limits.  It can be tricked. And where it can be tricked, behaviors will automatically emerge to trick the prediction system, instead of actually addressing the truth of why it was predicting something bad to start with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mythologies of religions are just learned behaviors that trick our own internal brain into predicting a better future for us.  Just making up a name for an unknown cause, like &quot;God&quot; is itself a trick.  Having a name for such a thing, makes us feel like we have mastered some important aspect of the unknown.  That we &quot;know the cause&quot;.  But just making up a name is nothing more than a language trick to fool our internal reward prediction system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our behavior selection system, and our prediction system are one and the same. They work hand in hand, to both predict the future, and decide how to react to it (what behaviors to produce from second to second over our lives).  The more advanced our behaviors become, the more advanced our prediction system becomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As we learn more advanced language behaviors, we gain an improved prediction system, that is harder to &quot;trick&quot; with our own language behaviors.  The better we understand that we are &quot;tricking&quot; ourselves into feeling better, the less the tricks work to actually make us feel better.  As we learn they are just tricks, our prediction system is learning at the same time, to reduce our odds of a brighter future every time it detects such a trick is being used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So we have a natural and obvious reason to fear the unknown.  That which we don't understand, is more likely to hurt us.  We explore and study and experiment in life so as to reduce the dangers of the unknown (aka increase the rewards).  But we also play tricks on ourselves, to make the unknown seem less unknown than it really is.  But the better we understand they are tricks, the less they work, and the less we are inclined to use them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why do we &quot;praise&quot; the unknown?  Well, we don't praise the unknown.  We praise God, not just &quot;the unknown&quot;.  Again, it's just a trick we use to make ourselves feel better.  When we were kids, we learned to trust our parents and care-givers.  They were far wiser than we were, and the best way to protect ourselves, was to obey them - to turn ourselves over to their desires.  If they tell us not to play with fire, and we ignored them, we got burned so we learned to value of following the desires of a &quot;higher power&quot; - the more experienced adults in our lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As we grow up, we gain our own experience, and learn that the other adults are not really a &quot;higher power&quot; anymore.  We learn we must face the world on our own, and make our own decisions.  But we still yearn for that simpler time, when there was always a far wiser force in our life to tell us what needed to be done.  Praising God is all just part of that trick of allowing ourselves to believe we still have wise parents in our lives to protect us from the dangers.  It's a trick to make our prediction system feel we are safer, than we really are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, that said, religions have evolved over thousands of years. The customs, and rules, and beliefs, in a religion have an &quot;intelligence&quot; about them, that comes from a 1000 years of experience.  They carry with them an evolved wisdom of the ages.  So when a religion says you should not kill someone, that's a belief that has survived 1000's of years of testing.  The beliefs that did not work out as well, were removed from the religion, and new beliefs were added or modified over time.  So the set of beliefs and customs that make up a religion is a real type of higher intelligence.  So if mixed in all those beliefs, there is a &quot;praising God&quot; behavior, we can also understand what is really being praised is the traditions of the religion itself.  The religion asks people to turn over themselves to the traditions of the religion, just like we turned ourselves over to the wisdom of our parents when we were kids.  But they make up this mythological figure they call &quot;god&quot; and assign him to be the root cause of everything, just because it's a great trick, to make us feel more secure about not knowing the cause of of so many things, while at the same time, giving this mythical &quot;god&quot; the credit for creating the time tested customs of the religion itself (the bible is the word of god and all that).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;God&quot; at work there is just the evolution of religious memes.  It's just another process of evolution.  The evolution of time tested learned behaviors.  But it is a higher power, and there are valid reasons for people to respect (act according to) the traditions of such a time tested set of memes.  It is actual in our interest to not kill, or steal, or lie, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I can't think of any examples where we praise the unknown.  But there are standard religious memes for praising the time tested wisdom of the religion, but doing it indirectly with a &quot;trick&quot; by making the people believe there is a &quot;god&quot; that created the rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's all a very complex set of learned behaviors that help people maximize their future rewards.  So of the behaviors actually work to make the future better (like by not killing people we reduce the odds of others killing us), but other parts of it are just tricks we have learned to manipulate our own reward prediction system, that is, commonly talked about as, &quot;our feelings&quot;.  They are tricks to make us feel better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, also, don't get me wrong about the importance of feeling better. It's what we are hard wired to do.  It's our sole purpose in life - it's what we are.  We are machines build for the purpose of trying to make ourselves feel better.  Our low level innate rewards are wired in us by the process of evolution so that what makes us feel better, is likely to help our species survive.  So at the higher more boldly abstract level, we can be seen as a survival machine (though I would argue that exists more at the level of the species than the individual).  At the level of the individual, we have in effect, just been giving the &quot;job&quot; of making ourselves feel better, and not worrying about the bigger picture of whether that helps us to survive of not.  That is beyond our pay grade.  It's the job of the process of evolution, to wire us &quot;correctly&quot; so that the things that make us feel better, work well to help us survive.  And because evolution has, in general, done a good job of that, most human behaviors do tend to lean towards maximizing our survival odds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But evolution is not perfect, and it's constantly exploring alternatives, which is why we find so many human behaviors that seem anti-survival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="633" LastActivityDate="2012-04-16T16:09:46.983" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="741" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="731" CreationDate="2012-04-16T17:28:48.663" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You asked for &lt;em&gt;the best way&lt;/em&gt;, and though it may be impossible to decide upon the best way, there are certainly some good ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you know, experimental design is, in part, an art. If your experiment is novel, you must devise a novel way of testing whether the deception worked. If your experiment is not so novel, you may be able to leverage the technique used in another experiment. Sometimes, converting an overt question into a quantitative question is sufficient to hide the true intent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's how I might run your experiment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Beforehand&lt;/strong&gt;: &quot;&lt;em&gt;We're showing each participant &lt;code&gt;x&lt;/code&gt; sets of pictures, each set containing between 1 and 5 pictures. After each set, we'll ask you how many we showed you.&lt;/em&gt;&quot; The control set should contain between 1 and 5 dissimilar pictures. The experimental set should contain just the 2 similar pictures (i.e., the swap pair).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;After each control set&lt;/strong&gt;: &quot;&lt;em&gt;How many pictures did we show you?&lt;/em&gt;&quot; The answer here determines whether the subject can be relied upon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;After the experimental set&lt;/strong&gt;: &quot;&lt;em&gt;How many pictures did we show you?&lt;/em&gt;&quot; Subjects who noticed the swap will say &lt;code&gt;2&lt;/code&gt;; the rest will say &lt;code&gt;1&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Confirmation questions&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;for subjects who answered &lt;code&gt;2&lt;/code&gt;: &quot;&lt;em&gt;What were the differences between the 2 pictures?&lt;/em&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;for subjects who answered &lt;code&gt;1&lt;/code&gt;: &quot;&lt;em&gt;Did anything in that picture change during the time it was shown to you?&lt;/em&gt;&quot; The interviewer's intonation should be neutral to avoid making this a leading question.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will, of course, refine the questions for your particular experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-04-16T17:28:48.663" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="742" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="730" CreationDate="2012-04-16T20:11:39.037" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well it depends what you mean by &quot;field of study&quot;, but yes there is significant Cognitive Science research on Music and emotional arousal and/or brain activity. In particular &lt;strong&gt;Cognitive Neuroscience&lt;/strong&gt; is most relevant to actually mapping brain activations involved with various forms of music appreciation and creation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good study specifically on music and emotion is &lt;a href=&quot;http://stefan-koelsch.de/papers/Koelsch+_HBM2006_Music_Emotion.pdf&quot;&gt;Investigating Emotion With Music:&#xA;An fMRI Study&lt;/a&gt; by Stefan Koelsch et all. They investigate &lt;em&gt;listening&lt;/em&gt; to music and have nice heatmaps of brain activity during listening. There's many other papers exploring the activity pattern when listening or creating music, but the conclusion of this article sums up some of the major areas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the present study, activations during the perception of&#xA;  unpleasant music were observed within an extensive neuronal network of limbic and paralimbic structures comprising the &lt;strong&gt;amygdala, hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus,&#xA;  and temporal poles&lt;/strong&gt;. Although clear increases of BOLD signals were observed in those structures in response to unpleasant music, strong signal decreases were also measured&#xA;  in response to pleasant music. This indicates that these&#xA;  structures respond to both pleasant and unpleasant auditory&#xA;  information with emotional valence, and that listening to&#xA;  music has the capacity to up- as well as down-regulate&#xA;  neuronal activity in these structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;During the presentation of the pleasant music, activations&#xA;  were observed in the ventral striatum, the &lt;strong&gt;anterior superior&#xA;  insula, and in the Rolandic operculum&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So interestingly, music with different emotional context results in different patterns and locations of brain activation. The full article has more specific information, and you can feel free to ask about more specific patterns of activation in regards to more specific stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-04-16T20:11:39.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="743" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="445" CreationDate="2012-04-17T06:59:38.983" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fernando et al. (2008) proposed a neuronal mechanism to copy network topologies from one region of the brain to another which is based on Spike Timing Dependent Placticity (STDP) and argue that the mechanism of neuronal copying is a neuronal implementation of causal inference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fernando C, Karishma KK, Szathmáry E. (2008) Copying and evolution of neuronal topology. PLoS One 3(11):e3775.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3adoi/10.1371/journal.pone.0003775&quot;&gt;[Free PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We propose a mechanism for copying of neuronal networks that is of considerable interest for neuroscience for it suggests a neuronal basis for causal inference, function copying, and natural selection within the human brain. To date, no model of neuronal topology copying exists. We present three increasingly sophisticated mechanisms to demonstrate how topographic map formation coupled with Spike-Time Dependent Plasticity (STDP) can copy neuronal topology motifs. Fidelity is improved by error correction and activity-reverberation limitation. The high-fidelity topology-copying operator is used to evolve neuronal topologies. Possible roles for neuronal natural selection are discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the discussion, the proposed relation between STDP and causal inference is addressed in detail: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] In the process of thinking about promising mechanisms, we discovered two serendipitous ancillary benefits of copying. The first was that the mechanism of neuronal copying was a neuronal implementation of causal inference [86]. The capacity of STDP to capture temporal relations consistent with causality rather than just correlations has been described by several authors [65], [87], [88], [89]. However, to our knowledge, STDP has until now not been used in an algorithm to explicitly infer whole causal networks. Considerable attention has been paid recently to the capacity of animals such as New Caledonian crows [90], rats [91], non-human apes [91], children [92] and human adults [92] to undertake causal reasoning tasks, i.e. tasks in which good performance cannot be well explained by pair-wise associative learning alone. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[68] Florian RV (2007) Reinforcement Learning Through Modulation of Spike-Time-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity. Neural Computation 19: 1468–1502. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[86] Glymour C (2003) Learning, prediction and causal Bayes nets. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7: 43–48. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[87] Abbott L, Nelson SB (2000) Synaptic plasticity:taming the beast. Nature Neuroscience supplement 31178–1183.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[88] Bi G-q, Poo M-m (2001) Synaptic Modification by Correlated Activity: Hebb's Postulate Revisited. Annu Rev Neurosci 24: 139–166.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[89] Gerstner W, Kistler WM (2002) Mathematical formulations of Hebbian learning. Biol Cybern 87: 404–415.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2012-04-17T06:59:38.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="744" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-04-17T09:21:49.777" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Attribution is a concept in social psychology referring to how individuals explain causes of behavior and events.&#xA;See the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia article on the psychological concept of attribution&lt;/a&gt; for further discussion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-17T09:21:49.777" LastActivityDate="2012-04-17T09:21:49.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="745" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-04-17T09:21:49.777" Score="0" Body="Attribution is a concept in social psychology referring to how individuals explain causes of behavior and events." OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-17T09:21:49.777" LastActivityDate="2012-04-17T09:21:49.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="746" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="739" CreationDate="2012-04-17T09:48:38.790" Score="3" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Background thoughts&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &#xA;Wikipedia articles on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_%28social%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social norms&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_group&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social groups&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social roles&lt;/a&gt;  provide a reasonable starting point. Standard sociology textbooks will cover this material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's think of the example of a family.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A particular family with two parents and two children is a social group. We could say that there are social roles for parents (e.g., around setting boundaries, providing a safe environment for the children, etc.) and social roles for children (e.g., learning, having fun, being respectful to parents, etc). We could also describe social norms that operate in the family (e.g., around interaction patterns, styles of dress, eating habits, etc.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Difference between &quot;Social Roles&quot; and &quot;Social Groups&quot;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Groups are sets of people. Roles describe a set of features of a position in a social structure. Roles are not a person, but represent a position filled by a person in a social context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g., A family is a group; parent or father or breadwinner is a role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Difference between &quot;Group Norms&quot; and &quot;Social Norms&quot;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term &quot;group norms&quot; is often used to describe  the norms (i.e., the expectations and typical ways of acting) that operate in a particular group or set of groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g., the norms in a particular family or in a set of families in a particular community; the norms in a particular work team&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see the term &quot;social norms&quot; as more general.  When used in the context of  describing expectations and typical human behaviour, all norms are &quot;social&quot;. Thus, social norms can apply to social contexts that transcend any one group (e.g., face the door when waiting in an elevator; don't laugh when attending a funeral service).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-17T23:56:33.877" LastActivityDate="2012-04-17T23:56:33.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="747" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="735" CreationDate="2012-04-17T13:40:18.493" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lucifereffect.com/guide_conform.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zimbardo&lt;/a&gt; himself states that both informative and normative conformity played an important role in the Stanford Prison Experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lucifereffect.com/guide_conform.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.lucifereffect.com/guide_conform.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] Informative conformity often occurs in situations in which there is high uncertainty and ambiguity. In an unfamiliar situation, we are likely to shape our behavior to match that of others. The actions of others inform us of the customs and accepted practices in a situation. Others inform us of what is right to do, how to behave in new situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In addition to conforming to the group norms due to lack of knowledge, we also conform when we want to be liked by the group. This type of conformity, called normative conformity, is the dominant form of social conformity when we are concerned about making a good impression in front of a group. Though we may disagree secretly with the group opinion, we may verbally adopt the group stance so that we seem like a team player rather than a deviant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Both of these pressures impact us everyday, for good or for worse. [...]&#xA;  Similarly, in the Stanford Prison Experiment, the subjects who were randomly assigned as guards gradually adopted the behavior of cruel and demanding prison guards because that became the behavioral norm in an alien situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2012-04-17T13:40:18.493" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="748" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="720" CreationDate="2012-04-17T23:50:58.350" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;+1 to Speldosa's suggestion. Griffiths and colleagues have written several primers on the use of Bayesian  models in cogsci. Many of them can be found on Griffiths' website under 'Foundations':&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cocosci.berkeley.edu/publications.php?topic=Foundations&quot;&gt;http://cocosci.berkeley.edu/publications.php?topic=Foundations&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;e.g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Perfors, A., Tenenbaum, J.B., Griffiths, T. L., &amp;amp; Xu, F. (2011). A&#xA;  tutorial introduction to Bayesian models of cognitive development.&#xA;  Cognition, 120, 302-321.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Griffiths, T. L., &amp;amp; Yuille, A. (2008). A primer on probabilistic&#xA;  inference. In M. Oaksford and N. Chater (Eds.). The probabilistic&#xA;  mind: Prospects for rational models of cognition. Oxford: Oxford&#xA;  University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-04-17T23:50:58.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="749" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="720" CreationDate="2012-04-18T01:27:15.823" Score="5" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Reading list&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @Jeff has mentioned Tom Griffiths has several useful resources. In particular Tom Griffiths has an &lt;a href=&quot;http://cocosci.berkeley.edu/tom/bayes.html&quot;&gt;extensive reading list&lt;/a&gt; that you might find relevant. To quote the summary of the content:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This list is intended to introduce some of the tools of Bayesian&#xA;  statistics and machine learning that can be useful to computational&#xA;  research in cognitive science. The first section mentions several&#xA;  useful general references, and the others provide supplementary&#xA;  readings on specific topics...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Other comments&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;More broadly, it certainly helps when learning Bayesian statistics to have a good understanding of calculus (integration is key) and probability &#xA;(distributions, how they are parameterised, etc.). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;John Kruschke's book is quite accessible &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/arm/&quot;&gt;Gelman and Hill&lt;/a&gt; is also quite accessible; the focus is multilevel modelling and regression; it covers Bayesian modelling with BUGS. It is very readable and has lots of practical advice. That said, it's doesn't specifically address issues related to cognitive science.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-18T05:15:22.123" LastActivityDate="2012-04-18T05:15:22.123" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="750" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="544" CreationDate="2012-04-18T13:58:16.713" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This phenomenon is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway_hypnosis&quot;&gt;highway hypnosis&lt;/a&gt; (also called driving without attention mode or white line fever) and is an example of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot;&gt;procedural memory&lt;/a&gt; (or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automaticity&quot;&gt;automaticity&lt;/a&gt;). Procedural memory is the ability to perform certain tasks without conscious awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2012-04-18T13:58:16.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="751" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="765" CreationDate="2012-04-19T03:29:44.660" Score="11" ViewCount="403" Body="&lt;p&gt;My friend (a woman) is convinced that &lt;strong&gt;all men who find those posters of &quot;women scantily clad in their bathing suits or thongs and big breasts (often fake)&quot; &lt;em&gt;attractive&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are simply brainwashed by society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I told her I disagreed. I told her that her experiences with a previous boyfriend (who was ugly, chubby, but she loved him dearly) had radically changed &lt;em&gt;her views&lt;/em&gt;, such that &lt;em&gt;she&lt;/em&gt; was the outlier, not &quot;everyone else&quot;. What the average male thinks of those posters is the &lt;em&gt;default&lt;/em&gt; genetic predisposition that males have towards women -- we tend to look for big breasts for breastfeeding our children, good WHR, typically healthy-weight (toned,not excessively fat but not crazy skinny either) as an indicator of overall health, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any literature on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whether experience can alter one's perception of attractiveness (i.e. over time x women you find hot will no longer be attractive to you). Note, I certainly think this is true, but I never learned about it specifically in psychology so if anyone know's more that'd be awesome&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If experience can alter this perception, to what extent?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whether the average person is &quot;brainwashed&quot; into thinking that the not-entirely-natural (makeup, breast implants, etc) women on TV are attractive.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="59" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T20:05:36.217" LastActivityDate="2017-02-13T19:43:05.167" Title="Can experience alter one's preferences for beauty?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="752" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="460" CreationDate="2012-04-19T12:33:31.580" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Jordan et al. (2010) tested humans that carry the genetic predisposition for having 4 classes of cone receptors. However, only one of their 24 subjects was able to discriminate three color dimensions, thus, demonstrated tetrachromacy.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Jordan G, Deeb SS, Bosten JM, Mollon JD. (2010). The dimensionality of color vision in carriers of anomalous trichromacy. Journal of Vision. 10(8):12.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journalofvision.org/content/10/8/12.full.pdf&quot;&gt;[Free PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some 12% of women are carriers of the mild, X-linked forms of color vision deficiencies called &quot;anomalous trichromacy.&quot; Owing to random X chromosome inactivation, their retinae must contain four classes of cone rather than the normal three; and it has previously been speculated that these female carriers might be tetrachromatic, capable of discriminating spectral stimuli that are indistinguishable to the normal trichromat. However, the existing evidence is sparse and inconclusive. Here, we address the question using (a) a forced-choice version of the Rayleigh test, (b) a test using multidimensional scaling to reveal directly the dimensionality of the participants' color space, and (c) molecular genetic analyses to estimate the X-linked cone peak sensitivities of a selected sample of strong candidates for tetrachromacy. Our results suggest that most carriers of color anomaly do not exhibit four-dimensional color vision, and so we believe that anomalous trichromacy is unlikely to be maintained by an advantage to the carriers in discriminating colors. However, 1 of 24 obligate carriers of deuteranomaly exhibited tetrachromatic behavior on all our tests; this participant has three well-separated cone photopigments in the long-wave spectral region in addition to her short-wave cone. We assess the likelihood that behavioral tetrachromacy exists in the human population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2012-04-19T12:33:31.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="753" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-04-19T23:38:06.670" Score="10" ViewCount="210" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although the various forwards mention that organizational behavior and social psychology are two of the fields that form the basis for the techniques taught at Harvard Law School's Negotiation and Leadership Program, the majority of the material that I've read (&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0143118757&quot;&gt;Getting to Yes&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0553371312&quot;&gt;Getting Past No&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0143118447&quot;&gt;Difficult Conversations&lt;/a&gt;) tends to frame things in contexts that the average person can easily grasp - romantic relationships, the office environment, and other social conversations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to understand the psychological and sociological underpinnings to this idea, in addition to the application of it (which is covered well in the books I mentioned). However, I'm not sure what exactly terms I should be looking for, and most of my searches are resulting in more business-eqsue style publications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What concepts can I research to understand the basis of Principled Negotiation and the other communication techniques presented in these works?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-20T00:35:39.377" LastActivityDate="2015-02-28T14:20:35.667" Title="What psychological or sociological concepts form the basis of Principled Negotiation?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;leadership&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="754" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-04-20T14:11:05.197" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Unconscious Mind&lt;/a&gt; or Unconscious consists of all the processes of the mind which are not available to consciousness. Consult the question &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/992/29&quot;&gt;Subconscious vs. Unconscious&lt;/a&gt;&quot; for further clarification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T01:44:22.580" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T01:44:22.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="755" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-04-20T14:11:05.197" Score="0" Body="For questions about mental processes that are not available to consciousness." OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T22:28:59.630" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T22:28:59.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="757" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="758" CreationDate="2012-04-20T19:59:44.137" Score="10" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which statistical method should I use when Predicting organization commitment (composed of 3 latent variables) using the five factors of personality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Its a cross-sectional design with survey data. The Personality factors are Five independent factors (derived out of factor analysis) and each factor is measured on a likert scale, same goes for the three components of commitment and they are also measured on a likert type scale. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The studies I have read upto now uses partial correlations and hierarchical regression to link these contructs but I somehow think there has to be a better way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note: this question was originally asked &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/26834/which-statistical-test-should-i-use-when-there-are-multiple-latent-predictors-an&quot;&gt;here on Stats.SE&lt;/a&gt;, but the moderator there suggested posting it on cogsci.se&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="651" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2012-04-23T07:54:15.897" Title="Which statistical test should I use when there are multiple latent predictors and multiple latent outcomes?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;commitment&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="758" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="757" CreationDate="2012-04-21T02:13:07.033" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing you are relating the Big 5 factors of personality to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_commitment#Model_of_commitment&quot;&gt;Meyer and Allen's three factor model of commitment&lt;/a&gt; (normative, continuance, affective).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You certainly could adopt the simple approach of creating observed composite scores for each variable and reporting the correlation matrix and a set of multiple regressions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the language of your question also suggests that you are interested in modelling latent variables rather than observed variables. This may suggest a structural equation modelling approach may be suitable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Benefits of structural equation modelling approach&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can model your measurement model (i.e., do the observed variables load appropriately on your 8 latent factors; is there an overall higher order commitment factor that represents the three commitment factors)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You could model relationships between latent factors rather than observed variables (i.e., you can adjust for reliability of measurement); this often aligns analyses more with theoretical interests in psychology.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You could explore more sophisticated model comparison approaches. One approach I really like involves comparing models with various constraints in either the correlations or regression coefficients between the predictor set (i.e., personality) and the outcome set (i.e., commitment). E.g., one model could constrain all 15 regression coefficients between personality and commitment variables to be the same; another model could say that the relationships are constrained to be equal across commitment variables but different across personality variables. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-21T13:20:44.707" LastActivityDate="2012-04-21T13:20:44.707" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="759" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-04-21T09:49:30.813" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intelligence has been defined in many different ways, including the abilities, but not limited to, abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, reasoning, learning, having emotional knowledge, retaining, planning, and problem solving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence is most widely studied in humans, but has also been observed in animals and plants. Artificial intelligence is the intelligence of machines or the simulation of intelligence in machines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a reference for the above passage, and for more information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Intelligence&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This tag is for questions on the levels of the above-listed abilities, the roles of these levels in education, testing such levels, and deficiencies in these areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T09:32:30.210" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T09:32:30.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="760" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-04-21T09:49:30.813" Score="0" Body="For questions about levels of abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, reasoning, learning, having emotional knowledge, retaining, planning, and problem solving, their roles in education, testing such levels, and deficiencies in these levels." OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T09:32:31.473" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T09:32:31.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="761" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-04-21T09:53:06.440" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Learning is acquiring new, or modifying existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over time tends to follow learning curves. Learning is not compulsory, it is contextual. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by what we already know. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process,rather than a collection of factual and procedural knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions having the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/learning&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'learning'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;learning&lt;/a&gt; tag regards the Cognitive Science aspects of learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="566" LastEditDate="2012-04-21T13:21:15.953" LastActivityDate="2012-04-21T13:21:15.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="762" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-04-21T09:53:06.440" Score="0" Body="For questions about acquiring new, or modifying existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences. Learning may involve synthesizing different types of information." OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-13T12:10:12.437" LastActivityDate="2012-10-13T12:10:12.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="763" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-04-21T11:32:19.030" Score="14" ViewCount="6578" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I read a text written in latin alphabet and I want to understand what it means I usually&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;transform each word into spoken word (internal speech) and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;then I transform it into meaning.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't get rid of the first phase and reduce the reading process to the second phase only. In Wikipedia, this internal speech is described as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subvocalization&quot;&gt;subvocalization&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I read in chinese I'm able to leave out subvocalization and go directly to the meaning. In many cases I learned only the meanings of symbols without knowing how to pronounce the symbol. I'm leaving out this mental burden and surf through the text without subvocalization. Reading is faster and my mind is in the relaxed state as if watching a movie without speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are their some techniques I can learn to get rid of subvocalization when reading texts written in latin alphabet or cyrillic? Could you cite a few sources researching this skill?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="554" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T08:35:51.637" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T08:35:51.637" Title="How to get rid of subvocalization?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="764" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="751" CreationDate="2012-04-21T14:06:50.423" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;At one time Mauritanians considered fat women more attractive than thin. Unless Mauritanian men were born different to other men, surely we have to suppose that Mauritanian men were trained that way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/3429903.stm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BBC News: Mauritania's 'wife-fattening' farm &lt;/a&gt;, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness#Body_mass&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia: Body mass in attractivness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="615" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-14T14:47:32.163" LastActivityDate="2012-09-14T14:47:32.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="751" CreationDate="2012-04-21T15:07:44.760" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many reasons why men may find 'not-entirely-natural' women more attractive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One reason, perhaps obvious, is simply based on evolutionary preferences. A rosy complexion may indicate good health, whereas larger breasts may signify fertility. Whether fake or not, women use makeup and surgery to accentuate features that men already find attractive. Though it is true that some women may accentuate features to the point of unrealism, it is worth noting that aesthetic reactions are established prior to one's cognitive appraisal for attractiveness [citation needed]. The mechanism in our brain that judges instantaneous beauty is likely not privy to information such as 'that woman in front of me has fake breasts'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, I think a better answer to your question relies on the notion of fluency--the metacognitive experience of difficulty associated with any cognitive act. Familiarity fosters high fluency, because our mind processes familiar things more quickly or easily than novel things. Several studies have shown that familiarity or fluency leads to an increased rating on any number of positively valence dimensions, including likability and attractiveness. [1][2] (As a side note, it's also interesting that the reverse is also true-- attractive faces are judged a more familiar [3]).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The media certainly plays a large part in increasing this familiarity through what we see on TV and in magazines. Different cultures develop different cultural norms for attractiveness as a result of their exposure. The same effect is frequently observed in people who are attracted to  others of the same race. This preference is shown even in young infants, as a result of increased exposure to faces of their own race. [4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, the 'message' conveyed by media likely influences our perception of beauty as well. Ads tell us that we have to constantly use the right shampoo, or diet supplement, or facial cleanser-- pressuring us to believe we won't be beautiful if we don't use these products. The message is not cryptic-- products often reference the 'healthy' or 'attractive' effects of their use. Perhaps someone better versed in the literature on belief formation or persuasion could add some useful citation here as well, this it not my area of expertise. (I often refer people to Cialdini's &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0205609996&quot;&gt;Influence: Science and Practice&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; for an overview of the literature related to persuasion, which may be worth checking out if no one can provide more targeted references).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[1] Peskin, M. &amp;amp; Newell, F. N. (2004). Familiarity breeds attraction:&#xA;  Effects of exposure on the attractiveness of typical and distinctive&#xA;  faces. Perception, 33, 147-157.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[2] Reber, R., Schwarz, N., &amp;amp; Winkielman, P. (2004). Processing&#xA;  fluency and aesthetic pleasure: Is beauty in the perceiver's&#xA;  processing experience? Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 364-382.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[3] Monin, B. (2003). The warm glow heuristic: When liking leads to&#xA;  familiarity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85,&#xA;  1035-1048.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[4] Kelly, D.J. et al. (2005). Three-month-old, but not newborns,&#xA;  prefer own-race faces. Dev Sci, 8, F31-F36.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-04-21T15:07:44.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="766" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="751" CreationDate="2012-04-21T17:18:36.367" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;We should differentiate between the behavior aspects of attraction and the physical aspects.  Behavior involves what bathing suit someone chooses to wear, what makeup they wear, how they carry their body, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the behavior aspect of attraction: Judith Butler argues that it is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_performativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;culturally-constructed performance&lt;/a&gt;.  Behavior varies by culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the European conception of masculinity is often thought to be different from the American conception of masculinity.  (more &quot;metrosexual&quot;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example:  Lesbians are more attracted to women who look like a typical butch lesbian.  Why is this?  Is there an evo-psych aspect to being attracted to short spiky or asymmetrical hair, thumb rings, and other things that make someone show up on other people's lezdar?  Possibly, but more likely it's a cultural signifier, a shibboleth, so that members of the same group can identify each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="653" LastActivityDate="2012-04-21T17:18:36.367" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="767" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-04-21T21:29:04.367" Score="14" ViewCount="45636" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes I've heard people using the term &lt;em&gt;gut feeling&lt;/em&gt; rather than their 'intuition or instinct' and I'm not sure which one do they mean. So, can both the terms be used interchangeably and simply referred to as a 'gut feeling'? Is there a real difference between Instinct and Intuition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="631" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-15T04:39:39.220" LastActivityDate="2016-07-02T20:28:11.937" Title="Difference between Instinct and Intuition" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="768" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="767" CreationDate="2012-04-22T06:53:51.790" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intuition&lt;/strong&gt;, as defined by Wikipedia:&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Intuition may be defined as understanding or knowing without conscious&#xA;  recourse to thought, observation or reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intuition is currently understood to be the subliminal processing of information that is too complex for rational thought, e.g. mate choice. The processes that make up intuition are learned, not innate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instinct&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Instinct&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is not a feeling, but an innate, &quot;hardwired&quot; tendency toward a particular behavior. Instincts are automatic reactions to environmental stimuli that cannot be repressed and occur in every individual of a species. The current opinion in psychology (since Maslow) is that human beings have no instincts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling#Gut_feeling&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Gut Feeling&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, according to the reference, arises from intuition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="615" LastEditorDisplayName="user1196" LastEditDate="2013-05-07T12:13:14.493" LastActivityDate="2013-05-07T12:13:14.493" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="771" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="547" CreationDate="2012-04-25T20:56:30.923" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Nor can I see potential for one to become psychologically dependent or addicted to sleep.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe someone can become &quot;psychologically dependent on sleep&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am 47 and have used sleep for 40 years to escape from life.   I typically sleep 4-6 hours too much each day.   I don't really physically need this sleep, since I then am often awake the next night for oversleeping that day, or I get a very strange tingling feeling in my body when I am forcing myself to sleep more and my body simply can't sleep any more.  Also, I wake up after a normal 8hrs, feel like I can't face the day and force myself to go back to sleep with more breaks of waking up and forcing myself back to sleep for the next 4-5 hours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My sleep gets in the way of living a full day and being productive.  When I finish my day, I am frustrated that I lost so many hours to sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have tried everything for the last 25 years to address this.   I have tried 7 years of psychotherapy, personal will power, all kinds of sleep and activity schedules, full physical examinations, talking with a sleep specialist, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I always seem to eventually drift back into using sleep as a way of getting out of life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am generally an intelligent, capable person, have a college degree, reached a decent level professionally, travelled around the world, etc.    I look like a normal person but the sleep problem makes functioning difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have had some childhood trauma, depression, anxiety which I have worked with extensively with psychotherapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sleep feels like an addiction to me because&#xA;.  I crave it several times a day and am looking forward to how I can sneak it in.&#xA;.  I don't seem to be able to control it with will power for very long.&#xA;.  If I have a successful period, I seem to always eventually slip back into it.&#xA;.  I only have short periods when this isn't a problem.&#xA;.  When I am under stress it is at it's worse.&#xA;.  If I have any free or unstructured time, I can't control how much I sleep excessively.&#xA;.  When my time is heavily scheduled, I really struggle with keeping a full schedule and crave the time off when I can sleep for hours.&#xA;.  If I know I'll have a few hours in between activities free, I will find ways to sneak in some sleep.&#xA;.  I am embarrassed about this, don't tell the people around me the extent of the problems and devise ways to sneak in sleep without people knowing.&#xA;.  If I am anxious, I use sleep as a way to reboot my system, calm myself down or get another perspective.&#xA;.  After I have chosen excessive sleep over being up, I struggle with self-recriminations about how much of my life I have wasted, how I didn't accomplish the things I wanted, why it was not good for me, how most of my day was gone, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The upside is my addition only hurts me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me, sleep addiction (and perhaps food addiction for others) are different than gambling, alcohol, smoking, drugs.   Sleep is something you must do each day to live.   I have no problem with total abstinence of things that aren't good for me (like drugs, etc).   However, I really struggle day after day with getting up out of sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have researched this and I have not found any studies on &quot;sleep addiction&quot;.    However, in medical sleep science journals and among a few psychiatric journals there are recent studies on &quot;delayed sleep phase syndrome&quot; and &quot;non- 24 hour sleep phase syndrome&quot;, whereby people who appear to sleep excessively simply have a malfunction of how melantonin is secreted in the system (perhaps due to the recent advent of the electric lightbulb) and do not sleep when most humans sleep.  Studies are showing that a much larger percentage of the population unknowingly struggle with this disorder in isolation all their lives.  This is turning out to be the be the biggest sleep disorder affecting the most number of people, even above insomnia and apnea.   This is very little understood and has only been discovered and documented in science journals since 1981.    DSPS is a recognized disability in the government disability system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that there is a huge gulf between the studies and expertise of medical sleep science and that of psychology/psychiatric studies on the sleep difficulties and the use of excessive sleep as a psychological coping mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="661" LastEditorUserId="661" LastEditDate="2012-05-04T16:19:28.737" LastActivityDate="2012-05-04T16:19:28.737" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="772" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="795" CreationDate="2012-04-26T01:14:58.327" Score="12" ViewCount="12990" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_inhibition#Low_latent_inhibition&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; says,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;High levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine (or its agonists) in the ventral tegmental area of the brain have been shown to decrease latent inhibition. Certain dysfunctions of the neurotransmitters glutamate, serotonin and acetylcholine have also been implicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to decrease latent inhibition outside the laboratory using widely available products (such as certain foods or drugs) or regimens?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="163" LastActivityDate="2016-06-25T15:09:28.687" Title="How to temporarily induce low latent inhibition?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="773" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="776" CreationDate="2012-04-26T02:42:55.713" Score="12" ViewCount="1501" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sort of like a cheap digital Camera, the human eye has certain feedback that's perceived but doesn't actually exist in the real world; a little layer of Static that's especially noticeable in pitch black lighting or when one's eyes are closed. It's (in my experience) sort of rainbow colored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the name/term for that rainbow static when you close your eyes?&lt;/strong&gt; I've been trying to find information about this but I don't know the &lt;em&gt;word&lt;/em&gt; for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T21:06:08.927" LastActivityDate="2019-01-29T19:41:13.540" Title="What is the &quot;static&quot; in human vision called?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="774" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="775" CreationDate="2012-04-26T03:46:54.673" Score="13" ViewCount="426" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one particular case, Skinner decided to go random on his hungry&#xA;pigeons. He dropped food into the box at completely random times,&#xA;independent of any behavior on the part of the pigeons. But the&#xA;behavior of the pigeons, he found, didn't stay random. After a few&#xA;drops of the food, the pigeons began exhibiting certain consistent&#xA;behavior. One circled counter-clockwise, another spun around in&#xA;circles; seventy-five percent of them exhibited some kind of odd&#xA;behavior.   Skinner concluded that the pigeons had come to display&#xA;'superstitious behavior'. It was like the superstition of gamblers who&#xA;believe they have a lucky hat. If the gambler wears the hat, they&#xA;can't lose. If the pigeons circle the cage counter-clockwise, they&#xA;will bring on food pellets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;from &lt;a href=&quot;http://io9.com/5746904/how-pigeons-get-to-be-superstitious&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;How-pigeons-get-to-be-superstitious....&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seems curious that this wouldn’t have been pursued as an avenue of study with other animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can anyone find me a citation of such studies and does anyone know if the study has been repeated elsewhere?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="663" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-07-24T22:03:14.297" Title="Are there additional animal studies about superstitions?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="775" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="774" CreationDate="2012-04-26T06:01:30.433" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;For instance, the same behavior was also shown in orang-utan and dog. Already two years after the study by Skinner (1947) mentioned in the news article, Kellogg (1949) gave a review of some of the experimental results, but advocates a less anthropomorphic interpretation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Kellogg, W. N. (1949) 'Superstitious' behavior in animals. Psychological Review, Vol 56(3), 172-175. doi: 10.1037/h0055221&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The orang-utan and dog as well as the pigeon have shown &quot;superstitious&quot; behavior. It has appeared in conditioning and multiple-choice experiments. Interpreting such behavior as superstitious is mentalistic and anthropomorphic. &quot;An alternate and less complicated interpretation would be that these activities—whether relevant or irrelevant to the solution of the problem—are ordinary instances of the association of a sequence of movements with a reinforcing stimulus.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, superstitious behavior is still a topic of interest for research done with humans. See for example the results of a PubMed search with this search term: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&amp;amp;cmd=DetailsSearch&amp;amp;term=%22superstitious+behavior%22&amp;amp;save_search=true&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&amp;amp;cmd=DetailsSearch&amp;amp;term=%22superstitious+behavior%22&amp;amp;save_search=true&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kellogg, W. N. (1949) 'Superstitious' behavior in animals. Psychological Review 56(3), 172-175.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Skinner, B. F. (1947) 'Superstition' in the Pigeon, Journal of Experimental Psychology 38, 168-172.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-05-14T19:20:16.610" LastActivityDate="2012-05-14T19:20:16.610" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="776" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="773" CreationDate="2012-04-26T07:43:45.967" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's essentially &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_noise&quot;&gt;shot noise&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In optics, shot noise describes the fluctuations of the number of photons detected (or simply counted in the abstract) due to their occurrence independent of each other. This is therefore another consequence of discretization, in this case of the energy in the electromagnetic field in terms of photons. In the case of photon detection, the relevant process is the random conversion of photons into photo-electrons for instance, thus leading to a larger effective shot noise level when using a detector with a quantum efficiency below unity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers have taken notice of this as early as the 1960s See [2]  I was unable to access this, but the abstract notes that it is probably not ideal shot noise, but I don't know what the De Lange filter adds to the shot noise model, it may be a small corrective factor. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A noise model incorporating the De Lange filter is applied to visual threshold performance. The model gives better agreement with the experimentally observed Weber-Fechner relation than does the ideal shot noise limited model, and it predicts that the critical time duration for integration of threshold stimuli depends upon the mean luminance level of the background field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As noted in the introduction to [1], the noise stems from the transduction stage in the retina: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On the other hand, people working on vertebrate photoreceptor believe that the responses of rods to single photons are locally saturated and that the &quot;quantum&quot; responses in&#xA;  rods are surprisingly stereotyped. Thus the variability in responses to dim light flashes is believed to be basically due to the absorption of one, two, . .. , few photons [they cite (Baylor et al., 1984)].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Refs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[1] Petracchi D., Cercignani, G., Lucia, S. (1996) Photoreceptor Sensitivity and the Shot Noise of Chemical Processes.  Biophysical Journal, 70: 111-120.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1224913/pdf/biophysj00052-0111.pdf&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[2] Ruddock, K.H. (1969)Some aspects of human visual threshold performance in relation to temporal frequency response characteristics.  Optics Communications 1(4): 173-179.&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-4018%2869%2990058-3&quot;&gt;doi&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-04-26T07:43:45.967" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="777" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="773" CreationDate="2012-04-26T14:24:11.717" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term you are looking for is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphene&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phosphene&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A phosphene is a phenomenon characterized by the experience of seeing&#xA;  light without light actually entering the eye. The word phosphene&#xA;  comes from the Greek words &lt;em&gt;phos&lt;/em&gt; (light) and &lt;em&gt;phainein&lt;/em&gt; (to show).&#xA;  Phosphenes are flashes of light, often associated with optic neuritis,&#xA;  induced by movement or sound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="665" LastActivityDate="2012-04-26T14:24:11.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="778" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5" CreationDate="2012-04-26T19:37:52.333" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The growing body of research in cognitive psychology is pointing to the fact that we may have overemphasized the processes of the brain as the center for determination of action.  We tend to look at the brain in terms of top-down processes but this is far from the case.  If you really want a rich and entertaining view of motivation read Damasio's book Descartes Error (1994).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Damasio was the first to postulate the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;somatic marker hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; or the theory that somatic bodily reactions were the source of heuristical choices.  Thus, the &quot;gut&quot; reaction truly is a somatic reaction of nerves outside of the CNS influencing the eventual choice of an action.  Literally you don't &quot;feel&quot; like taking an action.  The somatic marker hypothesis is gaining ground: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Backed up by research such as inhibiton cost time analysis (e.g. the addition to emotionally more salient words to a go-no-go test increases reaction time cost) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.socialemotiveneuroscience.org/publications.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Eddie Harmon-Jones&lt;/a&gt; as an author for experiemnetal and neurological evidence.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is evidence that somatic markers are responsible for subliminal cognitive dissonance especially in racial bias.  People who were tricked into a biased response were more likely to offer assistance or judge favorably a member of a minority race given the opportunity- again somatic differences re-routing rational decision making.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know its hard to believe neurons in the intestines might be responsible for your procrastination but if a warm cup of something in your hand makes you more likely to favoriably judge an object then.....   Read Damisio, really , you'll like it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="666" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-04-29T04:53:25.010" LastActivityDate="2012-04-29T04:53:25.010" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="779" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="767" CreationDate="2012-04-26T19:44:02.497" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Instinct - a motor response initiated by the body totally controlled by an external stimulus. An instinct is by definition, a behavior.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intuition - A sudden alignment of neuronal pathways that joins weakly associated concepts, ideas, facts, into a neuronal network that pulls conscious selective attention skills away from current activities.  May induce a positive somatic reaction estbalishing a pleasuraable experience from the thought or idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In more colloquial terms (e.g. woman's intuition) its activation of an established network in response to multiple external stimuli that alone would not draw attention.  However, it is still a cognitive process whereas instinct is a behavioral process.  This should help:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The setting was all wrong, his intuition was telling him this was a set-up.  Suddenly it all made sense, the ill fitting uniform on the guard, the broken security camera, the elevator being out of order, instinctively he dropped to the floor and reached for his gun&quot; - intuition - thought resulting from multiple stimuli meaningless on their own, instinct ; immediate reaction WITHOUT forethought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="666" LastEditorUserId="666" LastEditDate="2012-04-26T19:56:26.863" LastActivityDate="2012-04-26T19:56:26.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="780" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="763" CreationDate="2012-04-27T01:11:13.947" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The two legs upon which speed reading rests, in short, are chunking and seeking. Chunking is reading multiple words at once, while seeking allows you to find those chunks quickly and efficiently. The first exercise below will solve your subvocalization problems, but I recommend doing both in order to read text more effectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll need:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A computer with internet access for the first exercise&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A stopwatch and notecards (or a flashcard system of any sort) for the second exercise&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Practice Chunking with Spreeder&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many combinations of words can be comprehended simultaneously, which negates the need for subvocalization. Reading multiple words at once is called chunking. A useful tool to drill this skill is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spreeder.com&quot;&gt;Spreeder&lt;/a&gt;, which breaks text into arbitrary chunks and displays them a chunk at a time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Go to www.spreeder.com&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Click to speed read the introduction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Click &quot;spreed!&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;At the bottom right, click &quot;settings&quot; and increase chunk size to 3&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increase wpm as desired&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Practice Seeking with flashcards&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After you are comfortable speed reading on spreeder at a high level, which should have solved your subvocalization problem, move on to seeking. Spreeder displays chunks right in the middle of the screen, which is predictable. Real world text, however, is not that convenient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still, Spreeder can be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Spreeder&quot; some text with chunk size 3&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Write those chunks down on your flash cards&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pull up or print out the original text&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shuffle the flash cards and pull them at random&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Identify the random chunk in the text as fast as possible&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use the stopwatch to time yourself after identifying 10 chunks&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Doing this for 15 minutes a day will vastly improve your reading speed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This was the basis of the speed reading course I took at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. I can't cite any research from this coffeehouse, but give it a shot and see for yourself. Personally, I read casually at 500wpm at 90% comprehension and I can read up to 800wpm at 60% comprehension. I've been able to read like this since before the class, though, so feel free to take it with a grain of salt.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="667" LastActivityDate="2012-04-27T01:11:13.947" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="781" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="782" CreationDate="2012-04-27T03:54:40.077" Score="6" ViewCount="315" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came across &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.makezine.com/2008/11/13/the-brain-machine/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article on Make Magazine on &quot;The Brain Machine&quot;&lt;/a&gt; which will supposedly put one into a trancelike meditative state via a combination of sound and light pulses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any scientific evidence supporting the effectiveness of such a device?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have not heard about any similar devices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="49" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-27T04:32:14.057" LastActivityDate="2012-05-18T13:43:54.047" Title="Does &quot;The Brain Machine&quot; work?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;devices&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="782" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="781" CreationDate="2012-04-27T06:49:45.770" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;You have to break down the question in two parts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;(1) Is it possible to entrain brain oscillations by presenting oscillating lights or tones?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, it is possible to evoke &quot;response phenomena&quot; in the brain by presenting participants with oscillatory stimuli. The technical term for this phenomenon is &quot;steady state evoked potential&quot; and it was demonstrated for the visual (e.g., Herrmann, 2001) and as well as for the auditory domain (e.g., Zaehle et al., 2010). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Please note that these references are only examples from one group. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%28%22steady%20state%22%29%20AND%20%22evoked%20potentials%22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A more comprehensive overview can be found at PubMed.&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, the devices you linked to might work in principle, that is, they might be able to entrain different brain oscillations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;(2) Is it possible to put someone into a trancelike meditative state by entraining certain brain oscillations?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that the different frequency bands in which brain oscillations can be found are connected to perceptual and cognitive phenomena. (For a short introduction see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography#Comparison_table&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia on brain oscillations&lt;/a&gt;). Furthermore these frequency bands are not isolated, but the interweaving of these bands (i.e., cross-frequency coupling)  is not fully understood yet (see for example Jensen &amp;amp; Colgin, 2007). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown, however, that the manipulation of brain oscillations can alter perception (see for example publications on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22phase%20reset%22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;phase resetting&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, the topic of brain oscillations and its experimental manipulation is quite hot at the moment and receives a lot of attention, especially since new non-invasive methods for oscillatory brain stimulation are available (namely  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_alternating_current_stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;transcranial alternating current stimulation&lt;/a&gt;). For a review, see Thut et al. (2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To come back to your initial question: no, I am not aware of any study connecting the entrainment of brain oscillations to trancelike meditative states. This, however, does of course not mean that there are no studies. Furthermore, that does not mean that you cannot reach meditative states while using this device. (Personally, I would think that you can reach meditative states with almost any stimulation - if you are good at mediation.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Herrmann CS. (2001). Human EEG responses to 1-100 Hz flicker:&#xA;  Resonance phenomena in visual cortex and their potential correlation&#xA;  to cognitive phenomena. Experimental Brain Research, 137: 346-353.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/rldm5p6rt912phw2/fulltext.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.springerlink.com/content/rldm5p6rt912phw2/fulltext.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Jensen O, Colgin LL. (2007) Cross-frequency coupling between neuronal&#xA;  oscillations. Trends in Cognitive Science 11(7):267-9.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661307001271&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661307001271&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Thut G, Schyns GP  &amp;amp; Gross J (2011) Entrainment of Perceptually&#xA;  Relevant Brain Oscillations by Non-Invasive Rhythmic Stimulation of&#xA;  the Human Brain. Frontiers in Psychology 2011; 2: 170.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3142861/?tool=pmcentrez&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3142861/?tool=pmcentrez&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Zähle T, Lenz D, Ohl FW, Herrmann CS. (2010). Resonance phenomena in&#xA;  the human auditory cortex: Individual resonance frequencies of the&#xA;  cerebral cortex determine electrophysiological responses. Experimental&#xA;  Brain Research, 203, 629-635.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/w264045p1j5532pg/fulltext.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.springerlink.com/content/w264045p1j5532pg/fulltext.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-05-18T13:43:54.047" LastActivityDate="2012-05-18T13:43:54.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="783" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2012-04-27T09:42:46.317" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would highly recommend looking at  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.qualtrics.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.qualtrics.com/&lt;/a&gt;. You can take a look at free trial accounts and see how its easy to use interface is still extremely sophisticated – e.g. automatic option to record response time – and can be augmented with javascript when you want to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure of pricing because many universities often buy a site license. But Qualtrics has revolutionized the way we do experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="668" LastActivityDate="2012-04-27T09:42:46.317" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="787" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="683" CreationDate="2012-04-28T07:04:15.137" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like that O'Boyle and Aguinis (2012) highlight the importance of discussing the distribution of job performance. Their results clearly demonstrate that for some performance metrics a normal distribution is a very poor representation. They also present a persuasive argument for why this has practical implications for managing human resources. That said I think there are a couple of issues regarding the generalisation of their results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Issue of what is the natural metric of performance&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is possible to transform a variable to change its distribution.&#xA;For example, it is common to apply a log or square root transformation to skewed variables in order to make the resulting variable approximately normal.&#xA;Thus, in order to speak about &lt;strong&gt;the&lt;/strong&gt; distribution of performance one is confronted with the issue of what is the &lt;strong&gt;appropriate&lt;/strong&gt; metric of performance for a given variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To take one concrete example measures of time to perform a task are often positively skewed. In some instances it is modelled with an Inverse Gaussian distribution  (e.g., Baayen &amp;amp; Milin, 2010).&#xA;However, instead of using time to perform a task, you could measure productivity as the amount of times a task is performed in a unit time.&#xA;This will be a multiple of the inverse of time to perform the task (i.e., $c \times 1/y$ where $y$ is time to produce one unit and $c$ is the amount of time given to perform the task repeatedly). In addition to reversing the scale it will also substantially transform the distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The example demonstrates that not only can any given performance measure take on a variety of distributions, but that often there is more than one &lt;strong&gt;natural&lt;/strong&gt; metric of performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;How might distribution vary across tasks and performance metrics?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following summarises the performance measures used in the article which results showed were better fit by a Paretian than a normal distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Academic: Number of publications in top journals over 9.5 year period&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Creative: Number of award nominations; number of top 500  songs, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Political: Number of appearances in the legislature; time in office&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sports: Home run count; number of wins; goals scored;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several common elements that describe these performance domains:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Higher scores on these metrics are achieved by being close to the best in the domain. In most sporting contests prizes are not distributed evenly. Salaries and prizes are much higher for those at the top. Similar arguments can be made about political success. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Higher performance often yields additional support which reinforces performance. If you are a successful writer, then you are likely to get more support from publishers in terms of promotion and production support.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The tasks lack natural performance constraints and are often non-standardised. I imagine that the distribution on more standardised tasks would be more normal. For example, number of calls successfully handled in a call centre or number of widgets made on a production line amongst reasonably trained employees would vary but would be a lot more normally distributed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an article by Theodore Micceri (1989) he reviewed the distribution of test scores in a wide range of psychometric tests and found substantial variation in the degree to which normality was obtained. While Micceri (1989) is used as a critique of the ubiquity of the normal distribution, it also highlights that distributions can vary substantially across contexts and domains, some being normal, some not being so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;O'Boyle and Aguinis state in their discussion that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our central finding is that the distribution of individual performance&#xA;  does not follow a Gaussian distribution but a Paretian distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is helpful in encouraging those wanting to pursue further research on the distribution of performance. Nonetheless, the distribution of performance will vary as a function of the task and the metric of performance used. All the datasets used in O'Boyle and Aguinis share certain characteristics and leave out a large proportion of the performance space. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I think the question properly phrased should be: &quot;Under what conditions is the distribution of task performance characterised by a Paretian distribution?&quot; or to be more inclusive of the range of possible performance distributions, &quot;what causes the distribution of performance to vary?&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My initial hypothesis is that performance distributions are related to issues of task standardisation, inherent performance constraints, and the degree to which the winner-takes-all. That said, I'd like to see a more comprehensive review of performance measures that systematically examined a wider range of tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Micceri, T. (1989). The unicorn, the normal curve, and other improbable creatures. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin, 105&lt;/em&gt;, 156. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unt.edu/rss/class/mike/5030/articles/micceri89.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baayen, R. H. &amp;amp; Milin, P. (2010). Analyzing reaction times. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Psychological Research, 3&lt;/em&gt;, 12-28. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ualberta.ca/~baayen/publications/BaayenMilin2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-07T05:28:34.120" LastActivityDate="2012-05-07T05:28:34.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="788" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="772" CreationDate="2012-04-28T13:21:33.783" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to your snippet, increasing dopamine in the brain will decrease latent inhibition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dopamine is produced in the body from the chemical &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-dopa&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;L-dopa&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-dopa#Therapeutic_use&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikpedia&lt;/a&gt; states that dopamine will not cross the blood-brain barrier, so to increase dopamine levels in the brain L-dopa must be used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-dopa#Dietary_supplements&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; also says that there is a herbal extract containing L-dopa called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucuna_pruriens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;velvet bean&lt;/a&gt;. Wikipedia provides another solution, which uses the amino acid &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrosine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tyrosine&lt;/a&gt; which is the precursor to L-dopa, as well as dopamine, adrenaline and noradrenaline. So, be aware that use of this amino acid won't just increase your L-dopa levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A red herring I found were melanocytes, which produce L-dopa as part of the melanin synthetic cascade, however the amount produced is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0165183889901756&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;negligible&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aside from chemical alteration, what lowering latent inhibition entails is ignoring fewer things. Making cognitive filters less strict. Essentially this becomes a problem of attention - how to attended to things that haven't helped (haven't been reinforced) in similar situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It just so happens that there is a psychological phenomenon called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;latent learning&lt;/a&gt;. The classic experiment is one where some rats are allowed to roam freely in a maze with no objective, while the rest aren't. Later, when each rat is put into the maze to find food, the ones that have previously been in the maze find food more quickly. The rats learnt about the maze without reinforcement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would therefore suggest that to decrease latent inhibition you must deliberately pay more attention to your surroundings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="105" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-05-01T23:20:17.237" LastActivityDate="2012-05-01T23:20:17.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="789" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-04-29T02:39:02.270" Score="15" ViewCount="1599" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which is the appropriate repetition pattern to aid long term memory, in terms of time between study sessions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been reading about Ebbinghaus and doing some related research, but I can't find a recent study on the effectiveness it may have if a certain pattern is used for distribuiting the learning sessions on a subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="636" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T18:38:58.657" LastActivityDate="2014-04-02T21:22:03.103" Title="What is the optimal repetition pattern to maximize long term memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="790" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1483" CreationDate="2012-04-29T07:22:33.963" Score="12" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;Propagating waves of activity have been characterized in various regions of the brain such as the visual cortex &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5827-11.2012&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Nauhaus et al., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. Recently they have been reported for the first time to occur transiently during the developing cerebellum &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn.2285&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Watt et al., 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious as to how they would be important during early development and why they are transient which I'm sure the authors have moved on to try and answer as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've heard before about neuronal activity being important for pruning and forming correct connectivity within a network. For example waves of activity has been shown to be required for the development of precise retinotopic maps &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2005.09.015&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Chang et al., 2005)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not an expert and not familiar with the history or literature of neurodevelopment, so would like to ask if someone who may be more knowledgeable to describe what's known about wave activity during early brain development in other brain areas. How do waves help with proper circuit formation in these other regions? I am hoping this might provide insight to its role in the cerebellum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Nauhaus, I., Busse, L., Ringach, D. L., and Carandini, M. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5827-11.2012&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robustness of traveling waves in ongoing activity of visual cortex.&lt;/a&gt; The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(9):3088–3094. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5827-11.2012&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Watt, A. J., Cuntz, H., Mori, M., Nusser, Z., Sjöström, P. J., and Häusser, M. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn.2285&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Traveling waves in developing cerebellar cortex mediated by asymmetrical purkinje cell connectivity.&lt;/a&gt; Nature neuroscience, 12(4):463–473. doi:10.1038/nn.2285&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Cang, J., Renterı́a, R. C., Kaneko, M., Liu, X., Copenhagen, D. R., and Stryker, M. P. (2005). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2005.09.015&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Development of precise maps in visual cortex requires patterned spontaneous activity in the retina.&lt;/a&gt; Neuron, 48(5):797–809. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.09.015&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-17T22:32:58.357" LastActivityDate="2012-09-17T22:32:58.357" Title="What is the role of traveling waves in circuit formation during cortical development?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="791" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="622" CreationDate="2012-04-29T07:24:04.090" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many parts of the fetus brain begin showing neural activity before the senses that feed them are sufficiently developed to provide actual sensory information. In other words, it is unlikely that spiking activity in the brain is initiated by the senses. Some of the cells that become sensory organs, however, often fire in very specific patterns similar to the patterns they will use when they start actually sensing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example from Penn &amp;amp; Shatz (1999): in the human fetus, the connections from the eye to the visual cortex form before the retina is developed enough to respond to light. However, at this time the retinal ganglion cells spontaneously generate highly correlated bursts of action potentials. These bursts are similar to the sort of data they will generate once they actual start sensing, and these preliminary bursts allow the human fetus to start developing its visual cortex before it even has functional retina. This is not unique to humans, and similar activity was first observed in rats (Galli &amp;amp; Maffei, 1988).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The take away message, is that the cell in the brain start firing spontaneously before they has any sensory input. Some of this early firing is 'random' in the sense &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/619/29&quot;&gt;you asked before&lt;/a&gt;. However, neurons that develop into future sensory organs, tend to have their spontaneous firing resemble what their typical sensory production will look like in the future (once they start sensing). This allows the downstream circuitry to start adapting to the firing pattens before any real sensory infromation becomes available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Galli, L., &amp;amp; Maffei, L. (1988) &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/242/4875/90.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spontaneous impulse activity of rat retinal ganglion cells in prenatal life&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; 242(4875): 90-91.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Penn, A.A., &amp;amp; Shatz, C.J. (1999) &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/pr/journal/v45/n4-1/full/pr199992a.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain Waves and Brain Wiring: The Role of Endogenous and Sensory-Driven Neural Activity in Development&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;. &lt;em&gt;Pediatric Research&lt;/em&gt; 45: 447–458.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-06-13T20:29:21.400" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="792" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="789" CreationDate="2012-04-30T01:21:55.207" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you are interested in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacing_effect&quot;&gt;Spacing Effect&lt;/a&gt;. &#xA;A search on &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=%22spacing+effect%22&amp;amp;btnG=Search&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;as_ylo=2000&amp;amp;as_vis=0&quot;&gt;Google Scholar for &quot;spacing effect&quot; for articles published since the year 2000&lt;/a&gt; yields over 2500 articles some of which might be worth pursuing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps you might want to start by having a read through the meta-analysis in &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; by Cepeda et al (2006). To quote the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The authors performed a meta-analysis of the distributed practice&#xA;  effect to illuminate the effects of temporal variables that have been&#xA;  neglected in previous reviews. This review found 839 assessments of&#xA;  distributed practice in 317 experiments located in 184 articles.&#xA;  Effects of spacing (consecutive massed presentations vs. spaced&#xA;  learning episodes) and lag (less spaced vs. more spaced learning&#xA;  episodes) were examined, as were expanding interstudy interval (ISI)&#xA;  effects. Analyses suggest that ISI and retention interval operate&#xA;  jointly to affect final-test retention; specifically, the ISI&#xA;  producing maximal retention increased as retention interval increased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may also want to read Pavlik and Anderson (2008). They used a computational model of known spacing and practice effects in order to try to develop an optimal practice schedule for maximising learning and retention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cepeda, N.J. and Pashler, H. and Vul, E. and Wixted, J.T. and Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. &lt;em&gt;Psychological bulletin, 132&lt;/em&gt;, 354. &lt;a href=&quot;http://uweb.rc.usf.edu/~drohrer/pdfs/Cepeda_et_al_2006PsychBull.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pavlik, P. I and Anderson, J. R. (2008). Using a model to compute the optimal schedule of practice. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 14&lt;/em&gt;, 101. &lt;a href=&quot;http://server-1.optim.cs.cmu.edu/people/Articles/2008%20Pavlik%20Anderson.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-04-30T01:39:50.037" LastActivityDate="2012-04-30T01:39:50.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="793" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-01T04:04:11.320" Score="9" ViewCount="1382" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading Stephen Cave's book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B005DXOPDW&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Immortality&lt;/a&gt;, and one of the claims he makes early on is that there is a &quot;mortality paradox.&quot; This is the phenomenon that humans know that they will die (based on induction), but that &quot;the one thing that these minds cannot imagine is that very state of nonexistence; it is literally inconceivable.&quot; I am interested in the second part of this paradox, that humans cannot conceive of death. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His evidence for this is: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Introspection: &quot;Try it: you might get as far as an image of your own funeral, or perhaps a dark and empty void, but you are still there—the observer, the envisioning eye.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Quoting Freud, who said: &quot;It is indeed impossible to imagine our own death; and whenever we attempt to do so we can perceive that we are in fact still present as spectators.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Appeal to some recent psychology: &quot;Research by the psychologist &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jessebering.com/cv&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jesse Bering&lt;/a&gt; has shown that even young children who have not yet been socialized into any particular religion or worldview believe that the mind survives bodily death. He and his colleagues argue that this is because the alternative—that the mind is extinguished—cannot be grasped. He concludes that we have “an innate sense of immortality” that stems from this cognitive quirk—that is, the seeming impossibility of our annihilation is hardwired into our brains.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;Is the idea that death is inconceivable a consensus stance in cognitive psychology?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Surely it depends on how one defines a &quot;conception&quot;, but it seems to me like it ought to be possible, at least for some subset of the population. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="294" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-09T03:22:42.627" LastActivityDate="2016-01-12T00:30:25.193" Title="Is it possible for humans to conceive of being dead?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="794" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="829" CreationDate="2012-05-01T05:19:47.297" Score="9" ViewCount="239" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Context:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I was at a talk today where data was  presented  where a group of sports people ranked their own performance and everyone else in the group. This enabled self-rated performance to be correlated with the average of other-rated performance. The general observation was that there was a strong relationship between the two variables, but that where self-rated performance deviated from other-rated performance, people tended to rate themselves higher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This raises the question of what this self-other discrepancy represents.&#xA;One answer is that people have a self-serving bias. &#xA;Another answer is that people have unique information about themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Thus, I'm interested in studies that have looked at what self-rated performance predicts over and above other-rated performance. In particular:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To what extent does self-rated performance predict objective performance over and above other-rated performance?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine these findings would vary as a function of a range of factors including type of task, number of rated used form the other-rating, and so on. But at first instance, I'd be interested in any empirical examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-05-06T23:45:05.880" Title="Does self-rated performance predict objective performance over and above other-rated performance?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="795" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="772" CreationDate="2012-05-01T09:42:15.413" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Matt has the right direction but it's not the whole answer. As he explains, taking a metabolic precursor to dopamine will increase the amount of dopamine available to the brain. L-Dopa, tyrosine and tyrosine's precursor &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalanine&quot;&gt;phenylalanine&lt;/a&gt; are possibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if taking any of these precursors may raise the amount of dopamine available to the brain, it doesn't mean that significantly higher than baseline levels of dopamine will be released into synapses for an extended period. There's a few &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3214752&quot;&gt;studies&lt;/a&gt; on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3211373&quot;&gt;subject&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although supplements alone won't necessarily decrease latent inhibition, other drugs can potentiate their effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The line you quoted from Wikipedia cites its source as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12610717&quot;&gt;a study which actually answers your question&lt;/a&gt;. In the study, administration of amphetamine disrupted visual latent inhibition in study subjects. Amphetamine is known as a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuptake_inhibitor&quot;&gt;reuptake inhibitor&lt;/a&gt;, and inhibits the re-uptake, or recycling process of various neurotransmitters, including dopamine, causing them to continually activate receptors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Phenylalanine, tyrosine, and caffeine: caffeine is a stimulant and has been shown to increase dopamine release, supplementation of dopamine precursors ensures that there's extra dopamine to go around. Check your 5 hour energy ingredient label, they use this technique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another brain system to research would be the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocannabinoid_system&quot;&gt;endocannabinoid system&lt;/a&gt;. The effect of the stimulant drugs which we just covered are actually &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/r6ejyhy2740h1752/?MUD=MP&quot;&gt;blocked when cannabinoid receptors are blocked&lt;/a&gt;, suggesting the dopamine system is not the only variable in low latent inhibition. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol&quot;&gt;THC&lt;/a&gt; is a chemical that you've probably heard about, which activates cannabinoid receptors in the brain. THC can increase an individual's &lt;a href=&quot;http://scienceblogs.com/cortex/2010/03/marijuana_and_divergent_thinki.php&quot;&gt;ability to link disparate ideas and concepts&lt;/a&gt;, and its use has shown to correlate with a slight increased risk for schizophrenia, a form of psychosis which some believe is related to too little latent inhibition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know of a study that directly links cannabinoids and latent inhibition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="677" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-05-01T23:19:56.770" LastActivityDate="2012-05-01T23:19:56.770" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="796" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="793" CreationDate="2012-05-01T11:34:33.970" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can only think of one way to attempt to experience death.  And even that last sentence isn't entirely correct, but more to the point, attempt this thought exercise:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Draw a set of three circles in a chain (not a Venn diagram, but they DO overlap) and label them Life, Thought, and Death, in that order, or reverse if you prefer. You will slowly be running your finger from one direction to the other, and attempting to achieve the state of each circle.  They do not need to be huge, just large enough for you to place your finger in each one.  In the first circle, Life, you can do things actively. Imagine running a marathon, or some other physical activity.  In the next circle, Thought, you can do things actively and passively. Imagine perceiving a person running a marathon.  In Death, you can do nothing.  You can't observe, perceive, or act.  Try to not think or observe.  Clear everything from your mind and shut out your senses.  Even though you can't realize it, if you're actually doing it, that was death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By virtue of thinking, you remove a state of true death. You cannot observe the unobserved by observing it. You can only observe it by observing that which it isn't.  Like observing a black hole.  You can't see into it, you can only see the gap it leaves while continuing to exist.  It exists as a 'nothing' that is still kind of a 'something'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or if this statement helps more, &quot;you can't think of what it would be like to be dead because it isn't a state of experiences. When you're dead, 'nothing' happens.  You'd have to think of what it would be like to experience something that defines your state that you cannot experience.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also ask individuals who have been resuscitated from 'dying', though I'm sure they are rare and more rare as you restrict the definition of 'dead' from 'dying'. Though I'm certain, &lt;em&gt;other than religious observations&lt;/em&gt;, the majority of the responses you might hear would be &quot;A big blank&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After you've left life and left thought, only 'state' of existence persists, which may be experienced bodily, but definitely not mentally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="678" LastActivityDate="2012-05-01T11:34:33.970" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="797" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="800" CreationDate="2011-10-11T20:31:15.133" Score="10" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some firms have a compensation structure that encourages risk-taking while insulating employees from the bad consequences of their decisions.  This creates the potential for moral hazard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I started thinking about this because of what happened at AIG.  For those unfamiliar with the situation, a small division (AIG Financial Products) in a huge insurance company was able to bankrupt the entire company.  Incentives were very lop-sided for division management relative to the risks they were taking.  Even though management was making millions, they were taking risks an order of magnitude larger than that.  If they lost billions, they would only lose their future income (assuming they would be fired).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, how do you align management/employee incentives at the institutional level in order to prevent this types of moral hazard?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two things to note:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The situation at AIG is just an example.  I'm not asking for solutions specific&#xA;to AIG (e.g. limiting leverage) or financial firms in general.  Many firms&#xA;face this type of moral hazard with the CEO (i.e. a &quot;golden parachute&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Aside from not being &quot;at the institutional level&quot;, I doubt&#xA;regulation is the answer.  While there's a place for regulation,&#xA;regulators seem to &amp;mdash; at least initially &amp;mdash; react to crises instead of&#xA;prevent them (though there's no counter-factual for crises&#xA;regulators may have prevented).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Joshua Ulrich" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-01T14:37:19.490" LastActivityDate="2012-05-01T14:37:19.490" Title="How can you limit excessive risk-taking at the institutional level?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="798" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="797" CreationDate="2011-10-11T21:50:12.917" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume you meant to ask &quot;&lt;strong&gt;can&lt;/strong&gt; you align management/employee incentives to prevent these types of events from the institutional level?&quot; Well in the simplest possible model which you seem to be familiar with, of course you can. But things are not so simple as they may seem at first, because incentivising exactly the right behaviour is hard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, suppose that an employee has two tasks, A and B. A is observable but B is not. If you provide incentives to do job A well, the optimal response for the employee is to do as little of B as he can get away with. The moral is that unless all the contributions of an employee can be monitored, incentives can induce lopsided priorities for employees. If the aspect they are ignoring is crucial to the functioning of the organisation, the incentives will end up being counterproductive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Zermelo" LastActivityDate="2011-10-11T21:50:12.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="799" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="797" CreationDate="2011-10-11T22:51:06.607" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Investing is all about returns. Increasing returns in the short term is easy to do through taking on risk. Many institutions reward short term profits without considering any risks taken. This encourages irresponsible risk taking since the risk takers have nothing to loose. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One solution is to provide risk adjusted compensation instead of purely (short term) profit based compensation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another safeguard (that was put in place after the Great Depression in the USA) is to limit the size of financial institutions. Smaller institutions cannot take as large risks as larger ones. Unfortunately that legislated safeguard was removed back in 1997.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user8077" LastActivityDate="2011-10-11T23:24:12.100" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="800" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="797" CreationDate="2011-10-12T02:12:01.227" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Optimal contracting under moral hazard is an incredibly rich field. Any answer to your question would rely more on the assumptions being made about risk preferences, effort sets, etc. than any &quot;universal solution&quot; to moral hazard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, there are a couple of interesting pieces of the literature to note:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Optimal contracts often have a fixed component (the opposite of your &quot;alignment&quot; premise),  with the variable component offered only insofar as it is required to induce more effort from the agent.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Optimal contracts use any information relevant to determining the effort expended by the agent, not just the result.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I would think an answer would be to reduce (not increase) the amount of compensation variable upon the result and to condition compensation relative to other benchmarks that would indicate whether someone is just benefiting from tailwind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="MikeRand" LastActivityDate="2011-10-12T02:12:01.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="801" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="802" CreationDate="2011-10-13T16:53:43.920" Score="32" ViewCount="873" Body="&lt;p&gt;While I teach some economics classes, I must admit to near complete ignorance on the optimization processes students undertake when studying.  We often say that the &quot;best&quot; students are those who earn the highest grades.  However, from (naive) economic first principles, a rational student might be expected to endeavor not to maximize her grade, but rather to study until the marginal benefit of additional study equals its cost.  Thus, we view students as grade producers who transform labor into grades. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Have there been any studies that investigate the optimization problem these &quot;grade producers&quot; are solving when they choose how much to study (and especially on how they assess the benefits of grades)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="679" OwnerDisplayName="Jason B" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-02T00:04:37.447" LastActivityDate="2012-05-11T07:46:00.673" Title="Do students exhibit rational behavior in determining study time?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="802" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="801" CreationDate="2011-10-21T01:53:12.917" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this is a very interesting question that I'm not sure we know the answer to. As we move towards online-based instruction, the question of whether students &quot;optimally&quot; determine their study time is extremely relevant. For instance, if students are allowed to &quot;self-pace&quot; themselves, will they do so optimally? Going to lectures in part may serve as a &quot;commitment device&quot; to go to class. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only good economic study I know of is by &lt;strong&gt;David Figlio et al&lt;/strong&gt; &quot;Is it Live or is it Internet?: Experimental Estimates of the Effects of Online Instruction on Student Learning&quot;. It also has the virtue of (attempting) to be a randomized controlled trial. However, I'm sure that there are probably other behavioral economics or psychology studies worth visiting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors write,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Without the nudge of having to attend classes, the authors suggested,&#xA;  it can be easy to let recorded lectures pile up unwatched. Indeed, it&#xA;  is common at Florida to see students in libraries cramming viewings of&#xA;  a dozen lectures back to back before exams.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a link to the paper (gated, unfortunately):&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nber.org/papers/w16089&quot;&gt;http://www.nber.org/papers/w16089&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also a popular press description:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/05/us/05collegeside.html&quot;&gt;http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/05/us/05collegeside.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="dchandler" LastActivityDate="2011-10-21T01:53:12.917" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="804" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-24T12:34:59.583" Score="5" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;Having recently read &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freakonomics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Freakonomics&lt;/a&gt; I was particularly interested by the idea of the responses of a community to incentives - as an example, the tale of a school which tried to introduce a financial penalty for picking up children late, which inadvertently had the opposite effect, as it nullified the previously existing (but largely invisible) social penalty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a general theory for this kind of interaction of incentives with community? If so, what is its name, and where could I read more about it? I'm interested in books and papers on a variety of levels, from popular accounts (à la Freakonomics) to textbooks to research papers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4589" OwnerDisplayName="Chris Taylor" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-01T14:25:12.343" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T18:00:08.087" Title="What is the field that studies community responses to incentives?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="805" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="804" CreationDate="2012-04-01T10:51:33.013" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a specific field of economics that deals with the process of changing people's responses through incentives: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_economics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Behavioural Economics.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;study the effects of social, cognitive and emotional factors on the&#xA;  economic decisions of individuals and institutions and the&#xA;  consequences for market prices, returns and the resource allocation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.economist.com/node/21551032&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A recent issue of The Economist&lt;/a&gt; covers some of the current approaches used by governments to change individual behaviour:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Behavioural economists have found that all sorts of psychological or&#xA;  neurological biases cause people to make choices that seem contrary to&#xA;  their best interests. The idea of nudging is based on research that&#xA;  shows it is possible to steer people towards better decisions by&#xA;  presenting choices in different ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the approaches, for instance used by the British Behavioural Insights Team, are merely ways of changing a message:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Nudge Unit has been running dozens of experiments and the early&#xA;  results have been promising*. In one trial, a letter sent to&#xA;  non-payers of vehicle taxes was changed to use plainer English, along&#xA;  the line of “pay your tax or lose your car”. In some cases the letter&#xA;  was further personalised by including a photo of the car in question.&#xA;  The rewritten letter alone doubled the number of people paying the&#xA;  tax; the rewrite with the photo tripled it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's become a very fruitful area of research so would recommend taking your interest further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Turukawa" LastActivityDate="2012-04-01T10:51:33.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="810" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="811" CreationDate="2011-11-08T00:14:18.090" Score="13" ViewCount="2774" Body="&lt;p&gt;The hold-out problem often occurs in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holdout_problem&quot;&gt;debt-restructuring&lt;/a&gt; or in &lt;a href=&quot;http://digitalcommons.uconn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1151&amp;amp;context=econ_wpapers&quot;&gt;urban development&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hold-out problem is defined where an agent, for example a land developer, must negotiate with many lot owners and each lot owner must provide their consent in order for a project to proceed. However, since the agents know that their consent is required they can extract a portion of the producer surplus in excess of their opportunity costs. The net effect is that such large-scale projects are underproduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are legal remedies to address this underproduction. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eminent_domain&quot;&gt;Eminent domain&lt;/a&gt; is a legal tool to overcome hold-out problems, however, it does not consider &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_efficiency&quot;&gt;pareto-efficiency&lt;/a&gt;. It's not at all clear whether developers that exercise eminent domain are increasing social welfare or simply have better influence over a political process to transfer resources from one group to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally, we would like a voluntary bargaining solution that all (or most) parties agree to that produces a socially efficient amount. A bargaining solution should always be arrived at when the social utility of the production exceeds the opportunity costs of each individual and the producer cost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What bargaining &quot;game&quot; could be designed (and enforced or enabled by a legal process) so that such a procedure could be applied to hold-out problems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Quant Guy" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-01T14:19:34.583" LastActivityDate="2012-05-01T14:19:34.583" Title="Game-theory strategies to overcome holdout problem?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="811" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="810" CreationDate="2011-11-08T18:05:59.167" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The hold-out problem &lt;a href=&quot;http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/Law%20Review/64-4Hornaday.pdf&quot;&gt;is&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=dt0NAAAAQAAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA209&amp;amp;dq=Game-theory%20strategies%20to%20overcome%20holdout%20problem&amp;amp;ots=dCGk54Wti6&amp;amp;sig=_eQrO0l2gdMOPqJbDfbxEPuWOQY&amp;amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;much&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.business.uconn.edu/Realestate/publications/pdf%20documents/351%20Holdout%20Problem%20and%20Urban%20Sprawl.pdf&quot;&gt;studied&lt;/a&gt; and has even been associated with &lt;a href=&quot;http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&amp;amp;handle=hein.journals/bclr48&amp;amp;div=11&amp;amp;id=&amp;amp;page=&quot;&gt;IP disputes&lt;/a&gt; (especially relevant in an age where a complex device like a mobile phone can involve license agreements between hundreds of companies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the consequences being identified as a result of the hold-out problem include urban sprawl (easier to develop green-fields sites), urban decay (hold-outs prevent urban renewal), and even disruption of the innovation and investment cycle (hold-outs over-value their IP contribution and innovators then refuse to invest).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://law.wlu.edu/deptimages/Law%20Review/64-4Hornaday.pdf&quot;&gt;Imminently Eminent: A Game Theoretic Analysis of Takings Since Kelo v. City of New London&lt;/a&gt;, Alex Hornaday proposes the following game:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Game participants include a Developer and an Owner;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Developer values Owner's property at $x$;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Owner values property in a range $p_1$ to $p_2$ such that $p_1 &amp;lt; x &amp;lt; p_2$;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Basic play:&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Developer offers price $x_1$;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Owner either accepts or rejects $x_1$;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;if Owner rejects $x_1$, Developer may quit bargaining or offer price $x_2$;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;if Developer offers price $x_2$, Owner either accepts or rejects $p_2$;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;if Owner rejects $x_2$ and the Developer has the power of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eminent_domain&quot;&gt;eminent domain&lt;/a&gt;, Developer may then choose either to do nothing or to condemn;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hornaday also includes a penalty which the Owner would incur during round 2.  He acknowledges that much of this is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_efficiency&quot;&gt;Pareto-inefficient&lt;/a&gt; as either (or both) parties are forced into a loss following an unsatisfactory conclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The oversimplification here is that hold-outs tend to occur when multiple parties need to negotiate.  In that case the last part to negotiate a deal is able to exert a monopoly pricing power over the other parties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eminent domain certainly offers the eventuality of a result (from the Developer's perspective) but can be distortionary (since either party may have insufficient negotiating power to secure an ideal result).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My answer, at this point, becomes speculative and I offer this untested as a potential model for achieving a &quot;better&quot; response amongst multiple parties.  It is based on the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://time.dufe.edu.cn/jingjiwencong/waiwenziliao/optimalreservation.pdf&quot;&gt;optimal reservation prices in auctions&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Supplementing Hornaday's game as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Developer makes a sealed reserve offer, $r_1$, for all properties from all Owners;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;All Owners make a sealed pooled reserve request, $r_2$, for all properties;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Negotiator establishes whether $r_1$ and $r_2$ are aligned;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If not, then an assessment (legal and social) must take place (at Developer's expense) if the Developer wishes to continue to assess whether eminent domain is even possible (not a decision, however, so pertaining to a negotiation only);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If negotiation is possible, or if eminent domain is a viable solution to negotiation, then price negotiation can continue with all parties knowing where they stand.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can now continue with the original game.  I believe that there need to be sufficient inducements and penalties for the Owners (inducements for early settlement, penalties for holding out) to balance the Developer's costs in the process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, if the reserve prices make a settlement unlikely and eminent domain would not be possible, then the Developer must walk away and pocket the costs of the process to that point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Turukawa" LastActivityDate="2012-02-24T09:05:03.737" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="812" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="810" CreationDate="2011-11-10T03:37:38.613" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you're looking for a simple game, for example to teach the holdout problem to students just beginning game theory, you could do worse than start with a general &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;prisoner's dilemma&lt;/a&gt; (PD) game. The 30-second explanation is that it only makes (rational) sense for one player to act if the other person is acting as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The holdout problem is a motivation for &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.econport.org/econport/request?page=man_pg_solutions_vcm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;voluntary contribution mechanism experiments&lt;/a&gt; (VCMs) or &quot;public goods&quot; games, which is an example of a PD game in public context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These games only speak to the private optimum of holding out (the unilateral optimum) as compared to the social optimum of cooperating (the multilateral optimum), and doesn't speak to extracting surplus. Cooperation can be ensured with contracts and other extra-game mechanisms, usually relying on the possibility of negotaition and requiring enforcement of contracts. Starting with a simple PD, including side-payments explicitly in the game structure should be sufficient for capturing the flavor of surplus extraction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt; Miceli has recently published a noncooperative game model for the holdout problem in &lt;em&gt;Public Choice&lt;/em&gt; as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/6173113723146w75/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Free riders, holdouts, and public use: a tale of two externalities&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="883" OwnerDisplayName="jrhorn424" LastActivityDate="2011-11-15T22:24:45.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="813" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="816" CreationDate="2011-10-31T19:06:52.423" Score="11" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm playing around with social learning of near-optimal behavioral rules on a set of agents. The idea is roughly that given an income process (or technology process, depending on the question) an optimal nonlinear, intertemporal policy rule exists. Assume this rule can be approximated closely by a linear function. Agents would like to learn this policy rule, and a first pass is to have them learn the rule simply by experimentation. &quot;In autarky,&quot; i.e. without any information exchange with other agents, an agent would try a rule for some time, use some metric to determine how well it does against other rules he/she has tried, and perhaps reassess, perhaps try an entirely different rule via experimentation. This agent only observes his/her own history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A second pass is to allow the agent access to all other agents' histories. Presumably this would speed up learning. A third pass might be to put these agents on an information network of some sort. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been perusing literature on social learning, but am not entirely sure the frameworks I am looking at are exactly what I want. Many of them appear to be Bayesian learning about a hidden state of nature, for which everyone has a private signal. I'm actively reviewing literature right now, but as I do, does anyone have any thoughts/suggestions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Nate" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-01T14:16:52.400" LastActivityDate="2012-05-01T14:16:52.400" Title="What are the key algorithms for learning optimal behavior of economic agents?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;&lt;agent-based-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="814" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="813" CreationDate="2011-11-01T09:06:43.753" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are two computational approaches which might work:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_networks&quot;&gt;Artificial neural network&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A neural network consists of an interconnected group of artificial neurons, and it processes information using a connectionist approach to computation. In most cases an ANN is an adaptive system that changes its structure based on external or internal information that flows through the network during the learning phase. Modern neural networks are non-linear statistical data modelling tools. They are usually used to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs or to find patterns in data. &#xA;Perhaps the greatest advantage of ANNs is their ability to be used as an arbitrary function approximation mechanism which 'learns' from observed data. However, using them is not so straightforward and a relatively good understanding of the underlying theory is essential. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Choice of model:&lt;/strong&gt; This will depend on the data representation and the application. Overly complex models tend to lead to problems with learning. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Learning algorithm:&lt;/strong&gt; There are numerous trade-offs between learning algorithms. Almost any algorithm will work well with the correct hyper-parameters for training on a particular fixed dataset. However selecting and tuning an algorithm for training on unseen data requires a significant amount of experimentation. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Robustness:&lt;/strong&gt; If the model, cost function and learning algorithm are selected appropriately the resulting ANN can be extremely robust. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;II. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_vector_machines&quot;&gt;Support vector machine&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A set of related supervised learning methods that analyse data and recognize patterns, used for classification and regression analysis. The standard SVM takes a set of input data, and predicts, for each given input, which of two possible classes the input is a member of, which makes the SVM a non-probabilistic binary linear classifier. Since an SVM is a classifier, then given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new example falls into one category or the other. Intuitively, an SVM model is a representation of the examples as points in space, mapped so that the examples of the separate categories are divided by a clear gap that is as wide as possible. New examples are then mapped into that same space and predicted to belong to a category based on which side of the gap they fall on.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neural Networks have been used to &lt;a href=&quot;http://arstechnica.com/science/news/2011/07/how-a-computer-beat-civilization-by-rtfm.ars&quot;&gt;create highly competitive computer-players for the open-source FreeCiv&lt;/a&gt;.  There, Neural Networks are used with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_methods_in_finance&quot;&gt;Monte Carlo Methods&lt;/a&gt; which I've also used in simulating economic interactions in games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not sure if this is entirely what you're looking for but might be a start?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Turukawa" LastActivityDate="2011-11-01T09:06:43.753" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="815" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="813" CreationDate="2011-11-22T21:39:33.637" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many key algorithms are summarized on the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/tesfatsi/aemind.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;ACE website by Leigh Tefatsion, Iowa State University&quot;&gt;ACE Research Area: Learning and the Embodied Mind&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; website.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;ACE&lt;/em&gt; = Agent-based Computational Economics &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1134" OwnerDisplayName="Sylvain Peyronnet" LastActivityDate="2011-11-25T19:34:24.067" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="816" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="813" CreationDate="2011-11-22T22:28:22.507" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_observable_Markov_decision_process&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;POMDP's&lt;/a&gt; - partially observable markov decision processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have a value function (income) that is known for agents in various states, and you are trying to identify the optimal policy then &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellman_equation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bellman&lt;/a&gt;'s equation which is at the heart of POMDP's will help you identify this policy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These tools are part of a class of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;re-inforcement&lt;/a&gt; learning algorithms (in fact, they are used quite often for robotics). So they map very neatly to the framework you have identified (agents, a reward function, and a state/action space)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another angle of attack would be using &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_algorithm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;genetic algorithms&lt;/a&gt; in your optimization procedure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Quant Guy" LastActivityDate="2011-11-22T23:01:53.390" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="817" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="813" CreationDate="2011-12-08T17:57:07.933" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;ved=0CB0QFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Farielrubinstein.tau.ac.il%2Fpapers%2FGlazerRubinstein2011.pdf&amp;amp;ei=pPngTv7KHurX0QG6-dTqDA&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNFkICTdNUorMig_i-s_evTuypnVpw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; by Glazer and Rubinstein, while not strictly relevant to your research, uses a particular algorithmic model of agent behaviour and analyses its effect on the implementability of different mechanisms. The algorithm itself might be of interest to you - I think variants of it could be both realistic and easy to use in applied models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Zermelo" LastActivityDate="2011-12-08T17:57:07.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="818" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="819" CreationDate="2011-10-31T12:55:38.067" Score="12" ViewCount="388" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to be generally assumed that making cars safer for the occupants will reduce death, injury, and damage from traffic accidents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are some examples of significant empirical research on this topic? Specifically, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_hazard&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;do safety features cause drivers to engage in more risky behavior than they otherwise would&lt;/a&gt;? If so, what is the net effect of additional safety mechanisms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/svqLd.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Herman comic&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Sinan Ünür" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-05-01T14:17:31.467" LastActivityDate="2013-05-12T19:22:21.187" Title="Do safety features cause drivers to engage in more risky behavior than they otherwise would?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="819" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="818" CreationDate="2011-10-31T15:15:54.180" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Any review in this area should start with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1830396&quot;&gt;Peltzman's 1975 JPE article&lt;/a&gt;.  Peltzman was writing a few years after the 1968 Motor Vehicle Safety Act (U.S.) went into effect.  The act required, among other things, padded dash boards and seat belts.  He says (p. 717):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The  one result of this study that can  be put  forward most&#xA;  confidently is  that  auto  safety  regulation  has  not  affected &#xA;  the  highway  death  rate.  Neither the time-series nor cross-section&#xA;  data permit any other conclusion.  However,  these data are not as&#xA;  decisive about what underlies this result.  On  one interpretation,&#xA;  safety regulation has decreased the  risk of death  from an accident&#xA;  by more than an unregulated market would  have,  but  drivers have&#xA;  offset this by taking greater accident risk.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, the idea is that seat belts and other safety devices may save lives &lt;em&gt;if the accident rate is held constant&lt;/em&gt;, but that in reality, wearing a seat belt may induce more risk taking and thus more accidents overall (moral hazard, or Peltzman's &quot;compensating behavior&quot;).  Then, it is not obvious whether more accidents which are, on average, less fatal will result in more deaths overall.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, Peltzman didn't settle the matter.  More recently, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/3211808&quot;&gt;Cohen and Eniav (2003)&lt;/a&gt; found the opposite--that safety devices unambiguously save lives and that there is no evidence of additional risk-taking by seat belt wearers.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/3211756&quot;&gt;Levitt and Porter (2001)&lt;/a&gt; came to a similar conclusion (this later paper is worth reading because it brings to light the issue of sample selection problems (à la Heckman), and a way of correcting for it).  It seems, at least for seat belts, that the matter has been settled by these later papers.  But, these lines of research highlight that, in general, we cannot say for certain what the net effect of safety regulations will be &lt;em&gt;a priori&lt;/em&gt;.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, the Cohen paper focuses on &lt;em&gt;primary enforcement&lt;/em&gt;, that is, providing incentives to use safety devices (or, rather, disincentives for not using them) beyond the live-saving benefits.  This would tend to cause people who wouldn't ordinarily use safety devices to use them.  &lt;strong&gt;If&lt;/strong&gt; it is true that drivers are compensating for their unsafe behavior by using safety devices, then more safe drivers would be induced to use the devices and the moral hazard may be somewhat offset.  This tends to indicate that non-optional safety improvements may have a larger impact on deaths per mile than optional safety improvements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oh, and here is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.corkeconomics.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/Steering-Wheel.jpg&quot;&gt;the spiked steering wheel comic you are looking for&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="679" OwnerDisplayName="Jason B" LastActivityDate="2011-10-31T15:45:08.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="820" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="818" CreationDate="2011-10-31T18:45:13.747" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Someone asks a related question of a Nobel Prize Winner in Economics in a public forum (who was speaking off the record).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His opinion was yes, because the fundamental issue was that human beings had a certain tolerance level for &quot;accidents,&quot; so that if you make cars safer, people would drive more recklessly with the safer vehicles, until the accident rate reached the old, tolerated levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At least this was the example he used to illustrate his point. The original question was did financial reforms over the past century/decade/year make the financial system safer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" OwnerDisplayName="Tom Au" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2013-05-12T19:22:21.187" LastActivityDate="2013-05-12T19:22:21.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="821" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="818" CreationDate="2011-11-06T22:08:15.790" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it varies by safety equipment, and that you'll get different results for anti-lock brakes (like the famous &lt;a href=&quot;http://psyc.queensu.ca/target/chapter07.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Munich taxi cab study&lt;/a&gt;) or air-bags.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="RobertDavidGraham" LastActivityDate="2011-11-06T22:08:15.790" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="822" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="823" CreationDate="2011-10-15T12:32:22.010" Score="6" ViewCount="991" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a book, which gives a broad overview of all the main theories regarding incentives. Using this book, I would like to further my understanding of things like: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why &lt;a href=&quot;https://economics.stackexchange.com/questions/167/can-one-understand-stack-exchanges-if-looking-at-them-as-markets/168#168&quot;&gt;slot machines&lt;/a&gt; keeps people motivated to play&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why extrinsic motivation is weaker than intrinsic motivation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Economical theories should at least contribute to the understanding of incentives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11" OwnerDisplayName="David" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:51:38.313" LastActivityDate="2012-05-01T14:46:11.963" Title="What is a good book for studying incentives?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="823" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="822" CreationDate="2011-10-15T15:21:30.590" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I guess what you are looking for is readings on applied behavioral economics. Here is a popular favourite: &lt;a href=&quot;http://amzn.com/0060731338&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freakonomics&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/n0FT2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="check123" LastActivityDate="2011-10-15T15:21:30.590" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="824" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="822" CreationDate="2011-10-15T18:47:35.393" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could check out any of Dan Ariely's books. Those are generally good at providing a similar to Freakonomics-level handling of a variety of economic topics, especially behavioral ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="dchandler" LastActivityDate="2011-10-15T18:47:35.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="825" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="822" CreationDate="2011-10-15T19:10:32.900" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you want to delve deeper into the topic, &lt;a href=&quot;http://ideas.repec.org/a/aea/aecrev/v77y1987i4p593-604.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;If Homo Economicus Could Choose His Own Utility Function, Would He Want One with a Conscience?&lt;/a&gt; is a seminal paper. Then, you can take a look at some of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.robert-h-frank.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bob Frank&lt;/a&gt;'s other publications. Among them, I would recommend &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0393960226&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Passions Within Reason&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0140259953&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Winner Take All Society&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Sinan Ünür" LastActivityDate="2011-10-15T19:10:32.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="826" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="822" CreationDate="2012-04-21T17:09:40.447" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The aspects of incentives which you are interested in are studied by psychologists as well.  I recommend Carol Dweck's work.  One of her popular books is &lt;a href=&quot;http://mindsetonline.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mindset&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="540" OwnerDisplayName="Michael Bishop" LastActivityDate="2012-04-21T17:09:40.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="828" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="278" CreationDate="2012-05-01T20:09:57.037" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The basic effect can be accounted for by connectionist models. See for example&#xA;Suret &amp;amp; McLaren (2002). To quote the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This paper details an associative model that is applied to human&#xA;  learning on an artificial dimension. A variety of phenomena, including&#xA;  peak-shift, transfer along a continuum and summation / generalization&#xA;  are considered and simulation results are presented that give a close&#xA;  fit to empirical data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://faime.demon.co.uk/~streetm/wcci_2002/IJCNN02/PDFFiles/Papers/1163.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://faime.demon.co.uk/~streetm/wcci_2002/IJCNN02/PDFFiles/Papers/1163.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="681" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-01T23:57:24.320" LastActivityDate="2012-05-01T23:57:24.320" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="829" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="794" CreationDate="2012-05-01T20:15:48.093" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of a study that tries to answer your specific question but you might want to have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority&quot;&gt;illusory superiority&lt;/a&gt;, &quot;a cognitive bias that causes people to overestimate their positive qualities and abilities and to underestimate their negative qualities, relative to others&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can especially recommend the paper by Dunning and Kruger (1999): &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.steamfantasy.it/blog/manuali/unskilled_unaware_of_it.pdf&quot;&gt;Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments&lt;/a&gt; (also the winner of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ig_Nobel_Prize&quot;&gt;ignoble price&lt;/a&gt; for psychology, 2000). In this paper the authors show that people who are competent in a certain domain are pretty accurate in predicting their performance in this domain (compared to objective standards). On the other hand, people who are incompetent typically overestimate their performance (i.e., predict to perform good, whereas they perfom poorly). This overestimation is mainly driven by their lack of knowledge about that domain. If they are taught that they are poor performers, their prediction goes in line wit their actual performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These results could explain your observation of self-other discrepancy, as others might have more knowledge about how to accurately predict performance than the poor perfomers who over-rate their performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kruger, J., &amp;amp; Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one’s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 77(6), 1121–1134. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="604" LastActivityDate="2012-05-01T20:15:48.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="830" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="636" CreationDate="2012-05-01T21:31:46.620" Score="11" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Caveats&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even when the degree of men's and women's desires to have children are forced by study parameters into yes/no pigeonholes, there are very few studies, and the results are arguably inconclusive. Also, men's and women's rates of desire to have children are continuously shifting, and thus the answer may change over time. Finally, the studies have been limited to the United States and/or the United Kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Findings&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If you're wondering specifically about single men and women who don't yet have any children, this should help: In 2011, the website &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.match.com/singles-study/&quot;&gt;Match.com commissioned a study&lt;/a&gt; by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.binghamton.edu/&quot;&gt;SUNY Binghamton&lt;/a&gt; to answer your question and more. They found that 24% of the men and 15% of the women in the study want to have children, and &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.match.com/2011/02/04/the-forgotten-sex-men/&quot;&gt;men in every age group are more eager than women to have children&lt;/a&gt;.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;On the flip side, there has been &lt;a href=&quot;http://paa2008.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=80315&quot;&gt;at least one study of men and women who want NOT to have children&lt;/a&gt;, and the men in the study were more likely than the women to want to remain childless. This seems to contradict the aforementioned study in which more men than women want children... until you consider the third group -- ambivalent men and women.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;According to McAllister, ambivalent women outnumber ambivalent men.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Conclusion?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A tentative conclusion could be that men are more decisive, outnumbering women in both categories -- wanting to have and wanting NOT to have children. But, more research is required to reliably answer your question, and by then the answer may have changed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Gore, D.L. (2002) I Don’t Want Any Children... Ever: &#xA;  Gender Differences in Voluntary Childlessness in the US, 2002 &lt;a href=&quot;http://paa2008.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=80315&quot;&gt;[pdf]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;McAllister, F. and Clarke, L. (1998) Choosing Childlessness. London: Family Policy StudiesCentre.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-05-01T21:31:46.620" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="831" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="793" CreationDate="2012-05-01T23:28:32.497" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sort of, think of what it's like when you're asleep, not dreaming. Or if you've ever been knocked-out via anesthesia. No-consciousness, just a gap in time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question can't &lt;i&gt;really&lt;/i&gt; be answered though because it's asking how one might perceive a lack of consciousness, consciously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an interesting study on the transition from an unconscious to conscious state via the use of anesthetics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/32/14/4935.full&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/32/14/4935.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="677" LastActivityDate="2012-05-01T23:28:32.497" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="833" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-02T01:40:12.030" Score="9" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence suggesting that thoughts or experiences from late in the day are more likely to be dreamed about the following night compared with similar experiences earlier in the day?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="683" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T23:38:42.883" LastActivityDate="2014-10-01T23:03:42.327" Title="Are topics experienced later in the day more likely to be present in dreams?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="834" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="643" CreationDate="2012-05-02T02:18:14.010" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was influenced by this lecture. I will jump ahead to the pertinent part:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Ei6wFJ9kCc&amp;amp;t=59m20s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Ei6wFJ9kCc&amp;amp;t=59m20s&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My interpretation is that there are two general areas in the brain responsible for memory formation: 1) hippocampus and 2) basal ganglia. According to the speaker, a study shows a direct correlation between the amount of hipocampal learning done during the day and the amount of REM sleep that occurs the following night. I.e., a sort of encoding happens through dreams. No correlation exists for learning done with the basal ganglia. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My rough interpretation of the differences between the two types of learning are the hipocampal is higher thoughts and logic like math concepts where the basal ganlia records more basic cause and effect type correlations. I'll appreciate being corrected where I'm wrong; especially if you site your source. Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="683" LastEditorUserId="683" LastEditDate="2012-05-02T02:38:48.210" LastActivityDate="2012-05-02T02:38:48.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="835" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="850" CreationDate="2012-05-02T03:32:17.893" Score="11" ViewCount="3627" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I read a question on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quora.com/Barack-Obama/How-intelligent-is-Barack-Obama&quot;&gt;Quora that asked how intelligent is Barack Obama&lt;/a&gt;. A wide range of arguments were presented. The tone of the answers was not neutral because of the political context of the question. Furthermore, over the while I've read estimates of intelligence of various famous people from history (e.g., scientists, presidents, etc.). Issues were also raised about how intelligence is defined (e.g., cognitive, social, emotional or physical; achievement versus latent ability, etc.)&#xA;Despite these issues, I find the topic interesting. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If you cannot administer a standardised intelligence test to someone, to what extent can you obtain a good estimate of their IQ from the kinds of information available about public figures?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is considered scientific best-practice in this regard?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How accurate is best practice? Do any studies provide validity estimates (e.g., correlating estimates with actual IQ test scores)?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In relation to public figures, a wide range of information is often available: e.g., demographics, educational attainments, career achievement, writing samples, personal achievements, samples of public speaking, and so on. Sometimes, information such as school and university grades will be available. Of course, a lot of this information will be non-standardised. I wonder what would be a good way to collect and synthesise this information to generate a prediction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="625" LastEditDate="2015-04-26T21:10:09.363" LastActivityDate="2018-02-05T03:20:30.793" Title="How to estimate IQ for public figures?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="836" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="835" CreationDate="2012-05-04T06:56:36.130" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is just my personal thought process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way to measure the IQ of public figures/persons in leadership positions differ than that of the IQ being measured for normal individuals. Traditionally, IQ is being represented as the Intelligence of a person in analytic/cognitive skills. Later Gardner developed the famous multiple facets of intelligence by which intelligence could be approached from multiple paradigms. This seems to be good from an individual perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case of public figures, the impact of change(probably good change) brought by them upon the group represented by them, whether it be organization or a country, should be the priority factor in estimating the IQ. Thus measuring the IQ of those figures must always be a complex model that measure the effect of change that they brought to their group as a result of them being the mentor of the group. This may sound odd, but this is what often termed as political will or lack of it in common parlance. So the IQ of a leader can be assessed by the positive changes they have made to their environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So going by Stenberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scientists' IQ may be measured by Analytic Intelligence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Artists' IQ may be measured by Creative Intelligence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Public/Leaders IQ may be measure by Practical Intelligence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I feel the dimension of change (Obama always speak about change, hope he doesn't think of a change in President this time :) ), must be the biggest factor in evaluation since the decision of a leader is bound to have a impact on a large number of people. It may even change over time if the impact is felt over a long period of time. Thus the important variables would be the amount of change, the rate of change, the percentage of positive effect derived from the change, the percentage of population affected (for good) by the change and the environment (the environment itself would be made of a lot of other variables). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="204" LastActivityDate="2012-05-04T06:56:36.130" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="837" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="941" CreationDate="2012-05-04T22:26:24.117" Score="7" ViewCount="182" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to be able to answer questions such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What neuro/psychological functions underly competences such as empathy (or others - see background below)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What neurotransmitters are of particular importance in those functions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What genes are known to be associated with those neurotransmitters?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Any suggestions on textbooks or review papers that would be a good starting point?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Background&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm an M.Sc. student in epidemiology (with a psychology undergrad) and my thesis is on &amp;quot;gene x environment&amp;quot; interactions (GxE). The outcome I'm interested in is child competence (construct which can be subdivided in subcomponents such as compliance, attention &amp;amp; empathy) at 18 months. The main environmental predictor is mother sensitivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I now need to focus on some specific genes and would like to be able to choose those with a clear rationale (rather than, say, search through the literature to find the most commonly studied genes); However, at this point I lack the knowledge required to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="691" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-05-26T02:36:02.657" Title="Introductory resources on developmental psychology/neuroscience" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="838" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-05T00:20:52.250" Score="8" ViewCount="1489" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand the actions tendencies for fear and anger. For example: We might verbally insult someone when we are angry. We might feel like running away when we are afraid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appraisal_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;appraisal theory&lt;/a&gt;, each specific emotion leads us to make assessment or evaluations. So, based on this theory, I don't quite understand what would would be the appraisals for fear and anger?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="694" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-07T13:21:01.687" LastActivityDate="2012-05-11T19:12:43.213" Title="What are the appraisals tendencies for fear and anger?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="839" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="838" CreationDate="2012-05-05T01:29:06.287" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Examples of appraisals which evoke the emotion of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fear&lt;/a&gt; may include dangerous and harmful situations which results people to experience fear. Appraisal of unfair treatment is one cause of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Anger&lt;/a&gt; which may lead people to behave in an uncertain or unpredictable way both physically and verbally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="631" LastEditorUserId="631" LastEditDate="2012-05-05T13:26:23.433" LastActivityDate="2012-05-05T13:26:23.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="840" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="794" CreationDate="2012-05-05T11:06:34.183" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Self rated intelligence is garbage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paulhus DL, Lysy DC, Yik, MSM (1998), Self-Report Measures of Intelligence: Are They Useful as Proxy IQ Tests?. Journal of Personality, 66: 525–554. doi: 10.1111/1467-6494.00023&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Correlations between single-item self-reports of intelligence and IQ&#xA;  scores are rather low (.20–.25) in college samples. The literature&#xA;  suggested that self-reports could be improved by three strategies: (1)&#xA;  aggregation, (2)item weighting, and (3) use of indirect, rather than&#xA;  direct, questions. To evaluate these strategies, we compared the&#xA;  validity of aggregated and unaggregated versions of direct measures&#xA;  with four indirect measures (Gough’s Intellectual efficiency scale,&#xA;  Hogan’s Intellect composite scale, Sternberg’s Behavior Check List,&#xA;  and Trapnell’s Smart scale). All measures were administered to two&#xA;  large samples of undergraduates (Ns = 310, 326), who also took an IQ&#xA;  test. Although results showed some success for both direct and&#xA;  indirect measures, the failure of their validities to exceed .30&#xA;  impugns their utility as IQ proxies in competitive college samples.&#xA;  The content of the most valid items referred to global mental&#xA;  abilities or reading involvement. Aggregation benefited indirect more&#xA;  than direct measures, but prototype-weighting contributed little.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="189" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-06T23:45:05.880" LastActivityDate="2012-05-06T23:45:05.880" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="841" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="508" CreationDate="2012-05-05T16:08:58.603" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Great question. There are two software packages that might be interesting to you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I have tried to run EPrime in a virtual machine on my Mac and it was a catastrophe. As I found out it used to work, but some of the later updates made it impossible. In the process of figuring this out, I came across &lt;a href=&quot;http://psy.ck.sissa.it/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsyScope X&lt;/a&gt;. It is an actively developed open source alternative for EPrime on the Mac and, apparently, even the collected data is somewhat compatible to EPrime. If you are interested in the importing of PsyScope-data into Eprime see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eprime2.eu/info_eprime.htm#melsup&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EPrime-FAQ&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;However, agreeing with Mike, I felt like I needed more flexibility and control for my recent experiment and turned to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.runrev.com/solutions/teaching-and-research/case-study-research-tool/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;LiveCode&lt;/a&gt;, as it was recommended to my by a neighboring department. It is a high-level programming language similar to VisualBasic but the language is very English-like and the software suite is quite cheap. What I particularly like about LiveCode is that you can program on your Mac and create Executables for Mac, Windows, Linux, and even iOS and Android if necessary. I collected all my data on Windows machines and there were only very minor compatibility issues (such as native fonts etc.). I would recommend LiveCode as the learning curve is not as steep as that of other languages and there is a great documentation with (video) tutorials and a responsive community happy to help.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, for a further overview of behavioral experiment software refer to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_behavioral_experiment_software&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia comparison page&lt;/a&gt;‌.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="696" LastEditorUserId="696" LastEditDate="2012-09-21T10:49:29.643" LastActivityDate="2012-09-21T10:49:29.643" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="801" CreationDate="2012-05-07T02:04:47.363" Score="6" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Relationship between study time and performance&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plant et al (2004) review the literature of studies that have correlated average time spent studying and variables such as GPA. They report a couple of correlational studies in the literature that found small positive correlations (e.g., $r=.18, r=.23$). They make two main points: (a) academic performance is heavily influenced by knowledge, skills and stable abilities that a student brings to the subject. (b) Study effectiveness is more than just time spent, it is related to how the student studies (with Plant et al suggesting the importance of deliberate practice). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are several reasons why these small correlations may not reflect the true importance of study time for the individual decision maker. (a) Self-regulatory variables may lead people to increase time spent when they are having difficulty and decrease time spent when they find a subject easy. (b) The relationship between time spent and grade for a given individual may be non-linear (e.g., at first, more time spent may readily yield higher grades, but at a point, the rate of increase may dramatically slow approaching an asymptote). (c) variation in time spent may be somewhat low. (d) measures of time spent may be somewhat unreliable. (e) Controlled cognitive psychology experiments and the expertise literature show the huge role of practice in improving performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Psychological theories of study time&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zimmerman et al (1994) review the literature on theories of allocation of study time. They mention aptitude-trait, operant, information processing, and metacognitive views. They focus mainly on the sociocognitive perspective and discuss the roles of planning, goal setting, and self-efficacy in influencing time regulation. You may also want to check out perceptual control theory and the work by Jeffrey Vancouver.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, such models tend to be more qualitative in their description of human behaviour. They also suggest that the allocation of study time is not performed by a perfectly rational actor. Rather, effective allocation quality and quantity of study time is a skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is the result of a literature search. I didn't find anything that specifically modelled study time as the optimisation of an explicit function. But such research may well be out there, and I agree that such a model would be interesting.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Plant, E.A. and Ericsson, K.A. and Hill, L. and Asberg, K. (2005). Why study time does not predict grade point average across college students: Implications of deliberate practice for academic performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30, 96-116. &lt;a href=&quot;http://edianas.com/portfolio/proj_EricssonInterview/articles/2005_Plant_Ericsson_Hill_Asberg_reprint.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zimmerman, B.J. and Greenberg, D. and Weinstein, C.E. (1994). Self-regulating academic study time: A strategy approach. Self-regulation of learning and performance: Issues and educational applications, 181--199. &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=lZZsd75ere4C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA181&amp;amp;dq=Zimmerman,+B.J.+and+Greenberg,+D.+and+Weinstein,+C.E.+%281994%29.&amp;amp;ots=KUsLdFq3hK&amp;amp;sig=xpzP24EoluLX7czl5n6gkGTwKmQ&amp;amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;GOOGLE BOOKS&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-11T07:46:00.673" LastActivityDate="2012-05-11T07:46:00.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="843" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-07T05:35:18.183" Score="7" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thematic_Apperception_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Thematic Apperception Tests&lt;/a&gt; (TATs) involve showing test takers pictures and getting them to write stories based on the pictures. Coding such stories for themes and traits can be complex, time-consuming, and potentially suffer from issues of unreliability. Thus, it would be interesting to see whether automated computerised coding could make the process of scoring TATs more efficient, reliable, and valid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the current state of computerised coding of TATs?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How does the reliability and validity of computerised coding compare to human coding?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-23T09:03:25.150" LastActivityDate="2015-04-23T09:12:16.123" Title="What is the state of the art in computerised coding of Thematic Apperception Tests (TATs)?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="844" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="835" CreationDate="2012-05-07T12:21:53.050" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like the first answer offered, this is just my opinion. Also accept my apologies if I'm teaching you to suck eggs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My general approach would be to use Bayesian reasoning. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$p(A|B) = \frac{p(B|A) p(A)}{p(B)}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$A$ could be &quot;IQ between 120 between 130&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;$B$ could be &quot;Entered Harvard&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You would need to make many such comparisons and combine them. You could get a probability distribution too. Of course, you need to know, for example, the IQ distribution of people who do enter Harvard. There are many opportunities for subjectivity in such an analysis, such as which variables you consider, and what you do about students who don't reveal their IQs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A useful way to present the results would be in the form of a computer program or spreadsheet which would allow the reader to apply his own subjective judgements and see the results accordingly. My guess would be about 145, with a strong emphasis on language skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="615" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-07T12:40:33.813" LastActivityDate="2012-05-07T12:40:33.813" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="845" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="804" CreationDate="2012-05-07T16:14:09.920" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect economics is not the best framework for this because financial incentives are actually very limited in their efficacy in real-world contexts. The example in the question is a good demonstration: the financial incentive was a lot weaker than the social incentive it replaced. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Applied Psychology&lt;/a&gt; might be a better place to look, in part because it requires a more or less explicit theory of decision-making and behavior change. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2012-05-07T16:14:09.920" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="846" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="847" CreationDate="2012-05-08T20:28:39.833" Score="7" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that time passes more slowly when I am drinking coffee, but when I stop, or I am tired it seems that time passes a lot faster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could this have something to do with the sampling rate at which the life-loop in my brain can perceive things?  Since a higher sampling rate in this life-loop would cause more time to be perceived?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="521" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-05-10T13:52:08.057" LastActivityDate="2012-05-14T16:42:55.537" Title="Is there any evidence to support a correlation between how much bodily energy you are using, and how quickly time appears to pass?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="847" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="846" CreationDate="2012-05-08T20:53:41.687" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's literature on temporal expansion with vigilance.  Perhaps this might get you started.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tse, P. U., Intriligator, J., Rivest, J., and Cavanagh, P. (2004). Attention and the subjective expansion of time. &lt;em&gt;Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;66&lt;/em&gt;(7):1171–1189.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this instance they're looking at how odd, unique, or surprising events might increase the amount of attention applied and that those events seem to last longer than othewise very comparable ones.  The literature reviews speaks a bit to what you've asked about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2012-05-14T16:42:55.537" LastActivityDate="2012-05-14T16:42:55.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="356" CreationDate="2012-05-09T03:05:39.183" Score="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short, no. Perry's essay is amusing and compelling, but incomplete. Procrastination is an epiphenomenon of motivation, an active area of research which has some models relevant to the study of procrastination, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_discounting&quot;&gt;Hyperbolic Discounting&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Broad_theories&quot;&gt;Temporal Motivation Theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_choice_theory&quot;&gt;Rational Choice Theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory&quot;&gt;Expectancy Theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perry emphasizes task importance as the metric that keeps a task unfinished and at the top of a structure procrastinator's to-do list. The truth is more complicated and not an entirely resolved area of research. Delayed gratification, immediate discomfort, and the procrastinator's prediction of probability of reward are some of the additional factors that determine which task a structured procrastinator will work on at a given time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Over time, the least-desirable tasks often remain unfinished, seem increasingly important, and thus move to the top of the to-do list.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Laibson, D. (1997). Golden Eggs and Hyperbolic Discounting. Quarterly Journal of Economics 112(2): 443–477.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Steel, P., König, C. (2006) Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Mgmt. Rev. 31(4): 889-913.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="421" LastEditDate="2012-05-09T03:58:21.910" LastActivityDate="2012-05-09T03:58:21.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="849" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-09T21:12:30.690" Score="2" ViewCount="959" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several animals on earth that show certain kinds of intelligence. Some animals have extensions to manipulate their environment and some do not. Think of humans and squids (hand/extension side) versus whales and dolphins on the other (the no hand side).&#xA;Learning how to use their hands also gives babies a boost in their development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;Does the ability to manipulate your environment affect the type of intelligence?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm pretty sure that it affects the, let's call it generalized intelligence, but does it also change the type from more or less aggressive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T07:07:31.090" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T07:07:31.090" Title="Does the ability to manipulate your environment affect the type of intelligence?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" ClosedDate="2015-04-25T21:39:26.987" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="850" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="835" CreationDate="2012-05-10T08:31:27.177" Score="7" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Entry into the literature&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a starting point, Simonton (2009) provides an excellent introduction to the field of &lt;em&gt;historiometric assessment of intelligence&lt;/em&gt;. To quote the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Running parallel to mainstream research on the psychometric assessment&#xA;  of intelligence is another tradition of research on the historiometric&#xA;  assessment of intelligence and closely affiliated variables.&#xA;  Historiometric assessment is based on four data sources: (a)&#xA;  personality sketches (e.g., Intellectual Brilliance), (b) developmental histories (e.g., IQ), (c) content analyses (e.g., integrative&#xA;  complexity), and (d) expert surveys (e.g., Openness to Experience).&#xA;  The first two represent major lines of intelligence research that&#xA;  involved key figures in the development of corresponding psychometric&#xA;  methods (e.g., Galton, Terman, and Thorndike), whereas the last two&#xA;  constitute independent research paradigms that later intersected with&#xA;  the first two. The literature on U.S. presidents then provides an&#xA;  integrated illustration of the four historiometric approaches and how&#xA;  they converge on the same broad conclusions. Significantly,&#xA;  historiometric investigations on the relation between broadly defined&#xA;  intelligence and adulthood achievement obtain about the same effect&#xA;  size as that found in psychometric research (i.e., $r$ or $\beta$ .25 $\pm$&#xA;  .10). Because historiometric and psychometric studies have rather&#xA;  distinctive methodological advantages and disadvantages, this&#xA;  consistent outcome provides corrobora- tive support for both sets of&#xA;  empirical findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The review summarises various studies aiming to assess intelligence of royalty, U.S. politicians, and eminent figures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Critical thoughts&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For current and recent public figures substantial additional information would be available. In particular, many powerful predictors of IQ would often be available including university grades, scores on standardised assessments, SAT scores and so on. Furthermore, the existing literature on IQ correlates is huge and provides substantial information that could inform predictive models of IQ prediction. In contrast where such models are applied to the past, the predictive power of such models may be wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also be extremely wary of estimates of intelligence that yield estimates like 200 (i.e., around 7+ standard deviations above the mean). E.g., &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;After comparing the chronological age in which .. achievements&#xA;  appeared with the mental age that they represented, Terman decided&#xA;  that Galton’s IQ must have been close to 200. (Simonton, 2009, p. 319)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The expertise literature has highlighted the importance of not confusing eminence with IQ. Eminence is substantially influenced by years of practice, training, focus, opportunity, and luck. IQ is useful, but the correlation between IQ and eminence is insufficient to yield the kind of certainty in prediction to result in IQ predictions above something like 3 or perhaps 4 standard deviations above the mean (i.e., 145 to 160).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Simonton, D.K. (2009) The “other IQ”: Historiometric assessments of intelligence and related constructs. &lt;em&gt;Review of General Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 13, 315. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-02-05T03:20:30.793" LastActivityDate="2018-02-05T03:20:30.793" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="851" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="562" CreationDate="2012-05-11T08:03:23.460" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fortin and Masse (2000) explored the effect of expecting an interruption on the ability to accurately produce a timing interval (e.g., producing a 2000 millisecond timing interval):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The interference from nontemporal processing on concurrent time&#xA;  estimation is usually attributed to disruption in timing caused by&#xA;  artentional requirements of nontemporal processing. Here, we examined&#xA;  interruption in timing without concurrent nontemporal processing.&#xA;  Empty breaks of various durations, during time-interval production,&#xA;  lengthened produced intervals. Moreover, an effect of break location&#xA;  was observed: Intervals lengthened proportionally to prebreak&#xA;  duration. When cued and uncued uninterrupted trials were introduced,&#xA;  the lengthening was proportional to the duration for which a break was&#xA;  expected. &lt;strong&gt;It was concluded that attentional time-sharing between time&#xA;  estimation and expectation of its interruption contributed to the&#xA;  interference effect in time-estimation research, independently of any&#xA;  concurrent processing requirements during time estimation.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I suppose you could use this as evidence to support the idea that if an individual is anticipating an interruption, this might consume some attentional  resources, especially if he or she is tuned into a signal that might communicate the commencement of the interruption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fortin, C. and Masse, N. (2000). Expecting a break in time estimation: Attentional time-sharing without concurrent processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 26, 1788. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635705002214&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PUBLISHER PAGE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-05-11T08:03:23.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="852" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="561" CreationDate="2012-05-11T10:59:44.310" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article I found goes into the general phenomenon of seizure self-induction, but does spend quite a bit of time on photosensitive epilepsy (PSE).  It's a review, so there are plenty of references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It first points out the prevalence of PSE, which occurs in between 2-5% of the population, and approximately 25% of those affected by the disorder are thought to self-stimulate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article supports the assertion on Wikipedia that developmentally challenged and &quot;learning disabled&quot; children are most prone to these self-inductive behaviors, but states that children of normal intelligence and higher may have developed strategies to avoid getting caught doing so during recorded sessions.  It does not go into much depth regarding adults self-inducing, but tacitly assumes that adults of normal intelligence would be more likely to understand the harm that a seizure could bring them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is support for the notion that children with television induced seizures do try to seek out televisions for this self-stimulation behavior, but the article cautions that this compulsive behavior may be associated with the seizure activity itself, and not something the patients are consciously doing, many describe it as &quot;irresistable.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article lists a handful of reasons that are commonly thought to promote self-induction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Compulsion - whether for pleasure seeking or as a result of seizure activity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Willful avoidance of stress or boredom&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Hedonistic motivation - to experience an &quot;aura&quot;/trance or other pleasurable feelings&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Sense of control - so they can have a &quot;say&quot; over when their seizures occur, and also so that they can reap the benefits of the refractory period&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Attention seeking - being the &quot;sick patient&quot; for sympathetic family members&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Self-treatment - the patient can give themselves a dose of &quot;convulsive therapy&quot; at will, if this gives them therapeutic relief of concomitant disorders&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stronger doses of anticonvulsant medications, medications to quell any pleasurable reinforcement gained from inducing seizures, specialized contact lenses or glasses to block more light (in the case of PSE), and general behavioral modification strategies are all treatment approaches that can be used.  Emphasis is given to knowing when children are self-inducing and involving a psychiatrist in the loop of neurological and pediatric care.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ng, B-Y (2002) Psychiatric aspects of self-induced epileptic&#xA;  seizures.  Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry,36:534–543.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-05-11T11:06:52.520" LastActivityDate="2012-05-11T11:06:52.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="853" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="862" CreationDate="2012-05-11T15:06:40.043" Score="9" ViewCount="1096" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have an old book: Statistics for the Behavioural Sciences (4th ed.) by Gravetter &amp;amp; Wallnau. I want to transition my textbooks to eBook format, but this book doesn't come like that (as far as I can tell). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book is comprehensive in explaining each statistical technique using psychological experiments and has exercises for the reader to complete. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm afraid I've lost touch with the cutting edge of stats for behavioural sciences, so I don't know what the best book is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the current recommended equivalent text book?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="105" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-12T00:06:30.297" LastActivityDate="2012-05-14T05:20:04.093" Title="The current recommended text for statistics in behavioural sciences" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="854" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="853" CreationDate="2012-05-11T16:21:11.603" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Baayen's book, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ualberta.ca/~baayen/publications/baayenCUPstats.pdf&quot;&gt;Analyzing Linguistic Data: A practical introduction to Statistics using R&lt;/a&gt; is a little more niche than possibly you'd want, but it does offer some coverage of mixed effects modelling, without which I'd be reticent to call any psych stats text &quot;cutting edge&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="51" LastActivityDate="2012-05-11T16:21:11.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="855" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-11T18:41:52.340" Score="11" ViewCount="4783" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm running an EEG experiment using a modified auditory mismatch negativity (MMN) design, and I'm wondering if anyone can tell me the best method for data analysis (and recommend any stats programs/packages for this purpose as well).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experiment will only have a few (6-8) subjects with a high number of trials per subject (~700).  The matched condition makes up 75% of the trials.  The stimuli are selected from a closed set of 10 items, with an equal frequency of items in the matched/mismatched conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the differences between this study and normal auditory MMN tasks is that the expected/unexpected stimuli vary between trials with the expectation set up on a trial-by-trial basis.  Therefore, it's possible that the difference in event-related potentials (ERPs) to expected/unexpected stimuli will be averaged out due to small variations in response to these changing stimuli.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does someone out there know the best EEG data processing and analysis techniques to detect the small ERP in response to auditory MMN stimuli?  Can anyone recommend techniques to avoid averaging out small ERPs whose latencies might vary?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="716" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-05-08T23:17:46.033" LastActivityDate="2013-10-07T06:16:01.957" Title="What is the standard way to analyze EEG data in a mismatch negativity paradigm?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="856" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="838" CreationDate="2012-05-11T19:12:43.213" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;By some theories (Carver and Scheier), positive emotions result when you are making progress towards a goal and negative emotions when you are not making progress towards a goal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They differentiate between approach goals (desired end-states) and avoidance goals (undesired end-states that need to be avoided) and their research has shown that success/failure in approach and avoidance motivations/goals result in different emotions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To simplify, as per their theory, anger (along with sadness) is associated with lack of progress in an approach motivation task. Fear is associated with lack of progress in escaping or avoiding the threat or undesired end-state. Both Anger and Fear are, in a sense, cognitive appraisals of how far (psychologically /physically) we are from a reward/threat respectively.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I write in detail about this, as well as an alternate model for what Anger and Fear code,  in my recent &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-fundamental-four/201205/emotions-and-motivations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PT blog post&lt;/a&gt; . &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="409" LastActivityDate="2012-05-11T19:12:43.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="857" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-11T19:59:31.037" Score="1" ViewCount="1957" Body="&lt;p&gt;Chronologically, when is pattern recognition first developed in an infant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be considered the first, abilities observed in that instance should prolong throughout the development process. In other words, the instance cannot lapse or be of a temporal nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="639" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:30:55.603" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T04:30:55.603" Title="At what age are infants first able to perform pattern recognition?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="855" CreationDate="2012-05-11T20:58:33.660" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Programs/packages for EEG analysis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There are decent MatLab toolboxes with good tutorials for for the analysis of EEG data. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/eeglab/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EEGLAB toolbox&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/eeglab/eeglabtut.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;tutorial&lt;/a&gt;) can be operated by both GUI and command-line (and script). The &lt;a href=&quot;http://fieldtrip.fcdonders.nl/start&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fieldtrip toolbox&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://fieldtrip.fcdonders.nl/tutorial&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;tutorial&lt;/a&gt;) is mainly operated by command line / script. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course there are also (commercial) software packages for EEG analysis that do not require Matlab (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.megis.de/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BESA&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainproducts.com/productdetails.php?id=17&amp;amp;tab=4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brain Vision Analyser&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ant-neuro.com/products/eeprobe&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;eeprobe&lt;/a&gt;), but I am not familiar with them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there techniques to avoid averaging out small ERPs whose latencies might vary?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;No, probably not. ERPs are calculated by averaging across multiple trials because this averaging cancels out all components that jitter in time (that is, mostly noise), i.e. the thing you want to avoid (canceling out of jittering components) is actually the purpose of calculating ERPs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, to be sure you should have a look at reviews or tutorials for the measurement of the mismatch negativity. See for instance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Duncan CC, Barry RJ, Connolly JF, Fischer C, Michie PT, Näätänen R, Polich J, Reinvang I, Van Petten C. (2009) Event-related potentials in clinical research: guidelines for eliciting, recording, and quantifying mismatch negativity, P300, and N400. Clin Neurophysiol. 120(11):1883-908.  (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19796989&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pubmed&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-05-13T08:23:48.277" LastActivityDate="2012-05-13T08:23:48.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="859" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="857" CreationDate="2012-05-11T21:18:16.960" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is difficult to answer if you do not specify what kind of pattern recognition you refer to. In the context of human development, pattern recognition can be as simple as recognizing a row of dots as a line (Gestalt perception) or experiencing the pop-out effect (see Treisman's feature integration theory), but it can also be as complex as face recognition, speech recognition, or reading. Nevertheless, the complexity of a pattern recognition ability does not necessarily correlate with the time of its acquisition. Face recognition, for instance, happens to work pretty early. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is good evidence (e.g., Pascalis et al 1995) that 4 days old newborns can recognize their mother's face, an ability that definitely requires pattern recognition. Note that this example is a rather conservative estimate: if the newborn is able to detect its mother's face at the forth day, it was able to detect faces probably earlier. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a more liberal estimate: there are reports of unborn children that respond to certain voices or certain kinds of music already in their mother's womb (for instance being calmed by certain pieces of music). This should definitely require pattern recognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pascalis O, de Schonen S, Morton J, Deruelle C, Fabre-Grenet M. (1995) Mother's face recognition in neonates: a replication and an extension. Infant Behavior and Development 17:79–85.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-05-12T15:19:51.090" LastActivityDate="2012-05-12T15:19:51.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="860" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="855" CreationDate="2012-05-12T18:50:26.287" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I use the FieldTrip toolbox in Matlab to analyze my own modified auditory MMN experiment :) But I use MEG, so I don't have that many software options. The toolbox is very powerful but it has a steep learning curve and I would recommend it only if you already have both Matlab and EEG data analysis experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't analyze my data in the classical MMN way so I can't comment on that. I do hear that the MMN crowd can sometimes be a bit dogmatic in terms of how to approach data analysis, so it's a good idea to get precise information before you sit down to do it. Perhaps contacting someone who has a published MMN study would do the trick.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of the differences between this study and normal auditory MMN tasks is that the expected/unexpected stimuli vary between trials with the expectation set up on a trial-by-trial basis. Therefore, it's possible that the difference in event-related potentials (ERPs) to expected/unexpected stimuli will be averaged out due to small variations in response to these changing stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the frequencies of the types of physically different stimuli are identical in the two conditions, this isn't an item of concern. However, there will be more noise in the unexpected condition relative to expected, because of the smaller total number of trials. I'm not sure in what way this can affect the stats (I believe it wouldn't bias them in any systematic way, but I haven't asked an expert - please let me know if you find out!), but generally as a precaution I take a random sample of expected trials, equal to the number of unexpected trials per participant. This way, there is an equal amount of noise in both conditions because you have an equal-sized sample of physically identical stimuli, and the only difference is in stimulus expectation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2012-05-12T19:32:21.863" LastActivityDate="2012-05-12T19:32:21.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="861" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-12T19:36:38.547" Score="10" ViewCount="3845" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've learned through course lectures that infants can recognize faces shortly after birth &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/icd.241/abstract&quot;&gt;(Slater &amp;amp; Quinn, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;, and have a visual preference for human features as young as 1-month-old (Sanefuji et al., 2011)&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.ca/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=2&amp;amp;ved=0CF0QFjAB&amp;amp;url=http://hbesj.org/index.php/lebs/article/download/lebs.2011.10/28&amp;amp;ei=k7GuT8SmCsvcggfazOGKCQ&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNEk-LSRflhnSAA5Qk77z3DWG1zzQg&amp;amp;sig2=eMcHBrjdNPf-JKm9kgfv-Q&quot;&gt;[pdf]&lt;/a&gt;. Infants are also known to prefer hearing their mother's voices &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/208/4448/1174.short&quot;&gt;(DeCasper &amp;amp; Fifer, 1980)&lt;/a&gt; and motherese &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0163638385800059&quot;&gt;(Fernald,1984)&lt;/a&gt;. Prefences for higher-pitched singing also suggests that babies may in general prefer higher pitches &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0163638398900479&quot;&gt;(Trainor &amp;amp; Zacharias, 1997)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general I would like to know more comprehensively what types of sound preferences do young infants have? And when is the youngest age for which these preferences are observed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-28T07:11:04.367" LastActivityDate="2014-06-21T14:20:22.877" Title="What types of sounds do young infants prefer?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="862" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="853" CreationDate="2012-05-13T03:34:05.923" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's my basic overview of the psychology - statistics textbook market.&#xA;In general, I think the choice of textbook (where you have a choice) depends on a few factors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Applied versus statistical theory (e.g., do you have immediate needs to analyse data)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whether and which software package you want to use (e.g., SPSS, R, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which techniques you want learn (e.g., basic bivariate statistics; multivariate stats; etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How much mathematical rigour you want; if you can handle it, you'll probably get more out of a book pitched at statistics students.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also a number of reasonable online options:&#xA;E.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://davidmlane.com/hyperstat/&quot;&gt;hyperstat&lt;/a&gt; for similar material as Gravetter and Wallneau.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Introductory undegraduate textbook&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0495602965&quot;&gt;Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences&lt;/a&gt; Gravetter and Wallneau : This remains popular with many students in psychology as an introduction to statistics. It assumes only that you can do very basic algebra. It has lots of pedagogically helpful components. That said, once you move beyond analysing toy datasets for lab reports and so on, you'll want a more advanced and applied book.&#xA;When it comes to data analysis it focusses on SPSS. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1847879071&quot;&gt;Discovering Statistics Using SPSS&lt;/a&gt; (and now &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1446200469&quot;&gt;Discovering Statistics Using R&lt;/a&gt;): Andy Field does a great job of making statistics fun and accessible. It's also fairly practical in the way that it is grounded in using and interpreting analyses in SPSS (and now R). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.allenandunwin.com/spss/&quot;&gt;SPSS Survival Manual&lt;/a&gt;: This one is more of a cookbook for doing data analysis in SPSS that is suitable for someone analysing their own data in psychology who has only basic training in psychology statistics. It is very applied. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0495597848&quot;&gt;David C. Howell Statistical Methods for Psychology&lt;/a&gt;: This book is substantially more sophisticated than Gravetter and Wallneau however it does provide an overview of many of the basic techniques. However, it goes into a lot more detail about various factorial designs. It also leaves the student with a much more sophisticated understanding. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Multivariate textbook&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0205849571&quot;&gt;Tabacknick and Fidell Using Multivariate Statistics&lt;/a&gt;: This is a well established book in psychology for teaching multivariate statistics (e.g., multiple regression, factor analysis, ANCOVA, MANOVA, and a little bit of SEM). I think it provides a good introduction for typical psychology students. It focusses on interpretation more than mathematics, but there are still some formulas.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hair et al &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0138132631&quot;&gt;Multivariate Data Analysis&lt;/a&gt;: This is another popular multivariate book in the social sciences. It is very light when it comes to mathematics and focuses a lot more on interpretation and processes for conducting data analysis. This may either be a good or a bad thing depending on your mathematical background.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-14T05:20:04.093" LastActivityDate="2012-05-14T05:20:04.093" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="863" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-13T07:20:50.813" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The discipline of medicine which focuses on the treatment of mental disorders, using a combination of pharmacotherapy, behavioral (&quot;talk&quot;) therapy, and innovative experimental therapies (e.g., transcranial magnetic stimulation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychiatry&lt;/a&gt; for further information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;American Psychiatric Association&lt;/a&gt; for the professional organization of practicing psychiatrists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-17T21:19:52.867" LastActivityDate="2012-06-17T21:19:52.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="864" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-13T07:20:50.813" Score="0" Body="The discipline of medicine which focuses on the treatment of mental disorders, using a combination of pharmacotherapy, behavioral (&quot;talk&quot;) therapy, and innovative experimental therapies (e.g., transcranial magnetic stimulation)." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-05-13T07:24:06.917" LastActivityDate="2012-05-13T07:24:06.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="865" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-13T07:27:03.023" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in the brain.  This tag encompasses research all the way from the molecular level in model organisms to abstract mathematical representations, and includes applied learning paradigms and tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Memory&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Short-term Memory&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Long-term Memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scholarpedia&lt;/a&gt; has a comprehensive article on memory as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a popular press introduction, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0393329372&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kandel's&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0618219196&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schacter's&lt;/a&gt; books, written by two leading memory researchers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T12:48:16.423" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T12:48:16.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="866" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-13T07:27:03.023" Score="0" Body="For questions about the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in the brain.  This tag encompasses research all the way from the molecular level in model organisms to abstract mathematical representations, and includes applied learning paradigms and tasks.  " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T12:48:32.400" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T12:48:32.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="867" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="117" CreationDate="2012-05-13T14:29:18.263" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Adding &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/118/21&quot;&gt;to what shanusmagnus said&lt;/a&gt;: What you refer to is indeed an established psychological phenomenon called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Confirmation Bias&lt;/a&gt;. The bias consists of &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the seeking or interpreting of evidence in ways that are partial to&#xA;  existing beliefs, expectations, or a hypothesis in hand (Nickerson,&#xA;  1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Confirmation Bias apparently is among the most studied biases in psychology (Mercier &amp;amp; Sperber, 2011), and there is a lot of evidence for its existence (for a review see Nickerson, 1998). Mercier and Sperber (2011) also state that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While there is some individual variation, it seems that everybody is&#xA;  affected by some degree, irrespective of factors like general&#xA;  intelligence or open mindedness (Stanovich &amp;amp; West, 2007; 2008a; 2008b)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also remember reading an interview with Hugo Mercier, in which he said that all attempts at training people to get rid of their Confirmation Bias have been unsuccessful, but I don't have any citations to back this up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mercier and Sperber (2011) recently formulated a theory called the Argumentative Theory, which is &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/118/21&quot;&gt;in line with what shanusmagnus said&lt;/a&gt;, namely that Confirmation Bias may be a feature rather than a flaw. In their Argumentative Theory Mercier and Sperber argue that reasoning may have developed not in order to be best suited for solving problems, but rather to convince others in discourse. They argue from an evolutionary point of view that the capability of doing so provides an evolutionary advantage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Mercier, Hugo, und Dan Sperber. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X10000968&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why do humans reason? Arguments for an argumentative theory.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Behavioral and Brain Sciences&lt;/em&gt; 34, Nr. 2 (April 2011): 57–74.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Nickerson, R. S. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises.&lt;/a&gt; Review of General Psychology; Review of General Psychology 2, Nr. 2 (1998): 175.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Stanovich, K. E., und R. F. West. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546780600780796&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Natural myside bias is independent of cognitive ability.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Thinking &amp;amp; Reasoning&lt;/em&gt; 13, Nr. 3 (2007): 225–247.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Stanovich, K. E., und R. F. West. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546780701679764&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;On the failure of cognitive ability to predict myside and one-sided thinking biases.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Thinking &amp;amp; Reasoning&lt;/em&gt; 14, Nr. 2 (2008): 129–167.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Stanovich, K. E., und R. F. West. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.4.672&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;On the relative independence of thinking biases and cognitive ability.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Journal of personality and social psychology&lt;/em&gt; 94, Nr. 4 (2008): 672.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-05-13T16:08:46.790" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="868" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18306" CreationDate="2012-05-13T15:13:07.297" Score="28" ViewCount="2740" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_deprivation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;lack of sleep has many negative effects associated with it&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/9799-lost-sleep-study-suggests.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maintained sleep deprivation results in a degraded performance over time&lt;/a&gt; (in this case reaction time).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming one needs 8 hours of sleep each night, but during the weekdays he only sleeps 6, is it possible to catch up on those lost hours of sleep during the weekend?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is evidence that 'recovery sleep' is different from ordinary sleep. Carskadon and Dement (2005) measured a sleep pattern that favors Slow Wave Sleep (SWS) after 38 hours without sleep. Personally I also experience it takes me longer to wake up after being sleep deprived, which makes me believe at least your body is trying to make up for something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study by Gumenyuk et. al (2011) concludes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reduced time in bed is associated with deficiency of the neuronal&#xA;  process associated with change detection, which &lt;strong&gt;may recover after one&#xA;  week of sleep extension&lt;/strong&gt;, whereas attention-dependent neural processes&#xA;  do not normalize after this period of time in habitually short&#xA;  sleeping individuals and may require longer recovery periods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It gives an indication recovery of some symptoms is possible, but recovery time is not equal for all symptoms. However, the participants in this study seem to be habitual short sleepers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2015-02/tes-nrh020615.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A more recent study (2015) by Brice Faraut concludes&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;&quot;[...] data suggests a 30-minute nap can reverse the hormonal impact of a night of poor sleep, [...]&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering whether it is possible to recover from the lost hours over the week during the weekend &lt;strong&gt;entirely&lt;/strong&gt;. E.g. if you lost 8 hours, by sleeping 8 hours more during the weekend. The notion of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_debt&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;sleep dept&lt;/a&gt; still seems to be up for debate, but perhaps there is more certainty on short term (1 week) effects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Carskadon, M. A. and Dement, W. C. (2005). Normal human sleep: an overview, chapter 2, pages 13–23, pp. 13-23 In &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1416066454&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine&lt;/a&gt; Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia (&lt;a href=&quot;http://apsychoserver.psych.arizona.edu/jjbareprints/psyc501a/readings/Carskadon%20Dement%202011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gumenyuk V, Roth T, Korzyukov O, Jefferson C, Bowyer S, Drake CL. (2011) &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.5665/sleep.1430&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Habitual short sleep impacts frontal switch mechanism in attention to novelty.&lt;/a&gt; Sleep. 2011 Dec 1;34(12):1659-70.&#xA;Napping Reverses the Salivary Interleukin-6 and Urinary Norepinephrine Changes Induced by Sleep Restriction&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="6191" LastEditDate="2015-06-14T00:22:33.597" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T01:09:34.780" Title="Can you catch up on sleep over the weekend?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="869" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-13T16:10:10.050" Score="6" ViewCount="199" Body="&lt;p&gt;Something I've noticed now and then is that I'll be listening to a song off my music player and it sounds like it's being played in a tempo faster or slower than I remember the song being. Is this a defined/known phenomenon, and if so what is it's name and cause/reason for happening?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="719" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-13T18:28:43.823" LastActivityDate="2012-05-13T18:28:43.823" Title="Phenomenon that causes music to sound like it's being played at a different tempo than remembered?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="870" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="869" CreationDate="2012-05-13T16:49:17.847" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.marcocosta.it/icmpc2006/pdfs/330.pdf&quot;&gt;Vitouch et. al (2006)&lt;/a&gt; observed that &lt;em&gt;&quot;visual tempo significantly influenced &#xA;the retrieved music tempo.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Music is known to potentially affect the perception of visual  scenes&#xA;  (e. g., Vitouch, 2001), as proficiently demonstrated  in the movies.&#xA;  But do films also influence the perception of  music? This study&#xA;  investigates cross-modal influences in  perception, taking influences&#xA;  of “visual tempo” on  perceived/retrieved music tempo as a model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They conclude:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Both studies demonstrate clear crossover effects: There is  not just&#xA;  “musical driving” of film scenes, but also “visual  driving” of music&#xA;  perception. Results hint to holistic memory representations of&#xA;  audio-visual material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, an older paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/644/1/tempo.htm&quot;&gt;Levitin and Cook (1996)&lt;/a&gt; observes that long term memory for music &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; preserve the absolute tempo, even by non-trained musicians. They do not investigate the influence of visual stimuli as in the previous paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We report evidence that long term memory retains  absolute (accurate)&#xA;  features of perceptual events. Specifically, we  show that memory for&#xA;  music seems to preserve the absolute tempo  of the musical&#xA;  performance. In Experiment 1, 46 subjects sang  popular songs from&#xA;  memory, and their tempos were compared to  recorded versions of the&#xA;  songs. Seventy-two of the subjects came within  8% of the actual tempo&#xA;  on two consecutive trials (using different  songs), demonstrating&#xA;  accuracy near the perceptual threshold (JND)  for tempo. In Experiment&#xA;  2, a control experiment, we found that  folk songs lacking a tempo&#xA;  standard generally have a large variability in tempo; this counters&#xA;  arguments that memory for the  tempo of remembered songs is driven by&#xA;  articulatory constraints.  The relevance of the current findings to&#xA;  theories of perceptual  memory and memory for music are discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Oliver Vitouch, Sandra Sovdat, Norman Höller (2006) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.marcocosta.it/icmpc2006/pdfs/330.pdf&quot;&gt;Audio-vision: Visual input drives perceived music tempo.&lt;/a&gt; 9th International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Levitin, D. J. &amp;amp; Cook, Perry R.(1996) &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/644/1/tempo.htm&quot;&gt;Memory for musical tempo: Additional evidence that auditory memory is absolute.&lt;/a&gt; Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics, 58, pp. 927-935.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-05-13T17:06:20.290" LastActivityDate="2012-05-13T17:06:20.290" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="871" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="873" CreationDate="2012-05-13T19:21:56.623" Score="4" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard that fetuses exhibit &quot;likes&quot;, such as preferring sweeter amniotic fluid or the sound of their mother's voice. To show preference for specific voices as opposed to inborn stimuli like sweet, some form of pattern recognition would have to be involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By pattern recognition I simply mean exhibiting any sort of indication that by repeated exposure to a stimulus the fetus' response changes, showing that it in some way has identified the stimulus as being previously experienced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know of some research that indicates &lt;a href=&quot;http://bernard.pitzer.edu/~dmoore/psych199s03articles/Of_Human_Bonding.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;newborns recognize and prefer their own mother's voice&lt;/a&gt; but I'm not aware of specific research on children in utero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does any research indicate that fetuses show pattern recognition in utero, such as voice recognition? Is there an approximate time this ability presents itself?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-21T20:20:38.293" LastActivityDate="2014-11-21T20:20:38.293" Title="Do fetuses exhibit pattern recognition in utero?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="872" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-13T19:58:09.473" Score="5" ViewCount="472" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work for a non-profit research organization and I have been assigned to do research on this topic.  I have been doing my best to find studies on this topic but every website and article seems to only reference the study by Amodio et al (2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What other research has examined physiological differences between brains of Conservatives and Liberals?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the current understanding of what, if any, brain differences exist?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amodio, D. M., Lost, J. T., Master, S. L., &amp;amp; Yee, C. M. (2007). Neurocognitive correlates of liberalism and conservatism, Nature Neuroscience. &lt;a href=&quot;http://lcap.psych.ucla.edu/pdfs/amodio_natureneuroscience07.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="721" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-11-26T22:28:23.317" LastActivityDate="2015-11-26T22:28:23.317" Title="Physiological differences between brains of Conservatives and Liberals" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="873" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="871" CreationDate="2012-05-13T20:05:30.207" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The preference for mother's voice over a stranger's voice has been show in utero by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12741744&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kisilevsky et al. (2003)&lt;/a&gt; by measuring the fetus' heart rate. It increased in response to mother's voice and decreased in response to a stranger's voice compared to baseline. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22213896&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kisilevsky and Hains (2011)&lt;/a&gt; followed up the earlier study, and determined that the onset of recognition occurred at 32–34 weeks GA. Thus, at least for vocal stimuli, there is definitely some recognition from the infants. My only issue with these studies is that the mothers could hear the stimuli, thus there could be interaction from a hormonal response of the mother to her own voice and the fetus picking up on that instead of the actual auditory input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An even more liberal reading of &quot;recognition&quot; as defined by the OP is possible. If we follow in the footsteps of Maturana and Varela then we should talk about the brain/mind responding not to external stimuli but to its own internal sensory world. In that case, we can consider adaptation even before sensory organs are fully developed or functional. In that case the fetus starts to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/791/29&quot;&gt;adapt to senses-to-be before they develop&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/pr/journal/v45/n4-1/full/pr199992a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Penn &amp;amp; Shatz (1999)&lt;/a&gt; showed that the connections from the eye to the visual cortex form before the retina is developed enough to respond to light. At this time the retinal ganglion cells spontaneously generate highly correlated bursts of action potentials similar to the sort of data they will generate once they actual start sensing. The preliminary bursts allow the human fetus to start developing its visual cortex before it even has functional retina. Thus, the brain of the fetus starts to learn and recognize patterns before it even has proper external sensory input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2012-05-13T20:05:30.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="874" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="678" CreationDate="2012-05-14T06:30:21.877" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;From an article entitled &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/13/magazine/can-you-call-a-9-year-old-a-psychopath.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Can You Call a 9-Year-Old a Psychopath?&lt;/a&gt; in the New York Times Magazine (May 11, 2012):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Currently, there is no standard test for psychopathy in children...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article also lists some assessments used by some practitioners for predicting adult psychopathy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Child Psychopathy Scale&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Antisocial Process Screening Device, modified&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychopathy Checklist, youth version&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the article, some psychologists say diagnosis is impossible in children and best avoided, whereas other psychologists say early intervention is important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in learning about child psychopathy research and some of the researchers who are involved, the article is a good starting point. Of course, being a magazine article, it becomes anecdotal at times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-05-14T06:30:21.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="875" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2012-05-14T16:24:33.063" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webexp.info/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WebExp&lt;/a&gt; is a free framework for developing web-based experiments, and the source code is freely available. The client side is a Java applet, so subjects must have Java installed on their computers. Perhaps this causes fewer drop-outs than having to install the executable generated by Inquisit Web. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19182118&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; discusses the timing accuracy of WebExp-based experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="404" LastActivityDate="2012-05-14T16:24:33.063" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="876" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="877" CreationDate="2012-05-14T16:29:34.990" Score="11" ViewCount="5867" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading the paper &quot;Visual Space Perception and Visually Directed Action&quot; by Loomis, Da Silva, Fujita and Fukusima (1992; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/~loomis/loomis_92.pdf&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;). In this paper, the word 'veridicality' is used in several sentences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Even with such a narrowed focus, it is apparent that no consensus on the veridicality of visual space perception exists, for the experimental results depend strongly on both the criterion of veridicality and the psychophysical method used.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;One criterion for veridicality is linearity of the function relating perceived egocentric distance to physical distance.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I used dictionaries and websites (including Wikipedia) to get a grasp of this concept, however, I found nothing that gave good meaning to this word. I assume this is a psychological term, since the linguistic meaning didn't fit well in my opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What does 'veridicality' mean, and how I should interpret it in this context?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Loomis JM, da Silva JA, Fujita N, Fukusima SS. (1992) Visual space perception and visually directed action. Journal of experimental psychology: Human perception and performance 18(4), 906-921.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-05-14T20:07:26.733" LastActivityDate="2012-05-14T20:07:26.733" Title="What does &quot;veridicality&quot; mean in terms of psychology?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="877" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="876" CreationDate="2012-05-14T16:42:57.643" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Veridicality is a term used in cognitive science; it is the degree to which your internal representation of the world accurately reflects the external world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Some background&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the work on Humberto Maturana in color perception, it was considered very important to not always focus on the fact that there is some external stimuli to be cognized by the subject and then reacted on, but that instead there is an internal world or representation which is then cognized and responded to. In many cases the veridicality of the internal representation is very good, and the experimenter can focus on just the easy-to-observe external stimuli. However, in many settings (like color perception) the veridicality of the internal representation is low (easiest way to imagine this: think of a difference in internal representation between a color-blind and non-color-blind person). Hence the experimenter needs to explicitly measure the internal representation and try to understand how it acts. Once you have a measure of this (a 'criterion for veridicality') then you can start to think about how the subject cognizes the stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Specific to this paper&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the context of the first sentence, what the authors are saying is: even with the narrow focus, it appears that the accuracy of the internal representation does not improve. Thus, the experimental results depend not only on the external stimuli (psychophysical method used) but how good we are at estimating the accuracy of the internal representation (criterion of veridicality).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the second sentence they propose a metric of veridicality: ask how far you think an object is (say in meters) if the results scale linearly with actual distance, then the internal representation of space is good, else it is not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-05-14T16:58:58.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="878" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-15T02:39:36.873" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the organization and identification of transducted sensory information in the brain and its interpretation and consolidation in the mind&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Perception&lt;/a&gt; for more general information and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Visual perception&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-auditory/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Auditory perception&lt;/a&gt; for more specific modalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;May be paired with &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/sensation&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'sensation'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;sensation&lt;/a&gt; in questions which encompass the whole sensation/perception process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T09:32:39.103" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T09:32:39.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="879" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-15T02:39:36.873" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the organization and identification of transducted sensory information in the brain and its interpretation and consolidation in the mind" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T09:32:32.643" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T09:32:32.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="880" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-15T02:50:55.767" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive process resulting in the selection, ranking, or sorting of alternative actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="14570" LastEditDate="2016-12-26T09:40:32.337" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T09:40:32.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="881" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-15T02:50:55.767" Score="1" Body="For questions regarding the cognitive processes which result in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-13T12:10:06.510" LastActivityDate="2012-10-13T12:10:06.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="882" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-15T02:52:57.950" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the application of specific experimental methods to study psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-15T04:12:12.450" LastActivityDate="2012-05-15T04:12:12.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="883" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-15T02:52:57.950" Score="0" Body="For questions about the application of specific experimental methods to study psychology." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-15T04:12:15.740" LastActivityDate="2012-05-15T04:12:15.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="884" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-15T02:55:33.313" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the psychology and neuroscience of the production and perception of oral and written language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Language&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Linguistics&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Language Acquisition&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/linguistics&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'linguistics'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;linguistics&lt;/a&gt; for more questions about language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If your question is not related to the neurological or psychological bases of these phenomena, consider asking it on &lt;a href=&quot;http://linguistics.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Linguistics.SE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T13:47:07.217" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T13:47:07.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="885" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-15T02:55:33.313" Score="0" Body="For questions about the psychology and neuroscience of the production and perception of oral and written language." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-07T13:47:07.887" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T13:47:07.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="886" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-15T06:04:30.467" Score="9" ViewCount="344" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have often read that ability tests are indicative of what people &quot;can do&quot;, but that job performance also depends on what people &quot;will do&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Ackerman and Beier (2012) wrote that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is a fundamental mismatch between what is measured by extant&#xA;  intelligence tests and the criteria one is most interested in, when&#xA;  predicting job-related performance measures, that is, the mismatch&#xA;  between typical and maximal behaviors. ... Although assessments of&#xA;  what someone can do will serve as an assessment of the upper bound of&#xA;  a person’s performance on the day that the applicant is assessed, I–O&#xA;  psychologists and managers are most interested in what the applicant&#xA;  will do on a day-to-day basis on the job—that is, the individual’s&#xA;  typical performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, my questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the  correlation between maximal job performance and typical job performance?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent do ability tests predict maximal performance more than typical performance?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in learning about empirical studies that have tested these ideas. I also imagine that findings will vary based on factors related to the work setting, and so forth (e.g., some work environments permit greater variability in discretionary effort). Also, presumably the degree to which ability-performance correlations differ between typical and maximal will be greater where the correlation between typical and maximal is lower. I'm also interested in understanding more about the methodological challenges associated with operationalising typical and maximal performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. (2012) The problem is in the defition: g and intelligence in I-O psychology. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 5 149–188.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T14:55:55.770" Title="Do ability tests predict maximal more than typical job performance?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="887" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="888" CreationDate="2012-05-15T12:33:22.963" Score="11" ViewCount="1035" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems widely accepted that, overall, men tend to find women in high heels more attractive.  (There will, of course, be many exceptions to this rule.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;High heels may well be the most potent aphrodisiac ever concocted.&quot; -- Rossi 1981&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the increase in attraction seems to be only indirectly ascribed with wearing high heels.  Typically this is described along the lines: high heels cause a change in the posture of the female, which the male finds (sexually) attractive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Question: How can we exclude the possibility that the high heels themselves are not the main cause of the increase in attractiveness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, how can we exclude the possibility that men, overall, primarily just like the sight of women in high heels, for some reason or another?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My thoughts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If the increase in attractiveness were primarily due to these indirect factors, then we should see a comparable increase in attractiveness e.g. if a woman were merely to stand on a slope.  (Although, this would not account for the addition factors, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gait&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;gait&lt;/a&gt;, and the sound made when walking in high heels.)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There are things that women do, such as fingernail painting, which increases attractiveness, but (arguably) not sexual attractiveness.  It seems plausible that the &quot;femininity&quot; associated with wearing high heels (as with fingernail painting) could be a large factor in the increase in attractiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Rossi WA. (1981) High heels: the agony and the extasy. Journal of the American Podiatry Association 71(12), 698-699.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="726" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-16T01:37:31.257" LastActivityDate="2012-05-16T01:37:31.257" Title="Do high heels increase female attractiveness in men only through indirect means?" Tags="&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="888" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="887" CreationDate="2012-05-15T15:02:19.633" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is probably quite simple to test whether high heels themselves are the main cause of the increase in attractiveness, or rather the changes to posture imposed by them - just let participants rate the attractiveness of women who do not wear high-heels, but, for instance, hold them in their hand. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, you could expose one half of your participants to high heels and the other half not. Afterwards let them rate pictures of women and compare the mean ratings of the groups. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In principle, you could a multitude of experiments with women and high heels - as long as the women do not wear the high heels, you can exclude that the effect on posture explains your results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An alternative approach, suggested by Artem Kaznatcheev in the comments, would be to compare the attractiveness ratings on women with and without high heels while their feet are not visible (e.g., covered or removed from the picture). Finding the same rating difference like observed with visible feet would suggest an effect of posture caused by high heels, rather than high heels themselves. (Actually you would need at least an two-by-two design ([high-heel vs. no-high-heel] x [feet-visble vs. feet-invisble]) to draw this conclusion.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-05-15T17:33:23.020" LastActivityDate="2012-05-15T17:33:23.020" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="889" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="891" CreationDate="2012-05-15T21:05:52.740" Score="7" ViewCount="270" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0240811372&quot;&gt;Mendiburu (2009)&lt;/a&gt;, 3-15% of the people can't view a stereoscopic 3D image or movie, mostly due to poor binocular vision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine one of those is in the movie theater, trying to watch a 3D movie. How would this movie appear to this person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Mendiburu (2009) &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0240811372&quot;&gt;3D Movie making: stereoscopic digital cinema from script to screen&lt;/a&gt;, Oxford, England: Focal Press) (Free &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psut.edu.jo/sites/nadine/fp/3mmsdcs.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-05-15T21:12:26.447" LastActivityDate="2012-05-16T15:25:33.317" Title="How do people that can't perceive 3D view a stereoscopic 3D image or movie?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="890" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="730" CreationDate="2012-05-16T05:05:07.617" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This answer is meant to add more information in addition to the one above. Also, I have not seen the original comment thread, and apologize in advance if I have given redundant information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fields that look at music and the brain&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers in many fields have an interest in understand how music is processed by the brain and more particularly how emotion ties in. These can include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(auditory) cognitive neuroscience&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(music) psychology and psychoacoustics&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;music therapy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;music technology (perhaps look into Music Information Retrieval, as work on emotional/mood classification is growing)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Different fields may focus on different aspects and may use different methods and techniques, but can also have overlaps. Wikipedia has a brief article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;music cognition&lt;/a&gt; as an umbrella term/field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Areas involved with music performance and perception&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The actual focus of music cognition research can be further divided (as you have in your question), into research on music performance, music perception, or interactions with each other and other modalities, to name a few.To answer your first question, music performance will inherently rely on basic motor networks and often looks at the brains of musicians compared to amateurs or non-musicians. Music perception relies on auditory circuits at a lower level. As language cognition also involves the auditory system, studies often look what/where the differences occur. You can typically find chapters about the motor or auditory system in textbooks. In addition, there are other higher level  processes and their associated areas that may be involved (planning, memory, classification, recognition etc.). If you are further interested, here is one review on a few recent developments in music performance (Thompson et al., 2006)&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ac-psych.org/download.php?id=12&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[pdf]&lt;/a&gt;. Here is another that covers recent work on the perceptual side &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661305002901&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Koelsch &amp;amp; Siebel, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Music and Emotion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To add to the above answer and provide you with more references, Chapter 5 of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/j474w81j44172q57/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hunter &amp;amp; Schellenberg, 2010)&lt;/a&gt; provides an overview of the studies that show how music elicits emotional responses. Interestingly, there is evidence that the emotional response to music is separate pathway than non-emotional judgement of music. This was seen in a patient, who after brain damage had significant impairments in non-emotional music tasks (recognizing melodies, sing more than one pitch, etc.) but intact emotional processing of music &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027798000432&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Peretz et al., 1997)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-05-16T05:05:07.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="891" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="889" CreationDate="2012-05-16T09:27:40.027" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;People who are unable to perceive stereoscopic depth typically only perceive information from the dominant eye.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Failure to perceive stereoscopic depth is usually caused by conditions where the eyes do not converge properly (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabismus&quot;&gt;strabismus&lt;/a&gt;). If left untreated, it is not possible to develop the necessary correspondance between the two signals from either eye, and one eye will dominate over the other. The result is that the majority of visual cortical neurons will respond to stimuli presented to the dominant eye, whereas there will be far fewer binocular neurons (i.e., neurons that respond to stimuli from either eye) and monocular neurons that respond to stimuli from the weaker eye. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-05-16T15:25:33.317" LastActivityDate="2012-05-16T15:25:33.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="892" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="612" CreationDate="2012-05-16T09:51:53.477" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not widely thought that impaired function or destruction of the fusiform is sufficient to produce prosoganosia. It is currently widely held that face processing involves a network of regions in the occipital and temporal lobes (e.g., the occipital face area, posterior superior temporal sulus, anterior superior temporal sulus, anterior collateral sulcus). For example, Bruno Rossion reports a patient with prosopagnoisa who has widespread damage to bilateral occipital and temporal brain regions but with a spared right FFA. Moreover, work by Marlene Behrmann has shown that people with developmental prosopagnosia have disrupted connections between the posterior temporal lobes (ie near the FFA) and the anterior temporal lobes. This is significant because there is growing evidence that there may be face selective regions in the anterior temporal lobes and that they are more directly involved in face recognition. Moreover there is some evidence that this anterior temporal region modulates the activity in the FFA (Nestor, Plaut, Behrmann, 2011 PNAS). So it might very well be that the FFA does show decreased activity in a face recognition task, but this might be due to impaired feedback to this region. On this view, lower activity in FFA is the effect of prosopagnosia not the cause, so making comparisons on levels of activity within one region might not be as meaningful as you think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nestor, A., Plaut, D.C., &amp;amp; Behrmann, M. (2011). Unraveling the distributed neural code of facial identity through spatiotemporal pattern analysis. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108&lt;/em&gt;, 9998. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/108/24/9998.full&quot;&gt;LINK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-16T10:36:36.317" LastActivityDate="2012-05-16T10:36:36.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="893" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="896" CreationDate="2012-05-17T07:06:47.293" Score="10" ViewCount="196" Body="&lt;p&gt;I consider reproducible analysis to be really important.&#xA;In particular, I'd like to see more researchers in psychology:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sharing their data&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;producing their journal articles using literate programming technologies like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.statistik.lmu.de/~leisch/Sweave/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sweave&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://yihui.name/knitr/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;knitr&lt;/a&gt; that combine data analysis code and text into an integrated documenst.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I consider this particularly important in light of  concerns over research fraud (e.g., data fabrication) and  various forms of data fishing (e.g., testing many hypotheses and only reporting the significant one).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certainly in statistical fields, there is a lot of discussion about the importance of reproducible analyses (e.g., see &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/14999/how-are-we-defining-reproducible-research&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/1980/complete-substantive-examples-of-reproducible-research-using-r&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). However, I sometimes feel that in psychology this is only starting to filter through.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, my question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any journal articles in psychology that have advocated reproducible analysis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many angles that such articles might take: reward structures that discourage open science and reproducible analysis; technical challenges which make it difficult to do such analyses; how-to articles that outline how to perform reproducible analyses in psychology. I'd be interested in any articles that address these topics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2012-08-11T17:52:39.947" Title="Are there any journal articles in psychology that have promoted and discussed reproducible data analysis?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="894" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="943" CreationDate="2012-05-17T09:29:07.257" Score="11" ViewCount="2639" Body="&lt;p&gt;The introduction of the new edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (&quot;DSM-5&quot;) is on the horizon.  With it are coming some new, evidence-based diagnoses for dissociative disorders [1], which include conditions such as dissociative fugue (which will now be classified as dissociative amnesia) and dissociative identity disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fugue states have always been fascinating to me, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/fugue_state&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; states that they are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a rare psychiatric disorder characterized by reversible amnesia for personal identity, including the memories, personality and other identifying characteristics of individuality...Fugues are usually precipitated by a stressful episode, and upon recovery there may be amnesia for the original stressor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PTSD&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Post-traumatic stress disorder&lt;/a&gt; is also precipitated by a stressful (and potentially life threatening) episode, and causes anxiety and autonomic hyperexcitablity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've never seen anything written about the level of stressor that can induce a fugue state, but based on their common etiology, I would assume that PTSD and fugue states are related psychologically and neurologically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To what extent is this true, are these two seemingly different end products of the same initial event?  Is there an anatomical substrate that is common to both?  Does changing the status of &quot;dissociative fugue&quot; -&gt; &quot;dissociative amnesia&quot; mean they should be considered in isolation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[1] Spiegel, D., Loewenstein, R. J., et al. (2011), Dissociative disorders in DSM-5. Depress. Anxiety, 28: E17–E45. doi: 10.1002/da.20923&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T03:37:15.743" LastActivityDate="2015-01-05T08:09:47.557" Title="What is the relationship between post-traumatic stress disorder and fugue states?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="895" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="868" CreationDate="2012-05-17T19:17:39.843" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://thechart.blogs.cnn.com/2010/08/02/%E2%80%98recovery-sleep%E2%80%99-can-make-up-for-lost-zzzs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://thechart.blogs.cnn.com/2010/08/02/%E2%80%98recovery-sleep%E2%80%99-can-make-up-for-lost-zzzs/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everything up to 1:25 of this clip should answer your question.  It looks like the general answer to your question is &quot;No&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;[...]says Dr. David F. Dinges, one of the study authors and Chief of the Division of Sleep and Chronobiology at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine.&quot; Should give your more information on where to find the specific study they performed.  Unfortunately, the name of this study was not given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="678" LastActivityDate="2012-05-17T19:17:39.843" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="896" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="893" CreationDate="2012-05-17T20:04:01.643" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's not a journal article, but it's a project, called Reproducibility Project.&#xA;They are re-doing psychological studies to estimate the reproducibility of a sample of studies. They try to stay as close as possible on the original study (they e-mail the author(s) for the exact stimuli etc.).&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://openscienceframework.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt;'s the main site and &lt;a href=&quot;https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?key=0AvIo2znxWnxZdERIS2xqNnNxUUZRRTB5LVJxckhiY3c&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;'s the link to their spreadsheet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://go.nature.com/9gcjrg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; is a short article promoting the sharing of data in psychology. Another related study (by the same author) is also mentioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9" LastEditorUserId="9" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T21:23:44.720" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T21:23:44.720" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="897" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1607" CreationDate="2012-05-17T21:01:40.507" Score="11" ViewCount="881" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sensory deprivation is a relatively common technique for medititation and general consciousness-exploration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm more interested in sensory &lt;em&gt;immersion&lt;/em&gt;.  That is, deliberate overstimulation as a meditative exercise.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, listening to two different audio streams, one in each ear (this is the original motivator for this question, as I recently found that I concentrate better when two different audio streams are being played into my ears).  I suspect a relation to attentional drift and a state of relaxed/detached attention, but I don't want to jump to conclusions either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been research (by whom? available online?) on this subject?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: example of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mind-spas.com/what-we-offer/sensory-immersion.html&quot;&gt;commercial service&lt;/a&gt; offering Sensory Immersion (www.mind-spas.com)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-23T22:40:51.383" LastActivityDate="2013-07-23T22:40:51.383" Title="Sensory Immersion Research?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="899" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-18T14:45:17.827" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the visual system, which serves to transduce light energy into neural impulses, or regarding visual perception, how we interpret such incoming visual information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see the Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;visual system&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;visual perception&lt;/a&gt; articles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;David Hubel's &lt;a href=&quot;http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Eye, Brain, and Vision&lt;/a&gt; online edition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:11:38.813" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:11:38.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="900" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-18T14:45:17.827" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the visual system, which serves to transduce light energy into neural impulses, or regarding visual perception, how we interpret such incoming visual information." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-05-18T14:47:20.023" LastActivityDate="2012-05-18T14:47:20.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="901" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-18T14:47:48.510" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the use and selection of computer programs designated for instruction, experimentation, and data processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-17T20:49:56.987" LastActivityDate="2012-06-17T20:49:56.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="902" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-18T14:47:48.510" Score="1" Body="For questions regarding the use and selection of computer programs designated for instruction, experimentation, and data processing." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-05-18T14:48:46.230" LastActivityDate="2012-05-18T14:48:46.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="903" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-18T17:41:53.517" Score="12" ViewCount="2272" Body="&lt;p&gt;A classic &quot;Hopfield network&quot; is a type of artificial neural network in which the units are bi-stable and fully interconnected by symmetrically weighted connections. In 1982, Hopfield showed that such networks are characterized by an &quot;energy function&quot;, under which stored memories correspond to local energy minima [1].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a 1983 paper [2], Hopfield et al further showed that &quot;spurious memories&quot; (local energy minima that are created during training, in addition to the intended target patterns) can be suppressed by an &quot;unlearning procedure&quot;, during which the network is repeatedly allowed to relax from random states, and the resulting states then &quot;unlearned&quot; by anti-Hebbian weight adjustments. The procedure affects spurious memories more than the desirable &quot;learned memories&quot;, thus improving recall performance. However, the paper offers no explanation for why this should be so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 2004 paper by Robins and McCallum [3] demonstrates that spurious memories can be distinguished from learned ones because their &quot;energy profiles&quot; are different. Specifically, the ratio of lowest to highest energy contributions from individual units is significantly smaller in states corresponding to spurious memories than in states corresponding to learned memories. Again, the effect is not accounted for (except for a tentative partial explanation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a relationship between these two findings, i.e. does the lower &quot;energy ratio&quot; of spurious states explain their greater susceptibility to unlearning?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have any explanations for either or both of these phenomena been put forward since the publication of the papers?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there other ways to suppress or detect spurious memories in the Hopfield family of neural networks?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Hopfield, J. J. (1982). Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 79(8), 2554 –2558.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Hopfield, J. J., Feinstein, D. I., &amp;amp; Palmer, R. G. (1983). “Unlearning” has a stabilizing effect in collective memories. Nature, 304(5922), 158–159.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Robins, A. V., &amp;amp; McCallum, S. J. R. (2004). A robust method for distinguishing between learned and spurious attractors. Neural Networks, 17(3), 313–326. doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2003.11.007&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="404" LastEditorUserId="404" LastEditDate="2012-05-18T18:17:20.760" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T14:42:52.723" Title="Spurious attractors in Hopfield networks" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="904" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="905" CreationDate="2012-05-18T19:48:51.957" Score="3" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing a paper in APA-style. At the end of it, I have my references. There is this one paper (actually an internship report) that I refer to, but it hasn't been submitted for publication. How should I write this down?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9" LastEditorUserId="21788" LastEditDate="2019-10-10T18:16:13.033" LastActivityDate="2019-10-10T18:16:13.033" Title="How do you refer to something in APA-style that is not submitted to be published?" Tags="&lt;publication-process&gt;&lt;apa-style&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="905" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="904" CreationDate="2012-05-18T21:24:11.397" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Usually citations of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_literature&quot;&gt;gray literature&lt;/a&gt; should be avoided. If, however, it is necessary, the APA suggests to provide as much information as possible (see, for instance, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2009/08/referencing-gray-literature-in-apa-style.html&quot;&gt;APA style blog&lt;/a&gt;). For specific style suggestions, see, for instance, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nova.edu/library/dils/teachinghandouts/apa/APA_6th_ed.pdf&quot;&gt;a library handout summarizing the APA guides on gray literature&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2012-05-18T21:24:11.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="906" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-18T23:16:08.187" Score="5" ViewCount="144" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Informal Experiment:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I look up at a wooden beam on the ceiling, or I look at the office door; both the door and the ceiling are about 2 meters from my face.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VmFZlD58NYg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;rotate my face&lt;/a&gt; 90 degrees left or right at a rate of about 90 degrees per second. (You may have to adjust this rate to experience the flicker. Too fast or too slow, and you won't experience the flicker.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Results:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;My visual perception (of the edge of the door or ceiling) flickers rather than being smooth and continuous.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I typically perceive 4 (but sometimes 5 or 6) images during the rotation, which translates to 1/3 second between images or one image per 30 degrees of rotation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Notes:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ensure that ambient illumination doesn't flicker. Sunlight is suitable. Most electrical light that runs on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;AC&lt;/a&gt; is not.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I understand that not everyone who tries this experiment will experience this phenomenon.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This phenomenon also occurs when viewing a sheet of paper held at arm's length and pressed against a contrasting wall (e.g., white paper on brown wall). Rotating the paper instead of your face does not generate the phenomenon.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The intention of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VmFZlD58NYg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the linked YouTube video&lt;/a&gt; is only to show which plane to rotate.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I recorded a video of my face during the experiment. Reviewing the video, I see no eye movement.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research on this phenomenon? (I have been unable to find anything on it, perhaps because I don't know the proper terminology.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="421" LastEditDate="2012-05-21T02:30:00.580" LastActivityDate="2012-05-21T02:30:00.580" Title="Perceptual flicker when rotating my face" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="907" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="906" CreationDate="2012-05-19T20:00:52.867" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing that you are experiencing the interplay of two mechanisms: When you start to turn your head, the &quot;vestibulo-ocular reflex&quot; tries to hold the visual scene steady by counteracting your head movement. But as you continue to turn your head (apparently at about 30 deg. intervals), a &quot;saccade&quot; kicks in to restore your gaze to a point straight in front of your face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar effect can be observed when the visual scene moves, as when you look out a train window, but in this case, rather than the vestibulo-ocular reflex, it would be &quot;smooth pursuit eye movement&quot; that tries to hold the visual scene steady. (Wikipedia has good articles for all three of the quoted terms.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting way to check this hypothesis would be to videotape your face as you perform the experiment and observe your eye movements in the video. I'm looking forward to a YouTube posting...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="404" LastEditorUserId="404" LastEditDate="2012-05-20T19:39:04.513" LastActivityDate="2012-05-20T19:39:04.513" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="909" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-20T14:41:51.927" Score="16" ViewCount="1384" Body="&lt;p&gt;A paper &#xA;&lt;em&gt;Killingsworth et al., &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1192439&quot;&gt;A Wandering Mind Is an Unhappy Mind&lt;/a&gt;, Science 12 November 2010: 932&lt;/em&gt; (or a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/files/papers/others/2010/killingsworth2010a.pdf&quot;&gt;free pdf&lt;/a&gt;) starts with the following statement:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unlike other animals, human beings spend&#xA;  a lot  of  time  thinking about  what  is  not&#xA;  going on around them, contemplating&#xA;  events that happened in the past, might happen&#xA;  in the future, or will never happen at all. Indeed,&#xA;  “stimulus-independent thought” or “mind wandering” appears to be the brain’s default  mode&#xA;  of operation (1-3).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the claim is supported for humans by the cited papers and their finding:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mind wandering&#xA;  occurred in 46.9% of the samples and in at least&#xA;  30% of the samples taken during every activity&#xA;  except making love.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find a strong evidence that for all other animals it is not true. Even if it, arguably, may sound plausible for domestic animals, it seems less convincing for primates, elephants or dolphins (without a proper experimental support).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any research on &quot;wandering mind&quot; for other animals? If so, do they support or refute the &quot;unlike other animals&quot; line?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-10T03:03:20.950" LastActivityDate="2014-08-05T20:37:22.173" Title="Do only humans spend a lot of time daydreaming (or having &quot;stimulus-independent thoughts&quot;)?" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;wandering-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="910" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-20T15:09:30.277" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions pertaining to the physiology and pathophysiology of sleep in humans and animals (e.g., sleep stages and their EEG patterns, sleep disturbances), along with psychological effects of sleep deprivation or fatigue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sleep is divided up into 5 stages (stages 1, 2, 3, 4, and REM). Since 2007, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-rapid_eye_movement_sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NREM&lt;/a&gt; sleep has been reclassified into stages N1, N2, N3, with N3 being a combination of the former stages 3 and 4; however, most scientific papers are still using the old system, so I'll refer to them by the old stage names.  Below, you can see a typical hypnogram, where sleep stage is plotted versus time for one night's sleep.  Cycles through the night tend to progress from 1→2→3→2→REM, but can change unexpectedly if the subject is awakened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nFZMJ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(image from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, content from &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/534/is-there-a-reduction-of-brain-fog-with-fewer-hours-of-sleep&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the canonical text in this field, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1416066454&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dement's&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0721694586&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ferber's&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-06T02:33:36.813" LastActivityDate="2012-07-06T02:33:36.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="911" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-20T15:09:30.277" Score="0" Body="For questions pertaining to the physiology and pathophysiology of sleep in humans and animals (e.g., sleep stages and their EEG patterns, sleep disturbances), along with psychological effects of sleep deprivation or fatigue. " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-05-20T16:50:36.970" LastActivityDate="2012-05-20T16:50:36.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="912" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-20T15:16:55.057" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions pertaining to the evaluation of performance through formal or informal means, as well as the scoring of such evaluations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_%28assessment%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Test&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardized_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Standardized Test&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_%28workplace%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Evaluation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-19T14:17:51.870" LastActivityDate="2012-06-19T14:17:51.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="913" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-20T15:16:55.057" Score="0" Body="Questions pertaining to the evaluation of performance through formal or informal means, as well as the scoring of such evaluations." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-05-20T16:50:50.353" LastActivityDate="2012-05-20T16:50:50.353" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="914" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-20T15:38:26.653" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about statistical methods that might be appropriate for certain paradigms within psychology, psychiatry, neuroscience, or cognitive science&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a list of brief publications, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wiley.com/legacy/wileychi/eosbs/articles.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this site&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a general overview, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Statistics&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-17T20:47:58.020" LastActivityDate="2012-06-17T20:47:58.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="915" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-20T15:38:26.653" Score="0" Body="For questions about statistical methods that might be appropriate for certain paradigms within psychology, psychiatry, neuroscience, or cognitive science." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-17T20:47:55.460" LastActivityDate="2012-06-17T20:47:55.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="909" CreationDate="2012-05-21T07:26:24.967" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that it is still a matter of debate whether animals are capable of mind wandering. For instance, there are a lot of publications about foresight, a future directed instance of mind wandering. Much of it comes from one group, e.g., &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suddendorf T, Corballis MC. (2007) The evolution of foresight: What is&#xA;  mental time travel, and is it unique to humans? Behav Brain Sci. &#xA;  30(3):299-313; discussion 313-51.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suddendorf T, Corballis MC. (2010) Behavioural evidence for mental&#xA;  time travel in nonhuman animals. Behav Brain Res. 215(2):292-8.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, for a review see: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cheke Lucy G., Clayton Nicola S.. Mental time travel in animals. WIREs&#xA;  Cogn Sci 2010, 1: 915-930.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or for a quite current example, see: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Osvath M, Karvonen E. (2012;7) Spontaneous innovation for future&#xA;  deception in a male chimpanzee. PLoS One (5):e36782.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-05-21T07:34:21.710" LastActivityDate="2012-05-21T07:34:21.710" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10" CreationDate="2012-05-21T12:06:04.353" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently read &lt;a href=&quot;https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/critical-masses-for-academic-research-groups-and-consequences-for-higher-education-research-policy-and-management_hemp-23-5kg0vswcm27g#page1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper&lt;/a&gt;, which showed a mathematical model for performance scaling of research groups in different scientific branches. I'm aware you were originally asking for smaller &amp;quot;cognitive tasks&amp;quot; and project-like group-processes in the comments, but output and quality of publications/patents is probably anyway a better and more objective measure on a larger scale. Also, the paper shows that optimal group sizes in different academic disciplines varies strongly, so comparing, e.g. single groups in math and biology solving tasks is probably not very meaningful (Jeromys 1st comment) for your original question and only valid for exactly that discipline/distinct cognitive task, which would make a general analysis/conclusions tricky/impossible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assumptions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The extent to which a group’s research quality is higher or lower than&#xA;average is a function of many parameters such as the innate calibre, education&#xA;and experience of its members, the quality of managerial support and of facilities&#xA;and infrastructure, the impact of external and international collaborations, the&#xA;prestige and confidence inspired by the institution and by past successes, etc. All&#xA;of these parameters contribute to the quality of an individual group but, in&#xA;general, research quality is size independent according to this argument. [...] However, it would be naive to retain this viewpoint alone because it&#xA;neglects the importance of interactions between group members.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The model:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A group has &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$N$&lt;/span&gt; members, therefore the total number of pairs of individuals along which channels of communication can open is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$N_{T}=N(N-1)/2$&lt;/span&gt; (quadratical scaling)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So group quality tends to rise continuosly with quantity. The main statement of the article however is that the rise of quality is independent of group quantity after a group reaches a upper critical mass (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$NN_{C}/2$&lt;/span&gt; linear scaling) and increaes only with much smaller slope further, basically because a single researcher can only communicate meaningfully with a limited number of other researchers (sub-groups build within big groups, specialization)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Comparison with available data:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will not copy paste all the data fits here, look them up in the paper, well worth and interesting, many academic disciplines are compared in different countries and match the model and quadratic scaling quite well in different academic disciplines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MWzUU.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the scaling for groups is the same, as mainly determined by meaningful face-to-face communication, the different critical mass among different academic disciplines has probably to do with the necessary amount of researcher you need to run, for example, a high-technology research laboratory (many students who master the single instruments) vs. mathematics (formalized language, not the broad spectrum of problems like in natural sciences) vs. humanities (reading and discussing a lot of literature)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Implications:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To improve overall research performance in a country, increase groups below the size of the critical mass instead of further increasing of already abnormal big research groups, where a slope for performance scaling dependent on &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$N$&lt;/span&gt; still exists, but is much smaller than below the critical mass&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Side note: Apart from this critical research group size I'm aware of a new trend in bigger companies to forbid or restrict e-mailing for the majority of employees, because only a marginal amount of this e-mails is really important according to studies (15% I rememember mentioned by Volkswagen AG, but not the source currently)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Kenna R, Berche B (2011). Critical masses for academic research groups and consequences for higher education research policy and management. Higher Education Management and Policy 23 (3), 9-29.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="96" LastEditorUserId="9512" LastEditDate="2021-04-25T01:06:59.090" LastActivityDate="2021-04-25T01:06:59.090" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="918" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="117" CreationDate="2012-05-21T15:04:07.097" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;A possibly relevant take on this question is provided by a computational model described in [1]. Although the main thrust of the paper is that selfish agents, by being habitual (sticking with their choices), contribute to The Common Good (in spite of themselves, so to speak), the argument is also made that habituation increases individual fitness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Davies, A. P., Watson, R. A., Mills, R., Buckley, C. L., &amp;amp; Noble, J. (2011). “If You Can’t Be With the One You Love, Love the One You’re With”: How   Individual Habituation of Agent Interactions Improves Global Utility. Artificial Life, 17(3), 167–181. &lt;a href=&quot;http://core.kmi.open.ac.uk/display/1511986&quot;&gt;Link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="404" LastActivityDate="2012-05-21T15:04:07.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="919" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="925" CreationDate="2012-05-22T20:29:17.163" Score="8" ViewCount="128" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say I ask subjects what $20 \cdot 20$ is.  Is there any way, besides introspection, to evaluate whether subjects recalled the answer or calculated the answer? In general, I would expect that the recalled answer would be presented faster, however some calculations can be done quickly and sometimes it can take a while to recall information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="47" LastActivityDate="2012-05-23T12:18:18.333" Title="Is it possible to distinguish recall and calculation?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="921" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1066" CreationDate="2012-05-23T05:00:01.320" Score="7" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;Job satisfaction and opinion surveys ask respondents to provide ratings on a set of items. One response scale might be a five point rating scale measuring satisfaction (e.g., 5-point strongly dissatisfied to strongly satisfied) with the item content (e.g., &quot;Opportunities for promotion&quot;). Some tests also gather for each item &quot;importance&quot; ratings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the psychometric properties of importance versus satisfaction scales?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent is the incremental information provided by importance ratings justified?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T06:39:11.180" Title="Whether to ask satisfaction and importance questions for each item in a survey?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="922" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1067" CreationDate="2012-05-23T05:59:11.423" Score="7" ViewCount="360" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/&quot;&gt;Better Life Index&lt;/a&gt; and other indices seek to overcome the limitations of GDP in assessing social progress. They provide a composite score with which to rank nations on a range of indicators such as safety, environment, health, employment, economic activity, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other researchers obtain self-report measures of happiness of life satisfaction (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/~ediener/SWLS.html&quot;&gt;Diener's popluar Satisfaction with Life Scale&lt;/a&gt;). With care these scales can be aggregated over individuals to form a group-level measurement. For example, with careful sampling, a nation level estimate can be obtained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious about these things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the correlation between aggregated self-report measures and objective indexes of life satisfaction?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What explanation is provided for the size of the correlation in terms of how they are similar or different in what they measure?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T08:55:47.223" Title="What is the correlation between objective indexes and aggregated self-report measures of life satisfaction?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="923" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="926" CreationDate="2012-05-23T06:13:43.417" Score="8" ViewCount="369" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a strong believer in the importance of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist%E2%80%93practitioner_model&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;scientist-practitioner model&lt;/a&gt; for psychology. I think that training in the scientific method is a major component of what makes a person trained in psychology more employable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In many jurisdictions, a student wanting to be registered as a psychologists is required to complete one more research theses. For example, in Australia, a student will typically complete an undergraduate fourth year thesis and a thesis as part of a larger masters or doctoral program.&#xA;While it is obvious that training in research will make a student a better researcher, I have heard some people question whether completing a research thesis will make the student a better practising psychologist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, my questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What empirical research exists that has tested whether completing a research thesis in psychology makes you a better practising psychologist?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What theoretical frameworks justify or challenge the value of completing a research thesis in terms of improving practical skills required by a psychologist?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-05-23T18:39:39.773" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T08:10:05.927" Title="Does completing a thesis make you a better practicing psychologist?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="13" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="924" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-23T06:30:55.440" Score="4" ViewCount="2641" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsycINFO&lt;/a&gt; is a abstracting service provided by the APA dedicated to research in the behavioural sciences to which many universities subscribe. &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; provides a free abstracting service that covers seemingly all areas of research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the pros and cons of using PsychINFO versus Google Scholar?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Under what conditions should someone use one or the other service?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-05-24T18:40:11.750" LastActivityDate="2012-10-18T23:04:43.057" Title="When is it best to use PsycINFO versus Google Scholar?" Tags="&lt;publication-process&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="925" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="919" CreationDate="2012-05-23T12:18:18.333" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;A consensus within cognitive psychology is that there really is no such thing as &quot;computation&quot;,  though that depends how you define it. It seems all arithmetic ( + - * / ) is simply fact retrieval from long-term memory. More complex problems simply rely on the fact that we can break them down into simpler problems. For instance, when you learn to solve 364+192, you're really doing a set of simpler retrieval operations, e.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Add 4+2 (6)&#xA;Add 9+6 (15)&#xA;Add 3+1+1 (carrying the one-- 5)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only true &quot;computation&quot; aside from fact-retrieval is counting, which we resort to when we don't have a fact required... e.g., If I forget 4x6, then I'll add &lt;code&gt;4+4+4+4+4+4&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's still the question of whether someone memorizes 20x20=400, or whether they break this down into smaller components (2x2=4, add two 0s). It would be hard to tell what strategy someone is using here, but reaction time may give a clue. Retrieval time is going to be influenced by the number of steps in the problem, and the strength of the memory for each retrieval.  John Anderson has used his ACT-R (&lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/&quot;&gt;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/&lt;/a&gt;) model explicitly to model reaction time in arithmetic which can give you quantitative predictions. Still, I think in most cases it will be difficult to distinguish between such a small difference in reaction time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Re: cognitive arithmetic as mental fact-retrieval, see Ashcraft, 1992. Or, this quote from Ashcraft, 1995:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As I have suggested elsewhere (Ashcraft, 1992), a broad consensus has&#xA;  developed across models for issues of basic memory representation and&#xA;  processing. Current theories (e.g., Ashcraft 1992; Campbell &amp;amp;&#xA;  Oliphant, 1992; Sigel &amp;amp; Jenkins, 1989) propose that the simple&#xA;  whole-number facts (i.e. single-digit operands 0 + / x 0 through 9 +&#xA;  /x 9 are stored in an associative or network representation in&#xA;  long-term memory,with the strength of the network connections among&#xA;  operands and answers reflecting the degree of learning and mastery,&#xA;  and probably the degree to which the representations can be accessed&#xA;  via automatic processing. […] Processing strategies other than&#xA;  retrieval are prominent only in Siegler's model […]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;M.H. Ashcraft (1992). Cognitive arithmetic: A review of data and theory. Cognition, 44, 75-106.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;M.H. Ashcraft (1995). cognitive psychology and simple arithmetic: a review of summary and new directions. mathematical cognition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-05-23T12:18:18.333" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="926" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="923" CreationDate="2012-05-23T12:48:04.240" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might want to study differences in PsyD and PhD clinical psychologists.  The thesis per se doesn't seem to be the question but the focus on research.  A PsyD dissertation generally does not involve the conducting of an original line of research while the PhD does.  I can't think of a better way to equate your groups at the moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a comment I'd like to mention that the benefits of a scientist-practitioner model reach beyond the immediate and are best seen long term, as the practice of psychology evolves.  Someone trained only in therapeutic techniques is trained in a stagnant psychology and is ill equipped to understand new research that motivates changes in the field.  They may change but the decision to won't be as well grounded in science and will be more based on their clinical judgment.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you've ever been to a clinical conference where the budding field of clinical neuroscience was endorsed by a speaker through a careful presentation of (astoundingly powerful) research and logical argument you'd see an embarrassing number of practitioners making serious scientific errors dismissing the idea.  And it's not just a bias against new but an inability to make sound scientific judgments.  The ridiculous case of Autism and vaccines and how many psychologists actually endorsed that research highlights how we need better scientific training.  A training that many an experienced scientist can tell you really only comes through practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you come up with a better way to produce a clinician on the day after they graduate then you haven't necessarily come up with a better way to train a psychologist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2012-05-23T18:57:40.253" LastActivityDate="2012-05-23T18:57:40.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="927" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="930" CreationDate="2012-05-23T18:01:36.750" Score="10" ViewCount="458" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thinking about experiments where participants perform visual search tasks, I remember hearing in a Cog Psych lecture that if the instructions of the task were of the form &quot;find the element that has property X&quot;, the participants would accomplish the task faster and with greater ease than when the instructions were of the form &quot;find the element that does not have property Y&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was then discussed that this exemplifies one of the themes in cognitive psych: The cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information. Is this positivity effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if there is something about the second task that is algorithmically more complex than the first. Would a computer show the same slow-down for these tasks? Anyone know of any research exploring this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="759" LastEditorUserId="759" LastEditDate="2012-05-25T04:37:01.980" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T00:46:42.100" Title="Visual search: complexity of positive vs negative search tasks" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="928" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="927" CreationDate="2012-05-23T18:21:34.227" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is off the top of my head. No references to the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming the elements are all in the subjects's present visual field, the brain interprets the two tasks as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Positive task:&lt;/strong&gt; Property $X$ is somewhere in your present visual field and thus can be seen immediately. Tell me which element has that property. &lt;strong&gt;[2 steps]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Negative task:&lt;/strong&gt; Search the $n$ elements in your visual field until you find the one that doesn't have property $Y$. &lt;strong&gt;[$\frac{n}{2}$ steps, on average]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, an unintelligent computer program would use an exhaustive search algorithm for both tasks and thus require $\frac{n}{2}$ steps, on average, for either task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-24T01:07:03.573" LastActivityDate="2012-05-24T01:07:03.573" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="929" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="927" CreationDate="2012-05-23T18:37:29.247" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would doubt that the effect you described is an example for the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivity_effect&quot;&gt;positivity effect&lt;/a&gt;, which is a form of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attributional_bias&quot;&gt;attributional bias&lt;/a&gt;, rather than connected to basic perceptual phenomena. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead I think that the experimental results you described can be explained by a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;priming effect&lt;/a&gt;. Priming describes the phenomenon that the exposure to one stimulus influences the processing of following stimuli. If the first stimulus shares perceptual, semantic, or conceptual similarities with the next stimulus, processing is enhanced (positive priming). If it provides conflicting information, processing can be depressed (negative priming). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Would a computer show the same behavior for these tasks?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Attempts to explain (positive) priming effects usually discuss an activation of associated memory contents, which, in turn, lead to enhancements in the following processing steps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since memory access is often indeed a limiting factor of computer performance, priming effects can possibly observed with computers, too. Computer have different types of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_storage&quot;&gt;storage systems&lt;/a&gt; which differ in access speed (e.g., hard disc, RAM, cache). For instance, information that is (pre-)loaded into cache memory (which is limited) can be accessed faster than information that is stored on the hard disc. Since it is context dependent which information is in cache memory at a point in time (i.e., it depends on the things you are doing at the moment), memory contents connected to the things you do right now are probably accessed faster (because they are in the cache) than other memory contents, hence, a priming effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2012-05-23T18:37:29.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="930" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="927" CreationDate="2012-05-24T03:37:25.237" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Building on @JohnPick's answer and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/927/visual-search-experiments-and-positivity-effect#comment1844_928&quot;&gt;my comment&lt;/a&gt;, but being a little bit more formal. The difference can be explained by the difference between parallel versus sequential processing, and the difficulty of the predicate being evaluated. Your specific question is answered by Treisman (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0734189X85800049&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1985&lt;/a&gt;) (which I summarize in the second section) but I try to provide a more general explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Basic idea&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whenever we say &amp;quot;does the element have property &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt;&amp;quot;, we usually pick a very simple property for &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt;, which can be checked quickly. On the other hand a predicate like &amp;quot;does not have property &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Y$&lt;/span&gt;&amp;quot; becomes something like &amp;quot;has propert &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\neg Y$&lt;/span&gt;&amp;quot; and is usually a much more difficult property to evaluate.  Thus, I expect the main problem is not in the negation, but the fact that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt; is usually much faster to evaluate than &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\neg Y$&lt;/span&gt;. In general, we would expect similar effects with other experiments that use a very easy property &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt; versus a very difficult but still positive property &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if this was the only factor, we would only see a constant-factor slow-down, which would we expect to be interpreted as quantitative but not qualitative slow down. This is where we throw in parallel processing. If we assume that the vision system is capable of highly parallel processing, but the difficulty of the property evaluation involved must be very low or we need to switch to sequential processing. In a computer, think GPU: the GPU can do many many simple calculations in parallel, but we have to use the slower CPU to do difficult computations one at a time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Relevant literature support&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Classic work like Treisman (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0734189X85800049&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1985&lt;/a&gt;) suggests that my assumption of very bounded computations being done in parallel, while more complicated properties require attention and sequential processing is a reasonable one. In particular, Treisman completely answers your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It suggests that search for the presence of a visual primitive is automatic and parallel, whereas search for the absence of the same feature is serial and requires focused attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Testing the theory with non-negative properties&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To test my whole theory we can consider the following experiments. We present the participant with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$N$&lt;/span&gt; integers &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$r_1, ... r_N$&lt;/span&gt; arranged randomly in the visual field, each integer is colored &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c_1, ... , c_N$&lt;/span&gt;. We ask one of two possible questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Property &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt;: Name a green number, or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Property &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z$&lt;/span&gt;: Name a number divisible by &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$3$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As we increase &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$N$&lt;/span&gt; from &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1$&lt;/span&gt; up to some reasonable limit, we get a function of reaction times &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$f_X(N)$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$f_Z(N)$&lt;/span&gt; for the two cases:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If both predicates (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z$&lt;/span&gt;) are processed in the same way (i.e. ever both parallel or both sequential), then we expect that&#xA;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\forall N \; \frac{f_X(N)}{f_Z(N)} \approx \frac{f_X(1)}{f_Z(1)}$&lt;/span&gt;. In other words, we expect just a constant slow-down from the fact that checking in a single number is green is easier than checking if it is divisible by &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$3$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt; is processed in parallel, while &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z$&lt;/span&gt; is not, then we expect &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\forall N \; \frac{f_X(N)}{f_Z(N)} &amp;gt; \frac{f_X(N + 1)}{f_Z(N + 1)}$&lt;/span&gt;. In other words, as we add one more item to the visual field, the parallel processing is slowed down significantly less than the sequential processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-05-24T03:37:25.237" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="931" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="942" CreationDate="2012-05-24T09:22:55.717" Score="14" ViewCount="445" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a software engineer doing some research in order to figure out if developing some applications are worth the effort. This work is applied to computational devices including mobile devices and even smart houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know &lt;strong&gt;when people wake up from sleep&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What environmental factors influence us the most?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What factors, including sites and sounds, improve our mood?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What factors stimulate cognitive activity? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do such factors vary between people?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="763" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-14T15:05:47.753" LastActivityDate="2015-09-13T06:10:50.983" Title="What factors improve mood and increase cognitive functioning when people wake up?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="932" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-24T11:40:12.793" Score="2" ViewCount="199" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is a typical approach to conducting a survey-based psychological experiment?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seems to be a host of issues involved; some that seem particularly important are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the appropriate design of the experiment,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ethical approval,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;securing funding.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seems to be a number of books written about the topic, and it's hard to know where to begin.  I'm largely after an outline of what one needs to know in order to go from nothing to having successfully conducted a survey-based experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Motivation&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/887&quot;&gt;In a previous question&lt;/a&gt;, I received an &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/888/29&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; that suggested conducting a survey-based experiment.  Assuming (once I do a thorough literature review) I don't find any other answer to the question, I'd be interested in implementing the experiment (partly to answer the question itself, and partly for professional development).  I'm a scientist, but not in a discipline where surveys would typically arise.  As such, I have no experience in conducting a survey-based experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="726" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T04:35:30.170" Title="How does a researcher typically go about conducting a survey-based psychological experiment?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2013-08-30T21:29:33.970" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="933" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="969" CreationDate="2012-05-25T01:58:03.033" Score="6" ViewCount="253" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing some research looking at applying Bayesian models to faking personality tests in selection and recruitment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested to know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What existing work has applied Bayesian models to faking in selection and recruitment? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What studies have been done? What have they found? and what did a Bayesian perspective add to the analysis?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in any application including&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;different selection instruments: i.e., not just personality tests (e.g., intelligence tests, interviews, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;different approaches: modelling the decision to fake, modelling datasets that have examined faking, implementing faking detection algorithms, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-02-17T11:21:42.123" Title="Bayesian models of faking in selection and recruitment settings" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;&lt;deception&gt;&lt;selection-recruitment&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="934" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="936" CreationDate="2012-05-25T04:49:13.290" Score="17" ViewCount="764" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a computer programmer, I have an intuition that the idea &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity&quot;&gt;language influences thought&lt;/a&gt;&quot; is very relevant to programmers and programming languages. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any research that examines whether artificial languages influence thought?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can such a theory be expressed as a testable hypothesis?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="759" LastEditorUserId="759" LastEditDate="2012-05-27T22:15:46.657" LastActivityDate="2012-05-27T22:15:46.657" Title="Does the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis apply to artificial (specifically programming) languages?" Tags="&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="935" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="967" CreationDate="2012-05-25T07:47:24.027" Score="4" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;Allow me to outline the observed process and three hypothetical examples below. For the sake of keeping the samples simple, I will ignore prior moral or religious convictions that a regular person would hold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person is confronted with an issue or approach to be judged. The person places themselves in the hypothetical situation and evaluates the implications for themselves according to their beliefs and convictions. The outcome of the evaluation determine the person's stance on the issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the term for this decision mechanism?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I figured &amp;quot;empathy&amp;quot; at first but that would require emotional transference with a real or hypothetical individual which is not given in this case. &amp;quot;Reverse Projection&amp;quot; came to mind as well, but it is a very loose fit and projection usually implies the unawareness of the person projecting while the process above is not influenced by the person's awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Examples of mechanism in use:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Issue&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;: Is killing good or bad?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Person&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone were to kill me, it would end my life which is bad. --&amp;gt; Killing is bad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Issue&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;: Should a government provide free healthcare financed by taxation to everyone without restriction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Person A&lt;/em&gt; (history of health issues, low income job, insecure):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I become sick again, I may not be able to afford the treatment myself. The added taxation will not concern my income bracket. The added security net thus increases chances of my survival at no or little expense to me. --&amp;gt; Yes, a government should provide free healthcare financed by taxation to everyone without restriction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Person B&lt;/em&gt; (health freak, high income job, arrogant):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I take care of my health which is why I am not sick. The added taxation would take away from the money I make while providing no additional benefit to me. --&amp;gt; No, a government should not provide free healthcare financed by taxation to everyone without restriction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="765" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-05-29T19:54:08.167" Title="What is the term for judging based on a simulation of the same parameters on oneself" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="936" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="934" CreationDate="2012-05-25T08:17:25.043" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly realize that Sapir-Whorf was proven wrong in the strong sense, but is accepted in the weak sense.  I don't think there's really any doubt now that learning new symbols and languages, or just enhancing your vocabulary in one language, influences thought.  Many mathematicians are especially proud of how accurately proofs communicate, and having gained this accuracy, the mind comes to expect it more and loathe ambiguities.  You see this happen with a lot of people in quantitative disciplines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There doesn't seem to be a lot of research, but you're not the first to think of it.  Many programmers before have too (see wiki's references):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity#Linguistic_relativity_and_artificial_languages&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity#Linguistic_relativity_and_artificial_languages&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, none of them were neuroscientists or psychologists.  To test for &lt;strong&gt;causality&lt;/strong&gt; would be difficult to control for (you'd have to provide a mechanism and we're only just about getting there at the neural systems level).  On the other hand, I'm sure you would find a &lt;strong&gt;correlation&lt;/strong&gt; between programmers and certain kinds of behavioral and cognitive traits very easily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the end though, I don't really think there's any doubt among neuroscientists or psychologists; it's just a matter of finding the neural mechanism.  Language has been a pain in that regard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-05-25T08:17:25.043" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="939" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="940" CreationDate="2012-05-25T23:41:23.183" Score="6" ViewCount="244" Body="&lt;p&gt;A specific example of what I mean is: when you go shopping at a supermarket with a loyalty card system, and you do not participate, the receipt say something along the lines of &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If you had a loyalty card you would have earned 20 points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My first impression was that this is some sort of punishment, i.e. because of your behaviour (not having a loyalty card) we're throwing these points that you earned away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is based on definition 1, for punishment, from the Penguin dictionary of psychology (2nd ed.):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The administration of some aversive stimulus contingent upon a particular behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then I wondered if it was just negative reinforcement, because the message would go away if I signed up for the card.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is based on definition 2, for negative reinforcement, from the same book:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Any event, stimulus or behaviour which, when its removal is made contingent upon a response, will increase the frequency or likelihood of that response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do either of these fit the bill? Compare that message with telling someone &quot;You could had have this cake, if only you had been a few minutes earlier. Now I will throw the cake in the bin.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to categorise this type of behaviour in behaviourism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="105" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-27T20:26:07.803" LastActivityDate="2012-05-27T20:26:07.803" Title="What type of behaviour is showing, but withholding, a reward?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="940" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="939" CreationDate="2012-05-26T00:59:30.970" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem is that this doesn't fall under any of these conditioning definitions in behaviourism because the store isn't really trying to condition a response.  They're just trying to get you to do one thing once.  The behavioural techniques you mention are designed so that you get an organism to make a conditioned response spontaneously whenever the conditioned stimulus occurs (or is anticipated to occur or a second order associate occurs.. ok, it's more complicated than that).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also not really considered conditioning when it's done through insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That doesn't mean there's no science behind this.  There's lots and it falls more under behavioural economics than psychology, unfortunately.  (Consumer psychology hasn't really moved to be as complementary to behavioural economics as it probably should be.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, these kinds of &quot;nags&quot; would be closest to negative reinforcement.  They're encouraging a behaviour that removes an aversive stimulus... being reminded of a gain you did not receive.  Punishment is typically more to extinguish a behaviour.  They certainly don't want you to stop shopping.  Sometimes it's hard to see what it is until you figure out the goal behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(As an aside, what they want more than anything is your personal information.  That's what they're trying to get.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2012-05-26T00:59:30.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="941" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="837" CreationDate="2012-05-26T02:36:02.657" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;For an introduction to neurotransmitters (and the field of neuroscience) a good book to start with is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Neural_Science&quot;&gt;Principles of Neural Science (Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessel, 2000)&lt;/a&gt;. It is a standard reference used by many undergraduate and graduate courses in neuroscience/related fields. The next edition is due for publication in October. During development neurotransmitters act different than in adults, so you may also be interested on a review in this topic &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001448860400130X&quot;&gt;(Herlenius &amp;amp; Lagercrantz, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;; Although the time frame is earlier than what you are looking at.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general I think you should start off by looking for possible neural mechanisms and any associated brain regions underlying the specific phenomenon you are interested in (in your example, empathy, or other subcomponents of social-emotional competence measured by the Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/q4455231051rn374/&quot;&gt;(Carter et al., 2003)&lt;/a&gt;). I.e. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763406000522&quot;&gt;Singer (2006)&lt;/a&gt; reviews the neural basis of empathy (as well as Theory of Mind); one section talks about implications for development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After knowing what brain regions to focus on, you can look into anatomical/physiological research for better understanding of cellular type/structure, connectivity, synaptic characteristics, and neurotransmitters specific to these regions as well as genes that may affect normal function of a transmitter (i.e genes that control protein channels, enzymes/transmitter metabolism etc.). Here are two newer reviews, which link empathy to neuronal circuits and genes (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aur.80/full&quot;&gt;Chakrabarti et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/4/1/9.short&quot;&gt;Walter, 2012&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastActivityDate="2012-05-26T02:36:02.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="942" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="931" CreationDate="2012-05-26T07:04:10.923" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Particulalry short wavelengths (such a UV light) have been shown to suppress melatonin[1], a hormone that regulates sleep.  The authors also show that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;All subjects had an elevated cortisol level in the 90 minutes prior to&#xA;  onset of light exposure compared with the corresponding clock time on&#xA;  the previous day&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So there's a kind daily memory in the diurnal system.  In the case of cortisol, 555 nm (green light) affected hormone levels just as much as UV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you take people out of the sun cycles, they still maintain very close to the same cycle for some time.  Michel Siffre is known for his six-month cave stay (he even kept his rectal temperature).  Wiki says after a month, his cycles started to vary from 18-52 hr  &quot;days&quot;, but I've never seen that data so I can't comment.  Lack of sunlight can cause mental instability, so you'd really need more controlled experiments than Siffre provided (I'm sure they're around if one digs, Siffre's work is decades old now). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biological clocks are dominantly regulated by genetic and proteomic processes, but will take cues from the sun.  However, many people can suffer a mental disorders (Seasonal Affective Disorder) from not having enough sun.  In Alaska, you can buy a light to treat it during the dark winters.  So the sun doesn't need to be there for the rhythm to be there, but the light can mess with the rhythm if it is there..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other than light intensity and frequency content, sights and sounds probably don't matter much (unless of course, they're loud and wake you up, ruining your sleep schedule).  What's probably most important is to have a consistent schedule and not let it get interrupted.  Jet lag, interrupted sleep, drugs, alcohol, inconsistent sleeping schedules can all make waking uncomfortable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It does vary between people.  They can have a different genetic regime, but they can also have a different developmental behavior regime and/or a different environmental reigme.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Steven W. Lockley, PhD1,2; Erin E. Evans, BS, RPSGT1; Frank A.J.L. Scheer, PhD1,2; George C. Brainard, PhD3; Charles A. Czeisler, PhD, MD1,2; Daniel Aeschbach,&#xA;PhD. &lt;strong&gt;Short-Wavelength Sensitivity for the Direct Effects of Light on Alertness, Vigilance, and the Waking Electroencephalogram in Humans&lt;/strong&gt;. SLEEP, Vol. 29, No. 2, 2006&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2015-09-13T06:10:50.983" LastActivityDate="2015-09-13T06:10:50.983" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="943" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="894" CreationDate="2012-05-26T19:04:17.043" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dissociative Disorders are really fascinating to me as well. Fugue states/episodes as well as dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality disorder) in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PTSD must be differentiated from disorders that can exhibit phenomenological similarities, such as borderline personality disorder and dissociative disorders (including dissociative amnesia). I include borderline personality disorder because it is [particularly] difficult to distinguish from PTSD, and the two can coexist or even be causally related!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A stressor or traumatic event is the causative factor in the development of PTSD, by definition. As people respond to events as being traumatic differently, the stressor alone is not sufficient enough to cause the disorder. In this case, the presence of intense fear or horror is necessary. The clinical features of PTSD include avoidance and emotional numbing, among other things, and patients may present dissociative states, which is the focus of this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Patients with dissociative disorders do not usually have the degree&#xA;  of avoidance behavior, autonomic hyperarousal, or history of trauma&#xA;  that patients with PTSD report.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An essential feature of dissociative amnesia is &quot;an inability to recall important personal information, &lt;em&gt;usually of a traumatic or stressful nature&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. As in this (as well as borderline personality disorder and PTSD) disorder, many patients have histories of prior abuse or trauma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Symptoms found only in dissociative amnesia include features of recurrent blackouts, fugue states/episodes, fluctuations in skills, habits, and knowledge. Patients presenting PTSD and/or with borderline personality disorder usually don't present these symptoms. The common factor/symptom is the possible presence of dissociative episodes/states, though they may be precipitated by differing presentation of stressors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patients with borderline personality disorder can present transient or short-lived dissociative (or even psychotic) episodes that are almost &quot;circumscribed, fleeting, or doubtful&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry, now I worry I may not have properly answered your question(s). Liken to how different stressors or traumatic events can be experienced in varying degrees in different people, different people can cope or respond differently to them as well. PTSD (like hypervigilance), borderline personality disorder (intense black-and-white thinking, emotional lability), and dissociative disorders (amnesia, blackouts, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevision/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid=165&quot;&gt;DSM-V Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevision/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid=55&quot;&gt;DSM-V Dissociative Amnesia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://solution.lww.com/synopsisofpsychiatry&quot;&gt;Kaplan and Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="48" LastEditorUserId="48" LastEditDate="2012-05-26T21:37:36.197" LastActivityDate="2012-05-26T21:37:36.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="944" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-27T05:43:31.463" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions relating to the enactment of tasks within society and how this reflects on our internal characteristics.  Tests and other assessments can act as measures of performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_performance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Job Performance&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Industrial/Organizational Psychology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-19T14:17:49.063" LastActivityDate="2012-06-19T14:17:49.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="945" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-27T05:43:31.463" Score="0" Body="Questions relating to the enactment of tasks within society and how this reflects on our internal characteristics.  Tests and other assessments can act as measures of performance." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-05-27T09:52:41.083" LastActivityDate="2012-05-27T09:52:41.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="946" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-27T05:47:19.397" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions relating to mechanisms that modulates behavior, either as an initiator, limiting influence, or sustainer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-14T10:24:35.437" LastActivityDate="2012-10-14T10:24:35.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="947" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-27T05:47:19.397" Score="0" Body="For questions relating to mechanisms that modulates behavior, either as an initiator, limiting influence, or sustainer." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-14T10:24:45.030" LastActivityDate="2012-10-14T10:24:45.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="948" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-27T05:50:51.813" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the concepts (e.g., happy, sad, angry) that we use to describe the changes in cognition, behavior, and experience that occur in response to physiological and environmental stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=emotion+definition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Emotion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a natural instinctive state of mind deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &quot;she was attempting to control her emotions&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;em&gt;synonyms&lt;/em&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20feeling&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCUQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;feeling&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20sentiment&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCYQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sentiment&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20reaction&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCgQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reaction&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20response&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCkQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;response&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\quad\quad\quad\quad$&quot;she was good at hiding her emotions&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\quad\quad\quad\ $ &lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20passion&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCoQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;passion&lt;/a&gt;, strength of feeling, warmth of feeling&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\quad\quad\quad\quad$&quot;overcome by emotion, she turned away&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; instinctive or intuitive feeling as distinguished from reasoning or knowledge.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\ \ $&quot;responses have to be based on historical insight, not simply on emotion&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\ \ $synonyms:   &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20instinct&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCsQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;instinct&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20intuition&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCwQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;intuition&lt;/a&gt;, gut feeling; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20sentiment&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CC4Q_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sentiment&lt;/a&gt;, the heart&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\quad\quad\quad\quad$&quot;responses based purely on emotion&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see Wikipedia on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mood&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-03-12T17:10:37.133" LastActivityDate="2015-03-12T17:10:37.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="949" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-27T05:50:51.813" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the concepts (e.g., happy, sad, angry) that we use to describe the changes in cognition, behavior, and experience that occur in response to physiological and environmental stimuli." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-03-12T17:11:03.323" LastActivityDate="2015-03-12T17:11:03.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="950" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-27T05:53:50.920" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the ways that our bodies processes incoming visual, auditory, gustatory(taste), somatosensory, proprioceptive, and pain (among others) information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Visual system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_%28sense%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hearing (audition)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gustatory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatosensory_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Somatosensory system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Proprioception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-21T23:03:40.637" LastActivityDate="2012-06-21T23:03:40.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="951" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-27T05:53:50.920" Score="0" Body="Questions about the ways that our bodies processes incoming visual, auditory, gustatory, somatosensory, proprioceptive, and pain (among others) information " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-05-27T09:52:43.110" LastActivityDate="2012-05-27T09:52:43.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="952" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-05-27T06:30:48.767" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions that have to do with a sense of being awake and aware in the literal sense, but also those having to do with the nature of the mind and the formation of the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Consciousness&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-14T10:24:32.270" LastActivityDate="2012-10-14T10:24:32.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="953" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-05-27T06:30:48.767" Score="0" Body="For questions that have to do with a sense of being awake and aware in the literal sense, but also those having to do with the nature of the mind and the formation of the individual." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-14T10:24:38.290" LastActivityDate="2012-10-14T10:24:38.290" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="959" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-28T13:43:40.863" Score="9" ViewCount="202" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_style#Fleming.27s_VAK.2FVARK_model&quot;&gt;Fleming's model&lt;/a&gt; of learning suggests 3 types of learners :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_learning&quot;&gt;Visual&lt;/a&gt;: Learns by visually taking screenshots of data or by remembering pictures/scenes etc.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_learning&quot;&gt;Auditory&lt;/a&gt;: Learns by hearing; can be by hearing oneself speak&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesthetic_learning&quot;&gt;Kinesthetic/Tactile&lt;/a&gt;: Learns by doing physically, experimenting or trying to convert a passive learning experience into a physically active/involved one.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find myself to be a Tactile learner. I learn by doing, creating experiments. I struggle with imagery and audio for learning. Is there any way I can train myself to change my preferred learning type?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="771" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-05-28T17:07:00.940" LastActivityDate="2012-05-28T23:58:09.000" Title="Can learning styles be changed?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;neuro-linguistic-prog&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="960" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="659" CreationDate="2012-05-28T19:02:45.367" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you come to this question from the &lt;strong&gt;bayesian tradition&lt;/strong&gt;, then there is only one place where you can sneak in bias: your prior. This dovetails nicely with the wikipedia definition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a pattern of deviation in judgment that occurs in particular situations, leading to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, or what is broadly called irrationality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since bayesian updating is considered to be 'rational', the only place to sneak in 'irrationality' (in quotes because we are using these terms very loosely) is in the prior before you were given any evidence/observations. So for a bayesian, &lt;strong&gt;measuring bias is measuring the prior&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Measuring a prior&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conveniently,  Kalish et al. (2007) have a nice mechanism for measuring people's priors: have &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n$&lt;/span&gt; participants: &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1, ... , n$&lt;/span&gt; and give the first one some real input-output pairs on the relevant task to learn from. To train the &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$i + 1$&lt;/span&gt;th participant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;take the &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$i$&lt;/span&gt;th participant,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;give them some inputs and ask them what they think the output should be,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;use the input-output pairs they generate to train the &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$i+1$&lt;/span&gt;th participant.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, towards the end of the chain, the participants will start to converge towards their prior or inherent bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Example&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A real example is of people's bias in functional relationships. The first person is given 25 &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$(x,y)$&lt;/span&gt; pairs from some function &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$y = f(x)$&lt;/span&gt;. A person at stage &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$i$&lt;/span&gt; is given 25 &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$(x,y)$&lt;/span&gt; pairs from the person at stage &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$i - 1$&lt;/span&gt;. The person is then tested by being given an &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x$&lt;/span&gt; value and asked for a &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$y$&lt;/span&gt;, 25 times. The results of this are passed on to the person at trial &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$i + 1$&lt;/span&gt; as the training data. The results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uf0c5.png&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 3 from Kalish et al. (2007)&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Show that people have a strong bias towards positive linear relationships. One could apply a &lt;a href=&quot;http://cocosci.berkeley.edu/publications.php?topic=Cultural%20Evolution%20and%20Iterated%20Learning&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;similar procedure to other domains&lt;/a&gt;, but of course finding a good way to do so is a particular domain is an important research question for an experimental psychologist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kalish, M., Griffiths, T. &amp;amp; Lewandowsky, S. (2007). Iterated learning: Intergenerational knowledge transmission reveals inductive biases. &lt;em&gt;Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review&lt;/em&gt;, 14, 288-294. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03194066&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3758/BF03194066&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-09-20T11:27:35.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="961" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="977" CreationDate="2012-05-28T20:44:00.980" Score="11" ViewCount="1537" Body="&lt;p&gt;Presumably, there are emotions that almost any person can feel, such as happiness, sadness, guilt, and embarrassment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;But are there emotions that only a small fraction of the population can feel? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How might it be established that an uncommon emotion existed?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="772" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-28T23:12:32.990" LastActivityDate="2012-05-31T00:29:29.840" Title="Are there emotions that only some people can feel?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="962" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="959" CreationDate="2012-05-28T23:44:20.627" Score="9" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Pashler et al&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is worth reading the critical review of learning styles by Pashler et al. To quote some of the summary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our review of the literature disclosed ample evidence that children&#xA;  and &lt;strong&gt;adults will, if asked, express preferences about how they prefer&#xA;  information to be presented to them&lt;/strong&gt;. There is also plentiful evidence&#xA;  arguing that people differ in the degree to which they have some&#xA;  fairly specific aptitudes for different kinds of thinking and for&#xA;  processing different types of information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, they reviewed experimental evidence comparing the learning outcomes of students that either were or were not assigned to educational interventions based on their learning style, and found almost no evidence of differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;which was judged to be a precondition for validating the educational&#xA;  applications of learning styles. Although the literature on learning&#xA;  styles is enormous, very few studies have even used an experimental&#xA;  methodology capable of testing the validity of learning styles applied&#xA;  to education. Moreover, of those that did use an appropriate method,&#xA;  several found results that flatly contradict the popular meshing&#xA;  hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We conclude therefore, that &lt;strong&gt;at present, there is no adequate&#xA;  evidence base to justify incorporating learning-styles assessments&#xA;  into general educational practice&lt;/strong&gt;. Thus, limited education resources&#xA;  would better be devoted to adopting other educational practices that&#xA;  have a strong evidence base, of which there are an increasing number.&#xA;  However, given the lack of methodologically sound studies of learning&#xA;  styles, it would be an error to conclude that all possible versions of&#xA;  learning styles have been tested and found wanting; many have simply&#xA;  not been tested at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., Bjork, R. (2009). Learning Styles&#xA;Concepts and Evidence. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9&lt;/em&gt;, 105. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psi.sagepub.com/content/9/3/105.abstract&quot;&gt;ARTICLE&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-28T23:58:09.000" LastActivityDate="2012-05-28T23:58:09.000" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="963" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="970" CreationDate="2012-05-29T07:56:33.137" Score="3" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently read a blog post talking about a journal article that compared the degree to which journal articles support their hypothesis. A comparison was done across disciplines, and if I recall, psychology had a higher level of acceptance than many other disciplines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does anyone know the reference to this article about variability in supporting hypotheses in journal articles across disciplines?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-30T05:43:30.490" LastActivityDate="2012-05-30T05:43:30.490" Title="What article reported variability in supporting hypotheses across disciplines?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="964" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="974" CreationDate="2012-05-29T12:33:27.523" Score="7" ViewCount="1020" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recall a visual search task where participants would search for a single item with either one or two distinct features. For example one would look for an X in a set of Os as &quot;one feature&quot; or instead they would look for a red X in a set of red Os, blue Os and blue Xes. The results indicated it was significantly harder to locate an item with two distinct features (a red X) while finding a single feature (an X) was almost instantaneous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm sure I could find the studies on my own but I don't know the name of the search task. I recently saw a simplistic version on Facebook (this is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; from a specific published article):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LYfQB.png&quot; alt=&quot;Search Task Example&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This version is the same basic idea of the single feature search. What's the name of this sort of visual search for distinct features?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-05-29T15:34:27.110" LastActivityDate="2012-05-30T16:47:56.337" Title="What's the name of this visual search task?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="965" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="964" CreationDate="2012-05-29T13:21:51.547" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This might not be exactly what you're after, but Ackerman, Beier, and Boyle (2002) wrote a paper where they factor analysed various perceptual speed tests along with other tests.&#xA;In particlar, the test you are interested in seems to be a member of the sublass of perceptual speed tests that Ackerman et al labelled &quot;Perceptual Speed: Pattern Recognition&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They used the following tests to measure the factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Finding a and t. In this test, participants scan for instances of “a” and “t” in text passages (passages were in Italian).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Mirror Reading. In this test, participants find target words written in mirrored text.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Summing to 10. In this test, participants circle pairs of numbers if they sum to 10.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Finding  and ¥. This test is the same as Finding a and t, except the text was random symbols.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Canceling Symbols. In this test, participants scan a page for a single target figure among other simple target figures.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, these tests were typically designed for paper and pencil administration and for measuring individual differences. I don't think they used the one-symbol for each trial approach. In particular, I remember a colleague using the Finding A's test in the Ekstrom battery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ackerman, P.L. and Beier, M.E. and Boyle, M.D. (2002).&#xA;Individual differences in working memory within a nomological network of cognitive and perceptual speed abilities. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131&lt;/em&gt;, 4, 567. &lt;a href=&quot;http://jtoomim.org/brain-training/Individual%20differences%20in%20working%20memory%20withing%20a%20nomological%20netowork%20of%20cognitive%20and%20perceptual%20speed%20abilities.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ekstrom, R. B., French, J. W., &amp;amp; Harman, H. H. (1976). Manual for  kit &#xA;o f  factor-referenced cognitive tests. Princeton, NJ: Educational  Test- &#xA;ing Service.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-05-29T13:21:51.547" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="966" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="399" CreationDate="2012-05-29T13:26:52.930" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apparently they are in fact &lt;a href=&quot;http://phys.org/news/2011-05-eyes-colorblind.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;glasses that simulate Dichromatic colorblindness&lt;/a&gt; developed by Shigeki Nakauchi of Toyohashi University of Technology. I couldn't find published research on how they work or how accurate they are to naturally color blind people, but they appear to be sold at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.variantor.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.variantor.com&lt;/a&gt; and are used to aid &quot;Universal Color Design&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They only have Dichromatic glasses as that's the most common form of colorblindness. As apparent from the articles mentioning them, they're used more for accessible design than research and have clearly been designed from a &quot;practical&quot; standpoint, only covering the most common form of colorlbindness almost certainly for financial/marketing reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find any incidence of these being used in scientific research however. They sound like they have potential but the Marketing:Science ratio is very high so I remain critical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-05-29T15:10:30.743" LastActivityDate="2012-05-29T15:10:30.743" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="935" CreationDate="2012-05-29T19:54:08.167" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;naïve realism&lt;/a&gt;, the subject acknowledges others' points of view while affirming the superiority of his/her own. Ross and Ward (1996) review the literature. I tried to write a summary of their fine paper, but I couldn't do it justice. I provide a link to it below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfishness&quot;&gt;selfishness&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlightened_self-interest#Unenlightened_self-interest&quot;&gt;unenlightened self-interest&lt;/a&gt;, the subject may consider multiple points of view, but ultimately chooses by myopically predicting maximal net personal gain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In philosophy, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_relativism&quot;&gt;moral relativism&lt;/a&gt; is concerned with (inter-personal or inter-group) differences in moral judgements, and whether and how they can be reconciled. My point here is that your subjects' moral relativistic beliefs may impact their decision mechanisms and thus may be worth surveying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Ross, L., &amp;amp; Ward, A. (1996) Naive realism in everyday life: Implications for social conflict and misunderstanding. In T. Brown, E. S. Reed &amp;amp; E. Turiel (Eds.), Values and knowledge (pp. 103–135). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.humiliationstudies.org/documents/RossWardNaiveRealismChapter.pdf&quot;&gt;[pdf]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-05-29T19:54:08.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="968" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="172" CreationDate="2012-05-30T04:56:03.203" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a few factors which confound an effort to find such an upper bound for grid size.  Since these experiments normally require the rat to be attached to the recording apparatus to ensure the quality of the recorded data, the first obstacle would be perfecting the ability to record from the entorhinal cortex while the rat is untethered, through telemetry or bluetooth-enabled systems.  Systems with enough throughput for the task are just becoming available (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21240274&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18509686&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the recording technology may be getting there slowly, in order to establish the periodicity of the grid cells, the rats must be trained to run around their environment using cues.  In [1] the &amp;quot;polarity&amp;quot; of the bounded area was changed by rotating a white card in one corner.  The grid cell activity is thus dependent on &amp;quot;allothetic&amp;quot; cues from the environment.  Giving the rats &lt;em&gt;carte blanche&lt;/em&gt; (forgive my pun) to roam around in a larger, less well defined area to test the scaling limits on grid cells might not provide enough constant visual cues to get a consistent grid map.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's what we are not able know just yet, but what do we know?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the rat it is known that the field spacing varies from 50 cm to 3 m depending on how far dorsal or ventral you are in the medial entorhinal cortex (within layer II).  The average of the distance varied from 39-73 cm across different cells, though the standard deviation remains small (3.2 cm) [1].  Spacing and field size got larger as you moved from the postrhinal border (from dorsal to ventral) [1],[2].  Stabilization of the measurements required at least some exposure to the experimental enclosure before measurements were taken.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a rectangular area, the grid cells form a tiling of equilateral triangles, with the grid points at each mutual vertex.  In [2], the spatial periodicity of the grids was tested by placing the rats on a track, rather than in an enclosure, controlling for one of the dimensions.  This supports the above notion that to strengthen the knowledge about the grid cells, the focus has been on restricting the area of the experiment, rather than opening it up.  From this study, it has been learned that the smallest scales are represented at the dorsal level, with the largest number of cells.  Phase precession, a phenomenon in which spikes for a particular grid cell occurred later in the cycle of the theta wave at the center of the cell, and earlier upon entering the grid, was seen to decrease with the increasing field width.  All of this together adds up to the idea that multiple spatial scales can all be held within this one layer of the entorhinal cortex, and scaled up and down as necessary using the precession to code for the specified representation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of other species, there have been studies in humans [3] (but limited to transit through virtual worlds, for the sake of fMRI recordings), &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18683845&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;mice&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22526690&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;piglets&lt;/a&gt; (though electrophysiology was not done).  None of these studies have progressed beyond the initial stages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, much is known about the spacing characteristics of the grids themselves, but the upper limit of their spacing will have to wait for better experimental technology, and a clever design of a large experimental field that has consistent enough landmarks for the rats to incorporate into their grid representations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Hafting, T., Fyhn, M., et al (2005).  Microstructure of a spatial map in the entorhinal cortex.  Nature, 436:801-806.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Brun, V.H., Solstad, T., et al (2008) Progressive increase in grid scale from dorsal to ventral medial entorhinal cortex.  Hippocampus, 18:1200-1212.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Doeller, C.F., Barry, C., Burgess, N. (2010).  Evidence for grid cells in a human memory network.  Nature, 463:657-661.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-05-30T04:56:03.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="969" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="933" CreationDate="2012-05-30T05:01:39.420" Score="5" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Quantitative papers&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a number of papers that didn't use a Bayesian approach but provide a relevant basis for developing quantitative Bayesian models:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zickar et al (2004) performed a mixed-model using item response theory to examine different classes of respondents to personality tests. While it doesn't appear to be a Bayesian analysis, it is an example of a more sophisticated quantitative model. Essentially it concludes that there is more than one type of &quot;faking&quot; process.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Komar et al (2008) performed a statistical simulation of the faking process that represented various mathematical models of faking. While this study wasn't Bayesian in approach and it didn't involve data collection, the mathematical models discussed are relevant in describing parameters of interest to a Bayesian model of faking (e.g., proportion of participants faking, average magnitude of faking, variability in magnitude of faking, etc.).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Bayesian papers&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a couple of papers that I've found that have used a Bayesian approach to study faking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kuncel et al (2011) in their review article of faking detection techniques discuss a general approach for assessing honest responding originally presented by Prelec (2004) known as &lt;em&gt;Bayesian Truth Serum&lt;/em&gt;. The approach involves asking respondents to indicate their own response to a question and to estimate the proportion of the population that would give the same response. If the respondent's estimate of the population proportion is greater than the average estimate, then the response to that question is expected to be more honest. The argument is that if we acquire our beliefs about the population from our experience, we are more likely to over estimate the degree to which the belief is shared with others because our experience is biased to include ourselves. See also this paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rayweaver.net/hbsfiles/truthtelling_incentives.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ray Weaver&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ortega et al (2011)  applied a Bayesian approach to faking bad in malingering contexts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Komar, S, Brown, D. J., Komar, J. A., &amp;amp; Robie, C. (2008). Faking and the validity of conscientiousness: A monte carlo investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kuncel, N. C,  Bornemann, M.,  and Kiger, T. (2011).  Innovative Item Response Process and Bayesian Faking Detection Methods: More Questions than Answers. &lt;em&gt;New Perspectives on Faking in Personality Assessment&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Edited by Matthias Ziegler, Carolyn MacCann and Richard Roberts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ortega, A., Wagenmakers, E.-J., Lee, M.D., Markowitsch, H.J., &amp;amp; Piefke, M. (in press). A Bayesian latent group analysis for detecting poor effort in the assessment of malingering. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ejwagenmakers.com/2012/OrtegaEtAl2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Prelec, D. (2004). A Bayesian Truth Serum for Subjective Data. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 306, 462-466. &lt;a href=&quot;http://economics.mit.edu/files/1966&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zickar, M., Gibby, R. E., Robie, C. (2004). Uncovering faking samples in applicant, incumben, and experimental data sets: An application of mixed-model item response theory. &lt;em&gt;Organizational Research Methods, 7&lt;/em&gt;, 168-190.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-17T11:21:42.123" LastActivityDate="2013-02-17T11:21:42.123" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="970" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="963" CreationDate="2012-05-30T05:27:09.153" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fanelli D (2010) “Positive” Results Increase Down the Hierarchy of the Sciences. PLoS ONE 5(4): e10068. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010068&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010068&quot;&gt;http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010068&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-05-30T05:27:09.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="971" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="963" CreationDate="2012-05-30T05:42:18.137" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thanks @Xurtio for letting me know the article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For sake of completeness, the following shows the graph of interest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/brhSD.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Name of discipline, abbreviation used throughout the paper, sample&#xA;  size and percentage of “positive” results (i.e. papers that support a&#xA;  tested hypothesis). Classification by discipline was based on the&#xA;  Essential Science Indicators database, the hard/soft, pure/applied and&#xA;  life/non-life categories were based on previous literature (see text&#xA;  for details). Error bars represent 95% logit-derived confidence&#xA;  interval.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-05-30T05:42:18.137" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="972" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="978" CreationDate="2012-05-30T06:17:07.487" Score="2" ViewCount="232" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some studies of faking personality tests in selection and recruitment have used a within-subject design. These studies involve administering a personality test in two conditions. One condition is assumed to measure honest responses (e.g., under honest instructions in the lab or for professional development purposes in an applied setting). A second condition is designed to elicit an authentic job applicant responses (e.g., role play instructions in the lab or a real-world job application in applied settings).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What has such research found regarding the structure of the covariance between scores in developmental and applicant conditions? I.e., what is the size of the correlation and what is the shape of the bivariate distribution (I think that bivariate normal is unlikely)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is known about the distribution of difference scores (i.e., applicant minus developmental)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also be interested in learning how findings vary based on features of the test,  context,  design, and so on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-05-31T08:01:00.240" Title="What do within-subjects studies of job applicant personality test faking say about the covariance between developmental and job applicant scores?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;deception&gt;&lt;selection-recruitment&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="973" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="927" CreationDate="2012-05-30T13:30:22.727" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wouldnt call it a positivity effect. Its rather a &quot;semantic congruity&quot; effect. &lt;strong&gt;Selection&lt;/strong&gt; tasks in which the subject is supposed to select an option with a particular property are quicker than those in which she is supposed to select an option without the property. However,  &lt;strong&gt;rejection&lt;/strong&gt; tasks in in which she is supposed to select an option with the property are slower than those in which she is supposed to select those without the property. Its the compatibility between the task (selection vs rejection) and the characteristics of the objects (contains the property vs does not contain the property) that really determine decision time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Birnbaum and Jou (&quot;A theory of comparative response times and difference judgments&quot;, 1990) have a discussion of this, with appropriate citations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="778" LastActivityDate="2012-05-30T13:30:22.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="964" CreationDate="2012-05-30T15:58:16.057" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Aren't you just looking for a conjunction search task?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Normally it works like this: objects are described in terms of their features (e.g., colour, shape, etc.). If you tell people to search for a target with a given colour AND shape, then this is a conjunction of features, and is termed a conjunction task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that there are complex dynamics in terms of how this works, and the second link below discusses this at length.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's some links on this type of thing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mendeley.com/research/guided-search-an-alternative-to-the-feature-integration-model-for-visual-search/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.mendeley.com/research/guided-search-an-alternative-to-the-feature-integration-model-for-visual-search/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mendeley.com/research/visual-search-stimulus-similarity-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.mendeley.com/research/visual-search-stimulus-similarity-2/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are examples of Feature Search vs Conjunction Search from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_search#Feature_search&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Feature Search:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LcxFK.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conjunction search:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QdMcq.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-05-30T16:47:56.337" LastActivityDate="2012-05-30T16:47:56.337" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="975" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="976" CreationDate="2012-05-30T20:17:40.200" Score="7" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;You all know the situation described in the title. You forgot something and start to search your memory and then after quite a while it jumps right in front of you, out of nowhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What happens in the brain during that moment of awareness? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it different from when we know something right away, since the subconscious mind is working for quite a while to produce the answer? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it possible to measure this moment and was it done already?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2017-01-09T13:42:08.607" LastActivityDate="2017-01-09T13:42:08.607" Title="What was her/his name again.....ahh got it!" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="976" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="975" CreationDate="2012-05-30T22:01:44.920" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;You'll want to look up literature on the &quot;Tip of the Tongue&quot; (TOT) phenomenon.  It's been studied since the 60s I believe and can be experimentally reproduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2012-05-30T22:01:44.920" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="977" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="961" CreationDate="2012-05-30T23:52:04.053" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is strong evidence that there is indeed a interindividual differential distribution of emotional processes or capabilities.&#xA;For instance, Bartels and Pizzarro (2011) could show that some antipersonality traits connected to the lack of compassion and empathy towards others are varying among people. Those who endorsed a more pragmatic and &quot;straight&quot; (utilitarian) view of life scored lower in social (and hence empathic) questionnaire batteries.&#xA;When people are asked about their spiritual attitudes and habits and what emotions they connect to this, they respond very different. For example, mystical experiences - the strong feeling of oneness with the environment - are more likely to score on altruism and empathy (no reference ad hoc present). A more &quot;realisitic&quot;, grounded person would deny having such feelings simply because his or her internal self-construction processes do not attach with the same strength to those emotions. They would have different emotional attachments. &#xA;A very simple, common and intuitive (needs not really a scientific approach) illustration is when you consider &quot;self-confidence&quot; as an internal state. This is obviously a dramatically varying emotional state in humans. Overconfidence evokes internal security about own capabilities and the feeling of &quot;i can master that&quot;, in contrast to a lack of confidence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, people have different default emotional states and they evoke different feelings in themselves due to different interaction with the environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bartels, D. M., &amp;amp; Pizarro, D. A. (2011) The mismeasure of morals: Antisocial personality traits predict utilitarian responses to moral dilemmas. &lt;em&gt;Cogntion&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://leeds-faculty.colorado.edu/mcgrawp/PDF/BartelsPizarro.2011.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="779" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-31T00:29:29.840" LastActivityDate="2012-05-31T00:29:29.840" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="978" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="972" CreationDate="2012-05-31T08:01:00.240" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fit.edu/faculty/profiles/profile.php?value=49&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Richard Griffith&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fit.edu/faculty/profiles/profile.php?tracks=pconvers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Patrick Converse&lt;/a&gt; (2012) provide a good review of    personality faking research that has employed a within-subjects design to examine changes in responses to personality tests between an applicant and a development context. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following represent my review of the papers identified by Griffith and Converse (2012). I take it as fairly well established in the literature that most, but not all, studies find differences in group means between between different applicant and non-applicant conditions. This review focusses on individual differences in whether people fake and the amount of faking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Arthur et al (2010)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Among other things, Arthur et al (2010) reported two studies that looked at differences in responding between participants completing a personality test as job applicant and then around a year later completing the same personality test as an anonymous research participant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;SEM_d&lt;/strong&gt;: The authors used the standard error of test-retest measurement $\text{SEM}_d$ to classify in an operationalised way whether a participant had engaged in response distortion in the high-stakes context &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$\text{SEM}_d \lt 1$ indicated lower score at time 2 (i.e., faking)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$\text{SEM}_d \gt 1$ indicated higher score &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$|\text{SEM}_d| \lt 1$ indicated unchanged score (i.e., honest)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results in study 1 suggested that for most personality scales a little over 30% of scores were classified as lower in the low stakes condition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this value should be interpreted in light of the fact that based on the normal distribution and the chosen cut-offs, one would expect around 16% above this cut-off. There are also issues of regression to the mean, and reduced reliability in the extremes that could be considered in a more sophisticated analysis. Finally, this indicator of faking does not provide information on the distribution of faking scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;SEM_d by job applicant score&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;They also explore the prevalence of score reduction relative to scores in the high stakes condition. They conclude that prevalence of score reduction does not vary with High stakes scores. However, the graphs are a little difficult to interpret (being stacked bar charts). Also, by design the graphs answer the question of what proportion of test takers at a given level are faking, which is interesting , but they don't answer the question of whether true score is related to faking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Correlation between applicant and research context scores&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;Table 5 reports $\text{time}_1 - \text{time}_2$ correlations for both studies for the Big 5. Correlations are between .49 and .78.&#xA;Such correlations make sense in light of the idea that some participants are answering honestly and others are faking. This should produce correlations a little lower than typical test-retest reliabilities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, many factors influence correlations of personality test scores in applicant and research contexts. In particular, reliability of the test and time between tests would be important. Thus, it's a little difficult to say how much of the observed reduction in the correlation is due to faking in the applicant context, and how much is due to other factors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The researchers do provide an $n=44$ sample of participants in Study 1 who completed both conditions in low stakes contexts (i.e., existing employee and research contexts). These correlations are reported in Table 6. The following analysis using R shows the correlations for the two conditions, where theory would suggest that the High Stakes-Low Stakes (i.e., HL) condition should have smaller correlations, although the observed difference is fairly minimal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;x &amp;lt;- data.frame(matrix(c(0.53, 0.55, 0.51, 0.7, 0.66, 0.56, 0.49, &#xA;    0.5, 0.87, 0.75), ncol = 2))&#xA;names(x) &amp;lt;- c(&quot;HL&quot;, &quot;LL&quot;)&#xA;row.names(x) &amp;lt;- c(&quot;Agreeableness&quot;, &quot;Conscientiousness&quot;, &quot;Emotional stability&quot;, &#xA;    &quot;Extraversion&quot;, &quot;Openness&quot;)&#xA;x$diff &amp;lt;- x$HL - x$LL&#xA;round(rbind(x, Mean = sapply(x, mean)), 2)&#xA;##                       HL   LL  diff&#xA;## Agreeableness       0.53 0.56 -0.03&#xA;## Conscientiousness   0.55 0.49  0.06&#xA;## Emotional stability 0.51 0.50  0.01&#xA;## Extraversion        0.70 0.87 -0.17&#xA;## Openness            0.66 0.75 -0.09&#xA;## Mean                0.59 0.63 -0.04&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Griffith et al (2007)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Griffith et al (2007) conducted a study where 60 applicants completed a 30-item measure of conscientiousness first in a job applicant setting. Then one month later, they completed the test under instructions to answer the test honestly and to fake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They found a correlation between honest and applicant of $r =.50$, and a standardised difference between honest and applicant of $d = 61$. &#xA;This shows that scores are increasing in applicant settings, and that there are individual differences in the extent to which this occurs. Although the absence of knowledge of the test-retest correlation in an honest-honest context makes it a little difficult to assess the degree to which this correlation is less than would be expected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also employed several indices to act as difference score thresholds, which classified 31 or 22 percent of applicants as faking depending on the index.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a latter part of the paper there is also some discussion of variation in the size of the difference score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ellingson et al (2007)&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ellinson et al performed a study based on a large database of participants who had completed a personality test under the four combinations of development and selection contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Average Development-development sample correlations were $.66$ were a little bit higher than average development-selection ($r=.62$) and selection-development ($r=.57$) correlations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Average increases from session 1 to 2 suggested somewhat low levels of response distortion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;                           average scale d&#xA;development/development     0.14&#xA;development/selection       0.26&#xA;selection/development       0.04&#xA;selection/development       0.07&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I can tell, there was no specific discussion of the distribution of change scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Others&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Donovan et al (2008) and Peterson et al (2008) sound interesting, but they are conference presentations so the publications are not readily available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Summary&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, in summary, there is some evidence that the correlation is lower between applicant and development conditions than it would between two comparable development conditions.&#xA;Presumably the size of this drop in correlation is related to the amount of faking, and that the amount of faking is related to the amount of individual differences in faking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is certainly a qualitative awareness of there being different categories of  faking.&#xA;Ellingson write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Conservative estimates from this line of research suggest that&#xA;  less than 20% of applicants intentionally distort their responses&#xA;  and that less than 4% of applicants do so to an extreme degree&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I haven't yet read much from these within-subject studies about the distribution of faking scores, nor have I seen formal mathematical models of the change scores, even though the data would permit such analyses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Arthur, W., Jr., Glaze, R. M., Villado, A. J., &amp;amp; Taylor, J. E. (2010). The magnitude and extent of cheating and response distortion effects on unproctored Internet based test of cognitive ability and personality. &lt;em&gt;International Journal for Selection and Assessment, 18&lt;/em&gt;, 1-16. &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.tamu.edu/~w-arthur/2010/2010_Arthur-2_The%20magnitude%20and%20extent%20of%20cheating.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Donovan, J. J., Dwight, S. A., &amp;amp; Schneider D. (2008). Faking in the real world: Evidence from a field study. In R. L. Griffith &amp;amp; M. H. Peterson (Chairs), &lt;em&gt;Examining faking using within-subjects designs and applicant data&lt;/em&gt;. Symposium conducted at the 23rd Annual Conference for the Society for Industrial and Organisational Psyhcology, San Francisco, CA.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ellingson, J. E., Sackett, P. R., &amp;amp; Connelly, B. S. (2007). Personality assessment across selection and development contexts:  Insights into response distortion. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Applied Psychology, 92&lt;/em&gt;, 386-395.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Griffith, R. L. &amp;amp; Converse, P. D. (2012). The rules of evidence and the prevalence of applicant faking in &lt;em&gt;New Perspectives on Faking in Personality Assessment&lt;/em&gt;, Chapter 3, 34-52.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Griffith, R. L., Chmielowski, R., &amp;amp; Yoshita, Y. (2007). Do applicants fake? An examination of the frequency of applicant faking behavior. &lt;em&gt;Personnel Review&lt;/em&gt;, 36, 341-355. &lt;a href=&quot;http://filebox.vt.edu/r/rammu/Research%20Methods%20Articles/Griffith.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peterson, M. P. Griffith, R. L., O'Connel, M. S., &amp;amp; Isaacson, J. A. (2008). Examining faking in real job applicants: A with-subjects investigation of score changes across applicant and research settings. Paper presented at the 23rd annual meeting for the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Francisco, California.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-05-31T08:01:00.240" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="979" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="982" CreationDate="2012-05-31T12:49:52.380" Score="4" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I was at a talk today where the presenter discussed a study that involved a administering a couple of questions asking participants which of two people they would prefer as a relationship partner. To simplify things a little bit, in one example participants were asked whether they would prefer a rich ugly partner or a poor attractive partner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This got me interested in whether anyone had extended this idea to a comprehensive &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choice_modelling&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;choice modelling&lt;/a&gt; study. I.e., get a large number of participants to compare pairs of possible partners with different characteristics and estimate the utility of different characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What if any journal articles have examined relationship partner preference using a choice modelling methodology?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What were the main findings?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-05-31T12:58:37.093" LastActivityDate="2012-05-31T19:57:56.743" Title="Are there any applications of choice modelling to romantic relationships?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="980" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="703" CreationDate="2012-05-31T14:02:45.290" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have been studying behavioral and neural mechanisms of upside-down writing and reading in  a case of a young left-handed women who writes and draws upside-down only. Apart from some interesting spatial processing results (superior in some tasks) we have no explanation so far. We did discover, however, that this phenomenon is much more common than hitherto believed. Sally, please let me know if you would like to hear more about the study. We would, of course, benefit from hearing more about your writing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="780" LastActivityDate="2012-05-31T14:02:45.290" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="981" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-05-31T18:18:10.447" Score="8" ViewCount="413" Body="&lt;p&gt;Roughly speaking, we might imagine that people have depression predominantly for one of two reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Endogenously induced:&lt;/strong&gt; The person has some inherent inballance between different neurotransmittors; some part of the persons's brain that regulates emotions is damaged et cetera.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Exogenously induced:&lt;/strong&gt; The person has no friends; the person has been left by several of his/her partners; the person is unemployed and can't get a job et cetera.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, in many cases it will not be this black and white. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="86" LastEditDate="2012-06-23T20:18:36.437" LastActivityDate="2012-06-24T06:04:02.923" Title="For depression diagnoses, does one make a clear distinction between endogenous and exogenous causes of depression?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="982" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="979" CreationDate="2012-05-31T19:57:56.743" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_dating&quot;&gt;Speed dating&lt;/a&gt; seems to provide an ideal setting for the type of study you seek. There are several relevant papers (see References below and Google search &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.com/#q=human+mate+preferences+speed+dating&quot;&gt;human mate preferences speed dating&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no consensus among researchers, but here's a sampling of some of the supposed &lt;em&gt;findings&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Buston &amp;amp; Emlen claim that people choose mates from their league, i.e., those they think have comparable traits, which lie in four categories: &quot;wealth and status, family commitment, physical appearance, and sexual ﬁdelity&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Todd et al. claim support for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_investment&quot;&gt;parental investment theory&lt;/a&gt; because &quot;men chose women based on their physical attractiveness, whereas women ... chose men whose overall desirability as a mate matched the women's self-perceived physical attractiveness&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Buston, P. M. &amp;amp; Emlen, S. T. (2003) Cognitive processes underlying human mate choice: the relationship between self-perception and mate preference in Western society. PNAS 100: 8805-8810. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/100/15/8805.full.pdf&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Todd, P. M., Penke, L., Fasolo, B., &amp;amp; Lenton, A. P. (2007) Different cognitive processes underlie human mate choices and mate preferences. PNAS 104: 15011-15016. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/104/38/15011.full.pdf&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-05-31T19:57:56.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="983" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="117" CreationDate="2012-06-01T05:02:02.460" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Relevant entries from Wikipedia's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot;&gt;list of cognitive biases&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backfire_effect&quot;&gt;Backfire effect&lt;/a&gt; - when people react to disconfirming evidence by strengthening their beliefs.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot;&gt;Confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt; - the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrational_escalation&quot;&gt;Irrational escalation&lt;/a&gt; [or Escalation of commitment] – the phenomenon where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-06-01T05:02:02.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="984" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-01T08:20:10.940" Score="2" ViewCount="1284" Body="&lt;p&gt;The optical motional illusion shown below, makes your brain see some motion, where there is none.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5eVJH.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion it's fascinating, although after a while you get a headache. It reminds me of binaural beats, where the brain simulates the difference tone, which is obviously not there. The way that these illusions work is obviously quite different than how binaural beats work, as stated in the comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite that, it's said that the beats stimulate your brain, so my questions are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the name of this optical illusion?&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akiyoshi_Kitaoka&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Akiyoshi Kitaoka&lt;/a&gt; studied these kind of optimized Fraser-Wilcox illusions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does it affect the brain in a similar way to binaural beats? I mean the overall effect, not the specific way how Fraser-Wilcox illusions or binaural beats enter your mind.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For those who liked the previous picture, here it is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/sg8oS.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2012-06-13T21:00:57.277" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T00:27:05.427" Title="Is this optical illusion the visual equivalent of binaural beats?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="985" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-01T19:45:55.677" Score="22" ViewCount="1584" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_learning_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Computational learning theory&lt;/a&gt; (CoLT) is a branch of theoretical computer science associated with the mathematical analysis of machine learning. A lot of the early ideas of the field take inspiration from human learning. The field has developed into a very rigorous, mathematical, and precise science, but I have not seen it used much in the cognitive sciences directly. There is some indirect use through CoLT's interaction with statistics and machine learning algorithms (say, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/253/29&quot;&gt;analyzing neural networks through VC-dimension&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there examples of rigorous uses/applications of CoLT to build theories in psychology, neuroscience, and/or cognitive science?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Notes:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only two examples I am familiar with are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lps.uci.edu/%7Ejohnsonk/Publications/Johnson.GoldsTheorem.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gold's theorem&lt;/a&gt; on the unlearnability in the limit of certain sets of languages, among them context-free ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://homepages.cwi.nl/%7Erdewolf/publ/philosophy/phthesis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ronald de Wolf's master's thesis&lt;/a&gt; on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/a/2023/33&quot;&gt;impossibility to PAC-learn context-free languages&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first made quiet a stir in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_of_the_stimulus&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;poverty-of-the-stimulus debate&lt;/a&gt;, and the second has been unnoticed by cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in approaches of this flavor. I am relatively comfortable with CoLT as it is studied in mathematics, and am only interested (for this question) in approaches that have direct bearing on theories of human/animal cognition/learning, and not classic machine learning results. I am &lt;strong&gt;looking for general mathematical and asymptotic approaches&lt;/strong&gt;, not the running of specific types of algorithms (be it neural-nets, bayesian, or otherwise) to simulate human performance as is typical in computational modeling in cogsci (which I am relatively familiar with).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am &lt;strong&gt;not interested&lt;/strong&gt; in arguments that try to trivially undercut the whole approach, even if they have empirical validity. For instance, the whole approach can be derailed by asserting that human brains are finite and thus asymptotic arguments are useless. This is the same as arguing that all of computational complexity theory is pointless because computers (and the whole universe, for that matter) are finite. It is a valid empirical argument, but boring from the point of view of theory building.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Related questions:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/q/1066/33&quot;&gt;General mathematical frameworks of language acquisition since Gold&lt;/a&gt; on ling.SE&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cstheory.stackexchange.com/q/5379/1037&quot;&gt;What is the complexity class most closely associated with what the human mind can accomplish quickly?&lt;/a&gt; on cstheory.SE&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-10-09T14:43:53.603" Title="Applications of computational learning theory in the cognitive sciences" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="986" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="984" CreationDate="2012-06-01T22:20:53.377" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Binaural beats result from a difference between the stimulus presented to each ear. The brain tries to integrate them and the perceived low-frequency beat is an artifact of that processing. There are optical illusions that involve presenting distinct, isolated inputs to each eye, and I'd consider those the closest equivalent to binaural beats. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The apparent motion in the image doesn't rely on binocular vision; you can see that easily by looking at it with one eye closed (in fact, I think that makes it stronger). I'd guess it's probably based on edge detection or lateral inhibition, which don't (I think) have a particularly close analog in sound perception. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="567" LastEditorUserId="567" LastEditDate="2012-06-02T00:00:53.673" LastActivityDate="2012-06-02T00:00:53.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="987" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="988" CreationDate="2012-06-02T03:29:10.107" Score="50" ViewCount="2552" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to understand more about consciousness from a neuroscientific perspective. I have a limited understanding of it in the philosophical/psychological sense through lectures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although it is hard to define, here is a definition from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.klab.caltech.edu/~koch/glossary.html&quot;&gt;Christof Koch's website&lt;/a&gt; I will provide:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;At this point in the scientific exploration of this phenomena, it cannot be defined rigorously. &lt;strong&gt;Consciousness usually (but not always) involves some form of attentional selection and a rapidly decaying form of information storage.&lt;/strong&gt; For strategic reasons, most of the empirical research has focused on the brain states underlying conscious sensory perception, the &lt;em&gt;neuronal correlates of consciousness&lt;/em&gt;, or &lt;em&gt;NCC&lt;/em&gt;. I avoid taking any particular ideological position in the debate concerning the exact relationship between the NCC and conscious experience.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not know what the debate is about but I'm curious about this relationship between NCC and overall conscious experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather than reading through every model of consciousness proposed, I was hoping someone who might be more knowledgeable to &lt;strong&gt;briefly explain or provide references to literature/reviews of models with a strong neuronal emphasis&lt;/strong&gt;. In particular I would &lt;strong&gt;prefer models more so if they are not specific to a single mode of sensory perception&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-17T22:32:21.290" LastActivityDate="2019-10-09T13:35:42.307" Title="What are current neuronal explanations and models of 'consciousness'?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="31" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="988" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="987" CreationDate="2012-06-02T17:41:56.457" Score="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;The major neural models of consciousness at the moment roughly fall into two camps: cognitive and phenomenological. They are defined by controversy surrounding what types of experience qualify as concious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Cognitive models&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the one hand there are strong cognitive models of consciousness, such as the one proposed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanislas_Dehaene&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanislas Dehaene&lt;/a&gt;, where consciousness is characterised - neurally - by large scale, reverberant processing across the whole brain. That is, when feedforward stimulus based activity and top down feedback activity (i.e. internal, cognitive factors) are coordinated across the whole cortex. On this view, a stimulus can be said to be consciously perceived when it gains access to a special population of &lt;em&gt;workspace neurons&lt;/em&gt; that have limited capacity and broadcast information related to the stimulus to other modular subsystems (e.g., memory, language sensory modalities). Limited capacity and broadcasting are properties of workspace neurons that account for both the limited nature of consciousness (e.g., attention), and coherency of consciousness (that is we perceive multi-sensory information coherently as events that are bound together, not as separate bits of visual, auditory and tactile experiences). It is believed that these workspace neurons are apart of the fronto-parietal attention network, and are involved in selecting information in the occipital-temporal systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Phenomenological models&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, so called phenomenological theories, such as the those put forward by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cognitiveneuroscience.nl/index.php?p=501964&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Victor Lamme&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ned_Block&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ned Block&lt;/a&gt;, propose that consciousness also arises from local recurrent activity between two brain regions. The central feature of these theories is that - in addition to the cognitive forms of consciousness - there is also phenomenal consciousness which accounts for raw sensory (non-cognitive) properties of consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The key argument for this type of consciousness is that phenomenal consciousness overflows cognitive consciousness, that is, we are conscious of things that are outside of the focus of attention and that do not become encoded in a more durable form by the central cognitive system (I think Ned Block would still argue phenomenal consciousness requires attention so I am setting up a caricature here). According to this theory, phenomenal consciousness is supported by local recurrent activity between two regions. For example, it is possible to have a phenomenal sense of motion when motion selective cortex (area MT) and primary visual cortex (V1) enter into a feedforward and feedback relationship. &lt;em&gt;Note Block and Lamme hold the same views as Dehaene regarding cognitive consciousness.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Old and other models&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also possible to distinguish these two theories of consciousness from other dated views that argue that particular parts of the brain reflect the goings on of consciousness. For example, one common view is that the processing in the frontal lobes reflects consciousness. These regionally specific theories are quite different from the ones described above where consciousness is characterised by relationships between regions. However, these types of theories are very much out of fashion and for good reason - consciousness is likely to be a complex dynamic property of the system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, once you start to say that the whole system is important some people, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alva_No%C3%AB&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alva Noe&lt;/a&gt;, argue that it is pointless even saying that consciousness resides in the brain!!!! For Noe, consciousness is a dynamic relationship between the organism and the environment. I would not say that Noe's views are widely held in the neuroscientific community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, these are the only models that I have followed in any detail. I know there are other more complex models, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://integratedinformationtheory.org&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Giulio Tononi&lt;/a&gt;'s Information Integration model, but this model requires a good knowledge of information theory (so I never followed it up). If any of this material needs more clarification I am more than happy to expand on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Bibliography&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an intro, try reading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kouider, S. (2009). Neurobiological Theories of Consciousness. In Banks, W. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Consciousness. Elsevier, vol. 2, 87-100. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lscp.net/persons/sidk/publi/preprint_Kouider_EncyclopConsciousness_inpress.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dehaene S, Changeux JP, Naccache L, Sackur J, and Sergent C (2006) Conscious, preconscious, and subliminal processing: A testable taxonomy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10: 204–211. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unicog.org/publications/Dehaene%202006%20Conscious,%20preconscious%20Trends%20in%20Cognitive%20Neuroscience.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lamme VA (2006) Towards a true neural stance on consciousness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10: 494–501. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lgi.ecp.fr/%7Emousseau/mcda-ss/pmwiki-2.1.27/uploads/Main/toto.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-05T01:51:17.250" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="984" CreationDate="2012-06-02T17:54:33.120" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've tried looking at this image in greyscale and I still get the illusion. So it doesn't seem like the illusion relies on chromatic information. The effect is definitely weaker however, so it might be the case that the illusion relies on common properties of the colour and non-colour visual pathways (e.g., parvocellular and magnocellular), however we would need an isoilluminant chromatic version of the stimuli to be sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe the following article will provide the answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cropper, S. J. &amp;amp; Wuerger, S. M. (2005). The detection of motion in chromatic stimuli: A critical review. Behavioural and Cognitive Science Reviews, (Invited for publication).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastActivityDate="2012-06-02T17:54:33.120" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="990" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="40" CreationDate="2012-06-02T18:25:58.710" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'm wondering where the original person's &quot;consciousness&quot; would &quot;transfer&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presupposes a &lt;strong&gt;Cartesian Ego&lt;/strong&gt;; or the idea that consciousness is something separate, ethereal, and indivisible. I recommend reading some &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Dennett&quot;&gt;Daniel Dennett&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Parfit&quot;&gt;Derek Parfit&lt;/a&gt; to cure yourself of this common assumption; a good philosophical starting point is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons&quot;&gt;Parfit's &quot;Reasons and Persons&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Alternatively, if you want a more pop-philosophy/science treatment of the issue, consider Chapters 15 and 21 of Hofstadter's &quot;I am a Strange Loop&quot;. In particular, pay close attention the the teletransporter intuition-pump.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most neuroscientists (Christof Koch included) would find the cartesian ego assumption to be very naive. Thus, this whole discussion would be a pseudo-question for them. There is no indivisible units of &quot;consciousness&quot; to be transferred. To many non-dualists, consciousness is a folk psychology concept, that when pushed to the limit (such as the teletransporter examples, or perfect split-brain patients) becomes ridiculous. Much like conservation-of-mass (or Galilean transformation) is a good principle of folk physics (and classical mechanics), that becomes ridiculous when you move to the relativistic setting where you need to use mass-energy (or Lorentz transformation). There is no reason to believe your everyday intuition about concepts (be they physics or psychology) should hold in very strange settings that you have never come close to experiencing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastActivityDate="2012-06-02T18:25:58.710" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="991" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="927" CreationDate="2012-06-02T18:38:51.080" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As others have already noted this doesn't seem like a positivity effect. However, what you are describing is an &lt;em&gt;asymmetry&lt;/em&gt; in search. This means that it's easy to do things one way (looking for a specific feature) than the other (looking for the absence of a specific feature).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a great introduction and review of the literature relating to this available in a published paper which is also online here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://search.bwh.harvard.edu/pdf/IntrotoSearchAsym.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://search.bwh.harvard.edu/pdf/IntrotoSearchAsym.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note also that the paper I've linked to comes from a special issue of a journal in which there are several other papers which deal with search asymmetries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE: New paper just out, on exactly this topic: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xhp/38/3/580/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xhp/38/3/580/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastEditorUserId="440" LastEditDate="2012-06-06T00:46:42.100" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T00:46:42.100" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="992" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="993" CreationDate="2012-06-02T19:15:07.630" Score="23" ViewCount="2485" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I know, we use the term 'subconscious' to refer to the things that we can bring into our conscious. and, we use the term 'unconscious' for things that we can't know, they come automatically to our mind without having to think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I was reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.meta.stackexchange.com/q/260/631&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; question on meta and it seems that we don't use the term 'subconscious' to refer to the processes that occur outside of our conscious awareness. &lt;strong&gt;How do we put everything together if we disregard that term?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="631" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-16T15:50:00.660" LastActivityDate="2017-06-14T12:54:31.083" Title="Subconscious vs Unconscious" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="993" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="992" CreationDate="2012-06-02T19:49:45.527" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;The confusion originates from Sigmund Freud who initialized the field with his idea of the unconscious mind. Freud was of course Austrian, and used the terms &lt;em&gt;das Unbewusste&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;das Vorbewusste&lt;/em&gt;. These are  most accurately translated to &lt;em&gt;unconscious&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preconscious&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;preconscious&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. The latter is the technical term for what you called 'subconscious'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The word 'subconscious' is usually frowned upon in academic settings (because it is often unclear if it is talking about the unconscious or the preconscious). However, it is very popular in the everyday lexicon and thus creeps into scientific writing as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can introduce further distinctions (such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;subliminal&lt;/a&gt;) and if you want a nice and thorough modern treatment of all three terms in the context of visual processing, then I recommend:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dehaenea, S., Changeux, J.-P., Naccachea, L., Sackura, J., and Sergent, C. (2006) &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661306000799&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conscious, preconscious, and subliminal processing: a testable taxonomy&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10(5): 204-211. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://documents.univ-lille3.fr/files/espaces/pers/81/P5181/public/M2%20PPNSA/Attention%20cours%201/Dehaene-2006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-07T07:46:32.590" LastActivityDate="2015-10-07T07:46:32.590" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="994" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-02T23:10:38.030" Score="13" ViewCount="2517" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most cultures (Falk, 2009) have a special type of language that is used to talk to children: &lt;strong&gt;infant-directed-speech&lt;/strong&gt; (IDL; or informally, motherese, baby talk). For instance, Fernald (1992) argues that motherese is an evolved phenomena that was selected for. This suggests that it has a benefit to child development, hence my questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What benefit does IDL provide children?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do the features of IDL benefit the cognitive development of children?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there benefits beyound effects on language-acquisition?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Notes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The only benefit I am familiar with (shameless self plug) is in &lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/a/550/33&quot;&gt;helping avoid reversal-errors in pronoun acquisition&lt;/a&gt; but Kaznatcheev (2010) is only a theoretical prediction based on a particular computational model of questionable (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/214/29&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/215/29&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;) empirical validity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in the developmental benefit of the very specific language used in IDL, not about the benefit of maternal care in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fernald, A. (1992). &amp;quot;Human maternal vocalizations to infants as biologically relevant signals: An evolutionary perspective.&amp;quot; In J. H. Barkow, L. Cosmides, &amp;amp; J. Tooby (Eds.) &lt;em&gt;The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 391-428).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Falk, D. (2009). Finding our tongues: Mothers, infants and the origins of language. &lt;em&gt;New&#xA;York: Basic Books.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kaznatcheev, A. (2010). &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/9t456l7160427430/?MUD=MP&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Connectionist Study on the Interplay of Nouns and Pronouns in Personal Pronoun Acquisition&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;quot; &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Computation&lt;/em&gt; 2(4): 280-284.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-11-29T01:52:26.150" Title="What is the effect of motherese on development?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="995" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="987" CreationDate="2012-06-03T04:50:11.077" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of Koch's collaborators, Francis Crick (yes, that Francis Crick, much later in his career), put forth an interesting theory with Koch that while perhaps is a bit far fetched, it's worth mentioning for sake of a slightly different perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crick and Koch posited the claustrum (see diagram below) as one of the seats of consciousness in the brain. Koubeissi, Bartolomei, Beltagy and Picard (2014) supported their hypothesis when conducting electrical stimulation mapping on a 54-year-old epilepsy female patient, who became unresponsive under the stimulation in the left claustrum/anterior insula region. However, several limitations in this study need further investigation, such as a high electric current, 14mA and lack of stimulation on right hemisphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you've already read some of Koch's work, you have some idea of their working definitions for consciousness, but in brief&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...almost all neuronal theories of consciousness...need...continuous interactions&#xA;  among groups of widely dispersed pyramidal neurons that express themselves in the ongoing stream of conscious percepts, images and thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/idyei.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikinfo.org/upload/8/84/Gray718.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.wikinfo.org/upload/8/84/Gray718.png&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, before you ask how a small strip of gray matter running along between two prominent white matter tracts could essentially &quot;bind&quot; together stimuli from the entire brain consider the following points (drawn mainly from non-human primate and cat data):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The type I cells of the claustrum receive inputs from nearby areas of the cortex, and also have been found to project back&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There is significant overlap between the representation of sensory and motor cortices, visual cortices and prefrontal areas, along with motor cortices and prefrontal areas within the claustrum&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Interneurons there may possess a more &quot;finely-tuned&quot; timing sensitivity, appropriate for binding together the areas responding to multimodal stimuli &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The cat claustrum, in addition to the connections with sensorimotor areas and the visual cortices, also has a prominent section ventral to the visual projections that integrates auditory information &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crick and Koch assert that these points support the idea that the claustrum might be acting as a (orchestral) conductor for multimodal stimuli.  Using &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gap_junction&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;gap junctions&lt;/a&gt; (direct connections between cell membranes, in this case being used as high-speed electrical synapses), interneurons of the claustrum could be employing the type I cells to &quot;grab&quot; and piece together information from disparate portions of the cortex simultaneously. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, once the information is bound together, it would remain to be seen as to which particular structures would interpret this bound data.  Crick and Koch don't really comment on this, but since there are strong bidirectional connections with the prefrontal areas, perhaps the &quot;conductor&quot; is also sending back cues upon which the attention of the frontal lobe could be gated, but that is simply an educated guess, and I have no further support for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, as far-fetched as it may seem, a brain structure that is small on volume may have a significant enough representation of cortical information, ability to project back and &quot;conduct&quot; cortical areas, along with an interneuronal backbone capable of precise timing, all of which give it some chance at being an important seat of consciousness in the brain.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Crick, F.C., Koch, C. (2005) What is the function of the claustrum? Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 360: 1271–1279 &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2005.1661&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/360/1458/1271.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Koubeissi, M. Z., Bartolomei, F., Beltagy, A., &amp;amp; Picard, F. (2014). Electrical stimulation of a small brain area reversibly disrupts consciousness. Epilepsy &amp;amp; Behavior, 37, 32-35. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2014.05.027&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.epilepsybehavior.com/article/S1525-5050(14)00201-7/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-12-07T17:32:14.903" LastActivityDate="2014-12-07T17:32:14.903" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="996" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="510" CreationDate="2012-06-03T10:57:55.520" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;For sake of covering all my bases, I'll begin with brief, simple definitions (that I'm sure you probably know, but can't say for others). Much of the material is heavily paraphrased or explained in references listed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Positive reinforcement&lt;/strong&gt; is the process by which certain consequences of a response increase the probability that the response will recur. (Let's stick with primary to simplify things a bit.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Negative reinforcement&lt;/strong&gt; is a process by which a response that leads to the removal of an aversive event is increased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NOTE: &lt;strong&gt;Punishment&lt;/strong&gt; is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; an equivalent nor interchangeable term. Punishment is an aversive stimulus that is presented specifically to weaken or suppress an undesired response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been studies on the effectiveness of various permutations of stimuli and forms of reinforcement. &lt;strong&gt;Continuous reinforcement&lt;/strong&gt; is when every response is reinforced; this is powerfully effective in rapidly achieving manipulation of behavior - though these changes are easily reverted if suddenly reinforcement is suddenly lifted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, &lt;strong&gt;partial&lt;/strong&gt;, or &lt;strong&gt;intermittent reinforcement&lt;/strong&gt; has been shown to be a means to continue/keep behavior... resistant to extinction. A classic example is that with casino gambling - one's reward is obtained at various intervals of time. The first and occasional introductory &quot;wins&quot; may provide feelings of exaltation. In addition, since gambling requires a cost in order to continue with the behavior, the well-known &lt;em&gt;gambler's fallacy&lt;/em&gt;, a game-theoretic/ecomomic dilemma concept that may also be at play.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, punishment deals with the intent to reduce the probability a certain response will reoccur. Deals with the intent of causing undesired consequences the subject will attribute to a given behavior. &quot;In learning theory the punishing event delivered is always contingent on performance and demonstrably reduces the frequency of the behavior being punished.&quot; ^&lt;a href=&quot;http://solution.lww.com/synopsisofpsychiatry&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are examples of various 'reinforcement schedules' ('algorithms', statistical patterns, heuristics, dependent on the objective); if positive stimuli or reward and negative/neutral results manifest fixed-ratio; simply put, the subject of conditioning will catch on, whether the ratios are &quot;behavior&quot; or &quot;time-interval&quot; contingent. The subject will catch on to the pattern, consistency, and this influences the strength of the conditioning effort. Conditioning tends to be most successful when the reward if given on occasion, with time-dependent variability between isolated events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most effective strategy generally is to follow with how the use of slot machines manage to get people addicted. &quot;Response rate does not change between (?) reinforcements.&quot; The time-variable (desirability irrelevant) chance for reward, spin-to-spin, has been shown to be the most effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may find &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premack%27s_principle&quot;&gt;Premack's Principle&lt;/a&gt; relevant to your questions. This concept states that a behavior engaged in this high frequency (intensity) can be used, intentionally or not, to enforce low-frequency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a couple other sources I need to skim through to fix up my response make any statements made more affirmatively concluded from well-designed experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://solution.lww.com/synopsisofpsychiatry&quot;&gt;Kaplan and Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.upenn.edu/~premack/About.html&quot;&gt;About David Premack&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fallacyfiles.org/gamblers.html&quot;&gt;The Gambler's Fallacy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="48" LastEditorUserId="48" LastEditDate="2012-06-11T11:44:51.427" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T11:44:51.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="997" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1872" CreationDate="2012-06-03T14:26:18.067" Score="10" ViewCount="1106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on brain imaging (fMRI) and &lt;strong&gt;I'm looking for a way to plot brain effective connectivity (dynamic causal modeling) parameters between different brain regions in a 3D plot&lt;/strong&gt;. The plotting software should have the following input and output:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Input:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The directed connections from each region to another are defined by a connectivity matrix (no-connections have a value of 0). The 3D coordinates of the brain regions are presented in another matrix, practically using the weighted mean MNI coordinates of the regions as their coordinates for visualization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Output:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The connection strength would be signaled by the color of the sticks, and/or numerically. However, a first step could be simple 3D ball-and-stick diagram without connection parameters. Output as 2D vector or bitmap image: .ps, .eps, .tex, .png, .jpg, etc. The output would be used in a LaTeX document but also in other formats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the field of molecular analysis (with which I'm completely unfamiliar with), I noticed a lot of free and open-source software for creating ball-and-stick plots of molecules (some with publication-quality ray-tracing). Before reinventing the wheel (programming some intermediate software to convert MNI or Talairach 3D coordinates of brain regions to 3D spatial coordinates of atoms and writing them in some molecule file format for molecule ball-and-stick visualization software eg. RasMol to use it for brain connectivity visualization), I want to ask:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a good (and preferibly free) software for brain connectivity visualization?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have checked the examples of MayaVi, R and TikZ but neither of them has anything related to plotting ball-and-stick visualizations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="718" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-11-14T00:05:15.560" Title="Plotting publication-quality ball-and-stick models of brain connectivity in 3D" Tags="&lt;software&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;publication-process&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="998" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-03T16:58:41.953" Score="12" ViewCount="545" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm fitting a psychometric function to a range of data. The majority of this data lends itself to a sigmoidal fit (i.e. participants can do the task), but some individuals are absolutely unable to do the task. I'm planning to compare the slopes obtained from different conditions, but I've hit a wall with the unable-to-do-the-task data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XwEJo.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fitting a function to this data, the slope should be nearly flat, right? However, the data is really noisy and some weird fitting is occurring - I end up getting erroneously high slopes. I'm using pypsignifit, the parameters I'm using can be seen below. Any idea how to stop this happening?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;num_of_block  = 7&#xA;num_of_trials = 20&#xA;&#xA;stimulus_intensities=[3, 7, 13, 20, 27, 32, 39] # stimulus levels&#xA;percent_correct=[.38, .75, .6, .43, .7, .65, .43]     # percent correct sessions 1-3&#xA;num_observations     = [num_of_trials] * num_of_block      # observations per block&#xA;data= np.c_[stimulus_intensities, percent_correct, num_observations]&#xA;nafc = 1&#xA;constraints = ('unconstrained', 'unconstrained', 'unconstrained', 'Beta(2,20)' )&#xA;boot = psi.BootstrapInference ( data, core='ab', sigmoid='gauss', priors=constraints, nafc=nafc )&#xA;boot.sample(2000)&#xA;print 'pse', boot.getThres(0.5)&#xA;print 'slope', boot.getSlope()&#xA;print 'jnd', (boot.getThres(0.75)-boot.getThres(0.25))&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="786" LastEditorUserId="25157" LastEditDate="2020-08-13T21:37:29.323" LastActivityDate="2020-08-13T21:37:29.323" Title="Fitting a psychometric function when data does not lend itself to a sigmoidal fit" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="999" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1008" CreationDate="2012-06-04T19:30:01.787" Score="6" ViewCount="391" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes when I meet new people, I feel like I have seen them before. Their faces might look similar to people's faces, I have really have met before. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The wiki article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_and_social_interactions#Difficulties_with_Facial_Recognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Difficulties with Facial Recognition&lt;/a&gt; states that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Prosopagnosia is an inability to identify faces and face-like objects. This represents a failure to encode incoming visual information. Neurological studies indicate that prosopagnosia is associated with bilateral lesions of the central visual system, primarily located in the mesial occipitotemporal region. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have problems with identifying faces, I just group them too often. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do novel faces sometimes look familiar?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this related to a kind of face-blindness?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the neural basis for this phenomena?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Related questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/612/29&quot;&gt;Does the fusiform face area in patients with Prosopagnosia (face blindness) show lower activity under an fMRI?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-06-05T19:19:10.693" Title="Face-Blindness: Have I seen you before?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1000" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-04T20:54:08.190" Score="13" ViewCount="775" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am very interested in the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamification&quot;&gt;Gamification&lt;/a&gt;, the idea (used here on Stack Exchange) that by making mundane tasks into a game, you can elicit desired behavior from users of software. (For example, by giving people arbitrary reputation points, you encourage them to help the best answers rise to the top...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia says that some of the techniques used for gamification include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;achievement &quot;badges&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;achievement levels&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&quot;leader boards&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;a progress bar or other visual meter to indicate how close people are to completing a task a company is trying to encourage, such as completing a social networking profile or earning a frequent shopper loyalty award.[7]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;virtual currency&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;systems for awarding, redeeming, trading, gifting, and otherwise exchanging points&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;challenges between users&#xA;  embedding small casual games within other activities.[2]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to see what studies actually say about gamification. If I wanted to start a new website which used gamificiation to entice users to participate, which techniques are the most efficient? Do some techniques work better than others? Do you need multiple rewards (E.G. reputation and badges)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do studies show are the minimum requirements for successful gamification?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-06-04T22:11:55.420" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T12:38:54.723" Title="What are the minimal requirements for successful gamification?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1001" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-04T21:44:26.407" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions related to the diagnosis and treatment of disorders involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems. For abnormalities of the mind consider the tags &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/abnormal-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'abnormal-psychology'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;abnormal-psychology&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/psychiatry&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'psychiatry'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-04T21:45:34.633" LastActivityDate="2012-06-04T21:45:34.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1002" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-04T21:44:26.407" Score="0" Body="For questions related to the diagnosis and treatment of disorders involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems. For abnormalities of the mind consider the tags abnormal-psychology and psychiatry." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-04T21:45:38.393" LastActivityDate="2012-06-04T21:45:38.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1004" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-05T14:25:10.313" Score="7" ViewCount="251" Body="&lt;p&gt;Take the case of an autistic savant with exceptional memory skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this person less prone to cognitive biases involving memory skills such as availability heuristic bias than a normal person due to his exceptional memory skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does more memory skills reduce the chances of cognitive biases relating to memory or its the ability to recall them effectively that reduce the chances or is it a combination of both?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, does lack of information be perceived as a cognitive bias?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="204" LastEditorUserId="204" LastEditDate="2012-06-06T06:21:36.180" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T12:00:32.457" Title="Savant syndrome and Cognitive bias" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1006" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-05T16:39:51.503" Score="-3" ViewCount="211" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am stuck trying to learn how to use video processing as explained in the linked papers in the area of human behavior detection or traffic surveillance (any kind of monitoring activity). In particular, I do not know how to formulate the problem using any available models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found two papers (Haag &amp;amp; Nagel (2000; Paper 1) and Arens, Gerber, &amp;amp; Nagel (2008; Paper 2)) which illustrate, with an example, using natural language for traffic monitoring by using image sequences of videos. My question are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Under what assumptions are the actions generated?What is the advantage of nlp here or in any application apart from the fact that it gives a hierarchical representation of information/knowledge?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How are the actions and graphs (labelled as Situation Graph Trees by the author) generated (under what assumptions) in Fig2 of Paper 1 and Fig1 of Paper 2?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has the Table5 in paper1: Incremental recognition of traffic situations from video image sequences and subsequent tables been generated using some programming tools?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Haag, M., &amp;amp; Nagel, H.-H. (2000) &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://publica.fraunhofer.de/documents/N-7542.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Incremental recognition of traffic situations from video image sequences&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;. &lt;em&gt;Image and Vision Computing&lt;/em&gt; 18(2): 137-153.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Arens, M., Gerber, R., &amp;amp; Nagel H.-H. (2008) &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.arens-online.info/publications/MA_RG_HHN_IVC2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conceptual representations between video signals and natural language descriptions&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;. Image and Vision Computing 26: 53–66.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="515" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-10-19T17:35:28.057" Title="Using natural language processing for traffic monitoring from video" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;agent-based-modeling&gt;&lt;nlp&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1007" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1004" CreationDate="2012-06-05T16:44:11.373" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, no. People with excellent memories can just as easily misapply the availability heuristic as people with poor memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To see why, consider a situation where a reasoner is asked to estimate the relative frequency of murder and suicide. Because examples of murder or more &quot;available&quot; (i.e., more easily recalled) than examples of suicide, the reasoner may conclude that murder is more common than suicide. This conclusion would be mistaken: murder is actually less common than suicide, and murders are only more &quot;available&quot; because they are more likely to be reported in the media than suicides. Note that the problem with this inference is NOT inaccurate memory, but a failure to recognize that memories do not reflect the actual frequencies of murder and suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, someone who has specifically memorized statistics about causes of death -- something that an autistic is perhaps more likely to do -- may be able to draw on that knowledge to answer the question correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For more information on the &quot;suicide paradox,&quot; see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.freakonomics.com/2011/08/31/new-freakonomics-radio-podcast-the-suicide-paradox/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.freakonomics.com/2011/08/31/new-freakonomics-radio-podcast-the-suicide-paradox/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="586" LastEditorUserId="586" LastEditDate="2012-06-06T12:00:32.457" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T12:00:32.457" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="999" CreationDate="2012-06-05T19:12:19.740" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Feeling as though you have seen a face before is perfectly normal. It may reflect actual similarities between the new face and the face you have seen before. There are people who genuinely look like each other, an example being celebrity look-a-likes. &lt;strong&gt;It may also reflect a commonly observed cultural/ethnic effect where people of a different ethnicity look more similar&lt;/strong&gt; (Meissner &amp;amp; Bringham, 2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of what happens in the brain, besides processing by the basic visual system (LGN, V1), the ventral visual pathway and areas associated with object and face recognition are involved with identifying the face. Particularly, these three core regions show space-specific responses: &lt;strong&gt;fusiform gyrus, lateral inferior occipital gyri , and posterior superior temporal sulcus&lt;/strong&gt; (Haxby et al., 2000; 2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DOn4i.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Figure from Haxby et. al., 2000&quot;&gt;&#xA;  A model of the distributed human neural system for face perception (Image from Haxby et al., 2000.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is ongoing debate that the fusiform area plays a broader role in that of &lt;strong&gt;visual expertise&lt;/strong&gt;, rather than just face perception (Gaulthier et al., 2000; Xu, 2005). Although less is known about temporal aspects of face processing, this is starting to be the focus of newer studies such as Zheng et al., 2012. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't found any known explanation but if you feel that the way you perceive similarity in faces is not normal, then you may be interested in reading about &lt;strong&gt;false facial recognition&lt;/strong&gt; problems following brain damage (*Rapcsak et al., 1996) or (slightly different) &lt;strong&gt;misidentification syndromes&lt;/strong&gt; (Hudson &amp;amp; Grace, 1999; Breen et al., 2000). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Unfortunately I could not access this article to summarize it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Breen, N., Caine, D., Coltheart, M. (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/026432900380481&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Models of face recognition and delusional misidentification: A critical review&lt;/a&gt;. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 17(1/2/3):55-71.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Gauthier, I., Skudlarski, P.,  Gore, J. C.,  Anderson, A. W. (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n2/full/nn0200_191.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Expertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition&lt;/a&gt;. Nature Neuroscience 3:191-197. &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Haxby, J. V., Hoffman, E. A., Gobinni M. I. (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661300014820&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The distributed neural system for face perception&lt;/a&gt;. Trends in Cognitive Science, 4(6):223-233.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Haxby, J. V., Hoffman, E. A., Gobinni M. I. (2001). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322301013300&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human neural systems for face recognition and social communication&lt;/a&gt;. Biological Psychology, 51(1):59-67.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Hudson, A. J., Grace, G. M. (1999). &lt;a href=&quot;http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/69/5/645.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Misidentification syndromes related to face specific area in the fusiform gyrus&lt;/a&gt;. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 69(5):645-648.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Meissner, C. A.; Brigham, J. C. (2001). &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/law/7/1/3/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review&lt;/a&gt;. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7(1):3-35.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Rapcsak S. Z., Polster M. R., Glisky M. L., Comer J. F. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ukpmc.ac.uk/abstract/MED/8954241/reload=0;jsessionid=XyGtzXwRPxuc7cGdgWiT.0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;False recognition of unfamiliar faces following right hemisphere damage: neuropsychological and anatomical observations&lt;/a&gt;. Cortex; a Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior. 32(4):593-611.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Xu, Yaoda. (2005). &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/15/8/1234.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Revisiting the role of the fusiform face area in visual expertise&lt;/a&gt;. Cereb Cortex. 15(8):1234-1242.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Zheng, X., . Mondloch, C. J.,  Segalowitz, S. J. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393212001005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The timing of individual face recognition in the brain&lt;/a&gt;. Neuropsychologia, 50(7):1451-1461.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastActivityDate="2012-06-05T19:12:19.740" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1009" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1031" CreationDate="2012-06-05T20:53:55.030" Score="3" ViewCount="244" Body="&lt;p&gt;Take for example, a person reading a good book series that they enjoy. While they are reading it, they typically look forward to finishing each volume, as well as the whole series. However, when they actually finish the series, they may feel disappointed that there are no more books in the series that they can read. I have observed the same pattern with movie and game series as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this feeling of disappointment that comes at the completion of &#xA;a long task? What might a psychologist tell a patient to do if suffering from such symtoms? Can they look at the situation from a different perspective, for example, that would allow them to feel differently about their completion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="797" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-05T21:58:21.033" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T15:58:33.560" Title="The feeling a person gets when they finish a series" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1010" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-06T08:48:20.827" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the processes through which humans, animals, or artificial systems reason through a challenge and the means by which they select a solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Problem solving&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T00:12:17.417" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T00:12:17.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1011" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-06T08:48:20.827" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the processes through which humans, animals, or artificial systems reason through a challenge and the means by which they select a solution." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T00:12:20.927" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T00:12:20.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1012" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-06T08:52:10.680" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the disorder of neurodevelopment noted by social impairment and communications difficulties, which often are accompanied by restrictive and repetitive behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Autism&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Autism spectrum&lt;/a&gt;, or in more general terms, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pervasive development disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T00:12:14.173" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T00:12:14.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1013" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-06T08:52:10.680" Score="0" Body="For questions about the disorder of neurodevelopment noted by social impairment and communications difficulties, which often are accompanied by restrictive and repetitive behaviors." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-06T11:51:36.137" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T11:51:36.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1014" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-06T08:55:18.600" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the scientific basis of the  imagery and sensations that are experienced primarily during rapid eye movement sleep and occasionally during other stages as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreams&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dreams&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REM_sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;REM sleep&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stages_of_sleep#Stages_of_sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stages of sleep&lt;/a&gt;(particularly stage 2, NREM).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some perspectives, see the more scientific &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activation-synthesis_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Activation-synthesis hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; and the archaic &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Interpretation_of_Dreams&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Interpretation of Dreams&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T00:12:16.683" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T00:12:16.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1015" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-06T08:55:18.600" Score="0" Body="Questions about the scientific basis of the  imagery and sensations that are experienced primarily during rapid eye movement sleep and occasionally during other stages as well." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-06T11:51:38.490" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T11:51:38.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1016" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1021" CreationDate="2012-06-06T12:32:43.260" Score="8" ViewCount="229" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is evidence that people who retire early tend to die earlier than people who do not. One interpretation of this finding is that having a sense of purpose improves psychological health and that psychological health is linked to physical health. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the evidence for the validity or invalidity of this interpretation? (I am equally interested in the validity of this interpretation with respect to early retirement and with respect to other measures/correlates of purpose.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://longevity.about.com/od/healthyagingandlongevity/a/retirement.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://longevity.about.com/od/healthyagingandlongevity/a/retirement.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="586" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-06T23:52:57.443" LastActivityDate="2012-06-07T05:40:02.867" Title="Does having a sense of purpose increase longevity?" Tags="&lt;aging&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1017" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-06T16:35:03.357" Score="11" ViewCount="198" Body="&lt;p&gt;People may have very little hesitation in spending $3 on a coffee once a week, but when it comes to buying things online, such as virtual goods or services, they are often much more reluctant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a block when it comes to buying things online?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, why?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a name for this phenomenon?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is so, how can someone selling something online (e.g. an online service provider or a software company) get around this and make customers less hesitant when shopping online?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="797" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T11:15:40.330" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T07:37:59.980" Title="Bias towards purchasing tangible vs virtual goods" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1020" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="672" CreationDate="2012-06-06T21:57:07.920" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pavel has already given a pretty good answer, and I agree that not even Miller was very serious about 7 +/- 2 being a useful or accurate conclusion.&#xA;As for the limit of three or four items that was suggested in the question, I'm not entirely certain about that myself, as it still isn't entirely clear what constitutes an &quot;item&quot;, nor is it clear how information on items is stored in working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd recommend looking at the current debate between the &quot;Discrete-Slots&quot; and &quot;Distributed Resources&quot; models of Working Memory (which is far from being resolved) to get a better understanding of the issue. Some good examples include work by:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Luck and Vogel &quot;The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions&quot; (1997, Nature)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bays and Husain &quot;Dynamic Shifts of Limited Working Memory Resources in Human Vision&quot; (2008, Science)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Awh, Barton, and Vogel &quot;Visual working memory represents a fixed number of items regardless of complexity&quot; (2007, Psychological Science)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bays, Catalao, and Husain &quot;The precision of visual working memory is set by allocation of a shared resource&quot; (2009, Journal of Vision)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gorgoraptis, Catalao, Bays, and Husain &quot;Dynamic updating of working memory resources for visual objects&quot; (2011, The Journal of&#xA;Neuroscience)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rouder, Morey, Cowan, Zwilling, Morey, and Pratte &quot;An assessment of fixed-capacity models of visual working memory&quot; (2008, Proceedings&#xA;of the National Academy of Sciences)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wheeler and Treisman &quot;Binding in short-term visual memory&quot; (2002, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wilken and Ma &quot;A detection theory account of change detection&quot; (2004, Journal of Vision)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zhang and Luck &quot;Discrete fixed-resolution representations in visual working memory&quot; (2008, Nature)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, measures of &quot;effective&quot; capacity, such as Cowan's K (Cowan &quot;The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity&quot;, 2001, Behavioral and Brain Sciences) suggest that the capacity of visual working memory is about 4. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="796" LastActivityDate="2012-06-06T21:57:07.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1021" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1016" CreationDate="2012-06-07T05:40:02.867" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did a little search and found an article by Moen (1996) which seems relevant. &#xA;Moen summarised the existing evidence as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Poor physical health is frequently a reason for retiring (Anderson &amp;amp;&#xA;  Burkhauser, 1985; Bound, 1991; Chirikos &amp;amp; Nestel, 1989; Palmore,&#xA;  Burchett, Filenbaum, George, &amp;amp; Wallman, 1985), leading to a view of a&#xA;  unidirectional link between health and retirement (see Figure 1). In&#xA;  support of this one-way model, most of the existing research&#xA;  literature has shown that retirement per se is not directly related to&#xA;  early mortality or health decline. However, there is some evidence&#xA;  that being retired affects psychological symptoms (Bosse, Aldwin,&#xA;  Levenson, Spiro, &amp;amp; Mroczek, 1993; Ekerdt, 1987). Other studies show&#xA;  that retired individuals sometimes report improvements in their&#xA;  (subjectively rated) health status following retirement (Ekerdt,&#xA;  Bosse, &amp;amp; Locastro, 1983). Most early research on retirement suggests&#xA;  that being retired has no deleterious effects on either physical or&#xA;  psychological health; most retirees say they are satisfied with their&#xA;  retirement and some even report better health (Atchley, 1976; Barfield&#xA;  &amp;amp; Morgan, 1968; McGoldrick &amp;amp; Cooper, 1989; Streib &amp;amp; Schneider, 1971).&#xA;  However, research on the effects of the loss of the work role through&#xA;  retirement often ignores the complexity of the retirement transition,&#xA;  including issues of timing, previous health, and quality of the&#xA;  employment experience (McGoldrick &amp;amp; Cooper, 1988). George (1993)&#xA;  pointed out that most research on stress and well-being fails to&#xA;  consider either the social contexts or the timing of potentially&#xA;  stressful life experiences, such as retirement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anderson, K. H., &amp;amp; Burkhauser, R. V. (1985). The&#xA;retirement-health nexus: A new measure of an old puzzle.&#xA;The Journal of Human Resources, 20, 315-330.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Atchley, R. (1976). The sociology of retirement. New York:&#xA;Schenkman.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Barfield, R., &amp;amp; Morgan, J. N. (1968). Early retirement: The&#xA;decision and the experiences. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for&#xA;Social Research.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bound, J. (1991). Self-reported objective measures of health&#xA;in retirement models. The Journal of Human Resources,&#xA;26, 108-137.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bosse,  R., Aldwin, C. M., Levenson, M. R., Spiro, A., &amp;amp;&#xA;Mroczek, D. K. (1993). Change in social support after&#xA;retirement: Longitudinal findings from the normative&#xA;aging study. Journal of Gerontology, 48, 210-217.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chirikos, T. N., &amp;amp; Nestel, G. (1989). Occupation, impaired&#xA;health, and the functional capacity of men to continue&#xA;working. Research on Aging, 11, 174-205.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ekerdt, D. J. (1987). Why the notion persists that retirement&#xA;harms health. Gerontologist, 27, 454-^57.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ekerdt, D. J., Bosse, R., &amp;amp; Locastro, J. S. (1983). Claims that&#xA;retirement improves health. Journal of Gerontology, 38,&#xA;231-236.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;George, L. K. (1993). Sociological perspectives on life&#xA;transitions. Annual Review of Sociology, 19, 353-373.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McGoldrick, A., &amp;amp; Cooper, C. (1988). Early retirement.&#xA;Chichester, England: Gower&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moen, P. (1996). A Life Course Perspective on Retirement, Gender, and Well-Being. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Occupational Health Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 1, 131-144.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Palmore, E. B., Burchett, B. M., Filenbaum, G. G., George,&#xA;L. K., &amp;amp; Wallman, L. M. (1985). Retirement: Causes and&#xA;consequences. New York: Springer.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Streib, G. F, &amp;amp; Schneider, C. J. (1971). Retirement in&#xA;American society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-06-07T05:40:02.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1022" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-07T12:04:32.317" Score="18" ViewCount="6797" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wanting to read more about a certain human behavior, but I am not sure what the proper term for it is, so some of the things I am finding aren't what I am looking for. I'm interested in how Humans will often &quot;follow the leader&quot; and act as sheep, believing what they're told without applying much critical thinking. I thought this was called &lt;em&gt;Herd Mentality&lt;/em&gt;, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_mentality&quot;&gt;Wikipedia describes that as&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Herd mentality implies a fear-based reaction to peer pressure which makes individuals act in order to avoid feeling &quot;left behind&quot; from the group&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is &lt;em&gt;close&lt;/em&gt; to what I am thinking about. However Wikipedia relates Herd Mentality to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_intelligence&quot;&gt;Group intelligence&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowd_wisdom&quot;&gt;Wisdom of the crowd&lt;/a&gt;... which is ironic as those are the exact &lt;em&gt;opposite&lt;/em&gt; of what I am looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of the behavior I am thinking of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sometimes high-rep users on Stack Exchange sites post poor questions or answers. Often these get upvotes even though they're incorrect, because people &quot;follow the leader&quot; and don't think about the actual answer.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Religious leaders often influence their congregations on how to vote, and many members will vote that way &lt;em&gt;even though what they're voting for may not really be what they believe it&lt;/em&gt; because they don't think about what they're voting for so they don't realize it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As an &lt;em&gt;extreme&lt;/em&gt; example: Many good, moral people somehow shut off their ability to think logically and supported Hitler and the Holocaust.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the name for Human's tendency to follow a leader blindly, without thinking? Is this an actual psychological phenomenon and if so, what papers could I read to learn more about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-07T15:18:07.180" LastActivityDate="2018-05-07T08:50:11.783" Title="What is the term for human beings' tendency to obey without thinking?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;leadership&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1023" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-07T13:01:43.810" Score="4" ViewCount="149" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does subjecting a person to pain reduce his cognitive abilities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, what is the process that reduces the ability? (By process, I mean the changes happening in the nervous system as a result of the pain and the subsequent loss of cognitive abilities)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this differ with gender? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="204" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T02:08:19.653" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T02:08:19.653" Title="Does pain reduce cognitive abilities?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1024" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1088" CreationDate="2012-06-07T13:13:43.077" Score="6" ViewCount="446" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of articles stress the importance of having to train the brain (By training the brain, I mean the cognitive faculty of the brain for learning things and not brain's normal functions) since the brain is a muscle and training it would improve its cognitive abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since using anything beyond a limit is detrimental to it, is there a theoretical limit to the use of brain beyond which it would be detrimental to the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="204" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-14T14:20:40.797" LastActivityDate="2012-09-14T14:28:36.600" Title="Theoretical limit to the use of mental faculty of the brain" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1025" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1023" CreationDate="2012-06-07T16:07:30.373" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes is does. I know from personal experience that if I have a sinus headache or any other type of pain it hinders my work (software developer). I do not believe gender would make any difference, however I do know studies have been done and have proven that red haired people tend to be able to tolerate more pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a couple of references for you &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Disruption of Attention and Working Memory Traces in Individuals with Chronic Pain - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anesthesia-analgesia.org/content/104/5/1223.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.anesthesia-analgesia.org/content/104/5/1223.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Red Hair and Pain - &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_hair#Pain_tolerance_and_injury&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_hair#Pain_tolerance_and_injury&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="804" LastActivityDate="2012-06-07T16:07:30.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1027" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23" CreationDate="2012-06-07T18:16:06.610" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depends which IQ test you use - individuals with ASDs show a typical &quot;pattern&quot; on the WAIS, which can cause it to appear like they have lower IQs. When tested with tests which aren't biased in this way, they appear to have the same IQ range as neurotypicals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The assumption that those with an ASD are cognitively impaired pervades both popular and scientific literature - those who are minimally verbal or non-verbal (i.e. those who do not show fluency in their speech) are often labelled as ‘low-functioning’. The characteristic cognitive profile shown by the WAIS is commonly interpreted as a unified deficit known as ‘weak central coherence’, the tendency to focus on low-level details as opposed to the higher-level ‘whole’ (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661399013182&quot;&gt;Happé, 1999&lt;/a&gt;). Much of the recent research regarding the neuroanatomical signature of autism relies on the untested assumption that cognitive strengths of autistic individuals as shown by the WAIS are nothing more than low-level by-products of high-level deficits. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wisc.edu/lang/pdf/Dawson_AutisticIntelligence_PS_2007.pdf&quot;&gt;Dawson et al. (2007)&lt;/a&gt; have shown using Raven’s Progressive Matrices (Raven, Raven, &amp;amp; Court, 1998), a complex yet general test of intelligence, that the WAIS severely underestimates autistic intelligence (by an average of 30 percentile points). It is therefore recommended that though the WAIS has a number of useful psychometric properties which can be applied in the diagnosis of autism, it is not used as a measure of intelligence in such populations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dawson, M., Soulieres, I. Gernsbacher, M., Mottron, L. (2007). The Level and Nature of Autistic Intelligence. Psychological Science. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wisc.edu/lang/pdf/Dawson_AutisticIntelligence_PS_2007.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Happe, F. (1999). Autism: Cognitive deﬁcit or cognitive style? Trends&#xA;in Cognitive Sciences, 3, 216–222.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Raven, J., Raven, J.C., &amp;amp; Court, J.H. (1998). Raven manual: Section 3.&#xA;Standard progressive matrices. Oxford, England: Oxford Psychologists Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="786" LastEditorUserId="786" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T07:19:09.630" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T07:19:09.630" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1028" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1024" CreationDate="2012-06-07T18:33:24.300" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intensive stimuli may trigger epileptic shocks in some individuals. At least prolonged epileptic shocks may damage neurons, I'm not sure about short epileptic shocks. So the answer is yes, using your brain eg. your extended visual system to process excessively intensive visual stimuli may cause epileptic shocks and thus be detrimental to the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as far as I know, visual stimuli are not able to cause epileptic shocks to everyone (susceptibility to epilepsy is a requirement), so I'm not sure if there is any proven way how by you could cause brain damage only by brain function (without aid of any voluntary motoric movements) in &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; individual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As intensive visual and auditory stimuli are a part of our natural environment - whereas lack of stimuli (sensory deprivation) is an unnatural state - I think triggering epileptic shocks by intensive stimuli can not be considered only as a self-caused way of damaging the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="718" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-14T14:28:36.600" LastActivityDate="2012-09-14T14:28:36.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1029" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1022" CreationDate="2012-06-07T19:49:57.673" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Obedience&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most famous paper dealing with this issue is Milgram's paper, called &lt;strong&gt;Behavioral study of obedience&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/abn/67/4/371.&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. From the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This article describes a procedure for the study of destructive obedience in the laboratory. It consists of ordering a naive subject to administer increasingly more severe punishment to a victim in the context of a learning experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Behavioral Study of obedience, Milgram, S. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1963. doi: 10.1037/h0040525 &lt;a href=&quot;http://wardakhan.org/notes/Original%20Studies/Social%20Psychology/Stanley-Milgram.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2012-06-07T19:49:57.673" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1030" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1022" CreationDate="2012-06-07T19:51:57.010" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could you be talking about conformity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and/or &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;groupthink &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink&lt;/a&gt;  ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to the famous Milgram studies which you may have already heard about:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's quite a lengthy literature on these issues but those links should get you started.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastActivityDate="2012-06-07T19:51:57.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1031" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1009" CreationDate="2012-06-07T20:49:00.050" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not sure if there is a specific name for sadness or feelings of emptiness following the completion of a long task, such as finishing the last book in a series. I will need to research this further to see if I can find any studies related to it. I can speak from personal experience and state that I too have felt this, so I believe it is a natural phenomenon. I would be interested to see what others say about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding how Psychology would treat an individual complaining of such thoughts, one of the things covered in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmark_Education&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Landmark Forum&lt;/a&gt; is how to change your conscious, logical thinking as a means of affecting your emotions. As an example, if one felt sadness or loss at the completion of a task, a therapist might encourage the individual to think about the positive: what they accomplished, what they enjoyed during their experience, what they learned or how they grew. By consciously thinking about specific things one can draw emotions connected with those thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia article on the Landmark Forum describes this as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;There is a big difference between what actually happened in a person’s life and the meaning or interpretation they made up about it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;People create their own meaning to life – none is inherent in the world&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;People can “transform” by simply declaring a new way of being instead of trying to change themselves in comparison to the past&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At it's root, this school of thought comes from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Socratic method&lt;/a&gt;, a form of inquiry based around allowing logic to overrule emotion. To address the sadness one feels, one might ask themself a series of questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why am I feeling sad?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What reasons do I have to feel sad?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haven't I accomplished something good?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Am I not proud of myself for finishing the task?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Did I enjoy doing the task?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is feeling sad helping me?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do I &lt;em&gt;want&lt;/em&gt; to feel sad?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By using logic in such a fashion, the idea is that one can change their feeling by reinforcing the positive emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; Note that &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1040/what-science-or-psychology-is-behind-the-landmark-forums-coursework&quot;&gt;upon further research&lt;/a&gt;, I have found that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2011/s3367386.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;representatives of the Landmark Forum themselves state&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What we do is personal and professional growth training and development. It's not therapy, it's not psychology, it's not psychological in nature&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's a quote from Deborah Beroset Miller, Director of PR for Landmark Education. Therefore my answer is anecdotal and not actually based on any specific Psychology research that I can find at this point. I will continue to search for actual research to back up my claims...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T15:58:33.560" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1032" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1024" CreationDate="2012-06-07T23:29:35.943" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few thoughts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Brain training&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A lot of articles stress the importance of having to train the brain &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Much of this literature is used to sell computer games and crossword puzzles. In a recent review, Owen et al (2010) concluded that the proposed benefits of brain training lack empirical support. There is a vast literature which suggests that practice is the basis of skill acquisition but that skill acquisition tends to be focused on what is practised. Thus, if you want to get skilled at crossword puzzles, then do crossword puzzles; if you want to get good at a computer game, practice the computer game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Learning and normal function&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(By training the brain, I mean the cognitive faculty of the brain for learning &#xA;  things and not brain's normal functions) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning is a normal function of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Brain as muscle&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;since the brain is a muscle and training it would improve its cognitive &gt; abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned by @John, &lt;em&gt;brain as muscle&lt;/em&gt; is a metaphor. The brain does forget things, and forgetting can be adaptive. Thus, if you want to maintain or develop particular skills, then you should practice them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Limit to brain training&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Since using anything beyond a limit is detrimental to it, is there a theoretical &#xA;  limit to the use of brain beyond which it would be detrimental to the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems like a big question. There is plenty of research on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_%28medical%29&quot;&gt;fatigue&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28biology%29&quot;&gt;stress&lt;/a&gt; which would suggest that getting adequate rest is important to maintaining optimal cognitive functioning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Owen, A.M. and Hampshire, A. and Grahn, J.A. and Stenton, R. and Dajani, S. and Burns, A.S. and Howard, R.J. and Ballard, C.G. (2010). Putting brain training to the test. Nature, 465, 775-778.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-06-07T23:29:35.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1033" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1065" CreationDate="2012-06-08T02:05:18.230" Score="9" ViewCount="1312" Body="&lt;p&gt;I gave &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/a/8995/183&quot;&gt;an answer here on stats.stackexchange.com about how to analyse ordinal items&lt;/a&gt;, such as those on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Likert type&lt;/a&gt; response scales (e.g., Strongly disagree to Strongly agree).&#xA;Someone asked whether there were differences between countries and cultures in how respondents use such scales. I remember reading research about this many years ago. I can remember something about certain countries preferring extreme responses. Such differences naturally have implications for cross-cultural comparisons of levels of like life satisfaction, personality, and presumably any self-report measure that uses such response scales. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does use of Likert type response scales vary across countries and cultures?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What explains any such differences?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How are differences in response style differentiated from differences in levels of the underlying construct?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T05:41:33.890" Title="How do responses to Likert type response scales vary across countries and cultures?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1034" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1035" CreationDate="2012-06-08T05:20:49.277" Score="3" ViewCount="1460" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it true that people 'like' those who are similar to them?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why is it so? Is there an evolutionary explanation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T16:08:58.173" LastActivityDate="2013-09-14T10:22:06.633" Title="Do people like those who are similar to them and why?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1035" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1034" CreationDate="2012-06-08T05:28:42.347" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may want to read up about &quot;homophily&quot;. It is often summarised with the phrase &quot;birds of a feather flock together&quot;. &quot;Heterophily&quot; relates to when people are attracted to those that are different to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was a review article by McPhereson et al (2001) which you might like to read. To quote the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Similarity breeds connection. This principle—the homophily&#xA;  principle—structures network ties of every type, including marriage,&#xA;  friendship, work, advice, support, information transfer, exchange,&#xA;  comembership, and other types of relationship. The result is that&#xA;  people’s personal networks are homogeneous with regard to many&#xA;  sociodemographic, behavioral, and intrapersonal characteristics.&#xA;  Homophily limits people’s social worlds in a way that has powerful&#xA;  implications for the information they receive, the attitudes they&#xA;  form, and the interactions they experience. Homophily in race and&#xA;  ethnicity creates the strongest divides in our personal environments,&#xA;  with age, religion, education, occupation, and gender following in&#xA;  roughly that order. Geographic propinquity, families, organizations,&#xA;  and isomorphic positions in social systems all create contexts in&#xA;  which homophilous relations form. Ties between nonsimilar individuals&#xA;  also dissolve at a higher rate, which sets the stage for the formation&#xA;  of niches (localized positions) within social space. We argue for more&#xA;  research on: (a) the basic ecological processes that link&#xA;  organizations, associations, cultural communities, social movements,&#xA;  and many other social forms; (b) the impact of multiplex ties on the&#xA;  patterns of homophily; and (c) the dynamics of network change over&#xA;  time through which networks and other social entities co-evolve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McPherson, M. and Smith-Lovin, L. and Cook, J.M. (2001).  Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual review of sociology, 415--444.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;ftp://www.soc.cornell.edu/csi/Networks/mcpherson%20smith-lovin%20cook%20ars.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ftp://www.soc.cornell.edu/csi/Networks/mcpherson%20smith-lovin%20cook%20ars.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-09-14T10:22:06.633" LastActivityDate="2013-09-14T10:22:06.633" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1038" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-08T09:36:14.263" Score="12" ViewCount="448" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition&quot;&gt;Spaced repetition&lt;/a&gt; is a memorization technique that works by reviewing question/answer pairs according to a schedule that depends on performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Be it software or paper flashcards, there are various techniques to calculate the review schedule. For instance: Leitner, SM0, SM2, ... new techniques appear from time to time. &#xA;Each new scheduling technique is trying to surpass the others, the goal being to calculate the intervals smartly, for instance so that a question is shown just before the student forgets the fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there work comparing the &quot;efficiency&quot; of some of those scheduling techniques?&lt;/strong&gt; (few reviews, well-memorized) Preferably research involving a reasonable number of human experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="808" LastEditorUserId="808" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T05:27:20.653" LastActivityDate="2012-08-09T02:56:21.323" Title="Compared efficiency of different spaced-repetition memorisation techniques" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;encoding&gt;&lt;mnemonic&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1039" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1023" CreationDate="2012-06-08T12:46:25.260" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the purposes of this question, it would likely be useful to consider &quot;pain&quot; as simply a stimulus demanding the attention of the individual. In this light, any decrease in &quot;cognitive abilities&quot;—however you define that phrase—would likely be explainable as resultant from the same cognitive decrease that accompanies multitasking (or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.umich.edu/~bcalab/multitasking.html&quot;&gt;&quot;task switching&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, as it is sometimes referred to) in general, which is a well-known and well-published finding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Relevant papers can be found at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.umich.edu/~bcalab/multitasking.html&quot;&gt;above link&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="620" LastEditorUserId="620" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T12:52:02.990" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T12:52:02.990" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1040" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1044" CreationDate="2012-06-08T12:52:24.090" Score="5" ViewCount="1120" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.landmarkeducation.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Landmark Forum&lt;/a&gt; is a self-help seminar focusing on helping individuals to make positive changes in their lives by chaing their point of view and using logic to break down emotions to change the way one feels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmark_Education#History&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;According to Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, the Landmark Forum is based on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erhard_Seminars_Training&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;est, the Erhard Seminars Training&lt;/a&gt;, which itself is based on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Socratic Method&lt;/a&gt;. However, is there any science or actual psychology behind the Landmark Forum?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T14:09:27.240" LastActivityDate="2019-06-12T06:25:41.860" Title="What science or psychology is behind the Landmark Forum's coursework?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1042" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1038" CreationDate="2012-06-08T14:44:38.527" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22spaced%20repetition%22&quot;&gt;quick Pubmed search&lt;/a&gt; shows a couple of potential useful papers. The more promising:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Karpicke, JD., &amp;amp; Bauernschmidt, A. (2011) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21574747&quot;&gt;Spaced retrieval: absolute spacing enhances learning regardless of relative spacing&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn.&lt;/em&gt; 37(5):1250-7&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Toppino, TC., Kasserman, JE., &amp;amp; Mracek WA. (1991) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2010724&quot;&gt;The effect of spacing repetitions on the recognition memory of young children and adults&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;J Exp Child Psychol.&lt;/em&gt; 51(1):123-38.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="620" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-09T02:56:21.323" LastActivityDate="2012-08-09T02:56:21.323" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1043" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-08T15:24:53.627" Score="4" ViewCount="276" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading Fritz Perls' book called &quot;Eye Witness to Therapy&quot; which contains film transcipts that Perls thought would be useful to learn Gestalt therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me it is a very deep and interesting reading, but I'm wondering whether seeing the actual films would benefit me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was searching around but I couldn't find any reference on how to get those films. If anyone could help that would be very much appreciated. Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="305" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-11T12:09:18.383" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T12:11:22.373" Title="How to obtain Fritz Perls' Eye Witness to Therapy film?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1044" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1040" CreationDate="2012-06-08T15:25:44.547" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This isn't a direct answer to your question .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I got the sense that Landmark was in the same category as other so called 'power' therapies such as neurolinguistuc programming etc. The 7:30 report - a &lt;em&gt;credible&lt;/em&gt; Australian current affairs program - did an story on Landmark last year. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2011/s3367386.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2011/s3367386.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Devilly, Grant J. (2005) &quot;Power Therapies and possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry&quot;, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 39, No. 6, June 2005, pp. 437-445(9)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T15:25:44.547" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1045" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1034" CreationDate="2012-06-08T15:45:30.433" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since you &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1034/do-people-like-those-who-are-similar-to-them-and-why#comment2046_1035&quot;&gt;mentioned that you want an evolutionary explanation&lt;/a&gt;, there is one available. In biology the effect of providing benefit towards potential non-kin based on an arbitrary marker is known as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green-beard_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;green-beard&lt;/a&gt; or armpit effect. In a social human setting, if the marker is arbitrary social construct it is usually known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocentrism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ethnocentrism&lt;/a&gt;. This sort of behavior is studied in game theory in the context of cooperate-defect games (typical example: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Prisoner's dilemma&lt;/a&gt;) and usually called &lt;em&gt;conditional altruism&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that conditional altruism evolves in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2012/06/13/evolution-of-ethnocentrism/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;simple spatial agent-based model&lt;/a&gt; and promotes cooperative behavior (Hammond &amp;amp; Axelrod, 2006a 2006b). The effect does not create cooperation, but if there is another mechanism for creation of cooperation (say spatial factors in the H&amp;amp;A model) then ethnocentrism helps maintain it and extend the range of parameters under which cooperation can occur (Kaznatcheev &amp;amp; Shultz, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In humans, this ability to cooperate only with others of similar culture is believed to require a significant amount of cognitive ability. In fact, some even suppose that it could have been one of the factors that drove towards the increasing complexity of our brains. Unfortunately, Kaznatcheev (2010a) shows that the ethnocentrism of the sort present in the H&amp;amp;A models is not robust to increase in the cost of cognition. Thus, in humans (or simpler organisms) the mechanism allowing discrimination has to have been in place already (and not co-evolved) or be very inexpensive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above examples dealt with the prisoner's dilemma (PD) which is a typical model of a competitive environment. In the PD cooperation is irrational, so there conditional altruism allowed the agents to cooperate irrationally (thus moving over to the better social payoff), while still treating those of a different culture rationally and defection from them. This doesn't seem as bad, but Kaznatcheev (2010b) shows that the mechanism of ethnocentrism is robust across different games (not just PD) including ones where cooperation is rational. In those games conditional altruism produces an irrational defection from the out-group. Thus, from an evolutionary stand-point this is a two-edged sword: it can cause unexpected cooperative behavior, but also irrational hostility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hammond, R., &amp;amp; Axelrod, R. (2006a). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040580905001656&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evolution of contingent altruism when cooperation is expensive&lt;/a&gt;. Theoretical Population Biology, 69, 333-338.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hammond, R., &amp;amp; Axelrod, R. (2006b). &lt;a href=&quot;http://jcr.sagepub.com/content/50/6/926.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The evolution of ethnocentrism&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 50, 926-936. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.artisresearch.com/articles/Axelrod_Evolution_of_Ethnocentrism.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kaznatcheev, A. (2010a). The cognitive cost of ethnocentrism. In S. Ohlsson &amp;amp; R. Catrambone (Eds.), Proceedings of the 32nd annual conference of the cognitive science society. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/%7Eakazna/Kaznatcheev20100515.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kaznatcheev, A. (2010b). Robustness of ethnocentrism to changes in inter-personal interactions. Complex Adaptive Systems - AAAI Fall Symposium. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/%7Eakazna/kaznatcheev20100910.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kaznatcheev, A., &amp;amp; Shultz, T.R. (2011). Ethnocentrism Maintains Cooperation, but Keeping One's Children Close Fuels It. In L. Carlson, C, Hoelscher, &amp;amp; T.F. Shipley (Eds), Proceedings of the 33rd annual conference of the cognitive science society. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/%7Eakazna/KaznatcheevShultz20110501-2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T01:20:14.800" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1046" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-08T18:24:00.347" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A branch of philosophy that studies the nature of the mind, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/consciousness&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'consciousness'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;consciousness&lt;/a&gt; and their relationship to &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neurobiology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'neurobiology'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neurobiology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T18:31:55.343" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T18:31:55.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1047" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-08T18:24:00.347" Score="0" Body="For questions about this branch of philosophy that studies the nature of the mind, consciousness and their relationship to neurobiology." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-13T12:10:09.410" LastActivityDate="2012-10-13T12:10:09.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1048" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-08T18:27:50.907" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. This tag is for questions about the effects of psychology on economics. For questions about small groups or individuals, consider the tag &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/consumer-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'consumer-psychology'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;consumer-psychology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T18:32:02.317" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T18:32:02.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1049" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-08T18:27:50.907" Score="0" Body="For questions about the effects of psychology on the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services in large populations. For questions about small groups or individuals, consider the tag consumer-psychology." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T18:32:00.023" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T18:32:00.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1050" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-08T18:30:19.580" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The study of consumer behavior:  why and how people making purchasing decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T18:31:36.280" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T18:31:36.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1051" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-08T18:30:19.580" Score="0" Body="The study of consumer behavior:  why and how people making purchasing decisions." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T18:31:40.087" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T18:31:40.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1053" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-08T21:12:14.800" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about organisms' ability to make reasoned decisions that are optimal for achieving a goal or solving a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T21:16:47.120" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T21:16:47.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1054" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-08T21:12:14.800" Score="0" Body="For questions about organisms' ability to make reasoned decisions that are optimal for achieving a goal or solving a problem." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T21:16:46.307" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T21:16:46.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1055" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-08T21:16:50.330" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A field that studies how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T22:28:29.007" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T22:28:29.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1056" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-08T21:16:50.330" Score="0" Body="For questions about this field that studies how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-14T10:24:48.400" LastActivityDate="2012-10-14T10:24:48.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1057" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-08T21:21:02.680" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the Bayesian framework for cognitive modeling.  The field is concerned with studying the effectiveness of modeling humans as Bayesian agents, and inferring their mental states based on these models. For general Bayesian inference as used in statistics, use the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/statistics&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'statistics'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;statistics&lt;/a&gt; tag.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T22:28:10.067" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T22:28:10.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1058" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-08T21:21:02.680" Score="0" Body="For questions about the Bayesian framework for cognitive modeling.  The field is concerned with studying the effectiveness of modeling humans as Bayesian agents, and inferring their mental states based on these models. For general Bayesian inference as used in statistics, use the statistics tag." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-08T22:28:19.910" LastActivityDate="2012-06-08T22:28:19.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1059" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-09T00:04:19.983" Score="7" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most canonical experimental paradigm for studying human &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;attachment styles&lt;/a&gt; is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth#Strange_Situation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Strange Situation&lt;/a&gt; leading to classifications such as Secure, Insecure-avoidant, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the equivalent methodologies, classifications, findings and longtitudinal variability in studies of other primates?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I should add that I'm vaguely aware of, say, Harlow's work, but as far as I understand it, it seems to be about the existence of, rather than the variability of, attachment behaviour in animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="813" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-14T14:30:47.293" LastActivityDate="2013-07-22T14:15:39.360" Title="What research has been done on attachment types in other primates?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1060" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1006" CreationDate="2012-06-09T02:58:13.473" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you misunderstood, in a lot of ways, what Haag &amp;amp; Nagel (2000; what you call Paper 1) did and how Arens, Gerber &amp;amp; Nagel (2008; Paper 2) extended it. Fig. 1 of AGN08 is a good summary of HN00. What HN00 did was build a system that could watch a video of an intersection, detect cars, and translate the car behavior into a conceptual framework. As inspiration for their system, they used their idea of how humans represent the task:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;ﬁve levels of representation seem to be involved: (i) a representation of the geometry of spatiotemporal developments in the road traﬃc scene, comprising both a 2D-one in the image plane and a 3D-one relating to the depicted scene, (ii) a representation of driving maneuvers closely coupled to particular traﬃc situations, (iii) a conceptual representation of visible bodies, their attributes, and their elementary movements, (iv) generic conceptual representations of spatiotemporal body conﬁgurations and their expected temporal developments, and (v) one or more versions of a natural language representation of developments centred around the current point in time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, the goal of HN00 was to look at a 2D image of an intersection, from it construct a 2D/3D representation of the scene. In that scene identify and label objects and describe them in a conceptual language called SIT++. Once in that conceptual representation (as situation trees) they could conduct logical inference (using Fuzzy Metric&#xA;Temporal Horn Logic) on their representation in order to decide what the agents they identified are trying to do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that HN00 involved no natural language processing (NLP) at all. Although they did have to use lots of pattern recognition and various machine learning algorithm that would be familiar to NLP practitioners. However, their domain was transforming a visual scene into a conceptual (not natural language) internal representation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How did AGN08 extend beyond this? They changed what they wanted to do. Their task was not simply to view a scene and transform it into an internal representation, but to then output that internal representation in a &lt;strong&gt;natural language description&lt;/strong&gt;. Thus, they were adding a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_generation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;natural language generation&lt;/a&gt; system to HN00. Generating natural language from an internal representation is obviously an important part of NLP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the process of adding this functionality, AGN08 had to extend the internal representation in several ways. This was due to the fact that more internal information was required to generate good natural language output, and because they wanted to deal with more complex scenes than HN00. The paper focuses on this aspect of the work (extending the internal representation) and only tangentially touches on natural language output. They go into detail of the natural language output in:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;R. Gerber, Naturlichsprachliche Beschreibung von Straßenverkehrsszenen durch Bildfolgenauswertung. Dissertation,Fakultat fur Informatik der Universitat Karlsruhe (TH), Karlsruhe, January 2000&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, I am not willing to learn German and read a whole thesis in order to give you a more complete answer about the details. Before you try to do that yourself (hopefully you already know German) or look into more recent papers, I recommend learning some basics of NLP. A good source is the following question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/q/1320/33&quot;&gt;Looking for a good beginners reference to learn computational linguistics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:54:11.280" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T02:58:13.473" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1061" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-09T03:24:20.057" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about mathematical models or psychology of conflict and cooperation between multiple decision-makers. If your question is specifically about &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/rationality&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'rationality'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;rationality&lt;/a&gt;, consider that tag instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T03:53:43.743" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T03:53:43.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1062" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-09T03:24:20.057" Score="0" Body="For questions about mathematical models or psychology of conflict and cooperation between multiple decision-makers. If your question is specifically about rationality, consider that tag instead." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T03:53:46.020" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T03:53:46.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1063" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-09T03:26:45.653" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;An autism spectrum disorder characterized by by significant difficulties in social interaction, alongside restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests, but a relative preservation of of linguistic and cognitive development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T03:53:39.513" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T03:53:39.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1064" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-09T03:26:45.653" Score="0" Body="An autism spectrum disorder characterized by by significant difficulties in social interaction, alongside restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests, but a relative preservation of of linguistic and cognitive development." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T03:53:41.527" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T03:53:41.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1065" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1033" CreationDate="2012-06-09T05:41:33.890" Score="6" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Culture reference effects&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heine et al (2002) discuss how people in different cultures often answer questions relative to a reference group in their own culture. Thus, for example, if a culture is  more collectivistic in general, measured cultural differences may less when people within a culture answer test items  relative to their own cultural reference group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Social comparison theory maintains that people think about themselves&#xA;  compared with similar others. Those in one culture, then, compare&#xA;  themselves with different others and standards than do those in&#xA;  another culture, thus potentially confounding cross-cultural&#xA;  comparisons. A pilot study and Study 1 demonstrated the problematic&#xA;  nature of this reference-group effect: Whereas cultural experts agreed&#xA;  that East Asians are more collectivistic than North Americans,&#xA;  cross-cultural comparisons of trait and attitude measures failed to&#xA;  reveal such a pattern. Study 2 found that manipulating reference&#xA;  groups enhanced the expected cultural differences, and Study 3&#xA;  revealed that people from different cultural backgrounds within the&#xA;  same country exhibited larger differences than did people from&#xA;  different countries. Crosscultural comparisons using subjective Likert&#xA;  scales are compromised because of different reference groups. Possible&#xA;  solutions are discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Cultural differences in response tendencies&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lee et al (2002) summarised some of the empirical literature on cross-cultural differences in use of response scales:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Only a few researchers have addressed the issue of cultural&#xA;  differences in rating scales empiri- cally. Wong, Tam, Fung, and Wan&#xA;  (1993) found no difference in the way Chinese participants in Hong&#xA;  Kong responded to an odd versus an even number of response choices.&#xA;  Johnson (1981) found no difference in how readers of Horizons USA who&#xA;  resided in Great Britain, Italy, the Philippines, and Venezuela&#xA;  responded to bipolar scales. Stening and Everett (1984) found that&#xA;  Japanese managers responding in Japanese were more likely to choose&#xA;  the midpoint than were American or British managers responding in&#xA;  English. Chen, Lee, and Stevenson (1995) found the same effect for&#xA;  Japanese and to a lesser extent for Taiwanese in a sample comparing&#xA;  11th-grade students in Japan, Taiwan, Canada, and, in the United&#xA;  States, Minneapolis. Iwata, Saito, and Roberts (1994) and Iwata,&#xA;  Roberts, and Kawa- kami (1995) reported that junior high school&#xA;  students in Japan and the United States responded similarly on&#xA;  negative items but that Japanese were less likely to endorse positive&#xA;  items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When reviewing the literature on cross-cultural differences in response style Hamamura et al (2008) stated that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Compared to North Americans of European-heritage, higher levels of&#xA;  extreme responding have been observed in African–Americans (Bachman &amp;amp;&#xA;  O’Malley, 1984) and Latino Americans (Hui &amp;amp; Triandis, 1989). In&#xA;  contrast, East Asians seem to show more moderacy than samples of&#xA;  European-heritage (Chen, Lee, &amp;amp; Stevenson, 1995)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bachman, J. G., &amp;amp; O’Malley, P. M. (1984). Yea-saying, nay-saying, and going to extremes: Black–white diﬀerences in&#xA;response styles. Public Opinion Quarterly, 48, 491–509.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chen, C., Lee, S. Y., &amp;amp; Stevenson, H. W. (1995). Response style and cross-cultural comparisons of rating scales among&#xA;East Asian and North American students. Psychological Science, 6, 170–175.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hamamura, T., Heine, S.J. &amp;amp; Paulhus, D.L. (2008). Cultural differences in response styles: The role of dialectical thinking. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 932-942.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heine, S.J. and Lehman, D.R. and Peng, K. and Greenholtz, J. (2002). What's wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales?: The reference-group effect. &lt;em&gt;Journal of personality and social psychology, 82&lt;/em&gt;, 903, &lt;a href=&quot;http://image.sciencenet.cn/olddata/kexue.com.cn/upload/blog/file/2009/3/2009318111257156614.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hui, C. H., &amp;amp; Triandis, H. C. (1989). Eﬀects of culture and response format on extreme response style. Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, 20, 296–309.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Iwata, N., Roberts, C.R., &amp;amp; Kawakami, N. (1995).&#xA;Japan–U.S. comparison of responses to depression&#xA;scale items among adult workers. Psychiatry Research, 58, 237–245.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Iwata, N., Saito, K., &amp;amp; Roberts, R.E. (1994). Responses&#xA;to a self-administered depression scale among&#xA;younger adolescents in Japan. Psychiatry Research,&#xA;53, 275–287.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Johnson, J.D. (1981). Effects of the order of presentation of evaluative dimensions for bipolar scales in&#xA;four societies. Journal of Social Psychology, 113,&#xA;21–27.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lee, J.W. and Jones, P.S. and Mineyama, Y. and Zhang, X.E. (2002). Cultural differences in responses to a Likert scale. Research in nursing &amp;amp; health, 25, 295-306.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stening, B.W., &amp;amp; Everett, J.E. (1984). Response styles&#xA;in a cross-cultural managerial study. Journal of&#xA;Social Psychology, 122, 151–156.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wong, C.S., Tam, K.C., Fung, M.Y., &amp;amp; Wan, K. (1993).&#xA;Differences between odd and even number of&#xA;response scale: Some empirical evidence. Chinese&#xA;Journal of Psychology, 35, 75–86.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T05:41:33.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1066" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="921" CreationDate="2012-06-09T06:31:17.670" Score="2" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Computing overall satisfaction&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is discussion in the literature about whether measures of overall satisfaction should be calculated as some form of weighted composite of facet satisfaction where weights are derived from importance ratings.&#xA;These debates have been applied to various types of satisfaction including life, job, and customer. In this context, it does not seem like weighting by importance makes much difference, and it may even be detrimental.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For examples, Trauer et al (2001) state that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many Quality of Life (QoL) instruments ask respondents to rate a&#xA;  number of life domains in terms of satisfaction and personal&#xA;  importance, and derive weighted satisfaction scores by multiplying the&#xA;  two rat- ings. This paper demonstrates that this practice is both&#xA;  undesirable and unnecessary. QoL domains are selected on the basis of&#xA;  their inherent importance, rendering separate importance rating&#xA;  partially redun- dant. Weighted scores present difficulties in&#xA;  interpretation. Further, we show that multiplicative composites have&#xA;  undesirable psychometric properties. There is evidence that&#xA;  multiplicative composites have little or no advantage over unweighted&#xA;  ratings in correlational or predictive studies. Apart from the face&#xA;  validity and the intuitive appeal of multiplying satisfaction ratings&#xA;  by importance ratings, there appear to be no sound reasons for doing&#xA;  so, and several good reasons not to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar critique of importance ratings in the job satisfaction domain can be seen in Blood (1971).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, this all assumes that importance measurement is a means for  forming an overall composite. In some instances, measurement of importance is of substantive interest. Trauer et al (2001) acknowledge this when they write: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is not suggested that the assessment of the importance of domains&#xA;  of satisfaction is inconsequential. It has been shown that domains&#xA;  that are closer to the personal core (e.g. health, marriage, family)&#xA;  are typically judged as more im- portant than more peripheral domains&#xA;  (e.g. membership of organizations)...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Study of mean importance ratings&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importance ratings can be used to assess average perceptions of importance which might inform causal hypotheses regarding what is influencing satisfaction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example, Rice et al (1991) among many other things, they report importance ratings of various job facets. Among other things the authors asked 97 employed college students to rate&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;facet importance on a 9-point scale with two verbal&#xA;  anchors: not at all important and extremely important (e.g., &quot;How&#xA;  important to you is the amount of opportunity for promotion?&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we sort the results reported in Table 1 by importance we see the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Job Facet                     Mean Importance&#xA;Hourly pay (dollars)              7.4&#xA;Hours per week                    7.3&#xA;Control over schedule             7.3&#xA;Opportunity to learn skills       6.7&#xA;Decision making                   6.4&#xA;Promotion opportunity             6.3&#xA;Mental effort required            6.1&#xA;Conversation with co-workers      6.0&#xA;Customer or client contact        5.7&#xA;Physical effort required          5.4&#xA;Supervisor contact                5.3&#xA;Commuting time (minutes)          4.3&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is presumably an interesting empirical finding in itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Relationship between importance and satisfaction&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some researchers have explicitly studied the relationship between importance and satisfaction to see whether there is a relationship. E.g., Borg (1991) provides an example of job satisfaction exploring how intra-individual variability in facet job satisfaction relates to facet importance. They find support both for the idea that more important facets are deemed more satisfying and for a u-shaped relationship where it is the most and least satisfied facets that are the most important. This variation depends on the domain being studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Blood, M.R. (1971). The validity of importance.. Journal of Applied &#xA;Psychology, 55, 487.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Borg, I. (1991). On the relationship between importance and satisfaction ratings on job aspects. Applied Psychology, 40, 81-92.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rice, R.W., Gentile, D.A. &amp;amp; McFarlin, D.B. (1991). Facet importance and job satisfaction.. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 31.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trauer, T. &amp;amp; Mackinnon, A. (2001). Why are we weighting? The role of importance ratings in quality of life measurement. Quality of life research, 10, 579-585.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T06:39:11.180" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T06:39:11.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1067" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="922" CreationDate="2012-06-09T08:55:47.223" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;World Values Survey&lt;/a&gt; seems like a good starting point for examining nation level life satisfaction and then correlating it with other indicators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diener (2000) summarises this research on&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;mean levels  of life satisfaction for selected nations from the  World&#xA;  Values  Survey  (World  Values  Study  Group,  1994),  conducted  with&#xA;  representative  samples  of  approximately  1,000 respondents  per &#xA;  nation  between  1990  and  1993.  The  purchasing  power  parity &#xA;  figure  is  the  percentage  of  purchasing power (based  on a&#xA;  standard  &quot;basket&quot;  of goods) that  the  average person  in  each &#xA;  country  can  buy  with  his  or her  yearly  income,  compared  with &#xA;  the  average  purchasing  power  of individuals  in  the  United &#xA;  States.  The  &lt;strong&gt;correlation  between  mean  purchasing  power  income &#xA;  and  mean  life  satisfaction  was  .62  across  all  nations  in  the&#xA;  survey&lt;/strong&gt;.  The  finding that wealthier  nations have higher levels of&#xA;  reported  well-being  has  been replicated  several  times  (see &#xA;  Diener  &amp;amp;  Suh,  1999).  One  reason  that  wealthy  nations  may  be &#xA;  hap-  pier is that they are more likely to fulfill basic human needs &#xA;  for  food,  shelter,  and  health,  as  well  as  to have  better &#xA;  human-fights  records  (Diener  et  al.,  1995).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;OECD Life Index&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I performed a quick analysis of data from up to 36 countries from the OECD Better Life Index Site. You can download the datafile used directly from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/&lt;/a&gt;. The R code, data file, and output of this draft set of analyses is &lt;a href=&quot;http://rpubs.com/jeromyanglim/oecd_index_draft_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;available here&lt;/a&gt;, along with a list of the included countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I obtained the following correlations between other variables and self-reported life satisfaction (r is correlation; n is number of countries):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;##                                               r  n&#xA;## Rooms.per.person                           0.70 30&#xA;## Personal.earnings                          0.67 34&#xA;## Employment.rate                            0.63 36&#xA;## Households.income                          0.59 32&#xA;## Water.quality                              0.59 36&#xA;## Long.term.unemployment.rate               -0.58 34&#xA;## Self.reported.health                       0.58 34&#xA;## Life.expectancy                            0.57 36&#xA;## Dwellings.with.basic.facilities            0.54 32&#xA;## Social.network                             0.50 36&#xA;## Time.devoted.to.leisure.and.personal.care  0.43 21&#xA;## Household.financial.wealth                 0.41 31&#xA;## Voter.turn.out                             0.36 36&#xA;## Educational.attainment                     0.22 35&#xA;## Students..skills                           0.21 36&#xA;## Air.pollution                             -0.18 36&#xA;## Housing.expenditure                        0.12 32&#xA;## Years.in.education                         0.12 35&#xA;## Consultation.on.rule.making                0.12 35&#xA;## Employees.working.very.long.hours         -0.09 33&#xA;## Job.security                               0.08 32&#xA;## Homicide.rate                             -0.07 36&#xA;## Assault.rate                              -0.02 36&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American psychologist, 55, 34.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Diener,  E.,  Diener,  M.,  &amp;amp;  Diener,  C.  (1995).  Factors  predicting  the &#xA;subjective  well-being  of  nations.  Journal  of Personality  and  Social &#xA;Psychology,  69,  851-864.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Diener,  E.,  &amp;amp;  Sub,  E.  (1999).  Societies we  live  in: International  compar- &#xA;isons. In  D.  Kahneman, E.  Diener,  &amp;amp;  N.  Schwarz  (Eds.),  Well-being: &#xA;The foundations  of  hedonic  psychology  (pp.  434-452).  New  York: &#xA;Russell Sage  Foundation. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;World Values Study Group. (1994).  World Values Survey,  1981-1994  and &#xA;1990-1993  [Computer file,  ICPSR  version].  Ann Arbor,  MI:  Institute &#xA;for  Social  Research. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T08:55:47.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1068" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="672" CreationDate="2012-06-09T12:30:51.750" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most others have already pointed to some great papers on this and the fact that the literature has moved on from these claims now (as usual, 'bold' claims so often end up being false), but there's a great and very recent review on visual memory by Brady etal (2011) that gives a great deal of detail and is available via open access online &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journalofvision.org/content/11/5/4.full&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Traditional memory research has focused on identifying separate memory&#xA;  systems and exploring different stages of memory processing. This&#xA;  approach has been valuable for establishing a taxonomy of memory&#xA;  systems and characterizing their function but has been less&#xA;  informative about the nature of stored memory representations. Recent&#xA;  research on visual memory has shifted toward a representation-based&#xA;  emphasis, focusing on the contents of memory and attempting to&#xA;  determine the format and structure of remembered information. The main&#xA;  thesis of this review will be that one cannot fully understand memory&#xA;  systems or memory processes without also determining the nature of&#xA;  memory representations. Nowhere is this connection more obvious than&#xA;  in research that attempts to measure the capacity of visual memory. We&#xA;  will review research on the capacity of visual working memory and&#xA;  visual long-term memory, highlighting recent work that emphasizes the&#xA;  contents of memory. This focus impacts not only how we estimate the&#xA;  capacity of the system—going beyond quantifying how many items can be&#xA;  remembered and moving toward structured representations—but how we&#xA;  model memory systems and memory processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brady, T.F., Konkle, T. &amp;amp; Alvarez, G.A. (2011). A review of visual memory capacity: Beyond individual items and toward structured representations. Journal of Vision, 11. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journalofvision.org/content/11/5/4.full&quot;&gt;FULL TEXT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T04:44:54.720" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T04:44:54.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1069" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="924" CreationDate="2012-06-09T13:12:58.340" Score="3" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Benefits of PsychInfo&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;PsychInfo has more accurate metadata.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;PsychInfo permits more controlled search terms over that metadata.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;PsycInfo makes it easy to download a set of references. Without using third party tools Google Scholar only exports one reference at a time (as far as I am aware).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;PsycInfo contains abstracts for quick browsing. Google scholar requires you to follow a link to the publisher to get the abstract.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;PsycInfo lists references and cited-by whereas Google Scholar only has cited-by.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The version of PsycInfo that I use through ProQuest has an option to export formatted references in a range of bibliographic styles.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Both support full text integration. I've often found more one-click access to PDFs in PsycInfo. However, Google Scholar will let you know if a PDF is freely available on the Internet.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Benefits of Google Scholar&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Google Scholar is free to use. So naturally if you don't have access to PsychInfo, then it is there.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Google scholar includes more content from more disciplines. But PsycInfo has great coverage of psychology.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Google Scholar does not require a password to access.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Google Scholar is quicker to start. For example, at my university, you need to go to find and go to the library site, find the page that allows you to search for databases, search for 'psycinfo', log-in. This can typically take  10 to 20 seconds. Bookmarks and saved passwords speed up the process considerably. Nonetheless, with Google Scholar I can get started with a search in 2 seconds. And the search flows naturally from a regular Google search. If all I want to do is get a single article or get a quick sense of what research has been done on a topic, that speed is important. Of course, for longer sessions, this time is no big deal.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Google Scholar has efficient BibTeX citation export.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Google Scholar has &quot;related articles&quot; that generates interesting suggestions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Google Scholar sessions don't time out. PsycInfo sessions do time out. Thus, if you are moving between searching, reading, and other activities, this time-out on PsycInfo is a nuisance.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Google Scholar makes it &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.meta.stackexchange.com/q/469/52&quot;&gt;easy to obtain an APA formatted citation&lt;/a&gt; for a given reference.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-16T15:50:00.660" LastActivityDate="2012-10-18T23:04:43.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1070" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1079" CreationDate="2012-06-09T15:18:40.710" Score="8" ViewCount="237" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes it seems easier, at least for me, to remember an answer, when there are more than 2 options to choose from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I easily remember my pin (14 bit), but hardly the lighter switch (up or down- 1 bit) for &quot;on&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is that? Or is it just a wrong impression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T01:58:00.860" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T02:12:39.637" Title="Why is it easier to remember the correct response for problems with many options rather than just two?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1071" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1070" CreationDate="2012-06-09T16:41:49.367" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The simple fact of the mater is you're talking &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memory&quot;&gt;Short Term Memory&lt;/a&gt; (STM) for the light switch versus &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_memory&quot;&gt;Long Term Memory&lt;/a&gt; (LTM) for the PIN. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Wikipedia's definition of Long Term Memory (which is fairly accurate, if simplistic)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Long-term memory (LTM) is memory in which associations among items are stored, as part of the theory of a dual-store memory model. According to the theory, long-term memory differs structurally and functionally from working memory or short-term memory, which ostensibly stores items for only around 20–30 seconds and can be recalled easily. This differs from the theory of the single-store retrieved context model that has no differentiation between short-term and long-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You never &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_%28memory%29&quot;&gt;encode&lt;/a&gt; simple things like light switch positions into Long Term Memory because it would be useless; it's going to change and it's not that important (you can always check it's state readily). You pay very little attention to the light switch meaning you will likely not even keep it in Short Term Memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your PIN on the other hand you have rehearsed dozens of times, tried very hard to remember, gotten some sleep (which helps the encoding process into Long Term Memory) and have built up many associations (this number gives me money, reminds me of my wallet, ect).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All forms of human memory are limited, so it's very important that we bias our memory toward important stuff; in STM you have to keep working with an item constantly to remember it; &quot;call bob call bob call bob&quot;. But once you've elaborated on that item (I need to call bob at 3PM because he owes me money), rehersed it repeatedly, written it down &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_%28memory%29#Maintenance_and_elaborative_rehearsal&quot;&gt;(maintenance and elaborative rehearsal)&lt;/a&gt; it might slip into long term memory. But, since unlike your PIN, it will eventually be lost to forgetting (hopefully) since you don't continue to dwell on it, and the information stops being useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T16:41:49.367" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1072" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1070" CreationDate="2012-06-09T17:26:04.090" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short term v. long term memory answer is a good one.  But what if they are both long term memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An alternative is that you just aren't counting bits correctly.  Your 14 bit PIN is static.  Once it is set one might actually argue it contains 0 bits within a given context.  It has no probability of being anything else.  The light switch is not static.  You don't encode one instance of a light switch being on or off but multiple ones over time.  The last episode of your kitchen light being on or off is one in a long string.  If you were to consider the current state of your light at home being just the last of a very long list of times you had to remember that then the light switch actually contains vastly more information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another interpretation (sometimes used to further explain the one above) is not to consider information so much as interference.  If you have one PIN# that you use within a given context then there's no interference from competing information.  However, the extensive proactive interference from past traces of the state of the light switch limit your certainty about it's state.  You might want to look up interference theory on wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T17:26:04.090" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1073" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-09T19:24:59.037" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the use of the scientific method to study mental-processes that perform typically and beneficially, e.g., topics like states of pleasure or flow, values, strengths, virtues, talents, as well as the ways that they can be promoted by social systems and institutions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-27T00:32:27.183" LastActivityDate="2013-08-27T00:32:27.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1074" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-09T19:24:59.037" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding use of the scientific method to study mental-processes that perform typically and beneficially, e.g., topics like states of pleasure or flow, values, strengths, virtues, talents, as well as the ways that they can be promoted by social systems and institutions. " OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-27T00:32:48.497" LastActivityDate="2013-08-27T00:32:48.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1075" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="107" CreationDate="2012-06-09T21:00:48.997" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Evolution does not help Minsky's theory of a resourceful mind. Although he tries to frame his discussion in loose evolutionary terms in the Emotion Machine and the book it is based on: Society of Mind (here is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cai.sk/ojs/index.php/cai/article/viewFile/467/374&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;good review/summary&lt;/a&gt;). As you noted during your reading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Minsky backs himself up by saying &quot;evolution did so&quot;, but hasn't provided tests or studies that verify such claims&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several reasons why he can't back himself up, and these are not unique to him but common throughout evolutionary psychology. The fundamental reason why Minsky (and other evolutionary psychologists) can't provide biologically convincing defenses for their evolutionary statements is because they are buildings &lt;strong&gt;theories of the mind, not the brain&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biological evolution (at least in the modern synthesis) acts on genes. It is already hard enough to provide evolutionary descriptions on this level (see for instance issues surrounding the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green-beard_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;green-beard effect&lt;/a&gt;). However, biologists are sometimes able to go one step past this and start talking about basic physiology and the phenotypes and how selection acts on them. These are discussions about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypic_trait&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;phenotypic traits&lt;/a&gt;. The traits that are most easily linked to the genes that express them are the ones that we can study effectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain is not easily linked to the genes that express it. Thus questions about the brain are already difficult enough to talk about from an evolutionary perspective (although &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.subjectpool.com/ed_teach/y3project/Roth2005_TICS_brain_size_and_intelligence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;some try&lt;/a&gt;). The mind is one more level of description higher up. Thus, in order to have a precise evolutionary statements about the mind we would need to solve the whole chain: genes --&gt; protein expression --&gt; physiology of the brain --&gt; function of the brain --&gt; function of the mind. We haven't solved any of these arrows, so it is not surprising that Minsky does not have hard evidence to support himself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, when you read Minsky (and other evolutionary psychologists) be wary of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;teleological&lt;/a&gt; arguments. For us to have some trait doesn't mean that the trait needs to have been selected for at some point (in fact, some make a whole ruckus over what it even means to 'select for a trait'). Especially when you are considering such epiphenomena as the basic agents (or resources in the new book) of the mind. Take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_drift&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;genetic drift&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_hitchhiking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;genetic hitchhiking&lt;/a&gt; as starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T19:23:39.187" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T19:23:39.187" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1076" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-09T21:04:18.820" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A condition in which people with developmental delays (notably autism spectrum) or brain injury, demonstrate some profound abilities far in excess of typical individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T21:12:01.063" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T21:12:01.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1077" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-09T21:04:18.820" Score="0" Body="A condition in which people with developmental delays (notably autism spectrum) or brain injury demonstrate some profound abilities far in excess of typical individuals." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T21:12:03.670" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T21:12:03.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1078" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-09T22:08:52.763" Score="20" ViewCount="665" Body="&lt;p&gt;Game theory models something very relevant to psychologists (in particular social psychologists): conflict and cooperation between decision-makers. Unfortunately, classical game theory demands that these decision makers are rational (in a mathematically precise sense). This definition of rationality is challenged &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/251/29&quot;&gt;empirically (by work like Tversky &amp;amp; Shafir)&lt;/a&gt; and on a theoretical level (by complexity results on finding or approximating Nash equilibria: a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PPAD_(complexity)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PPAD&lt;/a&gt;-complete problem).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Economists and mathematicians (and others) have taken two approaches to overcome this problem. The first is top-down approach of limiting the agent's abilities from an all-powerful rational agent down; this is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_rationality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bounded rationality&lt;/a&gt; approach. The other is the bottom-up approach of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;evolutionary game theory&lt;/a&gt;: start with the simplest agents (that can't even make decisions) and have natural selection, imitation, or another simple dynamic process evolve the population over time. This seems to dove-tail nicely with the biogenic approach to cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there examples of the tools of &lt;strong&gt;evolutionary game theory being used in social psychology&lt;/strong&gt; or other sub-disciplines of the cognitive sciences? Is there a &lt;strong&gt;survey (or book) on EGT's impact on the cognitive sciences&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Related question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/288/29&quot;&gt;What are good examples of applying dynamical systems in cognitive science?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-01-07T16:19:21.647" Title="Evolutionary game theory in the cognitive sciences" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1079" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1070" CreationDate="2012-06-09T23:35:25.987" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are at least three phenomena, which may play the role:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interference_theory&quot;&gt;psychological interference&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;information redundancy,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;relational character of knowledge.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A too short information can easily interfere. So if it is on/off, it may interfere with its state a few days before, or with if the iron is on or off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, things are remembered with redundancy. So, for example, one can remember not only PIN as numbers visually, but also as words, as a 'snapshot' of numbers written on a letter, as a sequence of finger moves, etc. So in case one is lost or inactive, all other can be used instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, one there is a piece of information, you can relate (consciously or not) to other objects. E.g. you can additionally remember that there are two digits from your birthdate and there is 8, a number you like very much, ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic&quot;&gt;mnemonic&lt;/a&gt; techniques base on the three observations, to make it easier to learn or harder to forget.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a side note, computational analogues (esp. number of bits) are usually very misleading when it comes to human mind. The later does not work as an easy in/out device storying faithfully digital information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(BTW: very likely, still it is much easier to remember 4 digits (of base 10) than 14 zeroes/ones.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="28" LastEditDate="2012-06-09T23:44:16.520" LastActivityDate="2012-06-09T23:44:16.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1080" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1070" CreationDate="2012-06-10T02:12:39.637" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few thoughts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Automaticity and consistency:&lt;/strong&gt; It is much easier to automate a response that is consistent. Thus, if all the lights that you interact with follow the same rules then you will make the correct decision more often and you are more likely to automate the response.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;cost of not recalling:&lt;/strong&gt; The cost of not recalling your password can be high. This is particularly true for credit cards and so on. The cost of not knowing what is &quot;on&quot; on a light is minimal, just try the other option.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;contingent responses&lt;/strong&gt;: There are different ways that you can perform tasks. With the light switch, you could have a decision rule that says if I want to have light on and light is off, toggle switch. Such a decision rule does not require knowledge of which state is on and which is off. In particular, if your life is filled with inconsistent light switches then the toggle decision rule may be more adaptive.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;automaticity and recall:&lt;/strong&gt; If you have automated a response, you may even forget in a declarative sense what you are doing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T02:12:39.637" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1081" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9832" CreationDate="2012-06-10T09:17:59.500" Score="10" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus (CS, e.g., a tone) is presented just before an unconditioned stimulus (UCS, e.g., a mild toe pinch) in repeated trials, such that the CS will eventually evoke the unconditioned response (e.g., withdrawal reflex) on its own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such memories of fear and discomfort are said to be held in the lateral amygdala, with a representation of the CS and its UCS (Díaz-Mataix et al, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certain areas of the brain have particular representations of stimuli, e.g., a tone of a given frequency, as the primary auditory cortices have &quot;tonotopic&quot; zones in which different areas have a differential response to separate frequencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the CS/UCS pairing is more abstract than a single tone, I'm curious as to what type of representation of the CS/UCS is actually encoded within the local subnetworks  amygdala.  I can't imagine that, for the above example, a particular area holds a representative frequency of a tone used as a CS in tight collaboration with a &quot;pain&quot; signal.  It might be realistic, but anatomically, that whole area would also have to reflect an exhaustive set of all of the other possible &quot;life events&quot; that the animal has experienced.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is this representation in the lateral amygdala just a placeholder to retrieve other pertinent memories stored elsewhere in cortex -- is the hippocampus a major player in keeping this sorted?  If, in fact, all these pairings are just weak bindings of diverse stimuli, why is it so difficult to untangle and extinguish more complex types of fears in human patients?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Díaz-Mataix, L., Debiec, J., LeDoux, J.E. &amp;amp; Doyère, V. (2011). Sensory-specific associations stored in the lateral amygdala allow for selective alteration of fear memories. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 9538-9543.. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/26/9538.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-22T22:01:43.697" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T22:01:43.697" Title="What salient features of a {conditioned stimulus,unconditioned stimulus} pair are represented in the lateral amygdala?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1082" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-10T09:25:20.427" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A controversial approach to psychotherapy that was popular in the 1970s, but has been largely debunked by science since.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;General questions on the principles of neuro-linguistic programming may be off topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistic_programming#Scientific_criticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scientific criticism&lt;/a&gt; for more information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:22:35.467" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:22:35.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1083" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-10T09:25:20.427" Score="0" Body="A controversial approach to psychotherapy that was popular in the 1970s, but has been largely debunked by science since.  " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T11:32:10.117" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T11:32:10.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1084" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-10T09:27:20.517" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the quality of life of individuals (or societies) and how it can be effectively measured or quantified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Quality of life&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-21T23:03:41.650" LastActivityDate="2012-06-21T23:03:41.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1085" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-10T09:27:20.517" Score="0" Body="Questions regarding the quality of life of individuals (or societies) and how it can be effectively measured or quantified." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T11:32:15.543" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T11:32:15.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1086" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-10T09:31:41.090" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The wikipedia article &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience_of_music&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive neuroscience of music&lt;/a&gt; has a wide array of introductory information and references for getting started in learning about the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T11:31:59.210" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T11:31:59.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1087" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-10T09:31:41.090" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the sensation or perception of the musical form within the brain, or the creativity involved in writing music." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T11:32:03.750" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T11:32:03.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1088" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1024" CreationDate="2012-06-10T11:04:17.280" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;nrz&lt;/code&gt; is on the right track with the epilepsy example.  One of the limiting factors in the use of our brain is the amount of free molecules of the neurotransmitter glutamate.  Having too much free glutamate can cause a phenomenon known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitotoxicity&quot;&gt;excitotoxicity&lt;/a&gt;.  This phenomenon is also seen in conditions such as stroke, where damaged cells release their entire load of glutamate due to hypoxic damage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once glutamate has been bound with a post-synaptic cell, it must be taken up by neuroglia (supporting cells), which are present in great number in the surrounding milieu, metabolized into glut*amine* (inactivated), and recycled for repackaging and reuse in the neighboring neurons [1].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of epilepsy (or in the theoretical case of your question, overusing your brain), the glial cells proliferate rapidly, which paradoxically causes a &lt;em&gt;slowing&lt;/em&gt; of the transformation of glutamine back into glutamate.  This is presumably a homeostatic mechanism[1].  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, from my own reckoning, it would seem like a rapid increase in function would cause excitotoxic damage in the short term, and lead to a slowdown in the metabolism of fresh transmitter in the long.  Granted, there are other transmitters that are active in the cortex, but glutamate is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid#Neurotransmitter&quot;&gt;most abundant&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[1] Coulter, D.A., Eid, T. (2012)  Astrocytic Regulation of Glutamate Homeostasis&#xA;  in Epilepsy. Glia., 2012 May 16. doi: 10.1002/glia.22341. [Epub ahead of print]   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T11:04:17.280" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1089" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-10T17:13:39.560" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about performance or neurophysiological differences between male and female individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T17:19:05.283" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T17:19:05.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1090" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-10T17:13:39.560" Score="0" Body="For questions about performance or neurophysiological differences between male and female individuals." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T17:19:07.657" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T17:19:07.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1091" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="580" CreationDate="2012-06-10T21:14:52.930" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unless I'm mistaken, it sounds like you're actually interested in meta-cognition and type-2 signal detection theory (the form of SDT that Speldosa has pointed to is type-1 signal detection theory). It's used to study our ability to reflect on our own knowledge, or what we think about what we think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; might get you started on meta-cognition in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A type-2 SDT task might involve asking participants to detect a stimulus, as would be the case in a type-1 SDT task, giving hits and false alarms. However, the difference is that, in a type-2 SDT task, after reporting whether they thought the stimulus was present or absent, participants are then asked a second question. This second question asks them how confident they were that they were right in their decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this additional information, type-2 SDT tasks can then probe the extent to which participants can tell the difference between when they have the correct answer and when they have the incorrect answer, which I believe is what you are interested in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a sample paper that explores this in detail, albeit related to a different task, but should be enough to get you started:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Higham, P.A. (2007) &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/?&amp;amp;fa=main.doiLanding&amp;amp;doi=10.1037/0096-3445.136.1.1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;No Special K! A signal detection framework for the strategic regulation of memory accuracy.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136(1): 1-22.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T21:22:23.060" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T21:22:23.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1092" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1093" CreationDate="2012-06-10T23:04:17.467" Score="10" ViewCount="557" Body="&lt;p&gt;When learning about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning&quot;&gt;Operant Conditioning&lt;/a&gt;, I remember being taught that not consistently rewarding the desired behavior could (seemingly counterintuitively) actually &lt;em&gt;increase&lt;/em&gt; the strength of learning the conditioned behavior. Is this correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is correct, is it more effective to begin providing a reward at or near 100% of the time the conditioned behavior is performed, and then slowly reduce the amount to a lower percentage? Or is it more effective to simply start with a lower percentage?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-06-10T23:09:51.747" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T22:18:39.920" Title="Does not consistently providing a reward strengthen operant conditioning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1092" CreationDate="2012-06-10T23:33:01.367" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you're thinking of is called an &lt;strong&gt;Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule&lt;/strong&gt;. Different &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement#Simple_schedules&quot;&gt;Reinforcement schedules&lt;/a&gt; have different effects, &lt;strong&gt;variable ratio&lt;/strong&gt; in particular seems to be what you're getting at:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a reinforcement schedule in which the number of responses necessary to produce reinforcement varies from trial to trial&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's important is the behavior is reinforced intermittently but regularly enough to be &quot;worth&quot; it. This produces a powerful effect; I don't immediately have any sources but I do believe B.F. Skinner ran a number of such trials. where the subject will repeatedly perform the behavior in an attempt to get more rewards. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An explanation I've heard is that with a predictable reward schedule (fixed ratio) your participant knows they can except a reward, so there's no reason to mindlessly perform the task over and over; compare a Slot Machine (variable ratio) to a machine that gives out money on a fixed number of tries (fixed ratio). A subject knows with the fixed ratio machine they can &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; get their reward at any time. With the slot machine you have to keep playing and playing to get that big next reward. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remember that for proper &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaping_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;Shaping&lt;/a&gt; you should start with a high percentage (100%) initially to condition the response otherwise the participant might not be conditioned &lt;strong&gt;at all&lt;/strong&gt;. Going back to the gambling example, it's much more effective if you give your participant a taste of winning when they play the slots or they'll quickly quit as it seems there's no reward to be had at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shaping involves immediate rewarding behaviors &lt;em&gt;approaching&lt;/em&gt; the desired behavior, it's certainly more important to start with a high % of rewarding, especially with non-human subjects when getting them to perform the wanted task can be problematic to begin with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-06-10T23:33:01.367" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1094" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1043" CreationDate="2012-06-11T08:38:09.660" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/user/paulchabe?feature=watch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This youtube channel has videos labeled &quot;Fritz Perl ClipN&quot;&lt;/a&gt; where N = 1,2,3, 4.0 and 5:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ps6PHYBUnuk&amp;amp;feature=plcp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Clip1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AlayqPwDuz0&amp;amp;feature=plcp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Clip2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rkiK9vo3C_k&amp;amp;feature=plcp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Clip3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8P4-qhWSUk0&amp;amp;feature=plcp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Clip4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2o9vdXN4490&amp;amp;feature=plcp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Clip5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-11T12:11:22.373" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T12:11:22.373" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1096" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-11T10:54:33.037" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the psychology of tricking or manipulating others with falsehoods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Deception&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_manipulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychological manipulation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T07:15:33.277" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T07:15:33.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1097" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-11T10:54:33.037" Score="0" Body="For questions about the psychology of tricking or manipulating others with falsehoods" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-11T11:00:08.203" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T11:00:08.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1098" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-11T10:56:08.337" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the psychological or neuroscientific basis of learning to read, reading comprehension in children or adults, or deficits/disorders of reading ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_%28process%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reading&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_comprehension&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reading comprehension&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a popular press account, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0060933844&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Proust and the Squid&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T00:12:18.463" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T00:12:18.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1099" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-11T10:56:08.337" Score="0" Body="For questions about the psychological or neuroscientific basis of learning to read, reading comprehension in children or adults, or deficits/disorders of reading ability." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-11T11:00:26.877" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T11:00:26.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1100" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-11T10:58:44.950" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions surrounding the motor cortex, end-effectors (muscles, glands, etc.), and motor deficits in humans and animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Motor system&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Motor control&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:22:17.867" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:22:17.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1101" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-11T10:58:44.950" Score="0" Body="For questions surrounding movement such as stair walking, dynamic touch, time-to-contact (Tau) estimation, the motor cortex, end-effectors (muscles, glands, etc.), and motor deficits in humans and animals." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-19T22:46:03.233" LastActivityDate="2015-04-19T22:46:03.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1102" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-11T11:01:06.163" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the eye muscles and their volitional control as well as their unconscious control (via saccades).  Also for specific instances of eye-movements, like during REM sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Eye&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGO_waves&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PGO waves&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccades&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Saccades&lt;/a&gt;.  Also see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nerve_III&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cranial nerve III&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochlear&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cranial nerve IV&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abducent_nerve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cranial nerve VI&lt;/a&gt;, all of which control movements of the eyes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:22:04.797" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:22:04.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1103" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-11T11:01:06.163" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the eye muscles and their volitional control as well as their unconscious control (via saccades).  Also for specific instances of eye-movements, like during REM sleep." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-11T11:01:28.920" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T11:01:28.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1104" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-11T11:06:42.360" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about learning improved skills of perception  from simple sensory discrimination to complex categorizations of spatial and temporal patterns relevant to real-world expertise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-11T11:42:25.707" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T11:42:25.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1105" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-11T11:06:42.360" Score="0" Body="For questions about learning improved skills of perception  from simple sensory discrimination to complex categorizations of spatial and temporal patterns relevant to real-world expertise." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-11T11:42:27.327" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T11:42:27.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1106" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-11T11:08:35.593" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding behaviors of internet users, use of the internet for psychology experiments, or accessing cognitive sciences resources via the web.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:22:07.587" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:22:07.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1107" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-11T11:08:35.593" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding behaviors of internet users, use of the internet for psychology experiments, or accessing cognitive sciences resources via the web." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-11T11:42:20.650" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T11:42:20.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1108" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1109" CreationDate="2012-06-11T12:10:53.673" Score="6" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in prediction markets, where traders have a monetary incentive to bet on who they think would win in an election. I think that the financial incentive in prediction markets makes them a better predictor of future election outcomes than polls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that when people are asked how they would vote on the presidency if tomorrow were the election day, they tend to give you an answer which they would like to see happen rather than how they would actually vote.  This discrepancy reduces the predictive value of polls.  Alternatively, I think that if the incentives are set correctly the same people tell you more of the truth instead of their wishful thinking. I would call this phenomena &quot;polls bias&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is a scientific term for this problem?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Where can I read further about the phenomena?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="822" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T08:32:08.447" LastActivityDate="2012-09-19T08:11:38.390" Title="What term describes the discrepancy in reported intention to vote and actual voting behaviour?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1109" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1108" CreationDate="2012-06-11T12:19:16.977" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_desirability_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social desirability bias&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is one of the reasons a behavioral study may give better results than a self-report study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="418" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T12:19:16.977" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1110" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-11T12:24:49.060" Score="11" ViewCount="1242" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cWmbqH_z7jM&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Prometheus Viral Clip #3 - David&lt;/a&gt; is a good clip of a fictional character in a science-fiction movie that helps frame my question; but I am interested in the general question, not the specifics of this movie.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An robot named David claims to &quot;understand human emotions, although [he] does not feel them [himself].&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I personally feel as though his claim is false - I would argue that to be able to state an understanding of human emotions, one must [have the capacity to?] feel them oneself. &lt;strong&gt;Is there existing knowledge or papers on this matter?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When asked what makes David sad, he responds with things like war and poverty. When asked if David would like to supply any additional statements before ending the feed, he expresses &quot;gratitude&quot; explicitly. &lt;strong&gt;If one &quot;is&quot; sad, isn't one by definition, &quot;feeling&quot; sadness?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Related questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/961/are-there-emotions-that-only-some-people-can-feel&quot;&gt;Are there emotions that only some people can feel?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="48" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T13:43:10.000" Title="Can one &quot;understand&quot; emotions, yet not &quot;feel&quot; them?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1111" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1110" CreationDate="2012-06-11T13:43:10.000" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two ways to approach your question: with or without dualism. I will highlight the dualist approach since it is more salient. Keep in mind that I do not find this approach reasonable, and doubt my summary will do it justice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might be interested in the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_zombie&quot;&gt;philosophical zombie&lt;/a&gt;, it is a modal argument against physicalism in the spirit of Saul Kripke that was polished by David Chalmers in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Conscious_Mind&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Conscious Mind&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. The basic idea is that you can have a &lt;em&gt;zombie&lt;/em&gt; which is behaviorally equivalent to a human (including making utterances like &quot;Ouch, I feel pain&quot;) yet it does not actually &lt;em&gt;experience&lt;/em&gt; those emotions. There is nothing that if &quot;feels like&quot; to be a zombie. A zombie can say &quot;I feel sad&quot; and act like it &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; sad, but it doesn't &lt;em&gt;feel&lt;/em&gt; anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you adopt this stance it often becomes impossible to make a good theory-of-mind since everyone except yourself could actually be a zombie. In fact, Chalmers takes this further by talking about a whole parallel Z-universe where all creatures are zombies (including a copy Chalmers that goes around talking about a parallel universe). &lt;strong&gt;From this perspective, David's statement can be perfectly valid.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A second approach is looking at this point from the polar opposite perspective: behaviorism. Here, &quot;to understand human emotion&quot; would mean to be able to make predictions of human behavior based on knowledge that the human asserts to be in a certain emotional state. To &quot;feel human emotion&quot; would not be as well defined, but would be roughly equivalent to make the same patterns of behavior as a human that asserts to feel a certain emotion would usually make. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is easy to see how &lt;strong&gt;David's statement can be perfectly valid from this perspective&lt;/strong&gt;: if David simple stood in the corner and wrote down predictions of what the humans around him would do, then a behaviorist would say that David &quot;understands human emotion&quot;. However, since standing in a corner and making predictions while your crew is eaten by aliens is not a typical human response, the behaviorist could conclude that David does not &quot;feel human emotion&quot; (if the behaviorist was tricked into using the word 'feel').&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I provided are two extreme philosophical stances, and each individual lays somewhere in between the two in terms of their personal philosophy on this issue (and maybe some lay on other extremes I did not imagine). Unfortunately, a scientific answer will come down to definitions and semantics. It will depend on what definition of 'feeling' the scientists in question find more reasonable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastActivityDate="2012-06-11T13:43:10.000" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1112" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="510" CreationDate="2012-06-11T15:16:12.537" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a two-alternative forced choice task with Mongolian Gerbils, Illango et al. (2010) compared the effectiveness of appetitive, aversive, and a combination of appetitive and aversive reinforcers. They conclude that the combination of appetitive and aversive reinforcers led&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;to the highest speed of acquisition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;to maximum possible performance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and delayed extinction &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note, however, that this does not have to be an effect of the reinforcers, but might also be an effect of the informational feedback. In a study on human category learning, Ashby &amp;amp; O'Brian (2007) compared the effectiveness of positive and negative &lt;em&gt;feedback&lt;/em&gt; (i.e., not reinforcers) in a two-alternative forced choice task. They also found that a combination of positive and negative feedback results in the best performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ashby FG, O'Brien JB. (2007) The effects of positive versus negative feedback on information-integration category learning. Percept Psychophys 69(6):865-78. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18018967&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18018967&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ilango A, Wetzel W, Scheich H, Ohl FW. (2010) The combination of appetitive and aversive reinforcers and the nature of their interaction during auditory learning. Neuroscience. 166(3):752-62. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20080152&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20080152&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-06-12T07:22:41.973" LastActivityDate="2012-06-12T07:22:41.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1113" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="522" CreationDate="2012-06-11T21:06:56.187" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not surprisingly, there's a huge load of stuff you need to consider when designing things for users. Here's a good paper written by some perception and vision researchers on the topic that might give you a more detailed introduction that what you have seen so far:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.csc.ncsu.edu/faculty/healey/download/tvcg.11.pdf&quot;&gt;Healey, C.G. &amp;amp; Enns, J.T. (in press). Attention and visual memory in visualization and computer graphics. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's open access as well!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastEditorUserId="440" LastEditDate="2012-06-20T09:21:39.937" LastActivityDate="2012-06-20T09:21:39.937" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1114" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="994" CreationDate="2012-06-11T22:14:16.877" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fonagy and Target, although they do not specifically cite the term 'Motherese', believe that what they call 'Marking'- signalling an unreality or playfulness in mirrored displays of affect can play a crucial role in the development of a faculty they call 'Mentalization'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to their model, newborns experience affect as all-pervading, and do not see it as limited to a self. By internalising mirrored affect displays by the primary caregiver they are able to conceptualise their own affect on a second order (symbolic) level, are able to 'play' with their own feelings as the mother brings affect into the realm of the pretend. Thus they implicate improper marking in later development of borderline personality disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mentalizacion.com.ar/images/notas/Attachment%20and%20reflective%20function--%20Their%20role%20in%20self-organization.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here's a paper of theirs on the subject&lt;/a&gt;, although I recommend &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Affect_Regulation_Mentalization_and_the.html?hl=sv&amp;amp;id=EDHi3N-ebykC&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;their book&lt;/a&gt;, which is considerably more expansive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; Sorry, off the internets for a month. Here are some useful quotes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Take the case of pretend play: here &lt;em&gt;markedness&lt;/em&gt; is conveyed by a series of salient perceptual features that distinguish a pretend action or pretend emotion expression from a real one. Knowing looks, slightly tilted head, high pitch and slowed down down, exaggerated intonation and contour, schematic, abbreviated or only partial execution of action schemes... ...all mark for the child that the pretend expression is categorically different from its realistic equivalent- that it is &quot;not for real&quot;. We have argued... ...that in the case of adaptive parental affect-mirroring interactions, the affect-reflective emotion display is also modified by the same kinds of transformations... &#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;(Fonagy, Gergley, Jurist and Target, &quot;Affect regulation, Mentalization and Development of the Self&quot; p296 , Other Press 2002- linked above)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frustratingly, this was the most explicit exposition of marking behaviours I could find in the book, which is mainly theoretical. You will immediately observe that what is described is not all motherese, nor only motherese- but you will agree, I hope, that there is a not-inconsiderable overlap between the two- and that the wedding of IDL to such concepts is not, so to speak, of shotgun ilk. To say that the function of motherese was precisely the above would certainly be wrong- but I would hope you would concurr that as an adaptation it would confer advantage in part for this reason, were Fonagy et al's hypothesis&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...[T]hat the perception of markedness activates the yound child's metarepresentational system (Leslie 1987) which allows for &quot;decoupling&quot; of the expression from its referents in actual reality. &#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;(Ibid, p296)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="813" LastEditorUserId="813" LastEditDate="2012-08-12T14:28:51.997" LastActivityDate="2012-08-12T14:28:51.997" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1115" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="90" CreationDate="2012-06-12T06:56:09.750" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;psychological sequelae&lt;/strong&gt; might be a word you're looking for if you forgive that it's somehow still neurobiological; it is however, not genetic or developmental or something somebody was born with:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Chronic kidney disease, for example, is sometimes a sequela of diabetes, &#xA;and neck pain is a common sequela of whiplash or other trauma to the cervical &#xA;vertebrae. Post-traumatic stress disorder may be a **psychological sequela** of rape.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this is a specific kind of pathological condition (a clinical one that requires attention!), not a general term for &quot;psychological effect&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequelae&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequelae&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Artem pointed out, you will have a hard time separating neurobiology from psychological effects if you want to maintain a reasonable/empirical/scientific approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Epigenetic is the word for &quot;an addition to&quot; genetics, so you can find out a lot with that search term.  Particularly, &lt;strong&gt;behavioral epigenetics&lt;/strong&gt; might be what you're interested in (note that it's still a molecular basis, just not genetic):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Environmental influences, as opposed to intrinsic influences (but still somehow neurobiological, as the biological system has to detect, interpret and respond to external stimuli for them to be significant) have many different names and are a large part of psychology in general.  Richard Wilkinson has an excellent talk on how income disparity leads to unhappiness through the psychological conditions it imposes on the poor (another example of Sequelae):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/richard_wilkinson.html&quot;&gt;http://www.ted.com/talks/richard_wilkinson.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2012-06-12T07:11:24.503" LastActivityDate="2012-06-12T07:11:24.503" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1116" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1179" CreationDate="2012-06-12T23:33:55.770" Score="17" ViewCount="2773" Body="&lt;p&gt;Modern psychology and psychiatry are very well grounded in scientific principles.  Both, however, have a history in various analytical philosophies.  Jung had the notion of an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungian_archetypes&quot;&gt;archetype&lt;/a&gt;, a universally known symbol.  While these are perhaps fanciful concepts, I think that it can be interesting to try to reconcile them in terms of current knowledge.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A modern author (Knox 2001) makes the following assessment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I suggest that although, like Freud, Jung contradicted himself at times, there is a lot of evidence that he viewed archetypes as innate predispositions with an organizing function.  I think it is one of the possible models for archetypes that we need to research extensively by investigating the ways in which an understanding of 'frames' and image schemas may advance our concept.  We need to gain a clearer understanding of the extent to which archetypes are 'hard-wired', genetically inherited structures or, on the other hand, self-organizing patterns that emerge as a central part of the development of meaning by the human brain as...recently proposed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the arguments about genetically driven versus self-organizing patterns are fascinating, but in this question, I'd like to presuppose the latter.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If these patterns were to exist, what sensory modalities would be stored in combination?  Are they exclusively visual, or is there a tight binding between the visual and auditory components of these memories?  Could different memories be combinations of modular archetypal &quot;bases&quot; or would each be unique?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Knox, J.M. (2001).  Memories, fantasies, archetypes: an exploration of some connections between cognitive science and analytical psychology.  Journal of Analytical Psychology, 46:613-635.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-14T16:25:24.337" LastActivityDate="2014-07-12T00:32:26.663" Title="What form might Jungian archetypes take in the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1117" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-13T01:49:32.347" Score="19" ViewCount="668" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Background&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mountcastle's hypothesis, which is based on the observation of uniform cortical anatomy, suggests that the there might be a uniform cortical &quot;algorithm&quot;. The only reason that some cortical regions seem to be specialized for particular functions, like vision, hearing, etc. is that they happen to be connected to corresponding sensory input. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/25/science/rewired-ferrets-overturn-theories-of-brain-growth.html?pagewanted=all&amp;amp;src=pm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ferret sensory input rewiring experiments&lt;/a&gt; confirms this hypothesis (rewiring auditory cortex in ferrets to receive visual input, lets them see just as good). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regions of the cortex which are not connected directly to any sensory input listen in on the broadcasts that are sent by neighboring regions, either directly or through the thalamus (which is currently thought to be some sort of relaying mechanism) and do further transformations and refinements at a more abstract level. For example in the case of vision, it is known that the primary visual cortex, V1, consists of a sheet of cells/columns that are sensitive to edges oriented and/or moving in particular directions. The &quot;higher&quot; regions of visual cortex, take the output of V1 and further process it. Neurons in V4, for example, are known to be sensitive to objects like a chair or a dog &lt;em&gt;or your grandmother&lt;/em&gt;. Much of this is discussed in detail by Jeff Hawkins in &lt;em&gt;On Intelligence&lt;/em&gt; where he speculates that cortical regions are connected up in a hierarchy something like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eCMRh.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Cortical Hierarchy - On Intelligence&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hawkins, however, does not talk much about that top level region, and only makes a passing speculation that it might be the hippocampus. &lt;strong&gt;But, it seems to be screaming at you, that whatever it is, it must be the seat of the self.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Googling on these ideas led me to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_theater&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cartesian Theater&lt;/a&gt;, a term that philosopher, Daniel Dennett derisively uses to refer to the idea that there is a central place in the brain, where everything comes together. For example, in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Multiple_drafts_model&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multiple drafts model&lt;/a&gt; Dennett says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The multiple drafts model of consciousness was developed as an&#xA;  alternative to the perennially attractive, but incoherent, model of&#xA;  conscious experience called Cartesian materialism, the idea that after&#xA;  early unconscious processing occurs in various relatively peripheral&#xA;  brain structures &quot;everything comes together&quot; in some privileged&#xA;  central place in the brain, which one might call the &lt;strong&gt;Cartesian Theater&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  -- for &quot;presentation&quot; to the inner self or homunculus. &lt;em&gt;There is no such place in the brain&lt;/em&gt;, but many theories seem to presuppose that&#xA;  there must be something like it.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I didn't find his arguments very compelling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Given that there are regions of cortex that are dedicated to vision, sound, touch processing, etc., is there a region of cortex, that listens to only the final assembled portions from several &quot;lower&quot; regions of cortex, which then over a period of development (by age 1.5?) becomes the seat of self?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is the case, Dennett's criticism of the Cartesian Theater and a 'homunculus' observing it is outdated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Update&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the source of all the homunculus confusion to be the little green homunculus in &lt;em&gt;Men In Black I&lt;/em&gt;, and Daniel Dennett's use of this imagery to caricature any argument for a region in the brain where everything comes together and therefore being the seat of the self. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In essence what I'm saying is that only a small subset of the brain is the seat of consciousness, the reason being that large portions of the cortex seem to essentially be doing pre-processing steps. For example, V1 the largest area of the cortex seems to be &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1125/where-is-the-visual-image-that-we-see-finally-assembled&quot;&gt;assembling the visual field from the split up portions&lt;/a&gt; coming from the eye via the LGN in the thalamus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This by itself does not lead to an infinite regress, as the problem (of making sense of the world) is simplified a lot after all the pre-processing steps. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way of putting my point is via the following simple analogies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;| body        | brain                         | Self      |&#xA;|-------------+-------------------------------+-----------|&#xA;| corporation | executive staff               | CEO       |&#xA;| army        | officer corps                 | General   |&#xA;| nation      | congress/senate/supreme court | President |&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Some more clarification on the homunculus fallacy confusion:&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;Almost everyone agrees that no fallacy whatsoever is being made by saying that the brain is the seat of consciousness (SoC). Similarly, no fallacy is made merely by claiming that a subset of the brain is the SoC. A homunculus fallacy is made if it is further claimed that by identifying the SoC, an explanation of consciousness has been given. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;As Dennett rightly says, an explanation of consciousness should not contain components that are themselves fully conscious&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Doing so only postpones the problem and leads to infinite regress. In my question's background, I'm not trying to imply that I have explained consciousness, all I'm saying is that there is evidence that only a subset of the brain is the SoC, and this SoC could be regarded as being at the center of a Cartesian theater. And of course, instead of light and sound being projected/played in this theater, there are only streams of neural spikes, representing light, sound, etc. in transduced form.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="643" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2012-11-15T09:49:07.467" Title="Is there a region of cortex which over a period of development becomes the seat of self?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="16" FavoriteCount="7" CommunityOwnedDate="2012-07-20T08:03:18.320" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1118" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1121" CreationDate="2012-06-13T06:26:23.837" Score="11" ViewCount="383" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Background&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have just been analysing some data where participants attempt to control a dynamic system with integer numeric inputs between 0 and 100. I've noticed that there is a general tendency for participants to give responses that are divisible by 10 (e.g., 0, 10, 20, 30, etc.). After that participants' second favourite input values are those divisible by 5 but not by 10 ( e.g., 5, 15, 25, 35, etc.). After that excluding some general patterns in the data, all the other input numbers appear about equally common (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps in a related way, I can also remember from market research that when you ask people how often they do certain things, as the number gets larger, they will often show a similar tendency to approximate and use numbers divisible by 10 or 100 and so on.  I also seem to remember reading research where people report number of sexual partners, where a similar tendency was observed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, this tendency is consistent with a preference for what are informally referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_number&quot;&gt;&quot;round numbers&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, where as in Wikipedia it is argued that &quot;a number ending in 5 might be considered in a way more &quot;round&quot; than one ending in neither 0 nor 5. &quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What explains people's general tendency to prefer certain input values when trying to control a system (e.g., numbers divisible by 10 or 5)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any specific research that has quantified this effect in another system control task?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does a similar mechanism underlie the popularity of such numbers in a system control task as does in a frequency estimation task?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-13T06:59:57.243" LastActivityDate="2012-06-13T15:20:41.273" Title="Why do participants prefer to give input values that are &quot;round numbers&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1119" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="55" CreationDate="2012-06-13T11:14:01.183" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was recently reading a study by Roy and Liersch (in press).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We examined whether people recognized that others might disagree with&#xA;  their high self assessments of driving ability, and, if so, why.&#xA;  Participants in four experiments expressed a belief  that others would&#xA;  assess them as worse drivers than they assessed themselves. This&#xA;  difference  appears to be caused by participants’ use of their own,&#xA;  idiosyncratic definition of driving  ability. In Experiments 2 and 3&#xA;  participants reported that others would supply similar  assessments of&#xA;  their ability when the skill was less ambiguous. Results of Experiment&#xA;  4 indicate  that participants recognize that there may be more than&#xA;  one way to view driving performance.   Participants appear aware that&#xA;  others likely disagree with their self-assessment of driving ability &#xA;  due to differences in how others define driving ability&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, the authors take seriously the concept of &lt;em&gt;idiosyncratic definitions of ability&lt;/em&gt;. However, they acknowledge that such a perspective does not explain the whole effect, whereby in the discussion they write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While previous research (Dunning et al., 1989; Dunning et al., 1995;&#xA;  Dunning &amp;amp;  McElwee, 1995; Dunning et al., 1989; Hayes &amp;amp; Dunning, 1997;&#xA;  Santos-Pinto &amp;amp; Sobel,  2005) and the current studies suggest that&#xA;  people might assess themselves as above  average because they focus on&#xA;  their idiosyncratic definitions of ability, it is important to  note&#xA;  that this cannot explain the bias in full.  Even though the average&#xA;  participant thought  that others would have a lower view of their&#xA;  ability, participants still thought that others  would view them as&#xA;  being an above average driver, typically scoring them around the  60&#xA;  th percentile or higher.  Unfortunately, we cannot determine how&#xA;  biased the participants  in the present studies were since their&#xA;  actual ability level was not measured (e.g., Kwan et  al., 2004).  In&#xA;  fact, it is possible that the young adults in our study were actually&#xA;  more  skilled than average.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dunning, D., Meyerowitz, J. A., &amp;amp; Holzberg, A. D. (1989). Ambiguity and self-evaluation: The role of idiosyncratic trait definitions in self-serving assessments of ability. Journal of Personality and Social  Psychology, 57, 1082-1090.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dunning, D., Leuenberger, A., &amp;amp; Sherman, D. A. (1995). A new look at motivated inference: Are selfserving theories of success a product of motivational forces? Journal of Personality and Social &#xA;Psychology, 69, 58-68. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dunning, D. &amp;amp; McElwee, R. O. (1995). Idiosyncratic trait definitions: Implications for self-description and &#xA;social judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 936-946.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hayes, A. F. &amp;amp; Dunning, D. (1997). Construal processes and trait ambiguity: Implications for self-peer &#xA;agreement in personality judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 644-677.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Roy, M.M. &amp;amp; Liersch, M.J. (in press). I Am a Better Driver Than You Think: Examining Self-Enhancement for Driving Ability. &lt;a href=&quot;http://users.etown.edu/r/roym/my%20papers/JASPinpress.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Santos-Pinto, L., &amp;amp; Sobel, J. (2005). A model of positive self-image in subjective assessments. American &#xA;Economic Review, 95, 1386-1402.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-06-13T11:14:01.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1120" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-13T13:15:39.293" Score="10" ViewCount="722" Body="&lt;p&gt;Activity has an hierarchical structure, and can be analyzed at different levels: &lt;em&gt;activities&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;actions&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;operations&lt;/em&gt;. (Leontiev 1974)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OI0b6.png&quot; alt=&quot;The structure of human activity&quot;&gt; &lt;sub&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/activity_theory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interaction-design.org&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The top level is activity itself, oriented towards its &lt;em&gt;motive&lt;/em&gt;. At a lower level lie conscious &lt;em&gt;goal&lt;/em&gt;-directed &lt;em&gt;actions&lt;/em&gt; that must be undertaken to fulfill the object. Goals can be decomposed into sub-goals, and so forth, meaning actions can have a hierarchical structure of their own. At the lowest level lie automatic processes which happen subconsciously, called &lt;em&gt;operations&lt;/em&gt;. This is how actions are eventually carried out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm not entirely sure where the distinction lies between motives and goals.&lt;/strong&gt; A motive is an object that meets a certain need of the subject, while actions are goal-directed processes that must be undertaken to fulfill the object. (Kaptelinin 2009)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like as long as a certain action has some underlying higher motive it is only part of an activity, while as no higher motive can be identified it should be considered an activity instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do you arbitrarily decide on what to define the activity, and what to define as the underlying actions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does e.g. a potential underlying motive for all actions as 'survival' fit into this picture?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Leontiev, Aleksei N. (1974). The Problem of Activity in Psychology. Soviet Psychology, 13, 4-33.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kaptelinin, Victor &amp;amp; Nardi, Bonnie A. (2009). Acting with Technology: Activity Theory and Interaction Design. The MIT Press&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2015-05-07T14:20:45.490" Title="Where does the distinction between motives and goals lie in activity theory?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1121" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1118" CreationDate="2012-06-13T15:20:41.273" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The effect you are referring to is called &lt;strong&gt;heaping&lt;/strong&gt;. Unfortunately, I am not aware of a source discussing the psychological aspect of this phenomenon, but I found an article about a statistical approach to heaped data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Roberts JM, Brewer DD. (2001) Measures and tests of heaping in&#xA;  discrete quantitative distributions. Journal of Applied Statistics&#xA;  28(7), 887-896.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02664760120074960&quot;&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02664760120074960&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;   Heaping is often found in discrete quantitative data based on subject responses to open-ended interview questions or&#xA;  observer assessments. Heaping occurs when subjects or observers prefer&#xA;  some set of numbers as responses (e.g. multiples of 5) simply because&#xA;  of the features of this set. Although heaping represents a common type&#xA;  of measurement error, apparently no prior general measure of heaping&#xA;  exists. We present simple measures and tests of heaping in discrete&#xA;  quantitative data, illustrate them with data from an epidemiologic&#xA;  study, and evaluate the bias of these statistics. These techniques&#xA;  permit formal measurement of heaping and facilitate comparisons of the&#xA;  degree of heaping in data from different samples, substantive domains,&#xA;  and data collection methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2012-06-13T15:20:41.273" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1123" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-13T23:21:18.347" Score="9" ViewCount="960" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I was young, my parents consistently used &quot;Karmic Punishments&quot;, punishments that had a strong relationship to the misbehavior. They believed that this was more effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Swearing or lying was punished by rinsing mouth out with soap&#xA;Physical violence was punished by spanking&#xA;Laziness was punished by physical labor.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there research to support the idea that relating punishment to behavior in this way is more effective than an unrelated but equally harsh punishment? Information about &quot;Karmic rewards&quot; is also valued.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sidenote: My father also did this to train the household dog. Excessive barking meant being shouted at/gunshy training (loud noise) while biting was punished with a rap on the nose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="828" LastEditorUserId="828" LastEditDate="2012-06-14T14:56:17.913" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T04:15:56.397" Title="Is &quot;Karmic Punishment&quot; more effective?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1124" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="984" CreationDate="2012-06-14T00:14:16.597" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/~akitaoka/index-e.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Akiyoshi's website&lt;/a&gt; answers the first of your questions. He calls it the &lt;strong&gt;peripheral drift illusion&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;Rotating Snakes&lt;/em&gt; illusion is the culmination of a long series of modifications that Akiyoshi made to enhance the peripheral drift effect, that was discovered by Fraser and Wilcox. In 2003 he wrote &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.ritsumei.ac.jp/~akitaoka/PDrift.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a paper&lt;/a&gt; describing his work, but admitted that all he had was rules to enhance the effect, but not an explanation for it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although this study only reveals phenomenological or design rules to&#xA;  obtain the peripheral drift illusion with large illusion magnitude, we&#xA;  are seeking an explanation on the basis of motion detector models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.ritsumei.ac.jp/~akitaoka/resdown.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;publications page&lt;/a&gt; shows a new (2012) paper which offers a more comprehensive explanation based of fMRI studies of the primary visual cortex, V1. If you have Elsevier access you can read it &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S105381191200314X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. Yet another reason why &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hnsearch.com/search#request/all&amp;amp;q=elsevier&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;publicly funded research should have public access&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="643" LastEditorUserId="643" LastEditDate="2012-06-14T00:27:05.427" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T00:27:05.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1125" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-14T01:01:05.740" Score="7" ViewCount="1946" Body="&lt;p&gt;David Hubel's online book, &lt;a href=&quot;http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/book/bcontex.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eye, Brain and Vision&lt;/a&gt; describes in great detail our early visual system. The image that we are conscious of when we open our eyes goes through a complex path:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/skkO3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;visual pathway 1&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The final seamless, stereoscopic (2.5D) &quot;image&quot; that we &quot;see&quot; can only be assembled after V1, the primary visual cortex. Unfortunately, V1 is as far as Hubel's book goes, and as far as I can tell its a mystery to Google too, &lt;strong&gt;exactly where the final &quot;image&quot; we &quot;see&quot; is assembled.&lt;/strong&gt; Does any one have better info than &lt;em&gt;the Google&lt;/em&gt; regarding this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="643" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-17T22:32:06.657" LastActivityDate="2012-09-17T22:32:06.657" Title="Where is the visual &quot;image&quot; that we &quot;see&quot; finally assembled?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1126" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1129" CreationDate="2012-06-14T01:41:48.890" Score="0" ViewCount="742" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard that men find women dressed in red more attractive (I can confirm this from personal experience as well). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What color or colors do women prefer on men, if any?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="829" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2014-11-21T15:57:47.380" LastActivityDate="2014-11-21T15:57:47.380" Title="Are there colors women find attractive on men?" Tags="&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2012-06-14T19:45:42.830" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1127" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="100" CreationDate="2012-06-14T02:06:20.423" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://web2.med.upenn.edu/uep/user_documents/VanDongen_etal_Sleep_26_2_2003.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A sleep study by Van Dongen et al (2003)&lt;/a&gt; uses three metrics to measure the effects of fatigue due to sleep loss.  The first is cognitive throughput:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A serial addition/subtraction task was included in the assessment&#xA;battery to measure cognitive throughput. The serial&#xA;addition/subtraction task is a subject-paced task requiring the&#xA;completion of 50 mental arithmetic trials. The average number of&#xA;correct responses per min was used as a neurobehavioral assay of&#xA;cognitive throughput performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, alertness / vigilance (response time to stimuli):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neurobehavioral assessment battery included a psychomotor&#xA;vigilance task to measure behavioral alertness. The psychomotor&#xA;vigilance task (PVT) is a sustained-attention reaction time task with&#xA;a random inter-stimulus interval of 2–10 s. Lapses (reaction times&#xA;greater than 500 ms) were counted per 10 min test bout as a measure of&#xA;performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third, memory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neurobehavioral assessment battery also included a computerized&#xA;digit symbol substitution task to measure working memory. This&#xA;subject-paced task involves the matching of digits (0–9) to symbols&#xA;(circle, triangle, etc.). The number of correct responses in 1.5 min&#xA;was counted to measure working memory performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The metrics ought to be effective for measuring mental performance due to fatigue whatever the cause of fatigue might be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Van Dongen, H.P.A., Maislin, G., Mullington, J.M., Dinges, D.F. &amp;amp; others (2003). The cumulative cost of additional wakefulness: dose-response effects on neurobehavioral functions and sleep physiology from chronic sleep restriction and total sleep deprivation. SLEEP-NEW YORK THEN WESTCHESTER-, 26, 117-129.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="829" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T02:13:01.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1128" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1125" CreationDate="2012-06-14T03:23:34.710" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you are succumbing to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homunculus_argument&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;homunculus argument&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, the fallacy that there is some sort of image in the brain for someone to view. There is no magical theater in your head where what is incident on your retina is projected. All you have in your brain is complicated patterns of neural activity, there are no images and nothing to view. However, these patterns of activity give rise to your phenomenological experience. To fully understand this you should ask:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/987/29&quot;&gt;What are current neuronal explanations and models of &amp;#39;consciousness&amp;#39;?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But lets try to clear up some of the conceptual difficulties with vision in particular. Your experience of the visual world is effected by two types of inputs: (1) the data from your retina, and (2) data from the rest of your senses, including memory. Why is obvious that not everything comes from (1)? Consider one the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You experience a whole visual scene, there isn't a certain nothing-ness somewhere. Yet on your retina, there is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_spot_(vision)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;blind-spot&lt;/a&gt;, something fills in that part of your experience for you.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You have an experience of certain far away buildings being further then nearby buildings. Yet your eyes are too close together for the difference in angle of the two images to be measurable at the fidelity of your retina. How does your mind know the buildings are further? Parallax and memories of how big certain objects typically are and how this scales with distance.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we concentrate only on method (1), then all the information is there from the retina on-wards and only degrades (as part of the signal is thrown away, compressed, or undergoes noise) on its way to V1 and on-wards. However, its encoding changes to become more compatible with integration with other sensory and memory information. By the time the data has reached V1 and V2, it is in an encoding that we understand well enough to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZieFvCtMCc0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reconstruct videos of what people are seeing/experiencing&lt;/a&gt;. As the &lt;a href=&quot;http://gallantlab.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gallant Lab&lt;/a&gt; that ran the linked study summarizes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The human visual system consists of several dozen distinct cortical visual areas and sub-cortical nuclei, arranged in a network that is both hierarchical and parallel. Visual information comes into the eye and is there transduced into nerve impulses. These are sent on to the lateral geniculate nucleus and then to primary visual cortex (area V1). Area V1 is the largest single processing module in the human brain. Its function is to represent visual information in a very general form by decomposing visual stimuli into spatially localized elements. Signals leaving V1 are distributed to other visual areas, such as V2 and V3. Although the function of these higher visual areas is not fully understood, it is believed that they extract relatively more complicated information about a scene. For example, area V2 is thought to represent moderately complex features such as angles and curvature, while high-level areas are thought to represent very complex patterns such as faces. The encoding model used in our experiment was designed to describe the function of early visual areas such as V1 and V2, but was not meant to describe higher visual areas. As one might expect, the model does a good job of decoding information in early visual areas but it does not perform as well in higher areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remember, there is no video in those areas. It is just firing of neurons that the scientists have figured out how to decode and interpret. As the quote mentions, the higher visual areas are not well understood right now, but presumably that is where a lot of the type (2) feedback is happening. Even inside the mildly understood visual areas, a lot of processing is distributed. For instance, take a look at the question about face-blindness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/612/29&quot;&gt;Does the fusiform face area in patients with Prosopagnosia (face blindness) show lower activity under an fMRI?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By damaging one part of the brain (the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusiform_face_area&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fusiform face area&lt;/a&gt;) you are able to continue to 'see' tables and chairs perfectly fine, and yet you can't properly identify or recognize faces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopefully this convinces you that it doesn't make sense to look for 'the image' in the brain. Together the mind and the eye are able to shape what you perceive and give it meaning, but it is a pseudo-question to ask where that image is finally assembled. It is not assembled, there is no image, there is only encoding of retina activity into higher level firing patterns that produces in us the experience of vision and meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T03:23:34.710" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1129" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1126" CreationDate="2012-06-14T03:32:42.093" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The initial report of men finding women more attractive in red or even with a red background on a photo did receive a lot of press.  However, the study has since been done in reverse.  Women tend to find red more attractive on men as well... or even with a red background on their photo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Red, rank, and romance in women viewing men.&#xA;  Elliot, Andrew J.; Niesta Kayser, Daniela; Greitemeyer, Tobias; Lichtenfeld, Stephanie; Gramzow, Richard H.; Maier, Markus A.; Liu, Huijun&#xA;  Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, Vol 139(3), Aug 2010, 399-417. doi: 10.1037/a0019689&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-06-14T20:47:16.530" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T20:47:16.530" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1130" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1125" CreationDate="2012-06-14T06:53:58.110" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The nervous system, especially the cortex, is a distributed system. Asking &quot;where&quot; is not always a sensible question. In reality, different properties of the visual scene are assembled in different areas of cortex. There is no one area where everything is reassembled. All the information we know about a scene is stored all over the visual system. In inferotemporal, we might represent complex objects. In mediotemporal, we might represent movement within the visual scene. These properties are somewhere integrated into an understanding of the scene as a whole (we can see an object moving and also know &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; it is), likely in the posterior parietal lobe, or the superior temporal gyrus. But it would be a mistake to say that the PPL/STG is where we &quot;see&quot; the world. It's merely assembling other groups of neurons into a representation of the overall visual scene.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Think of it like this. Different areas of the cortex come to represent different properties of the visual scene. These representations can be used by other areas to form more complicated representations. And so on. There is no point of convergence in the cortex, only an availability of increasingly complex representations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T06:53:58.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1131" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-14T10:48:11.337" Score="19" ViewCount="531" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for ways to improve the likelihood people will perform mundane but required workplace training. I am looking into gamification techniques. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My organisation requires that employees complete short online learning courses (think Health and Safety, Security Awareness, Risk Management, Company culture). We often find it a struggle to ensure everyone completes the required courses on schedule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Admittedly the courses themselves can be a little dry. I can't change that yet. However I want to find some ways to improve the rate at which people complete the tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am familiar with gamification techniques and concepts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What specific techniques and concepts of gamification might work in increasing training compliance? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what do I need to keep in mind when implementing them?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="830" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-14T11:38:10.983" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T08:23:24.660" Title="How can I use gamification to encourage people to complete workplace training?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1000" CreationDate="2012-06-14T12:38:54.723" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short, I'd say the minimum requirement is to understand which behaviours you are influencing and why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before you consider which game techniques to use, consider the 'story' of the product/service. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each story includes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Actor/s. Who are your targets?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;These actors are motivated by something. This is what your game should leverage.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a goal. What are you/the actor trying to achieve. Help them progress towards the goal. Motivational factors / game techniques should encourage behaviours that move towards this goal and discourage behaviours that move away from it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The actor begins in a context. Understanding the context gives you clues to opportunities and constraints.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The actor progresses through a journey (or arc). Mapping this journey helps you know when to employ certain techniques.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An outcome is achieved. This is the most critical part of course. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Draw this out in a path. Include the diversions, obstacles etc. Identify the main path as well as the little loops of activity that contribute. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tip: If this isn't clear consider well known kid's stories. They are all shaped by this familiar pattern. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The techniques you list above and ones you will see elsewhere are valid. However by considering the story you will understand when to use certain techniques and how they should be approached. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="830" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T12:38:54.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1133" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-14T13:11:42.800" Score="3" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;A previous question I asked dealt with &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1131/29&quot;&gt;Gamification techniques to encourage people to perform online workplace training&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are hoping that we can introduce some game techniques to lift the completion rates. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I am concerned that a certain percentage will be resistant to this. Perhaps actively resist participation. I want to make sure we capture and motivate a broader set.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some may suggest a punishment or negative enforcement. I'd rather look for an alternative positive method.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What positive techniques can be used to motivate the individuals resistant to techniques such as badges, leaderboards, reputation points etc? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="830" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T10:00:57.737" Title="What positive techniques can be used to motivate individuals resistant to common gamification techniques?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1134" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1135" CreationDate="2012-06-14T13:54:53.567" Score="15" ViewCount="552" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed that some people have lives that appear perfectly fine, yet they feel depressed. In my specific case the feeling typically  lasts for a few days and then magically disappears, only to reappear a couple of weeks later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In the absence of a real problem (e.g., loss of a close friend, physical sickness, etc), what causes these periods of negative affect?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="835" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T06:11:22.143" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T01:55:35.803" Title="What causes people to feel depressed without there being a problem?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1135" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1134" CreationDate="2012-06-14T14:15:28.980" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Their lives are perfectly fine&quot; is a hard to test thing. Hard to compare. How people feel and respond is deeply contextual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However there are several potential reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They may be 'wired' to feel stress or respond emotionally (i.e. Due to the way their brain has developed). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A feeling of not being in control (This is often hard to perceive from outside and removed from concrete factors). The causes and triggers of this are varied and complex.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A physical response. e.g. Things like a sensitivity to Gluten can cause incredible changes to our emotions and physiology. Often this manifests in good and bad periods. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Negativity can be a reflection of the context or surroundings. Those same people may appear positive in a different context.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mental illness can manifest in uneven patterns. This spans from mild (common) to severe symptoms.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="830" LastEditorUserId="830" LastEditDate="2012-06-14T16:29:01.823" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T16:29:01.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1136" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1146" CreationDate="2012-06-14T18:31:39.600" Score="6" ViewCount="308" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently started using my trackball left-handed after being right-handed my whole life. The motivation is partly to balance out wrist strain, and partly to see how much my brain rejects the idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I am at the computer for a good portion of the day, this is a fundamental change. I started to wonder whether it might actually have some measurable impact on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateralization_of_brain_function&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;hemispheric dominance&lt;/a&gt;, and found (unsurprisingly) that Google had some links which posed the same question. To this point I have only my own admitted ignorance combined with unsubstantiated claims on the Internet. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a reasonably reliable and convenient way to measure changes in hemispheric dominance over time?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt;: As I mentioned, I did some Googling around about the potential connection between dominant mouse hand and hemispheric dominance. The only tools I discovered along the way were simple questionnaires. I took 3-4 of them in the absence of any better ideas, and will repeat them over the next few months. I suspect that using Brain Age-style games or Lumosity might be more useful than a questionnaire, but wonder if results would change more due to practice than anything else. I was hoping that I overlooked something that more directly targets hemispheric dominance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="843" LastEditorUserId="843" LastEditDate="2012-06-15T03:57:42.720" LastActivityDate="2012-06-15T22:00:52.490" Title="Measuring changes in hemispheric dominance over time" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1137" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-14T20:11:46.323" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about characteristics that humans or animals find appealing on a sexual or aesthetic level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Physical Attractiveness&lt;/a&gt; in Wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-14T20:41:41.243" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T20:41:41.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1138" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-14T20:11:46.323" Score="0" Body="For questions about characteristics that humans or animals find appealing on a sexual or aesthetic level." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-14T20:41:43.600" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T20:41:43.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1139" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-14T20:16:52.980" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the individual patterns of behavior, emotion, or attitude that humans display.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_type&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Personality Types&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Trait Theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-14T20:41:29.920" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T20:41:29.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1140" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-14T20:16:52.980" Score="0" Body="For questions about the individual patterns of behavior, emotion, or attitude that humans display." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-14T20:41:32.757" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T20:41:32.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1141" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-14T20:21:02.257" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the roles that heads of organizations play as they motivate and develop their followers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Leadership&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Motivation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-14T20:41:18.483" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T20:41:18.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1142" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-14T20:21:02.257" Score="0" Body="For questions about the roles that heads of organizations play as they motivate and develop their followers" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-14T20:41:24.507" LastActivityDate="2012-06-14T20:41:24.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1144" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1151" CreationDate="2012-06-15T21:51:25.387" Score="4" ViewCount="782" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed in myself and others, when people perceive themselves as &quot;better off&quot; than the majority of others (e.g., smarter, better looking, higher social status, better brain function, more insight, more capable, etc.) they tend to feel greater  well-being, peace, and self-assurance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any studies on this? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it just primal parts of the brain being activated? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, how can we activate that without the external circumstance?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;For example, just found this one: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2430590/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2430590/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-25T20:00:49.837" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T20:00:49.837" Title="What is the correlation between feeling superior and well-being?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1146" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1136" CreationDate="2012-06-15T22:00:52.490" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would first like to discuss the concept of lateralization and clear up a common misconception about hemispheric dominance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;A brain is considered to be asymmetrical (or lateralized) if one side (hemisphere or other brain region) is &lt;strong&gt;structurally different&lt;/strong&gt; from the other &lt;strong&gt;and/or performs a different set of functions&lt;/strong&gt;.&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S014976349700050X&quot;&gt;Bisazza et al., 1998&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good example is the lateralization of language which relates to handedness. It has been widely accepted that a majority of people are left dominant for language, although right dominance increases with the degree of left handedness (&lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/123/12/2512.short&quot;&gt;Knecht et al., 2000&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lateralization and behavioural asymmetries are neither restricted to language or humans (Bisazza et al., 1998). In the scientific community, hemispheric dominance is usually discussed in the context of a specific function. However, there is a &lt;strong&gt;common misconception&lt;/strong&gt; by those who have an incomplete understanding of brain lateralization, particularly worsened by the spread of popular science articles and pseudoscientific tests (such as the one linked to in the comments) that &lt;strong&gt;wrongly assumes there is an overall dominance of one side of the brain&lt;/strong&gt; (with left corresponding to logical and analytical thinking and right corresponding to emotional and creative thinking), that determines your personality trends. This is an incorrect oversimplification that is explained in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.com/url?q=http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Hemispheric_dominance&amp;amp;sa=D&amp;amp;sntz=1&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNH8GZ-hvAnJQ77jp898fotuTDzsuA&quot;&gt;good article&lt;/a&gt; by RationalWiki.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, your question is misguided in focusing on changes in hemispheric dominance. Even if you focused on change of lateralization for a specific function, this is unlikely as it requires substantial reorganization of the brain that is really only observed during development and to a much smaller extent following brain injury. However it is still good to question what changes there may be due to using a non-dominant hand more often! In fact (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278262607000565&quot;&gt;Teixeira and Teixeira, 2007&lt;/a&gt;) looks at how &lt;strong&gt;practice with the non-preferred hand alters manual preference for a specific task&lt;/strong&gt;, and suggests this generalizes to other related motor tasks (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/a631436522008794/?MUD=MP&quot;&gt;Teixeria and Okazaki, 2007&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;strong&gt;The task used in their 2007 study involves sequentially touching the thumb with (in order) the ring, middle, little, and index fingers. The goal is to complete 5 cycles without interruption in the shortest time possible.&lt;/strong&gt; They assess this before, after, and 30 days following practice, observing a noticeable shift in those that are allowed to practice compared to controls. You can choose a similar task and/or something different (for example, score in a quick video game that requires pointing with the trackball) and measure how you improve in comparison to a friend who doesn't practice with the left hand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ironically, they discuss how the &lt;strong&gt;left premotor cortex is dominant for learning sequential tasks&lt;/strong&gt; (whether performed with right or left hand) and so might limit the observable shifts. For this reason it might be good to try their task to compare with that study and also your own task for personal interest.  &lt;strong&gt;If you are really interested in how performance and practice (especially long term) can affect the brain, there is lots of existing literature and imaging studies on the differences in brains of musicians&lt;/strong&gt; compared to non-musicians or amateurs. Due to years of practice, professional musicians often have differences in and sometimes larger motor areas (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05739.x/full&quot;&gt;Schlaug, 2006&lt;/a&gt;), increased cerebellar volume (&lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/13/9/943.short&quot;&gt;Hutchinson et al., 2003&lt;/a&gt;), increased auditory cortical representation (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v392/n6678/abs/392811a0.html&quot;&gt;Pantev et al., 1998&lt;/a&gt;) and increased assymetries such as in the planum temporale (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/267/5198/699.short&quot;&gt;Schlaug et al., 1995&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastActivityDate="2012-06-15T22:00:52.490" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1147" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1150" CreationDate="2012-06-15T22:35:07.267" Score="23" ViewCount="4237" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does the time needed to read a sentence scale with the number of characters? Or does this time scaling depend on something more than just character count?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, let $X$ be the number of characters and $F(X)$ the seconds to read an entire sentence of $X$ characters long. There are 3 options:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Linear&lt;/strong&gt; $F(X) \in \Theta(X)$:  Is the relationship linear? That is, if it takes 0.5 seconds to read &quot;&lt;em&gt;hello&lt;/em&gt;&quot;, it would take 1.0 second to read &quot;&lt;em&gt;hello world&lt;/em&gt;&quot;: $F(X) = 0.1 X$&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sublinear&lt;/strong&gt; $F(X) \in o(X)$: Or does it decay? That is, as people read a long sentence, their reading speed increases (crazy example $F(X) = 1 / X$)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Super-linear&lt;/strong&gt; $F(X) \in \omega(X)$: Or is it like quadratic? That is, each additional character ads more time than the previous word? (example: $F(X) = X ^ 2$)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Which of the above 3 options best describes reading speed based on length of text? Is the specific functional form of this relationship known?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Motivation&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am creating an iPhone app where I need to show transient confirmation messages. For example, when a user submits a comment, I pop up a message saying &quot;&lt;em&gt;thanks for submitting your comment&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. Shortly after, the message will fade away. There exist many such transient messages all over my iPhone app. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I would like to do is to calculate the optimal time to show each message based off of the number of characters in that message. I want users to have enough time to comfortably read the message, but not so long that the message annoys them. The purely UX version of this question is here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/22520/how-long-does-it-take-to-read-x-number-of-characters&quot;&gt;How long does it take to read X number of characters?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="850" OwnerDisplayName="JoJo" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:32:22.230" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T06:35:35.327" Title="How long does it take to read a sentence with X number of characters?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1148" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1147" CreationDate="2012-06-15T22:57:16.320" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few thoughts spring to mind: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Part of the answer might depend on the maximum value of X (if&#xA;all the messages are relatively short, that's a key piece of&#xA;information). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It doesn't decay, I don't think.  The more information presented to the user, the more it all has to put into context with each other. But I don't think it's quadratic, either; that seems too steep.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If X is the number of characters, and W is the number of words,&#xA;the time might be more dependent on W than X. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do you remmeber tihs erxesice? It's fnuny how wlel you can raed wrods as lnog as the fisrt and lsat ltteers saty cnonstat.  Wehn redanig, our birans seem iclinned to prcoses by the wrod, mroe tahn by the ltteer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;: Those were my initial thoughts, when this question was first posed on English Language &amp;amp; Usage. I won't pretend I'm an expert (I'm not), but there does seem to be quite a bit of research that would support my third hypothesis – that readers often parse by word, more so than by letter, so the number of words in a text string might be more significant than the number of letters. I'll cite one paper I managed to track down and peruse:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inhoff, Albrecht Werner, &lt;em&gt;Integrating information across eye fixations in reading: The role of letter and word units&lt;/em&gt;. Acta Psychologica (73:3), April 1990, Pp. 281–297&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user851" LastEditorDisplayName="user851" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T19:17:40.220" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T19:17:40.220" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1149" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="96" CreationDate="2012-06-16T00:45:11.973" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not only can brain activation be controlled though consciousness (which is expected under most reductionist accounts of the mind-brain problem) and measured in the lab (as @Jeff's answer showed) but it can actually be used as an interface!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2008/07/27/out_of_silence_the_sounds_of_hope/?page=full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Erik Ramsey&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locked-in_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;locked-in syndrome&lt;/a&gt; patient and is incapable of movement apart from his eyes. However, he has control of his brain enough to be distinguished by electrodes implanted into his cerebral cortex (Guenther, 2009). Although the sensors were implanted in the motor-area responsible for speech (which you would expect typical inviduals to have control over, since they can speak), the understanding of how to decode this is not full. Thus, the patient had to train in order to adapt to the system:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Accuracy of the volunteer's vowel productions with the synthesizer improved quickly with practice, with a 25% improvement in average hit rate (from 45% to 70%) and 46% decrease in average endpoint error from the first to the last block of a three-vowel task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a much more dramatic experiment, Adrian Owen has used &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/neuroscience-the-mind-reader-1.10816&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain imaging techniques as means of communicating with vegetative-state patients&lt;/a&gt;. It is known that visualizing playing-tennis and walking around the house produce very distinct (to an fMRI) activation in the brain. So owed used that capability to allow a vegetative-state patient to answer yes-or-no questions. He asked the patient to imagine playing tennis for yes, navigating the house for no (Monti et al., 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this is not an answer to the exact question you asked, but by thinking about these activities the patient is effective the blood flow in his brain significantly enough to be measured by fMRI and used as a form of communication. Of course, some do raise concerns over the philosophical questions related to consciousness in these patients, to better understand consciousness in general, take a look at:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/987/29&quot;&gt;What are current neuronal explanations and models of &amp;#39;consciousness&amp;#39;?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Guenther, F.H., Brumberg, J.S., Wright, E.J., Nieto-Castanon, A., Tourville, J.A., Panko, M., Law, R., Siebert, S.A., Bartels, J.L., Andreasen, D.S., Ehirim, P., Mao, H., &amp;amp; Kennedy, P.R. (2009). A wireless brain-machine interface for real-time speech synthesis. PLoS ONE, 4(12)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Monti MM, Vanhaudenhuyse A, Coleman MR, Boly M, Pickard JD, Tshibanda L, Owen AM, &amp;amp; Laureys S. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20130250?dopt=Abstract&amp;amp;holding=npg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Willful modulation of brain activity in disorders of consciousness&lt;/a&gt;. New England Journal of Medicine, 362(7):579-89.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-11-14T06:13:00.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1150" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1147" CreationDate="2012-06-16T04:46:00.207" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've studied this a little bit within the context of timing responses to personality test items. General models of reading speed look at both the time to read the words as well as to comprehend. From memory, eye tracking studies have shown how the eyes will often back track to confusing parts of a sentence (apologies for lack of reference).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some general findings that I've found in my own data on time to answer personality test items of different lengths:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Expect an initiation period. I.e., the time between displaying a message and the commencement of reading. In mathematical terms, this will translate to a non-zero constant in your model of reading time as a function of properties of the text.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The more familiar the content and the words are to the reader, the quicker they will be. This translates both in absolute terms that simple words are quicker to read, and also to interactions between individuals and the content.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In general, character count, word count, and syllable count tend to be highly correlated in normal prose. From my own data, these indices tend to have a relatively &lt;strong&gt;linear effect on reading speed&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;More complex sentences (e.g., ones with negation, multiple clauses, etc.) take longer to read. For example, I found that sentences with &quot;not&quot; took systematically longer to process.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Individuals differ substantially in reading speed. Expect to see a distribution of individual differences that is a little bit positive skewed from normal. Thus, if you are designing a system where you determine the length of time text is displayed, you may need to pitch the speed of your system to capture a certain percentage of that distribution (e.g., 95, 99% etc.). Various factors explain variation in reading speed including whether English is a second language and education.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are also outliers. People get distracted. Thus, there is reading time when people are focussed and there is reading times that incorporate distraction and other processes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, if you have the resources, you can do some pilot testing on a sample of individuals where you time how long people take to read the text, ideally within the context of the application. This could allow you to develop a domain specific model of reading speed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although a little tangential, some articles that discuss speed of item responding in a personality testing context include Casey and Tyron (2001) and Wagner-Menghim (2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Casey, M.M. &amp;amp; Tryon, W.W. (2001). Validating a double-press method for computer administration of personality inventory items.. Psychological assessment, 13, 521.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wagner-Menghin, M. (2002). Towards the identification of non-scalable personality&#xA;questionnaire respondents: Taking response time into account.&#xA;Psychologische Beiträge, 44(1), 62-77.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-08T00:46:10.433" LastActivityDate="2012-12-08T00:46:10.433" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1151" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1144" CreationDate="2012-06-16T05:43:20.160" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Diener et al's (1999) review in &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; provides an excellent entry point into the well-being literature. It reviews the literature with regards to the many causes and correlates of well-being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Individual Differences&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, individual differences explain a lot of variance in well-being. This is often seen in terms of personality traits such as neuroticism and extraversion (e.g., see the huge meta-analysis of DeNeve and Cooper, 1998). People with low neuroticism and high extraversion tend to experience more well-being. In relation to social comparison, it may be that these personality traits influence lenses of social comparisons both in terms of the standards that are set and how circumstances are appraised relative to those circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Discrepancy theories and social comparison&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend reading page 282 and 283 of Diener et al (1999) where the authors review discrepancy and social comparison theories in relation to subjective well-being. First the authors mention an early discrepancy theory by Michalos:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to Michalos's theory, individuals compare themselves to&#xA;  multiple standards including other people, past conditions,&#xA;  aspirations and ideal levels of satisfaction, and needs or goals.&#xA;  Satisfaction judgments are then based on discrepancies between current&#xA;  conditions and these standards. A discrepancy that involves an upward&#xA;  comparison (i.e., where the comparison standard is higher) will result&#xA;  in decreased satisfaction, whereas a downward comparison will result&#xA;  in increased satisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors then discuss how subsequent research has shown the situation to be more complex than originally conceptualised: e.g.,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a degree of flexibility in which social comparisons we adopt.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Adopting high expectations and thereby creating a discrepancy does not necessarily induce lower well-being, especially if people feel like they are making progress towards theirs goals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Comparisons are not just social, but can come from a variety of sources.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There's a difference between short-term and more enduring effects on well-being.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Superiority versus positive social comparison&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also worth making a distinction between a positive social comparison and superiority.  We might see a positive social comparison as an evaluation of  life circumstances as better than some comparison group. In contrast superiority can be quite close to arrogance. Taken to its extreme we can see superiority as an element in narcissism (e.g., &quot;Has a grandiose sense of self-importance (e.g., exaggerates achievements and talents, expects to be recognized as superior without commensurate achievements&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder#DSM-IV-TR_301.81&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;DSM IV-TR&lt;/a&gt;). When the basis of such positive self-evaluations is fragile, I believe this can be related to lower or more volatile self-esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Various factors&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although you mention that it is perception, there is research on various measures that you mention. To take a couple:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;intelligence: Several meta-analyses suggest the relationship is fairly minimal (e.g., Sigelman, 1981; Wilson, 1967)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;social status - income: Diener et al discuss how the relationship between income and well-being is modest at best.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Primal Factors and Brains&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure how necessary it is to think of the process in terms of brains. Certainly the process of well-being at some level must be explained in terms of biological processes, but I'm not sure if such a level of explanation is required to understand the relationship between social comparison and well-being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might want to read about evolutionary perspectives to well-being.&#xA;For example, Grinde (2002) discusses this perspective (See reference and PDF below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Activating without external circumstances&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of research in positive psychology on how to attain happiness. &#xA;A starting point could be to look at Seligman's ideas around three paths to happiness. Perhaps check out this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/martin_seligman_on_the_state_of_psychology.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TED talk by Martin Seligman&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;DeNeve, K.M. &amp;amp; Cooper, H. (1998). The happy personality: a meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well-being.. Psychological bulletin, 124, 197. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.subjectpool.com/ed_teach/y4person/admin/talks2009/wellbeing_Presentations1-5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Diener, E., Suh, E.M., Lucas, R.E. &amp;amp; Smith, H.L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress.. Psychological bulletin, 125, 276. &lt;a href=&quot;https://campus.fsu.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/academic/social_sciences/sociology/Reading%20Lists/Mental%20Health%20Readings/Diener-PsychologicalBulletin-1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grinde, B. (2002). Happiness in the perspective of evolutionary psychology. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, 331-354. &lt;a href=&quot;http://folk.uio.no/bjoerng/tekster/happiness-johs.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Michalos, A. C. (1985). Multiple discrepancies theory (MDT) Social&#xA;Indicators Research, 16, 347-413. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sigelman, L. (1981). Is ignorance bliss? A reconsideration of the folk&#xA;wisdom. Human Relations, 34, 965-974.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wilson, W. (1967). Correlates of avowed happiness. Psychological Bulletin, 67, 294-306.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T11:51:40.853" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T11:51:40.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1153" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T09:54:06.203" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the influence of behavioral and environmental pressures on the physical well-being of humans&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For scholarly articles, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/hea/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Health Psychology&lt;/a&gt;, published by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/about/division/div38.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Division 38&lt;/a&gt; of the APA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:04:58.063" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:04:58.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1154" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T09:54:06.203" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the influence of behavioral and environmental pressures on the physical well-being of humans " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:05:26.393" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:05:26.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1155" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:01:06.053" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the study of language, its representation in the mind, its role in psychological development, and its processing by the brain in applied tasks like reading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Modified from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Linguistics in its broader context includes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;historical linguistics, which explores language change &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;neurolinguistics, which looks at language processing in the brain; language acquisition, how children or adults acquire language; and discourse analysis, which involves the structure of texts and conversations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that in most cases except for socio-, psycho-, and neuro- linguistics, questions likely belong on &lt;a href=&quot;http://linguistics.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;Linguistics.SE&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:05:23.337" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:05:23.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1156" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:01:06.053" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the study of language, its representation in the mind, its role in psychological development, and its processing by the brain in applied tasks like reading." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:05:22.337" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:05:22.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1157" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:22:33.470" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions on expertise and expert performance and how experts may differ from non-experts in terms of their development, training, reasoning, knowledge, social support, and innate talent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expertise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Expertise&lt;/a&gt; for details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0521600812&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance&lt;/a&gt; is a popular book on the matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-11-19T19:28:22.603" LastActivityDate="2012-11-19T19:28:22.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1158" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:22:33.470" Score="0" Body="For questions on expertise and expert performance and how experts may differ from non-experts in terms of their development, training, reasoning, knowledge, social support, and innate talent." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-11-19T19:28:22.603" LastActivityDate="2012-11-19T19:28:22.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1159" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:25:11.047" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding building a competency in a particular area, or the act of helping others attain such a competency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Training&lt;/a&gt; for more details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:57:17.510" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:57:17.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1160" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:25:11.047" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding building a competency in a particular area, or the act of helping others attain such a competency." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:57:15.233" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:57:15.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1161" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:33:32.830" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about this area, which strives to include enough information with a publication or make data publicly available for other scientists to be able to repeat the experiments in the interest of verification. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://chronicle.com/blogs/percolator/is-psychology-about-to-come-undone/29045&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this recent article&lt;/a&gt; for some of the issues with reproducible research that the field of psychology is facing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:57:29.413" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:57:29.413" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1162" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:33:32.830" Score="0" Body="For questions about this area, which strives to include enough information with a publication or make data publicly available for other scientists to be able to repeat the experiments in the interest of verification. " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:57:24.217" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:57:24.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1163" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1172" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:39:02.480" Score="7" ViewCount="1854" Body="&lt;p&gt;A friend of mine recently noticed that we both have a birthmark on the face. He looked at me and said that we have exactly the same mark. But he has it left and I right. But, when looking in a mirror, we see it on the other side. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I wonder: &lt;strong&gt;Do we recognize ourselves better when we see our mirror image compared with &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; a video of ourselves?&lt;/strong&gt; Where is this studied?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T11:08:46.213" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T11:53:34.453" Title="Do we recognize ourselves better when we see our mirror image?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1164" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:40:04.010" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the psychologically-based processes that employers might use to help them choose new members for their staff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recruitment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;recruitment&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;I/O Psychology&lt;/a&gt; for more details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:57:23.157" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:57:23.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1165" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:40:04.010" Score="0" Body="For questions about the psychologically-based processes that employers might use to help them choose new members for their staff." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:57:22.080" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:57:22.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1166" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:45:26.873" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the meaning of signs and symbols in a language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;semantics&lt;/a&gt; for more details.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please also see the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/linguistics&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'linguistics'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;linguistics&lt;/a&gt; tag wiki for information on which facets of linguistics are appropriate on this site.  Any other linguistics inquiries probably belong on &lt;a href=&quot;http://linguistics.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Linguistics.SE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:57:20.943" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:57:20.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1167" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:45:26.873" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the meaning of signs and symbols in a language." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:57:20.177" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:57:20.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1168" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:51:22.997" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about an individual's level or attachment or devotion to another person or organization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_commitment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Organizational Commitment&lt;/a&gt; for how this applies to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial-organizational_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;I/O Psychology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:57:34.483" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:57:34.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1169" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T10:51:22.997" Score="0" Body="For questions about an individual's level or attachment or devotion to another person or organization." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T10:57:30.473" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T10:57:30.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1170" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T11:07:10.433" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the exchange of messages through multiple modalities and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;disorders&lt;/a&gt; of these abilities such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech-Language_Pathology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;speech-language pathology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions not directly related to the psychological or neural underpinnings of communication are probably better off directed at &lt;a href=&quot;http://linguistics.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Linguistics.SE&lt;/a&gt; or for theoretical questions see &lt;a href=&quot;http://dsp.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;DSP.SE&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-07-26T00:54:05.627" LastActivityDate="2012-07-26T00:54:05.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1171" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T11:07:10.433" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the exchange of messages through multiple modalities and disorders of these abilities such as speech-language pathology." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-07-26T00:54:08.963" LastActivityDate="2012-07-26T00:54:08.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1172" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1163" CreationDate="2012-06-16T11:30:40.637" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bredart (2003) discusses your exact hypothesis and reports the results of a couple of studies. I'd recommend &lt;a href=&quot;http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/bitstream/2268/2991/1/MIRRORpREVb.doc&quot;&gt;having a read of the article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors acknowledge that in contrast to familiar others the experience of our own face typically comes through self-inspection in mirrors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They summarise some relevant literature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Troje and Kersten (1999) showed that participants were faster when&#xA;  naming frontal views compared with profile views of their own face,&#xA;  and that this advantage for frontal views disappeared when naming&#xA;  familiar colleagues’ faces. In addition, Laeng and Rouw (2001) showed&#xA;  that the full-frontal view is superior to other views for facial&#xA;  self-recognition but not for the recognition of other people’s faces.&#xA;  A pose corresponding to 22.5 degrees from the frontal view seems to be&#xA;  optimal for other people’s faces. However, for highly familiar faces&#xA;  (e.g. faces of close friends or partners), the frontal view could be&#xA;  recognised as quickly as the 22.5 degrees view. In short, because of&#xA;  ecological constraints on visual experience, self-recognition is&#xA;  easier from frontal views than from other views. This superiority of&#xA;  frontal views was not observed for other highly familiar faces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also discuss one methodology that involves &quot;searching for a target face among a set of other faces&quot;. Thus, the speed of finding the face is one way operationalising familiarity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regards to their findings, the following quotes the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Experiment 1 examined our ability to recognise the usual horizontal&#xA;  orientation of our own face (mirror orientation) as compared with&#xA;  another very familiar face (normal orientation). Participants did not&#xA;  use the same kind of information in determining the orientation of&#xA;  self-face as in determining the orientation of the other familiar&#xA;  face. The proportion of participants who reported having based their&#xA;  judgement on the location of an asymmetric feature (e.g. a mole) was&#xA;  higher when determining their own face’s orientation than when&#xA;  determining the other familiar face’s orientation. In experiment 2,&#xA;  participants were presented with pairs of manipulated images of their&#xA;  own face and of another familiar face showing conflicting asymmetric&#xA;  features and configural information. Each pair consisted of one&#xA;  picture showing a given face’s asymmetric features in a&#xA;  mirror-reversed position, while the facial configuration was left&#xA;  unchanged, and one picture in which the location of the asymmetric&#xA;  features was left unchanged, while the facial configuration was&#xA;  mirror-reversed. As expected from the hypothesis that asymmetric local&#xA;  features are more frequently used for self-face judgements,&#xA;  participants chose the picture showing mirror-reversed asymmetric&#xA;  features when determining the usual orientation of their own face&#xA;  significantly more often than they chose the picture showing normally&#xA;  oriented asymmetric features when determining the orientation of the&#xA;  other face. These results were explained in terms of competing forward&#xA;  and mirror-reversed representations of our own face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reference&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bredart, S. (2003). Recognising the usual orientation of one's own face: the role of asymmetrically located details. Perception, 32, . &lt;a href=&quot;http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/bitstream/2268/2991/1/MIRRORpREVb.doc&quot;&gt;DOC&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Laeng B, Rouw R, 2001 “Canonical views of faces and the cerebral hemispheres” Laterality 6 193-224.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Troje N F, Kersten D, 1999 “Viewpoint-dependent recognition of familiar faces” Perception  28 483-487.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T11:53:34.453" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T11:53:34.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1173" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-16T14:14:01.547" Score="22" ViewCount="846" Body="&lt;p&gt;Typical sleep patterns of one big block of 6 to 9 hours with no naps is usually referred to as monophasic sleep. A second natural sleep pattern is biphasic sleep which breaks up your sleep into two chunks (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2869.1992.tb00019.x/abstract&quot;&gt;Wehr, 1992&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/106.2/ah000343.html&quot;&gt;Ekirch, 2001&lt;/a&gt;). My question concerns &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphasic_sleep&quot;&gt;polyphasic sleep&lt;/a&gt; which partitions your sleep in 3 or more periods during the day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From personal experience (and anecdotal evidence; this is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=892542&quot;&gt;popular&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://officialuberman.blogspot.ca/&quot;&gt;blogging&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/4/15/103358/720&quot;&gt;topic&lt;/a&gt;), I know that the first one to two weeks of trying to keep a difficult polyphasic sleep schedule (say uberman that divides your day into 6 evenly spaced half-hour naps) produces very low performance. At first you are unable to fall asleep and you need your alarm clock to wake up and you feel groggy, agitated and slow. However, after the first week, a lot of these negative effects seem to disappear as you grow accustomed to the schedule. You start to get very vivid dreams during your naps (and I started to wake without the need for alarm clock) suggesting REM sleep. However, I have never subjected myself to proper performance tests while attempting polyphasic sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the medium term (more than 2 weeks, less than a year) effects of polyphasic sleep on performance of tasks like working memory, reading speed and comprehension, and IQ tests?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, most sleep studies are less than two weeks in duration and report the obvious negative effects; except on working-memory which benefits from naps. Alternatively, they are military studies that only track vigilance (not having micro-sleeps)(&lt;a href=&quot;http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/00207459809000648&quot;&gt;Porcu et al., 1998&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=678063&quot;&gt;Rhodes &amp;amp; Gil, 2003&lt;/a&gt;) , or have physical measures of no interest to me (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02678378908256879&quot;&gt;Stampi, 1989&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-19T20:42:12.243" LastActivityDate="2015-05-19T20:42:12.243" Title="Medium-term effects of polyphasic sleep on performance" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1174" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T15:30:36.370" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the psychological effects of having or raising children, on either the children or the parents themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For applied questions about raising children, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://parenting.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Parenting.SE&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T16:55:04.273" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T16:55:04.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1175" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T15:30:36.370" Score="0" Body="For questions about the psychological effects of having or raising children, on either the children or the parents themselves." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T16:54:58.237" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T16:54:58.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1177" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1147" CreationDate="2012-06-16T18:00:08.740" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you really wanted to know you could use models of reading behaviour - e.g. EZ-Reader or Swift. The Rayner reviews are the classic go-to to outlne this kind of thing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/kiel/www/590CT/Articles--Eye%20Movements/Rayner_2009_QJEP.pdf&quot;&gt;Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (2006) (Vol. 62, pp. 1457-506).&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It will depend on:&#xA;- Size of text&#xA;- Language&#xA;- Word frequency&#xA;- Word length&#xA;- Predictability&#xA;- and a whole host of other factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of all the words put together, plus any occasions where regressions to previous words are made because the observer has failed to understand the text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In practice, it's probably not worth worrying about to this level of complexity so just beta test it with some people and make sure they don't complain that they don't get enough time to read the messages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T18:00:08.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1179" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1116" CreationDate="2012-06-16T18:36:42.030" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;As you mentioned in your question, Jung was less than perfectly consistent in his definition of archetype throughout his career. This ambiguity reflects the continuing debate about semantic representation in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His early work stressed the emergence of archetypes as fundamental dichotomies of self experience- whose &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantiodromia&quot;&gt;Enantiodromaic&lt;/a&gt; character was the origin of their emergence in the psyche. Thoughts are either expressed or not expressed, whence the self is divided into Persona and Anima; thoughts (at least if one takes Jung at his word in his characterisation of thought as Libido) provide desire or fear, whence Ego and Shadow. This presents a potential picture of Jungian archetypes in the brain as primarily distributed phenomena-a set of pairwise partitions of the conscious brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His later writings, however, while still shewing their enantiodromia in their dialectical function, are more liberal concerning their origin. Concerning the Senex archetype for example; is a thought either that of a young or old man? -I would doubt it. The archetypes of these later writings are much more amenable to so-called 'sparse' representation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sparse representation is the (to borrow a term!) enatiodromaic opposite of distributed, in which small populations of neurons, or even single neurons can code for a given semantic character. Under assumptions of sparse representation, hypothetical 'Grandmother cells' could code for whole semantic classes, and so archetypes themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7045/full/nature03687.html&quot;&gt;Evidence&lt;/a&gt; for sparse representation has been found implicating the Medial Temporal Lobe in representing semantic classes across sensory modalities in single neurons (Quiroga  et al., 2005). This is however hotly contested, and experimental limitations abound (there's a nice microcosm of the debate at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandmother_cell&quot;&gt;the wiki page for Grandmother Cell&lt;/a&gt;, which also features a potted summary of the linked experiment).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quiroga RQ, Reddy L, Kreiman G, Koch C, Fried I. (2005) Invariant visual representation by single neurons in the human brain. Nature 435, 1102-1107. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7045/full/nature03687.html&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7045/full/nature03687.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="813" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T19:09:57.313" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T19:09:57.313" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1180" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T22:28:43.657" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about taking advantage of humans' psychological predisposition to engage in gaming and uses game design techniques, game thinking and game mechanics to enhance non-game contexts. The tags &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/io-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'io-psychology'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;io-psychology&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/educational-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'educational-psychology'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;educational-psychology&lt;/a&gt; are closely related and provide a common domain for the application of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;gamification&lt;/a&gt; techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T22:32:31.843" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T22:32:31.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1181" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T22:28:43.657" Score="0" Body="For questions about taking advantage of humans' psychological predisposition to engage in gaming and uses game design techniques, game thinking and game mechanics to enhance non-game contexts." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T22:32:32.907" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T22:32:32.907" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1182" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-16T22:30:45.840" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;An interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to understanding political science, politicians and political behavior through the use of psychological theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T22:32:41.360" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T22:32:41.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1183" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-16T22:30:45.840" Score="0" Body="An interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to understanding political science, politicians and political behavior through the use of psychological theories." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-16T22:32:38.723" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T22:32:38.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1184" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="872" CreationDate="2012-06-16T23:33:21.987" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The easiest way to work forward from a well-cited article is to do a &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.ca/scholar?cites=4924636413514946075&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;hl=en&quot;&gt;forward Google Search&lt;/a&gt;. My answer is almost completely based on such a search and concentrates on three brain regions: amygdala, insula cortex, and the  anterior cingulate cortex; note that all three regions are linked to emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind: when you take any two groups of people that differ significantly in behavior, socio-economic background, age, education-level, etc. It is not difficult to find differences between them on many fronts, and certain brain-structures is one of them. The difficulty of these studies, is two-fold: (1) the researchers have to do very good controls to make it believable that the difference loads on political ideology and not one of the many other things differences in political ideology usually correlates with, and (2) provide (or at least make believable to exist) some sort of causal relationship between the brain-structures they observe and the relevant behavior (i.e. political leaning). When you read these papers, these are the two points you should carefully check.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&amp;amp;context=poliscifacpub&quot;&gt;Oxley et al. (2008)&lt;/a&gt; showed that you don't need a brain scaner to observe correlations between physiological differences and political ideology:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[I]ndividuals with measurably lower physical sensitivities to sudden noises and threatening visual images were more likely to support foreign aid, liberal immigration policies, pacifism, and gun control, whereas individuals displaying measurably higher physiological reactions to those same stimuli were more likely to favor defense spending, capital punishment, patriotism, and the Iraq War.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The nice thing about these measurements, is that a mechanism for the correlation is easier to establish: if you are more likely to react strongly in your experiencing and &#xA;processing environmental threats, then you are more likely to have that reflected in your political ideology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://papers.ssrn.com/Sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1451867&quot;&gt;Schreiber et al. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; followed a similar line of thought by studying how Republicans and Democrats perform in a risk-taking tasks. While the 54 participants were evaluating risks, the researchers used an fMRI to look at the activation in their &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala&quot;&gt;amygdala&lt;/a&gt;. This is a natural brain region to look at, since it is believed to be important for emotional processing. They concluded:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a two parameter model of partisanship based on amygdala and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_cortex&quot;&gt;insula&lt;/a&gt; activations achieves better accuracy in predicting whether someone is a Democrat or a Republican than a well established model in political science based on parental socialization of party identification. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The importance of the amygdala has also been tested across culturues. &lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/5/2-3/349.full&quot;&gt;Rule et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; conducted a study in snap judgements in voting decisons of American and Japanese natives and showed analogous activation of the amygdala in both groups even though the traits that lead to judgments differ across the two cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The importance of the insula is also not surprising, since this brain region is associated with processing of social emotions such as disgust (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/retrieve/pii/S0896627303006792&quot;&gt;Wicker et al., 2003&lt;/a&gt;), reacting to norm-violation in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimatum_game&quot;&gt;ultimatum game&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/300/5626/1755&quot;&gt;Sanfey et al., 2003&lt;/a&gt;), and empathy (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763406000522&quot;&gt;Singer, 2006&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;a href=&quot;http://culturalneuro.psych.northwestern.edu/NYAS2009.pdf&quot;&gt;Chiao et al. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; showed that activation in the left anterior insula (and anterior cingulate) cortex is linked with preference for hierarchical rather than egalitarian social relations; something of importance for differentiating the Conservative/Liberal mindset.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex&quot;&gt;anterior cingulate cortex&lt;/a&gt; (ACC) is involved in the experience of anxiety, and empathy (&lt;a href=&quot;http://bcn.sagepub.com/content/3/2/71.short&quot;&gt;Decety &amp;amp; Jackson, 2004&lt;/a&gt;). Recently, &lt;a href=&quot;http://individual.utoronto.ca/jacobhirsh/publications/Inzlicht_McGregor_Hirsh_Nash_2009.pdf&quot;&gt;Inzlicht et al. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; linked activity in the ACC to religiousness; in a behavioral task they showed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results showed that stronger religious zeal and greater belief in God were associated with less ﬁring of the ACC in response to error and with commission of fewer errors. These correlations remained strong even after we controlled for personality and cognitive ability. These results suggest that religious conviction provides a framework for understanding and acting within one’s environment, thereby acting as a buffer against anxiety and minimizing the experience of error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since religion is often an important distinguishing factor between conservatives and liberals, it is not surprising for activity in the ACC to also be distinguishing for political ideology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastActivityDate="2012-06-16T23:33:21.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1185" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-17T00:00:49.080" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about methodology and tools related to functional magnetic resonance imaging. For general questions about brain-structure use &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neurobiology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'neurobiology'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neurobiology&lt;/a&gt;, and for general imaging questions use &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neuroimaging&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'neuroimaging'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neuroimaging&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-17T00:51:08.567" LastActivityDate="2012-06-17T00:51:08.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1186" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-17T00:00:49.080" Score="0" Body="For questions about methodology and tools related to functional magnetic resonance imaging. For general questions about brain-structure use neurobiology, and for general imaging questions use neuroimaging." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-17T00:51:19.893" LastActivityDate="2012-06-17T00:51:19.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1187" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-17T00:03:13.477" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the interaction of the brain/mind with function and structure of the rest of the body. If your question is specifically about the physiology of the central (or peripheral) nervous system then use the tag &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neurobiology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'neurobiology'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neurobiology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-17T00:51:10.923" LastActivityDate="2012-06-17T00:51:10.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1188" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-17T00:03:13.477" Score="0" Body="For questions about the interaction of the brain/mind with function and structure of the rest of the body. If your question is specifically about the physiology of the central (or peripheral) nervous system then use the tag neurobiology." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-17T00:51:21.733" LastActivityDate="2012-06-17T00:51:21.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1190" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-17T19:46:52.997" Score="20" ViewCount="228" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, it was found that self-directed speech was helpful to sighted subjects engaging in a visual search task:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Participants searched for common objects, while being sometimes [&lt;em&gt;sic&lt;/em&gt;] asked to speak the target’s name aloud. Speaking facilitated search, particularly when there was a strong association between the name and the visual target. As the discrepancy between the name and the target increased, speaking began to impair performance. Together, these results speak to the power of words to modulate ongoing visual processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if the subject were to be looking for a chair in a picture, saying the word &quot;chair&quot; aloud would lead to a more effective search.  Since the two modalities (vision and hearing) are separate, one set of information can compliment the other set and &quot;constructively interferes,&quot; if you will, in the scenario above.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In trying to establish whether a similar &quot;constructive interference&quot; would occur in the auditory domain, so I'm wondering whether an experiment wherein a subject who is blind (since birth) repeating a word to themselves would show an difference in that subject's ability to discriminate muffled or otherwise disguised words that they were asked to listen to and identify as part of a task.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would the degree to which repeating a word was helpful or harmful still depend on the similarity between the word spoken out loud and the word to be discriminated?  Or would there be a &quot;destructive interference&quot; effect under any circumstances, due to the same modality of hearing being used for the both discrimination of the information and the perception of the self-directed speech?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lupyan, G., Swingley, D. (2011).  Self-directed speech affects visual search performance.  The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, iFirst, 1-18.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2011.647039&quot;&gt;DOI&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-21T21:47:47.457" LastActivityDate="2018-05-09T22:37:47.633" Title="Does self-directed speech help or hurt a blind subject's auditory recognition?" Tags="&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;&lt;cross-modal&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1191" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1200" CreationDate="2012-06-18T00:31:40.780" Score="9" ViewCount="226" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Background&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question relates to research I am doing into the Wisdom of Crowds effect (Galton, 1907; Page, 2007; Surowiecki, 2004), in which an average of the estimates made by individuals proves to be highly accurate relative to the estimates made by the individuals themselves. For example, if we ask a bunch of participants to provide an estimate of the number of jellybeans in a jar, and then take the average of those estimates, the average tends to be more accurate than almost all of the individuals in the group. Specifically I am thinking here about a special case in which crowd wisdom is computed using pairs of different individuals (or, pairs of estimates taken from the same individual at different times). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Question&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I am seeking to investigate the appropriateness of various metrics for quantifying the accuracy gain obtained from averaging dyads of estimates instead of adopting individual estimates.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll attempt to illustrate the question using a simplified example, in which three participants provide a single estimate. Let's say the estimates provided are 1, 4, and 6, and that the true value is 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We calculate the error that arises when we compare averaged pairs of estimates with the truth. The process is done exhaustively so with three participants we have six pairs [average of participant 1's estimate &amp;amp; participant 2's estimate, 1 &amp;amp; 3, 2 &amp;amp; 1, 2 &amp;amp; 3, 3 &amp;amp; 1, 3 &amp;amp; 2]. Previous studies (e.g. Herzog &amp;amp; Hertwig, 2009) have calculated the gains from averaging by subtracting the error of the averaged estimates from the error of the initial estimates. Specifically, they've defined percentage gain as Gain From Averaging divided by Absolute Error of Estimate 1 multiplied by 100. This is illustrated in Figure 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1g247.png&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 1&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You get zero absolute gain from averaging if all answers are above the true value, or if all answers are below the true value. As soon as there is some mix of answers below and above the true value you get absolute gains from averaging. In Figure 1 we have both an absolute gain from averaging and a percentage gain from averaging, and this seems reasonable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Things start getting a little strange if I change Person 3's estimate from 6 to 50 (see Figure 2). Now some of the percentages become massively negative. Without attempting to present anything formal, here's an prose description of why this happens. When the very high wrong answer (50) comes appears in the Value #1 column and the low mildly wrong answer (1) appears in the Value #2 column we get a high absolute error on Estimate 1 (45) and a medium-sized absolute error from averaging (20.5). Our gain from averaging is 24.5 but we only get a modest percentage gain (54.44%). When they reverse positions and 1 is in the Value #1 column and 50 is in the Value #2 column, we get a low absolute error on Estimate 1 (4) and the same absolute error from averaging we had just before (20.5). We have lost 16.5 from averaging, which is less than the 24.5 we gained above. However, when we turn this into a percentage loss it's massively bigger than our old percentage gain (-412.50%). Intuitively this seems rather unfair. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0aCjx.png&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 2&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Initial thoughts about answering the question&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I initially adopted the percentages approach is that I was following the precedent of Herzog and Hertwig (2009). However, I'm starting to wonder if a better approach might be to divide the sum of Gains From Averaging by the sum of Absolute Errors of Estimate 1. This would mean that the overall 'gain' from averaging could never be negative. In Figure 1 it would be 4/12. In Figure 2 it would be 10/100. I would greatly appreciate input from readers into the question of what the most appropriate metric is. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, readers may wonder why we average dyad by dyad rather than just taking the average of all three participants. The reason is that we are looking for a way to compare with another condition in which we take two estimates from each participant and average those. Figure 3 illustrates this process. We want to be able to say something like &quot;Averaging two estimates from each participant creates an accuracy gain of [some number]. However, it is not as effective as averaging guesses between participants, which produces an accuracy gain of [some other number].&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/B2AMi.png&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 3&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Links&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://imgur.com/a/i5Ehe&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Link&lt;/a&gt; to an imgur album containing all the figures.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://dl.dropbox.com/u/53771404/Accuracy%20gain.xlsx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Link&lt;/a&gt; to the Excel file used to generate the figures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;References&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Galton, F. (1907). Vox populi. &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;75&lt;/em&gt;, 450-451.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Herzog, S. M., &amp;amp; Hertwig, R. (2009). The wisdom of many in one mind. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;20&lt;/em&gt;, 231-237.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Page, S. E. (2007). &lt;em&gt;The Difference: How the power of diversity creates better groups, firms, schools and societies&lt;/em&gt;. Princeton: Princeton University Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Surowiecki, J. (2004). &lt;em&gt;The wisdom of crowds: Why the many are smarter than the few&lt;/em&gt;. London: Abacus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-19T02:19:59.153" LastActivityDate="2012-06-19T02:19:59.153" Title="Appropriate metric(s) for quantifying the accuracy gain obtained from averaging dyads of estimates instead of adopting individual estimates?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;collaboration&gt;&lt;wisdom-of-crowds&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1192" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-18T01:03:58.930" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the specialized cells in the hippocampus that fire at a high rate when the subject is in a specific location of a given environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Place Cell&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Original reference:&#xA;O'Keefe, J. (1976) Place units in the hippocampus of the freely moving rat.  Experimental Neurology, 51:78-109.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T01:41:31.553" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T01:41:31.553" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1193" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-18T01:03:58.930" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the specialized cells in the hippocampus that fire at a high rate when the subject is in a specific location of a given environment." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T01:41:32.473" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T01:41:32.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1194" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-18T01:09:06.973" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding these specialized cells in the entorhinal cortex which increase in firing rate when the subject is on one of the points of an imaginary grid superimposed on the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Grid_cells&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scholarpedia&lt;/a&gt; for an excellent treatment by Dr. and Dr. Moser, the couple that played a major role in the discovery of these cells with unique properties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T01:41:24.063" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T01:41:24.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1195" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-18T01:09:06.973" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding these specialized cells in the entorhinal cortex which fire rapidly when the subject is on one of the points of an imaginary grid superimposed on the environment" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T01:41:26.683" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T01:41:26.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1196" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-18T01:16:09.337" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about learning devices which present information to the brain in such a way that it is more easily absorbed into long term memory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mnemonic&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g., &lt;code&gt;ROY G BIV&lt;/code&gt; is a common mnemonic to remember the colors of the spectrum {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet} by forming their letters into a fake name.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T01:41:27.417" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T01:41:27.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1197" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-18T01:16:09.337" Score="0" Body="For questions about learning devices which present information to the brain in such a way that it is more easily absorbed into long term memory" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T01:41:28.057" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T01:41:28.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1198" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-18T01:23:57.097" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the psychotherapeutic technique which Sigmund Freud pioneered, which involves techniques of dream interpretation and free association.  Jung was also instrumental in its development after Freud.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychoanalytic theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sigmond Freud&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Carl Jung&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archetypes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;archetypes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T01:41:35.250" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T01:41:35.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1199" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-18T01:23:57.097" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the psychotherapeutic technique which Sigmund Freud pioneered, which involves techniques of dream interpretation and free association.  Jung was also instrumental in its development after Freud." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T01:41:36.047" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T01:41:36.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1200" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1191" CreationDate="2012-06-18T01:29:32.643" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The following are just my thoughts on what seems to make sense from first principles. I don't have a detailed understanding of what is standard practice in the wisdom of crowds literature. I've also only given what you've written a basic read. I.e., enough to understand the broad question, but not enough to follow exactly what you've done.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let $y_i$ be the prediction of the $i$th individual, $i=1, \ldots, n$, and  let $T$ equal the true value of the thing predicted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let the prediction created by averaging individual $i$ and $j$ be &#xA;$$d_{ij} = \frac{y_i + y_j}{2}$$&#xA;where $i \neq j$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let $y'_i$ and $d'_{ij}$ be absolute errors from the true value. i.e.,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\begin{align}&#xA;y'_i &amp;amp; = |T - y_i| \\&#xA;d'_{ij} &amp;amp; = |T - d_{ij}|&#xA;\end{align}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let $d'_{i.}$ be the average absolute error for participant $i$ after averaging over all possible dyads the person could be a part of. I.e., &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$d'_{i.} = \frac{1}{n-1}\sum_{i=1}^n d'_{ij} $$ &#xA;where $i \neq j$.&#xA;This represents the expected error in prediction if participant $i$ generates a prediction with a random other person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we denote average error across individuals as $\bar{d}'$ and $\bar{y}'$ for dyadic and individual predictions respectively&#xA;we could then compute both the average raw improvement in prediction as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\bar{y}' - \bar{d}' $$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or the average raw improvement as a percentage&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\frac{\bar{y}' - \bar{d}'}{\bar{y}'} \times 100$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both the raw and percentage improvement above seem like reasonable and complementary representations of the average improvement obtained when a person generates a prediction with a random other person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T01:35:16.910" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T01:35:16.910" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1201" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-18T03:36:30.377" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about post-traumatic stress disorder, its diagnosis, its treatment, and its etiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see the article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001923/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pubmed health&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Postraumatic Stress Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T03:58:39.807" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T03:58:39.807" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1202" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-18T03:36:30.377" Score="0" Body="For questions about post-traumatic stress disorder, its diagnosis, its treatment, and its etiology " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T03:58:42.113" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T03:58:42.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1203" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-18T03:42:25.003" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding this interdisciplinary subject (largely a subdiscipline of computer science) which strives to create intelligent machines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Artificial Intelligence&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0136042597&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Russel and Norvig&lt;/a&gt; is a canonical text in this area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T03:58:17.887" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T03:58:17.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1204" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-18T03:42:25.003" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding this interdisciplinary subject (largely a subdiscipline of computer science) which strives to create intelligent machines." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T03:58:20.867" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T03:58:20.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1205" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-18T03:46:22.613" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding depressed mood, whether in healthy individuals or those for which the condition manifests as a disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Depressed(mood)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Major Depressive Disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T03:58:28.153" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T03:58:28.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1206" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-18T03:46:22.613" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding depressed mood, whether in healthy individuals or those for which the condition manifests as a disorder." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T03:58:31.617" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T03:58:31.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1207" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1209" CreationDate="2012-06-18T13:16:45.067" Score="10" ViewCount="279" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin_card_sort&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wisconsin Card Sorting&lt;/a&gt; task is rather famous but appears to be quite difficult to model computationally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I work in RL and I am interested in how people learn the optimal strategy. I'm interested in the task because it would allow a number of experimental manipulations. I want to capture the role of &lt;em&gt;memory&lt;/em&gt; in the optimal strategy. People can keep track of some, but not very much, history of trials when doing the task. (I.e the mathematically optimal strategy seems too computationally heavy.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How could I approach modelling the Wisconsin Card Sorting task?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What other research has modelled the task?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="865" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-10-25T18:01:37.897" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T06:41:31.630" Title="How to computationally model the Wisconsin Card Sorting task?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1208" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-18T14:04:25.867" Score="11" ViewCount="246" Body="&lt;p&gt;Larrick (2004; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.colorado.edu/~vanboven/teaching/p7536_heurbias/p7536_readings/larrick_debias.pdf&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;) offers a small number of suggestions for strategies to diminish bias in decision making, which he breaks down into four categories. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Consider the opposite&quot;. Tell decision-makers to ask themselves &quot;What are some reasons my initial judgment might be wrong?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Training in rules. Teach statistical and logical principles to decision-makers, e.g. give them lessons on the law of large numbers and regression toward the mean.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Training in representations. Teach decision-makers to represent problems in ways that are likely to ameliorate biases.  For instance, encourage decision-makers to represent problems in terms of frequencies rather than probabilities, since evidence suggests people reason more accurately when thinking about the former than about the latter.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Training in biases. Larrick suggests that this boils down to seeing if teaching decision-makers behavioral decision theory has positive effects. Larrick implies that so far there is little evidence to suggest this method would work. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What other plausible categories of cognitive strategies exist? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What other strategies exist within the categories Larrick has defined?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Larrick, R.P. (2004). Debiasing. Blackwell handbook of judgment and decision making, , 316-338. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.colorado.edu/~vanboven/teaching/p7536_heurbias/p7536_readings/larrick_debias.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="862" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T23:52:08.773" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T02:51:42.690" Title="What cognitive strategies diminish bias in decision-making beyond those outlined by Larrick?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1209" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1207" CreationDate="2012-06-18T14:31:28.187" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/1/1/62.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dehaene &amp;amp; Changeux (1991)&lt;/a&gt; made a neural-network model:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The coding units are clusters of neurons organized in layers, or assemblies. A sensonmotor loop enables the network to sort the input cards according to several criteria (color, form, etc.). A higher-level assembly of rule-coding clusters codes for the currently tested rule, which shifts when negative reward is received. Internal testing of the possible rules, analogous to a reasoning process, also occurs, by means of an endogenous autoevaluation loop. When lesioned, the model reproduces the behavior of frontal lobe patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/hh7r026527155557/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Parks et al. (1992)&lt;/a&gt; extended the previous neural models of WCST to take into account verbal-fluency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/089892900562174&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Amos (2000)&lt;/a&gt; built a neural-network model that helps distinguish between the sort of errors made by patients with schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease. He relates the model to neuroanatomy and says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The model also made specific, empirically falsifiable predictions that can be used to explore the utility of these putative mechanisms of information processing in the frontal cortex and basal ganglia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0893608000000587&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Monchi et al. (2000)&lt;/a&gt; followed a similar approach as Amos. Their model suggested different impairments in Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenic patients, and made specific predictions of what would be observed in fMRI scans. They tested this prediction in their paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By 2005, the WCST had become a benchmark for more general models. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/102/20/7338.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rougier et al. (2005)&lt;/a&gt; made a general model of the prefrontal cortex based on general neurobiological principles as opposed to symbolic approaches. They model learnt from experience and generalized to novel tasks. They tested it on WCST and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stroop task&lt;/a&gt; data for typical and frontally damaged subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0893608005002285&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kaplan et al. (2006)&lt;/a&gt; use a neural-network approach with two parts: a Hopfield net serves as the working memory and a Hamming block as a hypothesis generator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2872109/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bishara et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; use a more ACT-R-like (although not actual ACT-R) model with probabilistic loading on symbolic rules. The resulting sequential learning model is used to identify specific process that subjects might be struggling with. It is suppose to help diagnosis in a clinical setting, and they test it on substance dependent individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fncom.2010.00024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rigotti et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; created a network of randomly connected neurons that could solve the task.  The key point was that the random connections induced mixed selectivity, which would solve the task with high probability.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-03-07T06:41:31.630" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T06:41:31.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1210" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-18T14:46:35.033" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about working with or obtaining specific data sets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T16:50:36.620" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T16:50:36.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1211" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-18T14:46:35.033" Score="0" Body="For questions about working with or obtaining specific data sets." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T16:50:38.663" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T16:50:38.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1213" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1208" CreationDate="2012-06-18T20:01:25.087" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Jonathan Baron's book, &quot;Thinking and Deciding&quot;, presents decision making, and most other thinking tasks, as a combination of searching and judgment.  In most cases, expanding the search phase results in better thinking.  In the case of decision making, searching further both &lt;em&gt;for more alternatives before judging&lt;/em&gt; between them and &lt;em&gt;for better information for judging&lt;/em&gt; between the alternatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It isn't specifically about debiasing, but expanding your search has significant debiasing effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="289" LastEditorUserId="289" LastEditDate="2012-06-18T20:06:29.027" LastActivityDate="2012-06-18T20:06:29.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1214" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-19T01:48:31.107" Score="10" ViewCount="1534" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in structural equation modelling (SEM) meta-analysis and its application to modelling mediation relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/psycwlm/internet/&quot;&gt;Mike W.-L. Cheung&lt;/a&gt; has written a few articles on the topic of SEM Meta-Analysis (e.g., Cheung, 2009). He's also written the &lt;a href=&quot;http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/psycwlm/Internet/metaSEM/index.html&quot;&gt;metaSEM package in R&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One basic approach to SEM meta-analysis is a simple fixed-effect two-step approach. First, you extract a weighted average correlation matrix from the component studies. Second, you analyse that correlation matrix using standard SEM approaches. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in reality, things are more complicated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Correlations often vary between studies by more than just sampling error, suggesting that a fixed-effect approach may be invalid. If a random-effects model is adopted, this raises issues of whether to categorise the correlation matrices into groups of fixed-effects matrices or whether to somehow incorporate the random-effects into the overall SEM.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some studies may not have all the variables of interest, which introduces a  form of missing data, which in turn raises issues of how to define sample size and the standard error.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in general, I'm interested in reading examples of SEM meta-analyses applied in psychology to get a sense of how others have dealt with the various issues. In particular, I'm interested in meta-analysis SEM that incorporates the modelling of indirect effects (i.e., mediation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What studies have applied meta-analysis SEM in psychology to model indirect effects?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How have they dealt with issues such as (a) fixed versus random effects and (b) missing data?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cheung, M.W.L. (2009). Meta-analysis: A Structural Equation Modeling Perspective. &lt;a href=&quot;http://metodesider.info/m2/MA_SEM.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-11T04:30:55.583" LastActivityDate="2013-05-04T00:04:14.020" Title="What articles use structural equation modelling in a meta-analytic context to model mediation?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;meta-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1215" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1220" CreationDate="2012-06-19T03:27:18.110" Score="12" ViewCount="1389" Body="&lt;p&gt;All the brain imaging techniques I know fall into two categories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tracking blood&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Either by looking at the magnetic (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging&quot;&gt;fMRI&lt;/a&gt;), or near-infared absorption (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_optical_imaging#Diffusive_optical_imaging_in_neuroscience&quot;&gt;diffuse optical imaging&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_infrared_spectroscopy#Medical_uses&quot;&gt;NIRS&lt;/a&gt;) properties of hemoglobin, or&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Injecting tracers into the blood stream (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography&quot;&gt;PET&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography&quot;&gt;SPECT&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tracking electric and magnetic fields in neurons (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot;&gt;EEG&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoencephalography&quot;&gt;MEG&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with the first approach is that it is fundamentally secondary in nature: it tracks the response of the vascular system to brain activity. Although the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood-oxygen-level_dependent#BOLD_hemodynamic_response&quot;&gt;BOLD signal&lt;/a&gt; correlates well with neural activity, it is still an indirect indicator of firing rate, has time lags, and limited spatial (limited by distribution of capillaries) and temporal (limited by flow rate) resolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second  approach is better, but still not perfect from a pharmacology perspective. Although it gives us good information about the post-synaptic potential (EEG) or intraneuron potential (MEG), it still provides no information on specific neurotransmitters released. The approach also suffers from limitations on spatial resolution and the fact that EM-fields follow the superposition principle and thus it is mathematically impossible to reconstruct signals that interfere destructively outside the neuron but before the sensors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The perfect approach for a pharmacologist would be to track individual types on neurotransmitters. &lt;strong&gt;Are there imagining techniques that use the resonance, absorption, or other properties of neurotransmitters (instead of hemoglobin)? Or is there a fundamental reason why this won't work?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that the same exact techniques as for hemoglobin won't work (since as far as I know most neurotransmitters don't contain nice things like iron to play with), but is there a reason other resonance or scattering techniques wouldn't work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest work I know in this direction is the event-related optical signal (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661300017010&quot;&gt;Gratton &amp;amp; Fabiani, 2001&lt;/a&gt;) because it tracks the light-scattering properties of something other than hemoglobin: neural tissue. Unfortunately, this is still tracking activity of the neuron and not neurotransmitters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-19T05:52:25.187" LastActivityDate="2012-06-19T12:16:07.597" Title="Neurotransmitter based imaging techniques" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1216" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-19T03:46:07.173" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The effect of a large group's estimate, answer, or decision being as (or more) accurate as the response given by any of the individuals within the group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-19T07:09:35.670" LastActivityDate="2012-06-19T07:09:35.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1217" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-19T03:46:07.173" Score="0" Body="The effect of a large group's estimate, answer, or decision being as (or more) accurate as the response given by any of the individuals within the group." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-19T07:09:38.323" LastActivityDate="2012-06-19T07:09:38.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1214" CreationDate="2012-06-19T04:44:19.270" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following reviews some of the articles that I found discussing and implementing SEM meta-analysis to examine mediation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Cheung and Chan (2005)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors distinguish three approaches of meta-analytic structural equation modelling (MASEM).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Univariate two-stage MASEM: This includes a collection of two step approaches (note that Cheung and Chan call it simply  &lt;em&gt;univariate&lt;/em&gt;, but other authors describe it as a two-stage approach). Stage 1 involves first generating a pooled correlation matrix and sample size. Stage 2 involves analysing this correlation matrix and sample size in standard SEM software.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;GLS (Generalised Least Squares for MASEM)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cheung and Chan's two-stage MASEM: This approaches use SEM to both synthesise correlation matrices and fit proposed models. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors state that if studies have heterogeneous correlation matrices &quot;they cannot be aggregated legitimately&quot; (p.46).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Shadish (1996)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shadish (1996) provides an early review of combining meta-analysis and SEM approaches. He discusses a few issues and encourages further statistical work on the topic. He also summarises four early studies that had applied meta-analysis to elucidate causal relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harris and Rosenthal (1985): This early study reported used meta-analysis to obtain eight averaged correlations across a set of studies. Four of the correlations were between an independent variable and theorised mediators, and four were between the mediators and the dependent variable. The presence of correlations between all variables was used as support for mediation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Premack and Hunter (1988): This study averaged correlations for a set of studies and performed path analysis on the resulting correlation matrix.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shadish &amp;amp; Sweeney (1991): This study examined between study correlations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Becker's (1992): This study used generalised least squares to model between and within study variation in correlations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Other Studies&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stajkovic et al (2009)&lt;/strong&gt; report a SEM meta-analysis which seemed to use the univariate approach. Pooled correlations were calculated and then entered into SEM software for analysis. The authors also examined invariance of parameters in the SEM mediation model across specified values of specified moderators. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Colquitt et al (2007)&lt;/strong&gt; performed SEM meta-analysis looking at three predictors and four consequences of trust (i.e., the &quot;mediator&quot;). The authors appear to have used the univariate approach. The authors report examining whether correlations varied by the moderators:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because the two moderators we examined, type of measure and trust&#xA;  referent, did not significantly impact the trust correlations, we used&#xA;  the overall correlation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, they also show that correlations vary between studies suggesting that even if moderators don't explain variation in correlations, variation in correlations presumably existed for other reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fried et al (2008)&lt;/strong&gt; used the univariate approach  to examine mediation effects between work stress, psychological mediators, and job performance. The authors used a random effects model to calculate pooled correlation coefficients and reported using the harmonic mean of cell sample sizes for the sample size in the SEM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dunst and Trivette (2009)&lt;/strong&gt; used the univariate approach on studies related to family-centered care. The authors report pooling correlations based on a weighted average &quot;giving more weight to studies with larger sample sizes and by&#xA;taking into consideration other statistical artifacts.&quot; It is unclear what sample size was used in the subsequent SEM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They addressed the issue of homogeneity of correlation matrices by writing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;3.1. Homogeneity of the Correlation Matrices. This is a test of whether the correlation matrices in the 15 different studies can be&#xA;  assumed to be derived from the same population. CFI was 0.91 and RMSEA&#xA;  was 0.09. The results indicate that the different correlation matrices&#xA;  were reasonably similar to produce a pooled correlation matrix.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, an RMSEA of .09 actually sounds fairly large. I've seen recommendations for an RMSEA of less than .05 for a very good fit. I'm not questioning that the correlation matrices weren't similar. But in general we would expect some true score variance and to my mind such results seem consistent with some variation. &#xA;The lack of straightforward analysis options for handling heterogeneity discourages exploration of how results would be different if the data was assumed to be heterogeneous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bamberg &amp;amp; Moser (2007)&lt;/strong&gt; used the univariate approach to test a model of the theory of planned behaviour applied to environmental behaviour. Because correlations varied significantly between studies according to the Q-test, the authors used the random-effects estimate of the pooled true correlation (but they also report pooled estimates based on the fixed-effects model) and report the mean and 95% confidence intervals for the true correlations. The harmonic mean of cell sample sizes was purportedly used in calculating cell sample sizes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bauer et al (2007)&lt;/strong&gt; used the univariate approach to test a model of newcomer adjustment. It was not clear to me whether the pooled correlations were based on fixed or random effects assumptions. Rationale for the sample size is not stated explicitly but looks broadly consistent with something like a harmonic mean of the cell sample sizes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Joseph et al (2007)&lt;/strong&gt; used the univariate approach to test a model of job turnover. Pooled correlations were formed by weighting sample correlations by sample size and correcting for measurement error. The harmonic mean of of cell sample sizes was used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Chang et al (2009)&lt;/strong&gt; used the univariate approach looking at organisational politics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Haeussler-Keyton (2012)&lt;/strong&gt; is a doctoral thesis using the univariate approach that performed meta-analytic path analysis on studies related to breast feeding success. The size used was calculated as such: the average sample size N in studies for each cell was calculated, and the smallest of these was used for analyses. Note that this results in a much smaller sample size than simply taking the average total cell sample size. The author fit models using pooled correlations based on both fixed and random effects calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Zhang (2011)&lt;/strong&gt; wrote a doctoral disertation reviewing the GLS approach and the multivariate two-stage approach of Cheung and Chan (2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Viswesvaran and Ones (1995)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Viswesvaran and Ones (1995) provide a tutorial-style guide for univariate MASEM . They cite several studies that have used the approach including Hunter (1983), Hom, Caranikas-Walker, Prussia, and Griffeth (1992), Peters, Hartke, and Pohlmann (1985), Brown and Peterson (1993), Ones&#xA;(1993) and Viswesvaran (1993). The general approach is to compute true-score correlations using various standard meta-analytic techniques and use that correlation matrix as input to SEM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Viswesvaran and Ones (1995) discuss the issue of dealing with &lt;strong&gt;missing cells in the correlation matrix&lt;/strong&gt;. They mention several options for dealing with this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(a) design a primary&#xA;  study to collect data with sufficiently large sample size, such that&#xA;  the effects of sampling error are reduced, to obtain stable estimates&#xA;  of the correlations not reported in the literature; (b) use the&#xA;  average (across all correlations) correlation in the empty cells; (c)&#xA;  look for patterns of correlations and impute values in the missing&#xA;  cells of the matrix; and (d) modify the test of the theory to include&#xA;  only the constructs for which a full matrix of estimated true score&#xA;  correlations is available in the liter- ature. A final option, as&#xA;  suggested by an anonymous reviewer, is to use Subject Matter Experts&#xA;  to estimate the missing correlation (e.g., Schmidt et al., 1983).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Viswesvaran and Ones (1995) also discuss the issue of &lt;strong&gt;varying sample size per cell&lt;/strong&gt; in the correlation matrix. They mention several options: (a) use harmonic mean of the sample sizes across cells; (b) only include studies that include all variables; (c) assume sample is population and ignore standard error and confidence intervals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Viswesvaran and Ones (1995) also acknowledge the issue that &lt;strong&gt;true correlations may systematically vary between studies&lt;/strong&gt;. They suggest several approaches: &#xA;(a) include moderators until true score variance is reduced to zero and include these moderators in the path analysis; &#xA;(b) compute the three SEMs, one using lower 90% confidence intervals of meta-analysed correlations, another using upper 90% confidence intervals of meta-analysed correlations, and a third using the mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above issue of variation in true correlations is one of the biggest issues that I'm concerned with. Most meta-analyses that I have read show variation in true correlations (hence various recommendations to prefer random-effects meta analysis). Furthermore, it is unlikely that available moderators would account for all true variation. In many contexts, I doubt that available moderators would even account for most of the true variation. Thus, while I can see that including meaningful moderators would be useful, I predict that in most applications, this would not solve the problem of variation in true correlations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second option of computing lower, mean, and upper bound correlations also does not seem to me to provide a solution to the problem. First of all, even if correlations vary between study, it is unlikely that such variation would lead to uniform increases and decreases in all correlations. For examples, in some studies the true correlation may be higher than the mean for one pair of variables and lower for another. That said, the idea of sampling the range of distributions does sound like it could have promise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Cheung and Chan (2009)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cheung and Chan (2009) provide a technical overview with appropriate formulas, a simulation, and an example on performing the two-stage approach to SEM meta-analysis. They acknowledge that heterogeneous correlation matrices are problematic. They suggest the following options: (a) clustering correlation matrices; (b) release some cross-group constraints (e.g., based on moderators) in the SEM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Becker (2009)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Becker (2009) sets out how to perform model testing based on the GLS approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Personal thoughts&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Pooling and random effects&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, the random-effects model seems more reasonable. Unless the meta-analysis is composed of exact replications, studies typically vary in a wide range of ways. And this manifests in varying correlations.&#xA;Using a random-effects model involves weighting sample correlations differently by incorporating between study variance. The consequence is that studies with smaller sample sizes are weighted more than they would otherwise be using a fixed-effects model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Variation in correlations may not necessarily be normal. There may be outlier correlations in studies. Observed moderators may explain some of the between study variance in correlations. Similarly artefacts such as reliability, range restrictions, etc. may explain additional variance in effect sizes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is no true-score variance then the two-step approach seems reasonable. Also, if after including moderators, true-score variance is accounted for, the two-step approach seems reasonable. Likewise, the idea of clustering correlation matrices to remove true-score variance might have promise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using a random-effects model to weight correlations is a reasonable way to get an estimate of the mean true correlation. However, using such pooled estimates in SEM  raises several issues. First, such a procedure does not capture the true variation in effect sizes. Parameter estimates and SEM fit will vary across studies in systematic ways; only analysing the mean true correlations ignores this systematic between study variation. &#xA;Second, using sample size estimates based on the average, minimum, or harmonic mean, of cell sample sizes seem to all assume a fixed-effects model of precision in estimating the true correlation coefficients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Other Approaches&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another strategy would be to perform SEM on each sample and treat the parameters and fit statistics as values that vary between samples. The distribution (e.g.,mean and SD) of these SEM parameters and fit statistics could be summarised. This would be similar to how correlations and other effect sizes are typically modelled as random effects. So, for example the variation in the indirect effect across samples could be examined. The challenge would be to separate what is true score variation and what is due to random sampling. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems like a good idea, although often meaningful variance in effects will remain even after controlling for moderator and often the number of studies for a given moderator value can be minimal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bamberg, S. &amp;amp; Moser, G. (2007). Twenty years after Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera: A new meta-analysis of psycho-social determinants of pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of environmental psychology, 27, 14-25.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bauer, T.N., Bodner, T., Erdogan, B., Truxillo, D.M. &amp;amp; Tucker, J.S. (2007). Newcomer adjustment during organizational socialization: A meta-analytic review of antecedents, outcomes, and methods.. Journal of applied psychology, 92, 707. &lt;a href=&quot;http://bernard.bianca.pivot.free.fr/Articles/Socialisation%20Organisationnelle/Bauer%20et%20al.%20%282007%29.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Becker, B. J. (1992). Models of science achievement: Forces affecting male and female performance in school science. In T. D. Cook, H. M. Cooper, D.&#xA;S. Cordray, H. Hartmann, L. V. Hedges, R. J. Light, T. A. Louis, &amp;amp; F. Mosteller (Eds.), Meta-analysis for explanation: A casebook (pp. 209-281). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Becker, B. J. (2009) Model-based meta-analysis, chapter 20,&#xA;in The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis, editors:&#xA;Cooper, H.M. and Hedges, L.V. and Valentine, J.C., &#xA;Russell Sage Foundation Publications.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brown SP, Peterson RA. (1993). Antecedents and consequences of salesperson job satisfaction: Meta-analysis and assessment of causal effects. Journal of Marketing Research, 30,63-77.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cheung, M.W.L. &amp;amp; Chan, W. (2005). Meta-analytic structural equation modeling: a two-stage approach. Psychological Methods, 10, 40. &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.cehd.tamu.edu/~vwillson/Videos/E642%20meta/MA%20of%20SEM%20Cheung%20Chan%20PsyMeth%2005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cheung, M.W.L. &amp;amp; Chan, W. (2009). A two-stage approach to synthesizing covariance matrices in meta-analytic structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 16, 28-53.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Colquitt, J.A., Scott, B.A. &amp;amp; LePine, J.A. (2007). Trust, trustworthiness, and trust propensity: A meta-analytic test of their unique relationships with risk taking and job performance.. Journal of applied psychology, 92, 909.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dunst, C.J. &amp;amp; Trivette, C.M. (2009). Meta-analytic structural equation modeling of the influences of family-centered care on parent and child psychological health. International journal of pediatrics, 2009. &lt;a href=&quot;http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/ijped/2009/576840.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fried, Y., Shirom, A., Gilboa, S. &amp;amp; Cooper, C.L. (2008). The mediating effects of job satisfaction and propensity to leave on role stress-job performance relationships: Combining meta-analysis and structural equation modeling.. International Journal of Stress Management, 15, 305.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Joseph, D., Ng, K.Y., Koh, C. &amp;amp; Ang, S. (2007). Turnover of information technology professionals: a narrative review, meta-analytic structural equation modeling, and model development. MIS Quarterly, 31, 547-577.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harris, M. J., &amp;amp; Rosenthal, R. (1985). Mediation of&#xA;interpersonal expectancy effects: 31 Meta-analysis.&#xA;Psychological Bulletin, 97, 363-386.&#xA;Haeussler-Keyton, K. (2012). &#xA;Psychological and Social Factors Associated with Breastfeeding Success: A Meta-Analytic Path Analysis. Doctoral Thesis at Texas Tech University. &lt;a href=&quot;http://repositories.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/45260/KEYTON-DISSERTATION.pdf?sequence=2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hunter JE. (1983). A causal analysis of cognitive ability, job knowledge, job performance,&#xA;and supervisor ratings. In Landy FJ, Zedeck S, Cleveland J (Eds.), Performance&#xA;measurement and theory (pp. 257-266). New Jersey: Eribaum.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ones DS. (1993). The construct validity of integrity tests. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.&#xA;University of Iowa, Iowa City.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peters LH, Hartke DD, Pohlmann JT. (1985). Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership: An application of the mieta-analysis procedures of Schmidt and Hunter. Psychological Bultetin, 97,274-285.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Premack, S. L., &amp;amp; Hunter, J. E. (1988). Individual&#xA;unionization decisions. Psychological Bulletin, 103,&#xA;223-234.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shadish, W.R. (1996). Meta-analysis and the exploration of causal mediating processes: A primer of examples, methods, and issues.. Psychological Methods, 1, 47.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shadish, W. R., &amp;amp; Sweeney, R. (1991). Mediators and&#xA;moderators in meta-analysis: There's a reason we&#xA;don't let dodo birds tell us which psychotherapies&#xA;should have prizes. Journal of Consulting and Clini-&#xA;cal Psychology, 59, 883-893.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stajkovic, A.D., Lee, D. &amp;amp; Nyberg, A.J. (2009). Collective efficacy, group potency, and group performance: Meta-analyses of their relationships, and test of a mediation model.. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 814.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Viswesvaran, C. &amp;amp; Ones, D.S. (1995). THEORY TESTING: COMBINING PSYCHOMETRIC META-ANALYSIS AND STRUCTURAL EQUATIONS MODELING. Personnel Psychology, 48, 865-885.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Viswesvaran C. (1993). Modeling job performance: Is there a general factor? Unpublished&#xA;doctoral dissertation, LIniversity of Iowa, Iowa City.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zhang, Y. (2011). Meta-analytic Structural Equation Modeling&#xA;(MASEM): Comparison of the multivariate methods. Doctoral Thesis at Florida State University. &lt;a href=&quot;http://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/etd/534/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-27T05:46:33.613" LastActivityDate="2012-09-27T05:46:33.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1219" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1215" CreationDate="2012-06-19T05:41:34.763" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found an example of a system that researchers are aiming to use in the future for determining the level of neurotransmitter activity in the brain using MRI.  You were on the right track with the utility of hemoglobin.  The molecule used is somewhat similar.  To understand how the probes were generated requires a bit of a biological detour. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are enzymes in the body known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytochrome_P450&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;P450 cytochromes&lt;/a&gt;, so named because they were observed as absorbing light in the 450 nm range.  They are membrane bound (e.g., in the mitochondria) and one of their primary purposes is to carry out &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monooxygenase&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;monooxygenase&lt;/a&gt; reactions, and liver-based P450s are responsible much of the drug metabolism that goes on in the body.  So, different classes of these enzymes have a high affinity for certain molecules.  The most important characteristic that the P450s possess is a heme group, which is paramagnetic, and will produce a signal in an MRI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These P450 enzymes are also found in bacteria, which can be readily used as a test bed due to their rapid cell division.  What these scientists have done is repeatedly mutated bacteria and tested the affinity of the P450s of the resulting mutants for various molecules (in this case serotonin and dopamine).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in retaining a culture of the bacteria, scientists can mass produce the mutated heme groups from the bacterial P450s.  Presumably once the sequence of the subunit is determined, it could be created using standard techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some challenges remain.  Primarily, the probes will have to be checked for safety, and measures will have to be taken to make them into robust MRI contrast agents, and ensure that they can localize and persist in the brain for the duration of testing.  Presumably, the proper correlations between strength of signal and local transmitter concentration can be established with &lt;em&gt;in vitro&lt;/em&gt; studies.  It sounds like we're fairly close to non-invasive methods of measuring neurotransmitter levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wzxEg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reproduced from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022283612004275&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Brustad, E.M., Lelyveld, V.S., et al (2012). Structure-guided directed evolution of highly selective P450-based magnetic resonance imaging sensors for dopamine and serotonin.  Journal of Molecular Biology, &lt;em&gt;in press&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2012.05.029&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doi&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-06-19T05:41:34.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1220" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1215" CreationDate="2012-06-19T06:01:34.263" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Resonance methods can be used to measure neurotransmitter levels. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy can measure the levels of a large number of neurotransmitters. However, this has always been viewed as a fairly static measure of neurotransmitter levels, and so has not been widely used as a measure of neural activity. However, &lt;a href=&quot;http://biu.bangor.ac.uk/paul-mullins.php.en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Paul Mullins&lt;/a&gt; at Bangor University has been doing some work using spectroscopy to measure neurotransmitter levels in different parts of the brain. From the work I have seen him present so far, it is sensitive enough to track stimulus driven changes in neurotransmitter levels with a standard blocked design (ie 18sec blocks of stimulation followed by 18sec of rest). I'm not too sure whether it has the same functional contrast-to-noise as the BOLD response and it definitely has a lower spatial resolution than BOLD techniques. This work is currently being prepared for publication so I shouldn't say too much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Novotny, E. J., Fulbright, R. K., Pearl, P. L., Gibson, K. M., &amp;amp; Rthman D. L. (2003). Magnetic resonance spectroscopy of neurotransmitters in human brain, Annals of Neurology, 54, S25-S31. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12891651&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PubMed&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastEditorUserId="587" LastEditDate="2012-06-19T12:16:07.597" LastActivityDate="2012-06-19T12:16:07.597" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1221" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1215" CreationDate="2012-06-19T06:04:26.563" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a bit of an art, currently.  Following is &lt;strong&gt;one technique&lt;/strong&gt; I witnessed in a lab that takes electrophysiological recordings of tadpole and rat neurvous sytems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The lab that I worked with entrains the neuron, recording it's electrical activity (in a series of drug tests) and injects a marker that goes into the neuron (a GFP-like protein that binds to precursors for serotonin or dopamine or GABA and glows in pictures).  Then they mark the brain tissue and the recording so they'll be associated, then after they have a bunch of recordings, they look at all the brain tissues and see which ones expressed the dopamine, GABA, or serotonin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now they can associate electrophysiological behavior with a particular neurotransmitter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to this, there's a &lt;strong&gt;general neurochemical anatomy&lt;/strong&gt; that's known.  Serotonergic neurons are only found in the brainstem, for instance and  dopamine is only in the substantia nigra pars compacta, ventral tegmental area, and hypothalamus and has four different types of projections to other cell bodies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, for proof, staining (as described above) is still preferred by reviewers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2012-06-19T07:11:05.683" LastActivityDate="2012-06-19T07:11:05.683" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1222" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1208" CreationDate="2012-06-19T15:31:04.420" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One possible strategy is to phrase decision-making problems as questions in a foreign language. There's evidence that this attenuates at least certain kinds of cognitive bias (making you more rational and consistent) by distancing the cognitive and affective baggage that comes with the problem. See the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/23/6/661&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Keysar, B., Hayakawa, S.L., &amp;amp; Sun, G.A. (2012). The Foreign-Language Effect: Thinking in a Foreign Tongue Reduces Decision Biases. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science&lt;/em&gt;, 23 (6), 661-668.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="825" LastActivityDate="2012-06-19T15:31:04.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1223" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1224" CreationDate="2012-06-20T02:25:46.217" Score="5" ViewCount="1865" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm in the process of performing a meta-analysis that includes Grade Point Average (GPA) as one of the variables. For some purposes, it might be useful to have an estimate of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_%28statistics%29&quot;&gt;reliability of measurement&lt;/a&gt; for GPA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What has empirical research estimated the reliability of GPA to be?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What factors influence the reliability of GPA measurement?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Additional points&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm looking for specific coefficient values that I could use in a meta-analytic context. I am not interested in personal opinions about the value of GPA.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I can also see that reliability would vary based on how you define reliability. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I imagine that GPA would be more reliable and valid when it is obtained from a group of students at a single university. I can also see that GPAs based on more units of study would be more reliable. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I can also see that in some contexts GPA is an end itself, and therefore it would not be appropriate to adjust for reliability.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-20T05:01:43.773" LastActivityDate="2012-06-20T05:01:43.773" Title="What is the reliability of GPA?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;reliability&gt;&lt;meta-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1223" CreationDate="2012-06-20T02:48:08.827" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bacon and Bean (2006) discuss the issue of the reliability and validity of GPA.&#xA;They report the results of two studies that looked at the reliability of GPA in samples of business students at the same university.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Average intercourse grade correlations were typically between $\bar{r} =.18$ and $\bar{r} =.38$.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Estimates of reliability for GPA ranged from .67 to .94.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a simplex structure to GPA whereby correlations between GPA for a given year correlate more highly with GPAs of other years that are closer in time (e.g., correlations between consecutive year GPAS from years 1 to 2, 2 to 3, and 3 to 4 where .74, .79, and .74 respectively. In contrast the correlation between GPA year 1 with year 4 was .60.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Average intercourse correlations within disciplines tend to be higher than across course correlations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In general, reliability increased as more courses/subjects were included.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above estimates are based on correlations that use &quot;+/-&quot; system of grading. Universities that use straight letter grades should have lower reliability and those that use a 100 point numeric grading system should be more reliable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bacon, D.R. &amp;amp; Bean, B. (2006). GPA in research studies: An invaluable but neglected opportunity. Journal of Marketing Education, 28, 35-42.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-20T02:58:55.973" LastActivityDate="2012-06-20T02:58:55.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1225" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-20T05:24:55.243" Score="7" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;In educational psychology &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal-oriented&quot;&gt;goal orientation&lt;/a&gt; is a popular construct. In particular popular dimensions of goal orientation include performance-approach, performance-avoidance, and mastery. The studies that I have read (e.g., Elliot et al, 1999) have used self-report measures of goal orientation. I.e., students have been asked to rate themselves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I am sceptical of people's self-ratings of their performance or strategy. Thus, I was wondering how well self-ratings correlated with other ratings (e.g., by knowledgeable teachers or other careful observers).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the correlation between self and other ratings for goal orientation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do correlations between goal orientation and performance vary based on whether the goal orientations ratings are by the self or an other?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Elliot, A.J., McGregor, H.A. &amp;amp; Gable, S. (1999). Achievement goals, study strategies, and exam performance: A mediational analysis.. Journal of educational psychology, 91, 549. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.rochester.edu/research/apav/publications/documents/1999_ElliotMcGregorGable_AchievementgoalsStudyStrategiesandExamPerformance.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-06-03T05:12:35.690" Title="What is the correlation between self and other ratings of goal orientation?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;goals&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1226" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2011-06-06T04:24:08.177" Score="5" ViewCount="286" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Context&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I sometimes speak to researchers studying the relationship between variables in clinical psychology samples.&#xA;A typical example is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;100 patients with diagnosed depression&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;many clinically relevant variables are measured such as demographics, anxiety, intelligence, drug and alcohol use, and so on.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers often want to then develop models of what predicts depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the problem is that the sample was selected because they already have been deemed to possess a certain threshold level of depression.&#xA;Substantial variation still remains in depression with some participants being more severe than others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, there are problems in trying to generalise observed relationships to describe what predicts depression, because it is not a random sample of the population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I use depression as a specific case, but the problem applies to many studies of clinical populations (e.g., kids with behavioural problems, kids with intellectual disabilities, OCD, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What advice would you give to such researchers about how to analyse and generalise from such data?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any references that provide an example of best practice of how to analyse and generalise from such data?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" OwnerDisplayName="Jeromy Anglim" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-20T23:50:08.220" LastActivityDate="2012-06-20T23:50:08.220" Title="Inferring relationships between psychological variables in clinical samples and issues in generalisation" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1228" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1234" CreationDate="2012-06-20T18:21:12.157" Score="4" ViewCount="2190" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed that when I, and presumably others, count the number of times the letter &lt;code&gt;F&lt;/code&gt; appears in the following passage:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT&#xA;OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC&#xA;STUDY COMBINED WITH THE&#xA;EXPERIENCE OF YEARS&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They typically get a count of three, yet the real answer is six. The letter &lt;code&gt;F&lt;/code&gt; in the the word &quot;OF&quot; tends to be omitted from the count.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine that this effect has something to do with top-down processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have there been any scientific studies of this or a similar task?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What proportion of people complete the task successfully?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What explains the tendency of people to not count the letter F's in the word &quot;OF&quot;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-21T03:06:48.747" LastActivityDate="2012-06-21T06:54:28.183" Title="When counting a given letter in sentences, why do people tend to omit occurrences in certain common words?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1229" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1299" CreationDate="2012-06-20T18:25:09.280" Score="11" ViewCount="294" Body="&lt;p&gt;Supposed that I'm a married man, and my wife asks me to pick out a paint color for our new house. It's not terribly mentally taxing. However, my wife starts to add rules. The color can't be too bright, no green, neutral, etc. The additional rules that my wife give me add an additional burden to the process of selecting a color. So in my mind, there is the base cognitive effort required to select a color, and a secondary cognitive burden that requires me to process the rules that my wife gave me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What mental effort constructs would apply in this scenario?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From instruction design, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load&quot;&gt;cognitive load theory&lt;/a&gt; defines intrinsic load, extraneous load, and germane load. In my example, I think intrinsic load would map somewhat to the base effort required to choose a color, and extraneous load would map to the additional rules imposed by my wife. However, I'm not sure that the process of &lt;em&gt;learning&lt;/em&gt; as explained by cognitive load theory translates well into this scenario where a &lt;em&gt;choice/decision&lt;/em&gt; is trying to be made. &lt;strong&gt;Are there other constructs that would be more applicable?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="373" LastEditorUserId="373" LastEditDate="2012-06-20T19:44:14.277" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T01:05:48.033" Title="What constructs help explain limited cognitive processing and the cognitive effects of rules that limit decision making choices?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1230" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1226" CreationDate="2012-06-20T19:11:50.703" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if you can completely remove the selection bias from such a sample. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You seem to be referring (in some sense, at least) to regression towards the mean. This is one of the biggest (if not the biggest) problem with much research on clinical samples. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I would do (assuming resources) would be to take the same size (or larger) sample from the general population, and administer all of the same measures and tests to them. This would allow you to separate the predictors of the clinical outcome versus the variation due to other factors. I would probably employ matching from the clinical sample to the general sample (Gelman and Hill have a great chapter in their book about the matching, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.co.uk/Analysis-Regression-Multilevel-Hierarchical-Analytical/dp/052168689X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&amp;amp;qid=1340219301&amp;amp;sr=8-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;that entire book&lt;/a&gt; is filled with helpful advice to analogous problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my research, (on predictors of placebo response) I took large samples from the University where I was conducting my research on all of my self report measures, and compared my experimental population to them to determine if my sample were representative of the larger populatiom, which is a somewhat similiar approach to a common problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, other than the Gelman and Hill book, I'm not aware of any literature on the topic (but that may be my own fault). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22" LastActivityDate="2012-06-20T19:11:50.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1231" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-20T22:02:09.557" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A computational modeling paradigm that models phenomena as dynamical systems of interacting autonomous agents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-20T22:03:56.580" LastActivityDate="2012-06-20T22:03:56.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1232" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-20T22:02:09.557" Score="0" Body="A computational modeling paradigm that models phenomena as dynamical systems of interacting autonomous agents." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-20T22:03:59.200" LastActivityDate="2012-06-20T22:03:59.200" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1234" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1228" CreationDate="2012-06-21T06:37:04.570" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What explains the tendency of people to not count the letter F's in the word &quot;OF&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One possibility to explain this effect is related to the phenomenon of &lt;strong&gt;word skipping&lt;/strong&gt;. When we read, we do not fixate every word, but skip a certain proportion of words while making educated guesses instead. Whether or not a certain word is skipped seems to depend on its length and its predictability, that is, how likely a word is given its predecessor (e.g, Rayner et al., 2011). For your example, the preposition &quot;of&quot; might be very likely to be skipped because it is very short and some grammatical clauses always ask for this preposition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please see PubMed for a more comprehensive literature search on word skipping: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22word%20skipping%22&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22word%20skipping%22&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Rayner K, Slattery TJ, Drieghe D, Liversedge SP. (2011). Eye movements and word skipping during reading: effects of word length and predictability. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 37(2):514-28&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-06-21T06:54:28.183" LastActivityDate="2012-06-21T06:54:28.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1235" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1236" CreationDate="2012-06-21T20:55:24.540" Score="6" ViewCount="15736" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have experienced this phenomena many, many times and I'm sure it's not only me. I guess the sudden rise in arousal opens up the nostrils in a kind of fight or flight response, but I'm interested in the more intricate details of why this happens. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastActivityDate="2018-06-26T23:23:52.527" Title="Why does a stuffed up nose clear up momentarily when the person having it is startled or has an orgasm?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1236" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1235" CreationDate="2012-06-21T21:17:26.523" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16955783&quot;&gt;Norepinephrine&lt;/a&gt; is responsible for, among many other things, causing a constriction the nasal vasculature and slowing capillary leakage that would lead to a runny nose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both the startle response (sympathetic) and the orgasm response (sharp &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22679220&quot;&gt;transition&lt;/a&gt; between high peak of sympathetic response and descent into parasympathetic) result in large releases of epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream from the adrenal medulla.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-06-21T21:17:26.523" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1237" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="704" CreationDate="2012-06-21T21:26:00.380" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could go with the most direct approach: After every question, ask your subjects how emotionally aroused the last question made them, for example by using a visual analogue scale. Now, this might not be suitable for your research (maybe you don't want your subjects to start to think about their own emotional state), but I think there's a danger in using advanced measurement technologies just for the heck of it. I would imagine a direct question would give your research quite high face validity for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if want to go with a more indirect approach I would recommend you check skin conductance measurements out. Here, you could for example (there are numerous examples) check out the research on precognition, which started with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_11_2_radin.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;an experiment by Dean Radin&lt;/a&gt;. In these studies, you can see how skin conductance measurements vary with the content of presented pictures quite nicely (never mind if you agree with the precognition hypothesis or not).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="86" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T00:30:27.407" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T00:30:27.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1238" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-21T22:56:56.567" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the consistency with which variables can be measured, by different observers or over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_%28statistics%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reliability(statistics)&lt;/a&gt; and particularly &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-rater_reliability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Inter-rater Reliability&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-21T22:57:39.990" LastActivityDate="2012-06-21T22:57:39.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1239" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-21T22:56:56.567" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the consistency with which variables can be measured, by different observers or over time." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-21T22:57:41.423" LastActivityDate="2012-06-21T22:57:41.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1240" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-22T01:35:57.377" Score="-1" ViewCount="7413" Body="&lt;p&gt;We want to have a test to determine the status of a person's memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a good test might consist of multtiple choice questions  and take 5 - 10 minutes. The end result would be a summary of an individuals' memory based on their score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What tests are currently used to measure a person's memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="875" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-17T11:09:41.160" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T11:09:41.160" Title="What test can be used to measure memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1241" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1240" CreationDate="2012-06-22T03:56:26.023" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a wide variety of memory tests available for different purposes (sometimes clinical, sometimes for research). Also as Ben Brocka mentions, they can be more targeted as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One test I can think of at the top of my head that is available for free online is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mocatest.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MOCA)&lt;/a&gt; that you might be interested in. It serves as a quick screening for cognitive impairment but there is one section for memory. Usually these are used prior to further testing. I can update my answer later if I find more. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One that is well known and is widely used in clinical settings is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Memory_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wechsler-Memory-Scale&lt;/a&gt; (WMS). The latest version is &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcorp.pearsonassessments.com/haiweb/cultures/en-us/productdetail.htm?pid=015-8895-800&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WMS-IV&lt;/a&gt; but it is more comprehensive and not free. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering you asked for something around 5-10 min. you are probably more interested in ones used in research/educational settings. Here are two I found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.faceblind.org/facetests/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Faceblind&lt;/a&gt; is run by the Prosopagnosia Research Centers (Dartmouth College, Harvard University, University College London). There you can find a test on visual memory for celebrity faces (which would be considered Long Term Memory). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Their site links to tests from another group: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.testmybrain.org/?page=home&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Test My Brain&lt;/a&gt; is a collaborative effort between the Vision Lab and the&#xA;  Social Neuroscience and Psychopathology Lab at Harvard University.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They offer more visual memory tests, some on faces, words, numbers etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastEditorUserId="70" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T05:20:37.273" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T05:20:37.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1242" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-22T07:20:40.250" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the study of psychology with an aim to discover cross-cultural differences and invariance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cross-cultural psychology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:21:56.217" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:21:56.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1243" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-22T07:20:40.250" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the study of psychology with an aim to discover cross-cultural differences and invariance." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:21:57.947" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:21:57.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1244" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-22T07:24:57.157" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the transformation of information into a form which is able to be stored in memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_%28memory%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Encoding&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:22:00.193" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:22:00.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1245" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-22T07:24:57.157" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the transformation of information into a form which is able to be stored in memory." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:22:02.423" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:22:02.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1246" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-22T07:47:29.187" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the acquisition of knowledge through means other than reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Intuition&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:22:09.663" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:22:09.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1247" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-22T07:47:29.187" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the acquisition of knowledge through means other than reasoning." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:22:12.050" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:22:12.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1248" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-22T07:51:25.593" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the practice of training the mind via concentration and rituals.  These behaviors may be done with or without a religious context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information on studies, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_on_meditation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Research on meditation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:22:13.953" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:22:13.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1249" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-22T07:51:25.593" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the practice of training the mind via concentration and rituals.  These behaviors may be done with or without a religious context." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T08:22:15.917" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T08:22:15.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1250" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-22T09:48:35.613" Score="22" ViewCount="1305" Body="&lt;p&gt;We all know visual alignment is one of the foundations of design. Everything must be aligned with everything else.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;We also know that when things are aligned it is easier to process information.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;My question is &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nothing in nature is &quot;aligned&quot;. What's the anthropological/biology reason why humans prefer aligned information?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="892" OwnerDisplayName="Gonçalo Veiga" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-16T02:48:14.413" LastActivityDate="2015-05-19T18:03:41.030" Title="Why do we prefer visually aligned objects?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;gestalt-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1251" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1250" CreationDate="2012-06-22T10:00:09.030" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two related reasons, I believe for this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Relationship and connection. When things are aligned, we see then as connected and related. Nature does give us the guidance for things that are related and connected in other ways, but often by a degree of alignment or similarity. In UX terms, we indicate the relationships between items by positioning and similarlity, including alignment.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pattern matching. Our brains are awesome pattern matchers. However, if there is a misalignment, we try to see some meaning or pattern in the misalignment, when there probably isn't one. By aligning things, the pattern we see is one of order and similarity.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a degree of alignment in nature, and we do notice it. There is evidence that  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.faceresearch.org/students/notes/symmetry.pdf&quot;&gt;symmetrical faces are more attractive&lt;/a&gt;), because we like the alignments. It makes the UI look more attractive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="151" OwnerDisplayName="Schroedingers Cat" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T10:00:09.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1252" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1250" CreationDate="2012-06-22T10:17:25.973" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the main reasons related to the &lt;strong&gt;'Gestalt principles'&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Law of Proximity Objects near each other tend to be grouped together.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Law of Similarity Similar items tend to be grouped together.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Law of Closure Objects grouped together are seen as a whole.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Law of Continuity Lines are seen as following the smoothest path.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Law of Common Region Items in similar areas tend to be grouped&#xA;together.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Law of Connectedness Items that are connected are seen as groups.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a nice summary from the article referenced below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Coupling emotional and behavioral triggers in some form of cognitive grouping — whether by proximity, similarity or something else — strengthens the motivation to act on the behavioral cue.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd add to this: We feel more comfortable when perceiving something expected. When something breaks this (such as misalignment), it causes stress because there is a gap between our expectations (as the principles outline) and our experience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webdesignerdepot.com/2011/08/strengthening-behavioral-cues-in-ux-web-design-with-gestalt-principles/&quot;&gt;http://www.webdesignerdepot.com/2011/08/strengthening-behavioral-cues-in-ux-web-design-with-gestalt-principles/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm&quot;&gt;http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="830" OwnerDisplayName="Jay" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T10:17:25.973" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1250" CreationDate="2012-06-22T10:28:44.300" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Normally we design and design follows rules. If not we create art. Alignments follow a.) grids or patterns or b.) other objects (if we have not a grid) in X or Y (left, right, bottom, top, center). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I would say everything in nature is aligned, but not in a symmetrical way. All life on earth is based in grids. Bubbles, cell structures, don´t forgot the the golden section, a relation which is very valuable. There are a lot of examples in bionics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In UI we have to different reading directions from left to the right, or reversed, the same from the top to the left. The implication is, that we have to conduct the user with visual alignments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Georg Vinzent Hofmann" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T11:48:49.907" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1254" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1250" CreationDate="2012-06-22T10:39:15.727" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nothing in nature is &quot;aligned&quot; - not really.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of nature's marveling fact is that there is unity everywhere starting with the way a water drop is forced to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_is_rain_drop_spherical_in_shape&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;spherical&lt;/a&gt;, to the ice flakes being &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=why-are-snowflakes-symmet&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;symmetrical&lt;/a&gt;, to cells coming together to form &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_%28anatomy%29#Organ_systems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;organ systems&lt;/a&gt; etc. I could go on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps its that 'come together' = 'grow in life' got us till here in evolution :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact we sometimes end up grouping unrelated things together, if they are nearby (ah! 'Gestalt principles').&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also if I remember my algorithm basics correctly, its easier to sort items that are grouped. Because then you know they form a 'pattern' (say sorting numbers in descending manner before applying some algorithm).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Raj" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T11:48:29.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1256" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-22T19:41:55.300" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the scientific basis of psychological advantages/disadvantages of approaching life with an optimistic outlook.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Optimism&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Attitude(psychology)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T22:26:20.980" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T22:26:20.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1257" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-22T19:41:55.300" Score="0" Body="For questions about the scientific basis of psychological advantages/disadvantages of approaching life with an optimistic outlook." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T22:26:23.507" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T22:26:23.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1258" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-22T19:44:58.400" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about making assertions about outcomes which are yet to be determined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prediction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Prediction&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T22:26:57.360" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T22:26:57.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1259" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-22T19:44:58.400" Score="0" Body="For questions about making assertions about outcomes which are yet to be determined." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T22:26:59.467" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T22:26:59.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1260" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-22T19:49:29.487" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the implicit form of long term memory which stores how to do an activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Procedural memory&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Implicit memory&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Long-term memory&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Motor learning&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T22:26:38.920" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T22:26:38.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1261" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-22T19:49:29.487" Score="0" Body="For questions about the implicit form of long term memory which stores how to do an activity." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-22T22:26:40.933" LastActivityDate="2012-06-22T22:26:40.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1262" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-23T02:51:07.480" Score="14" ViewCount="217" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in research that has employed the following or similar research design:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Measure the daily amount of sleep &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;every day for an for an extended period (e.g., more than a month)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;in a relatively large sample (e.g., $n &amp;gt; 100$) of &quot;normal&quot; healthy adults&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would give rise to sleep measurements on multiple days and for multiple individuals. Thus, we could define $y_{ij}$ as the amount of sleep of person $i$ on day $j$. Descriptive statistics could be calculated on the set of daily sleep measurements of person $i$ such as the mean and standard deviation. These within-person descriptive statistics could also be summarised at the group-level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, &lt;strong&gt;what are the main descriptive statistics of such data?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically, I'd be interested in knowing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the mean of the within-person mean of daily amount of sleep?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the standard deviation of the within-person mean of daily amount of sleep?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the mean of the within-person standard deviation of daily amount of sleep?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the standard deviation of the within-persons standard deviation of daily amount of sleep?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably such results are contingent on how sleep is defined and measured, as well as many other factors such as the nature of the target population. Thus, any comments about these factors would also be welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-23T09:38:09.540" LastActivityDate="2012-10-08T11:57:51.800" Title="How does daily amount of sleep vary within and between healthy adults?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1263" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10288" CreationDate="2012-06-23T04:26:13.067" Score="16" ViewCount="2110" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the cognitive sciences Alan Turing is best known for launching AI with his &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing_machinery_and_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Computing machinery and intelligence&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (1950). However, this was not his first contribution to the cognitive sciences, in his unpublished 1948 technical report &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/l/l32/L32-001.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Intelligence Machinery&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; he foresaw connectionism with his &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/pages/Reference%20Articles/connectionism/Turing%27s%20neural%20networks.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;B-type neural networks&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The model is a recurrent neural network that is wired at random, and synchronized by a global clock. The neurons are two input &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\mathrm{NAND}$&lt;/span&gt;-gates. The connections have one of two states: they either forward their signal perfectly (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$0 \mapsto 0$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1 \mapsto 1$&lt;/span&gt;), or replace it by &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1$&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$0 \mapsto 1$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1 \mapsto 1$&lt;/span&gt;). The learning algorithm adjusts the states of the connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, the director of the National Physical Laboratory rejected Turing's work and it was not published until significantly after Turing's death. The original manuscript, though predates &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hebbian learning&lt;/a&gt; (1949) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptron&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rosenblatt's perceptrons&lt;/a&gt; (1957; and they weren't as sophisticated, only doing feedforward as opposed to recurrent).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Was Turing's B-type neural networks are the earliest neural-like models of computations capable of learning?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although by modern standard Turing's approach is dated, and has been supplanted by more realistic and general treatements (for instance ones that incorporate dynamic Hebbian updating on weighted connections without a need for central clock synchronization). &lt;strong&gt;When did the state of connectionism first surpasss Turing's B-type neural networks?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;strong&gt;Is there modern treatments of B-type neural networks and their learning abilities?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Notes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in this mostly from the historic perspective, and not in how accurate Turing's model was under current interpertations. Although current knowledge would help answer when other models surpassed Turing's.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-26T17:39:10.697" Title="Modern treatments of Alan Turing's B-type neural networks" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1264" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4371" CreationDate="2012-06-23T18:29:12.063" Score="8" ViewCount="252" Body="&lt;p&gt;We would like to compare students from different education systems on the following variables:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;tendency to actively participate on lessons&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;tendency to ask questions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;tendency and experience in presenting own opinion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What studies provide examples of measuring these variables? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What methods are typically used to answer questions related to these variables? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What &lt;em&gt;survey papers&lt;/em&gt; provide a good starting point?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="846" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-24T04:28:58.140" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T12:33:25.797" Title="How to measure student activity, participation, tendency to ask questions, etc?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1265" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-24T01:47:04.593" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the history of philosophy-of-mind, psychology, neuroscience, and other cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-24T02:54:55.757" LastActivityDate="2012-06-24T02:54:55.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1266" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-24T01:47:04.593" Score="0" Body="For questions about the history of philosophy-of-mind, psychology, neuroscience, and other cognitive sciences." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-06-24T02:54:57.800" LastActivityDate="2012-06-24T02:54:57.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1267" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-24T02:25:42.350" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the perception of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Time&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%28Biopsychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Time - Biopsychology&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Temporal illusion&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-24T02:54:59.830" LastActivityDate="2012-06-24T02:54:59.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1268" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-24T02:25:42.350" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the perception of time" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-24T02:55:00.533" LastActivityDate="2012-06-24T02:55:00.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1269" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-24T02:30:19.803" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about skills that can be brought from one discipline into another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_of_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Transfer of learning&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_Transfer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Negative transfer&lt;/a&gt; occurs when learning about an earlier topic interferes with current learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-24T02:55:03.870" LastActivityDate="2012-06-24T02:55:03.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1270" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-24T02:30:19.803" Score="0" Body="For questions about the effect of prior experience on future learning." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-24T02:55:02.967" LastActivityDate="2012-06-24T02:55:02.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1271" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-24T02:36:30.387" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the psychological principles behind writing, its mechanics, learning writing, and improving the process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_writing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Creative writing&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer%27s_block&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Writer's block&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions about techniques of writing should be directed towards our sister site &lt;a href=&quot;https://writing.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Writing Stack Exchange&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2018-10-04T22:34:14.390" LastActivityDate="2018-10-04T22:34:14.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1272" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-24T02:36:30.387" Score="0" Body="For questions about the psychological principles behind writing, its mechanics, learning writing, and improving the process." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-24T02:55:05.790" LastActivityDate="2012-06-24T02:55:05.790" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1273" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="981" CreationDate="2012-06-24T06:04:02.923" Score="2" Body="&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whew, OK. I am going to take a crack at this. The question asks about depression &lt;em&gt;diagnoses&lt;/em&gt;, so I will interpret and focus on that accordingly. I think we can all agree that making any clear distinction between endogenous and exogenous causes of depression is difficult, since 1) liken to the Nature vs. Nurture question, people generally agree that Major Depression is a result of multiple factors, and 2) clinicians disagree on which (exogenous vs. endogenous) tends to be the &amp;quot;primary&amp;quot; cause of depression [&lt;a href=&quot;http://solution.lww.com/synopsisofpsychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to making a clinical diagnosis, psychiatrists and other mental health professionals will use the &lt;a href=&quot;http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/book.aspx?bookid=22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multi-axial&lt;/a&gt; system in documentation. &lt;strong&gt;Axis IV&lt;/strong&gt; is a part of the system, and is where exogenous factors can be reported as psychosocial and environmental problems that may affect the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis [&lt;a href=&quot;http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/book.aspx?bookid=22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]. In addition, the clinician should know to keep in mind that psychosocial problems may develop &lt;em&gt;as a consequence of the patient's psychopathology&lt;/em&gt;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of commonly listed psychosocial and environmental problems include family problems (illness, death), social environment (&lt;strong&gt;isolation&lt;/strong&gt;), educational/occupational problems, economic problems, etc., etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The evaluation of stressors is based on a clinician's assessment of the stress that an average person with similar sociocultural values and circumstances would experience from psychosocial stressors [&lt;a href=&quot;http://solution.lww.com/synopsisofpsychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;].&#xA;&lt;em&gt;The judgement is based on the degree of change that the stressor causes in the person's life, the degree to which the event is desired and under the person's control, and the number of stressors.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Tidbits&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To make a quick note about endogenous factors, it is interesting to note that the most consistent abnormality in those with depressive disorders is increased frequency of abnormal &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperintensities&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hyperintensities&lt;/a&gt; in subcortical regions of the brain...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A long-standing clinical observation is that stressful life events more often precede first, rather than subsequent, episodes of mood disorders.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;^ One theory proposed is that the stress accompanying a first episode results in long-lasting changes in the brain's biology... so a person has a high(er) risk of experiencing subsequent episodes of (a) mood disorder(s), &lt;strong&gt;even without an external stressor&lt;/strong&gt; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://solution.lww.com/synopsisofpsychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;While some clinicians believe that life events play the primary or principal role in depression, others suggest that life events have only a limited role in the onset and timing of depression.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What may seem to be a relatively mild stressor to outsiders may be devastating to the patient due to particular/personal idiosyncratic meanings the patient attach to the event.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bostonpsychoanalytic.org/library/coll_bibe.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Edward Bibring&lt;/a&gt; thought perhaps depression is [the result of] the phenomenon that sets in when a person becomes cognizant of a discrepancy between his high ideals and the inability to meet the goals appropriate to reach said ideals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suppose I did not provide an adequate answer to your question. Given what I have looked into, it appears that individuality plays a ginormous factor in determining one's personal cause(es), and not only do clinicians disagree on the source of depression, but it appears that when clinicians make their diagnosis/diagnoses, a clear distinction between endogenous and exogenous influences is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; made. At least, generally speaking...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://solution.lww.com/synopsisofpsychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaplan and Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/book.aspx?bookid=22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-IV-TR® Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="48" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-06-24T06:04:02.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1275" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-25T03:36:06.510" Score="27" ViewCount="918" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093934X12000594&quot;&gt;Peltola et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt; showed that there are two types of bilinguals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Balanced bilinguals&lt;/em&gt; mix their two languages and are effected by linguistic categories from both. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Dominant bilinguals&lt;/em&gt; seem to switch on the categories of the language they are using, and suppress the categories of the language not in use.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The task Peltola et al. (2012) studied was phoneme categories. The boundaries between vowels are arbitrary and set by the language of the user. The researchers focused on two sounds that are categorised as different vowels in Finnish, but are the same vowel in Swedish. When dominant bilingual participants were briefed about the study in Finnish, they distinguished the sounds quickly. When the same participants were briefed about the same experiment a week later in Swedish, their ability to distinguish the sounds slowed significantly. The balanced bilinguals were equally slow under both briefings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar arbitrary language-dependent categorization exists in colour perception (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences//retrieve/pii/S1364661309001454&quot;&gt;Regier &amp;amp; Kay, 2009&lt;/a&gt;). In fact, the effect of this arbitrary categorization is even lateralized: the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity&quot;&gt;Whorf hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; is supported in the right visual field but not the left (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16387848&quot;&gt;Gilbert et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;)! So the basics of linguistic relativity seem to be cross-modal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do dominant bilinguals switch linguistic categories on and off in the visual domain? Is the result of Peltola et al. (2012) cross-modal?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastActivityDate="2012-12-26T09:32:15.587" Title="The effects of bilingualism on colour perception" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;cross-modal&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1276" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-25T09:16:56.303" Score="5" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm planning a carry-over design for an fMRI study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To save time, since it seems that I'll need a huge number of trials for my purpose, I'm wondering if it's reasonable to have a matrix 2x3x3, meaning that one dimension has only 2 levels instead of 3 as the others do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="888" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-25T11:13:12.397" LastActivityDate="2012-06-25T11:41:02.917" Title="Is it reasonable to have a factor with only two levels in a carry-over design for an fMRI study?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1276" CreationDate="2012-06-25T11:35:27.447" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I'm not an expert in neuroimaging, so I had to search a little bit to learn about how carry-over designs apply to fMRI (I found Aguirre, 2007). Thus, feel free to correct me if there is something specific about this problem domain that influences the correct answer to this question.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, based on general principles of experimental design of repeated measures experiments, you always have to choose&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;how many factors you want,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;how many levels you want for each factor,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what levels you have for each factor, and &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what factors you hold constant.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The particular levels you choose are directly tied to your research question. There are often trade-offs between the cost of resources required to have more experimentally manipulated levels and the benefit of additional questions that can be answered. Thus, I don't think a black and white answer can be given. You need to weigh up the pros and cons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And presumably you have already made many experimental design decisions to get to this point. There's nothing magical about 3 levels to a factor. If anything, in experimental psychology two levels seems more common. And you could have four or five or more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Aguirre, G.K. (2007). Continuous carry-over designs for fMRI. Neuroimage, 35, 1480-1494. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2147064/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;HTML&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-25T11:41:02.917" LastActivityDate="2012-06-25T11:41:02.917" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1278" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-25T15:49:15.620" Score="13" ViewCount="401" Body="&lt;p&gt;In recent years, Bayesian models of cognition have been used - with considerable success - to explain human reasoning in a variety of inferential tasks (Chater, Tenenbaum, &amp;amp; Yuille, 2006). These models represent a &amp;quot;probabilistic approach&amp;quot; that seeks to derive the optimal solutions to inferential problems, and the success of these models is often interpreted as evidence that intuitive reasoning is fundamentally rational. Other successful research traditions, however, adopt a starkly different view of human rationality. Researchers interested in judgment and decision making, for example, often assume that intuitive inference is heuristic, error-prone, and subject to biases (Kahneman &amp;amp; Tversky, 1982; Gilovich, Griffin, &amp;amp; Kahneman, 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How is it possible that the probabilistic and heuristic-and-biases approaches have &lt;em&gt;both&lt;/em&gt; been successful while adopting fundamentally incompatible views of rationality?&lt;/strong&gt; I suspect that many psychologists have thought about this question, but so far as I can tell, these approaches have only been directly compared on a few inferential tasks, and there are still fewer (published) attempts to derive any general answers to this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Chater, N., Tenenbaum, J.B., &amp;amp; Yuille, A. (2006) Probabilistic models of cognition: Conceptual foundations. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences&lt;/em&gt; 10(7): 287-291. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dectech.org/publications/LinksNick/FoundationsTheoryAndMethodology/Conceptualfoundations.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gilovich, T., Griffin, D., &amp;amp; Kahneman, D. (Eds.) (2002) Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgement. &lt;em&gt;Cambridge Univ. Press.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kahneman, D. &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1982) &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1982-22772-001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The psychology of preferences&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Scientific American&lt;/em&gt; 246(1): 160-173.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="586" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-10-26T10:27:59.380" Title="How can the success of Bayesian models be reconciled with demonstrations of heuristic and biased reasoning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1279" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1278" CreationDate="2012-06-25T16:26:00.477" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is predicated on the assumption that Bayesian modeling has been successful in all domains. I think this is a stance that many (except hardened Bayesians) would disagree with. For instance, consider the classic Tversky &amp;amp; Shafir experiments on the violation of the sure thing principle:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/251/29&quot;&gt;What are popular rationalist responses to Tversky &amp;amp; Shafir?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above approach can be reconciled with standard rationalism, but you are in fact building theories of heuristics-and-biases to do so; that is how Kahneman &amp;amp; Tversky arrived at their models. Similarly, you can build very awkward Bayesian models for these sort of tasks (other difficult tasks are ones that show an order effect) but it is hard to say how these models are different from heuristics. For a more general treatement:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1300/29&quot;&gt;What tasks does Bayesian decision-making model poorly?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in the domain where Bayesian modeling is a good fit, the reason it works well to reconcile with heuristics-and-biases is because it has the perfect mechanism for modeling bias: the initial prior distribution. In fact you can use the prior distribution in the bayesian approach to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/960/29&quot;&gt;quantify bias&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize, you can model heuristics-and-biases with the bayesian approach. For bayesians &lt;strong&gt;heuristics are how the task is modeled/represented&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;biases are the intial prior distributions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T18:39:27.953" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1280" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="534" CreationDate="2012-06-25T18:45:32.827" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;The scientific concept which most closely matches your description of &amp;quot;brain fog&amp;quot; is sleep inertia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any theories on why this may happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, a brief detour.  Sleep is divided up into 5 stages (stages 1, 2, 3, 4, and REM). Since 2007, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-rapid_eye_movement_sleep&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NREM&lt;/a&gt; sleep has been reclassified into stages N1, N2, N3, with N3 being a combination of the former stages 3 and 4; however, most scientific papers are still using the old system, so I'll refer to them by the old stage names.  Below, you can see a typical hypnogram, where sleep stage is plotted versus time for one night's sleep.  Cycles through the night tend to progress from 1→2→3→2→REM, but can change unexpectedly if the subject is awakened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pQt4A.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(image from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While sleep inertia has been well researched since the late 70s, its definition relies on changes in responses to behavioral measures rather than any specific anatomical structures that might be involved.  In other words, it is difficult to &amp;quot;diagnose&amp;quot; someone with sleep inertia without seeing their performance on a demanding cognitive task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is known that waking up results from a signal that travels between the reticular system of the thalamus to the thalamus itself, and from the thalamus onto the cortex.  Many studies have used &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21854970&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;fMRI&lt;/a&gt; as a means to catch the brain as it falls asleep, but there don't seem to be too many which capture that moment of awakening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sleep staging (how levels of sleep are scored, as seen above) relies on EEG measures, so it is natural that after a subject wakes up from a study, their EEG signals can continue to be measured.  This gives researchers an opportunity to see into the dynamics of the cortex, but anatomical resolution and involvement of subcortical structures (like the thalamus) is not measurable.  It would be nice to have a functional picture of subcortical activity to gauge the progression of waking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A recent EEG study by Marzano (2011) found that the waking brain had a higher degree of delta activity in occipito-parietal (more posterior) areas, and a lower degree of delta activity in the frontal areas.  They found increases in beta activity in the frontal areas, which tended to be stronger after awakening from stage 2 sleep than from REM sleep.  This study did not attempt to localize any anatomical structures, but in general indicates that more posterior portions of the brain (perhaps associated with vision and posture) tended to mimic the activity found in slow-wave sleep for a time after awakening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sleep inertia has been found to depend on&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;prior sleep duration&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sleep stage prior to being awake&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;time of day of awakening&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and last between 30 minutes and 3-4 hours depending on prior sleep deprivation and other factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the effects of it seem to vary greatly based on the task that the brain is asked to attend to during that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is anyone familiar with any research regarding less brain fog with less sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the extreme timescale of a short nap, this has been shown to be true, but the results can be extrapolated to longer time scales.  Tassi (2000) reported on a study in which the subjects took 20, 50, and 80 minute naps.  The 50 minute nap-takers were found to have more intense sleep inertia, most likely due to the chance to lapse into a higher percentage of slow wave sleep during that time (stages 3 + 4 under the old system, and stage N3 in the new one) and potentially not return to stage 1 or 2 before awakening.  The 80 minute nappers, which one might think would have worse sleep inertia upon waking, were able to get into REM sleep, and so experienced less sleep inertia (this is a slight contradiction to Marzano's result above, but I think Tassi's assertion is more widespread in the literature).  However, Tassi also reported a study where decrements in performance were reported in REM sleep with a higher density of eye movements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sleep deprivation tends to increase the amount of deeper sleep once the person has the opportunity to rest.  In that case, regardless of stage upon awakening, the sleep inertia tends to be worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Matchock (2010) has reevaluated some of the experimental evidence in light of circadian influences.  He added ultradian phase (the marker of one's progress through the circadian day) and whether awakenings were forced or self-imposed to Tassi's list of factors above. Levels of cognition and performance, both hindered in sleep inertia situations, are found not to be uniform throughout the 24 hour day.  Matchock reported on studies where late afternoon naps were more restorative and hindered cognitive function less (less sleep inertia).  Other findings in his review found a relationship between both drops in core body temperature and body temperature of the extremities (both factors known to vary over the day) tended to increase sleep inertia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Marzano, C., Ferrara, M., et al (2011). Electroencephalographic sleep inertia of the awakening brain.  Neuroscience 176:308-317.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Matchock, R.L. (2010). Circadian and sleep episode duration influences on cognitive performance following the process of awakening. International Review of Neurobiology, 93:129-151. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0074-7742(10)93006-7&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;doi&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Tassi, P., Muzet, A. (2000) Sleep Inertia. Sleep Medicine Reviews 4:341–353.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T03:13:16.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1281" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1311" CreationDate="2012-06-25T21:35:57.243" Score="13" ViewCount="534" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are the examples of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando_Serrell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Orlando Serrell&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_Grandin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Temple Grandin&lt;/a&gt;, who remember quite a lot, due to autism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do their brains compare to a standard brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1282/370&quot;&gt;Partitions&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1283/370&quot;&gt;Volume&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-08-08T20:21:45.573" Title="How do the brains of savants such as Orlando Serrell and Temple Grandin compare to a standard brain?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1282" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1295" CreationDate="2012-06-25T22:43:28.277" Score="9" ViewCount="565" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently had some questions concerning the capacity of the brain's memory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are different types of long term-memories like know-how, your-life, etc. remembered in different parts of the brain? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, how large are these different kinds of partitions of the brain? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1281/370&quot;&gt;Savants&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1283/370&quot;&gt;Volume&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T11:15:26.180" Title="Are different types of long term memories stored in different parts of the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1283" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1284" CreationDate="2012-06-25T22:43:54.157" Score="3" ViewCount="227" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine your life as a film. Add all the stuff you know. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to express this amount of data in bits?&lt;/strong&gt; (A rough order of magnitude would be ok.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1282/370&quot;&gt;Partitions&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1281/370&quot;&gt;Savants&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-06-26T10:31:54.657" Title="How many bits of data would it take to represent an entire life as a film?" Tags="&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1284" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1283" CreationDate="2012-06-26T06:26:48.280" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a tough question, and there's a few routes to go. When we are watching this life played back, do we want to be able to go to any arbitrary moment and observe what was happening, or do we only want to watch life as we watch it? This would be the difference between recording all information that bombards our brain, or just the information that we are attending to. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We'll go with the first one, as this will be easier. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to ignore 'thoughts', and just look at information as it enters the body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We need to know a couple things before we start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the data rate of our eyes?&#xA;What is the data rate of our ears?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As these are our most dominant senses, if we want a few orders of magnitude for information, we will get it from these two. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-07/uops-prc072606.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine&lt;/a&gt; say that the data rate for the eye is about 10 million bits per second, or about 1.25 Mb/s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our eyes have about 120 million cells, and they sample at roughly 30 Hz. Determining the number of 'bits' is hard, as eyes have a nonlinear response, so the amount of information they are transmitting is dependent on what the cells are observing. I will trust their number. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As vision is our most powerful sense, and accounts for over 40% of the processing in our brain, we know that the majority of the information will be from the eyes. (EDIT: This is incorrect, see the data below.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now onto the ears - our ears can hear up to about 20 KHz, and to actually pick up these sounds we need to sample at twice that frequency, or 40 KHz. &#xA;That doesn't tell us how much information we actually get though. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100924194140AAKxbWg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This question on Yahoo! Answers&lt;/a&gt; goes a little bit deeper, specifying that ears cannot distinguish information that is represented in more than 16 bits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is kind of an interesting way to determine the sensitivity of our ears, as we don't have to wonder 'well, how well can I distinguish what I hear?', rather the question is 'We have these samples of audio, and people can't hear the difference between them, therefore our ears cannot transmit this much information'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So we have eyes and ears, and we now need to do some math. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to assume all these rates are fixed, the actual information that is transmitted is nonlinear as the spike trains from our cells change depending on what they are sensing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wrote a little python program, &lt;a href=&quot;https://gist.github.com/2993721&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;available here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;With the information from above in hand, we have the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Eyes data rate is 2.4 MB per second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ears data rate is 687.5 MB per second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;over 60 years, our eyes will transmit 4.2 PB&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;over 60 years, our ears will transmit 1.2 EB&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The total information we will receive will be upwards of... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;1.2 Exabytes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now this sounds a little silly, do our ears really transmit more information than our eyes? Actually yes, because they are sampled so much more frequently.&#xA;The eyes sample at roughly 30 Hz, whereas the ears sample at 44 KHz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This analysis ignores the number of cells, and is likely incorrect for a number of reasons. We ignore the other senses, as well as information being sent between brain regions (processing of information). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question brings up an interesting point though, the raw information that we receive is meaningless, only through successive iterations of information abstraction (what neural networks do, they operate on regions of information, gaining a higher and higher level picture) can we begin to distinguish the world as it is. When we see something, we can immediately break the world apart into segments, we know what can move, we know where things are, we know when we put them there. This isn't information that we were given at our current place in time, it's rules that we have learned about what we see in the world through a lifetime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additional source of information:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://photo.stackexchange.com/questions/10208/how-many-colors-and-shades-can-the-human-eye-distinguish-in-a-single-scene&quot;&gt;How many colors and shades can the human eye distinguish in a single scene?&lt;/a&gt; This Photography.SE question goes into logic about how much information we can discern, more closely matching the analysis on the Ears, rather than the research data that we used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="889" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:07.170" LastActivityDate="2012-06-26T10:31:54.657" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1285" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-26T07:15:49.310" Score="12" ViewCount="675" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just stumbled on a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-scientific-fundamentalist/201010/why-intelligent-people-drink-more-alcohol&quot;&gt;blog post&lt;/a&gt; that asserts that more intelligent people drink more than less intelligent people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Controlling for a large number of demographic variables, such as sex,&#xA;  race, ethnicity, religion, marital status, number of children,&#xA;  education, earnings, depression, satisfaction with life, frequency of&#xA;  socialization with friends, number of recent sex partners, childhood&#xA;  social class, mother's education, and father's education, more&#xA;  intelligent children grow up to drink more alcohol in the UK and the&#xA;  US.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The data presented reportedly comes from the National Child Development Study (NCDS) in the United Kingdom and the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) data in the United States. However, the author does not cite a particular reference where such analyses are reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, I also wonder about what the meaning of any association between intelligence and alcohol consumption would be after controlling for so many factors. In particular, mother's education, father's education, social class, and education together should predict a lot of variance in intelligence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What articles report the actual analyses mentioned in the blog post? Or what other articles summarise the relationship between intelligence and alcohol consumption?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the relationship between intelligence and alcohol when you don't control for other factors?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does the relationship change between intelligence and alcohol consumption when you introduce some but not all of the covariates? In particular, which if any covariates modify the relationship between intelligence and alcohol consumption?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taken in totality is it reasonable to assume that intelligence has a causal effect on alcohol consumption?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-26T10:48:34.780" LastActivityDate="2014-01-14T12:42:49.810" Title="Does intelligence cause greater alcohol consumption?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1286" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="288" CreationDate="2012-06-26T09:17:48.540" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my social psychology perspective, there has been some computational modelling work on things like attitudinal influence dynamics. See:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cognitrn.psych.indiana.edu/rgoldsto/complex/nowak90.pdf&quot;&gt;Nowak, A., Szamrej, J., &amp;amp; Latané, B. (1990). From private attitude to public opinion: a dynamic theory of social impact. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review, 97&lt;/em&gt;, 362-476.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Robin Vallacher and Andrzej Nowak crop up a lot in this field, and they're a joy to read. Perhaps this is less up your alley, since social psychologists are less interested in formulating differential equations and more interested in just applying the &lt;em&gt;ideas&lt;/em&gt; of complexity science to their research methods, but it's certainly a step forward from what's been going on in the field so far. If anyone's interested in those broad concepts, try reading:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psr.sagepub.com/content/8/2/183.full.pdf+html&quot;&gt;Nowak, A. (2004). Dynamical Minimalism: Why Less is More in Psychology. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8&lt;/em&gt;, 183-192.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="825" LastActivityDate="2012-06-26T09:17:48.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1287" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-26T00:21:45.437" Score="20" ViewCount="1316" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do autistic savants (or other people with these abilities) compute equations like $81^{100}$ in 2.5 minutes?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which algorithms do they use? Is it an efficient one, or do they just have a lot of memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can non-autistic savants use these algorithms to solve equations just as quickly?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Broflowski" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-26T10:31:54.733" LastActivityDate="2019-02-26T04:32:27.673" Title="How are autistic savants able to perform certain mathematical computations so quickly?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1288" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1287" CreationDate="2012-06-26T00:25:47.650" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savant_syndrome#Mechanism&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; on that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Savant syndrome is poorly understood. No widely accepted cognitive theory explains the combination of talent and deficit found in savants.&#xA;  It has been suggested that individuals with autism are biased towards detail-focused processing and that this cognitive style predisposes both individuals with and without autism to savant talents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another hypothesis is that hyper-systemizing predisposes people to show talent, where hyper-systemizing is an extreme state in the empathizing–systemizing theory that classifies people based on their skills in empathizing with others versus systemizing facts about the external world, and that the attention to detail shown by many savants is a consequence of enhanced perception or sensory hypersensitivity in individuals with autism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It has also been suggested that savants operate by directly accessing low-level, less-processed information that exists in all human brains but is normally not available to conscious awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Peter Tamaroff" LastEditorDisplayName="user200" LastEditDate="2012-06-26T10:03:08.873" LastActivityDate="2012-06-26T10:03:08.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1290" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-06-26T11:09:13.983" Score="5" ViewCount="2035" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is an authoritative empirical estimate of the correlation between pscyhometric measures of intelligence and Grade Point Average (GPA)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the main factors that influence the size of the correlation? E.g., country, level of schooling (e.g., primary, secondary, university), method of GPA measurement, etc.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I'm interested in estimates derived ideally from meta-analyses. But estimates based on large sample studies would also be welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-06-26T12:53:27.670" Title="What is the correlation between Grade Point Average (GPA) and intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1291" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1285" CreationDate="2012-06-26T11:13:12.123" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is just the beginning of an answer, based on what I've read so far. I'm very keen to read other answers.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Resnick et al (1997)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@Yannis Rizos has pointed me to the article by Resnick et al (1997) based on the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health.&#xA;The article reports data on 12118 adolescents drawn from grades 7 through 12.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results suggested that &quot;individual characteristics explained 7% of the variability in frequency of alcohol use&quot;. The only variable mentioned related to intelligence was lower grade point average. Specifically, lower grade point average was related to more frequent alcohol use. If anything, this suggests that the relationship between intelligence and alcohol use is negative. This result is obtained as part of a regression model controlling for some demographic factors. The bivariate relationship without covariates is not reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there are many limitations. First, this study concerns adolescent drinking, which may be a quite different phenomena to adult drinking. Second, while &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1290/52&quot;&gt;GPA correlates highly with intelligence&lt;/a&gt;, it is not intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Resnick, M.D., Bearman, P.S., Blum, R.W., Bauman, K.E., Harris, K.M., Jones, J., Tabor, J., Beuhring, T., Sieving, R.E., Shew, M. &amp;amp; others (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 823-832. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cals-cf.calsnet.arizona.edu/fcs/bpy/spotlightArchives/1-resnick%20JAMA.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T00:56:19.900" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1292" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1287" CreationDate="2012-06-26T11:30:36.220" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;How one performs quick mental calculations through tricks and shortcuts can easily be looked up on the internet.  How some Savant's do it cannot because we don't know.  There is some argument that some do those same tricks but others seem not to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider that a substantial amount of computational power goes into immediately recognizing that your friend is deeply unhappy when you first see them but puts on a brave face for you and is avoiding talking about something deeply troubling them.  You see that immediately while the typical savant sees nothing, or confusion.  That same Savant can do amazing mathematical, or spatial computations with tremendous facility. So, perhaps the reason we don't understand it is because it's actually a different kind of a mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T03:18:35.787" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T03:18:35.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1293" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1290" CreationDate="2012-06-26T11:44:15.253" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Assessing Adolescent And Adult Intelligence&lt;/em&gt; (Kaufman &amp;amp; Lichtenberger, 2005) goes through quite a bit of the research on this.  Or you can use the correlation of 0.7 that they report, which is based on an aggregation of more recent studies of adult intelligent test scores and academic achievement.  I don't see where they break down country, but they do look at level of schooling a bit.  Perhaps some of their sources will help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-26T12:53:27.670" LastActivityDate="2012-06-26T12:53:27.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1295" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1282" CreationDate="2012-06-26T19:07:52.940" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as your first question is concerned:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It seems that you're interested in the distinction between &lt;em&gt;declarative&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;nondeclarative&lt;/em&gt; forms of memory. These different forms of memory have also been termed &lt;em&gt;knowing that&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;knowing how&lt;/em&gt; (Cohen &amp;amp; Squire, 1980)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nondeclarative memory, according to Squire (2004), is an umbrella term refering to Procedural Memory, Priming, Classical Conditioning and nonassociative forms of learning. It seems that this type of knowledge is located over different areas in the brain, including Neocortex, Amygdala, Cerebellum and Neostriatum.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Declarative memory is divided into semantic and episodic memory, which might be what you mean by &lt;em&gt;your-life&lt;/em&gt;. In the brain, this form of memory is associated with the Hippocampus, whose major areas are the Dentate Gyrus and the CA3 and CA1 regions.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Cohen, N. J. and Squire, L. R. (1980). Preserved learning and retention of pattern-analyzing skill in amnesia: Dissociation of knowing how and knowing that. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 210, 207–210.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Squire, L. R. (2004). Memory systems of the brain: a brief history and current perspective. &lt;em&gt;Neurobiology of learning and memory&lt;/em&gt;, 82, 171–177.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2012-06-26T19:15:08.050" LastActivityDate="2012-06-26T19:15:08.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1296" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1297" CreationDate="2012-06-26T19:16:39.920" Score="2" ViewCount="1256" Body="&lt;p&gt;Usually when a thought arises, it seems that we quickly scurry after it, unconsciously getting caught up with whatever everyday thoughts come up. These can be invoked internally or externally. &#xA;(No reference to that phenomenon but for example, you may have just read that and add more thoughts or complicated it. )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the scientific term or concept that explains being able to NOT follow and run after every thought that arises out of the brain or not be swayed by them in anyway?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2013-02-05T00:57:34.883" LastActivityDate="2013-02-05T00:57:34.883" Title="What is the scientific term or concept for inner thought control?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-02-05T06:01:57.330" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1297" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1296" CreationDate="2012-06-26T21:14:27.760" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question touches on a number of different active research areas in cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The motoric component to not &quot;following and running after every thought&quot; is commonly understood to reflect a capacity for response inhibition - that is, the ability to override or cancel ongoing or prepotent motor commands.  This process is thought by some to be similar to that involved in reducing perceptual or cognitive interference, for example in attending to a particular type of information despite salient or prepotent sources of distraction (e.g., as studied in the Stroop and Flanker tasks), or in reducing interference from recently abandoned information/goals (e.g., variously studied in terms of negative priming and lag-2 repetition cost respectively).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are other perspectives.  One is that the ability to maintain an overall task set - perhaps a more stable one, that has a hierarchical influence over other more transient thoughts/perceptions - might be responsible for keeping these kinds of more extraneous exogenous and endogenous distractions at bay, through a process known as competitive lateral inhibition.  Keywords for this kind of work include biased competition, goal maintenance, context maintenance, and active maintenance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, there is a third line of work relevant to your question, in which cognitive processes are selectively granted control over behavior.  This has so far been studied primarily in the domain of visual search, although computational models suggest that it may have rather domain-general applications.  In the visual search literature relevant keywords are &quot;accessory items in working memory&quot;. In the modeling literature, this is known as an &quot;output gate.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="897" LastActivityDate="2012-06-26T21:14:27.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1298" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1301" CreationDate="2012-06-26T21:30:51.453" Score="6" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;In researching another question, I read a few review articles that were testing behavioral and attentional variables in response to different sleep parameters.  I was curious about some of these tests, including, but not limited to, the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Attentional network test&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Visual analog scale&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Digit symbol substitution task&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychomotor vigilance test&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Four-choice reaction time test&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Two-choice visual reaction time&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Letter cancellation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather than asking for a laundry list of their characteristics, which would rail against my question asking sensibilities, I'd like to know if there is a canonical reference in which I could look up the bases for these tests.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally, it would describe the tests, their objectives, the proper procedures (and any variants), statistical power as a function of participants, and any particular information about different brain areas or deficits that the tests can definitively provide.  It may well be that I'll have to go back to their origins in the literature, but it would seem that there would be some sort of handbook available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-08-08T01:48:16.550" Title="Is there a canonical reference for behavioral, attentional, and memory tests?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1299" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1229" CreationDate="2012-06-26T22:13:12.640" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an unclear relationship between classical conceptions of a unitary view of mental workload to the modern constructs of cognitive psychology and neuroscience that are relevant to your question.  This is partly because mental workload is tough to define, and also because it is far too coarse a construct given the extremely large variety of dynamic cognitive factors that play a role in determining human performance. Hopefully this will become clear in the following description.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is clearly difficulty incurred when one must pick just one option among many, without further guidance, as in your example.  Recent work (Snyder et al., PNAS 2010) indicates this kind of difficulty arises from at least two isolable sources: the relative prepotency of the various colors (e.g., the problem is easier if you have a single favorite color, and harder if you like all colors equally) and the total option space (e.g., easier if you only have 3 colors of paint to choose from, harder if you have 500).  These seem to have distinct and roughly additive effects on reaction time, at least in speeded lexical tasks, suggesting they both contribute to what you might call &quot;mental workload.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &quot;underdetermined selection&quot; problem can be made somewhat easier when additional criteria are specified, but not all criteria are equal.  &quot;Not green&quot; and &quot;Not bright&quot; are simple cues but are obviously less effective than &quot;blue&quot; or &quot;0 0 255,&quot; both because they fail to reduce the problem space as effectively, and because they directly specify distracting information (the colors you're NOT supposed to pick), which will slow visual search processes (e.g., Kiyonaga, Egner &amp;amp; Soto, 2012).  Other cues - e.g., &quot;something that goes well with the carpet&quot; - may be more effective at reducing the problem space but probably incur additional mental workload, due to requiring what's known as relational reasoning.  There is also clearly a further &quot;working memory load&quot; incurred by the need to simultaneously consider many criteria in selecting the correct paint color.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To the extent that the number of rules given to you exceeds your working memory capacity, you may chose to store those rules in what's sometimes known as secondary memory (e.g., Unsworth &amp;amp; Engle, Psych Review 2007).  According to some conceptions of working memory (e.g., Oberauer et al Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 2012), these items will then fall outside of the so-called &quot;region of direct access,&quot; meaning that there are reaction time costs to retrieving these rules.  Moreover, maintaining the intention to retrieve those rules at a later point - say, after processing those that do currently occupy your working memory - may itself add a cost to reaction time (e.g., Einstein, et al JEP:G 2005).  There are also further &quot;focus switching&quot; costs (Oberauer, 2003) incurred when moving the single focus of attention to each of the rules that fall within the region of direct access.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If these rules are being provided during the &quot;paint search task,&quot; they would also probably exert additional costs on reaction time.  This again is probably due to multiple sources of interference.  One of these likely reflects what's known as dual task costs - you're simultaneously listening to your wife while also trying to find the relevant paint color, and either resource sharing or rapid switching among tasks must occur.  On the other hand, even if these rules are provided soon after some other external event in this paint search task, you may also be substantially more delayed in acting upon them (this is known as the &quot;psychological refractory period&quot; effect).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As if that weren't enough, as recently demonstrated by Scalf, Dux &amp;amp; Marois (JoCN, 2011), encoding of information into working memory yields delays in top-down attention in visual cortex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And finally, under conditions of high working memory load, perceptual selection processes operate less efficiently (e.g., Lavie et al JEP:G 2004), further exacerbating any of the above deleterious effects on your ability to rapidly choose an appropriate paint color from those in front of you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Einstein, G.O., McDaniel, M.A., Thomas, R., Mayfield, S., Shank, H., Morrisette, N. &amp;amp; Breneiser, J. (2005). Multiple processes in prospective memory retrieval: factors determining monitoring versus spontaneous retrieval.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134, 327. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ruthannthomas.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Einstein-McDaniel-Thomas-et-al.-2005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lavie, N., Hirst, A., de Fockert, J.W. &amp;amp; Viding, E. (2004). Load theory of selective attention and cognitive control.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General; Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 339.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kiyonaga, A., Egner, T. &amp;amp; Soto, D. (2012). Cognitive control over working memory biases of selection. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, , 1-8.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oberauer, K. (2003) Selective attention to elements in working memory. Experimental Psychology, 257-269.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oberauer, K., Lewandowsky, S., Farrell, S., Jarrold, C. &amp;amp; Greaves, M. (2012). Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, , 1-41.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scalf, P.E., Dux, P.E. &amp;amp; Marois, R. (2011). Working Memory Encoding Delays Top--Down Attention to Visual Cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 2593-2604.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Snyder, H. R., Hutchinson, N., Nyhus, E., Curran, T., Banich, M. T., O'Reilly, R. C. &amp;amp; Munakata, Y. (2010). Neural inhibition enables selection during language processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 155-167.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unsworth, N. &amp;amp; Engle, R.W. (2007). The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory.. Psychological review, 114, 104.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://lib.zstu.edu.cn/res_base/lib_com_www/upload/article/file/2010_3/7_13/6whqgbjil9m5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="897" LastEditorUserId="897" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T01:05:48.033" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T01:05:48.033" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1300" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1302" CreationDate="2012-06-26T22:18:30.190" Score="21" ViewCount="2204" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://lesswrong.com/lw/1to/what_is_bayesianism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bayesianism&lt;/a&gt; has been a relatively successful paradigm for modeling decision-making. However, not every psychologist is a bayesian, and there are tasks such as the Tversky &amp;amp; Shafir (1992) experiments that are hard to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/251/29&quot;&gt;reconcile with the bayesian approach&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a list (or suvery-paper) of decision-making experiments that are hard to account for with the probabilistic approach?&lt;/strong&gt; What are these experiments? What are some of their common features?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References and related questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Shafir, E., &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1992). Thinking through uncertainty: Nonconsequential reasoning and choice. Cognitive Psychology, 24, 449-474. PDF&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tversky, A., &amp;amp; Shafir, E. (1992). The disjunction effect in choice under uncertainty. Psychological Science, 3, 305-309.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/599/29&quot;&gt;What are some of the drawbacks to probabilistic models of cognition?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/720/29&quot;&gt;Introductory resources on bayesian modeling for cognitive sciences&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1278/29&quot;&gt;How can the success of Bayesian models be reconciled with demonstrations of heuristic and biased reasoning?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-09-12T16:21:28.630" Title="What tasks does Bayesian decision-making model poorly?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1301" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1298" CreationDate="2012-06-26T22:26:07.730" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not aware of a comprehensive resource that details all of this information for all of these tests. A simple solution would be to find a specific reference for each of the tests you're interested in. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good place to start looking for these references might be &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cognitiveatlas.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Cognitive Atlas&lt;/a&gt;, which has &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cognitiveatlas.org/tasks/a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a Tasks section&lt;/a&gt;. For example, the page about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cognitiveatlas.org/task/digit/symbol_coding_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Digit/Symbol coding test&lt;/a&gt; gives some information about the task, what it measures, and relevant bibliography.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the &lt;strong&gt;Attentional Network Test&lt;/strong&gt; the canonical reference is probably the paper that introduced it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Sommer, T., Raz, M., &amp;amp; Posner, M. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks.&#xA;Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 340–347. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sacklerinstitute.org/users/jin.fan/publications/ANT.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Visual analog scale&lt;/strong&gt;, as far as I know, is not a specific test, but rather a methodology of presenting a visual scale to which the participants compare something (usually something 'subjective' like pain).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="38" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T14:33:18.283" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T14:33:18.283" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1302" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1300" CreationDate="2012-06-26T22:37:28.153" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is currently a lot of debate surrounding what questions Bayesian modeling is appropriate for answering within cognitive science, as well what makes a &quot;poor model.&quot;  Unfortunately these become extremely thorny issues very quickly, partly because what is called &quot;bayesian modeling&quot; actually refers to a rather heterogeneous set of approaches and philosophies, and partly because different models serve very different purposes, making the definition of a &quot;poor model&quot; very difficult to agree on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, I can strongly recommend two papers that deal with these issues in depth.  The first is Jones &amp;amp; Love's 2011 Behavioral &amp;amp; Brain Sciences paper &quot;Bayesian Fundamentalism or Enlightenment? On the explanatory status and theoretical contributions of Bayesian models of cognition.&quot;  Fortunately, BBS articles include open peer commentary - so you can see the reaction of the larger field to their claims.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second paper is Bowers &amp;amp; Davis's 2012 Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review article titled &quot;Bayesian just-so stories in psychology and neuroscience.&quot; These papers both make very credible arguments that Bayesian models are actually &quot;poor models&quot; even when they would claim to be good; both papers highlight a number of phenomena that are difficult to fit with Bayesian models without resorting to the same kinds of parameter twiddling that Bayesians tend to criticize other modelers for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, there is a paper that just came out today describing the failure of a Bayesian model to capture some phenomena in the domain of causal reasoning.  This has been traditionally understood as a relative strong suit of Bayesian modeling, making the findings of this paper somewhat striking.  I have not read it, but it's in press by Bes, Sloman, Lucas &amp;amp; Raufaste at Cognitive Science, titled &quot;Non-Bayesian Inference: Causal Structure Trumps Correlation.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bowers, J.S. &amp;amp; Davis, C.J. (2012). Bayesian just-so stories in psychology and neuroscience.. Psychological bulletin, 138, 389.&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.yangzhiping.com/files/pubs/389.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jones, M. &amp;amp; Love, B.C. (2011). Bayesian Fundamentalism or Enlightenment? On the explanatory status and theoretical contributions of Bayesian models of cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 34, 169-188. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.unimelb.edu.au/people/staff/allpubs/SewellD/Jones2011_BBS.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bes, B., Sloman, S., Lucas, C.G. &amp;amp; Raufaste, E. (2012). Non-Bayesian inference: Causal structure trumps correlation. Cognitive Science. &lt;a href=&quot;https://1b7a2906-a-62cb3a1a-s-sites.googlegroups.com/site/slomanlab/BesSlomanLucasRaufaste.pdf?attachauth=ANoY7cqTRlah9D6Qf7XORUUtlzhfDRkZMS7n0exl6h5qlFUCErP8Q8MHjix8U9Hi4_difgmDQeFQ8vtVxl7l3f1KqpFd8be8J3augvkNl5dLt5t7uRmsggk-KUJJa3xJDLGXHkMvDBXFrsCeCzFuptvlY32vi71hsfjCO8zNPKYvMAjN8rWUyxpJXyeq7zV8Tce_Tmu4fzIlvNabQhwIXnvKUmHfhuYUgXQ73ZgonZbibAlhRw0AHIU%3D&amp;amp;attredirects=0&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="897" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T01:05:52.133" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T01:05:52.133" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1303" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-27T04:43:12.517" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions on the consolidation of short-term memories into long-term storage, which is comprised of explicit and procedural memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Long-term memory&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explicit_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Explicit memory&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Procedural memory&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_and_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sleep and learning&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T05:11:11.007" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T05:11:11.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1304" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-27T04:43:12.517" Score="0" Body="For questions on the consolidation of short-term memories into long-term storage, which is comprised of explicit and procedural memory." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T05:11:14.533" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T05:11:14.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1305" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-27T04:46:01.513" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about finding meaning in the results of psychological tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T05:11:12.347" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T05:11:12.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1306" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-27T04:46:01.513" Score="0" Body="For questions about finding meaning in the results of psychological tests." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T05:11:18.620" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T05:11:18.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1307" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-27T04:47:59.140" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about measuring performance via standard or custom tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/performance&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'performance'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;performance&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/test&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'test'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;test&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T05:11:24.580" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T05:11:24.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1308" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-27T04:47:59.140" Score="0" Body="For questions about measuring performance via standard or custom tests." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T05:11:27.153" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T05:11:27.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1309" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-27T04:50:57.327" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions on waking from sleep or a heightened level of autonomic activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sleep&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arousal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Arousal&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Autonomic nervous system&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T05:08:45.160" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T05:08:45.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1310" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-27T04:50:57.327" Score="0" Body="For questions on waking from sleep or a heightened level of autonomic activity." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T05:08:47.157" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T05:08:47.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1311" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1281" CreationDate="2012-06-27T10:04:43.120" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe the answer lies in minicolumnar morphology in the neocortex. It's been shown that the minicolumns of autsitics and gifted individuals have narrower minicolumns, with greater spacing between each minicolumn. It's speculated that this creates an increased ability to distinguish percepts. Here is a paper on the topic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Casanova MF, Switala AE, Trippe J, &amp;amp; Fitzgerald M. (2007) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17947291&quot;&gt;Comparative minicolumnar morphometry of three distinguished scientists.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Autism&lt;/em&gt; 11(6):557-69.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend reading through more of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Casanova&quot;&gt;Casanova&lt;/a&gt;'s work on the topic if you're interested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-08T20:21:45.573" LastActivityDate="2012-08-08T20:21:45.573" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1312" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1282" CreationDate="2012-06-27T11:15:26.180" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just to add to Jens answer, opinion is still divided regarding whether memory is subserved by distinct systems, or is a distributed, emergent property of perceptual, navigational and semantic systems. Whereas patient data has always strongly implicated distinct memory systems (e.g., declarative vs non-declarative), multivariate fMRI studies have provided good support for reinstatement theories, where successful retrieval of memories involves reinstatement of perceptual states. Moreover, there is growing evidence that regions that are thought to be amodal memory structures (e.g., hippocampus, perirhinal cortex), are involved in perceptual discrimination judgements and show preferences for different categories of visual input. For example, damage to the hippocampus can impair scene discrimination judgements whereas damage to the perirhinal cortex can impair face and object discrimination judgements. So it could be the case that there really aren't any dedicated memory structures per se, but memory is the co-ordinated reactivation of mechanisms involved in perception and action (probably via top down signals from frontal lobes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The references provided by Jens provide good coverage of the distinct systems view of memory so I'll just provide some references for the distributed and reinstatement views.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Murray, E. A., Bussey, T. J., &amp;amp; Saksida, L. M. (2007). Visual perception and memory: A new view of medial temporal lobe function in primates and rodents. &lt;em&gt;Annual Review of Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 30, 99-122.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Graham, K.S., Barense, M.D. &amp;amp; Lee, A.C.H. (2010).  Going beyond LTM in the MTL: a synthesis of neuropsychological and neuroimaging findings on the role of the medial temporal lobe in memory and perception.  &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychologia&lt;/em&gt;, 48, 831-853.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Polyn S.M., Natu V.S., Cohen J.D., &amp;amp; Norman K.A. (2005) Category-specific cortical activity precedes recall during memory search. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 310, 1963-1966.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Johnson, J. D., McDuff, S. G. R., Rugg, M. D., &amp;amp; Norman, K. A. (2009). Recollection, familiarity, and cortical reinstatement: A multivoxel pattern analysis. &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt;, 63, 697-708&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Xue G, Dong Q, Chen C, Lu ZL, Mumford JA, Poldrack R (2010). Greater Neural Pattern Similarity Across Repetitions is Associated with Better Memory. Science, 330, 97-101.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastActivityDate="2012-06-27T11:15:26.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1313" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9825" CreationDate="2012-06-27T17:46:24.327" Score="6" ViewCount="530" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Binaural beats, the perception of which arises in the brain for specific physical stimuli. ... The effect on the brainwaves depends on the difference in frequencies of each tone: for example, if 300 Hz was played in one ear and 310 in the other, then the binaural beat would have a frequency of 10 Hz. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binaural_beats&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wiki&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does someone with the form of  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia#Sound_.E2.86.92_color_synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sound-Color-Synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;, see the color connected with the 10Hz tone, when hearing 300/310 Hz tones?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it work otherway round as well? Are there even examples known?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What light does this shed, on how the brain works (maybe restricted to the Synesthesia people)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt; is there anyone around here who can test that? Experience reports are welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2012-11-05T21:53:12.840" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T12:52:00.237" Title="Binaural Beats meets Sound-Color-Synesthesia" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1314" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1320" CreationDate="2012-06-27T20:16:04.203" Score="26" ViewCount="5135" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently learned about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rdos.net/eng/asperger.htm&quot;&gt;The Neanderthal Theory&lt;/a&gt;, that explains autistic (and especially Asperger's) brain functioning as the effect of genetical similarity with Neanderthals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author gives a great number of examples of differences between &lt;strong&gt;modern&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;Neanderthal&lt;/strong&gt; human, that in the same fact are strongly &lt;strong&gt;correlated&lt;/strong&gt; to &lt;strong&gt;differences&lt;/strong&gt; between &lt;strong&gt;neurotypical&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;autistic&lt;/strong&gt; brain. Most of them greatly applies to me, which biases me towards accepting that theory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neanderthals have &lt;strong&gt;less developed social life&lt;/strong&gt;, so their social skills were less developed too, so are the social skills of autistic people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;most primates &lt;strong&gt;avoid eye contact&lt;/strong&gt; as the sign of aggression, modern humans (neurotypicals) are the exception, both Neanderthals and autists are not&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neanderthals have &lt;strong&gt;bigger brains&lt;/strong&gt;, and the proportion of brain size to body size was bigger, that could mean they were more intelligent, people with Asperger Syndrom are typically more intelligent than neurotypicals&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;by Neanderthals &lt;strong&gt;women were dominating&lt;/strong&gt; and were taking &lt;strong&gt;sexual initiative&lt;/strong&gt;, autistic people find it especially difficult to adapt to sexual model of neurotypicals, where males are sexually dominant, increased tendency to behaviours such as exhibitiosm can also be explained by neanderthal genes, since among Neanderthals such behaviours were actually accepted as normal and dominant&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neanderthals were &lt;strong&gt;meat-eaters&lt;/strong&gt; (for me meat is the best diet)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neanderthals &lt;strong&gt;prefer cold&lt;/strong&gt; to heat (I like when it's cold and hate when it's hot)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This all makes sense, however, I'm aware, that it's quite easy to find a theory that will exactly match the known facts, so each theory must be proven by new facts and experiments. So I ask for any &lt;strong&gt;facts and scientific articles&lt;/strong&gt; that would either &lt;strong&gt;support&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;reject&lt;/strong&gt; that theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="899" LastEditorUserId="899" LastEditDate="2012-06-27T20:46:21.803" LastActivityDate="2012-11-02T21:21:18.037" Title="Is the Neanderthal Theory of Autistic brain a reasonable scientific theory?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1316" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1318" CreationDate="2012-06-28T02:44:54.143" Score="10" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have experienced this phenomenon several times and checked with other people as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It goes like this: you hear something, but it's just a sound with no meaning. Some seconds later, you consciously remember the sound and make sense out of it (like a word or a phrase that somebody tells).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although both processes (remembrance and understanding) are fairly common, I find it weird that understanding is not automatically triggered when processing a sound and it can be demanded on purpose&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any name for this phenomenon? (Would appreciate some detail on it too.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="43" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T07:05:17.797" Title="Hearing first but understanding later?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1117" CreationDate="2012-06-28T06:21:28.943" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Modern homunculus arguments don't assert that there is physically a little man in your head. This would be a completely vacuous argument, and nobody would make it in the present day. When people make the homunculus fallacy today, they usually do it in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1125/29&quot;&gt;the same fashion as you do&lt;/a&gt;: all the sensory information is assembled 'somewhere' and then 'some brain region' perceives it. It is an infinite regress in the sense that you didn't explain how perceiving is done, you just delegated it to a region of the brain you don't understand well. This is the same as Descartes believing that the 'seat of the soul' is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineal_gland&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pineal gland&lt;/a&gt;. Except you replaced that gland (which we understand relatively well) by another region of the brain that we understand less well. Notice how this has no explanatory power. Not only that, it can be experimentally falsified (to a certain extent)! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is hard to study consciousness scientifically because no one has given it a good operational definition. However, most discussions of consciousness talk about things like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;qualia&lt;/a&gt; or basic subjective experiences. One of the most common ones discussed is the experience of colour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Physics does not have colour, it just has a continuous spectrum of wavelengths. Even when you look at the sensitivity of the 3 types of cones in the retina it is not discrete, but continuous. The categories of colours (i.e. &quot;that's red&quot;, &quot;that's blue&quot;) are produced by perception and these discrete-ish categories form the basis of colour qualia. Scientists can study these categories by asking participants if various stimuli feel like the same colour. What is known, is that the arbitrary boundaries of the categories people draw between colours is language dependent!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This tells you that the 'linguistic processing' and 'colour processing' regions of the mind interact to produce the qualia of colour. In other words this is a piece of evidence in support of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Whorf hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;: language effects your subjective conscious experience. This might seem like support for integration and higher level perception by a single region, but there is a kicker. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16387848&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gilbert et al. (2006)&lt;/a&gt; showed that the Whorf hypothesis is supported in the right visual field but not the left. In other words, when I present colours in one part of your visual field, you experience them one way and when I present them to the other then you experience them in a fundamentally different way. The right visual field integrates with your linguistic processing and the other doesn't. Hence, you can't localize the qualia of colour to either the right or left hemisphere. They both experience them and this is usually not perceivable to us without a controlled experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simply put, there is no reason to believe that all sensory experience is somehow synthesized and presented to a 'seat of consciousness'. Unless you are willing to make the tautological statement that the 'seat of consciousness' is the whole brain (or almost all of it). This is consistent with most modern formal approaches to consciousness that model it as highly distributed over the whole brain, with no single 'seat'. For more info, look at the answers on the following question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/987/29&quot;&gt;What are current neuronal explanations and models of &amp;#39;consciousness&amp;#39;?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Gilbert, A. L., Regier, T., Kay, P., &amp;amp; Ivry, R. B. (2006). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0509868103&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Whorf hypothesis is supported in the right visual field but not the left.&lt;/a&gt; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(2), 489-494.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-11-15T09:49:07.467" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1318" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1316" CreationDate="2012-06-28T07:05:17.797" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The phenomena broadly makes sense in terms of information processing models of memory and cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The phonological loop&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, you could think about the phenomena in terms of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley%27s_model_of_working_memory#Phonological_loop&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a phonological loop&lt;/a&gt;. To Quote the Wikipedia article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley%27s_model_of_working_memory#Phonological_loop&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Baddeley's model of working memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The phonological loop (or &quot;articulatory loop&quot;) as a whole deals with&#xA;  sound or phonological information. It consists of two parts: a&#xA;  short-term phonological store with auditory memory traces that are&#xA;  subject to rapid decay and an articulatory rehearsal component&#xA;  (sometimes called the articulatory loop) that can revive the memory&#xA;  traces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Any auditory verbal information is assumed to enter automatically into&#xA;  the phonological store. Visually presented language can be transformed&#xA;  into phonological code by silent articulation and thereby be encoded&#xA;  into the phonological store. This transformation is facilitated by the&#xA;  articulatory control process. The phonological store acts as an 'inner&#xA;  ear', remembering speech sounds in their temporal order, whilst the&#xA;  articulatory process acts as an 'inner voice' and repeats the series&#xA;  of words (or other speech elements) on a loop to prevent them from&#xA;  decaying. The phonological loop may play a key role in the acquisition&#xA;  of vocabulary, particularly in the early childhood years.[3] It may&#xA;  also be vital for learning a second language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Applying this to the phenomena&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In the very short term (perhaps a few seconds), you presumably have a internal representation of the raw sound, which might if you were to attend to it afterwards be then processed into words and meaning.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alternatively, you may hear the words but not process the meaning. Presumably these words can remain represented for a little longer in your short term memory than can the raw sounds (as a very rough guess, perhaps up to 10 or 20 seconds). And then you can return to the words and process them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Another possibility is that you have basically processed the meaning of the original words, but were perhaps immediately distracted, and then a little later you remembered what was said and that you need to respond.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T07:05:17.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1319" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1374" CreationDate="2012-06-28T08:06:59.513" Score="9" ViewCount="591" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My lab is conducting a research on perceptual training. We train participants on different tasks, and assess them pre- and post- training on a large battery of tests. Obviously, people improve in tasks that are very similar to what they trained on, but we are interested in the generalization of training. One of the tests in the pre/post battery is Block Design. We currently do not have a control group that did not train at all. We noticed that all groups improved significantly in Block Design, and we are now wondering if that's only test-retest improvement, but were not able to find data on expected improvement in the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When testing subjects in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_design_test&quot;&gt;Block Design test&lt;/a&gt; twice, with the 2 sessions separated by roughly 4 months, what is the expected improvement?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2012-07-02T12:50:40.883" Title="What is the test-retest improvement in Block Design test?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1320" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1314" CreationDate="2012-06-28T13:38:44.530" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if it's a reasonable scientific theory, but here's some more info:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://docs.google.com/open?id=0B3dPqM3qgNSiY3p5TmFRMjhSekdyaV8wWUw0MTZiUQ&quot;&gt;Autism: The Eusocial Hominid Hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ASDs (autism spectrum disorders) are hypothesized as one of many adaptive human cognitive variations that have been maintained in modern populations via multiple genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. Introgression from &quot;archaic&quot; hominids (adapted for less demanding social environments) is conjectured as the source of initial intraspecific heterogeneity because strict inclusive fitness does not adequately model the evolution of distinct, copy-number sensitive phenotypes within a freely reproducing population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evidence is given of divergent encephalization and brain organization in the Neanderthal (including a ~1520 cc cranial capacity, larger than that of modern humans) to explain the origin of the autism subgroup characterized by abnormal brain growth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Autism and immune dysfunction are frequently comorbid. This supports an admixture model in light of the recent discovery that MHC alleles (genes linked to immune function, mate selection, neuronal &quot;pruning,&quot; etc.) found in most modern human populations come from &quot;archaic&quot; hominids.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mitochondrial dysfunction, differential fetal androgen exposure, lung abnormalities, and hypomethylation/CNV due to hybridization are also presented as evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jk_85vNaSMA&quot;&gt;A short video introduction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="905" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T13:38:44.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="903" CreationDate="2012-06-28T14:42:52.723" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that your intuition about the lower &quot;energy ratio&quot; of spurious states explaining their greater susceptibility to unlearning might be correct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a Hopfield Network spurious states are activity patterns that have not been explicitly embedded in the synaptic matrix, but are nonetheless stable. They are in other words &quot;unwanted&quot; attractor states that, by virtue of a finite overlap with the &quot;wanted&quot; attractor states, come about as a local minimum in the energy function. The unlearning rule in Hopfield et al. (1983) consists in modifying the synaptic matrix so as to decrease the energy of the stable states in which the network dynamics settles down, be them spurious or embedded states. Because the spurious states have higher energy than the embedded states, they are more strongly affected by the unlearning step.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, why do spurious states have higher energy than the embedded attractor states? Well, this is actually not true in general, but it is the case in a regime where the Hopfield network doesn't exceed its loading capacity, that is when the number of learned patterns over number of units $p/N$ is lower than the critical capacity $\alpha_c\approx0.138$. In this regime, it is possible to estimate the overlap of the spurious states with the learned patterns, and show that is generally lower than $1$ (the overlap of the learned patterns with themselves). Because of how the Hebbian construction of the synaptic matrix in the Hopfield model, this overlaps are terms that appears in the energy function. The energy of a pattern is namely proportional to minus the square root of its overlap with the learned patterns. This means that the spurious patterns have higher energy than the learned ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general this kind of naive considerations has to be supported by more rigorous arguments based on probability theory. These for instance point out that even for the regime below $\alpha_c$ the retrieved patterns are actually spurious states as soon as the number of embedded patterns $p$ exceeds above $\frac{N}{2\ln N}$. Such spurious states have however such a high overlap with the learned patterns ($0.97$) that they basically coincide with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This result and generalizations thereof for non-zero temperature (i.e. noise in the dynamics) and beyond critical capacity have been worked out in the following very technical paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amit D.J, Gutfreund H and Sompolinsky H (1987) &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurophysics.huji.ac.il/~haim/papers/amit-gutfreund-somp-87.pdf&quot;&gt;Statistical Mechanics of Neural Networks Near Saturation&lt;/a&gt;. Ann. Phys. (NY) 173, 30&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and in the book:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amit D.J, (1992) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item1141854/&quot;&gt;Modeling brain function: The world of attractor neural networks&lt;/a&gt;. Cambridge University Press, ISBN:9780521421249&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="903" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T14:42:52.723" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1322" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="985" CreationDate="2012-06-28T14:58:29.837" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently Bayesian models of cognitive development have been very successful in at least formulating working hypotheses as to how abstract knowledge &quot;regularizes&quot; and guides learning and reasoning from sparse data. I was thinking for instance of the following paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tenenbaum, J. B., Kemp, C., Griffiths, T. L., and Goodman, N. D. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mit.edu/cocosci/Papers/tkgg-science11-reprint.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How to Grow a Mind: Statistics, Structure, and Abstraction&lt;/a&gt;. Science 331 (6022), 1279-1285.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="903" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T14:58:29.837" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1325" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="77" CreationDate="2012-06-28T21:33:01.753" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's not so much a &quot;locking&quot; between the two hemispheres as it is a combination of an asymmetrical representation of the ipsilateral (same side) limb in cortex, and phase transitions, which bring the limbs into a more energetically favorable state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kelso (1984) compares the phase transition to that of a racehorse, which is able to adjust its gait for the optimal use of oxygen in its blood.  In his study, regardless of whether a subject's limb was loaded or unloaded during a trial, there was a phase resetting after the subject reached a certain frequency (constant within subjects).  You can see in the diagram below that the dotted line of one arm's trajectory is 180&amp;deg; out of phase with the other, the solid line, and at a certain point, they fall into lockstep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2MPxR.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ziemann (2001) study points to another possible reason for the synchronization.  In right handed subjects, there tends to be a dominance of the left motor cortex in the activation of the ipsilateral hand.  Trying to do different motions with both hands may &quot;pull&quot; the activity towards what the left hand is doing.  Presumably, there might be a similar behavior in left-handed subjects, but as in hearing and language, there is not a perfect symmetry of cortical features for left-handers.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of structures that &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; govern bilateral coordination, Sadato et al (1997) used PET scanning to establish that, at least in right handed subjects, the right dorsal premotor area along with the right posterior supplementary motor area, were significantly more active while making parallel movements.  I found no further evidence of it, but this could be a channel through which some of the phase shifting is taking place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kelso, J.A.S. (1984).  Phase transitions and critical behavior in human bimanual coordination.  American Journal of Physiology, 246 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol 15):R1000-1004.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sadato, N., Yonekura, Y., et al (1997).  Role of the supplementary motor area and the right premotor cortex in the coordination of bimanual finger movements.  Journal of Neuroscience, 17(24): 9667-9674. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/17/24/9667.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sakurada, T., Gomi, H., Ito, K. (2009). Multiple interactions between hemispheres of the brain modulating coupling of bilateral movements. The 31st Annual International Conference of the IEEE EMBS Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, September 2-6, 2009: 5922-5925.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ziemann, U., Hallett, M. (2001).  Hemispheric asymmetry of ipsilateral motor cortex activation during unimanual motor tasks: further evidence for motor dominance.  Clinical Neurophysiology, 112: 107-113.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T21:33:01.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1326" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:00:05.693" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the underpinnings of the perception of color by the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color#Perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Color(perception)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:42.560" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:42.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1327" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:00:05.693" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the underpinnings of the perception of color by the brain.  " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:40.003" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:40.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1328" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:02:34.300" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the perception of stimuli that combine two or more sensory modalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Senses&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:48.083" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:48.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1329" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:02:34.300" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the perception of stimuli that combine two or more sensory modalities." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:53.183" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:53.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1330" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:05:06.047" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the degree of certainty an individual has about some quantity or quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Confidence&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For questions about confidence intervals, the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/statistics&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'statistics'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;statistics&lt;/a&gt; tag should be used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:45.807" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:45.807" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1331" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:05:06.047" Score="0" Body="For questions about the degree of certainty an individual has about some quantity or quality." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:48.847" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:48.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1332" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:08:14.903" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the ability for humans or animals to control their level of attention to a stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentional_Control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Attentional control&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:43.293" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:43.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1333" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:08:14.903" Score="0" Body="For questions about the ability for humans or animals to control their level of attention to a stimulus." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:49.533" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:49.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1334" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:17:27.497" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For specific questions regarding the use of electronic equipment for psychological testing or the details of how humans perceive the output of devices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For UI/UX issues not covered on CogSci, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://ux.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;UX&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For general questions about devices, see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://android.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Android Enthusiasts&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://apple.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Ask Different&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://windowsphone.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Windows Phone&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:52.483" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:52.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1335" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:17:27.497" Score="0" Body="For specific questions regarding the use of electronic equipment for psychological testing or the details of how humans perceive the output of devices." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:56.087" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:56.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1336" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:20:29.957" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the psychology of getting large or small groups together to perform a task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboration&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Collaboration&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Game theory&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial-organizational_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Industrial-organizational Psychology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:37.693" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:37.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1337" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:20:29.957" Score="0" Body="For questions about the psychology of getting large or small groups together to perform a task." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:38.893" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:38.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1338" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:23:07.787" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions on traumatic or congenital injury to the central nervous system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Traumatic brain injury&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Congenital disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:33.933" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:33.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1339" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-28T22:23:07.787" Score="0" Body="For questions on traumatic or congenital injury to the central nervous system." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-28T23:31:36.337" LastActivityDate="2012-06-28T23:31:36.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1340" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1355" CreationDate="2012-06-29T14:33:59.883" Score="8" ViewCount="252" Body="&lt;p&gt;I posted this also on &lt;a href=&quot;https://mathoverflow.net/questions/100769/modelling-the-difficulty-of-mental-calculation&quot;&gt;mathoverflow&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What research has modelled the difficulty of evaluating a formula mentally (for your average, numerate, person, not a trained mental calculator)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, evaluating an arithmetic expression requires in general requires three registers, but some only require two and are considerably easier to deal with. Additions is easier than subtraction which is easier than multiplication which is easier than division. Multiplication by small integer number is easy, as are multiplications and divisions by 2,5,10...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many rule of thumbs are intuitive, but I'm looking for a more comprehensive work on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="910" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:58:47.770" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T13:58:43.387" Title="What research has modelled the difficulty of mental mathematical calculation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1341" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:23:01.613" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about people and animals doing activities using automatic response patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automaticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Automaticity&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Procedural Memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T04:53:18.470" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T04:53:18.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1342" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:23:01.613" Score="0" Body="For questions about people and animals doing activities using automatic response patterns." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T04:53:17.877" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T04:53:17.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1343" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:26:00.020" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about people's positive, negative, or ambivalent assessments of different objects or cultural constructs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Attitude(psychology)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T04:53:15.770" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T04:53:15.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1344" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:26:00.020" Score="0" Body="For questions about people's positive, negative, or ambivalent assessments of different objects or cultural constructs. " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T04:53:15.177" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T04:53:15.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1345" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:33:22.100" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (inattentiveness, hyperactivity, or impulsivity, and combinations thereof) or adult Attention Deficit Disorder/ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHD&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ADHD&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_attention-deficit_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Adult ADD&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T04:53:11.697" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T04:53:11.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1346" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:33:22.100" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (inattentiveness, hyperactivity, or impulsivity, and combinations thereof) or adult Attention Deficit Disorder/ADHD." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T04:53:12.917" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T04:53:12.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1347" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:38:35.090" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about standards that govern the behavior of individuals in a society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/social-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'social-psychology'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;social-psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norms_%28sociology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Norm&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For questions that only fit into Sociology but not Social Psychology, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://meta.cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/254/is-sociology-on-topic/257#257&quot;&gt;this Meta post&lt;/a&gt; for more details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T04:53:24.913" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T04:53:24.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1348" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:38:35.090" Score="0" Body="For questions about standards that govern the behavior of individuals in a society.  See also the [social-psychology] tag." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2020-01-12T18:53:26.787" LastActivityDate="2020-01-12T18:53:26.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1349" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:47:25.687" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the neurobiological or psychological bases of performing symbolic or numeric computations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_elementary_mathematics_%28mathematics_education%29#Psychology_of_Mathematics_Education&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychology of mathematics education&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_education&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mathematics education&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subitizing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Subitizing&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parietal_lobe&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(left) Parietal lobe&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not to be confused with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mathematical psychology&lt;/a&gt;, which is the application of mathematics to psychological research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T04:53:22.197" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T04:53:22.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1350" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:47:25.687" Score="0" Body="For questions about the neurobiological or psychological bases of performing symbolic or numeric computations." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T04:53:21.573" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T04:53:21.573" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1351" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:51:31.860" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions on the statistical method of combining or contrasting the results of different studies.  See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/statistics&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'statistics'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;statistics&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Meta analysis&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For questions of a purely statistical nature (not related to cognitive sciences), see the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/meta-analysis&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'meta-analysis'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/tagged/meta-analysis&quot;&gt;tag&lt;/a&gt; on &lt;a href=&quot;http://stats.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Cross Validated&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T04:53:20.917" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T04:53:20.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1352" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:51:31.860" Score="0" Body="For questions on the statistical method of combining or contrasting the results of different studies.  See also the [statistics] tag." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-12-31T00:31:51.033" LastActivityDate="2019-12-31T00:31:51.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1353" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:55:51.387" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about changes in judgement which can lead to irrational behavior and information-processing shortcuts that influence these erroneous judgments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive bias&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T08:31:16.383" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T08:31:16.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1354" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-06-30T04:55:51.387" Score="0" Body="For questions about changes in judgement which can lead to irrational behavior and information-processing shortcuts that influence these erroneous judgments." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T08:31:17.710" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T08:31:17.710" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1355" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1340" CreationDate="2012-06-30T09:44:15.583" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a huge amount of research on this topic, particularly in developmental psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Siegler&lt;/strong&gt;: As @Joel has noted, Robert S. Siegler provides a great entry point into this literature (see his &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/publications-all.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;list of selected publications with PDFs&lt;/a&gt;). He has done a lot of research on the strategies that children use to solve mathematical problems. His research includes both empirical and computational modelling approaches. He also has a number of studies that compare performance across features of arithmetic problems. For example, you could look at Siegler and Lemaire (1997) which shows in an adult sample the differences in speed and accuracy for different kinds of multiplication problems (e.g., multiples of 10 or not, single versus double digits). As another example, Siegler and Shrager (1984) show empirical error rates and strategy use in children for all possible combinations of single digit addition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Act-R&lt;/strong&gt;: There are also a number of publications using the ACT-R framework on mathematical problem solving (see this list from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/publications/index.php?subtopic=22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ACT-R website&lt;/a&gt;). Perhaps check out Ritter et al (2007) for a review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Defining difficulty&lt;/strong&gt;: In general, there are questions about how you would define difficulty.&#xA;Typical indicators would include task completion time and accuracy.&#xA;Also, when talking about the difficulty of a mathematical operation, you need to consider the strategy that an individual is using. In particular, there is general shift with practice from using an algorithmic strategy to using a retrieval strategy (for a review, see Delaney et al, 1998). Thus, at first children use strategies like repeated addition to solve multiplication problems whereas with practice, they typically learn to retrieve the answer from memory. The ability to retrieve is broadly related to the number of times the specific problem has been encountered with the correct answer available, along with forgetting effects related to periods where there is no exposure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Delaney, P.F., Reder, L.M., Staszewski, J.J. &amp;amp; Ritter, F.E. (1998). The strategy-specific nature of improvement: The power law applies by strategy within task. Psychological Science, 9, 1-7. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.northwestern.edu/~paritosh/papers/KIP/PowerLawAppliesByStrategyDelaney.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Siegler, R. S., &amp;amp; Lemaire, P. (1997). Older and younger adults' strategy choices in multiplication: Testing predictions of ASCM via the choice/no choice method. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126, 71-92. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/sieglerlemaire97.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Siegler, R. S., &amp;amp; Shrager, J. (1984). Strategy choices in addition and subtraction: How do children know what to do? In C. Sophian (Ed.), The origins of cognitive skills (pp. 229-293). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/siegshrag84A.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF1&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/sieglershra84B.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ritter, S., Anderson, J.R., Koedinger, K.R. &amp;amp; Corbett, A. (2007). Cognitive Tutor: Applied research in mathematics education. Psychonomic bulletin &amp;amp; review, 14, 249-255. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pact.cs.cmu.edu/pubs/Ritter%20Anderson%20Koedinger%20Corbett%202007.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-06-30T13:58:43.387" LastActivityDate="2012-06-30T13:58:43.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1357" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1549" CreationDate="2012-06-30T23:43:28.703" Score="7" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a recent review article (Arnal &amp;amp; Giraud, 2012), the authors delve into changes in cortical oscillations which assist in predicting the causes of a sensory stimulus (the &quot;what&quot;, via predictive coding) and its timing (the &quot;when&quot;, via predictive timing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This allows the cortex to dampen its response to a repeated and/or predictable stimuli so that more &quot;processing resources&quot; can be reserved for other less predictable (and potentially more important) stimuli. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Predictive coding can be modeled using a Bayesian framework, with predictions being made about the &quot;what&quot; aspect conditioned on the reactions to prior stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In certain circumstances --- intense military march to a drum beat or, for the young, dancing to a bass-heavy song in a nightclub --- it seems to be possible to dampen the &quot;what&quot; aspect &lt;em&gt;completely&lt;/em&gt; since the Bayesian priors on &quot;what&quot; are near-certainty. &lt;strong&gt;To what degree can the brain move resources from the &quot;&lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt;&quot; to the &quot;&lt;em&gt;when&lt;/em&gt;&quot; to achieve a precise level of timing for conversion between sensory and motor output?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Arnal, L.H., Giraud, A-L. (2012) Cortical oscillations and sensory prediction. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16&lt;/em&gt;(7), 390-398.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-07-09T04:07:06.807" LastActivityDate="2012-09-14T14:13:50.737" Title="Under what circumstances does the brain devote resources to only the &quot;when&quot; of sensory events?" Tags="&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;&lt;synchronization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1358" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-07-01T01:14:57.640" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the use and abuse of substances or behaviors that provoke a consequence&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Addiction&lt;/a&gt;.  For neural substrates, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nucleus accumbens&lt;/a&gt; which plays a key role in addictive behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-01T01:15:37.853" LastActivityDate="2012-07-01T01:15:37.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1359" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-07-01T01:14:57.640" Score="0" Body="For questions about the use and abuse of substances or behaviors that provoke a consequence" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-01T01:15:39.133" LastActivityDate="2012-07-01T01:15:39.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1360" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8955" CreationDate="2012-07-01T03:35:57.433" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming there's not a neurological dysfunction underlying sleep deprivation (which is even more possible with Aspergers as sleep dysfunction is a typical comorbidity) it can simply be a learned behavior.  The more you do something (whether you particularly &quot;enjoy&quot; it or not) the more likely you are to build it up as a habit.  Procedural memory is always at work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in this regard, it can be addictive behavior in the same way a &quot;bad habit&quot; can.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't call it a drug.  Pharmaceutical drugs are defined as the intentional delivery of a substance from externally to inside the body: most commonly acting as an allosteric modulator on neural receptors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About 73% of children with Asperger's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aane.org/asperger_resources/articles/children_parenting/sleep_problems_asperger.html&quot;&gt;experience problems with sleep&lt;/a&gt; according to the Asperger's Association of New England.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-01T04:52:38.977" LastActivityDate="2012-07-01T04:52:38.977" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1361" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-07-01T06:10:26.650" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about neural oscillations that may be used to bind salient features of stimuli together&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_oscillation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural oscillation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-01T12:14:41.977" LastActivityDate="2012-07-01T12:14:41.977" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1362" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-07-01T06:10:26.650" Score="0" Body="For questions about neural oscillations that may be used to bind salient features of stimuli together" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-01T12:14:44.800" LastActivityDate="2012-07-01T12:14:44.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1363" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1372" CreationDate="2012-07-01T14:20:12.653" Score="9" ViewCount="560" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any &lt;strong&gt;differences&lt;/strong&gt; between the &lt;strong&gt;autistic&lt;/strong&gt; person's &lt;strong&gt;brain&lt;/strong&gt; and the &lt;strong&gt;non-autistic&lt;/strong&gt; one?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be more specific, are there any differences in &lt;strong&gt;brain structure&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;brain activity&lt;/strong&gt;, that can be used to distinguish between autistic and non-autistic person by analysing their brain structure and brain activity while performing various tasks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, can functional imaging itself be used for &lt;strong&gt;diagnosing autism&lt;/strong&gt;? Is there any research with that theme?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="899" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-03T06:19:47.337" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T17:36:23.373" Title="Is an autistic person's brain different from a non-autistic one?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1364" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1370" CreationDate="2012-07-01T14:25:25.347" Score="18" ViewCount="974" Body="&lt;p&gt;What if someone perceives a color as 'red' when it is actually 'green'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since different people have preferences for different colors, and colors are perhaps constructed in the mind, is it possible that the entire space of colors can be experienced quite differently for some people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user914" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-07-05T18:19:34.107" LastActivityDate="2012-07-06T01:50:53.443" Title="Is it possible for certain people to perceive colors differently?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1365" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1363" CreationDate="2012-07-01T16:05:03.053" Score="9" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Researchers at Boston Children's Hospital compared raw EEG data from 430 children with autism to data collected from 554 control subjects, all ages 2 to 12. They found that children with autism displayed consistent EEG patterns which indicate altered connectivity between brain regions. They found evidence of altered connectivity throughout the brains of children with autism. Most remarkably, they found a pronounced reduction in connectivity in regions of the left hemisphere controlling for language areas of the brain. Young children with autism showed increased connectivity between brain regions that were farther apart, suggesting they may have developed a compensation mechanism for other connectivity problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://unpa.pro/Articles?mode=PostView&amp;amp;bmi=985722&quot;&gt;http://unpa.pro/Articles?mode=PostView&amp;amp;bmi=985722&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Duffy, F.H. &amp;amp; Als, H. (2012). A stable pattern of EEG spectral coherence distinguishes children with autism from neuro-typical controls-a large case control study. BMC Medicine, 10, 64. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1741-7015-10-64.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="905" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-02T03:56:24.713" LastActivityDate="2012-07-02T03:56:24.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1366" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1371" CreationDate="2012-07-01T17:11:22.273" Score="18" ViewCount="2656" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many people have one alarm clock sound that wakes them up every morning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is having this consistent sound the optimal way to wake someone up? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or can you startle someone faster by changing to a different sound clip every day? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume the alarm clock is going off at the same time every morning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="850" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-02T02:33:11.813" LastActivityDate="2012-07-03T00:10:29.653" Title="Do people wake up faster with inconsistent alarm sounds?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1369" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1364" CreationDate="2012-07-01T20:58:36.550" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would point you towards the debate on qualia in cognitive science.  It has been argued by some philosophers such as David Chalmers that there are internal qualitative states separate from their physical realization.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_spectrum&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_spectrum&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the exception of color-blindness and other differences in visual circuitry such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachromacy&quot;&gt;Tetrachromacy&lt;/a&gt; there would be no empirical difference in the response of such a person with differences in their qualitative experience of color.  So its an interesting question whether such differences in qualia exist or are even meaningful to talk about.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="915" LastActivityDate="2012-07-01T20:58:36.550" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1370" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1364" CreationDate="2012-07-01T21:59:31.233" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, this scenario is possible, occurring with certain cases of brain lesions in specific areas of the visual cortex, the fusiform, lingual and posterior parahippocampal gyri.  These areas are analogous to what is referred to in primates as V4, or the 4th visual cortex, and are known to be involved (at least partly) in the perception of color (though see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~hsmbb/BRAIN/vol1/v4.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this commentary&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/paBXz.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt; Courtesy &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusiform_gyrus&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this study, subjects with brain lesions were asked to identify colors in a blue ambient light (meant to mimic the outdoors) and under a reddish light (meant to mimic indoor lighting).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the three patients...with abnormal matches on the blue, green and red chips made different matches than control subjects for pink, violet, turquoise and green targets... Their matches for these chips were shifted towards orange-red for the pink and violet&#xA;  targets and towards green for the turqoise target. One patient displayed a shift toward turquois[e] for the green target.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the level at which this &quot;signal&quot; is getting crossed can only be inferred from the level of the lesion, but presumably, the transduction of color by the cones and the processing of the colors in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus#M.2C_P.2C_K_cells&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;P and K cells of the Lateral Geniculate&lt;/a&gt; is all still intact.&#xA;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clarke, S., Walsh, V.,Schoppig, A.,Assal, G., Cowey, A. (1998) Colour constancy impairments in patients with lesions of the prestriate cortex. &lt;em&gt;Exp Brain Res 123&lt;/em&gt;:154-158.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-07-01T21:59:31.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1371" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1366" CreationDate="2012-07-02T03:11:20.980" Score="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;A general model of processing stimuli suggests that when information does not provide informational value, then we gradually begin to ignore it. Such a model is consistent with the experience of many people in relation to background traffic noise when moving from a quiet to a noisy neighbourhood. I.e.,  the frequency with which external traffic noise enters into personal awareness gradually decreases over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Habituation to traffic noise while sleeping&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that there is quite a lot of research on the effect of traffic noise on quality of sleep and the role of habituation (see this &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=habituation+to+noise+sleep&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&quot;&gt;google scholar search on &quot;habituation to noise sleep&quot;&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kawada (1995) provides a review of the effect of traffic noise on sleep. Specifically in relation to habituation the author wrote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Habituation to noise:&lt;/strong&gt;  Views and opinions on this parameter differ. Thiessen et al. reported habituation to intermittent&#xA;  wakefulness&lt;sup&gt;10～12&lt;/sup&gt;. In their study, subjects were exposed to passing&#xA;  truck noise less than 20  times a night with a peak level of 65 dBA.&#xA;  The  probability of a shift to shallower sleep and the  amount of deep&#xA;  sleep demonstrated failure of adaptation over 24 successive nights.&#xA;  The probability of awakening decreased by almost one  half in two&#xA;  weeks. Griefahn also studied  habituation of 36 students to &#xA;  high-density road  traffic noise and detected an all-night effect of &#xA;  noise on sleep for 12 consecutive nights&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;. Deep  sleep was prolonged&#xA;  and shallow sleep including  intermittent wakefulness became&#xA;  progressively  shorter at 37 to 63.5 dBA. Vallet at al. indicate  that&#xA;  there is no habituation to noise&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;. According to experiments on&#xA;  subjects living in a noisy  environment for more than four years,&#xA;  young  subjects showed less deep sleep and older subjects, less REM&#xA;  sleep under conditions of silence.  Both Di Nisi et al. and Ohrstrom&#xA;  reported that  there seems to be no habituation to noise &#xA;  exposure&lt;sup&gt;15,16&lt;/sup&gt;. They exposed subjects to randomly distributed noise&#xA;  and it was impossible to  predict either the time of exposure or the&#xA;  type of  noise presented. Kawada and Suzuki could find  no definite&#xA;  habituation to a noisy environment&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;.  Their interval of noise&#xA;  exposure was 15 minutes  and there was only one pattern of passing&#xA;  truck  noise. Essentially the same noise characteristics  are reported&#xA;  by Thiessen, but the findings differed from each other. Based on&#xA;  inter-individual  variation in sensitivity to noise, habituation &#xA;  should differ according to the person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find this summary a little confusing. The between subject studies are not especially relevant in that habituation should presumably reduce the disruption caused by noise, but not necessarily remove the effect. Thus, it seems like longitudinal evidence would be the most relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General review of noise on sleep&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Muzet (2007) provides a relatively recent review of research on the effects of environmental noise on sleep.&#xA;With regards to habituation the author wrote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Autonomic responses, such as heart rate changes and vasoconstrictions&#xA;  in response to noise while sleeping] have bee found not to habituate&#xA;  over long exposure times compared with clear subjective habituation&#xA;  over successive noise-exposed nights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Research on alarm clocks&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found an article by Moorcroft et al (1997) that discussed the role of alarm clocks in peoples awakening process&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The ability to awaken oneself from sleep at a preselected time without&#xA;  external means (such as alarm clocks) was studied using, first,&#xA;  subjective and, second, objective methods. First, in a telephone&#xA;  survey of 269 unselected adults, over one-half said that they never&#xA;  use an alarm clock (or other external means) or always awaken before&#xA;  it. Another 24% said that they sometimes awaken before the alarm.&#xA;  Furthermore, this ability positively correlated with age and was&#xA;  related to consistency in the amount of nightly sleep but not&#xA;  consistency in wake-up time. Second, 15 people who said they regularly&#xA;  self-awaken were objectively tested for this ability in their own beds&#xA;  using actigraphy for three consecutive nights while choosing their own&#xA;  wake-up times. Five awoke within 10 minutes of their target time&#xA;  (mostly before) on each night, five did so on two of the three nights,&#xA;  and of the remaining five, four did so on one night. Choice of target&#xA;  times varied considerably within subjects but more so for those who&#xA;  were more successful. Taken together these results show that many&#xA;  people have the ability to regularly awaken themselves from sleep at a&#xA;  desired time and that such an ability is of practicable utility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Does having a consistent alarm clock decrease ability to wake up&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't found any specific empirical data on your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Habituation processes would suggest that a consistent noise that is deemed to carry a lack of informational content will gradually be more frequently ignored, and thus an inconsistent noise may be more effective in generating attention and perhaps wakefulness. That said, alarm clocks do carry informational content, and people could potentially tune themselves to that noise as the important noise to indicate the time to wake up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[10] Thiessen, G.J.: Disturbance of sleep by noise, &#xA;J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 64, 216-222 (1978).    &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[11] Thiessen, G.J. and Lapointe, A.C.: Effect of &#xA;intermittent truck noise on percentage of&lt;br&gt;&#xA;deep sleep, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 64, 1078-1080 &#xA;(1978).   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[12 Thiessen, G.J. and Lapointe, A.C.: Effect of &#xA;continuous traffic noise on percentage of&lt;br&gt;&#xA;deep sleep, waking and sleep latency, J. &#xA;Acoust. Soc. Am., 73, 225-229 (1983).    &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[13] Griefahn, B.: A critical load for nocturnal &#xA;high-density road traffic noise, Am. J. Ind.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Med., 9, 261-269 (1986).    &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[14] Vallet, M., Gagneux, J.M., Blanchet, V., &#xA;Favre, B. and Labiale, G.: Long term sleep&lt;br&gt;&#xA;disturbance due to traffic noise, J. Sound&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Vib., 90, 173-191 (1983).    &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[15] Di Nisi, J., Muzet, A., Ehrhart, J. and Libert, &#xA;J.P.: Comparison of cardiovascular responses &#xA;to noise during waking and sleeping in&lt;br&gt;&#xA;humans, Sleep, 13, 108-120 (1990).    &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[16] Ohrstrom, E. and Bjorkman, M.: Effects of &#xA;noise-disturbed sleep: A laboratory study on&lt;br&gt;&#xA;habituation and subjective noise sensitivity,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;J. Sound Vib., 122, 277-290 (1988).  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[17] Kawada, T. and Suzuki, S.: Instantaneous &#xA;change in sleep stage with noise of a passing&lt;br&gt;&#xA;truck, Percept. Motor Skills, 80, 1031-1040&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(1995). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Muzet, A. (2007). Environmental noise, sleep and health. Sleep medicine reviews, 11, 135-142.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moorcroft, W.H., Kayser, K.H. &amp;amp; Griggs, A.J. (1997). Subjective and objective confirmation of the ability to self-awaken at a self-predetermined time without using external means. Sleep, 20, 40-45.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-03T00:10:29.653" LastActivityDate="2012-07-03T00:10:29.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1372" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1363" CreationDate="2012-07-02T04:39:51.013" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;While quantitative changes like the ones described in the EEG in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/1365/31&quot;&gt;other answer&lt;/a&gt; are critical in distinguishing an person with autism from a non-autistic person, they are not really diagnostic tools yet. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You had mentioned the possibility of using a CT scan for a diagnosis.  As far as I can tell, there is no way of doing this as of late, but several groups are taking a look at some of the anatomical differences, which, of my own supposition, in the future could lead to definitive imaging techniques that are diagnostic.  Along with the EEG studies, there are currently &lt;em&gt;functional&lt;/em&gt; MRI studies that attempt to quantify the differences between persons with autism and others, but these are likely not diagnostic as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oblak et al (2011) found that, despite evidence of &quot;overgrowth&quot; of neurons in areas such as the Prefrontal Cortex (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22068992&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; for an recent study also drawing that conclusion), neurons in the posterior Cingulate Cortex were normal in number and density, but &lt;code&gt;&quot;irregularly distributed...poorly demarcated layers IV and V, and increased presence of white matter neurons.&quot;&lt;/code&gt; The diagrams below illustrate the position of the Cingulate (looking from the perspective of the inside of the hemisphere) and the normal arrangements of typical cells in cortical layers (which may have some minor variation depending on where in the cortex you are looking).  To illustrate the nuances in the anatomy, it had been found in prior studies that even the anterior Cingulate, by and large, had the increases in density found elsewhere in the cortex.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's interesting about the much lower cell density in the posterior Cingulate is that that structure is thought to be one of the most important regions of the limbic system for determining emotional salience of a situation, something that has been found to be different between persons with autism and those without autism.  So now we know that this region, just like the anterior portion, has an irregular anatomy, just of a different sort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study also found that, by and large, the architecture of the neurons in the fusiform gyrus was undisturbed.  Given the role of areas in the fusiform gyrus in facial recognition and social interaction, this was surprising, but there may be other clues in these areas as to difference in receptor density (particularly of GABA, though no difference was found in this particular study).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in terms of markers for future imaging studies, there are distinct differences that can be picked up in studies of brain tissue, but nothing definitive to be picked up at the scale of CT or MRI in an &lt;em&gt;in vivo&lt;/em&gt; imaging study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Anatomy&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MBpjP.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cingulate_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Normal cortical layers&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3kL2c.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; Borrowed from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acbrown.com/neuro/Lectures/Motr/NrMotrPrmr.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Oblak, A.L., Rosene, D.L, Kemper, T.L., Baumann, M.L., Blatt, G.J. (2011) Altered posterior cingulate cortical cyctoarchitecture, but normal density of neurons and interneurons in the posterior cingulate cortex and fusiform gyrus in autism. &lt;em&gt;Autism Research 4&lt;/em&gt;(3): 200–211. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aur.188&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DOI&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3110607/pdf/nihms266562.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-07-02T04:39:51.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1373" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="594" CreationDate="2012-07-02T10:48:43.970" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia article no longer makes reference to the phenomenon that you quote (to my inspection), so I'm not entirely sure if that assertion was edited out as an inaccuracy on someone's part.  I did find some information on visual perception and high frequency flicker that might point to some of the significance of the 60 Hz refresh rate of a monitor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At first I thought the effect you were describing might have something to do with critical flicker fusion frequency.  This is the rate under which the blinking of a light is no longer perceived as continuous.  For humans this varies from about 37 to 46 Hz (when measured as frequency of stimulus offset and remeasured over the course of the year) and from 43 down to 36 Hz (when measured as a frequency of stimulus onset and remeasured over the course of the year), so if a light blinks at a rate higher than that, it will look like it is continuously on to the average human.&lt;sup&gt;**&lt;/sup&gt;  However, since 60Hz is just shy of being a harmonic for the human critical flicker fusion, this seems like there wouldn't be some type of aliasing effect, as there is no 30 Hz component.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I did find seems to be a plausible reason for some sort of visual entrainment with a 60Hz stimulus, but even the authors of the study (Williams et al 2004) rationalized &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[If this were the case] perception should be compromised noticeably when looking at television or computer displays that have 60 Hz (or 50 Hz) frame refresh rates. However, every day more than a billion people watch TV with no obvious distortion in their perception of the color, form, and motion of pictures on the video screen. Thus phase locking in the middle of the gamma [brain waves] band [40 - 100 Hz] that is irrelevant to the visual scene does not disrupt scene organization or corrupts it so subtly that people do not notice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, that group performed a very careful study on both humans and non-human primates and found that between 32% and 82% (the percentage increased based on increasing contrast of the stimulus) of &quot;cells&quot; (single-units) studied in primate V1 over all animals were entrained to a 60 Hz refresh rate of the CRT screen.  The human Visual Evoked Potentials (using a non-invasive EEG) were all found to be significantly entrained to the 60Hz CRT refresh rate, and were also seen to increase with stimulus contrast.  For higher refresh rates of 72 Hz and 100 Hz, the degree of entrainment decreased significantly.  So, in both sets of subjects, the 60 Hz flicker induced significant 60 Hz activity in the brain.  Activity in the gamma band is normally associated with binding non-local cell assemblies for the purpose of cortical synchronization.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, though, Bauer et al (2012) found that flickering two &quot;flanker&quot; targets pulsing in phase at 60 Hz while surrounding a central primary target with low contrast did not enhance the ability to see the central target compared to a scenario with two flanker targets firing at 60 Hz out of phase with each other.  Building on other work that has been done, they hypothesized that synchrony of neurons in the gamma band (40-100 Hz) would directly help in &lt;code&gt;&quot;mediating contextual interactions among local stimulus attributes&quot;&lt;/code&gt;.  For this study, 60 Hz was chosen as the &lt;code&gt;&quot;typical frequency for human visual cortex gamma oscillations&quot;&lt;/code&gt;  The thought was that the pulsing 60 Hz stimuli would entrain the gamma band oscillations in visual cortex to prime the system for stimulus discrimination.  A setup with &quot;in phase&quot; flicker of the flankers with the central target was not found to help in the discrimination of orientation of the primary stimulus either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, overall, the 60 Hz seems most likely to have gamma band entrainment effects, but as a caveat, these effects don't seem to significantly hamper our ability to perceive motion on the screen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;**As an aside, I also found a study about the flicker fusion frequency in chickens (which, for some reason, have become a testbed for visual perception tasks).  According to an earlier study cited in Railton et al (2010), hens have a critical flicker fusion from 69 Hz to 105 Hz, which is in the typical refresh rate range for CRTs, so the authors of the study found that using thin-film transistor screens was more effective in stimulus discrimination tasks.  So, presumably the 60 Hz CRTs would cause a choppy motion from the perspective of the chicken, but I'm not sure this would account for any judder either. &#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bauer, M., Akam, T., Joseph, S., Freeman, E., Driver, J. (2012) Does visual flicker phase at gamma frequency modulate neural signal propagation and stimulus selection?  &lt;em&gt;Journal of Vision 12&lt;/em&gt;(4):1-10. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/12.4.5&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journalofvision.org/content/12/4/5.full.pdf+html&quot;&gt;[Free PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Luczak, A., Sobolewski, A. (2005)  Longitudinal changes in critical flicker fusion frequency: an indicator of human workload.  &lt;em&gt;Ergonomics 48&lt;/em&gt;(15):1770-1792.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00140130500241753&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Railton, R.C.R., Foster, T.M., Temple, W. (2010).  Transfer of stimulus control from a TFT to CRT screen.  &lt;em&gt;Behavioural Processes 85&lt;/em&gt;:111-115. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2010.06.013&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Williams, P.E., Mechler, F., Gordon, J., Shapley, R., Hawken, M.J. (2004).  Entrainment to video displays in primary visual cortex of macaque and humans.  &lt;em&gt;Journal of Neuroscience 24&lt;/em&gt;(38):8278-8288.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2716-04.2004&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/24/38/8278.full.pdf+html&quot;&gt;[Free PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-07-02T10:48:43.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1374" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1319" CreationDate="2012-07-02T12:28:42.540" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ronnlund and Nilsson (2006)&lt;/strong&gt; studied performance on the WAIS block design test in a large sample of adults both longitudinally and cross-sectionally. The time difference was about 5 years. They wanted to tease out age related changes from practice effects. I believe they estimated the 5-year practice related improvement to be about 0.6 of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_score#Related_statistics&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;T score&lt;/a&gt; (i.e., about .06 of a standard deviation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Benefits of practice presumably decay as a monotonically decreasing function of time between practice and retest. Thus, presumably, any practice effects would be a fair bit greater at two months than they would be at five years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dikmen et al (1999)&lt;/strong&gt; performed a study involving 384 adult participants who completed several test including the WAIS Block Design on two occasions separated by between two and twelve months.&#xA;Specifically see Table 2 that reports time 1 and time 2 results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Time 1 M (SD): 11.3 (3.0)&#xA;Time 2 M (SD): 12.0 (3.2)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, the standardised increase was $d = 0.7 / 3.0 = 0.23$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study also reports in Table 5 practice effects for various test-retest intervals (less than 3 months, 4 to 9 months, and &gt; 10 months). See Table 5 for more information, but in general greater practice effects were observed for WAIS performance IQ for shorter time periods. Thus, you might expect, given your two month period a slightly larger effect than the overall effect (perhaps $d=.30$ or some such).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dikmen, S.S., Heaton, R.K., Grant, I., Temkin, N.R. &amp;amp; others (1999). Test--retest reliability and practice effects of expanded Halstead--Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5, 346-356.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ronnlund, M. &amp;amp; Nilsson, L.G. (2006). Adult life-span patterns in WAIS-R Block Design performance: Cross-sectional versus longitudinal age gradients and relations to demographic factors. Intelligence, 34, 63-78.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-02T12:50:40.883" LastActivityDate="2012-07-02T12:50:40.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1375" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-07-02T13:26:40.690" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the process through which routines of behaviors can become automatic or the after-effects of when a behavior has become automatic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Habit(Psychology)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/automaticity&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'automaticity'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;automaticity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-02T20:10:18.570" LastActivityDate="2012-07-02T20:10:18.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1376" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-07-02T13:26:40.690" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the process through which routines of behaviors can become automatic or the after-effects of when a behavior has become automatic." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-02T20:10:21.127" LastActivityDate="2012-07-02T20:10:21.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1377" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1379" CreationDate="2012-07-02T23:32:44.323" Score="20" ViewCount="214" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been searching for info on this but I'm usually finding unrelated information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is whether there is a time range in which our mind suspects that two events are correlated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: pressing a pedal in the car and hearing a noise (even if it's somewhere else) in the next second makes you suspicious that your action caused that event.&#xA;If we stretch the time variable (time between those two events), it is less obvious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Applying this to any other concept, it seems that time is really a factor in terms of correlation detection, but I couldn't find any studies on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if time is a factor in correlation detection between events, then &lt;strong&gt;which is the effective time range that makes us think two events are correlated?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="43" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-14T14:17:12.347" LastActivityDate="2012-09-14T14:17:12.347" Title="Is there a range in time on which the mind detects correlation between events?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;attribution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1378" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-03T16:15:08.370" Score="6" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just finished reading &lt;em&gt;Moonwalking with Einstein&lt;/em&gt;, a journalistic piece on the World Memory Championships. The book explicates the various techniques used by participants to memorize different types of contest materials-- for example, there are techniques for memorizing large lists of numbers, foreign language vocabulary, packs of cards, and poetry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Dominic System, for example, is often used for memorizing numbers, the PAO system is often used for memorizing for packs of cards, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a lot of these techniques have not been rigorously tested in a scientific setting to determine which forms of techniques are empirically optimal. Often, they're just circulated in underground communities, without any objective way to adjudicate between the merits of competing systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering what the research on memory suggests is the best way to memorize the above types of content.  I suppose you need a metric to qualify &quot;the best way&quot;, so let's say that preference is given to speed over duration of memory.   I'm in the process of learning a new language, so I'm also particularly interested in foreign language techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="923" LastActivityDate="2013-03-30T03:51:48.833" Title="What does the literature suggest about the optimal strategy for quickly memorizing various types of content?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1379" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1377" CreationDate="2012-07-03T17:01:50.053" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you are asking about quite a high-level definition of &quot;correlated&quot;, and this is obviously going to depend on the particular context or stimulus. That is, knowledge about thunder and lightning allows us to infer that they have a common cause, even though perceptually they can be decoupled (that is, we don't perceive them as occurring together).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I can point you to a few things that speak to the perception of correlation in time. This literature concerns the perception of synchrony between two stimuli, such as a flash (vision) and a beep (audition). For visual-auditory pairings, the window of &quot;temporal synchrony&quot; can be quite imprecise: events can be separated by up to 200 ms and still be judged as having occurred at the same time (see Dixon and Spitz, 1980, and Vatakis and Spence, 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, with multiple events in the environment and depending on the type of stimulus, sensitivity can improve. The above literature as well as my general reply is sourced from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3adoi/10.1371/journal.pone.0018309&quot;&gt;this article by Roseboom et al (2011)&lt;/a&gt;, which may be a good starting point for further reading if this is where you were going with the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dixon NF, Spitz L (1980) The detection of auditory visual desynchrony. Perception 9: 719–721.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Roseboom, W., Nishida, S., Fujisaki, W. &amp;amp; Arnold, D.H. (2011). Audio-visual speech timing sensitivity is enhanced in cluttered conditions. PLoS One, 6, e18309.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vatakis A, Spence C (2006) Audiovisual synchrony perception for music, speech, and object actions. Brain Research 1111: 134–142.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="924" LastEditorUserId="924" LastEditDate="2012-07-04T15:36:22.657" LastActivityDate="2012-07-04T15:36:22.657" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1380" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1503" CreationDate="2012-07-03T18:18:37.107" Score="6" ViewCount="1646" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; By casual observation, I have noticed that males tend to react differently to the sound of a fart. It seems that men are more likely to laugh whereas women are more likely to show signs of disgust.&#xA;I thought that perhaps there might be some evolutionary basis for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any serious psychological research on the causes of our responses to farting?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any systematic gender differences?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the posited causes of such gender differences?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user914" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-04T01:21:06.080" LastActivityDate="2012-08-02T08:26:32.677" Title="What causes gender differences in responses to farting?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1382" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="215" CreationDate="2012-07-03T23:00:16.937" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's something I dug up for language: a Computer Science Thesis from Boulder:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.38.3216&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Sensorimotor Foundations of Phonology: A Computational Model of Early Childhood Articulatory and Phonetic Development (1994)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it discusses what it calls HABLAR (Hierarchical Articulatory Based Language&#xA;Acquisition by Reinforcement learning).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the &lt;strong&gt;reductionist/biology side&lt;/strong&gt;, developing brains have a much higher population of gap junctions.  I would speculate that this would create a much more analog brain, as gap junctions are modeled diffusively, unlike synaptic connections, which can be modeled in a more binary way.  I would speculate that the analog driving of the environmental and genetic signals leads to the formation and orgnaization of the synaptic connectivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if one could find a correlation between plasticity and gap junctions.  They are found to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/104/30/12548.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;connect axons laterally in hippocampal cells&lt;/a&gt; (a region of brain that remains plastic through adulthood)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-07-03T23:51:59.160" LastActivityDate="2012-07-03T23:51:59.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1383" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3346" CreationDate="2012-07-04T00:15:47.530" Score="12" ViewCount="555" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lumosity.com/blog/cognitive-training-enhances-dopamine-release/?utm_source=SilverpopMailing&amp;amp;utm_medium=email&amp;amp;utm_campaign=RMKTG_Dopamine_High120Up_2012.07.03_A&amp;amp;utm_content=&amp;amp;ll_src=RMKTG_Dopamine_High120Up_2012.07.03_A&amp;amp;ll_ch=EMAIL&amp;amp;ll_u=18351146&amp;amp;spMailingID=5406509&amp;amp;spUserID=MjA3ODA5NTcxOTIS1&amp;amp;spJobID=201841929&amp;amp;spReportId=MjAxODQxOTI5S0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Joe Hardy&lt;/a&gt; reports on a study by Backman et al (2011) in Science, where from the authors report:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Updating of working memory has been associated with striato-frontal&#xA;  brain regions and phasic dopaminergic neurotransmission. We assessed&#xA;  raclopride binding to striatal dopamine (DA) D2 receptors during a&#xA;  letter-updating task and a control condition before and after 5 weeks&#xA;  of updating training. Results showed that updating affected DA&#xA;  activity before training and that training further increased striatal&#xA;  DA release during updating. These findings highlight the pivotal role&#xA;  of transient neural processes associated with D2 receptor activity in&#xA;  working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Joe Hardy goes on to claim:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This result shows that cognitive training with exercises similar to&#xA;  those on Lumosity can change the way the brain works at a fundamental&#xA;  chemical level. Indeed, we’ve known for several years that the right&#xA;  kind of cognitive training can enhance brain functions like working&#xA;  memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it true that cognitive training enhances dopamine release ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any studies that disprove this ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Backman, L., Nyberg, L., Soveri, A., Johansson, J., Andersson, M., Dahlin, E., Neely, A.S., Virta, J., Laine, M. &amp;amp; Rinne, J.O. (2011). Effects of working-memory training on striatal dopamine release. Science, 333, 718.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T10:40:47.530" LastActivityDate="2015-10-25T14:39:05.677" Title="Does cognitive training enhance dopamine release?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1384" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-04T12:47:47.603" Score="6" ViewCount="560" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://projectimplicit.net/nosek/gnat/&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Go/No-Go Association task&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The GNAT (pronounced like the bug) is a flexible technique designed to&#xA;  measure implicit social cognition.  Conceptually similar to other&#xA;  implicit measures like the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald,&#xA;  McGhee, &amp;amp; Schwartz, JPSP, 1998), the GNAT assesses automatic&#xA;  associations between concept (e.g., gender) and attribute (e.g.,&#xA;  evaluation) categories.  The GNAT has two features that distinguish it&#xA;  from other measures of implicit social cognition.  First, the GNAT is&#xA;  designed to be use signal detection statistics in its calculation of&#xA;  automatic associations (d-prime), but can also be adapted to utilize&#xA;  response latency as its operational dependent variable.  Second, the&#xA;  GNAT is flexible in the establishing of contextual characteristics for&#xA;  the evaluative situation.  For example, the IAT requires an attitude&#xA;  toward one category (insects) be assessed relative to a second&#xA;  category (flowers). With the GNAT, experimenters can vary whether&#xA;  insects are evaluated in the context of a single category (flowers), a&#xA;  superordinate category (animals), a generic category (objects), or&#xA;  with no context at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The GNAT is often used with the intention of obtaining an implicit measure of self-esteem, sexism, racism, aggression, and so on. In some cases, test takers may be motivated to score in a particular way on the GNAT (e.g., not implicitly sexist or racist). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent can the GNAT be faked?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If an individual does fake the GNAT, can the faking be detected?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-07-04T18:55:47.127" Title="Can the Go/No-Go Association Task be faked?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;deception&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1385" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1384" CreationDate="2012-07-04T14:05:21.590" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've never looked at the GNAT before but, even though it's just about as transparent as IAT, the critical thing making it difficult to fake bias is the deadlining.  In order to fake one would would have to respond in no-go trials where one would not and that also misrepresented their association.  That calculation would be difficult to do in the time window and possibly result in overall very high error rates.  I'm not a fan that they just throw out RTs.  Furthermore, calculating d' values does not by itself make a task better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a general problem with many of these tasks in that the requested response is directly along the tested dimension.  What's implicit about that?  Asking you if bad goes with bug does not make for an implicit tests.  However, with something like the ALPS (Lebrecht et al 2009) you select an orthogonal dimension for the response (lexical decision in that case).  That seems much more like an implicit task and since people tend to be very response focused it makes it much less likely that subjects will pick up on how the test works and attempt to manipulate it.  You could also deadline that to make it even less likely that it's cheated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2012-07-04T18:55:47.127" LastActivityDate="2012-07-04T18:55:47.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1386" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1207" CreationDate="2012-07-04T16:45:33.343" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;My colleagues have applied the COVIS model of category learning to the WCST. COVIS isn't a model of WCST performance per se, but can account for several known phenomena. See this Google Scholar search: &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=Helie+Paul+ashby&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;as_sdt=1%2C5&amp;amp;as_sdtp=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=Helie+Paul+ashby&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;as_sdt=1%2C5&amp;amp;as_sdtp=&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="927" LastActivityDate="2012-07-04T16:45:33.343" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1387" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1390" CreationDate="2012-07-04T17:14:56.547" Score="6" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;For those who have never heard of a Children's Museum before, there is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.childrensmuseums.org/index.php/advocacy.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;national association in the US&lt;/a&gt; with some information.  The basic idea stems from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky#Psychology_of_play&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Vygotsky-like paradigms&lt;/a&gt; of learning through play.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My first impulse was: write a GUI that presents a series of standard cognitive tests in a fun way, put the software on a computer in a kiosk during the museum events.  Finally, compare child performance on the test to the number of visits to children's museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there's some considerations: if somebody takes the test multiple times, they're probably going to get better at it, so this might give a false-positive (rising with the number of visits).  So, for instance, only the first test taken by each person would be considered for analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But that is a rather inexperienced shot in the dark.  Any other ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-05T07:04:00.573" LastActivityDate="2012-07-05T07:04:00.573" Title="How to test effectiveness of a children's museum in improving cognitive function?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1388" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-07-05T03:50:14.463" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions concerning the area of psychophysics that deals with the discernment of information-bearing stimuli from background noise or other distractions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Detection theory in psychology drew upon much of the theory of radar and its applications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detection_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Detection Theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a canonical text written by two of its pioneers, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0932146236&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Signal Detection Theory and Psychophysics&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-05T04:19:11.247" LastActivityDate="2012-07-05T04:19:11.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1389" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-07-05T03:50:14.463" Score="0" Body="For questions concerning the area of psychophysics that deals with discernment of information-bearing stimuli from background noise or other distractions." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-05T04:19:12.340" LastActivityDate="2012-07-05T04:19:12.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1390" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1387" CreationDate="2012-07-05T06:59:55.883" Score="4" Body="&lt;h3&gt;General literature on training and educational program evaluation&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, you would want to read up about program evaluation in general, and educational program evaluation, and training evaluation in particular.&#xA;With regards to the educational context I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://teacherpathfinder.org/School/Assess/assess.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article online&lt;/a&gt;. &#xA;With regards to training evaluation, you could check out Kraiger et al (1993) or Sackett and Mullen (1993) or any number of other textbook treatments of training evaluation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Specific comments on evaluating a &quot;children's museum&quot;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What design will you use?&lt;/strong&gt;: is it going to be a pre-post design where you compare knowledge before and after exposure to the program? Are you going to have a control group who does not experience the program or experiences an alternative program? How will you allocate participants to conditions? random allocation is better.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Decide on the constructs of interest?&lt;/strong&gt;: What is the program meant to improve? You speak about quite general learning goals, but training programs are much more likely to have more specific effects. E.g., if you have a program that teaching addition, then students are likely to get better at addition, but their general intelligence is likely to be unchanged. You may also want to think about the time frame that benefits are meant to persist after exposure to the program. You can also look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Kirkpatrick#Four_Levels_of_Learning_Evaluation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kirkpatrick's framework of training evaluation&lt;/a&gt; which talks about different kinds of outcome variables.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What will measure your constructs of interest?&lt;/strong&gt;: Are you going to use existing measures or develop your own measures? If the content is highly specific to your program, then you will probably need to develop your own test items. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Determine your sample&lt;/strong&gt;: How are you going to recruit your sample? How many participants will you need to ensure reasonable statistical power?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;When and how will measures be administered?&lt;/strong&gt; I think you would want to do this in a controlled setting. A kiosk would probably be problematic from a measurement perspective.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Rough starting point&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course there are a whole range of issues related to program evaluation, and dealing with children introduces many additional issues.&#xA;The following might provide a rough starting point:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;two groups: control and intervention; about 100 participants per group&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;three time points: before intervention, immediately after intervention, a few months after intervention&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use some general measures of ability related to the program as well as some highly specific measures that tie in closely to program content. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Also measure other factors like child and perhaps parent reactions to the program including both quantitative and qualitative evaluations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perhaps link in with some surrounding schools or day care facilities to recruit participants or use some form of waiting list system for admission to the program. Administer tests in a controlled environment (e.g., in a supervised room). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kraiger, K., Ford, J.K. &amp;amp; Salas, E. (1993). Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation.. Journal of applied Psychology, 78, 311. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~antonvillado/courses/12a_psyc630001/Kraiger,%20Ford,%20&amp;amp;%20Salas%20%281993%29%20JAP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sackett, P.R. &amp;amp; Mullen, E.J. (1993). Beyond formal experimental design: Towards an expanded view of the training evaluation process. Personnel Psychology, 46, 613-627. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~antonvillado/courses/12a_psyc630001/Sackett%20&amp;amp;%20Mullen%20%281993%29%20PP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-07-05T06:59:55.883" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1391" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1393" CreationDate="2012-07-05T08:05:22.653" Score="16" ViewCount="840" Body="&lt;p&gt;In an upcoming postdoc, I'm going to be looking through biological neural network data in the hopes of finding some interesting &quot;patterns&quot;.  I'm coming at this field from a mathematics/computer science point of view, and am quite new to the biological side of things.  I'm hoping that by looking at some examples in which computational methods were successfully used in understanding biological neural networks, it might help me understand more about what I should be looking for, and what approaches are likely to be successful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;:  What are some key examples in which computational methods were used on biological neural networks to gain important insights into these networks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="931" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-17T22:31:46.173" LastActivityDate="2012-09-17T22:31:46.173" Title="What are the key examples of the use of computational methods in the study of biological neural networks?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1392" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1391" CreationDate="2012-07-05T09:04:36.057" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many neuroscientists who use the techniques of advanced mathematics and statistics to analyze actual neural data for patterns.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mulab.physiol.upenn.edu/&quot;&gt;George Gerstein&lt;/a&gt;, who is now retired, has been a pioneer in applying &quot;particle&quot; methods in analyzing neuronal interactions.  The originator of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://mulab.physiol.upenn.edu/gravity.html&quot;&gt;Gravity transform&lt;/a&gt;, he used this tool to untangle some of the stochastic processes that were underlying the firing patterns.  He also brought into widespread use tools like the &lt;a href=&quot;http://mulab.physiol.upenn.edu/jpst.html&quot;&gt;joint peristimulus time histogram&lt;/a&gt;, which allow an &quot;at a glance&quot; view of co-firings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://sleep.med.harvard.edu/people/faculty/150/Emery+N+Brown+MD+PhD&quot;&gt;Emery Brown&lt;/a&gt; is both an anesthesiologist and academic statistician who has done a lot of modeling with actual hippocampal place cell data in a Bayesian framework, as well as modeling firing patterns with point processes.  He, along with some other groups, have successfully used tools like Granger Causality to reveal connectivity among cells and subcircuits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pitt.edu/~phase/&quot;&gt;G. Bard Ermentrout&lt;/a&gt; is a bit more theoretical, as he is a mathematician, but has done a lot with determining the phase space relationships and coupling in neuronal firing patterns, and has often tested his models with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17928562&quot;&gt;neural data&lt;/a&gt;.  He has &quot;written the book&quot; on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/038787707X&quot;&gt;subject&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are hundreds more examples, but these are the first three that sprang to mind.  Neuroscientists are eager and willing to collaborate with mathematicians, statisticians, and others of the theoretical ilk (as you're seeing), so doing a quick Pubmed search on areas that are of particular interest to you is probably the best way to seek out these subfields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-07-05T09:04:36.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1393" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1391" CreationDate="2012-07-05T12:22:13.190" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to add to Chuck's excellent answer; the computational approach is very well-represented in neuroscience, and actually involves a large number of very heterogeneous methods.  Thus, a very different set of neuroscientists and examples have sprung to mind for me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my mind, the best single example of the utility of a computational approach to interpreting neural data is the reward prediction error hypothesis of dopamine function.  Early investigations in machine learning led to the development of the temporal difference reinforcement learning algorithm.  Subsequently it was noticed, by Wolfram Schulz, that the pattern of firing in dopaminergic cells appeared to closely correspond to what would be expected of a temporal difference error signal - the very core of this form of reinforcement learning. Subsequently, similar reinforcement learning algorithms (e.g., Q-learning) have been applied to a variety of neural data - albeit at the much coarser scale of fMRI - and provided a variety of evidence that is strongly supportive of this hypothesis. This work has been absolutely crucial to progress in the last 10-15 years in cognitive and systems neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second example that springs to mind also pertains to dopamine; in this case, the utility of the computational approach was in understanding the pattern of effects produced by release of dopamine, rather than in characterizing the pattern of dopamine release itself.  At the cellular level Jeremy Seaman's work is a great example of this approach; he has used Fisher discriminant analysis and other multivariate techniques to better characterize multi-unit activity recorded in prefrontal cortex, under various dopamine conditions.  Ultimately his work has been the primary computational approach contributing to what is now the modal understanding of dopamine's effect in the prefrontal cortex, which is to enhance signal to noise ratio.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A third example has to do with the application of graph theory to neural networks, and in particular our understanding of small-world connected graphs.  The implication of this work for neuroscience was not lost on the mathematicians that originally pursued this line of work, but its actual utility for neuroscience has been most famously demonstrated by Olaf Sporns in understanding what is coming to be called the &quot;connectome&quot; - that is, the graph of structurally- and functionally-connected neural systems.  Although this is still an active line of research, small-world connectivity appears to be a ubiquitous feature of cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be remiss not to mention the work of a large group of researchers trained in the &quot;parallel distributed processing&quot; or connectionism tradition, including Matt Botvinick, Jon Cohen, Michael Frank, Ken Norman, Yuko Munakata, Randy O'Reilly. There are too many excellent examples from their work to name, but all of these researchers have used behavioral and neural data to build neural network models of cortical and subcortical processing, at varying levels of biological detail; validated these models in terms of their fit to existing behavioral and neural data; and used these models to derive predictions that have subsequently been tested using a variety of approaches. The following is a woefully incomplete, but at least representative, list of the progress made by these researchers: the discovery of parallels between the dimensionality-reduction or &quot;abstraction&quot; techniques that can be useful in reinforcement learning to cortical processing (in the case of Matt Botvinick); the discovery of parallels between the exploration/exploitation dilemma in reinforcement learning and the function of the locus coereleus/norepinephrine system (in the case of Jon Cohen); the understanding of fine-grained functional consequences of differences in dopamine receptor subtypes, as well as prefrontal/striatal interactions (in the case of Michael Frank), the discovery of the large-scale consequences of cellular-level long-term depression and potentiation phenomena for hemodynamic patterns in memory tasks (in the case of Ken Norman), the discovery of the role of prefrontal inhibitory neurotransmission in tasks requiring &quot;selection&quot; of information under competition (in the case of Yuko Munakata), and the discovery of the computational underpinnings of the tri-partite division of labor between hippocampus, posterior cortex, and prefrontal cortex (in the case of Randy O'Reilly).  Jay McClelland, David Rumelhart, David Seidenberg, Geoff Hinton, and many others laid the groundwork for much of this progress, although their contact with detailed neural phenomena was more limited than that made by their trainees (and their trainees' trainees), above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would conclude by seconding Chuck's suggestion to do a PubMed search.  Your question is too broad for a comprehensive answer conveyed in anything shorter than a book!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="897" LastActivityDate="2012-07-05T12:22:13.190" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1394" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1391" CreationDate="2012-07-05T12:45:14.473" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The use of neural-networks in the cognitive sciences has been around &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1263/29&quot;&gt;since Turing&lt;/a&gt;. However, many of the networks common in connectionism suffer from a lack of biological plausibility. Of these abstract ones, even the ones that try to capture some properties of biological neural networks only do some metaphorically. See for instance the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/214/29&quot;&gt;limitations of cascade correlation as a metaphor for neurogenesis&lt;/a&gt;. However, these abstract networks are still used because they provide a great bridge between theory in neuroscience and psychology. The networks are abstract and powerful enough to deal with questions in psychology (say learning or developmental-psychology) but still try to ground themselves in some way (at least by analogy) in biological network. I will give two examples from this abstract working down towards biology point of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the early approaches to neural nets, represented activation as real-valued outputs that were multiplied by the weights of interneuron connections. This approach is being replaced by more reasonable &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiking_neural_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;spiking neuron models&lt;/a&gt; that incorporate a more realistic coding medium (rate of action potentials) while still maintaining a relatively abstract level that is usable in psychology and machine learning applications. However, these models still tend to be too abstract to realistically model specific organisms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chris Eliasmith and his students have pushed a little further in the gap between abstract psychology-useful models and concrete biologically-useful models by proposing the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ctnsrv.uwaterloo.ca/cnrglab/node/215&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neural engineering framework&lt;/a&gt;. This computational model allows users to run a &lt;a href=&quot;http://ctnsrv.uwaterloo.ca/cnrglab/node/219&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;range of simulations&lt;/a&gt; from close-to-biology studies like translational vestibular ocular reflex in monkeys and recognition of song by zebra finch to psychology-studies like parametric working memory and other kinds of cognitive models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus these approaches allow you to understand certain properties of biological neural networks by looking at the essential features of abstract models&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, you can push things closer to biology, and @ChuckSherrington's answer gives some great examples of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2012-07-05T13:03:37.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1395" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-05T14:15:19.897" Score="8" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to generate 4 shapes that are equidistant in psychological similarity space - meaning that they are all equally discriminable from one another - which differ in 3 parameters, such that those parameters have a known mapping between objective and psychological space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A simple example may help.  We might define an object in terms of its width, height, and depth.  The four objects A, B, C and D would have values as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;    height   width    depth&#xA;&#xA;A.    2        2        1&#xA;&#xA;B.    1        1        1&#xA;&#xA;C.    2        1        2&#xA;&#xA;D.    1        2        2&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These points are equidistant in 3d euclidean space (they are actually the vertices of a tetrahedron).  However, an increment of 1 in height may not be perceived psychologically as distinct as an increment of 1 in depth (in principle).  More problematically, going from 1 to 1.5 may not be psychologically the same as going from 1.5 to 2 on any dimension, meaning that while these values are continuous, they are not linear in psychological space. In other words, objects equidistant in the metric of the parameters I'm using to generate them may not actually be equidistant in the eye/mind of an observer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is particularly true for this example, as point B is clearly more visually distinct from the others - it's the only cube!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am therefore looking for 3 shape parameters where the mapping from objective space to psychological space is known, and in which there is not a loss of dimensionality in this mapping to below 3 dimensions in psychological similarity space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect this is not known, but I would like to avoid reinventing the wheel (not to mention running the complex pilot experiment this would require - it's not even my question of primary interest!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="897" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-05T15:10:43.817" LastActivityDate="2012-07-05T15:36:18.177" Title="Are there shapes defined by 3 (or more) generative parameters whose mapping to psychological similarity space is known?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1396" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1395" CreationDate="2012-07-05T15:36:18.177" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider the &lt;strong&gt;colour visual system&lt;/strong&gt;. Take 3 monochromatic (in the physics sense) light sources of wavelength $420 \; nm$, $534 \; nm$, and $564 \; nm$; i.e. the &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/a/1461/500&quot;&gt;peaks of spectral sensitivity for cones&lt;/a&gt;. Your 3 physical parameters are then 3 knobs $b$, $g$, $r$ that control the intensity of each light source as they shine on the same white surface. If you want more physical parameters, you can just add more knobs for other monochromatic lightsources, however 3 is sufficient. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision#Physiology_of_color_perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Colour perception&lt;/a&gt; is extremely well studied, so this comes as close as I can think of to a known mapping between between objective and psychological space. Unfortunately, you will run into some culture and language specific issues for judging the similarity of perceived colours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2012-07-05T15:36:18.177" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1397" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1364" CreationDate="2012-07-05T18:34:32.833" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @Gray mentioned, the philosophical problem you are interested in is known as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_spectrum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inverted spectrum&lt;/a&gt;. Unfortunately, @Gray's claim about no empirical difference is not exactly true. As @ChuckSherrington pointed out, we can have differences in color perception due to brain lesions, but this is cheating in way. We don't have to go this far, we already have differences in color perception between neurotypical people based on their culture/language. More dramatically, we can observe this difference within a single individual!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I explained in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/1317/29&quot;&gt;previous answer&lt;/a&gt;: physics does not have colour, it just has a continuous spectrum of wavelengths. Even when you look at the sensitivity of the 3 types of cones in the retina it is not discrete, but continuous. The categories of colours (i.e. &quot;that's red&quot;, &quot;that's blue&quot;) are produced by perception and these discrete-ish categories form the basis of colour qualia. Scientists can study these categories by asking participants if various stimuli feel like the same colour. The arbitrary boundaries of the categories people draw between colours is language dependent (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences//retrieve/pii/S1364661309001454&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Regier &amp;amp; Kay, 2009&lt;/a&gt;)! In other words, we have support for the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Whorf hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;: language effects your subjective conscious experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the buck doesn't stop there. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16387848&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gilbert et al. (2006)&lt;/a&gt; showed that the Whorf hypothesis is supported in the right visual field but not the left. In other words, when I present colours in one part of your visual field, you experience them one way and when I present them to the other then you experience them in a fundamentally different way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus &lt;strong&gt;different colours can be experienced differently by different neurotypical people&lt;/strong&gt;, and in fact they can be &lt;strong&gt;experienced differently by the same person&lt;/strong&gt; based on which visual field the stimuli is presented in. Further, this difference is empirically measurable! Of course this doesn't resolve the inverted spectrum problem completely, but that is to be expected since philosophy always has a way to  run away from science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-07-06T01:50:53.443" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1398" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-06T00:35:44.117" Score="12" ViewCount="430" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To what extent does cooperative versus competitive learning influence personality development or even pathological behaviors?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If these activities need to be narrowed down to a specific category, I'm more interested in gaming patterns or gamified activities used in education. Still, I would prefer a broad answer if there was one. Still, ideally, these would include sports, games of any type, common activities and everything which can be compared from the cooperative vs. competitive point of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far, my searches are only returning results that focus on the effectiveness of such learning strategies, but not on the imprinting effect that it may have on the individual, specially if short-lived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If particular research or studies cannot be founds, I can settle for an answer explaining hypothesis on how these would work towards building personality and behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question arises from trying to draw a parallel with AI and general game playing, where cooperative/competitive behaviors can be &quot;trained&quot; through heuristics. These heuristics and the balance between cooperation/competitiveness (for mixed activities) usually display a personality, a &quot;strategy&quot; that depends on the coder or designer, unless the algorithm is self-taught. At that point, I would like to see if the behaviors seen by the self-taught algorithms can parallel in any way those nuances by human strategies, but I don't know how those are to be expected in humans at all - hence the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="43" LastEditorUserId="43" LastEditDate="2017-04-10T21:25:35.943" LastActivityDate="2017-05-18T06:41:07.357" Title="How do cooperative vs. competitive activities impact the learning patterns of an individual?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1399" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1417" CreationDate="2012-07-06T14:23:22.443" Score="10" ViewCount="345" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a reliable physiological measure or correlate to positive affect?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What does research say on this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought that serotonin levels are correlated with self-reported happiness levels, but, after a google scholar search I am not so sure.&#xA;I tried google scholar and couldn't find any papers reviewing/summarizing multiple experiments. I only found a whole lot of papers with vague sounding titles than what i am looking for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT 1: Replaced happiness by positive affect. As Geek on Acid pointed out happiness is too general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="73" LastEditorUserId="73" LastEditDate="2012-07-13T09:11:54.940" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T09:11:54.940" Title="What is a reliable physiological measure  (e.g., serotonin levels)  of positive affect? " Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1401" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-07T13:08:43.113" Score="7" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Context:&lt;/strong&gt; When reading research articles in psychology, you often encounter new non-aptitude self-report psychological tests (e.g., measures of personality, well-being, psychopathology, learning style, stress, goal orientation, etc.). Most of these tests involve obtaining the sum or the mean of a set of items for one or more scales or subscales. Each item typically involves item text and a consistent set of response options (e.g., Likert-type response scales, yes-no response scales, etc.). There are thousands of such scales, some which are frequently used; others are used only once.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot has been written about how to assess &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_validity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;test validity&lt;/a&gt;. However, here I wanted to focus particularly on how to assess what a particular individual or group score means. Specifically, I'm thinking of the situation where you are reading a journal article and you encounter a scale that you have not seen before, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A 10-item measure of self-esteem on 1 to 5 scale; group mean is 3.2. Is the sample generally high, low, or moderate in self-esteem?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A 30-item check-list of good eating habits with a mean of 20.7. Does the sample have good eating habits? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For well developed tests, there is a test manual. Other times there is a website or key journal article with information. Finally, in some cases, very little information is readily available. In some cases useful information is given in the methods section, but typically, on its own, this is inadequate. &#xA;Thus, the process of trying to locate information such as item content and normative comparisons begin.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot has been said about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm-referenced_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;normative&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criterion-referenced_assessment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;criterion referenced test&lt;/a&gt; interpretation.  If you are using a test in clinical practice or you are using a test in your own research, you should invest time in understanding what different scores on the test actually mean.   However, when casually reading a journal article you can encounter many tests. &#xA;In such cases, the article is one of many, and you might just want to get a quick sense of what a given score means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is a good way to get both a normative and absolute understanding of the meaning of a group or individual non-aptitude test score?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is an efficient way of obtaining the information required  to make such a judgement?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note the use of the term &quot;non-aptitude&quot;. I'd like to exclude discussion of intelligence testing, ability testing, and knowledge testing, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt; To clarify, I didn't mean to imply in the question that item information was not available anywhere. I guess the question is referring to the general situation where there probably are previous uses of the measure in the literature, and there might be a key article that describes the measure somewhere. I guess I'm thinking of a good general strategy for securing relevant information and then using it to form an understanding of the scale properties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-05-10T07:05:07.563" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T07:05:07.563" Title="How to efficiently get a sense of the meaning of a score on a non-aptitude test that you encounter in a journal article?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1402" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1404" CreationDate="2012-07-07T15:53:30.937" Score="44" ViewCount="3728" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;MBTI stands for Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. It's a theory that suggests that people can be divided into 16 types, based on the way they percieve and analyse information (whether they make decisions based on logic or their feel, rely more on intuition or direct sensoric perception, and whether they are more on judging or percieving approach to things happen).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these &quot;preferences&quot; are fit into the &quot;consciousness model&quot; in the way, in which you can understand the appearance or behavior of a certain &quot;type&quot; by looking what are the dominating preferences (feeling against thinking, sensoric perception against intuition, judging vs percieving).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a comprehensive overview, see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator&quot;&gt;wikipedia article on the MBTI&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;Go &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; for another discussion of the MBTI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the MBTI have a fundamental background? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Were there any scientific experiments conducted?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any &quot;type&quot; theories that are based on actual brain research?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="937" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-14T16:25:45.770" LastActivityDate="2017-10-11T06:51:49.807" Title="Is the Myer Briggs Type indicator (MBTI) a reasonable scientific theory?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="18" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1403" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1173" CreationDate="2012-07-07T15:54:26.133" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer&lt;/strong&gt;: As you have noted yourself, there aren't very many scientific researches on the topic. The only main points that I can derive are generally of blogs or sketchy speculations. As such, you are supposed to take this answer with a grain of salt.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://itotd.com/articles/632/polyphasic-sleep/&quot;&gt;Interesting Thing of the Day&lt;/a&gt; notes that polyphasic sleep may make the person awake and alert but have adverse effects on the creativity and mental agility. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...it may be that although one can indeed be awake and alert for 22 hours per day, creativity and mental agility suffer as a result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.supermemo.com/articles/polyphasic.htm#Less%20is%20more&quot;&gt;Supermemo&lt;/a&gt; has the following to say about Polyphasic sleep:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Yet you will definitely &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; want to sleep polyphasically if:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;you want to maximize your creative output&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;you want to maximize your peak alertness, your average alertness, or minimize the impact of your worst alertness levels&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;you want to maximize the health effects of sleep, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While both the sources are not scientific findings, it does send a signal that polyphasic sleep cycles would have a negative impact on IQ tests and general activities like reading because your overall alertness is down because of sleep deprivation. Poor mental agility would have result in a lower working memory as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="936" LastActivityDate="2012-07-07T15:54:26.133" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1404" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1402" CreationDate="2012-07-08T15:16:13.200" Score="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I remember, the MBTI has been compared in some studies to the Big Five (or OCEAN) model of personality. If you've not heard of it, the Big Five is the primary theory of personality that is accepted by researchers who do this sort of thing. Here are some papers comparing the two approaches:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/sbp/sbp/2003/00000031/00000006/art00005?token=005513de50867232d45232b46245a6a43573a794c23773568293c6c567e504f58762f46c67436faaaf597&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;recent comparison&quot;&gt;Recent comparison&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0191886996000335&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;another&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main point is that a number of the MBTI traits are correlated with the Big Five traits, though the MBTI can be criticised for various reasons (e.g., it's binary approach to personality). I think from what I remember is that the main criticism revolves around the fact that the MBTI has no place for neuroticism whereas the Big Five does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That should be enough to get you started (e.g., reading their intro and seeing where this has been cited). There's also a somewhat useful infographic available &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.usefulcharts.com/psychology/big-five-personality-traits.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="440" LastEditorUserId="4770" LastEditDate="2014-04-10T00:43:28.847" LastActivityDate="2014-04-10T00:43:28.847" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1406" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1428" CreationDate="2012-07-08T22:27:33.500" Score="10" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in how open science could be done in psychology.  Are there good web-based tools that could house and share a study?  When I say &quot;study&quot; I mean:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lab notes from collecting data&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Raw data&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Code for analyses&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Results&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Discussion of research process and results (ideally open to the community)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Posters, Presentations, Publications&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Right now all I have seen done (and my best idea) would be a combination of a Wiki for the lab notebook, cloud storage (e.g., Google drive) for the data, github (or similar) for the code, blogs for discussion, and a personal website for archived versions of journal articles, posters, and presentations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="939" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-08T23:51:22.760" LastActivityDate="2012-08-04T15:35:31.603" Title="Web-based tools for documenting studies?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1408" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-09T19:21:37.470" Score="11" ViewCount="207" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am planning on running an online psychological experiment where participants must learn about various simulated environments and then make inferences about them. Because completing the experiment would require a nontrivial amount of attention and time, I have been toying with the idea of giving personal feedback at the end of the experiment (i.e., using gamification).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am considering giving participants feedback regarding how their responses compare to our computational model's predictions and/or to the average. The hope is that receiving a &amp;quot;score&amp;quot;, even when it's made clear that such a score is not evaluative or absolute, will get people to pay more attention and will make them more likely to complete the task. The feedback would only be offered following the experiment itself, and its precise nature would not be revealed until that time. Moreover, I wouldn't specify how our predicted scores are derived. Calculating the exact values by hand would be extremely time consuming, so even if the derivation is explained I don't see how anyone could realistically bias their responses with that knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does giving personal feedback raise any ethical problems?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How might it affect response patterns?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Will giving personal feedback elicit higher completion rates and more attentive responding, without any significant complications?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="941" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-26T07:22:51.190" Title="Problems with using personal feedback to motivate participation in an online psychological experiment?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1409" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1410" CreationDate="2012-07-10T00:29:48.657" Score="0" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jpJlI.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this snippet from &quot;You Are Not Your Brain: The 4-Step Solution for Changing Bad Habits, Ending Unhealthy Thinking, and Taking Control of Your Life&quot; by Jeffrey Schwartz&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwartz states that refocusing attention can actually change brain structure so that habitual ways of the brain are physically broken and other new healthy behaviors become habitual with new connections in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are their any other studies along these lines that mention how to change how one thinks and feels habitually?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-10T00:58:57.593" LastActivityDate="2012-07-10T03:35:00.773" Title="How to change the brain in order to change how one habitually thinks and feels?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2012-07-26T14:29:04.090" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1410" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1409" CreationDate="2012-07-10T01:27:30.167" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's over 100 years of learning research and theorization now that pretty well establishes that yes, if your behaviour changes then your brain changes (and vice versa).  When you learned to tie your shoes your brain changed.  It quickly became a habit and you don't even think of it... can't even do it if you do.  When you learned to speak your brain changed.  When you had a child of your own and spent 6 weeks without regular sleep your brain changed.  It's hard to give you a specific reference for any of that.  The brain is what guides your behaviour.  If your behaviour is changing then your brain is changing.  Your brain changing is neither magical or surprising, that's how you learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I've never seen the &quot;habit&quot; centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you really want a reference start with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Aside: It's kind of absurd that he talks about how you are not your brain but now you're going to change your brain to make a new you.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2012-07-10T03:35:00.773" LastActivityDate="2012-07-10T03:35:00.773" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1411" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="636" CreationDate="2012-07-10T09:13:21.737" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to point out impact of having kids. In typical case, kids have much greater impact on many levels of her life, than on his. I have seen more research on this topic, but now I found just a few examples&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Anne-Marie Nicot (2009) Impact of parenthood on careers of young men and women &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2009/05/FR0905039I.htm&quot;&gt;read - not original research&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does having children create happiness? &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.estebancalvo.com/files/teaching_files/Children_v2.pdf&quot;&gt;read - interesting references included&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, as has been mentioned in one of papers above:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Motherhood is seen as a sign of achievement and femininity, while a&#xA;  man’s accomplishments are viewed through his income and career.&quot; (Gore, 2002)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, I would say that asking a man whether he want or doesn't want to have kids is a completely different question than asking a woman the same thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having this on mind, you can see, how to interpret results in answer of John Pick. Asking men, they have less trouble to reach a decision and hold on to it. It is a serious question, but not quite as much serious, as the same question for women is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You do not ask a man, if he wants to be pregnant, if he wants to give birth, if he wants to leave his career for some time and then return as woman with kids (means someone who is expected to be worse work candidate because of the household and kids). You also do not ask him, if he wants to have an opportunity to achieve something in the field typical for his gender.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine asking someone, if she wants to have children. And then imagine asking someone else, if he wants his partner to have children. It is not the same question and comparing answers only emphasises this fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="846" LastEditorUserId="846" LastEditDate="2012-07-10T09:22:37.857" LastActivityDate="2012-07-10T09:22:37.857" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1412" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1406" CreationDate="2012-07-10T10:38:16.603" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like your question. But I have to point out one thing - if you were to use documenting tools for all those tasks that you mentioned, you wouldn't have that much time left for your research. Sharing is great, but it takes time to do it properly, even with great tools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried quite a few tools for documenting research, with an idea to boost my productivity, increase amount of recorded information and share the information for peers criticism. At the end of the day, only a tiny handful of those tools survived. The ones that survived were the ones that smoothly integrated with my daily routine, mainly in terms of time efficiency and interface simplicity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the lab notes, quick thoughts, brutal sketches, small brainstorms and rapid conference scribbles, the winner is a &lt;strong&gt;good quality paper notebook&lt;/strong&gt;. I am personally a fan of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.paperchase.co.uk/invt/00473338/&quot;&gt;Paperchase&lt;/a&gt; A5 brown recycled paper jorunal with wiro bound, which I always use with thin black ink Pilot pen. I know, OCD, but in a good way. Brown paper gives this vintage quality to my notes, which is somehow stimulating for me, and I like to come back to it and store it. I tried alternatives, but they could never beat brown paper wiro bound. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescribe.com/uk/&quot;&gt;Livescribe pen&lt;/a&gt; was too big, with ugly ink, and lacking smoothness of software exporting and it ended up being only a voice recorder, rarely tho. iPad note taking apps like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fluidtouch.biz/noteshelf/&quot;&gt;Noteshelf&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cocoabox.com/penultimate&quot;&gt;Penultimate&lt;/a&gt; with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tenonedesign.com/sketchplus.php&quot;&gt;Pogo stylus&lt;/a&gt; really slowed me down, ugly writing again, and the battery always died in the middle of important seminar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I frequently make a snapshots of my paper notebook with &lt;a href=&quot;http://evernote.com/&quot;&gt;Evernote&lt;/a&gt; using iPhone. I actually make a snapshots of many other things using &lt;strong&gt;Evernote&lt;/strong&gt; and this is definitely very simple and great storage/sharing platform, that works smoothly between desktop and mobile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the raw data - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dropbox.com/&quot;&gt;Dropbox&lt;/a&gt;. Now, also &lt;a href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/start#home&quot;&gt;Google Drive&lt;/a&gt;, as you pointed, but &lt;strong&gt;Dropbox&lt;/strong&gt; was first, with cloud-based, super-simple set-up storage solution. Dropbox was a big thing in my documenting toolbox as it removed the need for USB dongles. I could set up my experiment to save all the participant's raw data automatically in Dropbox after the experiment. I came back home - it was there waiting for me. When we collaborated, all the data was nicely shared in collective Dropbox folders without the need to shuffle e-mails or set up transfers with raw data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mendeley.com/&quot;&gt;Mendeley&lt;/a&gt; is a great tool for both bibliography management and sharing. Fantastic idea that turned out really big and beats the shit out of EndNote. Major thing I love in &lt;strong&gt;Mendeley&lt;/strong&gt; is the ability to automate creation of bibliographies for LaTeX. This is an ultimate time saver.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding posters there is this new poster repository &lt;a href=&quot;http://f1000.com/posters&quot;&gt;F1000&lt;/a&gt; which I haven't tried, but it looks promising.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For analysis code I found it tricky. Yes, you can put code in &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/&quot;&gt;Github&lt;/a&gt;, but you can't compile it there. So there is this extra step when you have to organize your code on Github, describe it, etc. Never tried it because I prefer to spend time to learn more coding, but I don't say I won't try it in the future, when I will feel I have more valuable code to share with community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For presentation I played with &lt;a href=&quot;http://prezi.com/&quot;&gt;Prezi&lt;/a&gt; for some time which has a cool option to share your presentations easily. But ultimately I abandoned it, after people complained about motion sickness and after I felt I lost some key simplicity factor. I am having my eye on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beamer_%28LaTeX%29&quot;&gt;Beamer&lt;/a&gt; but there is no time now, so Keynote has to suffice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding discussion, chat, intelligent monologue - again it depends on what you want to achieve with it. Share a coding trick in analyzing some data? Discuss some exciting data? Or write a page about your documenting toolbox approaches? In all cases it requires time, so it's good to make sure that you don't do it to avoid doing something more important. Tools for online discussion and blogging are numerous. I like it here in Stack Exchange, because it's purely community driven and it's very easy to put together an overlong piece of rant on many many topics ;-)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastActivityDate="2012-07-10T10:38:16.603" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1413" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1414" CreationDate="2012-07-10T19:49:23.157" Score="8" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's the name of this psychological test where you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Read and pronounce words in three colors (red, blue, green). - Words and colors match. - Say word and color (which are the same).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;As above - Words and color now do not match. Say the color. - If the word is in a circle - Then say the written name.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;As above - now words and colors do not match - alter (even and odd) between saying the color of the word and saying written word.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have myself taken the test. Perhaps I remember some things wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="945" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-07-10T20:05:59.743" LastActivityDate="2013-11-27T19:36:13.847" Title="What is the name of a test presenting words in different colors?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1414" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1413" CreationDate="2012-07-10T20:09:04.643" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an experiment testing the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect&quot;&gt;Stroop effect&lt;/a&gt;, named after John Ridley Stroop who studied it in 1935, and often called a Stroop experiment. It is a classic and well understood experiment and has now become a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychological_test&quot;&gt;neuropsychological test&lt;/a&gt; for use in clinical settings, usually called the Stroop test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastActivityDate="2012-07-10T20:09:04.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1415" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1431" CreationDate="2012-07-10T22:08:33.937" Score="55" ViewCount="4415" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_thinking&quot;&gt;Critical thinking&lt;/a&gt; is central to the scientific method and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_social_theory&quot;&gt;believed to be&lt;/a&gt; essential to a successful democracy. Recently, the 2012 Texas Republican platform voiced the party's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/post/2012/07/08/gJQAHNpFXW_blog.html&quot;&gt;opposition to the teaching of critical thinking skills in public schools&lt;/a&gt;. This stance raises many controversial questions on the GOPs motivation, but also a fundamental question: are public schools in the US successfully teaching critical thinking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the West, critical thinking descends from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method&quot;&gt;Socratic method&lt;/a&gt; and is a central tenant of the tutor system at the earliest institutions of higher learning (Oxford and Cambridge, for example). This historic dedication of the top institutions to teaching critical thinking suggests that the method is effective. On the other hand, contemporary psychologists of education are suggesting that critical thinking cannot be effectively taught (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3200/AEPR.109.4.21-32&quot;&gt;Willingham, 2008&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can critical thinking be taught?&lt;/strong&gt; Are there studies (with proper controls) that show that a course on critical thinking teaching the skill beyond standard domain specific problem-solving/fact-knowing courses?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastActivityDate="2017-03-07T19:49:23.483" Title="Can critical thinking be taught?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="38" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1416" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-10T22:09:20.603" Score="3" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need a list of classic categorization tasks (with available human/animal data) to use as a benchmark for a model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in tasks that can be used to validate/invalidate a model of category learning&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some sample tasks that are used for model valuation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the 5-4 task&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shepard, Hovland, &amp;amp; Jenkins, 1961&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Medin and Schwanenflugel, 1981&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Martin &amp;amp; Carmazza, 1980&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;any others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Martin, R.C. &amp;amp; Caramazza, A. (1980). Classification in well-defined and ill-defined categories: Evidence for common processing strategies.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 109, 320.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Medin, D.L. &amp;amp; Schwanenflugel, P.J. (1981). Linear separability in classification learning.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 7, 355.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shepard, R.N., Hovland, C.I. &amp;amp; Jenkins, H.M. (1961). Learning and memorization of classifications. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 75, 1-42.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="475" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-07-13T21:07:43.697" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T21:07:43.697" Title="classic category learning tasks with data" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-02T16:41:51.020" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1417" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1399" CreationDate="2012-07-10T23:35:13.573" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;First - you might want to redefine you search. Are you looking for &lt;strong&gt;happiness&lt;/strong&gt; or rather  &lt;strong&gt;positive affect&lt;/strong&gt;? &lt;strong&gt;Happiness&lt;/strong&gt; is fairly ambigious term, and it's much more associated with positive psychology studies on well-being. If you are interested in more global definition of happiness, check the work of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihaly_Csikszentmihalyi&quot;&gt;Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, there is a large number of studies on physiological measurements of &lt;strong&gt;positive affect&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One such physiological measurement is &lt;strong&gt;Electromyography (EMG)&lt;/strong&gt; - recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles. EMG will detect very brief smiles or higher activity in cheek muscles (zygomaticus major) which are correlated with positive affect. There is quite classic (but very quoted) paper on that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cacioppo JT, Petty RE, Losch ME, Kim HS. (1986) Electromyographic&#xA;  Activity Over Facial Muscle Regions Can Differentiate the Valence and&#xA;  Intensity  of Affective Reactions. J Pers Soc Psychol., 50(2):260-8. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.socialneuro.com/psyphy/Cacioppo1987.pdf&quot;&gt;download&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another simple physiological assesment is &lt;strong&gt;heart rate&lt;/strong&gt; measured by the interbeat interval (IBI). For example, study by Brosschot &amp;amp; Thayer (2003) shows that heart rate response is longer after negative emotions than after positive emotions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Brosschot JF, Thayer JF. (2003) Heart rate response is longer after&#xA;  negative emotions than after positive emotions. Int J Psychophysiol.,&#xA;  50(3):181-7.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, the full spectrum of somatic measurements have been used along heart rate including &lt;strong&gt;pulse transmission time&lt;/strong&gt; to the finger, &lt;strong&gt;skin conductance level&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;pupil dilation&lt;/strong&gt; (Partala, 2003). All those are a bit less reliable methods and usually they detect arousal rather then indicate physiological differences between positive and negative affect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Partala T.; Surakka V. (2003) Pupil size variation as an indication of&#xA;  affective processing. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies,&#xA;  59(1):185-198. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dblab.cs.nccu.edu.tw/presentation/20071204/Pupil%20size%20variation%20as%20an%20indication%20of%20affective%20processing.pdf&quot;&gt;download&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I would advise browsing literature on measurements of &lt;strong&gt;negative affect&lt;/strong&gt;. You are likely to find some interesting methods there, like in this paper on the psychophysiology of crying (Gross et al., 1994).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gross JJ, Frederickson BL, Levenson RW. (1994) The psychophysiology of&#xA;  crying. Psychophysiology, 31(5):460-8. &lt;a href=&quot;http://spl.stanford.edu/pdfs/1994%20Psychophysiology%20-%20Psychophysiology%20of%20Crying.pdf&quot;&gt;download&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastActivityDate="2012-07-10T23:35:13.573" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1419" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="703" CreationDate="2012-07-11T12:18:27.380" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This phenomena is much more common than most people realize. I have been working with several elementary students over the last three years who could not read and write conventionally, but  can do so easily when the book/paper is upside down.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My wife and I also recently conducted an interview with a 74 year old retired reading teacher who discloses that she, too, was an inverted reader and writer before she entered 1st grade. Upon entering 1st grade she was discouraged from doing what came naturally, and unsuccessfully labored to read and write conventionally throughout her early academic career.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To view this interview and many others of children reading and writing inverted, simply GOOGLE  PIreading.com &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As requested, here's a link to the interview: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dropshots.com/teacherman9000#date/2012-02-23/04:49:12&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.dropshots.com/teacherman9000#date/2012-02-23/04:49:12&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="948" LastActivityDate="2012-07-11T12:18:27.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1420" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-12T00:03:03.717" Score="8" ViewCount="485" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; Ten years ago or so I went through a traumatic period which resulted in a lot of stress and anxiety. I initially assumed there was some depression but cognition and short term memory was gradually affected such that I had serious difficulty understanding new concepts at night class. At one stage I was practically &quot;cut off&quot; from emotions. I understand that this could be partly due to something happening on the hormonal or biological level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What does research show about the causal effects of stress on cognitive functioning?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How is the brain affected by stress? (e.g., chemical/physical, or  perhaps a &quot;softer&quot; level). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What could be done to minimise the negative effects of stress on cognitive functioning?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="949" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-12T00:50:31.507" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T16:10:52.460" Title="How can prolonged stress lead to a sustained reduction in cognitive functioning?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1421" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1427" CreationDate="2012-07-12T12:38:56.857" Score="8" ViewCount="326" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to create an iPhone app for music therapy (or other kinds of experimental therapy). Such app would help a music therapist keep track of sessions and evaluate progress.  One of the issues that I'm facing is evaluating the effects of therapy - I would like the user to rate their &quot;well being&quot; before the session and immediately following the session using iPhone screen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want the rating process to be a one tap operation - I'm thinking of producing an X-Y like graph with two axis and letting the user tap on the chart to rate their well being. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I can create my own graph like that (for example thought(positive/negative)/action(no desire to act/desire to act)). I'm wondering:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a more scientifically accepted or validated scale of well-being that does not involve extensive questionnaires?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there are no such axis, can you suggest which other metrics I may use in an app like that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-13T05:49:12.027" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T06:12:47.193" Title="How to measure well-being without using an extensive questionnaire?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1423" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1430" CreationDate="2012-07-12T13:43:46.697" Score="10" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a young daughter who I am teaching to read, and I was given a &quot;Your Baby Can Read&quot; DVD set by a friend.  When discussing it with friends, several of my teacher friends frowned upon the use of &quot;memorization&quot; to teach reading, and implied it would have negative long term effects.  Is there data to support this claim?  Since I expect there is a lot of research in this area, are some methods of teaching reading considered &quot;bad&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For reference, the &quot;Your Baby Can Read&quot; series proposes that babies even can &quot;read&quot; even before they can talk by watching videos and looking at books which show words and then show a picture or short video that explains the word.  This is intended to make the connection between the word and what it represents, and ideally guide the child in a reaction to indicate they know what it means.  There is no mention whatsoever of spelling, or phonetic sounds - it is all word/picture or word/video associations one after another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="954" LastEditorUserId="954" LastEditDate="2012-07-13T12:52:29.263" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T17:28:59.403" Title="Are some methods of teaching reading &quot;bad&quot;?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1424" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1426" CreationDate="2012-07-12T13:53:14.563" Score="10" ViewCount="382" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had always considered that psychosomatic reactions, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychogenic_pain&quot;&gt;Psychogenic pain&lt;/a&gt;, while &quot;real&quot; to the person experiencing them, would be a concious reaction at some level.  That is to say, if the person told themselves &quot;this isn't real&quot; - they would be able to tell that the reaction was &quot;in their head&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, after some recent research on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Couvade_syndrome&quot;&gt;Couvade Syndrome&lt;/a&gt; I became curious if a person could have completely unconscious physchosomatic reactions that they could not suppress with &quot;will&quot;.  Assume in this case we're talking about an otherwise mentally healthy individual who isn't hearing voices or anything like that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="954" LastEditorUserId="954" LastEditDate="2012-07-13T02:45:26.243" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T13:10:40.957" Title="Can psychosomatic reactions be completely unconcious?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1424" CreationDate="2012-07-13T00:49:11.380" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Good question and this is very big topic mate. Short answer is - every psychosomatic disorder is unconscious in the sense that it's coming from psychological tension but reflects itself in some unpleasant somatic/bodily reaction (e.g. headache, lower back pain, high blood pressure). In general, even if you are conscious of the source of psychosomatic reaction (e.g. stressful job causing evening headaches) you can't really talk yourself out of it. But you still can make some short term changes (pop a pill) or long term changes that (quit a job, meditate) to reduce the psychosomatic effects (Grossman et al., 2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., Walach, H. (2004)&#xA;  Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits - A&#xA;  meta-analysis. JOURNAL OF PSYCHOSOMATIC RESEARCH, 57 (1): 35-43&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it's probably not that simple. While we can say that psychosomatic disorders are by default unconscious, we need to consider wider range of factors that causes them and ask more questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One such question is &lt;strong&gt;why people get psychosomatic disorders&lt;/strong&gt;? Stress is the best, most popular, most studied, most quoted, and most mysterious, simple, single answer to this question. Ulcers, asthma, chronic fatigue syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis - you name it. In general terms, increase in cortisol due to stress punches holes in your body, although the lack of cortisol has been argued to have impact too (Heim et al. 2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Heim, C., Ehlert, U., Hellhammer, DH., (2000) The potential role of&#xA;  hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily&#xA;  disorders. PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY, 25 (1): 1-35.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But you see, the longer I think about it, the more complicated it becomes. So I stop here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastEditorUserId="508" LastEditDate="2012-07-13T13:10:40.957" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T13:10:40.957" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1427" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1421" CreationDate="2012-07-13T06:07:03.657" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, having multiple items will increase your reliability of measurement. A common measure of what the literature calls &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;subjective well-being&lt;/a&gt;&quot; is a combination of the following scales. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1011&amp;amp;context=psychology_pubs&amp;amp;sei-redir=1&amp;amp;referer=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar%3Fq%3DWatson%2C%2BD.%2C%2BClark%2C%2BL.%2BA.%2C%2B%2526%2BTellegen%2C%2BA.%2B%281988%29.%2BDevelopment%2Band%2Bvalidation%2Bof%2Bbrief%2Bmeasures%2Bof%2Bpositive%2Band%2Bnegative%2Baffect%3A%2BThe%2BPANAS%2Bscales.%2BJournal%2Bof%2BPersonality%2Band%2BSocial%2BPsychology%2C%2B54%286%29%2C%2B1063-1070%26hl%3Den%26prmd%3Dimvns%26oq%3DWatson%2C%2BD.%2C%2BClark%2C%2BL.%2BA.%2C%2B%2526%2BTellegen%2C%2BA.%2B%281988%29.%2BDevelopment%2Band%2Bvalidation%2Bof%2Bbrief%2Bmeasures%2Bof%2Bpositive%2Band%2Bnegative%2Baffect%3A%2BThe%2BPANAS%2Bscales.%2BJournal%2Bof%2BPersonality%2Band%2BSocial%2BPsychology%2C%2B54%286%29%2C%2B1063-1070#search=%22Watson%2C%20D.%2C%20Clark%2C%20L.%20A.%2C%20%26%20Tellegen%2C%20A.%20%281988%29.%20Development%20validation%20brief%20measures%20positive%20negative%20affect%3A%20PANAS%20scales.%20Journal%20Personality%20Social%20Psychology%2C%2054%286%29%2C%201063-1070%22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The PANAS&lt;/a&gt;: A measure of positive and negative affectivity. A 20 item measure of positive and negative affect (see Watson et al, 1988).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/~ediener/SWLS.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diener's Life Satisfaction Scale&lt;/a&gt;. Five short items measuring life satisfaction.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I.e., well-being is measured as a combination of high positive affect, low negative affect, and high life satisfaction. Of course, there are many other measures of subjective well-being (for a review, see Kahneman and Krueger, 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;When to use single item and when to use multiple item&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general there are trade-offs in research. More items brings greater reliability but it also takes more time, which can potentially reduce participation or lead to other costs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A single item measure of well-being might be appropriate when:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;measuring the construct reliably is not that important&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You are concerned with population level estimates and you have large sample sizes per group&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You are doing experience sampling research where you are getting tens or hundreds of observations of well-being at different time points, and thus, participant fatigue is a major issue.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your case, you are conducting a pre-post study to assess the effect of an intervention. In such cases, it would really be worth administering a reliable multi-item measure of well-being. For example, to complete the PANAS plus Diener Life Satisfaction combination above, might only take a couple of minutes. For the sake of getting reliable measurement, that seems like a valuable use of two minutes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Affective grids&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, if you still wish to explore single item measures, check out this  previous answer on where Gaël Laurans mentions Russel et al 1989 and Larsen et al 2009 as useful sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/486/what-is-a-validated-single-item-measure-of-mood&quot;&gt;What is a validated single-item measure of mood?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Watson, D., Clark, L. A., &amp;amp; Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063-1070.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kahneman, D. &amp;amp; Krueger, A.B. (2006). Developments in the measurement of subjective well-being. The journal of economic perspectives, 20, 3-24. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/teaching/courses/2009-08UVM-300/docs/others/everything/kahneman2006b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Russell, J.A., Weiss, A., &amp;amp; Mendelsohn, G.A. (1989). Affect Grid: A Single-Item Scale of Pleasure and Arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57 (3), 493-502.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Larsen, J.T., Norris, C.J., McGraw, A.P., Hawkley, L.C., &amp;amp; Cacioppo, J.T. (2009). The evaluative space grid: A single-item measure of positivity and negativity. Cognition and Emotion, 23 (3), 453-480.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See Also: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T06:12:47.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1428" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1406" CreationDate="2012-07-13T07:16:31.927" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://openscienceframework.org/project/4znZP/wiki/home&quot;&gt;Open Science Framework&lt;/a&gt; will do some of what you ask for. Additionally, it will &lt;strong&gt;allow&lt;/strong&gt; you to preregister your hypotheses to properly distinguish confirmatory and exploratory research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Features (quoted from the homepage).&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Document and archive studies&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Share and find materials, scripts, data&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Detail individual contributions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Increase transparency&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Time-stamp materials&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="118" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T07:16:31.927" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1429" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1420" CreationDate="2012-07-13T16:10:52.460" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is only one possible pathway.  There are many potential ones.  Further the fact that this is possible does not mean that it is the case always.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.  For example, a meta-analysis by Dickerson et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355&quot;&gt;2004&lt;/a&gt;) demonstrated that an acute laboratory based stressor reliably increased cortisol levels, a hormone downstream of the HPA.  That stress results in activation of the HPA is also well-demonstrated in animal models, where both physical (e.g., restraint or shock) and social stress (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2004.09.001&quot;&gt;Engelman, 2004&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When stress occurs, various systems (e.g., amygdala implicated in threat detection) can lead to activation in the hypothalamus, where the paraventricular nucleus (of the hypothalamus) secretes corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH).  The CRH acts on the pituitary gland resulting in a release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).  ACTH is released into the blood, which allows it to reach the adrenal glands, specifically the adrenal cortex.  This stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce and release glucocorticoids (GCs) into the blood (in humans primarily cortisol, in animals corticosterone).  GCs in turn have broad ranging influences on the body.  For example, they seem to play role in immune regulation and function (although whether they are anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory seems to depend on quantity and time (there was a lively debate about this at a Psychoneuroimmunology conference.  For utterly inadequate notes on some of the presentation see &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.joshuawiley.com/?p=13&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;GCs also act in a negative feedback loop to shut off the HPA axis.  Finally, relevant for cognitive functioning, specifically memory, GCs can regulate the hippocampus.  This is believed to be adaptive in the short term, but when the hippocampus is chronically exposed to elevated levels of GCs, it can endanger cell function (for a review of GCs and the hippocampus, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2826.2001.00688.x&quot;&gt;Joels, 2001&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, using a longitudinal design, Huang and colleagues (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2008.12.026&quot;&gt;2009&lt;/a&gt;) demonstrated that in people with Alzheimer's Disease, basal plasma cortisol (cortisol levels in the blood, other major ways to measure cortisol are via saliva or urine) was predictive of a decline in cognitive function as well as atrophy in the hippocampus (specifically, the temporal horn).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somewhere I have a slightly longer reference list on stress and aging, with an emphasis on stress effects in cognitive and physical function over time.  I do not have an answer for your final point, what can be done to minimize the effects.  The only clear suggestion would be to minimize stress.  I know there are some studies showing protective effects of physical activity for depression, physical function (that one's a no-brainer), and cognitive function.  One can speculate that if chronically elevated GCs released from the adrenal cortex are the cause, that administering an ACTH antagonist or the like may help, but to date, I know of no studies trying to block the effects of stress (in rodent models of cancer, stress effects on tumor progression and metastasis have been effectively blocked using beta blockers, but there the primary stress pathway was believed to be sympathetic nervous system activation rather than HPA).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="939" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T16:10:52.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1430" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1423" CreationDate="2012-07-13T17:28:59.403" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, parental involvement/engagement has lots of positive social, emotional, cognitive, and academic effects for a child's development. Some evidence suggests that the positive effects of relatively general factors like improved parent-child relationship, increasing motivation and (positive) expectations, etc., are stronger than the specific benefits of learning particular educational material. Based on this, I would say that if you and your daughter enjoy doing these learning to read activities, then they will have positive effects because they will teach your daughter that reading is important and that her parents care about her and her intellectual/academic development, whether or not your daughter specifically learns to read from this DVD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the specific subject of reading, it is important to keep in mind that the vast majority of children will learn to read regardless of the particular method of instruction. Phonics-based methods (which emphasize letter-sound correspondences) are generally thought to be more effective than whole-word methods, especially for children at risk for reading disability/dyslexia. However, even the most die-hard phonics supporters acknowledge that phonics needs to be embedded within a comprehensive reading instruction program that makes reading fun and meaningful. In other words, phonics is the best method, but any fun reading activities that you do at home to get her interested in books will have positive effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nokali, Bachman, &amp;amp; Votruba-Drzal (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2973328/&quot;&gt;Parent Involvement and Children's Academic and Social Development in Elementary School&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Child Development&lt;/em&gt;, 81(3), 988–1005. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Senechal &amp;amp; LeFevre (2002). &lt;a href=&quot;http://ici-elm-pd.wikispaces.umb.edu/file/view/Parental+Involvement+in+the+Development+of+Children%27s+Reading+Skill.pdf&quot;&gt;Parental Involvement in the Development of Children's Reading Skill: A Five-Year Longitudinal Study&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Child Development&lt;/em&gt;, 73(2), 445-460.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., &amp;amp; Seidenberg, M. S. (2001). &lt;a href=&quot;http://lcnl.wisc.edu/publications/archive/19.pdf&quot;&gt;How Psychological Science Informs the Teaching of Reading&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science in the Public Interest Monograph&lt;/em&gt;, 2, 31-74.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ehri, Nunes, Stahl, &amp;amp; Willows (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panels meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Review of Educational Research&lt;/em&gt;, 71, 393–447. [Note: there has been some statistically complex back-and-forth regarding this report, but I believe &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3024599/&quot;&gt;the original finding still stands&lt;/a&gt;.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T17:28:59.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1431" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1415" CreationDate="2012-07-13T21:21:46.267" Score="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like somebody's done a lot of &lt;strong&gt;literature pooling&lt;/strong&gt; already:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://lesswrong.com/lw/76x/is_rationality_teachable/&quot;&gt;Is Rationality Teachable?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Among influences mentioned are statistics, logic training, and debiasing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a &lt;strong&gt;book&lt;/strong&gt; that summarized findings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3200/CTCH.53.1.41-48&quot;&gt;Teaching Critical Thinking: Some Lessons From Cognitive Science&#xA;Tim van Gelder &#xA;College Teaching &#xA;Vol. 53, Iss. 1, 2005&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;ABSTRACT: This article draws six key lessons from cognitive science&#xA;  for teachers of critical thinking. The lessons are: acquiring&#xA;  expertise in critical thinking is hard; practice in critical-thinking&#xA;  skills themselves enhances skills; the transfer of skills must be&#xA;  practiced; some theoretical knowledge is required; diagramming&#xA;  arguments (“argument mapping”) promotes skill; and students are prone&#xA;  to belief preservation. The article provides some guidelines for&#xA;  teaching practice in light of these lessons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anecdotally, I recognize a tendency for science professors to let students use their intuition at first and then &lt;strong&gt;crush&lt;/strong&gt; it in an attempt to make debiasing habitual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-07-13T21:21:46.267" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1433" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1415" CreationDate="2012-07-14T14:41:44.243" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a classic paper by Halpern (1998) on the topic. From the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Numerous studies have shown that critical thinking, defined as the deliberate use of skills and strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome, can be learned in ways that promote transfer to novel contexts. A 4-part empirically based model is proposed to guide teaching and learning for critical thinking: (a) a dispositional component to prepare learners for effortful cognitive work, (b) instruction in the skills of critical thinking, (c) training in the structural aspects of problems and arguments to promote transcontextual transfer of critical-thinking skills, and (d) a metacognitive component that includes checking for accuracy and monitoring progress toward the goal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Halpern DF. (1998) Teaching critical thinking for transfer across domains. Dispositions, skills, structure training, and metacognitive monitoring. Americal Psychol. 53(4):449-55.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I agree with @Xuritio point about importance of statistics, logic training, and debiasing, I have a subjective sense that including modules on Philosophy also contributes heavily to the development of critical thinking. One of the most mind grinding modules I did in my undergrads was close reading of Immanuel's Kant &lt;em&gt;Critique of Pure Reason&lt;/em&gt;. Doing modules on Philosophy of Mind and Epistemology simultaneously with Cognitive Neuroscience was also a game changer for me. Getting this meta-level perspective clashing with hardcore research somehow enables healthy, critical, creative distance towards empirical studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-07-14T14:41:44.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1434" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3887" CreationDate="2012-07-14T17:54:40.667" Score="3" ViewCount="394" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_reflexes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on primitive reflexes&lt;/a&gt;, or newborn reflexes, states that they originate in the CNS. Here's the list of reflexes from the article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moro&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Walking/stepping&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rooting&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sucking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tonic neck&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Palmar grasp&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Plantar&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Galant&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Swimming&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Babkin&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Precisely where in the CNS do they originate?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="421" LastEditDate="2013-07-16T19:49:37.400" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T19:49:37.400" Title="Neural basis of primitive (newborn) reflexes" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1435" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1910" CreationDate="2012-07-15T15:52:40.323" Score="27" ViewCount="3260" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short of minor lesions or infarcts, most high-functioning adults have an intact cerebral cortex.  Yet, a surprising result published anecdotally in Science in 1980 caused a lot of scientists to take note of Dr. John Lorber's hydrocephalus patients in England.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most famously, Lorber reported:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There's a young student at this university...who has an IQ of 126, has gained a first-class honors degree in mathematics, and is socially completely normal.  And yet the boy has virtually no brain...instead of the normal 4.5 centimeter thickness of brain tissue between the ventricles and the cortical surface, there was just a thin layer of mantle measuring a millimeter or so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, arguing that the subject had &quot;virtually no brain&quot; is perhaps a bit of hyperbole, but the fact remains, he had accomplished an academic feat which many &quot;normal&quot; humans have not.  What's even more astonishing about this particular case is that this subject was purportedly not even aware of his condition until the initial brain scans were performed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aside from 1-2 other publications in peripheral journals around the same time period, I have never heard anything further about these patients that Dr. Lorber was following.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the intervening 30+ years, have there been any follow-up scans/studies of these patients particularly those featuring the mathematics scholar mentioned above?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What mechanisms does the cortex use in these unusual circumstances to counter the effects of decreased cortical thickness?  Are the cortical columns shorter, and in what sense does their connectivity compensate for lower neuron counts/lower cell densities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lewin, R. (1980).  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rifters.com/real/articles/Science_No-Brain.pdf&quot;&gt;Is your brain really necessary?&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;em&gt;Science 210&lt;/em&gt;(4475):1232-1234. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-06T10:21:12.840" LastActivityDate="2015-11-04T15:57:32.377" Title="Have the abilities of John Lorber's patients with limited cortical mass been further evaluated in adulthood?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1436" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1438" CreationDate="2012-07-15T23:53:09.687" Score="6" ViewCount="225" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have interest in the study of human motion (&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actigraph&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Actigraphy&lt;/a&gt;), and have built a couple of smartphone apps using its principles. The apps look at gross motor activity of an individual. Up until now, most of my reading into the field has been focused on the study of sleep. With Actigraphy, there are clear ~90 minute activity patterns visible over the course of the night that roughly correlate with the 4 stages of sleep. There are algorithms by &lt;a href=&quot;http://support.theactigraph.com/faq/find-documentation-sadeh-cole-kripke-algorithms&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cole and Sadeh&lt;/a&gt; which describe how to score sleep using activity counts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any uses of actigraphy for awake patients?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any investigations of the correlation between the overall activity pattern/level and the brain wave frequency (alpha/beta/...)?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any wake-related actigraphy algorithms?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update&lt;/strong&gt; thank you for answers and comments! Let me clarify the question. I'm interested in comparing a rather long history of events for the same individual wearing an actigraph.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example we have a person who's both an athlete and also does meditation. I'm interested in using actigraphy to determine the length of the meditation sessions, along with any increase/decrease of overall activity pattern that may accompany meditation activity (ex: deeper concentration moves the brain to a different brainwave and relaxes the body, or nervousness and fidgeting rising, the person cannot get to the correct brainwave and cuts the session short).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets say the same person is a runner. Wearing an actigraph during sessions displays two important characteristics:&#xA;When the person is and is not running. (going out to run is an action that requires conscious action.&#xA;How long the person is running.  If a person is feeling &quot;negative&quot;, the person may not go out to run). If a person does go out to run, the running session may be cut short if a person is not in the right state of mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Combined with self-reported events (ex: running session started, meditation session started), such actigraphy data may be plotted day by day. I'm interested if there have been studies of such data.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2012-07-16T16:43:17.230" LastActivityDate="2012-07-16T16:43:17.230" Title="What does daytime actigraphy reveal about an active and awake brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1437" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1436" CreationDate="2012-07-16T05:11:43.487" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Using activity monitors on awake patients is very domain specific.  You need to equate them on some activity parameters and then look at how the individuals vary across some domain. For example, you could monitor athletes and correlate the amount of physical activity with performance.  Or, you could monitor grade school children and look at something like childhood obesity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So no, some general classifications based on Actigraph patterns are not done on awake individuals.  Daily activities vary greatly across awake individuals while sleep has very defined patterns of behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2012-07-16T05:11:43.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1438" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1436" CreationDate="2012-07-16T06:32:54.953" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's obvious that people will move more when awake or doing exercise compared to being asleep or resting, however actigraphy provides a quantitative way to measure that. Therefore actigraphy is useful for studying sleep-wake cycles, activity-rest cycles and circadian rhythms. They have been shown to be reliable in determining when a subject is awake or asleep, so that's why they are generally used for that. Although there still needs to be more standardization and consistency of analysis and reporting in scientific literature to make comparison between studies more useful (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885392408001127&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Berger et al., 2008&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order for actigraphy to be useful for understanding brain activity while awake, there needs to be a way to monitor brain activity. When exercise is involved methods such as fMRI, PET, TMS are not suitable since subjects need to stay still. EEG and EMG are really the only options. &lt;a href=&quot;http://content.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=ShowAbstract&amp;amp;ProduktNr=224082&amp;amp;ArtikelNr=74634&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Winkler et al., 2003&lt;/a&gt; has correlated short-term actigraphy with awake EEG patterns, and results suggest that they can be used to indicate CNS arousal. It probably doesn't affect the results, but you should note that the study was with psychiatric patients who were taking medication. It would have been more thorough to do this with normal population as a control to ensure generalizability. The software/algorithm they used was &quot;Actiwatch Sleep Analysis 2001&quot; (Cambridge Neurotechnology). Maybe you can look that up to find out more, although I'm not sure the algorithm would be published. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Berger, A.M., Wielgus, K.K., Young-McCaughan, S., Fischer, P., Farr, L. &amp;amp; Lee, K.A. (2008). Methodological challenges when using actigraphy in research. Journal of pain and symptom management, 36, 191-199.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Winkler, D., Pjrek, E., Pezawas, L., Presslich, O., Tauscher, J. &amp;amp; Kasper, S. (2003). Relationship between power spectra of the awake EEG and psychomotor activity patterns measured by short-term actigraphy. Neuropsychobiology, 48, 176-181.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-16T07:06:22.700" LastActivityDate="2012-07-16T07:06:22.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1439" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-16T07:23:41.273" Score="9" ViewCount="277" Body="&lt;h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Definitions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attentional Blink:&lt;/strong&gt; An attentional blink is a phenomenon where when presented with rapid visual stimuli if you are asked to track two particular stimuli you will fail to notice the second if it is preceded shortly after the first (Raymond, Shapiro, &amp;amp; Arnell, 1992).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intelligence:&lt;/strong&gt; A quantifiable score, or set of scores, aimed at measuring human cognitive capacities (such as the Raven's Progressive Matrices test, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Question:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results of Attentional Blink Tests have led some to see attention as a commodity that can be allocated, by will or nature, but needs time to be restored before additional attentional resources can be spent on subsequent activities (Raymond, Shapiro, &amp;amp; Arnell, 1992).  It has been noted  that emotion plays a role in recognition of the second target – particularly, if there is an emotional investment or relevance in the second target it is more likely to be detected (Schwabe, 2010). This illustrates that emotion can mediate attention.  My question is whether intelligence could also mediate attention. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does intelligence increase a person’s attentional abilities?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does, or would, an intelligence score positively correlate with the detection of the second stimulus in an Attentional Blink Test?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Raymond, J. E., Shapiro, K. L., &amp;amp; Arnell, K. M. (1992). Temporary suppression of visual processing in an RSVP task: An attentional blink? &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance&lt;/em&gt;, 18(&lt;em&gt;3&lt;/em&gt;), 849-860. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.18.3.849 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwabe L, Wolf OT (April 2010). &quot;Emotional modulation of the attentional blink: Is there an effect of stress?&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Emotion&lt;/em&gt; 10(&lt;em&gt;2&lt;/em&gt;): 283–288.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="957" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-16T10:46:23.753" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T05:58:17.303" Title="Are intelligence scores correlated with detection of second stimulus in an Attentional Blink test?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1445" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-07-18T04:28:07.150" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions related to fatigue of the mental faculties, which can manifest as somnolence, lack of attention, or loss of consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)#Mental_fatigue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fatigue (medical) on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:19:00.717" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:19:00.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1446" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-07-18T04:28:07.150" Score="0" Body="For questions related to fatigue of the mental faculties, which can manifest as somnolence, lack of attention, or loss of consciousness." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:19:00.717" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:19:00.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1447" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1434" CreationDate="2012-07-18T07:15:31.467" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that there is not much research concerning the anatomical localization of primitive reflexes. For instance, Schott &amp;amp; Rossor (2003) state in the conclusion of their review&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The complexity of&#xA;  many of these responses makes it perhaps unsurprising that&#xA;  detailed anatomical localisation, despite the availability of&#xA;  structural and functional imaging, has in general not been&#xA;  possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, at least for the grasp reflex, they discuss an involvement of frontal areas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Schott, JM Rossor M (2003). The grasp and other primitive reflexes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74(5): 558–560. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.74.5.558&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1738455/pdf/v074p00558.pdf&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-18T07:30:38.250" LastActivityDate="2012-07-18T07:30:38.250" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1448" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-18T08:27:59.333" Score="16" ViewCount="591" Body="&lt;p&gt;In their classic study, Ekman and Friesen (1971) identified seven facial expressions recognised by people universally across all cultures as depicting certain emotions: happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, disgust and contempt. This is quite solid paradigm, but recent studies showed some cross cultural differences. For example Western Caucasian observers tend to look fairly evenly across all areas of the face, whereas Eastern Asian observers focus their attention toward the eye region (Jack et al., 2009). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ekman, P., &amp;amp; Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the&#xA;  face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17(2),&#xA;  124-129.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Jack, R. E., Blais, C., Scheepers, C., Schyns, P. G., &amp;amp; Caldara, R.&#xA;  (2009). Cultural confusions show that facial expressions are not&#xA;  universal. Current biology, 19(18), 1543-8.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While facial expression literature on the topic is vast, there is very limited research into cross cultural differences in perception of emotions from dynamic body expression. There have been some attempts to look at the static body posture (Kleinsmith et al., 2006), but virtually nothing on the dynamic body expressions. Ok, there is one study by Sneddon et al. (2011) but their stimuli contain facial expression together with movement, and I am specifically interested in the research where participants only view body movement/expression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kleinsmith, A., De Silva, P. R., &amp;amp; Bianchi-Berthouze, N. (2006).&#xA;  Cross-cultural differences in recognizing affect from body posture.&#xA;  Interact. Comput., 18(6), 1371-1389.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Elfenbein, H. (2003). Universals and Cultural Differences in&#xA;  Recognizing Emotions. Current Directions in Psychological, 159-164.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sneddon, I., McKeown, G., McRorie, M., &amp;amp; Vukicevic, T. (2011).&#xA;  Cross-cultural patterns in dynamic ratings of positive and negative&#xA;  natural emotional behaviour. PloS one, 6(2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any (published) research that has been done on comparing cross cultural differences in the perception of emotions from body movement?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastActivityDate="2013-11-17T11:36:32.233" Title="Do cultures differ in the perception of emotions from body expression?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1449" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-18T09:34:54.987" Score="7" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember reading about a study. I forgot the actual details of it, but the gist of it was: people were asked in what situation they would prefer to live, one where they make \$100,000 dollars and the neighbours all make \$200,000 dollars, or one where they make \$10,000 dollars and the neighbours all make \$5000 dollars. Most participants chose the \$10,000 vs \$5,000 situation, even though they would have ended up with much less money (note: I am pretty sure I got the actual numbers wrong). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sadly, I don't remember where I read it (thought it must have been in Predictably Irrational, but can't find it there). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the reference for the study&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What theories explain this behavior? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Where can I read background information on the topic?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="723" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-19T01:50:55.063" LastActivityDate="2012-07-19T01:50:55.063" Title="A study about preference for making relatively vs. absolute more money?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1450" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1449" CreationDate="2012-07-18T14:48:00.147" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nber.org/papers/w10667.pdf?new_window=1&quot;&gt;Neighbors as Negatives: Relative Earnings and Well-Being&lt;/a&gt; by E.F.P. Luttmer (2005), although I'm not sure it's the right one. I've heard about your study as well, but I thought it was older than 2005. You can read the study I linked and look up the references. There are quite a lot that touch the same subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9" LastActivityDate="2012-07-18T14:48:00.147" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1451" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-18T18:39:00.700" Score="23" ViewCount="385" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the verbal signs of subjectivity?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am doing research about the linguistic content of media (debates, talk-show, sport comments). It occurs that once the participant gets nervous or excited, the grammatical structure of the sentences and word choice (growing amount of modal verbs, judgmental adjectives, not politically correct nouns, dynamic verbs) can change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is why I am looking for sources that give me some research results about how emotions affect our verbal expressions (e.g., sentence structure, word usage, etc). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My research is in Polish and Dutch. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="965" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-15T02:37:35.327" LastActivityDate="2013-08-12T15:56:22.113" Title="How do emotions influence the language structures we use?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1452" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-19T17:20:22.013" Score="9" ViewCount="205" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have rather technical question regarding STDP dynamics. &#xA;I am working on a neural network implementing an STDP learning algorithm, and have noticed that it is extremely anti-reciprocal. When two neurons have bidirectional connectivity between them, the conditions that will strengthen one direction will inevitably weaken the other, as far as I can understand. If B consistently fires immediately following a spike in A, the A-&gt;B synapse will strengthen, however the B-&gt;A synapse would weaken, as the pre-synapse / post-synapse roles are reverse. &#xA;This wouldn't be much of a problem if it weren't for empirical evidence of high reciprocity in cortical connectivity.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Am I missing something? Is this a known shortcoming of the model?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="969" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T08:35:05.400" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T08:35:05.400" Title="How can STDP fit with reciprocal connectivity?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1453" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-07T19:54:05.213" Score="9" ViewCount="884" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested if the brain works better when the temperature is higher than usual and the amount of oxygen in the air is a bit lower than in fresh mountain air.  This has been my personal experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="dudewhoaskstoomanyquestions" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-20T13:15:57.223" LastActivityDate="2012-08-28T00:45:05.757" Title="How does body temperature and oxygenation affect thinking ability?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1454" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-21T23:46:09.490" Score="7" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often heard statements like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;80% of your brain processing is computing the effect of gravity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or, similarily:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You only use 20% of your brain power&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question isn't about the truth of these statements but if they are well-formed: can we measure 'processing' in the brain (or a sufficiently complicated artificial neural net) to quantify how much of the processing resources are allocated towards specific sub-routines?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example of when this is doable in another domain: consider a computer with a standard von Neumann architecture. In this case we can tell how much processing goes into sub-routine by simple counting the number of steps each subroutine holds the processor. However, this simple counting is only possible because of two features:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a clear central processor, and data is not transformed by anything except it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a clear duality between software and hardware allowing us to identify when a specific sub-routine (software) is being allowed access to the processor (hardware).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both features are missing in a computer with a neural architecture. &lt;strong&gt;How can we measure the resources that a computer with neural architecture (example: the brain) devotes to subtasks?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Notes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in settings where there isn't an obvious localization of sub-tasks. So an answer like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;we can measure the amount of resources that go towards recognizing faces by looking at the metabolic uptake of the fusiform face area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is not that interesting to me, since it is only valid for sub-tasks that happen to have specially-devoted areas. Of course, if there is an argument that any reasonable (or more restricted: human-like) neural-architecture &lt;em&gt;has&lt;/em&gt; to compartmentalize its computations then I would like to hear that. However, the answerer would be left with the task of explaining how to identify the group of neurons that should be associated with a specific sub-task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-09-17T22:31:28.467" Title="Can processing effort for sub-tasks in neural networks be measured?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1455" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-22T08:32:59.150" Score="5" ViewCount="347" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Background&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is known that all sensory information is input to the brain as neural spike sequences. Now, to distinguish between the spike sequences generated by retinal red/blue/green cone cells from each other, and these from the cochlear (inner ear) hair cells, and so on, some sort of encoding scheme must be used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To further clarify, in the case of retinal cone cells, the rate of incident light quanta in a given energy range, is the primary information that is coded. But, if all 3 types of cone cells generated identical responses for a given rate-of-incidence, like the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge-coupled_device#Color_cameras&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CCD pixels&lt;/a&gt; in our digital cameras do, then there would be no way for upstream neurons to tell what type of cone cell a spike sequence came from. Instead, my guess is that, each type of cone cell encodes the rate-of-incidence in its own characteristic way, &lt;em&gt;similar to how different types of musical instruments sound differently, even when playing the same pitch at the same intensity, via &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbre&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;timbre&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/di4o5.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://curtismacdonald.com/harmony-and-timbre/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An oversimplified illustration of Timbre&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there evidence that each sensory neuron type has a characteristic spike sequence pattern?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Why message type must be encoded in the message itself&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10888368&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;development of the visual system&lt;/a&gt;, the retina, the LGN and the visual cortex develop separately initially and sometime later, axons from the retinal ganglions grow into LGN, and optic radiations from the LGN grow and reach into the cortex. &lt;em&gt;As far as we can tell&lt;/em&gt; it is not guaranteed that a specific ganglion will project its axon to a specific neuron in the LGN. All that is guaranteed by the growth process is that ganglions close together will project to LGN neurons that are also close together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given this development process, when a higher region say in the V1 receives a spike stream from a neuron somewhere lower, the question arises: how does it know that this spike stream means, red, blue or green? A simple idea that occurred to me from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;information theory&lt;/a&gt; is that the message type could somehow be encoded in the message itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Motivation&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evidence for characteristic spike patterns for each sensory neuron type would take us one more step towards understanding &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;qualia&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the hard problem of consciousness&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My speculation is that qualia are the neuronal analogs of timbre in musical instruments.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Erwin Schrödinger thought we'd never get there. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia#Erwin_Schr.C3.B6dinger&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;He said&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;The sensation of color cannot be accounted for by the physicist's objective picture of light [as] waves [or as quanta]. Could the physiologist account for it, if he had fuller knowledge than he has of the processes in the retina and the nervous processes set up by them in the optical nerve bundles and in the brain? I do not think so.&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess he's right in the sense that we will never be able to fully wrap our minds around the mysterious and ineffable nature of qualia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, evidence of characteristic spike patterns would offer resolutions to qualia related thought experiments, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%27s_room&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Is there something about Mary?&lt;/a&gt;, that philosophers seem to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/papers/RoboMaryfinal.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pulling their hair out over&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="643" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-08-14T23:49:59.077" Title="Does each sensory neuron type have a characteristic spike sequence pattern?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="14" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1456" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1402" CreationDate="2012-07-22T21:48:53.003" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The MBTI is based on Carl Jung's work with psychological types. However, Jung's work led to the formation of analytic psychology. This work is often associated with clinical observations and anecdotes instead of controlled scientific study. This means that Jung didn't carry out research that can be considered conclusive and scientifically validated. However, I'm not sure if any of his theories can be or have been supported by research done by other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, the purpose of the MBTI is not to be a scientific theory. Going back to its history, it was meant to determine jobs that would be most suitable for women entering the workforce in the United States during World War II. It's assumed that the person taking the assessment is answering the questions honestly. Also, the MBTI results don't indicate ability or aptitude, but preferences. The MBTI has been used by human resource departments and managers to gain some high level insights into their staff and potential methods for structuring organizations and leading teams. Employees have also used the MBTI for determining possible career directions that they might be more likely to have a preference for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4" LastEditorUserId="4" LastEditDate="2012-07-24T11:11:47.847" LastActivityDate="2012-07-24T11:11:47.847" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1458" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-23T01:41:48.003" Score="5" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;Working in the domain of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_tutoring_system&quot;&gt;intelligent tutoring systems&lt;/a&gt;, I have to prove (or disprove) that explicit teaching of high-level strategies will allow students to use learned strategies across different domains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I implemented a tutorial system teaching the best way to add a sequence of natural numbers. The procedural knowledge here is being the addition process, and the higher level strategy is choosing the order of the numbers to add. Another tutorial system  implemented is a system teaching the reduction of boolean expressions. The procedural knowledge here is the application of the different boolean reduction rules, and the higher level is the wise choice of the rules to apply to obtain an effective reduction with minimum steps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet these two domains are too different to have the same strategies, unless we use very abstract terms (e.g. &quot;start with the easy parts&quot;). What I desperately seek is two rather simple teachable domains which would be different enough to have different procedural knowledge, yet similar enough to have a set of common explicit strategies. I guess the answer would be in the domain of physics and/or math. I could also examine &quot;fake&quot; domains, i.e., domains that exists solely to prove my point mentioned earlier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="983" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-07-23T01:50:48.240" LastActivityDate="2012-07-23T07:08:14.287" Title="Need good example of two domains involving different procedural knowledge yet sharing same high-level strategies" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1459" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1458" CreationDate="2012-07-23T07:08:14.287" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think &lt;em&gt;&quot;teaching of high-level strategies will allow students to use learned strategies across different domains&quot;&lt;/em&gt; is the very rationale of mathematics. Math gives very good examples of both abstract strategies for solving problems across different domains and also specific, explicit strategies. You don't seem to want the abstract strategies, but if you change your mind on that, George Polya's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_solve_it&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How to Solve It&lt;/a&gt; is one of the best books on this topic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your other constraint is that the domains should be simple, otherwise differential equations or graph theory would be great examples of explicit solution strategies having applications across multiple domains. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess something that will meet your needs well is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;linear algebra&lt;/a&gt; and, in particular, solution strategies for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_equations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;systems of linear equations&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="643" LastActivityDate="2012-07-23T07:08:14.287" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1461" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-24T04:02:24.777" Score="2" ViewCount="360" Body="&lt;p&gt;How many repetitions do we need to get tired of listening to a song over and over again? I want to know if some kind of average number of repetitions exisits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research related to this question? Or is there no need to put this in the context of a song. Any &quot;repetition&quot; is OK, say, speaking a sentence over and over, eating same food again and again, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="985" LastEditorUserId="1018" LastEditDate="2012-08-07T15:58:38.550" LastActivityDate="2012-08-07T15:58:38.550" Title="How many times can someone listen to a song before he/she stops enjoying it?" Tags="&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2012-08-07T21:41:54.007" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1462" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-07-24T07:15:41.277" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the cognitive processes behind the invention or origination of new concepts or tangible products.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Creativity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-24T08:42:07.677" LastActivityDate="2012-07-24T08:42:07.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1463" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-07-24T07:15:41.277" Score="0" Body="For questions about the cognitive processes behind the invention or origination of new concepts or tangible products." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-24T08:42:09.157" LastActivityDate="2012-07-24T08:42:09.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1464" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-24T11:19:40.690" Score="10" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;After recalling &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.catb.org/~esr/faqs/smart-questions.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Eric Steven Raymond and Rick Moen's How to Ask Questions The Smart Way&lt;/a&gt; and a discussion in a systems engineering course regarding the impact of the proper formulation of a problem in order to achieve the optimal solution(s), I began to look for research into methodologies that can be used to formulate a question prior to asking it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Raymond and Moen's post, they have a few short lines touching on what I'm referring to. They mention to prepare your question by thinking it through and to beware of asking questions based on false assumptions. However, I'm more interested in psychological research into how people go about these activities, preferably in some kind of methodology or framework that can be applied to assess how one is formulating questions or even how to go about forming a question that can then go through a methodology similar to Raymond and Moen's process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Searching for information about asking questions has so far yielded things about creating surveys with effective questions and how questions can influence answers. Perhaps I'm not using the right terms or looking in the right fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found the term &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_shaping&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;problem shaping&quot; on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;. The article (which is a stub) describes the concept that I'm looking for. However, I checked into the related articles and they don't appear to describe anything that I'm looking for in more depth. The &quot;see also&quot; pages appear to focus on topics related to problem solving, not actually formulating and shaping the problem. It seems that in order to effectively solve the problem, you need an appropriately formulated &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_statement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;problem statement&lt;/a&gt;, yet I can't find anything about the methodologies or processes to do so stated formally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My specific questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any research (of any level of scientific rigor) in the frameworks or processes of developing a good question or problem statement? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, what are some examples of work done and what information or products have been generated? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If not, what topics might be used to provide insights to gain a deeper understanding of the formulation of questions or problem statements?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-25T10:32:52.450" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T10:37:39.697" Title="What research exists in the areas of formulating questions and &quot;problem shaping&quot;?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;ideation&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1465" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3275" CreationDate="2012-07-24T11:46:38.570" Score="5" ViewCount="365" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently looked at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://meta.math.stackexchange.com/q/4699/19341&quot;&gt;meta.math.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt; and found the second anniversary was celebrated. As in the last year's Happy-Birthday post (linked therein) , some people declared the addiction to the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: What kind of addiction is this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certainly some kind of internet addiction, combined with a good portion of gamification, represented by reputation, badges, ...&#xA;But in this case, I think there is also some kind of altruistic helper-syndrome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this make math addiction a good one? Are there examples of helpful, let's say in a social sense, addictions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2012-08-16T06:48:15.480" LastActivityDate="2013-03-11T01:32:19.210" Title="Is StackExchange.com Addiction Dangerous?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1466" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1467" CreationDate="2012-07-24T15:35:42.807" Score="10" ViewCount="201" Body="&lt;p&gt;I seem to recall that Herbert Simon borrowed the term from computer science, but I cannot remember the initial paper in which he made use of this borrowing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A google scholar search reveals some papers from 1957-1958, for instance &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.u-picardie.fr/~furst/docs/Newell_Simon_Heuristic_Problem_Solving_1958.pdf&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt;, but I really felt there was something from earlier in the 1950s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-24T15:39:21.273" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T14:16:07.687" Title="Who first used the term 'heuristic' in a cognitive science context?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1467" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1466" CreationDate="2012-07-25T07:33:19.957" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;A nice summary about heuristics can be found in: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gigerenzer, G., &amp;amp; Gaissmaier, W. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145346&quot;&gt;Heuristic Decision Making&lt;/a&gt;. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 451–482.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this review &quot;satisficing&quot; (accepting a good enough option) is referred to an earlier reference than the 1958 you cite:&#xA;Simon, H.A. (1955). &lt;a href=&quot;http://qje.oxfordjournals.org/content/69/1/99.short&quot;&gt;A behavioral model of rational choice&lt;/a&gt;. Q. J. Econ. 69:99–118.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their (Gigerenzer &amp;amp; Gaissmaier) history part they also refer to Einstein using the term in his 1905 paper on quantum physics, stating that the view he presented was &quot;incomplete but highly useful&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="477" LastActivityDate="2012-07-25T07:33:19.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1468" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1455" CreationDate="2012-07-25T08:42:59.013" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting idea, but I do not think it's correct. One piece of information that goes against the idea is this: auditory information is encoded by both frequency and amplitude modulation of neural spiking. The idea of spiking rate directly correlating with frequency is at odds with the idea of spiking rate containing this sort of &quot;meta&quot; information about the source of the activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We know quite a lot about how sensory information is represented in the nervous system. The simple fact of myelinated axons that don't interfere with each other already accounts for the problem you've proposed a solution for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;if all 3 types of cone cells generated identical responses for a given rate-of-incidence... then there would be no way for upstream neurons to tell what type of cone cell a spike sequence came from&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here I believe is where you've made an error. The transmission of activity from the sensory neuron itself to an upstream neuron inherently conveys information about the sensation. The firing of the sensory neuron is a translation of the external phenomena to an internal neural code. No extra information is needed to represent the source of the activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Li Liang, L., Lu, T., &amp;amp; Wang, X. (2002) &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/87/5/2237.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural Representations of Sinusoidal Amplitude and Frequency Modulations in the Primary Auditory Cortex of Awake Primates&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;J. Neurophysiol&lt;/em&gt; 87:2237-2261.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-14T23:49:59.077" LastActivityDate="2012-08-14T23:49:59.077" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1469" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1452" CreationDate="2012-07-25T09:24:34.580" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider that elimination of such a phenomena is not ideal. It's been proposed that actual neuronal networks exist under the tension of synchronous decoupling. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627308001281&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627308001281&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question though, you probably should consider that reciprocal connections might not be between two individual neurons. Rather, axons in the cortex are clumped into minicolumns, each one having 20+ pyramidals in supragranular layers. It's conjecture, but it's possible that the reciprocal connections are between different pyramidals within minicolumns (or even different pyramidals within columns or whatever other macro-structure you want). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2012-07-25T09:24:34.580" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1470" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1479" CreationDate="2012-07-25T19:05:41.440" Score="17" ViewCount="11806" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I'm a stutterer myself and have always wondered what caused my stuttering. There have been reports of the effects of certain genes and environmental factors that causes stuttering. But there is nothing really concrete as far as I know. The main cause could be a multitude of factors that are up to debate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my own experience, I observe that I don't stutter/get a block when I talk to myself, whisper, and sing.  Otherwise I stutter, and even more frustratingly I sometime get a speech block and can't begin to say what I want until I change my wording.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact that I can speak normally in certain conditions means that I have the physical ability to speak normally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Based on the neural mechanisms of stuttering, why might a stutterer not stutter when talking to themselves, whispering, singing, etc.?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="987" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-26T01:07:31.843" LastActivityDate="2018-10-18T08:54:47.737" Title="Why might a stutterer not stutter when talking to themselves, whispering, or singing?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1471" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-25T21:25:58.663" Score="4" ViewCount="183" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; When I'm coding, I sometimes make tea, and as long as I'm drinking the tea, I find myself more focused. Drinking tea seems to make me focus more. Thus, it seems that while doing something else I am less likely to be distracted. Another example that seems similar is listening to music while working out (running for example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a term that describes the process by which engaging in a small secondary task increases focus on the primary task?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are the two examples of drinking tea while coding and listening to music while working out related?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="582" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-27T06:51:29.317" LastActivityDate="2012-07-27T06:51:29.317" Title="When one activity makes you less distracted doing another activity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2012-12-19T15:05:27.253" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1474" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-26T03:07:53.660" Score="8" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a specific type of experimental test of active learning. Given some artificial or natural learning task that consists of classifying inputs &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x$&lt;/span&gt; from a large input space &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt;. There is some underlying function &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$f: X \rightarrow \{0,1\}$&lt;/span&gt; to be learned, this function can come from some restricted function class &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$C$&lt;/span&gt;. The subject knows the description of the function class, but has to learn the specific parameters that define the function.&#xA;I am looking for experiments that had two conditions of this type:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The subject is given labeled samples &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$(x,f(x))$&lt;/span&gt; from some distribution on &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt; that they have no control over.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The subject is allowed to ask for specific &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x \in X$&lt;/span&gt; and receive the labeled sample &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$(x,f(x))$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first condition would correspond to passive learning, while the second to active learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From arm-chair expectations (or formal theories like CoLT), one would expect that on certain tasks the subjects in the active condition would be able to significantly outperform (predict the underlying function more accurately) than in the passive condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can you provide references to specific experiments that would fit in this paradigm? What were their results? On what sort of tasks does active learning provide an advantage? How significant is this advantage?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Example&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example would be a subject sitting in front of a blank screen. They are told &amp;quot;there is a straight line that divides this screen into a red and green region. Can you find it?&amp;quot;. Thus, the set &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt; would correspond to coordinates, and an input &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x$&lt;/span&gt; would be a specific coordinate, say &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x = (1,3)$&lt;/span&gt;. The function class would be the set of straight line partitions of the screen. A specific function with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$0$&lt;/span&gt; meaning red and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1$&lt;/span&gt; - green might be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$f((a,b)) = \begin{cases}0 &amp;amp; \mathrm{if} \; a &amp;gt; b \\ 1 &amp;amp; \mathrm{otherwise}\end{cases}$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the active task, the participant can click on any point &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x$&lt;/span&gt; on the screen to turn it from blank to either red (if &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$f(x) = 0$&lt;/span&gt;) or green (if &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$f(x) = 1$&lt;/span&gt;). In the passive trial, some number of points are selected and revealed at random to the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-22T05:38:55.517" Title="Advantage of active learning on classification tasks" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1475" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="924" CreationDate="2012-07-26T06:49:20.683" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;At the rate the literature grows and journals proliferate, it is often hard to keep up with current trends. I find one of the best way to do this is to follow specific researchers that have research interested similar to me. Google Scholar allows authors to create profiles that collect their papers automatically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers on Google Scholar: &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.ca/citations?hl=en&amp;amp;view_op=search_authors&amp;amp;mauthors=label%3APsychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychology&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.ca/citations?hl=en&amp;amp;view_op=search_authors&amp;amp;mauthors=label%3ANeuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.ca/citations?hl=en&amp;amp;view_op=search_authors&amp;amp;mauthors=label%3APsychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you go to one of the authors' profiles, then you can click &lt;code&gt;Follow new articles&lt;/code&gt; and Google will send you an email when they publish; I've found this incredibly useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a similar vein, you can select &lt;code&gt;Follow new citations&lt;/code&gt;, this is not as useful for other authors (unless your research interests are &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt; similar) but you can do it for your own account to get email notifications when someone publishes something extending your previous work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want some breadth, then Google Scholar recently &lt;a href=&quot;http://googlescholar.blogspot.com/2012/08/scholar-updates-making-new-connections.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;introduced a feature of personal suggestions&lt;/a&gt;. This does some basic machine learning on your publications and their position in the citation graph to suggest papers you might be interested in. I have tested this feature out, and it is pretty interesting. It suggested a number of papers (mostly experimental biology) that are relevant to my research but I would not have found otherwise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-10T03:09:34.163" LastActivityDate="2012-08-10T03:09:34.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1476" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1455" CreationDate="2012-07-26T07:15:06.580" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;After an &lt;em&gt;eye opening&lt;/em&gt; experience rereading Hubel's book, &lt;a href=&quot;http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/book/bcontex.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Eye, Brain &amp;amp; Vision&lt;/a&gt; and a bunch of papers, I found that the answer to my question is a superficial &lt;em&gt;yes&lt;/em&gt; and a strong &lt;strong&gt;no&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is unsurprising that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info%3adoi/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000433&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neuroscientists have investigated&lt;/a&gt; if there are analog characteristics to neural spike streams: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neurons communicate with each other using stereotyped electric pulses,&#xA;  called spikes. It is believed that neurons  convey no information&#xA;  other than the frequency of the transmitted spikes, called the firing&#xA;  rate. However, it is possible that neurons may communicate some&#xA;  information through the finer temporal patterns of the spikes because&#xA;  biological, as well as electrical/mechanical signals generally reveal&#xA;  internal conditions of the signal generator...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... First, we found that&#xA;  neurons exhibit stable firing patterns that can be characterized as&#xA;  “regular”, “random”, and “bursty”. Second, we observed a strong&#xA;  correlation between the type of signaling pattern exhibited by neurons&#xA;  in a given area and the function of that area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in a superficial sense the answer is yes, sensory neurons might have characteristic firing patterns. However, when it comes to transmitting generic analog signals, neurons have one big handicap: &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;any analog features in the signal are lost at synaptic junctions, where the electrical signal is transformed into a chemical message.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One way to preserve at least part of the analog information, say message type encoded in a characteristic pattern, might be to have the message transmitted over &lt;em&gt;a sequence of neurons of the same size and type which all fire in a similar way&lt;/em&gt;. However, in the visual system, there is no evidence for this. The retinal ganglion cells have their axons end in the LGN whose neurons are very different, and these in turn send their spikes to V1 whose neurons are again different. So, any characteristic patterns generated by the ganglions are lost in the LGN synapses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bigger question still remains: how do upper regions figure out what type of ganglion is sending the spike stream? (I'll formulate this more properly as a separate question). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="643" LastEditorUserId="643" LastEditDate="2012-07-26T22:22:40.993" LastActivityDate="2012-07-26T22:22:40.993" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1479" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1470" CreationDate="2012-07-27T03:17:09.337" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not an expert in this field, but this seemed interesting enough I did some reading up on the topic. The two review papers I found quickly were &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aafp.org/afp/2008/0501/p1271.html&quot;&gt;Prasse &amp;amp; Kikano (2008)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aafp.org/afp/1998/0501/p2175.html&quot;&gt;Lawrence &amp;amp; Barclay (1998)&lt;/a&gt;, both from the Journal of the American Academy of Family Physicians. I have no idea whether this is a reputable journal or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There appear to be three types of stuttering; developmental (acquired during youth, often leaves after age 4), neurogenic (acquired due to neurological trauma), and psychogenic (secondary symptom of latent psychiatric disorder) [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aafp.org/afp/2008/0501/p1271.html&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]. Interestingly, the articles disagree on whether psychogenic still exists (see Etiology discussion in [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aafp.org/afp/1998/0501/p2175.html&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]). While both articles suggested that the etiology of stuttering is largely unknown (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aafp.org/afp/1998/0501/p2175.html&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, Etiology section), theories suggest that there's a neurologic dysfunction at play and/or physical causes relating to airflow. Specifically, the neurologic dysfunction suggests increased brain activity during speech in stutterers relative to non-stutterers. There's a lot of discussion about genetics and stuttering as well; read the articles for more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your situation as described seems to be in the &quot;developmental&quot; case, with a neurologic underpinning. Assuming no car crash or other blunt force trauma in your past, your stuttering comes and goes depending on the situation (i.e., if you're in public or private). As such, the symptoms you describe are likely related to stress, discussed in both articles above. It seems to be understood that stuttering as a disorder can be overcome with time and practice, and it seems that you have managed to do that to a small amount. However, stress is a large factor in stuttering, and can in fact exacerbate the problem tremendously. For what it's worth, I can also state anecdotally that stress is a large factor in stuttering, and for some people the severity of the stutter will increase as a factor of how stressful the situation may be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure that this addresses the singing aspect of your question. Hopefully someone else can address that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="620" LastEditorUserId="620" LastEditDate="2012-07-27T03:33:52.827" LastActivityDate="2012-07-27T03:33:52.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1480" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-27T03:32:26.427" Score="8" ViewCount="628" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; Recently I have really messed up my sleep schedule due to my procrastination. The internet points to some very basic conclusions but I would like to see actual experiments on effects of sleep on cognitive functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the absolute minimum hours of sleep one needs to completely restore brain functionality to peak levels? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How much sleep is required for muscle rebuilding processes? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does this amount of sleep affect learning process, memory recall, and ability to infer relationships? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="991" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-27T06:46:49.930" LastActivityDate="2012-07-27T06:46:49.930" Title="How much sleep is required to restore maximum cognitive functioning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2013-08-22T14:39:21.403" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1481" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-27T12:46:02.117" Score="4" ViewCount="716" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in learning more about the central nervous system (CNS) arousal and the choice of what people do and how they feel about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets define CNS arousal in the context of this question as the measure of gross motor activity measured by an actigraph in a given hour. A person with high arousal would display more intense and more frequent pattern of activity (any motion), while a person with less CNS arousal would exhibit smaller and less frequent motions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any correlation between the gross sum of body movement and choice of activity? Are people experiencing high CNS arousal more likely to engage in activities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A related question is - if they are related, how are choice of activity and arousal give rise to each other? Does arousal cause choice of activity or does choice of activity influence CNS arousal?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2013-03-30T00:46:13.800" LastActivityDate="2013-03-30T00:46:13.800" Title="Is human Central Nervous System arousal related to choice of activity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2015-04-23T12:43:23.143" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1483" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="790" CreationDate="2012-07-27T23:08:21.613" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Traveling waves are a developmental mechanism to &quot;prime&quot; neural circuits. In a mature adult, certain mechanisms allow the strengthening and weakening of synapses (LTP/LTP, dendritic spine growth, etc...). These same mechanisms are used during development to achieve initial connectivity. For these to work however, spiking activity must be present. Experience will later produce complex and meaningful patterns of activity between structures, that will in turn produce complex and meaningful patterns of connectivity. Until that point, the neural structures must be synaptically linked so that learning can begin after birth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certain cellular mechanisms guide axon growth, and this transient bursting activity &quot;captures&quot; the specificity of these growths as synapses. When this bursting activity is disrupted, the precise topographical connections are lost. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0896627393901228&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0896627393901228&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135714?journalCode=neuro&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2012-07-27T23:08:21.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1484" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-07-28T03:58:56.210" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the sensation (transduction) and perception of sound information by the brain in humans and animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/auditory-discrimination&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'auditory-discrimination'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;auditory-discrimination&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_%28sense%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hearing(sense)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Auditory system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_auditory_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Primary auditory cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_brainstem_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Auditory brainstem response&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-28T07:40:54.003" LastActivityDate="2012-07-28T07:40:54.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1485" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-07-28T03:58:56.210" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the sensation (transduction) and perception of sound information by the brain in humans and animals" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-07-28T07:40:57.357" LastActivityDate="2012-07-28T07:40:57.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1486" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-07-28T04:04:31.367" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about thinking that is unfocused and unable to remain on a single topic, usually taking place during moments of inattentiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mind-wandering&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mind-wandering&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:32:20.697" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:32:20.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1487" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-07-28T04:04:31.367" Score="0" Body="For questions about thinking that is unfocused and unable to remain on a single topic, usually taking place during moments of inattentiveness." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:32:20.697" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:32:20.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1488" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1489" CreationDate="2012-07-29T10:17:01.003" Score="4" ViewCount="1365" Body="&lt;p&gt;How can we reduce adverse impacts such as bias, discrimination, and unfairness when using cognitive ability tests and personality tests for selection purposes in an international context?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="651" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-29T11:51:51.960" LastActivityDate="2012-07-30T04:07:10.297" Title="Reducing adverse impact, discrimination and unfairness when using psychological assessments for selection purposes" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;selection-recruitment&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1489" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1488" CreationDate="2012-07-29T12:30:22.880" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is a big and important topic. The following is a bit of an introduction. Feel free to ask a separate more focussed question.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Some terminology&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general distinctions are made between the terms bias, fairness, and discrimination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bias&lt;/strong&gt; is a statistical term. Bias for a group can indicate that test scores for that group are systematically lower or higher than would be expected from the group's true score. It is often assessed by seeing whether there is a group by test interaction in predicting the criterion. In particular, just because groups differ in means does not mean the test is biased, the groups may differ on the underlying construct.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fairness&lt;/strong&gt; is a moral and ethical construct. There is scope for different people to value different things. For example, using a test that while unbiased &#xA;, reduces the prevalence of a minority group, may still be seen as unfair. Likewise, affirmative action might be seen as fair in the context of a history of discrimination, yet others may perceive that is being unfair to the non-minority group.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Discrimination&lt;/strong&gt; is often used in a legal sense to refer to either direct or indirect forms of discrimination.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reviewing this area&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I strongly recommend you read page 16.16 onwards (from the section labelled &quot;Improved understanding of subgroup differences&quot;) of Sackett and Lieven's (2008, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.numerons.in/files/documents/Personnel-Selection-Paul-R.-Sackett-and-Filip-Lievens.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;) review. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular they note that several good predictors of task performance also show subgroup differences. Thus, there is sometimes a trade-off between validity and adverse impact. For a review of subgroup differences see Hough et al, 2001.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I quote a few sections with particular relevance to the question of what can be done to minimise adverse impact:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sackett et al. (2001) reviewed the cumulative evidence and concluded&#xA;  that several proposed mechanisms are not, in fact, effective in&#xA;  reducing differences. These include (a) using differential item&#xA;  functioning analysis to identify and remove items functioning&#xA;  differently by subgroup, (b) providing coaching programs (these may&#xA;  improve scores for all, but group differences remain), (c) providing&#xA;  more generous time limits (which appears to increase group&#xA;  differences, and (d ) altering test taking motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sackett et al. (2001) did report &lt;strong&gt;some support for expanding the criterion as a means of &#xA;  reducing subgroup differences&lt;/strong&gt;. The relative weight given to task,&#xA;  citizenship, and counterproductive behavior in forming a composite&#xA;  criterion affects the weight given to cognitive predictors. Sackett et&#xA;  al. cautioned against differential weighting of criteria solely as a&#xA;  means of inﬂuencing predictor subgroup differences; rather, they&#xA;  argued that criterion weights should reﬂect the relative emphasis the&#xA;  organization concludes is appropriate given its business strategy.&#xA;  They also reported some support for expanding the range of predictors&#xA;  used. The strategy of supplementing existing cognitive predictors with&#xA;  additional predictors outside the cognitive domain can reduce the&#xA;  overall subgroup differences in some circumstances. This strategy has&#xA;  received considerable attention because broadening the range of&#xA;  predictors has the potential to both reduce subgroup differences and increase validity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;International context&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're particularly interested in the international context check out Myors et al (2008) which provides an overview of the context of selection and adverse impact from the perspective of a wide range of different countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General thoughts&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, there is also a  wide range of general strategies that we might recommend to increase fairness. e.g., Ensure that choice of selection tools is based on a thorough job analysis and an understanding of the competencies required for the job; Use well-validated measures; standardise decision making processes; minimise potential for cheating; etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hough LM, Oswald FL, Ployhart RE. (2001). Determinants, detection and amelioration of adverse impact in personnel selection procedures: issues, evidence and lessons learned. International Journal Selection &amp;amp; Assessment. 9:152–94.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Myors, B., Lievens, F., Schollaert, E., Van Hoye, G., Cronshaw, S.F., Mladinic, A., Rodr\'\iguez, V., Aguinis, H., Steiner, D.D., Rolland, F. &amp;amp; others (2008). International perspectives on the legal environment for selection. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 206-246. &lt;a href=&quot;http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/10684/1/IOinpress.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sackett PR, Devore CJ. 2001. Counterproductive behaviors at work. See Anderson et al. 2001,&#xA;pp. 145–64&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sackett, P.R. &amp;amp; Lievens, F. (2008). Personnel selection. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 59, 419-450. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.numerons.in/files/documents/Personnel-Selection-Paul-R.-Sackett-and-Filip-Lievens.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-30T04:07:10.297" LastActivityDate="2012-07-30T04:07:10.297" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1491" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-07-30T16:00:28.423" Score="7" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was thinking last night about the possibility of an experiment that investigates the factors contributing to peoples' judgments of 'stylistic similarity' between two samples of writing.&#xA;For example, such an experiment might consist of multiple trials for each subject, each of which would present a different set of say 3 short excerpts of writing (text randomly sampled from a corpus of authors' writings... maybe no more than 500 words each).&#xA;Each participant would be asked to make a judgment of either &quot;Which 2 of these writings are most similar in style?&quot; OR 'Which 2 of these writings were most likely created by the same person?&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part of the data analysis and interpretation might involve the use of programs similar to this one: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hackerfactor.com/GenderGuesser.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.hackerfactor.com/GenderGuesser.php&lt;/a&gt; . Researchers could form hypotheses about relatively low-level factors that might be important in peoples' judgments of stylistic similarity, and then write programs that would make judgments based on these low-level factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm assuming that research resembling or even perfectly matching what I've described above has been conducted in the past. After reading what I've written above, does anyone have any suggestions for relevant readings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="999" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-07-31T00:37:45.320" LastActivityDate="2012-08-04T16:02:00.250" Title="Judgments of similarity between samples of writing" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1493" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1505" CreationDate="2012-07-31T09:14:56.133" Score="11" ViewCount="393" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just learned about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory&quot;&gt;Hebbian Learning Rule&lt;/a&gt;. It essentially says &quot;Neurons that fire together, wire together&quot;. I'm wondering if the learning rule is affected by the spatial distance of the two neurons. When two neurons are far from each other, why is the connection formed? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="574" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-17T22:30:53.367" LastActivityDate="2012-09-17T22:30:53.367" Title="Hebbian Learning Rule, Local or Global?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1495" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1500" CreationDate="2012-08-01T05:21:35.370" Score="13" ViewCount="17600" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in whether people can smell in their dreams.&#xA;Do people really experience smell in their dreams?&#xA;For example, if I dream of smelling a flower, will I feel the smell, too?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any research on whether people can smell in dreams?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1007" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-08-08T08:05:26.883" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T07:38:33.227" Title="Can we smell in dreams?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1496" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1406" CreationDate="2012-08-01T14:12:06.170" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The site &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychfiledrawer.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psychfiledrawer.org/&lt;/a&gt; also addresses some aspects of what you are asking. It is mainly geared toward maintaining a public repository of replication attempts of psych experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="406" LastActivityDate="2012-08-01T14:12:06.170" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1497" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1501" CreationDate="2012-08-01T15:51:52.043" Score="10" ViewCount="591" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the following linked image, you can see the eye movement traces of a subject examining a bust of Nefertiti (I came across this image while reading the &lt;a href=&quot;http://notesofranvier.blogspot.com/2011/09/stopped-clock-illusion.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;following blog&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/sjPYz.gif&quot; alt=&quot;bust eye tracking&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I was in grade school, I often heard art teachers claim that they were &quot;not teaching us to draw or paint or sculpt... but teaching us to SEE&quot;. From personal experience with human figure drawing, it appears to me that the most observable change that comes with practice in drawing the human form from observation is learning to pay attention to the most essential details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Is there any reason to believe that if we were to take a group of people who could be considered to have &quot;visual expertise&quot; (let's say they have years of experience with observational drawing), that we would find notable differences in the patterns of their eye movement traces when scanning an object such as the Nefertiti bust shown above... when compared with people who do not have such expertise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you believe that we would observe such a difference... what evidence and/or theory leads you to believe this?&#xA;Otherwise, what evidence and/or theory leads you to believe that it would be unlikely to observe such a difference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1009" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2018-12-30T19:47:48.873" LastActivityDate="2018-12-30T19:47:48.873" Title="Is there an effect of visual expertise on eye movements when examining an image?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1498" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-01T19:43:32.710" Score="18" ViewCount="3940" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard countless discussions about whether or not the mind is separate from the brain, but they have all been philosophical. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for peer-reviewed studies that suggest the mind is not just a by-product of the brain, as I feel this is quite an extraordinary claim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any such studies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1006" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-02T13:29:28.180" LastActivityDate="2015-12-02T21:34:11.757" Title="Is there evidence that brain and mind are separate?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1498" CreationDate="2012-08-01T19:55:42.767" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Note: one can never prove a negative.  It's hard to say &quot;there's no evidence&quot; as an absolute truth.  That being said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No.  All evidence is suggestive of monism.  Drugs and brain lesions are physical actions that influence cognitive outcome by physically affecting the brain in ways predicted by pharmacists and neuropsychology.  It could also be noted that physical activity (exercise) increases neurogenesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you find an argument that recedes to only being valid in philosophy, it is probably becoming closer to pseudoscience than science.  You can never prove something like solipsism is false, but it isn't a very productive belief if you're asking for evidence.  Solipsism (as an example) would invalidate the evidence, so there's no point in asking for evidence if that's your perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you accept empiricism (which is all that science can rely on) then you have to accept some degree of scientific realism, and the scientific evidence is that brain causes mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-08-01T19:55:42.767" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1500" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1495" CreationDate="2012-08-02T00:57:44.123" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Antonio, Nielsen and Doneri (1998) provide one assessment of self-reported  prevalence of smell in dreams. To quote the abstract (my bolding):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although numerous studies have investigated the content of &#xA;  laboratory  and home dream reports, surprisingly little  is  known&#xA;  about the prevalence of various sensory modes in  dreams. 49 men and&#xA;  115 women completed a battery of questionnaires and kept a home dream&#xA;  diary for two to three consecutive weeks. Retrospective responses to &#xA;  the questionnaire indicate that  &lt;strong&gt;approximately  33 %  of  men and 40% &#xA;  of  women recalled having experienced sensations of  smell  or taste in&#xA;  their dreams&lt;/strong&gt;. A  total  of  3372 dream reports were collected and&#xA;  scored for  unambiguous references to  auditory,  olfactory,  and &#xA;  gustatory experiences. Auditory  experiences were reported in &#xA;  approximately  53%  of  all  dream reports. &lt;strong&gt;Olfactory  and gustatory&#xA;  sensations occurred in  approximatdy 1 % of all dream reports.&lt;/strong&gt; A &#xA;  significantly greater percentage of women than men reported one or&#xA;  more dreams containing references to olfactory sensations. The results&#xA;  lend support to  previous studies which have shown that a variety of&#xA;  sensory experiences, although relatively  rare, can occur in dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is still the question about whether self-reports are trustworthy, and how you define a smell experience in a dream that is most likely not generated by external stimuli. Antonio and colleagues go on to discuss some of these issues:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;That  the more infrequent modalities of  smell and taste occur at all&#xA;  in dream reports is an important indication of the representational&#xA;  capacities of dreaming-and  probably of  imagery more generally. The&#xA;  finding  is consistent with  recent research showing the existence of&#xA;  imagery in both olfactory (Carrasco &amp;amp;  Ridout, 1997; Lyman &amp;amp; McDaniel,&#xA;  1986) and gustatory (Drummond,  1995) modalities. Although  some&#xA;  researchers take the position that olfactory imagery is not possible&#xA;  (Herz &amp;amp; Engen, 1996), the spontaneous occurrence of olfactory imagery&#xA;  in  dreams may differ  from &quot;willful&quot;  olfactory imagery that may&#xA;  occur upon instruction during  the waking state. For  instance, limbic&#xA;  structures which  might  yield  such spontaneous occurrences during&#xA;  dreams may not be operational during the waking state. Nevertheless,&#xA;  it  is  likely  that  the  relatively rare occurrence of  these&#xA;  modalities during dreaming is not  because their  representation is &#xA;  beyond imaginal capacity. Rather, either such sensations are not&#xA;  usually spontaneously  generated during dreaming, i.e., are not a&#xA;  necessary component of dreaming's supposed memory/adaptational&#xA;  functions, or they depend upon external sensory stimuli to trigger&#xA;  them. However, sensory triggers may be selectively blocked at  the&#xA;  thalamic level by the raised afferent thresholds of REM sleep (e.g.,&#xA;  Steriade, 1994). Of  course, both  of  these inhibiting  conditions&#xA;  may be true, thereby seriously disfavoring appearance of gustatory or &#xA;  olfactory sensations during dreaming&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ANTONIO, L.Z. and Nielsen, T.A. and Donderi, DC. (1998). Prevalence of auditory, olfactory, and gustatory experiences in home dreams. Perceptual and motor skills, 87, 3, 819-826.&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dreamscience.ca/en/documents/publications/_1998_Nielsen_Zadra_Reprint_PMS_87_819-826_experiences_home_dreams.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Carrasco,  M.,  &amp;amp; Ridout,  J. B. (1997)  Olfactory perception and olfactory imagery: a multidimensional analysis. Journal  0f Experimental Psychology: Human Perception &amp;amp;  Performance,&#xA;19,287-30l.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Drummond,  P. D. (1995)  Effect of imagining and actually tasting a sour taste on one side of the tongue. Physiology &amp;amp; Behavior, 57, 373-376.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Herz, R. S, &amp;amp; Engen,  T. (1996)  Odor memory: review and analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 3, 300-313&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lyman, B. J., &amp;amp; McDaniel. M. A. (1986)  Effects  of  encoding  strategy  on  long-term  memory  for&#xA;odours. Human memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental  Psychology: A-Human  Experimental Psychology, 38(4-A), 753-765.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Steriade,  M.  (1994)  Brain electrical  activity and sensory processing during waking and sleep states. In  M.  H. Kryger, T. Roth, &amp;amp;  W. C. Dement (Eds.), Principles and practice of sleep medicine. (2nd ed.) Philadelphia, FA: Saunders. pp.  105-124.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-31T05:03:23.670" LastActivityDate="2013-07-31T05:03:23.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1501" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1497" CreationDate="2012-08-02T03:25:18.307" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a substantial literature on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_tracking&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;eye tracking&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Skill acquisition example&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One study that I am familiar with and is of some relevance is Study 2 in Lee and Anderson (2000, &lt;a href=&quot;http://actr.psy.cmu.edu/papers/245/fjl_jra_2001_a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;).&#xA;Specifically the study used eye tracking tools to examine how visual attention was allocated over time on an air traffic control simulator.&#xA;The broad finding, consistent with skill acquisition theory was that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Overall, as people become more skilled, they appear to be reducing the&#xA;  time they ﬁxate on all the task-irrelevant regions while maintaining&#xA;  the amount of time spent on the task-relevant regions in the move&#xA;  unit-task. (p.305)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, this study shows that at least on a task, as you would expect visual attention changes as a function of the development of expertise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;A specific study of eye movements comparing experts and novices&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems obvious that when visually examining art, people differ in how they view it. It also seems plausible that experts viewing art may focus on different things to novices.  After a little searching I found a study by Vogt and Magnussen (2007) that appears to directly address your interest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In two sessions with free scanning and memory instructions,&#xA;  eye-movement patterns from nine artists were compared with those of&#xA;  nine artistically untrained participants viewing 16 pictures&#xA;  representing a selection of categories from ordinary scenes to&#xA;  abstraction: 12 pictures were made to accommodate an object-oriented&#xA;  viewing mode (selection of recognisable objects), and a pictorial&#xA;  viewing mode (selection of more structural features), and 4 were&#xA;  abstract. &lt;strong&gt;The artistically untrained participants showed preference&#xA;  for viewing human features and objects, while the artists spent more&#xA;  scanning time on structural/abstract features.&lt;/strong&gt; A group by session&#xA;  interaction showed a change of viewing strategy in the artists, who&#xA;  viewed more objects and human features in the memory task session. A&#xA;  verbal test of recall memory showed no overall difference in the&#xA;  number of pictures remembered, but the number of correctly remembered&#xA;  pictorial features was significantly higher for artists than for the&#xA;  artistically untrained viewers, irrespective of picture type. No&#xA;  differences in fixation frequencies/durations were found between&#xA;  groups across sessions, but a significant task-dependent-group by&#xA;  session interaction of fixation frequency/duration showed that the&#xA;  artistically untrained participants demonstrated repetition effects in&#xA;  fewer, longer fixations with repeated viewing, while the opposite&#xA;  pattern obtained for the artists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also summarise existing research (see the article for more information):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Picture perception in artists and laymen has been compared in several&#xA;  studies on the assumption that artists view the world differently from&#xA;  others. ... In one 12-s recording session, Nodine et al (1993)&#xA;  found that artistically untrained viewers tended to spend more time&#xA;  viewing individual objects than relationships among elements in&#xA;  paintings... Other authors have reported different eye-fixation patterns in artists and&#xA;  non-artists viewing pictures. Antes and Kristjanson (1991) found that&#xA;  eye-movement parameters alone could differentiate artists from&#xA;  non-artists by fixation densities on less important aspects of&#xA;  paintings, with 'important' being defined a priori by one professional&#xA;  artist (rather than by the experimenters according to hypotheses).&#xA;  Zangemeister et al (1995) found that artists and sophisticated viewers&#xA;  used a more global scanning strategy than artistically untrained&#xA;  participants when viewing abstract pictures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Antes J R, Kristjanson A F, 1991. Discriminating artists from nonartists by their eye movement patterns. Perceptual and Motor Skills 73 893 ^ 894&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lee, F.J. &amp;amp; Anderson, J.R. (2001). Does learning a complex task have to be complex?: A study in learning decomposition. Cognitive psychology, 42, 267-316. &lt;a href=&quot;http://actr.psy.cmu.edu/papers/245/fjl_jra_2001_a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nodine F, Locher P J, Krupinski E A, 1993. The role of formal art training on perception and aesthetic judgement of art compositions. Leonardo 26 219 ^ 227&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vogt, S. &amp;amp; Magnussen, S. (2007). Expertise in pictorial perception: eye-movement patterns and visual memory in artists and laymen. PERCEPTION-LONDON-, 36, 91. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ltl.tkk.fi/wiki/images/3/3f/Yourarticle7.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zangemeister W H, Sherman K, Stark L, 1995 Evidence for a global scanpath strategy in viewing abstract compared to realistic images. Neuropsychologia 33 1009 ^ 1025&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-08-02T11:04:15.013" LastActivityDate="2012-08-02T11:04:15.013" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1502" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1406" CreationDate="2012-08-02T07:05:59.533" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://figshare.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Figshare&lt;/a&gt; is one option for archiving assorted research artefacts. To quote the &lt;a href=&quot;http://figshare.com/about&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;about page&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;figshare allows researchers to publish all of their research outputs&#xA;  in seconds in an easily citable, sharable and discoverable manner. All&#xA;  file formats can be published, including videos and datasets that are&#xA;  often demoted to the supplemental materials section in current&#xA;  publishing models. By opening up the peer review process, researchers&#xA;  can easily publish null results, avoiding the file drawer effect and&#xA;  helping to make scientific research more efficient. figshare uses&#xA;  creative commons licensing to allow frictionless sharing of research&#xA;  data whilst allowing users to maintain their ownership. figshare gives&#xA;  users unlimited public space and 1GB of private storage space for&#xA;  free.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few things that I like about figshare:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Creative commons licence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They have some form of archive policy which says that if they go out of business, the content will be backed up by another provider. However, it's not quite as open as stack exchange in that they don't make public backups of the entire site available.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Objects get a citable doi&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;View and share statistics for shared objects&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-08-03T00:30:52.843" LastActivityDate="2012-08-03T00:30:52.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1503" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1380" CreationDate="2012-08-02T08:26:32.677" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was shocked at how difficult it was to find systematic scientific research on the psychology of flatulence. The main empirical paper appears to be one by Lippman (1980). It seems to be hard to get a copy of the original. However, the author of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://scientopia.org/blogs/scicurious/2012/03/23/friday-weird-science-the-social-psychology-of-flatulence/&quot;&gt;Neurotic Physiology blog discusses the paper at length&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Lippman study&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lippman asked participants to rank various hypothetical farters based on various factors. With regards to sex differences the blogger writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The sex differences were a little surprising. It turns out that women&#xA;  are more forgiving of loud, accidental farts (girls, we've all been&#xA;  there I'm sure), and don't ding the farter so much on &quot;politeness&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, when you think about the problem there are different kinds of sex differences in fart ratings: Men rating male farters; men rating female farters; women rating male farters; and women rating female farters.  This question really only addresses how women rate others in general. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Toilet psychology&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, a book was released by Professor Nick Haslam called &quot;Psychology in the Bathroom&quot;. There's a good summary in The Psychologist (2012, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thepsychologist.org.uk/archive/archive_home.cfm/volumeID_25-editionID_214-ArticleID_2076-getfile_getPDF/thepsychologist/0612hasl.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;). &#xA;The book specifically aims to redress the lack of psychological research devoted to excretion and related matters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One particular passage from the book summary in &lt;em&gt;The Psychologist&lt;/em&gt; may provide a potential explanation for gender differences in perceptions of farting:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A common thread running through these differences is that &lt;strong&gt;women’s&#xA;  excretion is more hidden, emotionally fraught and suppressed than&#xA;  men’s&lt;/strong&gt;. The incompatibility of femininity and excretion is nicely&#xA;  expressed in Jonathan Swift’s poem ‘The lady’s dressing room’, in&#xA;  which a suitor sneaks into his beloved’s room only to  find evidence&#xA;  of her dirty corporeality, including sweaty garments, beslimed towels&#xA;  and encrusted combs. Upon discovering her chamber-pot he slinks away&#xA;  in horror, lamenting ‘Oh! Celia, Celia, Celia shits!’ The same&#xA;  sentiment is expressed less poetically by an American undergraduate:&#xA;  ‘women are supposed to  be non-poopers’ (Weinberg &amp;amp; Williams, 2005,&#xA;  p.327). Despite our enlightened modern attitudes to gender equality,&#xA;  women are still judged more severely for violations of this ideal of&#xA;  untaintedness than men.  In one study (Goldenberg &amp;amp; Roberts, 2004), a&#xA;  female experimenter who excused herself to use the bathroom was&#xA;  evaluated more negatively than one who excused herself to get some&#xA;  paperwork: no such difference was found for a male experimenter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General thoughts&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary, research on farting has generally been neglected by the psychological literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some evidence to suggest that women who fart are judged more negatively than men who fart. However, presumably this would vary a lot with context, who is farting, and who is recognising the farting. &#xA;It would also presumably be a cultural phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One theory to explain gender differences is that a lack of purity is often associated with activities related to excreting, such as farting. Farting loudly or openly may symbolise a lack of control over excretion or remind others that a person is an excreting being. Purity is sometimes  associated with a feminine ideal. Thus, farting may be socially more detrimental for a female than a male. Anyway, the preceding statements are largely based on theory; I'd like to see a lot more empirical evidence before I take them too seriously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lippman, LG. &quot;Toward a social psychology of flatulence: The interpersonal regulation of natural gas&quot;. Psychology: a Quarterly Journal of Human Behavior, 1980.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Goldenberg, J.L. &amp;amp; Roberts, T. (2004). The beast within the beauty: An&#xA;existential perspective on the objectification and condemnation of women. In J. Greenberg, S.L. Koole &amp;amp; T. Pyszczynski (Eds.) Handbook of experimental existential psychology (pp.71–85). New York: Guilford.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haslam, N. (2012). Psychology in the Bathroom. Palgrave Macmillan.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haslam, N. (2012), Toilet psychology. The Psychologist. 25, 6, 430-433. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thepsychologist.org.uk/archive/archive_home.cfm/volumeID_25-editionID_214-ArticleID_2076-getfile_getPDF/thepsychologist/0612hasl.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-08-02T08:26:32.677" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1504" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1498" CreationDate="2012-08-02T13:32:31.237" Score="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another approach to this issue is to consider whether this kind of reductionism (&quot;mind is just a by-product of the brain&quot;) is useful. Strictly speaking, architecture is &quot;just a by-product of physics and materials science&quot;, but there are phenomena that are usefully described at the level of architecture and would not be well-captured by the atomic and molecular properties that underlie them. The same holds for the mind and brain: we can study the neural correlates of psychological phenomena and these studies are sure to help us understand those phenomena, but they are not logically equivalent. This view has been articulated by many people, here is one (peer-reviewed) example: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nd.edu/~ghaeffel/Miller%282000%29.pdf&quot;&gt;Miller, G.A. &amp;amp; Keller, J. (2000). Psychology and Neuroscience: Making Peace. &lt;em&gt;Current Directions in Psychological Science&lt;/em&gt;, 9(6), 212-215.&lt;/a&gt; You don't need to be a dualist to hold this view, just to understand that phenomena can have different levels of analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2012-08-02T13:32:31.237" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1493" CreationDate="2012-08-02T22:00:24.070" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a local rule.  All that it means is that the connection between two neurons gets stronger if you use that specific connection more.  The specific connection (the synapse) must be used though; it doesn't apply to two random neurons that aren't connected that happen to fire at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hebbian learning is generic term for outcome; there are actually two separate mechanisms I know about (probably many more, too).  First, there's &quot;silent synapses&quot; which have only NMDA receptors, but not AMPA receptors.  NMDA receptors have Mg+ molecules blocking their channels and require AMPA activation to expel the NMDA.  So if you have a synapse with no AMPA, it won't be an effective synapse.  However, if you have another synapse activing the tissue, expelling the magnesium, then the silent synapse has a short window to activate the synapse during the Mg expulsion.  As it does this, it activates a series of protein signaling and transcription signaling that tells the cell to bring more AMPA up (a response to all the Ca signaling that these signals rely on).  This is also a mechanism for conditioning (the two different synapses representing the pathway of the conditioned and the unconditioned response.  The conditioned response would be the pathway with the silent synapse).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example is astrocytic regulation of glutamate levels.  ATP is what your whole body uses for energy, but there are ATP detectors in astroctyes, which couple in the tripartite synapse as a synaptic regulator.  As the synapse is more active, ATP is released, which activates the astrocyte and causes it to release extra glutamate, bringing the postsynaptic neuron closer to firing.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these require only that the neurons make contact at a synapse, distance between somas is not a factor. Of course, the distance between the axon and the dendritic spine have to be close enough to form a synapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2012-08-02T22:06:37.337" LastActivityDate="2012-08-02T22:06:37.337" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1506" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-03T04:20:37.213" Score="6" ViewCount="274" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to present participants a pair of items $a$ and $b$, each with an association $x$ or $y$. Later on participants will presented with the items singularly, and asked  'what was the association?'.  I'm interested in differences in their memory for the association, between levels of the association. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I've specified it there is no way to separate differences in memory performance between levels from response bias, because being incorrect on association $x$ means that another response for association $y$ is recorded.  Signal detection methods seem to give me an overall measure of discriminability between the two and bias, but can't tell me if the bias is due to genuinely improved memory for $x$, or simply a predisposition to respond $x$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the best way to deal with this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Initial thoughts:&lt;/strong&gt; I'm considering including previously unseen elements into the memory task and getting a measure of response bias that way.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;Here is some random example data to help with thinking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;choice X | X    choice Y | X   choice Y | Y   choice X | Y&#xA;   18               18         18              18    &#xA;   24               12         18              18&#xA;   30                6         14              22    &#xA;   29                7         14              22&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="629" LastEditorUserId="629" LastEditDate="2012-08-03T06:15:57.287" LastActivityDate="2012-08-10T18:24:39.783" Title="Controlling for response bias in a forced choice memory task" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1507" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6106" CreationDate="2012-08-04T10:40:52.930" Score="11" ViewCount="289" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll preface this by saying that I've been considering this question in light of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.stackoverflow.com/2012/07/kicking-off-the-summer-of-love/&quot;&gt;&quot;Summer of Love&quot;&lt;/a&gt; initiative and subsequent blog posts, which are looking at the extent to which comments are &quot;friendly&quot; on Stack Exchange.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Much of the impetus behind the movement is a commitment to treating new members better, and it's safe to assume that a majority of these new members are here for help in the process of learning something (e.g., programming, statistics, new software).  Comments can both set the tone while also being a means through which to deliver learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The actual Stack Exchange study is measuring the response of a third party to the comments made on the site, but, as more readily available system, I'd like to find out if a teacher who projects a &quot;friendly&quot; attitude positively affects the learning process.  Conversely, it's not ideal if a teacher uses &quot;unorthodox&quot; methods to motivate students (e.g., sarcasm), but controlling for all other factors, could these methods actually motivate some students to learn better?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the analogy between educators, students, and Stack Exchange participants is far from perfect, is there support in the educational psychology literature for the notion that teachers reported by students as &quot;friendlier&quot; (on average) help those students achieve higher levels of performance on standardized tests and other evaluations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2014-04-04T14:45:25.810" Title="Do the students that report &quot;friendly&quot; teachers perform better on standardized tests?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1406" CreationDate="2012-08-04T15:35:31.603" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of labs I know use &lt;a href=&quot;http://basecamp.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Basecamp&lt;/a&gt;. It &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; cost money, but provides a centralized place to store all the information you listed and allows for comments on all of it, as well as a calendar to coordinate your team. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1015" LastActivityDate="2012-08-04T15:35:31.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1510" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1491" CreationDate="2012-08-04T15:51:49.853" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you're talking about &lt;a href=&quot;http://lsa.colorado.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Latent Semantic Analysis&lt;/a&gt;. Here's &lt;a href=&quot;http://lsa.colorado.edu/whatis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;their rundown&lt;/a&gt; of what it is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, LSA as currently practiced has some additional limitations. It makes no use of word order, thus of syntactic relations or logic, or of morphology. Remarkably, it manages to extract correct reflections of passage and word meanings quite well without these aids, but it must still be suspected of incompleteness or likely error on some occasions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's used in a lot of automated grading programs, or systems designed to give a score to paper based on some criteria. However, because order doesn't matter, it makes syntactic and grammatical coherence much harder to measure, so quantifying 'style' might be a little hard, unless by 'style' you mean something like word choice, phrase choice, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=latent+semantic+analysis+writing&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;as_sdt=1%2C50&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a gscholar search&lt;/a&gt;. The first three should give a good overview.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1015" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-08-04T16:02:00.250" LastActivityDate="2012-08-04T16:02:00.250" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1512" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1520" CreationDate="2012-08-06T05:25:00.843" Score="8" ViewCount="201" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am having trouble understanding Table 1 of Gigerenzer, Hell, and Blank (1988, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/volltexte/institut/dok/full/gg/presenta/presenta.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;, table on page 516):&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0bSxr.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;table 1 gigerenzer&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Focusing on the Jack row, it is stated that the mean probabilities of Jack being an engineer were 71.4% in a low base rate condition and 81.3% in a high base rate condition. Thus participants partially took base rates into account. If they were completely ignoring base rates these values would be the same, rather than being separated by 9.9%. So I believe I understand what is going on in the Base Rate Neglect column.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I don't understand what is going on in the Bayesian column. There is an explanatory footnote on p516 but to me it was not illuminating. The footnote provides the following equations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$p_{70}(E|D)/(1-p_{70}(E|D)) = L\frac{0.7}{0.3}$$&#xA;$$p_{30}(E|D)/(1-p_{30}(E|D)) = L \frac{0.3}{0.7}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, since the mean guess for the 70% condition was 81.3% we get &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$&#xA;\begin{align}&#xA;81.3/18.7 &amp;amp; = L ~ 0.7/0.3 &amp;amp;  \\&#xA;      &amp;amp; = 81.3/18.7 &amp;amp; = L ~2.33 \\&#xA;      &amp;amp; = 4.35 &amp;amp;= L ~2.33 \\&#xA;      &amp;amp; = 1.86 &amp;amp;= L \\&#xA;\end{align}&#xA;$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, then when I plug this $L$ value into the $p_{30}$ equation I get a value for $p_{30}(E|D)$ that deviates wildly both from the 'Bayesian' value and from what was actually observed. According to the table the average deviation from the Bayesian should be 16.1%, but according to my calculations it is much higher. It would be greatly appreciated if someone could tell me what I am doing wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gigerenzer, G., Hell, W. &amp;amp; Blank, H. (1988). Presentation and content: The use of base rates as a continuous variable.. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 14, 513. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/volltexte/institut/dok/full/gg/presenta/presenta.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-08-06T07:43:19.000" LastActivityDate="2012-08-08T07:21:06.460" Title="Problem understanding the calculation of normative (Bayesian) base rates" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1518" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1524" CreationDate="2012-08-07T16:27:58.617" Score="7" ViewCount="564" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is a good source for case studies on a broad range of personality disorders?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm a writer and I'm interested in reading some case studies for character work. I've found some &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Psychology/Case_Studies&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;websites with classic case studies&lt;/a&gt;, but I would really like to find some something less historical, more modern.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everything I've found online so far is topic related or deals with research studies that put people in tests (like the Stanford Prison Experiment).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Something like &lt;a href=&quot;http://ccs.sagepub.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clinical Case Studies&lt;/a&gt; would be great, but the articles are about $30 bucks online. &lt;strong&gt;Are there any open-access journals or website with articles like Clinical Case Studies?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1027" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-09T02:09:54.063" LastActivityDate="2012-08-09T05:19:59.967" Title="What is a source of case studies of personality disorders?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1519" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1518" CreationDate="2012-08-07T17:25:58.867" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not sure if this is what you're looking for, but here are a few major academic journals on neuropsychology and neurology (in no particular order):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/neu/index.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuropsychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/pcgn20/current&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive Neuropsychology&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/nncs20/current&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NeuroCase&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hdvn20/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Developmental Neuropsychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cortexjournal.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2012-08-07T17:25:58.867" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1520" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1512" CreationDate="2012-08-07T22:32:58.110" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you are doing the computation correctly, but Gigerenzer and Blank did not provide us with the full results of their experiment, preventing us from repeating their computations exactly: The data provided in columns 1 and 2 of the table are only the &lt;strong&gt;averages&lt;/strong&gt;. The data in column 4 (Bayesian) is not a transformation of the average value using some formula (see below), but &lt;strong&gt;the original data transformed, and then averaged&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For each subject in the 70% base rate group we predicted, by using Bayes's theorem, how this subject would have responded in the 30% base rate group&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you divide the first equation of the footnote by the second, and derive a formula for p30 as a function of p70, you get:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$p_{30}(E|D) \approx \frac{p_{70}(E|D)}{5.44-4.44p_{70}(E|D)}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice that this function is strictly convex in the region [0,1], meaning that if you compute it on the average p70, you'll get a value that is lower than the value you would get by averaging the values for several data-points. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, lets examine the Jack row: If you transform the mean p70 of 0.813, you get p30 of 0.44, which has a deviation of 0.27 from the observed mean p30 (as you probably found). Let's assume that the data in the Jack row, in the p70 column was obtained from two subjects, that responded 0.968 and 0.658 (yielding the average 0.813 that is reported in the table). Transform both of these values, and you'll get 0.848 and 0.261, respectively, yielding an average p30 of 0.553, which would give a Bayesian deviation of 0.161 exactly as reported in column 4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="38" LastEditDate="2012-08-08T07:21:06.460" LastActivityDate="2012-08-08T07:21:06.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1521" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1648" CreationDate="2012-08-08T06:33:21.953" Score="10" ViewCount="2635" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; From block buster movies, to Snow White and the Seven Dwarf's, characters with certain personality and mental traits are portrayed looking a certain way. For example, the clumsy one has big ears or the antagonist has dark hair and the protagonist has a strong jaw line. These characteristics seem to be pretty consistent over time and in different types of media.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do facial/body features shape the brain or does the brain shape the body or are they completely separate with no connection? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&#xA;Is there a correlation between facial features and personality?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2012-09-13T20:39:02.027" LastActivityDate="2019-07-14T23:23:04.893" Title="Is there a correlation between facial features and personality?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1522" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-08T06:52:11.003" Score="5" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I'm looking forward to be a father come fall. My son will have Downs Syndrome, so there are a lot of early interventions we have to think about to support our son - logopedics, augmentative communication and a lot of stuff I don't know about yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, with all possible interventions and trainings and whatnot we will look for the track record of said methods. And of course our next years are not supposed to be only about therapy this and special training that!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are gathering Information on different methods from relevant organizations etc. I want to be able to contextualize what we learn there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is a useful framework or model of how cognitive and other abilities develop in young children that can be used to understand their needs (not only the special ones) on a level that is not purely phenomenological?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is a useful framework to understand why certain trainings etc. are effective, in comparison with others?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any frameworks suited to an engineer with a basic understanding of neural networks and control theory as opposed to more qualitative psychological theories?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd be happy about pointers to texts relevant to my question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1023" LastEditorUserId="1023" LastEditDate="2012-08-09T08:42:49.447" LastActivityDate="2012-08-09T08:42:49.447" Title="Technical model of how babies and young children learn suited to a parent with an engineering background?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1518" CreationDate="2012-08-09T00:21:15.910" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ccs.sagepub.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Clinical Case Studies &lt;/a&gt; is a journal devoted to the write up of case studies. To quote the site:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It presents cases involving individual, couples, and family therapy.&#xA;  The easy-to-follow case presentation format allows you to learn how&#xA;  interesting and challenging cases were assessed and conceptualized,&#xA;  and how treatment followed such conceptualization. This practical&#xA;  format allows clinicians to replicate successful treatments in their&#xA;  own practices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Articles follow a 12 step format:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Theoretical and Research Basis for Treatment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Case Introduction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Presenting Complaints&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;History&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Assessment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Case Conceptualization (this is where the clinician’s thinking and treatment selection come to the forefront)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Course of Treatment and Assessment of Progress&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Complicating Factors (including medical management)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Access and Barriers to Care&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Follow-Up (how and how long)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Treatment Implications of the Case&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Recommendations to Clinicians and Students.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can search within the publication using &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?start=30&amp;amp;q=clinical+case+studies&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_publication=clinical+case+studies&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,5&amp;amp;as_vis=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Scholar (publication = clinical case studies)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If price per article is an issue, a few options include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;get access through a library or university.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Subscribe to the entire journal ( this is generally cheaper than per article costs).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;examine the subset of articles where authors provide a copy of the PDF online. In Google scholar, see the articles with &lt;strong&gt;[PDF]&lt;/strong&gt; in brackets.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Example article&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g., See this example by Leedy, Jackson, and Callahan (2007):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The following case study illustrates a client-centered,&#xA;  cognitive-behavioral approach to the psychological treatment of Mr. M,&#xA;  a 41-year-old male diagnosed with chronic Lyme disease, a mood&#xA;  disorder from Lyme disease, and narcissistic personality disorder. Mr.&#xA;  M’s personality difficulties are conceptualized as representing&#xA;  compensatory narcissism, a strategic way of coping with feelings of&#xA;  insecurity. The goals of treatment included positively integrating Mr.&#xA;  M’s chronic illness into his identity, decreasing depressive symptoms,&#xA;  and improving his interpersonal skills. Treatment was successful in&#xA;  decreasing both Mr. M’s depressive symptoms and his narcissistic&#xA;  orientation to thinking and interacting with others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Leedy, M.J., Jackson, M. &amp;amp; Callahan, J.L. (2007). Treating Depression and Compensatory Narcissistic Personality Style in a Man With Chronic Lyme Disease. Clinical Case Studies, 6, 430-442. &lt;a href=&quot;http://moemesto.ru/rorschach_club/file/896920/download/430rorschachiana.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-08-09T05:19:59.967" LastActivityDate="2012-08-09T05:19:59.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1525" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-09T04:13:45.847" Score="12" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;The NR3C1 gene encodes for a neuron-specific glucocorticoid receptor (GR), of which methylation levels have been shown to relate to altered maternal care and stress response in rodents (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v7/n8/abs/nn1276.html&quot;&gt;Weaver et al., 2004&lt;/a&gt;) and to suicide in humans (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v12/n3/full/nn.2270.html&quot;&gt;McGowan et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering what other behaviours and phenotypes could or has GR function been associated with?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="70" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-10-19T11:26:31.157" LastActivityDate="2018-10-19T11:26:31.157" Title="What are some known roles or correlations of glucocorticoid receptor function to behaviour?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1529" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-08-10T06:26:08.537" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions on neurological or psychological disorders that have a basis in chromosomal abnormalities and/or are heritable&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Genetic Disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-08-10T06:36:29.707" LastActivityDate="2012-08-10T06:36:29.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1530" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-08-10T06:26:08.537" Score="0" Body="For questions on neurological or psychological disorders that have a basis in chromosomal abnormalities and/or are heritable" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-08-10T06:36:32.933" LastActivityDate="2012-08-10T06:36:32.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1531" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="68" CreationDate="2012-08-10T16:48:49.167" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The behavioral output itself can only indirectly affect memory, but the mechanism of reinforcement lies in its reception of attention. For instance, athletes who practice a sport seriously know, as also popularly attested by Mack and Cassteven's &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0071395970&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mind Gym&lt;/a&gt;, that 50% of practice should be mental. They should watch the sport, imagine playing the sport, think about how they want to improve, think about winning, etc. It doesn't matter if the sport is physically practiced or imagined, as long as there is attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The route that monotonous rehearsal plays in memory is in forcing attention onto the content, and it most likely is a better strategy than, say, watching TV; however, that doesn't mean that other strategies for enhancing memory aren't far more superior. For instance, as Ben said, the deeper something is encoded - embedded with meaning - the more likely it will be learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1038" LastEditorUserId="1038" LastEditDate="2012-08-10T17:22:47.613" LastActivityDate="2012-08-10T17:22:47.613" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1532" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1495" CreationDate="2012-08-10T17:20:58.380" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Also, in Oliver Sack's &lt;em&gt;The Man Who Mistook His For His Wife&lt;/em&gt;, the author and famous neurologist reports a case about a man who dreamed he had the olfactory powers of a dog; however, when he awoke, he still retained his heightened sense of smell and furthermore could prove it to the nurses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any experience that one has in waking life can be recapitulated during a dream. In addition, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stanford.edu/group/memorylab/Publications/Publications.html&quot;&gt;Anthony Wagner&lt;/a&gt; has a line of research investigating how rehearsal and learning mechanisms operate during sleep. It is unclear at this point how much novel learning can occur during sleep, as no paradigm has demonstrated this very successfully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1038" LastActivityDate="2012-08-10T17:20:58.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1533" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1506" CreationDate="2012-08-10T18:24:39.783" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's start with signal detection methods. The big one in memory literature is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/faciliti/facilities/statistics/dprime.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;D-Prime&lt;/a&gt; analysis (hits versus false alarms). If the subject chooses X more times than Y, you can compare the number of times choice X is made correctly versus chosen incorrectly (as a false alarm). If that was your paradigm, then choice Y would be the correct rejection (if correct) or a miss (if incorrect).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this in mind, you can add some degree of confidence to your paradigm. Instead of only two choices, x or y, you can give for options (1 - definitely x, 2 - probably x, 3 - probably y, 4 - definitely y). Never give the option to say, I don't know, because subjects can be unaware that he or she knows the answer, and studies show subjects can be greater than chance through &lt;em&gt;unconscious recognition&lt;/em&gt;. Then, if you're afraid of a side bias, extracting only &quot;definitely&quot; answers should be a way of excluding that possibility, because if they were just guessing they would choose the &quot;probably&quot; answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1038" LastActivityDate="2012-08-10T18:24:39.783" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1534" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="84" CreationDate="2012-08-10T22:59:37.007" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;When classes come visit the &lt;a href=&quot;http://evolutionaryanthropology.duke.edu/research/dogs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Duke Canine Cognition Center&lt;/a&gt;, we ask them how they would test the memory of their pet. The kids come up with a solution pretty similar to how its done. One kid put down 5 different cups, showed the dog a treat, and placed it under one of the cups. Then the dog was either distracted, or simply restricted from approaching the cups, for a fixed amount of time. The dogs are very eager to retrieve the treat, and will often just stare at the cup until the time has elapsed, so in another version we shield the cups with a giant occluding board so the dog must keep an &lt;em&gt;internal representation&lt;/em&gt;. This task is no problem for many dogs. We do 20 second, 40 second, and then 60 second trials with only 3 cups, and there is a lot of variability in success.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1038" LastActivityDate="2012-08-10T22:59:37.007" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1535" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-11T12:08:49.213" Score="8" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeromyanglim.blogspot.com.au/2012/07/video-knitr-rmarkdown-rstudio.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;big proponent&lt;/a&gt;  of &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/14999/how-are-we-defining-reproducible-research/15006#15006&quot;&gt;reproducible data analysis&lt;/a&gt;. In particular, I like when researchers share documents in formats like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;ved=0CE8QFjAA&amp;amp;url=http://www.statistik.lmu.de/~leisch/Sweave/&amp;amp;ei=l0cmUNGJK7G6iAe3n4DYBw&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNFEae6blgD42G_2sDvkOct41_qwrw&amp;amp;sig2=nf4P4h6ivSqOgE4NED3Ltw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sweave&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://yihui.name/knitr/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;knitr&lt;/a&gt; which weave statistical output (e.g., text, tables, and graphs) into a statistical report. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I previously asked for &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/1980/183&quot;&gt;examples of reproducible research of any kind on Stats.SE&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/893/29&quot;&gt;for advocating articles in psychology&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;However, at present I'm particularly interested in complete examples of reproducible meta-analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meta-analyses involve a number of steps. Summary statistics and study information is extracted from source studies. Various transformations and steps are applied to the data (e.g., corrections for reliability, conversion from one statistic to another, etc.). Various models are tested; tables and graphs are produced. Some journals are requiring that researchers supply tables of data used (e.g., references used, summary statistics).  However, I can see meta-analysis as an area which could benefit from a more comprehensive reproducible approach: (1) it would permit greater inspection of specific methods used; (2) researchers could more easily build on the analyses used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, my questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any complete examples of reproducible meta-analysis preferably in psychology or a related discipline?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any published advocacy for reproducible meta-analysis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2018-02-08T19:44:40.080" Title="Reproducible meta-analysis in psychology" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;meta-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1536" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-12T19:32:30.580" Score="3" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;What conditions are associated with more intense feelings and stronger reactions to stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i.e., where someone may normally feel small amounts of happiness, pleasure, sadness, grief, etc., someone with this condition would just have these feelings heightened and then act in a way proportional to the perceived level of sensation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1044" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-13T03:55:04.587" LastActivityDate="2012-08-13T03:55:04.587" Title="What conditions are associated with more intense feelings and stronger reactions to stimuli?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2012-11-17T02:37:46.130" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1537" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-13T02:24:07.380" Score="6" ViewCount="309" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems likely that a positive attitude can speed up the healing process. but I can't decide by what mechanism it would operate by. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does having a positive attitude improve immune system functioning?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, what is the mechanism by which this occurs?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Initial thoughts:&lt;/strong&gt; Is it the inhibition of some sort of stress cortisol? &#xA;The answer seems like it would have to do with how the placebo effect or hypnosis suggestion functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1038" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-08-13T10:31:25.950" LastActivityDate="2014-05-09T14:25:59.140" Title="What is the mechanism explaining the effect of a positive attitude on immune system functioning?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1537" CreationDate="2012-08-14T05:40:47.980" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, it has not been shown that a positive attitude has any effect on the immune system (ignoring the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placebo#Clinical_significance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;less significant placebo effect&lt;/a&gt;).  What has been shown is that long-term stress has a negative effect on the immune system.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2004-15935-004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Short-term stress actually has a positive effect on the immune system&lt;/a&gt;, but long-term stress has been correlated with several affecting mechanisms: lower white blood cell count, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12693607&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;too much cytokine production&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following study found lots of mixed results.  A typical sign that there's really no clear answer to the question.  When there are so many confounding results, it's easy for people to only take the half they agree with, so we should be wary of our propensity to do so when we want to hear a particular answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The failure of optimism to consistently predict better physical health indicators and outcomes is consistent with this pessimistic view of optimism: “The best doesn't always occur. When things go wrong in a big way, the optimist may be particularly vulnerable.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I have suggested an alternative hypothesis to explain negative effects of optimism on the immune system (see Fig. 1; Segerstrom, 2001; Segerstrom et al., 2003; Solberg Nes et al., in press). This hypothesis specifies that under difficult circumstances, more optimistic people remain engaged with those circumstances whereas more pessimistic people disengage, avoid, or give up. Giving up can be a physiologically protective response because stressor exposure is minimized in the short term by giving up rather than remaining engaged...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1948078/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1948078/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-05-09T14:25:59.140" LastActivityDate="2014-05-09T14:25:59.140" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1542" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="994" CreationDate="2012-08-15T01:28:20.873" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe motherese exists to teach the infant to discriminate phonemes in the native language. Kuhl et al. (2005) show that during the first year language critical period, infants gain an increased ability to discriminate between phonemes of the native language, while their ability to discriminate between phonemes of non-native languages declines. Additionally, their ability to discriminate phonemes is initially language-neutral. Kuhl (2003) further shows a strong correlation between mother speech clarity and infant phonetic discrimination ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if clarity is so important, why talk to children in semi-gibberish and not normal speech? One possibility is that motherese emphasizes certain sounds to enhance the perceptual discrimination. Karzon (1983) investigates this idea, with positive results. To us motherese sounds odd, but in reality it is providing a clearer phonetic structure for the infant to learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's likely that the mother's desire to talk to her baby in motherese, and the babies appreciation of it are traits that co-evolved. Perhaps, like Falk suggests, motherese is an exapted remnant of some early hominid proto-language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This type of interaction might also have a role in the larger structure of mother/child bonding. But I feel it's unlikely that it evolved for that particular reason. What's more likely is that it was simply co-opted into that mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Karzon, R.G. (1985) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/002209658590044X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Discrimination of polysyllabic sequences by one- to four-month-old infants&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Child Psychology&lt;/em&gt; 39(2): 326-342.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kuhl, P.K., Conboy, B.T., Padden, D., Nelson, T., &amp;amp; Pruitt, J. (2005) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15475441.2005.9671948&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Early Speech Perception and Later Language Development: Implications for the &amp;quot;Critical Period&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Language Learning and Development&lt;/em&gt; 1(3-4): 237-264.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liu, H-M., Kuhl, P.K., Tsao, F-M. (2003) &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-7687.00275/abstract?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&amp;amp;userIsAuthenticated=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An association between mothers’ speech clarity and infants’ speech discrimination skills&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Developmental Science&lt;/em&gt; 6(3): F1-F10.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-08-15T02:36:20.560" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1544" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-03-10T03:00:54.027" Score="6" ViewCount="1311" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an AI question regarding &amp;quot;3rd generation neural networks&amp;quot; - spiking neural networks (SNN).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hve been studying this concept online from various papers, mainly &lt;a href=&quot;http://mathsci.kaist.ac.kr/%7Enipl/am621/lecturenotes/spiking_neurons_2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maass (1997)&lt;/a&gt;. I and am not entirely sure I understand why SNN's are considered pulse-code in contrast to earlier ANN's which are rate-code.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have background in neuroscience so I understand the terms and ratio, I am asking regarding the actual implementation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the practical difference in the fact that when each neuron updates its current state in an SNN it deals with the entire history of every pre-synaptic neuron and not only the last step? Is that what gives it temporal characteristics which previous generation ANN's lack? What is the key computational difference between SNN and earlier approaches?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Notes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question was migrated from SO, and a duplicate was asked on cstheory that was &lt;a href=&quot;https://cs.stackexchange.com/q/3195/55&quot;&gt;migrated to CS.SE&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="969" OwnerDisplayName="Amir" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-08-15T19:03:24.313" Title="Computational differences between spiking neural networks and previous ANNs" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1545" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1544" CreationDate="2012-03-13T20:11:06.920" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rate-based-network is a specific implementation of the more general spiking-networks. One may see a rate-based-network as a spiking-network in which the inputs from each neuron are accumulated over a short time-period (think of &quot;one second&quot;) and are used to update the state of their target neuron only once in each time-period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if an input neuron has an output of '40' in a rate-based-network, you should think about it as if it fire 40 times in the time-period, and only once in each time-period it's target neuron 'read' this input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, with spiking-neurons the output is limited to binary and hence the time-period used must be shorter than the maximal rate. In each time-period the target neuron updates its state based on it's (binary) input. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to summarize:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;* Spiking networks describe a more general phenomena.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;* Spiking networks can react to inputs with fine temporal structure and act in time-periods which are order of magnitude smaller than rate-based-models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also one may add that spiking networks are likely to be more accurate biological description of the brain (but still a very rough account).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Uri Cohen" LastActivityDate="2012-03-13T20:11:06.920" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1546" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1563" CreationDate="2012-08-15T17:58:59.270" Score="18" ViewCount="2221" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have come across a number of personality theories. There are even &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;disciplines&lt;/a&gt; of personality theories, dividing these theories according to the assumptions they are based upon. The most accepted/used theories seem to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big 5&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Myers–Briggs Type Indicator&lt;/a&gt; (MBTI). However, I assume these theories use traits to determine people's personality types too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the Big 5 traits seem to be of very limited scope. Also, measuring traits like introversion and extroversion using some random questions which have polar opposite choices seems to be a &lt;em&gt;fitting into a box&lt;/em&gt; sort of thing. There seems to be no scientific method while testing to determine whether people fall into one region or other for all the defined traits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By scientific determination, I mean one could use methods like the one laid out in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?Volume=156&amp;amp;page=252&amp;amp;journalID=13&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cerebral Blood Flow and personality: A Positron Emission Tomography Study&lt;/a&gt;&quot; to determine between, say, introversion and extroversion traits. I am not sure whether the other traits have such methods researched enough to distinguish between them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are there any personality theories that are based purely on scientific grounds?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are there any existing personality theories (that are being researched) that could one day be backed up by scientific research? I think the Big 5 might come under this category, but any evidence to the above regarding any theory will be appreciated. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1061" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-23T23:36:16.390" LastActivityDate="2017-07-17T16:50:20.447" Title="Are there any personality theories that use the scientific method?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1548" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-16T04:08:41.490" Score="18" ViewCount="455" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Background&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;one-shot game&lt;/strong&gt; is one where two participants have some set of actions &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\{1, ... , n\}$&lt;/span&gt;, they make their decision on which option to take (without knowing the decision of their partner, or in sequence depending on game). Based on the action &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$i$&lt;/span&gt; of the first player and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$j$&lt;/span&gt; of the second player, they receive some reward (or punishment) &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$G(i,j)$&lt;/span&gt;. The participants never play again, and are made aware of this before the interaction happens. There is no communication allowed between the participants except making their action choice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The game is &lt;strong&gt;perfect information&lt;/strong&gt; if the participants are made aware of all possible outcomes of the game ahead of time (they are shown and explained the payoff matrix &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$G$&lt;/span&gt; at least implicitly). The final result depends solely on the mutual decision of the players. From the perspective of the participant, there is no hidden state or chance apart in the action of the opponent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Game theory makes predictions on how rational players will behave in such settings. The fun part of psychology is that &lt;strong&gt;humans often don't follow these predictions&lt;/strong&gt;. They cooperate more than they should in Prisoner's dillema (PD), &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/251/29&quot;&gt;violate the sure-thing principle&lt;/a&gt; in turn-based PD (Shafir &amp;amp; Tversky, 1992), reject unfair offers in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimatum_game&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ultimatum game&lt;/a&gt; (Guth et al., 1982), vary across cultures in their propensity to punish in public goods games (Herrmann, et al. 2008), and many other things that game theory doesn't predict.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experimental literature is vast and divided between anthropology, economics, psychology, and law (just sampling from my own library). &lt;strong&gt;Is there a reliable current or canonical survey/summary/meta-analysis of well-controlled laboratory based experiments of human behaviour in one-shot perfect information games?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Notes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I prefer artificial well-controlled experiments with a large number of participants over natural or in-the-field experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The previous point means that I am alright with data just from WEIRD participants, &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2013/03/17/cultural-fairness/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;even for games where cultural variation is known to be significant&lt;/a&gt;. However, discussions of known cross-cultural effects is welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bonus if the summary looks at many different games in very similar experimental setting, and shows games where there is both agreement and disagreement from game-theoretic predictions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I am not interested in papers about a single experiments, unless you want to provide a detailed survey of many such papers, their results, and methodology in your answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Guth, W., Schmittberger, R., &amp;amp; Schwarze, B. (1982) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0167268182900117&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;An experimental analysis of ultimatum bargaining&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Economic Behavior &amp;amp; Organization&lt;/em&gt; 3(4): 367-388.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Herrmann, B., Thoni, C., &amp;amp; Gachter, S. (2008) Antisocial punishment across societies. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; 319(5868): 1362-1367.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shafir, E., &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1992). Thinking through uncertainty: Nonconsequential reasoning and choice. &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Psychology&lt;/em&gt; 24:449-474.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T13:03:55.973" Title="Human behaviour in one-shot perfect information games" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;&lt;meta-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1549" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1357" CreationDate="2012-08-16T09:06:07.653" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To what degree can the brain move resources from the &amp;quot;what&amp;quot; to the &amp;quot;when&amp;quot; to achieve a precise level of timing for conversion between sensory and motor output?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that you may be making a false assumption here. I don't think that the 'what' and the 'when' are in competition for resources. According to Arnal and Giraud (and many others), having a valid prediction of when an event is going to occur &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; having a valid prediction on which event is going to occur, &lt;em&gt;both&lt;/em&gt; lead to reduced primary sensory activity (and to a shortened reaction time). As such, you could say that the resources that go into making both types of predictions (the 'when' and the 'what'), reduce total resources used. In the opposite situation, where there is an invalid prediction, there is not only more total neural activity in primary sensory areas, but stimulus representations are also less sharp (Kok et al., 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, the differences seen in frequency space that are related to 'what' and 'when' predictions, as well as the fact that 'when' predictions seem to have a necessary stimulus-driven component while 'what' predictions do not, also point to a possible dissociation in resources used. In other words, it might not be the same neurons firing anyway. As an example, Wacongne et al (2012) suggested a model on how the feedforward and the feedback portion of predictive coding (of 'what' predictions) might work using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neuro.cjb.net/content/32/11/3665/F1.expansion.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;different neurons&lt;/a&gt; within a single cortical column.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, less resources does not necessarily translate to better sensory-motor conversion: selectively attending to a stimulus increases the amount of sensory brain activity, but decreases reaction times. It seems that it might boil down to how sharp the stimulus representation is (which is connected to valid/invalid 'what' predictions), followed by how strongly these neurons are firing (which is connected to selective attention). Squandering resources would mean having the wrong neurons firing, rather than firing more vs. less in a given sensory area. Once again, this would mean that forming any type of prediction leads to better use of total resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm still not sure if this answers your question, as the examples you give (e.g. drum beat) contain certainty on both the 'what' (sound of drum) and the 'when' (time of sound onset). If you want to dissociate the two, you could have a situation where you know what is going to come (sound of drum) but with a jittered stimulus onset asynchrony. Or, you could have a precise timing with novel sounds (a sound of a different pitch is displayed every half a second). In those cases your predictions would be mainly on the 'what' vs 'when', but in both cases hearing any of these sounds would carry an element of surprise, and would therefore lead to more primary sensory activity and a longer RT, i.e. more resources would be used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wacongne C, Changeux JP, Dehaene S (2012) A Neuronal Model of Predictive Coding Accounting for the Mismatch Negativity. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; 32:3665-3678.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kok P, Jehee JFM, de Lange FP (2012) Less is more: Expectation sharpens representations in the primary visual cortex. &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt; 75:265-270.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-09-14T14:13:50.737" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1550" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-04-20T18:39:46.777" Score="6" ViewCount="207" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am using Octave to generate a Neural Network with a single hidden layer, and saving it as two CSV files. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a utility or software that will load the files and create an image, PDF or HTML page that displays the weights over edges connecting neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1066" OwnerDisplayName="B Seven" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-16T13:12:44.400" LastActivityDate="2012-08-16T15:15:23.553" Title="Utility or software to visualize Neural Network?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1551" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1550" CreationDate="2012-04-20T19:32:53.817" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you have CSV files a quick way to generate images would be to open it in Excel (or a similar spreadsheet software) and use some sort of colour scale conditional formatting (under home&gt;styles in Microsoft Excel) - set the width and heights of the cells to small in order to view all the data at once.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also use a surface chart in order to visualise the data in Excel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise if you are familiar with a tool like Matlab or R, you might wish to use some sort of graphic tool to represent it, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mathworks.com/help/techdoc/ref/meshgrid.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;meshgrid&lt;/a&gt; in Matlab might work.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Matlab and/or R can be programmed to load several CSV files and create graphics from them.  The first two techniques I mentioned (although accessible to a more novice computer user) have to be carried out manually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Andrew" LastActivityDate="2012-04-20T19:32:53.817" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1552" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1550" CreationDate="2012-08-16T15:15:23.553" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;For what it's worth, I did a lot of research and did not find a solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I created my own using HTML, jQuery and a canvas. It's not pretty, but it does not require a lot of work because the functionality is simple: When you click on a node, display its edges and the associated weights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1066" LastActivityDate="2012-08-16T15:15:23.553" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1553" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-16T15:45:49.073" Score="14" ViewCount="7157" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of us must have come across personality theories like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;MBTI&lt;/a&gt; which use part of Carl Jung's concepts to make a theoretical system used to divide people into &lt;em&gt;types&lt;/em&gt;. For example, MBTI says that &lt;em&gt;if&lt;/em&gt; the person is not neurotic or something like that, &lt;em&gt;then&lt;/em&gt; he/she must fall into one among the 16 personality types that have been defined. Over simplification of the MBTI over the Internet has made the base of this theory unknown to many people, but talking about that in this question helps nobody.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MBTI as taken by psychologists, seems to be centered more around the concept of Functions more than the four letter model. Typing a person is done generally after recognizing their &lt;em&gt;Dominant&lt;/em&gt; function. Some psychologists seem to have made their own different models about these &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungian_cognitive_functions&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Functions&lt;/a&gt; (like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Beebe&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Beebe&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books/about/Personality_Type.html?id=sLvbTw5adxIC&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lenore Thomson&lt;/a&gt; for example). Some claiming 8 exist in the human Psyche, and some claiming 4 exist, some saying they gradually develop, some opposing the views and so on...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, I have come across a &lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/MGfhQTbcqmA&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Youtube video&lt;/a&gt; in which a researcher claims to have made this theory scientifically observable and researchable - and seeing that this video has been made at Google Talks makes it believable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think Jung's concepts - which are based on observation, introspection, Energy flow etc. seem to be somewhat like Pseudoscience to any scientific mind. However, after watching this video I started to wonder whether what he says is really true or not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additional Material&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;An &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Jung/types.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;extract&lt;/a&gt; from Carl Jung's Psychological Types where Jung speaks about these types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;An online &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personalitynation.com/forumdisplay.php?f=137&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;forum&lt;/a&gt; where each personality type profile exists as a sticky thread in its own subforum. These profiles use what seems like a modified version of the Cognitive Functions concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: What Dario Nardi speaks about in the video is essentially an outline of what he published in his book. I have found a forum &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.typologycentral.com/forums/mbti-tm-other-personality-matrices/50366-dario-nardi-s-neuroscience-personality.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;post&lt;/a&gt; where a summary of material he published in his book has been written. Please take a look at it if you don't have time to watch the whole video. Here's the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pdx.edu/sysc/sites/www.pdx.edu.sysc/files/neuro-systems.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt; to the presentation he shows in the video (a pdf file).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Short version: Is the evidence quoted in the above source (the forum link) a valid evidence to support a concept like Cognitive Functions as described by Jung?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Long version: There are two main things in the above source (the forum link) that I want someone to confirm as a proper evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, as quoted by the source above, Nardi speaks about various regions in Neo Cortex region where he placed these EEG sensors. From what I have read, it seems that he mapped the regions to some activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nPoZ2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Regions where EEG sensors have been placed&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's what he says about these regions is like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fp1 &amp;quot;Chief Judge&amp;quot;  (is used when/to)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Provide a reason&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Decide between options&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Detect an error&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Writing all of them here would make this question look like a book, but I want to know whether all this is as rigid as it looks or not. I want to know where Nardi is making a mistake in this research. (There could be some activities which might have been mapped wrongly, or those which have deeper mechanisms in brain rather than just in Neocortex region.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, I will not be long here, but there is a similar part where he speaks about various patterns (in regions of brain &amp;quot;lighting up&amp;quot;) he observed during this observation. Although asking for an evidence to this would be basically an extension to the first question, but my question here would be whether such patterns (not necessarily the same ones) have ever been classified/suggested in literature already?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, (this might be rhetoric question) if the answer to the above question is affirmative, Does this imply that theories like MBTI are really valid, and that there are really types among people's brains? (Nardi tried to map those patterns into types of people, as I said their dominant function)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1061" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-11-30T10:42:30.667" Title="Do the Jungian Cognitive Functions/ Processes really exist?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1554" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-16T18:15:18.540" Score="14" ViewCount="1341" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been checking out various personality typing assessments lately when I came across a Personality typing system known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socionics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Socionics&lt;/a&gt; which aims at explaining relationships between people of different types. It's based on some of Freud's ideas, Carl Jung's Psychological Types and Anthony Kepinski's theory of &lt;a href=&quot;http://wikisocion.net/en/index.php?title=Information_Metabolism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Information Metabolism&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Socionics uses a mixture of all the above to create its own sound theory about human psyche for each &lt;em&gt;type&lt;/em&gt; of person. Socionics is considerably different from MBTI and other typing systems in its approach largely due to ideas from Information Metabolism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While digging out more about Information Metabolism theory, I have found out that it implies things like information that is exchanged between people are like inputs and outputs from our brain. Socionics theory seems to extend this concept saying &lt;em&gt;&quot;Psychological features such as attention, interests, memory and motivation are components of this theory of information metabolism&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, because people differ in the way they process information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether our brain really has parts corresponding to information elements like that is a different question, but I first doubt the scientific reason behind the theory of Information Metabolism. It seems to be based on Freud's ideas (which seem like mere observations), but yet on the other hand speaks about parts of brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is this theory of Information Metabolism based on Scientific grounds?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are there any theories/research like Information Metabolism that has been developed or in development and is/are scientific? Does &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.shelleycarson.com/your-creative-brain/the-creates-brainset-model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CREATES brainset&lt;/a&gt; model qualify to be one such in development?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;This may seem like a tangential question, but I will ask it because it's somewhat related: Do these Information Elements, provided they really exist, influence our facial expressions and body language while we interact with others?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last question is to check out the validity of infamous &lt;a href=&quot;http://wikisocion.org/en/index.php?title=Visual_identification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual Identification&lt;/a&gt; used in Socionics communities for typing people by &lt;em&gt;looking at them&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Other links&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_metabolism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;entry&lt;/a&gt; about Information Metabolism. (The resources in western community about Socionics and related theories are limited because the theory is largely developed in USSR and it looks like a counterpart of MBTI over there!) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://wikisocion.org/en/index.php?title=Wikisocion_home&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt; about Socionics which has articles about the theory. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Jung/types.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;excerpt&lt;/a&gt; from Carl Jung's Psychological Types which has been largely used in Socionics.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1061" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-02-10T15:35:53.497" LastActivityDate="2020-02-10T15:35:53.497" Title="Is the theory of Information Metabolism a reasonable scientific theory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1555" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-16T18:42:29.680" Score="10" ViewCount="1329" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enneagram_of_Personality&quot;&gt;Enneagram&lt;/a&gt; personality typing system defines set of motivations and basic fears for its nine personality types among people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The system seems to be aimed at personal development of a person, and uses various approaches for the same (like one type integrating into other - which is essentially the person overcoming their basic fears using their motivations in a different manner etc.). For more info regarding the system, look &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.enneagraminstitute.com/intro.asp&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A large part of this system seems spiritual and based on very strange assumptions, but equally strangely - I don't know why or how - many people identify themselves with these basic motivations and fears in a way that doesn't seem like Forer effect - at least to me. The system is flexible enough that a person can identify his/her motivations towards one type and to some extent towards another type.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are the motivations and fears for people listed in Enneagram typing system discussed in any other scientific theory about motivations among people?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There doesn't seem to be much of Forer effect taking place because people seem to identify themselves and &lt;em&gt;&quot;grow into other types&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. If we assume people are basically overcoming their fears doing so, what is the scientific term/explanation for such a process? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Provided we have a flexible system here, people may &lt;em&gt;develop&lt;/em&gt; in a more complex manner than by just overcoming their basic fears while integrating/dis-integrating into other type. What are people doing to themselves doing so?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1061" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-25T12:06:12.687" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T12:06:12.687" Title="Do the motivations and fears behind Enneagram have any scientific reasoning?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1556" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1559" CreationDate="2012-08-16T19:18:05.757" Score="70" ViewCount="6278" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are &lt;strong&gt;many&lt;/strong&gt; theories/disciplines that have been categorized as pseudoscience in the scientific community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;list&lt;/a&gt; includes many things that are regularly even quoted in media like graphology, astrology, psychoanalysis, personality types, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What attracts people to such theories? Do any cognitive biases make people believe them easily? Which part of pseudosciences acts as a stimulus that triggers this cognitive bias?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If there's a cognitive bias behind people believing in pseudoscience, knowing that a majority of the population does that – is there any term for such a phenomenon in social psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A majority of the population believes in some kind of pseudoscience. Does this signify an evolutionary aspect of our minds – that people are still evolving into better species that might one day believe in proper science? Pseudoscience seems to be older than science; correct me if I am wrong here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1061" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T18:44:30.173" Title="What makes people easily subscribe to pseudoscientific theories?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="38" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1557" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1558" CreationDate="2012-08-16T19:57:01.257" Score="11" ViewCount="166" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can training a wild animal through operant conditioning somehow cause the animal to forget or be unable to perform tasks which it had perviously learned?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it likely that training wild animals through operant conditioning would somehow cause them to be unable to learn or retain other skills? Or is that not how learning actually works?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does teaching a bird an artificial task like eating from a feeder hurt its performance in the wild?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-16T21:33:42.737" LastActivityDate="2012-08-21T18:32:18.663" Title="Does teaching a bird an artificial task like eating from a feeder hurt its performance in the wild?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1558" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1557" CreationDate="2012-08-16T20:40:47.863" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't worry about &quot;running out&quot; of room in our brain. We often forget things just because &lt;em&gt;we don't need to know them&lt;/em&gt;, similar to . There are plenty of human savants that display apparently &quot;unlimited&quot; capacities of certain forms of memory, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthymesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hyperthymesia&lt;/a&gt; where one has a seemingly perfect amount of recall of autobiographical details (not to be confused with the largely debunked notion of &quot;photographic memory&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears we forget things not because we're low on space, but because we don't need that information (not that there's intent, it's just practical). Information often accessed is strengthened, information never used is weakened and lost. Similarly we physically prune neurons and connections we no longer use in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_pruning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Synaptic Pruning&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Back to the issue of survivability; it's possible that operant conditioning a wild animal could cause them to incorrectly react to natural stimuli. The biggest risk here would be &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/faculty/wasserman/glossary/Discrim&amp;amp;Gen.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Generalization of stimuli&lt;/a&gt;, like Little Albert becoming (temporarily) afraid of all things white and fluffy instead of just the rat he was conditioned with. If you trained a dog that brown furry things means I should attack and he generalizes this to a bear, it won't end well for the dog of course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would generally be less of an issue than you might fear however; an animal will quickly forget the conditioned response due to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Extinction&lt;/a&gt; provided the Conditioned Stimulus is no longer paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus. Repeated exposure of the CS with no US will eventually extinct the reaction; reinforcement learning goes both ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's even more unlikely that completely artificial conditioning will result in prolonged harm to survivability. This is because if the Conditioned Stimulus is never presented, the conditioned response will simply not be activated. The CS won't even need to be extincted, the animal would likely just forget eventually. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now the one thing I would worry about is Extinction of &lt;em&gt;natural&lt;/em&gt; defense/predatory responses. If an animal has learned through experience to do or avoid doing something and, through domestication/etc they no longer feel the urge to run from predators it will of course impact their survival. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's impossible to say one way or another really, but I hope that helps you understand what's potentially at work here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-08-21T18:32:18.663" LastActivityDate="2012-08-21T18:32:18.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1559" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1556" CreationDate="2012-08-16T21:29:08.687" Score="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two great TED talks that together help shed some light on your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;David Deutsch (2005) &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/david_deutsch_a_new_way_to_explain_explanation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A new way to explain explanation&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Richard Dawkins (2009) &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/richard_dawkins_on_our_queer_universe&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why the universe seems so strange&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a fundamental level, science is about explanation (and &lt;em&gt;sometimes&lt;/em&gt; using that explanation to make predictions). Thus, to most people, science is useless unless they understand the story it tells. The problem with modern science is that to have a good grasp of its explanatory power, you need a lot of (often difficult) background. As you gain this background, you develop what Feynman would call the most fundamental skill in science: always questioning, being able to say &quot;I don't know&quot;, and to hold contrasting ideas together. If you don't invest in acquiring this background, most of science seems like witchcraft passed down by ivory-tower academics in funny gowns and hats. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What pseudoscience (or even &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lhup.edu/~DSIMANEK/cargocul.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cargo-cult science&lt;/a&gt;) provide is explanations that require less background, purport to be more certain, have something for everyone (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forer_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Forer effect&lt;/a&gt;), and reassure you that &quot;there is an answer&quot;. If you look at much of pseudoscience (or ancient myths) more closely, you will notice that they tend to personify their subject matter much more than science (my favorite example is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homunculus_argument&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;homunculus fallacy&lt;/a&gt;). They use this personification to provide agency, intent, and meaning to their explanations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The great advantage of these human stories is that our minds are optimized for them. If you subscribe to Dunbar's &lt;a href=&quot;http://archives.evergreen.edu/webpages/curricular/2006-2007/languageofpolitics/files/languageofpolitics/Evol_Anthrop_6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social Brain Hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;, then one of the main things evolution produced is a mind built to understand social structure, and other people. When an agent does not adhere to its role and violates our theory-of-mind and behaves erratically, without discernible intent and meaning, this is dangerous to us and our society; it causes us great discomfort. When you hijack the social mind to try to explain further and further afield parts of nature, you try to build the same sort of characters. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you have to say &quot;I don't know&quot; or &quot;I don't understand&quot; this character, it creates discomfort. Pseudoscience thrives on this by giving an arbitrary, simple, shallow and easy to change explanation. Since most lay-people never pursue this explanation far enough to notice its contradictions, and since it shapes their observations (in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/q/3498/686&quot;&gt;Popper-sense&lt;/a&gt; and through &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;) they never get a strong enough cognitive-dissonance to overcome to positive feeling of having an understandable 'explanation'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, all I can do in this answer is provide a intuitively appealing, intent and agency based explanation. Reread my answer and make note of unnecessary personifications I made -- just like much of pseudoscience, science is a story and there is the biggest rub.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2018-07-04T18:44:30.173" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T18:44:30.173" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1560" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="508" CreationDate="2012-08-16T21:49:40.600" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogsci.nl/software/opensesame/&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;OpenSesame&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a recent entry that is cross-platform and seems to promote GUI-based design while allowing customization via Python scripting.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be found at their website (link above).  A recent &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/n264513n66704v33/abstract/&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; has references and summarizes 16 other tools as well (including some reported in the other stackexchange responses).  I found great video tutorials and the interface to be friendly and easy to use.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to not yet provide included ways of networking experiments (e.g. for yoked experiments or multi-subject games), but I suspect you could add this in with the custom Python scripting.  For simple stimulus presentation and response tracking, I found it worked great and allowed rapid development.  I wrote the experiment on my Linux machine and deployed for subject testing on Windows machines with no problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1067" LastActivityDate="2012-08-16T21:49:40.600" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1561" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1562" CreationDate="2012-08-17T01:15:13.107" Score="6" ViewCount="212" Body="&lt;p&gt;When using operant conditioning to train mice or rats, what type of stimulus is most effective? For example, does a negative reinforcement of a loud noise have a more profound effect than a negative reinforcement of pain? What about for positive reinforcement? Is pleasure more powerful than food? Which type of stimulus is considered optimal for learning? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-17T05:49:43.900" LastActivityDate="2012-08-18T20:51:46.323" Title="Which type of stimulus results in an optimal learning curve for rats and mice?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1561" CreationDate="2012-08-18T20:51:46.323" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, the concept of optimality of a learning curve is not well defined. You can measure at least 3 different aspects of learning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Speed of learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Time before extinction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Performance at peak&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there may be other measures as well, and any combination of such measure may also be a legitimate measure for certain uses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conditioned Taste Aversion (CTA)&lt;/strong&gt; is a form of learning in which animals (and humans) learn to avoid a type of food after consuming it and suffering symptoms resembling food poisoning shortly after. &lt;strong&gt;In certain cases, the learning can take a single trial, cause the animal to completely avoid the food, and last for a lifetime &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1998-08099-000&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, making this an optimal learning in all of the above 3 measures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, CTA is a very special and specific type of learning, and won't help you in teaching your rat to walk in a maze... &lt;strong&gt;I haven't found a methodological comparison of different types of reinforcements, and I suspect such a comparison might be very difficult or even impossible&lt;/strong&gt;, because the efficacy of a (positive) reinforcement is greatly affected by the animal's &quot;appetite&quot; for it: for example, to use food as a reinforcement, rats are usually starved (the technical term is &quot;maintained on a food deprivation schedule&quot;) for a few days. To use water as a reinforcement, rats are kept on a water deprivation schedule. How would you equate the subjective level of starvation and thirst? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other aspects of the learning schedule have been studied more thoroughly. For example, to produce a long lasting learning (increase measure #2) at the expanse of speed of learning (measure #1) and peak performance (#3), you can provide partial reinforcement: reinforce the animal only on some of the trials &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/47/3/193/&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]  Conditioned taste aversion: Memory of a special kind. Bures, Jan; Bermúdez-Rattoni, Federico; Yamamoto, Takashi; Oxford University Press, 1998  doi: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1998-08099-000&quot;&gt;10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198523475.001.0001&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2]  Partial reinforcement: a review and critique. Jenkins, William O.; Stanley Jr., Julian C; Psychological Bulletin, Vol 47(3), May 1950  doi: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/47/3/193/&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0060772&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2012-08-18T20:51:46.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1563" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1546" CreationDate="2012-08-19T13:51:15.713" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you may be interested are personality traits caught by some statistical correlations, rather than 'manually' merged by an author's intuition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of such tools is &lt;strong&gt;16 Personality Factors&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 16 Personality Factors, measured by the 16PF Questionnaire, were derived using factor-analysis by psychologist Raymond Cattell. This article summarizes the analysis that resulted in the 16 factors and allowed the development of the questionnaire, as well as the relation between the 16 factor theory and the popular five-factor personality theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This statement has become known as the Lexical Hypothesis, which posits that if there is a word for a trait, it must be a real trait. Allport and Odbert utilized this hypothesis to identify personality traits by working through two of the most comprehensive dictionaries of the English language available at the time, and extracting 18,000 personality-describing words. From this gigantic list they extracted 4500 personality-describing adjectives which they considered to describe observable and relatively permanent traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(from Wikipedia: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16_Personality_Factors&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;16 Personality Factors&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16PF_Questionnaire&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;16PF Questionnaire&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-08-19T13:51:15.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1564" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-20T00:18:16.803" Score="15" ViewCount="198" Body="&lt;p&gt;Video is often presented at different sizes. On the Internet, many websites provide quite a few size settings. In the store, you can buy TVs of many different sizes. In both cases, it's the same resolution video being stretched to a various sizes. To the technically savvy, making the same pixel occupy a larger physical space does not increase the quality of the video. But to the average consumer, he may think bigger is better. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does the graph of perceived quality VS physical size look like? Is it linear, that is bigger is always better. Or is it parabolic? That is, there is a perfect ratio of pixel to size and any deviation from this ratio will result in a worse perceived quality. Or is it some other shape?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8jdGC.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wD40I.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="850" LastActivityDate="2012-08-20T13:00:44.003" Title="How is the size of a video related to its perceived quality?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1565" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1564" CreationDate="2012-08-20T12:20:50.403" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;At least for images (I don't know of such a result tested on videos) for a given resolution, there is an optimal display size (assuming constant viewing distance. otherwise, display size should be measured in angles from the viewers point of view). In a paper from 1989, Peter Barten provided a formula to compute this effect &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/16.34260&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. The gist can be seen in the following figure from that paper: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iIoyE.png&quot; alt=&quot;figure 8 from Barten 1989&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the low resolution images (e.g 100px wide) there is a slight advantage in quality ranking for the smaller screen over larger ones. However, as the number of pixels increases, the perceived quality on the small screen saturates, and larger screen are preferred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]  The Effects of Picture Size and Definition on Perceived Image Quality. Barten, P. G. J; IEEE Trans.on Electron Devices, 36 (9), p. 1865-9, Sept.1989&#xA;doi: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/16.34260&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1109/16.34260&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="38" LastEditDate="2012-08-20T13:00:44.003" LastActivityDate="2012-08-20T13:00:44.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1566" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20" CreationDate="2012-08-20T15:53:28.820" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I and other colleagues have published a paper on the cognitive impacts of MMORPGs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://reallyengagingaccounting.wikispaces.com/file/view/Computers+in+Human+%E2%80%A6+2010+Campello+de+Souza.pdf&quot;&gt;Link to full text here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The work also reviews some of the literature regarding the psychology of computer games and a new framework for the understanding of cognition in the digital age. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abstract: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The present paper attempts to empirically study the cognitive impacts&#xA;  of Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) in&#xA;  uncontrolled contexts in light of the Cognitive Mediation Networks&#xA;  Theory, a new model of human intelligence that aims to explain&#xA;  cognition as the result of brain activity combined with the&#xA;  information-processing done by external structures such as tools,&#xA;  social groups and culture. A sample of 1280 students Brazilian high&#xA;  school students answered a form inquiring about socio-demographic&#xA;  information plus the use of computer games, and also was submitted to&#xA;  a short knowledge exam and a mini psychometric test. The ﬁndings&#xA;  indicated that, due to their underlying structure and sociocultural&#xA;  nature, MMORPGs are associated to a greater level of insertion into&#xA;  the Digital Age, higher levels of logical-numerical performance, and&#xA;  better scholastic ability. Finally, suggestions are made for future&#xA;  studies on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Campello de Souza, B., De Lima E Silva, L.X. &amp;amp; Roazzi, A. (2010). MMORPGS and cognitive performance: A study with 1280 Brazilian high school students. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1564-1573.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1080" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-08-21T08:07:38.013" LastActivityDate="2012-08-21T08:07:38.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1567" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-20T23:15:55.387" Score="94" ViewCount="29136" Body="&lt;p&gt;Human couples usually have sex in private, hidden not only from predators, but also - other humans. It is unlike behavior of most species, including our relatives: bonobos, chimpanzees and gorillas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is private sex mostly a biological or cultural behavior? What is the advantage (if any) of such behavior?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-22T18:49:24.877" LastActivityDate="2020-11-01T20:58:50.420" Title="Why do humans have sex in private?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="24" FavoriteCount="31" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1569" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1567" CreationDate="2012-08-21T13:48:37.487" Score="49" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Introduction&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is interesting and quite under-researched topic in psychology. What has been studied and definied extensively are different abnormal sexual behaviours, and exhibitionism is one of them. In the DSM-IV &lt;strong&gt;exhibitionism&lt;/strong&gt; is defined as &lt;em&gt;sexual arousal by revealing one's body or performing sexual acts in public&lt;/em&gt; and it's a form of paraphilia. Attraction to being watched by others during  sexual intercourse is a form of exhibitionism called &lt;strong&gt;martymachlia&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSM-IV_Codes#Paraphilias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Presence of such sexual behaviours in DSM-IV&lt;/a&gt; is a clear indication that majority our society have deeply enrooted social and moral norms regarding inhibition sexual behaviour in public. If you think about it, majority of countries bans public sex and limits exhibitionism to designated places (nudist beaches and nudist colonies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Following valid and constructive comments by @Piotr and @Preece I removed speculative part of my answer about cultural factors and expanded my answer arguing for evolutionary explanation.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Territorial mating behaviour in animals&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Initially I should point out that you are not exactly right in saying that 'most species don't practice private sex'. It's true that many primates do that. But we can argue that some &lt;strong&gt;territorial behaviours&lt;/strong&gt; in animal kingdom are a form of providing security during mating. Those behaviours are very common in animal world including lizards (Davis, 1980), birds (Brown, 1969; Greenwood, 1980) and mammals (Greenwood, 1980).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Evolutionary development of shame&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@PiotrMigdal specified that he is mainly interested in the issue of &amp;quot;unwillingness to have sex in public&amp;quot;. We can trace the origin of such 'unwillingness' to the sense of &lt;strong&gt;shame&lt;/strong&gt; that could be explained from evolutionary standpoint. Darwin (1872) argued that shame represents what would be at the primitive level an instinctive seeking for cover, but his elaboration on this wasn't clear. MacCurdy (1930) took this idea further. He argued that &lt;strong&gt;prehistoric man sought concealment for activities which expose him to danger in a hostile environment, e.g., eating, sleeping, sexual intercourse and excretion&lt;/strong&gt; (Maccurdy, 1930). Concealment was sought prior to the fulfilment of any act that would limit or prevent rapid self-defence. For example, Maccurdy (1930) boldly pointed out that postures during both sexual intercourse and excretion prevents people from rapid self-defence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Malinowski (1927) writes that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it is characteristic that sexual activities, sleep and excretion are&#xA;surrounded by protective taboos and mechanisms of concealment and&#xA;isolation in almost every society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this context, the &lt;strong&gt;sense of shame could have developed as a response to natural drive for self-protection&lt;/strong&gt; (Dawrin, 1872; Maccurdy, 1930). Therefore, evolutionarily this would form the basis of unwillingness of having sexual intercourse in public.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because personal security increased with the development of civilisation, the sense of shame has also transformed and became more sophisticated (Maccurdy, 1930). The shame exists only for specific situations (e.g. public sex), but it doesn't apply in other social conditions. Maccurdy (1930) gives examples with excretion, where it isn't uncommon for partners to urinate in each others presence or in the presence of other friends. We can also put nudist beach in this 'shame-exclusion' category. Overall, evolutionary account would highlight that out &lt;strong&gt;need for private sex is related with growth for security, the extension of shame, and the evolution of modesty&lt;/strong&gt;. Along the same line, Malinowski (1927) also points out that &lt;strong&gt;sexual intercourse in public could excite jealousy&lt;/strong&gt; and would be an indicator to invite rivals to seize that which is being enjoyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;American Psychiatric Association. (2000). &amp;quot;Diagnostic and statistical&#xA;manual of mental  disorders&amp;quot; (4th ed., text rev.).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Davis, J. (1980) &amp;quot;The times of mating and oviposition of the Western&#xA;fence lizard &lt;em&gt;S.o.occidentalis&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot;, J. Herpetol. 14:102&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brown, J. (1969) &amp;quot;Territorial behavior and population regulation in&#xA;birds: a review  and re-evaluation&amp;quot;. Wilson Bull. 81:293-329.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Greenwood, P. J. (1980) &amp;quot;Mating systems, philopatry and dispersal in&#xA;birds and mammals.&amp;quot;  Anim. Beha. 28, 1140-1162.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Darwin, C. (1872) &amp;quot;The Expression of the Emotions in Man and&#xA;Animals.&amp;quot; London: John  Murray.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;MacCurdy, J. (1930) &amp;quot;The Biological Significance of Blushing and&#xA;Shame.&amp;quot; British Journal  of Psychology, 21, 174-182.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Malinowski, B. (1927) &amp;quot;Sex and Repression in Savage Society.&amp;quot; London:&#xA;Kegan Paul, Trench,  Trubner &amp;amp; Co.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-08-23T01:49:37.063" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1567" CreationDate="2012-08-22T11:18:49.530" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a fascinating question. According to Donald Symons (1979) &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Evolution_of_Human_Sexuality&quot;&gt;The evolution of human sexuality&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, it is a species specific adaptation that seems to be universal across cultures. Symons argued that having sex in private underlines the exclusivity of the relationship between monogamous couples. This theory does assume that sexual exclusivity is a universal feature of human relations. On the other hand, Ryan &amp;amp; Jethá (2010) &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_at_Dawn&quot;&gt;Sex at Dawn&lt;/a&gt;&quot; argues that humans are not by nature sexually exclusive, although I don't think they explained why people around the world generally have sex in private. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are instances, of course, where people have sex more openly. For example, I think it was Captain Cook or someone like that who described scenes in Tahiti where people were having sex while their neighbours looked on. But I don't know if this was considered usual behaviour in Tahiti or if there was some special context, such as it being part of a special ceremony where the usual expectation of privacy was relaxed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1090" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-08-22T18:12:18.407" LastActivityDate="2012-08-22T18:12:18.407" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1571" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1567" CreationDate="2012-08-22T15:57:46.747" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer has its roots in the evolution of human morality and disgust. I'll point to Steven Pinker for this one -- &quot;Disgust is intuitive microbiology&quot;. Sex is among the list of topics that elicit disgust, like spoiled food, bodily waste, poor hygiene, death, infection, inbreeding, etc, and these emotional reactions evolved to avoid diseases. We excrete our waste in private, we have sex in private, we keep our infections covered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1038" LastActivityDate="2012-08-22T15:57:46.747" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1572" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1567" CreationDate="2012-08-22T17:29:39.580" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just a very brief note: in some cultures, sex does not appear to have been confined to private space. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livius.org/ho-hz/homosexuality/homosexuality.html&quot;&gt;One article&lt;/a&gt; on the subject reads:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In fact, it seems that much of Athenian love life took place in public places: many vases show how people are looking when two people are having intercourse. There is not a single written statement that people objected to public sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Afther this remark, the author suggests a possibility that &quot;the vases are just as unrealistic as modern pornography&quot; but also offers a way to counter that claim. There is a little more on that subject in the article itself. My guess is that such cultural differences would render a purely evolutionary approach rather hopeless – although I do not have enough expertise in the field to verify the cited claim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As one might expect, there is some literature concerning similar problems in the humanities. I suppose it could be of use here. However, not being well acquainted with the subject matter, I can only point out two names: Michel Foucault and Anthony Giddens. There is probably more to be found if one digs deep enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1092" LastEditorUserId="1092" LastEditDate="2012-08-22T18:31:00.630" LastActivityDate="2012-08-22T18:31:00.630" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1574" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-23T08:17:32.323" Score="6" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can you point to published research in psychophysics that made its original* data available?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*by 'original' I mean the trial-by-trial responses for each subject, and not some kind of aggregate that is usually reported (such as overall percent correct for each condition, or even each stimulus pair). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am specifically interested in &lt;em&gt;discrimination&lt;/em&gt; studies, using &lt;em&gt;2-alternative-forced-choice design&lt;/em&gt;, but any other psychophysical work is also welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16/online-data-repository-of-research-in-the-cognitive-sciences&quot;&gt;this great question&lt;/a&gt; and went over its answers when looking for data. It seems the published data in those datasets is mostly social science, &quot;soft&quot; psychological data and imaging data, and I found only few psychophysical studies, none of them involving discrimination tasks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2012-08-23T11:35:52.350" Title="What psychophysical research published its data?" Tags="&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1575" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1574" CreationDate="2012-08-23T11:35:52.350" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's not exactly what you're after, but the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newcl.org/?q=node/4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Newcastle Cognition Lab has a data repository&lt;/a&gt;. It includes a number of learning curve datasets and other studies that measured response time to various simple cognitive tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-08-23T11:35:52.350" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1576" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1553" CreationDate="2012-08-23T16:29:00.223" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The research done by Dardio Nardi (the researcher you're referring to) clearly shows that something is there. Although, he would have no way of knowing as to whether his samples were of the particular type, or if what's being demonstrated really demonstrates use of that particular cognitive function. E.g doing something logical doesn't necessarily mean you're 'using' Ti.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do believe we have innate, instinctive preferences and can classify them into types as such, but I truly doubt that Jung's work would be 100% accurate. Even Jung was hesitant to be exacting in his understanding of the psyche - which lead him to leave a lot of holes in his model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myers and Briggs filled those holes with many assumptions - which is why the functions are a far better application to finding somebody's 'type'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, I would say that they do exist. But probably not exactly in the way they were described by Jung. Hopefully people begin to think critically about this, then maybe we can actually see some results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1103" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-08-24T09:55:13.560" LastActivityDate="2012-08-24T09:55:13.560" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1577" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16" CreationDate="2012-08-24T09:18:30.840" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not specifically for data from the cognitive sciences but &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.figshare.com&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;figshare&lt;/a&gt; might be worth looking at:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;figshare allows researchers to publish all of their research outputs in seconds in an easily citable, sharable and discoverable manner. All file formats can be published, including videos and datasets that are often demoted to the supplemental materials section in current publishing models. By opening up the peer review process, researchers can easily publish null results, avoiding the file drawer effect and helping to make scientific research more efficient. figshare uses creative commons licensing to allow frictionless sharing of research data whilst allowing users to maintain their ownership.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;figshare gives users unlimited public space and 1GB of private storage space for free.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(There is more information at their &lt;a href=&quot;http://figshare.com/faqs&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;FAQ&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As of now (August 24th, 2012) there is only one data set that is filed under psychology (from an article by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2012.01.004&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wicherts &amp;amp; Bakker, 2012&lt;/a&gt;) but there are several more in the social sciences. Maybe this interdisciplinary repository will grow some more in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="696" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-08-24T09:18:30.840" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2012-08-24T09:18:30.840" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1578" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1582" CreationDate="2012-08-24T11:22:48.550" Score="7" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;When presenting someone with an arithmetic item, let's say 2+2, what makes it difficult? Is the item 2+2+2 only longer, or also more difficult? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the mental operation of addition make the difficulty, or also the amount of mental operations? Or should the amount only be seen something influencing the length it takes to solve the item, but not it's difficulty? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any publications that address the idea of difficulty for psychometric items which address this question? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1106" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-08-24T11:27:21.847" LastActivityDate="2012-08-25T07:48:01.600" Title="What makes the difficulty of an arithmetic item? The operation or its length?" Tags="&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1580" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1588" CreationDate="2012-08-24T21:37:43.620" Score="6" ViewCount="509" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of any research in measuring &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;metacognitive abilities&lt;/a&gt; (i.e. metacomprehension, metamemory, meta-emotions(?), etc) in people? In other words, I'm wondering if the same way we have IQ tests (which I know is a whole other topic of debate), if there would be a way to measure &quot;meta-IQ&quot;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="759" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-08-28T14:18:34.937" LastActivityDate="2012-08-28T14:18:34.937" Title="Measuring meta-intelligence" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1581" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1587" CreationDate="2012-08-25T00:37:21.253" Score="11" ViewCount="252" Body="&lt;p&gt;A big question in neuroscience is how neural activity represents knowledge. We can use modelling to explore how different levels of neural activity- subthreshold currents, action potentials, local field potentials, etc.- relate to one another and, finally, to behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some models simulate behavior, for example which color flowers a bee prefers or how a mouse will navigate the Morris water maze. (Think Ch. 9 in Dayan &amp;amp; Abbot (2001).)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other models simulate the behavior of groups of neurons. Some of those even address what knowledge that activity could be representing. (Think Ch 10 in Dayan &amp;amp; Abbot (2001).)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are examples of linking the two?&#xA;(I'm aware of computational limitations, aside from computing power such as the foolishness of simulating stiff equations for long periods of time. )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT:&#xA;One example is exploring how local field potentials (LFPs) could arise from  networks of integrate-and-fire neurons. Earlier models of LFPs were phenomonological. They were simply coupled oscillators with different time constants and so didn't allow one to see how more detailed levels of description could create LFPs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1102" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-17T22:30:30.803" LastActivityDate="2014-11-26T20:59:23.163" Title="Computational Model Linking Neural Activity to Behavior" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1582" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1578" CreationDate="2012-08-25T07:48:01.600" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Difficulty of an item could be operationalised in a variety of ways: probability of getting the item correct, amount of time required to complete, amount of resources required to complete, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Item response theory perspective&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Item_response_theor&quot;&gt;item response theory&lt;/a&gt; literature item difficulty is typically synonymous with a parameter related to probability of getting an item correct. For example, in a basic three parameter logistic model, you might have a an equation like follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$&#xA;p_i(\theta) = c_i + \frac{1 - c_i}{1 + \exp(-a_i(\theta - b_i))}&#xA;$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where $\theta$ indexes individual ability, $c_i$ is a guessing parameter for item $i$, particularly relevant for multiple choice items, $a_i$ is the degree to which the item discriminates between individuals, and $b_i$ indexes item difficulty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of relevance to your question, this model asserts that the probability of getting an item correct is related to a number of factors including the ability of the individual and the difficulty of the item. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More complex models would permit individual by item interactions, where for example some individuals are better at math problems where as other are better at language problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Cognitive psychology perspective&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another perspective on item difficulty comes from cognitive psychology. We might alternatively call this feature of an item, its &lt;em&gt;complexity&lt;/em&gt;. From such a perspective we could analyse the component processes of the task to develop a model of its complexity. From this perspective, &lt;code&gt;2 + 2 + 2&lt;/code&gt; is more complex than &lt;code&gt;2 + 2&lt;/code&gt; because it generally requires more operations to solve. E.g., an individual needs to first solve &lt;code&gt;2 + 2&lt;/code&gt; as a subtask, store that value in working memory, and then &lt;code&gt;add 2&lt;/code&gt; to the stored value. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I think a cognitive strategy learning perspective provides further insight. Ultimately, it may be the strategy that has a particular complexity rather than the item per se. And strategies are acquired with practice and training. For example, when a young child solves the problem &lt;code&gt;2 + 2&lt;/code&gt;, they may have to apply the somewhat complex strategy of recognising this as an addition problem, counting fingers &lt;code&gt;1 and 2&lt;/code&gt;, then counting two more fingers &lt;code&gt;1 and 2&lt;/code&gt; and then counting all the finger &lt;code&gt;1,2,3,4&lt;/code&gt;. Alternatively, when most adults see &lt;code&gt;2 + 2&lt;/code&gt;, they are able to immediately and reliably retrieve the correct answer from memory. Or for example, if you are able to use a calculator, the difficulty of multiplication of large numbers is dramatically reduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a large literature on what is sometimes called algorithm-retrieval shift. I summarise some of this literature in my thesis (Anglim, 2011). To read more, you could check out Delaney et al (1988) or perhaps some of Robert Siegler's work (e.g., Lemaire and Siegler, 1995; he has a huge amount of research on strategies used in mathematical problems). I'd also encourage you to check out some of the many articles using the ACT-R framework (see below). The main point is that over time, complex tasks become simplified as individuals optimise knowledge, strategies, and task representations to the task domain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From such a perspective, 2 + 2 is easier from 2 + 2 + 2 for a number of reasons. It is simpler in terms of the typical strategies that are used, but also the structure of typical task environments means that &lt;code&gt;2 + 2 + 2&lt;/code&gt; will be less frequently encountered than 2 + 2. Thus, individuals are more likely to switch to a retrieval process on 2 + 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Summary&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;complexity and difficulty are strategy specific&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the environment influences task and strategy learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and thus, the environment can influence experienced complexity and difficulty&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anglim, J. (2011). Strategies in skill acquisition: reconciling continuous models of the learning curve with abrupt strategy shifts. &lt;a href=&quot;http://repository.unimelb.edu.au/researchfile272085.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Delaney, P. F., Reder, L. M., Staszewski, J. J., &amp;amp; Ritter, F. E. (1998).&#xA;The strategy-specic nature of improvement: The power law ap-&#xA;plies by strategy within task. Psychological Science, 9(1) 1-7.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lemaire, P., &amp;amp; Siegler, R. S. (1995). Four aspects of strategic change:&#xA;Contributions to children's learning of multiplication. Journal of&#xA;Experimental Psychology: General, 124 , 83-{97.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Robert Sigler: See website for many publications with free PDFs &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/&quot;&gt;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ACT-R Literature on Mathematical Problem Solving: &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/publications/index.php?subtopic=22&quot;&gt;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/publications/index.php?subtopic=22&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-08-25T07:48:01.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1584" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="635" CreationDate="2012-08-25T23:52:48.937" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a partial answer suggesting a possible causal mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the factors leading to birth defects and autism is mutations in the parent's genetic material. In a recently published article, Sun et al. (2012) observed that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paternal-to-maternal mutation rate ratio is 3.3, and the rate in fathers doubles from age 20 to 58, whereas there is no association with age in mothers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, while the mother's age will not have an effect on the number of mutations passed to the offspring, the older the father the more mutations. That means a possible causal mechanism for correlations of father's old age is an increase in the number of mutations (most of which are neutral or detrimental) passed to the offspring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kong et al. (2012) explain the connection of &lt;em&gt;de novo&lt;/em&gt; mutations (of the sort observed by Sun et al. (2012)) to autism and other disorders more clearly. This &lt;a href=&quot;http://chonps.org/2012/09/04/older-fathers-have-more-risk-of-having-diseased-children/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;blog post&lt;/a&gt; suggests why fathers might produce more mutations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference probably comes from the distinct biology of male and female reproduction. Cells that give rise to sperm cells continuously divide throughout a man’s life while cells that develop into ovules stop replicating when the woman is still a fetus. Consequently, an ovule at any time of a woman’s life will have gone through 24 cell divisions while sperm will be at about 200 divisions in a 20 year old man and up to 600 in a man of 40 years. When cells divide, they replicate their DNA to transmit a copy of the genome to each daughter cell but this replication is not 100% accurate. With each division mutations creep in the DNA so the more divisions a cell goes through, the more mutations it accumulates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kong, A., Frigge, M.L., Masson, G., Besenbacher, S., Sulem, P., Magnusson, G., Gudjonsson, S.A., Sigurdsson, A., Jonasdottir, As.,   Jonasdottir, Ad., Wong, W.S.W., Sigurdsson, G., Walters, G.B., Steinberg, S., Helgason, H., Thorleifsson, G., Gudbjartsson, D.F., Helgason, A., Magnusson, O.Th., Thorsteinsdottir. U., &amp;amp; Stefansson, K., (2012) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v488/n7412/full/nature11396.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rate of &lt;em&gt;de novo&lt;/em&gt; mutations and the importance of father’s age to disease risk&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; 488: 471-475.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sun, J.X., Helgason, A., Masson, S., Ebenesersdóttir, S.S., Li, H., Mallick, S., Gnerre, S., Patterson, N., Kong, A., Reich, R., &amp;amp; Stefansson, K. (2012) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ng.2398.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A direct characterization of human mutation based on microsatellites&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Nature Genetics&lt;/em&gt; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-08/hms-mmc082312.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;press&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-09-07T00:17:27.043" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1587" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1581" CreationDate="2012-08-26T10:48:20.320" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several such models in the field of auditory perception. For example Patterson 1996 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pdn.cam.ac.uk/groups/cnbh/research/publications/pdfs/PH96.pdf&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; suggests a model that starts with a simulation of the cochlea and the neural activity and reaches up to perception; Winkler 2006 &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.09.003&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; reviews the process of auditory perception, again from the cochlea up to perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somewhat old and does not mention a specific model, but still a very relevant review of the neural activity - behaviour interaction debate is provided in Barlow 1972 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/horacebarlow/67.pdf&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Patterson R.D., Holdsworth J., A functional model of neural activity patterns and auditory images‏. &lt;em&gt;Advances in Speech, Hearing and Language Processing&lt;/em&gt;, 1996. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pdn.cam.ac.uk/groups/cnbh/research/publications/pdfs/PH96.pdf&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Winkler I., Denham S.L., Nelken I‏., Modeling the auditory scene: predictive regularity representations and perceptual objects. &lt;em&gt;Trends in cognitive sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 2009. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.09.003&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.tics.2009.09.003&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Barlow B.H., Single units and sensation: A neuron doctrine for perceptual psychology? &lt;em&gt;Perception&lt;/em&gt;, 1972. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/horacebarlow/67.pdf&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2012-08-26T10:48:20.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1580" CreationDate="2012-08-27T13:12:55.883" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;A good overview on the topic is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pearsonassessments.com/hai/images/tmrs/Metacognition_Literature_Review_Final.pdf&quot;&gt;Metacognition: A Literature Review&lt;/a&gt; (E. R. Lai), page 27 has a section assessing the measures of Metacognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Flavell (1979) describes &#xA;  assessment tasks that asked children to study a set of items until they were sure they could &#xA;  remember them completely. Children were then tested on their ability to recall all the items. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another common task was to read a set of written instructions and indicate any omissions, &#xA;  mistakes, or areas of ambiguity. Schneider (2008) observes that the most studied type of &#xA;  procedural metamemory is self-monitoring. Assessments designed to capture this ability include &#xA;  ease of learning judgments, judgments of learning, and feelings of knowing. For example, ease &#xA;  of learning judgments typically ask students to study a set of test materials for a short amount of &#xA;  time and then assess their abilities to remember the material. After the students are tested on the &#xA;  material, their performances are compared to their initial predictions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally assessments focus on one specific area of Metacognition like Metamemory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&amp;amp;_&amp;amp;ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED383725&amp;amp;ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&amp;amp;accno=ED383725&quot;&gt;Development and Validation of an Objective Measure of Metacognition&lt;/a&gt; that assess four studies evaluating metacognitive abilities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Searching around on &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; finds a great deal of studies using and proposing various measures for Metacognition. There's certainly no &quot;standard&quot; like an IQ test, as Metacoginiton: A Literature Review notes, part of the challenge in studying and teaching Metacognitive abilities is due to the lack of focus on them in traditional school curriculum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-08-27T13:47:03.443" LastActivityDate="2012-08-27T13:47:03.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1590" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1454" CreationDate="2012-08-27T22:08:41.407" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well firstly, what are those statements really saying?  How do you measure &quot;processing&quot; or &quot;power&quot; as it relates to the brain?  For an electrical engineer working in communicatons, it's easy: you just take the square of the amplitude of the signal (signal power) or count the number of instructions per second (processing power).  But that's the discipline where processing power is defined; making an analogy to a brain brings a lot of caveats.  What's an instruction? How many little instructions can you break one instruction down into?  Where do you want to draw the line in a color spectrum that divided orange from yellow?  Or do you want to draw more lines and have dark and light yellow?  Or yet more lines...?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hans Moravec, a machine intelligence researcher, is famous for his comparisons of technology to organismal processing power.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.transhumanist.com/volume1/moravec.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; he explains a little bit about how he comes up with his numbers, but they're really not satisfactory to me.  He seems to take one example (the retina) and judge it by what it can do empirically with an image, then extrapolate from there to the rest of the brain.  So this only considers a single network topology in a system that has millions more variations in topology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The major problem that is a typical complaint by biologists when people use the computer science analogy for brains is that metabolism and functions are too closely coupled to easily separate.  Functional mechanisms can occur as negotiations between molecular networks (including genetic transcription) in addition to the electrical signals that electrical engineers and computer scientists generally think of as &quot;processing&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is especially outlined in the glutamine, gaba, and adenosine molecular networks (i.e. the transmitters are closely coupled to metabolism through ATP and the Krebb cycle).  A lot of recent evidence has also put a larger emphasis on astrocytes.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2765086/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; is about epilepsy, but takes some time in the introduction to develop ideas about astrocytes and brain metabolism complete with references.  The brain-metabolism material is typical in any neurobiology text book; astrocyte participation is a more recent line of research.  There's also still a lot of research coming up in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867412000050&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;molecular mechanisms for memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been all kinds of measurements on processing power, including at the genetic level, but all these measurements make an assumption about what a bit is by breaking biological subsystems into two states (this, 1 and 0).  But then later down the line, somebody will find that there was actually a third significant functional state.  So it's all about where people want to draw lines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another problem (more at the macro level now) is that the same task will have different processing requirements depending on how robustly the organisms internal model is approximating and predicting the external world.  So a task that you know what to expect for will take considerably less &quot;processing power&quot; than one where your expectations are not met.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v11/n2/full/nrn2787.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Karl Friston&lt;/a&gt; wrote an interesting review suggesting a modeling framework that might help to explain this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-08-27T22:08:41.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1591" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1453" CreationDate="2012-08-28T00:45:05.757" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Warmer temperature&lt;/strong&gt; are shown to raise aggression level (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com/content/21/5/434.short&quot;&gt;Anderson, et al, 1995&lt;/a&gt;).  Citing this study, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103109001152&quot;&gt;DeWall, 2009&lt;/a&gt; found a similar correlation between words associated with high temperatures and hostile behavior.  This could be perceived as a threat to clear thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/p798n8344631g565/&quot;&gt;Moss, 1996&lt;/a&gt; shows &lt;strong&gt;oxygen administration&lt;/strong&gt; increases memory. &lt;em&gt;However&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;intermittent hypoxia&lt;/strong&gt; on developing children led to &lt;em&gt;adverse&lt;/em&gt; effects (both mental and physical), according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/114/3/805.short&quot;&gt;Bass, 2004&lt;/a&gt;.  Though, I must say, you can't really determine the oxygen content indoor vs. outdoors without sensors, even if you raise in elevation and who's to say what competing particulates there are between the two environments?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's known that kinetic motion itself increases neurogenesis, mostly in studies with exercise, like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/104/13/5638.short&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt;.  There's been a lot of papers and laymen articles on the subject of exercise and neurogenesis lately.  The act of walking or climbing the mountain might contribute a lot to the subjective experience of thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-08-28T00:45:05.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1592" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1598" CreationDate="2012-08-28T04:40:15.193" Score="17" ViewCount="448" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently watched a friend fill out a personality survey for a minimum wage job. These surveys generally have a few dozen to as many as a couple hundred statements with which the applicant must agree, disagree, or stay neutral. The survey is designed to filter candidates. What puzzles me is what basis they use for this filtering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the questions are obvious correlates with negative employee qualities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sometimes I shout at customers to get my point across.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, gee, I wonder if I should &amp;quot;strongly agree&amp;quot; with that one?  Others, however, are not so clear:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I will work hard to get a job as an executive at a large company.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;My former bosses all say I'm the best employee they've ever had.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I spend a lot of time thinking through about a problem before solving it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, being a self-starter might help or hinder a job behind a cash register. Exercising leadership is great until you're one of 40 people restocking the shelves. Thinking through problems is a useful skill unless the problem facing you is trivial, in which case &amp;quot;consideration&amp;quot; might be construed as &amp;quot;procrastination&amp;quot;. Based on examples like these, it's not inherently obvious if these questions measure positive or negative qualities, or what the model response might be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, the size, type, and prevalence of these questionnaires suggests a level of sophistication in the selection process that I'm not convinced it is due. Supposing they test 5-10 core competencies, qualities like leadership, professionalism, and decorum, there are more than enough responses to establish &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mmpi#Validity_scales&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;inter-survey response validity.&lt;/a&gt; Of course, that assumes these employers spent millions of dollars developing valid, proprietary psychometrical measures, or co-opted something in the academic domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what are these surveys really testing?  Tongue-in-cheek, if faced with such a test, what would agreeing, disagreeing, or remaining neutral with the statement, &amp;quot;Employer personality tests correlate with success or failure in the workplace?&amp;quot; reflect about an individual?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1121" OwnerDisplayName="Christopher" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T05:59:11.037" Title="Do personality survey responses correlate to the success or failure of minimum wage employees?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1594" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-28T21:52:59.043" Score="23" ViewCount="547" Body="&lt;p&gt;Human infants are strange in that they are born more helpless than the infants of other great apes. They are born with about 25-30% of their brain developed, compared to the 40-50% of other great apes. Leutenegger (1982) showed that although human infants have the largest cranial capacity of all primates, the relationship between newborn human cranial capacity and body size is not different from that of other newborn primates. The ratio increases after birth to become 3-to-5 times of other great apes. To achieve this the infant undergoes accelerated brain growth (compared to apes) called the &lt;strong&gt;secondary altriciality&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The leading hypothesis to explain this has been the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrical_dilemma&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;obstetrical dilemma&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; which suggests that there is a trade-off between keeping hips small to allow efficient upright walking, and making the brain large. A &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2012/08/28/why-humans-give-birth-to-helpless-babies/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent alternative&lt;/a&gt; suggests that there is no measurable handicap from having wider hips, and that the reason for the early birth is &lt;strong&gt;metabolic considerations&lt;/strong&gt; (too expensive for the mother to continue feeding the fetus internally).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me both these hypotheses seem fundamentally flawed in that they assume it is beneficial to be born with a more (or fully) developed brain. Although we know that the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/791/29&quot;&gt;brain shows development, self-organization, and activity in the fetus&lt;/a&gt; this is not as efficient as the development possible once the organism is capable of receiving richer stimulus outside the womb. In particular, a fetus is incapable of learning in a social setting. If you subscribe to Dunbar's &lt;a href=&quot;http://archives.evergreen.edu/webpages/curricular/2006-2007/languageofpolitics/files/languageofpolitics/Evol_Anthrop_6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social Brain Hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;, then this social learning is what our brain is for. Thus, it seems natural to expect that it is more adaptive for a human to be born with a smaller brain (past a certain min threshold) to allow more development and social learning outside the womb.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a commentary on the new article, Karen Rosenberg suggests the same thing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe human newborns are adapted to soaking up all this cultural stuff and maybe being born earlier lets you do this. Maybe being born earlier is better if you’re a cultural animal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;em&gt;development of social cognition&lt;/em&gt; (my name; comments with historic name for this hypothesis are appreciated) approach was suggested by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Portmann&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adolf Portmann&lt;/a&gt; in the 60s, but without much evidence to support it. &lt;strong&gt;What is the current evidence on the development of social cognition hypothesis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leutenegger W. (1982) Encephalization and obstetrics in primates&#xA;with particular reference to human evolution. In: Armstrong E,&#xA;Falk D, eds. Primate Brain Evolution. New York: Plenum. 85–95&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-03-20T20:54:40.143" Title="Development of social cognition as an alternative to the obstetrical dilemma" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1595" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-30T20:28:49.273" Score="12" ViewCount="342" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that parent beliefs have very strong influence on child, but is it possible that genetic factor also play a role? I doubt that the content of any religion could be heritable through genes nor anyone could be genetically predestined to be Christian, Jew, Buddhist or votary of any particular religion. But is it possible that some kind of sensitivity to religious aspect of life could be heritable? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that it is hard to distinguish genetic and environmental factor in such case, but maybe someone have already made such research for example on monozygotic and dizygotic twins or adopted children? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've thought that if it is indeed heritable, then celibacy in the Catholic Church might be suicidal for this faith, as it eliminates the (potential) &quot;godliness genes&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1125" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-24T00:58:42.517" LastActivityDate="2013-06-24T00:58:42.517" Title="Is religiousness a genetically heritable feature?" Tags="&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="15" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1597" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-31T01:26:40.110" Score="14" ViewCount="1710" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Background:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One free measures of the Big 5 is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/New_IPIP-100-item-scale.htm&quot;&gt;IPIP&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;I have noticed that IPIP items seem to have a positive bias towards items loading on the extraversion (EX), emotional stability (ES), conscientiousness (C), agreeableness (A), and openness/intellectance (O) pole of the scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, for agreeableness, you have items &quot;I am interested in people&quot; (positive) and &quot;I insult people&quot; (negative), or for conscientiousness you have items &quot;I pay attention to details&quot; (positive) or &quot;I make a mess of things&quot; (negative).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, at the level of a construct there are positive aspects to all the other poles of the Big 5. Being disagreeable could mean that you are comfortable confronting people when you believe they have done something wrong or that you are comfortable pointing out social injustice. Being lower on conscientiousness may mean that you don't feel the need to do everything perfectly in life or that you believe that sometimes it's better to be a little messy so that you can focus on more important things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I'm interested in the &lt;strong&gt;positive bias&lt;/strong&gt; in measures of the Big 5 towards conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, emotional stability, and openness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any research that quantifies the degree to which different measures of the Big 5 display this positive bias?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any Big 5 measures that specifically try to avoid this positive bias?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent is this positive bias inherent to the concepts of the Big 5?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-10-20T06:31:47.810" Title="Do measures of Big 5 personality have a positive bias towards extraverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, ageeable and open individuals?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;deception&gt;&lt;social-desirability&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1598" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1592" CreationDate="2012-08-31T01:57:46.110" Score="9" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Do personality tests predict job performance in general?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a large academic literature correlating personality test scores with job performance. You might want to check out the meta-analysis by Barrick et al (2001). It reports the meta-analytic correlations often based on hundreds of studies between Big 5 personality test scores and job performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general the correlations reported in the meta analysis are relatively small (e.g., $r=.12$ for conscientiousness is the biggest). These correlations get a little bigger if you adjust for measurement error in job performance. &#xA;So, in summary, in general Big 5 measures of personality tend to predict job performance; however, the predictive validity is not that high.&#xA;To see this in the context of other selection tests check out the meta-analysis by Schmitt and Hunter (1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Do personality tests predict job performance for minimum wage jobs?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if the category &quot;minimum wage&quot; necessarily captures the right distinction given such a category could refer to a diverse range of jobs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, in terms of breaking analyses down by occupation, at least at this very broad meta-analytic level, the correlation between conscientiousness and job performance appeared to be fairly similar across sales performance ($r=.11$), managerial performance ($r=.12$), and skilled or semi-skilled ($r=.12$) (Barrick et al 2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, at least from this meta-analysis, these measures of personality appear to predict job performance about as well for minimum wage jobs as they do for other jobs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;So what are these surveys really testing?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tests can be developed in a variety of ways. In general, there are theory driven processes and there are empirically driven processes of test development. From a theory driven perspective, constructs of interest can be defined, and items can be developed. From an empirically driven perspective, various statistical techniques can be applied to check for test properties such as the degree to which items intercorrelate in meaningful ways. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Particularly in the applied setting, items or scales can be selected based on the degree to which they provide predictive validity (e.g., correlations with job performance). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, personality tests provide a sampling of behaviour in a standardised way. If items have been developed in a more empirical way, then an explicit theory may not necessarily exist for the meaning of every item. Rather, it is the scale as a whole that takes on meaning which can be informed by a wide range of information including correlations within the test and correlations between the scales of the test and other measures of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Barrick, M.R., Mount, M.K. &amp;amp; Judge, T.A. (2001). Personality and performance at the beginning of the new millennium: What do we know and where do we go next?. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9, 9-30. &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.175.8429&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schmidt, F.L. &amp;amp; Hunter, J.E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings.. Psychological Bulletin; Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262. &lt;a href=&quot;http://mavweb.mnsu.edu/howard/Schmidt%20and%20Hunter%201998%20Validity%20and%20Utility%20Psychological%20Bulletin.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-08-31T01:57:46.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1599" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-31T13:55:18.963" Score="8" ViewCount="2560" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the realistic/optimal (or maximal) number of words of vocabulary that can be learned (retained and later successfully accessed) by an &lt;strong&gt;adult&lt;/strong&gt; learner of a foreign/second language? (Unit: per day, week, or year.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Initial research:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Read the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition#Vocabulary_acquisition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; - result: Only focuses on children and their native language acquisition (as many articles do) vs. adults, who train conscientiously!&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Google search: Which search terms would you recommend? Results from &quot;vocabulary acquisition&quot; and &quot;amount of words/vocabulary&quot; (+daily) are in review.&#xA;I did not find much yet, see below..&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Google Scholar: In progress... (&quot;vocabulary acquisition&quot; and &quot;adult vocabulary acquisition speed&quot;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Unverified statements found from Google search:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;I am a student at the Defense Language Institute. We are required to learn about 80 words a day.&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://thelinguist.blogs.com/how_to_learn_english_and/2012/01/can-we-learn-100-words-a-day.html?cid=6a00d83451f03569e20177436793d8970d#comment-6a00d83451f03569e20177436793d8970d&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;) - &lt;em&gt;I tried to access the DLI / DLIFLC website to verify this, but the website was down yesterday&lt;/em&gt; (31.08.2012, 1:30 am, GMT+9)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1130" LastEditorUserId="13937" LastEditDate="2016-12-30T05:52:59.100" LastActivityDate="2016-12-30T05:52:59.100" Title="What is the average amount of new vocabulary adults retain when learning a second language?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1600" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-08-31T15:17:06.223" Score="9" ViewCount="366" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading a book &quot;The Theory of Fun in Game Design&quot; it talks about two concepts of psychology that I wanted to confirm are true. The writer the book isn't a psychologist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two concepts are Chunking Patterns and Enjoyment of Applying Patterns. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, according to the book he says we are pattern matching all the time. That's one of the things our brain does best. Once we recognize a pattern enough we chunk it. So when we drive to work every morning we don't sometimes remember the details because we do it so often we chunk those details. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Art, Movies, Music, Games, etc... that interest us are because they are introducing new patterns that we can either learn or combine with previous patterns. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has been essential to our survival so &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;our body rewards us for processing these new patterns by releasing endorphin's&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, basically is this a bunch of hogwash or is there some truth behind the &quot;theory&quot; that pattern recognition is rewarded with a release of endorphins?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also if this is true, is there somewhere I can read more about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1131" LastEditorUserId="16619" LastEditDate="2017-08-28T05:46:33.907" LastActivityDate="2018-04-03T15:19:28.507" Title="Chunking Patterns and Enjoyment of Applying Patterns" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1601" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-01T15:54:46.443" Score="5" ViewCount="379" Body="&lt;p&gt;Behaviorism's initial popularity was largely due to it's ability to take cognition and consciousness out of the equation; bringing it close to something that could be tested completely objectively by judging behaviors. Two of the most significant remaining findings of behaviorism are classical and operant conditioning. Because these acts can be studied in terms only of stimulus and reaction, cognition is largely ignored in related studies, especially in the traditional radical behaviorists' work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, to what extent is cognition actually at work during classical conditioning? Has it been shown that participants in studies are actually aware that they are starting to associate the conditioned stimulus with either the unconditioned stimulus or the conditioned response?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm excluding operant conditioning as I assume that at least for humans it is much more likely that a conscious awareness of the associations between stimuli and punishment/reward will result; perhaps this assumption is incorrect, I just thought it would help narrow the scope of the question. Feel free to correct me if it's wrong, I thought it should probably be a separate question however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll also exclude Conditioned Taste Aversion as it's a rather special case and often only takes a single exposure to stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there evidence of conscious awareness of classical conditioning, especially while the association process is still going on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-01T12:19:25.137" LastActivityDate="2019-04-01T12:19:25.137" Title="Is there cognizance or meta-awareness of classical conditioning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1602" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1601" CreationDate="2012-09-01T22:36:25.740" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what you're asking.  If it's found that there's awareness of the relationships in the experiment then typically it's argued that's not conditioning and the behaviour is modified through insight.  It's been a bone of contention with respect to classical conditioning and humans in the past.  You might want to look at Lovibond and Shanks (2002).  I think some of the thinking there is wrongheaded (how you assess awareness).  Nevertheless, it's a start for looking into the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're asking if there's an awareness of the effects of being conditioned separate from those of stimulus and response correlations, I don't think anyone has ever tested that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lovibond, P. F. and Shanks, D. R. (2002). The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: Empirical evidence and theoretical implications. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;28&lt;/em&gt;(1):3–26.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2012-09-01T22:36:25.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1603" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1599" CreationDate="2012-09-02T18:53:25.423" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am an instructor at DLI... if you just took our unit vocab lists for the 63-week Arabic basic course, there are over 11,000 words listed.  The vast majority are discarded well before students ever take the DLAB (Defense Language Aptitude Battery) test.  In order to achieve a 2/2 (Reading, Listening) on the test, a student could be expected to have passive contextual access to at least 3,000 vocab words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1135" LastActivityDate="2012-09-02T18:53:25.423" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1604" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1595" CreationDate="2012-09-02T22:51:48.663" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Monozygotic twin studies are the general course of action for this kind of question. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20921867&quot;&gt;Genetic and environmental influences on multiple dimensions of religiosity: a twin study&lt;/a&gt; concludes there is a genetic component. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A complete approach for these kind of studies is to take twins that have been separated to different households from birth and compare them to twins in the same household. I'm not sure what this particularly study does (haven't read it) but its a typical approach in behavioral biology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scilogs.eu/en/blog/biology-of-religion/2011-03-12/religiosity-genes-again-confirmed-by-another-twin-study&quot;&gt;summary of the above article&lt;/a&gt;, also references a book where they compared monozygotic twins to dizygotic twins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference between monozygotic and dizygotic twins is that monozygotic twins share almost a complete set of genetics (mutations happen) while dizygotic twins share the same amount as a normal set of siblings.  The idea being that if monozygotic twins share traits at a higher statistical rate than dizygotic twins, that there is a genetic component to that trait.  This, of course, does not mean the trait &quot;is genetic&quot; in totality.  Most behavioral traits have a combination of genetic and environmental (be it developmental, social, toxicological, or else wise environmental) factors.  There's also a new factor discovered recently that lies somewhere in between: epigenetics.  I can't be certain, but I'd think this would appear in monozygotic similarities, probably confounding results a bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2012-09-03T17:24:27.190" LastActivityDate="2012-09-03T17:24:27.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1605" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-02T23:34:27.877" Score="8" ViewCount="553" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several studies suggest that breast-fed babies become more intelligent children than formula-fed babies (e.g., Lucas et al 1992).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent overall does research support the association between breastfeeding and intelligence increases?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it reasonable to conclude that the association is causal?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or alternatively, are there better alternative explanations for the association?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lucas, A., Morley, R., Cole, TJ, Lister, G. &amp;amp; Leeson-Payne, C. (1992). Breast milk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born preterm. The Lancet, 339, 261-264.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1132" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-12T18:52:14.440" LastActivityDate="2013-04-30T11:55:44.443" Title="Does breastfeeding lead to increased intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1606" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1599" CreationDate="2012-09-03T10:59:41.660" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Try keywords like: &quot;second language learning number of words per&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some suggest 3-6 words per hour of reading, which is afterwards used for calculation of average per week, month, year. References of studies to support this claim are missing though: &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ip-173-201-189-182.ip.secureserver.net/archives/sla/waring120304.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ip-173-201-189-182.ip.secureserver.net/archives/sla/waring120304.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several times I found references on this study: Miltion and Meara (1995). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A longitudinal study by Milton and Meara (1995) found that adult&#xA;  learners of English as a second language could learn 2650 base words&#xA;  per year. more at:&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://iteslj.org/Articles/Cervatiuc-VocabularyAcquisition.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://iteslj.org/Articles/Cervatiuc-VocabularyAcquisition.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember it should be 7 words a day. If it is not, it should be at least divided into blocks of this size. If you google this number, it is mentioned on several sites, I do not remember the book I got it from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be careful using these numbers, it is likely that they depend on the techniques that students and teachers tend to use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="846" LastEditorUserId="1130" LastEditDate="2012-09-06T06:36:35.717" LastActivityDate="2012-09-06T06:36:35.717" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1607" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="897" CreationDate="2012-09-03T12:37:59.927" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will split this answer into two parts - first, about sensory immersion as it is defined and scientifically examined. Second, I will try to address specifically what you asked for regarding the effects of sensory overstimulation and overload.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sensory immersion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think your definition of sensory immersion is right when you said it's a &quot;deliberate overstimulation&quot;. There is an excellent perspectives' paper in Science, where the author refers to common definition of immersion as &lt;strong&gt;the subjective impression that one is participating in a comprehensive, realistic experience&lt;/strong&gt; (Dede, 2009). So you don't need to be overstimulated to experience immersion - you just need a specific context and environment for it. Quick literature search indicates that the study on sensory immersion has been mainly focused around computer games and virtual environments. Dede (2009) describes a number of  examples, arguing that &lt;strong&gt;immersion in a digital environment can enhance education by allowing multiple perspectives (Salzman et al., 1999), situated learning (Clarke et al., 2007), and transfer&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, students can model expert's actions to better learn how to perform surgery, using sophisticated virtual reality with tactile surgery robots. Or they test different epidemiological hypothesis in an online social games like River City. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Immersion has also been linked with flow-like experience in computer games. Nacke &amp;amp; Lindlay (2008) asked participants to play &lt;em&gt;Half Life 2&lt;/em&gt; while they were measured with electroencephalography, electrocardiography, electromyography, galvanic skin response and eye tracking equipment. They demonstrated measurable high-arousal positive affect emotions during intensive combat level in the game. There is extensive literature on that topic that examines cognitive effects of computer games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sensory overload&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effects of &lt;strong&gt;sensory overload&lt;/strong&gt; is quite a different story. Lipowski (1975) argues that overstimulation increases as a direct consequence of the accelerating pace of technological advance. Author points to the numerous sources of overstimulation including overcrowding, noise and work load (Lipowski, 1975). One the largest set of experiments on sensory overload has been conducted in Japan. &lt;strong&gt;Behavioural effects of sensory overload included heightened and sustained arousal, mood changes in the direction of aggression, anxiety, and sadness&lt;/strong&gt; (Kitamura et al., 1970; Hatayama et al., 1970). Some participants reported visual hallucinations. Authors also found that participants strongly preferred sensory deprivation to sensory overload (Kikuchi et al., 1970). Other studies showed that &lt;strong&gt;exposure to sensory overload produced an increase in the scores on the scale of social alienation/personal disorganisation as well as in the cognitive/intellectual-impairment scores&lt;/strong&gt; (Haer, 1971; Gottschalk, 1972). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, from the cognitive standpoint, it's difficult to see benefits of sensory overload. You mentioned the music as a potential factor, and indeed some empirical studies showed &lt;strong&gt;music can improve reading comprehension (Kiger, 1989), and contribute to higher performance in repetitive tasks (Fox, 1971)&lt;/strong&gt;. But majority of the studies clearly showed that such positive effects are only possible with low-volume and low-level of 'information load' in music (like speed, lyrics, etc.). Also, while I don't doubt your positive personal experience &lt;strong&gt;with dichotic listening, the studies clearly show that it has mostly negative and distractive effect on the attention&lt;/strong&gt; (Asbjornsen et al., 1995).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also difficult to find studies showing that dissociative state caused by sensory overload could benefit meditation. Studies shows that &lt;strong&gt;meditation is specific in its ability to reduce distractive and ruminative thoughts and behaviours&lt;/strong&gt; (Jain et al., 2007; ). Meditation aims at giving you better control over your attention, and I don't see how that could be achieved with heavy level of sensory distractions around you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I like your question and I understand your intuition behind it, but the research seem to indicate that sensory overload is mostly a negative experience and it is unlikely that it contributes to enhancement of cognitive functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dede, C. (2009). Immersive interfaces for engagement and learning.&#xA;  Science, 323, 66–9.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Salzman, M., Dede, C.,  Loftin, R. (1999) Proceedings of the SIGCHI&#xA;  Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems: The CHI Is the&#xA;  Limit, 489–495.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clarke, J., Dede, C. (2007) The Computer-Supported Collaborative&#xA;  Learning (CSCL) Conference, C. A. Chinn, G. Erkens, S. Putambekar,&#xA;  Eds., New Brunswick, NJ, pp. 141–144.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nacke, L., &amp;amp; Lindley, C. (2008). Flow and immersion in first-person&#xA;  shooters: measuring the player’s gameplay experience. Proceedings of&#xA;  the 2008 Conference on Future …, 81–88.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lipowski, Z. J. (1975) Sensory and information inputs overload:&#xA;  Behavioral effects. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 16, 199-221.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kitamura, S., Tada, H. (1970) Toh Psycho Fol 28:69.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hatayama, T., Takayama, T., Komatsu, H. (1970) Toh Psycho Fol 28:73.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kikuchi, R., Kikuchi, T., Kawaguchi, M. (1970) Toh Psycho Fol 28:84.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Haer, JL (1971) Percept Mot Skills 33:192.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gottschalk, LA., Haer, JL., Bates, DE. (1972) Arch Gen Psychiatry&#xA;  27:451.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kiger, D. (1989). Effects of music information load on a&#xA;  reading-comprehension task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 69, 531-534.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fox, J. G. (1971). Background music and industrial effciency: review.&#xA;  Applied Ergonomics, 2, 70-73.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Asbjornsen, A.E., Hugdahl, K. (1995) Attentional Effects in Dichotic&#xA;  Listening Brain and Language 49, 189–201.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J.,&#xA;  Bell, I., &amp;amp; Schwartz, G. E. R. (2007). A randomized controlled trial&#xA;  of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: effects on&#xA;  distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. Annals&#xA;  of behavioral medicine, 33, 11–21.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastActivityDate="2012-09-03T12:37:59.927" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1609" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="643" CreationDate="2012-09-04T12:55:45.403" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;We could have scientific clinical study of the reports of dreams.  Given that the dreams don't relate to specific real world events and often have very bizarre properties there's no reason to believe the report has much to do with what really happened.  Therefore, from a clinicians standpoint they're useful in that you're in a relaxed state when they occur and you're interpreting things according to your current psychological condition.  I'm sure any study of them from the clinical end that did occur would reflect some correlations of general features to chronic anxiety or clinical depression because of your interpretation of what happens.  That's sort of a gimme.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then again, it's still hard to interpret because depression and anxiety cause more sleep events (Kimura, Müller-Preuss, Wiesner, Flachskamm, Wurst, Holsboer &amp;amp; JM Deussing, 2009).  Perhaps that alone changes reporting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2012-09-04T12:55:45.403" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1610" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="643" CreationDate="2012-09-04T18:53:52.913" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, dreams are meaningless information, strung into a story or series of events and interpretation are therefore highly subjective.  The theory that I know best is that &lt;a href=&quot;http://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/11/6/671.abstract&quot;&gt;dreams are a result of &lt;strong&gt;memory consolidation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; during sleep.  Of course, this is &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2F10051_0EB9B761B7C0DF5668F06D4B896817CD_journals__BBS_BBS23_06_S0140525X00004003a.pdf&amp;amp;cover=Y&amp;amp;code=a5ac35472a1ca0798eb4aa14d4bda045&quot;&gt;still controversial&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory consolidation is explained (simple version) as follows:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;during waking, your senses bind information from the different senses into a single &quot;experience&quot; in the hippocampus.  This is stored as &lt;strong&gt;episodic memory&lt;/strong&gt;.  When you sleep at night (and even during the day, stream of consciousness may be associated with this effect) your hippocampus is consolidating the episodic memories into (for instance) &lt;strong&gt;semantic memories&lt;/strong&gt; in the temporal lobe.  The hippocampus actually sends signals all over the neocortex, but the semantic memories are the best understood and most easily graspable to laymen.  The basic idea is that all your experiences with an apple (episodic memories) get consolidated to some generalization of what an apple is (semantic memory).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is thought that as these streams of information travel from hippocampus to the rest of the brain, bits of its randomly interact with parts of our brain that are semi-conscious, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627304005653&quot;&gt;probably not in any significant way&lt;/a&gt;.  In other words, the meaning and episodes experienced in dreams probably has no direct resemblence to the declarative memories they are encoding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;sleep and memory consolidation in general:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v437/n7063/abs/nature04286.html&quot;&gt;Nature 437, 1272-1278 (27 October 2005) | doi:10.1038/nature04286&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-09-04T18:53:52.913" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1611" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1605" CreationDate="2012-09-04T19:38:49.860" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=482695&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kramer et al 2008&lt;/a&gt; is an excellent study of this question because it utilizes intervention, thus lending strength to the claim of causation, concluding that IQ was &quot;significantly higher in the experimental group for both reading and writing&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is it the milk itself?  Some argue that it's also the skin-to-skin contact, and the mother-child bonding. Academic success has been shown to be strongly correlated with emotional intelligence (e.g., Parker et al, 2004 found $r=.33$ between GPA and EI in a large sample of high school students) and some Attachment Theory proponents claim closer parental relationships lead to stronger emotional intelligence.  However, some studies demonstrate that only adults happiness is positively effected by percieved parental attachment, not emotional intelligence (e.g., Sillick &amp;amp; Schutte, 2006) and that emotional intelligence is correlated with a dismissive attachment style (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886903003350&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kafetsios, 2004&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;Arch Gen Psych&lt;/em&gt; article comments on potential mechanisms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Even though the treatment difference appears causal, it remains unclear whether the observed cognitive benefits of breastfeeding are due to some constituent of breast milk or are related to the physical and social interactions inherent in breastfeeding. Concentrations of essential long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are higher in human milk than in infant formula. Randomized trials of supplementation of infant formula with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, however, have yielded inconsistent results in both term [21] and preterm [22] infants. Another potentially important component of breast milk that could be responsible for the observed cognitive differences is insulinlike growth factor I, which is contained in higher concentration in breast milk than in formula [23] and has been shown to be absorbed intact across the newborn infant's gastrointestinal tract.[24]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On the other hand, studies showing long-term epigenetic behavioral&#xA;  effects of licking and grooming by mother rats of their pups [25] suggest&#xA;  that the physical and/or emotional act of breastfeeding might also&#xA;  lead to permanent physiologic changes that accelerate neurocognitive&#xA;  development. Finally, it is possible that the increased frequency and&#xA;  duration of maternal-infant contact implicit in breastfeeding vs&#xA;  bottle-feeding could increase verbal interaction between mother and&#xA;  infant, which might also have a stimulatory effect on cognitive&#xA;  development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[21] Simmer  K. Longchain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation&#xA;  in infants born at term [update of: Cochrane Database Syst Rev.&#xA;  2000;(2):CD000376]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001; (4) CD000376&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[22] Simmer  K, Patole  S. Longchain polyunsaturated fatty acid&#xA;  supplementation in preterm infants [update of: Cochrane Database Syst&#xA;  Rev. 2000;(2):CD000375]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; (1)&#xA;  CD000375.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[23] Nagashima  K, Itoh  K, Kuroume  T. Levels of insulin-like growth&#xA;  factor I in full- and preterm human milk in comparison to levels in&#xA;  cow's milk and in milk formulas. Biol Neonate 1990;58 (6) 343- 346&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[24] Philipps  AF, Rao  R, Anderson  GG, McCracken  DM, Lake  M,&#xA;  Koldovsky  O. Fate of insulin-like growth factors I and II&#xA;  administered orogastrically to suckling rats. Pediatr Res 1995;37 (5)&#xA;  586- 592&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[25] Weaver  IC, Cervoni  N, Champagnhttp://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap/article/viewFile/71/100..e  FA, D'Alessio  AC, Sharma  S,&#xA;  Seckl  JR, Dymov  S, Szyf  M, Meaney  MJ. Epigenetic programming by&#xA;  maternal behavior. Nat Neurosci 2004;7 (8) 847- 854&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kafetsios, K. (2004). Attachment and emotional intelligence abilities across the life course. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 129-145.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kramer, M.S., Aboud, F., Mironova, E., Vanilovich, I., Platt, R.W., Matush, L., Igumnov, S., Fombonne, E., Bogdanovich, N., Ducruet, T. &amp;amp; others (2008). Breastfeeding and child cognitive development: new evidence from a large randomized trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 578.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parker, J.D.A., Creque, R.E., Barnhart, D.L., Harris, J.I., Majeski, S.A., Wood, L.M., Bond, B.J. &amp;amp; Hogan, M.J. (2004). Academic achievement in high school: does emotional intelligence matter?. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1321-1330. &lt;a href=&quot;http://learn.tkschools.org/jdock/Lists/Biology%201%201st/Attachments/331/personality%20and%20academic%20success.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sillick, T.J. &amp;amp; Schutte, N.S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and self-esteem mediate between perceived early parental love and adult happiness. E-Journal of Applied Psychology, 2. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap/article/viewFile/71/100..&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-21T08:27:20.780" LastActivityDate="2012-09-21T08:27:20.780" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1612" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-05T01:58:20.117" Score="11" ViewCount="615" Body="&lt;p&gt;On Programmers SE there is a popular question about scientific evidence for &lt;a href=&quot;https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/questions/163631/has-not-everyone-can-be-a-programmer-been-studied&quot;&gt;whether some people either are or are not able to program&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/a/163633/4488&quot;&gt;One person cites&lt;/a&gt; an unpublished manuscript by Dehnadi and Bornat (2006) who state in an abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;All teachers of programming find that their results display a 'double&#xA;  hump'. It is as if there are two populations: those who can, and those&#xA;  who cannot, each with its own independent bell curve. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, educators have choice in how individual assessments are scored, how assessments are combined, and whether and how any final scores are scaled. These could all influence the shape of the final grade distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also imagine that to get a double hump would suggest that the variables that best predict student performance (e.g., time spent on subject, general ability, subject-specific ability) would have to either show a double hump or show a discontinuous relationship with performance. In particular, I can see that students that drop out of a subject without formally un-enrolling are likely to fail very badly and appear in a separate hump. I also suspect that certain types of subjects where answers are clearly correct or incorrect and where intuition from everyday life is less directly relevant may also give rise to a process where it appears as if people can either do the subject or they can't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the distribution of grades in university subjects?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent does the distribution of grades in programming subjects differ from non-programming subjects? Is it bimodal?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any theories or empirical evidence about what leads to bimodal grade distributions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dehnadi, S. &amp;amp; Bornat, R. (2006). The camel has two humps (working title). Middlesex University, UK. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eis.mdx.ac.uk/research/PhDArea/saeed/paper1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eis.mdx.ac.uk/research/PhDArea/saeed/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;summary page&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-12T07:31:54.790" LastActivityDate="2017-12-16T02:41:08.177" Title="What is the distribution of performance in academic programming subjects?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1613" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-06T22:41:27.417" Score="10" ViewCount="231" Body="&lt;p&gt;The duration of Short Term Memory is a fuzzy thing; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memory#Duration_of_short-term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia notes several disputes over it's length&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/a/25484/7627&quot;&gt;I recently alluded to this fuzziness myself&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I wonder if part of the apparently unpredictable duration is to do with the different types of details we remember. For instance I find it very likely that context-rich information such as where I left my car keys (many related cues exist in the relevant location to make it recognizable) likely persists longer than fairly arbitrary data (no relevant cues typically exist, except perhaps area code).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Experiments typically only focus on a single task or related tasks to measure short term memory. Is there any evidence that indicates different short term memory tasks have different &quot;forgetting functions&quot; or time until a specific percentage of the information is lost? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tasks I'm thinking of are basic memory tests like remembering lists of words/numbers/letters, remembering parts of a story, answers to a quiz; ideally things with different sorts of modality or potential for Chunking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:32:22.230" LastActivityDate="2012-12-06T01:54:14.630" Title="Does typical duration of Short Term Memory differ between tasks?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1614" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1613" CreationDate="2012-09-07T00:21:05.327" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As you pointed out, the duration of short term memory(STM) varies and there are different theories.   However, in mainstream opinion, ideas or thoughts classified as &quot;short term&quot; are said to decay after a short amount of time (minutes at most). If an idea is recallable after a few minutes (or even a minute) then it would be classified under &quot;long term memory&quot; (LTM). Your example of leaving your keys and then later remembering would be the following process: You leave your keys and the act is stored in your working memory and through special attention is encoded into LTM which you later recall while looking for your keys. Further, if you are using &quot;retrieval cues&quot; then you are attempting to &quot;retrieve&quot; it from your encoded LTM. So if a cue reminds you of something then that &quot;thing&quot; was already encoded in LTM. So this &quot;keys&quot; example and examples involving &quot;remembering lists of words/numbers/letters, remembering parts of a story, answers to a quiz&quot; are not short term memory issues at all but rather encoding and LTM issues. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if your question is &quot;Does the chance of encoding from STM to LTM differ between tasks?&quot; the answer is yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You do have a greater likelihood of encoding certain short term memories over others. This is generally because you have a vested interest in an idea or it has an attribute that is distinct from the others. For example: if I listed &quot;apple, banana, orange, house, kiwi, mango&quot; then you may pay special attention to &quot;house&quot; because it is not a fruit and thus different. Because you pay more attention to this it has a greater chance of being remembered. Interest also plays a part. If you obsessed over something (let's say ponies) and that word or an associated word (e.g. pony) appeared in a random list then you are more likely to remember that word than the other, less significant, words. It has also been shown that on average people remember the first word in a list (primacy) and the last word in a list (proximity) than any given word in the middle. Lastly, of course, there is a greater liklihood of remembering something if you try through mnemonics such as you mentioned (rehearsal and chunking). I hope this answered your question. I also hope I didn't misunderstand your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="957" LastEditorUserId="957" LastEditDate="2012-09-07T00:49:25.020" LastActivityDate="2012-09-07T00:49:25.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1616" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="587" CreationDate="2012-09-08T04:18:15.717" Score="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before trying to give any sort of answer, it is important to address a common misconception. In popular culture, the terms child-molester and pedophile are often equated. Scientifically, they are not at all the same. The approximate scientific definition for a pedophile is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;an individual that has an unwavering sexual attraction to prepubescent children similar to attraction heterosexual men have for women&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that &lt;strong&gt;a pedophile might or might not molest children&lt;/strong&gt;, and a &lt;strong&gt;child-molester might or might not be a pedophile&lt;/strong&gt;. Further, implicit in this definition is a close resemblance to a sexual orientation, and if you want a through and careful discussion of this (much better than my answer) then read:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Seto, M.C (2012) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/707378631u2m0648/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Is Pedophilia a Sexual Orientation?&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Archives of Sexual Behavior&lt;/em&gt; 41(1): 231-236.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, the actually relevant scientific discussion (as opposed to merely a semantic distinction) is threefold: (1) can pedophilia be considered a choice in the legal sense? (2) what causes it? (3) can it be treated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that for what we typically consider sexual orientations, questions (1) and (3) have clear answers: no, and no. However, for mental disorders, all permutations of answers to (1) and (3) are possible. Thus, answering these questions does not let you clear up semantic ambiguity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To start with question (2): in broad strokes &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/j57304j0t8832832/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blanchard, et al. (1999)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/j57304j0t8832832/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cantor, et al. (2004)&lt;/a&gt; suggest that pedophilia has a prenatal cause. For question (3) there has been no evidence to suggest that pedophilia can be treated or &quot;cured&quot;, much like how you cannot &quot;cure&quot; homosexuality. This lead to Van Gijseghem expert &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Language=E&amp;amp;Mode=1&amp;amp;DocId=4959361&amp;amp;File=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;testimony before the Canadian Parliment's Standing Committee on Justice and Human Rights&lt;/a&gt; that you quote from in your question. He concludes that pedophilia cannot be 'cured' through penal intervention. However, it is possible for a pedophile to abstain from becoming a child-molester. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This leaves us question (1), the legal part of this. In Canada, &lt;strong&gt;being a pedophile &lt;em&gt;is not&lt;/em&gt; a crime&lt;/strong&gt;, but &lt;strong&gt;molesting children &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; a crime&lt;/strong&gt;. The status of pedophilia as a mental disorder or sexual orientation is irrelevant to this since both mental status and sexual orientation are protected by Canadian law as long as they do not infringe on other's rights.  To help pedophiles abstain from molesting children there is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://cosa-ottawa.ca/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Circles of Support and Accountability (CoSA)&lt;/a&gt; program (note: it deals with all kinds of sexual offenders, not just child-molesters). This program is aimed to manage and not 'cure'. Wilson et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2311.2007.00475.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2007&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://sax.sagepub.com/content/21/4/412.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2009&lt;/a&gt;) have shown that CoSA produces dramatic decrease in re-offence rates for sexual offenders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-09-20T20:46:45.233" LastActivityDate="2019-09-20T20:46:45.233" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1617" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-08T05:07:14.127" Score="16" ViewCount="879" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~henrich/Published.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Joseph Henrich&lt;/a&gt; of UBC has been &lt;a href=&quot;http://edge.org/conversation/how-culture-drove-human-evolution&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;promoting his cultural brain hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;. The goal is to explain a selection pressure behind the development of the human brain and general intelligence. The basic premise is that our brains evolved to be better and better at accurately replicating cultural information (or memes) between generations. A secondary part of his hypothesis is that there was a tight co-evolution between culture and the genes that shape us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems contrary to the more orthodox thinking of that genes shaped the base of humans largely without large-scale culture (when we were small hunter-gatherer tribes and thus culture was minimal), and then recently (on an evolutionary time scale) large-scale culture 'turned on' and there has not been a sufficient time for this to produce large genetic differences. In simplest terms, the co-evolution was minimal and instead we should think of the key players being gene evolution followed by cultural evolution (on different timescales).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To confuse things further, some scientists (like &lt;a href=&quot;http://personal.lse.ac.uk/Kanazawa/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Satoshi Kanazawa&lt;/a&gt; of LSE) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2012/06/quick-study-satoshi-kanazawa-intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;view&lt;/a&gt; most of what we associated with the 'perks' of human brain (such as general intelligence) as mal-adaptive on the individual level. Thus there seems to be a large distinction between the 3 general threads, which raises the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the key evidence for the cultural brain hypothesis and gene-culture co-evolution?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only evidence I know of potential recent co-evolution of culture and genes is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1904158/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dediu &amp;amp; Ladd's (2007)&lt;/a&gt; suggestion that the split between tonal and atonal languages is related to a recent (~6k years ago) mutation in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASPM_(gene)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ASPM gene&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Is there other evidence of recent co-evolution between genes and large-scale culture?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Related questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/q/2532/33&quot;&gt;Do atonal languages have a tonal ancestor?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1595/29&quot;&gt;Is religiousness a genetically heritable feature?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T12:04:46.233" Title="Cultural brain hypothesis and gene-culture co-evolution" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1620" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-09-09T04:29:55.750" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The study of cognition about cognition, or the subject's knowledge concerning their own cognitive processes or anything related to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-09T04:44:07.417" LastActivityDate="2012-09-09T04:44:07.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1621" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-09-09T04:29:55.750" Score="0" Body="The study of cognition about cognition, or the subject's knowledge concerning their own cognitive processes or anything related to them." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-09T04:44:11.847" LastActivityDate="2012-09-09T04:44:11.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1622" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-09-10T03:03:00.467" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the condition where the input of one sense elicits the perception of unrelated sense(s), such as seeing shapes as having innate colors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/perception&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'perception'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;perception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-27T00:32:38.420" LastActivityDate="2013-08-27T00:32:38.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1623" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-09-10T03:03:00.467" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the condition where the input of one sense elicits the perception of unrelated sense(s), such as seeing shapes as having innate colors" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-27T00:32:44.497" LastActivityDate="2013-08-27T00:32:44.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1624" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1625" CreationDate="2012-09-10T07:11:52.087" Score="15" ViewCount="5583" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of the times, we associate symmetry with beauty. The symmetry may be in architectural/interior design for instance. Why would this be so ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1151" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-11T04:36:16.633" LastActivityDate="2012-09-16T09:45:05.513" Title="Why do humans prefer symmetrical arrangement of objects?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1625" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1624" CreationDate="2012-09-10T07:58:43.397" Score="14" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Indicator of genetic fitness argument&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;There is an evolutionary psychology argument. As with most evolutionary psychology arguments, the strength of the evidence is typically a bit fuzzy.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Symmetry in many aspects of the human body is functional. Such symmetry might be seen as the natural state that arises from a healthy life and a youthful body. In contrast various genetic abnormalities, diseases, and the like  can give rise to asymmetry (e.g., scars, moles, freckles, ageing processes, deformities, etc.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The argument might continue that it is adaptive for us to seek out sexual partners  who appear genetically and environmentally fit where symmetry may be one indication of this fitness. One could even extend the evolutionary argument to suggest that it would be adaptive to avoid certain types of diseased individuals in order to reduce the risk of catching some disease, where various forms of asymmetry may be indicative of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does this explain our desire for symmetry in physical objects? The perception of beauty in the environment might be seen as an extension of perceptions of beauty in other people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Little and Jones also summarise this perspective&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One explanation for the preference for symmetrical faces comes from a&#xA;  postulated link to an evolutionary adaptation to identify high-quality&#xA;  mates (see Thornhill &amp;amp; Gangestad (1999) for review). Symmetry in human&#xA;  faces has been linked to potential heritable fitness (‘goodgenes’)&#xA;  because symmetry is a useful measure of the ability of an organism to&#xA;  cope with developmental stress (both genetic and environmental). As&#xA;  the optimal developmental outcome of most characters is symmetry,&#xA;  deviation from perfect symmetry can be considered a reflection of&#xA;  challenges to development. Only high-quality individuals can maintain&#xA;  symmetrical development under environmental and genetic stress and&#xA;  therefore symmetry can serve as an indicator of phenotypic quality as&#xA;  well as genotypic quality (e.g. the ability to resist disease: see&#xA;  Møller (1997) and Møller &amp;amp; Thornhill (1998) for reviews). This logic&#xA;  would lead to a preference for high symmetry mates as evolution will&#xA;  have favoured individuals who had preferences for high-quality mates&#xA;  over low-quality mates. Indeed, morphological symmetry appears to be&#xA;  related to reproductive success in many species, including humans&#xA;  (Gangestad &amp;amp; Thornhill 1997a; Møller &amp;amp; Thornhill 1998). For example,&#xA;  more symmetrical human males have more sexual partners than less&#xA;  symmetrical men (Thornhill &amp;amp; Gangestad 1994) and symmetrical males are&#xA;  also more likely to be chosen as extra-pair partners (Gangestad &amp;amp;&#xA;  Thornhill 1997b). Thus the link between symmetry and attractiveness&#xA;  may reflect that preferences for symmetrical individuals may be&#xA;  potentially adaptive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Perceptual argument&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Enquist and Arak (1994) articulate a perceptual clarity argument. They wrote (my bolding):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Humans and certain other species find symmetrical patterns more&#xA;  attractive than asymmetrical ones. These preferences may appear in&#xA;  response to biological signals1–3, or in situations where there is no&#xA;  obvious signalling context, such as exploratory behaviour4,5 and human&#xA;  aesthetic response to pattern6–8. It has been proposed9,10 that&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;preferences for symmetry have evolved in animals because the degree of&#xA;  symmetry in signals indicates the signaller's quality&lt;/strong&gt;. By contrast, we&#xA;  show here that &lt;strong&gt;symmetry preferences may arise as a by-product of the&#xA;  need to recognize objects irrespective of their position and&#xA;  orientation in the visual field&lt;/strong&gt;. The existence of sensory biases for&#xA;  symmetry may have been exploited independently by natural selection&#xA;  acting on biological signals and by human artistic innovation. This&#xA;  may account for the observed convergence on symmetrical forms in&#xA;  nature and decorative art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Enquist, M., Arak, A. &amp;amp; others (1994). Symmetry, beauty and evolution. Nature, 372, 169-172.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Little, A.C. &amp;amp; Jones, B.C. (2003). Evidence against perceptual bias views for symmetry preferences in human faces. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 270, 1759-1763. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.faceresearch.org/students/papers/Little_2003.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-10T11:41:04.563" LastActivityDate="2012-09-10T11:41:04.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1627" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1628" CreationDate="2012-09-10T10:02:01.537" Score="51" ViewCount="8732" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many people advocate using the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ratio&quot;&gt;Golden Ratio&lt;/a&gt; in design (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.banskt.com/blog/golden-ratio-in-logo-designs/&quot;&gt;logo design&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the Golden Ratio's purported aesthetic appeal supported by scientific evidence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1151" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-11T04:36:03.157" LastActivityDate="2014-04-10T09:57:44.867" Title="Is Golden Ratio's association with perceived beauty a myth?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="15" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1628" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1627" CreationDate="2012-09-10T12:35:42.783" Score="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found a little discussion of the issue in Russell (2000), where he summarises some of the views of the scientific literature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recent reviews of the empirical literature bearing on the claim of&#xA;  special aesthetic significance for this ratio in the context of the&#xA;  perception of simple figures include Green (1995), Hoge (1995), and&#xA;  contributors to a dedicated edition of Empirical Studies of the Arts&#xA;  (Hoge 1997). Some investigators doubt that the golden section has any&#xA;  aesthetic significance, even suggesting that research on it be&#xA;  abandoned (Boselie 1992, 1997; Davis and Jahnke 1991). Others prefer&#xA;  to leave the question open, especially in view of the methodological&#xA;  difficulties associated with testing the significance of the golden&#xA;  section (Green 1995).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Green (1995) argues that &quot;[t]here seems to be, in fact, real psychological effects associated with the golden section, but they are relatively sensitive to careless methodological practices.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Russel (2000) explored the height to width ratio of a large database of famous paintings and did not find any particular support for a preference for the golden-section. Russel suggests that in the real world functional factors tend to constrain ratios.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McManus (1980, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ucl.ac.uk/medical-education/reprints/1980BJP-AestheticsOfSimpleFigures.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;) provides an interesting discussion of the methodological issues and the findings of research that has empirically studied aesthetic judgements of simple figures. McManus advocates the use of the paired-comparison method whereby participants make aesthetic judgements on which of series of pairs of objects is more aesthetically attractive. McManus observed that there were substantial individual differences in such preferences. McManus felt that existing empirical research was unable to adequately differentiate preference for the golden-section versus other similar ratios such as 1.5, 1.6 or 1.75.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Boselie F, 1992. &quot;The golden section has no special aesthetic attractivity!&quot; Empirical Studies of the Arts 10 1-18.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Boselie F, 1997 &quot;The golden section and the shape of objects&quot; Empirical Studies of the Arts 15 131-141.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Davis S T, Jahnke J C, 1991 &quot;Unity and the golden section: Rules for aesthetic choice?&quot; American Journal of Psychology 104 257 ^ 277&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Green C D, 1995 &quot;All that glitters: a review of psychological research on the aesthetics of the&#xA;golden section&quot; Perception 24 937-968&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hoge H, 1995 &quot;Fechner's experimental aesthetics and the golden section hypothesis today&quot; Empirical&#xA;Studies of the Arts 13 131-148.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hoge H, 1997 &quot;Why a special issue on the golden section hypothesis? An introduction&quot; Empirical&#xA;Studies of the Arts 15 111-114&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Russell, P.A. (2000). Testing the aesthetic significance of the golden-section rectangle. PERCEPTION-LONDON-, 29, 1413-1422.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McManus, IC (1980). The aesthetics of simple figures. British Journal of Psychology, 71, 505-524. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ucl.ac.uk/medical-education/reprints/1980BJP-AestheticsOfSimpleFigures.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-09-11T00:44:04.050" LastActivityDate="2012-09-11T00:44:04.050" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1629" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1627" CreationDate="2012-09-10T19:18:51.997" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;To add a small neuroscientific point to excellent @JeromyAnglim answer - there has been an interesting study by Rizzolatti group (guy who 'discovered' mirror neurons) published in PLoS ONE. Di Dio, et al. (2007) looked at the brain responses to Classical and Renaissance sculptures, but they manipulated the proportion of sculptures' features by violating the golden ratio, as showed on the figure below (source: Di Dio et al., 2007):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Wgaxv.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During the experiment participant's were asked to either observe sculptures as if they were in a museum, or give an aesthetic/proportion judgements. fMRI scans were taken during the task. Following the results from brain activity, authors concluded that: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the sense of beauty is mediated by two non-mutually exclusive&#xA;  processes: one based on a joint activation of sets of cortical&#xA;  neurons, triggered by parameters intrinsic to the stimuli, and the&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;insula (objective beauty)&lt;/strong&gt;; the other based on the activation of the&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;amygdala&lt;/strong&gt;, driven by one's own emotional experiences &lt;strong&gt;(subjective&#xA;  beauty)&lt;/strong&gt;. (...) in conclusion, both objective and subjective factors&#xA;  intervene in determining our appreciation of an artwork.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, the presence of the golden ratio in the sculpture determined brain activations different to those where this parameter was violated. It's quite interesting result that indirectly supports the association between positive aesthetic perception and the presence of golden ratio.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Di Dio, C., Macaluso, E., &amp;amp; Rizzolatti, G. (2007). The golden beauty: brain response to classical and renaissance sculptures. PloS one, 2(11), e1201. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0001201?imageURI=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0001201.g001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastActivityDate="2012-09-10T19:18:51.997" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1630" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-09-11T09:03:25.197" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions on the value placed on certain sensory stimuli, usually those of art, beauty, and taste.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Aesthetics&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-09-11T10:39:33.107" LastActivityDate="2012-09-11T10:39:33.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1631" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-09-11T09:03:25.197" Score="0" Body="For questions on the value placed on certain sensory stimuli, usually those of art, beauty, and taste." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-09-11T10:39:37.397" LastActivityDate="2012-09-11T10:39:37.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1632" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1633" CreationDate="2012-09-11T13:22:41.113" Score="-2" ViewCount="281" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is a scientific explanation for why some people enjoy watching horror movies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1169" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-12T03:31:44.857" LastActivityDate="2012-09-12T03:31:44.857" Title="Why do some individuals enjoy watching horror movies?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2012-09-12T13:11:13.260" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1633" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1632" CreationDate="2012-09-11T14:39:58.420" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Certain emotions/situations trigger parts of body's self defense mechanism which in turn make the brain release certain chemical compounds. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These chemical compounds in turn prepares your body to respond to the situation at hand. For example in case of life threatening situation one experiences an adrenaline rush which prepares the body by quickening the heart rate and adding strength (sometimes perceived as almost superhuman) and speed to our usual abilities. This lets an individual fight to the best of his ability or run away as quickly as possible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a side effect of adrenaline, the body releases dopamine which (among its many uses) stimulates the brain's pleasure system. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus when you experience a 'fear' moment in a horror movie, your brain perceives it as a threat and triggers and adrenaline rush which in turn releases dopamine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further reading: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenaline_Rush&quot;&gt;Adrenaline rush&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.news-medical.net/health/Dopamine-Functions.aspx&quot;&gt;Dopamine functions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1171" LastActivityDate="2012-09-11T14:39:58.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1634" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1641" CreationDate="2012-09-11T16:13:28.990" Score="11" ViewCount="458" Body="&lt;p&gt;What processes are triggered by imagining the taste of food (let's assume it's sealed so that its smell doesn't reach the test subject's nose) only by looking at it, based on memories of food with similar color, shape, texture and size?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the food seems to be good, usually saliva is generated, but what other things happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="975" OwnerDisplayName="user1306322" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-25T09:39:06.877" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T09:39:06.877" Title="What happens when a person &quot;imagines&quot; how food could taste like just from looking at it?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1300" CreationDate="2012-09-12T16:21:28.630" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;@CHCH has provided a good broad overview, but I thought I would also append some specific experiments that are considered to be a weakness of Bayesian models. The whole theme of this answer is an extension of Tversky and Kahneman's program of rationality-violation. All of these experiments &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; be fitted by &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt; Bayesian-ish just-so model of the sort &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/138/3/389/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bowers &amp;amp; Davis (2012)&lt;/a&gt; discuss. These &lt;strong&gt;just-so models&lt;/strong&gt; usually requires an unreasonably large state space (lots of free parameters), or grafting on unnatural heuristic-and-biases mechanisms for each individual experiment without any guidance from Bayesianism. I will present my narrative as an annotated bibliography.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shafir, E. &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1992) Thinking through uncertainty: nonconsequential reasoning and choice. &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Psychology&lt;/em&gt; 24: 449-474.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Townsend, J.T., Silva, K.M., Spencer-Smith, J., &amp;amp; Wenger, M. (2000) Exploring the relations between categorization and decision making with regard to realistic face stimuli. &lt;em&gt;Pragmatics and Cognition&lt;/em&gt; 8: 83-105.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tversky, A., &amp;amp; Shafir, E. (1992) The disjunction effect in choice under uncertainty. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science&lt;/em&gt; 3: 305-309.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned in the question, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/251/29&quot;&gt;elsewhere on the site&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;violation of the sure-thing principle&lt;/strong&gt; is one of the most popular examples of departures from Bayesianism. Given a random variable that can have only two possible outcomes A and B, probability requires &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(X)$&lt;/span&gt; to be between &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(X|A)$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(X|B)$&lt;/span&gt;. A violation is when &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(X) &amp;gt; p(X|A)$&lt;/span&gt; &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(X) &amp;gt; p(X|B)$&lt;/span&gt; (or both &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$&amp;lt;$&lt;/span&gt; instead). ST showed the violation in a game-theoretic setting, TS in a two-stage gambling task, and TSS-SW in a face-categorization task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tversky, A., &amp;amp; Kahneman, D. (1983). Extensional versus intuitive reasoning: the conjuctive fallacy in probability judgement. &lt;em&gt;Psychology Review&lt;/em&gt; 101: 547-567.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this study, TK described Linda and then asked the participant to make a probability judgement &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(\text{BT})$&lt;/span&gt; of Linda being a bank-teller, or a probability judgement &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(\text{BT} \;\&amp;amp;\; \text{F})$&lt;/span&gt; of Linda being a bank-teller &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; a feminist. In any Bayesian model (without some grafted mechanisms or weird latent variables) you need to have &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(\text{BT}) \geq p(\text{BT} \;\&amp;amp;\; \text{F})$&lt;/span&gt;, but the participants judged &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(\text{BT}) &amp;lt; p(\text{BT} \;\&amp;amp;\; \text{F})$&lt;/span&gt; and committed a &lt;strong&gt;conjunction fallacy&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gavanski, I., &amp;amp; Roskos-Ewoldsen, D.R. (1991) &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/61/2/181/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Representativeness and conjoint probability&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt; 61(2): 181-194.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TK's ad-hoc explanation for this is the &lt;em&gt;representative heuristic&lt;/em&gt;. GR-E recreate the fallacy in a setting where they show that the &lt;strong&gt;ad-hoc heuristic is not sufficient&lt;/strong&gt;. This points out the weakness of ad-hoc fixes to Bayesian-ish approaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sides, A., Osherson, D., Bonini, N., and Viale, R. (2002) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/y31v022778224128/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;On the reality of the conjunction fallacy&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Memory &amp;amp; Cognition&lt;/em&gt; 30(2): 191-198.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is natural to suspect that TK's result could be an artifact of participants not understanding the modern concept of probability. SOBV account for this by using a betting paradigm that uses probabilities implicitly instead of asking participants to report numeric values. SOBV show that the conjunction fallacy is &lt;strong&gt;independent of numeric probability reporting&lt;/strong&gt; and thus an intrinsic 'error'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feldman, J.M. &amp;amp; Lynch, J.G. (1988) Self-generated validity and other effects of measurement on belief, attitude, intention, and behavior. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Applied Psychology&lt;/em&gt; 73: 421-435.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moore, D.W. (2002) Measuring new types of question-order effects. &lt;em&gt;Public Opinion Quarterly&lt;/em&gt; 66: 80-91&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schuman, H., &amp;amp; Presser, S. (1981) Questions and answers in attitude surveys: experiments on question form, wording, and content&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When conducting a questionnaire, the order questions are asked in changes the resulting probability judgements. For a purely Bayesian approach, the mutual probability of asking A then B and getting a specific outcome is &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(A)p(B|A) = p(A \&amp;amp; B) = p(B \&amp;amp; A) = p(B)p(A|B)$&lt;/span&gt;. This would suggest that the order questions are asked shouldn't matter, so we have a &lt;strong&gt;failure of commutativity&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hogarth, R.M. &amp;amp; Einhorn, H.J. (1992) Order effects in belief updating: the belief-adjustment model. &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Psycholog&lt;/em&gt; 24: 1-55.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shanteau, J.C. (1970) An additivity model for sequential decision making. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology&lt;/em&gt;. 85: 181-191.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;order effect&lt;/strong&gt; is not confined to questions, but also to integrating evidence. The strongest point of Bayesianism is a clear theory of how to update hypotheses, given evidence. Unfortunately, for Bayes' rule &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(H|A \&amp;amp; B) = p(H|B \&amp;amp; A)$&lt;/span&gt;, but HE &amp;amp; S show that for humans this is not always the case and present heuristic-and-biases alternatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berges, G.R., Chapman, G.B., Levy, B.T., Ely, J.W., &amp;amp; Oppliger, R.A. (1998) Clinical diagnosis and order information. &lt;em&gt;Medical Decision Making&lt;/em&gt; 18: 412-417.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McKenzie, C.R.M., Lee, S.M., &amp;amp; Chen, K.K. (2002) When negative evidence increases confidence: change in belief after hearing two sides of a dispute. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Behavioral Decision Making&lt;/em&gt; 15: 1-18.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It might be tempting to suspect that these order effects are confined to artificial laboratory settings. Unfortunately, they &lt;strong&gt;appear in natural settings&lt;/strong&gt; associated with rational decision making such as BCLEO's study of medical diagnosis and MLC's of dispute mediation in a jury.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aerts, D. &amp;amp; Sozzo, S. (2011) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/apk5gu66340237m2/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quantum Structure in Cognition: Why and How Concepts Are Entangled&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Quantum Interaction&lt;/em&gt; 7052: 116-127.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;AS studied membership judgements for pairs of &lt;strong&gt;concept combinations&lt;/strong&gt;, and found among their participants found forms of dependence between concept pairs that violated &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bell's theorem&lt;/a&gt; and thus could not be fit by any reasonable classical joint distribution over the concept combinations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-09-12T16:21:28.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1638" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4291" CreationDate="2012-09-12T21:36:55.313" Score="14" ViewCount="786" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've a first question so I apologize if the format is completely awry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/087477618X&quot;&gt;Meeting the Shadow: The Hidden Power of the Dark Side of Human Nature&lt;/a&gt; and I came across this passage by Edward C. Whitmont:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The shadow cannot be eliminated. It is the ever present dark brother or sister. Whenever we fail to see where it stands, there is likely to be trouble afoot. For then it is certain to be standing behind us. The adequate question therefore never is: Have I a shadow problem? Have I a negative side? But rather: Where does it happen to be right now? When we cannot see it, it is time to beware! &lt;strong&gt;And it is helpful to remember Jung's formulation that a complex is not pathological &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;. It becomes pathological only when we assume that we do not have it; because then it has us.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bold is my own addition to emphasize where my question stems from. This is the whole paragraph to the end of the chapter so as much context as I could give on it. To me (psychology as an interest/hobby with no classes or experience) this means that when we ignore the effects a complex has on us then it becomes pathological. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example: Say I have an amputated hand and am lividly jealous at the sight of people doing things two-handed. By refusing to acknowledge and deal with this dilemma, I am relegating it to others to deal with by default and it thusly becomes pathological.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this accurate? Are there other important factors to take into consideration when considering a complex pathological?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1048" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-14T16:26:40.620" LastActivityDate="2020-08-27T00:03:08.070" Title="At what point does a complex become pathological?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;jung&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1639" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1869" CreationDate="2012-09-13T10:16:14.573" Score="8" ViewCount="205" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.princeton.edu/psychology/research/shafir/pubs/Pursuit%20&amp;amp;%20Misuse%20Useless%20Info.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bastardi &amp;amp; Shafir (1998)&lt;/a&gt; show how too much data disabilitates your decision making. There is also the popular &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Paradox_of_Choice%3a_Why_More_Is_Less&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paradox Of Choice&lt;/a&gt; argument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I can't find a reference stating that, when faced with a decision, 2 options are better than 3 or many options. It makes sense--you either like one of the options less or more than the other, and can then come to a quicker conclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is my intuition correct? If so, Could someone please point me in the direction of a thesis or paper which shows that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just &lt;a href=&quot;http://research.chicagobooth.edu/cdr/docs/pleskac2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;found this paper&lt;/a&gt; and will update my question (or answer it!) if I find an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE 2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realise that the converse can be true as well, especially in the scenario when obtaining something, like the latest tablet. For example, bias and culture could make it really easy for you to discount the vast majority of options (e.g. anything not made by Apple), but then you struggle to make the final decision (e.g. shall I get an iPad 64GB or an iPad 4G?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="256" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-13T12:37:11.037" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T06:43:04.263" Title="When faced with a choice and trying to make a quick decision, are 2 options better than 3 or more options?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1641" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1634" CreationDate="2012-09-13T16:54:00.120" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;As Josh Gitlin said, imagining something activates more or less the same parts of the brain as actually experiencing it. Behrmann (2000) is a good introduction to this in the visual domain, though that article is a bit outdated now. There is also a lot of evidence that representations of meanings (semantic memory) involve a distributed network of perceptual regions (e.g., Binder &amp;amp; Desai, 2011; also Barsalou, 2008) and there are some computational models that try to capture this (e.g., Rogers et al., 2004). Putting this evidence together suggests that the sight of food (visual input) would spread activation through the semantic network and would activate the other perceptual, emotional, and linguistic associations (taste, smell, food-related memories, etc.). Salivation is one possible outcome of the activation of taste and smell representations; but I think it is also reasonable to expect activation of memories of eating related foods, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jbpierce.org/Labs/AffectiveSensoryNeuro.html&quot;&gt;Dana Small&lt;/a&gt; is one person who has done some very interesting studies on the neuroscience of taste and smell perception, including top-down effects like anticipation (e.g., Small et al., 2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounded cognition. &lt;em&gt;Annual Review of Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 59, 617–645.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Behrmann, M. (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnbc.cmu.edu/~behrmann/dlpapers/behrmannImagery.pdf&quot;&gt;The mind’s eye mapped onto the brain's matter&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Current Directions in Psychological Science&lt;/em&gt;, 9(2), 50–54.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Binder, J. R., &amp;amp; Desai, R. H. (2011). The neurobiology of semantic memory. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 15(11), 527–536. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.10.001&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rogers, T. T., Lambon Ralph, M. A., Garrard, P., Bozeat, S., McClelland, J. L., Hodges, J. R., &amp;amp; Patterson, K. E. (2004). Structure and Deterioration of Semantic Memory: A Neuropsychological and Computational Investigation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, 111(1), 205–235.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Small, D. M., Veldhuizen, M. G., Felsted, J., Mak, Y. E., &amp;amp; McGlone, F. (2008). Separable Substrates for Anticipatory and Consummatory Food Chemosensation. &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt;, 57(5), 786–797.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.01.021&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.01.021&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2012-09-13T16:54:00.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1643" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1521" CreationDate="2012-09-13T21:22:43.670" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ekman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paul Ekman&lt;/a&gt; has shown definite links between emotions and facial expressions.  A &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=paul+ekman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar search&lt;/a&gt; for his name returns many many results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, consider how muscles are physically formed; that is, the more we use muscles, the better defined (and usually either stronger or more effective) they become.  Alternatively put, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jappl.org/content/88/3/1127.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;form follows function&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Put the two concepts together: over time, facial expressions create a muscular structure reflecting the most commonly created facial expressions.  This would be true whether or not &#xA;the expressions were emotionally-generated or self-generated (smiling because of joy or just self-creating a Duchenne smile).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, partially the answer would appear to be yes; some degree of facial structure could be correlated with personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it's less certain whether or not other facial features correlate with personality.  Non-modifiable structures such as bone structure and placement in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, one must consider the personality expectations others hold in regard to facial features (related to the study posted in the comments).  If we &lt;em&gt;expect&lt;/em&gt; someone to be a particular personality because of a particular characteristic, do we interpret and attribute their actions differently?  Could we potentially affect another's actions based on these expectations?  Over time do these social expectations, based on a person's physical appearance, alter that person's personality?  To what degree?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect that your question does not have one simple answer, and may not have the same answer depending on who you examine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ekman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ekman&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=paul+ekman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=paul+ekman&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jappl.org/content/88/3/1127.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jappl.org/content/88/3/1127.full&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-07-14T15:31:50.953" LastActivityDate="2019-07-14T15:31:50.953" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1645" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-14T18:30:59.103" Score="9" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been learning about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitts%27s_law&quot;&gt;Fitts' law&lt;/a&gt; and am wondering if it's applicable to measuring the difficulty of platform type games where the challenge is to hit the platforms? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, this could be used to ensure there is a well designed difficulty curve. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm also wondering if anybody has heard if Fitts law was used to measure difficulty in a game. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1131" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-15T00:38:55.157" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T04:34:16.263" Title="Could Fitts Law be used to measure difficulty in platform genre games?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1646" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1624" CreationDate="2012-09-15T16:05:51.653" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a processing fluency theory that explains it quite nicely. In short, according to this theory the symmetrical objects are pleasant as they are easier to process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See Reber et al (2004) for a detailed description:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We propose that aesthetic pleasure is a function of the perceiver's&#xA;  processing dynamics: The more fluently perceivers can process an&#xA;  object, the more positive their aesthetic response. We review&#xA;  variables known to influence aesthetic judgments, such as figural&#xA;  goodness, figure-ground contrast, stimulus repetition, symmetry, and&#xA;  prototypicality, and trace their effects to changes in processing&#xA;  fluency. Other variables that influence processing fluency, like&#xA;  visual or semantic priming, similarly increase judgments of aesthetic&#xA;  pleasure. Our proposal provides an integrative framework for the study&#xA;  of aesthetic pleasure and sheds light on the interplay between early&#xA;  preferences versus cultural infiuences on taste, preferences for both&#xA;  prototypical and abstracted forms, and the relation between beauty and&#xA;  truth. In contrast to theories that trace aesthetic pleasure to&#xA;  objective stimulus features per se, we propose that beauty is grounded&#xA;  in the processing experiences of the perceiver, which are in part a&#xA;  function of stimulus properties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reber, R., Schwarz, N., &amp;amp; Winkielman, P. (2004). Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: is beauty in the perceiver’s processing experience? Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(4), 364–382. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_3 &lt;a href=&quot;http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/faculty/swann/docu/fall395pdocs/reber%20perceptual%20fluency.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="448" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-16T09:45:05.513" LastActivityDate="2012-09-16T09:45:05.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1647" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1651" CreationDate="2012-09-15T16:15:55.917" Score="9" ViewCount="6645" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a correlation, positive or negative, between &lt;em&gt;emotional intelligence&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;IQ&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="638" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-15T08:26:13.753" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T05:04:05.387" Title="Is there a correlation between EQ (EI) and IQ?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1648" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1521" CreationDate="2012-09-15T16:46:28.797" Score="9" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Inheritability of facial features&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's start with the origin of specific facial features. Below is a table which shows averaged heritabilities for a range of facial quantitative traits from a large number of studies, from the review by Kohn (1991):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VAg04.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$h^2$&lt;/span&gt; is the narrow-sense heritability. You can clearly see that heritability in the majority of the features is well above 0.5, in fact the overall mean from all the features is 0.72 (with standard deviation 0.18). To put it in the context, this review shows that facial features are typically more heritable than behavioural traits (usually less then 0.50), but less heritable than the height (0.8-0.9). At this point we can conclude that &lt;strong&gt;a substantial part of the variability in facial features can be explained by the inheritance (i.e. genetic factors).&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Cognitive aspects of physiognomy&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @Xurtio pointed out, physiognomy gained and lost popularity several times in history. In general, modern science is sceptical towards the traditional approach to physiognomy (i.e. specific facial features correlate with objective personality traits). However, there is a strong interest in &lt;strong&gt;attribution of personality traits to specific facial features&lt;/strong&gt;. Hassin and Trope (2000) conducted a number of experiments examining the cognitive aspects of physiognomy. In examining &quot;reading from faces&quot; authors demonstrated that &lt;strong&gt;physiognomic information changes the interpretation of verbal information&lt;/strong&gt;. The more ambiguous this information is, the more perceivers use the face. Furthermore, even when asked to, participants were unable to ignore people's faces while simulating decisions regarding personnel selection, although they are quite sure that they are able to do so (Hassin and Trope, 2000). Finally, &lt;strong&gt;physiognomic information makes us highly overconfident about our judgments&lt;/strong&gt; - our confidence in physiognomy-based judgments far exceeds the actual accuracy of these judgments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We all know that face is powerful information channel that is used to communicate a broad spectrum of emotions, more or less universally across cultures (Ekman et al., 1971). We also have dedicated brain areas specialised in decoding facial information, for example Face Fusiform Area (FFA) that contributes to facial recognition (Sergent et al., 1992). It is therefore not surprising that we all attribute so much to the specific facial features. And that &lt;strong&gt;we are biased in making personality judgements based on facial features&lt;/strong&gt;, as showed by Hassin and Trope (2000). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the direct correlation between facial features and objective personality traits, there are no systematic empirical studies that support such links (as for September 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kohn, L. A. P. (1991) The Role of Genetics in Craniofacial Morphology and Growth.&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Annual Review of Anthropology&lt;/em&gt; 20, 261-278.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hassin, R., Trope, Y. (2000) Facing faces: Studies on the cognitive aspects of physiognomy. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 78, 5, 837-852.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ekman, P., &amp;amp; Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 17(2), 124–129.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sergent, J., Ohta, S., MacDonald, B. (1992) Functional neuroanatomy of face and object processing. A positron emission tomography study. &lt;em&gt;Brain&lt;/em&gt; 115, 1, 15–36.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastEditorUserId="508" LastEditDate="2019-07-14T23:23:04.893" LastActivityDate="2019-07-14T23:23:04.893" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1649" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-15T22:22:38.893" Score="6" ViewCount="573" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the UK and elsewhere individuals often engage in activities (e.g., running, shaving your head, etc.) for the purpose of eliciting sponsorship. The money raised is then donated to charity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What motivates people to give money to the participants who then give it to the charity? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If the cause is worthy, why not give anyway? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Possible explanations I have include&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The participant willingly endures hardship and people give money as a reward for that hardship. In other words, it is a form of an emotional blackmail. This would mean that someone apt at the type of activity should receive substantially less. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The event is fun to watch and it is merely a PR opportunity. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1184" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-22T11:37:53.253" LastActivityDate="2013-10-30T20:04:11.440" Title="Why do people donate money to others engaging in activities for charity?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1650" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1653" CreationDate="2012-09-16T02:24:42.383" Score="7" ViewCount="3325" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;If I like a particular song, I listen to it while doing other things until I get sick of that song. This creates an extremely strong bond between the two things: the song and the activity. The activities usually being programming languages or video games. Whenever I hear the song again, the emotions and/or visuals of whatever I was doing flood my brain, and I can remember them vividly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does hearing a song trigger memories associated with that song?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there anything special about songs and memory associations?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has any particular research been conducted on the association between songs and memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1186" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-16T08:27:54.970" LastActivityDate="2019-04-16T09:09:56.983" Title="How do songs trigger memories associated with previous experiences of listening to the  song?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1651" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1647" CreationDate="2012-09-16T08:18:26.227" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that self-report measures of emotional intelligence tend to have very weak correlations with traditional measures of cognitive ability, and ability-based measures of emotional intelligence have low to moderate correlations with traditional measures of cognitive ability. The following provides relevant extracts from Conte (2005) that directly relates to these points. For a more complete picture you may wish to read the article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Self-report measures of emotional intelligence&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The EQ-i is a 133-item self-report measure that takes approximately 30 minutes to complete (Bar-On, 2000) ...&#xA;  With respect to discriminant validity, the EQ-i correlated 0.12 with&#xA;  the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (Bar-On, 2000), and the average&#xA;  correlation between the EQ-i and the Big Five personality measures was&#xA;  approximately 0.50 (Dawda &amp;amp; Hart, 2000)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Ability based measures of emotional intelligence&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The MEIS and MSCEIT are both ability based measures of emotional intelligence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Data from several studies indicate that the MEIS correlates between 0.30 and 0.40 with traditional measures&#xA;  of cognitive ability (Roberts et al., 2001; Van Rooy &amp;amp; Viswesvaran, 2004)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Relation between ability and personality based measures&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also appears that self-report and ability based measures of emotional intelligence are measuring relatively distinct variables. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mayer et al. (2000) found that the MSCEIT and Bar-On scales correlated&#xA;  0.36, indicating that they share approximately 13 percent of their variance.&#xA;  In a more recent study, Brackett and Mayer (2003) found that&#xA;  the MSCEIT and Bar-On scales correlated 0.21, indicating that they&#xA;  share approximately 4 percent of their variance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bar-On, R. (2000). &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2001-00355-018&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional and Social Intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Quotient Inventory&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;In Bar-On, R.; Parker, J. (eds.). &#xA;&lt;em&gt;The handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in the workplace&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 363–388). Jossey-Bass. &#xA;ISBN &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-90743-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;978-0-470-90743-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brackett, M. A., &amp;amp; Mayer, J. D. (2003). &#xA;Convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of competing measures of emotional intelligence.&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, 29(9), 1147–1158. &#xA;doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167203254596&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/0146167203254596&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Conte, J.M. (2005). &#xA;A review and critique of emotional intelligence measures. &#xA;&lt;em&gt;Journal of Organizational Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 26(4), 433–440. &#xA;doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjob.319&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/job.319&lt;/a&gt;. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://homepages.uwp.edu/crooker/790-EI/Articles/measure-conte-job-2005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dawda, D., &amp;amp; Hart, S. D. (2000). &#xA;Assessing emotional intelligence: reliability and validity of the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) in university students. &#xA;&lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences&lt;/em&gt;, 28(4), 797–812. &#xA;doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0191-8869%2899%2900139-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00139-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D., &amp;amp; Salovey, P. (2000). &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2001-00355-015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Selecting a measure of emotional intelligence: the case for ability scales&lt;/a&gt;. &#xA;In Bar-On, R.; Parker, J. (eds.). &#xA;&lt;em&gt;The handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in the workplace&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 320–342). Jossey-Bass. &#xA;ISBN &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-90743-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;978-0-470-90743-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Roberts, R. D., Zeidner, M., &amp;amp; Matthews, G. (2001). &#xA;Does emotional intelligence meet traditional standards for an intelligence? Some new data and conclusions. &#xA;&lt;em&gt;Emotion&lt;/em&gt;, 1(3), 196–231. &#xA;doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.196&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.196&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Van Rooy, D. L., &amp;amp; Viswesvaran, C. (2004). &#xA;Emotional intelligence: a meta-analytic investigation of predictive validity and nomological net. &#xA;&lt;em&gt;Journal of Vocational Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 65(1), 71–95. &#xA;doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00076-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00076-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="19603" LastEditDate="2020-01-15T05:04:05.387" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T05:04:05.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1652" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1649" CreationDate="2012-09-16T09:03:28.963" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One element of sponsorship-based charity is that it typically relies on existing social networks to generate donations. Thus, the participant is typically a friend, work colleague, family member, or fellow community member of the donor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This will add a wide range of social processes to increase the likelihood of donation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;At a basic information-processing level, the participant may make the donor aware of the charity and provide a simple method of donation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The participant's involvement in the activity may act as a trigger to legitimate the charity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The participant may create a subtle or not-so-subtle sense of social obligation that a donation is wanted or expected.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The donor may see the opportunity to assist the participant as part of a mutually supportive relationship.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The donation itself may be part of a broader view of encouraging a positive community.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not my area of expertise, but you might want to do a search of Google Scholar for articles on &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=charity+fundraising&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;biw=1920&amp;amp;bih=1088&amp;amp;prmd=imvns&amp;amp;oq=charity+fundraising&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;charity fund raising&lt;/a&gt;. For example, I found this article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-project/Available/E-project-042612-100259/unrestricted/Satia_Miller-_Efficiency_information_and_charity_fundraising_events.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;participation in charity fund raising events&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-09-16T11:48:32.503" LastActivityDate="2012-09-16T11:48:32.503" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1653" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1650" CreationDate="2012-09-17T11:53:21.513" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe this phenomenon is well known in cognitive science. That is how our memory works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The simpliest explanation would be the Hebbian learning rule: &quot;Neurons that fire together, wire together.&quot; So, you can imagine some neurons firing when you hear the music and some when you see the game. Now, if these used to fire together, they are probably connected. Somehow you've learned that these stimuli come together and your brain is recalling them all even if this time only the audio stimulus is presented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Try reading more about episodic memory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, memories of people’s faces, the taste of the wine, the music that was playing, etc, might all be part of the memory of a particular dinner with friends. By repeatedly reactivating or “playing back” this particular activity pattern in the various regions of the cortex, they become so strongly linked with one another that they no longer need the hippocampus to act as their link, and the memory of the music that was playing that night, for example, can act as an index entry, and may be enough to bring back the entire scene of the dinner party.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.human-memory.net/types_episodic.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Episodic and semantic memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, auditory triggers are possibly not the strongest available. According to an idea called &quot;Proustian phenomenon&quot; the strongest would be smell.&#xA;Example study to that matter:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699931.2011.555475&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Proust revisited: Odours as triggers of aversive memories&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Reference:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Toffalo, M.B.J., Smeets, M.A.M., van den Hout, M.A. (2012).  Proust revisited: Odours as triggers of aversive memories.  &lt;em&gt;Cognition &amp;amp; Emotion, 26&lt;/em&gt;(1):83-92.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="846" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-09-21T06:56:41.280" LastActivityDate="2012-09-21T06:56:41.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1655" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1658" CreationDate="2012-09-17T20:56:52.107" Score="18" ViewCount="17289" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, let's say I have a friend sprinting a 50m distance and that friend wants me to time the race, but I don't have a stopwatch so I have to count &quot;manually&quot;. Can I count while simultaneously thinking about how she'll do and while wondering what I'm going to have for dinner?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1150" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T08:57:37.343" LastActivityDate="2017-01-08T16:41:52.373" Title="Is it possible to run multiple thought processes concurrently?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1656" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-09-17T22:37:48.347" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about mathematical and computational neuroscience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Computational neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the canonical text on the subject, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0262541858&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dayan and Abbot&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related tags are &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neurobiology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'neurobiology'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neurobiology&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/computational-modeling&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'computational-modeling'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;computational-modeling&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neural-network&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'neural-network'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neural-network&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T17:37:19.593" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T17:37:19.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1657" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-09-17T22:37:48.347" Score="0" Body="For questions about mathematical and computational neuroscience." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-17T22:37:48.347" LastActivityDate="2012-09-17T22:37:48.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1658" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1655" CreationDate="2012-09-18T04:33:46.137" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Parallel processes are often studied in a so called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-task_paradigm&quot;&gt;'dual task' paradigm&lt;/a&gt;, where participants are drawing a picture and reciting a poem or, as in your example, counting and thinking about other things. &#xA;Often this method is used to demonstrate limits in attention and find insights into how the brain works (in a serial versus parallel manner). Training is an important factor in this question. It has been shown that with a sufficient amount of training a lot of tasks can be done parallel very well - so if you sit there long enough and automize the counting the rest will follow. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="477" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T08:42:24.967" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T08:42:24.967" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1659" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1660" CreationDate="2012-09-17T21:54:44.580" Score="4" ViewCount="3528" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do we get used to smells?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, you walk into a room with a certain stench, but it seems no matter how strong it may be, spending enough time in the room will allow you to stop smelling it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's going on here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1190" OwnerDisplayName="unit3000-21" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:02:41.443" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T04:02:41.443" Title="How do we get used to smells?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1660" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1659" CreationDate="2012-09-18T13:07:33.393" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;As Ben Brocka mentioned, what you're describing is &lt;strong&gt;Habituation&lt;/strong&gt;, which &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&quot;&gt;Wikipedia defines as&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Habituation is a decrease in an elicited behavior resulting from the repeated presentation of an eliciting stimulus (a simple form of learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically, it's technically called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_adaptation&quot;&gt;Neural adaptation&lt;/a&gt;. To quote Wikipedia again:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neural adaptation or sensory adaptation is a change over time in the responsiveness of the sensory system to a constant stimulus. It is usually experienced as a change in the stimulus. For example, if one rests one's hand on a table, one immediately feels the table's surface on one's skin. Within a few seconds, however, one ceases to feel the table's surface. The sensory neurons stimulated by the table's surface respond immediately, but then respond less and less until they may not respond at all; this is neural adaptation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As this was explained to me in Psychology 101, this is the same phenomenon which allows us to not feel our shoes shortly after putting them on. It's also what enables people to perform really dirty, smelly jobs like sewer maintenance and garbage collection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The process works exactly as you described, and many people can instantly relate to it: The longer you are exposed to a given &lt;em&gt;stimulus&lt;/em&gt; (like a smell) the less you continue to react to the stimulus. The stimulus becomes more &quot;normal&quot; to you, and you start to think of it less. As soon as the stimulus is removed, the effect begins to reverse. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation#Characteristics_of_Habituation&quot;&gt;Characteristics of Habituation&lt;/a&gt; section of the Wikipedia article covers this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T13:12:37.387" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T13:12:37.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1661" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-09-18T17:24:18.890" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions surrounding the philosophical and psychological contributions of Carl Jung.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) was the founder of the analytical psychology movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Carl Jung&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also: &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/psychoanalysis&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'psychoanalysis'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;psychoanalysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T17:26:58.653" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T17:26:58.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1662" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-09-18T17:24:18.890" Score="0" Body="For questions surrounding the philosophical and psychological contributions of Carl Jung" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T17:27:07.093" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T17:27:07.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1664" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-18T18:59:19.467" Score="24" ViewCount="9297" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Human Computer Interaction and User Experience there's some &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.useit.com/papers/responsetime.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;oft repeated rules of performance&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;0.1 second is about the limit for having the user feel that the system is reacting instantaneously, meaning that no special feedback is necessary except to display the result.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1.0 second is about the limit for the user's flow of thought to stay uninterrupted, even though the user will notice the delay....&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;10 seconds is about the limit for keeping the user's attention focused on the dialogue...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm most interested in this &amp;quot;instantaneous&amp;quot; response. Related is this &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/16253/defining-instantaneous-as-part-of-usability-acceptance-criteria&quot;&gt;User Experience Question&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/a/4/7627&quot;&gt;A related answer does bring up some sources&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Card, S. K., Robertson, G. G., and Mackinlay, J. D. (1991). The information visualizer: An information workspace. Proc. ACM CHI'91 Conf. (New Orleans, LA, 28 April-2 May), 181-188.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, R. B. (1968). Response time in man-computer conversational transactions. Proc. AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference Vol. 33, 267-277.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myers, B. A. (1985). The importance of percent-done progress indicators for computer-human interfaces. Proc. ACM CHI'85 Conf. (San Francisco, CA, 14-18 April), 11-17.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I can't access any copies of those articles. Also, frankly, they're all &lt;em&gt;conference papers&lt;/em&gt;. Big HCI research often debuts at conferences, but ideally I'd like something robust which has been tested rather than something written 20-40 years ago for a conference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing I've noticed is the &amp;quot;instant response&amp;quot; threshold quoted tends to be around 100ms to 200ms. Typical human reaction time is about 200ms so I'm wondering if there is a relation there. It seems possible; if something happens so quickly you can't &lt;em&gt;react&lt;/em&gt; to it, it is practically &amp;quot;instant&amp;quot; in a way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Approximately what length of time between action and reaction is perceived as instant by humans?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-05-04T01:36:43.777" Title="What is the threshold where actions are perceived as &quot;instant&quot;?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1665" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-18T19:12:21.773" Score="16" ViewCount="2080" Body="&lt;p&gt;Measuring computer literacy or skill is important when grouping respondents for usability studies and other Human Computer Interaction studies. But for the life of me I can't find a good, simple but reliable measure of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most frequent suggestion I see is a terribly complicated and non-standard approach like &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/a/11004/7627&quot;&gt;comparing multiple Likert scales&lt;/a&gt; for things like &quot;I feel comfortable with computers&quot;. I'm fine with multiple Likert scales if it's a &lt;em&gt;proven&lt;/em&gt; measure, but hundreds of people making up their own multi-question Likert scales does &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; create reproducible research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm a proponent of &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/a/16044/7627&quot;&gt;just asking the darn question&lt;/a&gt; as I find it less ridiculous than made up scales, but I'm sure HCI work has been done on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an agreed upon or otherwise well tested, reliable and valid self-measure of computer literacy? Ideally one which could be used to easily group participants into relative groups of proficiency, such as a Likert scale. By &quot;self-measure&quot; I mean some test item that can be asked on a survey rather than any form of observation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:32:22.230" LastActivityDate="2012-09-20T21:05:08.193" Title="Is there a reasonably valid and reliable self-measure of computer literacy?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1666" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-09-18T19:50:44.690" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the study and design of the interface through which humans interact with computers through software, a discipline which draws upon knowledge from computer science and the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Human-computer interaction&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T19:52:23.387" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T19:52:23.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1667" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-09-18T19:50:44.690" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the study and design of the interface through which humans interact with computers through software, a discipline which draws upon knowledge from computer science and the cognitive sciences" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-09-18T19:52:26.913" LastActivityDate="2012-09-18T19:52:26.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1668" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1665" CreationDate="2012-09-19T05:57:50.123" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I don't know of any well-validated general short scales. Here are a few thoughts:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A major distinction is between &lt;strong&gt;self-report versus ability&lt;/strong&gt; based measures. Self-report measures will ask the participant to rate their knowledge, skills, and experience. Ability based measures will require demonstration of competence. If you are limited to &quot;self-measures&quot;, ability based measures are still possible (e.g., set of multiple choice, or possibly short answer questions). An issue with self-report measures is that people may be inaccurate in their own self-evaluation. Ability-based measures do not have this issue.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Having &lt;strong&gt;more items generally increases the reliability&lt;/strong&gt; of the test. It also permits you to assess statistically the item properties of the scale.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Computer literacy is a broad construct&lt;/strong&gt;. The meaning and standards of computer literacy are probably also changing over time, as computing practices change and as the computers get further integrated into society. I assume this is part of the reason why a lot of people use customised instruments. For example, I once did a study of keyboard-based text-editing. To assess prior experience, I asked a number of general questions about computing experience, but I also assessed various specific measures related to knowledge of shortcut keys.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quick search revealed a couple of scales (e.g., Wilkinson et al, 2010, Fogarty et al, 2001). None look like entirely what you are after, but I thought I'd mention them. Both followed a formal scale development process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Wilkinson et al&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, here's a subset of the items from Wilkinson et al&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;ICT skills&#xA;I know how to create a folder&#xA;I feel confident closing down a software program&#xA;I do not feel confident attaching a file to an email&#xA;I can use a word processing application&#xA;I know how to save a document to a folder&#xA;I would not recognise a PDF (Portable Document File)&#xA;I would have difficulty finding a web site∗&#xA;I feel confident making selections from popup menus∗&#xA;I would find it difficult to search a database of references to journal papers&#xA;I need help with using computers for learninga&#xA;I feel confident using a computer to write a letter or essay&#xA;I do not know how to find an article in an e-journal&#xA;&#xA;Experience with computers&#xA;I have used computers at work/school∗&#xA;I feel disadvantaged by my lack of experience with computers&#xA;I communicate with people using email&#xA;I have used computers to look for information for example: Library catalogue/books&#xA;I have used computers to support my learning&#xA;I have used computers to find out about careers&#xA;I have used computers for leisure&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Fogarty et al&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a subset of the items from Fogarty et al&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;The following statements refer to your confidence when using computers. &#xA;1. I have less trouble learning how to use a computer than I do learning other things. &#xA;2. When I have difficulties using a computer I know I can handle them. &#xA;3. I am not what I would call a computer person. &#xA;4. It takes me much longer to understand how to use computers than the average person. &#xA;5. I have never felt myself able to learn how to use computers. &#xA;6. I enjoy trying  new things on a computer. &#xA;7. I find having to use computers frightening. &#xA;8. I find many aspects of using computers interesting and challenging. &#xA;9. I don’t understand how some people can seem to enjoy spending so much time using &#xA;computers. &#xA;10. I have never been very excited about using computers. &#xA;11. I find using computers confusing.&#xA;12. I’m nervous that I’m not good enough with computers to be able to use them to learn &#xA;mathematics. &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wilkinson, A., Roberts, J. &amp;amp; While, A.E. (2010). Construction of an instrument to measure student information and communication technology skills, experience and attitudes to e-learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1369-1376.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fogarty, G., Cretchley, P., Harman, C., Ellerton, N. &amp;amp; Konki, N. (2001). Validation of a questionnaire to measure mathematics confidence, computer confidence, and attitudes towards the use of technology for learning mathematics. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 13, 154-160. &lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.usq.edu.au/953/1/Fogarty_Fogarty-Cretchley-Harman-Ellerton-Konki_Valid._of_questionnaire_maths.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-09-19T05:57:50.123" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1669" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1108" CreationDate="2012-09-19T08:02:48.857" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many reasons why stated intention can differ from behaviour (e.g., see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior#Behavioral_intention_and_behavior&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Theory of Planned Behaviour&lt;/a&gt;). Social desirability is one possibility. However, there are many other factors. A person may not know who they are going to vote for or may not have decided. Factors may arise between the point in time when asked and when voting occurs that change the person's voting plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, there are many potential limitations to polls that can lead their estimates of population voting intention to be inaccurate, and even biased. There is basic &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_error&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sampling error&lt;/a&gt; that arises whenever you estimate a population property from a finite sample. There are also a wide range of issues related to getting a sample representative of the voting population (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sampling bias&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, polls form part of the information available in betting markets. Thus, in betting markets, people are able to use an ensemble of information including multiple polls, various historical trends regarding how polls change over time, various adjustment to poll predictions that might remove perceived biases and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-19T08:11:38.390" LastActivityDate="2012-09-19T08:11:38.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1670" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-20T11:35:44.333" Score="22" ViewCount="18820" Body="&lt;p&gt;The capacity of human working memory is subject to individual differences. The number of items or chunks a person can retain in their memory may, have profound effects on a variety of other cognitive processes, such as problem solving. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have come across a couple of ways to measure working memory such as the delayed match-to-sample task, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-back&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dual N-back task&lt;/a&gt; or the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcorp.pearsonassessments.com/haiweb/cultures/en-us/productdetail.htm?pid=015-8895-800&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wechsler Memory Scale&lt;/a&gt;. For the latter I have been unable to find out whether it offers an estimate of the number of items which can be held in working memory. This, however, is precisely what I am interested in. I know that the capacity measured using verbal stimuli is affected by a variety of features of the material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, I'm wondering &lt;strong&gt;what are the most commonly used methods to measure an healthy individual's working memory capacity&lt;/strong&gt;. Also, &lt;strong&gt;is there a reliable measure that can be easily used in online research?&lt;/strong&gt; I am also interested in measures suitable for laboratory research, though. Finally, &lt;strong&gt;are abstract visual material and digits more &quot;pure&quot; measures than verbal ones?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I am especially interested in standardized procedures with known reliability measuring working memory and giving an estimate of the number of chunks an individual can retain.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="696" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-06-18T15:54:45.097" LastActivityDate="2015-08-31T16:05:40.010" Title="How to reliably measure working memory capacity?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1671" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-20T17:21:14.340" Score="5" ViewCount="218" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are lots of ad-hoc rules that people are happy to propose about passwords, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pick a phrase you can remember easily, and then use the initial letters.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A random short sequence of letters, numbers and symbols.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A sequence of random common words (like XKCD's &quot;battery correct horse staple&quot;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a pile of computer security research on what passwords are hard to crack.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like a pretty simple empirical question to say what is the best password scheme for any given desired strength.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can anyone point me to any research about the ease of memorizing passwords generated according to various rules?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1200" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-21T00:54:16.593" LastActivityDate="2012-11-16T00:23:40.453" Title="Psychological research on memorability of passwords?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1672" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1670" CreationDate="2012-09-20T20:17:28.237" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, the existence of a working memory is a theory, not a proven fact. The working memory is a concept of the information processing theory that likens the human brain to a computer. Other theories don't necessarily have an equivalent for this concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, there are different theories regarding how the working memory is made up: one single store (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model&quot;&gt;Atkinson &amp;amp; Shiffrin&lt;/a&gt;) or several systems (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley%27s_model_of_working_memory&quot;&gt;Baddeley &amp;amp; Hitch&lt;/a&gt;). Depending on what you believe the working memory is, you might have to measure it (or its parts) in different ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Traditionally the capacity of the working memory is measured by asking subjects to remember a list of items and then counting how many they can repeat. This is a standard subtest in many intelligence tests, e.g. the WAIS. The average (!) capacity for remembering letters or numbers has been shown to be 7 +/- 2 . Different experiments find different numbers, but they all range between 3 and 9 (as far as I know). Regular tests stop at nine items, and it is very rare that someone can regularly hold more items in his short term memory after hearing them once only (telephone numbers are stored in long term memory after being learned).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Measuring the capacity for non-linguistic visual, non-verbal auditory, olfactory, tactile etc. stimuli is extremely difficult, because as yet scientists don't even begin to understand how these stimuli are percieved, processed and represented in the brain. The only comprehensible and meaningful measurements are made of the memory of linguistic items like letters or words or visual representations of objects (like a page with a number of drawn objects).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-21T00:58:24.933" LastActivityDate="2012-09-21T00:58:24.933" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1664" CreationDate="2012-09-20T20:46:01.103" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting question. One (theoretical) answer would be: instantaneous is when people cannot percieve a delay, so the threshold would be the &quot;speed&quot; of perception. But subjectively people might consider something instantaneous, even if they can slowly see it coming, because from their understanding it is &quot;amazing quick&quot; compared to other experiences (for example the media wrote about &quot;instant page load&quot; when DSL was introduced and began to replace dial-in modems). So the question is what exactly you want: do you want subjective user experience, or a physiological limit?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look for the physiological limit, look for articles by Rolf Ulrich from Tübingen, Germany, who (among other things) researches how well humans can discern visual or auditory stimuli that are given quickly one after another. His articles give the times. Here is his web page with a list of publications: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/en/faculties/faculty-of-science/departments/psychologie/research-groups/cognition-and-perception/research-group/rolf-ulrich/publikationen.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/en/faculties/faculty-of-science/departments/psychologie/research-groups/cognition-and-perception/research-group/rolf-ulrich/publikationen.html&lt;/a&gt; (some of them can be downloaded as PDFs from that page).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorUserId="2980" LastEditDate="2013-05-04T01:36:43.777" LastActivityDate="2013-05-04T01:36:43.777" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1675" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="508" CreationDate="2012-09-21T03:05:12.253" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You should consider &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.superlab.com/&quot;&gt;SuperLab&lt;/a&gt;. It runs on Mac and Windows. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It uses a point-and-click user interface that makes it really easy to setup experiments. Even &quot;programming&quot; contingencies are done via point-and-click.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer: I wrote the original version of SuperLab and I work at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cedrus.com&quot;&gt;Cedrus&lt;/a&gt;, its developer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1204" LastEditorUserId="1204" LastEditDate="2012-09-21T04:27:15.210" LastActivityDate="2012-09-21T04:27:15.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1676" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="508" CreationDate="2012-09-21T05:11:50.970" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As of version 4 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Inquisit&lt;/a&gt; has Mac support. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://millisecond.com/community/blogs/news/archive/2012/02/21/inquisit-4-beta-introduces-mac-support.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this announcement&lt;/a&gt;. You can run experiments locally or over the web. It is a commercial product.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote the website:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Inquisit is used by behavioral scientists throughout the world for&#xA;  creating and administering numerous cognitive, social, and&#xA;  neuropsychological measures. Now in use in over 1077 research&#xA;  institutions throughout the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Mac support was only introduced in early 2012 so I imagine there will be a polishing process.&#xA;I've used it many times. I wrote up a &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeromyanglim.blogspot.com.au/2009/10/practical-tips-on-how-to-conduct_05.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;few introductory notes about Inquisit&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-09-21T05:11:50.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1650" CreationDate="2012-09-21T12:11:14.520" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to network models of memory, when information is stored in memory, it is not stored separately and by itself, but together with all the other aspects of the situation that you percieved. For example, if you listen to music, you do not simply memorize the tune, but also your mood, the causes for that mood (your girlfriend next to you), the smells and sights of the place, even what you did before and after listening to the music. Each of these informations is stored as a knot or node in the &quot;semantic network&quot; that is your memory, and with each time that things happen in conjunction, the connection between these nodes is strengthened a little bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if you retrieve information from memory (e.g. you hear the music again or come to the concert hall and remember the place or tune), the node for that information gets activated and that activation spreads along the connections of that node to other nodes and activates them as well. So for example listening to that piece of music again will remind you of all the notable situations, but also of things that get activated through other activated nodes. For example remembering your girlfriend sitting next to you at that one time, will remind you also of how she broke up with you a few weeks later, and thus the music may make you sad, although when you listened to it the first time, it was a happy situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you google for &quot;semantic network&quot; you will find comprehensive explanations, illustrations and examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to the answer by Oriesok Vlassky explaining episodic memory: Both models integrate easily and do not contradict each other but rather complement each other well. So I would say the answer is his and mine combined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastActivityDate="2012-09-21T12:11:14.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1679" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-21T13:22:33.547" Score="3" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the scientific reasons behind someone talking with him/herself? Is it a disorder of some kind? By &quot;talking&quot; I also mean writing to self. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By self-talk I mean a person (P) is talking with self in a Q&amp;amp;A format. For example-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;PQ: Hey, what happened?&#xA;&#xA;PA: I'm not liking it here.&#xA;&#xA;PQ: Why, what is it that you are not liking it?&#xA;&#xA;PA: I don't like the attitudes of people around here. Everyone thinks he's very smart ...&#xA;&#xA;PQ: But why is it affecting you?&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and so on ..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above kind of dialogue can either be &lt;strong&gt;spoken&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;written&lt;/strong&gt;. Usually, one party asks another about their problems/feelings and suggests solutions / gives instructions to other party.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1151" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-09-21T20:07:30.860" LastActivityDate="2012-09-21T20:07:30.860" Title="What explains habitual or even occasional incidences of self-talk?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-08-30T21:25:19.047" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1680" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1664" CreationDate="2012-09-21T23:02:01.510" Score="15" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Preface&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a very interesting question, that is also somewhat related to my area of research. I know of several related results (which I might add later in an edit), and I thought that with a few minutes of scholar search I'll find a paper dealing with this question exactly. I was surprised to find no such papers. So I decided to conduct an experiment...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Answer (preliminary. hopefully, will be edited)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As with many cases in psychology, the &lt;strong&gt;threshold&lt;/strong&gt; is completely non-existant: there is no delay up to which the reaction is perceived as instantaneous, and after which it is perceived as delayed. You can measure the probability of the subject perceiving a delay, as a function of the delay time. You can choose any probability you want, arbitrarily, and call it the 'threshold'. If we decide on 50% (the chance of responding there was a delay is identical to the chance of responding it was instantaneous) then for me it is about &lt;strong&gt;110ms&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hLfpP.png&quot; alt=&quot;results of preliminary experiment on 1 subject, myself&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results presented here are based on 100 trials, performed by myself. Hardly counts as good study, but if a few more people run the test, I promise to process the results and post them here (and who knows, maybe even publish it somewhere :))&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;To participate in the experiment yourself&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sign up to &lt;a href=&quot;http://ofri.webfactional.com&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ofri.webfactional.com&lt;/a&gt;. (It is a site I developed for web-based experiments conducted in my lab. It's still in beta, which is why its under a domain with my name, and not under huji.ac.il.  I promise we do not use your email for anything except for identifying you. No spam ever).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In the &lt;strong&gt;Group Name&lt;/strong&gt; field in the registration, enter &lt;strong&gt;instant&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Login, and follow the on-screen instructions. Its really simple.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;After running more than 60 trials another button will appear with the text 'show results'. Clicking it will draw a graph similar to the one presented here, based on your personal results.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2012-09-21T23:02:01.510" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1683" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1828" CreationDate="2012-09-23T12:22:10.013" Score="11" ViewCount="18407" Body="&lt;p&gt;There seems to be a few eyemasks available that claim to help the wearer achieve lucid dreaming.  For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The NovaDreamer lucid dream mask works by detecting Rapid Eye Movement&#xA;  (REM) while you are asleep and dreaming. The mask then flashes a&#xA;  series of lights through your closed eyelids; a stimulus which becomes&#xA;  incorporated into your dream. [...] This is your cue to recognize that&#xA;  you are dreaming and become lucid.  -- &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.world-of-lucid-dreaming.com/novadreamer.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NovaDreamer&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another examples is &lt;a href=&quot;http://sleepwithremee.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Remee&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there peer-reviewed evidence (or even preliminary data) that lucid dream eyemasks can promote lucid dreaming in a laboratory?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There doesn't seem to be much material about these outside of sales material and news items (which makes me suspicious).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="931" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-05T10:15:17.907" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T17:31:16.120" Title="Do lucid dream eyemasks work?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1685" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9973" CreationDate="2012-09-24T10:34:28.603" Score="8" ViewCount="559" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www-dept.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/M.Slater/Papers/questionnaire-paper.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Usoh et al.&lt;/a&gt; (PDF) applied presence questionnaires (which are usually designed to measure one's feeling of presence in a virtual environment) in both a virtual and a real world environment in a between-subjects design and found no difference in people's sense of presence between the two environments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the authors only argue that presence questionnaires are not valid unless they pass a &quot;reality check&quot;, i.e. participants self-report a higher feeling of presence in the real environment, &lt;em&gt;in my opinion&lt;/em&gt;, results might have been very different if they had employed a within-subjects design, exposing participants to both environments and thereby arriving at a relative sense of presence score for each environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this were true, it would imply that such questionnaires are essentially not applicable in between-subject designs, as people would only be able to reliably rate their sense of presence in a particular environment relative to another environment. Hence I've recently &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/31769/12446&quot;&gt;asked&lt;/a&gt; whether it is valid to treat repeated measures data as both within- and between-subject data and compare the analysis of both to see if there are differences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But my underlying assumption was questioned by some of the answers, and I posted a &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/37889/12446&quot;&gt;follow-up question&lt;/a&gt; to ask if it ever makes sense for between- and within analyses of the same data to differ. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By way of a very contrived example, assume I get subjects to rate on a scale of 1 to 10 how much they like an offer of free beer. In one condition, people are offered one litre of beer for free, in the second condition, people are offered two litres of beer for free. If I ran this experiment with a between-subjects design, I would personally assume that there isn't any discernible difference between the two conditions, because - hey, free beer! But as a within-subjects design, I think I stand a reasonable chance of seeing an effect, because more free beer is better than less free beer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One comment has asked for the question to be migrated to here so, to give the whole thing a more cog-sci spin, my intent here is to question my (admittedly intuitive) assumption that people can not relate their absolute sense of presence to a number from 1-7, but can relate their relative sense of presence compared to another environment. Is there any research other than Usoh's paper on presence in particular, or are there similar phenomenon in other measurement instruments?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1221" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T12:34:37.847" Title="Are presence questionnaires valid in a between-subjects design?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1686" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-24T15:24:56.960" Score="8" ViewCount="1466" Body="&lt;p&gt;Essentially, I understand the release of adrenaline can be addictive and that scary movies and events are a safe way of experiencing the drama without all the actual mess. but &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if we are triggering our fight or flight response, then isn't suppressing it a separate chemical reaction, or at least an alternate one? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the release experienced more pleasurable for some people then others? Or is it a simple matter that staying in one's comfort zone is more enjoyable then the potential joy of a release? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1222" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-12T04:52:26.207" LastActivityDate="2012-10-12T06:38:45.683" Title="Can scary movies trigger fight or flight and why can a person enjoy this while another does not?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1687" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-25T17:00:33.120" Score="17" ViewCount="1409" Body="&lt;p&gt;The goal is to &lt;strong&gt;take simple measurements of mood using Likert scale over an extended period of time&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g. two months). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know there is a large number of mobile apps for tracking mood on every possible platform and there is an &lt;a href=&quot;http://quantifiedself.com/guide/tag/mood&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;extensive list of those tools on Quantify Self website&lt;/a&gt;. All those tools allow you to record your mood in a simple format, customize your tracking, and choose yourself time when you want to record you mood. And this is exactly the point where all of those tools are missing a critical feature. To get a more reliable sample of a behaviour or experience, &lt;strong&gt;you ought to sample the experience in a random time during the waking day, rather then give the person a choice of the time of sampling&lt;/strong&gt; (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1987). Csikszentmihalyi et al. (1977) did just that by giving people pagers and send them random beeps, after which they filled the questionnaire. It's a basic rule in any longitudinal experience sampling studies that I remember from the first year undergraduate classes. The need of this kind of approach rises from the inability of respondents to provide an accurate retrospective information on their daily behaviour and experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I am looking for mobile mood tracking tool that meets those particular requirements:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it allows you to &lt;strong&gt;set up waking time within which you want to receive random reminders&lt;/strong&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it allows you to &lt;strong&gt;set up number of reminders&lt;/strong&gt; you want to receive during the waking hours,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;during the day you receive a random reminder that directs you to a &lt;strong&gt;single question asking you to rate your mood&lt;/strong&gt; at the moment, for example on 1-9 scale&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;your &lt;strong&gt;response is time-stamped and saved&lt;/strong&gt; either on the mobile phone or send directly to the server if possible.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, it sounds simple enough, but the only app I found that matches some aspects of it is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mappiness.org.uk&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mappiness&lt;/a&gt;. They DO send you random reminders, and their project, idea, and app execution are awesome. But the problem with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mappiness.org.uk&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mappiness&lt;/a&gt; is that it collects a lot of extra information that I don't need, and I personally got very annoyed with the length of their questionnaire (check yourself if you got an iPhone). I want a random notice, single question, 5-seconds of your time to respond, and some data export option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I missing something here or such app doesn't exist and I need to write it? I realise that this question might be more relevant for &lt;a href=&quot;http://productivity.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;http://productivity.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt; but it's hard to say, it's kind of a middle-area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Csikszentmihalyi, M., &amp;amp; Larson, R. (1987). Validity and reliability of the experience-sampling method. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 175(9), 526.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Csikszentmihalyi, M., Larson, R., &amp;amp; Prescott, S. (1977). The ecology of adolescent activity and experience. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 6(3), 281–294.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T07:04:29.513" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T11:09:57.867" Title="Longitudinal mobile mood tracking app with random reminders" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1688" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1689" CreationDate="2012-09-26T05:46:33.163" Score="8" ViewCount="230" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;There's this effect when you have some idea, i.e. that eating other people is (probably) cool, you join the group of like minded people, you talk about how tasty people are, everyone agrees with you, which reinforces the idea, and you all share literature and articles and youtube videos and whatnot on how cool it is, and the longer you all participate in the people eating community the more sure you are that it's cool because of all the friend confirmation and the info you see and share and so on reinforces the belief stronger and stronger, and you don't meet people with opposite ideas that often, don't read criticism on eating people that often, etc. And the people eating idea is no longer just probably cool to you, you become sure about it with all your heart and defend it fanatically. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am pretty sure I've read about this in some Peter L. Berger's book, however I cannot find it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the name of this effect? (i.e., whereby being part of a group strengthens your belief in the beliefs held by the group)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1227" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-10-01T11:22:49.450" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T09:11:04.027" Title="What is the name of the effect whereby socialising in a group reinforces group beliefs? " Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;norms&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1689" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1688" CreationDate="2012-09-26T07:01:12.167" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like you are talking about a number of social processes related to internalising group norms. With regards to the influence that groups can have on beliefs, check out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalization#Psychology_and_sociology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;internalisation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity#Informational_influence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conformity and informational influence&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_%28social%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Norms and internalising norms&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Groups internalize norms by accepting them as reasonable and proper&#xA;  standards for behaviour within the group. Once firmly established, a&#xA;  norm becomes a social fact, and thus, a part of the group's&#xA;  operational structure, and is difficult to change. With that being&#xA;  said, newcomers to a group can change a group's norms. However, it is&#xA;  much more likely that the new individual entering the group will adopt&#xA;  the group's norms, values, and perspectives, rather than the other way&#xA;  around.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also describe a process by which individuals are attracted to groups initially. You might want to look into the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;homophily&lt;/a&gt;. This is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;tendency of individuals to associate and bond with similar others&lt;/a&gt;.&quot; There is substantial sociological and psychological research on this topic. Shared beliefs cause relationship formation, but presumably also, relationships cause increases in the likelihood of shared beliefs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-28T01:59:17.950" LastActivityDate="2012-09-28T01:59:17.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1690" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1688" CreationDate="2012-09-26T15:55:41.503" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is also the related phenomenon of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_polarization&quot;&gt;'Group Polarisation'&lt;/a&gt; (see Myers and Lamm, 1976; Isenberg, 1986), where groups are found to make more extreme decisions and hold more extreme opinions than its constituent members. Not sure if that's specifically related to what you're looking for but I think it's important to keep in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Isenberg, D.J. (1986). Group polarization: A critical review and meta-analysis.. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1141. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/friedkin/Syllabi/Soc147/Group%20Polarization%20Isenberg.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Myers, D.G. &amp;amp; Lamm, H. (1976). The group polarization phenomenon.. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 602.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1230" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-27T01:32:49.503" LastActivityDate="2012-09-27T01:32:49.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1691" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-26T20:23:20.180" Score="6" ViewCount="911" Body="&lt;p&gt;In reading &amp;amp; writing, I for one, find myself subvocalizing the statement to myself. This behaviour is language-independent. However, the effort and subvocalization involved is greater in any language that I do not use regularly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is sub-vocalization when reading and writing merely a symptom of lack of fluency in a language?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1216" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-27T01:28:43.940" LastActivityDate="2012-10-01T17:14:53.440" Title="Is sub-vocalization when reading and writing merely a symptom of lack of fluency?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1692" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-26T20:41:23.747" Score="6" ViewCount="204" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my experience people living together in difficult circumstances (e.g. close friends, family members) often learn to relate to each other's non-verbal cues. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance; A spouse may go shopping with a list in hand prepared by his partner, and return with a few items not mentioned on the list - only to have his partner indicate one or more items were missed by oversight. Similarly people sharing a room in a hostel may merely by a glance communicate an unspoken understanding of intent &amp;amp; action. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Understandably such incidents probably do not occur with high frequency. They are, however, not totally rare either. This brings me to my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can such non-verbal communication be taught rather than acquired?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1216" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-27T08:30:32.983" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T18:08:19.703" Title="Can non-verbal communication in interpersonal relationships be taught rather than acquired?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1695" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-09-27T08:12:09.437" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-27T08:12:09.437" LastActivityDate="2012-09-27T08:12:09.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1696" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-09-27T08:12:09.437" Score="0" Body="For questions pertaining to the scientific study of social networks or social network analysis." OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-27T08:12:09.437" LastActivityDate="2012-09-27T08:12:09.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1697" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1691" CreationDate="2012-09-27T08:57:19.913" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding was that at least some sub-vocalisation is a normal part of reading and writing. The wikipedia article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subvocalization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;subvocalisation&lt;/a&gt; cites several sources supporting that claim. The article also claims that there is no evidence to suggest that speed reading training that involves suppression of sub-vocalisation is effective. There is also evidence that suppressing subvocalisation can in some instances result in decrements in performance (see Baddeley et al, 1981).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some evidence to suggest that degree of subvocalisation is related to complexity of the reading passage. Baddeley et al 1981 summarise the use of&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the  electromyographic monitoring of  the muscles involved in&#xA;  vocalisation  in order to study the role  of  articulation in  reading&#xA;  (e.g. Sokolov,  1966).  Using  this technique,  Hardyk  and &#xA;  Petrinovitch  (1970) concluded  that subjects were  able  to read  and&#xA;  comprehend  simple prose  without  the  occurrence  of &#xA;  electromyographic activity,  but that such  activity  did  occur in&#xA;  the case of  more complex passages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One explanation would be that degree, prominence or frequency of subvocalisation increases as the reading task gets more difficult, where experienced difficulty would vary both based on the individual's ability with the language and with the objective difficulty of the reading passage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baddeley, A.,  Marge Eldridge &amp;amp; Vivien Lewis (1981): The role of&#xA;subvocalisation in reading, The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A: Human Experimental Psychology, 33:4, 439-454&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;HARDYK, C.  D.  and PETRINOVITCH,  L.  R.  (1970).  Subvocal speech  and  comprehension  level as a function of the difficulty level of reading material.  Journal of  Verbal Learning  and Verbal Behavior, 9, 647-52. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;SOKOLOV,  A. (1966).  La parole intbrieure dans la pensbe concrete. In Recherches Psychologiques en U.R.S.S.,  les Editions du Progrks, U.R.S.S.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-09-27T08:57:19.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1698" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1700" CreationDate="2012-09-27T13:05:41.497" Score="16" ViewCount="395" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was looking at this video from VSauce: &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_6nSOgsI_vo&quot;&gt;Why did the chicken cross the road?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, where several facts about this old joke are exposed and explained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At some point, (6:59) Michael explains that there is a theory, based on the paper &lt;em&gt;Computer Model of a &quot;Sense of Humour&quot;&lt;/em&gt; by I. M. Suslov, that says that laughter is the result of the released energy on the pre-judgement one makes about the result of the joke.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still, this theory does not account for factors like being under the influence of drugs (on which it is generally easier to laugh at things), situations like tickling or other forced laughters like laughter gas itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, which is the currently, widely accepted theory that explains what causes laughter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="43" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-26T05:01:06.580" LastActivityDate="2018-08-14T21:23:25.770" Title="What causes laughter?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1700" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1698" CreationDate="2012-09-27T23:59:55.333" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The majority of researchers believe it has to do with relief to the flight or fight system and related to human bonding. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, we hear the phrase &quot;laughter is contagious&quot;. That's because we want to let others know we have good feelings towards them and would like to connect at some level but in a quick and non-direct way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, for situations where the joke may be &quot;dangerous&quot;, Suslov's theory is better understood. I have also personally witnessed it many times. This kind of laughter follows the familiar model: &quot;Oh no, I hope he doesn't say something that pokes fun or embarrasses me in this social setting&quot;. Next, you hear the joke and realizing it doesn't embarrass you (too much) the relief and release of energy transmutes into a laugh.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laughter#Causes&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laughter#Causes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &#xA;How Laughter Works:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/inside-the-mind/emotions/laughter.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/inside-the-mind/emotions/laughter.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2012-12-10T06:05:38.573" LastActivityDate="2012-12-10T06:05:38.573" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1701" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-09-28T10:38:41.107" Score="6" ViewCount="999" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard a talk by Vincent Hayward on the sense of touch as a multi-modal system, where he claimed that the brain power devoted to haptics is at least as big as the one devoted to vision. I have found some answers with respect to vision, which claim the percentage to be between &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.allexperts.com/q/Neuroscience-2933/Brain-Power-Devoted-Vision.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;25%-33% of the neo-cortex&lt;/a&gt;. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortical_homunculus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cortical homunculus&lt;/a&gt; shows a sensory map of the body, where I guess the eye depicted is more related to the haptic part of the eye region, rather than the vision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can you confirm the percentage for vision? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the percentage for haptics? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quotable sources would be fantastic of-course, but just a rough number would also do. I am mostly interested in the rough relative relation between the two modalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1243" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-09-28T13:07:04.763" LastActivityDate="2012-10-06T07:15:21.673" Title="What is the brain power devoted to vision and haptics?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1702" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-01T16:13:01.373" Score="23" ViewCount="3533" Body="&lt;p&gt;While researching to answer &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/q/26331/7627&quot;&gt;Why are &quot;Inverted Colors&quot; considered an accessibility feature?&lt;/a&gt; I noticed the puzzling claim that &quot;White text on a black background is a higher contrast to the opposite, so the letterforms need to be wider apart, lighter in weight and have more space between the lines.&quot; It's repeated a lot, particularly by design folks, but I couldn't find psychological research to support (or refute) it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of actual contrast ratio, inverting a black on white scheme won't change the contrast at all; the colors themselves are just as distant. Yet I see many claims that &quot;inverted colors&quot; is high contrast. The only real difference between the two I can think of is that the white background of black on white produces considerably more light than a black background. If this difference is enough to induce some level of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation_%28eye%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ocular adaptation&lt;/a&gt; perhaps that could be a cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is there a perceived difference in contrast between black on white vs white on black, assuming the same intensities for black/white? What causes it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="455" LastEditDate="2017-04-19T12:59:35.287" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T12:59:35.287" Title="Why is white on black considered higher contrast than black on white?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1703" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1691" CreationDate="2012-10-01T17:14:53.440" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Children learn to read and write, by relating the written letters to the spoken word they already know. Due to the primacy of spoken language (in the cognitive development of the average healthy human being), the sounds of words are connected more strongly and more directly to their meaning, than their orthography is. Now, When you see a written word, the sound is (a) activated simply through the connection to the meaning and (b) because it is part of the connection of the orthography to the meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if you don't subvocalize by suppresing it, you will always &quot;hear&quot; the sound of the word that you read (mental subvocalization). No hearing person can turn this off. Supressing subvocalization is simply an effort to hold still, and it uses energy and tires your mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastActivityDate="2012-10-01T17:14:53.440" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1704" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9833" CreationDate="2012-10-01T18:48:16.137" Score="9" ViewCount="293" Body="&lt;p&gt;In reinforcement learning, there is a stark distinction between model-based and model-free learning algorithms, where model-free methods don't make use any explicit information about the dynamics of the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like this distinction would have some analog in human learning, but I'm having a very hard time finding any mention of it. Perhaps it would conditioning versus more cognitive forms of learning? I'd be overjoyed if someone could find an article using the term 'model-free' to refer to some aspect of human learning, or just reassure me of the term's correct human analog.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does research on human learning featuring a model-free/model-based distinction exist?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-22T22:02:48.243" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T22:02:48.243" Title="'Model-free' learning in humans" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1705" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1706" CreationDate="2012-10-01T19:33:01.870" Score="33" ViewCount="210903" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Background&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a test called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lumosity.com/blog/brain-performance-index-what-is-bpi/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lumosity's Brain Performance Index&lt;/a&gt;. &#xA;A sample profile of scores might be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Speed           680&#xA;Memory          707&#xA;Attention       277&#xA;Flexibility     304&#xA;Problem Solving 900&#xA;Overall BPI     573&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in how to interpret a profile of scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What validity information is available for the BPI?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What normative information is available for BPI? In other words, how could the sample profile of scores be interpreted both absolutely and relative to other groups of people?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1247" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-06T00:10:36.657" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T15:32:29.507" Title="How valid is Lumosity's Brain Performance Index and what normative information is available?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1706" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1705" CreationDate="2012-10-02T09:22:19.650" Score="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General thoughts on brain training&lt;/strong&gt;: &#xA;Lumosity is a commercial tool that aims to improve brain functioning. In general, I am sceptical of the potential for &quot;brain training programs&quot; to improve cognitive functioning in a generalised way (e.g., see this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100420/full/4641111a.html&quot;&gt;Nature discussion&lt;/a&gt;). Practice is powerful, but tends to be domain specific. So if you want to become skilled in brain training tasks, then do brain training exercises, but if you want to become skilled in a particular domain of life, then study and get experience in that domain. While I can see the value in researching the topic, I can also see the potential for sellers of &quot;brain training&quot; programs to exploit people's concerns about their mental shortcomings or about fears of mental deterioration with ageing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Normative data&lt;/strong&gt;: From what I can gather from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.braingamereview.com/review/lumosity-review/&quot;&gt;this review&lt;/a&gt;, Lumosity has lots of normative data based on existing users which you can use to compare your performance. However, I imagine this is proprietary information that they would be reluctant to publish in a useful form. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was an unpublished report I found by Cruz et al based on a small sample of young adults. The following summarises Table 2:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Number of days        4.75 ± 3.18&#xA;Number of sessions    10.79 ± 9.31&#xA;Median (IQ R )        9.00 (2.25‐17.75)&#xA;Minimum‐Maximum       0 ‐ 34&#xA;Overall BPI           676.93 ± 323.94&#xA;Lumosity points     173.43 ± 158.89&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Validity of the BPI&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lumosity.com/blog/brain-performance-index-what-is-bpi/&quot;&gt;website&lt;/a&gt; writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Your Overall BPI is your average BPI across each of the four cognitive&#xA;  areas: attention, memory, processing speed and cognitive control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We then evaluate your game scores and use a proprietary algorithm to&#xA;  derive your BPI&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Performance on almost all cognitive tasks are intercorrelated to some extent, and if you take the average, or preferably the first principal component, of a battery of cognitive tasks, it will tend to have a general factor, which will have some loading on g. Of course, if the tests are of a particular type, this might lead to different outcomes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could not find any validity data on the website whereby BPI scores are correlated with other measures. Thus, it is unclear what relationship BPI has with other ability measures, or IQ for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, practice effects on cognitive tests are seen as a source of error variance. What a test measures after people have taken the test many times may be very different. In particular, the degree to which the test correlates with a domain general quality of interest may be reduced. Instead, the test may start to reflect a domain specific adaptation. Also, if people differ in the amount of practice, this would compound the measure of a domain general ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Overall thoughts&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;In general, the target market for Lumosity's product seems to be consumers. In contrast, tests like the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale&quot;&gt;WAIS&lt;/a&gt; or the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Neuropsychological_Test_Automated_Battery&quot;&gt;CANTAB&lt;/a&gt; have a target market which is researching and applied psychologists. In the consumer market, it is typical for companies to use &quot;proprietary algorithms&quot; and for there not to be a test manual with extensive validity data. While this might make commercial sense, it limits the scientific value of such instruments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cruz, A., Canelas, A., Machado, F., Pedreira, J., Barroso, J., Beir\~ao, L., Freitas, L., Belo, L., Seabra, M., Portero, M. &amp;amp; others (). Brain Fitness--Clinical Trial to Measure the Effect of Cognitive Training in Brain’s Capabilities. &lt;a href=&quot;http://medicina.med.up.pt/im/trabalhos08_09/artigos/INTROMEDII_Artigo_t13.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-01-24T01:57:32.513" LastActivityDate="2013-01-24T01:57:32.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1707" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-02T12:52:19.263" Score="3" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading a paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15796670&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jarmasz J. (2005)&lt;/a&gt; on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_capture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive tunneling&lt;/a&gt; and am wondering if it applies to daydreaming?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, if for some reason I'm already thinking about something that has no relation to any information coming in from any of my senses, just some random thought, will this cause any new information coming in from these senses to potentially not be processed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is kind of related to my understanding of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/human-information-processing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HIP (human information processing)&lt;/a&gt;. I've recently seen a diagram of HIP where what is in working memory is either information from our senses that we are attending to and information from long term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But where does random thoughts that we have through out the day come in? This has to be accounted for as well, I would think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Jarmasz, J., Herdman, C. M., &amp; Johannsdottir, K. R. (2005). Object-based attention and cognitive tunneling. *Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11*(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.11.1.3&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1131" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-03T15:38:18.387" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T15:38:18.387" Title="Does Cognitive Tunneling apply to daydreaming as well?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;wandering-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1709" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1711" CreationDate="2012-10-03T19:06:52.457" Score="6" ViewCount="2240" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently chatting in an IRC and there is one girl (i think she's about 18 years old) and she has Asperger syndrome and therefore is unable to understand countenance and feelings. She told me that she only knows of happiness, sadness and rage but doesn't really understand what each means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore the other people use emoticons like &lt;code&gt;:)&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;:(&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;&amp;gt;:[&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;^^&lt;/code&gt;, ... and she really has problems to follow the discussion because she is really confused about all of this and when I tell her what each emoticon means five minutes later she will not be able to distinguish between these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do you have any suggestions on what to do to reassure her and maybe help her a bit so that she could enjoy the chat like everyone else, more or less?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;(Although I know she won't understand everything...)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1257" LastActivityDate="2016-10-23T09:23:54.200" Title="How to explain emoticons to an autistic person?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1710" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1702" CreationDate="2012-10-04T11:09:53.537" Score="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is referring to &lt;em&gt;display polarity&lt;/em&gt;. A positive polar display consists of dark letters on a light background, a negative polar display consists of light letters on a dark background. Polarity by itself is independent of text-to-background contrast, as you rightly state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, positive polarity facilitates performance (e.g. Buchner &amp;amp; Baumgartner, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de/home/Fakultaeten/math_nat/WE/Psychologie/abteilungen/aap/Dokumente/Ergonomics-2007-Text-background-polarity.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2007&lt;/a&gt;). This effect is due to the higher overall display luminance (Buchner, Mayr &amp;amp; Brandt, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wirtschaftschemie.uni-duesseldorf.de/Fakultaeten/math_nat/WE/Psychologie/abteilungen/aap/Dokumente/Buchner-et-al.--2009--Ergonomics.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2009&lt;/a&gt;) possibly leading to a greater constriction of the pupil (Taptagaporn &amp;amp; Saito, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00140139008927110&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1990&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://ukpmc.ac.uk/abstract/MED/8340226&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1993&lt;/a&gt;) and thus increasing the depth of field and decreasing spherical abberation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this advantage of positive polar displays does not generalize to readers with visual impairment. People with low vision due to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cataract&lt;/a&gt; (ocular clouding) perform better with negative polar displays (Legge et al., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/004269898590118X#&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1985&lt;/a&gt;, Sandberg &amp;amp; Gaudio, &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/retinajournal/Abstract/2006/01000/Reading_Speed_of_Patients_With_Advanced_Retinitis.13.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2006&lt;/a&gt;). This effect has been discussed to be due to a scattering of light leading to a resulting veiling luminance and reduction in text-to-background contrast (Rubin &amp;amp; Legge, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0042698989901752&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1989&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In short&lt;/strong&gt;: At the level of the display, a change of polarity has no effect on the text-to-background contrast. If the reader's eyes are cloudy, however, the contrasts at the retinal level is decreased for positive compared to negative polarity. This is why offering negative polarity is considered an accessibility feature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to why design folks claim negative polarity to be higher in contrast, I can only speculate on the basis of these findings. I suspect that it has to do with the adaptation of the eye to the lower overall luminance of the display. The intensity of the white letters may be perceived as more intense. Also the wider pupil dilatation would lead to a decreased depth of field. This in turn would require wider spacing and lighter weights of letters to achieve readability comparable to positive polarity. Unfortunately, I don't know any research to substantiate these speculations (which doesn't mean that it does not exist).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="696" LastEditorUserId="696" LastEditDate="2014-04-25T11:52:24.793" LastActivityDate="2014-04-25T11:52:24.793" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1709" CreationDate="2012-10-04T16:29:25.933" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;First question, how deep is your knowledge about autism and Asperger Syndrome? Do you understand how autistic people think? Do you understand, what this girl have meant, when she have written, she &lt;em&gt;doesn't really understand what each means&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For neurotypical person, a typical use-case for &lt;em&gt;I understand you&lt;/em&gt; phrase is &lt;em&gt;I know what you feel&lt;/em&gt;. But autistic people by &lt;em&gt;understand&lt;/em&gt; mean in the first line &lt;em&gt;to know the cause-and-effect&lt;/em&gt;. So your friend saying she don't understand what really each emotion means, could as good mean: &lt;em&gt;I don't know how particular emotions are affecting the meaning of words the given person use&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to explain emoticons to her, you should IMHO in first line explain, how particular emoticon in modifying the meaning of the sentence. So, think of emiticons not as the way to communicate emotions (which is of low importance to autistic people) but as the modifiers that change the meaning of the sentence or of the particular words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="899" LastEditorUserId="1255" LastEditDate="2012-10-06T23:22:37.603" LastActivityDate="2012-10-06T23:22:37.603" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1713" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1716" CreationDate="2012-10-04T23:32:35.150" Score="15" ViewCount="16070" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Background&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've got an idea for a web site that uses one's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator&quot;&gt;Myers-Briggs type&lt;/a&gt; as part of the value. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've seen various web sites offer &quot;quick quizzes&quot; to assess one's MBTI, but I'm not sure how legitimate / effective / ethical it would be to utilize one of these &quot;knock-off&quot; assessment techniques. I haven't decided any of the business angles yet; for now it's just a cool idea, so I can't speak to whether it would be commercial, non-profit, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Questions&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there an official &quot;test of record&quot; or set of questions that I can use in my application that is reasonably open or inexpensive? I'd like to get results that are as accurate as possible but I'm just one guy on a shoestring budget.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Could I run into legal trouble from the Myers-Briggs institute over this? How open are they with the methodology for this assessment? While I'm strapped for cash, I also have no desire to be a jerk; I'm admittedly ignorant on how this realm of science/industry views these matters.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any need for an official MBTI interpreter (other than privacy ethics, etc. which of course I would be respecting as the founder of said web site)? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How much accuracy does one lose in using a quiz that isn't &quot;personally reviewed&quot;? That seems to be the main purpose of a &quot;licensed MBTI interpreter&quot; as far as I've been able to see with some quick research.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1261" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-10-05T09:10:29.700" LastActivityDate="2018-11-20T22:13:36.507" Title="Is there an open-source / free official Myers-Briggs assessment I can adopt?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ClosedDate="2018-11-25T06:21:15.323" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1714" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1713" CreationDate="2012-10-05T01:23:59.190" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;IPIP&lt;/a&gt; may provide what you are looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This IPIP Website is intended to provide rapid access to measures of&#xA;  individual differences, all in the public domain, to be developed&#xA;  conjointly among scientists worldwide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, the scientific literature tends to focus more on a dimensional approach based on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big 5 model of personality&lt;/a&gt; than the type approach. There are strong correlations between MBTI and Big 5 measures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The IPIP website provides measures of the Big 5. The following table from Furnham (1996) summarises some correlations across a few studies between the NEO Big 5 and the MBTI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dGJdf.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find a listing of some of the multi-construct measures including Big 5 measures on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newMultipleconstructs.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ipip website&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Furnham, A. (1996). The big five versus the big four: the relationship between the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and NEO-PI five factor model of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 303-307.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-10-05T01:23:59.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1715" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-05T04:29:48.673" Score="1" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Possible Duplicate:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1670/how-to-reliably-measure-working-memory-capacity&quot;&gt;How to reliably measure working memory capacity?&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently doing my thesis on how different types of music affect the cognitive performance more specifically working memory in an individual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone suggest reliable and valid test to measure working memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1262" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-10-05T09:05:03.293" Title="What are the reliable and valid test to measure working memory?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2012-10-05T04:36:30.887" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1716" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1713" CreationDate="2012-10-05T21:52:27.887" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was alerted to your post here and would like to respond to a non-technical side of the question.  I'm an Intellectual Property Assistant for CPP, Inc., publisher of the MBTI® assessment tool.  I help protect the instrument's trademarks and copyrights, and ensure ethical use of the instrument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The names MBTI®, Myers-Briggs®, and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® are all registered trademarks, and they refer to a particular, copyrighted product: the &lt;em&gt;Myers-Briggs Type Indicator&lt;/em&gt; assessment tool.  There is no open-source version of the MBTI assessment.  Also, it would not be correct or legally appropriate to use the trademarks to refer to a different product, such as one of the personality assessments which may be found online.  (Some of them already infringe on the MBTI trademarks, so don't be fooled into thinking that's OK!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm glad to read that you're aware of the legal and ethical implications of your idea.  I hope what I've said helps, but if you have any more questions, I'll check back here and try to answer them.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My impression is that the actual MBTI assessment is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; appropriate for what you're considering, but if you'd like more information about the instrument, its development, psychometric data, and so on, I'd recommend the Myers-Briggs Foundation (www.myersbriggs.org), CAPT.org, or CPP.com.  In the meantime, I hope what I've written will provide some clarity about the legal/IP side of things.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;MBTI, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and Myers-Briggs are registered trademarks or trademarks of the MBTI Trust, Inc., in the United States and other countries.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1268" LastActivityDate="2012-10-05T21:52:27.887" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1718" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1670" CreationDate="2012-10-06T05:42:19.557" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's answer above summarises many of the first things I would have said. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, you may also want to note that working memory references the idea of a computer, which implies that storage and processing are separable. In fact, storage and processing occur using the same mechanisms in the brain, meaning that a simple concept of working memory is hard to credit. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, there is a distinction between the number of objects one can simply remember for a space of time and the number of objects one can operate on at the same time in parallel. This number changes across modalities, so that for audition, you can typically process a single audio stream at a time, however for vision, you can clearly track multiple objects across space (and in fact, if you know anything about the blind spot or peripheral acuity, the brain does a lot of that tracking on inference rather than actual perceived objects). For a good reference on processing vs simple storage and how those concepts dissociate, see &lt;em&gt;Measuring the Influence of Complexity on Relational Reasoning&lt;/em&gt; by Birney, Damian P; Halford, Graeme S; Andrews, Glenda.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another important issue is that WM usually refers to a specific sort of processing that occurs consciously. But behind those straightforward stores that we have conscious access to lie a vast complexity of sub conscious processing in each modality. The way that the brain tracks objects in the visual system for example, is relatively well understood, but far more complex than these higher level cognitive concepts of working memory that people talk about so nonchalantly. I'm taking your definition of working memory to be the conscious stuff, but there is a great deal of what I would term sub conscious working memory behind these processes too, that I'm not mentioning here for brevity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess the key message is that there are as many measures of WM as there are definitions of it, and there are a substantial number of studies already examining the effect of different stimuli on ability to recall items. As well as the ability to recall however, WM also implies ability to operate on the items recalled (we might think of this in terms of bandwidth vs storage), which is something that perhaps you may have missed in simply talking about capacity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1265" LastEditorUserId="1265" LastEditDate="2012-10-06T12:36:29.480" LastActivityDate="2012-10-06T12:36:29.480" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1720" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1701" CreationDate="2012-10-06T07:15:21.673" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd argue that &quot;brain power&quot; is &lt;em&gt;dangerously&lt;/em&gt; vague. Are you looking at weight, volume, area (including or excluding cortical folding), are you looking at just the cortex, or the whole brain? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a lower level, are you counting just cell bodies, or do you count the processes that join them; do you just weigh the whole lot and try to figure out &quot;power&quot; that way? Do you count long axons projecting from the peripheral nervous system? Because touch would have a massive edge over vision if you counted the weight of those long, thick, myelinated axons in the spinal column. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;None of those straight physical measures will give you an estimate of &quot;power&quot; because power implies other more cognitive factors; speed and capacity notably. Myelination gives speed of response to neurons, as does thickness. But a shorter neuron will be faster (more powerful?) than a longer one, and will also weigh less - clearly weight isn't a good estimator of speed, in fact the further information travels through axons the less &quot;powerful&quot; the whole system will be. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But that's just talking about speed - what about capacity? The overall number of indivudal points of input might relate to capacity, but the brain does plenty of post processing on visual input to allow it to process far more information than the eyes actually give it at any one time. Is capacity related to the number of synapses each neuron makes? This probably has something do to more with &quot;depth&quot; of processing than capacity, as it implies that each percept is sent to more places.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And beyond even speed, depth and capacity, what about learning? Which system has a greater ability to adaptively learn and pass learned information back into the decision making parts of the brain? How do you measure that? By the number of NMDA receptors in each system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, what's this &quot;touch&quot; thing anyway? Are you talking about perception of heat, cold, pain (which sort, a$\delta$, perhaps C fibres)? Are you talking about sensations of pressure, like that felt when pushing a heavy object? Those sort of sensations are related more to proprioception than touch - they are all about sensing the environment's reaction to the body based on stretch receptors in the muscles, this is another type of input that makes up the heterogeneous sense labelled &quot;touch&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each of these types of pressure, superficial touch, pain, heat and cold have different afferent projections, and each has it's own substrate in the brain, with different architectures, different strengths and weaknesses - there is no straightforward &quot;power&quot; to compare any of those components of touch, much less to compare touch to something as remote as vision. This sort of question and attempts to answer it dangerously obscure the complex science behind both systems, giving a false sense of understanding where most of the above questions are unanswered, and possibly unanswerable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1265" LastActivityDate="2012-10-06T07:15:21.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1655" CreationDate="2012-10-06T21:39:14.110" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have to partly disagree with schultem here-- he is right that the dual task paradigm is used to study multitasking, but the idea that we can truly do two cognitive tasks at the same time is still contentious. In particular, the opposing view might say that we can't really do two cognitive processes at the same time, but we are in fact switching between the two tasks very rapidly. To make a an analogy, consider a computer with a single-core CPU: although behaviorally it seems like you are running multiple processes at the same time, all applications still depend on a single bottleneck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the most well studied experimental paradigms for this domain is called the '&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_refractory_period&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological refractory period&lt;/a&gt;', or PRP effect, which shows over &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22psychological%20refractory%20period%22&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,44&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2,700 hits on google scholar&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A typical PRP task has the subject perform two reaction time tasks. For instance, he may have to hit a button with his right hand in response to a high pitched tone, and hit a button with his left hand in response to a low pitched tone. At the same time, he performs another concurrent task-- e.g., saying &quot;blue&quot; in response to a blue stimulus, and &quot;green&quot; in response to a green stimulus. By altering the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) (that is, the time from the start of the tone to the start of the visual stimuli), we can examine what operations people are able to perform in parallel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each task can be broken down into three components: perceptual analysis, response selection (cognitive), and response processing. A prominent theory emerging from the results of many PRP tasks is that we are able to truly do two operations in parallel if they require different modes: for instance, we can do perceptual analysis of a visual stimuli and auditory tone at the same time, and we can make a manual and vocal response at the same time, however we cannot do two response selections at the same time because they essentially require the same cognitive resources (single bottleneck).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bnImu.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This image from wikipedia describes what I'm talking about. The response selection from the second task must wait for the response selection from the first task to finish before it begins. The result is that, at short SOA, the total time taken to respond to both stimuli is the same-- as long as perceptual analysis of the second task ends before the response selection from the first task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in sum, yes, it might be possible to do the two tasks you are talking about in parallel, especially with practice. But on a more fundamental level, you may really just be doing very rapid multitasking. If you're interested in this theory, you may also want to read about &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=threaded%20cognition&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;as_sdt=1,44&amp;amp;as_sdtp=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;threaded cognition&lt;/a&gt;, which demonstrates this effect for complex tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-10-06T21:39:14.110" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1722" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-08T06:37:52.957" Score="11" ViewCount="1722" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a psychological experiment I am measuring subjects' reaction time as well as their error rate. Now I would like to compare two groups (males &amp;amp; females). There might be a bias in the sense that subjects who respond within a small reaction time might also commit more errors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What would be an appropriate way to combine reaction time and error rate to create a measure that takes into consideration this trade-off between &quot;reacting fast&quot; and &quot;reacting correctly&quot;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;E.g., could I just divide reaction time by error rate? Should I center or scale reaction time and error rate before I do this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1272" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-10-08T16:16:06.633" LastActivityDate="2012-10-08T16:16:06.633" Title="How to measure group differences incorporating reaction time / accuracy trade-off?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1723" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1722" CreationDate="2012-10-08T11:20:46.793" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;The basic approach that you are describing sounds like inverse efficiency scores (e.g., see Townsend and Ashby, 1978,1983), which are measured as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\frac{r}{1-e} = \frac{r}{c}$$&#xA;where  $r$ is reaction time, $e$ is proportion error, and $c$ is proportion correct. John Christie provides a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/668/52&quot;&gt;critique of inverse efficiency scores here&lt;/a&gt; or see the discussion in Bruyer and Brysbaert (2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This existing question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/660/how-to-analyze-reaction-times-and-accuracy-together&quot;&gt;&quot;How to analyze reaction times and accuracy together?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; hopefully answers your question. The answers there generally advocate more sophisticated approaches for combining reaction time and accuracy such as the Linear Ballistic Accumulator Model and Ratcliff's diffusion model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bruyer, R. &amp;amp; Brysbaert, M. (2011). Combining Speed and Accuracy in Cognitive Psychology: Is the Inverse Efficiency Score (IES) a Better Dependent Variable than the Mean Reaction Time (RT) and the Percentage Of Errors (PE)?. Psychologica Belgica, 51, 5-13. &lt;a href=&quot;http://crr.ugent.be/papers/Bruyer%20&amp;amp;%20Brysbaert%202011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Townsend, J.T., &amp;amp; Ashby,  F.G. (1978). Methods of modeling capacity in simple&#xA;processing systems. In J. Castellan &amp;amp; F. Restle (Eds.), Cognitive theory. Vol. 3.&#xA;(pp. 200-239). Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Townsend, J.T., &amp;amp; Ashby, F.G. (1983). Stochastic modeling of elementary psychological processes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-10-08T11:20:46.793" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1724" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1262" CreationDate="2012-10-08T11:57:51.800" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Just a starting point&lt;/em&gt;.&#xA;Jean-Louis et al (2000) provide one sample of population adult sample using objective sleep measures. To quote the abstract&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using Actillumes, we investigated whether self-reported sleep&#xA;  durations were indicative of a population decline in sleep duration.&#xA;  We also explored illumination and activity patterns. Methods: San&#xA;  Diego adults (n = 273, age range: 40–64) were recruited through random&#xA;  telephone calls and were monitored at home while engaging in usual&#xA;  daily routines. Results: &lt;strong&gt;Volunteers slept an average of 6.22 hours&lt;/strong&gt; and&#xA;  received an average of 554 lux (environmental illumination). The&#xA;  timing of sleep, illumination, and activity occurred at 2:44, 12:57,&#xA;  and 13:43, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jean-Louis, G., Kripke, D.F., Ancoli-Israel, S., Klauber, M.R. &amp;amp; Sepulveda, R.S. (2000). Sleep duration, illumination, and activity patterns in a population sample: effects of gender and ethnicity. Biological psychiatry, 47, 921-927.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-10-08T11:57:51.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1726" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1735" CreationDate="2012-10-09T04:39:43.393" Score="7" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you've seen a snickers commercial, it goes something like &quot;you are a different person when you are hungry&quot;. I'm interested if the person's brain actually looks different when observed through fMRI if the person is tired/hungry, and the person's outlook on the world changes. For example things become more irritating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there fMRI evidence to support that a person is capable of switching to a different &quot;state of mind&quot; based on the condition of the person's body or neuromodulator levels?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there's a better term than &quot;States of mind&quot;, could you suggest what it is? I'm thinking of an entrained state which changes the person's outlook on the past, present and the future, as well as influencing the choice of actions and behavior. Is there a good term I can google to find research on this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for your input!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-10-09T11:03:19.620" LastActivityDate="2012-10-09T20:16:30.723" Title="Is there any fMRI evidence for different &quot;states of mind&quot;?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1727" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1729" CreationDate="2012-10-09T04:48:10.217" Score="15" ViewCount="988" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading about EEG brain waves, which are specific waveforms that are observed on the EEG output, and are usually scored by humans. This concept has been around for quite some time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there anything &quot;newer&quot; or &quot;better&quot; than EEG brainwaves discovered in the recent years?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the rise in commercially available EEG sensors, has any company succeeded at putting forth a way to analyze or quantify the output of these sensors to give some useful information to researchers? I'm thinking of brainwave-processing algorithms. For example in Actigraphy, the study of human motion, there are algorithms like &quot;if 19 out of 20 minutes of activity are scored as sleep, then the sleep onset is known to happen at the start of the 20 minute window&quot;. Is there something similar for brainwave or derived metrics? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-05-08T23:17:33.580" LastActivityDate="2013-05-08T23:17:33.580" Title="Is there a better way to describe brain activity than EEG &quot;brain waves&quot;" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1728" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1727" CreationDate="2012-10-09T05:16:57.420" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes and no.  Source estimation has been utilized in electrical engineering for decades, but is becoming more and more prevalent in the EEG realm, especially in light of efforts to register EEG readings with concurrent fMRI studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, given a set of EEG (or even MEG, magnetoencephalographic) measurements, can we &quot;invert&quot; them to find the individual current sources that would generate such electrical activity.  Forward models in which a set of sources are assumed &lt;em&gt;a priori&lt;/em&gt; can also be used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scholarpedia has an extensive &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Source_localization&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; about these methods. Briefly,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parametric dipole modeling&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spatial scanning and beamforming, one of the more popular being &lt;code&gt;MUSIC&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sourcespace methods, one of the more popular being &lt;code&gt;sLORETA&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;are used, most of which involve some form of matrix transformation of the data into a lower dimensional space and mapping on to a set of point sources. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Current research (e.g., Antelis and Minguez, 2012) uses an approach which brings together the results of multiple dynamic models to improve the estimates.&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Antelis, J.M., Minguez, J.(2012). DYNAMO: Concurrent dynamic multi-model source localization method for EEG and/or MEG.  &lt;em&gt;Journal of Neuroscience Methods&lt;/em&gt;, Available online 26 September 2012 &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2012.09.017&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-10-09T05:16:57.420" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1727" CreationDate="2012-10-09T09:24:38.447" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no better way to describe brain activity than brain waves! :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are newer ways to analyze and think about brain waves, though. Usually you will find these under literature on neuronal oscillations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Good aspects&lt;/strong&gt; of thinking about brain activity using brain waves: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brain waves are directly related to neural activity. They are an electric or magnetic measure of current passing through neurons. It doesn't get closer than this (unless you use an invasive technique). In comparison, fMRI measures changes in blood flow over one or two seconds after neurons have fired.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brain waves are measured essentially at the speed of light, i.e. with no perceptible delay between the onset of neural activity and the moment that the electrode or MEG sensor picks them up. This allows for measuring brain activity as it unfolds, as the brain processes information on the order of milliseconds.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bad aspects&lt;/strong&gt; include: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Seriously compromised spatial resolution. With EEG, the electrical signal gets smeared by passing through the skull. With MEG the measure is more direct, but still, all sensors pick up activity in any part of the brain (at least in EEG; I'm not so sure about MEG), so it is very difficult to say with certainty where precisely something is localized. Methods do exist, but (in my experience) it doesn't come close to MRI precision. It also gets very complicated very quickly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Activity is picked up only from the neocortex. You can't say much about deep brain activity. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brain waves are utterly unintuitive. It is very hard to see how a wavy line on a screen can tell us something about the most interesting thing in the world: ourselves. It is supposed to be related to our consciousness, to our thoughts and feelings, to our personality, state of mind, actions, intentions, everything - yet it's just a wavy line. This is where some hard training in neuroscience comes in.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the past, brain waves were identified by eyeballing. Nowadays we can do much better. We can imagine that each of these lines is actually composed of many different types of neural activity, happening at different speeds. Neurons firing together quickly will lead to small, brief amplitude changes, whereas neurons firing together at a slower pace will lead to slow waves. The more neurons are firing together, the higher the amplitude of the wave. The faster they are firing together, the lower the wavelength.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fast and slow wavelengths will be summed up into the single wavy line on the screen, but we can decompose it, e.g. by using a Fourier transform or a wavelet transform. By decomposing, we gain insight into the fact that neurons fire together at different rates when they do different things. For example, if you ignore a visual stimulus, then your visual brain begins to fire at about 10 times per second. This is called the alpha rhythm. If you are actively observing a stimulus, the activity will change to 40-70 times per second. This is the gamma rhythm. Thus, you can say something about what the brain is doing when you see the pattern of neural activity based on a wavy line. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, you might notice that two distant parts of the brain have neurons firing together... but that they are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/abstract/S1364-6613%2805%2900242-1&quot;&gt;in phase&lt;/a&gt; with each other. This might mean that they are both processing different aspects of the same information, so it tells us something about functional neuronal connectivity even though we don't see the underlying white matter firing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In any case, brain waves should not really be seen as better or worse than other measures of neural activity. They simply add their bit of information, that is part the larger puzzle of how the brain works. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bcl.hamilton.ie/~barak/papers/AIPMRI-ch8.pdf&quot;&gt;See here&lt;/a&gt; for a really nice comparison of M/EEG with fMRI, and a discussion of all the big issues behind noninvasive electrophysiological measures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2012-10-19T09:09:40.957" LastActivityDate="2012-10-19T09:09:40.957" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1730" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1727" CreationDate="2012-10-09T12:40:21.620" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm surprised that no one has mentioned &lt;em&gt;spiking&lt;/em&gt; activity. The spatial and temporal resolutions are phenomenal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The technology to record action potentials simultaneously from many neurons over many cortical areas is growing. Much of theoretical neuroscience deals with how those patterns of spiking convey information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As with the other answers, I will add to this sketch over the coming days. I wanted to make the point that there are other sources of information about brain activity than EEGs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1102" LastActivityDate="2012-10-09T12:40:21.620" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1731" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="985" CreationDate="2012-10-09T14:43:53.603" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Related to this is several works on the integration or non-integration of computational models in general to cognitive science.  For instance, the Tractable Cognition Thesis basically says that we can improve cognitive modeling if we limit cognitive models to those tractably implementable on a Turing machine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Van Rooij, I.  2008.  The Tractable Cognition Thesis.  Cognitive Science 32:939-984.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://staff.science.uva.nl/~szymanik/papers/TractableCognition.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://staff.science.uva.nl/~szymanik/papers/TractableCognition.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I disagree with the Tractable Cognition Thesis, and think, similar to Copeland, that a better model would be of an Oracle machine:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Copeland, J.  1998.  Turing's O-Machines, Searle, Penrose, and the Brain.  Analysis 58(2):128-138.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My own work goes ahead in this regard, and proposes how O-machines can be specifically integrated into cognitive psychology.  I give a presentation on it here and the proceedings will be published next year, but message me and I can provide a draft copy if you would like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=chQvZrkznbg&amp;amp;feature=plcp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=chQvZrkznbg&amp;amp;feature=plcp&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1277" LastActivityDate="2012-10-09T14:43:53.603" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1732" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-09T15:56:32.120" Score="18" ViewCount="534" Body="&lt;p&gt;A while back, I watched the movie &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Terminal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Terminal&lt;/a&gt; and the main character played by Tom Hanks learns to speak fluent English while he is stranded in the airport for more than a year. Which seems somewhat superfluous as I was of the opinion that picking up a new language when you grow older is not easy. But Tom Hanks' character manages to speak English quite fluently given his background. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Young-Scholten&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dr Martha Young-Scholten of University of Newcastle&lt;/a&gt; mentions that the movie accurately describes how someone would &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_language_acquisition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;acquire a second language&lt;/a&gt; under naturalistic exposure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Misrepresentations of complex issues such as adult second language (L2) acquisition are rife in the news media; one does not expect Hollywood to differ. Yet the 2004 film The Terminal (2004) gets it right. Stranded in a NY airport for a year, Tom Hanks’ character accurately depicts the early stages of acquisition and demonstrates how ample naturalistic exposure leads to advanced L2 proficiency. Hollywood also manages cultural nuances; initial communication fails because the authorities assume Hanks is attempting to immigrate when his purpose is one of pilgrimage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If an individual is forced to use a language he is almost unfamiliar with, would it help him make significant progress in acquiring that language, regardless of his age?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="936" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-29T13:55:39.840" LastActivityDate="2015-04-29T13:55:39.840" Title="Does the effect of naturalistic exposure on second language acquisition vary with age?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1734" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-09T20:02:47.103" Score="8" ViewCount="2010" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does raising or lowering one's body temperature lead to different perceptions of time? And does this then control the virtual length of positive or negative emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, individuals might drink cold beverages while watching a horror movie or sip hot tea while coding or making a plane model. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do people drink different temperature beverages while doing certain things just because of their preference or unconsciously because it helps to get more of that certain feeling they're after?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="975" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-09T22:54:07.560" LastActivityDate="2012-10-12T03:33:59.583" Title="How does body temperature affect perception of time?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1735" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1726" CreationDate="2012-10-09T20:16:30.723" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dario Ringach wrote in a letter titled &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6961/full/425912a.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuroscience: States of Mind&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(inline references removed, see link for references)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If the ability to perceive oriented stimuli is found to depend on the&#xA;  cortical state, we can then ask a number of important questions&#xA;  about cortical function&lt;/strong&gt;. Is the time the cortex spends visiting&#xA;  particular states a function of attention? In other words, if an&#xA;  animal is trained to perceive horizontal stimuli, will there be a&#xA;  corresponding increase in the time the cortex spends sampling the&#xA;  horizontal orientation map relative to the other maps? &lt;strong&gt;Perhaps&#xA;  perceptual learning has more to do with 'top-down' mechanisms (brain&#xA;  processes learning how to 'control' the ongoing state of the early&#xA;  visual cortex) rather than 'bottom-up' mechanisms (external stimuli&#xA;  producing dramatic and long-lasting changes in the way the visual&#xA;  cortex processes incoming information).&lt;/strong&gt; In more general terms,&#xA;  one might ask if such intrinsic cortical states represent the brain's&#xA;  'current hypothesis' about the state of the external world. In&#xA;  this case, the purpose of the cortical machinery would be to&#xA;  continuously update the current hypothesis by considering new visual&#xA;  information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3116137/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rabinovich&lt;/a&gt; is well-known in dynamical systems neuroscience for highlighting the importance of &lt;strong&gt;transient states&lt;/strong&gt; (as opposed to attractor states).  That is, it is the active dynamics that correlate with perceptive state, moreso than the steady-state dynamics.  This view has experimental evidence from several different organisms (See the Rabinovich link) but the most notable example is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12971898&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Locust olfactory states&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Rabinovich paper above is really the goldmine for this question, including &lt;strong&gt;fMRI evidence&lt;/strong&gt;, but another source of &lt;strong&gt;fMRI theory&lt;/strong&gt; in relation to brain states is Karl Friston's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v11/n2/abs/nrn2787.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free Energy Principle for the Brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-10-09T20:16:30.723" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1736" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1741" CreationDate="2012-10-09T20:51:38.517" Score="9" ViewCount="423" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking at this question about an Experience Sampling Method (ESM) app:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1687/longitudinal-mobile-mood-tracking-app-with-random-reminders/1733#1733&quot;&gt;Longitudinal mobile mood tracking app with random reminders&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The studies linked in the question deal with sampling of user experience throughout the day. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if studies like ESM have found that there's a circadian component to human activity or moods fluctuation throughout the day?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-06-10T17:51:15.500" Title="Is there a circadian component to mood variations in humans?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1737" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-10T15:37:50.347" Score="8" ViewCount="786" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many of my friends and I have noticed that at certain stages of fever, time is often perceived as being longer than usual. I'd like to know if this is caused by the disease itself, an immune reaction, or high body temperature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fun fact: a lot of gamers I know have told me that their performance in first person shooter games increases while they have fever. I also noticed that works for me and as far as a ill person's judgment goes, I think that fever disrupts prolonged concentration on a single task, which makes it easier to interchange current objectives (like from &quot;going there&quot; to &quot;defending from that guy out of nowhere&quot; almost instantly). I'd like to know if it's true and if it is related to fever at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="975" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-11T01:55:47.690" LastActivityDate="2013-07-20T15:28:16.013" Title="How does fever affect time perception?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1738" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1739" CreationDate="2012-10-11T03:40:52.520" Score="4" ViewCount="315" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in long term negative physiological effects that some students experience following overstudying. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the scientific basis for overstudying?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is over studying correlated with long term decreases of cognitive ability?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1281" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-18T03:50:52.083" LastActivityDate="2012-10-18T03:50:52.083" Title="What is the scientific basis for long-term negative physiological effects of overstudying?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1739" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1738" CreationDate="2012-10-11T05:02:17.177" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The research literature on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28biology%29&quot;&gt;stress&lt;/a&gt; in general and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnout_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;burnout&lt;/a&gt; in particular would be relevant. The stress literature is massive and there are studies that have a particular focus on students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example Jacobs and Dodd did a study on college student burnout:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Measures of social support (Multidimen- sional Scale of Perceived&#xA;  Social Support), personality (General Temperament Survey), and&#xA;  workload were related to psychological burnout (Maslach Burnout&#xA;  Inventory) among 149 college students ( M = 20.8 yrs.). High levels of&#xA;  burnout were predicted by negative temperament and subjective&#xA;  workload, but actual workload (academic and vocational) had little to&#xA;  do with burnout. Low levels of burnout were predicted by positive&#xA;  tempera- ment, participation in extracurricular activities, and social&#xA;  support, especially from friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also cite some of the literature on stress in college  students:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;there has been a substantial amount of research on&#xA;  stress among general college students. Stress has been shown to be&#xA;  correlated with college students’ health behaviors (Weidner, Kohl-&#xA;  mann, Dotzauer, &amp;amp; Burns, 1996), anxiety concerning exams (Abouserie,&#xA;  1994; Ever- son, Tobias, Hartman, &amp;amp; Gourgey, 1993; Sloboda, 1990),&#xA;  self-esteem (Abouserie; Newby-Fraser &amp;amp; Schlebusch, 1997), and coping&#xA;  strategies that students use (Dwyer &amp;amp; Cummings, 2001). To the extent&#xA;  that stress is an important component of burnout (Maslach &amp;amp; Jackson,&#xA;  1981), this research is relevant to the development of a model of&#xA;  burnout among college students. Between classes, exams, employment,&#xA;  and extra- curricular activities, students are likely to experience&#xA;  high levels of stress, but do they experience burnout? Much research&#xA;  is needed to determine the prevalence of burnout, to identify&#xA;  important intrapersonal and interpersonal factors that influence&#xA;  burnout, and to develop effective inter- ventions to prevent and&#xA;  reduce burnout in college students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jacobs, S.R. &amp;amp; Dodd, D. (2003). Student burnout as a function of personality, social support, and workload. Journal of College Student Development, 44, 291-303. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-10-11T05:02:17.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1740" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1738" CreationDate="2012-10-11T07:14:30.473" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You've actually stated 2 questions in one. The second one is answered by Jeromy, the burnout or burnout-like states are the consequence of any overworking. I would also add the health problems, but those are not particularly on topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to the reasons, the learning can become the &lt;strong&gt;addiction&lt;/strong&gt;, as most of the things you do. It can become &lt;strong&gt;obsession&lt;/strong&gt;. There are people who are &lt;strong&gt;collecting knowledge&lt;/strong&gt;, and want to have as much facts as possible in their heads, such as the other are collecting the coins or stamps or anything else. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I personally know many people, which, during their studies, have spent most of their time in the library, while their effects were not better as those of their collegues, who have spent not as much as the half of that time learning. That people were simply like ill when they weren't learning, they couldn't find their place. Many of them are now internet-addicted or have alcohol problem. It seems to be the neurotype, that easily becomes obsessed about something (therefore, extremally vulnerable to addictions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="899" LastActivityDate="2012-10-11T07:14:30.473" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1741" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1736" CreationDate="2012-10-11T11:09:19.640" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Overview&lt;/strong&gt;: It seems like quite a bit of research has been conducted with experience sampling methodologies looking at daily variations in mood and activity. It is an interesting question as to how best tease out the effect on mood of time of day per se and activities associated with time of day on variations. It also seems like there are individual differences in how time of day influences mood. Anyway, here are a few studies I found on the topic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter (2003)&lt;/strong&gt; performed an experience sampling study of a large sample of U.S. secondary school students. With regards to time of day they found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;During the weekdays, time is structured by work or school requirements&#xA;  according to a circadian pattern. The ﬁrst part of the day, spent at&#xA;  work or school, tends to be less happy, except for a peak at&#xA;  lunch-time. There is a dip after lunch, followed by higher reports of&#xA;  happiness in the afternoon when one is again free (see Figure 2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, day of the week was also relevant with the greatest happiness observed on Saturday.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clearly, the social structure of time has an impact on happiness: The&#xA;  early part of the weekend, with its freedom from work or school, is&#xA;  experienced as liberating. The effect is probably greater on adults,&#xA;  for whom the working week is presumably even more constraining than it&#xA;  is for teenagers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Rusting and Larsen (1998)&lt;/strong&gt; measured negative affect in a small sample of undergraduates where three measure were obtained each day, once each in the morning, afternoon, and evening. The mean levels of negative affect seemed to be slightly higher later as the day progressed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Table 1 Average Percentage of Negative Affect Peaks at Each Time of Day&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;               M       SD&#xA;Morning      30.46   12.10&#xA;Afternoon    33.77   13.45&#xA;Evening      35.77   13.10&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Note. Percentages at each time of day were calculated for each subject&#xA;  across the 60-day assessment period. These percentages were then&#xA;  averaged across all subjects (N = 46).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stone et al (1996)&lt;/strong&gt; measured mood and activity using a diary study with measures taken every 15 minutes for one day. They found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Diurnal cycles were found for several moods (e.g., happy, tired),&#xA;  activities (e.g., discourse, thinking), and locations (e.g., home,&#xA;  work). Diurnal cycles in most moods were strongly associated with&#xA;  activities and location, yet diurnal cycles of some moods (rushed,&#xA;  sad, and tired) were not dependent on these factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you read their article, you'll see various graphs of self-reported emotions throughout the day both controlling and not controlling for type of activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Csikszentmihalyi, M. &amp;amp; Hunter, J. (2003). Happiness in everyday life: The uses of experience sampling. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4, 185-199. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mendedreality.com/private/docs/CSIKSZENTMIHALYI2003.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.mendedreality.com/private/docs/CSIKSZENTMIHALYI2003.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rusting, C.L. &amp;amp; Larsen, R.J. (1998). Diurnal patterns of unpleasant mood: associations with neuroticism, depression, and anxiety. Journal of Personality, 66, 85-103.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stone, A.A., Smyth, J.M., Pickering, T. &amp;amp; Schwartz, J. (1996). Daily mood variability: Form of diurnal patterns and determinants of diurnal patterns. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1286-1305.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-14T08:23:59.103" LastActivityDate="2012-10-14T08:23:59.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1742" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1734" CreationDate="2012-10-12T03:33:59.583" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that there is a research literature on the topic of the relationship between body temperature and time perception. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Weardon and Penon-Voak (1995)&lt;/strong&gt; present a literature review of the topic which would be worth reading if this interests you. The following quotes their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Experiments investigating timing behaviour in humans under conditions&#xA;  where body temperature was raised or (much more rarely) lowered,&#xA;  dating from 1927 to 1993, were reviewed. These tested the hypothesis&#xA;  that humans possess a temperature-sensitive chemical or bio!g,gical&#xA;  internal clock. &lt;strong&gt;Most studies used conditions in which subjects&#xA;  produced or estimated durations less than 100 sec long&lt;/strong&gt;, probably using&#xA;  chronometric counting, but other experimental paradigms were sometimes&#xA;  employed. Data from each study were expressed in a uniform fashion, as&#xA;  plots of changes in the rate of subjective time (estimated from&#xA;  changes in timing behaviour) against changes in body temperature. &lt;strong&gt;In&#xA;  almost all cases, rate of subjective time increased when body&#xA;  temperature increased above normal, and decreased when body&#xA;  temperature was lowered below normal&lt;/strong&gt;, although observations of the&#xA;  latter type were rare. &lt;strong&gt;The data also suggested a parametric effect of&#xA;  body temperature, with higher temperatures generally producing faster&#xA;  subjective time.&lt;/strong&gt; Some possible mechanisms for the effects obtained&#xA;  were discussed, with the most promising explanation probably being&#xA;  that the temperature manipulation produces changes in arousal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Aschoff  (1998)&lt;/strong&gt; also summarises some of this literature and highlights the important distinction between time frames of time perception:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From the point of view of a chronobiologist, human time perception can&#xA;  be divided into 2 distinct classes that differ in their interaction&#xA;  with the circadian system: short time intervals in the range of&#xA;  seconds (up to about 2 min) ... [and]... long time intervals, such as 1 h... &#xA;  The &lt;strong&gt;production of short intervals shows a negative correlation with&#xA;  body temperature&lt;/strong&gt; and a positive correlation with the intensity of&#xA;  illumination, while the &lt;strong&gt;1-h intervals are independent of both these&#xA;  variables&lt;/strong&gt;. For the short time intervals, the negative correlation&#xA;  with body temperature has often been documented (Aschoff and Daan,&#xA;  1997; Francois, 1927; Hancock, 1993; Hoagland, 1933; Pfaff, 1968;&#xA;  Wearden and Penton-Voak, 1995), and 2 publications give strong&#xA;  evidence for a positive correlation with light intensity (Aschoff and&#xA;  Daan, 1997; Pöppel and Giedke, 1970). With regard to the 1-h&#xA;  intervals, an independence of light intensity is well supported&#xA;  (Aschoff and Daan, 1997).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hancock (1993)&lt;/strong&gt; summarised the literature and discussed the proposed mechanism:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The general notion of a temperature influence on time perception may&#xA;  be traced to Pieron (1923,1945)[1] who suggested that &quot;if the speed of&#xA;  organic processes are modified, by variation and temperature for&#xA;  instance, mental time will increase or decrease proportionally.&quot; It&#xA;  was Pieron's student Francois (1927 a, b), however, who conducted the&#xA;  original empirical evaluations of the proposition. Yet, it is Hoagland&#xA;  who is associated most frequently with this general effect, mainly&#xA;  because of his postulate of a chemical clock to control estimates of&#xA;  duration. Using both his own data and those previously collected by&#xA;  Francois, Hoagland (1933) proposed that estimates of duration were&#xA;  directly dependent on internal body temperature. He described this&#xA;  relationship through the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhenius_equation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Van't Hoff-Arrhenius equation&lt;/a&gt;, which&#xA;  describes the speed of a chemical reaction in relationship to its&#xA;  temperature in degrees Kelvin. In observing that the collective data&#xA;  provided a unitary slope value within this equation, Hoagland (1933)&#xA;  concluded that our judgments of time depend upon &quot;an underlying&#xA;  chemical master reaction, implying an irreversible chemical mechanism&#xA;  controlling the consciousness of duration.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Aschoff J (1985) On the perception of time during prolonged&#xA;temporal isolation. Human Neurobiol 4:41-52.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Aschoff J and Daan S (1997) Human time perception in&#xA;temporal isolation: Effects of illumination intensity.&#xA;Chronobiol Internat 14:585-596.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Aschoff, J. (1998). Human perception of short and long time intervals: its correlation with body temperature and the duration of wake time. Journal of biological rhythms, 13, 437-442.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Francois, M. (1927a). Contribution a l'etude du sens du temps. La temperature inteme comme facteur de variation de l'appreciation subjective des durees. Annee Psychologie, 28,186-204.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Francois, M. (1927b). Influence de la temperature inteme sur notre appreciation du temps. C. R. Soc Biology, 108, 201-203.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hancock, P.A. (1993). Body temperature influence on time perception. The Journal of general psychology, 120, 197-216. &lt;a href=&quot;http://peterhancock.cos.ucf.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Hancock_Body-temperature-influence-on-time-perception_1993.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hoagland, H. (1933). The physiological control of judgments of duration: Evidence of a chemical clock. Journal of General Psychology, 9, 267-287.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pieron, H. (1923). Les problemes psychophysiologiques de la perception du temps. Annee Psychologie, 24, 1-25.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pieron, H. (1945). The sensations: Their functions, processes and mechanisms. London: Muller.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pfaff D (1968) Effects of temperature and time of day on time&#xA;judgments. J Experimental Psychol 76:419-422.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pöppel E and Giedke H (1970) Diurnal variation of time&#xA;perception. Psychol Forschg 34:182-198.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wearden JH and Penton-Voak IS (1995) Feeling the heat:&#xA;Body temperature and the rate of subjective time, revis-&#xA;ited. Quart J Exper Psychol 488:129-141&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-10-12T03:33:59.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1743" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1686" CreationDate="2012-10-12T04:28:44.553" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I imagine individual differences in enjoyment derived from horror films would be multifaceted as with most preferences regarding consumption of different media. Some of the research mentions how males, teenagers/young adults, sensation seekers, and those who have a history of exposure to horror films (although this may be both cause and effect) tend to like horror films more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sensation seeking&lt;/strong&gt;: You might want to look into the personality trait &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensation_seeking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sensation seeking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. To quote Wikipedia quoting the originator of the concept, &lt;a href=&quot;http://bigthink.com/users/marvinzuckerman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Marvin Zuckerman&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sensation seeking is a personality trait defined by the search for&#xA;  experiences and feelings, that are &quot;varied, novel, complex and&#xA;  intense&quot;, and by the readiness to &quot;take physical, social, legal, and&#xA;  financial risks for the sake of such experiences.&quot; (Zuckerman, 2009). Risk is not an&#xA;  essential part of the trait, as many activities associated with it are&#xA;  not risky.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Zuckerman&lt;/strong&gt; discusses the &lt;a href=&quot;http://bigthink.com/users/marvinzuckerman#!video_idea_id=17535&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychology of horror films in this video&lt;/a&gt; (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://bigthink.com/ideas/17535&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;transcript here&lt;/a&gt;). He frames sensation seeking in terms of habituation. Thus, the more horror films that a person has seen, the more intense the horror would need to be in order to induce the same rewarding level of arousal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Exploring the concept of sensation seeking may also move you more towards a more primary concept of why people seek such arousal inducing experiences. You could for instance read &lt;strong&gt;Roberti's (2004)&lt;/strong&gt; literature review of the biological and behavioural correlates of sensation seeking. In particular, see section 4 on biological characteristics related to sensation seeking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Zuckerman (1994, 1996) has proposed a multi-level approach in which&#xA;  sensation is a product of interactions between neurotransmitter&#xA;  systems (Zuckerman, 1996). Agonistic and antagonistic interactions of&#xA;  biological correlates are related to sensation seeking. Biochemical&#xA;  mechanisms provide major support for the relation of sensation seeking&#xA;  and associated biological systems (Balada et al., 1993; Ballenger et&#xA;  al., 1983; Daitzman &amp;amp; Zuckerman, 1980; Dellu et al., 1996; Gerra et&#xA;  al., 1999; Netter et al., 1996; Piazza et al., 1993; Ruegg et al.,&#xA;  1997; Zuckerman, 1984, 1991a; Zuckerman et al., 1980).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Tamborini and Stiff (1987)&lt;/strong&gt; studied the appeal of horror movies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A survey was conducted to determine the antecedents of the exposure to&#xA;  and appeal of horror films. Audience members leaving the theater after&#xA;  viewing Halloween II were interviewed using a questionnaire that&#xA;  contained measures of specific reasons for liking horror films as well&#xA;  as measures of several individual-difference variables. A model&#xA;  emerged from structural equation analysis indicating that &lt;strong&gt;three&#xA;  important factors in the appeal of horror films are (a) the audience's&#xA;  desire to experience the satisfying resolutions usually provided in&#xA;  these films, (b) the audience's desire to see the destruction often&#xA;  found in these films, and (c) the sensation-seeking personality traits&#xA;  of audience members for these films&lt;/strong&gt;. In addition, age and gender were&#xA;  important predictors. &lt;strong&gt;Horror films were enjoyed more by males and by&#xA;  younger viewers.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Tamborini, Stiff and Zillman (2006)&lt;/strong&gt; summarise existing research linking sensation seeking with horror film preference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several studies  have  attempted to  investigate  the  relationship &#xA;  between the attraction to horror films and sensation seeking. The&#xA;  first  attempt to  look at  this  issue was reported by  Sparks&#xA;  (1984), who  correlated his own 20-item scale measuring Enjoyment of &#xA;  Frightening  Films (EFF) with the Sensation-Seeking Scale, and found&#xA;  an overall  positive correlation between the two for both males (r=&#xA;  .22,p= .01) and  females (r = .28, p = .01). A second study (Tamborini&#xA;  &amp;amp; Stiff, 1984) also  found an association between the liking of horror&#xA;  films and a measure of  sensation seeking computed from  the &#xA;  combination of  disinhibition,  experience seeking, and thrill and&#xA;  adventure seeking scores (r= .14,p=  .05).  Finally, Edwards (1984)&#xA;  found a strong correlation between the  entire Sensation-Seeking Scale&#xA;  and interest in horror movies (r = 51, p  &amp;lt; .001). Unfortunately, the&#xA;  articles by Sparks (1984) and Tamborini and  Stiff  (1984) do  not &#xA;  report the  correlations between  the  individual  subdimensions of &#xA;  the Sensation-Seeking Scale and their measures of  attraction to&#xA;  horror films. This information is of particular interest to us  if  we&#xA;  want  to understand the  appeal found  in  horror  since  these &#xA;  subdimensions are thought to be unique. The study by Edwards (1984) &#xA;  does  provide  information  in  this  regard,  however.  According  to&#xA;  Edwards, each of  the subdimensions is correlated to interest in&#xA;  horror  films with disinhibition having the strongest relationship (r&#xA;  = .54, p &amp;lt;  .001), followed by boredom susceptibility (r = .41,p &amp;lt; .001), experience  seeking (r= .39,p &amp;lt; .001), and thrill and adventure&#xA;  seeking (r= .24, P &amp;lt;   .01).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Balada, F., Torrubia, R., &amp;amp; Maria Arque, J. (1993). Gonadal hormone correlates of sensation seeking and&#xA;anxiety in healthy human females. Neuropsychobiology, 27, 91–96.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ballenger, J. C., Post, R. M., Jimerson, D. C., Lake, C. R., Murphy, D., Zuckerman, M., &amp;amp; Cronin, C.&#xA;(1983). Biochemical correlates of personality traits in normals: An exploratory study. Personality and&#xA;Individual Diﬀerences, 4, 615–625.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Daitzman, R. J., &amp;amp; Zuckerman, M. (1980). Disinhibitory sensation seeking and gonadal hormones.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dellu, F., Piazza, P. V., Mayo, W., Le Moal, M., &amp;amp; Simon, H. (1996). Novelty-seeking in rats:&#xA;Biobehavioral characteristics and possible relationship with the sensation seeking trait in man.&#xA;Neuropsychobiology, 34, 136–145.&#xA;Personality and Individual Diﬀerences, 1, 103–110.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gerra, G., Avanzini, P., Zaimovic, A., Sartori, R., Bocchi, C., Timpano, M., Zambelli, U., Delsignore, R.,&#xA;Gardini, F., Talarico, E., &amp;amp; Brambilla, F. (1999). Neurotransmitters, neuroendocrine correlates of&#xA;sensation-seeking temperament in normal humans. Neuropsychobiology, 39, 207–213.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Netter, P., Hennig, J., &amp;amp; Roed, I. S. (1996). Serotonin and dopamine as mediators of sensation seeking&#xA;behavior. Neuropsychobiology, 34, 155–165.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Piazza, P. V., Deroche, V., Deminiere, J. M., Maccari, S., Le Moal, M., &amp;amp; Simon, H. (1993).&#xA;Corticosterone in the range of stress-induced levels possesses reinforcing properties: Implications for&#xA;sensation seeking behaviors. National Academy of Science, 90, 11738–11742.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Roberti, J.W. (2004). A review of behavioral and biological correlates of sensation seeking. Journal of research in personality, 38, 256-279. &lt;a href=&quot;ftp://psyftp.mcmaster.ca/dalywilson/Papers/DawnPatrol/SSSReview.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ruegg, R. G., Gilmore, J., Ekstrom, R. D., Corrigan, M., Knight, B., Tancer, M., Leatherman, M. E.,&#xA;Carson, S. W., &amp;amp; Golden, R. N. (1997). Clomipramine challenge responses covary with tridimensional&#xA;personality questionnaire scores in healthy subjects. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 1123–1129.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tamborini, R. &amp;amp; Stiff, J. (1987). Predictors of Horror Film Attendance and Appeal An Analysis of the Audience for Frightening Films. Communication Research, 14, 415-436.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tamborini, R., Stiff, J. &amp;amp; ZILLMAN, D. (2006). Preference for graphic horror featuring male versus female victimization. Human Communication Research, 13, 529-552.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zuckerman, M. (1984). Sensation seeking: A comparative approach to a human trait. Behavioral and Brain&#xA;Sciences, 7, 413–471.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zuckerman (2009). &quot;Chapter 31. Sensation seeking&quot;. In Leary, Mark R. &amp;amp; Hoyle, Rick H.. Handbook of Individual Differences in Social behavior. New York/London: The Guildford Press. pp. 455–465.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zuckerman, M. (1991a). Psychobiology of personality. New York: Cambridge University Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioral expressions and biosocial bases of sensation seeking. New York:&#xA;Cambridge Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zuckerman, M. (1996). The psychobiological model for impulsive unsocialized sensation seeking: A&#xA;comparative approach. Neuropsychobiology, 34, 125–129.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zuckerman, M., &amp;amp; Neeb, M. (1980). Demographic inﬂuences in sensation seeking and expressions of&#xA;sensation seeking in religion, smoking and driving habits. Personality and Individual Diﬀerences, 1,&#xA;197–206.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-10-12T04:28:44.553" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1744" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1686" CreationDate="2012-10-12T06:38:45.683" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would speculate that the answer lies within mirror neurons.  By watching the film, our mirror neurons are firing, so we have that empathatic connection to the film.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you see a person throwing darts, at the same time, your mirror neurons are firing, and the part of your brain that would control your hand movements (ie, thorwing a dart) are activated, although the signal doesn't actually go to the muscles in your hands to start moving....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we watch a horror film, and we see a person in the movie feeling tremendous fear, our mirror neurons fire up, and we feel that same emotion, to an extent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not to mention that often times, when watching a movie, we enter a hypnotic state, which in of itself is a &quot;flight&quot; mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, when we watch the horror films, we are subconsciously experiencing the emotions portrayed, and depending on how deeply engrossed we are in the movie (you can read that as &quot;depeding on how deeply hypnotized we are while watching the movie&quot;) it can trigger a fight/flight response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second part of your question, why can one person enjoy this and another person does not...  That is a more complex question, as there are too many variables.   What, specifically, do they like?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, let's take coconuts.  Some people love coconuts.  Why do they love coconuts, but others cannot stand them?    What memories are triggered by the scent, taste, feel of the coconut?    For me, I cannot stand the texture, and the taste is not exciting, so in general I do not like coconuts, and I avoid food that has coconut.   But my friend absolutely LOVES coconuts.   Why does he like coconuts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1284" LastActivityDate="2012-10-12T06:38:45.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1746" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="240" CreationDate="2012-10-13T11:00:08.977" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The NLP technique known as the &quot;Fast Phobia Cure&quot; works by dissociaton.  The practitioner would have the client imagine themselves in a large movie theatre, watching a movie of themselves having the phobic experience.   Watching it in fast motion, forward, then backward, etc.   This is the first dissociation -- They are watching themselves on that screen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next, the client is asked to go into the projection room, and look down at themselves in the theatre, watching the movie.   Same thing, watching it in fast motion, forward then backward.   This is the second dissociation  (watching themselves in the seat watching the movie)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, the client is asked to visualize the movie theatre, watching it from a distance, watching themselves in the projection booth watching themsevles in the seat, watching themselves on the screen.   This is the third dissociation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is all happening subconsciously, and disssociates themselves from the reaction to the phobic event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:  I am a hypnotherapist, and NLP practitioner, and I use this technique in my practice.  It &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1284" LastActivityDate="2012-10-13T11:00:08.977" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1747" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="337" CreationDate="2012-10-14T14:11:51.523" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The fact that the image does not &lt;em&gt;appears&lt;/em&gt; upside-down has to do with the way visual information is processed in the brain. In his book, Jeff Hawkins argues that the low-level visual features on the retina (being upside down, distorted, and changing rapidly) are lost in the process of forming invariant representation. And it's those representations that we experience consciously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From On Intelligence (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.onintelligence.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;official site&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.mohammadzadeh.info/media/blogs/snf/Resources/HTM/OWL%20Books%20-%20On%20Intelligence.pdf?mtime=1296774047&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The light receptors in your retina are unevenly distributed. They are&#xA;  densely concentrated in the fovea at the center, and get gradually&#xA;  sparser out in the periphery. In contrast, the cells in the cortex are&#xA;  evenly distributed. The result is that the retinal image relayed onto&#xA;  the primary visual area, V1, is highly distorted [&lt;em&gt;and upside-down, if you will&lt;/em&gt;]. When your eyes&#xA;  fixate on the nose of a face versus on an eye of the same face, the&#xA;  visual input is very different, as though it is being viewed through a&#xA;  distorting fisheye lens that is jerking violently to and fro. Yet when&#xA;  you see the face, it doesn't appear distorted, and it doesn't appear&#xA;  to be jumping around. Most of the time you aren't even aware that the&#xA;  retinal pattern has changed at all, let alone so dramatically. You&#xA;  just see &quot;face.&quot; (Figure 2b shows this effect on a view of a beach&#xA;  landscape.) This is a restatement of the mystery of invariant&#xA;  representation we talked about in chapter 4, on memory. What you&#xA;  &quot;perceive&quot; is not what V1 sees. How does your brain ever know it is&#xA;  looking at the same face, and why don't you know the inputs are&#xA;  changing and distorted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6ZAnn.png&quot; alt=&quot;figure 2a 2b&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The process of forming invariant representations is explained in the book, but I won't quote it there because its quite long.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="451" LastActivityDate="2012-10-14T14:11:51.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1748" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1794" CreationDate="2012-10-14T15:33:19.473" Score="12" ViewCount="12747" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in learning more about the modern techniques that are used for scientific studies of neurotransmitters in the living human brain. As far as I know, there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromodulator&quot;&gt;4 neuromodulator systems within the human brain&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Noradrenaline system&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dopamine system&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Serotonin system&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cholinergic system&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand, some of biosynthesis pathways of these systems are interconnected, with the level of one neurotransmitter affecting levels of others further down the line.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can anyone comment on which ones of these neurotransmitter levels can the modern science (as of 2012) measure or at least estimate in the living human brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How close is modern science to understanding the cascading effects that these neurotransmitter systems may have on each other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt; The other similar question deals with the imaging techniques of neurotransmitters, and this paper describes the process that might be used in the future, after tests and approvals. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022283612004275&quot;&gt;Structure-Guided Directed Evolution of Highly Selective P450-Based Magnetic Resonance Imaging Sensors for Dopamine and Serotonin&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is not very clear to me from the other answer if all 4 neurotransmitter systems listed above can be measured in a living brain, or if some of them are out of reach of modern science. &lt;strong&gt;Can we measure Noradrenaline, Dopamine,Serotonin and Choline/Acetylcholine levels in a living brain using modern methods?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for your input!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2012-10-14T21:50:45.093" LastActivityDate="2016-04-08T18:39:06.780" Title="Which neurotransmitters can be measured in a living human brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1749" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8284" CreationDate="2012-10-14T16:01:26.550" Score="11" ViewCount="144" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read about neuroscience and listen to talks like this one &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/juan_enriquez_will_our_kids_be_a_different_species.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Juan Enriquez: Will our kids be a different species&lt;/a&gt;, I'm starting to realize that humans are not all the same, and are instead quite different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: how &quot;different&quot; are humans from each other from a point of view of neuroscience and neurobiology? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the talks at TED.com gave a number that Homo Sapiens is 0.004% different from Neanderthal genetically. Another example given that olympic powerlifters have a certain genetic marker that the general population might not have. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To refine the question: &lt;strong&gt;just how different from the perspective of white matter tract anatomy or the distribution of receptors within our neuronal populations are humans of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R_%28Y-DNA%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;same haplogroup&lt;/a&gt; from one another?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-02T06:23:30.627" LastActivityDate="2014-09-27T21:52:22.623" Title="How similar are human brains within the same haplogroup?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1751" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1772" CreationDate="2012-10-14T21:34:49.290" Score="17" ViewCount="1508" Body="&lt;p&gt;Following the work of Stanley Stevens, psychophysical functions of stimulus intensity are commonly assumed to follow power laws, as illustrated below:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oXCq3.png&quot; alt=&quot;power law exponents graph&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This appears to be true for a wide variety of different types of stimuli and sensations. A table that is often presented to illustrate this generality is from &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books/about/Psychophysics_introduction_to_its_percep.html?id=e_VqAAAAMAAJ&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stevens, 1975&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XJfjB.png&quot; alt=&quot;power law exponents table&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is not obvious from perusing this table what kinds of stimuli tend to be associated with what kinds of power exponents -- in particular, what kinds of stimuli tend to be associated with &lt;em&gt;positively accelerated&lt;/em&gt; psychophysical functions of intensity vs. &lt;em&gt;negatively accelerated&lt;/em&gt; psychophysical functions of intensity. Indeed, the exponents in the table above appear to be distributed rather haphazardly to me, and I have not seen any mention of work suggesting it is otherwise in my admittedly limited literature search.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So my question is:&lt;/strong&gt; Is anyone aware of research that attempts to characterize what kinds of stimuli tend to be associated with what kinds of psychophysical functions of stimulus intensity? If so, what is the basic summary from this research, and what are some suggested readings? As hinted above, I am particularly interested in stimulus features that predict positively vs. negatively accelerated psychophysical functions of stimulus intensity, but references to and descriptions of more specific research questions are also quite welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt; I thought it might help to say just a little bit more about exactly what I'm interested in finding out here, in as clear and concise a way as I know how. What I am looking for are any references to review papers and/or research articles that are about (or even that just mention) predicting the form of the psychophysical power law across a range of different stimuli, using stimulus-level predictors. It is hard to extract any general conclusions about this from Stevens's table above, given that the power law exponent appears to vary widely, sometimes being &gt;1 and sometimes &amp;lt;1, &lt;em&gt;even for stimuli on the same psychological continuum&lt;/em&gt;, as in the cases of &quot;Taste&quot; and &quot;Warmth.&quot; The point of the table (and indeed the body of research that it is based on) is just to show that these functions follow power laws of some kind or other -- while this is mildly interesting, what I really want to know is how well we can predict what &lt;em&gt;kinds&lt;/em&gt; of power laws different stimuli will follow. Please let me know if I can offer any additional clarification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="463" LastEditorUserId="463" LastEditDate="2012-10-20T21:00:49.517" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T17:10:37.610" Title="What stimulus features determine the psychophysical power law exponent?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1752" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1754" CreationDate="2012-10-15T05:59:31.087" Score="7" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a design where I present participants with a series of decisions, and then ask them about some of these decisions later.  Similar work has found that even when the particular decision was made in error, and people 'should' realise this, participants carry on and attempt to justify the decisions anyway.  I presented similar decisions but with a computer program acting as 'the experimenter', providing text boxes for input.   Participants mentioned errors made in my study much more - they didn't carry on justifying an error.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was an unexpected result. I suspect some of this may be due to participants not wanting to admit to making an error when they feel more identifiable, but I don't know where to start in terms of literature on the topic!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So essentially - &lt;strong&gt;what are the differences in peoples willingness to admit and correct their own, or even others, errors, between social and computer interactions? and further, what causes these differences?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="629" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-15T11:07:21.590" LastActivityDate="2013-04-24T05:10:17.183" Title="Differences in willingness to correct errors made between human and computer interactions" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1754" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1752" CreationDate="2012-10-15T09:19:52.927" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I understand your question correctly, you have found that participants are more willing to admit to an error if they interact with a computer rather than a human being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would suggest reading up on related findings in the field of &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_desirability_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social desirability&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. Social desirability is the tendency of humans to think of themselves (&lt;em&gt;self-deceptive enhancement&lt;/em&gt;) and try to present themselves towards others in a favorable way (&lt;em&gt;impression management&lt;/em&gt;). There have been studies that suggest, that the effects of social desirability--or more precisely impression management--on reporting of sensitive or stigmatizing behavior are attenuated by interaction with computers rather than people (Turner et al., &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.280.5365.867&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1998&lt;/a&gt;; Joinson, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03200723&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1999&lt;/a&gt;; King &amp;amp; Miles, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.80.6.643&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1995&lt;/a&gt;; Davis, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.rog/10.3758/BF03200737&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1999&lt;/a&gt;; Reips, &lt;a href=&quot;http://personalwebpages.deusto.es/reips/pubs/papers/Reips2011privacy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2011&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect this effect is mostly a result of self-administration rather than being specific to computers, but may be a plausible explanation for your finding: Admitting mistakes is much more threatening to a person's self-worth than justifying a decision-- especially, when an experimenter is present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="696" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-10-15T12:08:57.857" LastActivityDate="2012-10-15T12:08:57.857" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1755" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1765" CreationDate="2012-10-15T16:59:34.590" Score="7" ViewCount="875" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading some material about motivation and brain chemistry.&#xA;One of the interesting articles is &lt;a href=&quot;http://qdreams.com/blog/brain-fitness-2/7-ways-to-increase-motivation-by-improving-your-brain-chemistry/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;7 Ways to Increase Motivation by Improving your Brain Chemistry&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. I'm interested in a more scientific treatment of the topic. Thus,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can motivation be increased by improving brain chemistry with nutrition or various activities (sport, exercise, relationships etc.)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What scientific articles exist on this topic?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be great if there was some article targeting this exact topic with references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="554" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-15T23:35:14.203" LastActivityDate="2020-05-02T19:15:13.780" Title="How can motivation be increased by improving brain chemistry with nutrition and activities?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1756" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1758" CreationDate="2012-10-15T17:39:09.407" Score="5" ViewCount="572" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it true that individuals often regret recent actions (i.e., last few months) but when they look back on their lives, they tend to regret things that they have not done (or lack of actions) ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, what causes this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2293" LastEditorUserId="2293" LastEditDate="2012-10-16T11:44:05.860" LastActivityDate="2012-10-16T11:44:05.860" Title="Why do people regret actions they didn't take when looking back on their lives?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1757" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20" CreationDate="2012-10-15T23:12:52.347" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nick Yee in Palo Alto is doing a lot of work with second-life and other virtual worlds looking at mostly social psychological questions. He seems to be making use of the full range of data available in the virtual world as you suggest above. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=author%3Ayee+%22second-life%22&quot;&gt;Google Scholar search: author:yee &quot;second-life&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1260" LastActivityDate="2012-10-15T23:12:52.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1758" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1756" CreationDate="2012-10-16T01:49:08.510" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The classic reference for exactly what you are describing is Gilovich &amp;amp; Medvec, 1995 (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.cornell.edu/sec/pubPeople/tdg1/Gilo_&amp;amp;_Medvec_95.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LINK&lt;/a&gt;), the primary thesis of which is that &lt;strong&gt;&quot;Actions, or errors of commission, generate more regret in the short term; but inactions, or errors of omission, produce more regret in the long run&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; (from the abstract). The authors explain that there are many factors that contribute to this general pattern; these factors are actually summarized quite nicely in their Table 3 below:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fuWVN.png&quot; alt=&quot;Regret table&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a more complete description of these factors and a discussion of the relevant evidence, see the link I posted above to the Gilovich &amp;amp; Medvec paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gilovich, T. &amp;amp; Medvec, V.H. (1995). The experience of regret: what, when, and why. Psychological review, 102, 379. &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fuWVN.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="463" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-16T02:55:39.220" LastActivityDate="2012-10-16T02:55:39.220" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1759" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1761" CreationDate="2012-10-16T07:24:06.567" Score="8" ViewCount="1243" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a Chinese friend and she says that she has a much harder time guessing Western people's ages than Eastern people's ages. No particular surprise here. For me it's the opposite. I have the feeling that Eastern people look younger longer and then &quot;suddenly&quot; look older.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To have a comparison, I wonder if there is a study on &quot;&lt;em&gt;Western&lt;/em&gt; people guessing &lt;em&gt;Western&lt;/em&gt; people's ages&quot; vs. &quot;&lt;em&gt;Eastern&lt;/em&gt; people guessing &lt;em&gt;Eastern&lt;/em&gt; people's ages&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2297" OwnerDisplayName="Nick Kidman" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-16T14:05:03.223" LastActivityDate="2012-10-17T01:32:19.587" Title="How good are people at guessing the ages of their respective ethnic group?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;aging&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1760" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1759" CreationDate="2012-10-16T10:15:53.510" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is probably an example of the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-race_effect&quot;&gt;cross-race effect&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, in which people of one ethnic group (you're talking ethnicity, not culture here) have trouble distinguishing between members of another ethnic group. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It comes down to familiarity basically - if we are more familiar with the features of a white face (for example) then we'll be able to notice minor variations on similar features more easily. In all likelihood, this carries over into judging ages, as minor changes (a few wrinkles here and there) may be missed in other groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there may be some top down sort of processing going on too here, which may indeed have something to do with culture. From a social psychology standpoint, it seems likely that there are signs that we pick up on (consciously or otherwise) which cue us as to the age of a person (see studies on priming for example). These cues may involve the way that others treat an individual, the way they talk, mannerisms, certain phrases etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These sorts of factors are likely culturally determined - for example, we might speculate that older Asian people may maintain more contact with younger generations due to social structures which encourage extended families to live together. As a result we might suggest that they may maintain more current attitudes, mannerisms and communication styles for longer, until cognitive decline eventually catches up with them. While all of that is highly speculative, it is a potential mechanism through which culture may induce the aging pattern you describe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1265" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-10-16T10:32:44.783" LastActivityDate="2012-10-16T10:32:44.783" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1761" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1759" CreationDate="2012-10-16T11:46:09.333" Score="9" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Cross-race effect in facial processing&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @analystic has noted, there is substantial research documenting what is sometimes called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-race_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;cross-race effect&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cross-race effect (sometimes called cross-race bias, other-race bias&#xA;  or own-race bias) is the tendency for people of one race to have&#xA;  difficulty recognizing and processing faces and facial expressions of&#xA;  members of a race or ethnic group other than their own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an overview of research see the meta-analysis by Meissner and Brigham (2001). To quote parts of the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Data were analyzed from 39 research articles, involving&#xA;  91 independent samples and nearly 5,000 participants. Measures of hit&#xA;  and false alarm rates, and aggregate measures of discrimination&#xA;  accuracy and response criterion were examined, including an analysis&#xA;  of 8 study moderators. ... Overall, results indicated a &quot;mirror effect&quot; pattern in which own-race faces yielded a higher proportion of hits and a lower&#xA;  proportion of false alarms compared with other-race faces. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the effect is probably related to degree of interaction with the  racial group. Thus, it is not so much a fixed genetic difference, but rather that in many societies we tend to interact more with our own racial group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would not be surprising if part of the cross-race effect would be reflected in poorer performance in rating the age of people from a different race relative to one's own race.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General skill in estimating ages&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find a nice review of the age estimation literature in Rhodes (2009).&#xA;The author suggests that a general in group bias may exist in skill in age estimation. I.e., that prediction is not just better for the same race but also for people of similar age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Taken together, data on group biases in age estimation must be&#xA;  regarded as suggestive that in-group age estimation is superior to&#xA;  that of out-group age estimation. This may include more accurate age&#xA;  estimates for individuals of one’s own ethnicity or age group (but see&#xA;  Burt &amp;amp; Perrett, 1995). However, given the dearth of data, the full&#xA;  range and impact of group biases on age estimation has yet to be&#xA;  explored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Estimating ages of own versus other race&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also found a specific study by Dehon and Bredart (2001) which specifically looked at accuracy in cross-racial age estimation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Citing the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the present study, we investigated whether this finding extends to&#xA;  age perception. Caucasian and African participants were asked to&#xA;  estimate the age of Caucasian and African faces. The main result of&#xA;  this experiment was a significant race of 'subject $\times$ race of face'&#xA;  interaction showing that Caucasian participants performed better at&#xA;  evaluating Caucasian faces than African faces. However, African&#xA;  participants performed equally with both type of faces. This result is&#xA;  explained by the Africans' time of residence in Belgium&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They used  72 Caucasian and 72 African photographs as stimuli. Actual ages of faces ranged between 20 and 45 years. In terms of absolute deviation in years between actual age and estimated age, thy found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Caucasian participants were better at estimating the age of&#xA;  Caucasian faces (mean = 6.35 years, SD=3.13 years) than African&#xA;  faces (mean= 7.79 years, SD= 2.96 years) whereas the performance of&#xA;  African participants did not differ with the kind of face (mean =6.98&#xA;  years, SD =3.25 years and mean =  6.79 years, SD= 2.86 years for&#xA;  Caucasian and African faces, respectively).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note of course that these differences in age accuracy are not that large.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dehon, H. &amp;amp; Bredart, S. (2001). An 'other-race' effect in age estimation from faces. Perception, 30, 1107-1114.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Meissner, C.A. &amp;amp; Brigham, J.C. (2001). Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review.. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7, 3. &lt;a href=&quot;http://digitalcommons.utep.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&amp;amp;context=christian_meissner&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rhodes, M.G. (2009). Age estimation of faces: A review. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23, 1-12.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-17T01:32:19.587" LastActivityDate="2012-10-17T01:32:19.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1763" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-17T20:14:14.840" Score="1" ViewCount="232" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a &lt;strong&gt;clinically-researched&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;tested&lt;/strong&gt; encyclopedia (or similar resource) covering all available &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;nootropics&lt;/a&gt; currently known?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; was a helpful first stop; but I'm searching for something more comprehensive and specifically for medical professionals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest I could find was the &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0786408537&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Encyclopedia of Mind Enhancing Foods, Drugs and Nutritional Substances&lt;/a&gt;, by David Group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2301" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-28T06:20:41.417" LastActivityDate="2014-09-22T13:16:41.033" Title="Comprehensive encyclopedia of nootropics for medical researchers and practitioners" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1764" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1763" CreationDate="2012-10-17T21:22:02.957" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Edit (09/14) -- Two years after writing this answer, I need to alter it slightly.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.examine.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Examine.com&lt;/a&gt; is a website dedicated to aggregating information on nootropics and other supplements/chemicals.  It is often incomplete, but having a singular hub for academic/industrial research is nearly indispensable.   I don't know if it satisfies what you're looking for, OP, but if you haven't, take a look at it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not a &quot;medical professional&quot;, but honestly I strongly doubt something like this exists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;&quot;clinically-researched and tested&quot;&lt;/code&gt; would require huge amounts of money and time in a coordinated fashion.  This isn't something often performed for 'nutritional supplements'.  Ever seen the warning on vitamin bottles, something along the lines of &quot;These statements have not been verified by the FDA&quot;?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's only for the supplements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For newer pharmaceuticals, the process is HUGELY complicated.  Multiple animal trials, regulatory approval, multiple courses of human trials, more regulatory approval, and even more hoops to jump through before it can be sold by pharmacies (this process is easier in Countries will more lax regulation - hence why, for example, Modafinil is obtainable in a number of countries outside the US; well, that and lax patent laws).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, nootropic supplements are more touchy/personalized than most drugs.  For example, we don't exactly know how SSRI drugs work, yet we prescribe them by the millions (if not billions).  We know even less how some nootropics work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And finally, we have not reached a point of diagnostic science to be able to say, &quot;You could use a course of DrugA and DrugB, but stay away from DrugC and Foods fA, fB, and fC&quot;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Until we're closer to that point, it's all a guessing game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(one last thing - from my understanding, a lot of doctors have no idea of the deeper details of the drugs they prescribe; they're given all the 'info they need to know' by the pharma reps - another reason why a comprehensive compendium doesn't exist)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="46" LastEditDate="2014-09-22T13:16:41.033" LastActivityDate="2014-09-22T13:16:41.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1755" CreationDate="2012-10-18T02:46:03.400" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The best thing you can do is avoid nutritional deficiencies and exercise.  In general, it's the same as for the rest of the body.  Many people have subtle nutritional deficiencies that they may never know about their whole life just based on eating habits.  As Chuck Sherrington said, neurotransmitter-based treatments are subject to homeostatic compensation, but if you have a deficiency, it may be more complicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nutrition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Particularly, the same things that increase pulmonary/circulatory health are going to increase brain health&lt;a href=&quot;http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/57/2/286S.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[1&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.alz.org/we_can_help_adopt_a_brain_healthy_diet.asp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;].  A large contribution to health in the developing fetal brain comes from the mother's diet.  There are lots of diseases associated with maternal nutrtional defecits[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673676914768&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/85/2/614S.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;].  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Exercise&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Running and other physical activities increases neurogenesis &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v2/n3/abs/nn0399_266.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[5&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;http://content.karger.com/produktedb/produkte.asp?doi=223730&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;].  But does it do it &quot;intelligently&quot;?  I don't know.  More neurons isn't automatically more motivation or intelligence.  But it is a stress-relief technique, and too much stress can certainly kill motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Behavior&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You didn't ask, but behavioral practice is probably another strong factor.  For example, breaking jobs into smaller tasks: getting the first small task done can give a motivational boost towards getting the second done (and so on).  They've actually found a correlation between paying smaller loans off first (even though not mathematically more efficient in terms of costs) is more likely to lead to loans being paid off all the way because of the human element&lt;a href=&quot;http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1760528&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[9&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-10-18T02:46:03.400" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1766" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10021" CreationDate="2012-10-18T08:52:13.430" Score="11" ViewCount="1956" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Muscle memory&lt;/a&gt; (also referred to as &quot;motor memories&quot;) is a form of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;procedural memory&lt;/a&gt;, which is a form of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_memory#Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;implicit memory&lt;/a&gt;. I'm particularly interested in trained tasks like throwing a dart, shooting a ball in foosball, or touch typing, which as far as I understand could be considered muscle memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies seem to have shown that alcohol has no significant effect on implicit memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intropsych.com/ch06_memory/implicit_vs_explicit_memory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;From www.intropsych.com&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.10.1.156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hashtroudi, Parker, DeLisi, Wyatt, and Mutter (1984)&lt;/a&gt; studied the&#xA;  effects of alcohol on implicit and explicit memory. Ninety-six male&#xA;  volunteers between the ages of 21 and 35 were recruited for the&#xA;  all-day experiment (they were kept at the lab until their blood&#xA;  alcohol returned to zero). The researchers found that alcohol&#xA;  intoxication had effects similar to brain injury. &lt;strong&gt;It damaged&#xA;  explicit memory but not implicit memory.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;From wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While retrieval of explicit memory is severely impaired by alcohol,&#xA;  retrieval of implicit memory is not. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.115.3.247&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Nelson, T. et al. 1986)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a later study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932%2891%2990034-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lister, R. G. et al. (1991)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] no impairment was observed if memory for the same material was&#xA;  assessed implicitly using a backwards-reading or word-completion task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering whether any studies have been done which investigate &lt;strong&gt;the effects of alcohol on muscle memory specifically&lt;/strong&gt;. Possible measures could be the speed of the executed motion, and its accuracy. The methodology followed could be along the lines of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A task has been practiced. (on an 'expert' level, where the motion becomes unconscious)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Measure performance.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Drink alcohol.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Measure performance under second condition.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Hashtroudi, S., Parker, E. S., DeLisi, L. E., Wyatt, R. J., &amp;amp; Mutter, S. A. (1984). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.10.1.156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Intact retention in acute alcohol amnesia.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10(1), 156.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Nelson, T., McSpadden, M., Fromme, K., &amp;amp; Marlatt, G. (1986). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.115.3.247&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Effects of Alcohol Intoxication on Metamemory and on Retrieval from Long-Term Memory.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Experimental Psychology, 115(3), 247-254.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Lister, R. G., Gorenstein, C., Risher-Flowers, D., Weingartner, H. J., &amp;amp; Eckardt, M. J. (1991). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932%2891%2990034-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dissociation of the acute effects of alcohol on implicit and explicit memory processes.&lt;/a&gt; Neuropsychologia, 29(12), 1205-1212.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T10:19:05.457" LastActivityDate="2016-02-13T05:18:06.203" Title="What are the effects of alcohol on muscle memory?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;&lt;procedural-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1770" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-22T19:21:54.177" Score="10" ViewCount="283" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if the human brain &quot;predicts&quot; how certain weeks of the year should feel? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a child who is going to school may have a more positive affect in anticipation of summer holidays, and may feel more negatively towards the end of the summer, as he/she knows that freedom and fun are about to end. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example may be siblings' or parents' birthdays, where the anticipation of the birthday increases positive affect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if year after year of such patterns (in childhood, the teenage years and maybe young adolescence) can create an association in the brain between positive/negative affect and the specific time of the year, or specific photoperiod duration (day length). What I'm trying to understand is, if a pattern of such ups and downs that may have been established in the childhood persists throughout adulthood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Have there been any studies that looked at the previous life history and incidence of mania/depression episodes in bipolar disorder, or the onset of depression in Seasonal Affective Disorder(SAD), and correlated them with holidays, birthdays, etc?&lt;/strong&gt; I've read that SAD may manifest a depression in any season, not just winter, which got me thinking of the possible causes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2012-10-30T12:29:48.563" LastActivityDate="2021-03-23T20:26:22.317" Title="Is there any &quot;predictive&quot; component to positive/negative affect in Seasonal Affective Disorder and Bipolar Disorder?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1772" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1751" CreationDate="2012-10-22T20:48:19.093" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mainly: the choice of variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beware that the exponent depends on the choice of parameters; or even worse - relations can change from power-law to linear, logarithmic or exponential, with redefining variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g. you can measure sound volume in either amplitude, energy density (square of the amplitude) or dB (logarithm of the first one). None of it is privileged. Moreover, &quot;psychological magnitude&quot; needs exact definition, for the same reason (so not only to specify which type of reaction is that but what is the exact physical quantity being measured).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, if you consider only qualitative parameters, then you can look at only at qualitative behaviour of the relation (e.g. if it is monotonous). To calculate exponents (or even - to claim that a certain relation is a power function) it is not enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there are many adaptations to make sensitivity higher (e.g. edge detection) or lower (e.g. to see well in lighting conditions differing by order of magnitude, in terms of light intensity). But to compare their exponents, for the comparison to make sense, you need to have a very good justification for the right choice of variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastActivityDate="2012-10-22T20:48:19.093" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1773" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1774" CreationDate="2012-10-23T21:24:54.550" Score="19" ViewCount="2871" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for an implementation of the linear ballistic accumulator model or Ratcliff's diffusion model (e.g. in R, MATLAB, or Python).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1272" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-23T23:28:59.960" LastActivityDate="2017-07-22T06:01:09.540" Title="Is there an R implementation of the linear ballistic accumulator model or Ratcliff's diffusion model for measuring response time and accuracy?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1774" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1773" CreationDate="2012-10-23T23:25:17.470" Score="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Here are a few options. I have not tried them yet personally.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned below, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/rtdists/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rtdists&lt;/a&gt; package in R is able to fit both LBA and diffusion models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Other Options&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;LBA&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scott Brown has a copy of Donkin et al (2009) on his web page with some code in R, Excel, and WinBUGS for fitting the LBA model:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newcl.org/publications/DonkinAverellEtAl2009BRM.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.newcl.org/publications/DonkinAverellEtAl2009BRM.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newcl.org/members/chris/fitLBA.zip&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.newcl.org/members/chris/fitLBA.zip&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also the &lt;code&gt;glba&lt;/code&gt; package on CRAN by Ingmar Visser.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/glba/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/glba/index.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Diffusion model&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Diffussion model is available as a matlab toolbox called (&lt;a href=&quot;http://ppw.kuleuven.be/okp/software/dmat/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DMAT&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Donkin, C., Averell, L., Brown, S.D., &amp;amp; Heathcote, A. (2009) Getting more from accuracy and response time data: Methods for fitting the Linear Ballistic Accumulator model. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1095-1110. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psy.unsw.edu.au/Users/CDonkin/publications/brm09b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vandekerckhove, J., &amp;amp; Tuerlinckx, F. (2008). Diffusion model analysis with MATLAB: A DMAT primer. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 61-72. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.1.61 &lt;a href=&quot;http://ppw.kuleuven.be/okp/_pdf/Vandekerckhove2008DMAWM.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-12-18T03:44:40.473" LastActivityDate="2016-12-18T03:44:40.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1776" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1777" CreationDate="2012-10-24T09:38:42.693" Score="11" ViewCount="1217" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's the original source of the SEEV (Salience Effort Expectancy Value) Model for predicting the distribution of visual attention? I've seen it mentioned in many papers and presentations but everyone of them lacks a reference to the source of this model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone have a valid reference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2323" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-16T02:53:03.323" LastActivityDate="2014-05-05T13:08:21.047" Title="Origin of the SEEV Model of visual attention distribution" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1777" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1776" CreationDate="2012-10-24T16:35:23.130" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wickens et al. (2003) is the earliest I'm aware of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wickens, C. D., Goh, J., Helleberg, J., Horrey, W. J., &amp;amp; Talleur, D.&#xA;A. (2003). Attentional models of multitask pilot performance using&#xA;advanced display technology. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human&#xA;Factors and Ergonomics Society, 45(3), 360-380.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually, in that paper he cites Wickens et al. (2001), but I can't seem to find&#xA;a copy of this manuscript anywhere, and it has fewer citations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wickens, C. D., Helleberg, J., Goh, J., Xu, X., &amp;amp; Horrey, W. J.&#xA;(2001). Pilot task management: Testing an attentional expected value&#xA;model of visual scanning. Savoy, University of Illinois Institute of&#xA;Aviation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're using N-SEEV, cite one of these instead:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Steelman-Allen, K. S., McCarley, J. S., Wickens, C., Sebok, A., &amp;amp;&#xA;Bzostek, J. (2009, October). N-SEEV: A computational model of&#xA;attention and noticing. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and&#xA;Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting (Vol. 53, No. 12, pp. 774-778). SAGE&#xA;Publications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wickens, C., McCarley, J., &amp;amp; Steelman-Allen, K. (2009, October).&#xA;NT-SEEV: A model of attention capture and noticing on the flight deck.&#xA;In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual&#xA;Meeting (Vol. 53, No. 12, pp. 769-773). SAGE Publications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-10-24T16:35:23.130" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1778" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9837" CreationDate="2012-10-25T12:16:59.657" Score="8" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Salience, Effort, Effort and Value (SEEV) model for predicting the distribution of visual attention contains a parameter called 'value' which represents the importance of a certain area of the field of view concerning a given task context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know a project or study that actually did a 'value model' for the traffic context? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2323" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-23T09:36:34.383" LastActivityDate="2015-04-23T09:36:34.383" Title="Rated model of driving-related processes and objects" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1779" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1781" CreationDate="2012-10-26T07:27:00.010" Score="7" ViewCount="706" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example&lt;/strong&gt;: In class, when a teacher proposes some unreasonable assignment, students hesitate to express their objection until someone steps-up and then others find courage to talk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've tried searching for the term for this phenomenon but I don't know what I'm looking for exactly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2293" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-22T11:36:49.763" LastActivityDate="2013-10-22T11:36:49.763" Title="What is the name of the phenomenon whereby someone steps-up and others follow?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1780" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1784" CreationDate="2012-10-26T09:37:00.347" Score="1" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering if there's a term in psychology for a situation where you want something really bad, but you are not able to get it for the moment (or a goal that you are not able to achieve) and when you eventually do achieve the goal or get that &quot;thing&quot;, you feel unhappy, it's a really bad feeling because you're maybe too late on something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are two case scenarios that might be unrealistic, but I'm sure you will get my point:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1st case scenario:&lt;/strong&gt; your dream is to buy a convertible car to go to the beach with your college friends, you spend 10 years saving for that car, and when you buy it you realize you're not in college any more and all your college friends got married, now you're not happy and have this bad feeling in your stomach; you wish you had the car 10 years ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2nd case scenario:&lt;/strong&gt; a new gadget is released, all your friends buy it and mess with it, your dad tells you that he will get it for you next year when you get good grades (or for any other reason). Next year comes and you got good grades, your dad gets you the gadget, but nobody is talking about it any more, you're still unhappy although you have the gadget.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="582" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T09:07:44.993" LastActivityDate="2013-08-12T10:01:42.263" Title="Disappointment When Goal Fulfilment is Delayed" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1781" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1779" CreationDate="2012-10-26T10:07:11.277" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One related term I found is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwagon_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;bandwagon effect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In layman’s term the bandwagon effect refers to &lt;strong&gt;people doing certain&#xA;  things because other people are doing them&lt;/strong&gt;, regardless of their own&#xA;  beliefs, which they may ignore or override.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The general rule is that conduct or beliefs spread among people, as&#xA;  fads and trends clearly do, with &quot;the probability of any individual&#xA;  adopting it increasing with the proportion who have already done&#xA;  so&quot;. (Colman, Andrew 2003) As more people come to believe in something, others also &quot;hop&#xA;  on the bandwagon&quot; regardless of the underlying evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Colman, Andrew (2003). &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0199534063&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Oxford Dictionary of Psychology&lt;/a&gt;. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 77. ISBN 0-19-280632-7.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-10-26T10:12:41.693" LastActivityDate="2012-10-26T10:12:41.693" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1782" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1278" CreationDate="2012-10-26T10:27:59.380" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a paper published recently (actually, today) by myself and my 2 advisers, we analyze results of an auditory perceptual discrimination task, and show that the Bayesian model can be used to explain some aspects of behaviour, but not others. We provide a simple heuristic model that accounts for a wider range of phenomena in that task, such as the imperfect adaptation to non-standard conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This result supports the more general claim that &lt;strong&gt;the brain employs heuristics rather than exact Bayesian computations&lt;/strong&gt;. However, these heuristics are not chosen at random. They are probably developed during evolution, which may explain why, at least in most cases (under common, or 'normal' conditions) perform in a way that may seem optimal, and perform as the Bayesian analysis would suggest an optimal observer/decision-maker should.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reference&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Raviv O, Ahissar M, Loewenstein Y (2012) How Recent History Affects Perception: The Normative Approach and Its Heuristic Approximation. PLoS Comput Biol 8(10): e1002731. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002731 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info%3adoi/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002731&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Full text link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2012-10-26T10:27:59.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1783" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1779" CreationDate="2012-10-26T13:23:35.707" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your example of no student willing to object until one objects is analagous to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Asch's conformity experiments&lt;/a&gt;. To quote the Wikipedia article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a control group, with no pressure to conform to an erroneous view,&#xA;  only one participant out of 35 ever gave an incorrect answer. Solomon&#xA;  Asch hypothesized that the majority of participants would not conform&#xA;  to something obviously wrong; however, when surrounded by individuals&#xA;  all voicing an incorrect answer, participants provided incorrect&#xA;  responses on a high proportion of the questions (32%). Seventy-five&#xA;  percent of the participants gave an incorrect answer to at least one&#xA;  question.&#xA;  ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The unanimity of the confederates has also been varied. When the&#xA;  confederates are not unanimous in their judgment, &lt;strong&gt;even if only one&#xA;  confederate voices a different opinion, participants are much more&#xA;  likely to resist the urge to conform (only 5–10% conform) than when&#xA;  the confederates all agree&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-10-26T13:23:35.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1784" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1780" CreationDate="2012-10-26T13:33:40.630" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can think of a term, but it's not psychology-specific: &lt;code&gt;unmet expectations&lt;/code&gt; (that and &lt;code&gt;lack of attention&lt;/code&gt;).  Your two case studies are basically the same in these aspects.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unmet expectations are just that: we expect a certain emotional state when a situation is achieved (like buying a new car) - if that state isn't fully reached (which it rarely is - life is so rarely as clean cut as our minds would have it), our expectations are unmet and we are left 'to make up the difference', so to speak - disappointment, anger, frustration, all of these are possible, and more.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How important we rate the outcome is also important - and unmet expectation isn't a big deal emotionally if the outcome isn't very important to us.  This is similar to reading a book and then going to the movie adaptation of it: if you have a mental picture of how the movie 'should' look, then you may be disappointed with how the actual movie turns out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other half, not enough attention, is also quite straightforward: if we are paying attention (the right attention, of course) we can see that material possessions rarely bring lasting happiness (this is actually a function of a remarkably adaptive human physiology, but I don't understand it well enough to explain it over the internet, sorry).  And with attention, we know that while we may enable more experiences, fun or lasting experiences, with material possessions, pursuing the thing itself as the end, rather than the means to the end, will inevitably result in dissatisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, there are a lot of popularized articles about expectations.  Here are a few:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/shift-mind/200901/the-paradox-expectations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychology Today article&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11346325&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NCBI Paper: The effect of unmet expectations among adults presenting with physical symptoms.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://tinybuddha.com/quotes/tiny-wisdom-what-unmet-expectations-mean/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tiny Buddha: Unmet expectations&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of these were found by Google Search for phrase &lt;code&gt;unmet expectations&lt;/code&gt;, so there's a lot more where those came from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T10:01:42.263" LastActivityDate="2013-08-12T10:01:42.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1785" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1787" CreationDate="2012-10-26T15:12:30.700" Score="9" ViewCount="862" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember reading at some point in the literature that humans are unable to avoid distraction from a certain primary task if this task isn't using up close to all available 'resources' - basically meaning that everytime the human brain has cognitive resources left, they'll be allocated to one thing or another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that right? If not, at what point is my understanding wrong?&#xA;Can you give a relevant reference concerning this question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit:&#xA;I'm referring to distraction in the context of traffic from the perspective of the individual driver. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;code&gt;Hancock, P. A., Mouloua, M., &amp;amp; Senders, J. W. (2009). On the philosophical foundations of the distracted driver and driving distraction.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2323" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-17T02:13:12.630" LastActivityDate="2012-12-17T02:31:29.710" Title="Attention Theory: is it impossible to avoid distraction?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1786" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-28T01:52:14.733" Score="7" ViewCount="204" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently seen this great video: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/neil_burgess_how_your_brain_tells_you_where_you_are.html&quot;&gt;How your brain tells you where you are&lt;/a&gt;. The video discusses how certain cells within the brain fire based on proximity to objects. There are great examples of experiments with brain cells and location.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm wondering if there's similar insight about how the brain processes light.&lt;/strong&gt; I'm particularly interested in &lt;strong&gt;how light is processed in dreams&lt;/strong&gt;, when no light stimulus is coming from the eyes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is possible to have dreams that are dark or light, but changing the level of ambient light is generally difficult in dreams. In fact, a common test for dreaming involves flipping a light switch. If the effect is unexpected, the person may be dreaming. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do our brains actually process light? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-28T12:00:42.293" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T06:49:37.727" Title="How is light processed by the human brain when awake and in dreams?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1787" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1785" CreationDate="2012-10-28T13:33:24.110" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you probably need to more clearly define what you mean by distraction - what sorts of events or objects in the world distract, and what does it mean to be distracted? - but between subjects differences in susceptibility to distraction have been noted in the literature on field dependency at least &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1965.20.3.805&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1965.20.3.805&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="629" LastActivityDate="2012-10-28T13:33:24.110" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1788" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1790" CreationDate="2012-10-29T00:45:26.667" Score="-3" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;While awake, can thought activity be transferred between the subconscious and conscious awareness, by will?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-29T01:50:50.317" LastActivityDate="2012-10-29T01:50:50.317" Title="Can thought be shifted between subconscious and conscious awareness?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2012-11-17T02:18:44.037" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1790" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1788" CreationDate="2012-10-29T01:50:18.167" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think the scientific literature would necessarily describe the process as &quot;shifting thought between subconscious and conscious awareness&quot; but putting exact definitions aside, obviously this does occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I recall information, in some sense information is being moved from the unconscious to the conscious part of my mind. By focusing on a different task I am able to switch my attention to something else. Thus, what was previously the focus of my consciousness no longer is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could think about top-down versus bottom up processes of allocating attention, where top-down refers to where attention is driven more by the individual and bottom-up refers to when attention is driven more by environmental cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also many other psychological constructs that are concerned with self-regulation of conscious experience. See for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_suppression&quot;&gt;thought suppression&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coping_%28psychology%29#Types_of_coping_strategies&quot;&gt;avoidance coping strategies&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-10-29T01:50:18.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1791" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1314" CreationDate="2012-10-29T12:42:03.113" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think this is a serious scientific theory at all. The &quot;theory&quot; makes many assumptions about the supposed behaviour of Neanderthals that are not based on evidence, e.g. that they preferred cold to heat. Archaeological evidence indicates that they used fire. There is also a lack of evidence that their social skills were on par with those of autistic people. Here is a good &lt;a href=&quot;http://evoanth.wordpress.com/2012/08/20/nat/&quot;&gt;blog article&lt;/a&gt; debunking the theory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2330" LastActivityDate="2012-10-29T12:42:03.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1792" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3354" CreationDate="2012-10-29T16:19:20.567" Score="20" ViewCount="1894" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in learning more about studies or experiments that determine how long a typical person can stay excited about something new:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;New job&#xA;new project&#xA;new relationship&#xA;new idea&#xA;new purchase/toy&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence to support the hypothesis that humans are excited by new things/prospects, but only for a short time? If so, how short? Is it days, weeks or a &quot;honey moon&quot;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A while ago I've heard a talk on TED.com that happy people are up to 30% more productive (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxeu.org/article/does-happiness-affect-productivity&quot;&gt;Does happiness affect productivity?&lt;/a&gt;), and I'm wondering if this is applicable to &quot;being excited about something new&quot; - &lt;strong&gt;i.e: are people more effective/smart when they are taking on new project, new job or a new relationship?&lt;/strong&gt; Are people more excited, energized and engaged &lt;strong&gt;when they conceive new ideas?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would also help if I get to learn what the search term for &quot;being excited about something new&quot; is. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update:&#xA;Looking into happiness and productivity produced two terms: &quot;Happiness economics&quot; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill&quot;&gt;Hedonic Adaptation&lt;/a&gt;. The article on hedonic adaptation says that happiness is homeostatic in nature &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a system that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain&#xA;  a stable, relatively constant condition of [its] properties&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading that happiness regulates itself (as in negative feedback) sounds very reasonable to me, and I recall reading about antidepressants and Serotonin, which also mentioned that Serotonin production uses negative feedback, where more Serotonin released now inhibits release of more Serotonin, thus antidepressants dont work immediately and require a couple weeks to take effect[looking for a link]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm wondering if the process of being excited about something new is also homeostatic in nature?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-07T12:05:01.957" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T15:51:47.287" Title="How long can a person stay happy, excited and motivated about something new?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;ideation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1793" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-29T16:23:23.823" Score="5" ViewCount="184" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work for a large UK-based clothing retailer. After some initial customer testing with our product details page (on our website) there has been some debate on the following question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do customers react better to lifestyle-based product photography or shots of clothing on a mannequin?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My personal guess is that the majority of users will favour the lifestyle type images and distance themselves from the rather bland mannequin style. The mannequin style strikes me as somewhat cold in an business that tried to instill a sense of fashion (which by definition is creative). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I like to think I'm a practical fellow and so I'm seeking any established research that would support - or discredit - my theory. &lt;strong&gt;Can sales conversion rates be improved (increased) with the use of lifestyle imagery (showing live models interacting/wearing) the products, as opposed to person-less mannequin based photographs?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you to anyone who can point me in the right directions of any such research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2332" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-10-29T22:19:28.927" LastActivityDate="2012-10-29T22:19:28.927" Title="The effect of lifestyle photography on sales conversion rates" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1794" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1748" CreationDate="2012-10-30T00:15:23.093" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many, many more neuromodulators in the brain than that.  Essentially anything that binds to G-protein coupled receptors could be considered a neuromodulator.  Even &quot;classic&quot; fast neurotransmitters like GABA and glutamate have &quot;neuromodulatory&quot; receptors (GABA-B receptors for GABA, 3 different families of &quot;metabotropic glutamate receptors&quot;).  Peptides (e.g., endogenous opioids, orexin, oxytocin...) also commonly bind to G-protein coupled receptors.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are even &quot;orphan receptors&quot; that exist, but we haven't identified the chemical that naturally binds to them.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you get deeper into pharmacology, you'll learn that each of the common neurotransmitters has MANY kinds of receptors that are located in different places and do different things.  On the other hand, G-protein coupled receptors can be be classified according to which G proteins they bind to.  &quot;Second messengers&quot; would be a good thing to search for to learn more about this (cAMP, phospholipase C.....).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question, though, we can measure the release of some neurotransmitters using PET.  The idea is that you pick a drug that binds to a particular receptor for that neurotransmitter (e.g., dopamine).  Then, you manufacture some of that drug such that one of the atoms in the drug is radioactive (i.e., the drug is made with a radio-isotope of carbon, fluorine, etc.).  The PET scanner will pick up the radioactivity released by the drug, which will be localized to places that contain that type of receptor (e.g., D2 receptors).  Drugs don't stick to receptors perfectly, though.  The natural ligands for the receptors ALSO bind to the receptors.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can take advantage of this by having two conditions in your experiment.  In one, subjects do some control task while you measure the level of radioactivity in various parts of the brain.  In the other, they do the task you're interested in.  If that task is associated with an increase in dopamine release, you should see a DECREASE in the amount of radioactivity, since some of the receptors will now be occupied by normal, nonradioactive dopamine instead of the drug.  The more dopamine release, the less radioactivity.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurotransmitter levels can also be measured directly using a technique called &quot;microdialysis&quot;.  The idea is that you've got an animal implanted with a probe that ends in a particular brain region you're interested in.  The end of the probe is a &quot;semi-permeable membrane&quot;, and you've got liquid flowing through the probe.  At regular intervals, you take some of the liquid and use a chemistry technique called high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to measure the levels of various things that dissolved into the probe.  In rare cases, you can do microdialysis experiments in humans (patients with severe epilepsy).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way of measuring the release of particular neurochemicals, with better time resolution than microdialysis, is fast scan cyclic voltammetry (sp?).  I'm not really familiar with it, but it exists.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of interactions among different neurotransmitter systems, there are many ways this can happen.  Cells that release transmitter A might be excited or inhibited by transmitter B.  Transmitters A and B might act on different G proteins in the same cell, with opposite effects on some downstream system (&quot;Gi coupled receptors&quot; and &quot;Gs coupled receptors&quot; have opposite effects on cAMP, for example).  Receptors for two different transmitters may be physically right next to each other and affect each other's functioning (D2 receptors and adenosine A2A receptors, for example).  Neurotransmitters may bind to each other's receptors or use each other's uptake proteins (cortical dopamine is taken up by norepinephrine transporters; there are norepinephrine receptors in the striatum despite the absence of norepinephrine terminals, presumably because they can be activated by dopamine).  Single neurons may release more than one transmitter at a time (glutamate and dopamine can be released from the same cell).  The downstream effects of one receptor may cause a second receptor to be phosphorylated, affecting its function in some way.  Downstream effects could also change gene expression.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My suggestion would be to start searching PubMed for review papers related to things you're interested in.  At least some of them should be available without a university library.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2334" LastActivityDate="2012-10-30T00:15:23.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1795" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-30T07:30:31.260" Score="9" ViewCount="234" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading this paper, which discusses Serotonin activity in the Dorsal Ralphe Nucleus(DRN), and even includes some mathematical models of how serotonin is released and reabsorbed. The paper states that depressed patients show significant decreases in serotonin both in DRN and outside. The thing that impressed me about this paper is that it gives examples of the &lt;strong&gt;serotonin concentration in DRN in normal person, compared to depressed patient, and the difference is about 80%&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://metabolism.math.duke.edu/docs/SSRIsJ7.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bursts and the Efficacy of Selective Serotonin Reuptake&#xA;Inhibitors&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper above referenced this excellent paper on how DRN is involved in the regulation of motor activity, and even includes some references to how &lt;strong&gt;DRN is involved in the sleep/wake cycle&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/~sswang/awake_cerebellar_ms_refs/jacobs_fornal93_TINS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5-HT and motor control: a hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an example of a graph from the article above. It shows how the firing rate of the DRN increases in response to cat's grooming, compared to quiet wakefulness. DRN firing pattern changes in response to movement. Can I reverse this statement to say that &lt;strong&gt;movement indicates DRN activity?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/s0wWs.png&quot; alt=&quot;Cat DRN activation during waking and grooming&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The hypothesis that I have is that if less Serotonin is available in the DRN as a result of depression, the activity of the DRN as related to motion at night would be different from the normal person.&lt;/strong&gt; I hypothesize that by observing the motion of human in bed at night, it may be possible to quantify the activity of DRN, potentially using this information to predict mood fluctuations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's my train of thought - DRN fires differently in response to motion, and motion is accompanied by DRN firing, while muscle atonia is accompanied by total lack of firing. An actigraph has shown that a person (myself and others) moves over the course of the night, in bursts with episodes of total stillness and episodes of burst activity. People move differently in different sleep stages. In cats without atonia (see figure below), DRN gets activated when Rapid Eye Movement(REM) sleep is detected, in response to the cat's actions within the dream, similar to the waking state.. Normally, DRN shows absolutely no firing pattern during REM sleep. &lt;strong&gt;I would like to examine the pattern of movement over night and compare it to the feeling of well being in subsequent days&lt;/strong&gt;, where depression can be linked to decreased levels of Serotonin in DRN cells.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I understand the &lt;a href=&quot;http://metabolism.math.duke.edu/docs/SSRIsJ7.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bursts and the Efficacy of Selective Serotonin Reuptake&#xA;Inhibitors&lt;/a&gt; paper correctly, bursts of electrical activity within the DRN alter Serotonin concentrations for some time after the burst. As such, it seems to me that bursts of electrical activity associated with motion (a typical motion at night is 3-10 seconds) with a large motion observed every 2-3 minutes over the 20 or so minute period that preceedes awakening would have an impact on the Serotonin concentration in the DRN.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/n0RBP.png&quot; alt=&quot;Cat without atonia&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand if activation of Dorsal Raphe Nucleus during Rapid Eye Movement sleep can be detected with an &lt;strong&gt;iPhone actigraph&lt;/strong&gt;, and if this activation can be quantified, measured and correlated to behavior in the preceeding and subsequent few days. I'm looking to correlate activation of DRN or lack of thereof with the normal, elevated or depressed moods and activity patterns. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An iPhone actigraph measures gross motor activity, which I guess would roughly compare to the EMG from the images above. In this case, the plot is logarithmic, with taller redder bars being orders of magnitude bigger than the baseline &quot;noise&quot; observed by the device. &#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QlJKN.png&quot; alt=&quot;iPhone actigraph&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Over the past year I've been working on an iPhone actigraph - an app that analyzes user's motion and can be used for sleep studies. On that actigraph, I'm seeing spikes in motion (my sleep) at different sleep phases. The device allows marking of events over night - midnight awakenings, and dream awakenings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an example of a sleep cycle graph that is drawn based on the observed motion at night. In this case, the deeper the graph, the more still the person is. Red circles indicate insomnia, green circles indicate subsequent dream awakenings. &#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IIifN.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The device also allows the user to track moods over the course of the day with a very cool Pick A Mood scale and add different events, such as meals, exercise and over 80 other types of events. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I'm only an amateur at science and sleep studies, &lt;strong&gt;what are your thoughts on the train of thought above? Is there any merit to the hypothesis?&lt;/strong&gt; How would I go about testing it with the technology I outlined?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for your input!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-05T09:50:40.843" LastActivityDate="2018-04-04T19:30:55.400" Title="How can I test whether Dorsal Raphe Nucleus (DRN) activity at night is related to variations in mood?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1796" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-30T12:12:47.013" Score="8" ViewCount="387" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to analyze a dataset in which subjects' reaction time and error rate have been recorded. In order to account for potential speed-accuracy trade-off I am planning to make use of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1773/is-there-an-r-implementation-of-the-linear-ballistic-accumulator-model-or-ratcli/1774#1774&quot;&gt;Ratcliff's diffusion model&lt;/a&gt;. My data is a within-subject repeated-measures design with two sessions per subject (drug &amp;amp; placebo) with multiple measurements in each session (around 80).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While reading some papers regarding this topic I found a nice report by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/4/1254.full.pdf+html?sid=f1b59b47-53d5-409e-b43e-c56836f4987f&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wenzlaff et al. (2011)&lt;/a&gt;. First they fit the diffusion model for every subject and then take the estimated parameters to an ANOVA. However I was confused by their approach: it seems they select the best fitting model for every subject and in this way are fitting models with different parameters for the subjects. My understanding was that it is not a valid approach to put together estimates from models with different parameters?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Would it be a valid approach to first fit the diffusion model&#xA;separately for every subject and then take the estimated parameters&#xA;to a group-level analysis (e.g. repeated-measures ANOVA)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Prior to ANOVA of parameter estimates: is it - in the above context -&#xA;better to fit the same model to all subjects or to select the best&#xA;fitting model for every subject?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Wenzlaff, H., Bauer, M., Maess, B., &amp;amp; Heekeren, H. R. (2011). Neural characterization of the speed–accuracy tradeoff in a perceptual decision-making task. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(4), 1254-1266.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1272" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-10-24T16:37:51.670" Title="Analysis of parameter estimates from Ratcliff diffusion model" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1797" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1796" CreationDate="2012-10-30T21:21:33.000" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Using Parameters Estimated from an Individual in a Group Analysis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a way this is exactly what usually happens when we calculate the mean reaction time across all conditions for a group of participants. When we normally calculate mean reaction times we assume that some process (P) takes t milliseconds to complete plus some Gaussian distributed noise. We want to estimate this parameter (t) across conditions, to make some statement about how the treatment effects processing. Then we calculate this set of parameters for a number of participants to ensure that we are looking at something interesting at the population level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, we can adopt more sophisticated models with more parameters that better represent how reaction times actually vary. Take the simple case of the ex-Gaussian distribution. This distribution is the combination of an exponential distribution and a Gaussian distribution. The shape of an ex-Gaussian is much closer to a distribution of observed reaction times than just the Gaussian alone. Reaction times modelled with an ex-Gaussian involve fitting two parameters; one for the Gaussian and one for the exponential components of the model. So in this case we would calculate these parameters for each condition and participant. Then we would enter these sets of parameters into two repeated measures ANOVAs; one for the Gaussian parameters and one for the exponential parameters. Then we can assess whether the treatment alters how the reaction times vary. The problem with the ex-Gaussian is that the two parameters have no psychological basis, so there is no meaningful interpretation of the treatment effect on these parameters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is where diffusion models are useful because the parameters in the model are psychologically meaningful, allowing us to make interesting inferences from changes in the parameters across conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Same Model or the Best Model or each Participant?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm no expert with diffusion models, but I would expect that the same model should be applied to each participant. Not doing so would mean that you are assuming a different model for your reaction time distributions across participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastActivityDate="2012-10-30T21:21:33.000" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1798" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-30T22:39:00.730" Score="1" ViewCount="562" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a beginner level book on neuroanatomy. I haven't any background in neuroanatomy, other than what I learnt back at school. I'd like to take up a post grad neuroscience course to help with my research and knowledge of neuroanatomy would help me understand neuroscience better. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2336" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-10-31T00:02:59.093" LastActivityDate="2012-10-31T00:02:59.093" Title="What is a good beginner level book on neuroanatomy?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2012-10-31T16:33:02.787" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1800" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-31T08:10:00.403" Score="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon's called the incubation effect. Wikipedia operationally defines the incubation effect as any benefit of a break during problem solving. In Wallas’ (1926) four-stage model of innovative problem solving or creativity, the incubation stage is the stage in which one takes some time away from the problem (the stages are: preparation, incubation, illumination, verification).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I too oftentimes experience this phenomenon while programming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To start answering your question about how the incubation effect works, I'll point to Segal's attention withdrawal and returning act hypotheses presented in the (2004) paper entitled &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326934crj1601_13&quot;&gt;Incubation in Insight Problem Solving&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To solve an insight puzzle [or a programming problem that one's stuck on], the solver must escape&#xA;  from the mental activity governed by the false assumption&#xA;  inside the deficient problem space. That could be&#xA;  achieved by a delicate mental condition that allows, on&#xA;  one hand, a withdrawal of the attention governed by&#xA;  the false assumption, and, on the other hand, some&#xA;  level of activation of the problem’s elements in the&#xA;  solver’s mind. The presence of the problem’s elements&#xA;  in the mind—not anymore constrained by the relations&#xA;  forced by the false assumption—provides the solver an&#xA;  opportunity to apply another structure to these elements,&#xA;  this time governed by a different assumption&#xA;  that may lead to the right solution. (p. 143)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll then refer you to &lt;a href=&quot;https://docs.google.com/open?id=1xoJoE9l2SKKqF8pSEX5QKnxDZptcbuSSROZGpRm-nioetmBfn1K2PMdvmHHR&quot;&gt;this essay of mine&lt;/a&gt; for an exposition and critical analysis of the above-mentioned ideas, and for much much more. Feedback on the essay is welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To address the quote from Kandell in the OP, here are some (paraphrased) point-form notes from PSY370 at University of Toronto on November 17, 2011. (Parts of the following might be difficult for you to understand; read some research, and take the class! :p). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;•  Is creativity just insight?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;•    If yes and we can explain insight, then it would make creativity scientifically tractable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;      &lt;p&gt;o   Weisberg wants to make that move.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;•    Bowden proposes that there’s nothing to creativity other than insight prob solving. Computational model of creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;• Bowden: a person is creative when they solve a problem that they couldn’t solve before (because they misframed it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;•    Creativity is whatever reconstrual allows you to do something or solve some problem you couldn’t solve before. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;      &lt;p&gt;•   Individually/personally creative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;•    Historically creative if individual comes up with a way of solving the problem that humans couldn’t do before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;      &lt;p&gt;o   Solution that feeds into distributed cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;      &#xA;      &lt;p&gt;o   E.g. Einstein.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;      &#xA;      &lt;p&gt;o   The more an act is historically creative, the more creative we tend to find it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;•    Both historical and personal creativity are just insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;• (One of) Vervaeke's insight(s) about problem solving:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;•     Maybe creativity’s more about problem finding. We value both (problem finding and problem solving) for different reasons. There's a difference in how we’re motivated and valuing. Maybe to get at what’s different about creativity, we have to get at motivation and valuation. Insight: cognitive work. Creativity: cognitive play. The difference between work and play isn’t so much what we’re doing, but the context of motivation (what goals we’re pursuing). This is a fundamental difference between insight and creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;•  In one sense, insight and creativity are fundamentally the same, but in another sense they’re fundamentally different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;•    In insight we do learning-to-learn for the sake of improving creativity. In creativity, we put ourselves in a learning situation for the sake of improving learning-to-learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;•  Capacity for creativity is specific improvement for our insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;•    Ability to think projectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;•  No extra machinery to creativity other than insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;•    But different purpose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;      &lt;p&gt;o   Instead of learning-to-learn for the sake of learning, we put ourselves in a learning context for the sake of learning-to-learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;•    Therefore, we can explain creativity with the theoretical machinery of insight but also explain the purpose of creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;•    Explain mutual reinforcement of creativity and insight, like wake-sleep [re: Hinton] reinforcement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for an explanation of what insight is and how it works, I begin by endorsing Stephen and Dixon’s (2009, p. 94; italics mine) account. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We propose that the theory of open, nonlinear systems (see Ebeling &amp;amp; Sokolov, 2005; Hilborn, 1994; Klimontovich, 1991 for further discussion of this theory) is of utmost relevance to problem solving. It provides a compelling account of the unfolding of cognition in action and the phenomenon of insight. The exchange between an open, nonlinear system and its environment leads to complex interactions and energy flows. These interactions and flows amount to perturbations with which the system must cope. The solution to such perturbations is the self-organization of new steady states. Action is the complex interface at which the cognitive system and environment meet. The self-organizing steady states are cognitive structures that emerge as a result of exchanges between the cognitive system and environment. &lt;em&gt;Insight is thus emergent structure forged amidst the nonlinear interactions of cognition, action, and the environment.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The dynamical systems phenomenon of self-organizing criticality (discovered by Bak, Tang, and Wisenfeld, 1987, 1988) can ground the theory of self-organized steady states in neural dynamics (Vervaeke, PSY370, Nov. 10, 2011; cf. Irving, Vervaeke, and Ferraro, 2010). This grounding greatly increases the plausibility of Stephen and Dixon’s (2009) account. The grounding of self-organized steady states, combined with acceptance of Stephen and Dixon’s (2009) account and acceptance of Schilling’s “small-world network model of cognitive insight” (2005, p. 1), leads to the claim that “insight is a process of self-organizing criticality that affords re-construal” (Vervaeke, PSY370, Nov. 10, 2011), since the process of self-organizing criticality helps to make small-world networks that cause re-construal by shifting back and forth between synchronous and asynchronous firing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Insight is not computation. It’s a dynamical self-organizing system that makes small-world networks that cause reconstrual. We're now past the search-inference framework and the gestalt framework. Insight is developmentally running between perception and action: termed enaction. It's a dynamical system running on perception and action through recursive internal mutual modelling. The cerebellum is running on parts of brain that are acting and perceiving. (Vervaeke, PSY370, Nov. 10, '11).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to hand-wave and just say that good arguments for the cerebellum being integral to both insight and creativity were presented in that class.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See my essay for references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2337" LastEditorUserId="2337" LastEditDate="2012-10-31T08:27:32.267" LastActivityDate="2012-10-31T08:27:32.267" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1801" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-10-31T13:33:50.313" Score="5" ViewCount="257" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've done research over the last year in game design by reading some of the most well-known books in the field. Making interesting decisions is one of the fundamental elements of fun in games. I'm also learning( still a novice ) about cognition through two classes I'm taking the semester, Psychology of HCI and Human Factors Engineering. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that what is said about decision making in cognitive psychology could also apply to the decisions we make in games. There's definitely choice and uncertainty while making these choices in games. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems one of the hardest parts of game design is coming up with game mechanics that cause the player to make interesting decisions based on these game mechanics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Could studying decision making/theory/analysis possibly help with this process of creating good game mechanics where interesting decisions emerge from the player analyzing and making decisions based on these mechanics?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems obvious that this would be the case, but here recently I talked to someone in the psychology department who has a lot of experience in the subject of decision making who told me that it's not the same thing. They said decision making in the cognitive psychology realm isn't the same as decision making in games. They said you make weighted choices based on your options while playing games, which seems the same to me. But I'm still a novice in cognitive psychology so I feel I must trust the expert. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is my attempt to get a second opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1131" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-23T08:40:39.183" LastActivityDate="2015-04-23T08:40:39.183" Title="Is decision making/theory/analysis applicable to game design?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1802" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1805" CreationDate="2012-10-31T19:55:42.457" Score="17" ViewCount="2882" Body="&lt;p&gt;Asperger Syndrome is quite well-known in psychiatric circles, as well as (to a lesser degree) the general public, in many countries the western world. However, in France, Asperger Syndrome is virtually unknown to the general public. From what I have read in various sources, French psychiatry denies the existence of Asperger Syndrome, instead using alternative diagnoses and alternative treatments, some of which can be very harmful. This is not the case in other Francophone areas; the situation in Belgium, Quebec and Switzerland is better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below I quote &lt;a href=&quot;https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asperger#Tendances_par_pays_francophone&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the French Wikipedia article on Asperger Syndrome&lt;/a&gt; and I attempt to provide a translation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Le syndrome eut du mal à être reconnu et ne l'est pas encore totalement. Il peut être ignoré par les professionnels, parfois réticents à annoncer le diagnostic à cause d'orientations théoriques personnelles ; le syndrome d'Asperger n'existe pas en tant qu'entité distincte dans les précédentes versions de la CFTMEA et n'y a été individualisé que dans la dernière version (année 2000). Notons que les termes « disharmonie de développement », « disharmonie d'évolution », « disharmonie évolutive », « disharmonie psychotique », « Trouble Complexe et Multiple du Développement (MCDD Multiple-complex Developpemental Disorder) » sont souvent utilisés en France pour décrire les troubles autistiques. Ces termes ne figurent pas dans la nomenclature internationale CIM1014 et ne devraient plus être utilisés, selon les recommandations. De fait, depuis quelques années, certaines associations dénoncent des diagnostics de « dépression infantile » qui sont de plus en plus souvent prononcés à tort, en lieu et place des anciennes « disharmonies »15[réf. insuffisante].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;L'approche française se défait néanmoins progressivement d'une imprégnation psychanalytique qui propose une prise en charge singulière du diagnostic et de la prise en charge de ce syndrome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My rough translation attempt (a native speaker is encouraged to improve):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The syndrome was difficult to be recognized and is still not fully. It can be ignored by professionals who may be reluctant to perform an Asperger diagnosis diagnosis because of personal theoretical opinions; Asperger syndrome does not exist as a separate entity in previous versions of the CFTMEA and was taken up as a separate entity only in the latest version (2000). Note that the terms &amp;quot;disharmonic development,&amp;quot; &amp;quot;disharmony of evolution&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;progressive disharmony&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;psychotic disharmony&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;Disorder and Multiple Complex Development (TSLS Multiple-complex Developmental Disorder)&amp;quot; are often used in France to describe autistic disorder. These terms are not included in the international nomenclature CIM1014 and should not be used as recommended. In fact, in recent years, some associations decry diagnostics of &amp;quot;childhood depression&amp;quot; that is increasingly often given erroneously, instead of the former &amp;quot;disharmony&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The French approach however defeats slowly a psychoanalytic penetration that proposes to take a unique diagnosis approach to take care of the syndrome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Why&lt;/em&gt; is Asperger Syndrome so poorly recognised in France? Are there political reasons behind this (&lt;em&gt;we don't want this &amp;quot;American&amp;quot; thing&lt;/em&gt;), does it reflect a wider culture in French psychiatry, or is there no clear cause for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2340" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-04-04T11:34:03.627" Title="Why is Asperger Syndrome poorly recognised in France?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1803" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1709" CreationDate="2012-10-31T21:20:05.090" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to expand on volkerjaan's answer. I am Asperger myself. I know what &lt;code&gt;:-)&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;;-)&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;;-(&lt;/code&gt; mean (though I know &lt;code&gt;^^&lt;/code&gt; only as &lt;em&gt;see above&lt;/em&gt;). I don't necessarily understand when people are using them. I &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; understand their origins, and I suspect that is what the question boils down to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To explain what they &lt;em&gt;mean&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;code&gt;:-)&lt;/code&gt; — person feels happy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;code&gt;:-(&lt;/code&gt; — person feels sad&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;code&gt;;-)&lt;/code&gt; — person is joking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To follow the conversation, it is not needed to understand the meaning. It is enough to &lt;em&gt;know&lt;/em&gt; the meaning. In my interpretation, understanding is related to &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;. As an Asperger, the ability for abstraction is often different from those in neurotypicals. So I would explain it as follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Emoticon explanation for Asperger&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we draw a face, we like to simplify things. For example, sometimes we draw only a circle with dots for the eyes, and a line for the mouth. For example, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%98%BA&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia article on smiley&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BlzKW.png&quot; alt=&quot;Drawing of a smiley&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This represents a &lt;em&gt;face&lt;/em&gt; in an abstract way. The face is happy, because the edges of the mouth are turned &lt;em&gt;upward&lt;/em&gt;. Of course, a real face looks very different. However, this is an abstract representation of a happy face. For an unhappy face, the edges of the mouth would go down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we are on IRC, or in another text-only medium, we do not use pictures. Therefore, we need to make drawings in a different way. One way to make drawings on IRC is by using characters normally used for other things. This is what we do when we use emoticons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;em&gt;emoticon&lt;/em&gt; is a sideways drawing of a face. To see it in the correct orientation, turn your head to the left, so that you see the &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt; or the &lt;code&gt;;&lt;/code&gt; on top, the &lt;code&gt;-&lt;/code&gt; in the middle and the &lt;code&gt;)&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;(&lt;/code&gt; at the bottom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;code&gt;:-)&lt;/code&gt;, when turned side-ways, we see three parts: first the &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt;, then the &lt;code&gt;-&lt;/code&gt;, and finally the &lt;code&gt;)&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt; represents the &lt;em&gt;eyes&lt;/em&gt;. They are two black dots (depending on your viewer) like in the picture of the smiley below.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;code&gt;-&lt;/code&gt; represents the &lt;em&gt;nose&lt;/em&gt;. The nose is not shown in the smiley before. Sometimes, it is not shown in emoticons either, and people write &lt;code&gt;:)&lt;/code&gt; instead of &lt;code&gt;:-)&lt;/code&gt;. People are lazy~&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Finally, the &lt;code&gt;)&lt;/code&gt; represents the &lt;em&gt;mouth&lt;/em&gt;. Like in the smiley above, the edges of the mouth are turned upward. This means &lt;em&gt;happy&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For &lt;code&gt;:-(&lt;/code&gt;, the first two parts are the same: &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt; are the eyes and &lt;code&gt;-&lt;/code&gt; is the nose. The third character is different:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;code&gt;(&lt;/code&gt; in this smiley represents again the mouth, but now the edges of the mouth are turned &lt;em&gt;downward&lt;/em&gt;. This is a representation of being &lt;em&gt;sad&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The third emoticon is &lt;code&gt;;-)&lt;/code&gt;. It is again similar to the first one, &lt;code&gt;:-)&lt;/code&gt;, but now the first character is different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Remember how &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt; represented the eyes. In this case, &lt;code&gt;;&lt;/code&gt; represents the eyes, but with a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wink&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;wink&lt;/a&gt;. The &lt;code&gt;;&lt;/code&gt; consists of something that looks like &lt;code&gt;.&lt;/code&gt; and something that looks like &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt;. The &lt;code&gt;.&lt;/code&gt; is the open eye and the &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt; represents the closed eye. This is strange: &lt;em&gt;why is the closed eye larger than the open eye?&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;It should be the other way around!&lt;/strong&gt; Yes, it should. Even if it is &lt;strong&gt;wrong&lt;/strong&gt;, people use &lt;code&gt;;&lt;/code&gt; when they mean: &lt;em&gt;two eyes, one of the two is closed&lt;/em&gt;. When one of the two eyes is closed, it is a wink.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People use the wink when they mean &lt;em&gt;I am joking&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many other emoticons, but those are the most used ones. There is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_emoticons&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;list on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;. This lists the meanings, but it does not explain any of them. I don't know if there is a website anywhere with explanations. Sometimes, you just need to accept what it means, without understanding them. But I hope that my description above explains the most common ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2340" LastActivityDate="2012-10-31T21:20:05.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1805" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1802" CreationDate="2012-11-01T03:57:13.633" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am by no means any sort of expert at the French mental health system, but I was curious and found a few reasons that may indicate why such a philosophy is prevalent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/suffer-the-children/201203/why-french-kids-dont-have-adhd&quot;&gt;this blog&lt;/a&gt;, an American psychologist analyzes the differences between the American and French schools of thought on ADHD, but the observations hold for other conditions as well.  While Asperger's and ASD aren't necessarily part of the traditional psychiatric clusters, their treatment is often allocated to psychiatrists in the U.S.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a pragmatic perspective, the very basis for diagnosis for children in France is not based on the DSM as it is in America, the French developed their own manual for diagnosis in children: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;They do not use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders or DSM.According to Sociologist Manuel Vallee, the French Federation of Psychiatry developed an alternative classification system as a resistance to the influence of the DSM-3. This alternative was the CFTMEA (Classification Française des Troubles Mentaux de L'Enfant et de L'Adolescent), first released in 1983, and updated in 1988 and 2000. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More importantly, as the article points out, psychiatric disorders are treated more from a psychosocial perspective, rather than a physiological or pharmacological one.  That's not to say this is wrong, but it's drastically different in taking cues from a child's social situation/&quot;maladjustment&quot; rather than trying to attribute a psychiatric cause to the condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems as though the French psychiatric/psychological community is likely to allocate the actual medical bases of these and other disorders to the (non-psychiatric) medical community:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A general comment regarding the French mental health system is that the distinction between the social and the medical components of care is too often unclear, and the management of social problems is frequently delegated to medical institutions and professionals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, while the French psychiatric community may be less likely to recognize Asperger's, it may be that the neurological or educational communities may view it in the same light that American's do.  Certainly, I would assume that those psychiatrists more steeped in experimental methods and treatments would have some understanding of the neuroanatomical advances that are being made in autism spectrum disorders, so the beliefs you outline in the quote may not be universal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also from a practical perspective, because of the philosophy of treating many of these conditions from a psychosocial perspective, there aren't a lot of resources allocated to child psychiatric patients.  While a patient with Asperger's is no more or less likely to be hospitalized as another, the overall trend seems to indicate the resources dedicated to outpatient practitioners may be as scarce as those for inpatients (and from the article, does seem to have a much higher density in Southern France and metropolitan areas):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The number of child and adolescent psychiatric beds is relatively low (0.19 beds per 1000 inhabitants) and a large number of sectors (n=182) have no child and adolescent beds at all...not driven by the pressure of cutting costs.  It was decided upon by child psychiatrists who thought the the hospitalisation of children could be replaced by day hospitalisation and community psychiatry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MENTAL, O. O. (2003). Focus on psychiatry in France. BRITISH JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY, 183, 466-471.&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.183.5.466&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/183/5/466.full.pdf&quot;&gt;[Free PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2012-11-01T03:57:13.633" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1807" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-01T20:03:58.247" Score="8" ViewCount="341" Body="&lt;p&gt;I practice martial arts (Aikido), which involves a lot of rotation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When practicing, I find that &lt;em&gt;holding an abstract image in my head, instead of thinking about the actual technique, improves my performance of the technique.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, when rotation is required, my mental image is essentially a vertical spiral pulled tight in the middle (as if constrained by a belt), in that one comes in to the axis of rotation and must stay on it before moving off into the rest of the technique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question, then is:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;What explains why an abstract mental image can improve adherence to an ideal set of movements?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;And, can this be explained neuro-biologically and, if yes, how?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I suspect that the two questions have similar, if not the same, answers - hence why I've included both instead of separating them)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you prefer to not answer those questions, believe that I should be answering these myself, or believe that this is not high-enough quality for CogSci (I apologize for any improper terminology), please offer a direction in which I can start my research into this phenomena, as at the moment I am at a loss for where to begin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-01T23:15:04.213" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T20:45:43.127" Title="Abstract idealized mental visualization improves motor task performance" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1807" CreationDate="2012-11-01T20:46:28.033" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe this paper would shed some light on your question : &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/~sswang/awake_cerebellar_ms_refs/jacobs_fornal93_TINS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5-HT and motor control: a hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;. The author has done some experiments on Serotonin systems within a cat's brain (Raphe Nuclei), and argues that Serotonin system is primarily involved in locomotion and (voluntary?) movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an interesting diagram from that paper: &lt;strong&gt;the firing pattern of the raphe nuclei changes in the cat's brain, as the cat shifts attention&lt;/strong&gt; from grooming to observing and trying to figure out the source of noise in the room (door opening and closing). The author explores the connection between motor and sensory processes, but you'll have to read the paper to get a better hang of what he suggests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cat experiment was done invasively, and I don't know if there are experiments like this on humans, where a human can be asked to shift attention, while the firing pattern of Raphe Nuclei is observed. Still, &lt;strong&gt;my best guess would be that by visualizing as you perform the rotation, you alter how your raphe nuclei is firing.&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xooKG.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2012-11-01T20:46:28.033" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1809" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-02T00:16:56.533" Score="-1" ViewCount="371" Body="&lt;p&gt;A current trend in cognitive science is to view the mind as a dynamic system (e.g., &lt;em&gt;Continuity of Mind&lt;/em&gt; by Spivey, in which cognition is understood as a &quot;continuous and often recurrent trajectory through a state space&quot;). Although I'd like to critically evaluate this trend, I've never taken even a basic calculus course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't intend to build dynamic systems models myself. What is the bare minimum of math learning that I need to accomplish in order to understand dynamic systems in the context of psychology? I don't intend to build dynamical systems models myself. Remember, I'm a total novice!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2344" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-28T06:06:59.763" LastActivityDate="2014-08-28T06:06:59.763" Title="What kinds of math to learn for understanding dynamic systems in cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2012-11-09T15:09:36.540" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1813" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1709" CreationDate="2012-11-02T21:12:26.713" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most succint way to explain emoticons is that they are an expression of informal rating on a person's recent comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;:) represents, as Omoe said, a informal expression of pleasure at something which has just been expressed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;:( a contextual informal 'unhappiness'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emoticons are just 'up-votes' and 'down-votes'. They have nothing to do with real emotions. There is a good reason that people prior to the advent of Internet 'talk' and 'chat' wrote real sentences.. their words cost something to put on paper. They were meaningful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2349" LastActivityDate="2012-11-02T21:12:26.713" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1814" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1314" CreationDate="2012-11-02T21:21:18.037" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sounds no more dubious than the pop-psychological view of Neandertals in general. &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2012/10/neandertal-one-stop-shopping/&quot;&gt;One should be aware that the real picture of what Neandertals were, and how various modern human populations are related to them&lt;/a&gt;, has changed very rapidly in recent years. I doubt the claims you include about Neanderthal society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have no idea about to what degree a Neanderthal would have 'eyeballed' someone he was interacting with, whether within in a primitive society or a modern Western one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meat-eating and the avoidance of overly crowded areas are both just expressions of 'the good life'- arguably environmental rather than genetic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2349" LastActivityDate="2012-11-02T21:21:18.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1816" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1809" CreationDate="2012-11-03T18:53:26.093" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, in psychology and cognitive sciences (and some parts of neuroscience) absolutely no mathematical training is given beyond the highschool level (intro stats, basics of linear algebra in $\mathbb{R}^2$ and $\mathbb{R}^3$, and intro calc; see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4807/29&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;). To make this relatable, I will compare understanding dynamics sytems to literature, where you have 3 levels: (1) being able to read, (2) being able to assess, (3) being able to write.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reading level: a basic course in dynamic systems should be enough. If you understand math at the level of Strogatz's &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0738204536&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nonlinear dynamics and chaos&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (usually used in a first undergrad course on dynamic systems), then you know how to read a paper on dynamic systems in cognitive science. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Assessment level: you need to achieve the &lt;strong&gt;basics of math&lt;/strong&gt; that everybody in the 'hard' sciences or (non-software) engineering has: linear algebra, ordinary differential equations, introductory PDEs (at the level of calc 3 or 4), logic, and introductory discrete math. More importantly, you would need the extremely vague notion of &lt;strong&gt;mathematical maturity&lt;/strong&gt;. Unfortunately, it is hard to explain how to achieve this. I don't know of any equivalent concept in the cognitive sciences. There is no shortcut to achieving mathematical maturity, and it is not domain specific. Mathematical maturity is something you reach from doing lots of different kinds of basic math and proofs. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Writing level: the step from (2) to (3) is not as big as from (1) to (2), all you need is creativity and breadth of reading in the relevant domain: i.e. cognitive science. The lack of a large gap from (2) to (3) is why you often see mathematicians and theoretical physicists cross domains and start contributing to the theory branches of various fields (biology, neuroscience, psychology, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-12-08T00:22:13.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1819" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-04T05:47:37.133" Score="6" ViewCount="230" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is related to this one: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1792/how-long-can-a-person-stay-happy-excited-and-motivated-about-something-new&quot;&gt;How long can a person stay happy, excited and motivated about something new?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a couple of references to research that links &quot;thinking fast&quot; to mood lift:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200711/mind-your-body-quick-fix&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Speed of thinking and mood lift&lt;/a&gt; From what I've read so far on how the body/brain works, there are several examples of &quot;negative feedback&quot; to maintain homeostasis. This is the first example of something that can be considered &quot;positive feedback&quot;, and it intrigues me.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm wondering what are the parts of a brain or neurotransmitters that are involved in &quot;thinking fast&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-EDIT-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To clarify the question&lt;/strong&gt; - by thinking fast I mean engaging in a train of thought that is self-reinforcing, self sustained and directed. For example, thinking of a project at work, then of all the people who you can involve, then of all the improvements that can be made, of the outcome that can take place, of success, what you can do next, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This kind of thinking pattern introduces numerous related targets for attention, and &lt;strong&gt;attention can quickly switch between trains of thought&lt;/strong&gt;. At the same time, the majority of attention is occupied by a single idea or project that has multiple branching trains of thought associated with it. In poetic terms, the brain is weaving a pattern or a web of thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This creates a state where the brain cannot process the entire idea/project/concept at the same time, forcing it to &quot;think faster&quot;, and do more switching between related branched trains of thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-11-10T19:39:25.433" Title="What happens neurobiologically when people &quot;think fast&quot;?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-05-12T03:35:29.060" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1820" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1833" CreationDate="2012-11-04T19:02:25.217" Score="8" ViewCount="553" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested in how the brain processes and recognizes the image of the person's own face.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A bit of background:&#xA;A while ago I've developed an overlay-camera like app for iPhone that allows me to combine two pictures. One picture, is a static image taken from the internet. It can be any person, young or old, male or female. On top of this picture is overlaid a semi-transparent live camera feed from an iPhone. The camera feed can be resized and repositioned to align the facial features of two images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once the person using the app aligns two images - the live camera image(like a reflection) and the static image, the person is looking at a combined reflection. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the camera is live, and the person can blink, smile and otherwise contort facial muscles, it appears that the person is looking at his/her own reflection, while the brain sees a combined picture. This produces an interesting experience, where &lt;strong&gt;the brain is tricked into accepting the combined image&lt;/strong&gt; as one's own. The degree of &quot;difference&quot; between two images can be adjusted with the transparency slider, and the magic number is somewhere around 45-55% transparency, where the brain accepts the combined image. Lower values are seen as the web image, while higher values are seen as the camera image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider this image of Hugh Laurie&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0EOri.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Gordon-freeman-house&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an image of my own camera reflection superimposed on the image, there's almost perfect match in facial features due to transparency setting. Notice how the headphones and the sweater can be seen, but there are no major differences in facial features (because the beard hides my chin)&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KAXDw.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By adjusting the transparency of two images, I was able to get close to a point where the image is no longer recognized as self, and is instead seen as a new image. Additionally, my brain sharply recognized the emotion written on the other person's image. Once the two images are blended - the wrinkles around the eyebrows, mouth, and the shape of the mouth become very obvious, and appear to give an &lt;strong&gt;emotional &quot;gloss&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; to the image, which cannot be as easily recognized in the image alone, and is not present in the live camera feed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wandering if the mechanism by which we have facial familiarity and recognize faces is somehow related to this one: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/neil_burgess_how_your_brain_tells_you_where_you_are.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neil Burgess: How your brain tells you where you are&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does the brain &quot;Map&quot; different parts of the visual image to different neurons and have neurons fire more or less intensely as the image is recognized or not&lt;/strong&gt; recognized?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I appreciate your input!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2012-11-05T18:45:25.350" LastActivityDate="2013-11-17T04:14:17.070" Title="How do people visually recognize their own reflection?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1821" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1713" CreationDate="2012-11-04T19:29:16.370" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As stated above, everything related to MBTI is trademarked, but the theory behind it, based on Jung's personality types, have no such limitations as far as I know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a few differences between the two (having to do with the functions I believe), but for a &quot;quick and dirty&quot; version like the one it sounds like you need for your site, it should do fine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_type&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_type&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_Types  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2355" LastActivityDate="2012-11-04T19:29:16.370" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1822" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1829" CreationDate="2012-11-05T15:58:47.237" Score="5" ViewCount="1960" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently reading a book called &quot;Understand Comics&quot; and a term has come up called &lt;em&gt;closure&lt;/em&gt;. I've understood this concept before and &lt;strong&gt;the book describes closure as the process the brain goes through to fill in the missing information to formulate some conclusion&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To give a little more detail, the books describes it as observing the parts, but perceiving the whole. Everything that we perceive about the world is through our senses, but most of the time our senses can only reveal a world that is incomplete or fragmented so we depend on this idea of closure to draw conclusions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is this process called closure in the psychology?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1131" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-06T00:40:19.793" LastActivityDate="2012-11-06T00:40:19.793" Title="Closure, an actual psychology term relating to filling in information?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;gestalt-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1823" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-05T18:42:36.757" Score="2" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;This morning I've heard this talk on Ted.com:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/matt_killingsworth_want_to_be_happier_stay_in_the_moment.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Matt Killingsworth: Want to be happier? Stay in the moment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The presenter is discussing an iPhone app used to track happiness, and &lt;strong&gt;seems to draw a conclusion that &quot;mind wandering&quot; is a related to much unhappiness&lt;/strong&gt;, and that mind wandering is pervasive in 47% of his respondents. He also suggests that &quot;being in the present&quot; is tied to feeling happier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His methods and graphs aside, I'm interested in this question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is &quot;mind wandering&quot; a thought pattern that arises naturally as a cognitive process, regardless of the brain biology? Or is it a biological marker, indicating the change of state of the persons biological homeostatic state? By Biological homeostatic state I mean neurotransmitter levels/binding, endocrine system state, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if a person is intoxicated with alcohol, then the person cannot help, but feel different, because of the foreign substance. &lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if there's any research indicating if different mental states, for example mind wandering, are caused by something that changes within the brain?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because mind wandering is a rather vague subject, here's another thought process that has a very definitive effect on happiness: &lt;strong&gt;suicidal ideation&lt;/strong&gt;. If a person is thinking of suicide, there's at least a chance that the person will follow through with the ideation, and from the quotes below, it seems that at least some victims were studied&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotonin_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Serotonin receptors on wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Deceased &lt;strong&gt;suicidal&lt;/strong&gt; and otherwise &lt;strong&gt;depressed&lt;/strong&gt; patients have had more&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;5-HT2A&lt;/strong&gt; receptors than normal patients. These findings suggest that&#xA;  post-synaptic 5-HT2A overdensity is involved in the pathogenesis of&#xA;  depression.[4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And another one: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many human polymorphisms have been identified influencing the&#xA;  expression of &lt;strong&gt;5-HT2C&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Significant correlations&lt;/strong&gt; are suggested,&#xA;  specifically in relation to psychiatric disorders such as &lt;strong&gt;depression&lt;/strong&gt;,&#xA;  OCD, and anxiety-related conditions. Polymorphisms also correlate with&#xA;  susceptibility to a number of conditions including drug abuse and&#xA;  obesity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading this, it seems plausible that suicidal ideation, as a thought process, is at least partially related to the Serotonin(5HT) receptors 2A and 2C. As such, is it plausible to say that suicidal ideation is a biological marker of depression, just as mind wandering may be a biological marker of unhappiness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for your input!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2012-11-05T21:57:02.430" LastActivityDate="2012-11-05T21:57:02.430" Title="Is happiness a result of cognitive or a side effect of neurobiological processes?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2013-03-31T14:52:17.880" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1825" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-05T19:12:58.173" Score="5" ViewCount="1766" Body="&lt;p&gt;People say there is a very small difference between confidence and overconfidence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can knowledge of psychology help someone know whether they are are confident or overconfident? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the state of mind when someone is overconfident?   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="909" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-06T01:25:23.293" LastActivityDate="2012-11-06T01:25:23.293" Title="What is the difference between confidence and overconfidence?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1826" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-05T20:16:59.410" Score="4" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was taking the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_gambling_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Iowa Gambling Task&lt;/a&gt;. &#xA;I examined what happens when the same option is selected on every run.&#xA;To my surprise I got a pretty good value when choosing options C and D (\$4500) in every run and a pretty bad one ($-500) with options A and B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is this intended by the test or is it a bug / feature of my downloaded program?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I got $4700 when mixing some A's among plenty of C's) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-06T04:58:47.337" LastActivityDate="2012-11-06T10:29:13.827" Title="Should always selecting the same response on the IOWA Gambling Test result in a good value?" Tags="&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1827" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1825" CreationDate="2012-11-05T20:18:58.310" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Usually, confidence is based on experience; proven results with regards to a task or ability increase one's belief that the task can be completed a second time.  Notice that this has nothing to do with what others believe you can do - it's about what &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; believe you can do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overconfidence is bravado - false posturing to fool or mislead others; most often used to hide an actual lack of confidence.  This is all about getting &lt;em&gt;others&lt;/em&gt; to believe that one is capable of a task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of non-scientific articles related to the difference between the two concepts:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hindustantimes.com/HTEducation/Chunk-HT-UI-HTEducationSectionPage-OtherStories/10-signs-of-confidence-and-overconfidence/SP-Article1-706701.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a &quot;10 characteristics of&quot; page from Hindustan Times&lt;br&gt;&#xA;while &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/09/110914-optimism-narcissism-overconfidence-hubris-evolution-science-nature/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is an article from National Geographic talking about narcissism and overconfidence.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These were found with a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=confidence+vs+overconfidence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Search&lt;/a&gt; for 'overconfidence vs confidence'.  I'm sure you would get more scientific results if you dig some digging, or tried Google Scholar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastActivityDate="2012-11-05T20:18:58.310" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1828" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1683" CreationDate="2012-11-05T22:20:59.457" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will take a stab at this question, because lucid dreaming is somewhat of an area of expertise of mine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first thing that you will notice as you explore the lucid dreaming is that the phenomenon is poorly recognized by modern sleep science. There are hundreds of articles that use scientific methods to study sleep disorders, like sleep apneas, restless leg, delayed sleep phase, etc. But I've yet to find a scientific, peer reviewed article that has touched upon lucid dream induction with external devices. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Outside Dr. LaBerge and another scientist whose name escapes me at the moment, &lt;strong&gt;the majority of lucid dream induction research is done by independent agents&lt;/strong&gt;, like myself. Such people have very little formal scientific education, poor access to tools, and are unlikely to publish papers to scientific, peer reviewed journals. Did I mention that a night of laboratory sleep study with Polysomnography costs somewhere around 3000$ ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a lot of anectodatal evidence and other first hand accounts of what works and what does not, but if science is a subject to publication bias, then such self reported experiences are &lt;em&gt;extremely&lt;/em&gt; affected by the desire to find an approach that works. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is why you hear a lot about methods that worked once or twice, but cannot be demonstrated to work reliably over extended periods of time, and for different people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lucid Dreaming Masks are a good example of technology that was developed outside the mainstream science. It uses primitive methods of detecting rapid eye movement sleep, which are still effective, but are disconnected from the data analysis tools. I'm not aware of any sleeping masks that log data, so the user cannot even look at when the signaling took place to adjust the signaling. It is like stabbing blindly with random patterns and hoping that something will happen. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;But detecting REM sleep is only the first part of the equation&lt;/strong&gt;, the good thing is that REM detection is getting to be practically free with iPhone and inexpensive lucid dreaming masks.  The second part is that &lt;strong&gt;a stimulus must be found&lt;/strong&gt; that is effective at &quot;inducing a lucid dream&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My own experiments can hardly be called laboratory, and most of them use iPhone actigraphy. I can tell you that I tried various types of audio, light and vibration cues, which were delivered as close to REM as I could manage.  As much as I wanted to say that they work, they don't. My lucid dreaming smartphone apps have been published to the app store and have tens of thousands of users. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For all the customization options that I included in the apps, &lt;strong&gt;I've yet to hear a single &quot;Yes&lt;/strong&gt;, I'm absolutely certain that an external cue has triggered a lucid dream for me&quot; from the users. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Occasionally there may be some connection noticed or something that happens in a dream may be linked to the external cue playing in the real world. But &lt;strong&gt;the majority of lucid dreams that are experienced by the device users can just as well be linked to the fact that a user is more interested and aware of the phenomenon of lucid dreaming&lt;/strong&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you read about first hand experiences with lucid dream inducing masks, then you will find out that the statements above are echoed many times - &lt;strong&gt;once in a while there's something that flashes in a dream, but it is very difficult to recognize&lt;/strong&gt;. This is what people who spent 500$ on a mask say over and over again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To conclude, I'd say that regardless of what you look at - Remee, NovaDreamer, REM Dreamer or various iPhone/Android apps for lucid dream induction, &lt;strong&gt;there's nothing currently at the market&lt;/strong&gt; that can put a novice into a state of lucid dreaming on the first night, without training. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would love to test them in a real lab though. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2012-11-05T22:20:59.457" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1829" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1822" CreationDate="2012-11-06T00:29:31.483" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The more common psychological and probably everyday use of the term &lt;em&gt;closure&lt;/em&gt; refers to a desire  for information that may resolve an issue or situation (e.g., see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;closure psychology&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that the form of closure you describe comes from the Gestalt school of psychology. To quote the wikipedia article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gestalt Psychology&lt;/a&gt; regarding Law of closure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The law of closure states that individuals perceive&#xA;  objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when&#xA;  they are not complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are&#xA;  missing, our perception fills in the visual gap. Research has shown&#xA;  that the purpose of completing a regular figure that is not perceived&#xA;  through sensation is in order to increase the regularity of&#xA;  surrounding stimuli. For example, the figure depicting the law of&#xA;  closure portrays what we perceive to be a circle on the left side of&#xA;  the image and a square on the right side of the image. However, there&#xA;  are gaps missing from the shapes. If the law of closure did not exist,&#xA;  the image would depict an assortment of different lines with different&#xA;  lengths, rotations and curvatures, but with the law of closure, we&#xA;  perceptually combine the lines into whole shapes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, what you describe on is touched on by a number of psychological theories covering different phenomena. For example, there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filling-in&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;filling-in&lt;/a&gt; describing the process by which visual perception is filled-in over the physiological blind spot and scomata.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, most models of cognition would construe perception as the interaction of external stimuli, our cognitive architecture, and existing representations. For example, if you look at job satisfaction data, responses are often as much a function of the individual as they are of the work environment. Or to take another example, models of learning suggest that whether a stimuli is perceived as a threat depends on our prior experience with the stimuli.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that the book that you are reading is extending the perceptual idea of closure to incorporate a broader cognitive component.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-06T00:38:22.323" LastActivityDate="2012-11-06T00:38:22.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1830" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1825" CreationDate="2012-11-06T01:09:04.273" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are different perspectives that you could take on your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An &lt;strong&gt;objective perspective&lt;/strong&gt; could seek to quantify the true probability that a person is correct in their belief. This would be compared with the person's subjective belief that they are correct. Over confidence could then be defined as the situation when the subjective probability is greater than the objective probability. In this objective sense, having absolute confidence removes the possibility of being under-confident, and having absolutely no confidence  removes the possibility of being over-confident.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;social perspective&lt;/strong&gt; could focus on the displays of confidence in an interpersonal setting. In such settings displays of confidence can be used to achieve social goals, such as admiration, access to job opportunities, convincing others to follow a course of action, etc. Furthermore, social norms regarding displays of confidence influence how such displays are perceived. In some situations, a display of confidence may be perceived as arrogance, whereas in others it may be seen as an admirable leadership trait.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-efficacy&lt;/a&gt; is particularly relevant to your question. It refers to a person's belief that they can succeed on a particular task in a given situation. In general self-efficacy is seen as a good thing. It is associated with self-esteem, persistence on tasks, and many other positive psychological states. However, often there is lack of discrimination between objective efficacy and a person's particular bias in their perception of their efficacy. In some cases accurate self-efficacy leads to better decisions, however in other cases, a slight positive bias may lead to greater persistence and offer psychological protection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of psychological interventions for increasing accuracy of confidence judgements, the following are some ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Seek out objective sources of feedback&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Create group environments where differences of opinion and views are encouraged&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-11-06T01:09:04.273" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1831" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1826" CreationDate="2012-11-06T10:29:13.827" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the standard version of the task there are &quot;good&quot; decks (overall positive payoff) and &quot;bad&quot; decks (overall negative payoff), so the optimal strategy is to figure out which ones are the good decks and stick with those. In principle, which deck is which should be randomized, but I don't know if your version implements that. There are also many variations that manipulate amount of gain/loss (e.g., rare big gains vs. consistent small gains) or change the payoffs in the middle, so the optimal strategy can vary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2012-11-06T10:29:13.827" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1832" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-06T21:50:01.460" Score="0" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;After searching PubMed or Google Scholar researchers often arrive at a publisher's full-text article page. Assuming that you have access to the full-text access, &lt;strong&gt;what contextual links should be included within the article?&lt;/strong&gt; i,e links to Brain Atlas, links to Gene Databases&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2366" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-11T04:26:56.033" LastActivityDate="2012-11-11T11:45:56.700" Title="What contextual links would make full-text journal articles more useful?" Tags="&lt;publication-process&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-03-08T22:51:12.723" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1833" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1820" CreationDate="2012-11-07T08:31:47.543" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain does map different parts of the visual image to different neurons. It's called topography and is a fundamental feature of all sensory neurons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The next part of your bolded questions jumps upstream. Some fMRI studies found &quot;Jennifer Anniston&quot; cells- cells that only respond to the image of Jennifon Anniston. Italian researchers found neurons in awake primates that increased firing in response to another monkey doing something. The researchers called these mirror neurons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, there may be single neurons in humans that bind visual perception and recognition. However, it is more likely, that interacting groups of neurons change their activity relative to each other or the omnipresent local field oscillations. This mechanism appears in other places in the brain and, theoretically, it is also more robust to injuries.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1102" LastActivityDate="2012-11-07T08:31:47.543" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1835" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-07T19:18:18.570" Score="4" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of a peer reviewed article that describes how commercials will often contain high audio frequencies in order to attract the viewer's attention?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Referrals to commercials using any audio based method to command attention would also be welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe this will come under the field of psychoacoustics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2368" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-03-21T23:48:22.757" LastActivityDate="2014-10-08T15:58:45.740" Title="How effective are high audio frequencies in commercials in getting audience attention?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1836" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1840" CreationDate="2012-11-07T22:33:35.897" Score="9" ViewCount="239" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have limited experience feeding wildlife, and while it's fun to watch and I'm sure fun for the wildlife too, I'm interested in just how much fun.  Is there's any noticeable difference in the following scenarios?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scenario A: a bird &lt;strong&gt;is given a &quot;pile&quot; of food&lt;/strong&gt;, and can eat it at any pace.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scenario B: an element of play or competition is introduced. The bird&#xA;has to seek out seeds that are &lt;strong&gt;scattered on the ground&lt;/strong&gt;, or has to compete with other birds. Alternatively, a challenging bird feeder is used.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The end result is that there's &lt;strong&gt;enough food to satiate the bird in either case&lt;/strong&gt;. It seems that in scenario B, it would take longer for the bird to get full. In scenario B, the bird has to hop from one cluster of seeds to the next, picking out the ones that the bird wants. There may be additional birds, also competing for the tastiest seeds. Alternatively, the bird has to balance on the birdfeeder, and coordinate precise movements to retrieve a seed from the feeder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the bird is observed over the next X minutes or hours following the feeding, &lt;strong&gt;is there any noticeable difference in the overall demeanor, activity pattern, etc., between the two scenarios?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE: I originally thought that this question does not apply to humans - we all sit at a table and eat meals from dishes, etc. I couldn't ask a question about kids throwing pie, which is what I thought of when I think &quot;play with food&quot;. But this evening, as I was deseeding a pomegranate, I realized that &lt;strong&gt;humans may like &quot;Playing&quot; with difficult fruit too&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pomegranate&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Citrus (oranges/grapefruit)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pineapple&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TbHmW.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Getting to the best parts of these fruit can be turned into a game too. For example, deseeding pomegranate can be done with the minimum amount of juice splashing, while an orange peel can be removed in many ways as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The scenarios above can be modified to be easily applicable to humans too:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scenario A:&lt;/strong&gt; Given unlimited supply of whole pomegranates to deseed&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scenario B:&lt;/strong&gt; Given an unlimited supply of pomegranate seeds on a plate&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Which person will leave the table feeling better?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To get a sense of how people may play with the fruits above, search google for &quot;Peel an orange&quot;, and you will find very varying screenshots. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LlFpE.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;A cleaned pomegranate&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-25T09:39:19.457" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T09:39:19.457" Title="Does introducing an element of play, hunt, or competition make feeding more rewarding?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1839" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1904" CreationDate="2012-11-08T17:48:09.560" Score="8" ViewCount="614" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested if there has been any research or experiments that deal with &lt;strong&gt;how the human mind creates and perpetuates the idea of knowing something&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm struggling to concisely express the question, so a roundabout explanation is in order. I'm thinking of the succession of frameworks that explained how the world works to a layman:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ancient pagan religions, which explained the reality in terms of the complicated interaction of spirits and forces of nature.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Then came monotheistic religions which once again have attempted to explain the world. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Somewhere in between there have been many forms of philosophy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Then came a myriad of scientific models which are erected in all&#xA;domains of science:from biology to psychology, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each one of these frameworks attempts to explain the world. Each one has been at the cutting edge of thought at the time.  Yet it seems to me that even the most accomplished physicist(the pinnacle of modern knowledge?) may still live with a patchwork of a world model, because said physicist may not be as well versed in neurobiology or some other &quot;arcane&quot; domain of science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that in this chain of succession, because knowledge is preserved, most of the successive models incorporate at least bits and pieces of the previous models. &lt;strong&gt;Do individuals build their own models of reality from whatever knowledge is available to their minds?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ROgpW.png&quot; alt=&quot;Ptolemaic system&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the example above (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noesis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;from Nous on wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;), the model is neatly created from the understanding that was available to the medieval mind. I'm interested if this kind of tendency to &quot;fill in the holes&quot; and &lt;strong&gt;present a finite understanding of a infinitely(?) complex reality as complete&lt;/strong&gt; is a natural part of how the human mind works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, would the contemporary physicist's model of reality be primarily shaped by the knowledge of physics, with other knowledge &quot;filling in the holes&quot;?  I know that there are such things as cognitive biases and follies of thought, are these the mechanisms by which the model of the world is shaped?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for your feedback! This question is rather broad, and I would appreciate if you suggest keywords or names of articles that I can investigate further. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2012-11-09T03:58:33.787" LastActivityDate="2012-11-19T22:28:29.493" Title="How does the mind build a model of reality?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1840" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1836" CreationDate="2012-11-08T18:09:39.457" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. See &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=contra-freeloading&quot;&gt;contra-freeloading&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; or (for humans) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=%22ikea%20effect%22&amp;amp;oq=%22ikea%20effect%22&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ikea effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Contrafreeloading&lt;/strong&gt;: (verb) The behavior in which animals offered the choice between eating food provided to them for free or working to get that food would eat the most food from the source that required effort. This term was created in 1963 by animal psychologist Glen Jensen. Jensen ran a study on 200 male albino rats where the end result was the rats ate more from the food source where the rats had to press on a bar to get the pellet rather than the dish of pellets where they didn’t have to do anything at all. Jensen then studied the behaviors of gerbils, mice, birds, fish, monkeys and chimpanzees. In fact many have studied contrafreeloading since then with similar results, except for the domestic cat – which likes to be served. This 1963 study’s results were surprising because it would be more logical, from an evolutionary point of view, to not expand energy to get food when food is freely available. Why do pet bird people care about this? Birds seem to want to work for food, which is a wild instinctual behavior. Avian behaviorists recommend that pet bird owners encourage contrafreeloading behavior with foraging setups and bird toys within the pet birds’ cages and that pet bird owners engage their parrots by training commands like Step up or tricks such as the eagle, and then use a treat reward system. This keeps pet birds busy, active and healthy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.birdchannel.com/bird-words/contrafreeloading.aspx&quot;&gt;http://www.birdchannel.com/bird-words/contrafreeloading.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="353" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-08T20:12:06.183" LastActivityDate="2012-11-08T20:12:06.183" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1841" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1852" CreationDate="2012-11-08T23:56:17.200" Score="5" ViewCount="211" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, does breaking down a complex concept, initially described with scientific and uncommon terms, into less complex language degrade the understanding of the concept or can it maintain all it's relations and objects? How does using simple language change the understanding or perception of a complex concept? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to look at the question is can certain thoughts exist without specific words to wrap them in, or are some thoughts dependent on the vocabulary/language? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, does this imply that new words can lead to new concepts that have never been produced and shared by others? For example, in George Orwell's novel &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;1984&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; the government introduces a new language called &quot;Newspeak&quot; that must be spoken by all citizens. This new language does not have any words for the concept of freedom, liberty, etc - so that these ideas would be very difficult to expand into reliaty (keeping the government in control of course).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The complete &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on language&lt;/a&gt; and specifically &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language#Semantics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Semantics&lt;/a&gt;&quot; has a lot of insight but did not lead to any answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank You.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2012-11-10T22:02:03.100" LastActivityDate="2012-11-11T03:34:49.073" Title="How does language change the understanding of a complex concept?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1843" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-09T03:17:07.347" Score="4" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember reading a case study on this years ago and I am trying to track it down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study involved asking people who held strong opinions on varied subjects to defend the opposite opinion in a hypothetical debate.  At the end of the debate the people had come to adopt the viewpoint they were defending, regardless of the hypothetical nature of the actual debate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know the name of this phenomenon, or better yet, have a link explaining it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2376" LastActivityDate="2012-11-12T10:56:48.943" Title="Phenomenon causing people to change their opinion when they are asked to hypothetically defend an opposing viewpoint?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1844" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-08T17:52:34.423" Score="10" ViewCount="1026" Body="&lt;p&gt;Auto-suggestion seems to work. Several people I know seem to be able to tell themselves &quot;I'll wake up after 'N' hours/minutes&quot;, and do so within a minute or two of that duration. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought for a moment that it might be that the duration defined is typical to the person, but even defining a weird figure (e.g., 23 minutes), it appears to work just as well as that person's regular duration of 15 minutes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally it works for me sometimes (usually when I'm under pressure), other times it does not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does the brain/body know to power-up after N minutes? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1216" OwnerDisplayName="Everyone" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-09T12:08:12.537" LastActivityDate="2012-11-14T23:52:21.300" Title="How are people able to wake themselves up after a pre-specified amount of time?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1845" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-09T16:52:41.777" Score="6" ViewCount="240" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that there's a concept of acquired taste, where a child may find certain tastes, like peppers and beer unappealing until certain age or frequency of exposure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there something similar to acquired taste in music? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does perception of the &quot;beauty&quot; of the same musical track vary for the same individual over a lifetime?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been an episode of the popular TV show &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.southparkstudios.com/clips/388728/it-sounds-like-poo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;South Park&quot; that deals with taste in music&lt;/a&gt;, although in a satirical way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-14T02:12:32.757" LastActivityDate="2014-06-16T18:16:49.563" Title="How does appreciation for music change over time for the same person?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;aging&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1846" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1847" CreationDate="2012-11-09T20:10:12.490" Score="2" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few years ago I was interviewing for a position with a subdivision of a large company in New York City. One of the things that hit me as odd about this interview was that the recruiter was interested in my driving record and wanted to know if I have any traffic violations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any connection between a safe driving record and personality traits or other psychometric test scores?&lt;/strong&gt; Can anything about a person's personality (e.g., agreeableness, neuroticism, or &quot;lawfulness&quot;) be understood by looking at the person's driving record?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this context, &quot;safe driving record&quot; only refers to the absence of recorded infringements. For example, a person who engages in unsafe driving but for whatever reason does not get caught, would still have a &quot;safe driving record&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-09T23:32:58.977" LastActivityDate="2012-11-10T02:21:20.977" Title="Is a safe driving record correlated with any psychometric test scores?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;selection-recruitment&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1847" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1846" CreationDate="2012-11-10T00:02:21.703" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of organisations are concerned about work place safety and integrity. Some jobs require driving as part of the job. Furthermore, in some jurisdictions personal injury that results from accidents that occur while commuting to work are covered by workers compensation. Thus, in some cases, driving behaviour is directly relevant to the job. In other cases, asking such a question could be seen as an example of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodata&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;biodata&lt;/a&gt; item. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems reasonable to me that, in general, frequency of getting driving infringement notices would be a rough and approximate measure of a general tendency to drive safe. No doubt there would be many other factors that would contaminate the measure (e.g., people who drive more are more likely to et a ticket; some jurisdictions or areas enforce speeding, drink driving, etc. more rigorously).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research has correlated personality with various dimensions of driving behaviour. Oltedal and Rundmo (2006) provide one example based on a sample of 1356 Norwegians. The table below shows the correlations between various measures of personality and driving related variables. Excitement-seeking, anxiety and agression were all taken from the NEO (i.e., a typical measure of personality). Risky driving behaviour was a composite measure that incorporated self-reported levels fo speeding, driving rule violations, and self-assertiveness. Accident involvement measures were obtained were binary measures based on whether the participant had ever been in such an accident.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These results suggest that there are correlations between several personality traits and self-reported risky driving behaviour, particularly excitement seeking and low anxiety. These measures seem less related to actual accident incidence. However, the accident measure has a number of issues (accidents are uncommon; they are confounded by amount of time a person has spent driving; many accidents are not the fault of the driver).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, if you are interested in learning more, have a read of some of the many articles returned by a search on Google Scholar for &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=personality+driving+behavior&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;personality driving behavior&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5tJSz.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oltedal, S., &amp;amp; Rundmo, T. (2006). The effects of personality and gender on risky driving behaviour and accident involvement. Safety Science, 44(7), 621-628.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-10T02:21:20.977" LastActivityDate="2012-11-10T02:21:20.977" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1645" CreationDate="2012-11-10T03:03:36.630" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably, though my brief literature search didn't turn up any examples of people actually measuring game difficulty using Fitts' law. One thing to keep in mind is that motor movements are only a portion of what might make a game physically or cognitively demanding, even in platform games which are typically quite simple. Users have to make additional decisions, such as which platform to jump to or where to attend (do I look at the platform I'm jumping to, or do I look ahead to anticipate the next jump?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did find one interesting paper by Looser, Cockburn, &amp;amp; Savage (2005), who use Fitts' law to predict movement time in first-person shooters. The authors found that the time taken to pan (using a mouse) to acquire a target could be accounted for by Fitts' law. So if the time to acquire a target (e.g. before an enemy starts shooting at you) is critical, it certainly suggests that your methodology could be used to moderate difficulty level, say, by placing enemies farthest away from the current position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, this is mostly speculation as I don't think there are any actual studies that address your specific question. But your intuition seems quite reasonable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Looser, J., Cockburn, A., &amp;amp; Savage, J. (2005). On the validity of&#xA;  using First-Person Shooters for Fitts' law studies. Proceedings of.&#xA;  People and Computers XIX, 2, 33-36. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cosc.canterbury.ac.nz/andrew.cockburn/papers/julian_fitts.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-13T04:34:16.263" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T04:34:16.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1849" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-10T18:45:16.547" Score="12" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know, why a person may have a temptation to do something unrelated (or slightly related to his current task) when doing particularly important job? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like, when preparing for an important math test under a time pressure, to spend time on consulting grammar book on why some sentence were constructed in that particular way and what are the rules for constructing the sentences of this kind, then finding some question while studying this and switch to stydying the new question and so on. As a result spending much more time on &quot;unrelated&quot; things rather than on the important one?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What mechanisms lie behind this behaviour? Is there a scientific description of this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll rephrase the initial question:&#xA;Why a person may have a strong subconscious temptation to distract oneself from doing very important job?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2361" LastEditorUserId="2361" LastEditDate="2012-11-10T18:54:44.493" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T10:37:46.813" Title="Why a person may have a temptation to do something unrelated when doing especially important thing?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1850" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1851" CreationDate="2012-11-10T18:56:04.223" Score="4" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read that humans have some sort of a &lt;strong&gt;kinesthetic model&lt;/strong&gt; of their body and muscles. This internal representation of the body is used to control and coordinate locomotion. I don't remember if feeling of pain is related to the same model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've checked the articles below in hopes of recalling what the correct term for the kinestetic model was, but was unable to find it. Sensory Homunculus concept seems close, but doesn't ring the bell.  &lt;strong&gt;Can someone suggest what the correct term for the internal representation used to coordinate motion is?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_pain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Phantom Pain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_limb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Phantom Limb&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested in learning how people can feel various sensations that appear to originate within their skulls?&lt;/strong&gt; For example, sometimes I feel headache and can say that it is in the left side, or I feel something in the back of the head. From what I understand, the brain does not have pain receptors, and there are no voluntary muscles to contract within the brain. This makes it hard for me to imagine how such positioning system can develop or what its purpose is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this in mind, I'm puzzled by how the location of a sensation can be determined within the skull. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this an extension of the kinestetic model of the body&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or is it a side effect of other pain (ex: teeth, thyroid) being&#xA;mis-mapped&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;or just a side effect of a headache(ex: hallucination/synestesia)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-07-11T20:27:29.947" LastActivityDate="2015-07-11T20:27:29.947" Title="How can pain sensations appear to originate within the person's skull?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1851" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1850" CreationDate="2012-11-10T19:54:47.977" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question might be better handled by biology.SE. I think the short answer is that there are many pain receptors around the skull.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headache&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The brain tissue itself is not sensitive to pain because it lacks pain&#xA;  receptors. Rather, the pain is caused by disturbance of the&#xA;  pain-sensitive structures around the brain. Nine areas of the head and&#xA;  neck have these pain-sensitive structures, which are the cranium (the&#xA;  periosteum of the skull), muscles, nerves, arteries and veins,&#xA;  subcutaneous tissues, eyes, ears, sinuses and mucous membranes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-10T19:54:47.977" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1852" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1841" CreationDate="2012-11-11T03:34:49.073" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is pretty broad, but perhaps these studies address your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2006, Daniel Oppenheimer won an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignobel_prize&quot;&gt;Ig Nobel prize&lt;/a&gt; for his paper &lt;em&gt;Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly&lt;/em&gt;, which demonstrated that using overly-complex words when a simpler word would suffice resulted in lower intelligence ratings of the author. Additionally, this may lead readers to rate the content as less true (Reber &amp;amp; Schwarz, 1999). So to answer one of your questions, yes, the language one chooses to use can change a reader's perception of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More to the point, your question is related to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapir-whorf&quot;&gt;Sapir-Whorf hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; that language determines thought (or the weaker hypothesis, that language influences thought). The strong version of this hypothesis (language determines thought) has been pretty thoroughly debunked. However, there is some credence to the idea that language influences thought. Many studies have examined this hypothesis, but one example is that of Frank et al. (2008). In this article, Frank tests an Amazonian tribe (the Pirahã) who have no number words-- purportedly, not even a word for 'one' or 'two'. Frank tested them on a variety of counting tasks and found that overall, their performance suffered in comparison to nearby tribes who did have number words. His claim is that number words serve as a cognitive tool to perform basic counting and arithmetic, but the lack of those words &lt;em&gt;does not&lt;/em&gt; affect their ability to &lt;em&gt;perceive&lt;/em&gt; quantity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So overall, there is very little evidence to support the strong hypothesis that not having a word for a particular set of semantic features affects our ability to &lt;em&gt;conceive&lt;/em&gt; of those concepts. However, not having those words may have subsequent affects on other areas of our cognition, such as (in the case of the Pirahã) our ability to count.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Oppenheimer, D. M. (2006). Consequences of erudite vernacular utilized&#xA;  irrespective of necessity: Problems with using long words needlessly.&#xA;  Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(2), 139-156. &lt;a href=&quot;http://personal.stevens.edu/~ysakamot/730/paper/simple%20writing.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reber, R., &amp;amp; Schwarz, N. (1999). Effects of perceptual ﬂuency on&#xA;  judgments of truth. Consciousness and Cognition, 8, 338–342. &lt;a href=&quot;http://carlo-hamalainen.net/stuff/Reber_Schwarz_Perceptual_fluency.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Frank, M. C., Everett, D. L., Fedorenko, E., &amp;amp; Gibson, E. (2008).&#xA;  Number as a cognitive technology: Evidence from Pirahã language and&#xA;  cognition. Cognition, 108(3), 819-824. &lt;a href=&quot;http://daneverettbooks.com/docs/FEFG-cognition%20in%20press.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-11T03:34:49.073" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1853" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1832" CreationDate="2012-11-11T05:09:45.260" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a subjective question and what is useful would depend on from which domain of cognitive science the article originated. In general, I prefer when the PDF looks like the journal article (i.e., no formatting to indicate links). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a list of things that I find useful:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Links from in text citations to the location of the full reference&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Links from references to the full-text resource&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Links between Table and figure references with the actual figure&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Table of contents tied to sections in the article&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;URLs and emails that can be clicked on&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tables with exportable data&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If the article includes supplementary material, links to that material that work and do not require password access.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few extra things that might be nice perhaps in the HTML version:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ability to export both the article reference and the references in the  article in various bibliographic formats (e.g., bibtex, Endnote, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Page view, download, and citation statistics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;RSS feed options for the journal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-11T11:45:56.700" LastActivityDate="2012-11-11T11:45:56.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1854" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-11T19:59:37.663" Score="4" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read somewhere about a psychological theory that people often remember the end results or the outcome of a certain situation/discussion/conversation/etc, but not the details of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, the theory postulates that people often forget about things like who invented the solution, or how this happened, or who should be doing this task. Rather, people tend to just remember what the solution was, what happened, and what task had to be done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't remember exactly in what context I read about this theory. It could have been part of some other theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does such a theory exist? If so, what is the name of that theory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="592" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-11T23:04:29.080" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T17:52:53.227" Title="A psychological theory that explains why people remember only the outcome?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1855" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="605" CreationDate="2012-11-11T20:48:20.977" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we stick them in an MRI, the activation will not be very fine-grained. There are roughly &lt;a href=&quot;https://cfn.upenn.edu/aguirre/wiki/public%3aneurons_in_a_voxel&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;630,000 neurons&lt;/a&gt; in a 3x3x3 mm voxel recorded during fMRI. However even this coarse detail is sufficient to perform many impressive mind-reading tasks (e.g. Mitchell et al., 2008)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what if we were able to record every single neuron in the brain simultaneously, could we then find a unique 1-to-1 mapping between neuronal firing and behavior? Not really. Consider what happens when you count to three-- and let's ignore everything going on in your brain that's not contributing towards this task (e.g. autonomic functions, mind wandering, etc.) Do your tongue, jaw, and lips move in exactly the same way every time? Does the acoustic signal sound the same every time? No; there is some variability in neuronal firing that causes behavioral variability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OK, well what if your muscles &lt;em&gt;did&lt;/em&gt; move in &lt;em&gt;exactly&lt;/em&gt; the same pattern. Then, would the neuronal signature be identical between trials? Not necessarily. Let's assume there are 100 billion neurons in the human brain. We can't observe that many degrees of freedom in our behavior. It's likely that if we removed a single neuron, our behavior might remain 'identical'. There's a massive amount of dimension reduction to go from an array from 100 billion neurons to human behavior. But overall, the answer to your question depends on how you characterize 'performance'. If you define performance to be sufficiently complex such that performance is &lt;em&gt;equivalent&lt;/em&gt; to the pattern of neuronal firing, then the question becomes a tautology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to the reverse question is slightly different. It is likely that if we observe the exact same pattern of neuronal firing twice, then the behavior will be exactly the same. However, even then, there is the possibility of noise in the peripheral nervous system once signals leave our brain that leads to some variability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a broader sense, cognitive neuroscience is aimed at answering this exact question: How does the activity of the brain correspond with our cognition and behavior? I like to think we've made some decent progress in this area, but we're still nowhere near a complete answer to this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mitchell, T. M., Shinkareva, S. V., Carlson, A., Chang, K. M., Malave,&#xA;  V. L., Mason, R. A., &amp;amp; Just, M. A. (2008). Predicting human brain&#xA;  activity associated with the meanings of nouns. Science, 320(5880),&#xA;  1191-1195. &lt;a href=&quot;http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1224&amp;amp;context=psychology&amp;amp;sei-redir=1&amp;amp;referer=http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=Mitchell%252C%2bT.%2bM.%252C%2bShinkareva%252C%2bS.%2bV.%252C%2bCarlson%252C%2bA.%252C%2bChang%252C%2bK.%2bM.%252C%2bMalave%252C%2bV.%2bL.%252C%2bMason%252C%2bR.%2bA.%252C%2b%2526%2bJust%252C%2bM.%2bA.%2b%25282008%2529.%2bPredicting%2bhuman%2bbrain%2bactivity%2bassociated%2bwith%2bthe%2bmeanings%2bof%2bnouns.%2bScience%252C%2b320%25285880%2529%252C%2b1191-1195.&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;as_sdt=1%252C44&amp;amp;as_sdtp=#search=%22Mitchell,%20T.%20M.,%20Shinkareva,%20S.%20V.,%20Carlson,%20A.,%20Chang,%20K.%20M.,%20Malave,%20V.%20L.,%20Mason,%20R.%20A.,%20&amp;amp;%20Just,%20M.%20A.%20%282008%29.%20Predicting%20human%20brain%20activity%20associated%20meanings%20nouns.%20Science,%20320%285880%29,%201191-1195.%22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-23T03:23:59.730" LastActivityDate="2012-11-23T03:23:59.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1856" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1859" CreationDate="2012-11-11T21:16:33.620" Score="6" ViewCount="3138" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in performing a psychological experiment from my own home (the research is controversial; not that it's unethical, but rather I won't be able to aquire funding for it) and in it I would like to measure the arousal level of my participants as accurately and - possibly even more important - as cheaply as possible. I have a regular computer with USB ports, and even though I prefer to work with OS X, I could use Linux, and, if I really was forced to, even Windows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking that galvanic skin response is the best measure because of the method's temporal responsiveness, but I guess heart rate could be used as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does anybody know of any good and cheap instruments that can a) measure arousal level and b) can be connected to a regular computer?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-11T21:56:27.273" LastActivityDate="2012-11-11T22:27:35.747" Title="Cheapest way to measure arousal levels" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1856" CreationDate="2012-11-11T22:06:41.010" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you may have answered your own question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can &lt;a href=&quot;http://makeprojects.com/Project/The+Truth+Meter/703/1#.UKAf8uOe9ek&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;build a GSR meter&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B001RMXZ9I&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;purchase one online&lt;/a&gt;. You do not necessarily need to hook it up to your computer; if it has an LED you can simply record the results with pen and paper. If you want to measure heart rate, buy a stethoscope. Or if you want to be really cheap, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/heart/taking-a-pulse-heart-rate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;check your pulse using two fingers&lt;/a&gt;; it's free.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I have no experience with building my own GSR meter or using the GSR meter that I've linked to. I cannot vouch for the accuracy or reliability of these devices. The familiar adage is probably appropriate: &lt;em&gt;you get what you pay for&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-11T22:27:35.747" LastActivityDate="2012-11-11T22:27:35.747" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1859" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1856" CreationDate="2012-11-11T22:11:35.337" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I've long been thinking that arousal levels can be measured by an actigraph&lt;/strong&gt;, although I have not seen scientific articles that deal with this topic. Nor did I conduct any kind of large scale test. A lot of actigraphy studies focus on sleep and distinguishing sleep from wakefulness. I hypothesize that actigraphy may say something about the level of arousal of the central nervous system. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the good thing is that actigraphy that uses an iPhone as a sensor &lt;strong&gt;is practically free&lt;/strong&gt;. I have just submitted an mood tracking app to the app store (still to be reviewed) that has two tools illustrated below. The app will be free, and I built it for experiments of my own. My previous incarnations of this app were able to provide information in 5 second epochs in comma separated format. That data could be analyzed with excel. The way I sent myself the data is by emailing myself the report. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An actigraph is a device (or an app) that analyzes human motion at rates of about 20 times per second. It looks at acceleration and rotational rate caused by voluntary and involuntary movement.  Think about it as an evolution of a pedometer. The device is continuously compounding motion activity into bigger epochs. In the picture below, real time data is compounded into 5 second epochs that are presented by graphs that appear on the device with only 5 seconds of delay. The activity count varies between 10 (complete stillness) to ~300 (typing a question in a SE site) to 10000 (walking). Data can be compounded further, into 5 minute epochs, suitable for long-term monitoring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The magic of actigraphy comes from the fact that activity &lt;strong&gt;can be observed over an extended period of time&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, there are scoring rules that distinguish sleep from wakefulness based on 7 minute windows of data. I'd love to learn if there's something like this for the arousal in the waking world. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, there are heart rate apps, like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.azumio.com/apps/heart-rate/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Azumio's Instant heart rate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tzQnM.png&quot; alt=&quot;Actigraph&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second tool is a self-reporting tool, based on &lt;a href=&quot;http://studiolab.ide.tudelft.nl/studiolab/pmri/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pick A Mood&lt;/a&gt; , where by breaking the &quot;mood&quot; into two components, it becomes more evident that a person is experiencing different levels of arousal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dO7kw.png&quot; alt=&quot;Self reporting mood&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2012-11-11T22:23:05.577" LastActivityDate="2012-11-11T22:23:05.577" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1860" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-11T22:47:39.387" Score="5" ViewCount="169" Body="&lt;p&gt;This afternoon I've been observing people at a local park and came up with some observations that lead me to this question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can the person's gait (manner of walking) say something about the person's internal experience at that moment?&lt;/strong&gt; I'm thinking of arousal and cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&#xA;Have you ever seen a &lt;strong&gt;businessman&lt;/strong&gt; or an office worker walk? &lt;strong&gt;They walk with a purpose&lt;/strong&gt;, quite energetically with the body slightly inclined forward. Is it feasible to say that when such walk is observed, the person is going somewhere, and may be tense?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;child&lt;/strong&gt; may be running around with arms in the air, along an irregular path. Can it be said that such child is energetic and excited at that moment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two &lt;strong&gt;elderly&lt;/strong&gt; people may walk very differently. One couple walks at a regular pace of 3-4mph, while another couple may push one foot in front of the other at 0.5 mph. Can this tell us anything about the differences in the mental activity that takes place within these people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person may be &lt;strong&gt;strolling slowly&lt;/strong&gt; at &amp;lt;1mph, observing the environment. Can it be said that such person is calm?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears to me that in the examples above, the person's mood/demeanor and  motion are connected. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if there's really any correlation between how a person appears outwardly and how the person feels?&lt;/strong&gt; In other words, if one is tense and feels pressed for time, would one start to &quot;walk with a purpose&quot;, as opposed to strolling casually?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for your input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-12T11:08:17.183" LastActivityDate="2013-08-20T10:52:31.983" Title="Does the person's walking say anything about the person's cognition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1861" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-12T02:34:05.187" Score="6" ViewCount="1021" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for recommended reading on difference in voting patterns between men and women - both empirical data and theoretical explanations. In particular, have any significant biases (in terms of political spectrum or specific issues) been confirmed when comparing male and female voting patterns?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2386" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-17T02:19:54.907" LastActivityDate="2012-11-17T02:19:54.907" Title="Difference between voting patterns in men and women" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1862" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1861" CreationDate="2012-11-12T10:24:08.943" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I imagine there would be a huge literature on this topic. I found one interesting article by Inglehart and Norris (2000). I recommend reading the article. The article reports empirical findings relating to gender differences in voting patterns across countries and over time. It also discusses some of the proposed reasons for these differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors note that gender is generally not as important as class, region, or religion in voting patterns and in the formation of political parties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote a few particular passages:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies carried out in many countries in previous decades found that women were more &#xA;  conservative than men and less likely to participate in politics....  The article draws on evidence from the World Values Surveys in the early 1980s, and the early and mid-1990s carried out in over sixty countries around the world. This study establishes that gender differences in electoral behavior have been realigning, with women moving toward the left of men throughout advanced industrial societies (though not in postcommunist societies or developing countries) ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To explain this movement of women tending to vote for left wing candidates, they offer what they call the Developmental Theory of Gender Realignment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[They] argue that a developmental theory can be used to explain this&#xA;  phenomenon, in which the transformation of sex roles in postindustrial&#xA;  societies has influenced the process of value change. As women’s and&#xA;  men’s lifestyles and cultural attitudes have been altered by the&#xA;  process of societal modernization [the authors] expect this to have a major&#xA;  impact on their political preferences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, the article is well worth reading particularly for the way they have summarised various empirical sources of information regarding gender differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inglehart, R., &amp;amp; Norris, P. (2000). The developmental theory of the gender gap: Women’s and men’s voting behavior in global perspective. International Political Science Review, 21(4), 441-463. &lt;a href=&quot;http://hassler-j.iies.su.se/pub/EdinburgConf/441.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-11-12T10:24:08.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1863" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1843" CreationDate="2012-11-12T10:56:48.943" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fazio et al (1977) provide a review of some of the literature on attitude change that can be induced by getting participants to take on another perspecive. To quote the opening paragraph.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If an individual freely chooses to perform a behavior which is&#xA;  discrepant from his attitude, he tends later to realign his attitude&#xA;  toward that behavior. For example, a subject who complies with an&#xA;  experimenter’s request to write an attitude-discrepant essay against&#xA;  the legalization of marijuana is typically found to favor such&#xA;  legalization to a lesser degree than previously. This now classic&#xA;  attitude change effect is readily explained by both &lt;strong&gt;Festinger’s theory&#xA;  of cognitive dissonance&lt;/strong&gt; (1957) and &lt;strong&gt;Bem’s self-perception theory&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  (1972). Dissonance theory, in general, concerns the relationship&#xA;  between various cognitions. The theory posits the existence of a&#xA;  drive-like motivation to maintain consistency among relevant&#xA;  cognitions. Self-perception theory, on the other hand, concerns the&#xA;  passive inference of attitudinal dispositions from behavior. According&#xA;  to Bem (1972), “Individuals come to ‘know’ their own attitudes,&#xA;  emotions, and other internal states partially by inferring them from&#xA;  observations of their own overt behavior and/or the circumstances in&#xA;  which this behavior occurs” (p. 2). Social psychologists vary in which&#xA;  theory they endorse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fazio, R. H., Zanna, M. P., &amp;amp; Cooper, J. (1977). Dissonance and self-perception: An integrative view of each theory's proper domain of application. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13(5), 464-479. &lt;a href=&quot;http://heatherlench.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/fazio.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-11-12T10:56:48.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1864" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1865" CreationDate="2012-11-12T13:39:14.520" Score="9" ViewCount="1282" Body="&lt;p&gt;For my research I need to use emotional stimuli to use for habituation to certain emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any databases available (preferably free or not expensive) of non-linguistic stimuli I could use? (example: music, pictures, videos)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="846" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-12T23:01:55.493" LastActivityDate="2012-11-12T23:01:55.493" Title="Is there a database of emotional stimuli available?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1865" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1864" CreationDate="2012-11-12T18:21:06.380" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes! The International Affective Picture System (IAPS) is widely used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hsp.epm.br/dpsicobio/Nova_versao_pagina_psicobio/adap/instructions.pdf&quot;&gt;IAPS instruction manual&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The International Affective Picture System (IAPS) is being developed&#xA;  to provide a set of normative emotional stimuli for experimental&#xA;  investigations of emotion and attention. The goal is to develop a&#xA;  large set of  standardized, emotionally-evocative, internationally&#xA;  accessible, color photographs that includes contents across  a wide&#xA;  range of semantic categories. The IAPS (pronounced EYE-APS), along&#xA;  with the International Affective Digitized Sound system (IADS), the&#xA;  Affective Lexicon of English Words (ANEW), as well as other&#xA;  collections of  affective stimuli, are being developed and distributed&#xA;  by the NIMH Center for Emotion and Attention (CSEA) at  the University&#xA;  of Florida in order to provide standardized materials that are&#xA;  available to researchers in the study  of emotion and attention&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The stimuli are completely free, but a request must be made by a faculty member (rather than a student). The reason they give for this is that &quot;Making these materials familiar to the general public can seriously compromise their value as stimuli in many research projects.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can request the stimuli &lt;a href=&quot;http://csea.phhp.ufl.edu/media/iapsmessage.html&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M., &amp;amp; Cuthbert, B.N. (2008). International&#xA;  affective picture system (IAPS): Affective ratings of pictures and&#xA;  instruction manual. Technical Report A-8. University of Florida,&#xA;  Gainesville, FL.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-12T18:21:06.380" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1866" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="723" CreationDate="2012-11-13T03:51:32.570" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I tried to find a source to back up the claim that 'red' stimulates hunger. I couldn't, and in fact I found a study that suggests the exact opposite: the color red &lt;em&gt;reduces&lt;/em&gt; food intake, because it acts like a stop signal (Genschow et al., 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This also reminded me of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://foodpsychology.cornell.edu/outreach/red_chip.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; by Brian Wansink and colleagues at Cornell, who had study participants consume Pringles in which every 7th chip was dyed red. They found that these people actually consumed fewer chips than controls (where none of the chips were dyed red). This may be due to the color of the chip, but another likely hypothesis is that  changing colors gave participants an implicit signal of how many chips were eaten. (i.e., if all chips were red, their intake would be the same as controls)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If red/orange &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; stimulate hunger, it is likely a very weak effect, and highly context-specific. Therefore, asking &quot;how much red&quot; might not be the appropriate question to ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Genschow, O., Reutner, L., &amp;amp; Wänke, M. (2012). The color red reduces&#xA;  snack food and soft drink intake. Appetite. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666311006957&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LINK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Geier, A., Wansink, B., &amp;amp; Rozin, P. (2012). Red potato chips:&#xA;  Segmentation cues can substantially decrease food intake. Health&#xA;  Psychology, forthcoming. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~abcwest/pmwiki/CAFE/red%20potato%20chips.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T03:51:32.570" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1868" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1439" CreationDate="2012-11-13T05:58:17.303" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;CHCH mentions in the comments that Attentional Blink has been shown to correlate with operation span, a component of working memory. (Colzato et al., 2007)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has also been demonstrated that working memory correlates highly with general intelligence. (Colom et al., 2004)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, &lt;strong&gt;performance on an attentional blink task correlates with intelligence scores&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Colom, R., Rebollo, I., Palacios, A., Juan-Espinosa, M., &amp;amp; Kyllonen,&#xA;  P. C. (2004). Working memory is (almost) perfectly predicted by&amp;lt; i&gt;&#xA;  g. Intelligence, 32(3), 277-296. &lt;a href=&quot;http://jtoomim.org/brain-training/working%20memory%20is%20almost%20perfectly%20predicted%20by%20g.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Colzato, L. S., Spapé, M. M., Pannebakker, M. M., &amp;amp; Hommel, B. (2007).&#xA;  Working memory and the attentional blink: Blink size is predicted by&#xA;  individual differences in operation span. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp;&#xA;  Review, 14(6), 1051-1057. &lt;a href=&quot;http://bernhard-hommel.eu/ABwmcIQ.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T05:58:17.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1869" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1639" CreationDate="2012-11-13T06:43:04.263" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As Piotr mentions in the comments, you must operationalize &quot;better&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Total time spent making a decision is likely to increase as the number of decision alternatives increase. This is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hick%27s_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hick's Law&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If each choice has some objective value, then the maximum possible value that could be attained is likely to increase as the number of decision alternatives increase. This is probability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The truth is not so clear cut. Each choice has some subjective value that is governed not only by its own intrinsic properties, but by comparison to other choices. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VO6XEQIsCoM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Barry Shwartz&lt;/a&gt;, author of &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0060005696&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Paradox of Choice&lt;/a&gt;, will tell you that having other choices available to you can increase the experienced regret post-decision, which lowers the subjective value of the choices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a speed-accuracy trade-off. If a decision needs to be quick, as you say, there is some cost associated with time that needs to be subtracted from the value of the chosen option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, it would be too simplistic to say &quot;2 choices are &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; better than one&quot;, or vice versa. The answer, as usual, is &quot;it depends&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T06:43:04.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1870" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="340" CreationDate="2012-11-13T07:07:19.510" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may be interested in the research on &quot;thin slices&quot; of behavior, defined as a very short video clip of behavior, often without audio.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abstract from Ambady &amp;amp; Rosenthal (1992):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A meta-analysis was conducted on the accuracy of predictions of&#xA;  various objective outcomes in the areas of clinical and social&#xA;  psychology from short observations of expressive behavior (under 5&#xA;  min). The overall effect size for the accuracy of predictions for 38&#xA;  different results was .39. Studies using longer periods of behavioral&#xA;  observation did not yield greater predictive accuracy; predictions&#xA;  based on observations under 0.5 min in length did not differ&#xA;  significantly from predictions based on 4- and 5-min observations. The&#xA;  type of behavioral channel (such as the face, speech, the body, tone&#xA;  of voice) on which the ratings were based was not related to the&#xA;  accuracy of predictions. Accuracy did not vary significantly between&#xA;  behaviors manipulated in a laboratory and more naturally occurring&#xA;  behavior. Last, effect sizes did not differ significantly for&#xA;  predictions in the areas of clinical psychology, social psychology,&#xA;  and the accuracy of detecting deception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This methodology has been used &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=%22thin%20slice%22%20ambady&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;as_sdt=1,44&amp;amp;as_sdtp=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;frequently&lt;/a&gt; since this publication. I do not know the literature well enough to cite specifics, but perhaps this will point you in the right direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ambady, N., &amp;amp; Rosenthal, R. (1992). Thin slices of expressive behavior&#xA;  as predictors of interpersonal consequences: A meta-analysis.&#xA;  Psychological Bulletin; Psychological Bulletin, 111(2), 256. &lt;a href=&quot;http://commonsenseatheism.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Ambady-Rosenthal-Thin-Slices-of-Expressive-Behavior-as-Predictors-of-Interpersonal-Consequences-A-Meta-Analysis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T07:07:19.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1871" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="997" CreationDate="2012-11-13T10:10:31.913" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Answering to my own question: &lt;a href=&quot;http://avogadro.openmolecules.net/wiki/Main_Page&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Avogadro&lt;/a&gt; is a molecule editor, but for visualization purposes it does not check the validity of the molecule, thus permitting its usage in the creation of publication-quality 3D ball-and-stick models of any subject matter, such as brain connectivity networks. Avogadro reads several molecule file formats, for example &lt;code&gt;.cml&lt;/code&gt; is an xml format and it's quite straight-forward to edit by hand or with almost any programming language. Avogadro can save the molecules in several molecule formats and it can export images as bitmap graphics (&lt;code&gt;.png&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;.jpg&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;.bmp&lt;/code&gt;), as vector graphics (&lt;code&gt;.pdf&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;.svg&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;.eps&lt;/code&gt;) or as POV-Ray file. You may want to check @Ubermensch's comments on Avogadro (and Blender) above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For animated visualizations (video), &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.blender.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Blender&lt;/a&gt; might be a good option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="718" LastEditorUserId="718" LastEditDate="2012-11-14T00:05:15.560" LastActivityDate="2012-11-14T00:05:15.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1872" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="997" CreationDate="2012-11-13T13:23:20.757" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have you tried:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;connectomeviewer &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.connectomeviewer.org/viewer&quot;&gt;http://www.connectomeviewer.org/viewer&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;brainnetviewer  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nitrc.org/projects/bnv/&quot;&gt;http://www.nitrc.org/projects/bnv/&lt;/a&gt; which is a toolbox for the SPM software package &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/&quot;&gt;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gephi &lt;a href=&quot;http://gephi.org/&quot;&gt;http://gephi.org/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trackvis &lt;a href=&quot;http://trackvis.org/&quot;&gt;http://trackvis.org/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also Nico Dosenbach has some amazing picture of brain connectivity in this paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3135376/&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3135376/&lt;/a&gt;. The code is based on matlab and the plotting can be done in the caret software &lt;a href=&quot;http://brainvis.wustl.edu/wiki/index.php/Main_Page&quot;&gt;http://brainvis.wustl.edu/wiki/index.php/Main_Page&lt;/a&gt; from the Van-Essen Lab. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1272" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T13:23:20.757" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1873" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-11-13T17:06:48.673" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the elapsed time between a given stimulus and a response, testing this value, and interpreting the results in light of processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_chronometry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mental chronometry&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-13T18:04:39.893" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T18:04:39.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1874" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-11-13T17:06:48.673" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the elapsed time between a given stimulus and a response, testing this value, and interpreting the results in light of processing " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-13T18:04:47.053" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T18:04:47.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1875" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-11-13T17:12:53.073" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the quantitative study of varying a stimulus's properties to observe the effect on sensation (and perception).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related: &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/signal-detection&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'signal-detection'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;signal-detection&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychophysics&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-13T18:04:43.747" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T18:04:43.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1876" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-11-13T17:12:53.073" Score="0" Body="For questions about the quantitative study of varying a stimulus's properties to observe the effect on sensation (and perception)" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-13T18:04:29.253" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T18:04:29.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1877" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2012-11-13T17:16:27.603" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding natural language processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related: &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/linguistics&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'linguistics'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;linguistics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Natural language processing&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please do not use this tag for neurolinguistic programming, use &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neuro-linguistic-prog&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'neuro-linguistic-prog'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neuro-linguistic-prog&lt;/a&gt; for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-13T18:03:49.770" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T18:03:49.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1878" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2012-11-13T17:16:27.603" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding natural language processing.  Note that this tag should not be used for neurolinguistic programming questions." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-13T18:04:02.953" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T18:04:02.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1879" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1854" CreationDate="2012-11-13T17:52:53.227" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure about the problem-solution context, but there is the fairly well-studied &quot;peak-end&quot; phenomenon in which people appear most sensitive to the strongest and/or the final levels of positive or negative experiences in an episode. Daniel Kahneman has done a lot of work on this phenomenon, you can find a list of his papers on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.princeton.edu/~kahneman/publications.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;his website&lt;/a&gt;. A fairly simple demonstration is in this article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kahneman, D., Fredrickson, D.L., Schreiber , C.A. , &amp;amp; Redelemeier, D.A. (1993). When more pain is preferred to less: Adding a better end. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science, 4&lt;/em&gt;(6), 401-405. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2012-11-13T17:52:53.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1880" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1773" CreationDate="2012-11-13T23:42:33.187" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the diffusion model, there is also Eric-Jan Wagenmakers' &quot;EZ-diffusion model&quot;, which you can find &lt;a href=&quot;http://raoul.socsci.uva.nl/EZ2/&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper compares three different pieces of software for estimation of diffusion model parameters:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;von Ravenzwaaij D., &amp;amp; Oberauer, K. (2009). How to use the diffusion&#xA;  model: Parameter recovery of three methods: EZ, fast-dm, and DMAT.&#xA;  Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 53 (6),  463–473.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.donvanravenzwaaij.com/Papers_files/van%20Ravenzwaaij%20%26%20Oberauer,%202009.pdf&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="571" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-16T10:45:54.627" LastActivityDate="2012-11-16T10:45:54.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1881" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-14T20:07:29.243" Score="3" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a neural network model with specific characteristics. This model may not exist...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need a network which doesn't use &quot;layers&quot; as traditional artificial neural networks do. Instead, I want [what I believe to be] a more biological model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This model will house a large cluster of interconnected neurons, like the image below. A few neurons (at bottom of diagram) will receive input signals, and a cascade effect will cause successive, connected neurons to possibly fire depending on signal strength and connection weight. This is nothing new, but, there are no explicit layers...just more and more distant, indirect connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, I also have the network divided into sections (circles). Each circle represents a semantic domain (a linguistics concept) which is the core information surrounding a concept; essentially a semantic domain is a concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Connections between nodes within a section have higher weights than connections between nodes of different sections. So the nodes for &quot;car&quot; are more connected to one another than nodes connecting &quot;English&quot; to &quot;car&quot;. Thus, when a neuron in a single section fires (is activated), it is likely that the entire (or most of) the section will also be activated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;All in all, I need output patterns to be used as input for further output, and so on.&lt;/strong&gt; A cascade effect is what I am after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this makes sense. Please ask for clarification where needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any suitable models in existence that model what I've described, already?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/78V2s.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2396" LastEditorUserId="2396" LastEditDate="2012-11-14T20:33:33.267" LastActivityDate="2013-09-09T12:05:11.277" Title="Does this neural network model exist?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-04-05T00:36:01.420" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1882" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-14T21:31:21.623" Score="28" ViewCount="2417" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Listen to this music for X minutes to observe Y result&lt;/strong&gt;. Is there something like that that has been demonstrated to work for general public?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only example of an experiment that is similar that attempted to find out that I could find is: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.zlab.mcgill.ca/home.html&quot;&gt;http://www.zlab.mcgill.ca/home.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Music, an abstract stimulus, can arouse feelings of euphoria and&#xA;  craving, similar to tangible rewards that involve the striatal&#xA;  dopaminergic system. Using the neurochemical specificity of&#xA;  [11C]raclopride positron emission tomography (PET) scanning, combined&#xA;  with psychophysiological measures of autonomic nervous system&#xA;  activity, we provide direct evidence for endogenous dopamine release&#xA;  in the striatum at peak emotional arousal during music listening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v14/n2/full/nn.2726.html&quot;&gt;Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that there's a field of psychology called &lt;strong&gt;music therapy&lt;/strong&gt; that attempts to help people with music. But from what I hear, people's responses to music are hard to quantify and are very subjective. &lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if there's a music track out there that has been demonstrated to &quot;entrain&quot; brain activity (shift it from one state to another.)&lt;/strong&gt; That is, psychoactive music that has been developed not to &lt;em&gt;express an emotion of the artist&lt;/em&gt;, but to &lt;em&gt;change cognition and consciousness&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="11010" LastEditDate="2016-05-25T03:51:48.600" LastActivityDate="2017-07-19T10:01:42.567" Title="Is there psychoactive music?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1883" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1844" CreationDate="2012-11-14T23:52:21.300" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is quite a lot of research on self-awakening (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?q=self+awakening&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;prmd=imvns&amp;amp;oq=self+awakening&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this search on Google Scholar for self awakening&lt;/a&gt;). Hopefully someone else more familiar with this literature can add a more authoritative answer about the mechanisms of self-awakening. In the interem I briefly extract some relevant points from  Ikeda and Hashi (2012). The study does not directly address biological mechanisms. However, understanding the reliability of self-awakening and the correlates of the ability to self-awaken is presumably relevant to forming such an understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First they summarise some existing research:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Both the accuracy and success rate of self-awakening have been&#xA;  experimentally examined. More than half of the people who have the&#xA;  ability to self-awaken suc- cessfully awakened within 30 minutes of&#xA;  the predetermined time. For example, seven participants succeeded on&#xA;  nine of 14 days (64%) in a sleep laboratory, and 15 participants&#xA;  succeeded on 35 of 44 nights (80%) at their homes. Survey studies&#xA;  indicate that many people habitually self-awaken in daily life; for&#xA;  example, 52% of 269 adults (aged 21−84 years) and 10.3% of 643&#xA;  university students6 reported habitu- ally self-awakening. &lt;strong&gt;People who&#xA;  have a habit of self-awakening in the morning have regular sleep/wake&#xA;  schedules, tended to have a morningness chronotypology, awakened&#xA;  comfortably in the morning, and had less daytime dozing&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their own study they found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The present study investigated self-awakening, both habitual and&#xA;  inconsistent, compared to awakening by external means in relation to&#xA;  sleep/wake schedules for five consecutive years in 362 students&#xA;  (starting at mean age 15.1 ± 0.3 years). Students who self-awakened&#xA;  consistently for five consecutive years (5% of all students) went to&#xA;  bed earlier than those who inconsistently self-awakened (mixed group,&#xA;  40%) or consistently used forced awakening by external means (56%).&#xA;  Awakening during sleep was more frequent and sleep was lighter in the&#xA;  consistently self-awakened group than in the mixed and consistently&#xA;  forced-awakened groups. However, daytime dozing was less frequent and&#xA;  comfort immediately after awakening was greater for the consistently&#xA;  self-awakened group than for the mixed and consistently&#xA;  forced-awakened groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reference&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ikeda, H., &amp;amp; Hayashi, M. (2012). Longitudinal study of self-awakening and sleep/wake habits in adolescents. Nature, 4, 103-109. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dovepress.com/getfile.php?fileID=13837&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bell CR. Awakening from sleep at a pre-set time. Percept Mot Skills. 1980;50(2):503–508.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lavie P, Oksenberg A, Zomer J. “It’s time, you must wake up now.” Percept Mot Skills. 1979;49(2):447–450.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;MoorcroftWH,KayserKH,GriggsAJ.Subjectiveandobjectiveconfir- mation of the ability to self-awaken at a self-predetermined time without using external means. Sleep. 1997;20(1):40–45.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ZepelinH.REMsleepandthetimingofself-awakenings.BullPsychon Soc. 1986;24(4):254–256.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zung WW, Wilson WP. Time estimation during sleep. Biol Psychiatry. 1971;3(2):159–164.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Matsuura N, Hayashi M, Hori T. Comparison of sleep/wake habits of university students with or without a habit of self-awakening. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2002;56(3):223–224.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2012-11-14T23:52:21.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1884" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1250" CreationDate="2012-11-15T19:14:38.360" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Jay's answer is correct, this occurs as a result of Gestalt processing. I will address your comment that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;No response actually brings light on why we prefer things to be aligned, only the realization of such fact (for example, Gestalt&#xA;  principle).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But first I will say that I believe this assumption is wrong:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nothing in nature is &quot;aligned&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many things in nature are aligned. The sides of my body are roughly parallel. The same with the sides of my arm, a tree trunk, a river, etc. In fact many Gestalt properties occur so often in nature, that they have been deemed &quot;non-accidental&quot; properties (Lowe, 1987; Witkin &amp;amp;&#xA;Tenenbaum, 1983). The idea is that the probability of seeing, e.g., two parallel lines by chance alone would be extremely small if lines in nature had random orientation. But it's not rare, and so it must have some significance (e.g. they are part of the same object).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jepson and Richards (1992) formalize this argument in a Bayesian framework, and show that statistical regularities in the environment (such as Gestalt features) make good &quot;features&quot; precisely because they are &quot;non-accidental&quot;, and thus probably carry informational content.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Richards, W., &amp;amp; Jepson, A. (1992). What makes a good feature? (No.&#xA;  AIM-1356). MASSACHUSETTS INST OF TECH CAMBRIDGE ARTIFICIAL &#xA;  INTELLIGENCE LAB. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a259962.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-15T19:19:41.030" LastActivityDate="2012-11-15T19:19:41.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1885" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1671" CreationDate="2012-11-15T23:35:56.720" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It looks like there is some empirical evidence that passphrases are easier to remember than either random passwords (not surprising) or user-selected short passwords after standard advice to use mix of upper and lower and avoid words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://homepages.cs.ncl.ac.uk/jeff.yan/#exp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://homepages.cs.ncl.ac.uk/jeff.yan/#exp&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks Jeff for the pointer in a comment (same Jeff?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;J. Yan, A. Blackwell, R. Anderson and A. Grant. The memorability and&#xA;  security of passwords -- some empirical results. University of&#xA;  Cambridge, Computer Laboratory Technical Report No. 500, 2000. (see&#xA;  also Hungarian translation). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/techreports/UCAM-CL-TR-500.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;J. Yan, A. Blackwell, R. Anderson and A. Grant. Password Memorability&#xA;  and Security: Empirical Results. IEEE Security &amp;amp; Privacy, Vol. 2 No.&#xA;  5, 2004. &lt;a href=&quot;http://homepages.cs.ncl.ac.uk/jeff.yan/jyan_ieee_pwd.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the above is reprinted as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;J. Yan, A. Blackwell, R. Anderson and A. Grant. The Memorability and&#xA;  Security of Passwords. Refereed book chapter in Security and&#xA;  Usability: Designing Secure Systems that People Can Use (ed. by Lorrie&#xA;  Cranor and Simson Garfinkel), OReilly &amp;amp; Associates, USA, 2005.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1200" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-16T00:23:40.453" LastActivityDate="2012-11-16T00:23:40.453" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1886" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-15T23:44:53.033" Score="9" ViewCount="505" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ADHD&lt;/a&gt; is a standard term, but I'm still a bit suspicious that it's not a useful one; Psychiatry doesn't seem like the most reliable field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there good reasons for picking out the behaviors associated with ADHD and giving them a name?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Potential answers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Behaviors associated with ADHD strongly cluster&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Analyzing&#xA;questionnaires of attention and focus behaviors with factor analysis&#xA;naturally produces an 'ADHD dimension' that explains a lot of&#xA;variance (similar methodology to identifying &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big 5 personality&#xA;traits&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ADHD diagnosis is a strong independent predictor of something&#xA;interesting: income or grades or some contrived but interesting lab&#xA;test (controlling for obvious things like IQ) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Something else along these lines.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="328" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-16T21:21:33.533" LastActivityDate="2018-06-12T10:08:23.450" Title="How well defined is ADD/ADHD?" Tags="&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1887" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1886" CreationDate="2012-11-16T00:11:53.383" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like all psychiatric disorers, ADD and ADHD are diagnosed using a set of criteria listed in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, or DSM&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latest version is the DSM-IV-TR. The DSM-V is due out in 2013 and may change these criteria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diagnosis is expected to be done by a licensed professional who is able to assess these criteria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mental-health-today.com/add/dsm.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.mental-health-today.com/add/dsm.htm&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;INATTENTION&#xA;(need 6 of 9)&#xA;&#xA;- often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, work or other activities&#xA;- often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities&#xA;- often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly&#xA;- often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (no if oppositional behavior or doesn’t understand instructions)&#xA;- often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities&#xA;- often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks or activities that require sustained mental effort (such as schoolwork or homework)&#xA;- often loses things necessary for tasks or activities (e.g., toys, school assignments, pencils, books, or tools)&#xA;- often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli&#xA;- often forgetful in daily activities&#xA;&#xA;HYPERACTIVITY-IMPULSIVITY  &#xA;(need 6 of 9)&#xA;&#xA;- often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat&#xA;- often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected&#xA;- often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate (in adolescents or adults, may be limited to subjective feelings of restlessness)&#xA;- often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly&#xA;- is often &quot;on the go&quot; or often acts as if &quot;driven by a motor&quot;&#xA;- often talks excessively&#xA;- often blurts out answers before questions have been completed&#xA;- often has difficulty awaiting turn&#xA;- often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games)&#xA;&#xA;REQUIREMENTS&#xA;&#xA;- Present at least 6 months, maladaptive and inconsistent with development level&#xA;- Some symptoms that caused impairment were present before age 7&#xA;- Some impairment from the symptoms is present in two or more settings (e.g., at school {or work} and at home)&#xA;- There must be clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in social, academic or occupational functioning&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-16T00:11:53.383" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1888" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1890" CreationDate="2012-11-16T12:10:41.853" Score="5" ViewCount="168" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what is the name of &lt;strong&gt;a branch of cognitive science that deals with the application of cognitive science to the real world&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that in Biology, there are fields like genetic engineering or biomedical engineering, where the principles of science of Biology are applied to development of products.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In physics there's mechanical and electrical engineering. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did a search and found that there are several &lt;em&gt;applied cognitive science&lt;/em&gt; labs at various psychology departments in the US. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there some branch of cognitive science that is focused on using the knowledge to create products or services?&lt;/strong&gt; Am I thinking of the applied cognitive science, psychology, psychiatry or something else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2012-11-17T08:03:00.210" Title="Is there an actionable branch of cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1889" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15183" CreationDate="2012-11-16T17:18:57.813" Score="7" ViewCount="218" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen cognitive and robot models where the input signals from the sensors are directly used as the signal for outgoing motor control. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This doesn't make much sense, because obviously we're able to do heavy work with our muscles quite independently from the strength of incoming signals from our sensor systems. However when I consulted several books on general cognition, I wasn't able to discover the source of these arbitrarily strong signals - I'd suspect the thalamus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder how you could perform a task, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; playing a piano, by applying weak or strong force. Both the plan (how to move the fingers) and the feedback (how it sounds) signal would remain the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So &lt;strong&gt;where does the signal for motor behavior originate, and more importantly what (or who) regulates its strength? Where does the extra energy come from?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="224" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-07T12:56:18.340" LastActivityDate="2016-06-26T22:35:51.993" Title="What regulates the strength of motor signals?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1890" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1888" CreationDate="2012-11-17T02:41:50.403" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer depends on how you are defining cognitive science and what threshold you use to attribute that actionable component.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are talking about cognitive sciences in the broad sense that we use on this site, then you encompass disciplines including psychology, psychiatry, neurobiology, and so on.&#xA;This opens up a much broader set of applied fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the question of what is meant by cognitive science in action. There is a whole spectrum in the degree to which fields would draw on cognitive science findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few applied fields that stand out as having very close links with psychology, cognitive science, psychology, and neurobiology (i.e., what we mean on this site by cognitive sciences) include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Applied Psychology&lt;/a&gt; including clinical, organisational, educational, counselling, sports psychology, etc. as well as a wide range of counselling, social work, and related roles&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychiatry&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Human factors, ergonomics, usability, user experience, etc fields&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Various medical fields related to neurobiology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Education and related fields &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then there is a whole raft of fields which draw on such knowledge to a greater or lesser degree:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;e.g., &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Management, human resources, marketing, market research, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Occupational health and safety, work design, product design, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No doubt many other fields could be mentioned. I think this is partially explains the popularity of psychology as an undergraduate subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-17T07:22:26.707" LastActivityDate="2012-11-17T07:22:26.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1891" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="611" CreationDate="2012-11-17T03:04:52.100" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bogacz et al. (2006) provide the most comprehensive overview of models in this domain. This includes comparisons of the Drift Diffusion Model (Ratcliff, 1978), Ornstein–Uhlenbeck (O-U) Model (e.g. Busemeyer &amp;amp; Townsend, 1993; &quot;Decision Field Theory&quot;), race models without inhibition (e.g. Vickers, 1970), and race models with inhibition (e.g. Usher &amp;amp; McClelland, 2001; &quot;leaky competing accumulator model&quot;) and others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While diffusion models are limited to 2 alternatives (e.g. DDM, DFT), race models are not. (Note that diffusion models are essentially the same as random walk models, except that random walks involve discrete steps, while diffusion models are continuous). The race models with inhibition reviewed by the authors are computationally reducible to DDM, while race models without inhibition are different, and generally not preferable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beck et al. (2008) also provide a model that accommodates continuous choice, rather than a limited number of alternatives. It's relationship to other models is unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, there are many similar models that account for more than 2 alternatives. They are not technically random walk models, because a random walk only allows for 2 bounds. But they are computationally equivalent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Beck, J. M., Ma, W. J., Kiani, R., Hanks, T., Churchland, A. K.,&#xA;  Roitman, J., ... &amp;amp; Pouget, A. (2008). Probabilistic population codes&#xA;  for Bayesian decision making. Neuron, 60(6), 1142-1152. &lt;a href=&quot;http://monkeybiz.stanford.edu/~roozbeh/Papers/Beck_Pouget_2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Bogacz, R., Brown, E., Moehlis, J., Holmes, P., &amp;amp; Cohen, J. D. (2006).&#xA;  The physics of optimal decision making: a formal analysis of models of&#xA;  performance in two-alternative forced-choice tasks. Psychological&#xA;  review, 113(4), 700. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/mae/people/faculty/holmes/Publishings/the%20physics%20of%20optimal%20decision.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Busemeyer, J. R., &amp;amp; Townsend, J. T. (1993). Decision field theory: a&#xA;  dynamic-cognitive approach to decision making in an uncertain&#xA;  environment. Psychological review, 100(3), 432. &lt;a href=&quot;http://static.luiss.it/hey/ambiguity/papers/Busemeyer_and_Townsend_1993.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ratcliff, R. (1978). A theory of memory retrieval. Psychological&#xA;  review, 85(2), 59. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/85/2/59.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Usher, M., &amp;amp; McClelland, J. L. (2001). The time course of perceptual&#xA;  choice: the leaky, competing accumulator model. Psychological review,&#xA;  108(3), 550. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~jlm/papers/UsherMcC01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Vickers, D. (1970). Evidence for an accumulator model of&#xA;  psychophysical discrimination. Ergonomics, 13(1), 37-58.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-17T03:04:52.100" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1892" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1888" CreationDate="2012-11-17T04:24:42.603" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Human-Computer Interaction will give you a background for user testing. Compared to UX design, which draws from social psychology and anthropology, I would say HCI is more related to cognitive science. Donald Norman describes HCI as a &quot;solved problem.&quot; We know how to make systems usable. Interaction design is a newer field evolving from HCI. There's also Human-Information Interaction, which is even newer. To learn more about HII, look up Information Foraging Theory. For lots of insight on how to apply psychology to web design, check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://useit.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://useit.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interaction design is amazing because it can be applied outside a business context. Instead of designing for profit, you could design for impact. Problems like poverty and education are going to need to be addressed as design problems. Interaction designers are going to very valuable, working together with politicians, in solving the world's wicked problems. (Look up 'wicked problems') Good luck! –&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best place to start is reading Don Norman's The Design of Everyday Things. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastEditorUserId="2407" LastEditDate="2012-11-17T08:03:00.210" LastActivityDate="2012-11-17T08:03:00.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1895" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-17T10:27:40.593" Score="3" ViewCount="439" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is often useful to memorize a set of items. Many times ordering is not important and we need to memorize a lot of sets. I already know a method for&#xA;memorizing lists where we memorize an item for each number and then create crazy associations between the new items and our memorized list of items. This method is not so good when we want to memorize e.g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;DivisionA = { John, Robert, Alex, Arnold, Sarah }&#xA;DivisionB = { another 5 names }&#xA;DivisionC = { another 5 names }&#xA;...&#xA;DivisionX = { another 5 names }&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is only a possible example. The sets can change during time, so the memory technique should be flexible. There are a lot of real life examples where is it useful to memorize a set, e.g. a doctor could learn a set of side effects of certain drug. A historian could learn family members of certain king. A movie-expert would like to remember filmography of certain director. There are a lot of such examples when people desire to remember higher number of sets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another technique that I don't find much smart is suggested &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.supermemo.com/articles/20rules.htm#Avoid%20sets&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; as converting the set to the list and then memorizing the successors of individual items with spaced repetition. Though, converting to some kind of ordering or association with something else seems to be unavoidable. The bad part is actually the pure memorization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The disadvantage of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;method of loci&lt;/a&gt; is that we have to memorize many locations (prepare them in advance) before we can store items to discrete places in that locations. Maybe this technique could be improved in some way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which memory techniques are appropriate for this task?&#xA;It should have long time retention, good recall, be dynamic (sets can change a little during time).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="554" LastEditorUserId="554" LastEditDate="2012-11-29T20:52:54.320" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T10:11:01.803" Title="Memorizing sets of items" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1897" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1900" CreationDate="2012-11-17T23:22:22.073" Score="8" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thanks to this website, I've seen a number of papers and scholarly articles that deal with cognition. I'm interested in how repeatable the findings are that are discovered as a result of experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;strong&gt;when a mechanical system is tested&lt;/strong&gt;, it is tested to work the same way every single time:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A lock opens and closes when a key is turned.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A car door opens up to the maximum degree allowed by design.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How much is a cognitive system like a mechanical system?&lt;/strong&gt; Will it work the same way every time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I'm thinking about the design of an experiment I've been reading about: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/download.aspx?name=11-091.pdf&quot;&gt;The Ikea Effect Experiment&lt;/a&gt;. Volunteers are asked to assemble Ikea boxes and bid on the box after assembly. The experiment shows that people value things they built themselves more than things that are just offered to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now if the machine-like definition of repeatability is applied to this experiment: Would test subjects value boxes they built themselves next time they do an experiment? How about next month? What about in 3 years? Would people in the 1940's have the same response?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any studies that deal with this &quot;repeatability&quot; question? For example, &lt;strong&gt;studies that used the same test subjects doing the same experiment multiple times?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-11-18T01:05:31.763" LastActivityDate="2012-11-19T00:32:14.680" Title="How repeatable are cognitive science findings within the same individual?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1898" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1899" CreationDate="2012-11-17T23:57:35.267" Score="5" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in how cognitive science experiments are designed and executed. Up until now, all of the papers I've seen dealing with cognition use &lt;strong&gt;availability of test subjects&lt;/strong&gt; as one of the major factors of recruitment for experiments. For example, students are recruited for an experiment, and because the group is so &lt;strong&gt;diverse, they are tested on general skills&lt;/strong&gt; that the entire group would possess, like reading or math. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, consider this experiment: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voxeu.org/article/does-happiness-affect-productivity&quot;&gt;&quot;Happiness economics&quot; in reverse: Does happiness affect productivity?&lt;/a&gt; There were 276 university students and faculty involved. The students are tested with a math task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Math and reading comprehension are general skills, and I can think of few people who earn their living with those skills, aside from SAT tutors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested if there have been other types of cognitive experiments tried, where the &lt;strong&gt;skills used to evaluate experiment are at a &quot;professional&quot; level.&lt;/strong&gt; For example professional athletes, soldiers or pilots come to mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Experiments that use scoring percentage as a metric for basketball players&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Experiments that use marksmanship grouping as a metric&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Professional video game players&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any groups of people, whose professional skills are consistently tested as metric of cognitive performance?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for your input!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2012-11-18T23:24:15.390" Title="Are there professional cognitive science test subjects?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1899" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1898" CreationDate="2012-11-18T19:41:00.447" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a few people who have been very extensively experimented on because they have unusual brain lesions (which is kind of like the opposite of a skill). The most famous is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaison&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Henry Molaison (HM)&lt;/a&gt;, who developed a rare case of episodic anterograde amnesia following surgery for severe epilepsy. He spent the entire latter part of his life in a care institute and was a continuous subject of various learning experiments and imaging studies. Another patient with very specific memory-related lesions is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KC_%28patient%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;KC&lt;/a&gt;, who has been the subject of at least 20 case studies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A couple of other studies that might be of interest are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journalofvision.org/content/8/16/13.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;West et al. (2008)&lt;/a&gt;, who recruited experienced video game players in order to find people with strong skills at rapid visual scanning, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/12/111208125720.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;research by Eleanor Maguire and colleagues&lt;/a&gt; that examined structural changes in the brains of new London taxi drivers as they acquired their fantastically detailed spatial map of the city's streets. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;West, G. L., Stevens, S. A., Pun, C., &amp;amp; Pratt, J. (2008). Visuospatial&#xA;  experience modulates attentional capture: Evidence from action video&#xA;  game players. Journal of Vision, 8(16).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Maguire, E. A., Gadian, D. G., Johnsrude, I. S., Good, C. D.,&#xA;  Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S., &amp;amp; Frith, C. D. (2000).&#xA;  Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi&#xA;  drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(8),&#xA;  4398-4403.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="567" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-11-18T23:24:15.390" LastActivityDate="2012-11-18T23:24:15.390" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1900" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1897" CreationDate="2012-11-19T00:32:14.680" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans are, as you would expect, much noisier than physical systems. As such, replication of experiments in psychology is very important. Replication provides evidence that the original results were not spurious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As pointed out in the comments, replication &lt;em&gt;with the same subject pool&lt;/em&gt; is not always the way to go. Many tasks have learning effects, and so you would not expect to achieve the same results by re-administering the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a vast statistical literature on reliability testing. A good place to start would be at the Wikipedia article for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_%28psychometrics%29&quot;&gt;Reliability (psychometrics)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-19T00:32:14.680" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1901" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1214" CreationDate="2012-11-19T00:40:46.467" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to address important issues that Jeromy Anglim raised in the &quot;Personal thoughts&quot; section of his answer, namely that correlation parameters (i.e., true, population, or infinite-sample correlations) often vary and covary among studies, and this between-studies\interstudy heterogeneity implies heterogeneity in studies' parameters for a structural equation model (SEM).  I'll describe a method I've proposed to account for this heterogeneity when estimating and making statistical inferences about a SEM, such as a univariate or multivariate regression model, factor model, path model, or model for structural relations among latent variables, or specific quantities based on such a model (e.g., $R^2$, indirect\mediation effect, fit index).  &lt;strong&gt;This approach's core idea is simple:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Use random-effects (RE) meta-analysis to estimate attributes of the between-studies distribution of correlation-matrix parameters (e.g., its mean and covariance matrix).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Transform those results to estimate attributes of the between-studies distribution of SEM parameters.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many commonly used MASEM methods are based on fixed-effects (FE) models, and although meta-analyzing heterogeneous correlation matrices using certain FE methods performs reasonably well in some situations, it's probably not advisable for making unconditional inferences about a larger universe of studies (Hafdahl, 2008a).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here I'll just give overviews of the problem and a three-step version of my proposed meta-analytic SEM (MASEM) method -- actually a collection of methods based on different choices for critical tasks at each step.  To keep the exposition relatively accessible I'll gloss over several important technical details.  Although this is an active area of my methodological research, the methods I'll sketch here are based largely on unpublished work (I'll cite references).  Because some aspects of this approach would be prohibitively difficult for many applied researchers to implement, one aim of my work in this area is to develop user-friendly software.  Until that's available, feel free to contact me for help with these techniques; such requests may motivate me to devote more time and other resources to this work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Overview of Problem&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this section I'll describe my view of the problems for which MASEM is typically used.  Suppose we have from each of $k$ independent studies a sample Pearson-&lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; or Fisher-&lt;em&gt;z&lt;/em&gt; correlation matrix among $p$ variables of interest (e.g., $X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_p$), and suppose we're interested in a particular SEM for those variables or a related quantity that can be expressed as a function of the correlation matrix (e.g., 1 or more [standardized] path coefficients, indirect or total effect, squared multiple correlation, fit index).  It's useful to distinguish between each study's correlation-matrix &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;parameter&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and that study's correlation-matrix &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;estimate&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; from a particular sample of subjects.  Meta-analysts are typically interested in using several studies' estimates to understand their corresponding parameters or distributions thereof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this overview I'll mostly ignore several interesting but vexing complications that arise in practice.  For instance, studies might use different versions of one or more variables (e.g., different measures similar to $X_1$), some studies might not contribute all $d = p( p - 1) / 2$ distinct correlation-matrix elements (e.g., due to missing variables or unreported elements), some of a study's correlations might be based on different subsets of its sample (e.g., if some subjects are missing some variables), a study might contribute two or more independent or dependent correlation matrices (e.g., from different groups or the same group in different conditions or at different times), studies' correlations might be influenced by so-called &lt;em&gt;artifacts&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., [un]reliability, range restriction, dichotomization), and study-level covariates\moderators might partially account for between-studies heterogeneity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if we take the RE view that correlation-matrix parameters vary among studies -- that is, our studies are from a universe of studies whose correlation-matrix parameters follow some multivariate distribution -- then &lt;strong&gt;most functions of that correlation-matrix parameter will also vary among studies&lt;/strong&gt;.  In particular, an SEM's path-coefficient parameters and other quantities (e.g., indirect effects) will have a distribution over studies.  To be clear, these distributions' between-studies (co)variation is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; due to within-study sampling (co)variation caused by finite samples of subjects; instead, it may be viewed as due to studies' different constellations of features that produce different values for their correlation-matrix parameters and, consequently, most functions of those parameters.  (As a simpler example, consider 1 Pearson-&lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; correlation parameter from each of several studies: If it varies among studies, then so will various functions of it -- its square, coefficient of alienation, Fisher &lt;em&gt;z&lt;/em&gt;-transform, common language effect size, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By analogy with typical tasks in conventional RE meta-analyses, we might be interested in the following for our SEM: estimates of the between-studies mean and variance of each SEM path coefficient or other related quantity (e.g., indirect effect) and inferences about each such quantity (e.g., confidence interval [CI], prediction interval [PrI], hypothesis test).  When we're interested in two or more quantities from the SEM, we might wish to obtain bi- or multivariate generalizations of these estimates or inferences (e.g., confidence or prediction region\set); these might include quantities based on two or more distinct SEMs we'd like to compare, such as fit indices from two or more SEMs.  We might also be interested in the entire between-studies distribution of one or more SEM quantities (i.e., not only its mean and [co]variance [matrix]), which we could in some situations depict graphically (e.g., density plot).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most commonly used MASEM approaches neglect between-studies heterogeneity in the SEM parameters, which seems especially difficult to justify in the presence of heterogeneous correlation(-matrix) parameters.  Certain aspects of the SEM parameters' between-studies (co)variance might be substantively important, such as if we're interested in how much particular path coefficients, indirect or total effects, squared multiple correlations, or fit indices (co)vary among studies.  For instance, if we use RMSEA as a fit index, we might wish to know how much RMSEA varies among studies, a plausible range of RMSEA values (e.g., prediction interval), or what proportion of studies have RMSEA values within some &quot;acceptable&quot; interval (e.g., below .05).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, there's reason to treat heterogeneity cautiously even if we're interested in only the mean of SEM parameters: Because SEM parameters are typically nonlinear functions of the correlation matrix, it's unclear what's estimated by applying the SEM directly to a mean correlation matrix, as in most MASEM approaches; that might estimate the mean SEM parameter poorly.  As a simpler example, suppose that for a heterogeneous effect-size parameter $Y$ we know its mean and variance over studies, $\mathrm{E}(Y)$ and $\mathrm{Var}(Y)$, but want to know the mean for $Y$'s square: Because for most distributions of $Y$ it's a fact that $\mathrm{E}(Y^2) = [\mathrm{E}(Y)]^2 + \mathrm{Var}(Y)$, simply squaring $\mathrm{E}(Y)$ gives a value lower than the desired $\mathrm{E}(Y^2)$, especially if $\mathrm{Var}(Y)$ is large.  This basic problem with applying a nonlinear transformation to a mean of heterogeneous effect sizes was addressed for the case of a univariate correlation -- focusing on the &lt;em&gt;z&lt;/em&gt;-to-&lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; transformation -- by Hafdahl (2009) and Hafdahl and Williams (2009); the analogous situation was addressed for correlation matrices by Hafdahl (2008b, 2009b), for generic univariate effect sizes by Hafdahl (2011), and for generic multivariate effect sizes by Hafdahl (2009c).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Overview of Proposed Method&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first paragraph above I mentioned the gist of my proposed two-stage MASEM method.  To facilitate explanation, it's useful to divide the second stage -- transformation of results -- into separate steps for estimation and inference.  For instance, if we start with $k$ studies' estimates of a Fisher-&lt;em&gt;z&lt;/em&gt; correlation matrix, the first step might entail estimating the correlation-matrix parameters' between-studies mean and covariance matrix, and the second and third steps might entail transforming those results to obtain estimates of and inferences about the between-studies mean and covariance matrix of the SEM's path coefficients.  Below I elaborate a bit on these three steps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For convenience, let's use the following notation for correlation matrices from Study $i, i = 1, 2, \ldots, k$:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;$\theta_i$: vector of the $d$ distinct parameters in a correlation matrix for $p$ variables, in either the Pearson-&lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; or Fisher-&lt;em&gt;z&lt;/em&gt; metric&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;$y_i$: vector of the $d$ distinct estimates in sample correlation matrix (i.e., $y_i$ is an estimate of $\theta_i$)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if we're interested in the correlation matrix for $p = 5$ variables, then both $\theta_i$ and $y_i$ contain $d = 5(5 - 1) / 2 = 10$ correlations.  In RE meta-analysis we typically assume that $y_i$ has a within-study (sampling\conditional) distribution whose mean is approximately $\theta_i$, and that $\theta_i$ (or just $\theta$) has the same between-studies distribution for all studies, with mean $\mu_\theta = \mathrm{E}(\theta)$ and covariance matrix $\Sigma_\theta = \mathrm{Cov}(\theta)$.  (For simplicity I'll slightly abuse notation for random correlation parameters and estimates -- instead of using $\Theta_i$ and $Y_i$ -- and I'll ignore other quantities used in certain meta-analytic procedures, such as each study's sample size and conditional covariance matrix, whose inverse [i.e., precision matrix] is essentially used as a weight matrix.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of SEM notation, let's similarly denote the SEM parameters of interest in Study $i$ by $\gamma_i = g(\theta_i)$, where the function $g$ transforms a correlation-matrix parameter into SEM parameters.  This $g$ might be a fairly complicated function, such as for the parameters of a SEM with respect to a particular objective\loss criterion (e.g., ML, WLS, ADF) or a fit index for that SEM.  Also, $\gamma_i$ might be just one number (e.g., 1 path coefficient, indirect effect, fit index) or a vector (e.g., 2 or more path coefficients).  At any rate, our MASEM goal might be to estimate $\gamma$'s between-studies mean or (co)variance (matrix), $\mu_\gamma = \mathrm{E}(\gamma)$ and $\Sigma_\gamma = \mathrm{Cov}(\gamma)$, and make inferences about either distributional attribute; we might also wish to estimate $\gamma$'s entire distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below are the three steps of my proposed method; Steps 2 and 3 presume we have in mind a specific SEM or related quantity that can be expressed as $\gamma_i = g(\theta_i)$.  This is similar to Hafdahl's (2009a, 2011) univariate methods and Hafdahl's (2008b, 2009b, 2009c) multivariate methods but specific to MASEM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Meta-Analysis for $\theta$:&lt;/strong&gt; Apply multivariate RE meta-analysis to $y_i$ to obtain estimates of at least $\mu_\theta$ and $\Sigma_\theta$, which I'll denote $\hat\mu_\theta$ and $\hat\Sigma_\theta$, and perhaps $\theta$'s full between-studies distribution; perhaps also obtain a covariance matrix for only $\hat\mu_\theta$ or both $\hat\mu_\theta$ and $\hat\Sigma_\theta$, depending on how inference is handled in Step 3.  Among several proposed methods for estimating $\mu_\theta$ and $\Sigma_\theta$, only a few handle incomplete correlation matrices -- nearly unavoidable in MASEM data sets -- in a principled way (e.g., Hafdahl &amp;amp; Wu, 2011; Kalaian, &amp;amp; Raudenbush, 1996; White, 2011).  In particular, Hafdahl and Wu's extension of Becker and Schram's (1994) EM algorithm permits any one or more of $y_i$'s correlations to be missing, doesn't require imputing values for missing correlations, and yields a posterior distribution for each study's entire $\theta_i$ (given its possibly incomplete $y_i$); it also yields an estimate of $\theta$'s full between-studies distribution as a mixture of the studies' posterior distributions.  Depending on the estimation method, a covariance matrix for $\hat\mu_\theta$ may be obtained by generalized least-squares (GLS) or other methods (e.g., based on Hessian matrix for maximum-likelihood estimators), some of which also provide a covariance matrix for $\hat\Sigma_\theta$.  Hafdahl (2004) demonstrated substantial differences in performance among different techniques for multivariate RE meta-analysis applied to correlation matrices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. Estimation for $\gamma$:&lt;/strong&gt; Use an appropriate transformation method -- based on the function $g$ -- to obtain estimates of at least $\mu_\gamma$ and $\Sigma_\gamma$, which I'll denote $\hat\mu_\gamma$ and $\hat\Sigma_\gamma$, and perhaps $\gamma$'s full between-studies distribution.  One strategy is to use a first- or second-order &lt;em&gt;Taylor series approximation&lt;/em&gt;, which essentially entails approximating $\gamma = g(\theta)$ by a simpler linear or quadratic function of $\theta$; estimates of this approximating function's mean and covariance can then be computed from Step 1's $\hat\mu_\theta$ and $\hat\Sigma_\theta$.  Another strategy entails &lt;em&gt;simulation&lt;/em&gt;: Sample values of $\theta$ from its distribution estimated in Step 1, transform these to values of $\gamma$, and estimate $\mu_\gamma$ and $\Sigma_\gamma$ from this simulated distribution; we might treat $\theta$'s distribution as multivariate normal -- such as $\theta \sim \mathcal{N}_d(\hat\mu_\theta, \hat\Sigma_\theta)$ -- or permit it to take some other form estimated from the data (e.g., mixture of posteriors from EM algorithm).  Either strategy might also be used to estimate other attributes of $\gamma$'s distribution, such as tail or central areas (e.g., probability that 1 or more path coefficients or other quantities are near 0, positive, large, etc.) or $\gamma$ values bounding regions of interest (e.g., quartiles, middle 95%).  (We could in principle transform $\hat\mu_\theta$ and $\hat\Sigma_\theta$ to $\hat\mu_\gamma$ and $\hat\Sigma_\gamma$ via integration, using the definitions of $\mu_\gamma$ and $\Sigma_\gamma$, but that'll often be intractable analytically and infeasible computationally.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3. Inference for $\gamma$:&lt;/strong&gt; Make inferences about $\mu_\gamma$ and $\Sigma_\gamma$, such as CIs, PrIs, or hypothesis tests for single-valued parameters or their multivariate generalizations for vector-valued parameters (e.g., confidence or prediction regions).  One strategy is to use the (multivariate) &lt;em&gt;delta method&lt;/em&gt;, which essentially entails using derivatives to transform the covariance matrix for $\hat\mu_\theta$ alone or both $\hat\mu_\theta$ and $\hat\Sigma_\theta$ to a covariance matrix for $\hat\mu_\gamma$ or $\hat\Sigma_\gamma$; the latter covariance matrix can be used to construct CIs or PrIs or test hypotheses.  Another strategy, at least for CIs or confidence regions, is to use a bootstrap technique to essentially construct an empirical sampling distribution of $\hat\mu_\gamma$ or $\hat\Sigma_\gamma$; numerous bootstrap options are available, depending largely on how the sample of bootstrap replicates -- $\hat\mu_\gamma$ or $\hat\Sigma_\gamma$ for each resample from the data -- is constructed (e.g., parametric vs. nonparametric) and how it's used to construct confidence intervals or regions (e.g., standard deviation\error vs. percentile, bias correction or not).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because this is already a fairly long overview, I'll close with a few remarks.  First, despite its advantages over some other MASEM methods, my proposed method also has drawbacks and limitations; I won't elaborate here on these pros and cons, except to caution that my proposed method might perform unacceptably in certain circumstances.  Second, my proposed method would benefit from considerably more work, such as refining aspects of each step and studying its performance in realistic situations defined by characteristics of MASEM studies (e.g., number of primary studies, distribution of sample sizes, distribution of correlation-matrix parameters, pattern and mechanism of missing data, choice of function g).  To date there's been little evaluation of multivariate RE meta-analysis analytically or by simulation, for either correlation matrices (cf. Hafdahl, 2004, 2008b) or other multivariate effect sizes (cf. Riley, 2009; Riley, Abrams, Sutton, Lambert, &amp;amp; Thompson, 2007), and Hafdahl's (2009c) Monte Carlo studies of meta-analysis for functions of multivariate effect sizes did not include correlation matrices.  Third, Bayesian approaches to meta-analysis, such as Prevost, Mason, Griffin, Kinmonth, Sutton, and Spiegelhalter's (2007) proposed method for correlation matrices, might be especially well-suited to MASEM due to their natural -- though computationally challenging -- strategies for constructing posterior distributions for functions of a study's parameters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Becker, B. J., &amp;amp; Schram, C. M. (1994). Examining explanatory models through research synthesis. In H. Cooper &amp;amp; L. V. Hedges (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;The handbook of research synthesis&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 357-381). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hafdahl, A. R. (2004, June). &lt;em&gt;Refinements for random-effects meta-analysis of correlation matrices.&lt;/em&gt; Paper presented at the meeting of the Psychometric Society, Monterey, CA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hafdahl, A. R. (2008a). Combining heterogeneous correlation matrices: Simulation analysis of fixed-effects methods. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 33,&lt;/em&gt; 507-533. doi:10.3102/1076998607309472&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hafdahl, A. R. (2008b, July). &lt;em&gt;Meta-analysis for functions of heterogeneous correlation matrices.&lt;/em&gt; Paper presented at the meeting of the Psychometric Society, Durham, NH.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hafdahl, A. R. (2009a). Improved Fisher &lt;em&gt;z&lt;/em&gt; estimators for univariate random-effects meta-analysis of correlations. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 62,&lt;/em&gt; 233-261. doi:10.1348/000711008X281633&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hafdahl, A. R. (2009b, May). Meta-analysis for functions of dependent correlations. In A. R. Hafdahl (Chair), &lt;em&gt;Advances in meta-analysis for multivariable linear models.&lt;/em&gt; Invited symposium presented at the meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, San Francisco, CA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hafdahl, A. R. (2009c). &lt;em&gt;Meta-analysis for functions of heterogeneous multivariate effect sizes.&lt;/em&gt; Unpublished master's thesis, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri. &lt;a href=&quot;http://openscholarship.wustl.edu/etd/439/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://openscholarship.wustl.edu/etd/439/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hafdahl, A. R. (2011). &lt;em&gt;Translating meta-analytic results: Techniques to express random-effects estimates in other metrics.&lt;/em&gt; Manuscript in preparation, Washington University in St. Louis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hafdahl, A. R., &amp;amp; Williams, M. A. (2009). Meta-analysis of correlations revisited: Attempted replication and extension of Field’s (2001) simulation studies. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Methods, 14,&lt;/em&gt; 24-42. doi:10.1037/a0014697&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hafdahl, A. R., &amp;amp; Wu, W. (2012, February). &lt;em&gt;An EM algorithm for multivariate random-effects meta-analysis with incomplete effect estimates.&lt;/em&gt; Manuscript in preparation, ARCH Statistical Consulting, LLC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kalaian, H. A., &amp;amp; Raudenbush, S. W. (1996). A multivariate mixed linear model for meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Methods, 1,&lt;/em&gt; 227-235. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.1.3.227&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prevost, A. T., Mason, D., Griffin, S., Kinmonth, A.-L., Sutton, S., &amp;amp; Spiegelhalter, D. (2007). Allowing for correlations between correlations in random-effects meta-analysis of correlation matrices. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Methods, 12,&lt;/em&gt; 434-450. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.12.4.434&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Riley, R. D. (2009). Multivariate meta-analysis: The effect of ignoring within-study correlation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the Royal Statistical Society—Series A, 172,&lt;/em&gt; 789–811. doi:10.1111/j.1467-985X.2008.00593.x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Riley, R. D., Abrams, K. R., Sutton, A. J., Lambert, P. C., &amp;amp; Thompson, J. R. (2007). Bivariate random-effects meta-analysis and the estimation of between-study correlation. &lt;em&gt;BMC Medical Research Methodology, 7,&lt;/em&gt; 3. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-7-3&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;White, I. R. (2011). Multivariate random-effects meta-regression: Updates to mvmeta. &lt;em&gt;Stata Journal, 11,&lt;/em&gt; 255-270.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2405" LastEditorUserId="2405" LastEditDate="2013-05-04T00:04:14.020" LastActivityDate="2013-05-04T00:04:14.020" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1903" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1905" CreationDate="2012-11-19T09:15:48.710" Score="9" ViewCount="446" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do people with autism or Asperger's syndrome have a higher genetic predisposition to psychosis or schizophrenia than that of healthy people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user914" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-19T10:12:01.170" LastActivityDate="2012-11-19T16:55:02.457" Title="Do persons with autism have a bigger genetic predisposition to psychosis/schizophrenia?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1904" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1839" CreationDate="2012-11-19T16:04:21.480" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Taking @BenCole's suggestion on the bolded parts...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;how the human mind creates and perpetuates the idea of knowing something&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the philosophic response to this is &quot;What does it mean to &lt;em&gt;know&lt;/em&gt; something?&quot;. I'd recommend Searle's Chinese Room argument [1] and the many rebuttals to it (which include some computational explanations of understanding) to get a better idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do individuals build their own models of reality from whatever knowledge is available to their minds?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The simple answer is yes. But the interesting question is how much of our reality is shared vs how much of it is specific to each individual. In Computational Cognitive Science, the one area that tries to address this separation is Cognitive Architectures. CAs divide rational thought into two parts - the architecture that represents the common functionality across all humans and the knowledge which is different for each of us. For further reading, see Newell's &lt;em&gt;Unified Theories of Cognition&lt;/em&gt; [2] for the groundwork, Anderson's &lt;em&gt;How can the human mind occur in the physical universe?&lt;/em&gt; [3] for an emphasis on ACT-R (an example CA), and Laird's &lt;em&gt;The Soar cognitive architecture&lt;/em&gt; [4] for an emphasis on Soar (another CA). Soar and ACT-R are the big two of the CA field but there are many others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;present a finite understanding of a infinitely(?) complex reality as complete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd argue that the opposite is true. That is, instead of presenting reality as complete, the  mind lives off of the differences between its understanding and the reality. Expectation-based cognition suggests that people are always generating expectations of what they expect to sense (see/hear/smell/feel etc) in the near future. These expectations are matched against observations. If expectations and observations match, then all is good. When they don't match, cognition is alerted. In this view, predictions flow top-down and errors (discrepancies between the prediction and the observation) flow bottom-up. Some good references on this idea are [5] and [6]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] J. Searle. (1980). Minds, brains and programs. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3 (3): 417–457.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] A. Newell. (1994). Unified theories of cognition. Harvard University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] J. Anderson (2007). How can the human mind occur in the physical universe? Oxford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] J. Laird. (2012). The Soar cognitive architecture. MIT Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[5] Lee, T.S., Mumford, D. (2003) Hierarchical Bayesian inference in the visual cortex. Journal of Optical Society of America, A. . 20(7): 1434-1448.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[6] Hohwy, J., Roepstorff, A., &amp;amp; Friston, K. (2008). Predictive coding explains binocular rivalry: an epistemological review. Cognition, 108(3), 687-701. ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/136548/&quot;&gt;http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/136548/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="476" LastActivityDate="2012-11-19T16:04:21.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1905" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1903" CreationDate="2012-11-19T16:55:02.457" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally speaking, yes; it's relatively more common for psychosis to be comorbid with or present after diagnosed Autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a good overview of this topic read &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/schizophrenia/content/article/10168/1822823&quot;&gt;Autism and Schizophrenia (Yael Dvir, MD and Jean A. Frazier, MD)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;COS (Child Onset Schizophrenia)—the onset of psychosis before age 13 years—is considered a rare and severe form of schizophrenia. Systematic studies of COS show high rates of the disorder being either preceded by or comorbid with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD).7&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note however that the similar (but not identical) features between COS and Autism:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although the disorders are distinct, they have shared clinical features. Social withdrawal, communication impairment, and poor eye contact seen in ASD are similar to the negative symptoms seen in youths with schizophrenia.11 When higher-functioning individuals with autism are stressed, they become highly anxious and at times may appear thought-disordered and paranoid, particularly when they are asked to shift set (such as being asked to change a topic of conversation or to stop an activity that they are engaged in and begin a new activity).12 A subset of children (28%) in the ongoing NIMH study of COS have been reported to have comorbid COS and ASD.7&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also likely a bit of sample bias going on; children presenting &lt;em&gt;severe&lt;/em&gt; symptoms of either Autism or COS are logically much more likely to be seen by medical professionals than neurotypical children or those who may have Autism but present less significant external symptoms. So take the specific percentages with a grain of salt, but the two certainly seem to be related.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-11-19T16:55:02.457" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1906" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-19T18:04:15.980" Score="7" ViewCount="801" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any chromatic analogue of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shepard_tone&quot;&gt;Shepard tone&lt;/a&gt;?  I am imagining that each pure tone would correspond to a pure wavelength of light, transformed in such a way that the middle of three consecutive octaves would correspond to the peak sensitivity of the R, G, and B cones respectively.  Would the light have the corresponding description of &quot;always getting bluer (redder)&quot;?  If, say, one had been spending a long time immersed &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uu7jA8EHi_0&quot;&gt;in a game like this&lt;/a&gt;, would it create the illusion of accelerating toward (away) without actually moving?  Any references to similar ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2410" LastEditorUserId="2410" LastEditDate="2012-11-20T04:50:18.007" LastActivityDate="2012-12-04T18:50:14.770" Title="Is there any chromatic analogue of the Shepard tone?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1907" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1909" CreationDate="2012-11-19T20:20:38.180" Score="7" ViewCount="825" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've just watched &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/daphne_bavelier_your_brain_on_video_games.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a TED talk by Daphne Bavelier&lt;/a&gt;, who seems to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://cms.unige.ch/fapse/people/bavelier/publications/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a major researcher on plasticity and video games&lt;/a&gt;. In it she presents results from a controlled lab study in which participants needed to perform mental rotations (around 14 minutes into the video), before and after having played 10 hours of action video games over a period of 2 weeks. She demonstrates results which show an improvement up to 5 months after having gotten the 'training'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/car09.png&quot; alt=&quot;Improvement of spatial rotations chart&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in finding out more about this research and the methodologies it followed. So my first question is whether somebody could link me to the original research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Did they take into account learning effects?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Did they use a control group?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My skepticism comes from &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/20/21&quot;&gt;a previous question on video games&lt;/a&gt; in which D. Bavelier is mentioned often. It has gotten some &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/529/21&quot;&gt;concerned responses involving methodological flaws&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-16T21:42:36.310" LastActivityDate="2018-01-16T21:42:36.310" Title="Do action video games have an effect on spatial skills?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1909" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1907" CreationDate="2012-11-19T23:26:54.233" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_rotation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mental rotation&lt;/a&gt; was introduced by Shepard &amp;amp; Metzler (1971). The 3D assemblages of cubes were part of their original experiment. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1978.47.2.599&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vandenburg and Kuse (1978)&lt;/a&gt; later developed a paper-and-pencil test based on this prior experiment, named the Vandenberg and Kuse’s Mental Rotation Test (VMRT).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study which Bavelier most likely refers to is one done by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01990.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feng et al. (2007)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ixdcth.se.hemsida.eu/courses/2012/ciu185/sites/default/files/files/2007_GenderDifferenceSpatialAbility.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In Experiment 2, we compared spatial attention and cognition in men&#xA;  and women before and after 10 hr of action-video-game training. &lt;strong&gt;A&#xA;  control group trained for 10 hr with a non-action game&lt;/strong&gt;. [...] In&#xA;  addition, we assessed higher-level spatial abilities using a mental&#xA;  rotation test (MRT; see Fig. 1b). We expected to ﬁnd enhanced MRT&#xA;  performance as a by-product of improvements in spatial attentional&#xA;  capacity after training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The games played were &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ur-_GbLgiTI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Medal of Honor: Pacific Assault&lt;/a&gt; by the experimental group, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VBp1NtdNCtg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ballance, a 3-D puzzle game&lt;/a&gt; by the control group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We had not originally&#xA;  planned a follow-up testing session; however, we were able to contact&#xA;  and retest all 20 subjects after an average interval of about 5 months&#xA;  (16–24 weeks).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Both males and females in the experimental group improved, but there&#xA;  was no signiﬁcant change from pretest to posttest in the control group&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  [...] furthermore, the improvement in the experimental group was larger&#xA;  for females (2.0 to 2.7) than for males (2.9 to 3.2), F(1, 8) 5&#xA;  5.193, prep 5 .87, Z 2 5 .39, and the performance of the females on the posttest was indistinguishable from that of the males in the&#xA;  control group. Although the gender difference on the MRT was not&#xA;  eliminated, its size was much reduced (see Fig. 3, lower left panel).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although not the exact study which Bavelier demonstrated, a study done by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/DOI:10.1007/s11199-008-9498-z&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Isabelle D. Cherney (2008)&lt;/a&gt; demonstrates similar results using the VMRT test. A huge section of the paper reviews existing relevant research which might be interesting to look into. The focus of this particular study is to ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... examine whether the type (3-D vs. 2-D) and&#xA;  delivery (massed vs. distributed practice) affect the degree of&#xA;  improvement of males’ and females’ mental rotation performance and how&#xA;  individual differences such as anxiety, prior spatial experiences such&#xA;  as computer game play, and mathematical performance might affect&#xA;  performance. Two existing visuospatial tests, Vandenberg and Kuse’s&#xA;  (1978) mental rotation test and the card rotation test (CRT;&#xA;  Educational Testing Services Sanders et al. 1982) that have shown&#xA;  gender differences and that are of different levels of difficulty,&#xA;  were used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tested games were The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f4cGpH0QHCk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3-D Antz© racing computer game&lt;/a&gt;, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R8UehuIYl2c&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2-D Tetrus© computer game&lt;/a&gt;, or several paper-and-pencil logic games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An equal number of men and women were then randomly assigned to [the games] for a half hour. Participants returned to the laboratory for&#xA;  another three times for 1 h of practice each. About half of the&#xA;  participants in each practice condition were randomly exposed to&#xA;  either: (a) distributed practice sessions (they completed the three&#xA;  1-h practice sessions over more than 2 weeks) or (b) massed practice&#xA;  sessions (they completed the three 1-h practice sessions within 3&#xA;  days). During the final session, after a half hour of practice,&#xA;  participants completed the two mental rotation tests as a posttest.&#xA;  Participants were exposed to a total of four training hours. They were&#xA;  asked to abstain to play any computer games between the practice&#xA;  sessions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Practice effect analyses&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Bonferroni adjusted paired sample t-tests on both mental rotation&#xA;  pre-and posttest scores showed that, &lt;strong&gt;for the VMRT there were&#xA;  significant improvements for women, t(30)=−3.6, p=.001, but not for&#xA;  men&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1T6AQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;VMRT practice effect results&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Shepard, R. N., &amp;amp; Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science 171, 701-703.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Steven, G. V., &amp;amp; ALLAN, R. (1978). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1978.47.2.599&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mental rotations, a group test of three-dimensional spatial visualization. Perceptual and motor skills&lt;/a&gt;, 47(2), 599-604.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Cherney, I. D. (2008). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/DOI:10.1007/s11199-008-9498-z&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mom, let me play more computer games: They improve my mental rotation skills.&lt;/a&gt; Sex Roles, 59(11), 776-786.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Feng, J., Spence, I., &amp;amp; Pratt, J. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01990.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Playing an action video game reduces gender differences in spatial cognition.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological Science, 18(10), 850-855. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ixdcth.se.hemsida.eu/courses/2012/ciu185/sites/default/files/files/2007_GenderDifferenceSpatialAbility.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-11-20T13:38:37.057" LastActivityDate="2012-11-20T13:38:37.057" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1910" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1435" CreationDate="2012-11-20T04:09:11.967" Score="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's unclear whether follow-up tests were ever performed on Lorber's patients, and in particular the student referenced by Lewin. Patient confidentiality precludes a systematic search of the literature, particularly because the Lewin (1980) article does not provide a pseudonym with which we can use to track the patient (e.g. &quot;HM&quot;). It is possible that this patient has been the subject of other scientific studies, but there does not appear to be any information that would uniquely identify him as the patient referred to in this article. John Lorber has since passed away (1996), making it unlikely that we'll know for sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the condition itself has not been ignored. Lorber himself has later studies which look at the brains structure of hydrocephalus patients (Jackson &amp;amp; Lorber, 1984). A more recent study by Feuillet et al. (2007) seems to show similar results with regard to brain tissue, but the IQ of Feuillet's patient was measured at 75. He appeared to function normally in society, but his intelligence is regarded as significantly below average. A news article about this study, including CT images, can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12301-man-with-tiny-brain-shocks-doctors.html&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2011, a review article by De Oliveira et al. discussed the above two cases and others. However, no mention of a follow-up to Lorber's original patient is discussed. It seems likely that if a follow-up were performed, it would be mentioned in this review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There does not appear to be a concrete answer with respect to how these patients can function despite a deficit in cortical tissue. However, De Oliveira and colleagues discuss one hypothesis, as quoted below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Computational models such as the “small-world” and “scale-free”&#xA;  network might explain clinical resilience in various situations&#xA;  (Friston and Price, 2003; Noppeney et al., 2004; Achard and Bullmore,&#xA;  2007; Van den Heuvel et al., 2008). Small-world networks predicts that&#xA;  neuronal cells are engaged in clustered connectivity with fewer&#xA;  long-range connections (Friston and Price, 2003; Achard et al., 2006).&#xA;  Thus, there would be a shorter path length between any pair of neurons&#xA;  or Brain regions, resulting in higher dynamical complexity, lower&#xA;  wiring costs, and resilience to tissue insults. A scale-free network&#xA;  is characterized by the existence of a small number of nodes having&#xA;  more connections than the other nodes. The nodes that have such a high&#xA;  connectivity degree are referred to as hub-nodes and are suggested to&#xA;  play an important role in the overall network organization (Friston&#xA;  and Price, 2003).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Brain resilience may be also the final result of processes such as&#xA;  redundancy, degeneracy, and pluripotentiality of neural systems&#xA;  (Friston and Price, 2003; Noppeney et al., 2004). Another possible&#xA;  mechanism would be the local neurogenesis already reported in&#xA;  structures such as the basal ganglia, with preferential distribution&#xA;  in sub-regions of the ventral striatum (Stopczynski et al., 2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;De Oliveira, M. F., Pinto, F. C. G., Nishikuni, K., Botelho, R. V.,&#xA;  Lima, A. M., &amp;amp; Rotta, J. M. (2011). Revisiting hydrocephalus as a&#xA;  model to study brain resilience. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 5.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3252565/pdf/fnhum-05-00181.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Feuillet, L., Dufour, H., &amp;amp; Pelletier, J. (2007). Brain of a&#xA;  white-collar worker. The Lancet, 370(9583), 262.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Jackson, P. H., &amp;amp; Lorber, J. (1984). Brain and ventricular volume in&#xA;  hydrocephalus. Z Kinderchir, 39(Suppl 2), 91-93.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-20T04:09:11.967" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1911" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1975" CreationDate="2012-11-20T19:41:23.577" Score="5" ViewCount="260" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sensory processing disorder can cause over or under reactions to sensory input, like loud sound. Can those afflicted with this disorder be okay from a particular sound played at a particular volume but react to a different sound played at the same volume? How can this disorder be differentiated from a phobia or various other disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2412" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-11-23T07:46:06.523" LastActivityDate="2012-12-07T01:01:11.137" Title="Can Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) present symptoms from very particular stimuli?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1912" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-21T07:31:46.283" Score="4" ViewCount="272" Body="&lt;p&gt;In conversation, we might define a particular group by the characteristics that the majority of that group holds even if a minority in that group doesn’t possess those characteristics.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some possible examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Human being eats meats &lt;em&gt;(even though ~3-5% of human are total vegetarians)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Russians like vodka &lt;em&gt;(many don’t drink there)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Asians are brown &lt;em&gt;(though there are many who are white)&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;(Ignore the figures or classification it’s just for explaining purpose)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point is, why are we programmed to make generalizations this way, i.e., disregard the small or even significant but minority of a group while taking it as a whole, this is understood by common sense, but, I was wondering is there a scientific basis for this, perhaps some kind of theory presented by someone or a research that established this rule?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2414" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-11-21T07:52:30.810" LastActivityDate="2012-11-23T05:45:48.900" Title="Ignoring minority while generalizing about a group, any theoretical reference?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1914" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1912" CreationDate="2012-11-21T10:01:17.473" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the exceptions are implied. If someone says, &quot;&lt;strong&gt;All&lt;/strong&gt; Russians like vodka&quot; then we understand that there are no exceptions to the rule. People get frustrated when you're overly specific about the percent of Russians who like vodka. Instead it's safer to just say Russians like vodka. And bears.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/006124189X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; talks about why we operate based on generalizations. We would freeze if we analysed all the details of every situation before we act, so we make generalizations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0374275637&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Thinking, Fast and Slow&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is an excellent book talking about the latest research in human biases from one of the foremost experts in the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastEditorUserId="2407" LastEditDate="2012-11-23T05:45:48.900" LastActivityDate="2012-11-23T05:45:48.900" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1915" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-21T16:46:23.973" Score="4" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say that you enjoy looking at two beautiful paintings (A and B). But you really can't tell which one you like more, and you want to (quantitatively). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, you compare them both to your favorite painting (C), which you know you really like to look at (adjusting for novelty). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to do this, you vary the size of your favorite painting C on a computer screen (or its distance from you in real life), and find the point at which C is so much smaller that you'd rather look at A. You do the same for painting B. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You then attempt to quantify how much you prefer A to B by asking: for which painting (A or B) was C larger when you first preferred to look at that painting rather than C? This is the one that you prefer more, and the distance between the C &quot;breakpoints&quot; gives some measure of your relative preference. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this difference will be at best an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_measurement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interval measurement, not a ratio one&lt;/a&gt;, but that's usually better than no measurement.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is my question: &lt;strong&gt;what is this procedure (or some variant of it) called&lt;/strong&gt;? This seems like a basic enough test that it must already be in use, and I am curious to hear more about it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1564/how-is-the-size-of-a-video-related-to-its-perceived-quality&quot;&gt;How is the size of a video related to its perceived quality?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="294" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-11-23T06:59:34.763" Title="What's the name of the quantifying preference for visual stimulus by varying size or distance as compared to a reference task?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1912" CreationDate="2012-11-22T11:09:05.310" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @Jeff mentions you are essentially asking why people stereotype. Steretyping is a huge topic particularly in social psychology.&#xA;The wikipedia article on stereotypes provides a basic introduction to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype#Functions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;functions of stereotypes&lt;/a&gt; where it talks about cognitive and social functions. It seems like most of the examples you provide are referring more to the cognitive functions (e.g., simplifying thinking and decision making).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An article by Macrae et al (1994) typifies this perspective. You might want to have a read of the article. Here is an extract from the opening paragraphs that talks about stereotypes as tools for minimising the use of cognitive resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Social psychologists have frequently characterized stereotypes as&#xA;  energy-saving devices that serve the important cognitive function of&#xA;  simplifying information processing and response generation (e.g.,&#xA;  Allport, 1954; Andersen, Klatzky, &amp;amp; Murray, 1990; Bodenhausen &amp;amp;&#xA;  Lichtenstein, 1987; Brewer, 1988; Fiske &amp;amp; Neuberg, 1990; Tajfel,&#xA;  1969). Building on this tradition, Gilbert and Hixon (1991) aptly&#xA;  characterized stereotypes as &quot;tools that jump out&quot; of a metaphorical&#xA;  cognitive toolbox &quot;when there is a job to be done&quot; (p. 510). Anyone&#xA;  who has ever succumbed to the temptation to evaluate others in terms&#xA;  of their social group membership would doubtlessly recognize the power&#xA;  of this contention. Individuation, in its many guises, is a rather&#xA;  time consuming and effortful affair (Brewer, 1988; Fiske &amp;amp; Neuberg,&#xA;  1990; Fiske &amp;amp; Pavelchak, 1986). Stereotyping, in contrast, relies only&#xA;  on the execution of some rather rudimentary skills: most notably, the&#xA;  ability to assign people to meaningful social categories (see&#xA;  Hamilton, 1979; Hamilton &amp;amp; Sherman, in press; Hamilton, Sherman, &amp;amp;&#xA;  Ruvolo, 1990; Hamilton &amp;amp; Trolier, 1986). Once achieved, this&#xA;  categorization provides perceivers with a veritable wealth of&#xA;  stereotypic information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The metaphorical view of humans as cognitive misers has attained a&#xA;  zenith of popularity among contemporary social cognition researchers&#xA;  (see Fiske &amp;amp; Taylor, 1991; Higgins &amp;amp; Bargh, 1987; Sherman, Judd, &amp;amp;&#xA;  Park, 1989), but the notion of stereotypes as simplifying mental&#xA;  devices has its origins in much earlier times. Lippman (1922), for&#xA;  example, argued that reality is too complex for any person to&#xA;  represent accurately. Stereotypes, accordingly, serve to simplify&#xA;  perception, judgment, and action. As energy-saving devices, they spare&#xA;  perceivers the ordeal of responding to an almost incomprehensibly&#xA;  complex social world. Seventy years later, these sentiments are&#xA;  characteristic features of cognitive writings on the topic. As Fiske&#xA;  and Neuberg (1990, p. 14) remarked, &quot;we are exposed to so much&#xA;  information that we must in some manner simplify our social&#xA;  environment. . . for reasons of cognitive economy, we categorize&#xA;  others as members of particular groups—groups about which we often&#xA;  have a great deal of generalized, or stereotypic, knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also think Tyler and Ana make good points about what is meant by statements such as &quot;Russians like vodka&quot;. One interpretation is that the exceptions are implied. Another is that when we say &quot;Russians&quot; or any other group we are referring to the group as an entity. Thus, to say that a group has a certain property is to speak about the tendency of the individuals in the group rather than each individual.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B., &amp;amp; Bodenhausen, G. V. (1994). Stereotypes as energy-saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), 37. &lt;a href=&quot;http://nccu.edu.tw/98752013/paper13.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-23T04:36:49.153" LastActivityDate="2012-11-23T04:36:49.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1918" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1895" CreationDate="2012-11-23T04:48:03.453" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Look up Memory Palaces. I taught my girlfriend all the a-typical antipsychotic drugs in about an hour (there were 10 or something. I don't remember.) It was her first time doing it and she still remembers the whole list, in order, 6 months later. Using that &quot;palace,&quot; she can add all the drug side effects to each medication by filling the room she placed her item in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The memory palace technique is perfect for people in science and medicine. For memorizing poetry word for word, I chunk a few words together and memorize the most significant word. It's much easier than filling a memory palace with a ton of words. You can also use this to receit speeches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want a fun, quick read on this, dive into Moonwalking with Einstein. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a skill that takes practice and serious effort. And yes, memorizing a few Shakespeare poems has come in handy. Being asked unexpectedly if I brought a poem to a poetry reading, hands empty, was probably the smoothest moment of my life. It's like in Anchorman when Ron plays the jazz flute, except you can bring your jazz flute anywhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll always be entertained, too, if you memorize some good stuff. Just remember it again and you can experience it anywhere. When you're climbing uphill after a long bike ride, it's like you can turn on the TV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: Also good to learn memory techniques so you can remember all your map directions and not have to keep checking your phone to go somewhere new.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Double edit: Don't be discouraged by the hour figure. Any normal guy can remember a deck of cards in order after having 10 minutes to memorize it. It just takes practice and a diary to monitor your skill and become an expert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Daniel Temmet, the math savant, went from normal to incredible by practicing memorization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if you memorize by route, just reading and re-reading until you get it in your head long enough to pass a test, you're doing it wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-11-28T17:58:11.587" LastActivityDate="2012-11-28T17:58:11.587" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1920" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1915" CreationDate="2012-11-23T06:39:19.373" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dude. This is an awesome experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0465051367&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Emotional Design&lt;/a&gt; is written by my favorite cognitive psychologist, Donald Norman. It's full of research on taste. In it, he says &lt;strong&gt;taste&lt;/strong&gt; is highly subjective and &lt;strong&gt;based on culture&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;C is probably equally distant in both cases, at the point where it becomes unreadable. Unless at that point you'd rather look at C and say, &quot;Hey, what's that?!&quot; Like ship sails far away in the ocean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One last point. We have no idea why we behave. We just rationalize it afterward. What we say we like and the way we behave are totally different. Girls just want to be with a nice guy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was a Harvard study for a painting class. Each class painted 5 paintings (or something). At the end of the semester, the teacher gave a class one of their paintings back. For the other class, the students took home their &lt;strong&gt;favorite&lt;/strong&gt; painting. They waited 6 months (or something) and interviewed the students. The students who were given their painting &lt;strong&gt;LOVED&lt;/strong&gt; it. They had their painting proudly displayed somewhere. The students who were given a choice were unhappy. &lt;strong&gt;They kept wondering what-if?&lt;/strong&gt; They never felt right about their painting and most of them hid it away, maybe under a bed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's good evidence that if you want to stay happily in a relationship with someone, DON'T THINK ABOUT WHY YOU LIKE THEM. It will end badly. There's a whole study on this as well. It got ugly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastEditorUserId="2407" LastEditDate="2012-11-23T06:59:34.763" LastActivityDate="2012-11-23T06:59:34.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1922" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1924" CreationDate="2012-11-23T13:14:55.910" Score="8" ViewCount="4751" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;It's in your head&quot; is often true and often offensive. But as your head can invent any number of psychological and physiological symptoms how can you distinguish whether something is or isn't psychosomatic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My naive stance (which I'm looking to correct) so far is that if the symptoms are too vague or too arbitrary it's psychosomatic. This probably has some indirect legitimacy but is entirely anecdotal. For example something too arbitrary would be: experiencing pain in your feet after standing in water in a shower, but standing in a bathtub, pool, lake, or ocean doesn't cause it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2412" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-24T01:49:20.277" LastActivityDate="2012-11-24T01:49:20.277" Title="How do you know if it's psychosomatic or not?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1923" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1925" CreationDate="2012-11-23T14:55:01.647" Score="6" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;A while ago, I asked the question whether &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1685/1221&quot;&gt;Presence questionnaires are valid in between-subject designs&lt;/a&gt; (see the question for the background to this assumption).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the question garnered some encouraging feedback, no one seems to know the answer as of yet. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;By way of a contrived example, I was suggesting that the situation would be similar were we to perform an experiment in which half the participants are told that they are to receive 1 litre of free beer, whereas the other half are told that they are given 10 litres of free beer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you asked all participants to rate their level of happiness at receiving the news that they are given said quantity of free beer, I think you would not see a difference (because free beer is free beer!). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you were to repeat the experiment a second time with the same participants and now swapped the amount of beer between the two groups, I would expect people to lower their happiness ratings if their amount of beer got lowered, and up their ratings if their free beer levels went up. (NB: Participants do not actually receive free beer but are simply asked how happy the news of receiving free beer would make them, so they don't actually receive 1 litre instead of 10 or get 11 litres)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; So I'm wondering:&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any standard tests or phenomena that are, in a sense, meaningless when applied to between-subjects but work as a relative scale when applied to within-subjects experiments?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1221" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-11-24T01:49:58.177" Title="Are there any standard psychometric scales that are only applicable to within-subject designs?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1922" CreationDate="2012-11-23T18:42:38.280" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe 'psychosomatic' describes a way the mind has effects on the your body which might result in somatic symptoms. Often psychosomatic disorders are diagnosed as such when: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;no somatic correlate to the experienced symptoms can be found&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;somatic correlates do not sufficiently explain the experienced symptoms&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This often results in patients who visit different doctors over a longer period of time, desperately looking for a reason for their symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also psychosomatic can refer to diseases which have a clear somatic correlate (e.g. Hashimoto-Thyreoiditis) but the cause of the disease is unknown and the symptoms are influenced by your state of mind (e.g. symptoms worsen under stress). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However as medical diagnostic tools are limited, it cannot be excluded that there is really no somatic cause for psychosomatic disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ICD-10 diagnostic criteria for psychosomatic disorders are available online, e.g. for somatization disorder:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F45.0&quot;&gt;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F45.0&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1272" LastActivityDate="2012-11-23T18:42:38.280" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1925" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1923" CreationDate="2012-11-24T01:49:58.177" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think your intuitions are correct, and the reason is that Likert scales often suffer from poor &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construct_validity&quot;&gt;construct validity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One example that comes to mind is Alter et al. (2010), who use a mixed design, and note that participants in both conditions gravitate toward the middle of the scale on their first rating. They suggest that participants do not know how to use the scale at first; however, their second rating is informative because it can be compared to the first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several other studies (e.g. Dittrich et al., 2007; Olson et al. 2007) suggest that Likert scales are best used for &lt;em&gt;relative&lt;/em&gt; rather than &lt;em&gt;absolute&lt;/em&gt; judgments. Within-subject designs may abide by this rule because participants will implicitly use their previous ratings as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring#Anchoring_and_adjustment_heuristic&quot;&gt;anchors&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although within-subject designs are often preferred, many times they are not feasible. (For instance, an experimental manipulation may make it impossible for a subject to be in both conditions without jeopardizing the effect of the manipulation). However, a properly designed scale may be usable in a between-subjects design. The key here is wording the question such that subjects will make judgements &lt;em&gt;relative to some other criterion&lt;/em&gt;. So you may say something like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&quot;Compared to the last time you received one free beer, how happy were you upon receiving&#xA; ten free beers?&quot;&#xA;&#xA;-5       -4       -3       -2       -1       0       1       2       3       4       5          &#xA;less happy than last time      neither more or less happy     much happier than last time&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This example is a little contrived--in fact it's not that great since the question is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leading_question&quot;&gt;leading&lt;/a&gt;--but hopefully you get the idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since you mention happiness, I will note that this issue has arisen in the happiness literature. Happiness is often assessed by a Likert scale, but the wording of the question&#xA;can evoke different comparative standards. For instance, Steffel &amp;amp; Oppenehimer (2009) report that people respond differently whether they think about intra- vs inter- personal happiness (i.e. &quot;How happy are you compared to others?&quot; vs &quot;How happy are you compared to how happy you would like to be?&quot;) When left to their own accord, they typically adopt an inter-personal comparison. However it is best to make this comparison explicit whenever possible to avoid these issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Alter, A. L., Oppenheimer, D. M., &amp;amp; Zemla, J. C. (2010). Missing the&#xA;  trees for the forest: A construal level account of the illusion of&#xA;  explanatory depth. Journal of personality and social psychology,&#xA;  99(3), 436. &lt;a href=&quot;http://w4.stern.nyu.edu/newsroom/docs/missingthetreesfortheforest.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dittrich, R., Francis, B., Hatzinger, R., &amp;amp; Katzenbeisser, W. (2007).&#xA;  A paired comparison approach for the analysis of sets of Likert-scale&#xA;  responses. Statistical Modelling, 7(1), 3-28. &lt;a href=&quot;http://epub.wu.ac.at/654/1/document.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Olson, J. M., Goffin, R. D., &amp;amp; Haynes, G. A. (2007). Relative versus&#xA;  absolute measures of explicit attitudes: Implications for predicting&#xA;  diverse attitude-relevant criteria. Journal of Personality and Social&#xA;  Psychology; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(6), 907.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Steffel, M., &amp;amp; Oppenheimer, D. M. (2009). Happy by what standard? The&#xA;  role of interpersonal and intrapersonal comparisons in ratings of&#xA;  happiness. Social indicators research, 92(1), 69-79.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-24T01:49:58.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1926" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2051" CreationDate="2012-11-24T21:45:31.267" Score="11" ViewCount="3341" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been interested in this question for a few years, sorry if this is not the right place to ask it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I've been driving around the US for the last few years, I noticed that some community parking lots &quot;lack color&quot; - the vehicles can be defined as colorless - they are white, black, various shades of gray or beige. Yet I've seen several new car catalogs and see that most cars come in several colors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was surprised to see this &quot;lack of color&quot; again and again, so I googled it, and found that the trend is not just in America, but worldwide: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gNVvb.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.autoblog.com/2009/12/01/americans-like-white-the-world-likes-silver-in-new-color-popula/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2009 Top 10 world car colors&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is interesting, because &lt;strong&gt;I've never ever heard of white, silver or black being called people's favorite color&lt;/strong&gt;. Most search results point to &quot;blue&quot; being the favorite color (at least in the United States) for English search results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This begs the question: &lt;strong&gt;Why do people go for boring/conservate exterior car colors, like white or silver when buying a new car, instead of choosing their favorite color?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are my wild guesses, and it would be great to debunk them:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this due to conformity, resale value, or an attempt to stand out&#xA;less on a highway?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this because a car is big enough to be seen with rods in the eye?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or do people see their cars as just another &quot;appliance&quot;, like a&#xA;toaster, microwave or a fridge, and pick a color similar to what they&#xA;see in their kitchen?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I appreciate your input!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS. This article is especially interesting, because it predicts &lt;strong&gt;orange/brown becoming the &quot;new color&quot; of expensive cars&lt;/strong&gt;, while most color psychology results I've seen list people naming &lt;strong&gt;orange as &quot;cheap&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; color, and advise to avoid it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nbcnews.com/business/americas-favorite-car-colors-2012-are-boring-1C6415814&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;America's favorite car colors for 2012 are ... boring&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2012-11-24T22:23:39.380" LastActivityDate="2018-03-31T22:29:39.480" Title="Why people choose &quot;boring&quot; colors for new cars?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1927" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-25T03:10:54.540" Score="3" ViewCount="2013" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am conducting research in creating an AI with high IQ.&#xA;I am interested in the tests &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.generiq.net/LS36/ls36test.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Logima Strictica 36 Test&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.generiq.net/LS24/ls24test.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Logicaus Strictimanus 24&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.generiq.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Further links are here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the logic of these test items?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What reasoning processes underly these test items?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2423" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-26T11:48:13.513" LastActivityDate="2012-12-04T05:47:30.297" Title="What reasoning processes underlie the Logima Strictica 36 and Logicaus Strictimanus 24?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-05-02T04:39:37.193" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1931" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3303" CreationDate="2012-11-26T11:28:40.860" Score="12" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some polls involve a question where the existing votes received for each response option are displayed. I have heard that on such polls the existing votes influence the answers provided by subsequent respondents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it true that the displayed results influence voting behaviour by subsequent respondents?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does it influence the respondents?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How strong does it influence the respondents?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do smart respondents resist this influence?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2430" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-11-26T13:40:29.797" LastActivityDate="2013-03-17T20:26:10.940" Title="How does displaying existing votes to a poll influence subsequent voting behaviour?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1932" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1940" CreationDate="2012-11-26T12:21:35.083" Score="11" ViewCount="280" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Yesterday I was shocked when a friend of mine told me that he can see &lt;strong&gt;only&lt;/strong&gt; &quot;completely black darkness&quot; &lt;strong&gt;when he closes he eyes&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;When I close my eyes, I can see some images or &quot;movies&quot; of what I'm thinking of just now. I don't see the real world. I can &quot;imagine&quot; anything I would like, e.g., a car crash or a sunshine or someone who I know or who I do not.  I also can control them in any way: change colors, action, everything. I was sure that anybody on Earth can do it.&#xA;Indeed, when I asked him if he could &quot;see&quot; even a simple figure, e.g., a circle - he couldn't. He said he could not see anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is this &quot;phenomenon&quot; called where a person cannot mentally visualise images when they close their eyes? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there many people who can't see anything with closed eyes? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2431" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-26T23:48:32.123" LastActivityDate="2016-01-17T14:19:05.143" Title="To what extent do individuals vary in their ability to mentally visualise?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1934" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-26T14:28:23.320" Score="10" ViewCount="351" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do we become bored of songs, films, stories, jokes, food after being exposed to them or experiencing them multiple times?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is it when our cortex becomes adequate at predicting the outcomes of a song, film, joke it seems to be less enjoyable, is this the case? And if so what is the neuroscience behind this phenomena that stops our pleasure center being activated? I get the evolutionary aspect of why this maybe the case but I wanted more detail on the neuroscience side.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2425" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-11-28T16:33:09.890" LastActivityDate="2013-07-10T11:12:38.237" Title="Why do we become bored of stimuli after multiple exposures to it?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1935" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1938" CreationDate="2012-11-26T19:38:15.640" Score="5" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need some audio files for an experiment. In this experiment, numbers will be played to the subjects via headphones, so I need sound files with spoken numbers. Actually, a single file with a sequence of numbers is fine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The goal is to produce a similar experiment as the one by Neil W. Mulligan (The Role of Attention During Encoding in Implicit and Explicit Memory). In this experiment, the material from the test set developed by Blaxton (1989) were used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any standardized database for this kind of things? I know there are standardized face databases, but I am not sure about sound files and googling did not help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that the subjects will be from Germany, so I need the numbers in German.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2433" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-27T00:52:17.607" LastActivityDate="2012-12-20T05:30:26.190" Title="Source for standardized audio files for an experiment in German" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1936" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-26T22:22:37.897" Score="1" ViewCount="223" Body="&lt;p&gt;I noticed dice and dominos both use the same convention for dot placement. Is there a reason for this? Is there any research on how to layout dots so that they are most readable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-11-27T04:00:03.303" LastActivityDate="2012-11-27T05:49:18.067" Title="Are dice and domino dot arrangement conventions related to readability?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1937" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1936" CreationDate="2012-11-27T05:49:18.067" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;These dots are known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pips&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pips&lt;/a&gt;. Pip placement tends to follow a convention, but this placement may vary by region, as you can see by this comparison between Western and Asian dice (from wikipedia):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6xJ40.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect this arrangement has nothing to do with cognitive science or usability, but is simply a convention. However, you may note that on the Western-style dice, pips are arranged so as to maximize the distance between any two pips while maintaining symmetry-- this should aid in quick recognition regardless of how the dice are rotated when they land.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2012-11-27T05:49:18.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1938" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1935" CreationDate="2012-11-27T07:43:43.603" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Try this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;http://translate.google.com/translate_tts?tl=de&amp;amp;q=&quot;1&quot;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;http://translate.google.com/translate_tts?tl=de&amp;amp;q=&quot;11;27;39;81;32;53&quot;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the moment, I can't test if it pronounces the full numbers right, but I hope it will work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the pronunciation of higher numbers are better if you write them like this: &lt;em&gt;NineHundredSixtySix&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2430" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-12-20T05:30:26.190" LastActivityDate="2012-12-20T05:30:26.190" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1939" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="629" CreationDate="2012-11-27T10:08:59.740" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;First of all, I agree that socialization and culture are most certainly the main reasons why today most famous inventors are male.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are looking for sex differences that may explain further variance, studies have found that the variance in IQ (&lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt;) among males is greater than among females:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some studies have identified the degree of IQ variance as a difference between males and females. Males tend to show higher variance on scores, though this may differ between countries. A 2005 study by Ian Deary, Paul Irwing, Geoff Der, and Timothy Bates, focusing on the ASVAB showed a significantly higher variance in male scores. The study also found a very small (d' ≈ 0.07, less than 7%, of a standard deviation) average male advantage in g. A 2006 study by Rosalind Arden and Robert Plomin focused on children aged 2, 3, 4, 7, 9 and 10 and stated that there was greater variance &quot;among boys at every age except age two despite the girls’ mean advantage from ages two to seven. Girls are significantly over-represented, as measured by chi-square tests, at the high tail and boys at the low tail at ages 2, 3 and 4. By age 10 the boys have a higher mean, greater variance and are over-represented in the high tail.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_and_psychology#IQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; for references)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="696" LastActivityDate="2012-11-27T10:08:59.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1940" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1932" CreationDate="2012-11-27T19:43:54.887" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: there appears to be a whole range of ability at the task of mental visualization. Based on what I have found on the Web, your own level of ability is fairly unusual. Your friend's level of ability, by contrast, seems to be fairly common. Sources I found on this were fairly sparse, though, and my conclusions should not be relied on too heavily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed-eye_hallucination&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on &quot;Closed-eye hallucination&quot;&lt;/a&gt; seems to have some problems, but is helpful on this question. It &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed-eye_hallucination#Levels_of_CEV_perception&quot;&gt;describes five distinct levels of &quot;Closed-eye visualization.&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Levels 1 and 2 correspond to very little visual information.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Level 3 is &quot;patterns, motion, and color.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Level 4, &quot;objects and things,&quot; appears to correspond to your experience.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Level 5 describes impressions not immediately distinguishable from reality.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Level 1 and 2 are very common, and often happen every day. It is still&#xA;  normal to experience level 3, and even level 4, but only a small&#xA;  percentage of the population do this without psychedelic drugs,&#xA;  meditation or extensive visualization training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia also links an old paper in Psychological Review that studied variations in the ability to willfully shape closed-eye perception, describing what seems to be a wide distribution of ability:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of the sixteen persons experimenting with themselves, four only&#xA;  reported no success; nine had a partial success which seemed to&#xA;  increase with practice and which they considered undoubtedly dependent&#xA;  directly upon volition; and with the remaining three the success was&#xA;  marked and really phenomenal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I seem to remember that there was an early debate in psychology about whether it was possible to mentally visualize images. Some scholars insisted that it was, others were adamant that it wasn't. Today we can dissolve the debate because we know it is possible for some but not for others. Unfortunately, I can't find a source for this story online.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also an old debate in philosophy over the role mental imagery plays in cognition. For some early thinkers, an &quot;idea&quot; was a visual mental image; other philosophers questioned whether actual images were so important. For an overview of the debate you can consult &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-imagery/&quot;&gt;the topic &quot;Mental Imagery&quot; in Stanford's Encyclopedia of Philosophy&lt;/a&gt;. The mental imagery debate is not really the same thing as what you're asking about, but participants sometimes seemed to be debating whether it was even possible to &quot;see&quot; mental images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2436" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-11-27T21:02:33.450" LastActivityDate="2012-11-27T21:02:33.450" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1941" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-28T10:41:14.807" Score="3" ViewCount="363" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm slightly confused and was hoping you guys could correct me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In classic conditioning as with Pavlov's dogs if we ring a bell just before a dog is given food, the bell will give the same response for the dog as the food alone would have, such as an excess of saliva. On a cellular level when two cells fire at a similar time one can cause the other cell to fire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I don't understand is why this doesn't happen in cases of habituation. So we already have the connection fattening foods taste good and when we eat a burger it should strengthen the connection between this is a fattening food, you like fattening foods you like this burger, but this doesn't happen if we had burgers everyday we get bored of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So guys where am I going wrong here? One a cellular level whats going on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2425" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2012-11-29T16:43:00.870" LastActivityDate="2012-11-29T16:43:00.870" Title="Why does it seems in similar cases sometimes classic conditioning happens and in others habituation?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1944" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-28T21:50:18.133" Score="11" ViewCount="481" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine you mastered lucid dreaming, so you have a lucid dream every night.&#xA;You might want to use this phase to do creative work or problem solving. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would this have a negative influence on the recuperative effect of sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T17:30:00.870" LastActivityDate="2019-06-17T08:56:15.443" Title="Can lucid dreaming detract from the recuperative effect of REM sleep?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1945" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1941" CreationDate="2012-11-29T16:42:35.597" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on Habituation&lt;/a&gt; explains it fairly well:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The habituation process is a form of adaptive behavior (or neuroplasticity) that is classified as nonassociative learning. Nonassociative learning is a change in a response to a stimulus that does not involve associating the presented stimulus with another stimulus or event such as reward or punishment.[4] (Examples of associative learning include classical conditioning and operant conditioning). Habituation is the decrease of a response to a repeated eliciting stimulus that is not due to sensory adaption or motor fatigue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Classical Conditioning strengthens associations and elicits a response because the stimulus is associated with something. The bell means food, pay attention to it. Habituation happens when there's no association; why keep getting worked up by the church bells ringing when you know it doesn't mean anything important (as opposed to a tornado siren).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To generalize &quot;classical conditioning&quot; further into just &quot;associative learning&quot;, they're two sides of the same coin; if something is important, connections in your mind strengthen; you remember and a response is illicited. If something isn't important, you stop caring about it and might fail to notice the stimulus at all. This is why excessive fire drills (and worse, false alarms) can be a bad thing; many college students end up being habituated against fire alarms rather than being classically conditioned to know &quot;loud noise&quot; -&gt; &quot;get the heck out&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-11-29T16:42:35.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1946" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-30T07:09:41.103" Score="22" ViewCount="12539" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am asking a question regarding parallel processing as done by billions of Neurons inside our brain and parallel processing done by our computers in a cluster for example or even on a Graphics processor having 500 processing cores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently we have seen great success in applying computers to solve complex problems applying parallel processing, such as in the field of scientific simulations, modeling, video/image processing etc.  Also due to limitations on semiconductor devices, chip makers are now forced to develop multi-core CPUs. This encourages and motivates software developers to apply parallel programming to gain the required performance, exploiting all the processing cores inside the CPU. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While people are encouraging to solve problems using parallel programming on the computers, at the same time generally discouraging to do parallel processing inside the brain. Expert say that we must concentrate in one dimension to get best results. Why can't human brains be used to do massive parallel processing in the same way computers are doing today?&#xA;The brain is having billions of computational units called Neurons, and thus it provides an opportunity to do processing at both coarser level and at finer level. &#xA;Why can't we use our brain to do certain jobs in parallel in the same way as computers, for example, while I am writing this question using my right hand, why cant I solve a problem in geometry at the same time, using my left hand? Using much less powerful computers having just two processing cores (vs billions in brain) I can do these two jobs of writing and solving geometry problem, in parallel by launching two separate threads. Why it is so?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="909" LastEditorUserId="909" LastEditDate="2012-11-30T15:07:01.987" LastActivityDate="2014-12-18T08:15:38.307" Title="Difference between parallel processing done by human brain and by computers" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="7" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1947" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1946" CreationDate="2012-11-30T07:43:39.653" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you are beginning to push at the limits of human brain versus computer metaphor.(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/LeakyAbstractions.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mildly related link here&lt;/a&gt;) I'll list the objections as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;While neurons firing can be translated/compared to 0 or 1 states, am&#xA;not convinced it is a valid equivalence. (i.e: simulating 100&#xA;billion neurons on a computer would still not be able to match a&#xA;human brain). My suspicions are while we have gone through a very&#xA;accelerated evolution in building and controlling the  performance&#xA;of transistors, evolution hasn't progressed to that stage in terms&#xA;of brain development. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Our neuronal cells do exhibit variations(range of electrical&#xA;activity, not just spikes and flats) and in some sense you can call&#xA;procedural learnt tasks to be parallel processing. i.e: you can&#xA;speak and drive to some extent etc..Not to mention the Autonomic nervous system and it's functionalities like  breathing, heart beat etc..&lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1262103&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here's&lt;/a&gt; the paper i was referring to. My point being this can be considered as parallel&#xA;processing.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Another ignored factor is the resolution at which we can control/program processors to compute and co-ordinate with each other on a single problem. Parallel processing is hardly a solved problem in the programming world. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Yet another factor that is ignored is that if you do zoom down on the computers to the level of capacitors, they are not all binary and have some analog activities too.&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mikeash.com/pyblog/friday-qa-2013-10-11-why-registers-are-fast-and-ram-is-slow.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This article&lt;/a&gt; mentions it, though it goes on to make a different point. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Another relevant point is that there are algorithms that cannot be sped up by using parallel computing. For ex: iterative algorithms like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_method&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Newton's method&lt;/a&gt;, in these cases the next computation depends on the immediately preceding computation and so has to wait till the previous computation is done.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to summarize, our brains do some forms of parallel processing already.It may just be that the jobs of writing and solving geometry problem have a set of processes too much in common that they cannot be done parallel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="73" LastEditorUserId="73" LastEditDate="2013-10-14T05:13:41.330" LastActivityDate="2013-10-14T05:13:41.330" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1948" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-11-30T15:26:02.463" Score="1" ViewCount="375" Body="&lt;p&gt;I tried thinking about an apple and simultaneously an orange. (I was thinking about its appearance and taste). Despite my best efforts I was not able to do parallel processing to think about the apple and orange at the same time. What I was doing was concurrent processing, thinking about Apple and orange in time division multiplexing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I noticed that my brain (which is also responsible for thinking) was indeed able to manage my two hands simultaneously, and was able to help me understand sounds comings from multiple sources, so it was helping me to see many things at the same time, in parallel, not concurrently. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have asked a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1946/difference-between-parallel-processing-done-by-human-brain-and-by-computers#comment4799_1946&quot;&gt;similar question here&lt;/a&gt; which compares processing by the brain with parallel processing by computers.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How exactly we explain these differences of operation by brain in dealing with sensory data (for example touch which can be felt in parallel), and thinking or visualization?        &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="909" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2012-12-20T05:36:04.043" Title="How does the brain process concurrent visual or sensory data?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1949" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1952" CreationDate="2012-11-30T17:41:23.963" Score="13" ViewCount="619" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm trying to understand how the idea of what a thing is originates in humans.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in computer science, it is possible to know what an object is and what it does, by examining its &quot;parent/ancestor&quot; objects with concepts of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance_%28computer_science%29&quot;&gt;inheritance&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In object-oriented programming (OOP), inheritance is a way to reuse&#xA;  code of existing objects, or to &lt;strong&gt;establish a subtype from an existing&#xA;  object&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_in_object-oriented_programming&quot;&gt;polymorphism&lt;/a&gt;, where objects may share similar function:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Subtype polymorphism, often referred to as simply polymorphism in the&#xA;  context of object-oriented programming, is the ability to create a&#xA;  variable, a function, or &lt;strong&gt;an object that has more than one form&lt;/strong&gt;. In&#xA;  principle, polymorphism can arise in other computing contexts and&#xA;  shares important similarities with the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneracy_%28biology%29&quot;&gt;degeneracy&lt;/a&gt; in&#xA;  biology&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What makes me interested in this is that human children do not learn all words at once - there's a slow, but steady exposure to new stimuli, which are quantified, remembered and become available as concepts and words. The exact order of exposure is unknown, but if I remember correctly, most people know about 20000 words, and use about 6000 in daily interactions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a child has never seen a potato. A child sees a potato for the first time.  A child has neither an idea nor a word for a potato. Now the child's brain has to create an idea of what a potato is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The question&lt;/strong&gt;: When a child is exposed to a new stimuli, as in the example above, does the child's brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;create a brand new representation of an object&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;or does a person's brain modify and re-purpose the &quot;closest matching&quot;&#xA;idea and add extra attributes to it? (a potato looks like a brown rock)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, has there been any research that found evidence for case 2: a &lt;strong&gt;&quot;common ancestor&quot; for ideas and objects within a person's mind?&lt;/strong&gt; (if a person forgets &quot;rock&quot;, then the person also forgets &quot;potato&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know where to begin a search for the answer. Are there some keywords that I can use? Maybe scholarly articles on cases of unusually high working memory capacity for related objects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T00:49:43.667" LastActivityDate="2014-02-16T21:39:12.597" Title="How does the brain learn what something is for the first time?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1951" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-01T08:37:03.700" Score="6" ViewCount="248" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am asking as I have this condition and I am hoping to gather more data about my particular demographic, in order to give me a better idea as to what they are doing, as well to lead me to how those of us with this condition fare later in life. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the long-term prognosis for schizoaffective disorder?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2454" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-02T07:30:08.670" LastActivityDate="2019-05-28T02:29:42.203" Title="What is the longer term prognosis for women in their early 20's with Schizoaffective disorder?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1952" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1949" CreationDate="2012-12-01T19:12:16.453" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to current models of human concept learning, the answer to your question is &lt;strong&gt;both&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Think of a simplified domain in which every object consists of only several features, and therefore can be visualized as a point in some multidimensional feature space. For example, the features that define objects might be its size, shape, color, and weight. Furthermore imagine that objects tend to be clustered throughout this space according to what category they belong to, because members of the same category are generated by the same natural process. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So based on current models, a novel stimulus is compared to existing concepts and is either placed into the concept (cluster) that it's closest to, or if it's insufficiently close to any existing concept, then a new concept will be created. This is the basic idea of current Bayesian theories such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://csjarchive.cogsci.rpi.edu/Proceedings/2006/docs/p726.pdf&quot;&gt;Rational Model&lt;/a&gt;, which treats human category learning as a problem of probability density estimation, and its contenders such as  &lt;a href=&quot;http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/group/LoveLAB/love/classes/cogsci/love2.pdf&quot;&gt;SUSTAIN&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://videolectures.net/nips2010_tenenbaum_hgm/&quot;&gt;Here's a video lecture by Josh Tenenbaum&lt;/a&gt;, a leading researcher in both machine learning and cognitive science, in which he gives an excellent introduction to a number of these issues and many more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2455" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-12-04T12:50:36.643" LastActivityDate="2012-12-04T12:50:36.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1953" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19" CreationDate="2012-12-02T00:19:00.607" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are looking for a 'brain model of visual navigation', you just have to google it! You will find a whole Ph.D. thesis that exactly covers all what you are asking for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning Objects Places and Relation in a Brain Model of Visual Navigation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books/about/Learning_Objects_Places_and_Relations_in.html?id=yJo2twAACAAJ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://books.google.com/books/about/Learning_Objects_Places_and_Relations_in.html?id=yJo2twAACAAJ&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That should help in your research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2456" LastActivityDate="2012-12-02T00:19:00.607" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1954" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="651" CreationDate="2012-12-02T07:38:56.450" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, according to MIT scientist Sebastian Seung:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some victims of drowning in icy water have been resuscitated after&#xA;  being effectively dead for tens of minutes. Even though their hearts&#xA;  had stopped pumping blood, the icy cold prevented permanent brain&#xA;  damage. The lucky ones recovered with little or no memory loss,&#xA;  despite the complete inactivity of their neurons while their brains&#xA;  were chilled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Seung, S. (2012) Connectome: How the Brain's Wiring Makes Us Who We Are. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2012-12-02T07:38:56.450" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1956" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1906" CreationDate="2012-12-03T04:01:06.977" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;One similar idea is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.moillusions.com/2009/10/blue-diamonds-optical-illusion.html&quot;&gt;Blue Diamonds Optical Illusion&lt;/a&gt;, is a series of identical things&#xA;that appear to be a series of darker and darker and darker things, indefinitely.&#xA;It shows that the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornsweet_illusion&quot;&gt;Cornsweet illusion&lt;/a&gt; can be repeated over and over again.&#xA;This reminds me of the way the Shepard tone plays the same thing over and over again,&#xA;but the pitch seems to get higher and higher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect a similar approach might be able to construct an illusion that appears to be &quot;always getting bluer&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2463" LastActivityDate="2012-12-03T04:01:06.977" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1958" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-03T07:20:29.163" Score="3" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;linguistic relativity&lt;/a&gt; and it struck me that there could also be differences in multilingual individuals and mono/bi-lingual individuals on how they derive/reason/create structure out of the environment (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality#Theories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;causality models&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, my question can be split as : &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there standard/widely accepted experiments have been done to test methods used by individuals to infer cause and effect?&lt;/strong&gt; Couple&#xA;of  examples for what i have in mind is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1914185?uid=3738256&amp;amp;uid=2&amp;amp;uid=4&amp;amp;sid=21101477174411&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027796007159&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is there consensus on correlation between these experiments and indication of causal models used?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If so, have there been studies of those experiments across monolingual, bilingual and multilingual individuals?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="73" LastEditorUserId="73" LastEditDate="2015-03-29T16:02:57.393" LastActivityDate="2015-03-29T16:02:57.393" Title="Causal reasoning(implicit models?) vs grammar of native language" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2015-05-02T16:39:55.610" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1959" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1972" CreationDate="2012-12-03T16:58:29.480" Score="3" ViewCount="4762" Body="&lt;p&gt;While there is a lot of general discussion and articles on the web that strobe lights cause epileptic seizures - I am looking for more specific data. Perhaps scientific references, papers or articles that list what exactly changes in the brain, when exposed to strobe lights. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, how does it alter consciousness, what happens to the frequency of the brain after exposure, what part of the brain does most of the change happen in and if there are ways to revers the effects on the brain, etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any point in the right direction is greatly appreciated,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This article just came out, looks like this issue will be getting more attention in the near future:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pcmag.com/slideshow/story/306026/the-hobbit-and-other-movies-that-will-make-you-sick-and-may#disqus_thread&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.pcmag.com/slideshow/story/306026/the-hobbit-and-other-movies-that-will-make-you-sick-and-may#disqus_thread&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2012-12-15T00:08:52.983" LastActivityDate="2017-05-17T22:55:04.253" Title="Scientific findings of strobe lights and the brain" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1960" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1906" CreationDate="2012-12-03T19:40:37.967" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://illusionoftheyear.com/2006/infinite-regress-illusion/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Peter Tse's Infinite Regress Illusion&lt;/a&gt; creates the illusion of a stimuli that is continually moving away from a target.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-12-04T18:50:14.770" LastActivityDate="2012-12-04T18:50:14.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1961" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-03T22:02:13.840" Score="5" ViewCount="253" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some studies point to existence of cognitive deficits in OCD (it seems that these deficits are not comorbid but have the same neurological roots as OCD). Unfortunately I found no studies with positive effects of medication (SSRI etc.) on cognitive deficits/impairment in OCD patients. I found only one study about cognitive-behavioral therapy and improvement of cognitive deficits symptoms in OCD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that indicates medication used to treat OCD (such as SSRIs) can mitigate these cognitive deficits?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Related articles:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.steveseay.com/ocd-cognitive-deficits-obsessive-compulsive-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.steveseay.com/ocd-cognitive-deficits-obsessive-compulsive-disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fenger, M. M., Gade, A., Adams, K. H., Hansen, E. S., Bolwig, T. G., &amp;amp;&#xA;  Knudsen, G. M. (2005). Cognitive deficits in obsessive-compulsive&#xA;  disorder on tests of frontal lobe functions. Nordic journal of&#xA;  psychiatry, 59(1), 39-44.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.psy.ku.dk/Anders_Gade/pdf/2005Fenger%20OCD.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Purcell, R., Maruff, P., Kyrios, M., &amp;amp; Pantelis, C. (1998).&#xA;  Neuropsychological deficits in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a&#xA;  comparison with unipolar depression, panic disorder, and normal&#xA;  controls. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(5), 415.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=203866&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;LINK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="401" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-06T04:26:20.407" LastActivityDate="2013-01-05T13:33:13.737" Title="Does medication to treat Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder reduce associated cognitive deficits?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1962" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1990" CreationDate="2012-12-03T22:37:33.313" Score="3" ViewCount="307" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it biologically possible to build a &quot;perfect&quot; virtual reality, in which the person in that world cannot distinguish it from the real world? (e.g. as in the movie &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0133093/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Matrix&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my knowledge (which is very limited), we perceive everything as a result of electrical activity within nerves. If we were able to encode/decode the patterns of the electrical activity and understand how the brain communicates with and intercepts all the nerves between the brain and the other parts of the body, would this mean that a perfect virtual reality is possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2467" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-12-10T12:45:42.500" LastActivityDate="2012-12-10T12:45:42.500" Title="Possibility of perfect virtual reality" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2012-12-10T12:46:19.783" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1963" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1964" CreationDate="2012-12-04T00:57:46.750" Score="7" ViewCount="243" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do we &quot;remember&quot; events which did not take place, or future events? I'm using remember as a way of describing the experience of recalling a future scenario. For instance, when you were little say your mom promised you a soda at the grocery store, but then didn't give you one. You might have created, imagined, a scenario where this did happen, memorized it as such, and then later when you didn't get the soda you remembered the other, expected, imagined. It's not the expectation I'm focusing on, but the act of creating, and remembering something that never happened, and is expected in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read a few articles, mostly philosophical, about this sort of thing, and what I've gotten from that is we know about the future because we have a memory of the past. So in a way this is a question about memory itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't understand why we are able to remember events which did not happen, like events in the future. What causes the brain to be able to do this? Do we know yet, or is there research on-going? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2454" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-12-21T23:51:29.153" LastActivityDate="2012-12-22T00:03:53.987" Title="What causes people to remember events which did not take place?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1964" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1963" CreationDate="2012-12-04T05:36:28.030" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some misinformation out there put forth by Brooks Agnew about &quot;remembering the future&quot;.  This is the same guy who advocates a &quot;hollow earth&quot; theory.  It's not grounded in science, I'm afraid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We predict and imagine the future.  Often our predictions aren't even conscious (reflexes, for instance, can be programmed in the lower brain; we're often not conscious of our reflexes until right after they've done their job).  But reflexes are a product of the past, either genetically, or through experience (depending on the reflex).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, we generally consider it one of the arrows of time that humans remember the past and not the future; with Newtonian physics, deterministic physics implied events were completely invertible (reversible in time) while remaining valid.  This is one of the interesting features of classical physics.  There are now, many physically observable arrows of time, though: entropy, expansion of universe, quantum arrow (wave function collapse).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;just a wiki article to get you started, &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_of_time&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_of_time&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-12-04T05:36:28.030" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1965" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1948" CreationDate="2012-12-04T06:04:37.317" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The tongue is made up of a surface area of about five different types of taste receptor.  They are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;salt&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sour&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;bitter&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sweet&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;unami&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These inputs are handled by your gustatory system which can certainly parallel process them.  You may know or have heard of combinations of them.  Sweet n Sour, Sweet and Salty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The facial nerve (VII) carries taste sensations from the anterior two&#xA;  thirds of the tongue, the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) carries taste&#xA;  sensations from the posterior one third of the tongue while a branch&#xA;  of the vagus nerve (X) carries some taste sensations from the back of&#xA;  the oral cavity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the wiki on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory_system#Transmission_to_brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;gustatory system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's more likely that you've just never taste apple and orange at the same time, so you don't have the experience to remember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But we do have a semantic memory that's specifically focused towards object identification.  This means we put things in little boxes.  You have a box for oranges and a box for apples.  There are neurons in your temporal lobe that Kristoph Koch could find that fire only when you see an apple or even the word apple[1].  There is no such thing as an orpple, so you've never required a box for it.  I don't think imagining it simultaneously is really beyond your imagination though if you worked at it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(this article is actually somewhat similar idea, competition between two objects in the temporal lobe: here it's pictures of two people)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.klab.caltech.edu/news/Cerf-et-al-10.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.klab.caltech.edu/news/Cerf-et-al-10.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-12-04T06:04:37.317" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1966" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-05T16:58:40.773" Score="3" ViewCount="1104" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any open source online survey software that enable researchers to use experience-sampling methods, e.g. online diaries (where people answer similar survey questions repeatedly and are notified and reminded)? Free, but not open source, would also be interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please only post solutions, that you have actually used for experience-sampling research, not ones that &quot;might be easily adapted&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="118" LastEditorUserId="118" LastEditDate="2012-12-10T16:01:27.437" LastActivityDate="2014-12-19T09:52:23.137" Title="Free online survey and diary software for conducting experience sampling studies" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1967" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-05T17:39:54.287" Score="4" ViewCount="1557" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing paper about climate change and its economic impacts on society.  Is there a generally accepted technical term for &quot;fear of the unknown&quot; in psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2474" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-06T00:31:23.340" LastActivityDate="2019-04-13T08:31:22.247" Title="Is there a technical term for &quot;fear of the unknown&quot;?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1968" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1967" CreationDate="2012-12-05T19:12:33.030" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The closest formal term I'm aware of is &lt;strong&gt;Xenophobia&lt;/strong&gt; but that term has been primarily used to describe a fear or dislike of foreign people, so I wouldn't use it in any context other than that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would simply use the explicit phrase &lt;strong&gt;fear of the unknown&lt;/strong&gt;; general fears are often referred to in an explicit manner like that. &quot;Fear of the unknown&quot; written out as such is &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22fear%20of%20the%20unknown%22%20psychology&quot;&gt;commonly used in articles&lt;/a&gt; as are &quot;fear of death&quot; etc. While phrases like &quot;arachnophobia&quot; are common in popular use, phobias are really only &lt;em&gt;irrational and extreme&lt;/em&gt; fears; as such an X-phobia term is often inappropriate when not discussing irrational, specific fears on an individual basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2012-12-05T19:12:33.030" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1969" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-05T19:13:32.987" Score="4" ViewCount="258" Body="&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/research/finance_shiv_invesmtdecisions.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this study&lt;/a&gt; shows, psychopaths are much more willing to take advantage of expected gains despite recent losses as opposed to normal people who frequently stop after a series of losses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any follow up to this to observe whether psychopaths also take the Kelly Criterion into account?  The participation rate was still only 84% for the psychopath group.  I didn't see any data that shows whether those that stopped participating were ones whose amount of money in immediate control declined to nothing or near-nothing.  If those who lost stopped at some point relative to the amount of money in their immediate control instead of a bad run regardless of money in immediate control, it might indicate that psychopaths are acting more rational than normal because they quit when the Kelly Criterion is being violated, that they quit positive expected values when their &quot;risk of ruin&quot; is greater than ~0%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do psychopaths care about the so-called &quot;risk of ruin&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_criterion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kelly Criterion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lucent.com/bstj/vol35-1956/articles/bstj35-4-917.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The math behind the Kelly Criterion&lt;/a&gt; was actually originally developed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Larry_Kelly,_Jr.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;John L. Kelly, Jr.&lt;/a&gt; to maximize data transfer rates relative to risk of data loss due to noisy (error prone) lines.  Taking into account those two factors, the amount of data to transfer, the possible loss, and the possible success, choices of which lines to use at which times and amounts of data relative to noise can be quantitatively made to more or less maximize the total expected data transfer rate with an almost certain chance of no loss over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_O._Thorp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Edward O. Thorpe&lt;/a&gt;, the first to prove that blackjack can be beat by counting cards, discovered that the Kelly Criterion can be employed to maximize returns from card counting with an almost certain chance of no loss over time (now called the &quot;risk of ruin&quot;) when &quot;bankroll&quot; (total amount available for gambling), risk of a single or series of gambles, cost of the single/series of gambles, and payoff of the single/series of gambles are all taken into account.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A formula was also derived to give a risk of total loss, &quot;risk of ruin&quot;, from a collection of potential investment choices.  When the Kelly Criterion can be strictly adhered to, the risk of ruin is always ~0%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user2475" LastEditorDisplayName="user2475" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T19:31:32.623" LastActivityDate="2017-05-12T17:52:47.580" Title="Kelly Criterion Observed to Be Adhered by Psychopaths?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1970" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1961" CreationDate="2012-12-06T01:29:07.220" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Look up &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_M._Schwartz&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jeffery Schwartz&lt;/a&gt;. He has done decades worth of scientific studies with hundreds of OCD patients. In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youarenotyourbrain.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;his book &quot;You Are Not Your Brain&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (worth a read) he mentions this bad brain wiring or cognitive deficits are the culprit behind the &quot;Deceptive Brain Messages (OCD).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His studies show that self directed neuro-plasticity make the most corrections in brain wiring - and that the medicine can be an aid in the self directed steps. These self directed steps rely on the mind to alter the physical brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2012-12-06T13:09:11.047" LastActivityDate="2012-12-06T13:09:11.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1971" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1998" CreationDate="2012-12-06T01:47:02.980" Score="17" ViewCount="476" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I recently heard the saying from a doctor: &quot;men are motivated to have sex when they &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;want to&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; feel good and women are motivated to have sex when they &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;already&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; feel good&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(In a side note, such a difference would help to explain why males might not understand female sexual motivation.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do any scientific studies support the claim that males have greater sexual motivation when they want to feel good (or are experiencing temporary lower subjective well-being) whereas females have greater sexual motivation when they already feel good ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, what is the reason for this difference?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2013-06-05T00:54:28.317" LastActivityDate="2013-06-05T00:54:28.317" Title="Does the relationship between positive mood and motivation for sex differ between males and females?" Tags="&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1972" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1959" CreationDate="2012-12-06T15:59:44.083" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The presentation of flickering lights usually leads to so-called steady-state visual evoked potentials, that is, oscillatory responses in the visual cortex with the frequency of the stimulus as well as its harmonics. See for example: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Herrmann CS. (2001)&#xA;Human EEG responses to 1-100 Hz flicker: resonance phenomena in visual cortex and their potential correlation to cognitive phenomena.Exp Brain Res 137(3-4):346-53.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11355381&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pubmed&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of research concerning this phenomenon. For a list of papers, please see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=steady%20state%20visual%20evoked%20potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=steady%20state%20visual%20evoked%20potential&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-12-06T19:22:02.693" LastActivityDate="2012-12-06T19:22:02.693" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1974" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1976" CreationDate="2012-12-06T23:42:13.517" Score="7" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for references to studies that show which variables increase or decrease &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-awareness#A_modern_scientific_view&quot;&gt;self-awareness&lt;/a&gt; and to what degree. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;strong&gt;internal variables&lt;/strong&gt; could be level of a certain vitamin, brain chemical, oxygen level, form of spine, etc. and/or &lt;strong&gt;external variables&lt;/strong&gt; like emotional trauma, meditation, altitude, contact with water, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-12-07T22:33:37.700" LastActivityDate="2012-12-10T05:59:33.167" Title="What are the internal and external variables for varying levels of self-awareness?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1911" CreationDate="2012-12-07T01:01:11.137" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer your first question, I am fairly certain that those afflicted with this disorder, or more directly, a person who cannot tolerate a particular sound at a particular volume but react differently (find tolerable) to another sound even at the same volume, is definitely possible. For example, to provide a concrete example, let's assume an individual with SPD throws a tantrum when he hears a note out-of-tune, but can tolerate in-tune notes, regardless of volume. Some associate SPD with Autism Spectrum Disorders [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/mindinstitute/videos/video_autism.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] (even one of the symptoms in the DSM-IV-TR for Asperger Disorder [&lt;a href=&quot;http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/book.aspx?bookid=22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;] make note of sensory hypersensitivity and hyposensitivity). In the example I mentioned, I don't think one would use the term &amp;quot;phobia&amp;quot; to characterize the reactive behavior to the stimuli. And someone with auditory SPD might not be able to simplify tolerable versus intolerable noises based solely on volume. SPD is a matter of difficulty in processing information received through the senses [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spdfoundation.net/tenfacts.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;] - though difficulties may arouse anxiety, &amp;quot;phobia&amp;quot; is a pretty specific &lt;em&gt;irrational&lt;/em&gt; fear, not to be attributed to a difficulty in processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specific phobia(s) and SPD aren't necessarily mutually exclusive, but one way in which they can be differentiated is by one of the symptoms for Specific Phobia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;C. The person recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable. Note: In children, this feature may be absent. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/book.aspx?bookid=22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In SPD, what seems to be critical in response to stimuli is the idea of the &amp;quot;just-right&amp;quot; perception. In SPD, the reactive response to stimuli may not necessarily be indicative of a phobic response. For example, someone with SPD may absolutely hate being poked by others. But this person would not go out of his way to avoid being poked - dislike for tactile response purposes is different from a fear of pokes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/mindinstitute/videos/video_autism.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frith, U. How Cognitive Theories Can Help Us Explain Autism. Speech. UC Davis Mind Institute.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/book.aspx?bookid=22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-IV-TR® Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spdfoundation.net/tenfacts.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SPD Foundation - Ten Fundamental Facts About SPD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="48" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-12-07T01:01:11.137" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1976" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1974" CreationDate="2012-12-07T05:50:42.063" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is just a sketch of an answer&lt;/em&gt;.&#xA;It is important to clarify how we define &quot;self-awareness&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The self&lt;/strong&gt;: There is a huge social psychological literature on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;For a scientific review, see for example Ellemers et al (2002).&#xA;Even the concept of self-awareness is contentious in that it posits that there is a self to be discovered whereas I assume most researchers would acknowledge that the self is at least partially a social construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychological well-being:&lt;/strong&gt; A sense of self-awareness also relates to many other constructs such as having a sense of life purpose or meaning. For more information on that you could look at the psychological well-being literature. At the risk of self-promotion, I can point you to Grant et al (2009) where we reported some of Big 5 correlates of psychological well-being where for example we showed that self-reported purpose in life (i.e., a little bit like self-awareness)  correlated well with high extraversion (r=.33), high conscientiousness (r=.45) and low neuroticism (r = -.44).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-efficacy:&lt;/strong&gt; An alternative perspective would be to look at self-efficacy research. Such research often looks at the relationship between a person's predicted and actual performance. Such research often shows that specific performance feedback with practice is important in generating accurate self-beliefs about one's own competence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-other correlations&lt;/strong&gt;: I imagine also that there is literature that looks at self-other correlations for various characteristics. It would be interesting to see what predicts the size of self-other discrepancies in such domains as personality, and performance. Unfortunately, I don't have any particular references on hand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ellemers, N., Spears, R., &amp;amp; Doosje, B. (2002). Self and Social Identity*. Annual review of psychology, 53(1), 161-186. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135228&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grant, S., Langan-Fox, J., &amp;amp; Anglim, J. (2009). Big Five Traits as predictors of subjective and psychological well-being. Psychological Reports, 105, 201-231. &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/downloads/jeromyanglim/jeromy-anglim-publications/grant2009big.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-08T03:04:04.827" LastActivityDate="2012-12-08T03:04:04.827" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1977" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-07T06:08:04.707" Score="13" ViewCount="1047" Body="&lt;p&gt;In treating people with Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Which people &lt;strong&gt;can't be helped&lt;/strong&gt; by therapy?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How are some people &lt;em&gt;more treatable&lt;/em&gt; than others? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Additional Info&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the comments of a blog post analyzing male seducers, a psychotherapist explained the effect of narcissistic mothers on their sons. She said that some people have a &lt;strong&gt;greater capacity&lt;/strong&gt; for benefiting from therapy than others. Some people can't be helped by therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What makes a person unable to benefit from therapy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-12-07T22:35:59.790" LastActivityDate="2020-05-15T18:38:44.867" Title="Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Limitations" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1978" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1147" CreationDate="2012-12-07T07:18:14.070" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just had a project where I had to figure this out. I found that a good rule of thumb was the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$timeToRead = 1300 + (chars * 65);$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So that's an initial time of 1300ms to adjust to what you need to be reading and about 65ms per character including spaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2480" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-12-07T22:45:37.523" LastActivityDate="2012-12-07T22:45:37.523" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1979" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21107" CreationDate="2012-12-07T10:53:16.103" Score="5" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;Patients taking antipsychotic (neuroleptic) drugs often suffer from some kind of discomfort or tension. This can manifest as a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysphoria&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroleptic induced dysphoria&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akathisia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;akathisia&lt;/a&gt;, or some kind of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;anxiety&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a way these patients can overcome this unpleasant feeling with some kind of mind work, i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;meditation&lt;/a&gt; concentrating on breathing, visualization, watching coming thoughts or something else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there some research on this topic telling what kind of meditation could be helpful in relieving the discomfort?&#xA;Is it even good to work with mind under these chemicals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="554" LastEditorUserId="554" LastEditDate="2012-12-07T11:13:40.180" LastActivityDate="2018-12-09T22:01:15.250" Title="Meditation for patients with neuroleptic induced tension" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1980" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-07T13:12:11.370" Score="3" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;: I vaguely remember reading in a book (I think it may have been Nudge - Thaler and Sunstein) about the advantages of using graphics for visualising data, such as a smiley face, or traffic lights, to communicate a message in an easily interpreted, visual language. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To what extent do graphics such as smiley faces and traffic lights in visualisations facilitate ease of interpretation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the cause of this ease of interpretation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What research has studied this phenomena?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Initial thoughts:&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;I imagine that the ease of interpretation is due to these items being purely visual that we quickly recognise them, and they can make complicated, unfamiliar information (for instance health results) that much easier to comprehend. &#xA;Is that an accurate summary? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it's any further help I'm looking into this specifically for use in the communication of health results. So for example if you have a 20% risk of developing a disease, a good way to illustrate this could be 100 smiley faces - of which 20 are :( and 80 are :) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2483" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-08T02:49:34.847" LastActivityDate="2012-12-09T07:50:28.507" Title="How do graphic objects in data visualisation facilitate ease of interpretation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1980" CreationDate="2012-12-07T13:47:15.943" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a great question. I'm not a cognitive psychologist by training, but I can offer a usability perspective on this from a person who is a trained cognitive psychologist. Jakob Nielsen recommends using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.useit.com/papers/sun/icons.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;icons&lt;/a&gt; when users don't have to &lt;strong&gt;guess&lt;/strong&gt; what they &lt;em&gt;represent&lt;/em&gt;. If the icon is vague, there's no additional benefit to including an icon with your label. It might actually confuse people. People aren't going to understand the meaning of your icon as well as you probably assume. This is because you have an expert bias in choosing your icon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It doesn't sound like you're creating an interface. You say you'd like to visualize data using graphics like smiley faces. Emoticons (&lt;strong&gt;smiley faces&lt;/strong&gt;) are the one &lt;strong&gt;exception&lt;/strong&gt; to this icon rule. People &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/006097625X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;immediately recognize emotions and faces&lt;/a&gt;. Our brains are hardwired to turn anything into a face. Every car has a face and an emotion, for example. The first thing you recognize when you look at a picture subconsciously will be the expression on everybody's face. In eyetracking studies, the first thing people notice in pictures is faces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is getting really deep, but on the subject of smiley faces, the more simplified the face, the more we project ourselves into the character. The character can be drawn very realistically, and it looks like a photographic picture. In this case, you are an observer looking at the character. Or the character can be less detailed. In this case, you become the cartoon character. This is why cartoons are so universal and permeate our culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your representation of a face in your mind is like a cartoon. You don't see yourself wearing a photographic picture of your face. When you're smiling to someone, you see yourself with an upturned mouth. You see yourself wearing a very simplified smiley face. That's the abstract idea of your appearance in your mind. It's like looking at a bike. You don't see two wheels, a frame, and so on. In your mind, you see the abstract concept of &quot;bike.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more simplified the cartoon, the more we identify with it. This is demonstrated well in japanese comics. When the artist wants a character to seem otherly or distant from the reader, he draws them very detailed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if you want people to feel a certain way about your data, they will automatically empathize with the emotion of the cartoon characters you draw. Hope all this explanation answered your question and was relevant. ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Edward Tufte&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to dive deep into data visualization, buy any book by &lt;strong&gt;Edward Tufte&lt;/strong&gt;. Envisioning Information was awakening for me. The Quantitative Display of Information might be a better place for you to start. The graphics aren't as colorful and pretty, but it really gets into data visualization. Tufte's books are seminal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastEditorUserId="2407" LastEditDate="2012-12-07T13:53:01.610" LastActivityDate="2012-12-07T13:53:01.610" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1982" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-07T14:34:33.937" Score="3" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a game theory analysis or other research or modeling describing the commonly perceived phenomenon whereby the amount by which people underpay a gratuity seems to be proportional to the number of people at the table?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words is there term of art for this behavioral pattern just as we use the phrase &quot;Prisoner's Dilemma&quot; to describe the game theoretical mechanics of two parties who can collude (to their mutual benefit) with risk, or betray their colleague in an effort reduce or eliminate their own risk?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I would suggest that the mechanisms by which people exploit common resources and by which people fail to invest and maintain such resources (for example ecologically) are similar to this other group dynamic but I'm curious what research has been done on this).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2484" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-08T02:53:08.143" LastActivityDate="2012-12-08T02:53:08.143" Title="Stiffing the tip as groups get larger ... like the prisoner's dilemma but ...?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1983" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1982" CreationDate="2012-12-07T16:00:07.180" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Bystander Effect&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bystander_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bystander Effect&lt;/a&gt; could be your answer. The &lt;strong&gt;more people&lt;/strong&gt;, the &lt;strong&gt;less&lt;/strong&gt; personal &lt;strong&gt;responsibility&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person gets assaulted and mugged on a &lt;strong&gt;crowded street&lt;/strong&gt; in &lt;strong&gt;broad daylight&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;nobody calls&lt;/strong&gt; the cops. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Software bugs slow company productivity almost to a halt, &lt;strong&gt;many employees&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;nobody reports&lt;/strong&gt; the problem. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Tragedy of the Commons&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The tragedy of the commons&lt;/a&gt; has been studied from many perspectives. You can use that commons dilemma link as a jumping off point to hopefully happen across something relevant. But &lt;strong&gt;I would start by looking at&lt;/strong&gt; the psychology behind the &lt;strong&gt;bystander effect&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastEditorUserId="2407" LastEditDate="2012-12-07T16:16:50.587" LastActivityDate="2012-12-07T16:16:50.587" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1985" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-08T02:03:53.587" Score="6" ViewCount="249" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/research/finance_shiv_invesmtdecisions.shtml&quot;&gt;observed&lt;/a&gt; that psychopaths will accept positive expected values past some sort of notion of risk aversion by non-psychopaths.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any observations of psychopaths' responses to negative expected values?  The quoted study's only valid if it shows that psychopaths respond properly to expected losses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Shiv, B., Loewenstein, G., Bechara, A., Damasio, H., &amp;amp; Damasio, A. R.&#xA;  (2005). Investment behavior and the negative side of emotion.&#xA;  Psychological Science, 16(6), 435-439.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user2475" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-12-08T02:32:19.963" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T16:59:51.317" Title="Psychopaths' Response to Expected Losses?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1988" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1980" CreationDate="2012-12-09T07:50:28.507" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As you mentioned, data visualization and visual stimulation in general, trigger a primitive brain response, which results in an easier comprehension and engagement/rejection process - a process more trivial than sensing and comprehending symbols. Thus, numerical information such as percentages, distributions, and relativistic data in general, immediately get infused into the cognitive realm, provided the visual field is not excessively cluttered. Too much visual stimulus in a presentation results in a more laborious attempt at comprehension, and hence may lose favor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to non-numerical / non-quantitative data, visualizations serve as a promoter of cognitive engagement. Traffic lights to draw attention, smiley faces may be used to encourage the receiver, boxes and other demarcations to engrave specific items of information in memory, the list goes on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the effectiveness of the visual presentation largely depends on the creativity and imagination of the presenter to resonate with the target audience, in terms of the mood, awareness, humor (mood?), social values and other variables which maybe of interest, of the target audience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, if the visual field is excessively populated, the labor involved in the comprehension process may impede the effectiveness of the presentation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the ease at which visual information is processed also depends on how distinct the objects that are communicating information in the visual are.&#xA;In your example, smiley faces to depict percentages maybe less effective compared to, say a colored pie chart, or something to that effect, because smiley faces are not easy to distinguish by themselves - even if they are ordered into separate regions. And in the possible event of conveying grim news , grim graphics may not received in the highest of spirits :P. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cheers!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2488" LastActivityDate="2012-12-09T07:50:28.507" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1989" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-10T02:33:59.033" Score="7" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am aware of immersion methods as well as mnemonics such as the one Daniel Tammet mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.danieltammet.net/blue-day.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Born on a Blue Day&lt;/a&gt;. I read that Kim Peek's lack of corpus callosum enabled his brain to absorb information faster with his whole brain but that hindered other daily activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But my motivation was the folklore legends of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James_Sidis#Parents_and_upbringing_.281898.E2.80.931909.29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;William James Sidis&lt;/a&gt; who is supposed to have &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quantonics.com/The_Prodigy_Review.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;acquired a language in one day&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question thus is two-fold:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any medical conditions which allow one to learn a&#xA;language faster? For instance, consider John Travolta's character learning&#xA;Portuguese in a half-an hour car drive.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are some current theories in cognitive science that allow one to acquire a language faster? For instance, see the book &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.babelnomore.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Babel No More&lt;/a&gt;. At the end the author mentions a trick of using the whole body to learn a language as well as the accent.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, how would an artificial intelligence programmer view language learning? What sort of model would he attempt to create?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="227" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-07-15T15:25:42.750" LastActivityDate="2018-07-15T15:25:42.750" Title="Are there any cutting edge techniques that would enable one to acquire a foreign language at a relatively fast pace?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="1990" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1962" CreationDate="2012-12-10T06:21:57.723" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you look at the phenomenon of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucid_dreaming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;lucid dreaming&lt;/a&gt;, where people consciously explore their dreams, you will recognize that &lt;strong&gt;perfect virtual reality is possible&lt;/strong&gt; with the biology that is already in place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The lucid dreaming related phenomenon &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_awakening&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;called &quot;false awakening&quot;&lt;/a&gt; is another piece of evidence for perfect virtual reality. When a lucid dreamer experiences a false awakening, it is indistinguishable from reality. A person  wakes up in the same bed. walks through replica rooms. Such person may use restroom, brush teeth, start making breakfast, then wake up in reality. The only two consistent differences between a false awakening and reality would be inability to see consistent time on a digital display and inability to adjust light levels with light switches. &lt;strong&gt;The defining characteristic of false awakenings is that they trick the dreamer into thinking the dreamer is interacting with reality.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I should probably mention that expert dreamers, those who keep a dream journal and train to remember dreams, experience their dreams more intensely. As such, it is not uncommon to hear of &quot;hyper-real&quot; dreams, which are more visually and cognitively clear than baseline reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2012-12-10T06:21:57.723" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1991" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3274" CreationDate="2012-12-10T21:06:07.787" Score="3" ViewCount="3579" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, some people believe they are excellent human lie detectors. But, research shows that the average person is only able to detect deception about 54% of the time. What techniques could be used to influence perceived expertise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="373" LastActivityDate="2013-03-10T14:30:19.320" Title="What factors influence a person's perceived expertise?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1992" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1946" CreationDate="2012-12-10T22:32:57.043" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This probably won't be a very good answer, but I studied this a bit in a Human Factors class I took this semester. The metaphor that the professor used is a bucket of mental resources. We have several buckets for certain things. When we are using resources from the bucket the bucket has less resources for other things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can walk and talk at the same time because they are using different buckets( motor-physical and language processing ). However we are very bad at reading and talking to someone at the same time because both task are taking up mental resources from the same bucket( language processing ). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, yes we are able to do various things well that aren't requiring resources from the same bucket, but these buckets are only so deep. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe that makes since. Oh yeah there's a more technical term, maybe Multi-Channel Human Information Processing. I know if you researched Human Information Processing( HIP ) you would stumble upon what you may be looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1131" LastActivityDate="2012-12-10T22:32:57.043" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1993" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-11T22:57:05.983" Score="9" ViewCount="210" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some time ago, I've read that the most significant people in a person's life have their own internal representation/model of within the person's mind. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An internal representation of a spouse&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An internal representation of parents, grandparents&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An internal representation of children&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Close friends, etc&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This representation does not matter, until the connection is severed - the significant person dies or moves away. This is when there's &lt;strong&gt;no more input from the real world - only the internal representation remains.&lt;/strong&gt; For example, it is possible to dream of an interaction with a deceased relative. My question is about whatever phenomenon causes people to be able to dream and interact with people previously known, while in a dream. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if there has been research that confirms that people do indeed have unique internal models of significantly close relatives&lt;/strong&gt;? If so, what is the correct term to use when searching for scientific information on the subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt; In particular, I'm interested in unique internal representations - linked to a unique object in real life. Do they exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, there is only one spouse. Jane Smith. Has there been evidence that the internal representation of Jane Smith is unique (every single time Jane Smith is encountered, it is the same representation, possibly lighting up the same region of the brain if viewed with imaging techniques). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-13T10:50:04.930" LastActivityDate="2014-11-06T23:56:19.547" Title="Is there evidence for a unique isolated internal representation of loved ones?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1996" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="1997" CreationDate="2012-12-12T02:15:01.227" Score="5" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember that at some point on House, M.D., one of the characters mentioned that her patient craved milk because it contained some chemical he/she needed. How does the brain figure out what chemicals it can get from what foods, and by extension what to crave? I know one craves very specific foods, but I eat a lot of foods per meal so I don't see how the body can connect something to its composition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2499" LastActivityDate="2012-12-12T03:11:10.117" Title="How does the brain know what to crave?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1997" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1996" CreationDate="2012-12-12T03:11:10.117" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check out this question on biology.stackexchange: &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/5090/do-omnivore-mammals-vary-food-preferences-based-on-dietary-needs&quot;&gt;Do omnivore mammals vary food preferences based on dietary needs?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answers in that question mention that experiments on Rats and Birds determined that there's an internal &lt;strong&gt;chemosensor, the anterior piriform cortex (APC)&lt;/strong&gt; within bird and rat brains that senses lack of Indispensible Amino Acids (IAA). Animals show aversion to foods that lack IAA in as short as 20-30 minutes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's another example listed that mentions that being sodium deficient makes animals like salt more. Their preference for salty taste increases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if these findings apply to humans though. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2012-12-12T03:11:10.117" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1998" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1971" CreationDate="2012-12-12T18:09:55.223" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;In men, Mitchell et al (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerlink.com/content/x120u23770428k53/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1998&lt;/a&gt;) found that positive mood induced by music affected greater sexual arousal, and that musically induced negative mood affected reduced sexual arousal. In women, Ter Kuile et al (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01632.x/abstract?systemMessage=Wiley+Online+Library+will+be+disrupted+on+15+December+from+10%3A00-13%3A00+GMT+%2805%3A00-08%3A00+EST%29+for+essential+maintenance&amp;amp;userIsAuthenticated=false&amp;amp;deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2010&lt;/a&gt;) found similar results for women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, your question is not quite addressed by these studies. Whereas these studies address the effect of mood on arousal in the presence of erotic stimuli, it is possible that negative affect may still induce pleasure-seeking (even if it reduces the pleasurable effect of stimuli in general).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, Lykins et al (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224490609552308&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2006&lt;/a&gt;) found that a subgroup of both men and women reported increased sexual interest during depressed and anxious moods. Men were more likely than women to report increases of sexual interest during negative mood states. One's inclination toward sexual excitation was the strongest predictor of this relationship between negative mood and sexual interest. To speculate a little, this may be because it moderates the effect of negative mood on arousal that is mentioned above. That is, people inclined toward sexual excitation may not show the arousal dampening effect of negative mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mitchell, W. B., DiBartolo, P. M., Brown, T. A., &amp;amp; Barlow, D. H. (1998). Effects of positive and negative mood on sexual arousal in sexually functional males. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27(2), 197-207.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ter Kuile, M. M., Both, S., &amp;amp; Van Uden, J. (2010). The Effects of Experimentally‐Induced Sad and Happy Mood on Sexual Arousal in Sexually Healthy Women. The journal of sexual medicine, 7(3), 1177-1184.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lykins, A. D., Janssen, E., &amp;amp; Graham, C. A. (2006). The relationship between negative mood and sexuality in heterosexual college women and men. Journal of Sex Research, 43(2), 136-143.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1260" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-12-12T20:28:16.533" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="1999" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2001" CreationDate="2012-12-13T05:36:10.600" Score="11" ViewCount="348" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have the intuition that human vision first attends to large-scale objects and then small-scale details. Is there any mechanism in the visual cortex that will explain this phenomenon? Is there a resolution refinement process when we look at scenes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="574" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-13T10:48:34.507" LastActivityDate="2013-09-12T06:57:35.183" Title="What neural mechanism explains the tendency to visually attend to the whole scene before attending to details?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2000" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1999" CreationDate="2012-12-13T06:35:12.953" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Human vision is more accustomed to first see things that move. So, considering both large scale objects and small scale objects are present in the vision field, the object will shows the first sign of movement will be first attended by the visual cortex. I believe this is because of the evolutionary process where human were hunters and mind evolved to detect any animal movement in the periphery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2496" LastActivityDate="2012-12-13T06:35:12.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1999" CreationDate="2012-12-13T06:47:22.750" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, it is not only your intuition - there are many experimental results showing that we first perceive the gist of scenes (for example, is it outdoors or indoors?), then the major parts of it (was there an animal, or a human figure in it?) then more and more details (is that figure male or female? what is her expression?) &lt;a href=&quot;http://mollylab-1.mit.edu/lab/publications/conceptual1976.pdf&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://aegean.psychology.uiowa.edu/classes/31133/readings/Rensink_etal_97.pdf&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Note, however, that it is not exactly related to the size of the object, but more to its perceived importance or relevance. (See also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=38XO7ac9eSs&quot;&gt;this great video about change blindness&lt;/a&gt;, that exemplifies that)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reverse Hierarchy Theory&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://cvcl.mit.edu/SUNSeminar/HochsteinAhissar-Neuron02.pdf&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; proposes a mechanism for that - the activation in the network flows mostly &quot;bottom up&quot;, but conscious perception starts at higher level, and then actively (through attention) accesses &quot;lower level&quot; details as they are needed. or in their words:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Classically, the visual system was seen as a hierarchy of cortical areas and cell types. Neurons of low-level areas (V1, V2) receive visual input and represent simple features such as lines or edges of specific orientation and location. Their outputs are integrated and processed by successive cortical levels (V3, V4, medial-temporal area MT), which gradually generalize over spatial parameters and specialize to represent global features. Finally, further levels (inferotemporal area IT, prefrontal area PF, etc.) integrate their outputs to represent abstract forms, objects, and categories. The function of feedback connections was unknown. Reverse Hierarchy Theory proposes that the above forward hierarchy acts implicitly, with explicit perception beginning at high-level cortex, representing the gist of the scene on the basis of a first-order approximate integration of low-level input. Later, explicit perception returns to lower areas via the feedback connections, to integrate into conscious vision with scrutiny the detailed information available there. Thus, initial perception is based on spread attention (large receptive fields), guessing at details, and making binding or conjunction errors. Later vision incorporates details, overcoming such blindnesses &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Potter, M. C. (1976). Short-term conceptual memory for pictures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory; Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 2(5), 509. &lt;a href=&quot;http://mollylab-1.mit.edu/lab/publications/conceptual1976.pdf&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Rensink, R. A., O'Regan, J. K., &amp;amp; Clark, J. J. (1997). To see or not to see: The need for attention to perceive changes in scenes. Psychological Science, 8(5), 368-373. &lt;a href=&quot;http://aegean.psychology.uiowa.edu/classes/31133/readings/Rensink_etal_97.pdf&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Hochstein, S., &amp;amp; Ahissar, M. (2002). View from the top-hierarchies and reverse hierarchies in the visual system. Neuron, 36(5), 791-804. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cvcl.mit.edu/SUNSeminar/HochsteinAhissar-Neuron02.pdf&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="38" LastEditDate="2013-09-12T06:57:35.183" LastActivityDate="2013-09-12T06:57:35.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2006" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2012" CreationDate="2012-12-14T22:23:51.460" Score="2" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;What variables can be measured to compare, for example, two different individual's conscious processing and interpretation of the same objective reality ? For example, when terms like &quot;distorted view of reality&quot; are thrown around, how does one measure that or can conclude that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can we measure the differences in the processing and interpretation of reality between individuals and if it's impossible, please explain why it can not be done or what can not be measured.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2012-12-20T02:37:30.213" LastActivityDate="2012-12-20T02:37:30.213" Title="Is it possible to measure the differences in processing and interpretation of reality between individuals?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2007" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2008" CreationDate="2012-12-14T22:57:23.383" Score="14" ViewCount="956" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I was in high school, one of my teachers used to make us hand print copies of materials from transparencies on an overhead projector (I may be showing my age), with the reasoning that re-writing notes by hand was better for memory retention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I later was told, via sources I can no longer recall, that typing out notes wasn't as good for memory retention because it was too easily done without thinking. Hand printed/written notes, I was told, were superior because they forced you to think about the words and letters being written, whereas typing uses more or less the same actions for each character and can be done faster with less conscious thought. Anecdotally, I know I certainly type faster than I write, and am better able to multitask as I do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any evidence to support the idea that writing is better for retention than typing?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does it matter if you print or handwrite the transcription?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do other transcription methods, such as dictating into an audio recording device, have better or worse retention rates?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2512" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-12-16T06:19:02.170" LastActivityDate="2012-12-16T06:19:02.170" Title="Does the transcription method used (e.g., printing, handwriting, typing, voice recording, etc.) affect memory retention?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2007" CreationDate="2012-12-15T03:59:45.363" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;A recent senior thesis by Schoen (2012) addressed this exact question. Students watched a filmed lecture and were randomly assigned to take notes with either by typing or handwriting. After the lecture, students were given a few distractor tasks, and then given a retention test. Other students were assigned to take notes from a textbook, instead of a lecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast to your theory, there was a &lt;em&gt;main effect&lt;/em&gt; of transcription method, such that &lt;strong&gt;typing notes led to better retention.&lt;/strong&gt; However, there was an &lt;em&gt;interaction&lt;/em&gt; with context, and it appears that there is no &lt;em&gt;simple main effect&lt;/em&gt; for textbook notes. (see figure below)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One could posit that this interaction occurs because of the demands of the task. Taking notes by typing is easier and faster, i.e. more &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_fluency&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;fluent&lt;/a&gt;. Hand-writing notes leads to higher &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive load&lt;/a&gt;, which may lead to the student paying more attention to note-taking and less attention to the lecture itself. This would explain why textbook notes showed no effect. I only skimmed through the paper, but it seems very interesting and right to the point of your question, so I would suggest reading it for more info.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additional information:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before looking this up, I expected the opposite pattern. Bjork &amp;amp; Bjork (2009) have found&#xA;that creating &lt;strong&gt;desirable difficulties&lt;/strong&gt; in learning can promote retention. For instance, it is well known that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;generating information&lt;/a&gt;, such as fill-in-the-blanks, promote better retention compared to, e.g., multiple choice tests. Diemand-Yauman, Oppenheimer, &amp;amp;  Vaughan (2010) have found that presenting study material in hard-to-read fonts leads to better encoding and retention of the material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, a study by Yang, Gallo, &amp;amp; Beilock (2009) looked at the effect of motor fluency on retention. Subjects typed a two-letter dyad (such as &lt;code&gt;ae&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;aq&lt;/code&gt;). &lt;em&gt;Fluent&lt;/em&gt; dyads were letter pairs which were typed with two fingers; these pairs are typed faster and more easily than dyads that used the same finger because there is no motor bottleneck. Subjects were later given a recognition test to determine which dyads were presented to them. They found that subjects produced more &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_positive#Type_I_error&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;false alarms&lt;/a&gt; for fluent dyads than disfluent dyads. This is particularly strange because false alarms, by their nature, &lt;em&gt;were not actually typed by subject&lt;/em&gt;. This effect only held for expert typists, corroborating previous literature which suggests that fluency leads to false recognition. (Presumably for novice typists, none of the dyads were fluent enough to produce a higher level of false alarms).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it seems there is a confluence of effects here. Disfluency--that is, making things more difficult--can promote deep processing and lead to better encoding and retention. However when this process causes one to neglect other information, such as paying attention to the lecture itself, retention suffers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For additional reading on the effects of fluency on problem solving, I suggest Alter, Oppenheimer, Epley, &amp;amp; Eyre (2007) and Oppenheimer (2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Schoen (2012):&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/h8tmV.png&quot; alt=&quot;http://f.cl.ly/items/3X2k3g0D352W1Z3p2e14/Screen%20shot%202012-12-14%20at%209.19.40%20PM.png&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alter, A. L., Oppenheimer, D. M., Epley, N., &amp;amp; Eyre, R. N. (2007). Overcoming intuition: metacognitive difficulty activates analytic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136(4), 569. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/%7Eaalter/intuitive.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bjork, E. L., &amp;amp; Bjork, R. (2009). Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: Creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning. New York: Worth Publishers. &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/pubs/EBjork_RBjork_2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diemand-Yauman, C., Oppenheimer, D. M., &amp;amp; Vaughan, E. B. (2011). Fortune favors the &lt;strong&gt;Bold&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;and the Italicized&lt;/em&gt;): Effects of disfluency on educational outcomes. Cognition, 118(1), 111-115. &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.princeton.edu/sites/opplab/papers/Diemand-Yauman_Oppenheimer_2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oppenheimer, D. M. (2008). The secret life of fluency. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(6), 237-241. &lt;a href=&quot;http://rady.ucsd.edu/faculty/seminars/2010/papers/oppenheimer.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schoen, I. (2012). Effects of Method and Context of Note-taking on Memory: Handwriting versus Typing in Lecture and Textbook-Reading Contexts. Pitzer Senior Theses. Paper 20. &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1019&amp;amp;context=pitzer_theses&amp;amp;sei-redir=1&amp;amp;referer=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar%3Fstart%3D20%26q%3Ddoes%2Btyping%2Bor%2Bwriting%2Bpromote%2Bmemory%2Bencoding%26hl%3Den%26as_sdt%3D0%2C44#search=%22does%20typing%20or%20writing%20promote%20memory%20encoding%22&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yang, S. J., Gallo, D. A., &amp;amp; Beilock, S. L. (2009). Embodied memory judgments: a case of motor fluency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition; Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35(5), 1359. &lt;a href=&quot;http://memorylab.uchicago.edu/pdf/Yang_2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-12-15T06:47:24.037" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2009" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3356" CreationDate="2012-12-06T06:05:36.417" Score="11" ViewCount="1073" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes when reading, text segments are not so important or relevant, when that happens I tend to read between lines in a visual manner, without &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subvocalization&quot;&gt;sub-vocalizing&lt;/a&gt; or pronouncing the words in my mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could that way of reading affect text comprehension?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2516" OwnerDisplayName="rraallvv" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-15T13:12:59.153" LastActivityDate="2013-03-29T23:07:48.483" Title="What is the effect of not sub-vocalizing on reading comprehension?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2010" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-17T00:29:26.847" Score="4" ViewCount="844" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently came to know about  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Limerence&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could not find definite answers for the following questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It has been said that limerence generally lasts between 18 months to&#xA;3 years, could be more in some cases. Is there a&#xA;way/approach/strategy to reduce this duration?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As per this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uncommonforum.com/viewtopic.php?t=48554&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;, it has been suggested that limerence is&#xA;due to low self esteem. This conclusion was based on &quot;I never&#xA;expected anything in return&quot;. I thought this is what most successful&#xA;people like Bill Gates, Clinton do with their charity/foundation&#xA;without expecting anything in return. How can this be judged as a bad thing?&#xA;Is Limerence really due to low self esteem?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I have read that limerence can affect people's mind at a&#xA;unconscious level. Is there a way to train the unconscious mind to&#xA;get rid of the limerence effect?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I could not find anyone offering therapy specifically for this.&#xA;Has therapy been shown to help conditions like this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It has been mentioned in the Wikipedia article that people with&#xA;limerence can become ill. If you are ill, is there a way to find out if this is caused by limerence or something else?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=1445186&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hacker News&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/cgot5/askreddit_how_do_i_make_myself_fall_out_of_love/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reddit&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2519" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-12-22T22:14:53.267" LastActivityDate="2012-12-22T22:14:53.267" Title="Overcoming the effect of Limerence?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2013-03-31T12:27:47.657" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2011" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-17T06:05:54.420" Score="8" ViewCount="204" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine a task of high involvement and great complexity, but one that is not very important, e.g., a strategic computer game. Because of high involvement, the brain continues to process the problem to find solutions after playing the game. Because of the task complexity, I believe there is no right way to solve the problem, and the task is processed by the brain for a very long time but with no solution. The problem is absolutely non-important in 'real life' terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a way to &quot;tell&quot; the brain not to process tasks anymore in order to prevent the uncomfortable feeling of having an &quot;unsolved&quot; task?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE&lt;/strong&gt;: One of the commentators posted a good additional example of what may happen when your brain continues to process a task:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;A while back I played a game called diplomacy, which is very complex strategically. When I went to sleep that night, thinking about the upcoming turn, my brain was going through all possible combinations of turns and outcomes. One by one. For about 3 hours as I could not fall asleep because of this. While I did find the correct solution, it was quite unpleasant , non normal sleep.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe this one is the one of the most unpleasant results of an unwanted task processing. To some extent, a similar thing may happen during the day or even days after the task was &quot;implanted&quot; in the brain. It's just like in a middle of a day, you spontaneously start thinking about that task. So brain was processing that task all the time, it's just you were more busy with other things to not feel it and not start aware thinking of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding night time task obsession, I was trying to focus on different things, lying with open eyes, aware thinking of something else, trying to stop the brain, but this doesn't help at all, only makes things worse (because you can't do anything). The solution I found is to not to go to sleep immediately, but to do something different or just rest (do nothing) for approximately an hour, you'll feel after that your brain is calmed a lot. This somehow diminishes that brain task activity and despite, you still may receive task thinking attacks, they won't be so severe, long and pressures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2361" LastEditorUserId="2361" LastEditDate="2012-12-21T20:41:49.577" LastActivityDate="2012-12-21T20:41:49.577" Title="Can we stop the brain from processing a particular task?" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2012" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2006" CreationDate="2012-12-17T08:59:44.510" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer to this question is rather philosophical will mainly depend on who you ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you ask someone who is close to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism&quot;&gt;physicalism&lt;/a&gt;, he would probably respond that there exists nothing that cannot be measured, hence, differences in the processing and interpretation are measurable in principle too, although we might lack the necessary apparatus and methods right now. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you ask some who is closer to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism&quot;&gt;dualism&lt;/a&gt;, he would probably respond that there are (at least) two kinds of consciousness: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness#Types_of_consciousness&quot;&gt;access-consciousness&lt;/a&gt; (or a-consciousness) which can be measured with scientific methods, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness#Types_of_consciousness&quot;&gt;phenomenal-consciousness&lt;/a&gt; (or p-consciousness) which is only accessible to ones own mind and cannot be measured by scientific methods in principle (cf.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&quot;&gt;the hard problem of consciousness&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please note that this answer is a simplification that gives only a glance into a debate that filled volumes (cf. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2012-12-17T09:05:26.373" LastActivityDate="2012-12-17T09:05:26.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2013" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2011" CreationDate="2012-12-17T21:49:21.747" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;One answer is through turning off these messages or &quot;tasks&quot; via mindful awareness and focused attention on another task requiring much less cognitive load - like breathing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Look up Dr. Jeffery Schwartz's book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1583334831&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;You Are Not Your Brain&quot;&lt;/a&gt; for scientific data on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, latest scientific research shows that we can use our mind to stop the brain (or really work around the task, observing it, until it slowly diminishes activity in the bran).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's the old saying; &quot;mind over matter&quot; - where the brain is also matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2012-12-20T02:34:52.607" LastActivityDate="2012-12-20T02:34:52.607" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2014" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2027" CreationDate="2012-12-18T22:04:01.883" Score="10" ViewCount="729" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've found plenty of resources on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopfield_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hopfield networks&lt;/a&gt; that use either discrete variables for both activation level and time or continuous variables for both activation level and time. &lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to construct a Hopfield neural network that uses a continuous variable for activation level and a discrete variable for time?&lt;/strong&gt; If it is possible, can anyone offer resources and/or tips on how to construct one in software?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2526" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-12-19T16:04:08.723" LastActivityDate="2012-12-20T22:15:27.477" Title="Is a Hopfield network with a continuous activation variable and a discrete time variable possible?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2015" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-19T06:21:30.240" Score="15" ViewCount="1121" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot;&gt;Big 5&lt;/a&gt; is a popular framework for describing major factors of individual differences in personality. More recently, I've been hearing people talking about the utility of conceptualising personality in terms of a single factor of personality. The idea might be to map the Big 5 on to one global factor with high conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, and openness combined with low neuroticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How has such a global factor been conceptualised? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How much variance is typically explained by this factor relative to other factor models such as the Big 5 using personality test items? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent  does such a global factor reflect true personality variance versus social desirability bias or an artefact of questionnaire item measurement?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the major authors or references advocating the global personality factor? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-11-21T00:55:33.200" Title="What is the support for a global personality factor?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;social-desirability&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2018" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-19T10:15:40.630" Score="5" ViewCount="363" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had a debate with my friend on regression therapy as he feels it is an accepted method to discover a person's past life &amp;amp; his memories. I find it completely unacceptable to my sense. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What studies have been done regarding the effectiveness of regression therapy and to what degree is this practice accepted by mainstream clinicians?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can agree regression therapy on to get to forgotten, ignored or repressed experiences that are bothering people and helping them to overcome their problems which similar to memory therapy. But I cannot understand the logic of extracting past life experiences and past life memory. It is totally indigestible that psychologists (specially in India) believe in these practices.  Or is that a few of psychologists are misusing the profession for monetary gains. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2528" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-12T05:19:15.677" LastActivityDate="2013-02-12T05:19:15.677" Title="Validity of regression therapy and degree of acceptance of the subject within the psychology community" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2019" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2015" CreationDate="2012-12-19T12:13:46.007" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Digman (1997)&lt;/strong&gt; performed higher order factor analysis on several Big 5 intercorrelation matrices and proposed that the Big 5 could be partially explained in terms of two higher order factors: Alpha (Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability) and Beta (Extraversion, Openness). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Musek (2007)&lt;/strong&gt; presented evidence for a Big 1 factor of personality. Musek and others observe that while the Big 5 factor structure was based on orthogonal rotations, Big 5 scales based on items tend to intercorrelate. With regards to interpretation, Musek states that &quot;[it seems plausible therefore to assume that, beyond the connections with semantic factors and social desirability, The Big One is substantially related to the basic dimensions of emotionality (affect), personal well-being, and self-esteem.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To empirically test the Big 1, Musek presented results from three datasets. Results showed that (a) the first factor of a factor analysis of the Big 5 explained approximately 40 to 50 percent of the variance (b) a reasonable amount of variance in test items was explained by the first factor, (c) several confirmatory factor analytic models indicating reasonable fit for a hierarchical model of the Big 5 that includes the two higher order factors proposed by Digman subsumed under a global personality factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;van der Linden et al 2010&lt;/strong&gt; extend the work of Musek (2007) by presenting a meta-analysis of Big 5 intercorrelation matrices&#xA; in order to assess the evidence for a General Factor of Personality.&#xA;Table 2 shows the meta-analytic average scale intercorrelations for the big 5 measures included in the meta-analysis. It shows how across a wide range of measures and measurement procedures, the Big 5 scales moderately intercorrelate. The average absolute unadjusted correlations between the Big Five was 0.23. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PX6rA.png&quot; alt=&quot;big 1 personality correlations - meta analysis van der linden&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They then show how across a range of Big 5 measures, measurement procedures, and samples that a single factor accounts for between 42 and 78 percent of variance in the Big 5 scale scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regards to interpretation the van der Linden et al present various views on what the factor represents including views that see it as a statistical or measurement artefact and views that see it as a meaningful construct. One interpretation is that it is a general goodness of character factor or perhaps a social adjustment factor. &#xA;The authors conclude with the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The existence of a higher-order GFP does not invalidate the clinical,&#xA;  vocational, or theoretical importance of lower-order factors. It is an&#xA;  empirical and practical question as to which level provides the best&#xA;  predictor for a given criterion. Since the personality facets that&#xA;  exist below the Big Five factors lie closest to the behavior&#xA;  expressed, they are often more diagnostic or better predictors than&#xA;  higher order traits (Sackett &amp;amp; Lievens, 2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Concluding thoughts:&lt;/strong&gt; It seems that there is a meaningful higher level factor. While it may reflect social desirability, such a characteristic may reflect as much true variance in social desirability as it does a response style. As an aside, I have noticed that in experiments where people are asked to persent themselves in a positive way for a job, the big 5 intercorrelations increase dramatically. In broad terms the global factor of personality also reflects broadly the sign of meta-analytic correlations of Big 5 with job performance (i.e., positive correlations for extraversion, openness, emotional stability, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have pondered &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1597/do-measures-of-big-5-personality-have-a-positive-bias-towards-extraverted-consc&quot;&gt;to what extent measures of the Big 5 are unnecessarily loaded to see various poles as socially desirable&lt;/a&gt;. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/New_IPIP-50-item-scale.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a quick look at this IPIP measure of the Big 5&lt;/a&gt; shows quite clearly how positive aspects of for example introversion are lacking (e.g., the item is &quot;I have little to say&quot; rather than something like &quot;I  enjoy my own company&quot;) and negative aspects of extraversion are lacking (e.g., the item is &quot;I am the life of the party&quot; rather than &quot;I like to dominate social situations&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also like to see more item-level analyses and the relative support for the Global personality factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly, a lot of detail is lost in the reduction from the Big 5 to the Big 1, but it also seems to reflect a useful summary of personality for some predictive purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Digman, J. M. (1997). Higher-order factors of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1246–1256.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Musek, J. (2007). A general factor of personality: Evidence for the Big One in the&#xA;Five-Factor Model. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 1213–1233.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;van der Linden, D., te Nijenhuis, J., &amp;amp; Bakker, A. B. (2010). The general factor of personality: A meta-analysis of Big Five intercorrelations and a criterion-related validity study. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(3), 315-327. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dimitri_Linden/publication/222636187_The_General_Factor_of_Personality_A_meta-analysis_of_Big_Five_intercorrelations_and_a_criterion-related_validity_study/links/09e4150a29be01d96f000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sackett, P. R., &amp;amp; Lievens, F. (2008). Personnel selection. Annual Review of Psychology,&#xA;59, 1–32.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-11-21T00:55:33.200" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2021" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4294" CreationDate="2012-12-19T18:01:07.590" Score="8" ViewCount="525" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed the following phenomenon and am trying to find out if it is indeed true and if there is a scientific term for it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I &lt;strong&gt;think about ideas&lt;/strong&gt;, I notice that I can rarely jump straight into &quot;heavy&quot; stuff, like thinking about a cognitive neuroscience article I read. Instead, doing another &lt;strong&gt;activity that &quot;primes&quot; my brain&lt;/strong&gt; first tends to make me more conductive to heavy thinking. This can be watching a talk on TED.com or reading some lighter article.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;conversation&lt;/strong&gt;, I find that it's fairly hard to have a &quot;heart to heart&quot; talk with a person right off the bat, but a casual conversation can evolve in that direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When thinking about the phenomenon, the following supporting evidence comes to mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read that in some asian cultures, it is &lt;strong&gt;traditional to start a business deal with small talk&lt;/strong&gt;, or over a friendly dinner. The motivation for this tradition was weird to me, until I thought about it light of the phenomenon described above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of my successful job interviews started with small talk, unrelated to skills or position at hand. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When thinking about other human &lt;strong&gt;&quot;priming&quot; behaviors&lt;/strong&gt;, the one I can think of most clearly is  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreplay&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;foreplay before sexual encounters&lt;/a&gt;, which serves the following role&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Foreplay is important from at least two considerations, one of which&#xA;  is purely physiological.[6] On the other hand, foreplay implies a&#xA;  certain level of confidence and trust between the partners and creates&#xA;  intimacy. Psychologically, foreplay &lt;strong&gt;lowers inhibitions and increases&#xA;  emotional intimacy&lt;/strong&gt; between partners. Physically, it stimulates the&#xA;  process that produces sexual arousal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if there is indeed some &quot;priming&quot; activity that can put the human brain in a state of mind, where thinking or conversation is easier?&lt;/strong&gt;  If so, what is the term for such activity? Has any neurotransmitter been implicated in the phenomenon described above?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2012-12-21T22:24:06.697" LastActivityDate="2013-09-18T15:29:34.293" Title="Is there a &quot;foreplay&quot; equivalent, priming activity for thinking or conversation?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2022" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2039" CreationDate="2012-12-19T18:22:17.747" Score="8" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've really enjoyed this talk by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/molly_crockett_beware_neuro_bunk.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Molly Crockett: Beware neuro-bunk&lt;/a&gt;. The speaker outlines the limitations of modern neuroscience when &lt;strong&gt;accessing the effectiveness of dietary supplements&lt;/strong&gt; intended to enhance cognition. I believe the speaker mentioned that 68% of (americans?) take dietary supplements for a variety of reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've done some research, and these compounds typically go into &quot;neuro enhancing&quot; products:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;DMAE&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;GABA&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vinpoceitine&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;5-HTP&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vitamin B complex&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This got me thinking: &lt;strong&gt;How does one assess the effectiveness of dietary supplements on cognition?&lt;/strong&gt; These are low- dose compounds that may be taken at random times of a day, combined with assorted other supplements. How does one study the effects of something like that? &lt;strong&gt;Is there a &quot;gold standard&quot; study&lt;/strong&gt; that I can take a look at to understand how this is done?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm interested in is how do they account for the time of day, and other supplements/drugs/activity that happened and followed the study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When thinking about &quot;real psychoactive drugs&quot;, their effect is much more profound, and thus easier to study, with a fairly well defined  onset times, intensity curves. For example, I can go to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_effects.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;erowid.org&lt;/a&gt; and see curves like the one below for&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WNycK.gif&quot; alt=&quot;cannabis onset intensity curve&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Yob6M.gif&quot; alt=&quot;alcohol onset intensity curve&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With a graph like that, one can with a reasonable certainty estimate the duration and intensity of effects. But what about dietary supplements? Is it just big placebo?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-20T01:01:06.143" LastActivityDate="2012-12-30T07:39:45.480" Title="How does one study the effect of a dietary supplement on cognition?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2025" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2028" CreationDate="2012-12-20T13:17:45.743" Score="14" ViewCount="8458" Body="&lt;p&gt;Einstein once said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reading, after a certain age, diverts the mind too much from its&#xA;  creative pursuits. Any man who reads too much and uses his own brain&#xA;  too little falls into lazy habits of thinking, just as the man who spends too much time in   the theater is tempted to be content with living vicariously instead of living his own life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the scientific claim implicit in this quote?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it true that reading too much makes the mind lazy, and is reading too much harmful to the mind?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Quote from an interview with G.S. Viereck, &quot;What Life Means to Einstein,&quot; &lt;em&gt;Saturday Evening Post&lt;/em&gt;, October 26, 1929; re-printed in Viereck, &lt;em&gt;Glimpses of the Great&lt;/em&gt;, 437.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2538" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-21T01:53:41.940" LastActivityDate="2016-04-21T17:49:09.920" Title="What is the scientific support for Einstein's claim about the negative effects of reading too much?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2027" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2014" CreationDate="2012-12-20T22:15:27.477" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;After doing some additional research, I think the answer is yes. It just means using a fixed timestep for the continuous-time activation equation (as described &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Hopfield_network#Graded_neuron_response_and_continuous_variables&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). Since this is a differential equation, implementing it in software requires implementing a numerical integration method. I recommend the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.genesis-sim.org/BABEL/gum-tutorials/cornelis/doc/html/node9.html&quot;&gt;Exponential Euler Method&lt;/a&gt; as a starting point, because it's relatively simple and it's designed for differential equations of the sort that's used for the continuous Hopfield network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2526" LastActivityDate="2012-12-20T22:15:27.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2028" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2025" CreationDate="2012-12-21T01:51:12.610" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This answer is a bit more anecdotal, but perhaps it's useful&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the perspective of an academic researcher (which perhaps is similar to Einstein's perspective), there is a balance between reading the literature and conducting your own research. There is a balance between learning new skills and applying those skills to your own projects. Even within the context of learning, there is a balance between reading how something is done and practicing actually doing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The very process of conducting your own research reveals challenges and gaps in understanding. Reading allows you to take on new information, however, doing good research also requires time to re-arrange ideas, refine your own theories. Furthermore, reading can vary in the degree to which it is a passive or active process. As an active process, choosing what to read, critically evaluating reading, is all part of building knowledge and ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These ideas manifest in many places in curriculum design. A PhD thesis in particular is a good example of a project that requires a balance between understanding the existing literature and independent thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I presume that the quote is just a useful linguistic device to get people to think about this balancing process. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2012-12-21T01:58:25.170" LastActivityDate="2012-12-21T01:58:25.170" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2029" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2041" CreationDate="2012-12-21T09:19:13.860" Score="9" ViewCount="363" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently stumbled accross the article &quot;When the Brain's Mailbox Is Full&quot;, which can be found here:  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/27/health/when-the-brain-s-mailbox-is-full.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/27/health/when-the-brain-s-mailbox-is-full.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article claims that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;''As we get older, we run out of places to store new information,''&#xA;  said Dr. H. Lee Swanson, a psychologist at the University of&#xA;  California at Riverside and the author of &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/dev/35/4/986/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the study&lt;/a&gt;. ''We have a&#xA;  limited amount of space in our memory system.''&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we really have a such a limited capacity for knowledge that we risk slowing down our brain functions if we study too much?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Swanson, H. L. (1999). What develops in working memory? A life span perspective. Developmental psychology, 35(4), 986. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/dev/35/4/986/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;LINK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2538" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-12-27T18:50:40.997" LastActivityDate="2018-10-17T09:41:42.470" Title="Will Our Brain Speed Reduce As Our Memory &quot;Mail Boxes&quot; Fill Up?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2030" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2031" CreationDate="2012-12-21T23:20:46.003" Score="8" ViewCount="15988" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Psychology 101, I learned about &lt;strong&gt;Projecting&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;Mirroring&lt;/strong&gt;... I know one is where an individual sees his own problems in other people... I always forget the other concept and/or confuse the two. What's the difference between projecting and mirroring?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2016-03-13T22:14:04.800" Title="What's the difference between projecting and mirroring?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2031" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2030" CreationDate="2012-12-21T23:20:46.003" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirroring_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Mirroring&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is when one acts like others one is in the presence of. For example, an individual may pick up inflections, wording, or mannerisms of others they spend time with. From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirroring_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mirroring is common in conversation. The listeners will typically smile or frown along with the speaker. If one person throws in sports metaphors, the other will likely parry along similar ideas. Since people usually accept their mirror image with ease, mirroring the person with whom one is speaking generally makes them feel more relaxed and encourages them to open up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Projection&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_mechanism&quot;&gt;defense mechanism&lt;/a&gt; whereby an individual &quot;projects&quot; their own views, issues, or thoughts over someone else, preventing the individual from getting an accurate view of the other person and believing the thoughts come from the other individual rather than oneself. Again, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychological projection or projection bias is a psychological defense mechanism where a person subconsciously denies his or her own attributes, thoughts, and emotions, which are then ascribed to the outside world, usually to other people. Thus, projection involves imagining or projecting the belief that others originate those feelings [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An example of this behavior might be blaming another for self failure. The mind may avoid the discomfort of consciously admitting personal faults by keeping those feelings unconscious, and by redirecting libidinal satisfaction by attaching, or &quot;projecting,&quot; those same faults onto another person or object&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Projection&lt;/strong&gt; may be easily confused with &lt;strong&gt;Mirroring&lt;/strong&gt; because with Projection, an individual sees their own traits in another, but the proper term can be remembered because the individual who is projecting &quot;blanks out&quot; others like a blank movie screen, and &quot;projects&quot; their own image, seeing what they are projecting instead of what is really there. WIth Mirroring, an individual is like a mirror themselves, as opposed to Projecting, when the individual is like a movie projector.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2012-12-21T23:20:46.003" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2032" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1963" CreationDate="2012-12-22T00:03:53.987" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe what you're talking about is an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source-monitoring_error&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;internal-external reality source-monitoring error&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Quoting from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/40/14308.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A Specific Brain Structural Basis for Individual Differences in Reality Monitoring&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Remembering a previous experience often involves distinguishing information that was generated by internal cognitive functions (e.g., thought and imagination) from information that was derived from the outside world, an ability termed “reality monitoring” (Johnson and Raye, 1981). [...] Although we may feel that our reality monitoring abilities are reliable, there is evidence of substantial variability in accuracy across individuals. This is most apparent in the reality monitoring impairments often observed in patients with clinical disorders such as schizophrenia (Keefe et al., 2002), but variability in performance is also seen in apparently healthy volunteers (Hyman and Billings, 1998)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To describe basically what is happening in the scenario you described with a childhood memory, &lt;strong&gt;the individual isn't &quot;remembering the future&lt;/strong&gt;, they are confusing their imaged scenario for reality**. It's a memory error: Rather than remembering what actually happened, the individual remembers the &lt;em&gt;imaged scenario&lt;/em&gt; but gets the source of that memory (their imagination) wrong, believing the scenario to be real.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect that &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&amp;amp;id=1981-06694-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reality monitoring By Johnson, Marcia K.; Raye, Carol L. Psychological Review, Vol 88(1), Jan 1981, 67-85.&lt;/a&gt; would be of great interest to you on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marie Buda, Alex Fornito, Zara M. Bergström, and Jon S. Simons (2011) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/40/14308.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A Specific Brain Structural Basis for Individual Differences in Reality Monitoring&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2012-12-22T00:03:53.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2034" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-22T04:08:31.470" Score="15" ViewCount="17714" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if there's a term for spontaneous dream recall&lt;/strong&gt;. I will try to define the phenomenon I'm talking about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Over 10 years ago, I started to notice that I can spontaneously recall dreams, and clearly label them as dreams. I may &lt;strong&gt;recall 3 dreams from the past night, then more dreams from weeks or months ago&lt;/strong&gt;. Some of these dreams I have written down, others were &quot;forgotten&quot; upon awakening, only to be recalled much later. That's a lot of dreams. When in this state of spontaneous recall, I can consciously guide the recall process once the original dream is recalled and recall a number of additional dreams that may or may not be loosely connected to that one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just to clarify, these are not fantasies and neither waking memories. I can clearly distinguish a waking memory from a dream memory. The entire dream memory is recalled in a flash with all the details: place, action, characters present. All of this over a second or so, similar in duration to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deja-vu&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Deja-vu&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've looked up and found &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptomnesia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cryptomnesia&lt;/a&gt;, which is defined as: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cryptomnesia occurs when a forgotten memory returns without it being&#xA;  recognised as such by the subject, who believes it is something new&#xA;  and original.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm describing is similar to Cryptomnesia, except that the memory is immediately recognized as a previously seen dream. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This phenomenon makes me believe that I do not really &quot;forget&quot; dreams. Normally, such memories are &quot;blocked&quot; from ordinary awareness, but can be recalled at random times of the day, or when laying in bed and preparing for sleep. Just to clarify: I calculated that I potentially see up to 1600 dreams in a year, and can recall many of them this way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a search term I can use to look at scientific literature that deals with the phenomenon of unbidden, spontaneous (dream)memory recall?&lt;/strong&gt; Maybe there's something that deals with real memory recall that sounds similar?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:34:26.967" LastActivityDate="2017-10-01T06:00:04.447" Title="What is the scientific term for unexpected, spontaneous dream recall?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2035" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2046" CreationDate="2012-12-23T02:46:34.217" Score="17" ViewCount="17044" Body="&lt;p&gt;Its obvious that both are related(adrenaline and anxiety) but which causes which?&#xA;What (I think) I know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Anxiety accelerates the hearth rhythm due to the feeling of fear. It makes the body believe that there is a need to spend an enormous amount of energy getting away(someway) so it cuts the blood flow in the cognitive parts of the brain and sends more blood to the other muscles, it also releases adrenaline in the blood due to the increasing need of energy(even if there is no real need).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Adrenaline, (when released) makes the hearth rhythm increase and gives some &quot;extra&quot; power to the muscles by cutting the blood flow in the brain and giving it to the muscles. With the lost of blood flow in the brain the person loses a considerable part of the cognitive capacity (among other things), causing the person to have some feelings (like anxiety) and unreal thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Resuming my question: Anxiety results in a release of adrenaline, but adrenaline also makes the brain malfunction causing some feelings like anxiety. It makes sense but it is an infinite cycle. What is the false (and why), or if both are true then how does it ends?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2547" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-12-23T02:59:05.057" LastActivityDate="2017-08-21T12:32:53.660" Title="Does anxiety produce adrenaline or does adrenaline make the person anxious?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2038" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1946" CreationDate="2012-12-25T01:09:23.203" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a passage in &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B000GQLCVE&quot;&gt;On intelligence&lt;/a&gt; about the differences between parallel processing in human versus computers :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From the dawn of the industrial revolution, people have viewed the&#xA;  brain as some sort of machine. They knew there weren't gears and cogs&#xA;  in the head, but it was the best metaphor they had. Somehow&#xA;  information entered the brain and the brain-machine determined how the&#xA;  body should react. During the computer age, the brain has been viewed&#xA;  as a particular type of machine, the programmable computer. And as we&#xA;  saw in chapter 1, AI researchers have stuck with this view, arguing&#xA;  that their lack of progress is only due to how small and slow&#xA;  computers remain compared to the human brain. Today's computers may be&#xA;  equivalent only to a cockroach brain, they say, but when we make&#xA;  bigger and faster computers they will be as intelligent as humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is a largely ignored problem with this brain-as-computer&#xA;  analogy. Neurons are quite slow compared to the transistors in a&#xA;  computer. A neuron collects inputs from its synapses, and combines&#xA;  these inputs together to decide when to output a spike to other&#xA;  neurons. A typical neuron can do this and reset itself in about five&#xA;  milliseconds (5 ms), or around two hundred times per second. This may&#xA;  seem fast, but a modern silicon-based computer can do one billion&#xA;  operations in a second. This means a basic computer operation is five&#xA;  million times faster than the basic operation in your brain! That is a&#xA;  very, very big difference. So how is it possible that a brain could be&#xA;  faster and more powerful than our fastest digital computers? &quot;No&#xA;  problem,&quot; say the brain-as-computer people. &quot;The brain is a parallel&#xA;  computer. It has billions of cells all computing at the same time.&#xA;  This parallelism vastly multiplies the processing power of the&#xA;  biological brain.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I always felt this argument was a fallacy, and a simple thought&#xA;  experiment shows why. It is called the &quot;one hundred–step rule.&quot; A&#xA;  human can perform significant tasks in much less time than a second.&#xA;  For example, I could show you a photograph and ask you to determine if&#xA;  there is cat in the image. Your job would be to push a button if there&#xA;  is a cat, but not if you see a bear or a warthog or a turnip. This&#xA;  task is difficult or impossible for a computer to perform today, yet a&#xA;  human can do it reliably in half a second or less. But neurons are&#xA;  slow, so in that half a second, the information entering your brain&#xA;  can only traverse a chain one hundred neurons long. That is, the brain&#xA;  &quot;computes&quot; solutions to problems like this in one hundred steps or&#xA;  fewer, regardless of how many total neurons might be  involved. From&#xA;  the time light enters your eye to the time you press the button, a&#xA;  chain no longer than one hundred neurons could be involved. A digital&#xA;  computer attempting to solve the same problem would take billions of&#xA;  steps. One hundred computer instructions are barely enough to move a&#xA;  single character on the computer's display, let alone do something&#xA;  interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But if I have many millions of neurons working together, isn't that&#xA;  like a parallel computer? Not really. Brains operate in parallel and&#xA;  parallel computers operate in parallel, but that's the only thing they&#xA;  have in common. Parallel computers combine many fast computers to work&#xA;  on large problems such as computing tomorrow's weather. To predict the&#xA;  weather you have to compute the physical conditions at many points on&#xA;  the planet. Each computer can work on a different location at the same&#xA;  time. But even though there may be hundreds or even thousands of&#xA;  computers working in parallel, the individual computers still need to&#xA;  perform billions or trillions of steps to accomplish their task. The&#xA;  largest conceivable parallel computer can't do anything useful in one&#xA;  hundred steps, no matter how large or how fast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Here is an analogy. Suppose I ask you to carry one hundred stone&#xA;  blocks across a desert. You can carry one stone at a time and it takes&#xA;  a million steps to cross the desert. You figure this will take a long&#xA;  time to complete by yourself, so you recruit a hundred workers to do&#xA;  it in parallel. The task now goes a hundred times faster, but it still&#xA;  requires a minimum of a million steps to cross the desert. Hiring more&#xA;  workers— even a thousand workers— wouldn't provide any additional&#xA;  gain. No matter how many workers you hire, the problem cannot be&#xA;  solved in less time than it takes to walk a million steps. The same is&#xA;  true for parallel computers. After a point, adding more processors&#xA;  doesn't make a difference. A computer, no matter how many processors&#xA;  it might have and no matter how fast it runs, cannot &quot;compute&quot; the&#xA;  answer to difficult problems in one hundred steps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So how can a brain perform difficult tasks in one hundred steps that&#xA;  the largest parallel computer imaginable can't solve in a million or a&#xA;  billion steps? The answer is the brain doesn't &quot;compute&quot; the answers&#xA;  to problems; it retrieves the answers from memory. In essence, the&#xA;  answers were stored in memory a long time ago. It only takes a few&#xA;  steps to retrieve something from memory. Slow neurons are not only&#xA;  fast enough to do this, but they constitute the memory themselves. The&#xA;  entire cortex is a memory system. It isn't a computer at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point made here is that the computing paradigm (that is, the way the whole thing works) of the brain and the computer are completely different. The computer is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machine&quot;&gt;Turing machine&lt;/a&gt;, and the brain is something else, possibly a memory system if you think that Jeff Hawking is right. Whatever it is, the brain is not a Turing machine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To go back to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why can't human brains be used to do massive parallel processing in&#xA;  the same way computers are doing today?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has to do with the way the human brain works. If you assume that the brain will do any task in a parallel fashion, and the more neurons involved, the better the performance; then in order to maximize your performance you should use your whole brain. 1 task: 100% performance, 2 tasks: 50% performance, 3 tasks: 33% performance, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if you add an &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yr8W8ejX6To&quot;&gt;attention switching cost&lt;/a&gt;&quot; to go from one task to another, then you are better off just focusing on one task where the switching cost is zero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; multitask, but it won't be efficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="451" LastActivityDate="2012-12-25T01:09:23.203" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2039" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2022" CreationDate="2012-12-26T09:06:34.180" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;To the general question of &lt;strong&gt;how to test the claims&lt;/strong&gt; , there's a couple things you want to show:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1) that the body absorbs the supplement (measure the absorption rate)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;2) that the supplement crosses the blood brain barrier &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;3) that the&#xA;supplement actually plays the role of agonist, antagonist, or&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allosteric_regulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;allosteric modulator&lt;/a&gt; (or possibly even has a toxic effect).  These&#xA;are biochemical roles that depend on molecular properties like shape&#xA;and charge distribution, as well as kinetic interactions (chemistry).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;4) that the interaction of the ligand or effector (or toxin) with the&#xA;receptor (or system) that's being affected by the supplement produces&#xA;a cognitive benefit.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first three are feats of biochemistry, the fourth of behavioral/psychological biology.  So this is a complicated interdisciplinary task in the first place.  Now if we want to consider all the control situations (especially 4) it becomes even more complicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Known cognitive benefits&lt;/strong&gt; are come from substances like caffeine, nicotine, chocolate (it has theobromine), amphetamines, and other stimulant-like drugs.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;GABA, on the other hand, exists naturally in the brain.  It's part of an integrated molecular system and is tightly controlled by the citrus cycle (aka Krebs Cycle) and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hort.purdue.edu/rhodcv/hort640c/aminotr/gabas.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GABA shunt&lt;/a&gt;.  If you have more of it, but you don't need it, your body will just break it down or convert it (it's part of a very dexterous set of metabolic molecules).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best cognitive benefit you can get is simply from eating right, not having nutrient deficiencies, omega 3's are good for long-term brain health.  Circulatory health is good for long-term brain health (so exercise and less cholesterol).  Pretty much all your typical healthy habits.  Most of the evidence for the nutrititional/exercise claims I provided in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1755/how-can-motivation-be-increased-by-improving-brain-chemistry-with-nutrition-and/1765#1765&quot;&gt;this thread&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-12-30T07:39:45.480" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2040" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1275" CreationDate="2012-12-26T09:32:15.587" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This paper was written in 2010:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20566193&quot;&gt;Perceptual shift in bilingualism: brain potentials reveal plasticity in pre-attentive colour perception.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this paper, we test whether in Greek speakers exposure to a new&#xA;  cultural environment (UK) with contrasting colour terminology from&#xA;  their native language affects early perceptual processing as indexed&#xA;  by an electrophysiological correlate of visual detection of colour&#xA;  luminance. We also report semantic mapping of native colour terms and&#xA;  colour similarity judgements. Results reveal convergence of linguistic&#xA;  descriptions, cognitive processing, and early perception of colour in&#xA;  bilinguals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some important (but speculative) considerations here, in my opinion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Aspects of color are defined culturally.  Each culture arbitrarily places borders to divide the regions of a continuous spectrum and we pass these divisions on to our children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Different cultures may have non-overlapping hues distributed across a coarse division.  For instance, if we took the coarse color &quot;green&quot; and divided it up into 15 shades so that my greens are 3, 8, and 12 and my foreign friend's is 8, 10, and 15 are hues that we each strongly associate with green (because they're typical in our culture).  However, my 3 is too close to yellow for my foreign friend and his 15 is too close to blue for me (and I want to call it &quot;aqua&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) There's also the difficult that the colors we experience in the world aren't pure colors on a ROYGBIV spectrum.  An apparently uniform garment can often be small-grain ensembles of many different colored threads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2012-12-26T09:32:15.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2041" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2029" CreationDate="2012-12-26T19:34:53.177" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;As Chuck pointed out in the comments, it's important not to take a metaphor too literally. Comparing our memory to a mailbox may have some validity, it is not true that our memory can &amp;quot;fill up&amp;quot;-- i.e., that we have a limited capacity for knowledge in general. No matter how old or how many facts you have learned, you will always be capable of learning new ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the NYT article, prominent aging research Timothy Salthouse points out this research is controversial:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;It seems unlikely that any single study, regardless of its quality, will be able to resolve the issue. We don't know how to measure storage capacity.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, your question asks whether we risk &amp;quot;slowing down our brain functions&amp;quot; if we &lt;em&gt;study too much&lt;/em&gt;. This study is about &lt;em&gt;age-related deficits&lt;/em&gt;, and there is no evidence that simply learning more information will reduce our memory capacity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study also is referring only to &lt;em&gt;working memory&lt;/em&gt;, and not &lt;em&gt;long-term memory&lt;/em&gt;. While some researchers believe working memory is simply a subset of attended items in long-term memory (e.g. Cowan, 1999; Anderson J.R. et al., 2004), others believe they are unique constructs (e.g. Baddeley, 2000). It is important not to conflate the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While learning new facts cannot reduce our overall memory capacity, it may affect our ability to retrieve specific items. This is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_inhibition&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;memory inhibition&lt;/a&gt;. For instance, recalling semantically related words can inhibit retrieval of a target word (Anderson, M.C. et al., 1994).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In sum, learning new information &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; prevent us from retrieving older information through inhibition, but it is not related to overall memory capacity, or to the age-related deficits mentioned in the NYT article. We don't risk &amp;quot;slowing down our brain functions&amp;quot; by studying too much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson, M. C., Bjork, R. A., &amp;amp; Bjork, E. L. (1994). Remembering can cause forgetting: retrieval dynamics in long-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(5), 1063. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.memorycontrol.net/abb1994.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson, J. R., Bothell, D., Byrne, M. D., Douglass, S., Lebiere, C., &amp;amp; Qin, Y. (2004). An integrated theory of the mind. Psychological review, 111(4), 1036. &lt;a href=&quot;http://actr.psy.cmu.edu/papers/526/FSQUERY.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cowan, N. (1999). An embedded-processes model of working memory.Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control, 62-101. &lt;a href=&quot;http://m.co-bw.com/Brain/Biologically%20Based%20ComputationalModelofworkingmemory.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2012-12-26T19:34:53.177" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2042" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2029" CreationDate="2012-12-27T07:22:10.590" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity#Research_and_discovery&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;strong evidence&lt;/a&gt; that suggests there are changes in neural pathways, synapses, and even &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurogenesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;birth of new neurons&lt;/a&gt; due to changes in behavior, environment and neural processes. That is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuroplasticity&lt;/a&gt;, which suggests that our brain's capacity can be &quot;recycled&quot; and even augmented in many cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I had to choose a metaphor to make an analogy of our brain compared to something else, I would say it is more like a muscle or a bone. They have limitations regarding their capabilities, but they can change to fit demand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2516" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2012-12-27T12:35:36.107" LastActivityDate="2012-12-27T12:35:36.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2043" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1946" CreationDate="2012-12-27T11:37:11.893" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe I just don't get it, but I see your question as confusing because:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1/ Your brain is capable of running multiple parallel processes. Actualy each one of tasks you've mentioned consists of number of processes that are done at the same time. Lots of your neurons and neuronal networks are being used at the very same moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2/ If you can do something automatically, without thinking about it, but not without using our brain to guide the action (there are very few things you can do without actually using your brain and its neurons), you will find that you actually are able to do even more complex tasks in parallel. Even the two you've mentioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3/ So the problem of you not being able to do some tasks together is a problem of you not being able to concentrate at both of them as good, as you do with one task. &#xA;Your question asks for the difference using a metaphor and comparison of the 'hardware' of your brain, but the problem you are asking about goes on higher cognition. You not being able to effectively 'double' your attention, you having limited working memory capacity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="846" LastActivityDate="2012-12-27T11:37:11.893" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2045" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-28T11:28:02.243" Score="7" ViewCount="2635" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are some ways one can improve his/her speed of thinking and reasoning ? I am looking for some easy to follow strategies that can be systematically applied. (I am presuming it can be learnt/ taught ). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2560" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-01-18T05:06:05.090" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T16:34:04.503" Title="Improving Speed of Thinking" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2046" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2035" CreationDate="2012-12-28T15:10:32.470" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sorry for the delay getting to an answer - the holidays have been super busy for me this year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you feel up to it, definitely check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_Nervous_System#The_Autonomic_System&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the link&lt;/a&gt; @ChuckSherrington posted in the comments.  That has more information than you'll need for a while.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Getting down to business:  The answer to your question is &lt;strong&gt;both&lt;/strong&gt;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since your question assumes that both are related and affect each other, I won't go into how they do that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, to clear up some misconceptions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;It's not a 1-to-1 cycle.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, the &quot;amount&quot; of anxiety &lt;em&gt;reduced&lt;/em&gt; by reducing adrenaline is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; the same as the amount of adrenaline reduced by reducing anxiety.  Similarly, the amount of anxiety created by inducing adrenaline is small compared to the amount of adrenaline created by inducing anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;There are other factors at work&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is where the &quot;parasympathetic&quot; thing comes in.  The human nervous system is actually two systems (broken up into the &lt;code&gt;Central Nervous System (CNS)&lt;/code&gt; and the &lt;code&gt;Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)&lt;/code&gt;, though the PNS is often broken down further).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the component parts of the &lt;code&gt;PNS&lt;/code&gt; is the Autonomic Nervous System.  This carries out the largely unconscious functions of daily life: breathing, heartbeat, digestion, etc.  It is further split into two components: the &lt;code&gt;Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)&lt;/code&gt; and the &lt;code&gt;Parasympathetic Nervous System (pSNS)&lt;/code&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A very rough and reductionist analogy would be to say that these two, together, are like two springs one either side of a ball (or something) - they keep each other regulated and in balance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;code&gt;SNS&lt;/code&gt; is responsible for very fast, excitatory activity.  Fight or flight, for example.  &lt;em&gt;The adrenal response is part of the sympathetic nervous system.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;code&gt;pSNS&lt;/code&gt; is a lot slower.  One of it's primary functions is to return the body to a relaxed state after it was provoked in an excited state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the wiki-books article @ChuckSherrington posted:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While an oversimplification, it is said that the parasympathetic system acts in a reciprocal manner to the effects of the sympathetic nervous system; in fact, in some tissues innervated by both systems, the effects are synergistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So as you hopefully have seen, as normal-functioning humans (which, to live, you must have both a SNS and a pSNS; it's not a question), you have a modulation response which keeps the adrenal response (the base response to a threatening stimulus that prepares the body for fast action) from getting out of hand. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, lastly, a disclaimer of sorts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The link between neural activity and thoughts is tenuous at best!  Many people are involved in many flame wars over the link between neural activity and phenomenology (experienced reality).  The most direct view, and a very common one (from what I can tell) is the view that neural activity is reality itself.  That is, our existence, our lives, our individual personalized reality, &lt;em&gt;is neural activity itself&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But you will have to decide that question for yourself, because this is not a philosophy question/answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's important is that the link between having thoughts and having feelings is not well understood.  So adrenaline may make you nervous, but it may give Susie Randomgirl a panic attack (believe it or not, I know someone who can work themselves into a panic attack, every time - and they still don't get that they do it to themselves).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2012-12-29T17:42:45.670" LastActivityDate="2012-12-29T17:42:45.670" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2047" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2071" CreationDate="2012-12-29T15:24:35.807" Score="5" ViewCount="277" Body="&lt;p&gt;A car has dashboard lights, like &quot;check engine&quot; to indicate malfunctions, etc. Do human feelings have some similar, meaningful function (x produces feeling y), or are feelings just random glitches of cognition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can think of feelings that are easy to define:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;pain&lt;/strong&gt;, localized to the injury site as serving a purpose: do not use&#xA;the injured limb until it feels healed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Heartburn&lt;/strong&gt; may be a feeling associated with eating incorrect types of&#xA;foods: stop chewing gum and the feeling goes away.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feeling &lt;strong&gt;heat&lt;/strong&gt;/cold has a purpose that may be connected to metabolism&#xA;and thermoregulation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feeling of &lt;strong&gt;hunger&lt;/strong&gt; is relieved by eating&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the feeling of hunger can be explained by the balance of hormones of leptin and ghrelin, which control appetite and the feeling of satiety. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what about those other feelings, defined by abstract words from dictionaries? Jealous, silly, disgusted,motivated,comfortable, etc, etc. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.professional-counselling.com/list-of-human-emotions.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here's a list of human feelings.&lt;/a&gt; One can imagine what they are, but to catch oneself in one of them is a completely different thing. &lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if feeling in some way has a purpose.&lt;/strong&gt; Can we say something about the hormone/neurotransmitter levels based on how a person is feeling?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-01-04T17:38:11.793" Title="Do feelings have a purpose?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2048" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-29T20:56:11.777" Score="8" ViewCount="624" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that evolution incorporated arbitrary qualia into the default network to inform consciousness (the largest cranial global processing information subnetwork) about properties and qualities of the body in spacetime. However, how does the feeling in my toe know to appear near my toe when nerves there are stimulated? Is this an illusion, and there is extraneous processing that matches the visual stimulus of me looking at my toe and the tactile stimuli of someone touching it to make those qualia feel related, even localized in the same area in space?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What if my somatosensory cortex was moved to my stomach (say all dendrites and axons were chopped off and were replaced with wireless hubs that signaled to the newly transplanted somatosensory cortex in my stomach). I would presumably experience no change in consciousness, which indicated localization of qualia is not achieved by the spatial embedding of the neurons, but by their graph-theoretic interconnection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I swapped the information processing (in some information-theoretic sense, say graph-dynamics) associated to the smell of strawberry (it's much more complicated than that but just go with it for a second) with the brain's processing of thermal information from afferent skin sensors, would I appear to feel the smell of strawberry all over my body when it's cold and the feel of cold in my nose when I smelled strawberry? I am excluding affect swap here so the qualia of strawberry smell now feels unpleasant like cold and the qualia of cold feels pleasant like strawberry smell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now what if in mad science I permuted the thermal sensors all over my body? Say my foot and hand neurons got swapped (say through a nanobot intercepting wireless relay). Would my hand feel cold when my foot is immersed in ice and vice versa? This would indicate these qualia are processed in consciousness in the brain rather than at the afferent sensor sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For bonus credit: How does this relate to phantom limb syndrome? Are there other observed processing defects that lead to faulty localization? E.g. Out of body experiences, certain particularly nasty mental disorders like dementia, rewiring of somatosensory map due to stroke, that engineering dean who wanted his arm chopped off (I forgot the name but I heard this from V.S. Ramachandran)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second bonus credit: I've read &quot;butterflies&quot; in your stomach are serotonin releases in the enteric nervous system. Doesn't consciousness have to be informed of this release for you to feel it? If not, how do disconnected information graphs allow you the cohesive ability to feel in love?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2565" LastEditorUserId="96" LastEditDate="2013-01-05T19:49:37.007" LastActivityDate="2018-11-14T09:32:08.877" Title="How are qualia localized in consciousness?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;qualia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2049" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3205" CreationDate="2012-12-30T04:41:16.237" Score="7" ViewCount="1336" Body="&lt;p&gt;Writing seems like a perfect medium for expressing ones problems but can it also be used to improve happiness somehow? Maybe through some sort of creative writing exercises that focus on positive thinking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any positive writing exercise that can improve happiness, if even temporarily?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2568" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-13T06:56:27.983" LastActivityDate="2013-02-13T06:56:27.983" Title="What positive writing exercises improve happiness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2050" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3277" CreationDate="2012-12-30T05:06:50.233" Score="22" ViewCount="2000" Body="&lt;p&gt;I visited a neuropsychologist recently who told me I have Synesthesia. I never really knew what it was, but it's fascinating and I can't believe it isn't the norm among people. For me, certain numbers just have had personalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some reason, the more difficulty I had with the number, the more complex personality it had. For instance, I had a lot of trouble with odd numbers, and larger numbers. Therefore, 1 and 2 do not have personalities. On the contrary, 7 and 9 are the most developed personalities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How rare is this condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2569" LastEditorUserId="2569" LastEditDate="2015-07-13T17:01:54.393" LastActivityDate="2019-01-28T09:52:26.857" Title="How rare is synesthesia?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2051" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1926" CreationDate="2012-12-30T05:20:24.647" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mainly, because they're too noticeable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You don't really see houses in electric green, pink, or yellow. No one wants to stand out in a crowd or be the sore thumb.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2012/10/12/survey-americans-pretty-much-the-whole-world-prefers-boring-colored-cars&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2012/10/12/survey-americans-pretty-much-the-whole-world-prefers-boring-colored-cars&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll post more sources when I can.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2569" LastActivityDate="2012-12-30T05:20:24.647" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2052" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-30T15:23:50.350" Score="2" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;On Facebook, someone posed the following question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In what ways can someone increase brain function while reading?  I like to read but have problems retaining information.  Sometimes I get a headache that seems to bound off anything I read, and the more I read the more it bounces off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My answer would be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Split your target text into smaller chunks and read each multiple times, so you can build &quot;islands of understanding&quot; before moving on. Do you have an example text you are stuck on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there more methods for improving reading in this fashion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/265/is-it-possible-to-improve-reading-speed-and-visual-comprehension-by-doing-exerci?rq=1&quot;&gt;Is it possible to improve reading speed and visual comprehension by doing exercises?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2572" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2012-12-31T14:43:23.777" Title="In what ways can someone increase their brain function while reading" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2013-05-26T13:25:18.707" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2055" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2045" CreationDate="2012-12-30T15:39:29.100" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In chess it helps not to watch for the entire thing, instead to watch only out for &quot;structures&quot; you know, e.g., some particular structure of a famous checkmate position. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also think in layers, and remove minor threads out of your thinking, like pawns or pieces on the starting line. This should also work in real world thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Remove minor threads &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Recognize known structures and act faster as you would do if you would analyze every scenario you get into as unique&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2572" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-01-17T23:57:35.603" LastActivityDate="2013-01-17T23:57:35.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2056" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2012-12-30T20:38:14.590" Score="3" ViewCount="630" Body="&lt;p&gt;My original question is &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/questions/6761057/left-or-right-placement-of-interactive-elements-on-a-web-page&quot;&gt;Left or right placement of interactive elements on a web page&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, but only now did I find a place where I think I can find the right people to understand it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The gist is: is there any natural inclination in right-handed people, when reading a web page, for example, to prefer those interface elements which lead to actions (e.g. &quot;print&quot;, &quot;save&quot;, &quot;get a link&quot;, etc.) to be placed on the right side of the screen and then, to prefer navigational elements (e.g. menus, especially tree-structured category menus) to be placed on the left side, while the preference for content for reading would be in the middle? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is: navigation (reference stuff) on the left, content (passive perception stuff) in the middle, action elements on the right, all in this manner because of a potential instinct to reach for anything action related with one's right hand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research or at least speculation on the subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a follow-up question: if there is such an inclination does it appear to be reverse in left-handed people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;update:&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;- similar question asked here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quora.com/Are-right-handers-more-likely-to-rest-their-cursor-pointer-on-the-right-hand-side-of-the-screen&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.quora.com/Are-right-handers-more-likely-to-rest-their-cursor-pointer-on-the-right-hand-side-of-the-screen&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-05-23T12:41:53.730" LastActivityDate="2016-09-12T14:02:04.970" Title="Any research on right-hand/left-hand based preferences when interacting with an interface?" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2057" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2059" CreationDate="2012-12-30T21:15:08.487" Score="9" ViewCount="4338" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any reliable tests, on-line or available for download, for auto-diagnosis for autism spectrum disorder (including Asperger syndrome)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've found that test: &lt;a href=&quot;http://rdos.net/eng/Aspie-quiz.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://rdos.net/eng/Aspie-quiz.php&lt;/a&gt; and treated the results seriously, but I've discovered the questions are strongly based on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rdos.net/eng/asperger.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Neanderthal Theory&lt;/a&gt; of autism, which was answered as having no real scientific basis in this discussion: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1314/is-the-neanderthal-theory-of-autistic-brain-a-reasonable-scientific-theory&quot;&gt;Is the Neanderthal Theory of Autistic brain a reasonable scientific theory?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So now I'm searching for another test, that is verified by scientists and not based on some unproved assumptions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To be clear&lt;/strong&gt;: I'm fully aware that no self-diagnosis can be replacement for diagnosis by professional. I'm aware that the results can be strongly affected by my personal assumptions. However, I'm not decided to get formal diagnosis because it would give me no benefits now and my claims to be diagnosed could be rejected because my social skills have been strongly improved in my adult life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="899" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T00:20:51.880" Title="Are there any reliable self-tests for autism spectrum disorder?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2059" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2057" CreationDate="2013-01-01T03:57:50.947" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could take the &lt;a href=&quot;http://aq.server8.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;AQ Test&lt;/a&gt;, which is based on the Autism Spectrum Quotient. It was published by the Autism Research Center at Cambridge University. It doesn't give you a diagnosis, but rather suggests that some have more autistic traits based on their score. It measures autistic tendencies other than ones that would be considered a disorder, like most in the DSM. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of my best friends has Aspergers. He isn't as socially inclined, but he's incredibly brilliant, with an IQ of over genius, and has remarkable &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_intelligence_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;spacial intelligence&lt;/a&gt; (the ability to take apart things in his mind).&#xA;Although I don't have any form of Autism, I do have the gene for spacial intelligence, and can assemble and dissemble things as large and complex as glass skyscrapers, although I am not nearly as intelligent as my friend. My father also has this ability, and it is thought that it was passed through his side of the family, as almost all of them majored in the sciences (see hyperlink). This is interesting, because &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=recognizing-spatial-intel&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;spacial intelligence is not measured in a standardized IQ Test&lt;/a&gt;, which means it isn't officially recognized as a form of intelligence (due to it being kind of hard to measure). What's more interesting is that anyone who has strong spacial intelligence can tell you that it's based on examining parts and breaking them into smaller parts, much like the DSM cites that a person with Autism has:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;(d) persistent precoccupation with parts of objects.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This supports the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Theory of Multiple Intelligences&lt;/a&gt;. This theory cites that there are different types of intelligence, and among those are not only &lt;strong&gt;Spacial&lt;/strong&gt; but interestingly enough, &lt;strong&gt;Interpersonal&lt;/strong&gt;, which, according to the DSM, Autistic people do not tend to have. It would make sense that there were different variations of the human race who were able to develop diverse skills, as the intelligences are widely varied. Neanderthals could have invented Spacial Intelligence, but could have lacked strong Interpersonal Intelligence. We could have inherited these genes from intermingling these variations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on your theories of autism, I believe the AQ test is one of the best suited tests for determining whether different traits were passed through the human species. However, although I think this is an interesting theory, I wouldn't discuss this with someone who has Autism because he/she might find it offensive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2569" LastActivityDate="2013-01-01T03:57:50.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2060" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3158" CreationDate="2013-01-01T20:03:47.473" Score="8" ViewCount="466" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question is regarding the multiplicative combination rule in the Expectancy-value model developed by Fishbein and Ajzen, and the issues regarding the expectancy value-muddle, or the case of &quot;double negatives,&quot; in the multiplicative combination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For my master thesis, I conducted a questionnaire toward a sample of people and asked questions about their attitudes toward a hospitality company. My intention is to derive their attitudes with the help from the expectancy-value model:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$&#xA;\ a=\sum_{i=1}^{n}b_{i}e_{i}&#xA;$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a is one respondent's attitude towards the object.&#xA;$$\ b_i$$ is the belief that the object has the attribute&#xA;i.&#xA;$$\ e_i$$ is the evaluation of the attribute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a is one respondent's attitude toward the object.&#xA;$b_i$ is the belief that the object has the attribute&#xA;i.&#xA;$e_i$ is the evaluation of the attribute i.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first question (e) accesses the respondent's opinion of the importance of attribute i (e.g. central location), and the second question (b) accesses the respondent's belief that the hospitality company will deliver attribute i. I also have a direct attitude variable, which is not in the scope of this problem unless it is, of course, a part of the solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The respondents choose one alternative on a bipolar semantic differential scale with the extremes between &quot;unimportant - important&quot; (e) and &quot;unlikely - likely&quot; (b) for every attribute with a coded scale between -3 to +3.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The attitude points are compared with various hypothesis t-test. One independent t-test between the experimental group and the control group. And one dependent t-test to investigate a difference within the groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's beyond the scope of the examination to carry out a focus group to elicit the attributes from a representative sample of the population (hospitality company customers). Thus, the reason to use a bipolar scale to &quot;permit&quot; a negative response e.g. &quot;unlikely&quot; instead of &quot;slightly likely&quot; on the lower scale:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;For example, when - as part of belief elicitation - a person indicates 'my drinking alcohol makes me nauseous,' it is reasonable to use, for that person a unipolar scale to assess the strength of this belief. However, when the same statement is presented to an individual who did not personally emit it, the individual may well judge it to be highly unlikely or false. To permit this kind of response, a bipolar belief scale should be used, such as a seven-point scale ranging from unlikely to likely or fall to true.&quot; (Fishbein &amp;amp; Ajzen, 2010, p.106)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A problematic issue, the expectancy-value muddle or the case of the double negative, occurs when the respondents answer with a negative evaluation and belief. Newton et al. (2011, p.3) claim that the phenomenon &quot;expectancy-value muddle&quot; occurs since the b*e &quot;computation are uninterpretable&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;if both responses were coded on bipolar scales, then the individual would receive the highest score possible due to the multiplication of the two negative terms (-3*-3=9). Thus, the ranking of scores in the expectancy-value framework becomes contingent upon the method of scaling used. Hence, the rankings of expectancy-value scores are dependent on item scaling can have important implications for the analysis and interpretation of results.&quot; (Newton et al., 2011, p.2-3)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fishbein and Ajzen have also dealt with this problem; French and Hankins (2003) explain the 'psychology of the double negative', which was originally presented by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The rationale given by Fishbein and Ajzen for the scoring system adopted is based on what they term the ‘psychology of the double negative’. For instance, if an ‘expectancy’ belief and its associated evaluation were both scored from - 3 to + 3, as recommended by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), an individual who indicated that (s)he thought an outcome was both likely and good would score the maximum possible (+ 3 * + 3 = + 9), as would an individual who thought the outcome was both unlikely and bad (-3 * -3 = + 9). That is, a negatively valued consequence with a perceived low probability of occurring is thought to be as much a reason for inferring a positive attitude as a positively valued consequence with a perceived high probability of occurring. Note that, according to this viewpoint, the distant positions have led to the same numerical outcome.&quot; (French &amp;amp; Hankins, 2003, p.39)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fishbein and Ajzen thus state that bipolar scaling is the best choice:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;In sum, evidence available to date indicates that bipolar scoring is generally superior to unipolar scoring of behavioral beliefs.&quot; (Fishbein &amp;amp; Ajzen, 2008, p.2231)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And they have also stated that the multiplicative combination is correct:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We thus conclude that the multiplication of belief strength and outcome evaluation, which is at the core of the expectancy-value model, is a reasonable and well-supported assumption.&quot; (Fishbein &amp;amp; Ajzen, 2010, p.118)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What puzzles me is that Fishbein and Ajzen, both in 2008 and 2010, have suggested to convert from a bipolar to a unipolar scale after the data has been collected:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Even though the shift from unipolar to bipolar scoring involves a simple linear transformation (i.e., subtraction by 4), it results in a nonlinear transformation of the product term (be). This can be seen in the following computation where the original values of b are transformed by the addition of a constant B, and the values of e by a constant E. For simplicity, only one behavioral belief is entered into the expectancy–value equation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;$$&#xA;\ A_{B}\propto(b+B)(e+E)\propto be+Eb+Be+BE&#xA;$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In practice, however, the impact of a linear transformation is often relatively small as a result of a restricted range of belief strength or outcome evaluation scores. In the limiting condition in which scores on either variable are the same for all participants, a linear transformation of that variable will&#xA;  result in a linear transformation of the b * e product, thus having no effect on correlations with external criteria.&quot; (Fishbein &amp;amp; Ajzen, 2008, p.2226-2226)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To conclude, both French and Hankins (2003) and Newton et al. (2011) problematize the multiplicative combination because of the double negatives, also called the expectancy-value muddle.&#xA;They do suggest various solutions but recommend two other models developed by Schmidt (1973) and Haddock and Zanna (1998), the &quot;expectancy-valence model&quot; and &quot;open-ended measures of attitudinal components,&quot; respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These models, however, are not applicable to my problem. I have already carried out questionnaires that do have double negatives in the resulting data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm considering to either use the suggestion by Fishbein and Ajzen (2008) or to accept this issue as a &quot;psychology of the double negative&quot; presented by the same authors (1980).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I'm not sure, and that's why I'm reaching out to this community to ask: What is the best and common practice to overcome this issue with double negatives when using the expectancy-value model?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bibliography&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ajzen, I., &amp;amp; Fishbein, M. (2008). Scaling and Testing Multiplicative Combinations in the Expectancy–Value Model of Attitudes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38(9), 2222–2247. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00389.x&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ajzen, I., &amp;amp; Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Prentice-Hall.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fishbein, M., &amp;amp; Ajzen, I. (2010). Predicting and Changing Behavior: The Reasoned Action Approach. Taylor &amp;amp; Francis Group.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;French, D. P., &amp;amp; Hankins, M. (2003). The expectancy-value muddle in the theory of planned behaviour — and some proposed solutions. British Journal of Health Psychology, 8(1), 37–55. doi:10.1348/135910703762879192&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haddock, G., &amp;amp; Zanna, M. P. (1998). On the use of open-ended measures to assess attitudinal components. British Journal of Social Psychology, 37(2), 129–149. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1998.tb01161.x&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Newton, J. D., Ewing, M. T., Burney, S., &amp;amp; Hay, M. (2011). Resolving the theory of planned behaviour’s “expectancy-value muddle” using dimensional salience. Psychology &amp;amp; Health, 27(5), 588–602. doi:10.1080/08870446.2011.611244&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schmidt, F. L. (1973). Implications of a measurement problem for expectancy theory research. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 10(2), 243–251. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(73)90016-0&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2563" LastEditorUserId="2563" LastEditDate="2013-01-02T20:31:22.507" LastActivityDate="2013-02-03T02:29:41.903" Title="Best practice to handle double negatives when using the expectancy-value model?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2062" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2060" CreationDate="2013-01-02T15:18:54.733" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem is fundamentally due to the level of likelihood you allocate to an event, that is variable $e_i$, should not be measured using a bi-polar scale.  Instead, likelihoods should be associated with a percentage, between 0 and 100%.  This is a more natural unit, as a &quot;low likelihood&quot; result usually means that the respondent thinks the probability of the occurance to be low, e.g. 20%.  I could easily convert a bipolar scale to a percentage scale by using simple arithmetic.  E.g. if the scale is -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, then I would convert these numbers to percentages as 0, 16.6, 33.3, 50, 66.6, 83.3, 100.  This avoids the double negative problem, and is a more natural measurement of certainty than the bi-polar scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2538" LastEditorUserId="2538" LastEditDate="2013-01-02T15:35:59.930" LastActivityDate="2013-01-02T15:35:59.930" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2063" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-03T05:42:07.710" Score="5" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a recent paper, we find this quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The brain contains vast numbers of interconnected neurons that constitute anatomical and functional networks. &lt;strong&gt;Structural descriptions of neuronal network elements and connections&lt;/strong&gt; make up the “connectome” of the brain (Hagmann, 2005; &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.0010042&quot;&gt;Sporns et al., 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05888.x&quot;&gt;Sporns, 2011&lt;/a&gt;), and &lt;strong&gt;are important for understanding normal brain function and disease-related dysfunction&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This quote is from the first paragraph in: T. B. Leergaard, C. C. Hilgetag and O. Sporns, &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fninf.2012.00014&quot;&gt;Mapping the connectome: multi-level analysis of brain connectivity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, Front. Neuroinform., 2012.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;: Understanding which dysfunctions, in particular, is aided by structural descriptions of neuronal networks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="931" LastActivityDate="2014-01-21T15:32:36.543" Title="Structural descriptions of neuronal networks are important for understanding brain dysfunctions; which dysfunctions, in particular?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2064" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2070" CreationDate="2013-01-03T11:59:00.793" Score="17" ViewCount="2054" Body="&lt;p&gt;Leading a volunteering team, I've been to an orphanage where the sister (who did a psychology course) running the orphanage was strict that volunteers should spend a minimum of 3 months teaching the kids on the weekends if they wanted to, because kids develop an attachment to the visitors. Another NGO insists that volunteers pledge a minimum of one year if they wish to mentor a child.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At another orphanage which is frequented by volunteers of many companies, a worker there said that the kids were accustomed to seeing strangers everyday. Girls at an orphanage in Delhi told my friend (head of an orphanage in Bangalore) that they don't like it when (well-meaning) visitors arrive and ask them to stand in front of them and narrate a poem or sing a song for them.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a volunteering leader, I encourage people to contribute to society meaningfully. I want to know what the best psychological/emotional effect we can have on the children. Would it be bad for the children in the long-run, to see strangers come to conduct events for them where they sing and dance, distribute snacks and gifts and then the kids never get to see these people again. People from various companies visit these kids. Is it better to not conduct such events, and instead ensure that volunteers visit these kids weekly/monthly, find out what their needs are, become familiar with the kids and help them in whatever way possible?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem here, is that a lot of volunteers see what other companies are doing, and are more interested in conducting a grand event at orphanages/old-age-homes, donate money or gifts and then walk away. They say they don't have the time for multiple visits.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Should I discourage people to do this? (a friend described it as being similar to visiting a zoo)  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shouldn't they spend more time with the children/senior-citizens? Empathy and understanding.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Won't it just reinforce the kids/senior-citizen's belief that nobody really cares about them?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any research done on the psychological/emotional effect this has?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2582" LastEditorUserId="2582" LastEditDate="2015-09-05T05:58:16.180" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T21:12:08.013" Title="What effect do random visitors have on children in orphanages and people in old age homes?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2065" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2066" CreationDate="2013-01-03T19:25:16.690" Score="2" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that the bulk of an axon is myelinated, greatly adding to the efficiency of transmitting action potentials. However, the axon terminals are not myelinated. I'm wondering if the energy of an action potential is divided among the various branched terminals of an axon and, if so, how it's divided. For the purpose of this question, I think it's safe to assume that an action potential loses no energy while travelling down the main myelinated part of an axon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2526" LastActivityDate="2013-01-03T21:19:01.677" Title="Is the energy of an action potential divided among multiple axon terminals?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2066" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2065" CreationDate="2013-01-03T21:19:01.677" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my understanding, no, this is not the case: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon#Action_potentials&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;action potentials&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, in the axon terminal(s) and other non-myelinated areas, travel like a wave, thus activating all terminals with the same starting energy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the myelinated areas of the axon, however, the charge instead performs &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltatory_conduction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;Saltatory conduction&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, where the charge jumps from one &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelin_sheath_gap&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;node of Ranvier&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt; to the next extremely quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may be interested in the Wikipedia article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmission&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;Neurotransmission&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  Unfortunately, a few of the citation links on that page are dead, but it should offer some good material anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastActivityDate="2013-01-03T21:19:01.677" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2069" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="2072" CreationDate="2013-01-04T13:11:49.397" Score="2" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in planning and how one is able to take action and plan ahead at the same time. I could imagine one could make observations and project these into the future using past experiences. The reward system could then sort out favorable outcomes which one could aim for, taking the necessary steps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I don't know if this is really how the reward system works (I wasn't able to find resources especially for &quot;future&quot; reward) and I can also see difficulties in terms of interference with control of the current situation - planning would have to be handled as some sort of suppressed action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So are there already cognitive models that try to explain planning and how planning and action could work in parallel (although interacting)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="224" LastActivityDate="2013-01-04T17:55:58.073" Title="Are there already models for planning and goal-directed behaviour?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;goals&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2070" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2064" CreationDate="2013-01-04T14:08:42.340" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is indeed research done on the topic. Some links:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thinkchildsafe.org/thinkbeforevisiting/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.thinkchildsafe.org/thinkbeforevisiting/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hsrc.ac.za/HSRC_Review_Article-195.phtml&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.hsrc.ac.za/HSRC_Review_Article-195.phtml&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thinkchildsafe.org/thinkbeforevisiting/resources/Misguided_Kindness.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.thinkchildsafe.org/thinkbeforevisiting/resources/Misguided_Kindness.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thinkchildsafe.org/thinkbeforevisiting/resources/UN%20Guidelines%20Alternative%20Care.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.thinkchildsafe.org/thinkbeforevisiting/resources/UN%20Guidelines%20Alternative%20Care.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volunteer_travel&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volunteer_travel&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extracts:&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A child's right to privacy Under international law, children in&#xA;  orphanages have the same rights as children across the globe to have a&#xA;  safe and private home setting. Short-term orphanage visits from&#xA;  tourists and travelers lowers a child's privacy inside their own home.&#xA;  Additionally, reports show that short-term visits can cause harm to a&#xA;  child's development and emotional wellbeing. We think everyone agrees&#xA;  that children need safety, privacy and stability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do I harm children by visiting an orphanage?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Many orphanages rely&#xA;  almost entirely on donations from visitors to survive. Thus directors&#xA;  may purposefully maintain poor living conditions for children to&#xA;  secure funds from tourists. Children who appear underserved may come&#xA;  across as a cry for help more than children who appear well fed and&#xA;  cared for. This of course places guilt on tourists if they do not help&#xA;  immediately. By visiting orphanages and making a donation you may be&#xA;  fuelling a system that exploits children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Institutionalised children will thus tend to manifest the same&#xA;  indiscriminate affection towards volunteers. After a few days or&#xA;  weeks, this attachment is broken when the volunteer leaves and a new&#xA;  attachment forms when the next volunteer arrives. Although there is&#xA;  little empirical evidence on children's reactions to very short-term,&#xA;  repeat attachments over time, evidence from the study of children in&#xA;  temporary or unstable foster care indicates that repeated disruptions&#xA;  in attachment are extremely disturbing for children, especially very&#xA;  young children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2582" LastEditorUserId="2582" LastEditDate="2013-07-23T07:45:14.767" LastActivityDate="2013-07-23T07:45:14.767" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2071" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2047" CreationDate="2013-01-04T17:38:11.793" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;To me the question is equivalent to what is the function of &lt;strong&gt;consciousness&lt;/strong&gt; itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me elaborate. There is a difference between &lt;strong&gt;affects/emotional circuits&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;feelings&lt;/strong&gt;. The level at which for eg. Jaak Panksepp works is emotional circuits or affects that are primarily unconscious and can be conceived of in terms of instincts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If &lt;strong&gt;fear&lt;/strong&gt; circuit is activated, the organism exhibits a &lt;strong&gt;flight-fight-freeze&lt;/strong&gt; response. Conscious feeling of fear may or may not be involved, but physiological changes like activation of sympathetic system happens. If the unconscious fear circuit is OK to keep us out of harm's way (predators) why do we also need to &lt;em&gt;feel&lt;/em&gt; fearful? A related meta question is, if a zombie behaving like me, but having no &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;qualia&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, can and will succeed similar to me, why have consciousness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll address the questions, but first let me solidify the claim that unconscious processes are sufficient for most adaptive regulations. Consider your example of heat/cold as thermo-regulation of body temperature...but do you really need to 'feel' heat/cold for that. Consider when you are sound asleep- you still unconsciously cover with blanket or throw away blanket depending on how sweaty/ cold you are- you dont need to consciously register that. So thermo-regulation, like other adaptive actions of affects, can happen in absence of accompanying felt feelings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what is the purpose of consciousness/feelings? They provide flexibility to behavior and  leave it to us whether we want to indulge in adaptive hardwired behavior or do differently. Taking our cold/heat analogy, instead of wiring our thermo-regulation behavior entirely, feelings provide us a way to keep remaining cold, despite feeling cold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, consciousness/'free wont' gives the ability to &lt;strong&gt;suppress prepotent (adaptive in short term) response&lt;/strong&gt; in favor of our long term view or values. By way of another example, if all we had was an unconscious fear circuit, we would always run when confronted with large challenges that are insurmountable; but when the conscious feeling of fear comes into play, although we may feel sacred as hell when confronted with larger opponents, we can still act bravely and with integrity- and that may be far adaptive in the longer run.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the short answer is that conscious feelings like jealousy etc. exist &lt;strong&gt;so that we can act contra to that feeling if we wished to do so&lt;/strong&gt; and are not doomed to always act as per what the feeling dictates!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="409" LastActivityDate="2013-01-04T17:38:11.793" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2072" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2069" CreationDate="2013-01-04T17:55:58.073" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reward systems are one of the most actively studied topics in (cognitive) neuroscience and prediction error - that is, deviations from expected &quot;future&quot; reward - play a big role in that. Since you're particularly interested in models, I recommend checking out the work of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/~matthewb/&quot;&gt;Matt Botvinick&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~daw/&quot;&gt;Nathaniel Daw&lt;/a&gt;. Here are a few papers that might be good starting points:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Glascher, Daw, Dayan, &amp;amp; O’Doherty (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~daw/gddo10.pdf&quot;&gt;States versus Rewards: Dissociable Neural&#xA;Prediction Error Signals Underlying Model-Based and Model-Free Reinforcement Learning&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Neuron, 66&lt;/em&gt;, 585-595.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;den Ouden, Friston, Daw, McIntosh, &amp;amp; Stephan (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~daw/dfdms08.pdf&quot;&gt;A Dual Role for Prediction Error in&#xA;Associative Learning&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Cerebral Cortex, 19&lt;/em&gt;, 1175-1185.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Solway &amp;amp; Botvinick (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/~matthewb/Publications/SolwayBotvinick_PsychRev_12.pdf&quot;&gt;Goal-directed decision making as probabilistic inference: A computational framework and potential neural correlates&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Psycholological Review, 119&lt;/em&gt;, 120-154.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Botvinick &amp;amp; Plaut (2004). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnbc.cmu.edu/~plaut/papers/pdf/BotvinickPlaut04PR.seq-action.pdf&quot;&gt;Doing without schema hierarchies: A recurrent connectionist approach to routine sequential action and its pathologies&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review, 111&lt;/em&gt;, 395-429.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2013-01-04T17:55:58.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2073" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-04T20:57:12.103" Score="5" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;Saw this: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2013/01/lead-crime-link-gasoline&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2013/01/lead-crime-link-gasoline&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lead emissions from tailpipes rose steadily from the early '40s&#xA;  through the early '70s, nearly quadrupling over that period. Then, as&#xA;  unleaded gasoline began to replace leaded gasoline, emissions&#xA;  plummeted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Intriguingly, violent crime rates followed the same upside-down U&#xA;  pattern... The two curves looked eerily identical, but were &lt;strong&gt;offset&#xA;  by about 20 years&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They claim a strong methodology: they studied during the phaseout of leaded fuel (which was not implemented uniformly across places, crucially) and subsequent violence levels. The same trend was proved across the world. Lead shrinks the part of the brain responsible for empathy, hence where lead poisoning was more common, people are more predisposed to violence. Big cities thus become more violent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do widely-spread brain toxins explain more violence? Are many violent criminals people who got their prefrontal cortexes shrunk by toxins? Do big cities make people aggressive and violent due to increased concentration of toxins?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2587" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-23T05:38:30.183" LastActivityDate="2015-04-17T17:37:36.680" Title="Do widespread brain toxins explain violence rates?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2074" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-04T22:23:33.543" Score="2" ViewCount="184" Body="&lt;p&gt;With regards to the answer posted by @sandygautman in the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/2047/do-feelings-have-a-purpose&quot;&gt;Do feelings have a purpose&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me first state that I don't have a problem with either the question nor the answer; I'm only looking for some clarification.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If fear circuit is activated, the organism exhibits a flight-fight-freeze response. Conscious feeling of fear may or may not be involved, but physiological changes like activation of sympathetic system happens. If the unconscious fear circuit is OK to keep us out of harm's way (predators) &lt;strong&gt;why do we also need to feel fearful&lt;/strong&gt;? A related meta question is, if a zombie behaving like me, but having no qualia, can and will succeed similar to me, why have consciousness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'll address the questions, but first let me solidify the claim that unconscious processes are sufficient for most adaptive regulations. Consider your example of heat/cold as thermo-regulation of body temperature...&lt;strong&gt;but do you really need to 'feel' heat/cold for that&lt;/strong&gt;. Consider when you are sound asleep- you still unconsciously cover with blanket or throw away blanket depending on how sweaty/ cold you are- you dont need to consciously register that. &lt;strong&gt;So thermo-regulation, like other adaptive actions of affects, can happen in absence of accompanying felt feelings&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What evidence do we have for a separation between the processing of a stimulus and the experience of a stimulus?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  That is, what evidence is there to indicate that what we experience is NOT the body processing the stimulus?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;For example, what evidence is there that the experience of cold when jumping into a lake is different than the body processing the temperature difference (and processing related tasks such as thermo-regulation, etc)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My assumption has been that the only difference between 'feeling' something or not 'feeling' something has been attention; that doesn't mean the 'feeling' isn't there, but that it is literally not being processed by the conscious/attentive part of the brain.    That is, instead of saying   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So thermo-regulation, like other adaptive actions of affects, can happen in absence of accompanying felt feelings&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it would be more correct to say:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So thermo-regulation, like other adaptive actions of affects, can happen in absence of &lt;em&gt;consciousness of or attention to the thermo-regulation process&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm concerned that this question is unclear, but I have to leave my computer for a while, so please let me know if you have any confusion and I will attempt to clarify.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/2048/how-are-qualia-localized-in-consciousness&quot;&gt;How are qualia localized in consciousness?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-01-04T22:23:33.543" Title="Evidence that qualia are not the same as physical processes?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T19:12:07.927" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2075" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-06T13:37:08.333" Score="7" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of the regular waking cognition experiences a continuous visual field. One object of focus flows into another. Objects out of focus are pushed to the periphery. A person may move one's view around in a 360 degree sphere, but from a single point in space. For example, moving eyes away from the monitor towards the desk keeps the monitor in the field of view, just moves it to the periphery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, as I'm looking at modern day (2012) movies and commercials, I notice that a lot of them feature abrupt changes from one image to another, from one camera angle to another. It is as if the perspective shifts about in space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Quite a lot of these image changes are very brief - just a few seconds long.&lt;/strong&gt; For example, a conversation on screen may have camera on one actor talking, then jump to show the other actor's reaction, then snap back. Commercials are even worse - if viewed out of the corner of one's eye, they frequently appear as just a series of flashes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if there's any science behind these abrupt changes in camera angles and flashes of images.&lt;/strong&gt; For example, I know that a human eye needs about 25 frames per second to perceive fluid motion on the screen. A refresh rate of 60 hertz is the minimum to avoid eye strain. Are there any similar numbers related to the duration of exposure to the stimulus, for example(fake numbers):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;0.75 seconds to capture emotion on the human's face&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;2 seconds to comprehend action (ex: car driving on screen)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;3 seconds flash of explosion is enough to produce excitement&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;14 seconds to become familiar with the scene&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-08-17T00:50:12.807" Title="Is there any science behind movie/commercial camera angle changes?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2078" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-08T12:58:37.653" Score="3" ViewCount="703" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found the following anecdote &lt;a href=&quot;http://qr.ae/1unPG&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;on Quora&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many years ago, I worked for a gas &amp;amp; electric power company, and had&#xA;been a member of a crew installing a road-side gas main. Despite the&#xA;signs, flashing lights, and traffic cones we'd set up well in advance&#xA;of the work zone, the overwhelming majority of people would speed past&#xA;us--sometimes within an arm's length, seemingly having no regard for&#xA;our safety. Our supervisor showed up to check on our progress, and,&#xA;witnessing the danger, he walked to our truck, took out a yellow&#xA;compressor hose, and rolled it out across the road. Immediately &amp;amp;&#xA;without exception, from that point on, every single car slowed down&#xA;before driving over the hose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the worker's interpretation of the behavior:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my youthful mind, I concluded that people were simply more&#xA;concerned about damaging their cars than they were about damaging&#xA;other people, but in my now middle-aged mind, I believe it's more&#xA;complex than that. Maybe it's one of those countless subconscious,&#xA;split-second decisions our minds have to make throughout each day,&#xA;assessing probabilities &amp;amp; adjusting accordingly: 'I see the road crew,&#xA;I've never struck a person with my car before, it's much more likely&#xA;than not that I won't strike a person today, and those people are&#xA;aware of my car &amp;amp; have the ability to avoid it, therefore, carry on.'&#xA;[versus] 'I see an object on the road, I see that I can't avoid the&#xA;object, I've experienced damage to my car before when driving over&#xA;objects in the road, and that object isn't going to move, therefore,&#xA;caution is merited.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this interpretation correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2597" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-01-23T06:57:19.420" Title="Why do drivers not slow down when they see signs indicating road work?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2079" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-08T13:30:47.627" Score="10" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;For various reasons we're doing a reaction time study involving images that runs on unstandardized equipment: patients' personal computers (unless they don't meet certain requirements).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It's not about vision or individual differences, but group-level intraindividual change in reaction times (attention retraining), so it's not &lt;em&gt;that&lt;/em&gt; important that participants all have the same experience as long as it's not confounded with the experimental condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most reaction time studies run on standardised equipment, with a standardised distance from the monitor etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can at most ask participants to keep a certain distance to the screen, but we can't ask them to buy new monitors of course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, three basic options arise (assuming our images are in a sufficiently high resolution):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Use constant number of pixels.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Positive&lt;/strong&gt;: We can use the same images for everyone, if we use a medium number of pixels, we can accomodate most resolutions. Also, potentially everyone sees the same amount of information (i.e. no information lost due to down-scaling).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Negative&lt;/strong&gt;: With high resolutions, images may look pretty small, and with large monitors, participants may usually position themselves further away from the monitor habitually, so some see &quot;less information&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Use constant display size (i.e. 7 cm wide).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Positive&lt;/strong&gt;: On large and small monitors with different resolutions, images are the same size.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Negative&lt;/strong&gt;: Apparently the information used to compute actual display size can be unreliable, so we may end up with different display sizes. We'll probably need different images and people with larger monitors and higher resolutions will be able to see more details.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Use constant fraction of display (i.e. 70% percent wide).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Positive&lt;/strong&gt;: Fraction of display may do the best job of letting people perceive considering that people probably sit further away from bigger monitors.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Negative&lt;/strong&gt;: Need images in different sizes (dynamically computed with JS). They may see different levels of detail.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These options could be combined (i.e. constant pixels unless that is less than 50% of the monitor) and there's also the option of letting users zoom (will result in somewhat blurry images though).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research into this matter and if not, which option sounds best perception-wise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="118" LastActivityDate="2013-03-23T18:07:28.840" Title="Images on personal computers - Which aspect of size to keep constant?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2081" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3185" CreationDate="2013-01-09T19:52:55.447" Score="6" ViewCount="2741" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What happens in your mind when the &quot;lightbulb goes off&quot;, or a concept &quot;clicks&quot; for you? Why is there such a threshold for human understanding?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Existing searches&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;I've searched a good amount for it. &quot;when the light bulb goes off&quot; leads me to English Grammar-related/expression questions, &quot;What’s Happening When Something Clicks?&quot; gives one or two decent articles, like one from xraylistening.com, but doesn't really scientifically answer my question. &quot;Aha moment&quot; just tells me about the feeling. These are just a few of the searches I've done. I've searched, but haven't gotten a satisfactory answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2602" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-12T01:02:56.207" LastActivityDate="2013-02-12T01:02:56.207" Title="What happens in your brain when a concept &quot;clicks&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="2082" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-09T20:43:01.147" Score="10" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've watched the &lt;a href=&quot;http://natgeotv.com/asia/my-brilliant-brain/about&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;My Brilliant Brain: Born Genius&quot;&lt;/a&gt; documentary where they refer to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abecedarian_Early_Intervention_Project&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Abecedarian Project&lt;/a&gt;, in that investigation, a group of children that were exposed to early childhood education observed long-term benefits, such as higher scores in intelligence tests than those children that weren't exposed to early education.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any peer-reviewed or follow-up studies on the optimal ways to teach new parents on how to obtain similar results?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2516" LastEditorUserId="2516" LastEditDate="2017-06-24T17:08:43.343" LastActivityDate="2017-06-24T17:08:43.343" Title="How to teach parents to apply early childhood interventions to improve cognitive outcomes in children?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="5" ClosedDate="2017-08-01T14:21:29.457" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3090" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-15T18:11:59.820" Score="6" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need a measure of the degree to which each of several features biases participants to respond &quot;yes&quot; in a category present / absent task for each of several categories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have stimuli defined along 3 binary feature dimensions, let's call them a, b, and c. Each feature is perfectly diagnostic for 1 of 3 categories, let's call them x, y, and z, and perfectly non-diagnostic for the other 2. In other words, for example, a stimulus belongs to category x if it has feature a and not if it doesn't, and it is equally likely to belong to category y or not, and to category z or not, both when feature a is present and when it is absent. Participants are shown stimuli and asked whether or not they belong to a given category. In a given block of the experiment, they are only asked about 1 of the 3 categories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So going back to my question, if the feature is the one diagnostic for the category, then correct response would be &quot;yes&quot; 100% of the time the feature is present and &quot;no&quot; 100% of the time the feature is absent. If the feature is one of the two irrelevant ones, then &quot;yes&quot; will be the correct response 50% of the time regardless of feature presence. In fact it turns out that people respond &quot;yes&quot; more than 50% of the time when the irrelevant features are present, and less than 50% of the time when they are absent, indicating that the irrelevant features bias them to respond &quot;yes&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I need is a way to quantify that effect. Things I've considered. (1) Subtract the positive response rate for feature absent from the positive response rate for feature present. 0% would indicate no bias for irrelevant features. (2) Divide the positive response rate for feature present by the positive response rate for feature absent. 1.0 would indicate no bias for irrelevant features. (3) Combining feature present and absent, divide the positive response rate by the correct response rate (i.e. the response rate of the perfect responder). 1.0 would indicate no bias for irrelevant features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering whether there is a good &quot;standard&quot; measure for this kind of situation or, failing that, whether anyone can think of a good reason to prefer any one of the options above, or another one I haven't thought of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure whether or not signal detection theory is relevant here. My sense is that it's not, because I'm not looking for general response bias but rather the bias induced by specific features, and also because I have binary rather than continuous features, but I'm willing to be persuaded otherwise - maybe I just don't understand SDT well enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oh, one other thing in case it matters - the stimuli in question are graphs and tables of data from 2x2 experimental designs, while the features / categories are presence / absence of main effects of each variable and the interaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2614" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T18:14:52.117" Title="Quantify degree to which non-diagnostic features bias category-present response" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3091" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3113" CreationDate="2013-01-15T23:42:05.877" Score="5" ViewCount="334" Body="&lt;p&gt;If Dopamine and Dopamine D2 receptor is involved in craving, wanting and clinging towards something or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incentive_salience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;incentive salience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dopamine is closely associated with reward-seeking behaviors, such as&#xA;  approach, consumption, and addiction.[38] Recent researches suggest&#xA;  that the firing of dopaminergic neurons is a motivational substance as&#xA;  a consequence of reward-anticipation. This hypothesis is based on the&#xA;  evidence that, when a reward is greater than expected, the firing of&#xA;  certain dopaminergic neurons increases, which consequently increases&#xA;  desire or motivation towards the reward (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine#Learning.2C_reinforcement.2C_and_reward-seeking_behavior&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;from dopamine on Wikipedia &lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the opposite mechanism in humans - by which we are experiencing aversion from something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, someone finds something rotten, stinky and covered in white fuzzy mold in a plastic bag. Eww! Gross! Get it away! don't touch it! Keep distance. &lt;strong&gt;What is neurologically responsible for the person's feeling of aversion towards an object like that?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there different pathways to aversion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, would seeing a person who looks like a witch from fairy tales (old, ugly, rotten teeth, lots of warts, body odor) cause the same aversion response as moldy food?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2013-01-18T16:07:54.380" LastActivityDate="2013-01-21T01:52:58.207" Title="How can the aversion response be explained neurologically?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3092" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3118" CreationDate="2013-01-16T02:10:27.313" Score="12" ViewCount="961" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in the phenomenon of short term &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysphoria&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dysphoria&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dysphoria is a state of feeling unwell or unhappy; a feeling of emotional and mental discomfort as a symptom of discontentment, restlessness, dissatisfaction, malaise, depression or anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What interests me is when Dysphoria arises following moments of intense pleasure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-coital_tristesse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Post-coital tristesse&lt;/a&gt;, a feeling of blues following orgasm&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postorgasmic_illness_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Postorgasmic illness syndrome&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dysphoria associated with recreational drug use, where X minutes of euphoria are followed by Y minutes of dysphoria ( I do not know the term for this one).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon that I'm describing &lt;strong&gt;lasts from 5 minutes to a few hours&lt;/strong&gt;, then disappears. It is experienced by only a small subset of population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I tried to look for an explanation, but cannot find the cause - why Dysphoria appears following intense pleasure?&lt;/strong&gt; Is Dopamine or Dopamine Transporter or D2 receptors involved in some way ? Is this some sort of sensitization/desensitization homeostasis mechanism at play?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for any search terms or hints that would help me shed light on the subject. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2013-01-31T15:20:39.220" LastActivityDate="2014-12-11T07:21:52.620" Title="What causes short-term dysphoria following intense pleasure?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2056" CreationDate="2013-01-16T14:06:43.933" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is indeed some research on handedness and user interfaces but not exactly at the level you seem to be after. Handedness matters for tablet interfaces, hand occlusion is a particular concern there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some references: &lt;a href=&quot;http://hal.inria.fr/hal-00670516/en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://hal.inria.fr/hal-00670516/en&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.89.4546&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.89.4546&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Speculating myself a little bit, I would however be careful when drawing practical conclusions from any putative “natural” handedness-related inclination. Maybe there is such a thing and it could conceivably be measured but you need much more than that to justify any UI decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, cultural factors (in a broad sense, including web and platform conventions) could just as well play a big role. The usability literature has always emphasized consistency and the fact that your interface is just going to be one of many interfaces with which users are regularly interacting so when in doubt always try to follow common practice, not necessarily because it is better as such but simply to avoid confusing your users. In any case, there is no reason to worry specifically about “natural” inclinations (as opposed to learned ones).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastActivityDate="2013-01-16T14:06:43.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3094" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-16T14:13:05.993" Score="7" ViewCount="831" Body="&lt;p&gt;In contrast to &lt;strong&gt;affective priming&lt;/strong&gt;, what is &lt;strong&gt;affective cueing&lt;/strong&gt;? I'm not sure how to differentiate between the two. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a good review on affective priming in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14792779643000083&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Karl Christoph Klauer (1997)&lt;/a&gt; in the European Review of Social Psychology, and from this I gather that affective priming simply is a priming which is targeted at emotions instead of at reactions. I did not find any definition of affective cueing so far. The best I could manage was from &lt;a href=&quot;http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20101121005222AA12gP3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;, however it does not help me at all, nor do the reference in there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2433" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T10:07:42.503" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T11:01:35.667" Title="What is the definition of affective cueing?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3095" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3125" CreationDate="2013-01-16T22:02:52.247" Score="9" ViewCount="753" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is specifically about the male brain and its lack of cognition in the presence of a highly attractive female.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is in contrast to regaining cognitive ability in the presence of an unattractive female. (both subjective of course)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a better and more specific example, the character &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajesh_Koothrappali&quot;&gt;&quot;Raj&quot; Koothrappali&lt;/a&gt;, on the hit television show &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory&quot;&gt;The Big Bang Theory&lt;/a&gt;&quot; is a model for the very real issue that some men do experience: please see description: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajesh_Koothrappali#Personality&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajesh_Koothrappali#Personality&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_mutism&quot;&gt;Selective Mutism&lt;/a&gt; is along these lines but is a very generalized description of his/the issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question include and not limited to are: What part of the brain is involved in this phenomenon, is it a stand alone issue or is it always accompanied by some other type of social anxiety, why do some men have it and others do not, is this some sort of protection or evolutionary byproduct and are there any studies specific to this issue ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2013-02-19T00:33:58.253" LastActivityDate="2014-02-24T14:13:27.383" Title="What part of the brain locks up when a man is in the presence of an extremely attractive female?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3096" PostTypeId="7" CreationDate="2013-01-17T00:23:23.893" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychology &amp;amp; Neuroscience Stack Exchange&lt;/strong&gt; is a question and answer site for researchers, academics, students, and enthusiasts needing expert answers to advanced questions in the &quot;cognitive sciences&quot;: i.e. cognitive science, psychology, neuroscience, and psychiatry. It's built and run &lt;em&gt;by you&lt;/em&gt; as part of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Stack Exchange&lt;/a&gt; network of Q&amp;amp;A sites. With your help, we're working together to build a library of detailed answers to every question about cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="53" LastEditDate="2017-12-18T21:44:17.890" LastActivityDate="2017-12-18T21:44:17.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3097" PostTypeId="7" CreationDate="2013-01-17T00:23:51.460" Score="0" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive science&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychology (e.g., cognitive, social, developmental, biological, applied, clinical, organizational, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychiatry&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuroscience and neurobiology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="2370" LastEditDate="2013-01-17T00:23:51.460" LastActivityDate="2013-01-17T00:23:51.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3098" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-17T09:45:19.563" Score="12" ViewCount="2298" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in empirical research relevant to answering the following questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the effect of physical exercise on IQ/intelligence?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does any such effect vary by type of exercise? e.g. aerobics, weights&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any forms of physical exercise that can stimulate brian growth?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2560" LastEditorUserId="625" LastEditDate="2015-04-26T21:10:21.193" LastActivityDate="2017-12-02T22:45:14.917" Title="Effect of Physical Exercise on Intelligence/IQ" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3099" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3139" CreationDate="2013-01-17T22:15:27.967" Score="4" ViewCount="1333" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm outfitting a small behavioural lab with a fiscal-austerity-induced budget. I'm considering trying out a Raspberry pi for individual participant systems. My tentative plan is to run linux and code experiments in python. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone have any experience with this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My primary concern is whether the processor and video capabilities of the Pi will make it accurate enough in terms of timing. Will the Pi have substantial delay / variability between a call to present complicated visual stimuli (like arrays of Gabors) and the time stimuli actually appear on the screen? When a keyboard or mouse button gets pressed, what will be the delay / variability between the actual response time and the recorded response time? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2621" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-01-22T10:52:50.713" LastActivityDate="2013-01-29T15:06:21.670" Title="Is the Raspberry Pi capable of operating as a stimulus presentation system for experiments?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3100" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-17T23:39:46.530" Score="7" ViewCount="1312" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have ringing in my ears that has become constant over time. Most of the time I just ignore it, to tell you the truth I can't even remember when it started. Lately I'm curious what the frequency of the ringing is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it the same for everyone or does it vary?&lt;code&gt;The answer seems to be that it varies&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any usual suspect frequencies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it's always different from person to person, what's the easiest way of figuring out what it is? Is there an app for that? &lt;code&gt;I still haven't found answer to this&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I chew something tough, many times I can hear the ringing increase in loudness and decrease as I flex my jaw and release. Thought this might be relevent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2622" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-03-19T13:33:23.100" LastActivityDate="2017-05-11T22:21:49.370" Title="What's the frequency of the ringing in my ear?" Tags="&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2045" CreationDate="2013-01-18T01:21:59.167" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you need to think about what you mean by &quot;speed of thinking&quot;.&#xA;Your language implies that you are looking for a generalised way to be more intelligent. I have not seen any simple interventions for increasing general intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may find it more productive to focus on particular domains of your life that you want to improve. Practice and instruction improve performance in a given domain. There are a wide variety of mechanisms by which this occurs, some of which could be characterised as speed of thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, practice often leads to automaticity. Take for example, learning your times tables. When you first encounter a given question (e.g., 8 * 8 = 64), you may have to use a longer algorithm to solve the problem, but with practice, the equation itself may directly trigger recall. Alternatively, take many computer based tasks. The first time you try to perform a task (e.g., sorting your email by date), you may have to think more about how this task can be performed. With practice, you just recall how to do it.&#xA;A similar process of automaticity also applies to the perceptual and motor domains as you learn to assign visual attention effectively or learn to smooth out motor responses (for a review see Rosenbaum et al 2001). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This process of acquiring automaticity in a given domain is not exactly speed of thinking, but it has the same consequences. Automated actions reduce the demands on limited attentional resources, and can be executed quickly and efficiently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For specific suggestions on what makes a great practice schedule you may want to read up on the literature on deliberate practice (e.g., Ericsson, et al 1993).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., &amp;amp; Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological review, 100(3), 363. &lt;a href=&quot;https://syllabus.byu.edu/uploads/h52kB4gCLyQP.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rosenbaum, D. A., Carlson, R. A., &amp;amp; Gilmore, R. O. (2001). Acquisition of intellectual and perceptual-motor skills. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 453-470. &lt;a href=&quot;http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/rosenbaum%20%282001%29%20acquisition%20of%20intellectual%20and%20perceptual-motor%20skills.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-01-18T01:21:59.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3102" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-18T04:00:21.067" Score="2" ViewCount="172" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for &lt;em&gt;performance&lt;/em&gt; results from &lt;strong&gt;categorization&lt;/strong&gt; studies with discrete stimulus features and reinforcement feedback. I need something like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;stimulus  - correct response - performance after X trials&#xA;(1,1,1,0) -         0        -   20.1% correct&#xA;(1,1,0,1) -         1        -   23.3% correct&#xA;(1,0,0,0) -         1        -   82.0% correct&#xA;...&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0093825&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Shepard, Hovland &amp;amp; Jenkins, 1961&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.85.3.207&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Medin &amp;amp; Schaffer, 1978&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Medin, D. L., &amp;amp; Schaffer, M. M. (1978). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.85.3.207&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Context theory of classification learning&lt;/a&gt;. Psychological Review; Psychological Review, 85(3), 207.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Shepard, R. N., Hovland, C. I., &amp;amp; Jenkins, H. M. (1961). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0093825&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Learning and memorization of classifications.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 75(13), 1-42.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="475" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-01-28T10:48:37.347" LastActivityDate="2016-05-28T16:08:25.410" Title="Categorization studies with a procedure similar to Shepard et al (1961) and Medin &amp; Schaffer (1978)" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3103" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3102" CreationDate="2013-01-18T04:37:30.227" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You've described a very general type of study design which has probably been employed in hundreds of studies or more. Your question might profit from a more specific description of the type of study you're looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few examples that fit the bill just off the top of my head are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goldstone (1996) Isolated and interrelated concepts&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zaki and Homa (1999) Concepts and transformational knowledge&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kornell and Bjork (2008) Learning concepts and categories: is spacing the &quot;enemy of induction&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2614" LastActivityDate="2013-01-18T04:37:30.227" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3104" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3098" CreationDate="2013-01-18T05:54:43.713" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;My general sense from reading the intelligence literature is that I would not expect there to be much of a relationship between exercise and intelligence.&#xA;For example, if you read Neisser et al (1996) you can get an overview of the intelligence literature. From the review, you can get a sense of just how difficult it is to systematically increase intelligence, especially over longer periods of time. This includes many cognitive interventions. It seems likely to me that cognitive interventions are targeting intelligence more directly and thus if anything should be more effective than more indirect interventions, such as those targeting physical activity. That said, aerobic, strength, and general physical health is presumably related to energy levels and as studies suggest below may also be related to a range of cognitive and motivational processes relevant to effective life functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Exercise for sedentary adults&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Colcombe and Kramer (2003) performed a meta analysis on sedentary older adults and found that performance on cognitive tasks improved by .48 standard deviation relative to to .16 standard deviation improvement for control groups. The average improvement in cardiovascular only programs was 0.41 standard deviations, and the average improvement for combined programs (i.e., including resistance training) was .59 standard deviations. These studies used a variety of psychomotor and cognitive tasks. However, it did not appear that the studies used intelligence tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I take from these studies that exercise can have a beneficial effect on psychomotor functioning. However, I'm not persuaded yet that it exercise has a major effect on intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Exercise for children&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a review of research on exercise on children's cognitive function and academic achievement, see Tomporowski et al (2008). The authors conclude that &quot;similar to adults, exercise facilitates children’s executive function (i.e., processes required to select, organize, and properly initiate goal-directed actions).&quot;&#xA;They provide a narrative review of many existing studies on the topic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tomporowski, P. D., Davis, C. L., Miller, P. H., &amp;amp; Naglieri, J. A. (2008). Exercise and children’s intelligence, cognition, and academic achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 20(2), 111-131. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2748863/&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2748863/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard Jr, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., ... &amp;amp; Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American psychologist, 51(2), 77.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/correlation/intelligence.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Colcombe, S., &amp;amp; Kramer, A. F. (2003). Fitness Effects on the Cognitive Function of Older Adults A Meta-Analytic Study. Psychological science, 14(2), 125-130.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-01-18T05:54:43.713" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3105" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2078" CreationDate="2013-01-18T07:01:20.983" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Presumably the decision of drivers to slow down in response to work zone signage is influenced by many factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Signage and road factors: Presumably there are a wide range of factors related to the nature of the signs and the structure of the road setting that influence whether people slow down. For example, I've seen road work signage on freeways that were often in place even when no actual road work is occurring. In these cases I've seen many drivers slow down little if at all. In contrast, I typically see much greater reduction in speeds when actual road work is occurring. Or for example, I imagine that a worker standing with a sign would be more effective than a static sign.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cultural and norm factors: Presumably countries and regions  differ in cultural attitudes to driving, the acceptability of speeding, and the general tolerance for risk taking. Road safety advertising employ a wide range of strategies for reducing speeding including targeting personal interest (e.g., you'll get fined if you speed) or highlighting consequences (e.g., speeding increases the likelihood of killing yourself and others). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;A few empirical studies&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jarvis (1983) performed empirical research on Australian highways and found that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is a clear indication that work area speed limits reduce vehicle speed on entry into the work zone; however, the large majority of drivers still exceed the speed limit posted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Garber and Patel (1995) found that signs triggered by radars indicating excessive speed were more effective in slowing cars than static signs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Garber, N. J., &amp;amp; Patel, S. T. (1995). Control of vehicle speeds in temporary traffic control zones (work zones) using changeable message signs with radar. Transportation Research Record, (1509), 73-81.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jarvis, J. R. (1983). The Effectiveness of Road Work Speed Limit Signs. Australian Road Research, 13(3).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-01-22T04:52:10.667" LastActivityDate="2013-01-22T04:52:10.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3106" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3100" CreationDate="2013-01-18T07:41:47.660" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;The frequency is individual, and known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinnitus&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;tinnitus&lt;/a&gt; frequency or pitch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From  Okamoto et al., 2010:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our target notched music introduced a functional deafferentation of&#xA;auditory neurons corresponding to the eliminated frequency&#xA;band, and because this frequency band overlapped the individual&#xA;tinnitus frequency, the notched music no longer stimulated the&#xA;cortical area corresponding to the tinnitus frequency, although it&#xA;still excited surrounding neuron.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a dependency on &amp;quot;training&amp;quot; (from a &lt;a href=&quot;http://discovermagazine.com/2010/oct/26-ringing-in-the-ears-goes-much-deeper#.UPj5AW_K4Z0&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Discover&lt;/a&gt; article):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even in adulthood, experiencing new sounds can rewire the auditory cortex.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;If a rat is trained to recognize sounds at a particular frequency, the&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;corresponding region of the tone map will get bigger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From König et al., 2006:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To further examine the relation between tinnitus pitch&#xA;and hearing loss, we grouped the patients by tinnitus pitch&#xA;(&amp;lt;=3 kHz, 4 kHz, &amp;gt;=6 kHz) and calculated the mean audiogram as well as the mean audiogram edge frequency for&#xA;each group&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Okamoto, H., Stracke, H., Stoll, W., &amp;amp; Pantev, C. (2010). Listening to tailor-made notched music reduces tinnitus loudness and tinnitus-related auditory cortex activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(3), 1207-1210. &lt;a href=&quot;http://campus.uni-muenster.de/fileadmin/einrichtung/tinnitusstudie/Okamoto_et_al_2009_PNAS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;König, O., Schaette, R., Kempter, R., &amp;amp; Gross, M. (2006). Course of hearing loss and occurrence of tinnitus. Hearing research, 221(1), 59-64. &lt;a href=&quot;http://itb.biologie.hu-berlin.de/%7Ekempter/Publications/2006/HearRes/koenig06.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2489" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-19T12:21:29.853" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3107" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2078" CreationDate="2013-01-19T03:44:39.457" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This short talk deals with issues of &quot;cheating slightly&quot; :&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_ariely_on_our_buggy_moral_code.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dan Ariely: Our buggy moral code&lt;/a&gt;. While it does not explain why a hose slowed down traffic, the speaker discusses cases of &quot;I see others cheating, so it's ok to cheat a little more&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case of road work, people slightly bend traffic laws. They see other drivers from the same state or same social class(ex:a bunch of cheap cars) cheating on traffic laws. It's similar to people from the same college cheating, as described in the talk. Following the talks logic, if a driver sees others speed In a work zone, the driver is much more likely to speed. And with a constant stream of traffic, this effect would not stop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be interesting to hear if a single driver on an empty road would slow down for men in work zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-01-19T03:44:39.457" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3108" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3189" CreationDate="2013-01-19T16:59:17.260" Score="10" ViewCount="1493" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently read &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/67/5/1114.short&quot;&gt;a study by Yue, G et al. (1992)&lt;/a&gt; which I found incredibly interesting. I have no background in physiology and I was hoping that someone who does can clear things up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I understood it right, the study had two groups of people who trained their Hypothenar eminence (pinky) muscles. One of the groups did so by doing the actual exercise and a second did so by imagining themselves doing the same exercise. The group that did the exercise improved by 30% and the group that imagined themselves doing it improved by 22%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Did those who imagined themselves doing the exercise have a muscle increase in their muscle or did the improvement come from the brain having better control of that muscle?&lt;/strong&gt; Also, what should I expect if I imagine myself lifting a dumbbell all day?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Yue, G., &amp;amp; Cole, K. J. (1992). &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/67/5/1114.short&quot;&gt;Strength increases from the motor program: comparison of training with maximal voluntary and imagined muscle contractions.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Neurophysiology, 67(5), 1114-1123.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2624" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-19T07:59:18.637" LastActivityDate="2013-11-19T07:59:18.637" Title="What is the effect of imagining doing an exercise on muscle growth?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3109" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3112" CreationDate="2013-01-20T00:09:38.970" Score="5" ViewCount="1510" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on my own experience, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assertiveness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;assertiveness&lt;/a&gt; is a rather rare commodity to be found among people, which in my opinion causes most of the troubles this world has.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any statistics that attempt to measure how many assertive people there are in the world (or at least in some societies) compared to passive, aggressive and passive-aggressive people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2625" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-01-21T01:51:29.473" LastActivityDate="2013-01-21T01:51:29.473" Title="Are there statistics about how many assertive people there are in the world?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3111" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3161" CreationDate="2013-01-20T19:57:21.213" Score="5" ViewCount="430" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I go near a hill or dune, I feel &lt;strong&gt;desire to climb&lt;/strong&gt; there and have a wider look on the surroundings. I know a lot of people who &lt;strong&gt;love&lt;/strong&gt; mountains and want to climb higher and higher, but never have thought about why... Many people climb high building, restaurants on TV towers are very expensive, but very popular anyway. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've recently started to think about it. From evolutionary point of view taking &lt;strong&gt;higher ground&lt;/strong&gt; have made a lot of sense. Predators could be seen from larger distance, and in the era of fighting communities, higher grounds such as hills were higher to conquer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is such theory scientifically proven? Are there actually any researches on why people want actually to climb higher?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2550" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-01-23T01:00:43.910" LastActivityDate="2013-02-03T11:16:10.427" Title="Desire to climb from evolutionary perspective?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3112" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3109" CreationDate="2013-01-21T01:46:27.970" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;One method of estimating assertiveness would be to look at scores on self-report tests that aim to measure assertiveness. Measuring in this way suggests that assertiveness, as with other traits, is on a continuum. Thus, classifying someone as assertive or not assertive would involve a judgement call.&#xA;Nonetheless, once you have an estimate of the proportion passing such a threshold, you could then multiply population size by proportion classified as assertive to get a population estimate of assertiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newNEOFacetsKey.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEO-IPIP has an assertiveness scale&lt;/a&gt;. But you'd have to hunt down some reasonable test norms. Alternatively, the NEO-PI would also be useful and the test manual would provide means and standard deviations for the corresponding assertiveness scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;E3: ASSERTIVENESS (.84)&#xA;+ keyed &#xA;    Take charge.&#xA;    Try to lead others.&#xA;    Can talk others into doing things.&#xA;    Seek to influence others.&#xA;    Take control of things.&#xA;&#xA;– keyed &#xA;    Wait for others to lead the way.&#xA;    Keep in the background.&#xA;    Have little to say.&#xA;    Don't like to draw attention to myself.&#xA;    Hold back my opinions.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Herzberger et al (1984) provides one simple example. &#xA;They created what they called the Assertiveness Self-Report Inventory. &#xA;It included items like&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;When my date has acted rudely at a party, I don' hesitate to let him/her know I don'd like it. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;After eating an excellent meal at a restaurant, I do not hesitate to compliment the chef.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;When people use my car and don't refill the tank, I let them know I feel unfairly treated.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall there were 25 items True/False items like this. Using a relatively small university sample (around 150 all up),  mean number of items endorsed was around 10 and the standard deviation was around 4. You could potentially look more carefully at such items perhaps using expert raters of scores to generate a threshold above which constitutes an assertive personality. For sake of example, you might determine that participants who have endorsed  12 items or more are deemed to be &quot;assertive&quot;. If you had the raw data, you could determine what sample endorsed 12 or more items. Failing that, you could get an approximate estimate using a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_score&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;normal distribution approximation&lt;/a&gt; based on the mean and standard deviation or some variant on this approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there are many limitations to this approach:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-reported personality is not the same as behaviour or some more objective or other report measure of personality. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;defining the cut-off can be somewhat arbitrary. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You would need to define more clearly how you want to conceptualise assertiveness, in that you seem to be distinguishing a more adaptive form of assertiveness in contrast to a more aggressive approach. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Getting representative and large norms for even one country is difficult, let alone the entire world. That said, the NEO-PI and IPIP are likely to offer reasonable existing sources.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As others have mentioned, cultural norms should have a dramatic effect on what constitutes reasonable ways of asserting your interests in social ettings. This sociological perspective may even provide a better understanding the phenomena of interest.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Herzberger, S. D., Chan, E., &amp;amp; Katz, J. (1984). The development of an assertiveness self-report inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48(3), 317-323.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-01-21T01:46:27.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3113" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3091" CreationDate="2013-01-21T01:52:58.207" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remembered that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disgust#The_neural_basis_of_disgust&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Disgust&lt;/a&gt; is one of the 6 major emotions and there is quite a lot written about it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The neural basis of disgust&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The scientific attempts to map specific emotions onto underlying&#xA;  neural substrates dates back to the first half of the 20th century.&#xA;  However, it was not until the mid-1990s when it was recognized that&#xA;  six basic emotions, including disgust, were each related to a specific&#xA;  neural structure and therefore considered to be a part of the clinical&#xA;  neurosciences.[23] Functional MRI experiments have revealed that the&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;anterior insula in the brain&lt;/strong&gt; is particularly active when experiencing&#xA;  disgust, when being exposed to offensive tastes, and when viewing&#xA;  facial expressions of disgust.[24] The research has supported that&#xA;  there are independent neural systems in the brain, each handling a&#xA;  specific basic emotion.[4] Specifically, f-MRI studies have provided&#xA;  evidence for the activation of the insula in disgust recognition, as&#xA;  well as visceral changes in disgust reactions such as the feeling of&#xA;  nausea.[4] The importance of disgust recognition and the visceral&#xA;  reaction of &quot;feeling disgusted&quot; is evident when considering the&#xA;  survival of organisms, and the evolutionary benefit of avoiding&#xA;  contamination.[4] [edit]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-01-21T01:52:58.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3114" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-01-22T05:32:40.210" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Human factors and Ergonomics (HF&amp;amp;E) is a multidisciplinary field incorporating contributions from psychology, engineering, industrial design, graphic design, statistics, operations research and anthropometry. In essence it is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body and its cognitive abilities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-01-22T05:32:40.210" LastActivityDate="2013-01-22T05:32:40.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3115" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-01-22T05:32:40.210" Score="0" Body="Human factors and Ergonomics is a multidisciplinary field incorporating contributions from psychology, engineering, industrial design, graphic design, statistics, operations research and anthropometry. In essence it is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body and its cognitive abilities. " OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-01-22T05:32:40.210" LastActivityDate="2013-01-22T05:32:40.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3116" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2078" CreationDate="2013-01-23T06:57:19.420" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It may also be due to errors in perception.  Our brains did not evolve to perceive/judge objects and distances while traveling at such high speeds and we may misjudge how fast we are actually going to how fast we think is safe.  There are some studies out there that ask people how long the white dividing lines on freeways are (people always under estimate the length). I think I came across these studies in Daniel Kahneman's, Thinking Fast and Slow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2634" LastActivityDate="2013-01-23T06:57:19.420" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3118" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3092" CreationDate="2013-01-23T16:37:52.003" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dysphoria following drug use&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though their acting mechanisms can be vastly different, the general basis of drug addiction is its influence on the reward system, particularly through dopamine pathways[1].  It's thought that the stimulation of the dopamine system leads to dopamine depletion[2] and without dopamine, there's no rewarding behavior and thus no motivation to behave in any particular way (i.e. depression/dysphoria).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Desensitization occurs as a flooded dopamine body tries to reduce its receptor count, thus lowering its sensitivity to dopamine.  But since the dopamine stimulus was artificial (drug-induced) and not environmental, it will require more drugs to achieve a normal level again (i.e. &quot;chase and drag&quot;).  And this is the basis for addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dysphoria following orgasm&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can not find any peer-reviewed information about the neurobiology of post-coital blues.  There are lots of MDs and professional psychologists that weigh in speculatively, but the literature is skimpy.  A speculation I've seen is, given that the coitus was genuinely with romantic partners (and thus not a social response), that its a biological dysfunction in the Amygdala as the amygdala sharply reduces activity after sex, but this response may be exaggerated in some individuals[3].  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My own speculation is that it might also be a way to promote promiscuity in the human race, evolutionarily speaking.  In modern day, it may not be as prevalent as infant mortality rates are much lower and monogamous relationships don't threaten human survival rates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2648975&quot;&gt;Wise RA, Rompre PP, (1989). Brain dopamine and reward.  Annu Rev Psychol. 40:191-225.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2]&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0149763485900223&quot;&gt;Charles A. Dackis, Mark S. Gold (1985).  New concepts in cocaine addiction: The dopamine depletion hypothesis. Neuroscience &amp;amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, 9:3, 469–477&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3]&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/20/health/20iht-20mind.19507430.html&quot;&gt;Sex and depression: In the brain, if not the mind&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2013-01-23T16:37:52.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3121" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="510" CreationDate="2013-01-25T04:36:20.690" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps when it comes to operant conditioning, it may be helpful to think in terms of targeted behavior first. A student learning about this concept will be helped if they thought of the behavior being targeted for reinforcement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So consider:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the behavior being targeted for reinforcement?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the behavior being targeted, being targeted for an increase in the said behavior, or a decrease in the said behavior?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Then comes the observation of what leads to an increase or decrease in the targeted behavior.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Under Skinnerian laboratory observations, Skinner and of his ilk, were seeking to observe what and when and how frequent the intended behavior comes about, once the behavior they (the laboratory observers) desired to see in the objects behavior.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is important to note that operant means which behavior is 'operating' in the environment which consequently leads to ultimately a 'reward' or 'punishment' so as to increase or decrease the said behavior.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Positive and Negative Reinforcement is thus understood by either extending a reward (positive) or withdrawing a 'punishment', or unpleasant experience (can be considered as punishment), with both strategies designed to increase (reinforce) the targeted behavior.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Things become a little bit murkier when aversive conditioning, positive and negative punishment is thrown into the above equation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologists/academics tend to complicate issues with their tendency to introduce 'new' terminology for essentially similar concepts, which then makes things a whole lot more complicated than they should be. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2642" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-01-25T05:52:00.053" LastActivityDate="2013-01-25T05:52:00.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3122" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3099" CreationDate="2013-01-25T08:28:37.537" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is not specific enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There will be necessary a delay, the actual question is how long will it be and what delay is acceptable for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first question could be answered by knowing the complexity of your program, the language used (Python is slow), and the power of your hardware (the Pi should not be very powerful).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if you have a code example that could help. Just an idea, but you can also ask the video game community which could be good at optimizing such things ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering the second question, I don't know literature on current production software capacities. Psycho-physic literature could help as well as asking more details to open source developers such as those of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychopy (Python)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychtoolbox-3 (MatLab)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2603" LastActivityDate="2013-01-25T08:28:37.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3123" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3134" CreationDate="2013-01-25T19:22:01.860" Score="6" ViewCount="1157" Body="&lt;p&gt;While trying to get more information &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1638/1048&quot;&gt;for my previous question&lt;/a&gt;, I found several different definitions for the terms &quot;pathology&quot; and &quot;pathological.&quot; While under normal circumstances I'd be inclined to say the latter stems from the former, there seems to be heavy connotation where terms such as &quot;pathological liar&quot; are concerned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of &lt;a href=&quot;http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/pathological?s=t&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the definitions at dictionary.com states&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Caused by or evidencing a mentally disturbed condition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seems a bit vague, to me. &lt;strong&gt;Can anyone clarify this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1048" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T05:02:32.507" Title="What is the definition of pathology?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3124" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3127" CreationDate="2013-01-25T19:40:05.530" Score="5" ViewCount="1548" Body="&lt;p&gt;My experiment involves presenting simple visual stimuli briefly on screen (200 ms to 1000 ms). The stimuli would be simple enough (e.g. a circle and a line) but I want to use a range of durations to test out some hypotheses. I would like to know if there's a minimal time for human eyes to perceive simple visual stimuli, so I could say &quot;the durations I've chosen for my experiment are safely above the minimal value suggested by 'so and so' in the psychophysics experiment.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am sure many factors would have an impact on such a value, such as the participant's condition and how far the target is (in my case it's the distance between someone, sitting at their desk, and the computer screen), etc., but perhaps there are data and rules already established? If anyone knows of applicable guidelines or literature, I would really appreciate it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I've tried searching under &quot;tachistoscopic presentation minimum time&quot; but haven't discovered anything useful yet. Any other search term combo would also be helpful.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2643" LastEditorUserId="2643" LastEditDate="2013-01-25T19:45:22.273" LastActivityDate="2013-01-26T02:21:48.793" Title="Minimum duration for presenting a visual stimulus on screen" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3125" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3095" CreationDate="2013-01-25T20:01:42.833" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm no expert, but I can take a stab at it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What part of the brain is involved in this phenomenon &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The amygdala&lt;/strong&gt; becomes active and locks up other parts of the brain (thank you @KeeganKeplinger for helping me clarify). This is based on the fact that the amygdala is responsible for more responses than fight or flight, as I had previously thought. Recently I read a book by Missy Vineyard on the Alexander Technique, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://losingweightanddiet.com/how-you-stand-how-you-move-how-you-live-learning-the-alexander-technique-to-explore-your-mind-body-connection-and-achieve-self-mastery/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this review&lt;/a&gt; of &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1600940064&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How You Stand, How You Move, How You Live&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; sums up the relevant part I was looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;the four expressions of fear produced by the amygdala in the brain – attack, withdraw, freeze, and submit&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is it a stand alone issue or is it always accompanied by some other type of social anxiety&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would be coupled with &lt;strong&gt;more facets of anxiety than just social.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://userwww.service.emory.edu/~kressle/papers/ResslerAmygdalaReview2010BiolPsychiatry.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This report&lt;/a&gt; might also corroborate this. I know if I'm withdrawn, determined on fleeing or any other variety of emotional responses - my ability to speak, reason or do much of anything is fairly impaired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;Studies have also found that the amygdala modulates the fear&#xA;    response in humans. Fearful stimuli including fearful faces,&#xA;    fear-inducing images, and fear conditioned cues, have been&#xA;    found to activate amygdala in several brain imaging studies using&#xA;    positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic&#xA;    resonance imaging&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;why do some men have it and others do not, is this some sort of protection or evolutionary byproduct and are there any studies specific to this issue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Same reason as some people are easier to fright, others are easier to fright,&lt;/strong&gt; I'd imagine. Life differences, not just past but present as well. Lack of experience approaching women (or men), and &lt;strong&gt;I don't believe this is male-specific.&lt;/strong&gt; I dated a gal a few years ago who was the shyest person I ever knew. Over the phone it was easy to talk with her and get her to talk, in person she froze for the longest time. Was both amusing and frustrating simultaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;If&lt;/em&gt; one believes that the amygdala is the cause, then it'd be a matter of &lt;strong&gt;evolutionary byproduct. Freezing is a defense that's more passive than running or fighting,&lt;/strong&gt; we try and protect ourselves by locking up and becoming like a wall. That book I linked covers the amygdala portion of the brain and it's role in our evolutionary history, as well as it's role in our current lives, as well as select other parts. The author seems well-versed in neuroscience, not just the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.alexandertechnique.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Alexander Technique&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1048" LastEditorUserId="1048" LastEditDate="2013-08-25T03:19:43.327" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T03:19:43.327" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3126" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3124" CreationDate="2013-01-25T23:41:32.847" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This depends on intensity but it is shorter at most intensities than your screen could possibly present a stimulus.  Don't worry about it or cite references.  It would be like citing a reference for why you don't need to worry about quantum effects when testing the best kind of screwdriver.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2013-01-25T23:41:32.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3127" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3124" CreationDate="2013-01-26T02:21:48.793" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In psychophysics, this is known as an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_threshold&quot;&gt;absolute threshold&lt;/a&gt;. The absolute threshold will depend on a variety of factors such as brightness, size, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also important to keep in mind that the time needed to &lt;em&gt;detect&lt;/em&gt; a stimulus may be too short to cause some desired effect on the participant (e.g. a manipulation). For example, the time needed to detect a stimulus is necessarily shorter than the time needed to identify a stimulus. Though research on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_messaging&quot;&gt;subliminal stimuli&lt;/a&gt; suggests stimuli can sometimes be presented &lt;em&gt;below&lt;/em&gt; threshold and still achieve some manipulation. However, some of this research is controversial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often, researchers will choose a range of display times specifically in order to unravel the time course of some cognitive process. For instance, when displaying a cluster of dots, how long is needed in order to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subitize&quot;&gt;subitize&lt;/a&gt; them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is insufficient information in your question to give you an exact number, but I suggest looking at similar studies and see what sort of display times they use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2013-01-26T02:21:48.793" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3128" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-26T08:35:39.037" Score="2" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on an article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateralization_of_brain_function#Advantages_of_brain_lateralization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;brain laterization&lt;/a&gt;, it's said that a lateralized brain can do two tasks simultaneously. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lateralized chicks could pick food out of the pebbles with one eye and one half of the brain while using the other eye and other half of their brain to monitor the skies for predators. Not only could non-lateralized chicks not complete the two tasks simultaneously, but their performance of the single task deteriorated. This suggests that the evolutionary advantage of lateralization comes from the capacity to perform separate parallel tasks in each hemisphere of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While multitasking might still be too difficult, are there ideal ways of doing two different tasks at the same time? What kind of tasks are suitable for bitasking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, could a person read a book and then listen to another audio book at the same time? Are some people better at typing while talking on the phone than others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What limitations apply to bi-tasking? Would one be able to easily access and store short or long term memory? Is there a significant loss to motor control and such?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2644" LastActivityDate="2013-01-26T08:35:39.037" Title="How to optimize bi-tasking?" Tags="&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-17T05:44:37.917" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3129" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-27T09:36:10.493" Score="7" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is inspired by one asked at &lt;a href=&quot;https://mathoverflow.net/questions/117786/what-is-a-random-number-poll-experiment-closed&quot;&gt;MathOverflow&lt;/a&gt;.  (These questions at &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1118/why-do-participants-prefer-to-give-input-values-that-are-round-numbers&quot;&gt;Cognitive Sciences&lt;/a&gt; and at &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/25464/which-numbers-are-least-likely-to-be-selected-by-people-in-a-lottery&quot;&gt;Cross Validated&lt;/a&gt; might also be relevant.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there any studies on what choices humans commonly make when asked&#xA;  to think of a choice &quot;at random&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodtricks.net/mental_magic.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this website&lt;/a&gt; claims that when people are asked to think of a card (in a standard 52-card deck), they often select the nine of diamonds, the ace of spades, the queen of hearts, or the six of clubs.  Or when a person is asked to think of a number between 1 and 1,000, they will often select 333.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user319" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T07:50:35.083" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T07:50:35.083" Title="How do people choose at random?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="3131" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3132" CreationDate="2013-01-27T18:08:58.457" Score="4" ViewCount="208" Body="&lt;p&gt;After the firing of a neuron, the sodium and potassium concentration differences vanish. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It requires some time for cell to actively transport the ions in and out to re-establish the balance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the HH model incorporate this effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2648" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-01-27T20:22:54.607" LastActivityDate="2013-01-27T20:25:53.263" Title="Does the Hodgkin-Huxley Model take into account the action of the ion pumps (e.g., Na-K-ATPase)?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3131" CreationDate="2013-01-27T20:25:53.263" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;HH doesn't &quot;count ions&quot;, it pretends the reservoirs are infinite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, the &quot;reversal potential&quot; for each ion species is a constant.  This constant is calculated from the Goldman Hodgkins Katz equation which uses the concentrations on either side of the membrane to calculate the reversal potential given the concentration gradient.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We could hypothetically keep this a function of the individual species concentrations and add a current to the model to represent the pump, but you would gain little in predictive power and much in computational complexity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2013-01-27T20:25:53.263" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3134" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3123" CreationDate="2013-01-28T19:33:03.023" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the answer can actually be found in the Dictionary.com link you cite:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;-ological&lt;/code&gt;; &lt;em&gt;suffix&lt;/em&gt;;&#xA;  used to form adjectives; belonging or relating to a particular type of scientific study;&#xA;  e.g. biological, technological&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And (taken from Wikipedia):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The word pathology is from Ancient Greek &lt;em&gt;πάθος&lt;/em&gt;, pathos, &quot;feeling, suffering&quot;; and &lt;em&gt;-λογία&lt;/em&gt;, -logia, &quot;the study of&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So &lt;code&gt;pathological&lt;/code&gt; would be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;an adjective describing a thing that belongs or relates to suffering or the feeling of suffering.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(literally translated, of course)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So we can see that it's not just disease-related (suffering) but also mental health-related (feeling of suffering).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastActivityDate="2013-01-28T19:33:03.023" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3135" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4218" CreationDate="2013-01-29T03:26:54.340" Score="7" ViewCount="1321" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm strongly 'one-handed' in that I can barely even write with my left hand. My wife is fairly ambidextrous, in that she's by default left-handed, but can also write with her right hand. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that she's capable of driving in the dark with full, stressful concentration and still be able to talk. Whereas I'd have trouble driving in the dark and holding a conversation at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've heard that this is because one handed people have developed a side of the brain more strongly than the other, whereas ambidextrous people have developed both. Anything that implies that ambidexterity is a disadvantage for multitasking would also be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2644" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:09:32.833" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T04:09:32.833" Title="Are ambidextrous people better at multitasking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3137" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3138" CreationDate="2013-01-29T05:30:16.647" Score="7" ViewCount="789" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read years ago in a pop science book that written and spoken language can be shown to have a high level of redundancy. The speculation was that this served to allow error correction because language is encountered in noisy environments and understanding has a high survival value. The figure I remember is that if 35% of the information remains an attentive listener or reader can still make out the message. This has become a cherished notion in my world view as an indicator that language and human endeavor contains complexity we are not consciously aware of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I am looking for a knowledgeable confirmation of the idea that spoken or written language contains this redundancy.&lt;/strong&gt; An impolite smack down due to unexamined confirmation bias is always welcome as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2510" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-01-30T09:35:34.497" LastActivityDate="2017-02-02T22:36:03.517" Title="Is there a lot of redundancy in written and spoken language?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3138" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3137" CreationDate="2013-01-29T11:10:49.747" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that for written English, the figure is 50%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From pages 27 to 28 of &lt;em&gt;The making of cognitive science: Essays in honor of George A. Miller&lt;/em&gt; (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Estimates of redundancy&lt;/em&gt;.  Shannon (1948, 1951) had himself estimated the redundancy of printed English to be about 50 percent.  He had used a technique in which a subject was given a passage of text and then required to guess the next letter until the correct response (i.e., that corresponding to the original text) was given.  Redundancy was calculated from the distribution of the numbers of guesses required.  Garner and Carson (1960) [...] also estimated the redundancy of printed English to be about 50 percent.  Newman and Gerstman (1952) [...] estimated redundancy to be 52 percent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Uses of redundancy&lt;/em&gt;.  [...] Chapanis (1954) and Miller and Friedman (1957) both showed that when text was mutilated by deleting different percentages of letters, subjects were able to restore the missing letters with a high degree of accuracy.  Such restoration is possible because of redundancy, so these experiments showed that redundancy was useful to humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, printed English is redundant, and thus constrained, both in letter sequences within words and in sequences of words themselves.  This redundancy is known to humans, who can use it to reconstruct mutilated text and to recognize and learn words and sequences of words that reflect varying degrees of this constraint.  [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From page 1086 of &lt;em&gt;A new kind of science&lt;/em&gt; by Stephen Wolfram (Wolfram Media, Inc., 2002):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...] English text typically remains intelligible until about half its characters have been deleted, indicating that it has a redundancy of around 0.5.  Most other languages have slightly higher redundancies, making documents in those languages slightly longer than their counterparts in English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user319" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user319" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-01-29T11:18:51.387" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3139" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3099" CreationDate="2013-01-29T15:06:21.670" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I've had a chance to try out the RPi for this purpose. Short answer: it works great (with some limitations).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The RPi does not support OpenGL. I approached this system with the idea of using a python environment to create and present experiments. There are two good options for this that I know of, opensesame and psychopy. Psychopy requires an OpenGL python backend (pyglet), so it won't run on the Rpi. Opensesame gives you the option of using the same backend as PsychoPy uses but has other options, one of which does not rely on openGL (based on pygames). This 'legacy' backend works just fine. But the absence of openGL means that graphics rely solely on the 700 mHz CPU, which quickly gets overloaded with any sort of rapidly changing visual stimuli (ie. flowing gabors, video, etc.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The RPi does have a very good video card (for a $25 computer) that supports OpenGL ES. Riverbank software provides python bindings for OpenGL ES (pogles), so there is the possibility for hardware acceleration in python. This has not currently been implemented on PsychoPy or Opensesame. It probably won't happen anytime soon, because there is currently an additional limitation on this system: there's no way to use OpenGL ES in the linux windowing environment (xwindows). This will probably be developed in the medium-term. But currently even a lightweight version of xwindows on the RPi is noticeably clunky and slow (overclocking the CPU helps with this). OpenGL can be used on the Pi through CPU emulation (via Mesa)... but this so heavily overloads the CPU that it's effectively useless. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the RPi is not well suited for displaying rapidly changing visual stimuli (ie. flowing gabors, video). And PsychoPy effectively doesn't run. But Opensesame runs fine with the non-openGL 'legacy' backend. For a manual RT experiment involving the presentation of static images, this setup running on the Pi will have much the same timing resolution as the same setup running on any other computer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it will get better, probably pretty quickly. OpenGL ES support in xwindows should come pretty quick, and once this is available it will be possible to use OpenGL ES python bindings currently under development to make backends for PsychoPy and OpenSesame. These will support fluid moving stimuli and video, and free up the CPU for other tasks. My personal hope is that this will free enough resources to allow the RPi to interface with other systems... like an eye-tracker computer or an eeg amp. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But for now it seems just fine for basic no-video psychophysics. And it's very, very cheap... even factoring in the cost of a small DVI monitor you should be able to get a data collection system up and running for less than 100 euro. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2621" LastActivityDate="2013-01-29T15:06:21.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3140" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-29T23:18:23.600" Score="8" ViewCount="182" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was an article published some years ago about a sleep study (I think from Germany) that showed about 10-20% of people (European's I think) are genetically predisposed to function on a 30-hour* cycle. (As opposed to the 24 hour Circadian rhythm.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*I think it was 30 hours, but don't know for sure. And I can't seem to find any reference to the study or what this &quot;sleep disorder&quot; is called. From Googling, I &lt;strong&gt;don't&lt;/strong&gt; believe it is any of the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Delayed sleep phase disorder&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Segmented Sleep Disorder&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Non-24-hour sleep-wake disorder&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study was &lt;strong&gt;most likely&lt;/strong&gt; related to cognitive function and may have been funded by a space agency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this is on topic here, I just saw this site in Area 51 but didn't read much about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2654" LastEditorUserId="2654" LastEditDate="2013-01-31T07:52:57.123" LastActivityDate="2013-02-02T19:12:36.730" Title="What is the sleep study that showed that a percentage of humans have a biological clock that is ~28 hours or greater?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3141" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3102" CreationDate="2013-01-30T00:18:51.863" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bob Rehder's work may be of interest, for instance: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rehder, B., &amp;amp; Hoffman, A. B. (2005). Thirty-something categorization results explained: Selective attention, eyetracking, and models of category learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 811-829.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will see some eye-tracking data on some classic results, but if you are after the so called &lt;em&gt;performance&lt;/em&gt; aspects of the data, this will be reported also. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also find the following data interesting, they are working with discrete category dimensions and corrective feedback:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Blair, Mark R., et al. &quot;Extremely selective attention: Eye-tracking studies of the dynamic allocation of attention to stimulus features in categorization.&quot; Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 35.5 (2009): 1196.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2655" LastActivityDate="2013-01-30T00:18:51.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3142" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-30T08:34:33.990" Score="2" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;My personal experience suggests there is a background process taking place when interpreting a partially heard utterance. The sound is taken in, the conscious part of my mind begins the process of asking for a repetition because of imperfect reception and then a possible interpretation is delivered to my conscious mind for acceptance or rejection. Usually the logic can be seen, how a few words heard imperfectly can be combined to make sense, a partially heard name combined with a pronoun and a mental list of participants narrows the possibilities to one or two, but I don't have a sense of doing this analysis consciously. A second, almost a paraphrase, interpretation is offered up  seemingly from the sub-conscious, &quot;she's asking about Tony's birthday.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you try to search for linguistics or language and error correction you will find out that there is a lot of concern about teacher behavior during language acquisition. That is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; what I want to know about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I would like to know if there is a subfield in cog-sci that deals with error correction specifically with regard to heard language.&lt;/strong&gt; Somewhere I can begin a search. Sometimes all you need is the right search terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2510" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-01-30T09:41:10.813" LastActivityDate="2013-02-07T14:23:34.547" Title="Is there sub-conscious error correction in interpreting heard language?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3144" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-30T12:26:47.737" Score="4" ViewCount="1264" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you think in any language you're never misstaken on what word you mean even if there are many words that are spelled/pronounced the same. This causes a language with only one word meaning every possible word there is to work, in theory, if used only while thinking. I don't think I'd be able to think clearly in such a language, though. The fastest language seems, for me, to be no language. It is however hard to not think in a language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the fastest language to think in?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2657" LastActivityDate="2013-07-05T22:23:40.127" Title="What is the fastest language to think in?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3146" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3140" CreationDate="2013-01-31T04:24:57.227" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't find the exact study you had in mind, but I think that you are referring to &lt;a href=&quot;https://sleep.med.harvard.edu/people/faculty/210/Charles+A+Czeisler+PhD+MD&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dr. Charles Czeisler's&lt;/a&gt; seminal (and long-term) work on circadian rhythms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23090946&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;recent study&lt;/a&gt; of his, he considered the effect of the wavelength of light on the extent to which it was able to reset the circadian &quot;clock&quot;, which is the cycle you are referring to.  He did experiments in the 70s and 80s with maintaining subjects in &quot;time free&quot; environments to gauge the intrinsic phase of the rhythm.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an aside, some of the more theoretical mathematical work in this area was done by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Winfree&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Art Winfree&lt;/a&gt; and a pop-sci account of his work and Czeisler's  can be found in Steven Strogatz's book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0786887214&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sync&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rüger, M, St. Hillaire, MA et al. (2013)Human phase response curve to a single 6.5 h pulse of short-wavelength light.  &lt;em&gt;Journal of Physiology, 591&lt;/em&gt;(Pt 1),353-63. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2012.239046&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2013-01-31T04:24:57.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3147" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3140" CreationDate="2013-01-31T04:29:37.310" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Free-running circadian periods were estimated to vary from 13 to 65 hours in normal subjects according to a 1979 study by R.A. Wever. This paper was referenced in a more recent article regarding the circadian pacemaker (Czeisler et al., 1999). I could not access the Wever article directly to assess quality. However, the Czeisler article takes issue with the methods of earlier work that purported to show circadian rhythms longer than about 24 hours: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...the generality of these&#xA;  findings has been limited by reports that activity (16, 17), knowledge of time of day (18), and&#xA;  exposure to ordinary indoor room light (19, 20)&#xA;  can shift circadian phase or alter the observed&#xA;  free-running circadian period in humans and&#xA;  thus may have influenced those observations&#xA;  (21).&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Czeisler et al. sought to control these confounds and estimate a rhythm with very little variance centered at 24.18 hours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Czeisler, C. A., Duffy, J. F., Shanahan, T. L., Brown, E. N.,&#xA;  Mitchell, J. F., Rimmer, D. W., … Kronauer, R. E. (1999). Stability,&#xA;  Precision, and Near-24-Hour Period of the Human Circadian Pacemaker.&#xA;  Science, 284(5423), 2177–2181. doi:10.1126/science.284.5423.2177 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cscb.northwestern.edu/jcpdfs/czeisler99.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;R. A. Wever, The Circadian System of Man: Results of Experiments Under&#xA;  Temporal Isolation (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1979); Experientia 40,&#xA;  1226 (1984).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1260" LastEditorUserId="1260" LastEditDate="2013-02-02T19:12:36.730" LastActivityDate="2013-02-02T19:12:36.730" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3148" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3166" CreationDate="2013-01-31T10:31:15.950" Score="10" ViewCount="178" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a software engineer I have always struggled with predicting how long a project would take by underestimating and I have noticed that all of my colleagues have the same problem. &#xA;In this &lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/DKPhPz5Hqqc?t=3m32s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt; at 3:32 Luke Jones labels this problem &lt;code&gt;The familiar road phenomena&lt;/code&gt; where people underestimate how long a task will take when they are familiar with the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What studies have been conducted on the familiar road phenomena?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do humans do this and what is the evolutionary advantage?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2624" LastEditorUserId="2624" LastEditDate="2013-02-16T13:40:35.163" LastActivityDate="2013-02-16T13:40:35.163" Title="Predicting how long a task will take" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3149" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-31T12:55:39.777" Score="4" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;How come we have so many words/phrases that share the same meaning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suppose the most obvious answer to this would be that through communication between people with accent/language A and B, new words/phrases were added from A to B and vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find however that when we are writing longer texts, we are ensuring that we are not using the same word/expression too often and—if we do—replace them with something else that has the same meaning. In other words: It seems to me like we have an internal drive to use different expressions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if there was any (maybe evolutionary) explanation for this, as it kind of adds a lot of overhead to communication: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Time&lt;/em&gt;: unnecessary learning of new words whose meaning we're already capable of expressing with other words&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Resources&lt;/em&gt;: necessity of a slightly bigger neuronal structure to accommodate those words/expressions &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Complexity&lt;/em&gt;: more words need to be distinguished, which makes the understanding of the spoken word harder&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does this compare to animals? Do we know whether they also have several ways of expressing the same thing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="50" LastEditorUserId="50" LastEditDate="2013-02-01T12:18:24.630" LastActivityDate="2013-02-01T12:18:24.630" Title="Why do we seem to have an internal drive to use different expressions(mostly when writing)?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-07-17T05:43:55.667" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3150" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-01-31T16:08:53.053" Score="6" ViewCount="636" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background Information of my questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;At the age of eight I was &quot;diagnosed&quot; with Dyslexia, I am now 47. I went from not being able to read and barely able to write to a college reading level in 9 months. I was in a program run by a Mrs. Cooper in Pennsylvania. I have taken several different IQ tests during my lifetime and found the results vary widely. &#xA;I have noted that in the last ten years or so Dyslexia seems to be an almost antiquated diagnosis and am very curious about the definition of dyslexia in current science and the correlation, if any, between Dyslexia and intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any specific IQ test that is directed at measuring the IQ's of people with dyslexia? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the correlation between having dyslexia and IQ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2660" LastEditorUserId="625" LastEditDate="2015-04-26T21:10:37.863" LastActivityDate="2015-04-26T21:10:37.863" Title="Dyslexia and IQ" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3152" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="714" CreationDate="2013-01-31T21:40:58.210" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are definitely studies on this, but I don't have the references at hand. I've heard about this in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.talbenshahar.com/talbenshahar/OnlineCourses/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the online Harvard courses on positive psychology by Tal Ben-Shahar&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of &quot;crashing&quot;, there are studies about baseline-happiness, showing you bounce back up after a setback, and back down, after a positive event, like winning the lottery. Only intrinsic perspective changes can increase or decrease your base-level of happiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He also talks about a study showing &quot;pessimists&quot; are better at estimating their short and long term success rate. And &quot;optimists&quot; are bad at estimating short term, but good at estimating long term success. The interesting thing is, the pessimists set lower expectations, and their base-level of happiness remains. The optimists have higher expectations, and try until they succeed. The increased belief in their own efficacy, and resilience in the face of a set back, helps to increase their base-level of happiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other side of the coin, he stresses the importance of &quot;realistic optimism&quot;. He says the keys to success are a combination of optimism, passion and hard work. Only optimism (high expectations) is not enough. A quote, by approximation, by Maslow: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Too much optimism does not lead to success, and results in depression. A sense of reality is needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can look into the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ndoherty.com/stockdale-paradox/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stockdale paradox&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry I can't give you a shorter, more concise answer at the moment, maybe I'll revisit this later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2664" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-02-01T12:50:21.013" LastActivityDate="2013-02-01T12:50:21.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3155" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3150" CreationDate="2013-02-01T08:16:47.393" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looking at google: &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2011/dyslexia-iq-0923.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2011/dyslexia-iq-0923.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know several dyslexic researchers in computer science and cognitive psychology/neuroscience suffering of big difficulties with spelling for example. I think they that are arguably intelligent despite of the dyslexia !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the IQ tests, you should keep in mind that some modules (in the weschler test for ex.) are oriented toward language skills (e.g., analogies), some toward general knowledge and some others toward performance (e.g., memory, visual reasoning). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know to which extent dyslexia could impact each of these modules, but that could explain the differences you observed between tests (i.e. the relative importance they give to language compared to other skills).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2603" LastActivityDate="2013-02-01T08:16:47.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3156" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-01T23:27:08.390" Score="7" ViewCount="522" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies concerning the psychological aspects of timbre processing in the brain, e.g. while listening to music? In particular, can any lower-level correlates be discerned when trying to answer questions like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;what makes particular timbres more pleasing than others? (e.g. a trumpet vs pure sine wave)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;what accounts for different preferences between people? (e.g. preference for piano sound over trumpet)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2386" LastEditorUserId="38" LastEditDate="2013-02-03T19:36:53.857" LastActivityDate="2013-02-08T01:17:05.593" Title="Psychology of timbre processing" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3158" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2060" CreationDate="2013-02-02T16:30:16.537" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have you read this: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fishbein, M., Middlestadt, S. (1995) Noncognitive Effects on Attitude Formation and Change: Fact or Artifact? &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consumer Psychology, 4&lt;/em&gt;(2),181-202. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp0402_05&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Direct quote from page 187:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Note that the psychology of the double negative is an essential part of an expectancy-value formulation (Ajzen &amp;amp; Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein, 1967; Fish-&#xA;  bein &amp;amp; Ajzen, 1975). From the perspective of an expectancy-value theory, and consistent with Heider's (1958) balance theory, believing that an object does not have a negative characteristic or that performing a behavior will prevent a negative outcome should contribute positively (rather than negatively) to the attitude toward that object or behavior. For example, if a student does not believe (i.e., if he or she disbelieves) that &quot;my professor is a capricious grader,&quot; this belief should, according to an expectancy-value formulation, contribute positively (not negatively) to his or her attitude toward my professor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2671" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-02-03T02:29:41.903" LastActivityDate="2013-02-03T02:29:41.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3159" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-02T19:42:28.450" Score="3" ViewCount="536" Body="&lt;p&gt;By emergent ability I mean this: suppose that competently performing ability Z is contingent on, and only on, having skill X and skill Y developed to a certain level (that is, ability Z is a non-linear combination of ability X and Y that is distinct in type from those abilities). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You would see a person developing, slowly, their abilities X and Y, and then, when they have developed them sufficiently, one would suddenly observe ability Z. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in this question because it might seem like ability Z is a neurally innate ability that is suddenly triggered by some experience, when in fact this ability is just a combination of other abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is perhaps two-fold: Do these sorts of abilities exist, and if so, what are some examples?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1260" LastActivityDate="2013-02-03T06:25:44.197" Title="What are some examples of emergent abilities?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3160" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3159" CreationDate="2013-02-03T06:25:44.197" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many tasks can be decomposed into subtasks. And in a similar way the skills required to perform a task can be decomposed into component skills. For more detailed discussion, check out discussion of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;task analysis&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Driving a manual car requires an additional component skill (using the clutch and gearshift) over and above all the skills required to drive an automatic car (knowledge and application of road rules, speed control, vehicle control, etc.).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Writing an email requires a wide range of skills including basic skills in using computers, skills in communication and writing, and so on.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Much of education is based on the idea of layering new skills on top of those already established. For example, reading, writing, numeracy, and computing skills are fundamental to a lot of what is taught at university. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another perspective on your question is to think about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_of_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;transfer&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;training&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Transfer&lt;/strong&gt;: Skills in many tasks involve transferring what we already know and then developing some task specific adaptations. For example, if you were to write a report in industry after starting a new job, you would build on all your previous training in report writing, but there would also be some domain specific learning related to the new job. In this sense, the previous acquired skills assist performance, but domain-specific learning is required.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Training&lt;/strong&gt;: Training, practice, and experience also tend to have a certain structure. Development of skill in an overall task tends to lead to development of component skills. For example, when learning to drive a car, an individual will tend to get practice in all the component skills. The nature of experience itself will encourage development of steering, road navigation, and gear changes. Training can also be designed to deliberately compartmentalise skill development (e.g., see the part-whole training discussions [Naylor et al (1963)]).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Relating all this to your specific question, defining component skills and emergent abilities as discrete entities is difficult. Transfer is often relative, and each task in a new context or with different details can alter the dynamics of transfer and performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Naylor, J. C., &amp;amp; Briggs, G. E. (1963). Effects of task complexity and task organization on the relative efficiency of part and whole training methods. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(3), 217.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-02-03T06:25:44.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3161" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3111" CreationDate="2013-02-03T07:13:39.793" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's an interesting question, I imagine the desire is multifaceted and that it may reflect multiple desires and multiple activities. In particular, I'd distinguish between (a) the desire for a viewing experience and (b) the desire to get to the top and achieve goals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Desire to Climb&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many examples of people taking joy in climbing. &#xA;This can be seen for example in rock climbing, mountain climbing, and hiking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obvious motivations include  motivation for exercise and a desire to experience nature. Some mountain climbers are seeking thrills (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensation_seeking&quot;&gt;sensation seeking&lt;/a&gt;). Some studies of mountain climbing mention the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;flow&lt;/a&gt; inducing nature of mountain climbing (see MacAloon et al 1983 for an analysis). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Climbing in such cases also has a rather natural goal of reaching the top. Attaining goals can be satisfying (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_theory&quot;&gt;goal theory for further elaboration&lt;/a&gt;). And clear goals may be part of the enjoyment in various related activities such as in sports and games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part of these activities is that the process of reaching the top is often a big part of the pleasure independent of the pleasure of the final view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Desire for a view&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is another broad class of behaviour related to people's desire for a &quot;good view&quot;. Houses, apartments, offices, restaurants, and so on with better views are valued by people. Viewing platforms are popular tourist attractions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Benson et al (1998) provide an empirical analysis of the price added to real estate that is attributable to various view types and quality of views. In their analysis they found that high quality ocean front views added some of the most to house prices. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine a distinction could also be made between people's desire for a once off experience and a daily experience. There is a novelty associated with a viewing platform whereby for that moment you get to see the world from a different perspective. You get to see connections between streets and buildings or mountains and rivers that you otherwise miss when immersed at regular ground level. I wonder whether this desire for a novel experience is somewhat different to a desire for a pleasant view on a daily basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reflections on evolutionary psychology&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm always a little bit uncomfortable with evolutionary psychology arguments. They often have a &quot;just so&quot; feel about them where it is difficult to prove or disprove them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I could make up an evolutionary argument. Human ancestors presumably climbed trees and liked to survey the land. Places which provided a good overview of the surrounding land enabled greater identification of both potential benefits (e.g., food, drinking resources, mating opportunities) and threats (e.g., other tribes, predators, scarcity of food and water). Such places would also provide further information on impending weather. Thus, humans and ancestors may have been more likely to survive and reproduce if they experienced pleasure in such circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the above evolutionary argument could also be complete rubbish. The desire to experience a view may be connected to many other rational explanations. Or alternatively, you could look at the nature of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics&quot;&gt;aesthetics&lt;/a&gt; and how they map on to the beauty of a view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further discussion of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics#Landscape_and_other_visual_arts_preferences&quot;&gt;evolutionary psychology and aesthetics see here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;MacAloon, J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Harris, J. C., &amp;amp; Park, R. J. (1983). Deep play and the flow experience in rock climbing. Play, games and sports in cultural contexts., 361-384.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Benson, E. D., Hansen, J. L., Schwartz, Jr, A. L., &amp;amp; Smersh, G. T. (1998). Pricing residential amenities: the value of a view. The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 16(1), 55-73.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-03T11:16:10.427" LastActivityDate="2013-02-03T11:16:10.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3162" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-03T13:50:18.260" Score="6" ViewCount="200" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any link between one's ability to store information in their short term memory, with their ability to store information in their long term memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2538" LastActivityDate="2013-02-04T08:19:22.483" Title="Is good short term memory correlated with good long term memory?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3164" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3162" CreationDate="2013-02-04T08:19:22.483" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a functional dissociation between short and long-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was observed by Milner (1966) that a patient (case H.M) can have a normally working short-term memory with an impaired long term one; and by Shallice &amp;amp; Warrington (1970) that a patient (K.F.) can have correct long-term memory performance while a severe impairment in short-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So there is no simple relationship between the two, if at all. Nevertheless, it could be a correlation but probably mediated by other factors such as attentional processes, explicit learning strategy etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2603" LastActivityDate="2013-02-04T08:19:22.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3165" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3179" CreationDate="2013-02-04T22:06:21.567" Score="5" ViewCount="157" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems reasonable to me that humans discretize numbers: this number is bigger than than number, or when faced with a series of numbers that range from 0 - 100, 50 is &quot;middling&quot;, 10 is &quot;low&quot; and 90 is &quot;high&quot;. It doesn't seem to me that the brain would place much value in the difference between 76 or 77.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask this in the context of scoring in games: many games present scores to players as numbers, but it seems to me the numbers themselves are meaningless, and actually translate to mental buckets where you can say &quot;this is a good score&quot; or &quot;this is a bad score&quot;. Players don't actually perceive the numbers. This would indicate that games that use grading systems like A-F would be better communicators of player performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research to back up this theory? I'm coming up short, but I can't believe no-one has tried to answer this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2677" LastActivityDate="2013-02-18T02:18:02.680" Title="Do humans mentally discretize numbers?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3166" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3148" CreationDate="2013-02-05T08:49:52.263" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone is familiar with repeating a task, it becomes a habit. Routines within a habit take less brain power. With less conscious effort needed to do it, someone would most likely underestimate or gloss over what the task consists of. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is just one possible interpretation; there might be other reasons as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The evolutionary advantage would be that we need less mental resources to deal with things we are familiar with. We would say, struggle to learn to peel a potato at first, but after a few dozen/hundred times, we do it effortlessly. The brain will try to optimize these things into a habit loop to conserve resources needed to do things. Without habits, we would spend too much time on 'simple' things like recognizing a person's facial features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Duhigg, Charles. &lt;em&gt;The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business&lt;/em&gt;. Random House, 2012.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2644" LastActivityDate="2013-02-05T08:49:52.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3167" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-05T21:10:08.280" Score="2" ViewCount="537" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to make a lexical decision experiment, is there any freely available software for this? A Javascript-based webapp would suit me best, as it would run in the browser without the need to install anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2682" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-03-14T12:35:45.583" LastActivityDate="2013-05-16T17:42:02.470" Title="Lexical Decision (Web-)App" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3168" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3144" CreationDate="2013-02-05T21:50:21.280" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder if Hungarian is particularly good in this way. It's agglutinative, like German, so the words can be unbearably long, but the grammar of Hungarian is interesting, in that word order is much more flexible than other languages. Sentences can be said in multiple word orders and still be &quot;correct&quot;, while the emphasis required by word order gives nuance and helps to shape the precise meaning of the sentence. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_grammar&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia entry&lt;/a&gt; gives some examples. I'd think that having that kind of flexibility available in a native language would be a benefit... I've heard that the grand history of science and mathematics in Hungary is credited to the kind of mental flexibility that speaking Hungarian offers. In some sense, math's commutative and transitive properties are built-in to the language itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Full disclosure: my knowledge of Hungarian consists of a few common words and phrases, and lots of food words... I do love the food in Budapest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also many &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;constructed languages&lt;/a&gt; that are specifically designed to facilitate thinking, but, of course, they're not in wide use. Ithkuil and Loglan are well-known examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2683" LastActivityDate="2013-02-05T21:50:21.280" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3169" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3207" CreationDate="2013-02-05T22:20:57.467" Score="6" ViewCount="1393" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm a teacher who &lt;em&gt;trains&lt;/em&gt; hundreds of high school students in Math, Physics &amp;amp; Chemistry to crack probably toughest competitive exam in India.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I deal with the students who are hardworking and scored at least 70%+ in their 10th Grade. They are definitely in a position to figure out the variables and required formula and solve it, if the problem is direct. For rest of the post when I say problem solving, I'm referring to the problems of Math &amp;amp; Physics which are not as tough as 12th grade Olympiad problems but definitely a lot tougher than typical textbook level problems. &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeeadv.iitkgp.ac.in/oldqp.php&quot;&gt;You can see some of such problems here.&lt;/a&gt; Each paper shown in the link, needs to be solved in 3 hours and more than 70% must be secured. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Typical way of training: [Method1] Try it all by yourself&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Students are taught (it is ensured students &lt;em&gt;understood&lt;/em&gt; the) concept. Solve 3-4 variety mid-level example problems, to illustrate application of concept to the problem and reinforce their understanding. Move on to the next concept. Do the same with all the concepts and finish the chapter. Then, students are given about 50-60 unsolved problems, no two of same model. Students spend &lt;em&gt;lot of time&lt;/em&gt; solving these problems, they discuss with teachers and they discuss among themselves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Problem with above method:&lt;/strong&gt; The success percentage is very less. Its as low as 2-3%. I mean, only 2-3% of the students get through all the difficulties and finish those problems. Most of the other students find those problems too difficult to solve and are either losing motivation to solve such problems or think that they are not intelligent enough to solve the problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fixing the problem: [Method2] Master bit by bit&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I've read few books like, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/047059196X&quot;&gt;Why Don't Students Like School&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/069111966X&quot;&gt;How to Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method&lt;/a&gt; and analyzed myself (how do I solve the problems?) and understood that we try to recollect the patterns of problems. By practicing problems we are learning the patterns of problems and when solving an unsolved problem trying to figure out our put the patterns that we already learned. So, I've broken down larger problems into smaller problems. I've arranged these problems in the increasing level of difficulty. For the patterns to be remembered properly, I've increased no. of simple problems. I'm ensuring that students are mastering problems concept by concept, level by level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Result is, now my students are not demotivated, they feel problem solving is simple and they are doing problems well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Problem with my method:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I realized that my students are entering a dangerous zone. They are not willing to solve difficult problems and they are unable to solve unknown model problems. Did I overtrain them? I consulted my college professors regarding this and they were furious with my method. They said, that I am spoon feeding the students. They said that I &lt;em&gt;must&lt;/em&gt; follow the method 1.  That is what is going to help them in future in their higher studies and research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What exactly is happening? Why is method 2 failing? Why will method 1 work? Is it just about the psychological difference in feelings that method 1 guys feel more prepared for solving any kind of problem? Whats optimal way? Where can I learn more?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2554" LastEditorUserId="73" LastEditDate="2013-02-07T15:12:29.250" LastActivityDate="2013-02-16T12:59:25.210" Title="Teaching Problem Solving : Mastering bit by bit Vs Try it all by yourself?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3170" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3190" CreationDate="2013-02-06T18:34:46.060" Score="7" ViewCount="925" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking of a phenomenon that I've first observed in myself when taking an IQ test. Upon looking at the question, I selected an answer, but got this &lt;strong&gt;&quot;gut feeling&quot; or a hint that something was wrong with my response&lt;/strong&gt;. Upon seeing the answers, the question was indeed answered incorrectly. I've observed this phenomenon several more times in different situations and can define it as a very quick flash of awareness or feeling that quickly subsides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the neuroscience behind such &quot;gut feelings&quot; or &quot;intuitions&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm particularly interested if such &quot;almost&quot; answers are some form of cognitive process, where some neurons fire, but not enough to produce a fully formed insight/idea/judgement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the question that I was originally trying to answer was not lexical, but involved some rational thinking, I do not believe that this is exactly the &quot;tip of the tongue&quot; phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2013-02-07T03:05:28.860" LastActivityDate="2013-02-13T05:04:27.030" Title="What is the mechanism behind &quot;gut feelings&quot;?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3171" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19339" CreationDate="2013-02-06T18:44:22.813" Score="6" ViewCount="202" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking at this video: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/neil_burgess_how_your_brain_tells_you_where_you_are.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neil Burgess: How your brain tells you where you are&lt;/a&gt;, which discusses neurons within the brain that help people remember where stuff is in relation to other objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested if there are similar kinds of neurons or areas of the brain that are specifically involved in recognizing heights. For example, I can be looking at a flat suface across horizontal distance and I feel fine (for example looking at a distant building). But if I'm looking at another flat surface, of the same distance, but straight down, I may feel uneasy. This feeling of unease tells me that an additional mechanism may be involved in perceiving heights. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is - &lt;strong&gt;what part of the brain can differentiate horizontal distance from vertical drop?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T17:47:00.873" LastActivityDate="2018-03-27T12:12:05.197" Title="How do humans perceive height or vertical drop?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3173" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-06T20:50:53.213" Score="4" ViewCount="1185" Body="&lt;p&gt;In humans and most two eyed species, eye movements synchronize so that both eyes are focused on the same point. This facilitates 3D vision significantly, allowing bifocal cues. I remember reading a bit about this but I can't recall the actual term or any related words I would use to find more information on the phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is this &quot;synchronization&quot; called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2013-02-06T22:04:17.640" Title="What is the proper term for the synchronization of eye movements?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3174" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3173" CreationDate="2013-02-06T22:04:17.640" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;binocular coordination&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Linked below is a general overview of binocular coordination which also describes how, due to independent saccades events, mammalian eyes are generally &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; actually very well &quot;synchronized&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kirkby JA, Webster LA, Blythe HI, Liversedge SP. (2008) Binocular coordination during reading and non-reading tasks. Psychol Bull. 134(5):742-63&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18729571&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18729571&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2013-02-06T22:04:17.640" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3175" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3181" CreationDate="2013-02-07T03:35:15.167" Score="9" ViewCount="496" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have long had interest in dreaming, and one of the defining features of ordinary dreams is that &lt;strong&gt;the dreamer either accepts the dream as &quot;real life&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;, or does not question the surroundings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Compare these ordinary dreams with &quot;lucid dreams&quot;, or conscious dreaming, where the person is aware of the fact that he/she is dreaming. Within an ordinary dream, a person &quot;goes with the flow&quot;, while within a lucid dream, the person can think clearly and act voluntarily without waking up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have these been any studies that used fMRI or other techniques to try to determine &lt;strong&gt;what is it within the human brain that causes the distinction between conscious and ordinary dreaming?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2013-02-09T05:10:17.887" LastActivityDate="2015-02-11T10:36:56.900" Title="What causes dreamers to accept dreams as reality?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;automaticity&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3177" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3170" CreationDate="2013-02-07T09:15:11.440" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The book &lt;strong&gt;The Power of Habit&lt;/strong&gt; brought up a tale in the first chapter about a man who lost the capability of storing long term memory because of brain damage. He could not remember conversations or TV shows he watched just 10 minutes ago. He could still walk and have normal conversations, just that he would repeat the same questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, his man was able to learn new things because a part of his brain (the basal ganglia) stored habits. He kept his old habits, like cooking bacon for himself every morning. He developed new habits like walking outside and coming back, even though he could not remember the road back to his house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They did a basic memory test by joining objects to different colored cardboard rectangles. Under some of the rectangles the word &quot;correct&quot; was written. Most people can easily memorize which objects are &quot;correct&quot; within a few minutes. As this man had brain damage, he could not remember it no matter how hard he tried.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After a few days of repeating the same tests, he got up to 85% success, then 95% success. He did not remember any of this. To him, he had never seen the objects before and had a &lt;em&gt;gut feeling&lt;/em&gt; of which objects were &quot;correct&quot;. The inference here is that they were stored in the part of the mind that stores routines/habits. (Duhigg, 2012)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would assume that a &quot;gut feeling&quot; works in a similar manner. You see have seen certain patterns repeated several times, and it develops into a routine in your brain. Long after these patterns have been removed from your conscious memory, you still have them stored somewhere in the form of a routine. They're especially noticeable with trivia knowledge. People who work in the fire department develop a 'sixth sense' for dangerous situations because they've observed the same cues that occur before a dangerous situation multiple times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize, a gut feeling is likely a recollection of certain micropatterns that you've seen several times before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Duhigg, C. (2012). The Habit Loop: How Habits Work, &lt;em&gt;The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2644" LastActivityDate="2013-02-07T09:15:11.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3178" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3175" CreationDate="2013-02-07T13:53:12.730" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably just a part of the story, but the &lt;em&gt;locus coeruleus&lt;/em&gt; is known to be implied in the wake-sleep cycle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, an experiment on cats demonstrated that removing this structure cause actual (but nonsensical) behaviors replacing normal REM sleep phases: cats have no more REM sleep and instead hunt non-existing rats (or something else who knows).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1980-27526-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1980-27526-001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, that does not mean that people with confusion have a lesion of this this structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2603" LastActivityDate="2013-02-07T13:53:12.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3179" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3165" CreationDate="2013-02-07T13:59:15.000" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;One common way of framing numerical cognition is in terms of a &quot;mental number line&quot;. This mental number line is thought to have a logarithmic scale, so perceived differences are inversely proportional to their magnitude. For example, the difference between 6 and 7 is perceived as bigger than the difference between 76 and 77. This is just a variant of the Weber-Fechner Law, which applies in many perceptual domains (sound loudness, object weight, light brightness, etc.). So people don't exactly put numbers into discrete bins, but small differences begin to blur together for larger numbers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In typical, educated adults there is also thought to be an explicit symbolic or linguistic representation of numbers that captures their exact value and allows us to do exact calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For theories of numerical cognition, one good place to start is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feigenson, L., Dehaene, S., &amp;amp; Spelke, E. (2004). &lt;a href=&quot;http://pbs.jhu.edu/research/feigenson/Feigsenson%20Deheane%20Spelke%202004.pdf&quot;&gt;Core systems of number&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Trends in cognitive sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 8(7), 307-314.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2013-02-07T13:59:15.000" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3180" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3142" CreationDate="2013-02-07T14:23:34.547" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A simple explanation for the phenomenon is top-down feedback. As the bottom-up acoustic/phonological input is coming in, there is top-down feedback based on your knowledge of the language, the situation, and all of the other contextual information, which is helping to constrain or inform your interpretation of the bottom-up signal. A classic example that is close to the example in your question is the &lt;em&gt;phoneme restoration effect&lt;/em&gt; (originally demonstrated by Warren in 1970, and studied in depth by Samuel for decades): if a speech sound is replaced with an extraneous sound like a cough, listeners still report hearing the missing speech sound. Importantly, they report hearing exactly the sound that would belong in that context. So a manipulated word like &quot;*eel&quot;(where the * corresponds to the cough), sounds like &quot;wheel&quot; if it is the context &quot;the *eel was on the axle&quot;, but the same word sounds like &quot;peel&quot; in the context of &quot;the *eel was on the orange&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This kind of integration of multiple sources of information is typically called &quot;interactive processing&quot;. For a review in the domain of speech perception see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.danmirman.org/pdfs/TiCS2006exchange.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;McClelland, Mirman, &amp;amp; Holt (2006)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McClelland, J. L., Mirman, D., &amp;amp; Holt, L. L. (2006). Are there interactive processes in speech perception? &lt;em&gt;Trends in cognitive sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 10(8), 363–369. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.06.007&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Samuel, A. G. (1981). Phonemic restoration: Insights from a new methodology. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology: General&lt;/em&gt;, 110(4), 474–494.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Samuel, A. G. (1996). Does lexical information influence the perceptual restoration of phonemes? &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology: General&lt;/em&gt;, 125(1), 28–51.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Warren, R. M. (1970). Perceptual restoration of missing speech sounds. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 167(3917), 392–393.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2013-02-07T14:23:34.547" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3181" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3175" CreationDate="2013-02-07T18:33:18.537" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are searching specific part of the brain, I think that frontal regions of cortex will be an answer(In particular, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex which was associated with self-focused metacognitive evaluation). But, as it common in real life, becoming aware of dreaming state required coordinated work of different parts of brain.&#xA;You can read &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3369221/&quot;&gt;this very good&lt;/a&gt; article and wiki of course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lucid dreaming is characterized by a regaining of higher cognitive capabilities, eventually leading to the awareness of the dreaming state. Recent quantitative EEG data have shown that this wake-like intellectual clarity is paralleled by neural activations in frontal and frontolateral regions. Likewise, PET data show cognitive control in dreams to be associated with activation of frontal cortex components. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3369221/&quot;&gt;via&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2555" LastEditorUserId="2555" LastEditDate="2013-02-07T20:23:12.997" LastActivityDate="2013-02-07T20:23:12.997" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3182" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3169" CreationDate="2013-02-07T20:29:28.190" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; intended an answer.  I have a couple observations and I want actual formatting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So, I've broken down larger problems into smaller problems. I've arranged these problems in the increasing level of difficulty. For the patterns to be remembered properly, I've increased no. of simple problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and then: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'm ensuring that students are mastering problems concept by concept, level by level.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if the first quote is correct, you aren't ensuring this.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;You&lt;/em&gt; are breaking down the problem.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;You&lt;/em&gt; are arranging these problems by difficulty.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;You&lt;/em&gt; are increasing the number of 'simple' problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And you wonder why the students have difficulty with complex problems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The students &lt;em&gt;NEED&lt;/em&gt; to be the ones 1) breaking down the problem, 2) analyzing and ordering the problems according to difficulty, 3) working on increasingly complex problems &lt;em&gt;with simple problems thrown in to 'test' them&lt;/em&gt;.  Not every problem is complex, and if they expect it to be complex they will over-think.  The opposite problem of what you have now, it would seem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like you're looking for a balance between holding your students' hands, and forcing them to figure out the problems for themselves.  Perhaps try to blend the two methods, offering to break the problem down, but only if need be, or point out patterns in especially difficult problems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But your colleagues are (partially) correct: the students &lt;em&gt;need&lt;/em&gt; to be able to solve a complete, complex problem, from start to finish, without outside help.  But &lt;em&gt;you have to guide them in developing this ability.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, &lt;em&gt;this is not an answer&lt;/em&gt; because I am not an educator, nor do I have established research off of which to base my opinions or insight.  So, take this with a brick of salt knowing that I don't know your situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I will mention that this, as it stands, is a self-help question.  While CogSci.SE usually jumps on self-help questions, the problem with most is not that they're self-help, but that they are either medical- or mental health-related, or they are extremely generic.  Your question is neither; while you haven't received down-votes, you also haven't received up-votes.  Just an explanation, if you were curious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastActivityDate="2013-02-07T20:29:28.190" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3183" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2050" CreationDate="2013-02-08T01:03:47.067" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The wikipedia Article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia#Prevalence_and_genetic_basis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Synesthesia cites some prevalence studies&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Random population studies ...&#xA;  determined that 1 in 23 individuals have some kind of synesthesia,&#xA;  while 1 in 90 have colored graphemes (Simmer et al 2006). Colored days of the week and&#xA;  colored graphemes are the most common types(Simmer et al 2006; Campen, 1999).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Simner J, Mulvenna C, Sagiv N, et al. (2006). &quot;Synaesthesia: the prevalence of atypical cross-modal experiences&quot;. Perception 35 (8): 1024–33. doi:10.1068/p5469. PMID 17076063.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Campen C (1999). &quot;Artistic and psychological experiments with synesthesia&quot;. Leonardo 32 (1): 9–14. doi:10.1162/002409499552948.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-02-08T01:03:47.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3184" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3156" CreationDate="2013-02-08T01:17:05.593" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a general discussion of neural correlates of music perception, check out the review by Koelsch et al (2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Menon et al (2002) provide a starting point for learning about neural correlates of timbre processing. I quote the abstract. But have a look at the article for more info&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Timbre is a major structuring force in music and one of the most&#xA;  important and ecologically relevant features of auditory events. We&#xA;  used sound stimuli selected on the basis of previous&#xA;  psychophysiological studies to investigate the neural correlates of&#xA;  timbre perception. Our results indicate that both the &lt;strong&gt;left and right&#xA;  hemispheres are involved in timbre processing&lt;/strong&gt;, challenging the&#xA;  conventional notion that the elementary attributes of musical&#xA;  perception are predominantly lateralized to the right hemisphere.&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Signiﬁcant timbre-related brain activation was found in well-de- ﬁned&#xA;  regions of posterior Heschl’s gyrus and superior temporal sulcus,&#xA;  extending into the circular insular sulcus&lt;/strong&gt;. Although the extent of&#xA;  activation was not signiﬁcantly different between left and right&#xA;  hemispheres, temporal lobe activations were signiﬁcantly posterior in&#xA;  the left, compared to the right, hemisphere, suggesting a functional&#xA;  asymmetry in their respective contributions to timbre processing. The&#xA;  implications of our ﬁndings for music processing in particular and&#xA;  auditory processing in general are discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Halpern et al (2004) provide another relevant study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The generality of findings implicating secondary auditory areas in&#xA;  auditory imagery was tested by using a timbre imagery task with fMRI.&#xA;  Another aim was to test whether activity in supplementary motor area&#xA;  (SMA) seen in prior studies might have been related to&#xA;  subvocalization. Participants with moderate musical background were&#xA;  scanned while making similarity judgments about the timbre of heard or&#xA;  imagined musical instrument sounds. The critical control condition was&#xA;  a visual imagery task. The pattern of judgments in perceived and&#xA;  imagined conditions was similar, suggesting that perception and&#xA;  imagery access similar cognitive representations of timbre. As&#xA;  expected, judgments of heard timbres, relative to the visual imagery&#xA;  control, activated primary and secondary auditory areas with some&#xA;  right-sided asymmetry. Timbre imagery also activated secondary&#xA;  auditory areas relative to the visual imagery control, although less&#xA;  strongly, in accord with previous data. Significant overlap was&#xA;  observed in these regions between perceptual and imagery conditions.&#xA;  Because the visual control task resulted in deactivation of auditory&#xA;  areas relative to a silent baseline, we interpret the timbre imagery&#xA;  effect as a reversal of that deactivation. Despite the lack of an&#xA;  obvious subvocalization component to timbre imagery, some activity in&#xA;  SMA was observed, suggesting that SMA may have a more general role in&#xA;  imagery beyond any motor component.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Menon, V., Levitin, D. J., Smith, B. K., Lembke, A., Krasnow, B. D., Glazer, D., ... &amp;amp; McAdams, S. (2002). Neural correlates of timbre change in harmonic sounds. Neuroimage, 17(4), 1742-1754. &lt;a href=&quot;http://spin.ecn.purdue.edu/fmri/PDFLibrary/MenonV_NI_2002_17_1742_1754.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Halpern, A. R., Zatorre, R. J., Bouffard, M., &amp;amp; Johnson, J. A. (2004). Behavioral and neural correlates of perceived and imagined musical timbre. Neuropsychologia, 42(9), 1281-1292. &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.198.9746&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Koelsch, S., &amp;amp; Siebel, W. A. (2005). Towards a neural basis of music perception. Trends in cognitive sciences, 9(12), 578-584. Koelsch, S., &amp;amp; Siebel, W. A. (2005). Towards a neural basis of music perception. Trends in cognitive sciences, 9(12), 578-584. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3114071/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;HTML&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-02-08T01:17:05.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3185" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2081" CreationDate="2013-02-08T01:45:16.743" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;With the aim of fleshing out Jeff's link, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insight&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;insight&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is the broad concept you are talking about. More specific terms which focus on the apparent abrupt shift include &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Eureka effect and Aha! effect&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Kounios and Beeman (2009) article mentioned by Jeff discusses potential neural models of the Aha moment. Kounios and Beeman state that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although the experience of insight is sudden and can seem disconnected&#xA;  from the immediately preceding thought, [studies using EEG and fMRI] show that&#xA;  insight is the culmination of a series of brain states and processes&#xA;  operating at different time scales. Elucidation of these precursors&#xA;  suggests interventional opportunities for the facilitation of insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More broadly, you ask why there is such a threshold for understanding. One answer is that the phenomena by definition only applies to phenomena that operates that way. Most understanding does not involve an Aha moment. Problems are routine, or they involve searching for an answer by reading materials, or they involve asking someone, or they involve working through a process, and so on. Furthermore, most problems do not have single discrete insights that are going to make a huge difference. Rather, successful performance is the culmination of many smaller tasks. All this is just to say, insight by definition involves a particular dynamic of impasse and then discovery. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some literature on the Aha moment focuses on problem solvig techniques to both explain the occurrence of the impasse and the insight. For example, problem solvers upon reaching an impasse may start to re-arrange knowledge or engage in various restructuring processes. The literature also discusses incubation processes which in theory may permit more distal knowledge structures to be integrated with the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kounios, J., &amp;amp; Beeman, M. (2009). The Aha! Moment The Cognitive Neuroscience of Insight. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(4), 210-216. &lt;a href=&quot;http://groups.psych.northwestern.edu/mbeeman/documents/CurrentDirxns_Kounios-Beeman_2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-02-08T01:45:16.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3186" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2018" CreationDate="2013-02-08T02:08:54.173" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an article on Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_life_regression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;discussing past life regression&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A general scientific explanation of beliefs about past lives is that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the memories are the result of&#xA;  cryptomnesia, narratives created by the subconscious mind using&#xA;  imagination, forgotten information and suggestions from the&#xA;  therapist.[1][2][3][15][16][17][18] Memories created under hypnosis&#xA;  are indistinguishable from actual memories and can be more vivid than&#xA;  factual memories.[2][19] The greatest predictor of individuals&#xA;  reporting memories of past lives appears to be their beliefs about the&#xA;  existence in reincarnation - individuals who believe in reincarnation&#xA;  are more likely to report such memories, while sceptics or&#xA;  disbelievers are less so.[1][5]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study discussed in Spanos (1996) sounds particularly relevant to understanding the nature of such past life beliefs. To continue quoting the Wikpedia article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Spanos' research leads him to the conclusion that past lives are not&#xA;  memories, but actually social constructions based on patients acting&#xA;  &quot;as if&quot; they were someone else, but with significant flaws that would&#xA;  not be expected of actual memories. To create these memories, Spanos'&#xA;  subjects drew upon the expectations established by authority figures&#xA;  and information outside of the experiment such as television, novels,&#xA;  life experiences and their own desires.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, past life regression therapy is invalid in the sense that patients are not actually recalling past lives.  Nonetheless, there still remains a question of whether it offers therapeutic benefits. Meaning,  purpose, and self-esteem are all important human needs. For therapists and patients who believe in past lives,  fleshing out past lives could potentially help to fulfil such needs. That said, I don't know of any scientific studies that have evaluated such therapy. Such therapy also raises a number of ethical issues in terms of fostering illusions in the client. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spanos NP (1996). Multiple Identities &amp;amp; False Memories: A Sociocognitive Perspective. American Psychological Association (APA). pp. 135–40. ISBN 1-55798-340-2.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-02-08T02:08:54.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3187" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3211" CreationDate="2013-02-08T02:28:17.000" Score="2" ViewCount="1371" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do I adjust SSE (sum of squared errors) or RMSE (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root-mean-square_deviation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;root-mean-square errors&lt;/a&gt;) for the number of free parameters in the model?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an &quot;adjusted&quot; RMSD metric similar to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination#Adjusted_R2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;adjusted r-squared metric&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="475" LastEditorUserId="475" LastEditDate="2013-02-14T14:27:32.410" LastActivityDate="2013-02-17T08:45:34.357" Title="How to adjust SSE or RMSE for the number of free parameters in the model?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3188" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1991" CreationDate="2013-02-08T05:47:22.580" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like your question is tapping into a number of different questions. First, you might ask about what causes people  to perceive expertise in others verus what causes people to perceive expertise in themselves. Second, there is the question of when are expertise perceptions inflated and if so what individuals are prone to this and what tasks are more likely to induce this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;What makes someone be perceived as an expert?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine the question can be answered somewhat by casual observation. Having appropriate qualifications, having a known track record of behaviour indicative of expertise, dressing and behaving like other experts, presenting ideas and acting with confidence, an so on are presumably related to perceptions of expertise. &#xA;Of course, some people exploit these signs to demonstrate expertise that they don't possess (e.g., using technical jargon to intimidate; exaggerating stories of past successes). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;What tasks lead to inflated sense of expertise?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You use the example of detecting deception. This suggests you are interested in why people would think that they are &quot;experts&quot; at detecting deception, even when they are actually relatively poor at the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many similar tasks which are renowned for involving inflated perceptions of expertise. These include driving a car, speculating on the stock market, lie detection, evaluating employees from job interviews, and so on.&#xA;For many of these tasks, there is a literature on why people tend to have an inflated opinion of their own expertise (e.g., see this previous question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/55/what-is-the-relationship-between-self-perceptions-and-actual-driving-ability&quot;&gt;self-perceptions of driving ability&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for causes of inflated expertise, you might look at as interaction between task and person features. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Task features include: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lack of objective feedback on absolute and comparative performance (e.g., we don't usually find out when someone has lied to us; we don't find out how well the employee we did not hire would have performed) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;outcomes are inherently relatively unrelated to behaviour (e.g., stock market speculation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person features:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are wide range of psychological processes that can lead people to have inflated perceptions of their own expertise (for instance see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biases_in_judgment_and_decision_making&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this list&lt;/a&gt;).&#xA;Take two examples, first self-serving bias reflects one general bias. People may wish to see themselves as experts and thus they may rationalise their experience so as to justify inflated self perception. Second, people often don't know what they don't know. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Concluding thoughts&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot more could be said about all this, but I imagine more interesting answers could be provided by a more focused question. If interest lies in a particular domain of inflated expertise such as lie detection, then there is a dedicated literature on that. Or if interest is focused on the most effective way to demonstrate expertise in some context such as leadership or advertising or ongoing relationships, there will also be a specific literature on that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-02-08T05:47:22.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3189" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3108" CreationDate="2013-02-08T06:16:55.077" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article by Ranganathan et al (2004) provides some relevant information.&#xA;The authors discuss how it can be increased by two main factors, neural adaptation and muscle growth. They note how the motor skill acquisition literature supports the use of visualisation as an adjunct to actual practice as a means of improving performance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research on motor skill acquisition has demonstrated clearly that&#xA;  mental practice leads to improved performance (Corbin, 1972; Feltz &amp;amp;&#xA;  Landers, 1983). Thus, the neural events controlling the muscle&#xA;  parameters for performance (e.g., amplitude, timing) can be improved&#xA;  through mental practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They mention studies that have found no effect  of visualisation on strength (e.g., Herbert et al 1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in their study they did find an effect of visualisation on strength. They attribute this gain to neural adaptation rather than muscle growth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The key ﬁndings of this study were that mental training increases&#xA;  voluntary strength of both distal and proximal muscles of human upper&#xA;  extremities and the strength improvements accompanied elevations of&#xA;  time-locked (to MVC trials) cortical potential (MRCP). Based on the&#xA;  MRCP data (Figs. 3–5), we are conﬁdent that &lt;strong&gt;the primary mechanism&#xA;  underlying the strength increase is a mental training-induced&#xA;  enhancement in the central command to muscle&lt;/strong&gt;. The data suggest that&#xA;  repetitive mental attempts of maximal muscle activation trained and&#xA;  enabled the brain to generate stronger signals to muscle.&#xA;  ...&#xA;  greater strength is a consequence of stronger brain activity. A&#xA;  stronger central command could recruit the motor units that were&#xA;  otherwise inactive in an untrained state and/or drive the active motor&#xA;  units to higher intensity (higher discharge rate), leading to greater&#xA;  muscle force&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Corbin, C. B. (1972). Mental practice. In W. P. Morgan (Ed.), Ergogenic&#xA;aids and muscular performance (pp. 93–118). New York: Academic&#xA;Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feltz, D. L., &amp;amp; Landers, D. M. (1983). The effects of mental practice&#xA;on motor skill learning and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of&#xA;Sports Psychology, 5, 25–27.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Herbert, R. D., Dean, C., &amp;amp; Gandevia, S. C. (1998). Effects of real&#xA;and imagined training on voluntary muscle activation during maximal&#xA;isometric contractions. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 163, 361–368.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ranganathan, V. K., Siemionow, V., Liu, J. Z., Sahgal, V., &amp;amp; Yue, G. H. (2004). From mental power to muscle power—gaining strength by using the mind. Neuropsychologia, 42(7), 944-956. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pds15.egloos.com/pds/200910/18/78/Gaining_strength.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-19T07:57:03.973" LastActivityDate="2013-11-19T07:57:03.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3190" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3170" CreationDate="2013-02-08T07:05:44.057" Score="6" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Intuition and implicit learning&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend you have a read through Lieberman's (2000) review and theory article on intuition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lieberman argues that intuition is a cognitive and behavioural consequence of implicit learning processes. Intuition is contrasted with more deliberate thought processes. It also reflects situations where it is often not possible to articulate the reasons for a decision or belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These links with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_learning&quot;&gt;implicit learning&lt;/a&gt; are extensive. Much of skilled performance is performed automatically without conscious effort. We also build extensive associations between stimuli and decision relevant information. &#xA;Furthermore, processes of learning can lead us to forget the reasons why something is true or why something is good, while retaining the fact that it is true or that it is good. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lieberman suggests various neural components important to intuition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is concluded that&#xA;  the caudate and putamen, in the basal ganglia, are central components of both intuition &#xA;  and implicit learning, supporting the proposed relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Answering multiple choice questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your specific question concerns answering multiple choice questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One explanation of the phenomena you describe is that you may retrospectively analyse your feeling of doubt once you know the correct answer. You may dwell more on your feelings of doubt when you get an answer wrong, but presumably are less likely to do so on the questions where you had doubt but ultimately got the question right. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, partial knowledge is not unusual when answering multiple choice questions. And presumably that feeling of uncertainty regarding the correct answer could come about by either deliberate reasoning or some intuitive unarticulated reason.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lieberman, M. D. (2000). Intuition: a social cognitive neuroscience approach. Psychological bulletin, 126(1), 109. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scn.ucla.edu/pdf/Intuition.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-02-08T07:05:44.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3191" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3187" CreationDate="2013-02-08T23:40:04.340" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge, there is no adjusted RMSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;RMSD, unlike $R^2$, isn't typically used to compare models across the literature. $R^2$ represents the proportion of variance explained by the model, a construct which translates well across different experimental designs. Adjusted $R^2$ distorts this by accounting for the number of parameters in your model, but is a better estimate of the proportion of variance in the &lt;em&gt;population&lt;/em&gt; explained by your model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;RMSD is in whatever units you happen to be using. It should be interpreted against some benchmark for what you think a good model should be, or whatever has been deemed an &quot;acceptable error rate&quot;. It's not clear to me that adjusting for the number of parameters in RMSD would provide a number that is inherently meaningful, but I'm not sure if this is true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you would like to select among several model candidates, you may want to compute &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akaike_information_criterion&quot;&gt;AIC&lt;/a&gt; (Akaike Information Criterion) or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_information_criterion&quot;&gt;BIC&lt;/a&gt; (Bayesian Information Criterion), both of which are attempts to maximize the likelihood of your model while minimizing the number of parameters. Both metrics are commonly used in cognitive modeling, and I think this may be what you are looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I think this question is on-topic here, you will likely get better answers on &lt;a href=&quot;http://stats.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;stats.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt; (as Jeromy points out) because your question is not really specific to &lt;em&gt;cognitive&lt;/em&gt; modeling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2013-02-08T23:40:04.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3192" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3167" CreationDate="2013-02-11T02:07:24.170" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;One option is to use &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Inquisit Web Edition&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA; Here is an example script with a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/LexicalDecisionTask/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;lexical decision task&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, it is &lt;strong&gt;not free&lt;/strong&gt; and it requires installation of a &lt;strong&gt;plug-in&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Version 4 of Inquisit runs on OSX and Windows. Thus, it wont work in Linux or on phones, tablets, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-02-11T02:07:24.170" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3193" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-11T06:34:53.027" Score="5" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many examples of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_language&quot;&gt;animal language&lt;/a&gt; that involve vocal pattens or &quot;grammar&quot;.&#xA;For example, there is the the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance&quot;&gt;Bee dance&lt;/a&gt;, bird songs, whale songs, dogs.&#xA;Bird vocalization includes both bird calls and bird songs. There are Parrots, hummingbirds and songbirds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the most well-understood vocal animal languages?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2693" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-11T06:48:01.947" LastActivityDate="2013-02-11T06:48:01.947" Title="What are the most well-understood vocal animal languages?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-05-12T03:35:52.653" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3194" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3198" CreationDate="2013-02-11T14:41:28.090" Score="4" ViewCount="1728" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading an old popular psychology book by russian psychiatrist Vladimir Levi. One of the things that he has his depressed patients try is learn to juggle. He insists that such activity brings both halves of the brain together and that the brain &quot;likes to juggle&quot;. His book was written in the 1980s, and there's little science presented in the book to back the claim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Juggling involves coordinating both hands and is automatic, if I understand correctly. Touch typing involves coordinating 10 fingers together and is also automatic once learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the 1990s and early 2000s, computer keyboards were the dominant way of inputting data into a computer. If one was &lt;strong&gt;to type anything one used both hands together for extended periods of time&lt;/strong&gt; (most likely touch typing with both hands). But as of 2013, more and more people report using tablet PCs to surf the web and interact with friends online. Such typing most likely involves one finger pressing the letters on a virtual keyboard. It's a much slower process, as the keyboard is too small for both hands. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does touch-typing has any cognitive benefits?&lt;/strong&gt; Is the effect lost if one reverts to typing with a single finger? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-12T05:40:14.420" LastActivityDate="2013-02-13T03:10:40.530" Title="Are there cognitive benefits to two hand typing versus one finger?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3195" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1650" CreationDate="2013-02-11T15:00:44.957" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/11/2579.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Janata's (2009) study&lt;/a&gt; might be of interest to you. Specifically the paper proposes that the Media Pre-Frontal Cortex (MPFC) &amp;quot;...associates music and memories when we experience emotionally&#xA;salient episodic memories that are triggered by familiar songs from&#xA;our personal past.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Janata, P. (2009). The neural architecture of music-evoked autobiographical memories. Cerebral Cortex, 19(11), 2579-2594. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/11/2579.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/11/2579.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2694" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-02-12T01:31:56.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3197" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3200" CreationDate="2013-02-11T22:11:03.363" Score="4" ViewCount="1777" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need to know more about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispatial_neglect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hemispatial neglect&lt;/a&gt;, in order to compose a picture of what it would look like to someone who has this issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any resources for finding more about their actual vision?  I have seen the very popular picture on the internet of a patient who has the illness, and then draws a clock and a house:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/afUbL.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, I am trying to compose a real world image, as a person who has this illness, and I feel like just leaving half of the page empty is incorrect.  I would think that they would see a full picture, it would just not include the left hand side.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2697" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-02-12T10:43:55.650" LastActivityDate="2013-02-12T10:43:55.650" Title="What does hemispatial neglect vision look like?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3198" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3194" CreationDate="2013-02-11T23:54:45.363" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Benefits of touch typing on task performance&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;I assume that when comparing skilled individuals, two handed touch typing on a traditional keyboard is faster, more reliable, and more automatic, than the other methods of text input that you mention (e.g., phone or tablet keyboards). These advantages are discussed &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch_typing#Advantages&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Faster input means that ideas can be expressed more quickly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Visual attention does not need to be allocated to the keyboard which permits more attention to be placed on the content or the screen.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The greater reliability and automaticity mean that less attention needs to be allocated to the task of typing than to other methods.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A more consistent keyboard layout across devices further justifies the investment in learning touch typing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further discussion of the cognitive and performance benefits of skilled touch typing, check out Yechiam et al (2003). Discussing the benefits of touch typing over visual typing, they state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One main distinction of the touch-typing strategy appears to be the&#xA;  ability to look at the screen while typing and to devote a minimal&#xA;  level of visual search to the keyboard (Cooper, 1983). This ability is&#xA;  gained through the memorization of key positions and finger&#xA;  trajectories, which makes touch-typing a difficult skill to acquire.&#xA;  Other differences between touch-typing and visually guided typing&#xA;  include touch typists' (a) use of all fingers of both hands, as&#xA;  opposed to the use of one hand of only some of the fingers; (b) fixed&#xA;  assignment of fingers to keys; (c) reduced arm movements; and (d)&#xA;  fixed locations of the palms (Crooks, 1964).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Broader cognitive benefits of touch typing&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;While I have not read any specific research testing the idea, I think the benefits of touch typing relate to its superiority as a text entry method and not as some broader tool for brain integration. A large body of research on psychomotor and cognitive performance suggests that transfer across disparate domains tends to be minimal. The domains would need to have some overlapping elements. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More broadly, there is a strong link between unemployment and depression (e.g., Frese &amp;amp; Mohr, 1987). Engaging in meaningful or enjoyable activity might help improve mood in some cases (e.g., juggling, mastering some other new skill). However, I don't think the mechanism of that mood improvement would be hemispheric brain balancing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cooper, W. E. (1983). Introduction. In W. E. Cooper (Ed.), Cognitive aspects of skilled typewriting (pp. 1-38). New York: Springer-Verlag.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Crooks, M. (1964). Touch typing for teachers. London: Pitman.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Frese, M., &amp;amp; Mohr, G. (1987). Prolonged unemployment and depression in older workers: A longitudinal study of intervening variables. Social Science &amp;amp; Medicine, 25(2), 173-178. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.evidence-based-entrepreneurship.com/content/publications/011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yechiam, E., Erev, I., Yehene, V., &amp;amp; Gopher, D. (2003). Melioration and the transition from touch-typing training to everyday use. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 45(4), 671-684.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-13T03:10:40.530" LastActivityDate="2013-02-13T03:10:40.530" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3199" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3197" CreationDate="2013-02-12T00:49:28.880" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know much about this, but here are a few review articles (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,5&amp;amp;q=hemispatial+neglect+review&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here for more&lt;/a&gt;) that you could look at:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heilman, K. M., &amp;amp; Valenstein, E. (1979). Mechanisms underlying hemispatial neglect. Annals of Neurology, 5(2), 166-170. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~raha/CogSci600_web/Readings/Danckert3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~raha/CogSci600_web/Readings/Danckert3.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parton, A., Malhotra, P., &amp;amp; Husain, M. (2004). Hemispatial neglect. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery &amp;amp; Psychiatry, 75(1), 13-21.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1757480/pdf/v075p00013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1757480/pdf/v075p00013.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jewell, G., &amp;amp; McCourt, M. E. (2000). Pseudoneglect: A review and meta-analysis of performance factors in line bisection tasks. Neuropsychologia, 38(1), 93-110.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://w3.ualg.pt/~lfaisca/SMAD02/MA%20papers/Neuropsychologia_Jewell_2000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://w3.ualg.pt/~lfaisca/SMAD02/MA%20papers/Neuropsychologia_Jewell_2000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-02-12T00:49:28.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3200" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3197" CreationDate="2013-02-12T01:05:29.927" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this is an interesting, but difficult question to answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispatial_neglect&quot;&gt;Hemispatial neglect&lt;/a&gt; patients do not typically have problem with visual pathways &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;. Wikipedia suggests that the disorder is most closely linked to damage of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporoparietal_junction&quot;&gt;temporo-parietal junction&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_parietal_cortex&quot;&gt;posterior parietal cortex&lt;/a&gt;, areas associated with attention. Thus, the sensation (e.g. on the retina, and in early visual pathways) should be similar in patients and non-patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me make an analogy to the inattentional blindness literature. You may have seen a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo&quot;&gt;famous video by Daniel Simons and Christopher Charis&lt;/a&gt;. If you haven't, go watch it now before continuing... (I'll wait.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now how would you paint a picture of how that video 'looks' to someone? Does that picture include a gorilla? It seems even normal perception has blindspots. In fact, much of our perception is not strictly bottom-up, but is a mixture between bottom-up and top-down processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would argue comparing a hemispatial neglect patient to a control is (very loosely) like comparing someone watching the inattentional blindness video for the first time to someone who has seen it before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One might argue that hemispatial neglect patients do not 'see' things any differently than us, only that they 'perceive' it differently. So you could possibly create a caricature of how these patients 'see' the world, but it would be just that: a caricature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing for certain is that hemispatial neglect patients do not 'perceive' that half of their visual field is missing (e.g. leaving half the page blank). When prompted, these patients typically do not report that anything is out of the ordinary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All that being said, this is not my area of expertise, so please feel free to post a better answer if you think this analogy is misleading...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2013-02-12T01:05:29.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3201" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7865" CreationDate="2013-02-12T10:23:23.773" Score="12" ViewCount="325" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Philosophy, a thought game exists called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience_machine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The experience machine&lt;/a&gt;&quot; {1}. In summary, it's a machine you plug into that enables you to always experience positive events, and never negative ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://reflectyourthoughts.tumblr.com/post/16160595846/too-much-of-a-good-thing-can-be-a-bad-thing-my&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;common arguments&lt;/a&gt; not to plug into this machine is that if you never experience lows, you can't appreciate heights, since they would become the norm. This line of reasoning is known as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hedonic treadmill&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Positive Psychology the concept of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology#Changes_in_happiness_levels&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Baseline level of happiness&lt;/a&gt; {2} exists. It has been shown {3} this baseline can be raised, or lowered, but the research I know of does not discuss the effect of removing negative experiences to increase the baseline. It focuses on other factors, like intrinsic motivation, self-esteem, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Knowing about baseline happiness, and the trend to fall/rise back to it; what would happen if you never had negative experiences? The argument against using the experience machine basically assumes the baseline would plummet if there are no negative experiences, or at least become quite low.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My line of thinking, and hypothesis is that there is no need for negative experiences in order to appreciate positive ones. Since, if you don't experience anything negative for a week, you can still experience joy that week, a month... a year... a life? If you are never unpleasantly hungry, you can still appreciate a good meal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now to the actual question(s):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any research that shows the effect of &quot;lack of negative experiences&quot; on the baseline level of happiness?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are you better able to enjoy nice experiences in the light of negative ones? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there research on the relation between the two?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has this research ever been applied in Philosophy to try and answer the Experience machine puzzle?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;{1} &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.be/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=hAi3CdjXlQsC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PR9&amp;amp;dq=%09%09%E2%97%8B%20Nozick,%20Robert%20%281974%29.%C2%A0Anarchy,%20state,%20and%20utopia.%20New%20York:%20Basic%20Books.%20pp.%C2%A042%E2%80%9345.%C2%A0ISBN%C2%A00-465-09720-0.&amp;amp;ots=OGn1v1orjE&amp;amp;sig=uPta5u508Rf6Vbk8034YeejNx-c#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nozick, R. (1977). Anarchy, state, and utopia (Vol. 5038). Basic Books.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;{2} Brickman &amp;amp; Campbell (1971). Hedonic relativism and planning the good society. New York: Academic Press. pp. 287–302.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;{3} Diener; Lucas, Scollon (2006). &quot;Beyond the Hedonic Treadmill: Revising the Adaptation Theory of Well-Being&quot;. American Psychologist 61 (4): 305–314. doi:10.1037/0003-066X61.4.305.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2664" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-07-21T13:04:06.367" LastActivityDate="2014-07-21T13:04:06.367" Title="Can the Philosophy thought game &quot;The experience machine&quot; be answered by Positive Psychology?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3202" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3203" CreationDate="2013-02-12T15:00:09.427" Score="5" ViewCount="615" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in the link between phobias and related nightmares.&#xA;Specifically, is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrophobia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;acrophobia&lt;/a&gt; (i.e., irrational fear of heights) connected to falling in dreams?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2645" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-13T03:46:14.103" LastActivityDate="2018-09-06T22:30:17.137" Title="Is acrophobia connected to falling in dreams?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3203" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3202" CreationDate="2013-02-13T03:44:02.420" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dreams&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightmare&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;nightmares&lt;/a&gt; often relate to thoughts, worries, and concerns that a person has during waking hours. Various theories both describe this phenomena and suggest reasons for this (e.g., activation of memories, memory consolidation, discarding information, working through issues). Thus, it seems plausible that someone with a particular phobia would be more likely to have dreams related to that phobia (i.e., fear of heights accompanied by dreams about falling).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Muris et al (2000) discuss some of the research on children looking at fears, worries, and scary dreams. They cite Amaya-Jackson and March (1995) as evidence for links between traumatic events and frightening dreams.  They also mention research by Bauer (1976) which suggests that the contents of children's dreams and fears may change with age and that such changes co-occur both in daily fears and in scary dreams (e.g., fewer monsters and more fears about bodily injury/illness with age). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in addition to associating a phobia with dream content, you might also want to look at the baseline prevalence of any given type of dream. There is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://sleepanddreamdatabase.org/dream&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sleep and dream database you can look at&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;In a survey of 2992 participants 48% reported having had a dream of falling (&lt;a href=&quot;http://sleepanddreamdatabase.org/dream/dist?questionid=Q9&amp;amp;urlenv=%7B%7D&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bulkeley - database - Q9&lt;/a&gt;).&#xA;Given the relatively high prevalence of dreams of falling, there may be other reasons, perhaps related to the nature of dreaming that induces them. For example, dreams of being unable to move can readily be explained by the paralysed state of body while dreaming. Perhaps a similar argument could be made about falling (e.g., a body sensation while dreaming is interpreted in a way that links with the fear of falling, thereby inducing the nightmare).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bauer, D. H. (1976). An exploratory study of developmental changes in children's fears. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(1), 69-74.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;March, J. S., Amaya-Jackson, L., Terry, R., &amp;amp; Costanzo, P. (1997). Posttraumatic symptomatology in children and adolescents after an industrial fire. Journal of the American Academy of Child &amp;amp; Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(8), 1080-1088.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Gadet, B., &amp;amp; Moulaert, V. (2000). Fears, worries, and scary dreams in 4-to 12-year-old children: Their content, developmental pattern, and origins. Journal of clinical child psychology, 29(1), 43-52. &lt;a href=&quot;http://arno.unimaas.nl/show.cgi?fid=2898&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-13T04:10:42.443" LastActivityDate="2013-02-13T04:10:42.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3204" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3170" CreationDate="2013-02-13T05:04:27.030" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our research and clinical studies with hundreds of people over a 40 year period as educators and counselors revealed to us that people have gut feelings that relate to two specific instinctual needs and gut responses of acceptance (attention) and freedom (control of one;s one responses). Our gut feelings of emptiness and fullness (not to be confused with hunger) reveal how well these needs are being met and how well they are in balance. Our experience with people indicated that intuitive intelligence is dependent upon our awareness of these gut feelings. We invite you to explore our work in our book &quot;What's Behind Your Belly Button? A Psychological Perspective of the Intelligence of Human Nature and Gut Instinct&quot; and come peruse our blog on the subject of gut feeling: &lt;a href=&quot;http://instinctualgutfeelings.blogspot.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://instinctualgutfeelings.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Martha Love and Robert Sterling&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2705" LastActivityDate="2013-02-13T05:04:27.030" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3205" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2049" CreationDate="2013-02-13T06:19:16.800" Score="6" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Writing therapy&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is quite a lot of research on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_therapy&quot;&gt;writing therapy&lt;/a&gt; and expressive writing more generally. As you note, much of this research relates to writing about negative emotional experiences. There is some support for the positive mental health benefits in writing about traumatic events (e.g., see the meta-analysis by Smyth, 1998).&#xA;While the interventions are focused on writing about negative events, the intervention&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Positive psychology and writing&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read about a few specific positive psychology writing interventions, such as those &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.blackdoginstitute.org.au/docs/positivepsychology.pdf&quot;&gt;mentioned here&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Keep a gratitude diary&lt;/strong&gt;: Take the time each day to write down three things that went  well and why. This causes psychological well-being&#xA;  levels to increase in a lasting way.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Thank a mentor&lt;/strong&gt;: Write a letter of thanks to someone to whom you owe a debt of  gratitude such as a teacher or grandparent. Then visit the&#xA;  person and read the letter to  them. People who do this are measurably&#xA;  happier for more than a month.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Learn to forgive&lt;/strong&gt;: Let go of anger and resentment by writing a letter of forgiveness to a person who has wronged you. Inability to forgive is associated with persistent rumination.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Toepfer and Walker (2009) discuss writing letters of gratitude. They cite several studies showing positive effect, stating that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Expressive writing studies are plentiful and the once anemic domain of&#xA;  letter writing as  a vehicle for improving health has seen a recent&#xA;  surge of interest (King, 2001; Sheldon &amp;amp;  Lyubomirsky, 2006a; Seligman&#xA;  et al., 2005; Lyubomirsky, Dickerhoof, Boehm, &amp;amp; Sheldon,  2009). For&#xA;  example, VandeCreek, Janus, Pennebaker and Binau (2002) asked&#xA;  participants to  pray and write letters to God and found that both&#xA;  prayer and the letters increased insight  and positive emotion, more&#xA;  so than simple written descriptions, where a single letter to God  had&#xA;  the most impact. The authors explained that the act of praying or&#xA;  explaining to another  (in this case in a letter to God) was more&#xA;  conducive to personal insight and greater positive  emotional&#xA;  formulations about life events. In other words, writing a letter to&#xA;  God was found  to improve participant’s positive feelings about life&#xA;  events.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Watkins, Woodward, Stone and Kolts (2003) conducted a study&#xA;  that examined mood  changes as the result of various gratitude&#xA;  inductions, one of which was a letter writing  condition. Their&#xA;  findings revealed that writing a gratitude based letter produced a&#xA;  positive  affect increase compared to the other gratitude inductions&#xA;  (Watkins et al., 2003).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burton and King found positive effects from getting participants to write about positive experiences. They also summarise some of the literature noting that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;research has begun to explore a variety of writing topics that&#xA;  might be associated with health beneﬁts that do not focus exclusively&#xA;  on negative experience. King and Miner (2000) found that writing only&#xA;  about the positive aspects of a traumatic experience was associated&#xA;  with the same health beneﬁts as writing about trauma. King (2001)&#xA;  found that individuals who wrote about their best possible future&#xA;  selves showed physical health beneﬁts as well as enhanced&#xA;  psychological well-being after writing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burton and King's instructions were:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Think of the most wonderful experience or experiences in your life,&#xA;  happiest moments, ecstatic moments, moments of rapture, perhaps from&#xA;  being in love, or from listening to music, or suddenly ‘‘being hit’’&#xA;  by a book or painting or from some great creative moment. Choose one&#xA;  such experience or moment. Try to imagine yourself at that moment,&#xA;  including all the feelings and emotions associated with the&#xA;  experience. Now write about the experience in as much detail as&#xA;  possible trying to include the feelings, thoughts, and emotions that&#xA;  were present at the time. Please try your best to re-experience the&#xA;  emotions involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for a mechanism of operation, Wing et al present the following ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Writing about nontraumatic events likely shares some effects with&#xA;  writing about traumatic events. Writing about any meaningful aspect of&#xA;  life may promote cognitive processing, encouraging the examination,&#xA;  understanding, and assimilation of emotions that might otherwise be&#xA;  left unscrutinized (Pennebaker, 2002; Pennebaker, Mayne, &amp;amp; Francis,&#xA;  1997; Pennebaker &amp;amp; Seagal, 1999). Writing about a meaningful topic may&#xA;  result in enhanced emotional regulation, related to perceptions of&#xA;  self-efficacy and control over emotional experiences (Greenberg,&#xA;  Wortman &amp;amp; Stone, 1996; King, 2001, 2002; Lepore et al., 2002). Writing&#xA;  may afford the writer the opportunity to gain a sense of mastery over&#xA;  his or her emotions and to clearly identify priorities, preferred&#xA;  outcomes, and goals (King, 2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Burton, C. M., &amp;amp; King, L. A. (2004). The health benefits of writing about intensely positive experiences. Journal of research in personality, 38(2), 150-163. &lt;a href=&quot;http://positiveemotions.gr/library_files/B/Burton_King_Health_2004.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;King, L. A. (2001). The health beneﬁts of writing about life goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(7), 798–807.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;King, L. A., &amp;amp; Miner, K. N. (2000). Writing about the perceived beneﬁts of traumatic events: Implications&#xA;for physical health. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(2), 220–230.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wright, J. (2002). Online counselling: Learning from writing therapy. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 30(3), 285-298. &lt;a href=&quot;http://in3.uoc.edu/opencms_in3/export/sites/in3/webs/grups_de_recerca/psinet/_resources/documents/Wright.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;SMYTH, J.M.(1998).Written emotional expression: effect size, outcome types, and moderating variables.&#xA;Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(1), 174±184. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/users/peterson/selfauthoring/Narrative%20and%20Goal%20Setting/Trauma%20Disclosure/Smyth%20JM%20Written%20emotional%20expression%20effect%20sizes%20JCCP%201998.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Toepfer, S., &amp;amp; Walker, K. (2009). Letters of gratitude: Improving well-being through expressive writing. Journal of Writing Research, 1(3), 181-198. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jowr.org/articles/vol1_3/JoWR_2009_vol1_nr3_Toepfer_Walker.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wing, J. F., Schutte, N. S., &amp;amp; Byrne, B. (2006). The effect of positive writing on emotional intelligence and life satisfaction. Journal of clinical psychology, 62(10), 1291-1302.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-13T06:49:19.940" LastActivityDate="2013-02-13T06:49:19.940" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3206" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1951" CreationDate="2013-02-13T06:38:26.750" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note, this is not my area, and not medical advice. If you need help with this you should consult an appropriately trained health practitioner.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To consult the scientific literature, do a search like &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?q=schizoaffective+disorder+prognosis&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;schizoaffective disorder prognosis&quot;&lt;/a&gt; on Google Scholar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Robinson et al (1999) provide some relevant empirical data. The sample was 50% female and had a mean age of 25.6 (SD=6.3) years. To quote their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Background  We examined relapse after response to a first episode of&#xA;  schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Methods  Patients with first-episode schizophrenia were assessed on&#xA;  measures of psychopathologic variables, cognition, social functioning,&#xA;  and biological variables and treated according to a standardized&#xA;  algorithm. The sample for the relapse analyses consisted of 104&#xA;  patients who responded to treatment of their index episode and were at&#xA;  risk for relapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results  Five years after initial recovery, the cumulative first&#xA;  relapse rate was 81.9% (95% confidence interval [CI], 70.6%-93.2%);&#xA;  the second relapse rate was 78.0% (95% CI, 46.5%-100.0%). By 4 years&#xA;  after recovery from a second relapse, the cumulative third relapse&#xA;  rate was 86.2% (95% CI, 61.5%-100.0%). Discontinuing antipsychotic&#xA;  drug therapy increased the risk of relapse by almost 5 times (hazard&#xA;  ratio for an initial relapse, 4.89 [99% CI, 2.49-9.60]; hazard ratio&#xA;  for a second relapse, 4.57 [99% CI, 1.49-14.02]). Subsequent analyses&#xA;  controlling for antipsychotic drug use showed that patients with poor&#xA;  premorbid adaptation to school and premorbid social withdrawal&#xA;  relapsed earlier. Sex, diagnosis, obstetric complications, duration of&#xA;  psychotic illness before treatment, baseline symptoms, neuroendocrine&#xA;  measures, methylphenidate hydrochloride challenge response,&#xA;  neuropsychologic and magnetic resonance imaging measures, time to&#xA;  response of the initial episode, adverse effects during treatment, and&#xA;  presence of residual symptoms after the initial episode were not&#xA;  significantly related to time to relapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Conclusions  &lt;strong&gt;There is a high rate of relapse within 5 years of&#xA;  recovery from a first episode of schizophrenia and schizoaffective&#xA;  disorder. This risk is diminished by maintenance antipsychotic drug&#xA;  treatment&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Robinson, D., Woerner, M. G., Alvir, J. M. J., Bilder, R., Goldman, R., Geisler, S., ... &amp;amp; Lieberman, J. A. (1999). Predictors of relapse following response from a first episode of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(3), 241. &lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=204795&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FULL TEXT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-02-13T06:38:26.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3207" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3169" CreationDate="2013-02-13T18:21:33.147" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two theoretical constructions that may be of use to you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scaffolding&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;...what the child is able to do in collaboration today he will be able to do independently tomorrow&quot; -Vygotsky&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are right to graduate the level of difficulty of problems the students encounter. Intuitively, a student has before her a level of task which, although perhaps within her reach, nonetheless is difficult and, as such, allows students to develop their skills by doing tasks at this level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lev Vygotsky&lt;/a&gt;, a soviet psychologist who stressed the role of play in learning (a perspective which is particularly germane to problem solving skills, which rely on an organic schematisation of knowledge and approaches- relational understanding), codified this intuition in the formal notion of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_of_proximal_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Zone Of Proximal Development&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. In the ZPD, we have the tools to play with the problems we face, and will organically develop the skills to solve similar problems- and, as with our intuitive version, this is where the best learning takes place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The crucial thing about the ZPD, however, as distinct from our intuitive construction, is that &lt;em&gt;tasks in the learner's ZPD are tasks that the student requires assistance to solve&lt;/em&gt;. In &lt;a href=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Zone_of_proximal_development.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this handy diagram&lt;/a&gt; from wikipedia, the ZPD is represented by the middle circle.&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vBvSE.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A psychologist named &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Bruner&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jerome Bruner&lt;/a&gt; went on to analyse the kinds of &quot;assistance&quot; or &lt;strong&gt;scaffolding&lt;/strong&gt; needed in the ZPD- support frameworks which aid the student in tackling the task on her own (&lt;em&gt;not, it must be noted, merely doing half the work&lt;/em&gt;- cf. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/3182/2554&quot;&gt;BenCole's remark&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quoting from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaffolding_Theory#Promoting_better_learning:_scaffolding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wiki's Promoting better learning: scaffolding&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Effective learning environments use instructional scaffolding to aid the student in his/her construction of new knowledge. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Avoid&lt;/em&gt; telling the learner exactly how to accomplish the task; do not solve the problem for the learner. This may help the learner&#xA;  immediately, but it hinders the learning process. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;It is important to promote better learning by helping the learner achieve his/her learning goal through the use of instructional&#xA;  scaffolding. The use of scaffolding helps the learner to actively&#xA;  build and construct new knowledge.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To elucidate the whole Scaffolding theory in the abstract would take time, so I'll leave concrete recommendations for later and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaffolding_Theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link the relevant wikipedia page, if you're curious&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Metacognition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;Students can learn to think better if schools concentrate on teaching them how to do so&quot;- Presseisen&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thinking about thinking has almost become a cliche in modern british education (and, I suspect, further afield!), but it is with good reason. The process of deliberating on strategies and approaches to to problems, including attitudes and emotional responses, called &lt;strong&gt;metacognition&lt;/strong&gt; is invaluable both to problem solving and to learning in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is what separates a boy who makes a mental list of all of his 'tools' and selects the best for the job, and the boy with the hammer ready to hand, to whom everything looks like a nail. It is what separates the girl for whom failure is a miasma to sulk in, and the girl who sees her own misery and changes tack. Incorporating metacognitive elements into pedagogy essential to develop students independent enough to solve problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, the theory in the abstract is enormous, so here's another wiki page:&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Metacognition&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now for some concrete recommendations (these are just what springs to mind right now, I may add to it later):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Incorporate metacognitive maxims into your pedagogy &quot;You're stuck! Excellent- that means you're learning&quot; &quot;If you don't know what to do- make a list&quot; &quot;I like to take a while to plan my mode of attack!&quot; and so on...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Model your internal dialogue in approaching a problem- do this often, and &lt;em&gt;heavily&lt;/em&gt; exaggerate every aspect of it &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The most effective model for scaffolding is interpersonal- find some TAs!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If not TAs- getting them to work in groups or pairs can mimic this&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Getting students to make a list of the tools and equations at their disposal at the start of a given problem&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Forcing students to draw a neat, clear diagram&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Resources, such as mini whiteboards (students hold up their answers at the end of an allotted time) allow you to tailor your problems to their ZPDs&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Make problems manifest in different ways so they can incorporate their intuitions, approaches and playfulness from other spheres&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A flow chart or worksheet for approaches to general problems incorporating the above as well as socratic questions (make toolkit, draw picture, is there a general equation? what can we sub into it? etc) can be a real boon&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Most importantly, be creative (or at least appear to be so), and your students will show their own creativity- Vygotsky says learning is about play (and, as I've said, this model is certainly apposite to problem solving), you must put them in a playful place any way you can!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="813" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-02-16T12:59:25.210" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3208" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-13T21:01:29.630" Score="4" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read from various sources about the &lt;strong&gt;eye direction language&lt;/strong&gt;. What is of my special interest now, is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;looking right means thinking (about future, new ideas etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;looking left means remembering (looking into past)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I've thought about it, I've noticed the possible explanation in our writing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We write &lt;strong&gt;from left to right&lt;/strong&gt;, so:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;the future&lt;/strong&gt; is on the &lt;strong&gt;right&lt;/strong&gt;, looking right means looking into future&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;the past&lt;/strong&gt; is on the &lt;strong&gt;left&lt;/strong&gt;, looking left means looking into past&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the eye language dependent on the writing system? Are there any researches about the differences between western culture, and, say, Arabic, where people write from right to left?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2550" LastActivityDate="2013-02-13T21:01:29.630" Title="Is the eye direction language dependent on the direction of writing?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3209" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-14T11:00:46.440" Score="5" ViewCount="299" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read that humans are able to empathize with other humans, to feel as another person does, through mirror neurons. I'm guessing that they're able to empathize with primates too, as they share similar brains, have similar limbs, faces, etc. So, when someone watches a monkey or child drink juice, they can empathize some of the joy of drinking juice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what about a human empathizing with less humanoid animals? Can a person who has developed a personal bond with say, a horse, 'feel' the same way as the horse does? Can one understand the joy of a cat eating its favorite food?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do mirror neurons apply between humans and animals as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2644" LastActivityDate="2013-02-14T12:41:36.497" Title="Does empathy extend to animals?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3210" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3209" CreationDate="2013-02-14T12:41:36.497" Score="7" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But what about a human empathizing with less humanoid animals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empathic responding towards humans is generalized to other species. The greater the similarity of the species towards humans, the larger is the empathic response. The findings support the notion that there is a relationship between human empathy directed towards other humans and human empathy directed towards non-human animals. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301051108000045&quot;&gt;via&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can one understand the joy of a cat eating its favorite food?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It depend on person. Problem is that we actually do not know how animals feel. And our empathy based on assumption that they feel like us. So it is one more proof of involving of mirror neurons in empathy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Empathy toward non conspecifics has different neural representation&#xA;  among individuals with different feeding habits, perhaps reflecting&#xA;  different motivational factors and beliefs. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3adoi/10.1371/journal.pone.0010847&quot;&gt;via&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also look at  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search?form_name=quicksearch&amp;amp;ie=%E0%A5%B0&amp;amp;value1=animal%20empathy&amp;amp;option1=tka&amp;amp;x=0&amp;amp;y=0&quot;&gt;Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal of The Interactions of People &amp;amp; Animals&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2555" LastActivityDate="2013-02-14T12:41:36.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3211" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3187" CreationDate="2013-02-14T14:22:55.617" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are at least 3 ways to discount SSE (or RMSE) by the number of free params:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$&#xA;\text{adjusted RMSE} = \sqrt{\frac{SSE}{n - k}}&#xA;$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$&#xA;AIC = n \times ln\left(\frac{SSE}{n}\right) - k \times ln(n)&#xA;$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$&#xA;BIC = n \times ln\left(\frac{SSE}{n}\right) - 2 \times k&#xA;$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or in computer code style:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;k = number of free params&#xA;n = number of DV's&#xA;SSE = sum of squared errors&#xA;&#xA;adjusted RMSE = sqrt ( SSE / n - k )&#xA;AIC = n * ln(SSE/n) - k * ln(n)&#xA;BIC = n * ln(SSE/n) - 2 * k&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="475" LastEditorUserId="939" LastEditDate="2013-02-17T08:45:34.357" LastActivityDate="2013-02-17T08:45:34.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3212" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2079" CreationDate="2013-02-15T02:52:22.713" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;2 sounds reasonable. The variability you introduce by sticking to pixels or display ratios seems like it outweighs the apparent unreliability of monitor size calculations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, unlike TVs that scale the content to fit the size, most webpages do not scale -- so, when I drag a webpage from my laptop screen to my second (larger) monitor, the size stays constant. Therefore, I would predict that people do not end up sitting as far back from large screens as you might expect. Therefore, the subtended visual angle will be approximately the same if the image is the same size for everyone.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="438" LastActivityDate="2013-02-15T02:52:22.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3213" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3165" CreationDate="2013-02-15T03:17:34.083" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The ability to discretize numbers seems to depend on having words for discrete numbers. But humans seem to be able to estimate, regardless of linguistic constraints. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a cool counterexample to &quot;typical educated adults&quot; as evidence for exact, symbolic representation of number, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/brazil-s-piraha-tribe-living-without-numbers-or-time-a-414291.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pirahã&lt;/a&gt; people of Brazil do not have words for numbers and do not seem to possess any numerical concepts beyond &quot;few&quot; or &quot;many.&quot; So, it's not a given that humans universally represent number, but even the Pirahã seem to have ability to estimate, suggesting that your intuition may be correct and it's meaningful differences that are universally represented. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gordon, P. (2004) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/306/5695/496.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Numerical Cognition Without Words: Evidence from Amazonia&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;i&gt;Science&lt;/i&gt; (306), 496-499.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="438" LastEditorUserId="438" LastEditDate="2013-02-18T02:18:02.680" LastActivityDate="2013-02-18T02:18:02.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3214" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-15T08:09:35.433" Score="11" ViewCount="379" Body="&lt;p&gt;How did right handedness win over left handedness in numbers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it only a coincidence that there are more right handed people than left handed ones? Or, has some effect in nature explicitly made right handedness dominant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2710" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-02-15T10:43:18.083" LastActivityDate="2013-02-25T21:53:51.053" Title="Why are most people right handed?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3216" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-16T17:33:30.563" Score="11" ViewCount="577" Body="&lt;p&gt;I got a commercial-grade EEG headband and am trying to look at the data it outputs. The headband quantifies raw EEG signal from a single forehead dry sensor into a range of EEG bands (alpha, beta, etc). The issue that I'm running into is that the values of the EEG bands jump rather significantly from one data point to the next (0.05 second reading intervals). Additionally, there are eye-related artifacts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iey9z.png&quot; alt=&quot;sample EEG reading&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I would like to apply some sort of algorithm or statistical analysis to see how the EEG bands behave over some time interval&lt;/strong&gt;.  I'm hoping to see if some EEG band statistically rises or is suppressed over 5-15min time period. Seeing instantaneous jumps in individual readings does not convey this information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I know that for Actigraphic studies, there are sleep scoring algorithms, like one by Cole that looks at the previous 4 minutes, the current minute and 2 minutes in the future to score a minute of actigraphy data: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; SleepScoreConstant*&#xA;(550*4minAgo + 378*3minAgo + 413*2minAgo + 699*1minAgo &#xA;+1736*CurrentMinute  + &#xA;287*1minAhead + 309*2minAhead)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there some similar algorithms for EEG band analysis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, it would help if you can suggest the realistic time window over which EEG bands may be statistically analyzed in awake subjects: is it 20 seconds? 5 minutes? 90 minutes? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T00:48:44.860" Title="What computerized EEG analysis algorithms are there?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3217" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3219" CreationDate="2013-02-18T12:22:30.920" Score="10" ViewCount="895" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the Fox News article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,314681,00.html#ixzz2LFidMEVW&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Chimps Smarter Than Humans in Memory Test&quot;&lt;/a&gt; chimps were able to significantly outperform humans in a simple working memory task.  I quote one part of the article in particular:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Matsuzawa speculated&#xA;  there was an evolutionary tradeoff between this kind of sharp memory&#xA;  and the higher mental functions seen in humans, such as our advanced&#xA;  capability for language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could this &quot;trade-off&quot; mean that training to improve working memory could cause your brain to adapt to such training at the expense of language and problem solving abilities? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://goo.gl/yUAMT&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Matsuzawa's 2012 article in Current Biology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2538" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2013-03-28T18:21:13.833" LastActivityDate="2015-06-23T22:15:14.853" Title="Does an exceptional working memory inhibit intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3218" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-19T04:39:17.433" Score="4" ViewCount="304" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've just been learning about the Expectancy Valence Model of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_gambling_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Iowa Gambling Task&lt;/a&gt; (see Busemeyer &amp;amp; Stout, 2002; Yechiam et al 2005). The model includes three parameters: motivation, learning-rate, and response sensitivity. The parameters aim to assess component processes when performing the task. Alternatively, an overall performance measure can be obtained such as wins minus losses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hope of model fitting in these cases is to better understand the causes of particular performance deficits. Such deficits might then be used to identify general decision making deficits in the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More broadly, I am interested in the general psychometric properties of parameters obtained from mathematical models of task performance. I'm also interested in the interface between cognitive modelling, measuring individual differences, and imbuing model parameters with psychological import. Thus, with a normal psychological test we would be interested in reliability (e.g., test-retest reliability over various time frames) and correlates with related measures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, my main question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the test-retest reliability of IOWA gambling task performance and parameters of the Expectancy Valence Model?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also be interested in learning about how such reliability estimates vary with properties of the task. For example, increasing the number of trials presumably increases reliability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Busemeyer, J.R., &amp;amp; Stout, J.C. (2002). A contribution of cognitive decision models to clinical assessment: Decomposing performance&#xA;on the Bechara gambling task. Psychological Assessment, 14, 253– 262. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yechiam, E., Busemeyer, J. R., Stout, J. C., &amp;amp; Bechara, A. (2005). Using cognitive models to map relations between neuropsychological disorders and human decision-making deficits. Psychological Science, 16(12), 973-978. &lt;a href=&quot;http://mypage.iu.edu/~jbusemey/Eldad_psy_sci.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-02-19T04:39:17.433" Title="Test-retest reliability of Iowa gambling task performance and Expectancy Valence Model parameters" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;reliability&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3219" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3217" CreationDate="2013-02-20T03:50:50.890" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. Different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions, and the brain would not spontaneously reorganize based only on a improved WM. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory is a huge factor in intelligence, and improving WM would likely result in increased scores on intelligent tests, and in general is a good thing.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v7/n1/abs/nn1165.html&quot;&gt;Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2697" LastEditorUserId="2697" LastEditDate="2013-02-20T04:02:27.820" LastActivityDate="2013-02-20T04:02:27.820" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3223" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-20T23:19:05.397" Score="4" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering how a normal adult in their 20s could best structure their life to make best use of their capacity to learn. I am no expert in cognitive science, so I assume just a really common definition of &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=define:learn&amp;amp;rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS503US503&amp;amp;oq=define:learn&amp;amp;aqs=chrome.0.57j58.2249&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;learn&lt;/a&gt;&quot; here. We might measure this by, for example, hours of sustained, intense study per 24 hrs. I realize my question might be a major oversimplification, leaving out factors like stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is some upper bound on how quickly learning occurs, then there may be little point in studying more than, say, 6 hours per day.  Does anyone know of any research which shows some general, asymptotic upper bound for learning in adults (20-30)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anectodal examples might also be useful. What are some examples of how highly accomplished adults structure their days?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2731" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-16T14:35:52.610" LastActivityDate="2015-05-16T14:35:52.610" Title="What is the upper bound on rate of learning in young adults?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3217" CreationDate="2013-02-21T08:04:35.940" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It looks like there is a developmental relationship between WM and general IQ:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fry, A. F., &amp;amp; Hale, S. (1996). Processing speed, working memory, and fluid intelligence: Evidence for a developmental cascade. Psychological science, 7(4), 237-241.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cole, M. W., Yarkoni, T., Repovš, G., Anticevic, A., &amp;amp; Braver, T. S. (2012). Global Connectivity of Prefrontal Cortex Predicts Cognitive Control and Intelligence. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(26), 8988-8999.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2603" LastActivityDate="2013-02-21T08:04:35.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3225" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9475" CreationDate="2013-02-21T16:18:39.917" Score="12" ViewCount="922" Body="&lt;p&gt;As presented in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/mihaly_csikszentmihalyi_on_flow.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TED talk by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi&lt;/a&gt; (3:30) repeated research has been unable to show a correlation between happiness and level of material wealth (above a certain minimum threshold).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a result, a line of reasoning that is often made is: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We should stop pursuing more wealth, since attaining it will not make&#xA;  us happier.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While i agree that we can conclude from this research that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;attaining&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; more wealth will not make us happier, i don't think we can conclude that the amount of effort we put into &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;pursuing&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; more wealth has no influence on our happiness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is anecdotal material to show that putting less effort into the pursuit of wealth makes you happier, take Zen monks for example, but there are a lot of other factors that could be causing their increase in happiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What research has examined the merit/effect of detachment from material wealth?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To what extent is pursuing or not pursuing wealth related to happiness?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT:&#xA;Happiness, as roughly defined by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.howellfoundation.org/Upload/Events/9-25-12Intentional%20Happiness/IntentionalHappinessResearchArticles.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;any of the known&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu/subjectivehappinessscale.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;measurement&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886901002136&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;methods&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2664" LastEditorUserId="2664" LastEditDate="2015-03-06T10:45:11.600" LastActivityDate="2015-03-07T22:51:09.640" Title="What is the influence of &quot;effort put into pursuing wealth&quot; on happiness?" Tags="&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3226" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3249" CreationDate="2013-02-21T17:46:38.243" Score="9" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;The model organism &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;C. elegans&lt;/a&gt; is about 1 mm in length.  This is quite small.  In fact, some C. elegans neurons span &gt;25% of the length of its body (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wormatlas.org/neuronalwiring.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NI527.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Source: Wikipedia&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This observation leads me to the following question: Which neuron in C. elegans has the largest span, and why is it this large?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="931" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2013-02-21T21:42:21.840" LastActivityDate="2013-03-05T01:24:19.783" Title="In C. elegans, which neuron has the largest span, and why is it this large?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3227" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3144" CreationDate="2013-02-21T18:56:22.500" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sign language I would imagine would be a great language to think with since it is physical and involves body language.  Considering too that we all think different I know sign language, Spanish, and English and find my thoughts bouncing from language to language.  Also what could be considered fast? How do you rate the speed of thoughts and inner conversations in your mind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2734" LastActivityDate="2013-02-21T18:56:22.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3228" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3268" CreationDate="2013-02-22T04:57:10.670" Score="8" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking of a way to describe what's happening to a single channel EEG/MEG sensor output. I've noticed that there is significant difference in the readings from a quiet observations, versus a person who's engaged in a conversation. I'm looking for some way to quantify the two distinct states, so a computer algorithm may have a chance of distinguishing the two. Potentially, in the future I would like to compare readings from one individual to the next, or compare the arousal of two individuals engaged in a conversation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It would be helpful to know what are the names of metrics that may be used to measure the overall arousal/excitation of a person&lt;/strong&gt;, that person's nervous system or brain. I can think of Actigraphy (the study of human motion) as one, its units are arbitrary activity count, or m/s^3. These are scored as &quot;zero point crossings&quot;, or &quot;area under the curve&quot; of an accelerometer graph. But are there any other metrics or units of human activity/excitation? Maybe some of them are related to an EEG/EMG readings? Like an obscure algorithm named after some scientist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-06T23:40:49.660" LastActivityDate="2014-01-06T23:40:49.660" Title="Is there a metric of the overall excitation of the brain or nervous system?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3229" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3217" CreationDate="2013-02-22T19:33:59.730" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;High working memory is associated with greater ability to learn meanings of abstract symbols, such as is required to do mathematics. I would be highly skeptical of a claim that there is a trade-off between WM and general intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ian M. Lyons, Sian L. Beilock, Beyond quantity: Individual differences&#xA;  in working memory and the ordinal understanding of numerical symbols,&#xA;  Cognition, Volume 113, Issue 2, November 2009, Pages 189-204, ISSN&#xA;  0010-0277, 10.1016/j.cognition.2009.08.003.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under some circumstances, high WM seems to be associated with poor problem solving under pressure, but not with poor problem solving in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From poor performance to success under stress: Working memory,&#xA;  strategy selection, and mathematical problem solving under pressure.&#xA;  Beilock, Sian L.; DeCaro, Marci S. Journal of Experimental Psychology:&#xA;  Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Vol 33(6), Nov 2007, 983-998. doi:&#xA;  10.1037/0278-7393.33.6.983&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2614" LastActivityDate="2013-02-22T19:33:59.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3230" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="236" CreationDate="2013-02-23T00:18:03.903" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Certain languages have words that do not literally translate into any another language. There is already a small loss of information in this sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;language is very influential for thinking&lt;/a&gt; (and read the The Newspeak appendix in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1984&lt;/a&gt; for a thought provoking eye opener), even when you have a group with the same language level skills they will put different meanings to words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an experiment, try for instance to ask 10 persons to define the word &lt;code&gt;plan&lt;/code&gt;. Even though there probably will be close to zero linguistic ambiguity about the word you will get potential very different answers; some people think a plan is an overall approximation while other think a plan is more a detailed step by step thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there any way to quantify the loss in translation of experiences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That would I think require a quantifiable method of measuring the difference in the individual meaning of words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="662" LastActivityDate="2013-02-23T00:18:03.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3231" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3233" CreationDate="2013-02-24T21:21:20.903" Score="3" ViewCount="310" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've experienced it many times with my students and also with myself. Let me illustrate with example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I'm teaching, I say something like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gastrointenstinal Track has following sections&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Buccal Cavity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Pharynx&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Esophagus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Stomach&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Duodenum&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Jejunum&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Ileum&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Caecum&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To help them remember I repeat above thing multiple times. But still they don't remember much of the list.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively instead of just saying those things (even though that's all I need my students to remember), I spoke about each of the above item for few minutes. i.e. I gave more details of about each of those things. Result is that, now my students do not remember most of the details about each of those items, but they could remember the list. Which is exactly I want.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whats happening here? Whats the science behind it? Is there more to what I'm describing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2554" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-03-24T10:41:33.580" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T10:41:33.580" Title="How does knowledge about a subject aid in its recall?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;encoding&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3232" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3231" CreationDate="2013-02-25T09:59:31.647" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably because describing each element involve a deeper process of information for your students (they have to organize their knowledge to understand what is it and how it relate to the other parts).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Look at this:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2603" LastActivityDate="2013-02-25T09:59:31.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3231" CreationDate="2013-02-25T15:04:34.360" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first method (repeat the terms over and over) is called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Rote_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rote rehearsal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. It's not actually a very good way to learn, though it has the benefit that it always &quot;works&quot; because you can always repeat a list. You may be unable to perform certain other encoding tricks such as elaborative rehearsal due to the context of the items, like a list of random words. Consider it more of a fallback than a learning strategy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second method (talking about the item at length) is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_%28memory%29#Maintenance_and_elaborative_rehearsal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;elaborative rehearsal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which, as &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/3232/19&quot;&gt;Cheatboy2&lt;/a&gt; points out, benefits from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;levels of processing effect&lt;/a&gt;. The deeper you know something the more &quot;connections&quot; you can make, which has the advantage of making things easier to remember in general and easier to remember in the context of specific, related items. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Elaborative rehearsal has the benefit of creating &lt;em&gt;understanding&lt;/em&gt; rather than simple &lt;em&gt;knowledge&lt;/em&gt; of a term. Buccal Cavity is just a word until you realize what it means. Once you know what it means you can additionally draw connections between related words, which, in this case, is very helpful as all the words on the list to remember are in fact connected in various ways. If you don't elaborate on the connections between them in your own memory, you won't benefit from that effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suggest giving both articles (in bold) a read to understand the deeper intricacies of both, but those are the general ideas behind why elaborative rehearsal is preferred. Note that a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mnemonic&lt;/a&gt; device may be a more effective method of teaching lists where the list is what's important, not a deeper understanding, or where there is little to elaborate on, such as ROYGBIV to remember the colors of the rainbow. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-02-26T15:05:07.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3234" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3214" CreationDate="2013-02-25T16:13:55.277" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, asymmetries in apparently symmetric creatures (of which most are) are actually quite typical.  However, in most cases of hand dominance, there is no population-wide hand dominance.  In other words, the population is split 50/50 between left and right handers.  In humans, however, a lack of hand dominance is often associated with cognitive deficits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In humans, population-wise, we are right-hand dominant (9:1).  There are exceptions to a genetic influence, such as strict schools disciplining children into using their right hand, or an indirect consequence of developmental brain trauma or genetic diseases, but for the most part the right-hand dominance is thought to be a genetic outcome based on the emergent effects of several interacting genes.  That is, there's no particular reason why nature &quot;chose&quot; right over left, just that having a dominant hand allows for more specialization with respect to tool-using which &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; possibly have given humans with this mutation a competitive edge over their ambidextrous competitors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A single-gene theory (Corballis, 2009) proposes that there is a dextral and a chance allele of a particular gene and that people born with the dextral allele are likely to be right-handed while people born with the chance allele have equal chance of being left or right-handed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Francks, C; DeLisi, LE; Fisher, SE; Laval, SH; Rue, JE; Stein, JF; Monaco, AP (2003). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/367548&quot;&gt;&quot;Confirmatory evidence for linkage of relative hand skill to 2p12-q11&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. American journal of human genetics 72 (2): 499–502. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:529252:1/component/escidoc:529251/Francks_Confirmatory_Evidence_Am_J.Hum_Gen_2003.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Van Agtmael, T; Forrest, SM; Williamson, R (2002). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200851&quot;&gt;&quot;Parametric and non-parametric linkage analysis of several candidate regions for genes for human handedness&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. European journal of human genetics : EJHG 10 (10): 623–30.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Warren, Diane M.; Stern, Michael; Duggirala, Ravindranath; Dyer, Thomas D.; Almasy, Laura (2006). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13576500600761056&quot;&gt;&quot;Heritability and linkage analysis of hand, foot, and eye preference in Mexican Americans&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition 11 (6): 508–524.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Scerri, T. S.; Brandler, W. M.; Paracchini, S.; Morris, A. P.; Ring, S. M.; Richardson, A. J.; Talcott, J. B.; Stein, J.; Monaco, A. P. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddq475&quot;&gt;&quot;PCSK6 is associated with handedness in individuals with dyslexia&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Human Molecular Genetics 20 (3): 608–614.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Michael C Corballis. (2009) &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0232&quot;&gt;The evolution and genetics of cerebral asymmetry&lt;/a&gt;.  Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 12, 364 (1519): 867-879&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-02-25T21:53:51.053" LastActivityDate="2013-02-25T21:53:51.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3236" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-26T20:09:55.143" Score="2" ViewCount="132" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, a student who has a lack of knowledge, tries to change the topic of a question so that it will be about what he knows and can speak about. Is this a known phenomenon in psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2750" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-02-26T23:39:11.973" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T11:19:09.577" Title="What is it called when a student tends to speak about what he knows?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3237" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-28T06:01:07.290" Score="12" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note: I'm framing this question in terms of tutoring math since that's what I tutor most, though it applies to a wide range of subject matters.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do a decent amount of tutoring, and this is one phenomenon I see popping up constantly, and I occasionally catch myself doing the same thing, though less often since I've become aware of it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens is a student learns a new concept/formula/algorithm in class and then does practice or assignment questions. They will then come up to me and ask me to check their work because the answer they are getting doesn't make sense, or doesn't line up with a known answer. Sometimes, they will even have spent hours double or triple checking their work on this new formula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will look over their work and confirm its correctness. I have learned to ask &quot;Can I see the work you did to get to this point?&quot; They then show me this work, and most of the time, there is a simple arithmetic error or oversight (and if its a misunderstanding of previous material, then its a whole other issue).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What has happened is that the assignment question involves multiple steps, the student makes a simple error in an early step, and assumes the error to be in the later steps involving the newly taught equations, and wastes hours looking for an error there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My related questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does this phenomenon have a name, and if so what is it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the psychological processes behind this, i.e. why does the student not double check &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; of the work?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any way to mitigate this behaviour besides simply being aware of it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2753" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-03-01T02:24:07.137" LastActivityDate="2013-11-15T00:18:11.423" Title="Learning of new concepts being impeded by an error in previous work" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3238" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-02-28T19:34:46.027" Score="11" ViewCount="446" Body="&lt;p&gt;An interesting effect I've noticed is that certain groups of people seem to accept &quot;folk knowledge&quot; and value it over significantly better founded &quot;formal&quot; or scientific knowledge. In particular this is notable in many discussions of Psychology and vaccinations. Scientific evidence is clearly on one side, but an odd distrust seems to exist for some which makes the unproven or disproven &quot;folk&quot; knowledge more acceptable to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This effect seems sort of like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority&quot;&gt;Illusory Superiority&lt;/a&gt;, but it seems to not quite be that; Illusory Superiority is the tendency of one person to overestimate &lt;em&gt;their own&lt;/em&gt; abilities or knowledge. It's possible a number of biases are at work but I can't think of a single one which fully covers what's at work when one outright rejects facts based solely on &lt;em&gt;other&lt;/em&gt; sources, rather than one's own experiences or topical knowledge (which certainly influence one's willingness to believe facts).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a known/named effect? Is there anything that drives these oddly specific examples of distrust against logic-based evidence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-03-01T02:27:51.067" LastActivityDate="2015-02-20T21:04:57.127" Title="What is the bias/thought process that results in distrust of &quot;formal&quot; knowledge in favor of &quot;folk&quot; knowledge?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3239" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3541" CreationDate="2013-02-28T21:47:18.613" Score="6" ViewCount="931" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the effects of social rejection on the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the external circumstance can not change, how can the impact on the brain be reduced?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the average sensitivity to social rejection and are some not effect by it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any points in the right direction are helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I have found only 1 study (Eisenberger et al., 2003) summarized as follows (but unable to make any conclusions):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A ball is passed to a group of students except for one student, who&#xA;  does not know what the experiment is. When the ball is not passed to&#xA;  the &quot;excluded&quot; student, the brain of that excluded lights up in the&#xA;  same place as in physical pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., &amp;amp; Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302(5643), 290-292.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-05-24T00:56:14.630" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T16:09:55.107" Title="What are the effects of social rejection on the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3240" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3237" CreationDate="2013-03-01T14:24:41.447" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a difference between being wrong and knowing you're wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I like to think of this with the analogy of Wiley the Coyote from looney toons. He would usually try to catch the runner, and run off the cliff, but keep running for a while, and only fall when he realizes that he ran off a cliff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/61mcN.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point in which your student is doing the assignments based on incorrect previous calculations is that point between coyote running off the cliff and realizing he has done so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure of the terminology about this phenomena, but here's my theory on why people tend to do this:&#xA;Most of the students nowadays are conditioned to feel right about everything because &lt;strong&gt;knowing, that you are wrong&lt;/strong&gt; feels bad, they feel like there is something wrong with them (rather then just being wrong), while the alternative, of being wrong and not knowing about it that feels exactly as being right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This conditioning is introduced in our educational system very early and often results in not taking chances that could result in them being wrong, or (more related) in not even considering the possibility that they might be wrong at some point (when most of the time they are).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that the only way of fixing this is deconditioning ourselves (or your students) in this case, that being wrong is something bad. Instead, indicating being wrong as a sign of progress. I think Einstein said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Encouraging your students questioning even things that might be established as truth by others is the key in my opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2650" LastActivityDate="2013-03-01T14:24:41.447" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3245" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3246" CreationDate="2013-03-03T09:13:51.160" Score="4" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know the name of the following test:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants were asked to memorize the slope of a line of a target image. &#xA;Then different images (lines with varying slopes) were presented sequentially. Participants were asked to press one of two buttons to indicate whether the displayed image was the same or different to the target image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it a recognition memory test?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does this test have a specific name?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2555" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-03-04T00:30:13.367" LastActivityDate="2013-03-04T07:33:57.823" Title="What is a test called that involves indicating whether a line has the same slope as a previous image?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3246" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3245" CreationDate="2013-03-04T07:33:57.823" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The task sounds like a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Match-to-sample_task&quot;&gt;match-to-sample task&lt;/a&gt; which is indeed used in working memory studies. In this test participants are presented with a sample stimulus and have to judge whether or not following stimuli resemble this particular stimulus. Depending on the time span between the presentation of the sample stimulus and the following stimuli this task is sometimes also called a delayed match-to-sample task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2013-03-04T07:33:57.823" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3247" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-04T08:28:43.420" Score="3" ViewCount="307" Body="&lt;p&gt;I seem to recall reading some research years ago about what people notice in the first second or so of seeing someone else, and in what order they notice those things.  It's something like gender, race, age...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone help me out with a link or reference or at least a well defended guess?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2767" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-03-09T05:54:31.253" LastActivityDate="2013-03-09T05:54:31.253" Title="In what order do people notice another person's attributes (race, age, gender, etc.)" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3248" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3257" CreationDate="2013-03-04T21:43:44.670" Score="8" ViewCount="2320" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard a number of &lt;a href=&quot;http://abcnews.go.com/2020/autistic-savant-daniel-tammet-solves-problems-blink-eye/story?id=10759598&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;reports&lt;/a&gt; that some mathematical savants associate particular colors with numbers.  It got me wondering, if colors are associated with numbers during mathematical teaching, would this improve ability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if every time I showed my child the number 2, it was colored red, and every time I showed her 3, it was blue, and so on, would she learn arithmatical skills like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division faster?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, would it matter which colors were associated with which numbers?  Should 5 be purple?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2769" LastEditorUserId="2769" LastEditDate="2013-03-07T13:08:23.877" LastActivityDate="2019-03-06T09:05:23.300" Title="Does associating a color with numbers improve math learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3249" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3226" CreationDate="2013-03-05T01:18:44.580" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a member of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.openworm.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;OpenWorm.org&lt;/a&gt;, an open-source project that aims to simulate a C. elegans cell-by-cell. I didn't know the answer to this myself off the top of my head, but I have access to a number of folks who have been working hard on C. elegans anatomy for the last couple of years so I went ahead and asked them this question &lt;a href=&quot;https://groups.google.com/forum/?fromgroups=#!topic/openworm-discuss/-GmHGJIZ5fQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;on our discuss mailing list&lt;/a&gt;. Thanks to Chris Grove and Tim Busbice for providing the answer that I am reporting below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Chris Grove&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Finding the neuron with the largest span partly depends on your&#xA;  definition of &quot;length&quot; in this context. In terms of largest amount of&#xA;  total axon/dendrite length, this would most probably be the PVDL/PVDR&#xA;  sensory neurons. They produce a large number of branches of dendrites&#xA;  that act to perceive mechano and thermo-sensation. See the &lt;a href=&quot;http://wormatlas.org/neurons/Individual%20Neurons/PVDframeset.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WormAtlas&#xA;  page here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Tim Busbice&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If by &quot;length&quot; one means, absolute longest extension from head to&#xA;  tail, that's a tougher call, as there are several that extend from the&#xA;  head to the tail. An example of these are the AVDL/AVDR command&#xA;  interneurons, that function as touch modulators for backward&#xA;  locomotion induced by head-touch, and also drive backward movement of&#xA;  the animal along with driver cell AVA neuron, AVE and A-type motor&#xA;  neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find a lot of info on C. elegans anatomy on &lt;a href=&quot;http://wormatlas.org/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WormAtlas&lt;/a&gt; and on an &lt;a href=&quot;https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?key=0Avt3mQaA-HaMdHZWLWJEMkdrSGtIX0FMUlh2LXhXWnc#gid=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;OpenWorm data spreadsheet&lt;/a&gt; in which we are consolidating detailed anatomy data from different sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also I would advise checking out the &lt;a href=&quot;http://browser.openworm.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;OpenWorm Browser&lt;/a&gt; - a web-based 3D viewer that you can use to explore the C. elegans anatomy cell-by-cell (the 3D model was developed by Chris Grove, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://caltech.wormbase.org/virtualworm/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;VirtualWorm&lt;/a&gt; for details). For instance you can easily search for those &quot;longest&quot; neurons mentioned above! Screenshot of one of them selected (AVDL) below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nD1IW.png&quot; alt=&quot;AVDL neuron&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helped!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2760" LastEditorUserId="2760" LastEditDate="2013-03-05T01:24:19.783" LastActivityDate="2013-03-05T01:24:19.783" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3250" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3254" CreationDate="2013-03-05T04:09:36.143" Score="3" ViewCount="233" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any reason not to include fantasy distractors (made-up wrong answers) in multiple choice tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Examples:&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;What is the name of the compound HCl?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a) Hydrochloric acid&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b) Chlorohydride acid&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;c) Chlorohydric acid&#xA;etc &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the term for a parasite that cannot complete its life cycle without its host? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a) Obligate parasite (correct)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b) Parasitic obligate (fantasy word)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;c) Mandatory parasite (fantasy combination)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fantasy distractor definition:&lt;/strong&gt; Usually one chooses distractors that a student could confuse with the correct answer, based on knowledge of common cognitive models of the field. I call a fantasy distractor a distractor that is a made-up word - typically it would be used for testing/learning complex terms that consist of a combination of etymological roots by rearranging them or mixing them up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Potential concerns:&lt;/strong&gt; How high is the risk that students remember the fantasy distractor? What is the best practice on  such fantasy items? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Rationale for having fantasy items:&lt;/strong&gt; The reason for asking is that it seems having a greater number of distractors can make the test more of a retrieval test than a recognition test. Getting plausible non-fantasy distractors (eg in chemistry can be tough). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2770" LastEditorUserId="2770" LastEditDate="2013-03-05T11:56:46.327" LastActivityDate="2013-03-07T02:33:32.753" Title="Should fantasy distractors be avoided in multiple choice questions" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3251" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-05T17:06:40.417" Score="3" ViewCount="248" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any approximations of how many bits of information human somatosensory system produces? Especially mechano-receptors as measured in average number of bits per area of skin per second?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've only been able to find this information for &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.shef.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.33834!/file/neuron1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;spiders&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find anything on this topic, please share your knowledge about similar topic, like the above article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="401" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-03-05T18:04:28.560" LastActivityDate="2013-03-05T18:04:28.560" Title="How much information does the somatosensory system produce?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-19T14:08:06.197" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3252" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-06T09:29:33.647" Score="6" ViewCount="199" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are quite a few users who are pretty much addicted to the Stack Exchange network and spend over 3-4 hours per day here. Time spent here will result in lower amount of social interactions, and lesser time for other activities as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the effects that this has on the social skills of a person ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a way, we are all interacting with other individuals on this platform as well, but the communications are mostly textual and in a way, &lt;em&gt;buffered&lt;/em&gt; (for lack of a better term). So, its safe to say that spending half an hour interacting with individuals here will be very different from interacting with individuals face-to-face. In such a scenario, what are expected and/or observed effects on communication abilities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" LastEditorUserId="2777" LastEditDate="2013-03-11T15:17:13.870" LastActivityDate="2013-03-11T15:17:13.870" Title="What effects does spending a lot of time in online communities have on interpersonal skills?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3253" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-06T17:35:55.470" Score="11" ViewCount="605" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an interesting phenomenon I have come across several times when working with groups, and that is the need some people have to make changes to a solution that someone else created. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The change is often superficial or doesn't substantively change the solution, however the person making the suggestion is often adamant that the change is vital.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/35830/avoiding-designing-by-committee&quot;&gt;a question&lt;/a&gt; on the User Experience SE, some comments were made about how to plan for and mitigate this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People are natural complainers. So next time you present a design make sure there are 1 or more subtle defects you're sure they notice. They'll complain about those, you say ok and fix them. if you present a perfect design, they'll still find stuff regardless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;That reminds me of the Battle Chess duck - It was well known that producers had to make a change to everything that was done. The artist working on the queen animations came up with an innovative solution. He did the animations for the queen the way that he felt would be best, with one addition: he gave the queen a pet duck. He took great care to make sure that it never overlapped the &quot;actual&quot; animation. Eventually, it came time for the producer to review the animation set for the queen. His comments, &quot;that looks great. Just one thing - get rid of the duck.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a known phenomena in Cognitive Sciences?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to indicate a need/desire on the part of the person making the suggestion to exert some control over an external process but I wonder if it is more elemental/basic than that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2754" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:32:22.230" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T05:12:29.390" Title="Why do people feel the need to make changes to a solution presented by another person?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3254" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3250" CreationDate="2013-03-06T19:45:45.023" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say no, there's no reason not to, and in fact it might be better, based on the following rather speculative reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, despite the general benefits of testing for learning, multiple choice testing can also lead to subsequent memory for incorrect responses, i.e. it can cause students to learn false responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Marsh, Roediger, Bjork, &amp;amp; Bjork (2007) &quot;The memorial consequences of multiple-choice &#xA;  testing.&quot; Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 14(2) 194-199&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This doesn't explicitly compare fantasy answers to other misleading answers, but intuitively, it seems that such &quot;false learning&quot; would be MORE likely to be reinforced in the future for plausible responses than for fantasy responses.  The reason is that fantasy responses are unlikely to ever be encountered again, while plausible responses might be, leading to reinforcement of the false learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also here regarding avoidance of false learning from multiple choice testing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Little and Bjork (2012) &quot;The persisting benefits of using multiple-choice tests as&#xA;  learning.&quot; Proceedings of the 34th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2614" LastEditorUserId="2614" LastEditDate="2013-03-07T02:33:32.753" LastActivityDate="2013-03-07T02:33:32.753" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3255" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3258" CreationDate="2013-03-06T22:25:28.393" Score="1" ViewCount="1306" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's suppose a big ugly monster thingy wants to eat you. While you're running away from it, you're feeling fear. Can this situation be considered one where fear would be rational?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2782" LastActivityDate="2013-03-08T15:33:59.927" Title="Is fear rational?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2013-03-08T15:50:36.660" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3257" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3248" CreationDate="2013-03-07T17:02:08.913" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of research that answers this question directly, but I'm going to guess the answer is no, it wouldn't help, based on the following reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, people tend to learn math less well when superfluous visual richness is added. I think adding color to numbers counts as superfluous visual richness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brown, M. C., McNeil, N. M., &amp;amp; Glenberg, A. M. (2009). Using concreteness in education: Real problems, potential solutions. Child Development Perspectives, 3(3), 160–164.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mayer, R. E., Sims, V., &amp;amp; Tajika, H. (1995). A Comparison of How Textbooks Teach Mathematical Problem Solving in Japan and the United States. American Educational Research Journal, 32(2), 443–460.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, in general, associating something you want people to recall with a larger number of cues is going to help recall.  (Sorry I don't know a citation for this off the top of my head, but I think it's a general principle of information theory.)  In this case, the colors and the numerals are both cues for numbers, which should lead to better recall than if you only had the numerals.  However, you are looking at learning arithmetic and not learning the number sequence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning numbers MIGHT go faster with this additional cue. However, I'd be concerned whether there might be some negative impact on ability to use numerals once the color cue is removed, as it inevitably will be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presenting numbers together with analogue representations of magnitude does aid in learning arithmetic facts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Booth, J. L., &amp;amp; Siegler, R. S. (2008). Numerical magnitude representations influence arithmetic learning. Child Development, 79(4), 1016–1031.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, analogue representations of magnitude are a cue that's relevant to the actual meaning of the numbers, while colors are not. I doubt colors would deliver this particular benefit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With all that said, I haven't considered motivational issues.  If children are motivated by brightly colored number blocks, then I'd say go ahead and use them.  I doubt that the cognitive effects would be strong one way or the other, so even if negative, they'd probably be outweighed by any motivational benefits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2614" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-07T17:02:08.913" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3258" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3255" CreationDate="2013-03-07T17:37:22.763" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes! Of course fear can be rational, especially when there is in fact a big scary monster and you are in danger. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is an unfortunate meme in society that emotions and rationality are incompatible, but that's not the case. Emotions can only be irrational if you are mistaken to feel those emotions in that context. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cases where fear is irrational include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fear of cotton balls&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fear of a non-existent monster&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not fearing being chased by an actual monster/cheetah/grizzly bear&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, it's largely up to you to decide what emotions are reasonable for each context, because otherwise the examples become a bit normative. For example, is it irrational to feel a lot of anxiety in social situations? That depends on the social situation, but I'll guess not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The folks over at Less Wrong have given this sort of thing a lot of consideration. Here's their &lt;a href=&quot;http://wiki.lesswrong.com/wiki/Emotion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wiki link&lt;/a&gt; to the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2789" LastActivityDate="2013-03-07T17:37:22.763" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3259" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-08T05:17:38.167" Score="5" ViewCount="1174" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assume a teacher constructs a four-choice multiple choice test. Each item has only one correct response. The test is scored from 0 to 100 representing the percentage of items answered correctly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to have some rules of thumb that could be informative regarding how many items are required to achieve a given standard error of measurement. For example, it would be nice to be able to advice teachers who write their own multiple choice exams &quot;if you have 100 items that are reasonably well worded, you can expect a standard error of measurement of 2.5&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The standard error of measurement is often defined as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$s_e=s_x \sqrt{1-r_{xx}}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where $s_x$ is the standard deviation and $r_{xx}$ is the reliability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore internal consistency reliability can be calculated from the number of items $k$ and the mean inter-item correlation $\bar{r}_{ij}$ (i.e., average correlation between item $i$ and item $j$ for all $k$ items where $i\neq j$):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$r_{xx}=\frac{k(\bar{r}_{ij})}&#xA;{1 + (k -1) \bar{r}_{ij}}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm wanting to translate the above information into meaningful recommendations for teachers. Thus, this assumes that I have some empirical estimate of typical values of $\bar{r}_{ij}$ and that I have an estimate of $s_x$. It then requires application of the formulas to calculate standard errors of measurement for likely numbers of items $k$. In particular, I was thinking about numbers of items equal to: 10, 20, 50, 80, 100, 120, 150, and 200.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I was wondering whether there are any published estimates of the standard error of measurement teacher constructed multiple choice tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-03-14T12:47:31.683" LastActivityDate="2013-03-15T18:36:02.093" Title="What is the standard error of measurement for teacher made multiple choice tests?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;reliability&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3260" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3259" CreationDate="2013-03-08T06:27:52.213" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Harvill mentions an estimate by Lord (1959). Lord (1959) presents some data for the standard error of measurement for some moderately difficult cognitive measures. While there are many caveats (e.g., the estimate of the standard error is most accurate for scores around 50% and the estimates are based on tests that are neither particularly easy or particularly difficult with means in the .35 to .75 range), Lord provides a simple formula that can be used as a rule of thumb for predicting standard error of measurement in his sample of cognitive measures which performed quite well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\hat{s}_e = .432 \sqrt{k}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where $k$ is the number of items.&#xA;Alternatively, if you are interested in the mean correct on a 0 to 100 scale rather than the total correct, you can divide by $k$ and multiply by 100.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\hat{s}_e = \frac{.432 \sqrt{k}}{k} \times 100$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I plugged this into R for some sample values I obtained:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt; lord_approximation &amp;lt;- function(k) 0.432 * sqrt(k) /k * 100&#xA;&amp;gt; k &amp;lt;- c(10, 20, 50, 80, 100, 120, 150, 200)&#xA;&amp;gt; cbind(k, sem=round(lord_approximation(k), 2))&#xA;       k   sem&#xA;[1,]  10 13.66&#xA;[2,]  20  9.66&#xA;[3,]  50  6.11&#xA;[4,]  80  4.83&#xA;[5,] 100  4.32&#xA;[6,] 120  3.94&#xA;[7,] 150  3.53&#xA;[8,] 200  3.05&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, not all of this reduction in standard error of measurement is due to greater accuracy. Some of it comes from the smaller standard deviation in true scores that occurs when you take the mean of more items. Furthermore, these estimates are based on relatively well designed cognitive measures. Teacher designed tests may have slightly lower reliability and thus larger SEM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harvill, L. M. (1991). Standard error of measurement. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 10(2), 33-41. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ncme.org/linkservid/6606715E-1320-5CAE-6E9DDC581EE47F88/showMeta/0/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lord, F. M. (1959). Tests of the same length do have the same standard &#xA;error of measurement. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 19, 233-239.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-03-08T06:27:52.213" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3262" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3255" CreationDate="2013-03-08T14:49:49.937" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why are you running away?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Are you running because of fear?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2) Are you running because the monster might harm you?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;3) Are you running because you've had an encounter with a monster before and even though this one doesn't look like that one and that one had claws and this one doesn't but this one is still coming towards you, kinda fast?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear is a marker, like pain.  Fear can be automatically activated by occurrences in one's environment in order to activate a response before the conscious mind could possibly have time to react.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LOOK OUT, DUCK! ---  Yell this at someone sometime and watch them flinch, down and back.  Almost every time.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem comes when we aren't paying full attention to our environment, and instead using cognitive shortcuts, such as stereotypes.  In these cases, we're using past experiences to inform future expectations - when past experiences are traumatic, we will sometimes (unconsciously) assume negative future expectations, which is the fundamental basis of anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is fear rational?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me turn that around:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is a dishwasher rational?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear is a tool, baked into the human brain.  A dishwasher is a tool.  Both can malfunction, both can run improperly (long, short, etc).  We can even, over time, reduce our exposure to both (meditation / washing the dishes by hand).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we run a dishwasher once for each dish we have to wash, that would be irrational.  If we feel fear at every occurrence, that would be irrational.  If we run the dishwasher without soap, that would be irrational.  Unless we have need for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's all about context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastActivityDate="2013-03-08T14:49:49.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3263" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3255" CreationDate="2013-03-08T15:33:59.927" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer depends on your definitions of &quot;fear&quot; and &quot;rational&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you simplify the complex English semantics, &lt;strong&gt;rational&lt;/strong&gt; might mean either (1) &quot;sensible; not foolish&quot; or (2) &quot;using the faculty of reasoning&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you understand &lt;em&gt;rational&lt;/em&gt; to mean &quot;sensible&quot;, then fear can be rational or not, depending on the situation. Fear of mice is probably not very sensible, while fear of heights most probably is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you understand &lt;em&gt;rational&lt;/em&gt; to refer to cognition (as opposed to affect), then the answer depends on your understanding of &lt;em&gt;fear&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you define &lt;strong&gt;fear&lt;/strong&gt; as an emotion, then fear can, by definition, not be a cognition. An emotion can be caused by a cognition, it can be thought upon and suppressed by the faculty for rational thought, but it is not a cognition. In this sense fear would not be rational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How could you define &lt;em&gt;fear&lt;/em&gt; to make it meaningful to think of it as not an emotion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you define &lt;em&gt;fear&lt;/em&gt; as, e.g., an attitude (the attitude of judging something to be dangerous or harmful), then fear would very likely have affective and cognitive components. I am not sure if any speaker of English would accept this definition (even the OED says that fear is an emotion), but you could certainly define fear in such a way -- which would lead to a lot of interesting but unnecessary confusion with your readers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologists would avoid the word &quot;rational&quot; here, because it is not a scientific term. It is a philosophical term. From this perspective, the opening question is not a question relating to cognitive sciences at all, but to everyday wisdom, and should be closed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastActivityDate="2013-03-08T15:33:59.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3264" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3252" CreationDate="2013-03-08T16:00:34.980" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There seems to be a difference between social community users and non-users (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.01.026&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.01.026&lt;/a&gt;), but these are only correlative data, not causative, but in a recent study &quot;Facebook usage was found to interact with measures of psychological well-being, suggesting that it might be beneficial to students experiencing low self-esteem and low life satisfaction.&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2010.550063&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2010.550063&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is just a quick hint and doesn't comprehensively answer your question, but maybe the articles contain references to other research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Follow the links to get to the original publications and a short abstract describing the study and results.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More stuff I found through a Google Scholar search for &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.de/scholar?q=virtual%20communities%20effects&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;online communities effects&lt;/a&gt;&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC411092/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC411092/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://repository.maestra.net/valutazione/MaterialeSarti/articoli/Johnson-Survey.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://repository.maestra.net/valutazione/MaterialeSarti/articoli/Johnson-Survey.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know, if any of this is relevant, I just want to give you ideas to do your own research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you access Google Scholar through a university network, you'll get links to most of the articles, otherwise you'll still be able to read most of the abstracts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorDisplayName="user1196" LastEditDate="2013-03-08T17:05:20.857" LastActivityDate="2013-03-08T17:05:20.857" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3267" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3278" CreationDate="2013-03-09T05:56:37.097" Score="8" ViewCount="5120" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have an experimental study with a list of demographic and related questions and in order to identify data from participants that were potentially just answering the questions at random (to get through them more quickly I would assume), I've included two very similar 7-point likert scale questions at different points in the survey. My assumption would be that since the questions are reflective, the answers participants should give will be at least somewhat similar between the two questions (eg, it should be very unlikely that a participant answers 7 to one question yet 1 to the other).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't yet collected the data, however I would like to have a method for determining which sets of data are suspicious (might be considered for exclusion in analysis) based on these control questions. One method might be to simply determine where the data fit on a Gaussian distribution. However, I think that the limited discriminating power of a 7-point scale would make this an improper test. My other idea was to do a cluster analysis on the data, looking for five groups: three along the line of correlation (between the questions), and two to examine unusually high/low and low/high values. I thought this could provide better suggestions for which data sets might be unusual since it wouldn't use somewhat arbitrary comparisons, it would only use the data given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd really appreciate any suggestions for a better method, or improvements I could make as well as any comments toward more &quot;standard&quot; practices in this area, since I'm somewhat new to research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2794" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-03-13T02:21:28.583" LastActivityDate="2013-05-07T18:56:05.983" Title="Analyzing control questions data for a survey" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3268" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3228" CreationDate="2013-03-09T06:27:21.583" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;MEGs using SQUIDs can detect magnetic flux density measured in teslas. Away from sleep studies and epileptic brain activity, this should be a useful indicator of relative brain arousal. Readings from two different people on this scale should be comparable  based on the orders of magnitude for the unit measurement. As for comparative measurements of brain arousal, I don't think Actigraphy would be useful, nor any other method of measuring somatic motion. These can certainly determine weather a person is sleeping, sedentary, or exercising, but discriminating between different sedentary behaviors would be difficult and determining relative brain activity for those behaviors would be reliant on more traditional methods (EEG,MEG, etc). MRI methods might be useful, as the total change in blood oxygen volume from a base state or inactive state can be distinguished from a more active state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2794" LastActivityDate="2013-03-09T06:27:21.583" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3270" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-09T16:01:21.343" Score="4" ViewCount="2101" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I took part in a conversation about the difference between the &quot;many hats&quot; of a successful corporate executive, and &quot;multiple personality disorder.&quot; Although humorously bantered, the ideas shared in that conversation shed a light on the fuzziness between when consistent multiplicity of personality characteristics is useful and good (to better adapt to a variety of environments), and when is it counter-productive or self-defeating, and labeled multiple personality disorder? What are the &quot;cross-over&quot; points?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Multi-tasking in executive management positions require being able to speak in the vernacular of many stake holders and to be able to communicate effectively with a wide variety of groups and collaborators. Corporate cultures vary between industries, countries, even regions, and size of the enterprise, etcetera, and yet, a successful corporate executive can walk in any of these with ease. &lt;strong&gt;How can the effective use of these &quot;chameleon expressions&quot; be distinguished from split personality?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I use this example tongue in cheek, but Mitt Romney is the perfect example of someone whose personalities clashed in company with one another (fund raiser, 47% vs. 100%). He is a very successful businessman, did his changing faces in the media unravel a persona that didn't really exist? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2796" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-03-14T12:40:48.293" LastActivityDate="2018-07-29T22:43:46.330" Title="At what point do multiple personas for social context cross into multiple personalities disorder?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3273" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3267" CreationDate="2013-03-10T07:03:05.843" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Preventing random responding:&lt;/strong&gt; An important first step is to think about ways to prevent random responding from occurring in the first place. A few ideas include: administer the survey face to face; have an experimental invigilator present; communicate the importance of the research to participants and the importance of participants taking the research seriously; use financial remuneration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, there are situations where participants do not take a study seriously responding randomly for example. This seems to be particularly an issue when collecting data online.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General approach&lt;/strong&gt;: My overall approach to this is to develop multiple indicators of problematic participation. I'll then assign penalty points to each participant based on the severity of the indicators. Participants with penalty points above a threshold are excluded from analyses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The choices of what is problematic depends on the type of study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If a study is performed in a &lt;strong&gt;face to face&lt;/strong&gt; setting, the experimenter can take notes recording when participants engage in problematic behaviour.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;online survey&lt;/strong&gt; style studies I record reaction time for each item. I then see how many items are answered more quickly than the person could conceivably read and respond to the item. For example, answering a personality test item in less than about 600 or even 800 milliseconds indicates that the participant has skipped an item. I then count up the number of times this occurs, and set a cut-off.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;performance based tasks&lt;/strong&gt;, other participant actions may imply distraction or not taking the task seriously. I'll try to develop indicators for this.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahalanobis_distance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mahalanobis distance&lt;/a&gt; is often a useful tool to flag multivariate outliers. You can further inspect the cases with the largest values to think about whether they make sense. There is a bit of an art in deciding which variables to include in the distance calculation. In particular, if you have a mix of positively and negatively worded items, carelessness is often indicated by a lack movement between the poles of a scale as you move from positively to negatively worded items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I also often include items at the end of the test asking the participant whether they took the experiment seriously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Discussion in the Literature&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Osborne and Blanchard (2010) discuss random responding in the context of multiple choice tests. They mention the strategy of including items that all participants should answer correctly. To quote&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These can be content that should not be missed (e.g., 2+2=__),&#xA;  behavioral/attitudinal questions (e.g., I weave the fabric for all my&#xA;  clothes), non-sense items (e.g., there are 30days in February), or&#xA;  targeted multiple-choice test items [e.g., “How do you spell&#xA;  ‘forensics’?” (a) fornsis, (b) forensics, (c) phorensicks, (d)&#xA;  forensix].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Osborne, J. W., &amp;amp; Blanchard, M. R. (2010). Random responding from participants is a threat to the validity of social science research results. Frontiers in Psychology, 1. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3153825/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3153825/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-05-07T12:21:12.103" LastActivityDate="2013-05-07T12:21:12.103" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3274" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1991" CreationDate="2013-03-10T12:52:30.820" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Expertise&lt;/strong&gt; – defined by Hovland, Janis and Kelley (1953) as &quot;the extent to which a communicator is percieved to be the source of valid assertions&quot; – is the second dimension of source credibility besides trustworthiness and attractiveness in their source-credibility model. The perceived expertise is, of course, not independent of these other dimensions: attractive people are considered more knowledgeable, and trustworthiness has a similar effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leaving aside obvious objective cues for expertise (e.g. proven success with identical problems, the university degree of a medical doctor, or years of practical experience in a relevant field) I want to focus on irrelevant and subjective cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What constitutes expertise would most certainly depend on the field and the expertise of the person judging the expertise of another. For example, Golbeck and Fleischmann (2010) found that in online Q&amp;amp;A sites such as cogsci.stackexchange.com, photo cues such as smiles or showing the person egaged in a relevant activity only improve trust in a poster's knowledgeability among non-experts. And while the expertise of a person producing tangible goods can be easily discerned even by a layman user (&quot;Do these shoes fit?&quot;), intangible services such as child care or a physician's diagnosis and the relevant expertise are very difficult to measure, sometimes even for experts. (Zeithaml, 1981)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a study on the social communication of political expertise, Huckfeldt (2001) found the most important factors to influence perceived political knowledge to be interest (influencing perceived expertise with a probability of .74), objectively defined knowledge (.36), agreement of discussion partner (.31), agreement between discussion partners (.29), partisan extremity (.14) and education (.11).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, apart from objective knowledge, perceived expertise is in part influenced by wether other people agree with a speaker, how strongly he favors one standpoint (neutrality and scepticism, both signs of healthy scientific reasoning, seem to substract from apparent expertise), and how educated he appears in general (i.e. a well-groomed person with a PhD will appear more of an expert, no matter if he indeed has any knowledge of the field he expands about or not).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Following a dual processing model such as the elaboration likelihood model, source factors such as expertise, likability, attractiveness and consensus serve as heuristic cues when recipients lack the ability or motivation to scrutinize a message effortfully. But not all recipients use the same cues. Low self-monitors (whose attitudes are based on values) elaborate an expert source's message more effortfully than the same message delivered by an attractive source, while high self-monitors (whose attitudes are based on sochial adjustment concerns) process messages from an attractive source more effortfully. (Ziegler, von Schwichow &amp;amp; Diehl, 2005)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words: When a message is unambiguous, strong arguments lead to more agreement than weak arguments (not source characteristics such as expertise). But when the message is ambiguous, it leads to more favorable reactions (aggreement, attitude change) when it is delivered by a source whose characteristics match the personality of the message's recipient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am sure there is more, but this is what I can come up with at the moment. If you want to find more, look at research on persuasion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Goldbeck, J., &amp;amp; Fleischmann, K. R. (2010). Trust in social Q&amp;amp;A: The impact of text and photo cues of expertise. In Proceedings of the 73rd ASIS&amp;amp;T Annual Meeting on Navigating Stream in an Information Ecosystem (vol. 47). Silver Springs, MD: American Society for Information Science. &lt;a href=&quot;http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/1930000/1920442/a77-golbeck.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/1930000/1920442/a77-golbeck.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hovland, C. I., Irving, K. J., &amp;amp; Kelley, H. H. (1953). Communication and Persuasion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. &lt;a href=&quot;http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/24018828/1542385145/name/4188769.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/24018828/1542385145/name/4188769.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Huckfeldt, R. (2001). The social communication of political experts. Amercian Journal of Political Science, 45, 425-438. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/2669350&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/2669350&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zeithaml, V. A. (1981). How consumer evaluation processes differ between goods and services. In J. Donnelly &amp;amp; W. George (eds.), Marketing of Services (pp. 186-190). Chicago: American Marketing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ziegler, R., von Schwichow, A., &amp;amp; Diehl, M. (2005). Matching the message source to attitude functions: Implications for biased processing. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 645–653. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2004.12.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2004.12.002&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A note on lie detectors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a study on &quot;Police officers' ability to detect suspects' lies&quot; (Mann, Vrij &amp;amp; Bull, 2004), the ability to detect lies strongly correlated with (self-)percieved experience in interviewing suspects. Participants where UK police officers of differing ages (22 to 52), length of service (1 to 30 years) and work areas (e.g. criminal investigation, trainers, traffic officers etc.) Average self-reported experience in interviewing suspects was 3.75 (on a scale from 1 = totally inexperienced to 5 = highly experienced).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the whole sample accuracy in detecting lies was 66%, which is significantly higher than the level of chance. Experience was somewhat correlated (around .20), while length of service was uncorrelated (-.07) to accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mann, S., Vrij, A., &amp;amp; Bull, R. (2004). Detecting true lies: Police officers' ability to detect suspects' lies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 137-149.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorDisplayName="user1196" LastEditDate="2013-03-10T14:30:19.320" LastActivityDate="2013-03-10T14:30:19.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3275" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1465" CreationDate="2013-03-11T01:32:19.210" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;For something to be considered a mental disorder worthy of it's own definition,  it needs to have some really strong effects that are consistently different from others definitions and are not explained by co-morbidity of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADHD, OCD, and Tourettes all exhibit co-morbidity and common brain regions, but since the symptoms and treatment differ so radically, we treat them as distinct from each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, you are asking the wrong question : )  I'm sure there is plenty of good lit out there on helping people to the point of harming oneself.  Usually, however, this type of &quot;addiction&quot; is a better understood as a generalized form of something else and you would be hard pressed to come up with symptoms and treatments that would generalize only to help addicts of sites like stack exchange.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's like talking about &quot;breast cancer&quot; instead of categorizing it according to cell types, treatment, etc.  Sure, you will get more money for breast cancer than a-morphic-sciency-sounding cancer, but that doesn't help one predict what could kill it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="273" LastActivityDate="2013-03-11T01:32:19.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2050" CreationDate="2013-03-11T02:14:52.343" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;From Hubbard &amp;amp; Ramachandran (2005):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] the estimated prevalence of synesthesia has varied dramatically, between as many as 1 in 20 (Galton, 1883) and as few as 1 in 25,000 (Cytowic, 1989). The most widely cited study to date suggests that synesthesia occurs in at least 1 in 2000 people (Baron-Cohen et al., 1996), although this is now generally regarded as an underestimate. Our own informal samples have suggested that the prevalence of grapheme-color synesthesia might be between 1 in 200 (Ramachandran and Hubbard, 2001b) and 1 in 100 (Mulvenna et al., 2004). &lt;strong&gt;Subsequent large-scale studies have suggested that the prevalence of synesthesia might be as high as 1 in 20 across all forms and 1 in 100 for grapheme-color synesthesia&lt;/strong&gt; (J. Simner, personal communication). This high prevalence argues against the notion that synesthesia is merely a “benign cognitive variant” (see Ward and Mattingley, 2005) and instead suggests that it is a widespread phenomenon that may provide novel insights into the neural basis of the mind (Ramachandran and Hubbard, 2001b).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hubbard, E. M., &amp;amp; Ramachandran, V. S. (2005). Neurocognitive mechanisms of synesthesia. Neuron, 48(3), 509.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2013-03-11T02:14:52.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3278" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3267" CreationDate="2013-03-11T02:33:16.147" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You seem to be concerned with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_(psychometrics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reliability&lt;/a&gt;, and more specifically &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_consistency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;internal reliability&lt;/a&gt;. Internal reliability is the degree to which different questions are measuring the same construct. This concept is used often in psychology and is usually measured using &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronbach%27s_alpha&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cronbach's alpha&lt;/a&gt;. However, it is typically used to measure the reliability of a &lt;em&gt;test&lt;/em&gt;, and not the reliability of an &lt;em&gt;individual&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Jeromy Anglim points out, I think it's important to consider the goal here. Using a two question Likert scale is probably not good enough to reliably detect outliers: What if the respondent checked all '4s' on a 7-point Likert scale? Reversing the scale would have no effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One alternative approach is to employ an &lt;strong&gt;instructional manipulation check&lt;/strong&gt; (Oppenheimer et al., 2009). The gist of the technique is to trap participants into answering a question in a &lt;em&gt;specific way&lt;/em&gt; that they could only have done by reading the instructions carefully. Here is an example from a survey administered by Facebook:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9qFm0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While this technique may throw out a few good participants, it will almost certainly raise the signal-to-noise ratio of your data by only including participants who followed instructions and read questions before answering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another tried and true technique is to use a computer-administered test and look at reaction times. You may be able to throw out a few responses (or whole participants) by simply looking for outliers in response time that are below the mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Oppenheimer, D. M., Meyvis, T., &amp;amp; Davidenko, N. (2009). Instructional manipulation checks: Detecting satisficing to increase statistical power. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 867-872.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2013-03-11T10:04:14.233" LastActivityDate="2013-03-11T10:04:14.233" CommentCount="15" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3279" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3248" CreationDate="2013-03-11T02:47:06.990" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say it is highly unlikely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The report that you reference is the savant &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_tammet&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Daniel Tammet&lt;/a&gt; who has performed many impressive mental feats, including holding the European record for most recited digits of pi. He has been popularized in the media in such documentaries as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kf3-el-dJAw&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Brain Man&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;. He claims that he is able to accomplish such mathematical feats because of his &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;, which allows him to &amp;quot;see&amp;quot; different numbers as different shapes, sizes, and color. It is worth noting that his ability has also been greeted with skepticism both in pop culture (such as in the best seller &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0143120530&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moonwalking with Einstein&lt;/a&gt;) and by synesthesia researchers who have studied him personally (Azoulai et al., 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tammet claims that he sees numbers as shapes, and that to multiply two numbers &lt;a href=&quot;http://test.wismed.org/savant_syndrome/savant_profiles/daniel_tammet&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;he sees the shapes &amp;quot;merge&amp;quot; in his head&lt;/a&gt;. It's not really clear how you could train someone to do this, if it is possible at all. It is possible that this is just an epiphenomenon, and does not actually help Tammet solve problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, associating numbers with colors might actually &lt;em&gt;hurt&lt;/em&gt; your performance. Mills et al. (2009) showed that a synesthete performed &lt;em&gt;slower&lt;/em&gt; when the numbers in an addition problem were not congruent with her internal perception of them. Thus even if you were able to perform math problems faster, it may only apply when the numbers are congruent with the color-number pairing that you trained on. In the real world, you are most likely to see all numbers in only a single color.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Azoulai, S., Hubbard, E., &amp;amp; Ramachandran, V. S. (2005). Does synesthesia contribute to mathematical savant skills. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 69. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cb42d129-a-62cb3a1a-s-sites.googlegroups.com/site/edhubbard/Azoulai_CNS05.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mills, C. B., Metzger, S. R., Foster, C. A., Valentine-Gresko, M. N., &amp;amp; Ricketts, S. (2009). Development of color-grapheme synesthesia and its effect on mathematical operations. Perception, 38(4), 591. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.perceptionweb.com/perception/fulltext/p38/p6109.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-11T02:47:06.990" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3280" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3282" CreationDate="2013-03-11T10:40:15.050" Score="3" ViewCount="5420" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand the statistical test of the chi-square in Excel. I already made the test but I still don't know how to compute the χ² value and what it means, how to compute the degrees of freedom and how to write a propper APA approved result section. Can anyone help me and explain this in a simple way? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a population of n=76. 'Left' = 25 and 'Right' = 51. The hypothesis is you would expect a normal distribution ('Left' =38 and 'Right' = 38). So the question is 'is this distribution a coincidence?' The p &amp;lt; .029. By seeing this outcome I thought there is that is no coincidence that there isn't a normal distribution and it must be due to a variable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it true in this case the degress of freedom is just n-1? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2803" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-03-11T11:33:22.020" LastActivityDate="2013-03-11T11:35:22.127" Title="How to compute Chi-square value and degrees of freedom in Excel?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3281" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-11T11:24:33.287" Score="0" ViewCount="466" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm an amateur student of cognitive biases and psychological traps and have been reading some of the work of Kahneman, Tversky, Gilovich et al. along with more popular books like Cialdini's &quot;Influence.&quot;  Has any work has been done on which of the cognitive biases/shortcomings are the most prevalent and widespread?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In layman's terms, I'm trying to answer the question: which behavioral traps are the most common?  I'm aware that this is a loaded question in that different sociocultural influences can have a huge impact on what is &quot;common&quot;.&#xA;Any pointers much appreciated!  Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2804" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-28T06:23:44.737" LastActivityDate="2014-08-28T06:23:44.737" Title="Most common cognitive biases?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2013-07-03T13:09:34.580" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3282" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3280" CreationDate="2013-03-11T11:30:11.993" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is really more of a statistical question (except perhaps the bit about APA style). As such it probably belongs on &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;stats.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt; .&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A binary variable does not have a &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;normal distribution&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. A normal distribution is bell shaped and is relevant to continuous data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your null hypothesis is that the population proportions for left and right handers are equal. Thus, if your chi-square value is sufficiently large, then you might reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the population proportions are unequal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If $k$ is the number of categories (you have two categories), then &#xA;degrees of freedom for the one sample chi-square test is $k-1$ (i.e., $2-1 = 1$).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.une.edu.au/WebStat/unit_materials/c6_common_statistical_tests/chi_square_ex_2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;To calculate chi-square check out the example here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following formula in Excel should give you a p-value. For example if your chi-square value was 22, and your degrees of freedom was 3: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; =1-CHISQ.DIST(22, 3,TRUE)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the first argument is the chi-square value&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The second argument is the degrees of freedom&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The third argument indicates that a cumulative distribution (CDF) is desired&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thus by taking 1 minus the value of the CDF you get the probability of getting a chi-square value as large or larger than the observed value.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can check your formula by looking at existing calculated tables. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://home.comcast.net/~sharov/PopEcol/tables/chisq.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://home.comcast.net/~sharov/PopEcol/tables/chisq.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2013-03-11T11:35:22.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3284" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1709" CreationDate="2013-03-12T10:38:45.560" Score="0" Body="&lt;h3&gt;&lt;code&gt;:)&lt;/code&gt; (also spelled &lt;code&gt;:-)&lt;/code&gt;)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A modifier meaning that someone is happy or want to relieve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was a really nice day :).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Don't worry, you will pass the exam :).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;&lt;code&gt;:(&lt;/code&gt; (also spelled: &lt;code&gt;:-(&lt;/code&gt;)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A modifier that someone is sad or wants to say sorry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...and then I spilt all milk :(.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't do it for you :(.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;code&gt;;)&lt;/code&gt; (also spelled: &lt;code&gt;;-)&lt;/code&gt;)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A modifier saying that someone is joking or laughing, or to not take something serious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Warning: sometimes it can mean that someone makes an ironic comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then she sit on the chair with a pin... ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which pages do you need for the assignment? 105-121... or wait, not - you need to read the whole book! ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;^^&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'm not sure if I get it right, since it's less common) - excited, surprised, astonished, flirting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I met this cute guy ^^.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They announced the winners and, guess what, they read my name ^^.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-12T10:38:45.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3285" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-12T23:57:20.273" Score="17" ViewCount="2725" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introduction&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interpersonal dimensions of personality (Sullivan, 1953) have been described in a circular model, the interpersonal circumplex, since Leary (1957). The two dimensions that define this circumplex are warmheartedness(pleasantness) versus coldheartedness and dominance versus submissiveness. Two better known measures based on Leary's concept are Mehrabian's Trait Dominance-Submissiveness (Mehrabian &amp;amp; Hines, 1978) and Trait Pleasure-Displeasure Scales (Mehrabian, 1978) (which combine with a Trait Arousability Scale, Mehrabian, 1977, into the PAD; Mehrabian, 1996b), and the Interpersonal Adjective Scale (IAS-R; Wiggins, Trapnell &amp;amp; Philips, 1988).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you analyse the dominance/submissiveness scales from these instruments, it becomes clear that dominance is here understood to be the &lt;em&gt;ability to assert oneself&lt;/em&gt;, while submissiveness is the complementary &lt;em&gt;inability&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The 26 items of the Trait Dominance-Submissiveness Scale ... assessed the generalised feelings of control and influence over one's relationships and life circumstances (e.g. 'I control situations rather than let them control me' (+), 'I work best when someone has outlined a job for me' (-), or 'Domineering people don't intimidate me' (+)). (Mehrabian, 1996a)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The adjectives related to submissiveness in the IAS-R make this negative construct of submissiveness even more clear: timid, bashful, shy, forceless, are four of the eight self-descriptors from this scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Contrary to this perspective on submissiveness as incompetent and powerless, other conceptions are possible: some egalitarian individuals might not be unable to dominate others, but simply unwilling; some loving individuals might find fulfillment in selfless devotion; and with the ever expanding service economy, hopefully professional service providers enjoy serving their customers – it would be a dismal life for a majority of us, if we didn't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Submissive pleasure is an important factor in certain forms of romantic relationships, from the wife choosing a traditional provider/facilitator-household in feminist times to the happy spanking BDSM couple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there measures, scales or instruments that measure a positive, joyful concept of submissiveness, as it is conceived by BDSM?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If not, is there a measure of the &quot;service provider personality&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;References&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Leary, T. (1957). Interpersonal diagnosis of personality. New York: Ronald Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mehrabian, A. (1977). A questionnaire measure of individual differences in stimulus screening and associated differences in arousability. Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior, 1, 89-103.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mehrabian, A. (1978). Measure of individual differences in temperament. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 38, 1105-1117.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mehrabian, A. (1996a). Analysis of the big-five personality factors in terms of the PAD Temperament Model. Australian Journal of Psychology, 48, 86-92.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mehrabian, A. (1996b). Pleasure-arousal-dominance: A general framework for describing and measuring individual differences in temperament. Current Psychology, 14, 261-292.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mehrabian, A., &amp;amp; Hines, M. (1978). A questionnaire measure of individual differences in dominance-submissiveness. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 38, 479-484. doi:10.1177/001316447803800235&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wiggins, J. S., Trapnell, P., &amp;amp; Philips, N. (1988). Psychometric and geometric characteristics of the Revised Interpersonal Adjective Scales (IAS-R). Multivariate Behavrioral Research, 23, 517-530.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorDisplayName="user1196" LastEditDate="2013-03-13T00:43:37.547" LastActivityDate="2013-05-30T04:24:46.860" Title="How to measure dominance and submissiveness?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3291" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3293" CreationDate="2013-03-14T06:19:24.943" Score="2" ViewCount="428" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our decisions are usually based on a system of perspectives, which in turn are based on one's own set of values. However there are traumatizing situations where this system of perspectives is turned completely upside down forcing us to make decisions that may look irrational (or that are really irrational due to emotional and other mental factors eg. panic).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which branch of psychology deals with the subject of how different unexpected inputs affect our decision making process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2816" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-03-14T12:25:46.517" LastActivityDate="2013-03-14T12:34:29.923" Title="Which branch of psychology deals with decision making under stress?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3292" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3281" CreationDate="2013-03-14T09:06:48.243" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is not answerable without having a measure of what the most common day-to-day scenarios are. However, I can try a guess: since most people interact in a public, anonymous setting on a daily basis, I would think the fundamental attribution error is most probable. This is especially true while driving -- &quot;did that idiot just cut me off?!&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, my estimation of fundamental attribution error as the most common cognitive bias may itself be an instance of availability heuristic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2817" LastActivityDate="2013-03-14T09:06:48.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3293" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3291" CreationDate="2013-03-14T12:34:29.923" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Decision-making or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;decision theory&lt;/a&gt; is its own subdiscipline under cognitive science (also often studied by statisticians, philosophers, economists, and faculty in business schools). Within this discipline, understanding how stress affects your behavior is very important and not understudied area. For a recent survey with a neurobiological focus, see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Starcke, K., &amp;amp; Brand, M. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22342781&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Decision making under stress: A selective review&lt;/a&gt;. Neuroscience &amp;amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(4), 1228-1248.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, stress and decision making is not restricted to humans. It is also studied in a purely biological setting. For a survey focusing on predation, see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lima, S. L. (1998). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065345408603666&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stress and decision making under the risk of predation: recent developments from behavioral, reproductive, and ecological perspectives&lt;/a&gt;. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 27, 215-290.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastActivityDate="2013-03-14T12:34:29.923" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3295" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3259" CreationDate="2013-03-15T18:36:02.093" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To me the most natural solution is to just use item response theory (IRT).  IRT has been around for a few decades, so it is well established, implemented in a variety of software packages and provides a sensible, extensible framework for this type of problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, one assumes an underlying latent construct of interest, values of which should drive responses on the test.  For multiple choice where the answer is &quot;right&quot; or &quot;wrong&quot;, you can use a series of logit (canonically) or probit models.  Then for each student, you can estimate the score on the underlying latent variable and that will naturally come with some estimate of its quality/variability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Issues that are automatically handled:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If everyone (or nearly everyone) gets an answer correct, it contributes very little information&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Corollary to #1, if almost no one gets an answer correct and someone does, it should be weighted more heavily.  Essentially, item difficulty is automatically handled.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inter-dependence among items is accounted for.  Asking the same item 10 times in a row will not artificially decrease your measurement error.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you take a Bayesian view, for each student, you could use the model and their test responses to calculate a posterior distribution for the latent construct of interest, which would allow both a point estimate (e.g., posterior mean, median, or mode), as well as estimates of variability (e.g., standard deviation; 95% high posterior density region).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This sort of thing is essentially what big nation wide tests and testing services do.  It is actually not too hard to do, but probably enough effort most teachers who already feel overworked do not adopt them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="939" LastActivityDate="2013-03-15T18:36:02.093" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3296" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3298" CreationDate="2013-03-16T05:19:04.937" Score="1" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it may happen with people who have lack of confidence, for example shy people. So in conversation they often add proper nouns (eg. names of persons or countries) to give &quot;evidence&quot; and weight of their sayings.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In fact, I am interested either such a phenomenon exists, not necessarily having a name for it.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;-Do you like cheese?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  -Yes, but not the types they have here, like the commercial Mozarrela.  Now, if you were in a Mediterranean country, that's other&#xA;  story. Like in Spain or Italy. I remember the tasty cheeses from my&#xA;  trip in Sicilia.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  -Hey, that place has a bad reputation...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  -Ha, I felt like Michael Corleone&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2795" LastEditorUserId="2795" LastEditDate="2013-03-16T19:26:29.783" LastActivityDate="2013-03-16T19:26:29.783" Title="Is there a name for the tendency to use proper nouns often in conversation?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2013-03-20T14:35:44.943" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3297" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3302" CreationDate="2013-03-16T12:53:49.220" Score="4" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bob is given a bar of chocolate by the experimenter. Then he is to propose how he will share the chocolate with Emilly. If Emilly agrees with Bob's proposal, the kids will each get their share. If Emilly disagrees, nobody gets anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experiment demonstrates that Emilly will refuse a profitable share (anything more than no chocolate is profitable for her), if the split Bob proposed would be &quot;unfair&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="254" LastEditorUserId="38" LastEditDate="2013-03-16T21:07:33.600" LastActivityDate="2013-03-16T21:07:33.600" Title="What was the experiment where a person is given something and then has to share it with another person" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3298" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3296" CreationDate="2013-03-16T14:05:26.860" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The behavior to lend credibility or importance to one's statements is called &quot;name dropping&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Name dropping is a typical &lt;strong&gt;ingratiation tactic&lt;/strong&gt;. Other ingratiation tactics are: other-enhancement, opinion conformity, self-enhancement, self-depreciation, instrumental dependency, and a variety of situation specific behaviors. While ingratiating behavior is strongest towards superiors across all people, there are people who show more or less ingratiating behavior across all situations and relationships (Bohra &amp;amp; Pandey, 1984).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides this function of name dropping &quot;to position oneself in a status hierarchy&quot;, where people &quot;may claim connections to celebrities or other high-status people to raise their own status&quot; and impress their listeners, &quot;[n]ame display is also used to &lt;strong&gt;discover whether there is a common bond&lt;/strong&gt; between new acquaintances. People who lived in the same city or attended the same school may go through long lists of names seeking common ground.&quot; (Donath &amp;amp; Boyd, 2004)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This function of &quot;seeking common ground&quot; can not only be achieved by dropping personal names of possible common acquaintances, but also by naming authors, movies or products that you enjoy: if your partner knows and likes Mozzarella or Michael Corleone, too, these &lt;strong&gt;common interests&lt;/strong&gt; form a basis for a new friendship that would have otherwise been difficult to build.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short: you have to be careful and porperly analyze the person and situation to understand the causes and aims of name dropping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bohra, K. A., &amp;amp; Pandey, J. (1984). Ingratiation toward strangers, friends, and bosses. Journal of Social Psychology, 122(2), 217-222. doi:10.1080/00224545.1984.9713483&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Donath, J., &amp;amp; Boyd, D. (2004). Public Displays of Connection. BT Technology Journal, 22(4), 71-82. doi:10.1023/B:BTTJ.0000047585.06264.cc&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastActivityDate="2013-03-16T14:05:26.860" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3299" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-16T14:07:38.453" Score="1" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;Modern science has quite an array of methods trying to localize and analyze brain activity, trying to get down to individual neurons firing: EEG, fMRI, CT, etc. This requires very expensive machines to record data, lots of processing power, trained technicians, etc. At the same time each one of us has a brain which we are trying to study with these methods. &lt;strong&gt;I'm interested in knowing is if there has been experiments in which people have developed new &quot;diagnostic&quot; senses or feelings about their own brain activity and these senses correlate with modern scientific equipment.&lt;/strong&gt; In other words: &quot;when a person feels x, a machine would pick y signal off the patients brain, which can be reproduced across attempts&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a couple examples of &quot;new senses&quot; that I can think of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;finger magnets, which let a person feel magnetic fields after a few months of implantation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;vibrating ankle bracelets that help a person learn to feel true north&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, maybe there was a group of notable test subjects who were really good at understanding/expressing their feelings. Did these feelings for test subjects translate into predictable scientific instrument readings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-03-16T14:07:38.453" Title="Are &quot;diagnostic&quot; senses/feelings for brain study possible?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-17T05:40:49.093" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3301" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-16T17:45:38.353" Score="4" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a term that captures the idea that &lt;strong&gt;incentives work&lt;/strong&gt; even when people deny their choices have been swayed by them?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, an individual amazon book reviewer may deny that a recent improvement in their rankings caused them to spend 10 minutes writing a review instead of 5.  They may be honest that they weren't consciously aware of the connection in a single act.  But statistically it might (by some well-controlled experiment) be evident there is likely a causative correlation, over time, over many participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or changing scoring models on StackExchange might change behavior more than explainable by conscious decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or a crowded store gets better sales due to social influences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course perverse incentives and competing incentives (social, financial) will complicate, but I want a term to capture the concept that incentives influence choice to a degree &lt;strong&gt;more than the participants are aware&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I'm not asking for argument how much or little this works, but for a well-accepted term for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2827" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2013-03-16T18:20:07.497" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T21:35:02.487" Title="Term for incentives working without conscious awareness" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3302" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3297" CreationDate="2013-03-16T21:06:25.457" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The experiment you are referring to is usually called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimatum_game&quot;&gt;the ultimatum game&lt;/a&gt;, and was first experimentally tested by Güth, Schmittberger, and Schwarze in 1982 &lt;a href=&quot;http://teaching.ust.hk/~bee/papers/guth.pdf&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]  Güth, Werner, Rolf Schmittberger, and Bernd Schwarze. &quot;An experimental analysis of ultimatum bargaining.&quot; Journal of Economic Behavior &amp;amp; Organization 3.4 (1982): 367-388. &lt;a href=&quot;http://teaching.ust.hk/~bee/papers/guth.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2013-03-16T21:06:25.457" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1931" CreationDate="2013-03-17T20:26:10.940" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, this does happen. It is called an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_cascade&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;information cascade&lt;/a&gt;. From Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An information (or informational) cascade occurs when people observe the actions of others and then make the same choice that the others have made, independently of their own private information signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is lots of evidence that people will abandon their own opinions and conform to the opinion of the masses (see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Asch conformity experiments&lt;/a&gt;). Depending on the domain, there could be many explanations for this. A non-exhaustive list includes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the decision-maker may be uncertain and believe that the masses, on average, will make the correct decision&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the decision-maker may want to avoid being on the 'losing' end of things (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_pressure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social pressure&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the decision-maker may want to avoid responsibility&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the decision-maker may not want to expend cognitive resources making a difficult decision&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do smart respondents resist this influence?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My brief research did not turn up any articles on the effect of intelligence on susceptibility to this effect. However it should be noted that there is no reason a &quot;smart&quot; voter should resist a cascade, and in fact it may be smarter to &lt;em&gt;conform&lt;/em&gt; to the cascade. Consider the situation where your favored candidate is losing in the polls. Your second-favorite and least-favorite candidates are in a dead heat for first place. A rational voter might actually vote for his second-favorite candidate to prevent his least-favorite candidate from winning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does this happen in real-life major governmental elections?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While information cascades certainly exist, I'm not aware of any proof that an information cascade has affected a real-world, major governmental election. Which isn't to say this hasn't happened, only that the evidence is contentious. (It's generally hard to &lt;em&gt;prove&lt;/em&gt; this kind of stuff outside a laboratory.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Battaglini (2004) states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Despite the fact that much attention in the theoretical literature has been focused on simultaneous voting mechanisms, many important decisions are actually taken in sequential&#xA;  mechanisms. This is certainly the case of presidential primaries, and of roll-call voting&#xA;  in legislatures; but it is often the case that even mechanisms that are supposed to be&#xA;  simultaneous, are not in practice, because late voters generally have access to exit polls&#xA;  and other information describing the choice of early voters.&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&#xA;  A famous example is the 1980&#xA;  Presidential election in which the news that Ronald Reagan was winning by a landslide&#xA;  changed expectation “suddenly and dramatically.”&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&#xA;  The “popular” intuition, therefore,&#xA;  is that because of bandwagon eﬀects, timing matters. This view is also supported with&#xA;  strong historical and experimental evidence (see Hung and Plott, 2000, and Morton and&#xA;  Williams, 2000a and 2000b).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This literature is not my area of expertise, but this article seems relevant and provides several pertinent citations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Battaglini, M. (2005). Sequential voting with abstention. Games and Economic Behavior, 51(2), 445-463. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/cs286r/courses/fall11/papers/Battaglini%2705.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2013-03-17T20:26:10.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3305" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4307" CreationDate="2013-03-18T09:26:07.000" Score="7" ViewCount="1172" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can any one suggest a good article about features of EEG of left-handed people?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was surprised when find that there are only few old articles about it. I find only one new article by Propper, Ruth E., et al. (2012). Maybe I miss something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scirp.org/journal/PaperDownload.aspx?DOI=10.4236/ojmp.2012.14014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Propper, R. E., Pierce, J., Geisler, M. W., Christman, S. D., &amp;amp;&#xA;  Bellorado, N. (2012). Asymmetry in Resting Alpha Activity: Effects of&#xA;  Handedness. Open Journal of Medical Psychology, 1(4), 86-90.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2555" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-09-06T04:54:43.703" LastActivityDate="2016-01-11T02:36:50.167" Title="EEG correlates of handedness" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3306" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="547" CreationDate="2013-03-18T11:00:38.310" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.supermemo.com/articles/sleep.htm#Excessive_sleeping&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;According to Dr Piotr Wozniak&lt;/a&gt;, no.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Oversleeping&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize what Dr Wozniak says, people need sleep to &lt;strong&gt;optimize memory&lt;/strong&gt;. While there is an evolutionary benefit to overeating (conserving fat for the future), there is &lt;strong&gt;none to oversleeping&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sleepiness is a combination of&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a circadian component (the hours you usually sleep)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a homeostatic component (e.g. staying awake too long, learning too much).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What causes oversleeping is people who often sleep while they are tired before their bedtime, and the circadian component launches hormones that keep you asleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if your usual bedtime is about 10 PM, your usual wake time is around 4-6 AM, which is when the circadian sleepiness wears off. If you are extremely tired and fall asleep at 6 PM, your circadian sleepiness hormones kick in at about 10 PM, leaving you sleepy until around 4-6 AM. You will fall asleep for about 12 hours and feel like you've slept for only 6, which is what many people interpret as oversleeping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you happen to sleep at 4 PM that day and sleep off the homeostatic component, you'll lack enough 'sleepiness' to fall asleep when the circadian part kicks in, and you'll get insomnia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, early sleepers will either get insomnia or oversleep, depending on how different from their usual circadian rhythm it is. Eventually, people's circadian rhythm will adjust to the new cycle, but people who keep adjusting their cycles and travel often (e.g. 2 AM one week, 6 PM the next) will often face oversleeping issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Can sleep become addictive?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm no expert on how addiction works, so someone should correct me on this if mistaken.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/info/addiction/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Addiction is a habitual psychological or physiological dependence on a practice that is beyond voluntary control&lt;/a&gt;. Quite often, it occurs when you have a reward at the end of a cue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g. someone starts drinking or smoking when they get stressed out. As they repeat this, they gain a psychological addiction to drinking or smoking every time they are stressed. The reward of nicotine/alcohol triggers and enforces the habit loop. After enough of the substance in the system, they become physiologically addicted to alcohol or nicotine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or someone begins gambling every time they are bored and have money in their pocket. The reward of getting money enforces a habit loop, creating psychological addiction. The cue of being bored and having money triggers the addiction, the reward of getting money enforces it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being unable to retrieve these rewards creates craving and thus, psychological addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, with sleep is difficult to do as a reaction to anything. One can easily overeat as a response to stress, but one cannot easily sleep as a response to stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's little euphoria associated to sleeping; when you wake up, you'd normally feel a little drowsy instead of 'satisfied'. While someone lacking sleep can have a craving for sleep, it's difficult to form a habit loop of sleeping as a reaction to anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I'd argue that while very rare circumstances would make one addicted to sleep, it'd have to be a deliberately developed habit. The most likely case would be a craving to sleep whenever one opens a textbook. A 'craving' to sleep at night is quite normal, much like the 'craving' to eat several times a day caused by low blood sugar levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2644" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-18T11:00:38.310" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3307" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-18T11:24:15.530" Score="14" ViewCount="2423" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do people like to be touched so much, why would it make sense from a evolutionary perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know people enjoy hugs and company of opposite sex, but even people from the same sex hug and touch each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder how this behavior could have evolved. Was it the struggle to keep warm that drawn people physically together? Does it all have to do with mating?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe there just isn't enough data to specify how this behavior started out?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2832" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-04-02T18:55:26.253" LastActivityDate="2018-04-02T18:55:26.253" Title="Why do humans like being touched?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3311" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3307" CreationDate="2013-03-19T18:25:57.543" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Of all the senses, touch is the one that most connects a person to the external environment. When two people touch each other (a handshake, a hug, a kiss, etc.) a connection/bond is made. This bonding is deeply involved with social development and emotional interaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Interpersonal relationships&lt;/a&gt; are essential for social interactions. It is important to known where the boundaries are in your culture, so that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_space&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;personal space&lt;/a&gt; is respected. This varies widely between cultures and persons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2838" LastEditorUserId="2838" LastEditDate="2013-03-30T03:29:58.187" LastActivityDate="2013-03-30T03:29:58.187" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3312" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3270" CreationDate="2013-03-19T18:29:49.273" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the difference comes down to awareness and control. A person who &quot;wears many hats&quot; and can step into different &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.listology.com/list/character-archetypes&quot;&gt;archetypes&lt;/a&gt; is a sort of personality chameleon, whereas a person with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/dissociative-identity-disorder-multiple-personality-disorder&quot;&gt;dissociative identity disorder&lt;/a&gt; has little or no control over changing personalities, and certain personalities within that person may be only partially or completely unaware of other personalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2838" LastEditorUserId="2838" LastEditDate="2013-03-30T04:15:41.077" LastActivityDate="2013-03-30T04:15:41.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3313" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1378" CreationDate="2013-03-19T18:47:34.443" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first and most obvious answer would be that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.learning-knowledge.com/memory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;repetition&lt;/a&gt; cements new information into memory. The second technique is that an event that involves a strong &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt; will be more easily remembered then an event where little or no emotion is felt. If you are learning foreign languages, you could practice sentences or paragraphs in a dramatic way, like learning the lines of a play. This could be done verbally or non-verbally, but verbally would be preferred for the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_feedback&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;auditory feedback&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashcards&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Flashcards&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_maps&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mind maps&lt;/a&gt;, and similar tools would help with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_feedback&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;visual feedback&lt;/a&gt;, helpful as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/03/090325091834.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; suggests. Handwriting and typing would help with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatosensory_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;tactile feedback&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2838" LastEditorUserId="2838" LastEditDate="2013-03-30T03:51:48.833" LastActivityDate="2013-03-30T03:51:48.833" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3314" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1966" CreationDate="2013-03-20T10:38:30.177" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The best review of experience sampling tools I've found is &lt;a href=&quot;http://vjkhan.com/old/content/publications/ExperienceSampling-A-workbook-about-the-method-and-the-tools-that-support-it.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, to answer you question, check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://myexperience.sourceforge.net&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;MyExperience&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. To quote the website:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;MyExperience is a BSD-licensed open source mobile data collection tool&#xA;  developed for Windows Mobile devices (including PDAs and mobile&#xA;  phones) using .NET CF 2 and Microsoft SQL Compact Edition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;MyExperience is available for free on SourceForge in beta release.&#xA;  Please see our wiki for documentation and our blog for updates.&#xA;  MyExperience combines sensing and self-report to collect both&#xA;  quantitative and qualitative data on human behaviors, attitudes and&#xA;  activities in the field. Using a mobile phone's wireless connectivity&#xA;  to the internet, researchers have the ability to access MyExperience&#xA;  data as it's collected allowing for ongoing analysis of study data and&#xA;  early detection of subject compliance or technology issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;MyExperience is based on a three tier architecture of sensors,&#xA;  triggers and actions; triggers use sensor event data to conditionally&#xA;  launch actions. One novel aspect of MyExperience is that its behavior&#xA;  and user interface are specified via XML and a lightweight scripting&#xA;  language similar to the HTML/JavaScript paradigm on the web.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2839" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-03-21T05:22:21.007" LastActivityDate="2013-03-21T05:22:21.007" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3316" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3317" CreationDate="2013-03-21T01:48:10.040" Score="12" ViewCount="375" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can the neural firing patterns of animals be associated with specific kinds of thoughts? (ie Thoughts related to food, mating, or neighborly aggression?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am curious about the speculations in yesterday's &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/neuroskeptic/2013/03/19/what-is-my-cat-thinking/#.UUpg3Rni5eM&quot;&gt;Neuroskpetic blog post, &quot;What is My Cat Thinking&quot;&lt;/a&gt; on Discover Magazine's site. The author ponders if measuring his cat's neural firing patterns upon confronting a neighbor's cat, and then observing if similar patterns appear at other times when the neighbor's cat is not present, can be used as evidence for his cat's &quot;thinking&quot; or memory of the other cat. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author concludes, preemptively, that such an experiment would not demonstrate anything about the content of thought: &quot;We have no idea how neural firing relates to consciousness in humans, let alone animals.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I am quite sure I have seen various papers published that use fMRI and neural patterns as evidence of particular states of mind. There are also social science experiments in which participants' brains are electrically stimulated, resulting in particular actions (grabbing of a pencil, for example), and then asked to explain the motivations for this action. These experiments would suggest that it is already assumed that specific brain patterns correlate to specific thoughts and actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering to what extent biologists have already studied neural firing in relation to consciousness and the content of thoughts. More specifically, can we infer the recall of specific memories from a neural firing pattern?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2844" LastActivityDate="2013-03-21T03:54:12.657" Title="Can we draw conclusions about content of thoughts from neural firing patterns?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3316" CreationDate="2013-03-21T03:54:12.657" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a complicated and loaded question. As Neuroskeptic noted, our understanding of consciousness is very poor (in fact, we don't know how to define it most of the time). To see some of the best current definitions, take a look at:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/987/29&quot;&gt;What are current neuronal explanations and models of 'consciousness'?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We definitely can't infer arbitrary properties of consciousness from something like fMRI. In general, we don't have a clear mapping from brain to mind, and thus all studies are inherently correlational in nature. Since all the work is correlational, it is thus not usually mentioned and the popular press tends to misconstrue this as a for-sure causal connection. But does that mean we can't infer any thoughts? No!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can &amp;quot;read thoughts&amp;quot; well enough to produce an brain-computer interface. Adapted from my &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/1149/29&quot;&gt;earlier answer&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2008/07/27/out_of_silence_the_sounds_of_hope/?page=full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Erik Ramsey&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locked-in_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;locked-in syndrome&lt;/a&gt; patient and is incapable of movement apart from his eyes. However, he has control of his brain enough to be distinguished by electrodes implanted into his cerebral cortex (Guenther, 2009). Although the sensors were implanted in the motor-area responsible for speech (which you would expect typical inviduals to have control over, since they can speak), the understanding of how to decode this is not full. Thus, the patient had to train in order to adapt to the system:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Accuracy of the volunteer's vowel productions with the synthesizer improved quickly with practice, with a 25% improvement in average hit rate (from 45% to 70%) and 46% decrease in average endpoint error from the first to the last block of a three-vowel task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a much more dramatic experiment, Adrian Owen has used &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/neuroscience-the-mind-reader-1.10816&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain imaging techniques as means of communicating with vegetative-state patients&lt;/a&gt;. It is known that visualizing playing-tennis and walking around the house produce very distinct (to an fMRI) activation in the brain. So Owen used that capability to allow a vegetative-state patient to answer yes-or-no questions. He asked the patient to imagine playing tennis for yes, navigating the house for no (Monti et al., 2010). Hence, neuroscientists think they can distinguish the thought of walking around the house versus playing tennis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, it is hard to say if this can be continued arbitrarily far, in practice or even in theory. For more info, see this question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/605/29&quot;&gt;Is performance reducible to brain activity in an unambiguous way?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Guenther, F.H., Brumberg, J.S., Wright, E.J., Nieto-Castanon, A., Tourville, J.A., Panko, M., Law, R., Siebert, S.A., Bartels, J.L., Andreasen, D.S., Ehirim, P., Mao, H., &amp;amp; Kennedy, P.R. (2009). A wireless brain-machine interface for real-time speech synthesis. PLoS ONE, 4(12)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Monti MM, Vanhaudenhuyse A, Coleman MR, Boly M, Pickard JD, Tshibanda L, Owen AM, &amp;amp; Laureys S. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20130250?dopt=Abstract&amp;amp;holding=npg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Willful modulation of brain activity in disorders of consciousness&lt;/a&gt;. New England Journal of Medicine, 362(7):579-89.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-21T03:54:12.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3319" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-21T08:40:14.987" Score="0" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since diagnoses merely represent what a doctor is thinking, how can a mental patient know the difference between de facto &quot;reality&quot; and what decisions a doctor is planning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We know planning is not real but a mental patient can't say that a decision from a doctor is not reality, even though a decision from a doctor is not anything that has a physical existence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if the doctor decides a 5150 or likewise, I'm not asking about the legal processes but how you could convince that a diagnosis is not just a model. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is a mutual indicator for every sz or psychosis? IF there is no common indicator, how can it be a diagnosis or a condition? What is absolutely impossible with e.g. schizophrenia that is possible with no schizophrenia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since paranoid schizophrenia could be just a person who is worried, which doesn't exclude anything does it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2846" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T07:08:49.597" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T07:08:49.597" Title="How to tell a diagnosis from an actual state?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3320" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3319" CreationDate="2013-03-21T18:49:39.570" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Doctors are trained not to diagnose a patient subjectively, but to use objective criteria. Psychologists and psychiatrists worldwide have agreed on a set of criteria, by which each doctor should arrive at the same diagnosis, if faced with the same patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The current practice is that all mental disorders are defined by a list of symptoms. If a patient shows a certain minimum number of symptoms from this list (no matter, which), it is assumed that he is very probably suffering from that disorder. A sample can be found under the section &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia#Criteria&quot;&gt;Criteria&lt;/a&gt;&quot; in the Wikipedia article on Schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the currenty way to diagnose a mental disorder, because, despite all its weaknesses (see the section &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#Criticism&quot;&gt;Criticsm&lt;/a&gt;&quot; in the DSM Wikipedia article for an overview), it is believed to be the best of all bad methods (akin to Churchill on democracy) and no replacement has yet been found (unless you count &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry&quot;&gt;Antipsychiatry&lt;/a&gt; as helpful in dealing with mental problems).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The lists of criteria and the minimum number of symptoms are given in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders&quot;&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders&lt;/a&gt; (currently DSM-IV-TR) and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems&quot;&gt;International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems&lt;/a&gt; (currently ICD-10).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can conclude from this, a mental disorder is not a reality. It is a construct that consists of a collection of possible symptoms. The &quot;actual state&quot;, as you call it, the physiological reality, is not accessible to the psychologist or psychiatrist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorDisplayName="user1196" LastEditDate="2013-03-21T19:16:10.047" LastActivityDate="2013-03-21T19:16:10.047" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2079" CreationDate="2013-03-21T20:09:40.273" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think that (2) works. The physical size of the screen is not available to you. You may be able to calculate the dimensions in pixels, but pixel density (dpi), pixel format and sampling pattern change from screen to screen. So &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/a/11264253/1322720&quot;&gt;you won't be able to calculate the centimeters from the pixels&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would do what web designers have done for centuries: &lt;strong&gt;rely on the user to resize content to their needs&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would provide images in high resolution, display them at an initial size* that works well on &lt;a href=&quot;http://gs.statcounter.com/#resolution-ww-monthly-201202-201302&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the most common screen resolutions&lt;/a&gt; (1366 x 768 and 1024 x 768), and provide a highly visible request to resize the image to make viewing comfortable. With Javascript you can offer fluid, continuous resizing options easily (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.twinhelix.com/javascript/dragresize/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TwinHelix&lt;/a&gt; or, what I prefer, &lt;a href=&quot;http://yuilibrary.com/yui/docs/resize/simple-resize.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;YUI&lt;/a&gt;), allowing the users to resize web content in the same way they would resize the browser window. Or you can offer a number of preset sizes (+/- 10% etc.) and link these to different style sheets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*A good measure for the initial size, in my opinion, is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Em_%28typography%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;em&lt;/a&gt;. You can rely on two factors with this: if the user uses the computer at its factory settings, then type size is adapted to the screen size; if the user changed the settings, then type size is adapted to his visual ability and preferences. If you give image size in em, i.e. in relation to type size, images will be scaled to the users needs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is, of course, no exact science, but that is what I do, when I design a website. It is the closest I manage to get to cross computer similarity in size. As soon as you read about cross browser web design, you'll lose all optimism that your goals at exactness can be achieved ;-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-05-23T12:41:53.730" LastActivityDate="2013-03-21T20:09:40.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3322" PostTypeId="7" CreationDate="2013-03-21T22:34:28.100" Score="0" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Pseudoscience or fiction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Questions that do not provide relevant references or clarify underlying assumptions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&quot;Self Help&quot; questions which are personal in nature, seeking medical or professional advice&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Questions that are primarily opinion-based&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Questions with too many possible answers or that would require an extremely long answer&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-08-01T18:50:24.783" LastActivityDate="2017-08-01T18:50:24.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3323" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-21T23:40:13.713" Score="3" ViewCount="216" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was sent an email by a researcher with the following question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeromyanglim.blogspot.com.au/2009/09/difference-scores-are-they-okay-to-use.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wrote that difference scores are okay to use if measurement error&#xA;  is&#xA;  minimised&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Does that imply that biological data are more reliable for statistically analysing change than say a self-report personality&#xA;  scale?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;For example, I've measured fear via cortisol and also self-report scale, does this mean that I can look at hormone measurements in a&#xA;  difference score but not on the self-report scales?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-03-21T23:51:46.107" Title="Are cortisol measures more reliable than self-reported fear measures for looking at difference scores?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3324" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3323" CreationDate="2013-03-21T23:51:46.107" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the relevant reliability would be the expected test-retest reliability of the measure at the two time points which are otherwise being used to examine difference scores. Thus, if you were looking at difference scores derived from an experiment where measures are taken one day apart where an intervention is applied on one of those days, then you would want to know the correlation between those two days in the absence of any intervention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I would question your assumption that hormone measures are more reliable than self-report personality measures. I'm not experienced with hormone reliability data, but a good personality scale should have test-retest reliability around .80 or 90. My intuition is that hormone measures have much lower reliability than this, but I'd be very interested in anyone who can cite test-retest reliability measures for various hormone measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this discussion of cortisol test-retest reliability (Nicolson):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Test-retest reliability of acute stress response measures appears to&#xA;  be low, probably because of both the underestimated noise introduced&#xA;  by spontaneous pulsatile activity (Young, Abelson, &amp;amp; Lightman, 2004)&#xA;  and the tendency of the cortisol response to habituate following&#xA;  repeated exposures. Low reliability of cortisol outcome measures means&#xA;  that laboratory stress experiments are particularly vulnerable to Type&#xA;  2 error. This issue is important in all studies, but especially needs&#xA;  to be taken into account in intervention studies, where stress&#xA;  reactivity is compared pre- and postintervention. More analyses are&#xA;  needed to determine how many cortisol measures per session and how&#xA;  many repeated sessions are necessary to obtain reliable measures of&#xA;  stress reactivity for different subject populations and stressors&#xA;  (Gunnar &amp;amp; Talge, 2007; Hruschka et al., 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nicolson, N. A. Measurement of Cortisol. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/17430_Chapter_3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/17430_Chapter_3.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-03-21T23:51:46.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3326" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-22T23:47:08.900" Score="4" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that while playing rhythm games--games where I must press buttons precisely in step with a musical accompaniment--I can either play or I can talk. If start talking, I'll almost immediately lose the beat, or I'll talk between the gaps in the beat in a very odd but unintentional manner; it's like I simply can't focus on both at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I (and many others, judging from Twitch.tv) can still input precise button processes at exact times while talking, so it's not my sense of timing that's off. And it's not that my talking covers the music; I can turn the music up while talking and still falter, and I can mute the music after I get going and keep up the beat. It seems to be specifically my rhythmic timing that's off when I speak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would cause speech to interrupt one's sense of rhythm like this when it doesn't interrupt other types of precise timing? I was unfortunately quite unable to find anything about this while searching, just a bunch of articles on impaired speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2013-03-22T23:47:08.900" Title="Why does speaking disrupt rhythm?" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-07-17T05:44:25.330" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3327" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2079" CreationDate="2013-03-23T18:07:28.840" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I managed to understand, each participant may have a slightly different viewing experience, as long as it's constant through multiple sessions each participant has.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To achieve this, you may ask participants to sit an arm's reach from their monitor. Try to make the images span the same physical size (even though it's really hard to achieve programatically). This way, the viewing angle would be relatively constant between participants, but more importantly, would be constant for each participant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the experiment is dependent to the level of details they can see on the pictures, you might want to consider low-res, and large-detailed images, to eliminate the advantage of those with better monitors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, make sure they all use desktop computers, as many might want to user their tablet computers, or even their smartphones...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2821" LastActivityDate="2013-03-23T18:07:28.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3328" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3359" CreationDate="2013-03-23T20:29:30.027" Score="6" ViewCount="190" Body="&lt;p&gt;Various hypnotism teachers tell you to speak with a relaxed voice with rhythm. You can see Derren Brown on this in &lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/oC9J6O6soHA?t=4m48s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Experiment - The Assassin&lt;/a&gt; (from 4:48 to 5:40):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Soft, rhythmical language, repeated phrases ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.percepp.com/hypnosis.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, in a paper from Robin Allott:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A number of elements in successful oratory can be identified. Oratory uses some of the techniques also found in poetry: sound patterns (assonance, alliteration, repetition); strongly marked rhythmic patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does rhythm help getting the subject in a trance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user2849" LastEditorDisplayName="user2849" LastEditDate="2013-03-30T07:05:37.820" LastActivityDate="2013-03-30T10:04:06.677" Title="Why does speaking with rhythm help a subject get into a trance?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3330" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3338" CreationDate="2013-03-26T03:09:11.697" Score="-1" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may be aware that neuro-imagers have become much cheaper and many are available with a SDK. I think this will open up a huge gateway for much more intimate human interfaces. However, I am stumped at the practical uses and whether the human controlled interfaces will be much better to the user. A mind controlled TV remote (for hospital patients) came as an idea, but once again, I don't think it has much practical use. Could any point me to any practical uses of this device? I am sorry if I am posting in the wrong section or this is a very opened-ended question. Thanks for any input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2855" LastActivityDate="2013-03-27T04:08:16.990" Title="Practical Use For a Neuroimager" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" ClosedDate="2013-03-27T07:34:20.867" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3331" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-26T06:06:07.033" Score="6" ViewCount="128" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several studies discuss the damaged &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_schema&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;body schema&lt;/a&gt; of amputees and people suffering from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_regional_pain_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CRPS&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;By damaged &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1350799/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;body schema&lt;/a&gt; I mean where the body their mind constructs doesn't match up with the body that is objectively there. Ie. limbs perceived as there or not there despite evidence, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18625661&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CRPS&lt;/a&gt;, extension/contraction of perceived limbs differing from reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The types of damage I'm most interested in are pain resulting or allegedly resulting from a disruption of the body schema itself such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/vilayanur_ramachandran_on_your_mind.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;phantom limb pain&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/127/2/243.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;autoscopy/out-of-body experiences&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/130/10/2671&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CRPS&lt;/a&gt;. Phantom limb sensation also interests me. Mostly, &lt;strong&gt;the important distinction I wish to draw is healing through the power of one's own volition or through the help of others, as diametrically opposed as I can get it.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the relative effectiveness of self-initiated versus therapy provided by others in repairing a damaged body schema?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1048" LastEditorUserId="1048" LastEditDate="2014-01-21T05:38:42.357" LastActivityDate="2014-01-22T15:25:39.130" Title="What is the relative effectiveness of self initiated versus therapy approaches to repairing damaged body schema?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3332" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3333" CreationDate="2013-03-26T06:13:03.817" Score="7" ViewCount="207" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;: I'm familiar with the more common learning styles of hearing, seeing and doing. For lack of a better word I consider myself a 'vicarious' learner which is something similar to a Bodhisattva from Buddhism only without the enlightenment part. I learn best by helping other people learn it, or through explaining it successfully to someone else. Case in point algebra never made a lick of sense to me as a kid until I was able to get my mom to understand it (she's not math minded in the least).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a term for someone who learns best by helping others learn?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there only the three theoretical learning styles at present?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1048" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-03-26T07:18:29.263" LastActivityDate="2013-03-28T14:28:53.133" Title="Is there a learning style that involves learning best by teaching others?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3332" CreationDate="2013-03-26T07:33:48.890" Score="6" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Learning Styles&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a large literature on learning styles particularly in educational psychology. See for example, the wikipedia page on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_styles&quot;&gt;learning styles&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will soon discover that there are many different taxonomies of learning styles. Thus, there are certainly more than three &quot;theorised&quot; learning styles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, more importantly, there have been some serious critiques of the assumptions of learning styles. In particular, I would question whether people really have important domain general learning styles, and whether pedagogy should be adapted to such a domain general learning style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree that instruction should be tailored to the individual. However, I think that generally it is more effective to consider what the individual already knows (and in some cases, think about their motivations) and tailor the format with regards to pre-existing knowledge and skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, I think it is generally more useful to think about what makes for effective learning in general, as opposed to thinking about how people learn in different ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Learning by teaching&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case, of learning by teaching, I imagine that this could be a relatively effective learning methodology in general. From personal experience, I know that I learn a lot about a subject by teaching it. It forces you to understand the material. Students can ask you questions which forces you to learn more. Consideration of how to teach the material can encourage a deeper understanding in order to provide a structured teaching experience. The mere fact of spending time on a subject should also foster further learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine there are many articles on the topic of learning through teaching.&#xA;I found one article by Cortese (2005) who wrote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The great learning potential inherent in teaching would appear to be&#xA;  generated as the result of a particular aspect of the teaching process&#xA;  itself: the encounter with diversity, which on the one hand tends to&#xA;  increase reﬂexivity while on the other hand tends to break down&#xA;  resistance to change. ... Teaching also proved to be an important&#xA;  opportunity for recognizing one’s own ignorance and thereby rendering&#xA;  oneself open to the possibility of learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cortese, C. G. (2005). Learning through teaching. Management Learning, 36(1), 87-115. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uk.sagepub.com/fineman/Reading%20On/Chapter%2003c%20-%20Cortese.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-03-26T07:45:34.003" LastActivityDate="2013-03-26T07:45:34.003" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3334" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-26T10:55:50.220" Score="6" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the common nutritional deficiencies in western countries related to reduced mental performance ? I've heard about omega 3, folid acid, and vitamin D deficiencies, the last two are now reduced due to food suplementation in some countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="401" LastEditorUserId="401" LastEditDate="2013-03-26T11:04:30.937" LastActivityDate="2013-03-26T11:04:30.937" Title="What are the common nutritional deficiencies in western countries related to reduced mental performance?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;mental-exhaustion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T18:38:17.550" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3335" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-26T11:19:08.607" Score="10" ViewCount="4111" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of a few freely available scientific measures of Big 5 personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/&quot;&gt;IPIP&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/faculty/gosling/tipi%20site/tipi.htm&quot;&gt;Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What other free scientific Big 5 personality tests are available?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In particular, I'd be interested in any free measures of the Big 5 that are framed so that introversion, neuroticism, disagreeableness, etc. are slightly more positive.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, all items need to be available and it needs to be published in the scientific literature with reasonable reliability and validity data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-03-26T11:49:31.847" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T06:38:33.760" Title="What free scientific measures of Big 5 personality are available?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3336" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3335" CreationDate="2013-03-26T11:40:32.293" Score="4" Body="&lt;h3&gt;IPIP&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be noted that the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newMultipleconstructs.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;IPIP has a range of multi-construct versions&lt;/a&gt; that are designed to align with some existing measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newNEODomainsKey.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;IPIP mapped to NEO-PI-R&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The Big Five Inventory (BFI)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The BFI is available &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.uoregon.edu/sanjay/pubs/bigfive.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here in the Appendix&lt;/a&gt; of John and Srivastava (1999). Sanjay Srivastava has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.uoregon.edu/sanjay/bigfive.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;page discussing the measure here&lt;/a&gt;. (Note the page also directed  me to other options I mention below). It is not public domain but it appears to be free for research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a 44 item measure of the Big 5. Each item involves short sentences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Big 5 Aspects Scale&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.uoregon.edu/sanjay/bigfive.html#other&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sanjay Srivastava&lt;/a&gt; writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Colin DeYoung and colleagues have published a 100-item measure, called&#xA;  the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tc.umn.edu/~cdeyoung/Research.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Big Five Aspect Scales (BFAS)&lt;/a&gt;, which scores not only the Big Five&#xA;  factors, but also two &quot;aspects&quot; of each. The BFAS is in the public&#xA;  domain as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;100 Unipolar Markers&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.uoregon.edu/sanjay/bigfive.html#other&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sanjay Srivastava&lt;/a&gt; notes that there is &quot;Lew Goldberg's set of 100&#xA; trait-descriptive adjectives&quot; (Goldberg, 1992).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Big 5 Mini Markers&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gerard Saucier reduced [Goldberg's] set to &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.uoregon.edu/gsaucier/gsau41.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;40 Big Five mini-markers&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;  that have excellent reliability and validity (Saucier, 1994). &#xA;  More recently, Saucier has developed new trait&#xA;  marker sets that maximize the orthogonality of the factors (Saucier, 2002). Saucier's mini-markers are in the&#xA;  public domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;HEXACO Personality Inventory-Revised&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the &lt;a href=&quot;http://hexaco.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;HEXACO&lt;/a&gt; is actually based on a six factor model of personality, it does share similarities to the Big 5. Specifically, five of the six dimensions map on to the Big 5, and HEXACO adds honesty-humility.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hexaco.org/downloading.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;60 and 100 item versions&lt;/a&gt; of the test are available on the website (and 200 item version is available by request).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure. Psychological assessment, 4(1), 26. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/users/peterson/Psy2302011/14Goldberg.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;John, O. P., &amp;amp; Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. Handbook of personality: Theory and research, 2, 102-138. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.uoregon.edu/sanjay/pubs/bigfive.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Saucier, G. (1994). Mini-markers: A brief version of Goldberg's unipolar Big-Five markers. Journal of personality assessment, 63(3), 506-516. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.uoregon.edu/prsnlty/SAUCIER/Saucier.Minimarkers.Full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Saucier,G. (2002).  Orthogonal markers for orthogonal factors: The case of the Big Five.  Journal of Research in Personality,  36(1), 1-31. &lt;a href=&quot;http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~prsnlty/SAUCIER/Saucier.Ortho-40.FullPaper.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-03-26T12:08:57.537" LastActivityDate="2013-03-26T12:08:57.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3337" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3339" CreationDate="2013-03-26T23:53:56.373" Score="6" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I've been reading up on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-streams_hypothesis&quot;&gt;Two-streams Hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;*, and it bothers me that the explanations both sides give only extend to tasks involving &lt;em&gt;one&lt;/em&gt; type of visual information. For example, an experiment might require subjects to identify the category of an object (ventral stream) or correctly grasp an object (dorsal stream).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But surely there are tasks in the real world that require both sorts of information simultaneously...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, suppose I'm out picking apples: I want to put the ripe apples in my basket and knock the rotten apples to the ground. The ripeness categorization would presumably be a ventral task, whereas the action (grasping/knocking down) relies on dorsal information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Has there been any work on what mechanisms are behind our ability to perform such tasks?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest I've come to an answer is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bungelab.berkeley.edu/Publications/2004_Bunge_CABN.pdf&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; about we use rules to select actions, but the actions discussed don't involve the spatial properties  of the rule defining object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Brief summary of my understanding of the Two-streams Hypothesis: it posits two separate pathways in the brain for processing visual objects: a dorsal pathway for spatial and affordance information, and a ventral pathway for property and category information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastActivityDate="2013-03-27T05:24:44.220" Title="Any research on how we use visual category information in visuomotor tasks?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3338" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3330" CreationDate="2013-03-27T04:08:16.990" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the context of this question, neuroimager refers to a commercial grade EEG/EMG device. For example the emotiv epoch (considered a high end of what is commercially available) had 3 or 6 electrodes. The output of these electrodes is available to a developer through a software interface created by the manufacturer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that Jsn is seeking ideas of what can be done using this technology. I have completed a small iPhone app for another commercial grade EEG device - there is way too many artifacts from motion, muscle activity and poor device placement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Practically speaking, it's a fun &quot;toy&quot; to play with, and it is very mobile, compared to a hundred electrode arrays. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-03-27T04:08:16.990" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3339" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3337" CreationDate="2013-03-27T05:24:44.220" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;From personal observation, the consensus seems to be that the two streams hypothesis is an oversimplification of the truth, albeit a useful one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The primary reason that this hypothesis is seen as an oversimplification is because there is a lot of cross-talk between the two streams. For example, Zanon et al. (2010) provides evidence for functional connectivity using EEG and TMS. Himmelbach &amp;amp; Karnath (2005) provide evidence from neuropsychological patients with optic ataxia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More direct evidence comes from Borra et al. (2008) and Felleman &amp;amp; Van Essen (1991), who provide evidence for cross-talk between streams in monkeys by tracing cortical connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mahon et al. (2007) adresses your specific question, stating:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the course of manipulating and using objects, it is necessary to integrate the output of object recognition processes (ventral stream) with information about object motion (left middle temporal gyrus) and the motor commands necessary to realize the function of the objects (left inferior parietal lobule). The efficacy of such an information processing network would be increased if the organization of object recognition processes already anticipated the processing requirements of computations implemented ‘downstream.’ &lt;strong&gt;(see article for more details)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have also been a few updated reviews of the two streams hypothesis, such as  Milner &amp;amp; Goodale (2008), that might clear up some misconceptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another oversimplification is that the functions of each stream are not entirely unique, as is often stated. For instance, areas in both the dorsal and the ventral stream contain neurons which respond to shape encoding (Lehky &amp;amp; Sereno, 2006), despite that this is generally considered a 'ventral' task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately the misconception that these two streams function completely independent of each other, and perform completely independent functions, is still being perpetuated in text books and journal articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zanon, M., Busan, P., Monti, F., Pizzolato, G., &amp;amp; Battaglini, P. P. (2010). Cortical connections between dorsal and ventral visual streams in humans: evidence by TMS/EEG co-registration. Brain topography, 22(4), 307-317.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Himmelbach, M., &amp;amp; Karnath, H. O. (2005). Dorsal and ventral stream interaction: contributions from optic ataxia. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(4), 632-640. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cnl.salk.edu/%7Eterry/oxford-23/himmelbach.JoCN.05.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Borra, E., Belmalih, A., Calzavara, R., Gerbella, M., Murata, A., Rozzi, S., &amp;amp; Luppino, G. (2008). Cortical connections of the macaque anterior intraparietal (AIP) area. Cerebral Cortex, 18(5), 1094-1111.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Felleman, D. J., &amp;amp; Van Essen, D. C. (1991). Distributed hierarchical processing in the primate cerebral cortex. Cerebral cortex, 1(1), 1-47.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mahon, B. Z., Milleville, S. C., Negri, G. A., Rumiati, R. I., Caramazza, A., &amp;amp; Martin, A. (2007). Action-related properties shape object representations in the ventral stream. Neuron, 55(3), 507-520. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/%7Ecaram/PDFs/2007_Mahon_Caramazza.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Milner, A. D., &amp;amp; Goodale, M. A. (2008). Two visual systems re-viewed. Neuropsychologia, 46(3), 774-785. &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.gc.cuny.edu/cogsci/private/Milner-Goodale-2-systems-re-viewed.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lehky, S. R., &amp;amp; Sereno, A. B. (2007). Comparison of shape encoding in primate dorsal and ventral visual pathways. Journal of neurophysiology, 97(1), 307-319. &lt;a href=&quot;http://nba.uth.tmc.edu/homepage/sereno/Assets/pdf/28_Lehky_Sereno_2007.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-27T05:24:44.220" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3340" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3349" CreationDate="2013-03-28T04:21:43.517" Score="8" ViewCount="5111" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering what types of devices exist that can detect how close someone is to falling asleep. I have heard of several devices that may be able to do this, but I haven't been able to find very solid information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;EEG: I assume these could detect falling asleep quite effectively; though, I'd like to know if there are any other devices that would work as well.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;EKG/ECG: I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19964969&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; that claims you can use a Lorenz plot to detect correlation between heartrate and falling asleep.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;GSR: A lot of people say a GSR can be used, but I have yet to find any papers/data that describe the correlation between GSR and falling asleep&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pulse Oximeter: someone mentioned to me that these work as well, though I haven't been able to find much information&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2861" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-05-08T23:18:16.740" LastActivityDate="2013-05-08T23:18:16.740" Title="Devices that detect when someone is falling asleep" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;devices&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3343" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3340" CreationDate="2013-03-28T14:04:56.417" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've used the Zeo (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.myzeo.com/sleep/&quot;&gt;http://www.myzeo.com/sleep/&lt;/a&gt;). It seems to work pretty well. It tracks which stage of sleep you are using a very basic EEG. There are some details on how it operates here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://radar.oreilly.com/2009/10/how-the-zeo-sleep-device-works.html&quot;&gt;http://radar.oreilly.com/2009/10/how-the-zeo-sleep-device-works.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I said, I've used it in the past and from what I can tell, it seems to be pretty accurate, assuming you don't knock the sensor off while you're sleeping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2866" LastActivityDate="2013-03-28T14:04:56.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3344" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3332" CreationDate="2013-03-28T14:28:53.133" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I personally like Michelene Chi's taxonomy of instructional methods, which is related to your question although it's not specifically about learning styles. Chi distinguishes passive, active, constructive, and interactive learning activities. Passive means you're just receiving info from the instructor (or textbook, or whatever). Active means you're doing something in response to the info, e.g. highlighting. Constructive means you are MAKING something NEW in response to the info, e.g. you are writing an evaluation or commentary on what you read or heard. Interactive means you are talking with someone else about it, e.g. explaining it or asking questions about it. Each includes the previous one, i.e. constructive learning activities include active activities as part of them, interactive is a type of instructive, etc. Chi argues that the best learning occurs from interactive, followed by constructive, then active, and last passive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, to answer the original question, according to Chi it is generally true that you will learn best when you explain things to others - that should be true of everyone, not only people with a certain learning style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Chi (2009) Active-Constructive-Interactive: A Conceptual Framework for Differentiating Learning Activities. Trends in Cognitive Science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2614" LastActivityDate="2013-03-28T14:28:53.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3345" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3217" CreationDate="2013-03-28T16:47:59.863" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The conclusions drawn in Inoue &amp;amp; Matsuzawa's (2007) study, which seems to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://goo.gl/yUAMT&quot;&gt;available here&lt;/a&gt;, are suspect. First off, the sample sizes (6 chimp, 9 human subjects) are simply too small to draw good inferences about working memory, at least about human working memory, but as I imagine chimps are somewhat expensive subjects, c'est la vie.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, and more worryingly, the study design itself seems to have a real problem: Matsuzawa does not reveal how many hours of practice either group of subjects have had, but presumably, the humans have not had any practice, while it is explicitly noted that the chimps have had some. The mother-offspring pairs practiced the numerals task from offspring age 4, and then the block task from offspring age 5. Even if we ignore the sample size problems and take the reported results at face value, we are still left with a situation where the mother chimp Ai underperformed the humans, who in turn underperformed the offspring chimp Ayumu--also suggestive of a training effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This strikes me as a problem for Matsuzawa's claim, because we know that the ultimate limit of task-specific human memory span is very high compared to a task-general baseline. For instance, Ericsson, Chase and Faloon (1980) reported a case study of a subject who increased their memory span from 7 to 79 in 230 hours of practice, and one need look no further than the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.world-memory-statistics.com/National_Records_Memory_Competition.pdf&quot;&gt;world memory records&lt;/a&gt; to see that the lack of control for practice seriously undermines Matsuzawa's claim about this unexpected &quot;relationship&quot; between chimp and human WMC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more restrained interpretation of the evidence presented in the article would suggest that sufficiently well-trained chimps can outperform untrained humans on the particular task. Any conjecturing about &quot;evolutionary trade-offs&quot; on the basis of these findings seem unwarranted to me, but that would have been the case even if these results had been ironclad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. A., Chase, W. G., &amp;amp; Faloon, S. (1980). Acquisition of a memory skill. Science, 208(4448), 1181–1182. doi:10.1126/science.7375930&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inoue, S., &amp;amp; Matsuzawa, T. (2007). Working memory of numerals in chimpanzees. Current Biology, 17(23), R1004-R1005.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-03-29T04:13:28.717" LastActivityDate="2013-03-29T04:13:28.717" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3346" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1383" CreationDate="2013-03-28T18:12:32.897" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The paper claims that training on updating (based on the influential view of executive function proposed by Miyake et al., 2000) tasks, which require maintaining and manipulating information in WM in response to new input or feedback, transfers to other memory tasks such as letter-memory and n-back, and that this transfer is associated with changes in phasic dopamine activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hardy is therefore stretching the study conclusions quite far here. As Tyler Langan notes in his comment to the question, the effect of a neurotransmitter is enormously dependent on a number of factors beyond the type of transmitter, such as exactly &lt;em&gt;where&lt;/em&gt; it is released, and for &lt;em&gt;how long&lt;/em&gt; it is released, among others. In some sufficiently broad sense, it is probably true that &amp;quot;cognitive training leads to enhanced dopamine release,&amp;quot; but I don't necessarily think that is meaningful in any explanatory sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When interpreting fMRI studies, it is always important to consider very, very carefully the exact relationship between the evidence and the claim, &lt;em&gt;especially&lt;/em&gt; when venturing beyond the careful boundaries set down by the original authors. Consider, for instance, the carefully bounded conclusion reached by the original authors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our data are consistent with findings of displacement of ligand binding to D2 receptors during cognitive processing (5, 8) and indicate a link between previously observed increases of BOLD activity after WM training (1) and DA release.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Contrast with Hardy's more free-style take on the matter:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This result shows that cognitive training with exercises similar to those on Lumosity can change the way the brain works at a fundamental chemical level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's not technically incorrect, at least not as such, but it is disingenuous. In the particular sense his claim is &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;not incorrect,&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot; it is also &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;not incorrect&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot; to say that virtually any other activity performed over a long enough time-span (e.g. five weeks) &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;can change the way the brain works at a fundamental chemical level&lt;/em&gt;.&amp;quot; Changing at the chemical level is a part of how the brain works, and what the study by Backman et al. illustrates is a &lt;em&gt;specific way&lt;/em&gt; it changes under certain conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp;amp; Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.485.1953&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(link to pdf)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-10-25T14:39:05.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3347" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3217" CreationDate="2013-03-28T21:07:34.347" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer hinges on the definition of working memory.  If we look at synthetics (people with synesthesia who have impressive massive visual memory correlations to time, numbers, etc) definitely &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt;.  They are worse in mathematics and stimulation will trigger unrelated memories.  Synthetics with obsessive compulsive disorder that obsess about their personal memories are constantly cataloging everything they do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, the information-processing models by which we define intelligence hinge on the information storage capacities of working memory.  Sufferers of ADHD show a 10 point drop in IQ because they are unable to persist towards more abstract goals, like learning multiplication tables, and get distracted.  This is also what happens in older adults and women hitting menopause (Barkely, Adult ADHD).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="273" LastEditorUserId="273" LastEditDate="2015-06-23T22:15:14.853" LastActivityDate="2015-06-23T22:15:14.853" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3349" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3340" CreationDate="2013-03-29T04:37:07.593" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The gold standard of sleep studies is polysomnography- using multiple sensors together to score sleep stages. It's very expensive and requires a lab. A night in a sleep lab costs about 3000$, last time I checked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actigraphy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Actigraphy is a cheaper way of monitoring sleep by looking at the users motion&lt;/a&gt;. When 19 out of 20 minutes are scored as &quot;no activity&quot;, the first minute of the 20 minutes sequence is classified as sleep onset. such Actigraphy algorithms that detect sleep onset latency have to 87% accuracy compared with polysomnography, and at very low cost. Chances are your iPhone or android device can be used as an Actigraphy to detect sleep onset. I wrote one such app for android and 2 for iPhone. Zeo is similar, although it works also by detecting motion related artifacts due to sleep stages, maybe as much as real brain waves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-03-29T04:37:07.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3350" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-29T05:54:05.520" Score="9" ViewCount="298" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have conducted several studies that get participants to complete the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/&quot;&gt;IPIP&lt;/a&gt; personality test while role play going for a job. A common finding is that the average correlation (i.e., $\bar{r}$ between big 5 personality scales increases the more you ask people to fake. &#xA;For example, the rough pattern in the data is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Get participants to complete a personality test honesty ($\bar{r} = .25$)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Get participants to complete do a job applicant role-play ($\bar{r} = .40$)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Get participants to complete a job applicant role-play and explicitly tell then to fake it ($\bar{r} = .60$)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, increasing the amount of faking, increases the average intercorrelation.&#xA;I'm interested in what happens when participants &quot;fake bad&quot; (e.g., specifically try to present a negative impression such as depressed, disturbed, or socially undesirable).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What have previous studies found to be the effect of &quot;faking bad&quot; on the average scale intercorrelations of Big 5 personality?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have any researchers offered theoretical explanations for any observed effect of faking bad on such changes average scale intercorrelations?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T13:50:12.463" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T13:50:12.463" Title="How do the correlations between Big 5 personality change in studies examining &quot;faking bad&quot;?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;social-desirability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3351" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3358" CreationDate="2013-03-29T16:35:28.790" Score="13" ViewCount="1082" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/03/130326133339.htm&quot;&gt;following article&lt;/a&gt; by ScienceDaily reported on a paper in &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/early/2013/03/27/0956797612459659.full&quot;&gt;Psychological Science&lt;/a&gt; (Mrazek et al., 2013), claiming that mindfulness training led to improved working memory and GRE scores. These studies always pique my interest, but there is always some hole in it that makes me think &quot;Waait a minute!&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of the present study, my concern is that participants in the experimental condition were required to practice mindfulness in their daily lives, while those in the control nutrition condition were not required to alter their diet. The concern is whether the improvement came from practicing mindfulness, or from practicing &lt;strong&gt;something&lt;/strong&gt;, but this is not my area, and it could be that prior research has already accounted for that somehow. Usually I would leave it at that, but this seems well suited for my first CSci.SE question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My full question is thus: What is the state of the field regarding the effect of practicing meditation on cognition, over and above other forms of practice? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., &amp;amp; Schooler, J. W. (2013). Mindfulness Training Improves Working Memory Capacity and GRE Performance While Reducing Mind Wandering. Psychological Science. doi:10.1177/0956797612459659&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2013-03-29T17:40:28.503" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T09:27:39.717" Title="What is the effect of mindfulness practice on cognition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3352" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-29T17:11:00.653" Score="8" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I saw a fascinating segment on the PBS NewsHour which said that studies have shown that young children (ages 5 - 8 years of age) can be taught empathy by having a class where they observe and learn to care for an infant. The segment stated that this study showed the children would experience increased attention in class and a decreased likelihood that they would bully other children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the report did not mention the actual name of the study. I'd like to read it to get further information. What is the study which shows that babies can teach young children empathy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2013-03-29T17:11:00.653" Title="What is the study which shows that babies can teach young children empathy?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3353" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3352" CreationDate="2013-03-29T17:11:00.653" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/american-graduate/jan-june13/empathy_03-28.html&quot;&gt;the actual report on the PBS NewsHour&lt;/a&gt;. The program which teaches children empathy using infants is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rootsofempathy.org/&quot;&gt;Roots of Empathy&lt;/a&gt;. It's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roots_of_Empathy&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Roots of Empathy program effectiveness has been evaluated nine different times by independent reviewers. Overall, the results were positive. The results showed that students who participated in the demonstrated several qualities including an increase in social knowledge, a decrease in aggression, an increase in sharing/inclusive/helping behavior, and an increase in emotional perception. These effects appeared to be lasting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It does not, however, name these nine different reviews. It &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; name &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roots_of_Empathy#Publications&quot;&gt;three publications&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Roots of Empathy: Changing the World Child&lt;/em&gt; by Child Gordon, Mary. Toronto: Thomas Allen, 2005.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Family Literacy in Canada: Profile of Effective Practices&lt;/em&gt;, Edited by Adele Thomas. Chapter: &quot;Parenting and Family Literacy Centres of the Toronto District School Board&quot; by Mary Gordon, editions Soleil publishing inc., 1998.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Child Honoring: How to Turn This World Around&lt;/em&gt;, Edited by Raffi Cavoukian, Sharna Olfman. Chapter: &quot;The Power of Empathy&quot; by Mary Gordon, Homeland Press, 2006.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the Roots of Empathy website I was able to find &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rootsofempathy.org/documents/content/ROE_Report_Research_E_2009.pdf&quot;&gt;a PDF Report on Research&lt;/a&gt;, which states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Researchers at the University of British Columbia have taken a lead role in &#xA;  early evaluations of ROE, under the direction of Dr. Kimberly SchonertReichl. Starting in 2000, the team conducted several studies across &#xA;  different grades and populations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and it also mentions eight &quot;Research outcome evaluations to date&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;UBC 2000-2001 Primary Grade Evalution,1-3&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;HCMO 2001-2004 Randomized Controlled Trial &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;UBC 2001-2002 National Evaluation &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;UBC 2002-2003 Rural/Urban Evaluation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;UBC 2003-2004 Randomized Controlled Trial&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;UA 2006 Whole Schools Project &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;UA 2006 Grade One Project&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;UBC 2008 Fifth and Sixth Grade Evaluation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But does not provide actual links to the methods, data and results of those evaluations. I &lt;em&gt;was&lt;/em&gt; able to find one of them: searching Google for &quot;HCMO 2001-2004 Randomized Controlled Trial&quot; yielded &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.longwoods.com/articles/images/HQ_vol14_ChildHealth_Issue2_Santos.pdf&quot;&gt;Effectiveness of School-Based Violence Prevention for children and Youth&lt;/a&gt; (Robert G. Santos, Mariette J. Chartier, Jeanne C. Whalen, Dan Chateau, Leanne Boyd) which appars to be one of the studies I was seeking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would still welcome a complete list with links, but I expect I might not be able to get that, the articles might be behind paywalls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2013-03-29T17:11:00.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3354" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1792" CreationDate="2013-03-29T17:24:58.563" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably the most striking evidence of &quot;happiness homeostasis&quot; is a now classic study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://education.ucsb.edu/janeconoley/ed197/documents/brickman_lotterywinnersandaccidentvictims.pdf&quot;&gt;Brickman, Coates and Bulman (1978)&lt;/a&gt; which compared the self-reported happiness of lottery winners and accident victims with a control group. The following quote describes the part of the outcome you'd be interested in succinctly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lottery winners and controls were not significantly different in their ratings of how happy they were now, how happy they were before winning (or, for controls, how happy they were 6 months ago), and how happy they expected to be in a couple of years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Except for one, the lottery winners were between one and 18 months removed from their winnings, while the group of accident victims were one to 12 months removed from their accident. This seems to indicate that yes, happiness is broadly speaking a homeostatic process (but as with most homeostatic processes, it's likely complex).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's probably not the precision level you were looking for, but there's quite a literature--almost 1600 citations on Scholar for this paper alone. One other limitation of it is that it uses interviews instead of ecological momentary assessment, which a more modern paper would likely want to employ. That might be another term to keep in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Brickman, P., Coates, D., Janoff-Bulman, R. (1978). Lottery winners and accident victims: Is happiness relative?. Journal of personality and social psychology, 36(8), 917-927.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2013-03-29T17:24:58.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3355" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3372" CreationDate="2013-03-29T19:32:43.473" Score="7" ViewCount="649" Body="&lt;p&gt;Children's personalities come from  two sources: Parents' genes and the environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any research showing adults acquiring phobias as a result of being exposed to parents with the same phobia when they were a child?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For example if an adult is afraid of height, darkness or water, does this increase the probability of having parents with the same phobia?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2766" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-01T11:15:25.387" LastActivityDate="2013-04-01T11:15:25.387" Title="Do children follow parents' phobias genetically or by learning?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3356" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2009" CreationDate="2013-03-29T23:07:48.483" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, inhibiting sub-vocalization is likely to impair comprehension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the abstract from Slowiaczek &amp;amp; Clifton (1980):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Two experiments demonstrated that subvocalization is of value in reading for certain types of meaning. Blocking subvocalization by requiring subjects to count or say “cola-colacola …” aloud impaired their reading comprehension but generally not their listening comprehension. The effect of blocking subvocalization was found to be specific to tests that required integration of concepts within or across sentences, as contrasted with tests that required only memory of individual word concepts. Two hypotheses were offered: first, that subvocalization results in a more durable memory representation needed for integration of concepts; and second, that subvocalization enables a prosodic restructuring that makes information needed for sentence comprehension accessible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Reference&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Slowiaczek, M. L., &amp;amp; Clifton Jr, C. (1980). Subvocalization and reading for meaning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19(5), 573-582.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2013-03-29T23:07:48.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3357" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-30T02:17:20.220" Score="6" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in modelling the relationship between practice and performance both in laboratory tasks and field settings. I was interested in what existing research has examined how the performance of telephone call centre operators changes over time. I imagine call centre management systems would provide a very rich set of performance data on individual employees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, what do empirical studies have to say about the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the relationship between practice and call centre performance?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent have studies been effective in controlling for task factors (e.g., whether it is a quiet or a busy shift; variation in task difficulty assigned to particular workers, etc) when modelling individual employee performance?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent does performance change reflect constant improvement as a result of learning versus fluctuations due to changing motivation, effort, etc.?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-07-06T08:19:45.667" LastActivityDate="2016-07-06T08:19:45.667" Title="What is the relationship between practice and performance of telephone call centre workers?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3358" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3351" CreationDate="2013-03-30T03:04:26.193" Score="11" Body="&lt;h3&gt;General Review of Mindfulness Meditation on Cognitive Performance&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a review article Chiesa et al (2011) which would provide a good starting point. They review 23 studies looking at the effect of mindfulness meditation on performance on objective cognitive tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Twenty&#xA;  three studies providing measures of attention, memory, executive&#xA;  functions and further miscellaneous measures of cognition were&#xA;  included. Fifteen were controlled or randomized controlled studies and&#xA;  8 were case–control studies. Overall, reviewed studies suggested that&#xA;  early phases of mindfulness training, which are more concerned with&#xA;  the development of focused attention, could be associated with&#xA;  signiﬁcant improvements in selective and executive attention whereas&#xA;  the following phases, which are characterized by an open monitoring of&#xA;  internal and external stimuli, could be mainly associated with&#xA;  improved unfocused sustained attention abilities. Additionally, MMPs&#xA;  could enhance working memory capacity and some executive functions.&#xA;  However, many of the included studies show methodological limitations&#xA;  and negative results have been reported as well, plausibly reﬂecting&#xA;  differences in study design, study duration and patients' populations.&#xA;  Accordingly, &lt;strong&gt;even though ﬁndings here reviewed provided preliminary&#xA;  evidence suggesting that MMPs could enhance cognitive functions,&#xA;  available evidence should be considered with caution and further high&#xA;  quality studies investigating more standardized mindfulness meditation&#xA;  programs are needed&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general I take a very sceptical perspective on the potential capacity of mindfulness meditation to improve cognitive performance. A lot of research shows that IQ is difficult to manipulate, and that much of what we learn is domain specific and is developed by practicing or learning about that particular domain. That said, I would be somewhat more open to the idea that mindfulness meditation might improve capacity for attention or motivation control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Review of Mrazek et al&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study used several measures of cognitive performance. Notably verbal GRE and working memory were both used. Significantly greater improvements (pre versus post) were found in the mindfulness condition relative to the control nutrition condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am generally sceptical that mindfulness meditation could lead to a lasting improvement of something as grand as a verbal ability factor. While it is possible that the program was effective, I would expect there is an alternative explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first issue is the small sample size (albeit the pre-post element of the design is good). There were only 48 participants. There has been ample discussion of issues with small sample experimental studies like this. It is easier for small sample studie to be conducted, and therefore they are more likely to be published when effective. Type 1 error is an explanation. Likewise, without wanting to cast dispersions on any one study, broadly there is greater potential in small sample studies for little analysis decisions to dramatically increase the potential for a Type I error rate to arise (see for example the discussion of the effect of flexibility in data analysis by Simmons et al 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, even in the absence of any flexible analytic strategies, there still is the publication bias towards statistically significant and interesting findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness participants appear to have improved verbal GRE accuracy from around 43% to around 53%. This is probably close to a one standard deviation improvement in verbal ability. Even if mindfulness meditation was effective, it seems a little implausible to expect such a large increase given how presumably an equivalent increase might take three or four years of education to achieve with traditional means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if the finding was replicable, an alternative interpretation would be that the effect was due to some form of effort related factors that varied based on condition (e.g., some form of placebo - effort interaction).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Putting the small sample to one side, this appears to be a well-designed study. That said, based on my prior understanding of mechanisms of cognitive change and the many alternative interpretations mentioned above for the findings, I am not persuaded that mindfulness meditation is effective in changing verbal ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chiesa, A., Calati, R., &amp;amp; Serretti, A. (2011). Does mindfulness training improve cognitive abilities? A systematic review of neuropsychological findings. Clinical psychology review, 31(3), 449-464. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psy.fgu.edu.tw/web/wlchou/perceptual_psychology/class_pdf/Advanced%20Perceptual/2011/2011week15_HaoChen_paper.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., &amp;amp; Schooler, J. W. (2013). Mindfulness Training Improves Working Memory Capacity and GRE Performance While Reducing Mind Wandering. Psychological Science. doi:10.1177/0956797612459659&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., &amp;amp; Simonsohn, U. (2011). False-Positive Psychology Undisclosed Flexibility in Data Collection and Analysis Allows Presenting Anything as Significant. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1359-1366.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-03-30T03:04:26.193" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3359" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3328" CreationDate="2013-03-30T10:04:06.677" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not exactly my area, but I suspect it simply may not be anyone's area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not clear from the research literature that speaking rhythmically does help get into a trance, mostly because it is not currently clear that &amp;quot;trance&amp;quot; is distinct from other forms of dissociation (though dissociation is often confusingly described as &amp;quot;trance-like&amp;quot; or variations thereof). The closest recent paper I could find (Becker-Blease, 2004), simply reports on subjectively reported associations between certain kinds of music and the experience of a &amp;quot;trance&amp;quot; state, but this does not answer the questions of why or whether speaking rhythmically induces dissociative states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A non-paywalled review of dissociation and dissociative states in a clinical context can be found in a Review of Psychiatry chapter by &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.nl/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=Q42BA_s45_8C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA145&amp;amp;dq=verbal%20induced%20dissociate&amp;amp;ots=-M4LeV7P2n&amp;amp;sig=nK7XU4aaxpLirPOkLTk8Sdy_cLk&amp;amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Putnam, 1991&lt;/a&gt;. Putnam employs the following definition of dissociation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dissociation is a process that produces a discernible alteration in a person's thoughts, feelings or actions so that for a period of time certain information is not associated or integrated with other information as it normally or logically would be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, while subsequent literature in the same line of research has tentatively described a difference between clinical and nonclinical dissociative experiences (Waller, Putnam and Carlson, 1996), this was only descriptive, and did not attempt to investigate ways of inducing dissociative states. The focus appears to have remained on clinical dissociation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, the literature and evidence currently does not seem to distinguish between the two possibilities that nonclinical dissociation either can or cannot be induced by rhythmic speech, and there does not seem to be any meaningful consensus or even particularly influential views on the cognitive processes underlying nonclinical dissociation. It simply does not seem to be an active area of psychological research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Becker-Blease, K. A. (2004). Dissociative states through new age and electronic trance music. Journal of trauma &amp;amp; dissociation, 5(2), 89-100.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Putnam, F. W. (1991). Dissociative phenomena. Review of psychiatry, 10, 145-160.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Waller, N., Putnam, F. W., &amp;amp; Carlson, E. B. (1996). Types of dissociation and dissociative types: A taxometric analysis of dissociative experiences. Psychological Methods, 1(3), 300.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-30T10:04:06.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3360" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3270" CreationDate="2013-03-30T10:40:55.553" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;cardinal diagnostic trait&lt;/em&gt; of &quot;multiple personalities,&quot; or dissociative identity disorder (DID), is dissociative states. Following &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.nl/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=Q42BA_s45_8C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA145&amp;amp;dq=verbal%20induced%20dissociate&amp;amp;ots=-M4LeV7P2n&amp;amp;sig=nK7XU4aaxpLirPOkLTk8Sdy_cLk&amp;amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;Putnam (1991)&lt;/a&gt;, dissociation can be defined as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dissociation is a process that produces a discernible alteration in a person's thoughts, feelings or actions so that for a period of time certain information is not associated or integrated with other information as it normally or logically would be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At first glance, executives and DID patients do both engage in multiple roles, to some extent. However, executives' coordinated, strategic utilization of multiple roles strongly imply that their roles exist in an integrated, interdependent form, rather than the disorganized form that characterizes DID patients. This means we have every reason to think the executives are not dissociated, and that the relationship is therefore likely spurious (something which seems plausible at a glance, but which is essentially a coincidence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2013-03-30T10:40:55.553" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3361" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3362" CreationDate="2013-03-30T22:03:47.117" Score="5" ViewCount="6553" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since reading is done in the left hemisphere of the brain, does reading text in the left visual field train the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_callosum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/a&gt;? For instance, I am interested in knowing whether training may lead to an increased size of the corpus callosum (e.g. more fibers), and whether this translates into some cognitive benefit (e.g. faster response times or comprehension of text in the left visual field).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think so because I recently saw a document where it was reported that a guy who had his corpus callosum damaged by a bolt couldn't read words on the left anymore. The reason for that is/was that words in the left visual field go to the right hemisphere of the brain. To be read the information is then transported via the corpus callosum to the left hemisphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-16T02:55:53.970" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T03:17:11.900" Title="Training for the corpus callosum?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3362" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3361" CreationDate="2013-03-31T00:01:53.810" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's been known that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8524453&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Increased Corpus Callosum size was found in musicians who began music training before age 7&lt;/a&gt; and that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/30/9/3297.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Training working memory leads to growth in Corpus Callosum&lt;/a&gt;.  As for how to train working memory, that's a diverse subject.  There have been a lot of experiments involving &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15689731&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Training working memory for ADHD patients&lt;/a&gt;, however a meta-analysis has revealed that most of the training from these ADHD-centered programs &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/dev-49-2-270.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;only leads to short-term gains, not long-term or generalisable gains&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To speculate some, I think taking on new tasks and challenging yourself repeatedly in a wide context (as opposed to isolated tasks &quot;designed&quot; for working memory) is your best bet.  Learn a new instrument, learn to program in a new language, learn new regions (spatial mapping is associated at least with hippocampal cell growth &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23430962&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;as long as you use spatial strategies, not procedural ones&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-04-16T03:17:11.900" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T03:17:11.900" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3364" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1131" CreationDate="2013-03-31T08:23:24.660" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;For applied purposes, gamification can be captured within a self-determination theoretical framework. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/a&gt; (SDT) is an influential theory of motivation which grew out of research on intrinsic/extrinsic rewards in the 1970's, and which has been applied to virtually every learning setting. The main proponents of SDT include Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, who in and of themselves have a lot of publications you may want to sift through.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SDT holds that people become motivated to engage in work based on three properties: autonomy, competence and relatedness. Autonomy refers to a desire to experience feelings of individual freedom in how and when to perform the task; Competence refers to a desire to experience feelings of control and mastery from performing a task; Relatedness refers to a desire to experience feelings of connection to others from performing the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, SDT also makes a distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Ryan and Deci, 2000). In more complex settings, this distinction becomes extremely important. However, for the purpose of encouraging participation in &amp;quot;mundane, required workplace training,&amp;quot; it is likely not necessary to consider intrinsic motivation. An analysis of the degree to which any external rewards employed in implemented gamification techniques may reduce intrinsic motivation to engage in mundane workplace training seems to me like shooting birds with cannonballs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Evaluating Gamification&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Following &lt;a href=&quot;http://dl.acm.org.proxy-ub.rug.nl/citation.cfm?id=2379653&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aparacio et al. (2000)&lt;/a&gt;, gamification techniques can be evaluated in terms of their motivational autonomy, competence and relatedness properties. A brief summary of their recommendations for evaluating gamification techniques follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Identify the main objective.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Identify one or more underlying objectives that are interesting to people.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Select game mechanics that match the objectives and support autonomy, competence and relation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Analysis of the effectiveness gamification based on fun, quality indicators, satisfaction, and service quality.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aparicio, A. F., Vela, F. L. G., Sánchez, J. L. G., &amp;amp; Montes, J. L. I. (2012, October). Analysis and application of gamification. In Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Interacción Persona-Ordenador (p. 17). ACM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ryan, R. M., &amp;amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 54-67.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T08:23:24.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3365" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3301" CreationDate="2013-03-31T08:52:54.377" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Annoyingly, it depends what area of the research literature you happen to find yourself in. In the perception literature, the distinction lies between &lt;strong&gt;subliminal and supraliminal&lt;/strong&gt;. In the memory and learning literature, the distinction lies between &lt;strong&gt;implicit and explicit&lt;/strong&gt;. In dual-process decision-making theories, the distinction lies between &lt;strong&gt;automatic and controlled&lt;/strong&gt;. The former terms broadly refer to &quot;unconscious processing&quot; while the latter terms refer to &quot;conscious processing,&quot; but I wouldn't say unconscious/conscious is a well-defined distinction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some general cross-overlap, but of these three distinctions and areas, the distinction that sees the most use in the other two areas would have to be explicit/implicit. They differ mostly in what stage of the process in the mind the researcher is interested in: perception, memory or thought. There is, to my knowledge, unfortunately no term which broadly captures all unconscious processing from input to output AND maps to the literature. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want the term to map to the literature, I think you'll have to commit to one or another. If it's for a lay audience, &quot;implicit X&quot; is fine, where X is whatever you think best fits the intended meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2013-03-31T21:35:02.487" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T21:35:02.487" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3366" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1895" CreationDate="2013-03-31T10:11:01.803" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The literature generally provides strong support for the use of &lt;strong&gt;self-testing&lt;/strong&gt; in cases like this, particularly via the use of flash cards (Karpicke and Roediger, 2008). The efficacy of self-testing for facilitating learning of arbitrary or complex sets of items has been suggested to be driven largely by the combination of two effects: the &lt;strong&gt;generation effect&lt;/strong&gt; (Slamecka and Graf, 1978) captures the tendency for active retrieval of memory (e.g. fill-in-the-blank) information to increase the probability of successful future recall, as well as the &lt;strong&gt;spacing effect&lt;/strong&gt; (Donovan and Radosevich, 1999), which captures the tendency for learning at a moderate intensity over time to outperform learning all at once.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Donovan, J. J., &amp;amp; Radosevich, D. J. (1999). A meta-analytic review of the distribution of practice effect: Now you see it, now you don't. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 795-805.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Karpicke, J. D., &amp;amp; Roediger, H. L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning. Science, 319(5865), 966–968. doi:10.1126/science.1152408&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Slamecka, N. J., &amp;amp; Graf, P. (1978). The generation effect: Delineation of a phenomenon. Journal of experimental Psychology: Human learning and Memory, 4(6), 592-604.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T10:11:01.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3367" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3236" CreationDate="2013-03-31T11:19:09.577" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Tom Boardman's suggestion in the question comments about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_instrument&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Law of the Instrument&lt;/a&gt; (&amp;quot;if all you've got is a hammer, everything looks like a nail&amp;quot;) seems to capture an important aspect of this, especially with respect to illustrating that it's not necessarily done out of malice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The simplest theoretical explanation would cast this in terms of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Attention#Goal-driven.2C_or_endogenous.2C_orienting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;top-down&lt;/a&gt; processing and attention&lt;/strong&gt; (Ward, 2008), combined with the &lt;strong&gt;availability heuristic&lt;/strong&gt; (Schwarz et al., 1991). These two factors lead to a situation where whatever a student is knowledgeable about is more likely to come to mind in a discussion, and then whatever is on the student's mind is incorporated into the discussion. When the student encounters something that doesn't fit into what they know well, they might inadvertently change the subject to something that does, simply because that's what comes to mind and thus ends up being what shapes their thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lawrence M. Ward (2008) Attention. Scholarpedia, 3(10):1538.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwarz, N., Bless, H., Strack, F., Klumpp, G., Rittenauer-Schatka, H., &amp;amp; Simons, A. (1991). Ease of retrieval as information: Another look at the availability heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 61(2), 195-202.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T11:19:09.577" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3368" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="886" CreationDate="2013-03-31T14:55:55.770" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The distinction between maximum and typical performance was originally established by Sackett et al. (1988), and since then, how to predict either and their relation to one another seems to have been a very active area of research. In fact, there is a prohibitively large literature on the matter for a full review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fortunately, your questions were recently addressed comprehensively, along with other inquiries about the relationship between typical and maximum performance, in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/hhup20/20/3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;December 2007 issue of Human Performance&lt;/a&gt;. To start, one paper by Barnes and Morgeson (2007) which provides support for Ackerman and Beier's claim, in its descriptive sense, that typical performance is that which is of interest to employers, which found that compensation was predicted by typical performance and intra-individual performance variability, but not by maximum performance. I suspect the claim was made in a prescriptive sense, though, so let's continue and see where the evidence takes us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the same issue, Marcus et al. (2007) reported support for the long-standing claims that measures of cognitive ability, such as g, serve as predictors of maximum performance, whereas measures of personality serve as predictors of typical performance. Tables provided in this paper also suggest, to me, that a meaningful correlation between typical and maximum performance may be tricky or impossible to elicit, as does another paper in the same issue of the journal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper, by Mangos et al. (2007), suggests that job performance in an ecologically valid setting tends to be characterized by a mixture of need for typical and maximum performance, which I think makes life somewhat difficult for Ackerman and Beier's claim about what IO psychologists and managers are interested in, in the prescriptive sense, with respect to performance. &lt;strong&gt;Methodologically&lt;/strong&gt;, it is not clear how we ought to dissociate the two, and &lt;strong&gt;theoretically&lt;/strong&gt;, it is not clear why we would want to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, based on this special issue on the matter, it seems the simplest answer to your question about ability tests and maximum performance is that &lt;strong&gt;ability test scores seem to account for a large amount of the observed variance&lt;/strong&gt;. With respect to your question about the correlation between maximum and typical performance, it unfortunately appears the answer to your question is &lt;strong&gt;complex and not readily summarized&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barnes, C. M., &amp;amp; Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Typical performance, maximal performance, and performance variability: Expanding our understanding of how organizations value performance. Human Performance, 20(3), 259-274.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mangos, P. M., Steele-Johnson, D., LaHuis, D., &amp;amp; White III, E. D. (2007). A multiple-task measurement framework for assessing maximum-typical performance. Human Performance, 20(3), 241-258.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marcus, B., Goffin, R. D., Johnston, N. G., &amp;amp; Rothstein, M. G. (2007). Personality and cognitive ability as predictors of typical and maximum managerial performance. Human Performance, 20(3), 275-285.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sackett, P. R., Zedeck, S., &amp;amp; Fogli, L. (1988). Relations between measures of typical and maximum job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73(3), 482.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T14:55:55.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3369" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="804" CreationDate="2013-03-31T18:00:08.087" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Game Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; has principles to contribute, such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nash_equilibrium&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nash Equilibrium&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A set of strategies is a Nash equilibrium if each represents a best response to the other strategies. So, if all the players are playing the strategies in a Nash equilibrium, they have no unilateral incentive to deviate, since their strategy is the best they can do given what others are doing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Change the incentives in a community, and it can be expected to migrate from one Nash Equilibrium to another.  This would attempt to account for the knock-on or ripple effects, e.g. late pick-up fee makes parents less respectful of the teachers who have to stay late, and resentful teachers make students more cynical, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2827" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T18:00:08.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3370" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-03-31T19:32:44.530" Score="-1" ViewCount="219" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it correct that a subjective question is not a psychological question? I.e. for a question to be psychological, must it be an objective question? E.g. a question about an objective probability instead of just what you like or don't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2846" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-30T06:08:19.753" LastActivityDate="2014-04-30T06:08:19.753" Title="Should questions in psychology always be objective questions?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="11" ClosedDate="2013-04-03T08:30:51.387" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3371" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3370" CreationDate="2013-03-31T19:56:41.347" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many granulations of the objective-subjective distinction. The most objective would be the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism&quot;&gt;behaviorism&lt;/a&gt; which says it is meaningless to reason about anything except how environmental stimulus leads directly to observed behavior. This camp was popular in psychology during the time of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner&quot;&gt;B.F. Skinner&lt;/a&gt;, but now is seldom followed by people outside of biology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In modern treatments of cognitive psychology, the scientists attributes internal private states to the people they study. These states are subjective, but are assumed to be (to some extent) analogous across individuals. The scientist then collects statistics about these internal states from many different individuals, this is one of the reasons why some view psychology as a 'statistical science'. Conducting a survey of people's subjective states is perfectly admissible methodology in this view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subjective experience is taken most seriously in clinical psychology. When working in this field, it is very important for the scientist (or doctor) to be very familiar with the fact that the patient's subjective experience of the world around them could not be very dissociation from what we typically view as objective reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastActivityDate="2013-03-31T19:56:41.347" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3372" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3355" CreationDate="2013-04-01T00:59:31.977" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, phobias appear to be partly hereditary. This encompasses both genetic and environmental factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kendler et al. (1999) review some work in this area:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We have previously reported, from a population-based sample of female twins, that the liability&#xA;  to agoraphobia, social phobia and animal&#xA;  phobia was modestly infuenced by genetic&#xA;  factors with heritabilities estimated between 30&#xA;  and 40% (Kendler et al. 1992a). For situational&#xA;  and blood-injury phobia, by contrast, twin&#xA;  resemblance appeared to be due to familial&#xA;  environmental risk factors, which were responsible for ~30% of the variance in liability&#xA;  (Kendler et al. 1992a; Neale et al. 1994b).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A shortcoming of these studies is that they rely on single lifetime assessments, which may be unreliable. Kendler et al. (1999) tries to rectify this by following up with their original sample 8 years later. They conclude:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Short-term reliability of the five phobias was modest (mean $\varkappa$=0.46), but higher than long-&#xA;  term stability (mean $\varkappa$=0.30). Unreliability occurred both for subject recall of unreasonable fears&#xA;  and for interviewer assessment of which fears constituted phobias. Examining fears and phobias&#xA;  together, in a multiple threshold model, results suggested that twin resemblance was due solely to&#xA;  genetic factors, with estimated total heritabilities, corrected for unreliability, of: any 43%,&#xA;  agoraphobia 67%, animal 47%, blood-injury 59%, situational 46% and social 51%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They go on to compare their theory with other theories of phobia acquisition, such as classical conditioning and social learning theory. They state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By contrast, our results are supportive of an&#xA;  `inherited phobia-proneness' model (Seligman,&#xA;  1971; Gray, 1982)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This variance explained does, of course, leave considerable room for learned phobias. So, one should not overemphasize the hereditable components of fears and phobias (Delprato, 1980).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Delprato, D. J. (1980). Hereditary determinants of fears and phobias: A critical review. Behavior Therapy, 11(1), 79-103.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gray, J. A. (1982). The Neuropsychology of Anxiety. Oxford&#xA;  University Press: New York.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kendler, K. S., Karkowski, L. M., &amp;amp; Prescott, C. A. (1999). Fears and phobias: reliability and heritability. Psychological medicine, 29(3), 539-553. &lt;a href=&quot;http://bernard.pitzer.edu/~hfairchi/courses/Spring%202009/psych10/FearsAndPhobias%28Kendler%20et%20al%201999%29.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kendler, K. S., Neale, M. C., Kessler, R. C., Heath, A. C., &amp;amp; Eaves, L. J. (1992). The genetic epidemiology of phobias in women: the interrelationship of agoraphobia, social phobia, situational phobia, and simple phobia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49(4), 273.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neale, M. C., Walters, E. E., Eaves, L. J., Kessler, R. C., Heath, A. C., &amp;amp; Kendler, K. S. (1994). Genetics of blood‐injury fears and phobias: A population‐based twin study. American journal of medical genetics, 54(4), 326-334. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vipbg.vcu.edu/vipbg/Articles/amjmed-genetics-1994.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Seligman, M. E. P. (1971). Phobias and preparedness. Behavior&#xA;  Therapy 2, 307-320&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2013-04-01T00:59:31.977" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3373" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="178" CreationDate="2013-04-01T02:11:20.587" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Primacy is one of several memory phenomenon often associated with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_position_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;serial recall&lt;/a&gt;--the other most common being the recency effect. There have been several computational models which attempt to establish an integrated account of serial recall (list memory). I will briefly cover to two such models, one ACT-R and one connectionist model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;ACT-R&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACT-R&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ACT-R&lt;/a&gt; is a hybrid (symbolic and sub-symbolic) cognitive architecture used to model a variety of tasks. It contains a detailed memory module, which is the oldest and most well-validated component in ACT-R (though this distinction does not necessarily apply to its explanation of primacy specifically).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson et al. (1998) explain the primacy effect as an interaction of two mechanisms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The tendency for the &lt;strong&gt;earlier items to receive greater rehearsal&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  is one factor that is producing the primacy. The other factor is the &lt;strong&gt;lower positional confusions&lt;/strong&gt; among items at the beginning of the list.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first mechanism, greater rehearsal, refers to the fact that items that are encountered sooner have more time to be rehearsed in working memory. Rehearsal is considered an important component of many influential working memory models, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley%27s_model_of_working_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Baddeley's model of working memory&lt;/a&gt;. Rehearsal in the ACT-R model is accomplished through &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;production rules&lt;/a&gt;. Sub-symbolically, rehearsing an item leads to an increase in the base-level activation of a chunk according to the base-level activation equation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;$\beta=ln(\sum_{j=1}^{n}t_j^{-d})$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this equation, a chunk's activation is determined by the &lt;em&gt;frequeny&lt;/em&gt; ($n$) with which a chunk is encountered and the recency of each occurence ($t_j$). Rehearsing an item increases $n$, and thus increases its activation level. Chunks are retrieved using the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softmax_activation_function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;softmax activation function&lt;/a&gt;, and neural noise may lead to incorrect retrievals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors justify the use of rehearsal mechanisms, arguing that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In experiments where an effort is made to eliminate rehearsal the primacy effect goes away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second mechanism, positional confusion, relies on the fact that each item in the list is stored in a memory trace along with its neighbors. Thus, a memory &quot;chunk&quot; stores not only the item itself, but also the numbers that come before and after it in the list. The partial-matching mechanism in ACT-R leads to memory retrievals in which a neighbor is mistakenly retrieved in place of the item itself. The first and last items of the list have only one neighbor, while items in the middle of the list have two neighbors. Thus, there is an increased chance that numbers in the middle of the list will be transposed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Neural Networks&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Botvinick &amp;amp; Plaut (2006) used a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrent_neural_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;recurrent neural network&lt;/a&gt; to model list memory. Recurrent neural networks are a common way to model temporal order of events in neural networks. They are also an increasingly popular explanation of how working memory might be implemented in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like the ACT-R model, Botvinick &amp;amp; Plaut note the tendency to transpose items during recall:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Note that elements at both the beginning and the end of a list have&#xA;  fewer positional near neighbors than items toward the middle. This&#xA;  makes it relatively unlikely that the positions of elements near the&#xA;  list boundaries will be mistaken for other, similarly represented&#xA;  positions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their model also leverages a second mechanism to model the primacy effect, but it is not &lt;em&gt;explicit&lt;/em&gt; rehearsal. Instead, it relies on the dynamics of recurrent neural networks to encode earlier items with greater reliability:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Consider that when the first element in a list is&#xA;  encoded, there are no other elements yet represented in the hidden&#xA;  layer. When the second item is encoded, there is only one other&#xA;  element represented there. With each successive element encoded,&#xA;  the number of elements already in memory continues to increase.&#xA;  This provides a partial explanation for the primacy effect. As noted&#xA;  a moment ago, the more items held in memory at any given time,&#xA;  the more difficult the overall representation becomes to decode.&#xA;  This means that items at early list positions have an advantage,&#xA;  because during the overall period from encoding to recall they&#xA;  share the hidden layer with relatively few other elements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also worth reading Botvinick &amp;amp; Plaut (2006) for their comparison of their own model to several others in the literature, including an earlier version of Anderson's. Briefly, they state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is difficult to compare this ACT-R&#xA;  account with the model we have presented [...]&#xA;  because several critical aspects of the account (such as the functioning of the position pointer and the basis for similarity between&#xA;  position representations) are directly stipulated, without an explicit&#xA;  account of the underlying mechanisms or representational structure. [...]&#xA;  This being said,&#xA;  the Anderson and Matessa model, unlike the context-based models&#xA;  we have cited, can also be viewed as portraying item and position&#xA;  information as being stored together, as part of a single, structured&#xA;  representation. If viewed from this perspective, the theory has a bit&#xA;  more in common with the account we have put forward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Summary&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In sum, the two models discussed share some similarities. Both models account for primacy partially through positional confusion during retrieval. The ACT-R relies on explicit rehearsal, whereas the neural network model does not. Though it ignores higher-level strategies, the neural network model can be seen as a lower-level explanation of the primacy effect because it provides a possible explanation of how the effect may arise through the interaction of real neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Anderson, J. R., Bothell, D., Lebiere, C., &amp;amp; Matessa, M. (1998). An integrated theory of list memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 38(4), 341-380. &lt;a href=&quot;https://act.psy.cmu.edu/papers/116/jra_etal_1998_a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Botvinick, M. M., &amp;amp; Plaut, D. C. (2006). Short-term memory for serial order: a recurrent neural network model. Psychological review, 113(2), 201. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnbc.cmu.edu/~plaut/papers/pdf/BotvinickPlaut06PR.serialOrder.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2013-04-01T05:21:29.207" LastActivityDate="2013-04-01T05:21:29.207" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3375" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3370" CreationDate="2013-04-01T03:32:48.890" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question potentially raises philosophical questions, but for it to have meaning, there are several definitional issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;What is a psychological question?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably a psychological question is any question that concerns the domain of psychology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many criteria that could be used to evaluate whether it is a scientifically interesting question in psychology. Failure to be interesting, does not stop it from being psychological.&#xA;A few criteria might include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Generality:&lt;/strong&gt; Interesting psychological questions tend to have a generality of cover. Thus, they often apply to many situations and contexts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Importance:&lt;/strong&gt; Importance can be pure or applied. Important pure questions tend to interlink with many other aspects of psychology (e.g, fundamental importance of learning, cognition, etc.). Applied questions tend to be important if the answer is likely to help people live better, healthier, more productive lives (e.g., research on work, education, depression, etc.).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Clarity&lt;/strong&gt;: An interesting question will be clear and answerable. Thus, the meaning of the question should be clear or at least operationalised to be clear.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Gap:&lt;/strong&gt; More broadly, if you are doing research yourself, then you want their to be a gap in the literature (i.e., the answer to the question is not yet known). I discuss this a little more &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeromyanglim.blogspot.com.au/2009/12/how-to-write-introduction-section-in.html&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You used the example of asking someone about their favourite colour.&#xA;Thus, asking about how people choose their favourite colour or how stable is favourite colour over time or whether favourite colour is related to other psychologically relevant variables would be moderately interesting psychological questions (they are at least general, but perhaps not that important). Asking an individual person what is their favourite colour, is a question that concerns the psychology of one individual, but it lacks generality and is of almost know importance to the general public.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;What is a subjective question?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could mean that the &lt;strong&gt;topic of the question concerns evaluations&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, plenty of researchers study aesthetics, attitudes, values, which are in some sense subjective evaluations. Much research in psychology use measures that involve an element of subjectivity (e.g., personality measures, many self-report measures, qualitative ratings of performance, and so on). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could mean that the &lt;strong&gt;topic of the question is concerned with theoretical states that are not readily observable&lt;/strong&gt;. As @Artem has mentioned, the distinction between cognitive psychology and behaviourism readily captures this distinction, whereby cognitive psychology acknowledges both the existence and the value of theorising about internal cognitive states such as goals, cognitions, mental representations, information processing systems, etc. Much of psychology is concerned with such phenomena. Often several steps are required to move from the empirical phenomena to the theoretical concepts. Theories develop over time based on whether the theory is supported by the empirical evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In both the above cases, asking such subjective questions seems both productive, interesting and legitimate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way that questions can be subjective is that the &lt;strong&gt;meaning of the question is not clear and thus requires subjective interpretation&lt;/strong&gt;. In psychological science attempts are made to link into existing literatures and use accepted terms. Clarity of the meaning of the question is important. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;What is a subjective answer?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this may reflect what you are referring to. A subjective answer is presumably one that depends on the person answering the question. Much of the scientific method in psychology is designed to increase objectivity in the results obtained. E.g., using established measures of constructs, linking into existing terminology and theories, following good practice in study design, performing appropriate analytic techniques, drawing reasoned inferences in light of the data and the established literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lot to the art of psychological science. There are better methods and worse methods. There is certainly a degree of subjectivity in the scientific method, perhaps more so in psychology than in the hard sciences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are many critiques that can be made of answers to psychological questions. In general &lt;strong&gt;the scientific method attempts to provide answers that are more rigorous and part of that rigour is achieved through the removal of subjectivity&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-04-01T03:32:48.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3376" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8846" CreationDate="2013-04-01T13:37:01.940" Score="9" ViewCount="338" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've long been interested in dreaming and there's a peculiar phenomenon of the very start of the dreaming process. Different people experience it differently, but even for the same person there's anecdotal evidence of different experiences during dreaming onset.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the most dramatic examples is the &quot;wake induced lucid dreaming&quot; transition, where the subject experiences intense hallucinations. These could be sight, sound, feeling of presence, falling, buzzing, etc. As these hallucinations subside, they are replaced by dream imagery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other kinds of transitions as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What interests me is if these phenomena have been studied using modern neuroimaging techniques. &lt;strong&gt;Does science know what happens in the brain when the persons perception shifts from the real world to dreaming mentations?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-12-17T22:15:45.647" Title="What happens in the brain when conscious awareness is changed during dreaming onset?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3377" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-02T07:24:48.723" Score="5" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently watched an interesting video that was discussing conveying color to the blind through language. It implied that there may be a way to insert the sensation of color into a person's mind via a series of sounds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have looked for articles on this and haven't been able to find much. I was just curious:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it possible to induce a kind of auditory-to-visual synesthesia?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any articles on this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Link to video:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evQsOFQju08&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evQsOFQju08&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes I know :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1006" LastEditorDisplayName="user1006" LastEditDate="2013-04-03T01:07:10.613" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T09:16:04.717" Title="Inducing Auditory-to-Visual Synesthesia" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3378" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-03T22:47:29.267" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;lots of us use electronics as memory devices--making notes, reminders, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does more use of electronics relate to lower retention? In other words, does not using your memory make it worse? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2876" LastActivityDate="2013-04-03T22:47:29.267" Title="Does higher Electronic use relate to lower memory" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;devices&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-04-04T00:05:41.617" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3379" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-04T00:46:11.227" Score="24" ViewCount="16160" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://thedailyprincetonian.wordpress.com/2013/03/29/opinion-letter-to-the-editor-march-29-2013/&quot;&gt;recent letter by a Princeton alumni stated&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Men regularly marry women who are younger, less intelligent, less&#xA;  educated. It’s amazing how forgiving men can be about a woman’s lack&#xA;  of erudition, if she is exceptionally pretty. &lt;strong&gt;Smart women can’t&#xA;  (shouldn’t) marry men who aren’t at least their intellectual equal&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This letter has generated a lot of controversy. But I thought it would be interesting to clarify what the scientific literature says about a few of the implicit empirical claims made in the letter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My broad questions is: &lt;strong&gt;What is the relationship between intelligence of marriage partners and marriage satisfaction?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, given the dyadic nature of the phenomena, this question can be broken down in various ways:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the degree to which a husband is more intelligent than a wife correlated with marital satisfaction of the wife?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the effect of partner intelligence on  marriage satisfaction more about similarity to one's own intelligence or is it the case that the relationship between partner intelligence and marriage satisfaction is linear and positive regardless of one's own intelligence?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does any observed effect of partner intelligence on marriage satisfaction vary based on whether you are comparing husbands to wives or wives to husbands?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent are any effects of intelligence explained in terms of other correlated outcomes (e.g., income, socio-economic status, shared values, similar educational experience, etc.)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the theorised mechanisms behind any observed effects?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd be particularly interested in any review articles or large sample studies that have measured intelligence and marital satisfaction on both husbands and wives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-09-27T23:33:31.540" Title="Intelligence and marriage satisfaction" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3380" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="639" CreationDate="2013-04-04T07:54:13.337" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bad parenting is considered a risk factor for all kinds of disfunctional behavior. For example, childhood victimization has been found to cause a higher risk of&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://troublesofyouth.pbworks.com/f/badparenting.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;juvenile delinquency&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1380697/pdf/amjph00522-0105.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;prostitution&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/springer/vav/2002/00000017/00000006/art00001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;adult re-victimization&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0145213494900124&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;lower IQ and reading ability&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/?fa=main.doiLanding&amp;amp;doi=10.1037/0893-164X.20.4.394&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;drug use&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/10826089409047380&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;drug-related crime&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://paraphilias.com/publications/pdfs/01272-Green-Psychiatric%20imp.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;child molestation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are just random samples from the first page of a Google Scholar search for the term &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.de/scholar?q=bad%20parenting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;bad parenting&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. This is a well researched topic, and it appears to have been shown that victims of abusive or neglective parents run an increased risk of showing abusive and criminal behavior themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your specific question, yes, again it seems that adults that have been mistreated as children are at a higher risk to mistreat their own children. This is a consistent finding across many studies: &lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.bham.ac.uk/1299/1/Dixon_JCPPI_2005_pre_print.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;one example&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://jiv.sagepub.com/content/11/3/315.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;another example&lt;/a&gt;. Again, there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.de/scholar?q=intergenerational%20continuity%20abuse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;many more examples&lt;/a&gt;. The other risk factors, such as partner violence (i.e. adult re-victimization), teen pregnancy and substance abuse, are in turn facilitated by child victimization (see the list above).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that many studies are badly conceptualized and often do not carefully consider other influences such as personality traits and the responsibility of the child: not all children are born as the same blank slates, and a &quot;difficult&quot; (irascible, headstrong, energetic etc.) child will increase the likelihood that the parents use desperate attempts such as physical force to restrain it, and will as adult - and independent of being abused or not abused as a child - have a stronger tendency for anger, impatience and transgressing the borders of other people including his own children. &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/11022929&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;One article&lt;/a&gt; analyzing methodological problems finds that of all studies on intergenerational child physical abuse published between 1965 and 2000 only ten included a control group, and of these ten only two met several other methodological standards, and of these two &lt;strong&gt;one study provided evidence&lt;/strong&gt; for the intergenerational continuity of child physical abuse, &lt;strong&gt;while the other did not&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So it appears that this question has not been answered to full satisfaction by current research.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A great overview of the research on the effects of different parenting styles is given on pages 182-188 in Arnett, J. J. (2010). &lt;em&gt;Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood&lt;/em&gt; (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definition: Bad Parenting&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Laurence Steinberg &lt;a href=&quot;http://bigthink.com/videos/what-is-bad-parenting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;defines &quot;bad parenting&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So when I say bad parenting, I mean parenting that is &lt;strong&gt;excessively harsh&lt;/strong&gt;, parenting that is &lt;strong&gt;inconsistent&lt;/strong&gt;, or parenting that is &lt;strong&gt;excessively permissive&lt;/strong&gt;. And lots of times kids get all three of those things together. So their parents will swing from being really, really harsh and punitive to not even caring, and being what most of us would consider to be negligent. And so those three things, the harshness, the permissiveness and the inconsistency, all have been shown to contribute to antisocial behavior during adolescence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-10-20T11:40:31.900" LastActivityDate="2013-10-20T11:40:31.900" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3382" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3379" CreationDate="2013-04-04T12:00:57.480" Score="14" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Is husband and wife intelligence corelated?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By way of background, Mascie-Taylor (1989) report IQ correlations between husbands and wives in two british samples to be r=.40 and r =.37 respectively. I had a little difficulty discerning the sample size as it's not reported in the 1989 paper. But from another paper I got the sense that each sample might have been in the 100-200 range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dufoul et al (2000) measured a range of cognitive measures in 318 couples. The correlation in total cognitive score between husbands and wives was r=0.36.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In reviewing the literature Dufol et al writes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is a wide but relatively dated literature on concordance for&#xA;  cognitive abilities among couples, which was reviewed by Vanderberg&#xA;  and Jensen [in the 70s]. Studies have shown that&#xA;  spouses were more similar in terms of global intelligence scores than&#xA;  in terms of specific cognitive performances. Indeed, intra-couple&#xA;  correlations were of the order of 0.45 for the global intelligence&#xA;  scores, as compared with 0.10 to 0.20 for the specific cognitive&#xA;  performance scores (Jensen, 1978; Vandenberg, 1972)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, at a basic level it appears that there is a modest correlation between intelligence of husbands and wives. This is thus evidence of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assortative_mating&quot;&gt;assortative matching&lt;/a&gt;. The causes of such a correlation are much more complicated. First, there are the many correlates of intelligence which might be an alternative basis for selection (e.g., income, education, values, socio-economic background, etc.). Second, even if intelligence was a directly relevant feature to partner selection, spousal similarity could emerge from multiple mechanisms: (a) economic exchange whereby more (or less) of the trait is sought and those with more to offer are better able to secure more from the partner; (b) explicit valuing of similarity to self. In the case of intelligence, presumably arguments for both mechanisms (and possibly others) could be made to explain the real but modest correlations in spousal intelligence, correlations which would presumably be much lower once other correlates are controlled for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, this all suggests that intelligence may be relevant to marital satisfaction given that people presumably choose partners who they think will make them happy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Correlation between intelligence and marital satisfaction&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lewak et al (1985) report the results from 81 couples. They measured intelligence using the WAIS and marriage satisfaction using the &lt;a href=&quot;http://quantumchanges.com/couples_basic_quesionnaires/Locke-Wallace%20Marital%20Adjustment.pdf&quot;&gt;Locke-Walace Marital Adjustment Scale&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is my attempt to represent the relevant correlations taking full scale IQ and marriage satisfaction (MS).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;            Male IQ  Female IQ  Male MS  Female MS&#xA;Female IQ    0.35      &#xA;Male MS      0.06    0.14    &#xA;Female MS    0.05    0.13    &#xA;Male IQ &#xA; minus &#xA; Female IQ                       0.05    0.10&#xA;Quadratic of &#xA; Male minus &#xA; Female IQ                      -0.08   -0.03&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, none of the correlations between marital satisfaction and spouse IQ were statistically significant. There was a slight trend for females and males to have higher marital satisfaction if the female was more intelligent. All the correlations between discrepancies in intelligence (either signed difference operationalised as the degree to which the male was more intelligent than the female) or unsigned difference (operationalised as the squared difference in IQ between males and females) were close to zero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, on the face of it, this study suggests at least within already married couples, such variation in partner intelligence is somewhat unrelated to marital satisfaction, although interestingly there was a slight trend in the data suggesting that intelligence in females was related to both male and female marriage satisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, a few words of caution are in order. First, this is a small sample. I'd really like to see some larger sample studies. Second, it may be the case that factors influence marital choice, but then once choice has been made they may be less relevant to the ongoing satisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dufouil, C., &amp;amp; Alpérovitch, A. (2000). Couple similarities for cognitive functions and psychological health. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 53(6), 589-593.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jensen AR. Genetic and behavioral effects of nonrandom mating. In:&#xA;Osbourne RT, Noble CE, Wey N, editors. Human variation: Biopsychology of Age, Race and Sex. New York: Academic Press, 1978. pp.&#xA;51–105.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lewak, R. W., Wakefield Jr, J. A., &amp;amp; Briggs, P. F. (1985). Intelligence and personality in mate choice and marital satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 6(4), 471-477.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mascie-Taylor, C. G. N. (1989). Spouse similarity for IQ and personality and convergence. Behavior Genetics, 19(2), 223-227.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vandenberg SG. Assortative mating, or who marries whom? Behav&#xA;Gen 1972;2:127–57.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-05T00:16:45.147" LastActivityDate="2013-04-05T00:16:45.147" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3383" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3379" CreationDate="2013-04-04T19:06:11.480" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;(this was supposed to be a sub-comment in the answer supplied by Jeromy, but I somehow made it an answer. Keeping it here because @what supplied some further info)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@what: the answer to your question is in the table. Female IQ has a small (.1ish) correlation with both male and female-reported satisfaction. At N=81, this wouldn't be considered a significant correlation though. Also, it's possible that ignoring gender in both IQ and satisfaction (and thereby doubling the N) might yield a different result (possibly driving it to &quot;significance&quot;, but also possibly changing the nature of the relationship). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="51" LastEditorUserId="51" LastEditDate="2013-04-04T23:16:27.563" LastActivityDate="2013-04-04T23:16:27.563" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3384" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-05T04:44:23.170" Score="9" ViewCount="1038" Body="&lt;p&gt;When planning a psychological study, researchers are often asked to formulate an estimate of  expected effect sizes for important hypotheses in the study. This might be the expected group mean difference (e.g., Cohen's d), the correlation between two variables, the odds ratio, or any number of other effects of interest.&#xA;Such estimates can then link into power analysis and sample size calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, often formulating such an estimate is a difficult task. The exact study has not been performed before. Meta-analyses may only be partially related to the hypothesis of interest. Various modifications to the design might be theorised to change the effect size from previous studies. This leads to the question of how to systematically integrate such information to formulate an expected effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is a good strategy for formulating an expected effect size in a psychological study, particularly where the study has not been performed before?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any scientific articles that attempt to elucidate best practice in effect size estimation in a psychological research context?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note: A student recently asked me this question, thus I thought I'd post it here to draw on the expertise of others. I will post my answer below as well, but hopefully other people add answers also.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-04-15T01:29:25.260" Title="How to estimate an expected effect size for a planned psychology study?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3385" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3384" CreationDate="2013-04-05T05:40:27.830" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The purpose of reviewing the literature for effect sizes is to form an estimate of what effect size you might expect in your present study. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Existing meta-analysis:&lt;/strong&gt; The principles and techniques of meta-analysis provide a good starting point for generating a predicted effect size. &#xA;If a meta-analysis has already been conducted, then the estimated population mean and confidence intervals of effect sizes is a useful piece of information. &#xA;In some cases there will also be a &lt;strong&gt;moderator&lt;/strong&gt; analysis reported which tests whether the effect size varies as a function of the moderator (e.g., adults versus children; lab versus field, etc.). If your study matches one level of an influential moderator, then it may be worth weighting estimates more by the estimated effect size for that moderator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;No existing meta-analysis:&lt;/strong&gt; If no meta-analysis exists or if one exists but is out of date, then you may want to perform your own meta-analysis. There are several great &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.meta-analysis.com/pages/books.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;books on meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt;. I've personally found Borenstein et al (2011) to be a good introduction and Hunter and Schmidt (2004) to be useful  particularly if you are interested in correlations and various corrections. Here is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://omerad.msu.edu/ebm/Meta-analysis/Meta3.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link to an overview of meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;Conducting a rigorous meta-analysis for publication is a technical and resource intensive process. However, if all you want is a ball-park estimate of expected effect size for sample size and study design considerations (i.e., your not doing an explicit meta-analysis publication), then it may be more pragmatic to just do a quick informal meta-analysis.  In some cases there might only be one or a few studies which are similar to your study. In this case, the meta-analysis can be very simple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Generalisation:&lt;/strong&gt; Another issue that comes up is generalisation. Students sometimes say to me that there have been no other studies like the one being conducted. This may be true, but at some level of generality this is almost always false. If a study is about a particular training program in the work place, then a meta-analysis of training in general may be informative. If the intervention has only been used with teenagers and is now being applied to adults, the meta-analysis of teenagers would be relevant. Broadly, theory should be applied to assess the likely generality of any broader research to the present study. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Theory:&lt;/strong&gt; Theory is important in many respects. Theory may suggest that a particular modification to the design should increase or decrease the effect size relative to a previous studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Aggregating estimates:&lt;/strong&gt; In general it is is important to consider how different effect size estimates should be aggregated. The more similar a previous study is to the present study, the more weight should be given to any effect size estimate. In this case, similarity requires theoretical judgement about what are the important factors that might moderate the effect. Similarly any aggregation needs to be mindful of sample size considerations where larger sample sizes will increase the precision of the estimate in any given study. Thus, at the ultra-specific, the present study may be an exact replication of a previous study. At another level, there may be meta-analytic evidence from similar studies. At an even broader level Jacob Cohen reluctantly proposed various rough rules of thumb of what to expect for small, medium, and large effects in behavioural science studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Importance of uncertainty:&lt;/strong&gt; Another point is that you don't actually know the population effect size for your study. That's why you are doing the study. There will always be uncertainty about your effect size estimate. It can even be useful to quantify that uncertainty either using meta-analytic confidence intervals or something more ad hoc. &#xA;This is analogous to the concept of a subjective bayesian prior probability on a parameter of interest. See for example, this discussion of &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/1/eliciting-priors-from-experts&quot;&gt;eliciting priors from experts&lt;/a&gt;. Meta-analysis provides some methods for quantifying uncertainty in an effect size estimate, but this may not be entirely appropriate given that you are not trying to generalise to the variation in the whole world of effect sizes. Rather you are trying to generalise a prediction for a specific study, and you may be pooling many different pieces of information, some quantitative, and some qualitative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;By way of example&lt;/strong&gt;, I do research on personality faking. I am aware of a meta-analysis of the mean effect size of faking versus honest personality responses (e.g., perhaps around d = .6). However, I also know from previous research that the type of faking instructions makes a big difference to the expected effect size (e.g., if you tell people to fake you often get approximate d = 1.0 and if you just put people in a context with a motivation to fake you get approximate d = .3). Thus, If I were calculating expected effect size for any given study I would combine knowledge of the nature of my faking instructions with various meta-analytic estimates. I'd weight my own previous studies highly because they typically share more similar features (e.g., same personality test, similar participants, etc.) than the general literature. I'd also acknowledge the uncertainty in my estimate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P., &amp;amp; Rothstein, H. R. (2011). Introduction to meta-analysis. Wiley.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hunter, J. E., &amp;amp; Schmidt, F. L. (2004). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2013-04-05T05:45:54.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3386" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3384" CreationDate="2013-04-05T12:31:35.690" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you're trying to work out a standardized effect size in order to calculate power for your study then it doesn't matter whether any studies like yours have been done. It's important to find studies using the same dependent measure so that you have an estimate of variability but evidence of the size of prior effects is less important.  If you have the variance, and a bit of theory, then you can estimate the standardized effect size for the minimum effect that would be meaningful for your study.  Instead of asking how big an effect others have found, you should ask yourself how big an effect matters.  If it's smaller than the literature and you aim your design at the literature you'll tend to miss effects that would have been important to you.  When you think about it that's kind of a waste of all of the subjects you did run in your study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Estimating that effect size only requires a reasonable theory and sampling of the literature, and some research that can give you variability estimates for the effect&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an alternate, you could consider estimating the minimum LSD you want for the study in advance, and that can just be in the units of the dependent variable.  For example, reaction time effects in a particular test might only be meaningful over 7ms and you can make that your planned LSD.  Anything less isn't expected to be meaningful. Unlike your hypothesis test, you are allowed to then just keep testing as you go along until your data achieve this LSD.  It will not affect alpha or power.  Keep in mind, the only criteria you can use for adding subjects is the preplanned LSD, not whether you have a significant effect or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has a number of benefits but the most important one is that it insures that your study can say something whether you find a significant effect or not.  Having studies that can speak to both sides of an issue makes them much more valuable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I think the difficulty of a meta-analysis is exaggerated.  All research is hard and meta-analyses aren't really any more difficult.  Sometimes they're easier.  But more importantly, if you can't find one for the topic at hand then conducting one has great benefits.  It will instantly give you an important paper in the field, expert status, and greatly inform your future research.  You've got to read the papers anyway.  Make notes about the results and work out their effects as you do it.  Then do the meta-analysis after.  You just need to extract the effect size and N.  The hard part of meta is proper interpretation, not conducting it (in fact, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.metafor-project.org/doku.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;metafor in R&lt;/a&gt; makes it a bit too easy).  What's paradoxical is that this is MORE important for you to do if you're not statistically astute than if you are.  That's because someone who just gets statistics quite well is more likely to get an accurate impression of the literature without having to do all of the meta-analysis calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2013-04-15T01:29:25.260" LastActivityDate="2013-04-15T01:29:25.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3387" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-06T00:45:34.477" Score="6" ViewCount="480" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a way to make onself remember facts from an audiobook (containing for instance a list of countries and their capitals) played out loud while sleeping?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2883" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-06T03:18:08.080" LastActivityDate="2013-04-06T06:47:55.643" Title="Is learning facts via audio while sleeping possible?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3388" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3387" CreationDate="2013-04-06T03:04:02.047" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Theoretical perspective:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;No. I don't think so. From a cognitive information processing perspective, I would hypothesise that declarative learning of new facts would not occur while sleeping. Of course, learning declarative facts while awake, but in bed (e.g., when going to sleep or when waking up in the morning) is possible, and sleep is important in consolidating what is learnt during the day.&#xA;I don't think the mind is capable of the kinds of information processing required to process facts when asleep.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Empirical perspective:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Nonetheless, my theoretical perspective above may be wrong, so it is worth while looking at the empirical evidence. I found an early review of research in Simon and Emmons (1955). The study critically evaluates 10 or so studies on sleep learning and suggests that each of them suffers from some form of methodological weakness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wood et al (1992) provide a more recent summary of the literature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When a distinguished committee of the National Research Council (NRC)&#xA;  recently concluded that sleep learning deserves a &quot;second look&quot; from&#xA;  experimenters (Druckman &amp;amp; Swets, 1988; Swets &amp;amp; Bjork, 1990). a&#xA;  distinguished sleep researcher swiftly and pungently disagreed (Webb,&#xA;  1990). This controversy is not new to the field of sleep learning.&#xA;  Disagreement has been common since the mid-1950s, when Simon and&#xA;  Emmons (1955. 1956) severely criticized the methodology of existing&#xA;  studies and demonstrated that recall and recognition for verbal&#xA;  material presented during sleep do not occur when proper experimental&#xA;  controls are exercised. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although the views of Simon and Emmons were&#xA;  generally accepted, in ensuing years some empirical studies continued&#xA;  to report evidence of learning for verba! information presented during&#xA;  sleep (see reviews by Aarons. 1976; Eich, 1990; Hoskovec, 1966).&#xA;  Though subject to methodological criticism, their findings were&#xA;  buttressed by evidence from electroencephalographic and evoked&#xA;  potential studies that (a) transmission of auditory information to the primary auditory cortex is not different during sleep and the waking state, (b) habituation&#xA;  and conditioning can occur during sleep in both nonhuman animals and&#xA;  humans, and (c) some transfer of information to long-term memory&#xA;  occurs during sleep (see review by Wood, 1990). Furthermore, recent&#xA;  studies have suggested the existence of a cognitive unconscious&#xA;  (Kihistrom. 1987) and indicated that information processed outside of&#xA;  conscious awareness, for example, while under anesthesia (Kihistrom,&#xA;  Schacter, Cork, Hurt, &amp;amp; Behr, 1990), can be stored in memory and exert&#xA;  an influence on later performance. In addition, research with both&#xA;  amnesic and normal subjects has demonstrated the existence of implicit&#xA;  memory, that is, learning that does not require deliberate or&#xA;  conscious recollection of experience (see reviews by&#xA;  Richardson-Klavehn &amp;amp; Bjork. 1988, and Schacter, 1987).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, it appears that in their study Wood et al (1992) did not find any effect:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study examined implicit memory for words presented during sleep.&#xA;  Ten experimental subjects were presented with word pairs including a&#xA;  homophone and a close associate (e.g., “tortoise-hare”) and with&#xA;  category-instance pairs (e.g., “bird-cardinal”) during REM or Stage 2&#xA;  sleep and tested immediately afterward. Twelve control subjects&#xA;  underwent the same procedure while awake. Unlike the controls,&#xA;  subjects in the sleeping condition showed no learning effects on the&#xA;  implicit memory tasks. Recall and recognition were observed in a few&#xA;  cases, but only when presentation was immediately followed by arousal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Simon, C. W., &amp;amp; Emmons, W. H. (1955). LEARNING DURING SI. EEP?. LEARNING, 52(4), 1055. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogpsy.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Simon_Emmons-1955-Learning-During-Sleep.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wood, J. M., Bootzin, R. R., Kihlstrom, J. F., &amp;amp; Schacter, D. L. (1992). Implicit and explicit memory for verbal information presented during sleep. Psychological Science, 3(4), 236-239.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-06T06:47:55.643" LastActivityDate="2013-04-06T06:47:55.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3389" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3390" CreationDate="2013-04-06T11:46:23.077" Score="4" ViewCount="5221" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been playing &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonogram&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nonogram&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picross_DS&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Picross&lt;/a&gt; a lot lately. I really  like it and you can always find a harder challenge but I would hate to waste my time for nothing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What brain skill does Nonogram (Picross) develop?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2885" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-06T12:23:37.263" LastActivityDate="2013-04-07T05:22:27.303" Title="What brain skill does Nonogram (Picross) games develop?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3390" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3389" CreationDate="2013-04-06T12:42:39.960" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I could not find any examples in the literature where the game has been explicitly studied for brain training purposes. I should also confess that I don't know a lot about the specific game. However, based on general knowledge of the skill acquisition literature, I would predict the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Playing the game  should develop your skills in Nonogram Picross. If you prefer the brain-terminology, you could say that playing Nomogram Picross develops the &quot;brain skill&quot; of playing Nonogram Picross. In some senses any human skill involves the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't imagine that playing the game would improve your cognitive capacity in any general way. However, it might make you better at playing other similar games. Skill acquisition tends to be fairly domain specific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are looking for advice, play the game if you get intrinsic enjoyment from it. If you want to improve your functioning in some other domain of life, then practice and learn skills more relevant to that other domain of life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may find it helpful to read &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1705/how-valid-is-lumositys-brain-performance-index-and-what-normative-information-i&quot;&gt;another question on brain training on this site&lt;/a&gt; for more links to literature on evaluations of brain training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-04-06T12:42:39.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3389" CreationDate="2013-04-06T16:48:15.157" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychological video game research began in earnest in the early 1980s &quot;as a reaction to Surgeon General C. Everett Koop’s provoking statements about the adverse effects of video games.&quot; (Mulligan, 2008) From then on, video game research tried to understand wether playing violent video games increased aggressive behavior. For 20 years, violence was the only focus for psychological science, and understanding this became even more urgent in the public mind, when it became known after the Columbine High School massacre, that the assailants had &quot;trained&quot; for their attack by playing &lt;em&gt;Doom&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2003 a paper by &lt;strong&gt;Green and Bavelier&lt;/strong&gt; published in Nature had a revolutionary impact on computer game research. Green an Bavelier found that playing action video games increases visual attention capacities. Since their article, a multitude of papers has been published, documenting research into the effect of computer game play on cognitive abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A research paper title illustrating this new trend in computer game research is &quot;Mom, let me play more computer games: they improve my mental rotation skills&quot; (Cherney, 2008). It has been suggested, that playing action computer games would benefit women (Spence, Yu, Feng &amp;amp; Marshman, 2009) or older people (Kato, 2010)  to increase their performance in certain cognitive skills and, for women, counter the cultural gender bias in learning these skills (which favors men), or, for older people, to counter the effects of aging. Spence and Feng (2010) emphasize the positive effect computer games can have on those skills (see the list below) that are important for success in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From an educational perspective, spatial cognition is essential for successful problem solving in science, technology, engineer- ing, and mathematics (STEM) education and occupations (Terrell, 2007). Spatial abilities are necessary for a wide range of job- related skills, such as solving mathematical problems (especially those involving geometry); visualizing the consequences of actions in surgery; designing structures such as bridges, buildings, and aircraft; constructing flowcharts and other representations of com- puter programs; creating and interpreting charts, graphs, diagrams, maps, and engineering drawings; and so on. Excellence in STEM fields is strongly correlated with spatial ability (Wai, Lubinski, &amp;amp; Benbow, 2009), and spatial skills are associated with performance in mathematics and science courses (Delgado &amp;amp; Prieto, 2004) and standardized tests (Casey, Nuttall, Pezaris, &amp;amp; Benbow, 1995), as well as the choice of mathematics and science courses in college (Casey et al., 1995).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A summary of the research is given in this meta analysis by Spence and Feng (2010). They give a table that details which games train which skills. I'll not give the complete table here, but in summary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Action Games&lt;/strong&gt; train:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sensory detection&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;attention (capture, selection, switching, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;visuomotor coordination&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;processing speed&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;working memory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;spatial cognition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Maze and Puzzle Games&lt;/strong&gt; train:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;long term memory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;spatial cognition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;analytical thinking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know Picross, but if it is a puzzle game (as your link suggests), it should increase mostly the three cognitive abilities mentioned above, and, to a lesser degree, sensory detection, attention (specifically capture and divided attention), and working memory. The article by Spence and Feng (2010) provides a good overview and is a great starting point for further research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Literature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cherney, I. D. (2008). Mom, let me play more computer games: They improve my mental rotation skills. Sex Roles, 59, 776-786. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9498-z&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Green, C. S., &amp;amp; Bavelier, D. (2003). Action video game modifies visual selective attention. Nature, 42(6939), 534-537. doi: 10.1038/nature01647&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kato, P. M. (2010). Video games in health care: Closing the gap. Review of General Psychology, 14, 113-121. doi:10.1037/a0019441&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mulligan, M. (2008). Exploring mood management via exposure to a massively multi-player online game (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from the Florida State University Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations database. (ETD No. etd-04112008-154329) [http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-04112008-154329/]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spence, I., &amp;amp; Feng, J. (2010). Video games and spatial cognition. Review of General Psychology, 14(2), 92-104. doi:10.1037/a0019491&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spence, I., Yu, J. J., Feng, J., &amp;amp; Marshman, J. (2009). Women match men when learning a spatial skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology,: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 1097-1103. doi:10.1037/a0015641&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit re Jeromy's comments below (post doi to the interface at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.doi.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.doi.org&lt;/a&gt; to find the articles):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been a few studies showing increased performance in a non-game task after training with a computer game designed specifically for this ability (so called &quot;serious games&quot;). Examples are games improving treatment adherence in medical patients, surgical skill in doctors etc. (overview in Kato, 2010, see above; or doi:10.1542/peds.2007-3134), training multitasking in a supermarket with stroke patients (doi:10.5014/ajot.63.5.535). But you have asked for transfer from a generic (action or puzzle) computer game to a non-related real-world task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(doi:10.1080/001401300184378) have shown that the treatment group (trained with a computer game) was &quot;less affected by concurrently performed interference tasks&quot;, which the authors attribute to an increased ability to perform under high cognitive load. (doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00593.x) found that &quot;gameplaying was more effective than drills in promoting maths performance, and cooperative [vs competitive] gameplaying was most effective for promoting positive maths attitudes&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As always, I have methodological objections agains both studies, and I believe you will have, too. (doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00226) gives an overview of transfer studies and their results -- and methodological shortcomings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorDisplayName="user1196" LastEditDate="2013-04-07T05:22:27.303" LastActivityDate="2013-04-07T05:22:27.303" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3392" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-06T17:52:53.030" Score="4" ViewCount="1779" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am slated to teach an undergrad Cognitive Neuroscience course next year and I am not sure which textbook to use. This would be an entry-level course (no pre-requisites) primarily intended for students in psychology and biology. There seem to be a lot of books on the market, so I'm hoping people will share their experiences (either as students or instructors) with whatever books they've used, especially why they liked or didn't like a particular book.  Advice about strategies for selecting a book would also be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastEditorUserId="299" LastEditDate="2013-04-07T17:22:39.207" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T17:52:18.097" Title="What is a good textbook for an undergrad Cognitive Neuroscience course?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;teaching-of-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="15" FavoriteCount="1" CommunityOwnedDate="2013-04-06T22:16:31.950" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3393" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-07T03:34:26.203" Score="3" ViewCount="346" Body="&lt;p&gt;The IPIP (International Personality Item Pool) website provides a &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newNEOFacetsKey.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;copy of the IPIP representation of the NEO 30 facet form&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also provides some information &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newNEO_FacetsTable.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;comparing IPIP NEO with official NEO&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;However, the information provided is incomplete for making an assessment of the psychometric properties of the test. For example, I'd like to know about: (a) how items were chosen; (b) what was the sample size and characteristics used to generate the comparative correlation information provided; and (c) what is the factor structure of the IPIP NEO.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, my questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Where can I find information on how the IPIP NEO (30 facet version) was developed?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What studies have examined the psychometric properties of the IPIP NEO (30 facet version) both in absolute terms and relative to the official NEO?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-23T04:08:16.730" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T04:08:16.730" Title="Psychometric information on IPIP representation of NEO facets" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3394" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-07T06:45:45.197" Score="5" ViewCount="547" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;NEO facets and scales:&lt;/strong&gt; The NEO model of personality has 5 scales (i.e., extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, openness, and conscientiousness). For each scale there are 6 facets (e.g., neuroticism has anxiety, hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, and vulnerability to stress). See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory#Personality_dimensions&quot;&gt;here for a list of the 30 facets and how they relate to the 5 scales&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Incremental prediction:&lt;/strong&gt; I am interested in the degree to which the 30 facets predict important real-world outcomes over and above the big 5 scales. Examples of important outcomes might include financial success, life satisfaction, health outcomes, longevity, job performance, career success, marital satisfaction, criminality, and so on. While each of these outcomes would be interesting in itself, I'm particularly interested in any general claims that can be put forward regarding the incremental predictive validity that is obtained from using facets rather than scales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Statistical baseline:&lt;/strong&gt; I take a few points as self-evident. There is a difference between in sample prediction and true population prediction. The true population regression equation can not be worse for the facets than the scales. The facet level prediction could mirror the scale prediction merely through an appropriate set of regression coefficients (i.e., some form where facets are in some sense equal within a scale, adding up to the scale effect).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also take it as self-evident that the population prediction would be at least a little bit better with facets. It seems implausible that the pattern of regression coefficients required to replicate the scale prediction would necessarily be exactly match the best population prediction model. However, there is still the question of what the size of the increase is, and how big the increase in prediction is relative to the prediction achieved by the scales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Methodological challenges:&lt;/strong&gt; There are also several issues around estimating the size of the incremental prediction of facets relative to scales. Adding an additional predictor increases sample variance explained even when the predictor has know incremental prediction in the population. Thus, procedures that compare sample r-squared of scales versus facets prediction models would be biased. Models that use a data driven variable selection procedure like step-wise regression to select an optimal subset of predictors would also be biased. The size of this bias would be greatest in smaller samples. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I'm particularly interested in studies that have accounted for these methodological challenges. For example, a good study might have (a) a large sample of 1000+ participants in order to generate robust results, and (b) a statistically valid procedure for estimating population r-squared for facet and scale predictor models (one possibility would be to estimate the model in half the sample and evaluate in the other half, although many other cross-validation procedures are possible).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, &lt;strong&gt;my questions&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the incremental prediction of the 30 facets over and above the big 5 scales on important psychological outcomes?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In particular, how and to what extent have studies dealt with the methodological issues related to performing this comparison?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In totality, is the incremental prediction at the facet level sufficient to justify the added complexity to thinking and theorising?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-04-15T03:35:58.560" Title="Facet versus scale prediction of Big 5 personality" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3395" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-08T00:32:29.127" Score="3" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in the question of &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; people use/integrate previous experiences with instances of tasks or events to make predictions about the duration of future instances of tasks/events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To illustrate:&#xA;I am a regular user of Google Calendar, and I use its drag-and-stretch time-interval interface. In doing so, I constantly &lt;em&gt;seem&lt;/em&gt; to be making judgments such as &quot;Event A has properties [a1,...,aN], ####.... it will probably last about two hours&quot;.&#xA;My question, then, is: what is happening during the &quot;####&quot; stage of this process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;*&lt;/em&gt;*EDIT: To avoid confusion, I would like to make clear that I am interested in cases where an agent is facing an &quot;instance&quot; of a &quot;type&quot; of event (if you imagine that the agent has a set of &quot;memory traces&quot; related to instances of the event, then I am referring to a case in which there is a reasonably high amount of variance/uncertainty in duration across previous instances), that agent has certain knowledge/evidence, and the agent must make a guess and/or a decision based upon a guess.&#xA;I've used the calendar planning example as an illustration. However, I am asking this question more broadly, as it relates to time scales ranging from very small to very large.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question can be addressed at many levels of analysis (in Marr's sense). I am familiar with research related to this question, such as Griffiths and Tenenbaum's &quot;Optimal Predictions in Everyday Cognition&quot;, Warren Meck's &quot;Neuropharmacology of Timing and Time Perception&quot;, and empirical work on human planning behaviors/suboptimalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you recommend any further readings on this topic? I am particularly interested in research that treats this problem as an inductive reasoning task and investigates the question through the use of computational models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE:&lt;/strong&gt; I have just begun finding some very relevant articles, such as these:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15716368&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15716368&lt;/a&gt; (link to abstract)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.shadlen.org/pmwiki/uploads/Science/JazayeriNat%20Neurosci2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.shadlen.org/pmwiki/uploads/Science/JazayeriNat%20Neurosci2010.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Griffiths, T. L., &amp;amp; Tenenbaum, J. B. (2006). Optimal predictions in everyday cognition. Psychological Science, 17(9), 767-773. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dc.uba.ar/materias/incc/practicas/p1/Griffiths-Tenenbaum-PsychSci06.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Meck, W. H. (1996). Neuropharmacology of timing and time perception. Cognitive Brain Research, 3(3), 227-242. &lt;a href=&quot;http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homePage/Class/Psy355/Gilden/meck.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1009" LastEditorUserId="1009" LastEditDate="2013-04-09T05:52:12.073" LastActivityDate="2013-04-09T05:52:12.073" Title="Predicting the Duration of Future Events" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-17T05:45:08.230" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3396" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-08T01:53:43.983" Score="7" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am curious about how many different thalamocortical relay cells synapse onto each layer IV spiny stellate cell, on average? The answer is likely to be different per region and species, of course. I understand the topographic mapping that occurs, but how narrow or wide is the final projection?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="377" LastActivityDate="2014-05-07T17:31:16.497" Title="How many thalamocortical relay cells synapse onto each spiny stellate cell in neocortex?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3397" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3399" CreationDate="2013-04-08T08:22:20.107" Score="13" ViewCount="843" Body="&lt;p&gt;Having an interest in human psychology (but no formal training) I decided to take  Coursera's &lt;a href=&quot;https://class.coursera.org/psy-001/lecture/index&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Introduction to Psychology as a Science&lt;/a&gt;. Here's a snippet from an &lt;a href=&quot;https://class.coursera.org/psy-001/lecture/5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;introductory lecture&lt;/a&gt; (it requires signup, so I'll paste the transcription):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Statement: &quot;Much of human behavior is instinctive.&quot;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Answer: &quot;No, we have very few instinctive behaviors. There are some reflexes that&#xA;  young infants have, like for example the reflex to suck if you put&#xA;  something in their mouth or if you tickle the bottom of their feet,&#xA;  their toes will spread out. Those are reflexes that go away as the&#xA;  child gets older. We certainly have genetic predisposition to do&#xA;  things in a certain way. But, instinct, species specific behaviors&#xA;  that lower animals have, are very rare in human behavior.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This emphatic assertion really surprised me. It was my understanding that -at least at some degree- the fundamentals of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;evolutionary psychology&lt;/a&gt; had influenced &quot;traditional psychology&quot; over the years (not as explanation of every human behavior, sure, but certainly more than to explain the sucking reflex).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So here is the question: &lt;strong&gt;has evolutionary psychology found its place in universities (syllabus, articles, ...) or is it pretty much ignored in academia?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2878" LastEditorUserId="2878" LastEditDate="2015-01-05T12:51:49.913" LastActivityDate="2015-01-05T12:51:49.913" Title="What is the status of evolutionary psychology in academia today?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3398" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3397" CreationDate="2013-04-08T10:14:03.640" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is a bit of a quick answer and hopefully others will provide a more comprehensive response.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The number of reflexes that exist in humans is arguably a separate issue to the support for evolutionary psychology. The answer below focuses specifically on the support for evolutionary psychology in academic psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Almost all researchers in psychology would agree that &lt;strong&gt;evolutionary processes have shaped what it means to be human&lt;/strong&gt;. A good example of a well-developed theory is &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/&quot;&gt;ACT-R&lt;/a&gt;, which provides a model of cognition. An underlying assumption of the theory is that the nature of the underlying structure of cognition has evolved to minimise the consumption of computational and biological resources (although you're better off reading ACT-R material directly to understand how they describe the interface of genetic and environmental adaptation, e.g., Anderson 1991). This still leaves many issues regarding how to conceptualise human nature and the extent of human plasticity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;However, &quot;just so&quot; arguments made in the name of evolutionary psychology are generally not respected in academic psychology&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, Someone might say that women are better at multitasking because throughout evolution men's behaviour has required singularity of purpose in hunting and mate seeking, whereas women have had to juggle competing tasks of child rearing, looking after the camp, and so on. Of course, that's all rubbish. I just made that argument up out of nothing. Such an argument takes an observation, possibly not even true in the first place, and then seeks to find some vaguely plausible evolutionary story to justify it. It's a &quot;just so&quot; argument. &#xA;You can see further discussion of critiques of evolutionary psychology &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anderson, J. R. (1991). Is human cognition adaptive. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 14(3), 471-517. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/teaching/courses/inf1-cg/readings/Anderson_1991_adaptive_cognition.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-09T00:59:58.230" LastActivityDate="2013-04-09T00:59:58.230" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3399" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3397" CreationDate="2013-04-08T16:07:37.270" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Academic psychology has been, since the middle of the nineteenth century, first and foremost &lt;em&gt;empirical&lt;/em&gt;. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, academic (empirical) psychology is mostly &lt;em&gt;experimental&lt;/em&gt;. For one hundred years, the basis of psychological research has been to derive theories from popular opinion or any other relevant source, derive hypotheses from these theories, and to test these hypotheses in an experiment. For example, it has been the popular opinion that playing video games &quot;makes&quot; children and adolescents aggressive, antisocial and violent. Psychologists have tested this hypothesis by observing the level of aggression in a random group of children after they played an action video game, compared to the level of aggression of a random (control) group of children after they played a non-action video game. Whatever phenomenon psychologists are interested in, this is the basic methodology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology, the theory of evolution is just a theory. It is neither better nor worse than other theories. For evolutionary theory -- or any other theory -- to be relevant to psychology, it has to produce hypotheses that can be tested empirically, preferably in a laboratory (i.e. a controlled) experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many psychologists today who look at all kinds of human behavior and experiences from an evolutionary perspective, derive theories from this perspective, and test these hypotheses. This research is commonly taught in the relevant courses in universities. For example, in a lecture on developmental psychology, the lecturer will routinely present psychoanalytic, behaviorist, humanist, systemic, context, domain-specific, evolutionary, and other theories and research on how human beings develop psychologically from conception through childhood, adolescence and adulthood to old age and death, and he will try to elaborate more or less neutrally on the strengths and weaknesses of these theories, and their methodological shortcomings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, evolutionary psychology has its place in academic psychology, although, from my observation, it is already a bit dated and had its high point maybe in the last half of the twentieth century. Today, neuropsychology is the height of fashion ;-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Source: Personal observation (I work at a university)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorDisplayName="user1196" LastEditDate="2013-04-10T03:57:36.030" LastActivityDate="2013-04-10T03:57:36.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3400" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-08T17:15:38.763" Score="9" ViewCount="2942" Body="&lt;p&gt;From Wikipedia's page on &lt;strong&gt;Mental age&lt;/strong&gt;, we learn that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Originally, the differences between mental age and chronological age were used to compute the intelligence quotient, or IQ. This was computed using the ratio method, with the following formula: mental age/chronological age * 100 = IQ. No matter what the child's chronological age, if the mental age is the same as the chronological age, then the IQ will equal 100.[4]&#xA;  An IQ of 100 thus indicates a child of average intellectual development. For a gifted child, the mental age is above the chronological age, and the IQ is higher than 140; for a mentally retarded child, the mental age is below the chronological age, and the IQ is below 70.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this way, precocious children can get exceptionally high scores (e.g. scores above 160, s.d. 15), even if they answer correctly only a fraction of the total number of questions, provided the test is sufficiently hard in comparison with their actual chronological age. However, I am not aware of any tests for adults that discriminate accurately above the threshold of IQ $\sim$ 160 - their accuracy is even less than 4 s.d., taking into account a ceiling effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can psychometry assess an IQ of 170 or 180 in adults when the rarity of such scores is 1 in several millions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can the IQ scores of exceptionally and profoundly gifted children be extrapolated into adulthood?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it true that that a profoundly gifted child with an IQ of 170 would score better than 99.9998% of the general population?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It seems that two different definitions of IQs are used here: is there a correlation between them?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2891" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-09T00:21:06.473" LastActivityDate="2013-04-09T23:36:09.150" Title="How can psychometry measure the very high IQ's in adults?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3401" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3392" CreationDate="2013-04-08T18:39:05.603" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm in an undergraduate course on Cognitive Neuroscience and have found the textbook we chose, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mhprofessional.com/product.php?isbn=0071390111&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Principles of Neural Science&lt;/a&gt;, to be helpful and illustrative.  Strictly speaking, &lt;i&gt;cognitive&lt;/i&gt; neuroscience is the subject of but one of the book's sections, but if you are not requiring prerequisites I think it is appropriate to have the basics (and some possible extensions) included.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2497" LastActivityDate="2013-04-08T18:39:05.603" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2013-04-08T18:39:05.603" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3402" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3400" CreationDate="2013-04-09T00:57:13.513" Score="6" Body="&lt;h2&gt;General points about IQ measurement&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ scores are standardised scores typically with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. As Ben Cole notes, IQ scores are typically normed relative to age groups in children, and then normed relative to the adult population for adults. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Can the IQ scores of exceptionally and profoundly gifted children be extrapolated into adulthood?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ scores correlate very highly over time. That said, correlations decrease as (a) the period of time between testing sessions increases, and (b) the earlier the age of initial testing (e.g., testing at 2,3, 4, 5 years of age, etc.). Presumably greater periods of cognitive change have the potential for greater individual differences in that change, and such greater potential for reductions in the correlation over time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an extract from a major review of IQ testing and intelligence relevant to stability that reiterates these points with sources (Neisser et al, 1996):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stability. Intelligence test scores are fairly stable during&#xA;  development. When Jones and Bayley (1941) tested a sample of children&#xA;  annually throughout childhood and adolescence, for example, scores&#xA;  obtained at age 18 were correlated Y = .77 with scores that had been&#xA;  obtained at age 6 and r = .89 with scores from age 12. When scores&#xA;  were averaged across several successive tests to remove short-term&#xA;  fluctuations, the correlations were even higher. The mean for ages 17&#xA;  and 18 was correlated r = .86 with the mean for ages 5, 6, and 7, and&#xA;  r = .96 with the mean for ages 11, 12, and 13. (For comparable&#xA;  findings in a more recent study, see Moffitt, Caspi, Harkness, &amp;amp;&#xA;  Silva, 1993.) Nevertheless, IQ scores do change over time. In the same&#xA;  study (Jones &amp;amp; Bayley, 1941), the average change between age 12 and&#xA;  age 17 was 7.1 IQ points; some individuals changed as much as 18&#xA;  points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in summary exceptionally gifted children will tend generally to be highly intelligent adults. However, there are a few notes of caution:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Any IQ measurement has error. Thus, the IQ measurement is only an estimate of the individual's true IQ. For standard IQ tests, the size of this measurement error is greater as you move towards the tails of the distribution of IQ scores, such as is the case with the very gifted. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is an effect known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_toward_the_mean&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;regression toward the mean&lt;/a&gt;. This says, among other things, that when two measures are imperfectly correlated, extreme scores on one variable will tend to be relatively less extreme on the other. This can be explained both in terms of measurement error (i.e., those identified as having a 160 IQ might just have got luck on the test) and in imperfect correlation of latent IQ over time. Thus, in general if you identify a sample of very high IQ children and select them, you may find that there average IQ drops at a second time point. They'll still of course be measured as very intelligent on average.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Is it true that that a profoundly gifted child with an IQ of 170 would score better than 99.9998% of the general population?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A child's IQ is defined relative to a population of children of the same age as that child, and not the general population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on a definition of IQ as a normative score, you get the following percentiles using R:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt; iq &amp;lt;- c(100, 115, 130, 145, 160, 170)&#xA;&amp;gt; percentile &amp;lt;- 100 * pnorm(iq, 100, 15)&#xA;&amp;gt; cbind(iq, percentile=round(percentile, 6))&#xA;      iq percentile&#xA;[1,] 100   50.00000&#xA;[2,] 115   84.13447&#xA;[3,] 130   97.72499&#xA;[4,] 145   99.86501&#xA;[5,] 160   99.99683&#xA;[6,] 170   99.99985&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, yes, you are correct in a theoretical sense that a true IQ of 170 by definition implies that that individual has an IQ greater than 99.99985% of the relevant normative population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the reality is that you never measure true IQ. You only get responses to an individual on a test. And this measurement is made with error, and this error in measurement is typically greater at the high end. Thus, you get a measure with confidence intervals or some form of bayesian estimate of IQ. Furthermore, there is also error in measuring population norms as well. Thus, if you want to be more precise in your description of what a test says about an individual's IQ, then you need to specify a range on that individual's IQ, and this range would be larger at the high end, because intelligence tests are not typically optimised to the high end and normative estimates of IQ at the high end would be less precise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard Jr, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., ... &amp;amp; Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American psychologist, 51(2), 77. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/correlation/intelligence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-09T23:36:09.150" LastActivityDate="2013-04-09T23:36:09.150" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3403" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3394" CreationDate="2013-04-09T06:47:16.447" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several studies have been conducted comparing facets versus factor prediction (e.g., Paunonen and Ashton, 2001; Mershon and Gorsuch, 1988; Ashton et al, 1995; Dudley et al, 2006; Ekehammar &amp;amp; Akrami, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of these studies have found substantial incremental prediction of facets over factors. However, there are several potential methodical issues that may potentially arise: (a) overcoming biased estimates of R-square particularly when comparing analyses with facets versus factors where more predictors increases the bias; (b) overcoming issues of multiple comparisons when there are many facets that can be compared to factors; (c) some studies only have small sample sizes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By statistical definition, the population r-square for a factor model is less than or equal to the population r-square for a facet model where factors are defined as a linear function of the facets. Nonetheless, I have not yet read any systematic studies that have provided an unbiased estimate of population r-square in factors versus facets. Having read all the above articles, my hypothesis would be that I would expect an increase in r-square of around 5 to 20 percent, but that's just a rough sense. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ashton, M. C., Jackson, D. N., Paunonen, S. V., Helmes, E., &amp;amp; Rothstein, M. G. (1995). The criterion validity of broad factor scales versus specific facet scales. Journal of Research in Personality, 29(4), 432-442.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dudley, N. M., Orvis, K. A., Lebiecki, J. E., &amp;amp; Cortina, J. M. (2006). A meta-analytic investigation of conscientiousness in the prediction of job performance: examining the intercorrelations and the incremental validity of narrow traits. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(1), 40.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ekehammar, B., &amp;amp; Akrami, N. (2007). Personality and prejudice: From Big Five personality factors to facets. Journal of Personality, 75(5), 899-926.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mershon, B., &amp;amp; Gorsuch, R. L. (1988). Number of factors in the personality sphere: Does increase in factors increase predictability of real-life criteria?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(4), 675.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Paunonen, S. V., &amp;amp; Ashton, M. C. (2001). Big Five factors and facets and the prediction of behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 81(3), 524-539.&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.subjectpool.com/ed_teach/y4person/2_facets/refs/Ashton_2001_why_use_facets.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-15T03:35:58.560" LastActivityDate="2013-04-15T03:35:58.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3404" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-09T11:33:57.907" Score="11" ViewCount="544" Body="&lt;p&gt;Readability is often intuitively synthesized. If you see some piece of code, you just &lt;em&gt;know&lt;/em&gt; whether it is readable or not. But what are actual &lt;strong&gt;psychological&lt;/strong&gt;, scientific explanations for this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are readability metrics for written text, but do they apply to source code as well? For example: I believe the word superiority effect to be applicable to source code. What other effects can be found while programming, that make code readable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not looking for educated opinions or examples as in &lt;a href=&quot;https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/questions/141005/how-would-you-know-if-youve-written-readable-and-easily-maintainable-code&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/questions/162923/what-defines-code-readability&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, but for neural correlates or a perspective from cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2904" OwnerDisplayName="cessor" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-12T07:31:54.790" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T21:26:01.870" Title="What psychological factors account for code readability?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3405" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3404" CreationDate="2013-04-09T11:58:37.530" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Using the English language, given two sentences that say the same thing, what makes one more readable than the other? Usually terseness while retaining clarity and removing ambiguity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The exact same things make code more readable. Remove everything that doesn't add anything, but don't remove things that do add information. And avoid ambiguity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In code, we have the advantage that we can reuse similar pieces of text and replace specific values within them. If only we could do that with books, we could save a small rainforest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On top of terseness, we have good use of punctuation and spacing. Ever tried to read a blog piece where there are no paragraphs whatsoever? That's what it's like reading code that isn't neatly spaced out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The psychology of this is simple. Your brain receives all sorts of hints as to what it's reading. Try taking a long piece of text and printing it out (with a serif font) without paragraphs, then without periods and commas, or maybe switch punctuation marks (? =&gt; ., ! =&gt; :, etc), then in a sans-serif font.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll quickly see how much you rely on your brain's instincts when you're reading. Code is exactly the same. And herein lies a problem, because some things are certainly subjective. Or rather they are a matter of habit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're used to seeing underscores preceding member variables, then you move to a company where they don't do that, your brain will still expect the same hints and it will be harder to read. But to change it would mess up everybody else in the team. It would be like moving to Spain and telling them to stop using the preceding &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_question_and_exclamation_marks&quot;&gt;inverse-question mark&lt;/a&gt; because it throws you off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Design patterns are a similar thing. If everyone knows what a Builder Pattern does, then adding Builder to a class name gives everyone a lot of information. But if I have my own Bracksfort Pattern, that information only helps me, at least until other people start to ask me, or I document it and get the community to buy into it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2900" OwnerDisplayName="pdr" LastActivityDate="2013-04-09T12:24:35.293" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3408" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3409" CreationDate="2013-04-09T14:36:08.580" Score="2" ViewCount="5787" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if nose touching is a scientifically-validated signature of deception or internal conflict. For the purposes of this question I would assume that it's fairly common knowledge in psychology that people touch nose or cover the mouth when saying something part of them does not believe to be true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If nose touching is encountered in a regular,spontaneous conversation, then it may be deduced that the statement that the person just made is untrue (or the person does not really believe it). For example: &quot;I can easily make money on the stock market&quot;. If such statement is followed by a nose touch, I can assume that the person is at least partially unsure about the content of the statement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, when I'm watching prepared talks, like on Ted.com, the following question arises: If a person has prepared a speech in advance,rehearsed it and is now delivering a prepared speech, does nose touching have any &quot;predictive component&quot; for deception? In other words, &lt;strong&gt;if a person touches a nose during a prepared speech, is it a sign of deception/internal uncertainty that just happened or one that is about to happen?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that there are fMRI studies that found some actions can be predicted x milliseconds in advance, and I'm interested if nose touching is one of things that can predict something that is about to happen, not indicate something that just happened. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iMKWL.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Touching nose during a prepared speech&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2013-04-18T03:14:58.880" LastActivityDate="2015-10-04T15:56:21.673" Title="Deception and nose touching - does it work for things that are about to be said in prepared speeches?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;deception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3409" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3408" CreationDate="2013-04-09T16:36:50.990" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;You wrote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the purposes of this question I would assume that it's fairly common knowledge in psychology that people touch nose or cover the mouth when saying something part of them does not believe to be true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Avoid make assumptions like this. This is not common knowledge, and in fact it is not even true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vrij et al. (2010) discuss the literature on non-verbal lie detection and conclude:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The meta-analyses that have been published to date&#xA;have made clear that there are no nonverbal and verbal cues&#xA;uniquely related to deceit. In other words, reliable cues to&#xA;deception akin to Pinocchio’s growing nose do not exist&#xA;(DePaulo et al., 2003; Masip et al., 2005; Sporer &amp;amp; Schwandt,&#xA;2006, 2007; Vrij, 2005)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vrij &amp;amp; Granhag (2007) mentions &amp;quot;touching the nose&amp;quot; as an example of a non-verbal cue to deception found in a police interrogation manual, Gordon &amp;amp; Fleisher (2002). They also review 5 other police interrogation manuals which &lt;em&gt;don't&lt;/em&gt; mention it as a cue to deception. In my brief lit search, I couldn't find any psychology papers which discuss touching the nose as a reliable cue to deception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After a brief look at Gordon &amp;amp; Fleisher (2002), it is clear to me that their methods are pseudoscientific, full of ad-hoc reasoning. Judge for yourself:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There appears to be a link between deception and the nose. Perhaps it is because the nerve network for emotions, to a large extent, evolved from our neural networks involved in smelling [26]. The sense of smell was primitive man's fundamental survival mechanism. &lt;strong&gt;Touching or pinching the nose is a reliable gesture of disbelief [4].&lt;/strong&gt; The nonverbal message appears to be &amp;quot;it stinks' (Figure 9.17). If you are talking and the listener pinches his nose, he is nonverbally communicating that he thinks what you are saying stinks. If he is talking and pinching his nose, he thinks what he is saying stinks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oh, but what's that reference they cite? Surely that must shed some light on this. Diligent readers will scan to the bibliography only to find that &lt;em&gt;they are citing a previous version of the same manuscript!&lt;/em&gt; Yes, you heard right: a recursive citation. Not exactly the most reliable source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vrij &amp;amp; Granhag (2007) suggest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since cues akin to Pinocchio's nose do not exist, lie detectors will fail in their task if they just look for such cues. Rather, interview techniques need to be employed, for example, to control for individual differences between individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gordon, N. J., &amp;amp; Fleisher, W. L. (2010). Effective interviewing and interrogation techniques. Academic Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vrij, A., &amp;amp; Granhag, P.A. (2007). Interviewing to detect deception. Offenders' memories of violent crimes, 32, 279.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vrij, A., Granhag, P. A., &amp;amp; Porter, S. (2010). Pitfalls and opportunities in nonverbal and verbal lie detection. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 11(3), 89-121. &lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.port.ac.uk/5823/1/PSPI_article_Vrij,_Granhag_and_Porter.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-04-09T16:36:50.990" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3410" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3411" CreationDate="2013-04-10T10:04:15.800" Score="4" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say I have a confusion matrix of perceptual similarity data for stimuli drawn from an underlying continuous spectrum. Participants also learned to categorise these stimuli such that the spectrum is evenly divided into two categories. I want to test whether the observed confusion matrix shows a better fit to either a continuous or a categorical model.&#xA;One approach I have considered is to create a hypothetical confusion matrix for linear and categorical models (see below) and correlate these with the observed confusion matrix.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dK6MH.png&quot; alt=&quot;linear model&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/75100.png&quot; alt=&quot;categorical model&quot;&gt;&#xA;Note: Similarity values, 1 = identical, 0 = dissimilar&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I’m not sure how to compare the degree of fit for each model. One idea is to take the partial correlation to measure how well the confusion matrix correlates with the categorical model after the correlation between the linear model and the data has been accounted for. This approach seems to have good psychophysical validity (since any categorical process would function in addition to a linear sensory one), however I’m concerned that the linear and categorical models are highly correlated (here at 0.83) and so any partial correlation approach would not be valid. Including more stimuli near the category boundary would probably go some way to decorrelating these models, however I’m wondering if there is a more sensible approach to figuring this out (but not orthogonalising the models)? Any leads appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-09-07T06:02:39.287" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T06:02:39.287" Title="How to compare linear and categorical models of perceptual comparisons?" Tags="&lt;categorisation&gt;&lt;similarirty&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3411" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3410" CreationDate="2013-04-10T16:19:44.750" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This sounds a lot like tests of categorical perception done in psycholinguistics. Categorical perception states that people perceive phonemes categorically, even though the acoustic signal varies continuously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the phonemes &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$/b/$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$/p/$&lt;/span&gt; differ on only one acoustic feature: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_onset_time&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;voice onset time&lt;/a&gt;. Using computer synthesized speech, one can experimentally manipulate the voice onset time along a continuous dimension. In a prototypical experiment, subjects are asked to identify each sound as a &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$/b/$&lt;/span&gt; or &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$/p/$&lt;/span&gt;. If perception were continuous, you might expect that the proportion of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$/b/$&lt;/span&gt; responses varies linearly with the voice onset time-- but it doesn't. As you can see in the red line, there is a sharp drop around 20ms in which people perceive everything to the left as &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$/b/$&lt;/span&gt; and everything to the right as &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$/p/$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/224kd.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to see this is to plot discriminability (blue line). Here, participants are presented two stimuli from adjacent VOT bins and asked to judge which one matches a 'target' stimulus. Generally, people perform near chance at discriminating between the two phonemes &lt;em&gt;unless&lt;/em&gt; the two stimuli cross the VOT boundary. Again, if perception were linear, you might expect a straight blue line rather than a peaked one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most researchers will use t-tests or ANOVA to test for differences of between and within category discrimination. For instance, one might conduct a series of t-tests on discriminability to show that only when stimuli cross the VOT boundary can subjects reliably discriminate them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an example of these tests in practice, see Morford et al. (2008). Note that some researchers have found conflicting results when using different dependent measures. For example, Massaro &amp;amp; Cohen (1983) asked participants to make continuous judgments of stimuli and found no evidence of categorical perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another alternative might be to find the best fitting line and the best fitting sigmoid curve, and compute the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_information_criterion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bayesian Information Criterion&lt;/a&gt; for each. The one with the lower BIC is the preferred model. For regression analysis, BIC can be calculated as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$BIC = n\log(\frac{RSS}{n}) + p\log(n)$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where n is the number of data points in the model, p is the number of free parameters, and RSS is the residual sum of squares.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The drawback of using BIC is that it only tells you something about &lt;em&gt;comparative&lt;/em&gt; model fit. If both linear and sigmoidal models were a bad fit for the data, BIC would not tell you that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Massaro, D. W., &amp;amp; Cohen, M. M. (1983). Categorical or continuous speech perception: A new test. Speech Communication, 2(1), 15-35. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psyentificmind.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/1983-categorical-or-continuous-speech-perception-a-new-test.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Morford, J. P., Grieve-Smith, A. B., MacFarlane, J., Staley, J., &amp;amp; Waters, G. (2008). Effects of language experience on the perception of American Sign Language. Cognition, 109(1), 41-53. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unm.edu/%7Emorford/pdfs/Morford_et_al_2008_Cognition.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-04-11T02:27:05.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3412" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3397" CreationDate="2013-04-11T03:47:46.270" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;One area in which, I believe, evolutionary psychology gets a fair degree of respect is in social psychology, and in particular in the study of cooperative behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might wish to check out&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Axelrod (1981) The Evolution of Cooperation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nowak (2006) Evolutionary Dynamics: Exploring the Equations of Life&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2614" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-04-11T03:47:46.270" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3413" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3404" CreationDate="2013-04-12T07:21:29.903" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What does &quot;readability&quot; mean in the context of cognitive sciences? Measurable effects of &quot;readability&quot; would include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;speed of cognitive processing (how long does it take a reader to understand what the code does)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;completeness of understanding (how much of what the code does can a reader explain after reading it?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;effort of understanding (how depleted are the reader's cognitive resources, measurable by a follow up processing power test)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be easy to test differently &quot;readable&quot; variants of the same code. Sample research can be found through a &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.de/scholar?q=code%20OR%20software%20readability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Scholar query&lt;/a&gt;. I'm too lazy to read and summarize those papers for you ;-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorDisplayName="user1196" LastEditDate="2013-04-12T09:30:02.927" LastActivityDate="2013-04-12T09:30:02.927" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3414" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3424" CreationDate="2013-04-12T11:13:19.830" Score="1" ViewCount="671" Body="&lt;p&gt;Liden et al (2004, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;ved=0CDkQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F228608182_Social_loafing_A_field_investigation%2Ffile%2F9fcfd5112bcc11c2ff.pdf&amp;amp;ei=uuxnUZm-EsuiiAe0r4HABw&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNH8XKx2oZrB9tdQYhNpiMhOZHPYAA&amp;amp;sig2=eKdLEiQdRJAmfIeNvsFsag&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;) is an example of a study examining employees in work groups in an organisation. Thus, measures are obtained of both individual workers and of the work groups that they belong too. The data is analysed using &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_linear_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;multilevel modelling&lt;/a&gt; (or what the paper calls HLM).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can the HLM results in the paper be explained in a way that is meaningful for someone with only a basic level of statistical knowledge?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What resources could help someone with only a basic level of statistical knowledge understand the paper?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; The above questions are based on an email I received asking about how to interpret the results of Liden et al (2004). I'll probably add an answer. But I thought others might also have answers, and that the answer might be relevant to others.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Social loaﬁng was investigated by testing a multilevel model among 23&#xA;  intact work groups comprised of 168 employees representing two&#xA;  organizations. Results demonstrated that as hypothesized at the&#xA;  individual level, increases in task interdependence and decreases in&#xA;  task visibility and distributive justice were associated with greater&#xA;  occurrence of social loaﬁng. At the group level, increased group size&#xA;  and decreased cohesiveness were related to increased levels of social&#xA;  loaﬁng. Of particular interest was the ﬁnding that group member&#xA;  perceptions of perceived coworker loaﬁng was associated with reduced&#xA;  social loaﬁng, opposite of our predictions. We suggested that this&#xA;  unexpected ﬁnding may provide evidence of a social compensation&#xA;  effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Jaworski, R. A., &amp;amp; Bennett, N. (2004). Social loafing: A field investigation. Journal of Management, 30(2), 285-304. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;ved=0CDkQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F228608182_Social_loafing_A_field_investigation%2Ffile%2F9fcfd5112bcc11c2ff.pdf&amp;amp;ei=uuxnUZm-EsuiiAe0r4HABw&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNH8XKx2oZrB9tdQYhNpiMhOZHPYAA&amp;amp;sig2=eKdLEiQdRJAmfIeNvsFsag&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-12T11:21:37.353" LastActivityDate="2013-05-16T08:23:15.687" Title="How to interpret HLM analyses looking at work group and individual worker effects?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3416" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-13T04:55:18.173" Score="2" ViewCount="1615" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often supervise student research projects. Often these projects involve recruiting participants by placing one page flyers in strategic locations. The most common scenario is that the flyer is targeted at university students, there may be some small financial reimbursement for their time, and the study might involve spending an hour or so in lab.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When writing such a flyer, there is a balance between making participation sound like a worth while thing to do, but at the same time being ethical and accurate in describing what the study involves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, while I have a bunch of tips and tricks for writing such materials, I wasn't aware of any particular material that I could provide to research students to get started.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is best practice in participant recruitment flyer design?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is a good repository of examples of good participant recruitment flyers?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are some good online resources outlining tips for creating a participant recruitment flyer?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also be interested in materials about the surrounding context (e.g., flyer placement; streamlining the process between reading a flyer and participation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-04-14T07:03:27.580" Title="How to design research participant recruitment flyer to maximise participant response?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;sampling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3417" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3416" CreationDate="2013-04-13T10:03:56.510" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not exactly an answer to your question, but some thoughts on why we &lt;em&gt;don't&lt;/em&gt; use flyers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of research going on at our university that involves recruiting participants. From psychology to medicine and economics, everybody vies for the time of the several thousand students. Then there are all those flyers for parties, political initiatives, religious get-togethers etc. etc. On top of this information overload, most students are extremely short of time and mental and emotional energy. Studying here is hard, and students don't want to sit in a lab, when they have the time to not sit over their books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our department has the most success at recruiting participants with setting up a small screened area inside the refectory/cafeteria (where the students eat their lunch), standing in front of the entrance, approaching everyone, and testing them then and there. If we cannot test them in the cafeteria, we still approach them there and try to arrange a date for a lab test. We also offer sweets &lt;em&gt;with the recruitment&lt;/em&gt; (they're in a small tray and offered when we approach the person).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe that gives you some ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorDisplayName="user1196" LastEditDate="2013-04-14T07:03:27.580" LastActivityDate="2013-04-14T07:03:27.580" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3418" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3455" CreationDate="2013-04-14T09:38:10.537" Score="6" ViewCount="347" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; First of all, I'm not in any kind related to cognitive science, I'm a programmer. I'm not even sure that it's the right place for asking my question, but I'll try anyway. So, first of all, I'll describe the initial problem that motivated me to ask this question. There are some concrete examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I join the programmers team that have rather big (but not huge) project. I'm trying to figure out how it works, how each part of the system cooperates with each other. I want to see how it works as a whole, so that I could say that I understand what's going on: what goes first, what goes next, without going into pretty much detail. I want to have this image in mind and to discuss the project with no need to diving into code, or to schemes describing the project, or any additional info. The thing that does not let me do this -- I fail to remember the system components, their execution precedence that may vary, and their interactions between each other.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I got explanations of some project use case. Everything seems to be clear, but there comes a time when I realize that I can not hold all this in my head, can not keep all precedence of actions, the interactions between them. The whole thing becomes blurry.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tend to see these cases having the same reason. As this reason results in my wish for better results achievement, I call it a problem. It may or may not be a &quot;problem&quot; from medical or any other point of view, but this is a problem for me anyway. So, when I talk about solving this problem, I talk about improving my results in area described above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Questions&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is this problem called where a person can not hold all the details of a large project in memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this a failure of memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the problem due to lack of intelligence? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Would any of the following reduce the problem: chess, poker, solving math problems, nootropics?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2908" LastEditorUserId="2908" LastEditDate="2013-04-14T13:46:37.367" LastActivityDate="2013-07-18T12:44:03.440" Title="What causes an individual to not be able to hold all the details of a large project in memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3419" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3421" CreationDate="2013-04-14T20:42:49.170" Score="4" ViewCount="773" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the most common software tools you use in your day to day work in computational neuroscience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am referring to neuroscience tools like &lt;a href=&quot;http://genesis-sim.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;GENESIS&lt;/a&gt; and NOT to generic tools like Excel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2909" LastEditorUserId="2909" LastEditDate="2013-04-14T23:06:49.963" LastActivityDate="2014-04-11T17:57:50.050" Title="Computational Neuroscience software" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3420" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-15T13:39:23.757" Score="11" ViewCount="16774" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that many people say that hypnosis and meditation are very similar. But what are their key differences (both in a soft and hard way)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2911" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-06T23:14:56.363" LastActivityDate="2020-07-12T08:33:40.933" Title="What is the difference between hypnosis and meditation?" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3421" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3419" CreationDate="2013-04-15T14:12:12.913" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is a comprehensive list of &lt;a href=&quot;http://home.earthlink.net/~perlewitz/sftwr.html&quot;&gt;Computational Neuroscience Software&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My opinion below comes form the perspective of nonlinear dynamics (using differential equations to model ion currents in neurons).  So more the math/physics/electrical engineering approach to Computational Neuroscience (not so much the Computer Science or Psychology approach):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I don't use pre-packaged tools like &lt;strong&gt;NEURON&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;GENESIS&lt;/strong&gt;.  I take mathematical models established in literature (i.e. The Hodgkin Huxley model) and use Matlab or Python to model them.  I essentially do what Neuron or Genesis does, but I do it my way so I can extract the information that's relevant to me.  This is how I have been trained through physics and applied mathematics departments.  To not rely on other people's implementations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For nonlinear analysis of dynamical systems (because there's really a lot of extravagant mathematics that you don't want to just code yourself) a lot of people use &lt;strong&gt;XPP/AUTO&lt;/strong&gt;, designed, in part, by Bard Ermentrout (a well-known computational neuroscientist).  This is a good way to go if you're not into writing code, but I prefer a more hackable tool.  I've been learning &lt;strong&gt;Matcont&lt;/strong&gt;, a similar toolbox for Matlab but since it is made with m-files (matlab's data type) you can hack it and make it into code to integrate with your own Matlab software, avoiding the GUI clicking and dragging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-04-02T13:42:32.250" LastActivityDate="2014-04-02T13:42:32.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3422" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-15T19:41:24.537" Score="8" ViewCount="504" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently programming an experiment where participants have to do a divided visual field task. In a paper about the correct methodology about these tasks, it is said that you should use a backward mask (a mask after the target) in order to avoid after-images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no objection of inserting backward masks in my experiment, but I just can't find any rules about how to implement these correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it matter if I use a random black/white pixel rectangle where the target was or some symbols (e.g., ### is often used in psycholinguistic experiments) on that location? Or should I put random black/white pixels over the whole screen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Location of the target/mask is not important for the participants, so a target-located or a full-screen mask does not change to the goal of my research.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-10T13:03:08.870" LastActivityDate="2014-12-10T13:03:08.870" Title="Are there any rules about masking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3424" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3414" CreationDate="2013-04-16T07:44:12.943" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Tutorials on HLM&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately the paper assumes that you understand  HLM.&#xA;HLM analysis is a bit more complex than multiple regression because it deals with multiple levels of variance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are various tutorials and readings that can bring you up to speed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Woltman et al (2012) in particular provide a quantitative psychology tutorial.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For a textbook treatment you could check out Raudenbush and Bryk (2002).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Interpreting Liden et al (2004)&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study uses a bunch of variables some at the individual level and some at the group-level. There are 168 participants in something like 23 groups (although there may have been some deletion of groups with insufficient interrater reliability).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study reports individual and group level correlation matrices of these variables. Group level measures are presumably the mean of the individual group members.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study often mentions $r_{wg}$, ICC(1) and ICC(2). These are all indices of within group rating agreement. A general assumption of multilevel research is that if you are going to aggregate individuals into group level scores, then individuals within groups should be more similar to each other than across groups. Thus, these three indices are used to justify aggregation into groups. See LeBreton and Senter (2008) for a discussion of how interrater agreement indices can be used in organisational research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The main HLM&lt;/strong&gt; predicts social loafing from both group and individual level variables. They estimate that 49.99% of the variance in social loafing can be explained by group differences. So in summary, some groups engage in more social loafing than others. Nonetheless, there is still variation in social loafing within groups (e.g., loafers in non-loafing groups, and non-loafers in loafing groups). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors then go on to analyse what predicts variation within groups using individual level measures. In Table 3 shows a model with four predictors. For example, it shows that individuals with more task interdependence are more likely to engage in social loafing as indicated by the positive coefficient and the significant p-value. The authors note that they were able to explain 21.81% of the within-group variance in employee social loafing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then they report a group level analysis which predicts the variation in average social loafing in groups from other group-level variables. They find for example that larger, less cohesive groups have more group level social loafing. Not surprising, they also find that groups which perceive that others engage in social loafing do in fact engage in more social loafing. They find that 30.72% of the variance in group level variance is explained by these group level variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The HLM approach is thus a nice fit to studying workers who are situated in different work groups. You are able to examine both individual and group-level effects. This is consistent with a theory of behaviour in the workplace that says that behaviour is influenced by both individual characteristics as well as group dynamics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;LeBreton, J. M. &amp;amp; Senter,J. L. (2008). Answers to 20 Questions About Interrater Reliability and Interrater Agreement. Organizational Research Methods,11, p 815-852.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Woltman, H., Feldstain, A., MacKay, J. C., &amp;amp; Rocchi, M. (2012). An introduction to hierarchical linear modeling. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 8(1), 52-69. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tqmp.org/Content/vol08-1/p052/p052.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Raudensbush, S.W. and Bryk, A.S. (2002). Hierarchical Linear Models, Sage&#xA;Publications.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-04-16T07:44:12.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3425" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-16T19:37:38.403" Score="4" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;For some time I have been very interested in the intelligent design (ID)/creationism vs. evolution debate.  My parents are both medical professionals and consider themselves creationists.  I have many other family members who are also medical professionals and believe in creationism.  While reading webpages on the subject and other widely rejected ideas, my experience suggested that medical professionals were more likely to accept such ideas than people from other technical professions.  Is there any evidence to support this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are people from medical professions more likely than average to accept conspiracy theories?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did find &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1525/aa.2004.106.4.782.2/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;one article&lt;/a&gt; that appeared to address the issue, but I could not find a free copy of it anywhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2769" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T14:08:36.613" Title="Is there a variance in acceptance of conspiracy theories by occupation?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3426" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-17T09:35:48.607" Score="4" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When did &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoamine_neurotransmitter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neurotransmitters derived from monoamines&lt;/a&gt; first appear in evolutionary history?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are main the points in evolution for monoamines based on the neurotransmitter system ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in this area because, there is far less monoamines neurotransmitters  based neurones than based on amino acid neurotransmitters. So it seems that monoamines based system is fine tuning work of the whole system while, amino acid neurotransmitters based neurons are the work hourse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="401" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-13T23:02:17.710" LastActivityDate="2013-06-13T23:02:17.710" Title="When did neurotransmitters derived from monoamines first appear in evolutionary history?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-03-26T20:34:56.480" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3427" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3425" CreationDate="2013-04-17T10:28:03.150" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I believe that a link to &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; and an explanation of what it is should feature prominently on every page of this site. Many questions can be answered by a quick search there, and the rest will profit from the initial research that becomes easily possible with this tool. This explanation should include the fact that most academic institutions have access to many online journals, and that a trip to the next university library will make most of the articles readable for the general public through the computers in the library.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question: I have no knowledge of the subject matter, but a Google Scholar search yielded &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=conspiracy%20theories%20occupation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;several articles&lt;/a&gt; on the topic of conspiracy theories, some of which deal with the phenomenon from an empirical perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/3791630&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;one study&lt;/a&gt; found, that certain personal characteristics, such as fear of unemployment, correlated with belief in conspiracy theories, while &lt;strong&gt;occupational category did not correlate with belief in conspiracy theories&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you did further into the Google Scholar search results, you might find further, possibliy contradictory, findings and opinions on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to your observation that many medical professionals from your family believe in creationism, and the hypothesis you deduce from this observation that maybe medical professionals are more likely to accept such ideas, I would say that this is a classic case of not recognizing a confounding variable. All the medical professionals you know come from &lt;em&gt;the same family&lt;/em&gt;. Since religious beliefs are mostly acquired through familial habits, it is most likely that it is &lt;em&gt;your family&lt;/em&gt;, not medicine, that correlates with belief in creationism. What defines your family and could correlate with a similar belief in other people, you might be able to recognize if you take a step back an look at your family in relation to who else lives in your country: what is your family's social status, religious tradition, ethnicity, where do you live, how are your children educated etc. etc. From all the factor that you find, you could then build a working hypothesis and test it. Some factors have been tested in the linked article, others you might find discussed elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have fun!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorDisplayName="user1196" LastEditDate="2013-04-18T14:08:36.613" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T14:08:36.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3428" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-17T23:37:38.093" Score="12" ViewCount="46698" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gary Wilson has &lt;a href=&quot;http://yourbrainonporn.com/&quot;&gt;mentioned&lt;/a&gt; that porn and masturbation is an addiction that negatively affect mental performance. Moreover, there is some &quot;pseudo-science&quot; claiming that abstaining from masturbation &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12659241?dopt=Abstract&quot;&gt;increases&lt;/a&gt; testosterone. I believe it increases serum testosterone levels after 7 day. I think that pornography negatively  affects working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does abstaining from masturbation in men significantly change cognitive processes?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-18T04:33:28.950" LastActivityDate="2018-03-14T17:41:57.623" Title="Does masturbation in men negatively affect cognitive processes?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3429" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-17T23:43:49.150" Score="10" ViewCount="750" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been seeing many conflicting studies saying that facebook usage increases or decreases self-esteem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the current consensus regarding the effect of facebook usage on self-esteem? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has there been a meta-analysis?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can see that looking at facebook would make one compare himself to another (upward comparison). This could induce jealousy. Likewise, seeing your own facebook profile reaffirms who you are. This would increase self esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:10:38.197" LastActivityDate="2014-02-17T19:36:01.637" Title="What is the effect of Social Media consumption on self-esteem?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3430" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-17T23:51:11.167" Score="3" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/cd/18_4_inpress/Kounios_final.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kounios and Beeman&lt;/a&gt; (2009) show that many insight solutions come when one is in a relaxed state. Furthermore, positive mood helps with insight solutions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;But practically speaking, is it wise to try and induce conditions that support insight solutions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Would trying to induce conditions that support insight solutions be counterproductive because of some type of meta-cognitive process in the background?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume that most people who have eureka moments do not explicitly seek out to have them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kounios, J., &amp;amp; Beeman, M. (2009). The Aha! Moment The Cognitive Neuroscience of Insight. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(4), 210-216.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-05-28T12:51:20.760" Title="Is actively trying to create insight inducing conditions effective in generating insights?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3431" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-17T23:59:02.027" Score="3" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is known that attending to time (i.e. looking at duration) expands subjective time. So if I want to do something for 20 minutes and look at my watch, this would increase my subjective time perception. Let's say that I have a timer that goes off every 10 minutes. I predict that a day would seem much longer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Would doing this for 1 week make the week seem longer?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;More generally, is it possible for short term time perception to affect long term time perception? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that time perception really is both a prospective and retrospective judgement. Time may feel like its passing slowly. But looking back on it, it may seem to have passed quickly. It seems that many mental disorders are fundamentally disorders in time perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-18T04:52:13.783" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T04:52:13.783" Title="Short term time perception affect long term time perception?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-07-17T18:07:50.810" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3432" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-18T00:10:37.403" Score="4" ViewCount="375" Body="&lt;p&gt;Everyday I see so many studies on meditation. These include all types (mindfulness, TM, etc..). The studies only report positive results. Meditation has been purported to increase self-control and willpower. But it seems that i&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~duckwort/images/publications/DuckworthKirby_FantasytoAction_inpress.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mplementation intentions combined with mental contrasting&lt;/a&gt; would be better. Implementation intentions take the following form: &quot;If I encounter situation X then I will do this.&quot; Mental contrasting sets the future goal with the current obstacles and creates an &quot;energization.&quot; So it seems that this intervention (MCII) would be better than meditation by itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I ask is I have been meditating for a month and have not noticed changes in my self-control. It seems that the so-called benefits of meditation could all be part of a placebo effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T03:15:44.950" LastActivityDate="2015-11-15T02:14:02.753" Title="Implementation Intentions and Mental Contrasting vs Meditation" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3433" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3440" CreationDate="2013-04-18T00:16:57.510" Score="8" ViewCount="1196" Body="&lt;p&gt;Emily Pronin and Daniel Wegner have &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~wegner/pdfs/Pronin%20&amp;amp;%20Wegner%20%282006%29.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;shown&lt;/a&gt; that fast and variable thinking induces positive affect. This is independent of thought content. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.berkeley.edu/people/sheri-johnson&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sheri Johnson&lt;/a&gt; has noted that the key things that might start a hypomanic/manic episide are a night of no sleep, a positive life experience, and certain drugs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to clinically induce hypomania by just thinking quickly and variably?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that an easy exercise to implement this would be to think of a word and then a word beginning with the previous word's letter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Added.&lt;/strong&gt; In a sense, the above exercise is &quot;anti-meditation.&quot; Mindfulness is essentially low thought speed combined with high variability. The ideal state would be high thought speed and high variability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pronin, E., &amp;amp; Wegner, D. M. (2006). Manic Thinking Independent Effects of Thought Speed and Thought Content on Mood. Psychological Science, 17(9), 807-813.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-28T07:19:03.147" LastActivityDate="2013-08-28T07:19:03.147" Title="Can hypomania be induced by just thinking quickly and variably?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3434" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3420" CreationDate="2013-04-18T01:27:25.820" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe this question is impossible to &quot;answer&quot; because the inherent premises in the question are based on the assumption that there are two discrete dichotomous phenomena, &quot;hypnotism,&quot; and &quot;meditation,&quot; which can somehow be meaningfully &quot;defined,&quot; and, then, &quot;compared.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both &quot;hypnosis&quot; and &quot;meditation&quot; are figuratively vast conceptual collages of imprecise multiple-meanings, observations of what appear to be &quot;special&quot; states of human awareness, and consciousness, admixtures from what in &quot;western science&quot; is termed &quot;psychology&quot; with an equally vast mix of practices, lumped-together as &quot;spiritual,&quot; from the world's religions, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the viewpoint of epiphenomenal philosophy &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphenomenalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;... wikipedia entry ...&lt;/a&gt;, and from some modern, western, theorists of human consciousness as grounded in our biological, neurological, reality, both hypnosis and meditation can be regarded as secondary phenomena: in the sense that they are culturally defined and shaped modes of thought, behavior, and experience, in a &quot;continuum of consciousness,&quot; which, over time, are conserved, institutionalized, even valorised into being perceived as &quot;sacred.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Vipassana meditation, in the Theravadan Buddhist tradition (Sanskrit &quot;sthaviravada,&quot; &quot;teachings of the elders&quot;) one way the &quot;anti-goal&quot; of meditation could be defined is: it is a practice meant as a vehicle for the de-hypnosis of the &quot;illusory personal, small, self,&quot; leading to a direct experience of the &quot;real, undifferentiated, trans-personal Self.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, in that tradition, in its &quot;purest&quot; form, meditation is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; a &quot;goal in itself,&quot; and meditation is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; a &quot;means to an end&quot; of achieving &quot;altered states of consciousness.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, there are countless other types, schools, philosophies, of &quot;meditation,&quot; with very different conceptual underpinnings, some &quot;secular,&quot; some &quot;formally religious,&quot; and a wide range of behavioral practices associated with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the &quot;grossest&quot; level, you might say we observe, when we see what appears to be hypnosis of one person by another, a loss of conscious, and subconscious, control of self from the person hypnotized to the hypnotist. But, then: there's stage hypnosis, self-hypnosis, so-called therapeutic hypnosis for behavior modification (such as giving up smoking, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While we typically associate meditation with acts of what we define, in western psychological terms, as individual &quot;self-control,&quot; and &quot;discipline,&quot; there are traditions in which group practices (rituals) leading to mass ecstasy are considered meditation (Sufi Zhikr ?). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From one perspective, &quot;cultural identity,&quot; itself, can be considered a cohesive set of internalized hypnotic states of mind: continually reinforced from within, and without, the self, and modified in biological development throughout the life-cycle ... I am not referring, here, to the movie-series, &quot;The Matrix&quot; :) !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suggested readings: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hypnotism and psychotherapy: Milton Erickson &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_ss_i_1_10?url=search-alias=stripbooks&amp;amp;field-keywords=milton%20erickson%20books&amp;amp;sprefix=milton%20eri,stripbooks,292&amp;amp;rh=n:283155,k%3amilton%20erickson%20books&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;... Amazon page ...&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Psychology and consciousness: books by Robert Ornstein &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.robertornstein.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;... Ornstein's website ...&lt;/a&gt;; books by Andrew Weill &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.com/Andrew-Weil/e/B000AP8OEE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;... Weill's Amazon page ...&lt;/a&gt;, books by Steven Pinker, particularly, &quot;The Language Instinct&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://stevenpinker.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;... Pinker's website ...&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Meditation and Buddhism:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a. Donald Lopez &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0060099275&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;... &quot;The Story of Buddhism: A Concise Guide to Its History &amp;amp; Teachings&quot; ...&lt;/a&gt;: excellent overview of how original Buddhism became &quot;modified:&quot; incorporated a mixture of Vedic/Hindu classic ideas (influence of Advaita Vedanta, and Yogacara schools, for example); incorporated Sivaite Tantra as developed in what is now Bengal; and, later, became &quot;deistic,&quot; with an elaborate hierarchic pantheon, in India, Tibet, China, Japan (into what can be loosely lumped together under the rubric &quot;Mahayana Buddhism&quot;). Depending on your biases, you might say, rather than &quot;modified:&quot; &quot;evolved,&quot; or &quot;corrupted..&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b. Theravadan Buddhist tradition (Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia), and Vipassana meditation (aka &quot;mindfulness&quot;, or &quot;insight&quot; meditation): Walpole Rahula &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0802130313&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;... &quot;What the Buddha Taught: Revised and Expanded Edition&quot; ...&lt;/a&gt;; Thich Nhat Hanh &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.com/Thich-Nhat-Hanh/e/B000AP5YRY/ref=ntt_aut_sim_2_1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;... Amazon page ...&lt;/a&gt;; books by Joseph Goldstein &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1590300165&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;... recommended: &quot;Insight Meditation: The Practice of Freedom&quot; ...&lt;/a&gt;; books by Bernard Kornfeld &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=ntt_athr_dp_sr_1?_encoding=UTF8&amp;amp;field-author=Jack%20Kornfield&amp;amp;search-alias=books&amp;amp;sort=relevancerank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;... Amazon page ...&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2921" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T01:27:25.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3435" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-18T01:56:58.493" Score="4" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking about human perception and particularly the experience of how bright artificial light is. I'm talking about dusk, when the sun has set and only street lamps and light reflecting off clouds provides light. &lt;strong&gt;What affects the perception of brightness of ambient artificial light at night?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's provide a concrete example: same appartment, same lights outside, but looking outside on one day it looks dark, while on the other day it is much clearer and brighter. What can account for such a difference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there some part of the brain or some mechanism that is responsible for perceiving how &quot;bright&quot; such light is? I know of visual purple that gets produced after prolonged exposure to darkness, and is effective for seeing in the starlight/moonlight.  But it appears to me that visual purple is too easily destroyed and may not get produced under streetlight conditions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2013-04-18T03:17:03.030" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T03:17:03.030" Title="Does the subjective experience of artificial light brightness vary for people, if so, by how much?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3436" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3428" CreationDate="2013-04-18T02:11:43.450" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's one condition that is linked to negative cognitive effects after masturbation in a small subset of population, it is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postorgasmic_illness_syndrome&quot;&gt;Post Orgasmic Illness Syndrome (POIS)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The sufferer experiences mental symptoms, physical symptoms, or both.&#xA;  Common mental symptoms include cognitive dysfunction, intense&#xA;  discomfort, irritability, anxiety, craving for relief, susceptibility&#xA;  to nervous system stresses (e.g. cold), depressed mood, and difficulty&#xA;  communicating, remembering words, reading and retaining information,&#xA;  concentrating, and socialising.&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine#Regulating_prolactin_secretion&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine#Regulating_prolactin_secretion&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt; Physical symptoms include&#xA;  severe fatigue, mild to severe headache, and flu-like and allergy-like&#xA;  symptoms, such as sneezing, itchy eyes, nasal irritation, and muscle&#xA;  pain.&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolactin&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt; Affected individuals may also experience intense warmth&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer your question - &lt;strong&gt;masturbation/orgasm does negatively affect cognition in people affected with POIS&lt;/strong&gt;. There's another condition that may be similar : &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-coital_tristesse&quot;&gt;Post-coital tristesse&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This may/may not be related, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolactin&quot;&gt;prolactin&lt;/a&gt;, a hormone with multiple functions is elevated for multiple days in males after experiencing orgasm. From wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The hormone[prolactin] counteracts the effect of dopamine, which is responsible&#xA;  for sexual arousal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find a reliable source, but I read that the increase in prolactin lasts for up to 15 days following orgasm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at these dopamine and prolactin hormones on wikipedia, I saw that prolactin and dopamine suppress each other. From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine#Regulating_prolactin_secretion&quot;&gt;Dopamine&lt;/a&gt; article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dopamine is the primary neuroendocrine inhibitor of the secretion of&#xA;  prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If abstaining from masturbation does change hormone levels, then Prolactin and Dopamine (within specific parts of the brain) would be most likely targets. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T02:11:43.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3437" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3432" CreationDate="2013-04-18T02:39:53.567" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot fit this into a comment, so I would post this answer, hoping it may be useful to someone. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The affirmation of the form &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;If I encounter situation X then I will do this.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has been tried by amateurs in the field of lucid dream induction. Lucid dreaming is about realizing that one is dreaming from within a dream. Normally people have very limited self control during dreams, and the affirmation statement attempts to increase it.  Such statement usually includes a &quot;dreamsign&quot;, followed by an intention to realize the fact that the person is dreaming:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;If I will find myself in math class, I will realize that I'm&#xA;  dreaming, because I have graduated from high school and college, and&#xA;  don't have to take any more math classes for the rest of my life&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Normally, rational thought is very hazy in a dream. For example, a typical scenario is a person may find himself in a math(chemistry/other hard subject) class dream, taking an exam that the person is not prepared for. The rational mind does not question this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interesting thing happens (at least to me) when the above mentioned affirmation does get triggered - still without clear rational thought I get up from the desk and walk out of the class. There's no clear awareness of why, but the behavior is changed when the stimuli is experienced. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T02:39:53.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3438" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3418" CreationDate="2013-04-18T03:03:50.953" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if this is helpful, but I would chime in as a programmer. I would argue that few people truly know all the parts of a large system by heart, instead they know how to find out/debug what's happening within the project quickly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A lot of large, complex programming projects are a mess.&lt;/strong&gt; They are difficult to understand and maintain/navigate/debug. An Apple engineer once joked: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;If you were as smart as you could be when you wrote the program, and it's&#xA;  twice as hard to debug something than to write it, how are&#xA;  you ever going to debug it?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Large projects did not originate over a single day, but may be a result of an &quot;evolution&quot; over a few months or years. So the basic components which are simple get burdened by exceptions, special use cases, subclasses, multiple modes of operation and precedents as you have said. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, programmers in general rarely write useful, clear, up to date documentation of large complex systems (there's no energy left to do this at the end).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is easier for the original developer to navigate such project without having to keep all details in memory, because the programmer knows what to search for. The name of the class, instance variable or a method would bring the original creator to the proper point within the project. But as a &quot;new guy&quot;, you do not have the luxury of remembering many &quot;landmarks&quot; within the project. So it takes longer for you to find the solution or understand what's happening.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T03:03:50.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3439" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3430" CreationDate="2013-04-18T05:09:28.213" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is all a fairly abstract discussion when it's independent of a particular task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Insights are by definition those discoveries that you couldn't immediately make. Thus, they are often on the horizon of your understanding. So if you knew more to begin with, the solution may have been obvious. And ultimately solving the problem is typically the goal whether that requires and insight or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I would assume that when people are under strong time pressure they may fall back on automated ways of doing a task. Thus, I imagine if you are trying to encourage creativity, to encourage an environment where such alternative ideas can be explored and tried. This may well relate to the issue of relaxation. If people are tense and concerned about their performance being judged immediately, they may be less able to cognitively explore the domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, a key part of achieving insight is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incubation_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;incubation&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Ultimately, this involves spending time on a problem, then having a break, and returning to a task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary, If you want to increase insight/creativity, I think it makes sense to do things like spending time on the task, taking breaks, creating a non-judgemental performance environment, getting input from external sources, and so on.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T05:09:28.213" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3440" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3433" CreationDate="2013-04-18T06:09:39.677" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had a read through the Pronin and Wegner study. &#xA;The study had a sample size of 144. They manipulated thought speed by getting participants to read aloud one statement after another at either half normal reading speed (slow thinking) or double normal reading speed (fast thinking). They also manipulated the content of the text being read (depressing statements versus elated statements). They seemed to find that both the content and the speed of thought manipulation seemed to yield similar increases in positive emotion, energy, feelings of power, feelings of creativity, and grandiosity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first issue is whether their study is replicable. I don't know the literature regarding replications, but all the effects seem plausible, and the sample size is reasonable for this kind of study. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another issue is how the manipulation of reading speed affected the reported emotions. Perhaps the slow reading led to frustration or being annoyed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regards to the nature of the effect, there are questions of how long this mood induction lasts. My guess is that the effect of the mood induction would be short lived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a difference wherein mania the speed of thought is presumably internally driven whereas on this task the &quot;speed of thought&quot; is externally driven. The study did not measure whether this &quot;speed of thought&quot; continued after the external stimuli was removed. For example, does speed of thought work with an inertial principle or not such that it can be started with external stimuli and will keep going on its own. My guess would be even if such a concept of inertia existed, people would quickly return to their own typical level. Thus, I don't think such a manipulation would induce clinical levels of mania, especially not in a sample of participants who do not suffer from bipolar disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-19T00:57:35.610" LastActivityDate="2013-04-19T00:57:35.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3441" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3443" CreationDate="2013-04-18T06:29:13.770" Score="10" ViewCount="406" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any evidence (papers, studies, etc) that the Fusiform Face Area is used for any other type of recognition besides facial recognition?&lt;/strong&gt; I remember hearing or reading a long time ago that experts activated the FFA when doing within class classification in their areas of expertise, but I don't know where to find this evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2922" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-18T04:47:31.890" LastActivityDate="2013-06-18T04:47:31.890" Title="Fusiform Face Area (FFA) for within class recognition?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3442" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3418" CreationDate="2013-04-18T07:01:02.570" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem that you are describing appears to be a problem of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;short-term memory&lt;/a&gt;. It is well known among psychologists and neuroscientists that most people can retain 7 +/- 2 numbers or words in short-term memory. For a programmer, I would describe short-term memory and the process of &quot;recalling&quot;, as a process similar to searching in a tree structure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a software developer too. I understand your frustration, and I assure you that most programmers have similar problems when dealing with complex projects. What I recommend you to do, is to find a good systems engineering book, and learn how to work with complex software projects. If you are working with a team, I recommend you to break apart your project into modules with high cohesion and low coupling. Assign a module to each member of the team, and workout the interfaces between the sub-systems. I also recommend you to set some kind of version control. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2922" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T07:01:02.570" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3443" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3441" CreationDate="2013-04-18T07:20:14.880" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. The idea that the fusiform face area (FFA) is domain-selective for faces is the dominant hypothesis, but a competing hypothesis is that the FFA is recruited for fine discrimination in visual stimuli of &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; type in which we are experts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a famous study, Gauthier et al. (1999) taught participants to categorize fictitious Greebles (see image below). Subjects were brought in for several sessions and, as their accuracy increased, activation in the FFA increased as well. The authors concluded that &quot;expertise seems to be&#xA;one factor that leads to specialization in the face area.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4vTIl.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another study, Gauthier et al. (2000) tested bird and car experts on identifying birds, cars, faces, and objects. They found that bird experts elicited more FFA activation for birds compared to cars, while car experts showed the opposite pattern (see below, right).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iqW8S.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wE3ER.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gauthier, I., Tarr, M. J., Anderson, A. W., Skudlarski, P., &amp;amp; Gore, J. C. (1999). Activation of the middle fusiform'face area'increases with expertise in recognizing novel objects. Nature neuroscience, 2(6), 568-573. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biac.duke.edu/education/courses/spring03/cogdev/readings/I.%20Gauthier%20et%20al%20(1999).pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gauthier, I., Skudlarski, P., Gore, J. C., &amp;amp; Anderson, A. W. (2000). Expertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition. Nature neuroscience, 3(2), 191-197. &lt;a href=&quot;http://systems.neurosci.info/FMRI/gauthier00.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T07:20:14.880" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3444" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3419" CreationDate="2013-04-18T15:54:03.190" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work mostly with MATLAB, and if necessary C/C++. Those are generic tools, but widely used in computational neuroscience. I often analyze and model spike trains in high time resolution, and there isn't a tool that is used universally yet. I have my own set of tools that I have developed in MATLAB. Also, many others in computational neuroscience publishes their code in MATLAB or python, so that also steers the community, I think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T15:54:03.190" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3445" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3447" CreationDate="2013-04-18T20:50:50.893" Score="9" ViewCount="1106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm an engineering student who is doing some subjective tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the difference between psychophysics and neurophysiology? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it correct that in the latter case, we have to implant to read the brain signals?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2879" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-19T00:54:25.520" LastActivityDate="2013-04-19T04:51:24.250" Title="What is the difference between psychophysics and neurophysiology?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3446" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3404" CreationDate="2013-04-18T21:26:01.870" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is my current area of research (I'm a Ph.D. student in computer science and cognitive science). Like you said, there are a large number of readability/complexity metrics, but very little research trying to quantify what makes a piece of code &lt;strong&gt;psychologically&lt;/strong&gt; complex. For more information on &lt;em&gt;qualitative&lt;/em&gt; studies and models, I'd highly recommend the 2001 book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1852332530&quot;&gt;Software Design: Cognitive Aspects&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been running some experiments recently with the goal of developing a cognitive model that can &quot;read&quot; code like a human. The inspiration for my model largely comes from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/095058499591491H&quot;&gt;a 1995 paper by Simon Cant et. al.&lt;/a&gt;. In the paper, they lay down an (incomplete) foundation for a mathematical model that &quot;chunks&quot; small blocks of code into memory and &quot;traces&quot; to other parts of the program in order to resolve dependencies. I have a workshop paper titled &quot;Cognitive architectures: a way forward for the psychology of programming&quot; that suggests we may be able to built such a model on top of a cognitive architecture like ACT-R.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm currently writing up the results of one of my experiments. Once it's ready, I'll be posting about it on my blog (synesthesiam.com). In short, we had programmers of all different experience levels predict the output of 10 Python programs (each program had 2 or 3 versions). Some of them did the experiment in front of an eye-tracker, which will be another paper someday (hopefully) soon. The rest were from Mechanical Turk, and we observed interesting speed/accuracy differences that were not always in favor of the more experienced programmers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2925" LastActivityDate="2013-04-18T21:26:01.870" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3447" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3445" CreationDate="2013-04-19T04:51:24.250" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm glad you asked! The two fields are really quite different, but I think people get them confused since the terms both make reference to physics and something vaguely mental. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysics&quot;&gt;Psychophysics&lt;/a&gt; is basically the measurement of subjective percepts corresponding to physical stimuli (e.g. measuring pain thresholds or visual acuity). So here the 'physics' refers to the physical reality we're trying to represent in our mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research here is almost exclusively behavioral, with the classic paradigm being to try and determine the 'just noticeable difference' between two stimuli. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detection_theory&quot;&gt;Signal detection theory&lt;/a&gt; has also been hugely influential for data analysis in the field. I find it helpful to think of psychophysics as experimental cognitive psychology at its least abstract.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurophysiology&quot;&gt;Neurophysiology&lt;/a&gt;, on the other hand, investigates the anatomical structures underlying the brain (e.g. categorizing the types of neuron, figuring out what glia are made of). Thus the 'physics' referred to here is the physical structures underlying the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here the methodology involves various sorts of neuroimaging, tissue sampling, and other ways of probing human and animal brains at various levels of intrusiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that these definitions paint the two fields with very broad strokes, so I'd do further research if you want to differentiate say, neurophysiology from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiology&quot;&gt;neurobiology&lt;/a&gt;, but I think this suffices for the purposes of your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope that helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastActivityDate="2013-04-19T04:51:24.250" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3448" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-19T19:39:33.317" Score="4" ViewCount="499" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the effects of time pressure (salient vs. non-salient) and learning? Salient time pressure is basically when you have a countdown timer in front of you. Non salient time pressure would be when you have a timer going off after some preordained times (making a beep). Would the salient time pressure induce a person to do something more efficiently? Or would it be a distraction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sophie Leroy has &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749597809000399&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;shown&lt;/a&gt; that switching tasks incurs a cost. In particular, there is attentional residue from the previous task. Time pressure, she shows, may help with this. It provides closure to a task. But what are the effects of time pressure on learning? I guess testing is a type of time pressure activity that is one of the best ways to learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;W Leroy, S. (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. Vol. 109. pp 168-181.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-04-24T07:56:48.137" Title="Time pressure and learning" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3449" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3450" CreationDate="2013-04-19T20:12:49.620" Score="7" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read that there're some more colors which cannot be represented by R,G,B. What is the experiment that lead people to use 3 variables R,G,B? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can that experiment be replicated in other modals, such as what is the dimension of auditory perception, or tactile perception?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2879" LastActivityDate="2013-04-19T21:29:12.900" Title="Why do we use 3 channel R,G,B to represent color?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3450" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3449" CreationDate="2013-04-19T21:22:32.920" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;After researching this a bit more, I believe this is actually a &lt;em&gt;biology&lt;/em&gt; question, not a physics one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The specific term I believe you're searching for is &lt;strong&gt;Trichromacy&lt;/strong&gt;, which &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichromacy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia defines as&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Trichromacy or trichromaticism is the condition of possessing three independent channels for conveying color information, derived from the three different cone types.&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MGK5F.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; Organisms with trichromacy are called trichromats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading the Wikipedia article, it appears that the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_cell&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cone cells&lt;/a&gt;  Humans (and other trichromats) come in three different variations; the different variations are sensitive to red, green, and blue light, as depicted in this image &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cones_SMJ2_E.svg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(again from Wikipedia)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MGK5F.png&quot; alt=&quot;Normalized responsivity spectra of human cone cells, S, M, and L types&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Normalized responsivity spectra of human cone cells, S, M, and L types&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We've evolved these three cone types because red, green and blue are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_primaries#Additive_primaries&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;additive primaries&lt;/a&gt;, meaning most of the whole range of visible light can be represented by combinations of these colors. Quoting Wikipedia again:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Even the four-primary technology does not yet reach the range of colors the human eye is theoretically capable of perceiving (as defined by the sample-based estimate called the Pointer Gamut[17]), with 4-primary LED prototypes providing typically about 87% and 5-primary prototypes about 95%. Several firms, including Samsung and Mitsubishi, have demonstrated LED displays with five or six &quot;primaries&quot;, or color LED point light sources per pixel.[18] A recent academic literature review claims a gamut of 99% can be achieved with 5-primary LED technology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what the experiment you're referring to was, but I doubt it would translate nearly as nicely into sound, as RGB is based on the biology of the eye specifically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;1: Attribution: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Vanessaezekowitz&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vanessaezekowitz&lt;/a&gt; at en.wikipedia&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2013-04-19T21:29:12.900" LastActivityDate="2013-04-19T21:29:12.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3451" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3432" CreationDate="2013-04-21T10:42:33.097" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Did you have a problem with self-control then that you felt needed improvement? &quot;Self-control&quot; is really rather vague- what were you looking for that would have said to you that your self control had &quot;improved&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps your self-control is already pretty good. For those who LACK self-control many times their inability is due to their not knowing what having self-control feels like, if you will. It is far easier to return to a state which one has memory of the experience of than it is to get to it for the first time. Meditation has us do that which causes us to be in the mental state we are in when we are practicing self-control. It is like exercise and practiced over time it mainly allows one to &quot;drop into&quot; that mindstate more easily and quickly until one can just remain there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2932" LastActivityDate="2013-04-21T10:42:33.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3452" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-23T08:29:43.820" Score="4" ViewCount="210" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is metacognition an affect or cognitive or behaviour variable ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to study variation in metacognition and working memory ability level and its effect on inductive reasoning. &#xA;Therefore i am trying to understand the cognitive system.&#xA;I read some literature stating that metacognition is cognition awareness, which implies that it is a cognitive variable, but some say that it is an opinion about how far they can do metacognitive ability. I read about a factor analysis of the Junior Metacognitive Awareness Inventory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2936" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-23T11:53:00.533" LastActivityDate="2013-04-23T14:46:26.527" Title="Is metacognition an affective, cognitive, or behavioural variable?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3453" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3452" CreationDate="2013-04-23T14:46:26.527" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like there are a lot of ideas out there as to what &lt;code&gt;metacognition&lt;/code&gt; really is.  Having done my MS thesis in understanding how people learn in engineering programs, I typically think about metacognition as &quot;knowing how to learn.&quot;  It's typically a goal of engineering education to teach students these skills.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, I would say it's mostly a cognitive variable, but it's also a behavior because it's a set of habits about how one thinks.  How are you planning to measure metacognition?  And why inductive reasoning?  Why not critical thinking in general?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2013-04-23T14:46:26.527" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3454" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3448" CreationDate="2013-04-23T14:56:00.020" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a wide open question - I'm not sure that you can say there is an &quot;effect on learning&quot; due to time pressure. It's going to depend on a lot of factors, including the learning context, the learner, the amount of time they have to complete the task, etc.  Ultimately, all learning is time-limited, so you need to break this down into different lengths of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several theories that may speak about it. One is cognitive load theory (Paas &amp;amp; Van Merriënboer, 1994).  This theory is based on the limitations of working memory, where the &quot;processing&quot; of learning takes place.  Basically, there is &lt;code&gt;intrinsic load&lt;/code&gt; required to learn a certain type of material, and this is a characteristic of the material to be learned.  There is also &lt;code&gt;extraneous load&lt;/code&gt; during learning, which occurs when the learner must divert attention to tasks not directly relevant to the learning task (e.g. checking a clock, computing how much time is left, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on CLT, one would expect a decrease in performance from having a clock sitting in front of the learner.  But again, I suspect that the amount of time vs. the time required will be a strong mediating factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just skimmed the article you cited.  It seems like there are a lot more relevant sources there you could track down.  Why don't you do that and come back with what you find?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Paas, F. G., &amp;amp; Van Merriënboer, J. J. (1994). Instructional control of cognitive load in the training of complex cognitive tasks. Educational Psychology Review,6(4), 351-371&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-24T07:56:48.137" LastActivityDate="2013-04-24T07:56:48.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3455" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3418" CreationDate="2013-04-23T15:10:33.643" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just completed an extensive study (and corresponding lit review) of how people learn.  I think you are running into the classic difference between expert and novice users.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Experts vs Novices&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been demonstrated that the knowledge structures in experts are different than those in novices.  In particular, experts' knowledge is far more structured, and they are capable of immediately connecting concepts that novices are unable to see.  (I have articles I can cite if you wish, but I'm just trying to get you on the right track here).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bascially, people learn by slowly (or quickly) becoming &quot;experts,&quot; that is, by organizing their conceptual models better around various concepts, such that the distinctions between them disappear into this web of schematic knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has also been observed that novices remember learning &quot;episodes&quot; - e.g. hands-on exploration activities or (sometimes) lectures.  As the novice becomes an expert, the details of these individual episodes tend to fuzz together and a unified cognitive schema emerges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short-term Working Memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As was mentioned in a previous answer, short-term memory can hold 5-9 discreet &quot;chunks&quot; of information.  To use programming terms, a &lt;code&gt;chunk&lt;/code&gt; can either be a struct, where it represents actual data stored in working memory, or it can be a pointer to the location in long-term memory where a concept is stored.  This helps explain why experts can perform so much more quickly than novices, because their working memory can be much more efficiently utilized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People rely on working memory to learn. As you learn, new information is incorporated into your existing mental model (this is known as constructivism).  This is an active process requiring the information to be reprocessed in working memory before it is stored into LTM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Implications&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The research above suggests that you need to take the system in pieces.  Learn what each piece does via a series of hands-on &lt;code&gt;episodes&lt;/code&gt;, then move on to the next piece.  Then, come back and re-start this process.  As you do so, you will find yourself becoming more and more familiar with this complex system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastEditorUserId="2937" LastEditDate="2013-04-23T15:15:42.553" LastActivityDate="2013-04-23T15:15:42.553" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3456" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-23T18:20:48.453" Score="3" ViewCount="1075" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm searching for research answering or giving any form of insight to this question:&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;How long does it take a person to relearn something (any type of learning) when relearning happens x, x+1, x+2...x+n years after initial learning?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've found some research by Ebbinghaus, but it concerns relearning after 24 hours. The variable in his research is number of repetetion (and not time between initial learning and relearning) which isn't what I'm looking for either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, I'm trying to figure out the effectiveness of students studying a subject in college, and how long students will need to relearn a subject, if they previously learnt it 5, 10 or 15 years previously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. (H.A. Ruger &amp;amp; C.E. Bussenius, Trans.). New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2938" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-25T07:41:00.617" LastActivityDate="2013-04-25T07:41:00.617" Title="How much time is required to relearn a subject after x years?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3457" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3456" CreationDate="2013-04-24T03:17:59.017" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose a person learns a subject in college and waits for 10 years before learning it again. An exam is given one week after the person relearns the subject. So in this case, the ISI (inter-study interval) is very long compared to the RI (retention interval). The person will definitely forget some of the material after the 10 years. So how long they would need to restudy depends on how much they have forgotten. In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.colorado.edu/~mozer/Research/Selected%20Publications/reprints/MozerPashlerCepedaLindseyVul2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, Hal Pashler and others develop a model that predicts the spacing function based on the forgetting function for fixed retention intervals. The forgetting function depends on the type of material being studied and other variables. All other things being equal, it seems that testing/examinations would be one of the more efficient ways of relearning the material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mozer, M. C., Pashler, H., Cepeda, N., Lindsey, R., &amp;amp; Vul, E. (2009). Predicting the optimal spacing of study: A multiscale context model of memory. Advances in neural information processing systems, 22, 1321-1329. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.colorado.edu/~mozer/Research/Selected%20Publications/reprints/MozerPashlerCepedaLindseyVul2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2013-04-25T03:57:14.540" LastActivityDate="2013-04-25T03:57:14.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3458" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1752" CreationDate="2013-04-24T05:10:17.183" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Crash made a great point that discusses why people won't admit error to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it isn't &lt;strong&gt;just&lt;/strong&gt; about &lt;strong&gt;social desirability&lt;/strong&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To explain why people WILL admit error to a computer? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's &lt;strong&gt;also&lt;/strong&gt; about &lt;strong&gt;personal affirmation&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;self-direction&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive dissonance - that stubborn attitude an individual will get after making a choice - can be blamed (in part) for this inability to admit mistakes.  It is the reason that people will become brand loyal to overpriced products - they're not willing to admit they've overspent, and justify the decision to themselves by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.techneutral.net/home/2011/2/24/cognitive-dissonance-when-an-apple-hater-buys-a-macbook-air.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;changing their mind&lt;/a&gt;.  They didn't overspend because the item (and purchase decision) contains some intangible benefit (in this case, social desirability). Given the opportunity to re-adjust their decision, with no obligation to be &quot;true&quot; to their choice - and change their self image - individuals will choose the rational course and correct an error. Cognitive dissonance only occurs when your self-image is out of step with your actions, and it is easy to correct an action with a computer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, the ability to self-direct, self-select and self-motivate plays a large role in admitting errors.  A person-computer interaction is essentially an individual activity, and admitting error is not threatening. A social interaction begins with certain assumptions (consistency) that an individual activity does not (consistent to whom?). As people are motivated to learn and grow (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;according to some&lt;/a&gt;), a threat-free, obligation free, expectation free activity provides that opportunity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2941" LastActivityDate="2013-04-24T05:10:17.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3459" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-25T01:49:31.120" Score="2" ViewCount="606" Body="&lt;p&gt;Higher order thinking seems like a larger construct than inductive reasoning but the constructs also seem related.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the connection between inductive reasoning and higher order thinking?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is inductive reasoning a subset of higher order thinking or is inductive reasoning a mental process of higher order thinking?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2936" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-25T02:53:18.047" LastActivityDate="2013-04-25T03:06:42.130" Title="What is the conceptual relationship between higher order thinking and inductive reasoning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3459" CreationDate="2013-04-25T03:06:42.130" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;A few thoughts:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher-order_thinking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;higher order thinking&lt;/a&gt; as a  fuzzy concept. It is often used in educational psychology to between surface and deeper levels of subject engagement. It can also be used to discriminate between the kinds of thinking processes often seen as unique to humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inductive reasoning is also a multifaceted construct, but it has both rich links both with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;philosophy&lt;/a&gt; and with cognitive psychology as can be seen in literatures on category learning and causal inference. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certainly the principled and methodical processes of scientific induction (e.g., inference from data) involves many higher level thinking processes. However, many of the implicit processes of inferring categories and causal processes from experience might not be seen as higher order thinking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-04-25T03:06:42.130" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3461" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-25T18:54:33.020" Score="8" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard a talk yesterday by Dora Angelaki about multi-sensory integration.  Part of the talk was about bayesian inference with multiple noisy sources of information.  I know that there has been a lot of theoretical work done on bayesian inference and population coding, but I was wondering if there have been any biological mechanisms proposed for the population activity normalization necessary for these computations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2013-09-18T13:42:49.627" Title="Have there been any mechanisms proposed for normalization in probabilistic population codes?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3462" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3216" CreationDate="2013-04-25T19:00:32.823" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/eeglab/&quot;&gt;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/eeglab/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://chronux.org&quot;&gt;http://chronux.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;are two libraries with tons of functions for analyzing eeg and emg data&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2013-04-25T19:00:32.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3464" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-28T10:57:27.750" Score="10" ViewCount="1533" Body="&lt;p&gt;What would be a more suitable background to enter cognitive sciences, mathematical psychology, and study of emotions? I have the option of taking a Integrated Masters Degree in Mathematical Sciences, or Physical Sciences. Going into which field will allow me to contribute greater to the study of the mind? Also, which field gives me more research options for the same? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2956" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-05-12T17:24:31.610" LastActivityDate="2013-05-12T17:24:31.610" Title="Math or Physics: Which is the more relevant background to enter Cognitive Sciences and Psychology?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2013-05-01T23:30:34.923" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3465" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-28T12:16:50.173" Score="12" ViewCount="233" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in sleep research, and sometimes in conversations with people the following idea gets discussed: &quot;A person becomes aware at a certain time in the morning and feel great(while still in bed). But the wake up time is later, so that person keeps sleeping and the feeling is gone. It's much harder to get out of bed&quot;. The general pattern is that there's a perceived good time to get out of bed, but people oversleep it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my understanding, the second part of this statement is caused by sleep inertia, where a person slips into deeper sleep(slow wave sleep SWS) stages. But what about the perceived &quot;perfect wake up time&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What sleep stage or sequence of sleep stages&lt;/strong&gt;, if any is associated with this feeling of energy in the morning(NREM1,2?)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;is this feeling associated with light exposure&lt;/strong&gt; (ex: 20 minutes after light exposure)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;does it happen every day&lt;/strong&gt;, for all people?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there some &quot; deep sleep hormone&quot; (probably not melatonin) that gets released in deeper sleep stages and produces sleep inertia?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a couple very successful sleep apps for smartphones that are marketed for this principle (they advertise the ability to find this &quot;best wake up time&quot; for you) and hundreds of imitations (&quot;smart alarm clocks&quot;). But is there really a phenomenon like I'm describing above, or is it a rare glitch of the endocrine system or something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T04:19:57.413" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T13:05:04.713" Title="What defines the easiest time to get out of bed in the morning for humans?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3467" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3464" CreationDate="2013-04-28T18:09:43.770" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would go with &lt;strong&gt;Physics&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Physicists study the world &lt;strong&gt;using mathematics&lt;/strong&gt;, while mathematicians &lt;strong&gt;study mathematics itself&lt;/strong&gt; which is a construct that does not necessarily exist in the real world (Albert Einstein once said: &quot;as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality.&quot;). This means that physicists encounter the interface between theory and experimentations, just like cognitive researchers, while mathematicians do not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is the reason why there are many examples of models developed in the study of Physics being applied successfully in cognitive science (e.g The famous Hopfield model (1982); Spin-Glass, Amit et al (1985); Ornstein-Uhlenbeck, Heath (2000); Diffusion, Ratcliff et al (2004) ). Obviously, all of these examples use math heavily. But while a mathematics student would study them using a theoretical approach, a physics student would probably study them emphasizing their application. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(PS. My bachelor's degree is in Math, Physics, and Computer science, so I think I can say I'm unbiased here... At least I hope so)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Geometry and Experience, a lecture by Einstein A. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Einstein_geometry.html&quot;&gt;English translation HTML&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hopfield, J. J. (1982). Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 79(8), 2554-2558.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amit, D. J., Gutfreund, H., &amp;amp; Sompolinsky, H. (1985). Spin-glass models of neural networks. Physical Review A, 32(2), 1007.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heath, R. A. (2000). The Ornstein-Uhlenbeck model for decision time in cognitive tasks: An example of control of nonlinear network dynamics. Psychological Research, 63(2), 183-191.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ratcliff, R., Gomez, P., &amp;amp; McKoon, G. (2004). A diffusion model account of the lexical decision task. Psychological review, 111(1), 159.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2013-04-28T18:09:43.770" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3468" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3464" CreationDate="2013-04-29T00:36:08.087" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Now that @ofri has presented a good argument for physics, I'll give a few arguments for the benefits of a course in &lt;strong&gt;maths&lt;/strong&gt;, and particularly a math course that focuses heavily on &lt;strong&gt;statistics&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many areas of psychology where a good understanding of statistics is very helpful. Statistics is particularly useful in psychometrics, mathematical psychology, and more broadly, any research involving multivariate or other more complex statistical methods. Furthermore, the statistics that is often taught in undergraduate psychology programs is often more applied, focussing on how to interpret common statistical techniques. If you have a degree in mathematics and statistics, you should be able to understand the techniques used in psychological data analysis in a deeper way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, calculus, linear algebra, probability, mathematical statistics, statistical computing, and a wide range of statistics subjects (e.g., introductory statistics, multivariate statistics, bayesian statistics, etc.) are a huge help when it comes to contributing to the psychological literature using advanced quantitative methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, when it comes to seeking an academic position, the capacity to teach statistics and research methods to psychology students is often a bonus, as is the capacity to consult and collaborate with fellow researchers on statistical methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;My background is as someone who has specialised in the interface of statistics and psychology. Thus, I am biased, but equally I consider that I am in a fairly good position to have seen the benefits to my own and many other people's psychological research careers in having good quantitative skills.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-04-29T08:35:51.243" LastActivityDate="2013-04-29T08:35:51.243" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3471" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-04-30T13:11:31.437" Score="5" ViewCount="610" Body="&lt;p&gt;I previously asked about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3459/what-is-the-conceptual-relationship-between-higher-order-thinking-and-inductive&quot;&gt;the conceptual links between higher order thinking and inductive reasoning&lt;/a&gt;. This question focuses on the potential for improving higher order thinking through practicing inductive reasoning tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instances, in order to become a good dancer, one must exercise leg muscles, improve coordination, learn how to breathe and so on. Is their an analogy with acquiring higher order thinking skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, where can one find the main literature on how this process works? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2936" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T14:01:31.413" Title="Can we increase our higher order thinking (HOT) skills by practicing inductive reasoning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3472" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3473" CreationDate="2013-04-30T19:27:53.713" Score="7" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider two neurons, A and B, which reciprocally inhibit each other. If both of the neurons receive input at the same time, it seems to me that no oscillation will occur between the two. Such would occur only if one of the two is initially &quot;favored&quot; over the other. So what I'm wondering is, how does that happen? Is it essentially random?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2526" LastActivityDate="2013-04-30T20:01:00.390" Title="In a central pattern generator based on reciprocal inhibition, how does one &quot;side&quot; get picked over the other to start out?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3473" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3472" CreationDate="2013-04-30T20:01:00.390" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Noise will ensure that there will not be perfect symmetry and therefore that one has an advantage to fire first.  Whichever one fires first will inhibit the other and ensure that the first one to fire will stay on for however long the dynamics of the pattern generator allow.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2013-04-30T20:01:00.390" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3474" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3464" CreationDate="2013-05-01T08:24:14.040" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looking back at the history of current academic psychology, I would say that it has a tripartite foundation: The beginnings of psychology lie in ancient Greek to early modern &lt;strong&gt;metaphysics&lt;/strong&gt;, that is the philosophical speculation about the nature of the soul (psyche). Many psychological concepts (such as the psyche itself, but also consciousness, volition, emotion etc.) are metaphysical in origin and nature, that is: they have never been empirically proven to exist. In this respect modern psychology and cognitive sciences are still metaphysical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the eighteenth century philosophers (beginning with Christian Wolff) have attempted to conceive of a &lt;strong&gt;measurement&lt;/strong&gt; of these psychic constructs. The theory and practice of this measurement has been developed by scholars from a more medical (such as Wundt) or more natural sciences background (such as Fechner and Helmholtz). If you wonder about the relevance of physics or geology to psychology, then you must first understand that scholars of that age were still almost always polymaths, educated and practicing in a variety of fields. If you look at their scientific biographies, you'll realize that they were not &quot;physicists&quot; or &quot;physicians&quot; in the currents sense, but interested in and researching the whole of &quot;God's creation&quot;. What Fechner brought to psychology was not physics, but the methodology of physics: the experiment and the mathematical analysis of the experiment's results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The third foundation of psychology today is, of course, &lt;strong&gt;physiology&lt;/strong&gt;. Since the Descartes' substance dualism (that the soul is a substance independent of the body) has been effectively abandoned by modern philosophers in favor of a physicalist position (that the mind is an effect of the body or, specifically, the brain), psychology and, more specifically, neuropsychology has attempted to understand where in the brain which psychological processes are taking place, and how.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More and more of today's cognitive sciences are performed by biologists and medical scientist. Many researchers in our (psychology) department are already from a medical background, and the departments of medicine and biology have large laboratories doing psychological research. If psychology does not want to become irrelevant, psychologists have to become experts in neurophysiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another huge influence is research by economists (Kahnemann etc.), who bring a lot of statistics with them. The relevance and status as a scientific discipline of psychology rest on the ability of psychologists to not only apply mathematical and statistical models developed in fields with different perspectives and purposes, but the ability to develop models and methods of mathematical analysis that fit psychological phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately most psychologists and cognitive scientists lack in philosophy of science, so they don't understand when and where their research is leaving the firm ground of experimental science and entering the domain of metaphysical speculation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I believe is the best foundation for meaningful psychological research today is, therefore, threefold:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Philosophy of science&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Statistics&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neurobiology&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Borsboom (2006) explains, why mathematics is fundamental to the development of psychology: most psychologists are unable to understand, develop and apply the theoretical models of item response theory, therefore current psychology is using classical test theory, which has several shortcomings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Borsboom, D. (2006). The Attack of the Psychometricians. &lt;em&gt;Psychometrika, 71,&lt;/em&gt; 425-440.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you downvote, please provide a critique, so I can amend my mistakes. A downvote without comment is not really helpful. Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorDisplayName="user1196" LastEditDate="2013-05-12T11:09:20.160" LastActivityDate="2013-05-12T11:09:20.160" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3475" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3476" CreationDate="2013-05-01T20:36:56.487" Score="12" ViewCount="7529" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering, how many objects can the average human being can recognize?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, most of us can't look at this and say how many boxes there are  without counting them:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4KC2Z.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;lots of boxes&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I think we can all recognize that there are only 3 boxes here (without  manually counting):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9iioa.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;3 boxes&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how many objects can an average human being recognize at once?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2969" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-30T04:44:38.340" LastActivityDate="2017-09-06T17:29:00.657" Title="What is the maximum number of objects an average human being can recognize at once?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3476" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3475" CreationDate="2013-05-01T21:04:45.767" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;The ability to enumerate objects without counting is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subitizing&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;subitizing&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most studies suggest that we can subitize up to about 3 or 4 items (e.g. Starkey &amp;amp; Cooper, 1995). Enumeration of a small number of objects (i.e. subitizing) yields consistent response times regardless of the quantity of objects. Enumeration of larger quantities (i.e. counting) yields response times that increase linearly with the number of objects. This is taken as evidence that the two processes are computationally distinct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further studies in both neuropsychology (Dehaene &amp;amp; Cohen, 1994) and neuroimaging (Piazza et al., 2002) have supported the idea that separate neural substrates underly the two computational processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dehaene, S., &amp;amp; Cohen, L. (1994). Dissociable mechanisms of subitizing and counting: Neuropsychological evidence from simultanagnosic patients. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance, 20(5), 958-975. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unicog.org/publications/DehaeneCohen_SimultanagnosiaSubitizing_JEPHPP1994.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piazza, M., Mechelli, A., Butterworth, B., &amp;amp; Price, C. J. (2002). Are subitizing and counting implemented as separate or functionally overlapping processes?. Neuroimage, 15(2), 435-446. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mathematicalbrain.com/pdf/SUBIT.PDF&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Starkey, P., &amp;amp; Cooper, R. G. (1995). The development of subitizing in young children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 13(4), 399-420.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-05-01T21:04:45.767" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3477" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3479" CreationDate="2013-05-01T22:09:42.110" Score="6" ViewCount="999" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I disagreed with the assumption, that lots of neurotransmitters came within recent 10,000 years of Homo Sapiens evolution.&#xA;Judging from the available information sources, there is possibility of minor changes of brain reaction on neurotransmitters, but first assumption seems like nonsense for me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, are there any neurotransmitters, appeared only in human evolution history?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, are there reliable sources which will connect the appearance and development of biological species with appearance of neurotransmitters?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At last, are there significant acceleration of human brain evolution within last 10,000 years, connected with social processes or brain evolution for Humans occurring more gradually?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1017" LastActivityDate="2013-05-04T17:20:02.433" Title="Neurotransmitters appearance in the evolutionary process" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3478" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3481" CreationDate="2013-05-04T11:21:56.647" Score="9" ViewCount="289" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose, somebody has to estimate the likelihood of one of the following events (or has to estimate which event is more likely):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A coin is tossed six times and each time the result is heads. (combined)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A 64-sided die is rolled and the result is 1. (uncombined)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since 2⁶ = 64, both events are obviously equiprobable. However, somebody with less statistical prowess might think otherwise. Also, in a more complex scenario (e.g., in a board game) at least one of the probabilities may be impossible to calculate for almost anybody (at least in a short time).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in studies that investigate, &lt;strong&gt;whether combined probabilities (1) are estimated to be higher, lower or equal than uncombined probabilities (2)&lt;/strong&gt;, even if the actual probabilities are identical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am also interested in studies, which investigate the influence of the presentation of the scenario on the estimation of probabilities: &lt;strong&gt;Is the same scenario perceived differently, if presented in a way that emphasises combinedness?&lt;/strong&gt; For example, one could simply ask somebody to estimate the probability that one of his close relatives will die within a year (uncombined) or one could ask him to list all his close relatives, their age and state of health first (combined). After all, a lot of probabilities with real-life applications are combined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I am not interested in which of the estimates is more accurate, only which one is higher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2981" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-05-05T11:12:53.503" LastActivityDate="2013-05-05T20:49:56.133" Title="Do people estimate combined probabilities differently to uncombined ones?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3479" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3477" CreationDate="2013-05-04T17:20:02.433" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Neurobiology and Evolution are not exactly my field of expertise, but I'll try to answer anyway.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there any neurotransmitters that appeared only in human evolution history?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably not. &lt;strong&gt;The common human neurotransmitters we know of, are also found in other animals&lt;/strong&gt;. More surprisingly, most of them are also found in organisms with no nervous-system, such as microorganisms and plants. This has even led some to advocate the change of the name neurotransmitters to biomediaters (Roshchina, 2010). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is believed that most of the changes in the nervous system occur at the circuitry level, and are not the introduction of new types of neurotransmitters. For example, Venter et al (1988) write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The presence of hormones, neurotransmitters, their receptors and biosynthetic and degradative enzymes is clearly not only associated with the present and the recent past but with the past several hundred million years. Evidence is mounting which indicates substantial conservation of protein structure and function of these receptors and enzymes over these tremendous periods of time. These findings indicate that the evolution and development of the nervous system was not dependent upon the formation of new or better transmitter substances, receptor proteins, transducers and effector proteins but involved better utilization of these highly developed elements in creating advanced and refined circuitry. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And Winer and Larue (1996) write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many features in the mammalian sensory thalamus, such as the types of neurons, their connections, or their neurotransmitters, are conserved in evolution. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is important to remember that there are changes related to the neurotransmitters and how they are used in the brain. For example, Burki and Kaessmann (2004) showed that one gene encoding the enzyme glutamate dehydrogenase, which is important in the neurotransmitter glutamate recycling process has appeared less than 23 million years ago in our evolution. Grailhe et al (2001) show that one type of Serotonin recceptor has disappeared somewhere in the evolution between rodents and humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Roshchina, V. V. (2010). Evolutionary considerations of neurotransmitters in microbial, plant, and animal cells. In Microbial Endocrinology (pp. 17-52). Springer New York.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Venter, J. C., Di Porzio, U., Robinson, D. A., Shreeve, S. M., Lai, J., Kerlavage, A. R., ... &amp;amp; Fraser, C. M. (1988). Evolution of neurotransmitter receptor systems. Progress in neurobiology, 30(2-3), 105.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Winer, J. A., &amp;amp; Larue, D. T. (1996). Evolution of GABAergic circuitry in the mammalian medial geniculate body. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(7), 3083-3087.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Burki, F., &amp;amp; Kaessmann, H. (2004). Birth and adaptive evolution of a hominoid gene that supports high neurotransmitter flux. Nature genetics, 36(10), 1061-1063.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grailhe, R., Grabtree, G. W., &amp;amp; Hen, R. (2001). Human 5-HT&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; receptors: the 5-HT&lt;sub&gt;5A&lt;/sub&gt; receptor is functional but the 5-HT&lt;sub&gt; 5B&lt;/sub&gt; receptor was lost during mammalian evolution. European journal of pharmacology, 418(3), 157-167.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2013-05-04T17:20:02.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3480" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3478" CreationDate="2013-05-04T21:02:28.270" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe these questions are dealt with by &quot;support theory,&quot; the seminal publications being:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tversky, A., &amp;amp; Koehler, D. J. (1994). Support theory: A nonextensional representation of subjective probability. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review, 101&lt;/em&gt;(4), 547-566.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rottenstreich, Y., &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1997). Unpacking, repacking, and anchoring: advances in support theory. &lt;em&gt;Psychological review, 104&lt;/em&gt;(2), 406.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the basic findings accounted for by support theory is an &lt;em&gt;unpacking effect&lt;/em&gt; whereby people judge an event that implicitly consists of a disjunction of many events (e.g., the probability that a person will &quot;die from a natural cause&quot;) as less probable than the sum of the probability estimates for some component events that one could &quot;unpack&quot; the original hypothesis into (e.g., the sum of [a] the probability a person will die from heart disease, [b] the probability a person will die from cancer, [c] the probability a person will die from other natural causes). For example, in one study reported in Tversky &amp;amp; Koehler (1994), participants on average judged the probability of the implicit disjunction above (&quot;death from a natural cause&quot;) to be 58%, and the probability of the unpacked version to be 22% + 18% + 33% = 73%. In the words of Tversky &amp;amp; Koehler, &quot;unpacking an implicit disjunction may increase, but not decrease, its judged probability&quot; (p. 549).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lot more to support theory than just this unpacking effect, but a more complete summary of the theory is beyond my knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="463" LastActivityDate="2013-05-04T21:02:28.270" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3481" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3478" CreationDate="2013-05-05T20:49:56.133" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The probability of conjunctive events (&lt;strong&gt;all&lt;/strong&gt; six tosses are heads) are overestimated, relative to a single event of similar overall probability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This result has been shown by Paul Slovic, in an experiment that is described in its abstract as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study examined the effects on the attractiveness of a gamble, of manipulating the number and structure of the independent events on which the gamble's outcomes were contingent, while holding the expected value constant. 3 manipulations were studied. The most effective was the situation where a gamble offering a payoff with probability equal to p was changed into a gamble whose payoff was contingent on the joint occurrence of 4 independent events, each having a probability equal to p^(1/4). Although individual differences were substantial, &lt;strong&gt;the majority of Ss behaved as if the probability of the compound event was much greater than p&lt;/strong&gt;, its true value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar results were obtained by Maya Bar-Hillel, in several experiments. In one of them she presented subjects with displays similar to this one:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eCC6l.png&quot; alt=&quot;Fig. 1 from Bar-Hillel, 1973. An example of an array in the experiment&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A path in this array is defined as any line which originates at any element of the first row, connects it with any element in the second row, proceeds to&#xA;pass through any element in the third row, and so on to the last row.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subjects were asked to estimate the proportion of paths in such displays that cross only X's, relative to all paths. Results show a robust (and quite large) overestimation of this proportion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Slovic, P. (1969). Manipulating the attractiveness of a gamble without changing its expected value. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 79(1p1), 139.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bar-Hillel, M. (1973). On the subjective probability of compound events. Organizational behavior and human performance, 9(3), 396-406.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2013-05-05T20:49:56.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3482" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-05T23:32:18.383" Score="3" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently became aware that there's a whole &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantified_Self&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;field of quantified self&lt;/a&gt; - using various methodology to collect data about human performance in an attempt to &quot;quantify&quot; how the human body/brain works. I'm sure a lot of the methodology uses is not rigorous or scientific, but I'm interested nonetheless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any third party tools/mods/apps that monitor performance of people playing video games&lt;/strong&gt;? I'm looking at cameras that track people's eye motion, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.rescuetime.com/tour_new&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;programs that run in background (like rescue time)&lt;/a&gt;, potentially consumer-grade EEG data or mods that keep logs of games played. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some examples: &#xA;In some strategy games, like starcraft, the concept of &lt;strong&gt;&quot;Actions per minute&quot; - APM&lt;/strong&gt; is important, and the user is expected to manage dozens of different unit interactions and commands. It would be interesting to see a plot of APM vs game time vs time of the day. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some &quot;shooter&quot; video games, especially multiplayer, the concept of &quot;kill to death ratio&quot; is important - how many times a person has killed before being killed. I would expect that there's some kind of a correlation between cognitive performance and ability to stay alive while accomplishing objectives. It would be interesting to see how this is related to the time of day or the person's vital signs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there already have been studies done on the subject, I&quot;m interested in who holds/has the data on &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-05-05T23:32:18.383" Title="What Quantified Self reserach tools are there for measuring performance while playing videogames?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3483" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="767" CreationDate="2013-05-06T16:59:29.827" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Instinct is neither learned nor developmental behavior.  Intuition is awareness outside of conscious searching or conscious algorithmic behavior.  Autonomous activity is a reflex or heart beating that is automatic (may be a conditioned responding).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2984" LastActivityDate="2013-05-06T16:59:29.827" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3484" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-07T05:46:49.920" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often analyse data that involves participants completing a selection of psychological tests online. A concern with online testing is that some participants may not complete the task conscientiously. For example, they may response options at random or just click the same response option repeatedly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I like to get response times per item, as I find that they are useful in diagnosing people who are deliberately skipping through the test. However, there are cases where that is not possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make discussion concrete, think about where you have responses to 10 psychological scales. Each scale has 20 items. Some items may be reverse coded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is a good way to identify participants who were not concentrating or not completing the items conscientiously?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do you ensure that you don't filter out participants with unusual patterns of responses?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-05-07T05:46:49.920" Title="How to identify participants answering online questionnaires who have not paid attention?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2013-05-07T12:12:08.007" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3485" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3267" CreationDate="2013-05-07T18:56:05.983" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not directly an answer to your question but, in line with my comments to another answer, my main advice would be “don't worry about it”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jeromy Anglim's tips are all good but I am still unconvinced that this is an important issue for most people. Since you are new to research, there are probably dozens of other things you should worry about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, if you do see evidence that there is a problem (extremely short response times, contradictory answers, large number of respondent providing absurd answers to open-ended questions), I would argue that you should first step back and ask yourself if what you are asking is reasonable (Do the task make sense? Can people be expected to have an opinion about the topic you are investigating? Are you demanding too much effort?) rather than trying to sort out “bad” respondents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you really want to dig into the subject and look up some literature, another name for this phenomenon is “satisficing”. “Response set” is a related idea that might be of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastActivityDate="2013-05-07T18:56:05.983" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3486" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-08T02:31:42.703" Score="9" ViewCount="1538" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in using Mechanical Turk as a means of recruiting participants for online psychology studies. I have never used it for any research. However, many of my studies take around 30 minutes to an hour to complete. A typical study might involving answering a set of questionnaires using Inquisit. My impression is that Mechanical Turk works best with short studies (i.e., one to five minutes). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it possible to use Mechanical Turk for longer studies?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any important tips for effectively using Mechanical Turk for longer studies?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any tutorials or case studies which document successful methods for using Mechanical Turk for longer studies?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or alternatively are there better systems for recruiting paid participants for longer online studies?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general I appreciate that longer studies would require much more remuneration probably more than just a multiple of the amount of time.&#xA;I also imagine that there would be additional issues of quality control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-27T02:44:38.410" LastActivityDate="2015-01-14T01:38:49.647" Title="How to use Mechanical Turk for longer studies (i.e., 30 minutes+)?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;mechanical-turk&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3487" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3493" CreationDate="2013-05-08T11:11:29.213" Score="0" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sites like linkedin.com are built on the idea that you can be related to any person in the world though around 6 people. One person knows another one, that one another one, and in the end you are connected through intermediate connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested if something similar exists for ideas - &lt;strong&gt;does human mind naturally connect and infer from different ideas to find a relationship between ideas?&lt;/strong&gt; I'm thinking about this in the context of Freudian dream interpretation. In his book on the analysis of dreams, Freud repeatedly lists examples where he uses analysis and logic to find meaning in dream imagery and experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me curious if what Freud has discovered is some function of memory or thinking that establishes connections between unrelated ideas through intermediate ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, there is no connection between cats and space flight. But ones mind may try to connect them through a cartoon episode which involved super intelligent cats from the outer space invading earth in spaceships. Now there is a connection between cats and space flight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What &lt;strong&gt;I'm trying to ask is if it is natural for the mind to bridge gaps between unrelated ideas through intermediate ones, especially if/when a person is actively looking for a connection?&lt;/strong&gt; if there are 6 jumps between two unrelated ideas/concepts, then there are 6 degrees of separation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2013-05-09T10:50:58.260" LastActivityDate="2013-05-09T10:50:58.260" Title="Are there &quot;6 degrees of separation&quot; for ideas?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;ideation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3488" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-08T12:39:05.303" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to find some images in which there are logical inconsistencies. I want to use them for practicing my attention towards those kinds of logical errors (so that I could more easily spot them in my dreams, I am not sure if this works, but I just want to test.). I remember back in the high school someone showed me a picture where one is supposed to find such logical inconsistencies and picture included shadows facing wrong directions, things affected by winds in different directions etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1189" LastActivityDate="2013-05-08T18:41:42.243" Title="Is there a place where I can find inconsistent images?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3489" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3471" CreationDate="2013-05-08T13:12:42.370" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is more of a comment than an answer. In fact it's more of an advice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Higher-order thinking and inductive reasoning have rather vague definitions, in my mind. They seem to also come from different backgrounds. If you don't mind, I think it's easier to approach your situation rather than your question. You might find it refreshing to think of higher-order thinking as a phenomena that occurs under certain conditions; in addition to thinking of it as a muscle (which is implied by your question). Specifically, if you look at higher-order thinking, as you call it, as a state to be entered into, some of the greater facilitators are ability to relax and to change perspectives effectively with emphasis on relaxation. This is within the scope of neurolinguistics, if you'd prefer a contemporary approach; if you don't mind going old school with this, more or less any meditation, should lead to noticeable improvements or autogenic training might float your boat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this is helpful. I regret not providing any references. Edits are welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2894" LastActivityDate="2013-05-08T13:12:42.370" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3490" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3488" CreationDate="2013-05-08T18:22:17.427" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The University of Adelaide has a lot of information concerning inconsistent images:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hss.adelaide.edu.au/philosophy/inconsistent-images/&quot;&gt;http://www.hss.adelaide.edu.au/philosophy/inconsistent-images/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also a few of those on this page:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hss.adelaide.edu.au/philosophy/inconsistent-images/galleries/#sl&quot;&gt;http://www.hss.adelaide.edu.au/philosophy/inconsistent-images/galleries/#sl&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2929" LastEditorUserId="2929" LastEditDate="2013-05-08T18:41:42.243" LastActivityDate="2013-05-08T18:41:42.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3491" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-05-08T23:19:58.247" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp. EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows within the neurons of the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2020-08-03T05:45:28.077" LastActivityDate="2020-08-03T05:45:28.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="3492" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-05-08T23:19:58.247" Score="0" Body="Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity electrical activity from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp." OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-05-08T23:19:58.247" LastActivityDate="2013-05-08T23:19:58.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3493" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3487" CreationDate="2013-05-09T00:09:17.277" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are asking two different questions in your title and the text. I will answer the text question, explain why you are asking two different questions, and comment on the title question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The human mind seems to have some sort of relational structure for how it works with ideas. This is usually study in the domain of memory via free recall. In a free recall experiment, a participant will memorize a list of items and then be asked to recall them in any order. Alternatively, there might be no list to memorize and instead the participant may be asked to name as many of some common things as they can quickly (for instance: name all the animals you know). The experimenter tracks the time delays between recall of items, and uses that to infer the &quot;mental distance&quot; between concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It a typical experiment, you will see clustering effects with participants quickly naming a bunch of objects of one type before taking slightly longer to transition to another type and then name many objects of that type quickly. As an example, I might be asked to name cartoon characters and I would start listing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Bart&quot; [short delay] &quot;Homer&quot; [short delay] &quot;Marge&quot; [short delay] &quot;Lisa&quot; [short delay] &quot;Maggie&quot; [long delay while my mind switches from 'The Simpsons' cluster to 'Futurama' cluster] &quot;Fry&quot; [short delay] Leela [short delay] Dr. Zoidberg [etc]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This suggests that I naturally connect and infer different relationships between ideas. In particular, the temporal structure of my recall reveals that I known concepts like &quot;The Simpsons&quot; and &quot;Futurama&quot; and I connect certain names to each other because they share a relationship of &quot;being on the same show&quot;. Of course, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acrwebsite.org/search/view-conference-proceedings.aspx?Id=6186&quot;&gt;how I structure my categories and recall is shaped by my expertise&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an experimenter, I could represent the way people structure their ideas as a graph/network, with individual ideas represented as nodes and closely related ideas (or ones between which people usually transition often or quickly) connected by edges. Free recall is then a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_walk#Random_walk_on_graphs&quot;&gt;random walk&lt;/a&gt; on this network. The netwok is similar to a social network, except there nodes are people and edges exist between friends. However, just because what you are studying has a network structure, doesn't mean that it has &quot;6 degrees of separation&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;6 degrees of separation&quot; idea is a subset of all networks that are known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small-world_network&quot;&gt;small-world networks&lt;/a&gt;. Small-world networks are defined as networks on $n$ nodes where the longest shortest path (i.e. the fewest edges you need to follow to get from any arbitrary node to any other arbitrary node) is of length about $\log n$. Many networks, say a regular grid, are not small-world (in the case of the regular grid, the length of the longest shortest path is proportional to $\sqrt{n}$ which is much bigger than $\log n$). Thus, the question in the body of you post is not necessarily related to the title.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if we take a highly clustered small-world network and perform a random walk on it, then the results will be similar to what we see in free recall experiments. In particular, the random walk will tend to wander for a while in one cluster until taking a jump to another cluster where it would again linger. Thus, the relational structure of ideas might be consistent with small-world networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastActivityDate="2013-05-09T00:09:17.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3494" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3495" CreationDate="2013-05-09T03:49:37.800" Score="8" ViewCount="206" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember a study about how a picture of an eye made people more well behaved. The experiment was in an unsupervised coffee room where there was a box where participants were expected to deposit money after getting their coffee. However, due to lack of supervision, the participants had the option of leaving no money in the box and getting a free coffee. The study had two conditions, when a picture of a plant hung over the coffee maker and a picture of an eye. They found that participants contributed more money in the eye condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the original reference and name of this study?&lt;/strong&gt; What mechanisms did the authors propose to explain this effect? Have the results been replicated in similar studies? How does the increase in contribution compare to cases with passive surveillance like an easily visible camera in the room (but not eye shaped)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T22:39:55.963" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T22:39:55.963" Title="Picture of eye promotes good behaviour" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3495" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3494" CreationDate="2013-05-09T09:58:57.417" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;A study that used the field setting you describe is done by Bateson et al. (2006). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the mechanism, they write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;we believe that images of eyes motivate cooperative behaviour because they induce a perception in participants of being watched. Although participants were not actually observed in either of our experimental conditions, the human perceptual system contains neurons that respond selectively to stimuli involving faces and eyes (Emery 2000; Haxby et al. 2000), and it is therefore possible that the images exerted an automatic and unconscious effect on the participants’ perception that they were being watched. Our results therefore support the hypothesis that reputational concerns may be extremely powerful&#xA;  in motivating cooperative behaviour. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar findings have been found in a lab setting by Haley and Fessler (2005). They also compared the effect to other cues (such as auditory cues) of presence of others and found similar effect. So I don't have a direct answer to the surveillance camera scenario, but these results suggest the effect would be similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is clear that this effect depends on many variables. For example, it has been shown not exist in darkness (Tane and Takezawa, 2011), and to depend on culture (Raihani and Bshary, 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bateson, M., Nettle, D., &amp;amp; Roberts, G. (2006). Cues of being watched enhance cooperation in a real-world setting. Biology letters, 2(3), 412-414.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haley, K. J., &amp;amp; Fessler, D. M. (2005). Nobody's watching?: Subtle cues affect generosity in an anonymous economic game. Evolution and Human behavior, 26(3), 245-256.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tane, K., &amp;amp; Takezawa, M. (2011). Perception of human face does not induce cooperation in darkness. Letters on Evolutionary Behavioral Science, 2(2), 24-27.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Raihani, N. J., &amp;amp; Bshary, R. (2012). A positive effect of flowers rather than eye images in a large-scale, cross-cultural dictator game. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 279(1742), 3556-3564.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2013-05-09T09:58:57.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3496" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-09T21:36:52.513" Score="29" ViewCount="1467" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to work as effectively as possible for 8-9 hours a day, whether at work or studying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At some point in completing my major in psych I remember hearing about the importance of taking breaks while doing work (e.g., Trougakos and Hideg, 2009 on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wlu.ca/documents/51434/Trougakos_Hideg_chapter_2009.pdf&quot;&gt;momentary work recovery&lt;/a&gt;). Gopher et al (1995) discuss  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA296199&quot;&gt;ultradian rhythms&lt;/a&gt; and working for 90 minutes for every 15 minutes of break. Some methods like the pomodoro technique suggest 25 minutes of work for every 5 minutes of break, with a 15 minute break every 4 cycles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there recent, widely-accepted research on what work-break rhythms work best?&lt;/strong&gt; (Even if the research was done for specific tasks or for specific populations.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How does the optimal work-break rhythm vary by task, context, or other moderating factors?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gopher, D., Lavie, P., &amp;amp; Zomer, J. (1995). Ultradian Rhythms in Prolonged Human Performance.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trougakos, J. P., &amp;amp; Hideg, I. (2009). Momentary work recovery: The role of within-day work breaks. Research in occupational stress and well-being, 7, 37-84.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2993" LastEditorUserId="2993" LastEditDate="2013-08-30T01:58:44.063" LastActivityDate="2013-09-08T05:25:44.727" Title="How long should I work before taking a break?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3497" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3486" CreationDate="2013-05-10T07:06:27.263" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I've just started reading up on Mechanical Turk. This is a summary of some of the tips that I've found. Admittedly, most of it applies generally to psychological experiments, and not specifically to longer ones.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;David Sharek &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.playgraph.com/2010/bits/experiments-using-mechanical-turk-part-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;discusses his workflow which explicitly includes studies in the 30 minute range&lt;/a&gt;. Thus, this post is one of the most relevant for dealing with the issue of longer studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Assorted resources&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some  other assorted resources; see also the references at the bottom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/support/docs/v4/html/howto/interopsurveys.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Interoperating Inquisit with other tools&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/gideongoldin/TurkGate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TurkGate&lt;/a&gt; is an open source tool to facilitate the use of Mechanical Turk with external psychology experiments.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mason and Suri (2012) review the potential benefits, implementation, and ethics of Mechanical Turk. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Michael Buhrmester&lt;/strong&gt; has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/faculty/gosling/reprints/MTurkhowto.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;guide for social scientists&lt;/a&gt;. He provides an outline of his workflow when running studies. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assorted blogs relevant to Mechanical Turk mentioned by Buhrmester&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://behind-the-enemy-lines.blogspot.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://behind-the-enemy-lines.blogspot.com&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://experimentalturk.wordpress.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://experimentalturk.wordpress.com&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://groups.csail.mit.edu/uid/deneme&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://groups.csail.mit.edu/uid/deneme&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.crowdflower.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://blog.crowdflower.com&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Configuring external surveys&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general model seems to be to have a link to an external site (make sure it opens in a new tab or window) where the survey is delivered and a box for the completion code to be entered. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Buhrmester discusses various completion code systems and  opted for the relatively low tech option of getting participants to make up a 4 or 5 digit number and enter it both into the survey and into the mturk. He then uses time stamp data to verify the original completer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Payment&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mason and Suri state&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, recent research on the behavior of workers (Chilton et al.,&#xA;  2010) demonstrated that workers had a reservation wage (the least&#xA;  amount of pay for which they would do the task) of only \$1.38 per&#xA;  hour, with an average effective hourly wage of $4.80 for workers&#xA;  (Ipeirotis, 2010a).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of the relationship between payment and quality of worker they cite studies suggesting that there is an initial positive relationship that levels off at a certain point such that at a certain point additional payment does not improve performance.&#xA;Masson and Suri then suggest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Consequently, it is often advisable to start by paying less than the&#xA;  expected reservation wage, and then increasing the wage if the rate of&#xA;  completed work is too low.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly wages up to a point should increase the speed of data collection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Rejection of hits&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding rejecting hits, Michael has simply accepted all hits. This may be simpler than trying to work out which hits are legitimate. This also made sense given that he was often only paying 10 cents per participant for 10 minute experiments. It also has the benefit of not damaging your reputation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Quality assurance&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two issues here. Did the participant complete the study at all? And did they complete the study in an appropriate manner (e.g., trying on performance task; reading instructions properly; etc.)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A general approach is to incorporate additional means to usual for detecting dodgy data.&#xA;If it's simple to filter out such participants then they don't corrupt the final dataset.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;item level reaction time measures &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;response patterns to negative and positively worded items&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;repeat items which should yield identical responses&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;performance measures&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Include very simple true-false questions (e.g., 2+2; Who is the president of the United States); Mason and Suri mention that in 500 responses only six got it wrong and three didn't answer.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Buhrmester makes the causal observation that the quality of responses may vary based on the country of responders, so for example limited participation to US participants is one coarse means of filtering for quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Managing reputation as a requester&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Buhrmester mentions accepting all hits both for simplicity and managing reptuation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mason and Suri (2012) discuss how reputation is discussed and monitored on external sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Turkopticon is a site that allows workers to rate requesters along four&#xA;  axes: communicativity, generosity, fairness, and promptness. Turker&#xA;  Nation is an online bulletin board where workers routinely comment on&#xA;  requesters and communicate about individual HITs. It is strongly&#xA;  encouraged that new requesters “introduce” them- selves to the&#xA;  Mechanical Turk community by first posting to Turker Nation before&#xA;  putting up HITs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rand, D. G. (2012). The promise of Mechanical Turk: How online labor markets can help theorists run behavioral experiments. Journal of theoretical biology, 299, 172-179.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., &amp;amp; Gosling, S.D. (2011). Amazon’s Mechanical Turk: A New Source of Inexpensive, Yet High-Quality, Data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(1), 3-5.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mason, W., &amp;amp; Suri, S. (2012). Conducting behavioral research on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Behavior research methods, 44(1), 1-23.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Berinsky, A. J., Huber, G. A., &amp;amp; Lenz, G. S. (2011). Using Mechanical Turk as a subject recruitment tool for experimental research. Submitted for review.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Berinsky, A. J., Huber, G. A., &amp;amp; Lenz, G. S. (2012). Evaluating online labor markets for experimental research: Amazon. com's mechanical turk. Political Analysis, 20(3), 351-368.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-05-10T07:06:27.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3498" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-10T18:03:03.623" Score="7" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard about an experiment that have shown an effect of the type of paper a resume was printed on, on the evaluation of the resume. If I remember correctly, resumes printed on heavier paper, or attached to heavier writing pads were evaluated as better. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I may have some of the details wrong (for example, it may have been some other job application forms, and not resumes), but hopefully the gist is right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried to look for the reference, but couldn't find it. Does anyone know of a reference presenting such an experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="38" LastEditDate="2013-06-11T07:55:04.080" LastActivityDate="2013-06-11T07:55:04.080" Title="Effect of paper type on evaluation of resumes" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3498" CreationDate="2013-05-11T09:32:25.410" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some findings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://job.sagepub.com/content/21/3/5.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://job.sagepub.com/content/21/3/5.full.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.xavier.edu/appliedhrmresearch/1990-Winter/Henson%20_1_%202.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.xavier.edu/appliedhrmresearch/1990-Winter/Henson%20_1_%202.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2164-585X.1979.tb00080.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2164-585X.1979.tb00080.x/abstract&lt;/a&gt; (Abstract only)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These articles all seem to deal with paper color (white vs off-white), not quality, and the advent of personal computers and laser printers after this research was completed clearly outdates some of the research questions (e.g. typeset vs typewritten resumés).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastActivityDate="2013-05-11T09:32:25.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3500" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3574" CreationDate="2013-05-11T10:52:26.293" Score="8" ViewCount="321" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studies on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype_threat&quot;&gt;stereotype threat&lt;/a&gt; have typically used stereotypes that that are common in contemporary culture, i.e. the canonical example being the study that showed African American SAT scores lowered when faced with the stereotype that African Americans are less intelligent than other groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any studies where researchers invented a stereotype (i.e. something random, like &quot;Hispanics perform more poorly at jump rope than other groups&quot;) and tested to see if it had any effect on well controlled test subjects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any social studies where scientists have tried inventing a new stereotype and implanting it into the mainstream population?  (I doubt this because of ethics issues, but it would certainly be interesting!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2997" LastActivityDate="2013-06-01T03:08:16.740" Title="Self-fulfilling stereotypes: Have researchers tried inventing new group stereotypes?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3501" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-12T12:29:41.433" Score="3" ViewCount="1112" Body="&lt;p&gt;More and more often I read in papers, that an online survey has been conducted through Facebook. What I have yet to understand is how this can best be done.&#xA;I understand that Facebook allows the creation of a survey app that allows surveys to be embedded in fan pages or timelines.&#xA;Thus, I have many little questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How and where do the existing Facebook survey apps (like &lt;a href=&quot;https://de-de.facebook.com/simple.surveys&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://de-de.facebook.com/simple.surveys&lt;/a&gt;) store their data? How does this comply with scientific privacy and data security concerns?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which apps are best, and why?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I would like to run the actual survey on my own website. Is it possible to embed an external website in a Facebook app?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can I implement a survey that does not need the test subject to allow the app access to profile data?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Since there is no way to advertise a survey on Facebook, except by having someone use it and let his friends know that he uses it, how do you, who have conducted surveys through Facebook, find a large enough and random enough sample? Or: How do you advertise your survey?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;My overall question is&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless of the little questions above, I'm interested in:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is an effective way to conduct surveys using Facebook?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any existing tutorials that describe best practice?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1196" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-11T13:16:58.393" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T13:16:58.393" Title="How to conduct surveys using facebook?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3502" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-12T17:43:56.483" Score="5" ViewCount="487" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am particularly interested in naturalistic and induced emotional content. I have found the SAVEE, the HUMAINE and the SEMAINE databases. I have read through the Terms for LDC (UPenn) and it seems somewhat complicated, especially as I am interested in their databases from 1993 and 2002. I have also found the EULA/ELDA resources, but these do not have much to offer. I have seen a passing reference to Glenn I. Roisman's database of Adult Attachment Interview recordings which seems to be perfect but I cannot get through to anyone from that team to inquire about availability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do you know any other databases of naturalistic/induced emotional stimuli which would be audio-visual and in English?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3000" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-05-13T14:23:07.047" LastActivityDate="2013-12-31T09:38:57.347" Title="Are there any free databases of audio-visual emotional stimuli (English)?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3504" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="676" CreationDate="2013-05-14T15:56:41.930" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anomic aphasia, also known as dysnomia, nominal aphasia, and amnesic aphasia; is a severe problem with recalling words or names.  Wikipedia is a good source of info on the subject.  Severe cases sometimes are traced back to a blow and subsequent damage to the left side of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3006" LastActivityDate="2013-05-14T15:56:41.930" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3505" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-15T13:46:51.827" Score="26" ViewCount="7905" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, I read several interesting questions on the web about the relationship between IQ and general intelligence and physiological symmetry. But more importantly, what explains the correlation? Or is it even true? Because many of the world's foremost thinkers, such as Plato, and Sartre, were ugly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there really a relationship between beauty (physiological symmetry) and intelligence?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;And if so, does physiological symmetry cause high intelligence?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3010" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2014-12-14T12:36:04.937" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T05:58:39.367" Title="How is intelligence correlated to beauty?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3506" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-15T14:11:57.077" Score="6" ViewCount="949" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to get started with getting signals from EEG and learning on how I can read data. I have some programming skills, so designing a database and manipulating data with ruby (python seems also cool, but never worked with) wouldn't be a problem, but I don't know where to start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in Neuromarketing because I'm working in advertising, but health is in my heart.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So can anyone please send me some books on what data I can get from EEG (theory) and what hardware should be good to use? Also books on how I can easily develop and calculate the data (emotiv sounds nice but not much electrodes and may not be working well, however for that money maybe good to begin with).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So something like getting started with EEG... Like with programming my first &quot;Hello world&quot; :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE: Bought EPOC EEG Research edition :) And there I can even choose, I think I will go with ruby then :)&#xA;But still need some very basic book on how to get long with all that data, I had suggestion on Introduction to Event Related Potential Technique and is there some easier to learn video tutorial or book... real basics :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3011" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-15T07:59:51.607" LastActivityDate="2017-02-14T11:42:52.557" Title="Getting started with EEG data" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3507" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3506" CreationDate="2013-05-15T15:22:04.043" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Steven J. Luck's &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0262621967&quot;&gt;An Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique&lt;/a&gt;&quot; is a great beginner's book on EEG. It's basic but not too simple, and it goes into the structure of the signals as well as into issues on experimental design. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2013-05-15T15:51:52.810" LastActivityDate="2013-05-15T15:51:52.810" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3505" CreationDate="2013-05-15T22:48:56.043" Score="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the general population there does seem to be a positive correlation between psychometrically measured intelligence and observer rated attractiveness (Kanazawa, 2011). The power of the relationship seems to be medium to low.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two possible explanations for this relationship are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence and physical attractiveness both depend on physical health; meaning that people who grow up unhealthily tend to be less attractive and less intelligent.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The genes for intelligence and physical attractiveness became collocated over time as more attractive people tend to mate with more intelligent people.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kanazawa, Satoshi. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.11.003&quot;&gt;Intelligence and physical attractiveness&lt;/a&gt;. Intelligence 39.1 (2011): 7-14. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://personal.lse.ac.uk/Kanazawa/pdfs/I2011.pdf&quot;&gt;free pdf here&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3015" LastEditorUserId="28" LastEditDate="2013-05-17T13:41:08.503" LastActivityDate="2013-05-17T13:41:08.503" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3511" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3167" CreationDate="2013-05-16T17:42:02.470" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just for reference, I ended up writing simple &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/MixayKocek/WebLexDec&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;web-based lexical decision task software&lt;/a&gt; myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2682" LastActivityDate="2013-05-16T17:42:02.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3512" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3361" CreationDate="2013-05-17T00:22:01.243" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if it's possible to train the corpus callosum, but aside from that, I don't think you can read text in the left visual field for longer than a fraction of a second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be able to read or see something in your left visual field, your eyes must be focused on something to the right of that (Imagine a fixation cross in the middle of a PC screen where your eyes are focused on and a word appearing to the left of that). First of all, you will have the reflex doing a saccade towards that word, so your eyes will be focused on that word and the word will be in both visual half fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if you can suppress that reflex, the word will not be projected onto the fovea, so the vision will not be sharp. The word will be blurry if it hasn't a huge font. If it has a huge font, there's a possibility that part of the word will be in the right visual field as well, because it is so big.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think reading one word this way is rather difficult, I cannot imagine reading a whole text this way. Certainly because a whole text exists of multiple lines, which will be blurry and perhaps difficult to distinguish. A whole text is also wider than one word, which would be or presented partially in both visual half fields again, or even more to the left, where the vision would be even blurrier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you assume that you can read a text this way, I don't think it is possible to have &lt;em&gt;more&lt;/em&gt; fibers, but it might be possible that you will have &lt;em&gt;thicker&lt;/em&gt; fibers, or at least stronger connections between hemispheres, which could result in a shorter interhemispheric transmission time. The brain is pretty plastic. Who knows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please note that all of this isn't scientific, but more or less my opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9" LastActivityDate="2013-05-17T00:22:01.243" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3513" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-17T05:40:18.947" Score="3" ViewCount="2072" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a formal scientific term for this type of personality?:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Main priorities are: family, phsyical and financial protection of the family and self. (Little to no creativity. Strong desire to reproduce.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learning a process or a system with no desire to improve process/system in any substantial way.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Avoidance of major change. Strong attraction for familiarity and incremental improvement only.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Understanding through physical experiences but with medium to low abstract thinking skills. (Low imagination.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Attraction to physical movement (as participant or spectator): dance,  slapstick comedy, sports. Avoidance of certain mental activities. (Jock stereotype.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apologies for my lack of scientific bg. I have no formal edu.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I ask is because I am building a UI and this &quot;personality&quot; appears to be dominant among the mass market. However, I have no idea where to begin when it comes to science journals and psychology terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3021" LastEditorUserId="3021" LastEditDate="2013-05-17T05:45:22.177" LastActivityDate="2013-05-18T09:15:11.977" Title="Any studies on lack of imagination and creativity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3514" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-17T15:12:57.250" Score="8" ViewCount="9037" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my experience most people prefer the appearance of even numbers or numbers divisible by 5. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any research which proves or disproves my theory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it all about symmetry?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I expect that people prefer the number 5 because it is half of 10 and we live in a world that primarily uses a base-10 system. e.g. I like my gamerscore on xbox-live or reputation here to be even or divisible by 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2430" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-05-20T02:57:22.323" LastActivityDate="2014-02-22T14:00:34.643" Title="Aesthetic preference for even or odd numbers" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3516" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3518" CreationDate="2013-05-17T18:52:56.463" Score="5" ViewCount="304" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anchoring is a well-known phenomenon [1]. However, I just ran an experiment where the effect seemingly backfired. Basically, I asked people to estimate the number of jelly beans in a jar. In my anchor condition, people were given an estimate produce by the Jelly Bean Counter 5000 computer system which was purported to be highly accurate, then they were allowed to see the jar. They were then asked to estimate the number of jelly beans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who were not anchored were allowed to see the jar of jelly beans first, then estimate the count. Then, they were showed Jelly Bean Counter 5000's estimate. They were then allowed to re-estimate the number of jelly beans in the jar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all cases, Jelly Bean Counter 5000 provided the exact number of jelly beans in the jar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results are shown in the figure below. Basically, people who were anchored with the Jelly Bean Counter 5000 number were about 62% accurate. People who made their own estimate first (self-anchoring) were initially about 46% accurate, but after seeing Jelly Bean Counter 5000's estimate, they increased to about 72% accurate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm at a loss to explain why people exposed to an accurate estimate (Jelly Bean Counter 5000) ended up being less accurate than people who formed their own inaccurate opinion first. Can anybody provide any alternative explanations? Are there any theories that might be applicable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://imgur.com/bkyH10f&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/bkyH10f.png&quot; title=&quot;Hosted by imgur.com&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Tversky, A., &amp;amp; Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124-1131. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="373" LastActivityDate="2013-05-17T22:49:25.693" Title="When can anchoring backfire?" Tags="&lt;anchoring&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3517" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4295" CreationDate="2013-05-17T22:40:21.227" Score="4" ViewCount="4948" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a person gets really stressed out and has a mental breakdown what happens to their frontal lobes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm reminded of the clip from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0103241/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;What about Bob?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; when Richard Dreyfuss has a breakdown when he learns that Bill Murray is marrying his sister, and then he ends up in the home basket weaving for a couple of months as an example of this...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="521" LastActivityDate="2016-03-24T01:44:33.910" Title="What happens to a person's frontal lobes when they have a breakdown from stress?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;&lt;frontal-lobes&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3518" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3516" CreationDate="2013-05-17T22:49:25.693" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there is a significant confound in your experimental design: &lt;strong&gt;The anchored subjects only make 1 estimate whereas the &quot;no anchor&quot; subjects make 2 estimates.&lt;/strong&gt; Note that on the first estimate the anchored subjects were much closer to the anchor than the non anchored ones, which is entirely consistent with Tversky's heuristic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, &quot;In all cases, Jelly Bean Counter 5000 provided the exact number of jelly beans in the jar.&quot; means that this isn't really a standard anchoring task. Normally, anchoring values aren't correct (in fact much of the anchoring work involves very incorrect anchors). &lt;strong&gt;This task confounds being close to the anchor with being close to the correct answer.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might have an interesting finding: more anchoring after a non-anchored guess, but without correcting for the 2-guess and perfect anchor confounds your results can't be properly interpreted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastActivityDate="2013-05-17T22:49:25.693" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3519" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3513" CreationDate="2013-05-18T09:15:11.977" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Personality and individual differences research has a range of constructs that relate to what you are talking about:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conservatism&lt;/a&gt; or fear of uncertainty seems relevant&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Low levels of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openness_to_experience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;openness to experience&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You seem to describing a &quot;type&quot; of individual. However, a multidimensional continuous approach is probably a better model of individual differences. For example, you describe a person with low intelligence (i.e., concrete thinking, low abstract reasoning). However, from memory intelligence and traits like openness only correlate weakly if at all.&#xA;Thus, the characteristics you describe don't necessarily go together. &#xA;What you seem to be describing is a stereotype, which probably has a poor match to reality where people tend to vary on a range of factors. Sure you can probably point to some point who fit the type, but there will be plenty more than only reflect some of those characteristics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regards to a person's main desires being protection of self and family both physically and financially, this sounds like a description of a lot of people. There are plenty of motivational theories and evolutionary models of human psychology which would reinforce such motives as very important to people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-05-18T09:15:11.977" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3520" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-18T10:37:50.857" Score="3" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;All of you probably know what the human 'circadian cycle' is, and depending on your personality, you would either be a night-owl or a morning-lark.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in understanding the patterns of alertness and tiredness &lt;strong&gt;throughout the entire day, between waking up and sleeping&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, my alertness gears up in the morning until 12.30 pm, after which I will, consciously or not, begin to feel very very drowsy. This happens even in the absence of lunch (lunch makes people feel tired because the body works to break down the carbohydrates). I will continue feeling tired and exhausted throughout the entire afternoon before I become alert again from 5 pm onwards. And then of course, in the night I am quite alert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are my questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has research been conducted on this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there strategies to alter the patterns?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the tiredness have to do with eating patterns?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the relationships between tiredness and our circadian cycles?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3025" LastEditorDisplayName="user2843" LastEditDate="2013-05-19T20:42:04.830" LastActivityDate="2013-05-21T15:26:40.267" Title="How do I change my tiredness patterns?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3521" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3527" CreationDate="2013-05-18T18:26:36.187" Score="3" ViewCount="197" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, I saw a crossword clue: (5 letters) &quot;They help you after a crash.&quot; After going through the list of EMTs, firemen, police officers, etc. I realized that the answer was &quot;IT Guy.&quot; This seems to me, to be analogous to the phenomenon of functional fixedness, and I was wondering if there is some linguistic equivalent to functional fixedness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3026" LastActivityDate="2013-05-20T17:16:25.477" Title="What is the linguistic equivalent of functional fixedness?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3522" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-18T20:29:37.337" Score="12" ViewCount="270" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work with neural network models of human cognition a lot, and one thing that bugs me about them is the timescale: they learn over thousands of trials whereas humans seem to learn after a couple examples. So I've been wondering if this discrepancy has studied, and if so, what terminology has been used to study it. Specifically, I'd be very interested to see some work trying to get neural network models to learn at a more human timescale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good example is learning to play a new video-game. We can do this in a few minutes if there is a tutorial explaining the basic game mechanics to us. However, modeling the same process would involve slowly strengthening perceptual-motor associations and could take a very long time indeed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I know about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-shot_learning&quot;&gt;one shot learning&lt;/a&gt;, and that is not quite what I'm talking about. That literature mainly revolves around image recognition and learning after a single presentation, whereas I'm curious about rapid learning more generally. This sounds a little vague, but the question &quot;why do our models learn several orders of magnitude slower than us?&quot; seems specific enough to have come up in the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2013-05-19T16:05:14.050" LastActivityDate="2013-05-27T01:24:29.687" Title="Is there any recent work on modeling how we rapidly acquire new knowledge?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3523" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-18T22:13:44.987" Score="19" ViewCount="555" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently became aware of the idea of &quot;reverse learning&quot; that might happen during REM sleep - the brain's attempt to eliminate pathological attractors that might appear in neural networks. The idea was originally expressed by &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/C/D/K/_/scbcdk.pdf&quot;&gt;Crick and Mitchison in their 1983 paper on &quot;The function of dream sleep&quot;.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested if there has any recent work that has supported that idea. I'm aware of this &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_learning&quot;&gt;wikipedia article on reverse learning&lt;/a&gt;. More specifically, &lt;strong&gt;I'm interested in how dream recall (writing down or recalling dreams upon awakening) affects the process of &quot;reverse learning&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2017-09-09T23:38:55.590" Title="Does dream recall interfere with &quot;reverse learning&quot;? (Crick and Mitchison's theory of REM sleep)" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3522" CreationDate="2013-05-20T02:12:38.890" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is slightly confused I feel, so I am not sure there is a good answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neural network models are evolutionary and so possibly analogous to the evolution of the human brain (where learning takes place extremely slowly), not to simple human learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain does not learn skills by evolving a neural network to perform that skill (that would just be too slow). It is probably something like: the brain processes information then encodes its conclusions into memory (neurons).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3015" LastActivityDate="2013-05-20T02:12:38.890" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3525" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-20T14:34:17.847" Score="3" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does not using the brain decreases mental functioning? If so, is it recommended to keep using the brain, for example by learning new things or engaging in challenging activities (puzzels, quizzes &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;.) up until old age? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3031" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-09T08:46:21.160" LastActivityDate="2016-09-09T13:22:10.440" Title="Does the &quot;use it or loose it&quot; principle apply to the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3526" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3522" CreationDate="2013-05-20T16:57:10.237" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans actually exhibit both slow and fast learning and they have somewhat different properties. One distinction is between &quot;declarative&quot; memory (for example, facts like &quot;tigers have stripes&quot; or &quot;Paris is the capital of France&quot;) and &quot;procedural&quot; learning (such as perceptuo-motor skills like riding a bike or playing a musical instrument). Declarative memory lends itself to fast learning but procedural memory requires a lot of practice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps even more relevant to your question is that neural network models are also capable of fast and slow learning, depending on the sparseness of the representations and tolerance for disruption. One of the foundational papers on this topic (McClelland, McNaughton, &amp;amp; O'Reilly, 1995) described a neural network model with two &quot;complementary learning systems&quot;: (1) A fast-learning hippocampal memory system that relies on sparse representations and is not able to maintain previously-learned information when learning new information (sometimes called &quot;catastrophic interference&quot;). (2) A slow-learning neocortical system that relies on distributed representations and is able to integrate many different examples into an overall structure that can support generalization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McClelland, J. L., McNaughton, B. L., &amp;amp; O’Reilly, R. C. (1995). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~jlm/papers/McCMcNaughtonOReilly95.pdf&quot;&gt;Why there are complementary learning systems in the hippocampus and neocortex: Insights from the successes and failures of connectionist models of learning and memory.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological Review, 102(3), 419–457.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2013-05-20T16:57:10.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3527" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3521" CreationDate="2013-05-20T17:16:25.477" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure whether this can explain your crossword experience, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseveration&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;perseveration&lt;/a&gt; is a fairly well-studied phenomenon in word production. Individuals with aphasia (a neurogenic language disorder) often exhibit perseveration errors in tasks like picture naming. For example, imagine trial &lt;em&gt;N&lt;/em&gt; is a picture of a dog and the participant responds &quot;dog&quot; (correct) and trial &lt;em&gt;N+1&lt;/em&gt; is a picture of a car and the participant again responds &quot;dog&quot; (perseveration error). Stark (2007) provides a good historical review of theories of perseveration in aphasia, which generally propose either failure to inhibit the representation of the previous response or failure to sufficiently activate the representation of the new stimulus (and it is possible that both can happen: Fischer-Baum &amp;amp; Rapp, 2012). Like other speech errors, perseveration errors are also produced by typical (non-aphasic) adults, just much less frequently than in aphasia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More general kinds of perseveration - inability to stop focusing on a particular topic - are associated with deficits of executive function (possibly related to frontal lobe dysfunction or damage) and a variety of psychopathologies, such as depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fischer-Baum, S., &amp;amp; Rapp, B. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.jhu.edu/labs/CogNeuro/publications/Underlying%20causes%20of%20letter%20perseveration%20errors.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Underlying cause(s) of letter perseveration errors.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychologia&lt;/em&gt;, 50(2), 305–318. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.12.001&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stark, J. (2007). A review of classical accounts of verbal perseveration and their modern‐day relevance. &lt;em&gt;Aphasiology&lt;/em&gt;, 21(10-11), 928–959. doi:10.1080/02687030701198239&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2013-05-20T17:16:25.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3528" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3520" CreationDate="2013-05-21T10:32:02.913" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer your questions (as to inspire you to do your own research and to avoid writing a book):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yes, there is a TON of research on circadian rhythms... There are also many ongoing research projects. I might suggest doing a google scholar search. You might also try getting access to academic peer reviewed journals through your local library, university/college, schools, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are certainly strategies to alter the patterns. For example, amount of exposure to sunlight and time of day, amount of exercise and time of day, eating patterns,  etc. have all been shown to have a correlational effect on wakefulness vs. tiredness. If you do research on what effects our circadian rhythms, you will have an idea of how to alter them. There was an interesting study done on the circadian rhythms of nurses who worked shifts of varying lengths and their work productivity/effectiveness due to their circadian rhythms. You might want to try to find articles like that.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yes, tiredness can certainly have to do with eating patterns. This is why many schools are implementing breakfast programs for children. Simply, food provides calories which provide energy. Without energy (and energy of the right type) we cannot function to our fullest ability. Different types of food would also effect one's circadian rhythm. You might wish to do some research on ghrelin and the circadian system. There is ongoing research looking into the effect of one's diet on their circadian rhythm.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;At this point, the full extent of relationships between tiredness and circadian rhythms are unknown. However, there is strong correlational data which suggests that REM sleep patterns, circadian rhythms and tiredness vs. wakefulness is highly related. You might also wish to look up specific neural circuitry which effects one's circadian rhythms.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wasn't sure how complex of an answer you wanted or your understanding of neural circuitry, so I haven't typed out the answers for you. Looking up various neurotransmitters would probably be a great place to start if you're interested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3032" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-05-21T15:26:40.267" LastActivityDate="2013-05-21T15:26:40.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3529" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-21T10:36:29.763" Score="7" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;A brief look through the literature didn't reveal any algorithms that have been directly applied to the online prediction of saccade landing sites while a saccade is in progress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there would surely be considerable noise in any such estimate, the direction vector, velocity and acceleration profiles should contain sufficient information to make a reasonable guess. Is anyone aware of any papers which have attempted such an approach?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, how good an estimate of landing site could be derived, and how early prior to landing could this estimate be made. What methods would be suggested for making such an estimate? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2655" LastActivityDate="2020-10-08T15:07:18.897" Title="Predicting the landing site of a saccade while the saccade is still in progress" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3530" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3525" CreationDate="2013-05-21T10:47:49.907" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, brain power is eroded via a lack of practice. This occurs through the processes called &lt;strong&gt;synaptic pruning and brain plasticity&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will leave you with a very basic answer as I am unsure of your level of understanding of cognitive processes. First, you must understand &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/brain_basics/ninds_neuron.htm&quot;&gt;neurons&lt;/a&gt;. Then, you can begin to understand &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.foryourintelligence.com/why-is-brain-plasticity-important/&quot;&gt;synaptic pruning and brain plasticity&lt;/a&gt;. Finally, here is &lt;a href=&quot;http://positscience.com/brain-resources/brain-plasticity&quot;&gt;a link to a bunch more information and brain plasticity exercises&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3032" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-05-21T15:03:21.677" LastActivityDate="2013-05-21T15:03:21.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3531" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-21T12:45:09.290" Score="2" ViewCount="1171" Body="&lt;p&gt;My research is on work related stress and burnout amongst healthcare professionals and the role that personality play in either reducing or increasing levels of stress and burnout. I'm using the big five personality factors to research how each of these factors affect the relationship between stress and burnout. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does personality affect levels of stress in individuals? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can a person's personality be a mediating or moderating factor?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="651" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-05-22T03:30:45.590" LastActivityDate="2013-05-22T03:30:45.590" Title="How does personality moderate or mediate the relationship between stress and burnout?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3533" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3535" CreationDate="2013-05-21T17:53:43.420" Score="4" ViewCount="1014" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to run a simple probability matching gambling experiment:&#xA;Each round has the participant pick Up or Down. The computer picks Up with a probability  (p=0.7). If the participant gets it correct, they win 1 credit. If they get it wrong, they lose 1 credit. This runs for 100 rounds. It needs to run online. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that I don't think Qualtrics can do this. Qualtrics can branch and do randomness, but that randomness is geared toward randomization of a survey. The only way that Qualtrics can do this is to do 2^100 branching. This is not good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does anyone know how to use Qualtrics to implement this type of study?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise, we will use something else with Amazon Turk. We believe that the most direct route is to create our own HTML page that implements this as a javascript. None of the online systems that we looked at seem to work well. In pacticular:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tatool.ch/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.tatool.ch/&lt;/a&gt; is good, but requires a java server.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webexp.info/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.webexp.info/&lt;/a&gt; is too complicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3034" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-27T03:22:31.400" LastActivityDate="2013-07-27T03:22:31.400" Title="How do you run a risk / gambling experiment using Qualtrics or Amazon Turk?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;mechanical-turk&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3533" CreationDate="2013-05-22T03:03:26.933" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This would be easy to implement in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Inquisit&lt;/a&gt;. Inquisit has a web interface and is particularly designed for branching and randomisation of trials. If the coding sounds too complex, you can always contact Inquisit and pay them to program the task. From my experience, the cost is not that great for simple scripts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can see an example of the Iowa Gambling Task in Inquisit &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/IowaGamblingTask/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. That's a lot more complex than what you are describing, but it should give you a feel for what is possible with Inquisit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could set up Inquisit with Mechanical Turk as you would most external surveys. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/3497/52&quot;&gt;this discussion of mechanical turk&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-05-22T03:09:27.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3536" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3531" CreationDate="2013-05-22T03:28:09.783" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Personality is generally theorised to be a stable individual difference variable. Research has shown it to be highly stable over time. Thus, from a theoretical perspective it typically has a primacy in causal models.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress can be an ambiguous construct. It can refer to the objective existence of stressful stimuli or the way that individuals perceive those stresses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a theoretical perspective, personality is related to both the objective experience of stressors and the subjective perception of stressors. In particular, neuroticism refers to dispositions to experience negative emotions. Personality influences the world. For example, people put themselves into situations that may elicit more stressful experiences. Likewise, personality can influence the experience of stress through various mental models, interpretive schemas, rumination tendencies, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While one can imagine in the extreme that stress can alter personality (e.g., PTSD), in general personality makes more sense as a factor that has a causal influence on both the objective experience and perception of stressful experiences. In this sense, it &lt;strong&gt;personality does not mediate the effect of stress on burnout&lt;/strong&gt;. This theoretically based conclusion is important. Statistical tests of mediation will provide rubbish information if you just plug in three intercorrelated variables like stress, personality, and burnout. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a theoretical perspective personality should causally influence the objective presence of stress, the subjective perception of stress, and whether someone experiences burnout. It also makes sense that certain personality traits such as neuroticism would causally increase the relationship between objective stressors and subjective stress and ultimately more extreme forms of subjective stress such as burnout. However, in order to really test this idea, you need to get very good measures of objective stressors. Subjective measures of stress are likely to be influenced directly by personality which is likely to reduce the potential moderator relationship. Alternatively, you might just find that main effects are enough; i.e., that personality and objective stressors mutually contribute to burnout, but that there is no interaction effect (as would be implied by the moderator hypothesis).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are thousands of empirical articles looking at correlates of personality, stress, strain, burnout and so on. I have read a lot of them many years ago. This answer focuses more on the theoretical underpinnings of any relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-05-22T03:28:09.783" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3537" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-22T04:19:53.407" Score="10" ViewCount="1614" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've found a reasonable explanation on Wikipedia...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;SSRIs are believed to increase the extracellular level of the neurotransmitter serotonin by inhibiting its reuptake into the presynaptic cell, increasing the level of serotonin in the synaptic cleft available to bind to the postsynaptic receptor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I'm confused about one thing. The whole point of reuptake is that after serotonin (or any other neurotransmitter) binds to the postsynaptic receptors, it has to vacate the receptor so that other signals can be conveyed. If SSRIs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, it remains in the synaptic cleft... but then what happens?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do the serotonin molecules bind to the receptors multiple times, since they keep on ending up in the synaptic cleft? If so, when would this end, and how would it affect the signal across two neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3037" LastEditorUserId="3037" LastEditDate="2013-05-22T04:27:58.203" LastActivityDate="2015-03-10T19:53:06.157" Title="How do SSRIs work?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3538" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-22T12:26:37.887" Score="8" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if there are studies that (1) model the field of view taking into account all degrees of freedom of the head, neck and eyes and (2) if there is any probabilistic model assigned to the field that is independent from external stimuli, e.g. saliency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example to illustrate this, is the following:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A man is inside a black room (no saliency, no external stimuli) and he is walking or standing. Now, inside this room, take a point in space that is not on the man. What is the likelihood that the man gazes (equals to have the right head, eye and neck coordination) towards this point at a given moment t1?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2912" LastEditorUserId="19" LastEditDate="2013-05-28T21:48:37.183" LastActivityDate="2015-07-22T05:53:53.330" Title="Are there any models of the human visual field of view taking into account head, neck and eye movements and calculating likelihood of fixation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3506" CreationDate="2013-05-22T14:37:06.920" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do you mean evoked potentials, or event-related potentials, or just straight-up EEG?  The general way to distinguish between the two is that EEG will tell you about state (aroused, asleep, etc) where evoked or event-related potentials will tell you about operations (processing sound/language/etc); evoked or event-related potentials also generally require more, and more discrete, trials than EEG.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd recommend running some simple experiments yourself (on whoever is hanging about) and then analysing them.    Do an auditory oddball experiment (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddball_paradigm&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's article&lt;/a&gt; is a pretty good intro) and analyse it; do a block experiment with basic state changes and analyse it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't start out trying to learn EEG AND program your own analysis suite at the same time; there are packages for EEG/ERP analysis in R (a free, open-source analysis language/platform) that will get you started much faster.  But in general, people learn this stuff in labs, and learn it by helping on more experienced people's projects, so there's very little formal introductory material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good luck!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2013-05-22T14:37:06.920" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3540" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19" CreationDate="2013-05-22T23:12:05.187" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Henderson summarizes very well a number of approaches on human gaze control during real-world scenes and tasks. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cvcl.mit.edu/iap05/henderson_03.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://cvcl.mit.edu/iap05/henderson_03.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a nutshell, our visual system combines knowledge about the task (e.g. color of the search target) and external audio/visual stimuli (saliency) to control our gaze inside a scene.&#xA;Quite insightful about how gaze control works during a task is the paper of Land and Hayhoe on gaze during  a sandwich making task: &lt;a href=&quot;http://cvcl.mit.edu/SUNSeminar/LandHayhoe_eye_actions_VR01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://cvcl.mit.edu/SUNSeminar/LandHayhoe_eye_actions_VR01.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Navigation is a task that requires a step-by-step approach. I am not aware of any visual navigation model, but I believe that the basic principles are the same. I hope it helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2912" LastActivityDate="2013-05-22T23:12:05.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3541" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3239" CreationDate="2013-05-23T08:54:18.857" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I followed your info and found 2 research papers: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://sanlab.psych.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/31/2015/05/Eisenberger201119ECE.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Why Rejection Hurts?&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;(In case you want to skim through more papers, visit &lt;a href=&quot;http://sanlab.psych.ucla.edu/papers.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Papers&lt;/a&gt; from Social And Affective Neuroscience Laboratory. &lt;strong&gt;Naomi Eisenberger&lt;/strong&gt; is the director of this Lab.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00695.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Belongingness as a Core Personality Trait: How Social Exclusion Influences Social Functioning and Personality Expression&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To help you access this paper promptly, I shared a pdf version &lt;a href=&quot;https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/57108239/belongingness-as-a-core-personality-trait.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read through the paper 1 and skimmed paper 2 in order to extract conclusions that are relevant to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;    &quot;If the external circumstance can not change, &#xA;     how can the impact on the brain be reduced?&quot;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Why Rejection Hurts&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;factors that increase or decrease one kind of pain &lt;strong&gt;should affect the other kind of pain&lt;/strong&gt; in a similar manner.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;participants reported &lt;strong&gt;significantly less pain&lt;/strong&gt; when holding their partner’s hand than when they held a stranger’s hand&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;“If all this is true, does that mean that painkillers could reduce the pain of social rejection?” ... -- &lt;strong&gt;in fact the answer is yes.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Belongingness as a Core ...&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracetamol&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Acetaminophen(the active ingredient in Tylenol)&lt;/a&gt; Reduces Daily Hurt Feelings&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tylenol&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tylenol&lt;/a&gt; Reduces Neural Activity Associated With Social Pain&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Acetaminophen Reduces Nonconscious Coping Responses&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mindfulness&lt;/a&gt; interventions reduce the sting of rejection, thereby decreasing self-control impairments and aggressive outbursts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About the second question, I only digged a little bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;    &quot;What is the average sensitivity to social rejection&#xA;    and are some not effect by it?&quot;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;From a book named &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;Are You Ethical&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; by Steve Soto&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The following text does not directly answer the question, you could view it as a heuristic: When someone is &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com.hk/books?id=qM8lfWwjMiwC&amp;amp;pg=PA15&amp;amp;lpg=PA15&amp;amp;dq=%22low%20level%20of%20rejection%20sensitivity%22%20karen%20horney&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=ZhYmbXIcJC&amp;amp;sig=O4jAib8KeRKTPCGOxVA2WLM3SX8&amp;amp;hl=zh-CN&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=60OfUfCrOcLjlAWm0oGYCw&amp;amp;ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22low%20level%20of%20rejection%20sensitivity%22%20karen%20horney&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;less sensitive&lt;/a&gt;, she/he will be less affected by social rejection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&quot;On the other hand, others take rejection as an indication that others don’t realize that what they have to offer is beneficial, it only amplifies the faith they have in themselves, and they persevere that much harder. It is never taken personally, or as an affront. This is “a low level of rejection sensitivity”. -- Karen Horney&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3039" LastEditorUserId="3039" LastEditDate="2016-08-30T16:09:55.107" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T16:09:55.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3542" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-23T12:55:27.740" Score="4" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;The actual implementation that I'm interested in is a set of five scores from 1-5 (whole numbers) that are averaged together to compute an overall score (decimal values). However, I prefer to look at the simpler case of a single score from 1.0 to 5.0. The complete evaluation criteria is known to everyone and well defined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say that I'm asking a group of people to rate themselves (and, perhaps in the future, others) on a scale from 1-5, with 1 being the low end of the scale. Over time, I want people to change their behavior to some minimum standard, which is represented by some point on this scale (improve their score). I envision a &quot;minimum standard&quot; score that everyone is expected to achieve (or show measurable progress toward achieving) in the near future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see two options in formulating the range of values:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The high end (a score of 4-5) is the desired state. A score of around 3 or 3.5 would probably be considered to be acceptable. Anything lower than a 2 may be considered unacceptable.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The desired goal is in the middle (about 3). The low end of the scale (1) is unacceptable, the high end (5) of the scale is extremely difficult to obtain.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm leaning toward the first implementation, with the thought that people inherently want to make the numbers reach the high end of the scale. If people look at the high end and see that it's incredibly difficult to achieve, they will lose interest in measuring themselves and tracking progress. Therefore, a 5 should be hard, but not overly difficult, to achieve, with most people eventually working from a present state of 2-3 to a final state of 4-4.25.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that this might be related in some way to gamification, but there's no reward system. It's simply expected behavior that one would rate yourself and embedded in the culture that you strive to demonstrate improvement in some way (in this particular case, by rating yourself and others on a well-defined scale).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that can support or disprove my initial thoughts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4" LastActivityDate="2013-06-23T01:40:46.217" Title="When rating, is it better to set the expected goal in the middle with hard to reach upper bounds or higher with desired outcomes at the upper bounds?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3543" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3525" CreationDate="2013-05-23T13:44:26.603" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not using your brain might well be deleterious, but it's impossible not to use your brain unless you're in a coma or something. There are some cool studies on plasticity (see Shayna's answer above) in amputees, where the parts of the brain that control the amputated limb go unused but are taken up by other functions instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;However&lt;/em&gt;, &quot;perpetual brain exercises&quot; like the brain training games/puzzles you see have shown no efficacy in actually increasing cognitive performance on any task, besides the specific game/puzzle you're playing. Playing a lot of chess does not make your brain any more powerful, it just makes you better at chess. See the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2884087/&quot;&gt;Owen, A.M., et al. (2010). Putting brain training to the test. &lt;em&gt;Nature, 465(7299)&lt;/em&gt;, 775-778.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="825" LastActivityDate="2013-05-23T13:44:26.603" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3544" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3542" CreationDate="2013-05-24T00:51:31.253" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might want to read about goal setting theory (see the review by Lock &amp;amp; Latham, 2002).&#xA;This literature talks about setting challenging but attainable goals that are specific and measurable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also like to think about performance management systems. In particular a lot of organisations use &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_by_objectives&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;management by objectives&lt;/a&gt;. In this case, goals are negotiated between the supervisor and the employee.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Locke, E. A., &amp;amp; Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation On November 9th, 2011· In Business Models, Business Theories. American psychologist, 57(9), 705-717. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~antonvillado/courses/08c_psyc101002/Research%20Report%204.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-05-24T00:51:31.253" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3545" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-25T17:26:32.757" Score="4" ViewCount="301" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for opinions on this book particularly whether it is a suitable intro to the field of cognitive neuroscience. What I would not like is a book that is really a collage of introductory articles that bear little relation to one another. Several of the introductory books on Amazon are that way. That is no way to learn a subject, imo (but I digress). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gallistel and King begin with Shannon's information theory, but do not imo go very far into the physiology of neurons nor do they discuss how the codes derived from brain activity are connected to human or animal behavior. What I am looking for is more comprehensive and thus a longer book. Is there such an introductory book? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user523" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T14:53:00.267" Title="&quot;Memory and the Computational Brain&quot; by Gallistel &amp; King" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3547" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3522" CreationDate="2013-05-27T01:24:29.687" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question of how &quot;rapid&quot; learning could be possible relates to Hume's problem of induction -- how can we learn so much from so little.  Historically, in both philosophy and psychology, the solution has fallen into one of two camps: either some form of the knowledge was already there to begin with (a 'nativist' view), or we use statistical inference to slowly update our beliefs (some early connectionist models fit into this camp, though in the last 20 years, there are forms of connectionist models that might suddenly/dramatically 'shift' weights in ways that can lead to the appearance of rapid learning).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A solution to the 'rapid learning' problem comes from Bayesianism - the idea that we're doing 'backwards inference' to get to a model of the world.  This inference to the best model is weighed by both the likelihood of the data given a model, as well as (and here's the important part) our &lt;em&gt;prior beliefs&lt;/em&gt; about how likely the model was before we observed new data.  Bayesianism is not just a middle ground between nativism and empiricism; the reason it provides solutions to 'rapid inference' is because you're integrating the idea of 'probabilities' into the mix. That is, rather than there being one absolute truth, we can think of the learner as weighing multiple possible truths - with some a priori belief in each; new data comes in and allows us to rapidly update those possibilities, based on the likelihood of the new data under each. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Bayesian framework also allows for hierarchical inferences (each set of prior beliefs is given by a more abstract set of prior beliefs) which can tie in nicely to ideas like 'core knowledge' (which fall under the nativism camp), while still providing a learning mechanism (which fall under the empiricist camp).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is long standing research in vision and language which cover these Bayesian ideas, but in the last decade an explosion of research has come out of labs such as the Tenenbaum lab at MIT, the Griffiths lab at Berkeley, etc. that show how other cognitive/higher-order reasoning (such as causal inference) might be rapidly acquired under this framework. There are several overview papers on these themes which give background on the Bayesian approach, as well as empirical predictions that fall out of specific Bayesian models (many can be found by visiting the lab websites of the aforementioned individuals). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bayesianism is complementary to models that include additional constraints, such as pedagogical inferences (see Pat Shafto's work) and other pragmatic inferences (e.g. see Mike Frank or Noah Goodman's work) -- all of which to lead to even more rapid inferences from limited data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3053" LastActivityDate="2013-05-27T01:24:29.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3548" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3550" CreationDate="2013-05-27T09:05:32.643" Score="3" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to understand what would be the best way to analyze the results of an online likert-scale ratings of pictures on 3 dimensions. I have 3 groups of participants from different countries. They are not equal. I got the data into SPSS already but now I wonder what would be the appropriate way to deal with the data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-05-27T13:34:35.850" LastActivityDate="2013-05-27T15:16:39.650" Title="How to analyse 3 by 3 design with Likert scale ratings?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3550" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3548" CreationDate="2013-05-27T13:33:56.643" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Without knowing more, I imagine you could do a 3 x 3 mixed ANOVA with three levels to the within subjects factor &quot;dimension&quot; three levels to the between subjects factor &quot;group&quot;. This is all predicated on the idea that each dimension is rated on the same scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unequal group sizes typically wont be a major issue. The important consideration is that you have sufficient sample size in each group to give you reasonable precision. That said, it might be more of something to think about if you have unequal group variances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also quite a lot of discussion on whether you can analyse Likert scales or Likert-type items using linear model approaches like mixed ANOVA. Perhaps see some of &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/10/under-what-conditions-should-likert-scales-be-used-as-ordinal-or-interval-data&quot;&gt;these discussions&lt;/a&gt;. In general, if you each variable is the mean of multiple items, then you should be less concerned about using the linear model. If you are dealing with single Likert-type items, then there may be a small amount of imprecision in your p-values. This can be a particular problem if you have floor or ceiling effect issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.statisticshell.com/docs/mixed.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tutorial on mixed ANOVA in SPSS&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2013-05-27T13:33:56.643" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3551" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3548" CreationDate="2013-05-27T15:16:39.650" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A rating scale is not necessarily a Likert scale.  It sounds like you have a single rating for each picture across each dimension but I could be wrong.  More details would be needed for better advice and Ana's comment should be answered in your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You would be best off doing a multi-level cumulative link model (multi-level ordinal regression).  You can include subject and picture as random variables.  See the &lt;a href=&quot;http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/ordinal/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ordinal package&lt;/a&gt; in R.  The vignettes will be very helpful.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind that with the pictures you also have item level variance and generalization issues that people doing research on words struggle with as well.  Even if you can get reasonably good looking data for your analysis that satisfies an ANOVA you'll have to consider random and fixed effects issues of both the people and the pictures.  The multi-level modelling can include both and avoid the sort of patchwork &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14596473&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hoops&lt;/a&gt; required with ANOVA.  Therefore, regardless of whether you have a true likert scale and you satisfy requirements for treating the responses continuously or you should be treating it as ordinal data, multi-level modelling is your best bet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2013-05-27T15:16:39.650" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3552" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="772" CreationDate="2013-05-27T20:54:05.143" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It isn't humanly possible to pay more attention to your surroundings to level like someone who has LLI can. I have LLI and saying that people can make a conscious decision to absorb more in their surroundings is like telling someone they can breath more oxygen than their lungs normally can by thinking really hard about it. It isn't possible to induce LLI and it can only be something you are born with. You can train yourself to be more aware of your surroundings, but your body will naturally block out the stimuli after it reaches its natural max. People with LLI can't block out incoming stimuli which is why sometimes it can lead to severe mental illness.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3059" LastActivityDate="2013-05-27T20:54:05.143" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3553" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3565" CreationDate="2013-05-27T22:31:25.697" Score="3" ViewCount="401" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering why there are different subjective experiences when our sensor systems are technically the same neurons that just get excited by different stuff (photons, soundwaves, ...). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why does it &lt;em&gt;feel&lt;/em&gt; different to hear something than to see something when both are just electrical impulses?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm of course aware of the concept of qualia (&quot;redness&quot; etc.), but I haven't found this question being discussed in relation to that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course I'm not claiming that the most outer part of the sensor systems work in the same way. However all of them produce (or their function results in) electrical frequencies. I highly doubt that if you'd input the frequencies produced by a retina to the neurons of an auditory system, this would result in vision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I understand and know, all sensory systems output electrical signals. Apart from differing frequencies I would say they(the signals) are the same. At the same time, I doubt that it's just the frequency spectrum in an electrical system that makes a signal &quot;vision&quot; or &quot;sound&quot; to our subjective experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="224" LastEditorUserId="224" LastEditDate="2013-05-29T16:32:45.900" LastActivityDate="2013-05-30T20:49:37.547" Title="Why do our senses evoke different subjective experiences" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;qualia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3554" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-28T01:53:13.260" Score="3" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm aware that there are dozens of personal &quot;activity trackers&quot;/ pedometers like fitbit that are aimed for mass consumer and can log activity over extended periods of time. &lt;strong&gt;Are there equivalent devices or programs that automatically keep track of the users cognitive performance or motivation over extended periods of time?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-05-28T01:53:13.260" Title="What kinds of long - term cognition/motivation tracking tools are there?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-03-27T12:06:13.367" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3555" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3561" CreationDate="2013-05-29T14:15:42.230" Score="5" ViewCount="183" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am planning to run a study where participants will been shown questions on a computer monitor and their task is to type their responses in a text box as quickly as they can. Their input and input speed will be recorded. So any recommendation of preferably free programs is welcome. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3070" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-15T23:53:42.743" LastActivityDate="2014-01-15T23:53:42.743" Title="Is there any (free) program that allows the recording of text input and the speed of input?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3556" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3628" CreationDate="2013-05-29T21:38:55.457" Score="6" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;In yoga, the instructor mentioned that controlled deep breathing can increase self-confidence. (Next time, I will ask him why he believes that but I doubt he has any references...) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, there are certain times when I do notice increased levels of self confidence after controlled deep breathing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: This is different than using deep breathing to prevent or calm down from a panic or anxiety attack. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The scope of the question is focused on a natural baseline level of confidence, increased via controlled deep breathing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some reference in general turned up as well:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, controlled breathing can be used to increase&#xA;  self-confidence,...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.khyf.net/khyf/articleview.aspx?spage=A&amp;amp;DParticleid=44&amp;amp;icategorylist=&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.khyf.net/khyf/articleview.aspx?spage=A&amp;amp;DParticleid=44&amp;amp;icategorylist=&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that prove this and if so, why? Any point in the right direction is greatly appreciated. Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2013-05-29T22:03:02.517" LastActivityDate="2013-06-12T18:18:54.227" Title="What correlation is there between breath control and personal self confidence?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3557" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-29T23:16:11.477" Score="11" ViewCount="438" Body="&lt;p&gt;J.Campbell &lt;a href=&quot;http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/6/580.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;suggest&lt;/a&gt; that the difference between age groups on being politically conservative is small. But F.Glamsers &lt;a href=&quot;http://geronj.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/5/549.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; concludes: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;there was a significant positive correlation between age and conservative opinions even when social class, education, father's SES, and the size of the respondent's childhood community were controlled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While these articles are quite old (1981 &amp;amp; 1974) a more recent &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gallup.com/poll/120857/conservatives-single-largest-ideological-group.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;poll&lt;/a&gt; indicates that old people tend to be more conservative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WJ3ch.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering whether there is an neurological and psychological explanation of that phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3073" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-05-30T04:29:42.660" LastActivityDate="2013-06-04T07:36:51.150" Title="Are older people more likely to be politically conservative and why?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3558" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3563" CreationDate="2013-05-30T02:53:31.250" Score="5" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the three-stimulus &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddball_paradigm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;oddball procedure&lt;/a&gt;, there is an infrequent target in a background of frequently occurring standard stimuli and infrequently occurring distracter stimuli. My question is, since the target and the distracter are both infrequent, how do we make the difference between them? Why do we expect different responses to them? Since I am not allowed to answer my question I post here: I assume that the difference is done in the instruction done to the participant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-05-30T04:27:37.950" LastActivityDate="2013-05-30T12:55:36.937" Title="Why different responses to target and distractor in three-stimulus oddball procedure?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3559" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3502" CreationDate="2013-05-30T02:56:23.937" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have been using audio databases from THE CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF EMOTION AND ATTENTION. &#xA;Video databases we received from Anna Esposito &amp;amp; Maria Teresa Riviello:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1694104&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1694104&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dl.acm.org/author_page.cfm?id=81100065756&amp;amp;CFID=220607811&amp;amp;CFTOKEN=47568792&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dl.acm.org/author_page.cfm?id=81100065756&amp;amp;CFID=220607811&amp;amp;CFTOKEN=47568792&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastEditorUserId="3036" LastEditDate="2013-05-30T03:04:15.983" LastActivityDate="2013-05-30T03:04:15.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3560" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3285" CreationDate="2013-05-30T04:09:29.467" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am using TRUE (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.salleurl.edu/tsenyal/true/features.html&quot;&gt;http://www.salleurl.edu/tsenyal/true/features.html&lt;/a&gt;) and SAM (Self-Assessment Manikin) interface includes a scale for dominance, along with valence and activation. The scale allows you to rate dominance from 'controlled' to 'in control' on a scale from 1 to 9.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Planet, S., Iriondo, I., Martínez, E., &amp;amp; Montero, J. A. (2008). TRUE: an online testing platform for multimedia evaluation. In Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on EMOTION: Corpora for Research on Emotion and Affect at the 6th Conference on Language Resources &amp;amp; Evaluation (LREC 2008). Marrakech, Morocco.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-05-30T04:24:46.860" LastActivityDate="2013-05-30T04:24:46.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3561" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3555" CreationDate="2013-05-30T04:35:47.590" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I imagine most software designed for creating psychological experiments will be able to do this. (e.g., EPrime, Direct RT, MediaLab, SuperLab, etc.). I've mainly used Inquisit to record responses and response times. These are all proprietary options.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also readily implement a trial interface with a textbox and response times in standard programming languages. For example, I've used visual basic on occasion to record data in textboxes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, as @Dan M mentions there is psychopy which is free. I have not personally used it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-05-30T12:55:18.427" LastActivityDate="2013-05-30T12:55:18.427" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3557" CreationDate="2013-05-30T12:45:54.653" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a neuroscientist, I would be highly doubtful of any neuroscientific 'evidence' about this phenomenon (if it exists). In fact, I think there is no reason to look further than the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect&quot;&gt;mere exposure effect&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The mere-exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conservative attitudes are by definition more traditional, i.e. those who have been around for a longer time... just like older people. Older people have, therefore, had more chance to become familiar to conservative attitudes through exposure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2013-05-30T12:45:54.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3563" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3558" CreationDate="2013-05-30T12:55:36.937" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume you are talking about a difference in neural activity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference in processing of targets and distracters does not come from their relative frequency, but from their task-relevance: you are paying attention to the targets, thus increasing gain. In auditory MMN, this attention component becomes evident slightly later than the prediction component, and might be missing completely for ignored stimuli (e.g. when the participants are watching a movie while listening to a stream of sounds). Naatanen has more than one review paper that goes into this, &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mit.edu/carrien/Public/speechlab/papers/naatanen-paavilainen-rinne-alho-2007.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt; probably the most recent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2013-05-30T12:55:36.937" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3565" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3553" CreationDate="2013-05-30T20:49:37.547" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Don't know the answer (I think no one does), but you should have a look at this paper: A sensorimotor account of vision and visual consciousness. O'Regan JK, Noë A., BBS 2001 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12239892&quot;&gt;PUBMED&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short the proposed answer is that modalities are subject to different sensory-motor contingencies. For example, when you move forward the visual input undergoes very structured changes, but auditory input undergoes a different set of changes. So what makes seeing feel different than hearing is that the relationships between motor output and sensory input are different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also be interested in sensory substitution experiments. The brain is to some extend able to acquire new 'senses', when specifically structured information is provided to an existing sense. For example, it appears to be possible to 'see' (whatever this means in this context) when brightness information is transduced to touch or electrical stimulation of the tongue &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_substitution#Tactile.E2.80.93visual_substitution&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3075" LastActivityDate="2013-05-30T20:49:37.547" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3567" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1597" CreationDate="2013-05-30T21:28:16.553" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is a work about IPIP 50 in New Zeeland but there are also some references to USA findings:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychology.org.nz/cms_show_download.php?id=617&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychology.org.nz/cms_show_download.php?id=617&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-05-30T21:28:16.553" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3569" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-05-30T23:59:54.163" Score="5" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are different meta-cognitive judgments: feeling of knowing, ratings of warmth, confidence, judgments of learning, tip-of-the-tongue or not, insight or not, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are these judgments based on the same mechanism or there is a different mechanism in each case?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="448" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-05-31T00:14:23.060" LastActivityDate="2015-08-28T09:43:51.620" Title="Do different meta-cognitive measurements depend on the same mechanism?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1597" CreationDate="2013-05-31T05:36:24.403" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a previous post on the global personality factor, you provided examples to describe how self-report items indicating higher trait levels are phrased in more socially desirable terms, hence the positive bias. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it's important to distinguish between two (or three) kinds of biases here: one is related to the wording/content of the items (the positive bias your refer to) and the other stems from trait desirability, i.e. the extent to which individuals find a trait desirable for personal reasons (e.g. their own standing on the trait) and for socio-cultural reasons (e.g. the extent to which a trait is valued by society or his/her culture).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To use your own examples, one could perhaps mitigate the positive bias by including items that make the lower ends of each trait seem less undesirable (.e.g., &quot;I enjoy being in my own company most of the time&quot; for low extraversion) and the higher ends less desirable (e.g. &quot;I like to dominate in social situations&quot; for high extraversion), but you would still have the effects of the trait desirability biases. It's not to say that the task of improving the wording or content of the items to reflect less bias isn't important, and to what extent there is bias is itself arguable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has the purported positive bias been documented or described in any articles? Perhaps that should be the main question at this point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm only aware of approaches to dealing with the desirability biases mentioned. One is to obtain reports from multiple informants in addition to self-reports. Another is to use ipsative (i.e. forced-choice) measures of the Big Five (e.g., Hirsh &amp;amp; Peterson, 2008). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hirsh, J. B., &amp;amp; Peterson, J. B. (2008). Predicting creativity and academic success with a “fake-proof” measure of the Big Five. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(5), 1323-1333.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ludeke, S. G., Weisberg, Y. J., &amp;amp; Deyoung, C. G. (2013). Idiographically Desirable Responding: Individual Differences in Perceived Trait Desirability Predict Overclaiming. European Journal of Personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3077" LastEditorUserId="3077" LastEditDate="2013-05-31T05:59:46.270" LastActivityDate="2013-05-31T05:59:46.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3571" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3576" CreationDate="2013-05-31T09:43:52.793" Score="7" ViewCount="229" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard that our eyes accommodate between colors too far from each other in the visible spectrum. I imagine it's not a true focal point accommodation, but rather linked with how brain processes the information. Is this true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm trying to find out is, whether using color for emphasis, for example both blue and yellow (which are fairly far from each other in the spectrum), for text underlining, doesn't make the brain focus only at one color at once. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like when you're looking for some object on your messy table, thinking it's of blue color and not noticing it's right in front of your eyes, because it was red.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example would be a document with some emphasized words in blue, some in yellow - and let's say the author wanted to make sure both colors are regarded as important (just in different context). Now question is, can the eye/brain focus on both colors at once? I don't mean if we can do it deliberately by trying hard, but rather if it's more likely for the brain to focus only at one color at a time, unconsciously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By what I've heard, if I understand it correctly. If we want to use two different colors for emphasis, we should use colors that are close to each other in the EM spectrum (while still making sure, they are high contrast in regard to the background)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Refer to the two paragraphs taken from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_normalization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; I stylized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd summarize the question like this. Is there &lt;strong&gt;difference&lt;/strong&gt; in how we regard those two paragraphs? Are we more likely to skip some words when they are highlighted with colors too far away from each other in the EM spectrum, therefore, is it better to use colors closer to each other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; I changed the luminance of the colors to be the same for all of them (70%, used &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.workwithcolor.com/hsl-color-picker-01.htm?cp=B08FFE&amp;amp;ch=258-99-78&amp;amp;cb=C8BB03,00DD59,B08FFE,FFFFFF,AC91FF,999DFE,76ABFF,FFFFFF,FFFFFF,FFFFFF&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HSL Color Picker&lt;/a&gt;). As pointed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/3085/john&quot;&gt;John&lt;/a&gt;, the different luminance might have played a part in the perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3acsh.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;View of the relative EM wavelength spread (images taken from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gimp.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gimp&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ANwEV.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3080" OwnerDisplayName="Dwelle" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-06-01T17:31:00.507" Title="Do eyes accommodate to color?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3572" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3573" CreationDate="2013-05-31T19:26:22.337" Score="7" ViewCount="535" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human brain adapts to a constant stimulus of our neural system. For instance, if we ride a train and look out of the window for a long time and the train stops, we have the feeling of slowly moving backwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other, more extreme stimulus like a neave strobe as shown in this picture:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HUKhc.png&quot; alt=&quot;Neave Strobe&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This particular animated image produces a rapid neural adaption causing us to see things moving for about 10 seconds. I have also observed that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binaural_beats&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;binaural beats&lt;/a&gt; cause minor ear ringing symptoms if listened to for a longer period of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The burning question here is: &lt;strong&gt;Can prolonged stimulus to such images or sounds cause &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucinogen_persisting_perception_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user914" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T21:15:35.053" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T21:15:35.053" Title="Can prolonged neural adaptation lead to HPPD?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3573" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3572" CreationDate="2013-05-31T19:46:51.320" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;No.  This disorder requires the sufferer to have used hallucinogenic substances in the past:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Previous use of hallucinogens by the person is necessary, but not sufficient, for diagnosis of HPPD. For an individual to be diagnosed with HPPD, the symptoms cannot be due to another medical condition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucinogen_persisting_perception_disorder&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; following the DSM-IV criteria reproduced &lt;a href=&quot;http://behavenet.com/hallucinogen-persisting-perception-disorder&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A. The reexperiencing, following cessation of use of a hallucinogen, of one or more of the perceptual symptoms that were experienced while intoxicated with the hallucinogen (e.g., geometric hallucinations, false perceptions of movement in the peripheral visual fields, flashes of color, intensified colors, trails of images of moving objects, positive afterimages, halos around objects, macropsia, and micropsia). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2013-05-31T19:46:51.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3574" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3500" CreationDate="2013-06-01T03:08:16.740" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/blue_eyes_brown_eyes_exercise&quot;&gt;&quot;blue eyes brown eyes exercise&quot;&lt;/a&gt; involves a completely arbitrary and invented stereotype.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During part of the exercise, Jane Elliott treated the blue-eyed children as the superior group.&#xA;The following day, Elliott reversed the exercise, treating the brown-eyed children as the superior group.&#xA;She treated people with the superior-eye-color-of-the-day as highly intelligent and able to learn,&#xA;and people with the &quot;inferior&quot; eye color as inherently lazy and stupid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hear that, during the exercise, the new stereotype does have a significant effect on the subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps this exercise by a schoolteacher doesn't really qualify as a &quot;well controlled experiment&quot; performed by a &quot;scientist&quot;, but it sounds pretty close to what you were looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2463" LastActivityDate="2013-06-01T03:08:16.740" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3576" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3571" CreationDate="2013-06-01T12:49:15.710" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think it is a matter of color/hue. Do you have a source for this hypothesis? If you were able to measure this effect then I would think it happens because of the importance rating a reader develops for a certain group of highlighted words, e.g. &quot;all blue highlighted words are important to me.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The user Pete made a good comment in my opinion by pointing out the contrast issue. The attention of humans is foremost guided by luminance contrast. Then comes hue and then saturation. The colors you chose have a different luminance value and therefore attract attention differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.workwithcolor.com/hsl-color-picker-01.htm?cp=FCEE15&amp;amp;ch=56-97-54&amp;amp;cb=FCEE15,00FE66,7F47FE,FFFFFF,B39AFF,8F93FE,A9CAFF,FFFFFF,FFFFFF,FFFFFF&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt; to compare the (relative) luminance values of your color sets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3085" LastEditorUserId="3085" LastEditDate="2013-06-01T13:51:12.550" LastActivityDate="2013-06-01T13:51:12.550" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3577" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="688" CreationDate="2013-06-01T19:31:08.907" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.readingonline.org/articles/r_walker/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; study, layout and color can be used to improve text readability. You can take a look online at text formatted in this manner &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.liveink.com/LiveInkToGoReadingOnline.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3086" LastActivityDate="2013-06-01T19:31:08.907" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3578" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3593" CreationDate="2013-06-02T17:18:26.450" Score="2" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a peer reviewed article that links the development of intelligence to any form of block building activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example a child playing with wooden blocks can improve their sensory-motor and communication skills while learning to solve problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone got any suggestions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2368" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-03T01:57:19.550" LastActivityDate="2013-06-06T13:50:34.513" Title="How are activities involving toy blocks linked the development of intelligence in children?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3579" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3580" CreationDate="2013-06-03T11:03:04.797" Score="7" ViewCount="578" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently undertook a questionnaire and was asked a question about short term memory. One that I just can't find an answer to at all as it seems to be so contradictory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This got me curious. How much can a user generally remember when viewing a website? There are various research papers on this including Heyer and Barrett (1974) and Shulman (1970).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question was:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research has shown that short-term memory is fragile. Which of the statements below is more accurate in describing how much information we can remember and for how long?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The amount you can remember is equal to about what you can say in 20 seconds, you will be able to hold this remembered amount in short-term memory for about 40 seconds. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The amount you can remember is equal to about what you can say in 30 seconds, you will be able to hold this remembered amount in short-term memory for about 20 seconds. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The amount you can remember is equal to about what you can say in 20 seconds, you will be able to hold this remembered amount in short-term memory for about 10 seconds. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The amount you can remember is equal to about what you can say in 20 seconds, you will be able to hold this remembered amount in short-term memory for about 20 seconds. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anybody know the definitive answer to this or, like me, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3097" OwnerDisplayName="David M" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T13:32:25.253" Title="How much can users hold in their short term memory" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3580" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3579" CreationDate="2013-06-03T11:14:40.780" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very simple question with no single answer, I'm afraid. The other classic paper quoted in this context is Miller's &quot;The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two&quot; (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two&lt;/a&gt;). In the case of a user using a website, memory will also be affected by:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Familiarity with the subject. Is the website about a topic the user is intimately familiar with, or something completely new (unlikely) or somewhere in between?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Available contextual information. Can the user quickly get to supporting information? In which case, the load on memory may effectively be reduced&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The extent to which the information presented on the site is related. The key message of Miller's paper is that people group ('chunk') information in order to reduce memory load&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not sure if your question relates to a specific problem, or if it's a general query, but things like memory limits are hard to define absolutely, hence testing should always take place in as realistic a context as possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3090" OwnerDisplayName="Peter" LastActivityDate="2013-06-03T11:14:40.780" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3581" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3557" CreationDate="2013-06-03T20:31:14.743" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read in a recent news article that one of the main predictors of party allegiance was which party had a president in the White House during the respondents 'formative' years. However, I am unable to find neither the news article nor the study it was reporting on. If that were true, though, any current poll taken in isolation would simply reflect political systems over the last 50 years. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2110900&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Franklin (1984)&lt;/a&gt;, this is called the &lt;em&gt;traditional model&lt;/em&gt; of party identification and seems to have been mostly superseded by the &lt;em&gt;revisionist model&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The traditional view that party identification develops at an early age, is remarkably stable throughout life, and is relatively unaffected by other political attitudes has been recently challenged by evidence that adult partisanship is in fact quite responsive to other political attitudes such as policy preferences, retrospective evaluations, and past votes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the conclusions of that paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results strongly support the revised view of partisanship. We have seen that party identification is not fixed in childhood, and further that it changes in response to policy preferences. We cannot say at what age young people begin to incorporate policy preferences into their partisanship. ... These findings clearly move us away from the traditional notion of party identification.&#xA;  ... [T]he revisionist  view both accounts for the original movements away from parental identifications and provides an explanation for the later stability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From skimming some abstracts, newer articles seem to agree with the revisionist model but try to account in more detail what makes people change allegiance and at what time in their life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Searching Google Scholar for &lt;code&gt;party identification&lt;/code&gt; should throw up a good few hits to get you started, especially if you restrict the publication date to more recent years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Franklin, Charles H. &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2110900&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Issue preferences, socialization, and the evolution of party identification.&lt;/a&gt;&quot; American Journal of Political Science (1984): 459-478.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1221" LastActivityDate="2013-06-03T20:31:14.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3583" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3557" CreationDate="2013-06-04T07:36:51.150" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;“Show me a young Conservative and I'll show you someone with no heart. Show me an old Liberal and I'll show you someone with no brains.” - Winston Churchill&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in this sentence we could suspect there is something connected with intelligence and emotions (and part of brains related to thos phenomena)&#xA;I will add to above that there should be something in relation with Terror management theory from social psychology and plasticity of adoption new knowledge and attitudes (see Piaget)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-06-04T07:36:51.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3584" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3588" CreationDate="2013-06-04T08:53:41.043" Score="2" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question is related to psychometry. One survey is measured in this way:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Question 1&#xA;Claim 1     0 1 2 3 4 5 M&#xA;Claim 2     0 1 2 3 4 5 M&#xA;Claim 3     0 1 2 3 4 5 M&#xA;Claim 4     0 1 2 3 4 5 M&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are 25 questions of this kind. Participants should choose one '0' and one 'M' and one number for every of the claims, but numbers shouldn't be the same.&#xA;Results are 2 independent factors, which  combined produce 4 types in profile. The theory is that those factors are independent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any literature which will explain this type of measurement?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How to measure alphas for this questionnaire or conduct factor analysis&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a way to see/count Pearson coefficients (or any other type of correlation)  for this survey and some other which are measured in traditional way with Likert scale?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: ie. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Question1:&#xA;I am calm and organized      0 1 2 3 4 5 M (My options are all of them, i choose 0)&#xA;I like to go to Gardaland    X 1 2 3 4 5 M (My options are all except 0, i choose 5)&#xA;Everyone is paranoic         X 1 2 3 4 X M (My options are 1, 2 3 4 and M, i choose 3)&#xA;My mother was a good person  X 1 2 X 4 X M (My option is M because 0 and M are mandatory)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;after that there is question 2 to question 25 which follow the same format.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-05T12:40:50.953" LastActivityDate="2013-06-05T22:22:01.790" Title="Psychometric scale with items in sets where responses imply a rank order of items" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3585" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="80" CreationDate="2013-06-04T09:30:47.140" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is one meta analytic comparison:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15506858&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15506858&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bernard M. Bass is one of the most cited researchers on this field:&#xA;Here is one of his articles but there are plenty on the net:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/apl-882207.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/apl-882207.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think he is also author of MLQ - multifaceted survey of leadership.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also revised theory by Bass and Avolio:&#xA;The implications of transactional and transformational leadership.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And also: Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the Multi-factor Leadership; Journal of Occupational and organizational psychology. 2010.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="73" LastEditDate="2013-06-04T10:46:00.707" LastActivityDate="2013-06-04T10:46:00.707" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3586" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3940" CreationDate="2013-06-04T21:18:42.387" Score="11" ViewCount="310" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for the name of the cognitive bias that is expressed in the following story.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A fellow coworker was instrumental in getting a 75 gallon fish tank installed in the lobby of the company that we work at a couple of weeks ago. The water needs to cycle for a while before fish can be introduced. The other day he was testing the water when someone walked by and asked when we would be getting fish. He said probably a week or so. The person was appalled that it would take so long to get fish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The company had been without a fish tank for 20 years and now they've had one for a couple weeks and this person thought one or two more weeks was way too long to wait. &lt;strong&gt;What is the name of this bias?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3093" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-05T08:11:50.827" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T01:15:00.920" Title="Name of the bias where someone really needs something after they find out it exists" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3587" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-05T10:52:03.723" Score="1" ViewCount="1953" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a &quot;schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment.&quot; then how can we best apply this to user experience design for websites? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically I'm after the answer to the following question, but that's not to say that my question about how schemes can be applied to website design in general is still not pertinent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which of the following statements regarding schema is true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When two neurons have activated the connections between them are momentarily interrupted&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Approximately 10 million neurons in the human brain are used to store information&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some nodes and links are so strong that they can be retrieved as a unit&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Memories that are reconstructed incorrectly are called schema&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3097" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2017-12-23T00:54:42.970" LastActivityDate="2017-12-23T00:54:42.970" Title="How can schemas be applied to website design?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-09-11T22:19:16.503" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3584" CreationDate="2013-06-05T12:30:27.027" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Okay. I think I finally get what you are saying. You have constructed a form of partially &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipsative&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ipsative or forced choice&lt;/a&gt; scale. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my words, I would say that you have 100 items in total. The 100 items are grouped into sets of 4 items, and you have 25 sets. Each item is rated on a 0 to 6 scale, and within each set participants need to give different responses for each item in the set. They must give a 0 and a 6. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a variant on the idea of rank ordering the items in a set. However, you would also get a little bit of additional individual difference information because participants are not just ranking items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further discussion, definitions, and a critique of ipsative tests see Johnson, Wood, and Blinkhorn (1988).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Johnson, C. E., Wood, R., &amp;amp; Blinkhorn, S. F. (1988). Spuriouser and spuriouser: The use of ipsative personality tests. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 61(2), 153-162.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-05T22:22:01.790" LastActivityDate="2013-06-05T22:22:01.790" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3589" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3579" CreationDate="2013-06-05T18:58:47.723" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sorry David :) I genuinely think the question isn't very meaningful: 20 seconds of speech could be information dense, or information poor. For instance, if we're talking about a website we could assume the listener knows context, or not. So with context &quot;The header had primary and utility navigation, and a company logo in the top left.&quot;. Without context, we'd have to add that the header is at the top of the page, which would add to the time taken. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People have explored different ways of encoding memory: acoustically, semantically and visually. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/psychology/human-memory/revise-it/short-term-memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/psychology/human-memory/revise-it/short-term-memory&lt;/a&gt; looks at the merits of each theory. At the end is quotes a study saying that in the absence of rehearsal, short term memory can only hold on to information for 15-30 seconds. So I'd go with 4, but: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I don't think the question is reasonable, for the reasons already stated, plus the likely error bounds in any memory study&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Memory isn't just one thing - it's not just speech, or pictures. It's also affected by how we as humans choose to encode it. Simple encodings work well for random lists, but websites aren't seen or interpreted like that&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously I've not seen the questionnaire! I'd be interested to know what HFI come back with - would be great if you could let me know. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3090" LastActivityDate="2013-06-05T18:58:47.723" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3590" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-06T01:04:00.987" Score="3" ViewCount="432" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that vitamins B6 and B12 are very important for the brain function, and both are involved in metabolism of homocysteine. Buildup of homocysteine has been associated with cognitive impairment. There may be dozens of other metabolic pathways that use these vitamins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if there are any medical/psychiatric conditions for which B vitamin supplementation is actually harmful or not advised?&lt;/strong&gt; could such supplementation overload/deplete the intrinsic factors for these vitamins, making them temporarily unavailable to the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-06T12:40:28.647" LastActivityDate="2013-07-13T14:20:10.813" Title="Are there neurological conditions that can be worsened by B group vitamins?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3591" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3592" CreationDate="2013-06-06T08:04:53.830" Score="21" ViewCount="2341" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, if i ask an individual to write a 20-number-long sequence of random numbers from 0 to 10. How well can I predict the 20th number from the initial 19?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How well can subsequent numbers in a sequence be predicted from previous numbers?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How well can humans generate random sequences of numbers?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3099" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-06T10:46:56.170" LastActivityDate="2013-06-07T01:48:53.623" Title="How well can a human-generated &quot;random number&quot; be predicted?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3592" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3591" CreationDate="2013-06-06T09:25:39.690" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like there is a fairly big literature on this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Wagenaar (1972)&lt;/strong&gt; provides an early review of research. The author summarises around 15 studies. The studies involved generated random elements including letters and numbers of varying lengths. In all but one study, participants were deemed to be not good at randomising. As part of their review they talk about various forms of nonrandomness and factors that increased the nonrandomness (e.g., naivity of subjects regarding types of randomness, boredom, presence of a natural order to the objects, etc.). In general participants either engaged in too much alternation or too many runs of the same response. Wagenaar (1972) noted the need for more research. The general model seemed to be one whereby stable individual differences (e.g., memory, skill, and mental representations of randomness), states (e.g., boredom, fatigue), and inherent constraints on human randomness generation interacted to influence the degree of randomness produced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Towse and Neil (1998)&lt;/strong&gt; provide software call &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lancs.ac.uk/staff/towse/rgcpage.html&quot;&gt;RgCalc&lt;/a&gt; for evaluating randomness in human generated sequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Brugger (1997)&lt;/strong&gt; provides a more recent review, summarising:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is conjectured that Tune's explanation of sequential nonrandomness&#xA;  in terms of a limited capacity of short-term memory can no longer be&#xA;  maintained. Rather, interdependence among consecutive choices is&#xA;  considered a consequence of an organism's natural susceptibility to&#xA;  interference. Random generation is thus a complex action which demands&#xA;  complete suppression of any rule-governed behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also found a couple of articles by Persaud (2005) and Figurska et al (2008) that might be relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summary:&lt;/strong&gt; Humans typically display some form of nonrandomness when generating sequences of digits. The degree of this nonrandomness varies across people. It is unclear to me at this point how well individuals could perform, for example, if they had an aptitude for random number generation or were trained to generate random numbers. For example, individuals might be able to draw on cues in the external world that are random and use that as their own personal input for generating responses (but perhaps this would be considered cheating).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the nonrandomness may only enable very small incremental prediction above chance in predicting any given response. Furthermore, presumably longer initial sequences of response would improve the ability to guess the subsequent response. Having longer sequences would allow you to extract the form of nonrandomness that the particular individual adopts (e.g., do they prefer alternating numbers or runs, do they prefer some digits over others, are there sequences of numbers preferred).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brugger, P. (1997). Variables that influence the generation of random sequences: An update. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84(2), 627-661.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Figurska, M., Stańczyk, M., &amp;amp; Kulesza, K. (2008). Humans cannot consciously generate random numbers sequences: Polemic study. Medical hypotheses, 70(1), 182-185.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Persaud, N. (2005). Humans can consciously generate random number sequences: A possible test for artificial intelligence. Medical hypotheses, 65(2), 211-214.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Towse, J. N., &amp;amp; Neil, D. (1998). Analyzing human random generation behavior: A review of methods used and a computer program for describing performance. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, &amp;amp; Computers, 30(4), 583-591.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wagenaar, W. A. (1972). Generation of random sequences by human subjects: A critical survey of literature. Psychological Bulletin, 77(1), 65-72.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-07T01:48:53.623" LastActivityDate="2013-06-07T01:48:53.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3593" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3578" CreationDate="2013-06-06T13:50:34.513" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Found what I consider to be the best reference &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0935989765&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hirsch, E. S. (1996). The block book (Third ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's certainly going in the thesis after glancing through it.  Thought posting it here might helps others too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2368" LastActivityDate="2013-06-06T13:50:34.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3594" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-06T19:35:14.210" Score="9" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some medical professionals work in areas where they are exposed to death often (say, E.R, O.R, Cancer Treatment, etc.), specifically in an area where they bond with the patient and the patients' families over a long period of time, such as cancer treatment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does such exposure sometimes cause psycopathic/sociopathic behavior, shizophrenia, apathy, and other mental and emotional scarring?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does such exposure cause changes to thoughts on death significantly?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In an attempt to numb this pain, would the subjects be more likely to believe excessively and obsessively in religion and the afterlife? (Please don't take offense if you are religious.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course I'm not saying that all subjects in this situation would display these symptoms, but depending on pre-existing conditions I wonder whether some are more susceptible to emotional trauma than others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3103" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-06-25T14:41:18.460" LastActivityDate="2017-05-12T01:32:53.893" Title="Prevalence of mental health problems in medical professionals caused by exposure to death?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3595" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3596" CreationDate="2013-06-06T20:08:39.970" Score="9" ViewCount="42335" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are IQ tests based only on Raven's matrices. I wonder how a raw score on such a test is &amp;quot;scaled&amp;quot; to an IQ result. As we all know, IQ results depend on the age of individual tested. So I was looking for any data about IQ results and standard deviations in different age groups and I didn't find anything except truisms. But there must be a table with multipliers for every age group, by which a raw test score is multiplied to evaluate the IQ result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How are raw Raven's scores converted into age-adjusted IQ?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Where can one find age norms for Raven's?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3104" LastEditorUserId="13937" LastEditDate="2020-12-29T22:04:47.763" LastActivityDate="2021-01-22T06:19:02.400" Title="How are Raven's Matrices scores converted into age-adjusted IQ?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="3596" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3595" CreationDate="2013-06-06T21:35:40.887" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://eyeonsociety.co.uk/resources/RPMChangeAndStability.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Raven (2000)&lt;/a&gt; provides norms for Raven matrices for different age groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nicheconsulting.co.nz/psychometric_assessment/assessment_norms.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is how you interpret it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burke (1985) provide different groups norms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can use different scales like IQ (which is very old term used in Piaget. DeVries (below) has more about it). Also there are other measures: percentiles, DQI, Z scores, etc... you have formulas to recalculate, but usually you have to have norms on different age groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually it is hard to interpret if you don't have some background in psychometry, but good luck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Burke, H. R. (1985). Raven's Progressive Matrices (1938): More on norms, reliability, and validity. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Clinical Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 41(2), 231-235. ERIC Number: &lt;a href=&quot;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ316493&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EJ316493&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(198503)41:2&amp;lt;231::AID-JCLP2270410216&amp;gt;3.0.CO;2-Z&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/1097-4679(198503)41:2&amp;lt;231::AID-JCLP2270410216&gt;3.0.CO;2-Z&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;DeVries, R. (1974). Relationships among Piagetian, IQ, and achievement assessments. &lt;em&gt;Child Development&lt;/em&gt;, 746-756. ERIC Number: &lt;a href=&quot;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED088593&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ED088593&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED088593.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF⇰&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Raven, J. (2000). The Raven's progressive matrices: change and stability over culture and time. &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 41(1), 1-48. ERIC Number: &lt;a href=&quot;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ615887&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EJ615887&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0735&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1006/cogp.1999.0735&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://eyeonsociety.co.uk/resources/RPMChangeAndStability.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF⇰&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="19603" LastEditDate="2019-11-20T05:55:15.107" LastActivityDate="2019-11-20T05:55:15.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="3599" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15987" CreationDate="2013-06-07T16:37:36.227" Score="15" ViewCount="250" Body="&lt;p&gt;A typical hypnogram, delineating the sleep architecture for a (human) mammal looks like&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/O8qRc.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A distinct distribution of non-REM and REM sleep can be observed.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this pattern of sleep cycles particular to that of diurnal mammals, and if so, how would the sleep architecture of a mammal that sleeps during the daytime be different?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2016-09-30T19:43:42.017" Title="Do animals that sleep during the day have a different sleep architecture than those who sleep at night?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3600" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-08T13:20:29.267" Score="16" ViewCount="15069" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there some (preferably free) online and accurate IQ test?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;One which does not give me an genius IQ and then tries to sell me a diploma.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I need one which measures upto 160 sd15 (or higher). Such a test would probably document its norming process somehow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3111" LastEditorUserId="3111" LastEditDate="2013-06-09T11:06:42.427" LastActivityDate="2021-01-29T20:00:10.263" Title="Is there an accurate online IQ test for measuring 160+ IQs?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3601" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3600" CreationDate="2013-06-08T17:04:40.287" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are asking for does not really exist, no serious IQ test would ever give a score of 160.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ scores get swamped with noise more than ~30 points from the mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, an IQ of 160 means you are are more intelligent than 99.996% percent of people while an IQ of 150 means you are more intelligent than 99.957% of people. No test could claim to measure that difference with a strait face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3112" LastActivityDate="2013-06-08T17:04:40.287" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3602" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8851" CreationDate="2013-06-09T01:48:43.230" Score="12" ViewCount="216" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is known that dolphins have the ability to sleep with only one half of their brain at a time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://marinelife.about.com/od/Whales/f/How-Do-Dolphins-Sleep.htm&quot;&gt;this popular science source&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dolphins sleep by resting one half of their brain at a time. This is called unihemispheric sleep. The brain waves of captive dolphins that are sleeping show that one side of the dolphin's brain &quot;awake&quot; while the other in a deep sleep (&quot;slow-wave sleep&quot;). Also, during this time, one eye is open (the eye opposite the sleeping half of the brain) while the other is closed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that the dolphin probably depends on bilateral brainstem mechanisms for respiration, my assumption is that this &quot;shutting down&quot; mainly involves the cortex.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this true, or are areas like the thalamus also suppressed unilaterally?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How is this &quot;switching&quot; (from hemisphere to hemisphere) managed?  Is it accomplished at the level of the thalamus, or within the brainstem?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Were a dolphin to be dominant in one hemisphere (surely Flipper was &quot;right-finned&quot;?), how is the representation of the dominant side of the body managed when the opposite cortex is suppressed?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2014-12-16T13:09:50.423" Title="What is the mechanism behind unihemispheric sleep in animals?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3603" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3605" CreationDate="2013-06-09T19:15:07.003" Score="6" ViewCount="184" Body="&lt;p&gt;(a) Apples grow to different sizes, from small to average and large. Farmers want large apples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(b) There is this rare bug, the apple bark bug, which lives in the bark of apple trees. Due to its rarity, the apple bark bug is not well understood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(c) Agronomists are divided about the effect the apple bark bug has on the size of apples. Some believe that apples from trees that have been infested with colonies of this bug are smaller than on trees without such an infestation; others believe that in fact they are larger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ministry for agriculture has commissioned a study on the effects of the apple bark bug on apple size. Based on the results of this study they want to either exterminate the apple bark bug, ignore it, or cultivate it. There is no scientific literature on the matter, there is no reliable data, and the research institute commissioned with this study now wonders:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What should be the null hypothesis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As natural scientists they know they cannot present their limited observations as general fact, but only falsify a hypothesis. But what should it be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The third semester student apprentice from the nearby university, who has just finished a course in the theory of measurement, suggests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; : Apple&lt;sub&gt;bug&lt;/sub&gt; = Apple&lt;sub&gt;no bug&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; : Apple&lt;sub&gt;bug&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ Apple&lt;sub&gt;no bug&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His friend, who has heard the same lecture, rolls her eyes and suggests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; : Apple&lt;sub&gt;bug&lt;/sub&gt; ≤ Apple&lt;sub&gt;no bug&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; : Apple&lt;sub&gt;bug&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; Apple&lt;sub&gt;no bug&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The research group leader smiles and compliments them on their attentiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What does he suggest?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is, of course, an example, illustrating a question relating to psychological research: How do we define the null hypothesis, if we have no presupposition about the effects of an intervention?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-06-02T09:28:14.443" Title="What is the null hypothesis, when there is no research hypothesis?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3604" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8035" CreationDate="2013-06-09T22:42:37.463" Score="6" ViewCount="304" Body="&lt;p&gt;I stumbled upon the consumer EEG &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.usemelon.com/&quot;&gt;Melon&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kickstarter.com/projects/806146824/melon-a-headband-and-mobile-app-to-measure-your-fo&quot;&gt;at Kickstarter&lt;/a&gt;). It has three electrodes and is advertised as measuring how &quot;focused&quot; you are. In the FAQ it says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Melon headband has three electrodes. Our primary electrode is on the forehead region known as FP1, where Melon can monitor brainwave activity from the prefrontal cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder: &lt;strong&gt;What can I measure with such an EEG? What applications would be unlikely?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can &quot;focus&quot; be quantified?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Would it be possible to identify (different) states of sleep?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Could it be possible to control a cursor/game (left/right movements)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3117" LastActivityDate="2014-08-23T17:43:45.827" Title="Are there useful applications for three channel consumer EEG?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3605" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3603" CreationDate="2013-06-10T03:26:16.807" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;So your independent variable is the bug, and your dependent variable is apple size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question asks whether you are testing a directional hypothesis. &#xA;Given that researchers are divided about the direction of the effect of the IV on the DV, it makes more sense to treat it as a non-directional hypothesis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i.e., H0 is that apple size is equal with and without bugs.&#xA;The alternative hypothesis is that they are not equal. Or in some senses, there are two alternative hypotheses, one suggesting an increase and another suggesting a decrease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, you ultimately want to conclude whether there is a difference and if so what is the direction of the effect. Thus, confidence intervals from a frequentist perspective or a posterior density from a bayesian perspective might be more useful in understanding the direction and degree of any effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may also want to read about suggestions for testing the hypothesis of &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/3038/how-to-test-hypothesis-of-no-group-differences&quot;&gt;no group differences&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2013-06-10T03:26:16.807" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3606" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3600" CreationDate="2013-06-10T08:26:12.337" Score="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are at least two problems with measuring high intelligence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) Any IQ test has a maximum difficulty. That means that all subjects above a certain intelligence answer all questions correctly and get the same maximum score. This is called the &quot;ceiling effect&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you might say, that we simply need to construct a test that is difficult enough for even the most intelligent person to make some mistakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) The problem with special &quot;high IQ&quot; tests is that you cannot draw a large enough sample to norm this test. An IQ score is not an absolute value, like height, where you measure from a zero point to a certain length and each length has a meaning in itself in relation to that zero point. IQ does not have a zero point (there is no measurable total absence of intelligence), and the values of an IQ test are defined in relation to the average intelligence of the population that person comes from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To norm a test, it is applied to a large sample of the population, and the mean and the shape of the distribution are calculated. The mean is defined as 100, the distribution is defined by the standard deviation, which for an IQ test is 15. The norming is done for different countries and at different times. This also means, that you cannot compare an IQ score from France to one from Spain, and that you cannot compare an IQ score from 1950 to one from 2007, at least not without some mathematical trickery similar to calculating the temperature in Centigrade from one given in Fahrenheit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, since there are very few very intelligent people, even if all of them took the test your sample would be too small to reliably calculate a mean and the distribution. (And you couldn't test any of them ever again, because they already took the test and know the questions.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, you wouldn't know how the scores from this test relate to scores from other tests. In an IQ test with which you test the whole population, the average is set to be 100. Since all different IQ tests are normed for the whole population, you can set all their means at 100 and compare their scores. For a test that tests only a non-average subset of the population, like very intelligent people, the average must be somewhere else, because of course highly intelligent people are not of average intelligence. But where do you set it in relation to the 100 of the average population? You would need their scores from a normal IQ test to calculate this, but (now the circle closes) since a normal IQ test cannot measure them due to the ceiling effect, you don't know where they are in relation to the average IQ of 100.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conclusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While you can create an intelligence test to measure the intelligence of highly intelligent people, this test will not give you a result that has any meaning in relation to the IQ, so in fact it is not an IQ test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ is not intelligence (a trait), but a construct. IQ is what is measured by an IQ test, as the saying goes. A high intelligence test measures a different construct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-06-10T08:26:12.337" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3607" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-10T16:05:38.343" Score="7" ViewCount="2517" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking of creating a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.memrise.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Memrise&lt;/a&gt; course that will include numbers and letters with corresponding colors, personality and sounds with aim of trying to develop some synesthesia in myself and anyone who's interested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to induce synesthesia by doing such a course?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, how can it best be done:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Should I use sound, light spectrum, some other gradients, pick by random or look up some &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.flickr.com/photos/numberphile/8878019163/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;statistics&lt;/a&gt; in order to color the numbers? Should composite numbers include colors of their factors or digits?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Should letters be colored as they appear in the alphabet or by it's frequency in the language?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there some other ways?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3076" LastEditorUserId="3076" LastEditDate="2013-06-11T01:31:39.807" LastActivityDate="2013-07-09T18:37:53.910" Title="How to create a course that will give you synesthesia?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3609" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3569" CreationDate="2013-06-10T17:35:42.893" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are some finding of neuroscience mechanisms of metacognition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10924251&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10924251&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They claim that several of them are included. They didn't mentioned nothing about cerebellum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In research of creativity where pretty much of metacognition is needed cerebellum has significant role: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity#Neurobiology_of_creativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity#Neurobiology_of_creativity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to this there could be several mechanisms. I also have this book in my hand several weeks ago and I think they wrote about several mechanisms: &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/2012/metacognition.xhtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/2012/metacognition.xhtml&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also article where we could argue on mechanism connected to cortex and another one which is not: &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1599/2213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1599/2213&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-06-10T17:35:42.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3611" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3556" CreationDate="2013-06-11T03:16:27.257" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Deep breathing changes your posture. &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0553814591&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;People with an upright, confident posture do feel higher levels of confidence.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Side note: It's okay to sulk after defeat. Research also shows that people who slump down after defeat recover from negative feelings quicker than people who try to remain upright.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But yes, adopting a more confident posture in general will make you a more confident person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastActivityDate="2013-06-11T03:16:27.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3612" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3624" CreationDate="2013-06-11T09:33:26.080" Score="5" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's assume I want to conduct a survey. To find test subjects, I post an ad in a local newspaper, one on a locally relevant website, distribute flyers in front of the train station, and have managed to get one complete class from a local school to partake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due to the different recruitment methods, each will probably have drawn quite different samples from the population: the local newspaper is mostly read by older people with medium to high education; the institute website is mostly visited by students and researchers; the flyer is given to commuters; then there is that group of pupils, all of the same age and education level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my test, I ask my test subjects to specify how they knew of the test:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ad in newspaper&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ad on website&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;flyer&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;they were tested in class&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I can group my data according to the recruitment method, if I want to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this all one sample? Or have I drawn four samples?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if this is one sample, how then &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; you draw two or more samples?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-06-12T09:26:13.253" LastActivityDate="2013-06-12T11:45:42.663" Title="How many samples are there when test subjects come through different recruitment strategies?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3613" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3614" CreationDate="2013-06-11T09:51:41.923" Score="7" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assume, I want to evaluate how effective two teachers are in teaching English to German children. Both teachers have been teaching at the same high school for twenty years, and both use a distinctly different pedagogical methodology. In fact a small competition has arisen between them: they have published and discussed their ideas and practise in journals relevant to their profession, and they have now called in a data analyst (you) to conduct this evaluation which, so they hope, will decide their contest and reconcile the former friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The school, where they both work, is the only school for its small town. When pupils enter this school, they are randomly assigned classes: one half of the children are assigned to one class (and one maths teacher), the other half to the other class (and the other maths teacher).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two teachers are tired of not knowing which method is best. In the interest of their pupils they want to finally decide on the better one and both use this from now on. They hope, that you don't need to test one cohort of children when they finish elementary school, have them taught for the 8 years from 5th grade until they graduate from high school, and then measure their mathematical ability again, to come to a conclusion. Therefore they ask you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it enough to compare the levels of the dependent variable post-intervention? Or do you need to measure it pre-intervention as well? Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-06-27T09:21:07.290" LastActivityDate="2013-06-27T09:21:07.290" Title="Do we need a pre-test to compare the effectiveness of two treatments?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3614" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3613" CreationDate="2013-06-11T11:40:35.640" Score="9" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Answer based on your original depression example&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this answer was originally written based on your initial example, where you asked:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Assume, I have developed a new intervention for people with light&#xA;  depression. I want to compare the effectiveness of this intervention&#xA;  (E) with an existing intervention (C). For this, I recruit test&#xA;  subjects from the local psychotherapeutic ambulance and randomly&#xA;  assign them to either the experimental (E) or control group (C). The&#xA;  interesting dependent variable is of course depressivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In general, you don't need to measure pre-treatment for the dependent variable&lt;/strong&gt;. In the limit random assignment ensures that the groups are equal. Or to put it another way, random assignment ensures that the groups are not biased to be higher or lower on the dependent variable at baseline.  A typical between-subjects t-test comparing post-treatement scores would typically provide an unbiased test of whether the intervention had an effect on dependent variable (i.e., depression) relative to control intervention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, &lt;strong&gt;there are many benefits to including a baseline measure&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Including a baseline measure of depression will almost always give you more statistical power because you are able to control for much of the stable individual differences in the dependent variable (i.e., depression). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If you participants drop out during the intervention, it can be helpful to see whether this is related to baseline levels.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can begin to assess individual differences in the effect of the intervention.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Where there are questions about whether random assignment was performed correctly, you can test for baseline differences.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note there are several options for analysing pre-post treatment-control designs including ANCOVA, difference scores, and interaction effects. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/3466/best-practice-when-analysing-pre-post-treatment-control-designs?lq=1&quot;&gt;this discussion for further ideas&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note also that &lt;strong&gt;there are good reasons to assess an intervention by measuring more than two time points&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, you might obtain (a) multiple baseline measures to get a sense of the stability pre-intervention (b) multiple  you might measures during the intervention to assess depression during the intervention, and (c) multiple follow-up measures particularly to see both the immediate and the longer term effect of the intervention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Updated points based on the teaching example&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is an empirical question whether first letter of last name is related to the effect of the teaching intervention or baseline differences. In general, it would be better to have a better form of randomisation of participants to groups.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Where there are questions about the randomisation procedure, the presence of a pre-test measure can be beneficial to check this.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are several particular issues related to assessing the effectiveness of interventions relating to children in class rooms even when students have been randomly assigned to classrooms. (a) With just one classroom each, it is difficult to tease out what is the effect of the teacher and what is the effect of the curriculum; (b) there will typically be a lack of independent observations. Thus, for example, students within the classroom may influence each other. Thus, your effective sample size is not as great as it may seem.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2013-06-13T01:17:08.780" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3615" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-11T16:08:21.893" Score="4" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was asked this question yesterday&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which of the following statements regarding research principles in visual attention is TRUE? The eyes tend to move from:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a. Light to dark (shade) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;b. Large to small (size) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;c. Regular to irregular (shape) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;d. Unsaturated to saturated (colour) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I answered c) (can't remember where I Googled it but found that to be the most appropriate answer). I am worried that I am incorrect and would love to canvas the opinions of others. It shouldn't matter but the above question was in the context of web . &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3097" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-12T02:23:06.577" LastActivityDate="2013-06-12T02:23:06.577" Title="Eye movement tendencies for shades, sizes, shapes, and colours" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3616" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3615" CreationDate="2013-06-11T16:44:42.630" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not a professional psychologist, but my guess is b) large to small. I read the large headlines of news papers before reading the smaller sub headlines, and then body text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could probably eliminate unsaturated to saturated color. Saturated color stands out, so I'm not immediately going to look at unsaturated color first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't think of my attention moving gradually across the other dimensions. I don't look at the lightest thing and then the second lightest thing. I'm attracted to contrasts. People notice differences. So I might see something white and black first, then something slightly gray and light black, then something dark gray, etc. My eyes wouldn't dart around from light to slightly gray, etc..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastActivityDate="2013-06-11T16:44:42.630" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3618" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3615" CreationDate="2013-06-11T20:32:29.393" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If the question means in which of the option pairs is the second one more attention-grabbing, I would guess d.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a. Light to dark (shade) - I would say that visual attention is automatically drawn to bright areas in the visual field, so, exactly the opposite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b. Large to small (size) - exactly the opposite again, bigger objects would be more attention-grabbing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;c. Regular to irregular (shape) - This one is a tricky one because there is evidence for both. But from the options given in the other answers, I assume the question is about stimulus-driven attention, and there, attention would spontaneously go to the gestalts in the visual field (&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/24/5/667.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here's a recent example&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;d. Unsaturated to saturated (colour) - And voila, I would say that the more saturated is the more attention-grabbing of the two. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/col.10214/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;see here for a randomly googled reference, it also supports not choosing answer a&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2013-06-11T20:32:29.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3619" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3662" CreationDate="2013-06-12T00:01:18.200" Score="12" ViewCount="2750" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What makes a person particularly attractive to another person, specifically the opposite sex? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why would the brain evolve this trait to target specific genes (that make someone look pretty), and exclude others (that make someone look ugly)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to differ from the accepted idea that ancient female humans were attracted to stronger, more able bodied men due to survival instinct. Facial features seem to have nothing to do with survival or natural selection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;So, why are facial features significant to assessing beauty?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Also, how does the brain process physical features as good or bad?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3103" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-24T09:50:07.733" LastActivityDate="2017-08-19T17:42:08.667" Title="What makes someone attractive psychologically?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3620" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-06-12T07:43:44.003" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding how the brain and mind filter out different aspects of the environment to attend to others with greater salience, and experimental paradigms that explore these mechanisms or their underlying neural bases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Attention (on Wikipedia)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Attention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Attention (on Scholarpedia)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-12T07:59:42.143" LastActivityDate="2013-06-12T07:59:42.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3621" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-06-12T07:43:44.003" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding how the brain and mind filter out different aspects of the environment to attend to others with greater salience, and experimental paradigms that explore these mechanisms or their underlying neural bases." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-12T07:59:32.550" LastActivityDate="2013-06-12T07:59:32.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3622" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-06-12T07:53:13.837" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions specific to applying the theoretical aspects of psychology to therapeutic settings in both assessments and psychotherapy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aacpsy.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;American Institute of Clinical Psychology&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/about/division/div12.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Division 12 of the APA&lt;/a&gt;.  [editors, please add the appropriate institutions/governing bodies for Europe, Asia, and Australia, etc.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please do not use this tag to ask questions about &quot;self-help&quot; topics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-12T07:59:29.237" LastActivityDate="2013-06-12T07:59:29.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3623" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-06-12T07:53:13.837" Score="0" Body="For questions specific to applying the theoretical aspects of psychology to therapeutic settings in both assessments and psychotherapy" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-12T07:59:46.143" LastActivityDate="2013-06-12T07:59:46.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3624" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3612" CreationDate="2013-06-12T11:45:42.663" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This depends on your research question, as well as the population you want to generalize your conclusions to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you care about whether complex sounds are easier to discriminate when they are longer, you can regard all the participants to be one sample because there is no theoretical reason to assume that people differ in this. In principle, the more universal the subject of your study is, the less you need to care about your sampling technique because any person should be as good as any other. In practice, the sample will likely be first year psychology students :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if you care about computer literacy or car ownership or attitudes towards standardized testing (i.e. if your question relates to individual differences or group differences), then clearly your samples are drawn from very different parts of the population. In that case you can say that you have drawn four samples. Or perhaps less - perhaps you drew two: people unlikely to have cars (school kids and train takers) and people likely to have cars (American newspaper readers and internet users). This is not the best example but you can see the logic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2013-06-12T11:45:42.663" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3625" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3650" CreationDate="2013-06-12T13:59:59.293" Score="6" ViewCount="1870" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming that the resting potential is zero and the other mechanisms were exactly the same, how would it affect the generation of spikes in terms of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials(EPSP and IPSP). Trying to understand the reason behind negative resting potential, not how it is maintained, but why so. Does it mean EPSP is inherently suppressed by design?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3124" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-28T11:19:23.930" LastActivityDate="2015-08-28T11:19:23.930" Title="How would synapses behave if resting potential was zero?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3627" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3625" CreationDate="2013-06-12T14:04:43.090" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Potential is relative, so having a negative resting potential simply means that the inside of the cell is negative with respect to the outside. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since an EPSP is going to be an overall positive change, yes, the negative resting potential does keep the cell at far below the threshold, but recall that over a short time duration, these EPSPs sum up to eventually push the cell &lt;em&gt;above&lt;/em&gt; threshold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A cell with no membrane potential is the equivalent of a dead battery, there is no &quot;electromotive force&quot; (i.e., voltage), so there is no driving force for current changes (except in the case of leak currents due purely to concentration differences).  Therefore, there is no calcium ion influx at the presynaptic terminal, no neurotransmitter containing vesicles can bind, and no transmitter is released into the cleft. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-12T14:15:48.177" LastActivityDate="2013-06-12T14:15:48.177" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3628" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3556" CreationDate="2013-06-12T18:18:54.227" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not aware of any neuroscience papers that link breathing and self-confidence. One review that touched on breathing in yoga was Jerath et al. (2006). They discuss how deep breathing increases parasympathetic autonomic activity. This can change the physiological state of the body, leading to changes in affective state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One area of the brain that may be relevant is a patch of cortex called the insula. The posterior insula receives afferent information from the body and creates the initial sensory representation of body state (Craig, 2000). From there, the mid insula begins to integrate body state with other sensory modalities, such as visual and auditory information. This progression continues, until you have a highly integrated, abstract representation of interoceptive and emotional state in the anterior insula (Craig, 2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Activity in the anterior insula has been related to a wide array of higher cognitive functions, including self-recognition, emotional awareness, risk prediction, conscious awareness of sensory stimuli, temporal perception, attention, perceptual decision making, performance monitoring, and more. We know that relaxation techniques can influence activity in this area of the insula (Critchley et al., 2002). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is well supported that controlled breathing changes the state of your body and activity in the brain, including the insula. These changes can also directly influence our cognitive state and cognitive ability.  Changes in self-confidence may be a part of that, depending on how you might define self-confidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Craig AD, Chen K, Bandy D, Reiman EM. (2000) &lt;em&gt;Thermosensory activation of insular cortex&lt;/em&gt;. Nature Neuroscience. 3, 184-190. PMID: 10649575.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Craig AD. (2009). &lt;em&gt;How do you feel-now? The anterior insula and human awareness&lt;/em&gt;. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 10(1), 59-70.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Critchley HD, Melmed RN, Featherstone E, Mathias CJ, and Dolan RJ. (2002). &lt;em&gt;Volitional control of autonomic arousal: a functional magnetic resonance study&lt;/em&gt;. NeuroImage. 16(4), 909-919. PMID: 12202079.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Jerath R, Edry JW, Barnes VA, and Jerath V. (2006). &lt;em&gt;Physiology of long pranayamic breathing: Neural respiratory elements may provide a mechanism that explains how slow deep breathing shifts the autonomic nervous system&lt;/em&gt;. Medical Hypotheses. 67, 566-571. PMID: 16624497.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3109" LastActivityDate="2013-06-12T18:18:54.227" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3629" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-13T13:41:19.477" Score="10" ViewCount="23033" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any harmful effect of scolding kids. Also does that affect more to kids who are 1 year old or  to those who are much older like 5 years and so.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the term scolding I mean: Shouting, yelling,  using intimidating gesture (staring with wide open eye), showing anger, using harsh words (irrespective of the fact the kids know the meaning of the word or not ), and like... and any of the combination of these. And even shouting and hitting with hands but very gently with anger        &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="909" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-14T01:55:20.580" LastActivityDate="2016-10-18T05:53:20.740" Title="What is the effect of scolding kids" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3630" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3632" CreationDate="2013-06-13T13:58:50.030" Score="6" ViewCount="1580" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apart from the general structure (6 layer cortex, same areas, etc.) does every brain have the exact same number and arrangement of sulci, gyri, etc? &#xA;Do these elements have the same shape?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3130" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-13T23:00:57.033" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T11:04:05.687" Title="Does every human brain have the same shape?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3632" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3630" CreationDate="2013-06-13T18:17:42.197" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, not at all--or not necessarily; different sulci &amp;amp; gyri may be different shapes--this is one of the reasons why individual brains are transformed or normalized into standard space in group analysis of MRI data (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mccauslandcenter.sc.edu/mricro/anatomy/home.html&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; for a good basic explanation of how &amp;amp; why this is done). In some cases canonical landmarks may be missing entirely--famously, an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein%27s_brain#Autopsy&quot;&gt;autopsy&lt;/a&gt; showed Albert Einstein to have quite anomalous anatomy in the area of the frontal operculum or Sylvian fissure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2013-06-13T18:25:20.063" LastActivityDate="2013-06-13T18:25:20.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3633" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-06-13T23:11:35.933" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions involving the scientific basis (anatomical substrates, neurotransmitter imbalances, behavioral changes, and pharmacotherapies) of schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schizophrenia on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/index.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schizophrenia at the NIMH&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please refrain from asking for medical advice under this or any other tag.  Consult a licensed professional in your area for guidance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:20:29.317" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:20:29.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3634" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-06-13T23:11:35.933" Score="0" Body="For questions involving the scientific basis (anatomical substrates, neurotransmitter imbalances, behavioral changes, and pharmacotherapies) of schizophrenia." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:20:29.317" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:20:29.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3635" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-06-13T23:15:54.810" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions involving internal and external pressures that may or may not elicit behavioral responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28psychological%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stress(Psychological)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please refrain from using this tag (or any other) for &quot;self-help&quot; questions involving this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-14T01:51:34.597" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T01:51:34.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3636" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-06-13T23:15:54.810" Score="0" Body="For questions involving internal and external pressures that may or may not elicit behavioral responses" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-14T01:51:31.423" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T01:51:31.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3637" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-06-13T23:20:00.183" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about using this technique as a research or assessment method, and the processes involved in scoring/statistical analyses of surveys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/statistics&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'statistics'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;statistics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding surveys that are not specific to the Cognitive Sciences, consider posting on &lt;a href=&quot;http://stats.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Cross Validated&lt;/a&gt; instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-14T01:51:28.563" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T01:51:28.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3638" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-06-13T23:20:00.183" Score="0" Body="For questions about using this technique as a research or assessment method, and the processes involved in scoring/statistical analyses of surveys" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-14T01:51:14.737" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T01:51:14.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3639" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3629" CreationDate="2013-06-14T06:51:02.387" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;yes it does have harmful effects on the children regardless of their age. may be children dont understand the words but the understands the emotions and expression behind the words. anger is a universal expression which can be understand by everyone regardless of age. showing anger or scolding contributes to stubbornness in children and it also induce negative feelings in children for the person who scold. children also imitates their elders so they learn to show anger as u do by shouting yelling etc.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2950" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T06:51:02.387" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3641" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3579" CreationDate="2013-06-14T13:32:25.253" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is still an open research question, and there are a number of different hypotheses.  The issue is further confused by mounting evidence that short-term memory and working memory are different processes, with working memory being suggested to be, basically, short-term memory plus attentional and executive processes that help maintain and control the contents of memory.  (The following paper provides a very clear demonstration: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayrecord&amp;amp;uid=1999-11137-004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayrecord&amp;amp;uid=1999-11137-004&lt;/a&gt;)  The addition of these control processes can drastically affect memory capacity, and there's not always a clear line between a working memory task or a short-term memory task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree with the above poster - the question is too vague to answer.  Working and short-term memory capacity can vary based on a wide variety of parameters, including type of stimulus (it's easier to remember a series of numbers than it is to remember a series of abstract geometrical shapes), concurrent tasks (do you just have to remember the stimuli, or do you have to maintain the stimuli in memory while simultaneously doing something else?), experience with the task, memory training...it's a long list.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may find a recent book to be of interest: Cowan, N. (2005). Working memory capacity. Psychology Press; ISBN 184169097X.  (Keep in mind, though, that Cowan has his own model of memory capacity, so does not take an entirely neutral position.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3132" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T13:32:25.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3643" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3545" CreationDate="2013-06-14T14:53:00.267" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in information theory and neuronal physiology, you shouldn't be looking for an intro to cognitive neuroscience, but rather cellular neuroscience.  Most applications of information theory in modern neuroscience are related to neural coding.  The classic (and recently updated) text is Kandel's &quot;Principles of Neural Science&quot;.  Byrne and Roberts' &quot;From Molecules to Networks&quot; has a more quantitative approach, but is not as comprehensive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3132" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T14:53:00.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3644" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3506" CreationDate="2013-06-14T15:15:23.470" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will second the above comment that equipment like EPOC is unlikely to be of much use.  EEG research generally requires relatively large numbers of trials per subject even when conducted under the best of circumstances (low impedance electrodes, a shielded chamber, etc.).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for data analysis, the gold standard for open-source EEG analysis is EEGLAB, which is written in MATLAB.  If you don't have access to MATLAB, I believe that Windows binaries are available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3132" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T15:15:23.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3645" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3419" CreationDate="2013-06-14T15:33:41.113" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I tend to code my models using Python or C/C++.  Using common languages, rather than proprietary (MATLAB) or specialized tools (GENESIS, Nengo, etc.) makes it much easier to share with the community.  Most people know (or can quickly pick up) Python or C, whereas not everyone has access to proprietary software or the willingness/time to learn a specialized tool.  And, as stated above by Xurtio, I prefer not to rely on other peoples' code.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3132" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T15:33:41.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3647" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3667" CreationDate="2013-06-14T16:30:25.127" Score="11" ViewCount="364" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does a person's brain have a record of every event that happened during a person's lifetime? Is it possible to recall any of those events and is it possible to recall those events in detail?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I almost drowned when I was a child. I know this happened and can remember bits of the event but I don't remember all the details. Is that complete memory still stored?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3135" LastActivityDate="2013-06-20T09:17:42.730" Title="Does a person's brain still contain a record of daily events?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3648" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3629" CreationDate="2013-06-14T17:12:02.510" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a feeling that many answers to your question will be influenced by anecdotes and personal parental style than actual research. A quick literature review suggests that there is evidence for both positive and negative influences of customary, nonabusive physical punishment, such as spanking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A literature review by Larzelere (2000) found that nine studies indicated beneficial outcomes, such as reduced noncompliance and fighting.  In contrast, five studies that controlled for the level of child misbehavior did find detrimental outcomes. However, a further analysis found that alternative forms of discipline also showed detrimental outcomes when using a similar research method. The author concludes that &quot;The outcomes differ by methodologic, child, and subcultural factors as well as by how the physical punishment was used&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A later meta-analysis by Larzelere and Kuhn (2005) found that conditional spanking was more effective in reducing child noncompliance and antisocial behavior in 10 of 13 studies. They added that overly severe or predominant use of physical punishment &quot;compared unfavorably with alternative disciplinary tactics&quot;. In short, there seems to be a threshold whereas some amount of scolding (physical spanking in this case) can be a beneficial tool in a parent's disciplinary toolkit, while excessive amounts of scolding (such as relying on spanking exclusively) can be detrimental.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Larzelere RE. (2000). &lt;em&gt;Child Outcomes of Nonabusive and Customary Physical Punishment by Parents: An Updated Literature Review&lt;/em&gt;. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3(4), 199-221.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Larzelere RE and Kuhn BR. (2005). &lt;em&gt;Comparing Child Outcomes of Physical Punishment and Alternative Disciplinary Tactics: A Meta-Analysis&lt;/em&gt;. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8(1), 1-37.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3109" LastActivityDate="2013-06-14T17:12:02.510" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3649" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="506" CreationDate="2013-06-15T08:00:59.693" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is now an &lt;a href=&quot;https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/joggle-research/id657885959?ls=1&amp;amp;mt=8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;app available on the iPad&lt;/a&gt; offering a cognitive test battery. It is a commercial application but fairly inexpensive. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.joggleresearch.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Joggle Research&lt;/a&gt; adapts several widely validated tests to the touch platform. Test result data is stored and instantly accessible on a cloud service (with a free tier to try it out).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some here have noted potential limitations of iOS however it offers some great advantages the make it a great platform for cognitive testing. Response time measurement is a problem on all general purpose operating systems that needs to be carefully addressed. The iPad offers a very consistent precision and performance platform for all models. For this factor, a closely controlled &quot;closed&quot; platform actually offers a great benefit. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would love to engage in dialog with those interested in bringing cognitive testing to touch platforms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3082" LastActivityDate="2013-06-15T08:00:59.693" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3625" CreationDate="2013-06-16T03:33:47.937" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two very different questions here. The first question is simple (although it could be interpreted a few different ways). The second question is very tricky and I am actually not certain we know the answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. What do PSPs look like if the resting membrane potential is 0 mV?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a cell is being held at 0 mV, its voltage-gated conductances are essentially broken and it is not actually able to fire an action potential. But let's put that aside and focus on synaptic events. Let's also assume that the reversal potentials for each ion are 'normal'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The short story is that most excitatory receptors have a reversal potential near 0 mV, so EPSPs would have little direct effect on the membrane potential (remember this rule: current passing through an ion channel can only push the membrane potential &lt;em&gt;toward&lt;/em&gt; the reversal potential of that channel). Inhibitory receptors tend to reverse around -75 mV, so they would have a large driving force and would strongly polarize the cell. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The slightly-longer story is that EPSPS would still have some effect--when ion channels open, ions flow in the direction of their electrochemical gradient. For excitatory receptors, this means that sodium flows into the cell, potassium flows out, and calcium flows in. The &lt;em&gt;net&lt;/em&gt; electrical current would be roughly zero, but there would be an exchange of ions, and an opportunity for those ions to activate secondary signaling pathways. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another effect of opening ion channels is a reduction in the resistance of the cell membrane. Thus at 0 mV, excitatory synapses can actually shunt IPSPs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. What is the reason for having a negative resting potential at all?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first thing to recognize is that neurons store a large amount of energy in their chemical gradients. Potassium is pumped into the cell while sodium, chloride, and calcium are pumped out. Running these pumps is metabolically expensive (your brain takes up 20% of your metabolism at rest!), and the chemical energy burned in the process (ATP) becomes potential energy in the chemical gradient. Another way of saying this is that each of these ions &lt;em&gt;prefers&lt;/em&gt; to be on the other side of the membrane, but the pumps keep them where they are. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ions are generally pumped in such a way as to maintain charge balance--for every positive charge pumped in, one positive charge goes out. Now if you happen to have channels that admit only a single type of ion (we do), then opening that channel will result in an immediate flow of ions. But wait! Unlike the pumps, this ion flow is not charge-neutral, so after a very short time, the membrane becomes charged, and that charge imbalance (voltage) counteracts the chemical gradient (if ions dislike being on the wrong side of a chemical gradient, they absolutely &lt;em&gt;hate&lt;/em&gt; being on the wrong side of an electrical gradient). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what we have now is a huge energy store in the form of chemical gradients, and a means for the neuron to rapidly convert that energy into electrical potential. If the neuron wants to depolarize, it needs only open sodium or calcium channels. If it wants to repolarize, it opens potassium or chloride channels. You can think of it like a balloon connected by hose to two tanks: one high pressure, the other a vacuum. Open one valve and the balloon fills, open the other and it empties. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ok, that was long but I am finally ready to talk about resting potential. The &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; is easy: neuronal membranes are more permeable to potassium than sodium. One of the valves is always open a little bit, and this drags the membrane potential negative, away from zero. Which is to say that the resting membrane potential is not at all the &quot;driving force&quot; for neuronal activity. Rather, it is almost just a side-effect of the real powerhouse--the chemical gradients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mentioned that neurons spend a lot of energy maintaining their chemical gradients. Why then, would the cell allow its potassium gradient to simply leak away? This is not an easy question! The lazy answer is &quot;because all the voltage-sensitive channels operate in the range from -70 to 0 mV&quot;. I call this lazy because if there really was no benefit to having the cell rest at -70 mV, then evolution would find a way to conserve all that energy wasted by leaking potassium. So there must be a better reason. I've turned this into its own question here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/8811/why-do-neurons-have-a-negative-resting-potential&quot;&gt;Why do neurons have a negative resting potential?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1054" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2013-06-16T03:33:47.937" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3651" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9467" CreationDate="2013-06-16T13:50:28.910" Score="9" ViewCount="243" Body="&lt;p&gt;In humans, delta wave sleep (&quot;slow wave&quot; sleep, stages III and IV by AASM criteria) is more common in children and becomes only a small percentage of total sleep time in adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cortical EEG waves have notably low frequencies (sometimes as low as 1Hz) during these stages.  I've always modeled this in my own understanding as the brain &quot;polling&quot; the environment at a lower rate, but why do stimuli that coincide directly with the peaks of the cortical waves still not seem to arouse or awaken the person sleeping?  Clearly there are some physiological &quot;shunts&quot; occurring in the brainstem and cortex to dampen the effects of external stimuli, but why see any activity at all, then?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2015-03-06T16:01:14.297" Title="What is it about the nature of slow-wave sleep that makes it difficult to awaken the sleeper?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3653" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="694" CreationDate="2013-06-17T14:12:52.533" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Focusing on the word &quot;seamlessly&quot;, in the more general case (not just typing)--once you look at cognitive/linguistic activity with a fine enough resolution it becomes clear that language-switching is not usually seamless.  There is typically a cost (lowered performance, either in speed or accuracy) to switching languages in any modality, which is typically greater from second language to first language than from first language to second language (Language Switching &amp;amp; Competition, Second Language Research April 2012 vol. 28 no. 2 131-149, among many others).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2013-06-17T14:12:52.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3654" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3913" CreationDate="2013-06-17T22:09:29.710" Score="12" ViewCount="179" Body="&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/2111/does-eating-just-before-sleeping-cause-nightmares&quot;&gt;Skeptics question&lt;/a&gt; touched on the subject, but I'm more focused on studies that have been conducted under highly controlled circumstances, like a university sleep lab.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We've all heard these old wives' tales about eating before you go to bed, but is there any evidenced-based, physiological basis for certain components of foods that can cross the blood brain barrier and induce nightmares or other parasomnias? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:46:43.487" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T09:38:57.783" Title="Have there been any studies which report a positive correlation between eating certain foods and reported sleep disturbances?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3655" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3659" CreationDate="2013-06-17T23:45:26.297" Score="7" ViewCount="365" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A subject in an office-building setting is asked to memorize a list of numbers and to write them down on a whiteboard in another room on the opposite side of the building.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subject must navigate a series of hallways in order to get from the first room to the other room.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a certain point midway through the hallways, the subject is approached by a confederate who asks the subject if she would like a treat. The subject is given two choices:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1) a high-nutrition, moderately-tempting snack with a low level of self-indulgence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;2) a low-nutrition-value, highly-tempting snack with a high level of self-indulgence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hypothesis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There exists a relationship between complexity of the memorization task and the choice to accept the high self-indulgence snack, such that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The subjects are more likely to accept the high self-indulgence snack if the memorization task is more complex and imposes a higher cognitive load.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The greater the cognitive load of an in-process mental task means the greater deficiency the subject will have in being able to resist or &quot;self-censor&quot; behaviors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone provide links or references that relate to the above hypothesis and test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3131" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2013-06-21T11:57:03.233" LastActivityDate="2019-10-26T21:30:28.757" Title="Relationship between cognitive load and self-indulgent behavior in simple task completion" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3659" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3655" CreationDate="2013-06-18T07:57:05.677" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gailliot et al (2007), didn't do it with a memorization task, but with a variety of other tasks requiring self-control:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The present work suggests that self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source. Laboratory tests of self-control (i.e., the Stroop task, thought suppression, emotion regulation, attention control) and of social behaviors (i.e., helping behavior, coping with thoughts of death, stifling prejudice during an interracial interaction) showed that (a) acts of self-control reduced blood glucose levels, (b) low levels of blood glucose after an initial self-control task predicted poor performance on a subsequent self-control task, and (c) initial acts of self-control impaired performance on subsequent self-control tasks, but consuming a glucose drink eliminated these impairments. Self-control requires a certain amount of glucose to operate unimpaired. A single act of self-control causes glucose to drop below optimal levels, thereby impairing subsequent attempts at self-control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gailliot, Matthew T., et al. &quot;Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor.&quot; Journal of personality and social psychology 92.2 (2007): 325. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uky.edu/~njdewa2/gailliotetal07JPSP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="17014" LastEditDate="2019-10-26T21:30:28.757" LastActivityDate="2019-10-26T21:30:28.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="3660" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="673" CreationDate="2013-06-18T09:21:17.727" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Social Categorization Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a social psychology perspective &lt;em&gt;Social Categorization Theory&lt;/em&gt; (Haslam, Jetten, Postmes &amp;amp; Haslam, 2009) might be of interest to you. SCT states that self-categorization varies with different social contexts and leads to a depersonalisation in the sense that an individual is less likely to perceive himself as independent but rather as belonging to a group. This self-categorization then leads to group behaviour. SCT has been applied to many different areas. With regard to your question I think the relations of SCT and &lt;em&gt;Perceived Threat&lt;/em&gt; (Steele, 1997) are relevant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;SCT and Perceived Threat&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perceived Threat occurs in situations where performance matters and refers to a process in which a member of a stereotyped group is threatened by the perception that other persons perceive him based on that (negative) stereotype. The Perceived Threat leads to stress, which in turn negatively affects performance. The theory has been used to account for the difference in cognitive ability tests between african americans and white people (Blascovich, Spencer, Quinn &amp;amp; Steele, 2001). The authors found that, under a high threat condition, african americans had greater blood pressure and lower test scores than white participants. There was no difference in blood pressure or test scores under a low threat condition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theory has also been used to demonstrate negative effects of stereotype against women (Von Hippel, Issa, Ma &amp;amp; Stokes, 2010) and older men (Von Hippel, Kalokerinos &amp;amp; Henry, 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Blascovich, Jim, Steven J. Spencer, Diane Quinn, und Claude Steele (2001). African Americans and high blood pressure: The role of stereotype threat. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science, 12&lt;/em&gt;, 225–229.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Haslam, S. Alexander, Jolanda Jetten, Tom Postmes, und Catherine Haslam (2009). Social identity, health and well-being: An emerging agenda for applied psychology. &lt;em&gt;Applied Psychology 58&lt;/em&gt;, 1–23.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Steele, Claude M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist, 52&lt;/em&gt;, 613–629.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Von Hippel, Courtney, Mona Issa, Roslyn Ma, und Abby Stokes (2011). Stereotype threat: Antecedents and consequences for working women. &lt;em&gt;European Journal of Social Psychology, 41&lt;/em&gt;, 151–161.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Von Hippel, Courtney, Elise K. Kalokerinos, und Julie D. Henry (2012). Stereotype Threat Among Older Employees: Relationship With Job Attitudes and Turnover Intentions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2014-01-16T08:54:23.087" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T08:54:23.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3661" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-18T10:29:53.387" Score="4" ViewCount="245" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering, whether there is a correlation between environmental factors like temperature and the ability to solve problems (say math exercises). Although I am sure this has been studied, maybe someone could point me to a reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3150" LastActivityDate="2013-06-20T09:44:45.673" Title="Problem solving capability as a &quot;function&quot; of room temperature" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3662" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3619" CreationDate="2013-06-18T13:37:16.260" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;With regard to your first question about the psychological processes of interpersonal attraction there are (at least) 4 factors that have been found in the social psychology literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Contextual Aspects.&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;People are more likely to develop attraction&#xA;towards those they see more frequently than others. This is known as&#xA;the &lt;em&gt;Mere Exposure Effect&lt;/em&gt; (Saegert, Swap &amp;amp; Zajonc, 1973). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attributes of the Target Person.&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;The perceived attractiveness (for example of the&#xA;face) is another factor.  The comments point to resources regarding&#xA;this aspect. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attributes of the Perceiver.&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;Mood has an effect on interpersonal attraction. Being in a positive mood makes a person more likely to develop attraction (Gouaux, 1971).  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Aspects of the relationship between Perceiver and Target Person.&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;Perceived similarity has an effect on interpersonal attraction (Byrne, 1971).  Similarities can serve as a positive reinforcement of the attitudes of the perceiver.&#xA;They are also the foundation for common activities and also which in&#xA;turn lead to closer relationship.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Byrne, D. E. (1971). The attraction paradigm (Bd. 11). New York: Academic Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Condon, J. W., &amp;amp; Crano, W. D. (1988). Inferred evaluation and the relation between attitude similarity and interpersonal attraction. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(5)&lt;/em&gt;, 789.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gouaux, C. (1971). Induced affective states and interpersonal attraction. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 20&lt;/em&gt;, 37–43.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saegert, S., Swap, W., &amp;amp; Zajonc, R. B. (1973). Exposure, context, and interpersonal attraction. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25(2)&lt;/em&gt;, 234-242.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="6750" LastEditDate="2014-10-17T04:53:33.817" LastActivityDate="2014-10-17T04:53:33.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3663" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="673" CreationDate="2013-06-18T13:47:35.117" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This kind of answer is also in focal point of my research. Unfortunately  none of my attempts in social psychology didn't result in accepted predictions of group behavior. In some occasions they are reliable in other not. But work of Wilfred Bion is of great help in my work.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfred_Bion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfred_Bion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-06-18T13:47:35.117" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3664" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3666" CreationDate="2013-06-18T20:42:28.317" Score="6" ViewCount="168" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have 2 related questions with regards to memory capabilities and time:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Is there a function (e.g. $e^{-\Delta Time}$) with regards to memory loss?&quot; Everyone is bound to forget over time. Is there a function that describes this decay?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Is there a function between time spent looking at something and remembering it?&quot; The more the time I spend trying to remember something, the better I will be at it. Is there any correlation between the two?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3152" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-19T00:50:05.000" LastActivityDate="2013-06-27T22:05:31.290" Title="Is there a function between loss of memory and time?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3666" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3664" CreationDate="2013-06-19T02:10:11.727" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is substantial research on both the functional relationship relationship between practice and retention and between time away from task and forgetting (e.g., see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetting_curve&quot;&gt;forgetting curve&lt;/a&gt;).&#xA;In general, retention is a monotonically increasing and monotonically decelerating function of  practice. And retention is a monotonically decreasing function of time where the rate of deceleration is decreasing. This general finding is tremendously robust, but there is substantial debate about the best fitting functional form for these two relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Averell and Heathcote (2011) provide a good review of forgetting curve functions. See equations 2, 3, and 4 in the article for instances of pareto, power, exponential functions. They concluded:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our analysis revealed that, although for individual participant data&#xA;  the exponential function with an above chance asymptote had the best&#xA;  fit among the models we considered, this advantage was due to its&#xA;  extra flexibility (complexity). When we adjusted for complexity using&#xA;  a range of model selection techniques that varied in the degree to&#xA;  which they adjusted for complexity, in every case a power function&#xA;  with an above chance asymptote provided the best description of&#xA;  forgetting. Interestingly, previous analyses of retention functions&#xA;  without an asymptote (Lee, 2004) found that the power model was more&#xA;  complex than the exponential. Our findings suggest that the addition&#xA;  of asymptote parameters adds more complexity to the exponential&#xA;  function than the power function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Averell, L., &amp;amp; Heathcote, A. (2011). The form of the forgetting curve and the fate of memories. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 55(1), 25-35. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newcl.org/publications/averell,%20heathcote%202010%20-%20forgetting%20curve.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-06-19T02:10:11.727" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3667" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3647" CreationDate="2013-06-19T02:35:00.917" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. I don't think so. There are many arguments for why this is not the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A common understanding of human memory is that it is part of an information processing system: attention, sensation,  perception,  interpretation, memory consolidation, forgetting, and memory recall. In some sense all these represent possible points of failure. Thus, we can fail to attend to an event in the first place, we can misunderstand the nature of an event, or  memories can be temporarily inaccessible.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Building on the idea of the information processing system, it is important to recognise the huge subjective component to the experience of an &quot;event&quot;. This links closely with philosophical questions about the nature of reality. However, regardless of the nature of the truth of external reality, it is clear that human experience is imbued with meaning and is experienced through various cognitive schemas. Thus, the &quot;objective event&quot;, whatever that might be, is often never represented in the first place.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Another perspective is that memory has been shaped by the adaptive needs of humans. In such a context, memory consumes resources. Memory also needs to efficiently serve our needs. From such a perspective forgetting of irrelevant memories and consolidation of life saving and life improving memories is important to our adaptation. For example, this is an argument for the benefits of a forgetting curve whereby recent memories are recalled better than distal memories; recent memories are more likely to be relevant to current behaviour.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is so much research to show the failures of human memory in even short term contexts. For example, check out some of the eye witness testimony research of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus&quot;&gt;Elizabeth Loftus&lt;/a&gt; to see how poor people are at recalling details even short term. The entire field of memory research extensively documents failure of recall and biases in recall.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite all this, there are also many times where people can not currently recall something that is stored in long term memory. See for example discussions of tip of the tongue phenomena, spreading activation, fan out effect and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-06-19T02:35:00.917" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3668" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-06-19T08:58:20.890" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding specific structures in the central and peripheral nervous systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For specific structures which may prompt multiple questions, a tag for that anatomical landmark should be created.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an absolute beginner to the subject, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B0095H6FKI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sidman and Sidman&lt;/a&gt; is a good guide or refresher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1933247223&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Netter's&lt;/a&gt; is a canonical text in this area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-19T09:16:05.600" LastActivityDate="2013-06-19T09:16:05.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3669" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-06-19T08:58:20.890" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding specific structures in the central and peripheral nervous systems" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-19T09:16:10.350" LastActivityDate="2013-06-19T09:16:10.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3670" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-06-19T09:06:33.343" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the study of the underlying neural substrates of cognition, especially those at the crossroads of psychology and neurobiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; on Wikipedia and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Category%3aCognitive_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; category on Scholarpedia. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The canonical text in this area is &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0393927954&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gazzaniga's&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-19T09:15:58.503" LastActivityDate="2013-06-19T09:15:58.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3671" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-06-19T09:06:33.343" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the study of the underlying neural substrates of cognition, especially those at the crossroads of psychology and neurobiology" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-19T09:15:47.987" LastActivityDate="2013-06-19T09:15:47.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3672" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-06-19T09:20:51.773" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding diffuse feeling states that are not directed at a specific object, person, or situation.  Mood is sometimes used to describe relatively long-lasting emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also see questions under &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/emotion&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'emotion'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mood (Psychology)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-03-17T12:05:48.220" LastActivityDate="2015-03-17T12:05:48.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3673" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-06-19T09:20:51.773" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding diffuse feeling states that are not directed at a specific object, person, or situation.  Mood is sometimes used to describe relatively long-lasting emotions." OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-03-17T12:05:53.153" LastActivityDate="2015-03-17T12:05:53.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3674" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-19T13:29:39.867" Score="20" ViewCount="420" Body="&lt;p&gt;During the day time, we are conscious of our surroundings and the brain does its work.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During sleep, we are not conscious. We have dreams. But the brain continues to function. After we awake though, there is only a memory of the dream experience. Is it possible to observe our dreams - that is, can we observe dreams as they occur and be conscious that we are dreaming? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3156" LastEditorUserId="46" LastEditDate="2013-06-19T13:40:37.610" LastActivityDate="2016-07-18T22:28:17.777" Title="Can we be conscious of our dreams?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3675" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4134" CreationDate="2013-06-19T14:23:33.217" Score="6" ViewCount="1345" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Personal sleep-deprivation study:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Recently, I posed a question that I'm sure many people find tough already: &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;Do I really need to sleep?&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, and so I tested myself, I spent two days without sleeping. &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;The result was&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I just can't handle this  anymore, gonna sleep; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eyes and hand trembling; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Random muscle contraction;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;High blood pressure; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Headaches; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Head overheat; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pain, pain everywhere;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Theorising:&lt;/strong&gt; The symptoms of sleep deprivation seemed similar to symptoms of withdrawal associated with drug addiction. Thus, What if sleep is simply just another addiction? What if we are too used to sleeping since we were born, and in the reality we don't need to ?  What is the reason for sleeping?- If the main reason is the brain heating, wouldn't a brain cooler or some refreshment system do the job? It is known that sleeping state is different from simply lying down, still that does not prove that sleep isn't an addiction, am I right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is sleep truly necessary?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are the effects of sleep deprivation analagous to withdrawal symptoms following drug addiction?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can we learn to function without sleep?&lt;/strong&gt; (i.e., after the withdrawal symptoms disappear)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3157" LastEditorUserId="3157" LastEditDate="2014-04-24T00:28:13.330" LastActivityDate="2014-04-24T00:28:13.330" Title="What is the difference between drug withdrawal and sleep deprivation effects?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3676" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-19T15:15:20.873" Score="7" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a way to prime subjects in an experiment to dislike exposure to conflict (arguments, anger between people, incivility, etc.).  Does anyone know of a good method for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3158" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T02:14:36.053" Title="How can I prime aversion to conflict?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3647" CreationDate="2013-06-20T00:57:48.597" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are individuals who possess extraordinary memory ability, sometimes called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidetic_memory&quot;&gt;eidetic memory&lt;/a&gt;. With specific reference to your question, a woman in Los Angeles has an extraordinary ability to recall autobiographical events from her past.  You can read the Wired article of her story &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wired.com/medtech/health/magazine/17-04/ff_perfectmemory&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;At the scientists' behest, for example, she recalled—without warning&#xA;  and in just 10 minutes—what she'd done on every Easter since 1980.&#xA;  &quot;April 6, 1980: 9th grade, Easter vacation ends. April 19, 1981: 10th&#xA;  grade, new boyfriend, H. April 11, 1982: 11th grade, grandparents&#xA;  visiting for Passover ...&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Her ability extends to certain momentous cultural events, such as disasters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;She instantly retrieves from memory the exact dates of the explosions&#xA;  of space shuttle Challenger and Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie,&#xA;  Scotland. She remembers not just that September 25, 1978, was when a&#xA;  PSA flight crashed in San Diego but also that the jet collided with a&#xA;  Cessna. She can go in either direction, disaster to date or date to&#xA;  disaster. When I say &quot;January 13, 1982,&quot; Price has no trouble&#xA;  recalling the Air Florida flight that plummeted into the Potomac.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One theory of her astounding memory is that she obsessively thinks about events after they happen, which leads to more effective encoding and strengthening of the memory for that event.  This seems to be a key distinction between her and a person of average memory - if you didn't encode an event completely when it happened you are unlikely to be able to recall it completely later. Trauma, such as nearly drowning, can either enhance or degrade this process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are curious, a great book that goes over our many memory failings is &quot;The Seven Sins of Memory&quot; by Daniel Schacter. Highly recommended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3109" LastActivityDate="2013-06-20T00:57:48.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3678" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3647" CreationDate="2013-06-20T09:17:42.730" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;(1) There are different kinds of memory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a &quot;sensory&quot; (e.g. visual) memory of events as they happened&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a verbal memory, i.e. the knowledge that something has happened (verbalization being the result of higher cognitive processing or &quot;reflection&quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a behavioral memory, i.e. a specific reaction to certain stimuli that does not appear in individuals that did not experience the relevant trauma&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The purposes of memory are correct and efficient future behavior. A detailed sensoric memory is not helpful in achieving these purposes, so it is usually not retained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Verbal encoding becomes more likely in older children (older than 28 to 36 months) and is better in girls. Children of all ages preserve a behavioral memory. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-198801000-00015&quot;&gt;Terr, 1988&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) Traumatic and negative life events are less well remembered than positive life events (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.837/abstract&quot;&gt;Byrne, Hyman &amp;amp; Scott, 2001&lt;/a&gt;), and it seems that memory is correlated to the type of trauma. In one study (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/ccp/62/6/1167/&quot;&gt;Williams, 1994&lt;/a&gt;), 38% of abused women had no memory of that (documented) abuse. Forgetting the abuse was more likely, if the perpretrator was part of the girls family. I would interpret this as the trauma being more severe, if the child's trust was broken. Forgetting this may be a coping strategy (see 3, below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3) Forgetting of traumatic events seems, in part, to be due to these traumatic events to &quot;fall out of&quot; and &quot;not fit into&quot; the individuals world view (&lt;a href=&quot;http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/soco.1989.7.2.113&quot;&gt;Janoff-Bulman, 1989&lt;/a&gt;). Whenever we experience something new, we have to either adapt our idea of the world to include this new experience, or we can, among other strategies, deny, ignore, or simply forget, that it happened. In the case of childhood abuse by close relatives, accepting the event as a fact, would result in the child loosing its family and all trust in the world. It would be unable to survive. Forgetting the trauma maintains a world that can be lived in. Deliberate forgetting can be found in victims of genocide (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/40027106&quot;&gt;Buckley-Zistel, 2006&lt;/a&gt;). Forgetting can be willfully induced (&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03195325.pdf&quot;&gt;Joslyn &amp;amp; Oakes, 2005&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a wealth of research into &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=trauma%20forgetting&quot;&gt;forgetting of traumatic life events&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-06-20T09:17:42.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3679" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3674" CreationDate="2013-06-20T09:38:56.077" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lucid dreaming is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=lucid%20dreaming%20buddhism&quot;&gt;practice in buddhism&lt;/a&gt;. La Berge (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1980.51.3f.1039&quot;&gt;1980&lt;/a&gt;) describes in some detail how he learned to dream lucidly, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=lucid%20dream&quot;&gt;several authors&lt;/a&gt; managed to induce lucid dreams in their test subjects through electrostimulation, food supplements and other means. There are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.com/s/field-keywords=lucid+dreaming&quot;&gt;some popular books&lt;/a&gt; that claim to teach the skill, some of them written by La Berge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-06-20T09:38:56.077" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3680" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3661" CreationDate="2013-06-20T09:44:45.673" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @what mentions Pilcher et al (2002) provide a meta-analysis of the effect of hot and cold temperature on performance. They found that cold temperatures of 10 degrees celsius resulted in an average reduction in performance of 14.88% and that hot temperatures of 32 degrees celsius resulted in a decrement of 13.91% relative to more neutral temperature conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study does discuss how type of task and duration of task moderate the effect of temperature on performance. However, as is often the case with meta-analysis, I found the results to be somewhat confusing and not readily explainable by a coherent theoretical model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pilcher, J. J., Nadler, E., &amp;amp; Busch, C. (2002). Effects of hot and cold temperature exposure on performance: a meta-analytic review. Ergonomics, 45(10), 682-698.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-06-20T09:44:45.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3681" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3682" CreationDate="2013-06-20T12:03:13.913" Score="5" ViewCount="198" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question of whether it is better to be an expert in one domain or average in many is too vague.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, instead, I'd like to focus on the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are individuals born to prefer being an expert in one domain or average in many domains? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any serious research on this? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example I'd very like to be an expert in swimming but after some time of hard training this activity becomes boring for me. I need to run, I need to play ball team games etc. Conversely, Michael Phelps, world swimmer, incline to be an expert in one branch.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can talk about branch of study, hobbies, sport, social interactions, languages, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3163" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-20T12:30:59.557" LastActivityDate="2013-06-20T13:23:39.963" Title="Does personality imply an inclination to be an expert in one field or average in &quot;all&quot; fields?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3682" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3681" CreationDate="2013-06-20T13:23:39.963" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I imagine there are many ways of looking at this question. Here are just a few ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Society and specialisation&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;One lens for viewing this question is to focus on the reward structure of our society. There are many forces in society which encourage specialisation and the development of specific expertise. Careers are typically built around developing expertise in a particular domain (e.g., doctors, lawyers, computer programmers, etc.). The nature of the reward structure that is facilitated by large economic markets means that the most popular actors, musicians, and politicians, and the most successful athletes get more of the financial and social rewards than those that just dabble in such activities. The flipside of a specialised society is that you don't need to know how to do many things, because you just pay someone else to do it. Thus, from this perspective, in historical terms society appears to be encouraging expertise more than in the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General individual differences&lt;/strong&gt;: The concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_achievement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;need for achievement&lt;/a&gt; refers to an &quot;individual's desire for significant accomplishment, mastering of skills, control, or high standards.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-actualising&lt;/strong&gt;: You could look at research on how people find meaning in their life and how mastery and expertise fits into that experience. In particular, the journey of acquiring mastery in a domain has often been linked to feelings of meaning and purpose. For example, have a look at something like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Self Determination Theory&lt;/a&gt; and the role of competence in achieving a sense of personal growth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Expertise and deliberate practice research:&lt;/strong&gt; There's a substantial body of research that has studied people acquiring expertise in particular domains. Ericsson et al (1993) provides a good introduction to this research. A central claim in Ericsson's model is that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Practice_%28learning_method%29#Deliberate_practice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;deliberate practice&lt;/a&gt; is key to acquiring expertise. And given that deliberate practice is optimised for improving performance it may not necessarily be intrinsically enjoyable. Thus, this suggests that the motivation to engage in deliberate practice over an extended period of time may be a key differentiator between those who do and do not acquire expertise. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., &amp;amp; Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological review, 100(3), 363. &lt;a href=&quot;http://stuff.mit.edu/afs/athena.mit.edu/course/6/6.055/readings/ericsson-charness-am-psychologist.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-06-20T13:23:39.963" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3683" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3674" CreationDate="2013-06-20T15:10:09.117" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;During REM sleep (during which dreams seem to occur), we experience muscular atonia – our muscle can’t move. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_behavior_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;When the region responsible for muscular atonia is impaired&lt;/a&gt;, patients seem to live through their dreams. It has been &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0166223679901103&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;studied in cats by Michel Jouvet&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that this shows that it is reasonable to trust our subjective experience here : we are conscious of the dream while we have it – although, when we recall it later, it’s probably very much reconstructed.&#xA;The relation between temporality and consicousness will remain a very tricky question, and it may actually be impossible to differentiate &quot;being conscious as it occurs&quot; and &quot;having a memory of the dream experience&quot;. You can find an extensive discussion on the relation between temporality and consciousness in Daniel Dennett’s book &lt;em&gt;Consciousness explained&lt;/em&gt; ,  chapter 6  - Time and Experience. (And there is probably more in his more recent book, &lt;em&gt;Sweet dreams&lt;/em&gt; but I haven’t read it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3166" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-04T04:59:47.430" LastActivityDate="2014-01-04T04:59:47.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3684" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-21T00:01:20.207" Score="2" ViewCount="497" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've spent the last couple of months trying to find real data (not simulated) of a longitudinal study, but I can't seem to find one. Any topic and time frame is fine, but the dependent variable must be binary, and a few covariables are also desirable. I appreciate any help immensely!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3170" LastActivityDate="2013-06-21T11:53:21.300" Title="Where can I find a longitudinal study with a binary response?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3685" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3655" CreationDate="2013-06-21T01:57:13.663" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another paper that might be relevant is Vohs and Heatherton (2000).  They examined self-regulation failure in a group of dieters and non-dieters.  The idea behind their study was that dieters would have an increased incidence of self-regulation failure because they must consistently maintain self control around food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one of the studies they had a low temptation condition where candy was placed far away and a high temptation condition where candy was within reach.  The experimenters also manipulated the availability of the candy by telling participants to either &quot;do not touch&quot; or to &quot;help yourself.  The participants then had to watch a 10 minute movie with the candy nearby.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After the movie the participants were taken to a separate room and asked to complete an ice cream tasting task.  Following a brief tasting, the participants were told &quot;By the way, help yourself to any ice cream you want; we have tons in the freezer.&quot;  The dependent variable was how much ice cream was eaten in each condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/znwDI.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results showed that dieters ate approximately the same amount of ice cream in the &quot;do not touch&quot; conditions, but ate significantly more in the &quot;help yourself&quot; condition with high temptation.  The authors conclude that the dieters exercised so much self control when snacks were in reach and available that they had far less self-control available following the ice cream tasting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vohs KD and Heatherton TF. (2000). Self-regulatory failure: A resource-depletion approach. Psychological Science, 11(3), 249-254.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3109" LastActivityDate="2013-06-21T01:57:13.663" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3686" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3684" CreationDate="2013-06-21T03:24:54.637" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps have a look at chapter 14 of Gelman and Hill &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/arm/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/arm/&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chapter 14 is on multilevel logistic regression and the website provides access to all data files used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just don't have access to the book right now to tell you which of the many datafiles used in the book correspond to the examples in chapter 14.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, textbooks are a good way of directing your search. Many provide practice datasets. So  you just need to find textbooks on longitudinal analysis of binary response data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-06-21T03:24:54.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3687" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-21T08:16:27.993" Score="6" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did some searching but I was not able to find anything substantial on this topic either for or against. I am mainly trying to figure out whether online trolling is a way of redirecting otherwise destructive offline behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is there a correlation between online vandalism (trolling) and offline vandalism (damaging/defacing public property)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-21T08:27:09.587" LastActivityDate="2014-06-22T10:35:25.653" Title="Is there a correlation between online and offline vandalism?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3688" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3684" CreationDate="2013-06-21T11:24:45.923" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;(1) The statistic software R comes with a number of datasets. You can see which datasets are available with the command &lt;code&gt;data()&lt;/code&gt;. Here is an &lt;a href=&quot;http://stat.ethz.ch/R-manual/R-patched/library/datasets/html/00Index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;overview&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Among the datasets that came with my distribution of R is the dataset &lt;code&gt;Titanic&lt;/code&gt;, which includes the binary variable &quot;Survived&quot;, which gives information about which passengers survived the Titanic's maiden voyage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another dataset, &lt;code&gt;UCBAdmissions&lt;/code&gt;, gives information about which applicants were admitted or rejected to UC Berkeley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The data in both datasets is grouped (by sex etc.). Both are not longitudinal, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can get information on each dataset with &lt;code&gt;?datasetname&lt;/code&gt;, e.g. &lt;code&gt;?Titanic&lt;/code&gt;. Maybe more datasets include binary variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) As Jeromy Anglim noted, many statistics text books offer an online data repository. Here is the one for &lt;a href=&quot;http://socserv.socsci.mcmaster.ca/jfox/Books/Applied-Regression-2E/datasets&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Applied Regression Analysis and Generalized Linear Models (2nd ed.)&lt;/a&gt; by John Fox. Here is the one for &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stat.uni-muenchen.de/service/datenarchiv/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Statistik (7th ed.)&lt;/a&gt; by Fahrmeir et al. (in German).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3) Here is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rdatamining.com/resources/data&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;linklist to free datasets&lt;/a&gt;, here is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kdnuggets.com/datasets/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;another&lt;/a&gt;. I guess &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=free%20data%20sets&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;there are more&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-06-21T11:53:21.300" LastActivityDate="2013-06-21T11:53:21.300" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3689" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-21T13:34:30.613" Score="3" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for some peer reviewed evidence that abstract visuals can be associated with a wide range of sounds when compared to more recognisable visual representations pertaining to everyday objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an abstract object we are unlikely to have formed any strong correlating bonds between the two modalities and therefore can't relate the sound it makes to our everyday experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In comparison, an object that we are very familiar with is not ideally suited to more abstract sounds as it doesn't match our expectations and therefore seems out of place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2368" LastActivityDate="2013-06-21T13:34:30.613" Title="Can abstract object representations be associated with a wider range of sounds in comparison to everyday object representations?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cross-modal&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3690" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-21T15:29:28.547" Score="3" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it just me, or are we dreaming less? Maybe it's the computer screens in our face all day. Maybe that's just what happens when we get older.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if there's a resource of some kind to determine historical dream activity. Might it be possible to use &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.com/trends/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Trends&lt;/a&gt; to determine dream activity (similar to how &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.org/flutrends/us/#US&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Flu&lt;/a&gt; tracks illness via search queries). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or is Google too novel a tool, and are dreamers searching too randomly to track any meaningful delta in dream activity? If so, is there another resource that might provide meaningful dream data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3171" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-21T19:15:54.763" LastActivityDate="2013-06-22T07:26:19.000" Title="Where to find historical dream activity data?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3691" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3756" CreationDate="2013-06-21T19:01:29.733" Score="5" ViewCount="1067" Body="&lt;p&gt;The common theme in most studies/articles about masturbation is that as long as the act does not interfere with everyday life, it's not considered a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;However, just because it doesn't interfere with everyday life, why is frequent NOT considered an addiction?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(For example, some people are addicted to marijuana or cocaine but are still functional, however, it is still an addiction.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This depends on the age, health, and personal needs of a guy. For&#xA;  instance, a survey on a popular masturbation site found that the&#xA;  average 13-year-old masturbates three times a day with over 10 percent&#xA;  masturbating over 6 times!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It sounds pretty clear that there is a strong, overpowering urge (regardless of reason) that has the individual repeating the act, in some cases many times a day. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So just because they can still get to work or turn in assignments at school/college, why is this not an addiction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ref. &lt;a href=&quot;http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_often_do_most_males_masturbate&quot;&gt;http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_often_do_most_males_masturbate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-22T04:45:15.910" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T20:00:27.807" Title="Just because masturbation doesn't interfere with everyday life, why aren't higher rates considered an addiction?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3692" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3537" CreationDate="2013-06-21T19:39:57.740" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The serotonin that remains in the cleft continues to bind to receptors again and again, increasing the total membrane potential change in the postsynaptic neuron.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Think of this process as lowering the threshold for generating an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. The serotonin that remains in the cleft has already changed potential of the postsynaptic neuron somewhat. Now, when a new release of neurotransmitter comes along, it has a greater chance of raising the membrane potential to the point that an action potential is generated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the effect of an SSRI on neurotransmitter levels can occur relatively quickly, most patients will not see an effect on their mood for several weeks.  It is thought that the antidepressant action of these drugs may be an effect of a longer term downregulation of serotonin receptors.  See Eison and Mullins (1996) for greater detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eison AS, Mullins UL (1996). &quot;Regulation of central 5-HT2A receptors: a review of in vivo studies&quot;. Behavioural Brain Research 73 (1–2): 177–81.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3109" LastActivityDate="2013-06-21T19:39:57.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3693" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-21T22:14:29.230" Score="9" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a diagram on &lt;a href=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Diagram_of_the_opponent_process.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; that is part of the article on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Diagram_of_the_opponent_process.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;opponent process&lt;/a&gt;. I assume practical equations have been developed, at least reasonable approximations, but they appear to be missing from the diagram.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a quanitity C1 that comes from the L and M cones, and is supposed to represent red minus green. There is a quantity C2 - C3 that comes from all three cone types. If C1 is positive it is a red hue, otherwise green. If C2-C3 is positive it is a yellow hue, otherwise blue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However actual equations for C1 in terms of cone responses, or for C2-C3 in terms of cone responses, or for A (Brightness) in terms of all three cones &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; the rod responses are completely missing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a related question, that should possibly be separated (let me know if it needs to be a new question):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While RGB defined color can vary with the display device, it would be very useful to have a rough approximation that turns an typical 3 byte RGB triple into a triple of approximate cone and rod responses along with a model of cone and rod saturation (i.e. as you stare at a point how does the cone response change over time). I am sure this has been done and is well known in the right places. Could you point me to it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3173" LastEditorUserId="3173" LastEditDate="2015-05-14T14:59:13.067" LastActivityDate="2020-06-19T20:01:30.157" Title="Source for turning cone cell opponent process diagram into equations" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3694" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-22T00:26:54.503" Score="6" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;To understand what I mean, for three days I stared at a formula that looked Greek. Its semantics of relationship was unknown. The mathematics was just one long blur without logic and making no sense. I came back and forth to it. Then one day it was like a veil was lifted over my head and everything &quot;clicked&quot; and made sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember some of the best mathematics advice I received was &quot;sometimes things click with repeated exposure and this happens a lot in mathematics.&quot; I never paid attention to this until I learned to appreciate this &quot;click&quot; phenomenon which I would like study in a more scientific manner but don't know the term(s) I should be looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus why I'm here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;is there even a name for this &quot;click&quot; experience in mathematics?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a name for Déjà vu which even is studied, but what about the &quot;click&quot;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3174" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-22T07:39:11.857" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T13:57:56.467" Title="Does psychology have a name for the &quot;click&quot; experienced in mathematics?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3695" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-22T03:25:01.303" Score="5" ViewCount="290" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been thinking for a while about general intelligence (i.e.,not specific abilities used for particular tasks such as chess).&#xA;I think that the essence of general intelligence is pattern analysis. I.e., the brain of any animal is a pattern analysis machine. The brain analyses patterns of sounds, lights, pressure, chemicals (in the nose and the tongue). More than that, it also analyse patterns of actions (body language, pattern in doing daily activities, etc etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent can intelligence be understood as pattern analysis?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do any existing researchers conceptualise intelligence as pattern analysis?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What evidence is there to support conceptualising intelligence as pattern analysis?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3176" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-22T04:19:37.837" LastActivityDate="2013-06-25T04:52:07.960" Title="Can general intelligence be understood as pattern analysis?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3696" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3694" CreationDate="2013-06-22T04:43:41.213" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are concepts like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insight&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;insight&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Aha moment&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; which are similar to what you describe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the aha moment is more aligned to flashes of insight to discrete problems. While this could be relevant to the experience you are describing of learning mathematics, perhaps you are also describing a more gradual process of learning. Mathematics can be quite complicated. With each iteration of practice, reflection and consolidation, an you typically learn more. At first you made need to go through the material just to get an organising framework. Then on  a second read, you can start to apply the organising framework to your interpretation. The meaning of the text and symbols begin to be stored in long term memory, so you can start to focus on the broader meaning rather than spending substantial cognitive resources on the components.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in general, what you are describing sounds a lot like the process of cognitive skill acquisition. If you want to learn more you could read something like Anderson (1982). Basically, this is a movement from effortful and error prone performance to fluent and relatively error free performance. Thus, at a certain point, you reflect on your performance and you realise that you have acquired the skill. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anderson, J. R. (1982). Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological review, 89(4), 369-406. &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/papers/63/ACS_JRA_PR.1982.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-06-22T04:43:41.213" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3697" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3691" CreationDate="2013-06-22T05:12:25.647" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not my area, but I think the definition of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;addiction&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is contentious for many reasons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Addiction often has normative implications; i.e., that addiction is bad. It can imply an inability to not do the act. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It doesn't seem useful to me to talk about being addicted to the needs necessary for survival, such as breathing, eating, excreting, modulating temperature, and so on. Sexual fulfilment is closely related to species survival, and as such is certainly a natural part of human existence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems natural to ask the question of how often people masturbate. And with any such count, there will be people who do it more or less often. But in the absence of negative effects on others or the individual, why should anyone care how frequently someone masturbates? What would be gained from using the label of &quot;addiction&quot; based on frequency alone?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might want to read up about discussions of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypersexuality&quot;&gt;hypersexuality&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_addiction&quot;&gt;sexual addiction&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-06-22T05:12:25.647" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3698" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3690" CreationDate="2013-06-22T05:23:48.980" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you need to distinguish dream activity and dream recall. I thought that everyone dreams every night. However, many factors influence whether we recall the dreams. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I think a more productive search would be to focus on the factors that influence dream recall, and perhaps the prominence of dreams in peoples lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found one older article by Cohen (1973) which summarises research on the frequency of dream recall. He states that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Frequency of dream recall is affected by physiological, methodological, and psychological factors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beaulieu-Prevost and Zadra (2005) writes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Schonbar (1965) suggested that people who remember many dreams are&#xA;  generally interested in dreams, in trying to understand them, in&#xA;  increasing their dream recall frequency, and tend to have an overall&#xA;  positive attitude towards dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beaulieu-Prevost and Zadra (2005) then go on to cite numerous such studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, the next question would be whether the factors that influence dream recall have changed over recent history.  Palagini et al (2011) might provide a useful starting point as they review historical perspectives of dreaming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beaulieu-Prévost, D., &amp;amp; Zadra, A. (2005). Dream recall frequency and attitude towards dreams: a reinterpretation of the relation. Personality and individual differences, 38(4), 919-927.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cohen, D. B. (1969). Frequency of dream recall estimated by three methods and related to defense preference and anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33(6), 661.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Palagini, L., &amp;amp; Rosenlicht, N. (2011). Sleep, dreaming, and mental health: A review of historical and neurobiological perspectives. Sleep medicine reviews, 15(3), 179-186.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-22T07:26:19.000" LastActivityDate="2013-06-22T07:26:19.000" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3699" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-22T09:52:02.990" Score="4" ViewCount="288" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/046502811X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Theoretical Minimum&lt;/a&gt;, in lecture 1, Leonard Susskind says that you can only visualize 3 dimentional images. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&amp;amp;v=iJfw6lDlTuA#t=574s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;see yourself&lt;/a&gt;). Therefore, he says, in order to deal with N dimensions, you need to deal with abstract algebra. I wonder why the brain is hardwired for abstract algebra. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It might be worth to note that mnemotechnicians remind us &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.ee/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;ved=0CCsQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http://www.brainathlete.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/How-to-Memorize-EVERYTHING.docx&amp;amp;ei=Do2eUuPCBovhywPErYHYCw&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNFtQm1Bq1wABu7cE2WgpiKYYCHJQA&amp;amp;sig2=_iJ64WhCGt2VGs_tLzZskw&amp;amp;bvm=bv.57155469,d.bGQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;that your mind thinks in pictures, and remembers pictures, not words or abstract thoughts&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3177" LastEditorUserId="3177" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T02:06:17.660" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T02:06:17.660" Title="Why neural architecture is not hardwired for N-dimensional vision but hardwired for abstract math?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3700" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3699" CreationDate="2013-06-22T13:05:10.757" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Abstract algebra and n-dimensional space are constructs of the human mind. Since they are constructs of the human mind, it is of course possible for the human mind to grasp them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;N-dimensional space is a mathematical construct. That human mathematics allows for the construction of something, does not mean that it exists in reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in mathematics, there are &lt;code&gt;3 apples&lt;/code&gt;. In reality, there are no 3 apples, because all apples are different (in size, color, ripeness, taste etc.), and the equation &lt;code&gt;1 apple = 1 apple&lt;/code&gt; is always false.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mathematics is an abstraction from reality, and the fact that it is an abstraction means that relevant information is lost in mathematical representation. If you turn this around, it means that a mathematical model has an unkown relation to reality, because you don't know which information is not present in the model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even more basic, it is unknown if anything relating to that model even exists. For example, the equation &lt;code&gt;3 - 4 = -1&lt;/code&gt; has no relation in reality. There are no negative objects or lengths. (All scales that include negatives, such as temperature, have an arbitrary zero point and can be transformed to a scale without negatives, e.g. Kelvin.) Even simple mathematics is fictional. The existence of a mathematical object or model, such as n-dimensional space, does not prove, nor even imply, the existence of a related reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-06-22T13:05:10.757" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3701" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3695" CreationDate="2013-06-22T14:30:38.947" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are certainly not the first to conceive of intelligence as pattern analysis. In fact, there is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.onintelligence.org/index.php&quot;&gt;book&lt;/a&gt; by Jeff Hawkins called &quot;On Intelligence&quot; which investigates this idea in depth. His idea is that the best candidate mechanism for intelligent brain function is &lt;a href=&quot;http://homes.cs.washington.edu/~rao/predcoding2011.pdf&quot;&gt;predictive coding&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the predictive coding framework, the job of the brain is not to continuously process all incoming information, but instead to continuously predict upcoming information: the brain is an inference machine. Predictive coding is a hierarchical process whereby a any stage in cognitive processing sends its prediction to a previous stage in processing via feedback connections. For example, if area V2 'expects' to see a square, it will send this information to area V1, which codes for line orientation. If the received input matches the expectation, the information is suppressed. The information now doesn't need to go any further than V1, because it has already been fully predicted, i.e. the brain already contains a representation of it. If, however, the input doesn't match the prediction, the mismatch, called prediction error, is transmitted further through the processing hierarchy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prediction error is considered the reason why surprising (invalidly predicted) stimuli lead to more neural activity than unsurprising (validly predicted) ones, for example in mismatch negativity paradigms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The notion of expectation here is automatic, it is a function of each brain area and does not need to be conscious in the sense of us being aware that it's happening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is however important to note that this notion of intelligence is nothing like the notion of intelligence in psychology. In psychology, intelligence is a measure of individual differences between people. The predictive coding framework is, in contrast, posited as a general feature of the neocortex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2013-06-22T14:30:38.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3703" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-06-23T05:40:30.600" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Forensic psychology is the intersection between psychology and the justice system. It involves understanding criminal law in the relevant jurisdictions in order to be able to interact appropriately with judges, attorneys and other legal professionals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-23T05:40:30.600" LastActivityDate="2013-06-23T05:40:30.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3704" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-06-23T05:40:30.600" Score="0" Body="For questions about understanding fundamental legal principles, particularly with regard to expert witness testimony and the specific content area of concern (e.g., competence to stand trial, child custody and visitation, or workplace discrimination), as well as relevant jurisdictional considerations (e.g., in the United States, the definition of insanity in criminal trials differs from state to state)" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T13:15:55.790" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T13:15:55.790" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3705" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-23T10:26:10.007" Score="5" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;How can romantic love be described by scientists?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3161" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T03:39:20.470" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T03:39:20.470" Title="What biological processes occur when you love someone romantically?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2013-08-30T21:16:18.587" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3706" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4537" CreationDate="2013-06-23T12:20:56.200" Score="2" ViewCount="318" Body="&lt;p&gt;By abstract thinking, I am referring to not only notions of self and identity, but also aspects that can not be directly observed and 'thinking outside of the box'.  Essentially, from my own experience as a teacher, where a student gradually develops the ability to go beyond 'concrete' thinking (based on what they can sense), to be able to incorporate abstract ideas and knowledge (based on what can not be sensed).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of this is learning chemistry, it has been my experience in the classroom that junior science students don't always get the notion of atomic structure because they can not see or adequately visualise the details necessary; however, the can understand what happens in chemical reaction as it is clear to see.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What cognitive processes occur that allow a person to be able to think and problem solve abstractly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-08-24T09:50:39.990" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T11:55:00.997" Title="How do people develop abstract thought processes?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3707" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-23T14:53:56.463" Score="9" ViewCount="3515" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a scientist by nature, and I don't believe at all in God or any form of spirituality or the Holy Spirit (of course).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it does confuse me as to how some people genuinely do seem to be overcome by 'spirit' in certain more extreme churches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuOBdGeArZw&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuOBdGeArZw&lt;/a&gt; Watch this clip, and at about 3:35 the man goes into a strange state, and states like this do happen. &#xA;As well as this, my dad once began crying for no reason in a Church or Mosque or something at the altar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any scientifically/theoretical psychological explanations as to why this could be possible without the need for any sort of spirituality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3181" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T03:59:17.900" LastActivityDate="2020-02-07T17:33:14.113" Title="Is there a psychological explanation for people being 'overcome by the Holy Spirit'?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3708" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3713" CreationDate="2013-06-23T23:18:05.170" Score="37" ViewCount="2125" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often, the term 'multitasking' is applied to very busy and 'wired' people.  There is an adage that women multitask better than men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, do we actually multitask?  If so, what are the cognitive processes that allow this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, is it a case that we momentarily put a task on hold to do another and it has more to do with a well organised short term memory of tasks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T03:07:09.443" LastActivityDate="2021-01-13T18:49:18.337" Title="Is multitasking a myth?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3709" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2034" CreationDate="2013-06-24T00:11:41.177" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;This could be an example of what is termed &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involuntary_memory&quot;&gt;&quot;involuntary memory&quot; or &quot;involuntary autobiographical memory&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.  Mainly it is due to subtle and obvious prompts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-06-24T00:11:41.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3710" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-06-24T00:55:52.397" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-24T00:55:52.397" LastActivityDate="2013-06-24T00:55:52.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3711" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-06-24T00:55:52.397" Score="0" Body="for questions on the scientific psychological study of religion and spirituality" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-24T00:55:52.397" LastActivityDate="2013-06-24T00:55:52.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3712" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3707" CreationDate="2013-06-24T03:35:31.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the common answers is that it's driven by social demands and depends on the cultural expectation and the suggestibility of the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember an example Spanos used to like to bring up regarding demonic possession.  Catholics and protestants had different symptoms for demonic possession and people who exhibited it as a phenomenon each had the symptoms they were supposed to have.  The long history of hypnosis, hypno-therapy and a variety of social and suggestibility related phenomenon suggests that's one potential cause for what you witness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recent theorizing talks about social emotional constructs such as social joy.  The act of being with a group of people can make someone happy when all participating together and there is a strong feeling of shared belief.  I think there's something to that and the general idea of spirituality that either comes from social contexts or strong isolation (isolation impacts an individual partly because of their reliance on the social).  There is clearly some emotion that we can get that we attribute causally to God or a spirit that we do not fully understand.  Of course, we've always attributed to God or a spirit that which we do not fully understand.  Until we can better understand that and how it's important to the well being of humans, atheism will perpetually have an uphill battle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2013-06-24T03:35:31.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3713" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3708" CreationDate="2013-06-24T05:59:15.387" Score="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;Scientists studying the matter generally believe multitasking, and women's superiority at it, to be a myth.  Men come out slightly better multitaskers than women but there's not really any meaningful difference.  The way it's defined is critical though; it's being able to do two things that typically require focal attention at the exact same time.  For example, driving and carrying on an important conversation on the phone.  In general, people are quite bad at any such multi-tasking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you interview women they tend to believe the myth that women are better but it's based on a different definition of multitasking.  They often mean that they'll start one task that can sort of self run, like putting the laundry in, and while that's happening go and work on a letter they've been writing to a client or some other task.  They would tend to say they do that all of the time.  There's not much research into whether men or women are better at that because that's generally not the kind of multitasking researchers have cared about. I should think an investigation into planning potentially overlapping tasks would be how you'd test this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, as one of the articles below mentions, there seems to be a general belief that while neither sex is particularly good at it, women actually do it more frequently.  That too, hasn't really been studied as far as I know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some related newsy articles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/were-only-human/73955.html&quot;&gt;Why men (yes, men) are better multitaskers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spring.org.uk/2013/04/are-men-or-women-better-at-multitasking.php&quot;&gt;Are Men or Women Better at Multitasking?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2013-06-29T07:47:14.247" LastActivityDate="2013-06-29T07:47:14.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3714" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-24T08:41:46.147" Score="6" ViewCount="225" Body="&lt;p&gt;Background: I studied psychology prior to going into cognitive neuroscience for my PhD. While I know my own area in depth, I lack the kind of broad overview that people who have done their Masters in cognitive neuroscience tend to have. I was recently asked to give a general talk on cognitive neuroscience, in a country where it pretty much doesn't exist yet as a field. The talk is for highly talented high school kids who are at a summer school for scientific research in psychology. We have all afternoon for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My idea was to first talk about neuroimaging techniques: what do the machines look like, what do they measure, what kind of conclusions can we draw using them. I then wanted to go on to some &lt;strong&gt;examples where neuroscience was used to draw conclusions about cognitive functions, such that the conclusions couldn't have been drawn using just behavioural experiments&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, for &lt;strong&gt;memory&lt;/strong&gt;, I thought I could talk about HM and how we learned about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaison&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;distinction between short-term and long-term memory&lt;/a&gt; when his hippocampi were removed. For &lt;strong&gt;language&lt;/strong&gt;, I could talk about the effect of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N400_%28neuroscience%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cloze probability&lt;/a&gt; on the N400 evoked potential. For &lt;strong&gt;consciousness&lt;/strong&gt;, I could talk about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lgi.ecp.fr/~mousseau/mcda-ss/pmwiki-2.1.27/uploads/Main/toto.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;role of feedback connections&lt;/a&gt; and how selectively knocking out early areas with TMS before the feedback signal comes back can abolish conscious perception. I'm still not sure what examples to use for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Attention&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Motor control&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Executive functions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Clinical applications&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sleep&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perception of space or time&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social behaviour&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Other&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would love to hear your thoughts on the most classical Cognitive Neuroscience findings you can think of. What would your list look like? It can be anything really, as long as it's not just behavioural. Rats, monkeys and zebrafish are also welcome to the list :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-24T11:44:49.383" LastActivityDate="2013-06-24T13:04:02.267" Title="Classic cognitive neuroscience studies that highlight conclusions that could not be drawn from behavioral experiments" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;teaching-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3715" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3714" CreationDate="2013-06-24T13:04:02.267" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;For introductory cognitive neuroscience, I think it is often best to start with interesting neuropsychological cases -- I think such cases provide an intriguing and intuitive way to get into the relationship between mind and brain. You already plan to talk about HM (and you can mention the movie &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memento_%28film%29&quot;&gt;Memento&lt;/a&gt; if you think students might be familiar or interested in it), I would suggest following that approach in the other domains. A few suggestions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Executive functions/social behavior: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage&quot;&gt;Phineas Gage&lt;/a&gt; (frontal lobe damage produced impulsivity, rudeness, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Language: pure anomia (patients can report lots of information about an object but can't name it), jargon aphasia (patients produce nonsense words without realizing they are nonsense)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conceptual knowledge: &lt;a href=&quot;http://webu2.upmf-grenoble.fr/LPNC/LpncPerso/Permanents/SRousset/SD2009/Semantic%20dementia_%20a%20unique%20clinicopathological%20syndrome.pdf&quot;&gt;semantic dementia&lt;/a&gt; (progressive degeneration of semantic knowledge)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spatial attention: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispatial_neglect&quot;&gt;hemispatial neglect&lt;/a&gt; (patients don't notice things on one side of visual field, usually the left side following right parietal lesions)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Motor control: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideational_apraxia&quot;&gt;ideational apraxia&lt;/a&gt; (impairment of action planning), &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideomotor_apraxia&quot;&gt;ideomotor apraxia&lt;/a&gt; (impairment of object use), &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/15/10/1561.long&quot;&gt;optic ataxia&lt;/a&gt; (impairment of visually-guided reaching)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Face perception / visual expertise: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosopagnosia&quot;&gt;prosopagnosia&lt;/a&gt; (typically described as impairment of face perception, though it affects other versions of visual expertise)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, there is a good two-volume set called Classic Cases in Neuropsychology (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psypress.com/books/details/9780863773969/&quot;&gt;Vol. 1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psypress.com/books/details/9780415646673/&quot;&gt;Vol. 2&lt;/a&gt;) edited by Chris Code et al. that describes lots of interesting and influential cases. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2013-06-24T13:04:02.267" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3716" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3695" CreationDate="2013-06-25T04:52:07.960" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The nature of intelligence is a highly controversial open question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However your phrasing and use of the term &quot;general intelligence&quot; seems to indicate a g-factorist context to the question, so then, I would say the answer is &quot;no&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pattern recognition tests such as Raven's Progressive Matrices do load highly on the g-factor but things unrelated to pattern recognition load as well, such as reaction time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3184" LastActivityDate="2013-06-25T04:52:07.960" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3717" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-25T11:05:01.007" Score="8" ViewCount="2156" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.umass.edu/aizen/tpb.html&quot;&gt;theory of planned behaviour&lt;/a&gt; is a popular model of human behaviour. I.e., &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.umass.edu/aizen/tpb.diag.html&quot;&gt;Broadly the model&lt;/a&gt; suggests that intentions to act are a function of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control. And behaviour is a function of intentions and actual ability to act which is reflected typically in perceptions of control.&#xA;The theory of planned behaviour has been applied to many domains (e.g., smoking, exercise, gambling, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was curious whether any researchers have attempted to integrate modes of trait personality, and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot;&gt;Big 5&lt;/a&gt; personality in particular with the theory of planned behaviour. I assume that any such integration would be somewhat domain dependent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What theories have been proposed relating Big 5 personality factors with theory of planned behaviour?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What relationships have been obtained in empirical studies between Big 5 personality and theory of planned behaviour?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T11:38:29.040" Title="What is the relationship between Big 5 personality and the theory of planned behaviour?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3719" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3708" CreationDate="2013-06-25T20:22:53.877" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think I read in some book or other, maybe called Mindfulness, by E.J.Langer (ISBN  0201523418), that William James (?) taught himself to write about one topic while discussing another topic.  However, he could not remember what he wrote about afterward, and the writing was not very compelling in any case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it may be possible to do more than one thing at once, but not well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3187" LastActivityDate="2013-06-25T20:22:53.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3720" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3725" CreationDate="2013-06-26T01:56:15.717" Score="5" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;Phenomena such as large-scale stock market sell-offs and financial panic in general are often explained in terms of herding behaviors.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At how primitive of a level does one actually &quot;follow the herd&quot;?  In other words, does this behavior elicit a strong response at the brainstem level (particularly in the tectum, i.e., the colliculi) at some cost to frontal cortical processing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, it's a difficult task to run an EEG or have a subject in for an MRI during a real panic, so results based on simulations are certainly acceptable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2013-06-27T14:43:17.640" Title="Is there evidence of suppression of the frontal cortex during herding behavior?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3721" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-26T06:02:07.313" Score="6" ViewCount="169" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does one usually go about analyzing the auditory steady state response (ASSR)? I have data where speech was amplitude modulated to a 40 Hz sine tone. There's 3.5 minutes of data; should I just take the FFT or do some averaging first? What is the usual process? The data has been already preprocessed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3189" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-06T09:52:02.083" LastActivityDate="2017-02-06T10:07:22.387" Title="How to analyze auditory steady state responses?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3722" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-26T14:54:22.980" Score="8" ViewCount="210" Body="&lt;p&gt;Performance on secondary tasks next to a primary task is sometimes used to assess mental workload (Ogden, Levine and Eisner, 1979). For example, the Stroop test as a secondary task has been evaluated by Gwizdka (2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a lot of effort goes into setting up these tasks, so I was wondering whether there are any open, ready-made task sets available which would be suitable for this purpose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some desirable characteristics I am looking for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One task shouldn't be considerably harder than another.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Performing one task shouldn't take considerably longer than another.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Overall, one task shouldn't take too long, so the amount of tasks done can also be used as a measurement of mental workload.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Ogden, G. D., Levine, J. M., &amp;amp; Eisner, E. J. (1979). &lt;a href=&quot;http://hfs.sagepub.com/content/21/5/529.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Measurement of workload by secondary tasks.&lt;/a&gt; Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 21(5), 529-548.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gwizdka, J. (2010, August). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1962300.1962345&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Using stroop task to assess cognitive load&lt;/a&gt;. In Proceedings of the 28th Annual European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics (pp. 219-222). ACM.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-07T19:12:24.713" LastActivityDate="2015-05-07T19:12:24.713" Title="Are there any open task sets available to assess workload using secondary task measures?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3723" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-26T16:03:42.403" Score="4" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;I notice that I am more annoyed by problems when I am not the one that created them.  Two examples would be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cleaning up someone else's mess is much more annoying than cleaning up my own&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When spelling autocorrect &quot;fixes&quot; a word that I typed in correctly fixing it annoys me much more than fixing words that I misspelled.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My second example alludes to the fact that this is a very important phenomenon to consider when automating a process.  A user could be much more annoyed by fixing a mistake caused by the automation than they would have been doing the whole thing themselves.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been unable to find a name for this phenomenon or any research relating to it.  Is it true in general? Is there a name for it that would point me towards some research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3192" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-06-26T16:05:20.020" LastActivityDate="2013-06-26T16:05:20.020" Title="Are people less bothered by problems they create for themselves?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-07-17T05:41:59.710" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3724" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-26T23:39:05.310" Score="4" ViewCount="658" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1962/possibility-of-perfect-virtual-reality&quot;&gt;this guy&lt;/a&gt; is trying to say, or why his question got closed, but I think I can build upon it and form a solid question. When the brain enters REM Sleep, all sensory input to reality is eliminated or dulled. The person will begin dreaming as the brain creates random impulses and sends them through the brain. Through the techniques of Lucid Dreaming, the subject can learn to control the false dream reality completely. These conditions provide everything necessary for a virtual environment except they are isolated to the individual's brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we were able to induce the physiological conditions of sleep (which should be a simple injection of hormones), and generate these impulses artificially(connecting the brain to a high-end computer program), then we should be able to immerse the person in a virtual environment. Lucidity could be achieved easily by programming the system to leave clues for the subject. The ramifications of this are enormous. For example, a man in China and a man in Russia could go bowling together, without leaving their own homes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'm not sure if this theory already exists, but I definitely reached these conclusions myself.)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My main questions are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What are the hormones necessary to induce sleep in this way?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is this a safe and reliable way to immerse a subject in a virtual environment? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3103" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-06-28T20:45:34.790" Title="Possibility of using the effects of sleep to induce a virtual environment?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3725" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3720" CreationDate="2013-06-27T14:43:17.640" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is probably not a complete answer to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been a few studies on this relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/33/11934.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This article from the Journal of Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; &quot;Downregulation of the Posterior Medial Frontal Cortex Prevents Social Conformity&quot; (Klucharev et al. 2011) approach the research (from their abstract):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Here we demonstrate that the transient downregulation of the posterior medial frontal cortex by theta-burst transcranial magnetic stimulation reduces conformity, as indicated by reduced conformal adjustments in line with group opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pure.au.dk/portal/files/45260302/Raafat2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This article may also be of interest&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-06-27T14:43:17.640" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3726" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1687" CreationDate="2013-06-27T15:50:17.727" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The best thing I can find is somebody's &lt;a href=&quot;http://transfinite.wordpress.com/2009/10/27/experience-sampling-on-android/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;side project on experience sampling (the code is on github)&lt;/a&gt;, so not sure if it's being maintained or anything, but it does appear to do exactly what you want.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2013-06-27T15:50:17.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3727" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3664" CreationDate="2013-06-27T22:05:31.290" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As for question two, a simple thought experiment helps shed some initial light. Imagine you are asked to learn a set of stimuli that are presented on a screen for 1 s each. Surely you'll get a big mnemonic boost for those items if you instead study them for 2 s each.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then imagine you have studied an item for 60 seconds -- can you imagine one extra second will make a big difference? The relationship between study time and eventual performance surely begins to plateau.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In cognitive psychology is an interesting finding called the &lt;em&gt;labor in vain effect&lt;/em&gt;, which suggests that when people are given an unlimited time to study, occasionally they will expend a great deal of effort on items which they'll never learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nelson, T. O., &amp;amp; Leonesio, R. J. (1988). Allocation of self-paced study time and the &quot;labor-in-vain-effect.&quot; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;14&lt;/em&gt;, 676-686. &lt;a href=&quot;http://andrewvs.blogs.com/usu/files/labor_in_vain_effect_nelson.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="203" LastActivityDate="2013-06-27T22:05:31.290" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3728" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3732" CreationDate="2013-06-28T02:03:44.437" Score="9" ViewCount="960" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my experience I tend to find low-fat products labelled as &quot;&lt;strong&gt;99% fat free&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; much more often than the equivalent &quot;&lt;strong&gt;1% fat&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;.*&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this so? To me it seems counter-intuitive, because it reminds me of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_pricing&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological pricing&lt;/a&gt;, where retailers price things slightly less than round numbers, partly so that consumers under-perceive the price. If that same effect is happening with the &quot;99% fat free&quot; labeling, consumers would over-perceive the amount of fat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it because the psychological pricing phenomenon doesn't apply in this case for whatever reason? Perhaps other phenomena are at play? Or perhaps it's something that doesn't have to do with the numbers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*&lt;em&gt;: I can't find a source for this unfortunately, and I'm aware that in some circumstances the &quot;1% fat&quot; form is the norm, for example with low-fat milk.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3197" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2013-06-28T12:27:30.317" LastActivityDate="2017-08-19T16:05:41.660" Title="Why prefer &quot;99% fat free&quot; to &quot;1% fat&quot;?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;&lt;neuromarketing&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3729" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3730" CreationDate="2013-06-28T06:15:21.973" Score="8" ViewCount="275" Body="&lt;p&gt;There has been a lot of debate over bilingualism in education. I have read a bit on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nabe.org/BilingualEducation&quot;&gt;the website of the National Association for Bilingual Education&lt;/a&gt; and some other links to read about bilingualism. However being an amateur in this field, I'd like to know what are the major works (if not conclusive) that support and dissuade against bilingualism in education especially in the context of cognitive science?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3196" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-06-28T08:10:05.243" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T10:08:48.020" Title="To what extent does bilingualism help in education?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3730" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3729" CreationDate="2013-06-28T06:29:40.787" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a phenomenom I was able to witness first hand when I used to work in an International School, where every student had to learn Japanese and English, as well as having their mother-tongue (some had several more languages as well).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the paper &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01067515#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bilingualism and cognitive development in relation to threshold theory&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (Ricciardelli, 1992), it is stated that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This theory (threshold theory) maintains that there may be levels of linguistic proficiency which bilingual children must attain in order to avoid cognitive deficits and to allow the cognitive benefits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, in &lt;a href=&quot;http://rer.sagepub.com/content/80/2/207.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Cognitive Correlates of Bilingualism&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Adesope, 2010), some links between bilingualism and some increased cognitive abilities have been suggested from research.  From their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results indicate that bilingualism is reliably associated with several cognitive outcomes, including increased attentional control, working memory, metalinguistic awareness, and abstract and symbolic representation skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A link between bilingualism and how the bilingual student would tackle worded maths problems, in &lt;a href=&quot;http://users.ugent.be/~mvalcke/Wiskundedidactiek/kempert_saalbach__hardy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive Benefits and Costs of Bilingualism in Elementary School Students:&#xA;The Case of Mathematical Word Problems&lt;/a&gt; (Kempert et al. 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important point &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;bilinguals gained scores comparable to those of their monolingual peers on&#xA;  word problems that required attentional control skills although performing significantly below their&#xA;  monolingual classmates on ordinary word problems, suggesting that bilinguals have an advantage&#xA;  when it comes to attentional control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are potential cognitive costs in transferring knowledge from one language to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-06-28T09:23:50.230" LastActivityDate="2013-06-28T09:23:50.230" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3732" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3728" CreationDate="2013-06-28T12:35:17.100" Score="8" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If that same effect is happening with the &quot;99% fat free&quot; labeling, consumers would over-perceive the amount of fat&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think you are misunderstanding the desired effect here. I don't see how &quot;99% fat free&quot; would lead to the impression that a product contains a lot of fat. My read is, &quot;This is 99% fat free! That's really good!&quot; as opposed to &quot;1% fat&quot; which more emphasizes the fact that fat is still present than the fact that it's not. Said another way, because 99 is a far higher number than 1, the brain is more positive about getting something that is really good (much higher fat-free percentage) than something that is slightly bad (very small fat percentage)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other thing you may be overlooking is that &quot;fat free&quot; is a marketing term in and of itself. Products claim to be &quot;fat free&quot; in order to attract dieters / those looking to eat healthy. When comparing products people may choose the ones which have actively tried to reduce the amount of fat; this is what the &quot;fat free&quot; term is intended to convey. Compare that with milk, where &quot;1% fat&quot; really means &quot;1% &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfat&quot;&gt;milkfat&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, a technical description of how rich the milk is (where &quot;whole milk&quot; is 3.25% - 4% milkfat typically), so the terminology is not used as a means to advertise that product as being better than the competition but rather as a means to identify the content of the product itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2013-06-28T12:35:17.100" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3733" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3729" CreationDate="2013-06-28T14:00:33.733" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some cognitive scientists I heard are clear about benefits of being bilingual as exposed by @Damien or here - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/31/science/31conversation.html?_r=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/31/science/31conversation.html?_r=0&lt;/a&gt;. They also do not hide the associated cognitive costs especially at a young age. I found the following presentation very interesting &lt;a href=&quot;http://bilingualism.bangor.ac.uk/seminars/documents/AlbertCosta_000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://bilingualism.bangor.ac.uk/seminars/documents/AlbertCosta_000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;(!! one image af a brain may be disturbing !!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hellen Bialystock is a world class researcher in Toronto (more than 100 different languages here, a unique place to work on bilangualism she says). Alert Costa works in Barcelona on Catalan/Spanish - these two researchers are part of my trusted sources of information to understand my bilingual kids!  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2013-06-28T14:00:33.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3734" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3238" CreationDate="2013-06-28T14:15:50.903" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This might be a matter of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_proof&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social proof&lt;/a&gt;; people generally absorb folk knowledge in a less-impersonal way than formal knowledge (your grandmother says it works, instead of hearing/reading that it might work from a reporter who read the abstract of the paper that says so).  I don't know if there has been formal work examining the role of social proof in the acceptance of folk knowledge, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2013-06-28T14:15:50.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3735" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-28T15:04:09.600" Score="7" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the title asks, what neurological processes occur when we feel revulsion?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By revulsion, I mean the involuntary and voluntary physical and psychological responses far stronger than the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3091/how-can-the-aversion-response-be-explained-neurologically&quot;&gt;aversion discussed in this question&lt;/a&gt; to things like, in my case, cockroaches.  I assure you, that I am not referring to 'fear' either, I mean a feeling of loathing towards something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-03T15:42:41.130" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T15:42:41.130" Title="What neurological processes occur with 'revulsion'?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3736" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-28T16:10:30.370" Score="0" ViewCount="293" Body="&lt;p&gt;As of recent times, rats have communicated through wireless brain implants, from across the globe. Also, recent fMRI technologies have allowed prediction of movements (or intention), and the visualization of brain waves (or 'seeing' your thoughts, images, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rats have been used for testing, and some advances allowed scientists to predict intention, induce and/or subdue emotions and thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading or controlling the mind requires modifying/reading neural oscillations on neurons, and doing so on certain parts of the brain. Since the neural oscillations are the base of thought and cognition itself, how can we fight our own oscillations? This question stems from the possibility of mind control/reading in humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the technology directly modifies our thoughts.. how can we fight that very structure? In science fiction, people &quot;fight&quot; against implants and control, but in reality, is that even possible? Can we fight our own oscillations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, your mind is being read for a thought that you consciously know, like a password, and can you fight this attack?&#xA;Another example, your mind is being controlled, you are being coerced, and since neural oscillations are thought itself, you can't have objections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we have objections?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Can we fight our neural oscillations if they are hijacked?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3199" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T10:01:58.373" LastActivityDate="2013-08-12T13:51:40.653" Title="As for future mind control/reading technology, can humans fight it?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3737" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3736" CreationDate="2013-06-28T17:21:15.603" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the question of whether humans could fight neuro&quot;mind-reading&quot;, I can only say that there is very little evidence that information we know but are not thinking about could be extracted using current methods.  This means that the old scifi mind-reading-fighting standby of thinking of something else might work--although then we have the &quot;don't think of a pink elephant&quot; problem of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironic_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ironic processing&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the question of whether we could fight externally induced neural activity, I'm going to assume that it would be similar to fighting intrusive thoughts in obsessive compulsive disorder.  Currently, our best bets there are exposure, cognitive behavioral therapy, and drugs.  Since exposure is primarily involved with reducing the strength of the association between the anxiety-creating obsession and the comforting compulsion, I'm not sure it applies here.  Similarly, since the drugs used for OCD are generally anxiolytic or antidepressant, I'm not sure they would help in this case.  It might be possible to create a variant of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive behavioral therapy&lt;/a&gt; that treats the imposed neural activity as a compulsion. . . but since the technology to impose neural activity on humans (or animals who are good analogs of human compulsion) doesn't exist, all this is speculative!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2013-06-28T17:21:15.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3738" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3744" CreationDate="2013-06-28T20:21:50.933" Score="23" ViewCount="12996" Body="&lt;p&gt;Those who have learned a second language are &lt;em&gt;guaranteed&lt;/em&gt; to consciously think of words and their corresponding meaning in your native language or vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is common with more &quot;complex&quot; sentences, like &quot;My favorite color is green.&quot;, rather than &quot;Hi&quot; or &quot;Hello, how are you?&quot; (The latter being a common phrase, so it needs no thinking in most languages.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it possible to stop the conscious act of translating your native language to your second language or vice versa?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it possible to fully &quot;think&quot; in your second language?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clarification: When you speak your native language you rarely think about the grammar and structure and it comes right out, I'm asking if that's possible with people who learned multiple languages.. can you think as if that language was native to you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further clarification: You know how a beginner of a foreign language usually cannot speak rapid-fire and has to think through every word and it's syntax, instead of making a flow of words automatically, you have to 'think' and fill in each word accordingly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: When a person who natively speaks English  talks, they can talk without having to think of word meanings as it is already implicitly processed by your sub-conscious.. but this flow usually stops when you.. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example: Person A doesn't use the word &quot;condescending&quot; a lot, and has to return to the definition in her memory. She usually doesn't meet condescending people. She has met a person who has this attribute. In an argument she says &quot;You're so --pause--, umm, hmm..&quot;, and in her mind she goes through a list of words (Mean, (I had to pause here to find a word for the example..) Defiant, Rude, etc.) until she reaches condescending.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is the feeling of &quot;thinking&quot; I'm describing. A new learner of a second language has to &quot;think&quot; through everything, and my question is: Can you &quot;think&quot; in a second language without having to find and link words in your native language? Excluding young people exposed to both, but people who took classes and moved to a country to learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3199" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-01-09T22:44:09.587" LastActivityDate="2019-11-06T05:06:44.777" Title="Is it possible to think in a second language?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="15" FavoriteCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3739" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3742" CreationDate="2013-06-28T20:38:31.090" Score="11" ViewCount="1151" Body="&lt;p&gt;I frequently hear comments from people to the effect that &quot;Studies have shown that students who take (intro) logic courses don't show any signs of improvement in logical/rational/critical thinking.&quot; Yet, as an undergrad, I got the opposite impression: I felt that studying logic (and mathematics) in more depth sharpened those skills. My initial Google search on the issue didn't really turn up much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I have some questions regarding the &lt;em&gt;psychology&lt;/em&gt; of logic and mathematics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;: What studies have been done regarding the effects/benefits to cognitive thinking skills from taking intro logic courses? What about studying probability theory, or even mathematics more generally? How conclusive are they?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any references would be extremely helpful. I now teach intro logic as a grad student, and if there's something that students consistently miss out on, I would like to know about it so that I can (hopefully) make improvements. Also, any resources in the relation between mathematics and psychology more generally would be beneficial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I posted this on the MathSE, but was told this would be a better place for this question. If this needs retagging, let me know. I see that &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1415/can-critical-thinking-be-taught/1431#1431&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; is similarly related, but I'm particularly interested in intro formal logic courses).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3201" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-06-29T02:51:41.833" Title="What is the effect of studying logic or mathematics on general thinking skills?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3740" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3724" CreationDate="2013-06-28T20:45:34.790" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a matter of fact, this can be possible in the future. There have been &quot;predictions&quot; that within this century we will be able to upload our consciousness into computers, creating an environment where it will actually be like reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, off of theoretical, as of now it's impossible to do virtual reality. All I can provide you with is a theoretical answer, which is above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for hormones and safety:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use sleep hormones, melatonin, serotonin&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for safety, it hasn't been done, I can't answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tT1vxEpE1aI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tT1vxEpE1aI&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That video is an interesting video by Michio Kaku on this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3199" LastActivityDate="2013-06-28T20:45:34.790" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3741" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3743" CreationDate="2013-06-28T22:44:12.850" Score="5" ViewCount="1693" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if there are currently any diagnostic interview schedules that have been made/adapted to fit DSM-V criteria? Have you heard of anything?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I am looking for interviews for children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3202" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-29T03:27:50.327" LastActivityDate="2013-06-29T03:27:50.327" Title="Current diagnostic interviews for DSM-V" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3742" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3739" CreationDate="2013-06-28T22:52:18.730" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are some references that may be of use to you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01690969508407099#.Uc4Ravh--M8&quot;&gt;Contrasting the cognitive effects of graphical and sentential logic teaching: Reasoning, representation and individual differences&lt;/a&gt; (Stenning et al, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item1151218/?site_locale=en_US&quot;&gt;The shaping of deduction in Greek mathematics: A study in cognitive history&lt;/a&gt; (Netz, 1999). - a bit of a historical context, but I'd imagine that there are similar ideas&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0364021395900055&quot;&gt;A cognitive theory of graphical and linguistic reasoning: Logic and implementation&lt;/a&gt; (Stenning and Oberlander, 1995).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10649-006-0400-z#&quot;&gt;A Cognitive Analysis of Problems of Comprehension in a Learning of Mathematics&lt;/a&gt;(Duval, 2006)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps related to your request - &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=T76Zd20IYlgC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=psychology%20of%20logic&amp;amp;ots=eHePcGNoFz&amp;amp;sig=QL0JW9Sf7zdWZ5knic63sKzCHr8#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=psychology%20of%20logic&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;The Logic of Scientific Discovery&lt;/a&gt; (Popper, 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-06-28T22:52:18.730" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3743" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3741" CreationDate="2013-06-29T02:47:49.017" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scid4.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;SCID  is a Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Disorders&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The SCID website talks about a version designed for children called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scid4.org/info/kidscid.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;KID-SCID&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You mention a specific interest in DSM-V. Under &quot;what's new&quot;, the SCID website states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;January 2013: Development efforts are underway for the SCID for DSM-5&#xA;  and updated training materials, which are expected to be released in&#xA;  the fall/winter 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-29T03:26:14.103" LastActivityDate="2013-06-29T03:26:14.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3744" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3738" CreationDate="2013-06-29T03:25:13.130" Score="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is possible for some people to think in a second language. And given that you are asking about possibility, to some extent anecdotes are evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Many children who change linguistic communities at a young age lose the ability to talk in their first language. This is particularly the case where the first language is different to the language in which parents speak to their children. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In less extreme cases I have friends who came to an English speaking country at a young age, but still retained the ability to speak in their native language. Nonetheless, the vast majority of the time, they speak English. I assume that at a certain point, they switched from primarily thinking in their native language to primarily thinking in English. One friend mentioned the experience of when at around age 14, his dreams began to switch from being in Polish to being in English.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess the interesting question is whether there are limits to this, such as when the second language is not learnt until teenage years or adulthood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of a few hypotheses, I would think that ability to think in a second language would be linked to (a) greater fluency with the second language which in turn would be linked to experience and training and (b) specific primary training in the content of the thoughts in the second language (e.g., if you study a subject at university in the second language and thus you may know the terms better in the second language). Also from my limited experience of learning French, it felt like there was a degree of choice whereby I could actively try to think in French. That said, the cognitive associations between underlying concept, English word, and French word were pretty strong. Thus, the subjective experience of thinking in French and translating from English to French was often subtle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note also that I'd still be interested in any research that has specifically studied this phenomena.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-07T14:29:56.803" LastActivityDate="2013-07-07T14:29:56.803" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3746" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-29T06:18:44.437" Score="7" ViewCount="185" Body="&lt;p&gt;In which specific situation you think is most appropriate to apply Van der Hart's SDT?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3203" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-30T04:30:25.707" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T21:58:14.607" Title="In which situation should structural dissociation theory be applied?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3747" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3674" CreationDate="2013-06-29T11:39:19.037" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;My answer to the question is yes. I have personally experimented (not voluntarily) conscious dreams a few years ago.To be more precise, I was conscious in dreams but also conscious to dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this answer is a testimony, not a scientific proof, of the existence of conscious dream.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;But maybe in cognitive science, many serious testimonies constitute a proof.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me add an interesting remark and a question:   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I said, the processes of consciousness and dream seem to coexist, but as water and oil, they tend to separate quickly:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experiments, when the process of consciousness started in a dream, then the dream becomes increasingly blurred and awakening occurs rapidly.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I remember to have consciously walked and explored my dreams worlds for a few minutes or quarter of an hour (to be more precise, it seemed to have had this time), but not more ...   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there a cognitive explanation for this quick separation ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make a nod to the Indian philosophy (@SaiKrishna):&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Consciousness is light and dream is shadow.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;When the light encounters the shadow, the shadow disappears...&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3200" LastEditorUserId="3200" LastEditDate="2013-06-30T08:09:52.970" LastActivityDate="2013-06-30T08:09:52.970" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3748" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-06-29T14:24:42.163" Score="19" ViewCount="1144" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a professional mathematician, and I regularly meet other mathematicians.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I have come to wonder if there is something like a slight neurosis, specific to this activity.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be more precise, let me grossly describe the mathematician's activity:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The mathematician tries to solve a problem. This problem is usually sufficiently hard to not be solvable without an intense concentration. There are two types of concentration here:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A local type: the intensity in the moment (i.e., all the thoughts are focused on this single problem).  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A global type: the commitment in time (i.e., work on this problem for months, even years).  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually, the local concentration can be sufficiently intense so that the mathematician loses the feeling of hunger, thirst or sleep. In this state, there is usually no room for a healthy relationship with others.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It is almost as if the mathematician has a state near that of autism (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asperger_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Asperger syndrome&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The global concentration permits one to develop in the time a more and more intense concentration on the problem. The mathematician is committed &quot;body and soul&quot; into solving the problem and could neglect all other aspects of his life like social relationships, married life, children...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It is almost as if the mathematician has become more and more autistic.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So ok, autism is a severe neurosis and it's usually irreversible. It's the reason why I speak about a slight neurosis specific to mathematicians, because it's usually reversible...     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In light of what I wrote:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is the mathematician's activity psychologically healthy ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3200" LastEditorUserId="3200" LastEditDate="2013-09-14T16:27:30.707" LastActivityDate="2018-05-26T13:12:15.050" Title="Is the mathematician's activity psychologically healthy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3749" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3763" CreationDate="2013-06-29T20:34:02.833" Score="15" ViewCount="31469" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many examples of people wanting what they don't have. For example, a single man may want to have a girlfriend, but after some time of having a girlfriend, he may want to be single again. Or for example, people in the city may want to live in the village and villagers may want to live in the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What causes individuals to desire  something they don't have and once they have it we desire to have something else -- or something which we left behind a while ago -- again?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3163" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-09-21T14:17:13.823" LastActivityDate="2020-06-04T17:45:02.700" Title="Why do people want what they don't have now?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3750" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3753" CreationDate="2013-06-29T20:46:06.993" Score="10" ViewCount="519" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can we develop a particular mind set for being totally envy free; to stop envying others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3163" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T02:57:08.933" LastActivityDate="2015-05-08T10:48:56.077" Title="Is it possible to become totally envy free?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3751" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3746" CreationDate="2013-06-29T21:15:54.120" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to a presentation given by Van Der Hart &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.estd.org/conferences/presentations/Onno%20van%20der%20Hart.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Structural Dissociation of the&#xA;Personality: The Key to Understanding&#xA;Chronic Traumatization and Its&#xA;Treatment&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, this theory relates to the response to trauma, described further in the paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.onnovdhart.nl/articles/traumarelated.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Trauma-related dissociation: conceptual&#xA;clarity lost and found&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Hart et al. 2004).  From the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It postulates a common psychobiological pathway for all&#xA;  trauma-related disorders. Trauma-related dissociation is maintained by integrative deficits&#xA;  and phobic avoidance. This conceptualization advances diagnosis, classification, treatment&#xA;  and research of trauma-related disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T21:58:14.607" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T21:58:14.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3752" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3738" CreationDate="2013-06-30T01:29:30.807" Score="18" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is it possible to stop the conscious act of translating your native language to your second language or vice versa?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many people have already commented that they certainly experience thinking in several languages. While this sort of phenomenal insight is interesting in itself, one key idea from cognitive science research is that introspection is not generally to be trusted when it comes to understanding cognitive processes (see for example the famous studies by Nisbett and Wilson). So both your conscious experience of thinking in your first language and my (or anyone else's) feeling of thinking in another language are not necessarily telling us much on how we think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is it possible to fully &quot;think&quot; in your second language?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know but it's even possible to dispute the fact that you are thinking in a spoken language at all (see for example Jerry Fodor's “language of thought” hypothesis). Another view that is currently quite popular tries to account for abstract concepts in sensorial terms (cf. symbol grounding, some interpretations of “embodied cognition”, etc.) The idea is that when you are thinking about something, you are unconsciously manipulating sensory (visual, auditory…) representations, not linguistic ones (be it in a spoken language or some universal language of thought).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of an empirical result supporting this view is the “concept modality switch effect”: When asked to verify a property (e.g. “Can light flicker?”), participants are a little quicker if the previous question involved the same modality (in this case vision) rather than another one (say audition). This modality switch effect also exist when directly perceiving through two different modalities leading to the interpretation that to answer the question “Can light flicker?”, you are not merely retrieving some sort of symbolic knowledge (expressed in a language-dependent or language-independent manner) but actually visualizing/hearing/experiencing the relevant concept on a sensory level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time, you can also find theories purporting an influence in the other direction, in which the language one speaks changes the way one views the world all the way to pretty elementary perception (see Sapir-Whorf hypothesis). One area where this has been discussed and researched extensively is color perception, culminating in a big research project called the “World Color Survey” collecting data on color names in many cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One line of research in this field uses differences between languages to track language influence on basic perceptual processes. For example some languages like Greek and Russian apparently have no word for “blue” but two words distinguishing different types of blue. The distinction between “dark blue” and “light blue” is obligatory when using these languages, you cannot say “blue” without specifying dark or light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One intriguing result suggests that native Russian speakers are slightly quicker to distinguish two shades of blue that do not belong to the same linguistic categories whereas the effect does not exist for English speakers (Winawer, Witthoft, Frank, Wu, Wade &amp;amp; Boroditsky, 2007). Note that the task does not involve naming or remembering the color, only making a decision about two colors before you so it is pretty strong evidence that one does in fact “think” in a language (this is a complex question however, if you dig into this literature you will find that there is a lot of disagreement on various assumptions and methodological points regarding what is a basic color term, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Following the same line of inquiry, there is an empirical result that seem directly relevant to your question: Athanasopoulos (2009) used a color discrimination task with bilingual Greek/English participants (specifically Greek students in the UK). I don't remember all the details but he found that the effect varied depending on the level of acculturation (e.g. how long the participants spent in an English-speaking environment, how well they spoke English and at what age they learned it) and semantic availability of the relevant color terms (this was measured by asking people to list color names and counting how far down the list the different terms appeared). This suggests that, to the extent that language plays a role in perception, it is possible for a second language to have an influence but also that this is not an all or nothing proposition (i.e. the influence of the second language grows with increased exposure).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Athanasopoulos, P. (2009). Cognitive representation of colour in bilinguals: The case of Greek blues. &lt;em&gt;Bilingualism,&lt;/em&gt; 12 (1), 83-95.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Winawer, J., Witthoft, N., Frank, M.C., Wu, L., Wade, A.R., &amp;amp; Boroditsky, L. (2007). Russian blues reveal effects of language on color discrimination. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,&lt;/em&gt; 104 (19), 7780-7785. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastEditorUserId="432" LastEditDate="2013-06-30T11:53:41.327" LastActivityDate="2013-06-30T11:53:41.327" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3753" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3750" CreationDate="2013-06-30T03:35:45.373" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Smith and Kim's (2007) review article in the prestigious &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; titled &quot;Comprehending Envy&quot; might be a good starting point. They define envy as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;an unpleasant, often painful emotion characterized by feelings of&#xA;  inferiority, hostility, and resentment caused by an awareness of a&#xA;  desired attribute enjoyed by another person or group of persons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They are also clear to distinguish proper envy from several other emotions including benign envy, longing, jealousy, and resentment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Individual differences in experiencing envy:&lt;/strong&gt; As a starting point, from a trait personality perspective, people differ in their tendency to experience various emotions. In particular neuroticism is associated with a tendency to experience negative emotions. Smith and Kim (2007) mention several self-report scales:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Dispositional envy scale (DES; R. H. Smith, Parrott,Diener, Hoyle, &amp;amp; Kim, 1999) consists of eight items, four of which ask respondents to indicate the degree and frequency of their&#xA;experiences of envy&quot;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=8&amp;amp;ved=0CGcQFjAH&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fpemberappsych.wikispaces.com%2Ffile%2Fview%2FDES%2BScale.doc&amp;amp;ei=M6HPUbqCCqmbigfmwIDoDA&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNHqVNLLVLfmH7cR7cq4s-Ohqsk01A&amp;amp;sig2=PogCQl1-aBg7c16rB1O8fQ&quot;&gt;copy of items&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;measure of enviousness developed by Gold (1996) uses a number of items containing familiar idioms that were argued to encourage truthful responses.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Table 2  from Smith et al (1999) report the means and SDs for the items of the DES. The means and sds are generally less than 2.5 on a 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree scale (e.g., I feel envy everyday M=2.3).&#xA;This  suggests that a bit over half the participants are either disagreeing or strongly disagreeing with the test items.&#xA;The scale showed moderately strong positive correlations with neuroticism and negative correlations with self-esteem. Thus, you might conclude that some people rarely consciously experience envy. That said, some researchers consider that this might be due to social desirability in responding or even at a deeper level, people may not even realise that they are experiencing envy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, while social desirability might explain some of the individual differences, I think that some people just rarely experience envy. That said, this still leaves open the question of how people who do experience negative effects from envy, might reduce such effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Coping with envy:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Smith and Kim (2007) review research on coping with envy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Types of strategies for coping with envy. Salovey and Rodin (1988)&#xA;  followed up their survey by examining what strategies people use to&#xA;  cope with envy and jealousy and to assess which seemed most effective&#xA;  in doing so. Participants completed a questionnaire assessing their&#xA;  emotional reactions to envy-provoking situations in a number of&#xA;  domains and the frequency with which they used three distinctive&#xA;  coping strategies (self-reliance, selfbolstering, and selective&#xA;  ignoring). A number of important, suggestive findings emerged.&#xA;  Self-reliance, which included items tapping emotional control (e.g.,&#xA;  “refrain from feeling angry”), perseverance (“don’t give up”), and&#xA;  goal commitment (e.g., “become committed to the goal”), and to a&#xA;  lesser extent, selective ignoring (“decide it isn’t so important”)&#xA;  were associated with reduced envy. Self-bolstering (e.g., “think about&#xA;  my good qualities”) was unrelated to reduced envy; however, for those&#xA;  participants already experiencing envy, it was associated with less&#xA;  depression and, along with self-reliance, with less anger, both&#xA;  affects associated with the experience of envy. Salovey and Rodin&#xA;  (1988) interpreted these findings to mean that the more effective&#xA;  strategies for reducing initial envy appear to be stimulus focused rather than&#xA;  self-focused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Smith, R. H., Parrott, W. G., Diener, E. F., Hoyle, R. H., &amp;amp; Kim, S. H. (1999). Dispositional envy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(8), 1007-1020.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Salovey, P., &amp;amp; Rodin, J. (1988). Coping with envy and jealousy. Journal&#xA;of Social and Clinical Psychology, 7, 15–33.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Smith, R. H., &amp;amp; Kim, S. H. (2007). Comprehending envy. Psychological bulletin, 133(1), 46. &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.econ.unito.it/gma/massimo/sdt/sdt/smithhee07.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-30T06:03:45.247" LastActivityDate="2013-06-30T06:03:45.247" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3754" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3728" CreationDate="2013-06-30T06:29:48.133" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is just an elaboration on my comment that Sanford et al (2002) might be relevant to the question. If you don't have access &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.gla.ac.uk/~tony/&quot;&gt;Tony Sanford&lt;/a&gt; indicates that &quot;To obtain a copy of any of these papers, please email.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study reports three experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In experiment 2 they found experimentally that there was a preference for the &quot;% fat free&quot; format.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Twenty-four hypothetical products were used to create items of the&#xA;  following type: Sundown Supermarkets are selling a new brand of yogurt&#xA;  that {contains 5%/ 25% fat}/{is 95%/75% fat free}. Is this a healthy&#xA;  product?/Is this an unhealthy product?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They found that  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the percentage-fat-free format led to stronger&#xA;  endorsements of healthiness than the percentage-fat format. This is&#xA;  particularly evident at the higher fat level. The results also suggest&#xA;  that the percentage-fat-free statements may have reduced the impact of&#xA;  world knowledge. Thus, the intuition that the fat-free format is a&#xA;  better way to portray product healthiness is borne out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They concluded that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The experiments suggest the fat-free perspective blocks access to as-&#xA;  sumptions about healthy fat levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of these &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?q=fat&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0%2C5&amp;amp;cites=11776134308511050167&amp;amp;scipsc=1&quot;&gt;references might be worth pursuing&lt;/a&gt; (i.e., a Google scholar search of articles that cite Sanford et al and use the word &quot;fat&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sanford, A. J., Fay, N., Stewart, A., &amp;amp; Moxey, L. (2002). Perspective in statements of quantity, with implications for consumer psychology. Psychological Science, 13(2), 130-134.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-06-30T06:29:48.133" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3755" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3708" CreationDate="2013-06-30T09:41:45.447" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like to think of multitasking as rapid task switching. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://laplab.ucsd.edu/articles/Pashler_taskswitching_2000.pdf&quot;&gt; Pashler's (2000)&lt;/a&gt; article for the implications of &quot;multitasking.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pashler, H. (2000). Task switching and multitask performance. To appear in &#xA;Monsell, S., and Driver, J. (editors). Attention and Performance XVIII: &#xA;Control of mental processes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-06-30T15:01:48.927" LastActivityDate="2013-06-30T15:01:48.927" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3691" CreationDate="2013-06-30T09:47:32.910" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gary Wilson &lt;a href=&quot;http://yourbrainonporn.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;notes&lt;/a&gt; that porn combined with masturbation could be an addiction. Masturbation by itself, however, seems to be completely natural. There seems to be two schools of thought on this topic: (i) masturbation is addiction, (ii) masturbation is not an addiction. People note that porn is an addiction due to the novelty of it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also sex addiction is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; the same thing as porn addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastActivityDate="2013-06-30T09:47:32.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3757" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3748" CreationDate="2013-06-30T17:44:38.237" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well that looks like the behavior of any person with a strong passion and focus for his work. There are plenty of these around!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess it would be more common in any field of work were people already have dedicated a significant part of their life to it, and where it is almost a prerequisite. Being a mathematician selects and cultivates people able to display consistently that kind of behavior. Otherwise you just don't succesfully study high level maths, or fail at it. That is why you may observe many occurences of this phenomenon in your environment, when you work with other mathematicians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nothing to worry much about i think, there are plenty of people like you around, and this is not directly related to mathematics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3209" LastActivityDate="2013-06-30T17:44:38.237" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3760" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3748" CreationDate="2013-06-30T20:01:59.437" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a very small percent of people who enjoy the adrenaline of mental exhaustion. While that signals most people to stop, there are people who will continue exhausting themselves. This isn't physiologically healthy. You need to recognize when you're worn out and rest. Don't get hyper-focused on your problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastActivityDate="2013-06-30T20:01:59.437" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3761" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3748" CreationDate="2013-06-30T23:42:13.970" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This kind of behaviour also occurs in fields that use/rely on mathematics, such as my 2 of my main fields - physics and programming. Both employ a significant amount of maths concepts to understood and applied, often overlapping in places.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, I have been known to work for over 12 hours in a single block to solve a problem.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this healthy?  If it impinges on necessities such as sleep, eating, social life - then yes, it can potentially be somewhat harmful; however, people with a passion for what they do, often achieve great results that no only benefit themselves, but potentially others too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-06-30T23:42:13.970" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3763" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3749" CreationDate="2013-07-01T06:46:17.907" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The reason for desire or want or liking is Pleasure. Various people have various things to get pleasure:&#xA;from Money, from Power, from Love etc. etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this pleasure is always based on comparison.&#xA;For ex: I may have money, power, wealth and love. I am satisfied with all these. When I encounter another person who has all these things but with another proportion, then I tend to &quot;HAVE/POSSESS&quot; that. The reason could be, &quot;THAT&quot; appears more pleasurable to me than what I have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no absolute answer to this question 'Why man seeks pleasure? or Where it comes from?'. We may need to understand the nature of pleasure, how it occurs etc etc.&#xA;Read this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lsa.umich.edu/psych/research&amp;amp;labs/berridge/publications/Kringelbach%20&amp;amp;%20Berridge%202012%20Joyful%20mind%20Sci%20Am.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt; and you may understand scientifically what is want/desire/liking/pleasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a philosophical answer to your question which is related to mind. As put by Hindu philosophy, Mind always seeks pleasure. This pleasure, found in external things, is always in the form of self satisfaction. It feels happy with possession of things outside. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But once it turns inward and looks at itself, it understands its nature. This comes out of intelligence. Then it gradually seeks inner calmness rather external cravings. Resting in inner peace and calm is more happier and blissful to Mind. But it is under illusion that it finds pleasure in things in the external world. The reason being mind, as put by Hindu/Buddhist philosophers, identifies itself with the body and it thinks it has a separate individuality - &quot;I&quot;, &quot;ME&quot;,&quot;MINE&quot;. When there is a separation like this, automatically there is a comparison. When comparison exists, desire sprouts. &#xA;You better read about mind in Google. Lot of notes and articles are there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3156" LastEditorUserId="2890" LastEditDate="2013-07-01T16:31:49.453" LastActivityDate="2013-07-01T16:31:49.453" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3144" CreationDate="2013-07-01T10:59:22.107" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember some empirical research showing that “wordy” languages were spoken faster than more information-dense languages, so that the “information rate” would be more or less constant across languages (sorry, no reference). Of course, this research was concerned with speech rather than silent thought but it could suggest that you would not expect any overall difference between cultures in this respect, which does make sense to me. Note that studying this sort of things requires a lot of care and preliminary ground work as common notions like “word” are not even meaningful units in many languages. Linguists therefore use precisely defined concepts like “phoneme” to measure this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I would dispute that thinking “in” a language (see my answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3738/is-it-possible-to-think-in-a-second-language&quot;&gt;Is it possible to think in a second language?&lt;/a&gt; for a discussion of this idea) means that one is never mistaken on how to express oneself. The “tip-of-tongue” experience would suggest otherwise. Some thinkers even object to the notion that speaking can generally be seen as merely expressing some previously formed thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-07-01T10:59:22.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3766" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-01T12:47:38.627" Score="10" ViewCount="495" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mental burnout - or mental exhaustion is not very pleasant, when one feels completely overwhelmed, something 'snaps' and it is hard to concentrate and maintain motivation.  What are the cognitive processes that occur during a burnout?  What processes allow for recovery?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-01T16:34:35.263" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T15:10:38.253" Title="What cognitive processes occur during a mental exhaustion or 'burnout'?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;mental-exhaustion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3768" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-02T03:57:56.937" Score="6" ViewCount="6878" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not a cognitive science student, but I'm interested in CBT (Cognitive Behavior Therapy) and I'm using it to overcome some of the problems I have. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I have difficulty in finding resources online for it. AMAIK CBT has a list of &lt;strong&gt;cognitive errors&lt;/strong&gt;, which I prefer to call &lt;a href=&quot;http://nefcanto.com/cbt-rethought&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;dysfunctional mental sceneries&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. You can simply Google for &lt;em&gt;common cognitive errors&lt;/em&gt; and you end up with like 20 good results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To overcome those errors, people are encouraged to use some techniques like &lt;strong&gt;reality testing&lt;/strong&gt; for example. But I can't find a good comprehensive list of techniques used in CBT. Here are the links to sites I've found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cognitivetechniques.com/what-is-cognitive-behavioral-therapy-cbt/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cognitivetechniques.com/what-is-cognitive-behavioral-therapy-cbt/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.calmclinic.com/anxiety/treatment/cognitive-techniques&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.calmclinic.com/anxiety/treatment/cognitive-techniques&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://brownbackmason.com/articles/5-common-techniques-of-the-cognitive-behavioral-therapist&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://brownbackmason.com/articles/5-common-techniques-of-the-cognitive-behavioral-therapist&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However they barely provide more than 5 techniques. In comparison to the lists of cognitive errors, it seems that there are not enough cognitive techniques proposed by cognitive psychologists. I've heard somewhere that we have more than 100 cognitive techniques, and I can't find more than 5 on the Internet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it that I've misunderstood &lt;em&gt;techniques&lt;/em&gt; part of CBT? Or is it that techniques are not free to be published online? Can anyone clarify me here, or show me a comprehensive list of cognitive techniques?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2850" LastEditorUserId="2850" LastEditDate="2013-07-02T05:21:28.783" LastActivityDate="2017-11-25T20:48:32.127" Title="Comprehensive list of cognitive techniques in CBT" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3769" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3768" CreationDate="2013-07-02T05:09:17.100" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might want to check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anxietyonline.org.au/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.anxietyonline.org.au/&lt;/a&gt; . It's free for the eTherapy version and is funded by the Australian federal government. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A colleague of mine gave a presentation and it looks really good. From the website:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Anxiety Online is a comprehensive online mental health service&#xA;  offering information, assessment, online diagnosis and treatment&#xA;  programs (&quot;eTherapy&quot;) for the anxiety disorders:-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once you have gone through the the fairly long diagnostic process, you get access to a range of eTherapy resources. In particular, you can use it to learn more about CBT. It has exercises and videos. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-07-02T05:09:17.100" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3770" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3749" CreationDate="2013-07-03T00:46:27.937" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is more along the lines of &lt;strong&gt;novelty&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you mentioned, once you have it, you &lt;strong&gt;want&lt;/strong&gt; something else you &lt;strong&gt;don't have&lt;/strong&gt; and on and on and on it goes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reason being, once a subject acquires the object longed and desired for, the &lt;strong&gt;novelty&lt;/strong&gt; level within the subject is diminished and must be refilled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be more specific, what needs to be refilled is dopamine. Novelty &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v12/n1/abs/ng0196-78.html&quot;&gt;produces dopamine&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/9154232/reload=0;jsessionid=pUdY1KLBwCJgAhEdGgfn.10&quot;&gt;dopamine is well know&lt;/a&gt; as the brain's fuel driving satisfaction. So remove that and guess what your going to try to reproduce?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check out:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0805081313&quot;&gt;Satisfaction: Sensation Seeking, Novelty, and the Science of Finding True Fulfillment&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-scientific-fundamentalist/201006/what-does-novelty-mean&quot;&gt;What Does “Novelty” Mean?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/is-happiness-having-what-you-want-wanting-what-you-have-or-both.html&quot;&gt;Is Happiness Having What You Want, Wanting What You Have, or&#xA;Both?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastActivityDate="2013-07-03T00:46:27.937" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3771" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3772" CreationDate="2013-07-03T01:22:31.660" Score="8" ViewCount="215" Body="&lt;p&gt;All other things considered equal, what are the effects of a negative self image, on cognition and brain function?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that would have specific data supporting cognitive outcomes (concentration times, memory, mind body awareness) rather than just pointing to self-esteem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, what cognitive effect does positive self image have on cognition and brain function? Are there qualities in either of them that are &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; inverses of the other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-03T02:20:37.660" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T21:57:02.617" Title="What are the effects of negative self image on cognition and brain function?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3772" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3771" CreationDate="2013-07-03T04:02:26.997" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some information that partly answers your questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been some studies based on these questions, a significant article related to this type of study is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mcgill.ca/files/social-intelligence/Self_esteem_locus_of_control.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Self-esteem, locus of control, hippocampal volume, and cortisol&#xA;regulation in young and old adulthood&lt;/a&gt; (Pruessner et al. 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article makes the link between self image and the individual's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;'locus of control&lt;/a&gt;', they found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;our results clearly demonstrate that self-esteem and&#xA;  locus of control are significantly linked to the volume of the&#xA;  hippocampus in healthy young and elderly subjects. Further, we&#xA;  found evidence that these two factors are also related to the acute&#xA;  and chronic regulation of the major stress hormone in humans,&#xA;  cortisol.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Note: the authors of the article acknowledge that their data does not allow them to make firm conclusions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201301/cortisol-why-the-stress-hormone-is-public-enemy-no-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cortisol&lt;/a&gt; affects, amongst other things, memory, learning and concentration.  A specific study about this is in the article &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2001-18882-004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cortisol differentially affects memory in young and elderly men.&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (Wolf et al. 2001) and &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/13/3/382.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Impaired memory retrieval correlates with individual differences in cortisol response but not autonomic response&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (Buchanan et al. 2006).  From the second article/study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[This study] suggest that individual differences in cortisol reactivity affect memory retrieval performance, and help to explain the differential effects of stress on memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will say that this is not the complete picture, but the link between self image and cortisol levels seem to be a major factor about how self image affects cognitive abilities such as learning, memory etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T21:57:02.617" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T21:57:02.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3773" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3774" CreationDate="2013-07-03T07:15:04.970" Score="8" ViewCount="964" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why are people more likely to buy articles with a price of \$199, rather than the same (or let's say a slightly better) article for \$200?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On which human brain centre is this advertising focused? Is this some kind of manipulation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3163" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-03T07:28:12.383" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T21:55:29.233" Title="Why do prices ending in 99, e.g., 0.99, 199 or 1999.9 convince consumers to buy?" Tags="&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;&lt;neuromarketing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3774" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3773" CreationDate="2013-07-03T12:41:29.170" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;An interesting article relating to your first question is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://pricingsolutions.com/index.php/en/publications/pricing-for-researchers1/12-publications/newsletter/88-analyzing-the-psychology-of-pricing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Analyzing the Psychology of Pricing&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, where they suggest that consumers don't really notice any change in units of 10, e.g. \$54 vs \$59.99 etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In answer to the 2nd of your queries about what part of the brain is affected, here is some research that I found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://odohertylab.org/Publications/Plassmann2008_PNAS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Marketing actions can modulate neural&#xA;representations of experienced pleasantness&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Plassman et al. 2007), very little is known about the neural responses to marketing.  However, they tested the hypothesis that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;marketing&#xA;  actions, such as changes in the price of a product, can affect neural&#xA;  representations of experienced pleasantness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another of that author's papers &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.chilleesys.com/scp/assets/plassmann.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Branding the brain: A critical review and outlook&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (which includes diagrams of the parts of the brain affected), he bases the process on the parts of the brain that control&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(1) representation and attention, (2) predicted value, (3) experienced&#xA;  value, and (4) remembered value and learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is also something that many in marketing are actively pursuing, according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120424095506.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Neuroeconomics: Studying Brain Responses Gives Marketers Increased Ability to Predict How People Make Decisions&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T21:55:29.233" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T21:55:29.233" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3776" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-04T06:12:54.990" Score="4" ViewCount="501" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Wikipedia: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The halo effect or halo error is a cognitive bias in which one's&#xA;  judgments of a person’s character can be influenced by one's overall&#xA;  impression of him or her.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine a situation in which there is a nearly &quot;perfect&quot; person, where he/she would in most cases evoke a &lt;em&gt;negative&lt;/em&gt; halo effect. Is there some way how he/she can deal with it? (Change his/her behavior? Look? Image? The first impression?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3163" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-04T07:18:19.040" LastActivityDate="2013-07-04T14:39:26.817" Title="Can people alleviate a negative halo effect about them?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;halo-effect&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3777" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-07-04T06:14:35.810" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about recognizing, dealing and guarding against the the halo effect, a particular judgment bias. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;halo effect on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;. If your question relates to general bias, please use the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/bias&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;bias&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;bias&lt;/a&gt; tag.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:31:14.530" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:31:14.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3778" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-07-04T06:14:35.810" Score="0" Body="For questions about recognizing, dealing and guarding against the the halo effect." OwnerUserId="3163" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:31:14.530" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:31:14.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3779" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3776" CreationDate="2013-07-04T07:13:08.657" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A halo effect suggests that the overall impression of a rated object (e.g., a person) excessively influences the impression of facets of a person. This leads to correlations between facet ratings higher than would be expected were facets rated accurately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone is a nearly perfect person, then presumably the overall impression they create would be very positive. &lt;strong&gt;The halo effect would not influence this overall very positive rating. It will merely increase ratings for facets that should be rated below the overall rating and decrease ratings for facets that should be rated above the overall rating..&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Worked example:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's simplify it and assume that your person's true rating on all the facets that matter  out of 10 are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet A = 6&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet B = 10&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet C = 10&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet D = 10&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we further simplify to say that overall impression is just the mean of the facets, we have overall impression of (6+10+10+10)/4 = 9.&#xA;So, an example of a rater influenced by the halo effect would be one who gave rating such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet A = 9&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet B = 9&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet C = 9&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet D = 9&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet A = 8&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet B = 9.33&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet C = 9.33&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Facet D = 9.33&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Conclusion:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The point is that facets that are worse than the general impression are pulled up, and facets better than the general impression are pulled down.&lt;/strong&gt; The mean of the facets has not changed. It is just the accuracy of facet ratings has declined.  While this is an idealised example, the question relates to a theoretical effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A classic examples of a halo effect is where a teacher is marking an assignment and each section of the assignment is graded. If the teacher is influenced by halo effect then the overall mark is not influenced, but the rating for each section will be less differentiated than it should be. So from a quality of student feedback perspective, this is worse, but from a grading perspective, it makes no difference. That said, we might hypothesise that raters that exhibit halo effect may also exhibit other rating problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second guessing your question, perhaps you are interested in some other biases such as first impression bias, central tendency bias, or generally inaccurate ratings. Or perhaps you are, rightly or wrongly, assuming that the overall impression would involve an inaccurate implicit weighting of facets. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-04T14:39:26.817" LastActivityDate="2013-07-04T14:39:26.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3780" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3749" CreationDate="2013-07-04T07:26:02.640" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why we want things is a very broad question. As to why we specifically want things we don't have, I commented in jest that it does not make sense to want something you already have. Basically if you attach value to something you have, you would say that you “like” it, not that you “want” it but the distinction might not necessarily reflect a difference in some fundamental psychological process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The immediate reason could be that these things provide us with “reward” or “pleasure” – which is certainly often true at a phenomenological level and can possibly be associated with specific brain structures – but that's not explaining much. As Greg mentioned, there are also many empirical results and theories suggesting that, to a point, we seek novelty and stimulation for their own sake. That could be a reason to want things specifically &lt;em&gt;because&lt;/em&gt; we don't have them already or at least in part because we don't have them already. (The idea is very old and has been expressed in various ways, e.g. the Yerkes-Dodson law.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the specific point of regret and wanting to go back, one thing is that we are not always good at gauging how we will feel about something we have not experienced yet. Research on this goes under the name &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_forecasting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;“affective forecasting”&lt;/a&gt;. Once you have it/did it/experienced it, you might realize that it is not as good as you expected and reverse your decision (or not, incidentally). Also, the notion that we seek novelty implies that the novel stimulus will become less pleasurable with repetition (but the opposite process has also been observed, e.g. in “mere exposure” research). At some point, we might become “bored” and find any change attractive, even if it is to come back to something we tried before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastEditorUserId="432" LastEditDate="2013-07-04T14:41:45.187" LastActivityDate="2013-07-04T14:41:45.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3781" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3782" CreationDate="2013-07-04T07:26:18.720" Score="1" ViewCount="1181" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is an iconic dialogue from The Dark Knight Rises:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Blind Prisoner: You do not fear death. &#xA;                You think this makes you strong. It makes you weak.&#xA;Bruce Wayne:    Why?&#xA;Blind Prisoner: How can you move faster than possible, fight longer &#xA;                than possible without the most powerful impulse of the &#xA;                spirit: the fear of death.&#xA;Bruce Wayne:    I do fear death. I fear dying in here, while my city burns, &#xA;                and there's no one there to save it.&#xA;Blind Prisoner: Then make the climb.&#xA;Bruce Wayne:    How?&#xA;Blind Prisoner: As the child did. Without the rope. &#xA;                Then fear will find you again.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can this dialogue be interpreted in scientific terms?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any scientific support and explanation for this or is it just literary freedom for dramatic effect?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3221" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-04T08:20:27.643" LastActivityDate="2013-07-07T09:42:33.940" Title="Is the &quot;fear of death&quot; the most powerful impulse of the spirit?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3782" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3781" CreationDate="2013-07-04T09:37:15.513" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, there is no &quot;spirit&quot; in psychological theory. &quot;Spirit&quot; is a philosophical term denoting a non-corporeal substance emanated from a God.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, fear is not an impulse. Fear &lt;em&gt;causes&lt;/em&gt; an impulse. Fear is an emotion, and an emotion can serve as a motivator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore I understand your question to ask:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is 'fear of death' the most powerful motivator?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since literary tropes and devices often avail themselves of psychoanalytic theories, I believe it is adequate to attempt a preliminary answer with Freud.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Freud&lt;/strong&gt; believed that there is no native fear of death. He wrote (1908, p. 167) that the fear of death of a people increases as libido is suppressed and accumulates in the unconscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For Freud the libido (the drive towards life) is the strongest drive. Only in his later theories it is balanced in a healthy individual with the death drive (the drive towards dissolution, annihilation and the cessation of all activity). Therefore fear of death would have to exceed libido, to be the strongest motivator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychological theory is rarely psychological in nature, but rather derives its models from contemporary high tech. In the first half of the twentieth century quantum physics gave psychology its probabilistic foundation, during the second half of the 20th century psychology was dominated by the brain-as-computer metaphor, today quantum physics and neuroimaging drive psychological theories. Since Freudian theory derives its basic model from the pneumatics of the steam engine, it is probably save to hypothesize that in Freuds theory fear of death would be as large as the suppressed libido, with its theoretical maximum being the total size of libido. If more than half of the libido were repressed, then fear of death would be greater than libido and therefore the most powerful motivator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The level and motivating force of Bruce Wayne's fear of death would depend on his and his society's volume of suppressed libido and the pressure generated by it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst &lt;strong&gt;Erik Erikson&lt;/strong&gt;, fear of death signified the absence of integrity (1965, p. 260) and a result of the despair of having lead a life experienced as meaningless. From this theory, fear of death would most probably not serve as a motivator, rather it is a symptom of a subjectively failed life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The loner Bruce Wayne, leading a life of compulsive-obsessive crime hunting, might well despair at the lack of generativity and intimacy in his life, and fear death more than a beloved father of several adult children.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leaving psychoanalysis behind, fear of death has been the subject of empirical psychology predominantly in two contexts: as an ailment of the sick (e.g. cancer patients) and old that  palliative psychology attempts to alleviate; and as a cause (or correlate) of religiosity. Both fields yield no results concerning the relation between fear of death and motivation. The dearth of experimental studies on the effects of fear of death are probably due to the impossibility to induce this emotion in an ethical way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there is a vast amount of research into fear as a motivator, mostly from the perspective of persuasion in education (stop smoking) or advertisement (buy this or else). &lt;strong&gt;Motivation psychology&lt;/strong&gt; postulates a variety of basic motivators: physiological needs such as hunger, sleep, and sex; social desires such as belonging and appreciation; changing goals and spontaneous emotions; etc. And it has been found that different personalities are motivated more strongly by different motivators. I would suspect that there are people for whom fear of death is &quot;the strongest motivator&quot;, and others for whom it isn't, because they are more motivated by positive goals (approach motivation, which correlates with extroversion, positive emotionality, and behavioral activation) than negative goals (avoidance motivation, which correlates with neuroticism, negative emotionality, and behavioral inhibition).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bruce Wayne being introverted, neurotic, and emotionally negative (but active), is a good candidate for being motivated by avoidance and fear in his social life (but an aggressive desire to succeed in his career as a crime hunter). I would guess that fear of death would drive him strongly, if the Blind Prisoner managed to associate (or prime) climbing without a rope with Batman's lack of a social life (e.g. show him visions of the women that loved him but he did not love back), but that he would be rather unafraid, if the rope was withheld in the context of Batman battling crime.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Freud, Sigmund (1908). Die &quot;kulturelle&quot; Sexualmoral und die moderne Nervosität. GW VII, 143-167. [english Translation: &quot;Civilized&quot; sexual morality and modern nervous illness. SE 9, 177-204; online available as &lt;a href=&quot;http://queergeektheory.org/112/freud_civmorality_highlights.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Civilized&quot; sexual morality and modern nervousness&lt;/a&gt;, quote from p. 40]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Erikson, Erik H. (1965 [1950]) Childhood and Society, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-07-04T13:27:36.297" LastActivityDate="2013-07-04T13:27:36.297" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3783" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3785" CreationDate="2013-07-04T11:03:46.460" Score="5" ViewCount="163" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any introductory-level material available on psychophysics that you can recommend to someone without a background in cognitive sciences? Visual stimuli is the main area of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Edit&lt;/em&gt;: Question has been narrowed down in response to comments&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3223" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T09:36:34.697" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T20:42:02.003" Title="Introductory material on psychophysics with a focus on visual stimuli" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3784" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-04T16:14:00.970" Score="6" ViewCount="1277" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to measure heart rate as part of a controlled experiment I am setting up. I've been trying to find information on which heart rate monitor to buy, but it's unclear to me which heart rate monitors allow exporting data to PC, and how open the data is. Can I only analyse the data through the software provided by the vendor, or is it common practice to be able to export it as e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma-separated_values&quot;&gt;CSV&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any 'common' heartrate sensors used in the community?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Should I look for monitors which support a certain protocol/format?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any vendors which I should avoid, e.g. when they have closed file formats?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2019-03-25T09:55:40.620" Title="Heart rate monitor for scientific study" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3785" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3783" CreationDate="2013-07-04T21:03:22.867" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To help get you started on the topic of visual stimuli in psychophysics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This webpage, &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/psychophysics-of-vision/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Psychophysics of Vision&quot;&lt;/a&gt; goes right back to basics and explains the background knowledge associated with psychophysics of visual stimuli.  They also seem to suggest some simple experiments to try.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also &lt;a href=&quot;http://visionscience.com/documents/strasburger/strasburger.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Software for visual psychophysics&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, with an extensive explanation (and further links) as you read the page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopefully, these are a good start for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-07-04T21:03:22.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3786" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3783" CreationDate="2013-07-05T08:18:16.750" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Try to find following authors and researches:&#xA;Fechner, S.S. Stevens and Weber.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those experiments are easily to reproduce... New psychophysic is melted with neuroscience in some way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a/ it is easy to reproduce if you don't have expensive equipment; b/ it shows how physics and psychology shows outer and inner world respectively ie. on physics side you can measure intensity of light and on psychology side you can measure if participant saw this intensity of light, after that you can check hypotheses with simple statistical procedures like chi-square or student t-test and c/historical reasons &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="3001" LastEditDate="2013-07-10T12:04:49.203" LastActivityDate="2013-07-10T12:04:49.203" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3787" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-05T11:46:26.580" Score="11" ViewCount="309" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apathy, or effectively the feeling of &quot;not caring&quot; or putting it colloquially, &quot;not giving a rats&quot;, is something that most of us get sometime or another in varying degrees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, what are the cognitive and neurological bases for apathy?  Why is it that some experience it far stronger and more often than others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2017-08-10T22:03:57.137" Title="What are the cognitive and neurological bases for apathy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3788" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3793" CreationDate="2013-07-05T14:41:09.173" Score="9" ViewCount="543" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my country neurolinguistic programming (NLP) has become very popular in sales departments. Therefore, I wonder if there are any experiments which examine the contribution of NLP to the sales process. &#xA;I was especially curious when I heard that &lt;a href=&quot;http://skepdic.com/neurolin.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bander sued Grinder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any peer-reviewed validation studies of NLP?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Particularly, has any peer-reviewed research examined the effect of NLP on sales?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-03T00:26:44.890" LastActivityDate="2014-06-03T00:26:44.890" Title="Is neurolinguistic programming effective in influencing sales processes?" Tags="&lt;neuro-linguistic-prog&gt;&lt;neuromarketing&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3789" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3784" CreationDate="2013-07-05T17:20:02.133" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently completed a study involving physical ergonomics of rifles.  We monitored heart rate and respiration using the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.zephyranywhere.com/products/bioharness-3/&quot;&gt;Zephyr BioHarness&lt;/a&gt;.  It seemed to work pretty well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also monitors movement of the user, if that is of interest to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To get data out, it is possible to compile a report and export it to CSV, which works well if you need to do analysis on the data using other programs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2013-07-05T17:20:02.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3791" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3788" CreationDate="2013-07-05T22:06:55.593" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are a number of references for you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=837100&amp;amp;show=abstract&quot;&gt;&quot;The effect of neurolinguistic programming on organisational and individual performance: a case study&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Thompson et al. 2002), is primarily a case study of the effect of NLP training on managers and workers of the hospitality industry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0958517032000137667#.UddBk_h--M8&quot;&gt;&quot;Neuro-linguistic programming and learning theory: a response&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Tosey and Mathison, 2003), looks at the research in NLP as a whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article, though a bit dated (1984), &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1985-10948-001&quot;&gt;&quot;NLP techniques for salespeople&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Stanley, 1984), looks at the NLP techniques of salespeople and the ideas are revisiting in &lt;a href=&quot;http://mesharpe.metapress.com/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&amp;amp;backto=issue,7,9;journal,30,43;linkingpublicationresults,1:110659,1&quot;&gt;&quot;NLP revisited: nonverbal communications and signals of trustworthiness&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Wood, 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether NLP can help or harm a business is discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1541478&amp;amp;show=abstract&quot;&gt;&quot;Can NLP help or harm your business?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Yemm, 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-07-05T22:06:55.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3792" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3144" CreationDate="2013-07-05T22:23:40.127" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;With your question you are limiting thinking to conscious and rational thought. But human information processing has so many more aspects, some of them faster and more efficient than cogitation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If, for example, you sit in front of the computer and have forgotten that you have put water on the stove, and suddenly you hear the noodles cooking over, you'll jump up and run to the kitchen quicker than you can form the sentences that describe what is happening and what you need to do. It is not a reflex (like flinching away from being hit), but clearly a conscious understanding, a consideration, and a decision, only not verbal. For me, parts of that process are visual (I see what I need to clean away, when I hear the water hit the hot plate), others include a body-memory projection of me moving to the kitchen, a muscular plan of action that is forming while I jump up, see what is on my path, and &quot;pre-feel&quot; how I will navigate it at maximum speed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example is what I have often experienced when I &quot;sleep over&quot; a decision; what has been exemplified in Einstein dreaming of relativity theory; and what I have read about again a few days ago in a book summarizing current research on intuition: that conscious rational thought is only able to make decisions in situations with a limited complexity (the level of complexity was the focus of some research), and that highly complex decisions, involving too many aspects to &quot;juggle&quot; in your (conscious) mind, are made on an unconscious level, with &quot;you&quot; (that is consciousness) only receiving the outcome (that is intuition) of that information processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Language is a very recent development in evolution, and consciousness is not much older, and it is my opinion that we are misled by our self-identification with the constant chatter in our minds to believe that we are this speech, while in truth language and consciousness are just tools that are as peripheral to our core selves as our arms are to our bodies. There is this famous experiment, conducted a few years ago, that showed that the muscular impulse for a movement happens &lt;em&gt;before&lt;/em&gt; the conscious decision for that movement is made. It shows that what we perceive as decisions happens &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; a behaviour has already begun. The ego, as Freud said, is not master in its own house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-07-05T22:23:40.127" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3793" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3788" CreationDate="2013-07-06T06:03:14.560" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Section &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming#Scientific_evaluation&quot;&gt;Scientific Evaluation&lt;/a&gt;&quot; in the Wikipedia article on NLP sums up current research nicely:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;None of the claimed effects have been validated.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scientists consider NLP a pseudoscience with aggressive marketing and a name and jargon that deludes people seeking help by &quot;[giving] the impression of scientific respectability&quot; (quoted from that section).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-07-06T06:03:14.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3794" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3691" CreationDate="2013-07-06T12:11:58.937" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;frequency&lt;/em&gt; of a behavior is not what makes that behavior an addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, take walking. Most people take hundreds, if not thousands of steps each day. Nevertheless walking is not considered an addiction in most cases. Why? It is not something that the organism must do to survive, it is a voluntary behavior, yet no-one would think you addicted to walking because you did &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; take the elevator or did &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; drive the 400 yards to the supermarket. On the contrary, it is generally recommended to walk whenever you can, for reasons of health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;urge&lt;/em&gt; for a behavior does not make that behavior an addiction, either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, most people feel a strong urge to eat, drink, sleep, defecate, and none of these behaviors are considered an addiction. Maybe sexuality is a physical need, and in the absence of a partner masturbation is better than &quot;going hungry&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with masturbation is that even scientists find it difficult to look at it neutrally, because it is hard not to see it through the filter of our cultural norms on sexuality. Walking is not a taboo, it can be done in public and with anyone you want. Eating and sleeping can be done in public, although to a lesser degree, and even defecating is not suppressed with the same vehemence as sexuality: a man urinating against a tree in a park is not something you find overly idyllic, but most people would not call the police, because they know how it hurts to hold in, while a man masturbating in the same spot will find himself arrested rather quickly. Masturbation has been forbidden by religious rules, thought to cause illnesses, and today has the stigma of presumably signifying an inability to find a partner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once you strip away the morals and prejudices and look at masturbation with a cold eye, you will realize that many children indulge in it and only take a break while they are dressed. Children stop masturbating (in the presence of witnesses) only if they experience negative reactions to their behavior, i.e. only once they learn the norm that masturbation is something to be ashamed of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is this normative view from which a masturbating teenager might appear addicted. For the scientist, masturbation is a normal and healthy behavior, especially in a 13 year old teenager, who has gained a new function and a new level of sensory pleasure. For the scientist, it appears unnatural &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; to explore this ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for masturbation in adults, as far back as 1948 Kinsey found that masturbation alleviates nervous tension and that men who masturbate lead a more balanced life. Sexuality appears not as voluntary as riding a bike, but rather has strong physiological and psychological effects that make sex appear to be normal and healthy behavior for an adult human being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if we have come to consider sleep lengths between four and twelve hours to be perfectly normal for adults of our species, why would we not be equally broadminded regarding sexuality? Maybe because indulging in any kind of pleasure is frowned upon in our performance-oriented society?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., &amp;amp; Martin, C. E. (1948). &lt;em&gt;Sexual Behavior in the Human Male&lt;/em&gt;. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-07-06T13:12:56.870" LastActivityDate="2013-07-06T13:12:56.870" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3795" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-07T06:53:58.010" Score="18" ViewCount="3537" Body="&lt;p&gt;In psychology, a difference is made between personality attributes as a state or as a trait. For example, a usually outgoing and sociable person might find himself uncommonly shy in the presence of a woman he finds attractive. He is not shy &quot;by nature&quot;, but only in this situation – his momentary shyness is a state. Another person, on the other hand, might be generally timid around even close friends and family members – his shyness is a trait.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can this person, who is always and basically shy, decide to change himself and not only learn to overcome his fear, but really and truly become extroverted from the ground up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Shyness is just an example here, I'm not interested in therapies for shyness, but in basic deliberate personality changes that take place within a reasonable period of time (a few years, not half a lifetime).&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T18:09:33.460" LastActivityDate="2018-05-29T08:35:58.400" Title="Can we change our personalities?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="9" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3796" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3795" CreationDate="2013-07-07T08:21:50.470" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Similarly to what &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_prevention_through_environmental_design&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CPTED&lt;/a&gt; is based on, referring to the environment being what defines behavior, I wouldn't think an individual can decide to change his or her personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just as in your example of &quot;turning shy&quot; due to an environmental stimulus, any situation that would trigger the need or want to &quot;change personality&quot; must originate from the environment too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The individual could, however, learn to perceive itself as being extroverted depending on the environment even if he's doesn't recognize the cause of this change being external.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The quickest way would probably be through therapist though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3231" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-07-07T08:45:35.700" LastActivityDate="2013-07-07T08:45:35.700" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3797" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3781" CreationDate="2013-07-07T09:42:33.940" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short, no.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychoanalysis you analyze two drives death and pleasure, both are in permanent conflict, so they must be equally strong producing jouissance which is the reason for existence itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The function of the pleasure principle is to maintain life, It's opposite, or what it fears, if you like is death. Not fearing it would make your psyche not only weak, but inexistant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The movie is a good subject for psychoanalytical film criticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a cool text about the links between fear of death, jouissance, Lacanian psychoanalysis and more philosophy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0823228754&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.com/Derrida-Vis-%C3%A0-vis-Lacan-Deconstruction-Psychoanalysis/dp/0823228754/ref=cm_cr_pr_product_top&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3231" LastActivityDate="2013-07-07T09:42:33.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3799" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-07T10:46:08.140" Score="8" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;Drugs that activate the serotonergic 5-HT&lt;sub&gt;2A&lt;/sub&gt; receptor (e.g. LSD, psilocybin, mescaline) are notorious for causing psychedelic experiences and I would like to know the neurochemical mechanism behind this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2658" LastActivityDate="2015-04-05T20:03:00.350" Title="What is the Mechanism of 5-HT2A-mediated psychedelia?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3800" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3802" CreationDate="2013-07-07T14:16:14.803" Score="8" ViewCount="658" Body="&lt;p&gt;In some research papers, transsexuality is correlated with measurable differences in brain structure.  For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zhou et al. (1995) inspected the central subdivision of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTc), and found female-sized BSTc's in male-to-female transsexuals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Berglund et al. (2008) found female-like hypothalamus activation in male-to-female transsexuals in response to smelling odorous steroids.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is a neurobiological basis for transsexuality, it seems reasonable to expect to see transsexuality in non-human animals.  This leads me to my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Has transsexuality been observed in animals other than humans, and how was it observed?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zhou et al., A sex difference in the human brain and its relation to transsexuality, Nature 378 (1995), 68-70.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Berglund et al., Male-to-Female Transsexuals Show Sex-Atypical Hypothalamus Activation When Smelling Odorous Steroids, Cereb. Cortex 18 (2008), 1900-1908.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3234" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-07T14:26:00.393" LastActivityDate="2013-07-08T12:24:21.287" Title="Transsexuality in animals other than humans?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3801" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3825" CreationDate="2013-07-07T15:01:00.200" Score="8" ViewCount="2723" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a name of a cognitive bias that describes the following phenomenon: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person has been exposed to some area of expertise from a very early age (think 7-10), and for an extended period of time. This can be sports, computers, musical instruments, etc. As the child matures, &lt;strong&gt;the child does not realize that such exposure has created a level of competency where even advanced tasks are easy for them&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After growing up such child may be surprised to find out that ordinary people do not have his/her level of expertise. As adults, such people can continue to write books or give advice, being [completely] oblivious that others do not come even close to their level of expertise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the name of this cognitive bias, where individuals do not realize that other people do not share the same level of expertise?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-07-16T17:41:52.773" LastActivityDate="2018-07-17T10:11:19.783" Title="What is the name of the cognitive bias where an expert overestimates the knowledge of others?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3802" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3800" CreationDate="2013-07-07T23:47:48.787" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Transexuality is a very social (and human) phenomena that's directly a consequence of how we define it as a society and indirectly a consequence of having distinct male/female ideologies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humans can be born as an ambiguous sex.  We have a wide spectrum of hermaphrodites from &lt;a href=&quot;http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/androgen-insensitivity-syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;androgen insensitivity syndrom&lt;/a&gt; (i.e. genetically &quot;male&quot; but can be legally &quot;female&quot; and can have varying degrees of both sex organs).  So our definitions of male/female aren't exactly robust in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most (probably all) animals do not have language and are unlikely to have social symbols that are meaningful to them.  Most plants can change sex under stress, oysters can, too.  Many organisms don't have a defined sex role (all of them are hermaphrodites).  C. elegans are mostly hermaphrodites but can have the rare male.  Often, the gender changes here are a direct biological response, rather than a social response, whereas with humans, it's more about responding to a social label.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's some small chance that some other species have developed some sort of social sex expectations (I.e., gender) and have somehow had members challenge it, but it would be really hard to tell without sharing brain architecture, facial expressions, or language with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2013-07-08T12:24:21.287" LastActivityDate="2013-07-08T12:24:21.287" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3803" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-08T00:25:30.323" Score="8" ViewCount="12284" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know about Oedipus complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is it called when a mother has sexual desires towards her son?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the term reserved for single mothers or does it include married mothers?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3235" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-08T03:23:25.777" LastActivityDate="2015-10-18T20:00:34.577" Title="What it is called when a mother has sexual desires towards her son?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3807" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3843" CreationDate="2013-07-08T09:09:14.597" Score="7" ViewCount="782" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a globalized world, in spite of cultural differences, we share, at least at the symbolic level (language level), lots of things. Considering pictures that display emotions (affect), such as those offered by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Affective_Picture_System&quot;&gt;International Affective Picture System&lt;/a&gt;, could we speak of their 'international' character without affecting the specific and local cultural influence that might influence us in rating them? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-08T09:22:07.833" LastActivityDate="2013-07-19T07:26:52.237" Title="To what extent does culture affect emotion perception?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3795" CreationDate="2013-07-08T09:25:43.640" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As promised, here is an elaboration of my comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you mentioned, what, in one of your comments, environmental factors come into play.  A particularly traumatic sequence of events resulted in me making a few changes, and a few changes being made anyway.  Basically, several personality traits vanished (both positive and negative ones) and were replaced.  This took place over a period of a few years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of it is 'self-training' - through events around me and my own decisions, certain personality traits were 'trained' into others.  Some, I just simply 'grew out of'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the same situation resurfaced, I approached it in a very different way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A term that describes the personality change that occurred in me, and happens to a lot of people is 'hardening up', in my case, the 'sympathy-seeking' part of my personality became a resilient part... but this also resulted in my 'sympathetic' part of my personality to become a more pragmatic aspect (where I do what is needed, but don't verbalise the sympathy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-08-24T09:27:05.473" LastActivityDate="2013-08-24T09:27:05.473" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3811" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3783" CreationDate="2013-07-09T09:48:00.470" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I never read any English textbooks on psychophysics, so I cannot help you there. If I wanted to find a good one, I would look at the curricula at some universities and see which books they use or recommend. Such information is often available online.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond a textbook, like user1406647 (+1), I find it enlightening to read classic experiments by the inventors of psychophysics. Their texts are easy to understand without much previous knowledge, and the experiments are simple and foundational for the understanding of the principles of psychophysics. Also, I believe that textbooks only ever give a vague and superficial idea of a field, while confrontation with original texts provides a deeper insight. This is especially true for the presentation of theories: in textbooks they are always abbreviated beyond recognition. Textbooks are good in that they provide a possible structure (e.g. they group authors and theories), delineate historical development, and summarize critique. They are like maps: you'll have to do the walking yourself, but you know where you might find the most spectacular sights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I want to give some few examples that I found especially basic. Any one of these or similar articles will give you an understanding of what psychophysics is about. A good textbook should give you some references to more such experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Charpentier on the Size-Weight-Illusion&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Charpentier, M. A. (1891). Analyse expérimentale de quelques éléments de la sensation de&#xA;poids. &lt;em&gt;Archives de Physiologie Normale et Pathologique. Cinquième Série, 3&lt;/em&gt;, 122-135. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k4327622/f125.image&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k4327622/f125.image&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;An English translation by David J. Murray and Robert R. Ellis has fortunately been archived at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oocities.org/robertellis600/charp.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.oocities.org/robertellis600/charp.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Background information on Charpentier's article is provided in:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Murray, D. J., Ellis, R. R, Bandomir, C. A., &amp;amp; Ross, H. E. (1999). Charpentier (1891) on the size-weight illusion. &lt;em&gt;Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics, 61&lt;/em&gt;, 1681-1685. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03213127&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.3758/BF03213127&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Plateau on Averaging of Achromatic Colors&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Plateau, J. (1872). Sur la mesure des sensations physiques, et sur la loi qui lie l'intensité de ces sensations à l'intensité de la cause excitante. &lt;em&gt;Bulletins de L'Academie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, 2me Sér., 33&lt;/em&gt;, 376-388.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;An English translation by Janet and Donald Laming has been published as:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Laming, J., &amp;amp; Laming, D. (1996). J. Plateau: On the measurement of physical sensations and on the law which links the intensity of these sensations to the intensity of the source. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Research, 59&lt;/em&gt;, 134-144. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01792434&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1007/BF01792434&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The experiment has been replicated and discussed in:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Heller, J. (2001). Mittenbildung bei achromatischen Farben: Das klassische Experiment von Plateau. &lt;em&gt;Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 48&lt;/em&gt;, 259-271. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1026//0949-3946.48.4.259&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1026//0949-3946.48.4.259&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I'll update this answer with more examples when I have the time.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-07-09T09:54:37.403" LastActivityDate="2013-07-09T09:54:37.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3812" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3783" CreationDate="2013-07-09T13:16:46.447" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research articles by Igor Dolgov (NMSU) and Mike McBeath (ASU) are good research-grade articles on this topic.  They are both active scientists with well-referenced papers.  I chose to work around them because of the quality of their ideas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dolgov is more focused on Ecological perceptual models.  McBeath is an illusion 'junkie'.  Bother have done much work related to sports phenomenon, including perceptual motion biases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastEditorUserId="2584" LastEditDate="2013-08-23T20:42:02.003" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T20:42:02.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3813" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3814" CreationDate="2013-07-09T13:45:44.220" Score="14" ViewCount="18398" Body="&lt;p&gt;This effect seems to be observed with almost any word. I would say this phenomenon 'works' for longer and complex words better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we repeat a word over and over again, it starts to sound very weird and become only a bunch of repeating sounds. You don't even need to repeat it quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does a word repeated many times lose its meaning and the brain can't recognize it properly any more? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3163" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-09T23:28:52.240" LastActivityDate="2017-11-16T18:44:36.040" Title="Why does repeating one word over and over again sound weird to us after some time?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3814" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3813" CreationDate="2013-07-09T16:30:52.603" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is called semantic saturation, or semantic satiation; studies of event-related potentials (brain waves) suggest that it is negatively correlated with N400 amplitude (the subjective experience of satiation increases as the N400 amplitude decreases) without any change to upstream sensory components.  As N400 amplitude indexes initial lexical integration--that is, understanding the word at hand in relation to the words that preceded it--this sugggests that semantic satiation is in fact due to some kind of habituation in the semantic processes, and not in upstream sensory processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Citations: &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_satiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia on Semantic saturation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03211837&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kounios, J., Kotz, S. A., &amp;amp; Holcomb, P. J. (2000). On the locus of the semantic satiation effect: Evidence from event-related brain potentials. Memory &amp;amp; cognition, 28(8), 1366-1377.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-10-27T17:58:42.053" LastActivityDate="2015-10-27T17:58:42.053" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3815" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3607" CreationDate="2013-07-09T17:08:38.180" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;You can induce &lt;em&gt;weak/artificial&lt;/em&gt; synesthesia on yourself, you cannot induce &lt;em&gt;strong&lt;/em&gt; synesthesia on yourself.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The type of synesthesia you describe is the same type that Ramachandran mentions when hypothesizing that synesthesia is not a legitimate sensory experience:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Could we be absolutely sure that this wasn't happening because early in kindergarten she had repeatedly seen a red seven on her refrigerator door?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is simply an association, like remembering the qualities of bacon when it is smelled. True, strong synesthesia is not something that can be induced by association. It is not an association within how they think of something, but a secondary modal experience that is triggered automatically when they experience the first modal experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The modern test for synesthesia, the stroop test, perhaps demonstrates this best. In a normal stroop test, participants are asked to recognize a color word that is in a different color (the word &quot;blue&quot; on a red font). The meaning of the word and the color of the word cause a temporary automatic conflict in your brain, and your results are slower than if they matched or were all black. If you ask a grapheme-visual synesthese to recognize numbers that disagree with the colors they see it as, their responses will slow. If you were to undergo this memorization training, your responses would not slow, the association you have is memory based and would occur after recognition processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To expand on the differences between weak synesthesia and strong synesthesia&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Weak synesthesia is association or metaphor. You do not experience the secondary meaning, you simply think of it. It can sometimes seem very close to experiencing it, but it is still separate. If you are thinking of red after seeing a 7, someone could distract you or you could willingly think of another color equally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Strong synesthesia is an &lt;em&gt;automatic inappropriate modal response&lt;/em&gt;. A modal response is the response of one distinct sense to an input. For most people, this is the normal things, sound and hearing, scent and smell... For a synesthese the color they see on a number or while listening to music is exactly as real as the number or music itself. Someone attempting to emulate this may imagine the number they see in their mind and then think of a color. To the synesthese, not only is the synesthetic color on the number, but so is the actual color of the number. It does not overwrite the actual input, it is simply additional input. It is 'inappropriate' because it is a response that is not supposed to happen for that input. It is automatic in the sense that it cannot be ignored, blocked out, distracted from, changed in any way, or otherwise consciously altered. Trying to do so would be equivalent to trying to convince yourself you do not see a cup. It won't work, your automatic senses will still tell you there is a cup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, I would recommend any of the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Man Who Tasted Shapes by Dr. Cytowic is the original modern research on synesthesia, though the hypothesis Cytowic puts forth is not held very highly anymore.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Tell-Tale Brain by V.S. Ramachandran has a section on Synesthesia incorporating both real-world examples and the most up-to-date research on the matter in a very readable way.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Varieties of Anomalous Experience is not as up-to-date as Ramachandran but cites specific studies and research in more detail.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3241" LastEditorUserId="3241" LastEditDate="2013-07-09T18:37:53.910" LastActivityDate="2013-07-09T18:37:53.910" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3818" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1934" CreationDate="2013-07-10T11:12:38.237" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This will probably only answer part of your query.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that this is an example of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;'habituation'&lt;/a&gt;, which is a decrease in response to stimuli.  There has been some research in this field, a particularly good reference is &lt;a href=&quot;http://s-f-walker.org.uk/pubs/lr/chapter2-lr.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Habituation: the &#xA; difference between&#xA; familiar and unfamiliar&#xA; stimuli&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, where the authors contend that the underlying cause goes beyond 'sensory adaptation' and 'muscle fatigue', and that the reasons and neurological responses are quite unique for each situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important point from the reference above is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is in fact a wealth of examples from a wide range of human and animal behaviour where isolated responses wane as the stimulus which provokes them recurs, without the intervention of muscular fatigue or sensory adaption (Hinde, 1970). However, the scope of habituation is so comprehensive, embracing almost every type of behaviour, that as Hinde says the `underlying processes' must vary enormously. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-07-10T11:12:38.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3819" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-10T12:51:48.493" Score="1" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any research materials which deal with: need for control, illusion of control and neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It will be very interesting to see if those illusions and needs could be linked to mental disorders like hypochondria, narcissistic personality disorder, psychosis etc., in an S-O-R scientific paradigm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-10T17:47:37.200" LastActivityDate="2013-07-10T17:47:37.200" Title="Illusion of control hardwired in brain?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-07-17T14:05:42.070" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3820" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3795" CreationDate="2013-07-10T13:02:35.670" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The real question here is whether traditional personality dimensions have such a big influence on behavior as usually thought or, perhaps, if there is such a thing as being “really and truly extroverted from the ground up”. Once you begin to admit that circumstances play an important role or that personality traits are fuzzy types, being “truly extroverted” becomes rather vague.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, it could be said that, &lt;em&gt;by definition,&lt;/em&gt; personality cannot change so quickly but that would not be a very interesting statement. Empirically, there is no such thing as being shy “by nature” outside of a situation, you can at most observe a series of shyness-related behaviors in a range of situations. What is interesting is to determine what exactly is stable across time and situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look at things that way, “Is shyness impossible to change?” is possibly a tractable question but statements about personality changes in general are mostly empty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that talking about “personality states” extends the notion of personality to the point of uselessness. The debate about traits and states in psychology could rather be seen as a debate about the existence of some commonly posited personality traits and the way to measure them (e.g. if people fill in personality scales based on their mood instead of some stable characteristics, there are simply no “traits” to speak about, no matter how you formulated the instructions to your questionnaire).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One reference on this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Allen, B.P., &amp;amp; Potkay, C.R. (1981). On the arbitrary distinction between states and traits. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,&lt;/em&gt; 41 (5), 916-928.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastActivityDate="2013-07-10T13:02:35.670" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3821" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3699" CreationDate="2013-07-10T13:06:56.040" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;One could say that brain is not hardwired for abstract ideas... why?&#xA;There are exhaustive work by Piaget in which he claimed about stages of thinking.&#xA;Modern researches argue that only 25-35% of High-school students dont entry Formal operational stage which is approximately abstract thinking.&#xA;So average Joe is hardwired for 3 dimensional vision and concrete thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;update1: From theoretical perspective of evolutionary psychologist or biologist, it could be assumed that in one moment on earth it was more important for organism how to organize themselves, or how to find food etc then how to see in more dimensions. There is obvious difference in various species and vision, we can assume that it was developed chronologically or at once.&#xA;but if it was chronologically the adaptation motive was the main motive. In that manner one of definition of inteligence is ability to adapt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;update2: i watched this video lecture and there are several errors in his statements: 1)time is perception of human, it is question if it is something which is universaly acknowledged. 2) 1, 2, 3 are not numbers - they are Plato representation of numbers which we adopt 3) this is more important 3 dimensional visionary system is like time, something we belive exists, but n-dimensional system and 3 dimensional system have only word 'dimension' in common. they are not same 'dimensions' you think it is the same because the name is same. Simmilar mistake is between Jungian word Extraversion and Eysenck or B5 term. Do you understand now? So people want to put in coordinate system something what does not belong there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="3001" LastEditDate="2013-07-10T13:49:48.477" LastActivityDate="2013-07-10T13:49:48.477" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3822" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3801" CreationDate="2013-07-10T14:24:39.930" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I am from an education background -I can't do, so I teach.&#xA; from Wiki &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_education)#Person-Centered_Messages&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_education)#Person-Centered_Messages&lt;/a&gt; :  The main premise of Constructivism is the ability to construct person-centered messages to accomplish one’s goal. Griffin explains a person-centered message is a “tailor-made message for a specific individual and context” (Griffin 101). If carry through with their person-centered message then they are able to manipulate their original message in mind and adjust it to whatever level the person they are talking to will best understand it.[1] &#xA;1. Glaserfeld, E. (1989). Constructivism in education. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press. p. 162.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The expert is unaware of how learning in his field is developed so cannot meet the person he is communicating with, where they are in the development process. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a term for 'empathy' of conceptual cognitive framework? This is what the expert lacks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The expert is efficient in using heuristics. To examine the heuristc employed and discover where the other person is connected takes effortand away from the comfort zone.&#xA;I would put forward &quot;laziness&quot; or &quot;disinterest&quot; but that suggests agency(intentional action) so to be kind to those loveable boffins lets make it a symptom ie the bias of being stuck in habituated heuristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3249" LastEditorUserId="3249" LastEditDate="2013-07-21T12:35:46.177" LastActivityDate="2013-07-21T12:35:46.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3824" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3501" CreationDate="2013-07-10T16:44:11.363" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could try third party suppliers.  There is currently a company offering free facebook surveys. Basically, create an account, create a survey, enter in a bit of information and presto, you have a survey.  Try www.hiprewards.com.  Building your own survey app for facebook is not a trivial undertaking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3250" LastActivityDate="2013-07-10T16:44:11.363" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3825" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3801" CreationDate="2013-07-10T19:10:29.007" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;This sounds similar to the &quot;curse of knowledge&quot; phenomenon (also called the &quot;curse of expertise&quot; by at least one publication that I found).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The curse of knowledge is a cognitive bias according to which better-informed people find it extremely difficult to think about problems from the perspective of lesser-informed people.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Camerer, C., Loewenstein, G., &amp;amp; Weber, M. (1989). The curse of knowledge in economic settings: An experimental analysis. The Journal of Political Economy, 1232-1254.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Birch, S. A., &amp;amp; Bloom, P. (2007). The curse of knowledge in reasoning about false beliefs. Psychological Science, 18(5), 382-386.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hinds, P. J. (1999). The curse of expertise: The effects of expertise and debiasing methods on prediction of novice performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5(2), 205.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="463" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-07-21T15:59:20.290" LastActivityDate="2013-07-21T15:59:20.290" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3826" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-07-10T20:37:47.463" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding sexual expression, sexual orientation, and biological bases of sexual behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-10T21:55:00.180" LastActivityDate="2013-07-10T21:55:00.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3827" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-07-10T20:37:47.463" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding sexual expression, sexual orientation, and biological bases of sexual behaviors" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-10T21:55:04.290" LastActivityDate="2013-07-10T21:55:04.290" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3828" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-07-10T20:48:36.583" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the brain's ability to distinguish sounds heard in speech, or (more generically) to distinguish between different auditory signals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/184148.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Auditory Discrimination&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-10T21:55:11.993" LastActivityDate="2013-07-10T21:55:11.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3829" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-07-10T20:48:36.583" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the brain's ability to distinguish sounds heard in speech, or (more generically) to distinguish between different auditory signals. " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-10T21:55:15.773" LastActivityDate="2013-07-10T21:55:15.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3830" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-07-10T20:50:24.153" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions related to instruction in the cognitive sciences, in formal and informal situations; for general questions about teaching and education see &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/educational-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'educational-psychology'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;educational-psychology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2013-07-11T03:39:53.697" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T03:39:53.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3831" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-07-10T20:50:24.153" Score="0" Body="For questions specifically related to instruction in the cognitive sciences, in formal and informal situations; for general questions about teaching and education see the educational-psychology tag" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-11T01:16:55.527" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T01:16:55.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3832" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-10T21:58:53.460" Score="5" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I understand about the physiology of schizophrenia it is thought to be caused by chemical imbalances resulting from genetic factors, fueled by environmental factors. I've garnered that environmental factors can play a large role in how a person reacts to the disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example: a person with a genetic predisposition towards schizophrenia is raised in an abusive household with his parents yelling everyday, they will definitely become angry and more stressed out, which one might assume would lead to their eventual psychotic break. Is this 100% correct? Another person who might be less stressed out, probably raised in a normal family, could potentially experience troubling symptoms before a complete psychotic break. Is this a valid assumption or observed pattern in those who suffer from the disease?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if environmental factors can contribute to the onset of schizophrenia, could the removal of these factors lessen the symptoms? Take for example Jared Loughner, he will be spending life in prison. With time away from society, with the stresses of life removed, and (given the correct medication), could incarcerated schizophrenia patients' symptoms be ameliorated by this change in social situation?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any info on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3103" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-17T18:17:12.260" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T04:20:07.767" Title="To what degree does environment govern the severity of symptoms in schizophrenia?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3833" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3839" CreationDate="2013-07-11T00:32:19.143" Score="11" ViewCount="655" Body="&lt;p&gt;What would be an example of a multisensory brain area, where multiple senses (e.g. smell and taste) are combined to decode the corresponding stimuli from more than one sensory organ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was thinking of association areas, but it doesn't really seem plausible that they would primarily be multisensory areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3253" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T21:18:24.863" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T21:18:24.863" Title="Which are the multisensory brain areas?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;cross-modal&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3834" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-11T00:32:57.153" Score="8" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;Expanding upon this, I have two ideas behind this question - 1) that current knowledge of the brain and its workings (biochemically, biomechanically, physiologically etc) is in its infancy and that we are a long way from fully understanding the mechanisms of cognition and brain function...... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and 2) There are people in this world that have amazing cognitive and mental capabilities and I believe they show off what the brain can achieve in terms of singular focussed abilities such as autistic savants. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These people are amazing at one or two abilities such as mental calculations, eidetic memory, polylingualism, prodigious musical ability etc and I realise these people have some sort of deficit or disability but I think it simply displays the potential that everyone could have if they had the right stuff (whatever this may be!). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thinking of this potential when the time comes when we understand a whole lot more about the brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Will it be possible to use neuroscientific  knowledge to personalise each child's cognitive learning at each stage in their lives from say age one onwards through to school level to allow them to develop savant like capabilities, even if it isn't as impressive as actual savants?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you, sorry for the long winded question but my thinking is that the brain is capable of lots more and if we are today basing some of our education curriculum and structure on current scientific knowledge then surely in the future this could snowball for such sciences to fulfil our cognitive potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3252" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-11T02:42:23.720" LastActivityDate="2014-12-19T11:53:47.863" Title="Could neuroscientific knowledge and techiques be used to optimise peoples' education and learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3836" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3501" CreationDate="2013-07-11T01:33:03.493" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is just a few thoughts.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree with @adb that an obvious way to use facebook for conducting surveys is just to provide a link to an external website that runs the survey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is an interesting article by Tan and colleagues where they talk about using paid advertisements to get targeted participants on Facebook.  I thought the following statistics were interesting in highlighting the sheer scale required in order to convert an ad into completed surveys:  1.1 million ad impressions resulted in 280 clicks on the advertisement of which 59 responded to the survey of which 39 completed the survey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tan, H., Forgasz, H., Leder, G., &amp;amp; McLeod, A. SURVEY RECRUITMENT USING FACEBOOK: THREE STUDIES. &lt;a href=&quot;http://academia.edu/1834743/Survey_Recruitment_Using_Facebook_Three_Studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FULL TEXT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-11T10:54:48.527" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T10:54:48.527" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3837" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3833" CreationDate="2013-07-11T05:18:33.350" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Association areas are exactly what you are looking for, actually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the ventral intraparietal (VIP) cortex, located in the inferior parietal lobe (along the right border of the yellow area in the image below), just on the border of the occipital lobe, integrates somatosensory (tactile) and visual information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dGUIs.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Image via &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parietal_lobe&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an extensive look at the single electrode studies which illustrated this convergence, see the following article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Duhamel, J. R., Colby, C. L., &amp;amp; Goldberg, M. E. (1998). Ventral intraparietal area of the macaque: congruent visual and somatic response properties. Journal of Neurophysiology, 79(1), 126-136. &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/79/1/126.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;FREE PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T05:18:33.350" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3838" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3784" CreationDate="2013-07-11T06:45:50.333" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few years ago we had very good luck using OEM pulse oximetry equipment from Nonin.  Their OEM products are typically intended for other manufacturers to use in their own products.  The downside is that it might take a little bit of work to configure the device at first, but the upside is that the products are eminently hackable and provide lots of information.  We had a Python script that would read the heart rate data from an Xpod alongside a set of external triggers from our stimulus presentation software and then save it as a CSV file at the end of each run.  Very slick!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonin Xpod Page: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nonin.com/OEMSolutions/Xpod&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nonin.com/OEMSolutions/Xpod&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3109" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T06:45:50.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3839" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3833" CreationDate="2013-07-11T07:24:31.233" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Much of the answer will depend on how you define multisensory.  Are you most interested in areas of the brain where multiple primary sensory streams converge together to form secondary representations, or are you interested in areas of the brain that simply have access to that kind of information?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will throw in for consideration one of my favorite multisensory brain areas: the insula.  It is the primary sensory cortex for gustatory and interoceptive sensory information (Craig et al., 2000) and seems to play an important role in temporal coincidence of crossmodal stimuli (Calvert, 2001).  This includes tactile-auditory association (Renier et al., 2009), tactile-visual association (Gentile et al., 2010), auditory-visual association (Bushara et al., 2001) to name a few.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to the example in your question, De Araujo et al. (2003) found that the anterior orbitofrontal cortex was one of the few regions that didn't respond to taste, didn't respond to smell, but did respond when taste and smell were simultaneously presented.  Orbitofrontal cortex might be my second favorite multisensory brain area...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Bushara KO, Grafman J, Hallett M. (2001) Neural Correlates of Auditory–Visual Stimulus Onset Asynchrony Detection. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(1), 300-304.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Calvert GA. (2001) Crossmodal Processing in the Human Brain: Insights from Functional Neuroimaging Studies. Cerebral Cortex, 11(12), 1110-1123.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Craig AD, Chen K, Bandy D, and Reiman EM. (2000) Thermosensory activation of insular cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 3(2), 184-190.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;De Araujo IET, Rolls ET, Kringlebach ML, McGlone F, and Phillips N. (2009) Taste-olfactory convergence, and the representation of the pleasantness of flavour, in the human brain. European Journal of Neuroscience, 18(7), 2059-2068. &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Gentile G, Petkova VI, and Ehrsson HH. (2010) Integration of Visual and Tactile Signals From the Hand in the Human Brain: An fMRI Study. Journal of Neurophysiology, 105(2), 910-922.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Renier LA, Anurova I, De Volder AG, Carlson S, VanMeter J, Rauschecker JP. (2009) Multisensory Integration of Sounds and Vibrotactile Stimuli in Processing Streams for “What” and “Where”. Journal of Neuroscience, 29(35), 10950-10960.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3109" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T07:24:31.233" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3840" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-11T09:27:12.427" Score="10" ViewCount="264" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, the fear of failing at something can be debilitating, and more often than not present a barrier for that person to even try new things - the locus of the fear can be quite different between people - ranging from academic, sporting and relationships and a whole lot more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my question is, what is the neurological mechanism that results in the fear of failure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-11T13:16:25.860" LastActivityDate="2019-08-02T16:00:45.157" Title="What is the neurological mechanism behind the &quot;fear of failure&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3841" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3842" CreationDate="2013-07-11T11:50:44.323" Score="7" ViewCount="250" Body="&lt;p&gt;We all seem to have a &quot;probabilistic sense&quot;, which manifests itself in certain types of expectations (e.g. even if one has never used a bow to shoot an arrow, one expects that hitting a small target will be more difficult than hitting a large target, all other things being equal), and also in certain characteristic responses when events do not match those expectations (these responses consist primarily of surprise, but also include suspicion, and in extreme cases maybe even awe or fear).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me at least, this probabilistic sense feels subjectively very fundamental, in the same way that physical pain, hunger, thirst, etc., &quot;feel fundamental&quot;.  In other words, I could not describe them to someone in simpler terms.  (I may be able to explain to someone the mechanics of shooting an arrow with a bow, but I would not know how to explain to someone how to feel the immediate intuition that hitting a small target would be harder than hitting a large one.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Motivated by the kind of questions that follow, I'm looking for a review of research on &quot;probabilistic thinking&quot; by non-human animals.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How analogous is this &quot;probabilistic sense&quot; to the more traditional&#xA;   (&quot;classical&quot;) senses like vision and touch?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In particular, how much does it depends on human culture?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've searched for these keywords online, but I have not come up with anything.  Maybe I'm not using the right keywords.  Also, since probabilistic methods as standard tools in research (and hence, the research literature is awash in terms like &quot;probability&quot;, &quot;expectation&quot;, &quot;Bayesian&quot;, &quot;statistical&quot;, etc.), it is very difficult to craft searches that are selective for the research I'm looking for.  Some &lt;em&gt;specific&lt;/em&gt; pointers (i.e., to specific papers, or books, or at least specific researchers) would be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;FWIW, the clearest example I can come up with to illustrate what I mean by &quot;probabilistic thinking&quot; is this thought experiment.  Imagine presenting a human subject the opportunity to participate in a raffle for some prize that the subject finds desirable, and suppose the subject is just told that he/she has the choice of having (A) one, or (B) two tickets for the raffle (at no cost in either case).  We would expect, of course, that every &quot;normal&quot; subject would prefer (B) over (A).  (In fact we would question the sanity (or at least the seriousness and sincerity) of any subject who fully understood the situation, and still preferred (A) over (B).)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What makes the universal preference for (B) an example of &quot;probabilistic thinking&quot; is the simultaneous recognition on the subject's part that choice (B) is &lt;em&gt;unequivocally&lt;/em&gt; better, and that still it could fail to lead to the prize, even if the raffle had only three tickets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure how one would go about setting such an experiment with non-human animals, but I've been impressed before by the ingenuity of the experiments that researchers devise to test animal cognition, so I remain hopeful that something like the &quot;probabilistic thinking&quot; I illustrate above has been investigated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I realize that it would be rather difficulty is to distinguish between pure &quot;probabilistic thinking&quot; (as a distinct, independent faculty) and conditioning.  In fact, it can be (and has been) argued that what I'm calling &quot;probabilistic thinking&quot; is nothing more than a special case of conditioning.  (After all, conditioning may be thought of as the nurturing of certain expectations, and preferring two tickets over one could be simply a manifestation of one such expectation.)  Ironically enough, when it comes to humans, I can't think of any ethical experiment that would be able to establish &quot;probabilistic thinking&quot; as a faculty that would be present even in the absence of any conditioning.  With animal subjects, however, it may be possible to set up experiments that minimize the possible confounding by conditioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3256" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T09:40:47.557" LastActivityDate="2013-09-18T23:25:42.307" Title="Research on &quot;probabilistic thinking&quot; in non-human animals?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3841" CreationDate="2013-07-11T12:37:35.937" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Try an internet search on animal learning probability.  Although that might not be what you want because it sounds like you specifically want insight as opposed to learning in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your particular example is problematic because you're inferring far too much on the subjects part. They might prefer B because they just want more of anything offered. The experiments need to be much more careful than that in order to attribute effects to probabilistic thinking. What kind of response will occur doesn't just depend on the probability of events but what kind of reward contingencies are associated.  Both people and animals do &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/laurie_santos.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dumb&lt;/a&gt; things with simple probabilities and rewards.  But they do the same thing. Does that justify an argument that they have a probabilistic sense?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deriving a distinction between insight and conditioning is sometimes problematic (for example food aversion in rats) and insight is usually only accepted when it can pass the interocular impact test.  While I can show you lots of papers on probability learning I'm unaware of any that tap insight about probabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider the problem for the researcher. In order to establish insight into probabilities the subject has to experience the events repeatedly in a relevant way so that they become learnable. Given this takes a degree of exposure in the first place it would be very hard to dissociate conditioning from insight based learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also consider that people sometimes can learn probabilities but don't always do intelligent things with them. For example, when there are two possible events and one happens 75% of the time people tend to select the frequent event 75% of the time. This is rather &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/cep/58/4/221/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;boneheaded&lt;/a&gt; because selecting the frequent event all of the time will give you the most accurate performance. Animals actually learn to do the latter. So maybe animals have a stronger probability sense? Regardless, they clearly they learn probabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2013-07-11T22:58:01.660" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T22:58:01.660" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3843" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3807" CreationDate="2013-07-11T14:42:10.863" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Long story short: at least in facial affect perception/expression, there is not a definitive answer to this.  The field is only just beginning to get a handle on the fact that what have been long thought of as &quot;universal&quot; expressions of emotion don't seem to be, so there is considerably less work on how exactly culture affects these expressions.  However, current consensus is that between-group affective judgments have lower agreement rates than within-group affective judgments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is longstanding work from Paul Ekman suggesting that perception of six basic emotions in faces is universal (he wrote an argument for this point of view &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1973-11154-001&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and, more recently, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699939208411068#.Ud7AE0GshcY&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).  This was based on quite a lot of work showing that participants agreed at very high rates on the emotion displayed in a set of pictures of emotionally expressive faces.  However, there are methodological weaknesses in this work (there is fulltext of an excellent review on it available &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/is_there_universal_recognition_of_emotion_from_facial_expressions-_a_review_of_the_cross-cultural_studies.pdf&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).  Basically, these can be summed up as a preference for forced-choice (making participants choose from a limited list of answers about the emotion on display), within-subject designs, and stimuli from Ekman's original set; when different experimental design choices are made, the agreement largely disappears.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This opens the field for suggestions that most or all affective expression is in fact culturally influenced; a more recent study &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2002-00947-001&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; found less agreement between groups than within groups, and more agreement between groups that had more exposure to eachother than groups that had less exposure to eachother.  &lt;strong&gt;This paper is a highly detailed answer to your question, at least as currently understood.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Universals and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. Ekman, Paul. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol 19, 1971, 207-283.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) An argument for basic emotions. Ekman , Paul. Cognition &amp;amp; Emotion : Vol. 6, Iss. 3-4, 1992.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) Is There Universal Recognition of Emotion From Facial Expression? A Review of the Cross-Cultural Studies. Psychological Bulletin 1994, Vol. 115, No. 1, 102-141.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: A meta-analysis.&#xA;Elfenbein, Hillary Anger; Ambady, Nalini. Psychological Bulletin, Vol 128(2), Mar 2002, 203-235.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T14:42:10.863" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3844" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-11T15:07:25.670" Score="1" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;Question is simple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Will I be more motivated with one good friend or with a group of the same interested people during group exercise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does group size affect our internal motivation?&lt;/strong&gt; (starting by size of 2 people up to X)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where are bounds for the worst motivation, average motivation and the best motivation for physical workout? (or we can discuss other activities as well) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My input: I'm just thinking about competition feelings in bigger group of people when my brain is saying something like this: &quot;&lt;em&gt;I have to be better than everyone else.&lt;/em&gt;&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This question doesn't need to be exclusively bound to the gym workout.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3163" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2013-07-11T16:09:45.780" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T16:09:45.780" Title="How many sparring partners should I choose for the most effective motivation in the gym?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3845" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3844" CreationDate="2013-07-11T15:21:51.970" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Ringelmann effect may be useful to you in this question; he found that &quot;the addition of co-workers in a rope-pulling task leads to a linear decrement in the individual group member's average performance.&quot;  It has been examined experimentally &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/002210317490033X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, and was found to occur with the addition of second and third group members, but adding members beyond that didn't have a significant effect.  There was a second experiment that tried to control for the possibility of intermember coordination, but it found the same thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Of course, this leaves out entirely the possibility of differing group dynamics across groups of the same size but with different members. It also does not speak to individual differences--that some people may do better with a larger group, or with varied activity partners, while others do better with smaller groups or more consistent activity partners.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alan G Ingham, George Levinger, James Graves, Vaughn Peckham&#xA;The Ringelmann effect: Studies of group size and group performance&#xA;Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 10, Issue 4, July 1974, Pages 371–384&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2013-07-11T15:27:40.500" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T15:27:40.500" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3846" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3807" CreationDate="2013-07-11T21:30:15.323" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;If &quot;we&quot; - as global citizens - speak of their international quality it does not affect how they affect our ratings of them. Perhaps one could study responses to &quot;International APS&quot; versus &quot;National APS&quot; while presenting the IAPS in both conditions post &quot;priming&quot;. This would determine differences in ratings, but &lt;em&gt;the IAPS is first and foremost designed for emotion elicitation&lt;/em&gt;, that is: responses and not ratings. Those responses are species-dependent, but universal among humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE:&#xA;In psychology &quot;rating&quot; and &quot;response&quot; have specific meanings. A response is a reaction to a stimulus, an event in the environment. For example, a stop sign makes a person stop their car. The sign is the stimulus and braking is the response. In psychological testing of humans, a field called psychometry, ratings are gathered through questionnaires. For example: &quot;On a scale from 1 to 7, are you experiencing fear when seeing this image?&quot;. Ratings require evaluations. As such, ratings require deliberate tought. In contrast, responses can be automatic. For example, a person seeing the barrel of a gun pointed at him in an image might respond with sudden fear: the eyes open wide. In some situations we have a choice to respond with a smile if we appraise that a person should be greeted with a smile. However, sometimes we meet a friend and smile back immediately without any deliberate thought. Responses are tightly linked to the stimulus and are sometimes automatic, while ratings require deliberate judgement, sometimes through verbalization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastEditorUserId="3258" LastEditDate="2013-07-17T16:40:33.107" LastActivityDate="2013-07-17T16:40:33.107" CommentCount="23" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3847" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3841" CreationDate="2013-07-11T21:40:15.203" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This type of research is fairly new in the animal domain, so I guess it would be difficult to find a review unless you use keywords for specific cognitive functions and a species (e.g. &quot;decision making&quot; AND &quot;rat&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This link is probably of interest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cshl.edu/Article-Churchland/study-shows-rats-match-humans-in-decision-making-that-involves-combining-different-sensory-cues&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Rats match humans in decision making that involves combining different sensory cues&quot;&gt;Rats match humans in decision making that involves combining different sensory cues&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that rats are perhaps more intricate in their &quot;culture&quot; than previously believed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/334/6061/1427&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Empathy and Pro-Social Behavior in Rats&quot;&gt;Empathy and pro-social behavior in rats&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2013-07-11T21:40:15.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3848" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-12T00:56:12.283" Score="6" ViewCount="456" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if a person could be hypnotized to act drunk? That is, can a person totally lose all his inhibitions while in hypnosis (similar to being drunk)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3259" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:52:47.280" LastActivityDate="2020-07-13T23:03:05.253" Title="Can a person be hypnotized to act drunk?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3849" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-12T01:01:35.523" Score="3" ViewCount="2029" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sex seems to be a fundamental drive. To satisfy sexual desire, a person will often masturbate or have sex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What happens if a person abstains from anything sexual? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can this drive be &quot;transferred&quot; to other areas of an individual's life? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;That is, can sexual energy be transformed into productive energy?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3259" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-12T07:04:06.157" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T08:43:25.190" Title="Can motivation for sex be transformed into productive motivation?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3850" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3852" CreationDate="2013-07-12T02:39:51.600" Score="3" ViewCount="1516" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there an online resource to take the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot-probe_paradigm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dot-probe paradigm&lt;/a&gt; test&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I searched I could only find a guide to set up a server for such a test. However, I don't have the ability to do that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm specifically interested in a test that measures negativity/pessimism bias and tells you the results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3260" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-12T04:48:38.170" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T04:57:13.003" Title="Is there a Dot-Probe Paradigm / visual-probe task available online?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3851" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-12T02:48:24.487" Score="3" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does complexity theory speak to cognitive science?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If yes, where can I find some material to explore that is suitable for undergraduate level understanding?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In particular, is there any audio contennt on this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3249" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T18:44:14.597" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T18:45:28.883" Title="What introductory material is available linking complexity theory to cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3852" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3850" CreationDate="2013-07-12T04:47:30.823" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There appears to be an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/DotProbe/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Inquisit implementation of the dot probe task&lt;/a&gt; that will run both online and in a lab. Such scripts can presumably be customised to your purposes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to use this for research purposes, you would need to have access to a licence to Inquisit. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a trial version of the software. You could download the trial of Inquisit and the script and run the script on your computer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-12T04:57:13.003" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T04:57:13.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3853" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3851" CreationDate="2013-07-12T05:04:35.093" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;In general, there are two types of 'complexity' that are studied. Usually, when people talk about 'complexity', especially on the internet, they mean Santa Fe Institute style complexity. This is a vague and poorly defined concept that has struggled for a number of years without making significant progress. It uses pretty words, but has yet to deliver on any real results. I will not discuss it more in this answer.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other type of complexity is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;computational complexity theory&lt;/a&gt; as studied by theoretical computer science. In general, this field is &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4807/29&quot;&gt;too mathematical and too rigorous to engage with most of cognitive science and psychology&lt;/a&gt;, but there are a few connections. I recommend looking at the cstheory question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cstheory.stackexchange.com/q/5379/1037&quot;&gt;What is the complexity class most closely associated with what the human mind can accomplish quickly?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that question, the author is curious to know which &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity_class&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;complexity class&lt;/a&gt; most closely resembles what humans can achieve. My favourite &lt;a href=&quot;https://cstheory.stackexchange.com/a/5388/1037&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; discusses the &lt;strong&gt;Tractable Cognition thesis&lt;/strong&gt;. For reference, see these papers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Iris van Rooij. &lt;a href=&quot;http://staff.science.uva.nl/~szymanik/papers/TractableCognition.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Tractable Cognition thesis&lt;/a&gt;. Cognitive Science, 32, pp. 939-984, 2008.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Iris van Rooij. Parameters that make Cognitive Work Light. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mrfellows.net/Newsletters/2009June_FPT_News.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;FPT News: Parameterized Complexity Newsletter, June 2009&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A specialized part of computational complexity known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_learning_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;computational learning theory&lt;/a&gt; has been particularily notable in trying to make connections to cognitive science, in particular linguists. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lps.uci.edu/~johnsonk/Publications/Johnson.GoldsTheorem.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gold's theorem&lt;/a&gt; on the non-learnability of certain families of formal languages was especially relevant in the early days of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_of_the_stimulus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;poverty of the stimulus&lt;/a&gt; debate. You can learn more about it in these two questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/985/29&quot;&gt;Applications of computational learning theory in the cognitive sciences&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/q/1066/33&quot;&gt;General mathematical frameworks of language acquisition since Gold&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind, that computational complexity is advanced material and requires a decent mathematical sophistication. However, with difficulty comes insights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T18:45:28.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3855" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3849" CreationDate="2013-07-12T06:40:38.567" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Freudian Psychoanalysis, &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublimation_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sublimation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; is the transformation of unacceptable sexual desires into mental achievements or culturally accepted behaviors. Sublimation is one of the mature defense mechanisms of the Ego. Freud believed that human culture as a whole is a result of sublimation. He sees especially in artistic expression and scientific research the conversion of base desires to a higher realm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their review of recent studies in social psychology for evidence relevant to seven Freudian defense mechanisms, Baumeister, Dale and Sommer (1998)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;have found nothing at all to suggest that people can defend themselves&#xA;  against unacceptable feelings or desires by transforming them into&#xA;  socially desirable activities, thereby producing superior achiement in&#xA;  those activities. The best available data concern education and sex,&#xA;  and those findings consitently fail to support sublimation theory (and&#xA;  in some cases are in the opposite direction). At present, our best&#xA;  educated guess is that sublimation is not a genuine or effective&#xA;  defense mechanism, and it seems doubtful that anything resembling&#xA;  sublimation occurs at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question &quot;What is the effect of sexual abstinence on intellectual and artistic achievment?&quot; has specifically been answered by studies on celibacy, which show either no or a negative effect (Baumeister, Dale, &amp;amp; Sommer, 1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baumeister, R. F., Dale, K., &amp;amp; Sommer, K. L. (1998). Freudian defense mechanisms and empirical findings in modern social psychology: Reaction formation, projection, displacement, udoing, isolation, sublimation, and denial. Journal of Personality, 66, 1081–1124. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00043&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1111/1467-6494.00043&lt;/a&gt; Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/vollarj/baumesiter%20roy%20-%20freudian%20defense%20mechanisms.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/vollarj/baumesiter%20roy%20-%20freudian%20defense%20mechanisms.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-07-12T08:43:25.190" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T08:43:25.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3856" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1786" CreationDate="2013-07-12T06:49:37.727" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a range of evidence to suggest that our brain processes self-generated visual information in much the same way that we process visual information from the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a really great review article by Kosslyn, Ganis, and Thompson (2001) that goes over evidence for activity in modality-specific brain areas during visual, auditory, and motor visualization.  One interesting effect is that damage to areas of the brain that process object properties yields the inability to visualize shape, and damage to areas of the brain that process spatial properties yields the inability to visualize location in space.  Similar deficits have been observed in imagery deficits for color and faces following specific types of brain damage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One question that is still debated is whether the very early visual processing areas (V1, Brodmann areas 17 and 18) are involved in visual imagery.  These are areas that receive input from the eyes, provide the first cortical processing of light properties, and have a spatial layout similar to the retina.  From the review, 34/50 neuroimaging studies have shown evidence of activity in the early visual cortex during visualization. More evidence has emerged since the Kosslyn review supporting the role of early visual areas during mental imagery (e.g. Slotnick et al., 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because early visual areas are thought to be active during self-generated imagery, it sets the stage for being able to &quot;read out&quot; what you are visualizing.  Horikawa et al. (2013) trained a set of machine learning classifiers on awake subjects, and were then able to create crude reconstructions of what the subjects were visualizing while they were dreaming.  No joke!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Horikawa T, Tamaki M, Miyawaki Y, Kamitani T. (2103) Neural decoding of visual imagery during sleep. Science, 340(6132), 639-642.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Kosslyn SM, Ganis G, and Thomson WL. (2001) Neural foundations of imagery. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 635-642.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Sotnick SD, Thompson WL, and Kosslyn SM. (2005) Visual mental imagery induces retinotopically organized activation of early visual areas. Cerebral Cortex, 15(10), 1570-1583.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3109" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T06:49:37.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3857" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1849" CreationDate="2013-07-12T10:37:46.813" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a partial answer to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is something that I do frequently - often it is a case of having several tasks that must be done in varying degrees of important and urgency.  What seems to happen is that the main, most urgent, task is 'deferred' whilst performing the less urgent and less important smaller tasks - effectively shrinking the 'to do' list.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A phenomena that seems to relate to what you are asking is known as 'mind-wandering', in the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760023/pdf/nihms144511.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Tracking the train of thought from the laboratory into everyday life:&#xA;An experience-sampling study of mind wandering across&#xA;controlled and ecological contexts&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, (McVay et al. 2009), asserts that mind wandering is symptomatic of people being unaware of conscious activity.  That mind-wandering&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;increasing with stress, boredom, sleepiness, or chaotic environments, and&#xA;  decreasing with concentration, effort, successful performance, enjoyable tasks, or happiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, according to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/10/the-importance-of-mind-wandering/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The Importance of Mind-Wandering&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, (Lehrer, 2011), assert that,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Activation in medial prefrontal default network regions was observed both in association with subjective self-reports of mind wandering and an independent behavioral measure (performance errors on the concurrent task).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the article, there is a suggestion that normally opposing neural systems ('executive' and 'default') work cooperatively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, while it may seem as self-distraction or procrastination, it appears to happen often and is a normal function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T10:37:46.813" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1807" CreationDate="2013-07-12T19:26:21.843" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would hazard a guess that some type of motor system interference is taking place when you visualize the movement versus visualizing an abstract shape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Kilner et al. (2003) found that actions that are observed can interfere with incongruous executed actions.  They had subjects make arm movements that were either similar or dissimilar to those of another human or a robot.  Movements that were not similar caused a greater amount of error in the arm movement of the subject. Since motor visualization can recruit many of the same areas of cortex as actual observation and execution (Kosslyn et al., 2001), this could cause similar interference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other papers, such as Rémy et al. (2010), have shown that there is reduced motor learning when two movements were acquired at the same time.  Their hypothesis was that the two movements both recruited similar areas of cortex, which caused a form of competitive interference. Visualizing a movement before execution could generate competition between similar, but not identical, movement representations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, there is evidence that varied practice, or learning a motor movement in several different ways, can cause a short-term degradation of motor learning, but can cause long term increases in retention and generalization of a motor movement.  Magill and Hall (1990) had a nice review of this effect, called contextual interference.  Visualizing the movement could be causing reduced performance now, but it could be argued that it may be beneficial in the long-term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has some surprisingly good articles on motor learning and task interference if you are interested in learning more:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Motor learning: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_learning&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Interference theory: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interference_theory&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interference_theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt; Kilner JM, Paulignan Y, Blakemore SJ. (2003) An interference effect of observed biological movement on action. Current biology, 13(6), 522–525.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Kosslyn SM, Ganis G, and Thomson WL. (2001) Neural foundations of imagery. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 635-642.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Magill RA and Hall KG (1990) A review of the contextual interference effect in motor skill acquisition. Human Movement Science, 9, 241-289.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3109" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T19:26:21.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3859" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-07-12T20:44:34.150" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the tendency for people to answer survey questions about themselves in a matter which is acceptable to society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/bias&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'bias'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;bias&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_desirability_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Social desirability bias&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-13T03:30:22.347" LastActivityDate="2013-07-13T03:30:22.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3860" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-07-12T20:44:34.150" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the tendency for people to answer survey questions about themselves in a matter which is acceptable to society" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-13T03:30:26.470" LastActivityDate="2013-07-13T03:30:26.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3861" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1807" CreationDate="2013-07-12T20:45:43.127" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14998709&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;interesting study&lt;/a&gt; that compared practice by imagining a movement to practice by executing ot and found an increase in strength of ~35% for imagining it, compared to ~55% for actually doing it; additionally, they found an increase in cortical potentials corresponding to the increase in strength.  They concluded that mental imagery alone strengthened cortical representations for that movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vinoth K. Ranganathan, Vlodek Siemionow, Jing Z. Liu, Vinod Sahgal, Guang H. Yue&#xA;    From mental power to muscle power—gaining strength by using the mind&#xA;    Neuropsychologia, Volume 42, Issue 7, 2004, Pages 944–956&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T20:45:43.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3862" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-07-12T20:48:52.123" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about short-term memory in general, testing its capabilities/capacity, and underlying anatomical substrates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/working-memory&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'working-memory'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;working-memory&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/memory&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'memory'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Memory#Short_term_forms_of_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Memory&lt;/a&gt; on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scholarpedia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-13T03:30:33.690" LastActivityDate="2013-07-13T03:30:33.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3863" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-07-12T20:48:52.123" Score="0" Body="For questions about working memory, testing its capabilities/capacity, and underlying anatomical substrates" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-13T03:29:47.013" LastActivityDate="2013-07-13T03:29:47.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3864" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-07-12T20:52:07.090" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions specific to studying/testing working memory and its capacity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/short-term-memory&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'short-term-memory'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;short-term-memory&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/memory&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'memory'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;memory&lt;/a&gt; for less specific questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Memory#Short_term_forms_of_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Memory&lt;/a&gt; on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scholarpedia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-13T03:30:06.890" LastActivityDate="2013-07-13T03:30:06.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3865" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-07-12T20:52:07.090" Score="0" Body="For questions specific to studying/testing working memory and its capacity" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-13T03:30:37.223" LastActivityDate="2013-07-13T03:30:37.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3866" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3834" CreationDate="2013-07-12T22:24:24.213" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an emerging trend in cognitive science called neuroeducation - the wikipedia page is of interest, especially the section &quot;Neuroscience and education: A bridge too far&quot; (I removed the question mark).&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thought that came while reading your interesting question. It is about the desire to enhance the human mind, a desire that we find for example in the &quot;transhumanism&quot; movement (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism&lt;/a&gt;). If I understand the role of cognitive science as a science to describe how the mind works, I have a hard time thinking about it as a science that aim at modifying how the brain works. Cognitive science would not be a science anymore, but a technology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2013-07-12T22:24:24.213" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3867" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3813" CreationDate="2013-07-13T00:23:35.690" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The accepted answer by @krysta may not be the full story: it depends on the way words are repeated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand from @tsykora's question that words are repeated without a separation (syllables are produced at a fixed pace). Kounios et al. used spoken words (mean length of 544 milliseconds) that were repeated several times at a fixed interval of 800 milliseconds. This means that blanks (no sound) separated each presentation of a word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The blank period between words is of importance since repeated words in a blank context may not &quot;sound very weird&quot; (words are clearly, physically, separable) but only loose their meaning. In a no-blank context (continuous speech), both meaning and percept change. An auditory example can be found in the &quot;ILLUSORY CHANGES OF REPEATED WORDS: THE VERBAL TRANSFORMATION EFFECT&quot; section (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www4.uwm.edu/APL/demonstrations.html&quot;&gt;http://www4.uwm.edu/APL/demonstrations.html&lt;/a&gt;). For instance, while listening to repetitions of the word &quot;rest&quot;, listeners are likely to switch between perceiving it as a repetition of &quot;rest&quot; and &quot;tress&quot; or &quot;stress&quot; (Warren &amp;amp; Gregory, 1958). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The verbal transformation effect originates in a multistable representation of a speech form. Pitt and Shoaf (2002) argues that one possible cause is the perceptual regrouping of the acoustic elements that make up a word. It involves some top-down processes in the perceptual organization of speech. A visual analogue of such illusion is found in the Necker cube where the percept changes according to where the eyes land (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necker_cube&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necker_cube&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such acoustic phenomenon makes me think of a statistical learning in language acquisition in children. It has been shown by Saffran and colleagues that a child can learn to segment a continuous speech into distinct words using transitional probabilities between syllables. In the context of repeated words, a word boundary is first placed between &quot;ted-re&quot; of &quot;re-pea-ted-re-pea-ted&quot; because &quot;ted-re&quot; is not frequent in English while the two other transitions are frequent. Going further in the auditory sequence, repetitive presentation of an utterance promotes alternative groupings of the acoustic elements because the elements occur at regular, predictable points in time (Bregman, 1990). Here, repeating a word at a fixed syllable pace abolishes the frequency of the syllable transitions (the frequencies are momentarily all equal) so that &quot;pi-a-no-pi-a-no&quot; is sometimes heard as &quot;piano&quot; and sometimes &quot;anopi&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ref.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bregman, 1990. Auditory scene analysis: The perceptual organization of sound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kounios et al., 2000. Memory &amp;amp; Cognition ; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychonomic.org/pubmed/mc/mc-28-1366.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www.psychonomic.org/pubmed/mc/mc-28-1366.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pitt and Shoaf, 2002. JEP:HPP ; &lt;a href=&quot;http://lpl.psy.ohio-state.edu/documents/PittShoafVTE-17_000.pdf&quot;&gt;http://lpl.psy.ohio-state.edu/documents/PittShoafVTE-17_000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Warren &amp;amp; Gregory, 1958. An auditory analogue of the visual reversible ﬁgure, American Journal of Psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastEditorUserId="3167" LastEditDate="2013-07-16T12:46:54.933" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T12:46:54.933" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3868" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3869" CreationDate="2013-07-13T01:20:44.207" Score="9" ViewCount="12601" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/arrogance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this Wiktionary defintion&lt;/a&gt;, arrogance is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;1.The act or habit of arrogating, or making undue claims in an overbearing manner; that species of pride which consists in exorbitant claims of rank, dignity, estimation, or power, or which exalts the worth or importance of the person to an undue degree; proud contempt of others; lordliness; haughtiness; self-assumption; presumption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is often something that many others in the vicinity find repulsive, sometimes without the person realising it, but, more often than not, they do realise it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the psychological mechanisms that lead to arrogant thoughts, words and actions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T21:19:28.760" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T21:19:28.760" Title="What are the psychological mechanisms behind arrogance?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3869" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3868" CreationDate="2013-07-13T07:47:36.973" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Clinically, arrogance is often associated with &lt;a href=&quot;http://my.clevelandclinic.org/disorders/personality_disorders/hic_narcissistic_personality_disorder.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;narcissistic personality disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Narcissistic personality disorder is one of a group of conditions called dramatic personality disorders. People with these disorders have intense, unstable emotions, and a distorted self-image. Narcissistic personality disorder is further characterized by an abnormal love of self, an exaggerated sense of superiority and importance, and a preoccupation with success and power. However, these attitudes and behaviors do not reflect true self-confidence. Instead, the attitudes conceal a deep sense of insecurity and a fragile self-esteem. People with this personality disorder also tend to set unrealistic goals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria include (reprinted &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/narcissistic-personality-disorder/DS00652/DSECTION=tests-and-diagnosis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Criteria for narcissistic personality disorder to be diagnosed include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Having an exaggerated sense of self-importance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Being preoccupied with fantasies about success, power or beauty&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Believing that you are special and can associate only with equally special people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Requiring constant admiration&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Having a sense of entitlement&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taking advantage of others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Having an inability to recognize needs and feelings of others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Being envious of others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Behaving in an arrogant or haughty manner&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a scientific standpoint, these characteristics can be difficult to pin down, and clinically, NPD is an &amp;quot;Axis II&amp;quot; diagnosis, which means that most insurance (in the United States) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/mar04/axis.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;won't cover treatment&lt;/a&gt; of the disorder in and of itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consequently, the push to discovering its underlying mechanisms may be less strong, but from theory, they are largely believed to be based on environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Proponents of the diagnosis are attempting to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23834518&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;adjust the diagnostic criteria&lt;/a&gt; a bit to make it more objective for the upcoming DSM-V release.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-07-13T07:56:16.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3870" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3590" CreationDate="2013-07-13T14:20:10.813" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;People often fall under the spell of the &quot;more is better&quot; assumption when it comes to supplements, but, while B6 (pyridoxine) has many lifesaving applications (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21704546&quot;&gt;treating a specific type of seizure&lt;/a&gt;, or [protecting the system from acute neurotoxicity of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20976600&quot;&gt;chemotherapeutic agents&lt;/a&gt;, B6 can be downright toxic in high concentrations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patients with abnormally &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18754531&quot;&gt;elevated&lt;/a&gt; B6 levels were found to experience numbness and burning pain among other symptoms.  A patient who ingested on the order of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18060778&quot;&gt;10 grams&lt;/a&gt; per day over the long term was found to have muscle weakness and motor deficits in addition to sensory neuropathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most famous anecdote of this was in Oliver Sacks &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0684853949&quot;&gt;&quot;The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat&quot;&lt;/a&gt; under the story entitled &quot;The Disembodied Lady&quot;, where a prolonged megadose of B6 left a woman with no proprioceptive feedback about her body in space.  Certainly, there is little or no data about her actual ingested amounts in the popular press account, but this effect was seen frequently as a result of bodybuilding fads in the 1970s and 1980s.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the very act of taking the supplement in excess can exacerbate an existing neuropathic condition, or potentially create a pathology where none was present beforehand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;B12 (often supplemented as cyanocobalamin) is a bit of a different animal.  It requires a cofactor (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12#Medical_uses&quot;&gt;&quot;intrinsic factor&quot;&lt;/a&gt;) to be absorbed properly, so it's more difficult to inadvertently take in excess.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2013-07-13T14:20:10.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3871" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-13T15:31:13.107" Score="3" ViewCount="530" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like the title says, what are new and exciting research areas or applications in systems neuroscience? I know the question is a broad one, so let me narrow it down a bit:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will get my master's degree in about year from now. Currently, I have published two papers related to fMRI data analysis. I'm also familiar with PET. So, I am actually looking for a topic for my PhD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have considered taking part in some existing research group at my university, but to be honest, I'm not really excited about what they are doing. It seems to me that they are reinventing things (which I think is also evident from their publications records - for example, my current advisor's publications have not received much citations expect from herself).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the problem is that I know the basic things in my field, but nothing that could be the next big thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to have a PhD topic on something that is new, and has potential. Any suggestions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3266" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T21:52:58.490" Title="What are new and exciting research areas or applications in systems neuroscience?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2013-09-11T22:11:04.253" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3872" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3871" CreationDate="2013-07-13T22:08:20.173" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As Chuck says in his comment, read, read, read - as you do, consider the following factors for your potential PhD:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What topics are PhD projects in available at the universities that you are considering. Be sure to check not only the project availability, but also the research interests of academics.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A PhD is quite a commitment, which topic would light that 'fire' in you to the extent that it could become a lifelong vocation.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you read, read, read - ask questions of the academics in that field, download their papers and have a look at what directions that particular research is taking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T21:52:58.490" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T21:52:58.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3873" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3874" CreationDate="2013-07-14T09:03:42.350" Score="6" ViewCount="243" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any introductory level text, researches or video for &quot;How to learn EEG&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those material should include dictionary of terms, what waves mean, how to connect some activity in waves to brain activity... etc&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are lot of books which covered this subject, I am looking for something very basic and easy to comprehend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-07-14T10:37:55.743" Title="Intro to EEG - Electroencephalography" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2013-08-09T22:10:54.363" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3874" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3873" CreationDate="2013-07-14T10:37:55.743" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Practical approach to electroencephalography by Mark H. Libenson.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;ISBN: 978-0-7506-7478-2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This should address your issues:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;dictionary of terms&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what waves mean &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;how to connect some activity in waves to brain activity... etc&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why consult encyclopedic references when you only need the essentials?&#xA;  Practical Approach to Electroencephalography, by Mark H. Libenson, MD,&#xA;  equips you with just the right amount of guidance you need for&#xA;  obtaining optimal EEG results! It presents a thorough but readable&#xA;  guide to EEGs, explaining what to do, what not to do, what to look&#xA;  for, and how to interpret the results. It also goes beyond the&#xA;  technical aspects of performing EEGs by providing case studies of the&#xA;  neurologic disorders and conditions in which EEGs are used, making&#xA;  this an excellent learning tool. Abundant EEG examples throughout help&#xA;  you to recognize normal and abnormal EEGs in all situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Presents enough detail and answers to questions and problems&#xA;  encountered by the beginner and the non-expert. Uses abundant EEG&#xA;  examples to help you recognize normal and abnormal EEGs in all&#xA;  situations. Provides expert pearls from Dr. Libenson that guide you in&#xA;  best practices in EEG testing. Features a user-friendly writing style&#xA;  from a single author that makes learning easy. Examines the&#xA;  performance of EEGs—along with the disorders for which they’re&#xA;  performed—for a resource that considers the patient and not just the&#xA;  technical aspects of EEGs. Includes discussions of various disease&#xA;  entities, like epilepsy, in which EEGs are used, as well as other&#xA;  special issues, to equip you to handle more cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another review &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com.au/books?id=nCGo1CkmBgYC&amp;amp;dq=Practical%20Approach%20to%20Electroencephalography&amp;amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Practical Approach to Electroencephalography differs from other EEG texts of its level in that it takes the time to explain itself, resulting in a far more readable albeit less portable text than other condensed introductory texts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neurology.org/content/76/7/e28.full&quot;&gt;Book Preview&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com.au/books?id=nCGo1CkmBgYC&amp;amp;pg=PT7&amp;amp;lpg=PT7&amp;amp;dq=Practical%20Approach%20to%20Electroencephalography&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=OIk6eGc7f2&amp;amp;sig=L2wYOyk9rctTe9_JtMoM8b4xJT0&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=lHziUcGNFczxiAfLm4DQCQ&amp;amp;ved=0CFsQ6AEwBQ&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt; will provide you with access to review the book yourself, before purchasing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-07-14T10:37:55.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3875" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3879" CreationDate="2013-07-14T11:07:25.507" Score="5" ViewCount="883" Body="&lt;p&gt;This very interesting question:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1553/do-the-jungian-cognitive-functions-processes-really-exist&quot;&gt;Do the Jungian Cognitive Functions/ Processes really exist?&lt;/a&gt; is dealing with neuroscientific attempts to show Jungian functions and preferences exists. In addition to that question can someone explain the following &quot;Escher infinite staircase&quot; situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;MBTI is not exactly Jungian theory because they added judging perceiveing dimension. Also there is not neuroticism measured. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungian_cognitive_functions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungian_cognitive_functions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;MBTI and Big Five is possible to link as same psychological test in research by Costa and McCrea: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.leadu-library.com/mj/2007/club/MBTI/MBTI-5factor.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.leadu-library.com/mj/2007/club/MBTI/MBTI-5factor.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How is the MBTI possible without neuroticism?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T04:15:00.963" Title="What is the consequence for the MBTI in not having a neuroticism factor?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3877" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1495" CreationDate="2013-07-14T17:40:37.720" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had a novel dreaming experience last night that led me to this website.  I was having a dream revolving around plastic waste!  I think this was recapitulating a discussion my wife and I had recently had about the problems of coping with the changing rules and options for dealing with domestic recycling of plastic. The content of the dream seems trivial and disorganized now, but one component was vivid and unusual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the dream, I set fire to some plastic waste and smelled an acrid, unpleasant odor of burning plastic.  The odor sensation was VERY vivid, almost overpowering. Immediately upon registering this odor sensation, I began to be aware of the rousing of my &quot;conscious&quot;, rational mind, which was immediately gripped by the thought of &quot;FIRE!&quot;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I awoke with a start and with the thought that something was burning in the house.  However, after a breath two of air passed through my nose, I calmed down, as the air in my bedroom was clear and odor free.  The sensation had been so vivid, however, that I could not get back to sleep until I had roused myself and walked around a bit to assure myself that nothing was burning, and that there was no lingering scent of burning plastic in my house. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't say that I can recall ever experiencing such a vivid odor, indeed ANY vivid odor, in a dream before this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3269" LastActivityDate="2013-07-14T17:40:37.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3878" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="94" CreationDate="2013-07-15T01:27:53.143" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Child Development battery(30years ago): testing of the concept of conservation was used diagnostically to indicate if a child had appropriate experiences that moved them from only concrete thinking to some abstract thinking.&#xA;In science teaching method: activities are introduced to help develop the concept of conservation of volume as it is essential for successful manual experimentation or &quot;wet lab&quot; techniques and this is the basis for further development of concepts to conservation of mass and energy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some students miss out on these fundamental learning experiences in conservation which then can hamper the ability to build on them by the student and the teacher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3249" LastActivityDate="2013-07-15T01:27:53.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3879" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3875" CreationDate="2013-07-15T07:55:24.840" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General observations:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;As a general observation, I find that the MBTI is very popular in professional development contexts such as team building. In contrast, the Big 5 is very popular in research contexts.&#xA;Several obvious reasons exist for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;MBTI is typically interpreted in terms of types rather than position on a continuum, whereas Big 5 is interpreted as a position on a continuum. Continuous models of personality are a more accurate representation of reality. Types are easier for people to understand and talk about.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;MBTI aims to have no &quot;bad poles&quot; and is based on a Jungian theory. The Big 5 aims to describe personality in a parsimonious way and has been empirically developed through large-scale factor analytic work. Thus, MBTI types are more acceptable to people, whereas the Big 5 has a degree of social loading on several factors, in particular this can be seen in neuroticism. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuroticism in the MBTI&lt;/strong&gt;: The McCrae and Costa (1989) study that you cite suggests that neuroticism is poorly captured by the MBTI. Neuroticism is a very robust personality dimension capturing various tendencies to experience stress, anxiety, depression, and various other negative emotions. It is generally the best correlate of many well-being and life satisfaction measures. It correlates highly with many outcomes. Thus, I would find the absence of something like a neuroticism factor to be a major shortcoming of a personality test, particularly were it to be used for research purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McCrae, R. R., &amp;amp; Costa, P. T. (1989). Reinterpreting the Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator From the Perspective of the Five‐Factor Model of Personality. Journal of personality, 57(1), 17-40.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-16T04:15:00.963" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T04:15:00.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3881" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9900" CreationDate="2013-07-15T08:56:56.977" Score="9" ViewCount="387" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several psychological tests based on Jungian typology (e.g., MBTI, Insights &amp;amp; DISC) which extrapolate findings about personality into how those types interact (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_Styles&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;interaction styles&lt;/a&gt;). It is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.myersbriggs.org/type-use-for-everyday-life/personality-and-careers/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;claimed&lt;/a&gt; that these tests can predict cooperation, conflict, and so on. However, there are also several three and five dimensional personality tests which are presumably more accurate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any research on interactions between personality traits based on the Big 5, EPQ, or 16PF?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are interactions between Jungian types scientifically supported or is it an example of the  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forer_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Forer effect&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-29T15:29:05.190" LastActivityDate="2015-04-29T15:29:05.190" Title="What is understood about interactions between personality types or traits?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3882" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-15T14:16:24.253" Score="5" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;In human research, we define our universe and estimate the effect size we expect to observe, then we can draw the a sample of a given size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is sample size determined for experiments in the animal research field?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2882" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-16T03:22:22.750" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T07:48:05.150" Title="How is sample size determined in animal research?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;sampling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3883" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-15T14:43:03.150" Score="5" ViewCount="188" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several personality tests which have dominance as trait or type as result.&#xA;In addition to this question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3285/how-to-measure-dominance-and-submissiveness&quot;&gt;How to measure dominance and submissiveness?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How are dominant types constructed in tests?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does it consist of one factor or multiple factors?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is there any neurobiology research as to what is dominance or what parts of brain is in charge of it?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T06:12:45.187" Title="Is dominance a hypothetical construct or is it based in neurobiology?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3884" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3886" CreationDate="2013-07-15T19:34:21.967" Score="7" ViewCount="615" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Observation:&lt;/strong&gt; Motivation and efficiency seem appear to me to be inversely correlated for most people. That is, I know some people who tend to get very excited about a goal and take large amounts of action but fail to plan efficiently, so a large chunk of their work is wasted. Conversely I know a lot of people who can plan and take action efficiently but tend to do comparatively less work (and I tend to fall into this category.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is motivation and efficiency inversely correlated?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If so, is there a biological/neuroscientific reason for this?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, perhaps willpower is a finite resource, so that planning literally uses up the energy you have to do other work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3276" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2014-11-26T10:25:54.537" LastActivityDate="2014-11-26T10:25:54.537" Title="Are motivation and efficiency inversely correlated?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3885" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3882" CreationDate="2013-07-15T20:59:42.397" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Determining sample size for an animal experiment is no different than in research with human subjects. What you need to know is the effect size, the significance level and the power (which is the probability that the test detects a significant effect assuming that there is one). The tricky part is getting the effect size (for an interesting discussion have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3384/how-to-estimate-an-expected-effect-size-for-a-planned-psychology-study&quot;&gt;this thread&lt;/a&gt;). The other two things are chosen by you as the experimenter. An overview paper on power analysis was written by Cohen (1992).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, 112(1), 155. &lt;a href=&quot;http://classes.deonandan.com/hss4303/2010/cohen%201992%20sample%20size.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T07:48:05.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3886" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3884" CreationDate="2013-07-15T23:07:19.873" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might find &lt;em&gt;Self Determination Theory&lt;/em&gt; interesting, which takes a detailed look the concept of motivation. Even if you don't explicitely mention it in your question, you seem to be refering to the difference between &lt;em&gt;intrinsic&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;extrinsic motivation&lt;/em&gt;, which is a distinction that is traditionally made with respect to motivation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In SDT this is taken a step further. Gagne &amp;amp; Deci (2005) introduce the distinction between &lt;em&gt;autonomous&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;controlled motivation&lt;/em&gt;, which can be seen as two endpoints of a continuum. Intrinsic motivation is autonomous, and people who are intrinsically motivated engage in a certain behaviour because they like it, find it interesting, etc. In this sense, the behaviour is self-determined. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To the contrary, behaviour can also be externally controlled (e.g. your boss tells you to do something) and thus not self-determinded. In its most extreme form, this kind of controlled motivation is what we know as extrinsic motivation. However, a task that is extrinsically motivated can be internalized and thus become more autonomous and more important to the individual. Gagne &amp;amp; Deci postulate 3 degrees of Internalization, which vary from low to high. In its most internalized form, which is called &lt;em&gt;integrated motivation&lt;/em&gt;, the behaviour has become autonomous and is equally important to the individual as intrinsically motivated behaviour, even though not for the same reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their article, Gagne &amp;amp; Deci (2005) make a couple of propositions derived from the theory, the first one of which also speaks to your question. Because integrated and intrinsic motivations differ in their underlying mechanisms, they should be predictice for performance on different kinds of task. An intrinsically motivated person should perform well on a task that she likes, whereas soemone with integrated motivation should perform well on tasks that require discipline and effort. This proposition has already been tested and confirmed with respect to political envolvement and voting behaviour (Koestner et al., 1996).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gagné, M., &amp;amp; Deci, E. L. (2005). Self‐determination theory and work motivation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Organizational behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 26(4), 331-362. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.langleygroup.com.au/images/Deci---2005---Self-determination-theory-and-work-motivation-.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Koestner, R., Losier, G. F., Vallerand, R. J., &amp;amp; Carducci, D. (1996). Identified and introjected forms of political internalization: extending self-determination theory. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 70, 1025–1036.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastActivityDate="2013-07-15T23:07:19.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3887" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1434" CreationDate="2013-07-16T07:31:27.950" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Primitive reflexes originate in the brainstem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Shewmon, D.A. (1988) Anencephaly: selected medical aspects. Hastings Cent. Rep. 18(5):11-19.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Stumpf, D.A., Cranford, R.E., Elias, S., Fost, N.C., McQuillen, M.P., Myer, E.C., Poland, R., Queenan, J.T. (1990) The Infant with Anencephaly. &#xA;  NEJM. 322:669-674.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T07:31:27.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3888" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1133" CreationDate="2013-07-16T10:00:57.737" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would argue that gamification is essentially a form of applied motivational psychology. As such, all findings from research on motivation could potentially be important for gamification. In &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1131/how-can-i-use-gamification-to-encourage-people-to-complete-workplace-training&quot;&gt;the other thread&lt;/a&gt; that you mention, &lt;em&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/em&gt; (Gagne &amp;amp; Deci, 2005) has already been brought up. I would like to make a couple of very general suggestions regarding your problem that stem from SDT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of SDT, motivation can be either &lt;em&gt;externally controlled&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;autonomous&lt;/em&gt;. Someone seems to have suggested punishment, which would be a form of externally controlled (a.k.a. &lt;em&gt;extrinsic&lt;/em&gt;) motivation. Another obvious way of extrinsically motivating people would be to reward them. Maybe this is an option for you, but since you already mention that reputation points, badges and the like don't work, this might not be a good route.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are probably looking for a way to motivate people in such a way, that they participate in your games because they are &lt;em&gt;autonomously&lt;/em&gt; motivated. In SDT there are 3 different forms of autonomous motivation: &lt;em&gt;intrinsic&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;identified&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;integrated&lt;/em&gt; motivation. You don't have to worry about those that are intrinsically motivated, because they already like to participate in games and do so. Also, you can't control intrinsic motivation externally, it must come from the individual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Internalization&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, integrated and identified motivation which are both forms of autonomous motivation (the latter is a weaker form) can be influenced. SDT states that it is possible that a process of &lt;em&gt;internalization&lt;/em&gt; occurs, in which a certain behaviour becomes part of the identity of a person, which in turn fosters (autonomous) motivation for this behaviour. In other words, if you manage to somehow influence people's values and attitudes towards your game, they will be more likely to participate in it. As &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1131/how-can-i-use-gamification-to-encourage-people-to-complete-workplace-training&quot;&gt;the other thread&lt;/a&gt; already mentioned, internalization occurs when the 3 basic psychological needs (need for competency, relatedness and autonomy) are met. SDT puts a special focus on the need for autonomy. Only when this need is met is the behaviour expected to become integrated. So as a very general answer to your question, you might want to look into ways to satisfy those needs. It also seems to work better to satisfy at least 2 of those needs instead of only one (Gagne &amp;amp; Deci, 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deci et al. (1994) performed a laboratoy experiment to explore ways, in which internalization can be promoted. They found three factors: giving a meaningful rationale, acknowledging that people might not find the task interesting and emphasizing choice rather than control. I must admit though, that I have not read this paper but only the very brief summary that Gagne &amp;amp; Deci (2005) give. It might be interesting for you to read it. Also, there is probably more research on SDT that has be done, so a literature search might yield interesting results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deci, E. L., Eghrari, H., Patrick, B. C., &amp;amp; Leone, D. R. (1994). Facilitating internalization: the self-determination theory perspective. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality&lt;/em&gt;, 62, 119–142. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gagné, M., &amp;amp; Deci, E. L. (2005). Self‐determination theory and work motivation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Organizational behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 26(4), 331-362. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.langleygroup.com.au/images/Deci---2005---Self-determination-theory-and-work-motivation-.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T10:00:57.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3889" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-16T15:12:16.623" Score="11" ViewCount="1501" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any open fMRI datasets available on the internet? Experimental design doesn't matter much, since I would be working towards a new data analysis method. If the distributed data has been preprocessed (in a standard manner), that would be a big plus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3279" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-04-20T10:58:07.480" LastActivityDate="2016-09-02T18:00:53.250" Title="Open fMRI data?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3890" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3889" CreationDate="2013-07-16T17:53:12.503" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The fMRI Data Center (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fmridc.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;www.fmridc.org&lt;/a&gt;) was one such repository. About ten years ago it was a requirement for publication in the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience that you submit your full fMRI dataset to the fMRIDC.  This requirement was only around for a few years, but they ended up having 120+ datasets before the grant funding ran out.  The archive is currently being moved to UCLA, so at the moment you can't request any data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An easy way to grab some data might be to get one of the SPM tutorial datasets. They have the advantage that they are either already preprocessed or there are instructions on how to preprocess the data online.  They also tend to be fairly high quality, so you will have fewer issues with noise as you work on your new analysis.  You can find the tutorial data here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/data/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/data/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I think that most imaging researchers would be open to collaboration and data sharing. I worked with a grad student in the stats department for a few years on a new autocorrelation analysis that he was interested in.  Just drop the researcher an email with a short proposal and see if they are receptive to the idea. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other potential data sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nitrc.org/projects/fcon_1000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;nitrc.org&lt;/a&gt;: Data has been preprocessed, but there is no complete list of what has been done, and how the data has been collected. Maybe the information is hidden in the previous publications. Anyway, I would not use it for research in the current state.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.birncommunity.org/resources/data/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;birncommunity.org&lt;/a&gt;: Datasets come in the DICOM format, i.e. straight out of the MR scanner.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oasis-brains.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;oasis-brain.org&lt;/a&gt;: Seems to host only structural MR images (not functional as was requested)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.humanconnectome.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;humanconnectome.org&lt;/a&gt;: Data is offered in multiple versions, but again one would need to do much preprocessing him/herself.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.openfmri.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;openfmri.org&lt;/a&gt;: Like with the others, the given amount of information is very minimal.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3109" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-04-20T10:52:33.357" LastActivityDate="2016-04-20T10:52:33.357" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3891" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3884" CreationDate="2013-07-16T18:00:13.497" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me take the liberty of rephrasing some of the things you have mentioned. To be highly motivated , as per you,  is starting a lot of things (more work), more excitement about new stuff and more efforts put in, but less follow through to completion maybe because a plan was not followed (more open ended stuff) ; efficiency,  as per you is, doing less, but doing it well, by following a well established plan/ procedure and getting expected results. Ensuring six sigma compliance would be a matter of being efficient, while perhaps making incremental innovations happen by stretching out and taking risky activities a sign of a motivated individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way I see this,  is,  as a tension or tradeoff between exploration drive (open ended exploration, too many simultaneous open ended threads, that do motivate in a sense that they bring passion out)  and exploitation drive (sticking to what works best and ensuring efficiency by avoiding costly mistakes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can clearly see that these exploitation drive and exploration drive are theoretically related to the constructs of Avoid motivation and Approach motivation respectively. In the approach motivation you are driven towards achieving a desired end goal and the actions consequently are more exploratory in nature, you can give rein to your impulses, are more playful, spontaneous; in the Avoid motivation you are more driven by avoiding landing in an undesired state (like making a mistake) and more concerned with exploitation of what you have learned and on the lookout to avoid mistakes and generally anxious/ vigilant/ more planful/ controlled. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a person will typically have either a predominant Approach orientation or Avoidance orientation, its true that your observation that some seem more motivated/ passionate and others more careful/ efficient would be generally true and finding a balance of both qualities in a single person may be difficult.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for citation, I would have cited my own (future) posts on PT about this for the larger theoretical framework, but constructs of Approach and Avoidance motivation can be easily found in the works of Elliot/ Shculz or Carver/ Scheier.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="409" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T18:00:13.497" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3892" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-16T20:17:13.273" Score="2" ViewCount="1315" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know this is kind of a &quot;soft question&quot;, but it isn't very easy to find a good, comprehensive brain atlas book, which would also link the different areas to their functions (according to recent work). Best would be if the book could also be used for teaching (from the very basics). Any recommendations? I would not like to pay myself sick in finding a good book. Please provide some insights why the book you recommend is better than the others available (or, if you know just one book, what did you learn from it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3280" LastEditorUserId="3280" LastEditDate="2013-07-16T20:26:50.550" LastActivityDate="2013-07-17T05:32:39.470" Title="Recommend a book for studying the brain structure" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-08-09T22:05:31.403" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3893" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3895" CreationDate="2013-07-16T21:17:55.583" Score="2" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;This scope pertains to non-life threatening interactions and the awareness of the presence of a single or multiple individuals - (not direct conversation, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; group mentality) just the presence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To what extent does the presence of others affect brain function, emotion and cognitive state?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the differences within the host that cause certain individuals to evoke stronger cognitive changes vs. those that evoke weaker changes? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the changes in state when one is completely sure nobody is around?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that measure this or show what a reasonable standard deviation would be for this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, what are the factors that allow the host to completely block any changes in cognition regardless of the presence of others? (i.e. - higher serotonin, larger frontal cortex, etc?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-17T03:06:33.757" LastActivityDate="2013-07-17T03:06:33.757" Title="To what extent does the awarness of the presence of others affect brain function and cognitive state?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3894" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3892" CreationDate="2013-07-16T21:22:57.280" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a couple of reference recommendations for you, please take these with a truck load of salt as I am just an enthusiast in this field - given this, the criteria I tend to go by are - ease-to-understand and interest-factor (ie. gets me thinking) - as I do not know where you are, I am not sure of their costs for you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com.au/books?id=5lzmvduLIBQC&amp;amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;amp;dq=brain%20structure&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=erflUfqWAcOlkAWl5oHwCA&amp;amp;ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA&quot;&gt;Brain, Mind and the Structure of Reality&lt;/a&gt; (Nunez, 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This book brings together neuroscience and links it to other related fields related to cognition and how we perceive the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com.au/books?id=XQ2EBCvmFVYC&amp;amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;amp;dq=brain%20structure&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=gbjlUeD9K4SVkwWS8YCQAg&amp;amp;ved=0CFoQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=brain%20structure&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;Atlas of Brain Function&lt;/a&gt; (Orrison, 2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This book has a glossary as well as the details and results of imaging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com.au/books?id=VaruAAAAMAAJ&amp;amp;q=brain%20structures&amp;amp;dq=brain%20structures&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=PLnlUYmHNsfkkAXQ7oDACw&amp;amp;ved=0CDwQ6AEwAzgK&quot;&gt;Biology of Mind&lt;/a&gt; (Bownds, 1999).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though this reference is a bit dated, it is a good starting point about brain structures and the evolution of the human brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope these are a bit helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T21:22:57.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3895" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3893" CreationDate="2013-07-16T22:54:27.743" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently came across an article (1) examining the effect of an observer on cognitive task performance. The meta-analysis showed an overall negative effect associated with the presence of others leading to a poorer cognitive performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not aware of an article investigating such an observer effect using brain imaging techniques. It didn't stop researchers (2) to speculate on a cognitive/neuropsychological model of social inhibition. They stated that &quot;the presence of others places high demands on the frontal and executive systems, leaving less available processing capacity to dedicate to performing tasks that require executive and frontal processing. The presence of others may, in turn, facilitate performance on tasks that rely less on frontal and executive processing&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I leave them the final sentence of this post:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;there is clearly potential for more collaboration between social psychologists&#xA;and those working in cognitive psychology and neuroscience&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) Eastvold et al. (2012). Does a Third Party Observer Affect Neuropsychological Test Performance? It Depends. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 26(3).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) Wagstaff et al. (2008). Some cognitive and neuropsychological aspects of social inhibition and facilitation. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 20(4).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2013-07-16T22:54:27.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3896" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3899" CreationDate="2013-07-17T03:11:03.973" Score="7" ViewCount="278" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; Some people over holiday periods or weekends get into sleep patterns that involve waking up very late in the day (e.g., 1pm), and then going to bed quite late (e.g.,, 4am). Such people can find it very difficult to bring back their sleep pattern to be in line with more regular day time rhythms (i.e., waking up between 6am and 10am). When earlier wake-up is attempted, this can result in feelings of fatigue and low mood.  Such attempts can even fail, when the person sleeps through the alarm clock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can a sleep pattern be effectively re-aligned with normal day time rhythms?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are effective strategies for maintaining a regular sleep pattern?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any specific research on what strategies work best?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3281" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-17T03:53:57.247" LastActivityDate="2013-07-21T04:56:59.507" Title="How to restore and maintain a healthy sleep pattern?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3897" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3904" CreationDate="2013-07-17T05:08:16.940" Score="3" ViewCount="1505" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to set up an experiment in which there are 3 types of emotional stimuli (A, B, C). A and C would have a 1% recurrence probability, for rare and unexpected stimuli. Is there any sample of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddball_paradigm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;oddball paradigm&lt;/a&gt; for E-Prime? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-17T06:59:24.327" LastActivityDate="2013-07-21T23:45:12.320" Title="Oddball experiment design in E-prime" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3898" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3892" CreationDate="2013-07-17T05:32:39.470" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Michael Saunders Gazzaniga, Richard B. Ivry, G. George Ronald Mangun, &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.in/books?id=_B9CGgAACAAJ&amp;amp;dq=gazzaniga%20cognitive%20neuroscience&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=DizmUY6tBIPnrAeu8YDgAw&amp;amp;ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastActivityDate="2013-07-17T05:32:39.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3899" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3896" CreationDate="2013-07-17T07:03:14.973" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yang et al. (2001) study this exact question. They administered 6 mg of melatonin on Sunday afternoon to subjects that had delayed sleep-wake schedules for the two prior days. They found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On Sunday, melatonin administration increased the sleepiness throughout the evening and reduced sleep onset latency at bedtime. On Monday morning, subjective sleepiness was decreased in the melatonin condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kolla &amp;amp; Auger (2011) deal with resetting the internal clock for jetlag and night shift workers. Even though the situation is not identical, I think their main recommendations for adjusting the internal clock are relevant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Exposure to bright light in the hours leading up to the patient’s minimum core body temperature tends to push the internal clock later in time, whereas bright light in the hours immediately afterward pushes the clock earlier in time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(minimum core body temperature is usually 2-3 hours before wakeup time).&#xA;So in other words, in order to re-align from wakeup at 1pm to 6-10am one should wake up as early as possible, and go out to be exposed to sunlight (or use an artificial light source).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also discuss the use of drugs such as melatonin and caffeine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yang, C. M., Spielman, A. J., D Ambrosio, P., Serizawa, S., Nunes, J., &amp;amp; Birnbaum, J. (2001). A single dose of melatonin prevents the phase delay associated with a delayed weekend sleep pattern. Sleep, 24(3), 272-281. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journalsleep.org/Articles/240304.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Full text PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kolla, B. P., &amp;amp; Auger, R. R. (2011). Jet lag and shift work sleep disorders: How to help reset the internal clock. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine, 78(10), 675-684. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ccjm.org/content/78/10/675.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Full text.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="43" LastEditDate="2013-07-20T23:54:18.103" LastActivityDate="2013-07-20T23:54:18.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3900" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3896" CreationDate="2013-07-17T07:56:18.467" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;(1) Re-aligning sleep pattern&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to Ofri Raviv's answer (get sunlight), I would like to stress that the only way to re-align your sleep pattern is to get up at the time you want to get up, and keep getting up for as long as it takes for your pattern to re-align, no matter how tired you are. Because, as soon as you give in and sleep longer, you re-inforce the &quot;late&quot; pattern you want to overcome. You will be tired for a day or two, because you didn't manage to get to bed in time, but this tiredness will enable you to go to bed earlier on the following evenings. All you have to do it go to bed when you feel sleepy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tiredness is a great help in building a new sleep routine, and sleep restriction (so you are tired enough to actually sleep) is a regular part in many behavioral therapies of sleep disorder. Because one fundamental problem in sleep disorders is that people spend to much sleepless time in bed, causing them to want to sleep in in the morning. When you go to bed, you want to be tired enough to fall asleep immediately, so that you get at least five hours of undisturbed sleep. But always keep your wake-up time, and work at the go-to-bed time end of your sleep cycle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, avoid computer and television monitors in the evening, because they have the same effect as sunlight and will tell your body that it is still day and you should be active. So, get sun (and computer screens) in the morning, as Ofri Raviv wrote, and avoid them in the afternoon and especially evening. Sleep with the blinds open, so the morning sunlight helps wake you. An open window and fresh air will also help you feel less groggy in the morning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) Maintaining a regular sleep pattern&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer is already given in the question. As simple and tautological as it may seem, a regular sleep pattern can best be maintained by maintaining a regular sleep pattern. Behavioral therapy for children and adults with sleep disorders includes one fundamental rule, which is to go to sleep and wake up at the same time every day. No surprises there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the best idea would be to not party so late that you need to sleep more than two or three hours longer than regular, and not for more than one night per week. If you need to party, you better don't go to bed at all or get up at your regular time, no matter how short your sleep was, and got to bed at your regular time (or a bit earlier) on the following evening. This will minimize the disruption. The important part is that you get up regularly on the next day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Witnessing sleep therapies in our local psychotherapeutic day clinic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short introduction to behavioral sleep therapy at Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy_for_insomnia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy_for_insomnia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-07-17T07:56:18.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3901" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3889" CreationDate="2013-07-17T09:45:35.307" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This might be better suited as a comment, but I'm not allowed to post such.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I went through the nice list collected by Craig Bennett:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;nitrc.org: Data has been preprocessed, but there is no complete list of what has been done, and how the data has been collected. Maybe the information is hidden in the previous publications. Anyway, I would not use it for research in the current state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;birncommunity.org: Datasets come in the DICOM format, i.e. straight out of the MR scanner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;oasis-brains.org: Seems to host only structural MR images (not functional as was requested)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;humanconnectome.org: Data is offered in multiple versions, but again one would need to do much preprocessing him/herself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One more option to the list is www.openfmri.org, but like with the others, the given amount of information is very minimal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Really, isn't there any public dataset that would be ready-to-use for single-subject and group analyses? Like the OP, I would be interested in such datasets. Such that would come with the necessary details....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3284" LastActivityDate="2013-07-17T09:45:35.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3902" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-17T10:36:22.710" Score="8" ViewCount="400" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does multiphasic sleep work well enough that it can be used as a replacement for monophasic sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any research done on people that have used bi/polyphasic sleep for extended periods of time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do multiphasic sleep schedules require different eating patterns?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3281" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-17T18:02:01.610" LastActivityDate="2013-07-17T18:41:17.447" Title="How effective are multiphasic sleep schedules?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3903" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3902" CreationDate="2013-07-17T11:23:12.827" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Results from experiments with polyphasic sleep are (Stampi, 1992; as summarized in Pinel, Biopsychology):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Test subjects needed two weeks or more to get used to a polyphasic sleep cycle.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Once test subjects got used to their new sleeping pattern, they were happy with it and showed no deficits in performance tests.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Leonardo da Vinci's rhythm of 15 minutes of sleep every four hours works well.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Most test subjects slept too long, and were not refreshed, or too short, and were groggy for a few minutes after waking up (&quot;sleep inertia&quot;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;At first, sleep is mostly slow wave sleep, but after some time the normal relation between slow wave sleep and REM-sleep re-asserts itself.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Stampi, C. (Ed.) (1992). Evolution, chronobiology, and functions of polyphasic and ultrashort sleep. Boston: Birkhäuser.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I don't know and what would interest me:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a normal monophasic night sleeper, among other things melatonin is high at night, body temperature is low, and, as your question hints at, there is a long break with no food intake. A polyphasic sleeper would disrupt these &quot;natural&quot; (i.e. corresponding to the rhythm of day and night) physiological rhythms, because he probably wouldn't spend his nightly wakeful hours inactive and in darkness. I don't know, what (longterm) effects this might have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stampi's book is rather old now, and I'm sure there is more recent research. Maybe some of these open questions have been answered by now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-07-17T18:41:17.447" LastActivityDate="2013-07-17T18:41:17.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3904" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3897" CreationDate="2013-07-17T21:37:39.320" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pstnet, the editor of Eprime, does not provide a sample for oddball paradigms. And sharing Eprime scripts is rare but you may find a script of interest here&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nitrc.org/frs/download.php/283/AO_version110804.zip&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nitrc.org/frs/download.php/283/AO_version110804.zip&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is part of an initiative described at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.birncommunity.org/resources/tools/fire-primer/multi-site-cognitive-paradigms-for-fmri-studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.birncommunity.org/resources/tools/fire-primer/multi-site-cognitive-paradigms-for-fmri-studies&lt;/a&gt;. File summaries are here &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nitrc.org/projects/fbirn&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nitrc.org/projects/fbirn&lt;/a&gt; (click on &quot;see all files&quot;). This auditory oddball file is far from being a sample though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2013-07-17T21:37:39.320" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3905" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-17T21:41:46.290" Score="1" ViewCount="7956" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the Lumosity BPI measurements is termed Flexibility.  What is this measuring?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3286" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T10:41:33.380" LastActivityDate="2013-12-22T22:02:17.050" Title="What does Lumosity's Flexibility measure?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3908" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-18T13:43:34.263" Score="9" ViewCount="1650" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've not so long ago read a book on depression by a &lt;a href=&quot;http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8,_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%9B%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87&quot;&gt;Russian psychiatrist Vladimir Levi&lt;/a&gt;. The book's title can be roughly translated as &quot;Not only depression, but a pursuit of mood&quot;. I have not been able to find an english translation, so I cannot quote it directly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that book, the author lists several examples of love-related depression, where a person who drops out of a love relationship experiences symptoms of moderate to severe depression. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This got me thinking - love is often portrayed as the &quot;ultimate goal&quot; in religion, popular culture, movies, etc. The psychiatrist above provides examples that losing love can result in depression. Another condition that is characterized by dramatic uplift in mood and outlook on life is the hypomania stage of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder&quot;&gt;Bipolar Disorder&lt;/a&gt;. Bipolar disorder is characterized by multiple episodes of hypomania/mania and depression over the course of a lifetime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Putting both phenomena together, it appears to me that there are similarities, and I'd like to ask these questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;strong&gt;Does bipolar disorder use the same mechanisms/pathways in the brain that &quot;love&quot; does?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-If so, &lt;strong&gt;can bipolar disorder be considered a malfunction of the &quot;love circuit&quot; in the human brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE: I found this article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_basis_of_love#Neurochemistry&quot;&gt;neurochemistry of loVe on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Chemically, the serotonin effects of being infatuated &lt;strong&gt;have a similar&#xA;  chemical appearance to obsessive-compulsive disorder&lt;/strong&gt;; which could&#xA;  explain why people experiencing infatuation cannot think of anyone&#xA;  else.[12] For this reason some, such as anthropologist Helen Fisher,&#xA;  assert that taking SSRIs and other antidepressants impede one's&#xA;  ability to fall in love.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the article on love:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies in neuroscience have involved chemicals that are present in&#xA;  the brain and might be involved when people experience love. These&#xA;  chemicals include: nerve &lt;strong&gt;growth factor&lt;/strong&gt;,[8] testosterone, estrogen,&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;dopamine&lt;/strong&gt;, norepinephrine, &lt;strong&gt;serotonin&lt;/strong&gt;, oxytocin, and vasopressin.[9&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder#Causes&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on bipolar disorder causes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A review seeking to identify the more consistent findings suggested&#xA;  several genes related to &lt;strong&gt;serotonin&lt;/strong&gt; (SLC6A4 and TPH2), &lt;strong&gt;dopamine&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  (DRD4 and SLC6A3), glutamate (DAOA and DTNBP1), and &lt;strong&gt;cell growth&#xA;  and/or maintenance pathways&lt;/strong&gt; (NRG1, DISC1 and BDNF), although noting&#xA;  a high risk of false positives in the published literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2013-07-20T03:44:38.890" LastActivityDate="2015-05-02T03:41:22.580" Title="Can bipolar disorder be considered a malfunction of the &quot;love circuit&quot; in the human brain?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3909" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-18T13:48:31.683" Score="8" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the mechanism by which the brain/mind 'accumulates' a felt-sense to a point of 'triggering' an action?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if unable to complete a task (e.g. opening packaging), a person can feel increased frustration for each attempt at the task.  Eventually, the level of frustration will reach a 'trigger-point' and a compensatory action ('will you open it for me?') can occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see this in many areas of human life (though frustration is the most common/obvious example), so I would suspect that it's a general principle of neural action than a specific mechanism of tracking sensory perceptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, apologies for any unclear language or concepts.  I will happily rewrite if necessary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[EDIT]:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;For clarity, I'm more curious about the 'accumulation' and less about the 'triggering'.  Also, with regards to accumulation, I'm particularly curious about accumulation over longer time periods.  So, not just task-specific frustration (as an example), but also things such as life skills.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, another example: talking to a specific person, you notice that they have some behavioral quirk that irks you.  Over time, you feel more and more irked by this quirk.  (Hrmm.. irk, quirk, maybe I need different words...), to the point where you avoid interacting with this person due to their irksome quirk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am semi-assuming that the mechanism involves an increase in conscious or subliminal attention to the offending perception, thus creating a sensation of increased salience of the stimulus.  But...I don't want to assume too far, and I'm curious if the subject has been formally explored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="46" LastEditDate="2013-07-18T17:15:08.497" LastActivityDate="2013-07-21T00:12:24.757" Title="Neural Mechanisms of Accumulation and Triggering" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3910" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3905" CreationDate="2013-07-18T14:03:39.933" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe they are attempting to measure &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_flexibility&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Flexibility&lt;/a&gt; (there is a citation linking to Lumosity at the very end of the article).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the Wiki article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cognitive flexibility&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; has been described as the mental ability to switch between thinking about two different concepts, and to think about multiple concepts simultaneously....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other terms for &lt;em&gt;cognitive flexibility&lt;/em&gt; include mental flexibility, shifting, mental set or cognitive shifting, task switching/shifting, and attention switching/shifting....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most commonly, &lt;em&gt;cognitive flexibility&lt;/em&gt; refers to the mental ability to adjust thinking or attention in response to changing goals and/or environmental stimuli....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, the ability to simultaneously consider two aspects of an object, idea, or situation at one point in time refers to &lt;em&gt;cognitive flexibility&lt;/em&gt;. According to this definition, when sorting cards based on specific rules, children are considered &lt;em&gt;cognitively flexible&lt;/em&gt; rules if they can sort cards based on the color of the objects and type of objects on the card simultaneously. Similarly, &lt;em&gt;cognitive flexibility&lt;/em&gt; has been defined as having the understanding and awareness of all possible options and alternatives simultaneously within any given situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope that helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-07-18T14:03:39.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3911" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3897" CreationDate="2013-07-18T23:43:25.847" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not that it answers your specific question, but there is this Inquisit script for auditory oddball: &lt;a href=&quot;http://millisecond.com/download/library/oddball&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://millisecond.com/download/library/oddball&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a 30-day trial version of Inquisit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-21T23:45:12.320" LastActivityDate="2013-07-21T23:45:12.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3913" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3654" CreationDate="2013-07-20T02:41:04.870" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3227713/&quot;&gt;&quot;Relationship between Food Intake and Sleep Pattern in Healthy Individuals&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Crispin et al. 2011), there appeared to be a gender based differences in how certain food intake affects sleep patterns.  Additionally, the time the food was eaten also affects sleep patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A couple of key points from the linked article's conclusions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;intake of high fat and carbohydrate foods preceding the sleeping period are associated with higher sleep latency. Other studies19,20 have demonstrated that individuals who ingested a high-glycemic index, carbohydrate-rich meal 4 hours prior to sleep presented a decrease in sleep latency. In addition to the amount of carbohydrates, the glycemic index may have an important influence on sleep patterns, especially in inducing sleepiness. Different types of fat have also been shown to influence sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;..Data from this study suggest that individuals who consume meals with increased fat content in the nocturnal period seem predisposed to have decreased REM sleep. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;..high caloric food intake preceding the sleeping period was correlated with greater sleep latency in women (nocturnal caloric intake correlated positively with sleep latency). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(The full article is available at the above link).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, this &lt;a href=&quot;http://nutrition.about.com/od/foodfun/a/foodsandsleep.htm&quot;&gt;About.com article&lt;/a&gt;, describes specific examples, such as cherries, which contain melatonin, that helps regulate sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though the second link is not all that authorative, there are a number of peer-reviewed papers presented as its bibliography, namely:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Afaghi A, O'Connor H, Chow CM.&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/85/2/426.full&quot;&gt;High-glycemic-index carbohydrate meals shorten sleep onset.&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Feb;85(2):426-30. (full HTML article)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burkhardt S, Tan DX, Manchester LC, Hardeland R, Reiter RJ.&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.realfoodnutrients.com/sleep/Studies/DetectionandQuantificationMelatoninCherries.pdf&quot;&gt;Detection and quantification of the antioxidant melatonin in Montmorency and Balaton tart cherries (Prunus cerasus).&lt;/a&gt;&quot; J Agric Food Chem. 2001 Oct;49(10):4898-902. (full PDF article)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gruber R, Xi T, Frenette S, Robert M, Vannasinh P, Carrier J. &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2647788/&quot;&gt;Sleep disturbances in prepubertal children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a home polysomnography study.&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Sleep. 2009 Mar 1;32(3):343-50. (Full HTML article)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nedeltcheva AV, Kilkus JM, Imperial J, Kasza K, Schoeller DA, Penev PD.&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2615460/&quot;&gt;Sleep curtailment is accompanied by increased intake of calories from snacks.&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Jan;89(1):126-33. Epub 2008 Dec 3. (Full HTML article)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ozsungur S, Brenner D, El-Sohemy A.&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://intraspec.ca/OzsungurS-etal2009.pdf&quot;&gt;Fourteen well-described caffeine withdrawal symptoms factor into three clusters.&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2009 Jan;201(4):541-8. Epub 2008 Sep 16.c(Full PDF article)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shi Z, McEvoy M, Luu J, Attia J. &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/ijo/journal/v32/n12/full/ijo2008191a.html&quot;&gt;Dietary fat and sleep duration in Chinese men and women.&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Int J Obes (Lond). 2008 Dec;32(12):1835-40. Epub 2008 Nov 4. (Full HTML article)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-07-20T03:25:51.860" LastActivityDate="2013-07-20T03:25:51.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3914" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3918" CreationDate="2013-07-20T11:23:30.290" Score="3" ViewCount="252" Body="&lt;p&gt;People with Asperger's Syndrome (AS) are often highly intelligent and are capable to complete their studies and do well in jobs where they can operate solo. Adding a person with AS to a team can cause considerable stress at the workfloor which may be justified by the extraordinary skills of the employee with AS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any strategies for teams (or individuals) to cope with, learn to utilize, their team member with AS?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3268" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-20T18:38:23.710" LastActivityDate="2013-07-21T02:55:53.220" Title="Coping with Asperger's in the workplace" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3915" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1737" CreationDate="2013-07-20T15:28:16.013" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Experiments reported in the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7597195&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Feeling the heat: body temperature and the rate of subjective time, revisited.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Weardon and Penton-Voak, 1995) observed that in many cases the rate of subjective time &lt;em&gt;increased&lt;/em&gt; with increased body temperature.  They suggest that a possible mechanism being that body temperature change also results in a change in arousal state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-07-20T15:28:16.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3909" CreationDate="2013-07-21T00:12:24.757" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a model of neural mechanisms of accumulation and triggering in the domain of perceptual choice called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~ajyu/Teaching/Cogs202_sp12/Readings/UsherMcC01.pdf&quot;&gt;leaky competing accumulator (Usher and McClelland, 2001)&lt;/a&gt; model. It uses &lt;em&gt;decision units&lt;/em&gt; that fire when sufficient evidence has accumulated. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2474742/&quot;&gt;Ratcliff and McKoon (2008)&lt;/a&gt; pointed out that LCA associated with their Diffusion model accurately modeled the neural firing rates observed in monkeys before a decision was made (see section 10 of the article, a monkey moving his eyes to a target that competed with a non-target stimulus).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The processes described in LCA are also found in different theoretical account of decision making. You may find some models in this &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_field_theory&quot;&gt;wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; summarizing the decision field theory of &lt;a href=&quot;http://mypage.iu.edu/~jbusemey/psy_rev_1993.pdf&quot;&gt;Busemeyer &amp;amp; Townsend (1993)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question mentioned a longer time scale than the one addressed by the above references. I don't know a model of accumulation/decisions that span over hours/days/years. For example, the one &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vanderbilt.edu/econ/sempapers/Brocas.pdf&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, despite its promising title ('From perception to action: an economic model of brain processes'), is not interested in the temporal aspect of the decision (i.e. accumulation phase). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2013-07-21T00:12:24.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3896" CreationDate="2013-07-21T01:18:54.210" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read that avoiding eating for 12+ hours and then eating breakfast helps reset your sleep pattern to wake up before that breakfast on subsequent days. I tried tat, and it seems to help&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-07-21T01:18:54.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3918" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3914" CreationDate="2013-07-21T02:55:53.220" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work with people who have Asperger's Syndrome every day and have had no major problems at all.  The reason is that I do indeed follow some documented strategies, particularly those outlined in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amaze.org.au/uploads/2011/08/Fact-Sheet-Working-with-a-Person-with-Aspergers-Syndrome-Aug-11.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Working with a Person with Asperger’s Syndrome&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Autism Victoria, 2007). A brief list of strategies suggested by that document suggest that workers with Asperger's Syndrome need:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;consistency  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;predictability&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a calm and controlled supervisor (this also applies to coworkers)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;an organised workplace&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of all, don't make a big deal of their condition, just be aware of what is needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-07-21T02:55:53.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3922" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3949" CreationDate="2013-07-22T05:58:08.547" Score="9" ViewCount="1134" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.media.mit.edu/galvactivator/faq.html&quot;&gt;The skin conductance response&lt;/a&gt; (SCR) is said that cannot be reduced to one specific stimulus (Boucsein, 2012). Does this mean that if the participant is presented with stimuli of different emotional content, separated by pause, there would be no specific response to the emotional stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&#xA;Boucsein, W. (2012). Electrodermal activity: Springer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastActivityDate="2018-09-28T20:49:51.670" Title="Skin conductance responses to emotional stimuli" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3923" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-22T08:01:28.543" Score="4" ViewCount="3071" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I noticed with a lot of things, but especially music I tend to hate certain songs and albums initially but they always seem to grow on me, and vice versa. I noticed this pattern in a lot of my friends as well so my question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why do humans dislike things they normally like later on?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3299" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-22T08:18:55.993" LastActivityDate="2013-07-25T16:11:22.297" Title="Why do individuals initially dislike things that they end up ultimately liking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3923" CreationDate="2013-07-22T09:21:36.237" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It could be the case that it takes time to like some thinks. We get habituated by being exposed to the same stimuli, here music. The dislike decreases after repeated presentations and the likeness may occur, if at all. At the same time, there is a continuous 'strive' between 'familiarity' and 'change'. The experience of 'change' we face by listening to some songs at the beginning, might become the experience of 'familiar' sounds and the liking could develop.&#xA;The same experience I've had with some food preparations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastActivityDate="2013-07-22T09:21:36.237" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3926" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-22T12:43:28.267" Score="10" ViewCount="3827" Body="&lt;p&gt;In psychology, most of the concepts, theories, ideas etc. of interest refer to &lt;em&gt;latent variables&lt;/em&gt;, where a latent variable is one that can't be observed directly. Instead, one has to find a &lt;em&gt;manifest variable&lt;/em&gt;, which can be observed directly and which can be used as an indicator for the latent variable. Unless there is a perfect indicator (which usually there is not), the measurement of the latent variable contains an error. To estimate the error, latent variable modelling techniques like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmatory_factor_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;CFA&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Item_response_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Item Response Theory&lt;/a&gt; (among others) have been developed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Latent Variable Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, it is generally agreed upon that variables like age and gender are manifest. But what is it that makes the difference between a latent and a manifest variable? Borsboom (2008) explicates this difference. In his &lt;em&gt;latent variable theory&lt;/em&gt;, the distinction depends on the certainty, with which an inference can be made from the observed data to the variable in question. In this sense, a variable like gender is manifest, because one can infer with certainty if a subject is male or female from his or her answer on a questionnaire. Note that this is possible, even though one has not actually &lt;em&gt;observed&lt;/em&gt; the gender of that subject. Borsboom's account of latent variable theory also implies that the status of a variable as latent vs. manifest can change over time, if for example more information becomes accessible. But as long as a variable has proven to be manifest, it remains latent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me, then, that pretty much every researcher in psychology should use latent variable modelling techniques, since most of the time it is not at all possible to infer something with certainty. However, this is clearly not the case. There are numerous published articles that use manifest variables and analyze the relationships between them without accounting for measurement error, thereby implicitly making the latent variable in question a manifest variable. (If anyone wants citations for this claim, I will happily provide them.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question: Under what circumstances is it defendable to use manifest instead of latent variables in psychological research, even if it is clear that the variables can only be measured with error?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Borsboom, D. (2008). Latent variable theory. &lt;em&gt;Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research &amp;amp; Perspective&lt;/em&gt;, 6(1-2), 25-53. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232052125_Latent_Variable_Theory/file/9fcfd50742b300b5ee.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-23T05:15:52.340" LastActivityDate="2014-03-06T11:18:01.700" Title="When is it defendable to use manifest instead of latent variables in psychological research?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3927" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1059" CreationDate="2013-07-22T14:15:39.360" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/research_vcapp/Panksepp/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jaak Panksepp&lt;/a&gt;, in &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/019517805X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions&lt;/a&gt;, describes seven brain systems, &quot;raw feels&quot;, that are shared among human and non-human primates. One of these systems is PANIC (he capitalizes the systems' name to differentiate them from the similar terms used in speaking about emotions). He says, &quot;a separation distress PANIC system is important in the elaboration of social-emotional processes related to attachment&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastActivityDate="2013-07-22T14:15:39.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3929" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3930" CreationDate="2013-07-22T19:33:26.827" Score="8" ViewCount="341" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am curious to learn what are the neurological differences between those that have a high tolerance to pain than to those that do not.  Specifically, by high tolerance to pain, I am referring to those people who can just 'work through' any moderate and even severe injury (e.g. a broken arm - as I have seen a couple of people do).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-07-22T20:09:51.407" Title="What are the neurological differences between those who have a high tolerance to pain and those who do not?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3930" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3929" CreationDate="2013-07-22T20:09:51.407" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Much of the &quot;higher order&quot; sensation of pain is processed in the anterior cingulate cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bUytl.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gray727_anterior_cingulate_cortex.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikimedia Commons&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a movement towards performing anterior cingulotomies in patients with intractable pain.  These procedures are also used to help patients with severe depression or obsessive compulsive disorder, so we have some idea that this area of the brain is a point at which emotional salience is associated with our experience of the world around us.  In the case of pain, post-surgical patients still experience all of the &quot;lower level&quot; symptoms (prostaglandin synthesis, etc.), but do not attach any meaning to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it is likely that individual differences in this anatomical region could partially account for those who can &quot;work through&quot; the pain versus those for whom it becomes overwhelming.  It's certainly possible that those who can tolerate pain have a lower sensitivity to prostaglandins in their spinal circuitry, but I can't speak to whether that's a valid explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Yen CP, Kuan CY, Sheehan J, Kung SS, Wang CC, Liu CK, Kwan AL (2009) Impact of bilateral anterior cingulotomy on neurocognitive function in patients with intractable pain. J Clin Neurosci., 16(2), 214-9.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2013-07-22T20:09:51.407" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3931" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3926" CreationDate="2013-07-23T04:33:41.963" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;It's an interesting question. Here are a bunch of thoughts that came to my mind for why researchers might focus on observed variables.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Many researchers report reliability and observed relationships between variables. By adopting a few assumptions, the &lt;strong&gt;reader can estimate what the latent relationships&lt;/strong&gt; would be (see for example, the formula for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correction_for_attenuation&quot;&gt;correction of attenuation&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Some &lt;strong&gt;researchers interpret their effect sizes relative to other studies that have reported observed variables&lt;/strong&gt;.  Thus, effect sizes are not interpreted in absolute terms. In areas where effect sizes are typically reported using observed variables, this frame of reference may make most sense. That said, this becomes problematic where reliability is varying between studies. In these cases, Hunter and Schmidt style meta-analytic corrections for unreliability generally lead to more comparable results. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Modelling observed variables involves &lt;strong&gt;fewer modelling choices&lt;/strong&gt; than modelling latent variables. In particular, estimates of relationships between latent variables are contingent on the assumptions for estimating latent variables. If, as a reader, you disagree with these assumptions, it can be difficult to recover the relationships between the observed variables.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Modelling observed variables is simpler&lt;/strong&gt; than modelling latent variables. This helps to explain why many researchers report correlation matrices and regressions in psychology, rather than latent variable equivalents. However, things can get much more complex as you step outside the standard multivariate normal SEM contexts: e.g., incorporating categorical variables, moderator effects, latent variables that are ill-defined, non-linear effects, non-normal error variance, correlated error variance, and so on. It's understandable that some social science researchers fall back on to the more familiar territory of modelling observed variables in a piece-wise fashion. However, while this is an explanation, researchers should still strive to model data in more integrated and realistic ways.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately, &lt;strong&gt;it is the researcher who decides whether they wish to draw inferences about relationships between  observed or  latent variables&lt;/strong&gt;. While some contexts suggest that the researcher should be interested in the underlying construct, it is still up to the researcher to decide.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Relationships between observed variables are sometimes primarily of interest&lt;/strong&gt;. Some examples: (a) experimental conditions; (b) when researchers are interested in  applied prediction; (c) when researchers are interested in the observed variable itself.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Whether researchers model latent variables seems to be related to the domain&lt;/strong&gt;. In particular, modelling latent variables seems to be particularly popular in fields with large samples, observational designs, that use self-report or multiple choice psychological scales. In such contexts the assumption that the observed variables are random sample of possible observed variables and are a manifestation of a latent variable often seems more appropriate. It's easy to imagine the alternative items that could have been collected, and how the reliability could have been improved had more items been included. It is interesting to ponder why this is the case, and whether there are areas that would benefit from greater incorporation of latent variable modelling.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Often the latent variable of interest is not the variable implied by the intercorrelation of observed variables&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, the latent factor underlying a set of self-report extraversion items will not be true extraversion. I can conceptualise a true extraversion that might be calculated were it possible to integrate everything that could be known about a person's behaviour, their thoughts, their physiology, and their environmental regularities. However, the factor underlying the intercorrelations of self-report items would not be this factor. While there is value to estimating relationships had perfect reliability been obtained, this should not absolve us from trying to estimate the actual latent variable of interest. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Correcting for measurement error should not stop researchers from trying to increase the reliability and validity of measurement.&lt;/strong&gt; Correcting for unreliability is not as good as measuring reliably in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-07-23T04:33:41.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3933" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-23T06:45:16.413" Score="4" ViewCount="324" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a range of data repositories around. There are also journals that permit online attachments. That said, my general experience with such online attachments is that the data sharing is an after thought. It is not optimised for accessibility. The information is often not sufficient to truly understand the data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to see a journal that specialises in publishing interesting psychological datasets. Such a journal would ensure that the dataset was well documented. It would have clear, machine-readable meta-data. Scripts for processing raw data might be provided. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any psychological journals that specialise in publishing psychological datasets?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-07-27T12:50:54.993" Title="Psychological journal that focuses on publishing interesting psychological datasets" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;publication-process&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3934" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3933" CreationDate="2013-07-23T06:50:16.297" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scientific Data&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;After asking my question, I did a quick search and found one promising journal that will commence in 2014 called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/scientificdata/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Scientific Data&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Scientific Data is a new open-access, online-only publication for&#xA;  descriptions of scientifically valuable datasets. It introduces a new&#xA;  type of content called the Data Descriptor, which will combine&#xA;  traditional narrative content with curated, structured descriptions of&#xA;  research data, including detailed methods and technical analyses&#xA;  supporting data quality. Scientific Data will initially focus on the&#xA;  life, biomedical and environmental science communities, but will be&#xA;  open to content from a wide range of scientific disciplines.&#xA;  Publications will be complementary to both traditional research&#xA;  journals and data repositories, and will be designed to foster data&#xA;  sharing and reuse, and ultimately to accelerate scientific discovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Scientific Data will launch in Spring 2014 and be open for submissions&#xA;  in Autumn 2013. Sign up for our e-mail alerts or follow us to stay&#xA;  informed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Scientific Data will be open to submissions from a broad range of&#xA;  scientific disciplines, ...[including] Behavioural data – psychology&#xA;  or neuroscience studies&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/arc/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Archives of Scientific Psychology&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: This is a new open access journal from the APA. It requires that raw data be made available in a suitable repository. However, publication of data is not the main purpose of the journal. Also, the journal appears to mandate that data only be available once a a request form has been submitted and approved. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The authors have made available the data that underlie the analyses presented in the article. The data can be used by others for&#xA;  verification or extension of the study’s results. The data are&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;available from APA or another approved repository upon agreement&#xA;  regarding usage&lt;/strong&gt;. If deposited with APA, next users agree to offer to&#xA;  the researchers who generated the data involvement in any subsequent&#xA;  publications&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-27T12:50:54.993" LastActivityDate="2013-07-27T12:50:54.993" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2013-07-27T12:50:54.993" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3926" CreationDate="2013-07-23T09:45:10.607" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Experimental psychologists seem quite happy working with single item &lt;em&gt;ad hoc&lt;/em&gt; self-report scales, physiological measures, etc. with very little psychometrical assessment so even before talking about a full-fledged latent variable modeling approach, confirmatory factor analysis and the like you might want to wonder why they appear relatively unconcerned with measurement issues in general and why there is still such a big gap between experimental psychology and psychometrics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some potential explanations (some of them are not very convincing &lt;em&gt;justifications&lt;/em&gt; for not doing latent variable modeling but still explain why people are content using manifest variables):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Experimentalist can create (relatively) strong effects. If you are doing an experiment in which you try to induce disgust by showing pictures of disgusting things to people and your pictures do not seem to produce a measurable effect, you could try to improve your measurement but you can also just use even more disgusting pictures or add a few additional trials in your experiment. On the other hand, when you are creating a personality test for recruitment purposes, you can't just wish candidates would be more different from each other to make your task easier or be happy with estimating the average of all candidates, you really need to assign a score to each candidate with a level of precision that allows you to discriminate between them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They rely on the nature of the manipulation and its effects on the response and not mainly on the correlation between different scales to interpret their results.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They are often interested in group differences. (Inter-individual differences often dwarf any item-related error so why even care about that? Just add a few participants!)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They still structure their experiments as a test of some ‘nil’ hypothesis (is there an effect or not?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They are not very interested in effect sizes as such, a consequence of the previous point (if they do compute some effect size measure, it's mostly with an eye for statistical power).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, if any statistically significant difference is regarded as an interesting result (i.e. your manipulation had an effect), you don't need to be too concerned about the reliability or meaning of the response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, you seem to be approaching the question from one camp, assuming that latent variable modeling is clearly useful and people need to actively defend themselves for not doing the obvious right thing. You might also turn the question around and ask “Is latent variable modeling all that useful? What does it buy us?” In the context I just highlighted, it might not be so easy to articulate a convincing answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And of course, in practice, many people just care about methodology to the smallest extent possible to go about their business, be published and do the things they regard as really interesting. Consequently, many researchers don't hear much about latent variable modeling after they finished their master and they don't even care about it one way or the other because it's just not the way things are done in their disciplines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastEditorUserId="432" LastEditDate="2014-03-06T11:18:01.700" LastActivityDate="2014-03-06T11:18:01.700" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3936" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-23T11:51:37.213" Score="3" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand the basic idea of it, but I'd like to read something beyond the Wikipedia page about it. I'll be happy to read a book, or articles online, or watch a video lecture or a documentary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can you recommend &lt;em&gt;great&lt;/em&gt; resources for learning about cognitive behavioral therapy?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Now obviously, I could find truckloads of books and information about it myself, just by using Google or my local library; what I'm looking for are &lt;em&gt;great&lt;/em&gt; resources. I'm looking for the best resources of information about CBT, not just okay resources.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3106" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2013-07-23T19:40:49.387" LastActivityDate="2013-07-23T19:40:49.387" Title="Reading recommendations for getting acquainted with cognitive behavioral therapy" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2013-07-24T22:18:22.893" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3937" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3943" CreationDate="2013-07-23T18:05:57.100" Score="6" ViewCount="188" Body="&lt;p&gt;Conspiracy Theorists, in &lt;em&gt;my&lt;/em&gt; opinion, are people I don't like except for some exceptions. However, this question will not be answered with my irrelevant opinions on said people..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, here is the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do conspiracy theorists become conspiracy theorists?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do they get the ideas that they do?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are they looking for attention?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the mechanics behind their minds/thought process?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some conspiracies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Tupac is still  alive, he will come back in year 20(12,13,14)&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;The New World Order is going to take over the world.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do these people warp things like the Illuminati into a conspiracy? What is behind the minds of these people? Is there any prevalence of mental (conditions, disease) among them? Is there any different type of parenting or environment they are raised in?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these questions don't need to be answered, but those are the questions running through my mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3199" LastEditorUserId="3199" LastEditDate="2013-07-23T19:18:04.220" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T17:02:51.120" Title="What are the mechanics behind the mind of a conspiracy theorist?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3938" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-23T18:39:10.153" Score="2" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question above mainly applies to &lt;em&gt;dramamine&lt;/em&gt;. I've only taken 1 tablet for carsickness, but I have read about experiences with that drug. I'm including other drugs that can make you hallucinate and think it's real.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, &lt;strong&gt;why can you still see the hallucinations as reality if you affirm to yourself that the things you see aren't real&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3199" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-23T22:40:03.943" LastActivityDate="2013-07-25T13:57:27.090" Title="Why can some drugs make us hallucinate and think the hallucinations are reality?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3939" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3944" CreationDate="2013-07-23T19:04:02.010" Score="7" ViewCount="763" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working with a dataset wherein participants rate five different attributes of six device variants; the attribute ratings different variants are very tightly correlated, suggesting  that this dataset has a problem with halo error--participants form an overall impression of the quality of the device, and then instead of reassessing the device for each attribute, they answer each attribute with their overall evaluation of the device.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What strategies are used to combat this effect, either before execution in the design of the study or after execution in the analysis? &lt;strong&gt;Citations for evidence for any strategies particularly desired.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-23T22:34:38.327" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T14:28:13.897" Title="Minimizing Halo Error" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;halo-effect&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3940" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3586" CreationDate="2013-07-23T19:16:00.990" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's not a bias. It is natural human nature. At least the 2 year old's case is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's just like how you would not have thought of going to Six Flags (An amusement park) unless it was mentioned to you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the 2 year old hears ice cream, the kid thinks of the sweet taste, or the pleasure ice cream brings. In the kid's case, the case is &lt;em&gt;impatience&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;inability to defer gratification&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the employee, it is simply that he thinks the cycling of the tank and fish delivery would take less longer than a week or two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two examples are both different things. I am positive that the 2 year old's case is NOT a bias. The employee's case may simply be surprise. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3199" LastActivityDate="2013-07-23T19:16:00.990" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3942" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-23T20:24:00.737" Score="6" ViewCount="1171" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know what would be the less biased measure of central tendency to compare RTs in two conditions with a lot of trials (~700). Mean is really sensitive to outliers, and median really robust, so I always used this last one. However it seems to me that I'm not really catching what's happening on the tail of the distribution with this measure. I'm not familiar with diffusion model though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3309" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-23T21:32:49.843" LastActivityDate="2013-07-23T23:50:15.417" Title="Correct measure of central tendency for reaction times analysis" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3943" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3937" CreationDate="2013-07-23T20:56:28.437" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting question, I am glad that you stated that it is not going to be opinion-based (grounds for closure), as there is some research being done in this field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A couple papers and details of their research for you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3412387/&quot;&gt;&quot;Social Psychological Origins of Conspiracy Theories: The Case of the Jewish Conspiracy Theory in Malaysia&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Swami, 2012) states that in some cases, such as the case study presented in the title of this article, it is a 'state-based' conspiracy theory, where:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;in which state-directed conspiracism as a means of dealing with &lt;strong&gt;perceived&lt;/strong&gt; external and internal threats&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(emphasis mine).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could also be extended to why individuals take on the conspiracy theories themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This, in a way relates to the next article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.experimental-psychology.de/ccc/docs/pubs/RaabAuerOrtliebCarbon_inpress.pdf&quot;&gt;&quot;The Sarrazin effect: the presence of absurd statements in conspiracy theories makes&#xA;canonical information less plausible&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Raab et al. 2013), which is best summed up in one of their concluding paragraphs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is these dynamics of reception, alteration and propagation that account for the many-faceted&#xA;  phenomenon we call conspiracy theory. The cognitive effort, i.e., considering information in&#xA;  the eventuality space, might be rewarding and satisfying in itself; just like an aesthetic&#xA;  experience or a mental exercise (cf. Muth &amp;amp; Carbon, 2013). Unlike a crossword puzzle,&#xA;  however, reception and propagation of a conspiracy theory allow for intercommunion. Yet, as&#xA;  many participants reported afterwards, constructing a story can ultimately be fun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, it is almost like the first example, where the state propagates a conspiracy theory to try to comprehend and cope with perceived threats, the same can apply to the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-07-23T20:56:28.437" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3944" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3939" CreationDate="2013-07-23T22:36:23.087" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Murphy &amp;amp; Cleveland (1995) mention, that a good way to reduce rater errors in general is to inform raters of the existence and nature of these errors and then to simply urge to avoid them. While this reduces rater errors, it also decreases the accuracy of ratings, though. These findings come from the literature on performance assessment, where halo is usually thought of as the opposite of accuracy. The unexpected association has been termed the &lt;em&gt;halo-accuracy-paradox&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some authors have proposed that the paradoxical effect is due to different operational definitions of halo (Fisicaro, 1988). Apparently there is some evidence that the paradoxcal effect vanishes when this problem is taken care of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting explanation comes from Latham (Woehr &amp;amp; Huffut, 1994). For him it's all in the way that raters are informed about halo. If raters are told that halo is a global tendency across different ratings and that it is a bad thing, then raters are going to avoid exactly that. But that does not make the ratings more accurate. So when training raters one has to be careful not to create this kind if effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, a meta-analysis by Woehr &amp;amp; Huffcut (1994) that investigates the effectiveness of different kinds of rater trainings does not find the paradoxical effect. Instead, rater trainings moderately decreases halo and increases accuracy. The authors also found support for Latham's hypothesis. The mean effect size when rater training was in accordance with his view was bigger compared to the other cases. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still, Murphy and Cleveland (1995) are quite radical in their proposal. To them, there are serious problems with all operational definitions of halo (and rater errors in general). Therefore measurements of rater errors should be abandoned altogether. Hence, in their view it doesn't make sense to speak of a paradox.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;br/&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Fisicaro,  S. A. (1988). A reexamination of the relation between halo error and accuracy. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Applied Psychology.&lt;/em&gt; 73(2), 239.&lt;br/&gt;&#xA;Murphy, K. R. &amp;amp; Cleveland, J.N. (1995). &lt;em&gt;Understanding performance appraisal: Social, organizational, and goal-based perspectives.&lt;/em&gt; Thousand Oaks: Sage.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Woehr, D. J., &amp;amp; Huffcutt, A. I. (1994). Rater training for performance appraisal: A quantitative review. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 67(3), 189-205.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T14:28:13.897" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T14:28:13.897" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3945" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3942" CreationDate="2013-07-23T23:42:33.603" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can find an accessible overview of some of the issues in Whelan (2008) which contains further references discussing the issue.&#xA;Note that from a statistical perspective,  the sample mean and median are unbiased estimators of their population equivalents. That said, with outliers, skew and the like, the standard error of the sample mean can be quite a bit larger than the sample median. Furthermore, you typically the population distribution should be seen as a multiple component mixture distribution (e.g., fast guess trials, &quot;real trials&quot;, distracted trials). In such cases, you may be particularly interested in the central tendency of the &quot;real trial&quot; distribution. In that case, sample mean and median may be biased estimates of &quot;real trial&quot; equivalent population distributions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whelan (2008) suggests the following in order of preference when estimating a measure of central tendency:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mean after trimming the raw data for outliers (i.e., taking the middle 85% to 95% of RT data)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mean of log or negative inverse transformation of raw reaction time&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Median of raw RT&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, the justification for a given method depends on the underlying distribution of the data and the nature of the effect of condition. For example, if condition is mainly influencing prevalence of outliers or skew, this will effect the mean more than the median in the population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good general strategy for exploring these issues and justifying your decision is to estimate central tendency in reaction times using a range of methods. Then correlate the scores you get for each individual using the different  methods. If you are getting very high correlations (e.g., r&gt;.95 or .99) then you will know that the method makes little difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whelan (2008) also discusses strategies for estimating all parameters in the RT distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are studying choice reaction time, then &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1773/is-there-an-r-implementation-of-the-linear-ballistic-accumulator-model-or-ratcli?rq=1&quot;&gt;LBA or Ratcliff's diffusion model&lt;/a&gt; may be more appropriate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whelan, R. (2008). Effective analysis of reaction time data. The Psychological Record, 58, 475-482. &lt;a href=&quot;http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1077&amp;amp;context=tpr&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-07-23T23:50:15.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3946" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3937" CreationDate="2013-07-24T01:41:33.820" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are looking for an insight into the mind of a conspiracy theorist, there was a very long &quot;suicide note&quot; printed by some guy who successfully committed suicide.&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_longest_suicide_note_in_history&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia says this is the longest note, but it does not seem like the right one&lt;/a&gt; I cannot find it now, but remember that it was about 1000 pages long. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;naturally, I cannot read a 1000 pages, so I wrote a perl script that pulled the most used words within that note. Most of these were very negative, but what struck me as odd is that many world war 2 related terms were up there, like nazis, Jews, etc. &lt;strong&gt;I got a feeling that his mind was going in circles around those topics and could not escape.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-07-24T01:41:33.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3947" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3922" CreationDate="2013-07-24T08:20:31.467" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Electrodermal activity is an index of sympathetic activation and a skin conductance response can occur in many situations. It is therefore a very general response and can arise as a result of stimulus novelty or “significance” (whether you want to call this an affective response is up to you but it seems very different from common sense notions of what an emotion is).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can however measure phasic responses specific to a stimulus in the sense that even a single presentation can be followed by a skin conductance “spike”. The shape of the response will however not be specific to a class of stimulus or narrowly defined content (there is no obvious characteristic “fear” or “happiness” signature, no “audio” or “visual” skin conductance response).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some attempts to discriminate positive from negative emotions based on skin conductance and also quite a lot of research using machine learning techniques to classify emotional responses based on physiological measurement but usually not on a single signal, and without much success for electrodermal activity alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Skin conductance is often interpreted as some sort of physiological arousal but that's a notion Wolfram Boucsein would probably have considered too simplistic. I don't think you need to over-analyze a single sentence to find an answer to your question, it should be quite clear from the whole book and, implicitly, from the fact that Boucsein did not discuss patterns of skin conductance responses associated with discrete emotions (which he would have if well-established results on this existed).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you dig into the psycholophysiological literature, you will find that sophisticated approaches try to disentangle the activation of various part of the autonomic nervous system and deal with things like the defense or orientation response, preparedness to conditioning, fight-or-flight, etc. None of this maps neatly to subjective/expressive emotion categories like “fear” or “anger”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the Q-Sensor, I have never actually used it but I have read a few papers and seen work from Rosalind Picard's lab at conferences and the like and I was under the impression that a big part of this research was concerned with skin conductance &lt;em&gt;level&lt;/em&gt;, not &lt;em&gt;responses&lt;/em&gt; (i.e. tonic responses, things like being relaxed or excited by an activity over a period of several minutes, but not phasic responses to a single picture or audio clip). If you follow Boucsein, it's not even clear you could get a clean measure of phasic responses with a sensor that's not firmly attached to the body on one of the spots with many sweat glands (palm of the hand or foot).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some other references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cacioppo, J. T., Klein, D. J., Berntson, G. G., &amp;amp; Hatfield, E. (1993). The Psychophysiology of Emotion. In M. Lewis &amp;amp; J. M. Haviland (Eds.) &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Emotions&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 119-142). New York: The Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a chapter on the topic in every edition of the &lt;em&gt;Handbook&lt;/em&gt; with a slightly different constellation of authors each time but I don't have the references at hand. The one from the second edition (2000) contains a meta-analysis of studies on the discrimination between discrete emotions through physiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M., &amp;amp; Filion, D. L. (1990). The Electrodermal System. In J. T. Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary (Eds.) Principles of psychophysiology: Physical, social, and inferential elements (pp. 295-324). New York: Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, the chapter has been updated in later editions of the book (published under the title &lt;em&gt;Handbook of psychophysiology&lt;/em&gt; starting with the second edition) and is worth checking out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-07-24T11:30:47.107" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3948" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3937" CreationDate="2013-07-24T12:34:32.187" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my opinion the main reason of conspiracy theory is lack of information. As in rumors.&#xA;In this wikipedia page you can find a lot of research on rumors:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumor&lt;/a&gt;. When people dont have enough information they tend to confabulate because of Gestalt princioles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But also there is quality of conspiracy theory and amount of truth, not all conspiraci theories are bogus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T17:02:51.120" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T17:02:51.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3949" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3922" CreationDate="2013-07-24T15:15:37.480" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.658.1856&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; seems to answer your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will find in Table 2 the average electrodermal effect (unweighted) found in 134 studies for different emotions. I see in the Skin Conductance Response (SCR) row that all the 11 emotions under study produced an increase in activation from baseline, except for 'sadness acute' (decrease) and 'contentment' (identical). This is the level of differentiation in emotional states you will find with this particular measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that Table 2 is an average, you may find some stronger variations across emotional states in a particular experiment. Table A1 gives a list of the articles that measured SCR.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastEditorUserId="3167" LastEditDate="2018-09-28T20:49:51.670" LastActivityDate="2018-09-28T20:49:51.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="3950" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3938" CreationDate="2013-07-25T11:02:23.230" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my opinion this has to do with how perception works in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many situations, where you &quot;see&quot; something, that is not there. Optical and other sensory illusions are a prime example. Usually these mis-perceptions result from sensory input that our organs of perception were not built to analyze. For example, the size-weight illusion stems from the fact that we don't have objects of equal size and equal outside material but differing weights in our natural habitat. You will easily recognize that all sensory illusions are induced by highly artificial stimuli such as straight and parallel lines, which have only existed in the most recent past and have as yet not had a big influence on human evolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of drugs and hallucinations, your brain is stimulated in a way that is not meaningful for it, and it tries to make sense of what if &quot;perceives&quot; in the context of its evolution and experience. Obviously the stimulation by a certain drug comes close to what the stimulation would be like if outside reality were like you hallucinate it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A drug induced hallucination is basically a sensory illusion, with the difference that you stimulate the brain directly, instead of the sensory organs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To &quot;break&quot; an illusion, you need to provide a stimulus that overrides or &quot;corrects&quot; the misperception, e.g. a ruler to show that the lines are parallel (or not parallel) etc. Just knowing the truth (because you drew the lines yourself) doesn't change the effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since drug induced hallucinations originate not in an outside sensory stimulus but in a direct manipulation of the brain, I would guess that touching the elephant head of your friend might not help to break the illusion -- you might even &lt;em&gt;feel&lt;/em&gt; differently. But I have no experience with drugs and couldn't find any reports on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-07-25T13:57:27.090" LastActivityDate="2013-07-25T13:57:27.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3951" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3994" CreationDate="2013-07-25T14:25:37.853" Score="10" ViewCount="2188" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am curious to know if any research might have been done on this topic or if it is any way even described in scientific literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not uncommon for people to ascribe agency to inanimate objects and when objects &quot;act&quot; in ways that are contrary to the person's expectation (a computer that is loading files slowly, a  car that won't start, an appliance that breaks frequently) some people can become angered and feel that this specific object is behaving maliciously towards them in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even when we rationally know that a computer program does not have consciousness and cannot intentionally target us we can still feel persecuted by it. I know there are a few cognitive biases that deal with incorrectly attributing malicious intent to other people (&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;attribution bias&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;hostile attribution bias&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, etc) but I have not heard of one regarding inanimate objects and yet it clearly exists. As a software developer I find this interesting as it impacts user experience. As an example, if software attempts to be overly personable by calling a person by their name and interacting with them so as to give the illusion that the software is &quot;alive&quot; might it increase the potential for people to ascribe malice to it when it behaves in ways they feel it should not or when there are frequent errors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to be clear I am not suggesting that people literally or consciously believe that inanimate objects are sentient and possess agency, but that is how they behave and likely what at some level increases their frustration. When a person, for example, takes a tool that has been on the blink for a while and out of frustration smashes it or tears it apart I do not find it unreasonable to believe that the relief they feel is a shot of dopamine that they are getting for &quot;justly&quot; punishing the tool for it's &quot;behavior&quot;. How many times have we heard a child or maybe even an adult exclaim, &quot;That thing hates me!&quot; Rationally they know the thing in question is not conscious yet at some level they feel it is actively persecuting them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A classic example is in a &lt;em&gt;Canticle for Lebowitz&lt;/em&gt; when one of the characters is having issues with a computer that is constantly misbehaving exclaims, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;That thing-” he waved irritably toward the Abominable Autoscribe- &quot;is&#xA;  a damned infidel or worse.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was asked for scientific evidence, but I cannot provide any because that is in fact what I am asking about. Is this recognized as a cognitive bias and if so, has it ever been studied?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/42587/personal-information-in-messages/42588#42588&quot;&gt;Personal information in messages&lt;/a&gt; (UX StackExchange)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0823245292&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Malicious Objects, Anger Management, and the Question of Modern Literature&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1118422147&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evil by Design: Interaction Design to Lead us into Temptation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3314" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:32:22.230" LastActivityDate="2013-10-15T20:55:17.143" Title="Is there a cognitive bias for ascribing agency to inanimate objects?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;attribution&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3952" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4493" CreationDate="2013-07-25T15:39:25.160" Score="8" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;I seem to recall a recent paper investigating whether ratings created using Likert or Visual Analogue Scales formats had the cognitive properties of interval or ratio data (since they are generally analysed as such).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think a central question was whether, for example, participants understood the difference between a 2 and a 3 to be the same as the difference between 5 and 6, but I can't find it!  Does this ring bells for anybody?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-27T14:59:13.497" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T18:25:23.817" Title="What paper discussed the cognitive properties of Likert/visual analogue scales in ratings?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3953" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3923" CreationDate="2013-07-25T16:11:22.297" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;One relevant piece of research is the research on the “mere exposure” effect. Basically, the idea is that being exposed to something novel is enough to make you like it a little bit more. The most common interpretation is that we generally like the things we can understand/process easily and that repeated exposures makes the stimulus more familiar and thus easier to process. This goes under the name “processing fluency”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastActivityDate="2013-07-25T16:11:22.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3954" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3955" CreationDate="2013-07-25T18:56:59.340" Score="8" ViewCount="168" Body="&lt;p&gt;What I mean is, is it possible to create memories in a childs mind, memories which a child grows up to remember as real events, when infact those events never happened in real life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a child has a fear of bugs, and has never been bitten by bugs, if I keep telling the child that &quot;bugs will never bite your arm&quot;.  If I say this phrase every single day to a child, 5 to 10 times a day for a year, what are the chances of that child having a dream that a bug comes up to the child and bites him/her on the arm?  Then when the child grows up, s/he remembers a vague memory of a bug bitting him/her which s/he thinks was a real event which happened in the passed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this sort of this possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3316" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:04:35.673" LastActivityDate="2014-02-24T12:28:16.887" Title="Is it possible to create artificial thoughts in a childs mind" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3955" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3954" CreationDate="2013-07-25T23:55:45.633" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's possible to instill a false memory, even a traumatic one, in an adult. Children have been known to be more susceptible to suggestion since the 19th century (Binet, &lt;a href=&quot;http://archive.org/details/lasuggestibilit00bine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1900&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Binet/binet1.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1905&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some example references of memory implantation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Porter, S., Yuille, J. C., &amp;amp; Lehman, D. R. (1999). The nature of real, implanted, and fabricated memories for emotional childhood events: Implications for the recovered memory debate. &lt;em&gt;Law and Human Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;23&lt;/em&gt;(5), 517-537.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zaragoza, M. S., &amp;amp; Mitchell, K. J. (1996).Repeated exposure to suggestion and the creation of false memories. &lt;em&gt;PsychologicalScience&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;7&lt;/em&gt;, 294-300.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(specifically memory implantation in kids)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Loftus, E. F., Coan, J. A., &amp;amp; Pickrell, J. E. (1996).Manufacturing false memories using bits of reality. In L. Reder (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;Implicit memory and metacognition&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 195-220). Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2014-02-24T12:28:16.887" LastActivityDate="2014-02-24T12:28:16.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3956" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4048" CreationDate="2013-07-26T01:28:43.370" Score="8" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-streams_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Two-Stream Hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;, where object properties are processed independently from spatial information, remains the most well established theory of visual processing. However, it concerns me that most models that reference this theory stop at the end of the two streams (as per the cartoon model in the image below); they never say how the mind translates those sources of information into action (i.e. the two arrows in the picture never meet). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there models and/or theories out there that try and situate the Two Streams of information into a full perception action cycle?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;And if not, then why not (e.g. complexity, better theories, different level of analysis, etc.)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bDD9P.png&quot; alt=&quot;twoStreams&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastEditorUserId="20" LastEditDate="2013-08-03T09:28:05.173" LastActivityDate="2013-08-05T20:43:16.720" Title="Any models that act using both streams of visual processing?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3957" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-26T02:37:41.307" Score="19" ViewCount="231271" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen people (including myself) that laugh for no apparent reason in really serious situations, such as in an argument or when receiving bad news. Although the other party is clearly very upset, it seems they have the worst possible reaction: they start laughing. It's probably not because they find it funny, so what does trigger it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3318" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-08-18T22:52:32.980" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T13:45:53.080" Title="Why do people laugh in serious situations?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3958" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-26T03:18:00.730" Score="11" ViewCount="250" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Symbols&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;Our brains are able to understand that some things stand for other things. For example, the sound we make when we say &quot;food&quot; stands for things we can eat. And with writing, we can say that words have meaning because they stand for things in the real world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Association&lt;/strong&gt;: A brand is what someone associates with a company. I associate McDonalds with delicious, unhealthy food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conditioning&lt;/strong&gt;: And I can associate other things. I might feel bad when I hear a certain song because it was playing during a bad breakup. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is associating things an entirely different process from linking things together to create symbols?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-11-11T01:35:22.543" LastActivityDate="2016-11-11T02:11:06.917" Title="Are association, conditioning, and symbolic learning the same thing?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3959" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3951" CreationDate="2013-07-26T03:24:27.773" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Computers interact with you and so we treat them like other, real people. Even expert MIT computer users behave this way. We all do it. I'll try to find the research on it. Someone actually wrote a book about this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also tend to blame ourselves when we can't accomplish something on the computer. This is great for computer programmers, but bad for people. The truth is a lot of error is attributed to bad design. So rather than feeling stupid, you can put the locus of control outside of yourself and say whoever made this program didn't empathize with you enough and perform enough tests or user observation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastActivityDate="2013-07-26T03:24:27.773" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3960" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-26T05:12:38.777" Score="8" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in behavior change and looking to apply its principals in order to design programs and services in healthcare. I'm most familiar with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.behaviormodel.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BJ Fogg's B=MAT model&lt;/a&gt; and his principles.&#xA;But I'd love to get suggestions that let me go deeper into this topic and how it can tie into applied work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are good review articles on behavioural change psychology?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3319" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-27T02:46:40.717" LastActivityDate="2013-08-01T01:51:19.040" Title="Any review articles on behavior change psychology?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3961" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3962" CreationDate="2013-07-26T05:57:06.147" Score="14" ViewCount="13173" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was at a professional development seminar today, and the presenter, while being interesting and knowing his subject admitted to being nervous and was speaking very fast.  I know I do this when I am giving presentations, despite knowing my audience and my subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is it that a lot of people will speak faster when nervous?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-26T06:03:56.600" LastActivityDate="2016-04-28T16:34:45.883" Title="Why do people talk fast in presentations when nervous?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3962" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3961" CreationDate="2013-07-26T11:36:04.937" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am experienced presenter, my job is to show presentation, organize educations and trainings to different people, with different personality traits in different situation. Until now I collected more the 700 hours of presentation and more then 120 hours of presentation education. In the beginning I had also that problem, but I overcome it by exercise. Now I am completely relaxed when present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion cause of this is social anxiety in self presentation:&#xA;Here is one research, but I am sure you can find several more if you look to literature section.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/38/1/23/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Social anxiety, self-presentation, and the self-serving bias in causal attribution [1980].&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also people get aroused because if they think that other judge them, especially if they do not present a lot... here is model how people conclude others judge them&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&amp;amp;uid=1995-17403-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mood and judgement: The affect infusion model (AIM) [1995]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: In this case 'fast talking' is indicator of public speaking fear, so you cant using 'public speaking fear' as cause of 'fast talking' because it will be circular definition. Here is a try to explain this in S-O-R paradigm:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08934219909367706#.Ufe0A6ycXCc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;State anxiety patterns for public speaking and the behavior inhibition system [2009]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know exactly what is happening in brain but I assume that something is happening in giri of the hippocampus (working memory) which is overloaded with information of judging environment and accommodate presentation, but also have significant role in speech production.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-04-28T16:34:45.883" LastActivityDate="2016-04-28T16:34:45.883" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3963" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3965" CreationDate="2013-07-26T14:02:15.187" Score="5" ViewCount="812" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of research done on impulsivity trait. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulsivity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is detailed wikipedia article and &lt;a href=&quot;http://vimeo.com/66165296&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is one interestiing video of biological and psychosocial causes of impulsivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In wikipedia article lot of tests are mentioned, but I am specificaly looking for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Information sampling task. Onsly aditional information I have is&#xA;  authors Clark et al, 2006.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It measure reflection against impulsivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone knows where to find it or how to use it or is there any substitute for that test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-04-09T01:41:57.933" LastActivityDate="2015-04-09T01:41:57.933" Title="Information sampling task" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3964" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3933" CreationDate="2013-07-26T14:42:27.480" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://openpsychologydata.metajnl.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Journal of Open Psychology Data:&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A great project spearheaded by Jelte M. Wicherts, longtime open science advocate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, it has only published one paper so far.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3321" LastEditorDisplayName="user3180" LastEditDate="2013-07-26T22:40:59.677" LastActivityDate="2013-07-26T22:40:59.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3965" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3963" CreationDate="2013-07-26T17:23:35.943" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The researchers that developed this task decribe it in DeVito et al. (2009) as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Information Sampling Task&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The IST (Clark et al. 2006) is a measure of ‘reflection–&#xA;impulsivity’. Subjects were told they would be presented&#xA;with ten trials in each of two conditions [fixed win (FW),&#xA;decreasing win (DW)] and that the task would last for&#xA;10 min. On each trial, a 5×5 matrix of grey boxes with two&#xA;larger coloured panels below it was presented. Subjects&#xA;were told to press on a box to reveal its colour and to open&#xA;as many boxes as they chose prior to deciding which of the&#xA;two colours they thought was in the majority amongst the&#xA;25 boxes. Boxes remain open for the duration of the trial to&#xA;minimise working memory load. To register their decision,&#xA;they pressed on one of the two coloured panels displayed.&#xA;In the FW condition, if the subject chose correctly, they&#xA;earned 100 points, but lost 100 points if they chose&#xA;incorrectly. In the DW condition, subjects begin with the&#xA;ability to win 250 points, but with every box they opened&#xA;the amount they could win decreased by 10 points. An&#xA;incorrect choice was still penalised with a loss of 100 points&#xA;regardless of the amount of boxes opened. Therefore, in the&#xA;FW condition, extensive information sampling prior to&#xA;decision was optimal, whilst in order to gain points in the&#xA;DW condition the subject must adjust to sample less&#xA;information. A variable inter-trial interval was used such&#xA;that the minimum trial duration was 30 s (e.g. if the subject&#xA;responded after 10 s, the inter-trial interval would be 20 s).&#xA;This feature was included to prevent unduly rapid responses&#xA;leading to shorter task duration and thus an earlier escape of&#xA;the experimental setting. This task is described in more&#xA;detail by Clark et al. (2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Clark et al. (2006), they write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the present study, we used a novel Information Sampling Task (IST) to assess reflection impulsivity in chronic substance users. The objectives of the IST design were to derive a primary index of information sampling (rather than a speed–accuracy composite) in a task that placed negligible demands on visual processing and working memory. The IST presents a series of trials with an array of 25 grey boxes arranged in a 5 × 5 matrix. The grey boxes conceal an underlying assortment of squares (e.g., yellow and blue; Figure 1) on each trial. The subject was asked to decide which of the two underlying colors (yellow or blue) lay in the majority. The subject was able to open as many boxes as they wished to make that decision. Once opened, boxes remained visible for the duration of the trial to obviate working memory demands. Correct decisions were awarded a number of points, with trials blocked into two conditions. In the Fixed Win (FW) condition, a correct decision yielded 100 points, irrespective of the number of boxes opened. In the Decreasing Win (DW) condition, the number of available points decreased with every box opened. Consequently, the DW condition introduced a conflict between reinforcement and certainty: to maximize reinforcement the subject must tolerate high uncertainty, whereas sampling information until a point of high certainty would win very few points. Given preliminary evidence that drug users might be hypersensitive to reward (Bechara et al 2002 and Garavan and Stout 2005), we predicted that the DW condition would encourage impulsive responding and exaggerate individual differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/X7bwN.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Fig. 1 from Clark et al. (2006)&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Figure 1. Screen display for the Information Sampling Task. Each trial commences (left) with the presentation of 25 grey boxes arranged in a 5 × 5 matrix, covering a random assortment of two colors of squares; these two colors are displayed on panels at the foot of the screen. When the subject touches a box (middle), it opens to reveal its color. The subject must decide which of the two colors lies in the majority on the board. They are told they can open as many boxes as they wish to make this decision. They are told to touch the corresponding panel at the foot of the screen (bottom right) once they have decided which color is in the majority.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, there is a description of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cognitiveatlas.org/task/id/trm_50f73d557c967&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Information Sampling Task in the Cognitive Atlas&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;DeVito, E. E., Blackwell, A. D., Clark, L., Kent, L., Dezsery, A. M., Turner, D. C., ... &amp;amp; Sahakian, B. J. (2009). Methylphenidate improves response inhibition but not reflection–impulsivity in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Psychopharmacology, 202(1-3), 531-539.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Clark, L., Robbins, T. W., Ersche, K. D., &amp;amp; Sahakian, B. J. (2006). Reflection impulsivity in current and former substance users. Biological psychiatry, 60(5), 515-522.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-07-26T17:23:35.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3966" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3967" CreationDate="2013-07-26T22:50:52.683" Score="9" ViewCount="1144" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know much about psychology, but I've heard about Sigmund Freud's structural model of the psyche, with the three part of the psychic apparatus. However, I couldn't really understand the parts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I could understand it: the ego is the &quot;everyday part&quot; of self: our behaviour, personality and style we use in everyday events and interaction between other people. &#xA;With this logic, the super-ego is just an &quot;ideal&quot;; a human model that we follow either if we want it or don't - and it often, since it depends on our wants, experiences, aims and fears. &#xA;But id is something constant, that never changes, and contains our deepest feelings: fear, love, and instincts. Maybe even some hidden knowledges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So overall: ego is &lt;em&gt;what we are&lt;/em&gt;, id is &lt;em&gt;what we ACTUALLY are&lt;/em&gt;, and super ego is that &lt;em&gt;what we want to be&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Am I right? Or is it more complex?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What exactly is meant by id, ego, and super-ego?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3323" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:05:09.160" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T04:05:09.160" Title="What do id, ego and super-ego exactly mean?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3966" CreationDate="2013-07-26T23:55:14.477" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are pretty much on the money with your description, but here is some further information to help understand the definitions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paraphrased from &lt;a href=&quot;http://allpsych.com/psychology101/ego.html&quot;&gt;&quot;Freud's Structural and Topographical Models of Personality&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (allpsych.com):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;id&lt;/strong&gt; is what we are born with, it is the mechanism that allows our basic needs to be met, and is with us from birth. Essentially, the part of the brain that 'cares' only about it's own satisfaction and needs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;ego&lt;/strong&gt; meets the needs of the id, while taking into consideration the reality of the situation (e.g. needs of others).  According to Freud, this is the strongest part, meeting the needs of the id, while not upsetting the superego.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;superego&lt;/strong&gt; is the moral part of our psyche, that deals with the ethical and moral constraints, i.e. belief in what is right and wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edited to add: Further and more detailed information can be found included from page 5 in this article from the University of Notre Dame &lt;a href=&quot;http://www3.nd.edu/~dlapsle1/Lab/Articles%20&amp;amp;%20Chapters_files/Entry%20for%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Human%20Behavior%28finalized4%20Formatted%29.pdf&quot;&gt;&quot;Id, Ego, and Superego&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Lapsley and Stey).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-07-28T03:33:43.990" LastActivityDate="2013-07-28T03:33:43.990" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3968" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3970" CreationDate="2013-07-27T02:44:05.440" Score="6" ViewCount="1265" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I saw &lt;a href=&quot;https://twitter.com/jayvanbavel/status/360873893843582977&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; on Twitter from Jay Van Bavel (@jayvanbavel), and thought it was a good fit for the site.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does anyone find that multiple subjects from the same IP address in&#xA;  their #MTurk data? How do you deal with this issue? Citations welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, to rephrase:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What does it mean when you get two or more Mechanical Turk participants in a study with the same IP address?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is a general strategy for dealing with such cases?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there are any references discussing the issue?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-27T09:58:08.290" LastActivityDate="2013-07-27T16:33:33.590" Title="How should multiple Mechanical Turk research subjects from the same IP address be handled?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;mechanical-turk&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3969" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16" CreationDate="2013-07-27T03:46:06.867" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question asks about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3933/psychological-journal-that-focuses-on-publishing-interesting-psychological-datas&quot;&gt;Psychological journal that focuses on publishing interesting psychological datasets&lt;/a&gt; journals where you can publish psychological data.&#xA;Such journals rely on other organisations to provide repositories for the published datasets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, the journal &lt;em&gt;Open Psychological Data&lt;/em&gt; has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://openpsychologydata.metajnl.com/about/editorialPolicies#custom-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;page which lists several data repositories&lt;/a&gt; along with an excellent summary of important features of each repository (e.g., location, focus, cost, licences, identifiers, sustainability, and depositing instructions). In case the link goes down, hear is summary of listed repositories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://openpsychologydata.metajnl.com/about/editorialPolicies#custom-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DANS&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://figshare.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;FigShare&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.unil.ch/fors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;FORS&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gesis.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.irss.unc.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Odum Institute&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tarki.hu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tarki&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UCL Discovery&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UK Data Archive&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-07-27T03:46:06.867" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2013-07-27T03:46:06.867" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3970" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3968" CreationDate="2013-07-27T09:24:09.463" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since this is a relatively new problem for behavioral researchers, I don't know that there is a common consensus.  I found two articles, one of which was a study that had used crowdsourcing for medical pictograms.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their approach was as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;First, we checked for duplicate records. After sorting the data by participants’ IP addresses, we found three pairs of responses with the same IP address. In two pairs, the pictogram interpretations and the demographic survey answers were nearly identical, but the participation dates were different. We counted them as duplicate records and kept only the first record of each on file.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Yu B, Willis M, Sun P, Wang J (2013)&#xA;  Crowdsourcing Participatory Evaluation of Medical Pictograms Using Amazon Mechanical Turk&#xA;  J Med Internet Res, 15(6):e108   &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jmir.org/2013/6/e108/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[FREE]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.2196/jmir.2513&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an article just posted this month, the subject is dealt with in more general terms, and some statistics are offered as to how frequently this might occur, and some of the reasons behind it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although workers may be able to have more than one concurrent MTurk account and, thus, more than one WorkerID,&#xA;  this is uncommon. Amazon actively works to identify and&#xA;  eliminate duplicate accounts. More important, requesters&#xA;  often restrict lucrative HITs to workers who have completed&#xA;  a large volume of high-quality work in the past&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it seems that WorkerID can be used as a unique identifier and Amazon does actually screen for duplicate accounts, eliminating some of the risk of duplicate responders to the same study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of IP addresses, the article offers some idea of the extent of the problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Examinations of worker IP addresses typically reveal a small minority of&#xA;  workers (around 2.5 %; Berinsky et al.,2012**) who submit HITs from the same IP address, which may often result from workers being separate members of a single household. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Chandler, J, Mueller, P, Paolacci, G (2013). Nonnaïveté among Amazon Mechanical Turk workers: Consequences and solutions for behavioral researchers.  Behavior Research Methods, published online 9 July 2013 &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0365-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first article pointed out the fact that dropping data from a study based upon duplicate IP addresses can be done without much of a cost penalty.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other demographic factors can be used to discern whether these are different people, but the accuracy of these answers is not guaranteed, but can be bolstered by having dependencies between demographic categories (e.g., recording gender and last menstrual period should be consistent).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results should be checked more carefully for users that share the same IP address, as even if they are different members of a household, they may be sharing a set of answers, but it seems like there is a low cost to including data from those with matching IP addresses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt; ** The citation for the Berinsky paper included in the Chandler 2013 work is as follows: Berinsky, A. J., Huber, G. A., &amp;amp; Lenz, G. S. (2012). Evaluating online&#xA;labor markets for experimental research: Amazon.com’s&#xA;Mechanical Turk. Political Analysis, 20(3), 351–368. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpr057&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;  I did not examine this work&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-07-27T09:34:25.287" LastActivityDate="2013-07-27T09:34:25.287" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3971" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3974" CreationDate="2013-07-27T12:55:35.230" Score="5" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently became aware of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imprinting_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;phenomenon of imprinting,&lt;/a&gt; in which baby animals start to associate with the first moving object with eyes that they see during a &lt;strong&gt;critical period&lt;/strong&gt; of their infancy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What interested me is that at the end of the imprinting article there is a snippet on the &quot;baby duck syndrome&quot; for humans:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In human–computer interaction, baby duck syndrome denotes &lt;strong&gt;the tendency&#xA;  for computer users to &quot;imprint&quot; on the first system they learn&lt;/strong&gt;, then&#xA;  judge other systems by their similarity to that first system.[9] The&#xA;  result is that &quot;users generally prefer systems similar to those they&#xA;  learned on and dislike unfamiliar systems.&quot;[10] The issue may present&#xA;  itself relatively early in a computer user's experience, and has been&#xA;  observed to impede education of students in new software systems.[11]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if imprinting affects our ability to interact with computers, and if there is a &quot;critical period&quot; for learning computers.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I repeatedly observed people in their 50s and above, who have not had any exposure to computers until their late 40s, fail to figure out how to operate a computer. A typical example is a bewildered user who has 2 monitors connected and is unable to comprehend or recall that a file can open on a monitor that is turned off, but is connected by cable. A &quot;digital native&quot; would be able to identify such issue in seconds. &lt;strong&gt;Is imprinting causing the difference between the experience of these two groups?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-27T14:48:16.820" LastActivityDate="2013-07-27T16:32:15.380" Title="Are imprinting and computer literacy connected?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3972" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-27T13:43:36.363" Score="2" ViewCount="539" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why are people afraid of things that they know are harmless or non-existent? For example:&#xA;Why do horror films/stories leave people scared after they have finished?&#xA;Someone may see a harmless spider somewhere that isn't even on their property, and still be scared of it. What is the phenomenon behind this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3281" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:04:04.967" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T04:04:04.967" Title="Why are people afraid of things that they know are harmless or non-existent?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2013-08-30T21:10:58.953" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3973" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3968" CreationDate="2013-07-27T16:27:54.127" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll address just the first of your three sub-questions, the others have been answered by Chuck Sherrington.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What does it mean when you get two or more Mechanical Turk participants in a study with the same IP address?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IP addresses are rarely &quot;fixed&quot; to an individual computer. Each provider has a range of IP addresses available and assigns them to computers as they connect to the network. Every time you boot your computer, every time you connect to a WLAN network, you'll probably have a different IP address. Try it with a tool such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://whatismyipaddress.com&quot;&gt;http://whatismyipaddress.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So of course the IP address you had yesterday will be assigned to someone else tomorrow. It only means that both computers were connected through the same provider. No other conclusions can be drawn from the IP address!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Only the combination of IP address and connection time is unique to your computer. Your provider stores your connection data for a legally specified period, and during this time the police will be able to identify your computer if they know the time of the connection, but this data is not publicly available.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually IP addresses remain stable through a session, but you cannot even rely on that. DSL connections are often reset once every 24 hours, so if you are online at night, you might experience a loss of your network connection, and after that you'll very likely have a different IP. Mobile connections are separated much more often, and your IP address will change as often. So, if you save a user's IP address at the beginning of a survey and again at the end, both might differ! This will be especially true for users surfing through anonymisation tools such as a TOR network which are programmed to switch IP addresses regularly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You cannot reliably identify a single computer through an IP address. Use cookies for that or rely on user specified data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address#IP_address_assignment&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address#IP_address_assignment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-07-27T16:33:33.590" LastActivityDate="2013-07-27T16:33:33.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3971" CreationDate="2013-07-27T16:32:15.380" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is no. Definition of imprinting is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A rapid learning process by which a newborn or very young animal establishes a behavior pattern of recognition and attraction towards other animals of its own kind, as well as to specific individuals of its species, such as its parents, or to a substitute for these. Ducklings, for example, will imprint upon and follow the first large moving object they observe. In nature, this is usually their mother, but they can be made to imprint upon other moving objects, such as a soccer ball.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imprinting is not connected to learning social skills but attachment. Also the problem of learning of computing is matter of fluid, crystalized inteligence and anxiety are better predictors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1524856/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1524856/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-07-27T16:32:15.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3966" CreationDate="2013-07-27T16:54:29.077" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is Freud's own original diagram:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nbhGg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please note that only the uppermost part of the self, the part labelled &quot;pcpt-cs&quot; (i.e. perception-consciousness, German &lt;em&gt;Wachbewusstsein&lt;/em&gt;) constitutes our conscious thought. All three parts of the psychic apparatus are not conscious. Some parts of the Ego and Super-Ego are preconscious and can potentially become conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia artice on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Id, Ego, and Super-Ego&lt;/a&gt; explains what they are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Id are your basic instinctual drives.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Ego tries to satisfy the needs of the Id according to what is realistically possible.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Super-Ego consists of your culture's moral rules as you have internalized them, mainly through the influence of your parents.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-28T03:24:31.637" LastActivityDate="2013-07-28T03:24:31.637" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3976" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-27T20:34:40.843" Score="4" ViewCount="541" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is similar to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1825/what-is-the-difference-between-confidence-and-overconfidence&quot;&gt;this earlier question&lt;/a&gt;, but from a very different viewpoint - what I am asking here is, what is the cognitive basis for a &lt;em&gt;sudden loss&lt;/em&gt; of confidence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if a person has been confidently answering questions in a room of experts, a party or on an online forum (or a Q&amp;amp;A site like here), and encounters negative feedback for what ever reason (and what ever the motive), why is it that some will simply withdraw and become silent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To put the experience in perspective (note: this is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; a request for personal help), when I experience it, it is like the confidence goes out like a light, and only rarely does the 'light' come back on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-07-27T21:59:12.527" Title="What is the cognitive basis for a sudden loss of confidence in social/professional interactions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-17T05:46:00.237" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3977" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-28T03:19:09.127" Score="6" ViewCount="1888" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a comment to this question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/56&quot;&gt;about age related IQ decline in professors and scientists&lt;/a&gt;, the following comment was left:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I noticed that lot of IQ tests (RPM or California) have different&#xA;  norms for age groups. So how do they measure decline of IQ. Is it decline&#xA;  of IQ as absolute mental strength? Or drop in numbers measured by&#xA;  specific test? – @ICanFeelIt &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought I'd phrase it as a specific question here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If IQ involves age specific norms, how do researchers study age related changes in IQ?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also this earlier question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/227/how-does-raw-iq-change-over-the-lifespan-at-the-group-level&quot;&gt;age related change in IQ&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T18:41:07.880" Title="How is age related change in IQ measured if tests use age specific norms?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3978" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3977" CreationDate="2013-07-28T06:40:08.187" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basically, what you do is you compare each age group IQ to the standardization sample.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Kaufman (2005, p. 172), &quot;Parker (1986) had the clever idea of examining the comparative performance of year-of-birth cohorts by equating the standardization samples of the Wechsler-Bellevue I, WAIS, and WAIS-R.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kaufman describes his procedure for a longitudinal study as follows (p. 172f.):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The WAIS and WAIS-R standardization samples are quite similar to each&#xA;  other, each matching relevant Census data on numerous key variables.&#xA;  They differ in that the data were collected 25 years apart, in&#xA;  approcimately 1953 and 1978. Thus, several cohorts in the WAIS sample&#xA;  are also represented in the WAIS-R sample. For example, adults born in&#xA;  the 1909-1913 cohort were tested at ages 40-44 in 1953 (on the WAIS),&#xA;  and again at ages 65-69 in 1978 (on the WAIS-R). To the degree that&#xA;  the two samples are comparable, a comparision of the test performance&#xA;  of 40- to 44-year-olds on the WAIS with that of the 65- to&#xA;  69-year-olds 25 years later on the WAIS-R represents a longitudinal&#xA;  comparison of adults from the same cohort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Before making the comparisons, he [Kaufman] verified empirically that&#xA;  the independent samples were extremely well matched and comparable&#xA;  within each of the four cohorts on the important variables of gender,&#xA;  race ..., geographic region, and educational attainment. Then, he had&#xA;  to convert sums of scaled scores on the WAIS and WAIS-R to a common&#xA;  yardstick to permit age-by-age comparisons, and chose to use the norms&#xA;  for ages 25-34 for all adults in the study. Next, he had to control&#xA;  for the fact that different tests (WAIS vs. WAIS-R) were administered&#xA;  at the two points in time. Conceptually, these two adult scales are&#xA;  interchangeable ..., but because of the &quot;Flynn effect&quot; the WAIS-R&#xA;  yields lower IQs. Kaufman added 6 to 6½ points to each WAIS-R IQ (the&#xA;  median differences from 20 studies totaling over 1.300 subjects)&#xA;  (Kaufman, 1990, Table 3.13) to convert these IQs to WAIS IQs. These&#xA;  &quot;corrections&quot; to the WAIS-R IQs helped answer the crucial question,&#xA;  &quot;How many IQ points higher would adults have scored had they been&#xA;  administered the WAIS instead of the WAIS-R in 1978?&quot; Finally, he&#xA;  applied a time-lag correction to control for cultural change during&#xA;  the 25-year span, just as Owens (1966) did in his Iowa State study.&#xA;  Adjustment for cultural change requires a comparison of the IQs earned&#xA;  by adults of the &lt;em&gt;same age&lt;/em&gt; in 1978. The 1909-1913 cohort, for&#xA;  example, was 40 to 44 years old n 1953. This group was compared to&#xA;  adults aged 40-44 in 1978 to determine how cultural changes have&#xA;  affected test scores for this age group. Similar time-lag comparisons&#xA;  were conducted for each of the other three cohorts who, in 1953, were&#xA;  ages 20-29, 30-39, and 45-49. The analyses showed that cultural change&#xA;  affected each of the four cohorts about equally, producing about a&#xA;  3-point IQ gain on the Verbal and Full Scales and about a 5½-point&#xA;  gain on the Performance Scale, presumable due to some type of&#xA;  culture-related change between 1953 and 1978 that affected all adults&#xA;  who were between the ages of 20 and 49 in 1953. Kaufman (1990)&#xA;  adjusted the estimated WAIS IQs earned by each cohort in 1978 for&#xA;  these time-lag effects to remove the influence of cultural change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kaufman, A. S. (2005). &lt;em&gt;Assessing adolescent and adult intelligence&lt;/em&gt; (3rd ed.). Wiley.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parker, K. C. H. (1986). Changes with age, year-of-birth cohort, age by year-of-birth interaction, and standardization of the Wechsler adult intelligence tests. &lt;em&gt;Human Development, 29&lt;/em&gt;, 209-222. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000273048&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1159/000273048&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T18:41:07.880" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T18:41:07.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3979" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3957" CreationDate="2013-07-28T07:22:02.660" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;This could be what the Psychology Today article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/happiness-in-world/201101/why-we-laugh&quot;&gt;&quot;Why We Laugh&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, (Lickerman, 2011) refers to as '&lt;strong&gt;nervous laughter&lt;/strong&gt;', suggesting that this response is both for reassurance (as suggested by Tyler Langan's comment) and also a means to build resilience in the face of potential trauma, specifically (from the article):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This may explain why some psychologists classify humor as one of the &quot;mature&quot; defense mechanisms we invoke to guard ourselves against overwhelming anxiety (as compared to the &quot;psychotic,&quot; &quot;immature,&quot; and &quot;neurotic&quot; defense mechanisms). Being able to laugh at traumatic events in our own lives doesn't cause us to ignore them, but instead seems to prepare us to endure them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, it is suggested &lt;a href=&quot;http://loreskinaite.blogspot.com.au/2010/04/types-of-laughter.html&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, that the nervous laughter is a means to protect our dignity and sense of control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-07-28T07:22:02.660" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3980" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3977" CreationDate="2013-07-28T09:47:07.287" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;When studying adult IQ, general adult norms are often used. So for example, even if 70 year olds have lower IQ than 20 year olds on average, for research comparison purposes the same adult norms might be used to study age related cognitive differences.&#xA;Thus, raw-scores and IQ scores will be almost perfectly correlated (except for small adjustments to the distribution resulting form the conversion from raw scores to IQ scores). When studying change in intelligence across childhood, test raw scores can often be used. Of course, things get more challenging studying young children who are unable to complete tests suited to older children and adult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Updated comments&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cohort and related effects&lt;/strong&gt;: I agree with @what's point that assessing whether differences between age groups based on cross-sectional data is problematic. Such differences can be due to cohort effects, death, differential participation rates, and so on. It's much better where possible where possible to study changes in IQ using a longitudinal design where the same participants are studied over extended periods of time. If a cross-sectional design is all that is available then studying the effect of covariates, sampling participants in a thoughtful way, and reasoning about cohort effects are all important.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scaling raw scores to IQ&lt;/strong&gt;: @what suggests that you need to relate measurements to a standardisation sample in order to compare research with other studies. First, a distinction can be made between &quot;intelligence&quot; and IQ. IQ is standardised by age. Intelligence is not standardised by age. I am assuming that any studies interested in age related declines in IQ are implicitly actually asking about age related declines in intelligence. That is because by definition at the group level, IQ never changes with age, because age is by definition controlled for. Second, there is an issue of what is a useful metric for describing changes in  intelligence with age. I agree that IQ is a familiar metric with a clear mean and standard deviation. For that reason, it is often useful to use this metric with a single adult norm sample to study age related changes. That said, using raw scores would tell the same story regarding age related change; it's just that the metric would be a little less intuitive. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-29T02:24:04.920" LastActivityDate="2013-07-29T02:24:04.920" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3957" CreationDate="2013-07-28T12:27:20.033" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Laughter relieves stress and lightens the mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dugan, D. O. (1989). Laughter and tears: Best medicine for stress. &lt;em&gt;Nursing Forum, 24&lt;/em&gt;, 18–26. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6198.1989.tb00814.x&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1744-6198.1989.tb00814.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Toda, M., Kusakabe, S., Nagasawa, S., Kitamura, K., &amp;amp; Morimoto, K. (2007). Effect of laughter on salivary endocrinological stress marker chromogranin A. &lt;em&gt;Biomedical Research, 28&lt;/em&gt;, 115-118. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.2220/biomedres.28.115&quot;&gt;10.2220/biomedres.28.115&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;White, S., &amp;amp; Winzelberg, A. (1992). Laughter and stress. &lt;em&gt;Humor, 5&lt;/em&gt;, 343-355. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/humr.1992.5.4.343&quot;&gt;10.1515/humr.1992.5.4.343&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-07-28T12:27:20.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3982" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-29T04:23:50.077" Score="15" ViewCount="12582" Body="&lt;p&gt;A common challenge when running psychological studies is getting enough participants. &#xA;Of course, there are many general strategies for recruiting participants, but I was specifically interested in forums and web pages that are specifically designed for posting links about online psychological studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a given forum, are there any rules about what can be posted? is there any indication of the likely response rate? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T01:28:00.937" LastActivityDate="2018-05-16T12:23:01.717" Title="Where to post online psychology studies for participant recruitment?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;sampling&gt;" AnswerCount="7" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3983" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3982" CreationDate="2013-07-29T04:29:18.223" Score="15" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Sites:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;social psychology network&lt;/strong&gt; has &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.socialpsychology.org/expts.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a page for posting online social psychology studies&lt;/a&gt;. There are a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.socialpsychology.org/addstudy.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;range of requirements&lt;/a&gt;. In particular, it needs to be closely related to social or personality psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.reddit.com/r/SampleSize/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;SampleSize Subreddit&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a community dedicated to completing surveys. They like it when results will be provided at study completion. It has close to 10,000 subscribers at time of posting. I have also seen posts to other subreddits such as the psych subreddit. However, such forums do not always react positively to such postings. If there is particular alignment between the topic and the reddit forum, then there is more likely to be a positive response.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.hanover.edu/research/exponnet.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychology Research on the Net&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a site maintained by Dr John H. Krantz at Hanover College. It lists a lot of different studies.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.onlinepsychresearch.co.uk/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Online Psychology Research UK&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; contains several hundred studies and is maintained by Dr Kathryn Gardner from University of Central Lancashire. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychstudies.co.uk/index.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;PsychStudies&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is maintained by Andrew Thomas from Swansea University.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychforums.com/surveys-studies/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psych Forums&lt;/a&gt; has a section for posting studies to a section of their forum. However, they do require some form of payment for posting.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General observations&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Most of these forums require that you have ethics clearance.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Other strategies&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4338/52&quot;&gt;@lmjohns3 mentions&lt;/a&gt; Mechanical Turk is a more general strategy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://beta.cognilab.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://beta.cognilab.com/&lt;/a&gt; looks like it might try to make the process of using Mechanical Turk simpler&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Many general purpose forums on the internet have an &quot;off-topic&quot; section, which can be effective if the topic of the study is aligned with the topic of the forum. In particular, I have heard about people getting very large samples when posting research surveys to appropriately themed SubReddits.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-01-29T04:12:43.147" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2017-02-03T03:11:15.577" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3984" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3957" CreationDate="2013-07-29T12:26:03.677" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have long suspected that laughter has a dual-purpose as a &lt;strong&gt;defense mechanism&lt;/strong&gt;, when the &quot;serious&quot; situation is an embodied assailant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it laughter is counter to the nature of an assault, which creates an element of confusing that the laugh-er (&lt;em&gt;prey&lt;/em&gt;) retains control over.  This concept of &lt;strong&gt;retaining control&lt;/strong&gt; follows suite with the long-standing ideas that laughter relieves stress and increases coping in the laugh-er.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this underscores why laughter from attacked-characters in stories is a cross-over signal for their indomitable nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can take this a level further into the psychology of such situations: when the prey introduces a confusing component to the 'theater of war', they can attempt to infer many things about their assailant via the response given to this introduced-confusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastActivityDate="2013-07-29T12:26:03.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3985" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3982" CreationDate="2013-07-29T12:26:12.187" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Germany, most students and many researchers conduct their online surveys using the portals &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.soscisurvey.de&quot;&gt;soscisurvey.de&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unipark.info&quot;&gt;unipark.info&lt;/a&gt;. Soscisurvey.de includes a so-called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.soscisurvey.de/panel/index.php&quot;&gt;panel&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, a pool of currently more than 100.000 persons interested in partaking in surveys. To use the panel, you do not have to host your survey on soscisurvey.de, but you must apply a month in advance and comply with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.soscisurvey.de/panel/researchers.php&quot;&gt;conditions for use&lt;/a&gt; (the panel and its members are German). There is an English language &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.soscisurvey.de/panel/download/SoSciPanel.GOR2012.pdf&quot;&gt;conference poster&lt;/a&gt; describing the panel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that this answer is restricted to Germany, but maybe something similar exists for other countries and it will give you an idea for your search.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-07-29T20:02:02.283" LastActivityDate="2013-07-29T20:02:02.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3986" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-29T13:06:35.680" Score="5" ViewCount="822" Body="&lt;p&gt;Historically, psychological understanding was largely gained by introspection: the philosopher observed the workings of his own mind and deduced the principles of the human psyche from that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During the nineteenth and early twentieth century this approach has slowly been superseded by principles of objective measurement that were developed in physics and the natural sciences. The question, if psychological measurement is possible, has not been conclusively answered, nevertheless it has become the standard practice and is, along with the experiment and statistical analysis, the main prerequisite for psychological research today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But has introspection been completely banished from the canon of psychological methodologies, or does it still have a place in serious academic research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T20:57:00.240" Title="Status of introspection in psychological research today" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3987" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3954" CreationDate="2013-07-29T14:43:07.023" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;For more recent work on false memories, look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/341/6144/387&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; paper. The authors provide a biological basis for false memories. They also implant false memories in mice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Steve Ramirez, Xu Liu, Pei-Ann Lin, Junghyup Suh, Michele Pignatelli, Roger L. Redondo, Tomás J. Ryan, and Susumu Tonegawa. Creating a False Memory in the Hippocampus. Science, 26 July 2013: 387-391 DOI:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastActivityDate="2013-07-29T14:43:07.023" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3988" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4020" CreationDate="2013-07-29T17:28:57.297" Score="6" ViewCount="517" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that measure the need to belong? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this need vary greatly from person to person or is there a tight deviation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would explain why some have very little need to belong vs. those with a very strong need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, to what extent will an individual forgo other needs to fulfill this need?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-31T23:22:50.970" LastActivityDate="2013-08-02T22:27:07.870" Title="How strong is the need to belong?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3990" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="3992" CreationDate="2013-07-29T22:32:43.217" Score="12" ViewCount="894" Body="&lt;p&gt;I originally wanted to ask a question &quot;Is there a drug for motivation or laziness&quot;, but google search revealed that people have been asking this question for years and there's no drug that is currently prescribed to fix those issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me interested in the the following question: &lt;strong&gt;Did &quot;motivation issues&quot; or laziness always exist for humans, or is it something that became a much bigger problem because of the modern lifestyle or cuture?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I'm thinking of peasants of &quot;ye olde days&quot;, who had to work really hard to get by, or early factory workers, who apparently did 12+ hour shifts from a very early age. Those people had no drugs or cognitive-behavior therapy to correct their issues. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe there's some &quot;laziness scale&quot; that could be used to look at historic trends in laziness and motivation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE: it would be very interesting to examine if a correlation exists between laziness and workforce moving from working physically/outdoors(ex: farmers) towards working mentally indoors(office workers) over the years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would define laziness or motivational issues as &lt;strong&gt;&quot;I will do this tomorrow&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; attitude (procrastination) or promising to do something, but delivering excuses as to why the task wasn't done. The task never gets started.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2014-03-26T22:03:09.363" LastActivityDate="2014-04-01T03:56:25.467" Title="Have humans always had problems with motivation and laziness?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3991" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3990" CreationDate="2013-07-29T23:09:07.167" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although it would be hard to experiment on dead peasants, I believe that the &lt;code&gt;Status Quo Bias&lt;/code&gt; promotes the idea that laziness is a human trait. You can see the orignal research &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/rzeckhau/SQBDM.pdf&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, or just google the term. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Samuelson, W., &amp;amp; Zeckhauser, R. (1988). Status quo bias in decision making. Journal of risk and uncertainty, 1(1), 7-59.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-29T23:43:35.987" LastActivityDate="2013-07-29T23:43:35.987" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3992" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3990" CreationDate="2013-07-30T08:48:58.880" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;A possible way to try to answer this, is to analyze usage of words such as lazy versus words such as diligent over the years. As a toy example, I used &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/ngrams&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Ngram viewer&lt;/a&gt; to compare the frequency in which the words &lt;strong&gt;lazy&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;indolent&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;slothful&lt;/strong&gt; are used in the main part of a sentence, to the frequency in which the words &lt;strong&gt;diligent&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;industrious&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;strong&gt;laborious&lt;/strong&gt; are used in the main part of a sentence (&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=_ROOT_=%3Elazy%20%2b%20_ROOT_=%3Eindolent%20%2b%20_ROOT_=%3Eslothful,_ROOT_=%3Ediligent%20%2b%20_ROOT_=%3Eindustrious%20%2b%20_ROOT_=%3Elaborious&amp;amp;year_start=1800&amp;amp;year_end=2008&amp;amp;corpus=15&amp;amp;smoothing=3&amp;amp;share=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/l4OBQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;Figure comparing frequency of the 2 term groups&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that indeed people were more hard working back in the 1800's, and are more lazy today. Or at least, that is what is what is reflected in what book authors write.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar trend exists if we omit the &quot;main part of a sentence&quot; thing, and simply look at the frequency of appearance of these words (&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=lazy%2Bindolent%2Bslothful%2Cdiligent%2Bindustrious%2Blaborious&amp;amp;year_start=1800&amp;amp;year_end=2008&amp;amp;corpus=15&amp;amp;smoothing=3&amp;amp;share=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=hard%20working%20%2b%20motivated%20%2bsuccess,failure%20%2bdemotivated%20%2blazy&amp;amp;year_start=1800&amp;amp;year_end=2008&amp;amp;corpus=15&amp;amp;smoothing=3&amp;amp;share=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Word analysis is pretty powerful&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Fg74l.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2013-07-31T16:06:48.663" LastActivityDate="2013-07-31T16:06:48.663" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3993" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3990" CreationDate="2013-07-30T11:26:45.643" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that what you are getting at might be related to “akrasia” or “weakness of the will” (those two are slightly different ideas). Roughly, it's the experience that you know something to be the right course of action, want (in some sense) to follow it but still do not succeed in actually doing it. Since classical Greek philosophers have written about it, it would seem to have been an experience humans made before modern times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another relevant observation is that being unable to do things one wishes to do and feeling bad about it is an important aspect of depression or even simply sadness. One would (hopefully!) not apply a pejorative word like laziness to someone who is suffering but that could be interpreted as a form of “motivation problem”. Since depression (or “melancholia”) has also been described a long time ago, this is further evidence that all this did not appear in modern times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastEditorUserId="432" LastEditDate="2013-08-26T16:43:02.180" LastActivityDate="2013-08-26T16:43:02.180" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3994" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3951" CreationDate="2013-07-30T12:17:49.737" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fortunately, some psychologists have looked into it, and in accordance to your observations, people do tend to attribute intentional agency to inanimate objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the seminal work by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1416950?uid=3738240&amp;amp;uid=2&amp;amp;uid=4&amp;amp;sid=21102504337741&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Heider and Simmel (1944)&lt;/a&gt;, participants were shown shapes of a triangle and disc moving around a two-dimentional landscape. They were not moving in random directions, but in ways that convinced the participants they were acting, fighting, playing or helping each other. When objects move in a purposeful manner, and not just fall to the ground aimlessly, we naturally tend to think they have intentions, belonging to the kind of beings with some kind of intelligence. See also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anthro.ox.ac.uk/fileadmin/images/staff/justin_barrett/Barrett%20&amp;amp;%20Johnson%202003.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Barrett and Johnson (2003)&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;em&gt;The Role of Control in Attributing Intentional Agency to Inanimate Objects&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further more, this tendency is used by the camp of the skeptics, like Dan Dennet or Steven Pinker, to explain why people recognize many events around them as the actions of of gods or super-natural beings. By coincidence, they see some random event or movement, which has no obvious or natural explanation. The witness of such event looks for the agent behind it, and when one can't be found, it is attributed to a hidden or unseen intentional being. The way from there to gods, deities and religion, these thinkers claim, is very short. See Dennett's &lt;a href=&quot;http://polatulet.narod.ru/dvc/ddbs/dennett_breaking.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BREAKING THE SPELL&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2821" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T11:16:34.097" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T11:16:34.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3995" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3990" CreationDate="2013-07-30T14:05:50.477" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;The change that is relevant to your question is not that from a rural farming life to an urban office-working one, but the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neolithic revolution&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In early prehistory and during the palaeolithic period, our ancestors lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers. They did nothing but hunt and gather food. When they were sated, they relaxed. Because they had no fridges, food could not be stored, so there was no purpose in &quot;working&quot; more than was necessary for the momentary satisfaction of hunger or repairing of tents and hunting gear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Laziness&quot; can be seen as a result of the necessity of sustaining the ecosystem that the hunters were dependent upon:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hunting results in rapidly diminishing returns – it is a risky, arduous&#xA;  and time-consuming business. This is reflected in the fact that&#xA;  predatory animals tend to be spectacularly lazy. Lions, for example,&#xA;  sleep or doze for at least twenty hours a day, and spend another two&#xA;  hours growling and grooming. They hunt for only about two hours a day.&#xA;  Kalahari bushmen have similar been shown to hunt for only about six&#xA;  hours a week [sic!]. 'Laziness' is a way of life for the big predator. (Tudge, 1998, p. 33)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, about 10.000 years ago, the first humans settled down and began agriculture. From this moment onwards, each day was filled with hard labor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... farming changes the rules of the game. Farming manipulates the&#xA;  environment with the express purpose of overcoming its natural&#xA;  restraints. The more you manipulate, the more food you can produce.&#xA;  The harder farmers work the more food they can produce. Laziness is&#xA;  emphatically not favoured. A hunter who works twice as hard as average&#xA;  may get twice as much food in the short term, but will soon come&#xA;  unstuck as his prey disappears. But the farmer who works ten times as&#xA;  hard as his neighbor will indeed produce ten times as much food – and&#xA;  in favourable circumstances can sustain this tenfold increase&#xA;  indefinitely. (Tudge, 1998, p. 33)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Motivation for paleolithic hunter-gatherers was simply the need to not go hungry. It was not something that you did not have. You either hunted or died. The very concept of motivation does not fit such a life, because action sprang directly from your basic needs. While those needs were satisfied, there was no need for action: &quot;laziness, nomadism and sharing were all integral parts of the Aboriginal life-style&quot; (Ward, 1988).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hunter-gatherer life is the garden Eden that Adam was sent forth from: &quot;thou shalt eat the herb of the field; In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread&quot;. Rowley-Conwy, in his aptly titled article &quot;The laziness of the short-distance hunter&quot; (1984), argues that for one Mesolithic community in western Denmark at least, &quot;farming was not adopted until problems arose with the hunter-gatherer economy&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to study how problems with motivation came about, you'll need to go look at the difference between nomadic hunter-gatherer and settled farmer life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evolutionary psychology assumes &quot;that our minds and bodies are adapted for an ancestral environment&quot;, and &quot;that we suffer the consequences of poor fit between our inherited natures and many of the constructed environments in organizational society&quot; (Nicholson, 1997).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Geary and Bjorklund (2000) think that motivation depends on the type of ability that is necessary for performance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... much of formal education is &quot;unnatural&quot; in that much of what&#xA;  children are taught involves tasks never encountered by our ancestors&#xA;  (Brown &amp;amp; Bjorklund, 1998; Geary, 1995). Although humans apparently&#xA;  have been using language for thousands of years, it is only in this&#xA;  century that the majority of people on the planet are literate. Geary&#xA;  (1995) referred to language and other evolved forms of cognition, such&#xA;  as those represented in Figure 1 [nonverbal behavior, language, facial&#xA;  processing, theory of mind, kin, in-group, out-group, social&#xA;  ideologies, flora, fauna, movement, representation, engineering], as&#xA;  &lt;em&gt;biologically primary abilities&lt;/em&gt;, and skills that build upon these primary abilities but are principally cultural inventions, such as&#xA;  reading, as &lt;em&gt;biologically secondary abilities&lt;/em&gt;. Biologically primary&#xA;  abilities are acquired universally and children typically have &lt;strong&gt;high&#xA;  motivation&lt;/strong&gt; to perform tasks involving them. In contrast,&#xA;  biologically secondary abilities are culturally determined, and often&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;tedious repetition and external motivation&lt;/strong&gt; are necessary for their&#xA;  mastery. From this perspective, it is understandable that many&#xA;  children have difficulty with reading and higher mathematics.&#xA;  (emphasis added)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And from this perspective it is also understandable that most of us aren't very motivated to perform those of our daily chores that require biologically secondary abilities, and I would surmise that the motivation declines as we move towards abilities that build upon abilities that ... are more and more removed from our biologically primary concerns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Geary, D. C., &amp;amp; Bjorklund, D. F. (2000). Evolutionary developmental psychology. &lt;em&gt;Child Development, 71&lt;/em&gt;, 57-65. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00118&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1111/1467-8624.00118&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nicholson, N. (1997). Evolutionary psychology: Toward a new view of human nature and organizational society. &lt;em&gt;Human Relations, 50&lt;/em&gt;, 1053-1078. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001872679705000901&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1177/001872679705000901&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rowley-Conwy, P. (1984). The laziness of the short-distance hunter: The origins of agriculture in western Denmark. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 3&lt;/em&gt;, 300-324. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0278-4165%2884%2990005-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1016/0278-4165(84)90005-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tudge, C. (1998). &lt;em&gt;Neanderthals, Bandits, and Farmers: How Agriculture Really Began&lt;/em&gt;. New Haven: Yale University Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ward, R. (1988). Aboriginal communists. &lt;em&gt;Labour History, 55&lt;/em&gt;, 1-8. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/i27508887&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/i27508887&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="4703" LastEditDate="2014-04-01T03:56:25.467" LastActivityDate="2014-04-01T03:56:25.467" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3996" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4016" CreationDate="2013-07-30T14:09:02.773" Score="7" ViewCount="202" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/dopamine&quot;&gt;this clip&lt;/a&gt; about dopamine deficiency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...[P]eople with low dopamine activity may be more prone to addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the reverse also true? &lt;strong&gt;Does susceptibility to addiction&lt;/strong&gt; (genetic, etc.) &lt;strong&gt;have an effect on the likelihood that one may have a dopamine deficit?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1048" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-31T03:25:16.923" LastActivityDate="2013-08-02T09:37:11.873" Title="Dopamine deficiency more frequent in the addiction prone?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3997" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3961" CreationDate="2013-07-30T14:42:14.450" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;When speaker lacks confidence about the full-scope of what they present, they stuff in as much as can be spoken to ensure they've covered any 'possible loose ends'.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lack-of-Confidence ensures the speaker will never have enough, and will jam in more.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A confident speaker understands the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;core&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of their topic.  They can speak it in &lt;em&gt;1&lt;/em&gt; sentence (or 5).  Thus, all other speech is &lt;em&gt;elaboration&lt;/em&gt;, not &lt;em&gt;foundation&lt;/em&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastActivityDate="2013-07-30T14:42:14.450" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3998" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-30T17:35:47.487" Score="3" ViewCount="417" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been debating the following topic with a friend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;She argues that humans do not descend from chimpanzees or orang-utans, because if we did, such animals would share the same cognitive thinking that humans have.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I argue that we do descend from that such animals, and that a high protein diet has allowed early humans to develop a better memory, intelligence, and other mental processes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the  the real origin of human intelligence? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If non-human animals do have intelligence too, why is their intelligence not as advanced as humans?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3277" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-31T05:14:45.513" LastActivityDate="2013-08-04T02:58:03.950" Title="How did the unique features of human intelligence evolve?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="3999" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3998" CreationDate="2013-07-31T00:24:25.513" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's first be clear that we didn't evolve from monkeys/apes/etc.  That's a common misconception.  Evolution states that we and monkeys/apes/etc. evolved from a common ancestor.  Same with fish.  If you go back far enough, we and fish share a common ancestor... we did not, however, evolve from today's Salmon or Macaque.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, the origin of intelligence is an elusive topic.  Intelligence isn't the most tangible concept to study in an evolutionary context as the associated molecular evidence is highly circumstantial.  For example, it's difficult to interpret what behavioral differences emerged from the differences in receptor distribution and types associated with our genetic fission from the common ancestor.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now that we've said that, there's several theories; many of them stem from language.  It is thought that the articulation allowed by language allows us to more carefully think about things... but there's always the possibility that the reasoning came first and facilitated the language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the more interesting theories I've read is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameralism_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the bicameral mind&lt;/a&gt;.  Of course, note the criticisms against it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;It is one of those books that is either complete rubbish or a work of consummate genius, nothing in between! Probably the former, but I'm hedging my bets.&quot;&#xA;-Richard Dawkins&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Others argue that &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=30921&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;human consciousness is a social construct&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2013-07-31T13:33:35.760" LastActivityDate="2013-07-31T13:33:35.760" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4001" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4003" CreationDate="2013-07-31T05:43:53.413" Score="5" ViewCount="288" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mismatch negativity&lt;/a&gt; (MMN) is the brain response to violations of a rule. The MMN peaks at about 100–250 ms after change onset. &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;If MMN occurs so early, before conscious perception, why is surprise considered a cognitive phenomenon?&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;Isn't it rather connected with autonomic processes that take place earlier than cognitive process. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://csjarchive.cogsci.rpi.edu/proceedings/2006/docs/p531.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Surprise is considered as belonging to cognitive processes&lt;/a&gt;. Among emotion theories, the appraisal theory of emotions, considers that there can be no emotion unless I consciously 'label' it. Here I wonder - &lt;strong&gt;how can there be any conscious 'labeling' of surprise when MMN shows that surprise takes place earlier than conscious states?&lt;/strong&gt; If we accept that surprise does not need conscious awareness for taking place then the appraisal theories that connect surprise with unexpected events are mistaken. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://ijcai.org/Past%20Proceedings/IJCAI-87-VOL1/PDF/020.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ortony&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.phil.uni-greifswald.de/fileadmin/mediapool/psychologie/lehrstuhl_allg2/Reisenzein_Al1996_Surprise_Paradigm_for_Emotion_Research.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reisenzein&lt;/a&gt; and many other appraisal theorists on surprise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-31T09:36:36.490" LastActivityDate="2013-08-05T13:46:48.587" Title="How can surprise be labelled conscious when mismatch negativity shows that surprise takes place earlier than conscious states?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4002" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3998" CreationDate="2013-07-31T06:01:57.710" Score="6" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If non-human animals do have intelligence too, why is their intelligence not as advanced as humans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notions like “advanced” or “better” really have no place in evolutionary thinking. Again, evolutionary fitness is about self-reproduction and success compared to whatever competition is present at any moment. There is no force “optimizing” species to meet some external criteria of “progress”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One important observation is that (relatively) simple species have in fact been quite successful (in terms of number of individuals, total biomass, capacity to survive climate changes and other disruptive events, etc.). Humans have been flourishing very recently (few thousands of years), colonizing big parts of the earth, reaching large population numbers but before that there is evidence that they went through a severe population bottleneck as recently as 70000 years ago. Great apes populations are also not very large and all species are considered endangered. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sustaining a large brain and human intelligence is in fact extremely onerous. The human brain requires a lot of energy. Furthermore, it has become too big to go through the mother's womb so that it still undergoes growth after birth, meaning that human babies require a lot of care and protection. All that suggest that “high intelligence” is not always such a big advantage, evolutionary speaking. As often, there are trade-offs and various successful “strategies”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In any case, you might be interested in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's article on the “Evolution of human intelligence”&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastEditorUserId="432" LastEditDate="2013-07-31T09:30:31.320" LastActivityDate="2013-07-31T09:30:31.320" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4003" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4001" CreationDate="2013-07-31T07:19:03.693" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;As often in this area, the problem seems to be entirely created by confusions about definitions and terminology and the difficulties resulting from the use of common-sense concepts like “surprise” in scientific theories. One answer would be “Why not?” Basically you seem to object to the definition of surprise used by some theorists but definitions are neither true or false, they are merely common or unusual, and useful or not. Emotions in particular have received so many definitions that there isn't much of a basis to claim any particular one as the “correct” one anymore. Those theorists are just talking about something else than mismatch negativity, it's as simple as that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously there is a such a thing as being consciously surprised and we have a word for it: “surprise”. There is no way around that without redefining the word to something unrecognizable to most speakers of the English language. It's only with a way to clearly distinguish (1) physiological processes (2) cognitive processes and (3) subjective experiences that we can begin to explore the relationship between them, describe the physiological underpinnings of surprise and account for the experience as such. This experience is a basic fact that you can always “define away” from the scope of your interest but would still need to be explained. Said differently, the “labeling” process is an interesting object of study in itself, whether or not you are prepared to include it in the definition of surprise or want to define emotion through, say, autonomic activation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you just assume “surprise” to mean “mismatch negativity”, what you have is neither an empirical finding nor an interesting theory of the conscious experience of surprise. You have just deprived yourself of the ability to clearly speak about the core phenomenon of surprise. In my view, interesting questions to ask would therefore be “What reason is there to conflate surprise with mismatch negativity (or, for that matter, any other brain process)?” or “To what extent does our experience of surprise coincide/follow from mismatch negativity?”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastEditorUserId="432" LastEditDate="2013-07-31T09:35:12.873" LastActivityDate="2013-07-31T09:35:12.873" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4004" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-31T09:54:30.320" Score="6" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; Where I used to work fellow researchers used to have a task known as the CV task. The task required participants to answer a number of questions about a set of CVs (e.g., is this a good job applicant, rate various features of the applicant). A set of CVs was generated based on a factorial design. Thus, features of the CV were manipulated such as gender (male vs female) and other characteristics of the applicant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm currently supervising a student where the student is doing a vignette based study (nothing to do with CVs). I realised that I have a lot of implicit ideas about how to design a vignette-based study. However, it would be nice to be able to refer such students to a resource which outlines best practice in vignette design. Relevant issues might include&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How many factors to manipulate and how many levels to include&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How to write vignettes in terms of length, creating variability and authenticity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whether to randomise other elements across the vignettes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How to pilot test vignettes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How to choose questions to accompany each vignette&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and so on&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is a good resource on designing vignette based study?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Or alternatively what are a good set of suggestions for writing a vignette based study?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-07-31T09:54:30.320" Title="Resource on how to effectively develop within-subjects vignette based study" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4005" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-07-31T12:58:32.893" Score="5" ViewCount="212" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard this comment on a radio program about Child parenting by psychologists: &quot;A child will not comprehend an explanation that, a parent loves each sibling equally, as they do not have abstract thinking&quot;. This lead me to ponder and formulate the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3249" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-07-31T23:21:10.587" LastActivityDate="2013-07-31T23:21:10.587" Title="Is the concept of conservation fundamental to understanding fairness and capacity in &quot;love&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4006" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3990" CreationDate="2013-07-31T14:33:59.387" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question &quot;I will do this tomorrow&quot; is well studied under term procrastination. &#xA;As you can see on wikipedia page:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of causes and &quot;how to measure&quot;....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procrastination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procrastination&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is true that some form of procrastination was noticed in ancient Greeks, but it is became very important in industrial revolution with concept of time was valued more...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-07-31T14:33:59.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4007" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4005" CreationDate="2013-07-31T16:30:45.817" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a number of ways to interpret the statement and your question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One problem is what the age of children being discussed is. There are lots of developmental studies showing abstract thinking not really kicking in until about 5 or 6, but most of them are on physical abstraction. You can look up anything on Piaget's stages of development for this. Abstraction in general id acquired relatively early.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The word &quot;understand&quot; is a problematic bit. Children understand fairness, equal division, etc. at a very young age. I don't even see that as particularly abstract. On the other hand, some people spend their whole lives trying to understand the nuances of what love means. Children have some concept of love at a pretty young.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As near as I can tell, the statement you heard is vacuous without context and intent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2013-07-31T16:30:45.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4005" CreationDate="2013-07-31T17:05:41.757" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is love?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What does a person mean, when they say they love someone?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What does a parent mean who says that they love their children equally?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am now 46 years old, and I have no idea what &quot;love&quot; is or what it means when I myself say that I &quot;love&quot; someone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge, &quot;love&quot; is not a concept in psychology, but in philosophy, where speculations about transcendental ideas such as &quot;freedom&quot;, &quot;truth&quot;, or &quot;evil&quot;, are at home, or in sociology, where the norms relating to these ideals are studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related psychological concepts are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;bonding&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;attraction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;trust&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology studies what people do and how they feel, when they call it &quot;love&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But let's ignore these objections for a minute and assume that we know and agree upon what love is. Let's take an everyday definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you understand love as selfless commitment to another's wellbeing, then young children are not able to love (because their only purpose in life is survival, not generativity), and able to understand love only from the perspective of the rightful receiver: they are &quot;made&quot; to expect parental love and cannot comprehend that it might be modulated, because their survival and development depends on its presence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Children learn to understand that other people might have different things going on in their minds than they themselves, and they learn to consider the needs and wishes of other persons, from about the age of 6 years onwards, a development that (ideally) reaches its conclusion (i.e. full understanding) at about the age of 12 (with all the individual variation that is normal for human beings).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore a young child will not understand a parent's statement that they love all their children equally from the definition given above (or any other such definition), but interpret it from the context: what did the child, its siblings, and the parents do, that led up to make such a statement necessary in the first place? Just take a minute and think about if and when you would say such a thing to two persons you love. Only when there was doubt that you loved them equally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, the meaning the child gives to this sentence might be: &lt;em&gt;We treat you differently, but we expect you to act as if we didn't.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So a child will very likely not think about anything like what adult philosophers understand when they speak of love, but about how his or her family interacts with each other and how he or she feels about that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you disagree with my statement that love is not a concept in psychology, please provide a source and quote a peer reviewed definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-07-31T17:35:23.867" LastActivityDate="2013-07-31T17:35:23.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4009" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3960" CreationDate="2013-08-01T01:51:19.040" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Elder et al (1999)&lt;/strong&gt; provides a review of behavioural change theories in the context of health behavior change in primary care. They mention several, for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Models and theories such as the Health Belief Model,&#xA;  Cognitive/Information Processing, the Theory of Reasoned&#xA;  Action, Social Cognitive (Learning) Theory,Social Support&#xA;  Theories, Behavior Modiﬁcation, and Kanfer’s Parallel&#xA;  Self-Management Model guide much of current health-promotion reFsearch and practice. The &#xA;  Transtheoretical or “Stages of Change” Model presents a cognitive-behavioral&#xA;  change process not grounded in a speciic health behavior theory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Green (1984)&lt;/strong&gt; provides a very general review of health behavior modification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stokols (1992)&lt;/strong&gt; presents a theory around healthy environments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Elder, J. P., Ayala, G. X., &amp;amp; Harris, S. (1999). Theories and intervention approaches to health-behavior change in primary care. American journal of preventive medicine, 17(4), 275-284. &lt;a href=&quot;ftp://filer.soc.uoc.gr/Psycho/Manola/2008-09/%E8%E5%F9%F1%DF%E5%F2%20%F3%F5%EC%F0%E5%F1%E9%F6%EF%F1%FE%ED%20%EA%E1%E9%20%F5%E3%E5%DF%E1/health%20behaviour%20change%20approaches.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Green, L. W. (1984). Modifying and developing health behavior. Annual review of public health, 5(1), 215-236. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.pu.05.050184.001243&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stokols, D. (1992). Establishing and maintaining healthy environments: toward a social ecology of health promotion. American Psychologist, 47(1), 6. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/21615651_Establishing_and_maintaining_healthy_environments._Toward_a_social_ecology_of_health_promotion/file/3deec51648b8bb0531.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-08-01T01:51:19.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4010" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-01T05:11:59.823" Score="1" ViewCount="530" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fossil record indicates humanity arose on the African Continent - in/around Gauteng. Yet the oldest civilizations on record are far afield - Ebla, Mesopotamia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What drives &lt;em&gt;civilization&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/strong&gt; Why is the cradle of civilization not nearer the cradle of humanity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion &lt;em&gt;civilization&lt;/em&gt; is that state of intellect when beings of a community recognize that collaboration rather than competition for resources is feasible, and actively work in that direction (granted we humans still have competition at the level of village, town, company, &amp;amp; nation). Unlike other contemporary civilizations (ants and bees for instance) humans are not segregated into castes such as the warrior, worker - intellect drives human civilization. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1216" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-08-02T15:58:41.380" LastActivityDate="2013-08-02T15:58:41.380" Title="What drives civilization?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="14" ClosedDate="2013-08-01T13:32:47.193" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4011" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4010" CreationDate="2013-08-01T05:52:00.867" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not a real explanation of why writing or cities appeared where they appeared but by that time humans had already spread to many parts of the world so I am not sure there is any particular need to explain why they did not appear in southern Africa, specifically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the “cradle of humankind” in Gauteng is a large source of hominin fossils (possibly for reasons that have more to do with their preservation than anything else), not of &lt;em&gt;homo sapiens sapiens&lt;/em&gt; or anatomically modern humans. We are not talking about the same periods at all (millions of years before present vs. 200 000 years for &lt;em&gt;homo sapiens sapiens&lt;/em&gt; and 6000 years for writing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastActivityDate="2013-08-01T05:52:00.867" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4012" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4010" CreationDate="2013-08-01T08:54:15.287" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my opinion the question is not of-topic, because of two reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Scientifically, it is hard to approve or not, but Sigmund Freud wrote about it in book: Totem and Taboo wrote that civilization start when human offsprings decided not to kill father and that strongest among them become new &quot;leadeor of herd/doggery&quot; It could explain debate cradle of humanity - craddle of civilization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) In Social psychology it is known model of Terror management theory. In this wikipedia articles you have numerous references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why I think it is relevant for this web site is relation: neuroscience - cognitive science - social psychology and related social cognition and socila neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terror_management_theory#References&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terror_management_theory#References&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT2: Answer: According to Terror management theory people are interested to maintain civilization to maintain illusion of immortality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Intraindividual Processes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.hr/books?id=4AVi-a7_BCAC&amp;amp;pg=PA281&amp;amp;lpg=PA281&amp;amp;dq=Blackwell+Handbook+of+Social+Psychology:+Intraindividual+Processes+terror+management+theory&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=kk-BnZbm_X&amp;amp;sig=HX6p9AjKGxjPmJMUTpGpB7Eb3Cg&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=8Cn6UfvqJYLLtQb89YCYDg&amp;amp;ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Blackwell%20Handbook%20of%20Social%20Psychology%3A%20Intraindividual%20Processes%20terror%20management%20theory&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://books.google.hr/books?id=4AVi-a7_BCAC&amp;amp;pg=PA281&amp;amp;lpg=PA281&amp;amp;dq=Blackwell+Handbook+of+Social+Psychology:+Intraindividual+Processes+terror+management+theory&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=kk-BnZbm_X&amp;amp;sig=HX6p9AjKGxjPmJMUTpGpB7Eb3Cg&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=8Cn6UfvqJYLLtQb89YCYDg&amp;amp;ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Blackwell%20Handbook%20of%20Social%20Psychology%3A%20Intraindividual%20Processes%20terror%20management%20theory&amp;amp;f=false&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="3001" LastEditDate="2013-08-01T09:29:12.483" LastActivityDate="2013-08-01T09:29:12.483" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4013" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3956" CreationDate="2013-08-02T05:10:29.133" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=1G6p80GQnOUC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA389&amp;amp;dq=info:1-xi0rAkyHkJ%3ascholar.google.com&amp;amp;ots=0gUb7eUdjd&amp;amp;sig=1D-m1LGbtHfRYxzvGSCA6BXH6KE&amp;amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mario Liotti and Don M. Tucker&lt;/a&gt; (Brain Asymmetry, MIT, 1996) attempt to explain that the 'corticolimbic architecture is not left/right, but dorsal/ventral&quot;. In their opinion, the reason for hemispheric asymmetries can be found in the asymmetries of the dorsal and ventral systems. They proposed that emotional behavior could be interpreted by analyzing the vertical circuits (dorsal/ventral).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastActivityDate="2013-08-02T05:10:29.133" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4014" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4017" CreationDate="2013-08-02T08:53:53.810" Score="4" ViewCount="1802" Body="&lt;p&gt;A fear of heights (or acrophobia), can be debilitating (I know it can be for me).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is what is the neurological mechanisms that cause a fear of heights in a tall object such as a skyscraper or bridge, but not really occurring in a plane?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found that I can not stand too close to a window in the upper floors of a tall building, but will happily look out the window in a plane, inflight &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; while landing and taking off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T03:25:25.527" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T03:25:25.527" Title="What are the neurological mechanisms for a fear of heights when atop a building, but not in a plane?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4015" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4014" CreationDate="2013-08-02T09:01:41.880" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Those are different phobias with different names:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Acrophobia- Fear of heights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Altophobia- Fear of heights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Batophobia- Fear of heights or being close to high buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aviophobia or Aviatophobia- Fear of flying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pteromerhanophobia- Fear of flying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fear of flying is fear of loosing control, fear of not trusting someone else. In fear of heights is lack of trust in oneself and ability to move.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: In neurological way there are two paths, short and log, in fear of heights the sort one activates first... IMO In Fear of flight there are no short path of fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~knutson/ans/ledoux00.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~knutson/ans/ledoux00.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="3001" LastEditDate="2013-08-02T09:12:16.843" LastActivityDate="2013-08-02T09:12:16.843" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4016" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3996" CreationDate="2013-08-02T09:37:11.873" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that genetic plays significant roles in dopamine addiction:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22350797&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22350797&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And also a study of &quot;born-addicts&quot;:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.addictscience.com/genetics-d2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.addictscience.com/genetics-d2/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But also it is connected to ADHD studies. It is well known that people with ADHD are vulnerable to addiction. They think it is because reward deficiency system:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2626918/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2626918/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When ADHD patients get medicine based on dopamine or amphetamine their attention improves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-08-02T09:37:11.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4017" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4014" CreationDate="2013-08-02T11:53:08.393" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;A fear of heights on buildings is very common because there are natural vestibular and vertigo responses within certain height ranges. Furthermore, the effect is heightened if you're exposed to the elements out on a balcony as opposed to within the building. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear of flying is almost always related to the sensations of landing and taking off. If you've flown before you'll notice that those two events are very turbulent and it even seems amazing that some airplanes can stay together. However, once in the air you don't have the same effects of acrophobia that many people have on high buildings. Essentially, all perspective of height is removed when you look out the window of an airplane and thus the cues that trigger acrophobia. Your brain sees it like a painting of things in the distance and doesn't process it as height in the same way at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brandt, T., Arnold, F., Bes, W., &amp;amp; Kapteyn, T. S. (1989). &quot;The mechanism of physiological height vertigo. I. Theoretical approach and psychophysics&quot;. Acta Otolaryngol, 5-6, 513-23.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2013-08-03T15:03:41.730" LastActivityDate="2013-08-03T15:03:41.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4018" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3795" CreationDate="2013-08-02T15:58:07.220" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is my opinion, based on what I know about how the brain works. As all process within the brain are physiological processes. It must be acknowledged, that what we know now about the brain, will, most likely, seem simplistic, to future generations; as more research is done. Will provide some quotes from the links I've provided, as I have time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't wish to get bogged down in a debate about what “personality” is, traits, state etc. For the sake of this argument, let's assume personality is the most &quot;natural&quot; way of being of a person. Those innate impulses that arise from the &quot;subconscious&quot; parts of the brain, and these can either be allowed to flow (depending on social context and impulses) or require vigorous conscious action by the frontal lobe, to inhibit action upon such impulses. This latter comment regarding inhibiting these does not pertain to the actual “personality”, but to the efforts required to make conscious change and is a measure of the difficulty in bringing about fundamental personality change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So for the purpose of this argument, I am viewing personality as the subconscious impulses that arise from the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which then brings us to the question. What is causing these impulses? To make it short, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Long Term Potentiation&lt;/a&gt;) LTP of various neural pathways within the brain.  There is no guarantee that a connection between two neurons will fire. It is the priming of the synaptic cleft , the membrane endings and contents of both neurons that increases the likelihood that the a connection will form between two neurons. When a pathway is formed, that is “permanent” (as close to permanent as something can be in the brain), it means that pathway of the brain has been Long Term Potentiated. So the neurons fire to form that thought/action/feeling, effortlessly and reliably.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which brings us to the next question. How is the brain &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10878/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Long Term Potentiated&lt;/a&gt;? To make it short (again), for “ordinary” activities; like learning the piano, or not to interrupt people when they are talking; reiteration of experience. The more dull the consequences of each iteration, the more iterations required.  Which works, conversely, as in the case of trauma, where there is a cascade of chemicals throughout the body that assists in the LTP of the neural paths being used during the experience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This then brings us to the next question. How does &lt;a href=&quot;http://hargreaves.swong.webfactional.com/bbs97.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;change one's personality&lt;/a&gt; or one “undo” or “reduce” LTP of parts of the brain, we’d like to change and bring about “LTP” of pathways in the brain we find desirable. Now this is the key to answering the OP’s question, Can personalities change within a period of a few years (as opposed to decades). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As already mentioned in one answer, well-practiced psychotherapy (whatever you’d like to call it) relies on the concept of undoing LTP and LTP different pathways. Also, as mentioned in another answer, trauma creates a rapid change in LTP of pathways in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, I say this, using the logic of my above points; From my observation of human beings, my own efforts in life to change my personality and study of neuroscience and interest in psychology and psychiatry. I can honestly say, I have come to the conclusion, that it is most difficult and unlikely that any significant change can be made to someone’s personality, without the use of severe methods. One can practice overcoming (in this case), the action of behaving as a shy person, but the experience of social anxiety will remain and lag. It will eventually change. As the brain is plastic and we can mold it through repetition. However it, usually, would take longer than a few years for the internal changes to follow. This is something that can be achieved over half a life time, but the outward change of behavior, does not equal an inward change of personality; it can be a reflection of a person’s willingness to bring about change (and is most certainly a step in the right direction in achieving change). Look at many disciplines, martial arts, many spiritual vocations, it takes many years for the person to evolve. Which is a change in personality. And in these cases this is people living a full-time existence to transform their personalities. So the poor, every day, folk, with all of life’s pressures bearing down upon them, it makes it even harder to consciously override our natural impulses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I should add, that it's the gamut of human experience that shapes who we are, combined with the natural chemistry. I have not covered this as in depth as would be to give this discussion full due.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As this site is a minefield of potential controversy and arguments over semantics. For the purposes of this answer I am using “words” that I am defining for the use of this passage here, and the debatable semantics of their use is outside of the scope of the OP’s question. So please comment on the merits and principle of my answer, that addresses the question and not points off topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (1997) 20, 597–655&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Long-term potentiation: What’s&#xA;learning got to do with it?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Tracey J. Shors&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Louis D. Matzel&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hargreaves.swong.webfactional.com/bbs97.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://hargreaves.swong.webfactional.com/bbs97.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2018-05-29T08:35:58.400" LastActivityDate="2018-05-29T08:35:58.400" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="4020" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3988" CreationDate="2013-08-02T22:27:07.870" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In partial answer to your question, yes, there have been several studies involved in this particular field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some findings include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.utexas.edu/law/journals/tlr/sources/Issue%2088.6/Lobel/fn128.Baumeister.pdf&quot;&gt;&quot;The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Baumeister and Leary, 1995), concluded that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;that human beings are&#xA;  fundamentally and pervasively motivated by a need to belong,&#xA;  that is, by a strong desire to form and maintain enduring interpersonal&#xA;  attachments. People seek frequent, affectively positive&#xA;  interactions within the context of long-term, caring relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important finding in that paper is that their research found that humans more readily make social bonds and resist dissolving them.  Essentially, we tend to 'stick around' rather than walk away.  Specifically (from the article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Not only do relationships emerge quite naturally,&#xA;  but people invest a great deal of time and effort in fostering&#xA;  supportive relationships with others. External threat seems&#xA;  to increase the tendency to form strong bonds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.missouri.edu/~sheldonk/pdfarticles/BJSP01.pdf&quot;&gt;&quot;Psychological need-satisfaction and subjective&#xA;well-being within social groups&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Sheldon and Bettencourt, 2000), concluded with a key point related to your final question (bolding mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;that formal group membership may come&#xA;  with some trade-offs: one gains a more distinctive group identity, but &lt;strong&gt;may sacrifice&#xA;  some personal freedom&lt;/strong&gt;. Conversely, it seems that members of informal groups are able&#xA;  to feel greater autonomy and individual uniqueness within such groups, but &lt;strong&gt;they may&#xA;  not derive as much pride or sense of identity from comparing their group to other&#xA;  groups&lt;/strong&gt; (Brewer &amp;amp;Pickett, 1999).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps a bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-02T22:27:07.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4021" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-02T22:53:15.963" Score="5" ViewCount="827" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there such a thing as repressed memories? Suppose a person undergoes a traumatic event (e.g failing out of school, having a relative die suddenly). Is it normal for the person to act as if everything is normal? Do the traumatic events have an affect on someone even if they dont think about it every day?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3342" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T05:22:48.607" LastActivityDate="2018-06-07T03:19:31.430" Title="Do repressed memories exist?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4022" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5340" CreationDate="2013-08-03T07:06:49.267" Score="10" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most Western philosophy and psychology argue that deliberating carefully and rationally is the right way of reaching a decision. &quot;Don't let emotions turn you&quot; they might say. The splitting of the mind into the two systems (intuitive System 1 vs. rational System 2) have just sharpened this attitude. In contrast, many studies have shown the superiority of making decision by not thinking about it (e.g. Dijksterhuis), or by relying on intuition (e.g. Kahneman and a long list of many others).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that there is no absolute way that is better then the other, rather some decision problems are better handled with careful thinking, while others are solved better with &quot;gut feeling&quot;. What are the characteristics that differentiate the two?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2821" LastEditorUserId="2821" LastEditDate="2013-08-03T07:36:44.077" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T05:16:31.513" Title="What decision problems are better answered with analytic thinking, and what are better answered with intuition?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4023" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3841" CreationDate="2013-08-03T07:21:46.743" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe these two beautiful articles target just what you are looking for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Niv, Y., Joel, D., Meilijson, I., &amp;amp; Ruppin, E. (2008). Adaptive Behavior Evolution of Reinforcement Learning in Uncertain Environments : A Simple Explanation for Complex... doi:10.1177/10597123020101001&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shafir, Reich, Tsur, Erev &amp;amp; Lotem, 2008:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v453/n7197/abs/nature06841.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Perceptual accuracy and conflicting effects of certainty on risk-taking behaviour&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might want to have a close look at the work of Arnon Lotem, who is a zoologist who collaborated intensively with decision making researchers to find out more about the decision making behavior of animals. I assume it includes what you refer to as &quot;probabilistic thinking&quot;, as assessing the probability is a part of making judgement and decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2821" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T09:39:47.397" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T09:39:47.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4024" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-03T08:35:08.787" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the psychological basis of this disease featuring periodic bouts of mania and depression, its treatment using therapy, and pharmacological agents active against the condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bipolar disorder&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/bipolar-disorder/index.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bipolar disorder (NIMH)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please do not ask &quot;self-help&quot; questions under this tag, consult with a licensed mental health care professional.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/psychiatry&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'psychiatry'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-03T11:04:49.823" LastActivityDate="2013-08-03T11:04:49.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4025" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-03T08:35:08.787" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the psychological basis of this disease featuring periodic bouts of mania and depression, its treatment, and pharmacological treatments for the condition " OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-03T11:04:29.307" LastActivityDate="2013-08-03T11:04:29.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4026" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-03T08:37:56.813" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about using the services of participants in the Amazon Mechanical Turk job bank as subjects in psychological testing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mturk.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.mturk.com&lt;/a&gt; for further details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-03T11:05:24.593" LastActivityDate="2013-08-03T11:05:24.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4027" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-03T08:37:56.813" Score="0" Body="For questions about using the services of participants in the Amazon Mechanical Turk job bank as subjects in psychological testing" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-03T11:04:19.070" LastActivityDate="2013-08-03T11:04:19.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4028" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-03T08:41:17.297" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding perception of a stimulus without any actual stimulus being present, particularly in the context of psychiatric illness or recreational drug use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hallucinations&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/vision&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'vision'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;vision&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/schizophrenia&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'schizophrenia'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-03T11:04:10.930" LastActivityDate="2013-08-03T11:04:10.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4029" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-03T08:41:17.297" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding perception of a stimulus without any actual stimulus being present, particularly in the context of psychiatric illness or recreational drug use" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-03T11:05:19.920" LastActivityDate="2013-08-03T11:05:19.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4030" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-03T11:34:05.470" Score="7" ViewCount="229" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider the Molyneux's problem&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;If a man born blind can feel the differences between shapes such as spheres and cubes, could he similarly distinguish those objects by sight if given the ability to see?&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molyneux%27s_problem&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stanford.edu/~paulsko/papers/Molyneux_NatureNeuro2011.pdf&quot;&gt;recent evidence&lt;/a&gt;$^{1}$ that the answer is likely negative. In their experiment, Held et al. used &quot;three-dimensional&#xA;forms drawn from a children’s shape set&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lego&quot;&gt;Legos&lt;/a&gt;, actually). I was thinking would the results be the same, if the stimuli were reconstructions of snakes or other reptiles? Humans are argued to have &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/users/peterson/psy334/Ohman%20A%20Malicious%20Serpent%20Current%20Directions%202003.pdf&quot;&gt;evolved fear modules&lt;/a&gt;$^{2}$ in their brain for such creatures. Or, if the stimuli were directly related to humans, e.g. body parts? Could this kind of experiment test whether a child's mind is &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_rasa&quot;&gt;tabula rasa&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$^{1}$ Richard Held, Yuri Ostrovsky, Beatrice deGelder, Tapan Gandhi, Suma Ganesh, Umang Mathur, Pawan Sinha, The newly sighted fail to match&#xA;seen with felt, &lt;em&gt;Nature Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, vol. 14, pp. 551–553, 2011.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$^{2}$ Arne Öhman, Susan Mineka, The Malicious Serpent: Snakes as a&#xA;Prototypical Stimulus for an Evolved&#xA;Module of Fear, &lt;em&gt;Current Directions in Psychological Science&lt;/em&gt;, Z6:6, pp. 5-9, 2003.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3344" LastEditorUserId="3344" LastEditDate="2013-08-03T14:04:04.360" LastActivityDate="2013-08-04T02:44:13.647" Title="Philosophy Meets Neuroscience: The Molyneux's Problem" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4031" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4030" CreationDate="2013-08-04T02:44:13.647" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A child's mind is certainly not tabula rasa; language acquisition patterns in children suggest that they have an inborn module for it — domain-specific and, while flexible, clearly incompletely flexible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The children would probably have the same troubles with constructions of spiders and snakes; the modules that we are said to have for those species concern our prepared learning to fear these organisms, not our identification of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if the modules did concern identification rather than fear, the fact that the inborn modules do not constitute inborn abilities or tendencies. Experiences must still be had with the snakes, spiders, etc for fear to be acquired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3349" LastActivityDate="2013-08-04T02:44:13.647" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4032" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3998" CreationDate="2013-08-04T02:58:03.950" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your own theory is bad because it seems to follow from a Lamarkian interpretation of evolutionary theory. In Lamarck's idea, a crab's offspring will have the genes bigger claws if the crab exercises his own claws a lot before giving birth. In the same way, you're suggesting that the way ancient human diets improve their mental health somehow led to this mental health being passed down to us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To better understand the question, you should think not about what habits ontogentically lead to better thinking, but about what problems that ancient humans uniquely faced such that ultimately only those with our intelligence were able to successfully mate and reproduce.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3349" LastActivityDate="2013-08-04T02:58:03.950" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4001" CreationDate="2013-08-04T03:08:16.410" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Also.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Appraisal theory argues that a cognitive mechanism assesses the meaning of a situation before initiating an emotion. It does not argue that this mechanism operates consciously, so demonstrating that it doesn't doesn't impinge on the validity of appraisal theory at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mismatch negativity may be part of the process leading to surprise, but noting that a rule has been violated is peripheral to what surprise is all about. Surprise is the emotional response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3349" LastActivityDate="2013-08-04T03:08:16.410" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4034" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4215" CreationDate="2013-08-04T08:24:28.293" Score="10" ViewCount="578" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travelling_salesman_problem&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;traveling salesman problem&lt;/em&gt; (TSP)&lt;/a&gt; we are given a set of nodes, where one node is the starting node. The task is to find the shortest tour starting at the start node visiting every node exactly once. A variant of the more general TSP is the &lt;em&gt;Euclidean TSP&lt;/em&gt;, where the distance between two cities is the usual Euclidean distance. Different metrics can also be considered, suck as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travelling_salesman_problem#Metric_TSP&quot;&gt;city-block metric&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on experimental data in [1], the authors claim that Euclidean TSP instances are easy for humans. They also gathered data on case where the metric used is the city-block metric. They note that &quot;... people are near-optimal for these problems in both metrics.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What variants of the travelling salesman problem are hard for humans?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Has any research been done on this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Walwyn, A. L., &amp;amp; Navarro, D. J. (2010). Minimal Paths in the City Block: Human Performance on Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Traveling Salesperson Problems. The Journal of Problem Solving, 3(1), 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3350" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T04:17:35.140" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T17:34:17.700" Title="What forms of the travelling salesman problem are difficult for humans to solve?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4035" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-04T08:59:00.360" Score="17" ViewCount="517" Body="&lt;p&gt;In industrialized countries around the world, &quot;work&quot; appears to be something that most people try to avoid as much as they can, dreaming of winning a lottery so they will never have to work again -- and be free to do nothing or do what they like. Money serves as a motivator for work, because in these cultures you need money to stay alive, or at least to live well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many social welfare states pay a basic income to people unable to find work. Despite the fact that usually this basic income is not unconditional but a transitional payment only and bound to the receiver's attempts to find a job, there is quite a lot of hostility from those who force themselves to their jobs each morning, towards those who appear to be happy with having little and prefer not to work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Around the world there are proponents of an unconditional basic income that would free individuals from the necessity to take up work. I don't want to go into the whys and wherefores of such a freedom, or into how such an income could be financed, but want to ask you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If everybody received an &lt;em&gt;unconditional&lt;/em&gt; basic income that was high enough to make their lives reasonably comfortable, what would incite people to do the work (like baking bread) that needs to get done?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not lookig for opinions or theories here, those already abound on the net, but for empirical evidence for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;which percentage of a populace can be expected to busy themselves without need, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;how those that like to laze around can be motivated to work without need.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;B.F. Skinner in his utopian novel &lt;em&gt;Walden Two&lt;/em&gt; attempts to design a society where no-one is required to work more than four hours a day and unwanted jobs result in more credit points than desirable jobs, so that some people clean the toilet and then have more free time than those working at their dream jobs, but this concept relies on a virtual currency of points that you have to earn, so there is a need to work to earn your living, even if it does not have a payment of traditional &quot;money&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my question, the motivator for work must not be anything that &lt;em&gt;has to be&lt;/em&gt; fulfilled, but something that does not take away the freedom not to work. Something that makes even the least desirable job attractive. In the case of the toilet it might be something simple like this being your toilet, and if you don't clean it, you'll have to use it anyway. But there are public toilets. What would work there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-05T07:24:46.747" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T18:00:40.407" Title="If people did not have to work, what would motivate them to work?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4036" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-04T10:16:02.873" Score="22" ViewCount="2015" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wilhelm Reich believed that certain forms of deviant behavior result mostly or in part from the repressive sexual morality of a society (Reich, 1930). Reich believes that the majority of antisocial impulses are caused by the repression and dissatisfaction of basic sexual needs from childhood onwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Bronisław Malinowski's &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sexual_Life_of_Savages_in_North-Western_Melanesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (1929), Reich finds evidence for a connection between a sex-positive morality and the reduction of deviant behavior:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Children in the Trobriand Islands know no sex repression and no sexual&#xA;  secrecy. Their sex life is allowed to develop naturally, freely, and&#xA;  unhampered &lt;em&gt;through every stage of life, with full satisfaction&lt;/em&gt;. The&#xA;  children engage freely in the sexual activities which correspond to&#xA;  their age. Nonetheless, or rather just for this reason, the society of&#xA;  the Trobrianders knew, in the third decade of our century, no sexual&#xA;  perversions, no functional psychoses, no psychoneuroses, no sex&#xA;  murder; they have no word for theft; homosexuality and masturbation,&#xA;  to them, mean nothing but an unnatural and imperfect means of sexual&#xA;  gratification, a sing of a disturbed capacity to reach normal&#xA;  satisfaction. To the children of the Trobrianders, the strict,&#xA;  obsessional training for excremental control which undermines the&#xA;  civilization of the white race is unknown. The Trobrianders,&#xA;  therefore, are &lt;em&gt;spontaneously&lt;/em&gt; clean, orderly, social without&#xA;  compulsion, intelligent, and industrious. The socially accepted form&#xA;  of sexual life is spontaneous monogamy without compulsion, a&#xA;  relationship which can be dissolved without difficulities; thus, there&#xA;  is no promiscuity. (Reich, 1942; italics in the original)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reich's views have long since been shown to be naively optimistic, but what I am interested in is not a refutation of his theory, but recent research in the matter:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What do current empirical psychology and cognitive sciences say to a hypothesised connection between unrepressed sexuality and the absence of anti-social deviant behavior?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reich, W. (1930). &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Sexualit%C3%A4t_im_Kulturkampf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Die Sexualität im Kulturkampf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. Vienna: Münsterverlag. [Translated as Reich, W. (1945) &lt;em&gt;The Sexual Revolution.&lt;/em&gt; Orgone Institute Press.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reich, W. (1942). &lt;em&gt;The Function of the Orgasm.&lt;/em&gt; Orgone Institute Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-11-26T04:26:57.713" LastActivityDate="2014-11-26T04:26:57.713" Title="Is there a causal connection between repressive sexual morality and antisocial behavior?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4037" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4122" CreationDate="2013-08-04T15:02:57.183" Score="24" ViewCount="5257" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I grew up, I was taught that the difference between humans and animals was that human beings have free will and animals do not. The basis is that animals will act accordingly to the nature of their species. I never fully understood this statement and still wonder whether it is a valid claim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From an evolutionary  perspective, we would be regarded as a species at the top of the food chain. The main advantage in our development is our brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we put aside the differences in what human beings are capable of, e.g. making clothes, machinery, etc., is there a real distinction between human beings and other animals? Do we really have free will, or an illusion of free will? Or are we behaving, as other animals, in accordance with the nature of our species?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this is a big question and could result in a range of debates over my definitions. So for the sake of clarity, &lt;strong&gt;let's keep this question limited to what defines a human brain as opposed to an animal brain and any evidence that supports any significant difference&lt;/strong&gt;, allowing for the fact that the human brain is well-developed (as opposed to, e.g. to our canines).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-20T02:19:46.990" LastActivityDate="2020-12-05T11:43:23.347" Title="What, if anything, sets humans apart from other species?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4038" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4037" CreationDate="2013-08-04T16:48:11.147" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not that we are just generally smarter then animals, but we posses cognitive tools of a different kind that they don't. Two of them are language and the ability to simulate the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding language, there is a wide consensus today that human language has some unique complexities that no animal form of communication has (see Pinker's &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Language_Instinct&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Language Instinct&lt;/a&gt;&quot;). It includes intricate syntactical structures and generative engines of vocabulary. Noam Chomsky was the first to argue that language is a universal capability, i.e. every healthy human being would be able to use it, and thus pre-wired into our brains from birth (and by that also debunking the Behavioral assumption that we are born tabula rasa).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ability to simulate the future is the simply using our imagination to forecast the results of different actions or events. Again, you can every now and then find an animal that seems to know how certain actions will results, but it is always a product of learning from the past, while trying and erring. In contrast, people can imagine how the world would response to certain actions, without encountering a similar situation previously. (I'm sorry, but I can't recall right now a good reference for this. If you insist in the comments, I could run a quick search).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course these two features are not all that sets us apart from animals, qualitatively, and there a certainly more that hopefully would be brought in answers of others. However, as I personally see it, these two are special, since they equip us with unique cognitive abilities of a different kind and of dedicated brain machinery (but that's for a different question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2821" LastEditorUserId="2821" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T07:52:40.313" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T07:52:40.313" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4039" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-04T18:17:22.990" Score="9" ViewCount="691" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does stress damage the brain (if at all)? Is it akin to taking drugs, heavy drinking, or a minor stroke? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would an fMRI of a stressed person present evidence of stress? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3354" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T05:37:17.667" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T05:37:17.667" Title="Can stress be detected by an fMRI?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4040" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-05T04:01:48.547" Score="3" ViewCount="475" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose a person reads a book out loud for 1 hour straight. Would this &quot;exercise&quot; the parts of the brain involved in speech? Would this make the person a better communicator in social situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3355" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-05T04:33:25.703" LastActivityDate="2015-07-06T19:37:24.517" Title="Does reading a book out loud make you better in social situations?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4041" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4040" CreationDate="2013-08-05T04:33:02.467" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on general principles of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_of_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;skill transfer&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reading a book aloud should improve your skills in reading books aloud, and in particular it should improve your skill in reading the particular passages that you are reading. So if you are going to be reading a particular text in a public setting, it makes sense to practice reading that passage of text.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Likewise, if you are preparing to give a lecture, then practicing giving the lecture should improve your performance giving that talk.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reading a book aloud is unlikely to help you in social situations because the dynamics of reading are quite different to the dynamics of social situations. Communication in social situations is interactive with its own specific set of conventions that need to be learnt. In contrast, reading a book aloud is not interactive. The rules that govern reading a book aloud are very different to those that govern social situations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on the same principles, if you want to be a better communicator in social situations, your time would probably be better spent (a) studying social interactions, and (b) engaging and reflecting on social interactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt; @ofri makes a good point. If a bottle neck on your social skills is actually articulating words clearly, then practicing that skill, such as would occur when reading, should be effective. Ofri uses a good example of a second language learner. The case I'm thinking of above is where the person is fully competent in articulating words verbally, and where problems with social skills relate more to knowing what to say when.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-05T07:33:15.893" LastActivityDate="2013-08-05T07:33:15.893" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4042" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4043" CreationDate="2013-08-05T06:02:24.797" Score="4" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider the following maths problem, assuming only a high-school level knowledge of calculus: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If $f(x) = x!$, find $df/dx$ &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Almost all of my respondents seemed to switch on their &quot;mental differentiation pipeline&quot; and tried to expand $x!$ as a product and got stuck. The right answer is that $x!$ is undefined for any non-integer, so $f$ is discontinuous, and $f'$ doesn't exist!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a name in psychology for the phenomenon that causes one to think along the wrong lines in the problem above?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it the same as the one leading to incorrect answers to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-new-brain/201204/religion-and-reason&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;bat and ball problem?&lt;/a&gt; Is this a test of your thinking style? For, perhaps an intuitive thinking style will  lead one to expand $x!$ as a product and attempt to differentiate term-wise. Is there a &quot;cognitive remedy&quot; for wrong thinking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="606" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-05T07:26:17.160" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T15:00:10.490" Title="What causes student errors on a problem involving differentiating a factorial?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4043" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4042" CreationDate="2013-08-05T07:14:03.857" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I imagine this question is tricky for students for a several reasons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question wording:&lt;/strong&gt; The question may suggest to the student that it is possible to differentiate $x!$. Or they may assume from the wording that some meaning is meant where it is possible to differentiate. For example, alternatively, you could ask a set of questions, one for each functions, about whether a given function was differentiable (e.g., $x^2$, $2x+3x^3$, $log(x)$, $x!$). This would clearly be easier, because it puts the potential that the function might not be differentiable into the student's mind. I'm not saying what method of questioning is better from a pedagogy perspective; I'm just noting that question wording influences the difficulty of the problem, and that in this case, the question might be labelled a &quot;trick question&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Analogy to solve novel problems:&lt;/strong&gt; If students think that there is an actual derivative as an answer, but no obvious solution exists, it is natural to apply strategies that seem relevant to the problem. For example, they might know how to calculate $x!$ for any given positive discrete value of $x$. Therefore they might assume that working out the derivative involves interpolating (e.g., something like a gamma function) or they might rely on what they know about the product rule or some such. In general it is common for people to try to solve problems that they don't understand by drawing on strategies that seems relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;question relies on the ability to apply a key fact&lt;/strong&gt; that discrete functions are not differentiable. Thus, students need to know that fact, and they need to know that the factorial is a discrete function, and they need to link these two ideas. Thus, from a knowledge perspective, this question relies on a piece of knowledge that students might not possess.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in summary, I think the question exemplifies the kinds of challenges that students encounter when learning and demonstrating mathematical skills. I think a lot can be learnt about students cognitive representations of a problem by the kinds of errors they make. However, I do not think failing to solve this problem correctly says anything fundamental about your thinking style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further discussion of cognitive science in relation to mathematics education, perhaps check out Robert Siegler's work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Siegler, R. S. (2003). Implications of cognitive science research for mathematics education. In Kilpatrick, J.,&#xA;Martin, W. B., &amp;amp; Schifter, D. E. (Eds.), A research companion to principles and standards for school. mathematics (pp. 219-233). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathmatics.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/NCTM.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-05T07:21:02.903" LastActivityDate="2013-08-05T07:21:02.903" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4044" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4035" CreationDate="2013-08-05T07:14:44.447" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;[This started as a comment but became really long, hence an answer.]&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hostility is real but the premise that more than a small minority of people forgo “working” by laziness is in fact very questionable, in several ways. People might dream of winning the lottery but there is very little evidence that they generally avoid “work”. In fact, with the same income, people who are unemployed report being less happy than people who have a job. There are however reasons to think that the eagerness with which someone looks for a work of the “traditional” salaried kind might be endogenous. If there is no job to be found, then you will stop looking for one and exposing yourself to constant humiliation (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://stumblingandmumbling.typepad.com/stumbling_and_mumbling/2013/07/the-problem-of-workshyness.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this post by Chris Dillow&lt;/a&gt; for some evidence on this). This is unrelated to some pre-existing “preference for work” or fundamental psychological “laziness”. Psychologically, it could be related to “learned helplessness”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another obvious issue is that to the extent that unemployment benefits or basic income give an incentive not to work, it would only have a strong impact for people close to this level. There is no invariant threshold beyond which needs are met and whatever this basic income, there would therefore still be an incentive to earn more. In fact, people have been predicting that we would soon satisfy all our “basic needs” and work much less for quite some time (just came across one such prediction from Keynes, writing in the 1930s). In some sense most people today are richer than the elite of a few centuries ago (certainly in Europe) and yet this hasn't happened. We are very sensitive to our position in society, just create perceived “needs” all the time, etc. A static view of needs, incentives and motivation just isn't enough to account for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also completely ignored is the problem of what counts as “work” in a society. Many people are already very busy doing things that aren't recognized as proper work. In fact, whether it is domestic production, charitable or creative activities or simply sports or “hobbies”, very few people if any are completely inactive, barring clinical depression or debilitating illnesses. The simple answer to the first question is therefore “100%”. There is no need for some “laziness” trait to explain being busy or not, the main issue is what activities are deemed productive or deserving in a particular society and about fairness in the distribution of income (“&lt;em&gt;They&lt;/em&gt; are going fishing with &lt;em&gt;our&lt;/em&gt; money”). Note that no matter how time-consuming they are, many activities regarding as feminine like caring for children or homemaking are still not considered “work”, not fully at least.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Incidentally, the appeal of the lottery and the reason some people might stop working after winning it is that it's not just making you comfortable, it's making you (what feels like being) filthy rich. It's therefore not a good model to understand ordinary decisions about work. Furthermore, as far as I can tell, people who are very rich (and not somewhere between a poorly paid job and welfare or even merely having above-average income) are not particularly inactive. Many work long hours although they could be “comfortable” working less or not at all, some work very late in life, others might engage in activities that would not be regarded as “work” but are pretty exhausting nonetheless (say golfing around the world). Some of these activities might be regarded as work, others might be classified as leisure, deserved or undeserved (i.e. “being lazy”), but in any case people do not engage in them merely to reach some comfortable income and stop there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, there is a direct contradiction between your notion that some works “needs” to be done and your search for a motivation “without need”. If nobody bakes bread and you want to eat some, then you &lt;em&gt;need&lt;/em&gt; to bake it. In fact, no matter what monetary income you might provide, if nobody produces anything then this money is worth nothing and certainly won't be enough to buy bread and live comfortably. The “problem” therefore takes care of itself and it makes these things-that-need-to-be-done-but-that-nobody-needs-to-do purely theoretical. This is why “income high enough to make their lives reasonably comfortable” is kind of begging the question. We just live in a particular time, place, and society. You cannot meaningfully abstract that away and say anything interesting, let alone get “empirical” evidence on some abstract situation that bears no resemblance with actual human experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="432" LastEditorUserId="432" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T05:36:44.160" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T05:36:44.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4047" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4042" CreationDate="2013-08-05T19:30:01.920" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you pose the question only to students who have a perfect knowledge of high school calculus, without any knowledge gaps, then they should all give the correct answer. The &quot;problem&quot; is, that you can graduate from high school without having understood all the details about differentiation. Most students don't finish high school with the best mark in maths, so obviously they &lt;em&gt;must have&lt;/em&gt; some knowledge gaps. And even many who finish with the best possible mark have only understood the format of the questions, not everything that's behind them. And then there are those for whom this detail was not part of the curriculum. Because even with an identical syllabus, there will enough leeway for a teacher to focus on different aspects and only superficially touch upon others or leave them out altogether.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short: &lt;strong&gt;Assuming that everyone with a high school degree has the same depth of mathematical understanding is somewhat naive.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I graduated from high school and never have understood even the basics of differentiation, despite the fact that it filled one year of my curriculum :-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T15:00:10.490" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T15:00:10.490" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4048" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3956" CreationDate="2013-08-05T20:43:16.720" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may be interested in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-scf.usc.edu/~csci564/lec-notes_fall2001/09.%20FARS%20Model%20Paper.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FARS model&lt;/a&gt; from Fagg and Arbib (1999) that describes the interaction of the two visual streams in the primate brain during object grasping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010945208704623&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;What Puts the How in Where? Tool Use and the Divided Visual Streams Hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; (2007) makes use of the dorsal/ventral streams to explain our ability to use complex tool. As Frey argues, &quot;the ability of the dorsal stream alone to account for one of the most common forms of human action, tool use, is limited. While experience-dependent modifications to existing dorsal stream representations may explain simple tool use behaviors (e.g., using sticks to extend reach) found among a variety of species, skillful use of manipulable artifacts (e.g., cups, hammers, pencils) requires in addition access to semantic representations of objects' functions and uses.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from these two domains, I can not see one that would benefit from the &quot;full perception action cycle&quot;: one stream is usually sufficient to describe a phenomenon. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2013-08-05T20:43:16.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4049" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-05T21:53:36.290" Score="3" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in knowing what can be learned about people by analyzing the emotional content of the words they use in casual speech or writing. I've heard it being referred to as &quot; ... analysis&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the name of text analysis where the person's words are analyzed based on their emotional context?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, statements like &quot;life sucks&quot; would be interpreted as negative, while &quot;it's very helpful and I recommend it&quot; as positive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-08-05T21:53:36.290" Title="What is the name of text analysis where emotional tone of words is analyzed?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2013-08-06T01:29:28.667" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4050" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4039" CreationDate="2013-08-05T22:52:03.847" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is little evidence that stress affects structural MRI (reduction in the volume of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus&quot;&gt;hippocampus&lt;/a&gt;). The review article (&lt;em&gt;Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://sciencegallery.com/memory/files/papers/Lupien_et_al_2009.pdf&quot;&gt;Lupien et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;) synthesizes the current knowledge in the field. Another article might be of interest (&lt;a href=&quot;http://userwww.service.emory.edu/~jdbremn/papers/metaanalysis.pdf&quot;&gt;MRI measurement of hippocampal volume in post-traumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in functional MRI and day-to-day stress, even less is known. The study  (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/102/49/17804.long&quot;&gt;Perfusion functional MRI reveals cerebral blood flow pattern under psychological stress&lt;/a&gt;) shows that ventral RPFC (right prefrontal cortex) activation is specifically associated with psychological stress, and this activity persists even beyond the stress-task period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2013-08-05T22:52:03.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4051" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-05T23:24:18.477" Score="13" ViewCount="591" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see lots of articles touting the benefits of meditation. But what are the bad things about it? Maybe if a person has to make quick decisions, meditation would not be a good thing? This could be similar to a paridigm of &quot;Thinking Fast, Thinking Slow&quot; by Kahneman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3357" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T01:32:51.650" LastActivityDate="2015-11-09T10:09:29.847" Title="What are the negative effects of meditation?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4052" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-05T23:29:38.017" Score="4" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why does it seem that people feel more pressure with a clock counting down as opposed to counting up? Is there a specific term for this? Maybe counting down signifies some sort of loss whereas counting up signifies some sort of gain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3357" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T01:33:20.200" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T01:33:20.200" Title="Why does a clock counting down generate more pressure than a clock counting up?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-07-30T19:58:27.017" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4053" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-05T23:34:55.210" Score="1" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose Bob hates his boss. Note that Bob is an &quot;average&quot; person. Also suppose that he shouts as loudly as possible &quot;[Curse] my boss&quot; (with nobody else around but him). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is it so difficult for Bob to say this directly to his boss? Is this based on social norms or is there a specific brain region which restrains this outburst?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3357" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T03:13:36.567" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T03:13:36.567" Title="Why is it difficult for employees to express hatred to their boss?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;norms&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4054" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4053" CreationDate="2013-08-06T01:24:14.643" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;While there may be many social norms operating that discourage expression of hatred to your boss, typically there would be many rational reasons not to express such hatred:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The employee's job could be terminated, which may result in lower income for the employee or  a worse job in the future. Swearing in the workplace would often be considered harassment which would often be grounds for termination.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Even where an employee has arranged another job to go to (but then technically, the relationship is not really one of employee to boss), there is the risk associated with reputation damage that can result from verbally abusing a boss.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If the outburst does not result in loss of job, a boss typically has extensive control over the employee. Bosses can typically influence your work duties, when you get leave, when you have to be at work, whether he supports a promotion, who is terminated during a redundancy process, etc. If your boss likes you, then they often have substantial discretion to make your life easier. In all those kinds of situations, life is easier if your boss is on your side.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Independent of the power relationship, you need to spend time with co-workers, and many people find it more pleasant to exist in a pleasant social work environment.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I don't think we need to resort to a neural explanation to adequately understand this behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, presumably there are legitimate ways of expressing displeasure with your boss that would be more effective in achieving your goals. This might broadly come under the heading of &quot;negotiation&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T03:44:48.810" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T03:44:48.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4055" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-06T01:46:00.117" Score="5" ViewCount="2028" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pop-culture often equates a larger penis with a more attractive penis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any scientific research examining the relationship between penis size and attractiveness ratings?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the reasons for any such relationship?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've heard that symmetry is relevance to beauty, but what is the relevance of size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3357" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T02:35:26.697" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T03:00:22.603" Title="What does scientific research say about the relationship between penis size and attractiveness?" Tags="&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4056" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-06T01:54:55.797" Score="6" ViewCount="288" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/8521854/London-School-of-Economics-psychologist-Black-women-are-less-attractive-than-whites-and-asians.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; post discusses a study published in a blog post by an evolutionary psychologist &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satoshi_Kanazawa&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Satoshi Kanazawa&lt;/a&gt;. The study suggested that black women were rated less attractive than women of other races. There is a copy of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.buzzfeed.com/mjs538/why-black-women-are-less-physically-attractive-tha&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;original blog post here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are the conclusions in the Kanazawa article valid?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What criticism can be made about the article?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3357" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T05:34:02.873" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T07:56:36.947" Title="Are Satoshi Kanazawa's findings about racial differences in attractiveness valid?" Tags="&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4057" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4055" CreationDate="2013-08-06T02:37:47.317" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in scientific research, you may want to read &lt;strong&gt;Lever, Frederick, and Peplau (2006)&lt;/strong&gt;. From their abstract&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Views about penis size were assessed in an Internet survey of 52,031&#xA;  heterosexual men and women... Whereas 85% of women were satisﬁed with their partner’s penis size, only 55% of men were satisﬁed with their penis size, 45% wanted to be&#xA;  larger, and 0.2% wanted to be smaller. Satisfaction did not vary&#xA;  across age groups from 18 to 65. Men reporting a larger-than-average&#xA;  penis rated their appearance most favorably, suggesting a possible&#xA;  confidence effect of perceived large penis size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also summarise research on actual penis size (p.130):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Combining the means and standard deviations reported by these&#xA;  researchers, we calculated that the mean erect penis length was 5.3&#xA;  in. (13.5 cm), with 68% of men measuring between 4.6 and 6.0 in. (11.7&#xA;  cm and 15.2 cm), 13.5% between 3.8 and 4.5 in. (9.7 cm and 11.4 cm),&#xA;  and 13.5% between 6.1 and 6.8 in. (15.5 cm and 17.3 cm); only about&#xA;  2.5% of men possessed a penis over 6.9 in. (17.5 cm) long, and 2.5% were under 3.7 in. (9.4 cm) long.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They then go on to discuss:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why are so many men dissatisﬁed with their penis size when the vast&#xA;  majority of women are satisﬁed with their partner’s penis size? Past&#xA;  research has suggested that one reason men overestimate the importance&#xA;  of a trait to women is that media marketed to men give greater&#xA;  emphasis to the importance of this trait than do media marketed to&#xA;  women (Frederick, Fessler, &amp;amp; Haselton, 2005). For example, media&#xA;  marketed to men (pornography, popular magazines) may emphasize the&#xA;  importance of supersized penises, whereas media marketed to women may&#xA;  not. If individuals use media as a source of information about what&#xA;  physical features are important, than gender-differentiated media may&#xA;  mislead men about women’s actual preferences. Future research should&#xA;  examine in greater detail the degree to which men overestimate the&#xA;  importance of penis size to women and the reasons for this&#xA;  misperception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Drummon and Filiault&lt;/strong&gt; (2007) presents qualitative data in relation to penis size in the gay community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Francken et al (2002)&lt;/strong&gt; surveyed 170 sexually active women.&#xA;They found that 20% of women found the length of the penis to be important and 1% very important. 55% and 22% found length to be unimportant or very unimportant. The pattern of results for penis girth were similar but girth was slightly more important. The correlation between importance of girth and width was very large (r=0.71) suggesting that there may be some underlying individual difference in women about the important of penis size in general. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lever, J., Frederick, D. A., &amp;amp; Peplau, L. A. (2006). Does size matter? Men's and women's views on penis size across the lifespan. Psychology of Men &amp;amp; Masculinity, 7(3), 129. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dfred.bol.ucla.edu/LeverFrederickPeplau-2006PMM-PenisSizeSatisfaction.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Drummond, M. J., &amp;amp; Filiault, S. M. (2007). The long and the short of it: Gay men’s perceptions of penis size. Gay and lesbian issues and psychology review, 3(2), 121-129.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Francken, A. B., Van de Wiel, H. B. M., Van Driel, M. F., &amp;amp; Weijmar Schultz, W. C. M. (2002). What importance do women attribute to the size of the penis?. European urology, 42(5), 426-431. &lt;a href=&quot;http://kozmetikcerrahi.com/indir/penissize.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T03:00:22.603" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T03:00:22.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4058" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-06T03:50:13.770" Score="3" ViewCount="800" Body="&lt;p&gt;In humans, why do &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_law_of_practice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;powers laws describe skill acquisition&lt;/a&gt;? In particular, $$RT = aP^{-b}+c$$ where $RT$ is reaction time and $P$ is amount of practice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the power law generalise to learning in other mammals?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the power law apply to learning whilst under the influence of drugs or alcohol?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the power laws apply to creative ideas or just to tangible skills?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3357" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T04:32:19.110" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T04:32:19.110" Title="Why do power laws describe learning and skill acquisition so well?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-07-18T11:17:26.350" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4059" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-06T04:26:07.067" Score="15" ViewCount="312" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is currently a &lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/q/459972/188&quot;&gt;popular question on math.SE on whether it is effective to learn math top-down&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By top-down I mean finding a paper that interests you which is&#xA;  obviously way over your head, then at a snail's pace, looking up&#xA;  definitions and learning just what you need and occasionally proving&#xA;  basic results. Eventually you'll get there but is this a bad idea? Is&#xA;  learning each required math area by textbook the better way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought that cognitive science might have something to contribute to this discussion.&#xA;Specifically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What would cognitive science have to say about the pros and cons of learning from the ground up versus taking a difficult mathematical text and following up on the details?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What decision rules would cognitive science have for deciding whether to adopt a given a approach?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Has any empirical research explicitly dealt with this question?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:19:23.180" LastActivityDate="2013-08-16T23:46:29.687" Title="What does cognitive science say about whether to learn mathematics top-down from research papers?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4060" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-06T05:13:40.830" Score="3" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Feel free to edit my title -- I'm not exactly how to sum it up in one sentence, THUS my question here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name or specific terminology related to the somewhat paradoxical situation in this example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is an almost-empty jar of imported candy in my kitchen. I have slowed (rather, ceased) consumption of this candy, because I fear I'll run out. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, logic says that not consuming and not being ABLE to consume are pretty much the same. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for what's happening in my brain, concerning this candy, or is that behavior defined by some broader term? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm certain this has been researched, but I'm not sure how to find it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3358" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T05:13:40.830" Title="What is the proper terminology for &quot;hoarding&quot; type paradox (but not extreme)?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-07-17T05:44:53.770" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4061" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4056" CreationDate="2013-08-06T05:18:53.960" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first thing to note is that the study was not published as a peer-reviewed journal article. It was published as a blog post. Thus, it has not gone through a peer review process. While the reader can function as the reviewer, the article does not follow the structure of a journal article. As such, there is an inadequate description of the method in the blog post to facilitate a proper evaluation of the study, although if you follow a trail of references, there may be more information, such as in this related post comparing &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-scientific-fundamentalist/201101/women-are-more-beautiful-men&quot;&gt;male and female attractiveness ratings&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a critique of Kanazawa's blog post &quot;&lt;em&gt;Why black women are less physically attractive than other women&lt;/em&gt;&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Subjectivity of ratings&lt;/strong&gt;: Kanazawa states that &quot;the interviewer rates the physical attractiveness of the respondent objectively&quot;. This is incorrect. Any rating by an individual of someone's attractiveness involves a degree of subjectivity. By averaging ratings over many raters we can obtain what we might call inter-subjective agreement about attractiveness. The more raters you have then the more reliable will be the individual-level measurement. That said, even such inter-subjective ratings will be influenced by the pool of raters used. For example, what is the gender, racial, composition of the raters. To what extent do these factors influence the ratings provided? Raters also come from a particular historical period where there are particular views about attractiveness. Thus, it's important to consider these factors when discussing any measure of attractiveness. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Error in ratings&lt;/strong&gt;: Kanazawa gets attractiveness ratings by averaging three ratings from three raters.&quot; From these three scores, I can compute the latent physical attractiveness score&quot;. This is not true.  Three raters is better than one. But there would still be substantial unreliability in measuring &quot;latent physical attractiveness&quot;. This is over and above the general issue of there being different definitions of latent physical attractiveness based on the pool of raters used and definitions applied. Kanazawa then goes on to make other points about factor analysis which are incorrect (e.g., claiming that factor analysis &quot;eliminates all random measurement errors&quot;). That said, some unreliability in measuring individual attractiveness is not fatal to the study. If anything, it would reduce observed group differences.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Inadequate sample and rater description:&lt;/strong&gt; There is no explicit reporting of sample sizes or sampling procedure. Thus, it is difficult to evaluate how robust the results are and whether the groups are comparable on other relevant factors such as age, dress, and so on. Furthermore, the lack of information about where the sample comes from and where the raters come from make it difficult to see to what extent any findings would generalise to other times, places, and locations. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;No standard deviations provided:&lt;/strong&gt; There is no standard deviation provided which makes it difficult to assess the size of the group differences. If we assume that attractiveness ratings are z-scores (which is likely if derived from a factor analysis). Then the differences in attractiveness ratings between black and white women were about 0.25 standard deviations. Thus, whatever the ratings captured, if you assume SD=1, then the differences between black and white women is fairly small.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Inadequate discussion of covariates:&lt;/strong&gt; Kanazawa inadequately discusses covariates that might explain any observed differences. He briefly mentions BMI and intelligence as covariates. However, there are presumably many relevant covariates including age, socio-economic status, physical health and more. An adequate analysis would explore a wide range of covariates and how they relate to attractiveness ratings, and the degree to which group differences are altered by such measures. In particular, taking the perspective of evolutionary psychology requires that you first rule out short term cultural explanations such as poverty and health related explanations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Inadequate discussion of explanations:&lt;/strong&gt; Kanazawa writes that &quot;the only thing I can think of that might potentially explain [the differences] is testosterone&quot;. This seems quite naive when I can think of a wide range of reasons why any observed differences could emerge, such as socio-economic status, money spent on appearance, lifestyle factors related to health and exercise, and most importantly culture-specific values about attractiveness that the raters may be applying.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T05:25:23.303" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T05:25:23.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4062" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4064" CreationDate="2013-08-06T09:38:04.307" Score="5" ViewCount="551" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human body is always striving for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_homeostasis&quot;&gt;homeostasis&lt;/a&gt;. One of the purposes of the brain is to maintain homeostasis, but also the brain needs to &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/cb07d.pdf&quot;&gt;maintain homeostasis&lt;/a&gt; within itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ergo:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Given the use of any drug, that acts of the brain, will cause a change in brain chemistry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are some drugs are regarded &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_dependence&quot;&gt;as addictive&lt;/a&gt; and others are not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T09:57:58.867" Title="With the brain's propensity for homeostasis, how can some drugs be labelled addictive and others not?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4063" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4065" CreationDate="2013-08-06T09:51:20.597" Score="6" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given that the process of Long Term Potentiation (LTP) is one of the processes that increases &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;synaptic efficacy&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it reasonable to conclude that the process of LTP is sufficient and necessary to control plasticity of circuits within the brain?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we assume that the biochemical factors that modulate LTP are also intrinsically linked with brain plasticity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T19:38:55.010" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T19:38:55.010" Title="Is the process of long term potentiation (LTP) definitively linked with brain plasticity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;&lt;ltp&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4064" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4062" CreationDate="2013-08-06T09:57:58.867" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is a part answer to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/understanding-drug-abuse-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Drug Facts: Understanding Drug Abuse and Addiction&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/science-addiction/drug-abuse-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction&lt;/a&gt;, addiction is a disease caused by some types of drugs.  Specifically, they rewire the brain to cause an overstimulus of the 'reward' centres and by imitating some of the pre-existing neurochemical messengers in the brain - essentially, 'tricking' the brain that homeostasis is maintained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related, the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://psy2.ucsd.edu/~mgorman/Samaha2005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Why does the rapid delivery of drugs to&#xA;the brain promote addiction?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Samaha and Robinson, 2005) concluded that the rate of delivery is an important factor:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;that rapidly&#xA;  delivered drugs might promote addiction by promoting&#xA;  forms of neurobehavioural plasticity that contribute to&#xA;  the compulsive pursuit of drugs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T09:57:58.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4065" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4063" CreationDate="2013-08-06T11:20:04.110" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although LTP might be necessary for brain plasticity, I would doubt that it is also sufficient. There is quite a lot of literature about homeostatic plasticity (for a review, see Turrigiano &amp;amp; Nelson, 2004) and synaptic scaling (for another review, see Turrigiano, 2008) which seem to be necessary to keep LTP working in the long run. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Turrigiano GG, Nelson SB (2004) Homeostatic plasticity in the developing nervous system. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 5, 97-107. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v5/n2/full/nrn1327.html&quot;&gt;Full text&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Turrigiano GG (2008) The self-tuning neuron: synaptic scaling of excitatory synapses. Cell 135, 422-435. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/abstract/S0092-8674%2808%2901298-1&quot;&gt;Full text&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T11:25:11.253" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T11:25:11.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4067" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4035" CreationDate="2013-08-06T12:15:13.993" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you take a look at &lt;strong&gt;games like minecraft&lt;/strong&gt;, they have quite a lot of players who do not work (students, college students, etc). These people first mine thousands of blocks, then rearrange them in a creative way. There's absolutely no need to do so, it is entirely voluntary, yet &lt;strong&gt;people end up moving hundreds of thousands of blocks to do something creative or to fulfill their design&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Players of minecraft explore the game environment, make tools, extract raw resources and ultimately make virtual structures like in the image below.&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gAuXP.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Statistically speaking, minecraft has more players(&lt;a href=&quot;https://minecraft.net/stats&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;11 million paid users&lt;/a&gt;) and instructional videos(with millions of views) on YouTube than any other game I know of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From this, it appears that in a world without need to work, creativity, design and &quot;market of 1 person&quot; would motivate people to do something. Cleaning toilets is not such thing. Maybe painting toilets, or designing them is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2013-08-06T12:35:41.983" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T12:35:41.983" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4069" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3986" CreationDate="2013-08-06T20:57:00.240" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Okay, let's see if I can tackle this...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Almost all of my answer to this question is being drawn from the first chapter of Michael Posner's Foundations of Cognitive Science. I, myself, am just a rising freshman at a decently ranked American university who has been studying the cognitive science literature on my own for the last few years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here I will attempt to explain one (and perhaps the most significant) example of introspections in modern cognitive science: protocol analysis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've only recently learned about it, but with the book here in front of me, I'm sure I can manage to give a good summary of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Protocol analysis, simply put, is the use of verbal reports of mental activity as data. It's not quite the same as the introspection of early psychology. From Posner, &quot;Although verbal reports date back to the introspectionists, the use of such reports as data should not be misconstrued as introspection. Introspection took subjects' verbalizations at face value as constituting a valid theory of their own thought processes. Protocol analysis today, however, treats verbal reports as a source of data to be accounted for with an experimenter-generated theory, perhaps in the form of a computer simulation.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The instructions given to subjects about how to report their introspections seems to have a great impact on the content of verbal reports. Here are some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You could ask someone to &quot;Think aloud&quot; as they are performing some task. (&quot;25 plus 25. 2 plus 2 is 4, and 5 plus 5 is 10, so carry the one and the total is 50.&quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You could ask them to report their mental processes as they are performing their tasks. These tend to elicit more theoretical answers (&quot;I am now visually processing...&quot;), especially since you're probably questioning college psychology students. These answers are usually not preferred by modern psychologists.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You could ask the subjects questions. (&quot;How did you decide to do that?&quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And so forth. The verbal reports get transcript-ed and then the experimenter then segments the report into parts that can be encoded (translated into a formal language, like mathematics) independently. Reliability of the data becomes higher the more simple and precise your coding scheme is. In fact, some systems have been invented for the automatic coding of segmented protocols, though they don't rival human experts quite yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After analyzing many subjects' narratives in this way, you have loads of rich data about how people think through a given task. Since we aren't introspectionists, of course, we don't interpret this data at face value. So how do we interpret it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Verbal protocols generally provide explicit information about the knowledge and information heeded in solving a problem rather than about the processes used. Consequently it is usually necessary to infer the processes from the verbal reports of information heeded instead of attempting to code processes directly.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So protocol analysis is most useful for understanding the knowledge consulted when one is thinking through a task. The verbs that participants use to describe their thoughts often provide useful clues about the processes involved in completing a task. For example, the tenses of verbs can distinguish between the retrieval of information from memory and the planning of future actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since we are cognitive scientists, after all, our interpretation of verbal reports are usually informed by information-processing theories of thinking aloud. In other words, our science of introspection improves our ability to derive correct conclusions from introspective data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But yeah. As a tool for guiding the creation of more precise hypothesis of human thinking (with computational models), introspection is still quite useful. Today it's more diffident and rigorous and better informed, but still alive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also can't understate the role introspection probably informally plays in driving the hypothesizing of cognitive scientists. This has less rigor, however, and may even be holding us back.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I keep saying &quot;us&quot; like I'm a scientist already. I'm not. &gt;_&amp;lt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3349" LastActivityDate="2013-08-06T20:57:00.240" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4070" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-07T00:05:24.540" Score="-3" ViewCount="720" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nootropic&lt;/a&gt; drugs like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modafinil&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;modafinil&lt;/a&gt; make you smarter?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are they like coffee?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do they improve working memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a potential for a pill like NZT-48 from the movie &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitless&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Limitless&lt;/a&gt;? From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitless#Plot&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia plot summary&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After taking [a nootropic drug, NZT-48,] Eddie finds himself able to learn faster and recall memories from his distant past, with the only apparent side effect being a change in the colour of Eddie's irises while on the drug - his eyes becoming an intense shade of electric blue. He uses this ability to finish ninety pages of his book. The next day, the effects [have] worn off...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Testing his new ability on the stock market, Eddie makes large returns on small investments...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3357" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-07-29T18:40:14.450" Title="Do smart drugs (nootropics) make you smarter?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-30T19:59:22.997" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4072" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4070" CreationDate="2013-08-07T08:01:15.503" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is very vague, and on a subject where a lot more research needs to be done, so forgive me but my answer is also going to probably be more vague and less definitive than you were hoping for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Provigil, as far as I can tell is just another brand name of modafinil, which has some very clear advantages when it comes to increasing your concentration and stamina. Military experiments show increases to precision and alertness in pilots after being awake for extended periods while on the drug compared to the control. Its actual capacity to increase your intelligence is harder to determine however. Some studies have shown it is effective, but in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16140369&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;meta analysis&lt;/a&gt; the benefits appeared to be mostly limited to those who did not have a high IQ to start with. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I have seen so far, modafinil is more reliable as a stimulant. It can increase working memory and performance at a selection of tasks in some people, but is not a magic bullet for becoming a genius temporarily. In addition, it is not particularly safe for long term use. Other drugs with less severe side effects, and measurable long term side effects exist, but they are not nearly as dramatic. Piracetam and choline are probably the best known and most widely studied combination for this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for NZT, there is unfortunately nothing at all like that yet and my speculation on the matter would be meaningless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kelley, A. M., Webb, C. M., Athy, J. R., Ley, S., &amp;amp; Gaydos, S. (2012). Cognition enhancement by modafinil: A meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 83&lt;/em&gt;(7), 685–690.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3363" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-23T21:47:18.113" LastActivityDate="2014-02-23T21:47:18.113" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4073" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4490" CreationDate="2013-08-07T09:17:22.600" Score="9" ViewCount="30876" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quote from Sheldon Cooper, Big Bang Theory &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0064640/quotes&quot;&gt;IMDB&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Leonard: You convinced me. Maybe tonight we should sneak in and&#xA;  shampoo her carpet.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Sheldon: You don't think that crosses the line?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Leonard: Yes... For God's sake, Sheldon, do I have to... hold up a&#xA;  sarcasm sign every time I open my mouth?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Sheldon: You have a sarcasm&#xA;  sign?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people tend to think very literally and also over-complicate things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This causes much misunderstanding when communicating with people, especially with the advent of texting, email and social networking, as the verbal and nonverbal cues are absent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It sometimes causes difficulty when completing tasks, as those with this condition can misinterpret what is required of them. This can be an asset academically. A  &quot;misinterpretation&quot; (or better put, a different interpretation) in one way, will, usually mean there is a gain in another aspect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When someone truly does not understand something, others might think that person is  joking. Others may not understand their humor, as he/she will make a joke about something, he/she sees as obvious and will be taken seriously by others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to describe this &quot;condition&quot; is to use the example of sudokus and cryptic crosswords. Someone might make mistakes in the easy ones, and find the more difficult ones easier to solve, looking for a more complicated solution than the one that was there and already apparent.  To solve complex problems is, often, easier than the straightforward and simple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this a known condition? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What, neurologically, may cause this in the brain?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Could this be some form of &quot;retardation&quot;?   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there ways to improve this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T00:17:55.573" LastActivityDate="2018-12-26T08:07:44.737" Title="Is there a psychological condition which promotes literal and overly complicated thinking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4075" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4035" CreationDate="2013-08-07T13:54:41.033" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;i think death is what motivates people to work:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;working is doing something and trying to be remembered, much like Picasso, Einstein... Every human would want to do something in his life, something to be remembered for, everyone wants to make a change, make a difference, the ultimate dream of every human being able is to change the world. And that's why they work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Every human on this earth is somewhat egoist, our ego tell us to work, be remembered, be one of the greatest ever been, we work for the hope that someone will remember us after dying, and not just disappear, like we have never existed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3359" LastEditorUserId="3359" LastEditDate="2013-08-07T21:04:28.323" LastActivityDate="2013-08-07T21:04:28.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4076" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4079" CreationDate="2013-08-07T14:09:35.397" Score="11" ViewCount="1043" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I saw this post on the daily Mirror: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/schoolgirl-14-hangs-herself-after-2128742&quot;&gt;A girl committed suicide because some users bullied her on ask.fm&lt;/a&gt;. I signed up to see what that site is, and it was some Q&amp;amp;A site. So she committed suicide just because someone bullied her, someone she doesn't know, maybe a bot! &#xA;That article said that many other teens did the same.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm broadly interested in why do teens in particular take the internet so seriously.&#xA;As &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherry_Turkle&quot;&gt;Sherry Turkle&lt;/a&gt; said, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=3&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;ved=0CEwQtwIwAg&amp;amp;url=http://www.ted.com/talks/sherry_turkle_alone_together.html&amp;amp;ei=YlMCUoLWDtSXhQett4H4CQ&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNFd1KHSR5vuiuUOk7bbyxNp1Z26cQ&amp;amp;sig2=VtrLOVUZspPP7yzcDHf3Zw&quot;&gt;we're connected but alone&lt;/a&gt;. And she said that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.04/turkle.html&quot;&gt;the internet is all about sex, lies and avatars&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why do teenagers take the Internet so seriously?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it because they are attached too much to the internet?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are they trying to escape real life by building virtual worlds?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any study research on this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3359" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T00:14:33.980" LastActivityDate="2013-09-02T11:44:02.620" Title="Why do teenagers take the internet and cyberbullying so seriously?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4079" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4076" CreationDate="2013-08-07T17:16:53.940" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to begin by saying this answer is based on my opinion. All the statements I make are conclusions I have drawn and may or may not have merit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Firstly, it is unlikely the cyber bullying would be the main cause of someone to suicide. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/suicide-in-the-us-statistics-and-prevention/index.shtml&quot;&gt;underlying reasons for suicide&lt;/a&gt; run deeper than this.  I believe their problems ran far deeper than recent external events. Of course, bullying will not help a person in deep depression, and could assist in pushing someone close to the edge, however, I think the whole process behind someone committing suicide takes more thought and a deep level of depression (endogenous or otherwise).  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It seems social networking and certainly the internet, has involved many people, of a varying age range.  From the conflicts that ensue all over the internet, it is not limited to teenagers.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The fastest growing segment of &lt;a href=&quot;http://socialmediatoday.com/tompick/1647801/101-vital-social-media-and-digital-marketing-statistics-rest-2013&quot;&gt;social media users&lt;/a&gt; is now adults aged 45-54%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The problem with teenagers, is they have less experience at handling their emotions and reactions (just by the mere fact of years of experience due to age alone), coupled with soaring hormone changes. Most would agree &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Puberty&quot;&gt;puberty&lt;/a&gt; and the ensuing years of a person's development are challenging for both the person and those around them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;http://umm.edu/health/medical/ency/articles/adolescent-development&quot;&gt;leaves the teenager&lt;/a&gt; as likely to be:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;More impulsive.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;More affected by others behaviour.  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People who are &quot;content&quot; and occupied in their &quot;real lives&quot; do not seek to &quot;build&quot; and find solace in a &quot;virtual&quot; life.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think cyber relationships serve many purposes and the dynamic of human interaction has developed, so that the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_behaviour&quot;&gt;group mentality&lt;/a&gt; is magnified. The anonymity and perceived (and in many ways real) freedom of consequence of user expression online has enabled a level of what (at least was until recently) socially &lt;a href=&quot;http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/5/2/3/8/2/p523823_index.html&quot;&gt;unacceptable behaviour&lt;/a&gt;. A bravado and propensity for abuse that may not be present when two people are face to face in a local car park or shopping centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, the school playground can be a tough one, for ostracising children and bullying. I believe that face to face confrontations have a greater impact than those online. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe much of our emotional reactions to our online experience are charged with the emotion of our &quot;real life&quot; experience. Let's face it, we are communicating with faceless people. Psychologically this would be a less powerful experience. Another way of saying &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-psychology-fiction/201104/does-art-imitate-life&quot;&gt;&quot;Art imitating life&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that,   a young person at higher risk of suicide, may well turn to the internet to find friends and support. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Factors that increase the risk of &lt;a href=&quot;http://kidshealth.org/parent/emotions/behavior/suicide.html#&quot;&gt;suicide among teens&lt;/a&gt; include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;lack of a support network, poor relationships with parents or peers, and feelings of social isolation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in conclusion:&lt;br&gt;&#xA; &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;I don't believe teenagers are destroying their lives, whilst building virtual lives.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (this was the title of the question when I posted my answer)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that :  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;with real life trials&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;with the propensity within a young person for depression and&#xA;potential suicide&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;with the mitigating factors that may increase the likelihood for a person&#xA;to commit suicide&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and the loosened boundaries found over the internet.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Our teenagers are in danger of being badly affected by their virtual lives&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-15T11:53:01.310" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T11:53:01.310" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4080" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4533" CreationDate="2013-08-07T18:58:04.860" Score="6" ViewCount="372" Body="&lt;p&gt;In behavioral experiments we get the first-person responses of the participants. The third-person perspective is available through the collected data. There is a second-person perspective collected through interviews. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a recent study, I analysed the response to affective audio files that have not been recognized by the participants to belong to the emotions they were depicting. Thus the first-person perspective failed. At the same time we were recording the electrodermal responses to these stimuli and received closer results to the stimuli's affective quality. The second-person interviews result was also similar to the first-person perspective. In terms of consciousness, I guess, the electrodermal responses fall under the unconscious (non-conscious) level, while the first-person and second-person perspectives are conscious. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there models that accommodate all these levels of analysis? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T02:15:25.790" Title="Descriptive models of different types of consciousness" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4081" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-07T19:03:45.993" Score="9" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;Online interaction provides an interesting avenue for experiment and experience.  People are able to hide or fabricate their personal details including age, sex, and appearance.&#xA;For the purposes of this question I am using the term &quot;personal identifiers&quot; as any indication of a person's age, sex, name, race, place of residence, etc*&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a user here, I have experimented with showing my real name, changing my user name; having a photo of myself as a kangaroo, and whether or not to display my age, provide my real age, or at one point used an age of 93 years. I have also played with whether or not to show my country (the kangaroo reveals I am at ease with this).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am most active on Stack Overflow, which is a programming site, and my belief is that programming is a male dominated field. So when I address a user, with no personal identifiers, I find myself assuming that they are male. I have noticed that when people assume I am of the opposite sex (to what I am, not what they are!), I respond differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has led me to think about the value of maintaining a certain anonymity and which aspects of one's identity are best revealed in various online settings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What information is there about perceived personal identifiers and how this affects  people's online behaviour?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What information is there regarding a person's reaction when they know they are being treated as if they are a person with different identifiers?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-11-04T13:18:19.800" LastActivityDate="2020-02-05T16:02:15.273" Title="What is the effect of displayed online personal identifiers on online communication?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4082" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4095" CreationDate="2013-08-07T23:42:04.690" Score="17" ViewCount="482" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I have always felt moderately socially insecure. Today I noticed that when I straighten my back from its normal crestfallen position, I feel a little more confident, and as if I were in attack mode.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any relationship between straightening your back and confidence or other personal characteristics?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3157" LastEditorUserId="3157" LastEditDate="2014-04-24T00:25:35.473" LastActivityDate="2014-04-26T10:52:14.177" Title="Does straightening your back increase confidence?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4083" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4082" CreationDate="2013-08-08T01:18:34.650" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Brinol et al (2009)  suggest that your intuitions generalize.&#xA;From the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Building on the notion of embodied attitudes, we examined how body&#xA;  postures can inﬂuence self-evaluations by affecting thought conﬁdence,&#xA;  a meta-cognitive process. Speciﬁcally, participants were asked to&#xA;  think about and write down their best or worse qualities while they&#xA;  were sitting down with their back erect and pushing their chest out&#xA;  (conﬁdent posture) or slouched forward with their back curved&#xA;  (doubtful posture). Then, participants completed a number of measures&#xA;  and reported their self-evaluations. In line with the self-validation&#xA;  hypothesis, we predicted and found that &lt;strong&gt;the effect of the direction of&#xA;  thoughts (positive/negative) on self-related attitudes was&#xA;  signiﬁcantly greater when participants wrote their thoughts in the&#xA;  conﬁdent than in the doubtful posture&lt;/strong&gt;. These postures did not inﬂuence&#xA;  the number or quality of thoughts listed, but did have an impact on&#xA;  the conﬁdence with which people held their thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Briñol, P., Petty, R. E. &amp;amp; Wagner, B. (2009). Body posture effects on self-evaluation: A self-validation approach. &lt;em&gt;European Journal of Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;39&lt;/em&gt;, 6, 1053-1064. &lt;a href=&quot;http://postcog.ucd.ie/files/fulltext_1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T14:57:29.640" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T14:57:29.640" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4084" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4115" CreationDate="2013-08-08T11:05:59.177" Score="20" ViewCount="79833" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I often notice that when I talk with someone with an accent that I often unconsciously start to imitate their accent. Similarly, you see some people that very quickly after moving to a country start to adopt the local accent whereas others maintain their original accent for many years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What causes individual differences in the tendency to unconsciously take on accents?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has there been research on the process of unconsciously imitating accents?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-07-23T23:27:57.897" Title="What causes some people to unconsciously imitate the accents of others?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4085" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4082" CreationDate="2013-08-08T16:23:06.173" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my personal experience I can tell you that the most confidence you get with strenthening of your shoulders (upper back), biceps and arms in general and most importantly the core (stomach). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bruce Lee (and other fighters would agree) used to say that core muscles are the most important in fight and who will win (if the fighters are similar) depends highly on the strength of their core.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing is that when you are not straight the organism thinks that you are not in charge wherever you are. Children start to stoop, when the teacher wants to test them. The same for animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I think that the physical position actually send some signals to the brain and other organs to produce some chemicals that will affect your behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personal advice: If you feel insecure try to start doing some martial art. E.g. Boxing is very good for confidence or Jeet Kune Do or Krav Maga. Or just buy a boxing bag and throw some punches in your garage (or practice some shadow boxing if you don't have a bag) every day before going to sleep. Boxing is probably the best way to boost your confidence. If your muscles became bigger, the muscle tissue is producing more testosterone and you became more aggressive = bigger confidence ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3372" LastEditorUserId="3372" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T16:35:15.210" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T16:35:15.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4086" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3090" CreationDate="2013-08-08T16:51:43.157" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been going through your question a couple of times now and I find it quite tricky to get all the details. So please correct me, if I misunderstood you in some point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically you have a test and your subjects have to determine if a stimulus belongs to a certain category or not. Of the three possible features, one is a perfect indicator for a specific category, while the other two are unrelated to it. So far, so good. But I think that there are a couple of problems with the way that you framed the problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Correct Response vs. Expected Value&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You say that, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;if the feature is the one diagnostic for the category, then correct response would be &quot;yes&quot; 100% of the time the feature is present and &quot;no&quot; 100% of the time the feature is absent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, I think that there are three things mixed together in this statement: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the correct response,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a certain response rate whith which the correct response might be given and &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the &lt;em&gt;expected value of category membership given the perfect indicator&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These may seem like a subtle differences, but I would argue they are not. While you can determine, what the correct response to a question is, there is not really a correct response rate. When a subject answers a question correctly in 95% of the cases, he gave the wrong answer a couple of times. But the response rate is not right or wrong, it's just what it is. And the response rate does not have to equal the expected value (which is 100% in this case). Jeromy Anglim already commented somehting along these lines as well. This becomes even clearer for the next statement:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If the feature is one of the two irrelevant ones, then &quot;yes&quot; will be the correct response 50% of the time regardless of feature presence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, &lt;em&gt;the expected value of category membership given an unrelated indicator&lt;/em&gt; is 50%. And since we know about that, we can formulate the hypothesis, that the subjects will catch on to it. But it's just a hypothesis and it cannot be taken for granted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it really a bias?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, administering the test, you have found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In fact it turns out that people respond &quot;yes&quot; more than 50% of the time when the irrelevant features are present, and less than 50% of the time when they are absent, indicating that the irrelevant features bias them to respond &quot;yes&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not so sure that this really is a bias, at least not one that is caused by the features. As Jeormy Anglim mentioned in the comments, the subjects might come up with all sorts of strategies. A tendency to answer with &quot;yes&quot; might also be some sort of &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquiescence_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;aquiescence bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (Ray, 1983). To be sure, that would be a bias, too, but it would not be caused by the features. But since it is not clear, how the subjects &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; respond to the test, it does not make sense to speak of a bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Quantifying the results&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said all that, you could still quantify the results. A good way to do that would be to look at the &lt;em&gt;conditional probabilities of a correct response, given a certain feature&lt;/em&gt; (which is what you already did). E.g. $$P(Y_x=1|a)$$ would denote the probability of getting a &quot;yes&quot; for an item $Y$ that asks about category $x$ when feature $a$ is present in the stimulus. You could do this for all combinations of categories and features. This would also allow for testing hypothesis about certain response rates like: Is the response rate for a certain combination significantly different from some value $P_0$?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other suggestions that you make would work, as well. E.g. taking the difference between the conditional probabilities (like in your first suggestion. A result of zero indicates that there is no difference between the proportions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in pairwise comparisons you might take a look at the &lt;em&gt;odds ratio&lt;/em&gt; (Agresti, 2007). The odds ratio considering features $a$ and $b$ for a given category would be defined as &#xA;$$OR = \frac{P(Y=1|a)/(1 - P(Y=1|a))}{P(Y=1|b/(1-P(Y=1|b)}$$&#xA;which is the same as&#xA;$$OR = \frac{odds(a)}{odds(b)}.$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; Agresti, A. (2007). An introduction to categorical data analysis (Vol. 423). Wiley-Interscience.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ray, J. J. (1983). Reviving the problem of acquiescent response bias. The Journal of Social Psychology, 121(1), 81-96.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T18:14:52.117" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T18:14:52.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4087" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4084" CreationDate="2013-08-08T16:52:56.723" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I noticed that too. And it's not only the accent but the usage of words (different for lawyer and for a farmer), the sounds the person is making, movements and gestures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it has something to do with &lt;strong&gt;&quot;calibration&quot; of your communication with your &quot;opponent&quot;.&lt;/strong&gt; to get the best possible results when the brain thinks it's possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice how you do the same with small children. I think it would be very weird if you try to talk with a toddler like: &quot;Dear Mr. John Smith, I would like to ask you if you like this yellow toy made of plastic.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am sure you would say something like &quot;Johnny, do you like this yellow doggie?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By calibrating I mean, that if you know the background, accent, social status &lt;strong&gt;you adapt&lt;/strong&gt;, your brain makes some calculations and decide what is the most beneficial behaviour (yeah, selfish gene again ;) ) based on your experience etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case to make the communication the least problematic you try to sound and act a little like your opponent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you really don't like the person you will not sound like him. But be aware that if it's e.g. some guy that was popular in the school when you was younger you can pick his accent too ;). It's because even if you don't like him, parts of your brain sees him as somebody who was more successful, had more girls etc. and your body reacts to your hidden/deeper thoughts and memories and try to impress him by sounding/acting more like him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another important thing in this process is that &lt;strong&gt;sounding like the baby (high pitched voice), like a farmer/football fan (deep voice) transform you a little closer to your opponent. So you try to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirroring_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mirror&lt;/a&gt; him. And everybody is a little narcissist  and like when he heard his voice (rewinding to your part on a record if you have a featuring as a singer) or see his own picture (the first thing after finding a picture is finding yourself) etc. ;)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sometimes you imitate people when you don't like the person, but then it's intentional and not unconscious (as you mentioned in your question) and you try to make fun of or annoy that person etc.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3372" LastEditorUserId="3372" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T20:29:16.450" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T20:29:16.450" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4088" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4053" CreationDate="2013-08-08T17:14:41.710" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it's learned behavior by the culture: You know that finding a new job is extremely hard, you have bills to pay so you do slave-like things even you don't like them. Long term thinking is largely involved (middle parts of your cortex) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the areas of controlling the short term social behavior are located to the large extent in your prefrontal cortex &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Subsequent studies on patients with prefrontal injuries have shown&#xA;  that the patients verbalized what the most appropriate social&#xA;  responses would be under certain circumstances. Yet, when actually&#xA;  performing, they instead pursued behavior aimed at immediate&#xA;  gratification, despite knowing the longer-term results would be&#xA;  self-defeating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and fear is also to the large extent efected by amygdala &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3372" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T17:14:41.710" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4089" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4076" CreationDate="2013-08-08T17:38:18.247" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually it's an easy and hard question at the same time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The easy answer is that her brain failed when compared with the standard brain model we take as a model (brain of a conscious normal teenager).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hard part is which parts of the brain made the &quot;wrong&quot; (not expected decision be our society and most people in her age) thing and she commits a suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would guess she had some problem with her limbic system (love, emotional stuff), maybe some malfunction or wrongs conformation of neuropathways in that area etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Who knows? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe some chemicals like contraception pills or some drugs were involved. But I don't think it was casued by this in her case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't blame parents or friends in this case. E.g. I had a friend, a girl, who was very well educated and intelligent, good parents, very pretty and popular. 4 years ago she hang her-self. It was like a nightmare. Nobody would expect that and still she killed herself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why? Brain malfunction. Which part of the brain? Probably impossible to tell with our current understanding of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3372" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T17:38:18.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4090" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4084" CreationDate="2013-08-08T17:46:55.857" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I am adding this as an adjunct to @Derfder's answer.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I also emphasize, that, I will provide links, or references but my answer consists of my ideas and may, or may not have merit.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is the idea that we &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirroring_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mirror&lt;/a&gt; people we like, our body language will match. Even &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/1295-human-heartbeats-breathing-synchronize.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;people's&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2277586/Two-hearts-really-DO-beat-youre-love-Scientists-couples-vital-signs-mimic-other.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;breathing&lt;/a&gt; rates can match when they are close.. and women's menstrual cycle's when cohabiting (as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menstrual_synchrony&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;discussed here&lt;/a&gt;).. This could be a link with our mating and instincts as social animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it follows, that our speech and/or accent can also change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unusual_Seabird_Breeding_Behavior#Mating_dances&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;albatross&lt;/a&gt; epitomises the art of  mirroring, with their mating dance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also have a theory, that people, without a firm sense of identity, or an underdeveloped ego  will be more likely to pick up accents of peoples around them. For example if they live in another country.  Unlike their healthy adult counterparts, who generally keep their original accent, and it only changes gradually over time; they will be like children will pick up and accent of their environment, perhaps being delayed at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loevinger%27s_stages_of_ego_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Conformist stage (E4)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The stages of ego development proposed by Jane Loevinger. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/1295-human-heartbeats-breathing-synchronize.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This link&lt;/a&gt; for the breathing and heart rates..followed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.physik.uni-halle.de/Fachgruppen/kantel/publikationen.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this link&lt;/a&gt; of  publications Jan W. Kantelhardt.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T17:53:18.337" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T17:53:18.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4091" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4035" CreationDate="2013-08-08T17:54:01.720" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Doing creative and unique(new) things will motivate you. But only if there is another person or living/virtual &quot;creature&quot; that can appreciate that or you can tell/show it to that &quot;creature&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't consider taking drugs or other stimulants/inhibitors to make you do something, because it's a distorted will or changed behavior and not your own will.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human brain will probably loose all reasons to continue supporting the body etc. when you start loosing the &quot;purpose&quot; of life. Which is basically to replicate (have children etc.) or help others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g. when you are isolated very long time alone, you might start to have suicidal thoughts. That's why a lot of prisoners that are being sentenced to 20 or more years often commit suicides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But every other answer to this question from others is valid too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Feeling and being important is what is important ;)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3372" LastEditorUserId="3372" LastEditDate="2013-08-08T18:00:40.407" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T18:00:40.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4092" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4093" CreationDate="2013-08-08T18:10:38.163" Score="14" ViewCount="362" Body="&lt;p&gt;At school I was taught that the adult brain did not produce new neurons. That we had the maximum number of neurons and this would only diminish over time due to events, like head injuries, drinking excessive quantities of alcohol, various other processes, not to mention the general atrophy the body experiences through the process of aging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember sitting through a Neuroscience lecture (about 15 years ago), and learning, that studies had shown that whilst exercising enabled the brain to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/main/news/archive/S37/28/70Q72/index.xml?section=topstories&quot;&gt;produce new neurons&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the latest evidence that the adult brain can produce new neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Please note the link is not to the lecture I refer to.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T06:41:08.787" Title="What evidence is there that the adult brain can produce new neurons?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurogenesis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4092" CreationDate="2013-08-08T19:09:27.840" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a comprehensive review, see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berg, D.A., Belnoue, L.,Song,H., Simon A. (2013) Neurotransmitter-mediated control of neurogenesis in the adult vertebrate brain.  Development, 140(12), 2548-2561. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.088005&quot;&gt;[DOI]&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Briefly,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;active adult neurogenesis is confined to two distinct&#xA;  locations: the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles in&#xA;  the forebrain; and the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus&#xA;  (DG) in the hippocampus&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These areas contain radial glial-like cells, which act as neural stem cells, and the growth of which is modulated by the respective neurotransmitters.  For example, cells which are GABAnergic will be modulated (enhanced in the SVZ and inhibited in the DG) via GABA that has diffused out of the synapses of neighboring cells&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;GABA is released from parvalbumin-expressing interneurons in the adult dentate gyrus&#xA;  (DG) and inhibits the activation of quiescent RGLs through activation of the γ 2-subunit-containing GABA A&#xA;  receptor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the SVZ, GABA also signals to and depolarizes neural&#xA;  progenitor cells, but the mechanism of release is different from that&#xA;  in the DG (Wang et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2005). Migrating&#xA;  neuroblasts release GABA in a non-synaptic, non-vesicular fashion,&#xA;  which tonically activates signaling in progenitor cells.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are mechanisms through which the progenitor cells are stimulated that rely on neurotransmitters, but are not specific to cell subtype:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neurotransmitters control neurogenesis without subtype specificity. If NSCs have restricted potential, transmitters could act on both NSCs and/or amplifying populations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's still a complicated story, but the long and short of it is, in specific regions of the brain, adult neurogenesis is known to be possible and some of the neurotransmitter-based growth factors are now being elucidated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2013-08-08T19:09:27.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4094" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4107" CreationDate="2013-08-08T19:16:55.717" Score="7" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've found that my typing performance (speed, accuracy, flow) are noticeably improved if I am swaying slightly, mostly side to side, in a non-regular manner.  I would estimate that the overall movement side to side is less than an inch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This occurs for all typing tasks, and surprisingly also affects my piano-playing performance.  It is not necessary to be listening to music (though it can help), and only sometimes does the movement correspond to the actual typing itself.  I also find that if mistakes are made, this movement is disrupted, and that consciously re-starting the movement helps restore the induced state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What could account for this effect?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would personally suspect that it's acts to induce a sort of 'flow' state, but I'd like to know if this has been studied or even noticed elsewhere...  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-09T08:11:04.273" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T14:45:38.453" Title="Improved Typing as a result of slight movement" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4095" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4082" CreationDate="2013-08-08T22:34:37.403" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The other answers cite minor effects related to your phenomena, but there's something more pervasive going on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Carney et al's research report &quot;Power Posing: Brief Nonverbal Displays Affect Neuroendocrine Levels and Risk Tolerance&quot;, it was found that &quot;power posing&quot; increases testosterone and cortisol levels which leads to, among other things, a greater tolerance of risk in general — which is practically the definition of confidence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's the abstract of their study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Humans and other animals express power through open, expansive postures, and they express powerlessness through closed, contractive postures. But can these postures actually cause power? The results of this study confirmed our prediction that posing in high-power nonverbal displays (as opposed to low-power nonverbal displays) would cause neuroendocrine and behavioral changes for both male and female participants: High-power posers experienced elevations in testosterone, decreases in cortisol, and increased feelings of power and tolerance for risk; low-power posers exhibited the opposite pattern. In short, posing in displays of power caused advantaged and adaptive psychological, physiological, and behavioral changes, and these findings suggest that embodiment extends beyond mere thinking and feeling, to physiology and subsequent behavioral choices. That a person can, by assuming two simple 1-min poses, embody power and instantly become more powerful has real-world, actionable implications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their paper explains both the ontogenetic and the phylogenetic causes of your experience nicely and can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.people.hbs.edu/acuddy/in%20press,%20carney,%20cuddy,%20&amp;amp;%20yap,%20psych%20science.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cheers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3349" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-06T18:38:31.450" LastActivityDate="2014-04-06T18:38:31.450" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4096" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-09T01:51:26.777" Score="12" ViewCount="377" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature12475.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Howe et al (2013)&lt;/a&gt; found that a dopamine signal becomes stronger as a goal is approached. The experiment involved rats running in a maze. If the rats were close to solving the maze, the dopamine signal became strong. The intensity of this signal did not depend on how fast the rats completed the maze. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goal distance was defined in terms of space and distance (i.e. how far a rat was from the end of the maze). &lt;strong&gt;Would this dopamine signal also become stronger if the goal distance was defined using time instead?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;More specifically, if the rats were under some type of time pressure, would their dopamine signals become stronger?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mark W. Howe, Patrick L. Tierney, Stefan G. Sandberg, Paul E. M. Phillips, Ann M. Graybiel. Prolonged dopamine signalling in striatum signals proximity and value of distant rewards. Nature, 2013&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-08-26T03:36:18.087" LastActivityDate="2016-07-11T19:42:20.600" Title="Does dopamine signal become stronger when goal distance is defined using time?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;goals&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4097" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-09T10:17:07.487" Score="8" ViewCount="205" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been trying to look up information about &lt;em&gt;sluggishly progressing schizophrenia&lt;/em&gt;, but the only source accessible to me was a Wikipedia article, that states that the term “sluggish schizophrenia” was created to diagnose political dissidents, but nevertheless, it has been also adopted in modern Russia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wish to know about other countries, which haven't been a part of USSR. &lt;strong&gt;Is the term officially recognized in the western world? Is it considered a complete misdiagnosis? Is there some other classification, that is used for the same condition instead?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3376" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T09:42:33.597" LastActivityDate="2013-12-31T03:14:53.040" Title="Is sluggishly progressing schizophrenia recognized outside of Russia?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4098" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4101" CreationDate="2013-08-09T10:56:19.327" Score="7" ViewCount="17508" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is  common for people to procrastinate. Putting off tasks until  the resulting deadlines get closer and  there comes a point at which the person will fire into action.&#xA;(whether this point leaves the person with enough time to complete task is another question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is it that some people seem to only work well under pressure? Why is it that people find it difficult to discipline themselves and have all their task complete well before deadlines are due?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T03:18:08.857" LastActivityDate="2016-07-14T05:20:56.400" Title="Why do some people only work well under pressure?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;procrastination&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4099" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4104" CreationDate="2013-08-09T11:05:10.720" Score="8" ViewCount="512" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been searching about this but all I found was this presentation, which is a bit too technical for me to understand, e.g: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/csh/csh06/PDFs/Dan.pdf&quot;&gt;Visual Cortical Plasticity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In what way does neuroplasticity affect the visual cortex?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a person that wears glasses, if he/she stopped using them completely or from time to time, will the visual perception and interpretation of blurred data get better by just training? Will that blur also be reduced with training?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3157" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T03:31:11.460" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T03:31:11.460" Title="Is the concept of neuroplasticity applicable to visual cortex and how does it affect visual perception?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4100" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4098" CreationDate="2013-08-09T12:31:23.127" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it is often a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886909003213&quot;&gt;myth&lt;/a&gt; that people work better under pressure. Most people who say they work better under pressure have not really tried working under normal conditions. Even if a person thinks he works better under pressure, he may work &lt;strong&gt;better&lt;/strong&gt; under normal conditions. That being said, pressure (more specifically time pressure) helps in providing &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749597809000399&quot;&gt;closure&lt;/a&gt; to tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the main reasons for procrastination has to do with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.nyu.edu/tropelab/publications/Libermanetal2002.pdf&quot;&gt;mental construal theory&lt;/a&gt;. Basically goals that are far from a person in time, space or both seem very abstract. So it is difficult to initiate abstract goals. Goals that are close in time and space are more specific. Thus they are easier to implement. To make abstract goals more concrete one should use implementation intentions and mental contrasting. That is, form specific &quot;if then&quot; plans to initiate a goal. Mental constrasting provides both a idealistic and realistic picture of your goal accomplishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, suppose you want to get started on some assignment. Mental contrasting would mean that you visualize yourself completing the assignment and the feelings associated with it (e.g. happiness, pride, etc.). Then you would visualize the obstacles preventing you from reaching the goal (e.g. feeling tired, hungry, good tv show on). This provides a sort of &quot;energization&quot; to initiate action. Then you would form the implementation intentions based off these obstacles. However, forming too many implementation intentions could be counterproductive. Note that this assumes that the goal intention is strong in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simpson, W.K., &amp;amp; Pychyl, T.A. (2009). In search of the arousal procrastinator: An investigation of the relation between procrastination, arousal-based personality traits and beliefs about procrastination motivations Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 906-911.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effect of temporal distance on level of mental construal&#xA;Nira Liberman,a,* Michael D. Sagristano,b and Yaacov Tropeb&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;W Leroy, S. (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. Vol. 109. pp 168-181.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="2920" LastEditDate="2013-08-09T12:47:29.700" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T12:47:29.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4098" CreationDate="2013-08-09T12:32:18.397" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have often wondered about this, as I know I do this, even setting myself arbitrary deadlines, not always with the best results.  The following is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; an opinion, but based on some information found while, ironically, taking a 'break' from my PhD drafting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/dont-delay/200808/in-search-the-arousal-procrastinator&quot;&gt;&quot;In Search of the Arousal Procrastinator&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, (Pychyl, 2008), the notion of 'working under pressure' could be based on their cognitive dissonance, concluding (in part):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a common theme about self-deception and task delay. We often rationalize our current delay because we don't feel like  working on the task by evoking (irrational) beliefs like, &quot;I'll feel more like it tomorrow&quot; or &quot;I work better under pressure.&quot; Although this may be the case on rare occasions for some tasks, on the whole these thoughts are simply rationalizations to justify further delay and make us feel good in the short run.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2010/01/procrastination.aspx&quot;&gt;&quot;Procrastination or 'intentional delay'?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Novotney), there could be benefits in the procrastination, as it may lead to better planning of what is needed to be done, so the pressure of the deadline is not necessarily entirely harmful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other resources cited in the above links:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ferrari, J. R. (1992). Psychometric validation of two procrastination inventories for adults: Arousal and avoidance measures. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 14, 97-110&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ferrari, J.R., Johnson, J.L., McCown, W.G. (1995). Procrastination and Task Avoidance: Theory, Research, and Treatment. New York: Springer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schouwenburg, H.C., Lay, C., Pychyl, T.A., Ferrari, J.R. (Eds.) (2004). Counseling the Procrastinator in Academic Settings. Washington, DC: APA.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burka, J.B., &amp;amp; Yuen, L.M. (2nd Edition). (2008). Procrastination: Why You Do It, What to Do About It Now. New York City: Da Capo Lifelong Books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T12:32:18.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4102" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4103" CreationDate="2013-08-09T13:56:48.820" Score="3" ViewCount="460" Body="&lt;p&gt;Something I have witnessed several times, and got me wondering, what is the psychological basis for people coming together in response to a disaster or a major event?  Be it large scale or local.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example is one that I was right in the middle of (and at one stage was in very serious danger) - the Queensland floods of 2011, which is encapsulated nicely in this video-editorial &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uYr6cvHEnyo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Hope Lives Here&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Now, a couple of points from the editorial - the narrator states that as the city of Brisbane has grown, people have become more distant and are not likely to even know their neighbours' names.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is obviously not just pertinent to the example above, but is repeated in many places.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, when push comes to shove, and when a community of strangers are faced with a catastrophe, destruction, loss and are basically 'forced into a corner' - this is when the community comes together. Following the example, a 'Mud Army' started up of people helping strangers get back on their feet (I was involved in that, despite just coming out of surgery a few weeks before).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the danger passes, life goes back to normal (generally) and we all seem to go our separate ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychological basis (more in depth than the linked editorial) for why we come together in a disaster or major event?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-22T11:33:29.883" LastActivityDate="2013-10-22T11:33:29.883" Title="What is the psychological basis for people coming together during a disaster or major event?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4103" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4102" CreationDate="2013-08-09T14:02:02.453" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=how-the-stress-of-disaster-brings-people-together&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; might be helpful. In particular, humans need social connections (according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Maslow's hierarchy of needs&lt;/a&gt;). Stress initiates people to come together. It was thought that women would come together during disaster and men would fight (i.e. the fight and flight response). However men also come together during disaster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A distinction must be made between acute and chronic stress. Acute stress (e.g. once in a life time natural disasters) promote social bonding and connection. Chronic stress (e.g. smoking, ruminating a lot, etc.), however, does not seem to produce the same effect. When the acute stress is removed, there is no imminent need for social bonding with strangers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a biological basis, it seems that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;oxytocin&lt;/a&gt; might play a key role. In particular, oxytocin is released as a &lt;strong&gt;reaction&lt;/strong&gt; to a social experience. So if a people see others in distress they may release oxytocin which promotes prosocial behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="2920" LastEditDate="2013-08-09T14:15:04.273" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T14:15:04.273" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4104" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4099" CreationDate="2013-08-09T14:15:35.743" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, the visual cortex is plastic, even in adults:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We measured adaptation in the responses of populations of cat V1&#xA;  neurons to stimulus ensembles with markedly different statistics of&#xA;  stimulus orientation. We found that adaptation served two homeostatic&#xA;  goals. First, it maintained equality in the time-averaged responses&#xA;  across the population. Second, it maintained independence in&#xA;  selectivity across the population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v16/n6/full/nn.3382.html&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v16/n6/full/nn.3382.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Plasticity is invoked for encoding information during perceptual learning, by internally representing the regularities of the visual environment, which is useful for facilitating intermediate-level vision--contour integration and surface segmentation. The same mechanisms have adaptive value for functional recovery after CNS damage, such as that associated with stroke or neurodegenerative disease. A common feature to plasticity in primary visual cortex (V1) is an association field that links contour elements across the visual field. The circuitry underlying the association field includes a plexus of long-range horizontal connections formed by cortical pyramidal cells. These connections undergo rapid and exuberant sprouting and pruning in response to removal of sensory input, which can account for the topographic reorganization following retinal lesions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22841310&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22841310&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T14:15:35.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4105" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4106" CreationDate="2013-08-09T14:17:47.160" Score="4" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question has crossed my mind a few times, and quite recently on reflection it came up again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is it that we rarely value the worth of our efforts?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By this I mean, why do people often have difficulty in valuing their own work, contributions, sacrifices and in many cases, themselves. Yet, many are quick to praise similar work, contributions and sacrifices of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example is that I don't see my work as a teacher as being of any value, I am not really fussed about my PhD and the published papers,  don't accept compliments well, and even (as some may have noticed) don't feel that I am a particularly good contributor here or on my other SE sites, and as for my own self-value, I literally don't think about it.  But will seek to praise others on their good work etc (note, this is strictly an example)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-08-24T02:30:12.320" LastActivityDate="2013-08-24T02:30:12.320" Title="The psychology of humility. Why do we not value our efforts?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4106" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4105" CreationDate="2013-08-09T14:24:55.580" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com/content/early/2013/07/08/0146167213492427&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; article, jealousy may cause a person to view themselves more as the person he is jealous of. So if you work hard, write great papers, etc. you may be jealous of another person who has similar attributes. Thus you would view yourself more like him. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_comparison_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social comparison theory&lt;/a&gt; there is the idea of upward and downward social comparisons. If you compare yourself to someone who similar to yourself or more &quot;fortunate&quot; than yourself, you will feel bad. On the other hand, if you compare yourself to someone who is less fortunate than yourself you will feel good. This is why facebook often makes people feel bad about themselves. They see people with trip photos and smiling photos and compare that to their &quot;boring&quot; lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Changing Me to Keep You&#xA;State Jealousy Promotes Perceiving Similarity Between the Self and a Romantic Rival&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="2920" LastEditDate="2013-08-09T14:30:51.667" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T14:30:51.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4107" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4094" CreationDate="2013-08-09T14:40:27.413" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I personaly also play piano and see myself into that flow easly,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check out what I just found&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Flow is the mental state of operation in which a person performing an&#xA;  activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full&#xA;  involvement, and enjoyment in the process of the activity. In essence,&#xA;  flow is characterized by complete absorption in what one does&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;h1&gt;Components of flow&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nakamura and Csíkszentmihályi identify the following six factors as&#xA;  encompassing an experience of flow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;intense and focused concentration on the present moment merging of action and awareness&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;a loss of reflective self-consciousness&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;a sense of personal control or agency over the situation or activity&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;a distortion of temporal experience, one's subjective experience of time is altered&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;experience of the activity as intrinsically rewarding, also referred to as autotelic experience&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check this out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Roy Palmer suggests that &quot;being in the zone&quot; may also influence movement patterns&lt;/strong&gt; as better integration of the conscious and subconscious reflex functions improves coordination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;h1&gt;Music&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Musicians, especially improvisational soloists may experience a&#xA;  similar state of mind while playing their instrument. Research has&#xA;  shown that performers in a flow state have a heightened quality of&#xA;  performance as opposed to when they are not in a flow state. &lt;strong&gt;In a&#xA;  study performed with professional classical pianists who played piano&#xA;  pieces several times to induce a flow state, a significant&#xA;  relationship was found between the flow state of the pianist and the&#xA;  pianist’s heart rate, blood pressure, and major facial muscles. As the&#xA;  pianist entered the flow state, heart rate and blood pressure&#xA;  decreased and the major facial muscles relaxed. This study further&#xA;  emphasized that flow is a state of effortless attention. In spite of&#xA;  the effortless attention and overall relaxation of the body, the&#xA;  performance of the pianist during the flow state improved.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3157" LastEditorUserId="3157" LastEditDate="2013-08-09T14:45:38.453" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T14:45:38.453" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4108" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4173" CreationDate="2013-08-09T15:41:25.067" Score="6" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;Related to my previous question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4094/improved-typing-as-a-result-of-slight-movement&quot;&gt;Improved Typing as a result of slight movement&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For context: slight movement (&amp;lt;1 inch in any direction) improves typing, piano-playing, and writing, among other things.  I believe this is because the continuous movement helps induce a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;flow state&lt;/a&gt;.  Additionally, any mistakes made during the activity (a misspelling, an inappropriate piano note, etc) are more easy to recover from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am now curious as to what neural processes could be taking place here - by what process does this slight movement ease the primary activity, remove or reduce errors, and induce a flow state?  What mechanism of the human body allows this 'cross-entrainment'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For bonus points, what neural activity is taking place during a flow state itself?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T21:18:21.313" Title="Neural Processes of Inducing Flow" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4109" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4891" CreationDate="2013-08-09T15:53:27.070" Score="3" ViewCount="237" Body="&lt;p&gt;Jealousy can be a powerful and destructive force. It can take over reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can severe to extreme jealousy precipitate or contribute to poor mental health, at the extreme, psychosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, is it poor mental health that can manifest pathological jealousy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-11T23:59:32.433" LastActivityDate="2013-11-06T12:31:18.080" Title="What is the causal relationship between extreme jealousy and poor mental health?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4110" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4287" CreationDate="2013-08-09T16:03:16.780" Score="4" ViewCount="567" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people are just jealous of many things they perceive others to possess. Materially or as part of that person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is a person who is prone to jealousy more likely to be jealous in romantic relationships?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or does sexual jealousy have different roots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T10:00:19.583" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T10:00:19.583" Title="Are individuals who are generally jealous more likely to experience sexual jealousy?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4111" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-09T16:12:05.173" Score="3" ViewCount="253" Body="&lt;p&gt;Taking the meaning of the word pathological to mean maladaptive and unhealthy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is/are the aetiology of pathological jealousy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What conditions are associated with features of pathological jealousy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Discussion can concern neurological or psychological problems or both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-11T23:48:19.587" LastActivityDate="2014-04-30T21:05:49.070" Title="What causes pathological jealousy?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4112" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4099" CreationDate="2013-08-09T16:15:36.433" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;One great example of such plasticity is the ability of early-blind people to utilize their V1 area to read Braille:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v389/n6647/abs/389180a0.html&quot;&gt;Functional relevance of cross-modal plasticity in blind humans&lt;/a&gt; (Cohen et al., 1997)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Excerpt from the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We conclude that blindness from an early age can cause the visual&#xA;  cortex to be recruited to a role in somatosensory processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2821" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T16:15:36.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4113" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4376" CreationDate="2013-08-09T16:16:39.473" Score="4" ViewCount="1061" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is the last of a series of questions I've posted about jealousy (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4111/what-causes-pathological-jealousy&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4110/are-individuals-who-are-generally-jealous-more-likely-to-experience-sexual-jealo&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4109/jealousy-and-mental-health&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What pharmaceutical and therapeutic treatments, if any, have been developed for managing acute jealousy&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How effective are these treatments?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T05:51:17.993" Title="How effective are pharmaceutical or therapeutic treatments for jealousy?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4114" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18668" CreationDate="2013-08-09T16:43:47.023" Score="8" ViewCount="3681" Body="&lt;p&gt;Examining two major mental illnesses that are,  loosely, grouped by mood and thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia&lt;/em&gt; is regarded as an illness associated with thought disorder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Bipolar&lt;/em&gt; is regarded as a mood disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both conditions can lead to a psychotic break and behavioral disturbance. Hallucinations can occur in both. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bipolar is characterized by depression with the occurrence of, at least, one episode of mania. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schizophrenia is characterized by phases. An active phase, where psychotic symptoms peak and the negative phase, when the personality has little affect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that both cause behavioral problems and changes to mood. That psychosis is based on false beliefs, and beliefs are thoughts. &lt;strong&gt;What is the scientific and the psychiatric basis for regarding schizophrenia as a thought disorder and bipolar a mood disorder?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-11T23:58:10.850" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T05:49:59.397" Title="Why is schizophrenia a thought disorder and bipolar a mood disorder?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4115" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4084" CreationDate="2013-08-09T17:40:40.167" Score="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TLDR&lt;/strong&gt; When two speakers become more similar in their speech this is called convergence or accomodation (opposite: divergence). This can occur on all levels of language, phonetics and phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. When mutual intellgibility is not an issue, accomodation mainly occurs when speakers like each other or want to appear likeable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Has there been research on the process of unconsciously imitating accents?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Phonetic accommodation has been documented for a range of cases, for example for &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;mean intensity (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayrecord&amp;amp;uid=1976-07084-001&quot;&gt;Natale 1975&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;perceptual similarity of individual lexical items (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.speech.kth.se/~edlund/bielefeld/references/pardo-2006.pdf&quot;&gt;Pardo 2006&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;vowel duration (&lt;a href=&quot;http://groups.linguistics.northwestern.edu/speech_comm_group/publications/dissertations/Dissertation_Midam%20Kim.pdf&quot;&gt;Kim 2012&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/1086123/Phonetic_convergence_in_college_roommates&quot;&gt;Pardo 2012&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;voice onset time, fundamental frequency and the frequency of the first formant in vowels (&lt;a href=&quot;http://groups.linguistics.northwestern.edu/speech_comm_group/publications/dissertations/Dissertation_Midam%20Kim.pdf&quot;&gt;Kim 2012&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most studies have not studied spontaneous interaction and were mostly based on special elicitation techniques, but accommodation has also been documented in spontaneous speech (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aclweb.org/anthology-new/N/N12/N12-1002.pdf&quot;&gt;Levitan et al. 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: What causes individual differences in the tendency to unconsciously take on accents?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We converge with interlocutors that we like or that we want to like us (shown by, for example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/dissertations/Babel_dissertation_2009.pdf&quot;&gt;Babel 2009&lt;/a&gt;). We diverge from those that we don't like, although this may be rarer - In general, speakers adopt pronunciations that they think are socially desirable in a situation (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://eng.sagepub.com/content/40/4/338.abstract&quot;&gt;Mather 2012&lt;/a&gt; and the classic study by William Labov it is based on).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I beg to disagree with @Skippy's opinion that people &quot;without a firm sense of identity or an underdeveloped ego&quot; are more likely to accomodate or converge with another speaker. It rather appears that &lt;strong&gt;converging with an interlocutor is a social skill&lt;/strong&gt; connected to empathy. You speak more like your interlocutor or a group you interact with so that you will be accepted as one of the team. This will make social interaction and achieving your aims easier than if you did not accomodate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't mean to say that there are not people with &quot;a firm sense of identity&quot; that are particularly unlikely to converge with other speakers. But I do disagree with the implication behind these phrases, namely that &quot;a firm sense of identity&quot; (and not accomodating) is something desirable and an &quot;underdeveloped ego&quot; (and accomodating) something undesirable. On the contrary, &lt;strong&gt;converging with other speakers is an important and valuable social skill&lt;/strong&gt; that helps us connect with other people and establish common ground. Those who (even unconsciously) insist on not accomodating to other speakers could also be characterised as having problems in adapting to new people or groups they come in contact with and lacking in empathy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I do see the point that those who are desparate for the approval of other people might go to great lengths to get it - including accomdating their speech to a high degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1183" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T17:40:40.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4116" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4114" CreationDate="2013-08-09T18:47:29.903" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22401986&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; paper, the authors note that bipolar disorder and schizophrenia share many abnormal resting state network connections. But some connections are specific to bipolar disorder and others are specific to schizophrenia. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think to really describe the two illnesses, one must look at specific biological data. Fuzzy terms like &quot;mood disorder&quot; and &quot;thought disorder&quot; are used without any concrete meaning. If somebody looked at the fmri data he would be able to tell the difference between bipolar disorder and schizophrenia (without knowing any psychiatric terms). At the same time, I think looking solely at fmri data can be too abstract without being informed by psychology and psychiatry. A good book on this subject is &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0465018777&quot;&gt;Brainwashed: The Seductive Appeal of Mindless Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also some evidence that time perception may be altered in various mental illnesses. So one may distinguish bipolar disorder and schizophrenia in terms of differences of time perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Differences in resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging functional network connectivity between schizophrenia and psychotic bipolar probands and their unaffected first-degree relatives.&#xA;Meda SA, Gill A, Stevens MC, Lorenzoni RP, Glahn DC, Calhoun VD, Sweeney JA, Tamminga CA, Keshavan MS, Thaker G, Pearlson GD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="2920" LastEditDate="2013-08-09T18:54:19.150" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T18:54:19.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4117" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4118" CreationDate="2013-08-09T19:13:45.243" Score="11" ViewCount="262" Body="&lt;p&gt;Frequently I hear people say (and myself included) &quot;darn it, I can't get that song out of my head!&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any studies that examine this phenomenon of songs getting stuck in people's heads?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I.e., what factors are involved in some people to get a certain song stuck in their head and not others:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When is it more likely to occur?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why does the same song gets stuck for one person and not for others?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What methods can stop it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any relation to other issues like OCD?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When it is considered not normal?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T00:07:44.237" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T09:20:00.467" Title="Are there any studies that examine the phenomenon of songs stuck in the head?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4118" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4117" CreationDate="2013-08-09T19:18:12.170" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.2897/abstract?globalMessage=0&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a study that creates and manipulates the &quot;song stuck in your head&quot; phenomenon. In particular, it is a myth that only &quot;bad&quot; songs are stuck in your head. These songs can be categorized as intrusive thoughts. Also the obvious finding was that recently heard music was more likely to be stuck in your head.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors comes up with a term called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bellinghamherald.com/2013/01/14/2833817/songs-stuck-in-your-head-not-always.html&quot;&gt;&quot;Goldilocks Effect.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; In particular, songs are more likely to be stuck in your head if you are doing a really easy or a really hard task. If you are doing a really easy task it is easy for your mind to think about other things (e.g. think about driving on a highway and being in a &quot;highway hypnosis&quot;). When you are doing a hard task sometimes a moment of relaxation and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/cd/18_4_inpress/Kounios_final.pdf&quot;&gt;insight&lt;/a&gt; is needed. This is where songs often come up. Thus to control this, you should do an activity that is not too easy or too hard (or not too little or too much arousal following the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes%E2%80%93Dodson_law&quot;&gt;Yerkes Dodson Law&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Going Gaga: Investigating, Creating, and Manipulating the Song Stuck in My Head&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ira E. Hyman Jr.*, Naomi K. Burland, Hollyann M. Duskin, Megan C. Cook, Christina M. Roy, Jessie C. McGrath, Rebecca F. Roundhill&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kounios, J., &amp;amp; Beeman, M. (2009). The Aha! Moment The Cognitive Neuroscience of Insight. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(4), 210-216.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="2920" LastEditDate="2013-08-09T19:23:21.300" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T19:23:21.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4120" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4109" CreationDate="2013-08-09T23:15:48.597" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it can go both ways. According to Tesser's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-evaluation_maintenance_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self Evaluation Maintenance Theory&lt;/a&gt;, any two people in a relationship make themselves feel better by comparing themselves to each other. The key idea is that if you are closer to a person then you will tend to feel more jealous. For example, suppose your best friend got a really fancy car. You will naturally feel jealous. However, what if someone told you that Bill Gates got a really fancy car? You wouldn't feel jealous.This is similar to mental construal theory mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4098/working-under-pressure/4100#4100&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; post.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you tend to be jealous of someone close to you all the time I would think this would lead to depression. Depression is marked by rumination which is what happens if you are constantly jealous. Then again, if you are depressed because of some acute stress (e.g. death in a family) then you could feel jealous of other people without this particular stress. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the best ways of overcoming jealousy is to accept that you are jealous and empathize/congratulate the person you are jealous of. Exercises like mindfulness meditation would help promote empathetic behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-08-09T23:21:50.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4121" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-10T08:32:44.213" Score="9" ViewCount="1796" Body="&lt;p&gt;Logically there are three ways trauma can affect a person's propensity for empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;increase&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;decrease&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;no change&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the key personality traits that can be used as predictors of this outcome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T18:27:48.830" LastActivityDate="2014-07-20T15:44:57.720" Title="What personality traits moderate the effects of trauma on empathy?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4122" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4037" CreationDate="2013-08-10T08:33:51.680" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some articles with some information pertinent to your question, hope this helps:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/104/35/13861.full&quot;&gt;&quot;Human and animal cognition: Continuity and discontinuity&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Premack, 2007), that as several species have skills once thought to be unique to humans, that this suggests that there is a misleading (the article's word) disparity between 'brain' and 'mind'.  So the article's focus is on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What are the dissimilarities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When examining 8 aspects, or competencies, including teaching, short-term memory, causal reasoning, planning, deception, transitive inference, theory of mind, and language, the authors found that the similarities to be minor, but the dissimilarities to be very large and that there is no disparity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each of these points are discussed in depth in the article (too big for this answer); however, the article's author concludes with a fundamental difference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Animal competencies are mainly adaptations restricted to a single goal. Human competencies are domain-general and serve numerous goals. For instance “planning” may be tied to episodic memory, suggesting a broad competence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Going further, according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/inmanh/adsys10/Readings/Roth_n_Dicke_-_Evolution_of_brain_and_intelligence_-_TrendsCogSci_2005.pdf&quot;&gt;&quot;Evolution of the brain and intelligence&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, (Roth and Dicke, 2005), that a main difference is due to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;factors that correlate better with intelligence are&#xA;  the number of cortical neurons and conduction velocity,&#xA;  as the basis for information-processing capacity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and critically (bolding mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The outstanding intelligence of humans&#xA;  appears to result from a &lt;strong&gt;combination and enhancement&#xA;  of properties found in non-human primates&lt;/strong&gt;, such as&#xA;  theory of mind, imitation and language, &lt;strong&gt;rather than from&#xA;  ‘unique’ properties&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-10T08:33:51.680" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4123" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-10T10:12:39.490" Score="7" ViewCount="8745" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Probability learning is a principle that states probability of a response tends to match the probability of the reinforcement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does one achieve such rationality under uncertainty? What are the real-life applications of this concept?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for lucid answers as I'm a lay person. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;a href=&quot;http://implab.hu/wiki/images/8/81/Aczel_-_Strategy_Analysis_of_Probability_Learning.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://implab.hu/wiki/images/8/81/Aczel_-_Strategy_Analysis_of_Probability_Learning.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3220" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2013-08-10T12:23:00.720" LastActivityDate="2013-12-05T14:04:24.390" Title="What are the real life applications for Probability Learning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4125" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4235" CreationDate="2013-08-10T16:00:05.830" Score="4" ViewCount="425" Body="&lt;p&gt;I propose the concept, that human beings, as animals have the same instincts as other animals. Even though we are social animals, we still have the basic nature of fight and flight and we teach ourselves to overrule these with the &quot;conscious mind&quot; or frontal lobe. To help reinforce the practice of inhibiting behaviour that &quot;may&quot; be destructive to other human beings, are many laws, and  social and organisational constructs of &quot;morality&quot; (eg religion, schooling). These practices assist in the individuals development of conscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This leads me to a group of people who fail to conform to the social norms that are supposed to help to  ensure that human beings have the optimal chance to overcome base desires and instincts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Dark Triad;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Narcissism&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Machiavellianism&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Psychopathy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The key features being;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;lack of empathy&lt;br&gt;&#xA;self-centredness&lt;br&gt;&#xA;lack of remorse    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the pure analysis that the percentage of people with these diagnoses are not the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;norm&lt;/a&gt;. It can be argued that these people are defective, as they are not the norm. It has been argued these personality types can be genetic and caused by environment and every permutation between. One could, almost argue that it is the underlying &quot;default&quot; of human nature, when all our conditioning is stripped away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Are people diagnosed with Narcissism, Machiavellianism or Psychopathy  truly different; or are these set of personality traits dormant within all people?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T00:05:11.350" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T14:25:24.943" Title="The Dark Triad Abnormal Development or Base Human Nature?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4126" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4128" CreationDate="2013-08-10T16:56:21.373" Score="9" ViewCount="517" Body="&lt;p&gt;When someone is insulted, they can feel anxiety and shame, even though his/her conscious mind knows the insult isn't true and tries to be as logical and unemotional about it as possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Positive self-talk (&quot;I am relaxed&quot;, &quot;The insult is false&quot; or similar) isn't always effective for those experiencing this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be natural to feel that way (social self-preservation), but it seems to me that there should be &lt;strong&gt;effective methods&lt;/strong&gt; to control the unconscious mind in these situations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can an individual prevent insults from unconsciously causing negative emotions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T00:14:54.427" LastActivityDate="2019-04-30T10:26:28.100" Title="How to prevent insults from unconsciously causing negative emotions?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4128" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4126" CreationDate="2013-08-10T18:42:18.257" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness meditation can help reduce the intensity of emotional pain. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.painjournalonline.com/article/S0304-3959%2810%2900223-X/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; study explores this further. Even &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900%2811%2900745-0/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;listening&lt;/a&gt; to music may help reduce the intensity of pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Christopher A. Brown, Anthony K.P. Jones. Meditation experience predicts less negative appraisal of pain: Electrophysiological evidence for the involvement of anticipatory neural responses. Pain, 2010.  doi:10.1016/j.pain.2010.04.017&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;David H. Bradshaw, Gary W. Donaldson, Robert C. Jacobson, Yoshio Nakamura, C. Richard Chapman. Individual Differences in the Effects of Music Engagement on Responses to Painful Stimulation. The Journal of Pain, 2011; 12 (12): 1262. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2011.08.010&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T17:07:45.583" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T17:07:45.583" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4129" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4131" CreationDate="2013-08-10T21:24:46.830" Score="11" ViewCount="252" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_immersion&quot;&gt;Immersion&lt;/a&gt; is the process by which children learn their native language, but it can also be used in educational settings. Apparently in some countries, where the official language is not the language that is actually spoken, immersion is used in schools to teach the official language. Some companies (like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Stone_%28company%29&quot;&gt;Rosetta Stone&lt;/a&gt;) also use the method of immersion in their language programs. &#xA;From reading the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_immersion&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; it seems that learning (a second) language by immersion is mostly used for children and does take quite a long  time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there studies that compare the learning of a language by immersion and the learning by other approaches? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is immersion equally useful for adults and for children?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-11T01:40:16.543" LastActivityDate="2013-08-11T01:40:16.543" Title="Learning a language by Immersion" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4130" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6480" CreationDate="2013-08-10T21:56:29.123" Score="7" ViewCount="567" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been several papers going against the effectiveness of NLP. One aggregate paper is referenced in the Wikipedia article on NLP, namely Witkowski (2010).&#xA;However, NLP seems to encompass a wide variety of techniques. &#xA;I'm particularly interested in the &lt;em&gt;fast phobia cure&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any empirical support for or against the &lt;em&gt;fast phobia cure&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Witkowski, Tomasz (1 January 2010). &quot;Thirty-Five Years of Research on Neuro-Linguistic Programming. NLP Research Data Base. State of the Art or Pseudoscientific Decoration?&quot;. Polish Psychological Bulletin 41 (2). doi:10.2478/v10059-010-0008-0.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T00:22:05.943" LastActivityDate="2014-05-24T16:55:30.280" Title="Is there any empirical support evaluating the fast phobia cure?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;neuro-linguistic-prog&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4131" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4129" CreationDate="2013-08-10T23:21:46.800" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a part answer.  According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://carla.acad.umn.edu/cobaltt/modules/strategies/immersion2000.pdf&quot;&gt;&quot;Immersion Education for the Millennium:&#xA;What We Have Learned from 30 Years of&#xA;Research on Second Language Immersion&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, (Cummins, 1998), based on the Canadian example of French language immersion state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For immersion education to attain its maximum potential it must be integrated into an&#xA;  educational philosophy that goes beyond just the discipline of Applied Linguistics. Students&#xA;  must have opportunities to communicate powerfully in the target language if they are going&#xA;  to integrate their language and cognitive development with their growing personal identities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I noticed this as well when I was a teacher in Japan (I am Australian), where (and this is an anecdotal observation) multilingual students seemed to pick up the language by immersion, rather than the classroom.  The same applied to me, in Japanese classes I did not do too well, but immersing myself into the surroundings, I was able to pick up the language (at least the functional parts) very quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A great reference is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.carla.umn.edu/resources/working-papers/documents/WP10_ImmConf_LookingBack_Ahead.pdf#page=93&quot;&gt;&quot;Integrating Language and Content in Immersion Classrooms:&#xA;Research Perspectives&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Swain, 1998), making an important point that the traditional way of teaching aspects of language, e.g. grammar in isolation, i.e. without a context is not a particularly effective means of language development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-10T23:21:46.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4132" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-11T00:43:07.560" Score="6" ViewCount="168" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;: As I write this I am rather &quot;tipsy.&quot; I wanted to do some experiments and test my reaction time. I noticed that ironically, my reaction times were a lot quicker than when I am sober. Is there a reason for this? Perhaps slight intoxication may improve reaction time? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that slight intoxication can improve creativity according to Jennifer Wiley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there laboratory results backing up the fact that reaction time could actually be &lt;em&gt;faster&lt;/em&gt; under these circumstances?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3381" LastEditorUserId="616" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T06:39:38.733" LastActivityDate="2013-08-12T06:39:38.733" Title="Does intoxication ever improve reaction time?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4133" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4123" CreationDate="2013-08-11T02:48:33.190" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's actually much simpler - on the surface - than what that quoted item implies!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probability learning is literally &quot;learning&quot; what the &quot;probability&quot; is of certain things, the study of how people and other animals learn about real world probabilities outside a statistics classroom, and in cognitive science (like in the PDF you linked) the concern is about strategies, methods, and the real world mechanics of how intelligent creatures actually manage to figure this stuff out; of course, sometimes the answer is just &quot;wow, people are really bad at this!&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When your quoted text says that &quot;probability of a response tends to match the probability of the reinforcement&quot;, this is not a maxim to live by - it does not describe, necessarily, how you &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; behave. Put in jargon, it's &lt;em&gt;descriptive&lt;/em&gt;, not &lt;em&gt;prescriptive&lt;/em&gt;. It's not a question of rationality at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What it does correctly describe is that many animals are pretty good at modifying their behavior to match the unpredictable nature of our world. In the real world, this means things like: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what route to take to work to avoid delays or accidents&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;how to dress for the weather (hot/cold, rain/snow, etc)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;gambling games of all kinds (&quot;come on Box Cars!&quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;where to eat to avoid food poisoning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In animal research, that paper by Aczel mentions experiments where rats have a T-maze, where they look for food to the left or to the right. Originally behaviorists were just interested in learning and unlearning of things like &quot;the cheese is always on the left side&quot;, and they found that rats figured this out and would (sensibly) usually go to the left side first in expectation of the food. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then some smarty-pantses wondered what would happen if there was only a certain probability of food being in a certain place, and how this might effect the rat behavior. It turns out that they end up figuring out what the best place to go is and altering their behavior according to how lopsided the observed probability seems (so if it's 60:40 they might hardly prefer one side to the other at all, but with 75:25 they don't exclusively search the one side that is more likely - they just prefer it according to the probability). This means that the probability of the response (choosing the left side) tended to match the probability of the reinforcement (getting food). Makes sense, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This also explains why most people aren't compelled to run along every vending machine they see to search for forgotten change; sure, sometimes you do get change this way, but you usually don't, and from this we can reasonably predict that most people won't engage in this sort of change-tray-obsessed behavior. Obviously this system is open to peculiarity, like the lottery or insistence on behavior that no past experience indicates will work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And this leaves us to cognitive research, where enterprising folks try to figure out the HOW of dealing with the probabilistic nature of life, where you never know what you are going to get - yet we do seem to get a 'feel' for how likely something is without having a statistician run 10000 trials and give us an analysis a year later. How do we do that, anyway? I dunno - I haven't read enough probability learning research!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to how to use this in your everyday life, it would I suppose be about how to get better at doing it yourself by avoiding poor strategies (though you'd probably be better learning more about statistics directly), or about teaching others to get better at the same. I don't know if learning about the 'how' of probability learning is as useful as the 'how' of memory, but this is pretty well outside my field of interest so I can't say.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3382" LastActivityDate="2013-08-11T02:48:33.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4134" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3675" CreationDate="2013-08-11T03:20:46.580" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This reminds me of something one of my psychology professors said to me: &quot;the body needs rest, but the brain needs sleep&quot; (it's a common enough saying, but that's where I heard it). And this is pretty well borne out by extensive research in a variety of fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, is sleep a habit or addiction that can be kicked? Well, people have managed this, actually. And the results are quite clear: severely reduced performance, PTSD, hallucinations, psychosis, and eventually catatonic states. The military and old psychiatric studies do a thorough job of cataloguing the more severe end of the spectrum wit real world examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In common parlance, lack of sleep can be attained, and it universally drives people stupid right up until it drives them insane. This is the result not just of sleep-deprivation torture techniques, but with pharmaceuticals that interfere with the drive or ability to fall asleep. There are naturally occurring illnesses that make people unable to sleep, and these all end the same way: if a person does not sleep they lose their ability to function first effectively, then rationally, and finally one cannot function at all. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this way, sleep is like eating, and far harder to find an alternative. Some research I recall studied meditation and some methods to induce a sleep-like state that partially reduced the need for sleep - but it was a minor reduction that did not even hint at the possibility of elimination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But why do we need to sleep? Well, not being a sleep scientist myself, I defer to a nice &lt;a href=&quot;http://healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/healthy/matters/benefits-of-sleep/why-do-we-sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Harvard write-up that says&lt;/a&gt;, in short &quot;we don't really know for sure.&quot; But there are plenty of theories supported by research, and one of the most recent (and perhaps critical) is the role in brain plasticity: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of the most recent and compelling explanations for why we sleep is&#xA;  based on findings that sleep is correlated to changes in the structure&#xA;  and organization of the brain. This phenomenon, known as brain&#xA;  plasticity, is not entirely understood, but its connection to sleep&#xA;  has several critical implications. It is becoming clear, for example,&#xA;  that sleep plays a critical role in brain development in infants and&#xA;  young children. Infants spend about 13 to 14 hours per day sleeping,&#xA;  and about half of that time is spent in REM sleep, the stage in which&#xA;  most dreams occur. A link between sleep and brain plasticity is&#xA;  becoming clear in adults as well. This is seen in the effect that&#xA;  sleep and sleep deprivation have on people's ability to learn and&#xA;  perform a variety of tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to why the symptoms you experienced seem similar to drug withdrawal, this is partly a coincidence; there are many illnesses and body states that produce the exact same symptoms - ask anyone who's experienced &quot;abdominal pain&quot;. This is actually how medicine use to work up until the modern age, where illness and disease was categorized based on symptoms. It just 'feels' like a good system, but this is also why looking up any system online will indicate you might have cancer; a fever has dozens of common causes, twitches even more, and pain has countless more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an aside, this is also a major area of growth in the clinical psychology/psychiatry field, where someday in the future we may learn enough about mental illness to no longer define conditions according to systems but by underlying causes and treatments. But I digress...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also partial similarity due to underlying physiology/psychology. Pain, for instance, has an extremely strong mental component (some would argue that it is the largest component on day-to-day pain), but also sleep seems to have a role in bodily maintenance tasks like tissue/muscle repair as well. So if you aren't sleeping you are miserable, and that makes pain worse and seem to emanate from everywhere, and if your body is repairing muscles at a lower rate than normal then you are experiencing a genuine increase in communicated muscle/tissue pain to make things even worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I would note that sleep is an addiction - but so is breathing. Just because it is an addiction doesn't mean it's something you can - or at least should - try to defeat :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3382" LastActivityDate="2013-08-11T03:20:46.580" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4135" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4132" CreationDate="2013-08-11T03:51:05.130" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short: none that I could find. Indeed, it's a very one-way relationship - the more you drink the worse reaction time gets. However, there is a starting point, which is generally put around .02-.06 depending on your chosen study - below that threshold the effect of BAL on reaction times is difficult to pin down. Most studies I found showed that below .05% often showed no change in cognitive functioning regarding reaction times, though it was often theorized that intoxicated people are able to compensate for their impairment under normal testing conditions, as in this study: &lt;a href=&quot;http://esciencenews.com/articles/2010/10/19/alcohol.increases.reaction.time.and.errors.during.decision.making&quot;&gt;Alcohol increases reaction time and errors during decision making&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This suggests a possible answer, however - you knew if intoxicated your reaction times could be worsened, so you focused extra resources on maximizing them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, studies in general are statistical in nature - none say that &quot;no one ever showed improved reaction time while intoxicated&quot;, because sometimes its just a fluke, sometimes people are especially trained at compensating for intoxication (even at a subconscious level), and a host of other similar factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What this all indicates is that even if your reactions were repeatedly tested under measured circumstances, you might very well be able to show improved reaction times under varying level of intoxication; however this is extremely likely to require more of your mental resources, so that under stress or complicated situations you would find real-world performance to be poorer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I would also warn that reaction time does not necessarily correlate with any/all other cognitive tasks. Those with even .05 BAL are often found be twice as likely to be in an automotive accident, even though most reaction time studies and general cognitive ability tests would show low/no impairment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, still I cannot say there is any literature I can find that studies specifically the effect of low-moderate levels of intoxication on a variety of individuals, especially with the goal of identifying potential enhancement of any cohort within the study. At least if there was such a study it could have been considered to have failed to find any result worthy of publishing, or be rephrased to be a study that showed reduce reaction time in fitting with other similar research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3382" LastActivityDate="2013-08-11T03:51:05.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4136" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4156" CreationDate="2013-08-11T05:43:50.500" Score="4" ViewCount="3289" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot have encountered people who seem to be addicted to receiving sympathy - before getting to my question, allow me to clarify, what I am referring to are people for whom, &lt;strong&gt;knowingly&lt;/strong&gt; portray 'everything as a crisis'.  I am deliberately putting 'addiction' in quotation marks as I am not sure that it is in fact an addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I used to be this way myself, making even the smallest transgression into a big issue and then using it to get sympathy from others, when I received said sympathy - it felt 'good'.  (Nowadays, I just deal with issues myself).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my question is, is the sympathy 'addiction' akin to substance addiction or is it a deficit of resilience? or maybe both?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2016-06-05T10:09:54.863" Title="Is the 'addiction' to receiving sympathy similar to substance addiction or just a deficit of resilience?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4137" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4136" CreationDate="2013-08-11T08:06:13.033" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;1) I don't believe a person can be addicted to gaining sympathy. I believe that a person who is in the habit of manipulating others for sympathy is more a reflection of a deficit within their personality, as opposed to an addiction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The  one exception being within a Histrionic Personality Disorder or the like, where a person becomes &lt;a href=&quot;http://stress.about.com/od/situationalstress/a/adrenaline0528.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;addicted&lt;/a&gt; to the chemical release in the brain that comes with high &lt;a href=&quot;http://changingminds.org/explanations/brain/fight_flight.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;stress&lt;/a&gt; and drama. I regard the focus here is on create crises as opposed to seeking sympathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) As for a lack of resilience, the character weakness may or may not be linked to a low level of resilience. There are many variables that would need to be examined before passing that judgment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The seeking of sympathy can be a part of attention seeking behaviours, which in turn can be a part of a personality disorder. It would be fair to say that the complexity of &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/personality/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;personality disorders&lt;/a&gt;, could not be summed up in terms of resilience. Although it can be said, that a person lacking healthy coping skills, may be less resilient. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The American Psychological Association &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_resilience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;suggests&lt;/a&gt; &quot;10 Ways to Build&#xA;  Resilience&quot;, which are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;maintaining good relationships with close family members, friends&#xA;  and others;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to avoid seeing crises or stressful events as unbearable problems;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to accept circumstances that cannot be changed;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to develop realistic goals and move towards them;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to take decisive actions in adverse situations;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to look for opportunities of self-discovery after a struggle with&#xA;  loss;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;developing self-confidence;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to keep a long-term perspective and consider the stressful event in&#xA;  a broader context;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to maintain a hopeful outlook, expecting good things and visualizing&#xA;  what is wished;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to take care of one's mind and body, exercising regularly, paying&#xA;   attention to one's own needs and feelings.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interesting point in this, is that good coping skills are linked with resilience, and asking for help is considered a good coping skill. Which is akin to seeking sympathy, as charity between people is often motivated by sympathetic feeling, whether it was the intention of the sympathised to evoke it or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Is the 'addiction' to receiving sympathy similar to substance addiction or just a deficit of resilience?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I would conclude that there can be an addiction to drama, but not&#xA;sympathy.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A deficit in resilience could lead to sympathy seeking behaviours&#xA;due to needing extra support.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;More likely, a deficit within the personality, that requires&#xA;attention and is part of a bigger disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T14:23:09.053" LastActivityDate="2013-08-12T14:23:09.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4139" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-11T12:51:08.747" Score="4" ViewCount="6031" Body="&lt;p&gt;A little Background:&#xA;The protocol I am taking about is 16-20 hours of fasting and a 4-8 hour eating window (e.g. fasting between 6 PM and 10 AM). I have been doing IF (intermittent fasting) for 7 months. I think the key hormones relevant to this question are ghrelin and testosterone. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible for intermittent fasting to make you smarter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3381" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-26T03:36:59.170" LastActivityDate="2014-05-11T13:41:34.897" Title="Does intermittent fasting increase intelligence?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4141" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-11T20:58:25.093" Score="6" ViewCount="324" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that the structure of the conscious mind has some strong similarities to the way our visual field functions. The visual field has a strong and detailed&#xA;focus at the center, and this is what generally commands our attention,&#xA;while at the same time the visual resolution decreases outward from that&#xA;center and its content occupies less of our attention, to the point that&#xA;our peripheral vision will alert us to movements but has little to do&#xA;with what we are recognizing consciously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is similar to the way we think. We have a central focus,&#xA;which is the conscious thought, but that object of thought has many&#xA;associations or links to other thought objects, and they form a ring&#xA;around the focus, just out of view (ie. in the immediate unconscious&#xA;zone). Those primary associations also have their own associations&#xA;that form a secondary ring, deeper into the unconscious, with further&#xA;rings extending outward representing decreasing levels of action&#xA;potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It makes sense to me that the conscious mind would be patterned on the&#xA;functional model of the visual field which is much older and more&#xA;fundamental.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, my question: &lt;strong&gt;Does the structure of consciousness mimic that of the visual process?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3386" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T01:12:37.013" LastActivityDate="2014-01-19T03:18:11.187" Title="Does the structure of consciousness mimic that of the visual process?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4144" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-12T06:38:47.120" Score="7" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;A previous &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/868/can-you-catch-up-on-lost-sleep&quot;&gt;question dealt with whether it is possible to catch up on lost sleep&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;This question is a little different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume that a healthy adult has been deprived of sleep for &quot;x&quot; hours.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;How much sleep is required to restore healthy brain function, compared to sleep lost?&lt;/strong&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't think the hours needed could be predicted by a linear scale.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Is there some predictable relationship between the two and what type of relationship is it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-08-18T17:09:36.393" Title="How much additional sleep is required to recover from a given number of hours of sleep deprivation?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2014-08-19T12:38:03.373" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4145" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4146" CreationDate="2013-08-12T08:27:42.807" Score="7" ViewCount="2161" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose you isolate a class of undergraduate mathematics majors who are about to enroll in a semester of real analysis (rigorous, proof-based calculus) and split them into two groups. Then, you schedule the first group to study n hours of real analysis every week and the other group to study (n-m) hours of real analysis every week and perform m hours of n-back training (assume that n and m are reasonably well tuned; m is probably much smaller than n). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also assume that the second group does not take shortcuts in doing the training (where certain patterns are exploited).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which group do you conjecture to perform better in the analysis&#xA;course and why?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;To what degree will one group perform better and why?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does having a wider short-term memory horizon of numbers (which I&#xA;assume n-back produces) result in being able to keep track of more&#xA;variables and rigorous proof steps in a sharper way (working memory)&#xA;and in faster comprehension of mathematical concepts (fluid&#xA;intelligence)?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does the training result in a larger attention span and therefore to&#xA;better grades?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T09:41:21.373" LastActivityDate="2014-02-03T21:09:50.003" Title="Is consistent dual n-back training likely to improve the performance of analysis (mathematics) students?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4146" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4145" CreationDate="2013-08-12T10:23:21.470" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume that the group that  spends &lt;strong&gt;100% of their time studying real analysis and 0% of their time doing n-back training&lt;/strong&gt; will do best in any subsequent real analysis course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive skill acquisition does not generalise all that much (for a review see VanLehn, 1996). &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_of_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Transfer&lt;/a&gt; is often limited. I'm sceptical of any claims that short term training can lead to far reaching cognitive change as implied by n-back training. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The demands on working memory of problems in a domain get less as the knowledge and rules implied by a domain get better acquired. Over time students will start to recognise patterns, and will learn to apply rules specific to the domain. Domain specific practice is probably the best way to acquire that knowledge. And in general, the more time that is spent on learning that knowledge, the more knowledge that will be acquired. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, much could be said about creating an optimal learning environment for real analysis. For example, consolidation of prerequisite knowledge, providing practice at the right level of difficulty, providing feedback to the learner, providing a good mix of presentation of content with problem exercises, distributing practice over time, and so on are all important components of an effective learning environment. However, these have nothing to do with n-back, and everything to do with good pedagogy. In particular, if you want to teach something other than real analysis, but your aim is effective performance in real analysis, then you should examine what are the relevant skills and prerequisites for effective performance in real analysis. And combine this with an examination of student difficulties and knowledge gaps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Empirical Evaluations&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@Ofri Raviv pointed out two references (Shipstead et al, 2012; Melby-Lervag et al, 2013) that provide reviews of working memory training and are generally critical of its utility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Melby-Lervag and Hulme (2013)&lt;/strong&gt; did a meta-analysis of working memory training studies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To be included in the review, studies had to be randomized controlled&#xA;  trials or quasi-experiments without randomization, have a treatment,&#xA;  and have either a treated group or an untreated control group.&#xA;  Twenty-three studies with 30 group comparisons met the criteria for&#xA;  inclusion. The studies included involved clinical samples and samples&#xA;  of typically developing children and adults. Meta-analyses indicated&#xA;  that the programs produced reliable short-term improvements in working&#xA;  memory skills. For verbal working memory, these near-transfer effects&#xA;  were not sustained at follow-up, whereas for visuospatial working&#xA;  memory, limited evidence suggested that such effects might be&#xA;  maintained. More importantly, there was no convincing evidence of the&#xA;  generalization of working memory training to other skills (nonverbal&#xA;  and verbal ability, inhibitory processes in attention, word decoding,&#xA;  and arithmetic). &lt;strong&gt;The authors conclude that memory training programs&#xA;  appear to produce short-term, specific training effects that do not&#xA;  generalize.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;VanLehn, K. (1996). Cognitive skill acquisition. Annual review of psychology, 47(1), 513-539.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shipstead, Zach; Redick, Thomas S.; Engle, Randall W. Psychological Bulletin, Vol 138(4), Jul 2012, 628-654. doi: 10.1037/a0027473 &#xA;2   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Melby-Lervag, M., &amp;amp; Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training in children effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 49, 270-291. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iu5.org/sites/SpecialEducation/20122013%20Special%20Education%20Staff%20Meetings/May/Analysis-memory%20training%20programs.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T06:44:27.093" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T06:44:27.093" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4147" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4126" CreationDate="2013-08-12T10:39:42.160" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Status.&lt;/strong&gt;  If you have a large peer group, you can receive confirmation that the insult is either untrue or irrelevant.  You don't need to impress those who are outside your group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-worth.&lt;/strong&gt;  If someone calls you &quot;stupid&quot;, yet you've received numerous intellectual awards, it can be rationalized that the comment is untrue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Acceptance.&lt;/strong&gt;  If you have a flaw, accept that you do and be ok with that.  If someone says &quot;your cooking is terrible!&quot;.  You say, &quot;Its well-known that I can't cook, but I'm funny and good looking, so who cares!&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the steps to take to prevent insults from causing negative emotions would be:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Make friends.   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Be mindful of your accomplishments and value.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Accept your flaws and realize they don't diminish your worth as a person.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3232" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T02:54:07.290" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T02:54:07.290" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4148" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4152" CreationDate="2013-08-12T13:00:32.410" Score="10" ViewCount="574" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the wild, animals may share waterholes, and grazing areas. Some animals have symbiotic relationships one example being the hippopotamus and the oxpecker bird.&#xA;The symbiotic relationships are based on needs; Hunger, shelter, safety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human beings, appear to be the only species that has relationships with other species for pleasure. Companion animals and horses for riding are two examples.&#xA;Of course, there is also the use of animals to meet the species needs; eg dogs for safety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this question I would like to focus on the relationship between human beings and other species as a source of pleasure (or comfort).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is different within the human brain that allows humans to maintain relationships with other animals purely for pleasure, that is absent in other species?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T03:48:10.383" LastActivityDate="2020-12-05T10:40:54.590" Title="Why are humans the only species to maintain relationships with other animals simply for pleasure?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4149" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3736" CreationDate="2013-08-12T13:51:40.653" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say that not all &quot;mind control&quot; is necessarily a bad thing. For example, using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23196557&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;decoded neurofeedback&lt;/a&gt;, it may be possible to implant knowledge into a person's brain without that person being aware of it. This would be especially useful for certain motor skills that are required for sports. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would be similar to the scene in &lt;em&gt;The Matrix&lt;/em&gt; where Neo learns Kung Fu. I would think that with this technology there would be certain security requirements that would have to be met. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[A new neuroscientific approach using decoded neurofeedback (DecNef)].&#xA;[Article in Japanese]&#xA;Shibata K.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastActivityDate="2013-08-12T13:51:40.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4150" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-12T13:57:49.417" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding love, the feeling thereof, the capacity to, or lack thereof. Love as a motivation, the need to love, loving another person, an animal, an inanimate object, a concept or ideal. Development of the capacity thereof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Love is a potent issue in many contexts.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Within the context of this site it could be love within the context of:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the effects of love on human behaviour&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;changes within the brain when a person experiences the feeling of love&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;developmental processes needed to love&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;conversely, processes that inhibit a person's ability to love&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/emotion&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'emotion'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-27T00:32:23.183" LastActivityDate="2013-08-27T00:32:23.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4151" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-12T13:57:49.417" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding love, the feeling thereof, the capacity to, or lack thereof. Love as a motivation, the need to love, loving another person, an animal, an inanimate object, a concept, or ideal. Development of the capacity thereof." OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-27T00:32:55.187" LastActivityDate="2013-08-27T00:32:55.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4152" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4148" CreationDate="2013-08-12T14:15:54.897" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/animals-and-us/201006/are-humans-the-only-animals-keep-pets&quot;&gt;Hal Herzog&lt;/a&gt;, humans are the only animals that keep pets. Other animals have also kept pets however it was not under natural settings. These other &quot;pet&quot; relationships were observed in zoos, controlled experiments. etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One the main reasons Herzog notes that humans are the only animals to keep pets is the idea of culture. Humans have evolved to form a culture with social rules and norms. They can gather social information from others by relying on certain cultural rules. So it is acceptable for humans to form pet relationships with other animals. Some cultures do not have a word for pet. However ultimately these cultures end up forming relationships with animals that are &quot;pet-like.&quot; The reason for this is because of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meme&quot;&gt;memes&lt;/a&gt;. That is, the idea of having a pet spreads across different cultures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="2920" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T14:22:53.770" LastActivityDate="2013-08-12T14:22:53.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4153" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1451" CreationDate="2013-08-12T15:56:22.113" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is by no means exhaustive, but is a beginning, as these links also provide links.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jocn.1997.9.2.266&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;A Neural Dissociation within Language: Evidence that the Mental Dictionary Is Part of Declarative Memory, and that Grammatical Rules Are Processed by the Procedural System&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following study links the effects of emotional arousal on these two memory systems, thus linking the effects of emotional arousal on speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/13/5/650.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Effects of emotional arousal on multiple memory systems: Evidence from declarative and procedural&lt;/a&gt; learning&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Stephan Steidl, Salwa Mohi-uddin, and Adam K. Anderson&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psr.sagepub.com/content/11/2/167.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How Emotion Shapes Behavior: Feedback, Anticipation, and Reflection, Rather Than Direct Causation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Roy F. Baumeister  Kathleen D. Vohs  C. Nathan DeWall  Liqing Zhang&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejsp.2420160405/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Roy F Baumeister  Carolin J. Showers&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Choking under pressure refers to the failure of a person to perform tasks that they are highly skilled in, when placed under pressure to perform. This could well apply to people speaking on a talk show.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study shows the effects of various emotions on the actual voice quality, which is also useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://eclub.unige.ch/system/files/biblio/1999_Johnstone_ICPS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;THE EFFECTS OF EMOTIONS ON VOICE QUALITY&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Tom Johnstone and Klaus R. Scherer&#xA;University of Geneva&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-12T15:56:22.113" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4154" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-12T16:11:32.413" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pain can be divided into three categories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotional  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mental  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Physical&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Emotional pain&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Emotional pain can be one of the most challenging aspects of cognitive sciences. &#xA;From a neurological and psychological aspect.  The inability to cope with emotional pain, can lead to destructive behaviour, possibly disorders. Developing coping methods to deal with emotional pain, is an important factor in psychological development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. Mental pain&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Mental pain can be regarded to cover thought disorders, that cause the sufferer distress. Mental anguish. Stress related problems due to ruminating thoughts. There are not always clear distinctions between mental and emotional pain. Some people also would categorise spiritual pain separately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3. Physical pain&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Physical pain affects mood. There is neurological and psychological implications concerning physical pain, a person's ability to cope, behaviour changes and interpersonal relationships.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There is also the issue of pain relief options and the effects on the brain, for example of opiates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T19:53:20.747" LastActivityDate="2013-08-12T19:53:20.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4155" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-12T16:11:32.413" Score="0" Body="Pain: emotional, mental, physical. The effect of pain upon mood, behaviour and brain chemistry. The neurological process of pain. Factors affecting a person's ability to cope with pain. Chronic pain, acute pain. How people react to another's pain. Pain management." OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-12T19:53:30.277" LastActivityDate="2013-08-12T19:53:30.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4156" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4136" CreationDate="2013-08-13T08:37:27.770" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a part answer, which only refers to the concept of resilience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the first studies that invesigated resilience was the Kauai-Study, which was a longitudinal study of a cohort in Hawai to investigate the cognitive, social and physical development of children. (Werner and Smith, 1982) Of the children who had to deal with a couple of risk factors from birth on, about a third managed to overcome the obstacles later in life. This led to the formulation of a theoretical concept of resilience, which included vulnerability of the child as a main risk factor and external stress on one side, and social support and ressources within the child on the other side as elements. These elements interact with one another and influence the development of a child. In this sense, resilience was defined as a potential, or maybe kind of like a trait. If there is enough resilience, a &quot;good&quot; development will be possible in spite of a difficult environment. The second thing to notice is that resilience originally was geared towards children. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept of resilience has been expanded to adulthood later. Apparently, though, this has led to some problems concerning the definition, since the original conception was explicitly concerned with development in childhood (Luthar and Cicchetti, 2000). The article of Leipold and Greve (2009) integrates different proposals to solve this problem. In their model, resilience, development and coping are linked. Development is seen as coping with all kinds of demands and stressors, and resilience is seen as succesfully doing so. Note that in this definition, resilience is very different from the one that I have given above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To get to your question: an &quot;addiction to sympathy&quot; might be seen as a lack of resilience, but not in the sense of a trait. It can be seen as the lack of a process as conceptualized by Leipold and Greve (2009). This also leaves open the possibility that the process might &quot;kick in&quot; at a later stage in development, which not only makes sense but is also what you have experienced yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Leipold, B. &amp;amp; Greve, W. (2009). Resilience. A conceptual bridge between coping and development. &lt;em&gt;European Psychologist&lt;/em&gt;, 14, 40-50.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Luthar, S. S., &amp;amp; Cicchetti, D. (2000). The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies. &lt;em&gt;Development and psychopathology&lt;/em&gt;, 12(4), 857-885.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Werner, E. E. &amp;amp; Smith, R. S. (1982). &lt;em&gt;Vulnerable but invincible: A study of resilient children&lt;/em&gt; New York: McGraw-Hill.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T11:24:14.237" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T11:24:14.237" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4157" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-13T08:54:42.900" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about specific phobias, general phobias, treatments for them, and the cognitive bases for their existence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/phobias/a/phobialist.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A-Z list of phobias&lt;/a&gt;, caution, not a medical resource.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please do not ask self-help questions about personal phobias under this tag, consult a mental health professional.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T10:33:49.450" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T10:33:49.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4158" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-13T08:54:42.900" Score="0" Body="For questions about specific phobias, general phobias, treatments for them, and the cognitive bases for their existence" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T10:33:42.730" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T10:33:42.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4159" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-13T08:57:22.803" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the proper selection of subjects for a scientific experiment or survey, accounting for both demographics and population size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/statistics&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'statistics'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;statistics&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For questions not specific to the cognitive sciences, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://stats.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Cross Validated&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T10:33:46.763" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T10:33:46.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4160" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-13T08:57:22.803" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the proper selection of subjects for a scientific experiment or survey, accounting for both demographics and population size" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T10:33:52.247" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T10:33:52.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4161" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-13T08:59:49.140" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about achieving an endpoint in a task, whether the evaluation of said task is formal or informal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also: &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/motivation&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'motivation'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;motivation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T10:33:39.277" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T10:33:39.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4162" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-13T08:59:49.140" Score="0" Body="For questions about achieving an endpoint in a task, whether the evaluation of said task is formal or informal" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T10:33:36.433" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T10:33:36.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4163" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-13T10:09:38.473" Score="3" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Dr. Martin Seligman's book, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1400078393&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, there was mention of a study involving teaching cancer patients to fight learned helplessness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe this study commenced around 1990, but could not find any information on the study online. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if now, more than 20 years later, if the group showed improvements in battling the cancer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3392" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T06:09:19.393" LastActivityDate="2013-09-25T12:50:35.227" Title="Where to find published results of positive psychology cancer treatment study mentioned in Martin Seligman's book?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4164" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-13T10:45:34.137" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about exercises that aim to improve the functioning of the brain or general intellectual, perceptual or motor capacities in a relatively short period of time. Note that presence of this tag does not imply that such exercises are effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more general questions about training such as workplace training that aim to teach the skill that is being taught see the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/training&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'training'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;training&lt;/a&gt; tag. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, for general principles of learning, see the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/learning&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'learning'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;learning&lt;/a&gt; tag.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T11:47:47.393" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T11:47:47.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4165" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-13T10:45:34.137" Score="0" Body="For questions about exercises that aim to improve the functioning of the brain or general intellectual, perceptual or motor capacities in a relatively short period of time. Note that the presence of this tag does not imply that such exercises are effective." OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T11:48:50.383" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T11:48:50.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4166" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-13T11:42:24.987" Score="7" ViewCount="2044" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of companies are selling products under the heading of &quot;brain training&quot;, and &quot;brain exercises&quot;, &quot;brain games&quot; such as Nintendo DS Brain Training, Lumosity, and a host of other companies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm highly sceptical that such exercises have any generalised effect beyond improving the task that is being practiced and possibly some very limited form of generalisation. Nonetheless, I was curious about what makes an exercise or a program of activities &quot;brain training&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the scientific definition of &quot;brain training&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Alternatively, what definitions have been proposed by researchers or very popular providers of brain training?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such a definition would presumably make clear how daily living is different to brain training. It would also hopefully clarify whether daily cognitive activity like doing a crossword, answering a question on stack exchange, making a shopping list, or playing a computer game is brain training or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T11:50:39.890" LastActivityDate="2015-01-15T20:24:09.793" Title="What is the scientific definition of &quot;brain training&quot;?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4167" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4176" CreationDate="2013-08-13T13:22:15.940" Score="18" ViewCount="679" Body="&lt;p&gt;Usually, natural environments (being out in &quot;nature&quot;) tend to induce a happy and peaceful state, while mechanical and technological ones tend to induce stress and sadness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does this happen?&#xA;Are we born with this notion, or do we just build up that in our minds over time? and even so, why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3157" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T22:27:15.350" LastActivityDate="2013-09-17T17:02:14.433" Title="Why does being in a natural environment induce some kind of &quot;peace&quot; state while mecha/tech ones induce the opposite?" Tags="&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4168" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4166" CreationDate="2013-08-13T13:31:40.927" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think in most scientific contexts, &quot;brain training&quot; refers to working memory training. Scott Barry Kaufman wrote a nice article entitled &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/2013/04/15/in-defense-of-working-memory-training/&quot;&gt;In Defense of Working Memory Training&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. Hulme and Melby-Lervag wrote a &lt;a href=&quot;http://scottbarrykaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Melby-Lervag-Hulme-20131.pdf&quot;&gt;meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt; about working memory training. They note that these exercises would not generalize to other mental skills such as reading comprehension, word decoding, and arithmetic. However, they did find that these exercises did improve short term verbal and visuospatial spatial working memory skills. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kaufman argues that one should not dismiss working memory training as not improving intelligence. It may improve one aspect of intelligence (i.e. working memory). Note that according to may researchers, intelligence is &lt;a href=&quot;http://wicherts.socsci.uva.nl/maas2006.pdf&quot;&gt;comprised&lt;/a&gt; of many facts. Also, the age of people participating in brain training should be taken account. For example, very young people and very old people may benefit more than &quot;normal age&quot; people. Likewise, personality traits such as conscientiousness and neuroticism should be taken into account.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kaufman also notes that mindfulness meditation and other &quot;whole body&quot; exercises would be more beneficial than specific working memory training exercises. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is Working Memory Training Effective? A Meta-Analytic Review by Monica Melby-Lervåg&#xA;and Charles Hulme. Developmental Psychology © 2012 American Psychological Association&#xA;2013, Vol. 49, No. 2, 270–291.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Dynamical Model of General Intelligence: The Positive Manifold of&#xA;Intelligence by Mutualism by Han L. J. van der Maas et al. Psychological Review &#xA;2006, Vol. 113, No. 4, 842–861.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T13:31:40.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4169" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4167" CreationDate="2013-08-13T13:58:40.177" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2872309/&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; article, the authors note that natural sounds promote faster stress recovery than artificial sounds. One of the main reasons is because the natural sounds are more familiar than the artificial sounds. According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://ntplanning.wordpress.com/2013/01/11/what-it-says-i-dont-know-but-it-sings-a-loud-song-reflections-on-birdsong-meaning-and-place/&quot;&gt;Eleanor Ratcliffe&lt;/a&gt;, natural sounds (such as bird song) may evoke memories of different seasons. This in turn, produces positive affect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might be interested in this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rRepnhXq33s&quot;&gt;TED talk&lt;/a&gt; about the ways sounds affect us. It seems that many nature sounds are at the 12 Hz frequency (alpha waves and the natural breathing rhythm) according to Julian Treasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress Recovery during Exposure to Nature Sound and Environmental Noise by Jesper J. Alvarsson et al. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2010, 7(3), 1036-1046; doi:10.3390/ijerph7031036&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="2920" LastEditDate="2013-08-13T22:39:12.167" LastActivityDate="2013-08-13T22:39:12.167" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4170" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="504" CreationDate="2013-08-13T17:07:51.483" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dissociative identity disorder is a medical condition&lt;/strong&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dissociative-identity-disorder.org/references/22.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dissociative Identity Disorder&lt;/a&gt; is listed in the DSM-V.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;H 02 Dissociative Identity Disorder&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  1.    Disruption of identity characterized by two or more distinct personality states or an experience of possession. This involves&#xA;  marked discontinuity in sense of self and sense of agency, accompanied&#xA;  by related alterations in affect, behavior, consciousness, memory,&#xA;  perception, cognition, and/or sensory-motor functioning. These signs&#xA;  and symptoms may be observed by others or reported by the individual.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  2.    Recurrent gaps in the recall of everyday events, important personal information, and/or traumatic events that are inconsistent with&#xA;  ordinary forgetting.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  3.    The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  4.    The disturbance is not a normal part of a broadly accepted cultural or religious practice. (Note: In children, the symptoms are not&#xA;  attributable to imaginary playmates or other fantasy play.)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  5.    The symptoms are not attributable to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., blackouts or chaotic behavior during&#xA;  Alcohol Intoxication) or another medical condition (e.g., complex&#xA;  partial seizures).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have not found any recent case control studies.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found this paper reviewing the research from 2004-2006. Here childhood trauma, dissociation and psychosis are discussed and a study on the relationship between Schizophrenia and DID is discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02629332#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dissociative identity disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Colin A. Ross MD&lt;br&gt;&#xA;September 2006, Volume 4, Issue 3, pp 112-116&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Current Psychosis and Therapeutics Reports&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One issue with diagnosing personality disorders, is that the boundaries between them and other conditions can be blurred.  So a person can have traits of several disorders/illnesses, and will be diagnosed with the one that is the best fit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Personality disorders often co-occur with other mental illnesses. &#xA;  Harmful alcohol and other drug use often co-occurs with personality&#xA;  disorders, particularly borderline personality disorder. This makes&#xA;  treatment more complex, and effectively managing alcohol and other&#xA;  drug use is important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.health.gov.au/internet/publications/publishing.nsf/Content/mental-pubs-w-whatper-toc~mental-pubs-w-whatper-typ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mental Health&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; Publications &#xA;Department of Health and Ageing&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Australian Government&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although dissociative phenomena have been discussed throughout the&#xA;  20th century, the recognition of dissociative disorders as a bona fide&#xA;  diagnostic category is relatively recent. Nonetheless, the evidence&#xA;  linking attachment in infancy and attachment-related traumas to later&#xA;  dissociative symptoms, and the evidence linking concurrent states of&#xA;  mind with dissociative symptoms, converge to form a compelling&#xA;  picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2008-13837-031&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Attachment and psychopathology in adulthood.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dozier, Mary; Stovall-McClough, K. Chase; Albus, Kathleen E.&#xA;Cassidy, Jude (Ed); Shaver, Phillip R. (Ed), (2008). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed.).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The following is my personal ideas and conclusions about this topic; based on much personal research, formalised study and personal experience (of close relationship with a person with DID). see references below&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is an accepted practice that dissociation can occur and that there is a connection between &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1991-15502-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;childhood trauma&lt;/a&gt; (usually in the form of abuse). A healthy personality has multiple aspects and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persona&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;personas&lt;/a&gt;. The aspects are brought out during various life situations. From happy experiences, loss, stress; we see different traits of a personality surface. So it would follow that someone with extreme trauma and disruption to personality development, could have a fragmented personality, that changes under varying conditions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The perception would be that the person has multiple personalities, which is a misnomer, in so much, that we are dealing with one individual with multiple states of consciousness and persona. Amnesia that results from the  protective nature of the mind to protect the individual from trauma, with the stress and varying attitudes and roles that a child is forced to play to minimise damage in an abusive environment; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acting_out&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;acting out&lt;/a&gt; in response to coping with extreme trauma. This concoction would well produce a personality that would appear to &quot;flip&quot; and change,  one of extremes, and with featured amnesia from one coping state to another. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think Dissociative States Disorder would be a better name for this condition. As the Hollywood interpretation is one of extremes, and as Autism has a spectrum, (as many illnesses), so do &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC181202/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dissociative  Disorders&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for treatment, I don't believe it is possible for a person to fully recover from such a condition. There are just not enough years available to the human life to do so. When dealing with such extreme and prolonged trauma, it is most difficult for the patient to acknowledge consciously the source of the dissociation and overcome major trust issues to open up. Combined with the fact that damaged child, become &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735899000720&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;damaged adults&lt;/a&gt;, who then make poor choices, that compounds poor mental health; this is a difficult condition to minister help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1991-15502-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dissociation and childhood trauma in psychologically disturbed adolescents.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Sanders, Barbara; Giolas, Marina H.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol 148(1), Jan 1991, 50-54&lt;/strong&gt;    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC181202/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2000 April; 2(2): 37–41.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;PMCID: PMC181202&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dissociative Spectrum Disorders in the Primary Care Setting&lt;br&gt;&#xA;James L. Elmore, M.D.&lt;/strong&gt;    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735899000720&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Interpersonal functioning among women reporting a history of childhood sexual abuse: empirical findings and methodological issues&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;David DiLilloCorresponding author&lt;br&gt;&#xA;University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-16T14:57:59.373" LastActivityDate="2013-08-16T14:57:59.373" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4171" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4174" CreationDate="2013-08-13T18:17:11.770" Score="7" ViewCount="689" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is much research about personality development and childhood. The onset of many mental disorders and illnesses, will occur in early adulthood. Studies are done to link certain childhood personality traits with the manifestation of the illness in adulthood.  Conversely, there is much research into the onset of aged onset dementia, Alzheimer's and the like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the exception of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midlife_crisis&quot;&gt;Mid Life Crisis&lt;/a&gt;, I have not seen much research on the onset of mental disorders or mental illness in  adults during midlife, or approx. 35-50 years. What studies are there investigating major personality changes later in a person's life?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;An example could be the percentage of new diagnoses of &quot;a particular illness&quot; for 35-50 year old age group. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I am not interested in an ongoing illness that was diagnosed as a younger adult and is  still occurring during this age group. I am interested in the  first time onset of an illness in an individual during these years.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T06:59:19.310" Title="Mental illness developing in midlife" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4172" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4409" CreationDate="2013-08-13T18:39:34.270" Score="14" ViewCount="5189" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given that personality disorders are rooted in abnormal experience and development. There has been much discussion about the aetiology of Narcissistic Personality Disorder. Having a concept of the causes of such an illness is helpful in establishing the answer to my question. The common belief was that beneath the arrogance of a narcissist, is an incredibly low self-esteem, hence the need to protect the fragile ego.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Those with narcissistic personality disorder believe that they're&#xA;  superior to others and have little regard for other people's feelings.&#xA;  But behind this mask of ultra-confidence lies a fragile self-esteem,&#xA;  vulnerable to the slightest criticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/narcissistic-personality-disorder/DS00652&quot;&gt;Mayo Clinic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can see that there is some discussion refuting this, and postulating the opposite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It was once thought that narcissists have high self-esteem on the&#xA;  surface, but deep down they are insecure. However, the latest evidence&#xA;  indicates that narcissists are actually secure or grandiose at both&#xA;  levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/narcissistic-personality-disorder&quot;&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have wondered, how do we really know how the narcissist self-esteem is?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Is there an inverse relationship between narcissism and self-esteem or is the converse true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Please provide a well researched answer.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2016-09-02T14:12:01.210" Title="The relationship between narcissism and self-esteem" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4173" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4108" CreationDate="2013-08-13T21:03:31.483" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although I find the concept of flow quite interesting, I'm not so sure about needing to invoke the flow state to explain motor enhancement from unrelated continuous movements. For example, one possible explanation for why continuous motion would improve learned movements like typing is that the motor cortex is typically used to model periodic movements as a dynamical system, and that short-duration movements are actually abnormal in a motor sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider how many of the movements we make are naturally periodic. Walking in particular is highly cyclical, but many other types of movements that we typically make (e.g., swinging the arms to counterbalance the trunk during walking, counter-rotating the eyes, head, and spine during a turn-to-look movement, opening and closing the jaw while chewing, inflating and collapsing the ribcage during breathing) show significantly periodic activity. This periodicity suggests that one could model these movements as a rotation in an abstract &quot;phase space&quot; defined by the differential equations that capture the dynamics of the movement. Seen from this perspective, cyclical movements are the norm for almost any animal, whereas short-duration, &quot;single-use&quot; movements like typing or playing the piano are rather unusual. It could be the case that if the motor cortex (or even the basic movements encoded in the spinal cord) is inherently tuned to modeling cyclic movements, then adding some continuous motion could help the motor cortex capture the intended typing or playing movements as part of the larger, continuous movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These references don't address the specific topic at hand, but they do address the periodicity of the motor system at a relatively low level. I would argue that this periodicity should be considered &quot;normal&quot; for movement modeling. Whether or not this periodicity is useful for enhancing other movements is, as far as I know, not known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;M. Churchland et al., &quot;Neural population dynamics during reaching,&quot; 2012 Nature &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3393826/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3393826/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A. Ijspeert, &quot;Central pattern generators for locomotion control in animals and robots: a review&quot; 2008 Neural Networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Neural correlates of flow&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's quite difficult to map between levels of abstraction as widely separated as neural activity and a &quot;meta-cognitive&quot; state like flow. However, a quick search online did reveal a couple of papers that have attempted to relate flow to physiological measurements like EEG :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;D. Kramer, &quot;Predictions of Performance by EEG and Skin Conductance,&quot; 2007 Indiana Undergraduate Journal of Cognitive Science -- not sure where this journal is published, but it seemed like an interesting article&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;M. Klasen et al., &quot;Neural contributions to flow experience during video game playing&quot; 2011 Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, &lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/05/19/scan.nsr021.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/05/19/scan.nsr021.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3388" LastEditorUserId="3388" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T21:18:21.313" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T21:18:21.313" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4174" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4171" CreationDate="2013-08-13T22:38:53.643" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not a professional, but it is my understanding that it is common for major depression to not show up in adults until the age of 30 to 60 years old; see for example, Table 2 of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/faculty/detels/PH150/Kessler_DSMIV_AGP2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lifetime Prevalence and Age-of-Onset Distributions of DSM-IV Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication&lt;/a&gt;, Mood Disorders - Major Depressive Disorder.  Overall, the most likely age group for any disorder to present itself is the years 30-44.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The beginning of the paper states: &quot;Little is known about lifetime prevalence or age of onset of DSM-IV disorders&quot;.  The study included 9282 participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="408" LastEditorUserId="408" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T06:59:19.310" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T06:59:19.310" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4175" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4210" CreationDate="2013-08-13T23:48:04.170" Score="16" ViewCount="1074" Body="&lt;p&gt;We've had quite a few questions about &quot;brain training&quot; on this site (see questions tagged &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/brain-training&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;brain-training&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;brain-training&lt;/a&gt;). And the effectiveness of &quot;brain training&quot; has been touched on in several questions (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4166/what-is-the-scientific-definition-of-brain-training&quot;&gt;this question on the definition of brain training&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1705/how-valid-is-lumositys-brain-performance-index-and-what-normative-information-i&quot;&gt;this question about lumosity&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4145/is-consistent-dual-n-back-training-likely-to-improve-the-performance-of-analysis&quot;&gt;this question about n-back training&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I agree with &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.meta.stackexchange.com/q/599/52&quot;&gt;@Chuck's suggestion&lt;/a&gt; that it might be useful to have a canonical sceptics-style question about the effectiveness of brain training.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the effect of completing &quot;brain training&quot;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any evidence for domain general benefits to cognitive functioning that extend beyond the specific task practiced?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there anything particularly &quot;neural&quot; or &quot;brain&quot;-like about brain training?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any evidence that brain training prevents any neurological diseases?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Naturally, it would be good if any answers are backed up by independent scientific empirical research. References to and summaries of recent scientific review articles would also be particularly useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-06-25T20:25:33.490" Title="Is &quot;brain training&quot; effective?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4176" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4167" CreationDate="2013-08-14T00:48:03.203" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe we should ask a vietnam vet if he feels less stress in nature than inside a building.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the reason we feel tense inside is because we've been conditioned to expect stressful situations to happen while inside, so we're on guard for it (ie tense).  Nothing bad has ever happened to us while sitting on a park bench listening to the birds chirp.  Now, if tigers start leaping out at us on a consistent basis while at the park, this feeling may change.  We might decide the sounds of clicking keyboards and tapping shoes to be more relaxing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another point to consider is that the sounds of birds chirping means &quot;things are ok&quot;.  Bird have a high viewpoint compared to terrestrial animals and when birds are singing, there probably isn't a tiger stalking us.  Also, if you notice, birds sing after storms pass.  I know when I hear the birds singing, I can go back outside and get back to work... the storm is over.  Its possible this knowledge is instinctual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same could be said of crickets and frogs.  When you hear crickets and frogs, things are ok.  When the crickets and frogs suddenly stop, that when you grab the flashlight and see what's lurking in the woods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An odd one is the sound of water.  If you're a prey animal, which humans would be in the wild, you'd have a large chance of being ambushed while getting a drink.  All predators gather around the watering hole and stalk victims.  So this raises the question... why are water sounds relaxing?  This is evidence against instinct.  Water sounds would be relaxing as a result of association rather than instinct.  When I take a drink of water, I feel better.  When I go fishing, I don't have to worry about anything but fishing.  Water has always been good to me, so when I hear it, I feel better.  Also, the sounds of water tends to drown-out other sounds.  That's why spies on tv tend to have their conversations near moving water.  There is something about the randomness of water sounds that won't allow pattern recognition in other sounds.  When we hear water, its hard to be disturbed by other sounds, therefore, easier to be at peace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3232" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T00:48:03.203" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4177" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-14T02:12:33.880" Score="4" ViewCount="215" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking about this question on biology.se: &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/9737/do-hormones-make-men-think-of-sex&quot;&gt;do hormones make men think of sex?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the interview linked in the answer, I get two takeaways: a man who lost most testosterone for 4 months mentioned more humility, while a lgbt person on testosterone therapy reported more intense sexual thoughts or urges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this in mind, I'm thinking of the Christian concept of &quot; deadly sins&quot; and their opposite virtues. From a purely historic perceptive, I take recurring accounts of these phenomena in writing to say that these traits have existed for the last couple thousand years or more in the western world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is modern science any closer to explaining the phenomena like wrath, sloth, gluttony or humility in terms of neurotransmitter, hormone, receptor mutations or other genetic mutations?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's the kind of answer I'm looking for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;( from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotonin_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;serotonin receptors&lt;/a&gt; )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Deceased suicidal and otherwise depressed patients have had more&#xA;  5-HT2A receptors than normal patients. These findings suggest that&#xA;  post-synaptic 5-HT2A overdensity is involved in the pathogenesis of&#xA;  depression.[4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2013-08-28T07:16:31.123" Title="Can &quot;7 deadly sins/virtues&quot; be explained in terms of brain hormone level or receptor mutations?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2013-09-11T22:15:48.523" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4178" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4209" CreationDate="2013-08-14T06:08:22.530" Score="11" ViewCount="555" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that as a student when reading material, there is a choice between reading from the screen or reading from paper.&#xA;When reading from paper I find that I concentrate more and that  comprehension is  much better. I can partially memorize the material rather than reading from screen. In addition, I find reading from screen is more tiring. When I feel tired reading from the screen I often print to paper, and it provides relief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does research support this observation that reading from paper results in less strain and greater comprehension?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any techniques to improve reading from screen?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3394" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-29T03:52:13.773" LastActivityDate="2017-10-16T17:33:23.460" Title="Is reading from the screen more difficult than reading from paper and how can screen reading be made easier?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4179" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4898" CreationDate="2013-08-14T07:31:51.610" Score="9" ViewCount="228" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been studies about  the link between &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20192795&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depression and cognitive function.&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been studies between &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889159103000321&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pain and cognitive&lt;/a&gt; function. This has, also, been discussed in this &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1023/does-pain-reduce-cognitive-abilities&quot;&gt;question here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been studies linking &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/141/1/30.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pain and depression&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;From a biochemical viewpoint:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Are pain, depression and cognitive function intrinsically linked?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Is it possible for chronic pain not to have an effect on cognitive function and the likelihood of depression?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-11-08T01:18:28.940" Title="The effects of pain on cognitive function and incidence of depression" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4181" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T07:48:12.557" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T07:48:12.557" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T07:48:12.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4182" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T07:48:12.557" Score="0" Body="The subject of a person's capacity to monitor and regulate their own behaviour. Possibly related to self-control. The maintenance of one's emotional and mental processes." OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T11:21:57.200" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T11:21:57.200" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4183" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T07:55:55.230" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T07:55:55.230" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T07:55:55.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4184" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T07:55:55.230" Score="0" Body="The conscious or subconscious delay of doing or facing a task or situation, to circumvent some degree of uncomfortability. Whether that uncomfortability be simple or profound, eg from boredom to deeply held anxiety." OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T10:16:32.307" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T10:16:32.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4185" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T07:59:14.587" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T07:59:14.587" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T07:59:14.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4186" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T07:59:14.587" Score="0" Body="Mental illness with typical symptoms of disordered thought processes, hallucinations, periods of little emotional affect. Can be degenerative. Can have paranoid features." OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T11:15:58.720" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T11:15:58.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4187" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:03:22.713" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T08:03:22.713" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T08:03:22.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4188" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:03:22.713" Score="0" Body="The feeling experienced when there is a perceived threat of danger to one's own or another's personal safety. The emotion, possibly, triggering the &quot;flight and fight&quot; response.  Possibly an extension of anxiety." OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T11:17:34.773" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T11:17:34.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4189" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:08:48.800" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T08:08:48.800" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T08:08:48.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4190" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:08:48.800" Score="0" Body="The feeling or behaviour  indicating superiority towards others, excessive pride and possible grandstanding. Possibly linked with grandiosity. " OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T11:19:09.873" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T11:19:09.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4191" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:18:22.840" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T08:18:22.840" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T08:18:22.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4192" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:18:22.840" Score="0" Body="The effects of alcohol consumption on brain chemistry, cognition, emotions and behaviour. The excessive consumption of alcohol. Alcohol dependence, alcoholism. " OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T09:50:26.423" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T09:50:26.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4193" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:23:12.640" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T08:23:12.640" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T08:23:12.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4194" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:23:12.640" Score="0" Body="Measurable or perceived similarities between individuals, behaviour, personality types, disorders, illnesses, neurological patterns.  " OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-15T07:15:58.510" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T07:15:58.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4195" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:24:43.007" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T08:24:43.007" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T08:24:43.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4196" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:24:43.007" Score="0" Body="The psychic break from reality. The inability to distinguish between reality and fantasy; fantasy being the construct of distorted perception, thought and/or hallucinations." OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T11:17:47.900" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T11:17:47.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4197" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:31:18.847" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T08:31:18.847" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T08:31:18.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4198" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:31:18.847" Score="0" Body="The lobes at the foremost part of the brain. Associated with reasoning.  Concerned with conscious processes; including the inhibition of processes arising from the subconscious. " OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T11:15:13.547" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T11:15:13.547" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4199" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:34:34.470" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T08:34:34.470" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T08:34:34.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4200" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:34:34.470" Score="0" Body="The link between two or more things. The mathematical relationship between entities. So the change in one variable resulting in a change in a separate variable." OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T10:16:09.070" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T10:16:09.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4201" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:36:42.387" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For requesting empirical validation studies of questionnaires, psychometric instruments and other measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:51:58.250" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:51:58.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4202" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:36:42.387" Score="0" Body="For requesting empirical validation studies of questionnaires, IQ tests, psychometric instruments and other measures." OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:51:58.250" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:51:58.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4203" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:40:00.807" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T08:40:00.807" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T08:40:00.807" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4204" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:40:00.807" Score="0" Body="The physicality of being raised from the ground, whether by being at a high altitude, in a tall building, on a high structure. &#xD;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-15T07:15:52.930" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T07:15:52.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4205" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:43:17.803" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T08:43:17.803" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T08:43:17.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4206" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-14T08:43:17.803" Score="0" Body="The feeling of unease experienced by a person, when faced with a perceived threat. (akin to nervousness and/or fear.) Anxiety encompasses a complex range of symptoms and triggers; ranging from a useful tool to protect the self or another, to the emotionally crippling effects of pathological anxiety. " OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T11:21:26.853" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T11:21:26.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4207" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4283" CreationDate="2013-08-14T09:05:56.410" Score="9" ViewCount="39369" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the psychological mechanisms for people who can't seem to help frequently &quot;talking too much&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I am referring to those that recognise cues to when someone is busy, disinterested or distracted, but are compelled to continue talking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T04:29:53.423" LastActivityDate="2018-11-12T22:07:41.540" Title="What are the psychological mechanisms for compulsive talkers?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4208" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-14T09:10:52.633" Score="4" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;Loneliness can be debilitating, and the feelings associated with it can be overwhelming, including feeling 'cold inside', sad, hopeless and even helpless.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many things can 'cause' loneliness', both real and perceived, but what I am interested in is not the causes, but the neurological mechanisms that cause the feelings associated with loneliness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T17:35:55.050" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T17:35:55.050" Title="What is the neurological mechanism behind the feelings associated with loneliness?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-07-05T12:47:07.660" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4209" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4178" CreationDate="2013-08-14T10:59:24.917" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research would suggest that reading from (well printed) paper is easier; due to ease of making annotations, navigation and the lower risk of eye strain that can be caused from VDUs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are ways to minimise potential eye strain on VDUs, due to lighting and positioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Friendly User Interfaces would ease navigation, and the development of new technologies for monitors, would assist in visual acuity and reduction in potential eye strain and problems associated with glare.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We report on a laboratory study that compares reading from paper to&#xA;  reading on-line. Critical differences have to do with the major&#xA;  advantages paper offers in supporting annotation while reading, quick&#xA;  navigation, and flexibility of spatial layout. These, in turn, allow&#xA;  readers to deepen their understanding of the text, extract a sense of&#xA;  its structure, create a plan for writing, cross-refer to other&#xA;  documents, and interleave reading and writing. We discuss the design&#xA;  implications of these findings for the development of better reading&#xA;  technologies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sigchi.org/chi97/proceedings/paper/koh.htm&quot;&gt;A Comparison of Reading Paper and On-Line Documents&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kenton O'Hara &amp;amp; Abigail Sellen&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Rank Xerox Research Centre (EuroPARC)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;61 Regent St.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Cambridge, CB2 1AB, U.K.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The advent of widespread computer use in general and increasing&#xA;  developments in the domain of hypertext in particular have increased&#xA;  awareness of the issue of reading electronic text. To date the&#xA;  literature has been dominated by reference to work on overcoming speed&#xA;  deficits resulting from poor image quality but an emerging literature&#xA;  reveals a more complex set of variables at work. The present review&#xA;  considers the differences between the media in terms of outcomes and&#xA;  processes of reading and concludes that single variable explanations&#xA;  are insufficient to capture the range of issues involved in reading&#xA;  from screens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00140139208967394#.Ugte15IweSo&quot;&gt;Reading from paper versus screens: a critical review of the empirical literature&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ergonomics&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Volume 35, Issue 10, 1992&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01449298708901822#.UgtgaZIweSo&quot;&gt;Proof-reading: VDU and paper text compared for speed, accuracy and fatigue&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Behaviour &amp;amp; Information Technology&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Volume 6, Issue 2, 1987&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00140138808966788#.Ugtf0ZIweSo&quot;&gt;Visual strain during VDU work: the effect of viewing distance and dark focus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ergonomics&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Volume 31, Issue 10, 1988&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T10:59:24.917" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4210" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4175" CreationDate="2013-08-14T11:39:43.647" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe the hype about brain training got started with &lt;a href=&quot;http://pnas.org/content/early/2008/04/25/0801268105.abstract&quot;&gt;Susanne Jaeggi's paper&lt;/a&gt;  on n-back training and its alleged improvements to fluid intelligence (Gf) and working memory (WM): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experimental design was called into question by &lt;a href=&quot;http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22708717&quot;&gt;papers&lt;/a&gt; that followed and &lt;a href=&quot;http://sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289612000839&quot;&gt;tried to replicate similar results&lt;/a&gt;. Most of them could not detect a maintained improvement in WM and Gf. Further, &lt;a href=&quot;http://apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/dev-49-2-270.pdf&quot;&gt;most studies did not find it to generalize to other skill domains&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure how to interpret the third question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Numerous &lt;a href=&quot;http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=194636&quot;&gt;studies&lt;/a&gt; have shown that mental stimulation is effective in reducing the risk of Alzheimer's disease. The more interesting question is probably whether brain training can ameliorate attention deficit...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="3379" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T11:46:06.817" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T11:46:06.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4211" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-14T13:10:13.160" Score="6" ViewCount="599" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is it that if a person likes subject X but then when he gets paid for it he doesnt like it anymore. What causes this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3396" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2013-08-14T16:42:10.447" LastActivityDate="2013-11-28T06:22:42.933" Title="Why does extrinsic motivation sometimes reduce intrinsic motivation?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4212" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4211" CreationDate="2013-08-14T13:34:28.623" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;This effect has been termed &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overjustification_effect&quot;&gt;Overjustification effect&lt;/a&gt; and was originally reported by Lepper, Greene &amp;amp; Nisbett (1973) who studied the influence of rewards on intrinsic motivated behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some theories hypothesize that the reward reduces the feeling of self-determination, which in turn reduces intrinsic motivation, because the reward induces the feeling of being controlled by the person that offered the reward. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lepper MR, Greene D, Nisbett RE (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the 'overjustification' hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 28 (1): 129–137. doi:10.1037/h0035519.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T13:34:28.623" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4214" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-14T17:00:25.653" Score="6" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;Over the decades there have been several theories from various aspects of cognitive science that have appealed to a link between perception and action as a way of understanding information processing in the brain. The example that I'm most familiar with is Liberman and Mattingly's Motor Theory of Speech Perception (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pitt.edu/~perfetti/PDF/Liberman%20%26%20Mattingly.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liberman &amp;amp; Mattingly, 1985&lt;/a&gt;), which, starting almost 50 years ago, made the following claims — reviewed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2746041&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Galantucci, et al. (2011)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;speech is special&quot; -- there are specialized pathways in auditory cortex for processing speech&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;perceiving speech is perceiving the speech gestures of the talker, not necessarily the acoustic patterns of the speech waveform&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the motor system is recruited for processing speech&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although more recent work in neuroscience has discredited many of these claims, particularly the first one, there do seem to be several recent results (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-cogsci.ucsd.edu/~sereno/papers/ListenSpeech04.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wilson, et al. 2006&lt;/a&gt;; Fadiga, et al. 2002; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/103/20/7865.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pulvermueller, et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982209005569&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;D'Ausilio et al. 2009&lt;/a&gt;) that establish a very interesting link between speech perception and motor cortex activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a higher level, this sort of theory fits into the general &quot;emulation&quot; framework proposed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://cseweb.ucsd.edu/classes/fa07/cse87-b/papers/grush-em.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Grush (2006)&lt;/a&gt;, and also agrees well with insights from the mirror-neurons branch of neuroscience research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, now that all of this &quot;newer&quot; research is five to ten years old, have there been even more recent results -- especially from non-speech areas of cognitive science -- that might help form a unified theory of action and perception ? How might we go about building up such a unified theory based on what's currently known ? What further studies or models do we need to evaluate emulation as a fundamental building block of cognition ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;D'Ausilio, A., et al. (2009). &lt;em&gt;The Motor Somatotopy of Speech Perception&lt;/em&gt;. Current Biology 19(5): pp. 381—385&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009.01.017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.cub.2009.01.017&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fadiga, L., et al. (2002). &lt;em&gt;Speech listening specifically modulates the excitability of tongue muscles: a TMS study&lt;/em&gt;. European Journal of Neuroscience 15(2): pp. 399—402&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11849307&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;11849307&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Galantucci, B., et al. (2011). &lt;em&gt;The motor theory of speech perception reviewed&lt;/em&gt;. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review 13(3): pp. 361–377&lt;br&gt;PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2746041&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC2746041&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Grush, R. (2006). &lt;em&gt;The emulation theory of representation: motor control, imagery, and perception&lt;/em&gt; Behavioral &amp;amp; Brain Sciences 27(3): pp. 377—96&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15736871&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;15736871&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liberman, A., &amp;amp; Mattingly, D. (1985). &lt;em&gt;The motor theory of speech perception revised&lt;/em&gt;. Cognition 21(1): pp. 1—36&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(85)90021-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0010-0277(85)90021-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pulvermueller, F., et al. (2006). &lt;em&gt;Motor cortex maps articulatory features of speech sounds&lt;/em&gt;. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103(20): pp. 7865—7870&lt;br&gt;PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1472536&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC1472536&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0509989103&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1073/pnas.0509989103&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wilson, S. M., et al. (2004). &lt;em&gt;Listening to speech activates motor areas involved in speech production&lt;/em&gt;. Nature Neuroscience 7(7): pp. 701—702&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15184903&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;15184903&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1263&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/nn1263&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3388" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-07-29T15:50:26.587" LastActivityDate="2017-07-29T15:50:26.587" Title="Current directions in emulation theory" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4215" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4034" CreationDate="2013-08-14T17:34:17.700" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just quickly looked this up on Google Scholar and found the following interesting reference :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;JN Macgregor, T Ormerod. &quot;Human performance on the traveling salesman problem.&quot; Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics Volume 58, Issue 4, pp 527-539 (June 1996)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper claims that &quot;complexity of TSPs is a function of number of nonboundary points, not total number of points.&quot; They define a nonboundary point as a point inside the convex hull that encompasses all points in the problem. This paper also makes some interesting observations about perceptual space for humans in this task, claiming that the problem appears to be solved by humans in a 2D problem space that matches the 2D perceptual space. Finally, the references cited by this paper indicate that at least some research has gone into the question of human performance on the TSP as far back as the late 1960s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It looks like you might also get some useful pointers by following the citation graph from this paper forward in time : &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=9195299723226128892&quot;&gt;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=9195299723226128892&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3388" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T17:34:17.700" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4216" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3135" CreationDate="2013-08-14T17:44:26.297" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This might not answer the question well enough to count as a good answer, but if you're interested in handedness in general, I highly recommend Stanley Coren's well-written and well-researched &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0679744681&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Left-Hander Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I recall correctly, the book doesn't address multitasking specifically, but it does address many issues associated with handedness, including lateralization of language and identity, development of mood disorders, and behavioral differences (especially risk of injury) between left- and right-handers. You might get some good pointers by reading the references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3388" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T17:44:26.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4217" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1692" CreationDate="2013-08-14T18:08:19.703" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can non-verbal communication in interpersonal relationships be taught rather than acquired?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; In many ways this question answers itself. As an acquired skill is one that is learnt, and by definition, anything that can be learnt can be taught.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As with many skills, non-verbal communication begins in childhood. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is concluded that style of expression and skill in communication&#xA;  are influenced by the emotional expressiveness of the family&#xA;  environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/51/4/827/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Family socialization of emotional expression and nonverbal communication styles and skills.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Halberstadt, Amy G.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 51(4), Oct 1986, 827-836&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unlike, many, subconscious difficulties of the mind, learning to read body language can be practiced and improved. A simple google search reveals some of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/#bav=on.2,or.r_cp.r_qf.&amp;amp;fp=d5d7140782138160&amp;amp;q=body+language+books&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;books&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/#bav=on.2,or.r_cp.r_qf.&amp;amp;fp=d5d7140782138160&amp;amp;q=body+language&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;online&lt;/a&gt; resources to teach people to improve these skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article discusses the formal study of  improving the  non-verbal communication skills to children with deficiencies in this area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ldx.sagepub.com/content/13/3/118.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Teaching Approach for Developing Nonverbal Communication Skills in Students with Social Perception Deficits&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Part I. The Basic Approach and Body Language Clues&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Esther H. Minskoff, PhD&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T18:08:19.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3135" CreationDate="2013-08-14T19:01:05.977" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can find no scientific evidence that supports the claim that ambidextrous people are better at multitasking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Less than 1% of the population are truly ambidextrous.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[David Carey Bangor University]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your question cites two personal examples and offers no research on&#xA;the matter.   There could be numerous reasons a person is can&#xA;conduct a conversation, whilst driving under stressful conditions,&#xA;whilst another cannot. Factors such as driving and verbal skills&#xA;could be factors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Issues regarding sex differences in multitasking are addressed well&#xA;in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3708/is-multitasking-a-myth/3713#3713&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Corpus Callosum being the connection between the left and right&#xA;hemispheres. The most general consensus is that the Corpus Callosum&#xA;is enlarged in left handed and ambidextrous people [ref 1].  An&#xA;enlarged Corpus Callosum, is not, necessarily, a good thing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Addressing the relationship between handedness and ability to&#xA;    multitask are addressed in the following study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xge/123/3/235/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Individual variation in hemispheric asymmetry: Multitask study of effects related to handedness and sex.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hellige,&#xA;Joseph B.;&#xA;    Bloch, Michael I.; Cowin, Elizabeth L.; Lee Eng, Tami; Eviatar,&#xA;    Zohar; Sergent, Vicki&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Journal of Experimental Psychology:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;    General, Vol 123(3), Sep 1994, 235-256.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study tests;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(1) auditory processing of verbal material,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  (2) processing of&#xA;  emotions shown on faces,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  (3) processing of visual categorical and&#xA;  coordinate spatial relations,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  (4) visual processing of verbal&#xA;  material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study concludes that the are some differences with processing  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;phonetic or language-related processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;As a point of interest:   It would appear that training that&#xA;training to be ambidextrous does not improve brain function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=can-training-to-become-ambidextrous-improve-brain-function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Can Training to Become Ambidextrous Improve Brain Function?&lt;/a&gt;   Michael Corballis, professor of cognitive neuroscience and&#xA;psychology   the University of Auckland in New Zealand&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[ref 1] HANDEDNESS    AND MOTOR   PERFORMANCE IN PRESCHOOL  CHILDREN&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Vlachos Filippos* , Daloukas George, &amp;amp; Karapetsas Argiris&lt;br&gt;&#xA;*University of Thessaly, Dept. a/Special Education , Volos,  Hellas&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T19:01:05.977" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4219" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4073" CreationDate="2013-08-14T23:11:55.597" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there a psychological condition which promotes literal and overly complicated thinking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, I think so... Its called intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is this a known condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You want a literal answer?  Then &quot;Yes&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What, neurologically, may cause this in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/47193.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Something amiss in the corpus callosum&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there ways to improve this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you can teach an engineer to write original music, then maybe so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Commentary&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question reminds me of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.davidpbrown.co.uk/psychology/a-professional-test.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Professional Test&quot;&lt;/a&gt; where the first question is: How do you put a giraffe into a refrigerator?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The claim at the end of the test is: &quot;according to the statistics of Andersen Consulting Worldwide, around 90% of the professionals failed the exam. (But most preschoolers got it correct which disproves the theory that most &quot;professionals&quot; have the brains of a four year old :)&quot;.  Hence the popularity of this test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I first saw this test over 10yrs ago and have been trying not to overcomplicate things ever since, to little avail however.  About 7yrs ago I moved into an apartment and wanted to move the landline phone closer to my pc.  So I'm planning how to run the wire up and down walls and across the floor when my friend said &quot;Why don't you buy a $10 cordless phone from walmart and put it where ever you want?  Sheesh!&quot;.  You know I couldn't make this up!  No seriously, I really couldn't make this up.  I'm way too logical and literal to be that creative.  So, am I stupid?  Retarded?  Autistic?  Nah, I'm just a guy.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/06/100622074612.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A straight guy&lt;/a&gt; and  &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.softpedia.com/news/Scientists-Have-Found-a-Difference-Beetween-the-Brains-of-Straight-and-Gay-Men-70527.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;I'm right-handed.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Want to guess the sex of the friend who suggested the cordless phone?  Oh and she is straight too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you need someone to point out the obvious, find a straight gal or gay man.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I'm not saying that a condition can't be made of behavior more extreme than is displayed by your typical guy, and given a name like autism or something else, but it seems to me to be mainly varying degrees of communication between areas of the brain, coupled with overall intelligence, that determine how complicated or simplistic a solution will be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We all have our areas where we excel.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8524453&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Some folks do well in the arts.&lt;/a&gt;  My excellence happens to be overcomplicating things and doing extremely well with complicated, boring, mundane problems that would send any artsy person straight to the rubber room.  Its ironic how I simplified this one, however.  So maybe that's evidence the condition can be improved. ;)  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.seenandheard-international.com/2012/08/13/international_lefthanders_day_composers_jensflaurson/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Now I'm going to go write a symphony&lt;/a&gt;... just as soon as I finish designing this bridge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summary&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case you missed it, larger corpus callosum is associated with left-handed people, musicians, artists, gay men, and straight women.  Tendencies to miss simple solutions and to overcomplicate are associated with right-handed, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.traderplanet.com/commentaries/view/162784-trading-do-musicians-have-an-edge/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;logical&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.as3-web.org/discuss/index.php?topic=860.0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;engineering types&lt;/a&gt; (the antithesis of lefties, musicians, and most engineers are men, etc).  Therefore, smaller corpus callosum is associated with overcomplication.  That seems simple enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: Some have a tendency to skim over hyperlinks, I do it too, however these hyperlinks are informative and/or very funny and are essential to understanding my claim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another note: Some research has indicated that its not the size of the corpus callosum that matters, just how &quot;connected&quot; it is.  For the sake of simplicity in my answer, I used the words &quot;large&quot; and &quot;small&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3232" LastActivityDate="2013-08-14T23:11:55.597" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4220" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4325" CreationDate="2013-08-14T23:47:16.663" Score="5" ViewCount="243" Body="&lt;p&gt;After reading the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21581698-regular-sleeping-hours-really-are-good-childrenif-they-are-girls-bedtime&quot;&gt;Regular sleeping hours really are good for children—if they are girls&lt;/a&gt; I started wondering what would be a good explanation for something such as sleep patterns have an affect on cognition, and specifically higher in girls?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And are their other examples where one sex is influenced at a higher rate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3398" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-15T11:59:57.540" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T06:11:16.867" Title="Why would a behaviour effect one sex?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4221" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4073" CreationDate="2013-08-15T00:21:42.620" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To the best of my knowledge this is due to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroplasticity&lt;/a&gt;, and the conditioning of the brain. This means that somethings might be considered by some over-complicated which are actually seen as simple by others, such as cryptic crosswords.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Something that do don't address is complicated vs complexity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Complex is used to refer to the level of components in a system. If a&#xA;  problem is complex, it means that it has many components. Complexity&#xA;  does not evoke difficulty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On the other hand, complicated refers to a high level of difficulty.&#xA;  If a problem is complicated, there might be or might not be many parts&#xA;  but it will certainly take a lot of hard work to solve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/10459/what-is-the-difference-between-complicated-and-complex&quot;&gt;What is the difference between “complicated” and “complex”?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3398" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T00:21:42.620" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4223" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-15T03:15:27.373" Score="-3" ViewCount="186" Body="&lt;p&gt;I dunno why I feel smart after getting some smokes in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3399" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T05:14:11.323" Title="When I smoke my cigarettes why do I feel smart?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2013-08-15T07:20:41.280" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4224" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4225" CreationDate="2013-08-15T03:15:45.660" Score="8" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do people tend to have one pronounced sense (i.e., there is high variability in how strong the auditory, visual, olfactory etc. perception is among people)  and can&#xA;this sense, once identified, be exploited in both beneficial (e.g., targeted/adaptive learning/teaching) and manipulative (e.g., sales negotiations) ways?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My intuition doubts the effectiveness, but perhaps there is empirical evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T04:46:56.487" Title="Does identifying a student's sensory learning style and exploiting it result in significantly better performance?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4225" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4224" CreationDate="2013-08-15T04:46:56.487" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think your intuition might be correct. According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/pspi/PSPI_9_3.pdf&quot;&gt;Hal Pashler&lt;/a&gt;, there is no real evidence for learning styles. The authors do not state that one particular learning style is applicable to everyone. Instead, they conclude that a particular subject may have a preferred learning style. For example, essay writing would have a preferred &quot;verbal&quot; learning style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence by Pashler et al.&lt;em&gt;Psychlogical Science in the Public Interest&lt;/em&gt;. Volume 9.3 (2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T04:46:56.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4226" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4223" CreationDate="2013-08-15T05:14:11.323" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;My only possible suggestion is that nicotine helps memory function see &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_improvement&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_improvement&lt;/a&gt; scroll  down where it says about nicotine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless if you want to improve your brain agility and memory or at least stay healthy I don't suggest starting smoking it will affect your body including mind negatively in numerous ways and then will affect your temper as well( &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gizmag.com/smoking-found-to-affect-brain/17240/&quot;&gt;http://www.gizmag.com/smoking-found-to-affect-brain/17240/&lt;/a&gt; and millions of other sources can be found ). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion is interesting to see the benefits of nicotine but if so the best way would be with a some kind of a special field doctor giving you the appropriate amount of it and monitoring you how dieticians do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3375" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T05:14:11.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4227" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1688" CreationDate="2013-08-15T08:54:44.753" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;All the points Jeromy made in his first answer can be integrated when you view this from the perspective of &lt;em&gt;Self Categorization Theory&lt;/em&gt; (Turner et al., 1987) or newer develoments in social psychology which link Social Identity Theory and Self Categorization Theory (Haslam et al., 2009). To be sure, what I am about to say refers to the situation that an individual does already identify with a certain group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic idea is that within a social context, certain cues can make the membership with a certain group salient, which leads to self categorization as a group member (instead of categorization as an individual). This in turn will lead to a heightened awareness of and conformity to norms, values or behaviours that belong to the group. Certain behaviours might even be essential to the definition of that group, like in your example. To provide a (hopefully) more realistic example, certain health-related behaviours like eating certain kinds of foods can be a defining feature of group identity. Oyserman et al. (2007) showed that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Racial-ethnic minority participants view health promotion behaviors as White middle class and unhealthy behaviors as in-group defining (Studies 1 and 2). Priming race-ethnicity (and low socioeconomic status) increases health fatalism and reduces access to health knowledge (Studies 3 and 4). Perceived efficacy of health-promoting activities is undermined when racial-ethnic minority participants who identify unhealthy behavior as in-group defining are asked to consider their similarities to (middle-class) Whites (Studies 5-7). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, certain norms, values or behaviours might be relevant to the definition of a group and thereby important for the social identity of a person. As an answer to your question, a term that might fit is &lt;em&gt;Self Categorization&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Haslam, S. Alexander, Jolanda Jetten, Tom Postmes, und Catherine Haslam (2009). Social identity, health and well-being: An emerging agenda for applied psychology. Applied Psychology 58, 1–23.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Oyserman, D., Fryberg, S. A., &amp;amp; Yoder, N. (2007). Identity-based motivation and health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(6), 1011.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., &amp;amp; Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Basil Blackwell.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2013-08-15T09:11:04.027" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T09:11:04.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4228" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4232" CreationDate="2013-08-15T09:39:39.467" Score="4" ViewCount="232" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a saying I was once told:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;I no longer fear going insane, I am enjoying every moment of it&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some (including myself), this is in fact a rather happy and liberating reality, albeit a reality that I don't quite understand.  So, my question is, &lt;strong&gt;what is the psychology behind choosing to let one's weird side show?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Please note - I am not asking for self help, don't need it - just trying to understand the psychological aspects.  An example of this is when I wore a ballerina suit and walked around a shopping centre as if nothing was out of the ordinary... it was not a pretty sight&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:00:31.937" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T04:00:31.937" Title="What is the psychology behind choosing to be weird?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;social-desirability&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4229" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-15T10:23:44.173" Score="21" ViewCount="3564" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is generally accepted that porn shouldn't be seen by children, and we even sometimes punish parents who fail to stop their children from finding porn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How much are these laws based in science? Can a simple image cause real injury beyond mere disgust? Have there been any studies that track lives of people who were exposed to porn or other disturbing imagery as children or adolescents?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that &lt;a href=&quot;https://parenting.stackexchange.com/questions/8664/what-harm-is-porn&quot;&gt;I have also posted this question on parenting.SE&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3401" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:41:15.363" LastActivityDate="2021-05-25T06:41:26.260" Title="What is the effect of viewing pornography on children?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4230" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4228" CreationDate="2013-08-15T10:42:19.660" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;By being weird you choose a smaller group of similar weirdos to compete for status in. At the limit you're in a group of one. Smaller peer group, easier to be near the top. High status feels good even if it's in a smaller peer group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's relatively easy to be the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.manliestbrony.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;manliest&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Little_Pony:_Friendship_Is_Magic_fandom&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;brony&lt;/a&gt; as opposed to being the manliest human.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Disclaimer: I'm not an expert.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3401" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T03:11:54.340" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T03:11:54.340" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4231" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4237" CreationDate="2013-08-15T11:21:58.220" Score="10" ViewCount="1949" Body="&lt;p&gt;With the advent and proliferation of social media, forums and q&amp;amp;a sites, there has been a matching increase in the incidents of online-bullying, or 'cyber-bullying, that goes beyond &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/78/what-is-the-psychology-behind-trolling&quot;&gt;trolling&lt;/a&gt;. All too many times, the consequences of this kind of bullying (like any type of bullying) can be tragic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychological motivation behind the cyber-bully?  Is it a consequence of them feeling empowered by their apparent anonymity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read the post &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4076/why-do-teenagers-take-the-internet-and-cyberbullying-so-seriously&quot;&gt;&quot;Why do teenagers take the internet and cyberbullying so seriously?&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, but my question is focused on the psychological motivations that the perpetrator of cyberbulling has, not why it is so damaging to the victims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I am after authoritive (refereed) articles about this.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T02:14:41.250" Title="What motivates individuals to engage in cyberbullying?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4232" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4228" CreationDate="2013-08-15T11:48:07.943" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The psychology behind choosing to let one's weird side show?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I think the this question would work as effectively as:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;The psychology behind choosing to let one's individuality show?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human beings are social animals. Social pressures  play significant factors in moulding personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The term &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/conformity.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conformity&lt;/a&gt; is often used to indicate an agreement to the&#xA;  majority position, brought about either by a desire to ‘fit in’ or be&#xA;  liked (normative) or because of a desire to be correct&#xA;  (informational), or simply to conform to a social role&#xA;  (identification).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So assuming &lt;em&gt;&quot;weird&quot;&lt;/em&gt; is more likely to be further away from social norms. The more social pressure to be borne. This means a greater courage is needed to be oneself. There are links between self-acceptance, social pressure and depression.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Correlational results indicated that all three trait dimensions of&#xA;  perfectionism (i.e., self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially&#xA;  prescribed perfectionism) were associated negatively with&#xA;  unconditional self-acceptance. Also, as expected, depression was&#xA;  associated with relatively low unconditional self-acceptance. Finally,&#xA;  a path analysis revealed that unconditional self-acceptance mediated&#xA;  the association between socially prescribed perfectionism and&#xA;  depression, and other-oriented perfectionism was found to affect&#xA;  depression only indirectly through its association with low levels of&#xA;  self-acceptance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1025051431957&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dimensions of Perfectionism, Unconditional Self-Acceptance, and Depression&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gordon L. Flett, Avi Besser, Richard A. Davis, Paul L. Hewitt&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy&lt;br&gt;&#xA;June 2003, Volume 21, Issue 2, pp 119-138&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusion&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gaining self-acceptance, one's individuality or &quot;weirdness&quot; is inversely proportional to the incidence of depression; and also improves the individual's capacity to cope with social pressure to conform.  So by accepting one's strengths and weaknesses one is freed from (social and psychological) pressure, improving one's sense of well being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T11:48:07.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4233" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-15T12:47:05.803" Score="5" ViewCount="476" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fisher et al. (2005) studied the characteristics of women who have repeated abortions. The study was conducted in countries where reliable contraception and education about birth control are readily available. There appears to be a link between a history of physical or sexual abuse and women who have repeated abortions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, not all women having repeated abortions have been abused. Another factor must come into play for non-abused women having repeated abortions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, my question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What other factors besides physical and sexual abuse cause some women to have repeated abortions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples might include poor living skills, lack of education, low self esteem, self abuse, socioeconomic conditions, a true desire to have a baby, ambiguity about wanting a child, fear of being a bad parent, fear of being tied to an abusive partner, lack of responsibility etc. This list is by no means exhaustive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;William A. Fisher, Sukhbir S. Singh, Paul A. Shuper, Mark Carey, Felicia Otchet, Deborah MacLean-Brine, Diane Dal Bello, and Jennifer Gunter   &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC550633/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Characteristics of women undergoing repeat induced abortion&lt;/a&gt;  CMAJ. 2005 March 1; 172(5): 637–641.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T12:34:50.353" LastActivityDate="2017-06-19T21:15:21.607" Title="What causes some women to have repeated abortions?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4234" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-15T13:26:07.563" Score="6" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that pain impairs cognitive function,  in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1023/does-pain-reduce-cognitive-abilities&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; and the following studies on the effects of  headaches on cognition. Moor et al write&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It must therefore be emphasised that headache pain appears to impair&#xA;  general task performance, irrespective of task complexity, rather than&#xA;  specific attentional mechanisms. Headache pain has an effect on the&#xA;  core cognitive components necessary for the successful completion of&#xA;  tasks, and in particular those involving the updating of the cognitive&#xA;  system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eccleston et al have shown that the  degree to which pain disrupts  cognitive processes  is  related to facts regarding the pain and the individuals psycho-social activities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The interruptive function of pain depends on the relationship between&#xA;  pain-related characteristics (e.g., the threat value of pain) and the&#xA;  characteristics of the environmental demands (e.g., emotional&#xA;  arousal).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it seems that there is physiological and psychological factors that contribute to why pain interferes with cognition.        &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there personality traits that correlate with an individual's ability to cope with pain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23748118&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Headache impairs attentional performance.&lt;/a&gt;  Moore DJ, Keogh E, Eccleston C.  Centre for Pain Research, The University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1999-13573-003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pain demands attention: A cognitive–affective model of the interruptive function of pain.&lt;/a&gt;  Eccleston, Chris; Crombez, Geert   Psychological Bulletin, Vol 125(3), May 1999, 356-366. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.356&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T08:59:11.823" Title="What personality traits affect ability to cope with pain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4235" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4125" CreationDate="2013-08-15T14:25:24.943" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Dark Triad traits you speak of are subclinical personality traits, therefore they cannot be diagnosed. Everyone carries some of the characteristics of these traits. People high on these traits are also not considered to be defective, even better they may in some environments be considered to be an advantage (e.g., business areas).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may want to read up on research on the Dark Triad, mainly that by Dr. P. K. Jonason. He is one of the main contributors to the Dark Triad research and uses an evolutionary paradigm to discuss his research, showing how the Dark Triad may be adaptive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3402" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T14:25:24.943" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4236" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-15T16:31:05.480" Score="23" ViewCount="3718" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am curious as to what current research shows regarding why scraping noises such as fingernails on a chalkboard, a knife/fork scraping against a plate, metal grinding against metal or stone etc are so intolerable to humans. In doing some initial research for this I read &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_of_fingernails_scraping_chalkboard&quot;&gt;the wikipedia article on Sound of fingernails scraping chalkboard&lt;/a&gt; (there's a wikipedia article on everything!) but I am looking for more references or updated research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the reading I have done, there seems to be two competing theories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The sound is reminiscent of the warning calls of primates and triggers an evolutionary response left over from an earlier age designed to protect us from predators&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The sound hits a resonante frequency of the inner ear which causes it to be particularly intolerable&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me personally the first theory makes very little sense. Hearing the warning calls of primates does not personally trigger anywhere near the same feelings of extreme frustration and irritability that I feel when I accidentally scrape my knife on my plate. Furthermore the feelings caused by the &quot;nails on a chalkboard&quot; sound do not at all trigger a fight-or-flight response or put me on edge as a loud noise or something that startles me does. If anything it is almost paralyzing, which seems counter to the evolutionary theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How accurate is the wikipedia article? Is there any newer / more widely accepted research available on what causes the sound of &quot;fingernails on a chalkboard&quot; to be so intensely awful to human beings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2016-12-07T14:14:17.870" Title="Why is the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard so intolerable?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;psychoacoustics&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4237" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4231" CreationDate="2013-08-15T16:57:34.670" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my understanding of the problem and my years of experience with the internet since the early days when IRC was popular and web forums were just starting to emerge, I believe I can shed some light on this subject. probably not enough for a full answer but more than just a comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel that a large part of the problem is the anonymity (or perceived anonymity) as well as the sense of detachment that communication over the internet provides us with. I think that psychologically it is much easier to be critical, mean, cruel and otherwise have a lack of empathy when not dealing with another person face-to-face or verbally. Just as text-based communication does not convey tone of voice to allow us to know when others online are being sarcastic, one can lose the sense of how much one's actions are hurting others when they are cruel online.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With respect to perceived anonymity, it becomes greatly easier to rationalize or entirely forget that one's actions have consequences. It's easy to attack someone online and never have them know who is attacking them. This is demonstrated by a 2005 study done by &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.ucalgary.ca/%7Eqinli/publications2.html#cch&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Qing Li&lt;/a&gt; of the University of Calgary (I am unable to find the actual link to the study but have found many places which reference it) that states that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberbullying#Research&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;41% of students surveyed did not know the identity of the perpetrators&lt;/a&gt;. To me this indices that the anonymity provides a means for humans to rationalize behaviors we otherwise would be ashamed to be associated with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cybercrimejournal.com/Shaheen&amp;amp;Hoffijcc.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cyber bullying:  Clarifying Legal Boundaries for School Supervision in Cyberspace&lt;/a&gt; by Shaheen Shariff/McGill University, Canada and Dianne L. Hoff/University of Maine, Orono, USA also draws some very interesting parallels between cyberbullying and the 1954 novel &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_of_the_Flies&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lord of the Flies by  William Golding&lt;/a&gt;, speaking to the roots of cruelty in human nature as well as lack of supervision/perceived anonymity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Young people in cyber-space lose their inhibitions in the absence of no central power, clear institutional or familial boundaries, or hierarchical structures (Milson &amp;amp; Chu, 2002). As Bandura (1991) explained over a decade ago, physical distance provides a context in which students can ignore or trivialize their misbehavior, as easily as Golding’s boys did on their distant island. In cyber-space this form of disengagement is amplified&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lack of institutional and parental rules in cyber-space have the effect of creating virtual islands similar to the physical islands in Lord of the Flies. The absence of adult supervision allows perpetrators free reign to pick on students who may not fit their definition of “cool” because of their weight, appearance, accent, abilities or disabilities (Shariff and Strong-Wilson, 2005). Cyber-space provides a borderless playground that empowers some students to harass, isolate, insult, exclude and threaten classmates. [...] Without limits and clear codes of conduct, communication in cyber-space (even among adults) can rapidly deteriorate into abuse because of the knowledge and sense of security that comes with the limited possibility of being detected and disciplined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also talks about teenage hormones being a driving factor:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, adolescent hormones rage and influence social relationships as children negotiate social and romantic relationships and become more physically self-conscious, independent, and insecure (Boyd, 2000). Research on dating and harassment practices at the middle school level (Tolman, 2001) shows that peer pressure causes males to engage in increased homophobic bullying of male peers and increased sexual harassment of female peers to establish their manhood. During this confusing stage of adolescent life, the conditions are ripe for bullying to take place. The Internet provides a perfect medium for adolescent anxieties to play themselves out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I associate it somewhat with the notion by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thomas Hobbes&lt;/a&gt; that humans are &amp;quot;warlike&amp;quot;, that by our very nature we are completely self-centered, and that we form societies and governments by giving up some of our selfishness and collectively adhering to social contracts for a greater good. By the nature of online communities often we lose this sense of responsibility to the community and each other, and we are prone to regress to our more basic, warlike state. This is my personal belief; I am still searching for actual references with which I can back this up with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T17:35:16.147" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4238" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4236" CreationDate="2013-08-15T19:36:32.500" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;My initial thoughts are that the sound produced &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance&quot;&gt;a dissonant sound&lt;/a&gt;, that is (from the link):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;An unstable tone combination is a dissonance; its tension demands an onward motion to a stable chord. Thus dissonant chords are 'active'; traditionally they have been considered harsh and have expressed pain, grief, and conflict.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;—Roger Kamien (2008)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03211488.pdf&quot;&gt;&quot;Psychacoustics of a chilling sound&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, (Halpern et al. 1986), it is the low frequency components of the sound that cause the most discomfort. In their tests, removing the low frequency part in a digital simulation, made the sound a bit more bearable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the conclusion of the article, there is some support for the Wikipedia article that Josh Gitlin linked to in his question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the complex acoustic stimulus pictured in Figure I&#xA;  very closely resembles some of the spectrograms of warning&#xA;  cries emitted by macaque monkeys (Green, 1975). As&#xA;  another possibility, the signal may be similar to the vocalizations&#xA;  of some predator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T19:36:32.500" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4239" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-15T22:19:09.737" Score="4" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&quot;Google it&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; is a common response to questions nowadays, and it indicates that people are more and more reliant on the internet for all kinds of information. Frequently this information is not memorized, but is retrieved on demand.  My question is about how people retrieve this information efficiently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, knowing a precise keyword, or a model number of a gadget, it is relatively easy to find relevant information or a manual online, but now one has to remember a large number of rarely used keywords or model numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;How to connect second monitor in Windows Vista&quot;&#xA;&quot;RJW-500 connect exhaust hose&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but a person new to computers may word the query differently and get a list of irrelevant results&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;are there modern techniques, tips and tricks or mnemonics on how to deal with searching through a lot of information and finding the stuff that you need online?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2013-08-15T22:19:09.737" Title="Are there modern cognitive techniques for dealing with searching for information online?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4240" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-15T23:37:24.737" Score="5" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in how the human mind works, and over the years have experienced and took notice of a number of peculiar states of consciousness, thought patterns, dreams, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While a lot of these states of mind are replicable, I do not know the correct English terminology for them, which makes it difficult to describe or explore them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if a person does not know the term &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deja-vu&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;deja-vu&lt;/a&gt;, two people can give very different accounts of &quot;experienced something that just happened again&quot; and use completely different words, while if they speak of common deja-vu experiences, everything is much clearer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is even harder with more complex concepts, like &lt;em&gt;spontaneous, intuitive and non-verbal comprehension of a concept&lt;/em&gt;, for which the word &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;noesis&lt;/a&gt; fits. Without knowing that word, it's really hard to convey or compare experiences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a way to learn to better express what's going on in one's head in such a way that the experience can be compared with another persons?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe there's a comprehensive list of words that describe subjective states of mind, developed to help people better express themselves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-03-21T15:05:39.377" LastActivityDate="2015-03-21T15:05:39.377" Title="How can people better express subjective conscious experience with words?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;&lt;scientific-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4241" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-16T02:05:03.073" Score="7" ViewCount="163" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depression seems to be a disruption in thought patterns. In particular, it is characterized by repetitive thoughts. Is it possible to characterize psychological diseases by looking at the logical structure of self reported thoughts? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, suppose Bob is depressed. He may be asked to free associate for 10 minutes. Then would counting the number of double implications be a good characterization of depression. This is a statement of the form $A \Longleftrightarrow B$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So Bob may say things like  &quot;I am depressed because I have no friends&quot; and &quot;I have no friends because I am depressed.&quot; A normal person might have more statements of the form $A \implies B$. So he would say things like &quot;I am happy therefore I should go to the gym. Going to the gym will make me stronger&quot; etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3406" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T02:02:15.990" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T19:29:29.720" Title="Is the logic of self-reported thoughts related to psychological disorders?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4242" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-16T02:10:33.893" Score="4" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose Bob never takes notes in class and just mentally &quot;gets&quot; a subject. Is this ability of mentally learning a subject without actively recording the information a good proxy for intelligence? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3406" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T06:02:20.587" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T06:02:20.587" Title="Is &quot;doing everything in your head&quot; a good proxy for intelligence?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4243" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4246" CreationDate="2013-08-16T09:21:29.337" Score="7" ViewCount="197" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is the first of a series of three questions about morality:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are sets of moral standards within any given society. What one society deems as acceptable may be deemed as abhorrent in another. This concept lends itself to the idea that some aspects of morality are learnt and not innate within an individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which morals are universal across the species?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4244/what-is-the-psychology-of-morality&quot;&gt;What is the psychology of morality?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The third question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4245/how-is-individual-morality-linked-to-psychological-profiling&quot;&gt;How is individual morality linked to psychological profiling?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-12-23T08:28:42.803" Title="Which morals are universal across the species?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4246" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4243" CreationDate="2013-08-16T11:06:08.537" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a partial answer to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/reclaiming-childhood/201106/only-humans-have-morality-not-animals&quot;&gt;&quot;Only Humans Have Morality, Not Animals&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, (Guldberg, 2011), claims that morality is something unique to humans.  Basically the author concludes with:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Human beings are not perfect and never will be, but we are special and unique among the animal kingdom. We are capable of making judgements about our own and other people's behaviour, and have the capacity consciously to change the way we behave and society as whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A key argument made in the article is that there is a great difference between instinctual connections and actions and human empathy and morality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, according to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://subcortex.com/MoralityInnatePrinz.pdf&quot;&gt;&quot;Is Morality Innate?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Prinz), proposes that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Morality is a byproduct—accidental or invented—of faculties that evolved for other&#xA;  purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and proposes a somewhat negative, yet true conclusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nonhuman animals are often&#xA;  violent, but their potential for bad behavior may be lower than ours. Because we can&#xA;  reason, there is a great risk that human beings will recognize countless opportunities to&#xA;  take advantage of our fellows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, it seems that perhaps morality is unique to humans owing to our abilities to reflect, reason as well as react.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-16T11:06:08.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4247" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4288" CreationDate="2013-08-16T13:13:28.803" Score="4" ViewCount="182" Body="&lt;p&gt;Every so often, we hear of people who go that extra mile and put their life on the line (and sometimes, give their life) for another person - whether it is a loved one or a complete stranger (sometimes, an enemy).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has happened to me and several people that I know - and there many cases floating around in the media, a couple of examples are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theaustralian.com.au/in-depth/queensland-floods/take-my-brother-first-heroic-final-act-saves-sibling/story-fn7iwx3v-1225986648911&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jordan Rice&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/05/us/boston-bombing-victim-reunion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Joan North&lt;/a&gt;, there are millions of cases such as this, where ordinary people, young and old have 'stepped up' and did all they could to help.  Nearly all of them reject the title 'hero'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having experienced this myself, I can honestly say, it was not really a 'choice', but a 'compulsion' - seemingly, the reflexes seem to become more acute, the reactions faster and fear is either suppressed or gone altogether.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my question is, &lt;strong&gt;what are the neurological mechanisms that compel a person to act to help another, often without regard to their own safety?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-22T11:28:01.467" LastActivityDate="2013-10-22T11:28:01.467" Title="What are the neurological mechanisms behind risking one's own life for another?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4249" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-16T14:12:48.200" Score="3" ViewCount="700" Body="&lt;p&gt;The plot of the movie &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0104265/plotsummary?ref_=tt_ov_pl&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Final Analysis&lt;/a&gt; revolves around a murder committed by a person diagnosed with Pathological Intoxication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following study confirms the:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;probable existence of a discrete syndrome of pathological reaction to&#xA;  alcohol without reference to the amount of alcohol consumed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jsad.com/jsad/article/The_Diagnosis_of_Pathological_Intoxication/4136.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Diagnosis of Pathological Intoxication&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Barry M. Maletzky&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Volume 37, 1976 &gt; Issue 09: September 1976&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs.&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However there are doubts as raised by the following article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The existence of pathological intoxication as an entity must remain in&#xA;  doubt unless the disorder can be reproduced under controlled&#xA;  conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/489519&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pathological intoxication--is there such an entity?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hollender MH.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;J Clin Psychiatry. 1979 Oct;40(10):424-6.&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can see other conflicting articles; What is the latest position on Pathological Intoxication? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2014-05-21T02:01:46.587" Title="Is the condition Pathological Intoxication recognised as real?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4250" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-16T14:54:50.937" Score="7" ViewCount="431" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can eat pure sugar and pure fats and find it pleasurable thanks to the taste receptors; and salt to a lesser extent. But pure raw chilli products trigger irritation to the tongue, cheeks and nasal passages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it seems chillies do not &quot;win over&quot; taste receptors the way sugar, fat and salt do, but we do crave it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the reward mechanism that makes spicy foods desirable?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2587" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:00:02.527" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T04:00:02.527" Title="What is the reward mechanism for eating spicy foods?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4251" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4750" CreationDate="2013-08-16T15:38:54.147" Score="7" ViewCount="1865" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://powertochange.com/familylife/articles/sex-romance/married-women-increase-libido-by-having-more-sex/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sheila Gregoire suggests&lt;/a&gt; that increasing the amount of sexual activity increases a woman's sexual desire in general.&#xA;I can postulate that child bearing and raising impacts significantly upon a woman's life and that possibly, when a woman finds a mate worthwhile, it is a primitive drive to reproduce.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In  studies by Winnifred B. Cutler, it is demonstrated how, as sexual frequency declines so does sex drive, for women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Khcn8.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; &lt;a href=&quot;http://site.themarriagebed.com/biology/female/how-frequency-effects-women&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;HOW SEXUAL FREQUENCY AFFECTS&#xA;A WOMAN'S SEXUAL RESPONSIVENESS&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;FERTILITY, AND HEALTH&#xA;Paul H. Byerly&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it true that having sex increases a women's future desire to have sex?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What physiological purpose does this serve?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-10-07T12:00:16.553" LastActivityDate="2016-07-15T17:48:28.543" Title="How sexual activity influences a woman's sex drive" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4252" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4408" CreationDate="2013-08-16T16:02:15.337" Score="3" ViewCount="248" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume that it is the brain that has put human beings at the top of the food chain (Biped and  opposable thumbs aside).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest suggest that the best specimens of a species are those that have the greatest mating privileges. I assume that well developed characteristics, required by that species to ensure survival will will be sought after, not just of one particular group, but the species as a whole. So for lions it strength will be desired, and for elephants size will matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For humans, it is the  brain that is our evolutionary marvel. It sets us apart from all other species.  I think human physical prowess is somewhat redundant when it comes to our survival and progress. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many highly intelligent people are still regarded as social misfits, nerds and geeks. The high school football team and cheer leaders are still very popular.&#xA;Sports stadiums are filled and televised, and the regular chess clubs are not.&#xA;This seems a bit like a limiting mechanism, where we are not smart enough to overcome our base natures and so the truly, evolutionary, superior specimens are downgraded, whilst the redundant brawny types that appeals to the apes, are still highly sought after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the relative importance of physical versus mental features in human mate selection?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do mental features receive relative little weighting?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the evolutionary psychology argument for the relative importance of physical versus mental features in mate selection?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T01:34:36.990" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T19:54:31.703" Title="What explains the relative importance of physical versus mental features in human mate selection?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4255" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4258" CreationDate="2013-08-16T16:43:03.080" Score="6" ViewCount="1692" Body="&lt;p&gt;BDSM an acronym for bondage and discipline; dominant and submissive; sado-masochism; slave and master. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume such a relationships or sexual practices are genuinely mutually consenting; and by consent I mean, meaning two well informed, mature, sober, drug free adults.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;In such cases, are BDSM practices or relationships a symptom of a sick mind or the true freedom from social conditioning to play and experiment as desired?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When answering one must be mindful to put the moral judgment that away.&#xA;Answers based purely on opinion and without references will be down voted and flagged, as it is not a site for moral argument, but built on latest scientific research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-17T11:41:05.810" LastActivityDate="2013-08-17T11:41:05.810" Title="Is mutually consensual BDSM a symptom of a sick mind or an expression of freedom from social constraints?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;norms&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4256" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4596" CreationDate="2013-08-16T17:03:53.090" Score="5" ViewCount="2803" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in research on slave-master relationships within the BDSM spectrum. &#xA;This questions concerns people who do not just engage in BDSM recreationally, but rater  define their relationship by this type of relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Master-slave relationships is one of reciprocated devotion and requires much forethought in planning activities. This includes both psychological and physical punishments,  play and games. Many people take their roles in their relationship very seriously. There are clearly defined rules and boundaries that must be respected. This is held in high regard amongst the community. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible for non-BDSM relationships to learn anything from slave-master relationships?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T01:39:24.507" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T01:26:38.083" Title="Is it possible for non-BDSM relationships to learn anything from slave-master relationships?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4258" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4255" CreationDate="2013-08-16T20:12:16.133" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;If your question is, whether practitioners of BDSM are in some way pathological, then Pamela Connolly (2006) answered it. Her abstract summarizes her research and findings nicely (emphasis added):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A demographic questionnaire and 7 psychometric tests were administered&#xA;  to 32 self-identified Bondage/Domination/SadoMasochism (BDSM)&#xA;  practitioners. Although psychoanalytic literature suggests that high&#xA;  levels of certain types of psychopathology should be prevalent among&#xA;  BDSM practitioners, this sample failed to produce widespread, high&#xA;  levels of psychopathology on psychometric measures of depression,&#xA;  anxiety, obsessive-compulsion, psychological sadism, psychological&#xA;  masochism, or PTSD. &lt;strong&gt;In fact, on measures of clinical psychopathology&#xA;  and severe personality pathology, this sample appeared to be&#xA;  comparable to both published test norms and to DSM-IV-TR estimates for&#xA;  the general population. There were, however, some exceptions to this&#xA;  general pattern, most notably the higher-than-average levels of&#xA;  narcissism and nonspecific dissociative symptoms found in the sample.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  This study also raises significant concern about the appropriateness&#xA;  of the diagnosis of sexual masochism and sadism in the Diagnostic and&#xA;  Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association or,&#xA;  minimally, the diagnostic criteria of these disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But BDSM practitioners aren't only normal, they feel &quot;more better&quot;, too: An Australian study (Richters, De Visser, Rissel, Grulich, &amp;amp; Smith, 2008) found that &quot;men who had engaged in BDSM &lt;strong&gt;scored significantly lower on a scale of psychological distress than other men&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; (emphasis added).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This higher level of well-being may be explained by conscious and systematic &quot;&lt;strong&gt;relationship management&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;, including no-holds-barred open communication and clear agreement on mutual relationship roles, resulting in highly functional relationships, as well as a &lt;strong&gt;commitment to personal growth&lt;/strong&gt;, both of which are common among BDSM couples (Cutler, 2003). Contrary to common views of BDSM, Cutler states, BDSM activities include non-sexual motivations: &quot;hormonal studies have shown BDSM activities to be more similar to sports than sex, complete with &lt;strong&gt;stress relief&lt;/strong&gt; qualities&quot; (emphasis added).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today, BDSM is a best-selling mainstream media phenomenon, and it has become increasingly difficult to draw a clear distinction between &quot;deviant&quot; and &quot;normal&quot; sexuality. When a little rope play is just another practice for the average couple, BDSM certainly isn't deviant any longer, and many practitioners are as &quot;normal&quot; as you and me. The difference in practice is, I believe, gradual: BDSM couples indulge in &quot;normal&quot; sex just as normal couples pay visits to the land of bondage and submission (and other kinks).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Connolly, P. H. (2006). Psychological Functioning of Bondage/Domination/Sado-Masochism (BDSM) Practitioners. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Psychology &amp;amp; Human Sexuality, 18&lt;/em&gt;, 79-120. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J056v18n01_05&quot;&gt;10.1300/J056v18n01_05&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cutler, B. (2003). &lt;em&gt;Partner Selection, Power Dynamics, and Sexual Bargaining in Self-Defined BDSM Couples&lt;/em&gt; (Doctoral dissertation, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study_of_Human_Sexuality&quot;&gt;Institute for Advanced Study of Human Sexuality&lt;/a&gt;). Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.niu.edu/user/tj0bjs1/bdsm/Cutler%20%282003%29.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www.niu.edu/user/tj0bjs1/bdsm/Cutler%20(2003).pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Richters, J., De Visser, R. O., Rissel, C. E., Grulich, A. E., &amp;amp; Smith, A. M. A.&#xA;(2008). Demographic and psychosocial features of participants in bondage and discipline, &quot;sadomasochism&quot; or dominance and submission (BDSM): Data from a National Survey. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 5&lt;/em&gt;, 1660–1668. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00795.x&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00795.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-08-16T20:57:38.680" LastActivityDate="2013-08-16T20:57:38.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4259" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4059" CreationDate="2013-08-16T23:46:29.687" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a part answer to this question, specifically if research has been done for this problem.  Also, some perspectives of a Maths and Physics teacher of over a decade experience.  Somewhat ironically, I am going to start by making a parallel to a topic that is arguably an equivalent in the Sciences: Physics - as in my experience, I have seen similarities in terms of top=down vs bottom-up learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.colorado.edu/physics/phys4810/phys4810_fa08/4810_readings/vh1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Learning to think like a Physicist: A review of research based instructional strategies&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Van Heuvelen, 1991), many studies then have found that conventional teaching methods (bottom-up in a lot of places), in their use of &amp;quot;primitive formula-centred problem solving&amp;quot; fail to properly develop topic and subject related reasoning and problem solving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point here is that enquiry based problem solving, which can be considered as 'top-down' allows the student to learn the topics and concepts within a context, in doing so, they see how various topics link together, that may not be so apparent when working with formula-centred methods.  A caveat here, it is absolutely critical that the students have some background knowledge and skills that could be used in their enquiry, these would potentially be enhanced through a top-down type of enquiry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is emphasised further in the chapter &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-personal.umich.edu/%7Edball/chapters/BallLubienskiMewbornChapter.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Research on Teaching Mathematics: The Unsolved Problem of Teachers' Mathematical Knowledge&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Ball, 2001), who asset that the most common encounter with mathematics is a set of rules to be memorised, equivalent to the 'primitive formula-centred problem solving' model described in the previous article, resulting in the subject not only being misunderstood, &lt;strong&gt;but underappreciated&lt;/strong&gt;. This is an advantage of a top-down approach, according to the article (and my own experience), where if the student starts with a query (from an article or unfamiliar question), then it turns into a mathematical challenge, rather than a pedagogical one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, a key point from the chapter &lt;a href=&quot;http://gse3.soe.berkeley.edu/faculty/AHSchoenfeld/Schoenfeld_MathThinking.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving, metacognition, and sense-making in Mathematics&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Schoenfeld, 1992), make several key points outlined above, and:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Present problem situations that closely resemble real situations in their&#xA;richness and complexity so that the experience that students gain in the&#xA;Learning to think mathematically, classroom will be transferable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This includes taking an unfamiliar problem, and using skills and knowledge that they have to disassemble the problem to understand its components.  Essentially, a great skill can be developed in the top-down approach - how to break down a big unfamiliar problem into its more familiar ingredients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-08-16T23:46:29.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4260" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2075" CreationDate="2013-08-17T00:50:12.807" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Admittedly, this question has intrigued me also.  This is a partial answer, as the article below deals with perceptions borne of camera angles of a person, as an example of the effect of camera angles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03197032.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The influence of camera angle on comprehension and retention of pictorial events&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Kraft, 1987), camera angles significantly influence viewers' mental construct of the story representations.  These representations are related to our experience with the real world around us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kraft summarises previous research in saying that there is a connotation that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;physically looking down at an actor&#xA;  translates into looking down on that actor; physically looking&#xA;  up at an actor translates into looking up to that actor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This also could apply to characters.  Thus influencing our perception of the person and the events surrounding them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In regards to scenes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;by changing vertical camera angle, one changes the real life&#xA;  consequences of the pictured scene.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These connotations are often 'woven into the storyline'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-17T00:50:12.807" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4261" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4268" CreationDate="2013-08-17T05:50:16.820" Score="4" ViewCount="545" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd imagine that losing one's temper is quite normal, I can not think of anyone who has not experienced it.  For me, it is rare, but does happen, I find that there can be 3 broad stages occur (&lt;em&gt;note: this is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; a self help question, but just an example&lt;/em&gt;), a generalized example would be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The calm before the storm&quot; - I actually feel calm just after the object of frustration occurs and before the next stage - this step is usually very short.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The storm&quot; - it feels like the anger/rage comes from within and erupts, for me, it is in shouting, for some it is violence, for others, it is both.  The length of this stage varies.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Sunshine again&quot; - not all sunshine and lollipops, but calmer with rationality kicking in.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is what neurological triggers initiate each step?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-08-28T07:33:24.420" LastActivityDate="2013-08-28T07:33:24.420" Title="What is the neurological mechanism responsible for losing one's temper?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4262" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4073" CreationDate="2013-08-17T10:47:21.353" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Literal thinking can be associated with circumstantial thinking, and could be the result of thought &lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; or communication disorders:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://behavenet.com/circumstantial-thinking&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Circumstantial thinking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   A type of thought disorder in which each of a series of thoughts seems&#xA;   less closely related to the original thought than the one before it at&#xA;   first, but the patient's thoughts eventually return to the original&#xA;   subject. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Circumstantial thinking can be a symptom of autism, some schizophrenia and schizotypal affects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The assumption can be made that verbal skills are a prerequisite for effective communication. &lt;em&gt;(without discussion of the mute or deaf)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Metaphorical intelligence is inversely linked to literal thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;that the ability to process metaphors functions as a relatively stable&#xA;  individual differences variable, and that those who are “less able” to&#xA;  process metaphors can be said to have a more “literal” thinking style.&#xA;  ... &#xA;  Frozen metaphors are those that are in common use in the language and&#xA;  which are often thought to be treated as single linguistic units by&#xA;  native speakers. Novel metaphors are ones in which ideas are combined&#xA;  in new or unusual ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Logical thinking is not linked to creative thinking. Creative thinking is linked with metaphorical thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Divergent (as opposed to “convergent”) thinking is a relatively old&#xA;  concept, proposed by Guilford (1967). He described the convergent&#xA;  thinker as a person who finds it easy to deal with problems requiring&#xA;  one conventional correct answer, clearly obtainable from the&#xA;  information provided. The divergent thinker, on the other hand, is&#xA;  better able to solve problems requiring the generation of several&#xA;  equally acceptable answers where the emphasis is on the quantity,&#xA;  variety and originality of responses. Those who engage more readily in&#xA;  divergent thinking are more likely to display metaphoric intelligence. &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Creative thinking (divergent thinking) and critical thinking&#xA;  (convergent thinking) are two powerful aspects of effective thinking  &lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A photographic or eidetic memory,  is often associated with high intelligence or savant intelligence.&#xA;There is evidence that suggests that the creation of photographic or eidetic memories is impaired by concurrent verbalisation.   An interesting point that the mental processes involving this talent are not only independent from verbal skills, but, potentially, hindered by such. One thing it does reveal, is that verbal skills are not linked to this type of &quot;genius&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research has shown that if a person verbalizes during the time he or&#xA;  she is scanning the original picture, this interferes with eidetic&#xA;  image formation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same features of simultaneous brilliance with impaired social skills and varying cognitive impairments, are observed with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savant_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;savants&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think a better question would be, what processes cause literal thinkers, who may be highly intelligent in some ways; to frequently over complicate or misinterpret, seemingly, simple concepts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Literal and over complicated thinking can be linked with a logical thinker, who lacks creative thought skills. Some of the complications could be the result of interpreting problems literally and missing metaphorical meanings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;1. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327752jpa4005_5#preview&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Confusing Area of Disturbed Thinking&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;Journal of Personality Assessment&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Volume 40, Issue 5, 1976 &#xA;Preview&#xA;Access options&#xA;DOI:10.1207/s15327752jpa4005_5&#xA;Bert Loro&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hltmag.co.uk/mar01/mart1.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. Jeannette Littlemore&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;English for International Students Unit&lt;br&gt;&#xA;University of Birmingham&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Birmingham&lt;br&gt;&#xA;B15 2TT&lt;br&gt;&#xA;U.K.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;3. &lt;a href=&quot;http://sebs.rutgers.edu/osp/courses/criticalthinking.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Critical Thinking and the Art of Learning and Living&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;John F. Kennedy&lt;br&gt;&#xA;4.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=is-there-such-a-thing-as&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Is there such a thing as a photographic memory? And if so, can it be learned?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Alan Searleman,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Professor of psychology&lt;br&gt;&#xA;St. Lawrence University&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-25T11:23:41.523" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T11:23:41.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4263" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-17T12:51:16.363" Score="3" ViewCount="239" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any cognitive models which can be used for image interpretation. I have tried to find some specific models which can be used for image interpretation but have not been able to find any model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3413" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2013-09-04T14:42:02.780" LastActivityDate="2014-05-02T20:04:00.780" Title="Are there any cognitive models for image interpretation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4265" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4266" CreationDate="2013-08-17T13:46:48.363" Score="7" ViewCount="387" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider someone who has a serious injury. Example examples include losing a limb, being shot or falling from a great height.&#xA;It is easy for the human mind and science to comprehend and explain why and how much pain that person would suffer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional pain originates in a relatively small part of the body, within the brain, and it isn not usually caused by physical injury. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can emotional pain cause as much or even greater suffering than physical pain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why is emotional pain so difficult for many people to cope with?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-18T11:48:07.667" LastActivityDate="2013-08-18T11:48:07.667" Title="How does emotional pain cause as much suffering as physical pain?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4266" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4265" CreationDate="2013-08-17T14:09:38.583" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some research that I have dug up:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/body-sense/201204/emotional-and-physical-pain-activate-similar-brain-regions&quot;&gt;&quot;Emotional and Physical Pain Activate Similar Brain Regions&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Fogel, 2012), the anterior insula and the anterior cingulate cortex are activated for both physical and emotional pain.  Also, physical pain can lead to emotional pain as it would in the reverse direction (emotional --&gt; physical).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This conclusion is further discussed in the articles &lt;a href=&quot;http://carterlab.ucdavis.edu/courses/psc261/eisenberger_lieberman_williams_S2003.pdf&quot;&gt;&quot;Does Rejection Hurt? An fMRI&#xA;Study of Social Exclusion&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Eisenberger et al. 2007) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/108/15/6270.long&quot;&gt;&quot;Social rejection shares somatosensory representations with physical pain&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Kross et al. 2011). Even though both articles use the insidious form of bullying: social exclusion as an example, the same conclusion could be reached for proportionally greater pain of both types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I alluded to in my comment is true, I have fallen from a decent height, both emotionally and physically in 2 separate incidences - reflecting on what I remember of the pain I felt when I landed, it was about the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-17T14:09:38.583" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4267" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-17T14:53:05.873" Score="4" ViewCount="6818" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a question with regard to calculating composite factor scores after running a factor analysis in SPSS. My research is on work related stress and I collected my data through a perceived stress questionnaire. I check for reliability for all sub scales and ran a factor analysis and obtained a clean factor solution extracting four factors. Each factor consists of 5-6 items. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do I calculate the totals for each factor?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Should I calculate the scores before or after centering the data?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="651" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T03:04:42.130" LastActivityDate="2013-08-24T12:42:18.597" Title="How to calculate composite factor scores post factor analysis for a questionnaire?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4268" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4261" CreationDate="2013-08-17T15:30:31.143" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I have addressed your three points in three parts.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;The calm before the storm.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would dispute the calm before the storm. I would suggest this would depend on the trigger. Sometimes people can experience a feeling of shock at what they are processing, before they become angry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;The storm.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sympathetic nervous system&lt;/a&gt; is the part of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;autonomic nervous system&lt;/a&gt; that is responsible for our fight and flight response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/anger-management/MH00075&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What causes people to get angry?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might have many things to feel threatened about — from financial&#xA;crises and peer pressure to drug addiction and war — and some people&#xA;respond in a negative way. Still, most people don't walk around&#xA;feeling mad all the time. When someone explodes with anger, there's&#xA;usually a triggering event — such as a disagreement at work or being&#xA;stuck in traffic — that brings a mix of simmering emotions to the&#xA;boiling point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens when we get angry?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100531082603.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;When we get angry&lt;/a&gt;, the heart rate, arterial tension and&#xA;testosterone production increases, cortisol (the stress hormone)&#xA;decreases, and the left hemisphere of the brain becomes more&#xA;stimulated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Increased heart rate and arterial tension primes the body for fight or flight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Testosterone is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggression#Testosterone&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;linked&lt;/a&gt; with aggression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortisol&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cortisol&lt;/a&gt; is released in response to stress, sparing available glucose&#xA;for the brain, generating new energy from stored reserves, and&#xA;diverting energy from low-priority activities (such as the immune&#xA;system) in order to survive immediate threats or prepare for the&#xA;exertion of rising to a new day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The left side of the brain is responsible for;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolutionary-psychiatry/201105/dopamine-the-left-brain-women-and-men&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dopamine&lt;/a&gt; [II] is the neurotransmitter that is not only responsible for&#xA;modulating a lot of our physical movement, but also sex, aggression,&#xA;motivational drive, and, counter-intuitively, long-term planning and&#xA;restraint or impulse control. In nearly all right-handed and most&#xA;left-handed humans who are left-brain dominant, dopamine rules the&#xA;left side of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Calm after the storm&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parasympathetic nervous system&lt;/a&gt; is the part of the autonomic nervous system  responsible for the more restful activities and will restore the autonomic nervous system's  balance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The body takes about 20 minutes to return to normal after a full&#xA;fight/flight response. ..//...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...//...  Angry people will not completely comprehend any explanations,&#xA;solutions, or problem solving options until their body returns to&#xA;normal again.  [III]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20045413&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What happens when we get angry? Hormonal, cardiovascular and asymmetrical brain responses&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Neus Herrero, Marien Gadea, Gabriel Rodríguez-Alarcón, Raúl Espert, Alicia Salvador.    Hormones and Behavior, 2010; 57 (3): 276 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.12.008&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolutionary-psychiatry/201105/dopamine-the-left-brain-women-and-men&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How dopamine may influence gender differences in psychiatric disorders&lt;/a&gt; [II]&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Published on May 17, 2011 by Emily Deans, M.D. in Evolutionary Psychiatry&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/let-their-words-do-the-talking/201101/controlling-angry-people&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Controlling Angry People&lt;/a&gt;  [III}&#xA;What would you do if you came face-to-face with an angry person?&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Published on January 5, 2011&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Jack Schafer, Ph.D.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Let Their Words Do the Talking&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-08-17T15:30:31.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4269" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4267" CreationDate="2013-08-17T21:55:13.667" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A good guide how to go about this analysis using the software tools you have described has been written by our very own Jeromy Anglim!  &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeromyanglim.blogspot.com.au/2009/03/calculating-composite-scores-of-ability.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Calculating Composite Scores of Ability and Other Tests in SPSS&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another article with some details is &lt;a href=&quot;http://pareonline.net/pdf/v14n20.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Understanding and Using Factor Scores:&#xA;Considerations for the Applied Researcher&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (DiStefano et al. 2009).  Their abstract is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Following an exploratory factor analysis, factor scores may be computed and used in subsequent&#xA;  analyses. Factor scores are composite variables which provide information about an individual’s&#xA;  placement on the factor(s). This article discusses popular methods to create factor scores under two&#xA;  different classes: refined and non-refined. Strengths and considerations of the various methods, and for&#xA;  using factor scores in general, are discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-08-24T12:42:18.597" LastActivityDate="2013-08-24T12:42:18.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4271" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4324" CreationDate="2013-08-18T02:35:08.027" Score="4" ViewCount="569" Body="&lt;p&gt;This phenomena has always fascinated me, ever since my parents told me (and filmed me) doing exactly that - sleepwalking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read the pamphlet &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sleephealthfoundation.org.au/files/pdfs/sleepwalking.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Sleepwalking&quot;&lt;/a&gt; from the Sleep Health Foundation, that lists several possible causes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For some people, sleep walking is an inherited condition.&#xA;  For children it may also be related to a stage of&#xA;  development. Not getting enough sleep, having irregular&#xA;  sleep hours, stress, drugs and some medicines increase&#xA;  the risk of sleepwalking. In addition, medical conditions&#xA;  such as sleep apnoea, seizures and fever can contribute&#xA;  to the likelihood of sleepwalking. If you are prone to&#xA;  sleepwalking, then sounds that disturb your sleep can&#xA;  also make you sleepwalk. However, not uncommonly a&#xA;  cause cannot be found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, my question is not about the potential causes, but what is/are the neurobiological triggers for sleepwalking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I am after authoritive (non-Wikipedia) explanations from refereed articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T03:32:58.737" Title="What are the neurobiological triggers for sleepwalking?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4272" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-18T11:12:33.393" Score="1" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know the names of some cognitive models which has been used in past for image interpretation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3413" LastActivityDate="2013-08-18T11:12:33.393" Title="Are there any Cognitive Model for image interpretation" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2013-08-18T11:42:44.083" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4273" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-18T14:11:33.703" Score="5" ViewCount="3658" Body="&lt;p&gt;For some time I have been trying to figure out what the connection between social psychology and educational psychology is. By their definition, it seems that there at least one (major) point of connection. Both disciplines have the term &quot;psychology&quot; in their title. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you go further to investigate the connection, you might find that Wikipedia entry on educational psychology seems a bit confusing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the **social psychology of schools as organizations.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it mean that social psychology should be considered as a part/subdiscipline of educational psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3419" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T19:02:32.657" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T19:03:57.647" Title="Relationship between social psychology and educational psychology" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4274" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4267" CreationDate="2013-08-18T14:17:38.293" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to the ressources that @Damien has provided I would like to give you a very brief &quot;tutorial&quot;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Factor scores for a subject are defined as the sum of the scores of that subject on the items that belong to a factor, multiplied by their respective factor loadings. It doesn't really matter if you go with the standardized or with the unstandardized loadings. But very often the standardized values are easier to interpret, as they range from $-1$ to $1$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastActivityDate="2013-08-18T14:17:38.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4275" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4273" CreationDate="2013-08-18T15:01:43.560" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, social psychology is not a subfield of educational psychology. Social psychology is one of the basic disciplines of psychology (like e.g. personality psychology or developmental psychology), whereas educational psychology is an applied discipline (like e.g. clinical psychology or industrial/organizational psychology). A sort of standard definition of social psychology is, that it is the &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the study of the manner in which the personality, attitudes, motivations, and behavior of the individual influence and are influenced by social groups. (Merriam-Webster, 2013)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that as soon as there is some sort of social interaction involved in an educational setting, both disciplines are concerned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Merriam-Webster. (August 2013). Social Psychology. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/social%20psychology&quot;&gt;http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/social%20psychology&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastActivityDate="2013-08-18T15:01:43.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4276" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-18T15:17:47.010" Score="4" ViewCount="290" Body="&lt;p&gt;In September 2013 Germany will elect their new parliament, the &lt;em&gt;Bundestag&lt;/em&gt;. On this occasion, the German Psychological Association (BDP) dedicated the current issue of their member's magazine &lt;em&gt;report psychologie&lt;/em&gt; (7/8, 2013) to the question of political apathy. Unfortunately all articles aimed at how to motivate eligible voters to actively participate in politics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The one question that ensues from the fact of political apathy was painfully missing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All past and present political systems seem to suffer from avarice and power abuse on the part of the governing, and resignation and stupid egoism on the part of the governed. Greed and unselfishness are of course personality traits that a political system cannot change. But social circumstances promote or inhibit the activation of personality traits. Therefore, the most important question is:&lt;br&gt;&#xA; &lt;strong&gt;Is there psychological research into which (aspects of a) political system would increase an active concern for the greater good?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T16:08:58.973" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T16:08:58.973" Title="Which political system stimulates individuals the most to strive for the greater good?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-12T16:10:00.950" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4278" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4267" CreationDate="2013-08-19T03:04:23.017" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Typically, questionnaires where all items are on the same response scale are coded differently to composite variables where you have variables on different metrics (e.g., a set of ability tests).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sums and means:&lt;/strong&gt; For questionnaires like yours, you would commonly just take the mean or the sum of items that belong to a given subscale (note that you may need to first reverse code some of the items). I have a &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeromyanglim.blogspot.com.au/2009/10/calculating-scale-scores-for.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;few notes here about doing this in SPSS and R&lt;/a&gt;. I generally prefer this method: (a) it's simpler; (b) it's easy to compare scores across studies; (c) it doesn't force orthogonality or require choices about degree of correlation between factors, rather it is determined by item content; (d) by using the mean, you get values that are on the same scale as the original response scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Test manual:&lt;/strong&gt; More generally, assuming the test has been used before, you should examine the test manual or other published studies to see how the test is intended to be scored. By following these instructions, you will make your results more comparable to other studies that have used the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Factor saved scores:&lt;/strong&gt; There is also an argument for using factor saved scores.&#xA;If you do that, there are various methods for deriving scores from a factor analysis. Your software will often provide various means for extracting factor saved scores with various properties. You can also save the coefficients from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/spss/output/factor1.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;factor coefficients table&lt;/a&gt;. You can then compute your own factor saved scores by multiplying the coefficients for a given factor by the scores for a particular individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Centering:&lt;/strong&gt; All the above methods (sum, mean, factor saved scores) are examples of weighted composites (i.e., $y_i = \beta_1 x_{i1} + \beta_2 x_{i2} + ... + \beta_p x_{ip}$ for participant $i$ where there are $p$ items, $x$ is the response, and $\beta$ is the weight and where $y$ is one subscale score; you could add another index for multiple subscales). Centering only changes the mean of such a subscale. If you were to create two scales scores, one with centered variables, and one without, the two scale scores would be perfectly correlated. Note that rescaling (e.g., creating z-scores) does make a difference, and is often appropriate where items are on different metrics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree with &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4269/52&quot;&gt;@Damien's answer&lt;/a&gt; that the DiStefano (2009) reference is a good place to get an overview of the issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;DiStefano, C., Zhu, M., &amp;amp; Mindrila, D. (2009). Understanding and using factor scores: Considerations for the applied researcher. Practical Assessment, Research &amp;amp; Evaluation, 14(20), 1-11. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;ved=0CC4QFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fpareonline.net%2Fpdf%2Fv14n20.pdf&amp;amp;ei=HY0RUvrGGKT-iAfizYHAAg&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNFZYnfqZQrQaIL6eqpbefuf3xfJpg&amp;amp;sig2=t9jO1XflW_uOT_3SSjkskA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T03:11:13.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4279" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4242" CreationDate="2013-08-19T04:06:45.437" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Subject performance is not intelligence&lt;/strong&gt;: Doing well in a single subject is a weak measure of intelligence. While the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1290/what-is-the-correlation-between-grade-point-average-gpa-and-intelligence&quot;&gt;correlation between IQ and GPA is fairly high&lt;/a&gt;. The correlation for a given subject will typically be much lower. So another way of framing this subject is whether doing a subject in your head is a good proxy for subject understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More broadly, your question implies a few other questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does note taking improve learning?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are students who are either more generally intelligent or more capable in the subject less likely to take notes?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there an interaction such that the benefits of note taking is less for more skilled students?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Is note taking effective?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I assume that note taking is generally effective and helping students to retain the information presented in a lecture. It encourages students to focus on the material. Deeper information processing increases depth of learning and retention. It also provides a means of revision, which in turn should increase retention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, there are a lot of different types of note taking. In particular, part of the skill of note taking is working out what is important and what is not important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also many different pedagogical contexts. For example, in some settings note taking is required for keeping a record whereas in other settings slides or recordings of the lecture may be provided. Logic says that if note taking is the only record, then it would be more important. Similarly, lectures vary in the degree to which the specific material needs to be mastered as opposed to providing an overview and relying on textbooks or other activities to hone skills. I would assume that where a subject requires students to repeat or apply information presented in the lecture, then taking notes will be more effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. Are students who are either more generally intelligent or more capable in the subject less likely to take notes?&lt;/strong&gt; I don't know of specific research into this, but I think there would be two key factors operating. First, less capable students are more likely to use poor study skills. So this might involve either no note-taking or poor note taking (e.g., taking down too much information). Second, more capable students are likely to know more material and also be able to absorb the material better. So in some cases, they may have less need to take notes, which in turn may lead them not to take notes.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It might also be related to self-efficacy beliefs which are only partially grounded in reality. So for example, the student might think that they are understanding more of the subject than they are, and fail to see the benefit that they would derive from taking notes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3. Is there an interaction such that the benefits of note taking is less for more skilled students?&lt;/strong&gt; Certainly at a certain extreme level of prior understanding where the student already knows all the material, then there may be little benefit from note taking. Likewise, as mentioned previously many features of the context may influence the need for note taking.  However, in contexts where the material is somewhat new to all students, and the test is on the material presented in the lecture, and there are no slides or other material I imagine that note taking would be fairly valuable for all students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Some research:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems there is quite a lot of research on note-taking. Check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?q=note+taking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;note taking&quot; on google scholar&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hartley and Davies (1978)&lt;/strong&gt; review note taking looking at why students take notes and the research on note taking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kiewra (1989) provides another review of the learning benefits of note-taking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This review article investigates the encoding and storage functions of&#xA;  note-  taking. The encoding function suggests that the process of&#xA;  taking notes, which  are not reviewed, is facilitative. Research&#xA;  specifying optimal note-taking behaviors is discussed as are&#xA;  several means for facilitating note-taking, such  as viewing a lecture&#xA;  multiple times, note-taking on a provided framework,  or generative&#xA;  note-taking activities. The storage function suggests that the  review&#xA;  of notes also is facilitative. Research addressing particular review&#xA;  behaviors, such as organization and elaboration, is discussed as&#xA;  are the advan-  tages of reviewing provided notes, borrowed notes, or&#xA;  notes organized in  a matrix form. In addition, cognitive factors&#xA;  related to note-taking and review  are discussed. The article&#xA;  concludes with an alternative means for defining  and investigating&#xA;  the functions of note-taking, and with implications for edu-  cation&#xA;  and for research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hartley, J., &amp;amp; Davies, I. K. (1978). Note‐taking: A critical review. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 15(3), 207-224.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kiewra, K. A. (1989). A review of note-taking: The encoding-storage paradigm and beyond. Educational Psychology Review, 1(2), 147-172.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T04:06:45.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4280" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-19T04:34:41.863" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T04:34:41.863" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T04:34:41.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4281" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-19T04:34:41.863" Score="0" Body="For questions about the neural and psychological processes underlying moral reasoning, moral development, and the psychology of morality in general. Questions about whether something IS moral is a philosophical question, and will often not be suited to this site." OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:22:12.863" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:22:12.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4282" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4250" CreationDate="2013-08-19T05:02:56.867" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rozin (1996) provides an introduction to the psychology of food. &#xA;Rozin and Schiller (1980) present a study on the acquisition of preferences for chili peppers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the abstract, they write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Interviews, observations, and measurements were carried out in both&#xA;  Mexico and the United States. Exposure to gradually increasing levels&#xA;  of chili in food seems to be a sufficient condition for preference&#xA;  development. Chili likers are not insensitive to the irritation that it&#xA;  produces. They come to like the same burning sensation that deters&#xA;  animals and humans that dislike chili; there is a clear hedonic shift.&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;This could be produced by association with positive events, including&#xA;  enhancement of the taste of bland foods, postingestional effects, or&#xA;  social rewards&lt;/strong&gt;. It is also possible that the initial negative response&#xA;  to chili pepper is essential for the eventual liking. Chili stimulates&#xA;  an innate sensory &quot;'warning&quot; system but is not harmful. The enjoyment&#xA;  of the irritation may result from the user's appreciation that the&#xA;  sensation and the body's defensive reaction to it are harmless. Eating&#xA;  of chili, riding on roller coasters, taking very hot baths, and many&#xA;  other human activities can be considered instances of thrill seeking&#xA;  or enjoyment of &quot;'constrained risks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper also present research for and against desensitisation processes, although they note that this still requires some general rewarding quality to chilis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Chili preference might be related to receptor desensitization.&#xA;  However, there would have to be positive features of chili that&#xA;  support a preference once the desensitization took place; otherwise,&#xA;  desensitization would lead to neutral responses. There is some reason&#xA;  to believe that desensitization to capsaicin could be a factor in&#xA;  human chili ingestion. High concentrations of capsaicin placed on the&#xA;  skin of humans or rats produce drops in sensitivity to subsequent&#xA;  applications of capsaicin that last for hours up to days after the&#xA;  initial treatment (Jancs6, 1960). Systemic injections of high levels&#xA;  of capsaicin into rats and guinea pigs produce months-long complete&#xA;  desensitization to the effects of capsaicin and other chemical&#xA;  irritants. Desensitized rats do not respond (as with paw wiping) to&#xA;  irritating solutions of capsaicin or ammonia placed in their eyes&#xA;  (Jancs6- Gfibor &amp;amp; Szolcs~myi, 1969)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rozin, P. (1996). Towards a psychology of food and eating: From motivation to module to model to marker, morality, meaning, and metaphor. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 5(1), 18-24.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rozin, P., &amp;amp; Schiller, D. (1980). The nature and acquisition of a preference for chili pepper by humans. Motivation and Emotion, 4(1), 77-101.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T05:02:56.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4283" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4207" CreationDate="2013-08-19T05:36:28.537" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Compulsive talking appears to be linked with the inability to manage social anxiety. Whether the anxiety is brought about from the uncomfortability of the interaction or from the avoidance of deep seated feelings within the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People who score beyond two standard deviations above the mean on the&#xA;  scale are labeled as “talkaholics,”  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;as cited by James C. McCroskey &amp;amp; Virginia P. Richmond &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The most common and basic cause of any compulsive behavior is anxiety.&#xA;  A person engages in compulsive behavior not because he particularly&#xA;  wants to, but because he’s so anxious that he has to do something to&#xA;  get his mind off that anxiety. Until the compulsive talker comes to&#xA;  grips with whatever he or she doesn’t want to think about, the talking&#xA;  will continue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The root of this anxiety varies from individual to individual. But it&#xA;  often stems from deep-seated emotions of insecurity and&#xA;  inadequacy.../...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For the compulsive talker, silence and reflection are simply&#xA;  unacceptable. A pause in conversation is an emotional abyss into which&#xA;  they simply cannot help but throw themselves.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;written by Dr Hurd&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Compulsive talking could be confused with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_of_speech&quot;&gt;Pressure of Speech&lt;/a&gt;. Which can be associated with mania and attention deficit disorder. Pressured speech is marked by speaking rapidly, with a sense of urgency and, frequently, with no social awareness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logorrhea_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;Logorrhea&lt;/a&gt; is another condition, which causes the person to talk endlessly, but, usually, in an incoherent, rambling fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08824099309359924#.UhGnX5IweSo&quot;&gt;Identifying compulsive communicators: The talkaholic scale&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;James C. McCroskey &amp;amp; Virginia P. Richmond&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Communication Research Reports&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Volume 10, Issue 2, 1993&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drhurd.com/index.php/Life-s-a-Beach/Published-Columns/Talking-too-much-can-have-deep-seated-roots.html&quot;&gt;Talking too much can have deep-seated roots&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dr Hurd&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Private Practice of Psychotherapy and Solution-Focused Consultation since 1988.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drhurd.com/index.php/About-Dr.-Hurd.html&quot;&gt;Multiple published works&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T05:36:28.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4284" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4273" CreationDate="2013-08-19T08:14:14.010" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short, there is no simple answer to your question. First, you have to ask what do you consider a discipline. You should considered and research the following questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a community of researchers that is actively engaged in&#xA;debates?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a set of journals and conferences that are more related to&#xA;social psychology (SP) or educational psychology(EP)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a corpus of work that is usually refer as key to social&#xA;psychology or educational psychology?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are the associations dedicated to solely SP and EP?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a set of methods that are used and developed solely by SP&#xA;and EP?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You should ask about relationship between social psychology and educational psychology only after you answer &quot;yes&quot; to the questions above. In other case you only talk about two fields that psychology/psychologists focus their attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To conclude, you have to make more research on the disciplinary status of both social and educational psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would recomend Krishnan (2009) regarding the interdisciplinary relations. A good introduction to disciplinarity is also there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Krishnan, A. (2009). What are academic disciplines. Some observations on the Disciplinarity vs. Interdisciplinarity Ddebate. ESRC National Centre for Research Methods. Universitty of Southhampton, 63.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3420" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T19:03:57.647" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T19:03:57.647" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4285" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4236" CreationDate="2013-08-19T09:18:11.240" Score="6" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Furthermore the feelings caused by the &quot;nails on a chalkboard&quot; sound do not at all trigger a fight-or-flight response or put me on edge as a loud noise or something that startles me does. If anything it is almost &lt;strong&gt;paralyzing, which seems counter to the evolutionary theory.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, I agree, it seems to, however what about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fainting_goat&quot;&gt;fainting goats&lt;/a&gt;? We could have traits which aren't advantageous, yet we were able to survive in spite of them. Like the goats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though it seems perfectly possible (though not logical) to be paralyzed by fear in response to a warning signal, I don't agree with the theory that the sound is indeed a warning signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience with hearing fingernails on the chalkboard, its almost as if my teeth hurt.  This leads me to believe it is not predators I'm fearing, but injury.  It could be a fear by association produced from when I was very young and putting many different objects in my mouth.  Some objects may have produced a similar sound and the sound was associated with pain.  If you wish to survive in nature, its very important to have teeth, and injuring our teeth may be an especially important thing to avoid... not only if you expect to eat, but also &lt;a href=&quot;http://crowncouncil.com/what-do-singles-want-nice-teeth&quot;&gt;attract a mate.&lt;/a&gt; A good smile &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20120119006098/en/Bad-Teeth-Ranked-1-Turnoff-CosmaLite%E2%80%99s-Dating&quot;&gt;is important&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my search for references to back up my theory, I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://amasci.com/amateur/screet.html&quot;&gt;this presentation&lt;/a&gt;, the author of which seems to agree with my assessment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also found at least one other person who claims to feel something in his teeth:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I feel the discomfort in my teeth and have always assumed the screeching is at the right frequency to build up uncomfortable vibrations in the teeth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is actually a random comment (pages 11-20 in the comments section at the bottom) to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=why-is-the-sound-of-fingernails-on-blackboard&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't agree that the sounds would have enough acoutical power to vibrate the teeth.  I think the pain is merely imagined.  Of course, that's my opinion, for what its worth.  Since the prevailing theory is predator-based and not tooth-injury-based, I wouldn't expect to find any studies on the matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to the evidence presented so far, I have another reason to doubt the predator theory.  If the sound mimics the cry of danger and the response is instinctual, then why don't we all have the response?  Out of 3 people contributing to this question, 1 has admitted &quot;this sound has no effect on me at all.&quot; This argues in favor of my &quot;fear by association&quot; theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3232" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T09:18:11.240" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4286" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4293" CreationDate="2013-08-19T09:21:51.217" Score="6" ViewCount="958" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question has intrigued me for a long time, ever since I experienced it first hand (and continue to do so).  Some feel a compulsion to 'step up' and lend a hand to someone in need.  An example, after spending a day cleaning up a neighbour's flood ravaged business and then some time helping at an evacuation centre, I came home sore, bruised, bleeding, battered, utterly exhausted - but, I felt &lt;strong&gt;great&lt;/strong&gt; - physically, I was a mess, but psychologically, I felt incredible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is/are bases for the psychological benefits often felt by volunteers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-22T11:28:34.580" LastActivityDate="2013-10-22T11:28:34.580" Title="Psychologically, how does volunteer work help the volunteer?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4287" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4110" CreationDate="2013-08-19T09:34:53.493" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As Parrot and Smith have said (1993), &quot;envy and jealousy are confounded by laypersons and scholars alike (Schoeck, 1969)&quot;, while in psychology, philosophy, and the social sciences in general, a distinction is drawn between jealousy and envy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;[E]nvy&lt;/em&gt; occurs when a person lacks another's superior quality,&#xA;  achievment, or possession and either desires it or wishes that the&#xA;  other lacked it. It occurs when this shortcoming exists in a domain&#xA;  that is self-definitional (Salovey &amp;amp; Rodin, 1984), and it intensifies&#xA;  with self-dissatisfaction and when superioority in alternative&#xA;  comparison domains is lacking (R. H. Smith, Diener, &amp;amp; Garonzik, 1990).&#xA;  ...&#xA;  &lt;em&gt;Jealousy&lt;/em&gt;, by contrast, necessarily occurs in the context of relationships. It occurs when a person fears losing an important&#xA;  relationship with another person to a rival—in particular, losing a&#xA;  relationship that is formative to one's sense of self (Hupka, 1991;&#xA;  Rorty, 1988, chap. 7). (Parrot &amp;amp; Smith, 1993)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As studies have shown, envy appears to be characterized by feelings of inferiority, longing, resentment, and disapproval of the emotion. Jealousy appears to be characterized by fear of loss, distrust, anxiety, and anger. (Parrot &amp;amp; Smith, 1993).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if you write: &quot;Some people are just jealous of many things they perceive others to possess. Materially or as part of that person.&quot;, then you are actually not talking about jealousy, but about envy, and your question must read:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are envious individuals more likely to experience sexual jealousy?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As experiments and surveys show, both envy and jealousy are caused by threatened self-esteem (DeSteno, Valdesolo &amp;amp; Bartlett, 2006; Parrot, 1991), so it might be concluded that the propensity for both emotions would be equally high or low in one individual. But that is not necessarily so. Findings suggest that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a distinction might be made between different types of self-esteem, or&#xA;  between different routes to lowering self-esteem. ... In envy one's&#xA;  own appraisal leads to dissatisfaction with oneself. In jealousy, the&#xA;  reflected appraisal of another leads to a lack of security and&#xA;  confidence. (Parrott, 1991)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feelings of jealousy appear to be equally high in different individuals (and both sexes) if they face the same situations (Salovey &amp;amp; Rodin, 1985). Nevertheless there might be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;certain personality characteristics that might make some people&#xA;  particulaly prone to jealousy. ... The people whose responses&#xA;  indicated a high degree of jealousy were those who also reported these&#xA;  three personality characteristics: having a low opinion of themselves,&#xA;  seeing a large discrepancy between how they really are and what they&#xA;  would ideally like to be and valuing highly such visible achievements&#xA;  as becoming wealthy, famous, well-liked and, especially, physically&#xA;  attractive. (Salovey &amp;amp; Rodin, 1985)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Variance in self-esteem is attributable to genetics, parenting style, perceived appearance, and past experiences of success and failure (Emler, 2001). Nevertheless, in intensity of jealousy was mostly moderated by how secure and committed the current relationship felt (Salovey &amp;amp; Rodin, 1985). Thus it seems that environment factors play at least an equally strong role in promoting jealousy as personality traits or states. Because, of course, &quot;close and loving relationships with others later in life do contribute positively to self-esteem. But&quot; – and here the circle closes – &quot;the likelihood of forming and sustaining successful relationships of these kinds is itself higher when self-esteem is higher in the first place.&quot; (Emler, 2001)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;DeSteno, D., Valdesolo, P., &amp;amp; Bartlett, M. Y. (2006). Jealousy and the threatened self: Getting to the heart of the green-eyed monster. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91&lt;/em&gt;, 626-641. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.626&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.626&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emler, N. (2001). &lt;em&gt;Self-esteem: The costs and causes of low self-worth&lt;/em&gt;. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parrott, W. G. (1991). The emotional experiences of envy and jealousy. In P. Salovey (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;The Psychology of Jealousy and Envy&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 3-30). New York: Guilford Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parrott, W. G., &amp;amp; Smith, R. H. (1993). Distinguishing the experiences of envy and jealousy. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64&lt;/em&gt;, 906-920. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.6.906&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-3514.64.6.906&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Salovey, P., &amp;amp; Rodin, J. (1985). The heart of jealousy. &lt;em&gt;Psychology Today, 19&lt;/em&gt;, 22-29.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T09:34:53.493" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4288" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4247" CreationDate="2013-08-19T09:44:37.313" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This book &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/1591845289&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What Makes a Hero?: The Surprising Science of Selflessness&lt;/a&gt; by Elizabeth Svoboda, covers the answer to this question in considerable detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author explores the genetic predisposition to be heroic, whether it can be developed and learnt, and the idea of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_selection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;group selection&lt;/a&gt;; which proposes this is an instinctual reaction, the sacrifice of one member can be in the aide of the greater good of the species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This discussion on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/articles/personalityandindividuality/morals.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moral maze&lt;/a&gt;  examines whether human altruism really exists, or whether it is an evolutionary process. Examples of mutual reciprocity within various species, demonstrates that self-sacrifice can contribute to an individual's overall well-being. It is a cynical look at human nature, making the basic assumption that the survival instinct within human beings (or the preservation of an individual's gene pool)  is the greatest drive and that any seeming detour from this, ultimately serves this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Even in human societies we can still trace many behaviours seemingly&#xA;carried out for the benefit of the group back to benefits for the&#xA;individual,&amp;quot; Stanford explains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Someone who jumps into a river to save a drowning man will become a&#xA;hero. And heroes accrue all sorts of benefits. For example, they may&#xA;become more attractive to women,&amp;quot; he adds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My personal take on the two examples you provided:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theaustralian.com.au/in-depth/queensland-floods/take-my-brother-first-heroic-final-act-saves-sibling/story-fn7iwx3v-1225986648911&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jordan Rice&lt;/a&gt; he has sacrificed himself for his younger brother. An act that conforms with the notion of group selection and maintains the integrity of the individual's aim to preserve the own gene pool.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of &lt;a href=&quot;http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2013-06-05/news/bs-md-brannock-reunion-20130605_1_erika-brannock-boston-marathon-preschool-teacher&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amanda (aka Joan) North&lt;/a&gt; is quoted as saying:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I felt like there was a reason I was there. I felt a  compulsion to go over to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Amanda North is in her 50s and has two children; past her child bearing and raising years (from a survival viewpoint).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Erika Brannock (the woman Amanda North rescued) is a 29 year old woman. A member of the species in the prime of her child bearing years, hence better able to contribute to the ongoing survival of our species. An added, an unrelated observation, is that she also happens to be a preschool teacher - demonstrating the, more likely odds, that she is a member of the species in the role of raising the next generation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A note  about the state of mind of a person in such a crisis, it is survival mode at it's most primitive. The body's fight and flight response, with is managed by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sympathetic nervous system&lt;/a&gt;. This optimizes the individual's for self preservation and protection of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/fear2.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;body's reaction&lt;/a&gt; to fight and flight:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;heart rate and blood pressure increase&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;pupils dilate to take in as much light as possible&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;blood-glucose level increases&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;muscles tense up, energized by adrenaline and glucose (responsible    for goose bumps -- when tiny muscles attached to each hair on surface&#xA;of skin tense up, the hairs are forced upright, pulling skin with&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;them)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;smooth muscle relaxes in order to allow more oxygen into the lungs      nonessential systems (like digestion and immune system) shut down to&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;allow more energy for emergency functions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;trouble focusing on small tasks (brain is directed to focus only on    big picture in order to determine where threat is coming from)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2013/04/19/why-do-people-risk-their-lives-to-help-others-during-emergencies-such-as-the-boston-marathon-bombing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why Do People Risk Their Lives To Help Others During Emergencies Such as the Boston Marathon Bombing?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;note - if you like I can investigate studies which show the demographics of likely heros, which is a little out of the scope of this question.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T10:13:25.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4289" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-19T10:53:12.500" Score="3" ViewCount="187" Body="&lt;p&gt;what are the steps/considerations if I want to modify an exisiting Cognitive Test Battery?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) How do I know which parts of the test are under copyright? For example, simple digit span isn't under copyright but is part of a test battery that is copyrighted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) If I want to develop my own set of tests, is it possible to buy over the rights of a test and make modifications from there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3422" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-03T07:19:05.963" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T07:19:05.963" Title="Which parts of cognitive tests are under copyright? Can test rights be purchased for modification?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4290" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4286" CreationDate="2013-08-19T11:42:47.140" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some of the &quot;pay-offs&quot; of altruism, but within the more extreme circumstance of risking one's life to save another are address in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4288/3267&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, volunteer work fulfills a person's needs to be useful, it also places a person in a position of superiority, as they are bestowing their &quot;gifts&quot; upon a &quot;lesser&quot; person in need. There is evidence that charitable work releases chemicals akin to pleasure in the brain. [Dan Schulman]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I cite Ferguson, Eamonn; Farrell, Kathleen; Lawrence, Claire :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The benevolence hypothesis is supported, suggesting that blood donor&#xA;  motivation is partly selfish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Citing  from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/articles/personalityandindividuality/morals.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;moral maze&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Even in human societies we can still trace many behaviours seemingly&#xA;  carried out for the benefit of the group back to benefits for the&#xA;  individual,&quot; Stanford explains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the study Altruism Costs - the Cheap Signal from Amygdala, it was demonstrated that there a neurological changes within the brain when contemplating making donations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;neural processing of the cost-benefit difference. The presentation of&#xA;  a charitable donation goal evoked an insula activity that predicted&#xA;  the later decision to donate.../...   Our findings imply that the&#xA;  emotional system has an important role in real decision making as it&#xA;  signals what kind of immediate cost and reward an outcome is&#xA;  associated with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary, I believe the pay-off is a feeling of well-being, that is in accord with supporting the individual's self-esteem and some evolutionary theories of our instincts as a species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200212/the-biology-benevolence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Biology of Benevolence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Humans may be hardwired to cooperate. The choice to cooperate stimulates pleasure centers in the brain.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;By Dan Schulman,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;published on November 01, 2002 - last reviewed on May 02, 2006&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/hea/27/3/327/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blood donation is an act of benevolence rather than altruism.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ferguson, Eamonn; Farrell, Kathleen; Lawrence, Claire&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Health Psychology, Vol 27(3), May 2008, 327-336&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23945997&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Altruism Costs - the Cheap Signal from Amygdala.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gospic K, Sundberg M, Maeder J, Fransson P, Petrovic P, Isacsson G, Karlström A, Ingvar M.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T11:42:47.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4291" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1638" CreationDate="2013-08-19T12:59:50.747" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think there is an easy answer to this question. It is a bit like asking how long is a piece of string. Really what you are asking is, what is the defining point between a lesser problem and a greater problem, that it can be diagnosed as a pathological. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My answer would be once a complex impacts on an individual's ability to function normally, becomes a more persistent within the person's thoughts or in any way crippling then it is pathological. Or better put in the following quote:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/481779/psychoneurosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychoneurosis,&lt;/a&gt; also called neurosis, plural psychoneuroses, or&#xA;  neuroses ,  mental disorder that causes a sense of distress and&#xA;  deficit in functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly to define what Jung considered to be a complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_%28psychology%29#Jung.27s_theory_of_complexes_with_key_citations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jung's theory of complexes with key citations&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  A &quot;complex&quot; meaning a personal unconscious, core pattern of emotions,&#xA;  memories, perceptions, and wishes organized around a common theme&#xA;  (Shultz and Shultz, 2009). .../...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Jung often used the term &quot;complex&quot; to describe a usually unconscious,&#xA;  repressed, yet highly influential symbolic material that is&#xA;  incompatible with the consciousness (Daniels, 2010).  .../... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some complexes usurp power from the ego and can cause constant&#xA;  psychological disturbances and symptoms of neurosis (Daniels, 2010)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So given that  when a complex becomes a greater problem, it's a  neurosis. We need to define neurosis.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neurosis&lt;/a&gt; is a class of functional mental disorders involving&#xA;  distress but neither delusions nor hallucinations, whereby behavior is&#xA;  not outside socially acceptable norms.&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/481779/psychoneurosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; It is also known as&#xA;  psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, and thus those suffering from it&#xA;  are said to be neurotic. The term essentially describes an &quot;invisible&#xA;  injury&quot; and the resulting condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now we compare this with the definition of what pathology is in psychology.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/346014.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychological Pathology&lt;/a&gt;   Definition   The scientific study of&#xA;  psychological disorders and their causes.   Description&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Psychological pathology is the study of the causes, components,&#xA;  course, and consequences of psychological disorders. These are&#xA;  characterized by abnormality and dysfunction.   Abnormality&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Psychological disorders are defined by diagnostic criteria, like those&#xA;  outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders&#xA;  (DSM; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000) or the&#xA;  International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related&#xA;  Health Conditions (ICD; World Health Organization, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The inclusion of neurosis in the DSM has been controversial and neurosis is not considered a part of anxiety conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T17:32:34.927" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T17:32:34.927" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4292" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-19T13:51:00.083" Score="4" ViewCount="433" Body="&lt;p&gt;Steady-state topography is a derivation of EEG/ERPs using an evoked potential to an ongoing oscillating stimuli called the steady state visually evoked potential (SSVEP). Variations in the phase difference between the SSVEP and the stimulus are interpreted to measure &quot;summed changes in synaptic transmission time&quot;, where a latency reduction indexes an increase in synaptic excitation and a latency increase indicates a reduction in synaptic excitation (Silberstein &amp;amp; Nield, 2008).  This kind of change at lateral prefrontal sites, particularly left lateral prefrontal sites, has been interpreted to show increased long-term memory activation to specific stimuli (Smith &amp;amp; Gevins, 2004).  Some studies have also shown that this increased LTM activation is a predictor of future buying behavior (Silberstein &amp;amp; Nield, 2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the criticisms of this method?  Weaknesses?  Other possible interpretations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Silberstein, R., &amp;amp; Nield, G. (2008) Brain activity correlates of consumer brand choice&#xA;  shift associated with television advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 27(3), pp. 359–380. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Smith, M.E. &amp;amp; Gevins, A. (2004) Attention and brain activity while watching&#xA;  television: components of viewer engagement. Media Psychology, 6(3), pp. 285–305.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-19T14:56:09.583" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T14:56:09.583" Title="Steady State Topography and Advertising/Preference: Weaknesses? Criticism?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4293" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4286" CreationDate="2013-08-19T14:16:09.700" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Individual Motives&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to purely altruistic motivs for volunteering, there is some evidence it can occur for very different, more selfish reasons. Clary et al. (1998) developed a functionalist theory of volunteering and identified six different motives: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;expression of humanitarian values&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;gaining knowledge&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;personal growth&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;social integration&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;career benefits&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;protecting the ego from negative self evaluation and reducing guilt of being more fortunate than others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simon et al. (2000) found additional evidence to support the role of gaining knowledge as a motive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Social Motives&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of the above were individual motives for helping behaviour. Going back to altruism as a predictor, it might be useful to also consider a group level perspective. Helping behaviour may have to do with self-categorization as group member. A very prominent approach from social-psychology is the &lt;em&gt;Empathy-Altruism-Hypothesis&lt;/em&gt; by Daniel Batson et al. (1991). As you might expect, it states that empathy with someone is a good predictor of helping behaviour. However, there are different reasons for experiencing empathy. Stürmer et al. (2005; see also Simon et al., 2000) found in a study with AIDS volunteers, that empathy was a stronger predictor of helping behaviour when the recipient was an in-group member. On the other hand, when the recipient was an outgroup member, personal attraction was a stronger predictor. So volunteering might also have to do with the social identity of a person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Batson, C. D. (1991). &lt;em&gt;The altruism question: Toward a social-psychological answer.&lt;/em&gt; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A. A., Haugen, J., &amp;amp; Miene, P. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: a functional approach. &lt;em&gt;Journal of personality and social psychology,&lt;/em&gt; 74(6), 1516. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.comm.umn.edu/~akoerner/courses/5431-S13/Clary%20et%20al.%20%281998%29.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Simon, B., Sturmer, S., &amp;amp; Steffens, K. (2000). Helping Individuals or Group Members? The Role of Individual and Collective Identification in AIDS Volunteerism. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,&lt;/em&gt; 26(4), 497–506. doi:10.1177/0146167200266008 &lt;a href=&quot;http://bama.ua.edu/~sprentic/672%20Simon%20et%20al.%202000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Stürmer, S., Snyder, M., &amp;amp; Omoto, A. M. (2005). Prosocial Emotions and Helping: The Moderating Role of Group Membership. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,&lt;/em&gt; 88(3), 532–546. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.532&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2013-08-20T08:38:41.377" LastActivityDate="2013-08-20T08:38:41.377" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4294" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2021" CreationDate="2013-08-19T15:12:42.540" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there is such an activity and it is called priming.  It is the same technique that involves mental, sexual foreplay. There has been a fair bit of research about the psychological effects of priming. I have limited the discussion, purely to priming, but there are many other interesting, associations with priming that could be discussed within another post.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find the following points provide a good summary of the various modes of priming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/priming.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Priming&lt;/a&gt; is providing a stimulus that influences their near-term future&#xA;  thoughts and actions, even though they may not seem to be connected.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Conceptual priming&lt;/strong&gt; occurs where related ideas are used to prime the&#xA;  response, for example 'hat' may prime for 'head'.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Semantic priming&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  occurs where the meaning created influences later thoughts. Semantic&#xA;  and conceptual priming are very similar and the terms may be used&#xA;  interchangeably.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Non-associative semantic priming&lt;/strong&gt; refers to related&#xA;  concepts but where one is less likely to trigger thoughts of the&#xA;  other, for example 'Sun' and 'Venus'.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Perceptual priming&lt;/strong&gt;, is based&#xA;  on the form of the stimulus, for example where a part-picture is&#xA;  completed based on a picture seen earlier.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Associative priming&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  happens when a linked idea is primed, for example when 'bread' primes&#xA;  the thought of 'butter'. This particularly applies to 'free&#xA;  association' word pairs.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Masked priming&lt;/strong&gt; occurs where a word or image&#xA;  is presented for a very short time but is not consciously recognized.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Repetitive priming&lt;/strong&gt; occurs where the repetition of something leads to&#xA;  it influencing later thoughts.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Reverse priming&lt;/strong&gt; occurs where people&#xA;  realize they are being primed and, feeling they have been biased,&#xA;  over-respond in their choices which are now biased in the reverse&#xA;  direction&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Meyer and Schvanveldt (1971), Neely (1977), Bargh and Pietromonaco (1982), Marcel, (1983), Draine and Greenwald (1998), Sherman and Kim (2002)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the down side:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I have been unable to find studies investigating the neurotransmitters involved in priming (at this stage). One thought occurred to me from when I studied Neuroscience (many years ago). That arousal (as in attention) is required to LTP cells. Although, this specific example may not apply to priming, it is a parallel between the effects of psychological priming and physiological priming. I am sure there are better articles, I, currently, have limited access to journals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22654741&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Learning-facilitated long-term depression and long-term potentiation at mossy fiber-CA3 synapses requires activation of β-adrenergic receptors&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hagena H, Manahan-Vaughan D.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Source&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Medical Faculty,&lt;br&gt;&#xA; Department of Neurophysiology,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ruhr University&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Bochum Bochum, Germany.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T15:12:42.540" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4295" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3517" CreationDate="2013-08-19T16:10:11.453" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research would suggest that the type of &quot;incessant&quot; or &quot;severe&quot; stress required to precipitate a  &quot;breakdown&quot; would the higher cognitive functions performed within the frontal lobes.  As I am unsure what level of understanding you are requiring on this topic, I have included suitable quotes from a relevant study, which provides the answer to your question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I quote Amy F. T. Arnsten's study of the effects of stress on the frontal lobe:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The prefrontal cortex (PFC)—the most evolved brain region—subserves&#xA;  our highest-order cognitive abilities. However, it is also the brain&#xA;  region that is most sensitive to the detrimental effects of stress&#xA;  exposure. Even quite mild acute uncontrollable stress can cause a&#xA;  rapid and dramatic loss of prefrontal cognitive abilities, and more&#xA;  prolonged stress exposure causes architectural changes in prefrontal&#xA;  dendrites. Recent research has begun to reveal the intracellular&#xA;  signalling pathways that mediate the effects of stress on the PFC.&#xA;  This research has provided clues as to why genetic or environmental&#xA;  insults that disinhibit stress signalling pathways can lead to&#xA;  symptoms of profound prefrontal cortical dysfunction in mental&#xA;  illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within the conclusion:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The detrimental effects of stress on PFC networks are particularly&#xA;  problematic in the ‘information age’, when PFC-mediated cognitive&#xA;  abilities are increasingly needed for success. understanding the&#xA;  molecular mechanisms that alter PFC structure and impair PFC function&#xA;  during stress exposure will help to reveal how genetic and&#xA;  environmental insults can increase an individual’s susceptibility to&#xA;  PFC deficits. Identifying the molecular mechanisms that alter PFC&#xA;  function will provide the foundation for a new era in psychiatry, when&#xA;  we will understand how genetic changes affect intracellular&#xA;  signalling, neural development and neurophysiology in the circuits&#xA;  that underlie neuropsychiatric symptoms. It is hoped that this&#xA;  information will provide the framework for therapies aimed at&#xA;  rectifying molecular errors and ameliorating the symptoms of mental&#xA;  illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2907136/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Amy F. T. Arnsten&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009 June; 10(6): 410–422.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;doi:  10.1038/nrn2648 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T16:10:11.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4296" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1985" CreationDate="2013-08-19T16:59:51.317" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not normally respond negatively about a cited study. This study you have cited is rather glib and very flawed. It could be a better evaluation of a person's mathematical ability as opposed to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fear seemed to play a large role in risk-avoidance behavior of the&#xA;  normal participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other flaw in this study, is to even attempt to correlate giving subjects the money (as it is no personal loss) and using  a rather trivial amount, $20.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any person with a basic understanding of mathematics, would know that the odds were in favor to betting each time. This cannot be compared to real life risk aversion, where there are unknown risks associated with return, and the financial investment is far greater (as it is coming from the individual's pocket).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My views are supported by the following study In fact the results could be accounted by this study &#xA; Mathematical-Verbal Ability Differentials and Somatic Expressions of Situational Anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any observations of psychopaths' responses to negative expected values?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following study would demonstrate that on an emotional level, a person with clinical psychopathy would have no response to negative expected values, but the cognitive  (purely intellectual) awareness of negative expected values would be intact. This could play out in many ways given the circumstances, as life itself is never so clear cut.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suffice to say, if it involves the fear of harming another of self harm, this would not be consideration for average psychopath.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;CONTEXT: Psychopaths belong to a larger group of persons with&#xA;  antisocial personality disorder and are characterized by an inability&#xA;  to have emotional involvement and by the repeated violation of the&#xA;  rights of others. It was hypothesized that this behavior might be the&#xA;  consequence of deficient fear conditioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;OBJECTIVE: To study the cerebral, peripheral, and subjective&#xA;  correlates of fear conditioning in criminal psychopaths and healthy&#xA;  control subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;RESULTS: The healthy controls showed enhanced differential activation&#xA;  in the limbic-prefrontal circuit (amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex,&#xA;  insula, and anterior cingulate) during the acquisition of fear and&#xA;  successful verbal and autonomic conditioning. The psychopaths&#xA;  displayed no significant activity in this circuit and failed to show&#xA;  conditioned skin conductance and emotional valence ratings, although&#xA;  contingency and arousal ratings were normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;CONCLUSION: This dissociation of emotional and cognitive processing&#xA;  may be the neural basis of the lack of anticipation of aversive events&#xA;  in criminal psychopaths.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Deficient fear conditioning in psychopathy: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not see how you have made the following deduction:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;The quoted study's only valid if it shows that psychopaths respond properly to expected losses.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/20156598?uid=3737536&amp;amp;uid=2&amp;amp;uid=4&amp;amp;sid=21102566296437&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mathematical-Verbal Ability Differentials and Somatic Expressions of Situational Anxiety&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Robert L. Milliken and Bernard Spilka&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The Journal of Experimental Education&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Vol. 31, No. 1 (Sep., 1962), pp. 3-26&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Published by: Taylor &amp;amp; Francis, Ltd.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Article Stable URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/20156598&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/20156598&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15997022&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Deficient fear conditioning in psychopathy: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Birbaumer N, Veit R, Lotze M, Erb M, Hermann C, Grodd W, Flor H.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Source&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Institute of Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology and Section of Experimental Resonance Imaging of the CNS,&lt;br&gt;&#xA; Department of Neuroradiology,&lt;br&gt;&#xA; University of Tübingen,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Tübingen, Germany.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T16:59:51.317" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4297" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-19T17:44:14.847" Score="6" ViewCount="1627" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the desire to impress others a goal of everyone? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does a person get a job, go to the gym, etc., to signal worthiness of another person's approval?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3426" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:01:07.813" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T04:01:07.813" Title="Is the desire to impress others a major goal?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4298" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-19T19:04:23.460" Score="4" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;The show &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0903747/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Breaking Bad&quot;&lt;/a&gt; is about: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A struggling chemistry teacher turns to a life of crime with the aim&#xA;  of providing for his family's future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The protagonist of this show is meant to be sympathized during the beginning of the show. During that later parts of the show, the main character commits atrocious acts. Yet viewers still sympathize with him. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Is it because it is a TV show and not real life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3426" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-20T03:47:49.940" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T14:02:10.610" Title="Gaining and maintaining viewer sympathy for an anti-social protagonist" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4299" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-19T19:16:44.497" Score="7" ViewCount="198" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often see basketball players chew gum while making foul shots. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this help in their accuracy?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Any embodied cognitive explanation for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3426" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2018-07-12T11:48:50.797" LastActivityDate="2018-07-12T11:48:50.797" Title="Does chewing gum mentally help basketball players make foul shots?" Tags="&lt;sport-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4300" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4297" CreationDate="2013-08-19T19:59:12.877" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In their classic work, Crowne and Marlowe (1964) conceived of a new psychological construct, the &quot;need for approval&quot;. Approval motivation (as it is also called), while present or absent in varying degree in different individuals, is based on the common fundamental human need &quot;to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships&quot;, the &quot;need to belong&quot; (Baumeister &amp;amp; Leary, 1995). Individuals with a high need for approval behave in a way that they perceive to be socially desirable, with the intention to be accepted into a group or culture and not rejected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Approval motivation is measured with the Marlowe-Crowne scale that consists of 18 items that, Crowne remembers (1991), seemed so extreme to the two researchers, &quot;that few people could agree to them. But if they did, we thought, their endorsement would have to reflect a potent motive to respond in a socially desirable manner.&quot; One sample item is: &quot;No matter who I'm talking to, I'm always a good listener.&quot; Note the modifier &quot;always&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baumeister, R. F., &amp;amp; Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin, 117&lt;/em&gt;, 497-529. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/the_need_to_belong-_desire_for_interpersonal_attachments_as_a_fundamental__human_motivation.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/the_need_to_belong-_desire_for_interpersonal_attachments_as_a_fundamental__human_motivation.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Crowne, D. P. (1991). From response style to motive. &lt;em&gt;Current Contents, 16&lt;/em&gt;, 18. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1991/A1991FW06500001.pdf&quot;&gt;http://garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1991/A1991FW06500001.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Crowne, D. P., &amp;amp; Marlowe, D. (1964). The approval motive: Studies in evaluative dependence. New York: Wiley.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T19:59:12.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4301" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4299" CreationDate="2013-08-19T20:12:46.213" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Chewing gum increases heart rate and blood pressure through muscular exercise (Farella, Bakke, Michelotti, Marotta &amp;amp; Martina, 1999) and enhances mental performance through improved delivery of glucose to the brain (Stephens &amp;amp; Tunney, 2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could not find any references to embodiment playing a role in the effects of chewing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Farella, M., Bakke, M., Michelotti, A., Marotta, G., &amp;amp; Martina, R. (1999). Cardiovascular responses in humans to experimental chewing of gums of different consistencies. &lt;em&gt;Archives of Oral Biology, 44&lt;/em&gt;, 835-842.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stephens, R., &amp;amp; Tunney, R. J. (2004). Role of glucose in chewing gum-related facilitation of cognitive function. &lt;em&gt;Appetite, 43&lt;/em&gt;, 211-213.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-08-19T20:12:46.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4302" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-19T20:24:08.783" Score="13" ViewCount="294" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hallucinogens (psilocybin, LSD and others) are often regarded as risky substances, therefore they are banned in most places. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there ways of using these substances that can be beneficial?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Or in other words can a hallucination, or a set of hallucinations, have a positive value?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3420" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-20T03:31:29.167" LastActivityDate="2020-12-28T14:33:51.400" Title="Are there any pragmatic uses of hallucinogens?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4304" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4311" CreationDate="2013-08-19T23:52:14.173" Score="6" ViewCount="541" Body="&lt;p&gt;The vintage culture has grown very large in the last 10 years, with all sorts of collectables from furniture, to homes, to old signs and toys. Just watch the show &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://antiquearchaeology.com/&quot;&gt;American Pickers&lt;/a&gt;&quot; to get an idea of this subculture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The nostalgia and style of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=vintage%20Jesus&amp;amp;oe=utf-8&amp;amp;aq=t&amp;amp;rls=org.mozilla%3aen-US%3aofficial&amp;amp;client=firefox-a&amp;amp;um=1&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;source=og&amp;amp;sa=N&amp;amp;tab=wi&amp;amp;authuser=0&amp;amp;ei=vK4SUpfNOsfNqQHc9YFQ&amp;amp;biw=1106&amp;amp;bih=544&amp;amp;sei=x64SUvHzCcnvqQHFy4DoBw#authuser=0&amp;amp;bav=on.2,or.r_cp.r_qf.&amp;amp;fp=8c072790f671bbbd&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;q=vintage%20photography&amp;amp;rls=org.mozilla%3aen-US%3aofficial&amp;amp;sa=1&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;um=1&amp;amp;imgdii=_&quot;&gt;vintage subculture&lt;/a&gt; seems to create some sort of feeling that is very pleasant/euphoric.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Especially during times of increased stress, high levels of psychological pressure and/or life struggle - the vintage objects seem to provide some sort of comfort for the individual (as I have also witnessed this in myself and observed in others).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that look into this phenomenon and what are some of it predominant findings? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-20T00:38:45.647" LastActivityDate="2013-08-20T17:48:30.233" Title="The comfort and appeal of vintage objects?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4305" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4298" CreationDate="2013-08-20T04:18:58.367" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Overview:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's assume that the writer's intend the viewer to remain sympathetic with the main character. (I have not seen this show)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When chemistry teacher, Walter White, is diagnosed with Stage III&#xA;cancer and given only two years to live, he decides he has nothing to&#xA;lose. He lives with his wife and teenage son, who has cerebral palsy,&#xA;in New Mexico. Determined to ensure that his family will have a secure&#xA;future, White embarks on a career of drugs and crime. He proves to be&#xA;remarkably proficient in this new world as he begins manufacturing and&#xA;selling methamphetamine with one of his former students. The series&#xA;tracks the impacts of a fatal diagnosis on a regular hard working man&#xA;and explores how a fatal diagnosis affects his morality and transforms&#xA;him into a major player of the drug trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another show which is also transgresses the social norm is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0773262/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dexter&lt;/a&gt;. A show about a likeable serial killer. As he is killing villains who have escaped justice, he is a perverse hero; righting the wrongs within the legal system... (a problem for those countries and states which are anti-death penalty). This aside, the show presents the lowest of the low and evokes in the viewer a desire for revenge and the relief that there is a way to remove undesirables from our society; in doing so increasing our and our loved ones' safety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it because it is a TV show and not real life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Difference between TV and reality:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can say, uncategorically, that within the context of &lt;em&gt;real life&lt;/em&gt; these people would not be regarded as likeable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the serial killer; real life doesn't give us black and white scenarios as the show does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fiction removes the factor's from the situation that cause an average person to lose sympathy for a person committing atrocities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the show Breaking Bad, plays on the hard luck story of this man and his lofty plight to provide for his family. Yet, in reality he is destroying and damaging a huge number of lives. My guess (understanding human psychology and hollywood) is that the show would objectify or dehumanise  the main character's victims and instead focus on the &amp;quot;greater good&amp;quot; that he is serving and his internal struggle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fiction  carves reality out of the situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When confronted with the reality of a situation the feelings invoked in the viewer are very different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See this Real life news story for an example of the real life consequences of methlabs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Warning: graphic images&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/children-horribly-endangered-parents-meth-article-1.1402467&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Children are the silent and small victims of skyrocketing number of home meth labs&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Warning: graphic images&lt;/strong&gt; An image of a the teeth of a crystal meth addict with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Suspectedmethmouth09-19-05.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;meth mouth&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Creating a sympathetic protagonist is an artform:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://thescriptlab.com/screenwriting/character/character-roles/959-your-hero-top-ten-rules-expanded&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Your Hero: Top Ten Rules (Expanded)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;List key features a writer needs to use to create a sympathetic protagonist needs.  There is a basic agreement about the features a sympathetic protagonist needs to succeed within the writing world (any google search will show this).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://3brothersfilm.com/2012/04/playing-the-viewer-like-an-organ-norman-bates-as-the-protagonist-of-alfred-hitchcocks-psycho/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Playing the Viewer like an Organ: Norman Bates as the Protagonist of Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psycho is a film where the director intentionally and obviously&#xA;manipulates the audience. In fact, Alfred Hitchcock took pride in his&#xA;manipulation of the viewing audience, remarking in an interview, “You&#xA;might say I was playing them, like an organ,” (Truffaut 269).&#xA;Hitchcock’s main intention in manipulating the audience throughout the&#xA;film is to make us complicit in the actions of Norman Bates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The central shift of protagonist in Psycho is mostly an unconscious&#xA;one. By the time Marion Crane prepares to take a shower, the narrative&#xA;has already begun to follow Norman as much as Marion; after Marion&#xA;leaves the parlor, we see Norman go up to the mansion and sit at the&#xA;dinner table, waiting. We are unaware of the shift until Marion’s&#xA;narrative is abruptly and radically ended by her death in the shower.&#xA;By that point, the film belongs to Norman and Hitchcock is careful to&#xA;make us root for him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would seem that evoking audience sympathy with an &amp;quot;anti-social&amp;quot; protagonist, is an artform and the key to seeing why it is effective onscreen and not in real life lies, with an inspection of the key features writer's use to evoke feelings of empathy, maintain an audience bond with the character, by creating internal conflict, a heroic fighter, with care not to cross boundaries that will evoke revulsion in the viewer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question and answers at &lt;a href=&quot;https://writers.stackexchange.com/questions/5597/sympathetic-portrayal-of-an-evil-protagonist-with-good-motivations&quot;&gt;Sympathetic portrayal of an evil protagonist with good motivations&lt;/a&gt; explain this in more detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0903747/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Breaking Bad&lt;/a&gt; IMDB&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T14:02:10.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4307" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3305" CreationDate="2013-08-20T10:02:19.087" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to decades of research on affective motivation in the human&#xA;  brain, approach motivational states are supported primarily by the&#xA;  left hemisphere and avoidance states by the right hemisphere. The&#xA;  underlying cause of this specialization, however, has remained&#xA;  unknown. Here we conducted a first test of the Sword and Shield&#xA;  Hypothesis (SSH), according to which the hemispheric laterality of&#xA;  affective motivation depends on the laterality of motor control for&#xA;  the dominant hand (i.e., the “sword hand,&quot; used preferentially to&#xA;  perform approach actions) and the nondominant hand (i.e., the “shield&#xA;  hand,&quot; used preferentially to perform avoidance actions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Methodology/Principal Findings&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To determine whether the laterality of approach motivation varies with&#xA;  handedness, we measured alpha-band power (an inverse index of neural&#xA;  activity) in right- and left-handers during resting-state&#xA;  electroencephalography and analyzed hemispheric alpha-power&#xA;  asymmetries as a function of the participants' trait approach&#xA;  motivational tendencies. Stronger approach motivation was associated&#xA;  with more left-hemisphere activity in right-handers, but with more&#xA;  right-hemisphere activity in left-handers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The hemispheric correlates of approach motivation reversed between&#xA;  right- and left-handers, consistent with the way they typically use&#xA;  their dominant and nondominant hands to perform approach and avoidance&#xA;  actions. In both right- and left-handers, approach motivation was&#xA;  lateralized to the same hemisphere that controls the dominant hand.&#xA;  This covariation between neural systems for action and emotion&#xA;  provides initial support for the SSH.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Citation: Brookshire G, Casasanto D (2012) Motivation and Motor Control: Hemispheric Specialization for Approach Motivation Reverses with Handedness. PLoS ONE 7(4): e36036. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036036&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-20T10:02:19.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4308" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1860" CreationDate="2013-08-20T10:52:31.983" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In terms of answering this question I will address the one final question;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if there's really any correlation between how a person appears outwardly and how the person feels?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A commonsense  answer to this question without any scientific research is; Yes.  All animals have non-verbal communication. Much of human communication is based on non-verbal factors. We ca interpret if someone is hostile, and unapproachable, or if someone is happy; from facial expression and body movements. A person's health and vitality is reflected in posture and gait.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now scientifically:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There is correlation between how a person appears outwardly and how the person feels.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This question overlaps with interpreting body language and mood.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of gait:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There is extensive research on the effect of a person's mood on gait. The studies I have listed below cover aspects of normal gait, and how gait is analysed, to the effects of mood on gait.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have quoted from the article mentioned by &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/55/jeff&quot;&gt;Jeff&lt;/a&gt; in the comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The authors examined the relationship between cognition and gait&#xA;  velocity, performed with and without  interference, in elderly&#xA;  participants. Neuropsychological test scores from 186 cognitively&#xA;  normal elders  were submitted to factor analysis that yielded 3&#xA;  factors: Verbal IQ, Speed/Executive Attention, and  Memory. Regression&#xA;  analyses revealed that these factors were signiﬁcant predictors of&#xA;  variance in gait  velocity, but the relationship varied as a function&#xA;  of task condition. All 3 factors predicted gait velocity  without&#xA;  interference. However, the Speed/Executive Attention and Memory&#xA;  factors but not Verbal IQ  predicted gait velocity in the interference&#xA;  condition. These ﬁndings suggest that gait velocity and  cognitive&#xA;  function may have both shared and independent brain substrates. Future&#xA;  studies should explore  gait velocity and cognitive function as&#xA;  predictors of dementia and falls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mccc.edu/~behrensb/documents/210wk5NormalGait_000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gait&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Mansfield, P.J., Newmann, D.A., (2009), &#xA;Essentials of Kinesiology for the Physical &#xA;Therapist Assistant, Mosby: St. Louis, MO.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychosom Med. 2009 Jun;71(5):580-7. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181a2515c. Epub 2009 May 4.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19414617&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Embodiment of sadness and depression--gait patterns associated with dysphoric mood.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Michalak J, Troje NF, Fischer J, Vollmar P, Heidenreich T, Schulte D. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can J Psychiatry. 1987 Apr;32(3):190-3.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3567834&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mood, depressive illness and gait patterns.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Sloman L, Pierrynowski M, Berridge M, Tupling S, Flowers J.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuropsychology Copyright 2006 by the American Psychological Association &#xA;2006, Vol. 20, No. 2,  DOI: 10.1037/0894-4105.20.2.215&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/neu-202215.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Processes Related to Gait Velocity:&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;Results From the Einstein Aging Study&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Roee Holtzer, Joe Verghese, Xiaonan Xue, and Richard B. Lipton &#xA;Yeshiva University &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-08-20T10:52:31.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4309" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4298" CreationDate="2013-08-20T12:40:41.547" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a world where the Wealthy [are perceived to] abuse the Poor and Middle class, it is easy to subconsciously maintain sympathy for a 'honest' (passion to teach kids) and 'intelligent' (chem. teacher) person when they perform crime that it characterized in the 'Robin Hood' style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've never seen the show and so I'm sure that there are metaphors that make things more hazy than this, but these are broad societal themes in U.S. culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastEditorUserId="2584" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T14:27:17.107" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T14:27:17.107" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4310" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-20T12:54:09.093" Score="3" ViewCount="418" Body="&lt;p&gt;Eric Berne developed the notion of transactional analysis (TA ) and author of the book  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ericberne.com/games-people-play/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The Games People Play&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thomas A Harris then wrote the book &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ericberne.com/im-ok-youre-ok-by-thomas-a-harris/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;I'm OK - You're Ok&quot;&lt;/a&gt; based on Berne's theory of TA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://taaustralia.com.au/index.php?option=com_content&amp;amp;view=article&amp;amp;id=22%3atony-white&amp;amp;catid=17%3awestern-australia&amp;amp;Itemid=6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tony White&lt;/a&gt; expanded on this theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They produced the following concepts about people's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;life positions&lt;/a&gt;. As a basis for a person's way of relating to others and the world.:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;I'm OK, You're OK&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&quot;I'm not OK, You're OK&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&quot;I'm OK, You're not OK&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&quot;I'm not OK, You're not OK&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&quot;I'm not OK, But You're Worse&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&quot;I'm not OK, You're Irrelevant&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&quot;I'm a Bit More OK Than You Are&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&quot;I'm OK, You're Irrelevant&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&quot;I'm OK, You're OK, They're not OK&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How effective is this paradigm as an aide  to diagnosing personality disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-20T23:12:36.227" LastActivityDate="2017-02-18T15:12:49.670" Title="Are life positions in transactional analysis accurate aides in diagnosing personality disorders?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4311" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4304" CreationDate="2013-08-20T15:16:01.337" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A long time ago &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Nostalgia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;nostalgia&lt;/a&gt; was a medical diagnosis. Longing for that which was comforting is perhaps a natural response to no longer being comforted (e.g the current economic crisis). Furthermore, behavioural economics and psychology both do work on people's tendency to remember the past better than today. You could look at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentric_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ego-centric&lt;/a&gt; memory bias. (you might note the false consensus effect which is related and the cause of many a belief in an erroneous &quot;common sense&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you combine these you might just see why the vintage is appealing. In fact, even beyond one's own experience there is the lore of the past being better passed down from generation through generation by way of the ego-centric bias, perhaps making older vintage even more appealing. I remember Twain and others writing on this but cannot recall a quote.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I'm sure that some vintage things are often just lovely on their own and have an appeal of artistry different from modern for a variety of reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2013-08-20T17:48:30.233" LastActivityDate="2013-08-20T17:48:30.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4312" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-20T15:16:07.503" Score="10" ViewCount="1080" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to have a measure for how willing and eager participants were during an experiment. I have the intuition that their eagerness to comply will profoundly alter results of psychological and even psychophysiological experiments, but I lack a good way of experimentally quantifying this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a seed, one way would simply be to ask them following the experiment, another may be to include trick questions with an obvious but incorrect response - this would however tend to conflate willingness with attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any suggestions very welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3065" LastActivityDate="2017-11-18T07:04:05.943" Title="How can experimental compliance (willingness of participants to participate) be measured?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4313" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-20T15:26:51.323" Score="6" ViewCount="3198" Body="&lt;p&gt;When the Milgram Experiment was performed in the 1960s and replicated multiple times up until the 1980s, it was performed in Western cultures. When it was replicated in 2006, it was again performed in the USA. One of the interesting observations that was made, was that the subjects in most cases, agreed to continue the shock treatments if they were reassured that they cannot be held  responsible for anything that happens and cannot be sued*. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This to me, sounds to be an individualistic reaction to the experimenter's command as opposed to a collectivistic response where subjects would not only try to protect their self interests but would also act to protect the confederate being shocked from ill treatment**. Is this an accurate assertion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As we know, Western cultures are known to emphasize on individualism whereas Eastern cultures are known for inculcating collectivism. So, would the experimental results differ if the experiment were replicated today in an Eastern culture (Japan, for example)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have any such studies been conducted in the East?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; *Mentioned in Burger, Jerry M. (2008). &quot;Replicating Milgram: Would People Still Obey Today? and also a video clip was featured on ABC News’s January&#xA;3, 2007, broadcast of Primetime.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;**Personal argument/reasoning&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T03:12:26.130" LastActivityDate="2020-07-04T12:33:49.330" Title="Would the Milgram Experiment results be replicated in Eastern cultures?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4314" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4312" CreationDate="2013-08-20T15:33:06.250" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might look for examples in the Witt, Donnellan &amp;amp; Orlando (2011). They tested subject motivation in a psychology subject pool to see how it varied among groups. There may be follow up studies. Looking through similar studies will give you an idea of the kinds of things people use to assess. This is not a standardized line of research (yet).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Witt, E. A., Donnellan, M. B., &amp;amp; Orlando, M. J. (2011). Timing and selection effects within a psychology subject pool: Personality and sex matter. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 355-359. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.10.019&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2013-08-20T15:33:06.250" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4315" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4312" CreationDate="2013-08-20T16:20:48.017" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;A method that could help increase both experimental compliance as well as quantify it could be as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Take a quiz to measure subjects' self-perceived levels of obedience&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perform experiment normally&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Take another test to measure current self-perceived levels of obedience&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the initial test may significantly alter levels of compliance as questions on obedience will prime subjects' to be more compliant, the initial data, if looked at with the post experiment tests results, will give an accurate picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Why two tests?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first would help in measuring their attitudes towards authority and general obedience that they believe, they hold. This may be highly inaccurate as has been observed in many experiments, most famously the Milgram Experiment, where less than 10% of the subjects were able to correctly predict how far they would go.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second one would be a measure of actual behavior during the experiment. The results of both can be interpreted as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If the attitudes and behavior did not match, that is, subjects first rated themselves as obedient but were less than compliant during the experiment, then they would be experiencing cognitive dissonance in the post-condition test. Hence, their second results would be higher and incorrect. In fact, their actual levels of compliance would probably have been even lower than initially predicted by them.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If attitudes and behavior match, then the post-experiment results could either be the same, or slightly lower than the pre-experiment results depending on the individual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If they are the same, then the individual complied to the fullest extent possible with experimenter. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If lesser, then the  subject complied with the experimenter to the maximum extent (s)he could justify to himself. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In either of these cases, the real measures of compliance would be the results of the second test.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;What to test?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The tests should contain questions which are indirect and mixed with other questions. These should be asking about general situational obedience such as when being stopped by a cop, or being approached by a formally dressed executive in a company office. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The post-condition test could be more direct and ask specifically about the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, this would be most effective for experiments which involve an experimenter actively conducting it, thereby creating the maximum chances of dissonance in individuals who did not fully comply. This would allow for most accurate result collection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" LastEditorUserId="2777" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T01:06:14.200" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T01:06:14.200" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4316" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4313" CreationDate="2013-08-20T17:35:19.157" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;While I don't know of the Milgram studies being replicated cross cultural there's an older, less severe conformity study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments&quot;&gt;Asch&lt;/a&gt;. Those use less authoritarian and more group conformity pressure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eastern cultures showed higher conformity and western showed falling conformity over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bond, R. &amp;amp; Smith, Peter. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch's (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;119&lt;/em&gt;(1), 111-137. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.111&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2013-08-20T17:35:19.157" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4236" CreationDate="2013-08-20T19:57:00.013" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't understand why there's a bias to assuming that something that doesn't actually touch us can't cause pain. I assure you: the sound that Styrofoam makes is &lt;em&gt;enormously&lt;/em&gt; painful to me. (And I grew up in the egg business, where I would have to plug my ears on a daily basis when my father or someone else had to do something with Styrofoam cartons. Ugh.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We all have different tolerance levels for pain in other ways. The guys who go for Navy SEAL (or equivalent) training, or who play NFL football, clearly have a different tolerance for pain than I do. Why would anyone assume that this is different in terms of one's hearing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The simplest answer is the best: some of us are caused &lt;em&gt;actual pain&lt;/em&gt; when certain sounds are made, most likely because there are frequencies in the sound that we can perceive more or more clearly than others can. I'm an audiophile, and have lots of anecdotal evidence that I can hear higher-pitched sounds than my friends... my guess is that for those of us who have massively painful reactions to these sounds, our ears are genetically wired to be able to hear those frequencies far more clearly than those who aren't susceptible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2683" LastActivityDate="2013-08-20T19:57:00.013" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4318" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-20T20:16:39.783" Score="7" ViewCount="267" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people assume that males lack of energy because of low testosterone.&#xA;I would think that lack of energy could be due to esteem levels, emotional abuse, low self-worth, and even genetics to some point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the relative importance of testosterone versus  environmental, genetic, and emotional problems in causing lack of energy?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3431" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-12-05T13:23:17.733" LastActivityDate="2014-12-05T13:23:17.733" Title="What causes lack of energy? The relative importance of testosterone versus emotional, genetic, and environmental factors" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;testosterone&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4319" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-20T21:08:02.100" Score="3" ViewCount="383" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a difference between free association speaking vs free association writing? Is psychotherapy more effective when examining free association speech?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3432" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-20T23:14:07.390" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T07:25:42.343" Title="Is psychotherapy more effective when examining free association speech than writing?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4320" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-20T22:33:00.543" Score="2" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is it that if I videotape somebody, it makes him lose his inhibitions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3432" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T10:24:59.950" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T10:49:50.213" Title="Why is it that videotaping someone makes him lose his inhibitions?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4310" CreationDate="2013-08-21T00:08:10.323" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Personality disorders are diagnosed with the DSM manual save for a few which have targeted assessment tools (like the PCL-R). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TA is not considered a well supported technique research wise and lots of schools don't teach it except by way of a history lesson. I'm quite certain that both Berne and the authors of the DSM would agree that it doesn't actually map onto any specific personality disorders currently recognized. At best there would be a relationship between many of the addictions and related dependencies but they're certainly not seen the same way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T00:59:52.560" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T00:59:52.560" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4322" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4318" CreationDate="2013-08-21T02:35:49.930" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question hits home for me quite a bit.  But, I'd have to say about half or more of the population has energy problems otherwise people wouldn't be chugging coffee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll simply cite my own anecdotal experience with this as I've tried so, so many things to increase my energy levels - one of them being testosterone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tested relatively low (not that low though - I believe 300-500 mg/dl if that's the measurement) for testosterone from a blood test which I had done out of curiosity.  So I went to an open minded (later realized VERY open minded) endocrinologist in the area and after some discussion he prescribed me testosterone propionate, which hits you in about 3-4 days time.  It was a very strong dose and worked very quickly. It's pretty much the quickest way to artificially get testosterone into your body via intramuscular injection - I believe.  I guess we came to the agreement that we may as well see if it helps or not as quick as possible - won't hurt anything....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I took it.  For about 4 weeks.  I actually didn't feel any different energy wise, &quot;masculine&quot; wise, feel any angrier, feel any increase in libido, or actually feel anything from it whatsoever.   The only things that happened were: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1)  I gained a ton of water weight - which went away when I stopped.  It was about 30 pounds worth.  Probably a mixture of muscle and water actually.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2)  I had a puffy face for a few months.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;3)  My bench went up by about 30 pounds in 2 weeks which was pretty cool.  This obviously went away  afterwards though.  (I wasn't really trying that hard to get ripped...just do an experiment).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;4)  That's about it.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, you may question if you had the real stuff just as I did.  Well, my bench obviously went up and I was gaining water weight....but here's the stranger part:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As my finances were horrible at that time I couldn't see the endocrinologist again - and really he had given me the most powerful testosterone treatment possible.  I'm not sure how he got away with it.  I managed to snag one of those at home saliva tests that you freeze and Fedex next day to a lab though.  Just cause I wanted to see what my results would be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The lab must have made a mistake or something - but &lt;strong&gt;the lab literally came back with a report that my testosterone levels were ~&quot;50,000 mg/dl.&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; This would be about a 100 fold increase in my testosterone levels.  The funniest part was at the bottom of the report it just had a generic line saying to &quot;seek the advice of an endocrinologist.&quot;  I think that's like the lethal dose of testosterone, lol.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless, you'd have to admit I did have alot of testosterone in my body, even if it wasn't that much.  After that though, if I was presumably &quot;HE MAN&quot; and I didn't have more energy or feel much different I didn't see a point.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I didn't really follow up with it much after that.  Nor did I have the money to see that endocrinologist again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also there's ALOT more factors than the ones you listed like motivation, nutrition, length of sleep, depth of sleep, dopamine as well as several other chemicals in your brain, etc...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this example though, keep in mind the n=1, and someone else may respond completely differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think someone wanted studies.  I found some interesting ones....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Beyond masculinity: Testosterone, gender/sex, and human social behavior in a comparative context.&lt;/strong&gt; van Anders SM. Source Departments&#xA;  of Psychology &amp;amp; Women's Studies, Programs in Neuroscience,&#xA;  Reproductive Sciences, and Science, Technology, &amp;amp; Society, University&#xA;  of Michigan, USA. Electronic address: smva@umich.edu. Front&#xA;  Neuroendocrinol. 2013 Aug;34(3):198-210. doi:&#xA;  10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.07.001. Epub 2013 Jul 16.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;br&gt; Abstract &lt;br&gt; &lt;em&gt;Largely based on pre-theory that ties high testosterone (T) to&#xA;  masculinity, and low T to femininity, high T is mainly studied in&#xA;  relation to aggression, mating, sexuality, and challenge, and low T&#xA;  with parenting.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Evidence, however, fails to support this, and the&#xA;  social variability in T is better accounted for by a&#xA;  competition-nurturance trade-off as per the Steroid/Peptide Theory of&#xA;  Social Bonds (van Anders et al., 2011).&lt;/strong&gt; Four key domains are&#xA;  discussed: adult-infant interactions, sexual desire, sexual behavior,&#xA;  and partnering. Empirical engagements with gender/sex are shown to&#xA;  lead to important insights over assumptions about&#xA;  masculinity-femininity. Humans are discussed within a comparative&#xA;  framework that attends to cross-species principles informed by human&#xA;  insights alongside human-specific particularities like social&#xA;  constructions, which are critical to evolutionary understandings of&#xA;  the social role of T. This paper thus integrates seemingly orthogonal&#xA;  perspectives to allow for transformative approaches to an&#xA;  empirically-supported social phenomenology of T.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now in this one they are trying to make clear that the levels of testosterone are not the REAL dependent variable, but actually the interaction of it with something they call &quot;competition-nurturance trade-off as per the Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds&quot;.  T and this variable could be correlated.  I'm not sure yet...so lets go find out what this theory is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did find many other studies that just simply relate aggression (and yes I know your question is more about energy), but the problem with them is they tend to admit they're able to flip the x's and the y's.  They don't know which influences the other.  Does an angry type of person usually take steroids more often?  There's alot of questions like those.  I can discuss them if you guys want me to, but this is way cooler:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.....and BOOOOOOM.....if you ever wanted to know anything about Testosterone I'd ask van Anders here.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds: integrating testosterone and peptide responses for classifying social behavioral contexts.&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;  van Anders SM, Goldey KL, Kuo PX. Source Department of Psychology,&#xA;  University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.&#xA;  smva@umich.edu&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hormones, and hormone responses to social contexts, are the proximate&#xA;  mechanisms of evolutionary pathways to pair bonds and other social&#xA;  bonds. Testosterone (T) is implicated in tradeoffs relevant to pair&#xA;  bonding, and oxytocin (OT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) are&#xA;  positively tied to social bonding in a variety of species. Here, we&#xA;  present the Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds (S/P Theory), which&#xA;  integrates T and peptides to provide a model, set of predictions, and&#xA;  classification system for social behavioral contexts related to social&#xA;  bonds. The S/P Theory also resolves several paradoxes apparent in the&#xA;  literature on social bonds and hormones: the Offspring Defense&#xA;  Paradox, Aggression Paradox, and Intimacy Paradox. In the S/P Theory,&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;we partition aggression into antagonistic and protective aggression,&#xA;  which both increase T but exert distinct effects on AVP&lt;/strong&gt; and thus&#xA;  social bonds. Similarly, we partition intimacy into sexual and&#xA;  nurturant intimacy, both of which increase OT and facilitate social&#xA;  bonds, but exert distinct effects on T. We describe the utility of the&#xA;  S/P Theory for &lt;strong&gt;classifying 'tricky' behavioral contexts&lt;/strong&gt; on the basis&#xA;  of their hormonal responses using partner cuddling, a behavior which&#xA;  is assumed to be nurturant but increases T, as a test case of the S/P&#xA;  Theory. &lt;strong&gt;The S/P Theory provides a comparative basis for&#xA;  conceptualizing and testing evolved hormonal pathways to pair bonds&#xA;  with attention to species, context, and gender/sex specificities and&#xA;  convergences.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it looks like this guy may have even made a formula or algorithm for determining the social outcome - he also mentions several paradoxes that occur with T - ones you'd see in the literature.  He also granularly separates things - for instance we he &quot;partitions antagonistic and protective aggression&quot; and also notes the hormonal responses to each situation.  Unlike many others, I enjoy how he factors in the other obvious dependent variables instead of just drawing a line that represents, linearly, testosterone = angry.  Or, y(whatever it may be) = testosterone*x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you go along with this theory then you'd realize that it's not just the testosterone that would make someone angry or even irritable (in fact it may only be an indirect cause) - &lt;strong&gt;it's the relationship between testosterone and other things that cause that or someone to feel a certain way.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I know you are more interested in energy, and that could be applied here, but it also fits right into your question because it essentially says that it is the relationship between those variables that may account for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sometimes in statistics your &quot;independent&quot; variables don't mean much of anything (if say you're trying to find the best model for a regression) until you realize that the relationship between them (if you can figure it out) has a huge affect on the Y.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me get straight to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is the relative importance of testosterone versus environmental, genetic, and emotional problems in causing lack of energy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-So I obviously have an anecdotal opinion in that it didn't do much for me.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-But, as I stated earlier in the post, I think you are missing a ton of other variables like nutrition, workout habits, relationships, willpower (interesting question - do you choose your own willpower?), how much you like your job, etc. - unless you are lumping those together in environmental, which I feel would cause one's view of their influence to be quite skewed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Even though T obviously plays a role in advanced physiological processes in your body just like van Anders talks about, I believe and the research seems to suggest (as well as just general fact) it's importance increases as the amount you have below the mean for your age/gender/genetics decreases.  Here's a case study for instance: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11675582&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11675582&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In essence, probably what happened to me was I didn't actually have low T and that's why I didn't feel much different.  Even bodybuilders who take that stuff say it's only 10% of the process.  I'd imagine the curve to look generally logarithmic in as far as I suppose it making you feel different - and everyone's initial y intercept (if we say there is one) is going to be at a different place.  If someone genuinely thinks they're really low, they might be.  If so, I recommend asking one's doctor about a &quot;Taal Test.&quot; It could do nothing for that person or they could feel alot different - see the link I provided.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's the same thing with almost any disorder or disease though...the doctors usually just make their best guess and try out a bunch of stuff on you until something sticks.  Except, unfortunately, they don't do much research first and are either &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a) persuaded by the patient that is persuaded by big pharma&lt;br&gt; b)&#xA;  persuaded directly by big pharma &lt;br&gt; c) won't listen to you until you&#xA;  do crazy stuff like bring in research papers like I do sometimes. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;  d) have huge egos&lt;br&gt; e) even then, when do they have time to do any&#xA;  real updated research? &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Finding a good doctor, in my opinion, is about learning how to heal yourself first.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T07:41:40.293" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T07:41:40.293" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4323" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="931" CreationDate="2013-08-21T03:13:14.573" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been wanting to share this study with people for a while.  In my experience the light thing helps to a degree, but not as much as other concepts - it just depends on what sort of engineer you are I suppose.  I think you could somehow creatively fit this into some sort of app or smart house - it depends.  It might add some answer to part of your questions.  The environmental part?  Not so much probably.  I'll just present the concept anyway - it involves nutrition.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've used what this study concludes too and it works.  It's essentially just saying &quot;eat protein, have more energy in the morning.&quot;  I know everyone says that, but I want to cite it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overgeneralized Preface:  Tyrosine levels in the brain tend to cause the brain to make more dopamine or other types of chemicals, &quot;catechlomines,&quot; that give a person energy.  Coffee causes more of these to release in your brain.  Amphetamines...much more so.  Tyrosine is the building-block for these chemicals in your brain though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain levels of tryptophan are the same thing except it will cause your serotonin levels to rise and make you either tired, lazy, or could have any number of affects...but most likely, &lt;em&gt;in general&lt;/em&gt;, those that are the opposite of the catechlomines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And thus:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Effects of normal meals rich in carbohydrates or proteins on plasma tryptophan and tyrosine ratios.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  &lt;em&gt;Richard J Wurtman, Judith J Wurtman, Meredith M Regan, Janine M McDermott, Rita H Tsay, and Jeff J Breu&lt;/em&gt; + Other Author Affiliations.  From the Clinical Research Center (RJW, JJW, MMR, JMM, RHT, and JJB) and the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences (RJW), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge.  Full text here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/77/1/128&quot;&gt;http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/77/1/128&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Abstract&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Background: The delivery of circulating tryptophan to the brain and its conversion to serotonin vary directly with plasma concentrations of tryptophan and inversely with those of other large neutral amino acids (LNAAs). Although carbohydrate-rich, protein-free formula diets have been shown to elevate, and high-protein diets to depress, the tryptophan-LNAA ratio, few data are available about this ratio’s responses to actual meals.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Objective: We determined whether carbohydrate-rich or protein-rich breakfasts, such as those Americans normally eat, produce substantial differences in the plasma tryptophan-LNAA ratio and in the corresponding ratio for tyrosine, the precursor of brain dopamine and norepinephrine.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Design: Nine overnight-fasted subjects consumed, 3–7 d apart, a carbohydrate-rich (69.9 g carbohydrate and 5.2 g protein) and a protein-rich (15.4 g carbohydrate and 46.8 g protein) breakfast. Blood samples collected at baseline and after 40, 80, 120, and 240 min were assayed for tryptophan, tyrosine, the 5 other LNAAs, and insulin.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Results: The carbohydrate-rich and protein-rich breakfasts had significantly different effects on both the plasma tryptophan-LNAA and tyrosine-LNAA ratios (each P &amp;lt; 0.01). Among the 8 subjects who consumed both breakfasts, the median difference for tryptophan:LNAA was 54% (range: 36–88%) and for tyrosine:LNAA was 28% (range: 10–64%). Insulin concentrations rose significantly after the carbohydrate but not after the protein meal.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Conclusions: High-carbohydrate and high-protein breakfasts similar to those Americans normally eat can cause substantial differences in the plasma tryptophan ratio and thus, probably, in brain tryptophan concentrations and serotonin synthesis. Such meals also change the plasma tyrosine ratio and may thereby modify catecholamine synthesis.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a general summary: if you eat a breakfast with a much higher ratio of protein to carbohydrates then you're likely to have more energy to start your day off with.  Whereas if you just eat donuts for breakfast you're much more likely to fall asleep at your desk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many other studies and I believe I really came across a huge one that is a derivative of this work (or vice-versa) that stated the same thing - I just don't have the time to find it although I'm sure if you look around that link at the top of the study you'll find plenty of evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this isn't really about light or immediately when a person wakes up, but it may be another factor to consider, potentially.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It gets at the gist of part of your questions though:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What environmental factors influence us the most? &#xA;  What factors, including sites and sounds, improve our mood? &#xA;  What factors stimulate cognitive activity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, food and that ratio is a factor, not so much environmental...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T03:13:14.573" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4324" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4271" CreationDate="2013-08-21T03:32:58.737" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You know where I'd start if I were you?  I'd start looking at the sleep medications that cause people to sleepwalk whom normally don't (or if they already do, it exacerbates it) - such as ambien.  What are they doing?  How do they work in the brain on a physiological level?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm sure there are some studies that directly study the physiology of what is happening in the brain during a sleepwalk, but when it involves a big drug with big pharma behind it - alot more research tends to go into the area.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That will help you put a sturdy frame around the potential answer, then the rest of it is just extrapolating the Y out of when scientists thought X drug caused Y physiological response, which caused Z (sleepwalking).  Then you gotta do some reverse engineering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll find there to be no real true answer as the extent of human knowledge only goes so far, but this might be a credible path to start down.  Here's a good starting point:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Desensitization of GABAergic receptors as a mechanism of zolpidem-induced somnambulism.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  Juszczak GR.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Source Department of Animal Behavior, Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Jastrzebiec, Poland. gjuszczak@yahoo.com&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Med Hypotheses. 2011 Aug;77(2):230-3. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2011.04.019. Epub 2011 May 11.&#xA;  Abstract&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Sleepwalking is a frequently reported side effect of zolpidem which is a short-acting hypnotic drug potentiating activity of GABA(A) receptors. Paradoxically, the most commonly used medications for somnambulism are benzodiazepines, especially clonazepam, which also potentiate activity of GABA(A) receptors. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;It is proposed that zolpidem-induced sleepwalking can be explained by the desensitization of GABAergic receptors located on serotonergic neurons&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;According to the proposed model, the delay between desensitization of GABA receptors and a compensatory decrease in serotonin release constitutes the time window for parasomnias.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; The occurrence of sleepwalking depends on individual differences in receptor desensitization, autoregulation of serotonin release and drug pharmacokinetics. The proposed mechanism of interaction between GABAergic and serotonergic systems can be also relevant for zolpidem abuse and zolpidem-induced hallucinations. It is therefore suggested that special care should be taken when zolpidem is used in patients taking at the same time selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.&#xA;  PMID: 21565448 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21565448&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21565448&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T03:32:58.737" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4325" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4220" CreationDate="2013-08-21T05:07:03.953" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I first read the article you cited, which was actually just paraphrased from a magazine, I was hoping that the actual researchers would of come up with a hypothesis as to what would of caused this.  If you weren't able to find the actual study, all you have to do is just Google the author's name + their University/College and their page will come up with all the research they've ever done.  Academics love to do this.  And boom the actual study is here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jech.bmj.com/content/early/2013/06/25/jech-2012-202024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://jech.bmj.com/content/early/2013/06/25/jech-2012-202024&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But they never sought out to at least hypothesize why...which was disheartening.  Sometimes you can find a derivative work on the side there too, which may be trying to explain.  Doesn't look like it here.  Oh well.          &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Back to your original questions though:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What would be a good explanation for something such as sleep patterns have an affect on cognition, and specifically higher in girls?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Physiologically and as a general guess: hormones, the subtle differences in the ways that our brains are set up structurally as well as chemically, which could of all been set up by evolution.  The true answer is probably expressed as some sort of very subtle mechanism in the brain that we may not find for a very long time - and that mechanism has been put there by evolution.  We just don't know why yet.  I'm going to halfway guess down below though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;And are their other examples where one sex is influenced at a higher rate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm sure you can think of a few pretty general stereotypes that are likely true.  In general, girls are more influenced by emotion than guys are.  In general, guys are more influenced by logic than girls are.  I can cite this if you want, but I'm sure you can think of a million examples too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you think that because this study involves cognition, a topic that is usually thought (or maybe just taught) to be independent of gender, that that is completely true?  Evolution would mold cognition just like anything else.  Cognition is a very vague word to use anyway since there are so many different tests to measure it and so many different sub types of cognition.  Admittedly the researcher did a pretty thorough job with her tests, but she didn't do &lt;strong&gt;all&lt;/strong&gt; the tests out there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;As a hypothesis:&lt;/strong&gt;  Females deal with certain types of stress differently than males do.  Evolutionarily, you could hypothesize a milleu of reasons as to why the &quot;females that responded to this stressor this way usually survived&quot; because of x, y, and/or z.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case, they may be more susceptible to disturbances in their sleep (causing stress) and thus handle that type of stress differently than males do.  The study of the underlying causes of stress for a man or a woman is actually a pretty huge field as they seem to believe (you'll see in my citations or the side citations next to them on pubmed.gov) that chronic stress = depression.  It is a widely researched topic because of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is going to be some granularity to this though.  Can't make generalizations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an interesting study some researchers did that showed the males up:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sex differences associated with intermittent swim stress.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Warner TA, Libman MK, Wooten KL, Drugan RC. Stress. 2013 Aug 12.&#xA;  Source Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA.     &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23930864&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23930864&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Abstract&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Various animal models of depression have been used to seek a greater understanding of stress-related disorders. However, there is still a great need for novel research in this area, as many individuals suffering from depression are resistant to current treatment methods. Moreover, women gave a higher rate of depression, highlighting the need to investigate mechanisms of sex differences. Therefore, we employed a new animal model to assess symptoms of depression, known as intermittent swim stress (ISS). In this model, the animal experiences 100 trials of cold water swim stress. ISS has already been shown to cause signs of behavioral depression in males, but has yet to be assessed in females. Following ISS exposure, we looked at sex differences in the Morris water maze and forced swim test. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;The results indicated a spatial learning effect only in the hidden platform task between male and female controls, and stressed and control males. A consistent spatial memory effect was seen for males exposed to ISS.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; In the forced swim test, both sexes exposed to ISS exhibited greater immobility, and the same males and females also showed attenuated climbing and swimming, respectively. The sex differences could be due to different neural substrates for male and females. The goal of this study was to provide the first behavioral examination of sex differences following ISS exposure, so the stage of estrous cycle was not assessed for the females. This is a necessary future direction for subsequent experiments. The current paper highlights the importance of sex differences in response to stress, which may have bearing on disease mechanisms.&#xA;  PMID: 23930864 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in that case the males got the blunt of it when having to go through that crazy course.  Their &quot;spatial learning&quot; was messed up in comparison to the female's - whose weren't - but just during one specific part of the course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's very granular, but still interesting nonetheless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's another interesting one.  It actually seeks and does a pretty good job at explaining why females tend to overeat as a coping strategy for certain types of stress.  Actually one thing I don't like about this study is how it generalizes the word &quot;stress&quot; instead of the specific &quot;stressor.&quot;  Regardless, it does quite a good and interesting job explaining the hormonal, physiological reasons why females overeat when they are &quot;stressed&quot; as the paper says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Gender differences in ghrelin response to chronic immobilization stress in&#xA;  rats: possible role of estrogen.&lt;/strong&gt; Elbassuoni EA. Source Physiology&#xA;  Department, Minia University School of Medicine, Minia, Egypt.&#xA;  emanelbassuoni@yahoo.com. Gen Physiol Biophys. 2013 Aug 12.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;Abstract &lt;br&gt;Ghrelin is a peptidergic hormone&#xA;  known to be one of the main hormones involved in the regulation of&#xA;  energy balance. Here we evaluated ghrelin response to stress in rats&#xA;  after ovariectomy and during estradiol benzoate (EB) therapy and&#xA;  compared results of males and females, &lt;em&gt;to know whether ghrelin is&#xA;  involved in disordered eating behaviors in response to stress, and for&#xA;  understanding differences between males and females in food intake and&#xA;  weight gain especially during stress.&lt;/em&gt; 96 adult rats were classified&#xA;  into; male, female, ovariectomized (Ovx), Ovx with EB. Half animals of&#xA;  each group were exposed to immobilization stress 20 min/day for 21&#xA;  days. We found that chronic stress significantly augments serum&#xA;  ghrelin levels in both males and females, which is correlated with an&#xA;  increase in food intake and body weight. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Females displayed significant&#xA;  higher ghrelin than males especially in response to stress,&#xA;  ovariectomy suppresses serum ghrelin in both unstressed and stressed&#xA;  females which is rescued by replacement with EB. EB replacement&#xA;  augments ghrelin response to stress in Ovx female, and reduces food&#xA;  intake and body weight&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. In conclusion, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;there is a clear sex difference&#xA;  in ghrelin secretion in response to stress caused by EB, since it&#xA;  amplifies ghrelin response to stress in females.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; PMID: 23940093&#xA;  [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is another really juicy and interesting one actually.  The abstract is long and translated from French, but I'm going to post and bold it to highlight more instances where X variable affects females more than males or vice versa. By the way, the article was written as this big block...I didn't write it this way.  As I began to bold things, they started making all these crazy assumptions which they actually end up proving most of.  The french went REALLY in depth here - at least psychologically.  So if you're interested in some psychological influencers and the differences between them in men and women this is for you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Girls are more successful than boys at the university. Gender group differences in models integrating motivational and aggressive&#xA;  components correlated with Test-Anxiety.&lt;/strong&gt;  Masson AM, Hoyois P, Cadot&#xA;  M, Nahama V, Petit F, Ansseau M.  Service de Psychiatrie, Université&#xA;  de Liège, Belgique.  Encephale. 2004 Jan-Feb;30(1):1-15.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;Abstract&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  It is surprising to note the evolution of success rates in Belgian&#xA;  universities especially in the first Year. Men are less successful&#xA;  than women and the differences are escalating in an alarming way.&#xA;  Dropouts take the same direction and women now represent a majority of&#xA;  the students at the university. In a previous study, we assessed 616&#xA;  students in the first Year at the university of Liège with Vasev, the&#xA;  English name of which was TASTE, a self report questionnaire&#xA;  constituted of 4 factors: anxiety, self confidence, procrastination&#xA;  and performance value; anxiety particularly concerned somatic&#xA;  expression of students before and during test evaluations; self&#xA;  confidence was a cognitive component close to self efficacy;&#xA;  procrastination was the behavioral component characterizing avoidance&#xA;  when students are confronted with the risk of failure; performance&#xA;  value referred to intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. French&#xA;  validation of TASTE led to an abbreviated version of 50 items (THEE)&#xA;  consisting of 5 factors, the four of TASTE and an additional one, very&#xA;  consistent, at first called depression because of its correlations&#xA;  with this dimension, then called sense of competence on account of its&#xA;  semantic content. Self-competence has been described in the literature&#xA;  of Achievement Motivation and corresponded to expectancy and ability&#xA;  beliefs in performance process which was also relevant to&#xA;  self-efficacy except the particularity of comparison with others,&#xA;  which was not included in the last construct. Self-competence has been&#xA;  considered as an important part of the Worry component of test&#xA;  anxiety. Some Authors didn't hesitate to view causality flowing from&#xA;  self-competence to test anxiety and have conceptualized the latter as&#xA;  a failure of the self where one's sense of competence has been&#xA;  undermined as a result of experienced failure. In our study, only that&#xA;  factor was equally scored in women and men whereas it was scored&#xA;  higher in failed students. In other respects &lt;strong&gt;anxiety and performance&#xA;  value were scored higher in women,&lt;/strong&gt; *&lt;em&gt;self-confidence and procrastination&#xA;  higher in men&lt;/em&gt;*. Because TASTE didn't discriminate the different&#xA;  components of motivation (performance value referred to intrinsic and&#xA;  extrinsic motivations without precise distinction) we decided to use&#xA;  the MPS (Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale) which gave the&#xA;  opportunity to distinguish SOP (Self Oriented Perfectionism) ie, the&#xA;  self-imposed unrealistic standards with inability to accept faults in&#xA;  order to know and master a subject, that corresponded to intrinsic&#xA;  motivation; SPP (Socially Prescribed Perfectionism) ie, the&#xA;  exaggerated expectancies of others which are subjectively believed as&#xA;  imposed and uncontrollable leading to anxiety, feelings of failure or&#xA;  helplessness, that corresponded to extrinsic motivation; POO&#xA;  (Perfectionism Oriented to Others) ie, the unrealistic demands&#xA;  expected from significant others, which especially characterized&#xA;  males. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;We assumed (I apologize for the assumptions they start making, lol)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;  submitted more to society exigencies.** &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;That way extrinsic and intrinsic&#xA;  motivations were probably more combined unlike men who, dreading a&#xA;  loss of self esteem, tried to avoid failure responsibility in using&#xA;  self handicapping or aggressive behaviours, so separating motivation&#xA;  in an extrinsic part turned to performance value and an intrinsic one&#xA;  more concerned by self confidence and sense of competence with the&#xA;  result that the motivational balance was surely disrupted in case of&#xA;  high competition leading to failure or avoidance.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In another previous study we established a structural model illustrating, according to&#xA;  gender, correlations between anxiety, sense of incompetence,&#xA;  self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism.&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Self-oriented perfectionism was less correlated to socially prescribed&#xA;  perfectionism in boys than in girls&lt;/strong&gt;; furthermore especially by those&#xA;  who had never failed, &lt;strong&gt;it was negatively correlated to sense of&#xA;  incompetence, thus leading to lower scores of anxiety while in girls&lt;/strong&gt;,&#xA;  by contrast, such a correlation didn't exist, thus involving higher&#xA;  anxiety. That way, &lt;strong&gt;on the one hand, intrinsic and extrinsic&#xA;  motivations by female students complementarily operated on the sense&#xA;  of incompetence and consequently on anxiety, the emotional component&#xA;  of test anxiety; on the other hand, by male students, intrinsic&#xA;  motivation had a negative correlation with the sense of incompetence&#xA;  and a lower correlation with extrinsic motivation, thereby shedding&#xA;  some light on the problem of anxiety level differences according to&#xA;  gender.&lt;/strong&gt; More, that &lt;strong&gt;observation corresponded well to the model of&#xA;  self-worth where test anxiety was understood&lt;/strong&gt; as a manifestation of&#xA;  perceived incompetence and as a defensive way to ward off negative&#xA;  self-evaluation; that model suited particularly well to boys and&#xA;  explained their attempts to maintain self-worth when risking academic&#xA;  failure. The present research assumes that independence or combination&#xA;  of motivation components is also correlated to different expressions&#xA;  of aggressiveness: &lt;strong&gt;hostility corresponding to threat and&#xA;  characterizing more girls while physical aggression is corresponding&#xA;  to personal challenge, a more masculine attribution.&lt;/strong&gt; *&lt;em&gt;If fighting&#xA;  against the sense of incompetence actually characterizes men and&#xA;  consequently shows too the competitive aspects of performance strong&#xA;  enough to mobilize intrinsic motivation, what would be expected&#xA;  regarding the notion of threat suspected to be predominant in girls?&lt;/em&gt;*&#xA;  The idea of using a questionnaire discriminating the specific&#xA;  dimensions of aggressiveness in fact the Aggression Questionnaire&#xA;  should meet the following purposes: At first establish a French&#xA;  version of that aggression questionnaire, perform the factorial&#xA;  analyses and internal consistency, compare them with other previous&#xA;  samples, then differentiate gender in general and in failure versus&#xA;  success situations. Finally include the different components of&#xA;  aggressiveness in the first described model and build a new one liable&#xA;  to define in boys the explicit pathways between test anxiety,&#xA;  perfectionism and aggressiveness. Statistical analyses have confirmed,&#xA;  in a 3 factor solution, the presence of emotional (anger), cognitive&#xA;  (hostility) and behavioural (physical aggression) components. Internal&#xA;  consistency is satisfactory. &lt;strong&gt;It is demonstrated that physical&#xA;  aggression characterizes boys (F=12.04, p=0.0001) while hostility&#xA;  (F=5.22, p=0.0015) and anger (F=0.49, p=0.0001) characterizes girls;&#xA;  furthermore it is noted that physical aggression characterizes more&#xA;  failed students (F=13.43, p=0.0003). Four models (see figures 2, 3, 4,&#xA;  5) have been established, at first focused on the distinction of&#xA;  correlations between motivation and cognitive and emotional components&#xA;  on the samples of boys (n=268) and girls (348), then developed on the&#xA;  samples of successful students, male (n=193) and female (n=271). They&#xA;  describe the differentiated action of intrinsic and extrinsic&#xA;  motivations on the different components of aggressiveness and&#xA;  test-anxiety according to gender and without experience of failure.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  The dynamic process of the organizational factors is different&#xA;  according to gender and psychopathology resulting from the&#xA;  combinations of behaviors, cognitions and emotions would be assumed,&#xA;  prioritizing physical aggression and psychopathy by boys, anxiety and&#xA;  depression by girls. Anyway more explanation about the evolution of&#xA;  success rates of boys and girls in Belgian universities is proposed.&#xA;  PMID: 15029071 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't post anymore links cause I don't have enough rep, but if you go to pubmed.gov and search for the title of this article you'll see many many more related ones that I could just keep citing.  Anyways hope this helps, I gotta get some work done now, ha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alright here is more research:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have the citation with what I feel is the most relevant sentance(s) in the abstract after scanning them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Luine V. &lt;strong&gt;Sex differences in chronic stress effects on memory in rats.&lt;/strong&gt; Stress. 2002&#xA;  Sep;5(3):205-16. Department of Psychology, Hunter&#xA;  College of the City University of New York, NY 10021, USA.&#xA;  vluine@shiva.hunter.cuny.edu&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Relevant Sentance: &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Given the same chronic stress--21 days of&#xA;  restraint for 6 h each day--males were impaired in all of the memory&#xA;  tests while females showed enhanced performance of the spatial memory&#xA;  tasks and no changes in object recognition performance.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;recent studies show sexually differentiated cognitive responses to&#xA;  chronic stress and underline the importance of considering the&#xA;  sex/gender of subjects when studying the stress response.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Bowman RE, Beck KD, Luine VN. &lt;strong&gt;Chronic stress effects on memory: sex&#xA;  differences in performance and monoaminergic activity.&lt;/strong&gt;  Horm Behav.&#xA;  2003 Jan;43(1):48-59.  Department of Psychology, Hunter College of the&#xA;  City University of New York, 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA.&#xA;  bowmanr@sacredheart.edu   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;strong&gt;stress differentially affected central transmitter levels in the&#xA;  frontal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala depending on sex&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Bowman RE, Micik R, Gautreaux C, Fernandez L, Luine VN.  &lt;strong&gt;Sex-dependent&#xA;  changes in anxiety, memory, and monoamines following one week of&#xA;  stress.&lt;/strong&gt; Physiol Behav. 2009 Apr 20;97(1):21-9. doi:&#xA;  10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.01.012. Epub 2009 Jan 22.  Sacred Heart University, Fairfield, CT, United States. bowmanr@sacredheart.edu&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;these sexually dimorphic neurochemical changes following stress may&#xA;  underlie the behavioral differences. Current results show that&#xA;  short-term restraint elicits sex-dependent behavioral and neural&#xA;  changes different from those previously reported for longer term&#xA;  stresses and suggest that the temporal relationship between the change&#xA;  from adaptive to maladaptive responses to stress is shorter in male&#xA;  than female rats.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you could easily criticize me here and say I either got too many citations from Bowman RE (which I probably did) or that these are all based in rats...and...well...humans arn't rats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can find some more human studies that probably map MRI or something, but part of the value you lose is in that you, for instance, can't squirt them full of estrogen or take their ovaries out and say &quot;try again&quot; let's see how you do (feel free to edit that last part out as it kind of grossed me out too).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each way has it's own advantage/disadvantages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T06:11:16.867" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T06:11:16.867" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4326" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4333" CreationDate="2013-08-21T06:38:34.537" Score="2" ViewCount="1115" Body="&lt;p&gt;This study &lt;em&gt;Oxytocin Modulates Social Distance between Males and&#xA;Females&lt;/em&gt; examines the effects of Oxytocin (OXT) on men in monogamous relationships. It demonstrates that OXT assists in maintaining fidelity to that relationship. OXT levels are increased by close and sexual interactions with their partner. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The specificity of the OXT effect in influencing the social distance&#xA;  that males keep from unfamiliar females is evidenced by our finding&#xA;  that it has no significant effect on the distance kept from unfamiliar&#xA;  males. Given the absence of PS differences between single and&#xA;  pair-bonded men in the PLC group, it is clear that for these potential&#xA;  fidelity-enhancing effects of OXT to be revealed, female partners&#xA;  would need to evoke its endogenous release immediately before contexts&#xA;  in which the men might encounter other women. While, compared with&#xA;  singles, basal concentrations of OXT in blood are increased in couples&#xA;  during the early stages of romantic love and stay significantly&#xA;  elevated in couples remaining together 6 months later (Schneiderman et&#xA;  al., 2012), our results suggest that further augmentation of&#xA;  endogenous OXT release is necessary to produce fidelity-enhancing&#xA;  effects. Mechanistically, this may be related to additional OXT either&#xA;  compensating a relative deficit (optimization hypothesis) or by&#xA;  collapsing already optimal levels (decompensation hypothesis). While&#xA;  the most obvious physiological stimulus for promoting endogenous OXT&#xA;  release in men would be having sex with their mate (Kru¨ger et al.,&#xA;  2003), the simple close presence and touch of their partner at any&#xA;  given moment in time might also suffice (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2008).&#xA;  Thus, OXT effects in promoting monogamy in males may normally depend&#xA;  upon the presence of a close positive relationship in the bond with&#xA;  their female partners and close physical proximity between the couple.&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been studies on the factors involved in  sexual infidelity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Virtually all American couples, married or cohabiting, expect sexual&#xA;  exclusivity of one another. This article asks why some people are&#xA;  sexually exclusive while others have sex with someone besides their&#xA;  mate. Previous research has linked personal values, sexual&#xA;  opportunities, and quality of the marital relationship to extramartial&#xA;  sex. This paper integrates these findings in a multivariate model that&#xA;  incorporates factors informing sexual decision making as well as&#xA;  demographic “risk factors.” Nationally representative survey data show&#xA;  higher likelihood of sexual infidelity among those with stronger&#xA;  sexual interests, more permissive sexual values, lower subjective&#xA;  satisfaction with their union, weaker network ties to partner, and&#xA;  greater sexual opportunities. With these factors controlled, gender&#xA;  differences are substantially reduced or eliminated, although racial&#xA;  effects persist. &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that there are people who can maintain close relationships, simultaneously, with more than one partner.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Have there been studies examining the  brain biochemistry  that increases  an individual's propensity for sexual infidelity?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt; Oxytocin Modulates Social Distance between Males and Females&#xA;Dirk Scheele1, Nadine Striepens1, Onur Güntürkün, Sandra Deutschländer, Wolfgang Maier1,  Keith M. Kendrick, and René Hurlemann &#xA;The Journal of Neuroscience, 14 November 2012, 32(46): 16074-16079; doi: 10.1523/​JNEUROSCI.2755-12.2012&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt; Sexual Infidelity Among Married and Cohabiting Americans&#xA;Judith Treas1, Deirdre Giesen2&#xA;Article first published online: 2 MAR 2004&#xA;DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00048.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-09-07T06:01:47.580" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T06:01:47.580" Title="Studies linking brain chemistry to sexual infidelity" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4327" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4320" CreationDate="2013-08-21T07:16:09.947" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Usually, being observed increases someone's self-consciousness and they control their behavior (which is a problem in ethnographic field studies: the presence of the foreign observer changes the behavior of the native subjects). Usually, this leads to more socially acceptable behavior (no public nose picking) and a self-conscious stiffness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a private situation, and especially when under the influence of alcohol, being observed might induce someone to decide to behave more excessive, because that is what is expected and socially acceptable in such a situation. Everybody would be quite bored and disappointed, if pointing a camera at someone while on a party or during a holiday outing would &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; lead to those in front of the camera doing funny stuff. So in fact, &quot;losing their inhibitions&quot; in front of the camera is exactly the opposite: conforming to social expectations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T10:49:50.213" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T10:49:50.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4328" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4319" CreationDate="2013-08-21T07:25:42.343" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Free association is an integral part of depth psychological therapy (such as psychoanalysis), which is still prevalent around the world (e.g. in Germany depth psychological therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are the only two therapies paid for by health insurance).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with writing would be that it slows down the interactive process between therapist and client. It has been suggested and there is anecdotal evidence that outside of a therapy, free association writing can be a useful tool for self-knowledge. Within a therapy free association is only one part of the methods and its usefulness is dependent on other processes such as transference and countertransference, which need the presence of a therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge, there have been no attempts at purely written (e.g. online) depth psychological psychotherapy. I believe such an impersonal setting and slowed down communication would hinder the interpersonal processes and actually the spontaneous workings of the subconscious needed for depth psychological psychotherapy to work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T07:25:42.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4329" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-21T09:01:38.717" Score="1" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people are inherently clumsy (including your's truly).  Everything from frequently stubbing their toes to, as in my case 2 days ago, falling down a single step and managing to crack a rib and strain my back when I landing over the letterbox, are quite bizarre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is, what are the neurobiological mechanisms behind clumsiness?  I would imagine that it is somehow connected to coordination (of which I have almost none) and perhaps depth perception - but I would like refereed articles to clarify the reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T09:01:38.717" Title="What are the neurobiological mechanisms behind clumsiness" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-05-28T17:38:10.737" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4330" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1556" CreationDate="2013-08-21T12:53:22.427" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps people are attracted to these theories in part because of the inability for mainstream science to answer anomalies.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The occasion of governmental &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lying, &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;hiding of technology, and &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;corruption, &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;helps reinforce the idea that there exists real Science that is not known to the mainstream.  In the absence of trust, people contemplate the possibilities (imagination) by which the breach of trust could harm them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastEditorUserId="2584" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T14:26:08.887" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T14:26:08.887" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4331" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3465" CreationDate="2013-08-21T12:55:18.113" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Human sleep has an (approximate) 90 minute rhythm: about every ninety minutes you are in light REM sleep. When you wake up while in REM, you wake up refreshed. If your alarm clock is set 30 minutes after your last REM phase, then you are in deep sleep again, and, although you slept longer, you will awake groggy and tired. The solution is to get up a bit earlier and feel a lot better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the comments suggest, there are some appliances to wake you up during an REM phase. From my experience, all you need is an alarm clock and go to bed early enough to catch enough sleep: after getting up at the same time for a couple of weeks, you'll start waking up in an REM phase before your alarm clock goes off. Just get up and don't go to sleep again, if your clock shows you are within 45 minutes of your alarm time, and keep doing so for as long as you want to keep this rhythm. Keep to the rhythm on weekends, too, for at least a month. If you feel you have fixed it, you can sleep in on free days – or rather, wake up at your usual time but stay in bed and go to sleep again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regular sleep (same get-up times each day) are the solution for most sleep related problems. Only when you get up regularly, can your body find and signal the ideal length of nightly total sleep. There is a huge difference between seven days of regular sleep, and six days of too little and one day of too much sleep, even when both add up to the same total length. And yes, I did not write &quot;go to sleep regularly&quot;. What you need to do is &lt;em&gt;get up&lt;/em&gt; regularly. Your body will tell you when you need to go to sleep, and this will vary, depending on the day you had. All you have to do is listen to it, instead of finishing that movie. Healthy sleep needs discipline, or the absence of electricity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No research on this, just personal experience and lots of similar anecdotes on the web. For the 90 minute sleep pattern, pick up any textbook on biological psychology, e.g. Pinel, J. P. J. (2011). &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pearsonhighered.com/educator/product/Biopsychology/9780205832569.page&quot;&gt;Biopsychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (6th ed.). Pearson, and read the chapter on sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T13:05:04.713" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T13:05:04.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4326" CreationDate="2013-08-21T13:42:01.757" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The number one hormonal suspect in infidelity has been &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/women-who-stray/201108/putting-the-t-in-infidelity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;testosterone&lt;/a&gt;. Partially this has been predicted because testosterone predicts sex drive in both men and women. The problem with testing this one in actual humans though is that most of the things associated with cheating also cause increased testosterone levels (flirting, increased number of sexual partners). Therefore, there's a serious chicken and egg problem in more observational studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roney, J. R., Simmons, Z. L., &amp;amp; Lukaszewski, A. W. (2010). Androgen receptor gene sequence and basal cortisol concentrations predict men’s hormonal responses to potential mates. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 277, 57-63.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T13:42:01.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4334" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-21T14:26:55.493" Score="2" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an unexplained psychological reason that causes one not to be able to do some random activities (for instance, not being able to eat several days because one's mouth just won't open to take in food or they can not go out to ride a bike because, as much as they want to, it's like their body refuses them to dress and step outside).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are more examples how the problem occurs but I really want to know what is the psychological reason behind it (I know it isn't anxiety). The problem occurs at random times and against random activities that are a part of one's everyday life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also I'm intrested in whether or not an inihbition can be psychologically created by choice against some bad habits (for example it could be the saviour of the people who are trying to quit smoking if, however bad they want to smoke, their hands just won't take a cigarette).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3435" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T15:06:07.370" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T17:51:50.490" Title="Is it possible to create an inhibition against some activities?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4335" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-21T14:32:49.687" Score="0" ViewCount="1476" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are obvious consequences that prevent people from behaving anti-socially or criminally. However there are many behaviours that are within the bounds of social norms, yet there seems to be some &quot;invisible&quot; force preventing people from letting go of inhibitions and acting spontaneously.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What stops a person from doing something when they have the urge to do something spontaneous and random?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; I was in the process of answering another question when it was deleted; so decided to write my own question&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T15:07:13.627" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T12:00:41.530" Title="What causes behavioural inhibition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4336" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4335" CreationDate="2013-08-21T14:32:49.687" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most common theory to date is that behavioural inhibition is developed from negative reinforcement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray%27s_biopsychological_theory_of_personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gray's biopsychological theory of personality&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioural Activation&#xA;  System (BAS)  ../..  The BIS is thought to be related to sensitivity&#xA;  to punishment as well as avoidance motivation, while the BAS is&#xA;  thought to be related to sensitivity to reward as well as approach&#xA;  motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some research that suggests that the BIS scale is better correlated with neuroticism and negative affectivity, rather than anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The BIS scale was less correlated with anxiety and depression symptoms&#xA;  than are neuroticism and negative affectivity scales, probably because&#xA;  it is designed to measure predisposition to anxiety rather than the&#xA;  experience of anxiety. BIS scores were higher in females,...&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.braincenteramerica.com/inhibflex.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brain Functions: Behavioral Inhibition, Behavioral Flexibility, and Cognitive Control&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Discusses how we modify our behaviour and suggests that some behaviour is inhibited in an &quot;auto-pilot&quot; manner by the prefrontal cortex to free up our brain for more complex thought processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We can inhibit our actions and behaviors while they are in progress,&#xA;  and we can also inhibit our emotions and memories. Different parts of&#xA;  the prefrontal cortex, at the very front of the brain, are used to&#xA;  interrupt these various types of behaviors or thoughts. Some theories&#xA;  even suggest that the role of the prefrontal cortex is to stop all&#xA;  ill-suited actions or thoughts, to leave room for more appropriate&#xA;  actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, there are numerous studies showing a  link between anxiety and  experience of a fear based reward system  with behavioural inhibition.&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt; Using the BIS/BAS scales to measure behavioural inhibition and behavioural activation: Factor structure, validity and norms in a large community sample&#xA;A.F JormCorresponding author contact information, H Christensen, A.S Henderson, P.A Jacomb, A.E Korten, B Rodgers&#xA;NHMRC Psychiatric Epidemiology Research Centre, The Australian National University, Canberra 0200, Australia&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00143-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00143-3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt; J Child Fam Stud. 2011 April; 20(2): 157–170.&#xA;Published online 2010 March 17. doi:  10.1007/s10826-010-9365-8 &#xA;PMCID: PMC3048305&#xA;Behavioral Inhibition as a Risk Factor for the Development of Childhood Anxiety Disorders: A Longitudinal Study&#xA;Peter Muris,corresponding author1 Anna M. L. van Brakel,2 Arnoud Arntz,2 and Erik Schouten2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-23T12:00:41.530" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T12:00:41.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4337" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-21T15:04:44.333" Score="5" ViewCount="1479" Body="&lt;p&gt;With the advent of texting and online social networking. There has been a dictionary of new words and acronyms, based on abbreviations. I have noticed that I will misuse there, they're and their, hear and here... and the incidence of my grammatical errors has increased with the increase in longevity of my online and text communication. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand this is anecdotal, but I am wondering:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Are there studies showing the effects of online social networking and texting on people's  written language skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T03:02:36.750" Title="The effects of online chat on written language skills" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4338" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3982" CreationDate="2013-08-21T15:11:52.207" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This depends heavily on what sort of study you are trying to do, but I know of a number of cognitive science and computational linguistics studies in the past several years that have used &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mturk.com/mturk/welcome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Amazon's Mechanical Turk&lt;/a&gt; to run subjects online.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example from behavioral economics, see Paolacci, Chandler, and Ipeirotis, &quot;Running experiments on Mechanical Turk&quot;, Judgment and Decision Making, vol 5, no 5, 2010: &lt;a href=&quot;http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/31983/jdm10630a%255B1%255D.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/31983/jdm10630a%255B1%255D.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3388" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T15:11:52.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4339" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="512" CreationDate="2013-08-21T16:27:43.273" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't speak to your first question, but I think the second question could be profitably reframed.  The orbitofrontal cortex seems to &lt;strong&gt;represent incentive/reward value of primary sensory information&lt;/strong&gt; and is thus linked to the &quot;hot&quot; decision-making system, which manages decisions where there is a gain/loss of reward at stake or risk--this would necessarily cover property and personal relationships, which are both sources of reward.  So it's less that the part of the brain that manages property may sometimes also manage personal relationships, and more that &lt;strong&gt;this particular part of the brain is responsible for representing incentive or reward options, which are relevant to different kinds of rewards&lt;/strong&gt;, including property and people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference (just a good place to start, really):&#xA;Rolls ET, Grabenhorst F. The orbitofrontal cortex and beyond: from affect to decision-making. Prog Neurobiol. 2008 Nov;86(3):216-44. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.09.001&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.09.001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T16:27:43.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1507" CreationDate="2013-08-21T17:07:51.017" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am answering this in parts, as an overview for issues relating to learning outcomes and perceived teacher friendliness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To assist, I would categorise friendliness to mean encouragement and rapport (respect may or may not be correlated within this).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly to address integrating theories of teaching and learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Theories of learning and theories of teaching often originate and&#xA;  operate independently from one another. This article attempts to&#xA;  contribute to the integration of the two types of theories. First, the&#xA;  cognitive, affective and regulative activities students use to learn&#xA;  are analyzed. Next, different ways in which teachers can regulate the&#xA;  learning and thinking activities of students are discussed, as well as&#xA;  the teaching strategies they can use for that aim. The third part&#xA;  focuses on different ways in which student-regulation and&#xA;  teacher-regulation of learning act upon one another. Congruence and&#xA;  friction between these modes of control are discussed. From this&#xA;  interplay implications are derived for process-oriented teaching,&#xA;  aimed at promoting congruence and constructive friction, avoiding&#xA;  destructive friction and reducing the gap between learning and&#xA;  teaching. &lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly a study that shows the  beneficial and cyclic effect of an encouraging teacher/student relationship. &lt;em&gt;(note the reverse is true for students caught within a negative   cycle)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On the basis of a new model of motivation, the authors examined the&#xA;  effects of 3 dimensions of teacher (n = 14) behavior (involvement,&#xA;  structure, and autonomy support) on 144 children's (Grades 3–5)&#xA;  behavioral and emotional engagement across a school year.&#xA;  Correlational and path analyses revealed that teacher involvement was&#xA;  central to children's experiences in the classroom and that teacher&#xA;  provision of both autonomy support and optimal structure predicted&#xA;  children's motivation across the school year. Reciprocal effects of&#xA;  student motivation on teacher behavior were also found. Students who&#xA;  showed higher initial behavioral engagement received subsequently more&#xA;  of all 3 teacher behaviors. These findings suggest that students who&#xA;  are behaviorally disengaged receive teacher responses that should&#xA;  further undermine their motivation. The importance of the&#xA;  student–teacher relationship, especially interpersonal involvement, in&#xA;  optimizing student motivation is highlighted. (PsycINFO Database&#xA;  Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study examines the effects of positive versus negative verbal reinforcement on different personality types. It would appear that not all people perform best within the cycle of &quot;friendliness&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, there was a highly significant interaction between these&#xA;  variables; extraverts performed better under positive than negative&#xA;  reinforcement, whilst introverts performed better under negative than&#xA;  positive reinforcement. &lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which brings me to my last point, which is that motivation appears to be improved by a balance between friendliness creating a tension within the classroom.  It also shows that both positive and negative reinforcement are necessary.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Motivation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  • Set a feeling or tone for the lesson. Instructors should try to&#xA;  establish a friendly, open atmosphere  that shows the participants&#xA;  they will help them learn.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  • Set an appropriate level of concern. The&#xA;  level of tension must be adjusted to meet the level of  importance of&#xA;  the objective. If the material has a high level of importance, a&#xA;  higher level of  tension/stress should be established in the class.&#xA;  However, people learn best under low to moderate  stress; if the&#xA;  stress is too high, it becomes a barrier to learning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reinforcement&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  • Positive reinforcement is normally used by instructors who are&#xA;  teaching participants new skills. As  the name implies, positive&#xA;  reinforcement is &quot;good&quot; and reinforces &quot;good&quot; (or positive) behavior.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  • Negative reinforcement is the contingent removal of a noxious&#xA;  stimulus that tends to increase the  behavior. The contingent&#xA;  presentation of a noxious stimulus that tends to decrease a behavior&#xA;  is  called Punishment. Reinforcing a behavior will never lead to&#xA;  extinction of that behavior by  definition. Punishment and Time Out&#xA;  lead to extinction of a particular behavior, but positive or  negative&#xA;  reinforcement of that behavior never will &lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In conclusion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;From the available studies, an underlying friendliness, which enables approachability b students, facilitates learning, but a certain level of discipline and the boundary creating an unequal relationship is also necessary. Suggesting that balance is the key and there are no hard and fast rules, as people have varying learning styles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt; Congruence and friction between learning and teaching&#xA;Jan D Vermunt, Nico Verloop&#xA;Leiden University, ICLON — Graduate School of Education, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB Leiden, The Netherlands&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(98)00028-0&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(98)00028-0&lt;/a&gt;, How to Cite or Link Using DOI&#xA;Permissions &amp;amp; Reprints&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt; Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.&#xA;Skinner, Ellen A.; Belmont, Michael J.&#xA;Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 85(4), Dec 1993, 571-581. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; &lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt; Effects of positive and negative verbal reinforcement on performance as a function of extraversion-introversion: Some tests of Gray's theory&#xA;John Boddy, Annabel Carver, Kevin Rowley&#xA;Department of Psychology, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, England&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(86)90111-X&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(86)90111-X&lt;/a&gt;, How to Cite or Link Using DOI&#xA;Permissions &amp;amp; Reprints&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt; Carrie Ekey, Literacy Coaches Training, Feb. 2012  PRINCIPLES OF ADULT LEARNING By Stephen LiebSenior Technical Writer and Planner, Arizona Department of Health Servicesand part-time Instructor, South Mountain Community Collegefrom VISION, Fall 1991&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T17:07:51.017" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4342" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4334" CreationDate="2013-08-21T17:51:50.490" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an answer to the first part of your question here:  &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4336/3267&quot;&gt;What causes behavioural inhibition?&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am answering this part of your question:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested in whether or not an inhibition can be psychologically created by choice against some bad habits (for example it could be the saviour of the people who are trying to quit smoking if, however bad they want to smoke, their hands just won't take a cigarette).&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To induce inhibitory behaviour requires the use of negative reinforcement. To avoid punishment, or discomfort, an individual will learn to avoid a particular behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of addiction (as mentioned in your example with cigarettes), the issue is:   Creating a negative reinforcement that causes greater   discomfort (referred to as negative affect in the article below) when using the drug, as opposed to the discomfort that results from abstinence.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The same can be drawn for behaviour payoffs. If a certain behaviour alleviates for example, anxiety, then the discomfort of the negative enforcement will need to be greater than the anxiety the individual is avoiding.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;As one can imagine, it is not always easy to create a humane punishment that creates a discomfort greater than the what the individual seeks to avoid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This article offers a reformulation of the negative reinforcement&#xA;  model of drug addiction and proposes that the escape and avoidance of&#xA;  negative affect is the prepotent motive for addictive drug use. The&#xA;  authors posit that negative affect is the motivational core of the&#xA;  withdrawal syndrome and argue that, through repeated cycles of drug&#xA;  use and withdrawal, addicted organisms learn to detect interoceptive&#xA;  cues of negative affect preconsciously. Thus, the motivational basis&#xA;  of much drug use is opaque and tends not to reflect cognitive control.&#xA;  When either stressors or abstinence causes negative affect to grow and&#xA;  enter consciousness, increasing negative affect biases information&#xA;  processing in ways that promote renewed drug administration. After&#xA;  explicating their model, the authors address previous critiques of&#xA;  negative reinforcement models in light of their reformulation and&#xA;  review predictions generated by their model. (PsycINFO Database Record&#xA;  (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) &lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt; &lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt; Addiction Motivation Reformulated: An Affective Processing Model of Negative Reinforcement.&#xA;Baker, Timothy B.; Piper, Megan E.; McCarthy, Danielle E.; Majeskie, Matthew R.; Fiore, Michael C.&#xA;Psychological Review, Vol 111(1), Jan 2004, 33-51. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.111.1.33&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T17:51:50.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4343" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-21T18:16:41.080" Score="5" ViewCount="42355" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not uncommon for people to  laugh at their own jokes. One comedian discusses how he uses this as a benchmark for whether or not a joke is going to be funny for the audience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://boingboing.net/2009/06/22/psychology-today-int.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today interviews John Hodgman&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Your delivery is famously dry. Do you ever crack yourself up? I find&#xA;  it to be comedically unethical to laugh at your own jokes on stage.&#xA;  ...//...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But the reverse is true when writing. I generally only like a joke of&#xA;  my own if I make myself laugh when I write it. If my brain can fool&#xA;  myself into a surprised chuckle, even when I am the one who wrote the&#xA;  joke, my guess is that it can also fool you.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a correlation between  people who frequently laugh at their own jokes and narcissistic features?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T18:02:41.893" LastActivityDate="2018-09-29T02:44:23.127" Title="Is there a correlation between people who frequently laugh at their own jokes and narcissism?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-10-03T09:28:35.837" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4344" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4347" CreationDate="2013-08-21T18:22:45.310" Score="2" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hitler was an artist, unbeknownst to  some people. He painted and sketched. In his work, the people were disproportionately large within any given scene. Given his extreme personality, I have often pondered about this. Perhaps an over exaggeration of people in his artwork reflected his own grandiosity about his position in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there some connection between the psychology of consistently mistaking the proportional  size of people in art work and mental health? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T15:45:57.820" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T15:45:57.820" Title="The psychology of disproportioned people in artwork" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4346" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-21T19:26:26.043" Score="7" ViewCount="4974" Body="&lt;p&gt;In conversations, there are often times when a member of the group will &lt;em&gt;consistently&lt;/em&gt; divert the conversation back to their own topic (often to do with them).  A 'pseudo-conversation' example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Persons 1-3 are talking about A - going back and forth as&#xA;conversations often do.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person 4 starts talking about B - a topic about them&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Persons 1-4 talk about B for a bit, and that part of the conversation&#xA;is largely concluded.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Persons 1-4 talk about A again (as it had not concluded) - picking up were they left off.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person 4 starts talking about C - another topic about them, loosely related to topic B&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Note: for these examples, topics A, B and C are not urgent).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many people seem to do it without realising, some habitually do it - but, it seems commonplace. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is, what is the psychology behind the need to be the centre of attention?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="3388" LastEditDate="2013-08-24T18:53:44.553" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T17:55:19.940" Title="What is the psychology behind the need to be the centre of attention?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4347" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4344" CreationDate="2013-08-21T22:26:34.970" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been drawing for more than twenty years and have observed many people learn how to draw. Getting human (or any) proportions right is the one most difficult part for most people, and that Hitler, who made a living as an artist for years and produced two to three thousand drawings, sketches, watercolors, and oil paintings (Price, 1983), maybe drew people too large in some of them does, it would seem, not reflect anything but his level of artistry – or the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressionism&quot;&gt;expressionistic&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Objectivity&quot;&gt;new objectivist&lt;/a&gt; styles popular at the time: other expressionistic and post-expressionistic artists didn't paint very realistic, either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deducing psychopathology from artistic output is at least difficult. &quot;The primary assumptions of art psychopathology theories are unreliable since, as Prinzhorn shows, emotionally troubled people are capable of producing wondrous artworks which compare favorably with the creations of artists and children.&quot; (Betts, 2006) &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Prinzhorn&quot;&gt;Hans Prinzhorn&lt;/a&gt;, a German psychiatrist and art historian, was entrusted with caring for the collection of art by mental patients begun by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Kraepelin&quot;&gt;Emil Kraepelin&lt;/a&gt; in 1919 and expanded it to more than 5000 works in the following years. He published a book, &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistry_of_the_Mentally_Ill&quot;&gt;Artistry of the Mentally Ill&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (1922), in which he analysed the paintings from his collection and found no differences to &quot;normal&quot; art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prinzhorn attempted to discern the differences between art by healthy individuals and &quot;outsider art&quot;, as the artistic output by mentally ill people came to be called, in a more subjective manner. But first experimental results were contradictory as well. In an experiment, art teachers, mental health professionals, and laypeople, were all unable to discriminate drawings by schizophrenic or healthy children (Rubin &amp;amp; Schachter, 1972). The same group of researchers again found that judges discriminated at levels of chance when they were presented with art by schizophrenic and healthy mothers (Rubin, Ragins, Schachter &amp;amp; Wimberly, 1979). But in other experiments by another research group (Ulman &amp;amp; Levy, 1968, 1984; Levy &amp;amp; Ulman, 1974), judges were able to identify art by mentally ill adults and could even be trained to increase discriminative accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Discriminative ability seems to depend on what aspect of the artwork the judges look at. In a meta-analysis, Susanne Hacking and David Foreman (2001) identify a number of scales (thematic, quality, shape, color, reality, energy, complexity, composition etc.) and found that two of them (content and body detail, with effect sizes of 0.88 and 0.84 respetively) were able to discriminate patients and healthy controls. Using her own instrument, Hacking (1999) was able to correctly identify psychopathology from artwork with 80-90% accuracy by looking at use of color, line quality, and use of the drawing space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even in successful experiments, proportion does not seem to be a distinguishing characteristic of psychopathological art. And it is unlikely that other aspects of Hitler's art would show aspects of psychopathology, because, as he himself stated, as a professional artist his works were dictated by this customers: &quot;I paint that which the people want to buy.&quot; (Price, 1983)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Betts, D. J. (2006). Art therapy assessments and rating instruments: do they measure up? &lt;em&gt;The Arts in Psychotherapy, 33&lt;/em&gt;, 422-434.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hacking, S. (1999). &lt;em&gt;The Psychopathology of Everyday Art: A Quantitative Study&lt;/em&gt; (doctoral dissertation), University of Keele. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wfmt.info/Musictherapyworld/modules/archive/stuff/papers/Hacking.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www.wfmt.info/Musictherapyworld/modules/archive/stuff/papers/Hacking.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hacking, S., &amp;amp; Foreman, D. (2001). Psychopathology in paintings: A meta‐analysis of studies using paintings by psychiatric patients. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74&lt;/em&gt;, 35-45.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Levy, B. I., &amp;amp; Ulman, E. (1974). The effect of training on judging psychopathology from paintings. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Art Therapy, 14&lt;/em&gt;, 24-25.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Levy, B. I., &amp;amp; Ulman, E. (1984). An experimental approach to the judgment of psychopathology from paintings. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Art Therapy, 23&lt;/em&gt;, 47-52.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Price, B. F. (1983). &lt;em&gt;Adolf Hitler als Maler und Zeichner: Ein Werkkatalog der Ölgemälde, Aquarelle, Zeichnungen und Architekturskizzen&lt;/em&gt;. Zug: Gallant.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Prinzhorn, H. (1922). &lt;em&gt;Bildnerei der Geisteskranken: Ein Beitrag zur Psychologie und Psychopathologie der Gestaltung&lt;/em&gt;. Berlin: Springer.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rubin, J. A., Ragins, N., Schachter, J., &amp;amp; Wimberly, F. (1979). Drawings by schizophrenic and non-schizophrenic mothers and their children. &lt;em&gt;Art Psychotherapy, 6&lt;/em&gt;, 163–175. doi:10.1016/0090-9092(79)90040-1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rubin, J. A., &amp;amp; Schachter, J. (1972). Judgments of psychopathology from art productions of children. &lt;em&gt;Confinia Psychiatrica, 15&lt;/em&gt;(3-4), 237-250.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ulman, E., &amp;amp; Levy, B. I. (1968). An experimental approach to the judgment of psychopathology from paintings. &lt;em&gt;Bulletin of Art Therapy, 8&lt;/em&gt;, 3-12.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-08-21T22:31:49.333" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T22:31:49.333" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4348" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4362" CreationDate="2013-08-21T23:32:01.010" Score="3" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;Usually an article goes through a peer-review process before it is published, and from what I here it is quite common that the reviewers &quot;demand&quot; some changes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there guidelines for peer- reviewers, especially as the methodological side of things is concerned?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are  &quot;methodology specialists&quot; incorporated in the process? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T08:23:14.297" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T10:49:00.963" Title="Are there guidelines in the peer reviewing process on assessing methodology?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;publication-process&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4349" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4313" CreationDate="2013-08-21T23:40:01.327" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a 2009 article by Burger that reportedly reviews the Milgram experiment and all known replications. You might want to read through the replications carefully to see whether any such studies were performed in an eastern  cultural context. Possibly even a close reading of the studies might suggest how much results vary across settings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found one study by Shanab (1974) which was conducted in Jordan, although that's not exactly an eastern culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using S. Milgram's (1974) paradigm, 48 Jordanian college students were&#xA;  tested for obedience. Results show experimental Ss gave significantly&#xA;  more shocks than the control Ss. Unlike the experimental Ss, the&#xA;  controls were free to either give or not give shock. No difference in&#xA;  obedience rate occurred between male and female Ss. In terms of&#xA;  overobedience, 62.5% of the experimental and 12.5% of the control Ss&#xA;  continued to deliver shock to the end of the shock scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So on the face of it, I could not find a replication of the Milgram experiment in an Eastern context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Burger, J. M. (2009). Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today?. American Psychologist, 64(1), 1. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~schaller/Psyc591Readings/Blass1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shanab, M. E., &amp;amp; Yahya, K. A. (1978). A cross-cultural study of obedience. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-08-21T23:40:01.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4350" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-21T23:50:34.410" Score="4" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does free association writing or talking captures  unconscious thoughts? Or maybe they don't because you are conscious during the process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3408" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T02:45:33.317" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T02:45:33.317" Title="Are unconscious thoughts captured by free association?" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4351" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-21T23:58:39.317" Score="5" ViewCount="322" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a person says he would be happy to win the lottery he is usually wrong?&#xA;Why are people bad at judging their happiness in the future? A person who knows that he will get a fancy house in the future thinks he will be happy. But when he ends up living in it he is not as happy as the thought he would be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3408" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T00:20:42.580" LastActivityDate="2017-06-30T02:38:33.370" Title="Why do people overestimate future happiness when they imagine acquiring something like a house or winning the lottery?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4352" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-22T02:47:43.310" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about psychological processes related to jokes, humour, laughter and related phenomena. See also the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/social-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;social-psychology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;social-psychology&lt;/a&gt; tag.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:08:00.693" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:08:00.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4353" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-22T02:47:43.310" Score="0" Body="For questions about psychological processes related to jokes, humour, laughter and related phenomena." OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:08:00.693" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:08:00.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4354" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-22T05:20:11.883" Score="13" ViewCount="4785" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.r-project.org/&quot;&gt;open source statistical software R&lt;/a&gt; has a range of contributed packages. Some of them include datasets. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I teach research methods in psychology and I'm looking for interesting real-world dataset to use as the basis for tutorials. I've found a few in contributed R packages (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/AER/index.html&quot;&gt;AER&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/psych/index.html&quot;&gt;psych&lt;/a&gt;), but I'm not aware of a general resource listing R packages that supply multiple interesting, real-world, psychological datasets. In particular, some textbooks have an aligned R package containing many interesting datasets. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What R packages include multiple interesting, real-world, psychological datasets?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For any package identified, it would be good to have a sense of the kinds of datasets contained&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T05:25:49.810" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T07:44:51.557" Title="Which R packages have good collections of psychology datasets?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;teaching-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4355" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4365" CreationDate="2013-08-22T06:49:35.303" Score="10" ViewCount="631" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Background&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately I am not a specialist in Cognitive Science I am just a regular CS student who has big interest in cognitive science. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to share with you some interesting observation I am sure all of us familiar with it, however I wonder whether there are some researches about this observation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a student I have to do some kind of activities all the time it can be &lt;strong&gt;reading papers&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;solving exercises&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;talking with classmates&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;thinking about problem in research&lt;/strong&gt;. The problem is I find all these activities very  different in terms of engagement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let us consider &lt;strong&gt;solving exercises&lt;/strong&gt;. This is an activity with a high level of engagement. When you do this you are very concentrated, I noticed that all my mental force are concentrated on this activity. I don't pay attention what happens around. I do hear and see people. However I don't pay attention to them, and I cannot control this state it happens unintentionally/ I wish I could go in this flow when I want, but I cannot. However I know what to do in order to get into this flow, just calm sit down get some exercises and try to solve it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand &lt;strong&gt;reading papers&lt;/strong&gt; has less engagement. I usually I set a goal to every day to read a paper (among all other tasks I plan to do every day) even when I don't need to read (of course there are days when I have to spend all day reading papers). The problem is when reading papers I need really quiet place, I get easily annoyed by talking people around me, the best place I found so far is library, but what really makes me crazy is not only people can shatter your peace but my mind doesn't want to concentrate on reading. I very often found myself daydreaming about something when reading  paper in this case I have to reread few last paragraphs, just because my mind didn't get them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Some thought about academical writings)I thought, what the reason of this problem, maybe we can start to write papers in different way, let say papers without obvious conclusion and result such that to cause you to think about it to derive the conclusion by yourself, maybe the best way to write two version of papers one is open ended and the second with results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far, I use the following technique to be concentrated when reading papers, before reading try do something with high engagement, &lt;strong&gt;solving exercise&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;programming&lt;/strong&gt; a while and them start reading the paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are effective strategies for increasing concentration and motivation when doing seemingly passive activities such as reading journal articles?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3394" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:38:16.320" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T22:28:46.847" Title="What are effective strategies for increasing concentration and motivation when doing seemingly passive activities such as reading journal articles?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4356" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4354" CreationDate="2013-08-22T06:59:21.783" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;680 datasets that were originally distributed alongside R and some of its add-on packages are collected on &lt;a href=&quot;http://vincentarelbundock.github.io/Rdatasets/&quot;&gt;GitHub&lt;/a&gt;. An &lt;a href=&quot;http://vincentarelbundock.github.io/Rdatasets/datasets.html&quot;&gt;index&lt;/a&gt; lists the datasets and the packages they came from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you just want datasets and don't mind that they were not part of any R package, then there are many available for free on the web. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quandl.com&quot;&gt;Quandl&lt;/a&gt; lists over 7 million datasets. Google turns up many other collections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T06:59:21.783" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4357" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4354" CreationDate="2013-08-22T07:20:36.357" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/languageR/index.html&quot;&gt;languageR&lt;/a&gt; package contains several interesting real-world datasets relevant to psycholinguistics. These datasets are presumably also described in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books/about/Analyzing_Linguistic_Data.html?id=UvWkIg5E4foC&quot;&gt;accompanying textbook&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="463" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T07:20:36.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4358" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-22T07:27:36.833" Score="8" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you study medicine in Germany, lectures on the history and ethics of medicine are an integral part of your curriculum. Many universities have a separate &lt;em&gt;Institute for the History and Ethics of Medicine&lt;/em&gt; with related chairs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you study psychology, some introductory lectures might or might not give a short overview of the field's history (e.g. a bit about Pawlow and Thorndike in a lecture on &quot;Learning&quot;), but a knowledge of the history of the discipline is not emphasized in the education of young academics. There is only one &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.awz.uni-wuerzburg.de&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Institute for the History of Psychology&lt;/a&gt; in my country, and it is privately financed. History of psychology appears to be mostly a hobby of some professors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is the status of the teaching of the history of psychology in your country, and is there a published discussion or are official reasons given (for example during the discussions that precede the creation of nationwide examination regulations), why we don't need to institutionalize it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please don't post your opinion on the matter, but quote published sources. They can be in any language, if you briefly summarize the content in English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T04:07:39.107" LastActivityDate="2014-05-25T00:09:45.007" Title="How is history of psychology taught around the world, and if it is not, why not?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;teaching-of-psychology&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4359" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-22T07:35:41.993" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T07:35:41.993" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T07:35:41.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4360" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-22T07:35:41.993" Score="0" Body="For questions about the history of the field of psychology and the cognitive sciences" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T07:35:41.993" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T07:35:41.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4361" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4348" CreationDate="2013-08-22T08:45:35.517" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This does not really answer your question (because it doesn't deal in detail with methodological issues), but there is a nice journal article that deals with problems of the peer review process in general by evaluating &quot;great scientific works of the past&quot; from the perspective of current social sciences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trafimov, D., &amp;amp; Rice, S. (2009). What if social scientists had reviewed great scientific works of the past? &lt;em&gt;Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4&lt;/em&gt;, 65-78. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01107.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01107.x&lt;/a&gt; Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://cda.psych.uiuc.edu/writing_class_material/perspectives_articles/trafimow.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://cda.psych.uiuc.edu/writing_class_material/perspectives_articles/trafimow.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reference list has some articles on statistical/mathematical methodology questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another interesting article, Gerd Gigerenzer shows how p-values are misinterpreted in current research and null hypothesis testing is made a false requirement for the acceptance of papers by major journals:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gigerenzer, G., Krauss, S., &amp;amp; Vitouch, O. (2004). The null ritual: What you always wanted to know about significance testing but were afraid to ask. In D. Kaplan (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;The Sage Handbook of Quantitative Methodology for the Social Sciences&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 391-408). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sozialpsychologie.uni-frankfurt.de/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/GG_Null_20042.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sozialpsychologie.uni-frankfurt.de/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/GG_Null_20042.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Google search for &quot;peer review guidelines&quot; brings many hits from publishers and institutions. Maybe some of them deal with methodological issues in more detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-08-22T08:52:54.537" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T08:52:54.537" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4362" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4348" CreationDate="2013-08-22T10:49:00.963" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I get the impression that good journal editors will get at least one reviewer who is skilled in the methodology used in the paper. The importance of this reviewer role would presumably vary with the statistical or other methodological complexity of the paper. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, reviewing is well known to be imperfect particularly when it comes to checking all the possible smaller errors that can be made.  Errors in statistical analysis and reporting are wide-spread in published articles in psychology. For example, Bakker and Wicherts (2011) did a review, where to quote the abstract &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;we checked the consistency of reported&#xA;  test statistics, degrees of freedom, and p values in a random sample&#xA;  of high- and low-impact psychology journals... On the basis of 281&#xA;  articles ... [we estimate that] around 18% of statistical results in the&#xA;  psychological literature are incorrectly reported. Inconsistencies&#xA;  were more common in low-impact journals than in high-impact journals.&#xA;  Moreover, around 15% of the articles contained at least one&#xA;  statistical conclusion that proved, upon recalculation, to be&#xA;  incorrect; that is, recalculation rendered the previously significant&#xA;  result insignificant, or vice versa. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bakker, M., &amp;amp; Wicherts, J. M. (2011). The (mis) reporting of statistical results in psychology journals. Behavior Research Methods, 43(3), 666-678. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3174372/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FULL-TEXT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T10:49:00.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4363" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4354" CreationDate="2013-08-22T11:38:44.260" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some extremely large personality data sets can be downloaded at &lt;a href=&quot;http://personality-testing.info/_rawdata/&quot;&gt;http://personality-testing.info/_rawdata/&lt;/a&gt; in CSV format.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They are not packaged in R, but I post the link because you indicate in your reply to USER:what that you are having trouble finding any data sets what so ever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3437" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T11:38:44.260" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4364" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-22T12:32:09.053" Score="12" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll bring an example: there are people who love to dance and could do it for hours. Yet, if you'd make them run a long distance they would get tired really soon just because they don't like running not because they wouldn't have the stamina. On the other hand there are people who love long distance running and could run for hours yet if they are forced to dance they get easily tired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both activities are physical so while doing either of them, our brain releases endorphins, which make us feel good. However it seems that just our emotion toward the activity we are doing defines whether we actually feel good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is:&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any difference in brain activity while doing something you love or doing something similar you don't like?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If our emotions do affect our brain activity significantly, &lt;strong&gt;would it be possible to psychologically train ourselves to like/dislike a certain activity we want to do more/less?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3435" LastActivityDate="2015-12-14T03:52:01.837" Title="How do our emotions toward a subject affect our brain activity within similar activities?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4365" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4355" CreationDate="2013-08-22T13:19:31.823" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;All truly great thoughts are conceived while walking.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;~ Friedrich Nietzsche, &lt;em&gt;Twilight of the Idols&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Movement promotes cognitive performance. Either take breaks and exercise, as you already do, or set up your reading in a way that allows you to move while you read:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;take your book or paper in your hand and walk around in your room or garden while you read, or take it to the park; here is a how-to, if you need one: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikihow.com/Read-While-Walking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.wikihow.com/Read-While-Walking&lt;/a&gt;, and you can find a lot of essays on &quot;Reading while Walking&quot; through Google&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;some books are available as audiobooks and easy to walk or exercise to&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;buy or build a standing desk and stand while you read or type; even though you don't move around much, your posture is more healthy and you need more muscle to stand than slouch, so you are in fact active in a less obvious way&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sit on a big exercise ball; similar to standing, this induces you to move around a bit more and use more of your musculature; but keep your regular chair and move back to once you get tired, because slouching on an exercise ball is even worse for your back than on a chair with a supporting back&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;knead something with your hands; there are special balls and other objects for this, like therapy putty, hand exercise kits etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;chew gum; see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4299/does-chewing-gum-mentally-help-basketball-players-make-foul-shots&quot;&gt;Does chewing gum mentally help basketball players make foul shots?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of my emotional unrest while reading and writing day in, day out comes from the fact that reading and writing are lonely, unsocial activities. Being a person who feels most alive when interacting with others, I simply cannot bring myself to work at home or alone in an office. I find working in the university library to be a partial solution for my need for human company.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The quiet atmosphere doesn't distract me, the other people working there even amplify my own motivation, indeed the relaxed and quiet movements of those taking a break or picking up books gives me enough necessary distraction from my own wandering thoughts to remain focussed on my reading (similarly, I'm unable to sleep in a quiet room, I need the window open and outside sounds to listen to, for my mind to stop circling the same thoughts for many sleepless hours).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And of course you can talk and smile to the other people to the degree that you find comfortable. I often chose a place at an occupied table when I take a break in the cafeteria, smile at people that I meet on my way to the restroom, help those who look lost. At home I would eat alone and look at the wall even when I don't work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also like to have the window open and children playing outside. What you like, you'll surely  know yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T12:42:25.457" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4366" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-22T15:36:16.717" Score="9" ViewCount="12775" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.prisonexp.org/30years.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;maintained by Dr. Philip Zimbardo&lt;/a&gt; that the experiment has had no long-term harm on the participants. However, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.prisonexp.org/epilogue.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;one out of the 24 initial participants&lt;/a&gt;, who had suffered a breakdown within 36 hours of starting, later went on to become a prison psychologist and has been in the profession for at least 14 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the experiment may not have had any &quot;harm&quot; on the participants, the fact that it had such a huge impact on one participant (as the person himself claims in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.prisonexp.org/documentary.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;experiment documentary&lt;/a&gt;), calls into question the fact that how much did the experiment end up altering or affecting the participant's lives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, were long term effects &lt;strong&gt;(not just &quot;harm&quot;)&lt;/strong&gt; of the experiment tracked and documented by the team or anybody else? If tracked, has this been published at any point of time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, in most of the popular literature and even on the official website, I do not find any discussion of the experiment in terms of long term effects. Are long-term effects of psychological studies on participants' not considered worth recording? Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" LastEditorUserId="2777" LastEditDate="2013-08-26T16:46:53.573" LastActivityDate="2013-08-26T16:46:53.573" Title="What were the long-term effects on the participants of the Stanford Prison Experiment?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4367" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4366" CreationDate="2013-08-22T18:06:00.200" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found this snippet from Quora: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quora.com/Stanford-Prison-Experiment-1971-study/Whatever-happened-to-the-participants-in-the-Stanford-Prison-Experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Whatever happened to the participants in the Stanford Prison Experiment?&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;They performed extensive follow-ups by bringing all the subjects back individually or in groups over a period of the first year and then for the next ten years they have surveyed them by mail and phone and the consensus is that they did suffer during that week of the experiment, but they learned a great deal about themselves and about human nature that most of them say was quite valuable.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps within the first decade after the experiment they found constancy in how the participants were affected and felt there was no longer a need for further analysis / recording. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3438" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T18:06:00.200" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4368" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-22T19:23:59.487" Score="2" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I notice that after studying mathematics or logic for a long time, I can't speak to people in a fluid manner. Language becomes very functional. What brain areas are involved in this transition? Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3440" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T19:23:59.487" Title="Why is it that logical thinking is bad for emotional connection?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2013-08-30T21:10:12.733" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4369" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-22T20:07:47.003" Score="16" ViewCount="407" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is his chart of the ten &quot;thinking errors.&quot; It's taken from &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0452281326&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Feeling Good Handbook&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Table 3–1. Definitions of Cognitive Distortions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ALL-OR-NOTHING THINKING&lt;/strong&gt;: You see things in black-and-white categories. If your performance falls short of perfect, you see&#xA;  yourself as a total failure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;OVERGENERALIZATION&lt;/strong&gt;: You see a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;MENTAL FILTER&lt;/strong&gt;: You pick out a single negative detail and dwell on it exclusively so that your vision of all reality becomes darkened,&#xA;  like the drop of ink that colors the entire beaker of water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;DISQUALIFYING THE POSITIVE&lt;/strong&gt;: You reject positive experiences by insisting they “don’t count” for some reason or other. In this way you&#xA;  can maintain a negative belief that is contradicted by your everyday&#xA;  experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;JUMPING TO CONCLUSIONS&lt;/strong&gt;: You make a negative interpretation even though there are no definite facts that convincingly support your&#xA;  conclusion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Mind reading.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; You arbitrarily conclude that someone is&#xA;  reacting negatively to you, and you don’t bother to check this out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;b. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Fortune Teller Error.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; You anticipate that things will&#xA;  turn out badly, and you feel convinced that your prediction is an&#xA;  already-established fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;MAGNIFICATION (CATASTROPHIZING) OR MINIMIZATION&lt;/strong&gt;: You exaggerate the importance of things (such as your goof-up or someone else’s&#xA;  achievement), or you inappropriately shrink things until they appear&#xA;  tiny (your own desirable qualities or the other fellow’s&#xA;  imperfections). This is also called the “binocular trick.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EMOTIONAL REASONING&lt;/strong&gt;: You assume that your negative emotions necessarily reflect the way things really are: “I feel it, therefore&#xA;  it must be true.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;SHOULD STATEMENTS&lt;/strong&gt;: You try to motivate yourself with shoulds and shouldn’ts, as if you had to be whipped and punished before you could&#xA;  be expected to do anything. “Musts” and “oughts” are also offenders.&#xA;  The emotional consequence is guilt. When you direct should statements&#xA;  toward others, you feel anger, frustration, and resentment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;LABELING AND MISLABELING&lt;/strong&gt;: This is an extreme form of overgeneralization. Instead of describing your error, you attach a&#xA;  negative label to yourself: “I’m a loser.” When someone else’s&#xA;  behavior rubs you the wrong way, you attach a negative label to him:&#xA;  “He’s a goddam louse.” Mislabeling involves describing an event with&#xA;  language that is highly colored and emotionally loaded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;PERSONALIZATION&lt;/strong&gt;: You see yourself as me cause of some negative external event which in fact you were not primarily responsible for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has using these errors as a therapeutic tool been found to be effective in clinical psychotherapy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2019-09-30T06:17:40.157" LastActivityDate="2019-09-30T06:17:40.157" Title="Have the core CBT &quot;Thinking Errors&quot; been found to NOT be effective in evidence-based clinical practice?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="4370" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2045" CreationDate="2013-08-22T20:41:53.223" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am expecting a downvote here.  Only one of these can be systematically taught and learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amphetamines.   If you just want pure speed - but you'll realize speed needs clarity. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Meditation.   Provides clarity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They are very effective though.  Despite downsides of #1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T20:41:53.223" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4371" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1264" CreationDate="2013-08-22T21:45:59.357" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recommend this one as it seems quite standardized and backed by many citations of it's use.  It does seem to focus a lot on psychopathology at times, but there are many different versions of it that many different countries have made.  I believe by studying these and adding in a few twists you can get the jist of why this has become such a widely accepted measure of child-age 16 measures of, well, alot of stuff. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems as if methods are already in place (even with instructions on how to interpret the results using common statistical software) to extrapolate almost anything you want/need based upon the questions here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I think you're looking for the&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;STRENGTHS AND DIFFICULTIES QUESTIONNAIRE&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Their website is really, really helpful and to be fair I'm just copy and pasting most of it, lol.)  Btw, it's here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sdqinfo.org/a0.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sdqinfo.org/a0.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the SDQ?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) is a brief behavioural screening questionnaire about 3-16 year olds. It exists in several versions to meet the needs of researchers, clinicians and educationalists. Each version includes between one and three of the following components:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A) 25 items on psychological attributes.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;All versions of the SDQ ask about 25 attributes, some positive and others negative.  These &gt;25 items are divided between 5 scales: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;1) emotional symptoms (5 items)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  2) conduct problems (5 items)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  3) hyperactivity/inattention (5 items)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  4) peer relationship problems (5 items)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  5) prosocial behaviour (5 items)   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Note: 1) to 4) added together to generate a total  difficulties score  (based on 20 items)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The same 25 items are included in questionnaires for completion by the parents or teachers &gt;of 4-16 year olds (Goodman, 1997).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A slightly modified informant-rated version for the parents or nursery teachers of 3 (and &gt;4) year olds. 22 items are identical, the item on reflectiveness is softened, and 2 items &gt;on antisocial behaviour are replaced by items on oppositionality.&#xA;  Questionnaires for self-completion by adolescents ask about the same 25 traits, though the &gt;wording is slightly different (Goodman et al, 1998). This self-report version is suitable &gt;for young people aged around 11-16, depending on their level of understanding and &gt;literacy.&#xA;  In low-risk or general population samples, it may be better to use an alternative three-&gt;subscale division of the SDQ into 'internalising problems' (emotional+peer symptoms, 10 &gt;items), 'externalising problems' (conduct+hyperactivity symptoms, 10 items) and the &gt;prosocial scale (5 items) ( Goodman et al, 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;B) An impact supplement&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several two-sided versions of the SDQ are available with the 25 items on strengths and &gt;difficulties on the front of the page and an impact supplement on the back. These extended &gt;versions of the SDQ ask whether the respondent thinks the young person has a problem, and &gt;if so, enquire further about chronicity, distress, social impairment, and burden to &gt;others.  This provides useful additional information for clinicians and researchers with &gt;an interest in psychiatric caseness and the determinants of service use (Goodman, 1999).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;C) Follow-up questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The follow-up versions of the SDQ include not only the 25 basic items and the impact &gt;question, but also two additional follow-up questions for use after an intervention. Has &gt;the intervention reduced problems? Has the intervention helped in other ways, e.g. making &gt;the problems more bearable? To increase the chance of detecting change, the follow-up &gt;versions of the SDQ ask about 'the last month', as opposed to 'the last six months or this &gt;school year', which is the reference period for the standard versions. Follow-up versions &gt;also omit the question about the chronicity of problems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Handouts:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find several different versions of the survey here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sdqinfo.org/py/sdqinfo/b3.py?language=Englishqz(USA)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sdqinfo.org/py/sdqinfo/b3.py?language=Englishqz(USA)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scoring:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sdqinfo.org/py/sdqinfo/c0.py&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sdqinfo.org/py/sdqinfo/c0.py&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Citations from SDQ Website Listed for Convenience, Title Scannability, and to Show the Scope of Who, Where, and How the SDQ has been used:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Goodman R (1999) &lt;strong&gt;The extended version of the&#xA;  Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire as a guide to child&#xA;  psychiatric caseness and consequent burden.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Child&#xA;  Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 791-801. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goodman R, Scott S&#xA;  (1999) &lt;strong&gt;Comparing the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and the&#xA;  Child Behavior Checklist: Is small beautiful?&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Abnormal&#xA;  Child Psychology, 27, 17-24. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Smedje H, Broman J-E, Hetta J,&#xA;  von Knorring A-L (1999) &lt;strong&gt;Psychometric properties of a Swedish version&#xA;  of the &quot;Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire&quot;.&lt;/strong&gt; European Child and&#xA;  Adolescent Psychiatry, 8, 63-70. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goodman R, Ford T, Simmons&#xA;  H, Gatward R, Meltzer H (2000) &lt;strong&gt;Using the Strengths and Difficulties&#xA;  Questionnaire (SDQ) to screen for child psychiatric disorders in a&#xA;  community sample.&lt;/strong&gt; British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 534-539.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goodman R, Renfrew D, Mullick M (2000) &lt;strong&gt;Predicting type of&#xA;  psychiatric disorder from Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire&#xA;  (SDQ) scores in child mental health clinics in London and Dhaka.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 9, 129-134. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Klasen&#xA;  H, Woerner W, Wolke D, Meyer R, Overmeyer S, Kaschnitz W, Rothenberger&#xA;  A, Goodman R (2000) &lt;strong&gt;Comparing the German versions of the Strengths&#xA;  and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ-Deu) and the Child Behavior&#xA;  Checklist.&lt;/strong&gt; European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 9, 271-276.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Koskelainen M, Sourander A, Kaljonen A (2000) &lt;strong&gt;The Strengths&#xA;  and Difficulties Questionnaire among Finnish school-aged children and&#xA;  adolescents.&lt;/strong&gt; European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 9, 277-284.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goodman R (2001) &lt;strong&gt;Psychometric properties of the Strengths and&#xA;  Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ).&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of the American Academy of&#xA;  Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1337-1345. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Mullick MSI,&#xA;  Goodman R (2001) &lt;strong&gt;Questionnaire screening for mental health problems in&#xA;  Bangladeshi children: a preliminary study.&lt;/strong&gt; Social Psychiatry and&#xA;  Psychiatric Epidemiology, 36, 94-99. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goodman R, Ford T,&#xA;  Meltzer H (2002) &lt;strong&gt;Mental health problems of children in the community:&#xA;  18 month follow up.&lt;/strong&gt; BMJ, 324, 1496-7. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Mathai J, Anderson P,&#xA;  Bourne A (2002) &lt;strong&gt;The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) as&#xA;  a screening measure prior to admission to a Child and Adolescent&#xA;  Mental Health Service (CAMHS).&lt;/strong&gt; Australian e-Journal for the&#xA;  Advancement of Mental Health, 1, Issue 3.  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;,  (Zusammenfassung) Cury CR,&#xA;  Golfeto JH (2003) &lt;strong&gt;Strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ): a&#xA;  study of school children in Ribeirao Preto.&lt;/strong&gt; Rev Bras Psiquiatr, 25,&#xA;  139-45. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Glazebrook C, Hollis C, Heussler H, Goodman R, Coates&#xA;  L (2003) &lt;strong&gt;Detecting emotional and behavioural problems in paediatric&#xA;  clinics.&lt;/strong&gt; Child: Care, Health and Development, 29, 141-149. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Malmberg M, Rydell AM, Smedje H (2003) &lt;strong&gt;Validity of the Swedish version&#xA;  of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ-Swe).&lt;/strong&gt; Nord J&#xA;  Psychiatry, 57, 357-63. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Mathai J, Anderson P, Bourne A (2003)&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Use of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire as an outcome&#xA;  measure in a child and adolescent mental health service.&lt;/strong&gt; Australasian&#xA;  Psychiatry, 11, 334-337. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Muris P, Meesters C, van den Berg F&#xA;  (2003) &lt;strong&gt;The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ): Further&#xA;  evidence for its reliability and validity in a community sample of&#xA;  Dutch children and adolescents.&lt;/strong&gt; European Child and Adolescent&#xA;  Psychiatry, 12, 1-8. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; van Widenfelt BM, Goedhart AW, Treffers&#xA;  PDA, Goodman R (2003) &lt;strong&gt;Dutch version of the Strengths and Difficulties&#xA;  Questionnaire (SDQ).&lt;/strong&gt; European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 12,&#xA;  281-289. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Becker A, Hagenberg N, Roessner V, Woerner W,&#xA;  Rothenberger A (2004) &lt;strong&gt;Evaluation of the self-reported SDQ in a&#xA;  clinical setting: do self-reports tell us more than ratings by adult&#xA;  informants?&lt;/strong&gt; European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13 Suppl 2,&#xA;  II17-24. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Becker A, Woerner W, Hasselhorn M, Banaschewski T,&#xA;  Rothenberger A (2004) &lt;strong&gt;Validation of the parent and teacher SDQ in a&#xA;  clinical sample.&lt;/strong&gt; European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13 Suppl 2,&#xA;  II11-6. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goodman R, Ford T, Corbin T, Meltzer H (2004) &lt;strong&gt;Using&#xA;  the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) multi-informant&#xA;  algorithm to screen looked-after children for psychiatric disorders.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13 Suppl 2, II25-31.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Hawes DJ, Dadds MR (2004) &lt;strong&gt;Australian data and psychometric&#xA;  properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.&lt;/strong&gt; Australian&#xA;  and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 38, 644-651. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Marzocchi, GM, Capron C, Di Pietro M, Duran Tauleria E, Duyme M,&#xA;  Frigerio A, Gaspar MF, Hamilton H, Pithon G, Simoes A, Therond C&#xA;  (2004) &lt;strong&gt;The use of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)&#xA;  in Southern European countries.&lt;/strong&gt; European Child and Adolescent&#xA;  Psychiatry, 13 Suppl 2, II40-6. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Mathai J, Anderson P, Bourne&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;A (2004) Comparing psychiatric diagnoses generated by the Strengths&#xA;  and Difficulties Questionnaire with diagnoses made by clinicians.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 38, 639-643.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Muris P, Maas A (2004) &lt;strong&gt;Strengths and difficulties as&#xA;  correlates of attachment style in institutionalized and&#xA;  non-institutionalized children with below-average intellectual&#xA;  abilities.&lt;/strong&gt; Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 34, 317-328.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Muris P, Meesters C, Eijkelenboom A, Vincken M (2004) &lt;strong&gt;The&#xA;  self-report version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire:&#xA;  Its psychometric properties in 8- to 13-year-old non-clinical&#xA;  children.&lt;/strong&gt; British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 437-448.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Woerner W, Becker A, Rothenberger A (2004) &lt;strong&gt;Normative data and&#xA;  scale properties of the German parent SDQ.&lt;/strong&gt; European Child and&#xA;  Adolescent Psychiatry, 13 Suppl 2, II3-10. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Woerner W,&#xA;  Fleitlich-Bilyk B, Martinussen R, Fletcher J, Cucchiaro G,&#xA;  Dalgalarrondo P, Lui M, Tannock R (2004) &lt;strong&gt;The Strengths and&#xA;  Difficulties Questionnaire overseas: evaluations and applications of&#xA;  the SDQ beyond Europe.&lt;/strong&gt; European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13&#xA;  Suppl 2, II47-54. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Hintermair M (2006) &lt;strong&gt;Socio-emotional&#xA;  problems among hearing-impaired children - initial results of the&#xA;  German version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire&#xA;  (SDQ-D).&lt;/strong&gt; Z Kinder Jugendpsychiatr Psychother, 34, 49-61. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Van&#xA;  Roy B, Groholt B, Heyerdahl S, Clench-Aas J (2006) &lt;strong&gt;Self-reported&#xA;  strengths and difficulties in a large Norwegian population 10-19 years&#xA;  : age and gender specific results of the extended SDQ-questionnaire.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 15, 189-98. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Ford T,&#xA;  Collishaw S, Meltzer H, Goodman R (2007) &lt;strong&gt;A prospective study of&#xA;  childhood psychopathology: independent predictors of change over three&#xA;  years.&lt;/strong&gt; Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42, 953-61.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goodman, R., Iervolino, A. C., Collishaw, S., Pickles, A. &amp;amp;&#xA;  Maughan, B. (2007) &lt;strong&gt;Seemingly minor changes to a questionnaire can make&#xA;  a big difference to mean scores: a cautionary tale.&lt;/strong&gt; Social Psychiatry&#xA;  and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42, 322-7. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Palmieri PA, Smith&#xA;  GC (2007) &lt;strong&gt;Examining the structural validity of the Strengths and&#xA;  Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in a U.S. sample of custodial&#xA;  grandmothers.&lt;/strong&gt; Psychol Assess, 19, 189-98. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Achenbach TM,&#xA;  Becker A, Dopfner M, Heiervang E, Roessner V, Steinhausen HC,&#xA;  Rothenberger, A (2008) &lt;strong&gt;Multicultural assessment of child and&#xA;  adolescent psychopathology with ASEBA and SDQ instruments: research&#xA;  findings, applications, and future directions.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Child&#xA;  Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 251-75. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Matsuishi T, Nagano M,&#xA;  Araki Y, Tanaka Y, Iwasaki M, Yamashita Y, Nagamitsu S, Iizuka C, Ohya&#xA;  T, Shibuya K, Hara M, Matsuda K, Tsuda A, Kakuma T (2008) &lt;strong&gt;Scale&#xA;  properties of the Japanese version of the Strengths and Difficulties&#xA;  Questionnaire (SDQ): a study of infant and school children in&#xA;  community samples.&lt;/strong&gt; Brain Dev, 30, 410-5. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Van Roy B, Veenstra&#xA;  M, Clench-Aas J (2008) &lt;strong&gt;Construct validity of the five-factor Strengths&#xA;  and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in pre-, early, and late&#xA;  adolescence.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1304-12.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Ford T, Hutchings J, Bywater T, Goodman A, Goodman R (2009)&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire Added Value Scores:&#xA;  evaluating effectiveness in child mental health interventions.&lt;/strong&gt; British&#xA;  Journal of Psychiatry, 194, 552-8. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Giannakopoulos G, Tzavara&#xA;  C, Dimitrakaki C, Kolaitis G, Rotsika V, Tountas Y (2009) The factor&#xA;  structure of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in&#xA;  Greek adolescents. Ann Gen Psychiatry, 8, 20. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goodman A,&#xA;  Goodman R (2009) &lt;strong&gt;Strengths and difficulties questionnaire as a&#xA;  dimensional measure of child mental health.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of the American&#xA;  Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 400-3. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Janssens A, Deboutte D (2009) &lt;strong&gt;Screening for psychopathology in child&#xA;  welfare: the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) compared&#xA;  with the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA).&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 18, 691-700. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Shahrivar Z, Tehrani-Doost M, Pakbaz B, Rezaie A, Ahmadi F (2009)&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Normative data and psychometric properties of the parent and teacher&#xA;  versions of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) in an&#xA;  Iranian community sample.&lt;/strong&gt; J Res Med Sci, 14, 69-77. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Syed EU,&#xA;  Hussein SA, Azam SI, Khan AG (2009) &lt;strong&gt;Comparison of Urdu version of&#xA;  Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and the Child Behaviour&#xA;  Check List (CBCL) amongst primary school children in Karachi.&lt;/strong&gt; J Coll&#xA;  Physicians Surg Pak, 19, 375-9. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goodman A, Lamping DL,&#xA;  Ploubidis GB (2010) &lt;strong&gt;When to use broader internalising and&#xA;  externalising subscales instead of the hypothesised five subscales on&#xA;  the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ): data from British&#xA;  parents, teachers and children.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,&#xA;  38, 1179-1191. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goodman A, Goodman R (2011) &lt;strong&gt;Population mean&#xA;  scores predict child mental disorder rates: validating SDQ prevalence&#xA;  estimators in Britain.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52,&#xA;  100-8. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goodman A, Heiervang E, Fleitlich-Bilyk B, Alyahri A,&#xA;  Patel V, Mullick MS, Slobodskaya H, Dos Santos DN, Goodman R (2011)&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Cross-national differences in questionnaires do not necessarily&#xA;  reflect comparable differences in disorder prevalence.&lt;/strong&gt; Social&#xA;  Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Richter J, Sagatun A,&#xA;  Heyerdahl S, Oppedal B, Roysamb E (2011) &lt;strong&gt;The Strengths and&#xA;  Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) - self-report. An analysis of its&#xA;  structure in a multiethnic urban adolescent sample.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Child&#xA;  Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 1002-11.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many times this test is used in an attempt to discover if there are any psychopathologies in a certain sample or group of children/adolescents.  Don't let that fool you though - look at the sample survey sheet - you'll recognize that this can be used for nearly any purpose - which is part of the genius in it's design - which I believe you'll recognize.  Look at the above research titles to see what sort of studies this type of survey has been used in - it has a large scope and there have been a wide variety of instances where this test has been applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-08-25T12:33:25.797" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T12:33:25.797" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4372" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-22T22:17:08.253" Score="3" ViewCount="514" Body="&lt;p&gt;I find it very interesting that people who consume alcohol get less shy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why does drinking alcohol reduce shyness?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And are there any other (legal or illegal) substances who have such an effect on the human brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3441" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T22:41:56.053" Title="Why does alcohol reduce shyness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4373" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3717" CreationDate="2013-08-22T22:24:06.290" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Edit: Didn't want this question to be stuck with only that first answer I gave, so here is what I believe you were looking for more specifically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychol Health. 2011 Sep;26(9):1113-27. doi:&#xA;  10.1080/08870446.2011.613995.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;strong&gt;The theory of planned behaviour: reactions and reflections.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Ajzen I.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Abstract&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The seven articles in this issue, and the accompanying meta-analysis&#xA;  in Health Psychology Review [McEachan, R.R.C., Conner, M., Taylor, N.,&#xA;  &amp;amp; Lawton, R.J. (2011). Prospective prediction of health-related&#xA;  behaviors with the theory of planned behavior: A meta-analysis. Health&#xA;  Psychology Review, 5, 97-144], illustrate the wide application of the&#xA;  theory of planned behaviour [Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned&#xA;  behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50,&#xA;  179-211] in the health domain. In this editorial, Ajzen reflects on&#xA;  some of the issues raised by the different authors. Among the topics&#xA;  addressed are the nature of intentions and the limits of predictive&#xA;  validity; rationality, affect and emotions; past behaviour and habit;&#xA;  the prototype/willingness model; and the role of such background&#xA;  factors &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;as the big five personality traits&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and social comparison&#xA;  tendency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Abstract doesn't help us much.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;No worries, I got the full text too.   You can download it here for free:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08870446.2011.613995&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08870446.2011.613995&lt;/a&gt; or just read the relevant except I took from it:&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As have other investigators in the past (Courneya, Bobick, &amp;amp; Schinke,&#xA;  1999; Rhodes &amp;amp; Courneya, 2003), Rivis et al. (2011) examined the role&#xA;  of the &lt;strong&gt;‘big five’ personality traits&lt;/strong&gt; – openness,&#xA;  conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (Costa&#xA;  &amp;amp; McCrae, 1985) in the context of the TPB. In addition, they also&#xA;  assessed the general tendency to compare oneself to important others.&#xA;  Interestingly, however, rather than postulating a simple effect of&#xA;  these kinds of background factors on intentions and behaviour, their&#xA;  within-subjects methodology allowed them to &lt;strong&gt;examine the possibility&#xA;  that these variables influence the predictive validity of intentions&#xA;  relative to perceived prototype similarity&lt;/strong&gt; (see the earlier discussion&#xA;  of this construct). &lt;strong&gt;Although the effects of the big five personality&#xA;  traits and social comparison tendency were &lt;em&gt;quite small&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, this&#xA;  investigation – like earlier studies by Trafimow and Finlay (1996),&#xA;  Sheeran, Norman, and Orbell (1999) and others –&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;shows that there may be stable individual differences that influence the relative weights of the different predictors in the TPB.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it looks like this paper's research has found that the effects of the Big 5 personality traits (as well as social comparison tendency) weren't very significant.  But, because of the way in which some of the studies ran their methodology or perhaps certain other variables they measured they were able to see a few patterns that at the very least point towards what looks like (unnecessary quote again? yes.) &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;stable individual differences that influence the relative weights of the different predictors in the TPB.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;  Now I don't know what these differences are as they essentially left that vague.  Could they be Big 5 indicators or some other measurement they took?  I don't know as I can't access the citations, but....For convenience, I have each of them listed below though in case you do have access.  These are all the in-text citations from that excerpt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Courneya, K.S., Bobick, T.M., &amp;amp; Schinke, R.J. (1999). Does the theory&#xA;  of planned behavior mediate the relation between personality and&#xA;  exercise behavior? Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21, 317–324.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rhodes, R.E., &amp;amp; Courneya, K.S. (2003). Relationships between&#xA;  personality, an extended theory of planned behaviour model and&#xA;  exercise behaviour. British Journal of Health Psychology, 8, 19–36.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rivis, A., Sheeran, P., &amp;amp; Armitage, C.J. (2011). Intention&#xA;  versusidentification as determinants of adolescents’ health&#xA;  behaviours: evidence and correlates. Psychology and Health, 26,&#xA;  1128–1142.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Costa Jr, P.T., &amp;amp; McCrae, R.R. (1985). The NEO Personality Inventory&#xA;  manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Trafimow, D., &amp;amp; Finlay, K.A. (1996). The importance of subjective&#xA;  norms for a minority of people: Between-subjects and within-subjects&#xA;  analyses. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 820–828.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sheeran, P., Norman, P., &amp;amp; Orbell, S. (1999). Evidence that intentions&#xA;  based on attitudes better predict behaviour than intentions based on&#xA;  subjective norms. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 403–406.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It will make more sense to flip the order of your questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&quot;What relationships have been obtained in empirical studies between Big&#xA;  5 personality and theory of planned behaviour?&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It looks like there isn't much linkage between the two according to the research that has been summarized in that paper.  There is a weak affect, but that's not very exciting.  If you have access to the journals you may be able to see more of the details but they're already pretty much summarized for you in the paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&quot;What theories have been proposed relating Big 5 personality factors&#xA;  with theory of planned behaviour?&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now they did mention something about how they were able to see some sort of pattern in regards to &quot;individual differences&quot; towards the TPB - but it's somewhat unclear if that's because of other factors or because of interesting patterns they saw in the Big 5 --&gt; TPB data.  The full text of those articles would probably reveal that though.  I can't pay $50 for each of them though, ha.  So that seems to be the most relevant theory regarding their relationship - and depending upon the semantics of the authors as they were somewhat vague.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once again, they said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;this investigation – like earlier studies by Trafimow and Finlay (1996),&#xA;  Sheeran, Norman, and Orbell (1999) and others –&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;shows that there may be stable individual differences that influence the relative weights of the different predictors in the TPB.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps Big 5 Traits relate to a certain &quot;stable individual difference&quot; that then tends to relate moreso to a factor/weight in the TPB. They may have found that out in other variables they measured in those studies they cited....there doesn't seem to be much more theory about it out there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, as I did before, I'll postulate my own that involves the &quot;Edge Effect&quot; theories and how they could overlap and become a predictor not only psychologically but on a physiological level as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edge Effect Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is essentially a theory in how certain global neurotransmitters create your personality.  There's a bunch of tests he gives to determine your archetype.&#xA;I feel like all three of these could overlap and then concrete evidence could be obtained from that overlapping in the form of maybe even potential physiological studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This guy doesn't really cite much (alot of it is just coming from his head - and overall broad definitions of neurotransmitters) but gives some interesting definitions of people based upon their physiology.  In particular, relating to dopamine, serotonin, gaba, and acetylcholine dominance.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He classifies personality traits among many other things according to your dominance in these domains.  He even provides tests you can take.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, you can take this book and you can find the references or at least be pointed down the path towards them as you're trying to connect the two theories you cite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyways the book is called the &quot;Edge Effect&quot; by Eric R. Braverman.  Amazon link: &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1402722478&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.com/The-Edge-Effect-Longevity-Advantage/dp/1402722478&lt;/a&gt; (not an affiliate link)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have the book, obviously, and found it to be pretty interesting in how he relates the neurotransmitters to all sorts of things.  If you read it you may find some things start to make sense on an intuitive level no matter how global or generalized they may be and that...he really didn't need citations.  There's all sorts of tests he'll have you take that actually do predict many things about yourself - and then he talks about what you should try to eat amino acid wise to naturally balance out certain neurotransmitters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know his theories have been criticized as a bit of a global generalization of neurotransmitters....but my defense against that is he is simply bringing them down to a practical level.  Otherwise, practicality becomes lost in the complexity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So another new theory has been proposed by me based upon our potential earlier findings of a potential overlapping 3rd variable instead of direct correlation between the Big 5 &amp;amp; TPB.  :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-08-25T11:38:29.040" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T11:38:29.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4374" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4372" CreationDate="2013-08-22T22:41:56.053" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has to do with the excitatory affect alcohol has on almost all neurotransmitters and their receptors, including serotonin, dopamine, and GABA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Very, very broadly: &#xA;&lt;br&gt;Serotonin: Generally makes one seek a human connection.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;Dopamine: Motivation to do things that are stimulating, like conversation.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;Gaba: Surpresses anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;GHB will do this even more - but it may do it to way too much of an extent.  (Mostly Gaba, but increases tyrosine hydroxylase as well which = more dopamine.)&#xA;&lt;br&gt;MDMA obviously (it causes your serotonin receptors to instead of soaking up the neurotransmitter pump them out).&#xA;&lt;br&gt;Amphetamines to an extent.  (Similar to the last two)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastActivityDate="2013-08-22T22:41:56.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4376" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4113" CreationDate="2013-08-23T01:53:28.577" Score="3" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Pharmaceutical:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, I can tell you there are no pharmaceutical treatments you can take that JUST help you manage &amp;quot;acute jealousy.&amp;quot;  Essentially, any drug you would take that may help wouldn't just target &amp;quot;jealousy.&amp;quot;  If there even is one that helps you to manage it it will have a global effect and probably be something like an SSRI, SNRI, amphetamine, some other drug that is probably going to end up making you feel worse in the long run.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pharmaceutical wise, I really just found one study that referenced it at all and it's not very helpful.  Scroll down though, the CBT part is very encouraging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because this is such a specific topic really the only thing I found in relation to pharmaceuticals and jealousy was...if you have parkinson's and you are taking dopamine agonists, you can get &amp;quot;delusional jealousy&amp;quot;.  So I'd avoid dopamine agonists...maybe?  But you probably don't have parkinson's.  It could be extrapolated to the general population to just say &amp;quot;hey, dopamine agonists may cause 'delusional jealousy'&amp;quot; but that's unlikely - and kind of useless information.  MAYBE you could try a dopamine antagonist (antipsychotic) but those things SUCK so much - just trust me it's not worth it...in fact it's a stupid idea to bring up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mov Disord. 2012 Nov;27(13):1679-82. doi: 10.1002/mds.25129. Epub 2012&#xA;Nov 13.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dopamine agonists and delusional jealousy in Parkinson's disease: a&#xA;cross-sectional prevalence study.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Poletti M, Perugi G, Logi C, Romano A, Del Dotto P, Ceravolo R, Rossi&#xA;G, Pepe P,  Dell'Osso L, Bonuccelli U.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Department of Neuroscience, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BACKGROUND: Delusional jealousy (DJ) has been described in patients&#xA;with Parkinson's disease (PD) on dopaminergic therapy, but a role for&#xA;dopaminergic therapy in DJ has not been established. METHODS: The&#xA;current cross-sectional study on DJ investigated its association with&#xA;dopaminergic therapies compared with their associations with&#xA;hallucinations  and its prevalence in PD patients. Eight hundred five&#xA;consecutive patients with PD were enrolled between January 2009 and&#xA;June 2010. RESULTS: DJ was identified in 20 patients (2.48%) and&#xA;hallucinations in 193 patients (23.98%). In the multivariate logistic&#xA;regression analyses, dopamine agonists were significantly associated&#xA;with DJ (odds ratio, 18.1; 95% CI,&#xA;3.0-infinity; P = .0002) but not with hallucinations (odds ratio, 0.73; 95% CI,&#xA;0.49-1.10; P = .133). CONCLUSIONS: &lt;strong&gt;These findings suggest that dopamine agonist treatment represents a  risk factor for DJ in PD&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;independent of the presence of a dementing disorder, and the presence&#xA;of this additional nonmotor side effect should be investigated in this&#xA;clinical population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Copyright © 2012 Movement Disorder Society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PMID: 23150469  [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Edit&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now this was an interesting mini-study I came across along with a whole bunch of other results with the word &amp;quot;pathological jealousy.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;J Clin Psychiatry. 1990 Aug;51(8):345-6. &lt;strong&gt;Successful fluoxetine&#xA;treatment of pathologic jealousy.&lt;/strong&gt; Lane RD. Source Department of&#xA;Psychiatry, University of Health Sciences, Chicago Medical School,&#xA;Ill. Abstract A 39-year-old man suddenly became convinced that his&#xA;wife had once been unfaithful to him, and soon thereafter he became&#xA;depressed. Symptoms of depression responded to imipramine, but the&#xA;jealousy did not. A trial of fluoxetine was attempted because of the&#xA;obsessional nature of the jealousy. Fluoxetine 60 mg/day resulted in&#xA;complete remission of the pathologic jealousy, consistent with the&#xA;known efficacy of fluoxetine in obsessive compulsive disorder. PMID:&#xA;2380161 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, once again, I'm sure that's not the only affect he experienced.  THere were also a few hits with risperdone and primazone actually.  They didn't even have abstracts tho.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then we have the implication that it may be involved in OCD:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 1997 Feb;31(1):133-8.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Morbid jealousy as a variant of obsessive-compulsive disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parker G, Barrett E.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Randwick,&#xA;Australia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OBJECTIVE: To present a representative case vignette and review&#xA;several previous  reports, and to then suggest that a percentage of&#xA;those with morbid jealousy may  have a variant of obsessive-compulsive&#xA;disorder (OCD). CLINICAL PICTURE: A patient presented volunteering a&#xA;diagnosis of depression and  anxiety following recent work and marital&#xA;stresses, before describing recent jealousy and harassment of his wife&#xA;over an earlier relationship. Obsessional thinking patterns and&#xA;compulsive behaviours are described, and it is proposed that the&#xA;picture supports a diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder.&#xA;TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: &lt;strong&gt;The patient was treated as if he had an&#xA;obsessive-compulsive disorder, and reported dissipation of his&#xA;concerns after cognitive-behavioural intervention.&lt;/strong&gt; CONCLUSIONS: The&#xA;proposition is an important one as a diagnosis of morbid jealousy&#xA;often invites therapeutic pessimism, and as managements effective for&#xA;OCD (both drug and behavioural) may well be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PMID: 9088498  [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which ends with successful treatment with cognitive behavioral therapy as well as (they insinuate) some pharmaceutical treatment having to do with his OCD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This leads me into my next section though:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Therapeutic&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jealousy is so specific that said person with jealousy is going to&#xA;have to deal with it with something like CBT (although there are several medicines that &amp;gt;could help to treat it...you would probably agree with me that some of their side affects &amp;gt;arn't worth it if one were to try them, said jealous person also has to consider whether &amp;gt;or not their jealousy is &amp;quot;pathological&amp;quot;) - not to sound like a&#xA;broken record.  There just isn't anything as proven out there.  Said&#xA;jealous person also needs to do things that expands their &amp;quot;options&amp;quot;&#xA;which would be the ultimate cure - even if it's just meeting randoms&#xA;on plenty of fish, there's not much to lose.  In my opinion, it should&#xA;be looked at as just gambling or like a slot machine.  Otherwise, if&#xA;said jealous person does not change any of their habits....the pattern&#xA;of jealousy will continue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I'm going to give you some (the very rare) CBT studies involving specifically jealousy.  I don't have access to the full text of these, if you do - maybe you want to look into them more.  If you generalize &amp;quot;jealousy&amp;quot; into &amp;quot;depression&amp;quot; then I don't even need to really cite all of the studies that show how much CBT works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Br J Psychiatry. 1996 May;168(5):588-93.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The effectiveness of cognitive therapy in the treatment of&#xA;non-psychotic morbid jealousy.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dolan M, Bishay N.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ashworth Hospital, Maghull, Liverpool.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BACKGROUND: Although a cognitive-behavioural formulation of morbid&#xA;jealousy has been described there is little empirical research into&#xA;the practical usefulness of this model. This study evaluated the&#xA;effectiveness of treating non-psychotic morbid jealousy using a&#xA;cognitive approach. METHOD: Cognitive-behavioural and emotional&#xA;measures of jealousy were calibrated  by comparison with 40&#xA;non-jealous normal controls. These instruments were used as measures&#xA;of change to assess the effectiveness of cognitive therapy in altering&#xA;cognitive errors in 30 morbidly jealous out-patient referrals, divided&#xA;into delayed and immediate treatment subgroups to assess the stability&#xA;of the condition. Both groups completed all measures immediately&#xA;before and after treatment, and at follow-up. RESULTS: &lt;strong&gt;The instruments&#xA;demonstrated significant differences between jealous and non-jealous&#xA;subjects on cognitive-behavioural and emotional aspects of jealousy.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;The delayed treatment group showed no significant alteration in scores&#xA;on any of  the instruments after 12 weeks on the waiting list,&#xA;confirming the stability of the condition. &lt;strong&gt;In the majority of cases&#xA;cognitive therapy aimed at the modification of dysfunctional cognitive&#xA;processes resulted in a significant improvement on all jealousy&#xA;measures, immediately after treatment and at follow-up.&lt;/strong&gt; The&#xA;improvement reported by patients was supported by the partner's&#xA;ratings. CONCLUSION: &lt;strong&gt;The results support the postulation of the&#xA;cognitive model that modification of cognitive schema by a&#xA;schema-focused treatment package results in a significant reduction in&#xA;disturbance in all aspects of the jealousy syndrome.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PMID: 8733797  [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Br J Psychiatry. 1989 Mar;154:386-9.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;An uncontrolled study of cognitive therapy for morbid jealousy.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bishay NR, Petersen N, Tarrier N.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;North Manchester General Hospital, Crumpsall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thirteen patients presenting with morbid jealousy were treated using a&#xA;cognitive  approach adapted from Beck's cognitive therapy for&#xA;depression. &lt;strong&gt;Cognitions in morbid jealousy showed the characteristics&#xA;of automatic thoughts as described by  Beck, and were based on faulty&#xA;assumptions derived from interpretations of past experiences. The&#xA;cognitive treatment directed mainly at the faulty assumptions resulted&#xA;in improvements in TEN (10 out of 13!) patients and no change in one; two patients&#xA;dropped out of treatment. The results are considered encouraging.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PMID: 2597841  [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once again if one were to just generalize the &amp;quot;jealousy&amp;quot; to depression, then click below.  There's a wide variety of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=cognitive+behavioral+therapy+depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=cognitive+behavioral+therapy+depression&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T05:51:17.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4377" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1655" CreationDate="2013-08-23T04:34:43.320" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I experience thinking two different things at the same time, but not on purpose.  It is very frustrating because sometimes if someone tries to divert my attention in a different way my two thoughts merge together to make room for a new one.  At most I've thought of four different things at the same time.  I can actually hear them quite well.  They do happen at the same time, but there is always one thought that is much louder than the others.  I don't think it's normal but i know of only a few people who experience it with me, one being my father.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3442" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T04:34:43.320" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4378" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4355" CreationDate="2013-08-23T08:03:19.007" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Increasing Concentration&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A method that is geared espeacially towards reading scientific texts is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.de/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=3&amp;amp;sqi=2&amp;amp;ved=0CEIQFjAC&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Feducatoral.com%2FSQR3.html&amp;amp;ei=GAsXUoGFJ4rHtAbpgoCQCA&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNG9ekPAJm983zDygV6_sOBGJF7u8w&amp;amp;sig2=T0Lz2UDpWQKNOOzB_4fL6A&amp;amp;bvm=bv.51156542,d.Yms&amp;amp;cad=rja&quot;&gt;SQ3R&lt;/a&gt;. SQ3R is short for &lt;em&gt;survey&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;question&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;read&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;recite&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;review&lt;/em&gt;. So instead of &quot;just reading&quot; a text, one is supposed to &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;survey it first to grasp the basic outline by reading the abstract, introduction or table of contents&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;formulate questions as to what it is that one learns from the text&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After these two steps you start &quot;really reading&quot; the text, which is the 3R- part of the method. After reading a passage, pause and summarize what you have learned. You can be critical and evaluate the things with respect to a certain criteria (e.g.: how much evidence does the author provide?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe you don't even have to take this method too literally. You might want to switch the order of the steps a little, or only do some of the things mentioned. Thinking about my way of reading papers, I often do some of the things, but not all of them. But that is of course just my personal experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Increasing Motivation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is maybe the harder part of your question. Goal Setting Theory (Locke &amp;amp; Latham, 2002) might work. According to the theory, setting a specific and challenging goal leads to better performance than a vage and easy goal. In addition, setting a &lt;em&gt;proximal learning goals&lt;/em&gt; is recommended, when &quot;the knowledge or skill for attaining a goal is unknown&quot; (Latham &amp;amp; Locke, 2007, p.293). This could be appropriate for a student reading papers, as he is probably not already familiar with the material. Setting a proximal goal also goes well with the notion of reading only a small protion of the text and then summarizing it (the 3R- part from above) as opposed to a more distal goal like: &quot;I want to understand this paper&quot;. Using Goal Setting Theory amounts to a form of extrinisc motivation. It does not necessarily get you into a flow. So maybe this is not what you wanted when you asked the question. But after all, having to read a lot of papers as a student is an externally prescribed task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Latham, G. P., &amp;amp; Locke, E. A. (2007). New developments in and directions for goal-setting research. European Psychologist, 12(4), 290-300. &lt;a href=&quot;http://media.library.ku.edu.tr/reserve/resspring13/alis350_ETuncer/New_developments.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Locke, E. A., &amp;amp; Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American psychologist, 57(9), 705. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dperdikis.com/business-models/building-a-practically-useful-theory-of-goal-setting-and-task-motivation/&quot;&gt;HTML&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2013-08-23T08:10:51.487" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T08:10:51.487" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4380" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-23T11:52:45.893" Score="6" ViewCount="22756" Body="&lt;p&gt;Going through some article, it seems the differences between the descriptions for sadistic personality disorder and psychopathy is minimal, if at all existent.  In the first article it appears  the only difference is a propensity for physical violence. In the second article, the high correlation between psychopathy and physical violence is debunked as a myth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the similarities between the two conditions;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;What is the real difference between an individual with Sadistic Personality Disorder and Psychopathy?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the real facts correlating violence in psychopathy?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The excerpts are provided below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Sadistic Personality disorder is characterized by a pattern of gratuitous cruelty, aggression, and demeaning behaviors which indicate the existence of deep-seated contempt for other people and an utter lack of empathy. Some sadists are &amp;quot;utilitarian&amp;quot;: they leverage their explosive violence to establish a position of unchallenged dominance within a relationship. Unlike psychopaths, they rarely use physical force in the commission of crimes. Rather, their aggressiveness is embedded in an interpersonal context and is expressed in social settings, such as the family or the workplace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This narcissistic need for an audience manifests itself in other circumstances. Sadists strive to humiliate people in front of witnesses. This makes them feel omnipotent. Power plays are important to them and they are likely to treat people under their control or entrusted to their care harshly: a subordinate, a child, a student, a prisoner, a patient, or a spouse are all liable to suffer the consequences of the sadist's &amp;quot;control freakery&amp;quot; and exacting &amp;quot;disciplinary&amp;quot; measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sadists like to inflict pain because they find suffering, both corporeal and psychological, amusing. They torture animals and people because, to them, the sights and sounds of a creature writhing in agony are hilarious and pleasurable. Sadists go to great lengths to hurt others: they lie, deceive, commit crimes, and even make personal sacrifices merely so as to enjoy the cathartic moment of witnessing someone else's misery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sadists are masters of abuse by proxy and ambient abuse. They terrorize and intimidate even their nearest and dearest into doing their bidding. They create an aura and atmosphere of unmitigated yet diffuse dread and consternation. This they achieve by promulgating complex &amp;quot;rules of the house&amp;quot; that restrict the autonomy of their dependants (spouses, children, employees, patients, clients, etc.). They have the final word and are the ultimate law. They must be obeyed, no matter how arbitrary and senseless are their rulings and decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most sadists are fascinated by gore and violence. They are vicarious serial killers: they channel their homicidal urges in socially acceptable ways by &amp;quot;studying&amp;quot; and admiring historical figures such as Hitler, for instance. They love guns and other weapons, are fascinated by death, torture, and martial arts in all their forms. &lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another discussion the idea of a  psychopath being typically violent is dispelled as a myth:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All psychopaths are violent. Research by psychologists such as Randall T. Salekin, now at the University of Alabama, indicates that psychopathy is a risk factor for future physical and sexual violence. Moreover, at least some serial killers—for example, Ted Bundy, John Wayne Gacy and Dennis Rader, the infamous “BTK” (Bind, Torture, Kill) murderer—have manifested numerous psychopathic traits, including superficial charm and a profound absence of guilt and empathy.&#xA;Nevertheless, most psychopaths are not violent, and most violent people are not psychopaths. In the days following the horrific Virginia Tech shootings of April 16, 2007, many newspaper commentators described the killer, Seung-Hui Cho, as “psychopathic.” Yet Cho exhibited few traits of psychopathy: those who knew him described him as markedly shy, withdrawn and peculiar. &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://samvak.tripod.com/personalitydisorders31.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sadistic Personality Disorder&lt;/a&gt; &amp;quot;Personality Disorders Revisited&amp;quot; (450 pages e-book) By: Dr. Sam Vaknin&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=what-psychopath-means&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;What &amp;quot;Psychopath&amp;quot; Means&lt;/a&gt; It is not quite what you may think By Scott O. Lilienfeld and Hal Arkowitz   &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;note: I post a run of related questions, please do not be disturbed by the content.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-05-20T22:23:57.453" Title="Sadistic personality disorder, psychopathy and correlation with violence" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4382" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-23T12:35:24.290" Score="11" ViewCount="5648" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concept of attachment and different attachment styles has a long tradition in developmental psychology. Mary Ainsworth developed a classification for three different attachment styles that she called &lt;em&gt;secure&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;insecure-resistant&lt;/em&gt; or synonymously &lt;em&gt;insecure-ambivalent&lt;/em&gt; and finally &lt;em&gt;insecure-avoidant&lt;/em&gt; (Main, 1996). Assessment of these styles is done with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_measures#The_Strange_Situation&quot;&gt;Strange-Situation-Test&lt;/a&gt;. Later, a fourth style called &lt;em&gt;insecure-disorganized-disoriented&lt;/em&gt; was introduced to account for a number of children that would not have been classifiable otherwise (Main &amp;amp; Solomon, 1990). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A corresponding classification has also been developed for attachment styles in adults. The four styles here are called &lt;em&gt;secure-autonomous&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;dismissing&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;preoccupied&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;unresolved-disorganized&lt;/em&gt; (Main, 1996). Assessment is done using the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_measures#Adult_Attachment_Interview_.28AAI.29&quot;&gt;Adult Attachement Interview&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently I have read a couple of papers that investigate the association between attachment styles and various forms of stress reactivity, that used the terms &lt;em&gt;attachment anxiety&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;attachment avoidance&lt;/em&gt; (Selcuk et al., 2012; Ben-Naim et al., 2013; Ein-Dor et al., 2011). The authors explain what is meant by these terms. Those two &lt;em&gt;attachment orientations&lt;/em&gt; as they are called are asses with the &lt;em&gt;Experience in Close Relationships Scales&lt;/em&gt; (ECR, Fraley et al., 2000). I am confused as to how these terms fit into the picture of the attachment styles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is this another classification of attachement styles?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Ben-Naim, S., Hirschberger, G., Ein-Dor, T., &amp;amp; Mikulincer, M. (2013). An experimental study of emotion regulation during relationship conflict interactions: The moderating role of attachment orientations. Emotion, 13(3), 506–519. doi:10.1037/a0031473&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ein-Dor, T., Mikulincer, M., &amp;amp; Shaver, P. R. (2011). Attachment insecurities and the processing of threat-related information: Studying the schemas involved in insecure people’s coping strategies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(1), 78–93. doi:10.1037/a0022503 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/50224821_Attachment_insecurities_and_the_processing_of_threat-related_information_Studying_the_schemas_involved_in_insecure_people%27s_coping_strategies/file/d922b4f572beebae86.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Fraley, R. C., Waller, N. G., &amp;amp; Brennan, K. A. (2000). An item response theory analysis of self-report measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 350–365. doi:10.1037/0022- 3514.78.2.350 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.web-research-design.net/PDF/FW%26B2000.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Main, M. (1996). Introduction to the special section on attachment and psychopathology: 2. Overview of the field of attachment. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 64(2), 237.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Main, M., &amp;amp; Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention, 1, 121–160.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Selcuk, E., Zayas, V., Günaydin, G., Hazan, C., &amp;amp; Kross, E. (2012). Mental representations of attachment figures facilitate recovery following upsetting autobiographical memory recall. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(2), 362–378. doi:10.1037/a0028125 &lt;a href=&quot;http://selfcontrol.psych.lsa.umich.edu/papers/SelcukZayasGunaydinHazanKross12.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2013-08-23T13:10:21.940" LastActivityDate="2015-01-21T10:48:47.240" Title="Classification of Attachment Styles" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4383" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4443" CreationDate="2013-08-23T12:48:47.680" Score="2" ViewCount="338" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphilia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Paraphilia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (from Greek para = beside and -philia = friendship, meaning love) describes the experience of intense sexual&#xA;  arousal to highly atypical objects, situations, or individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which practices that have been defined as paraphilia has changed over the course of time and with changes in &quot;religious&quot; control over modern society and so a freedom of moral conscience. A striking example being homosexuality, which was considered a mental illness. The educated and enlightened thinkers of many communities now find such an idea as abhorrent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is acceptable sexual practice varies across cultures. This in part is reflected by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ageofconsent.com/ageofconsent.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;age of consent&lt;/a&gt; across nationalities; which range from 12 to 21.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Striking disparages showing in the Phillipines where female to male age of consent is 12 and 18 for female to male respectively; but for any   male to male or female to female sex is 18. And in Burkina Faso  where the age for female to male sex is 13 for both sexes, but for male to male or female to female is 21 for both. Not to mention the places where homosexuality is illegal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given this great variation is what is legally acceptable (thereby one would conclude socially acceptable within that culture) and what one place would deem as acceptable another would deem as aberrant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can paraphilia be, scientifically, defined on behaviour alone?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Are there neurobiological differences between the brain of a &quot;paraphilic&quot; and a &quot;normal&quot;?&lt;br&gt;&#xA; What is the correlation between other mental illness and/or abnormal psychology and paraphilia?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;note: this lends itself to what we define as illness or abnormal psychology&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T02:41:53.180" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T22:09:22.283" Title="How objective are scientific measures of paraphilia?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4384" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4391" CreationDate="2013-08-23T14:00:17.860" Score="6" ViewCount="222" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested &lt;strong&gt;if there are publicly available tools or resources that can be used to gauge the overall activity/excitability or mood of general public&lt;/strong&gt; for a specific day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, yesterday I noticed that my favorite restaurant was packed, and their receipt order count was close to 700 orders before 7:30PM. At my favorite hackerspace, there were significantly more people than usual, and multiple new people have shown up. There was a large donation left at the hackerspace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A situation like the one described above peaks my interest in whether or not there are some environmental factors that affects general population of the United States. Naturally, the first step is to demonstrate that some sort of statistically significant changes from day to day exist, then find potential sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/311/how-to-classify-and-understand-emotions-of-people-using-chat-and-text-messaging&quot;&gt;of this question that suggests that twitter analysis can be used to detect sentiment&lt;/a&gt;, but &lt;strong&gt;are there tools that can do this kind of twitter analysis for a layperson&lt;/strong&gt;, like myself?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T17:45:07.123" Title="How can one estimate the excitability or mood of general public on a specific day?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4385" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-23T15:29:42.983" Score="6" ViewCount="453" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I was driving, all of a sudden the name &quot;Holden Caufield&quot; came to my mind. It sounded really familiar. I googled the name and it was the main character in The Catcher in the Rye. The last time I even read that book was in 2005. I had no reason to even remember this book because I thought it was boring. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yet how did I seem to recall the name &quot;Holden Caufield?&quot; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this proof that we basically remember everything, we just have to find ways to access the memories?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3445" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-04T04:37:21.280" LastActivityDate="2016-01-23T00:34:15.683" Title="How do memories come up for no apparent reason? Is this evidence that we remember everything?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4386" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4385" CreationDate="2013-08-23T18:16:51.283" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Within the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system&quot;&gt;limbic&lt;/a&gt; system the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus&quot;&gt;hippocampus&lt;/a&gt; and  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala&quot;&gt;amygdala&lt;/a&gt; processes  memory. The hippocampus processes declarative memory, the memory  recalled in the form of thought.  The amygdala processes emotional memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;hippocampus&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hippocampal integrity plays a crucial role in intact memory functioning. Research has demonstrated that normal hippocampal development continues into early adulthood . Investigators specifically examining the development of the hippocampus have suggested that the hippocampal formation undergoes a steep increase in volume until approximately the second year of life, then the volume slowly increases throughout adolescence. &lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;amygdala&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...here is extensive evidence that the amygdala is involved in affectively influenced memory. The central hypothesis guiding the research reviewed in this paper is that emotional arousal activates the amygdala and that such activation results in the modulation of memory storage occurring in other brain regions. &#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;involuntary memory&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Involuntary autobiographical memories are conscious and unintended recollections of personal ex- periences.  ...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  involuntary retrieval, more fre- quently than word-cued memories, accesses memories of specific episodes and involves more mood impact and bodily reaction to the remembered events...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Using a double-cuing methodology, Chu and Downes (2002) found that memories cued by smells were more vivid and detailed than memories cued by verbal labels&#xA;  and photographs of the sources of the odors. Herz and Schooler (2002) found that odor cues yielded more emo- tional memories than did verbal and visual cues&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many cues can trigger involuntary memory. Memories triggered by smell, general evoke a larger emotional response with that memory as opposed to visual or verbal cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;1. Abnormal Hippocampal Development in Children with Medulloblastoma Treated with Risk-Adapted Irradiation&#xA;Bonnie J. Nagela,g, Shawna L. Palmera, Wilburn E. Reddickb,f, John O. Glassb, Kathleen J. Heltonb, Shengjie Wuc, Xiaoping Xiongc, Larry E. Kunb, Amar Gajjard,e and Raymond K. Mulherna&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/93/24/13508.full&quot;&gt;Involvement of the amygdala in memory storage&lt;/a&gt;: Interaction with other brain systems&#xA;James L. McGaugh, Larry Cahill, and Benno Roozendaal&lt;br&gt;&#xA;3. Memory &amp;amp; Cognition 2004, 32 (5), 789-803&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03195869.pdf&quot;&gt;The episodic nature of involuntary autobiographical memories&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;DORTHE BERNTSEN and NICOLINE MARIE HALL&#xA;University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T18:16:51.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4387" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4021" CreationDate="2013-08-23T18:49:29.813" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Within the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;limbic&lt;/a&gt; system the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hippocampus&lt;/a&gt; and  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;amygdala&lt;/a&gt; processes  memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;hippocampus&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The hippocampus processes declarative memory, the memory  recalled in the form of thought and stores memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hippocampal integrity plays a crucial role in intact memory functioning. Research has demonstrated that normal hippocampal development continues into early adulthood . Investigators specifically examining the development of the hippocampus have suggested that the hippocampal formation undergoes a steep increase in volume until approximately the second year of life, then the volume slowly increases throughout adolescence. &lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;amygdala&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The amygdala processes emotional memory by directing the stimulus to emotional.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;here is extensive evidence that the amygdala is involved in affectively influenced memory. The central hypothesis guiding the research reviewed in this paper is that emotional arousal activates the amygdala and that such activation results in the modulation of memory storage occurring in other brain regions. &#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;development of amygdala and hippocampus&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The hippocampus and amygdala   are not fully developed until the ages of 9-11 years of age. &lt;em&gt;there is evidence in studies that this development continues into early adulthood&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;significant age-related changes in the volumes of amygdala and hippocampus. The developmental trajectories of the brain regions were best characterized by the cubic model, which demonstrated robust changes in the beginning of life, with the amygdalar and hippocampal volumes peaking around 9 to 11 years of age,..&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The results of the present study indicated that the maximum volume of the amygdala was reached between 9 and 11 years of age. &lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The amygdala is able to effective process emotional memory, independently of attention. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The question addressed in this paper is whether the human amygdala processes threat-related stimuli independent of selective attention. This is considered from a functional neuroimaging perspective, describing studies in normal volunteers and patients with brain lesions. The conclusion is that the evidence for such automaticity is strong, indicating that important distinctions exist between emotion and other forms of cognition  &lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hippocampus, requires attention to process and recall memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The hippocampus is critically involved in storing explicit memory such as memory for space. A defining feature of explicit memory storage is that it requires attention both for encoding and retrieval.  &lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In conclusion:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;As the parts of the brain that process memory are forming during the early years of life, given that emotional memory is more readily processed than declarative memory. It is possible to have experiences within the emotional memory, that have not got clear cut conscious memories.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This post about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4385/how-do-memories-come-up-with-no-apparent-reason/4386#4386&quot;&gt;involuntary memory&lt;/a&gt;, discusses memory retrieval in a little more detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;1. Abnormal Hippocampal Development in Children with Medulloblastoma Treated with Risk-Adapted Irradiation&#xA;Bonnie J. Nagela,g, Shawna L. Palmera, Wilburn E. Reddickb,f, John O. Glassb, Kathleen J. Heltonb, Shengjie Wuc, Xiaoping Xiongc, Larry E. Kunb, Amar Gajjard,e and Raymond K. Mulherna&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/93/24/13508.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Involvement of the amygdala in memory storage&lt;/a&gt;: Interaction with other brain systems&#xA;James L. McGaugh, Larry Cahill, and Benno Roozendaal&lt;br&gt;&#xA;3. Uematsu A, Matsui M, Tanaka C, Takahashi T, Noguchi K, et al. (2012) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0046970&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Developmental Trajectories of Amygdala and Hippocampus&lt;/a&gt; from Infancy to Early Adulthood in Healthy Individuals. PLoS ONE 7(10): e46970. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046970&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003 Apr;985:348-55.&#xA;4. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12724170&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amygdala automaticity in emotional processing.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Dolan RJ, Vuilleumier P.&#xA;Source&#xA;Wellcome Department of Imaging Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BG, UK. r.dolan@fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk&lt;br&gt;&#xA;5. &lt;a href=&quot;http://jp.physoc.org/content/587/12/2837&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What is remembered?&lt;/a&gt; Role of attention on the encoding and retrieval of hippocampal representations&#xA;Isabel A. Muzzio, Clifford Kentros and Eric Kandel &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T18:49:29.813" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4388" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3092" CreationDate="2013-08-23T22:29:59.870" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/r81Xh.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Sine Wave&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Every crest must be followed by a trough.  Every trough must be followed by a crest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastActivityDate="2013-08-23T22:29:59.870" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4389" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4351" CreationDate="2013-08-24T01:04:46.260" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like many people, I do this a lot, the whole thought process &quot;If I won the lotto...&quot;.  Following on from the term that AsheeshR linked in his comment, there has been several studies on the phenomenon of the &lt;em&gt;Hedonic Treadmill&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One particular study is &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.duke.edu/~dandan/Papers/Upside/HedonicTreadmill.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Getting off the hedonic treadmill, one step at a&#xA;time: The impact of regular religious practice&#xA;and exercise on well-being&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Mochon et al. 2008), where they assert that a sudden large event, such as winning the lotto gives an initial burst of happiness, but we quickly adapt, from the article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many studies have shown that few events in life have a lasting impact on subjective well-being&#xA;  because of people’s tendency to adapt quickly; worse, those events that do have a lasting impact tend&#xA;  to be negative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whereas, regular small-scale events, using the examples provided in the article: exercise, religious attendance, and I'll add seeing a good movie, meeting an old friend etc may do so&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;by providing&#xA;  small but frequent boosts: if people engage in such behaviors with sufficient frequency, they may&#xA;  cumulatively experience enough boosts to attain higher well-being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors of the article suggest that major events, such as winning the lotto do not promote a lasting sense of well being as do frequent smaller scale events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An earlier study that found similar results was &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/690806&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Lottery winners and accident victims: is happiness relative?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Brickman et al. 1978).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-08-24T01:04:46.260" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4384" CreationDate="2013-08-24T10:59:08.203" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In psychology, you have two types of measurement: either a trained observer judges the behavior of the subjects without them having to actively partake in any kind of test or experiment; or the test subjects fill in a test (self-report) or take part in an experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously the mood in a city cannot be re-created and measured in an experiment, but you still have the two other options:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) If you want to estimate public mood without the cooperation of members of the public, all you need is an experienced observer. His observations will become more reliable, if he creates a scale of symptoms to watch out for (similar to the diagnostic tools in clinical psychology), instead of letting his gut-feeling decide. It would take a comparison of many observations over a long period of time to &quot;normalize&quot; or &quot;standardize&quot; these judgments. You could take objective data into account, like amount, speed and movement patterns of traffic, number of accidents, medical emergencies and their type (heart attack), public activities like street music, sunbathers etc. How these relate to certain moods I don't know, but a long term observation might show relations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pines and Maslach developed a matrix to calculate the resources&#xA;  required to support a public event and use the audience profile for&#xA;  assessment of crowd mood. Their model is two-fold. First, they use&#xA;  descriptors to clearly identify separate groups (for example,&#xA;  families, young adults, children, elderly, and rival factions).&#xA;  Second, they attach a rating scale (1–5) to these groups. This rating&#xA;  scale is used to grade the amount of verbal noise, physical movement&#xA;  and overall audience participation. ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using this model to assess 35 events, Zeitz et&#xA;  al found that crowd mood was an important factor in predicting medical&#xA;  workload at a mass gathering event, although it did not significantly&#xA;  affect the work of other emergency services, such as police or fire&#xA;  and rescue. ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Practical strategies to monitor and measure crowd mood&#xA;  and type, along with the resultant behavior of a crowd, have received&#xA;  limited attention. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1049023X12000155&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1049023X12000155&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Similar to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/lithuania-city-happiness-meter-article-1.1397266&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;example from Vilnius, Lithuania&lt;/a&gt;, given in a comment by Damien, or television audience measurement, you can select a representative sample from the population in question and measure their moods or relevant behaviors through self-report or objective measures (biophysiological measures, tracking mobile phone location etc.). Similar techniques have been used in a multitude of psychological experiments, from using mobile phone data to analyse friendship networks, to people reporting their behavior to the experimenters in real time using apps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not aware of any research done on public moods in this way apart from the example from Vilnius, but I have not been looking very hard and I think something might be found, if you do a more thorough search. Relevant keywords might be &quot;assessment, monitoring crowds, mass gatherings, mob psychology&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-08-24T11:41:43.717" LastActivityDate="2013-08-24T11:41:43.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4392" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3795" CreationDate="2013-08-24T15:29:10.063" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;No love for Jung yet :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This depends on where we define our personality. If it's defined as our mask, our ego, then it would be almost as simple as changing shoes, for some people. If we define it instead as the self, centered in the brain and guarded by a great many layers of the mind, then &lt;strong&gt;I'd offer &lt;em&gt;we&lt;/em&gt; cannot change them but that they &lt;em&gt;can be changed&lt;/em&gt; through experience.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stemming from the conflict between the ego and the shadow archetypes, &lt;strong&gt;whatever parts of our personalities we do not demonstrate in life become relegated to the shadow.&lt;/strong&gt; Negative impulses, what we abhor and the things we reproach with unreasonable fervor. In this light, our choice to exhibit sides A, B and C of our selves but repress side D might seem like we are affecting our personalities in an impacting way. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jung states that this is not so.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those parts of our personalities, the self, that we do not own, take on a sort of life of their own. The naturally shy person who makes a headstrong decision to extravert (ego taking control) with little to no outside stimulus is simply repressing their shyness. Note that shyness is not inherently a &quot;negative&quot; trait: read &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Perks_of_Being_a_Wallflower&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Perks of Being a Wallflower.&lt;/a&gt; Instead of assimilating and digesting that portion of the personality, the shyness becomes beaten back and called &quot;bad.&quot; Since it's undesirable in one's self, that will carry through to noting it in others and still considering it undesirable. This is what leads to the unreasonable reproach. The person does not wish to identify themselves with the trait of shyness, it may be seen as a sign of weakness or them not being &quot;in total control&quot; of their person. Yet they are shy. Their shyness will not be seen as theirs, it'll be &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection#Examples&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;launched onto others in a process known as projection&lt;/a&gt;. That will cause the persons to misplace their feelings of rejection (I should not be shy) and instead find fault with others who don't make the same decision they did (why can they be shy? It's a weakness, not acceptable).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am like-minded with other answers here in that I believe the personality is, at least in part, a summation of our experiences. That's due to both the dance between ego and shadow formation, and just what we experience. Only so many choices of &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; to experience are within our hands (ie. glass half full or half empty; perspective). We don't often get to choose &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; to experience. If the person's shyness is a product of X or Y, then running across X and Y again may just reinforce it (my siblings talk over me, it's easier to keep quiet). However, if it's personal choice then all one would need to do is make the contrary choice and gain experiences to compound that (habit building, neuroplasticity, etc.). Either situation will require the latter, for reasons well illustrated by answers already posted here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;We can make conscious decisions in the short run to alter our personalities. However, it's a decision made by the ego and doesn't reflect the true self. &lt;strong&gt;Our shadow will correct for this and bring us back to our true selves; for better and for worse.&lt;/strong&gt; The ego does not have complete control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since experiences compound to help shape who we are and our habits, taking new experiences can aid the person wishing to acquire another personality trait, or the contrary one (extraversion versus shyness). I'm not sure we're perfectly plastic though, especially the older we get. In many ways that's a good thing: I know many who, once they knew a little bit about PCs, proceeded to &quot;fix&quot; many things and just ended up buying a new one after several failed reboots. We don't have that option; the auto-regulation inherent in our minds is our last resort. &lt;strong&gt;The shadow is our most honest friend, telling us about &lt;em&gt;our selves.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1048" LastActivityDate="2013-08-24T15:29:10.063" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4393" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4413" CreationDate="2013-08-24T20:31:52.153" Score="2" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/228/does-language-and-or-culture-affect-an-individuals-cognitive-capacity&quot;&gt;The question Does language and/or culture affect an individual's cognitive capacity?&lt;/a&gt; explores the possibility of  differences in cognition based on language and cultural variations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this question I am focusing on certain aspects of language only:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;orthography&lt;/a&gt;, in particular, the types of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;graphemes&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Syllabary graphemes are shallow orthographies, where each &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kana&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;kana&lt;/a&gt; represents and maintains a consistent sound throughout that language (with some exceptions).&#xA;The well recognised scripts of some Asian cultures (Chinese, Japanese, Korean,...) use syllabary systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alphabetic graphemes are more complex. &#xA;English, and a good deal of European languages use alphabetic graphemes, where each letter and its usage represents a sound. The great variation in how one symbol (letter) can sound, depending on the context of the letter within a word or sentence, is referred to as a deep orthography. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the level of complication with alphabetical languages;   I am interested if they&#xA;can  lead to increased incidence of faulty cognition, for instance, thought disorders, dyslexia, circumstantiality, clang association, phonemic paraphasia, blocking, neologisms,.. to name a few.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any studies on this, and if so, what are there findings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-08-28T07:05:42.470" Title="Do graphemes relate to communication and thought disorders?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4394" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3795" CreationDate="2013-08-24T23:08:58.143" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;**Part of this is a response to @LitheOhm 's question, but is still highly targetted towards the original question with actionable steps as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@LitheOhm&#xA;I couldn't fit my response into a comment so I had to post it as an answer, although it does answer the question quite well...and I'm getting my citations right now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Correct me if I'm wrong on any of my interpretations.  Also any hostility is not directed towards you, but is towards Jung and associated theories.  &lt;strong&gt;Please keep this in mind.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YAlZF.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;1st Clarifying Your Definitions&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;If it's defined as &lt;strong&gt;our mask&lt;/strong&gt;, our ego, then it would be almost as simple as changing  &gt;shoes, for some people.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm assuming here that you mean putting on a fake persona that doesn't necessarily reflect how one feels about whatever situation they are in or task they are doing.  For instance, someone who is in sales has to put on this &quot;persona&quot; to sell more stuff or acting happy when you are talking to someone on the phone you don't really want to - or even just being polite perhaps.  You'd say this is a &quot;mask.&quot;  I'd agree with you.  People's &quot;outer&quot; (I'll try not to throw more semantics in after that word) personalities change to adapt to whatever situation they are in.  &lt;strong&gt;You then say this mask = the ego.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If we define it instead as the self, centered in the brain and guarded&#xA;  by a great many layers of the mind, then I'd offer &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;we&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; cannot change&#xA;  them but that they &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;can be changed through experience&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you're getting a little confusing with the pronouns not to mention a bit of &quot;poetic psychology.&quot;  Who or what is we is &lt;strong&gt;&quot;we&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;?  You don't define this clearly so I'm going to see if I can get at what you're saying:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your use of &lt;strong&gt;&quot;we&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;:  Is it the ego?  Is it our thoughts?  Is it anything we do with our mind?  I'm going to assume here (only because of prior knowledge) that when you say &quot;we&quot; you mean the ego, which would include our mind and the thoughts of our mind. Is this correct?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;**I'm gonna skip ahead and go ahead and also assume you don't mean ALL thoughts.  You'd just mean &quot;conscious thoughts&quot;  Why?  Because there are unconscious thoughts too, but are those even thoughts? - I think you'd agree with me that these are more related to the &quot;self&quot; if not ARE the &quot;self&quot;/our personalities.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also assume that &quot;the great many layers of the mind&quot; are also the &quot;ego.&quot;  In essence, you're phrasing it as these layers (or conscious thoughts) trying to protecting the self when it feels threatened.  Is this correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So &quot;we,&quot; which is also the ego if my interpretation is correct, is our mask, our mind, and our conscious thoughts essentially. They are all intertwined together within the &quot;ego.&quot; Please correct me I'm misinterpreting things. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/i4jCi.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;2nd Attempting to Reconstruct Your Statement&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So would you mind if I replaced the word &quot;we&quot; in your statement with &quot;conscious thoughts&quot; due to my proof using my interpretation of your words?  Again, if I'm incorrect anywhere let me know.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now your statement would be as follows - I added a bit of clarification in parenthesis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;then I'd offer &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;our conscious thoughts cannot&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; change&#xA;  them (our personalitie(s)/self, which we do not own) but that they &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;can be changed through experience(s)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simple enough.  We just have to have these experiences happen to us.  But when will they?  Will they ever?  What if I want to fix them?  Am I just screwed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hmmmm....Can we make choices that improve our odds of encountering these experiences which will change our personalities/self?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;strong&gt;Well, choices involve conscious thought and most likely the use of &quot;we&quot; at some point so technically we can't, at least according to the statement.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Since &lt;em&gt;in reality&lt;/em&gt; &quot;we&quot; can make &quot;choices&quot; that lead to &quot;experiences&quot; your statement is already false&lt;/strong&gt;, but...you could still say...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if we did make some choices to &quot;try&quot; to do this, we'd have very limited choices anyway. Right?  Not to skip ahead but you say later on you say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We don't often get to choose what to experience.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Oh, you DON'T?&lt;/strong&gt;  Let's say someone puts a gun to your head and says &quot;if you can list at least 150 choices in notepad you could make and or do right now instead of reading this dude's post, I'll let you go....and you get to meet Justin Beiber.&quot; Could you do it?  I could, and I'm not even a fan of his.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thing is...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;YOU HAVE UNLIMITED CHOICES ON WHAT YOU WANT TO DO WHENEVER YOU WANT.&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some choices may be bad, some may be good, but most you probably don't know the outcome to.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; You could run across the street naked which leads to you meeting your future mate.&lt;br&gt;  You could go throw water balloons at people while driving your car around town.&lt;br&gt;   You could read Stackexchange.&lt;br&gt;   Play Everquest.&lt;br&gt;   Go to the mall and try to pick up chicks.&lt;br&gt; Pay for some &quot;hot lovin&quot; off Craigslist.&lt;br&gt;   Collect Bitcoins.&lt;br&gt;   Learn PHP.&lt;br&gt;   Go to Thailand solely on your credit cards.&lt;br&gt;   Join a meetup group.&lt;br&gt;   Run away from home.&lt;br&gt;   Punch mean kids in the face. &lt;br&gt;  Choose to learn CBT.&lt;br&gt;   Choose to believe you're not trapped by your ego and he is your friend, he just needs to be educated a little bit. &lt;br&gt;  Choose to ask yourself why you're shy in the first place. Is there a reason? &lt;br&gt;  Consider other strategies than just &quot;trying to directly confront your shyness in the most cliche manner possible.&quot;&lt;br&gt; &#xA;&lt;br&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;All of these are experiences which apparently you need to change your &quot;self&quot; or &quot;personality&quot; you'd have would of been made through purposeful conscious thought and the use of &quot;we&quot; - so you're statement = false&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; assuming I did not misinterpret anything you said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TW61V.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;3rd Want to Change?  You Can.  Unless You Read Jung. Defeatist Attitude = Defeated.&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Those parts of our personalities, the self, &lt;strong&gt;that we do not own,&lt;/strong&gt; take&#xA;  on a sort of life of their own. The &lt;strong&gt;naturally&lt;/strong&gt; shy person &lt;strong&gt;who makes a&#xA;  headstrong decision to extravert&lt;/strong&gt; (ego taking control) with little to&#xA;  no outside stimulus is &lt;strong&gt;simply repressing their shyness&lt;/strong&gt;.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1) &quot;that we do not own&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Why don't we own them?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Where did they come from?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Are they really even there?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Does example shy person have any sort of genetic defect that would cause them to be shy?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Can said shy person think of any counterexamples he's seen before where someone used to be shy and then they weren't?&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2) &quot;naturally&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Does this shy person have any friends at all?  Even one?  If so, is he shy around them?&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-What causes this person to be naturally shy?  Just the fact that it's natural and that's how it's always been....any further reasoning?&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Are there different shades of naturally shy?  Or is it just black and white?  Maybe he's a light grey?&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-If said shy person blames his parent's genetics for being shy, has he questioned the fact that maybe not EVERYONE in his entire family is also that way....I mean he has those genetics too.  I bet he has a crazy uncle. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Has he ever considered environment vs. genetics or does he just accept his natural fate?  Yes, I know you mention this, don't worry - still not done.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3) &quot;Who makes a headstrong decision to extravert (ego taking control) with little to no outside stimulus is simply repressing their shyness.&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;and later&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  We can make conscious decisions in the short run to alter our personalities. &lt;strong&gt;However, it's a decision made by the ego and doesn't reflect the true self. Our shadow will correct for this and bring us back to our true selves; for better and for worse.&lt;/strong&gt; The ego does not have complete control.**&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-One big piece you're missing.  What if the person actually wants to overcome this trait?  I'll speak on that in a second.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-You seem to state this as a law of nature.  If someone has shyness deep within as their &quot;self,&quot; they will keep it forever.  You leave no room for the potential of them overcoming it.  That isn't reality.  It's all or nothing thinking.  And the ego (which you seem to establish as conscious thought, a horrible thing) gives them choice. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-So it's always a bad idea to make a headstrong decision to be extroverted?  It doesn't matter HOW MANY TIMES you try - the shadows will ALWAYS bring you back?&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Is it possible the shadow doesn't exist?&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-You state yourself that &quot;with experience&quot; you can change your personality...but here you state the opposite.  You contradicted the original statement we were discussing here.&lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Has this theory been proven?&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Do you have citations that it's been proven with clinical studies in peer reviewed journals?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Did they get this trait from genetics?  How many people have overcome genetic difficulties?&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Did they just &quot;learn to be shy&quot;?  If so, then why can't they &quot;learn to be outgoing?&quot;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-I know you're trying to get to the fact that this person should just accept their shyness.  Perhaps some people are content on that. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;But what if they don't want to?  What if instead of an ordinary life (this is purely subjective of course), they want to maximize their potential and live it out the way they intended?  What about an extraordinary one?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;  Why are they letting Jung or whomever make the choice for them to accept this trait for the rest of their lives...why?....because Jung said so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ok Jung bring out your clinical trials of effectiveness in treating something - because we know nowadays that social anxiety can potentially be a root cause of depression.  Oh wait, there's really no therapy or application involved within...just theory...and acceptance.    &lt;strong&gt;Thanks Jung.  We appreciate your work that we built further upon and turned into practice....somewhat.  However, we have some better technology and therapy in today's world.  Please go back to 1875.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, I did not see &quot;Perks of Being a Wallflower&quot; but it is not a citation of real life...it's a fictional story.  &lt;br&gt;I've been a wallflower before.  A lot.  It's usually not fun. &lt;br&gt;  But you know what? I've learned to overcome it, quite a bit....quite a bit.  I've also known many other people who have overcome it.  I've seen it.  I'm a human, they were human, anyone else reading this is human.  If I made progress, then why can't any other human? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you have another counterexample besides a fictional movie involving a statistical outlier (and a very strange one according to wikipedia)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2RkmK.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;4th If This is Jung's theory...it has alot of assumptions&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Instead of assimilating and digesting that&#xA;  portion of the personality, the shyness becomes beaten back and called&#xA;  &quot;bad.&quot; Since it's undesirable in one's self, that will carry through&#xA;  to noting it in others and still considering it undesirable. This is&#xA;  what leads to the unreasonable reproach. The person does not wish to&#xA;  identify themselves with the trait of shyness, it may be seen as a&#xA;  sign of weakness or them not being &quot;in total control&quot; of their person.&#xA;  Yet they are shy. Their shyness will not be seen as theirs, it'll be&#xA;  launched onto others in a process known as projection. That will cause&#xA;  the persons to misplace their feelings of rejection (I should not be&#xA;  shy) and instead find fault with others who don't make the same&#xA;  decision they did (why can they be shy? It's a weakness, not&#xA;  acceptable).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My response:  Each sentence is an assumption based on no citations besides a fictional movie (which actually doesn't even support the assumptions).  There's not even an anecdote.  It seems to be written as an assumption wherefor the next sentence is also an assumption built on the previous assumption, wherefor, the next sentence is also an assumption build on the previous assumption that is built on the previous assumption.  Maybe this happens to a percentage of shy people?  But generalizing this is also breaking laws of reality.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/s2vRM.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;5th One Final Contradiction&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the initial sentence I did not like was:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;I'd offer &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;we&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; cannot change them but that they can be changed through&#xA;  experience.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but then you say&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;However, if it's personal choice then all one would need to do is make&#xA;  the contrary choice and gain experiences to compound that (habit&#xA;  building, neuroplasticity, etc.).&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the problem may just be in your definition of &quot;we&quot;.  Because &quot;we&quot; are certainly doing things in your ladder quotation.&#xA;&lt;br&gt; &#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MOKv5.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;6th You CAN Use Thought to Change Your Personality: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy.&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Sctbc.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Overview of CBT&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;Picture from &lt;em&gt;J Med Internet Res. 2013 Aug 5;15(8):e153. doi: 10.2196/jmir.2714.&#xA;The Clinical Effectiveness of Web-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy With Face-to-Face Therapist Support for Depressed Primary Care Patients: Randomized Controlled Trial.&lt;/em&gt; which is also cited way down below. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23916965&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23916965&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think originally this is what you were trying to say you couldn't do.  By saying &quot;we&quot; you were trying to say that the only way to change your &quot;self&quot; which is your &quot;true personality&quot; is by having experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe in the experiences part, but I also believe, strongly, in the other part - changing the way you think - which I believe you would call the ego.  I also believe that they must be used at the same time for the best effectiveness.  One must have experiences and one must use those to fuel their CBT therapy, which they can just do by reading a book and writing their thoughts down, then writing a rational response next to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nearly everything I said in this post was CBT based.  It simply asked about all the flaws in the theories Jung made.  This is exactly what you'd do with a thought like &quot;those people don't want to talk to me because I'm so shy&quot; if you were shy.  You'd start asking yourself (usually writing it out works best and is a core component actually) questions like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) How do they know that I'm shy?  And why does this even matter?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2) Have I, at ANY time in the past, ever been extroverted?  If so, why can't I do this again?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;3) Why do I really even believe that I'm shy?  Do I have any sort of substantial backing for being shy...even if I was picked on in 2nd grade by all the kids - that doesn't mean anything today at all.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;4) If you're shy you probably know alot of cool stuff cause you spend more time learning things than most people.  This gives you more content to talk about.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;5) Let's say they just blow you off after you go talk to them?  How does that differ from where you were before? (Except now you actually have a bit of adreneline and serotonin coursing through your body - which you can use to have an even better conversation with the next people you may want to try to talk to.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;6) Let me throw a twist in here.  Why shouldn't I just accept that I'm shy and that's it?  We'll because in today's job market unless you have some sort of specialized skill you need connections and you're going to need people skills sometime in order to survive.  Simply put, social skills are something you probably need.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to go ahead and post this while I fetch a barrage of clinical trials showing CBT's effectiveness for almost any disorder - which can be linked to a &quot;personality&quot; trait one may want to get rid of. They'll be alot of em'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;7th Answer: Use CBT Synergistically with Experiences/Exposure to Change Unwanted Personality Traits Quickly, Effectively, &amp;amp; Chronically.  It Does Require Work Though.&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;Try it now. Use this worksheet.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://media.psychologytools.org/Worksheets/English/CBT_Thought_Record.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://media.psychologytools.org/Worksheets/English/CBT_Thought_Record.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3OqJN.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Br J Psychiatry. &lt;strong&gt;2013 Aug 22.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Treatment of child anxiety disorders via guided parent-delivered cognitive-behavioural therapy: randomised controlled trial.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Thirlwall K, Cooper PJ, Karalus J, Voysey M, Willetts L, Creswell C.&#xA;  Kerstin Thirlwall, DClinPsy, Winnicott Research Unit, School of&#xA;  Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, UK;&#xA;  Peter J. Cooper, DPhil, Winnicott Research Unit, School of Psychology&#xA;  and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, UK, and&#xA;  Stellenbosch University, Matieland, South Africa; Jessica Karalus,&#xA;  MSc, Winnicott Research Unit, School of Psychology and Clinical&#xA;  Language Sciences, University of Reading, UK; Merryn Voysey, MBiostat,&#xA;  Centre for Statistics in Medicine, University of Oxford, UK; Lucy&#xA;  Willetts, MSc, PhD, Cathy Creswell, DClinPsy, PhD, Winnicott Research&#xA;  Unit, School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University&#xA;  of Reading, UK.&lt;br&gt; Abstract&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; BACKGROUND: Promising evidence&#xA;  has emerged of clinical gains using guided self-help&#xA;  cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) for child anxiety and by involving&#xA;  parents in treatment; however, the efficacy of guided parent-delivered&#xA;  CBT has not been systematically evaluated in UK primary and secondary&#xA;  settings.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; AIMS: To evaluate the efficacy of low-intensity&#xA;  guided parent-delivered CBT treatments for children with anxiety&#xA;  disorders.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; METHOD: A total of 194 children presenting with a&#xA;  current anxiety disorder, whose primary carer did not meet criteria&#xA;  for a current anxiety disorder, were randomly allocated to full guided&#xA;  parent-delivered CBT (four face-to-face and four telephone sessions)&#xA;  or brief guided parent-delivered CBT (two face-to-face and two&#xA;  telephone sessions), or a wait-list control group (trial registration:&#xA;  ISRCTN92977593). Presence and severity of child primary anxiety&#xA;  disorder (Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV,&#xA;  child/parent versions), improvement in child presentation of anxiety&#xA;  (Clinical Global Impression-Improvement scale), and change in child&#xA;  anxiety symptoms (Spence Children's Anxiety Scale, child/parent&#xA;  version and Child Anxiety Impact scale, parent version) were assessed&#xA;  at post-treatment and for those in the two active treatment groups, 6&#xA;  months post-treatment.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; RESULTS:&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Full guided parent-delivered CBT produced superior diagnostic outcomes compared with wait-list at post-treatment, whereas brief&#xA;  guided parent-delivered CBT did not:&lt;/strong&gt; at post-treatment, 25 (50%) of&#xA;  those in the full guided CBT group had recovered from their primary&#xA;  diagnosis, compared with 16 (25%) of those on the wait-list (relative&#xA;  risk (RR) 1.85, 95% CI 1.14-2.99); and in the brief guided CBT group,&#xA;  18 participants (39%) had recovered from their primary diagnosis&#xA;  post-treatment (RR = 1.56, 95% CI 0.89-2.74). Level of therapist&#xA;  training and experience was unrelated to child outcome. CONCLUSIONS:&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Full guided parent-delivered CBT is an effective and inexpensive first-line treatment for child anxiety.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cogn Behav Ther. 2011;40(3):159-73. doi: 10.1080/16506073.2011.576699.&#xA;  Epub 2011 Jul 20.&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Guided internet-delivered cognitive behavior therapy for generalized anxiety disorder: a randomized controlled trial.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Paxling B,&#xA;  Almlöv J, Dahlin M, Carlbring P, Breitholtz E, Eriksson T, Andersson&#xA;  G. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Department of Behavioural Sciences and Learning, Swedish&#xA;  Institute for Disability Research, Linköping University, Linköping,&#xA;  Sweden. bjorn.paxling@gmail.com Abstract&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Generalized anxiety&#xA;  disorder (GAD) has been effectively treated with cognitive behavioural&#xA;  therapy (CBT) in face-to face settings. Internet-delivered CBT could&#xA;  be a way to increase the accessibility and affordability of CBT for&#xA;  people suffering from GAD. The aim of this study was to evaluate the&#xA;  efficacy of guided Internet-delivered CBT for GAD in a controlled&#xA;  trial with a wait-list control group. A total of 89 participants were&#xA;  included following online screening and a structured psychiatric&#xA;  telephone interview. Participants were randomized to either an 8-week&#xA;  treatment group (n = 44) or a wait-list control group (n = 45).&#xA;  Treatment consisted of a self-help program based on CBT principles and&#xA;  applied relaxation along with therapist guidance. The main outcome&#xA;  measure was the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Ratings of clinical&#xA;  improvement and symptoms were included as well as secondary outcome&#xA;  measures dealing with anxiety, depression, and quality of life. Among&#xA;  the treatment group participants, 13.6% did not complete the&#xA;  posttreatment measures. &lt;strong&gt;The treatment group showed significant&#xA;  improvement compared with the control group on all outcome measures.&#xA;  Large effect sizes (Cohen's d &gt; 0.8) were found both within the&#xA;  treatment group and between the groups in favor of the treatment on&#xA;  all outcome measures except on a measure of quality of life.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Results at 1- and 3-year follow-up indicated that treatment results improved or were maintained.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;The authors conclude that&#xA;  Internet-delivered CBT with therapist support can reduce symptoms and&#xA;  problems related to GAD.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Published last week.  Actually investigates and supports CBT therapy&#xA;through PHYSIOLOGICAL research and the way it changes the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; JAMA Psychiatry. &lt;strong&gt;2013 Aug 14.&lt;/strong&gt; doi:&#xA;  10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.234. [Epub ahead of print]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Impact of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Social Anxiety Disorder on the Neural Dynamics of Cognitive Reappraisal of Negative&#xA;  Self-beliefs: Randomized Clinical Trial.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Goldin PR, Ziv M,&#xA;  Jazaieri H, Hahn K, Heimberg R, Gross JJ. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Department of&#xA;  Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Abstract&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; IMPORTANCE &lt;strong&gt;Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for&#xA;  social anxiety disorder (SAD) is thought to enhance cognitive&#xA;  reappraisal in patients with SAD.&lt;/strong&gt; Such improvements should be&#xA;  evident in cognitive reappraisal-related prefrontal cortex&#xA;  responses.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; OBJECTIVE To determine whether CBT for SAD modifies&#xA;  cognitive reappraisal-related prefrontal cortex neural signal&#xA;  magnitude and timing when implementing cognitive reappraisal with&#xA;  negative self-beliefs.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; DESIGN Randomized clinical trial of CBT&#xA;  for SAD vs wait-list control group during a study that enrolled&#xA;  patients from 2007 to 2010. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;SETTING University psychology&#xA;  department. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;PARTICIPANTS Seventy-five patients with&#xA;  generalized SAD randomly assigned to CBT or wait list.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;INTERVENTION Sixteen sessions of individual CBT for SAD.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Negative emotion ratings and functional&#xA;  magnetic resonance imaging blood oxygen-level dependent signal when&#xA;  reacting to and cognitively reappraising negative self-beliefs&#xA;  embedded in autobiographical social anxiety situations. RESULTS During&#xA;  reactivity trials, compared with wait list, CBT produced (1) greater&#xA;  reduction in negative emotion ratings and (2) greater blood&#xA;  oxygen-level dependent signal magnitude in the medial prefrontal&#xA;  cortex. During cognitive reappraisal trials, compared with wait list,&#xA;  CBT produced (3) greater reduction in negative emotion ratings, (4)&#xA;  greater blood oxygen level-dependent signal magnitude in the&#xA;  dorsolateral and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, (5) earlier temporal&#xA;  onset of dorsomedial prefrontal cortex activity, and (6) greater&#xA;  dorsomedial prefrontal cortex-amygdala inverse functional&#xA;  connectivity. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Modulation of&#xA;  cognitive reappraisal-related brain responses, timing, and functional&#xA;  connectivity may be important brain changes that contribute to the&#xA;  effectiveness of CBT for social anxiety. This study demonstrates that&#xA;  clinically applied neuroscience investigations can elucidate&#xA;  neurobiological mechanisms of change in psychiatric conditions.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  TRIAL REGISTRATION clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00380731.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ment Health Fam Med. 2010 Mar;7(1):49-57.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Feasibility of guided cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) self-help for childhood anxiety disorders in primary care.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Creswell C,&#xA;  Hentges F, Parkinson M, Sheffield P, Willetts L, Cooper P. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Clinical Research Fellow.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;This study aimed to examine the&#xA;  feasibility of guided CBT self-help in primary care for childhood&#xA;  anxiety disorders, specifically in terms of therapist adherence,&#xA;  patient and therapist satisfaction and clinical gain.Participants were&#xA;  children aged between five and 12 years referred to two primary child&#xA;  and adolescent mental health services (PCAMHSs) in Oxfordshire, UK,&#xA;  who met diagnostic criteria for a primary anxiety disorder. Of the 52&#xA;  eligible children, 41 anxious children were assessed for anxiety&#xA;  severity and interference before and after receiving CBT self-help&#xA;  delivered via a parent (total therapy time = five hours) by primary&#xA;  mental health workers (PMHWs). Therapy sessions were rated for&#xA;  treatment adherence and parents and PMHWs completed satisfaction&#xA;  questionnaires after treatment completion. Over 80% of therapy&#xA;  sessions were rated at a high level of treatment adherence. Parents&#xA;  and PMHWs reported high satisfaction with the treatment. &lt;strong&gt;Sixty-one&#xA;  percent of the children assessed no longer met the criteria for their&#xA;  primary anxiety disorder diagnosis following treatment, and 76% were&#xA;  rated as 'much'/'very much' improved on the Clinical Global&#xA;  Impression-Improvement (CGI-I) scale.  There were significant&#xA;  reductions on parent and child report measures of anxiety symptoms,&#xA;  interference and depression. Preliminary exploration indicated that&#xA;  parental anxiety was associated with child treatment outcome. The&#xA;  findings suggest that guided CBT self-help represents a promising&#xA;  treatment for childhood anxiety in primary care.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wish I had full text for this one which is specifically for &quot;personality disorders.&quot;  Heh, looks like it's published next month.  These are so fresh.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychol Psychother. 2013 Sep;86(3):262-79. doi:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  10.1111/j.2044-8341.2011.02060.x. Epub 2012 Feb 20.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Three-week inpatient Cognitive Evolutionary Therapy (CET) for patients with&#xA;  personality disorders: Evidence of effectiveness in symptoms reduction&#xA;  and improved treatment adherence.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Prunetti E, Bosio V, Bateni&#xA;  M, Liotti G. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Casa di Cura Villa Margherita, Vicenza, Italy&#xA;  Scuola di Psicologia Cognitiva S.r.l., Rome, Italy Associazione&#xA;  Psicologia Cognitiva, Rome, Italy.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Abstract&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Objectives. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of&#xA;  Cognitive Evolutionary Therapy (CET) in an intensive short residential&#xA;  treatment of a wide range of severe personality disorders (PDs) that&#xA;  resulted in a reduction of social functioning and significant personal&#xA;  distress. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Design. Each patient was assessed at admission,&#xA;  discharge, and 3 months later in order to determine if there was a&#xA;  reduction in symptoms and an improved adherence to former outpatient&#xA;  programs and to check if patients were undergoing new treatment after&#xA;  discharge. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Method. Fifty-one patients participated in this&#xA;  study. The 20-hr weekly program consisted of two individual sessions&#xA;  and various group modules. Outcome measures included: self-reported&#xA;  measures of depression, anxiety, general symptoms, number and duration&#xA;  of inpatient admissions after the programme, and continuation in an&#xA;  outpatient treatment programme. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Results. The results show an&#xA;  overall improvement in general psychopathology after the release and&#xA;  in follow-up sessions, a decrease in the number of further hospital&#xA;  admissions, and an increased level of attendance of outpatient&#xA;  therapy.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions. This study shows that intensive short&#xA;  residential treatment is an effective treatment for patients with a&#xA;  wide range of PDs.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; © 2012 The British Psychological Society.&#xA;  J Med Internet Res. 2013 Aug 5;15(8):e153. doi: 10.2196/jmir.2714.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't fit anymore text into this post.  If you'd like I can make another answer post with more citations though.  I had to trunicate this last one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Clinical Effectiveness of Web-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy With Face-to-Face Therapist Support for Depressed Primary Care&#xA;  Patients: Randomized Controlled Trial.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Høifødt RS, Lillevoll&#xA;  KR, Griffiths KM, Wilsgaard T, Eisemann M, Waterloo K, Kolstrup N.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health Sciences,&#xA;  University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway.&#xA;  ragnhild.s.hoifodt@uit.no.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Abstract&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;CONCLUSIONS:&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;The intervention combining MoodGYM and brief therapist support can be an effective treatment of depression in a sample of primary care&#xA;  patients. The intervention alleviates depressive symptoms and has a&#xA;  significant positive effect on anxiety symptoms and satisfaction with&#xA;  life. Moderate rates of nonadherence and predominately positive&#xA;  evaluations of the treatment also indicate the acceptability of the&#xA;  intervention. The intervention could potentially be used in a&#xA;  stepped-care approach, but remains to be tested in regular primary&#xA;  health care.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-08-25T07:41:26.647" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T07:41:26.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4396" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-25T03:51:07.287" Score="6" ViewCount="209" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been many studies on Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD). Typical OCD behavior in day to day life has been well documented. Repeatedly checking that the stove or iron has been turned off being two examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can surmise that OCD behavior, within using information technologies might involve the excessive back up of files, overboard security measures, compulsively running scans, using multiple firewalls simultaneously, inability to ignore application notifications eg from Facebook, diverting phone calls, forwarding emails, ...as some examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has OCD behavior within the use of information technologies been examined and if so, what are some typical behaviors associated with OCD and the use of IT?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-26T06:58:40.120" LastActivityDate="2013-12-29T10:48:53.750" Title="The manifestation of OCD with the use of information technologies" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4397" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-08-25T09:37:13.350" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-25T09:37:13.350" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T09:37:13.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4398" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-08-25T09:37:13.350" Score="0" Body="For questions about hunger, eating, food preferences, effects of food, and related phenomena." OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:08:51.647" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:08:51.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4400" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4250" CreationDate="2013-08-25T11:41:37.600" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm surprised simple endorphins havn't been mentioned, not even by those studies you cited Jeromy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without citing anything - I'm going to stick with this, which I used to do with my buddies before we'd go out, ha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you eat something super spicy (I'd just eat raw habaneros) and experience intense pain, you get an endorphin rush.  Endorphins feel good.  That's all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you think about it though it's a bit weird, because that's the same reason people purposefully cut themselves (the word for that pathology alludes me at the moment) and other things in that domain - except I'm (and I believe those who crave it - I never got to that level though) doing it by eating a spicy pepper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;enhancement of the taste of bland foods, postingestional effects, or&#xA;  social rewards&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can understand the enhancement of bland foods...yeah that's always good....and the social rewards from looking like a badass.  However, spicy peppers don't seem to be too favorable for almost anyone &quot;postingestionally&quot; unless you want to experience pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could see how if people really liked the taste of hot peppers/chilis they'd want to be desensitized to them too.  Haha it's funny though that they become immune to ammonia in the eye.  That sounds painful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T11:41:37.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4401" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4411" CreationDate="2013-08-25T11:50:29.370" Score="12" ViewCount="4969" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4055/what-does-scientific-research-say-about-the-relationship-between-penis-size-and&quot;&gt;What does scientific research say about the relationship between penis size and attractiveness?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This  &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4055/what-does-scientific-research-say-about-the-relationship-between-penis-size-and/4057#4057&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; and this &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Human_penis_size/Archive_2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt; give the statistics of penis size. Given these statistics, the average man performing in porn, would likely be in the top 2.5% of the population of penis size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Porn stars are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.techvibes.com/blog/the-predicktor-2013-02-11&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;statistical outliers&lt;/a&gt;, not the norm; men are more likely to be over 6’3” than to have a penis longer than 7.5 inches.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also &quot;appears&quot; that men may be inclined to having poor self-perception, regarding their penis size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_penis_size&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Males self-perception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Males may quite easily underestimate the size of their own penis relative to that of others, because of the foreshortening obtained from looking down, due to repeated observation of atypical penises in pornography, or because of the accumulation of fat at the base of the penis.[34] A survey by sexologists showed that many men who believed that their penis was of inadequate size had average-sized penises.[35] &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that men are the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2007/05/25/1179601669066.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;main consumers&lt;/a&gt; of pornography, why does pornography feature so many men, out of the norm for penis size?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Would it be more appealing to men, if the men starring in porn, had average sized penis?    what is the psychology behind using men with such, abnormally, large penis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-11-15T06:54:22.147" Title="What is the psychology behind male pornographic actors having larger than average penises?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4402" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-25T12:29:43.793" Score="6" ViewCount="14259" Body="&lt;p&gt;On social sites sometimes people will state, &quot;I hate drama!&quot;, as if to say &quot;if you cause drama, please go away.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My theory is the people who say this, in fact, actually like drama... as evidenced by the apparent hatred for it.  Has there been any research into this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People could also say, &quot;I hate being kicked in the rear!&quot;, which I'm sure most people would hate, and if it happened commonly enough, people may start posting such on their profiles.  This line of thinking leads me to believe that the statement of hatred for drama is the admission that drama is a commonly occurring problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, it seems to be as reasonable to state this on a profile as it is to hang a sign on a door reading, &quot;I hate thieves!&quot; or a sign on a backside saying, &quot;I hate muggers!&quot;  Since people don't commonly hang these types of signs, why do they hang the drama sign on their profiles?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3232" LastActivityDate="2016-06-09T22:38:44.667" Title="Why do people say they hate drama?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4403" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3748" CreationDate="2013-08-25T14:54:35.183" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you define &lt;strong&gt;mental disorder&lt;/strong&gt; as any behavior not applying to (more or less arbitrary) social norms, then yes, the activity you describe would probably be considered mental disorder. However, the same would apply for example to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;homosexualism&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;most hobbies&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;asceticism and religious devotion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;playing and listening to music&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last may seem odd, but Plato have written in 'The Republic' that musicians are not needed in his ideal state, because there's no use of them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for now, being common or being social norm is not the crucial part of determining if something is mental disorder or not. The most important parts are that some behavior is causing &lt;strong&gt;objective suffering&lt;/strong&gt; and it has the nature of &lt;strong&gt;disability&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is your mathematical drive causing you objective suffering? Well, sometimes you are frustrated for sure, but objectively it makes you happy and gives you aim in life. Has it disabiliating nature? No way, mathematics are so important in contemporary society!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some symptoms are similar, but it's just like suspecting ADHD because you don't sleep a half of the day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="899" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T14:54:35.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4404" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4401" CreationDate="2013-08-25T15:09:14.273" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;a) Since pornography is about visuals, not actual physical stimulation, visual properties of the body part are more important: big breasts and big penises are more attractive in pornography than they are in real life, because larger penises and breasts &quot;stand out more&quot; and are more impressive to the viewers, even though the same men (or women) might not find such features important (or even attractive) in real life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b) Pornography is not about making anyone happy, it is a product that must leave its consumers unsatisfied. More pornography can be sold, if men are unhappy in real life and use pornography instead of working on their relationships. Making men and women unhappy with themselves and each other will make relationships less likely to function and men and women to use consumption as a substitute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;c) In pornography for a male public it does not matter what women find attractive, because they are not the main consumers of that medium. The male organs visible in for-men-pornography must be attractive for men and therefore conform to their ideas about male attractiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-11-07T07:25:51.413" LastActivityDate="2014-11-07T07:25:51.413" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4405" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4402" CreationDate="2013-08-25T17:32:30.380" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;While the concept is more of a Freudian vestige in the modern world of psychology, it sounds like &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/encyclopedia/2009/reaction-formation-2/&quot;&gt;reaction formation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A type of defense mechanism whereby unacceptable, anxiety-causing emotions or impulses are masked by an exaggerated version of the opposite emotions or impulses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think you are on the right track when you speak of the fact that they actually like drama, or harbor feelings that they are secretly dramatic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-25T17:39:59.850" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T17:39:59.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4406" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-25T18:06:23.790" Score="10" ViewCount="602" Body="&lt;p&gt;It stands to reason that the biochemical cascade involved when a person experiences love, gives a feeling of well-being and drive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_basis_of_love&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Studies in neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; have involved chemicals that are present in the brain and might be involved when people experience love. These chemicals include: nerve growth factor, testosterone, estrogen, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, oxytocin, and vasopressin. Adequate brain levels of testosterone seem important for both human male and female sexual behavior. Dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin are more commonly found during the attraction phase of a relationship. Oxytocin and vasopressin seemed to be more closely linked to long term bonding and relationships characterized by strong attachments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Romantic and maternal love are highly rewarding&#xA;  experiences. Both are linked to the perpetuation of the species&#xA;  and therefore have a closely linked biological function of crucial&#xA;  evolutionary importance. &lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a lot of research about romantic love and parent/child love. Apparently there are correlations, between the neurological patterns observed with romantic and maternal love. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering, do we know what the neurobiological differences are between romantic, maternal/paternal, platonic love and the  love of non-human entities for example a pet? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;1. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rafaelestay.cl/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/The-neurobiology-of-love.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The neurobiology of love&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;S. Zeki*&#xA;University College, Department of Anatomy, Gower Street, London WCIE 6BT, United Kingdom&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T17:35:15.923" LastActivityDate="2021-02-17T06:06:15.610" Title="What are the neurological differences between varying types of love?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4407" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4402" CreationDate="2013-08-25T18:35:30.803" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there are valid points here both within the question and within Chuck's answer. Sometimes the individuals who complain the loudest about something, are indeed the one's facilitating the issue. I believe there is also another aspect to this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With human progress and the advent of technology. Television introduced serial dramas, one category being soap operas. The whole premise of these was to bring regular drama to the family home, as entertainment. A more available medium than waiting to feed Christians to the lions (as an example, the modern day version being not unlike spectator sports). I believe that as we have been pulled out of our nature hunter and gathering states and being closeted into our technological worlds, we have a lot of excess 'adrenaline' that was necessary for our survival. I believe the human need for these natural battles have been transposed into a need for 'fabricated' or man-made battles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I do not regard all protestations to be regarded as evidence of a masked subconscious (or otherwise) desire. As with the advent of technology has come the internet and the phenomena of online social networking. Bringing a, previously impossible, mixture of individuals together. This aided by the anonymity, so perceived safety of online communication, has led to a reckless bravado when dealing with conflict. The average user of these networks, does not consider the immediate possibility of threat or consequence of aggression, within online conflict; as compared to having an episode of road rage and risking the possibility of upsetting someone with a shotgun in their vehicle, and a willingness to use it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coupled with the difficulty of online communication. All body language; voice intonation, facial expressions, hand movements is removed. There is a great range in individual verbal skills when dealing with potential conflict, I believe, more so when these are being translated through an individual's literacy skills. So the potential for misunderstanding and frustration borne from the inability to communicate effectively is far greater than in face to face interactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The enormous variance of culture and languages, almost begs for misunderstandings. As what is commonplace within one location, could be a jailable offence elsewhere. An example being, where I live, we swear (curse) as part of our day to day vernacular. It is considered normal to &quot;knock&quot;, which is insult lightly our friends. It is a sign of affection. To &quot;bignote&quot; oneself or ingratiate oneself to others, can be regarded as undesirable and fake. Now take that to many places and it's a recipe for disaster and it is hard for the natural cultural style of a person not to surface.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, these factors all form a melting pot for conflict, arguments, perceived insults, retaliatory insults... &quot;dramas&quot;. It is very possible for some people to get very sick and tired of this. Given that this type of technology is still in it's infancy, really, it wasn't around when I had my first child, it takes time for people to develop skills to navigate through this intricate maze of networking. Given that the majority of these sites, encourage people to actively display their &quot;status&quot;, it makes sense that some people will put the sign on their electronic door saying.. &quot;No more drama&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to what proportion of individuals fall into which category at what point and for how long... It's like asking.. how long is a piece of string.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit.&#xA;in response to your comment. I realize I have overlooked a pertinent point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stable, mature individuals with intact boundaries will be less inclined to involve themselves with drama. A propensity to become entrenched in drama reflects a degree of emotional immaturity and can also be a reflection of an emotional neediness or a present inner conflict of unresolved issues,. These individuals can carry unresolved anger or may be perpetuating a victim mentality. The involvement in drama and the resulting lack of resolution can lead to an adverse reaction to the conflict and the instinctive reaction to keep the drama away, hence the declarations of &quot;I hate dramas&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the underlying individual conflicts have not been resolved the individual is likely  to become embroiled in another conflict resulting in drama.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-08-26T03:36:00.500" LastActivityDate="2013-08-26T03:36:00.500" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4408" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4252" CreationDate="2013-08-25T19:54:31.703" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my experience, physical trumps all.  Even if you're blind, there is still smell.  I saw a show (The Science of Sex Appeal) which documented an experiment where a group of men wore t-shirts while getting sweaty on treadmills.  Once the garments were nice n nasty, they put them in jars and had women rate how turned on or off they were by smelling each jar.  It turned out that at least one of the women had a brother in the experiment and she rated his smell especially off-putting.  This led researchers to conclude that smell is important in avoiding inbreeding.  If someone's immune system is similar to yours, they will smell similar to you and you won't like it.  Similar immunities kill similar bacteria, resulting in similar smells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also look for things that indicate genetic health.  Nice teeth is probably the biggest.  Do you have nice eyes?  Without teeth and good vision, its hard to survive in the wild.  The caveat here seems to be access to healthcare.  Of course, we can fake our genetic flaws with contact lenses and dental work, but even wearing glasses (which is not an advantage) can be seen as sexy because it indicates intelligence (people with glasses probably don't play sports so they spend all their time reading/learning instead - its a stereotype that may or may not be true anymore).  But it doesn't have to be so much that you can fix your genetic flaws, as just having good healthcare available seems to be enough to choose partners with less genetic health.  Consider this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After crunching the data—including the women's facial preferences, their country of origin and that country's national health index—the Face Lab researchers proved something remarkable. They could predict how masculine a woman likes her men based on her nation's World Health Organization statistics for mortality rates, life expectancy and the impact of communicable disease. In countries where poor health is particularly a threat to survival, women leaned toward &amp;quot;manlier&amp;quot; men. That is, they preferred their males to have shorter, broader faces and stronger eyebrows, cheekbones and jaw lines. The researchers went on to publish the study in this month's issue of the scientific journal Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To a person unfamiliar with the field of evolutionary psychology, this may sound a little far-fetched. How is it even possible to link a woman's masculinity preferences to the health of her nation? The answer begins with the theory of sexual selection. It goes that women are the choosier sex because they take on most of the risk and burden of reproduction and child rearing. While a man can sleep around with 100 women in a year's time and have 100 kids, a woman who sleeps with 100 men in a year will only have one baby (barring multiples). She has more at stake in each pregnancy. Therefore, it is in her best interest to at least choose a high-quality mate. And one of the hallmarks of a quality male is good health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what does health have to do with masculinity? The link is testosterone, the hormone behind manly muscles, strong jaws, prominent eyebrow ridges, facial hair and deep voices. Testosterone is immunosuppressive. This means a man must be healthy and in good condition to withstand its effects on his development. Testosterone is also linked to other traits related to strength: fitness, fertility and dominance. From an evolutionary perspective, masculinity is basically man's way of advertising good genes, dominance and likelihood to father healthier kids. When disease is a real threat, as it had been—and arguably still is—heritable health is invaluable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704100604575145810050665030.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704100604575145810050665030.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence, unfortunately, is not associated with health.  Much of what defines attractiveness may depend on evironment factors.  It may not always be the case that physical trumps mental if we're actually smart enough to survive no matter what the physical genetic flaw.  I wouldn't go as far as to say that we're that kind of society yet.  I continue to believe that a certain range of physical characteristics must fall in line regardless how mentally attracted one is.  If you're mentally attracted to someone and then find he is 80 years old (way past breeding age), would you still be attracted?  Evolution-wise, it wouldn't make any sense to be.  Conversely, if you met an incredible hunk of a man, but he had revolting personality and an iq near his shoe-size, he wouldn't be attractive either.  So, I couldn't say one trait has omnipotence, but I do believe the physical has an edge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many times we enter into relationships, not out of attraction, but because it makes sense.  The Science of Sex Appeal show also demonstrated that married women dress and dance more seductively than single women as well as having differing hormonal levels (via saliva testing).  The theory proposed to explain this is that once a woman has found a stable and sensible mate, she seeks the &amp;quot;bad boy&amp;quot; because the &amp;quot;bad boy&amp;quot; has the genetic traits for health, but the &amp;quot;bad boy&amp;quot; is a cad for a dad.  So she will get pregnant up by him and make the sensible father (whom she's not all that attracted to) raise the child.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://dsc.discovery.com/tv-shows/other-shows/videos/other-shows-science-of-sex-appeal-videos.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dsc.discovery.com/tv-shows/other-shows/videos/other-shows-science-of-sex-appeal-videos.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3232" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-08-25T19:54:31.703" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4409" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4172" CreationDate="2013-08-26T01:24:15.797" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, your second link there hasn't been reviewed since 2010.  I got a case study from 2013, an attempt to change the DSM for narcissism due to it's actual granularity and subtypes from 2008, and a letter to the journal of Indian Pscy med from 2012.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi. &lt;strong&gt;2013&lt;/strong&gt;;115(4):363-71.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[&lt;strong&gt;A case of major depressive disorder barely distinguishable from&#xA;  narcissistic personality disorder&lt;/strong&gt;].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Article in Japanese]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Saito S, Kobayashi T, Kato S.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Department of Psychiatry, Jichi Medical University.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The recent increase in cases of depression with a narcissistic&#xA;  tendency, especially among young individuals, has been pointed out.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  When the narcissistic tendency is conspicuous, patients may be treated&#xA;  for a personality disorder or pervasive developmental disorder, and&#xA;  not for a mood disorder. A case is described of a man in his late&#xA;  twenties who developed depression due to his failure in research work&#xA;  and job hunting, and, after a time, due to the break off of his&#xA;  engagement with his fiancée, manifested with narcissistic symptoms&#xA;  including an exaggerated opinion of himself, a sense of entitlement,&#xA;  interpersonal exploitation, lack of empathy, strong feelings of envy,&#xA;  and an extrapunitive tendency. He was regarded at the start of&#xA;  treatment as having narcissistic personality disorder. However,&#xA;  persevering treatment, mainly with supportive psychotherapy and&#xA;  pharmacotherapy including antidepressants (high dose of maprotiline&#xA;  combined with low dose of mirtazapine), sodium valprote and&#xA;  aripiprazole, finally improved not only his depressive symptoms, but&#xA;  also the symptoms regarded as a deriving from a personality disorder.&#xA;  He presented fierce  anger and aggression regarded as a mixed state,&#xA;  and showed the rapid improvement  in his depressive state after&#xA;  hospitalization, &lt;strong&gt;which we considered to show potential bipolarity&lt;/strong&gt;. We&#xA;  diagnosed the patient with &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;narcissistic depression&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, emphasizing the&#xA;  aspect which suggested a mood disorder, such as the episodic presence&#xA;  of narcissistic symptoms as long as a depressive state resided, his&#xA;  circular, recursive discourse, and his potential bipolarity. To&#xA;  accurately evaluate the aspect of mood disorders which patients&#xA;  appearing to show personality disorders have, it is considered useful&#xA;  to grasp a patient's condition from the viewpoint of a personality&#xA;  structure and viable dynamics. From a therapeutic standpoint, we&#xA;  suggest the importance of simple but persevering psychotherapy and a&#xA;  sufficient quantity of antidepressant medication for patients with&#xA;  depression, even if they are thought to have a personality disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;PMID: 23789317  [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hmm well they seem to note initially that the converse is true in the first sentence.  We'll investigate why this is true soon too and the reasons for it.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before even reading this, I hypothesized someone with bipolar disorder could have this type of problem...and sure enough...they mention the patient as potentially having it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This one is back from 2008.  It seems like they were having some trouble with the DSM labeling of the disorder back then.  Apparently there are several different subtypes of narcissistic disorder, which could definatly seem viable.  So, so far your answer is 'sometimes'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Am J Psychiatry. 2008 Nov;165(11):1473-81. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07030376. Epub 2008 Aug 15.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Refining the construct of narcissistic personality disorder:&#xA;  diagnostic criteria  and subtypes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Russ E, Shedler J, Bradley R, Westen D.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.&#xA;  jonathan@shedler.com&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Comment in&#xA;      Am J Psychiatry. 2008 Nov;165(11):1379-82.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;OBJECTIVE: Narcissistic personality disorder has received relatively&#xA;  little empirical attention. This study was designed to provide an&#xA;  empirically valid and  clinically rich portrait of narcissistic&#xA;  personality disorder and to identify subtypes of the disorder. &lt;br&gt;METHOD:&#xA;  A random national sample of psychiatrists and clinical psychologists&#xA;  (N=1,201) described a randomly selected current patient with&#xA;  personality pathology. Clinicians provided detailed psychological&#xA;  descriptions of the patients using the Shedler-Westen Assessment&#xA;  Procedure-II (SWAP-II), completed a  checklist of axis II diagnostic&#xA;  criteria, and provided construct ratings for each axis II personality&#xA;  disorder. Descriptions of narcissistic patients based on both raw and&#xA;  standardized SWAP-II item scores were aggregated to identify,&#xA;  respectively, the most characteristic and the most distinctive&#xA;  features of narcissistic personality disorder. &lt;br&gt;RESULTS: A total of 255&#xA;  patients met DSM-IV criteria for narcissistic personality disorder&#xA;  based on the checklist and 122 based on the construct ratings; 101&#xA;  patients met criteria by both methods. &lt;strong&gt;Q-factor analysis identified&#xA;  three subtypes of narcissistic personality disorder, which the authors&#xA;  labeled grandiose/malignant, fragile, and&#xA;  high-functioning/exhibitionistic.&lt;/strong&gt; *&lt;em&gt;Core features of the disorder&#xA;  included interpersonal vulnerability and underlying emotional&#xA;  distress, along with anger, difficulty in regulating affect, and&#xA;  interpersonal competitiveness, features that are absent from the&#xA;  DSM-IV description of narcissistic personality disorder.&lt;/em&gt;* &lt;br&gt;CONCLUSIONS:&#xA;  These findings suggest that DSM-IV criteria for narcissistic&#xA;  personality disorder are too narrow, underemphasizing aspects of&#xA;  personality and  inner experience that are empirically central to the&#xA;  disorder. The richer and more differentiated view of narcissistic&#xA;  personality disorder suggested by this study may have treatment&#xA;  implications and may help bridge the gap between empirically and&#xA;  clinically derived concepts of the disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;PMID: 18708489  [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the story gets more complicated...to the point where there seem like many different types of treatment and just problems with therapists dealing with narcissists. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Q-Type Analysis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;grandiose/malignant&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;fragile&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;high-functioning/exhibitionistic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Core features of the disorder&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;included interpersonal vulnerability and underlying emotional&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;distress, along with anger&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;difficulty in regulating affect&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;interpersonal competitiveness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looks like your question's answer is getting split up in many different ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this interesting letter that was sent to the Indian Journal of Psych Med.  It looks like there are specific type of strategies for dealing with specific types of issues....like for relationship issues there's one way, for other types...there's another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll bold the interesting parts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Indian J Psychol Med. 2012 Oct-Dec; 34(4): 403–404.&lt;br&gt; doi: &#xA;  10.4103/0253-7176.108236&lt;br&gt;  PMCID: PMC3662146&lt;br&gt;  &lt;strong&gt;Demystifying Paradoxical Characteristics of Narcissistic Personality Disorder&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt; Matthew&#xA;  Gildersleeve Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane,&#xA;  Queensland, Australia Address for correspondence: Dr. Matthew&#xA;  Gildersleeve, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane,&#xA;  Queensland, Australia. &#xA;  &lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt; &#xA;  Sir,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This letter is aimed for psychotherapy clinicians and researchers who&#xA;  should acknowledge the relationship linking Kohut's self-psychology&#xA;  and Glasser's Choice theory that can demystify relationship&#xA;  difficulties and mental health problems in narcissistic personality&#xA;  disorder (NPD). NPD is commonly experienced interpersonally by others&#xA;  as insufferable, pompous, and un-empathic.[1] NPD persons have been&#xA;  identified to possess giant self-centeredness, a certainty that they&#xA;  own supreme personality, and their humiliation of others makes them&#xA;  intolerable for interpersonal relations.[1] &lt;strong&gt;Importantly, Heinz Kohut's&#xA;  legacy to psychology is known as self-psychology and was centered&#xA;  principally on narcissistic personality development and treatment.&lt;/strong&gt;[2]&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Suboptimal psychological development is thought to arise when maternal&#xA;  compassion is discriminately substandard.[3] As a result, the&#xA;  narcissistic self constructs a defense against the helplessness of a&#xA;  hurtful world.[3] Kohut[2] cited in Banai et al.[3] called the&#xA;  compassion required from maternal figures as “self-object needs”&#xA;  because these needs develop the self-image and are provided by&#xA;  external objects.&lt;/strong&gt;     (Oh wow, it seems like they're talking about entitled rich kid's attitudes, that's kinda funny, interesting).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By not receiving necessary &lt;strong&gt;self-object transferences through decisive&#xA;  epochs in development, the young individual cannot build the&#xA;  competence to control self-respect or construct a positive&#xA;  self-image.[3]&lt;/strong&gt; *&lt;em&gt;Consequently, the child, now an adult, depends on other&#xA;  humans to construct their self-image. The self-object transferences&#xA;  received as an adult provide a feeling of significance, which was not&#xA;  established during child development.[3] However, NPD persons are&#xA;  apprehensive of meeting self-object absence as an adult.[4] In order&#xA;  to feel the control of their fate, NPD persons present a mindset of&#xA;  dominance in the interpersonal sphere. As a result of this&#xA;  authoritarian manner, persons with NPD typically have a record of&#xA;  numerous unsuccessful relationships.[4]&lt;/em&gt;*&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Go to: PARADOXICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY&#xA;  DISORDER Thus far, this letter has acknowledged that NPD persons rely&#xA;  heavily on self-object transferences to develop a positive self-image.&#xA;  The behavioral characteristics of NPD persons reflect this need and&#xA;  are well documented.[5] &lt;strong&gt;However, what is paradoxical about these&#xA;  behavioral characteristics is that instead of behaving in a way to&#xA;  increase the chance of receiving self-object transferences in&#xA;  relationships, NPD individuals act in a way to reduce that possibility&#xA;  by destroying interpersonal relations.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   &lt;em&gt;(So not only have we seen narcissists become depressed...they also have the propentencity to do things in relationships that sabotage them....which may then lead to this depression.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Glasser[6] has specified relationship building and destroying behavior&#xA;  in a grand detail in his Choice theory. “Seven Caring Habits” and&#xA;  “Seven Deadly Habits” offer superb rules for how psychotherapists&#xA;  should interact with clients to enhance the likelihood that these&#xA;  individuals use caring interpersonal habits to attain optimal mental&#xA;  health. It is evident from the literature that NPD behavioral&#xA;  characteristics reflect the “Seven Deadly Habits.”[1] Glasser's Seven&#xA;  Caring Habits are Supporting, Encouraging, Listening, Accepting,&#xA;  Trusting, Respecting, Negotiating differences and the Deadly Habits&#xA;  are Criticizing, Blaming, Complaining, Nagging, Threatening,&#xA;  Punishing, Bribing, or Rewarding to Control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Go to: CHOICE THEORY The writing of Kohut and advocates of&#xA;  self-psychology argue that the feeling of love, belonging, closeness,&#xA;  and connectedness with other humans are essential for individuals with&#xA;  NPD who requires self-object transferences.[7] &lt;strong&gt;Unfortunately, the&#xA;  pushing, demanding actions (Seven Deadly Habits or External Control&#xA;  Psychology) being used by NPD persons destroy relationships and&#xA;  therefore prevents self-object needs being met. When external control&#xA;  is used by NPD persons, it will destruct the capacity of one or both&#xA;  individuals to locate contentment, eventually resulting in severed&#xA;  relationships.[8] This interpersonal disengagement is argued to be the&#xA;  foundation for the majority of human mental illness.[6]&lt;/strong&gt; Choice Theory&#xA;  and the Seven Caring Habits are offered to replace external control&#xA;  psychology and the Seven Deadly Habits[6] to preserve relationships&#xA;  and optimal mental health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;External Control Psychology is an attempt to control others to act in&#xA;  a way they do not want to.[6] This ideology of a person who uses&#xA;  external control does not permit individuals outside the self to&#xA;  formulate preference about individual freedom, and advocates that&#xA;  other individuals should be punished to modify their behavior to&#xA;  attain the controllers' needs.[6] The “Deadly Habits” demolishes&#xA;  individual freedom of the oppressed individual and therefore acts to&#xA;  disconnect relationships, as freedom has been identified as one of the&#xA;  basic human needs.[6]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Consequently, a central thesis of Choice theory is that the only&#xA;  individual one can be in command of is themselves.[6] If the&#xA;  individual believes they can command other humans, then they will&#xA;  encounter anger and irritation leading to mental illness.[6] Anger,&#xA;  irritation, and mental illness will also arise if the individual&#xA;  believes that other humans can command them and then externalizes&#xA;  blame to the perceived controller for undesirable events.[6] For that&#xA;  reason, it is vital for the NPD individual to focus on internal&#xA;  control of their own choices and to value the rights of other people&#xA;  who have their own needs.[6]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In conclusion, it is important that the caring habits be taught to the&#xA;  NPD client, once a therapist has identified an individual with strong&#xA;  self-object needs and who meets the criteria for NPD. Using Choice&#xA;  theory, the psychotherapist directs an individual toward fulfilling&#xA;  interpersonal relationships and educates the person to relate in more&#xA;  helpful modes using internal control psychology.[6] The better NPD&#xA;  persons are proficient at bonding and comprehending other individual&#xA;  needs, the better prospect they possess to receive positive&#xA;  self-object transferences and happiness.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Go to: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thank you to Amy-lee Weisse for constructive&#xA;  discussion and invaluable guidance.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Go to: REFERENCES&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  1. Millon T, Millon CM, Meagher S. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons; 2012. The Narcissistic Personality. Personality Disorders in&#xA;  Modern Life; p. 330.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;2. Kohut H. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2011. Introductory Considerations. The Analysis of the Self: A Systematic Approach to the&#xA;  Psychoanalytic Treatment of Narcissistic Personality Disorders; p. 1.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;3. Banai E, Mikulincer M, Shaver PR. “Selfobject” needs in kohut's self psychology: Links with attachment, self-cohesion, affect&#xA;  regulation, and adjustment. Psychoanal Psychol. 2005;22:224–60.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;4. McLean J. Psychotherapy with a Narcissistic Patient Using Kohut's Self Psychology Model. Psychiatry. 2007;4:40–47. [PMC free article]&#xA;  [PubMed]&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;5. Silverstein ML. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2007. Narcissitic Personality Disorder, Disorders of the Self: A Personality-Guided Approach; p. 27.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;6. Glasser Bloomington: IUniverse; 2011. Replacing External Control With The New Choice Theory Psychology. Take Charge of Your Life: How&#xA;  to Get What You Need with Choice-Theory Psychology; p. 8.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;7. Strack Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons; 2005. Self Psychological Foundations of Personality Disorders. Handbook of&#xA;  Personology and Psychopathology; p. 181.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;8. Glasser , Glasser New York: Harper Collins; 2007. External Control Can Kill a Marriage. Eight Lessons for a Happier Marriage; p. 11.&#xA;  Linkback here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3662146/&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3662146/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it looks like there's alot of stuff going on with Narcissists.  Or what they call &quot;NPD.&quot;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for my conclusions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NPD or (Perceived NPD) or actually scientists are still trying to figure it out I'm going to put into three categories that even have subcategories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1)  &lt;strong&gt;Being the center of attention and always getting what you wanted&#xA;while growing up...only to realize when it times come to get a job&#xA;that doesn't exist anymore&lt;/strong&gt; - which can admittedly be a difficult&#xA;shift for someone to have to make.  This could also stem from&#xA;derivatives of this.  Obviously would say psychopathology here and environmental    influencers are important players.**&#xA;The affects of this seem to appear as relationship issues mostly - as&#xA;they have developed a certain &quot;expectation for this or that&quot; which&#xA;puts stress on their mate....whom then eventually leaves&#xA;them....which then causes them to be a depressed narcissist.  This&#xA;cycle also seems to repeat itself although methods are suggested to&#xA;help treat a patient with this disorder in the last piece of&#xA;literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2)  &lt;strong&gt;Genuinely having some subtype of NPD that is more than just psychopathologically based.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;This goes back to that 2nd study where they were trying to identify the subtypes for the DSM definition.  These adjectives don't seem to describe someone who would necessarily fit into category #1, although they partially seem to discribe someone who would fit into my 3rd category - someone who is simply bipolar and has a &quot;narcissistic mania.&quot;  And yes, I just made that medical diagnosis up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Q-Type Analysis (the authors labeled these as the three subtypes):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;grandiose/malignant &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;fragile&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;high-functioning/exhibitionistic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Core features of the disorder (NPD)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;included interpersonal vulnerability and underlying emotional&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;distress, along with anger&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;difficulty in regulating affect&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;interpersonal competitiveness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I actually don't really believe many #1's would fit into this #2 category I have set up due to the lack of focus on problems in certain types of relationships (they mention interpersonal failures...but not as directly).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd say these are most likely people with a true &quot;NPD&quot; pathology - with  a couple bipolar's mixed in depending upon if their methodologies were very affective at weeding them out and since it's a Q-type analysis...I'd feel somewhat unconfident about that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3)  &lt;strong&gt;Someone who is bipolar and when they have their manic episode, they become narcissistic.&lt;/strong&gt;  Obviously they'd go up and down and have all sorts of fun problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Answer to your question:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They can be both, either/or, have it depend upon things like interpersonal issues because they feel like the world owes them something. Apparently the pathology of narcissism is a very complex thing to figure out or put any sort of hard and fast label on.  It could be caused by one's psychology from how they were raised or a genuine mental disorder of a physiological kind. There's also problems with distinguishing it from bipolar disorder (although I'd say if someone had bipolar disorder then they'd probably know it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastActivityDate="2013-08-26T01:24:15.797" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4410" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4096" CreationDate="2013-08-26T04:19:33.493" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;EDIT: Note: &lt;strong&gt;This is an answer in progress, as trying to answer your specific question has led me to finding the answer to many other questions around it, but not that specific one.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, when one is in the process of completing a task where they pass by, say, measurable goals, then that's just pure reinforcement and you can literally feel the dopamine pumping through your brain towards the finish line each step you take...especially as you get closer and closer towards the finish line.  Everyone has experienced that.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which actually leads me to another interesting hypothesis, I bet the graph for the dopamine signal of these rats was exponential, wasn't it?  I'll go look at the graphs now and check....I seriously havn't looked at them before this.  And here they are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5JrcN.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yup, exponential curves.   Interesting the DA [nM] had quite a bit slower rate of acceleration of sloping up than its partner, the shorter timed one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Whoa, you know what's weird&lt;/strong&gt;....(and I&quot;m sure they mentioned this in the study too) it looks like the brains of these rats actually know where they are at in the maze after a certain common point - which looks like around 2 seconds) and then the brain increases the signal to just the right spot so that it makes that curve which is like a predefined function in their heads (you could totally regress that) so it will eventually hit a specific point at just the right spot,  Nearly the same spot as the rat that had the shorter test.   It's a little higher, but not that much.  I wonder why there's a big peak and then a drop very end though For that lower orange one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You know, maybe the implications for that big tip at the end right before the finish line for the orange bottom rat with the long term test could represent our (humans) misrepresentation of how we will actually feel once we accomplish a long term goal and maybe realize that it wasn't as great as we thought it would be...like getting a new car maybe.  Traveling. Etc.  Maybe the rat just did not perceive the work he had to put in for the longer course to be a fair trade for whatever reward, if there was any reward at the end o the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He saw his small plate of cheese and disappointment filled his psyched as he approached it.... :(&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Great great study.  I bookmarked it, then went to pubmed and realized there are HUNDREDS of studies similar to this, some even in humans, many in monkeys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Unfortunately I couldn't find what you wanted specifically (although I did find several potential derivatives) and I gotta go to sleep - super tired.  I focused more on the studies done in monkeys, which there are a ton of, even though you asked about rats due to the fact that I believe you would like a citation with a mammal closer to humans if possible.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;So here's where I left off at: just keep going through the citations on the side.  If anyone wants to build upon my unfinished answer with their own answer by using the research I did, feel free to.  This is the way academia works most of the time anyways.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2329364&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2329364&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuron. 2005 Jul 7;47(1):129-41.&#xA;Midbrain dopamine neurons encode a quantitative reward prediction error signal.&#xA;Bayer HM, Glimcher PW.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15996553&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15996553&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Sep 13;108(37):15462-7. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1014457108. Epub 2011 Sep 6.&#xA;Dopamine neurons learn to encode the long-term value of multiple future rewards.&#xA;Enomoto K, Matsumoto N, Nakai S, Satoh T, Sato TK, Ueda Y, Inokawa H, Haruno M, Kimura M.&#xA;Source&#xA;Department of Physiology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21896766&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21896766&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Science. 2008 Sep 19;321(5896):1690-2. doi: 10.1126/science.1160873.&#xA;Reward-predictive cues enhance excitatory synaptic strength onto midbrain dopamine neurons.&#xA;Stuber GD, Klanker M, de Ridder B, Bowers MS, Joosten RN, Feenstra MG, Bonci A.&#xA;Source&#xA;Ernest Gallo Clinic and Research Center, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18802002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18802002&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nature. 2008 Jun 26;453(7199):1253-7. doi: 10.1038/nature06963. Epub 2008 May 11.&#xA;Rapid strengthening of thalamo-amygdala synapses mediates cue-reward learning.&#xA;Tye KM, Stuber GD, de Ridder B, Bonci A, Janak PH.&#xA;Source&#xA;Ernest Gallo Clinic and Research Center, University of California, San Francisco, Emeryville, California 94608, USA.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18469802&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18469802&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;J Neurosci. 1993 Mar;13(3):900-13.&#xA;Responses of monkey dopamine neurons to reward and conditioned stimuli during successive steps of learning a delayed response task.&#xA;Schultz W, Apicella P, Ljungberg T.&#xA;Source&#xA;Institut de Physiologie, Université de Fribourg, Switzerland.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8441015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8441015&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuroscience. 2001;103(1):65-85.&#xA;Modeling functions of striatal dopamine modulation in learning and planning.&#xA;Suri RE, Bargas J, Arbib MA.&#xA;Source&#xA;USC Brain Project, Los Angeles, CA 90089-2520, USA. suri@salk.edu&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11311788&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11311788&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;J Neurophysiol. 1990 Mar;63(3):607-24.&#xA;Dopamine neurons of the monkey midbrain: contingencies of responses to stimuli eliciting immediate behavioral reactions.&#xA;Schultz W, Romo R.&#xA;Source&#xA;Institut de Physiologie, Université de Fribourg, Switzerland.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2329364&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2329364&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PLoS Comput Biol. 2011 May;7(5):e1001133. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1001133. Epub 2011 May 12.&#xA;An imperfect dopaminergic error signal can drive temporal-difference learning.&#xA;Potjans W, Diesmann M, Morrison A.&#xA;Source&#xA;Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-6), Computational and Systems Neuroscience, Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany. w.potjans@fz-juelich.de&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21589888&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21589888&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eur J Neurosci. 2000 May;12(5):1801-16.&#xA;Influence of the predicted time of stimuli eliciting movements on responses of tonically active neurons in the monkey striatum.&#xA;Sardo P, Ravel S, Legallet E, Apicella P.&#xA;Source&#xA;Laboratoire de Neurobiologie Cellulaire et Fonctionnelle, CNRS, 31 Chemin Joseph Aiguier, 13402 Marseille cedex 20, France.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10792457&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10792457&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-08-26T23:49:07.170" LastActivityDate="2013-08-26T23:49:07.170" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4411" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4401" CreationDate="2013-08-26T04:42:23.897" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Besides the simple mechanics of it being easier to position actors and film the details of intercourse there is probably a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernormal_stimulus&quot;&gt;supernormal stimulus effect&lt;/a&gt;. The term, coined by Tinbergen (1948) when he observed birds laying artificial eggs of ridiculous size, is used to describe the effect of a stimulus which elicits a response more strongly than the stimulus for which it evolved. Very large breasts, buttocks, penises, tall heights, etc. are not necessarily particularly useful but because we evolved to prefer larger values of these for fitness reasons we suffer from a supernormal stimulus effect when they are exaggerated. Imagine the rarity of such things for millenia of our evolution during which food and leisure time were relatively scarce. There was little reason to evolve a preference against extreme proportions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastEditorUserId="106" LastEditDate="2013-08-26T07:49:24.553" LastActivityDate="2013-08-26T07:49:24.553" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4412" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3795" CreationDate="2013-08-26T04:53:37.247" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's just replace the word shyness with &quot;depression&quot; for a second, just for example's sake.  You can easily switch them out with agressiveness, anxiety, shyness, whatever you want later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Because depression has been viewed as an &lt;strong&gt;emotional disorder throughout the&#xA;history of psychiatry&lt;/strong&gt;, therapists from most schools of thought place a strong emphasis&#xA;on “getting in touch” with your feelings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The research I've come across reveals the unexpected:&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Depression is not an emotional disorder at all!&lt;/strong&gt; The sudden change in the way you feel&#xA;is of no more causal relevance than a runny nose is when you have a cold. Every bad&#xA;feeling you have is the result of distorted negative thinking. Illogical pessimistic&#xA;attitudes play the central role in the development and continuation of all your&#xA;symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intense negative thinking always accompanies a depressive episode, or any painful&#xA;emotion for that matter. Your moody thoughts are likely to be entirely different from&#xA;those you have when you are not upset. Here's an anecdote I found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Every time I become depressed, I feel as if I have been hit with a&#xA;  sudden cosmic jolt, and I begin to see things differently. The change&#xA;  can come within less than an hour. My thoughts become negative and&#xA;  pessimistic. As I look into the past, I become convinced that&#xA;  everything that I’ve ever done is worthless. Any happy period seems&#xA;  like an illusion. My accomplishments appear as genuine as the false&#xA;  facade for the set of a Western movie. I become convinced that the&#xA;  real me is worthless and inadequate. I can’t move forward with my work&#xA;  because I become frozen with doubt. But I can’t stand still because&#xA;  the misery is unbearable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will learn, as she did, that the negative thoughts that flood your mind are the&#xA;actual cause of your self-defeating emotions. These thoughts are what keep you&#xA;lethargic and make you feel inadequate. Your negative thoughts, or cognitions, are the&#xA;most frequently overlooked symptoms of your depression. These cognitions contain&#xA;the key to relief and are therefore your most important symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Every time you feel depressed about something, try to identify a corresponding&#xA;negative thought you had just prior to and during the depression. Because these &#xA;thoughts have actually created your bad mood, by learning to restructure them, you&#xA;can change your mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are probably skeptical of all this because your negative thinking has become&#xA;such a part of your life that it has become automatic. For this reason I call negative&#xA;thoughts “automatic thoughts.” They run through your mind automatically without the&#xA;slightest effort on your part to put them there. They are as obvious and natural to you&#xA;as the way you hold a fork.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1qDUt.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The relationship between the world and the way you feel. It is not the&#xA;actual events but your perceptions that result in changes in mood. When you are&#xA;sad, your thoughts will represent a realistic interpretation of negative events. When&#xA;you are depressed or anxious, your thoughts will always be illogical, distorted,&#xA;unrealistic, or just plain wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If your understanding of what is happening is accurate, your emotions will be&#xA;normal. If your perception is twisted and distorted in some way, your emotional&#xA;response will be abnormal. Depression falls into this category. It is always the result of&#xA;mental “static”—distortions. Your blue moods can be compared to the scratchy music&#xA;coming from a radio that is not properly tuned to the station. The problem is not that&#xA;the tubes or transistors are blown out or defective, or that the signal from the radio&#xA;station is distorted as a result of bad weather. You just simply have to adjust the dials.&#xA;When you learn to bring about this mental tuning, the music will come through clearly&#xA;again and your depression will lift.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may experience a pang of despair when they read that&#xA;paragraph. Yet there is nothing upsetting about it. If anything, the paragraph should&#xA;bring hope. Then what caused your mood to plunge as you were reading? It was your&#xA;thought, “For other people a little tuning may suffice. But I’m the radio that is broken&#xA;beyond repair. My tubes are blown out. I don’t care if ten thousand other depressed&#xA;patients all get well—I’m convinced beyond any shadow of doubt that my problems&#xA;are hopeless.” I hear this statement fifty times a week! Nearly every depressed person&#xA;seems convinced beyond all rhyme or reason that he or she is the special one who&#xA;really is beyond hope. This delusion reflects the kind of mental processing that is at&#xA;the very core of your illness!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have always been fascinated by the ability certain people have to create illusions.&#xA;As a child, I used to spend hours at the local library, reading books on magic.&#xA;Saturdays I would hang out in magic stores for hours, watching the man behind the&#xA;counter produce remarkable effects with cards and silks and chromium spheres that&#xA;floated through the air, defying all the laws of common sense. One of my happiest&#xA;childhood memories is when I was eight years old and saw “Blackstone—World’s&#xA;Greatest Magician” perform in Denver, Colorado. I was invited with several other&#xA;children from the audience to come up on stage. Blackstone instructed us to place our&#xA;hands on a two-feet by two-feet birdcage filled with live white doves until the top,&#xA;bottom, and all four sides were enclosed entirely by our hands. He stood nearby and&#xA;said, “Stare at the cage!” I did. My eyes were bulging and I refused to blink. He&#xA;exclaimed, “Now I’ll clap my hands.” He did. In that instant the cage of birds&#xA;vanished. My hands were suspended in empty air. It was impossible! Yet it happened!&#xA;I was stunned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I know that his ability as an illusionist was no greater than that of the average&#xA;depressed patient. This includes you. &lt;strong&gt;When you are depressed, you possess the&#xA;remarkable ability to believe, and to get the people around you to believe, things&#xA;which have no basis in reality.&lt;/strong&gt; As a therapist (author), it is my job to penetrate your illusion, to&#xA;teach you how to look behind the mirrors so you can see how you have been fooling&#xA;yourself. You might even say that I’m planning to dis illusion you! But I don’t think&#xA;you’re going to mind at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Read over the following list of ten cognitive distortions that form the basis of all&#xA;your depressions. Get a feel for them. I have prepared this list with great care; it&#xA;represents the distilled essence of many years of research and clinical experience.&#xA;Refer to it over and over when you read the how-to-do-it section of the book. When&#xA;you’ are feeling upset, the list will be invaluable in making you aware of how you are&#xA;fooling yourself.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taken from From David Burn's Book:&#xA;&quot;Feeling Good, the New Mood Thrapy.&quot;&#xA;Which you can buy for $5 to your Kindle, Computer, Kindle iPhone App, or anything else. by going here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0380810336&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.com/Feeling-Good-The-Mood-Therapy/dp/0380810336&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively you can view an abbreviated version of the thinking errors he speaks of by going here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4369/have-the-core-cbt-thinking-errors-been-found-to-be-effective-in-evidence-based&quot;&gt;Have the core CBT &amp;quot;Thinking Errors&amp;quot; been found to NOT be effective in evidence-based clinical practice?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-08-26T04:53:37.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4413" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4393" CreationDate="2013-08-26T06:09:37.497" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have this tendency to explore, in detail, language abilities and label them &quot;disorders&quot;. Some are disorders, like those stemming from autism, but, in any traditional sense, none of the listed qualify. They are simply biases in what people are good and not good at or classifications of errors. There's a title of a talk by Raymond Klein I've always liked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Klein, R. M. (2002, November) Dyslexia, dysdrivia and dystennisia: Is it reasonable to expect everyone to read well? &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Cognitive Neuroscience chapter presentations&lt;/em&gt;. Lake Tahoe, Nevada.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine if we considered weak tennis playing a social problem. We would carefully examine these poor souls and work out very carefully the defects in their minds that cause them to be outcasts of society. We'd label said defects and work diligently to rehabilitate who we could...etc...you can see where it's going. What we've done with dyslexia is similar. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course there will be people who are good and bad readers and writers, and there will be characteristics that some of those bad (and good) readers have in common. And we can categorize them. This does not, in itself, a disorder make.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In any field of endeavour, if you change the requirements of something that's an acquired skill, which reading and writing are, then you change the set of cognitive abilities that facilitate that skill. Different people have different cognitive aptitudes therefore their abilities in different kinds of writing systems, and the translation of those to phonemes, will differ. Furthermore, some systems will be easier than others and in different ways. There may be systematic variations in how those errors work out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you had asked whether clay tennis players have differences from grass players would it really be a question worth considering? It's only one because there's some belief that the common errors in reading are named and the people who aren't good at it are labelled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, in spite of the fact that some people do it, I think it's pretty difficult to call any of those differences disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(As an aside, several of the listed &quot;thought&quot; disorders are pretty independent of orthography. Most would be considered thought errors.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="106" LastActivityDate="2013-08-26T06:09:37.497" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4414" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4263" CreationDate="2013-08-26T13:52:10.113" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have tried to find some specific models which can be used for image&#xA;interpretation but have not been able to find any model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is broad and as you have stated that you have failed to find models, I thought I would provide you with references where visual cognition is researched.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.icn.ucl.ac.uk/Research-Groups/Visual-Cognition-Group/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;   has a visual cognition group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The research in this group is concerned with detection, discrimination and short-term memory of visual stimuli. A key part of the approach to the work is to study interactions between different regions of visual cortex, and interactions between visual and non-visual areas by using transcranial magnetic stimulation, psychophysics, eye movements and electrophysiological recording methods. Human vision is a dominant force in our behaviour and the study of vision therefore takes research questions into many different areas of perception outside of our more obviously visual work on visual search, the functions of the parietal cortex, the frontal eye fields and how the brain changes with learning. These include the perception of time, visuomotor learning, music, and mathematics - apparently different functions which often draw upon the same brain resources. The group is engaged in extending the use of TMS in combination with other methodologies, in particular electrophysiological recording and work with neuropsychological patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; entry on perception; discusses how perception between individuals has a wide variation, including the ability to interpret  visual cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.duke.edu/perception/publications.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Duke Visual Cognition Laboratory&lt;/a&gt; has extensive research articles about this topic. I have provided some suitable excerpts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The visual system has developed to transform an undifferentiated and continuous flow of information into discrete and manageable representations, and this ability rests primarily on the uninterrupted nature of the input. &lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent laboratory work has indicated that low target prevalence can lead to disturbingly high miss rates in visual search. &lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Change blindness, the failure to detect visual changes that occur during a disruption, has increasingly been used to infer the nature of internal representations. If every change were detected, detailed representations of the world would have to be stored and accessible. However, because many changes are not detected, visual representations might not be complete, and access to them might be limited. Using change detection to infer the completeness of visual representations requires an understanding of the reasons for change blindness. This article provides empirical support for one such reason: change blindness resulting from the failure to compare retained representations of both the pre- and postchange information. Even when unaware of changes, observers still retained information about both the pre- and postchange objects on the same trial. &lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The input to visual processing consists of an undifferentiated array of features which must be parsed into discrete units. Here we explore the degree to which conscious awareness is important for forming such object representations, and for updating them in the face of changing visual scenes. &lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a wealth of information here, it's quite fascinating. I hope you enjoy this, and feel free to come back with the questions you have about this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;1. Appelbaum, L. G., Cain, M. S., Schroeder, J. E., Darling, E. F., &amp;amp; Mitroff, S. R. (2012). Stroboscopic visual training improves information encoding in short-term memory. Attention, Perception, &amp;amp; Psychophysics.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;2. Fleck, M. S., &amp;amp; Mitroff, S. R. (2007). Rare targets are rarely missed in correctable search. Psychological Science, 18, 943-947.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;3. Mitroff, S. R., Simons, D. J., &amp;amp; Levin, D. T. (2004). Nothing compares 2 views: Change blindness can occur despite preserved access to the changed information. Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics, 66, 1268-1281.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;4. Mitroff, S. R. &amp;amp; Scholl, B. J. (2005). Forming and updating object representations without awareness: Evidence from motion-induced blindness. Vision Research, 45(8), 961-967. &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-08-26T13:52:10.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4415" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-26T14:17:49.510" Score="6" ViewCount="6849" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4402/why-do-people-say-they-hate-drama&quot;&gt;This question&lt;/a&gt; querying the authenticity of people's words and actions and the resulting commentary after &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4407/3267&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;, has led me to ask this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ambivalence is a state of having simultaneous, conflicting feelings toward a person or thing.&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4402/why-do-people-say-they-hate-drama&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; Stated another way, ambivalence is the experience of having thoughts and/or emotions of both positive and negative valence toward someone or something. The term also refers to situations where &amp;quot;mixed feelings&amp;quot; of a more general sort are experienced, or where a person experiences uncertainty or indecisiveness concerning something. The expressions &amp;quot;cold feet&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;sitting on the fence&amp;quot; are often used to describe the feeling of ambivalence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambivalence&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ambivalence&lt;/a&gt; is experienced as psychologically unpleasant when the positive and negative aspects of a subject are both present in a person's mind at the same time. This state can lead to avoidance or procrastination, or to deliberate attempts to resolve the ambivalence. When the situation does not require a decision to be made, people experience less discomfort even when feeling ambivalent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is normal to have ambivalence from time to time about how we feel about another individual, whether we can trust the authenticity of a person. As human beings are multidimensional creatures. Trials and triumphs both bring out different aspects that are part of the one person. A person's mood, can change the way that person relates to others. Combined with the modulation of the observer's own internal processes, there can be a varying perception between two people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If my ideas are correct, and a degree of ambivalence can be quite normal, almost expected within human interactions (or relationships);&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;How can  reasonable ambivalence be differentiated from  pathological ambivalence?&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;What are the current theories regarding the psychology of  ambivalence?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-09-10T13:31:21.500" Title="Current theories of the psychology of ambivalence" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4416" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-26T18:52:55.967" Score="4" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;This question is the third in a series, after:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   1. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4094/improved-typing-as-a-result-of-slight-movement&quot;&gt;Improved Typing as a result of slight movement&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   2. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4108/neural-processes-of-inducing-flow/4173#4173&quot;&gt;Neural Processes of Inducing Flow&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Pseudo-random, 'swaying', motion appears to help induce a flow state, in that it 'captures' the movements of an activity and entrains them to an underlying rhythm of activity.  Time between activity-related movements is reduced, and error-recovery time is also reduced.  (again, this is from first-hand observation, not published results).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The following is the relevant explanatory section of the 2nd question's answer:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Seen from this perspective, cyclical movements are the norm for almost any animal,    whereas short-duration, &quot;single-use&quot; movements like typing or playing the piano are rather unusual. It could be the case that if the motor cortex (or even the basic movements encoded in the spinal cord) is inherently tuned to modeling cyclic movements, then adding some continuous motion could help the motor cortex capture the intended typing or playing movements as part of the larger, continuous movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last question I have is if the frequency of the periodic movements, which in general follow a 'figure-8' track, could be related to the frequency of other cycles in the body?  For example, could the frequency of motion reflect the active frequency of the brain, e.g. EEG waves?  Or could it reflect a different neural/physiological cycle or state?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Naturally this is a tricky question: on one hand, the activity itself serves to entrain the neural system to a certain periodicity.  On the other hand, if the rhythmic movement activity is allowed to 'float' in frequency organically, does its characteristics reflect anything about the initial state of the neural system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Final question(s):&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Does the frequency of movement give clues to other periodic cycles, such as EEG waves?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Does said movement give any other insight into the brain/body state?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-08-26T18:52:55.967" Title="Derived knowledge from periodicity of harmonic motion?" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4417" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4139" CreationDate="2013-08-27T21:19:51.877" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some scientific evidence that it does. And a physiological explanation as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During fasting, there are several things happening in the body, among other things hypoglycemia (low glucose level in the blood). All those changes that occur actually stress the brain. That stress has been shown to be compensated by the brain by creating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;BDNF acts on certain neurons of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system, helping to support the survival of existing neurons, and encourage the growth and differentiation of new neurons and synapses&quot; - Acheson et al 1995&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;BDNF itself is important for long-term memory&quot; - Bekinschtein et al 2008&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BDNF is also one of the most potent chemicals in the body to stimulate neurogenesis (the creation of new neurons), even in adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as far as I know, there have not been any experiments directly testing whether or not cognitive capacity increases with IF. I.e. only increased levels of BDNF have been found, and IQ and other direct measures are yet to be tested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3459" LastActivityDate="2013-08-27T21:19:51.877" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4418" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4419" CreationDate="2013-08-27T22:42:41.687" Score="10" ViewCount="1674" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I'm having hard time motivating myself to study. In my first year I was a very good student, I had the motivation to study because I wanted to compete, it was first and maybe hardest year. I wanted to show that I am good and better. I passed my exams in time with good grades. Then, I started studying less and less, finding it hard to motivate and focus on learning.  I don't study and don't have motivation to study because I am afraid of failing an exam. I am afraid that if I study hard for an exam and then fail I will feel that I am stupid. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a name for the phenomena of not putting effort into study because of fear of failure which in turn results in actual failure?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What causes this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any strategies for overcoming this cycle?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3460" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-28T05:59:35.563" LastActivityDate="2013-09-01T15:58:22.873" Title="What causes fear of failure to lead to lack of effort and actual failure?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4419" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4418" CreationDate="2013-08-28T10:03:09.223" Score="7" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a name for the phenomena of not putting effort into study because of fear of failure which in turn results in actual failure?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, this is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-handicapping&quot;&gt;self-handicapping&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-handicapping is the process by which people avoid effort in the hopes of keeping potential failure from hurting self-esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What causes this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main and most relevant reason here is the preservation of your own self-image and/or managing your public image. If you were to try your very best and still fail, then the only causal attribution would have been dispositional, that is, the only way to explain it to yourself would have been that, you are just not good enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, when you place impediments in your path and essentially prevent yourself from performing to your fullest, you are creating scapegoats for your failures. This will allow you to attribute the failure to situational factors and not dispositional ones, allowing you to maintain your image of self-competence and/or self-efficacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any strategies for overcoming this cycle?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-handicapping occurs in many different fashions but most of them tend to be variations of procrastination and lack of effort/practise. So, by tackling either of these, you will be able to reduce the chances of handicapping yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other than that, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1041608011001129&quot;&gt;research has shown&lt;/a&gt; that by focussing on long-term mastery in a field that you like, self-handicapping behavior can be reduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In three studies with German high-school and college students, we found empirical evidence for the assumed moderator effect of mastery goals. In studies 1 and 3, performance-avoidance goals were remarkably lower associated with self-handicapping in the group of students highly endorsing mastery goals compared to students who proved to be less mastery oriented. In studies 2 and 3, moreover, individuals' self-esteem was less related to self-handicapping when students strongly emphasized mastery goals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" LastEditorUserId="2777" LastEditDate="2013-09-01T15:58:22.873" LastActivityDate="2013-09-01T15:58:22.873" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4420" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-28T11:17:35.603" Score="9" ViewCount="3455" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know what is the relationship between sociology and cognitive sciences. &#xA;Let me start by short consideration of both:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sociology - well established discipline or a field of research&#xA;Sociology is a part of social sciences.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive sciences - a bit more recent field of research. Cognitive&#xA;science cannot be considered a discipline, it lacks core basics,&#xA;there is bigger and less connected variety of research methods and&#xA;objects. Cognitive sciences is also part of social sciences, but has&#xA;stronger ties with biomedicine (neurology, pharmacology).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sociology considers that main causes of our behavior lie outside, in the social environment. At the same time cognitive sciences look for causation within psyche/brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that there are three ways of looking into relations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Connections between sociological and cognitive-science journals?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Semantic relations like use of similar concepts and definitions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interdisciplinary projects that include both sociology and cognitive sciences?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3420" LastActivityDate="2013-08-28T16:40:18.170" Title="What is the relationship between sociology and cognitive sciences?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4421" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4420" CreationDate="2013-08-28T16:19:11.957" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The primary difference is two-fold:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;strong&gt;Methods :&lt;/strong&gt; Social sciences use mostly &lt;em&gt;qualitative&lt;/em&gt; methods and content analysis, psychology and cognitive sciences use &lt;em&gt;quantitative&lt;/em&gt; methods and statistical analysis. The one basic standard tool in psychology and cognitive sciences is the laboratory &lt;em&gt;experiment&lt;/em&gt;, while social sciences usually collect data &lt;em&gt;in the field&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;strong&gt;Object of study :&lt;/strong&gt; Social sciences deal mostly with &lt;em&gt;social entities&lt;/em&gt;. The smallest social entity is two people. Psychology and cognitive sciences deal with &lt;em&gt;individuals&lt;/em&gt; or, if they deal with populations, the general characteristics of the individuals of that population. Psychology and cognitive sciences deal with social processes only from the perspective of the individual: how individual internal mental processes are affected by them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As usual, this is a tendency, and the borders between the disciplines are blurred. There is no clear distinction and there is a huge overlap where research could fall in either discipline and is associated with one only because the researcher comes from it. Also, in academic institutions, certain parts of one discipline might have found their home in a neighboring discipline for historical reasons, e.g. pedagogical psychology is often placed in the faculty for pedagogy (a social science), but there it is just as often taught by psychologists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wrote &quot;psychology and cognitive sciences&quot;, because cognitive sciences is strongly associated with psychology, but also with information sciences / computer science and neurosciences. At our university, the degree program &quot;cognitive science&quot; is part of both the psychological and the computer sciences department. But other universities place it elsewhere. Like neurosciences, cognitive sciences is an interdisciplinary field or, if you want, a new and evolving discipline whose realm is even less clearly defined than that of older and more traditional disciplines. Nevertheless, I understand cognitive sciences to be concerned with &lt;em&gt;cognition&lt;/em&gt;, which is an aspect of the individual, and a traditional field of study that lies mostly within psychology and other natural sciences like medicine and biology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short: cognitive sciences is a natural science, while social sciences are part of the humanities, with all the methodological and theoretical implications that follow from that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-08-28T16:40:18.170" LastActivityDate="2013-08-28T16:40:18.170" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4422" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4488" CreationDate="2013-08-28T22:30:25.953" Score="4" ViewCount="403" Body="&lt;p&gt;Currently reading about psychedelic experiences, and it is noted in Wikipedia that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Level 4 psychedelic experience&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;Strong hallucinations, i.e. objects morphing into other objects. Destruction or multiple splittings of the ego. Things start talking to you or you find that you are feeling contradictory things simultaneously. &lt;em&gt;Some loss of reality&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Time becomes meaningless&lt;/em&gt;. Out-of-body experiences and ESP type phenomena. &lt;em&gt;Blending of the senses&lt;/em&gt;. Can be achieved with strong doses of LSD, strong doses of psilocybin mushrooms, strong to heavy doses of peyote, and common to strong doses of ayahuasca.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice the &lt;em&gt;italicized&lt;/em&gt; parts.&#xA;My hypothesis is: If someone has an out-of-body experience/ESP experience, then he/she is having strong imaginative visuals about being in a certain environment - particularly, the current environment because that someone has dissociated with reality to some extent &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know much about the biochemistry of anesthetic effects on the brain. However, I suppose that the anesthetics in a surgery environment, for example, can have dissociative effects once administered intravenously. From the reports I've read, during the surgery, the individual can describe the environment perfectly while he/she is &quot;asleep&quot; - or being operated on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person under the influence of psychedelics also dissociates from reality, similarly indeed; the senses blend and the ego disappears, much like in a sleep state. Unlike sleep, anesthetics or psychedelics don't easily bring the person back to reality due to the person being under the influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My inference is that these individuals can &quot;wake up&quot; during surgery, for example, in the sense (or lack thereof) that they aren't able to feel pain or some external stimuli. They also can't open their eyes. &lt;strong&gt;I suppose that it may have something to do with their brain waves&lt;/strong&gt; on why they are able to possess the ESP quality, or why they are having an out-of-body experience (which, I hypothesize, entails the person being awake but perceiving nothing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My conclusion is then that the person is awake, is not perceiving anything, AND (most importantly) is using the brain to visualize the environment - much like we imagine things when we daydream. Perhaps the person is even dreaming! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So as a corollary I propose the person is dreaming in certain cases where ESP is reported, but under the influence of meditative states and/or drugs (of some kind).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is the out of body experience or ESP caused by a form of day dreaming, hallucination, or altered state of consciousness?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3451" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-28T23:28:41.577" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T02:00:02.477" Title="Can ESP and out-of-body phenomena be understood as a form of dreaming or hallucination?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4423" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4424" CreationDate="2013-08-28T23:23:46.310" Score="9" ViewCount="5725" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many people, particularly those in a rush, keep on pressing the elevator call button despite the light clearly indicating that it was previously pressed, and the knowledge that such action will have no effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What theory explains such a behaviour?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could put forth two hypotheses. When people are desperate they:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Prefer action over inaction&lt;/strong&gt; - If an action does not carry a high price or penalty, by taking action people feel that at least they are doing something. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are more likely to change their beliefs&lt;/strong&gt;. Complete atheists, for instance, may pray to God, or try a supernatural/spiritual healer, if the life of a dear one is on stake.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I can't find a theory for neither of these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/27wZJ.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;A women pressing a lift call button&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-02T05:30:08.940" LastActivityDate="2019-10-01T06:21:44.863" Title="Why do people press elevator call buttons repeatedly?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4424" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4423" CreationDate="2013-08-28T23:58:30.380" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's an interesting phenomenon, and I think it can be seen in many other domains beyond lifts. At least where I live, pedestrian crossings have buttons, which I've seen people repeatedly press. You can see it often on computers and other digital devices when the system does not immediately respond to user input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Basic Bayesian Rational Actor&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My starting point for analysing the behaviour would be that of a bayesian rational actor. While you state that the individual &quot;knows that such action will have no effect.&quot; This is not actually true. Many states of the world are possible about the consequence of second and subsequent button presses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Beneficial:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The first button press may not have been recorded (perhaps you didn't press the button correctly, perhaps the system malfunctioned)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Repeatedly pressing the button might increase the system's awareness of the importance of the request&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The first button press may have timed-out and a second button press may resend the request&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Makes no difference:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The first button press has been recorded and the second button press makes no difference.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Detrimental:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The first button press was recorded. Any subsequent button press resets the time required.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So from the perspective of a Bayesian rational actor, the individual does not know the state of the world. Instead, each state has a certain probability of being true. And each state of the world has a certain cost/benefit. Thus, if the individual assigns very low probability to the detrimental option and minimal cost to the physical movement involved in pressing the button, and some small probability of any of the beneficial scenarios being true, then the beneficial scenarios have the greatest expected utility. This is despite the fact that the &quot;makes no difference scenario&quot; having very high probability of being true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The important point is that it is the subjective beliefs and subjective utility which drives action and not the objective state of the world. Most models of human action would also incorporate a random component. So even if people generally preferred not to do the repeated press, they might occasionally. Such randomness can be seen as rational behaviour in the broader sense, in that it allows the actor to sample the utilities associated with actions even if they aren't currently deemed to maximise utility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably many factors would influence the beliefs about truth and utility in this situation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The clearer the indicator that the button has been pressed, the more likely the individual will believe that the button has been pressed. So for example, on some pedestrian crossings there is no indicator light, or sometimes the indicator light on a lift button stops working. In such cases, people would presumably be much more likely to repeatedly press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The more experience someone has with the specific lift or even lifts in general, the less likely they are to draw on general experience with other lifts or with other button-based systems.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The longer the time passes between pressing the button and the lift not arriving, the more likely the individual is to believe that something has failed. Now in some cases this is a lift malfunction, but presumably often another button press would also seem like a more reasonable strategy than if little time has passed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The cost is assigned to the physical press might vary between people and situations. Some might experience  minor social embarrassment of repeatedly pressing a lift button when others are present. Other people who are less energetic or active, may not wish to expend energy repeatedly pressing the lift button.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Further reading&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're interested more about these ideas, you could check out some of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/publications/?subtopic=21&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ACT-R research on strategy selection&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="24359" LastEditDate="2019-09-30T05:45:18.013" LastActivityDate="2019-09-30T05:45:18.013" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="4425" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-29T01:26:51.103" Score="11" ViewCount="428" Body="&lt;p&gt;For various reasons it can be difficult to run a Mechanical Turk experiment (i.e., you don't have the technical expertise, you don't reside in the United States, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Have any third-party providers arisen with the express purpose of managing the delivery of psychological experiments using Mechanical Turk?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt; Ideally, I'd like to know not just about how to get around the United States restriction. I'm also interested in services which manage the process and are specifically set up with behavioural science experiments in mind or at least offer a suite of services, one of which is tailored to behaviour science experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T02:56:51.253" LastActivityDate="2015-01-30T15:23:55.877" Title="Are there third party providers of Mechanical Turk psychology experiment services?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;sampling&gt;&lt;mechanical-turk&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4425" CreationDate="2013-08-29T02:29:56.473" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to acknowledge the contributors to this post on stackoverflow.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/questions/478426/using-amazon-mechanicalturk-if-location-us&quot;&gt;Using Amazon MechanicalTurk if location != US?&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question was posted a few years ago, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/a/15441097/1082944&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt; is current.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://houdiniapp.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Houdini&lt;/a&gt; is a third party platform for MTurk, designed for non US users.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quora.com/Muhammad-At-Tauhidi/answers/Amazon-Mechanical-Turk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This question&lt;/a&gt; also leads to Houdini enabling non-US based businesses accessing mTurk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At this stage, I have not found other providers, let me know if you'd like me to investigate further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have provided &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quora.com/What-are-some-crowdsourcing-services-similar-to-Amazon-Mechanical-Turk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a link&lt;/a&gt; of crowdsourcing services similar to mTurk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-05-23T12:41:53.730" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T02:39:49.267" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4428" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-29T06:47:30.223" Score="3" ViewCount="227" Body="&lt;p&gt;What metrics are used to measure success in treating dysthymia? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What data is available on the outcomes of dysthymic patients?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3464" LastEditorUserId="3464" LastEditDate="2013-08-31T07:58:16.917" LastActivityDate="2013-09-02T23:19:43.360" Title="What metrics are used to measure success in treating dysthymia?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;meta-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4431" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4229" CreationDate="2013-08-29T10:12:06.727" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I cross posted this question to Parenting Stack Exchange, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://parenting.stackexchange.com/questions/8664&quot;&gt;here's what I got&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, people who have viewed porn as adolescents have more sex and greater risk of sexually transmitted disease. And some of the kids who have stumbled upon porn on the Internet became averse to the Internet and some others developed unwanted recurring thoughts about the material they had seen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3401" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:41:15.363" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T10:12:06.727" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4432" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4463" CreationDate="2013-08-29T10:16:31.293" Score="4" ViewCount="936" Body="&lt;p&gt;Being able to measure intelligence (or the problem-solving aspect of it) quantitatively could be indispensable in fields like cognitive science or artificial intelligence. Obviously, IQ tests aren't culture neutral (questions are stated in an informal language, and often rely on prior knowledge). Ideally I am looking for these characteristics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;measure problem solving ability&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;be culture neutral&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;be of &lt;strong&gt;unrestricted duration&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Raven's Progressive Matrices&lt;/a&gt; look almost perfect for the job (variations can be developed for testing animals or even computer programs) but they, like EVERY intelligence test i know of, require test to last not more than a specific amount time, thus, failing to satisfy the third requirement. So I guess the question is whether such a test can be constructed at all. In other words, is there a category of problems that require some minimal intelligence level to solve them no matter how long one might try. Like the problem that could be solved in a minute by a smarter person but is impenetrable to you no matter how many years you spend thinking about it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3465" LastActivityDate="2013-09-04T12:27:02.333" Title="Duration-independent intelligence tests" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4433" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4432" CreationDate="2013-08-29T11:09:10.850" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually, standard IQ tests, such as Raven's matrices, tend to assess intelligence better if they are not timed. In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0191886989901293&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; by Philip Vernon (1988) it was found that the g-factor extracted slightly more variance for the same test if the test was not timed than if it had a time limit. This means if you ask yourself: &quot;What is this test measuring?&quot;, you can answer: &quot;Intelligence&quot; with more confidence if it was administered in an untimed setting. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ tests measure a host of other things, such as how well you are feeling on the day of the test, whether you are nervous when it comes to test-taking, how aquainted you are with this type of questions, etc. Giving people more time can attenuate some of these factors a bit. Timed variants are more prevalent for reasons of convenience, and also because it's easier to standardize the test situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289605800121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;It has been argued&lt;/a&gt; that there is little difference between timed and untimed tests because intelligence closely corresponds to working memory capacity (Kyllonen &amp;amp; Christal, 1990):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Confirmatory factor analysis yielded consistently high estimates of&#xA;  the correlation between working-memory capacity and reasoning ability&#xA;  factors (r = .80 to .90). We also found differentiation between the&#xA;  two factors: Reasoning correlated comparatively highly with general&#xA;  knowledge; working-memory capacity correlated comparatively highly&#xA;  with processing speed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some IQ tests even have subtests which measure this capacity directly: repeating a row of numbers in the same order or backwards. Giving you additional time will not help you reproduce the row of numbers, if it was initially too long for you to remember. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the high correlation between working memory capacity and processing speed, it was concluded that IQ tests largely measure the ability to vary features of multiple items at the same time, i.e. to manipulate multiple objects in working memory. Crucially, during administration an IQ test such as Raven's matrices, you are not supposed to use pencil and paper or other cultural crutches: you work on the items '&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1999-11137-004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;online&lt;/a&gt;' in your head (Engle et al., 1999). The more objects you can hold 'online', the better you will do. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289608000044&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Recent research&lt;/a&gt; (Colom et al, 2008) goes even further to say that processing speed is not a good predictor on its own, once working memory capacity is removed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The findings are consistent with the view that simple short-term&#xA;  storage largely accounts for the relationship between working memory&#xA;  and intelligence. Mental speed, updating, and the control of attention&#xA;  are not consistently related to working memory, and they are not&#xA;  genuinely associated with intelligence once the short-term storage&#xA;  component is removed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And of course, as always with measures of individual differences, it is important to keep in mind that IQ doesn't measure how many questions you completed - it measures how you rank in a group of peers which has done the same test under the same conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vernon, P. A. (1989). The generality of&amp;lt; i&gt; g. Personality and&#xA;Individual Differences, 10(7), 803-804.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kyllonen, P. C., &amp;amp; Christal, R. E. (1990). Reasoning ability is&#xA;(little more than) working-memory capacity?!. Intelligence, 14(4),&#xA;389-433.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., &amp;amp; Conway, A. R.&#xA;(1999). Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid&#xA;intelligence: a latent-variable approach. Journal of Experimental&#xA;Psychology: General, 128(3), 309.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Colom, R., Abad, F. J., Quiroga, M. Á., Shih, P. C., &amp;amp;&#xA;Flores-Mendoza, C. (2008). Working memory and intelligence are highly&#xA;related constructs, but why?. Intelligence, 36(6), 584-606.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2013-09-04T12:27:02.333" LastActivityDate="2013-09-04T12:27:02.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4435" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-29T13:49:28.353" Score="4" ViewCount="5093" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the maximum size of content the human eye can focus upon on a computer screen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a general equation that gives this size as a measure of distance from the screen etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the shape of this focus area- is it a square? a circle?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="gilad s" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T23:00:29.830" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T23:00:29.830" Title="What is the maximum size of content the human eye can focus upon?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4436" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4435" CreationDate="2013-08-29T16:14:38.773" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you extend your arm and look at your thumbnail, that is approximately the area that is focussed (&quot;sharp&quot;) in your field of vision (about 2°). Your vision is sharp only in your &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fovea_centralis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fovea&lt;/a&gt;. Your attention can &quot;focus&quot; on other areas in your field of vision, although they are and remain blurred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T16:14:38.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4437" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4435" CreationDate="2013-08-29T18:00:56.947" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The fovea (highest-resolution area of the retina) can only &quot;see&quot; the central two degrees of the visual field; the field of foveal vision is approximately circular, although it varies slightly by individual.  This depends on the distance from the eye or sensor.  This is called &quot;visual angle&quot; or &quot;angular size&quot;, and it can be calculated using the formula&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kEsVn.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where S is the object's linear size and D is the distance between the eye/sensor (sometimes called point O) and the object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_angle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_angle&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Calculator here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oocities.org/robertellis600/va.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.oocities.org/robertellis600/va.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2013-08-29T18:31:53.087" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T18:31:53.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4438" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4457" CreationDate="2013-08-29T18:40:27.540" Score="7" ViewCount="621" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research by Serrano et al (2004) indicated that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;older adults with depressive symptoms showed that with increased&#xA;  specificity of memories, individuals show decreased depression and&#xA;  hopelessness and increased life satisfactions. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_satisfaction#Life_satisfaction_and_personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;- Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the Seranno et al study  apply for most people?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does recalling a specific memory decrease depression? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can it be any specific memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Serrano, J. P., Latorre, J. M., Gatz, M., &amp;amp; Montanes, J. (2004). Life review therapy using autobiographical retrieval practice for older adults with depressive symptomatology. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 272.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-30T00:07:45.640" LastActivityDate="2013-08-30T13:27:37.107" Title="How does recalling a specific memory decrease depression?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4439" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-29T19:21:24.670" Score="5" ViewCount="407" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in doing research on the subject of nationalism, but I believe that what I'm looking for is more generic than that. I observe that nationalism looks similar to the way that people feel about their sports team or their favorite product or their religion or their race. People proselytize for these things, and people sometimes kill over them (e.g. -- soccer riots). I note also that this kind of devotion can also produce strong negative feelings towards the other teams, countries, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In each case, a person exhibiting this behavior with respect to a country, sports team, or product has at least one of the following characteristics (maybe others?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person &lt;strong&gt;identifies&lt;/strong&gt; personally with X.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person feels a sense of &lt;strong&gt;belonging&lt;/strong&gt; with others who also identify with X.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person is inclined to &lt;strong&gt;convince others&lt;/strong&gt; that they should also follow/admire/believe X.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an underlying mechanism behind these symptoms or term that describes this behavior? What is the body of study that examines these types of behaviors (causes, definitions, and effects)? If there isn't a particular term for this as a generic subject of study, are there at least some studies that examine the common features of these behaviors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I have researched so far: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3988&quot;&gt;This question&lt;/a&gt; helped a little bit in thinking about this issue, but I'm not sure it answers my question. Also, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow's hierarchy of needs&lt;/a&gt; points to &quot;respect by others&quot; and &quot;belonging&quot; as posibilities, but I don't know much beyond that or where to look.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm stuck. I'm just not sure that ingroups and outgroups really characterize the &lt;strong&gt;fundamental mechanism behind why people hold some beliefs with evangelistic or violent fervor&lt;/strong&gt;. That feature of human nature is not dependent on the existence of a group. If I try to convert someone to my way of thinking, I am not doing so because of a group to which I belong. Certainly group behaviors that @PEEJWEEJ mentioned can feed such sentiments, but like I mentioned to @Ana, I'm not convinced that the group itself is the cause. Perhaps I could be persuaded otherwise, but I think there's something else going on here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3471" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2021-03-18T00:34:12.390" Title="What is the primary mechanism behind nationalism, sports-team-ism, product-ism etc.?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4440" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4439" CreationDate="2013-08-29T19:39:54.443" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The terms you are looking for are ingroups and outgroups. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingroups_and_outgroups&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;From wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In sociology and social psychology, an ingroup, is a social group to&#xA;  which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. By&#xA;  contrast, an outgroup is a social group to which an individual does&#xA;  not identify. For example, people may find it psychologically&#xA;  meaningful to view themselves according to their race, culture, gender&#xA;  or religion. It has been found that the psychological membership of&#xA;  social groups and categories is associated with a wide variety of&#xA;  phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Googling got me to this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/48648_ch_7.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;book chapter&lt;/a&gt; on the topic, but there's plenty more information out there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T19:39:54.443" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4442" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4439" CreationDate="2013-08-29T21:06:46.957" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In group, out group behavior would likely be the base topic for which you're looking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have my own thoughts and theories on the topic, but if you want to delve into some psychological reasons for why in group, out group behavior occurs, you may want to look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;group think&lt;/strong&gt;,&lt;/a&gt; (people tend to go along with groups even if they disagree at first) &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bystander_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;the bystander effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (when responsibility is dispersed among many people, it's less likely someone will do anything about a problem) and &lt;strong&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/strong&gt; (the tendency to see evidence as confirming what you already believe).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want some more biological/neurological reasons for the cause, look into mirror neurons. The research suggests that when someone sees something happen to someone else, good or bad, the person seeing it feels essentially the same emotions as the person experiencing it, and the intensity of the observer's feelings seem to be correlated to the amount which that person looks and identifies with the observed person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3473" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T21:06:46.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4443" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4383" CreationDate="2013-08-29T22:09:22.283" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;wiki's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychopathology&lt;/a&gt; page should give you some insight into this issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, you must realize that a psychological illness is generally different than a biological illness. The difficulty when dealing with most (not all) conditions included in the APA's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/Pages/Default.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM&lt;/a&gt; (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of mental disorders) is that there is no truly objective way of determining whether something should be considered a disorder. This is why they use the 4 D's to determine whether the thing someone is experiencing is a disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not truly a paraphilia unless the behavior includes a combination of the following: highly statistically deviant, causes distress, causes the person to not be capable of doing things they normally would be able to, or causes danger to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deviance: this term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviours and emotions are considered deviant when they are unacceptable or not common in society. Clinicians must, however, remember that minority groups are not always deemed deviant just because they may not have anything in common with other groups. Therefore, we define an individual's actions as deviant or abnormal when his or her behaviour is deemed unacceptable by the culture he or she belongs to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(There are moves to start avoiding using this as a reason because of the complexity and it's apparent arbitrariness, but that's a different issue)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Distress: this term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the disorder. He or she may feel deeply troubled and affected by their illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dysfunction: this term involves maladaptive behaviour that impairs the individual's ability to perform normal daily functions, such as getting ready for work in the morning, or driving a car. Such maladaptive behaviours prevent the individual from living a normal, healthy lifestyle. However, dysfunctional behaviour is not always caused by a disorder; it may be voluntary, such as engaging in a hunger strike.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Danger: this term involves dangerous or violent behaviour directed at the individual, or others in the environment. An example of dangerous behaviour that may suggest a psychological disorder is engaging in suicidal activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So no, a paraphilia cannot be scientifically determined by behavior alone (just like the idea of love cannot be proven scientifically by behavior alone).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, paraphilia (just like most psychological illnesses) is definitely somewhat subjective. From a clinical standpoint, they're just a way of categorizing and defining disorders that people deal with, like happiness or sadness, not a scientific definition like whether or not someone has cancer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3473" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-08-29T22:09:22.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4444" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-30T01:40:47.107" Score="5" ViewCount="1936" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes when having an eye exam the eye chart is viewed through a mirror to increase the distance between the person and the chart.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When using consoles, it is recommended to look away from the console and look into the distance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the purposes of relieving eye strain, does the perceived increased distance of looking at an object in a mirror, serve the same purpose as looking at the same object from twice the distance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-02T02:18:03.157" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T08:07:21.780" Title="Does looking into a mirror relieve eye strain in a similar way to looking at distant objects?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4445" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-30T03:01:11.337" Score="2" ViewCount="541" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Examples:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Imagine coming to SE tomorrow and instead of seeing &quot;1 2 3 4 5 ... 77 next&quot; at the bottom of the &quot;questions&quot; page, you see a giant circle with a triangle inside pointing to the right and you no longer have the option of going from page 1 to page 5 in one click, but you must now click the big circle incrementally instead.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or imagine your favorite weather website having a 10-day forecast horizontally across the screen like a calendar would have, then one day it changes to a vertical alignment because someone decided it was time for a change.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do people do this?  And is it normal to feel extremely frustrated by this?  I mean, when something works well and makes sense, leave it alone?.  Why change stuff just to change stuff?  And especially when the change is less functional or intuitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3232" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-08-30T03:34:16.353" LastActivityDate="2014-04-23T08:53:25.167" Title="Why are websites constantly updated even when the change seemingly reduces functionality?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4446" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4444" CreationDate="2013-08-30T03:31:50.310" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand it and as per explained by my eye doctor,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we separate this variable from the other possible ones that can cause eye strain while staring at a monitor like amount of &quot;blue light&quot; (check out the program f.lux), overall brightness, refresh rate, etc., then-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-the variable that can cause eye strain as you explain, &quot;looking at something too close for to long,&quot; is caused by overextending the muscles and/or the way in which they contract (some combination of this most likely) in your eyes that causes you to focus on something up close.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, by looking off into the distance, you are stretching those muscles (changing the way their contracting kinda) and/or giving them a chance to relax for a bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm quite sure that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and not your &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;environment&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are actually the true controllers over how these muscles contract.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Try this experiment: Imagine there are mountains behind your computer screen and try to look through your computer screen in order to see them.  It may feel unusual at first, and a bit difficult - however if done right you'll be able to feel it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's another experiment: Find some shadow or corner in your room where absolutely no light shines into.  It could be a crevice or whatever - you could even make it artificially. It could even be in the depths between the keys in your keyboard.   Just as long as it's &lt;strong&gt;pitch black&lt;/strong&gt;.  When you look into something that is pitch black, from a visual perspective, neither you nor your eyes know how far that darkness extends - meaning it's left up to you to determine how you focus or not focus on it.  I can look between the keys on my keyboard and see pitch black - I know that only extends a a few millimeters if any in reality...but my sight isn't telling me that.  For a sight perspective, those depths might really end at the center of the earth or travel on for millions of miles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ie. you can change this focus just like as if you were changing the focus on a camera.  It is somewhat of a skill, but not too hard of one to acquire.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now trying to achieve this effect is easier admittedly when there is true distance to look at or into.  If you're trying to fake it, I also wouldn't recommend trying to look through your computer screen as in my example above for relief.  That was just an extreme example to prove a point - it's possible, but not ideal (and you are still also left with other variables like refresh rate, brightness, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So as long as you are able to induce this change in eye muscle contractions by actually looking off into the distance, or artificially induce it by tricking your eyes into thinking they are doing so - it doesn't matter as the end goal was accomplished either way.  The only thing that differs is the potential intensity of this relief you'll get when trying to induce artificially in contrast to doing so in reality; the artificially part is obviously dependent upon your skill and belief that you can actually do that though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For the purposes of relieving eye strain, does the perceived increased&#xA;  distance of looking at an object in a mirror, serve the same purpose&#xA;  as looking at the same object from twice the distance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you perceive it to be true, then your eyes will too - so it would cause the same change in muscle contraction/stretching/relaxation effect that accompanies changes in focus.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;After thinking about your mirror trick, I don't actually think it would work.  Your perception of the objects will be just as close as if you were looking right at them.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-09-03T08:07:21.780" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T08:07:21.780" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4447" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4445" CreationDate="2013-08-30T03:31:52.153" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Presumably, most updates to system interfaces are designed to achieve some goal related to the owner of the system. Often this would be usability, but of course, it could be something else like profitability, security, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Interface changes for non-usability related goal:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;So the first point is that a subset of interface updates are performed with a goal other than keeping the user happy. Take for example, news sites that split articles over multiple pages. This generally reduces usability, but increases ad impressions. Another &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/195046/why-does-stackexchange-now-show-an-empty-page-with-the-reddit-toolbar&quot;&gt;update on stackexchange&lt;/a&gt; meant that the stack exchange no longer works with the Reddit toolbar. This was done to prevent other websites taking advantage of stackexchange content through framing. The fact that it had collateral negative effects on usability was accepted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Interface changes that fail to increase usability:&lt;/strong&gt; Sometimes a change is introduced that is notionally designed to improve the interface of a system, but it fails to do so. Sometimes this is a failure in general. Sometimes this is just a failure for some individuals. For example, when websites introduce a flash landing page in the hope of improving the site, but they actually substantially reduce the usability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Usability increased but disruptive:&lt;/strong&gt; Another class of usability updates are related to the disruption caused to existing users workflows. Automaticity is an important part of skilled performance, both in terms of the speed and the low demands it places on limited attentional resources. The more time people spend with a system, the more they automate the steps required to use the system to achieve their goals. When a system changes, users are often forced to learn a new way of doing things. Even if this new way is better in a general sense, the disruption to automaticity can induce frustration and a drop in performance to existing users. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember seeing something similar when I started using OSX as my primary operating system. It was quite disruptive to my workflow, because for many activities that I'd automated on Linux and Windows systems (e.g., application switching, keyboard shortcuts, text editing, arranging windows, accessing menus, etc.) the workflow was a little bit different. I remember reading an article by a Windows user who listed &lt;a href=&quot;http://wanderingstan.com/2009-12-11/65-reasons-mac-sucks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;65 reasons why Macs suck&lt;/a&gt;. The user was trying to apply their Windows workflow to an OSX workflow and was feeling frustration because it didn't always work. More importantly, they hadn't grokked the new workflow required. Grokking the new workflow takes time as new strategies are discovered and automated (&lt;a href=&quot;http://jeromyanglim.tumblr.com/post/35764132965/workarounds-for-most-of-the-65-reasons-why-macs-suck&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this was my attempt to respond to the critique&lt;/a&gt;). It also takes time for the implicit learning processes to gradually learn the relative speed and cognitive demands of the various strategies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-20T10:29:51.560" LastActivityDate="2013-08-30T03:31:52.153" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4448" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4445" CreationDate="2013-08-30T03:48:52.977" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;1)  &lt;strong&gt;Split testing designs in marketing&lt;/strong&gt; (this is partially related to Jeromy's first point):  You don't know which type of layout or content will accomplish the ultimate goal you want your potential customers or users to attain for you.  Thus, you test several different varieties, measure the difference in them, factor in statistical validity, and get a better site/page for your goals.  These litte improvements can mean the difference betwee, campaign (lets say for example a paid one) making you a negative return on your investment(s) or could cause it to make you a million dollars this year.  When there are so many people online, the margins are thin and any little advantage you have will, essentially, be your profit most of the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2)  &lt;strong&gt;They hired someone who is &quot;specialist at UI design&quot; and are paying them on salary.&lt;/strong&gt;  The UI is already complete, so they have all this free time on their hands to do nothing.  So instead of looking completely useless to their boss/company they start making arbitrary and unnecessary updates to the website/webpage many of which may seem pointless and skewed within actual testing that is going on.  They do this so they can keep their UI design jobs, that is, unless they're legitimately trying to test things and know how to go about doing this in the correct way (most have no clue what they're doing besides making something that is aesthetically pleasing and which could be obtained by simply looking at the UI's of other popular softare).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3)  &lt;strong&gt;Different theories of search engine optimization for your website:&lt;/strong&gt;  A large theory out there is that Google likes sites with freshly updated content and that it is usually a positive variable towards increasing your rankings.  Part of the thing about SEO is is looking natural as possible, if you were to update too much content too frequently there's a possibility that their algorithm may sense a red flag.  Noone really knows how this works though. Thus some people may even prewrite content updates and then just release them as time goes on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastActivityDate="2013-08-30T03:48:52.977" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4449" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4425" CreationDate="2013-08-30T05:12:45.217" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://beta.cognilab.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognilab&lt;/a&gt;. At time of posting they are in beta.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears to be specifically marketed at academic social and behavioural scientists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They appear to aim to handle participant recruitment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Crowdsource your research experiment using Amazon Mechanical Turk:&lt;/strong&gt; Cognilab uses an online crowdsourcing marketplace to recruit from over&#xA;  500,000 participants. Within days, hundreds of people will be&#xA;  completing your experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But they also seem to encourage using their experimental interface:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Quickly create experiments using our drag-and-drop interface:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  Forget about complicated code or hiring programmers. Our drag and drop interface allows you to create academic-quality experiments within minutes and without having to write a single line of code!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-08-30T05:12:45.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4450" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4453" CreationDate="2013-08-30T07:05:36.737" Score="6" ViewCount="8547" Body="&lt;p&gt;How important is eye contact for creating/inducing attraction &amp;amp; showing showing &quot;confidence&quot; towards them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the optimal eye locking duration between 2 persons for inducing this attraction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3475" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-02T05:31:27.430" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T19:39:26.190" Title="How important is eye contact for attraction between a man and woman?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4453" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4450" CreationDate="2013-08-30T10:52:41.113" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How important is eye contact for creating/inducing attraction &amp;amp;&#xA;  showing showing &quot;confidence&quot; towards them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's very important, and a good way to show/build confidence as well.  If you've ever looked at two crazy people fighting you can see how intensely they look at each other - they're trying to show off how confident they are and intimidate one another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's the thing though, you want to keep and hold eye contact when it's normal or &quot;feels right,&quot; but not do it to an excessive amount to where she would be able to feel like you're consciously trying to control your eye contact in order to seem differently than you feel in your mind - females are very good at picking up subtleties like that - however, they are very bad at explaining them usually. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, if you just walked up to them and started talking to them and stared at them like a zombie they wouldn't break down why they didn't like that...or even most of the time know logically why they didn't like that...they would just be able to pick up on the fact that something is off and then label such person as &quot;creepy.&quot;  That's mostly for the stereotypical blondes though. :)   It's like a feeling they'd get or perceive that has been developed over thousands and thousands of years of evolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the right advice is if it's for a man, would be to hold eye contact a bit moreso than you usually feel like is proper but, don't be a zombie either.  Eventually the more you push it, the more you'll realize what the proper timing is for each and every situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also one of many, many, many &quot;microbehaviors&quot; that women pick up on which can influence whether they like you or not.  Like, you could get a girl to like you by not having eye contact with her too.  In fact, there are so many of these &quot;microbehaviors&quot; you can't really consciously control all of them (in the ideal scenario they are controlled subconsciously because you genuinely feel that way), but at least try to practice a few of them, if you're asking for yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is the optimal eye locking duration between 2 persons for&#xA;  inducing this attraction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is none.  It's all about what feels the most natural and pushing yourself farther each time to essentially try everything til you figure out, subconsciously what the right amount of time each where.  This process cannot really be done consciously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to know more about all this and go really, really deep with it, post a comment with @Taal in it and I'll point you towards a website.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-26T19:39:26.190" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T19:39:26.190" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="4455" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-30T11:35:49.020" Score="7" ViewCount="601" Body="&lt;p&gt;Poll* questions if phrased in a way to suggest a fact to the reader, may force the person to think of explanations to support the view expressed in the question. This belief may then last on its own because of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief_perseverance#Persistence_of_discredited_beliefs&quot;&gt;belief perseverance&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if a poll ask questions of the form :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How do you think 90% of people behave in {situation}?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or, political questions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Which party do you believe is trusted by over 70% of the voters? Options:{Plausible Party A} {Small unknown party B}&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or from the opposition party,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Which party do people relate to when thinking of corruption? Options: {Ruling Party} {Small unknown party}&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, another of the commercial flavour,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Which company comes to the mind of 70% of the people when they think of clean water? Options : {Big company A} {Small unknown company B}&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By choosing options wisely, the poll creator can force certain ideas into the minds of individuals under the banner of &quot;popular opinion&quot; without them even realising it. By trying to rationalise why or how the most likely option is correct, individuals giving the poll will essentially think up of or create evidence. This will then further reinforce and plant the suggested idea with varying degrees of permanence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, does the concept of belief permanence thus imply (as explained above) that polls can be used to plant incorrect ideas/information in people? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, can polls thereby be an effective marketing technique for companies and/or political parties when trying to shape public opinion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; By poll, I mean any form of interaction which involves Q&amp;amp;A with or without the provision of correct feedback at the end. I do not mean only elections or opinion polls.&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-02T02:07:39.487" LastActivityDate="2015-08-16T13:10:35.310" Title="Can asking a leading question in a poll change the opinion of the respondent?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4457" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4438" CreationDate="2013-08-30T13:22:19.787" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a meta-anylysis, Bohlmeijer (2007) found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the last twenty years reminiscence has been applied in a large&#xA;  number of settings and with a large number of target groups. Examples&#xA;  of applications are: community-residents with a major depression,&#xA;  elderly with moderate depressive symptoms, nursing home residents,&#xA;  elderly with dementia, rural-dwelling older adults, elderly in&#xA;  assisted-living communities. ... We conducted a meta-analysis to&#xA;  assess the effects of reminiscence on depression across different&#xA;  modalities and target-groups. An over-all effect size of 0.84 (95% CI&#xA;  = 0.31 – 1.37) was found, indicating a statistically and clinically significant effect of reminiscence and life review on depressive&#xA;  symptomatology in elderly people. This effect is comparable to the&#xA;  effects commonly found for pharmacotherapy and psychological&#xA;  treatments. (p. 152f.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your first question, it seems that reminiscence and life review are an effective treatmtment of depression for a wide variety of (elderly) patients. It should be noted that a &quot;significantly larger effect was found in studies in which life-review was the intervention (d=1.04) as compared to studies that used simple reminiscence (d=0.40)&quot; (p. 152).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several theories have been applied to try to explain how recalling memories decreases depression:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;disengagement theory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ego-integrity theory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;continuity theory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;socio-emotional selectivity theory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disengagement Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The foundations for reminiscence and life-review therapy were laid by&#xA;  Butler (1963) in his famous paper &lt;em&gt;The life-review: an interpretation&#xA;  of reminiscence in the aged&lt;/em&gt;. In this paper Butler put down his&#xA;  clinical observation of an increase of reminiscence – the act or&#xA;  process of recalling the past - in older people and postulated that&#xA;  this was due to the universal occurrence of an inner experience or&#xA;  mental process of reviewing one’s life. He conceived of life-review as&#xA;  a spontaneously or naturally occurring process that is ‘characterized&#xA;  by the progressive return to consciousness of past experiences, and,&#xA;  particularly, the resurgence of unresolved conflicts’ (Butler, 1963,&#xA;  pg 66). He hypothesized that it is caused by the ‘realization of&#xA;  approaching dissolution and death, and the inability to maintain one’s&#xA;  sense of personal invulnerability’ (Butler, 1963, pg 67). Though he&#xA;  recognized that people of all ages review their past from time to time&#xA;  and that any crisis may prompt life review, Butler stressed that&#xA;  life-review is more intensive and observed more frequently in (early)&#xA;  old age. He discerned adaptive and constructive manifestations of&#xA;  life-review from psychopathological manifestations. The adaptive&#xA;  variant is described as a reconsideration of former life-experiences&#xA;  and their meanings. It will often be accompanied by mild feelings of&#xA;  nostalgia or regret but is generally typified by expanded&#xA;  understanding and acceptance of one’s life, the experience of&#xA;  meaningfulness and declining death-anxiety. (Bohlmeijer, 2007, p.&#xA;  32)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ego-Integrity Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In its early stages reminiscence was studied mainly within the context&#xA;  of developmental stage theory (Erikson, 1963; Webster, 1999).&#xA;  Life-review was seen as a naturally occurring process which takes&#xA;  place in the last stage of the psychosocial development of human&#xA;  beings. The main hypotheses that could be deduced from this theory&#xA;  were that life-review is universal and old-age specific. These&#xA;  hypotheses were not confirmed in empirical studies. ... Based on&#xA;  studies rejecting the claim that life-review is old-age specific, it&#xA;  was suggested that reminiscence and life-review could be better&#xA;  understood within a life-span perspective (Webster &amp;amp; Cappeliez, 1993;&#xA;  Webster, 1999). ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In addition to the disengagement theory (Baum &amp;amp; Baum, 1980; Butler,&#xA;  1963) and the ego-integrity theory (Erikson, 1956; Taft &amp;amp; Nehrke,&#xA;  1990), in recent years new theories are applied to reminiscence, for&#xA;  example the continuity theory and socio-emotional selectivity theory.&#xA;  These theories fit with a contextual and life-span approach to&#xA;  reminiscence. (Bohlmeijer, 2007, p. 37f., 40)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Continuity Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to continuity theory individuals, when confronted with&#xA;  life-events or transitions, ‘attempt to preserve and maintain existing&#xA;  internal and external structures and they prefer to accomplish&#xA;  this objective by using strategies tied to their past experiences of&#xA;  themselves’ (Atchley, 1989, pg 137). This sense of continuity, with&#xA;  the aid of reminiscence, will promote adaptation (Parker, 1999).&#xA;  Continuity theory would predict that people will reminisce more&#xA;  frequently during periods of personal transition than in more stable&#xA;  periods. In testing this hypothesis, Parker (1999) found that young&#xA;  people were significantly more likely to reminisce during transitional&#xA;  periods than older adults. (Bohlmeijer, 2007, p. 40)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Socio-Emotional Selectivity Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another theory applied to reminiscence is&#xA;  the socio-emotional selectivity theory (Carstensen, 1995). This theory&#xA;  proposes that with growing age emotion regulation becomes more&#xA;  important than information gain and that the elderly arrange their&#xA;  social life in such a way (concentrating on close relationships) that&#xA;  they can have as many emotionally meaningful interactions as possible&#xA;  (Pasupathi &amp;amp; Carstensen, 2003). One important aspect of such&#xA;  self-regulation is known as the positivity effect (Carstensen &amp;amp;&#xA;  Mikels, 2005), in which it is assumed that an emo- tionally gratifying&#xA;  focus ‘...would bias attention and memory in favour of material that&#xA;  optimizes emotion regulation (i.e., positive material) even if there&#xA;  are costs to focusing only on such material’ (p. 118). This hypothesis&#xA;  has been supported by many studies (Kennedy, Mather, &amp;amp; Carstensen,&#xA;  2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Older adults will therefore actively look for social&#xA;  interactions in which they reminisce because of the potential for&#xA;  emotion regulation and well-being (Penne- baker, 1997; Bluck &amp;amp; Levine,&#xA;  1998). This preference for talking about the past in social&#xA;  interactions with strangers was confirmed in several studies&#xA;  (Pasupathi &amp;amp; Carstensen, 2003). (Bohlmeijer, 2007, p. 41)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bohlmeijer's dissertation gives a comprehensive overview of this area, if you want a quick introduction. It is available for free online (see link below). Serrano's article has been quoted 157 times, according to Google Scholar. Probably some of those articles will provide interesting criticism and more recent research not covered in Bohlmeijer's meta-analysis from five years ago. You can find these articles listed at &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=755348946559422063&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bohlmeijer, E. (2007). &lt;em&gt;Reminiscence and depression in later life&lt;/em&gt; (Dissertation). Am- sterdam: Faculty of Psychology and education, Vrije Universiteit. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/8958357_Effects_of_reminiscence_and_life_review_on_late-life_depression_a_meta-analysis/file/79e4151397c8674185.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/8958357_Effects_of_reminiscence_and_life_review_on_late-life_depression_a_meta-analysis/file/79e4151397c8674185.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-08-30T13:27:37.107" LastActivityDate="2013-08-30T13:27:37.107" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4458" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-30T14:51:47.517" Score="4" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;A person experiences the alternating, intermittent, and temporary, loss of different sensory and motor functioning, such as finding himself unable to see or walk. None of these symptoms are caused by an accident, illness or psychological distress immediately preceding them, but seem to appear at random and with no discernible unifying situational characteristic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's going on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-08-30T15:12:36.700" Title="Why does a person temporarily go blind without any apparent cause?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4459" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4458" CreationDate="2013-08-30T15:12:36.700" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Loss of sensory or motor functioning are possible symptoms of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conversion disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversion disorders usually appear during adolescence and are mostly caused by situations of extreme stress (such as the frontline experience of soldiers). Often the disorders enable the patient to avoid specific tasks or responsibilities or recieve the attention of specific persons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to make sure that the symptoms are not caused by neurological disorders, such as an illness of the central nervous system. Most paralyses and sensory impairments have neurological causes and many are mis-diagnosed as conversion disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-08-30T15:12:36.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4460" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-30T16:05:52.450" Score="2" ViewCount="234" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a situation more frequent in online conversations, where you can type many things before the other person has a chance to reply.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps cognitive load, multi-tasking ability, have something to do with it? At any rate, it does seem like the person &quot;ignores&quot; the other unanswered question at times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3477" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-08-31T06:33:45.240" LastActivityDate="2015-07-17T02:41:02.787" Title="Why do people tend to reply to only one topic when multiple topics are brought up simultaneously?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4461" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4477" CreationDate="2013-08-30T19:37:18.943" Score="3" ViewCount="897" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone where to recite &quot;794 times 869&quot;, they might struggle to retain the numbers pitch perfect in their head as I perform the calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any exercises one could perform to improve his/her visual retention of objects and numbers in their heads?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you hold the number 7859385 in your head for an extended period without the image of the number becoming distorted at any point?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note that I have &lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/q/480155/19341&quot;&gt;cross-posted on Math SE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3478" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:19:23.180" LastActivityDate="2013-09-02T02:46:02.220" Title="Can you retain a large number in your head for an extended period of time without distortion?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4462" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-08-30T20:52:49.337" Score="4" ViewCount="299" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is long-term alcohol use really capable of permanently changing one's thought processes?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In what ways is this possible, and through what physical changes in the brain does this occur?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3475" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-08-31T05:08:24.933" LastActivityDate="2013-09-05T11:17:49.817" Title="Does long-term alcohol use permanently change one's thought processes?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4463" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4432" CreationDate="2013-08-30T20:53:16.767" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So I guess the question is whether such a test can be constructed at&#xA;  all. In other words, is there a category of problems that require some&#xA;  minimal intelligence level to solve them no matter how long one might&#xA;  try. Like the problem that could be solved in a minute by a smarter&#xA;  person but is impenetrable to you no matter how many years you spend&#xA;  thinking about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If that is your question, the answer is no. No problems like this are currently known to exist, and there is reason to believe that such problems will never be found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence in not like &quot;this person can do A&quot; and &quot;this person can do A and B&quot;, but rather more like &quot;this person can do X with medium reliability&quot; and &quot;this person can do X with high readability&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3479" LastActivityDate="2013-08-30T20:53:16.767" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4465" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4466" CreationDate="2013-08-31T05:22:10.137" Score="6" ViewCount="652" Body="&lt;p&gt;During rem sleep there are observed eye movements, which seem like they would correlate with the person visualizing their dreams.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do their eye movements actually try to follow what they're dreaming about?  If so, do the eyes ever actually focus on something?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a person closes their eyes and are thinking, are the eyes actually being used. By this I mean are the muscles moving in accordance with focusing. How is the focal point determined?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-02T05:24:37.120" LastActivityDate="2013-09-02T05:24:37.120" Title="Are closed eye movements related to the content of dreams or the imagination?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4466" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4465" CreationDate="2013-08-31T05:42:52.657" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In regards to actively trying to control your eyes while they are closed, like attempting to do visualization like NLP, I believe that you choose what to focus on and where to focus at, exactly the same as my &quot;pitch black&quot; analogy whereby if you look into, say, a pitch black room, then although you know it's only 15 feet towards the wall, your vision does not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, if you believe that it extends for millions of miles, then you can choose quite easily to focus into the darkness that way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In regards to if you close your eyes and just kind of forget about them without going to sleep...like &quot;resting your eyes&quot;, then I believe Chuck in another answer answered this best in his bottom two paragraphs.  Quick link: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4467/3433&quot;&gt;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4467/3433&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now in regards to during REM sleep, this gets tricky.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did not think I'd find a study that answers your exact question about &quot;how is focal point determined during REM sleep?&quot;.  I'll just start with that study first, then throw in a few others that are related to something called the &quot;scanning hypothesis&quot; which will help to unravel some of your other questions more specifically if they're about REM sleep specifically.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's start off with a definition of the &quot;&lt;strong&gt;scanning hypothesis&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to psychologydictionary.com,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;scanning hypothesis&lt;/strong&gt; is a concept hypothesizing that rapid eye&#xA;  movements identified in the course of the REM stage of sleep correlate&#xA;  to subjective gaze adjustments of the dreamer casting their gaze about&#xA;  in the dream with fixations in particular places.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At first I was worried that all the studies would just focus on this &quot;scanning hypothesis,&quot; then I came across this gem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Exp Brain Res. 1997 Oct;117(1):153-60. &lt;strong&gt;Binocular eye movements not&#xA;  coordinated during REM sleep.&lt;/strong&gt; Zhou W, King WM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Department of Neurology, University of Mississippi Medical Center,&#xA;  Jackson 39216, USA. wuz@vor.umsmed.edu&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Abstract&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rapid eye movements (REMs) are a defining characteristic of REM sleep&#xA;  during which vivid dreams occur. It has been suggested that REMs may&#xA;  be binocularly coordinated and related to &quot;watching&quot; dream images. &lt;strong&gt;For&#xA;  the first time, binocular eye movements were recorded during natural&#xA;  REM sleep in monkeys to test the conjugate nature of the oculomotor&#xA;  system and the &quot;scanning hypothesis&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; of REMs during sleep. During REM&#xA;  sleep, the &lt;strong&gt;lines of sight of the two eyes are frequently misaligned up&#xA;  to 30 degrees horizontally and/or vertically. Since the lines of sight&#xA;  usually don't intersect, &lt;em&gt;there is no fixation point.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; Instead, each eye&#xA;  is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;aimed at a different part of the visual field during REM sleep.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  Furthermore, &lt;strong&gt;REMs are not usually conjugate, but are disjunctive or&#xA;  even monocular in horizontal or vertical directions.&lt;/strong&gt; These data argue&#xA;  against the idea that REMs actually &quot;track&quot; dream images, &lt;em&gt;unless each&#xA;  eye is watching its own dream!&lt;/em&gt; Binocular misalignment and disjunctive&#xA;  (even monocular) REMs during sleep &lt;strong&gt;suggest that separate left eye and&#xA;  right eye pathways generate saccades in each eye and control the&#xA;  position of each eye.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Binocular coordination cannot be the passive&#xA;  result of anatomical connectivity as has been argued previously, but&#xA;  instead must result from a high-level process associated with the&#xA;  awake state that coordinates activity in left-eye and right-eye&#xA;  pathways. Hering's law of equal innervation is not consistent with&#xA;  these data.&lt;/strong&gt; PMID: 9386014 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apparently also, part of the &quot;scanning hypothesis&quot; is that your eyes are trying to track down something...in other words fixate upon it...which would cause them to focus.  This results from this study say no to that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, as far as...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;By this I mean are the muscles moving in accordance with focusing.&#xA;  How is the focal point determined?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...during REM sleep, &lt;strong&gt;this study says that there is no fixation upon one thing and thus there is no focal point.  So, no, according to this study the muscles are not moving in accordance with focusing.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a precursor to this study, a definition of &quot;rapid eye movement disorder&quot; is good to know.  So here is wikipedia's definition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rapid eye movement disorder is a sleep disorder (more specifically a parasomnia) that &#xA;  involves abnormal behaviour during the sleep phase with rapid eye movement&#xA;  (REM) sleep. It was first described in 1986. The major and arguably&#xA;  only abnormal feature of RBD is loss of muscle atonia (paralysis)&#xA;  during otherwise intact REM sleep. This is the stage of sleep in which&#xA;  most vivid dreaming occurs. &lt;strong&gt;The loss of motor inhibition leads to a&#xA;  wide spectrum of behavioural release during sleep. This extends from&#xA;  simple limb twitches to more complex integrated movement, in which&#xA;  sufferers appear to be unconsciously acting out their dreams.&lt;/strong&gt; These&#xA;  behaviours can be violent in nature and in some cases will result in&#xA;  injury to either the patient or their bed partner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's important to note the difference between the first study which was done in 1997 and this one done in 2010.  Perhaps the overall definition of the &quot;scanning hypothesis&quot; changed, or there is slight subjectivity to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, in the first study the author says, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;It has been suggested that REMs may&#xA;  be binocularly coordinated and related to &quot;watching&quot; dream images. For&#xA;  the first time, &lt;strong&gt;binocular eye movements were recorded during natural&#xA;  REM sleep in monkeys to test the conjugate nature of the oculomotor&#xA;  system and the &lt;em&gt;&quot;scanning hypothesis&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of REMs during sleep.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So he's trying to test the &quot;scanning hypothesis&quot; by looking to see if the monkeys actually do focus on something by looking to see if the eyes are working together (ie. trying to triangulate distance and thus focus) are actually working together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now these French people (they always seem to have creative ideas actually) admit that the &quot;scanning hypothesis&quot; has been testing in this way...as in...by monitoring the muscles in the eyes.  So they're taking a different approach and (cleverly might I add) exploiting people who essentially have a disorder that is very similar to sleepwalking...but they lay in bed...THEN they are mixing in control patients who are normal so that they can compare the two and use that mixture to extrapolate it to the normal population as well &amp;amp; noone can criticize them for only using patients with that 1st specific disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They're looking to see how their eyes align/what direction they move to when they are acting out certain motions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Brain. 2010 Jun;133(Pt 6):1737-46. doi: 10.1093/brain/awq110. Epub&#xA;  2010 May 16.&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Do the eyes scan dream images during rapid eye movement sleep? Evidence from the rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder model.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  Leclair-Visonneau L, Oudiette D, Gaymard B, Leu-Semenescu S, Arnulf I.&#xA;  Source Sleep Disorder Unit, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Assistance&#xA;  Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, 75013 Paris, France.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Erratum in Brain. 2011 Jul;134(Pt 7):1286. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Abstract &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rapid eye movements and complex visual dreams are salient&#xA;  features of human rapid eye movement sleep. However, &lt;strong&gt;it remains to be&#xA;  elucidated whether the eyes scan dream images, &lt;em&gt;despite studies that&#xA;  have retrospectively compared the direction of rapid eye movements to&#xA;  the dream recall recorded after having awakened the sleeper.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;We used&#xA;  the model of rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder (when&#xA;  patients enact their dreams by persistence of muscle tone) to&#xA;  determine directly whether the &lt;em&gt;eyes move in the same directions as the&#xA;  head and limbs&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/strong&gt; In 56 patients with rapid eye movement sleep behaviour&#xA;  disorder and 17 healthy matched controls, the eye movements were&#xA;  monitored by electrooculography in four (right, left, up and down)&#xA;  directions, calibrated with a target and synchronized with video and&#xA;  sleep monitoring. The rapid eye movement sleep behaviour&#xA;  disorder-associated behaviours occurred 2.1 times more frequently&#xA;  during rapid eye movement sleep with than without rapid eye movements,&#xA;  and more often during or after rapid eye movements than before. &lt;strong&gt;Rapid&#xA;  eye movement density, index and complexity were similar in patients&#xA;  with rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder and controls.&lt;/strong&gt; When&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;rapid eye movements accompanied goal-oriented motor behaviour during&#xA;  rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder (e.g. grabbing a fictive&#xA;  object, hand greetings, climbing a ladder), which happened in 19&#xA;  sequences, 82% were directed towards the action of the patient&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;(same&#xA;  plane and direction) (Taal Note: Note what they just said in parenthesis)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. When restricted to the determinant rapid eye&#xA;  movements, the concordance increased to 90%. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Rapid eye movements were&#xA;  absent in 38-42% of behaviours.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;This directional coherence between&#xA;  limbs, head and eye movements during rapid eye movement sleep&#xA;  behaviour disorder suggests that, when present, rapid eye movements&#xA;  imitate the scanning of the dream scene.&lt;/em&gt; Since the rapid eye movements&#xA;  are similar in subjects with and without rapid eye movement sleep&#xA;  behaviour disorder, this concordance can be extended to normal rapid&#xA;  eye movement sleep.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So,&#xA;1) Although behavioral movements and what the eyes are doing do not always seem to correlate: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Rapid eye movements were absent in 38-42% of behaviours.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When they do correlate at least during goal-oriented motor behavior, they do &quot;imitate the 'scanning' of the dream scene.&quot; And that seems to happen about 82-90% of the time when they do this sort of behavior.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The math confuses me there as well though in contrast to how 38-42% of movements were absent of eye moments as well, but I believe the discretion is due to using the control vs. disordered group and lumping different group(s) into different calculated percentages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now also note above that when the goal-oriented behavior occurred and the eyes reflected this, they did so in the &quot;same &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;plane&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and direction.&quot;  This was peculiar as the word &quot;plane&quot; could mean horizontal or vertical plane I believe...it could also mean focal plane.  I wish they distinguished that better - I'm going to hypothesize it was just either the vertical or horizontal plane so that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In essence, a large part of the time people are acting out their behaviors when asleep the eyes correspond highly to the direction, but only to one plane, which means there wasn't really focal point - as you'd need to correspond to both the horizontal and vertical planes then.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-08-31T07:40:57.273" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4467" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4465" CreationDate="2013-08-31T05:44:24.663" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been theorized that it has to do with &amp;quot;visualizing&amp;quot; dreams, but the movements themselves are by virtue of the pattern of electrical activity as the waves travel between the Pons (in the brainstem), Geniculate nuclei (in the thalamus), and Occipital lobe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGO_waves&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PGO Waves&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PGO waves and REM sleep&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PGO waves are an integral part of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. As stated earlier, the density of the PGO waves coincides with the amount of eye movement measured in REM sleep. This has led some researchers to further theorize about the usefulness of PGO waves for dreaming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One key use of REM sleep is for the brain to process and store information from the previous day. In a sense, the brain is learning by establishing new neuronal connections for things that have been learned. Neurophysiological studies have indicated a relationship between increased P-wave density during post-training REM sleep and learning performance.  Basically, the abundance of PGO waves translates into longer periods of REM sleep, which thereby allows the brain to have longer periods where neuronal connections are formed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The importance of PGO waves during REM sleep also aids the idea of PGO waves as a signal that a person is dreaming.  Since dreaming occurs during REM sleep, the PGO waves are theorized to be the signals that make the brain start to recount the experiences from the previous day. This, in turn, allows us to &amp;quot;see&amp;quot; our dreams since our visual sense is quickly going through the information it has stored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, the eyes are moving by virtue of the brain activity, not the other way around.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the fact that we are &amp;quot;seeing&amp;quot; is only in the abstract sense, and there's not really a specific point of focus that the eyes are following.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as the second point goes, you are speaking of the concept of &amp;quot;vergence&amp;quot;, where the eyes are moving to attend to a stimulus.  It turns out that in the dark, according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://arapaho.nsuok.edu/%7Esalmonto/vs3_materials/Lecture4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this lecture&lt;/a&gt;, the eyes are reflexively brought parallel:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simply being conscious, even without a visual stimulus (i.e., in the dark, or with the eye closed), will cause innervation to the muscles that brings the eyes to a nearly parallel (or slightly &lt;em&gt;eso&lt;/em&gt;) orientation. This is known as&#xA;tonic vergence. It is also called dark vergence&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-08-31T06:50:36.360" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4469" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4470" CreationDate="2013-08-31T08:38:12.847" Score="8" ViewCount="501" Body="&lt;p&gt;How effective have cognitive behavioral therapy type techniques been shown and proven to work for anxiety based on published literature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Citations please.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-02T01:56:51.797" LastActivityDate="2019-05-11T10:35:44.160" Title="How effective is cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4470" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4469" CreationDate="2013-08-31T08:38:12.847" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Meta-analyses are usually pretty accurate, as they essentially bring together the data from many studies that investigate the same topic of interest together and use statistical methods to effectively get the most conclusive answer possible, throughout all of the studies assessed, just HOW effective is a certain treatment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For your specific question, there's one in particular that strongly supports CBT for anxiety.  It looks at 71 different studies (that's a ton).  It also investigates it's effectiveness in a variety of different environments and versions of it's therapy.&#xA; It was even published only last month.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clin Psychol Rev. 2013 Jul 20;33(8):954-964. doi:&#xA;  10.1016/j.cpr.2013.07.003. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A meta-analysis of nonrandomized effectiveness studies on outpatient cognitive behavioral&#xA;  therapy for adult anxiety disorders.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Hans E, Hiller W. Source&#xA;  Department of Clinical Psychology, Johannes Gutenberg University&#xA;  Mainz, Germany.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Electronic address: hans@uni-mainz.de.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Abstract&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;OBJECTIVE:&lt;/strong&gt; The primary aim of this study was to assess the overall&#xA;  effectiveness of individual and group outpatient cognitive behavioral&#xA;  therapy (CBT) for adults with a primary anxiety disorder in routine&#xA;  clinical practice.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;strong&gt;METHOD:&lt;/strong&gt; We conducted a random effects meta-analysis&#xA;  of 71 nonrandomized effectiveness studies on outpatient individual and&#xA;  group CBT for adult anxiety disorders. Standardized mean gain effect&#xA;  sizes pre- to posttreatment, and posttreatment to follow-up are&#xA;  reported for disorder-specific symptoms, depression, and general&#xA;  anxiety. The mean dropout from CBT is reported.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;strong&gt;RESULTS:&lt;/strong&gt; Outpatient&#xA;  CBT was effective in reducing disorder-specific symptoms in completer&#xA;  (d=0.90-1.91) and intention-to-treat samples (d=0.67-1.45). Moderate&#xA;  to large (d=0.54-1.09) and small to large effect sizes (d=0.42-0.97)&#xA;  were found for depressive and general anxiety symptoms posttreatment.&#xA;  Across all anxiety disorders, the weighted mean dropout rate was&#xA;  15.06%. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Posttreatment gains for disorder-specific anxiety were maintained 12months after completion of therapy.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;CONCLUSIONS:&lt;/strong&gt; ****CBT for&#xA;  adult anxiety disorders is very effective and widely accepted in&#xA;  routine practice settings.**** However, the methodological and reporting&#xA;  quality of nonrandomized effectiveness studies must be improved. ©&#xA;  2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Across 71 studies, the conclusion used the word &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;very effective,&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; which is very rare to see in any study in the conclusions section, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;especially a meta-analysis&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;,  the weighted mean dropout rate across all different types of its application was only 15.06%, AND gains were generally maintained for 12 months (maybe more, I don't have full text) after beginning therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only caveat they mention is that the methodology and reporting quality must be improved, but I feel that's a general trait that almost all studies need improvement in.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Plus when you investigate SEVENTY-ONE (71) studies, statistical laws start to take over anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on this, I'd have to say that there is very, very strong evidence that Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is an effective treatment for anxiety disorders.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, and as an analogy, it's almost just as if not more proven than using aspirin or acetaminophen to relieve a simple headache.  It just works according to the literature, which, if you have that many studies then &quot;routine clinical analysis&quot; really does become reality.  More and more clinical psychologists are switching over to this method or attempting to make some sort of derivative of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fQTw4.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-08-31T10:24:35.507" LastActivityDate="2013-08-31T10:24:35.507" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4471" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4461" CreationDate="2013-08-31T19:40:43.470" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, you can train your memory to be better at certain tasks, such as remembering numbers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example Ericcson et. al. (1980) describe a university student who practiced memorizing numbers several times per week for twenty months and could then memorize and recall more than 70 digits reliably.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would not recommend such however if you are looking for general purpose memory function. The benefits gained from cognitive training are shallow and do not transfer from one skill to another. For example, while the student was a genius at memorizing numbers, when asked to memorize letters he was not better than a normal person&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ericcson KA, Chase WG, Faloon S (June 1980). &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/chasepapers/Acquisition%20of%20a%20Memory%20Skill.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Acquisition of a memory skill&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Science 208 (4448): 1181–2. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3480" LastActivityDate="2013-08-31T19:40:43.470" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4473" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4500" CreationDate="2013-09-01T01:56:25.517" Score="10" ViewCount="3320" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does Hypnosis Work for Treating, or Curing, any Form of any Mental Disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say my definition of hypnosis is related mostly to the classical way people think about it.  This is subjective of course, but I've purposefully made it that way. I do realize at times it may overlap into other types of therapy as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there are other forms of hypnosis I'd like to hear about those too though!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Citation/Research Wise:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'd like to know if its backed by literature.  I want the specific citation's abstract   quoted.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'd like to know their findings, conclusions, and methodologies and your analysis of that.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'd like to know how long the treatments lasted after they stopped being hypnotized.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'd like to know how effective it was for whatever specific goals that it was used to treat.  How long did the affects last if there were any?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'd like to know if you found any potential errors or flaws in the study - and you're overall analysis of that.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Citing Wikipedia is not an acceptable answer or comment as it is not a reputable source, it's citations are.  If you are going to do that, pick the most compelling and valid studies (no matter the disorder), or something like a meta analysis that Wikipedia cites and then post that along with the answer to the above questions.  Thanks.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anecdotally:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'd like to know what it feels like to be hypnotized if you've had the experience of it.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'd like to know why if it worked really well for you then why did you stop doing it or have you actually continued?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be any disorder of any kind, just as long as someone could classify it as a psychological &quot;problem&quot; in some context.  The more angles you come at it with the better though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-09-04T20:05:55.320" LastActivityDate="2020-04-27T18:42:35.873" Title="Does hypnotherapy/hypnosis, in any form, for any type of disorder, work?" Tags="&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4475" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4422" CreationDate="2013-09-01T19:36:50.753" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In some form yes if patient is mesmerized by visual heartbeats, acording to Sciencedaily. Also is connected to someones beliefs. But in my opinion could also be induced by drugs in mices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, out of body experience could be umbrella term for more than one phenomenon. Some of them could be caused by hypnotics, some not. I'm not sure if those experiments could negate afterlife, because all of them are conducted while subject is alive. It is not that kind of experimental design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Jane Aspell and Lukas Heydrich. Turning body and self inside out: Visualized heartbeats alter bodily self-consciousness and tactile perception. Psychological Science, 2013&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) University of Manchester. &quot;'Out-of-body' Experiences May Come From Within.&quot; ScienceDaily, 24 Aug. 2005. Web. 1 Sep. 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) Jason J. Braithwaite, Dana Samson, Ian Apperly, Emma Broglia, Johan Hulleman. Cognitive correlates of the spontaneous out-of-body experience (OBE) in the psychologically normal population: Evidence for an increased role of temporal-lobe instability, body-distortion processing, and impairments in own-body transformations. Cortex, 2011;**&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) Disturbances In Brain.&quot; ScienceDaily, 6 Mar. 2007. Web. 1 Sep. 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/110/35/14432&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/110/35/14432&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-09-01T19:36:50.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4476" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-02T02:14:04.310" Score="7" ViewCount="1012" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;We had the funny situation where an &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4450/how-important-is-eye-contact-for-attraction-between-a-man-and-woman&quot;&gt;ambiguous question&lt;/a&gt; was asked and then edited to go two ways. Thus, I've reposted the edited version of the question that was not retained, particularly so that the answer that was posted there by @what will have a more natural home here.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How important is eye contact for hypnotism? What is the optimal eye locking duration between 2 persons for inducing hypnotism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2017-07-01T11:33:02.223" Title="How important is eye contact for hypnotism?" Tags="&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4477" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4461" CreationDate="2013-09-02T02:45:52.453" Score="1" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Retaining a large number&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can you hold the number 7859385 in your head for an extended period without the image of the number becoming distorted at any point?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long term memory of a single long number&lt;/strong&gt;: Obviously a large proportion of people remember a few phone numbers that are at least as long as the number you mention. So for long term recall there are many strategies for retaining long sequences of digits: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;practice seeing the number and trying to recall the number&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;try deeper encoding strategies that try to give some structure or meaning to the number&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A focussed desire to retain the number&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sustained short term memory of a single long number:&lt;/strong&gt; However, it seems like you are talking about scenarios where you are trying to hold some arbitrary large number in your head and that number is different from occasion to occasion. In general, there are many &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_span#Digit-span&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;studies on digit span&lt;/a&gt; which look at the length of numbers that can be reliably retained in working memory by normal untrained participants. The traditional claim is that people can hold sequences of digits between about 5 and 9 in their head, but presumably this would depend on a number of factors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, distraction can often destroy the contents of working memory. Distraction can often come from external sources, but could even be internally driven.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of mathematics, the need to perform other steps in a calculation are a good reason to store intermediate steps externally (e.g., on paper, whiteboard, computer). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Training&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there any exercises one could perform to improve his/her visual retention of objects and numbers in their heads?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Training of of short term memory of single long numbers:&lt;/strong&gt; The Ericcson et al study mentioned by John Henry is a classic study in the expertise literature. The participant was a runner and used a mnemonic strategy based on running times to be able to increase their digit span to well above normal levels. As @John mentions, this skill did not transfer to memory for other objects. It was not a fundamental change to intelligence or working memory capacity. Rather it was a modification to the way that numbers were processed that enabled greater meaning to be given to numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General thoughts:&lt;/strong&gt; I would not specifically try to learn how to retain numbers in your head, unless that's a party trick that you think would be fun. If you want to get better at a particular form of mathematics, then practice doing problems in that area. In that case, the problem space itself is likely to suggest what you should retain in long term memory, and what can be computed. Or there may be particular problems where you make a deliberate effort to retain in long term memory (e.g., the first few digits of $\pi$ or $e$). Similarly, the more time you spend doing mathematics, the more meaning that will be associated with numbers. In general, richly interconnected mental objects are easier to recall and manipulate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-09-02T02:45:52.453" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4478" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4476" CreationDate="2013-09-02T04:41:04.877" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are different kinds of hypnosis. In therapeutic settings traditional, or classic, hypnosis is differentiated from modern, Ericksonian hypnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Traditional hypnosis&lt;/strong&gt;, as it has been used from Mesmer to Freud, is based on direct commands. The hypnotist usually acts in a dominant manner and uses eye contact, pendulums, fixation of the index finger etc. to induce the trance. Advantages of traditional hypnosis are quick induction of trance and often a quick deepening of trance. Disadvantages are that not everybody is susceptible to this kind of hypnosis. Show hypnotists use traditional hypnosis, but they preselect their subjects to work with those susceptible to direct commands. Direct induction is also popular in the context of NLP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Braid_%28surgeon%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;James Braid&lt;/a&gt; explains the eye fixation method of trance induction in &lt;em&gt;Neurypnology&lt;/em&gt; (1843):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Take any bright object (I generally use my lancet case) between the&#xA;  thumb and fore and middle fingers of the left hand; hold it from about&#xA;  eight to fifteen inches from the eyes, at such position above the&#xA;  forehead as may be necessary to produce the greatest possible strain&#xA;  upon the eyes and eyelids, and enable the patient to maintain a steady&#xA;  fixed stare at the object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The patient must be made to understand that he is to keep the eyes&#xA;  steadily fixed on the object, and the mind riveted on the idea of that&#xA;  one object. (p. 27)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BZAvy.gif&quot; alt=&quot;James Braid inducing a trance with the eye fixation method&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;James Braid inducing a trance with the eye fixation method&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambroise-Auguste_Li%C3%A9beault&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault&lt;/a&gt;, founder of the Nancy school of hypnosis in the 19th century (distinguished from the Paris school around Charcot at the Salpêtrière), used &lt;em&gt;eye contact&lt;/em&gt; to induce a hypnotic trance in his patients. (Kossak, 2004, &lt;em&gt;Hypnose: Lehrbuch für Psychotherapeuten und Ärzte&lt;/em&gt;, Weinheim: Beltz, p. 22)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Modern or &lt;strong&gt;Ericksonian hypnosis&lt;/strong&gt;, developed during the 20th century, mainly by Milton H. Erickson, does not use any auxiliary means. Trance is induced indirectly during conversation. The client falls into trance slowly and without noticing. Advantages are a pleasant feeling during trance and a better acceptance than during traditional hynosis. Also, a dialogue with the unconscious is easier in modern hypnosis. A disadvantage is that the trance is usually not very deep (usually a medium depth).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapists often use a combination of both methods to utilize the advantages of both methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question, while eye contact is &lt;strong&gt;unnecessary&lt;/strong&gt; – Milton H. Erickson, in &lt;em&gt;Hypnotic Realities&lt;/em&gt;, says that &quot;often the therapist does not even look at the patient's face&quot; –, it is one of several methods for inducing quick and deep trances in suitable subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know that there is an &quot;optimal eye locking duration&quot;, as the time to fall into trance – and thus the time of fixation, if the eye fixation method is used – varies with the &quot;hypnotizability&quot; of the subject. James Braid (&lt;em&gt;Neurypnology&lt;/em&gt;, 1943, p. 27) describes that &quot;[a]fter &lt;strong&gt;ten or fifteen seconds&lt;/strong&gt; have elapsed, by gently elevating the arms and legs, it will be found that the patient has a disposition to retain them in the situation in which they have been placed, if he is intensely affected&quot;, but then continues to describe how to proceed if the subject has not fallen into a trance after that period of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-09-03T18:59:29.230" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T18:59:29.230" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4481" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4076" CreationDate="2013-09-02T11:44:02.620" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suicide is always a complex issue with many factors combining to put a person in a position whereby they feel that they have no alternative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is dangerous to simplify this and say &quot;she killed herself because she was being bullied online&quot; because the majority of young people who are affected so severely by online bullying have underlying vulnerabilities which make the effect of the bullying worse. For example, Megan Meier, who committed suicide in 2006 following MySpace bullying and humiliation, was already an incredibly vulnerable young person who had been on medication for depression for some time before she died.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your specific questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why do teenagers take the Internet so seriously?&lt;/strong&gt; Because young people do not differentiate between what is the Internet and what is real life. To them, the Internet IS real life. Popularity is no longer measured by the number of friends you have in the playground or whether you hang out with the 'cool' kids, but by how many facebook friends you have, how many likes your latest status got, how many 'kiks' you have and how many people ask you questions on Ask.fm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it because they are attached too much to the internet?&lt;/strong&gt; No, it's because the Internet is an integral part of their lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are they trying to escape real life by building virtual worlds?&lt;/strong&gt; They may be looking to 'fill a gap' in their offline life by building up a large number of 'virtual' friends to share their secrets with in an anonymous environment where they are judged only by their number of friends, not by looks or social status.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any study research on this?&lt;/strong&gt; Lots! Forget academia, look at media literacy surveys and interviews with kids about their social media lives including this one by McAfee: &lt;a href=&quot;http://promos.mcafee.com/en-US/PDF/lives_of_teens.pdf&quot;&gt;http://promos.mcafee.com/en-US/PDF/lives_of_teens.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3486" LastActivityDate="2013-09-02T11:44:02.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4482" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-02T14:39:07.497" Score="5" ViewCount="264" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading on deindividuation and its relation to self awareness. In many places, in the text that I am reading, it is mentioned that experiments were conducted to measure the effect of self-awareness on deindividuation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been trying to think about this but have so far not been able understand as to how self-awareness can be controlled as a variable in such experiments. So, in laboratory settings, and without using alcohol or other substances, how can self-awareness of an individual be varied, controlled and measured as an independent variable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried searching for this as well, but I couldn't find anything helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T01:03:10.843" Title="How can self-awareness be controlled and varied in a laboratory setting?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4483" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4485" CreationDate="2013-09-02T20:39:41.680" Score="9" ViewCount="46377" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am having a hard time grasping how IQ scores are calculated. I think it has something to do with their age score ratio multiplied by 100.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Say I have a test that holds 30 questions. How would I generate from that test an IQ score?&#xA;Would each question be worth 1 point? Then I would divide by age and multiply by 100?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if someone got 26 questions correct and they were 18 it would be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;26 / 18 = 1.44&#xA;1.44 * 100 = 144&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this the general way of doing things?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have researched the internet with no definitive answer to this even on wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3488" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-03T07:23:12.513" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T07:50:17.727" Title="How to calculate IQ score based on raw score and adjust for age?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4484" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4428" CreationDate="2013-09-02T23:19:43.360" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The measures of dysthymia are similar to that for major depression. Dysthymia is not as acute as major depression and one of the key indicators for diagnosis is that it is persistent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000918.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dysthymia&lt;/a&gt; is a chronic type of depression in which a person's moods are regularly low. However, symptoms are not as severe as with major depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main symptom of dysthymia is a low, dark, or sad mood on most days&#xA;for at least 2 years. In children and adolescents, the mood can be&#xA;irritable instead of depressed and lasts for at least 1 year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, two or more of the following symptoms will be present&#xA;almost all of the time that a person has dysthymia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feelings of hopelessness Too little or too much sleep Low energy or&#xA;fatigue Low self-esteem Poor appetite or overeating Poor concentration&#xA;People with dysthymia will often take a negative or discouraging view&#xA;of themselves, their future, other people, and life events. Problems&#xA;often seem more difficult to solve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Much of the treatment involves good mental and physical health practices. Exercise, diet sleep, taking up hobbies, having a balance between work and play.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Professional therapy my also assist, in helping the individual to work through underlying causes of unhappiness, such as destructive behavioural patterns, unresolved conflicts, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SSRIs have proven to be an effective treatment for dysthymia. It should be noted that the standard treatment for dysthymia is considerably longer than for major depression. This could be because of the fact it is a debilitating, long term condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.depressionplace.com/dysthymia.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;treatment of dysthymia&lt;/a&gt; with medication:&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;When antidepressants are prescribed for dysthymia, the treatment lasts for up to five (5) years (range: 2 to 5 years). This is much longer than the treatment time for major depression (range: 6 to 18 months). Until the availability of the SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) medications, it was difficult to keep a dysthymic person on medication for the several years needed to treat the condition. SSRIs have fewer side effects than the older types of medications for depression, namely the MAOI (monoamine oxidase inhibitor) medications and the TCA (tricyclic antidepressant) medications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-09-02T23:19:43.360" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4485" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4483" CreationDate="2013-09-03T00:22:17.787" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;IQ scores in general:&lt;/strong&gt; An IQ score is a normative score. The norm group is typically defined as the general population, and where the respondent is a child, the norm group is defined in terms of the general population of children of that same age. IQ scores typically have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to get an estimate of performance on the test of a norm group, it is necessary to get a sample from that population. Large and unbiased samples from the population are preferred. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before discussing how to get IQ scores for children, let's focus on adults where there is no age adjustment. Assume we get a sample of 1,000 adult participants that is hopefully representative of a given adult population and we administer the intelligence test to the participants. We score the test and we then get a set of raw test scores. The most common scoring system is one point per correct question, but many other systems are possible including penalising for incorrect answers, weighting some questions more than others, and so on. Once you have raw scores, there are now several options for creating a norm table that converts raw scores into IQ scores. The simplest approach is to get the raw mean and standard deviation, convert to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_score&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;z-scores&lt;/a&gt;, and then convert to IQ units:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\begin{array}{c} {z_i}{\rm{ \;=\; }}\frac{{{\rm{x}}_i}{\rm{ \;-\; }}{{\rm{MEAN}}}}{{\rm{SD}}}\\ {\rm{IQ}_i}{\rm{ \;= 100 }} +{\rm{ }}{z_i}{} \times {\rm{ 15}} \end{array}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where MEAN is the mean of the normative sample, SD is the SD of the normative sample, $x_i$ is the the score of respondent $i$, $z_i$ is respondent $i$'s z-score, and $\rm{IQ}_i$ is participant $i$'s IQ score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Angoff (1984, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/Angoff.Scales.Norms.Equiv.Scores.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;text is available online for free from ETS&lt;/a&gt;) calls this the linear transformation (standard scores) approach. There are more advanced methods which you can read about in Angoff (1984) such as percentile-derived linear scale, percentile rank scale, normalised scale. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Age adjustments:&lt;/strong&gt; Angoff (1984) also discusses how to construct age equivalent norms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, if you want to get IQ scores for children, then your aim is to estimate the distribution of raw test scores in the general population for each age group of interest. There are various ways of doing this. The simplest approach is to get large samples of children at each year age of interest, and get means and standard deviations, and use them as above as appropriate. A more sophisticated approach involves smoothing the data to get an estimate of the systematic changes in both the mean and the standard deviation with age. Such a smoothed model can also be applied to get more fine grained estimates of a child who is say not exactly 10 years old, but rather 10 years and 5 months. There are many variations on this approach, and there are many issues to consider regarding the applicability of the same intelligence test to adults and children, especially as you get towards early childhood. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also this earlier question about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3595/how-iq-is-calculated-by-age?rq=1&quot;&gt;Raven's Matrices and age adjusted norms&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Angoff, W. (1984). Scales, norms, and equivalent scores. Educational Measurement: Origins, Theories, and Explications, 2, 121. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/Angoff.Scales.Norms.Equiv.Scores.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-09-06T11:48:06.173" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4486" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4482" CreationDate="2013-09-03T01:03:10.843" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure about a direct connection to research on deindividuation, but in general self awareness, sense of ownership and sense of agency can be altered by experimental methodologies that manipulate the perceived relationship between actions and the effects of those actions. These types of experiments are sometimes called behavioural illusions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common example of this is the rubber hand illusion, where participants are shown a fake hand that is stroked by a brush and end up experiencing sensations of being brushed in their own hand. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxwn1w7MJvk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxwn1w7MJvk&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The original paper on this is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Botvinick, M., &amp;amp; Cohen, J. (1998). Rubber hands ‘feel’ touch that eyes see. Nature, 391(6669), 756. doi:10.1038/35784&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there are many other types of behavioural illusions...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subliminal or perceivable primes can influence participants' experiences of self generated actions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aarts, H., Custers, R., &amp;amp; Wegner, D. M. (2005). On the inference of personal authorship: Enhancing experienced agency by priming effect information. Consciousness and Cognition, 14(3), 439–458. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2004.11.001&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dijksterhuis, A., Preston, J., Wegner, D. M., &amp;amp; Aarts, H. (2008). Effects of subliminal priming of self and God on self-attribution of authorship for events. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(1), 2–9. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.01.003&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Providing false or virtual representations of participants limbs can lead to changed feelings of ownership and agency for those limbs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wegner, D. M., Sparrow, B., &amp;amp; Winerman, L. (2004). Vicarious agency: Experiencing control over the movements of others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(6), 838–48. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.6.838&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Slater, M., Perez-Marcos, D., Ehrsson, H. H., &amp;amp; Sanchez-Vives, M. V. (2009). Inducing illusory ownership of a virtual body. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 3(2), 214–220. doi:10.3389/neuro.01.029.2009&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and hypnosis can also be used to alter self awareness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Connors, M. H., Barnier, A. J., Coltheart, M., Cox, R. E., &amp;amp; Langdon, R. (2012). Mirrored-self misidentification in the hypnosis laboratory: Recreating the delusion from its component factors. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 17(2), 151–176. doi:10.1080/13546805.2011.582287&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McConkey, K. M., Szeps, A., &amp;amp; Barnier, A. J. (2001). Indexing the experience of sex change in hypnosis and imagination. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 49(2), 123–138.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rahmanovic, A., Barnier, A. J., Cox, R. E., Langdon, R. A., &amp;amp; Coltheart, M. (2012). That’s not my arm: A hypnotic analogue of somatoparaphrenia. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 17(1), 36–63.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, there aren't really any standardised measures for specifically measuring self awareness. In most of these studies participants are simply asked to describe experience or rate, for example, how in control they felt. A scale was recently developed to measure sense of agency in hypnosis and this should also be adaptable to other contexts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Polito, V., Barnier, A. J., &amp;amp; Woody, E. Z. (2013). Developing the Sense of Agency Rating Scale (SOARS): An empirical measure of agency disruption in hypnosis. Consciousness and Cognition, 22(3), 684–696. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2013.04.003&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="406" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T01:03:10.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4488" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4422" CreationDate="2013-09-03T02:00:02.477" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some of the experiences you are describing (e.g., psychedelic states, daydreaming and sleep) are examples of Altered States of Consciousness. These states may share common features but it is probably not useful to try and reduce them to all being instances of the same phenomenon. Charles Tart wrote extensively on this topic in the 1960s and 1970s and his book 'Altered States of Consciousness' is a classic text in this area. He described altered states as discrete phenomena that involve variations in the activity of a range of psychological subsystems (e.g., sense of time, memory, attentiveness, space perception). Tart recorded many objective and subjective measurements of these subsystems in non-clinical participants whilst they were in varying states of consciousness and plotted the results in a series of two dimensional charts comparing various combinations of subsystems like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fwO0V.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Tart's concept of experiental space&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it seems likelt that OBEs and the subjective experience of ESP may occur in a range of altered states of consciousness. OBEs themselves might even be considered an altered state of consciousness. Some of these effects could probably be described as hallucinations and they might sometimes occur in dayreaming but it doesn't seem they are the same thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tart references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tart, C. T. (1975). States of Consciousness (1st ed.). New York: E. P. Dutton.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tart, C. T. (1990). Altered States of Consciousness (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Harper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="406" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T02:00:02.477" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4489" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4289" CreationDate="2013-09-03T07:09:24.640" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Disclaimer: Obviously this is not legal advice. It is just a few thoughts about what may or may not be true, let alone the fact that legal questions are intimately tied up with particular jurisdictions and so on.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What elements of a cognitive test are copyright?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part of violating copyright is actually copying. So if you actually copy any specific part of the test, such as specific item wording, or images, or instructions, then you might be in trouble. Likewise, many test names if they are not generic might have a range of intellectual property protection including copyright, trademarks, and passing off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast taking inspiration from the the idea for a test and building your own seems a lot less likely to breach copyright. It's even better if instead of copying the idea for a test you are able to understand the scientific literature and appreciate that a certain type of test has been developed by many people already. You then take inspiration for the type of test from the literature rather than copying a particular test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To follow on from your example, &quot;digit span&quot;  is an example of a common experimental task. There are many others (e.g., simple and choice reaction time, stroop tasks, various sensory discrimination tasks, etc.). Likewise, in the case of intelligence tests, there are huge numbers of subtests or item types which are not owned by anyone in particular, such as vocabulary items, analogies, general knowledge, simple mathematical questions, and so on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can make tests involving these kinds of tests without having to copy any particular existing test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise with all these tests there are many decisions that the test developer needs to make including specific item content, which subtests will go together, what to call the tests, how many response options to include, how many items to retain, what difficulty to choose, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are serious about developing a cognitive test battery then you would need to think about these ideas. You would also want to be informed about psychometrics and the many approaches that have been adopted for creating tests of a given type. With this knowledge and a plan you would not need to copy any one test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to buy the rights to a test to adapt it?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine that if you offer enough money to the owner of the test copyright, then they would generally allow you to do this. Presumably the cost of such a deal would depend on what your planned use of the test would be. If you just want to adapt a test for your own research, then that does not challenge their business model. In fact, you sometimes might be able to do this as long as you pay for each test use or whatever the licensing scheme is. However, if you want to sell a  product that competes against their, then presumably that would cost a lot more. By way of example, I remember hearing about a case study of how a US commercial personality test was adapted to the Australian market. Australian norms were developed and some minor wording changes were made. I don't know the details of the commercial arrangement, but it clearly shows that it is possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an academic context, there are many tests that are free to use, and the implied rights of use are often a little ambiguous. Academics often adapt such tests for their specific research purposes. It makes sense in this case to talk to the academic who developed the test to see whether they mind you performing the adaptation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-03T07:18:08.663" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T07:18:08.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4490" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4073" CreationDate="2013-09-03T08:03:43.140" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You seem to be describing different ways go about thinking about things in the general description of your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm going to think about it (ironic, ha) and your specific questions as generally in the context of the title of the topic and as how you first tend to describe it, or I interpreted it at first glance, which is over-complicating or over-analyzing things - which can be very subjective actually.  I may be way off in regards to your question though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is this a known condition?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've heard many times in general productivity type books the phrase &quot;paralysis by analysis&quot; used.  No formal term I know of unless the other answers have defined/found one.  I experience this when I'm not on cogsci to distract me actually, lol.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What, neurologically, may cause this in the brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I've found in my experience, and to be specific without a citation (hope noone calls me out here), I would say the GABAA-ρ subclass receptors being stimulated or not to the correct intensity.  I'll just leave it at that...heh.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Could this be some form of &quot;retardation&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure how you're defining retardation.  Retardation, to me, is an extremely serious condition and is very obvious to anyone else - kind of like certain effects of down syndrome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're defining it as an type of physiological state...like if someone was excessively drunk, then I suppose so.  I would generally look at it as being defined by the meaning of the words its made up of in Latin: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From Middle English, from Anglo-Norman or Latin, from Anglo-Norman&#xA;  retarder, from Latin retardāre (“to retard”), from re- + tardus&#xA;  (“slow”)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, &quot;slow thinking&quot; is how I would think it - you seem to explain a phenomenon where too much fast thinking happens at once to the point of confusion or just different ways people go about thinking about things.  It seems like retardation would not be a characteristic of what you explain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there ways to improve this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to go with a practical answer here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Writing everything down on paper helps a lot.  There was actually a citation I found way back that showed changes in GABA receptor stimulation from this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meditation usually helps.  Exercise too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one wants to be hardcore about it, they could &quot;artificially&quot; try to stimulate their GABAA-ρ subclass receptors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastEditorDisplayName="user3433" LastEditDate="2013-09-03T08:12:39.583" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T08:12:39.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4491" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-03T11:52:11.683" Score="12" ViewCount="19732" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;In this previous question on scoring &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4483/how-to-calculate-iq-score-based-on-raw-score-and-adjust-for-age/4485&quot;&gt;IQ tests&lt;/a&gt; the OP asked about the effect of speed of test, but it was a bit peripheral to the core question. So I thought I'd ask it as a separate question.&#xA;To slightly rephrase the question:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;If the speed with which a test is completed sometimes&#xA;  affects the IQ score, surely for identical test scores where one is&#xA;  completed in 10 minutes and another in 30 minutes should affect the&#xA;  IQ score.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To what extent is time to complete an intelligence test incorporated into the IQ score?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2019-01-31T06:08:44.507" Title="To what extent is time to complete an intelligence test incorporated into the IQ score?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4492" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4415" CreationDate="2013-09-03T13:09:50.143" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many studies have examined ambivalence, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Interest in attitudes and ambivalence has highlighted problems with the adequacy of conceptualizing attitudes as unitary, unidimensional, evaluations...//..&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   the hypothesis that ambivalence will attenuate observed attitude-intention relationships (since the evaluations influencing the expression of attitudes are more likely to differ from the evaluations influencing the expression of intentions for people who are more ambivalent. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14596738&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Negative interactions may occur with ambivalent social partners (i.e., partners involved in both positive and negative exchanges) or exclusively problematic social partners (i.e., partners involved in negative exchanges only), but conflicting views exist in the literature regarding which type of social partner is likely to be more detrimental to older adults' physical and emotional health. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22775360&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pathological ambivalence appears to be rooted in infancy &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.respectful-relationships2.com/insecure-attachment.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt; and/or childhood, and is categorised as an attachment disorder, known as Ambivalent Attachment Disorder or Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment Disorder or a type of Reactive Attachment Disorder &lt;a href=&quot;http://rad.disorder-symptoms.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt; under the umbrella of Insecure Attachment Disorders.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is theorised to be causal, or at least linked to psychopathy &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.attachmentdisordermaryland.com/subtypes.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt; and personality disorders, in particular, Borderline Personality Disorder &lt;a href=&quot;http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/pedi.16.2.148.22544&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;. It is theorised to begin in infancy and/or childhood. When a child's needs are met inconsistently. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The first type of insecure attachment is called ambivalent attachment. This occurs when caregivers are inconsistent – sometimes answering infants’ needs quickly and responsively, and sometimes letting the infant ‘cry it out’. This may also occur if caregivers respond only to the physical needs – feeding, changing, etc, but ignore the infant’s need for human interaction and connection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Looking at baby, touching, singing, talking about what we are doing, etc is very important for infants’ emotional development. Without this, babies do not ‘feel felt’, an expression coined by Dan Siegel in his book ‘Parenting From the Inside Out’. It can become very difficult for these babies to develop the qualities of compassion and empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;With insecure ambivalent attachment characterized by ‘only sometimes’ type of caregiving, babies learn that the world and their ability to have an impact on it is basically inconsistent – sometimes things happen, sometimes they don’t – sometimes all their needs are met, and sometimes only some of them are. Infants learn that others are not dependable or consistent. They often also do not learn or understand emotions – their own or others. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.respectful-relationships2.com/insecure-attachment.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being deprived of basic care, the child manifests an ideation that there is not enough to provide for everyone in this world, and so will grab to get their needs and/or wants met.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.attachmentdisordermaryland.com/subtypes.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT DISORDER&lt;/a&gt; (AmAD) children see scarcity everywhere, and therefore what is wanted should be taken as it is not going to be given by anyone. Having to hurt someone to get what is wanted is viewed simply as “the cost of doing business”, and the other person is seen as deserving being hurt for having been in the way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attachment, Parental Bonding and Borderline Personality Disorder Features in Young Adults&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that parental bonding and attachment scores (especially insecure attachment, anxious or ambivalent attachment, and a perception of a relative lack of caring from one's mother) were uniquely associated with borderline features beyond what could be accounted for by gender, childhood adversity experiences, Axis I disorder, and nonborderline Axis II symptoms. Although relatively modest, these relations suggest that bonding and attachment constructs might be considered in comprehensive etiological models of borderline personality disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Symptoms of &lt;a href=&quot;http://rad.disorder-symptoms.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ambivalent Reactive Attachment Disorder&lt;/a&gt; are:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Passion to intimate contact and declarations of love at all times from their partners;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Show inveterate care giving nature;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Tend to idealize others;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Feel themself uncomfortable with anger;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Show too extreme emotions;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Very jealous;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Frequent mood swings;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Imbalanced relationships with others;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Never have prolonged relationships;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Too possessive;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Feel that their partner is unpredictable;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Tend to be concerned or have dependence on relationship;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;May show suicide attempts;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Have a tendency of frequent depression;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Often feel themself unlovable or undesired by others. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; 1. &#xA;Br J Health Psychol. 2001 Feb;6(Pt 1):53-68.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14596738&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ambivalence about health-related behaviours: an exploration in the domain of food choice.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Sparks P, Conner M, James R, Shepherd R, Povey R.&#xA;Source&#xA;School of Social Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, UK. P.Sparks@sussex.ac.uk&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Psychol Aging. 2012 Dec;27(4):912-23. doi: 10.1037/a0029246. Epub 2012 Jul 9.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22775360&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ambivalent versus problematic social ties: implications for psychological health, functional health, and interpersonal coping.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Rook KS, Luong G, Sorkin DH, Newsom JT, Krause N.&#xA;Source&#xA;Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-7085, USA. ksrook@uci.edu&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/pedi.16.2.148.22544&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Attachment, Parental Bonding and Borderline Personality Disorder Features in Young Adults&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Angela D. Nickell, Carol J. Waudby, Timothy J. Trull, (2002). Attachment, Parental Bonding and Borderline Personality Disorder Features in Young Adults. Journal of Personality Disorders: Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 148-159.&#xA;doi: 10.1521/pedi.16.2.148.22544&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Maryland's Source for &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.attachmentdisordermaryland.com/subtypes.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Attachment Disorder&lt;/a&gt; Related Information&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rad.disorder-symptoms.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reactive attachment disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.respectful-relationships2.com/insecure-attachment.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Insecure Attachment&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-09-10T13:31:21.500" LastActivityDate="2013-09-10T13:31:21.500" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4493" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3952" CreationDate="2013-09-03T18:25:23.817" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did eventually find something which may be what I was thinking of, examining the normality &amp;amp; psychometric properties of Likert scales with differing numbers of points.  They concluded that the 11-point scale was closest to interval-type data in scaling and normality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;br&gt;&#xA;A comparison of psychometric properties and normality in 4-, 5-, 6-, and 11-point Likert scales. Leung, Shing-On. Journal of Social Service Research37.4 (Jul 2011): 412-421. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.library.tufts.edu/10.1080/01488376.2011.580697&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.library.tufts.edu/10.1080/01488376.2011.580697&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T18:25:23.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4494" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4491" CreationDate="2013-09-03T18:30:19.317" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not familiar with all tests out there, but I'll give an example from the fourth revision of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale&lt;/a&gt; (WAIS-IV), one of the more popular tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;time to complete the whole test does not matter&lt;/strong&gt; (as long as you complete it in one go without long breaks). Usually testing takes between one and two hours, but if you test very old and frail persons, you might even administer parts of the test on different days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have not heard of any IQ test that has an overall time limit for the whole test (which does not mean that there is none). In my opinion that would not work for a paper and pencil test, because there are breaks between subtests where the test administrator gives the instructions for the next subtest, and short breaks where the administrator reads out the questions for individual items of a subtest. Thus, the overall time would depend not only on the test subject, but on the administrator of the test as well. In a computer administered test, it would be possible to measure the time used to solve the questions accurately, but, as I said, I don't know of such an IQ test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the WAIS-IV, &lt;strong&gt;many subtests have a time limit&lt;/strong&gt;. For example there is one subtest where you have to mark certain geometrical forms (e.g. a yellow triangle) on a page filled with many different tiny geometric forms. Obviously, given enough time, everybody would be able to complete that subtest without errors. But you have a limited time in which you have to find as many of the specific forms as you can. There are enough forms that no-one can finish that page in the given time. So the number of forms you find and the number of errors you make are your score for this subtest. Other intelligence tests have similar time limits for certain subtests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-09-03T19:01:09.217" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T19:01:09.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4495" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4504" CreationDate="2013-09-03T20:45:39.483" Score="5" ViewCount="1137" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do people recognize objects faster when both shape and color are present? Can color introduce more cognitive load to identify the object?&#xA;Let's say there is a row of icons. Users need to quickly (no more than 3 seconds) decide which icon to click on. Which icon configuration would lead to quicker decision making? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;shape only (no color) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;shape and color&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do people react to color or shape first?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3489" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T13:51:00.910" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T13:51:00.910" Title="What is the relative importance of shape and color in object recognition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4496" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4385" CreationDate="2013-09-03T21:40:21.603" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the human brain, information is not stored like cars in a parking lot, with no relation between them, where you can drive away with one car without touching any of the others, but as knots in a network. Thus, a name is stored with connections reaching out to everything that you felt was connected to that name: the tasty italian cookies you ate while you read the book; the body memory of your leg in plaster; the red horse on the cover; etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you happen upon any of the information that is connected to that name – when you eat the same cookies or see someone with a broken leg –, the name will be activated in your memory. The intensity of the activation and if it reaches your consciousness, depends on the strength and uniqueness of the network connection. The color red will be connected to a lot of things and the activation of this particular know will probably be to weak for this memory to reach your consciousness. But someone mentioning Italian pastries on the radio, or getting a whiff of a similar smell, might bring back the memory of your reading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To know why &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; remembered the name Holden Caulfield &lt;em&gt;at that moment&lt;/em&gt;, we would need to have more information about you at that moment, and about what you did, thought and felt while you read the book. Obviously there was a cue in the moment of remembrance that was stored with the name at the moment of reading or while you thought about the book after reading it. It could have been something you thought about while you were driving and totally unrelated to the actual driving; it could have been a feature you saw (heard or smelled) outside the car; it could have been something on the radio or something your passengers said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples: Someone on the radio says &quot;I'm forever beholden to you.&quot; You don't actively listen, but the word is processed subconsciously. Or: You thought about how boring the book was while eating an apple; now you eat an apple and think about how boring the drive is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since we do not have that information, all that we can say is that the same cue appeared in both situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That you remembered something you had not thought of for eight years does not prove anything about how much information your memory holds. It just proves that the book impressed you in some way – enough to remember the name of the protagonist. Which is why I voted to undo Taal's edit of your question, in which he deleted your characterisation of the book as &quot;strange&quot;: &quot;I had no reason to even remember this book because I thought it was boring. It was strange.&quot; If you find something strange, then it is out of the ordinary. It intrigues you. And you remember it. Quite simple, actually. (Please undo your edit, Taal.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-09-03T22:12:42.347" LastActivityDate="2013-09-03T22:12:42.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4497" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-04T00:06:23.433" Score="8" ViewCount="1475" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; Lately I've been watching a lot of Criminal Minds and in the season that I've just finished, one of the main characters - a 20-something Dr. Spencer Reid - is worried that he might be developing some form of psychosis (as I understood it) due to his mother's long time paranoid schizophrenia. Something he said to another of the main characters made me wonder the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;At what age does psychosis most commonly develop?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If someone has psychosis in the immediate family but has not developed psychosis by their mid-20s, is there an age where they are more likely to develop the illness or a point where if they haven't had it by a given age, they never will?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3492" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-04T00:39:10.260" LastActivityDate="2013-09-05T00:24:58.863" Title="What is the most common age for developing psychosis?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;aging&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4498" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-04T03:56:58.257" Score="18" ViewCount="638" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some highlights from the article &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20110816122449/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2010/01/28/the-depressing-news-about-antidepressants.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Depressing News about Anti-Depressants&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ever since a seminal study in 1998, whose findings were reinforced by landmark research in The Journal of the American Medical Association last month, that evidence has come with a big asterisk. Yes, the drugs are effective, in that they lift depression in most patients. But that benefit is hardly more than what patients get when they, unknowingly and as part of a study, take a dummy pill—a placebo. As more and more scientists who study depression and the drugs that treat it are concluding, that suggests that &lt;strong&gt;antidepressants are basically expensive Tic Tacs.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One team of researchers wondered if antidepressants were &amp;quot;a triumph of marketing over science.&amp;quot; Even defenders of antidepressants agreed that the drugs have &amp;quot;relatively small&amp;quot; effects. &amp;quot;Many have long been unimpressed by the magnitude of the differences observed between treatments and controls,&amp;quot; psychology researcher Steven Hollon of Vanderbilt University and colleagues wrote—&amp;quot;what some of our colleagues refer to as 'the dirty little secret.' &amp;quot;In Britain, the agency that assesses which treatments are effective enough for the government to pay for stopped recommending antidepressants as a first-line treatment, especially for mild or moderate depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if experts know that antidepressants are hardly better than placebos, few patients or doctors do. Some doctors have changed their prescribing habits, says Kirsch, but more &amp;quot;reacted with anger and incredulity.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Doctors see with their own eyes, and feel with their hearts, that the drugs lift the black cloud from many of their depressed patients. But since doctors are not exactly in the habit of prescribing dummy pills, they have no experience comparing how their patients do on them, and therefore never see that a placebo would be almost as effective as a $4 pill. &amp;quot;When they prescribe a treatment and it works,&amp;quot; says Kirsch, &amp;quot;their natural tendency is to attribute the cure to the treatment.&amp;quot; Hence the widespread &amp;quot;antidepressants work&amp;quot; refrain that persists to this day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Right about here, people scowl and ask how anti-depressants—especially those that raise the brain's levels of serotonin—can possibly have no direct chemical effect on the brain. Surely raising serotonin levels should right the synapses' &amp;quot;chemical imbalance&amp;quot; and lift depression. Unfortunately, the serotonin-deficit theory of depression is built on a foundation of tissue paper. How that came to be is a story in itself, but the basics are that in the 1950s scientists discovered, serendipitously, that a drug called iproniazid seemed to help some people with depression. Iproniazid increases brain levels of serotonin and norepinephrine. Ergo, low levels of those neurotransmitters must cause depression. More than 50 years on, the presumed effectiveness of antidepressants that act this way remains the chief support for the chemical-imbalance theory of depression. Absent that effectiveness, the theory hasn't a leg to stand on. Direct evidence doesn't exist. Lowering people's serotonin levels does not change their mood. And a new drug, tianeptine, which is sold in France and some other countries (but not the U.S.), turns out to be as effective as Prozac-like antidepressants that keep the synapses well supplied with serotonin. The mechanism of the new drug? It lowers brain levels of serotonin. &lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;If depression can be equally affected by drugs that increase serotonin and by drugs that decrease it,&amp;quot; says Kirsch, &amp;quot;it's hard to imagine how the benefits can be due to their chemical activity.&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this article true?  What evidence is there that serotonin is linked to depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3232" LastEditorUserId="25157" LastEditDate="2020-08-16T17:47:28.170" LastActivityDate="2020-08-16T17:47:28.170" Title="Is serotonin conclusively linked to depression?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="4499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4498" CreationDate="2013-09-04T04:06:38.923" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's all about the receptors, really.  There are 7 families of serotonin receptors that perform different functions within the brain, and according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT_receptor&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; 14 different subtypes have been discovered. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article assumes that a blanket level of serotonin would be sufficient to &quot;perk&quot; up the brain, wherein it is much more complicated.  Serotonin serves to modulate the level of excitation or inhibition depending on the circumstances.  Most of the &quot;effect&quot; from today's antidepressants is related to modulating projections from the dorsal raphe in the brainstem to dopaminergic neurons in the frontal cortex, but some of the serotonergic neurons in the basal ganglia can be hyperactive in situations where there is mild psychosis.  So, depending on the etiology of the depression, suppressing those neurons local to that portion of the anatomy can actually be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it's less to do with the transmitter that is being discussed, and everything to do with which subtypes of receptors are being agonized or antagonized.  While we have learned a tremendous amount about the relationships between neurotransmitters at different nuclei, we still have a lifetime or more of research to go.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2013-09-04T04:06:38.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4500" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4473" CreationDate="2013-09-04T05:28:07.133" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is Hypnosis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, we need to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hypnos.info/pages/whatis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;define hypnosis&lt;/a&gt;. Hypnosis, by definition, is a natural state attained by individuals. It is the calm, place achieved by meditation, reflective thought or day dreaming. In and of itself, yes hypnosis can be beneficial to all individuals. A caveat applies to this statement, however, as to the current mental state of an individual. One could suggest that hypnosis is to the human mind, as eating vegetables is to the human body; nourishing and vital for our well being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is therapeutic hypnosis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypnotherapy, which is the use of hypnosis as a therapy is another thing. It has been proven to have success. However, it's success is contingent upon the individuals willingness for change, insight, and mental capacities (as are &lt;a href=&quot;http://sophia.stkate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1057&amp;amp;context=msw_papers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Factors Influencing Successful Psychotherapy Outcomes&lt;/a&gt;). Hypnotherapy teaches the individual to use hypnosis as a therapeutic technique. &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=um6_7kEszusC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypnotherapy&lt;/a&gt; has success rates in helping mental disorders. A person is more &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1934-00339-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;suggestible&lt;/a&gt; under hypnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I refer to mental capacities, I am not so much referring to intellect, as mental health. For psychotic illness, by definition, is unable to be improved with logic or reasoning, any form of therapy, other than medication to adjust the brains chemistry, after which, other therapeutic processes may assist in the individual's well being. &lt;sub&gt;**note my comment about  psychosis is broad; I believe it is too big a topic to detail here*&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hypnos.info/pages/whatis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What is Hypnotherapy and How Does it Differ From Hypnosis?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hypnosis is a totally natural state of mind. When under hypnosis you will feel very relaxed, just like that wonderful feeling when you are&#xA;     tired lying in your bed and you are so overcome with comfort that you&#xA;     wish the moment could last forever. Through simple hypnotic,&#xA;     relaxation techniques you can easily attain this state at which time&#xA;     it becomes easy, with the help of a trained hypnotherapist, to&#xA;     visualise yourself becoming healthier, happier, more confident, a&#xA;     non-smoker.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hypnotherapy, or self-hypnosis once you've learnt to use the tools for yourself, can be a very effective tool for asking the right kind&#xA;     of 'internal' questions. ..//... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many people claim that they have never been hypnotised, but they do admit to having drifted off whilst thinking about a loved one,&#xA;     forgetting large chunks of a car journey (commonly known as highway&#xA;     hypnosis), or 'going somewhere else' while reading a book. These are&#xA;     all examples of natural trance states. One of the great things about&#xA;     hypnosis is that in the hands of a reputable practitioner it is&#xA;     harmless and produces no damaging side effects, whilst providing&#xA;     positive therapeutic benefits. &lt;strong&gt;(1)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How is hypnosis used within current therapies?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypnosis is the principle used in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mindfulness.net.au/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mindfulness&lt;/a&gt;, a popular therapeutic technique used in a variety of therapies, including &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aacbt.org/viewStory/WHAT+IS+CBT?&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dialecticalbehaviourtherapy.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT)&lt;/a&gt;; which was developed from CBT  by &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.washington.edu/linehan/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr Marsha Linehan&lt;/a&gt;. It is specifically designed to help people with Borderline Personality Disorder.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypnosis is also commonly practiced to assist individuals with problems of addiction; examples being smoking and weight loss. &lt;sub&gt;citations to follow&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has also shown to have beneficial effects in pain management. &lt;sub&gt;citations to follow&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;- Does Hypnosis Work for Treating, or Curing, any Form of any Mental Disorder?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This can be answered with an uncategorical Yes, as an adjunct to the therapeutic process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has proven useful in assisting personality disorders, addiction, pain management, phobias, anxiety and depression, as broad examples.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Hypnotherapy.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypnosis&lt;/a&gt;, when using proven therapeutic procedures&lt;/strong&gt;, can be a highly effective form of treatment for many mental, psychosomatic, and&#xA;  physical disorders. For example, through the use of regressive&#xA;  techniques, an adult patient may mentally voyage back to a point in&#xA;  youth that was particularly troublesome, allowing the healing of old&#xA;  emotional wounds. Another patient can be led to understand that&#xA;  emotional pain has been converted to physical pain, and that the pain&#xA;  can be eliminated once the source has been addressed. Or, a person&#xA;  suffering from chronic pain can be taught to control the pain without&#xA;  use of medications. There are a number of techniques for correcting&#xA;  dysfunctional behaviors such as self-destructive habits, anxiety&#xA;  disorders, and even managing side effects of various medical&#xA;  treatments and procedures.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hypnotherapy has been used to stop self-destructive and addictive habits like smoking. It has also been used to curb the urge to eat&#xA;  for overeaters, to stem the disruptive actions of tics, cure insomnia&#xA;  , stop bed-wetting, and minimize anxiety. Excessive stress can be&#xA;  generated from any number of sources and can be the springboard for&#xA;  anxiety. Some of the more prominent sources of anxiety and stress for&#xA;  which people seek hypnotherapy are: public speaking, test taking, and&#xA;  job stress. Hypnotherapy also works well for other anxiety disorders&#xA;  such as phobias and has proven to be an effective treatment for mild&#xA;  to moderate depression. In one study, hypnotherapy was used in&#xA;  conjunction with traditional cognitive therapy, to assist persons who&#xA;  had severe aversion to needles. The treatment was necessary, because&#xA;  it was essential that each participant receive periodic medical&#xA;  injections. However, the participants would have become non-compliant&#xA;  without the adjunct intervention of hypnotherapy. In another case,&#xA;  involving care for terminally ill cancer patients, it was concluded&#xA;  that hypnotherapy was more effective at enhancing quality of life and&#xA;  relieving anxiety and depressive symptoms, when compared to others&#xA;  who received traditional care. &lt;strong&gt;(2)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;- I'd like to know if its backed by literature. I want the specific citation's abstract quoted.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been numerous studies demonstrating the usefulness of hypnosis within a therapeutic setting and the long term benefits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following links and excerpts provide citations with conclusive research about the efficacy of Hypnosis as a useful and lasting therapeutic technique. I have inserted bold to highlight the various conditions being discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is argued (a) that the integration of techniques from &lt;strong&gt;behavior modification&lt;/strong&gt; and hypnosis can expedite therapy for &lt;strong&gt;specific&#xA;     disorders&lt;/strong&gt; and (b) that hypnosis intensifies the perceptual and&#xA;     cognitive factors involved in &quot;visual voyages&quot; or hypnagogic&#xA;     experiences, evocation of fantasies, feeling states, and &quot;altered&#xA;     states of consciousness&quot; to bring about behavioral changes. &lt;strong&gt;(4) Hypnosis and behavior modification: Imagery conditioning.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Thus hypnosis was shown to be more effective than nonhypnotic techniques for &lt;strong&gt;reducing procedural distress&lt;/strong&gt; in children and&#xA;     adolescents with cancer. &lt;strong&gt;(5) Hypnosis and nonhypnotic techniques for reduction of pain and anxiety during painful procedures in children and adolescents with cancer&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hypnosis, when used by trained professionals, in other words, can allow those who suffer from &lt;strong&gt;panic attacks&lt;/strong&gt; to learn to effectively&#xA;     and rapidly regulate their internal states.     These techniques, in&#xA;     addition to &lt;strong&gt;curing phobic conditions or panic attacks&lt;/strong&gt;, support&#xA;     patients, allowing them to regain the possibility of managing their&#xA;     own well-being and restoring their sense of self mastery, which is&#xA;     often lowered by these disordersibid. &lt;strong&gt;(3)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I have merged the following points&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;- I'd like to know their findings, conclusions, and methodologies and your analysis of that.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;- I'd like to know if you found any potential errors or flaws in the study - and you're overall analysis of that.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I cannot analysis or critique all these studies, as there are  many studies which demonstrate the effects of hypnosis. The nature of any study, is it is time consuming and requires much work and effort outside of the scope of these types of questions and answers. I agree with &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.meta.stackexchange.com/a/677/3267&quot;&gt;this answer here&lt;/a&gt;, to this question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.meta.stackexchange.com/questions/624/striking-a-balance-between-citations-and-common-sense-in-answers&quot;&gt;Striking a balance between citations and common sense in answers&lt;/a&gt; about providing effective answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The  question about potential flaws, in this study, it is made clear that, given the small difference between therapeutic techniques, with or without the addition of hypnosis, there was a significant difference for patients, having hypnosis as part of their treatment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These results were particularly striking because of the few procedural differences between the hypnotic and nonhypnotic treatments. &lt;strong&gt;(3)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the issue, that hypnosis, as a therapy per se, is generally used as part of an integrated therapeutic approach. One example being, children undergoing treatment for cancer, are not given hypnosis in isolation, it is within a structured supportive framework. So the measure of hypnosis, per se, is difficult to quantify at times; as the willingness to use hypnosis as a therapeutic technique, also demonstrates a more holistic viewpoint in the management of the individuals health. Almost akin to natural therapies, as hypnosis is a natural tool, available to individuals and does not need to be taught to be practiced. Being a natural tool available, it can be taught to those who neglect to use it. Much like education about a healthy diet. It is a healthy practice for the mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I have merged these questions-   &quot;I'd like to know how long the treatments lasted after they stopped being hypnotized.&quot; In these studies the hypnosis was a part of the therapeutic process, so the hypnosis continued whilst the therapy continued.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;-  I'd like to know how long the treatments lasted after they stopped being hypnotized.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;- I'd like to know how effective it was for whatever specific goals that it was used to treat. How long did the affects last if there were any?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Effects seemed particularly pronounced for treatments of obesity, especially at long-term follow-up, indicating that unlike those in&#xA;     nonhypnotic treatment, clients to whom hypnotic inductions had been&#xA;     administered continued to lose weight after treatment ended. These&#xA;     results were particularly striking because of the few procedural&#xA;     differences between the hypnotic and nonhypnotic treatments. (6)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper discussed the usefulness and longer term effectiveness of hypnosis for people with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4448284/Bryant-Additive_benefit_hypnosis_acute_stress_disorder.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This research&lt;/a&gt; represents the first controlled treatment study of hypnosis and cognitive– behavioral therapy (CBT) of acute stress&#xA;     disorder (ASD). Civilian trauma survivors (N  87) who met criteria&#xA;     for ASD were randomly allocated to 6 sessions of CBT, CBT combined&#xA;     with hypnosis (CBT– hypnosis), or supportive counseling (SC). CBT&#xA;     comprised exposure, cognitive restructuring, and anxiety management.&#xA;     CBT– hypnosis comprised the CBT components with each imaginal&#xA;     exposure preceded by a hypnotic induction and suggestions to engage&#xA;     fully in the exposure. In terms of treatment completers (n  69),&#xA;     fewer participants in the CBT and CBT– hypnosis groups met criteria&#xA;     for posttraumatic stress disorder at posttreatment and 6-month&#xA;     follow-up than those in the SC group. CBT– hypnosis resulted in&#xA;     greater reduction in reexperiencing symptoms at posttreatment than&#xA;     CBT. These findings suggest that hypnosis may have use in&#xA;     facilitating the treatment effects of CBT for posttraumatic stress.&#xA;     &lt;strong&gt;(7)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study demonstrates that the beneficial effects of hypnotherapy appear to last at least five years. Thus it is a viable therapeutic option for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. &lt;strong&gt;(8)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;- I'd like to know what it feels like to be hypnotized if you've had the experience of it.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to personal experience I have experienced self and therapeutic hypnosis at varying stages throughout my life. It creates a feeling of relaxation and peace. It gives me a personal power of feeling more self control and reducing distress levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;- I'd like to know why if it worked really well for you then why did you stop doing it or have you actually continued?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I have practiced it throughout my entire life. The times I need it the most, are the times I practice it the least. It is something I should tattoo on myself to remind me to use it more often, as it is helpful. Not a cure all, but helps me in any and every situation. It slow down my emotional reaction time and intensity and assists in making ill-timed, rash and bad judgements. It is when in a distressed state it is the hardest to practice. I am glad for this question, as it is a reminder to me, to practice this and I need to practice it daily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To go into explanation as to why people have discontinued, would be similar to asking, how long is a piece of string. People stop therapy or positive coping techniques for a vast number of reasons. I cannot begin to address this within the scope of this answer. I have posted this question:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4502/what-are-the-key-predictive-traits-of-therapeutic-success&quot;&gt;What are the key predictive traits of therapeutic success?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;(1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hypnos.info/pages/whatis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What is Hypnotherapy and How Does it Differ From Hypnosis?&lt;/a&gt; Oxford Hypnotherapy&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(2) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Hypnotherapy.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypnotherapy&lt;/a&gt;  Encyclopedia ofMental Disorders&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(3) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ericksoninstitute.it/en/65/newsletter/panic-attacks-and-phobias-healing-with-hypnosis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PANIC ATTACKS AND PHOBIAS: HEALING WITH HYPNOSIS&lt;/a&gt; Milton H Erickson Institute&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(4) &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1977-06208-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypnosis and behavior modification: Imagery conditioning.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kroger, William S.; Fezler, William D.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Oxford, England: J. B. Lippincott. (1976). xxv 426 pp.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(5) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022347682800401&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypnosis and nonhypnotic techniques for reduction of pain and anxiety during painful procedures in children and adolescents with cancer&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;Richard W. Olmsted (Editor), M.D. Lonnie ZeltzerCorresponding author contact information, Ph.D. Samuel LeBaron&#xA;University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas USA&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(6) &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/ccp/63/2/214/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypnosis as an adjunct to cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy: A meta-analysis.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Kirsch, Irving; Montgomery, Guy; Sapirstein, Guy&#xA;Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol 63(2), Apr 1995, 214-220. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.63.2.214&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(7) &lt;a href=&quot;http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4448284/Bryant-Additive_benefit_hypnosis_acute_stress_disorder.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Additive Benefit of Hypnosis and Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy in&#xA;Treating Acute Stress Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Richard A. Bryant, Michelle L. Moulds, Rachel M. Guthrie, and Reginald D. V. Nixon&#xA;University of New South Wales&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology Copyright 2005 by the American Psychological Association&#xA;2005, Vol. 73, No. 2, 334 –340 0022-006X/05/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0022-006X.73.2.334&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gut. 2003 Nov;52(11):1623-9.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;(8) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14570733&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Long term benefits of hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Gonsalkorale WM, Miller V, Afzal A, Whorwell PJ Department of Medicine, University Hospital of South Manchester, Manchester, UK. wgonsalkorale@compuserve.com&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(9) Iglesias, A. &amp;amp; Iglesias, A. (2005). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15915852&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Awake alert hypnosis in the treatment of panic disorder: a case report.&lt;/a&gt; American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 47(4), 249-256.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(10) McNeal, S.A. (2001). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11269629&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EMDR and hypnosis in the treatment of phobias.&lt;/a&gt; American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 43:3/43:4, 263-274.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(11) Kirsch, I., Montgomery, G. &amp;amp; Sapperstein, G. (1995) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8698944&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypnosis as a adjunct to cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy: a meta analysis.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 63, 214-220.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(12) Crawford, H.J. &amp;amp; Barbasasz, A.F. (1993). &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/books/10274/015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phobias and intense fears: facilitating their treatment with hypnosis.&lt;/a&gt; In J. W. Rhue, S. J. Lynn &amp;amp; I. Kirsch, (Eds.), Handbook of clinical hypnosis (pp.311-338) Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(13) King, Brenda J, Michael Nash, David Spiegel, and Kenneth Jobson. &lt;a href=&quot;http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/136515001300374821&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypnosis as an intervention in pain management: A brief review.&lt;/a&gt; International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice 5 (2001): 97–101.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(14) Liossi, Christina and Paul White. &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ch.228/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Efficacy of clinical hypnosis in the enhancement of quality of life of terminally ill cancer patients.&lt;/a&gt; Contemporary Hypnosis 18 (2001): 145–160.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(15) Segal, Robert. &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Hypnosis+in+the+treatment+of+an+eating+disorder.&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C43&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypnosis in the treatment of an eating disorder.&lt;/a&gt; Australian Journal of Clinical &amp;amp; Experimental Hypnosis 29 (2001): 26–36.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(16) Yapko, Michael. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11591085&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypnosis in treating symptoms and risk factors of major depression.&lt;/a&gt; American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 44 (2001): 97–108.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-09-04T21:37:02.047" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4501" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4473" CreationDate="2013-09-04T09:02:08.700" Score="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Hypnosis&lt;/em&gt; &quot;works&quot; only insofar as it induces&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; a trance. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.icsahome.com/infoserv_articles/apa_what_is_hypnosis.htm&quot;&gt;Hypnosis is not a type of therapy.&lt;/a&gt; Hypnosis does not cure any disorders or do anything at all, except induce a trance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Hypnotherapy&lt;/em&gt;, from the perspective of psychodynamic theory, utilizes this trance to directly access the subconscious. In traditional hypnotherapy (of the Victorian era), direct suggestions were &quot;planted&quot; in the &quot;unprotected&quot; subconscious; in modern Ericksonian hypnotherapy, the unconscious is stimulated to participate in the healing process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question we are dealing with asks:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does &lt;em&gt;hypnotherapy&lt;/em&gt; work for any type of disorder?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, it does. Standard works (Burrows &amp;amp; Dennerstein, 1980; Brown &amp;amp; Fromm, 1986; Cheek &amp;amp; LeCron, 1968; Crasilneck &amp;amp; Hall, 1985; Hammond, 1990; Kossak, 1989; Kroger &amp;amp; Fezler, 1976; Peter et al., 1991; Revenstorff, 1993; Lynn et al., 1996; Wester &amp;amp; Smith, 1984; Erickson, 2007-2010; O'Hanlon &amp;amp; Hexum, 1990) show that hypnosis has been successfully applied to a multitude of psychosomatic, psychiatric and somatic cases including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;behavioral problems&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;nail biting&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;enuresis (bedwetting)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;smoking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;overweight&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;academic and athletic increase in performance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;psychoneurotic disorders&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorders&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;depressive reactions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;post-traumatic stress disorder&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;dissociative disorders&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sleep disorders&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;psychosomatic disorders&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;chronic pain&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;migraine, tension headache&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;morbus crohn, ulcers&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;asthma, hay fever&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;hypertonia (high blood pressure)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;somatic disorders&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;immunology: warts, dermatosis, ichtyosis, tumors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;vasomotoric: bleeding control, morbus raynaud, wound healing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;acute pain: obstetrics, dentistry, postoperative pain&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;neurology: amnesia, rehabilitation after brain lesions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to case studies, there is a growing number of controlled group studies on the effectiveness of hypnotherapy which show empirically confirmed indications for this method. Meta-analyses have become the accepted method of judging the effectiveness of a therapeutic procedure, so I will confine myself to these in the following overview.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a meta-analysis (Rominger, 1995) of 36 control group studies with more than 1200 patients  the effect sizes ranged from g = .54 to g = .95&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. This corresponds (converted after Rosenthal, 1984) to a correlation between treatment and effect ranging from r = .26 to r = .44. From this a success rate (in %) can be estimated for treated and untreated patients (table 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;                 Number of Studies    Success Rate    Success Rate&#xA;                                      untreated (%)   treated (%)&#xA;all studies      36                   31              69&#xA;smoking           4                   30              70&#xA;anxiety           6                   29              71&#xA;pain             14                   37              63&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Table 1.&lt;/strong&gt; Results of a meta-analysis of hypnotherapy (after Rominger, 1995).&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a more recent meta-analysis, Bongartz et al. (1999) found comparable results in 112 studies with 5600 patients (table 2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;                       Number of Studies    Success Rate    Success Rate&#xA;                                            untreated (%)   treated (%)&#xA;psychotherapy (all)    85                   32              68&#xA;addiction               6                   37              63&#xA;somatoform disorders   11                   35              65&#xA;anxiety                11                   26              74&#xA;behavioral problems     4                   33              67&#xA;pain (all)             27                   35              65&#xA;pain (cancer)           6                   36              64&#xA;pain (surgery)          8                   38              62&#xA;pain (birth)            5                   36              64&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Table 2.&lt;/strong&gt; Results of a meta-analysis of hypnotherapy (after Bongartz et al., 1999).&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a new meta-analysis (2002), Bongartz et al. again confirmed the effectiveness of hypnotherapy. The abstract recapitulates:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From 193 studies published until 1998 that investigated the efficacy&#xA;  of hypnosis 43 randomized clinical studies were selected that compared&#xA;  a patient group treated exclusively by hypnosis with an untreated&#xA;  control group (or with a group of patients treated by conventional&#xA;  medical procedures).The 43 studies were integrated into a&#xA;  meta-analysis that yielded a weighted average post-treatment effect&#xA;  size of d=.60 (medium effect size) for hypnotic treatment of ICD-10&#xA;  coded disorders (24 studies; average treatment period: 5.1 weeks)&#xA;  and d=.38 (small effect) for hypnosis as an adjunct for supporting&#xA;  medical procedures (19 studies).These estimates are conservative&#xA;  since all variables of a given study were used. Most of the studies&#xA;  employed methods of the classical approach to hypnosis. In order to&#xA;  obtain an estimate to which extent non-clinical factors&#xA;  (design-quality, way of comparison of dependent variables) have an&#xA;  influence on the effect sizes, effect sizes were computed for all&#xA;  studies of the original 193 studies that reported the necessary&#xA;  statistical information (N=89). For those studies with an average&#xA;  effect size of d=.80 a mas- sive influence of non-clinical factors was&#xA;  demonstrated with a range from d=.51 for randomized studies with group&#xA;  comparisons to d=2.0 for non-randomized studies using&#xA;  pre-post-comparisons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A table listing all 43 analyzed studies and their area of application (&quot;Störungsbild/Anwendungsbereich&quot;), number of patients (&quot;Patientenzahl&quot;), type of hypnosis (&quot;Hypnoseart&quot;), treatment period in weeks (&quot;Behandlungszeitraum&quot;) and effect sizes (&quot;Effektstärke&quot;) is included in the publication which is available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4416025/Bongartz-Effektivitat_hypnose.pdf&quot;&gt;http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4416025/Bongartz-Effektivitat_hypnose.pdf&lt;/a&gt; (in German). It gives a more discriminating view and shows the large variance in effect sizes among the studies, but does not add anything new to this overview.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the studies included in the meta-analysis used a control group, randomized assignment of patients to the groups, and used hypnotherapy as the &lt;em&gt;only&lt;/em&gt; psychotherapeutic treatment (and not in conjunction with other forms of psychotherapy), but sometimes in conjunction with the medical standard therapy. As such, from my point of view, the meta-analysis is quite flawless. Some of the studies included measurements taken some time after the end of the treatment, but these were not considered in this meta analysis, because the 193 studies from which the ones included in the meta-analysis were selected are all the studies that the authors could find in relevant databases and literature (&quot;footnote chasing&quot;) between 1974 and 1998, and the number of studies including &quot;longer-term&quot; effects were apparently not enough for a separate analysis. Thus, the authors of the meta-analysis considered only the immediate post-treatment measures of all studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, it seems to me that the effectiveness of hypnotherapy has been shown especially for behavioral, anxiety and (psycho)somatic disorders and symptoms, while it seems not to have been applied, or not successfully, to psychotic, affective, dissociative, sexual, eating, sleep, impulse control, adjustment and personality disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Footnotes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Sometimes. An attempt by a clinical psychologist and trained hypnotist to hypnotize me did not lead to any trance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; In an analysis of 302 meta-analyses of psychologica, pedagogical and behavioral therapies, Lipsey and Wilson (1993) found 90% of effect sizes to be above 0.10, and 85% above 0.20. A more methodically severe selection of 156 meta-analyses returned a mean effect size of 0.47.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bongartz, W., Flammer, E., &amp;amp; Schonke, R. (1999). Die Effektivität der Hypnotherapie: Eine meta-analytische Studie. Vortrag auf der Jahrestagung der M.E.G., Bad Orb.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bongartz, W., Flammer, E., &amp;amp; Schonke, R. (2002). Die Effektivität der Hypnose: Eine meta-analytische Studie. &lt;em&gt;Psychotherapeut, 47&lt;/em&gt;, 67-76.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brown, D. P., &amp;amp; Fromm, E. (1986). &lt;em&gt;Hypnotherapy and Hypnoanalysis&lt;/em&gt;. Hillsdale, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Burrows, G. D., &amp;amp; Dennerstein, L. (Eds.) (1980). *Handbook of hypnosis and psychosomatic medicine. Amsterdam: Elsevier.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cheek, D. B., &amp;amp; LeCron, L. M. (1968). &lt;em&gt;Clinical hypnotherapy&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Grune &amp;amp; Stratton.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Crasilneck, H. B., &amp;amp; Hall, J. A. (1985). Clinical Hypnosis: Principles and Applications* (2nd ed.). New York: Grune &amp;amp; Stratton.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Erickson, M. H. (2007-2010). &lt;em&gt;Collected Works&lt;/em&gt; (10 vols.). Milton H. Erickson Foundation Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hammond, D. C. (ed.) (1990). &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Hypnotic Suggestions and Metaphors&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Norton.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kossak, H. C. (1989). &lt;em&gt;Hypnose: Ein Lehrbuch&lt;/em&gt;. Weinheim: PVU.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kroger, W. S., &amp;amp; Fezler, W. D. (1976). &lt;em&gt;Hypnosis and Behavior Modification: Imagery Conditioning&lt;/em&gt;. Philadelphia: Lippincott.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lynn, S. J., Kirsch, I., &amp;amp; Rhue, J. W. (eds.) (1996) *Casebook of Clinical Hypnosis. Washington, DC: APA.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lipsey, M, L., &amp;amp; Wilson, D. B. (1993). The efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment: Confirmation from meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist, 48&lt;/em&gt;, 1181-1209.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;O'Hanlon, W. H., &amp;amp; Hexum, A. L. (1990). &lt;em&gt;An Uncommon Casebook: The Complete Clinical Works of Milton H. Erickson&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Norton.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peter, B., Kraiker, C., &amp;amp; Revenstorf, D. (eds.) (1991). &lt;em&gt;Hypnose und Verhaltenstherapie&lt;/em&gt;. Bern: Huber.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Revenstorff, D. (1993). &lt;em&gt;Klinische Hypnose&lt;/em&gt; (2nd ed.). Heidelberg: Springer.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rominger, M. (1995). &lt;em&gt;Metaanalyse der Hypnotherapie&lt;/em&gt; (Diploma thesis). University of Tübingen.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rosenthal, R. (1984). Meta-Analytic Procedures for Social Research*. London: Sage.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wester, W. C., &amp;amp; Smith, A. H. (1984). &lt;em&gt;Clinical Hypnosis: A Multidisciplinary Approach&lt;/em&gt;. Philadelphia: Lippincott.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3267" LastEditDate="2013-09-10T15:48:19.547" LastActivityDate="2013-09-10T15:48:19.547" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4502" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-04T09:14:48.567" Score="5" ViewCount="3839" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4500/3267&quot;&gt;answer here&lt;/a&gt;, to this question : &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4473/does-hypnosis-in-any-form-for-any-type-of-disorder-work&quot;&gt;Does hypnotherapy/hypnosis, in any form, for any type of disorder, work?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It brought up the valid question of why people quit therapy. Obviously, if the therapy is not helpful, it is could be construed as a straightforward cause and effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People stop therapy or positive coping techniques for a vast number of reasons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the the key predictive factors that cause people to succeed or fail a longer term therapy which has been giving shorter term successes for that individual?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-05-31T04:21:21.973" Title="What are the key predictive traits of therapeutic success?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4503" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-04T09:19:31.290" Score="16" ViewCount="1774" Body="&lt;p&gt;People are frequently court ordered to some form of therapy, whether it be in the form of a course, group therapy or individual therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples being; road rage, anger management, drunk driving, parenting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As one would consider, much of the success of the therapeutic process lies within the individuals motivation. However, it is also balanced by the fact that the consequence of being under a court order, may provide enough impetus to motivate an individual to change a behaviour.  It leads me to ask:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the effectiveness of court imposed therapy, as compared to self initialised therapy options?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-08T11:39:44.557" LastActivityDate="2018-01-08T12:30:41.683" Title="How effective is court imposed therapy compared to self-initiated therapy?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4504" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4495" CreationDate="2013-09-04T10:42:30.597" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;People are generally faster to find a dissimilar stimulus when it differs along two dimensions (color+shape) from the rest, but only if they are looking for those dimensions (e.g. find all objects that are red diamonds is faster than find all objects that are red). However, if they are looking for dimensions which are not present, this effect reverses (e.g. find all objects that are not blue is faster than find all objects that are not blue circles). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reasons behind this are still a matter of debate, but one model (Buckingham et al, 2012) suggests that the best explanation is that both dimensions are processed simultaneously. See here for more information on why this model fits the data: &lt;a href=&quot;http://ww.w.journalofvision.org/content/12/9/1053.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Two perceptual anomalies explained by a statistically optimal model&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Buckingham, S., de Gardelle, V., Avery, S., &amp;amp; Summerfield, C. (2012). Two perceptual anomalies explained by a statistically optimal model. Journal of Vision, 12(9), 1053-1053.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2013-09-04T10:42:30.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4497" CreationDate="2013-09-04T11:57:57.467" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There seems to be no correlation between age and onset of psychosis. The only difference between early onset and late onset psychosis, is the individual with late onset psychosis, generally, possesses better coping skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The aims of this study were to calculate the incidence of non-affective, non-organic psychotic symptoms across the life span and to explore the contribution of different sets of risk factors in relation to age at onset.  ..//..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Onset of psychotic symptoms in late life is no rare event. Compared to early onset psychosis, the late-onset counterpart less often arises in a context of emotional dysfunction and negative affectivity, suggesting qualitative differences in aetiology and more effective premorbid coping styles. 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The incidence of psychosis is increased with factors, such as familial mental health. The following article provides a comprehensive table of high risk factors, incidence and age onset.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These risk markers are divided into two categories: (1) precursors related to early etiological factors (family psychiatric history, perinatal and obstetric complications, neurobehavior deficits, early parental separation, institutionalization, and poor family function) and (2) precursors signaling latent mental illness (personality measurements indicating proneness to psychosis, and teacher ratings indicating emotional lability, social anxiety, social withdrawal, passivity, poor peer relations, and disruptive and aggressive behavior). Because teacher ratings have been shown to be powerful predictors of adult mental breakdown, part of this article focuses on a specific study that assesses such ratings as predictors of psychosis in a high-risk population. 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xK9SQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tFsA8.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EkbGV.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/erAK9.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JeMwe.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt; 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some correlation with the course psychotic illness takes and the age of onset.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A diagnosis of schizophrenia, higher antipsychotic dose, and more negative symptoms were associated with earlier onset of illness, while female sex and a more chronic course were associated with later illness onset. Furthermore, earlier onset was associated with worse performance on immediate recall and sustained attention. However, male sex, more negative symptoms, and higher antipsychotic dose mediated the effect of age at onset on memory, while negative symptoms explained its association with attention/vigilance. 3.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I cannot find studies answering your question regarding familial history of psychosis and late onset psychosis. I have drawn the following conclusions from the information provided.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;The following are my own ideas:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In view that the risk factors for psychosis, are also associated with the likelihood of earlier onset psychosis, one could suggest (loosely) that is psychosis was to develop from such risk factors, it would most likely be earlier rather than later. As late onset psychosis, does not seem to be correlated with such risk factors. This would be no guarantee that a late onset psychosis could not occur with individuals with familial history of psychosis; however my &lt;em&gt;guess&lt;/em&gt;  would be the later one with this familial history goes psychosis free, the less likely it is for that individual to develop psychosis beyond an age (perhaps mid 30s).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;1. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2007 April; 42(4): 288–294.&#xA;Published online 2007 March 12. doi:  10.1007/s00127-007-0171-6&#xA;PMCID: PMC1913178&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1913178/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychosis risk as a function of age at onset&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;A comparison between early- and late-onset psychosis in a general population sample&#xA;Sebastian Köhler, Jim van Os, Ron de Graaf,3 Wilma Vollebergh, Frans Verhey, and Lydia Krabbendamcorresponding author&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2012 Oct;126(4):274-81. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.01873.x. Epub 2012 May 14.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mentalhealth.com/mag1/scz/sb-risk.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Risk Factors of Psychosis: Identifying Vulnerable Populations Premorbidly&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;By Su-chin Serene Olin and Sarnoff A. Mednick&#xA;Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1996&lt;br&gt;&#xA;National Institute of Mental Health&lt;br&gt;&#xA;3. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22582732&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive functioning and age at onset in non-affective psychotic disorder.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;van der Werf M, Köhler S, Verkaaik M, Verhey F, van Os J; GROUP Investigators.&#xA;Source&#xA;Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, South Limburg Mental Health Research and Teaching Network, EURON Graduate School of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-09-04T11:57:57.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4507" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4498" CreationDate="2013-09-04T22:11:40.453" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although I did not want to post anymore, lol (and btw it has nothing to do with drama, its cause I spend too much time here and its distracting me from my real job too much), I wanted to enlighten and challenge the typical SSRI theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think Chuck already owned it quite a bit though.  Anyways, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meet Tianeptine:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is Tianeptine?  Tianeptine is a novel french pharmaceutical that is actually a selective serotonin reuptake ENHANCER. Wtf?  An enhancer?  But I want more serotonin flooding my synapses!  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tianeptine is kind of a weird drug as it seems to do many things.  For instance, it can give one an initial stimulatory affect through some crazy downstream dopamine processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general theory as to why it works (I've actually taken it before, I don't think I was consistent enough though), can be summed up in a weird and hard to describe way: it promotes neurogenesis to certain parts of your brain that have apparently been injuried over the years or worn out.  I always thought the concept was interesting in that it's one of the only drugs that really has a long term outcome of not taking it anymore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The french are very clever sometimes.  But yeah, if SSRI's work AND SSRE's work?  Then...is it really all serotonin?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3433" LastActivityDate="2013-09-04T22:11:40.453" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4508" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4497" CreationDate="2013-09-05T00:24:58.863" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Something to keep in mind is that anything you hear on TV is that it's probably not completely accurate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychosis is not a condition; it's a symptom of a condition. Psychosis can be involved in many psychopathologies, (psychological disorders) with symptoms of a psychosis involved in schizophrenia, depression, PTSD, bi-polar disorder, and many other types of conditions or even emotionally stressful times such as after the loss of a loved on. (for more see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this wiki&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as the specific example of having a schizophrenic parent, the character has a reason for his worry. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt; has been shown to often have a genetic component, (though there are also other factors necessary) and late adolescence to mid 20s is the most likely time for males and females to first show symptoms of the disorder. Females also have another peek of diagnosis around the 50, (likely related to menopause) as you can see with this &lt;a href=&quot;http://smithwebdesign.com/schizophrenia/graph.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;graph of diagnoses&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3473" LastActivityDate="2013-09-05T00:24:58.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4509" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4510" CreationDate="2013-09-05T00:41:10.860" Score="8" ViewCount="3180" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you spin your head around in circles, the world appears to continue to spin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why do one's surroundings still seem to rotate when you stop whirling around in a circle?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is happening in the brain?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user2678" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-05T04:37:57.997" LastActivityDate="2014-06-07T05:58:18.080" Title="Why do one's surroundings still seem to rotate when you stop whirling around?" Tags="&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;vestibular-system&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4510" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4509" CreationDate="2013-09-05T04:09:12.710" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;On each side of your head, in the middle ear, there is a system of canals in which displacement of a group of hair cells measure the movement along the 3 axes (the canals are tilted a bit back from 90&amp;deg;, so the coordinate system is not identical with that of the head).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, when you move your head around and around as your body &quot;whirls&quot;, the cupula of the horizontal canal (HC), which encases the hair cells, moves in the opposite direction and displaces the hair cells, causing the firing of action potentials. Once your head stops, the viscosity of the fluid in which the cupula is suspended prevents it from snapping right back to it's &quot;default&quot; position, so action potentials continue to be fired, and your nervous system (falsely) senses that your head is still moving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1VZxN.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA; Courtesy of Scholarpedia &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Vestibular_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vestibular System&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2013-09-05T04:09:12.710" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4511" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4509" CreationDate="2013-09-05T06:15:25.997" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can find similar aftereffects when you stare out the front window of a moving vehicle for a couple of minutes and then stop: the landscape suddenly seems to slowly move away from you for some time; or when you stare out the widow of a train: when it stops the landscape appears to slowly move in the opposite direction. Aftereffects of this type can have any direction: when you stare at a rotating image and the rotation stops, the image appears to rotate in the opposite direction. Depending on the stimulus, this can be a smooth motion or it &quot;jumps&quot; forward and back.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is called the &lt;strong&gt;direction aftereffect&lt;/strong&gt; (DAE), &quot;whereby prolonged exposure to a moving pattern affects the perceived direction of subsequent motion&quot; (Clifford, 2002). This is an effect of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_adaptation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;perceptual adaptation&lt;/a&gt;, where the brain compensates for a supposed error in perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mechanism behind this phenomenon was tested by Schrater and Simoncelli (1998):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Adaptation to a moving visual pattern induces shifts in the perceived&#xA;  motion of subsequently viewed moving patterns. Explanations of such&#xA;  effects are typically based on adaptation-induced sensitivity changes&#xA;  in spatio-temporal frequency tuned mechanisms (STFMs). An alternative&#xA;  hypothesis is that adaptation occurs in mechanisms that independently&#xA;  encode direction and speed (DSMs). Yet a third possibility is that&#xA;  adaptation occurrs in mechanisms that encode 2D pattern velocity&#xA;  (VMs). We performed a series of psychophysical experiments to examine&#xA;  predictions made by each of the three hypotheses. The results indicate&#xA;  that: (1) adaptation-induced shifts are relatively independent of&#xA;  spatial pattern of both adapting and test stimuli; (2) the shift in&#xA;  perceived direction of motion of a plaid stimulus after adaptation to&#xA;  a grating indicates a shift in the motion of the plaid pattern, and&#xA;  not a shift in the motion of the plaid components; and (3) the 2D&#xA;  pattern of shift in perceived velocity radiates away from the&#xA;  adaptation velocity, and is inseparable in speed and direction of&#xA;  motion. Taken together, these results are most consistent with the VM&#xA;  adaptation hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Clifford, C. W. G. (2002). Perceptual adaptation: Motion parallels orientation. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6&lt;/em&gt;, 136-143. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613%2800%2901856-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01856-8&lt;/a&gt; Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://psy.mq.edu.au/vision/~peterw/corella/315/clifford.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psy.mq.edu.au/vision/~peterw/corella/315/clifford.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schrater, P.R. and Simoncelli, E.P. (1998) Local velocity representation: evidence from motion adaptation. &lt;em&gt;Vision Research, 38&lt;/em&gt;, 3899-3912. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0042-6989%2898%2900088-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0042-6989(98)00088-1&lt;/a&gt; Available online at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/pub/lcv/schrater97.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/pub/lcv/schrater97.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-09-05T06:21:19.753" LastActivityDate="2013-09-05T06:21:19.753" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4512" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3496" CreationDate="2013-09-05T10:46:07.247" Score="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;It appears extended working days, such as, 16 hours are counterproductive. &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;(1) Safe working hours - doctors in training a best practice issue&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; examines the effects of extended working hours on performance for doctors. It is recommended that a 7-8 hour working day is more productive than extended days. One issue being the sleep deprivation that accompanies extended working days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is research on optimal work-break rhythms. It has been found that work performance is optimized  in 90 minute time slots. This is improved by dividing this into 25 minute time slots, with short breaks. With relation to the type of work, it is suggested that breaks be taken away from the working environment, optimally, within an altogether different environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is consistent with natural &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultradian&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ultradian&lt;/a&gt; cycles:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/W0Vhr.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Image taken from &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.bufferapp.com/optimal-work-time-how-long-should-we-work-every-day-the-science-of-mental-strength&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The origin of the 8 hour work day and why we should rethink it&lt;/a&gt; a blog by Leo Widrich&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have quoted extensively from the following article:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;(2) Best Rest Practices for Optimal Productivity and Creativity.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This addresses your questions comprehensively and also confirms that an extended working day is counter productive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Timing of natural working rythms&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rossi champions the 20-Minute Break in his book of the same name for&#xA;  peak performance. And Anders et al studied in 1993 a group of&#xA;  violinists and discovered that the best performers practiced in&#xA;  90-minute intervals and learned not to over-practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We can break down that 90-minute rhythm even further into 25-minute&#xA;  spurts. Most people can pay attention to a talk for 25 minutes (hence,&#xA;  the brilliance of TED Talks’ 17-minute limit).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hence, another client, a highly reputed novelist and short story&#xA;  writer, wisely writes in three 25-minute periods—each divided with a&#xA;  timer. At the end of the third period, she takes a walk or switches to&#xA;  another activity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Breaks away from the workplace&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I recommend to clients they remove themselves from the work&#xA;  environment if possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For a corporate client, I recommended he schedule a walk to another&#xA;  part of his vast office quarters, glance out a floor-to-ceiling&#xA;  window, and then return to his office room, sit in a comfortable sofa&#xA;  normally reserved for clients, and remember the last time he was&#xA;  outdoors working on his ranch—one of his favorite activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Step outdoors if you can. I suggested that one client who gets&#xA;  overwhelmed with multiple tasks in the afternoon to step outdoors and&#xA;  sit in her garden for fifteen minutes and simply observes the colors,&#xA;  textures, sounds, and smells. Ideally, she would weed for fifteen&#xA;  minutes as the physical activity more likely will let her processor&#xA;  mind incubate some of her creative problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Or step away from your work space, and read four pages from a book&#xA;  that brings you delight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If you can jog or bicycle for 20 minutes, even better—as you’re also&#xA;  increasing the chances of your hippocampus forging new neurons in your&#xA;  middle-aged gray matter, according to Fred Gage of the Salk Institute&#xA;  and other researchers who’ve examined the benefits of intentional,&#xA;  enjoyable cardiovascular exercise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Techniques to combat fatigue&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;DISTRACTION CAN RE-BOOT LONG-TERM FOCUS. () Here’s a mind-twister:&#xA;  Atsunori Ariga and Alejandro Lleras of University of Illinois at&#xA;  Urbana-Champaign, United States questioned the assumption that loss of&#xA;  focus came from, say, fatigue or lack of attention. In 2010, their&#xA;  study published in Cognition concluded that a deliberate distraction&#xA;  or introduction of a second task actually can increase vigilant&#xA;  attention on the first task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Utilising multi tasking to break mental fatigue.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pay attention to when you need to introduce a quick second task. Maybe&#xA;  sending off an email or text message will free up mental bandwidth and&#xA;  get you re-committed to the high-thinking task. Do this in tandem with&#xA;  the “Break with Rhythm” suggestions above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The benefits of a daily nap&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some students took no naps. Some students took catnaps. And some&#xA;  students took full-fledged 90-minute naps complete with REM&#xA;  dreams...//...    students who took the full REM-level naps showed&#xA;  boosts in creative problem-solving performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The concept that a longer working day is counter-productive&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Schedule non-digital time in the evenings, especially 45 minutes&#xA;  before sleep. Set up a bi-weekly schedule of evening rhythms: One&#xA;  Monday as “reading night,” One Tuesday as “date night,” et cetera. If&#xA;  you must work some evenings, schedule work evenings. Make them the&#xA;  exception instead of the rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; (1) &lt;a href=&quot;https://ama.com.au/system/files/dit_safe_hours_andrew_lewis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Safe working hours - doctors in training a best practice issue&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;ANDREW LEWIS&#xA;Andrew Lewis is Senior Industrial Relations Adviser with the Australian Medical Association Victoria&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(2) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/tracking-wonder/201204/best-rest-practices-optimal-productivity-and-creativity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Best Rest Practices for Optimal Productivity and Creativity&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;How and when to break from creative work.&#xA;Published on April 30, 2012 by Jeffrey Davis, M.A. in Tracking Wonder&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uwpsychiatry.org/sls/index.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Seattle Longitudinal Study&lt;/a&gt;  K. Warner Schaie, Ph.D. and Sherry L. Willis, Ph.D. UW Medicine&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com.au/books?id=vPhBjvIZjScC&amp;amp;pg=PA63&amp;amp;lpg=PA63&amp;amp;dq=%22life%20in%20the%20middle%22%20willis%20interview&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=Uohk89_9c_&amp;amp;sig=HxR7XOpQfXGvSUKceUknNbTPcOw&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=f5qeT-maKeXG6AGVr9yfDw&amp;amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Life In The Middle&lt;/a&gt;  Life in the Middle: Psychological and Social Development in Middle Age&#xA; edited by Sherry L. Willis, James B. Reid&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.obweb.org/index.php?option=com_content&amp;amp;view=article&amp;amp;id=2393:recovering-from-work-interview-with-sabine-sonnentag&amp;amp;catid=42:available-podcasts&amp;amp;Itemid=66&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Recovering from Work: Interview with Sabine Sonnentag&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://news.illinois.edu/WebsandThumbs/Lleras,Alejandro/Lleras_sdarticle-17.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brief and rare mental ‘‘breaks’’ keep you focused: Deactivation&#xA;and reactivation of task goals preempt vigilance decrements&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Atsunori Ariga, Alejandro Lleras&#xA;University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States&lt;br&gt;&#xA; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.definingsomeday.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/EricssonDeliberatePracticePR93.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;K. Anders Ericsson, Ralf Th. Krampe, and Clemens Tesch-Romer&#xA;Psychological Review&#xA;1993, Vol. 100. No. 3, 363-406&#xA;Copyright 1993 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.&#xA;0033-295X/93/S3.00    &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-09-08T05:25:44.727" LastActivityDate="2013-09-08T05:25:44.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4513" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4462" CreationDate="2013-09-05T11:17:49.817" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am only addressing the  extreme end of the spectrum of chronic alcohol abuse:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;One syndrome that is known to develop from chronic alcohol abuse id Korsakoff's syndrome or Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It causes memory loss and a form of dementia. An irreversible brain damage that permanently disables the individual. The individual is unable to function within society and carry out the daily tasks necessary for functional living. It can also include psychosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Korsakoff syndrome is most commonly caused by alcohol misuse,...//...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Korsakoff syndrome causes problems learning new information, inability&#xA;  to remember recent events and long-term memory gaps. Memory problems&#xA;  may be strikingly severe while other thinking and social skills are&#xA;  relatively unaffected. For example, individuals may seem able to carry&#xA;  on a coherent conversation, but moments later be unable to recall that&#xA;  the conversation took place or to whom they spoke.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Those with Korsakoff syndrome may &quot;confabulate,&quot; or make up,&#xA;  information they can't remember. They are not &quot;lying&quot; but may actually&#xA;  believe their invented explanations. Scientists don't yet understand&#xA;  why Korsakoff syndrome may cause confabulation. (1)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ....&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Scientists don't yet know exactly how Korsakoff syndrome damages the&#xA;  brain. Research has shown that severe thiamine deficiency disrupts&#xA;  several biochemicals that play key roles in carrying signals among&#xA;  brain cells and in storing and retrieving memories. These disruptions&#xA;  destroy brain cells and cause widespread microscopic bleeding and scar&#xA;  tissue. (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lack of vitamin B1 is common in people with alcoholism....//..&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Korsakoff syndrome, or Korsakoff psychosis, tends to develop as&#xA;  Wernicke symptoms go away. Wernicke encephalopathy causes brain damage&#xA;  in lower parts of the brain called the thalamus and hypothalamus.&#xA;  Korsakoff psychosis results from permanent damage to areas of the&#xA;  brain involved with memory.   (2)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ....&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   Symptoms of Wernicke encephalopathy include:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  - Confusion and loss of mental activity that can progress to coma and&#xA;  death&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   - Loss of muscle coordination (ataxia) that can cause leg tremor&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  -  Vision changes such as abnormal eye movements (back and forth&#xA;  movements called nystagmus), double vision, eyelid drooping&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Alcohol withdrawal Symptoms of Korsakoff syndrome:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  -  Inability to form new memories&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  -  Loss of memory, can be severe&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  -   Making up&#xA;  stories (confabulation)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  - Seeing or hearing things that are not really there (hallucinations) (2)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; (1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.alz.org/dementia/wernicke-korsakoff-syndrome-symptoms.asp#causes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Korsakoff Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Alzheimer's Association&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(2) A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001776/%27&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Korsakoff psychosis; Alcoholic encephalopathy; Encephalopathy - alcoholic; Wernicke's disease&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Last reviewed: February 27, 2013.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-09-05T11:17:49.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4514" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4546" CreationDate="2013-09-05T11:57:43.660" Score="30" ViewCount="11164" Body="&lt;p&gt;A related question asks about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3496/how-long-should-i-work-before-taking-a-break&quot;&gt;the best work-break schedule for an effective eight hour work day&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question presupposes that eight hours of work per day is a good duration and that all you need is to optimize your work-break schedule. But research seems to hint that alertness and productivity might increase if you &lt;strong&gt;shorten your workday&lt;/strong&gt;: A survey (Bielenski, 1994) asking managers about their experiences with part time work in eight European countries found &lt;strong&gt;a better quality of products or services&lt;/strong&gt;. Part time work here includes all different kinds of reduced weekly working hours. A German (Infratest Sozialforschung, 1985) and American (Beyer, 1986) study on flexible work time models (including part time and gliding time) found &lt;strong&gt;an increase in production volume and quality, higher job satisfaction, and a decrease in lateness and absences&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research also shows that performance increases if you &lt;strong&gt;increase your sleeping hours&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g. from eight to ten hours per night), and it is a banal truth that the the amount of sleep that you can or want to allow yourself is directly related to the amount of work: eight hours of work plus taking care of the rest of your life only leave you so many hours to rest. So maybe the question of breaks doesn't even arise anymore, when you awake relaxed and highly attentive after enough sleep, and when you work focussed for four hours without breaks, knowing that you'll be free to enjoy yourself for the rest of the day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming on the one hand that you do in fact need time to get things done and cannot speed up your work frequency and shorten working hours indefinitely; and assuming on the other hand that you will get tired and work less well after a certain time; then there should be a turning point somewhere, where working longer or shorter decreases your productivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course the exact location of this point (and the optimal per day work duration) will differ for different kinds of tasks, so there will not be one optimum for everything. If there is more research on this topic than you can or want to cover in your answer, please focus on &quot;intellectual work&quot; (like that of scientists or in administration).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there research into how long you should work per day to be most effective?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a comprehensive and definite answer on this, and therefore I am especially interested in recent meta-analyses and overview articles, some of which might be published in handbooks or encyclopedias of occupational psychology and not available on the web.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;No untested theories and no personal anecdotes, please.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beyer, H. T. (1986). &lt;em&gt;Betriebliche Arbeitszeitflexibilisierung&lt;/em&gt;. München: Vahlen.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bielenski, H. (ed.) (1994). &lt;em&gt;New Forms of Work and Activity. Survey of Experiences at Establishment Level in Eight European Countries&lt;/em&gt;. Shankill: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Infratest Sozialforschung (1985). &lt;em&gt;Flexible Arbeitszeiten: Erfahrungen aus der Praxis&lt;/em&gt;. Humanisierung des Arbeitslebens, vol. 68. Frankfurt am Main: Campus.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-01-17T01:24:34.153" Title="What is the most effective maximum work duration per day?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="17" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4515" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4701" CreationDate="2013-09-05T14:09:41.107" Score="13" ViewCount="603" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Statistics offered by the CDC&lt;/a&gt; indicate that the prevalance of autism spectrum disorder in the U.S. went from 1-in-150 children in 2002, up to 1-in-88 by 2008:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AuX7n.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;CDC Statistics on Identified Prevalance of Autism Spectrum Disorders&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsr065.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A new report released in 2013&lt;/a&gt; shows that this number has risen to 1-in-50.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most recent study concludes that it is likely that the changes in prevalence are due to an improved awareness/survey techniques:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While it is not&#xA;possible to definitively determine the&#xA;underlying reason for this trend, several&#xA;previous studies that also examined&#xA;changes over time in ASD prevalence&#xA;estimates within selected birth cohorts&#xA;suggest that increasing recognition of&#xA;children with ASD has had an important&#xA;impact. Evidence from&#xA;epidemiologic, genetic, and neuroscience&#xA;research points to the prenatal period as&#xA;the key exposure window for ASD risk&#xA;factors. If the causes of ASD are&#xA;related to factors that exist prior to or&#xA;occur just after birth, it is unlikely that&#xA;changes in ASD prevalence within the&#xA;cohorts of children aged 6–13 in&#xA;2011–2012 reflect ‘‘true’’ increases in&#xA;susceptibility to the condition at these&#xA;ages. Rather, changes in prevalence of&#xA;parent-reported ASD within these birth&#xA;cohorts (children born in 1998–2005)&#xA;likely reflect either changes in the&#xA;recognition of ASD by health&#xA;professionals or survey-based&#xA;measurement changes over time&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there also seems to be a significant support for the idea that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnn.com/2013/04/16/health/autism-facts&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ASD is rising to epidemic proportions&lt;/a&gt;, and that anything from changes in how many older couples are having children to various environmental factors may be increasing the rate of ASD incidents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These rising rates inspired Bob Wright, co-founder of Autism Speaks, to say, &amp;quot;We have an epidemic on our hands.... It is imperative that the U.S. government steps up its commitment to helping people living with autism today.&amp;quot; Last November, the first congressional hearing on autism in 10 years was held to determine what the federal response should be. (It didn't exactly make front-page news: It aired on CSPAN-3.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...and...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Now we know there's a host of genetic and environmental factors that are likely involved,&amp;quot; says Dr. Susan Hyman, professor of pediatrics at the University of Rochester Medical Center and chair of the American Academy of Pediatrics subcommittee on autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One possible contributor to autism's rise is that people are having babies later. The chance for gene glitches increases as parents -- especially dads -- age, explains Irva Hertz-Picciotto, an environmental epidemiologist at the MIND Institute at the University of California, Davis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But delayed childbearing explains only a very small fraction of the rise in autism rates. Environmental factors may turn many autism genes &amp;quot;on&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;off,&amp;quot; says Hyman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The best studies we have now point to things that babies are exposed to in the womb, when the brain is forming,&amp;quot; says Hertz-Picciotto. Living in areas with high levels of air pollution (such as near a freeway), having low levels of folic acid, being overweight or diabetic, and having a high fever during pregnancy all seem to up a woman's risk of having a child with autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What studies or evidence support an actual increase in the rate of children with ASD?  Presumably there are stronger connections to environmental factors than the infamous Wakefield study, given the comments by Dr. Hyman?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there studies that show a strong correlation with increased rates with changes in the  diagnostic criteria, which would support the hypothesis that a significant portion of the increased prevalence is due to improvements in identifying individuals on the spectrum?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="864" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T21:44:51.323" Title="Are the incidents of autism spectrum disorder on the rise, or is there an increase due to better definition of diagnostic criteria?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4516" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4518" CreationDate="2013-09-05T15:18:27.080" Score="12" ViewCount="461" Body="&lt;p&gt;As parents of a soon-to-be three-year-old, my wife and I spend a lot of time planning activities and trips for our son.  However, my wife wanted to hold off on some of the big ones (i.e. Disney World), until he was &quot;old enough to remember&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She explained that she was taught (she has a background in Psychology, but has been working in more administrative roles than clinical for quite some time) that people cannot remember things that occur before they are somewhere around 3-4 years old.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the mechanism behind this?   Is it safe to assume that some developmental cognitive milestone(s) that must be reached before memories persist?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="864" LastActivityDate="2013-09-05T19:08:11.853" Title="Why do we not remember things from the first couple of years of childhood?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4517" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4516" CreationDate="2013-09-05T15:53:27.653" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems this &quot;fact&quot; is becoming more debatable. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/17602-earliest-childhood-memories.html&quot;&gt;This article&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/14106-infant-amnesia-childhood-memories.html&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; might clear up some misconceptions and confusion about this issue. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's incredibly difficult to say anything about memory that applies to all situations. Each person will remember different things for different lengths of time, but often it is not based on some aspect of development or age. It seems to be based more on how often the individual recalls the memory, essentially cementing it and exercising the brain's pathways to that memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following may be more of my opinion than anything, but it seems the reason most people don't recall anything before 3 is not an issue of being unable to remember, but that the way a 2 or 3 year old experiences something is not memorable to older individuals. The second of the above articles talks about people who do remember things from very early, and it's things like &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;&quot;One child remembered playing peek-a-boo with her grandfather around her mother's pregnant round belly,&quot; Peterson told LiveScience. Another remembered waiting for a bus with her mom and there was a flower growing up through a crack in the sidewalk.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not exactly the most enthralling memory that someone would share with their friends or family. Since memories, similar to skills or abilities, generally fall in the &quot;use it or lose it&quot; category, It seems reasonable to think that the reason most people don't remember early memories is simply because they don't have a reason to remember those memories. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3473" LastActivityDate="2013-09-05T15:53:27.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4518" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4516" CreationDate="2013-09-05T17:01:15.043" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, I have some few memories of my very early childhood, but it is undisputable (and the articles quoted by PEEJWEJ don't dispute it either) that most children don't remember most things from their earliest years. The number of events that adults remember from their childhood, and the memory span of a child, clearly increases with the age of the child:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Zybo1.png&quot; alt=&quot;memory span by age&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Maximum memory span in weeks (on y-axis) by age in months (x-axis) for operant conditioned tasks. From chapter 5.2 in the German edition of Berk, L. (2010). Development through the Lifespan (5th ed.), Pearson.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for why, the reason is very probably four-fold:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) At birth, the brain is not yet fully developed. Areas which play a role in memory (like the frontal lobe), are still growing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) Memory needs understanding. We don't just memorize sensory input, but the results of the processing of these inputs. If we don't yet understand the world and cannot process the sensory input, it cannot be &quot;elaborated&quot; and memorized. Another similar opinion is that we need a sense of self that we can relate our experiences to, and small children lack this sense of self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3) Because small children cannot yet speak, their memory is purely non-verbal. Adult memory is in large parts verbal. This discrepancy might make it difficult for the adult brain to access those non-verbal childhood memories that are in fact still there. [I don't believe this, because much of my mental processes today are non-verbal. Maybe I am different than the average person in this, but verbal thought does not play such an overwhelming part in my brain.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(4) During later childhood and adolescence large parts of the neural structure are being degenerated (around age 6) and restructured (adolescence). During these processes, information that is not used, gets lost. [Anecdotally: I clearly remember a childhood memory I still had during my teens. I could &quot;see&quot; the scene in my mind's eye. Today, that memory is either lost or unaccessible to me. I only have a memory of the memory.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what I remember from and looked up in some text books on developmental psychology. All of them are a few years old and not completely up to date with recent research, so there might be more and different information in journal articles. Anyway, I guess this can serve as a starting point for other answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;If you have the English edition of the book by Berk, feel free to replace that image. Wanted to post another graphic that shows the development of different functions of the brain, but there is too much German text in it to make it useful for an international audience. Again, feel free to supply images of your own and edit them in, if you have any.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-09-05T19:08:11.853" LastActivityDate="2013-09-05T19:08:11.853" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4519" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-06T00:07:45.913" Score="17" ViewCount="6971" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some articles on the web that recommend learning to write with your non-dominant hand to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acaconvention.org/pdf/Inner_Child_Writing_by_Michele.pdf&quot;&gt;get in touch with your inner child&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailykos.com/story/2012/03/24/1077569/-A-message-from-the-non-dominant-hand&quot;&gt;a higher power&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nwitimes.com/niche/shore/health/using-your-other-hand-benefits-your-brain/article_6da931ea-b64f-5cc2-9583-e78f179c2425.html&quot;&gt;increase your creativity and be more open-minded&lt;/a&gt; or some such thing. I don't usually believe random stuff from the internet, but:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of my drawing teachers told us to try drawing with the non-dominant hand. What I discovered was that I was very much better at getting proportions right with the non-dominant hand. I only had to use the dominant hand to clean up the shaky lines, because my non-dominant hand has poor fine motor control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So there is obviously something that happens, when I use the &quot;other&quot; hand, something that has to do with how my perceptions are processed and my hand movement is controlled. But these &quot;switches&quot; while I draw are just temporary. What is sometimes recommended on some websites is a more fundamental change: to switch hands for &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there research on the effects of switching hands for all or certain tasks?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I have no idea which tags I should select. Please edit my tags, if you feel you know better.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-06T01:54:18.077" LastActivityDate="2018-11-28T14:08:27.730" Title="Are there benefits to learning to write with your non-dominant hand?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4521" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-06T04:51:42.610" Score="1" ViewCount="1635" Body="&lt;p&gt;In response to these questions:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4519/are-there-benefits-to-learning-to-write-with-your-non-dominant-hand&quot;&gt;Are there benefits to learning to write with your non-dominant hand?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4520/spontaneous-change-of-handedness&quot;&gt;Spontaneous change of handedness&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I used myself as an example for spontaneous handedness change. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I began as a left hander. I spontaneously changed to a semi-ambidextrous right hander.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Two of my three children are true left handers, the other is a true right hander (their father and his family are all right handed).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;My parents and siblings are right handed.&lt;br&gt;&#xA; My maternal grandmother was ambidextrous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the genetics of handedness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-09-06T16:23:55.293" Title="The genetics of handedness" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4522" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4536" CreationDate="2013-09-06T05:02:52.737" Score="3" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer:&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;&lt;em&gt;This is not a self help question, I am using myself as an example to illustrate my question.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have posted many questions and answers on this site within a relatively short time. Frequently (and with my blessing) our Mod Jeromy will edit my question titles. He does not edit &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; of the titles.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find myself browsing through the site, looking to upvote older questions, looking for unanswered questions. Sometimes (and too often) I come across a question and think, that's interesting, only to realise I posted the question. I do this with answers also. I think that's interesting and see I've posted it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can surmise, it is because of the sheer volume, perhaps stress and the inability to process memory.  I am wondering if this is a known condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What causes this phenomena of failing to recognise one's own work?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Is it a recognised condition?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Which part of our brain is responsible for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T14:57:20.163" Title="Failing to recognise one's own work" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4523" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4522" CreationDate="2013-09-06T14:37:06.733" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I'm using your example, because another example would lead to a different interpretation. Using your example is not meant to help you, just to illustrate my answer.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The normal situation is to forget things. There are people who dispute this, believing that you store any and all information you ever encountered (after all, what would the famous 90% unused brain be for?), but from a more scientific perspective, most of the info that goes into your sensorium is simply lost after it was used. Because you don't need to remember the color of the car that just passed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question is, why and when do we actually store stuff in our memories? Short answer: when it appears important. Usually, because it is connected to an emotion. If you care about something, you remember it, if you don't, you won't. This does not mean that you only forget stuff that is unimportant, though. If you are stressed or distracted, important things are &lt;em&gt;momentarily&lt;/em&gt; unimportant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interpreting your example from this perspective, we could infer that you did not much care about those questions you wrote, at least not individually, because you asked them for other purposes (passing the time, gaining reputation, socializing in a community), or that you have other more important stuff going on in your life and that you ask questions here as a distraction, while part of your mind is still elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then, there is another phenomenon: If you have a thought and want to remember it, it blocks your mind. I'm sure you have noticed how trying not to forget the great sentence that you want to begin your next novel with keeps you from having any other ideas. That's why writers carry notebooks: they jot down the sentence, and immediately forget it, freeing their minds to new ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So when you write your question here, you are actually telling your mind: &quot;Okay, that's done, now let's think of something else.&quot; And your mind complies, discards that idea, and starts thinking of other things, forgetting any former thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-09-06T14:46:18.007" LastActivityDate="2013-09-06T14:46:18.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4337" CreationDate="2013-09-06T14:50:46.417" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The research on this topic is limited; it seems, however,  that the advent of online and mobile communication may assist in improving literacy skills of children and people learning a second language.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The use of phonetic abbreviations, assists the learner in developing the connection between verbal and written language. The use of acronyms relies on the users knowledge of how words are spelt. Which requires a presumption of literacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although some studies are inconclusive, the trend shows that texting and online chat assists in child literacy. Enforced limitations on text size, and the use of a, rapidly, evolving language, promotes creativity in the use of written language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recognising that many, if not most, textisms are some form of phonetic&#xA;  abbreviation, Plester, Wood and Joshi (2009) argue that to produce and&#xA;  read such abbreviations requires, in the texter, a level of&#xA;  phonological awareness (and orthographic awareness). While spelled&#xA;  incorrectly in a conventional sense, many textisms are phonologically&#xA;  acceptable forms of written English. Decades of research has&#xA;  demonstrated a consistent association between different forms of&#xA;  3phonological awareness and reading attainment.  David Crystal,&#xA;  honorary professor of linguistics at the University of Wales, believes&#xA;  that sending frequent texts can actually help children to read and&#xA;  write because of the abbreviations used. “People have always used&#xA;  abbreviations ... They do not actually use that many in texts but when&#xA;  they do they are using them in new, playful and imaginative ways that&#xA;  benefit literacy” (Leake, 2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Crystal (2008) believes that the widespread concern about the impact&#xA;  of texting on children’s literacy is unfounded. The brevity of the&#xA;  text style, and the 160 character constraint of an SMS, requires the&#xA;  author to write economically, inventively and playfully – doing this&#xA;  is good practice when learning to read and write. Wood, Plester and&#xA;  Bowyer (2008) concur that “when texting, the children have the freedom&#xA;  to ‘play’ with the construction of language that they are learning&#xA;  about at school, and are creative in their use of it. They also have&#xA;  regular engagement with it.” Plester, Wood and Joshi (2009) believe&#xA;  that any engagement with the written word (as opposed to the spoken&#xA;  word) – including reading and writing textisms in digital form on&#xA;  mobile phones – is beneficial for children. Wood, Plester and Bowyer&#xA;  (2008) posit that “children’s use of this technology appears to have a&#xA;  positive impact on their developing literacy, as it provides children&#xA;  with an additional resource for learning about and experimenting with&#xA;  letter-sound correspondences and language, and for reading and&#xA;  ‘decoding’ text.” They conclude that “If our children are showing&#xA;  difficulties with reading and spelling attainment, it would seem that&#xA;  this is in spite of the contribution of textism use, not because of&#xA;  it.”    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Evolution of language Language changes constantly. To illustrate this&#xA;  point, at the beginning of each school year Cindi Rigsbee, a sixth-&#xA;  and seventh-grade reading-resource teacher in the USA, shows her&#xA;  learners texts from Old English, Middle English, contemporary English&#xA;  from the time of Jane Eyre, and a MySpace page. Throughout the year,&#xA;  Rigsbee often refers back to this lesson to remind her learners of the&#xA;  different forms of writing (Bernard, 2008). Other teachers have&#xA;  contrasted IM lingo with Shakespeare to demonstrate how English has&#xA;  evolved (Lee, 2002)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.siu-voss.net/Voslo__effects_of_texting_on_literacy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The effects of texting on literacy: Modern scourge or opportunity?&lt;/a&gt; - Shuttleworth Foundation)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The use of texting and online chat has also promoted Second Language Acquisition (SLA). The emphasis being on the written language, and the inability to utilize body language, and facial gestures, as a bridge to overcoming learning difficulties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It was found that text-based online chat promotes noticing more than&#xA;  face-to-face conversations, especially in terms of learners’ noticing&#xA;  of their own linguistic mistakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Philp’s (1999) findings pushed the agenda of research on noticing away&#xA;  from general evidentiary studies on the positive effect of noticing on&#xA;  SLA  towards exploratory studies on contextual factors that affect&#xA;  noticing. Realizing the potential effect of learners’ memory capacity&#xA;  on noticing as laid out in Doughty’s (2001) cognitive comparison&#xA;  framework, Mackey, Philp, Egi, Fujii, and Tatsumi (2002) designed a&#xA;  study to explore the relationship between learners’ working memory&#xA;  (WM) capacities and their noticing of interactional feedback. They&#xA;  found that there was a positive relationship between WM capacities and&#xA;  their noticing of interactional feedback, and that learners at lower&#xA;  developmental levels exhibited more   noticing than those at higher&#xA;  levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://llt.msu.edu/vol10num3/pdf/laizhao.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NOTICING AND TEXT-BASED CHAT&lt;/a&gt;, Chun Lai and Yong Zhao, Michigan State University)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is unclear what the advent of technological communication has upon the literacy of   adult native language. Any links to current research on this would be welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note I would like to acknowledge that I have used the links provided in the comments to answer this question.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Will update answer upon acquisition of new material.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-09-06T14:50:46.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4525" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4531" CreationDate="2013-09-06T15:17:58.877" Score="3" ViewCount="513" Body="&lt;p&gt;I stumbled up on this article about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogmed.com/about-working-memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;working memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within a table of indicators of good or poor working memory, it listed the following for adult working memory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Indicators that a working memory needs exercise&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Frequently late to work&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Often underestimates time required for a&#xA;task&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has problems breaking a project into manageable steps&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Often&#xA;loses temper with children and spouse&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is the last point:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Often loses temper with children and spouse&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This brings me to the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there  studies examining the relationship between working memory and emotion?&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;If so what are the results?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-09-10T17:22:18.380" Title="The relationship between working memory and emotion" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4526" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4522" CreationDate="2013-09-06T15:50:36.530" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I agree with @what. I was going to edit his answer, but thought it would be better to post this as an adjunct to his answer.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;The conclusions I have drawn here are my own ideas.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For individuals who are in the full-time occupation of deep concentration, through work, study, interests, their working memory is getting very little downtime. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Working memory is your brain's Post-it note, says Tracy Packiam&#xA;  Alloway, PhD, assistant professor of psychology at the University of&#xA;  North Florida in Jacksonville, Florida. “It makes all the difference&#xA;  to successful learning,” she says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You can think of working memory as the active part of your memory&#xA;  system. It's like mental juggling, says H. Lee Swanson, PhD,&#xA;  distinguished professor of education with the Graduate School of&#xA;  Education at the University of California, Riverside. “As information&#xA;  comes in, you're processing it at the same time as you store it,” he&#xA;  says. A child uses this skill when doing math calculations or&#xA;  listening to a story, for example. She has to hold onto the numbers&#xA;  while working with them. Or, she needs to remember the sequence of&#xA;  events and also think of what the story is about, says Swanson. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Brief by design, working memory involves a short-term use of memory&#xA;  and attention, adds Matthew Cruger, PhD, neuropsychologist with the&#xA;  Learning and Diagnostics Center at the Child Mind Institute in New&#xA;  York City. “It is a set of skills that helps us keep information in&#xA;  mind while using that information to complete a task or execute a&#xA;  challenge,” he says. Working memory is like a foundation of the&#xA;  brain's executive function. This is a broad and deep group of mental&#xA;  processes. They allow you to do things like plan ahead, problem solve,&#xA;  organize and pay attention.1 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Working memory helps us stay involved in something longer and keep&#xA;  more things in mind while approaching a task,” says Cruger. “And, how&#xA;  can you plan ahead if you don't use working memory to keep your goal&#xA;  in mind, resist distractions and inhibit impulsive choices?”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncld.org/types-learning-disabilities/executive-function-disorders/what-is-working-memory-why-does-matter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What Is Working Memory and Why Does It Matter?&lt;/a&gt; By Annie Stuart)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An individual engrossed in mental tasks is going to be coming in and out of states where the working memory is, potentially, overloaded. So, for instance, coming to a site like this, may serve as a distraction from learning or working (This &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4512/3267&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; discusses the value of distraction as beneficial to work productivity); however a great deal of  attention is required to focus effectively on the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if an individual chooses a mentally demanding &quot;distraction&quot; (as in this example posting on a Cognitive Sciences site; for others it may be another form of intellectual hobby), they are flitting from one state of deep concentration, with an occupied working memory, to another. I would suggest that the focus upon one mentally demanding task and an alternate, less mentally consuming, distraction task would alleviate this overload.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The term working memory refers to a brain system that provides&#xA;  temporary storage and manipulation of the information necessary for&#xA;  such complex cognitive tasks as language comprehension, learning, and&#xA;  reasoning. This definition has evolved from the concept of a unitary&#xA;  short-term memory system. Working memory has been found to require the&#xA;  simultaneous storage and processing of information. It can be divided&#xA;  into the following three subcomponents: (i) the central executive,&#xA;  which is assumed to be an attentional-controlling system, is important&#xA;  in skills such as chess playing and is particularly susceptible to the&#xA;  effects of Alzheimer's disease; ....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1736359&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Working memory&lt;/a&gt;. Baddeley A.)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Although working memory itself, is not the same as long term memory,&lt;/strong&gt; I am suggesting that an overloaded working memory, would interfere with the ability to multi task from one mentally demanding task to another completely different mentally demanding task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This does not touch upon the effects of stress on memory, nor does it discuss the effects of attention on memory, as I think the notion of working memory being in a constant overloaded state would explain this phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After feedback, I would like to make my point clearer.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am proposing that a working memory, that is being fully utilised, is not so easy to &quot;clear&quot; to create a concentrated focus on another mentally consuming task.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I have stated clearly that WM is different to long term memory (which stores the memory)  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am suggesting (if the problem isn't the actual storage of the memory, ie within long term memory) and given the description of the problem, that it could be the limitations of working memory.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T14:57:20.163" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4527" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4521" CreationDate="2013-09-06T16:23:55.293" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There appears to be a higher correlation with environmental influences affecting handedness, as opposed to the genetic factors; although there is conclusive genetic evidence, it is not the major contributing factor in determining handedness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I quote from the link @what provided in the comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handedness#Genetic_factors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Handedness&lt;/a&gt; displays a complex inheritance pattern. For example, if&#xA;  both parents of a child are left-handed, there is a 26% chance of that&#xA;  child also being left-handed.[8] A large study of twins from 25,732&#xA;  families by Medland et al. (2006) has indicated that the heritability&#xA;  of handedness is roughly 24%.[9] This leaves about three quarters of&#xA;  the effect to be explained by environmental factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To date, two theoretical single gene models have been proposed to&#xA;  explain the patterns of inheritance of handedness, the first by Dr.&#xA;  Marian Annett[10] of the University of Leicester and the second by&#xA;  Professor Chris McManus[8] of UCL.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Both models propose that there is a variant in a single gene that has&#xA;  two alleles. Carriers of one allele are more likely to be&#xA;  right-handed, and the other allele does not specify the direction of&#xA;  handedness, instead leaving it to chance. They differ on the precise&#xA;  effect of the 'right-shift' allele, but both models provide similar&#xA;  fits to data on the inheritance of handedness. Oxford University&#xA;  psychiatrist Professor Tim Crow has taken the single-gene model one&#xA;  step further, and proposed that mutations in the gene PCDH11X were&#xA;  responsible for the evolution of handedness, cerebral asymmetry,&#xA;  language, susceptibility to schizophrenia, and was the speciation&#xA;  event that created Homo sapiens.[11]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although single-gene models can be fitted to the data, a number of&#xA;  genetic linkage studies have been performed, all of which have&#xA;  provided evidence for different regions of the genome contributing to&#xA;  variation in handedness.[12][13] [14][15] Only one of these studies&#xA;  has led to the identification of a specific gene that is proposed to&#xA;  contribute to variation in handedness. [16][17]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Medland et al.[18] found a gene that is positively correlated with&#xA;  left-handedness in females, and negatively correlated in males. This&#xA;  may help to explain why there are more left-handed men than women&#xA;  (around 12% in men versus 10% in women globally).&lt;a href=&quot;http://ebooks.cambridge.org/chapter.jsf?bid=CBO9780511576744&amp;amp;cid=CBO9780511576744A013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is, also, important to define handedness, or types of handedness, and the variability between self-reporting and objective evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, genes influencing sidedness remain elusive. We measured&#xA;  direction and consistency of hand, foot, and eye preference in 584&#xA;  Mexican-Americans from families participating in the San Antonio&#xA;  Family Diabetes/Gallbladder Study. Using maximum-likelihood-based&#xA;  variance components methods, we estimated weak (.11 ≤ h2≤.17) but&#xA;  significant heritability for foot preference, eye preference, several&#xA;  hand preferences (writing, drawing, throwing, using scissors, using&#xA;  spoon, striking match), and a composite hand preference trait.&#xA;  Self-reported handedness was significantly heritable (h2=.57), whereas&#xA;  hand preference for opening a box or using a toothbrush or knife was&#xA;  not. Many trait pairs had significant genetic correlations, and all&#xA;  had significant environmental correlations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Heritability and linkage analysis of hand, foot, and eye preference in Mexican Americans  Diane M. Warrena*, Michael Sternb, Ravindranath Duggiralac, Thomas D. Dyerc &amp;amp; Laura Almasyc   &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13576500600761056#.Uin658ZmiSo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;DOI:10.1080/13576500600761056&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the concept that handedness is on a continuum and that there is not, necessarily, a definitive left or right handedness, bit rather where the individual sits on the contiuum of cerebral dominance. This study also examines  the genetic modelling versus the environmental factors, and the unreliability of self-reporting. It also, introduces the idea the people may under-report left handedness. This also demonstrates that left handedness is inherited maternally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Whereas many assume there is a true incidence of left-handedness, the&#xA;  RS theory suggests that degrees of hand preference map onto a&#xA;  continuous baseline of asymmetry that can be cut at any point to&#xA;  represent observed incidences of left-handedness. The parameters of&#xA;  the RS genetic model were derived from findings for speech&#xA;  lateralization in aphasics, supporting the argument that the relevant&#xA;  genetic locus is “for” cerebral dominance, not handedness. Genetic&#xA;  predictions are given for two levels of parental left-handedness (10%&#xA;  and 20%). Studies of family handedness distinguishing for sex in both&#xA;  generations gave generally good fits where handedness was assessed by&#xA;  self-report, but more variable fits for indirect report of relatives'&#xA;  handedness. The tendency to find a higher proportion of left-handed&#xA;  children born to left-handed mothers than left-handed fathers is not&#xA;  likely due to X-linked inheritance, but rather to slightly stronger&#xA;  expression of the RS+ gene in females than males, and also&#xA;  under-reporting of left-handedness in mothers by right-handed&#xA;  children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://ebooks.cambridge.org/chapter.jsf?bid=CBO9780511576744&amp;amp;cid=CBO9780511576744A013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The genetic basis of lateralization&lt;/a&gt; Marian Annett dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511576744.006)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been research demonstrating that the LLRTM1 gene contributes to handedness. This gene has also been linked with increased incidence of schizophrenia. An interesting observation, given the historic &quot;demonisation&quot; of left handers. Could this be, because there was a perceivable  increased incidence of &quot;insanity&quot; amongst the left handers? &lt;em&gt;(note, my own theory)&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Left-right asymmetrical brain function underlies much of human&#xA;  cognition, behavior and emotion. Abnormalities of cerebral asymmetry&#xA;  are associated with schizophrenia and other neuropsychiatric&#xA;  disorders.....    This is the first potential genetic influence on&#xA;  human handedness to be identified, and the first putative genetic&#xA;  effect on variability in human brain asymmetry. LRRTM1 is a candidate&#xA;  gene for involvement in several common neurodevelopmental disorders,&#xA;  and may have played a role in human cognitive and behavioral&#xA;  evolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17667961&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;LRRTM1 on chromosome 2p12 is a maternally suppressed gene that is associated paternally with handedness and schizophrenia.&lt;/a&gt; Francks C, et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, given my example, it is not surprising that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The left handed family members were all on the maternal side.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The incidence of left handedness was low.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-09-06T16:23:55.293" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4528" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4519" CreationDate="2013-09-06T17:25:42.880" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there are benefits, but I don't think it requires long-term switches.  Studies have used this as a manipulation to try and increase self control and have found that it decrease aggression.  Based on this, once one has mastered using the non-dominant hand, it seems like the benefit of continuing to use that hand might be over (as it no longer requires effort).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See: Denson, T. F., Capper, M. M., Oaten, M., Friese, M., &amp;amp; Schofield, T. P. (2011). Self-control training decreases aggression in response to provocation in aggressive individuals. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(2), 252–256. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.001&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3502" LastActivityDate="2013-09-06T17:25:42.880" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4530" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3392" CreationDate="2013-09-06T18:10:47.900" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There might be a new edition, but this one is good:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0393927954&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind&lt;/a&gt;  by Michael Gazzaniga, Richard B. Ivry, and George R. Mangun. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3502" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-12-24T17:52:18.097" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T17:52:18.097" CommentCount="1" CommunityOwnedDate="2013-09-06T18:10:47.900" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4531" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4525" CreationDate="2013-09-06T18:13:32.770" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Working memory and other aspects of executive function (attention, for instance) are linked. There is evidence that improving self control improves emotional outbursts (see article below).  So, improving working memory should improve self control, which should prevent emotional outbursts.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See: Denson, T. F., Capper, M. M., Oaten, M., Friese, M., &amp;amp; Schofield, T. P. (2011). Self-control training decreases aggression in response to provocation in aggressive individuals. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(2), 252–256. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.001&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3502" LastActivityDate="2013-09-06T18:13:32.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4532" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-06T20:37:48.307" Score="9" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studying psychology at a German university, the first two years of your curriculum will be almost entirely filled with lectures: students sit in an auditorium, listen to the professor talk for 90 minutes, they take notes, read a book or two, memorize as much of the content of lecture and books as they can, and at the end of the semester they take an exam. There are six to eight lectures per week, adding up to 12 to 14 hours, and there are an equal number of exams, adding up to the same number of hours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my experience and from talking to fellow students, I have the impression that we don't learn much in this way. We call it &quot;bulimic learning&quot;: eating up huge amounts of information in a short span of time, barfing it up during the exams, and then immediately wiping our minds of it to hurriedly fill it up again for the next test. This feeling of not learning much is not wholly subjective: a large part of the early education is methodological, and the superficial and incomplete understanding of this area becomes painfully apparent once we have to apply it in more practical seminars. Most of us have to look up even basic statistical procedures that we had to know to pass our tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Talking to the professors that teach these courses, the replied to my critique of the current system with pointing out that there are a hundred to two hundred students visiting each lecture, and that it would be impossible to teach them in any other manner. I am not convinced of this. Other disciplines, for example in the humanities, manage the same ratio of students per professors only with seminars, none of which have more than 30 students, and completely without lectures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Science – and I mean all science –, in my opinion, is a practically applied occupation. Even a practitioner of a more theoretical field, like metaphysics or theoretical mathematics, creates new ideas, &quot;experiments&quot; with them, and writes a paper about them. There is no creativity and nothing practical in learning for an exam, while there is no science that you cannot teach in an applied manner, if you are willing to be less normative about what students need to know: let them find their own problems, their own literature, their own ideas, and present them, discuss them, and revise them. Just as they would do as graduated scholars and researchers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a review of studies comparing problem-based learning, with learners &quot;actively elaborating their conceptual frameworks&quot;, and traditional teaching through lectures, Reynolds (1997) found that problem-based learning &quot;encourages deep rather than shallow strategies of learning&quot;, while &quot;students who followed a traditional curriculum ... manifested poorer learning strategies which favoured reproducing information, with less attention to personal comprehension&quot;. Additionally, &quot;PBL courses tend to be associated with better attendance and &lt;strong&gt;less distress and depression&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;. Results regarding the increase in knowledge appears to be contradictory, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I wonder if there is more (and more recent) research on different methods of teaching psychology, or on the relative merits of lecture versus seminar style teaching, in or outside of psychology.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reynolds, F. (1997). Studying psychology at degree level: Would problem-based learning enhance students' experience? &lt;em&gt;Studies in Higher Education, 22&lt;/em&gt;, 263-275. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03075079712331380886&quot;&gt;10.1080/03075079712331380886&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-09-06T23:21:49.800" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T11:41:02.903" Title="Lecture versus problem-based learning of psychology" Tags="&lt;teaching-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4533" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4080" CreationDate="2013-09-07T02:15:25.790" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studies examining unconscious perception usually rely on the experimental logic known as the dissociation paradigm (Reingold &amp;amp; Merikle, 1990), whereby the presence of subliminal perception is supported by a dissociation between two measures of perception. One measure is assumed to provide an index of subliminal perception whereas the other is assumed to index conscious awareness. The presence of subliminal processing is supported when changes in a critical stimulus effect the measure of subliminal processing, but the observer is unaware of either the presence or the changes in the critical stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in the widely used masked priming paradigm, a lower case word is briefly presented (40 miliseconds) and replaced by a target word in capitals. Although the first word is rarely consciously perceived (measure of consciousness), recognition of the second word is faster when the two words are identical (e.g., star -&gt; STAR), compared to when they are different (cope -&gt; STAR). This pattern of results suggests that the first word is processed subliminally, and that this processing produces savings in how long it takes to process the target word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Measures of conscious awareness are divided broadly into subjective and objective measures. Subjective measures are typically verbal reports of the observers' perceptual awareness during or after the task. Subjective reports can either be obtained with a direct question, or through a series of graded questions that gradually probe more specific aspects of an observers awareness. An experimenter might ask participants at the end of an experiment whether they were aware of any briefly presented stimuli, whether they noticed any patterns in the stimuli, or whether they developed particular strategies throughout the task. Objective measures are obtained through tasks and provide a numerical estimate of whether an observer was aware of a stimulus or implicit structure of a task. For example, observers might be asked to make a forced choice decision about a briefly presented stimulus to assess how visible the materials are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subjective measures are generally regarded to be unreliable, as participants may indicate that they are aware of a stimulus only when they are highly confident. This means that participants may neglect to mention instances where awareness was only partial. Another problem faced with subjective measures is that direct questioning during an experiment may draw participants attention toward the subliminally presented materials. Alternatively, participants may forget that they were aware of the critical stimulus if consciousness is assessed at the end of the testing session.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although seen as more reliable, objective measures are associated with a number of limitations. Reingold and Merikle (1990) argue that a good measure of consciousness should be both exhaustive and exclusive. That is, the measure should index all components of conscious awareness (exhaustive), and should not index unconscious processes (exclusive). It is unclear whether objective measures are able to satisfy both of these criteria, as objective measures may only index a subset of the contents of consciousness (depending on the task instructions), and may also tap into unconscious processing. Another practical issue concerns how a lack of consciousness is estimated. Support for a lack of consciousness is obtained by showing that objective performance is at chance (e.g., guessing). This criterion is undesirable as this involves accepting the null hypothesis that participants were not aware, instead of rejecting the null hypothesis that participants were aware. Moreover, it cannot be guaranteed that participants will maintain motivation during a difficult task that consists mostly of guessing. In these cases participants may 'give up' and simply press buttons without considering the stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&#xA;E. Reingold, P. Merikle. (1990). Using direct and indirect measures to study perception without awareness, Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics, 44, pp. 563–575&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T02:15:25.790" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4534" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-07T06:45:50.873" Score="6" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know this formula, and I don't know where did I read it (or maybe heard about):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Conscious accuracy + continuous practice = spontaneous fluency&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's an educational technique for long-term learning processes which require the learner to develop motor-skills, like playing piano, touch-typing, martial arts, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This formula in brief says that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You don't have direct control over your brain, and it's a black box to you&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your only duty is to provide content for you brain&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Every action you do during learning process should be consciously accurate&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You should practice more and more (PMP)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You should not care about becoming fluent, as it's not under your direct control&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;After a while, you brain reaches fluency&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The more you provide accuracy for your conscious mind, and the more you practice, the more fluency you'll get from it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I Googled this formula and to my surprise I found almost nothing related. So, I have this question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a subject of cognitive sciences? And if so, is it valid? Do we have a theory regarding these arguments for developing motor-skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2850" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-07T07:40:26.130" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T09:00:25.550" Title="Does fluency on a psychomotor task result from practice and a focus on accuracy?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4534" CreationDate="2013-09-07T09:00:25.550" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have never heard of this formula, but from a cognitive psychology point of view you might look the &lt;em&gt;theory of expert performance&lt;/em&gt; (Ericsson et al., 1993). In this theory it is argued that an important factor in the aquisition of expert performance is what the authors call &lt;em&gt;deliberate practice&lt;/em&gt;. What is meant by this is an activity, wherein someone actively tries to improve his skills in some domain. Deliberate practice is not neccessarily an enjoyable activity, as it requires effort, concentration and persistence. It is definitely conscious. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is quite a bit of evidence from different domains. Ericcson and Charness (1994) report findings from chess, mental multiplicaiton and music. There even is a handbook of expertise and expert performance that sums up the field, if you are interested to go deeper (Ericcson et al., 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The formula that you mentioned very much reminds me of the concept of deliberate practice. I would argue that the two things basically refer to the same processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., &amp;amp; Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, 100(3), 363–406. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mockingbirdeducation.net/uploads/5/4/0/7/5407628/ericsson_1993.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ericsson, K. A., &amp;amp; Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition. &lt;em&gt;American psychologist&lt;/em&gt;, 49(8), 725. &lt;a href=&quot;http://stuff.mit.edu/afs/athena.mit.edu/course/6/6.055/readings/ericsson-charness-am-psychologist.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Hoffman, R. R., &amp;amp; Feltovich, P. J. (Eds.).(2006). &lt;em&gt;The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance.&lt;/em&gt; New York: Cambridge University Press.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T09:00:25.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4536" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4522" CreationDate="2013-09-07T09:36:03.513" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to add a bit of terminology to @what's answer. Of course memory is a pretty big topic with different and sometimes conflicting theories and I would not consider myself an expert. Having this said, the distinction between &lt;em&gt;Long Term Memory (LTM)&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Working Memory&lt;/em&gt; is widely used, so I will use it, too. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem that you describe in your question refers to LTM. Even if @what does not actually use the term LTM in his answer, everything he says does refer to LTM. Furthermore he refers to two procceses that play a role in memory: &lt;em&gt;encoding&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;retrieval&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Encoding vs. Retrieval&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Encoding&lt;/em&gt; is the process of getting something from Working Memory into LTM. A stimulus is not remembered &quot;as is&quot;, but rather it is processed. It might, for instance, be perceived as belonging to a certain category or it might have a strong emotional value (as @what suggested). This opens the door for quite a few theories of why some things are remembered better or faster than others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Retrieval&lt;/em&gt; is the process of getting something from LTM back into Working Memory, so that it can be used there. It is possible that one has something in LTM, but for some reason is not able to retrieve it. (In fact, it has been said that we don't actually forget things, but there are things that we cannot retrieve, as @what said.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;LTM vs. Working Memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To get back to your question: Not being able to recognise something might be because of either one of those things. Either there was a problem with encoding, or there is/was a problem with retrieving. In any case, in my opinion it is not possible to explain this phenomenon using the concept of Working Memory, as you did in your answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T09:36:03.513" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4537" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3706" CreationDate="2013-09-07T11:55:00.997" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A 2013 book tackles this subject : Surfaces and Essences, written by Douglas Hofstadter and Emmanuel Sander. They mostly cite anecdotal evidence (not only, Emmanuel Sander worked on this subject for years), but the theory is very convincing, and quite beautiful. The book received praise from some big names (including Steven Pinker and Elizabeth Loftus).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, their theory in a nutshell : we naturally reason by analogy. Analogy is defined here as &quot;recognizing something perceived as identical to something stored in memory&quot; - a very large definition, that encompasses categorization. We are bad at purely abstract thinking (as the famous Wason (1966) task shows, or most tasks used in reasoning psychology), but we are very good at making abstract links between concrete things, without noticing it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book is filled by loads of examples, a striking one is comptuer science vocabulary. Even though computers brought loads of new &quot;things&quot;, few new names have been invented. For example : desktop, file, directory, keyboard, window, program, application... all those words existed before computers, they have been used by analogy. When one makes such an analogy between a real, concrete desktop and a computer one, one extends the meaning of the word &quot;desktop&quot; - before, desktop refered to the piece of furniture ; after the analogy, desktop acquires a new, more abstract sense that encompasses the 2 concrete (furniture and computer) : a desktop is a working space... where you can store files, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, for your question : it seems that we extract abstract structures as we encode concrete examples - we can't (or at least it's much harder) directly understand the abstract knowledge. Providing good analogies is probably a very good way to teach something - if there are no such analogies, the domain remains very hard to grasp (statistics, probabilites and quantum physics are probably good examples of that). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3166" LastActivityDate="2013-09-07T11:55:00.997" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4538" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-07T12:10:38.953" Score="14" ViewCount="553" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me describe 2 interesting cases :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Solomon Shereshevsky (Luria, 1968) had an almost perfect literal memory. He remembers strings of hundreds of digits for years after only having read them once. I would like to explain this by his awesome synesthesia: everything is encoded in so many ways that everything is considered as new, and so a new memory trace is formed to remember it (we know that &quot;first time&quot; experiences are well remembered (Robinson, 1993), as are distinctive features  (Hunt &amp;amp; Worthen, 2006)). Shereshevsky's gift was compensated by big difficulties recognizing (visages, which he considered extremely changing) and had basically no understanding of abstraction: metaphor, figurative language.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLpCfHH1OVU&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kim Peek, the &quot;real Rainman&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, had a rote knowledge of 6000 books, yet was unable to extract abstract information from this knowledge (his memory was like a computer's, basically). He was also unable to understand metaphors.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it seems to me that abstraction is incompatible with literal memory: we have to forget some concrete features to get the abstract essence. Is there any scientific literature about an incompatibility between abstraction and rote memorization?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hunt, R. R., &amp;amp; Worthen, J. B. (Eds.). (2006). Distinctiveness and memory. Oxford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luria, A. R. (1968). &lt;em&gt;The mind of a mnemonist: A little book about a vast memory&lt;/em&gt;. Harvard University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Robinson, J. A., &amp;amp; Swanson, K. L. (1993). &lt;em&gt;Field and observer modes of remembering. Memory&lt;/em&gt;, 1(3), 169-184.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3166" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-16T14:16:19.233" LastActivityDate="2018-11-25T11:29:40.620" Title="Is abstract knowledge incompatible with literal memorization?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4539" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4544" CreationDate="2013-09-08T08:18:23.633" Score="6" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus_Rising&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Prometheus Rising&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, Robert Anton Wilson explains Timothy Leary's theory of personality types, the &quot;interpersonal grid&quot;, the diagrammatic representation of which consists of a circle divided by the two dimensions of friendly/hostile and strong/weak, into four quadrants (friendly strength, hostile strength, friendly weakness, and hostile weakness), with each quadrant containing sixteen subquadrants. Wilson begins by explaining that each person is born with a genetic predisposition for one of these four personality types, and after explaining them briefly reminds his readers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Remember again that all these categories are for &lt;em&gt;convenience&lt;/em&gt; and&#xA;  that nature has not employed the sharp boundaries that we use in our&#xA;  models of nature. Thus, with Leary's 1957 schemata, we can further&#xA;  sub-divide our 4 types into 16 types with 4 degrees of each, for a&#xA;  total of 64 sub-types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the next section, to simplify what may be growing too complex, we&#xA;  will reduce everything again just to the interactions of the first two&#xA;  cirtuits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Any system for decribing human behavior should be flexible enough to be extended indefinitely, and should also still contain meaning when&#xA;  reduced back to its fundamentals.&lt;/strong&gt; (p. 81, bold emphasis added)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leary's system fulfills these criteria because the grid, which categorizes personalities, can be extended by subdividing cells or simplified by merging cells. But to me, the criteria make no sense, since I think that every description could be extended or reduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there an example of a description of human behavior that does not fulfill the criteria of extensibility and reducability?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3506" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-09-08T23:24:12.937" LastActivityDate="2013-09-08T23:36:24.617" Title="Descriptions of human behavior should be extensible and reducible. Why?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4540" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-08T15:26:19.303" Score="5" ViewCount="162" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found a brief intro to the genetic factor of human intelligence: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1036362/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Biology of human intelligence&amp;quot; by J A Böök (1976)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also it is known that gyrus hipocampii is basis of STM which have role in general factor.&#xA;What I can't find is how the biology of the brain is connected to IQ measurement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is neurobiology, physiology and anatomy basis of human intelligence in general?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: is there any revue article which summarizes neurobiology, physiology and anatomy basis of human intelligence in general?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/1591470838&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Behavior Genetics Principles: Perspectives in Development, Personality, and Psychopathology&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;, edited by Lisabeth F Dilalla (American Psychological Association, 2004), explains the genetic basis of personality. I am looking for a similar book or article which summarizes the physiological and anatomical basis of intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2020-12-28T01:52:46.307" LastActivityDate="2020-12-28T01:52:46.307" Title="What is the neurobiological basis of Spearman general factor of intelligence?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="4541" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4579" CreationDate="2013-09-08T16:18:02.147" Score="5" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone asks us something that we don't know, how can we know so fast that that's the case? Shouldn't we spend a considerable amount of time scanning our memories until we realize the information is unknown? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3354" LastActivityDate="2013-09-12T20:38:02.850" Title="Retrieving information: how can we know so fast that we don't know something?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4542" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4541" CreationDate="2013-09-08T22:00:49.990" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not an expert but I think this is because the brain would find existing memories instead of looking for memories that might not be there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Say you have a good knowledge in C# but don't have that good of a knowledge in C++, but you know the extent of your knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'd immediately know you cannot answer a question when asked about a concept in C++ you have not heard of / are not up to yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When asked where you last saw someone, you can remember quickly or you can't. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, you have a friend that went missing unexpectedly but when you last saw her the confrontation was so casual you can't even remember it.. except that you can.. just slightly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you see your friend and give them a quick wave, but are in an area you aren't familiar with (Say a shopping district you've never went to), you'd have a difficult time recalling the PLACE where you found them. This is especially true if you're just acquaintances who just say &quot;Hi&quot; and &quot;Bye!&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if you are in a grey area, say you've been to a certain place before and saw your friend/acquaintance there, you may not remember or you will remember, that is just subjective. You'd be likely to remember quicker if it was a large event between you two. (Like a wedding!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;All in all, usually when asked that type of question images will flash by while you're saying &quot;Hmm.. umm.. well I think I last saw (him/her) at this place.&quot; or you can be unsure and blank out.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry for my inexperience, I am just giving an example to explain what I cannot really formally write.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3199" LastActivityDate="2013-09-08T22:00:49.990" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4543" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-08T22:17:20.533" Score="4" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;While writing an essay I'm searching for some reliable source for the following experiment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A baby is placed in front of two identical fruits, one which is covered with a transparent box. I think I've read that babys statistically prefer the boxed fruit and tries to reach it first, after which they investigate the easily accessible one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a reference to this experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3509" LastActivityDate="2013-09-08T22:17:20.533" Title="Does a baby go for the most hard-to-get out of two presented objects?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4544" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4539" CreationDate="2013-09-08T23:36:24.617" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say that in the present context Wilson does not use his ad-hoc criteria to differentiate two types of models of human personality – those that fulfill his criteria, and those that don't –, but that this is a pseudo-argument, legitimizing his momentary disregard of the model's complexity and allowing him to focus on only the four basic dimensions in his argumentation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I call the criteria &quot;ad-hoc&quot;, because he appears to make them up on the spot and not motivate them in any way. In my opinion, the whole book is filled with this kind of normative setting of dogmata.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-09-08T23:36:24.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4546" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4514" CreationDate="2013-09-09T20:22:31.970" Score="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a part-answer to your question and it doesn't come from occupational psychology, but from expertise research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Findings from Expertise Research&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their seminal paper on the role of deliberate practice for the acquisition of expert performance, Ericsson et al. (1993) report a number of constraints that play a role in the acquisition of expert performance. One of these constraints is the &lt;em&gt;effort constraint&lt;/em&gt;. What is meant by this is that, in order to improve one's skill, one has to engage in &lt;em&gt;deliberate practice&lt;/em&gt;, which by definition is an effortful activity that requires full concentration. It is clear that such an activity cannot be kept up for very large amounts of time. Ericsson et al. cite works by Welford (1968) and Woodford &amp;amp; Schlosberg (1954) (which I haven't read) that compare the efficiency of practice durations ranging from 1-8 hr a day. These studies find that there is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;essentially no benefit from durations exceeding 4 hr per day and reduced benefit from practice exceeding 2 hr. (Ericsson et al., 1993, p.370)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors then report that studies on the aquisition of typing skill by Baddely &amp;amp; Longman (1978) and Dvorak et al. (1936), and studies on other perceptual motor skills (Henshaw &amp;amp; Holman, 1930) which &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;indicate that the effective duration of deliberate practice is may be closer to 1 hr per day. (Ibid.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, they cite a study by Pirelli &amp;amp; J.R. Anderson (1985) that found &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;no increased learning from doubling the number of training trials per session. (Ibid.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thereafter, Ericsson et al. (1993) turn to more intellectually demanding domains. They report on data from financially independent writers, who &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;tend to write only 4 hr per day, leaving the rest of the day for rest and recuperation (Cowley, 1959; Plimpton, 1977). (Ibid., p.371) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their own study 1, which investigated violinists at music college, the authors found that the best students practiced on average 3.5 hr per day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Maximum vs. Typical Performance&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From these findings it seems that the optimal duration lies somewhere between 1 and 4 hours. But it's important to note that this only holds for conditions of maximal effort and full concentration. Furthermore these studies investigate the acquisition, not the execution of a skill, which presumably is more important in the workplace. I would still argue that they can still be relevant in a work context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In io-psychology there is the distinction between &lt;em&gt;maximum&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;typical performance&lt;/em&gt;. Everything I have said so far obviously refers to maximum performance. The intellectual work of a scientist that you mention in your question might fall into this category. I can also imagine that a software developer needs full concentration. Probably, though, periods that require maximum performance and those that &quot;only&quot; require typical performance alternate. The time limit for typical performance may be much longer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my answer is only a part answer in at least two ways: First it only provides information about the time limit for maximum performance. Second, the studies that I cite have not actually been done within an occupational setting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Baddeley, A. D., &amp;amp; Longman, D. J. A. (1978). The influence of length and frequency of training session on the rate of learning to type. &lt;em&gt;Ergonomics, 21(8)&lt;/em&gt;, 627-635.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Cowley, M.(Ed.). (1953). &lt;em&gt;Writers at work: The Paris review interviews, second series.&lt;/em&gt; New York: Penguin Books.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dvorak, A., Merrick, N. L., Dealey, W. L., &amp;amp; Ford, G. C. (1936). &lt;em&gt;Typewriting behavior.&lt;/em&gt; New York: American Book Company.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., &amp;amp; Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review, 100(3)&lt;/em&gt;, 363–406. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mockingbirdeducation.net/uploads/5/4/0/7/5407628/ericsson_1993.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Pirolli, P. L., &amp;amp; Anderson, J. R. (1985). The role of practice in fact retrieval. &lt;em&gt;Journal of experimental psychology: Learning, memory, and cognition, 11(1)&lt;/em&gt;, 136.&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gwern.net/docs/1985-pirolli.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Plimpton, G. (Ed.). (1976). &lt;em&gt;Writers at work: The Paris review interviews.&lt;/em&gt; New York: Viking Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Welford, A.T. (1968). &lt;em&gt;Fundamentals of skill.&lt;/em&gt; London: Methuen.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Woodworth, R. S., &amp;amp; Schlosberg, H. (1954). &lt;em&gt;Experimental psychology.&lt;/em&gt; New York: Holt, Rinehart &amp;amp; Winston.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="10654" LastEditDate="2017-01-17T01:24:34.153" LastActivityDate="2017-01-17T01:24:34.153" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4547" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-09T21:05:22.297" Score="4" ViewCount="2369" Body="&lt;p&gt;A friend of mine told me that her daughter was in an accident prior to the age of 12 which resulted in head trauma and brain damage. The child went through an extensive recovery process (relearning how to walk, speak, etc) and made a nearly full recovery, the only symptoms which remained were frequent headaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The doctors said at the time of the accident that when the child reached her late teens / early 20s, she might develop seizures. Sure enough, shortly after she turned 18 the seizures began.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What causes seizures to develop years after a childhood brain injury? What is it about the developing brain which can cause years to pass before such seizures begin?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2013-09-10T12:05:55.560" Title="What causes seizures to develop years after a childhood brain injury?" Tags="&lt;brain-injury&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4548" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-09T21:25:34.450" Score="3" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can anyone recommend a good resource (free or paid) for finding detailed images of the nervous systems of various animals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular I am looking for images of the peripheral nervous system of cephalopods such as Octopi or Squids. Ideally I'd prefer images made via some form of medical imaging with radioactive dye, but I will settle for medical illustrations if that's all I can find.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3514" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T17:55:22.657" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T17:55:22.657" Title="Diagram of the peripheral nervous system of different animals?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-03-26T20:31:46.197" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4549" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-10T03:11:42.850" Score="6" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; In the 2013 Australian Federal election, several parties were elected to the senate seemingly because of usability issues related to the ballot paper (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theage.com.au/federal-politics/federal-election-2013/sport-and-motoring-enthusiasts-to-join-senate-in-new-hung-parliament-20130908-2tdqm.html&quot;&gt;here for discussion&lt;/a&gt;). For example: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[The] Australian Sports Party has no policies other than advocating lots&#xA;  of sport, and won just 0.22 per cent of the vote. But with preferences&#xA;  from other small parties, they are likely to get a Senate quota ahead of&#xA;  the second Labor candidate, who had 12.33 per cent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For those unfamiliar with the Australian federal electoral system, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Senate&quot;&gt;Senate is the upper house&lt;/a&gt;. Each state has an equal number of senators. Election to the senate requires that you achieve a certain percentage of votes in a given state. It is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Senate#Voting_system&quot;&gt;preferential block voting system&lt;/a&gt;. Thus, you can achieve the required votes after preferences have been allocated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the current ballot, you can either vote above the line or below the line. Above the line involves ticking a single box and accepting the allocation of preferences of that particular party. Ticking below the line requires that you number every candidate from one to the number of candidates (which could be over 100). Thus, the according to wikipedia about 98% of people vote above the line.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A strange situation arose in the 2013 election where several micro-parties appear to have won senate seats due to a flaw in the combination of the preferential and the above the line system. This seems to have been brought on by a range of factors including a general across the board increase in the vote for micro-parties and collaboration in micro-parties in allocating preferences to each other.  Traditionally, when the likely senator was one of only a few parties, the allocation of preferences was fairly clear. However, many voters if explicitly asked about their preferences, may have put one of the major parties above some of the more obscure parties that seem to have been elected based on preferences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, there is a problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are too many candidates to make it easy for people to indicate their preferences for all candidates.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The preferences implied by putting a 1 in a box &quot;above the line&quot; (i.e., accepting the preferences of a given party) may often not be consistent with what a voter would intend their preferences to be were they asked to think about it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is a good way to design ballot papers with a large number of candidates in a preferential system so that it is easy to use and conveys the important aspects of people's preferences?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What psychological theory or empirical research justifies such a ballot paper?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-09-23T06:29:54.350" Title="How to design ballot papers with a large number of candidates in a preferential system?" Tags="&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;hci&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4550" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4514" CreationDate="2013-09-10T03:40:46.137" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It would appear that a 6 hour workday would obtain better results of productivity than a &gt;=8 hour day.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In discussing the optimum length of a working day, I have taken a neurobiological approach and an occupational approach. As the individual is not an isolated organism;  social and environmental demands, mean that in determining what is a most productive  workday, needs to encompass the fact that the individual has other tasks to complete within a 24 hour cycle. The need for sleep, to maximise performance, also needs to be taken into consideration, within this context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are been much research showing the relationship between excessive work hours, resulting fatigue and decline in cognitive ability.  The effect is also magnified as the  working week progresses.  Following this, there is evidence that a reduced working day (from 8 hour) increases productivity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cj36i.png&quot; alt=&quot;working time and productivity &quot;&gt; &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---travail/documents/publication/wcms_170702.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Working time and productivity&lt;/a&gt; International Labour Ofﬁce Geneva&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---travail/documents/publication/wcms_187307.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Effects of Working Time on Productivity &#xA;and Firm Performance&lt;/a&gt;: &#xA;a research synthesis paper; has examined this subject extensively:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;a. Reduction in hours and worker productivity evidence&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The potential theoretical and practical impact of a reduction in hours on productivity was assessed by &#xA;  the International Labour Organization (ILO) over twenty years ago (White, 1987). Improvements in &#xA;  the efficiency of labour utilization were evident from a century’s worth of research that found some &#xA;  productivity improvement following a reduction in hours, depending, of course, on the accompanying &#xA;  conditions and responses, in the medium if not the short term. Four types of reductions were &#xA;  distinguished, all of which remain relevant to today’s conditions. Each creates its own potential for &#xA;  productivity improvements that would offset much, if not all, of the initial costs associated with &#xA;  shorter working hours. The four types are: reductions in excessive hours, gradual reductions in &#xA;  standard hours, accelerated reductions in standard hours, and individualized options for reducing &#xA;  working hours. ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;a. Interactions between duration and employee-centered flexibility of work &#xA;  schedules&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Importantly, the effect of working time flexibility often interacts with the duration of working hours. &#xA;  Greater discretion or control over the timing of their work helps workers to alleviate some of the &#xA;  negative effects of long hours on the incidence of work-related injuries, illnesses and time stress &#xA;  (Boden, 2005; Costa et al., 2006; Dembe et al., 2007; Hughes and Parkes, 2007). ...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Reduced variability of &#xA;  hours has almost as much influence as higher flexibility on work/life satisfaction (Costa et al., 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has also been research into the best time of day to work. Research suggests that the peak times for alertness are mid to late morning (approx 11am), followed by another, lessor, peak in the late afternoon (approx 5.30pm).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Circadian Rhythms.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human beings have natural &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultradian&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ultradian&lt;/a&gt; cycles, that govern our behaviour. I am focusing on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;circadian rhythm&lt;/a&gt;, which is the natural 24 hour cycle that governs our physiology. It would be logical to propose that working within this cycle, as opposed to enforcing routines that are in conflict with this cycle, would be beneficial to finding an optimal working day structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakefulness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wakefulness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the spontaneous&#xA;  firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons with this increase being&#xA;  reversed by sleep. Another effect of wakefulness (which may or may&#xA;  not be related to this) is that it lowers the small stores of glycogen&#xA;  held in the astrocytes that can supply energy to the brain's&#xA;  neurons—one of the functions of sleep, it has been proposed, is to&#xA;  create the opportunity for them to be replenished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sleepiness   The longer the time spent awake, the greater the drive&#xA;  for sleep.  .....   The second factor is circadian, which varies with&#xA;  a 24 hour periodicity and is independent of the amount of preceding&#xA;  sleep or wakefulness. ....   Together, the homeostatic and circadian&#xA;  factors modulate the need for sleep and influence the balance between&#xA;  alertness and sleepiness. ....&lt;em&gt;Neurobiology of sleep and wakefulness Robert W. McCarley and Christopher M Sinton (2008) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Neurobiology_of_sleep_and_wakefulness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.3313&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following charts provide a good visual representation of the bodies 24 hour cycle:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The pink line is the predicted alertness&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The blue dots are recall data&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jjT63.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;circadian chart&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.supermemo.com/articles/polyphasic2010.htm#alertness-circadian&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;chart&lt;/a&gt; taken from the followup to &quot;Polyphasic Sleep: Facts and Myths&quot; Dr Piotr Wozniak  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/W55cv.png&quot; alt=&quot;biological clock &quot;&gt; &#xA;image courtesy of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biological_clock_human.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;File:Biological clock human.svg&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I disagree with rethinking the smaller 90 minute work and break    cycles. My explanation for this is given clearly in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4512/3267&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;. There is evidence, even within a shorter workday, that the 90 minute cycle exists and breaks enhance performance. I am going to focus on the optimal total hours of a    working day.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are various physical, emotional, mental, financial and environmental factors (eg job stability) that would cause a variation in what an optimal working day would be; so for the purposes of this question I am assuming we are discussing individuals, within the norms for these factors (ie not unwell in these areas or experiencing undue stress).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am assuming that you want the focus of this answer to be on work, rather than sleep. So, without going into discussion about optimal sleep patterns; it follows, logically, that a regular, extended working day of, for example: 16 hours, would prohibit the individual from getting optimal sleep, which in turn affects performance. So, for the sake of this discussion, I am assuming that an optimal work day, takes into account the need to optimize sleep, and that the individual is doing so.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm not addressing shift work here; as the scope becomes too large.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The relationship between optimizing such activity as for example: playing the violin,  needs to take into account the effect on the fingers; whereas in office work, there is less propensity for such risk of repetitive strain or injury.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There has been research regarding compressed working weeks, the benefits of completely 5 days work on 4 days.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Full-time vs Part-Time work:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following  provides evidence for and against job performance and comparisons between full-time and part-time work hours. It is interesting to note that the difference in these findings could be related to the reward system of the job. The differences in performance, could (and probably are) be linked to the capacity to increase earnings with improved performance vs a fixed wage rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at this alone, it would suggest that shorter working hours promote better performance when financial rewards are offered for higher productivity. Which supports the notion of a shorter working day being more optimal for productivity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Argument for Part-time over Full-time work:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;(full-time work is classified as a 40 hour working week)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Part-time workers tend to be more productive, hour for hour, than full-time workers because it is easier to work at peak efficiency for short periods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting, if not obvious point, made by Berkley University HR.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hrweb.berkeley.edu/er/leaves/flexible/choose/part-time&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flexible Work Arrangements: Part-Time Work&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A comparison of part-time vs. full-time salespeople from four U.S. direct selling companies that part-timers had greater job satisfaction and less propensity to quit. Part-timers were also better performers as measured by earnings per hour worked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Another interesting finding in this study, opens a whole avenue for analysis, between having options and motivation upon performance.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When these same respondents were analyzed in terms of other jobs held simultaneously with their direct selling job, some evidence indicated that job satisfaction was lower while earnings per hour and propensity to quit were greater as the extent of other outside employment increased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Full-time vs. part-time salespeople: A comparison on job satisfaction, performance, and turnover in direct selling&#xA;Thomas R. Wotruba doi.org/10.1016/0167-8116(90)90014-E&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Argument for Full-time over Part-time work:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A interesting note with regard to the differences of work outcomes between full-time and part-time workers; the only notable difference is regard to job, the implication being that full-time workers are more likely to have a more responsible attitude towards their jobs. If the overall working week were to change, this difference would need to  be re-examined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Employees who work fewer hours per week tend to assign less importance to the work outcomes measured in this study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Differences in the importance of work outcomes between full-time and part-time hospital employees&#xA;Douglas S. Wakefield1, James P. Curry1, Charles W. Mueller2, James L. Price2&#xA;DOI: 10.1002/job.403008010&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In studies on employee attitude, their was no difference between full-time and part-time workers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A meta-analysis was conducted (k =38, N =51,231) to examine the size of the difference between full- and part-time employees on job attitudes. Results indicated that there was little difference between full-time (FT) and part-time (PT) employees on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, intentions to leave and facets of job satisfaction.Full-time employees were found to be more involved with their jobs than PT employees. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Job attitudes of part-time vs. full-time workers: A meta-analytic review&#xA;Todd J. Thorsteinson&#xA;DOI: 10.1348/0963179037659136&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of performing tasks beyond immediate job criteria, the results sway towards full-time employees rating better, but this is also not clearly defined. This could be linked towards employment attitude.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are two types of performance: in-role and extra-role work performance or OCB ...&#xA;  Marchese and Ryan (2001) found significant differences between full-time and part-time workers in job performance. Full-time employees had a higher level of performance. Another study showed no significant &#xA;  difference between full-time and part-time workers in terms of performance (Wotruba, 1990)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1711&amp;amp;context=refereed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Comparison Between Full and Part-Time Lodging Employees on Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, and Job Performance&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Abdullah Al Omar, Jet al &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Shorter workdays:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is clear evidence that a reduction of workday to 6 hours benefits work performance. This could be due to many complex, pyscho-social factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are some company-based interventions that have studied the effects of a reduction in workhours from 7 or more to 6 hours. In an intervention study among female health care workers, a decrease in workhours (to a 6-hour workday) resulted in improvements in the social life of the workers and in moderate improvements in well-being when the group was compared with a reference group with no changes in workhours. In another study, a shift to 6-hour workdays was followed by a reduction of neck-shoulder and back pain in three separate organizations when fulltime payment of the workers was retained. &#xA;  According to Anttila, the benefits of shorter workhours were the most apparent in regard to social life, but they also introduced some positive effects on the perceived stress of the workers ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scand J Work Environ Health 2006;32(6, special issue):502-514 &#xA;Workhours in relation to work stress, recovery and health &#xA;by Mikko Harma, MD&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Physical effect of shorter workday:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The shortening of regular workdays from &gt;7 hours to 6 hours may considerably reduce the &#xA;  prevalence of neck-shoulder pain among persons with physically demanding care work. The potential health &#xA;  benefits should encourage intervention studies also in other occupations with increased risk of work-related &#xA;  musculoskeletal disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A shorter workday as a means of reducing the occurrence of &#xA;musculoskeletal disorders &#xA;by Ebba L Wergeland, PhD, et al Scand J Work Environ Health 2003;29(1):27-34&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @Jens noted in Ericsson's study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;best students practiced on average 3.5 hr per day &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This, along with the evidence about attention and circadian rhythms, perhaps, suggests that this is an optimal time for mental acuity. (not taking into consideration the physical restraints of finger strain on violinists).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The double peak of alertness within the circadian cycle gives credence to the notion of a &quot;siesta&quot; of prolonged, daily work break, to boost productivity, but this argument is not as straightforward as it may seem on the surface.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Studies which may be helpful:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This  study 15 Indus. &amp;amp; Lab. Rel. Rev. 307 (1961-1962)  &lt;a href=&quot;http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&amp;amp;handle=hein.journals/ialrr15&amp;amp;div=29&amp;amp;id=&amp;amp;page=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shorter Hours - In Theory and Practice&lt;/a&gt;; Dankert, Clyde E. gives detailed analysis, where output optimum is examined and optimum working day and optimum working week evaluated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Orthostatic symptoms, blood pressure and working postures of factory and service workers over an observed workday&#xA;Suzy Ngomoa, et al doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2007.11.004&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I do not have access to these articles&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Associated References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A META-ANALYSIS OF WORK DEMAND STRESSORS AND JOB PERFORMANCE: EXAMINING MAIN AND MODERATING EFFECTS&#xA;SIMONA GILBOA1, ARIE SHIROM1, YITZHAK FRIED2, CARY COOPER3&#xA;DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.00113.x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03200891.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Extended workdays&lt;/a&gt;: Effects on performance&#xA;and ratings offatigue and alertness ROGER R. ROSA DANIEL D. WHEELER and JOEL S. WARM MICHAEL J. COLLIGAN&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS OF PERFORMANCE: NEW TRENDS&#xA;2000, Vol. 17, No. 6 , Pages 719-732&#xA;Julie Carrier1,2 and Timothy H. Monk3 &#xA;doi/abs/10.1081/CBI-100102108  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carrier, J., &amp;amp; Monk, T. H. (2000). Circadian rhythms of performance: New trends.&#xA;Chronobiology International, 17, 719–732. doi:10.1081/CBI-100102108.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schmidt, C., Collette, C., Cajochen, C., &amp;amp; Peigneux, P. (2007). A time to think: Circadian&#xA;rhythms in human cognition.Cognitive Neuropsychology,24, 755–789.doi:10.1080/&#xA;02643290701754158    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Health effects of shift work and extended hours of work&#xA;J M Harrington&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adverse changes in mood and cognitive performance of house officers after night duty.&#xA;D. I. Orton and J. H. Gruzelier &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extended workdays: Effects of 8-hour and 12-hour rotating shift schedules on performance, subjective alertness, sleep patterns, and psychosocial variables &#xA;DOI:10.1080/02678378908256877&#xA;Roger R. Rosaa, Michael J. Colligana &amp;amp; Paul Lewisb   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Professor Cary Cooper CBE &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lums.lancs.ac.uk/profiles/cary-cooper/publications/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;publications&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Changes in Electromyographic Activity Associated with Occupational Stress and Poor Performance in the Workplace&#xA;Frank E. Gomer&#xA;Behavioral Science Applications, Yellow Springs, Ohio&#xA;Louis D. Silverstein&#xA;Sperry Corporation, Phoenix, Arizona&#xA;W. Keith Berg&#xA;University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida&#xA;Donald L. Lassiter&#xA;Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Job content and working time: the scope for joint change DOI:10.1080/00140139108967349&#xA;KAZUTAKA KOGIa &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iza.org/conference_files/SUMS2010/nelen_a6111.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IS PART-TIME EMPLOYMENT BENEFICIAL FOR FIRM PRODUCTIVITY&lt;/a&gt;?&#xA;Annemarie Nelen, Andries De Gripa, Didier Fouarge&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;There is much anecdotal evidence of professional working 4 or 5 hour days to maximise their performance; one example being an author writing a book.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-09-11T12:42:44.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4551" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4547" CreationDate="2013-09-10T05:33:07.203" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;there is a lot of info confirming Post Traumatic Epilepsy (PTE), but little on the exact causation, due to the mysterious nature of the causation of epilepsy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is much research supporting the link between brain injury and subsequent seizures, Post-traumatic epilepsy , including the onset of delayed seizures:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Traumatic brain injury (TBI) has been recognized as a cause of&#xA;  epilepsy since antiquity, and it remains one of the most common and&#xA;  important causes of acquired epilepsy today. Epidemiologic studies&#xA;  have demonstrated a clear relationship between the severity of injury&#xA;  and the likelihood of developing epilepsy, with the risk approaching&#xA;  50% in TBI cases associated with direct injury to brain parenchyma.&#xA;  Importantly, many TBI victims develop epilepsy months or years&#xA;  following the initial injury, ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Epilepsy after head injury: an overview.&#xA;Lowenstein DH. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.02004.x.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Posttraumatic seizures may not appear for as long as 20 years after an accident.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neurology.stanford.edu/epilepsy/patientcare/videos/e_12.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stanford Epilepsy Center&lt;/a&gt; Robert S. Fisher, M.D., Ph.D.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Increased incidence and impact of nonconvulsive and convulsive seizures after traumatic brain injury as detected by continuous electroencephalographic monitoring&#xA;Paul M. Vespa, M.D., et al&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The risks of epilepsy after traumatic brain injury ☆&#xA;John F Annegers2, Sharon Pasternak Coan&#xA;The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, School of Public Health, USA&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Population-Based Study of Seizures after Traumatic Brain Injuries&#xA;John F. Annegers, Ph.D., et al&#xA;N Engl J Med 1998; 338:20-24January 1, 1998DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199801013380104&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to the causal relationship:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cause of epilepsy is largely unkown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.epilepsyaustralia.net/Epilepsy_Information/Epilepsy_explained/Epilepsy_explained.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;What causes epilepsy&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  There are many causes of epilepsy, which vary with the age at which seizures begin and the nature of the seizures. However 50% of cases, the cause is unknown.  ...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  A brain injury, which results in scar tissue, predisposes individuals to developing epilepsy, although there can be a long period, often years, between the damage occurring and the seizures commencing. ...  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is a seizure?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  A seizure occurs when the brains nerve cells misfire and generate sudden, uncontrolled burst of electrical activity in the brain. ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that the nature of the head injury influences the likelihood of developing seizures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_epilepsy#Causes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nature of trauma&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   Intracranial hematomas, in which blood accumulates inside the skull, are one of the most important risk factors for PTE.[23] Subdural hematoma confers a higher risk of PTE than does epidural hematoma, possibly because it causes more damage to brain tissue.[7] Repeated intracranial surgery confers a high risk for late PTE, possibly because people who need more surgery are more likely to have factors associated with worse brain trauma such as large hematomas or cerebral swelling.[7] In addition, the chances of developing PTE differ by the location of the brain lesion: brain contusion that occurs on in one or the other of the frontal lobes has been found to carry a 20% PTE risk, while a contusion in one of the parietal lobes carries a 19% risk and one in a temporal lobe carries a 16% chance.[21] When contusions occur in both hemispheres, the risk is 26% for the frontal lobes, 66% for the parietal, and 31% for the temporal.[21]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not clearly understood how traumatic brain injury  causes seizures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Epilepsy is a common outcome of traumatic brain injury (TBI), but the mechanisms of posttraumatic epileptogenesis are poorly understood. One clue is the occurrence of selective hippocampal cell death after fluid-percussion TBI in rats, consistent with the reported reduction of hippocampal volume bilaterally in humans after TBI and resembling hippocampal sclerosis, a hallmark of temporal-lobe epilepsy. Other features of temporal-lobe epilepsy, such as long-term seizure susceptibility, persistent hyperexcitability in the dentate gyrus (DG), and mossy fiber synaptic reorganization, however, have not been examined after TBI. To determine whether TBI induces these changes, we used a well studied model of TBI by weight drop on somatosensory cortex in adult rats. First, we confirmed an early and selective cell loss in the hilus of the DG and area CA3 of hippocampus, ipsilateral to the impact. Second, we found persistently enhanced susceptibility to pentylenetetrazole-induced convulsions 15 weeks after TBI. Third, by applying GABAA antagonists during field-potential and optical recordings in hippocampal slices 3 and 15 weeks after TBI, we unmasked a persistent, abnormal APV-sensitive hyperexcitability that was bilateral and localized to the granule cell and molecular layers of the DG. Finally, using Timm histochemistry, we detected progressive sprouting of mossy fibers into the inner molecular layers of the DG bilaterally 2–27 weeks after TBI. These findings are consistent with the development of posttraumatic epilepsy in an animal model of impact head injury, showing a striking similarity to the enduring behavioral, functional, and structural alterations associated with temporal-lobe epilepsy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Physiological and Structural Evidence for Hippocampal Involvement in Persistent Seizure Susceptibility after Traumatic Brain Injury&#xA;Golijeh Golarai1,2,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Increase in extracellular glutamate caused by reduced cerebral perfusion pressure and seizures after human traumatic brain injury: a microdialysis study&#xA;Paul Vespa, M.D., et al&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain injury induces c-fos protein(s) in nerve and glial-like cells in adult mammalian brain&#xA;M. DragunowCorresponding author contact information, 1, H.A. Robertson2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would seem that seizure at the time of the injury, increase the chance of having late onset epilepsy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;TBI is a relatively rare cause of epilepsy in childhood, although immediate seizures are associated with an increased risk of developing post-traumatic epilepsy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;doi: 10.1080/02699050902973913.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19557563&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Occurrence of epilepsy during the first 10 years after traumatic brain injury acquired in childhood up to the age of 18 years in the south western Swedish population-based series&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;Emanuelson I, Uvebrant P.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Posttraumatic seizures may occur almost simultaneously with head injury or be delayed for several years.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;    • Once posttraumatic epilepsy has developed, it remits less often than previously reported.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;    • Patients with posttraumatic epilepsy appear to have a higher mortality rate than patients with traumatic brain injury without epilepsy.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;    • Posttraumatic epilepsy appears in many cases as temporal lobe epilepsy that possibly originates from the hippocampus.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... 40% to 50% of new cases of posttraumatic seizures occur within 6 months, 70% within 1 year, and 80% within 2 years after head injury ...&#xA;  ... Seizures occurring within 5 minutes of traumatic injury to the head are called &quot;immediate&quot; posttraumatic seizures (Majkowski 1991). Such seizures do not represent epilepsy, per se, and should be viewed as an acute response to the head injury. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medlink.com/medlinkcontent.asp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Posttraumatic epilepsy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Contributors&#xA;Ravindra Kumar Garg MD, author. Dr. Garg of King George's Medical University in Lucknow, India, has no relevant financial relationships to disclose.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;C P Panayiotopoulos MD PhD, editor. Dr. Panayiotopoulos of St. Thomas' Hospital received a publication grant and salary from UCB Pharma S.A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2002;73:i8-i16 doi:10.1136/jnnp.73.suppl_1.i8&#xA;HEAD INJURY FOR NEUROLOGISTS&#xA;Richard Greenwood&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the swelling can expand over time, and there can be delayed hemorrhaging; this could account for some delayed onset seizures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;• A contusion consists of blood intermixed with brain tissue.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;    • Data have shown that traumatic intracerebral hemorrhages often expand over time.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;    • Delayed posttraumatic hemorrhages may sometimes result from coalesced blood within contusions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medlink.com/cip.asp?UID=MLT002HX&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Traumatic intracerebral hemorrhage&lt;/a&gt;&#xA; Contributors&#xA;Ravindra Kumar Garg MD, author. Steven R Levine MD, editor. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My own thoughts would be, that if a brain injury occurs during childhood; given the degree of growth and change from childhood through to adulthood; and given the the predictive likelihood (that if epilepsy will develop) that it will do so before the ages of 18-21; I suspect that the growth and disruption to scar tissue and possible delay in disruption of existing contusions could account for the delay in onset of PTE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-09-10T12:05:55.560" LastActivityDate="2013-09-10T12:05:55.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4552" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4498" CreationDate="2013-09-10T13:01:50.557" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suppose at face value, the answer to the question &quot;Is serotonin &lt;em&gt;linked&lt;/em&gt; to depression?&quot; would 'yes'.  However, if the question was &quot;Is Major Depressive Disorder or Dysthimia the result of deficits in serotonergic signaling?&quot; the answer becomes much less black-and-white.  First, to piggyback on Chuck's response, it is very important to consider 5-HT (serotonin) receptor subtypes, since different subtypes can play significantly different roles in modulating a massive amount of cognitive and physiological processes.  These range from autonomic functions such as pupil dilation, appetite, sexual arousal etc..., to high level cognitive and social behaviors/functions such as aggression, mood, impulsiveness, addiction etc.  It is a gross oversimplification to think in terms of &quot;more&quot; or &quot;less&quot; serotonin being the grand underlying factor in depression.  Certainly, like most every aspect of a biological system, there are going to be consequences when there are critical deficits or excessive amounts of neuromodulatory chemicals such as serotonin, but there are many other factors that clinicians and researchers have found to be important relative to depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of these are not surprising and pretty intuitive, such as dysregulation of other neurotransmitter systems, particularly monoamines such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine as these chemicals also modulate mood and arousal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent research has also shown that antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), to name a few, owe their therapeutic qualities, at least secondarily, to increased neurogenesis in hippocampus which also explains the improvement in general cognitive function many depressed individuals report when successfully treated. (1)  Some researchers argue that this is actually the primary mechanism underlying the attenuation of depressive symptoms when using these pharmacological therapies.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other connections have been made to increased inflammation (2) as an important factor in depression.  Depressive symptoms have actually been shown to be &lt;em&gt;caused&lt;/em&gt; by long term interactions from adipose tissue (a major source of inflammation) on neural regulatory systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I'll wrap this up by saying that yes, serotonin is &lt;em&gt;linked&lt;/em&gt; to depression.  The link is still just that, a link.  For a variety of historical reasons, relating serotonin to depression somehow comes off as a hot topic of debate, but this is because of gross oversimplifications that are provided to the public by the media, pharmaceutical companies, clinicians and even the researchers studying depression and the neurophysiology behind it.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Castrén E (March 2005). &quot;Is mood chemistry?&quot;. Nat Rev Neurosci. 6 (3): 241–6. doi:10.1038/nrn1629. PMID 15738959.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Shelton RC, Miller AH. Inflammation in depression: is adiposity a cause? Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2011;13(1):41-53.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3516" LastActivityDate="2013-09-10T13:01:50.557" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4553" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4561" CreationDate="2013-09-10T13:11:13.167" Score="7" ViewCount="4389" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've just come across a (very basic) description of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kohlberg's stages of moral development&lt;/a&gt;, and I found the section on the Pre-conventional level of moral reasoning rather suprising.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, stage one, obedience and punishment orientation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second stages of moral development, and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner. A child with preconventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;Stage one&lt;/strong&gt; (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions on themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished. &amp;quot;The last time I did that I got spanked so I will not do it again.&amp;quot; The worse the punishment for the act is, the more &amp;quot;bad&amp;quot; the act is perceived to be. This can give rise to an inference that even innocent victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering. It is &amp;quot;egocentric&amp;quot;, lacking recognition that others' points of view are different from one's own.There is &amp;quot;deference to superior power or prestige&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What surprised me is the example of moral perception in relation to degree of punishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there does seem to be &lt;a href=&quot;https://parenting.stackexchange.com/a/1903/420&quot;&gt;support for the idea&lt;/a&gt; (please feel free to chime in on that question with more authoritative answers!) that spanking &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; be an effective means of eliminating undesireable behavior, &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/a/1940/3451&quot;&gt;there is a significant amount of evidence&lt;/a&gt; citing the general levels of negative impact corporal punishment can have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anecdotally, lower levels of punishment seem to have no correlation with Kohlberg's Stage One model.  My son does not seem to equate punishment as indication that an action is 'morally wrong'.  He does understand that if he repeats the behavior, he will likely have to repeat the punishment, but given the experimentations with defiance and self-assertion common to three year olds, he does tend to repeat the behavior at least a few times, in an attempt to push boundaries and see what he can get away with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, the one time my son has been exposed to corporal punishment (another child's grandmother decided to spank her son in daycare, right in front of my son, much to my anger and frustration), my son showed no indication that he felt that the boy had done anything wrong, but rather was obsessively concerned as to whether he was okay, and why she would do that to him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems counter to the idea that the punishment instills the idea that the actions which precipitate the punishments are &amp;quot;morally wrong&amp;quot;, as Kohlberg seems to be asserting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I misunderstanding Kohlberg's Stage One?  Is his theory generally considered reputable?  Most importantly, is there observational data upon which his theory is based, which supports the conclusions he draws?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="864" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-03-28T17:18:50.790" Title="Are Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development supported by empirical evidence?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4554" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4382" CreationDate="2013-09-10T15:13:07.757" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is abundant research linking childhood attachment styles and adult attachment styles. This doesn't mean that an individual's attachment style is set in stone for life; it is a good indicator of how a child will fare as an adult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The advent of Attachment theory:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Brief Overview of Adult Attachment Theory and Research&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;R. Chris Fraley | University of Illinois&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... Bowlby postulated that these attachment behaviors, such as crying and searching, were adaptive responses to separation from with a primary attachment figure--someone who provides support, protection, and care. Because human infants, like other mammalian infants, cannot feed or protect themselves, they are dependent upon the care and protection of &quot;older and wiser&quot; adults. Bowlby argued that, over the course of evolutionary history, infants who were able to maintain proximity to an attachment figure via attachment behaviors would be more likely to survive to a reproductive age. According to Bowlby, a motivational system, what he called the attachment behavioral system, was gradually &quot;designed&quot; by natural selection to regulate proximity to an attachment figure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John Bowlby was the father of Attachment Theory; Mary Ainsworth tested and developed  this theory.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... John Bowlby formulated the basic tenets of &#xA;  the theory. ...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Mary Ainsworth’s innovative &#xA;  methodology not only made it possible to test some of Bowlby’s ideas empirically hut also &#xA;  helped expand the theory itself and is responsible for some of the new directions it is now &#xA;  taking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/attachment/online/inge_origins.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;THE ORIGINS OF ATTACHMENT THEORY&lt;/a&gt;: &#xA;JOHN BOWLBY AND MARY AINSWORTH, &#xA;INGE BRETHERTON Developmental Psychology (1992), 28, 759-775. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John Bowlby - &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/ss/attachmentstyle.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Attachment Theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is difficult to separate more recent attachment theory from its progenitor; as this is the source from which all attachment theory has evolved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attachment style categorisation:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any style of attachment, that is not a healthy or &lt;strong&gt;secure attachment style&lt;/strong&gt; is classified as an &lt;strong&gt;insecure attachment style&lt;/strong&gt; or an &lt;strong&gt;attachment disorder.&lt;/strong&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4492/3267&quot;&gt;answer here&lt;/a&gt; addresses attachment disorders, in particular, ambivalent attachment disorder in detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maryland's Source for &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.attachmentdisordermaryland.com/subtypes.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Attachment Disorder Related Information&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Note I've added bold for emphasis.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT DISORDER&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The predominant emotion internally, in Avoidant AD {AvAD} children is sadness. However, the world sees little or none of their sadness. AvAD children believe their sadness is infinite, and should they lapse into it, they see no exit. Hence, they go to extraordinary lengths to avoid any expression of it, and usually effectively shield themselves from even recognizing their sadness. Their internal shields work so well that they often truly do not think they are sad. What AvAD children do feel is an anxious edge in quieter moments. They rarely relax, lest their sadness “creep up” on them. Their hypervigilance is more about deflecting anything that might activate their sadness rather than simply scanning for direct hostile threats. As physical / emotional closeness carries a high potential for triggering their sadness, AvAD children avoid it. Attitudinally, AvAD children are contemptuous of sadness- they define it as the “stuff of sissies”. AvAD children present themselves as omnipotent and without need for others. About half of these children lie somewhere along the spectrum of depressive disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ANXIOUS ATTACHMENT DISORDER&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The primary emotion Anxious AD {AxAD} children feel is &lt;strong&gt;anxiety&lt;/strong&gt; ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;DISORGANIZED ATTACHMENT DISORDER&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The characteristic emotion of children with Disorganized Attachment Disorder {DAD} is overwhelming and unmanageable &lt;strong&gt;anxiety&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A cross over of avoidance and anxiety attachment disorders:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4492/3267&quot;&gt;AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT DISORDER&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note: my answer gives a more comprehensive overview of Ambivalent Attachment Disorder and how it is classified as an Reactive Attachment Disorder.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rad.disorder-symptoms.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reactive attachment disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is reactive attachment disorder?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In reactive attachment disorder, DSM-IV considers two basic types of behavior. Representative of the hindered type of attachment disorder, is a child who “constantly refuses to initiate or respond to social activity, as it is expected of children in his age and level of development. It’s expressed in too depressed, too sensitive or highly controversial reaction, for example, a child may respond differently to the teacher: to avoid and refuse caress or to express increased vigilance (“frozen vigilance”).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Highlights of Changes from DSM-IV-TR to DSM-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reactive Attachment Disorder&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The DSM-IV childhood diagnosis reactive attachment disorder had two subtypes: emotionally withdrawn/inhibited and indiscriminately social/disinhibited. In DSM-5, these subtypes are defined as &#xA;  distinct disorders: reactive attachment disorder and disinhibited social engagement disorder. Both of &#xA;  these disorders are the result of social neglect or other situations that limit a young child’s opportunity &#xA;  to form selective attachments. Although sharing this etiological pathway, the two disorders differ in &#xA;  important ways. Because of dampened positive affect, reactive attachment disorder more closely resembles internalizing disorders; it is essentially equivalent to a lack of or incompletely formed preferred &#xA;  attachments to caregiving adults. In contrast, disinhibited social engagement disorder more closely &#xA;  resembles ADHD; it may occur in children who do not necessarily lack attachments and may have established or even secure attachments. The two disorders differ in other important ways, including correlates, course, and response to intervention, and for these reasons are considered separate disorders&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Brief Overview of Adult Attachment Theory and Research&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;R. Chris Fraley | University of Illinois&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recent research on adult attachment has revealed some interesting complexities concerning the relationships between avoidance and defense. Although some avoidant adults, often called fearfully-avoidant adults, are poorly adjusted despite their defensive nature, others, often called dismissing-avoidant adults, are able to use defensive strategies in an adaptive way. For example, in an experimental task in which adults were instructed to discuss losing their partner, Fraley and Shaver (1997) found that dismissing individuals (i.e., individuals who are high on the dimension of attachment-related avoidance but low on the dimension of attachment-related anxiety) were just as physiologically distressed (as assessed by skin conductance measures) as other individuals. When instructed to suppress their thoughts and feelings, however, dismissing individuals were able to do so effectively. That is, they could deactivate their physiological arousal to some degree and minimize the attention they paid to attachment-related thoughts. Fearfully-avoidant individuals were not as successful in suppressing their emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This figure from Attachment as an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/dmessinger/c_c/rsrcs/rdgs/attach/hazanandshaver.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Organizational Framework for Research on Close Relationships&lt;/a&gt; Cindy Hazan Cornell University, Phillip R. Shaver University of California, Davis; shows the basis of cause and effect underlying attachment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SFQWQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;Attachment model&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This figure shows how this cause and effect is classified into attachment styles. Defensiveness leading to avoidance, fear leading to anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FDdDw.png&quot; alt=&quot;Attachment model2&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attachment orientations&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This figure taken from A Brief Overview of Adult Attachment Theory and Research gives a nice representation of how defensiveness and fear translate into attachment styles or attachment orientations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0l0QH.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Chart&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These diagrams also give a good representation of childhood cause and adult attachment style affect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hh7pF.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;secure&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4bYQn.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;ambivalent&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WilGn.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;avoidant&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WfzAz.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;disorganised&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;images courtesy of &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/ss/attachmentstyle.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Attachment Styles&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;By Kendra Cherry, About.com Guide&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/~rcfraley/measures/ecrritems.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised&lt;/a&gt; (ECR-R) Questionnaire&#xA;Fraley, Waller, and Brennan (2000) - &lt;em&gt;Iive added emphasis within this quote.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Scoring Information: The first 18 items listed below comprise the &lt;strong&gt;attachment-related anxiety scale&lt;/strong&gt;.  Items 19 – 36 comprise the &lt;strong&gt;attachment-related avoidance scale&lt;/strong&gt;.  In real research, the order in which these items are presented should be randomized.  Each item is rated on a 7-point scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree.  &lt;strong&gt;To obtain a score for attachment-related anxiety&lt;/strong&gt;, please average a person’s responses to items 1 – 18.  However, because items 9 and 11 are “reverse keyed” (i.e., high numbers represent low anxiety rather than high anxiety), you’ll need to reverse the answers to those questions before averaging the responses.  (If someone answers with a “6” to item 9, you’ll need to re-key it as a 2 before averaging.)  &lt;strong&gt;To obtain a score for attachment-related avoidance&lt;/strong&gt;, please average a person’s responses to items 19 – 36.  Items 20, 22, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, and 36 will need to be reverse keyed before you compute this average.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-09-10T15:31:33.540" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4555" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4611" CreationDate="2013-09-10T15:44:55.733" Score="4" ViewCount="201" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing research in Spatial Cognition and am looking for software which will allow me to conduct the following task:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants will walk around a space and sit down to a computer task afterwards. There'd be a 2d architectural layout of the space visited by participants presented in the centre of the screen. On the side of the screen, the participants will see randomly scattered image stimuli, representing objects they have seen inside the space. I want them to be able to either drag&amp;amp;drop the images to their assumed locations in the architectural layout, or to click/select an image and click on the place inside the layout where they think they saw a given object. I want to record the final location and the sequence of operations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I looked at card sorting tools from HCI, but these seem to be too restrictive (won't allow to change background image for example), so I thought someone in this group could hear of psychological software capable of running this sort of task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2994" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-11T02:01:55.603" LastActivityDate="2013-09-18T08:05:44.617" Title="Research software for conducting a task between card sorting and sketch map drawing" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4558" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4525" CreationDate="2013-09-10T17:22:18.380" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;My husband and I have Traumatic Brain Injury and Cognitive difficulties. All of the points above describe us. The most difficult obstacle is the last, loosing temper with spouse.  The statistics state &quot;that in a marriage where one partner receives TBI  80% of them fail. When both are involved it is said they physically hurt or kill each other. Six years into the TBI we still struggle. &#xA;Emotions and memory are both disturbed when the Frontal lobe is damaged. Therefore both working memory and emotions are related by their location. If a person has a deficit in working memory they are easily agitated and therefor emotional. Assuming you are only considering the loss of temper emotion that would be disrupted by lack of memory. You also only point out children and spouse which are most often the target of a familiar relationship and therefor spend much time in each others presence. A reminder of the retirement syndrome, where age creates memory difficulties and stresses a relationship due to 24/7 time on hands and usually spent with those mentioned. Fact is I can blame my memory difficulties on age. Emotions are generated by unhappiness and memory,or loss of,creates unhappiness. Executive functions are stored closely and related by area and therefor improving one of either would improve the other by definition of the area stored and malfunction in either or that area. There are other characteristics like retention for instance that may cause some of the points noted and time management or staying on task also apathy which may case &quot; who gives a care&quot; at the moment.  This is my hypothesis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3518" LastActivityDate="2013-09-10T17:22:18.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4559" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1999" CreationDate="2013-09-10T21:51:29.803" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon you describe is called the global precedence effect, and was first studied extensively by David Navon (1977). One way to measure this effect is to create conflict between global and local features. For example, Navon presented observes with letter stimuli that were globally organised into different letters, such as;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iriOq.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Observers were instructed to indicate either a) when the smaller letters were E vs H or b) when the larger letters formed an E vs H. Navon found that reaction times were generally faster when the global and local features were congruent. However, the conflict caused by the global form impaired reaction times in a) much more than the conflict caused by the smaller letters in b). Greater interference from the global structure was interpreted as showing that the global form is processed before the local details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This effect was studied in greater detail by Aude Oliva and Phillipe Schyns. Oliva presented hybrid images of natural scenes. These images were composed of the high spatial frequency information from one scene, and the low spatial frequency information from another scene. For example in the images below the low spatial frequency information of a highway has been combined with the high spatial frequency information of a picture of skyscrapers (top image) and vice versa in the bottom image. They showed that the low spatial frequency information is more useful, particularly in cases where the scenes were viewed only briefly, or when participants had to make a very fast judgement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gsikw.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is interesting about the study conducted by Schyns and Oliva is that it provides a evidence for a neural explanation for why global features dominate over details. This explanation is based on two cell types that exist in the retina the send axons to the thalamus in the brain. These cell types are roughly divided into two types: the larger magnocellular neuron, and the smaller parvocellular neuron. These cell types have different spatial preferences and temporal characteristics. Mangocellular neurons prefer low spatial frequency inputs and show a rapid, transient response. Parvocellular neurons on the other hand prefer colourful, high spatial frequency input and show a slow, sustained response. So the idea is that the magnocellular pathway rapidly carries coarse, low spatial frequency information to the brain to form an initial interpretation of the world. This interpretation is then compared to the more detailed information carried by the parvocellular pathway as it arrives in the cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&#xA;Navon, D. (1977). Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in visual perception, Cognitive Psychology, Vol 9(3), 353-383.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schyns, P. G., &amp;amp; Oliva, A. (1994). From blobs to boundary edges: Evidence for time-and spatial-scale-dependent scene recognition. Psychological Science, 5(4), 195-200.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastActivityDate="2013-09-10T21:51:29.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4560" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4555" CreationDate="2013-09-11T00:02:45.320" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think a good option would be to use a general purpose language. For example, I once used Visual Basic to program a task that allowed for dragging elements around a display. The IDE for Visual Studio makes it easier to create GUIs. You could readily include a background image and so forth. You could also record location of visual elements and each action that a user takes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-09-11T00:02:45.320" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4561" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4553" CreationDate="2013-09-11T08:06:21.327" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Kohlberg constucted his stages of moral development using a sample consisting of 72 boys from Chicago. The sample consisted of three age groups: 10, 13 and 16 years. This was also the start for a 30-year long lasting longitudinal study to test his theory (Colby, Kohlberg, Gibbs &amp;amp; Lieberman, 1983). The results generally support the theory. Younger children are classified as belonging to the lower stages, older children as belonging to the higher stages of moral development. Differences between stages become smaller as one goes up the hierarchy. Also, age differences between stages become smaller with higher stages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there also appears to be some criticism. First, there were only few subjects in some of the age groups of the study. Second, apparently Kohlberg has quite often revised his theory and reformulated the descriptions for the stages, and it is not always clear which version was used for testing. Some critics have therefore argued that Kohlberg has &quot;immunized&quot; his theory against falsification. This point also has to do with criticism regarding the assesment of the moral stage, which was done using the &lt;em&gt;Standard Issue Moral Judgement Test&lt;/em&gt;, an interview developed by Kohlberg. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everything I have said so far is taken from Heidbrink (1991), who has tested the theory using a different test, the &lt;em&gt;Morals Judgment Test&lt;/em&gt; by Lind. His study supports Kohlbergs's stages. Among over 1000 subjects between ages 14-29, only two showed a pattern that is not consistent with the theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a re-analysis of a study from 1913 – 45 years before Kohlberg's first relevant publication and thus free of the suspicion of having jumped on the &quot;Kohlberg bandwagon&quot; –, Heidbrink (1989) finds that the results conform to those of Colby &amp;amp; Kohlberg's longitudinal study (1987). He concludes that the fact that American adolescents of the 1950s and 60s show the same moral development as pupils from Berlin before the First World War supports Kohlberg's hypothesis of the universal validity of his stages of moral development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to go further, the Wikipedia article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kohlberg's stages&lt;/a&gt; has a long list of references that you can look at. Probably some of those review the relevant research. Also try to input Kohlberg's own articles or books into Google Scholar and click the &quot;Cited by&quot; link to see which other articles deal with this theory, there will be empirical studies among those.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After collecting all the information to answer your question, I have to say that I am also a bit surprised about the example chosen to describe stage one. The example caters to very young children, while youngest boys in Kohlberg's study were 10 years old. Maybe we shouldn't focus too much on this example. Right off the bat I don't have a better example, but I could imagine there is one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I used German publications. If someone has English references, please help me out here.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Colby, A., Kohlberg, L., Gibbs, J., &amp;amp; Lieberman, M. (1983). A longitudinal study of moral judgment. &lt;em&gt;Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48&lt;/em&gt; (Serial No. 200), 1-124. University of Chicago Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heidbrink, H. (1989). Moralpsychologie: Die Reanalyse einer Untersuchung von 1913. &lt;em&gt;Geschichte der Psychologie, 6&lt;/em&gt;, 4-9. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.zpid.de/index.php/GdP/article/view/424/459&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://journals.zpid.de/index.php/GdP/article/view/424/459&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heidbrink, H., &amp;amp; Lück, H. E. (1991). &lt;em&gt;Stufen der Moral: Zur Gültigkeit der kognitiven Entwicklungstheorie Lawrence Kohlbergs.&lt;/em&gt; Quintessenz-Verl.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-09-11T11:10:27.143" LastActivityDate="2013-09-11T11:10:27.143" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4382" CreationDate="2013-09-11T08:55:17.140" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;http://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?pid=S0213-61632006000400006&amp;amp;script=sci_arttext&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;introduction&lt;/a&gt; to their study, Conradi et al. (2006) give a brief and very good overview over the different approaches to classify and measure attachment styles. I encourage everyone, who is interested in the subject to read it. However, since it is the answer to my question, I will summarise it here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I said in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4382/classification-of-attachment-styles&quot;&gt;my question&lt;/a&gt;, research on attachment styles started with the classification by Ainsworth and Main, who were concerned with the infant-caregiver relationship. Later, an adult attachment focus was established by Hazan and Shaver. The paper then goes on to say that &quot;after that, a bewildering variety of adult attachment typologies, adult attachment-related constructs, and measurement instruments&quot; were developed. Within the adult attachment tradition, Bartholomew then &quot;returned to Bowlby's original conceptualization of two working models&quot;, the &lt;em&gt;model of self&lt;/em&gt; and the &lt;em&gt;model of other&lt;/em&gt;. From these two bi-polar dimensions, the four attachment styles I mentioned in my question emerge. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brennan and collegues &quot;collected all adult attachment self-report scales known at that time&quot;, administered them to a sample of 1086 psychology students and found two underlying factors, which they call &lt;em&gt;attachment avoidance&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;attachment anxiety&lt;/em&gt;. The 18 items with the highest loadings on each of the two factors were the combined to two subscales which form the &lt;em&gt;Experiences in Close Relationships Questionaire (ECR)&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, yes, the distinction between &lt;em&gt;attachment avoidance&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;attachment anxiety&lt;/em&gt; is a different way of of studying attachment. The ECR (or the revised versions of it) seems to be a promising method for further study, because, as Fraley et al. (2000) mention, research has not supported a categorial model of attachment styles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Jan Conradi, H., Gerlsma, C., Duijn, M. V., &amp;amp; Jonge, P. D. (2006). Internal and external validity of the experiences in close relationships questionnaire in an American and two Dutch samples. &lt;em&gt;The European journal of psychiatry, 20(4)&lt;/em&gt;, 258-269. &lt;a href=&quot;http://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?pid=S0213-61632006000400006&amp;amp;script=sci_arttext&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HTML&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Fraley, R. C., Waller, N. G., &amp;amp; Brennan, K. A. (2000). An item response theory analysis of self-report measures of adult attachment. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78,&lt;/em&gt; 350–365. doi:10.1037/0022- 3514.78.2.350 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.web-research-design.net/PDF/FW%26B2000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-09-11T08:55:17.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4564" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4573" CreationDate="2013-09-11T19:22:10.763" Score="17" ViewCount="1062" Body="&lt;p&gt;Photographic memory is a fairly well known phenomena, but is it theoretically possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Marvin Minsky's &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0671657135&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Society of Mind&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; claims it is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=LO_LAUFpJ3cC&amp;amp;dq=society+of+mind&amp;amp;q=photographic&amp;amp;hl=en#search_anchor&quot;&gt;myth&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;...we often hear about people with 'photographic memories' that enable them to quickly memorize all the fine details of a complicated picture or a page of text in a few seconds. So far as I can tell, all of these tales are unfounded myths, and only professional magicians or charlatans can produce such demonstrations.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been a few claims of photographic memory, but only one person was ever reported to have passed tests supporting that claim: a woman named Elizabeth, who later married Charles Stromeyer, the man who had performed the studies within which Elizabeth demonstrated these purported skills.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the relationship between the researcher and the subject, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2006/04/kaavya_syndrome.html&quot;&gt;lack of reproduced test results&lt;/a&gt;, even that one example is rather suspect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any evidence to support that perfect long-term visual storage and retrieval of memories are theoretically possible?  By what mechanism would this likely work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="864" LastActivityDate="2014-03-24T16:53:42.393" Title="Is photographic memory possible?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4565" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-12T00:07:02.770" Score="4" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just stumbled on this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slate.com/blogs/business_insider/2013/09/11/how_winning_awards_changes_people.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;summary in Slate&lt;/a&gt; of a study by Borjas and Doran (2012, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www3.nd.edu/~tjohns20/RePEc/deendus/wpaper/022_Fields.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;FULL TEXT PDF&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote the summary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to a new study by Harvard's George Borjas and Notre Dame's&#xA;  Kirk Doran of recipients of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_Medal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fields Medal&lt;/a&gt;, the most prestigious&#xA;  prize in mathematics, winning big actually kills productivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mathematicians who win it publish far less in the years afterwards&#xA;  than similarly brilliant &quot;contenders&quot;—highly cited mathematicians who&#xA;  won other prestigious awards before the age of 40 (the cutoff for the&#xA;  Fields), but not the prize itself. The prize is awarded every four&#xA;  years to two, three, or four mathematicians. It goes to show that&#xA;  major awards and recognition can have unintended consequences&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gX3va.png&quot; alt=&quot;papers before and after Fields medal&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have not yet read the paper. But my first thought would be that a lot would depend on how you define contenders. I also imagine that the criterion of interest is research achievement, and that number of papers is an imperfect index of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does winning the Fields medal actually decrease the research productivity of winners below what it would have been had they not won the medal?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How strong is the evidence presented by Borjas and Doran (2012)? What, if any, limitations does the study have?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Borjas, G. J., &amp;amp; Doran, K. B. (2012). The Collapse of the Soviet Union and the Productivity of American Mathematicians*. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 127(3), 1143-1203. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www3.nd.edu/~tjohns20/RePEc/deendus/wpaper/022_Fields.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-09-12T06:05:03.140" Title="Does winning the Fields medal decrease subsequent research achievement?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4566" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-12T02:45:42.343" Score="1" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;Meta stackexchange sites are often the venue for immature rants authored by disgruntled members of the site. The Math stackexchange and meta stackoverflow includes a lot of this behavior. During a recent instance of this, one site member pointed out the unconstructive nature of ranting on meta and the ranter (after calming down) &lt;a href=&quot;http://meta.math.stackexchange.com/questions/10934/why-has-this-excellent-question-been-put-on-hold/10935#comment41263_10935&quot;&gt;responded a joke&lt;/a&gt; that why we do this would be a question for the Psych SE. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What do people engage in rants on meta stack exchange site?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there something about math/computing people that causes this behavior? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What psychological theories are relevant?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3532" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-12T04:04:38.697" LastActivityDate="2013-09-12T16:45:29.660" Title="Why do people make rants on Meta Stack Exchange sites?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4572" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-12T14:48:17.913" Score="5" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the difference in cognitive effects on the user between simply showing that there are 'some' unattended notifications, or showing how many notifications there are?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take Facebook's notification count for example, &#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oBoTX.png&quot; alt=&quot;Facebook&amp;#39;s notification count&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;as opposed to Windows' PC issues notification &lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JpqCV.png&quot; alt=&quot;Solve PC issues tray icon&quot;&gt; in the system tray.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course depending on what the notification is notifying you of, people will respond differently, which is not something I'm interested in. However, I suspect there could be a difference based on where it is being displayed, e.g. whether it  is always visible or not. Would one be preferred over the other in different situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm mainly interested in a comparative study between the two, but any research which might give additional insights in the two separate representations would help me out as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-09-12T20:08:53.313" LastActivityDate="2014-08-06T00:52:39.697" Title="What is the impact of showing the amount of unattended notifications to the user?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4573" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4564" CreationDate="2013-09-12T16:14:04.093" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I personally have had the experience that you can train your ability to hold a mental image of what you see.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been drawing from life as a hobby off and on for more than twenty years, and one of the exercises that help you with learning to draw in a realistic manner is to look at your subject for several seconds and then turn to your canvas and draw what you have seen without looking back at it. With time you become better at this until you can hold a rather detailed representation of what you saw in your mind. This image is limited to what you focussed on, obviously, so parts of the background or anything you found uninteresting will be blurred or missing, and the detail is not very fine, so I can't count matches. And it most certainly does not work for random dots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I draw only as a hobby, spend little time on it even at my most intense phases and have long stretches of time where I don't draw at all. I believe I could get very much better at this, and don't need &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Wiltshire&quot;&gt;autims&lt;/a&gt; to accomplish it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Minsky (or you) will probably counter that I'm &quot;using mnemonics and other, non-eidetic memory enhancing exercises&quot;, but looking at your example of &quot;quickly memoriz[ing] ... a page of text in a few seconds&quot;, I see a problem that would make eidetic memory – in the sense of storing the raw data of what you see without processing it – pretty much impossible anyway:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Only the central 2° of your field of vision are focussed and sharp. If you look at a page of text without letting your eyes roam over it, you will have a thumbnail-sized area of sharp and readable text, and a whole page of blurred text. If you want to know how blurred, focus on the dot at the end of this sentence and try to read the lines below it. So obviously, if you want to store a whole page (or any detailed image), you'll have to let your eyes &quot;scan&quot; it. But what do you do, when you do that? You send a row of images to your brain, and your brain has to process them to build the whole page from that. That's processing, if you want to put a name to it. So, to say this clearly: &lt;strong&gt;It is impossible to view a whole page without processing it.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What this means is that everybody who looks at anything through their eyes has to process the information. And what happens during this processing? No-one knows, not even Marvin Minsky. Maybe it remains raw and unchanged apart from the assembly. But maybe – or rather, very likely – there's a whole lot of top-down processing going on, making sense of what is seen, relating it to other stored information, preparing it for easy storage. Perhaps there are individuals whose brains are exceptionally quick at this, and who have a larger than average storage capacity in their working memories. From the outside this would look a lot like eidetic memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-09-12T16:14:04.093" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4574" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4555" CreationDate="2013-09-12T16:27:58.767" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;At our institute (at a university), all experiments are custom programmed, mostly in Python, often using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychopy.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsychoPy&lt;/a&gt;, or in MATLAB. We have staff, from post-docs to student assistants, that do nothing but write code (such as packages for R). If you plan to do more than one experiment in your life, I would strongly recommend to learn programming them. You'd be very unhappy with the limitations that any pre-made solutions would impose on your research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-09-12T16:27:58.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4575" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4566" CreationDate="2013-09-12T16:45:29.660" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;rant, &lt;em&gt;n.&lt;/em&gt; 1. a.&lt;/strong&gt; An extravagant, bombastic, or declamatory speech or utterance; (now &lt;em&gt;esp.&lt;/em&gt;) a long, angry, or impassioned speech; a tirade. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/158099&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;OED&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Why do people make rants on Meta SE?&lt;/code&gt; translates to &lt;code&gt;What makes people get emotionally upset in a social situation and then express their emotions?&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not going to go into this, because the answer is at the same time banal and overwhelmingly complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only aspect that differs between social life online and away-from-keyboard is the higher level of anonymity online. Otherwise it is a common fallacy to think of the internet as being somehow not like &quot;real life&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-09-12T16:45:29.660" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4576" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4598" CreationDate="2013-09-12T18:31:47.997" Score="4" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was watching &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7VAZtyQm6p0&amp;amp;list=PL8642F108C0C3DB53&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a documentary about the brain the other day, BBC's Human Body - Brain Power&lt;/a&gt;. It said that the perception power of the brain increases when you are in a tense situation. For example; if you know that you are about to die because your house is on fire, the brain will perceive everything more quickly than normal. In other words, the brain works better when you are under stress or tensed a lot (because brain wants you to survive; this is only in life or death situations of course)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if the same thing happens to a student during an exam. Is it good for a student to be tensed a bit while taking an exam? I mean if you are solving a question at home, you usually make a lot of mistakes, but the frequency of those mistakes decreases during an exam.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is my observation correct? Or does a student need to be completely calm during an exam?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3535" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-09-16T20:55:10.130" LastActivityDate="2013-09-17T03:59:06.053" Title="Can the brain work better in stressful conditions?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4578" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15248" CreationDate="2013-09-12T20:33:57.023" Score="5" ViewCount="528" Body="&lt;p&gt;Currently I'm studying mathematics (2nd year) and I think I'm pretty into neuroscience. To &quot;test&quot; this, I purchased &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.de/gp/product/B00CF0K3V4/ref=oh_d__o00_details_o00__i00?ie=UTF8&amp;amp;psc=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Principles of Computational Modelling in Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; and am considering to get &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.de/Biophysics-Computation-Computational-Neuroscience-ebook/dp/B000VDK2CM/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Biophysics of Computation: Information Processing in Single Neurons&lt;/a&gt; which seems to fit my interests fairly well, as I'd want to steer a middle course: Learn about the biological structure and manner of functioning of neural cells and thus be able to derive and develop models that do not only fulfill one special task (like most machine learning, ... now - an algorithm for face recognition will never challenge its own functioning), but rather resemble our brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As &lt;em&gt;Biophysics of Computation&lt;/em&gt; was published in 1998, I wanted to know if it is still a good read, or already considered too outdated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3537" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-06-08T20:59:09.457" LastActivityDate="2016-06-17T03:01:10.487" Title="Is &quot;Biophysics of Computation&quot; still a good book?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4579" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4541" CreationDate="2013-09-12T20:38:02.850" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;There are known knowns; there are things we know that we know.&#xA;There are known unknowns; that is to say, there are things that we now know we don't know.&#xA;But there are also unknown unknowns – there are things we do not know we don't know.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Donald Rumsfeld&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is difficult to answer because researchers are rarely interested in how it is we know we don't know. Typically, memory researchers are either interested in how we remember, why we forget, and how we confabulate or form false memories. How it is that we can quickly decide &quot;no entry found&quot; is less of a pertinent question. There may be some research out there on the issue but I'm sure it will be very difficult to find. Broadly, however we can think of a potential answer by dividing the problem into two questions; how do we retrieve information, and how do we make judgements about our thoughts (meta-cognition)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do we retrieve information?&#xA;Retrieval is thought to occur when there is a sufficient match between the current input pattern, and a previously encountered input pattern (Tulving, 1983). Sometimes however, the input pattern is merely a partial cue, and successful recognition entails activation of information that is associated with the cue. Activation of semantically related information is thought to occur due to spreading activation throughout a semantic network (Collins &amp;amp; Loftus, 1975). For example, someone asks &quot;Where was JFK killed?&quot; Presumably the partial cue 'JFK' activates related information such as 'John F Kennedy', 'President of USA','Cuba Missile Crisis','Assassinated', 'Texas'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One property of the encoding-match hypothesis of memory retrieval is that more input information increases the chances that associated information will be activated. This property of memories is that we can use meta-cognitive strategies to facilitate activation of all related information. We do this by attempting think about particular cues, for example we might focus on the details that JFK was shot in an open car, Lee Harvey Oswald shot JFK from a book repository, in the hope that the city name will be activated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a certain stage however, we must make the meta-cognitive judgement that activation is not possible. In recognition tasks the standard assumption is that we simply adopt a meta-cognitive strategy of &quot;wait X seconds, if recognition has not occurred, then the information is not present.&quot; There is a lot of controversy surrounding this assumption and what it means in memory tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although this is not a complete answer, I hope it at least sheds light on why we can know that we don't know so quickly. If retrieval is just the reactivation of a previous perceptual state, then recognition should occur at the speed of perception. However, if the cue is only partial, and activation of the target information relies on spreading activation, then recognition will take longer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tulving, E. (1983). Elements of episodic memory (p. 123). Oxford: Clarendon Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Collins, A. M., &amp;amp; Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological review, 82(6), 407.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="587" LastActivityDate="2013-09-12T20:38:02.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4580" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-12T20:58:00.607" Score="7" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;I &lt;em&gt;know&lt;/em&gt; the difference between &quot;its&quot; and &quot;it's&quot;. When I read it, even in my own writing, I can see incorrect usages almost instantly. However, when I type, I often type &quot;it's&quot; when I should write &quot;its.&quot; The opposite problem is rare (&quot;its&quot; when it should be &quot;it's&quot;). I don't even notice that I've written it incorrectly unless I proof-read my writing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, why do I do this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've looked at these questions and answers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/127/why-do-you-sometimes-write-down-one-word-while-actually-intending-to-write-anoth&quot;&gt;Why do you sometimes write down one word while actually intending to write another?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/121/what-type-of-learning-mechanism-produces-a-consistent-typo&quot;&gt;What type of learning mechanism produces a consistent typo?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But neither really seem to address this case. The first accepted answer refers to speech errors and centers around sounds and phonemes. Since there isn't anything phonetically different between &quot;it's&quot; and &quot;its&quot; I can't see how I have stumbled into this problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When mentally planning the next word in a sentence, we must choose the&#xA;  appropriate lemma. By selecting the units in a neural network that&#xA;  correspond to a certain lemma, it spreads activation to the&#xA;  corresponding morphemes, which in turn spreads activation to its&#xA;  corresponding phonemes. When the activation of a phoneme unit exceeds&#xA;  a certain threshold, it is selected for utterance (e.g., spreads&#xA;  activation to the motor units that allow us to speak).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second answer refers specifically to mechanical typing errors arising from looking at text (which I am not doing) and striking the wrong key. These errors don't seem to cover my situation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Salthouse mentions the taxonomy of typing errors proposed by Wells    (1916) of &quot;substitutions, intrusions, ommissions, and  transpositions&quot;, and also cites empirical estimates of prevalence of&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  different types of errors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&quot;Many substitution errors involve adjacent keys.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&quot;Most transposition errors are cross-hand rather than within-hand&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My problem is adding unnecessary punctuation and not a mechanical error or phonetic/psycholinguistic error. Am I wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3081" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-09-12T21:35:01.720" Title="Why do I type &quot;it's&quot; when I know it should be &quot;its&quot;" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2013-09-12T21:48:41.447" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4581" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="506" CreationDate="2013-09-13T06:15:54.360" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently working on a similar project and wanted to share some info. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A recent paper reports a similar concern but also a solution via the iPad's built in mic.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0057364&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0057364&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The touch screen alone cannot be used for high temporal&#xA;  resolution measurements because of the inherent delay associated&#xA;  with sensing touch via a capacitive screen as well as the fact that&#xA;  these events are then discretized to the frame refresh rate of&#xA;  60 Hz. A temporal resolution of 0.2 msec was achieved by using&#xA;  the built-in microphone (44.1 kHz sampling rate) on the iPad to&#xA;  record the vibrations produced by touch onset and offset&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this tutorial is relevant here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mobileorchard.com/tutorial-detecting-when-a-user-blows-into-the-mic/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://mobileorchard.com/tutorial-detecting-when-a-user-blows-into-the-mic/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3539" LastActivityDate="2013-09-13T06:15:54.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4582" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="506" CreationDate="2013-09-13T06:28:20.207" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.blackboxtoolkit.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Finally - this product looks interesting.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Video is worth a quick watch:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nohio43YSyU&amp;amp;fmt=22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nohio43YSyU&amp;amp;fmt=22&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3539" LastActivityDate="2013-09-13T06:28:20.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4583" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-13T10:04:20.397" Score="9" ViewCount="320" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading the famous quote of Oliver Sacks, can we draw conclusions about liars?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We speak not only to tell other people what we think, but to tell ourselves what we think. Speech is a part of thought.&quot; [Oliver Sacks]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If speech is part of thought, then maybe liars can begin making fallacious thoughts in the long run?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there scientific evidence that suggests that speech affects thinking, possibly in relation to (pathological) liars?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3541" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-11-11T22:47:51.987" LastActivityDate="2016-11-11T22:47:51.987" Title="Are liars inclined to lie to themselves?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;deception&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4585" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17355" CreationDate="2013-09-14T01:58:05.933" Score="8" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often, if one is concentrating too hard on a particular task, it seems as though it's quite easy to skip to the next step of a plan of action.  For example, a baseball infielder may attempt a throw to first base before he has fielded the ball cleanly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the intervening (skipped) movement actually removed from the sequence of steps in the existing motor plan, and is this facilitated by one's level of distraction, or do external stimuli cause the original plan to be created with this flaw?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-09-14T02:11:44.443" LastActivityDate="2017-05-22T09:39:16.343" Title="Does distraction cause us to skip to the next step in a motor plan?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4586" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4590" CreationDate="2013-09-14T06:37:29.947" Score="2" ViewCount="551" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to ask which foods or supplements enhance brain function and how,like for example protein is good after a muscle workout what is the equivalent for the evolving of the brain,antioxidants are said to be good, but why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also,do you have in mind any constructive book or article from which I can elaborate myself.Furthermore do exist diet for brain stimulation?Thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3375" LastEditorUserId="3375" LastEditDate="2013-09-14T07:08:26.593" LastActivityDate="2013-09-15T09:03:39.137" Title="Diet for brain stimuli" Tags="&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4588" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-15T05:39:07.803" Score="9" ViewCount="333" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosensitive_epilepsy&quot;&gt;Photosensitive epilepsy (PSE)&lt;/a&gt; is a form of epilepsy in which seizures are triggered by visual stimuli that form patterns in time or space, such as flashing lights, bold, regular patterns, or regular moving patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does strobe lighting trigger seizures in photosensitive epilepsy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-16T01:09:16.253" LastActivityDate="2015-08-13T06:15:33.137" Title="Why does strobe lighting trigger seizures in photosensitive epilepsy?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;epilepsy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4589" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4641" CreationDate="2013-09-15T08:33:09.930" Score="4" ViewCount="182" Body="&lt;p&gt;There seems to be more information on the detrimental effects of stress on memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is evidence to the contrary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress effects on memory: an update and integration.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Schwabe L, et al  doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.07.002&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is well known that stressful experiences may affect learning and memory processes. Less clear is the exact nature of these stress effects on memory: both enhancing and impairing effects have been reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in the research available on stress positively effecting memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the biological reasons for stress enhancing memory processes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a related question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4576/can-the-brain-work-better-in-stressful-conditions&quot;&gt;Can the brain work better in stressful conditions?&lt;/a&gt;; I am interested more in chronic stress. An examination of the effects of acute stress on memory, I believe, warrants a separate discussion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-09-24T02:59:58.597" Title="How does chronic stress improve memory processes?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4590" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4586" CreationDate="2013-09-15T09:03:39.137" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming a diet is not deficient; this is a brief overview of some of the dietary needs for optimal brain function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Maintaining glucose levels is necessary to maintain healthy brain function.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There is substantial research on the positive effects of omega 3&#xA;fatty acids on brain function.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Vitamin and mineral  deficiencies can cause disruption to brain function (note so can excesses).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Glucose:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article gives some good detail about how to maintain healthy glucose levels; with discussion of glycaemic index and maintaining a steady release of glucose from the breakdown of complex carbohydrates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fi.edu/learn/brain/carbs.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nourish - Carbohydrates Fuel Your Brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Glucose, Learning and Memory - Study        &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychology professor Paul E. Gold has researched the stability of glucose levels in the brain. Working with Ewan C. McNay , they found that as rats went through a maze, concentrations of glucose declined in the animals' hippocampus , a key brain area involved in learning and memory – even more dramatically so in older brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Except under conditions of starvation, it was thought that the brain always had an ample supply of glucose. &quot;While this is the case in terms of consciousness, the new findings suggest that glucose is not always present in ample amounts to optimally support learning and memory functions,&quot; said Gold, who is director of the Medical Scholars Program in the University of Illinois College of Medicine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The brain runs on glucose. Young rats can do a pretty good job of supplying all the glucose that a particular area of the brain needs until the task becomes difficult,&quot; explained McNay, a postdoctoral researcher in psychology at Yale University. &quot;For an old rat given the same task, the brain glucose supply vanishes out the window. This correlates with a big deficit in performance. A lack of fuel affects the ability to think and remember.&quot;         &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain Energy Metabolism&lt;br&gt;&#xA;An Integrated Cellular Perspective&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Pierre J. Magistretti, Luc Pellerin, and Jean-Luc Martin  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Glucose is the obligatory energy substrate for brain and it is almost entirely oxidized to CO2 and H2O.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/61/4/987S.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Role of glucose in regulating the brain and cognition.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;P E Gold  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Extensive evidence indicates that relatively modest increases in circulating glucose concentrations enhance learning and memory processes in rodents and humans.\&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Omega 3 fatty acids:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brain-guide.org/nutrition.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lipids (fats)&lt;/a&gt;- some fats are essential for proper brain function. Two lipids especially critical to the brain are the n-6 and n-3 fatty acids. Low levels of n-3 cause visual problems by badly affecting the retina. Studies in rats have shown that diets without n-3 fatty acids cause learning and motor disabilities and may damage systems that use the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin in the frontal cortex. The n-6 fatty acids affect neurotransmitter release and contribute to the ability of neurons to use glucose for energy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain foods: the effects of nutrients on brain function&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Fernando Gómez-Pinilla  doi:  10.1038/nrn2421  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a diet that is rich in omega-3 fatty acids is garnering appreciation for supporting cognitive processes in humans and upregulating genes that are important for maintaining synaptic function and plasticity in rodents. In turn, diets that are high in saturated fat are becoming notorious for reducing molecular substrates that support cognitive processing and increasing the risk of neurological dysfunction in both humans and animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yslWB.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;brain foods&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Vitamins:&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;B vitamins and the aging brain.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Selhub J, Troen A, Rosenberg IH.  doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00346.x.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Deficiencies of the vitamins folate, B(12) , and B(6) are associated with neurological and psychological dysfunction and with congenital defects. In the elderly, cognitive impairment and incident dementia may be related to the high prevalence of inadequate B vitamin status and to elevations of plasma homocysteine  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2012/04/05/vitamin-b12-deficiency-may-lead-to-brain-shrinkage.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Vitamin You Need for a Sharp Brain as You Age&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dr. Mercola    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Accordingto the latest research, people with high levels of markers for vitamin B12 deficiency were more likely to score lower on cognitive tests, as well as have a smaller total brain volume, which suggests a lack of the vitamin may lead to brain shrinkage&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vitamin B12, cognition, and brain MRI measures: a cross-sectional examination.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Tangney CC, et al  doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182315a33.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Concentrations of all vitamin B12-related markers, but not serum vitamin B12 itself, were associated with global cognitive function and with total brain volume.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vitamin D, effects on brain development, adult brain function and the links between low levels of vitamin D and neuropsychiatric disease.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Eyles DW, Burne TH, McGrath JJ.  doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2012.07.001  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Increasingly vitamin D deficiency is being associated with a number of psychiatric conditions. In particular for disorders with a developmental basis, such as autistic spectrum disorder and schizophrenia the neurobiological plausibility of this association is strengthened by the preclinical data indicating vitamin D deficiency in early life affects neuronal differentiation, axonal connectivity, dopamine ontogeny and brain structure and function. More recently epidemiological associations have been made between low vitamin D and psychiatric disorders not typically associated with abnormalities in brain development such as depression and Alzheimer's disease&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following link gives a good overview of vitamin deficiencies and toxicities.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/foodnut/09315.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fat-Soluble Vitamins: A, D, E, and K&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;by L. Bellows and R. Moore  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, and K — are stored in the body for long periods of time, and pose a greater risk for toxicity than water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins are only needed in small amounts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: that, within all scientific research,there can be research that is &quot;conclusive&quot;, but   it is also important to be mindful, that not all findings are conclusive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vitamin D and cognitive performance in adults: a systematic review.&#xA;Annweiler C, et al   doi: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2009.02755.x.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;. Three studies showed four significant positive associations between serum 25OHD concentrations and global cognitive functions, whereas three other studies exploring specific aspects of cognition showed 11 non-significant associations. This systematic review shows that the association between serum 25OHD concentrations and cognitive performance is not yet clearly established. The inconclusive results of the reviewed studies could be due to methodology, types of the cognitive tasks used and/or the cellular mechanisms of vitamin D.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-09-15T09:03:39.137" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4591" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-15T09:04:45.683" Score="5" ViewCount="874" Body="&lt;p&gt;Supposedly, people mainly dream during REM sleep, and dreams last up to 20 minutes (see for example the first paragraphs of the Wikipedia article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream&quot;&gt;Dreams&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My subjective experience differs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;No matter at what time I awake, I always awake from a dream.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;And since I often awake not on my own (during phases of light sleep) but because I'm disturbed by outside noises (the crying baby of our neighbors, car doors slamming), and often feel groggy and disoriented upon awakening, I probably often awake from deep phases of non-REM sleep. Still, I always awake from a dream.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;When I wake up I often remember an unbroken storyline from the last thoughts before I fell asleep until the moment of awakening.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;em&gt;So obviously my dreams must have continued for hours – either in an unbroken stream or by taking up after a break where the story was &quot;paused&quot; before it.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there recent theories or research findings that explain this subjective experience?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-09-15T19:28:36.393" Title="Dreams and sleep phases, and duration of dreams" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4592" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-15T09:06:11.570" Score="4" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;I posted this question on SE English:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/127185/antonym-for-ameliorate&quot;&gt;Antonym for ameliorate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had been trying to recall a word and it's recollection kept evading me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remembered the word as soon as I posted the question; which was when I gave up trying to recall it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the scientific term and process by where a person cannot recall something and then remembers it when they stop trying?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2013-09-16T14:54:26.727" Title="Why do people remember things when they stop trying to remember?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2013-09-16T14:54:43.930" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4593" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-15T09:12:29.660" Score="3" ViewCount="1658" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/676/is-it-called-something-when-i-cant-remember-the-word-i-want-to-say-but-i-can-r&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;. It could be a dupe, but I am more interested in whether this is a form of &quot;dyslexic&quot; thinking (for want of a better expression)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I posted this question on SE English:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/127185/antonym-for-ameliorate&quot;&gt;Antonym for ameliorate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where I could not recall the word &lt;em&gt;deleterious&lt;/em&gt; and was remembering it as: &lt;em&gt;detiliorate&lt;/em&gt; (a non-existent word). I was miss remembering the order of the syllables. plus some other confusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I was confusing the &lt;em&gt;de-le-terious&lt;/em&gt; with &lt;em&gt;de-ti-liorate&lt;/em&gt;, that is, I had inverted the &quot;L&quot; and &quot;T&quot; sounds in the syllables. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do people tend to get sounds mixed up in this way?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What is the process behind this?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-01-22T07:57:14.613" Title="Why do people get syllables mixed up when trying to recall words?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4594" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4256" CreationDate="2013-09-15T12:51:21.180" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not think so is the short answer.  I belong to a minority of men who are submissives to a female Master.  She does not treat me as a slave and does not expect me to do anything I am uncomfortable with.  I do all the housecleaning, her laundry, cook her meals and generally serve her in whatever fashion that gives her pleasure.  I do so out of love of her.  She is mentally tougher and more like a man in business thinking and dealing but very much a woman.&#xA;It took her awhile to accept that she was the much stronger personality and that anyone could want to devote their life to her and serve her.  I consider her my Master and refer to her as Master. She considers herself Master and has a name she has given me that we use privately.  I also consider myself to be her property for her use and for her pleasure. At no time however does she treat me like a slave or administer punishment etc.  It is nothing like what I have read about Master-Slave relationships in BDSM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3550" LastActivityDate="2013-09-15T12:51:21.180" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4595" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4591" CreationDate="2013-09-15T15:48:08.583" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think what you're describing is that unusual. I read about dreams and dreaming in Jaak Panksepp's &quot;Affective Neuroscience&quot; some years ago, and here is what I remember:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, it is not entirely accurate to say that dreams happen only during REM sleep. What is unique to REM dreams is visual imagery. NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, also contains dreams, but they are just a series of thoughts - not very different from when you think about things while awake. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, even if you are describing visual dreams: REM sleep is more shallow than slow wave sleep, i.e. outside noises will wake you up more easily than during the other sleep stages. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third, it's very standard to dream about things that are currently going on in your life. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fourth, dreams are extremely fragile, they evaporate from memory very quickly unless you actively do something mental with them, and it is easy confabulate some new details into them while trying to keep them from slipping away. It could be that you are reconstructing the content or duration of your dreams a little bit while you are trying to compare them to your thoughts before sleep. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2013-09-15T19:28:36.393" LastActivityDate="2013-09-15T19:28:36.393" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4596" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4256" CreationDate="2013-09-15T18:45:12.133" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;BDSM relationships are generally very clear on the respective roles of the individuals. Thus, they provide a refuge from the &quot;war of the sexes&quot; that is being fought in most non-BDSM relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In non-BDSM relationships today, men and women are usually extremely confused about their roles. Men and women both have difficulties accepting women as (co)providers; both partners are expected to partake in child-rearing and household chores, which does not relieve one partner from the tedium of the job, but double the stress by leading to conflicts and an unclear diffusion of responsibility; sex is a minefield where men are afraid to &quot;use&quot; their women, and women can no longer &quot;let go&quot;; etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BDSM relationships are reactionary in that they return to the clarity and emotional safety of pre-feminist relationships, only without the patriarchal roles. As both Skippy (user3267) in her question and MingYue in his answer have described, BDSM relationships are often less about specific forms of sexuality, but about a specific from of relationship: one with clearly defined roles, and both partners being able to relax and be themselves in the secure knowledge of what is expected of them, how to behave, and where the limits of their agreement lie – because every relationship is a contract, only non-BDSM relationships make the mistake of tabooing this fact and clogging the free flow of an honest exchange with a thick layer of romantic spirituality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What non-BDSM relationships can learn from BDSM relationships is to communicate clearly, to define the roles of each partner, and to stop feeling guilty about not loving in a politically correct way. Equal rights don't apply inside the bedroom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since there has been some debate concerning the dangers and pathology of sadism, I would like to append a paraphrase of a section in a textbook on sexual deviance (Fiedler, 2004, p. 267f.):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research has shown that an inclination to sexual sadism is a mostly safe and harmless preference. Practices of sexual sadism are usally performed with the utmost caution and care, so that injury or trauma is extremely rare (Scott, 1983; Weinberg &amp;amp; Kamel, 1983).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies with persons egaging in sadistic practices with their partners have repeatedly found that these persons are socially well integrated, valued by their friends and neighbors and successful (Spengler, 1977; 1979; Scott, 1983; Moser &amp;amp; Levitt, 1987; Baumeister &amp;amp; Butler, 1997). Some authors attest that the social adjustment and psychic health of individuals engaging in sadistic practices with their partners are &lt;em&gt;above average&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Since an inclination towards sexual masochism is about four times as common as an inclination towards sexual sadism (Baumeister &amp;amp; Butler, 1992), we may conclude that some persons practicing sadism in their relationships are not sadistic at all but rather complying with the needs of their loved ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In sum, a majority of persons performing sadism in their relationships have no psychological disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baumeister, R. F., &amp;amp; Butler, J. L. (1997). Sexual masochism: Deviance without pathology. In D. R. Laws &amp;amp; W. T. O'Donohue (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Sexual Deviance: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 225-239). New York: Guilford.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fiedler, P. (2004). &lt;em&gt;Sexuelle Orientierung und sexuelle Abweichung&lt;/em&gt; [Sexual Orientation and Sexual Deviance]. Weinheim: Beltz.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moser, C., &amp;amp; Levitt, E. E. (1987). An exploratory-descriptive study of a sadomasochistically oriented sample. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Sex Research, 23&lt;/em&gt;, 322-337.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scott, G. G. (1983). &lt;em&gt;Erotic power: An exploraton of dominance and submission&lt;/em&gt;. Secausus, NJ: Citadel.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spengler, A. (1977). Manifest sadomasochism of males: Results of an empirical study. &lt;em&gt;Archives of Sexual Behavior, 6&lt;/em&gt;, 441-456.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spengler, A. (1979). &lt;em&gt;Sadomasochisten und ihre Subkulturen&lt;/em&gt;. Frankfurt: Campus.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Weinberg, T. S., &amp;amp; Kamel, W. L. (Eds.) (1983). &lt;em&gt;S and M: Studies in sadomasochism&lt;/em&gt;. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-02-10T09:12:30.147" LastActivityDate="2014-02-10T09:12:30.147" CommentCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4597" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4637" CreationDate="2013-09-15T22:46:54.083" Score="2" ViewCount="299" Body="&lt;p&gt;At &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Masada&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the siege of Masada&lt;/a&gt;, a group of heavily outnumbered Jewish soldiers elected to commit suicide en masse, rather than to be captured by the besieging Romans, who would probably have committed them to a tortuous death by crucifixion. Such an action is highly unusual, almost unique in the annals of history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spartacus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the Spartacus slave revolt&lt;/a&gt;, some 6,000 rebels were captured and crucified. Why did they choose this over death in battle? (As rebelling slaves, they were outlaws, not foreign prisoners who could expect to be allowed to live.) And why might this be true of others in similar straits (e.g. partisans captured by Nazis in World War II)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-09-16T12:51:17.417" LastActivityDate="2013-09-27T23:17:06.353" Title="Why do soldiers seldom &quot;fight to the death&quot; even if they are going to be killed anyway?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4598" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4576" CreationDate="2013-09-17T03:59:06.053" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;A little stress is good, as it leads to greater psychological arousal, but lots of stress will decrease performance. This is known as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes%E2%80%93Dodson_law&quot;&gt;Yerkes–Dodson law&lt;/a&gt;, from the famous experiment by Yerkes and Dodson (1908) which related strength of motivational electric shocks to performance; performance increased up to a point and then plummeted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One more comment about something you said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example; if you know that you are about to die because your house is on fire, the brain will perceive everything more quickly than normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People do report subjective time dilation for scary events but quantitative attempts have found no evidence for such, see Stetson et. al. (2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stetson, Chess, Matthew P. Fiesta, and David M. Eagleman. &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3adoi/10.1371/journal.pone.0001295&quot;&gt;Does time really slow down during a frightening event?.&lt;/a&gt;&quot; PLoS One 2.12 (2007): e1295.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yerkes RM, Dodson JD (1908). &quot;The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation&quot;. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology 18: 459–482.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3556" LastActivityDate="2013-09-17T03:59:06.053" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4599" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="683" CreationDate="2013-09-17T07:50:23.763" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;An alert of a follow up paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/peps.12060/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF JOB PERFORMANCE: THE ROLE OF MEASUREMENT CHARACTERISTICS IN OBSERVED DEPARTURES FROM NORMALITY&lt;/a&gt; and subsequent search brought me to this discussion. I don't have full access to these articles unfortunately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of the two questions that posed, no, I wouldn't expect to find a normal distribution and no, I wouldn't expect to find a pareto distribution. As was mentioned in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://plus.google.com/u/0/+johncbaez999/posts/gUGcuHbjAAr&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;G+ discussion that Artem linked to&lt;/a&gt;, what we tend to see is some skewed distribution such as a log-normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good tool for exploring these types of situations, especially in a dynamic / systems-based situation is to use simulation.  This is what I did in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.organizationview.com/modelling-forced-ranking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2010 blog post on 'forced ranking'&lt;/a&gt; which at it's heart frequently assumes normally distributed performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The post shows selection of any sort quickly produces a skewed population. This selection can be either on entry level selection or during a performance review cycle.  What I didn't explore in that simple model, but again supports the outcome, is self-selection - i.e. the likelihood of an employee leaving is to some degree based on their assessment of fit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also explore what happens if we use a probability distribution not only for the individual, but also a distribution for the likely measurement error (because only in rare situations can be objectively measure performance.) For me this is the sort of instance where a Bayesian Hierarchical model makes sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my day job working with senior HR people to help them understand their workforces I find simulation a powerful tool. We can make a few simple assumptions and show that over time unexpected results will occur.  Many times it will show that normal distributions don't logically hold over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3557" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-15T17:22:55.007" LastActivityDate="2017-12-15T17:22:55.007" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4600" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4601" CreationDate="2013-09-17T08:26:48.370" Score="3" ViewCount="564" Body="&lt;p&gt;After reading the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4572/what-is-the-impact-of-showing-the-amount-of-unattended-notifications-to-the-user&quot;&gt;What is the impact of showing the amount of unattended notifications to the user&lt;/a&gt;, it occurred to me that many notifications (certainly not all) are red, two examples being inbox messages here (SE) and any notification on Facebook.  Whereas, some notifications on StackExchange are in light blue (eg for badges and edits).  Green is often associated with check-mark notifications (such as on my AVG virus scan and as the accepted answer here).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;em&gt;Anecdotal side note: I sometimes get the feeling &quot;oh what have I done this time&quot; when the red notification shows here and a &quot;oh goody!&quot; when the blue shows up&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many examples of different colours being used for different types of notifications.  What is the psychological basis of these notification colours?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-09-17T20:27:26.227" Title="What is the psychology of notification colour?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4601" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4600" CreationDate="2013-09-17T09:26:20.187" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is all about attention and reaction time: Information are coded in visual, aural and tactile channel. Here you have primer of visual coding. Visual coding could be signs or text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have shorter time of reaction to primary colors (red yellow blue) and there is some kind of international standard which determine meaning of colors ( red-stop, green - walk... etc...) That is the reason why red.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recomend you that you read some text in visual sensory perception, measuring time reaction, and some book of ergonomics psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: Literature:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hfs.sagepub.com/content/17/6/542.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://hfs.sagepub.com/content/17/6/542.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/fctc/guidelines/ArtElevenWogalterNine.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.who.int/fctc/guidelines/ArtElevenWogalterNine.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT2: Here are lot about reaction time:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://biae.clemson.edu/bpc/bp/lab/110/reaction.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://biae.clemson.edu/bpc/bp/lab/110/reaction.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="3001" LastEditDate="2013-09-17T09:43:38.200" LastActivityDate="2013-09-17T09:43:38.200" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4602" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-17T10:54:39.933" Score="2" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need to work with data from an eye tracker. I have raw data about eye coordinates. I need to reconstruct trajectories of eye movements. Since I know modern science has several methods for this task, I already googled for them, but I don't know which ones are serious and authority works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3560" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-09-17T13:15:11.733" LastActivityDate="2013-09-17T20:21:47.593" Title="Articles about model of eye movements and trajectories" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4606" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4167" CreationDate="2013-09-17T17:02:14.433" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm surprised nobody brought this up yet. Maybe that fact is a sign of you all having gotten used to it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Artificial environments usually are filled with noise.&lt;/strong&gt; You only notice how much noise there is, when you take a hike in the wilderness, and there are no more far away car sounds, no radios and televisions, no human multitude talking, no computer fans – only the wind and the birds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Noise induces stress and this basic level of stress never leaves us civilized people, because the sounds of civilization never leave us, not even at night. We may no longer consciously hear it – once I moved away from the flat beside the highway I was at first unable to sleep because of the unfamiliar quiet – but our brains process it and it affects our physiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-09-17T17:02:14.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4607" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4602" CreationDate="2013-09-17T20:21:47.593" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not sure what you may have looked up previously, but here are a couple of referenced articles that may be of help to you:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.68.2459&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Identifying Fixations and Saccades in&#xA;Eye-Tracking Protocols&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Salvucci and Goldberg, 2000), from their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this paper we propose a taxonomy of fixation identification&#xA;  algorithms that classifies algorithms in terms of how they&#xA;  utilize spatial and temporal information in eye-tracking&#xA;  protocols.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of Human-computer interaction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ergoestudio.com/descargas/eye-tracking_usability_research.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Commentary on Section 4. Eye tracking in human-computer interaction and&#xA;usability research: Ready to deliver the promises.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Jacob and Karn), this article makes reference to several more specific references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-09-17T20:21:47.593" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4608" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-17T21:07:51.553" Score="4" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;I used to have really bad night terrors back in the day, where I would think I was floating and I would wake up and actually my vision would be very fuzzy - so I just want to know..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is actually going on in your brain during a night terror? Is there any evidence that the type of bed one sleeps on makes any difference in lowering the incidence of night terrors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3563" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-09-17T23:18:01.787" LastActivityDate="2014-04-08T15:06:41.140" Title="What is actually going on in your brain during a night terror?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4609" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-18T02:10:58.970" Score="6" ViewCount="1243" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many socially accepted ideas about the differences between men and women, I am wondering how much of this is misconception or based in reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was reading this question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/4450/how-important-is-eye-contact-for-attraction-between-a-man-and-woman&quot;&gt;How important is eye contact for attraction between a man and woman?&lt;/a&gt; and found some interesting discussion in the comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I quote from &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/4453/3543&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;females are very good at picking up subtleties like that - however, they are very bad at explaining them usually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I quote from one of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/4450/how-important-is-eye-contact-for-attraction-between-a-man-and-woman#comment9066_4453&quot;&gt;comments&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Females . . . are very bad at explaining them usually&amp;quot;? That seems like an unnecessarily dangerous statement--humans in general are quite bad at pinpointing reasons for social behavior&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this article:&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Gender Affects Body Language Reading&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Arseny A. Sokolov, et al doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00016&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The findings show that gender affects accuracy rather than speed of body language reading. This effect, however, is modulated by emotional content of actions: males surpass in recognition accuracy of happy actions, whereas females tend to excel in recognition of hostile angry knocking. Advantage of women in recognition accuracy of neutral actions suggests that females are better tuned to the lack of emotional content in body actions. The study provides novel insights into understanding of gender effects in body language reading, and helps to shed light on gender vulnerability to neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental impairments in visual social cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this is only one study, and it raises the interesting point that women may be better at interpreting &amp;quot;lack of emotional content&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Has current research reached a consensus on the  differences between the way men and women interpret body language?&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;If so; What are the proposed reasons for these differences?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2021-05-03T15:50:55.710" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T15:50:55.710" Title="Differences between the way men and women interpret body language" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;body-language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="4610" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4608" CreationDate="2013-09-18T08:05:44.233" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Night terrors, a type of parasomnia has been the subject of considerable study.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://aegean.psychology.uiowa.edu/Faculty/Blumberg/Course_Docs/Seminar.2008/Readings/Mahowald.Schenck.pdf&quot;&gt;&quot;Insights from studying human sleep&#xA;disorders&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Mahowald and Schenck, 2005), parasomnias are in two categories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The common parasomnias are another example of&#xA;  ‘dissociated sleep states’, representing the simultaneous admixture of&#xA;  wakefulness and either NREM sleep (disorders of arousal such as&#xA;  sleepwalking or sleep terrors) or wakefulness and REM sleep (REM&#xA;  sleep behaviour disorder). Parasomnias may result in striking clinical&#xA;  phenomena, which appear as the brain becomes reorganized across&#xA;  states, and are therefore apt to occur during the transition from one&#xA;  state to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sleep terrors are an example of NREM sleep disorder and are usually the result of febrile illness, sleep deprivation, physical activity, emotional stress and medications - so the question about the bed can relate, particularly if the bed is causing lack of sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-09-18T08:05:44.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4611" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4555" CreationDate="2013-09-18T08:05:44.617" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a Mac related answer - I'm sure there are equivalent applications on other platforms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I'm doing usability testing on prototypes we use a combination of OmniGraffle or Keynote and &lt;a href=&quot;http://silverbackapp.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Silverback&lt;/a&gt;. Silverback records all the interactions on the screen (will highlight when they click etc.) and will also use the built-in iSight camera to record a video of the user. You can 'mark' interesting points in the recording for easy view later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On OmniGraffle set the room as a background layer that can't be edited and the objects on another layer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An alternative is to use something like GoTo meeting and 'broadcast' the session to another room where the team can watch.  What you won't get as easily here is highlighting of clicks etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Only thing this setup won't do is move on click rather than dragging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Steve Krug's book &quot;Rocket surgery made easy&quot; is a great getting-started guide to this sort of thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3557" LastActivityDate="2013-09-18T08:05:44.617" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4612" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4622" CreationDate="2013-09-18T09:47:12.733" Score="3" ViewCount="690" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cracked.com/article_16472_6-absurd-phobias-and-people-who-actually-have-them.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this amusing, yet informative Cracked article&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.phobiasource.com/chromophobia-or-chromatophobia-fear-of-colors/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Phobia-source&lt;/a&gt; article and &lt;a href=&quot;http://common-phobias.com/chromo/phobia.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chromophobia: do you have a fear of colours&lt;/a&gt; website, &lt;strong&gt;chromophoba&lt;/strong&gt; is a fear of bright colours.  This condition is also known as &lt;strong&gt;chromatophobia&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are no Wikipedia references for the alternate name and checking &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; for chromophobia only reveals a movie by the same name, which is in a small part, why I am asking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the neurological and psychological bases for this phobia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-09-18T19:32:05.477" LastActivityDate="2013-09-23T19:57:50.713" Title="What are the neurological and psychological bases for chromophobia" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4613" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3461" CreationDate="2013-09-18T13:42:49.627" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends what you mean by a biological mechanism. If you mean that there should be a protein cascade that implements normalization, that doesn't seem plausible, in my opinion. Normalization in probabilistic population codes is just one of many computations that can be performed in a neural system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're okay with the notion that there's nothing biologically unique about normalization, then &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/eliasmith.2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Normalization for probabilistic inference with neurons&lt;/a&gt; (a paper written by my supervisor, Chris Eliasmith) proposes a spiking neural network performs normalization on probability density functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3551" LastActivityDate="2013-09-18T13:42:49.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4614" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3841" CreationDate="2013-09-18T21:24:11.713" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a great 2012 paper by A. Kheifets and Randy Gallistel showing a &quot;probability sense&quot; in animals.  I love the paper's title: 'mice take calculated risks'. It's well worth reading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;abstract&lt;/strong&gt;: Animals successfully navigate the world despite having only incomplete&#xA;  information about behaviorally important contingencies. It is an open&#xA;  question to what degree this behavior is driven by estimates of&#xA;  stochastic parameters (brain-constructed models of the experienced&#xA;  world) and to what degree it is directed by reinforcement-driven&#xA;  processes that optimize behavior in the limit without estimating&#xA;  stochastic parameters (model-free adaptation processes, such as&#xA;  associative learning). We find that mice adjust their behavior in&#xA;  response to a change in probability more quickly and abruptly than can&#xA;  be explained by differential reinforcement. Our results imply that&#xA;  mice represent probabilities and perform calculations over them to&#xA;  optimize their behavior, even when the optimization produces&#xA;  negligible material gain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3566" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-18T23:25:42.307" LastActivityDate="2013-09-18T23:25:42.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4615" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4619" CreationDate="2013-09-19T03:46:45.503" Score="5" ViewCount="186" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm computer science graduate working on a health monitoring device. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How much is the delay in electrodermal response&lt;/strong&gt;? i.e., the time it takes before which an electrodermal response can be realized. Basically I want to calculate the rate or frequency at which the measurements should be taken without missing any relevant data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone please answer or give pointers to some article. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3567" LastEditorUserId="3567" LastEditDate="2013-09-20T03:06:39.940" LastActivityDate="2017-07-28T20:05:16.567" Title="Frequency at which electrodermal response should be measured" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4616" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4615" CreationDate="2013-09-19T06:52:20.770" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A starting point is the full text chapter &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bem.fi/book/27/27.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The Electrodermal Response&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, describes electrodermal response as being based on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Interest in the conductance between skin electrodes, usually placed at the palmar surface, arose because of the involvement of the sweat glands in this measurement. Since sweat gland activity, in turn, is controlled by sympathetic nerve activity, this measurement has been considered as an ideal way to monitor the autonomic nervous system&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that it takes time for processes in the human body to occur, the time delay or latency for the electrodermal response is due to, (from the article):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If one assumes &lt;strong&gt;initial resting conditions&lt;/strong&gt;, then &#xA;  a &lt;strong&gt;sweat response consists of sweat rising in the ducts&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  , and correspondingly R2 slowly diminishes. &lt;strong&gt;The response latency is associated with the time required for this to take place.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further information that may be of use:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23367480&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Electrodermal response propagation time as a potential psychophysiological marker.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Silva et al. 2012). (Unfortunately the article is behind a pay-wall)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important point from their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So far, there is still no clear consensus regarding the relation between the specific responses of the autonomic nervous system activity, and the features typically extracted from the electrodermal activity signals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this paper we present an experimental setup and corresponding data analysis for electrodermal response propagation time measurement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-09-19T06:58:10.573" LastActivityDate="2013-09-19T06:58:10.573" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4617" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10042" CreationDate="2013-09-19T11:23:45.070" Score="8" ViewCount="247" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is about the actual physical setup and steps needed to take in order to experiment with the phenomena. I found a tutorial on jove.com, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jove.com/video/2030/how-to-create-and-use-binocular-rivalry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;How to Create and Use Binocular Rivalry&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, and it also has a dedicated explanatory article. However, the experiment I want to make is tricky in the following sense:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A regular binocular rivalry experiment has two separate images set up, and normally the image features are controlled in a way that is suitable to exhibit a whatever the experimenters want. In the case that I want to make, images are not separate, they are basically left and right parts of a single image that is usually viewed as a single image as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the experiment, I will manipulate left and right halves of that single image separately, but I want to present halves to different eyes. The particular problem is that I want to calibrate the physical setup so that the physical boundary between images is not exactly visible. I can't just split left and right - the border between the images in the eyes of the observer has to be as small as possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can I present each half of a face, split vertically down the middle, independently to each eye (e.g., left half-left eye), without putting a visible physical boundary between the two image halves?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3565" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-11T20:08:35.903" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T14:32:44.270" Title="How to set up a binocular rivalry experiment which splits a single image in two separately controlled ones?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4618" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-19T13:04:15.967" Score="6" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a beginner in this topic and are learning how to build an artificial neural network and different types of training associated with them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Right now, I'm trying to figure out self learning. For example, there is a robot arm consisting of two joints and three parts. The objective is the distance from target (I need the arm to touch the target), neural network inputs are the coordinates of the target, the output is the joint angles of the arm. But, the error is the distance of hand to target. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I'm using an error-back-propagation feed-forward neural network, its error is only the output and desired output, but I need it to find the desired output (target joint angle) itself and take the error from distance, not joint angle. How can this be done? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More clearly, what kind of feed-back scheme is there for a back-propagation feed-forward ANN for self-learning of touching a coordinate with robot arm?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1120" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-20T00:10:19.380" LastActivityDate="2013-09-20T00:10:19.380" Title="What kind of feed-back scheme is there for a back-propagation feed-forward ANN for self-learning of touching a coordinate with robot arm?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4619" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4615" CreationDate="2013-09-20T03:12:44.047" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://antipolygraph.org/yabbfiles/Attachments/GSRANL.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;These&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bem.fi/book/27/27.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;were&lt;/a&gt; very useful links &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding - The average time for which SCR response lasts is about 10 to 20 seconds. So even recording data at the frequency of 1 reading per second should be ok.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3567" LastActivityDate="2013-09-20T03:12:44.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4620" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4621" CreationDate="2013-09-20T23:56:17.680" Score="6" ViewCount="128" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Anecdotal background&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find that regardless of what time I go to bed, or how exhausted I am, I always wake up the next morning between 5 and 6am.  This is despite my alarm being consistently set for 6:15am.  I used to work in an industry, over 15 years ago, where earlier morning starts were part of the job (started work at 6am then), but none quite as drastic since then.  I do not take naps, either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This happens irrespective of the conditions (temperature, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I do not have a fixed time of sleep and it is not necessarily easy to get of bed at that time (some mornings here are very cold).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The question&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the neurological triggers that cause someone to continually wake up at a set time in the morning, regardless of time of sleep and conditions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note - this &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; a self help question.  I have read the questions and answers for &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3465/what-defines-the-easiest-time-to-get-out-of-bed-in-the-morning-for-humans&quot;&gt;&quot;What defines the easiest time to get out of bed in the morning for humans?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1844/how-are-people-able-to-wake-themselves-up-after-a-pre-specified-amount-of-time&quot;&gt;&quot;How are people able to wake themselves up after a pre-specified amount of time?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; and they did not quite have the answers I am after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-09-23T18:37:55.307" Title="Waking around the same time without an alarm" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4621" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4620" CreationDate="2013-09-21T08:29:54.720" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ever wondered why you wake up in the morning—even when the alarm clock isn't making jarring noises? Wonder no more. Researchers at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies have identified a new component of the biological clock, a gene responsible for starting the clock from its restful state every morning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.salk.edu/news/pressrelease_details.php?press_id=521&quot;&gt;http://www.salk.edu/news/pressrelease_details.php?press_id=521&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-09-21T08:29:54.720" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4622" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4612" CreationDate="2013-09-21T08:43:01.417" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Chromophobia&lt;/em&gt; has at least two distinct meanings in the sciences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;in &lt;strong&gt;cultural studies&lt;/strong&gt; it denotes a (supposed) cultural deprecation of colors in general or of specific colors (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/1100717/Late_Antique_Aesthetics_Chromophobia_and_the_Red_Monastery_Sohag_Egypt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.academia.edu/1100717/Late_Antique_Aesthetics_Chromophobia_and_the_Red_Monastery_Sohag_Egypt&lt;/a&gt;);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;in &lt;strong&gt;histology&lt;/strong&gt; it denotes a tissue that does not stain when preparing samples (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC503209/pdf/jnnpsyc00293-0005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC503209/pdf/jnnpsyc00293-0005.pdf&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was unable to locate any reliable source on a psychological fear of colors. I searched the most relevant digital databases: Web of Science, Academic Search Premier, PsychINFO, and Psyndex (the latter listing publications in German). And I went through all the handbooks on mental disorders that we have at our university library and the institute of psychology. There is not even anecdotal evidence. Chromophobia as a mental disorder appears only in lists of phobias on the internet that have been created by laypeople.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or in a list of 273 phobias compiled by Jack D. Maser as an appendix to the handbook on &lt;em&gt;Anxiety and Anxiety Disorders&lt;/em&gt; (Tuma &amp;amp; Maser, 1985):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/H8KU2.png&quot; alt=&quot;Maser, List of Phobias&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But as you can see from this top part of page 807 of his list, his Latin is not the best. Probably he couldn't decipher his own (or someone else's) handwriting, mistaking &quot;col&quot; for &quot;od&quot;. But the basic problem with this list, which might well be the grandmother of all the lists of phobias found on the internet today, is that Maser does not provide any sources for his phobias. And if you look at the fears of time, food, or defecation, listed in it, it seems quite unlikely that anyone might actually be able to suffer from these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eminent expert &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_McNally&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Richard J. McNally&lt;/a&gt;, a member of the specific phobia and posttraumatic stress disorder committees of the DSM-IV task force, thinks (1997, p. 183) that in Maser's list &quot;terminological proliferation has been driven more by etymology than by etiology. ... In fact, suffer[er]s of &lt;em&gt;hellenologophobia&lt;/em&gt; (i.e. fear of 'pseudoscientific terms') will surely tremble to contemplate many of [the] entities uncovered by Maser in his search through the literature.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the DSM, phobias, or &quot;specific phobias&quot; as they are classified (to distinguish them from social phobias and other anxiety disorders) are subclassified by their trigger:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;objects, sometimes called: blood-injection-injury (syringes, blood, medical procedures)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;situations (being in an elevator)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;animals (snakes, spiders)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;environments (heights, water)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;other&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The category that would interest us here, is the &quot;other&quot; category. The standard examples given in the manual and expansively discussed in McNally's article on &quot;Atypical Phobias&quot; (McNally, 1997), are: &quot;phobic avoidance of situations that may lead to choking, vomiting, or contracting an illness; in children, avoidance of loud sounds like balloons popping or costumed characters like clowns&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not a specialist on phobias, but from my perusal of quite a volume of literature today, I have the impression that in adult phobias &lt;strong&gt;all triggers are either potentially harmful&lt;/strong&gt;, or are related to similar objects that are harmful: all animals are either predators or poisonous or look like them (a cat might be essentially harmless to an adult human, but it is an animal that can cause pain; there is no lamb phobia); all &quot;situations&quot; involve technical appliances that might fail (airplanes, elevators) or harm you by their characteristics (getting stuck in a narrow tube); all environments can cause death (drowning, falling from a height, getting struck by lightning). &lt;strong&gt;Phobias are essentially reasonable in their choice of a trigger&lt;/strong&gt;, they never choose triggers that are always and totally harmless. From this (non-specialist) result of my search, a fear of color appears impossible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this is only my personal, non-specialist impression, after a short research, and it will be falsified as soon as someone can come up with a reliable source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I admit that I was not truthful in my summary, and have lied to you when I wrote that I found no reference to chromophobia as a psychological disorder. PsycINFO turned up one result, an article published in Italian in a journal that unfortunately is not available online:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gebhardt, E., &amp;amp; Giorgini, L. (2007). La ragione non ha colore: ipotesi sulla cromofobia [Reason has no colour: Hypotheses on cromophobia]. &lt;em&gt;Il Sogno Della Farfalla: Rivista Di Psichiatria E Psicoterapia, 16&lt;/em&gt;(4), 35-57.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An English abstract is given:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stemming from an analysis of a case study this research proposes to study a symptomatology where the sight of colour provokes anguish, known in literature as chromophobia, in order to allow us to develop the correct nosography and to identify the underlying psychic dynamics. The immediacy with which an unaltered perception in itself can be given an abnormal meaning to the point of becoming a terrible anguish brings us to consider chromophobia as an example of delusional perception and as such falling within the psychotic syndromes. As far as the object perceived is concerned, that is colour, it is worth noting that Western thought views it as negative for a twofold reason. Religious dogma views colour as dangerous given that it is alien to man, belonging to the body of another who is different from oneself and as such it has been given female, infantile, primitive or pathological attributes. Rationalist thought has, on the other hand, underestimated the importance of colour viewing it as superficial, supplementary and not warranting serious study. Colour has always been subordinate to the drawn figure. Both these approaches have proposed a dichotomy between line and colour attributing the former to the world of rationality and the latter to the non-conscious world. This splitting, according to the authors, can be overcome only if we consider that in the theory of birth the ego is not split at its origin and as such neither is perception. Line and colour therefore are connected to birth and the first year of life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I admit, that I don't consider this source reliable. The journal, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ilsognodellafarfalla.it&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Il sogno della farfalla&lt;/a&gt;, as described in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_sogno_della_farfalla_%28rivista%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt;, is focussed on the psychotherapeutic theory and practice of its founder, the famous but controversial Italian psychiatrist, screenwriter and movie director &lt;a href=&quot;http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massimo_Fagioli&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Massimo Fagioli&lt;/a&gt;. This is not the place to discuss Fagioli or the authors of the article (who are both members of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ilsognodellafarfalla.it/redazione/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the journal's editorial board&lt;/a&gt;), but we should note that the journal &lt;a href=&quot;http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discussione:Il_sogno_della_farfalla_%28rivista%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;appears not to have a peer review process&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Maser, J. D. (1985). List of phobias. In A. H. Tuma &amp;amp; J. D. Maser (eds.), &lt;em&gt;Anxiety and the Anxiety Disorders&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 805-813). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McNally, R. J. (1997). Atypical phobias. In G. C. I. Davey (ed.), &lt;em&gt;Phobias: A handbook of Theory, Research and Treatment&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 183-199). Chichester: Wiley.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this last edit my research is now complete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-09-23T19:57:50.713" LastActivityDate="2013-09-23T19:57:50.713" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4623" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-21T20:59:18.737" Score="8" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a typical supervised learning experiment, one might present visual stimuli, e.g. faces, one after another and ask participants to classify each one into one of two categories, e.g. A and B. Usually participants are not required to DO anything after getting feedback - they just wait, and eventually the next trial appears. Does learning improve if, when the response is incorrect, participants are required to change their response to the correct one before proceeding?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To provide some context - unlike the &amp;quot;typical&amp;quot; experiment described above, I am using educationally relevant materials - mathematics story problems. They are still binary forced choice, but responses are given using radio buttons instead of the usual &amp;quot;press P or Q&amp;quot;, so to correct an incorrect response, participants would have to go change the radio button response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically, since details were requested, all of the problems are story problems involving the concept of &amp;quot;sampling with replacement&amp;quot;. Before doing the problems, participants read an instructional passage explaining the general formula for sampling with replacement problems. This passage explains that each problem involves two numbers, &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt;, where &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; indicates the number of sampling events and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; indicates the size of the sampled set. The problems ask for the number of different possible outcomes, which is given by the formula a^b. Thus, to solve the problems, it is only necessary to figure out which number is the number of sampling events and which the size of the sampled set. Here is a sample problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A group of friends is eating at a restaurant. Each person chooses a meal from the menu. (It is possible for multiple people to choose the same meal.) In how many different ways can the friends choose their meals, if there are 4 friends and 5 meals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Answers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4^5&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5^4&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can think of at least two reasons why they MIGHT learn better from doing this. First, it might improve motivation - they know it's a pain in the neck when they answer wrong, so they're more motivated to answer right. Second, it might have a cognitive benefit, in that they would encode the correct and incorrect answers more strongly because they have to actually respond in some way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, there could be a negative effect in that it interrupts the flow of the trials. Doing a large number of trials quickly, pop pop pop, could increase learners' fluency, and such benefits could be decreased by the proposed requirement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the third hand, it might be even more beneficial to use an even more extreme version of the proposed requirement, e.g. present several questions at once and only tell them that SOME are wrong, not WHICH ones, so they have to think about it even more. Of course this could encourage them to figure out ways to play the system and could be even worse with respect to the possible negative effect I mentioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone have any evidence or speculations about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2614" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-09-26T19:51:41.480" Title="Does correcting responses after feedback lead to better learning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4624" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4625" CreationDate="2013-09-22T12:19:41.203" Score="3" ViewCount="2824" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do cool colors look cool that are in fact warmer, and why do warm colors look warm when they are actually cooler?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Blue wavelength has higher energy than red, i.e, blue flame is hotter than red flame, but still blue seems cool. Is it due to it being the color of water or the sky?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user2678" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-09-22T18:58:24.857" LastActivityDate="2013-09-22T20:46:34.123" Title="Why do &quot;cool&quot; colors, which are actually warmer, look cool, and vice versa?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4625" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4624" CreationDate="2013-09-22T13:07:29.507" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why is red light seen as &quot;warm&quot;, although it is still lower in energy than blue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Red and blue light differ in energy density, they are located on opposite sides of the rainbow. Blue light oscillates almost twice as fast as red and has a correspondingly shorter wavelength. And because it swings faster, the particles of blue light are also higher in energy. Nevertheless, red light appears warmer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is the difference between physics and psychology. How a color affects us depends not just on whether or not the corresponding rays are energetic, but it depends on how the brain processes signals. And especially when it comes to colors, very archaic associations play a role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Red, yellow and orange - these are the colors of fire, of embers. The sun appears red in the evening sky. And red is also the color of blood. Blood means heat: If we are hot and our fingers are warm, they are red. This already happened to our early ancestors, and that's why this association of red = hot is probably anchored deep in our perceptual apparatus. Conversely, if we consider what is blue: blue is, for example, water - and water is cool.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Now you can take this even further and say: Red light is not only psychologically warm, but also physically warm - if we think for example of infrared lamps, they really warm us. Which is why they are used in medicine, while, conversely, of course, no doctor would think to treat a person with UV lamps. Because UV light is aggressive, it can damage the skin and cause cancer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is because UV light is even higher in energy than blue light - the high energy density makes the light so aggressive. Conversely, infrared light, while physically even lower in energy than red light, is seen as heat radiation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This has the following background: Basically, every body has a natural radiation, and this characteristic radiation depends only on the temperature. Therefore, one can, even if it is pitch dark, distinguish hot and cold items with an infrared camera, because warm objects glow stronger in the infrared spectrum. There is a clear relation between the temperature of a body and the kind of radiation that it emits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If something has room temperature, then we do not see this radiation, it lies in the infrared and our eyes can not see infrared radiation. But when things get warmer, the radiation changes and shifts into the range of visible light - in other words, it shifts from infrared to red. That is why red-hot objects are red.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;At still higher temperatures, the heat color would in fact shift to blue, but when a body glows blue, it would be even hotter than the sun, and in everyday life, we almost never have to do with such extremely hot objects. That is why red is the color of a warm, glowing body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Translated from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.swr.de/blog/1000antworten/antwort/16474/warum-gilt-rotes-licht-als-warm-obwohl-es-doch-energiearmer-ist-als-blaues/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.swr.de/blog/1000antworten/antwort/16474/warum-gilt-rotes-licht-als-warm-obwohl-es-doch-energiearmer-ist-als-blaues/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-09-22T20:46:34.123" LastActivityDate="2013-09-22T20:46:34.123" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4626" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1134" CreationDate="2013-09-22T13:35:47.427" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would also like to point out that there is a clear difference between a psychological depression and an existential one. I would like to point out the definitions of James Park of the University of Minnesota; please have a look at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tc.umn.edu/~parkx032/XP39.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;table at the bottom of this page.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So then, people with perfectly fine lives might well end up with a &quot;clinical existential&quot; depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3578" LastActivityDate="2013-09-22T13:35:47.427" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4628" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4631" CreationDate="2013-09-22T20:52:33.600" Score="2" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people are seemingly 'addicted' to their work and by doing work itself, almost to the point of precluding all other activities and interactions (usually social).  By this question, I mean when people go beyond a 'passion' for the work, into an almost obsessive approach.  (I have met a few people like this).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this addiction to work similar to other addictions?  or is there something else triggering this almost obsessive work-ethic to the preclusion of almost all other activities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am after peer-refereed articles about any studies that have been performed on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-09-22T21:43:35.170" LastActivityDate="2013-09-23T08:49:50.110" Title="Is workaholism similar to any addiction or are there other neurological mechanisms at play?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4629" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4549" CreationDate="2013-09-23T06:29:54.350" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is a partial answer to your question, there is considerable research touching on specific designs and strategies in ballots that will be outlined below&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This issue has come up in research around the world.  A specific concern is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ballot design can be an important factor in determining whether voters are able to cast a ballot accurately, which can influence the legitimacy of elections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.umsl.edu/~kimballd/kkpoq05.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Ballot design and Unrecorded votes on paper-based ballots&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Krimball and Kropf, 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Krimball and Kropf assert that there is a lot in common between a ballot and a self-administered questionnaire, in that voters must process a myriad of verbal, symbolic and graphical language (which includes the written instructions etc).  There has been some research in making ballot papers more 'realistic' so to speak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research in Britain has looked into including a photo with the ballot, according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.esrc.ac.uk/my-esrc/grants/RES-000-22-2255/read&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Candidate appearance and voting in British elections: The potential impact of ballot paper photographs&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Johns, 2008), asides from making an Australian Senate ballot sheet the size of Tasmania:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some MPs express worries that voters may be swayed in their choice by the photos. This concern is consistent with psychologists’ findings that we automatically make judgements about people’s characters based on the briefest inspection of facial appearance, and that these judgements influence behaviour towards them. This is especially true when, as with most constituency candidates, we know little else about the people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Swinburne Politics Professor Brian Costar, in the online article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.swinburne.edu.au/chancellery/mediacentre/lss/news/2013/09/we-need-to-simplify-voting-for-the-senate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;We need to simplify voting for the Senate&quot;&lt;/a&gt; suggests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the Senate ballot paper should be redesigned to abolish above- and below-the-line voting. Instead, voting should be optional preferential. At a normal Senate election, a voter would need to number at least six squares, and at a double dissolution election at least twelve. This would keep informal voting low and put a stop to secret wheeling and dealing over preferences and unexpected successes for candidates with extremely modest direct support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One main problem is, according to the empirical analysis &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wzb.eu/sites/default/files/personen/geys.benny.328/acta_politica_38_4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Influence of ‘Cognitive Sophistication’ on Ballot&#xA;Layout Effects&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Geys and Hayndels, 2003), is that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Candidates in ‘critical’ (top and&#xA;  bottom) positions in multi-column ballots obtain a larger percentage of the vote in&#xA;  multi-column ballots than in a single-column ballot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These positions are, according to the authors, in the top and bottom corners.  But, the authors assert that this is actually not a huge issue, given&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results of our empirical analysis have shown that cognitive sophistication&#xA;  of the electorate does have a strong effect. A larger share of highly&#xA;  educated (or richer) voters significantly reduces the strength of Ballot Layout&#xA;  Effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a key point from the article is that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;avoiding layout effects by randomizing the order of candidates or using&#xA;  additional layouts such that each politician has an equal probability of being&#xA;  on top (bottom) of a column may be hard to use in practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting point the authors found in regards to computerised ballots is that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;preferential votes are more evenly&#xA;  distributed among candidates when voting is done via computerized ballots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further information could be sourced from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.electoralpsychology.com/index.php/home/index&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;International Centre for&#xA;Electoral Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Anecdotal side note: In my electorate (I am an Australian also), we had the same thing happen - about 30 above the line, and over 100 below the line for the Senate.  I have wondered about this also - I am &quot;apolitical&quot; (this is not up for discussion) and could not be bothered doing the 'under the line' thing - this apathy was a topic of conversation when I was in the long queue to get into vote (Reminder to everyone else, voting is compulsory in Australia).&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The point of this anecdote is that voter enthusiasm (or lack thereof) could also be a factor in the effectiveness of any ballot design.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-09-23T06:29:54.350" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4630" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4709" CreationDate="2013-09-23T06:38:53.513" Score="10" ViewCount="1527" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness-based and Acceptance-based therapies are gaining vast momentum in the treatment of mental illnesses. These therapy modalities are seen to share some similarity with Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) (Ost, 2008), however, I am curious to know what conflicts exist in a therapist-client relationship when adopting some of the techniques/foundations from both therapy forms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) - defusion (the process of distancing ourselves from our throughts) seems to present some form of conflict to CBT which suggests that cognitive restructuring is fundamental to behavioural change, i.e. &quot;trying to change our thoughts&quot;. There may be some conflict within a therapeutic setting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What conflicts can occur in the therapist-client relationship when using mindfulness and acceptance exercises with cognitive behaviour therapy exercises?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In what ways may the two groups complement each other in achieving therapeutic outcomes &lt;strong&gt;^&lt;/strong&gt; for the client?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;^&lt;/strong&gt; Therapeutic outcomes can be assumed as symptomatic alleviation of the mental illness or any other positive outcome towards the alleviation of a mental illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some further examples would be great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Öst, L.G. (2008). Efficacy of the third wave of behavioral therapies: A systematic review and meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Behaviour Research and Therapy&lt;/em&gt;, 46(3), pp.296-321&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-02-22T06:09:19.847" LastActivityDate="2018-05-13T08:18:36.627" Title="Is there a conflict between Mindfulness-based and Acceptance-based Therapies and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT)?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4631" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4628" CreationDate="2013-09-23T07:51:26.987" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a great question - one that resonates with me especially when reflecting on my own professional life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My answer to your question would be both speculative and (hopefully) empirical. From personal experience, I have met people in my professional life that may exhibit 'workaholic' behaviours but it is unclear whether it is driven by fear and anxiety or behaviours aligned to values to achieve almost perfect work performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would start with defining precisely what workaholism is. Spence and Robbins (1992) defines a workaholic exhibiting three specific properties:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Highly work involved&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Compelled or driven to work because of inner pressures&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Low in enjoyment of work&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we compare those properties against an addictive disorder such as Bulimia Nervosa, some surprising similarities arise. Compensatory self-vomitting behaviours tend to be a product of overevaluation of body weight and shape (Lamparda et al., 2011). Let's assume that &quot;inner pressures&quot; represent an individual's need to achieve their body weight and shape. Analogously, &quot;inner pressures&quot; such as perfectionism and responses to fear can cause this seemingly addictive workholic behaviour. I would dare say that the cognitive processes involved between these two cases would be quite similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examining workaholism from a neurological perspective, in my opinion, would mimic neurological studies on addictive disorders. However, I couldn't find much. Randles et al. (2010) make reference to neurological mechanisms in describing how perfectionism and rumination can contribute to goal-oriented behaviours. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The drive to work harder and harder is likely to be influenced by the level of perfectionism and anxiety experienced by an individual (Shafran &amp;amp; Mansell, 2001). Catastrophising and ruminating about work performance can theoretically compel an individual to work harder to the point of psychopathology (of course, we lack the criteria). On another note, personality traits such as narcissism would probably play a role in triggering workaholic behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spence, J.T. &amp;amp; Robbins, A.S. (1992). Workaholism: definition, measurement, and preliminary results. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality Assessment&lt;/em&gt;, 58(1), 160-178&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lamparda, A.M., Byrnea, S.M., McLeana, N. &amp;amp; Furslandb, A. (2011). An evaluation of the enhanced cognitive-behavioural model of bulimia nervosa. &lt;em&gt;Behaviour Research and Therapy&lt;/em&gt;, 49, 529-535&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Randles, D., Flett, G.L., Nasha, K.A., McGreggor, I.D. &amp;amp; Hewitt, P.L. (2010). Dimensions of perfectionism, behavioral inhibition, and rumination. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences&lt;/em&gt;, 49, 83-87&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shafran, R. &amp;amp; Mansell, W. (2001). Perfectionism and psychopathology: A review of research and treatment. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Psychology Review&lt;/em&gt;, 21(6), 879-906.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastEditorUserId="3581" LastEditDate="2013-09-23T08:49:50.110" LastActivityDate="2013-09-23T08:49:50.110" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4632" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4633" CreationDate="2013-09-23T11:37:20.117" Score="12" ViewCount="828" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name of bias or fallacy when, often while in argument, someone expects you to know the same things as he does. Usually, you just say &quot;well, how should have I known that. I'm not inside of your mind.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've searched through wiki's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of cognitive biases&lt;/a&gt;, but couldn't find anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clarify what I have in mind: When people disregard the availability of information to the subject they are talking to. Or maybe they do not take into account that the subject might not have given the question in hand as much thought as they have, therefore he might not have arrived at the same conclusions. Or they just forget the fact something might not be so obvious to the subject as it is for them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(so in my original post I've been influenced by the same bias to a degree)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3080" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-28T16:06:13.730" LastActivityDate="2016-12-04T20:50:18.393" Title="What is the name of the bias when one expects you to possess his knowledge?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4633" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4632" CreationDate="2013-09-23T13:40:57.693" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you had asked about cognitive distortions, I probably could've answered straight away about one of those!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it might be an &lt;em&gt;illusion of transparency&lt;/em&gt;. Your example somewhat aligns to the definition provided by Gilovich, Medvec &amp;amp; Savitsky (1998):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;... we refer to this tendency to overestimate the extent to which others can read one's internal states as the illusion of transparency.&quot; (p.332)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However it doesn't necessarily meet the criteria for someone expecting another person to know the same things that they do. The illusion of transparency is rather an exaggeration of transparency rather than an exaggeration of being epistemologically levelled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It could be a &lt;em&gt;projection bias&lt;/em&gt; or an &lt;em&gt;assumed similarity bias&lt;/em&gt; - both of which might be relevant to your scenario. Projection bias refers to the tendency to assume that others share one's current emotional states and thoughts (Hsee &amp;amp; Reid, 2006). An assumed similarity bias refers to the bias that others are similar to the self (Srivastava, Guglielmo &amp;amp; Beer, 2010). The response - &quot;well, how should have I known that. I'm not inside of your mind.&quot; is a product of those biases being invalidated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopefully, these were the ones you were looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gilovich, T., Savitsky, K. &amp;amp; Medvec, V.H. (1998). The illusion of transparency: biased assessments of others' ability to read one's emotional states. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 75(2), 332-346&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hsee, C.K., Reid, H. (2006). Decision and experience: why don't we choose what makes us happy? &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 10(1), 31–37&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Srivastava, S., Guglielmo, S. &amp;amp; Beer, J.S. (2010). Perceiving others’ personalities: Examining the dimensionality, assumed similarity to the self, and stability of perceiver effects. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 98(3), 520–534&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastEditorUserId="3581" LastEditDate="2013-09-23T13:46:13.550" LastActivityDate="2013-09-23T13:46:13.550" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4634" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4643" CreationDate="2013-09-23T14:43:54.133" Score="0" ViewCount="876" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was an old Latin motto, &quot;&lt;strong&gt;Dulce et decorum est, pro partria morii&lt;/strong&gt;,&quot; which roughly translates into: &quot;&lt;strong&gt;It is a sweet and beautiful thing to die for one's country&lt;/strong&gt;.&quot; I used to think that this was a piece of misguided patriotism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, until the other night when a friend of mine said, &quot;I would rather be a dead American than a live Ethiopian.&quot; (He was referring to the fact that the American standard of living is 100 times better than the Ethiopian.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That got me to thinking, could the Roman proverb mean that Rome stood like a Colossus over her (Mediterranean world), so that a person would rationally choose death (or maybe take a 50-50 chance of death) as a Roman, than to be a live, and probably enslaved Carthaginian/Gaul/Greek/&quot;pick your poison&quot;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examining the notion of patriotism a little deeper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the notion of being willing to die for one's country, be construed as a person's &#xA; desire to choose death under regime A over a chance to live under regime B, just because the disparity in standards of living was too great to bear? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-22T11:30:26.620" LastActivityDate="2013-10-22T11:30:26.620" Title="The psychology of patriotism, dying for one's own country" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="11" ClosedDate="2013-11-18T13:27:44.490" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4635" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4632" CreationDate="2013-09-23T18:29:43.127" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Egocentrism? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't even find the Family Circus comic where the boy is talking on the phone, playing with a yo-yo, and says, &quot;Look what I can do, grandma!&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Update: Huh, I didn't find that comic, but it's still a Family Circus comic that accompanies the topic.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Grandma: &quot;Tell me, Jeffy, what was this fun dream about last night?&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Jeffy: &quot;Don't you remember, Grandma? You were in it with me.&quot; (Jeff and Bil Keane, 8-21)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other examples in the section include a two-years-old showing someone else a picture with the picture facing the child, a three-years-old making themself invisible by blocking their own vision, and a young boy claiming that he has a brother yet also that his brother does not have a brother (Phillips, 1969, p. 61).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Myers, D. G. (2007). Infancy and Childhood. In Psychology (8th ed.) (pg. 139-159). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Phillips, J. L. (1969). &lt;em&gt;Origins of Intellect: Piaget's theory&lt;/em&gt;. San Francisco: Freeman. (p. 145)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3577" LastEditorUserId="3577" LastEditDate="2013-11-22T23:10:19.453" LastActivityDate="2013-11-22T23:10:19.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4636" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4639" CreationDate="2013-09-23T18:37:51.680" Score="4" ViewCount="474" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find a quote essentially relating the sentiment that &quot;a mind which questions the point of continuing to live, is a mind which is mentally ill&quot;, as a definition of mental illness. I thought it was Freud, but I read three pages of quotes of him and didn't find what I was looking for. I found two that are close in meaning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No other technique for the conduct of life attaches the individual so firmly to reality as laying emphasis on work; for his work at least gives him a secure place in a portion of reality, in the human community. The possibility it offers of displacing a large amount of libidinal components, whether narcissistic, aggressive or even erotic, on to professional work and on to the human relations connected with it lends it a value by no means second to what it enjoys as something indispensible to the preservation and justification of existence in society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SIGMUND FREUD, Civilization and Its Discontents&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“About a third of my cases are suffering from no clinically definable neurosis, but from the senselessness and emptiness of their lives. This can be defined as the general neurosis of our times.”&#xA;― C.G. Jung&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3577" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-24T00:52:51.777" LastActivityDate="2013-09-24T00:52:51.777" Title="Quote: Mental illness is questioning the point of living" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4597" CreationDate="2013-09-23T18:56:59.493" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why does prey, when caught in the jaws of an animal whose bite and build is powerful enough to carry them, cease to struggle? I remember an old quote from psychology, recounting first-hand, a lion attack. I cannot find it now. The narrator said that once the lion had him in its mouth, it shook him (physically) and thus disoriented him. He said that he felt no pain, and he said that it must have been because of adrenaline. I forget how, I think a local intervened, but he survived to describe the experience.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Why does a fish, when laid on ground, cease to struggle? Yet waggle when touched and escape when released? Morale?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Why do bucks, when vying for supremacy by engaging in contests of strength, not aim to kill their opponent? This case is slightly different, because the foe is conspecific. While humans understand the concept of mutually-assured destruction, animals seem to understand this too, and that it's evolutionarily folly when fighting one's own species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry for an incomprehensive answer, but I hope my insight spurs the ultimate answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3577" LastEditorUserId="3577" LastEditDate="2013-09-27T23:17:06.353" LastActivityDate="2013-09-27T23:17:06.353" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4638" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4597" CreationDate="2013-09-23T19:16:30.907" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;They felt doomed and had no more physical fight left in them. The only way they knew to stick it to the enemy was to commit suicide. They knew if they were to fight they will be slaughtered, giving the enemy a boost in confidence. If they were to be captured they would be publicly executed which also provides the enemy with a boost in confidence. Rolling up on an army that just committed suicide rather than face you would give a morale boost but not as much as actually conquering them. In the end they denied the enemy of the full satisfaction of their victory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3583" LastActivityDate="2013-09-23T19:16:30.907" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4639" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4636" CreationDate="2013-09-23T20:50:14.597" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a letter to Marie Bonaparte, Freud wrote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Im Moment, da man nach Sinn und Wert des Lebens fragt, ist man krank, denn beides gibt es ja in objektiver Weise nicht; man hat nur eingestanden, daß man einen Vorrat von unbefriedigender Libido hat, und irgend etwas anderes muß damit vorgefallen sein, eine Art Gärung, die zur Trauer und Depression führt. Großartig sind diese meine Aufklärungen gewiß nicht. Vielleicht weil ich selbst zu pessimistisch bin. Mir geht ein &quot;advertisement&quot; im Kopf herum, das ich für das kühnste und gelungenste Stück amerikanischer Reklame halte: &quot;Why live, if you can be buried for ten Dollars?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In English:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The moment a man questions the meaning and value of life, he is sick, since objectively neither has any existence; by asking this question one is merely admitting to a store of unsatisfied libido to which something else must have happened, a kind of fermentation leading to sadness and depression. I am afraid these explanations of mine are not very wonderful. Perhaps because I am too pessimistic. I have an advertisement floating about in my head which I consider the boldest and most successful piece of American publicity: &quot;Why live, if you can be buried for ten dollars?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Freud, S. (1960). Sigmund Freud an Marie Bonaparte, 13. August 1937. In E. L. Freud (ed.), &lt;em&gt;Briefe 1873-1939&lt;/em&gt; (p. 429). Frankfurt a.M.: S. Fischer.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Freud, S. (1961). Sigmund Freud to Marie Bonaparte, 13. August 1937. In E. L. Freud (ed.), &lt;em&gt;Letters of Sigmund Freud&lt;/em&gt; (p. 432), London: Hogarth.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-09-23T20:50:14.597" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4641" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4589" CreationDate="2013-09-24T01:56:47.133" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting question. Intuitively, I would have thought that chronic stress would uncompromisingly be a detriment to our memory and recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An article by Ohira et al (2011) makes note that it is accepted that chronic stress is seen to adversely affect memory, it may not be replicated in other studies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;However, results related to the effects of chronic job stress&#xA;  and cognitive functions remain controversial. Although&#xA;  chronic job stress is generally linked to reduced memory&#xA;  and learning (Holman and Wall, 2002; Taris and Feij,&#xA;  2004), a recent epidemiological study with a larger sample&#xA;  size failed to replicate these effects (Elovainio et al., 2009).&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other studies may indicate that &lt;em&gt;predictable&lt;/em&gt; chronic mild stress can improve hippocampal neurogenesis and memory (Parihar et al., 2011). Your question doesn't describe the level of stress experienced as a variable so broadly, this article might be very relevant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Furthermore, enrichments in mood and memory after PCMS were&#xA;  associated with substantially increased hippocampal neurogenesis ...&#xA;  The overall stress reaction in an organism can be advantageous for&#xA;  cognitive functions when it induces moderate increases in&#xA;  corticosterone levels and leads to adaptation and resistance ... The&#xA;  PCMS regimen used in this study likely elicited moderate increases in&#xA;  corticosterone levels, which facilitated adaptive and beneficial&#xA;  responses in the brain.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's implied that unpredictable chronic stress would have a detrimental effect on memory. Some of the biological reasons for enhancing memory processes are presented in that above study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT: Additional Information&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also see - McFadden, L.M., Paris, J.J., Mitzelfelt, M.S., McDonough, S., Frye, C.A. &amp;amp; Matuszewich, L. (2011). Sex-dependent effects of chronic unpredictable stress in the water maze. Physiology &amp;amp; Behavior, 102(3), 266-275. The research conversely highlights that &lt;em&gt;unpredictable stress&lt;/em&gt; improves performance on a spatial memory task in female rats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ohira, H., Matsunga, M., Kumra, K., Murakami, H., Osumi., T., Isowa, T., Fukuyama, S., Shinoda, J. &amp;amp; Yamada, J. (2011). Chronic stress modulates neural and cardiovascular responses during reversal learning. &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 193, 193-204&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parihar, VK., Hattiangady, B., Kuruba, R., Shuai, B. &amp;amp; Shetty, AK. (2011). Predictable chronic mild stress improves mood, hippocampal neurogenesis and memory. Molecular Psychiatry, 16, 171-183&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastEditorUserId="3581" LastEditDate="2013-09-24T02:59:58.597" LastActivityDate="2013-09-24T02:59:58.597" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4643" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4634" CreationDate="2013-09-24T08:19:27.947" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The quote &quot;Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori&quot; is from one of Horace's Odes (III.2.13), and it translates as: &quot;it is sweet and honorable to die for one's fatherland&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is assumed that Horace did not glorify the death of a soldier in this poem but allude to the two predominant philosophical doctrines of his time, epicureism and stoa, and their perspective on the &lt;em&gt;summum bonum&lt;/em&gt;, the greatest good. For epicureism this is lust (&quot;sweet&quot; in the quote), for the stoa it is virtue (&quot;honorable&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Horace's point of view, dying for your home country contradicts neither the epicureic nor the stoic ideal, as it implies both. Both philosophical doctrines were sceptical of a service to the state, and Horace says that serving your country is in tune with both doctrines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Death for your country is glorified in a quote from Horace's Greek source, a verse by Tyrtaios  (Fragment 6D) about the service of the Spartans:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The most beautiful death of all is when a warrior fights for his fatherland and dies for it.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Common internet knowledge ;-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-09-24T08:19:27.947" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4644" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-24T08:19:51.533" Score="5" ViewCount="2409" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am unable to find much research on the application of mindfulnesss for those suffering from Schizophrenia. A recent study by Chien and Lee (2013) focuses on the application of a psychoeducation program for Chinese patients with Schizophrenia. However, I do not have the pleasure of reading this but findings indicate that it can improve psychosocial functioning (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cme.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleID=1653271&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.cme.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleID=1653271&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though the study show promising results for alleviating symptoms in Schizophrenic patients, I feel - &lt;em&gt;prima facie&lt;/em&gt; - that there might be a risk in exacerbating symptoms by educating Schizophrenic patients to adopt a non-judgmental awareness towards positive symptoms such as hallucinations and delusional thinking. I am a supporter of mindfulness-based interventions except I can't seem to find much literature on its limitations and risks for Schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the neurological and biological evidence around Schizophrenia is far from conclusive, I am narrowing this down to only psychological and ethical risks/dangers that could potentially arise from mindfulness practice and Schizophrenic individuals. For clarity around the theory underpinning Schizophrenia, I would refer to the &lt;em&gt;Theory of Mind&lt;/em&gt; as the overarching philosophical foundation for understanding Schizophrenia and interactions with mindfulness practice. A definition is given by Pedersen et al (2012):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Theory of mind (ToM), the ability to think about mental states such as&#xA;  thoughts and beliefs in oneself and others, is a complex cognitive&#xA;  function that requires the integration of information from multiple&#xA;  sources. Substantial evidence has accumulated that patients with&#xA;  schizophrenia have impaired ToM functions (Sprong et al., 2007; Bora&#xA;  et al., 2009) that result in social-interactive deﬁcits.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a cognitive perspective, what dangers does mindfulness pose to a Schizophrenic individual's ability to discern their self-concept and their relations with the world? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is purely for illustrative purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;X suffers from Schizophrenia and visual hallucinations. X does engage in mindfulness practice regularly. His/her mindfulness practice involves paying non-judgmental attention in the present moment. Initially, X paid too much attention to the occasional visual hallucinations through his mindfulness exercises. This triggered a higher amount of distress and anxiety for X and caused him/her to believe in the 'reality' of the hallucination. It could be said that there may be a potential danger that existed in the initial stages of X's introduction to mindfulness practice.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the dangers of using mindfulness-based techniques for&#xA;individuals suffering from Schizophrenia?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the mechanisms that make mindfulness practice effective when an individual is experiencing a delusional episode?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have provided some more information around the scope of the question primarily around what type of 'dangers' could result from the interaction between mindfulness practice and those suffering from Schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chien, W.T., Lee, I.Y.M. (2013). The mindfulness-based psychoeducation program for Chinese patients with schizophrenia. &lt;em&gt;Psychiatric Services 2013&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastEditorUserId="3581" LastEditDate="2013-09-24T13:18:02.097" LastActivityDate="2017-02-12T02:04:32.920" Title="What are the dangers of using mindfulness-based techniques for individuals suffering from Schizophrenia?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4645" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4644" CreationDate="2013-09-24T10:23:32.550" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot answer your question, because I'm not an expert on schizophrenia, but I would like to point out that the answer will depend on your theory of schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Post-mortem research on the brains of schizophrenic patients has found consistent anomalies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;widening of the ventricles (meaning a loss of subcortical brain cells)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;structural abnormalities in the subcortical temporal-limbic areas such as the hyppocampus and basal ganglia&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;structural abnormalities in the prefrontal and temporal cortex&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CT and MRI research on the brains of living schizophrenics has found similar anomalies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;enlarged ventricles&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;loss of cortical substance in the temporal and frontal areas&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;reduced volume in the basal ganglia (nucleus caudatus) and limbic structures&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears that there is a general atrophy of brain tissue in schizophrenics, and from my non-expert knowledge there is nothing you can do to reverse this. Typical therapy in schizophrenia (today) is to give anti-psychotica to reduce symptoms, behavioral therapy to enhance social abilities, and family therapy to reduce hostility, excessive worrying etc. (&quot;expressed emotion&quot; plays a role in the etiology of schizophrenia). So basically what you do is not &quot;heal&quot; the disorder but alleviate the symptoms and help the patients with their everyday problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since cognitive behavioral therapy (in which the patient is encouraged to consciously deal with his thoughts, including, I'd guess, the paranoic ones) is a normal part of clinical routine with schizophrenia, I don't see why mindfulness could not be beneficial. I believe it might well enhance the CBT in the same way as in the therapy of depression, where mindfulness and CBT are successfully applied in conjunction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-09-24T10:23:32.550" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4646" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-24T12:40:35.113" Score="4" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are preattentive processes necessarily unconscious processes?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If no, why not, and could you please provide an example of a preattentive process of which we are conscious?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If yes, why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To the extent that I have a specific context in mind, I'm thinking of Neisser's postulation of a preattentive stage of visual processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-27T00:38:29.797" LastActivityDate="2013-09-27T00:38:29.797" Title="Are preattentive processes necessarily unconscious processes?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4647" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4650" CreationDate="2013-09-24T17:21:57.357" Score="9" ViewCount="16656" Body="&lt;p&gt;Will anger increase your body strength or not? If you get angry, you may think that i can break anything or fight anyone but sometimes you almost lose control on your body completely (or probably always).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if you are ordered to break a brick, will you break it easily when you are angry or when your emotions are under control?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3535" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-25T12:39:06.020" LastActivityDate="2019-08-14T04:27:42.120" Title="Does anger increase your body strength?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4648" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4654" CreationDate="2013-09-24T17:48:16.130" Score="5" ViewCount="241" Body="&lt;p&gt;In physical terms, sugar has a great influence: increases energy in our body. But does it influence our behaviour? Is it possible that we act differently because of high amount of consumed sugar?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3323" LastEditorUserId="3323" LastEditDate="2013-09-24T19:29:45.370" LastActivityDate="2013-09-25T22:37:26.847" Title="Does sugar change our short-term behaviour?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4647" CreationDate="2013-09-25T02:32:32.277" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;There could be a correlation between negative emotions, such as anger and hostility, and muscle strength (Tolea et al., 2012). This, however, is a post-hoc examination around the relationship between personality traits and muscle strength and may not infer that 'body strength' actually increases during anger and hostility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;In spite of the evidence for relationships between personality,&#xA;  physical activity, and muscle strength, to our knowledge, only one&#xA;  study reported on the association between personality and muscle&#xA;  strength (Jorm et al., 1993). In that study, Jorm and colleagues&#xA;  investigated correlations between neuroticism and extraversion and&#xA;  muscle strength in a sample of older community-dwelling Australian men&#xA;  and women. Neuroticism but not extraversion was found to negatively&#xA;  correlate to strength in women only.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study conducted on physical performance and anger could support that there are positive correlations between anger and physical performance (Davis et al., 2010). Note that this only focuses on &lt;em&gt;physical performance&lt;/em&gt; and does not necessarily indicate that anger directly increases actual body strength (i.e. cardiovascular, resistance level, power).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Consistent with previous research (e.g., Woodman et al., 2009), anger&#xA;  facilitated performance of the peak force task. The signiﬁcant&#xA;  inﬂuence of trait anger and anger-out on physical performance provides&#xA;  additional evidence of the role of anger’s action tendency in&#xA;  performance (Smits et al., 2004). This ﬁnding supports Lazarus’s&#xA;  (2000b) proposed inﬂuence of anger on performance; that is, the action&#xA;  tendency of anger appeared to align with the task demands and&#xA;  performance was facilitated by the induction of anger.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This may well tie well in addressing your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;P1. There is evidence to show that anger facilitates performance of a peak force task.&#xA;P2. Breaking a brick involves a peak force task.&#xA;P3. X is angry and required to break a brick.&#xA;C. It is likely that anger would facilitate X's need to break the brick.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for anger regulation, the same article touches upon the significance of anger regulation strategies towards anger and physical performance. My intuition would be to say that a response such as anger is more likely to help one &quot;break a brick&quot; when ordered rather than being in a controlled state. Anger is more likely to increase reactive motor skills which could maximise power exerted. I'm not an expert on physical fitness but emotional states of mind would seem to impact physical behaviours in my view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Toleaa, M.I., Terracciano, A., Simonsick, E.M., Metter, E.J. &amp;amp; Costa&#xA;Jr., P.T. (2012). Associations between personality traits, physical&#xA;activity level, and muscle strength. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in&#xA;Personality&lt;/em&gt;, 46, 264-270&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Davis, P.A., Woodman, T. &amp;amp; Callow, N. (2010). Better out than in: The&#xA;inﬂuence of anger regulation on physical performance. &lt;em&gt;Personality and&#xA;Individual Differences&lt;/em&gt;, 49, 457-460&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastActivityDate="2013-09-25T02:32:32.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4651" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3594" CreationDate="2013-09-25T03:03:53.863" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can offer a case study - Elisabeth Kubler-Ross, creator of the infamous &quot;Kubler-Ross Model&quot; or &quot;five stages of grief&quot; (Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance). Her entire career as a psychiatrist was spent working with terminally ill patients and their grieving families. She strongly believed in a life after death and outer-body experiences, and worked with a man at her Healing Centre who claimed to be able to contact people after they had passed over. This was of course a sham, you can read more about it &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/26/us/elisabeth-kubler-ross-78-dies-psychiatrist-revolutionized-care-terminally-ill.html?pagewanted=all&amp;amp;src=pm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3590" LastActivityDate="2013-09-25T03:03:53.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4652" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4163" CreationDate="2013-09-25T12:50:35.227" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what study Seligman is referring to, but I can suggest that you look into Shelley Taylor's work on positive illusions. Her &lt;a href=&quot;http://taylorlab.psych.ucla.edu/1983_Adjustment%20to%20Threatening%20Events_A%20Theory%20of%20Cognitive%20Adaptation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;original 1983 work&lt;/a&gt; looked into the coping mechanisms of a group of cancer patients undergoing treatment, and followed them into their lives after recovering from their illness. She found that individuals who felt that they were better than their peers at dealing with the cancer, felt that they had some control over the cancer's course, and that their future was brighter than that of others, had a better chance of returning to or exceeding their original quality of life before the illness. These beliefs are called &quot;positive illusions&quot;, and are outlined clearly in &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.psych.utoronto.ca/psy430/Taylor&amp;amp;Brown_Positive%20Illusions%20and%20Well-Being%20Revisited.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Taylor &amp;amp; Brown (1994)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3590" LastActivityDate="2013-09-25T12:50:35.227" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4653" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-25T13:53:47.590" Score="3" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;After my admittedly short research I could not find information which states that if a person is disturbed while their sleeping, let's say in NREM3 phase of their sleep cycle, and wakes up and then falls asleep shortly after then they start their cycle from scratch again. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a widely accepted, and experienced, that being disturbed doesn't make it a good night sleep, but is it because of this 'not picking up where you stopped'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you point me to some data about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3591" LastActivityDate="2013-09-25T13:53:47.590" Title="When falling asleep does one always start with NREM1?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4654" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4648" CreationDate="2013-09-25T14:15:20.020" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are what you eat right? I guess that would probably apply with how internal physiological responses to food consumption may result in various behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Flora and Polenick (2013), there are some counter-intuitive evidence about sugar and its effects on human behaviour:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;To this point, what is known about the effects of sugar consumption on&#xA;  human  behavior and performance is that sugar consumption, even in&#xA;  high amounts, does not  contribute to hyperactivity, inattention,&#xA;  juvenile delinquency, reductions in cognitive  performance, or other&#xA;  behavior problems in children or adults. Instead, a high level of &#xA;  glucose, or sugar, consumption actually improves athletic, academic,&#xA;  and cognitive  performance, and may enhance self-control. Sugar&#xA;  consumption may reduce aggressive  behavior, and sugar consumed during&#xA;  breakfast and in afternoon snacks improves  performance during a wide&#xA;  range of activities.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notably, they indicate that sugar can reduce aggression in both children and adults and implied aggressive behaviour:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Just as Bachorowski et al. (1990) observed improved behavior of&#xA;  juvenile delinquents  after they consumed a sugar-filled breakfast,&#xA;  research suggests that sugar consumption  may reduce aggressive&#xA;  behavior in adults, as well as in children. Benton and Owens (1993) &#xA;  found that, compared to undergraduate participants who consumed a&#xA;  placebo non-sugar  beverage, participants who consumed a sugar&#xA;  beverage were less likely to show aggression,  use profanity, or bang&#xA;  on the computer while playing a frustrating and intentionally &#xA;  impossible computer game.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastActivityDate="2013-09-25T14:15:20.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4655" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4657" CreationDate="2013-09-25T18:03:03.057" Score="0" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why does someone with eyes tied follow a circular path if left to walk in a huge yard(kilometers), that occurs even if he thinks that he is walking in a straight line?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion once you drawn a well enough curve your balance shift towards inner side of circle and you fullfill to spiralate inwards. But what shifts the balance inward?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user2678" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-27T00:35:59.987" LastActivityDate="2013-09-27T00:35:59.987" Title="Why do people walk in a circle when they are blindfolded and intend to walk in a straight line?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;vestibular-system&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4656" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4648" CreationDate="2013-09-25T18:56:11.933" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sugar can induce addiction based on mesolimbic dopamine...&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2714381/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2714381/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is the main effect on behavior...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also sugar intake will have efects on insulin and vice versa:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02342828&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02342828&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So answer is yes... it is possible that we act differently, especially after long exposure to that food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition the addiction to sugar can induce impulsive behavior by weaknes of prefrontal lobe...&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.hr/books?id=OwKOpU6rjMsC&amp;amp;pg=PT11&amp;amp;lpg=PT11&amp;amp;dq=sugar+neuroimaging+impulsive+behavior&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=AIXOZz77uE&amp;amp;sig=Fa9iwmlhgoRMQuKqXQirOw7ZzH8&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=di9DUq2SJaeg4gT95YCQCQ&amp;amp;ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=sugar%20neuroimaging%20impulsive%20behavior&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://books.google.hr/books?id=OwKOpU6rjMsC&amp;amp;pg=PT11&amp;amp;lpg=PT11&amp;amp;dq=sugar+neuroimaging+impulsive+behavior&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=AIXOZz77uE&amp;amp;sig=Fa9iwmlhgoRMQuKqXQirOw7ZzH8&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=di9DUq2SJaeg4gT95YCQCQ&amp;amp;ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=sugar%20neuroimaging%20impulsive%20behavior&amp;amp;f=false&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and also sugar can cause obesity in long term...&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/40323/InTech-Food_addiction_obesity_and_neuroimaging.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/40323/InTech-Food_addiction_obesity_and_neuroimaging.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-09-25T18:56:11.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4657" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4655" CreationDate="2013-09-25T20:52:42.327" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has nothing to do with perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's simply because there are infinitely many ways to go in circles, while only one way to go straight. Even a slightest bias towards one side will produce a circle. When other cues are given to correct the bias, one is able to track straight lines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even robots (or toy cars) that are designed to go straight lines will go in circles without sensory feedback!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastEditorUserId="301" LastEditDate="2013-09-25T21:22:54.870" LastActivityDate="2013-09-25T21:22:54.870" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4658" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4690" CreationDate="2013-09-25T21:26:29.783" Score="1" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say you meet an attractive person of the opposite gender (or of the same gender, as the case may be). You are attracted to this person because of one or more salient qualities, intelligence, personality, or good looks. You revel in this discovery and look forward to being able to enjoy this person's desirable qualities. More to the point, you expect that your appreciation of someone will help generate an appreciation of you by that person, with your other qualities doing the rest. Even if this person doesn't fully reciprocate, if s/he agrees to spend time with, and perhaps &quot;date&quot; you, this might be the beginning of love.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But suppose the object of your affection studiously ignores you, or worse, seems to date everyone except you, not noticing, or downplaying your attention and your good qualities. You no longer have any reasonable expectation of benefiting from whatever desirable qualities this person may have. Does your potential love now turn into hate, or at least jealousy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people will poinr to the love of parents and children, and the fact that a parent may seem to blindly love a worthless child (or in a few cases, the opposite). But the fact is that the parent-child relationship is bound by real ties; each person possesses roughly half of the other's genes. That would probably create a strong expectation that whatever benefits the other person produces in life will accrue to you at some point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can love exist in a seeming vacuum, that is with the realization that the beloved does not have the power to benefit you in any way, or worse, has no intention of ever benefiting you in any way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2013-09-28T22:19:47.257" LastActivityDate="2020-01-29T17:36:10.853" Title="Could the basis of love be the expectation of a future benefit?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4659" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-25T21:38:23.813" Score="9" ViewCount="676" Body="&lt;p&gt;Successful leadership appears to depend on the personality of the leader. Judge et al. (2002) found the following correlations with the &quot;big five&quot; personality factors in a meta-analysis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Personality trait       Correlation with leadership success&#xA;&#xA;Neuroticism           -.24&#xA;Extraversion           .31&#xA;Openness               .24&#xA;Agreeableness          .08&#xA;Conscientiousness      .28&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kock (1965) found the following correlations between the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation, and economic success:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;                         Achievment   Power   Affiliation   Ach+Pow-Aff&#xA;&#xA;Gross Production Value   .39          .49*    -.61**        .67**&#xA;Number of Employees      .41          .42     -.62**        .66**&#xA;Turnover                 .46*         .41     -.53*         .60*&#xA;Gross Investment         .63*        -.06      .20          .45*&#xA;Profit                   .27          .01     -.30          .34&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These two studies found that leaders must not be neurotic, need not be agreeable, and must not have a need for affiliation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But personality influences not only a person's workplace behavior and success, but also his choice of a romantic partner and how he shapes his relationships to the members of his family. I wonder therefore:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there studies on the family situations of leaders, how they relate to their spouses and children, and how they influence their children's development?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Judge, T. A., Bono, J. E., Ilies, R., &amp;amp; Gerhardt, M. W. (2002). Personality and leadership: A qualitativ and quantitative review. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Applied Psychology, 87&lt;/em&gt;, 765-780. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.765&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.765&lt;/a&gt; Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://workforceuniverse.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Judge_2002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://workforceuniverse.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Judge_2002.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kock, S. W. (1965). Management and motivation. Summary of a doctoral thesis presented at the Swedish School of Economics, Helsingfors, Finland.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-27T00:37:59.857" LastActivityDate="2020-05-01T09:20:28.870" Title="How does the personality of a successful leader influence the development of his children?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;&lt;leadership&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4660" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4648" CreationDate="2013-09-25T22:37:26.847" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I feel that this question is vague. Obviously sugar-seeking behaviour abates after significant consumption of sugar due to satiation. Therefore, the answer to the question is categorically 'yes'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3592" LastActivityDate="2013-09-25T22:37:26.847" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4661" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4647" CreationDate="2013-09-25T22:52:19.593" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many cases, the limit of your strength is not actually the maximal force output of your muscles, but reflex inhibition from pain. Anger and the associated release of adrenaline causes stimulus-induced analgesia, which could potentially relieve some of this reflex inhibition. So yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3592" LastActivityDate="2013-09-25T22:52:19.593" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4662" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-25T23:38:06.780" Score="2" ViewCount="1337" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why humans (most of them, and certainly all those around me) enjoy fictional stories in one form or the other - novels, films, theater performances? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The starting assumption is that there must be an evolutionary advantage to it. Related, might be the question of why humans do and enjoy music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why don't we stick to hard facts, true stories and the like?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3593" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-26T02:31:21.123" LastActivityDate="2015-07-26T01:14:59.977" Title="Why do humans enjoy works of fiction?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4663" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4664" CreationDate="2013-09-26T06:32:41.617" Score="-1" ViewCount="2549" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know why a woman feels something odd when a male stares at them. I have tried this on many girls. Some feel irritated , some became angry, and some even leave the room.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What causes these reactions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What mechanism of the brain causes this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What chemistry of hormones are behind this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3597" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-26T07:28:39.757" LastActivityDate="2014-03-24T02:13:06.767" Title="Why do women feel odd when males stare at them?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4664" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4663" CreationDate="2013-09-26T07:12:20.143" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think you need to resort to hormonal or neural explanations. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staring&quot;&gt;Staring&lt;/a&gt; has social meaning&lt;/strong&gt;. The meaning of staring varies across cultures and contexts. In some contexts it is normal (e.g., staring at a presenter, staring at the person you are talking to, staring at a sales assistant). In these contexts, staring has meaning such as indicating interest or indicating an accepted attempt at engaging the person's attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other settings staring can violate social norms and may be interpreted as an aggressive or annoying action by others. In some cases, staring can make people feel self-conscious or objectified. In other cases, a stranger staring at them can be experienced by the person being looked at as an intimidating action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can imagine a train of reasoning that might arise when you stare at a women long enough for her to notice and for you to notice that she has noticed. She could be thinking that she doesn't want to be stared at and that social norms say that she should not have to be stared at. Yet, you continue to stare at her. At the very least she might find this disrespectful. In some contexts, it might induce concern that if you are willing to break that social convention, you might be likely to break others, which give rise to fear that you might be violent. In other contexts it might just be interpreted as a sexual advance, which they don't want to reciprocate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, the main point is that staring has complex social meaning, and thus should be understood within the social context including prevailing norms about staring in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that the academic &lt;a href=&quot;http://userwww.service.emory.edu/~rgarlan/bibliocv.html&quot;&gt;Rosemarie Garland-Thomson&lt;/a&gt; has written quite a bit about the meaning of staring from a humanities perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See for example, her 2006 article&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This article considers how staring informs the ways we know each other&#xA;  and the world around us. Staring, a complex, nuanced, and&#xA;  meaning-laden social interaction, can take many forms: arrested,&#xA;  separated, or engaged. It is an intense encounter which is sometimes a&#xA;  random, idiosyncratic confrontation and at other times a highly&#xA;  structured social ritual driven by the collective impulse to look.&#xA;  This article argues that staring often defines the relationship&#xA;  between disabled and nondisabled individuals. More important, however,&#xA;  it seeks to redefine this relationship by imagining, perhaps&#xA;  counterintuitively, the object of the stare as determining the&#xA;  structure and outcome of the staring engagement. The staree may take&#xA;  charge of the encounter, in other words, using various strategies to&#xA;  both mediate and transform discomforting interaction into an&#xA;  unexpected opportunity for mutual transformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or her 2005 article&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Staring is a vivid form of human communication. Part of our enormous&#xA;  communal vocabulary of the eyes, staring is a particularly emphatic&#xA;  way of expressing our response to others. A more forceful and&#xA;  sustained form of looking than glancing, glimpsing, scanning,&#xA;  contemplating, surveying, gazing, and other forms of casual or&#xA;  normative looking, staring starkly registers intense interest and&#xA;  endows it with meaning. That interest ranges widely in form--from&#xA;  domination, adoration, curiosity, surprise, allegiance, disgust,&#xA;  wonder, befuddlement, openness, hostility, to reverence. The stare is&#xA;  a highly charged interpersonal encounter that we snap up in a variety&#xA;  of contexts to put a sharp point on what we mean, think, or want.&#xA;  Staring is a way of strongly reacting to another; it bespeaks&#xA;  involvement. It is the human response to novelty, to the unexpected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As such, staring is an embodied and relational visual exchange that&#xA;  carries complex cultural and historical meanings. Like sex and eating,&#xA;  staring is drenched with significances, scrupulously regulated, and&#xA;  intricately ritualized. Civility, for example, has always strictly&#xA;  governed staring and prescribed what we do with our eyes in social&#xA;  encounters. In American culture, the one thing everyone knows about&#xA;  staring is that your mother told you not to do it. Both furtive and&#xA;  compelling, staring is imagined as a formidable interchange and is a&#xA;  source of vivid narrative within in the Western cultural archive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She even has a book called &lt;em&gt;Staring: How We Look&lt;/em&gt;. Oxford University Press, 2009. She &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&amp;amp;v=jALsDVW63wo&quot;&gt;talks about the book in this short YouTube clip&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;“Ways of Staring.” Journal of Visual Culture 5, 2 (Summer 2006): 165-184. &lt;a href=&quot;http://userwww.service.emory.edu/users/rgarlan/pdfs/RGT%20Ways%20of%20Staring%20JVC%2006.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;“Staring at the Other.” DSQ: Disability Studies Quarterly 25, 4 (Fall 2005).  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dsq-sds.org/article/view/610/787&quot;&gt;FULL TEXT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-26T07:22:40.443" LastActivityDate="2013-09-26T07:22:40.443" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4665" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4659" CreationDate="2013-09-26T07:50:02.703" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an extremely interesting question. I'm going to take a different approach to the question by focusing on both &lt;em&gt;personality traits&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;leadership theories&lt;/em&gt; (e.g. authentic leadership, transformational leadership, servant leadership etc) to answer whether those two distinct areas can influence leaders' children's development. I will admit that I didn't come across specific studies on the actual family situations of leaders and the developmental impacts of the leader's personality traits towards their children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Experiential learning and development by children&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See Murphy and Johnson (2011) about how early life experiences and parenting styles can shape the development of a children in relation to general development and leadership potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;but parents undoubtedly work to inﬂuence their children's thoughts on&#xA;  leadership, through role modeling leadership and through the leader&#xA;  behaviors and experiences they encourage in their children ... “[Parents…] contribute to their children's religious beliefs,&#xA;  intellectual and occupational interests, feelings of self-esteem or&#xA;  inadequacy, adherence to traditional or modern notions of masculinity&#xA;  and femininity, helpfulness to others, skills, and values (Beer,&#xA;  Arnold, &amp;amp; Loehlin, 1998; Kruger, Hicks, &amp;amp; McGue, 2001; McCrae et al.,&#xA;  2000)” (Wade &amp;amp; Tavris, 2008, p. 502).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Servant leadership promotes spirituality and servant behaviours in leaders, i.e. serve your employees first before you serve the company. This type of behaviour from a leader would most likely influence the parent's value and style of parenting. For example, leaders who are recognised as servant leaders may be generous and selfless - this may spill over into their parenting style to be compassionate and caring towards their children which in turn, influences their children's development into similar characters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ADDED: Destructive leaders, narcissism and potential impact on children&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Behaviours of destructive leaders tend to be correlated to narcissism (Padilla et al., 2007). Assuming that these behaviours manifest in the home/family environment, there is some evidence that &lt;em&gt;child narcissism&lt;/em&gt; can arise from the parent's control over them (Horton, 2010):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is also substantial evidence supporting the object relations&#xA;  viewpoint that child narcissism comes from a parent’s selﬁsh use of&#xA;  the child that is manifest in excessive or inconsistent parental&#xA;  control. For example, both Horton and colleagues (2006) and Miller and&#xA;  Campbell (2008) found that psychological control correlated positively&#xA;  with maladaptive narcissism...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, destructive leadership involves an element of the urge to control (Padilla et al., 2007):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... destructive leadership involves control and coercion rather than&#xA;  persuasion and commitment (Howell &amp;amp; Avolio, 1992; Sankowsky, 1995)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would dare say that if we compared destructive leaders (core trait: narcissism) and servant leaders (core: selflessness) - both would exhibit different parenting styles that both impact a child's development. Children of the former group may grow up to develop childhood narcissism which may stretch out to adulthood. Children of the latter group may grow to develop selfless behaviours in childhood and adulthood. Yet, I wish there would be a study demonstrating this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Murphy, S.E. &amp;amp; Johnson, S.K. (2011). The beneﬁts of a long-lens approach to leader development: Understanding&#xA;the seeds of leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 22, 459-470&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Horton, R. S. (2010). On environmental sources of child narcissism: Are parents really to blame? (pp. 125-143), In Barry, C, Kerig, P. K, Stellwagen, K. K, &amp;amp; Barry, T. T (Eds.) Narcissism and Machiavellianism in Youth: Implications for the Development of Adaptive and Maladaptive Behavior. Washington, D.C.: APA Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Padilla, A., Hogan, R. &amp;amp; Kaiser, R.B. (2007). The toxic triangle: Destructive leaders, susceptible followers,&#xA;and conducive environments. The Leadership Quarterly, 18, 176-194&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastEditorUserId="3581" LastEditDate="2013-09-26T11:29:49.390" LastActivityDate="2013-09-26T11:29:49.390" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4667" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4662" CreationDate="2013-09-26T08:59:36.910" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ualberta.ca/~dmiall/MakingReaders/Readings/Miall%20Kuiken%20Becoming.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;A feeling for fiction: becoming what we behold&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Miall and Kuikan, 2002), suggest 4 levels of how reading stories/fiction affect us:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first is a satisfaction and enjoyment&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;are reactions to an already interpreted text&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second level is when the feelings and engagement start kicking in:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;feelings such&#xA;  as empathy or sympathy with an author, narrator, or narrative figure are involved in the&#xA;  interpretive processes by which a representation of the fictional world is developed and&#xA;  engaged&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in this second stage, we are starting to get 'drawn in' to this fictional world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The third level involves&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;feelings of fascination, interest, or intrigue are an initial moment in readers’&#xA;  response to the formal components of literary texts (narrative, stylistic, or generic).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, these first 3 levels are more or less aesthetic, it is the fourth level (and the focus of the linked paper) that links the aesthetic and narrative feelings together that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;interact to&#xA;  produce metaphors of personal identification that modify self-understanding. We also argue&#xA;  that the concept of catharsis (the conflict of tragic feelings identified by Aristotle) identifies&#xA;  one particular form of a more general pattern in which aesthetic and narrative feelings evoked&#xA;  during reading interact to modify the reader.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This last point is also discussed in the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.weber.edu/eamsel/Research%20Groups/Fiction/Oatly%20%281999%29.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Why fiction may be twice as true as fact: Fiction as cognitive and emotional stimulation&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Oatley, 1999) with the statement:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;in the simulations of fiction, personal truths can be explored that allows readers to experience emotions - their own emotions - and understand aspects of them that are obscure, in relation to the contexts in which the emotions arise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From that, fiction is not just 'escapism' and affects us on psychological and cognitive levels beyond aesthetic levels.  This would be true for any form of fiction, and potentially for music and visual art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A possible evolutionary advantage is that this type of activity takes us away from the 'here and now' to places that we have never known, yet (according to the articles) have a sense of familiarity for us, emotionally and cognitively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3554" LastEditDate="2013-09-26T09:13:51.163" LastActivityDate="2013-09-26T09:13:51.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4668" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4669" CreationDate="2013-09-26T12:31:00.907" Score="3" ViewCount="5756" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the neurological basis for people being seemingly fearless and engaging in risk-taking and daredevil behaviour?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am talking about those that frequently perform or participate in activities that are often described by a lot of people as reckless and life-threateningly dangerous. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-09-27T00:32:27.420" LastActivityDate="2013-10-09T22:56:18.817" Title="What is the neurological basis for 'daredevil' behaviour?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4669" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4668" CreationDate="2013-09-26T15:12:53.017" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dopamine receptor agonists related to reckless driving and gambling&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are three case reports provided by Reactions Weekly (2010) demonstrating correlations between treatment with dopamine receptor agonists and reckless driving:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reckless driving occurred in three patients during treatment with&#xA;  dopamine receptor agonists (DA) ... DA are associated with impulse&#xA;  control disorders, and may alter how the brain perceives and avoids&#xA;  risk. DA-associated impulse control disorders include pathological&#xA;  gambling and hypersexuality. Reckless driving may be another&#xA;  manifestation of DA-associated impulse control disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some further evidence is provided to suggest neurological correlates between dopamine receptor agonist and risky choices in a gambling task (Riba et al., 2008):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In summary, the present findings indicate that the dopamine D2/D3&#xA;  receptor agonist pramipexole is capable of blocking reward-related&#xA;  activations in the rostral basal ganglia and midbrain and may lead to&#xA;  a behavioral disinhibition characterized by increases in risky choices&#xA;  in a gambling task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neurological correlates between voluntary and involuntary risk taking in the brain&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and administered a modified BART with an active choice mode and a passive no-choice mode in order to examine the neural correlates of voluntary and involuntary risk taking in the human brain (Rao et al., 2008):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In summary, the present study modiﬁed the BART in both active and&#xA;  passive modes for use during fMRI and the ﬁndings provide direct&#xA;  visualization of voluntary and involuntary risk processing in the&#xA;  human brain. Regardless of the involvement of voluntary decision&#xA;  making, risk in this task is processed in visual pathway regions in&#xA;  the occipital and parietal lobes. However, during active&#xA;  decision-making, risk is associated with additional robust activation&#xA;  in dopamine rich mesolimbic (VTA-striatum) and frontal regions&#xA;  (insula, ACC/MFC, and DLPFC). Voluntary decision making per se, is&#xA;  associated with activation in the right DLPFC, which is absent in the&#xA;  involuntary no-choice condition. These results contribute to&#xA;  understanding the neural basis of normal and high risk behavior.&#xA;  Extending this paradigm to pathological populations characterized by&#xA;  impaired decisionmaking, such as patients with drug addition and&#xA;  compulsive gambling, may allow the speciﬁc neural components of&#xA;  impaired risk behavior to be distinguished, and may ultimately inform&#xA;  more effective clinical treatment interventions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reactions Weekly. (2010). Dopamine receptor agonists: reckless&#xA;driving: 3 case reports.(Adverse Reaction Case Reports)(Case&#xA;study)(Brief article), 1300, 18(1)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Riba, J., Kramer, U.M., Heldmann, M., Richter, S. &amp;amp; Munte, T.F. (2008). Dopamine agonist increases risk taking but blunts reward-related brain activity. PLoS One, 3(6)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rao, H. Korczykowski, M., Pluta, J., Hoang, A. &amp;amp; Detre, J.A. (2008). Neural correlates of voluntary and involuntary risk taking in the human brain: An fMRI study of the Balloon Analog Risk Task (BART). Neuroimage, 42, 902-910&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastEditorUserId="3581" LastEditDate="2013-10-07T05:25:06.303" LastActivityDate="2013-10-07T05:25:06.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4670" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-26T17:38:23.783" Score="7" ViewCount="48707" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although it is clear that implicit and explicit attitudes are not same, how do they differ is not. I believe establishing the relation between them would surely help deducting it's meaning in context of psychology. It seems that research  by Nosek (2007) would be relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nosek, B. A. (2007). Implicit–explicit relations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(2), 65-69.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3602" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-07-01T01:34:02.287" LastActivityDate="2017-10-02T04:01:36.803" Title="What is the difference between implicit and explicit attitudes?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4671" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-26T13:00:51.767" Score="4" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; In many situations, people use to classify objects without knowing Machine Learning theory. For example, if small children see an unknown animal in the wild, (s)he tries to classify it as dangerous or not dangerous (based on previous &quot;data&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; Obviously, humans use any classifier. My question is: Which?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3161" OwnerDisplayName="Miroslav Sabo" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-23T20:46:04.007" LastActivityDate="2017-10-23T20:46:04.007" Title="Which Machine Learning classifiers do humans use?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4672" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4671" CreationDate="2013-09-26T13:06:52.587" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The obvious answer would be neural networks, which is the family of machine learning methods initially inspired by the lowest level structure of the human brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See the books by Mclelland et al&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.co.uk/Parallel-Distributed-Processing-Vol-Microstructure/dp/026268053X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Parallel Distributed Processing, Vol. 1: Foundations: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition: Foundations v. 1 (Bradford Books)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.co.uk/Parallel-Distributed-Processing-Vol-Microstructure/dp/0262631105/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Parallel Distributed Processing, Vol. 2: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition: Psychological and Biological Models v. 2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which give an account of research into neural networks back in the days where biological plausibility was rather more of a consideration that it generally is now (from a machine learning perspective).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Dikran Marsupial" LastActivityDate="2013-09-26T14:23:31.057" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4673" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4670" CreationDate="2013-09-26T20:31:45.043" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although implicit and explicit attitudes are not the &quot;same&quot; they frequently overlap (e.g. people that are explicitly racist are usually implicitly racist).  Both are a positive or negative feeling towards an object.  The primary difference between the two is found in conscious awareness of a particular attitude and how the attitude is expressed.  Implicit attitudes are unconscious while explicit attitudes are conscious.  Explicit attitudes are tempered by things like social desirability.  Work with implicit attitudes tests like the IAT have shown implicit biases against things like race, age and sex.  Most people do not explicitly subscribe to these biases but still unconsciously harbor latent preferences.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check out Project Implicit to take a variety of IAT's and learn more:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3604" LastActivityDate="2013-09-26T20:31:45.043" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4671" CreationDate="2013-09-26T20:51:25.177" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is of course a big question and I don't believe that there is a definite answer to it. A very thorough investigation of this matter comes from Rogers and McClelland (2004), who have a developed a &lt;em&gt;parallel distributed theory of acquisition, representation and use of human semantic knowledge&lt;/em&gt;. As the name implies, this effort comes from the realm of parallel distributed processing, which is also called &lt;em&gt;connectionism&lt;/em&gt;. The books that @DikranMarsupial cited can be seen as the foundations of the field. As far as I understand, the two volumes and their authors (McClelland is only one of them, at least two other important names are David Rumelhart and Geoffrey Hinton) had an enormous impact on the revival of neural networks within cognitive science and on the development of the parallel distributed approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rogers &amp;amp; McClelland (2004) offer an interesting account of how things are grouped into categories, which is what you are asling about. To give a very brief explanation: according to their theory, all objects have certain attributes. For example, a canary has feet, wings and feathers. A robin also has all these things. A pine, on the other hand, has leaves, roots and roots. The same is true for an oak. In reality, there are much more attributes, but this should be enough to make the point. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Objects that tend to covary with one another in a coherent way (because they have similar attributes) are perceived as similar and are classified as belonging to a category, like the canary and the robin. Other objects, that do not covary with those from this first group, but that do covary coherently with other objects, are classified as belonging to another group, like the pine and the oak. It is these &lt;em&gt;coherent categories&lt;/em&gt; that are important for classifying objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rogers and McClelland (2004) used a neural network to demonstrate and test their theory. Their findings are consistent with a range of findings from developmental studies. They also have an article, which is basically a short summary of the book (Rogers &amp;amp; McClelland, 2008). If you are interested, you might want to check out this first. The article has peer reviewers commentaries that point out weaknesses of the theory, which is also very interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since you refered to machine learning in your question: the learning algorithm used in the simulation studies was the &lt;em&gt;backpropagation of error&lt;/em&gt; - algorithm. As was also mentioned by @DikranMarsupial, this is not an especially biologically plausible algorithm. Interestingly though, as is also explained in much detail in the book, it is possible to predict the order in which the objects within the training corpus could be classified by an eigenvector decomposition of a special variant of the covariance matrix of the objects. I'm not an expert here, but to me there seems to be a connection to the so called &lt;em&gt;covariance rule&lt;/em&gt; (unfortunately I don't have a citation here), which to my knowledge is biologically plausible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Rogers, T. T, &amp;amp; McClelland, J. L. (2004). Semantic cognition: A parallel distributed processing approach. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/10824868_The_parallel_distributed_processing_approach_to_semantic_cognition/file/3deec517feabc572dd.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Rogers, Timothy T., &amp;amp; McClelland, J. L. (2008). Précis of Semantic Cognition: A Parallel Distributed Processing Approach. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 31(06), 689. doi:10.1017/S0140525X0800589X &lt;a href=&quot;http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:61130:4/component/escidoc:61131/Majid_2008_crossling.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastActivityDate="2013-09-26T20:51:25.177" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4675" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4705" CreationDate="2013-09-26T22:23:48.170" Score="5" ViewCount="433" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to create a Gabor patch of variable size for an upcoming experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below is the python function used to generate the code.  The code was ported from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.icn.ucl.ac.uk/courses/MATLAB-Tutorials/Elliot_Freeman/html/gabor_tutorial.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this tutorial&lt;/a&gt; for Matlab (assume &lt;code&gt;import numpy as np&lt;/code&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;def gabor_patch(size, lambda_, theta, sigma, phase, trim=.005):&#xA;    &quot;&quot;&quot;Create a Gabor Patch&#xA;&#xA;    size : int&#xA;        Image size (n x n)&#xA;&#xA;    lambda_ : int&#xA;        Spatial frequency (px per cycle)&#xA;&#xA;    theta : int or float&#xA;        Grating orientation in degrees&#xA;&#xA;    sigma : int or float&#xA;        gaussian standard deviation (in pixels)&#xA;&#xA;    phase : float&#xA;        0 to 1 inclusive&#xA;    &quot;&quot;&quot;&#xA;    # make linear ramp&#xA;    X0 = (np.linspace(1, size, size) / size) - .5&#xA;&#xA;    # Set wavelength and phase&#xA;    freq = size / float(lambda_)&#xA;    phaseRad = phase * 2 * np.pi&#xA;&#xA;    # Make 2D grating&#xA;    Xm, Ym = np.meshgrid(X0, X0)&#xA;&#xA;    # Change orientation by adding Xm and Ym together in different proportions&#xA;    thetaRad = (theta / 360.) * 2 * np.pi&#xA;    Xt = Xm * np.cos(thetaRad)&#xA;    Yt = Ym * np.sin(thetaRad)&#xA;    grating = np.sin(((Xt + Yt) * freq * 2 * np.pi) + phaseRad)&#xA;&#xA;    # 2D Gaussian distribution&#xA;    gauss = np.exp(-((Xm ** 2) + (Ym ** 2)) / (2 * (sigma / float(size)) ** 2))&#xA;&#xA;    # Trim&#xA;    gauss[gauss &amp;lt; trim] = 0&#xA;&#xA;    return grating * gauss&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like the size of the Gabor patch to increase proportionally to the &lt;code&gt;size&lt;/code&gt; parameter.  In other words, I would like the dimensions of the bounding box to dictate the diameter of the patch.  The problem is that this function does not behave in this way.  Instead, the bounding box increases in size while the patch retains the same dimensions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example 1:  size = 100&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XLobY.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example 2:  size = 500&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wKb5k.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not at all obvious to me what I'm doing incorrectly.  Could somebody please point me in the right direction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please let me know if I can provide further information.  Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2013-10-02T19:57:28.367" Title="Why is my Gabor patch not resizing as a function of the bounding box?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4676" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-26T23:24:25.697" Score="2" ViewCount="300" Body="&lt;p&gt;Possibly related but not a duplicate - &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4659/how-does-the-personality-of-a-successful-leader-influence-the-development-of-his&quot; title=&quot;How does the personality of a successful leader influence the development of his children?&quot;&gt;&quot;How does the personality of a successful leader influence the development of his children?&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Workplace behaviours and personality traits, e.g. passive-aggressive behaviours, can be highly influenced by family conflicts and childhood experiences. Blanch and Aluja (2009) distinguish between work interfering with family (WIF) and family interfering with work (FIW):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Work–family conﬂict (WFC) has become an important dimension in the&#xA;  study of individual differences at work. This concept has been deﬁned&#xA;  as a form of inter-role conﬂict in which the role pressures from work&#xA;  and family are mutually incompatible, identifying at least three types&#xA;  of WFC: time, strain and behaviour based conﬂict (Greenhaus &amp;amp; Beutell,&#xA;  1985). Two main directions are generally considered in WFC research:&#xA;  work interfering with family (WIF), and family interfering with work&#xA;  (FIW) (Frone, Russell, &amp;amp; Cooper, 1992).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conflicts in the family environment may contribute to passive-aggressive behaviours in the workplace. Rejection at home can influence personality traits of the individual (Rohner, 1980):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The rejected child is especially likely to become hostile, aggressive,&#xA;  or passive-aggressive if  rejection takes the form of parental&#xA;  hostility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Organisations cannot function optimally if its employees exhibit passive-aggressive behaviours that are a result of past or current family conflicts. These behaviours can have an impact on culture as well (Forbes, 2013). Passive-aggressive behaviours are becoming common in the workplace and I'm interested to know what are the antecedents of passive-aggressive behaviours in the workplace that arise from family conflicts and past childhood experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the antecedents for passive-aggressive behaviours in the workplace that are influenced by past or current family conflicts and early childhood experiences? And are there any supporting studies describing this link?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Blanch, A. &amp;amp; Aluja, A. (2009). Work, family and personality: A study of work–family conﬂict. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 520-524&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rohner, R.P. &amp;amp; Rohner, E.C. (1980). Antecedents and consequences of parental rejection: A theory of emotional abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 4, 189-198&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Forbes. (2013). &quot;Passive-Aggressive Behavior Will Destroy a Company's Culture&quot;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.forbes.com/sites/amyanderson/2013/03/06/passive-aggressive-behavior-will-destroy-a-companys-culture/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.forbes.com/sites/amyanderson/2013/03/06/passive-aggressive-behavior-will-destroy-a-companys-culture/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-09-30T01:48:27.180" Title="How do family conflicts and childhood experiences influence passive-aggressive behaviours in the workplace?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4678" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="168" CreationDate="2013-09-27T14:08:45.003" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a partial answer, but there are a number of academic studies on this topic.  The findings of the Berkeley article &lt;a href=&quot;http://groups.haas.berkeley.edu/marketing/marketing_old/sics/SICS%202007%20Papers/CascadesRatings1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Long Tail or Steep Tail?&#xA;A Field Investigation into How Online Popularity Information Affects the&#xA;Distribution of Customer Choices&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Tucker and Zhang, 2007) suggest that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;evidence of a complementary effect, where&#xA;  the steep tail indicates new interest in the most popular vendors from outside, with&#xA;  negligible cannibalization of interest for less popular vendors. The ndings suggest&#xA;  that popularity information can serve as a powerful marketing tool that facilitates&#xA;  product category growth. They also explain the prevalence of rm practices to highlight&#xA;  bestsellers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where &lt;strong&gt;'long tail'&lt;/strong&gt; refers to customers buying low-volume products and &lt;strong&gt;'steep tail'&lt;/strong&gt; refers to the flocking to popular products.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A couple of key conclusions from that study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We find strong evidence for a steep tail effect, where customers are more likely to click&#xA;  on the most popular vendors when the popularity information is publicized and made salient&#xA;  through ranking the vendors on the page by popularity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and that there was little negative effects to less popular product sales&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If a steep tail effect exists, and if it complements the long tail, websites such&#xA;  as Google.com and Digg.com can increase overall number of clicks at little cost to the less&#xA;  popular listings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A caveat of sorts is stated in the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://qbox.wharton.upenn.edu/documents/mktg/research/Johnson%20et%20al%20Search%20Dynamics%20Mgmt%20Sci%202004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;On the Depth and Dynamics of Online&#xA;Search Behavior&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Johnson et al. 2004) in that their study showed a bit of 'consumer inertia', in that their study&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;show that the amount of online search is actually quite limited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-09-27T14:08:45.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4683" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-27T21:06:30.860" Score="3" ViewCount="213" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for good (computational) neuroscience conferences in Europe that $\textbf{have proceedings}$. Recommendations? Or are there even such conferences? Should I just send my work to a journal? I'm new in neuroscience, and it seems (compared to CS/Physics) that conferences are not so respected in this field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3609" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-10-01T02:24:07.663" LastActivityDate="2013-10-09T14:59:24.737" Title="Good conferences on (computational) neuroscience in Europe and whether to submit to conference or journal?" Tags="&lt;publication-process&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4684" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3379" CreationDate="2013-09-27T23:33:31.540" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a &quot;traditional&quot; marriage relationship, the man's job is to be a breadwinner and the woman's job is bearing and raising children. Intelligence helps a man do his job as a breadwinner, but is not as critical to a woman in a childbearing role. Beauty is a &quot;signal&quot; of a woman's childbearing abilities (including sexual attractiveness), which is why an intelligent (and high-earning) man might value that in a woman more than reciprocal intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this context, &quot;Smart women can’t (shouldn’t) marry men who aren’t at least their intellectual equal.&quot; may mean, &quot;high earning women shouldn't marry men who don't earn as much as they do or more.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know a happily married couple who defies the above stereotypes, while meeting the respective roles. The woman is the more intelligent of the two, and is a high school principal. But the man fulfills the breadwinner role, because he is highly personable and is a real estate salesman. He is also more attractive (better-looking) than the wife. But she is a good mother to their two children (former teacher now school principal).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastActivityDate="2013-09-27T23:33:31.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4685" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4722" CreationDate="2013-09-28T09:44:13.490" Score="9" ViewCount="1730" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a Carl Sagan fan, I remember (in Cosmos TV shoe) &quot;territoriality, aggression and ritual&quot; are products of the reptile brain while higher-level stuff like loyalty, planning for future are mammalian, which implies different brain regions for each functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even Sheldon Cooper has something to say about this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Penny’s emotional responses originate from the primitive portion of&#xA;  the brain known as the Amygdala, while speech is centred in the much&#xA;  more recently developed Neocortex. The former can &lt;strong&gt;easily overpower&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  the latter giving scientific credence to the notion of being rendered&#xA;  speechless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And said by on-screen and off-screen neuroscientist and science consultant Mayim Bialik:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So says your prefrontal cortex. But meanwhile, the limbic system of&#xA;  your brain is calculating that if another woman is attracted to&#xA;  Leonard, it must be because he’s desirable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It implies that the brain is composed of three parts, with vast differences in development, can overpower each other and process stimuli independently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What exactly is the reptile brain and do modern theories prove such a concept?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2587" LastEditorUserId="2587" LastEditDate="2013-09-29T08:35:09.987" LastActivityDate="2013-10-07T15:32:34.093" Title="what is the reptile brain?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4686" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-28T10:00:36.297" Score="4" ViewCount="463" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that hunger, whether short-lived or prolonged, causes physiological changes in our bodies. These may have psychological effects too as brain functions are slowed down and can have an impact on psychological processes. In fact, long-term memory formation can be enhanced by mild food-deprivation (Hirano et al, 2013). If hunger influences brain function, then it may have an effect on our emotional states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Therefore, if one is hungry (mild food deprivation), is one more likely to exhibit anger generally more so than if one did not experience the hunger?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any studies demonstrating angry responses positive influenced by hunger in people compared to responses by people who were not hungry?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hirano, Y., Masuda, T., Naganos, S., Matsuno, M., Ueno, K., Miyashita, J.H. &amp;amp; Saitoe, M. (2013). Fasting launches CRTC to facilitate long-term memory formation in drosophila. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 339(6118), 443-446 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastActivityDate="2013-09-28T11:01:41.737" Title="Can short-term hunger influence anger?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4687" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4686" CreationDate="2013-09-28T11:01:41.737" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;yes, hunger increase philogeneticaly older brain activity and supress prefrontal cortex...&#xA;so it could be anger or some other negative affect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763402000076&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763402000076&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/21/14/5304.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/21/14/5304.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/126/6/890/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/126/6/890/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-09-28T11:01:41.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4688" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-28T13:02:46.700" Score="4" ViewCount="2348" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Context&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have just been watching a documentary about survivors of the Japanese earthquake and tsunami of March 2011.  Specifically the interviews with ordinary residents of the towns affected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing came through time and again was the notion that was best stated by a friend of mine*- a volunteer firefighter on duty in one of the affected towns on the day of the tsunami:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;what gives me the right to survive, when so many others died?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, this doesn't just occur in Japan, it seems to happen a lot, where people seem to feel guilty to have survived and feel a sense of responsibility for those who perished.  What is the psychological basis behind this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that have addressed this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Side notes&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I lived in Japan for 4 years and have many friends from the affected area, this friend of mine was and is still inconsolable that he, in his own mind, could not save more people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-07T05:10:32.100" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T16:42:34.090" Title="What is the psychological basis of &quot;survivor's guilt&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4689" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4692" CreationDate="2013-09-28T21:37:58.890" Score="2" ViewCount="2291" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say that there is a person. This person has a lot of good thoughts about themselves. Suppose this person never revealed these thoughts to anyone, such as &quot;I'm better than you&quot; in any manner of sort. But this person also happened to contribute to general society in some form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would it be a contradiction, then, to say this person is awful and immoral? Generally, narcissism is looked down upon, but here it seems to hold an evolutionary advantage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3451" LastActivityDate="2013-09-29T11:19:38.833" Title="Why is egocentrism bad?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4690" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4658" CreationDate="2013-09-28T22:04:28.923" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can love ever be without expectation of benefit? It would seem that the actual &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youramazingbrain.org/lovesex/sciencelove.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;experience of love&lt;/a&gt;, itself has a reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://source.southuniversity.edu/the-psychology-behind-love-and-romance-70700.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;According&lt;/a&gt; to licensed psychologist Dr. Rachel Needle, specific chemical substances such as oxytocin, phenethylamine, and dopamine, have been found to play a role in human experiences and behaviors that are associated with love. They function similar to amphetamine, making us alert, excited, and wanting to bond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is less of an answer, and more an expansion on the notion of altruism and human motivation. This question deals with the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4246/3543&quot;&gt;morality&lt;/a&gt;, and embraces many concepts, including the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.darwins-theory-of-evolution.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Darwinian&lt;/a&gt; notion of survival of the fittest. (ie finding a suitable mate)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A superficial glance at this would suggest that any human interaction is based on fulfilling our needs, as a species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't believe there is a definitive answer to this question. This question, crosses into philosophical realms, in defining love and the true nature of mankind, as a creature. The concept that  the individual seeks to benefit from a &quot;relationship&quot; when they love another person, also addresses the entire notion, of whether, as a species, we are motivated by any other than self interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can love exist in a seeming vacuum, ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nothing in the realm of humanity truly occurs within a vacuum. People's feelings, translate into actions, which cause ripples. (See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripple_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ripple effect&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;butterfly effect&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;causality&lt;/a&gt;; as an indicator of my reasons for making this statement. It is more of a sociological discussion and so I won't go into it further).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... with the realization that the beloved does not have the power to benefit you in any way, or worse, has no intention of ever benefiting you in any way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I do believe that many would say this is the definition of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditional_love&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;unconditional love&lt;/a&gt;. Which is where this becomes a philosophical debate over the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4286/psychologically-how-does-volunteer-work-help-the-volunteer/4290#4290&quot;&gt;altruism&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;More to the point, you expect that your appreciation of someone will help generate an appreciation of you by that person, with your other qualities doing the rest. ...//... this might be the beginning of love.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The motivations behind attraction are complex. Yes, there is the instinct to find a partner and within this, there would be an expectation of benefit.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You no longer have any reasonable expectation of benefiting from whatever desirable qualities this person may have. Does your potential love now turn into hate, or at least jealousy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How people manage perceived &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rejection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rejection&lt;/a&gt; is a question on it's own. For some people, yes, unrequited love can turn into a poison, many move on and become indifferent.  This reaction, may have less to do with the concept of the loss of potential benefits from this person, than the complex nature of human relationships and the effects of rejection.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But the fact is that the parent-child relationship is bound by real ties; each person possesses roughly half of the other's genes. That would probably create a strong expectation that whatever benefits the other person produces in life will accrue to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This again brings us back to the notion of our behaviour as a species. To a degree it is self interested to protect one's gene pool.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to the attraction style of individuals, and whether they form patterns of seeking unavailable or unobtainable prospective partners, is another discussion in itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-09-28T22:04:28.923" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4692" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4689" CreationDate="2013-09-29T11:19:38.833" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like a few distinctions are relevant here. First there is a distinction between morality and evolutionary adaptiveness. Overt displays of arrogance are often considered a character flaw and immoral. Whether being arrogant is beneficial from an evolutionary perspective is a very different question. Thus, it would not be a contradiction to say that something is both immoral and adaptive. At least it would not be a contradiction unless your morality was synonymous with whatever is evolutionarily adaptive. Similarly it is possible for someone to be immoral in some aspects of their life yet be functioning quite well and contributing something useful to society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, there are a range of constructs that you are touching on including, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfesteem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-esteem&lt;/a&gt;, arrogance, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;narcissism&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentrism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ego-cenrtricism&lt;/a&gt;. Self-esteem is generally seen as both a morally good thing and as an adaptive thing. Self-esteem is assumed to protect you from life's set backs and is often associated with more positive life behaviours. However, arrogance is different to self-esteem because arrogance is generally predicated on feeling that you are superior than someone else. Furthermore, I think that with arrogance and narcissism the assessment often extends to a deeper level, that not only does the person think they are more competent than someone else, but that they might even be a &quot;better person&quot; on some level.&#xA;Narcissism is often thought of as an unstable sense of superiority that can be threatened by others which in turn can lead to abusive behaviours by the narcissist. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentrism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ego-centricism&lt;/a&gt; is also complex in that it relates to a pre-occupation with one's own self with the concept grounded a lot in developmental processes from childhood, to adolescence, and then to adult hood of forming a better appreciation of private and public, and building a better representation of the external world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general scientific psychology does not directly concern itself with the morality of behaviour. You could apply moral principles to judge behaviour, but this would largely be a process of philosophical reasoning. By most moralities, treating others as less human than oneself would  be considered immoral. But more generally moralities differ in whether beliefs that never manifest in action are subject to moral judgement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, scientific psychology is concerned with adaptiveness. So for example, ample research supports the idea that higher self-esteem is associated with greater adaptiveness. Similarly much evolutionary psychology speaks to the balancing of self-interest with effective social functioning. Thus, it make sense that a degree of self-interest may be adaptive, but when it gets to the narcissistic end of the spectrum, I would assume that this would be more inclined to interfere with effective social and life functioning. If anything, the need to feel superior to others may even imply a sense of inferiority.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-09-29T11:19:38.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4693" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4683" CreationDate="2013-09-29T11:31:37.673" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;To touch on your broader question, as I understand getting full text publications in conferences are highly respected in computer science. In psychology and neuroscience (note I don't know so much about computational neuroscience), publishing papers in high impact journals is more respected in the field. While some conferences do have full-length papers, such publications often carry little weight. It is often tricky to even hunt down such conference proceedings. As such they are often barely part of the published research literature.  So yes, in psychology and neuroscience, you should generally submit your work to journals if you want to maximise its scientific impact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, conferences are important in psychology and the neurosciences. As with any field, conferences are an important opportunity to network, share ideas, form collaborations, learn about developments and so on. A very common strategy is to present a work in progress at a conference. This allows you to set a preliminary deadline, get some feedback, and then refine your ideas before submitting to a journal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-09-29T11:31:37.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4695" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3728" CreationDate="2013-09-29T17:41:10.113" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ac-Cent-Tchu-Ate_the_Positive&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;accentuate the positive, eliminate the negative.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; Or put another way, it's easier to portray the glass as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Is_the_glass_half_empty_or_half_full%3F&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;half full&quot; rather than &quot;half empty.&quot; &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Especially when the ratio is not 50-50, but 99- to -1. That is &quot;99 percent good&quot; sounds a lot better than &quot;1 percent bad.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above psychological factors are so powerful that they appear to outweigh the case where &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_content_of_milk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;1% fat&quot;&lt;/a&gt; is actually a desired quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2017-08-19T16:05:41.660" LastActivityDate="2017-08-19T16:05:41.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4696" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-30T01:38:22.613" Score="4" ViewCount="2169" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I'm trying to put a shoe on while standing with one leg, it's easier to maintain balance while staring at a single point (e.g., on the ground).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why does staring at a single point make it easier to balance on one leg?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T12:59:01.430" Title="Why does staring at a single point make it easier to balance on one leg?" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;vestibular-system&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4697" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-09-30T10:12:49.123" Score="3" ViewCount="5726" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between having a crush on someone and loving someone?&#xA;What is the psychological basis of this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3597" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-10-01T02:05:11.753" LastActivityDate="2015-07-03T00:45:30.760" Title="What is the difference between having a crush on someone and loving someone?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4698" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4697" CreationDate="2013-10-01T02:03:51.263" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may find Sternberg's triangular theory of love as useful framework for distinguishing different types of love. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular_theory_of_love&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Quoting wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, the theory describes types of love in terms of three dimensions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intimacy&lt;/strong&gt; – Which encompasses feelings of attachment, closeness, connectedness, and bondedness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Passion&lt;/strong&gt; – Which encompasses drives connected to both limerence and sexual attraction.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Commitment&lt;/strong&gt; – Which encompasses, in the short term, the decision to remain with another, and in the long term, plans made with that other.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using this framework, &quot;loving someone&quot; is the general term, and &quot;having a crush&quot; would be a more specific variant. So perhaps a crush could be conceptualised more in terms of passion and less in terms of long term intimacy and commitment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, you could just look at definitional concepts of a crush. For example, the term &quot;crush&quot; is commonly used in contexts where feelings are not reciprocated. I associate it with younger people (or when seen in older adults, a youthful approach to love). A crush often implies a short term quality, such that the feelings may change from one month to the next.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-10-01T02:03:51.263" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4699" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4683" CreationDate="2013-10-01T13:03:41.737" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not know of any computational neuroscience conference with proceedings that is always held in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Neural information processing systems (NIPS) was held in Europe only once recently, but back in US. (it was in Spain on 2011)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;International joint conference on neural networks (IJCNN) has minor section on computational neuroscience but it's mostly held in the states.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;International conference in acoustics, speech and signal Processing  (ICASSP) sometimes has computational neuroscience related topics, but it's very very minor. It'll be in Italy next year.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;European Symposium on Artificial Neural Networks, Computational Intelligence and Machine Learning (ESANN) seems to have proceedings, but I'm not sure. I have never been to one.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bernstein Conference and CNS are good conferences but they don't have proceedings, I believe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastEditorUserId="301" LastEditDate="2013-10-09T14:59:24.737" LastActivityDate="2013-10-09T14:59:24.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4701" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4515" CreationDate="2013-10-02T04:05:04.457" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sociologists King and Bearman have been looking into this (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/content/38/5/1224.full&quot;&gt;King &amp;amp; Bearman, 2009a&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/content/38/5/1243.full&quot;&gt;King &amp;amp; Bearman, 2009b&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3086778/&quot;&gt;King &amp;amp; Bearman, 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2724463/&quot;&gt;King et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;). They estimate that some of the increases in ASD identification are due to the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;25% attributed to diagnostic accretion - particularly children with mental retardation now being concurrently diagnosed with ASD.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;15% attributed to improved awareness of ASD.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;10% attributed to the increase in the age of mothers choosing to have children.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;4% to geographic clustering - that is, families might move to an area where services are available, leading to increased diagnoses in specific areas.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This leaves a significant proportion of the increase in ASD identification unexplained, and in need of further investigations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3590" LastActivityDate="2013-10-02T04:05:04.457" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4702" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-02T05:30:46.623" Score="3" ViewCount="438" Body="&lt;p&gt;How has psychological theory categorised the different types of love?&#xA;What taxonomies of love are most accepted or useful in psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I went through &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular_theory_of_love&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Triangular theory of love.&lt;/a&gt; Are there any other theories like this out there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2305" LastEditorUserId="2305" LastEditDate="2013-10-03T04:51:01.850" LastActivityDate="2018-08-25T08:12:50.317" Title="How has psychology categorised different types of love?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4703" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-02T07:20:58.423" Score="3" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that muscle tension and heart rate goes up as we get stressed, but what if in normal conditions some have a lower heart rate and muscle tension while others higher?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this say something about brain configuration? Temperament maybe? Do sanguine people have lower such stats than say choleric people? I have seen that similar people have same stats, in this case high stats people are always static characters (they don't change easily), have strong personalities, and are workaholics... etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am pretty sure there's a study on this, I was wondering if anyone has any idea as to where to find it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3624" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-10-02T07:55:49.647" LastActivityDate="2013-10-02T07:55:49.647" Title="Muscle tone and default heart rate - psychological conclusions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4704" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-02T19:31:02.703" Score="2" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What causes habitual eating of junk food?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can one get out of the habit of eating junk food?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3628" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-10-08T06:20:57.087" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T18:42:18.620" Title="How to get out of the habit of eating junk food?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4705" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4675" CreationDate="2013-10-02T19:57:28.367" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;code&gt;size&lt;/code&gt; parameter in your code simply means the size of the patch, i. e. the interval in x and y over which you sample your Gabor function.  What you are thinking of is the &lt;em&gt;support&lt;/em&gt; of the function, i. e. the interval where it is noticeably different from 0. This is determined by the &lt;code&gt;sigma&lt;/code&gt; parameter, which is the bandwidth of the Gaussian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if you just increase &lt;code&gt;size&lt;/code&gt;, you will get a bigger image back, but the area where you can see the ripples will stay the same.  If you increase &lt;code&gt;sigma&lt;/code&gt;, the area with the ripples will get larger, and then you may have to increase &lt;code&gt;size&lt;/code&gt; as well to see all of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, IMHO, the right place to ask this question is on &lt;a href=&quot;https://dsp.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;dsp.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:47:30.073" LastActivityDate="2013-10-02T19:57:28.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4706" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-02T22:18:20.660" Score="-1" ViewCount="1350" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose it is possible to travel back in time. If Bob traveled back in time, wouldn't he lose the memory of what happened since his neurons are also traveling back in time? In other words, traveling back in time would feel like the present moment. Consider this thought experiment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob eats pizza at 12 PM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob plays tennis at 2 PM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob travels back in time to 12 PM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would Bob lose the memory of him playing tennis at 2 PM and essentially treat 12 PM as an ordinary experience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3631" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-10-02T23:12:49.017" LastActivityDate="2013-10-03T14:43:23.370" Title="If time travel were possible, would travelling back in time result in memory loss?" Tags="&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2013-10-03T16:24:44.170" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4707" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4706" CreationDate="2013-10-03T00:20:25.573" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer presumably depends on how you conceptualise the experience of the time traveller relative to the time travel. In most movies the world and most other people in the world are just restored to the original time, but the time traveller is somehow immune to such effects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this version of time travel to be true and consistent with neuroscientific theories of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mind-body relationship&lt;/a&gt;, then presumably the brain of the time traveller is not altered by time travel, or at least is not altered in such a way to restore the brain to the state it was in at the time of return. Thus, &lt;strong&gt;memories of the future would be retained when going back in time&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, if the mind of the time traveller was restored to the returned time, then this could result in non-existence if you travelled back further than when you were born. It would also seem inconsistent with the possibility of going back in time but being in the same location that you initiated the time travel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;You might also wish to see what answers you get on &lt;a href=&quot;https://scifi.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;https://scifi.stackexchange.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:43:40.813" LastActivityDate="2013-10-03T00:32:16.807" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4708" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4706" CreationDate="2013-10-03T00:38:12.197" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a tricky topic and my answer will be clearly speculative. I will say that this is also largely a matter about metaphysical allowances and involves personal identity implications. Assuming that time travel is physically possible, we need to make assumptions around how time is interpreted within the time travel journey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scenario 1: Time travel based on external time and fatalism&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lewis (1976) distinguishes between two interpretations of time, i.e. &lt;em&gt;personal&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;external&lt;/em&gt; time:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Instead I reply by distinguishing time itself, external time as I&#xA;  shall also call it, from the personal time of a particular time&#xA;  traveler: roughly, that which is measured by his wristwatch. His&#xA;  journey takes an hour of his personal time, let us say; his wristwatch&#xA;  reads an hour later at arrival than at departure. But the arrival is&#xA;  more than an hour after the departure in external time, if he travels&#xA;  toward the future; or the arrival is before the departure in external&#xA;  time (or less than an hour after), if he travels toward the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Should Bob decide to travel back to 12 PM relative to &lt;em&gt;external time&lt;/em&gt;, we can speculate implications on his continuity of personal identity. Le Poidevin (2005) elaborates on discontinuous movement through time:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... it seems that discontinuous movement is possible: one can move&#xA;  from A to B without occupying places in between.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, it seems probable that Bob could lose his memory of playing tennis at 2 PM if discontinuous movement is allowed. Based on external time, he is in fact moving back 2 hours, however, implied is the suggestion that he won't be psychologically continuous and thus, won't remember that experience. Whether he will treat 12 PM as an ordinary experience or a completely new experience depends on how we interpret causal relations between past and present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fatalism suggests that we are unable to deliberate about the future or change it (Taylor, 1962). It is logically and physically impossible to change any events preceding the time travel point. From a fatalist viewpoint, Bob would experience all those events from A to B as they had occurred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scenario 2: Time travel based on personal time&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other scenario presupposes that time travel is continuous from the time traveller's &lt;em&gt;personal time&lt;/em&gt; in which the person is psychologically continuous - there is no disconnect between the stages of the psychological and physical continuum when travelling time. If so, it may be possible for Bob to travel back to 12 PM, re-experience eating the pizza while his memory of playing tennis remain intact. Although time travel isn't physically possible, we can still project ourselves backwards in time and recall events (Suddendorf &amp;amp; Corballis, 2007). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since this scenario doesn't sever the continuity of Bob's personal identity, it seems probable that he would still remember the experience of playing tennis at 2 PM while able to freely experience new events (given that fatalism is rejected) thereafter and the mere possibilities that follow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lewis, D. (1976). The paradoxes of time travel. American&#xA;Philosophical Quarterly, 13(2), 145-152&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Le Poidevin, R. (2005). The Cheshire Cat problem and other spatial obstacles to backwards time travel. The Monist, 88(3), 336-352&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Suddendorf, T. &amp;amp; Corballis, M.C. (2007). The evolution of foresight: What is&#xA;mental time travel, and is it unique to&#xA;humans? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 30, 229-351&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastActivityDate="2013-10-03T00:38:12.197" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4709" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4630" CreationDate="2013-10-03T02:07:45.383" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;No takers so I've decided to do some research and theorise if there are any conflicts between these two therapy modalities. Drawing on research by Hofmann &amp;amp; Asmundson (2008), three distinct differences are identified between Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The role of cognitions.&lt;/strong&gt; &quot;CBT helps patients to identify, challenge, and&#xA;  re-evaluate these rigid rules and adopt a more relaxed and satisfying&#xA;  system of values in order to enhance overall life satisfaction.&#xA;  Instead, ACT subsumes cognitions under the more general term behavior&#xA;  as it is used in behavior analysis, namely “as a term for all forms of&#xA;  psychological activity, both public and private, including cognition”&#xA;  (Hayes et al., 2006, p. 2). In essence, the word cognition has a&#xA;  different meaning in ACT than in CBT; it is a thought process in CBT&#xA;  and a private behavior in ACT.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The role of emotions.&lt;/strong&gt; &quot;CBT and ACT target different stages in the emotion-generative process: CBT promotes adaptive antecedent-focused&#xA;  emotion regulation strategies, whereas ACT counter-acts maladaptive&#xA;  response-focused emotion regulation strategies. The cognitive&#xA;  restructuring techniques used in CBT are in line with the&#xA;  antecedent-focused emotion regulation strategies, providing skills&#xA;  that are often effective in reducing emotional distress in the long&#xA;  term. Acceptance and mindfulness-based strategies counter suppression&#xA;  and, thereby, alleviate emotional distress.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Philosophical foundation.&lt;/strong&gt; ACT is based on functional contextualism,&#xA;  which has been proposed as the philosophical basis for behavior&#xA;  analysis to emphasize the functional relations between behavior and&#xA;  environmental events ... CBT is not directly linked to a particular&#xA;  philosophy. The philosophical foundation most closely associated with&#xA;  CBT is critical rationalism, an epistemological philosophy (Popper,&#xA;  1959) that shares its philosophical roots with the natural sciences.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Potential conflicts&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are theorised based on the above differences between CBT and ACT:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Unclear criteria for the suitability of exercises.&lt;/strong&gt; Since CBT and ACT are clearly disparate  therapy modalities, there is no universal guide on when and how to adopt therapeutic exercises from either CBT or ACT in combination or separately. The decision to use certain exercises is influenced highly by the therapist's subjective judgment and past experiences.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Unknown effects of combining CBT and ACT.&lt;/strong&gt; As far as I know, there are no studies on the effects of traditional exercises such as cognitive restructuring (CBT) and mindfulness practice (ACT) when combined together on specific mental illnesses. &lt;em&gt;Prima facie&lt;/em&gt;, the former involves deliberate attempt to modify cognitions and the latter involves a systematic process of observing non-judgmentally cognitions. It is difficult to see no conflict without empirical counter-evidence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Potential negating effects.&lt;/strong&gt; In ACT, Cognitive Defusion involves the process of  distancing or separating oneselves metaphorically from their thoughts (Moffitt et al., 2012). If a client initially uses cognitive restructuring techniques to alleviate distress from their mental illness and this becomes conditioned - using cognitive defusion subsequently after that could negate the positive effects of the previous CBT-based technique.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hofmann, S.G. &amp;amp; Asmundson, G.J.G. (2008). Acceptance and mindfulness-based therapy: New wave or old hat? Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 1-16&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moffitt, R., Brinkworth, G., Noakes, M. &amp;amp; Mohr, P. (2012). A&#xA;comparison of cognitive restructuring and cognitive defusion as&#xA;strategies for resisting a craved food. Psychology &amp;amp; Health, 27(2),&#xA;74-90&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastActivityDate="2013-10-03T02:07:45.383" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4710" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4704" CreationDate="2013-10-03T03:30:20.660" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Paul McKenna would be jumping on this question had it been a self-help question :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the causes/factors in habitual eating and strategies to combat habitual eating are described below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Causes and factors of habitual eating&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Excessive hunger may precipitate an episode of binge eating compared to average hunger levels (Haedt-Matt &amp;amp; Keel, 2011).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Negative moods, an immediate break-down of emotion and impulse regulation attempts can contribute to episodes of binge eating in Binge Eating Disorders (BED) (Munsch et al., 2012). Binge-eating behaviours can thus arise from negative moods as a substitution for positive strategies to alleviate those negative moods.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Depressive symptoms can predict the onset of overeacting and binge eating (Skinner et al., 2012). Similar to point two, these behaviours are a form of maladaptive coping mechanisms against negative affects.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Strategies to combat habitual eating&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cognitive Restructuring&lt;/em&gt; (CR) - Cognitive restructuring involves a problem-solving methodology where an individual identifies the maladaptive cognitions that are causing the unhelpful behaviour (Moffitt et al., 2012). This consists of rationalising and challenging disruptive thoughts that can cause the specific craving or binge eating behaviour. Moreover, it can involve the process of the replacement or modification of those disruptive thoughts into more healthy, positive thoughts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cognitive Defusion&lt;/em&gt; (CD) - Defusion from thoughts about food can improve the probability of distancing oneself from the temptation of food cravings (Moffitt et al., 2012). This involves acceptance (not passive resignation) of cravings and temptation of binge eating and build the experiential willingness to be open to these thoughts and temptations. For example, defusion would involve observing the thought associated with the craving - 'I notice I'm having the thought that I need to eat some chocolate' compared to a seemingly factual statement like 'I need to eat some chocolate'. The individual acknowledges the thought, thanks themselves and lets the thought dissipate in time.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haedt-Matt, A.A. &amp;amp; Keel, P.K. (2011). Hunger and Binge Eating: A meta-analysis of studies using ecological momentary assessment. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 44(7), 573-578&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Munsch, S., Meyer, A.H., Quartier, V. &amp;amp; Wilhelm, F.H. (2012). Binge eating in binge eating disorder: A breakdown of emotion regulatory process? Psychiatry Research, 195, 118-124&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Skinner, H.H., Haines, J., Austin, S.B. &amp;amp; Field, A.E. (2011). A prospective study of overeating, binge eating, and depressive symptoms among adolescent and young adult women. &#xA;Journal of Adolescent Health, 50, 478-483&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moffitt, R., Brinkworth, G., Noakes, M. &amp;amp; Mohr, P. (2012). A comparison of cognitive restructuring and cognitive defusion as strategies for resisting a craved food. Psychology &amp;amp; Health, 27(2), 74-90&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastEditorUserId="3581" LastEditDate="2013-10-03T03:43:30.517" LastActivityDate="2013-10-03T03:43:30.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4697" CreationDate="2013-10-03T14:15:58.563" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Adding to Jeromy's answer, where he provides definition of love I am addressing the nature of the crush vs a more adult love style.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By definition, the crush is mostly experienced within teenagers, this group of individuals has less impulse control and ability to moderate their behaviour and feelings due to brain development and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newportacademy.com/teenage-hormones-and-sexuality/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hormonal changes&lt;/a&gt;. These physiological conditions combined with the newness of sexual feelings and relationships, makes the individual less capable of managing their emotions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The teenage brain has more white matter and less developed grey matter, meaning the higher functions of reason, moderating and inhibiting extremes of behaviour and emotion are not as well developed as in a mature adult brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meaning they are rules by their limbic system. So sexual attraction or admiration would be felt intensely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast to the adult who has a more developed brain, stable hormone levels; and, usually, has experienced the teenage crush, and  had adult relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Urban Dictionary&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=crush&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Crush&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;a burning desire to be with someone who you find very attractive and extremely special.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;a painful experience, very common among middle schoolers (and high schooler's and even adults to a lesser degree) that involves being&#xA;  obsessed with a member of the opposite sex (or the same sex, if u&#xA;  prefer), being attracted to them physically (most common), or&#xA;  emotionally- also called 'puppy love'&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Free Dictionary  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/crush&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;crush&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Informal&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  a. A usually temporary infatuation.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  b. One who is the&#xA;  object of such an infatuation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This wikipedia on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_basis_of_love&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biological basis of love&lt;/a&gt; explores how the state that we define as love is also based within the limbic system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4326/studies-linking-brain-chemistry-to-sexual-infidelity&quot;&gt;Studies linking brain chemistry to sexual infidelity&lt;/a&gt; explores the biochemical aspects of sexual attraction and fidelity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/apr07/teenage.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;That teenage feeling&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Harvard researchers may have found biological clues to quirky adolescent behavior.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;By Erika Packard&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-10-03T14:15:58.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4712" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4706" CreationDate="2013-10-03T14:37:35.513" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;An analogy would be, if the person ate lunch at &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob eats pizza at 12 PM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob shaves off moustache at 12.30 PM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob plays tennis at 2 PM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob travels back in time to 12 PM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would Bob have his moustache back? If not, then he would retain his memory. As the changes are comparable. Both physical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As memory requires &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LTP&lt;/a&gt; of the brain, which means there are physical changes to the brain, one would assume that the act of time travel, would not alter the person's brain chemistry (their rationality perhaps). As the person's physical body would be transported in space and time, not transmuted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b006q2x0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Doctor Who&lt;/a&gt; fan, during the doctor's travels, he has full memory of his previous experiences (unless there is &lt;a href=&quot;https://scifi.stackexchange.com/questions/33951/in-the-rings-of-akhaten-why-was-the-doctor-unaffected-by-the-reading-of-his-memo&quot;&gt;another reason&lt;/a&gt;, not pertaining to the time travel itself, that has caused him to not recall who is is).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions would be the following:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob eats pizza at 12 PM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob plays tennis at 2 PM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob travels back in time to 12 PM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychotic&lt;/a&gt; illness is Bob most likely to have?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:43:40.813" LastActivityDate="2013-10-03T14:43:23.370" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4713" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4696" CreationDate="2013-10-03T17:45:18.333" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This answer is going to be pure speculation as I don't have any references handy, but I would argue that fixing gaze on a single spot in the world provides three separate benefits for balance. All of these benefits are related to the fact that when you are not moving very much, fixating your gaze on a single spot in the external world also tends to &quot;lock&quot; the head, neck, and trunk into a single pose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;This locking is useful because the head -- and thus the vestibular canals -- are essentially locked onto the position and orientation of the hips. When the hips move (e.g., because the leg under them wobbles), the vestibular system's movement is a direct reflection of that movement and doesn't have to be dynamically translated out of a moving, head-centered reference frame.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, with the head and gaze fixed on the external world, any motion in the hips or legs will translate directly to some sort of optic flow in the visual field. As with the vestibular system, this optic flow does not need to be dynamically translated into a separate reference frame as long as the head is fixed relative to the body.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I would argue that by locking down the trunk, neck, and head, more &quot;bandwidth&quot; (whatever that means) would be available in the motor system to provide control for the leg, hip, and trunk muscles. If the head and neck needed to be controlled simultaneously with the lower body, the overall control task would become more difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my argument here essentially boils down to the idea that by locking down the head and neck, fewer dynamic translations between reference frames are needed to compute the direction and magnitude of the control signals for maintaining balance. As a practical demonstration of this effect, imagine (or try, if you have lots of cushions around you) standing on one leg while shaking your head back and forth!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This argument breaks down if you imagine turning your head upward to watch a fixed spot on the ceiling while tying your shoe ; probably it would be harder to maintain balance in such a pose, even though the head and neck are fixed. So part of the maintenance of balance also seems to be having some sort of &quot;canonical&quot; or &quot;easy&quot; pose for your body to control, so not just any head-locked pose will do. But I think the fixed-head argument is a useful way to think about the issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3388" LastEditorUserId="3388" LastEditDate="2013-10-06T21:06:39.073" LastActivityDate="2013-10-06T21:06:39.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4714" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4740" CreationDate="2013-10-03T21:54:12.027" Score="4" ViewCount="509" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any research showing that our visual channel takes precedence over the auditory channel (or vice versa) if there is some dissonance between them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Say a person driving a car approaches at fast speed a road split bang in the middle, the person next to her shouts &amp;quot;Right!!!&amp;quot; but raises his arm and clearly pointing to the left.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Being shown the word 'Red' (coloured red) but simultaneously hearing the word 'Blue', will subjects press the red or the blue button?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KOhAL.png&quot; alt=&quot;An illustration showing a person pointing to the left but shouting right&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T08:18:16.273" Title="Sensory dissonance: Will the visual or auditory channel win?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4715" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-04T10:06:14.623" Score="1" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I was reading about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Object_substitution_masking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;object substitution masking&lt;/a&gt;, the author mentioned that sometimes we experience &quot;erasure&quot; of masked object. I sometimes have this kind of experience myself. It looks like the object was there but then became erased by the mask. How this effect is called properly and what creates such experience? I'll be grateful for the links to relevant papers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="448" LastActivityDate="2013-10-04T10:06:14.623" Title="What creates the experience of &quot;erasure&quot; in visual perception?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4716" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4720" CreationDate="2013-10-04T12:33:53.427" Score="2" ViewCount="2053" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can rage be considered a subset of anger or possibly a separate neurobiological process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the neurobiological, evolutionary and psychological differences between anger and rage? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In more detail an examination of the similarities and differences between anger and rage, their roles and purposes for us as a species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what is the difference in neurochemistry   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what are the evolutionary advantages of these states. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;how do these two neurochemical processes assist us psychologically with regard to survival of our species &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An examination of misplaced anger or rage, as possibly less useful states, although perhaps not entirely redundant, and possible pathology arising from this may or may not be included within answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-10-05T05:01:13.343" Title="Differences between anger and rage" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4717" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-04T13:29:09.270" Score="4" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many emotional and behavioral dysfunctions, such as bad decision-making (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awg177&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awg177&lt;/a&gt;), appear to be symptoms of impaired brain functioning. Conversely, stimulating brain function may alleviate these dysfunctions. For example, electric stimulation of the vagus nerve decreases depression (&lt;a href=&quot;http://news.wustl.edu/news/pages/25384.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can brain function be improved through neuroelectrical, neurochemical and/or neurosurgical stimulation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in general answers as well as in answers specifically addressing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the ventromedial prefrontal cortex,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the amygdala, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the insular cortex,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which, according to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Somatic Marker Hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;, might make up the mechanism behind emotional intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2014-12-15T13:16:14.913" LastActivityDate="2014-12-15T13:16:14.913" Title="How to enhance brain functioning through neurological stimulation?" Tags="&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2014-12-17T15:11:35.120" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4718" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-04T20:42:26.660" Score="10" ViewCount="2301" Body="&lt;p&gt;John C. Lilly performed the seminal experiment about sensory deprivation. The author isolated people in a sensory deprivation tank and they reported having experienced hallucinations.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Richard Feyman reported about his own experiences with isolation tanks in the collection of essays Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am curious about the reason of this effect. If we are deprived of our senses (being perfectly sane and without drugs), why do we start to hallucinate? What happens inside our brains? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3354" LastActivityDate="2017-11-25T14:17:46.967" Title="Why does sensory deprivation cause hallucinations?" Tags="&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4719" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4718" CreationDate="2013-10-04T22:05:05.657" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/2/330.full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Brain’s Voices: Comparing Nonclinical Auditory Hallucinations and Imagery&lt;/a&gt; (Linden et al. 2011):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Spontaneous activation of sensory areas (Hunter et al. 2006) has been described in cases of sensory deprivation or during epileptic seizures. Local spontaneous activity may underlie certain types of hallucinations, for example, visual hallucinations of Charles Bonnet syndrome (Ffytche 2005) and possibly imagery of music without lyrics (Kraemer et al. 2005). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/103/1/189.full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural activity in speech-sensitive auditory cortex during silence&lt;/a&gt; (Hunter et al. 2006) states that the auditory cortex has a propensity to spontaneously “activate” during silence.  Specifically, from their study&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;suggest that, within auditory regions, endogenous activity is modulated by anterior cingulate cortex, resulting in spontaneous activation during silence. Hence, an aspect of the brain's “default mode” resembles a (preprepared) substrate for the development of auditory hallucinations. These observations may help explain why such hallucinations are ubiquitous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://repository.ubn.kun.nl/bitstream/2066/23347/1/23347___.PDF&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual hallucinations in psychologically normal people: Charles Bonnet syndrome&lt;/a&gt; (Teunisse et al. 1996), states that this syndrome, where healthy people can experience visual hallucinations undergoing sensor deprivation, is more common than first realised, their study suggests that under conditions of sensory-deprivation, the slightest amount of arousal triggered the hallucinations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is discussed further in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3319344/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spontaneous and driven cortical activity: implications for computation&lt;/a&gt; (Ringach, 2009), where their study suggests&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the lack of a stimulus generates a weak feedforward drive and the cortical state is determined largely by its own intrinsic dynamics and top-down expectations. This explains why spontaneous activity is not noise. Further, if the attractor has been shaped (via evolution or developmental rules) to represent the manifold of natural signals, it is easy to see how sensory deprivation or weak input can lead to “hallucinations” during deprivation &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additional references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ffytche D, Visual hallucinations and the Charles Bonnet syndrome. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2005;7:168-179. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kraemer D, &#xA;Macrae C, &#xA;Green A, &#xA;Kelley W&#xA;. Musical imagery: sound of silence activates auditory cortex. Nature 2005;434:158.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3554" LastActivityDate="2013-10-04T22:05:05.657" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4720" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4716" CreationDate="2013-10-05T04:56:12.993" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The American Psychological Association appears to view this emotion as a continuum of intensity, whith &lt;em&gt;annoyance&lt;/em&gt; at the mild and &lt;em&gt;rage&lt;/em&gt; at the extreme end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/topics/anger/control.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/topics/anger/control.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Excessive anger and rage might be caused by suppressing milder forms of anger until this repression becomes unbearable and &quot;the pot cooks over&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/em&gt; calls anger a &quot;corrosive emotion&quot;: it eats away at you, if you don't express it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/anger&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/anger&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The continuum and boiling-over idea of anger are nicely summed up in this paragraph of another &lt;em&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/em&gt; article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Irritation, frustration, anger, rage: these are all forms of anger. And they are feelings first. But when a person’s rage becomes behavior even before thought has a chance to plug in, it is usually because of one of two reasons:  1) it’s been repressed for a long time, and when someone drops the proverbial straw, it explodes; 2) it works for manipulative purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/traversing-the-inner-terrain/201205/is-rage-choice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/traversing-the-inner-terrain/201205/is-rage-choice&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-10-05T05:01:13.343" LastActivityDate="2013-10-05T05:01:13.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4685" CreationDate="2013-10-05T13:41:27.453" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the treatment of the “Reptile Brain's” power given by Big Bang really sells it short. Your question immediately brought to my mind a 2009 profile by the &lt;em&gt;Washington Post's&lt;/em&gt; Gene Weingarten of parents who leave their children in the car to die, all by accident.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a long and difficult read, and it took me quite some time to dig it up again since I had forgotten the publication, the author, and the title: but it comes highly recommended from me (&lt;a href=&quot;http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2009-03-08/news/36840402_1_courtroom-tissue-class-trip&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;read “Fatal Distraction” on washingtonpost.com&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first page that speaks directly to your question is &lt;a href=&quot;http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2009-03-08/news/36840402_1_courtroom-tissue-class-trip/4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt;, making reference to the basal ganglia in the brain. A brief excerpt:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ordinarily, says [University of South Florida Cognitive Neuroscience Professor David] Diamond, this delegation of duty [between the so-called reptile brain and higher-order brain function] “works beautifully, like a symphony. But sometimes, it turns into the '1812 Overture.' The cannons take over and overwhelm.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a risk of doing a disservice by gross oversimplification of a fascinating and complex topic: the main thrust of the article's insight into cognition is that in rare circumstances, intelligent, emotionally healthy, and responsible parents may find themselves in circumstances where their basal ganglia take over their brain to such a great extent that they are capable of forgetting that their own children exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if the reptile brain has such potential for destruction, albeit rarely to such a great extent, what is its purpose? Clearly in the majority of cases its functioning is very beautiful. When you walk you do not have to think analytically and poetically about every step you take. Your basal ganglia take care of this for you. This is Sagan's “ritual” reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you need an emotional reason to accept that the reptile brain is real, read the Washington Post article. It'll stick with you. If you have more questions about the modern theories underpinning its machanisms, Dr. Diamond is not hard to get a hold of—he lists his contact information &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.usf.edu/faculty/diamond/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3636" LastActivityDate="2013-10-05T13:41:27.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4722" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4685" CreationDate="2013-10-05T14:41:00.047" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The reptilian brain is the oldest part of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triune_brain&quot;&gt;triune brain&lt;/a&gt;. And the triune brain is a unified account of brain function and brain evolution. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The story goes like this. The brain can be divided into three sections:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The reptilian brain, named so because it encompasses structures that did not change much from reptile to man. It includes the basal ganglia and cerebellum, and controls pretty much everything that a reptile can do: breathing, walking, appetite, sensation, simple motor reactions to the environment, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The mammalian brain (sometimes called paleomammalian), which encompasses structures that are unique to mammals but similar across mammalian species. These structures belong to the limbic system and are dedicated to processing emotion and memory. Anything your cat can do, should be either in the reptilian or the mammalian brain. Anything it can't do, is in the third part of the triune brain.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The neocortex, found in primates, which is involved in higher order functions such as language.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, this is an oversimplification both structurally and functionally. For example, birds don't fit this theory very well because they don't have much of a limbic system, but do have some impressive problem solving skills. And functionally, these functions are interrelated in man, who can, for example, experience moral disgust which bridges higher-order and emotional functions. This is why the triune brain is the kind of thing you would find in an undergraduate psychology textbook, but it's not the kind of thing neuroscientists talk about among themselves.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2013-10-06T15:34:18.120" LastActivityDate="2013-10-06T15:34:18.120" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4723" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-06T06:45:39.750" Score="5" ViewCount="2369" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read that the body attempts to match its heart-rate with the tempo of music being listened to.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_and_emotion#Juslin_.26_V.C3.A4stfj.C3.A4ll.27s_BRECVEM_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rhythmic Entrainment&lt;/a&gt;: 'This refers to a process whereby an emotion is evoked by a piece of music because a powerful, external rhythm in the music influences some internal bodily rhythm of the listener (e.g. heart rate), such that the latter rhythm adjusts toward and eventually 'locks in' to a common periodicity. The adjusted heart rate can then spread to other components of emotion such as feeling, through proprioceptive feedback. This may produce an increased level of arousal in the listener.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3577" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-07T13:24:22.750" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T13:31:33.600" Title="Does music affect heart-rate?" Tags="&lt;audition&gt;&lt;synchronization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4724" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4771" CreationDate="2013-10-06T09:48:48.403" Score="6" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;Donald Broadbent's 1958 book &lt;em&gt;Perception and Communication&lt;/em&gt; is the oldest work I can find that makes use of this term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I wonder if perhaps someone else had used the term earlier, or if Broadbent had used the term in published work before that date.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T09:42:52.877" Title="Who first used the term 'filter' in cognitive science context?" Tags="&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4725" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4685" CreationDate="2013-10-06T14:14:45.467" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The quote by Sheldon from Big Bang Theory is misguided, as the limbic system is not part of the &amp;quot;reptilian brain&amp;quot;, it is part of the next development, the paleomammalian complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.buffalostate.edu/orgs/bcp/brainbasics/triune.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Reptilian Complex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The R-complex consists of the brain stem and the cerebellum. Its purpose is closely related to actual physical survival and&#xA;maintenance of the body. The cerebellum orchestrates movement.&#xA;Digestion, reproduction, circulation, breathing, and the execution of&#xA;the &amp;quot;fight or flight&amp;quot; response in stress are all housed in the brain&#xA;stem. Because the reptilian brain is primarily concerned with physical&#xA;survival, the behaviors it governs have much in common with the&#xA;survival behaviors of animals. It plays a crucial role in establishing&#xA;home territory, reproduction and social dominance. The overriding&#xA;characteristics of R-complex behaviors are that they are automatic,&#xA;have a ritualistic quality, and are highly resistant to change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The&#xA;Limbic System&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The limbic system, the second brain to evolve, houses the primary centers of emotion. It includes the amygdala, which is&#xA;important in the association of events with emotion, and the&#xA;hippocampus, which is active in converting information into long term&#xA;memory and in memory recall. Repeated use of specialized nerve&#xA;networks in the hippocampus enhances memory storage, so this structure&#xA;is involved in learning from both commonplace experiences and&#xA;deliberate study. However, it is not necessary to retain every bit of&#xA;information one learns. Some neuroscientists believe that the&#xA;hippocampus helps select which memories are stored, perhaps by&#xA;attaching an &amp;quot;emotion marker&amp;quot; to some events so that they are likely&#xA;to be recalled. The amygdala comes into play in situations that arouse&#xA;feelings such as fear, pity, anger, or outrage. Damage to the amygdala&#xA;can abolish an emotion-charged memory. Because the limbic system links&#xA;emotions with behavior, it serves to inhibit the R-complex and its&#xA;preference for ritualistic, habitual ways of responding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The limbic system is also involved in primal activities related to food and sex, particularly having to do with our sense of&#xA;smell and bonding needs, and activities related to expression and&#xA;mediation of emotions and feelings, including emotions linked to&#xA;attachment. These protective, loving feelings become increasingly&#xA;complex as the limbic system and the neocortex link up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Neocortex&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also called the cerebral cortex, the neocortex constitutes five-sixths of the human brain. It is the outer portion of our brain,&#xA;and is approximately the size of a newspaper page crumpled together.&#xA;The neocortex makes language, including speech and writing possible.&#xA;It renders logical and formal operational thinking possible and allows&#xA;us to see ahead and plan for the future. The neocortex also contains&#xA;two specialized regions, one dedicated to voluntary movement and one&#xA;to processing sensory information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Triune Brain Theory is a cross-species evolutionary study with the developmental processes underlying them (I borrowed a line from &lt;sub&gt;(1)&lt;/sub&gt; to use as a definition, as I thought it summed it up well). As mentioned in other answers, it is an oversimplification and doesn't match work across all species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As opposed to the study of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10049/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Embryology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1)  &lt;a href=&quot;http://weisbeckerlab.com.au/mammalian-brain-evolution/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mammalian Brain Evolution&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Weisbecker&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Morphological Evo-Devo Group&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Neural_System_Development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural System Development&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;UNSW Embryology&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-10-07T15:32:34.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4726" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-06T15:26:34.797" Score="2" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed that many people do not use tabs even though tabs have been around in browsers for some time. I have been noticing that people either do not differentiate tabs as specific navigational elements (e.g. a web page with tabs) or do not use them even when they know what purpose they serve. A lot of people have not even heard the word &quot;tab&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are only my personal impressions so I am curious to learn if you  have noticed otherwise. Also I know a free add-on for MS Office which gives you a tabbed window. As far as I know it is not a massive success.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why do some/ most people find it hard to use tabbed navigation (e.g. in an internet browser)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an informal study (blog published, 21 participants, all Firefox users, all students or friends of the author) that shows that most (of the recruited participants) do use tabs, but about half of the participants use them only rarely (&quot;4 tabs for every 100 navigation actions&quot;): &lt;a href=&quot;http://dubroy.com/blog/how-many-tabs-do-people-use-now-with-real-data/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dubroy.com/blog/how-many-tabs-do-people-use-now-with-real-data/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the sample in this study is not very representative (Firefox users have made a concious choice regarding browser usage and are therefore more aware of browser functionality; 21 is an extremely low number for analysing common behavior) we might safely assume that other user types (those using pre-installed browsers; those not friends to a computer nerd) will use tabs even less.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;update:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a speculation just occurred to me: what if people, generally, find navigation much easier on a vertical (e.g. book contents/ web site left menu/ Win Explorer folder tree/ etc) or if not finding it easier, at least expect it there, while navigation ver a horizontal is either more difficult for some reason or unhabitual?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="2574" LastEditDate="2014-08-21T19:35:43.040" LastActivityDate="2014-08-21T19:35:43.040" Title="Why do many people not use tabbed navigation (e.g. in an internet browser)?" Tags="&lt;internet&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4727" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-06T15:32:11.527" Score="4" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have the subjective personal experience that the speed at which I can enter information in a computer through a keyboard is so slow and my thoughts &quot;run&quot; so fast, that I find it an especially frustrating experience to compose a text on a computer or do a translation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research studying the effects of computer keyboard data entry speed compared to the speed at which thinking happens (or the speed of speech, the latter measurable) or just some paper elaborating on a correlation between the speed of data input and the subjective feeling of smooth mind work? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe research with stenographers (supposed to be able to write at the speed of speech) would be a good direction? An article suggesting such correlation:  (&lt;a href=&quot;http://plover.stenoknight.com/2010/04/writing-and-coding-with-steno.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Plover, the Open Source Steno Program: Writing and Coding With Steno&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="2574" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2014-01-21T16:25:18.937" LastActivityDate="2014-01-21T16:25:18.937" Title="Can we enter data at the speed of thought?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4728" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-06T17:36:21.867" Score="1" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like very much organising information in hierarchical outlines through PIM software (also names tree outliners/ treepads/ etc). I wouldn't feel comfortable if I do not have information organised this way. I have always wondered how come MS Word does not have this functionality or at least a third-party add-on. Yet, my personal observation is that the majority of people feel completely ok without any such tool. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that people would rather use tags or they'd just pile up information without any special description and prefer a search function instead of browsing throughout their own structures. Whenever I have showed someone the glorious capabilities and beauty of a hierarchical PIM, I have never met an expected &quot;WOW effect&quot; but sheer disinterest. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research on specific inclinations people have towards organising information?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/40334/why-is-tree-representation-of-data-becoming-unpopular&quot;&gt;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/40334/why-is-tree-representation-of-data-becoming-unpopular&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="2574" LastEditDate="2020-04-28T09:26:18.110" LastActivityDate="2020-04-28T09:26:18.110" Title="predisposition towards organising information in hierarchical outlines?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="14" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T21:55:59.540" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="4729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4688" CreationDate="2013-10-07T05:09:40.313" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Survivor's Guilt as a medical condition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that have addressed this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been many studies on Survivor's Guilt, in fact Survivor's Guilt or Syndrome;  known as concentration camp syndrome or  KZ syndrome, was a recognised condition in the DSM, it has been removed and replaced as a symptom of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...where people seem to feel guilty to have survived and feel a sense of responsibility for those who perished. What is the psychological basis behind this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The concept of social guilt:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An approach to guilt as a social, rather than individual process. Survivor's guilt is borne from human beings, as a social species, as opposed to being an individual cognitive crisis. It has been demonstrated that guilt serves as a social emotional safety net; ensuring the strong protect the weaker, an important dynamic for the survival of  our species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Multiple sets of empirical research findings on guilt are reviewed to&#xA;evaluate the view that guilt should be understood as an essentially&#xA;social phenomenon that happens between people as much as it happens&#xA;inside them. Guilt appears to arise from interpersonal transactions&#xA;(including transgressions and positive inequities) and to vary&#xA;significantly with the interpersonal context. In particular, guilt&#xA;patterns appear to be strongest, most common, and most consistent in&#xA;the context of communal relationships, which are characterized by&#xA;expectations of mutual concern. Guilt serves various&#xA;relationship-enhancing functions, including motivating people to treat&#xA;partners well and avoid transgressions, minimizing inequities and&#xA;enabling less powerful partners to get their way, and redistributing&#xA;emotional distress (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Effects of being spared:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept that random as opposed to &lt;em&gt;deserved&lt;/em&gt; misfortune serves to motivate human beings to strive harder, in accord with an appreciation of their good fortune, at having been spared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This case refers to the effects of arbitrary redundancies within the workplace, but still illustrates the effects of survivor's guilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study explored the effects of layoffs on survivors. We assessed subjects' work performance as a function of whether a co-worker had been laid off and the circumstances of that layoff. Consistent with equity theory, subjects worked harder when they believed that a co-worker's dismissal was based on a random process rather than on the relative merits of their and their co-worker's prior performance. Data drawn from questionnaires lent further support to equity theory as an explanation of these results. (2)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Guilt of being spared:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some circumstances guilt may be borne in the individual being saved, at the seeming expense of another individual (this is most clearly defined in the holocaust &amp;quot;Selection Parades&amp;quot;), more subtle in the case of escaping a fire and being unable to rescue another in the process. In other cases it may stem from decisions, which resulted in the loss of a loved one, where the survivor feels the guilt of helping to change the course of that person's life, even though they would have no real knowledge that it would lead to that person's death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Exaggerated sense of responsibility:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems the survivors  over exaggeration  one's human abilities in the face of tragedy. Overlooking our human frailties and utter powerlessness in some situations. Personalising the death of another; as if they could somehow have made a diFference, coupled with the concept, of &lt;em&gt;why am I more deserving than another?&lt;/em&gt;. The relief of being saved is mixed with guilt at the loss of others and apprehension (possibly a form of dissociation) of it could have been me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disruption of the grief process:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In cases where people lose close ones, the grief process is disrupted; conflicting emotions surrounding grief can be amplified for example the relief of freedom felt when a young man's father dies and he feels he is an autonomous being; flooded by guilt at feeling this, in the face of such disaster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long term effects:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This sense of guilt can increase, rather than become ameliorated,  over time.&#xA;The psychological damage  from Survivor's Syndrome can be passed onto the next generation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The stigma of KZ-syndrome is present in a second generation in different forms: personality disturbances, emotional and/or social immaturity, social disadaptation, higher frequency of neurotic states, divorce, alcoholism, and suicide. The camp stress has left in human nature traces so painful that they cannot disappear when the generation of former prisoners is gone. (4)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(1) Guilt: An interpersonal approach.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Baumeister, Roy F.; Stillwell, Arlene M.; Heatherton, Todd F.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.243&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(2)Layoffs, Equity Theory, and Work Performance: Further Evidence of the Impact of Survivor Guilt&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Joel Brockner et al doi: 10.2307/256193&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(3) The Sense of Guilt within Holocaust Survivors&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Ruth Jaffe &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/4466613&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/4466613&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(4) The evolution of mental disturbances in the concentration camp syndrome (KZ-syndrom).&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Ryn Z&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T16:42:34.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4731" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4688" CreationDate="2013-10-07T08:35:11.717" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Psychological basis of survivor guilt&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychosocial and evolutionary perspective on survivor guilt&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Survivor guilt may be a psychological response that is associated with depression. Loss of a beloved one, which constitutes a psychosocial attachment, can precipitate a proneness towards experiencing survivor guilt. In clinical samples, the clinically depressed tend to suffer from pathogenic cognitions in which they view themselves as harmful to others are an effect of feeling guilty from surviving a beloved one's death (O'Connor et al., 2002). In that regard, we can hypothesise that survivor guilt is probably a self-protective mechanism involving self-denunciation to combat guilt about surviving a beloved one's death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tendency toward self-reproach which death invariably leaves among the&#xA;  survivors (Freud, 1987, cited in Ernest Jones, 1960)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Survivor guilt could have &lt;em&gt;evolutionary roots&lt;/em&gt; as well: survivor guilt may be a product of evolutionary pressures with living in small groups as a means to promote social organisation (O'Connor et al., 2002). The loss of an individual within these close socially-knit arrangements creates dysfunction and survivor guilt is an evolutionary means to understanding the changes experienced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Existential crises, anxiety and ambivalence&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Drawing from logotherapy, survivor guilt can be understood further from an existential point of view by referring to &lt;em&gt;existential dynamics&lt;/em&gt; (Tate et al., 2012):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mental health is based on a certain amount of tension [or existential&#xA;  dynamics], the tension between what one has already achieved and what&#xA;  one still ought to accomplish, or the gap between what one is and what&#xA;  one should become. (p. 104)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Survivor guilt may be the tension created between an individual's past experiences and future possibilities. Past experiences such as traumatic events create tension with an individual understanding his or her existence compared to future potentialities. A person narrowly escaping death may physically survive the traumatic experience but in the present moment, they experience excessive amounts of worry about why they are here and what the future holds. This cognitive dichotomy of being shameful about the past and fearful of the future can lead to survivor guilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. Studies on the psychological basis of survivor guilt&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cognitive distortions and survivor guilt&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jones and Okulate (2006) conducted a study on the relationship between PTSD and survivor guilt by administering a questionnaire to 1,131 patients from the 68 Nigerian Army Reference Hospital, Lagos, Nigeria. Of these, 194 (22.09%) met the criteria for current &#xA;PTSD. Survivor guilt was found in 336 responders (38.26%). The following explanation is given by the authors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The &#xA;  reason for the very high rate of survivor guilt may be related &#xA;  to the intra-group identification and cohesiveness that usually &#xA;  develops in combat-effective military units after several years &#xA;  of training together. Unfortunately, loss of men resulting from &#xA;  death or injury in battle is inevitable. For those who survive, &#xA;  witnessing the death of comrades is additional psychosocial &#xA;  stressor to the combat situation itself, and the survivor guilt &#xA;  that may result is understandably very distressing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Survivor guilt and chronic illness&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vamos (1997) provides cases on patients and their experiences of survivor guilt in the face of chronic illness and witnessing other people's illnesses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Miss A had visited her frequently and  had repeatedly had the&#xA;  experience of trying to bright-  en her friend by accounts of shopping&#xA;  expeditions or  other excursions, only to feel profoundly guilt-ridden&#xA;  that she could still be enjoying herself when her  friend’s life was&#xA;  so limited. Since the death, she had  been unable to weep but had&#xA;  found herself compelled  to clean both the house and herself&#xA;  repeatedly, and  had often wondered whether she should take a  ‘break’&#xA;  from dialysis&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;O’Connor, L.E., Berry, J.W., Weiss, J. &amp;amp; Gilbert, P. (2002). Guilt, fear, submission, and empathy in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 71(1), 19-27&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tate, K.A., Williams, C. &amp;amp; Harden, D. (2012). Finding purpose in pain: Using logotherapy as a method for addressing survivor guilt in first-generation college students. Journal of College Counselling, 2012, 16(1), 79-92&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Okulate, G.T. &amp;amp; Jones, O.B.E. (2006). Post-traumatic stress disorder, survivor guilt and substance use – a study of hospitalised Nigerian army veterans. South African Medical Journal, 96(2), 144-146&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vamos, M. (1997). Survivor guilt and chronic illness. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1997, 31, 592-596&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastActivityDate="2013-10-07T08:35:11.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4733" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-07T13:07:12.250" Score="3" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Stack Exchange network users are not encouraged to leave &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/help/someone-answers&quot;&gt;comments&lt;/a&gt; expressing &lt;em&gt;thanks&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Please do not add a comment on your question or on an answer to say &quot;Thank you&quot;. Comments are meant for requesting clarification, leaving constructive criticism, or adding relevant but minor additional information – not for socializing. If you want to say &quot;thank you,&quot; vote on or accept that person's answer, or simply pay it forward by providing a great answer to someone else's question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given some people are taught from a preschool age to express &lt;em&gt;thanks&lt;/em&gt; and this practice is reinforced throughout a lifetime. So coming to an online community can be difficult for some people not to express &lt;em&gt;thanks&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is happening psychologically when an individual has immense discomfort (to a point of preferring the discomfort of not complying with the wishes of an online community), that is almost compulsive in having to continue with an instilled social habit, such as expressing &lt;em&gt;thanks&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Nb To me, it could be related to cognitive-dissonance, but this doesn't seem to be the correct term.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T12:52:12.647" Title="Pathological distress caused by being discouraged to say &quot;thanks&quot; on online communities" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4734" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4723" CreationDate="2013-10-07T14:10:05.890" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Music and the autonomic nervous system:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been studies linking the effects of music on well being, by affecting heart rate and blood vessel dilation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been much research linking the effects of music on Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), which affects heart rate. The emotional nature of the music, be it restful or stressful, is linked with changes in the ANS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Music emphasis and rhythmic phrases are tracked consistently by physiological variables. Autonomic responses are synchronized with music, which might therefore convey emotions through autonomic arousal during crescendos or rhythmic phrases. (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Effects of music on brain function:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been demonstrated that music  can affect brain function through increased arousal or relaxation, depending on the tempo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Music induces an arousal effect, predominantly related to the tempo. Slow or meditative music can induce a relaxing effect; relaxation is particularly evident during a pause. Music, especially in trained subjects, may first concentrate attention during faster rhythms, then induce relaxation during pauses or slower rhythms. (2)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Effects of music on the heart&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Music tempo or style also produces responses to heart rate and blood flow; relaxing or pleasant music producing results equivalent to studies showing the positive effects of laughter on the ANS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Music, selected by study participants because it made them feel good and brought them a sense of joy, caused tissue in the inner lining of blood vessels to dilate (or expand) in order to increase blood flow. This healthy response matches what the same researchers found in a 2005 study of laughter. On the other hand, when study volunteers listened to music they perceived as stressful, their blood vessels narrowed, producing a potentially unhealthy response that reduces blood flow. (3)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Rhythmic entrainment and heartrate:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human beings are naturally disposed toward rhythmic entrainment. (4) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been some research suggesting that the body will synchronise with musical rhythm.  I say this with a disclaimer that this would need to be  music played with a regular tempo over a prolonged period, as for the heart beat to synchronise within a mathematical relationship with the music tempo, this would require stability and an absence of other external distraction for the body to achieve this state. Or better put, listening to a variety of music styles, with varying tempos, will affect the ANS, but will not create such a rhythmic coordination between the music and the ANS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;• Entrainment is the process through which periodic events, i.e.&#xA;  oscillators, become coordinated through interaction. When oscillators&#xA;  come regularly into phase or of beginning their cycles  together, way&#xA;  say that they have synchronized.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;    • Entrainment in music has been&#xA;  suggested by Juslin et al. (2010) as an emotion mechanism where the&#xA;  music causes an increase in arousal “because the powerful, external&#xA;  rhythm of the  music interacts with an internal body rhythm of the&#xA;  listener *…+, such that the latter rhythm adjusts towards and&#xA;  eventually ‘locks in’ to a common periodicity.” The adjusted body&#xA;  rhythm  then spreads through proprioceptive feedback to the&#xA;  subcomponents of emotion such as cognitive, neurophysiological,&#xA;  motivational, expressive, and subjective feelings components. (5)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(1) Dynamic Interactions Between Musical, Cardiovascular, and Cerebral Rhythms in Humans&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Luciano Bernardi, et al&lt;br&gt;&#xA;doi: 10.1161/​CIRCULATIONAHA.108.806174&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(2) Cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and respiratory changes induced by different types of music in musicians and non‐musicians: the importance of silence&lt;br&gt;&#xA;L Bernardi, C Porta, and P Sleight&lt;br&gt;&#xA;doi:  10.1136/hrt.2005.064600 &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(3) &lt;a href=&quot;http://umm.edu/news-and-events/news-releases/2008/joyful-music-may-promote-heart-health&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Music &amp;amp; Cardiovascular System&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;University of Maryland Medical Center &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(4) The ecology of entrainment: Foundations of coordinated rhythmic movement&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Jessica Phillips-Silver, C. Athena Aktipis, and Gregory A. Bryant&lt;br&gt;&#xA;doi:  10.1525/mp.2010.28.1.3 &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(5) Rhythm, entrainment and musical emotions&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Carolina Labbé &amp;amp; Didier Grandjean&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Neuroscience of Emotion and Affective Dynamics (NEAD)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Department of Psychology&lt;br&gt;&#xA;University of Geneva  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.stronginstitute.com/resources/a-look-at-rhythmic-entrainment-intervention-by-its-creator.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Answers to Sensory Challenges&lt;/a&gt;, edited by Kathleen Morris. MS CCC/SLP. 2010.(Originally published in SI Focus Magazine, Fall 2008) Article by Jeff Strong&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-10-08T13:31:33.600" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T13:31:33.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4735" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4696" CreationDate="2013-10-07T15:17:50.747" Score="4" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Vision and balance are linked&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Balance is fluid:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vision and balance are connected within the brain. Balance is not something that the brain determines, is &lt;em&gt;learned&lt;/em&gt;, &amp;quot;this way is up&amp;quot; and never revisited- like this smell = coffee, this sound = a bird; it is a continual process of biofeedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Three aspects of balance: vestibular system, vision and proprioception&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Balance&lt;/a&gt; is the result of several body systems working together: the visual system (eyes), vestibular system (ears) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;proprioception&lt;/a&gt; (the body's sense of where it is in space). Degeneration or loss of function in any of these systems can lead to balance deficits&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We use our surrounds as a frame of reference, for our internal &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_level&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;spirit level&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/em&gt;  Maintenance of an accurate &lt;em&gt;spirit level&lt;/em&gt;  involves continual measurement and feedback between the visual and vestibular systems, they are connected via the vestibulo-ocular reflex. When vision remains fixed upon an object, balance is achieved by the eyes moving to  counteract   the body's movements. These processes are interdependent, happening simultaneously, as the neurons that are stimulated within the visual system causing the neurons within the vestibular system to fire and vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or simply put; Movement  is detected by the vestibular system, and the eyes give a plane of reference, offering proprioception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It could be likened to axes on a graph, and both dimensions (vision and vestibular) are needed to plot the point of proprioception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Vestibulo-ocular reflex:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibulo-ocular_reflex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The vestibulo-ocular reflex&lt;/a&gt; (VOR) is a reflex eye movement that stabilizes images on the retina during head movement by producing an eye movement in the direction opposite to head movement, thus preserving the image on the center of the visual field. For example, when the head moves to the right, the eyes move to the left, and vice versa. Since slight head movement is present all the time, the VOR is very important for stabilizing vision: patients whose VOR is impaired find it difficult to read using print, because they cannot stabilize the eyes during small head tremors. The VOR does not depend on visual input and works even in total darkness or when the eyes are closed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Cepdl.png&quot; alt=&quot;VOR&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Image courtesy of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vestibulo-ocular_reflex_EN.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vestibulo-ocular_reflex_EN.svg&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;An integrated view of balance:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The vestibular system works with other sensorimotor systems in the body, such as the visual system and proprioceptors in muscles and joints to check and maintain the body’s position at rest or in motion. These systems enable individuals to maintain a steady focus on objects even when body position changes and to safely maneuver in the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The visual system specifically interacts with the vestibular system via the vestibular-ocular reflex, which senses head movements and generates equal and opposite eye movements to maintain image stability on the retinal fovea. The visual system is thought to provide continuous feedback about any retinal slip and the need to recalibrate the vestibulo-ocular reflex. (UC Davis Health System)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As we read and move our heads, our gaze is held steadily and we are able to continue reading uninterrupted thanks to the VOR. Given any alteration within the visual system, results in an alteration in our vestibular system and vice versa; when attempting a task that requires difficulty in maintaining balance, if the vision remains steady, as in constant upon an object, the vestibular system is able to measure (or locate)  the body's  proprioception and make adjustments to keep the vestibular system in the required plane (like the spirit level being kept level). So the effect is, we have one constant, vision and two variables; vestibular and spatial awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the fluid nature of how the brain achieves balance; if the eyes were flitting and the visual field was varying, we have three variables. Mathematically this becomes a more complex formula for the VOR to determine where the body is spatially.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, uncorrected poor vision can also cause poor balance when the eyes are closed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... visually impaired individuals and those with uncorrected refractive error — those who could benefit from glasses to achieve normal vision but don’t wear glasses — have a significantly greater risk of diminished balance with their eyes closed on a compliant, foam surface than individuals with normal vision. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/publish/news/newsroom/7895&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UC Davis Health System&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The link between balance and vision is an area of ongoing research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Human Balance System&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;GOOD BALANCE IS OFTEN TAKEN FOR GRANTED&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://vestibular.org/understanding-vestibular-disorder/human-balance-system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vestibular Disorders Association&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Common Conditions/Symptoms Associated with Vision&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Brain and Eye Connection&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainandeyeconnection.com/vision_info.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vision Clinic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Queensland University of Technology&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Faculty of Health&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.qut.edu.au/research/research-projects/vision-balance-and-falls&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vision, Balance and Falls&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How Our Balance System Works&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;American Speech-Language-Hearing Association&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T12:59:01.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4736" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4762" CreationDate="2013-10-05T06:23:04.137" Score="8" ViewCount="1771" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people are said to have exceptionally high IQ.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What exactly is that supposed to mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to develop high IQ if one doesn't have it? If yes, then how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3040" OwnerDisplayName="user462608" LastEditorUserId="23840" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2019-08-08T03:06:48.507" LastActivityDate="2019-08-08T03:06:48.507" Title="What exactly is IQ, and how to develop or improve it?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4737" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4736" CreationDate="2013-10-05T07:44:51.193" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia tells you, the IQ, or Intelligence Quotient&lt;/a&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a score derived from one of several standardized tests designed to assess intelligence&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it is accepted, even by Mensa, the global high IQ society, that it is an indicative score, with an IQ of 100 being the normalised average for a particular country or region. So someone with a high IQ is very likely to be highly intelligent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can train yourself to be better at IQ tests, but the way the tests are structured mean that in order to score very highly you need to have put in the exercise from an early age:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learning and studying&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Problem and puzzle solving&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And an element is definitely genetic. If you have high IQ parents, you have a greater likelihood of having a high IQ yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a long term member of Mensa though, I would say trying to develop a high IQ just for the purposes of having it or gaining Mensa membership are pretty pointless. Think of it instead as an indicator. Study and learn so that you know more and can do more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Rory Alsop" LastActivityDate="2013-10-05T07:44:51.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4738" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-08T05:58:07.967" Score="5" ViewCount="267" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have physical, emotional and mental needs and wants; some tangible, some intangible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case where we know that some of our needs and/or wants are not going to be met; how can the mind be trained to accept the reality with an ongoing craving, learn to accept the reality and live with it, as opposed to escaping within one's imagination dreaming of the past or the future?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For example:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a committed relationship where one person is not receiving romantic, emotional and sexual pleasures, how can that person learn to accept these facts without continually fantasising and desiring these pleasures with someone else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3040" LastEditorUserId="3581" LastEditDate="2013-10-09T06:21:16.800" LastActivityDate="2013-10-09T13:17:43.477" Title="How can the mind be trained to accept ongoing mental or emotional suffering?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="27" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4739" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4742" CreationDate="2013-10-08T07:09:34.013" Score="3" ViewCount="1649" Body="&lt;p&gt;My brother (age: 37) is least attached to our parents. At the time of his birth, our parents had left him with our grandmother. He saw our parents, for the first time, at the age of 3 years. He has lived with them after that till his high school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering whether initial 0-3 years of age have any effects (positive/negative) for a permanent bonding to happen between the parents and their children?&#xA;Or it isn't about age at all? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3040" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-08T08:58:59.400" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T13:06:00.653" Title="Does initial 0-3 years of age have any effects for a permanent bonding to happen between the parents and their children?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4740" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4714" CreationDate="2013-10-08T08:18:16.273" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. The phenomenon is usually referred to as &lt;strong&gt;Visual Dominance&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;Visual Capture&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A very nice demonstration of it, is known as McGurk Effect, in which our vision of the speaker's lips biases our perception of the sound we hear [1]. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFPtc8BVdJk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The McGurk Effect can be seen in a demo video here&lt;/a&gt;. Another demonstration of a similar effect is ventriloquism, in which we perceive the sound as coming from somewhere &quot;probable&quot; (like a puppet's vigorously moving lips) and not from its true origin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One early scientific research into the matter of resolution of conflicting information between senses was done by James Gibson, in a study from early 1930s [2], in which subjects wore prism spectacles, that made straight lines appear curved. Although this was not the main topic of the research, he reports that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When a visually curved edge such as a meter stick was felt, it was felt as &lt;em&gt;curved&lt;/em&gt;. This was true as long as the hand was watched while running up and down the edge. If&#xA;  the eyes were closed or turned away, the edge of course felt straight, as it in reality was. This dominance of the visual over the kinsesthetic perception was so complete that when subjects were instructed to make a strong effort to dissociate the two, i.e. to 'feel it straight and see it curved,' it was reported either difficult or impossible to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Posner et al. [3] cite several studies showing visual dominance over proprioceptive, haptic and auditory information, both in perception and in memory judgments, and try to explain the origins of this effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically addressing your question of vision versus audition, Colavita [4] conducted a study in which&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Human Ss matched an auditory and a visual stimulus for subjective magnitude. Then each stimulus was used as a cue in a reaction time task. On occasions when both stimuli were presented simultaneously, Ss’ responding was seen to be dominated by the visual stimulus. Of further interest was the finding that on some occasions of simultaneous light-tone presentation Ss were unaware that the tone had been presented. This apparent prepotency of the visual over the auditory stimulus was seen to persist across a variety of experimental conditions, which included giving Ss verbal instructions to respond to the tone when both stimuli were presented simultaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are also reports of the opposite case, visual information is dominated by other sources, for example by haptic information when vision is blurred [5].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently it has been claimed that it integration between senses is done an optimal way, i.e the more accurate source in each situation is given more weight in their combination, or relied upon to a larger extent [6]. Since vision is usually very accurate in terms of location and shape of objects in the world, it tends to be dominant more often then other senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McGurk, H., &amp;amp; MacDonald, J. (1976). Hearing lips and seeing voices.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gibson, J. J. (1933). Adaptation, after-effect and contrast in the perception of curved lines. Journal of experimental psychology, 16(1), 1. &lt;a href=&quot;http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/gibson%20%281933%29%20adaptation,%20after-effect%20and%20contrast%20in%20the%20perception%20of%20curved%20lines.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Posner, M. I., Nissen, M. J., &amp;amp; Klein, R. M. (1976). Visual dominance: an information-processing account of its origins and significance. Psychological review, 83(2), 157. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/22375771_Visual_dominance_an_information-processing_account_of_its_origins_and_significance/file/9c960519621ed3c0dc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Colavita, F. B. (1974). Human sensory dominance. Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics, 16(2), 409-412.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heller, M. A. (1983). Haptic dominance in form perception with blurred vision. Perception, 12(5), 607-613. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.perceptionjournal.com/perception/fulltext/p12/p120607.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ernst, M. O., &amp;amp; Banks, M. S. (2002). Humans integrate visual and haptic information in a statistically optimal fashion. Nature, 415(6870), 429-433. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T08:18:16.273" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4742" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4739" CreationDate="2013-10-08T12:38:42.047" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;~&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Firstly I would like to say that there could be many factors as to why your brother is least attached to your parents, that may have nothing to do with the separation between 0-3 years.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;~&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the purposes of keeping this succinct, I will discuss only the effects of bonding from 0-3 years of age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introduction:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting question, as much research has been done on the effects of child abuse and neglect on attachment, in this case you are discussing a (I'm assuming) healthy child from within a loving family environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A number of factors would also affect the attachment of such as child, in terms of why he was separated from his parents for those years. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Overview of Development:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly there is no denying that the first three years have significant affect on how brain development, including attachment styles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have added yellow boxes for highlighting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Yy4bG.png&quot; alt=&quot;Rethinking the brain&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Image courtesy of:&lt;br&gt;&#xA; Rethinking the brain: new insights into early development - book by  Rima Shore&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attachment 0-3 years:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies would suggest that the first three years are vital for forming attachments with caregivers. A child cannot form an attachment with someone they have not met.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A central component of attachment theory is the notion that caregivers&#xA;  must be present and accessible in order for their children to become&#xA;  attached to them.  (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Separation:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that any separation between mother and child within the first three years is detrimental to that relationship. This is assuming the mother and child already have a relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;His early work demonstrated that separations as brief as one week in&#xA;  duration could negatively impact the quality of the relationship&#xA;  between mother and child (Bowlby, 1969/1982).  (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the same theory would apply for other caregivers in the first three years of life, in this case the grand parents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to attachment theory, a secure attachment is derived from&#xA;  the child’s appraisal of his/her mother’s (or other attachment&#xA;  figure’s) availability. (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At this age, a child is not able to reason and can only process experience emotionally, so any parental absence is beyond comprehension of the child. The more damaging aspect of this, however, is the removal of the child at the age of three years from his/her primary caregivers (in this case the grand parents). I do not know what the situation was after your brother was returned to his parents, so it would be conjecture to discuss this in any detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As previously mentioned, the reason for the separation, where the&#xA;  child stayed, and who provided care are all potentially informative&#xA;  for helping to understand the effects of separation on parents and&#xA;  children. A maternal separation is quite likely not as distressing to&#xA;  an infant if he/she is left in the care of another attachment figure&#xA;  to whom he/she is securely attached (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In conclusion:&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would seem that a child's complete separation from his/her parents until three years of age, would have an impact on the degree of attachment within those relationships. The people in the childs life in the first three years of life, would have closer attachments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An observations, it is even shown in cases where children are left in abusive homes fare better with attachment styles than children who are removed and placed into foster care. Given this, the disruption to early relationships between child and caregiver is significant and has long term outcomes; in this case, the long term effect of such absence would damage the attachment to his parents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(1) Early Mother-Child Separation, Parenting, and Child Well-Being in Early Head Start Families&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kimberly Howard, et al &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3115616/pdf/nihms263344.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;doi:10.1080/14616734.2010.488119&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reversing the Real Brain Drain&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Early Years Study  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pcfk.on.ca/PDFs/Research_Ken/ReversingBrainDrain.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Unicef, Early Childhood Development&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The key to a full and productive life  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unicef.org/dprk/ecd.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-10-08T13:06:00.653" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T13:06:00.653" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4743" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4733" CreationDate="2013-10-08T12:52:12.647" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;DISCLAIMER: I do not have any official education in cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe problem is not in saying &quot;thank you&quot;, for me upvoting is very close to saying thank you.&#xA;I think it is rather obvious what are benefits from discouraging &quot;thank you&quot;, it would be hard to find real content in &quot;thanks forest&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps people wish that receiver knows &lt;strong&gt;who&lt;/strong&gt; said thank you&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;I Joe want Marc to know that 'I, Joe' am thankful.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2679" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T12:52:12.647" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4744" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4736" CreationDate="2013-10-08T14:51:07.710" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;IQ is intelligence quotient. It is invented by Theodoore Simon and Alfred Binet. IQ = (development age / chronological age) * 100 and it is developed to classify retarded children in elementary school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today IQ is something else, but it is somewhat synonym for intelligence. There is fluid crystal intelligence, spearman general factor, multi-factor theories etc, enough for several semesters in faculty of psychology. and also there is psychometry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can improve results on intelligence test, but you can't improve intelligence. You can make it lower by drugs, food and drinks...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is one fun definition of intelligence worth to mention... intelligence is the entity measured by intelligence test ( circular definition, by intention).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-08T16:36:13.980" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T16:36:13.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4745" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4668" CreationDate="2013-10-08T16:31:07.247" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sensation Seeking behaviour:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sensation Seeking behaviour, is a better description of the type of extreme &lt;em&gt;dare devil&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;extreme sport&lt;/em&gt; type of behaviour, as opposed to risk taking generally. Reckless risk taking is associated with a variety of psychological conditions that do not necessarily display this specific style of risk taking. There are gender differences with sensation seeking behaviour (and risk taking generally), with more men exhibiting this type of behaviour. From an evolutionary perspective, it makes sense that men, classically the hunters and protectors, would be more inclined to take risks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Type T personality:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who are high on the sensation seeking scale, are not necessarily anti social, but a personality type, which propels them to push the limits of life. The best description I have of this type of personality is the description of being a Type T personality. Channeled positively, this type of personality has the potential to be a high achiever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Type T personality has been described as a personality dimension referring to individual differences in stimulation seeking, excitement seeking, thrill seeking, arousal seeking, and risk taking. (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Physiological differences:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sensation seekers have notable physiological differences from individual's with average risk taking profiles. Their orienting reflex (OR) works in reverse to other individuals. In brief,  OR is a creatures natural response to external stimuli, change in environment. An event that would, usually, cause a stressful response in the autonomic nervous system will trigger an entirely different response in this type of personality. Physiologically this personality type is primed for adventure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One study found that when subjects with high disinhibition scores were presented with a moderate-intensity tone, their heart-rates slowed down on the first exposure, while the heart rates of low sensation-seekers quickened.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Another of his studies, published in the Journal of Personality (Vol. 58, No. 1, pages 313-345) in 1990, indicates that the differences between high and low sensation-seekers extend to the cortex of the brain, with high sensation-seekers showing an &quot;augmenting&quot; electrochemical reaction, or increasing amplitude of cortical-evoked potentials (EPs) in response to increasing intensities of stimulation. Low sensation-seekers, however, demonstrate a reducing reaction, showing little EP increase in relation to increasing stimulus intensity, and sometimes showing a reduction in EP amplitudes at the highest intensities of stimulation. (2)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Monoamine oxidase (MAO) is needed for the chemical cascade in the release of dopamine. &#xA;The brain chemistry is also  deficit in MAO, which could explain the need for a self induced high, from thrill seeking, to increase the release of dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusion:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion these extremists, may be an evolutionary necessity for the species. As mentioned in one of the articles, it is this drive to push the boundaries that has caused the species to explore the earth and, even, outer space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Byrnes, James P,et al  doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.367&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Type T personality and the Jungian classification system.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Morehouse RE, et al  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2313544&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PMID: 2313544&lt;/a&gt; (1)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Risk taking in Extreme Sports: A phenomenological perspective&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Brymer, Eric &lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.qut.edu.au/41068/1/41068.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug06/frisky.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Frisky, but more risky&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Christopher Munsey, American Psychological Association  (2)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Higher Nervous Functions: The Orienting Reflex&lt;br&gt;&#xA;E N Sokolov  DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ph.25.030163.002553  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Natural selective attention: Orienting and emotion&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Margaret M. Bradley  DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00702.x&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Risk taking: A study in cognition and personality.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kogan, Nathan; Wallach, Michael A,  Oxford, England: Holt, Rinehart &amp;amp; Winston. (1964)  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior.&#xA;Atkinson, John W  doi: 10.1037/h0043445&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The life attitudes schedule: a scale to assess adolescent life-enhancing and life-threatening behaviors.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Lewinsohn PM, et al&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;All supporting evidence for all my claims are within these references&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-10-09T22:56:18.817" LastActivityDate="2013-10-09T22:56:18.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4746" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4738" CreationDate="2013-10-08T19:52:46.217" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a chronic illness and my experience is that acceptance is a function of giving up the hope that someone/something will save me and/or the hope that the world will magically re-allocate resources to compensate for the injustice of my injury. Removing these thought consuming loops forces the brain to explore new options that are more realistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it might a function of learning to inhibit the seductive fantasies of rescue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3644" LastActivityDate="2013-10-08T19:52:46.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4747" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4749" CreationDate="2013-10-08T22:14:42.970" Score="6" ViewCount="733" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering whether is there a name for a phenomenon where one has feelings of &quot;alienation&quot; or feels that body parts (limbs, internal organs, etc) do not belong to him or are not &quot;part of his body&quot; ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example - imagine a case where someone loses an arm and is transplanted with a new one, to which he feels that it does not really belong to his body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for the name and some details about this type of psychological condition &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3646" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-12T00:47:22.163" LastActivityDate="2013-10-12T00:47:22.163" Title="Is there a phenomenon where one feels alienation towards certain body parts" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4748" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4738" CreationDate="2013-10-09T02:42:20.120" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How can the mind be trained to accept ongoing mental or emotional&#xA;  suffering?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Experiential avoidance: avoiding what we don't like&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the lens of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), the process of regressing to a favourable past experience of escapism would be a maladaptive response to &lt;em&gt;experiential avoidance&lt;/em&gt;. We avert our attention and stray away from the very things that cause us distress, e.g. we shift our attention to favourable past experiences with previous relationships when we are fighting with our loved ones in the present. We avoid the very things we need to deal with by distracting ourselves with other behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Experiential avoidance is defined as (EA; Hayes, Strohsahl, Wilson et al., 2004):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... [an] unwillingness to experience feelings, thoughts and sensations as&#xA;  well as attempts to alter them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, to avoid feeling loathe and resentment for their partner, a person resorts to seemingly pleasurable activities like gambling and drinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Mindfulness and psychological flexibility: seeing things the way they are&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;How do we then train the mind to address behaviours that arise from experiential avoidance?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The model of &lt;strong&gt;psychological flexibility&lt;/strong&gt; is a good starting point in understand how to address ongoing distress, both physical and mental. The theory of psychological flexibility is around cultivating a sustained capability to observe experiences non-judgmentally while committing to value-driven activities (Masuda et al., 2011):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;it is an overall behavior pattern of experiencing whatever one is&#xA;  experiencing as it is fully and non-judgmentally without excessive&#xA;  defense (i.e., mindfulness), while engaging in value-directed&#xA;  activities at the same time (i.e., commitment to actions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, in the context of a loveless marriage, the mental training involved would be around cultivating mindfulness to observe the experiences that cause the craving for 'mental and physical pleasures'. To see things clearly is paramount. The descriptor 'loveless' is not an indicator of factual evidence that a relationship is slowly dissolving. Recognising how one uses language and how it affects cognition is important in practicing mindfulness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, values are the key catalyst for behavioural change. By systematically seeing things as they are through non-judgmental awareness, one can train their mind in focusing on acting in-line with &lt;em&gt;'what truly matters to them'&lt;/em&gt;. This has eudaemonic roots but has practical implications for psychological flexibility. Consider this very simple hypothetical example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;X believes that he or she is in a 'loveless' marriage. This causes X a&#xA;  lot of  psychological distress, e.g. X feels anxious and hopeless&#xA;  about the future with Y (partner). This anxiety manifests in thoughts&#xA;  such as 'I don't love Y. Why am I with Y?'. This is the language&#xA;  component that considerably causes a high amount of distress for X. X&#xA;  recognises the distress he/she feels and learns to become&#xA;  non-judgmentally aware and accepts that these thoughts and emotions&#xA;  for what they are. X identifies the values in his life that holds&#xA;  dear. As a result, X finds that he has greater clarity around how he&#xA;  should behave - he wants to be in a committed and flourishing&#xA;  relationship and does not want to resort to seemingly pleasurable&#xA;  activites, e.g. excessive alcohol, cheating etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Freedom in experiencing and choosing&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the key to accepting ongoing mental or emotional suffering is to acknowledge them non-judgmentally and recognise any avoidant behaviours that are arising. Regarding the loveless marriage, the same concept applies: be aware of the thoughts and feelings causing the avoidant behaviours, tap into your values (i.e. for a better marriage, better relationship) and act accordingly to those values. Thus, rather than consumed in mental and physical pleasures - one has the freedom to take a step back and respond to their needs rather than react to ongoing emotional turmoil. This is by no means passive resignation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additional: Simple explanation on mindfulness and values&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As humans, our thoughts and feelings seem like the only source of truth in understanding ourselves and the world. However, we can get caught up in thoughts and feelings believing that they are true when they are not. This is where mindfulness and values are important. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness refers to non-judgmental awareness of our thoughts, feelings and experiences. In some ways, we become &lt;strong&gt;observers&lt;/strong&gt; of our thoughts and feelings and we &quot;take a step back&quot; rather than act on them instantly. Some of these thoughts can cause behaviours where we avoid addressing how we feel rather than sort them out. For example, assume that X has a thought - &quot;She/He never wants to have sex. I'm so frustrated about this.&quot; Because of this, X might go and cheat on his/her partner. This is the &lt;strong&gt;avoidant behaviour:&lt;/strong&gt; X behaves in a way that he/she does &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; address how he/she feels or is thinking. Therefore, practicising mindfulness may help us recognise how we feel and think and not act so quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What next? Well, clear &lt;strong&gt;values&lt;/strong&gt; help us know &lt;strong&gt;how&lt;/strong&gt; we want to behave. X may realise that his/her value is to have loving, intimate and sexual relationship with someone he/she cares about. He/she may then decide to communicate with his/her partner about the problem or decide to move on. Either way, X behaves according to his/her values and not simply how he/she feels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hayes, S.C., Strohsahl, K., Wilson, K.G., et al. (2004). Measuring&#xA;experiential avoidance. A preliminary test of a working model.&#xA;Psychological Record, 54, 553–578.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Masuda, A., Anderson, P.L., Wendell, J.W., Choi, Y.Y., Price, M. &amp;amp; Feinstein, A.B. (2011). Psychological flexibility mediates the relations between self-concealment and negative psychological outcomes. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(2), 243-247.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastEditorUserId="3581" LastEditDate="2013-10-09T13:17:43.477" LastActivityDate="2013-10-09T13:17:43.477" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4749" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4747" CreationDate="2013-10-09T05:05:45.180" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;See the relevant psychological disorders that relate to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Body Dysmorphic Disorder&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Body Integrity Identity Disorder&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Xenomelia&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Xenomelia would be the most likely disorder in-line with your description. The definition is very similar to your description (Lutz and Brugger, 2012):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Xenomelia is the oppressive feeling that one or more limbs of one’s&#xA;  body do not belong to one’s self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See Sedda (2011) for a discussion around how Body integrity identity disorder may relate to Xenomelia. The author examines the possibility of BIID as being both a neurological syndrome and a psychological disorder:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recently, McGeoch and colleagues provided the first direct evidence&#xA;  that the sense on incompleteness reported by BIID patients (First&#xA;  2005) finds a correspondence in a dysfunctional activity of the right&#xA;  parietal lobe (McGeoch et al. 2011), strongly supporting the&#xA;  hypothesis that BIID in not simply a paraphilia but rather a&#xA;  neurological syndrome (Blanke et al. 2009; Ramachandran and McGeoch&#xA;  2007; Aoyama et al. in press). McGeoch and colleagues propose that&#xA;  ‘xenomelia’, from the Greek terms ‘foreign’ and ‘limb’, would describe&#xA;  this new parietal lobe syndrome better than apotemnophilia or body&#xA;  integrity identity disorder (McGeoch et al. 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See Brugger et al. (2013) as well. They examines the mind-based and brain-based considerations in understanding the nature of the Xenomelia as a disorder in itself. I've inserted an image of a Venn diagram depicting three approaches in understanding the factors that causes Xenomelia symptoms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/-2fqnfqa0bjg/UYL_OYT5bTI/AAAAAAAAR-Y/Odg3VXYXgU8/w800-h800/A+view+of+xenomelia+research+that+integrates+three+approaches.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;A view of xenomelia research that integrates three approaches&quot;&gt;A view of xenomelia research that integrates three approaches&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;From:&lt;/em&gt; Brugger, P., Lenggenhager, B. &amp;amp; Giummarra, M.J. (2013). Xenomelia: A social neuroscience view of altered bodily self-consciousness. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 204.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hilti, L.M., Hanggi, J., Vitacco, D.A., Kraemer, B., Palla, A., Luechinger, R.J. &amp;amp; Brugger, P. (2012). The desire for healthy limb amputation: structural brain correlates and clinical features of xenomelia. Brain, 136(1), 318-329.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sedda, A. (2011). Body integrity identity disorder: From a psychological&#xA;to a neurological syndrome. Neuropsychology, 21, 334-336.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brugger, P., Lenggenhager, B. &amp;amp; Giummarra, M.J. (2013). Xenomelia: A social neuroscience view of altered bodily self-consciousness. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 204.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastActivityDate="2013-10-09T05:05:45.180" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4750" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4251" CreationDate="2013-10-09T14:08:49.787" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The inverse of your first question might hold generally true: that desired sexual frequency could influence a woman's actual sexual frequency. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Willoughby and Vitas (2012) conducted a study focusing on the sexual desired discrepancy between male and females. They make reference to sexual desire discrepancy (SDD) - difference between one's desired frequency of sexual intercourse and actual frequency of sexual intercourse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;High SDD may then lead some females to put more resources into the&#xA;  relationship in order to work toward future sexual contact and&#xA;  increase the intimacy and closeness in their relationship. In this&#xA;  way, SDD may serve among female partners as a motivator to enhance and&#xA;  support the relationship as it progresses toward higher sexual&#xA;  frequency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It mainly would depend on the quality and satisfaction of the sexual intercourse that would determine whether a woman's desire for greater sexual frequency would increase or not. Assuming that quality and satisfaction of sexual intercourse is high for the woman, I would say that this would increase a woman's future desire to have sex. Processes on positive expectancies give rise to higher perceived quality of the sexual relationship (McNulty &amp;amp; Fisher, 2008) and thus, in my opinion, if the woman expects sexual intercourse to be as good as a prior experience, they're more likely to desire it more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, perhaps deprivation or excess of sexual intercourse and expectancies of quality of sexual intercourse plays a major role in moulding sexual desire for women. Another thing: while the frequency of sex is predicated on the physical rewards of it for men, this may not be necessarily true for women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Willoughby, B.J. &amp;amp; Vitas, J. (2012). Sexual desire frequency: The effect of individual differences in desired and actual sexual frequency on dating couples. Archive of Sexual Behavior, 41, 477-486.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McNulty, J.K. &amp;amp; Fisher, T.D. (2008). Gender differences in response to sexual expectancies and changes in sexual frequency: A short-term longitudinal study of sexual satisfaction in newly married couples. Archive of Sexual Behavior, 37, 229-240.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3581" LastEditorUserId="3581" LastEditDate="2013-10-09T14:24:31.340" LastActivityDate="2013-10-09T14:24:31.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4751" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-09T15:00:06.070" Score="5" ViewCount="6729" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is self-explanatory (I hope).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this trait unique to humans?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the direction of the unfocused gaze indicate anything about which physical part of the brain is being utilized?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the hippocampus physically linked to the optic nerve and muscles surrounding the eye?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this effect related to other phenomena that are life threatening and deprive areas of the body and/or perception deemed unnecessary for survival?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="228" LastActivityDate="2015-10-17T11:37:51.357" Title="Why do humans' eyes enter an unfocused gaze when recalling a memory or imagining something?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4752" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-09T15:25:31.870" Score="5" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;As some theories suggest, most, if not all, biological features in organisms exist due to environmental factors that trigger the organism's eventual adaptation to these factors for survival purposes.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This characteristic of organisms can be tested and retested to be true, so assuming this is the case, why did humans (and disputedly other organisms), develop the process of experiencing dreams?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not to be confused with conscious imaginations - potentializing events/experiences - what evolutionary purpose does dreaming of unrealistic events/experiences serve?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, consider nightmares and their anxiety producing feelings which the organism would most likely avoid if the event/experience were real.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="228" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-10-09T20:33:44.750" LastActivityDate="2013-10-09T20:33:44.750" Title="What evolutionary process(es) are thought to have enabled humans to experience dreams?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4754" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4726" CreationDate="2013-10-09T16:28:25.567" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because a majority of the people are just too plain stupid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an international study by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;OECD&lt;/a&gt; on adult competencies (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programme_for_the_International_Assessment_of_Adult_Competencies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PIAAC&lt;/a&gt;) that evaluated literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments, it was found that only every third adult (in Germany: 36%) between 16 and 64 was able &quot;to master more complex tasks such as navigating the internet&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Read that again. A more complex task such as navigating the internet. Only one third manages that. In an educated country like Germany where &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ard-zdf-onlinestudie.de/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;77% of the population 14 and older use the internet&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that more than half the internet users don't know how to navigate the internet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study also found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;every eighth person does not know how to use a computer mouse&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;every fifth person only knows basic arithmetics or less&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;every sixth adult (!) has the reading ability of a ten year old child&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think tabbed browsing is a minor problem. &lt;em&gt;The study makes me doubt the principles of democracy. How can people be allowed to vote, if about 15% of the adult (!) population &quot;can at best read short texts with simple words and extract from these only very limited information&quot;?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oecd.org/site/piaac/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.oecd.org/site/piaac/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-10-09T16:28:25.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4747" CreationDate="2013-10-09T19:16:14.340" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The condition is called &lt;strong&gt;Somatoparaphrenia&lt;/strong&gt;, and was first described by Josef Gerstmann, in this paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gerstmann, J. (1942). Problem of imperception of disease and of impaired body territories with organic lesions: relation to body scheme and its disorders. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 48(6), 890.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a more recent review of the topic, see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vallar, G., &amp;amp; Ronchi, R. (2009). Somatoparaphrenia: a body delusion. A review of the neuropsychological literature. Experimental Brain Research, 192(3), 533-551.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Relevant parts from this review's abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Somatoparaphrenia has been reported, with a few exceptions, in&#xA;  right-brain-damaged patients, with motor and somatosensory deficits, and the syndrome of unilateral spatial neglect.&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Somatoparaphrenia, most often characterized by a delusion&#xA;  of disownership of left-sided body parts&lt;/strong&gt;, may however&#xA;  occur without associated anosognosia for motor deficits,&#xA;  and personal neglect ... Somatoparaphrenia is often brought about by extensive right-sided lesions, but patients with posterior (parietal-temporal), and&#xA;  insular damage are on record, as well as a few patients with&#xA;  subcortical lesions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2013-10-09T19:16:14.340" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4758" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4751" CreationDate="2013-10-10T00:05:31.550" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The unfocused gaze and eye direction when recalling a memory or imagining something.&lt;/strong&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eye movements assist in recalling &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;spatial&lt;/a&gt; visual memories. The eyes move in the direction of where the object was in relation to the person, when perceived. Restricting eye movements impairs memory recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a recent study we reported that when eye movements were prohibited for participants who orally described pictures from memory, their recollections became altered and impaired (Johansson, Holsanova, Dewhurst, &amp;amp; Holmqvist, (in press). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance). (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results provide evidence that eye movements do have an active and supportive role when visuospatial information is recalled by highlighting the circumstances under which a visual memory is hampered. Additionally, findings suggest that the influence of &quot;eye movements to nothing&quot; is primarily related to the processing and retrieval of spatial information. (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The hippocampus store long term spatial memory.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hippocampus is the storage centre for long term spatial memory, as it is central to the storage of much our the brains long term memory. It is not physically connected the the optic nerve, nor is it connected to the eye muscles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vuMHZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;optic nerves&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Image: Optic nerves,  Gray's Anatomy  (copyright expired)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MPXgo.png&quot; alt=&quot;hippocampus&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Image: Hippocampus within the brain, Gray's Anatomy (copyright expired)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This post &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4385/how-do-memories-come-up-for-no-apparent-reason-is-this-evidence-that-we-remembe/4386#4386&quot;&gt;How do memories come up for no apparent reason? Is this evidence that we remember everything?&lt;/a&gt; offers some idea about memory storage types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is not a complete answer, I have not referenced comparable studies with other species.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is this effect related to other phenomena that are life threatening and deprive areas of the body and/or perception deemed unnecessary for survival&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, it is simply the way the body processes and recalls spatial information. The eyes move into the direction they were in when recalling spatial information to place the person in the same spatial orientation from that object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Eye movements play an active role when visuospatial information is recalled from memory&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Johansson, et al  doi: 10.1167/12.9.1256 (1)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Spatial memory and the human hippocampus.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Shrager Y, et al  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Spatial Memory and Hippocampal Function: Where&#xA;are we now?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Mark Good&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-10-10T00:05:31.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4759" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-10T00:33:20.347" Score="4" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;As one example, a specific low frequency beyond our hearing perception can make people feel nauseous and even vomit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm sure there are more documented studies surrounding the correlation of auditory induced states, but how and/or why does this occur?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, does this phenomenon happen to deaf people as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="228" LastActivityDate="2014-11-27T11:45:34.413" Title="How do certain frequencies of sound induce psychological states?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4760" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4726" CreationDate="2013-10-10T00:36:53.847" Score="3" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Background on strategy selection&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We could categorise using tabs as a strategy for using a browser.&#xA;There is a lot of research on the acquisition and use of strategies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My thesis (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://repository.unimelb.edu.au/10187/10113&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;repository page with pdf link&lt;/a&gt;) has an extensive literature review (see page 21 onwards). To quote myself:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another line of research has examined how people use computer soft-&#xA;  ware. A common observation is that users often plateau at strategies&#xA;  that are asymptotically suboptimal (for a summary of this literature,&#xA;  see Bhavnani &amp;amp; John, 2000; J. M. Carroll &amp;amp; Rosson, 1987; Charman &amp;amp;&#xA;  Howes, 2003). Classic studies in time-and-motion found that industrial&#xA;  workers rarely discovered the most efficient strategies for performing&#xA;  their tasks (Gilbreth, 1911). Charman and Howes (2003) found that&#xA;  about half the participants in their study shifted to a more&#xA;  sophisticated graphics drawing strategy ... Charman&#xA;  and Howes (2003) suggested that strategy shift may be greater in the&#xA;  lab than in the real-world be- cause participants are focused more on&#xA;  low-level task goals whereas real world workers are more concerned&#xA;  with high-level project goals. Furthermore, any discussion of&#xA;  optimality raises the question of what is being optimised, and the&#xA;  various costs and benefits of searching for optimal strategies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Similarly, Yechiam et al. (2004) examined the use of a mouse versus a script-based strategy, along with a much slower keyboard-based strat- egy, on a spreadsheet manipulation task. Half of the participants were allowed to use the mouse strategy from the start, while the other half were required to use the script strategy initially. The script was difficult to learn, but ultimately quicker than the other strategies. They found that participants were generally unlikely to switch to the script strat- egy when it was introduced half-way through practice. Also, although Yechiam et al. (2004) did not report individual-level results, the pattern of results suggested that the shift to the using the script-based strategy tended to occur on the first or second trial of its availability or not at all. It would also seem that the shift to the script-based strategy was abrupt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Relating this to using tabs&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably you use tabs because you find that they improve your browser experience. And I can see an argument for saying that once you know how to use them, they are objectively useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, that does not mean that failure to use tabs is irrational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A user may not be aware of the existence of tabs or may not know how to efficiently use tabs. Presumably there are a near infinite number of things that a person is not aware of, so a user may need a general decision rule to guide them as to when to explore features of an interface. In particular, if a user is not experiencing perceived problems, they may not seek out strategies such as tabs.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Automaticity is a powerful thing. If a user has grown comfortable using a browser in a certain way, they can focus on what they need to get done. Being concerned about low level workflow such as using tabs can be disruptive. Thus, they may experience a temporary drop in performance as they try to learn how to use the new tool. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People differ in the importance of computers in their lives. The less a user uses a browser and a computer in general, the less benefit they are likely to derive from trying to optimise their interactions with the system. The complexity of representing such a system also uses cognitive resources.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many similar arguments can be made about other computer strategies (e.g., using shortcut keys, programming versus manual approaches, using text editing keys rather than mouse based approaches, using Vim rather than notepad, etc.). None of this denies the value of tabs or other efficiency boosting strategies. I think most power users of computers develop a repertoire of skills for exploring an interface and developing an efficient workflow. However, that which is optimal or natural for a power user, may not be such for a more casual computer user.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-10-10T00:36:53.847" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4761" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4726" CreationDate="2013-10-10T00:42:16.333" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that it all boils down to the fact that most people leave all settings defaulted either because they do not know they can be changed or that they do not care enough to take the time to customize their browser.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="228" LastActivityDate="2013-10-10T00:42:16.333" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4762" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4736" CreationDate="2013-10-10T04:44:22.933" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Literal IQ&lt;/strong&gt;: In a literal sense, IQ is a standardised score derived from intelligence tests. Typically IQ is scaled to have a a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. In that sense, it is a normative score. For children, the norm is defined relative to other children of a similar age, for adults, it is defined relative to an adult population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;IQ as g&lt;/strong&gt;: But this still leaves the question of what an IQ score ultimately represents. At a slightly more abstract level, IQ scores typically measures something called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;g&lt;/a&gt; (perhaps g for general intelligence). In a statistical sense, g is the first component that is obtained when you perform a principal components or factor analysis of scores across a large number of cognitive ability tests. In non-statistical terms, when you get  scores on many cognitive ability tests you find that each test will typically share something with other tests, but will also contain a unique bit. g is the common bit across many tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;g as intelligence&lt;/strong&gt;: Of course this still leaves the question of why there is the common variance across cognitive tests called g and whether we should care. IQ scores certainly correlate highly with educational performance, vocational outcomes, and many other social indicators (common correlations are in the .3 to .6 range).  If you are new to intelligence, a good starting point is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/correlation/intelligence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; which was put together by an APA task in order to deal with some of the controversy around IQ and intelligence. It covers conceptual definitions of intelligence, correlates and more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to develop IQ?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;First, by IQ, I assume you mean latent IQ or latent cognitive ability. In contrast, practicing certain types of ability tests may lead to some small improvement on similar types of tests, and somewhat larger improvement on the identical test items. Cheating on a test could lead to getting a huge IQ. And all these strategies may be effective if your goal is to do well on a test perhaps for educational, vocational, or other selection purposes. However, I am assuming that you don't want to just improve on the test, you want to improve your cognitive ability in terms of the underlying ability that such tests aim to measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many quick fixes to boosting intelligence are advertised under the banner such as brain training, however, there is little evidence that they are effective. And there is strong theoretical and empirical evidence that  domain specific practice does not lead to general improvements in cognitive ability. See for example these earlier questions &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4166/what-is-the-scientific-definition-of-brain-training?lq=1&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1705/how-valid-is-lumositys-brain-performance-index-and-what-normative-information-i?lq=1&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tend to see boosting IQ as an unproductive goal. I think a more useful aim is to try to be good at something more specific. There is plenty of evidence that humans are able to acquire domain specific expertise with practice. IQ might help in some cases, but it is often not a major limiting factor. See the expertise literature for more information about this, from which &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._Anders_Ericsson&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;K. Anders Ericsson is probably the most famous academic&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, you'll see in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/correlation/intelligence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; interesting discussions of (a) how IQ changes over childhood, (b) the relative but not complete stability of IQ in adulthood, (c) the many interventions that have been tried to improve IQ, but that generally failed to yield long term increases, (d) the mysterious &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flynn effect&lt;/a&gt;  representing major generational increases in IQ scores, and so on. Such evidence suggests that IQ is influenced by environmental factors, but that we're not that good at understanding how to increase it. Presumably any intervention targeted at something as general as IQ would need to be similarly general, such as education or generational changes in lifestyles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-10-10T06:46:26.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4763" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6386" CreationDate="2013-10-10T09:09:43.660" Score="8" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;I figure there is a vast body of literature on stereovision, both neurophysiological and computational studies. Computer Vision also provides some algorithmic insight on implementing binocular disparity. Although a lot of people are doing that and have research the topic in the past, I'm lost to find a simplest/standard yet biologically plausible approach to account for binocular disparity in a neurodynamical model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3565" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-02-25T00:53:01.270" LastActivityDate="2014-05-06T17:31:29.283" Title="What are biologically plausible ways to model binocular disparity?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4764" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4615" CreationDate="2013-10-10T16:46:26.930" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is the setup I use, based on this article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/psychology/labs/saal/resources/guide-eda.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Braithwaite, J.J., Watson, D.G., Jones, R., Rowe, M (2013). A guide for analysing electrodermal activity (EDA) and skin conductance responses (SCRs) for psychophysiological experiments via the MP36R and AcqKowledge software. Technical Report #1, Selective Attention &amp;amp; Awareness Laboratory (SAAL), Behavioural Brain Sciences Centre, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, UK.&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the frequency you choose depends of the specific EDA component you target. The page 8 of the cited article is quite fine to answer your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The channel sampling rate I chose is 2kHz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ocNOb.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;AcqKnowledge Capture&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3656" LastActivityDate="2013-10-10T16:46:26.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4765" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-10T17:00:53.630" Score="4" ViewCount="471" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's the first time for me to do analyses with e-prime, and I have to analyse some data from an experiment. The data are, at the moment, in e-prime. I'd like to have the accuracy, the hits, and the false alarms for every subject. &#xA;When I am in the anaylse window: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Accuracy: I drop the subjects into the rows, and the Target ACC into the Data window. But do I take the ACC mean or the ACC count?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hits: Isn't it the same as accuracy? And, if not, what is the difference?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;False Alarms: do I just count them? How can I make it then comparable over different tasks (some tasks have more trials than the others).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3657" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-10-11T04:55:38.500" LastActivityDate="2013-10-11T04:55:38.500" Title="How to analyse accuracy, hits and false alarms in e-prime?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4766" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-10T19:16:47.500" Score="3" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot for the life of me remember the term for citizens in an urban environment filtering out stimuli when in public as a regular and unconscious part of their lives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example commuters riding public transit and not noticing crimes or events around them because they have learned to tune out other people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3659" LastActivityDate="2013-10-11T05:16:34.093" Title="Term for urban citizens tuning out their surroundings?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4767" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4766" CreationDate="2013-10-11T00:10:04.807" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The closest term is &quot;oblivious&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was in the news a few days ago: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Absorbed-device-users-oblivious-to-danger-4876709.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Absorbed device users oblivious to danger&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2013-10-11T00:10:04.807" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4769" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4766" CreationDate="2013-10-11T05:08:37.683" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Habituation:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;habituation&lt;/a&gt; is the first word that comes to my mind (but see also &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desensitization_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Desensitisation&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the first night that you sleep in a new house, you will typically notice many noises. Over the course of a few nights you learn to progressively react less and less to the common noises as you learn that they are non-threatening and do not need to be attended to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Information reduction:&lt;/strong&gt;  There's also some interesting research on information reduction as a learning mechanism. For example, Haider and Frensch have research that shows how individuals gradually ignore task information that is seemingly not relevant to performance. Thus, part of performance improvement is attending to task relevant information. Of course, when you arbitrarily manipulate a task to all of a sudden make what was irrelevant into relevant information, accuracy suffers. Relating this cognitive psychology finding to urban behaviour, people learn that 99.9% of the time noises can be ignored during the night, but one night the noise indicates that someone needs help; a person might ignore the noise because they've learnt that it generally can be ignored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bystander_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bystander effect:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Note that the above mechanisms are typically implicit cognitive mechanisms. There is also research on diffusion of responsibility that links in more to social psychology. This has been used to explain some people's failure to help in urban settings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Haider, H., &amp;amp; Frensch, P. A. (1996). The role of information reduction in skill acquisition. Cognitive Psychology, 30(3), 304-337.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-10-11T05:16:34.093" LastActivityDate="2013-10-11T05:16:34.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4771" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4724" CreationDate="2013-10-11T07:23:31.210" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Cherry&quot;&gt;Colin Cherry&lt;/a&gt; coined the phrase the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocktail_party_effect&quot;&gt;Cocktail party effect&lt;/a&gt; to describe the ability for people to tune or filter out distraction and focus on one thing; the illustration being able to focus on a conversation amidst all the background noise at a cocktail party. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadbent%27s_filter_model_of_attention&quot;&gt;Broadbent's filter model of attention&lt;/a&gt;  was developed from Cherry's work proposing the concept filtering information. Cherry first used the idea of a filter.  Broadbent was the first person to officially coin the term &lt;code&gt;filter&lt;/code&gt; as it is used within this context and within a cognitive model. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-10-11T07:23:31.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4772" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-11T09:50:57.943" Score="9" ViewCount="11758" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do people have fetishes,  such as foot fetishes?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;How do such fetishes form?&#xA;Are childhood incidents the main cause of fetishes?&#xA;Are fetishes a sexual disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3663" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-12-08T23:28:39.750" LastActivityDate="2015-09-13T15:17:13.180" Title="What causes fetishes? Are they sexual disorders?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4774" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-11T16:16:07.197" Score="11" ViewCount="8483" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which areas of mathematics can be formally studied in a cognitive science major? Or: which areas of mathematics can support the study of brain. Some areas that seem relevant would be: mathematical logic, graph theory, linear algebra. Is any element of topology relevant? Please direct to links/sources if possible. Is network science being used in these fields? I am asking this question, as I want to study further in mathematics, and would love it if I could do so while pursuing cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3664" LastEditorUserId="1221" LastEditDate="2013-10-18T06:59:45.343" LastActivityDate="2013-10-23T14:40:16.187" Title="What areas of mathematics support the study of cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4776" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4783" CreationDate="2013-10-11T22:24:47.363" Score="6" ViewCount="1777" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am designing a psychology study in which the main endpoint is the perceived effectiveness of various medical treatments. In pilot trials, we used a bipolar Likert scale to measure perceived effectiveness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Very ineffective&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ineffective&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Somewhat ineffective&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Somewhat effective&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Effective&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Very effective&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, pilot data indicate a major ceiling effect. Combining two similar pilot trials (n=73), only four responses had perceived effectiveness below &quot;Somewhat effective&quot;:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/h853X.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'm overlaying a dotplot on a standard boxplot here.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are other psychometric scales better suited to separating  the clustered responses at the high end of the scale? Does adding more items to the Likert scale (say, increasing to 8 options) improve matters without sacrificing too much reliability?&#xA;References especially appreciated where possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2448" LastActivityDate="2013-10-13T01:00:48.850" Title="Reducing ceiling effect with a Likert scale measure" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4778" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4782" CreationDate="2013-10-12T16:44:33.683" Score="3" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was thinking about doing a small experiment during university course where participants have to answer a personality quiz and then they have to compare different symbols (like triangles, rectangles of different ratios) on a split screen view, comparing two symbols at the same time, choose the preferred one and taking reaction time. Just to get information about common preferences for shapes! Obviously these symbols should have some basic information in common (pixel density, color) so shouldn't be completely different. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can I create a set of symbols that have the same area even if they varied in geometrical form (ratio)? How should I decide which forms in which ratios should be presented?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3587" LastActivityDate="2013-10-13T00:45:25.950" Title="How can I create a set of comparable symbols of different shapes?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4780" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4774" CreationDate="2013-10-12T22:51:25.990" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's my list of math subjects that support the study of brain (from a computational neuroscientist's perspective):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Linear algebra&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;to understand high dimensions, to compute things quickly, foundation for other math&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Calculus&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;basics for everything continuous valued&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Statistics&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;to analyze any data, you need stats!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;basis for modeling, regression, clustering, classification, and all&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Differential equations&lt;/strong&gt; (basis for dynamical system)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dynamical system&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;intuition for neural dynamics (deterministic approximation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;modeling single neuron, synapse, small network&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Statistical physics&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;modeling large scale noisy neural dynamics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Information theory&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;quantify how much &quot;information&quot; is coded in neural signal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Numerical computation&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;your data and algorithm needs to be implemented in a computer&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Convex optimization&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;your statistics/model requires optimization&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Probability theory&lt;/strong&gt; (basis for stochastic process and statistics)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stochastic process&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;model of neural signals, decision process (diffusion), basis for advanced statistics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;point process theory is useful for dealing with neural spike trains&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Time series analysis&lt;/strong&gt; (your data is a time series!)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Signal detection theory&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;psychophysics is often designed to be a detection task&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain is quite noisy, you need tools to deal with noise. More applied math than pure math is needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have only seen topology being used a handful of times, and they were not very useful nor impressive. I love set theory and mathematical logic, but sadly never used it nor seen it being used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, real/complex/functional analyses are also useful, just in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastEditorUserId="301" LastEditDate="2013-10-18T23:26:45.683" LastActivityDate="2013-10-18T23:26:45.683" CommentCount="4" CommunityOwnedDate="2013-10-18T23:26:45.683" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4781" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4774" CreationDate="2013-10-13T00:01:58.527" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say that the maths that are most useful in cognitive science are the ones that have to do with decision theory. So I would include linear algebra (with its matrixes, and &quot;transition&quot; or changes of state analysis), as well as probability and statistics, with their &quot;expected values&quot; and resulting decision trees. Computational and information analysis, with their &quot;data structures&quot; might also be helpful. The last thing I would include is optimization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastActivityDate="2013-10-13T00:01:58.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4782" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4778" CreationDate="2013-10-13T00:45:25.950" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Presumably to have symbols with the same area but different shapes, you could do a little geometry to work out relevant angles and sides. Then in any reasonable drawing package you could draw the shapes and check that they have appropriate angles. Programming drawing packages might also make life easier, but I don't have much experience with these (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.texample.net/tikz/examples/node-shapes/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;tikZ&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You raise an interesting question of what represents equivalence of size. Area of the shape could be a way of making size equivalent, but alternatively you could see two shapes as being visually of a similar size if they could be contained within an equivalent sized square. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One general strategy for designing the stimuli is to consider what dimensions might contaminate pairwise judgements of preferred shape: e.g., colour, size, features of the shape (e.g., angles on a triangle, the depth of cut-ins on star like shapes, etc.). &#xA;Once you've defined those features, either hold them constant or vary them in a consistent way. So you can either set up a factorial set of stimuli or randomise over features hold a feature constant. If you set up a factorial design (e.g., 3 levels of size, 2 colours, 5 shapes). You could examine how preferences vary across the confounding dimension and see whether inferences on the dimension of interest (i.e., shape) hold up levels of the confounding dimension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-10-13T00:45:25.950" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4783" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4776" CreationDate="2013-10-13T01:00:48.850" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are a few thoughts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Work out whether the construct has ceiling effects or whether it is a measurement issue:&lt;/strong&gt; You need to consider whether people actually discriminate between the rated objects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Multiple items per rated object:&lt;/strong&gt; For each medical treatment you could ask participants to answer several questions. You could then take the mean of their responses for the items to get an overall rating of each treatment for each participant. This increases the number of possible scores and should also increase the reliability of measurement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is the aim to measure the group property or an individual property:&lt;/strong&gt; For example, if you are aiming to get a measure of the degree to which a group considers a treatment effective, then by averaging over many individuals you should get nuanced measure. So even if people are generally answering 4,5, and 6, one treatment will have more 4s and 5s and another might have more 5s and 6s. The result is that the mean of such ratings will still be nuanced measure, and you can then say things like one treatment having a mean of 4.5 and another having a mean of 5.5, and so on. So in that sense, you can still compare group-level opinions of effectiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Forced choice or ranking format:&lt;/strong&gt; You could adopt a forced choice or ranking format where participants are asked to rank or make some form of comparative assessment of the relative effectiveness of a set of treatments. This has pros and cons. It will obviously give you a good understanding of perceptions of relative effectiveness, but you will not have information on how effective they perceive the treatments relative to a general standard of effectiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Change the response scale:&lt;/strong&gt; There are many choices for response scales. You can add more scale points (e.g., go to 7 or 10 point scale). You could even design a scale that is not balanced, so you make more distinctions of effectiveness. Personally, I think you need a principle to govern your choice of scale. A good general rule is to talk to people doing the rating and find out what words they use to describe the effectiveness of treatments. How many distinctions do they make? What is the difference between ineffective and very ineffective in their mind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-10-13T01:00:48.850" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4785" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4787" CreationDate="2013-10-13T14:40:40.300" Score="4" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it conceptualised as the signal distribution moving rightward, or as the noise distribution moving leftward?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-10-13T22:57:43.330" LastActivityDate="2013-10-13T22:57:43.330" Title="In SDT, how is an increase in detection sensitivity conceptualised in terms of the movement of the distributions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4787" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4785" CreationDate="2013-10-13T20:04:25.130" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Technically it can go either way, and both situations would be conceptually and statistically equivalent. But it is conventional to fix the mean of the noise distribution at 0, so that increased discriminability corresponds graphically with the signal+noise distribution moving rightward along the latent axis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="463" LastActivityDate="2013-10-13T20:04:25.130" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4789" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4843" CreationDate="2013-10-14T16:16:34.387" Score="1" ViewCount="241" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of my former work colleagues was an (unhappily) married woman, who divorced her husband. Afterward, she &quot;dated&quot; (and lived with) a number of women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apparently &quot;sex&quot; wasn't the driving force in her new lifestyle. It was more that she wanted the dominant &quot;man's&quot; role in her relationships (she was a &quot;boss&quot; at work).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversely, could there be a male homosexual that was such mainly because of a submissive, passive, nature rather than sexuality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And could such a woman and such a man find mutual happiness is a socially &quot;roles reversed&quot; relationahip between a dominant &quot;masculine&quot; woman and a submissive &quot;feminine&quot; man, while enjoying their natural physical &quot;fit?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2013-10-14T16:29:09.190" LastActivityDate="2013-10-28T17:28:30.750" Title="Is there such a person as a &quot;social&quot; homosexual?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4791" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-15T19:18:13.953" Score="4" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many studies indicate that for tasks that require cognitive skills and creative thinking, monetary reward does not work to improve performance. Rather, we should give people purpose, autonomy and mastery to make them part of something bigger and give them the freedom to do what they think is important to solve the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But while that might get people to perform better at a certain task, how does this relate to motivation? Are purpose, autonomy and mastery more intrinsic-oriented and could motivation be more long-term (extrinsic) oriented in terms of profit (in the broadest sense, including all costs and benefits)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any thoughts or even scientific insights on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3685" LastEditorUserId="3685" LastEditDate="2015-01-22T12:05:55.320" LastActivityDate="2015-01-22T12:05:55.320" Title="How does motivation relate to performance and to fun and to recognition?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4792" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3951" CreationDate="2013-10-15T20:55:17.143" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is an interesting article on NPR about an AI version of the famous Milgram experiment (i.e. the psychological study of obedience to authority in which people were asked to give confederate researchers increasing shocks for making errors, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment&lt;/a&gt;). The interesting finding here is that the study was replicated using robots that had to have their operating systems/memories destroyed - participants had a harder time doing this after spending time with a helpful, kind robot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2013/01/28/170272582/do-we-treat-our-gadgets-like-they-re-human&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2013/01/28/170272582/do-we-treat-our-gadgets-like-they-re-human&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lots of other good references in the article above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3686" LastActivityDate="2013-10-15T20:55:17.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4793" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4802" CreationDate="2013-10-16T00:12:09.843" Score="4" ViewCount="972" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often, when a person starts scratching and complains of being itchy, whether they suggest there might be a bug biting them (for example fleas, head lice, mites) another person with them will start to feel itchy, just at the thought of it. The cause may not always be an insect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to occur with sources of itching that cannot be seem, (for example with mosquitos that produce large bites and can usually be seen flying around, people may not tich unless being bitten. In fact they sometime joke how they are usually the ones being bitten and aren't now and the like), but this could be a false assumption on my part.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is it that people can feel itchy when another person feels itchy and starts scratching and complaining?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens within the brain, what changes occur neurochemically and along which neural networks and regions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this influenced by how visible the cause of the itch and the resulting marks left by this (example bites)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there theory about the evolutionary purpose of this, perhaps it is a survival mechanism to help prevent infestation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Answers can address only one of these aspects being asked, as it encompasses many fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-10-17T15:38:47.590" Title="When a person starts to scratch, why does this often start others to scratch?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;cross-modal&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4794" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-10-16T21:07:33.247" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about maintaining a mental image or internal representation of an object or concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_image&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mental image&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-10-16T21:55:22.937" LastActivityDate="2013-10-16T21:55:22.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4795" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-10-16T21:07:33.247" Score="0" Body="For questions about maintaining a mental image or internal representation of an object or concept" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-10-16T21:55:11.530" LastActivityDate="2013-10-16T21:55:11.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4796" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-10-16T21:11:34.597" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the relationship of features to one side of the body or the other, e.g., handedness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neuroanatomy&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'neuroanatomy'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neuroanatomy&lt;/a&gt; for lateralization questions pertaining to different hemispheres of the brain&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-10-16T21:55:30.860" LastActivityDate="2013-10-16T21:55:30.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4797" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-10-16T21:11:34.597" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the relationship of features to one side of the body or the other, e.g., handedness" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-10-16T21:55:05.857" LastActivityDate="2013-10-16T21:55:05.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4798" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-10-16T21:16:11.997" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions pertaining to the sensation or perception of sound and its localization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Auditory system&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_auditory_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Auditory cortex&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/auditory-discrimination&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged 'auditory-discrimination'&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;auditory-discrimination&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-10-16T21:55:27.877" LastActivityDate="2013-10-16T21:55:27.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4799" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-10-16T21:16:11.997" Score="0" Body="For questions pertaining to the sensation or perception of sound and its localization" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-10-16T21:55:15.217" LastActivityDate="2013-10-16T21:55:15.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4800" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4826" CreationDate="2013-10-17T10:21:03.630" Score="8" ViewCount="250" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.stanford.edu/~jlm/pdfs/Norman76.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psych.stanford.edu/~jlm/pdfs/Norman76.pdf&lt;/a&gt;, which on pp34-36 present an excerpt from a book by Neville Moray.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tone bursts of 3000 Hz were delivered to one ear and tone bursts of&#xA;  2111 Hz to the other ear of observers. The onset and offset of the&#xA;  tone bursts were exactly simultaneous on the two ears, and controlled&#xA;  through a two-channel electronic switch.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Subjects were required to press a left hand button when they heard an&#xA;  increment in their left ear, a right hand button when they heard an&#xA;  increment in their right ear, and a central button when they heard an&#xA;  increment in both ears. Four conditions of presentation were used.&#xA;  These were Single Mode (in which only one ear was used, the other&#xA;  being silent throughout; Select Mode (in which both ears received tone&#xA;  bursts, but the listener was to ignore one ear completely and only&#xA;  respond to the other); XOR Mode (in which both ears received tone&#xA;  bursts, but targets never occurred simultaneously); and IOR Mode (in&#xA;  which targets could occur either on the left ear or on the right ear,&#xA;  or simultaneously on both, the last condition being a logical AND&#xA;  Mode). In addition a control was run using IOR presentation Mode but&#xA;  requiring the listener to ignore thesingle targets and respond only to&#xA;  the simultaneous pairs with the AND response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is rather curious that so little attention has been paid to the AND&#xA;  mode of presentation (simultaneous targets), Most of the experiments&#xA;  have been either Select Mode in which the listener accepts one message&#xA;  and rejects the other or, more rarely, XOR in which responses are made&#xA;  to targets in two messages, but targets are never simultaneous&#xA;  (Treisman and Geffen, 1967, for example), Indeed, while Deutsch. and&#xA;  Deutsch's model clearly predicts that the AND condition will show&#xA;  severe interference between the messages, Treisman's model makes no&#xA;  explicit prediction about AND signals, Treisman says that in the&#xA;  XOR condition and the Select Mode the listener can attenuate an&#xA;  unwanted message (hut there is no indication how rapidly such&#xA;  attenuation could be redirected in the XOR Mode). However, for the AND&#xA;  case, it is not clear that a listener should attenuate one and reject&#xA;  the other rather than rejecting both, or for that matter&#xA;  accepting-both, since the theory only says that the Select Mode can&#xA;  result in the attenuation of one message, not that in all competitive&#xA;  situations attenuation of all except one message must occur,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Table [2.1] shows that Treisman's model will not fit the facts.&#xA;  Notice the last three rows of data, AND is the percentage of ANDs&#xA;  (simultaneous targets) which were correctly detected in the lOR&#xA;  presentation mode. AND'&quot; is where IOR presentation was used with AND&#xA;  response only (other targets being ignored) , Here again responses to&#xA;  ANDs are extremely poor ... NAND is the percentage of single responses&#xA;  made either to a left target, or a right target, or to what was really&#xA;  an AND.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Now, if Treisman's model says that an: observer sharing his attention&#xA;  equally between two messages attenuates neither, AND should equal&#xA;  Singles. They do not. If he attenuates both messages ·when sharing&#xA;  equally between the two, NAND responses should be no better than AND&#xA;  responses, but they are. If the listener attenuates one channel and&#xA;  listens' only to the other, given that attention wandered from side to&#xA;  side the' observed results could be obtained; on the basis of the&#xA;  shadowing work Treisman maintains that information about crude&#xA;  physical characteristics is available from both messages even in&#xA;  Select Mode. But the data on AND responses shows that this is not&#xA;  true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Treisman's model does not then fit the data, and needs more&#xA;  elaboration to state explicitly what the predictions are from it about&#xA;  performance in the AND Mode.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uxieQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;Table 2.1&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I see it Moray is arguing that since attention is being split evenly between ears, when targets occur simultaneously the Attenuation model says both the left target and right target should be attenuated equally. So then when they get through the filter and are analyzed for meaning they should either both be ignored (if they've been attenuated too much) or else both be noticed (if they haven't been attenuated too much). Since the attenuation would have been of the same magnitude if there was just a target in one ear, there's no reason for simultaneous targets to be harder than single targets. But there is, and so there's something wrong with Treisman's model. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that a correct understanding of Moray's argument?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="8310" LastEditDate="2013-10-17T10:39:23.127" LastActivityDate="2013-10-24T01:48:08.483" Title="Why did Moray think Treisman's Attenuation Model was inconsistent with additional costs for simultaneous targets?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4801" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-17T14:31:37.470" Score="4" ViewCount="295" Body="&lt;p&gt;Petty is a word that is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/petty&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pretty clearly defined&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not very important or serious&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Relating to things that are not very important or serious&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in measuring the &lt;em&gt;degree&lt;/em&gt; that someone is likely to be focused on, or taking issue with things that most would consider to be trivial, unimportant or nonsensical. For instance, when interviewing a candidate for a position, how could I determine how likely this person is to latch onto issues that most would forget about within minutes of them occurring?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To better illustrate what I'm trying to measure, suppose someone was exposed to the following bits of information in a day:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The company lost over 14 billion in revenue due to gum-chewing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The city government outlawed all use of purple on Wednesdays&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We realized that alien civilizations exist on Mars and have been emulating us by what they pick up from our radio emissions, and formed boy bands&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A co-worker wasn't wearing the exact color socks specified in the employee handbook&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite the magnificence of events 1 - 3, the type of person &lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt; likely to place an inordinate amount of focus on all things petty can only dwell on number 4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a term for this and, moreover, a test to determine the degree of it in an individual's personality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2749" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-09-12T23:44:35.680" Title="Is it possible to quantify 'pettiness' in a personality?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4802" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4793" CreationDate="2013-10-17T15:38:47.590" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two functions that I'm aware of that are involved, though there of course may be more I'm simply unaware of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first is so-called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mirror neurons&lt;/a&gt;. Cognitively, neurologically, and evolutionary, we generally assume that the brain tends to be very efficient to be able to get its immense job done in so little space, so quickly, with so little 'power' (food). One result of this pressure is re-use, so that the same parts of the brain that are used in active experience of something are also used for recalling, thinking about, and indeed perceiving others experience similar things (thus the mirror neurons). To see someone else itch compels us to think about itching, and to recall/think about/understand itching is to activate the same parts of the brain that register the concept of itching in ourselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This then neatly leads into (and overlaps) with another set of effects: conscious awareness and selective attending. The nature of our conscious awareness is that it is limited - we can't consciously attend to everything at once. And thus we have perceptual and cognitive filters (and we have lots of theories over time that have developed this context - I think the &quot;leaky filter&quot; hybrid model being the most recent, but I can't recall the name of the researcher(s) who came up with it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This set of functions give us the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocktail_party_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cocktail party effect&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/6727-invisible-gorilla-test-shows-notice.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;invisible gorilla experiments&lt;/a&gt;, change blindness, and so many fun others. It also effects how we respond to &quot;how happy are you&quot; questions; another fun experiment was that finding a nickle on a copying machine before you get asked about your happiness and satisfaction in life causes one to respond more positively to even general questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I digress...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contagious yawning - and in itching! - the act of perceiving someone itching can direct our attention to personal comfort and any potential itchiness. For instance, if you are fully dressed right now (including socks): you know that 'seam' at the end of the sock down by your toes? Does that always go above your toes on the top of your foot, or does it sometimes kind of work it's way down so it's at the bend of your toes underneath your foot?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, I have gone all morning without thinking about it, but now I realize my sock is a little twisted, I think the heel of the sock has slid a bit off-center, and the top of my boot is rather tight while the lower part of the laces could be tighter. Also, my ankle kind of itches a little.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact of modern life is, quite frankly, there is always something that could use a good scratching! Like my back right now...answering this question is making me wish for a scratching post. Multiple layers of clothes of varying fibers, little skin folds, body hair, all those tiny little follicles and pores mean there's bound to be at least one little pimple somewhere, and even if you are very flexible there's always places that aren't terribly easy to reach...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So perhaps a better question is &quot;why aren't we itchy all the time?!&quot; Thankfully, most of us have filters that consider many of these sensations relatively unimportant, so they don't get passed over into something that captures our conscious awareness. Also, we are busy: there's lots to think about in the world, so we tend to only think about it when we are given a cue like trying on clothing, or looking at an irritated/injured piece of skin...or seeing someone else itching. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given these are cognitive processes, we can also view what happens when they go wrong, as manifested in symptoms and disorders such as intrusive thoughts, &quot;sensitive skin&quot; or tactile sensitivity (especially common in the autism spectrum), etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TLDR;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First we perceive, then we imagine, then we &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;experience&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; - empathy! Sad songs can make us sad, in part because they remind us of the sadness that is an unavoidable part of life, and also in part because to think about sadness we can't help but feel at least a little sad; the only reason we aren't sad all the time is because there are happy things to think about, too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Itching is like an elephant - try not to think about it. Oops, too late!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3382" LastActivityDate="2013-10-17T15:38:47.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4803" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4402" CreationDate="2013-10-17T17:13:26.907" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;People certainly express a dislike for drama for different reasons, and I'm going to hazard explaining a few of them that I think are potentially useful:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Expressing an opinion on 'drama', especially on social media, is&#xA;usually a response to a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/medicine/reflective/2.xml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;critical incident&lt;/a&gt;. Just as one&#xA;generally does not go around complaining about dishonest auto&#xA;mechanics (or car salesmen, or insurance salesmen, or crazy&#xA;psychologists...) just to make conversation, one hopefully does not&#xA;go around complaining about 'drama' unless one is responding to an&#xA;event or set of events in-particular. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's different about interpersonal conflict is that, unless one is&#xA;a shut-in, there are limitless opportunities to experience it, and&#xA;thus there's always a potential cue handy if one wishes to opine.&#xA;And oh, how some people love to opine!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This critical incident hypothesis, if you will, is most likely to&#xA;explain things like updating a profile or making a particular&#xA;comment, etc. It isn't a sufficient explanation for a pattern of&#xA;behavior, however - if it seems to be their favorite topic of&#xA;discussion, it's probably not a simple critical incident.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If it's a person's favorite complaint, or perhaps with a&#xA;dating-style site if it appears as a litmus test or chief complaint,&#xA;it could be due to an on-going or past trauma. In other words,&#xA;someone has experienced interpersonal conflict they find so&#xA;unreasonable, and so deeply hurtful, that it's their most obvious&#xA;non-negotiable list item when they go to think about what they don't&#xA;want.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The reason the op eludes to is, in my favorite way to explain it, &lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/31953/the-louder-he-talked-of-his-honor-the-faster-we-counted-our-spoons&quot;&gt;the louder he talked of his honor the faster we counted the spoons&lt;/a&gt;. This is something we may refer to as an evaluation&#xA;heuristic: when people proclaim how much they are X, the most likely&#xA;they are not-X; or the louder they state they hate Y, the more&#xA;likely they are to exhibit the traits of Y.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, this can be an invaluably useful heuristic. As a woman&#xA;if you encounter a man who often favors expressing how much he hates&#xA;wife-beaters, for instance, you would likely do best to stay the&#xA;hell away from him (as personal anecdote, one of the most vile human&#xA;beings I've ever met often expressed his violent disgust for&#xA;domestic violence); child-molesters are often witnessed as offering,&#xA;unprompted, opinions about treating children well, etc. These sorts&#xA;of things are red flags.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what is a red flag, really? It's something out of the ordinary,&#xA;not generally experienced, that we perceive as being &quot;statistically&#xA;correlated&quot; with the experience of something bad. Sometimes these&#xA;gut feelings are good, sometimes they are mistaken, and they can&#xA;often be easily manipulated one way or the other - but one is&#xA;generally wise to never simply ignore such intuitions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, to be clear, this is only a heuristic - by definition it can be&#xA;wrong, and it doesn't really 'explain' the behavior itself. It's&#xA;just a good aid in decision-making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So while this is often true and valid, I do not offer this as a real&#xA;explanation for the behavior. For that I simply continue to...&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Selective attentiveness. If a person is dishonest, they surely&#xA;know the value of honesty - it gives people the benefit of doubts,&#xA;and &quot;confidence&quot; is the resource they most require to be successful&#xA;in their manipulations. As such, they are very much aware of honesty&#xA;and dishonesty, and actively try to cultivate such opinions. If&#xA;someone seems over-eager to gain your trust, there aren't many ways&#xA;for that to end well - maybe trying to get you to buy a $20 bottle&#xA;of fruit juice, at best.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as a criteria this one doesn't have total discriminatory&#xA;power - people commonly victimized (the ill and disabled, for&#xA;instance, people of low socio-economic class, etc), with PTSD, and&#xA;certain personalities might be more focused on honesty and&#xA;dishonesty. This is also made harder by context - if there is fear&#xA;of being disbelieved or a lack of personal confidence in the self,&#xA;this can be thrown way off and a person can be seen as dishonest&#xA;falsely. Sadly, this same effect causes con-men to be believed&#xA;because they learn to extort this heuristic and direct attention&#xA;where they want it.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It's code for something else. What does &quot;drama&quot; even mean? As you&#xA;point out, who the heck expresses a preference for interpersonal&#xA;conflict and irrational attention seeking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To them, it may have a specific meaning in their mind: a certain set&#xA;of related behaviors, probably mimicking soap-opera like &quot;blow&#xA;simple, common experiences out of proportion&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, I totally agree - it's important to have perspective, and&#xA;if people always have a rain cloud over their head it can be&#xA;fatiguing to be around them. However, all too often I've found this&#xA;to be a flag for people who express no particular concern, empathy,&#xA;or understanding of other people - they just don't care and don't&#xA;want to be bothered with &quot;other people's problems&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This all too often reflects a character of selfishness and unconcern&#xA;with others feelings, emotions, and experiences; someone might be&#xA;reaching out for a little understanding, or a kind word, or asking&#xA;for help, or even suffering from a severe mental or physical&#xA;illness, or just venting. Casually dismissing such things as &quot;drama&quot;&#xA;is...well, a red flag for me. But again, that's just a heuristic&#xA;I've found to be useful.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Critical mass, or &quot;everyone else says it&quot;. I'm fun-loving, too!&#xA;From a user-experience view (wearing a different hat), requiring&#xA;that someone say 'something' without guidance or proper&#xA;understanding of what someone should or should not say tends to get&#xA;people to just put what they think is appropriate based upon what&#xA;other people say or what you tell them they should put.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on where you are, you can find a whole lot of people&#xA;saying &quot;no drama&quot;. I don't know if they even know what it means, any&#xA;more than they know whether or not they are fun-loving or positive&#xA;or outgoing or upbeat.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Boorishness. Some people just don't make good conversation, and&#xA;maybe they just like to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilting_at_windmills&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tilt at windmills&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;They are middle-school or high-school aged girls. As a father of&#xA;two of said human beings, it appears to be in the genetic or&#xA;cultural makeup or realities of modern society that generate actual,&#xA;imagined, or commentary on, drama.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TLDR;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They might just be, or are in close-contact with, high-school girls. For deeper thinking, see above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3382" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2013-10-17T17:13:26.907" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4804" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4821" CreationDate="2013-10-17T18:14:14.227" Score="13" ViewCount="5056" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently been dabbling in the behavioral literature, reading about cognitive biases such an anchoring, when one of my friends asked me how this phenomenon differed from the classical cognitive psychology construct of priming. It struck me as odd that I couldn't form an explanation that convincingly tweezed them apart: both appear to be about prior exposure to a stimulus changing the reaction to subsequent stimuli. All I can come up with is that anchoring is generally used in a more narrow context while priming seems more like an umbrella term. That, or they could just be field specific terms for the same underlying cognitive processes. &lt;strong&gt;Is there some consensus as to how anchoring and priming are related?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One relevant &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/hypothesis-consistent_testing_and_semantic_priming_in_the_anchoring_paradigm-_a_selective_accessibility_model.pdf&quot;&gt;paper I've found&lt;/a&gt; suggests that priming (along with hypothesis testing) constitute the underlying mechanisms that operate within the anchoring &lt;em&gt;paradigm&lt;/em&gt;. However, this is just one (rather old) paper, so I think question as to the consensus viewpoint is still valid. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastActivityDate="2013-10-22T21:15:59.587" Title="What's the relationship between priming and anchoring?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;anchoring&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4806" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-18T19:32:30.327" Score="2" ViewCount="543" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently took part in psychological testing as part of a recruitment process to a job. I was not happy about the evaluation I got and I asked for a feedback discussion with the psychologist. The psychologist told me (among other things), that I could perform well in a situation that was undisturbed, when I could concentrate and when there was no time limit. But isn't that true about all people? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do there exist individuals, who start performing better when there is time pressure?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Of course there may be such individuals, but what would be a general rule that would apply to most normal mortal individuals?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The scores I got were slightly above average in IQ tests (there were also personality tests). So I should not have problems with solving problems fast, too. At least I performed like other normal average people do. Still the psychologist wanted to stress the fact that I can perform well when I can concentrate and there is no time limit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There were no tests in which I would have been disturbed in any manner. The tests were largely automated and the test room was a quiet classroom. Other applicants, other test subjects like me, were all also doing their tests quietly in front of computers. As far as I can recall, most IQ tests did have a time limit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3699" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-19T00:53:04.060" LastActivityDate="2013-10-30T20:50:19.410" Title="Effect of time limits on problem solving" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4774" CreationDate="2013-10-18T22:09:23.013" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will deviate from the other answers and give more pessimistic response based on my experience as a mathematician and theoretical computer scientist that spends some of his time in a psychology department. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In cognitive science, neuroscience, and psychology (like in most sciences) you will never &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; mathematics in the definition, lemma, theorem, proof sense. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Instead, &lt;strong&gt;you will rely on using (or modifying) mathematical tools others built&lt;/strong&gt;, and doing calculations with them. (for a list of tools, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4780/29&quot;&gt;see Memming's answer&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/288/29&quot;&gt;more detail here on dynamic systems&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Most of your colleagues will not know what you are doing (since the usual extent of training is linear regression),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and even the ones that are trained in mathematical tools will usually use them in a rather black-box way without making deep connections to other parts of mathematics.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; mathematics and prove theorems then your are better off in one of the following fields allied to cognitive science:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mathematical linguistics -- although most people here still focus on tool use, there are some that prove things using ideas from category theory, mathematical logic, and a bit of topology (through &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curry%E2%80%93Howard_correspondence#Curry.E2.80.93Howard.E2.80.93Lambek_correspondence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Curry-Howard-Lambek crrespondence&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_duality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stone duality&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Economics -- most of the proofs here seem to be performances, but sometimes deep results are proven, usually related to game theory and decision theory. A solid grasp of analysis will be useful and topology will be relevant since most results follow from fixed-point theorems.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/985/29&quot;&gt;Computational learning theory&lt;/a&gt; -- this subfield of theoretical computer science often can use very deep mathematics (usually from graph theory, combinatorics, optimization, discrete Fourier analysis, probability, and information theory) in its proofs, and has a history of interaction with cognitive science which has unfortunately waned in recent years.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2013-10-18T22:09:23.013" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4808" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-18T22:19:50.253" Score="3" ViewCount="2064" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we become adults, we think that love is for adults only associating it with sexual relations but I'm sure that all of us have loved or have had some admiration for the daughter of the neighborhood or a girl attending the same school: that's an idyllic love, I'm sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we know that childhood is characterized by a strong learning capacities and that the learned experiences will have a strong impact on the future behavior of the child, thus the future man or woman, can someone accept easily to see the girl(for a man) or the boy(for a girl) that he/she  dreamt in married with another one (when he begins his adulthood).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Isn't such a heart-breaking experience, that can prevent our mind from trying to build new relationships (since we can not replace, at least in our mind,the representation of the loved one while it's becoming a nightmare in the same time)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And when our mind survive this chaos, will he seek to find someone  resembling the one loved during childhood without that we even notice?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How is it that people overcome the initial pain of failed love to feel brave enough to risk such pain again when starting relationships?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do people tend to look for someone who reminds them of their first love?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any studies or statistics for married couples that were &quot;in love&quot; since childhood?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3700" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-19T00:49:20.043" LastActivityDate="2015-04-07T18:27:32.540" Title="Impact of the first love experience" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-04-26T07:05:59.720" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4809" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-19T04:01:55.027" Score="1" ViewCount="1140" Body="&lt;p&gt;In form entries, what is most commonly understood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Please enter alphanumeric characters&quot; or &quot;Please enter letters and numbers&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3701" LastActivityDate="2013-10-19T04:01:55.027" Title="&quot;Please enter alphanumeric characters&quot; or &quot;Please enter letters and numbers&quot;?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2013-10-27T08:17:29.283" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4810" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-19T07:53:29.037" Score="2" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/compassion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cambridge Dictionaries&lt;/a&gt; define the word compassion as: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a strong feeling of sympathy and sadness for the suffering or bad luck of others and a wish to help them&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A sample might be when you see a homeless kid, suffering the cold of the winter, and you would like to help him have a warm home for at least one night. This desire is very powerful in some people, such that they become altruists (preferring benefits of others over their personal benefits) and very weak in some other people (egoists who prefer their benefits over benefit of other people).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any analysis for this attribute in cognitive sciences (or behaviorism)? By &lt;code&gt;any analysis&lt;/code&gt; I mean are they being studied under the domain of cognitive sciences or not, and if so, what are the most known and accepted theories for them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2850" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T15:56:58.587" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T15:56:58.587" Title="Does cognitive &amp; behavioral schools have any analysis for &quot;sympathy&quot; &amp; &quot;compassion&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2015-05-12T15:57:13.500" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4811" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-19T10:37:44.933" Score="5" ViewCount="255" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed a tendency these days for people to take pictures of the things they see in the public with their phones. This is fine, but I have found that it has gone to an extend where in a dire situation, people were too busy taking pictures of the scene (for blogging, Facebook, etc) to call the police or help the victims. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having that said, I'm not sure if this is just my own observation. Are there any studies or even terms or keywords describing and explaining such phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="592" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-10-19T23:17:05.233" LastActivityDate="2013-10-22T21:56:55.517" Title="Any studies on the phenomenon of photo-taking even in dire situations?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4812" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-19T20:23:19.487" Score="4" ViewCount="323" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, I can imagine me eating barbecue with some details, like appearance,  smell, temperature, taste etc, and I end up experiencing all these qualities to a certain extent. But I guess each one of us feels it with a different intensity. Is there a way to verify that? Are different levels of sensory imagination associated with some personality traits?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is a related question, but it does not talk about the intensity of it: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1634/what-happens-when-a-person-imagines-how-food-could-taste-like-just-from-lookin&quot;&gt;What happens when a person &amp;quot;imagines&amp;quot; how food could taste like just from looking at it?&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3217" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-07-04T06:15:54.777" Title="What are the clues on how 'vivid' someone's sensory imagination is?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4813" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4828" CreationDate="2013-10-20T11:20:11.400" Score="6" ViewCount="149" Body="&lt;p&gt;The reason I ask is that I often hear of alternate measures of response bias besides β, but have never heard of an alternate measure of detection sensitivity to d'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is no other measure of detection sensitivity, is that a matter of mathematical necessity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-21T06:19:50.347" LastActivityDate="2013-10-25T00:10:03.760" Title="In SDT, are there other measures of detection sensitivity besides d'?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4814" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-20T12:57:18.890" Score="7" ViewCount="8593" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a question about pettiness &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4801/is-it-possible-to-quantify-pettiness-in-a-personality&quot;&gt;Is it possible to quantify &amp;#39;pettiness&amp;#39; in a personality?&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which gives a good example of how some people can focus on seemingly unimportant issues, when there are more obvious issues that would seem to warrant attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would cause a person to focus, even fixate on small, petty things; for example: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a co-worker's tardiness, when the employer's company is facing a takeover and jobs may be lost.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the makeup one of the school Mum's was wearing, when there's been a robbery at the school&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering what the possible causes of pettiness may be?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2019-05-29T14:42:02.127" Title="What are the possible causes of pettiness?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4815" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4814" CreationDate="2013-10-20T12:57:18.890" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There can always be many variables for what causes human behavior, within this answer I will focus on three more obvious or, perhap, likely causes for pettiness within individuals.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This could be one of a variety of causes stemming from the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schadenfreude&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (or related disorders)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Disorders on the Autistic spectrum&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Schadenfreude:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the majority of situations this would be the most likely cause of such pettiness, as it is applicable to a more mainstream type of behavior. The chance to show up a deficit or shortcoming in another, motivated by jealousy of, or a feeling of unease stemming from threat  by, that person..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We are primed for pettiness, programmed to notice seemingly inconsequential gradations, but for good reason: Being chronically dissatisfied is an effective stimulus to best your more complacent peers. (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could well be the result of schadenfreude (translated to harm-joy), which refers to the pleasure people gain from the misfortunes of someone they perceive to be a high achiever or be envious of. This is based on envy derived from poor self esteem and/or lack of validation of that person's self esteem and a reaction to a perceived threat, from a fellow high-achiever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The greater the  focus on seemingly petty things, the greater the individual's  psychic conflict or neediness and by this I refer to, the need for validation of self-worth and reaffirming their rank as a human being within a given community.  For such anxiety to cloud judgement to give a, seemingly, inconsequential issue, precedence over what seem to be more important issues. For this individual the need to validate themselves as a person is greater than national, global or even cosmic issues for which this individual has no control over, and which may have no immediate effect on that person's life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The present research shows that people with low self-esteem experience more schadenfreude toward the misfortune of a high- achiever than those with high self-esteem and that this relationship is mediated by the self-threat evoked by the high-achiever. Moreover, the indirect relationship between self-esteem and schadenfreude is contingent on an opportunity of self-affirmation. When no self-affirmation opportunity is available, low-self-esteem participants experience a stronger self-threat when confronted with a high-achiever, and this self-threat increases their schadenfreude. (2)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although OCD is usually referring to the compulsive ritualised activities of an individual, as a result of an underlying obsession. If an observer with OCD, witness what may be regarded to most people as petty, but the observed behavior happens to cross into the area of obsession for that person, it could well be that person's attempt to alleviate their own anxiety that is triggered by the perceived aberrant behavior. An example being, observing someone leave the toilet cubicle and restroom without washing their hands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, or OCD, is an anxiety disorder and is characterized by recurrent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and/or repetitive behaviors (compulsions). Repetitive behaviors such as hand-washing, counting or cleaning are often performed with the hope of preventing obsessive thoughts or making them go away. Performing these so-called &quot;rituals,&quot; however, provides only temporary relief, and not performing them markedly increases anxiety&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disorders on the Autistic spectrum&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People with disorders that lie on the autistic spectrum, can frequently have preoccupation or obsession with details, that may seem inconsequential to others, or even petty. As with OCD, this perceived pettiness could be an attempt to alleviate the individual's anxiety and to assist in making sense of the world, as this type of individual is frequently inflexible and views the world through a set of structured ideas, that do not easily facilitate or blend with the fluid nature of life and human behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Obsessions”, “circumscribed interests”, “special interests”, “routines”, “rituals” , &#xA;  “preoccupations” are some of the terms used when describing the behaviour of young &#xA;  children with autism. These behaviours belong to one of the three core areas of &#xA;  impairment in children with autism. (4)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200508/why-you-think-youll-never-stack&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Why You Think You'll Never Stack Up&lt;/a&gt; by Carlin Flora, Psychology Today (1)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Self-Esteem, Self-Affirmation, and Schadenfreude&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Wilco W. van Dijk, Guido M. van Koningsbruggen, Jaap W. Ouwerkerk and Yoka M. Wesseling DOI:  10.1037/a0026331 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goallab.nl/publications/documents/2011_Emotion_Van%20Dijk%20et%20al.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt; (2)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://bbrfoundation.org/ocd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Brain and Behavior Research Foundation &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Restricted, repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interest and activities&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dr Avril V Brereton, Monash University  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.med.monash.edu.au/spppm/research/devpsych/actnow/download/factsheet47.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt; (4)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-10-20T12:57:18.890" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4816" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4036" CreationDate="2013-10-20T15:12:08.933" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alfred Kinsey's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kinseyinstitute.org/research/ak-data.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;studies&lt;/a&gt; show a noteworthy occurrence of bisexual/homosexual behavior and multiple partners in the population, despite the fixture of heterosexual monogamy in our culture. EDIT: This first statement is intended to demonstrate that non-heterosexual behavior does naturally occur in the population. I am rewriting the rest to be much less ambiguous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;James A. Haught &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.holysmoke.org/haught/sects.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wrote&lt;/a&gt; that Western religion has always been a haven for the sexually repressed. One could argue strongly against sexual repression in light of the Catholic church abuse scandals. The next logical step is that sexual repression creates pathology, and thus anti-social behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2838" LastEditorUserId="2838" LastEditDate="2014-02-06T22:03:16.933" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T22:03:16.933" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4817" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4811" CreationDate="2013-10-21T09:49:47.147" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Firstly  historical background:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The phenomena of people witnessing atrocities and not acting predates photo taking. It is known as Diffusion of responsibility or Bystander effect. (1) The likelihood of an individual offering assistance or calling for help is inversely proportion to the number of people present in the group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This phenomena can be attributed to the concepts of deindividuation (2) and victim blaming (3). Deindividuation is the notion that an individual loses their independent consciousness to a degree as being drawn into a group consciousness, that acting within a group, revokes all personal responsibility and accountability for actions or inactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Victim blaming is the propensity for people to blame the victims of violent crimes for somehow being complicit in bringing about the crime. By reckless behavior, perceived immoral conduct. This can the false comfort people seek as a protection, that it wouldn't happen to them, as such events are not part of chance, but rather have causal roots within the victim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the cause underlying this mentality runs deeper into the human  psyche and taps into a primitive part of human nature that will form a subconscious alliance with the perceived stronger aggressor and so have less mercy towards the weaker victim. This is seen in more personal and extreme cases in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rainn.org/get-information/effects-of-sexual-assault/stockholm-syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stockholm Syndrome&lt;/a&gt; and on the coninuum of domestic violence. The following quote demonstrates this argument where the threat is real and present. I postulate this fear is underlying within many people's subconscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to remember that Stockholm Syndrome develops subconsciously and on an involuntary basis. The strategy is a survival instinct that develops as an attempt to survive in a threatening and controlling environment. (4)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Photo taking:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has always been a voyeuristic nature to photography. (5)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The advent of internet communication, social media and the glut of social networking platforms have given rise to a popular form of communication, via the image. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pinterest.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pinterest&lt;/a&gt; being a good example. The availability of new technologies enabling people to take photos and upload instantly online, makes a tragic scene an tantalising opportunity for individuals to gain recognition online. Perhaps enhancing their perceived status or popularity, at the very least gaining them attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The psychology of the photographer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a little researched area. I cannot find much on this topic, maybe somebody else can.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This book by Joel Morgovsky examines some of these issues (I am unable to quote further  than the following):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While photographs are the most abundant image form in the world today, they are, at the same time, also the least carefully analyzed. Not one psychologist, to this writer’s knowledge, has attempted to apply relevant research on imagery and the creative process to the study of photographs as personal and cultural communications. Writers, painters, sculptors and scientists have served for years as illustrations of the creative personality, the creative process, and the creative product; photographers and photographs have not (Lindauer, 1977). (6)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears Joel Morgovsky has an interest in ongoing research into this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Div. 1 (Society for General Psychology) member Joel Morgovsky, pictures aren't just windows through which we look out onto the world--they also serve as mirrors into the photographer's mind. (7)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327809jls1302_2#.UmTXuvlmiSo&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Bystander Effect: A Lens for Understanding Patterns of Participation&lt;/a&gt; James M. Hudson &amp;amp; Amy S. Bruckman DOI:10.1207/s15327809jls1302_2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(2) Zimbardo, Phillip G. &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.babson.edu/krollag/org_site/soc_psych/zimbardo_deinvid.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Human Choice: Individuation, Reason, and Order Versus Deindividuation, Impulse, and Chaos&lt;/a&gt;, In W. T. Arnold and D. Levine (eds.), Nebraska symposium on Motiviation, Vol 17., 1969.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(3) &lt;a href=&quot;http://jiv.sagepub.com/content/26/9/1785&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blaming the Victim and Exonerating the Perpetrator in Cases of Rape and Robbery: Is There a Double Standard?&lt;/a&gt; Steffen Bieneck, Barbara Krahé doi: 10.1177/0886260510372945&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(4) Rainn.org &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rainn.org/get-information/effects-of-sexual-assault/stockholm-syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stockholm Syndrome&lt;/a&gt; Dr Joseph Carver&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(5) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.portrait.gov.au/magazine/article.php?articleID=29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Exposed: Voyeurism Surveillance and the camera since 1870&lt;/a&gt; Sandra S Phillips and Simon Baker portrait.gov.au&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(6) Noses on Our Faces: The Non-Use of Photography in Psychological Research and Practice&#xA;Joel Morgovsky &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-1179-9_18&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;DOI 10.1007/978-1-4684-1179-9_18&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(7) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/2008/07-08/apf-funding.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;American Pyschological Association&lt;/a&gt; Funding opportunities&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-10-21T09:49:47.147" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4819" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4820" CreationDate="2013-10-21T18:16:36.893" Score="-1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not a psychology student, but I'm doing a subjective experiment which is similar to magnitude estimation: simply measure the effect of different stimulus through a number from 1-10.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I need to build a model to explain those numbers, i.e. why different patterns corresponds to different numbers. I find it so difficult and vague that I don't really know how to proceed. Any complicated mathematical model can explain data very well. Are you based on biological evidence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2879" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-04T07:40:01.323" LastActivityDate="2014-01-04T07:40:01.323" Title="Build model to explain data" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2014-01-18T21:21:26.533" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4820" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4819" CreationDate="2013-10-22T00:55:16.617" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a little unclear what you're asking. In general, psychologists try to build models that are parsimonious; this often means only introducing new parameters (particularly free parameters) into a model when they are absolutely necessary. You are right that with a sufficient number of free parameters, one can build a model that fits the data perfectly. But such a model has no generalizability: if you overfit your model to your data, the model will predict novel data very poorly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, a model is preferred when its parameters have some psychological plausibility. That is, a parameter of the model should correspond to some psychological construct (e.g. working memory capacity, neural noise, etc). This is particularly important because it tells psychologists something about cognition and behavior, which is often the goal. If the parameters of a model are completely arbitrary, it's not always clear what we learn from it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are again correct that the choice in how to model psychological data is still vague. One many choose between any number of formalisms, such as neural networks or symbolic systems, and it is common for a phenomenon to be modeled in many different ways. Indeed, much of the cognitive modeling literature is full of numerous approaches to the same problem, with each author arguing in favor of their own approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best way to figure out how to model your data is to read other papers that model the same or similar tasks. Look at what other researchers have done, and assess the merits of their approach. If possible, read multiple papers that model the same task in different ways (often researchers from opposing camps will cite each other).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2013-10-24T22:02:38.357" LastActivityDate="2013-10-24T22:02:38.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4821" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4804" CreationDate="2013-10-22T07:11:19.303" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Priming&lt;/strong&gt;: Stimulus A influences perception/processing of stimulus B. E.g. you walk past an Italian restaurant and smell pizza. When you enter the supermarket and consider what you want to make for dinner, you might be more strongly inclined to bake a pizza, then when you hadn't smelled the delectable pizza from the restaurant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Anchoring&lt;/strong&gt;: The first information in a series if informations influences your processing of the whole of this information. E.g. if you are asked to guess (not calculate) the result of 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 you might guess a higher number compared to your guess of the result for 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8, because the first number in that calculation (1 versus 8) influences your judgment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the theoretical difference is that while in priming one stimulus influences the processing of &lt;em&gt;another&lt;/em&gt;, later stimulus, in anchoring the form of the beginning of the information influences the processing of &lt;em&gt;the whole&lt;/em&gt; information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless it has been suggested that anchoring is caused by an underlying priming (Mussweiler &amp;amp; Strack, 1999; from the abstract):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results of four studies support the notion that anchoring effects are mediated by&#xA;  mechanisms of hypothesis-consistent testing and semantic priming. ... Study 4 suggests that self-generation of knowledge contributes to the robustness of the effect, thus resolving the seeming inconsistency that anchoring effects are at the same time remarkably robust and mediated by typically fragile semantic priming mechanisms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mussweiler, T. &amp;amp; Strack, F. (1999). Hypothesis-consistent testing and semantic priming in the anchoring paradigm: A selective accessibility model. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35&lt;/em&gt;, 136-164. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1998.1364&quot;&gt;10.1006/jesp.1998.1364&lt;/a&gt; Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/hypothesis-consistent_testing_and_semantic_priming_in_the_anchoring_paradigm-_a_selective_accessibility_model.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/hypothesis-consistent_testing_and_semantic_priming_in_the_anchoring_paradigm-_a_selective_accessibility_model.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="20" LastEditDate="2013-10-22T21:15:59.587" LastActivityDate="2013-10-22T21:15:59.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4822" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-22T16:02:25.310" Score="4" ViewCount="178" Body="&lt;p&gt;The process of ethnic identity development is similar to the process of identity development in general. Often the precipitating event involves an experience during which the individual encounters prejudice and becomes aware of his or her group's under-representation in some activity or setting. Following this crisis, individuals engage in a period of exploration during which they immerse themselves about their ethnic heritage. I am interested in knowing more about how this process of self-exploration leads to increases in self-esteem? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3711" LastActivityDate="2013-10-27T17:14:47.623" Title="How does ethnic identity contribute to a person's self esteem" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4823" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-22T23:32:51.763" Score="4" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, would a two-colour object attract attention more quickly than a one-colour object, or vice-versa?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastActivityDate="2013-10-22T23:32:51.763" Title="Do single-feature objects tend to attract attention more rapidly than conjunction objects, or vice-versa?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4824" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4832" CreationDate="2013-10-23T09:21:51.133" Score="1" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have an idea for an experiment.  Basically, the experiment would be to create a novel transmission of &lt;em&gt;visual&lt;/em&gt; information via the human vocal chords, but not as a traditional human spoken language per se.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The vocal chords are first trained by an external instrument to produce a specific pattern that is associated with an image such as a simple circle.  In addition, a &quot;listening&quot; machine is calibrated to process the sounds emanating from the vocal chords.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At first, this doesn't sound so different than language as we use it now and how we interact with voice-recognition technology such as Siri, but what if the vocal chords were trained to produce patterns an order of magnitude more quickly than what is currently achievable?  The current world record for speaking is 637 words per minute or 10 words per second.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the patterns that I am thinking of would completely bypass our language processing centers and be immediately received by our visual cortex (or something like that).  After all, a picture is worth a thousand words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, are there any vocal chord experiments that attempt to synthesize communication externally or come anywhere close to what I am proposing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3712" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-23T10:41:01.400" LastActivityDate="2013-10-25T19:39:28.740" Title="Are there any vocal chord experiments that attempt to synthesize communication externally?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4826" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4800" CreationDate="2013-10-24T01:48:08.483" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neville Moray has given permission for his answer (provided via personal correspondence) to be quoted here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Treisman said that physical characteristics such as loudness or pitch were not attenuated by selective attention, because although you can't hear semantic information from rejected messages in shadowing experiments, you can hear changes in pitch, or tell a pure tone from speech. So according to her you should be able to listen to two different tones simultaneously. But my experiment showed that you can't.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3716" LastActivityDate="2013-10-24T01:48:08.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4827" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1713" CreationDate="2013-10-24T16:42:49.057" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting that you mention ethics. Regardless of the validity of the MBTI (or rather lack thereof - try searching the web for independent professional opinions rather than just listening to the Myers-Briggs Foundation marketing), my main problem with it is that I personally believe it is foremost a money-making scam. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Myers-Briggs Foundation will not let you do the test unless it is delivered by a certified practitioner, supposedly to safeguard against it being administered incorrectly. Only certified practitioners are allowed to purchase copies of the test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I have personally done the formal test before as part of a professional development workshop and know from experience that the test itself no more difficult to administer than countless other free online personality tests. The seminar bundled with the test also requires no particular skill to deliver, and the content could be summarised in a few pages of reading. In spite of this, the cost to undergo MBTI &quot;certification&quot; ranges in the order of $1000. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, after making such a fuss that one cannot undergo the MBTI without help from someone &quot;qualified&quot; with thousand-dollar certification, the Myers-Briggs Foundation then actually does offer the MBTI online, just like countless other automated online personality tests, only this one costs $50.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3719" LastActivityDate="2013-10-24T16:42:49.057" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4828" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4813" CreationDate="2013-10-25T00:10:03.760" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there are several alternatives to d'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, &lt;strong&gt;why do we need alternatives to d'?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;d' assumes the distribution of internal representation of signal and noise are Gaussian. This assumption is common, but may not be true, and a measure that does not make this assumption is more robust.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There are technical problems computing d' when the &lt;em&gt;Hit Rate&lt;/em&gt; or the &lt;em&gt;False Alarm Rate&lt;/em&gt; are 0 or 1 (d' becomes inf or -inf). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Proposed alternatives to d' include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Area under the ROC (Green &amp;amp; Swets, 1966)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A'&lt;/strong&gt; (Pollak &amp;amp; Norman, 1964), &lt;strong&gt;A''&lt;/strong&gt; (Smith, 1995) which is a correction of A', and &lt;strong&gt;A&lt;/strong&gt; (Zhang &amp;amp; Mueller, 2005) which is a correction of A''.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;S'&lt;/strong&gt; (Balakrishnan, 1998)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Balakrishnan, J. D. (1998). Some more sensitive measures of sensitivity and response bias. Psychological Methods, 3(1), 68.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zhang, J., &amp;amp; Mueller, S. T. (2005). A note on ROC analysis and non-parametric estimate of sensitivity. Psychometrika, 70(1), 203-212.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, W. D. (1995). Clarification of sensitivity measure A'. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 39(1), 82-89.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pollack, I., &amp;amp; Norman, D. A. (1964). A non-parametric analysis of recognition experiments. Psychonomic Science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Green, D. M., &amp;amp; Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics (Vol. 1). New York: Wiley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2013-10-25T00:10:03.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4830" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-25T14:51:10.060" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering, is there any research or just reasoning over whether a human perceives text easier if it is in questions and answers format or if it is structured with headings and sub-headings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions and answers is close to the natural dialogue communication between two people, which is what we have been accustomed to for ages. One sided communication - text-to-reader is a very recent novelty, evolutionary speaking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time, I have this obscure gut feeling, that Q&amp;amp;A format, even if combined with headings, does not look &quot;authoritative&quot; enough. I cannot explain why, this is just the way I am feeling it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The specific occasion for coming up with this whole question is that I am writing a job ad. And I have the feeling that if I use Q&amp;amp;A format, it won't look serious, won't be memorable, or something like that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastActivityDate="2013-10-30T02:26:48.483" Title="Q&amp;A vs headings format" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4831" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-25T16:32:50.723" Score="10" ViewCount="11987" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people are very careless when reading instruction on a work task they've been given or in reading any other kind of text. They would skip some of the sentences, not get deep into other and generally care very little if they understood the text right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the common reason behind such behaviour - too little &quot;cognitive capacity&quot; or general disrespect towards other people/ egocentrism or too much dependence on emotional stimuli vs reasoning challenges or attention deficit disorder or simply low intelligence, etc?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T07:10:32.430" LastActivityDate="2018-10-14T02:48:09.273" Title="Why don't people read instructions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4832" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4824" CreationDate="2013-10-25T19:39:28.740" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have studied computational neuroscience, first as an undergraduate at the University of Chicago, and then as a graduate student at UCSD and the Salk Institute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an answer to your question, to my knowledge, and after a quick search on google scholar, there are no studies that try to reroute auditory information to the visual cortex through the vocal chords. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I wouldn't imagine there would be. Auditory (cochlear, thalamic and cortical) and visual (retinal, thalamic and cortical) processing centers  are highly optimized for different flavors of information. Visual information is higher band-width, continuous along multiple dimensions, and relies on many parallel filters and aggregators. Auditory information is serial, and recursive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's some information that might help you get to the heart of your inquiry. First, take a look at neural prosthetics in general. These facillitate information delivery directly to the nervous system, bypassing sensory input:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroprosthetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroprosthetics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a look at sensory modality switching, take a look at delivering visual information through tongue stimulators (work pioneered by an interesting researcher named Paul Bach-y-Rita):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, take a look at an experiment in which visual information is sent to the auditory cortex, by way of thalamic surgery in ferrets, if I have my citation correct. The auditory cortex proved to be able to adapt to the visual information by forming some structural characteristics of the visual cortex:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v404/n6780/abs/404841a0.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v404/n6780/abs/404841a0.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the most interesting part of that last link, in terms of your inquiry, is that the visual information did not bypass auditory processing centers. It transformed them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3727" LastActivityDate="2013-10-25T19:39:28.740" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4834" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-26T18:46:52.983" Score="1" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could you, please, explain the difference between social proof and herd behavior, if such exists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me, they are the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3728" LastActivityDate="2013-10-26T18:46:52.983" Title="Social proof vs herd behavior" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-10-27T14:55:01.643" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4835" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-27T03:07:34.743" Score="4" ViewCount="301" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to measure &lt;strong&gt;peak cognitive performance&lt;/strong&gt; in healthy individuals, for situation awareness, reaction time, visuo-spatial processing etc. I am interested in &lt;strong&gt;both within-subject and between-subject changes for pre-post test interventions.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a number of 'standardised' and 'validated' commercial test batteries that have been used in both clinical and healthy populations. Could anyone explain what is the difference between using the 'visuo-spatial processing' test module in ANAM as compared to the same module in CANTAB, PenScreen etc etc?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is a principled way to choose which test battery module to use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3729" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-08-19T17:48:07.857" LastActivityDate="2016-08-19T17:48:07.857" Title="How does one make a decision between different cognitive tests for the same construct?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4837" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4822" CreationDate="2013-10-27T17:14:47.623" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would look at Jennifer Crocker and Brenda Major's paper in 1989, Psychological Review, entitled &quot;Social Stigma and Self-Esteem: The Self-Protective Properties of Stigma&quot; which focuses on how being the target of social stigma can actually be protective of one's self-esteem.  It's not precisely what you're discussing but it comes the closest in the literature I know and they're discussion and bibliography would likely be a good starting point.  Hope this helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3731" LastActivityDate="2013-10-27T17:14:47.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4838" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-28T09:31:34.853" Score="2" ViewCount="169" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm an Electronics Engineer and I work in Software Development. &#xA;I'm on SSRIs, for years for different conditions, like bipoar, GAD, ..etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel that my problem solving abilities really dropped down, I would like to know from researchers, do these medications really affect the brain, or it stops it for more thoughts?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;For exmaple those medications help for OCD, and that means it really stops or relax the thoughts, I feel the same no care feelings for solving mathematical, algorithmic problems or any thing that has huge brain activity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need to know what is the latest research for that area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3734" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-10-28T13:40:47.010" LastActivityDate="2013-10-28T17:00:32.910" Title="SSRI Medications and Problem solving" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-10-28T20:32:20.953" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4839" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4840" CreationDate="2013-10-28T13:31:57.630" Score="1" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing an ethnographic study for a human computer interaction module and I understand all the processes of conducting ethnography. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am unsure of how to structure my study. Is it conventional to have it in an essay format, or are case studies preferred? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3735" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-10-28T16:40:23.313" LastActivityDate="2013-10-28T16:40:23.313" Title="What is the best way to structure an ethnographic study?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4840" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4839" CreationDate="2013-10-28T14:29:48.980" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have used ethnography for similar purposes several times. Structuring the interviews so that you are an apprentice and your subject plays the role of a master artisan works well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book, &quot;Contextual Design&quot; by Beyer and Holtzblatt provides several modeling techniques for expressing the information in some ways that add significantly to essay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B003VM7GEC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.com/Contextual-Design-Customer-Centered-Technologies-ebook/dp/B003VM7GEC/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&amp;amp;qid=1382970418&amp;amp;sr=8-1&amp;amp;keywords=holtzblatt&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2013-10-28T14:29:48.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4838" CreationDate="2013-10-28T17:00:32.910" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Memory impairments are connected to fluid inteligence... read this:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16206235&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16206235&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also consider that stress and ageing decrease fluid inteligence. In addition you said that you care less to solve... it is motivational not cognitive problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;for real conclusion try to find if you did take any inteligence test (with norms) and try to visit clinical psychologist to compare your new result to old result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Result from clinical psychologist is most important because maybe you have only impression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2013-10-28T17:00:32.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4843" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4789" CreationDate="2013-10-28T17:28:30.750" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question seems to be asking several things at once, but to answer to the title: yes, there exist &amp;quot;social&amp;quot; relationships where either one or all of the people involved are disinterested in sex. The term for a person who is not interested in sex is &amp;quot;asexual&amp;quot;, and asexual people may be aromantic (not interested in any romantic relationship), or bi-, hetero- or homosexual (though bi-, hetero- or homoromantic would probably be a better term here). Scherrer (2008) reports on a survey of asexual people:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this sample, eleven participants described themselves as aromantic while twenty-five described themselves as romantically oriented. Like the issue of masturbation, I did not know to include questions regarding romantic identity, however, as this data suggests, this theme emerged as important for many participants. For Mark, his romantic identity, “means [that] I separate the romance feeling from the sexual aspect.” For Mark, as well as others, there is a difference between sexual and romantic identities. Alice, a twenty-two year old white woman, describes her identity as, “Asexual. (And aromantic, i.e. no 'romance drive', no desire to find a partner).” For Alice, as well as others, claiming a romantic identity is descriptive of a person's interest in being in a partnership. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While a romantic dimension might be a relatively unique axis of sexuality, asexual individuals in this survey also described their sexual identity in relation to the gender of their partner(s). Twenty three participants indicated some type of queer identity and twenty-eight indicated a heterosexual or straight gender identity. None of the self identified aromantic asexual individuals indicated gender as important in relationships, in contrast to those who identify as romantic, where all but one described the gender of their partner(s) as important to their sexual identity. Lydia, a twenty-two year old white woman, describes her sexuality saying, “I am asexual. I am also queer but that isn't about my sexuality. Just thought I'd mention that.” [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While only twenty-three of the ninety (25%) participants who responded to this question indicated an lgbtq identity, this nonetheless represents a relatively substantial subset of participants who describe their romantic orientation incorporating same-sex attachments as either possible or preferred. For instance, Hannah, a twenty-four year old white woman emphasized that for her, “In asexual circles, I tend to identify as asexual or asexual lesbian. In the (sexual) queer community, I tend to identify first as queer, then lesbian, then asexual lesbian.” As this description of Hannah’s highlights, while adopting an lgbtq identity is not at odds with an asexual identity, neither are these identities uncomplicatedly related. Hannah invokes the sexual identity that both fits her sense of self, and fits the community she is actively engaged with. This is not dissimilar from other findings that individuals may invoke particular aspects of one’s sexual identity as they are relevant (or less stigmatized) in a given situation Chrobot-Mason et al., 2001; (Horowitz &amp;amp; Newcomb, 2001; Rust, 1992; 1996).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of the twenty-three queer individuals in this sample, eleven (48%) of them identified as bi-, bisexual, or bi-curious. This is a relatively high percentage of bi-identified individuals as in most studies that include bisexual and lesbians or gay males find much lower percentages of bi-identified people (Rodriguez-Rust, 2000; Rust, 1992). While I am not making a claim about the demographics of asexual communities, this concentration of bi-identities does illuminate the construction of asexual identities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to the article I cited, you may also want to take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.asexuality.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.asexuality.org/&lt;/a&gt; , which has more information and perspectives on asexuality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kristin S. Scherrer (2008). Coming to an Asexual Identity: Negotiating Identity, Negotiating Desire. &lt;em&gt;Sexualities.&lt;/em&gt; 2008 October 1; 11(5): 621–641. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2893352/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2893352/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="262" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-10-28T17:28:30.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4844" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4845" CreationDate="2013-10-28T22:05:59.350" Score="3" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I can tell (and from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed#Content&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;what Wikipedia can tell&lt;/a&gt;), the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pubmed database&lt;/a&gt; forms a superset of the Medline database, throwing some extra stuff in there. However, is there any way to make a search in the Medline database &lt;em&gt;only&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-10-28T23:59:07.790" LastActivityDate="2013-10-29T15:56:51.737" Title="Make a search limited only to Medline?" Tags="&lt;publication-process&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4845" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4844" CreationDate="2013-10-29T15:56:51.737" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several MedLine search engines, some of them requiring an (academic) account. You may want to use &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ISI Web of Knowledge - &lt;a href=&quot;http://isiknowledge.com/medline&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://isiknowledge.com/medline&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;EbscoHost - &lt;a href=&quot;http://search.ebscohost.com/login.asp?profile=web&amp;amp;defaultdb=cmedm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://search.ebscohost.com/login.asp?profile=web&amp;amp;defaultdb=cmedm&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ProQuest - &lt;a href=&quot;http://search.proquest.com/medline/advanced&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://search.proquest.com/medline/advanced&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ovid - &lt;a href=&quot;http://gateway.ovid.com/autologin.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://gateway.ovid.com/autologin.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By searching PubMed with &quot;all databases&quot; selected, you will notice all the different databases PubMed is linked with, including the &quot;Literature&quot; section (PubMed database alone). Searching with the PubMed database alone will usually give the exact same results as the engines mentioned above. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2013-10-29T15:56:51.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4846" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9785" CreationDate="2013-10-29T16:54:15.927" Score="4" ViewCount="374" Body="&lt;p&gt;From Jonah Lehrer's book &quot;How We Decide&quot;, he mentions the experiments with rats and Yale undergraduates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found the paper that (presumably) matches the experiment of rats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Brunswik, E. (1939). Probability as a determiner of rat behavior. Journal of Experimental &#xA;  Psychology, 25, 175–197. [Reprinted in Hammond, K. R., &amp;amp; Stewart, T. R., 2001]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the results seem to be somewhat different from what he described.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could anyone tell me where I can find the paper about Yale graduates performing the maze task?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's the excerpt from the book,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Look, for example, at this elegant little experiment:&#xA;  A rat was put in a T-shaped maze with a few morsels of food&#xA;  placed on either the far right or the far left side of the enclosure.&#xA;  The placement of the food was random, but the dice were rigged:&#xA;  over the long run, the food was placed on the left side 60 percent&#xA;  of the time. How did the rat respond? It quickly realized that the&#xA;  left side was more rewarding. As a result, it always went to the&#xA;  left of the maze, which resulted in a 60 percent success rate. The&#xA;  rat didn't strive for perfection. It didn't search for a unified theory&#xA;  of the T-shaped maze. It just accepted the inherent uncertainty&#xA;  of the reward and learned to settle for the option that usually&#xA;  gave the best outcome.&#xA;  The experiment was repeated with Yale undergraduates. Unlike&#xA;  the rat, the students, with their elaborate networks of dopamine&#xA;  neurons, stubbornly searched for the elusive pattern that&#xA;  determined the placement of the reward. They made predictions&#xA;  and then tried to learn from their prediction errors. The problem&#xA;  was that there was nothing to predict; the apparent randomness&#xA;  was real. Because the students refused to settle for a 60 percent&#xA;  success rate, they ended up with a 52 percent success rate. Although&#xA;  most of the students were convinced that they were making&#xA;  progress toward identifying the underlying algorithm, they&#xA;  were, in actuality, outsmarted by a rat.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3742" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-10-29T20:32:42.853" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T20:14:44.700" Title="Solving T-shaped maze (probability learning): differences between rats and humans" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4847" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4830" CreationDate="2013-10-30T02:26:48.483" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen somewhere that declarative headings in PowerPoint presentations are more effective. From a straight-on cognitive load standpoint, having to decipher a question and pick out the relevant topic words from among all of the different possibilities would certainly increase the extraneous cognitive load required to understand the material. So, my hypothesis is that heading format is better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2013-10-30T02:26:48.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4848" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4854" CreationDate="2013-10-30T03:50:16.263" Score="0" ViewCount="3943" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do we negatively perceive people who wear glasses? If so, why? Is it cultural stereotypes, a simple case of homophily, or is there more to it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3197" LastActivityDate="2013-10-30T22:09:28.197" Title="Do we negatively perceive people who wear glasses?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4849" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1649" CreationDate="2013-10-30T20:04:11.440" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;When people ask others whom they have a relationship with to sponsor their activities for charity, the requester is providing two things to the potential donor:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An awareness of the cause and the given charity which supports that cause (the cause is, in essence, a problem)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An prepackaged opportunity to help the person they know contribute to the cause (a solution!)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An essential prior factor here is that most people in the developed Western world have had a sense of charity and 'giving to those less fortunate' culturally drilled into us for most of our lives. That's why when we hear of some charitable cause, we're immediately inclined to feel that 'this is important!'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In many cases, to the person being asked to donate, the personal monetary cost seems more convenient than shaving their head or running an Iron Man. The friend who is asking you to sponsor their activities is perceived to be doing something more challenging or more uncomfortable than what they are doing themselves, and we feel like they're letting us off the hook.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3751" LastActivityDate="2013-10-30T20:04:11.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4850" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4848" CreationDate="2013-10-30T20:32:45.217" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The simple answer is that it depends on the person. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whenever you're talking about a perception, you have to first realize that perceptions are built on many things. Since a person's upbringing, social group, age, IQ, beliefs, expectations, and past experiences (to name a few) can affect one's perceptions, there is rarely a simple answer as to if, or why someone would have a particular perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, here's a few things that could have an effect on someone's perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People could very well have positive perceptions of people that wear glasses. There can be the perception that people with glasses are smarter/more intelligent and if the perceiver also wears glasses, it would be something they have in common, thus making them perceive them in a more positive light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the negative side, there could be the perception that those with glasses are weaker, old, more fragile or genetically inferior than they are. However, from my experience, generally the only people that have a negative percept of those that wear glasses are children and teens who are simply trying to find something different about another person in order to tease them, (or worse) not because of any thought out reason. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would probably line up with parts of homophile, but not in the truest sense of the word as it would depend on the person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as cultural stereotypes, they can surely affect one's perceptions of a people group. however, these stereotypes can be both good and bad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3473" LastActivityDate="2013-10-30T20:32:45.217" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4851" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4991" CreationDate="2013-10-30T20:41:12.243" Score="4" ViewCount="273" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why does our happiness seem to be most affected by recent, short term happenings rather than the high level trends of our lives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a person has begun their life in a very humble or even disadvantaged position: poor education, a lack of parental involvement, and an exposure to drug addiction. This same person, through through their own fortitude manages, to change their life trajectory so that they have a comfortable job, a home in a safe part of town, and many loving friendships. Why then, despite having overcome such odds, are they still likely to be happy or unhappy based on small, localized daily situations, like getting into a disagreement at work or having a friend cancel plans. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To phrase the question a different way, why do large scale personal achievements often have less impact on our moment to moment satisfaction than whatever we're experiencing &lt;em&gt;right now?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3751" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-11-20T11:45:43.967" LastActivityDate="2013-11-20T11:59:21.493" Title="Why do we anchor our happiness to short term situational comparisons rather than large scale events?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4852" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4806" CreationDate="2013-10-30T20:50:19.410" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_pink_on_motivation.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This ted talk video&lt;/a&gt; would probably interest you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems the current understanding is that it would depend on both the individual, and the type of task they are performing. Here are the general tendencies I've seen/been taught.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For physical tasks or tasks where the important factor is strength and effort, time constraints and rewards tend to increase the pace at which someone finishes the task. A simple example is track and field, where the contestants are generally able to perform better with the added pressure/motivation of the competition. No records are made in practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more mental and creative tasks, time constraints and rewards tend to diminish one's ability to finish a task. For instance, musicians rarely make great music when they are told they have to. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both of the above situations however, can be affected by the person completing the task. If youlook at sporting events with very tense situations, there is an understanding that some players &quot;rise to the occasion&quot; and some &quot;shrink under pressure.&quot; One's anxiety level and self confidence will affect the psychology of how they approach a task, which will certainly affect the result of that task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3473" LastActivityDate="2013-10-30T20:50:19.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4853" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-30T21:09:06.057" Score="1" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any 'value' for optimal learning time per day? I'm thinking of something like attention span, but more general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3754" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-10-30T21:50:38.557" LastActivityDate="2013-10-30T21:50:38.557" Title="Optimal learning time per day" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2013-10-31T11:02:05.100" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4854" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4848" CreationDate="2013-10-30T22:09:28.197" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, people wearing glasses are not generally perceived negatively. Glasses affect various dimensions of person perception differently. To name a few, a commonly reported effect you may want to read up on is the &lt;em&gt;glasses stereotype&lt;/em&gt;: If you wear glasses, people will tend to think of you as smarter (e.g., Hellström &amp;amp; Tekle, 1994, Terry &amp;amp; Krantz, 1993), but less attractive compared to those not wearing glasses (Hasart &amp;amp; Hutchinson, 1993; Lundberg &amp;amp; Sheehan, 1994; Terry &amp;amp; Kroger, 1976). This effect has been found regardless of whether the judges wear glasses themselves, although, when they do, the effect on attractiveness appears to be less pronounced (Terry &amp;amp; Kroger, 1976).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears, this effect is also moderated by the type of glasses you wear:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results show that faces without glasses were seen more attractive and more likeable than faces with full-rim glasses. Faces with rimless glasses did not differ from faces without glasses in their attractiveness or likability rating. Regarding the ratings of successfulness, and intelligence, the results show that individuals wearing glasses (both rimless and full-rim) were rated as more successful and more intelligent than individuals not wearing glasses. Regarding trustworthiness, individuals with rimless glasses were rated as significantly more trustworthy than faces without glasses. Ratings of cooperativeness did not differ between the face versions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thejuryexpert.com/2013/03/the-glasses-stereotype-revisited/&quot;&gt;this online summary&lt;/a&gt; of Leder, Forster &amp;amp; Gerger, 2011)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hasart, J. K., &amp;amp; Hutchinson, K. L. (1993). The effects of eyeglasses on perceptions of interpersonal-attraction. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 8, 521-528.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hellström, A., &amp;amp; Tekle, J. (1994). Person perception through facial photographs: Effects of glasses, hair, and beard on judgments of occupation and personal qualities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 693-705. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420240606&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Leder, H., Forster, M., &amp;amp; Gerger, G. (2011). The glasses stereotype revisited: Effects of glasses on perception, recognition and impressions of faces. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 70, 211-222. doi:10.1024/1421-0185/a000059&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lundberg, J. K., &amp;amp; Sheehan, E. P. (1994). The effects of glasses and weight on perceptions of attractiveness and intelligence. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 9, 753-760.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Terry, R. L. and Krantz, J. H. (1993), Dimensions of Trait Attributions Associated with Eyeglasses, Men's Facial Hair, and Women's Hair Length. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23: 1757–1769. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1993.tb01064.x&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Terry, R. L., &amp;amp; Kroger, D. L. (1976) Effects of eye correctives on ratings of attractiveness. Perceptual and Motor Skills: Volume 42, Issue , pp. 562-562.&#xA;doi: 10.2466/pms.1976.42.2.562&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="696" LastActivityDate="2013-10-30T22:09:28.197" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4855" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5057" CreationDate="2013-10-30T22:24:54.577" Score="2" ViewCount="608" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I try to recall details for the past few days, I can recall today's events well, yesterday's events less well, and when it comes to the day before, things start to be fuzzy&#xA;and this is as fuzzy as I have carried out activities for this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In very simple words, is there a study for the threshold beyond which we start to forget things (so,the question is&quot;when&quot;) and how can one recall more events from the past, as this can be helpful for all of us and especially students(so, the question is &quot;how&quot;)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3700" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-10-31T10:47:28.170" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T03:53:43.890" Title="What is the typical relationship between time and remembering details of events from the past?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4856" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-31T08:03:44.533" Score="4" ViewCount="2022" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of research citing that men are more physically primed for sex than women. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fondazionegraziottin.org/ew/ew_articolo/1122%20-%20similarities%20and%20differencies.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Graziottin (2004)&lt;/a&gt; discusses this difference and other differences of strength and vulnerabilities between the sexes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The clinical correlate of the neurobiological condition is that men have a stronger, more biologically and genitally focused sexual drive, expressed more as lust (7). Women tend to have a romantically driven sexual drive with a more relational expression and emphasis on intimacy (6,7). Women have a stronger oestrogen priming of two other basic emotions command systems, the fear- anxiety and the panic with separation-distress, which contribute to and modulate their parenting abilities and social bonding skills (2,19). The gender-based different biological modulation of seeking pathways in men and women may be an important contributor to different desire vulnerability in the sexes, both in the early phases of a relationship and later stages of a long-term relationship (34,35). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it really fair to say that men are more inclined to benefit by casual sexual encounters than women, or is this a presumption stemming from social-stereotyping?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-04-20T13:13:44.120" LastActivityDate="2020-05-22T19:19:26.753" Title="What are the effects of casual sex on men versus women?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4857" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4851" CreationDate="2013-10-31T11:20:12.120" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose a man plants a tree hoping that one day he would rest under the tree, eating fruits along with his wife and kids. He tells himself:- I'll be very happy that day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, once he tells himself that he &quot;WILL&quot; be happy, his happiness gets postponed. Now every time he seeks pleasure in some other thing, he starts wishing- &quot;Had my plant grown by now, I would have seated in its shade and enjoy this ever more.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After days and days spent waiting for that specific day, there are fleeting moments of love, affection and happiness that he misses out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now one day, he is finally sitting under that tree, eating fruits with his wife and child. His dream has come true. But this time if his children misbehave with him, his dream setup will cripple and he'll mourn why is his special moment being ruined? Therefore his long term goal didn't bring about happiness. The tree brought comfort and fruits. When kids misbehaved, man was still seated with comfort under the tree. But whether that comfort brings happiness or not, that comes from the heart of the person. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human being strives to perfection, and perfection does not exist. Therefore one who wants to be happy should give up on his drive for perfection. Perfect setting doesn't bring about happiness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of delaying his happiness, if that man had thought that, together, I and my family sow the seed, let us celebrate together. Then, when the seedling originates, he should be happy. And finally when tree would grow, he must seek pleasure that it has grown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Happiness isn't mechanical, generally its aspects are:- physical(first), emotional(second) and spiritual(third) in that order of relevance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person should set his agenda, his goals because they give comfort. Happiness is what person gives to himself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SUMMARY:-&#xA;Therefore grow a tree, (it's an environmental bliss), sit under it, enjoy fruits but don't delay your happiness. Goals of life should facilitate happiness, should not refrain man from being happy till that goal completes. Happiness like every other wonderful things in the world, come in small packages. They are floating around you. Grab them and have fun&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3747" LastActivityDate="2013-10-31T11:20:12.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4858" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4870" CreationDate="2013-10-31T21:20:26.813" Score="2" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studies seem to find correlation, but has the causal link been established?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastActivityDate="2013-11-03T01:26:40.083" Title="Does physical aerobic exercise ameliorate depression?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4859" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-31T21:55:08.213" Score="10" ViewCount="14373" Body="&lt;p&gt;When reading the biography of renowned personalities recognized as &quot;geniuses&quot; such as great mathematicians, painters or poets, I was surprised by the fact that a  great portion of this population that possess these impressive abilities tend to have Schizophrenia. (For instance the well-known mathematician &lt;strong&gt;John Nash&lt;/strong&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a proven correlation between schizophrenia (or other mental disorders) and  genius, and did  this disorder push the cognitive abilities of these personalities to higher limits?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One may claim that these people have developed this disorder as a consequence of being addicted to drugs or some other factors that predispose one toward mental illness. However, the cases that I am interested in are when people developed schizophrenia and &lt;em&gt;then&lt;/em&gt; they made the greatest contributions to their fields. I have also noticed similar trends with illnesses such as epilepsy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All three, &quot;Nietzsche&quot;,&quot;Van Gogh&quot; and &quot;Guy de Maupassant&quot; were creative despite having a mental illness. Generally speaking, however, is it possible that a mental condition modifies the way our brain functions to improve cognitive skills despite being burdened by the lows of mental illnesses and the side effects from pharmacological treatment of these disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3700" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-07-06T21:48:47.987" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T10:02:13.203" Title="Is there a relationship between schizophrenia and genius?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4860" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4808" CreationDate="2013-11-01T05:44:16.870" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This answer reflects my &lt;strong&gt;own thoughts&lt;/strong&gt; on this topic, It &lt;strong&gt;isn't&lt;/strong&gt; any &lt;em&gt;generalized opinion of psychologists&lt;/em&gt; that I am putting forth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;First:-&lt;/strong&gt; Each person is indispensable (&lt;em&gt;not just the one we love&lt;/em&gt;), comes with his own &lt;em&gt;characteristics&lt;/em&gt;, teaches us to look at the world from different perspective. But we notice the &lt;strong&gt;impact&lt;/strong&gt; of the one we &lt;strong&gt;love more&lt;/strong&gt; than any other because we want to feel how he looks at the world, how he feels. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;We want to feel how it is to be him&lt;/em&gt;? Therefore his characteristics become our characteristics (to an extent). Some people say that you become a person you are in love with. Now he has abandoned you, you miss him more and more because &lt;em&gt;some part of him is still in you&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Failed love&lt;/strong&gt; empties our world and induces a &lt;strong&gt;void&lt;/strong&gt; within life. If given a chance to pinpoint the worst feeling related with failed love and longing for it, I would say that it's the vacuum that haunts us after the person we love doesn't accept us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, trying to move on must be acknowledged as our &lt;em&gt;attempt&lt;/em&gt; to fill that vacuum. Of course, by doing so we run the risk of being abandoned again. But that is &lt;em&gt;small&lt;/em&gt; compared to our desire to fulfill our love, to fill that void.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Second:-&lt;/strong&gt; Whether or not we look for someone who reminds us of the person we love is another paradigm of our &lt;strong&gt;love history&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How &lt;em&gt;acrimonious&lt;/em&gt; the breakup was? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What &lt;em&gt;stage of love&lt;/em&gt; were we at when this happened? Because more the time, more difficult will be to give up on the one you love&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Who according to us was responsible for the breakup?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How dedicated we were in that relationship?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a person thinks that he was &lt;strong&gt;responsible&lt;/strong&gt; for the breakup, definitely he would search for someone with &lt;strong&gt;similar characteristics&lt;/strong&gt; and once he finds one, he'd be conscious this time and wouldn't try to repeat his mistakes in this new relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If he holds the &lt;strong&gt;other person responsible&lt;/strong&gt; for the breakup, then it is difficult to try to accept some other person with same characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Third:-&lt;/strong&gt; Really, I can't comment on this third one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3747" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-02T12:03:13.313" LastActivityDate="2013-11-02T12:03:13.313" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4861" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3787" CreationDate="2013-11-01T09:51:31.843" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;some cases&lt;/strong&gt;, Apathy descends from &lt;strong&gt;dissatisfaction&lt;/strong&gt; one has faced in his own life. An apathetic would generally be a man whose own &lt;strong&gt;desires&lt;/strong&gt; to be &lt;strong&gt;loved&lt;/strong&gt; have &lt;strong&gt;not been sated&lt;/strong&gt; in the past. Generally such a person doesn't give a damn when he comes across someone in need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somehow he convinces himself &quot;When nobody paid heed to me when I needed help, Why should I help anyone?&quot;. And as we all believe, &lt;strong&gt;We become what we repeatedly do&lt;/strong&gt;. Thus, voice within him that guides him to help others goes on to become weaker and weaker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Others&lt;/strong&gt;, I suppose are too engrossed in fulfilling &lt;strong&gt;their own goals&lt;/strong&gt; and pursuing their own interests that they don't have scope left to look into others' lives and their problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3747" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-02T12:04:13.633" LastActivityDate="2013-11-02T12:04:13.633" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4862" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5341" CreationDate="2013-11-01T09:59:09.047" Score="9" ViewCount="405" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why does a person get obsessive, Specially towards those who don't accept his love or attraction towards them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self esteem has such an impact on human life that he wants to preserve his esteem in any way possible. Then why does one get obsessive towards those who have broken the trust he put into them? Why does he try to reason with those who have told him that they don't love him?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where does his drive to consolidate his self esteem go in such situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3747" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2014-01-15T04:40:30.953" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T20:52:08.903" Title="Why does a person get obsessive for those who don't take interest in him?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4863" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-01T13:04:40.557" Score="7" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am following a cohort of patients over time from which I am planning to sub-sample a sub-group of patients to pilot a new intervention. The plan is to compare the effectiveness of the new intervention on improving specific outcomes for a sub-sample compared to those did not receive the intervention. the original study is an inception prospective cohort with several followup assessment time points (3 evaluations time points).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which design is better to use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nested Case-Control (the intervention group [participants who have completed the intervention] will be compared to control group [those who didn't receive an intervention] and maybe a third group of normal people from the community) in this case the 2 (or 3) study groups will be matched on age and comorbidities.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Case-Cohort design (my understanding for this is that a sub-sample will be randomly selected at the baseline for an intervention and then compared to the rest of the cohort).&#xA;Both are new to me and not sure if any of these is a superior design over the other one and better to use, and what would be the factors to consider?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3757" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-01T16:10:17.133" LastActivityDate="2013-11-01T16:10:17.133" Title="Which study design to use: nested case-control or case-cohort?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4864" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-01T15:03:59.500" Score="2" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a mathematical formalization of conceptual blending? I know that feature structures in linguistics or frames in AI can be combined using unification which is a special (simple) case of conceptual blending. How can more complex blends be formalized? To stay in the domain of linguistics, complex predicates (e.g., I made her cry) are said to involve conceptual blending that can't be formalized as unification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3650" LastActivityDate="2013-11-01T15:03:59.500" Title="Conceptual blending" Tags="&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4865" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4871" CreationDate="2013-11-02T01:38:14.643" Score="4" ViewCount="434" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm watching a &lt;a href=&quot;http://tedxcern.web.cern.ch/video/consciousness-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TED Talk by John Searle&lt;/a&gt; who is claiming that consciousness is a biological function.  Is there any indisputable evidence for or against this assertion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3712" LastActivityDate="2013-11-03T01:58:18.273" Title="Is consciousness a biological function?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4866" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-02T11:50:16.343" Score="4" ViewCount="1040" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question   &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/8563/what-optical-features-do-we-use-to-distinguish-life-from-non-life&quot;&gt;What optical features do we use to distinguish “life” from “non-life”?&lt;/a&gt;  on &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;Philosophy SE&lt;/a&gt; prompted me to write this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question poses, do we recognise a living thing, from what we already know to be a living thing.  I am posting some of this to give a background of what prompted this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I quote from the original question:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Imagine you see a picture of a tiger: You instantly recognize it being&#xA;  a living thing, more specific: Something you call &quot;tiger&quot;. You have&#xA;  seen tigers before (or at least heard of them and saw pictures or so).&#xA;  You have some kind of (vague) concept of what a tiger might be and this&#xA;  thing fits perfectly in it. And you know that a tiger is a living&#xA;  thing and you believe that what you see is a tiger: So you believe&#xA;  that the thing you see is a living thing called tiger.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What exactly are the features we all recognize living things kind of accurate (even though when they don't exist in reality and are, just like the Nasobēm, just imaginary animals someone invented)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I have modified this question to ask:&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is the ability to discern between living and non-living things learnt or innate?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;In the original question the OP includes an image of a 'Nasobēm', a make believe creature that looks a little squid like.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:42:22.350" LastActivityDate="2013-11-27T05:47:32.543" Title="Is the ability to discern between living and non-living things learnt or innate?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4867" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4866" CreationDate="2013-11-02T11:50:16.343" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Imagine you see a picture of a tiger: You instantly recognize it being a living thing, more specific: Something you call &quot;tiger&quot;. You have seen tigers before (or at least heard of them and saw pictures or so). You have somekind of (vague) concept of what a tiger might be and this thing fits perfectly in it. And you know that a tiger is a living thing and you believe that what you see is a tiger: So you believe that the thing you see is a living thing called tiger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human beings are wired to innately discern living from non-living things. It does not need to be taught. There are no particular features, other than it is living and human beings are capable of perceiving this. &#xA;It would appear it has nothing to do with conditioning or experience (except for the sake of providing words of other similar things to provide a description).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;As to why this is innate, requires further investigation.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two theorised models of memory which pertain to the recognition and distinction between living and non-living things, both involving semantic memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A category-specific  model and a modality-specific model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What optical features do we use to distinguish “life” from “non-life”?&lt;/strong&gt; perhaps is a little ambiguous, but we do process a lot of information and memory through our visual cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Semantic memory is created through the vision, naming and functionality. Non-living things tend to be remembered semantically for their function. Whilst living things are processed more through vision and the names attached, and learned semantically. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When there is damage to the visual part of semantic memory, the ability to  name living things is substantially damaged, whilst the ability to name non-living things, is  affected on a much smaller curve. Whilst damage to the functional part of semantic memory, has no effect on the ability to recall names, when being shown images of living things, but does impair the ability to name non-living things (though not as severely as the damage to the visual semantic memory and name recall for living things). &#xA;It's not the ability to discern living and non-living things that is affected, but identifying the name them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given this, it would seem, our brains are wired to automatically perceive and discern the difference between living and non-living things. So, even when shown a picture of a living creature, never be seen before, it is still instantly recognizable as a living creature. Just as the a person first recognizes each living creature they encounter in their lives, either in real life of through images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a first time to see a tiger or a squid and the human being innately distinguishes this as a living thing. Just as they would the first time they see an image of a Nasobēm. Even mould, moss, fungus can be perceived as living (an eclectic example of unusual contenders).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversely, the first time an individual sees a rock, or a rocket, they can distinguish this as a non-living thing. Just as the first time someone sees an image of a flying cars. It does not have to exist to be distinguishable from living/non-living.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the most straightforward in­terpretation of the double dissocia­tion between knowledge of living and nonliving things is that these two bodies of knowledge are repre­sented by two separate category­ specific components of the func­tional    architecture  of  semantic memory.  (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EXhgj.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;image courtesy of Neural Network Models and Cognitive Neuropsychology (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, our knowledge of an animal  such as a  leopard, by which we distinguish it from other similar creatures, is predominantly visual. In contrast, our knowledge of a desk, by which we distinguish it from other furniture, is predomi­nantly functional (ie, what it is used for). Thus, the distinctions between impaired  and  preserved   knowledge in the cases reviewed earlier may not be &quot;living/ nonliving&quot; distinctions   per se,  but   &quot;sensory/ functional&quot;  distinctions ...  (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NIKV0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;image courtesy of Neural Network Models and Cognitive Neuropsychology (1) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This being said, convoluted or abstract art work, could, possibly, be an area of crossover depending upon the individual's cognitive processes and so interpretation of lines and movement and what may appear out of a mess, as threatening. This is totally another topic altogether and my own hypothesis.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;(1) Neural Network Models and Cognitive Neuropsychology&lt;br&gt;&#xA;by MARTHA J. FARAH , PhD, and JAMES L. McCLELLAND, PhD &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~jlm/papers/PublicationFiles/90-99_Add_To_ONLINE_Pubs/FarahMcClelland92NeuralNetworkModels.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-11-02T11:50:16.343" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4868" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-02T16:50:23.077" Score="3" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; When i try to recall some memorised passages from a book, I find that some memories are best recalled when i speak aloud and some when i speak inaudibly in my mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What causes varying degrees of recall of text when speaking aloud versus mentally?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3700" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-11-03T01:41:01.247" LastActivityDate="2013-11-03T01:41:01.247" Title="What causes varying degrees of recall of text when speaking aloud versus mentally?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4869" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4883" CreationDate="2013-11-03T00:34:32.293" Score="4" ViewCount="679" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not only curious about speech, but for concreteness in illustrating my question, I consider the case of speech perception. Assume a listener is presented with an acoustic waveform. The wave causes deviations from the atmospheric pressure at the listener's eardrum. Thus, the acoustic pressure as a function of time “comes for free”, so to speak. Mechanically so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From sound pressure we can derive amplitude, and by the fourier transform, amplitude as a function of time is transformed to the frequency domain. That is, amplitude as a function of time becomes amplitude as a function of frequency. We use this transformation because it reveals properties of the wave which are perceptually relevant, e.g. formant frequencies.  Presumably, listeners can attend to properties of the waveform describable under this transformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what about mathematical models of the acoustic wave which are not simply transformations on the wave, but which derive some richer structure from amplitude fluctuations over time. For instance, what about a model which constructs a higher dimensional representation of the wave from the one-dimensional pressure fluctuations? (Imagine that instead of amplitude being a point moving back and forth along the real number line, the wave is represented as a point moving around in, say, 3-dimensional space). Say that such a model revealed a perceptually relevant property P of the waveform. Would the listener be able to “hear” P directly, or would would she need to engage in some information processing task to recover P from pressure fluctuations over time?*&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*I realize that human listeners don't actually manipulate equations in their heads. I use the mathematics just to describe the underlying neural computation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3571" LastEditorUserId="3571" LastEditDate="2013-11-03T14:31:52.587" LastActivityDate="2013-11-06T10:44:28.080" Title="Which physical properties of a stimulus can a human attend to?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4870" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4858" CreationDate="2013-11-03T01:26:40.083" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are different theories about the causes of depression. Three of them assume a cause that could be affected by aerobic exercise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neurochemical theory of depression:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that depression might be caused by low serotonin and/or noradrenalin levels. Physical activity releases both neurotransmitters, thus alleviating depressive symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cognitive theory of depression:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that negative cognitive schemata cause depression. Sports improves self-efficacy and other schemata.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Diathesis–stress model of depression:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depression is the result of a predispositional vulnerability combined with stress from adverse life experiences. Aerobic exercise relaxes the sympathetic nervous system thus alleviating stress and, as a consequence, depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe someone else will come up with studies showing a causal connection. These (and other) theories might explain the connection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-11-03T01:26:40.083" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4871" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4865" CreationDate="2013-11-03T01:58:18.273" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consciousness is a broad concept. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a binary world (conscious/not conscious), biological evidences are irrefutable. For example, a 2009 Brain article stated that &quot;Impaired consciousness during temporal lobe seizures is related to increased long-distance cortical-subcortical synchronization.&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19416952&quot;&gt;Arthuis et al.&lt;/a&gt;). A 2012 Lancet Neurology article had the following sentence &quot;the consciousness system,a specialised set of cortical-subcortical structures, maintains alertness, attention, and awareness&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22898735&quot;&gt;Blumenfeld&lt;/a&gt;) - a system that is described on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_correlates_of_consciousness&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;. Here, we can see that the binary view of consciousness can be divided into smaller pieces. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dehaene et al. (&quot;Conscious, preconscious, and subliminal processing: a testable taxonomy&quot;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lscp.net/persons/sackur/docs/Dehaene2006.pdf&quot;&gt;Trends in cognitive science&lt;/a&gt;, 2006) proposed a more complex view within a 2 by 2 frame: consciousness is a product perception (weak and strong) and top-down attention (absent and present) - the fully conscious experience arising in the &quot;strong perception/present attention&quot; case. Here again, biological evidences are strong, but the type of the published article (&lt;em&gt;opinion&lt;/em&gt;, not a review-type article) says that consciousness is far from being well understood - not even well defined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting aspect: the first two articles cited here (1st paragraph) are written by neurologists - meaning pure biology. Dehaene et al. (2nd paragraph) are cognitive psychologists and philosophers - a wee bit more of humanities but still biologically grounded. When it comes to philosophy alone, consciousness can completely loose its biological link: William Lycan, for example, argued in his book Consciousness and Experience that at least eight clearly distinct types of consciousness can be identified (organism consciousness; control consciousness; consciousness of; state/event consciousness; reportability; introspective consciousness; subjective consciousness; self-consciousness) (from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;). And when it comes to non-science, the views on consciousness are purely spiritual (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.transcendencetoolbox.com/en/spiritual-psychology/levels-of-consicousness&quot;&gt;The 144 Levels of consciousness&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2013-11-03T01:58:18.273" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4872" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4874" CreationDate="2013-11-03T02:41:36.953" Score="10" ViewCount="1173" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most animals will only engage in sexual activity that can result in reproduction. There are some exceptions; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonobo#Sexual_social_behavior&quot;&gt;Bonobos&lt;/a&gt;, for instance, engage in a lot of sexual activity that does not involve coitus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human beings have a large range of sexual activities and fetishes that do not involves exual intercourse that can result in pregnancy (I am not referring to the use of birth control).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oral sex, anal sex, and a variety of fetishes that do not involve coitus between a human male and female.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that the origin of sexual acts pertained to reproduction, somewhere along the line there has been development in the brain of humans and some animals, to include sexual activity for pleasure and acts that have no possibility of impregnating the female.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be argued why and what purpose these acts have, whether they are indeed part of the mating process. I am not interested in this so much as, the development in the brain which has offered this variation in sexual activity to some species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not at all a social-psychological question, but a question focusing on evolution, embryology and the brain. From a macro to microscopic view, if applicable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the difference in the brains for animals capable of these great differences in sexual activity and what part of the brain is responsible for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;edit&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not assuming that all sexual activity involves pleasure. Dogs are known to dry mount other dogs in an assertion of power. So there does appear to be a development throughout evolution, as to the use of sexual activity and communicate and purpose. Definitely, human beings have a wide range of &lt;em&gt;pleasurable&lt;/em&gt; sexual activity derived from non-vaginal intercourse, that the vast majority of species do not. It could be argues to be &lt;em&gt;counter evolutionary&lt;/em&gt; for want of a better term, as, like much human behavior, it serves no purpose in the continuation of the species.. OR maybe it does. Either way, it is an interesting advent of behavior. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-11-03T11:57:18.647" LastActivityDate="2013-11-04T22:53:00.527" Title="Non coitus sexual activity and the brain" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4873" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4869" CreationDate="2013-11-03T10:47:58.840" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I'm not completely sure what you ask. I give my comment as an answer, because there is more space here. I'll delete it, if you feel I'm off the mark.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as physical theory goes (and I understand it), sound is the movement of air molecules and the resulting fluctuation in density. Measuring these density fluctuations and representing them in numbers gives us a wavelike, undulating function with the properties of waveform (sinuous, square, sawtooth), frequency, amplitude, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transverse_wave&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;transversality&lt;/a&gt; (is the wave upright or leaning backward or forward?). Did I miss anything?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, you seem to assume that our eardrums perceive the frequency (tone pitch) and amplitude (loudness) of an acoustic wave, but maybe not the transversality or waveform. But that's an error in reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We don't perceive waves. We perceive changes in air pressure. It does not matter what wave represents these changes mathematically. Any change (of a certain magnitude) stimulates our ear drums. Measuring the oscillation of the ear drum will give you a similarly complex wave (though probably not the same as the wave of air density fluctuation, because of different physical properties of the material of the ear drum). What we have is the &quot;translation&quot; of density fluctuations in a substance into the oscillations of a membrane. Both can be modelled as waves, and some changes in those waves will occur in the process of translation (probably some fine complexities will get evened out, resulting in a less finely &quot;spiky&quot; but more &quot;smooth&quot; wave), but there is no property of the wave that will get completely lost or be ignored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same goes for the other senses. Our eyes don't perceive color, saturation or luminosity, they are stimulated by photons (or whatever). Our cognition represents, i.e. &quot;perceives&quot;, the electrical impulses from our receptors as color, brightness etc., so we like to think in a model that includes these properties, but our eyes don't react to &quot;color&quot; at all. There is no color in the physical world, just the movement of particles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Maybe this helps you to clarify your question.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-11-03T10:47:58.840" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4874" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4872" CreationDate="2013-11-03T11:27:44.213" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first question is, what is normal human sexual behavior. The answer to this changes over time. For example, a hundred years ago masturbation was thought to cause physical degeneration and be a sin, today it is perceived as healthy, even recommended. Research shows that adolescent girls who masturbate have more and stronger orgasms as adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if anal sex is normal, then there should not be any basic difference in how the brain processes this from vaginal coitus. The difference between different normal sexual practices should be like that between different words that you hear (as compared to non-verbal sound, which should be processed differently). Maybe anal and oral sex where processed differently a hundred years ago or in different cultures. I don't know of any research into this, but maybe there is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paraphilias like fetishes, pedophilia, incest, voyeurism and other &quot;deviant&quot; sexual behavior have not been well researched. There are many psychodynamic and cognitive theories of paraphilias, but since you ask for the brain, I'll focus on biological theories here. The following is taken from the chapter on paraphilias in Davison &amp;amp; Neale, &lt;em&gt;Abnormal Psychology&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Since most paraphiliacs are men, it has been theorized that androgen plays a role in the etiology of paraphilias. Research into hormonal differences between paraphiliacs and normal people have had ambiguous results.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sadism and exhibitionism appear to be caused by malfunctions of the temporal lobe (Mason 1997; Murphy, 1997).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Life experiences (like childhood abuse) are seen as the most important factor in a complex net of causes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides psychological therapies of paraphilias (that will obviously influence the brain), there are biological therapies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;castration: results were highly ambiguous, so this therapy has been largely abandoned&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;medroxyprogesterone acetate lowers the testosterone level in men, cyproterone acetate lowers the androgene level, both reduce sexual appetency: this works in many paraphiliacs, but when they stop taking the medication the symptoms return; also, the substances can cause infertility and diabetes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, that's not much, and only two articles deal with the difference in brains. There may be more in recent articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The sources for the temporal lobe malfunction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mason, F. L. (1997). Fetishism: Psychopathology and theoriy. In D. R. Laws &amp;amp; W. O'Donohue (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Sexual Deviance&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 75-91). New York: Guilford.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Murphy, W. D. (1997). Exhibitionism:  Psychopathology and theoriy. In D. R. Laws &amp;amp; W. O'Donohue (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Sexual Deviance&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 22-39). New York: Guilford.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-11-03T11:35:18.043" LastActivityDate="2013-11-03T11:35:18.043" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4876" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4872" CreationDate="2013-11-04T03:11:24.550" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;My answer to this question would be pretty straightforward. From a neurobiological standpoint, sex causes the release of various pair-bonding influencing hormones &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin&quot;&gt;oxytocin&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasopressin&quot;&gt;vasopressin&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine&quot;&gt;dopamine&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These &quot;feel good&quot; hormones promote bonding and basically encourage the couple to stay together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more the pair have sex, the more these hormones get released.  Non-functional sex would just increase the pair bond via these hormones.  When a couple stays together, their offspring would have a greater chance of reaching adulthood and themselves producing more offspring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3427" LastEditorUserId="3427" LastEditDate="2013-11-04T03:24:23.333" LastActivityDate="2013-11-04T03:24:23.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4879" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-04T16:33:37.947" Score="8" ViewCount="389" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently conducting a set of broad searches in both Medline and PsycINFO. However, when importing the results into my reference manager, I'm surprised of how little overlap there is between these two databases. That is, when importing a couple of thousand references from each database, both set of results retrieved using the exact same search terms, there's only a handful of duplicates (I'm using a fairly unrestrictive duplicate finding algorithm in EndNote, only looking at year and title of the article and ignoring punctation and spaces). This is, for example, the case if I search for (memory AND sex) and restrict the results to studies with human subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-11-08T06:47:46.943" LastActivityDate="2014-05-20T02:17:57.507" Title="How much overlap should I expect between Medline and PsycINFO?" Tags="&lt;publication-process&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4880" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4872" CreationDate="2013-11-04T22:53:00.527" Score="6" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is the difference in the brains for animals capable of these great&#xA;  differences in sexual activity and what part of the brain is&#xA;  responsible for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion is a matter of &lt;strong&gt;creativity&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;curiosity&lt;/strong&gt;. Evolved species try to interact with their ambient in unusual ways, testing different approach to the same &quot;problem&quot; not only to satisfy primary needs but also to satisfy secondary needs as the need to try new things, something we call &lt;strong&gt;curiosity&lt;/strong&gt;, and to socialize with the others members of our species. Primitive species interact with instinct-based responses to satisfy primary needs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I think you need an evolved frontal lobe capable to mediate divergent thinking, be able to modulate neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine then you will need an evolved anterior cortices and striatum. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3767" LastActivityDate="2013-11-04T22:53:00.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4881" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4900" CreationDate="2013-11-05T03:08:37.587" Score="6" ViewCount="910" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Franklin_effect&quot;&gt;Ben Franklin effect&lt;/a&gt; is the phenomena that if a person does a favor toward another person, there is an increased likelihood that the person will do another favor for that person. The same is true for acts of harm. A person who has inflicted harm on another person is more likely to repeat an act of harm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is theorised this is to relieve cognitive dissonance and the gap between feelings towards the person and the act.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can the Ben Franklin effect best be explained, what research has been done about this, is it adequately explained in cognitive dissonance theory or other theory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-11-08T07:43:46.163" Title="The Ben Franklin effect and cognitive dissonance" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4883" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4869" CreationDate="2013-11-05T14:10:49.333" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found a paper called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v16/n4/abs/nn.3347.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Summary statistics in auditory perception&lt;/a&gt; (McDermott, Schemitsch &amp;amp; Simoncelli, 2013) that might be relevant to your question. If you can't access it in full, you can a great description of the paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/ftp/lcv/NelkenCheveigne-NewsViews13.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. Please note that I'm writing about it from memory and that some details might not be correct. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors had a task where participants had to judge whether two sound excerpts are same or different. These sound excerpts could, further, have similar or dissimilar summary statistics, meaning that some higher-order regularity was superimposed on the initially generated sounds (such as the somewhat regular pattern of the sound of sea waves crashing, or the wind picking up, or a fire crackling). So, the sounds could differ in a local way (which specific frequency was displayed at some moment) or in a global way (what were the higher-order regularities of these sounds). They then displayed these sounds in pairs for variable amounts of time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They found that people were better at discriminating sounds from each other when the sounds lasted longer - which is logical - but this was only true if the complex sound textures were different from each other. When the textures were mutually similar, people actually got worse if they listened to the (potentially different) sounds for a longer time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interpretation the authors gave is that the auditory system first encodes simple features of sounds, but, once confronted with too much stimulation to keep track of, it instead extracts higher order regularities and relies on these for perception. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not have a technical background so I can't go into detail about what these higher order regularities represent, mathematically speaking. But the links come with some images with explanations, and you might be able to glean more information from them than I.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sensory signals are transduced at high resolution, but their structure&#xA;  must be stored in a more compact format. Here we provide evidence that&#xA;  the auditory system summarizes the temporal details of sounds using&#xA;  time-averaged statistics. We measured discrimination of 'sound&#xA;  textures' that were characterized by particular statistical&#xA;  properties, as normally result from the superposition of many acoustic&#xA;  features in auditory scenes. When listeners discriminated examples of&#xA;  different textures, performance improved with excerpt duration. In&#xA;  contrast, when listeners discriminated different examples of the same&#xA;  texture, performance declined with duration, a paradoxical result&#xA;  given that the information available for discrimination grows with&#xA;  duration. These results indicate that once these sounds are of&#xA;  moderate length, the brain's representation is limited to&#xA;  time-averaged statistics, which, for different examples of the same&#xA;  texture, converge to the same values with increasing duration. Such&#xA;  statistical representations produce good categorical discrimination,&#xA;  but limit the ability to discern temporal detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;edit: I found a link to the pdf of the second paper I mention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2013-11-06T10:44:28.080" LastActivityDate="2013-11-06T10:44:28.080" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4884" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-05T14:22:29.653" Score="3" ViewCount="173" Body="&lt;p&gt;Attention deficit disorder often corrupt other people's thought on the person that has ADD. The person with ADD is very forgetful, and often get agitated easily. Moreover, people with ADD can to be thought of stupid and weird, also they tend to have unstable relationship among family, colleagues, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know what makes a person have an ADD, and if it is curable of how it is treated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3772" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-05T15:07:36.057" LastActivityDate="2013-12-08T00:56:10.087" Title="What is Attention Deficit Disorder on adults and how is it treated?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4885" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-05T15:12:27.127" Score="6" ViewCount="298" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was thinking how powerful auditory and visual hallucinations must be, for the individual experiencing them to be unable to distinguish them from reality. I, personally, have not experienced a hallucination, but have experienced vivid dreams and know that when I'm dreaming it can seem real, and at that point, that is my reality (even though I am asleep).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a correlation between the part of the brain responsible for dreaming and hallucinations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What generates hallucinations, to make them indistinguishable from reality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2015-01-08T20:43:15.990" Title="How are hallucinations generated, is it related to dreaming?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4886" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19578" CreationDate="2013-11-05T15:15:53.630" Score="7" ViewCount="574" Body="&lt;p&gt;I asked &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4885/how-are-hallucinations-generated-is-it-related-to-dreaming&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It occurs to me that auditory hallucinations may well be generated in a different part of the brain to visual hallucinations. From my understanding, some hallucinations involve both auditory and visual components.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which parts of the brain are responsible for generating various hallucinations and how does this correlate to auditory vs visual hallucinations and a combined hallucination?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-23T20:09:54.257" LastActivityDate="2018-04-23T20:09:54.257" Title="How do auditory and visual hallucinations differ within the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4888" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-06T01:01:20.153" Score="6" ViewCount="1677" Body="&lt;p&gt;This isn't intended as a gender biased question, as both men and women can have strange hang ups when it comes to either sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am curious about men who are threatened by strong women. By strong women, I mean intelligent, capable, financially independent, self assured and assertive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By threatened I mean unduly intimidated, nervous or uneasy, which can result in a number of reactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What personality traits, background or pathology do men who are threatened by this type of woman, generally,  have in common? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T00:45:54.193" LastActivityDate="2014-11-05T12:34:10.480" Title="What traits does a man have, when he is apt to feeling threatened by strong women?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4891" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4109" CreationDate="2013-11-06T12:31:18.080" Score="-1" Body="&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&quot;My friend buys a new car. Obviously I'll feel jealous&quot;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is &lt;strong&gt;obvious&lt;/strong&gt; about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Friend&lt;/em&gt;, his &lt;em&gt;Pleasure&lt;/em&gt; and your &lt;em&gt;Jealousy&lt;/em&gt;, does it appear to be a logical frame of mind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we accept this belief to be obvious, then it becomes our way of thinking. Therefore, the belief as small as this, may be lying somewhere in our rational neurons, never allowing us to question the logic behind its existence...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jealousy stems from the &lt;em&gt;immaturity&lt;/em&gt; and the fact that we use the term &lt;strong&gt;friend&lt;/strong&gt; very loosely. The one whom a person is jealous of, can not be considered to be a friend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, we are always told that it's the &lt;strong&gt;competition&lt;/strong&gt; that takes us through in life. Competition is a very strong ideology. If not explained in a positive sense, it may give birth to jealousy... Therefore, you may find otherwise rational people being envious of others nearly everyday...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The one belief that snatches away peace and spiritual awareness like no other sentiment ever can...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3747" LastActivityDate="2013-11-06T12:31:18.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4892" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-06T12:43:59.330" Score="8" ViewCount="229" Body="&lt;p&gt;I asked a question about eye strain &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4444/does-looking-into-a-mirror-relieve-eye-strain-in-a-similar-way-to-looking-at-dis&quot;&gt;Does looking into a mirror relieve eye strain in a similar way to looking at distant objects?&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any physical exercises or techniques that can help to alleviate eye strain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence to support this, if so please provide citations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-01-28T00:38:33.737" Title="Are there physical techniques to relieve eye strain?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-02-08T06:15:57.957" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4893" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4892" CreationDate="2013-11-06T14:42:34.640" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EYE RELAXATION&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sit comfortably, close your eyes and cover them with your palms. Be sure that both palms are cupped and do not press on the eyes. Imagine the blackness getting darker and darker. Rest in this manner for five minutes at a time, at least thrice a day.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stand upright in front of an open window, preferably overlooking greenery. Keep your feet a foot apart, let your arms hang loosely at the sides and be as relaxed as possible. Gently oscillate your body from side to side like a pendulum.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Raise your heels alternately, keeping toes firmly on the ground. Gently swing the whole body to and fro without bending at the waist or hips. Start the exercise with eyes open. Swing like this for a minute and then close your eyes gently, while still swinging. Imagine the apparent movement of the window as clearly as possible.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Open the eyes after a minute and continue this exercise for 10 minutes, alternately closing and opening the eyes. Repeat this exercise at least thrice a day.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Close your eyes and, facing the sun, move your head slowly from side to side. Sun rays cause a rushing of blood to the eyes, relaxing optical muscles and nerves. Do this exercise for 10 minutes thrice a day.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Take a handful of cold water and, bending forward, splash your eyes rapidly, several times. Do not forget to hold water in your mouth while splashing eyes as this cools them down to their nerve ends and freshens them a great deal.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EXERCISES FOR EYE MUSCLES&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sit erect in a comfortable position. Keep your head and neck as relaxed as possible. Gently move your eyes up and down 10 times. The motion should be very slow, uniform and effortless, without moving the head or neck. Let your eyes see as far up and as far down as possible without causing strain. As the eye muscles relax, you will be able to look lower and higher. Repeat this exercise five to six times in a sitting. You can add to the relaxation by resting your eyes in your palms in-between.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sitting in the same posture as before, move your eyes from side to side. Repeat 10 times. The motion should be very slow, uniform and effortless without moving the head or neck. As in the earlier exercise, you will able to move them farther and more easily with practice. Repeat this exercise five to six times.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Move your eyes gently and slowly around in a circle five times, alternating between clockwise and anti-clockwise motions. Rest for a second and repeat the process five times. Remember that it should be done slowly and effortlessly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sit on a terrace where you can see far off objects on the horizon. Look at a distant object and then look at the tip of your nose. Look from one to the other object 10 times. Close your eyes for a second and resume the exercise. Repeat five times and rest your eyes. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following exercises may be used to alleviate eyes strain&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Bhastrika Pranayam (Breath holding exercise)– 2 to 5 minutes.&#xA;Kapalbhati Pranayam (Skull shining breath exercise).&#xA;Bahya Pranayam (External breath exercise).&#xA;Anuloma – Viloma Pranayama (Alternate nostril breathing exercise).&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All these can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.healthnwealth.in/pranayama.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yoga&lt;/strong&gt;- The name popular in West is actually a derivation from the word &lt;strong&gt;YOG&lt;/strong&gt; (which is a Sanskrit word with meaning '&lt;strong&gt;to combine together&lt;/strong&gt;'). Yog means to combine one's being with the Supreme Power. Sage Patanjali (Pronounced as Paa+ ta + n + ja + li) brought together postures and techniques of breathing together and created Yog Sutra. (The thread of Yog).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This actually transcended from the ideology that a healthy person can understand the meaning of God and compassion better. Therefore, it aims at relieving a man of the diseases so that a healthy body can provide shelter to a healthy soul.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But Yog is trying to handle a Lion. It should be practiced under the guidance of a learned Yog teacher...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3747" LastEditorUserId="3747" LastEditDate="2013-11-06T14:51:58.477" LastActivityDate="2013-11-06T14:51:58.477" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4897" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4884" CreationDate="2013-11-08T00:15:10.430" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It doesn't sound like your just looking for some general info about the psychological disorder of ADHD. The thing you should maybe start out with is understanding that there are two different sub-types which will have different effects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather than explain everything, I would point you to a couple links that should answer your questions: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a basic definition you can look at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/diagnosis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CDC page&lt;/a&gt; on ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is some &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.helpguide.org/mental/adhd_add_adult_symptoms.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;basic info&lt;/a&gt; that should get you started on understanding the disorder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; should fill in anything else that you want to know, if you have a more specific questions, feel free to ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3473" LastActivityDate="2013-11-08T00:15:10.430" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4898" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4179" CreationDate="2013-11-08T01:18:28.940" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may be more of a non-answer than an answer, but here it goes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you're talking about the effect of something like pain, it's valuable to first understand some of the complexity. While it's easy to put things in boxes in practice, (physical pain, emotional pain, etc.) it's very difficult to put those things in boxes when you're talking about a neuropsychological response like pain. While there are breakthroughs being made in understanding specific parts and functions of the chemical soup that is the human brain, it's still largely a mystery as to how those parts interact, not to mention how our psychological state affects/is affected by our brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can pain affect mood and general ability to function? I think it's safe to say it can. When we feel pain all kind of stress hormones with significant amounts of adrenaline, (such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroid&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Corticosteroid&lt;/a&gt;) are release that ideally will only be there for a short amount of time and then fade away. When you have chronic pain, your body doesn't get a chance to recover from the heightened state of arousal. This is known to affect many parts of general function negatively and probably is somewhat similar to the affect of long term chronic pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far whether there is an intrinsic biochemical link between an actual depressive disorder and the brain's ability to function, I think there just isn't enough understanding about what happens in the brain to answer that properly. Depression itself is still a hot topic of debate as to how it develops, and since plenty of evidence supports it being both a psychological and neurological disorder, it would also depend on the individual's psyche as to whether they would develop depression. Pain, even chronic pain, has been dealt with successfully by people without much change in their life. Chronic pain has also destroyed people's lives. Any response is probably possible. At this point there are simply too many variables (many of of which are not yet understood) in order to make any statement as to what is normal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain has really only began to be explored and understood, and while theories abound, with many questions like this the only honest answer at this point is that we don't know. At least not yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3473" LastActivityDate="2013-11-08T01:18:28.940" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4900" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4881" CreationDate="2013-11-08T07:43:46.163" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;Benjamin Franklin&lt;/strong&gt; Effect is generally cited as being an example of &lt;strong&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/strong&gt;, which is when your brain struggles to reconcile your beliefs with your actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So let’s say your beliefs about your job are that you deserve to be paid a higher rate, you deserve to be treated more respectfully by your employer and your skills are being wasted in your current role &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For every day that you go to work in that same job, your brain has to deal with cognitive dissonance. Your brain is thinking, “you believe this, but you do that—the two don’t gel. What’s going on?”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dissonance&lt;/strong&gt; means literally “&lt;em&gt;lack of harmony between musical notes.&lt;/em&gt;” In this case, it’s a lack of harmony inside your brain—the thing that controls everything you think and do! So you feel uncomfortable, or uneasy. You carry around a lot of tension. Your body doesn’t like this, and neither does your brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;David McRaney&lt;/strong&gt; describes it like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;“When you experience this arousal it is as if two competing beliefs &#xA; are struggling in a mental bar fight, knocking over chairs and smashing bottles &#xA; over each other’s heads. It feels awful, and the feeling persists until &#xA; one belief knocks the other out cold.”&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To compensate, your brain changes your beliefs—after all, your actions can’t be undone. You’ve already gone to work. You’re sitting at your computer, banging your head on the desk. But your thoughts can change. Your beliefs about yourself can change. Because your brain is malleable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So all of a sudden you find yourself rationalizing your behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hum.sagepub.com/content/22/4/371.full.pdf+html&quot;&gt;Jecker and Lendy&lt;/a&gt; verified the phenomenon in a study that challenged participants to an intellectual contest.  The winners were subsequently either:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;1. Asked to return their prize money by the researcher &#xA;   because he had been using his own money and was running short&#xA;2. Asked by a secretary to return their prize money &#xA;   because it was from the department and budget was running low&#xA;3. Allowed to keep their prize money (i.e. not approached).&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everyone was then surveyed to see how they liked the researcher. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Consistent with the Franklin effect&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;group 1&lt;/strong&gt; rated him higher than &lt;strong&gt;group 3&lt;/strong&gt; showing that a personal request for a favor increases likeability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, group 2 rated the researcher lower than group 3 suggesting that an impersonal request decreases likeability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dale Carnegie&lt;/strong&gt;'s book, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0671723650&quot;&gt;How to Win Friends and Influence People&lt;/a&gt;  where the request for help is explained as a subtle but effective form of flattery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Carnegie suggests, when we ask a colleague to &lt;strong&gt;do us a favor&lt;/strong&gt;, we are signalling that we consider them to have something we don't, whether more intelligence, more knowledge, more skills, or whatever. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is another way of showing admiration and respect&lt;/em&gt;, something the other person may not have noticed from us before. This immediately raises their opinion of us and makes them more willing to help us again both because they enjoy the admiration and have genuinely started to like us. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3747" LastActivityDate="2013-11-08T07:43:46.163" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4902" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-08T11:49:34.117" Score="2" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any statistics about what proportion of armed attackers are willing to hurt or kill as opposed  only using their weapons as a threat? E.g. There were cases when a self-confident victim without any countermeasure (other than verbal and meta communication) forced the attacker to flee.&#xA;Which is more probable? Any studies about the topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3788" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-11-11T23:52:23.357" LastActivityDate="2013-11-11T23:52:23.357" Title="Are armed offenders ready to use their weapons?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-02-19T09:31:34.257" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4903" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-08T17:37:19.637" Score="4" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;I notice this happens ubiquitously. When siblings are apart in college, or kids away from parents due to college, or even long distance relationships - during a reunion (like over the holidays) only the positives tend to be highlighted, there is generally less fighting and more harmony and the overall relationship feels much better than it would be on average if the separation was not there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the name of this effect, if it has one? Or are there any results/studies about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3790" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-09T22:20:38.507" LastActivityDate="2018-09-23T16:01:05.170" Title="What is the name of the effect or concept behind getting along better with people after time apart?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4904" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4905" CreationDate="2013-10-23T19:22:24.327" Score="10" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Stack Exchange is a good example of these two methods of gamification:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/7237/how-does-reputation-work&quot;&gt;Reputation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/67397/list-of-all-badges-with-full-descriptions&quot;&gt;Badges&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am curious as to whether there has ever been any research done that defines and contrasts these methods?  I am specifically interested in discovering what sort of goals and behaviors collecting achievements encourage as opposed to collecting points.  How do end-users respond differently to these methods?  Or do they?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking Stack Exchange as an example, we could ask what sort of behaviors are we attempting to encourage with reputation as opposed to badges that &lt;em&gt;require them to be separate entities&lt;/em&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Hyper Anthony" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-20T10:29:51.560" LastActivityDate="2013-11-09T00:30:39.340" Title="Has there been any research done that contrasts point-based and achievement-based gamification methods?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4905" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4904" CreationDate="2013-10-23T19:42:25.903" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reputation is a recognition system for participation, while the badges represent the type of participation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reputation amasses over time simply by recognizing that the individual is participating in a meaningful way, and that their experience can be judged by the amount of reputation. Badges, on the other hand, show where their aptitude and participation lies (Such as being a prolific editor, having insightful answers, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both of these will appeal to people in different ways, and both will contribute to a thriving site, as it encourages several levels of participation. The reputation will be more of a benefit system, as you get increasingly advanced privileges on the site for higher reputation, and the badges are the &quot;pat on the head&quot; motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I don't have access to the full text, the precis for &lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&amp;amp;arnumber=6450959&amp;amp;url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=6450959&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; suggests that they presented specifically on the Stack Exchange model, and the badge/reputation system as applied to an online community. Other than that, most of the gamification models that I found searching scholarly articles were more geared toward education and social media rather than Q&amp;amp;A type sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="JohnP" LastActivityDate="2013-10-23T19:42:25.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4906" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-28T02:36:49.837" Score="7" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;When talking about gamification people's mind almost immediately go to points. It is probably the quintessential mechanic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, thinking of games, it's no longer heavily used. It's still in use but doesn't seem to be a main driver in most games. While people may have cared about high scores in Pac-Man or Donkey Kong, many modern games either don't use points at all or have them but players seem to not really pay too much attention to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have their been any studies regarding the efficacy of using points in a gamified system or their performance against any alternatives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Ryan Elkins" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-09T00:23:26.967" LastActivityDate="2014-04-23T08:53:25.167" Title="Are points still a relevant mechanic?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4907" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4906" CreationDate="2013-10-28T02:55:08.497" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The level of gamification in games has risen far beyond what we have applied in other real world situations, which is why gamification has such great potential. Much of the point systems have been masked by things like a superior avatar, indirectly showing your proficiency of the game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your questions, I am unsure of studies looking at points in a gamified system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a healthcare professional and a major issue with health is compliance. Health and fitness apps like FitBit and Nike+ use points to a very great extent. I believe using a point system is the easiest way to gamify a system, even if it is for the short term, which might be enough to get someone jump started on being healthy in the long run.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="stonefruit" LastActivityDate="2013-10-28T02:55:08.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4908" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4906" CreationDate="2013-10-28T02:56:51.410" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hmm. It's possibly I'm misunderstanding, in which case I will happily retract my answer. But does &lt;em&gt;gamification&lt;/em&gt; really apply to, well, games? I thought the idea behind gamification was to take user engagement elements present in games and add them into non-gaming situations to increase user retention/satisfaction etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I would say that if you're making a game, you're not using gamification. You're making a game, which inherently has some of these characteristics. After all it's called gamification because the concepts were borrowed from games, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, to answer your question, I think points are still valuable in games when they're used as currency. When you can use the points to &lt;em&gt;get&lt;/em&gt; stuff, that adds a whole new level of value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3794" OwnerDisplayName="WendiKidd" LastEditorUserId="3794" LastActivityDate="2013-10-28T02:56:51.410" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4909" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4906" CreationDate="2013-10-28T03:33:53.537" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I disagree with the premise the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the most popular casual games in the world use the classic points systems that have been used since the 90s. Angry Birds, Plants vs Zombies, Bejeweled, Subway Surfer are played by millions of players worldwide and they all use a classical points system. Also, many users regularly share their scores on social networking platforms and compare/compete with others. So, points systems are not on their way out as far as the non-hardcore gaming audience is concerned. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, game systems are far less prone to change than gamified systems. Stack Exchange gets updates and changes &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/59445/recent-feature-changes-to-stack-exchange&quot;&gt;every few weeks&lt;/a&gt;. Games do not undergo significant changes for months or years. This means that points as a metric serves a very different role in gamified systems than in games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In gamified systems, points can be a metric for various things ranging from participation, skill, engagement, quality of participation, social status, connections and more (discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1449397670&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gamification By Design&lt;/a&gt;, Chapter 3). The same cannot be said for conventional modern games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third, one of the reasons for the success of gamified systems at present is the familiarity with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_video_gaming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;game mechanics&lt;/a&gt; that the 80s and 90s generation had. To be specific, points systems, since they were the one consistent game mechanic in that era of games along with levels. This familiarity is what makes adoption of gamified systems easy for most audiences, and hence, they serve as more than just a performance metric.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Have their been any studies regarding the efficacies of points in a&#xA;  gamified system or their performance against any alternatives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there are implementations of systems that do not use points, there does not seem to be any research on the effectiveness of points systems as a whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" OwnerDisplayName="AsheeshR" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-20T10:29:51.560" LastActivityDate="2013-11-02T03:23:58.277" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4910" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4906" CreationDate="2013-10-28T09:46:13.350" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Points are a method, and as with everything else in life, there are trends and differences of appeal/use for different populations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Points provide a way to clarify value. And they are used to show relative importance between actions in a system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a method it's very effective: users can quickly compare assigned value to specific events, and then choose how they invest their time to get what they want.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the point system becomes too complex, people can become disinterested: the effectiveness of representing value dissipates (people can't associate likely events with points). And maybe that's why it's trending down in some games right now, because the point systems aren't simplified enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good comparison is between Mario points and SE points:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume that you get Mario points for ending a level quicker, jumping and hitting the end flag highest, and for killing each Oomba.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's simple. You know that it rewards diligence and dexterity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now look at SE. How do people get points? The least random way seems to be up-votes. But I know that those votes can come from various people, some smart, some immoral, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The system in Mario is much simpler than in SE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Summary: points are a method; in principle it has value; must be applied correctly to avoid complexity that significantly diminishes the value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Tom" LastActivityDate="2013-10-28T09:46:13.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4911" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4906" CreationDate="2013-11-02T18:53:45.427" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I disagree with the Premise of the Question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Points are essential for measurement - which is at the core of Gamification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While Badges are simple YES or NO, Points give the ability to measure stuff at a continuum. Points also form the basis of Leader-boards, Levels, XP, etc...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3149" LastActivityDate="2013-11-02T18:53:45.427" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4912" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-01T19:35:01.633" Score="1" ViewCount="4319" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the definition  of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are they important to, and what is their role in, gamification?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3768" OwnerDisplayName="Clay Nichols" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-09T00:27:04.623" LastActivityDate="2015-04-26T05:03:04.277" Title="What is the difference between (and importance of) extrinsic vs. intrinsic rewards in gamification?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4913" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4912" CreationDate="2013-11-01T19:37:30.627" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intrinsic&lt;/strong&gt; Rewards (motivation)&#xA;These are rewards which are directly of value to the person, rather being something that represents (or could be &quot;traded in&quot;) for something to of value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So getting a badge in and of itself isn't an Intrinsic Reward, but up votes on an answer would be b/c it converts Status and Validation of the user's work.&#xA;These rewards are also intrinsic to the task. They have not been &quot;bolted on&quot; or &quot;dangled like a carrot&quot; in front of the user.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extrinsic&lt;/strong&gt; Rewards (or incentives) are rewards which  are not naturally a part of the task.&#xA;So if you enjoy drawing and I compliment you on the drawing that's intrinsica. If I offer to pay you to draw more, that's extrinsic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lALfR.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slideshare.net/playfulwingmen/gamification-extrinsic-vs-intrinsic-rewards-17681228&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this slideshow&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extrinsic Incentives are demotivating and, thus, should be avoided in Gamifying a system&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;There is a lot of &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B004MYFLDG&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;research&lt;/a&gt; that shows that Extrinsic Rewards are demotivating because:&#xA;They extinguish internal motivation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Result in Habituation, requiring higher levels of the External reward&#xA;to achieve the same effects.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Send a message that you think they should not want to do this (why&#xA;else would you need to bribe them)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Seem manipulative&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, Extrinsic Rewards should be avoided.&#xA;And if you find that your &quot;players&quot; are focused more on the &lt;em&gt;game mechanics&lt;/em&gt; than the work then that's a clue that your game mechanics may be offering extrinsic motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3768" OwnerDisplayName="Clay Nichols" LastActivityDate="2013-11-01T19:50:06.337" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4914" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4912" CreationDate="2013-11-02T19:16:28.393" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intrinsic reward is the emotional pay-off that you get by completing an activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extrinsic reward is everything else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, In an real game, the sense of accomplishment that you get after completing a level is intrinsic, all the points and badges are extrinsic rewards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Introducing Intrinsic rewards in gamification is not trivial, you have make the activity fun, memorable and truly satisfying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, extrinsic reward can trigger intrinsic reward. For example, I will get a really great felling of having contributed something great to this site when you vote up on this answer!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3149" LastActivityDate="2013-11-02T19:16:28.393" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4915" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4917" CreationDate="2013-10-24T20:35:12.517" Score="10" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gamification is often used to incentivize people into performing small, repetitive tasks. For example, as a Stack Overflow user, I receive 2 reputation points for an accepted edit. I can earn badges by reviewing series of potentially problematic questions, etc. This seems to work fairly well since the user is given a reward for a easily achievable objective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast to this, what elements are required to incentivize users into performing creative tasks? Unlike with small 'assignments', a creative task bears the risk of not being solved satisfactory, therefore the user risks investing an effort without being rewarded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simply offering a higher reward introduces its own set of problems like having to deal with cheating, therefore my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can I incentivize users to perform creative tasks (e.g., creating a new recipe)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="blubb" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-06-09T17:37:17.840" LastActivityDate="2015-06-09T17:37:17.840" Title="How can I incentivize users to perform creative tasks?" Tags="&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4915" CreationDate="2013-10-24T21:02:41.157" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Using your analogy of creating a recipe:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a site where recipes are shared, users should earn points for the times when their recipe is upvoted, but they should &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; lose any reputation/points/levels, if it is down-voted. This can discourage creativity and experimentation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that not having bad things happen when there recipes (or otherwise) go wrong or at not generally well-liked, should be a key element in the design of a gamification system for  a site like that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Amar H-V" LastActivityDate="2013-10-24T21:02:41.157" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4915" CreationDate="2013-10-24T23:30:43.687" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the methods you describe (i.e. those employed by Stack Exchange) work for creative tasks as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Asking good questions, and providing helpful answers can be considered &lt;em&gt;creative&lt;/em&gt;. It's entirely possible that a user can put a lot of effort into an answer only for it to not solve the problem at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst it can be disheartening when content isn't as good as you imagined, the feedback given (through upvotes and comments) allows you to improve upon what you've already produced, with the hope that it can be salvaged into something &lt;em&gt;useful&lt;/em&gt;. This is essentially the benefit of gamification for sites like SE, by &lt;em&gt;rewarding&lt;/em&gt; good content it encourages users themselves to &lt;em&gt;improve&lt;/em&gt; and expand their knowledge - &lt;strong&gt;it's a learning experience&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if a user is put off from submitting a recipe because they fear the community will react negatively to it, then maybe it was &lt;strong&gt;never very good to begin with&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Alex" LastActivityDate="2013-10-24T23:30:43.687" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4918" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4915" CreationDate="2013-10-28T01:51:39.520" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is actually a perfect fit for the best kind of gamification that illuminates the progress you're already making (but weren't aware of)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Break the creative task into steps in a creative process&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. Measure that progress for the user.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;You don't even need to reward progress, just how them how it gets them closer to the goal. Success may not be guaranteed, but if you can show them that the Process is the best way to get there and that it often succeeds you can get buy in on that. (You can also reward them for that progress but it should be &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/motivation/f/difference-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intrinsic not extrinsic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's use creating an Advertising campaign (I've been watching a lot of The Pitch lately )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interview customers to find out what they like about the brand.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interview the brand owner to find out why &lt;em&gt;they&lt;/em&gt; they think the customers like them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Restate that in a dozen different ways, iterating though different ways of viewing that and focusing on benefit to the user&lt;br&gt; I've done that with my own products. I'll work with a marketing guy and he'll ask &amp;quot;what makes your product unique&amp;quot; and I'll give a feature and he'll ask &amp;quot;no, what does that do for the USER&amp;quot;, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Synthesize the benefits in #3 down to their essense.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Come up with &lt;strong&gt;lots&lt;/strong&gt; of way to express #4. &lt;br&gt; This is pobably where most people think advertising &lt;em&gt;starts&lt;/em&gt;. The benefit of our new product is that it's a comprehensive app in a world filled with apps that each to a tiny piece of what our target users need. So our ideas were : The Last App you'll ever need. That seemed a little too much so we went with &amp;quot;The One App That Does It All&amp;quot;. (We had lots of other ideas but narrowed it to this.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Measure their progress in each of these.  Compare a successful outcome's process to an unsuccessful one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3768" OwnerDisplayName="Clay Nichols" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-10-28T01:51:39.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4919" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-25T15:12:38.403" Score="6" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;When implementing gamification, what are steps that management can take to prevent a culture of anxiety among employees, when employees feel they are constantly being monitored and begin to worry that they will be judged as poor performers at their work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, employees may grow anxious over things like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ranking near the bottom of some leaderboard&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Having fewer badges than others&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not being as excited about the gamification of their work as other employees&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What should management avoid to prevent this kind of anxiety?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What can management do proactively to prevent such fears or put them to rest, without getting rid of competition altogether?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="TJamesBoone" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-09T00:17:30.293" LastActivityDate="2013-11-09T00:17:30.293" Title="How can employee anxiety over poor evaluation be avoided by management?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4920" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4919" CreationDate="2013-10-25T15:33:23.993" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is definitely a legitimate concern and one that can't be completely avoided but it can be mitigated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first thing to consider is whether people rank at the bottom because the standards are too high or because they are not a good fit for their position. This is where relative performance comes in. Being at the bottom of the leaderboard isn't so bad if you're not far from everyone else. If the gap between last place and second to last place is huge then there may be a problem (for the person at the bottom). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second thing to consider is that it's not necessarily bad to identify poor performers. It makes it easier for managers to identify who they should work with and helps employees know they need to step things up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With those things in mind, if gamification is causing anxiety here is what I would recommend. You'll need to shift the focus so that it is more about recognition that performance evaluation. What I mean by that is that achievements (for example) should be viewed as a celebration of good work rather than an expectation of normal work. Help people understand the expectations. Consider building a more cooperative system where the gamification is on a team level rather than an individual level. You may or may not also have competition among teams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You're always going to have people who compare themselves to the best and that may create seemingly unattainable standards for some people. Gamification has the added benefit of exposing to a degree what those people do to be good and in a well designed system, their performance can act as a blueprint for others to follow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately you have to understand your culture. A Customer Support team might thrive on cooperation and generally needs a different approach than a Direct Sales team that feeds on competition. The competitive nature of the system can be adjusted by focusing on different things and building systems that emphasize team goals rather than individual goals if needed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Ryan Elkins" LastActivityDate="2013-10-25T15:33:23.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4921" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4919" CreationDate="2013-10-25T15:36:40.693" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Make it less obvious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you can implement gamification a bit more subtly, then any anxiety employees may have of being evaluated based on a leaderboard will be reduced. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example a 'leaderboard' could implemented as a statistical tool, to determine the usability of an application. If you take feedback from less performant employees, then they may feel that they are benefitting. This keeps the competition element present, but also has the added advantage of improving your application.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The top answer to &lt;a href=&quot;http://gamification.stackexchange.com/questions/76/whats-the-benefit-of-applying-gamification-to-a-task-someone-is-already-paid-to&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; raises a good point about &lt;strong&gt;keeping the stakes low&lt;/strong&gt;, if you &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; offer any tangible rewards (which would help with those less interested in badges) you must ensure that they are of low value. Focusing on &lt;em&gt;rewarding&lt;/em&gt; employees for good work is (typically) better than ranking them based on performance, this could also be on a team level to take stress away from individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Alex" LastActivityDate="2013-10-25T15:36:40.693" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4922" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4923" CreationDate="2013-10-24T00:17:46.223" Score="5" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;With a rewards-based system, some may be so incentivised by these rewards that they end up losing the end goal of what is meant to be the aim of gamifying otherwise boring, repetitive activities.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do rewards manage to detract users from the example of good behaviours in a non-game environment, and how should implementers of gamified systems work around this issue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Qantas 94 Heavy" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-09T00:29:16.023" LastActivityDate="2013-11-09T00:29:16.023" Title="Can rewards incentivise shortcuts to be taken which wouldn't be done otherwise?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4923" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4922" CreationDate="2013-10-24T01:53:06.363" Score="4" Body="&lt;h3&gt;TL;DR&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a boring, repetitive task is being gamed for rewards, there are two things that you need to look at. First, the problem definition and whether it is accurately defined (keeping in mind that autonomy is not lost). Second, the conditions of the reward and what is the actual behavior that is being rewarded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two main factors influencing how effective or ineffective the system is for encouraging a certain behavior and they are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Problem Definition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Reward Conditions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will use two examples to discuss this problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;First, the task of folding and putting in envelopes 40 letters.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Second, the task of proofreading 20 articles.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The Problem Definition&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first and foremost thing to look at is the problem itself. We are well-aware of human tendencies well before we even start to define a gamified system and so, I feel, it is the responsibility of the designer to be smart in defining the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first example, the task itself consists of folding letters, and then putting them into envelopes. In this, a person may fold a letter in any way, any number of times, and may even just stuff it into the envelope. One way of reducing individuals from succumbing into bad habits is to redefine the problem to: fold letter, put in envelope and &lt;em&gt;seal the envelope&lt;/em&gt;. Just this small change will now make it less likely for people to stuff an unfolded letter into the envelope as they themselves have to close it as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is important to remember that one of the biggest motivators for gamified systems is autonomy, and over-defining a task will reduce it, thereby reducing the motivation to participate &lt;em&gt;at all&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the second case, there are multiple avenues by which the actual task can be avoided (read a few pages, read a few papers, etc.). So, its pretty clear, that this task has significant chances of being gamed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, we come to the second factor that affects good behavior in a gamified system and how it can be leveraged to regulate it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The Reward Conditions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The rewards being offered can be divided into three major types:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Participation-Contingent: The reward is awarded if the individual simply starts the task. In the first case, if the person, just does even one envelope, then he is given the reward. Similarly, in the second case, if the individual proofreads even one paper, he is given the award. This as can be seen will be least effective and promoting good behavior over long periods of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Completion-Contingent: The award is given to the individual if he completes the task, irrespective of the quality of the results. That is, all envelopes filled with letters folded (however they may be) and all articles proofread, not looking at accuracy or errors missed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Performance-Contingent: The individual is rewarded if the quality of the work done is above a certain fixed threshold. None of the envelopes have any bulges anywhere and seal easily, and 18/20 articles are error-free. This is the most effective in preventing individuals from falling into bad behaviors within the system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, it is important to think clearly about what the reward is and what is actually being rewarded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Summary&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Be aware of the task and what it requires an individual to do, and also, what a reward encourages and what is the minimum that needs to be done to get it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" OwnerDisplayName="AsheeshR" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-10-24T01:53:06.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4922" CreationDate="2013-10-24T17:07:19.953" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The biggest step of any gamification process is the design phase. It is very easy to design a system that sounds good but actually encourages people to do things that are contrary to what the end goal is. It's interesting because this shows that gamification works - but also that it is a powerful tool that can cause a lot of problems if not used carefully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally you want people to &quot;game&quot; the system. That term is often a pejorative but if you do things right, gaming the system leads to the outcome you want.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I generally recommend people start small and build up rather than try and design a fully blown out system from the get go because most likely you will get a lot of things wrong and have to change large swaths midstream. It's easier to build up from some basics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Ryan Elkins" LastActivityDate="2013-10-24T17:07:19.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4925" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4928" CreationDate="2013-10-25T16:47:27.993" Score="12" ViewCount="469" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a Stack Exchange user, I spent quite a while thinking about how they managed to trick me into putting so much effort into it.  Reputation, badges, etc., are all virtually useless, yet I put great effort into gaining them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've come to the conclusion that the system at least partially exploits that I am not an entirely rational being but instead rely on instincts, for example by exploiting the urge to collect badges. What other instincts do gamification systems appealed to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="blubb" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-09T00:16:00.363" LastActivityDate="2013-11-09T00:16:00.363" Title="Which human instincts do gamification systems appeal to?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4926" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4925" CreationDate="2013-10-25T16:58:02.870" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read once that a sticky application needs to impact one of more of the seven deadly sins. Pride, Envy, and Greed and probably your main go to's when evaluating gamification. Some or all may apply to different people and systems to varying degrees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pride&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;This is probably the main one that everything stems from. People love being seen as experts. They want to excel and win when it comes to competition. Standard gamification works great here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Envy&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;This is tied pretty closely to Pride. The desire to get what other people have is exacerbated by gamification, which enables people to feel envious of others and drive them to better performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Greed&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;You've got some achievements - but do you have them all? Something drives people to collect and complete and accumulate and hoard. I'm not sure what it is but it does seem to be a fairly strong human trait.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Ryan Elkins" LastActivityDate="2013-10-25T16:58:02.870" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4928" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4925" CreationDate="2013-10-25T17:04:13.983" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, I believe gamification taps into 2 main human behaviours. Competition &amp;amp; Pride (in that order)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Competition &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; drive more engagement and Pride &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; help breed loyalty (b/c their stature is linked on your projects stature)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Competition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;contests (top editor of week)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;leaderboards&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;featured users&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. Pride&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;badges&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;achievements&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;unlocked features&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Various systems balance these differently, and of course it's also very subjective but I believe that when people first sign up, it's about competition, and after they compete (and win trophies) it's about Pride.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Update: OCT-25-2013&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above 2 drivers really refer to those users who indeed buy-in and engage with your gamifications - But if you run a public website where buy-in rate could be considerably low you may have many users simply exploring. Below are some considerations to keep these users involved in your gamifications and hopefully convert them to competitive patrons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3. Exploration (Look Before Leap Users)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;public profiles (customizations, badges)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;public leaderboards&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;faq / knowledge-base for details on rewards&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="electblake" LastActivityDate="2013-10-27T02:57:50.300" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4929" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4925" CreationDate="2013-10-26T19:57:22.890" Score="2" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Overview&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to a &lt;b&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bunchball.com/sites/default/files/downloads/gamification101.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;White Paper&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt; that Bunch Ball came up with, Gamification appeals to the following human desires:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&#xA;Reward&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&#xA;Status&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&#xA;Achievement&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&#xA;Self Expression&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&#xA;Competition&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&#xA;Altruism&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below are my thoughts on each one.  The &lt;b&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bunchball.com/sites/default/files/downloads/gamification101.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;White Paper&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt; describes each one in more detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reward&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People like getting rewarded.  This is one of the most basic things gamification provides: rewards.  On Stack Exchange sites, rewards take three forms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reputation Points&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Badges&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Privileges&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of these three, privileges are probably the most powerfully motivating reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though Reward is one of the most basic things about gamification, it is also one of the most abstract.  Rewards aren't a stand-alone motivation.  For a reward to be valued by the recipient, the reward itself must meet another desire.  The desires that rewards meet are usually status, achievement, or competition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Status&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Julius Caesar once said, &quot;&lt;i&gt;I would rather be first in a small village in Gaul than second in command in Rome.&quot;&lt;/i&gt;  While not all would agree with such a sentiment (There's also the &quot;Big fish in a big pond&quot; adage), it does show the value many people put in status.  People naturally want to be looked-up-to, to be considered higher up on the ladder, to feel like they have more ownership of a place.  In Stack Exchange sites, status is conferred most obviously in the privileges one gains with the site by reaching certain reputation thresholds.  When a user has enough reputation to edit almost anything and make new tags, that user will feel a deep satisfaction that he is high up in that site's community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Status.  It's powerful.  Don't underestimate it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Achievement&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most people likes achieving things to show how great they are.  On Stack Exchange sites, this is expressed as badges.  If you are good at asking really useful questions that everyone else wants an answer to, you can get badges for good questions.  You also get badges for writing good answers.  If you achieve writing the answer most useful to the one who asked the question, you get +15 reputation when it's accepted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, the achievement I want most on Stack Overflow is to earn &quot;tag&quot; badges for technologies that I want the world to know I'm good at -- Java, for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Self Expression&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This one is probably not as central to Stack Exchange sites.  The idea is, the more you participate, the more you can customize how you look on that site.  For example, maybe a site will let you decorate your profile with custom bling or flare as a type of achievement or award.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Competition&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This one is probably the most obvious.  When you see that you are rising up on the leaderboard, or that someone lower than you is starting to draw even with you, it stirs up your competitive spirit and urges you on to do better to maintain your lead or take the lead from someone else.  (This can also lead to problems if not balanced out -- for example, not upvoting a good question or answer that was useful to you because you're trying to outpace the person who posted it.  But that's another topic.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Altruism&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The noblest of all our desires.  Even without the virtual rewards, the competiton, and the excitement, people tend to feel good about themselves when they've helped out someone else or aided someone in becoming better at what they do.  (This is also why I dislike seeing rude comments or answers from people with a know-it-all attitude on Stack Overflow towards people who are new to the site and didn't research or make their question specific enough. It suggests to me that the person making such a remark had little Altruism in them.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Altruism also gives you motivation to upvote someone else's post if it's good -- that person helped you by posting a question or answer you needed, and you help them back with an upvote.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Interactions of Desires and Mechanics.&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a diagram from the &lt;b&gt;White Paper&lt;/b&gt; that shows how these desires and the the mechanics of gamification typically interact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The green dots signify the&#xA;primary desire a particular game mechanic fulfills, and the blue dots show the other areas that it affects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aWRbh.png&quot; alt=&quot;Mechanics And Desires&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Link to the White Paper:&lt;br/&gt; &lt;b&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bunchball.com/sites/default/files/downloads/gamification101.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.bunchball.com/sites/default/files/downloads/gamification101.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="TJamesBoone" LastActivityDate="2013-10-26T20:09:57.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4930" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4925" CreationDate="2013-10-27T13:25:33.890" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most comprehensive analysis of human motivation to participate in gamified systems I've come across is the Octalysis framework by Yu-Kai-Chou&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DGQhM.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He highlights 8 Core Drives of Gamification and also gives a more holistic view of human motivation. People do not only play for the sake of winning and designing a system with only that perspective in mind will not yield very long term benefits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Epic Meaning &amp;amp; Calling&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the Core Drive where a player believes that he is doing something greater than himself or he was “chosen” to play.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Development &amp;amp; Accomplishment&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the internal drive of making progress, developing skills, and eventually overcoming challenges.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Empowerment of Creativity &amp;amp; Feedback&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is when users are addicted to a creative process where they have to repeatedly figure things out and try different combinations&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ownership &amp;amp; Possession&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the drive to “want” something. When a player feels ownership, she innately wants to make what she owns better and own even more.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Social Influence &amp;amp; Relatedness&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This drive incorporates all the social elements that drive people – including: mentorship, acceptance, social responses, companionship, as well as competition and envy.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scarcity &amp;amp; Impatience&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the drive of wanting something because you can’t have it. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Curiosity &amp;amp; Unpredictability&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, this is a harmless drive of wanting to find out what actually happens. Many people watch movies or read novels solely because of this drive.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Loss &amp;amp; Avoidance&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This drive is based upon the avoidance of something negative happening&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find more on the framework here - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.yukaichou.com/gamification-examples/octalysis-complete-gamification-framework/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.yukaichou.com/gamification-examples/octalysis-complete-gamification-framework/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Johny Jose" LastActivityDate="2013-10-27T13:25:33.890" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4931" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-05T15:27:37.673" Score="6" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;We recently had a user on our site ask if they could add game mechanics to their employee recruitment. To be honest, I'm having a little trouble finding solutions for this. I'd really appreciate any insight you guys might have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess my first question is, who would you incentivize for this, and how? Are there any case studies that cover a scenario like this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Jordan Schneider" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-09T00:08:23.800" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T17:38:04.217" Title="How can you gamify the recruitment of new employees?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4932" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-31T22:13:54.227" Score="4" ViewCount="291" Body="&lt;p&gt;We build scoring algorithms for different customers in an enterprise environment. Typically they tend to measure most goals in either weekly, monthly, or quarterly intervals. We use a scoring algorithm to score individuals based on performance relative to goals and other metrics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We assume that the rate of decay should vary based on the goal interval they primarily use. Meaning, a company focused on weekly goals should have a faster decay rate than one focused on quarterly goals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's a good way to determine how quickly to begin the decay process based on past performance relative to metric interval length?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Ryan Elkins" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-09T00:13:34.020" LastActivityDate="2013-11-09T00:13:34.020" Title="How can we determine an appropriate rate of decay for our scoring algorithms?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4933" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4932" CreationDate="2013-11-01T02:46:29.173" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The game League of Legends utilised an &lt;a href=&quot;http://leagueoflegends.wikia.com/wiki/Elo_rating_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Elo Rating System&lt;/a&gt; which incorporated within it a decay system. The decay worked on a user score and reduced it dependent on both user performance and time. Here, user score was an indicator of skill level and was used in another formula to calibrate the actual scores they received from other in-game activities. So, while this system may not be directly applicable in a customer engagement scenario, its worth looking into first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The system calculated score based on this formula:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Ra_Old = Ra_New + K(Sa-Ea)&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The sytem had various category of players such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bronze: Between 0 and 1149 (Team: 0-1249) (Top 100%)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Silver: Between 1150 and 1499 (Team: 1250-1449) (Top 68%-13%)  Majority of Active Player Base&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gold: Between 1500 and 1849 (Team: 1450-1649) (Top 13%-1.5%)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Platinum: Between 1850 and 2199 (Team: 1650-1849) (Top 1.5%-0.1%)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Diamond: 2200 and above (Team: 1850+) (Top 0.1%)  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and varying decay rates based on certain player properties:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Elo decayed at a rate of 50 Elo for Diamonds, 35 Elo for Platinums, 25 Elo for Golds, 10 Elo for Silver, and 0 Elo for Bronze for every 4 consecutive weeks of inactivity and every 7 days thereafter.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For normal rating, inactivity was defined as no activity in any queue.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For ranked rating, inactivity was defined as no activity in the specific queue &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ranked decay only applied to people who were ranked above 1400 rating.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The decay timer was reset after a game was played in that specific queue.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The major changes that will be required in the case of performance scoring will be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Less aggressive scoring than in this system&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Decay rates calibrated to maintain a bell curve distribution centred depending on the level of competition you wish to achieve.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A bell curve spread such that the leaders are not out of reach of the majority of players as that may end up demotivating the users.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" OwnerDisplayName="AsheeshR" LastActivityDate="2013-11-01T02:46:29.173" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4934" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-10-28T03:20:09.170" Score="12" ViewCount="263" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there specific game mechanics that have a high correlation with addictions or with the characteristics of addictive behavior? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Should such mechanics be avoided or can they be used with other checks in place?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" OwnerDisplayName="AsheeshR" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-09T00:28:07.783" LastActivityDate="2018-07-11T19:08:37.250" Title="Are there specific game mechanics that correlate with addictions?" Tags="&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4934" CreationDate="2013-10-29T22:27:47.730" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.yukaichou.com/gamification-study/game-mechanics-research-candy-crush-addicting/&quot;&gt;This article&lt;/a&gt; identifies the key gameplay elements (of Candy Crush Saga) that keep players engaged and excited for the next level. A few key quotes are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Players experience Beginner’s Luck when they start the early levels, which allow them to easily get three stars for matching candies and crushing them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is essentially enticing a user with a quick reward (e.g. an easy to earn badge) to quickly get them &lt;strong&gt;hooked on the idea of earning more.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is the Free Lunch that makes them feel like they are &lt;strong&gt;getting bonuses due in part to their performance.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These could be rewards unlocked as they progress (e.g access to moderator tools on SE). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a Leaderboard which includes where you rank amongst your friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Relatively self-explanatory, but being compared to other users (particularly friends) can be a major motivator to maintain bragging rights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Last Mile Drive where the player &lt;strong&gt;keeps on playing because they're so close to the goal&lt;/strong&gt; and they've already invested too much time and energy in the game to quit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an important one in terms of addiction; once you've drawn a user in with other methods, it can get to the point where they have to keep going or else feel they have wasted their time. Of course, with gamification there &lt;em&gt;isn't&lt;/em&gt; an end level; you want your application to be used indefinitely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With all the above said, I think the important thing is not &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; you implement, but rather, &lt;strong&gt;how&lt;/strong&gt; you implement it. Try to avoid badges such as 200 consecutive logins, and use analytics to watch out for any addictive behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Alex" LastActivityDate="2013-10-29T23:43:08.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4936" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4906" CreationDate="2013-11-08T23:09:44.847" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The only reason I'm answering this right now is for points. (oooh, so meta).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But seriously, StackExchange is built on the relevance of points. Most users would post some things even without points, but almost all of them answer quick and easy questions primarily for the points (whether they admit it or not). That is why the &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/q/9731/172958&quot;&gt;FGITW (fastest gun in the west) problem&lt;/a&gt; is such a problem on SO. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3495" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-20T10:29:51.560" LastActivityDate="2013-11-08T23:09:44.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4938" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-09T21:52:26.820" Score="3" ViewCount="178" Body="&lt;p&gt;Altruistic behavior can have &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;different motivations&lt;/a&gt;: from the hope that the help you give will ultimately benefit yourself (social exchange theory) to a selfless wish to alleviate someone's suffering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy-altruism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Selfless altruism&lt;/a&gt; is motivated by empathy. According to C. Daniel Batson, &quot;if you feel empathy towards another person you will help them, regardless of what you can gain from it&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An observer experiences &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_concern&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;empathic concern&lt;/a&gt; when brain regions are activated in him that are similar to those activated in a person who is experiencing a particular sensation (cf. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mirror neuron&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do the brains of non-altruistic (selfish, egoistic) persons – i.e. persons who &lt;em&gt;do not&lt;/em&gt; show altruistic behavior in the face of suffering – mirror the observed experience of suffering (and is this information simply ignored) or do their brains not mirror the observed emotions at all?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If selfish brains show mirroring, what hems altruistic behavior in selfish brains, or what facilitates it in selfless brains?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-02T19:12:17.840" LastActivityDate="2014-06-03T01:26:24.017" Title="Do the brains of non-altruistic persons mirror the observed experience of suffering?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;altruism&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4939" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4934" CreationDate="2013-11-09T22:14:07.817" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like drugs, games activate the reward center of the brain, and this in turn releases dopamine, making you feel good. That's what causes any addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-11-09T22:14:07.817" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4940" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4912" CreationDate="2013-11-09T22:40:07.940" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-factor_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;intrinsic rewards&lt;/strong&gt; are &lt;em&gt;motivators&lt;/em&gt; (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) that give positive satisfaction,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;while &lt;strong&gt;extrinsic rewards&lt;/strong&gt; are &lt;em&gt;hygiene factors&lt;/em&gt; (e.g. status, job security, salary, fringe benefits, work conditions) that prevent dissatisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intrinsic rewards related to the &lt;em&gt;job content&lt;/em&gt; (i.e. they are intrinsic to the job), while extrinsic rewards related to &lt;em&gt;job context&lt;/em&gt; (they are extrinsic to the job).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Notes&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) In Herzberg's theory, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not two extremes along one dimension, but two independent factors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;traditional theory:&#xA;&#xA;       dissatisfaction &amp;lt;------------------------------&amp;gt; satisfaction&#xA;&#xA;Herzberg's theory:&#xA;&#xA;    no dissatisfaction |------------------------------&amp;gt; dissatisfaction&#xA;       no satisfaction |------------------------------&amp;gt; satisfaction&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intrinsic motivaton&lt;/strong&gt; is caused by a &lt;em&gt;intrinsic process&lt;/em&gt; (&quot;I like doing this&quot;) or an &lt;em&gt;internal self-concept&lt;/em&gt; (&quot;I am the kind of person who does this&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extrinsic motivation&lt;/strong&gt; is &lt;em&gt;instrumental&lt;/em&gt; (&quot;I do this to achieva a goal&quot;), caused by an &lt;em&gt;external self-concept&lt;/em&gt; (&quot;People expect me to do this&quot;), or &lt;em&gt;goal internalization&lt;/em&gt; (&quot;I must do this for &quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Different terminology is listed here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uri.edu/research/lrc/scholl/webnotes/Motivation_Sources.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.uri.edu/research/lrc/scholl/webnotes/Motivation_Sources.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-11-09T22:57:05.883" LastActivityDate="2013-11-09T22:57:05.883" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4941" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4912" CreationDate="2013-11-10T03:22:08.663" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This discussion of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;intrinsic and extrinsic motivation&lt;/a&gt; covers most of what you are after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A reward is intrinsic to an activity if it comes from doing the task itself. A reward is extrinsic if otherwise. The classic extrinsic reward is money. Classic intrinsic rewards are challenge and stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-11-10T03:22:08.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4942" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4943" CreationDate="2013-11-10T03:35:44.053" Score="8" ViewCount="1941" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that we distinguish colors when they fall on our photo receptors in our eyes and neurons pass its signals to our brain to recognise them as the specific colors.  How accurate is it? For example, is there any experiment which can &lt;em&gt;measure&lt;/em&gt; whether the color that we see is the real color that is reflected by that object? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am thinking in terms of relativity. We might be interpreting a color red as red simply because our eyes and neurons and brain interpret it as red.  If this is the case there might be more colors than primary colors can make up which our eyes cant interpret it as a different color itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, &lt;strong&gt;is there any experiment which can tell us the color we see is the only and real color which is reflected by the object?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3800" OwnerDisplayName="nemu" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-10T13:56:41.933" LastActivityDate="2015-05-21T18:41:22.837" Title="Are colors real?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4943" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4942" CreationDate="2013-11-10T04:46:02.013" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is there any experiment which can tell us the color we see is the only and real color which is reflected by the object?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer whether there have been experiments identifying frequency of light with color perception is yes. Innumerable if we start with identifying the colors of the rainbow, which are one to one frequency correlated.  That is the way I interpret as &quot;real&quot; identification of frequency to color perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://physics.info/color/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is an article&lt;/a&gt; that sets up correspondences between frequencies and color perception, which does depend on the cells of the retina.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The majority of people agree to the colors of the rainbow, some see more definitions  and color blind people see less or even only grey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="anna v" LastActivityDate="2013-11-10T05:31:54.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4944" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4942" CreationDate="2013-11-10T08:24:10.400" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;It appears that throughout your question you are touching on multiple questions and topics.  I will address them in a series of quotes and responses, beginning with the title:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are colors real?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They are not physical things.  Colors are a form of &lt;em&gt;perception&lt;/em&gt; (an abstraction).  They exist in your head.  In physics the perception of colors is caused by light waves; a form of radiation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We know that we distinguish colors when they fall on our photo&#xA;  receptors in our eyes and neurons pass its signals to our brain to&#xA;  recognise them as the specific colors.  How accurate is it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Color perception is subjective.  It is affected by all the matter that would affect the interpretation of colors - your eyes, nervous system, and brain.  Accuracy would require a benchmark to weigh relativity from.  How can you benchmark the difference between your perception of colors and something else's perception of color when there is no way to record how much somebody perceives color?  You cannot say that Bill sees this much redness, that much green, and 5% less purple than normal without a strong benchmark.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...There might be more colors than primary colors can&#xA;  make up which our eyes cant interpret it as a different color itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because colors are defined as combinations of light waves at certain frequencies, what you're suggesting is that there are more combinations of light waves than what humans can see - everything beyond the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrum&quot;&gt;visible light spectrum&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My question is, is there any experiment which can tell us the color&#xA;  we see is the only and real color which is reflected by the object?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is only one actual color (aka combination of light waves) from a certain object that you will see at any given time.  If, however, you are asking if the color you perceive is the color you should perceive, then the answer is no.  You can't without a very strong benchmark to base your observations upon and a method for determining the accuracy of color interpretation in a given organism (because it requires a way to measure all the components that make up or affect perception)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3802" OwnerDisplayName="Stop forgetting my accounts..." LastActivityDate="2013-11-10T08:24:10.400" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4945" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4644" CreationDate="2013-11-10T18:55:02.560" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I agree with the commenter from Sep. 24, 16:19, except for one point: just because schizophrenic hallucinations are organic does not preclude them from changing through mindfulness. In our current understanding, all mentation is organic, yet we clearly exert conscious influence on thoughts, emotion, and even perception; otherwise all psychotherapy would be useless. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coeus, it seems like your apprehension may be due to an incomplete understanding of mindfulness and mindfulness training. When dealing with disturbing content, an approach similar to exposure therapy is advised, i.e., gradually ramping up exposure to said content. Furthermore, a key aspect of mindfulness training is nonreaction and nonjudgment; mental experience is to be regarded not as objective but as fleeting, subjective, and ultimately illusory. That said, this is the major challenge with schizophrenia, and it's entirely possible that someone in the midst of psychosis will simply not possess the presence of mind to adapt such a decentered stance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3803" LastActivityDate="2013-11-10T18:55:02.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4947" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4892" CreationDate="2013-11-11T06:09:55.453" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's &lt;a href=&quot;http://eyepitstop.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a good set of eye exercises&lt;/a&gt;, and a quote from its intro: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When your eyes get tired and you start feeling the eye strain, but still have some work to do, use the Exercises For Eyes. Regular eye exercises can help you to improve eyesight and prevent eye diseases such as nearsightedness and farsightedness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3804" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-28T00:38:33.737" LastActivityDate="2014-01-28T00:38:33.737" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4949" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-12T08:23:24.963" Score="5" ViewCount="182" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any theories or schools of thought that assume most humans still act as if they are still hunters/gatherers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hunter/gatherer societies of today would still prefer to sit around and talk with their friends than to learn about sci., eng., or even social sci.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I went to a place in a remote part of the Sepik where I was the first traveller to reach as well as a similar area in the highlands. The children had never seen a white person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People in both areas have ample leisure time and it seems to be center around sitting in a circle and socializing. They spend more time with friends in a day than most westerners spend in a week.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A guy asked me how could he get the things that I have. I told him, &quot;Do this, do that, don't do that, blah, blah....even then I don't think you'll be able to achieve it but possibly your children. However, it will mean that you can't sit around the fire all day and do nothing.&quot; He replied, &quot;Then I don't want it. I like time with my friends around the fire. I'll keep what we have.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.salon.com/2011/10/13/the_tribesman_who_facebook_friended_me/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The tribesman who Facebooked me. (comments section)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This does not sound too different than modern citizens. There is little interest outside of sports, idle chit chat, gossip, and celebrity news. Most people also want to be trained, rather than be educated. Conversations and social interaction are the only desired means of learning for most people. Learning a set of rules vs creativity/exploration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would explain why Alan Kay believes all scientists/engineers constitute less than 1% of the population.  The rest either want training or manual labour (ie the same mentality in surviving in the wilderness.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3021" LastEditorUserId="3021" LastEditDate="2013-11-13T20:59:54.663" LastActivityDate="2013-11-13T20:59:54.663" Title="Theories of Hunter/Gatherers in the 21st Century" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4952" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-13T00:00:01.703" Score="5" ViewCount="798" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know if it's possible to quantify somebody's &quot;fun meter&quot;. Maybe by measuring the amount of endorphin produced. Because every person is unique, I don't expect that amount to make another person feel exactly as much satisfaction, but I'm ready to be proven wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any existing methods to objectively measure pleasure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="975" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-11-14T23:02:25.143" LastActivityDate="2017-04-08T21:48:10.893" Title="Is it possible to objectively measure the amount of pleasure a person is experiencing?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4953" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4942" CreationDate="2013-11-13T06:23:07.037" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Usually, for something to be 'real', we want it in some reasonable manner to be objective or (because that is extremely vague) at least very consistent across subjective observers. Unfortunately, colour does not satisfy this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Physical basis.&lt;/strong&gt; As &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4944/29&quot;&gt;explained very well by @Stop_forgetting_my_account&lt;/a&gt;: Physics does not have colour, it just has a continuous spectrum of wavelengths. Even when you look at the sensitivity of the 3 types of cones in the retina it is not discrete, but continuous. The categories of colours (i.e. &quot;that's red&quot;, &quot;that's blue&quot;) are produced by perception and these discrete-ish categories form the basis of colour &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qualia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;qualia&lt;/a&gt;. Scientists can study these categories by asking participants if various stimuli feel like the same colour.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Biological variation.&lt;/strong&gt; As I mentioned in the previous point, most people have 3 types of cones, and a typical colour-matching experiment need 3 dials to tune a colour to be indistinguishable (by them) from one they see presented to them. However, there are colourblind individuals where 1 (or more) of the cone types are not expressed; such individuals only need two knobs to match a presented colour, and thus they will identify certain colours as the same though most people would experience them as different colours. Finally, there is the rare condition of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachromacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tetrochromacy&lt;/a&gt; (much more common among women than men) where an individual has 4 different types of cone cells. For most of these individuals, this does not result in being able to reliably distinguish colours that trichromats perceive as the same, and they are called non-functional tetrochromats. However, there have been &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2161402/Gabriele-Jordan-British-scientist-claims-woman-superhuman-vision.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reported cases of functional tetrochromats&lt;/a&gt;; such individuals are able to reliably distinguish colours that would be identical to trichromats.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cross-cultural variation.&lt;/strong&gt; Regier &amp;amp; Kay (2009; see also reference within) discuss how these arbitrary boundaries between colours are language-dependent. Thus, the nuances of colour do not meet the psychological definition of a human universal even within people with the same biology.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intra-personal variation.&lt;/strong&gt; The buck doesn't stop there. Gilbert and colleagues (2006) showed that the language dependence is supported in the right visual field (across from the 'language center' of the brain) but not the left. In other words, when I present colours in one part of your visual field, you experience them one way, and when I present them to the other, you then experience them in a fundamentally different way. This isn't an artifact of some physical property of your eyes, but of how your brain perceives colours (i.e. feedback from higher-order parts of the brain).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Related posts and references&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1364/29&quot;&gt;Is it possible for certain people to perceive colors differently?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/1317/29&quot;&gt;Answer to &quot;Is there a region of cortex which over a period of development becomes the seat of self?&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gilbert, A. L., Regier, T., Kay, P., &amp;amp; Ivry, R. B. (2006). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0509868103&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Whorf hypothesis is supported in the right visual field but not the left&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103&lt;/em&gt;(2), 489–494.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Regier, T., &amp;amp; Kay, P. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661309001454&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Language, thought, and color: Whorf was half right&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13&lt;/em&gt;(10), 439–446.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-02-10T03:04:35.040" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4954" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-13T13:12:01.617" Score="7" ViewCount="283" Body="&lt;p&gt;What sort of computations are used for localising sound with the ears, and how does the brain compute the time difference between sounds reaching each ear? I am interested in the specific mechanisms rather than a general account. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3808" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-14T02:36:58.253" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T10:37:42.933" Title="How does the brain compute sound localisation without the equations?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4956" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4954" CreationDate="2013-11-13T16:32:06.593" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some neuroscience &lt;strong&gt;papers&lt;/strong&gt; on sound localization:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Joris Philip X, Smith Philip H, and Yin Tom C.T Coincidence Detection in the Auditory System // Neuron (1998)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Agmon-Snir Hagai, Carr Catherine E. and Rinzel John The role of dendrites in auditory coincidence detection // Nature (1998)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trussell Laurence O. Synaptic mechanisms for coding timing in auditory neurons // Annual Review of Physiology (1999)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grothe B., Pecka M., &amp;amp; McAlpine D. Mechanisms of Sound Localization in Mammals // Physiological Reviews (2010) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chen X, Leischner U, Rochefort NL, Nelken I, Konnerth A. Functional mapping of single spines in cortical neurons in vivo // Nature (2011) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Books&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Blauert, J.: Spatial hearing: the psychophysics of human sound localization; MIT Press (1983)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schnupp, Nelken and King: Auditory Neuroscience: Making Sense of Sound, MIT Press, 2011&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3813" LastEditorUserId="3813" LastEditDate="2013-11-13T16:37:16.423" LastActivityDate="2013-11-13T16:37:16.423" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4957" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-13T18:00:18.820" Score="15" ViewCount="554" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does the human brain calculate velocities? For example, when crossing a road and seeing a car coming towards you, how does the brain actually compute the rough velocity of the vehicle and your own maximum speed as you cross the road so as to judge that you can cross safely without using the relevant physics equations? I am interested particularly in the specific cognitive and/or neural processes and that level of detail rather than just the fact that the brain estimates distance and time taken to cross that distance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;N.B. This question is derived from an earlier post of mine which I was advised to split into two for clarity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3808" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-14T02:41:08.620" LastActivityDate="2018-11-17T00:46:39.103" Title="How does the brain calculate velocity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4958" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-14T02:21:52.510" Score="6" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;When looking into a clear blue sky, no cloud, birds, trees or any object to give a frame of reference. When a person is actively looking, as opposed to day dreaming or gazing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The sky goes for a long distance, and with uninterrupted view, and I guess the first question would be:&#xA;-  At what point into the atmosphere can the human eye see &lt;em&gt;(which is not a topic for this site)&lt;/em&gt;, following this,  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What I want to know; is at what point to the eyes come to rest and How is the focal point determined?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another consideration is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can this be measured?&lt;br&gt;&#xA; Would any attempt to measure this would involve putting a device between the eyes and focal point?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-11-14T02:55:42.520" LastActivityDate="2016-09-05T11:11:15.267" Title="How is the focal point determined when looking into a clear sky?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4960" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="78" CreationDate="2013-11-14T15:03:18.850" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Vittorio Gallese, discoverer of the mirror neurons, says &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.zeit.de/2008/21/Klein-Mitgef-hl-21&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;in an interview&lt;/a&gt; in the German weekly newspaper &lt;em&gt;Die Zeit&lt;/em&gt;, that in virtual, indirect communication (as opposed to personal, face-to-face communication) there is less empathy because the mirror neurons don't get triggered as easily if we cannot witness the emotions of our conversational partners.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paraphrase:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What worries me more than violent computer games is the we communicate more and more fequently over telephone and computer. Communities where people come together physically are becoming increasingly rare. But we know from our experiments that for empathy it is not the same wether we see a person on a monitor or eye to eye. If you communicate with your conversational partner only over email or chat, your image of him completely disappears.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If you do not face a person directly, but only listen to them on the phone or read what they write on the internet, &lt;strong&gt;you can no longer feel what they feel. All you can do is attempt to cognitively &lt;em&gt;understand&lt;/em&gt; how they feel, similar to an autist&lt;/strong&gt;. But this is much more complicated and error prone. That is why we prefer the physical company of other people, because they understand us without long explanations – simply by looking at us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simon Baron-Cohen, in &lt;em&gt;Zero Degrees of Empathy&lt;/em&gt;, argues on the basis of his research that &lt;em&gt;empathy erosion&lt;/em&gt; lies at the heart of cruelty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disembodied communication hinders empathy, and thus facilitates cruelty.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2013-11-14T15:10:09.047" LastActivityDate="2013-11-14T15:10:09.047" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4962" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4952" CreationDate="2013-11-14T18:32:09.627" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very general answer to your question. And let me say upfront that I don't know about any measurement instruments for pleasure. However, I would like to emphasize that pleasure, just as about any psychological phenomenon, has to be considered a &lt;em&gt;latent construct&lt;/em&gt;. What this means is that it cannot be measured directly, but only indirectly and imperfectly through a bunch of indicators. It is actually important to have more than one indicator in order to estimate how reliable the measurement is. Since you asked wether it is possible to measure pleasure or not, my answer is yes.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question then becomes what the indicators are, that allow one to measure the amount of pleasure someone is experienceing. They should be derived from a theory about what pleasure is. In the &lt;a href=&quot;http://metro.co.uk/2013/01/25/brainwave-experiment-sets-out-to-determine-the-first-ever-scale-for-measuring-pleasure-3365853/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;reference&lt;/a&gt; that @GregMcNulty gives in the comments, for instance, the amount of pleasure is measured predominantly by activity in the prefrontal cortex. But it is also stated that &quot;From a biological perspective, pleasure is not a unitary experience in the brain. It’s not just one region that is activated when we find pleasure in something or someone.&quot; That's speaking to the notion of having more than one indicator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whatever way you do it, though, you will have to come up with a good theory on what pleasure is and then find indicators. And with a construct as complex as pleasure, it is important to keep in mind that you will always have measurement error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastActivityDate="2013-11-14T18:32:09.627" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4967" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-15T17:39:41.377" Score="3" ViewCount="619" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the cost of an EEG device (electrodes and other indispensable hardware, software if available for standard office computers, or a whole package with a dedicated computer and software) that is of suitable quality for neurolinguistic research? My own attempts to find information on this were futile. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; article quotes low-cost devices from US$ 100 onwards, but I'm guessing the very cheap ones are of rather limited use for research. There is also an &lt;a href=&quot;http://openeeg.sourceforge.net/doc/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;OPenEEG&lt;/a&gt; project, but I'm looking for an out-of-the-box solution. The commercial suppliers I found online do not quote any prices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just need a rough estimate to what amount of money is necessary to do any publishable academic research, and how much solution for average research needs would cost - such as 500 Euros/Dollars, 1,000, 10,000...?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1183" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T21:21:00.220" Title="Cost of EEG devices suitable for neurolinguistic research" Tags="&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4968" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5019" CreationDate="2013-11-15T17:43:06.403" Score="4" ViewCount="626" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was sitting in college today today doodling around as I was bored, when I drew an arrow onto my paper, Looking at the arrow, I predicted that the arrow would move in the direction it was facing. Then, I thought &quot;How did I know it would move in that direction?&quot;. Being a programmer/game developer I know that to make an object move in a direction, you need to do trigonometry math, and I highly doubt that I can find the cosine and sine of a number in my head. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How did I know in which direction the object was going to travel?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a diagram: &lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zBGxz.png&quot; alt=&quot;Crazy!&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3827" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-18T01:31:17.187" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T01:57:35.307" Title="Can our brain do trigonometry?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4969" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="4970" CreationDate="2013-11-15T17:46:15.007" Score="1" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose I have an audio file of a lecture of a professor explaining something to be learned - a physics concept for example, and I listen to the audio file over and over again, much like how people listen to music while working. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How effective is audio inculcation - listening to an audio file over and over again, even though I'm doing something else and not actively listening to the audio - for learning? How does this affect the subconscious?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can this tactic be used to change  behavior: For example, recording a voice of  saying &quot;Do not go on Facebook. Facebook is bad.,&quot; and listening it to it over and over again, much like one would do with music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3824" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T00:44:26.313" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T00:44:26.313" Title="Audio Inculcation and Learning" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4970" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4969" CreationDate="2013-11-15T17:53:21.633" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This LOP diagram explains it pretty well, acoustic information is remembered moderately well as it has moderate processing done on it to help you remember it, but as you can see, semantic  is the best way to remember stuff, something is semantic if it's understood well or has meaning to you, so the best way to learn it is it to make sure that you understand it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KtSkP.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3827" LastActivityDate="2013-11-15T17:53:21.633" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1448" CreationDate="2013-11-17T11:36:32.233" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following article &lt;a href=&quot;http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=121666&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;PERCEPTION OF EMOTIONS&#xA;FROM FACES AND BODIES&#xA;AND THE INFLUENCE OF CONTEXT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Charlotte Sinke (I have quoted the aims and outline from) examines in depth interpretation of dynamic body language and cross cultural differences. It discusses the availability of studies with static images, facial expressions and voice and the relationship between these in perception and cross cultural differences. Although this doesn't examine a large range of cultures, it's interesting and provides a good resource of cited articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Research aims and thesis outline&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Previous emotion research has mainly focused on the perception of facial expressions.&#xA;Only in recent years, bodily expressions are being studied. This has been done by&#xA;using pictures of isolated bodies. However, in our daily life, bodies are not static&#xA;and do not appear in isolation. Therefore, the stimuli used in Chapter 5 and 6 are&#xA;dynamic. There is reason to believe that the perception of faces and bodies might be&#xA;influenced by the context it is in. This can be the physical environment, the culture, or&#xA;other people. The question therefore is how a face or a body, being emotional or not,&#xA;is processed differently in specific contexts. Since everything that we do involves&#xA;in some way other people, it is interesting to find out how the brain responds to an&#xA;interaction between two people and whether it notices subtle differences in body&#xA;language that can indicate whether a threat is going on. A final question was how&#xA;attention can play a role in this perception.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Across cultures the expression of basic emotions is remarkably similar. However,&#xA;emotion perception can be influenced by other factors, like the (social) context.&#xA;Whether people from different cultures are differently influenced by this will be&#xA;discussed in Chapter 2. More specifically, Dutch and Chinese students were tested on&#xA;whether they show differences in the recognition of facial but also bodily expressions&#xA;and whether they are differently influenced by context. The studies described in this&#xA;chapter are purely behavioural.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Moving away from cultural differences, in Chapter 3 the influence of context on&#xA;face processing is investigated using fMRI. Chapter 4 elaborates on the data from&#xA;this study. Here, the activation of extrastriate body area is discussed in relation to its&#xA;response to threatening scenes specifically.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;The study performed in Chapter 5 moves from static pictures to dynamic movies&#xA;of two people interacting. This interaction was either threatening or teasing. A&#xA;difference is made in whether participants actively try to guess what goes on in each&#xA;situation or perform an unrelated task. Chapter 6 expands on perceiving threatening&#xA;social interactions by using two different attention levels and letting the participant&#xA;focus on only one of the two protagonists (always one of them being angry at the&#xA;other) in each movie.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Finally, in Chapter 7, the insights gathered from the preceding chapters are&#xA;summarized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Charlotte Sinke&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=121666&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interesting quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;“Every phase of movement, every small transference of weight, every single gesture&#xA;of any part of the body reveals some feature of … inner life.”&#xA;~ Rudolf Laban ~&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-11-17T11:36:32.233" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4967" CreationDate="2013-11-17T19:09:23.200" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;We were looking for an EEG device few years ago. The commercial offers were between 20,000 EUR for a 32 passive electrode to 50,000 EUR for an 64/128 active electrode. This included everything except the computers - some offers were without off-line data processing software. I never considered the EEG systems that were not mentioned in the method section of my research domain. And beware of the local regulations and ethical considerations concerning home-made devices for recording human biological signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2013-11-17T19:09:23.200" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4976" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-17T23:20:46.003" Score="2" ViewCount="868" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been thinking about my performance at various tasks and where my focus is at during them and something's really got me confused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It makes sense that devoting all my focus to a task while I'm doing it would yield the best results that I'm capable of. In my case, however, the opposite seems true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I'm trying my best to accomplish something and it's not working to my satisfaction (bugs in my program code that don't appear to have a reasonable cause for example) - and this only happens when I'm really focusing on the task - I get irritated with my apparent inability to come to the desired result and my performance declines, which irritates me more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, if I have my focus split (i.e. playing a movie or tv series while I'm busy with the task), I stay a lot calmer and generally my performance at said task stays pretty high.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's very clear to me that I don't perform well under pressure, but in a lot of cases, there's no pressure aside from what I put on myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is this: how is it that when I'm just absent-mindedly doing something, it generally turns out better than it would if I focused on it and tried my hardest?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3492" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-05T03:21:16.320" LastActivityDate="2013-12-05T03:21:16.320" Title="Why does splitting attention between a primary task and another task appear to improve performance on the primary task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4981" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-18T19:51:40.473" Score="5" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to develop bipolar in childhood? Does the same diagnostic criteria for bipolar in adults apply for children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-10-03T09:40:17.310" LastActivityDate="2018-10-03T09:40:17.310" Title="Can bipolar develop in childhood?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="4982" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5055" CreationDate="2013-11-19T02:08:29.100" Score="3" ViewCount="348" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sleep inertia is a transitional state of lowered arousal occurring immediately after awakening from sleep and producing a temporary decrement in subsequent performance. (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is study demonstrating what increases sleep inertia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of the most critical factors is the sleep stage prior to awakening.  Abrupt awakening during a slow wave sleep (SWS) episode produces more sleep inertia than awakening in stage 1 or 2, REM sleep being intermediate. Therefore, prior sleep deprivation usually enhances sleep inertia since it increases SWS. (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I am interested in what can be done to alleviate sleep inertia (rather than reducing the causation).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Finally, sleep disorders represent risk factors which deserve new insight in treatment strategies to counteract the adverse effects of sleep inertia. (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.smrv-journal.com/article/S1087-0792%2800%2990098-4/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sleep inertia.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Tassi P, Muzet A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T19:34:33.067" Title="Is there a way to hasten recovery from sleep inertia?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4984" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-19T03:12:26.473" Score="2" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to still gain muscle strength by performing exercises but without load? Is there some kind of memory mechanism that would allow this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="975" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-19T04:01:57.473" LastActivityDate="2013-11-19T04:01:57.473" Title="Is it possible to gain strength by imagining working out?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2013-11-19T05:18:25.660" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4985" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4952" CreationDate="2013-11-19T08:46:24.120" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could also choose a wider path by measuring a person emotion, and deduce a level of pleasure from these results.&#xA;There are three useful components in order to record an emotion :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The behavioral component is mostly turned towards face analysis. The user may not be aware of his face change, but he may control it... So it's not the perfect objective tool. There are computer-based softwares to analyse such emotions from a face analysis.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The cognitive component consists basically to ask how the person feel through robust questionnaires. There are several questionnaires involving emotional terms or not. However, this is a very subjective source.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The physiological component may be a quite relevant resource for you as it is objective: the person is not able to control his physiological response. There are numerous different physiological responses of emotional change, but I would rather choose the galvanic skin reponse (GSR). However, this will objectivly bring forward an emotional response, without being able to qualify it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, it is important to use a combinaison of these resources in order to get an objective way of assessing pleasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3656" LastActivityDate="2013-11-19T08:46:24.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4986" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-19T09:48:46.373" Score="10" ViewCount="381" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that researchers agree that physical exercise increases cognitive abilities. This seems to work universally for all ages: children, adults and old people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is suggested that everyone should exercise for half an hour at least 3 times a week. I'm wondering if there are any studies which try to find dependencies between the amount of training and the effect of it on cognitive abilities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1136" LastEditorUserId="1136" LastEditDate="2015-11-12T12:16:26.543" LastActivityDate="2015-11-28T22:12:44.567" Title="What is the optimal exercise regime for improving cognitive functioning?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4987" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-19T12:59:12.513" Score="5" ViewCount="1294" Body="&lt;p&gt;If my conversational partner (in western europe) crosses his arms, while I am talking; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can I determine if he is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;showing &lt;strong&gt;signs of rejection&lt;/strong&gt; and/or detachment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;or if he chose this position for &lt;strong&gt;another reason&lt;/strong&gt;? (habit, reserved personality, low  self-consciousness or just hiding a stain on his shirt...)&#xA;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there clues that can help me to interpret his posture correctly?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3837" LastEditorUserId="3837" LastEditDate="2013-11-22T09:55:59.960" LastActivityDate="2014-02-01T19:59:06.200" Title="How to interpret the meaning of &quot;crossed arms&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4989" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-20T01:38:53.250" Score="3" ViewCount="506" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on an app where we are aiming to develop peer to peer training. How could we gamify the learning process to make it more fun?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3840" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-11-20T06:16:44.873" LastActivityDate="2013-11-24T18:13:54.767" Title="How to gamify a mentoring activity?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;training&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2014-01-13T15:34:24.037" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4991" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4851" CreationDate="2013-11-20T11:59:21.493" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research on well-being has explored happiness from different temporal perspectives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Much of the literature looks at how people respond to measures of life satisfaction, quality of life, and measures of tendencies to experience positive and negative emotion. These tend to reflect longer term evaluations and emotional experiences. This shows up in for example, the relatively stability that individuals show on such measures. For example Fujita and Diener (2005) examined longitudinal data over 17 years and found substantial correlations in life satisfaction over that period of time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a variety of concepts such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hedonic treadmill&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.diw.de/documents/publikationen/73/77545/dp753.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;set point theory&lt;/a&gt; which propose that people have a general tendency when it comes to well-being. General daily experiences can lead people to deviate from their set-point, but that with the exception of a few extreme events (e.g., divorce, major trauma, etc.) people tend to return to their set point. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, there is another line of research that looks more at the moment to moment affective experience. Such research has often employed experience sampling methods (e.g., Kuppens et al, 2010) and this clearly shows more of what you are talking about: i.e., the way that mood fluctuates in relation to the little daily hassles and pleasures that we experience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One perspective is that the global assessment and momentary moods serve different functional purposes. Momentary moods help to guide our response in particular situations. For example, a stressful situation may call for increased vigilance or attention. An experience which elicits negative emotions maybe one to avoid. In contrast, global assessments of life satisfaction are much broader and all encompassing and may help to guide us in our broader life plans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fujita, F., &amp;amp; Diener, E. (2005). Life satisfaction set point: stability and change. Journal of personality and social psychology, 88(1), 158. &lt;a href=&quot;http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/Readings%20595/Fujita%2005%20happy%20set%20point%20copy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kuppens, P., Oravecz, Z., &amp;amp; Tuerlinckx, F. (2010). Feelings change: accounting for individual differences in the temporal dynamics of affect. Journal of personality and social psychology, 99(6), 1042. &lt;a href=&quot;http://zitaoravecz.net:84/articles/Kuppens2010FCAFI.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-11-20T11:59:21.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4993" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5013" CreationDate="2013-11-20T22:21:04.380" Score="20" ViewCount="4588" Body="&lt;p&gt;Context switching has been highlighted for the toll it takes on productivity at great length, particularly by people who work in software and project management. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any psychology/neuroscience studies documenting how long it usually takes a person to refocus on a task after someone is interrupted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3751" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-20T23:18:43.547" LastActivityDate="2017-02-28T12:03:57.863" Title="How long does it take to refocus after context switching?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4995" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5012" CreationDate="2013-11-21T07:41:22.633" Score="-3" ViewCount="2216" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most popular pets are cats, and dogs. They are all carnivores. Few people have pigs as pets. More commonly, people eat pigs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why are some of the most common human housepets carnivores?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does this preference indicate anything more general about the human condition?&lt;/strong&gt; (for example, do humans love violent beings?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note:&#xA;Cows, horses, and rabbits are cattles, not pets. You don't develop emotional bonding with them. People would scream when dogs are being eaten in China. People don't scream when pigs are being eaten everywhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am talking about the &lt;strong&gt;most popular pets that people form bonds with&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am just wondering that perhaps we use cats in mutually beneficial ways. That is why we love them. Also cats and dogs would retaliate if we hit them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We uses cows in parasitic ways (as food). That's why we don't love cows. Perhaps a good strategy to be loved is to be reasonably violent? That's what I want to know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or perhaps humans love those who kill for them (like our soldiers?). Cats and dogs kill for us or help us kill. That's why we evolve loving them as our &quot;allies&quot;. Is it possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NB: I am well aware that cats are very cute. I prefer rational explanation I can easily verified without referring to some vague emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T00:40:16.750" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T00:40:16.750" Title="Why are most popular humans pets carnivores?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="11" ClosedDate="2013-11-25T12:06:59.227" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4996" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8744" CreationDate="2013-11-21T12:33:24.903" Score="2" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;To what extent is common sense innate versus influenced by interactions with others?&#xA;If someone has grown up with minimal interaction with other people, would their common sense be different?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3323" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-12-02T14:13:15.180" LastActivityDate="2014-12-02T19:49:15.723" Title="What is the psychological cause and meaning of &quot;common sense&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4997" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4987" CreationDate="2013-11-21T12:49:36.200" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Crossing arms may not necessarily mean detachment or rejection. However, more often than not, that's the usual implication.  It can mean different things for different people and, furthermore, in different situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people cross arms to make themselves secure, perhaps when they are intellectually or physically overshadowed.  Or maybe when they are pushed a little on the emotional front or on areas out of their comfort zone. In short, it may be their way of putting their guard up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Others may conceive it as a deep and professional expression of taking interest in the conversation, often marked by the seriousness and context of the conversation. However on a contrasting ground, disinterest in the conversation is also a stimulus to crossing arms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crossing arms is also used as a sign to display prowess and as a challenge, in case the superiority of an individual is questioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Funnily enough, hiding the stain on the shirt seems a reasonable explanation too..:D&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3846" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-21T21:59:40.517" LastActivityDate="2013-11-21T21:59:40.517" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4998" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5002" CreationDate="2013-11-21T14:49:17.417" Score="4" ViewCount="806" Body="&lt;p&gt;In principle I understand the distinction. Implicit memory is not consciously recollected but has an automatic character i.e. while I'm solving a task in math, I'm automatically using the concept of numbers and maybe even counting which I have stored in my memory. Explicit memory on the other hand is the conscious recollection of particular bits of memory, like explicitly counting up to ten or maybe remembering my birthday.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm wondering is this: Isn't this distinction somewhat arbitrary? Even if I consciously use a certain piece of memory to solve a task, isn't it the case that I still don't know how I manage to access this particular memory? And is this even only about memory? To me it seems that everything can be stored in some way (how I breathe, my birthday and the range of things I do when taking a shower) and isn't that the only type of memory we have? Shouldn't the distinction then be about how we use the things we have memorized? I mean is there evidence that implicit memory is stored in a structurally different way than explicit memory? Or am I focussing on the wrong question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm asking this question out of pure interest as a cognitive linguist who doesn't have much to do with memory right now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3429" LastEditorUserId="3429" LastEditDate="2013-11-21T15:15:17.893" LastActivityDate="2013-11-22T05:52:04.617" Title="Is implicit and explicit memory a useful distinction?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="4999" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4989" CreationDate="2013-11-21T17:54:47.560" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For starters, I think it's a good idea to provide rewards for both students and mentors. As an example: Mentors could receive rewards for answering questions by students, while students receive rewards for solving exercises. Furthermore, the mentor should be able to give rewards for good questions etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually, it's quite a bit like Stack Exchange, if you think about it. Only, without exercises and without the ability to directly ask one particular teacher who can be rewarded for answering and also reward you for a good question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another idea that pops up immediately, is to have team or group exercises with predefined roles. For example, if the exercises includes writing a calendar program (like Google calendar). One person could be responsible for graphical design, one for coordination etc.&#xA;This is maybe not an ideal scenario since a task like that would be quite extensive but I think you get the picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I think it's not that difficult to represent the traditional relation between student and mentor. This system is, in a sense, already includes rewards. However, the difference between the traditional system and an app like yours is really the possibility to engage in learning because you feel interest or curiosity about the subject. Having someone who can help and reward you only fuels the intrinsic motivation you already have. In that sense, I believe what really counts is that a system like the one you outline offers a sense of security for the student. The gamification is mostly based on extrinsic motivation and as such only an added bonus. The ability to connect based on interest and the desire to learn is what really makes the difference, I think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVe5yVMIGqM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;documentary 'Alphabet'&lt;/a&gt; which recently premiered. In this film, there is also a high emphasis on learning as a game, even though it may not exactly be what you're looking for, it might nevertheless provide some inspiration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3429" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-11-24T01:04:40.887" LastActivityDate="2013-11-24T01:04:40.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5002" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4998" CreationDate="2013-11-22T05:52:04.617" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, the distinction is real, not arbitrary. Implicit and explicit memory show different hallmark behavioral characteristics. A good overview of the difference between explicit and implicit memory is available in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=-wt1aZrGXLYC&amp;amp;pg=PA394&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences&lt;/a&gt;. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_memory#Implicit_memory_in_amnesic_patients&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia page on implicit memory&lt;/a&gt; also has some useful information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the most important piece of evidence we have for this distinction is not behavioral, but from a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_dissociation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;double dissociation&lt;/a&gt; in neuropsychology: some brain damaged patients have impaired implicit memory but intact explicit memory, whereas others have impaired explicit memory but intact implicit memory (e.g. Gabrieli et al, 1995). This is possible because implicit and explicit memory are thought to have separate neural substrates (e.g. Squire, 1992).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of questions in your second paragraph and I'm not quite sure I follow. But to be clear, implicit/explicit memory is not the &lt;em&gt;only&lt;/em&gt; distinction one can make on memory systems. It is one of many.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gabrieli, J. D., Fleischman, D. A., Keane, M. M., Reminger, S. L., &amp;amp; Morrell, F. (1995). Double dissociation between memory systems underlying explicit and implicit memory in the human brain. Psychological Science, 6(2), 76-82.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Squire, L. R. (1992). Memory and the hippocampus: a synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychological review, 99(2), 195.&#xA;Chicago&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-11-22T05:52:04.617" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5003" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-22T10:52:09.180" Score="3" ViewCount="35889" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read in a North American undergrad psychology textbook, that people who tend to finish another's sentences tend to be emotionally intense. I think &quot;emotionally intense&quot; is the wording that they used. The impression that was given is that the type of person tends to swing moods more often or to a larger degree; they're more emotional.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone cite the study? And does anyone know any other traits of people who like to finish another's thoughts? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3577" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-11-23T01:22:41.977" LastActivityDate="2017-01-05T14:37:18.757" Title="Personality traits associated with finishing other people's sentences?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5004" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3961" CreationDate="2013-11-22T11:40:08.587" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/2701/do-we-perceive-time-passing-slower-during-an-accident&quot;&gt;disproven&lt;/a&gt; that an aroused brain &quot;thinks faster&quot;, but an aroused brain perceives time as passing slower. Thus, an aroused speaker would be inclined to believe that they're speaking too slowly and thus speak faster to compensate.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Even outside of oral presentation, I find this tendency to act faster to be evident when I am playing a first-person shooter video-game and my view (and to a more unfortunate extent, my aim) whips about when I'm having an adrenaline rush, and how a scared animal will act similarly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3577" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:46:43.487" LastActivityDate="2013-11-22T11:45:19.483" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5005" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-22T12:35:50.253" Score="15" ViewCount="13017" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm having a hard time making a clear distinction between semantic and episodic memory. When presented with idealized examples, I find the breakdown clear; describing a trip to Paris is an example of episodic memory, describing the structure of a cell is an example of semantic memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, when it comes to experimental settings, things suddenly start to look more murky. For example, say that one is presented 20 words in a sequential fashion and then is asked to repeat as many of these as possible. Are we dealing with episodic memory then? Does it make any difference if one is forced to recollect them in the same order as they appeared? Many researchers seem to consider this situation an example of episodic memory (just as an example, see van der Helm et al., 2011), and indeed, the man who invented the concept of episodic memory also did so at the time of its conception (Tulving, 1972; p.390).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, later, Tulving has revised his original definition. In a more recent article (Tulving, 2002) he writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had been wrong in 1972 when I had assumed that the traditional, Ebbinghaus-inspired, study/test laboratory experiments of verbal learning and memory had dealt with episodic memory. They had not. Two important features of episodic memory were missing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One had to do with the contents of what the subjects in the experiments had to learn. Episodic memory is about happenings in particular places at particular times, or about “what,” “where,” and “when” [...] Traditional laboratory experiments, however, were almost invariably concerned with “what.” Subjects are asked, “What do you remember of the presented material?” They report their knowledge in tests such as free recall, cued recall, or recognition. Subjects’ memory for “where” and “when” was hardly ever examined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other missing feature was what I referred to in Elements as “recollective experience,” or conscious awareness of what had happened in the past. In traditional experiments the experimenter assumes that the overt behavioral response reflects the subject’s mental state; that is, that behavior is a faithful index of cognition. The reasoning goes something like this: Surely, if the subject recognizes an item in a recognition test, it means that he remembers it from the list, that is, that he has a conscious recollection of the item’s occurrence in the study list. How could it possibly be otherwise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As subsequent history showed, it could be otherwise. Research on implicit memory [...], or so-called nonconscious memory [...], has overwhelmingly proved that one and the same behavioral response in a study/test experiment could represent conscious awareness of the retrieved item’s experimental history as readily as it could represent total lack of such awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So which one is it? Are there any large disagreements within the community of what episodic memory actually is? Are word list tests seen as something that at least captures a small part of episodic memory? If remembering a list of words isn't an example of episodic memory, then what is it an example of?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;van der Helm, E.; Gujar, N.; Nishida, M; Walker, M.P. (2011).Sleep-Dependent Facilitation of Episodic Memory Details. PLoS ONE, 6(11).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving and W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization of Memory (pp. 381-402). New York: Academic Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tulving, E. (2002). Episodic memory: From mind to brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 1-25.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-10-26T02:16:07.720" Title="Is remembering a list of words an example of semantic or episodic memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;episodic-memory&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5008" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-23T07:44:56.527" Score="5" ViewCount="313" Body="&lt;p&gt;These two terms are closely related, and thus easily confusable as synonymous. Is there a difference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3577" LastActivityDate="2013-11-24T16:33:38.357" Title="What's the difference between repression and suppression?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5009" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4993" CreationDate="2013-11-23T11:38:11.623" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the &lt;a href=&quot;http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887324339204578173252223022388&quot;&gt;Wall Street Journal&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Office workers are interrupted—or self-interrupt—roughly every three minutes, academic studies have found, with numerous distractions coming in both digital and human forms. Once thrown off track, &lt;strong&gt;it can take some 23 minutes for a worker to return to the original task&lt;/strong&gt;, says Gloria Mark, a professor of informatics at the University of California, Irvine, who studies digital distraction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lots of wider reading around &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interruption_science&quot;&gt;interruption science (the name for the aforementioned Gloria Mark's field of study) on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;. She has &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ics.uci.edu/~gmark/Home_page/Research.html&quot;&gt;lots of papers on multitasking and interruption&lt;/a&gt;, but I can't find which one gives the 23 minute figure attributed to her by the WSJ. She also mentions this figure in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fastcompany.com/944128/worker-interrupted-cost-task-switching&quot;&gt;a Fast Company interview&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3854" LastEditorUserId="3854" LastEditDate="2013-11-23T14:38:41.490" LastActivityDate="2013-11-23T14:38:41.490" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5010" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-23T18:12:24.477" Score="3" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has anyone read/reviewed this book - &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0415444829&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Qualitative Mathematics for the Social Sciences&lt;/a&gt;? I have been trying to find a credible review on the reliability of the book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3857" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T03:07:08.830" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T03:07:08.830" Title="Book review for &quot;Qualitative Mathematics for the Social Sciences&quot;" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-05T22:15:31.453" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5012" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4995" CreationDate="2013-11-24T14:57:32.963" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Iguanas are not carnivores. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Look at it historically: we have had useful animals around us for thousands of years: dogs to help hunting, cats to keep vermin away. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other non-carnivorous pets was at some point - and still are - domesticated for food (rabbits, guinea pigs). Pigs are a gray area: they will pretty much eat anything, meat included. Then you have gerbils, rats, mice etc. All little rodents; some omnivores, but mainly herbivores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sheep, goats, buffalo, cows, horses are all a little too big for pets; though some people - on farms - might have a pet sheep. Miniature horses have been trained as &quot;seeing-eye-horses&quot;. There are some obvious reasons for this: the training of the horse may take a little longer than with a dog, but they live a lot longer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Birds have not been domesticated for very long; some birds of prey have and can be trained as hunters; falconry. This is a working bird, doing what it will do in the wild. Parrots and other &quot;domesticated&quot; birds will easily suffer as pets, not matter how big an aviary you might build. They need to be part of a flock, they get easily frustrated, alone and sick.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reptiles are not  so common as pets. This, I think, is partly because they are associated with slithering, slimy things. We prefer our pets to be mammals. They are closer to us in the evolutionary tree, they are easier to &quot;understand&quot;, they have been domesticated for much, much longer. And their babies are cute beyond measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me, this question is over-psychologising the historical evolution. Humans do not necessarily love &quot;violent&quot; creatures. We like creatures that can either be useful (hunting dogs) or entertaining and understandable (kittens - who can not love them?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And. Animals are not &quot;violent&quot; per se. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3578" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-24T22:26:25.253" LastActivityDate="2013-11-24T22:26:25.253" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5013" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4993" CreationDate="2013-11-24T15:21:55.807" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;As part of my PhD within the field of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)&lt;/a&gt;, one of the things I am trying to support the user in is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_multitasking&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;multitasking&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. This might be relevant for you since interruptions and multitasking are highly interlinked. I'll refer you to some of the key papers I encountered during my background research, including some on the effects of interruptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are asking &lt;em&gt;&quot;how long it usually takes a person to refocus&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. In order to answer that question fully you'd need to define 'refocus' better, but there are some papers on some effects of interruptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Multitasking and activities&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the main referenced papers on multitasking within HCI is “Constant, Constant, Multi-tasking Craziness”: Managing Multiple Working Spheres by Victor M. González and Gloria Mark, 2004. They introduced the concept of 'working spheres' representing higher-level contexts, which &lt;em&gt;&quot;people spend about 12 minutes in [...] before they switch to&#xA;another&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. I assume you are interested in the effects on these higher-level context switches, rather than low level tasks as part of these contexts. This is an important first difference to keep in mind when reading up on multitasking/interruptions. Following up on citations of this paper will lead you to a lot of papers which might interest you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Differences in interruptions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not all interruptions are alike and not all interruptions are even disruptive. Monk et al. (2008) note &lt;em&gt;&quot;the time to resume task goals after an interruption varied depending on the duration and cognitive demand of interruptions&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some characteristics that have been observed to affect primary task performance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Interruption&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Duration&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive demand&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Similarity to primary task&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Complexity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Relatedness to primary task&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;State when interrupted&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Control over interruption onset&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Availability of primary task retrieval cues&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive load (Bailey, B. P., &amp;amp; Iqbal, S. T., 2008)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For references to the relevant papers and a lengthy discussion see Monk et al., 2008.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Effects of interruptions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies concluded that people performed post-interruption tasks &lt;strong&gt;more slowly&lt;/strong&gt; compared to pre-interruption performance. They also found that people made &lt;strong&gt;more errors&lt;/strong&gt; in post-interruption performance. (Kreifeldt, J. G., &amp;amp; McCarthy, M. E., 1981) (Gillie, T., &amp;amp; Broadbent, D., 1989)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as Monk et al. also describe in their review there have been contradictory findings. For example, in a more recent paper by Gloria Mark et al., 2008 &lt;em&gt;&quot;people completed interrupted tasks in less time with no difference in quality&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. They suggest people compensate for interruptions by working faster, at a price: experiencing &lt;strong&gt;more stress&lt;/strong&gt;, higher frustration, time pressure and effort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More relevant to your question, although described in a lot more detail by Monk et al. (2008) the graphs near the end of the paper show a &lt;strong&gt;resumption time of about 1250-1700 ms&lt;/strong&gt; depending on the interruption duration (5-60s). These, however, seem to reflect much smaller (low-level) context switches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Discussion&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My intuition (and some contradicting findings) tells me it's hard to generalize these results. I hope by providing this overview you have a broader picture of the scope of interruptions. I suggest you start by looking into Monk C. A. et al.'s paper (2008). It provides a nice overview and reports on the resumption time results mentioned earlier, relating them to memory models which might interest you. If you follow up on citations and find something interesting, please keep us up to date! :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, it is still important to be concrete about what 'resumption times' are. I don't feel like there is one official definition, and rather think it's whatever researchers decide to measure in their methodology. I've done some experiments myself measuring resumption time as the time needed to re-establish the working context needed to execute the task being switched to, using the Windows 7 window manager (Jeuris &amp;amp; Bardram, 2016). Although this sometimes only took people around 2 s, others were totally overwhelmed with the many resources open due to multitasking and it took them over a minute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;González, V. M., &amp;amp; Mark, G. (2004, April). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/985692.985707&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Constant, constant, multi-tasking craziness: managing multiple working spheres.&lt;/a&gt; In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems (pp. 113-120). ACM.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Monk, C. A., Trafton, J. G., &amp;amp; Boehm-Davis, D. A. (2008). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014402&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The effect of interruption duration and demand on resuming suspended goals.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 14(4), 299.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gillie, T., &amp;amp; Broadbent, D. (1989). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00309260&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;What makes interruptions disruptive? A study of length, similarity, and complexity.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological Research, 50(4), 243-250.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kreifeldt, J. G., &amp;amp; McCarthy, M. E. (1981). Interruption as a test of the user-computer interface.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Bailey, B. P., &amp;amp; Iqbal, S. T. (2008). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1314683.1314689&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Understanding changes in mental workload during execution of goal-directed tasks and its application for interruption management.&lt;/a&gt; ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI), 14(4), 21.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Mark, G., Gudith, D., &amp;amp; Klocke, U. (2008, April). The cost of interrupted work: more speed and stress. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 107-110). ACM.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Jeuris, S., &amp;amp; Bardram, J. E. (2016). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.059&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dedicated workspaces: Faster resumption times and reduced cognitive load in sequential multitasking.&lt;/a&gt; Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 404-414.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-02-28T12:03:57.863" LastActivityDate="2017-02-28T12:03:57.863" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5014" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5008" CreationDate="2013-11-24T16:33:38.357" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/repression&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Repression&lt;/a&gt; is the &lt;strong&gt;unconscious&lt;/strong&gt; exclusion of impulses, desires, or fears from the conscious mind, while &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/suppression&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;suppression&lt;/a&gt; is the &lt;strong&gt;conscious&lt;/strong&gt; exclusion of similar thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3854" LastActivityDate="2013-11-24T16:33:38.357" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5015" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4989" CreationDate="2013-11-24T17:32:00.853" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://techcrunch.com/2010/08/25/scvngr-game-mechanics/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;game mechanics playdeck&lt;/a&gt; from tech startup &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scvngr.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;SCVNGR&lt;/a&gt; gives 50 great starting points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps more directly relevant to the SE CogSci audience is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.getmentalnotes.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mental Notes&lt;/a&gt; project, which aims to &quot;bring a little psychology to Web design [...] each card describes one insight into human behavior and suggests ways to apply this to the design of Web sites, Web apps, and software applications.&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3854" LastEditorUserId="3854" LastEditDate="2013-11-24T18:13:54.767" LastActivityDate="2013-11-24T18:13:54.767" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5019" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4968" CreationDate="2013-11-25T05:16:13.770" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain doesn't do trig at all for this problem. It uses a lot of tricks to estimate the solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First we should be careful, though. Your example isn't an example of calculating the trig, it's an example of assuming or &lt;strong&gt;completing&lt;/strong&gt; an image. This is in line with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;gestalt psychology&lt;/a&gt;, where the brain takes less information than necessary to truly know an answer and guesses the best solution based on several rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now if our example is an actual moving object, such as a ball, we come to the aforementioned tricks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One trick is constant re-estimation. Imagine you had a computer with a very naive way to calculate the movement of our ball - it looks at where the ball has come from and assumes a linear path. This path is probably wrong, but let's say we do this ~50 times a second. Each path is wrong, but they will be increasingly accurate, and each one may be sufficient to have a general idea of where the ball is headed, until it is accurate enough that we can catch the ball. Our brain probably does a lot better than a linear estimation, but it still takes some form of this shortcut, trading accuracy for a less difficult computation because we can redo and correct our calculations as we go.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another trick is our short term knowledge of the path an object has taken and the fact that most objects take very simple paths. If I gave you a graph of the ball's movement from 0-10 seconds, chances are you can draw 10-20 seconds pretty accurately. This helps us with objects that are moving slowly or are far away, where we get to see them for long enough time to see an overall pattern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These first two aren't so successful for predicting living organisms, which often move too fast and complexly for them. In this case, we largely rely on previous knowledge. We know few things leave the ground, and if they do they usually come down again very soon (often in an arc). We know most things accelerate downhill, decelerate uphill, and follow the curves of the surface they are on. For the things that are even less predictable, we learn to see the subtle preparatory movements involved: we see the slight turn of the leg before a runner changes direction, the crouch before a jump, the raising of wings before flying. Indeed when things don't follow these rules, or optical illusions make things appear to not follow these rules (rooms that look normal but are weirdly shaped), it amuses or confuses us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on the type of programming you do/your formal education, you may be very aware that when the optimal solution takes more resources to find than it is actually worth, programmers opt for estimations of near-optimal solutions. In a living creature, the priority is coming up with a solution that is near-optimal in enough time to react to potential danger (something flying towards you). In this way, the brain's sensory problem is an extreme version of the programming problem of coming 'close enough' in the time allotted. Specifically this is most similar to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_algorithm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;online&lt;/a&gt; problems where solutions must be optimal for an unknown amount of inputs as each input comes in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3241" LastEditorUserId="3241" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T01:57:35.307" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T01:57:35.307" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5020" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5033" CreationDate="2013-11-25T10:13:55.117" Score="3" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hope this is a good way of asking this question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not generally the guy with the best memory out there, so I looked a bit into it and I am concluding my recollection phase is the weakest. It's seems like I can store a lot but recalling it, I would come under average. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not like it has stopped me from doing fine in life, but I am curious about how one can enhance that part, any good reads should you recommend from the scientific literature ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Augmented :&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well I do recall a lot because I can gather a lot from my memory, but then I stumble often in just getting the first starting point from which I would be able to gather all those memories, i.e : I can remember profusely given someone or something helps me with recalling just a part or the beginning of it. So my recalling issue is really in having a sort of catalogue or dictionary like system : once you get the word you get its definition, my trouble is in getting the word (I hope the analogy is clear). Working memory is short-term memory? Can be, what are symptoms for that ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3863" LastEditorUserId="3863" LastEditDate="2013-11-25T23:15:20.863" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T04:06:35.173" Title="Enhance recollection abilites" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5021" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-25T10:18:36.980" Score="5" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found that when I do certain activities, while engaged with them, I am inclined to do other activities, as well, which come naturally and do not seem to break productivity of the first ones, just on the contrary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do I mean - well, let me give these examples:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;when people do any sort of repetitive manual (motor) activity e.g. driving a car, cooking, dish-washing, etc they feel naturally inclined to talk with someone else or listen to music and these two kind of activities seem not to interfere with each other, just on the contrary, talking seems to make the manual work easier;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;when talking over the phone, many people naturally doodle on paper at the same time;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;in my student years I have found that while solving math problems I was inclined to draw things on paper (more specific things unlike the &quot;random&quot; doodling while on the phone);  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;attending lectures couples quite well with daydreaming :)  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions is, is there any scientific formulation and/ or research over this observation of mine?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T04:29:35.247" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T04:29:35.247" Title="Why do certain activities seem to co-occur with well learnt skills?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5023" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-25T13:05:13.423" Score="5" ViewCount="187" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a friend, over 30, who is convinced she cannot really read. Of course; she &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt;  read, but she struggles so much with sorting letters into words that she cannot absorb the content. Playing - say - Trivial Pursuit - she looks at the letters; pronounce the words, makes them into sentences, but (says) she does not understand the question until I either answer or say it back to her, or she reads it a second time. She is now, for other reasons, back to school, as she needs to find another profession. I am, in an unofficial capacity, her personal tutor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The consensus during her school years was that she was extremely dyslectic, a hopeless case, and her teachers let her &quot;get away with it&quot;: unlike other students, she did not have to read aloud in class etc (this makes me furious to think about, that they did not give her the help she needed).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She is nowhere near stupid, but insists she is, and that she is so dyslectic that there is nothing that can be done about it. Recently, she took a dyslectic-test and consistently get the worst scores possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My suspicion is that she is NOT half as dyslectic as she is made out to be: I think this is largely a learned thing. Since teachers gave up on her; why should &lt;em&gt;she&lt;/em&gt; believe she &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt;? Yes, she probably is dyslectic, but the result of incompetent teachers have made her predicament much, much worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fact is; when she &lt;em&gt;has&lt;/em&gt; to write things, there are not really all that many spelling mistakes, the sentences are coherent, and she is very good at the logic needed to write - say - a (slightly academic) essay, she is excellent at writing stories, petites. She does, however, have a problem extracting the essence of what she reads. I do think though, that this is largely due to the learned view &quot;I cannot do this, I am too stupid and massively dyslectic&quot;. Interestingly, last semester she consistently got top grades in the (native) language class where both content and spelling was important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This results in (partly learned?) dyslexia as a &quot;gateway&quot; to the crippling thought: &quot;I am an idiot. Why should I try? I will simply spend my life watching television.&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We do not read single letters in words we are familiar with; we largely see the &quot;picture&quot; of a word and make an educated guess/reasonable assumption based on the context. She is visual enough to master this. Having given up on words; there is a possibility that she does not bother to learn them, and hence cannot recognise the word-picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realise this is a very specific example, but my general question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do you teach adults to read?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it possible to somehow measure the &quot;I have given up&quot; against real&#xA;dyslexia?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How is it possible to motivate an adult other than &quot;you will get&#xA;good grades if you improve on this&quot;? (grades, as we all know, can at&#xA;times be a little arbitrary and subjective).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Any research on learned dyslexia?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have our acceptance of dyslexia in a way gone too far? (to the point&#xA;of accepting it and &quot;giving up&quot; on students?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anyone with experience in this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3578" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-26T22:34:39.007" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T04:54:59.403" Title="Learned dyslexia? adult predicament from childhood teacher´s incompetence?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-04-02T20:22:17.660" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5026" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-26T18:42:58.280" Score="5" ViewCount="144" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sexual cues have been well established in evolutionary psychology as indicators of genetic compatibility/useful genes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does the human brain know that a cue is an indicator of a useful trait in order that a person perceives the trait as being an attractive one? What cognitive mechanisms are involved in the perception of sexual cues as being attractive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3808" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-11-26T22:32:29.060" LastActivityDate="2013-11-26T22:32:29.060" Title="How are sexual cues known by the brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5028" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1413" CreationDate="2013-11-27T19:36:13.847" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The three levels of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stroop test&lt;/a&gt; you describe are the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Congruent stimuli&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Incongruent stimuli&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Incongruent stimuli alternated with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/fdurgin1/ReverseStroop/PBRStroop.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reverse Stroop effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3875" LastActivityDate="2013-11-27T19:36:13.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5029" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-11-27T22:11:24.713" Score="3" ViewCount="22268" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is it called when a person consciously or unconsciously looks for similarities and differences in other people's reasoning, behavior, actions or past events and compares them with his/her own traits? I.e., Noticing them, with or without reacting, relating or comparing yourself with others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3876" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T00:38:33.040" LastActivityDate="2019-03-20T18:09:47.160" Title="What is it called when a person seeks to compare themselves to others?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;similarirty&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5030" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5029" CreationDate="2013-11-27T23:05:58.660" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Cognitive_bias.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cognitive Bias&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A cognitive bias  is a pattern of deviation in judgment that occurs in particular situations. Implicit in the concept of a &quot;pattern of deviation&quot; is a standard of comparison; this may be the judgment of people outside those particular situations, or may be a set of independently verifiable facts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One being:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_comparison_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social comparison bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; can be defined as having feelings of dislike and competitiveness with someone that is seen physically, or mentally better than yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other types of bias that would be appropriate to cover what you have asked in your question, I suggest having a look. For &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a list&lt;/a&gt; of cognitive biases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4814/what-are-the-possible-causes-of-pettiness&quot;&gt;What are the possible causes of pettiness?&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4815/3543&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;touches upon&lt;/em&gt; some of the reasons people compare themselves to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-11-27T23:05:58.660" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5031" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4211" CreationDate="2013-11-28T06:22:42.933" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To understand Extrinsic motivation to do something think of the carrot and the stick theory. So one only does something because they have to, ie, for some reward for due to some fear of penalty. Think of when our parents &quot;made&quot; us do the dishes. Thats an example of an extrinsically motivated act. Whereas Intrinsic motivation  is when we do something because we want to. So sometimes what starts out as an extrinsic motivation becomes internalised within our belief system and it actually becomes somewhat intrinsic. for example, our parents instil in us to brush our teeth every night and then when we become parents that becomes our own own intrinsic value. however without going into too much detail, it is still an extrinsic motivation while being classified as a subset of extrinsic motivation because it has almost the most of the elements of intrinsic motivation the only difference being is that it is an internalised extrinsic motivation. So to address the question, the extrinsic motivation has not interfered with the intrinsic motivation. &#xA;A study showed that once a reward was offered to people who were intrinsically motivated, they actually lost interest. however when praise was offered instead of reward, the intrinsic motivation was maintained or increased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&#xA;Deci, E., &amp;amp; Ryan, R. (Eds.), (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastActivityDate="2013-11-28T06:22:42.933" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5032" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="994" CreationDate="2013-11-29T01:52:26.150" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Motherese may play a role in emotional development. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Soken and Pick write: &quot;Concurrent with the exaggerated speech of motherese, there are probably exaggerated facial displays, allowing infants to explore the particular aspects of the face... Child-centered displays may serve as opportunities for learning about affective events.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Walker-Andrews (1997) also suggests that &quot;the presence of the face acts as a setting for attending to the affective quality of the voice.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, according to a recent, extensive review on motherese (Saint-Georges et al., 2013), its role in emotion and cognition  is still an open area of research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;N. H. Soken and A. D. Pick, “Intermodal Perception of Happy and Angry Expressive Behaviors by Seven‐Month‐Old Infants,” Child development, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 787–795, 1992.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A. S. Walker-Andrews, “Infants' perception of expressive behaviors: differentiation of multimodal information.,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 121, no. 3, p. 437, 1997.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;C. Saint-Georges, M. Chetouani, R. Cassel, F. Apicella, A. Mahdhaoui, F. Muratori, M. C. Laznik, and D. Cohen, “Motherese in Interaction: At the Cross-Road of Emotion and Cognition? (A Systematic Review),” PLoS ONE, vol. 8, no. 10, p. e78103, Oct. 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3882" LastActivityDate="2013-11-29T01:52:26.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5020" CreationDate="2013-11-29T03:30:38.487" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Practice or forget, that is the rule. If you want to recall more words for your vocabulary then read more and write more texts with less common words. If you want to recall memories look at old photographs of your life and try to recall everything associated with those events.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Memory improves when health improves, so work on that too. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3820" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T04:06:35.173" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T04:06:35.173" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5034" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5005" CreationDate="2013-11-30T03:57:35.440" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The definitive categorization of memory is an example of semantics &lt;em&gt;(an irony I enjoy in answering this question).&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, you have asked four questions in one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;So which one is it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definition of &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/semantic&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;semantic:&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;adjective&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;relating to meaning in language or logic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Semantic is the imposed meaning that human beings give things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remembering a list of words, would be semantic memory, as the person is required to recollect a list, that has been arbitrarily compiled, as opposed to recalling the experience of reading the words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any large disagreements within the community of what episodic memory actually is?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not that I am aware of, but I am not an expert and have not investigated this thoroughly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are word list tests seen as something that at least captures a small part of episodic memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Word list test would be capturing semantic memory, though I doubt they would form long term memory, as they are only being held for a short period of time, have no emotional context, nor form the part of pattern or logic of any semantic learning. Taking and remembering the test itself would form episodic memory, in recalling the event, time and place, with, the long term semantic memory in knowing how to do such a test. I have addressed this in more detail under the next point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If remembering a list of words isn't an example of episodic memory, then what is it an example of?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer this, I am going to present two alternative arguments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;As episodic memory.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To   regard  it as episodic memory, (but short term memory, which is muddying the waters, as the information only needs to be keep in the memory for a short term and would be used within the working memory) so in terms of it being episodic, it is unlikely to be recalled effectively at a later date (for most people). I would liken it to being shown images of animals, with no  purpose of pattern, except the person is asked to retain a memory of what they have seen. Like going to a museum and then being asked, what did you see there, as opposed to going to a museum and then being asked what was the history of the steam engine, which would be recalled from semantic memory of reading about the team engine at the museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this context, a test of semantic memory would be to give the individual the rules of a new game and ask them to memorise them. If a person was being asked to remember the &lt;em&gt;periodic table of elements&lt;/em&gt;, this would be semantic memory, as it would be something the person would later use as a useful pool of human defined information, like the rules of a card game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;As Semantic memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in terms of the concept of semantic memory being the recall of facts, as opposed to episodic memory being the recall of personal facts, it could be argued that recalling a list is using semantic memory. The list is a generic and semantic thing (human created rules, as opposed to the spontaneous and authenticity of life experience, that creates episodic memory). So regardless of the intention, it is a semantic list, that has no bearing on &lt;em&gt;action&lt;/em&gt; or what is occurring, hence the episodic memory. The episodic memory, may be of perspiring whilst trying to recall 20 unrelated words. So the person is trying to jam 20 words into their short term memory, in a &lt;em&gt;rote learning&lt;/em&gt; fashion. Rote memory would be regarded as semantic memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rote Memory (item or semantic memory)  (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Episodic memory could be considered explicit memory, whereas semantic memory could be considered implicit memory, as it does not require the recall of a particular event, but it the memory of a generic mental exercise, as opposed to the test itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ability to use a pen and write out the test form, is an example of implicit procedural memory, the memory of a teacher leaning over you and showing you how to write is an example of explicit, declarative, episodic memory. Knowing how the testing process works is an example of implicit, declarative, semantic memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Semantic and episodic memory are related, both being  types of declarative memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sparknotes.com/psychology/psych101/memory/section2.rhtml&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Types of Memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declarative vs. Procedural Memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Declarative memory is recall of factual information such as dates, words, faces, events, and concepts. Remembering the capital of France, the rules for playing football, and what happened in the last game of the World Series involves declarative memory. Declarative memory is usually considered to be explicit because it involves conscious, intentional remembering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Semantic vs. Episodic Memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Declarative memory is of two types: semantic and episodic. &lt;strong&gt;Semantic memory&lt;/strong&gt; is recall of general facts, while &lt;strong&gt;episodic memory&lt;/strong&gt; is recall of personal facts. Remembering the capital of France and the rules for playing football uses semantic memory. Remembering what happened in the last game of the World Series uses episodic&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Episodic memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is the memory of autobiographical events (times, places, associated emotions, and other contextual knowledge) that can be explicitly stated. It is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place. For example, if you remember the party on your 6th birthday, this is an episodic memory. They allow you to figuratively travel back in time to remember the event that took place at that particular time and place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tulving has seminally defined three key properties of episodic memory recollection. These are: a subjective sense of time (or mental time travel), connection to the self, and autonoetic consciousness. Autonoetic consciousness refers to a special kind of consciousness that accompanies the act of remembering which enables an individual to be aware of the self in a subjective time. Aside from Tulving, others named the important aspects of recollection which includes visual imagery, narrative structure, retrieval of semantic information and the feelings of familiarity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Semantic memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; refers to the memory of meanings, understandings, and other concept-based knowledge, and underlies the conscious recollection of factual information and general knowledge about the world. Semantic and episodic memory together make up the category of declarative memory, which is one of the two major divisions in memory. With the use of our semantic memory we can give meaning to otherwise meaningless words and sentences. We can learn about new concepts by applying our knowledge learned from things in the past. The counterpart to declarative, or explicit memory, is procedural memory, or implicit memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Semantic memory includes generalized knowledge that does not involve memory of a specific event. For instance, semantic memory is knowing how to add and subtract, whereas episodic memory is the specific memory of being taught how to subtract.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Disclaimer: I could be completely wrong.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;(1) BRAIN Research Compatible Memory Strategies Judy Willis, M.D., M.Ed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-11-30T04:04:23.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5041" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5042" CreationDate="2013-12-01T19:35:41.187" Score="6" ViewCount="220" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently conducted an EEG experiment using a passive Oddball paradigm with two experimental conditions : standard stimuli (occurring with a 85% probability) and deviant stimuli (occurring with a 15% probability). This experiment was conducted on 10 participants. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ERP were recorded with 64 electrodes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An ANOVA test on the prestimulus baseline period yielded a significant effect of the condition. I have observed a difference between standard stimuli's wave and deviant stimuli's wave. There shouldn't be such a difference between these two but I understood that this difference is caused by a smaller number of trials in the deviant condition than in the standard one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm still wondering whether this significant difference can be caused by the small number of participants (n=10) or by too small inter-stimulus interval (ISI=1500ms) ? How do you suggest I should deal with this significant baseline regarding the understanding of MMN/P3 effects ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I looked on cogsci.SE and I didn't find anything relevant to my question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3890" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-12-01T21:54:56.197" LastActivityDate="2013-12-01T21:54:56.197" Title="Significant baseline, Oddball paradigm" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5042" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5041" CreationDate="2013-12-01T19:56:57.763" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;How many trials do you have per condition? With a small number of trials in the deviant condition, and a small number of participants, these things can happen. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ISI would not cause this per se, however, have you considered looking at effects of the previous trial? You can analyze the baseline intervals as a function of what type the previous trial was, and see if there is a difference in the period following deviants or standards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also try to randomly sample as many standard trials as you have deviants per participant, and then re-do your analysis and see what happens. You can make a loop and do this many times, and then look at the median p-value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It could also be that some small number of subjects is introducing some skew to your results. You could try to re-do your analysis on a single subject level, comparing standard and deviant trials within subjects. Then you could see whether all your subjects have this effect or only some of them. If it's only some, you could look at their data more carefully for potential outliers. If it's a general thing, I'd look into the effects of the previous trial. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if it's the previous trial effect, you can just remove all standard trials preceded by a deviant and try again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All that being said, even if you have a baseline difference, it might not really matter: &lt;em&gt;this is what baseline correction is for&lt;/em&gt;. But I agree that it's disconcerting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm also a bit confused why you would use an ANOVA to compare two conditions, and not a t-test. Maybe I'm not understanding you design completely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2013-12-01T20:32:45.823" LastActivityDate="2013-12-01T20:32:45.823" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5044" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-02T06:19:54.083" Score="-2" ViewCount="1017" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm on mobile, can't say much. But is there a term to describe such reasoning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3893" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T00:36:11.243" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T00:36:11.243" Title="Everybody thinks everyone's doing it, so they do it, and everyone ends up doing it" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-12-16T12:47:14.837" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5045" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5044" CreationDate="2013-12-02T06:40:07.233" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The possible concept you may be looking at is a fad. Which can be explained under the umbrella of several social-psychological theories. Dynamics including conformity, changes to individual behavior and personality within a group, perception bias with regard to opinions held by a group as opposed to an individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fad&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is any form of behaviour that develops amongst a large population and is collectively followed enthusiastically for a period of time, generally as a result of the behaviour being perceived as popular by one's peers or being deemed &amp;quot;cool&amp;quot; by social media. A fad is said to &amp;quot;catch on&amp;quot; when the number of people adopting it begins to increase rapidly. ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... Apart from general novelty, fads may be driven by mass media programming, emotional excitement, peer pressure, or the desire of &amp;quot;being hip&amp;quot; ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In economics, the term is used in a similar way. Fads are mean-reverting deviations from intrinsic value caused by social or psychological forces like those that cause fashions in political beliefs or consumption goods&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwagon_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bandwagon effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bandwagon effect is a well documented form of groupthink in behavioral science and has many applications.[which?] The general rule is that conduct or beliefs spread among people, as fads and trends clearly do, with &amp;quot;the probability of any individual adopting it increasing with the proportion who have already done so&amp;quot;. As more people come to believe in something, others also &amp;quot;hop on the bandwagon&amp;quot; regardless of the underlying evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The tendency to follow the actions or beliefs of others can occur because individuals directly prefer to conform, or because individuals derive information from others. Both explanations have been used for evidence of conformity in psychological experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-12-02T06:40:07.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5046" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1470" CreationDate="2013-12-02T06:56:33.973" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Stuttering is a neuromuscular disorder. It consists of problems in sequencing and timing the movements required for the speech. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The whisper is speech without vibration of the vocal cords. Since there is no vocal fold vibration, the muscles that control pitch are not active and the larynx does not need to move. This means when the PWS ( person who stutters) whispers, he is bypassing any problem that larynx might have caused. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The rhythm effect : The people who stutters usually become fluent when speaking to an external pace. The external pace can be a metronome, can be singing, or can be choral reading. This is explained like the following: The external timing cues compensate for deficient internal cues for the timing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stuttering is intermittent which makes it more unpleasant. PWS labels fluent moments as success, and the stuttering moments as failure. And does everything to avoid stuttering, and all these avoidance behaviors feed the stuttering. At the end, PWS reaches to the point:  &quot;Stuttering is everything you do trying not to stutter.&quot;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The blocks are exactly &quot;what one does when he is trying not to stutter.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend to all stutterers to read the book &quot;self-therapy for the stutterer&quot; by Malcolm Fraser.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3894" LastActivityDate="2013-12-02T06:56:33.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5048" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-02T19:22:31.367" Score="11" ViewCount="1048" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was intrigued to read (in the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/2049/what-positive-writing-exercises-improve-happiness/&quot;&gt;&quot;What positive writing exercises improve happiness?&quot;&lt;/a&gt;) the idea of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratitude_journal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gratitude diary&lt;/a&gt; suggested as an intervention that &quot;causes psychological well-being levels to increase in a lasting way&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empirical studies suggest that people who use gratitude journals feel better about their lives and report fewer symptoms of illness. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough/Gratitude-Related20Stuff/Emmons_McCullough_2003_JPSP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emmons &amp;amp; McCullough, 2003&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gapsychology.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&amp;amp;subarticlenbr=309&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Doverspike&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/Labs/emmons/PWT/index.cfm?Section=4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emmons Lab&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there's also lots of dubious &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_attraction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;law of attraction-style&lt;/a&gt; writing on the topic, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oprah.com/spirit/The-Power-of-Gratitude&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;like this&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Did you know that appreciation, gratitude and love are the highest&#xA;  forms of vibration? You can only have one vibration at a time, and if&#xA;  you are noticing what you appreciate and noticing what you are&#xA;  grateful for, you can't be noticing what you don't like.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And although studies find gratitude journals to be beneficial, they disagree on the most beneficial ways to keep one. Psychologist &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gapsychology.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&amp;amp;subarticlenbr=309&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;William Doverspike says&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;A daily gratitude intervention (self-guided exercises) resulted in more positive effects tha[n] did the weekly intervention.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But &lt;a href=&quot;http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/tips_for_keeping_a_gratitude_journal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jason Marsh of the Greater Good Science Center at the University of California, Berkeley says&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Writing occasionally (once or twice per week) is more beneficial than daily journaling. In fact, one study by psychologist Sonja Lyubomirsky and her colleagues found that people who wrote in their gratitude journals once a week for six weeks reported boosts in happiness afterward; people who wrote three times per week didn’t.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So: which is likely to be correct in practice? And what best practices for keeping a gratitude journal can be inferred from other research, either specifically about gratitude or more generally in the cognitive sciences?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Doverspike, Ph.D., William F. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gapsychology.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&amp;amp;subarticlenbr=309&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Gratitude: A Key to Happiness&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Georgia Psychological Association.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emmons, R. A. &amp;amp; McCullough, M. E. (2003). &lt;a href=&quot;http://psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough/Gratitude-Related20Stuff/Emmons_McCullough_2003_JPSP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 377-389.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/Labs/emmons/PWT/index.cfm?Section=4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Gratitude and Well-Being&quot;.&lt;/a&gt; Emmons Lab at the University of California, Davis.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update (9th Dec 2013):&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I'm continuing to research this question. &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebounceblog.com/2013/11/27/7-ways-gratitude-3-times-grateful/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This article&lt;/a&gt;, while not terribly scientific, has some good jumping off points (infographic and links) that may help potential answerers!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3854" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T01:09:05.723" Title="Evidence-based best practices for writing a gratitude journal" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5049" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-02T19:49:28.137" Score="2" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose what we have a set of choices $S$. Also suppose that $S$ consists of two &quot;difficult&quot; choices $X$ and $Y$ that rely on action and inaction respectively. So $S = \{X, Y \}$. Is it more difficult to perform $X$ or to not perform $Y$?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, let $X = \text{asking somebody out}$ and $Y = \text{eating fast food}$. Is it more difficult to perform $X$ or to not perform $Y$?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3899" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-02T23:56:43.730" LastActivityDate="2013-12-02T23:56:43.730" Title="Is it harder to perform a difficult act or avoid doing a compelling act?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T19:02:51.787" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5050" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5051" CreationDate="2013-12-03T11:54:16.737" Score="5" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that black objects absorb light with almost all the frequencies of the visible spectrum. This means there will not be any frequency of light reflected and falling on our retina, in order for us to see that object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does this mean that I am actually not seeing the black object but differentiating it from the surrounding?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3800" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-12-03T14:48:15.447" LastActivityDate="2013-12-03T14:48:15.447" Title="Are we actually seeing black colored objects?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5051" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5050" CreationDate="2013-12-03T13:16:57.830" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually, black objects absorb light across visible frequencies indiscriminately, but not completely. So some light still reflects off them. This is described &lt;a href=&quot;http://van.physics.illinois.edu/qa/listing.php?id=2027&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;on this Q&amp;amp;A of the Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But even if there was a perfectly black objects which absorbs 100% of the light that falls on it, you could still perceive it as it via the contrast to other objects around it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2013-12-03T14:19:41.480" LastActivityDate="2013-12-03T14:19:41.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5054" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4976" CreationDate="2013-12-04T03:26:38.403" Score="2" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Dual Task research&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I think a lot depends on what is the secondary task and how it relates to the primary task (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_multitasking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;human multitasking&lt;/a&gt;).&#xA;In general, secondary tasks tend to lower performance on the primary task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A classic combinations where there may be facilitation is music with gross motor tasks, where the music is often experienced as motivating.&#xA;In other cases, music can serve to block out other external distractions, such as in a noisy office.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in general, it would be unusual for task performance to be improved by simultaneously watching television while doing the task. It might make the task more enjoyable, but it would be rare for it to improve productivity. The intrusive way that TV impinges on your attention would generally interfere with flow and focus on the primary task, especially where the primary task involves cognitive control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Incubation&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, there is a literature on the benefits of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1/how-is-it-that-taking-a-break-from-a-problem-sometimes-allows-you-to-figure-out&quot;&gt;breaks and incubation&lt;/a&gt; on problem solving. So, in general, taking a break after working on a task intensely and getting stuck, can be a useful way of breaking the impasse. In particular, a good night sleep can be particularly helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Motivation&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way of framing your question is in terms of the effect of a secondary task on motivation and persistence. Making the task more enjoyable might have an effect on your persistence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, drawing on the expertise literature, I'd say it's often better to work in a focussed and concentrated way for a shorter period of time, than to do a task in a half hearted way for a longer period of time. If you've truly lost the ability to concentrate, then it may be time to rest and recuperate, both in terms of good sleep and time off task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T03:26:38.403" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5055" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4982" CreationDate="2013-12-04T03:33:05.420" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not a completely scientific answer, but a few suggestions that I'd make based on a general understanding of the sleep literature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increase the amount of sleep you are getting in general and thereby reduce sleep debt&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increase the amount of sleep you are getting on the immediately preceding night (i.e., both these points are that its easier to wake up when you are less sleep deprived)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Permit morning light to enter your room (to trigger various arousal responses)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Maintain a regular sleep pattern to ensure that your various circadian rhythms are aligned (i.e., sleep with temperature with arousal, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Set a mental alarm clock the night before regarding when you want to wake up&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have a consistent morning routine to minimise the need for executive control after waking.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-04T19:34:33.067" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T19:34:33.067" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5056" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4957" CreationDate="2013-12-04T03:43:54.197" Score="6" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Motion perception&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_perception&quot;&gt;motion perception&lt;/a&gt; might be a good start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;pure motion perception is referred to as &quot;first-order&quot; motion&#xA;  perception and is mediated by relatively simple &quot;motion sensors&quot; in&#xA;  the visual system, that have evolved to detect a change in luminance&#xA;  at one point on the retina and correlate it with a change in luminance&#xA;  at a neighbouring point on the retina after a short delay&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Vehicle velocity&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?q=vehicle+velocity+psychology&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&quot;&gt;few articles on estimating vehicle velocity&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;Scialfa et al (1991) provides a more behavioural account focussing on age differences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scialfa, C. T., Guzy, L. T., Leibowitz, H. W., Garvey, P. M., &amp;amp; Tyrrell, R. A. (1991). Age differences in estimating vehicle velocity. Psychology and aging, 6(1), 60. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.ucalgary.ca/PACE/PCA-Lab/pdf/scialfaguzyetal1991.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T03:43:54.197" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5057" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4855" CreationDate="2013-12-04T03:53:43.890" Score="2" Body="&lt;h3&gt;The forgetting function&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/3666/52&quot;&gt;this answer about the relationship between time and recall&lt;/a&gt; I discussed how research shows that the relationship is often characterised by a three parameter power or exponential function. The basic idea is that the recall is a monotonically decreasing and decelerating function of time since the event. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Forgetting as adaptive behavior&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I think that this is an adaptive feature of human memory. More recent events or more frequently recalled events are more likely to be useful to daily functioning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many theories (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ACT-R&lt;/a&gt;) of cognition assume that cognitive activities come at a cost. Thus, storing information comes at a cost at some neural-biological level. Likewise, storing more information is likely to increase the time of access to that information. In both cases, forgetting more distant information is likely to be adaptive in some sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Remembering more&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are wide range of strategies for better recalling information. However, presumably you are not wanting recall all events and all information, but rather information relative to achieving some goal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some general strategies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;rehearsal of the information; or just using the information in some meaningful way&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;cognitive elaboration of the information (e.g., exploring relations, adding meaning, giving structure to the information)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One option, of course, is to externalise your memory such as by writing things down, or recording information in some other way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T03:53:43.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5058" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4831" CreationDate="2013-12-04T07:08:48.843" Score="8" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Multiple causes of not reading instructions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @crash notes, there are likely many explanations for not reading instructions.&#xA;It may be motivated by not caring about task performance. And such dispositions may be specific to the particular task or setting, or they might be partially related to some general disposition of the individual in terms of conscientiousness or skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The skill of not reading instructions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, more generally, the concept of information reduction is related to skill acquisition. Haider and Frensch (1996) discuss the idea of how gradually over time participants start to ignore elements of a task that appear to be unrelated to task performance. So on one level, learning to ignore irrelevant information is a skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regards to instructions, it is not always the case that reading an instruction manual is the most efficient means of achieving your goals. Trial and error, exploration, and so on are other strategies which often work quite well. In particular, many devices and software these days are designed to encourage people to explore. Likewise, it can often be a waste in learning information that may or may not be relevant, and so in some cases it makes sense to access instructions on an as needed basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also one thing to sit in the position of all knowing observer where you can know that in a particular case it would make sense to read the instructions over using an alternative strategy. However, from the actors perspective, they are in a sense operating without that knowledge. So they are in a sense averaging over their experience to form a decision about whether or not and in what detail to read the instructions. In some cases this will work out for the best, in others it wont.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General problem of task design&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you know that reading the instructions is particularly important in a given domain then you may want to alter the system or the task to encourage reading the instructions. Many organisations have compulsory training with a test in order to force users to learn certain information. Alternatively, you could make clear why reading the instructions is particularly important for this task. Similarly providing strong negative feedback when task instructions are not followed may help the individual to learn that in this domain reading instructions carefully is important.&#xA;That said, it's often even better if you can incorporate human factors principles to design a system which is user friendly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haider, H., &amp;amp; Frensch, P. A. (1996). The role of information reduction in skill acquisition. Cognitive Psychology, 30(3), 304-337.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-04T07:21:45.897" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T07:21:45.897" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5059" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4831" CreationDate="2013-12-04T08:12:06.753" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my experience, there are people who like to follow instructions and those who don't. It's in their nature, they were born like this.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Some want to do the thing right, the way it was intended, not make mistake, and take most profit from it.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Some like to figure things on their own, push all buttons to see what does what.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now regarding why people read badly when they read. I'll attribute this to the continuous and general decay of the modernized civilization. Compared to their parents and grand parents, people know less vocabulary, less grammar, have less concentration, less analysis skills, less dedication, and worst of all they don't care !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3820" LastActivityDate="2013-12-04T08:12:06.753" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5060" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-04T16:43:18.143" Score="9" ViewCount="994" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.ee/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=3&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;ved=0CDwQFjAC&amp;amp;url=http://www.ronwhitetraining.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/How-to-Memorize-EVERYTHING1.doc&amp;amp;ei=zE6fUqTTM4nI4AS88oHAAQ&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNHwjeoXuCdTvJNiL9T24xZjKAOhcA&amp;amp;sig2=Q2FL2MtDExEiK2dOoia--w&amp;amp;bvm=bv.57155469,d.bGE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;I read a book&lt;/a&gt; which says that to remember the lists of arbitrary objects, we should take a well-known ordered list (so that you know what is on the first place, what is on the second) and associate the items of this familiar list with your target list items. This is especially &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/640&quot;&gt;important for abstract objects&lt;/a&gt; because our brain can memorize only visual pictures (you can visualize familiar things). For instance, instead of directly memorizing the 10 abstract &lt;strong&gt;amendements&lt;/strong&gt; to (US) constitution, (1.Freedom of Speech, 2.Right to Bear Arms, 3.Protection From Quartering Troops, 4.Freedom from Unreasonable Search and Seizure, and etc), you translate them into a list of visualizable &lt;strong&gt;amendment images&lt;/strong&gt;, (1. Speaker, 2. Gun, 3. Soldier, 4. Spotlight, 5. A picture of you, 6. Judge riding a fast motorcycle, 7. Jury, 8. Excessive amount of money, 9. Making a right turn with your hand over your mouth, 10. State Capitol building). Then, you come up with another, well-known list of visualizable &lt;strong&gt;loci objects&lt;/strong&gt;, e.g. (head top, nose, mouth, ribs, liver, joint, cap, fibula, ball, sand),&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hzcI8.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, you invent &lt;strong&gt;10 stories&lt;/strong&gt;, to map the loci items to the amendment images. In overall, ordered loci list serves as a list of keys that we can iterate and, by means of vivid stories, map to the target abstract items. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, I see that you memorize 4 lists (original list, keys and images and stories) in place of single amendment list alone. This is 4x more information. It would be ok if the associations were natural and teach me the world around me. However, they must be absolutely bizzare because they do not exist, unnatural and, secondly, the outlandish pictures are much better memorizable (they call this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.memory-sports.com/how-to-become-a-memory-champion-part-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;thinking out-of-the-box&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lRa4L.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, inventing the stories is too creative task for me. I feel like I waste too much mental energy to create garbage, the stupid associations in my head. Is it right? Won't this mnemotechnique create a mess in my head?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ps&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ebJlcZMx3c&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Idriz Zogaj&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VQKt58kuEnk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Daniel Kilov&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6PoUg7jXsA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Joshua Foer&lt;/a&gt; are memory athletes that popularize the approach in TED conference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3177" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-08-14T12:33:55.713" Title="Are mnemonics by creating associations good for memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;mnemonic&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5065" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-12-05T01:23:49.577" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The creation of rationale to alleviate psychological discomfort caused by the evidence presented by facts that contradict beliefs and ideas that the individual is reluctant to reevaluate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The discomfort felt by wanting or striving to maintain a certain belief and contrary evidence challenging that belief. Part of the discomfort arising from the emotional and psychological investment in the belief and the consequences of having to reevaluate that belief, and manage the uncomfortable feelings that a dynamic without this belief entails.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples being:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having strongly held religious beliefs and a scientific discovery refuting the corner stone of that religion. So creating a rationale that the discovery is bogus or flawed, rather than face the possibility that the religious doctrine is flawed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A spouse coming home late, using work as an excuse. Then discovering the spouse wasn't working, so rather than face the consequences of the spouse lying, to either believe further lies built upon this given by the spouse (against better judgement) or to invent reasons that reconcile why the spouse took so long to return from work, and deny the possibility that the spouse was doing something that could threaten the relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The process of maintaining belief in the constructed rational causes psychological unease and blocks the process of critical thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-21T03:10:22.223" LastActivityDate="2013-12-21T03:10:22.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5066" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-12-05T01:23:49.577" Score="0" Body="The creation of rationale to alleviate psychological discomfort caused by the evidence presented by facts that contradict beliefs and ideas that the individual is reluctant to reevaluate." LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:38:10.173" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:38:10.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5067" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5060" CreationDate="2013-12-05T02:10:46.197" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The thing about memory, is it requires Long Term Potentiation (LTP) to be effective.  The synapses are not reliable like some other tissues of the body; for instance cardiac muscle, where the junctions between muscle cells are designed to fire without fail, the brain is reliant upon being primed with attention and repetition to create reliable synaptic communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This poses the first dilemma of memorising and storing such an excessive number of unrelated lists. Essentially they are only related because you are stating that they are related. The initial list is unrelated and the lists themselves are not related from one to the other. Given that attention is required to prime the brain for LTP, the more disjointed the list the more difficult it is to remember, as it is &lt;em&gt;literally&lt;/em&gt; uninteresting. It is a chore to recall unrelated lists. It is easier to remember things that are &lt;em&gt;fun&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;stimulating&lt;/em&gt;, that we find &lt;em&gt;interesting&lt;/em&gt;. This is one of the problems with rote learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the  memory system is limited. So is the ability to access this system. Study on working memory, notably &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%27s_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Miller's Law&lt;/a&gt; all show that the brain is limited, whether it is by a magic number 7 +- 2, the human memory is fallible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marrying these two concepts, I would conclude that the fewer steps made between recalling a  list of eclectic items and the &lt;em&gt;interesting&lt;/em&gt; mnemonic created to recall this the better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea of a mnemonic is to reduce the size of what is being recalled (hence to take the load off working memory) and to make the list make sense, hence increase the likelihood of placing the list into the long term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within this you are also mixing the difficulty of semantic memory with the use of mnemonics and visualisation as a process of assisting memory. The idea of each is that they are  encapsulated processes to assist with memory merging them does not necessarily improve the efficacy.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an example, it can be replaced with any form of sentences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UG7ez.png&quot; alt=&quot;BRAIN&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept you have presented is too complicated for me to spend the time mocking up a draft from this to demonstrate why it is too complex (which speaks volumes), suffice to say, choose the above, or create a long winded path to try to remember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Disclaimer: this is my idea, based on some things I know about the brain.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10932" LastEditorDisplayName="user10932" LastEditDate="2013-12-05T08:40:05.450" LastActivityDate="2013-12-05T08:40:05.450" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5068" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5090" CreationDate="2013-12-05T07:34:29.913" Score="4" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often it happens that we like to frequently listen to a particular tune or song or view some pictures or images repeatedly time after time. What are the reasons and psychology behind this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3910" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-05T09:30:14.790" LastActivityDate="2013-12-05T10:02:42.550" Title="Psychology behind repeated viewing of certain pictures and songs" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5069" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:22:48.500" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the storage and retrieval of experienced events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:12:04.323" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:12:04.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5070" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:22:48.500" Score="0" Body="For questions about the storage and retrieval of experienced events." LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:12:04.323" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:12:04.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5071" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:26:26.113" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A type of declarative memory that involves the recall of semantic meaning, as opposed to events per se.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:37:28.873" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:37:28.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5072" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:26:26.113" Score="0" Body="A type of declarative memory that involves the recall of semantic meaning, as opposed to events per se." LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:38:23.080" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:38:23.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5073" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:28:59.657" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Questions about what occurs in the brain during epilepsy or seizures, but not self-help questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:37:44.937" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:37:44.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5074" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:28:59.657" Score="0" Body="Questions about what occurs in the brain during epilepsy or seizures, but not self-help advice." LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:36:11.990" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:36:11.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5075" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:30:15.163" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Questions about how hypnosis works, its application and efficacy. Not for sharing anecdotal experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:23:48.870" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:23:48.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5076" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:30:15.163" Score="0" Body="Questions about how the scientific, empirical basis for how hypnosis works, its application and possible efficacy. Not for sharing anecdotal experiences with hypnosis." LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:23:48.870" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:23:48.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5077" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:33:20.837" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Questions about the vestibular system, the part of the brain regulating balance and spatial awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:38:19.597" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:38:19.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5078" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:33:20.837" Score="0" Body="Questions about the vestibular system, the part of the brain regulating balance and spatial awareness." LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:37:48.453" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:37:48.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5079" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:37:11.530" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Questions about the cognitive bias  of anchoring, where an initial piece of information will have a greater weight of importance than latter information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:36:36.163" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:36:36.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5080" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:37:11.530" Score="0" Body="Questions about the cognitive bias  of anchoring, where an initial piece of information will have a greater weight of importance than latter information." LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:37:58.173" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:37:58.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5081" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:38:36.537" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions relating to long term potentiation (LTP), the process of priming brain cells to improve synaptic efficacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:48:33.007" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:48:33.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5082" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:38:36.537" Score="0" Body="For questions relating to long term potentiation (LTP), the process of priming brain cells to improve synaptic efficacy." LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:48:33.007" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:48:33.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5083" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:47:09.770" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Examining helping behavior, motivations and payoffs; related to altruism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:37:53.187" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:37:53.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5084" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:47:09.770" Score="0" Body="Examining helping behavior, motivations and payoffs; related to altruism." LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:38:27.033" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:38:27.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5085" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:50:26.693" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Questions about neurotransmitter dopamine or  3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine. Dopamine production, deficiency and drug interaction and illnesses affected by or effecting  dopamine levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:37:03.073" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:37:03.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5086" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:50:26.693" Score="0" Body="Questions about neurotransmitter dopamine or  3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine. Dopamine production, deficiency and drug interaction and illnesses affected by or effecting  dopamine levels." LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:38:31.300" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:38:31.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5087" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:52:23.923" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Questions about the psychology and neuroscience of creativity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:36:20.927" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:36:20.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5088" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2013-12-05T08:52:23.923" Score="0" Body="Questions about the psychology and neuroscience of creativity.  " LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T12:37:10.620" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T12:37:10.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5089" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-05T09:43:01.977" Score="5" ViewCount="352" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my past I have seen some people who like to compete in games and try to be first(by games I mean all kind of games or hobbies such as video-games, sports etc. in which competition is included). I assume this kind of activity is needed when people have the need to know that they are equal with the others or to stay above average and be satisfied for what they can achieved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is your research is there about this and what actually triggers some people to compete more than others. Is it a nature or a nurture thing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This obviously has to do with psychological matters which can't be analyzed to a detail and is some kind of a philosophical question but even though which is your opinion also links and studies on this matter will be greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3375" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-12-05T10:38:44.527" LastActivityDate="2014-01-08T08:01:48.947" Title="What triggers people to do competitive activities?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5090" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5068" CreationDate="2013-12-05T10:02:42.550" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;That's a difficult to say I assume many kind of past memories* linked with emotions subconsciously play certainly a critical role nevertheless I found an interesting link (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gizmag.com/predicting-hit-songs/20939/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.gizmag.com/predicting-hit-songs/20939/&lt;/a&gt;) which is about a formula on how to find out the next hit song.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*by memories I mean more kind of episodic memories rather than semantic although it could be semantic if someone would be expressed of a song by its lyrics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3375" LastActivityDate="2013-12-05T10:02:42.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5095" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-06T02:00:23.467" Score="5" ViewCount="764" Body="&lt;p&gt;What areas of geometry are used in psychology/cognitive science/neuroscience? Are the applications of a sophisticated nature or superficial?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3713" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-06T04:26:15.517" LastActivityDate="2018-04-21T11:28:34.607" Title="How has geometry been applied in cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5096" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-06T02:08:28.897" Score="6" ViewCount="212" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://andler.dec.ens.fr/pdf/115.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Andler (2012)&lt;/a&gt; wrote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What role does mathematics play in cognitive science today, what role&#xA;  should mathematics play in cognitive science tomorrow? The cautious&#xA;  short answers are: to the factual question, a rather modest role,&#xA;  except in peripheral areas to the normative question, a far greater&#xA;  role, as the peripherys place is reevaluated and as both cognitive&#xA;  science and mathematics grow. This paper aims at providing more&#xA;  detailed, perhaps more contentious answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does Andler's (2012) article on 'Mathematics in Cognitive Science' provide an accurate picture of mathematics in cognitive science?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do I prepare for the kind of advanced work described in the article?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reference:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Andler, D. (2012). Mathematics in Cognitive Science. In Probabilities, Laws, and Structures (pp. 363-377). Springer Netherlands &lt;a href=&quot;http://andler.dec.ens.fr/pdf/115.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3713" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-01-13T12:39:03.640" LastActivityDate="2017-01-13T12:39:03.640" Title="Does Andler's (2012) article on 'Mathematics in Cognitive Science' provide an accurate picture of mathematics in cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5097" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5104" CreationDate="2013-12-06T02:09:01.453" Score="26" ViewCount="63792" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can extreme empathy and compassion get to a point where it is considered a disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if someone is so empathetic, when feeling someones pain it negatively affects their life to the same extent as the person they are feeling for?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or that someone is so compassionate, that they make choices that ignores their own health and well being because they are taking care of others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this ever diagnosed and if not, why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorDisplayName="user3543" LastEditDate="2013-12-06T02:42:40.353" LastActivityDate="2017-09-25T20:22:26.117" Title="Is extreme empathy and compassion considered a disorder?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5098" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="583" CreationDate="2013-12-06T02:20:58.397" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In response to your first inquiry, lack of response to punishment, in some cases, may suggest the lack of conscience/fear. Many are diagnosed or have the symptoms of a sociopath; being that they think themselves as untouchable, greater than anything/anyone outside of themselves; they don't feel fear the way &quot;norms&quot; do, nor do they feel remorse for what they inflict on others. Therefor, they will find &quot;reason&quot; for any and all wrongdoing they inflict.&#xA;  So far as your second question, it is not so much that it is &quot;assumed&quot; that most people will respond in an &quot;expected&quot; way to punishment. Rather, the  individual that has been tested in the same arena as a diagnosed sociopath vs. the majority of people who feel remorse, exude morals and personal responsibility. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The Sociopath Next Door&quot;- Martha Stout&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/2013/06/19/193099258/inside-the-mind-of-a-sociopath&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.npr.org/2013/06/19/193099258/inside-the-mind-of-a-sociopath&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; I hope this is some semblance of an answer for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA; In your words, sociopathy and psychopathy are speculative.&#xA;  All science, on the other hand is proven by trial and error. Subjects being tested and who bear on the &quot;normal&quot; end of the spectrum, is named so by the trial and error which is performed and proven from past subjects.&#xA;   Moving on, I will say that, speculatively, the majority of people will not hold up a bank, steal money from petty cash at their place of employment, or commit murder, due to their morals, conscience, or fear of getting caught due to the punishment they may receive.&#xA;   However, if there is NO fear, NO morals, NO conscience, there may be room for diagnosis.&#xA;  A person may feel they have done nothing wrong and that their actions are justified. Everyone has reasons for doing what they do. But the majority of people tend to feel remorse when they cause others undue comfort, cheated anotherin an extreme circumstance, or was the cause of a terrible negative outcome. For a person to feel they have done nothing wrong and that their punishment is unjust, happens every day. But it's the one who does NOT feel, nor  take personal responsibility(the blame is never theirs) who may, over repeated instances, be diagnosed with a form of psychosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3923" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-11T03:27:59.190" LastActivityDate="2013-12-11T03:27:59.190" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5099" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5096" CreationDate="2013-12-06T04:17:52.910" Score="6" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Thoughts on the paper&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper appears to provide a high level overview of the role of mathematics in cognitive science. I'm not a sufficient expert in the overall field of cognitive science where I'd feel comfortable to truly judge the accuracy of the overall synthesis that Andler (2012) provides. That said, much of the paper is about providing examples of how mathematics integrates with cognitive science. And the examples seem reasonable. I could think of other examples that pertain to my work, but their absence does not really detract from the paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Andler also makes a number of distinctions about how mathematics can integrate with cognitive science. For example there is the kind of integration that statistics has with many experimental disciplines which is both fundamental and not very specific. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in short, I think the paper provides a thought provoking big picture overview of the issues of interfacing maths with cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Implications for you doing advanced work&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper could potentially be motivating, but it might also be discouraging. It's so high level that it creates a vision, but the vision is so large that it might be overwhelming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To do ground breaking research in cognitive science (or any area for that matter), you need to specialise. If you want to do research interfacing maths with cognitive science you would also specialise. The result is that you would only need a small subset of mathematics and cognitive science mentioned in the article. I use mathematics and statistics a lot in my research, and there's plenty of mathematics mentioned in that paper which I know little about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are wanting to do research in this area, exposing yourself to a good undergraduate curriculum in mathematics, statistics, computing, and cognitive science would be a good start along with exposure to research. Then pursue a PhD with an appropriate advisor where you can hone your skills in a particular domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of mathematics my own bias would favour learning calculus, linear algebra, probability, and statistics, but that's just my bias. It's also useful to learn how to code.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-12-06T04:17:52.910" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5096" CreationDate="2013-12-06T10:50:03.093" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thanks for sharing the article. I read the paper and what I take from it is a rather pessimistic view. He suggests that there is a crucial need for overarching proper mathematical modeling, but he makes it sound this is also a huge obsticle and we must wait (longer than a young persons academic career) to see the fruits of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm coming from a theoretical physics background, so I can't quite judge if the applications of math in the present he lists are exhausting. But as Jeromy Anglim said in his answer, it makes sense. Now if you ask &quot;How do I prepare for the kind of advanced work described in the article?&quot; the answer must depend on what your position in cognitive science actually is. You prepare yourself by leaning the math. You can't learn all the math. If you don't say what field interests you, learn the math that's most fascinating to you and try to interpret the cognitive science information your lean in these terms. This will also make you a happier person. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article makes the crucial point that statistical methods for treating the data are to be distinguished from the math you need for the modeling of the subject matter, i.e. the math for the framework in which the data are interpreted themself. Obviously, if you analyse data, you need statistics and this is tied to calculus and linear algebra and you must master these - and for this you only need the right books, or good lectures. I can say that if you're not work with motorics, you'll probably not need differential geometry and Lie groups, although they are beautiful concepts. If you know you must code anyway, then try to look more into the fundamentals of computation - this also amounts to learn much of the logic which you can further apply to represent more adventurous concepts into which the field might lead you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2297" LastEditorUserId="2297" LastEditDate="2013-12-06T11:51:37.533" LastActivityDate="2013-12-06T11:51:37.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5102" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5095" CreationDate="2013-12-06T14:41:38.603" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Though not a direct bridge between Linguistics and Cognitive Science, &lt;a href=&quot;http://languagesindanger.eu/book-of-knowledge/writing/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Semasiographic&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; communication systems are a ripe territory for the studio of &lt;a href=&quot;http://philpapers.org/browse/mereology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mereology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Off-hand, consider:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dewalque, A. &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11097-012-9293-8#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Brentano and the parts of the mental: a mereological approach to phenomenal intentionality.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences&lt;/strong&gt;, September 2013, Volume 12, Issue 3, pp 447-464&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastEditorUserId="2584" LastEditDate="2014-02-09T15:49:58.280" LastActivityDate="2014-02-09T15:49:58.280" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5104" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5097" CreationDate="2013-12-07T01:31:34.633" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yes and No&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the standards of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (or DSM-IV in its current form), perhaps the most prominent all-in-one manual to assist physicians in accurately defining a patient's disorder, has specific criteria for a disorder, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;is associated with present distress (e.g., a painful symptom) or disability (i.e., impairment in one or more important areas of functioning) or with an increased risk of suffering death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A level of empathy such that you've described could certainly fit this definition. In practice most physicians don't consider culturally/socially sanctioned actions as symptoms of mental illness (whether they are is an age-old debate for philosophers, anthropologists, and sociologists/psychologists). Indeed, even the DSM-V has proposed changing criteria C (which rules out acceptable responses to loss/stress) to exclude &quot;a culturally sanctioned response to a particular event.&quot; It seems that most cultures value empathy enough that it's unlikely to be viewed as a disorder. In fact, even the most extreme examples of empathy (complete self sacrifice) are often considered admirable things in books and movies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If, however, empathy is directed toward someone who abuses the relationship, it could result in codependency. While the DSM doesn't list codependency, it is still often diagnosed as a mental illness. In the case of codependency, the empathetic person often cannot bring themselves to end the relationship, due to their concern over the negative effect it would have on the other person. Since this relationship is dangerous to the empath and caused by said empathy, this could be a case where too much empathy in an individual is a mental disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then again, if the other person had more empathy, the situation wouldn't occur. I think it's safe to say that in theory empathy shouldn't be a disorder but in practice it can lead to disordered behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3241" LastActivityDate="2013-12-07T01:31:34.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5108" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4801" CreationDate="2013-12-08T18:16:10.453" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This sounds like Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder. Individuals with OCPD tend to obsess over unimportant details to the extent of it causing significant distress and a negative impact on productivity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not personally aware of a test to diagnose OCPD, but the DSM does contain diagnostic criteria for the disorder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3940" LastActivityDate="2013-12-08T18:16:10.453" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5110" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5198" CreationDate="2013-12-09T00:33:25.273" Score="3" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have the efficacy of different psychotherapeutic approaches--e.g., ACT, CBT, DBT, Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Behavioral--been compared?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm sure each approach may be more or less effective depending on the individual and the issue being addressed, however, even a qualified comparative review would be helpful to a practitioner (or patient).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does such a review exist?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3942" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-09T12:55:51.480" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T19:19:48.763" Title="Has anyone done a thorough comparative review of psychotherapeutic approaches?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5113" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-09T22:51:02.397" Score="4" ViewCount="951" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_surveillance_disclosure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mass surveillance by organisations like the NSA&lt;/a&gt; has become both more prevalent and more known to the public.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has the frequency of schizophrenia symptoms concerning mass surveillance (eg. persecutory delusions) increased in line with the increase in public awareness about mass surveillance programs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3951" LastEditorUserId="3854" LastEditDate="2013-12-10T16:55:08.243" LastActivityDate="2014-01-04T10:19:44.747" Title="Frequency of schizophrenia symptoms related to mass surveillance?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5114" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-10T03:34:44.723" Score="4" ViewCount="316" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some murderers are glamorized by society while others labeled monsters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In both cases, they can commit the same terrible crimes and cause the same amounts of pain - yet one can be romanticized the other not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In extreme cases, some serial murders receive wedding proposals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does cognitive science classify this attraction? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it just based on the way the criminal looks? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does physical attraction override reason even to this extent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When is it ever considered a normal behavior and why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-10T05:28:55.663" LastActivityDate="2014-07-17T13:08:16.873" Title="What makes some criminals glamorous to others?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5115" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-10T03:42:09.000" Score="4" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm curious about how laypeople think about healthy lifestyle changes (like eating well, not smoking, exercising) that are scientifically known to help prevent and treat a number of diseases. People are notoriously bad about using such lifestyle changes for a variety of psychological reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could part of the problem be that they don't believe lifestyle changes are effective? Is there any literature on this? I did look around a bit myself, but did not find anything directly relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2448" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-11T04:57:29.780" LastActivityDate="2013-12-11T04:57:29.780" Title="Do laypeople think lifestyle changes are effective at preventing and treating disease?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5118" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5119" CreationDate="2013-12-11T04:08:27.760" Score="7" ViewCount="332" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Richard Feynman's classic &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/%7Eken/cargo_cult.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cargo Cult Science speech&lt;/a&gt;. He talks about a type of scientific error made, where a person takes a previous experimental result for granted when designing an experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other kinds of errors are more characteristic of poor science. When I was at Cornell, I often talked to the people in the psychology department. One of the students told me she wanted to do an experiment that went something like this--it had been found by others that under certain circumstances, X, rats did something, A. She was curious as to whether, if she changed the circumstances to Y, they would still do A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So her proposal was to do the experiment under circumstances Y and see if they still did A. I explained to her that it was necessary first to repeat in her laboratory the experiment of the other person--to do it under condition X to see if she could also get result A, and then change to Y and see if A changed. Then she would know the the real difference was the thing she thought she had under control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure I understand what sort of fallacy is being committed in this instance. What exactly is the problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3958" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-08-04T05:08:39.387" Title="Why did Richard Feynman appear to recommend replication before manipulation when conducting lab experiments?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5119" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5118" CreationDate="2013-12-11T04:56:37.523" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it's a basic concept of experimental design that you have control groups. So for example, if you want to study the effect of X (e.g., a drug) on Y (e.g., performance), you could manipulate X (e.g., give half the drug and the other half no drug) and randomly assign the participants to either group.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_assignment&quot;&gt;Random assignment&lt;/a&gt; is a strategy for making the groups on average equivalent. Thus, it is an attempt to control for confounding factors that might cause Y.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, you could say that other researchers have conducted the equivalent of the control group condition, and just do a one sample study with just the drug condition. However, studies differ in all sorts of ways (participants differ, your exact measures might differ, the context might differ, etc.). Thus, you couldn't unambiguously attribute any changes to the effect of the drug.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, we often do compare the experimental outcome of different studies that differ in some respect. For example, meta-analyses often examine moderators which compare effect sizes across study features. While this is useful, you'll often get a cleaner answer to your research question by incorporating the moderator into a specific study where there are fewer alternative sources of explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-12-11T04:56:37.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5120" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1802" CreationDate="2013-12-11T14:54:04.467" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;One thing that is important to understand is that part of what qualifies someone for having a psychological disorder is that their condition is maladaptive to their environment.  France has a different culture, or in other words, a different environment than the USA.  I have studied french for 8+ years, and while I have not (yet) had the opportunity to go there in person, I can tell you from what I have picked up about French culture that most French people behave in a way that, if they were American, might make you think they were somewhere on the spectrum.  That said, I believe that a person with Aspergers would be be able to get by socially more easily in France than in the US.  This may be in part the reason that there seems to be less of a presence of Aspergers in France than in the USA and perhaps other countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the whole &quot;we don't want this &quot;American&quot; thing&quot; attitude that you were talking about, I like to think this sort of aversive attitude toward other cultures is less present among scientists than the general public, but even scientists are only human, and with the French, they can be aversive to a lot of things.  More importantly, as I touched upon in the last paragraph, Psychology does not transfer as well across cultures as the cold-hard sciences (because it is a social science, and therefore can vary from one society to another), so the French also have practical reasons for hesitating to take American psychology as their own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still, it is rather unusual how so many Western cultures clearly recognize Aspergers and France stands out as not doing so.  The other reason this is odd is that Asperger's and Autism in general are known to have a strong genetic basis, so they do have basis in the hard sciences.  Still more, whether or not Asperger's is genetically-based (it is) does not change the fact that I brought up in the first paragraph which is that it can be more or less maladaptive from one culture to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources: - 8+ years of studying French (language and culture)&#xA;         - I'm a Psychology major :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3963" LastActivityDate="2013-12-11T14:54:04.467" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5123" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5118" CreationDate="2013-12-11T23:03:07.893" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't heard Fineman's speech, but from your description it seem that the problem he is getting at is that just because a certain finding has been made in one experiment, it is not a universal truth. It is quite possible that, when you try to replicate the findings, you will not be able to obtain them again. Jeromy already said something along these lines when he mentioned meta-analysis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fineman goes so far as to say, that the only way really to be sure is to conduct the experiment yourself. In other words, when you want to know the difference between treatment X and treatment Y, you have to design an experiment with both of these treatments yourself rather than rely on findings from someone else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastActivityDate="2013-12-11T23:03:07.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5124" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-12T03:28:20.833" Score="2" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is my understanding that extreme eating disorders such as bulimia are very intertwined with childhood sexual abuse. Just how strong is that link?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a relative who is killing herself with binge drinking and vomiting after almost every meal. If something doesn't give (and soon) she will be dead. I've asked her point blank (as in, &quot;who molested you and when?&quot;) but she denies it. What are the odds that I'm barking up the wrong tree?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3971" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-03T23:22:35.267" LastActivityDate="2018-03-03T23:22:35.267" Title="Eating disorders and childhood sexual abuse" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;eating-disorders&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5125" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5146" CreationDate="2013-12-12T05:05:09.010" Score="8" ViewCount="6991" Body="&lt;p&gt;Synesthesia is often stated as &quot;a confusion of the senses&quot; and some of the more common forms include &quot;seeing sounds&quot; or associating letters or numbers with colors. There is also a very rare form of synesthesia called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical-gustatory_synesthesia&quot;&gt;lexical-gustatory synesthesia&lt;/a&gt; where one &quot;tastes words.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing I've occasionally experienced is that I'll see something and then involuntarily will taste it in my mouth. It's almost always things that are not pleasant, like carpet or copper (things I've tasted when I was a child, I don't regularly eat these things!), and more often when seeing them in large concentrations (e.g. a particularly shaggy carpet, lots of bare copper). Like tasting food, I seem to become acclimated to it pretty quickly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest thing I've heard from other people is they'll say that food &quot;looks so good I can taste it&quot; or something like that. However, I usually hear this for food that also smells very good and as I understand this tasting is because smell and taste are linked (which is normal, not synesthesia). However, I experience this tasting with things that don't have any noticeable smell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not looking for a diagnosis, but I'd like to know if tasting something you see as I have experienced is something that could possibly fall under the category of synesthesia (or if there is a more mundane explanation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3967" LastActivityDate="2019-09-18T06:22:34.817" Title="Is tasting something you see a form of synesthesia?" Tags="&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5126" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-12T09:41:43.613" Score="2" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hello dear cogsci users,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a (fledgling) programmer by profession, &lt;strong&gt;one who also squarely fits the description of an ADHD person&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The symptoms have been making it tremendously hard for me to advance my career. However, I refuse to be put on meds - I'm a firm believer in fixing neurobiological defects with the proper diet and exercise (and have already noticed that curbing my carbohydrate intake alleviates much of the problem).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somewhat surprisingly, I discovered that &lt;strong&gt;if either me or the things I'm studying were in motion, learning most anything became a breeze&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Things I have come up with to combat my concentration issues:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) To pass my math exams, I would hop on the bus and do my algebra/calculus there - the changing scenery made me both concentrate better on the task at hand, and provided natural 'hooks' to remember things such as formulas (as they were automatically paired up with the places I was passing through). I had used to fail classes because of math in secondary school, but got an A on the exam for which I was 'studying in motion'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) When reading eBooks or some such, setting the screen to slowly scroll downwards greatly improves my concentration (by about a half).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) Keeping widgets such as the Windows desktop clock within my field of vision also helps. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) I have been thinking about using a rhytmically shifting, dynamic background for the applications I use to learn (browser, eBook reader). The Ubuntu Linux 'it is raining' desktop effect also really helps me concentrate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;However, I need a powerful, overarching technique that I could use during studying, one that would also be easy to access anywhere.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would you have any interesting suggestions? In exchange, I welcome you to use any and all of my observations for research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BTW: I do not believe I am primarly kinesthetic (more like auditory first [knack for picking up foreign languages], kinesthetic second, visual third).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3974" LastActivityDate="2013-12-12T09:41:43.613" Title="Things not physically moving very hard to concentrate upon - suggestions?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-12-12T18:21:27.350" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5127" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5124" CreationDate="2013-12-12T13:33:02.697" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can &lt;strong&gt;never&lt;/strong&gt; deduce the cause of any disorder from it's mere presence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A review (Connors, 1993) found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;around 30% of eating disordered patients have been sexually abused in childhood, a figure that is relatively comparable to rates found in normal populations.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patients with eating disorders have been victims of childhood sexual abuse &lt;strong&gt;just as often as non-patients&lt;/strong&gt;. So you might just as well say that &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; having an eating disorder was caused by sexual abuse! Sexual abuse simply does not distinguish patients with eating disorders from the rest of the population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The review continues:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For some patients there may be a direct link between sexual trauma and eating pathology, but in general sexual abuse is best considered a risk factor in a biopsychosocial etiological model of eating disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some cases the eating disorder might in fact have been caused by sexual abuse. But in most cases the patients were either not abused at all, or the sexual abuse was only one of the contribution factors that allowed an eating disorder to develop. Examples for other such factors are certain personality characteristics or genetics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Advice&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you did – forcing someone to admit to childhood sexual abuse – is highly unhelpful, &lt;em&gt;especially&lt;/em&gt; if this person has acutally suffered through it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; do to help this person is help her get professional help. And again: Don't force anything on her. Suggest it, find addresses and telephone numbers, if that research seems to put her off, find reports of patients who have profited from a therapy, if she does not believe in a positive outcome or does not recognize her problem, propose to accompany her, if she is afraid to go, help her keep her appointments and adhere to the treatment (medication, eating rules etc.). But remember: therapies only ever work if the patient herself is motivated to go through it. Force is counterproductive. You can only offer support, and if that offer is declined, there is little you can do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Connors, M. E. (1993). Sexual abuse and eating disorders: A review. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Eating Disorders, 13&lt;/em&gt;, 1-11. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1098-108X%28199301%2913:1%3C1%3a%3aAID-EAT2260130102%3E3.0.CO;2-P&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/1098-108X(199301)13:1&amp;lt;1::AID-EAT2260130102&gt;3.0.CO;2-P&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-12-12T13:33:02.697" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5128" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5118" CreationDate="2013-12-12T13:50:58.193" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a student of psychology. Every week we read several papers and discuss them in class. I'm in my seventh semester now, but as yet I have not read a single psychological journal article that we did not find fault with! Often the basic premises are at best tentative. Very often the statistical methodology used is not actually applicable to the case at hand. Almost always the effects are extremely small. Rarely is the sample representative. And so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For myself, I have come to the conclusion, that for any experiment what has been found is that &lt;em&gt;maybe some things are somehow a bit similar to what this experiment may appear to have shown&lt;/em&gt;. And maybe not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The proven facts of psychology can be counted on the fingers of one hand: human beings perceive; they have emotions; they act. That's about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you do research, you do it on the basis that &lt;strong&gt;you know nothing&lt;/strong&gt;, and the truth might actually be the opposite of what other experiments have shown. Scientists are &lt;strong&gt;sceptics&lt;/strong&gt;, that is the basic frame of mind that you do research in. Scientists don't &lt;em&gt;believe&lt;/em&gt;, they &lt;strong&gt;question&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even in physics, no-one in their right minds would claim that they know that there &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; electrons. Electrons are simply a good model to explain what happens when you turn on the light. As long as that model explains what we observe and helps predict results, we use it. As soon as it stops being useful, we abandon it. In the case of electrons we are already abandoning that model. And it won't be long when Bosons and Higgs particles will no longer prove useful, too. There is no such thing as scientific truth. Especially not in psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-12-12T13:50:58.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5129" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-12T14:24:42.960" Score="14" ViewCount="1507" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dating websites and psychological researchers attempt to find those factors that predict the fit between potential romantic partners. Examples for factors taken into consideration are the &quot;big five&quot; dimensions of personality, attractiveness, or hobbies. These factors are found by looking at people in successful versus failed relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I get to know someone over a long period of time, these factors might be what makes me want to enter a relationship with them, and in fact they might predict how successful a relationship to that person will be. But when I meet a stranger what I find is that none of these factors predict if that &lt;em&gt;spark of attraction&lt;/em&gt; will fly. Often, the girls that make me go all slack-jawed and drooling with romantic tunnel vision have little in common with the profile I would create for my ideal partner, while an attractive girl that fulfills all criteria for a successful relationship with me will leave me completely cold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there research into how to predict if one person will spark the romantic interest of another?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I accept opinion, if it is based on careful reflection and does not just contain banalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-12T19:22:39.653" LastActivityDate="2020-04-08T10:36:37.900" Title="How to predict romantic attraction" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5130" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-13T00:45:22.667" Score="1" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a manager of a team of software engineers. We often use brainstorming sessions to generate solutions to problems. We use typical cognitive games, e.g. word association, to &quot;warm-up&quot; and facilitate the ideations sessions. These sessions are fruitful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tomorrow we are having a brainstorming session to identify problems, not solutions. It would seem that we should prepare our minds with a different technique. Personally, I find that I am best at noticing problems when I am in a negative mindset. Does that hold true against existing research? If so, what would be a good way of getting in to that type of mindset? I would assume causing some kind of mental anguish would facilitate negative thinking. However I don't want to upset my team or do any lasting damage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some random ideas that have come to mind include:&#xA;- Taking a minute to talk about historical atrocities&#xA;- Having food at the session, but not letting anyone eat&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I go down this road, what would be a good decompression method to get people back in to a positive mindset at the end?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3977" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T15:55:49.847" Title="How to best prepare the mind for a problem identification brainstorm?" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;ideation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5131" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5134" CreationDate="2013-12-13T05:27:55.483" Score="1" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a book that is not too rigorous but provides a good introduction to psychology as a preparation for a university-level course. Any suggestions? It is an introductory course. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3801" LastActivityDate="2013-12-13T16:42:16.477" Title="Reference for beginners: psychology" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2013-12-16T12:42:26.510" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5113" CreationDate="2013-12-13T14:31:35.547" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The specific revelations about global surveillance schemes that you reference like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRISM_%28surveillance_program%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PRISM&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Keyscore&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;XKeyscore&lt;/a&gt; are relatively recent (June 2013), so it looks like it's too early for any research to have been done into the statistical frequency of such symptoms. (I can't find any, at least!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, some have suggested that the common public knowledge that such programs are a reality could exacerbate symptoms in patients who already exhibit delusional narratives (eg. in schizophrenia) along these lines. A Scientific American article entitled &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2013/07/01/how-secret-spying-programs-affect-the-clinically-paranoid/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;How Secret Spying Programs Affect the Clinically Paranoid&quot;&lt;/a&gt; explains that real-life manifestations of imagined threats could interact with symptoms of psychosis. In this article, Dr. David Kimhy, Director of the Experimental Psychopathology Lab in the Department of Psychiatry at Columbia University says that though revelations about the NSA could increase general anxiety in the individual with schizophrenia, the scandal should only significantly affect those whose delusions mirror the news.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, he goes on the say it could instead lessen such delusions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“The thought that the government is following everyone, in a paradoxical way, may take away from the delusion,” says Kimhy. Individuals with persecutory delusions usually feel that they are unique targets; thus, the broad net of surveillance that is so troubling to the NSA’s critics might reduce feeling of persecution in an individual who previously believed the government was only after him. Indeed, the therapist might use this broadness as a context in which to discuss the patient’s delusions. “You could ask, ‘What’s so unique to you? What special powers do you have? And by the way, why don’t we talk about those special powers,’” says Kimhy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is echoed in the writing of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicaldaily.com/nsa-prism-program-may-benefit-clinically-paranoid-they-find-out-others-are-being-watched-too-247310&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychologist Daniel Freeman in the journal Clinical Psychology Review&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The more a belief is implausible, unfounded, strongly held, not shared by others, distressing and preoccupying then the more likely it is to be considered a delusion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even prior to these recent revelations, it is well established that current events can impact delusional symptoms. A study published in the journal Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2013/07/01/how-secret-spying-programs-affect-the-clinically-paranoid/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The Truman Show Delusion: Psychosis in the Global Village&quot;&lt;/a&gt; concluded that &quot;although schizophrenia and bi-polar disorder have existed in many different cultures and times, their character and means of expression are highly influenced by the culture the patient comes from, as well as its contemporary technology.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of mental health symptoms being culture-sensitive was given recently in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.channel4.com/programmes/bedlam&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TV documentary series&lt;/a&gt; about South London and Maudsley Hospital for mental health. A member of staff explained that in the '80s, when AIDS was heavily featured in the news, patients with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder frequently showed concern about contamination, worrying that spots of ketchup in a kitchen were blood and similar. He said that this is less common now, when AIDS is in the media less, but they've recently seen an increase in patients having intrusive thoughts that make them worry they are a paedophile, as there have been &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Savile_sexual_abuse_scandal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;some high-profile child abuse cases in British media reently&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3854" LastEditorUserId="3854" LastEditDate="2014-01-04T10:19:44.747" LastActivityDate="2014-01-04T10:19:44.747" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5133" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5136" CreationDate="2013-12-13T15:03:29.253" Score="5" ViewCount="317" Body="&lt;p&gt;A kid who just started to read puts a lot of effort in processing sentences. These efforts will decrease as he/she gets older and, at some point (around 12, 15?), will read as fast as an adult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there an age when reading speed becomes stable enough to be considered as adult speed?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess is that it should depend on each individual (particular pleasure/difficulty to read, variable exposition to written material), but there should be an average measure. I searched the web for some references without success - maybe this question was answered long before the digital era.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-14T04:02:58.030" LastActivityDate="2013-12-14T04:02:58.030" Title="At what age do children typically reach adult reading speed?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5134" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5131" CreationDate="2013-12-13T16:36:00.590" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Making Up The Mind by Chris Frith is fantastic for a casual introduction to general Psychology concepts. ( &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1405160225&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.com/Making-Mind-Brain-Creates-Mental/dp/1405160225/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&amp;amp;qid=1386952875&amp;amp;sr=8-1&amp;amp;keywords=Making+Up+The+Mind&lt;/a&gt; )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would also recommend Bonk! by Mary Roach if you're looking for an easy read to ease you into the topic of Human Sexuality within Psychology. ( &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0393334791&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.com/Bonk-The-Curious-Coupling-Science/dp/0393334791/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&amp;amp;qid=1386952898&amp;amp;sr=8-1&amp;amp;keywords=bonk&lt;/a&gt;! )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both of these books are informative and educational, and present what would otherwise be extremely dry research as entertaining prose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I would highly recommend going to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ted.com&lt;/a&gt; and watching any of the talks by Vs. Ramachandran - Ramachandran is extremely talented in explaining Psychological concepts in a down-to-earth manner. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3940" LastEditorDisplayName="user3940" LastEditDate="2013-12-13T16:42:16.477" LastActivityDate="2013-12-13T16:42:16.477" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5136" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5133" CreationDate="2013-12-14T04:02:28.590" Score="6" Body="&lt;h3&gt;vand den Bos et al (2002)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;van den Bos et al (2002) summarises research over various ages. &#xA;They reported:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The reading task was to read in 1 min, as fast and accurately as&#xA;  possible, the unique and unrepeated words of a stan- dardized&#xA;  word-reading test. Results indicate that word-reading speed and naming&#xA;  speeds of colors and pictures continue to increase into mature&#xA;  adulthood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Figure 1 (shown below) indicates that reading speed got quicker over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LRNvC.png&quot; alt=&quot;reading speed by age&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They conclude with :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is interpreted as supporting the the- ory that describes reading&#xA;  recognition development as a domain-specific learning process with&#xA;  reciprocally facilitating links to alphanumeric symbol-naming speed&#xA;  development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;van den Bos, K. P., Zijlstra, B. J., &amp;amp; lutje Spelberg, H. C. (2002). Life-span data on continuous-naming speeds of numbers, letters, colors, and pictured objects, and word-reading speed. Scientific Studies of Reading, 6(1), 25-49.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-12-14T04:02:28.590" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5137" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5130" CreationDate="2013-12-14T08:35:16.407" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if your approach to &quot;identify[ing] problems, not solutions,&quot; will include so-called &lt;em&gt;reverse&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;negative&lt;/em&gt; brainstorming, in which participants are directed to consider &quot;what can be done to break something instead of focusing solely on narrow-minded fixes,&quot;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; to be &quot;highly critical, rather than highly creative.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; If this is the case, the group could &quot;warm up&quot; by applying this technique to some other area: their own lives, their favourite sports teams, public policy issues, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Stephen C. Harper. &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.halogensoftware.com/how-to-solve-problems-with-reverse-brainstorming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How to Solve Problems with Reverse Brainstorming&lt;/a&gt;, posted on his TalentSpace Blog, December 14, 2011.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Harper. &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=9Kvv2Yv67jYC&amp;amp;pg=PA78&amp;amp;lpg=PA78&amp;amp;dq=%22brainstorming+to+identify+problems%22&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=4naZsA5Lqv&amp;amp;sig=joFBXIDTy1nR-8VNeaz5AWVbz24&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=DJOqUr6eKYrLkAeT4oHICg&amp;amp;ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22brainstorming%20to%20identify%20problems%22&amp;amp;f=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Extraordinary Entrepreneurship: The Professional's Guide to Starting an Exceptional Enterprise (Google eBook)&lt;/a&gt;, 2005, p.78.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3949" LastEditorUserId="3949" LastEditDate="2013-12-19T03:53:01.347" LastActivityDate="2013-12-19T03:53:01.347" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5139" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-16T02:38:43.323" Score="-3" ViewCount="1319" Body="&lt;p&gt;To &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadomasochism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;quote wikipedia Masochism&lt;/a&gt; involves receiving of pleasure—often sexual—from acts involving the .. reception of pain or humiliation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How would a masochist experience rape?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Would they find it any less traumatic than a person who was not a masochist?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3862" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T04:22:27.347" LastActivityDate="2017-03-07T22:33:28.283" Title="How would a masochist experience rape?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5140" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5139" CreationDate="2013-12-16T04:27:01.187" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;My very limited understanding of sadomasochistic relationships is that they are built on a high degree of trust and consent. Thus, the masochist consents to a certain experience and power relationship. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rape by definition occurs without consent, and therefore would be outside any such consensual relationship. People all vary in how they experience traumatic events. Nonetheless, I would not expect someone who engages in consensual masochistic behaviour to find non-consensual rape any less traumatic than someone who is not masochistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-12-16T04:27:01.187" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5141" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-16T04:54:24.983" Score="3" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Herman Ebbinghaus&lt;/a&gt; discovered the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetting_curve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;forgetting curve&lt;/a&gt;, by memorizing series of non-sensical syllables like &quot;zod&quot;, &quot;byh&quot;, &quot;tef&quot;, etc., and than seeing how long it took to forget them.  The results are interesting, but I'm curious as to how he came up with the number of words to remember (the number of words in a series).   Because clearly the more words, the more difficult it would be to remember, which he did mention in his &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/index.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/index.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; though he mainly used series of 8, 12 or 16 words, and took multiple tests which often came up to be about 104 syllables, but was quite varied. I couldn't find how he came up with those specific numbers of syllables to test, and furthermore it seems that his entire &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/index.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetting_curve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;curve&lt;/a&gt; would be compromised by the amount of words.  For instance a 1 word series may never be forgotten while 10,000 may be unmemorizable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is his &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetting_curve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;curve&lt;/a&gt; a simply an average of testable results?  Or is there some other reason for the certain number of words that constituted a series that I didn't quite catch?    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3989" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-16T05:12:54.883" LastActivityDate="2013-12-17T10:06:09.060" Title="How did Ebbinghaus decide on his number of words in a series?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5144" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-17T02:30:39.330" Score="4" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies showing the impacts of learning about learning theory on someone's learning?&#xA;Moreover, at which point learning about learning first makes an impact on you learning a new subject? (eg: learning about learning+then studying the new subject becomes better than simple studying the subject, both time-wise and depth-of-understanding-wise).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3956" LastActivityDate="2013-12-17T02:30:39.330" Title="What's the impact of studying learning theory in actual learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5145" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5125" CreationDate="2013-12-17T04:12:37.793" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You ask &quot;if there is a more mundane explanation&quot; and note that you're &quot;not looking for a diagnosis.&quot; As you'd expect of course, it seems sensible to conclude that indeed no definitive judgement can be made about the cause of your experiences without some sort of professional assessment. And there are methods available to attempt to make such a determination.&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; My cursory research indicates that these are in the process of development, that there is nothing &quot;official,&quot; but that some are described as &quot;reliable.&quot; Whether there are any applicable to sight-to-taste sensations, I can't say.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you note, sight-to-taste synesthesia typically involves things like letters, words, numbers, colors, or shapes. I did find a few examples of perceptions similar to yours. One relates to a man who experienced synesthetic taste sensations of &quot;synthetic inedibles (wax candles, for example).&quot;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Another is a reference to the idea that some synesthetes &quot;may connect the sense of sight to taste so that every time they see a sailboat they will taste a donut'.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; Finally, there is another mere supposition that &quot;llamas [may] look like sweet and sour sauce.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; These examples seem to confirm an observation that &quot;[t]here are a lot of synesthete stories around the Internet, but many of them are lost within blog comments, outdated forums or hard-to-read Tumblr threads.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;A more mundane explanation,&quot; in this case related to more common forms of &quot;blended senses,&quot; is found in the theory that &quot;people who have Synesthesia just retain color memories from childhood. An example would be colorful alphabetical or numerical magnets that the child had played with. This theory, however, does not explain all aspects of the condition.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; It seems impossible, based on the information available, to even speculate about the likelihood that your sensations result from childhood experiences, although you do note that you may have &quot; tasted [cooper and carpet] when [you were] a child.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may be interested in a recent study of so-called &quot; learned synesthesia,&quot; examining &quot;whether traits typically regarded as markers of synesthesia can be acquired by simply reading in color.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any history of synesthesia in your family? &quot;It is believed that one gene which is responsible for causing Synesthesia gets passed from one generation to the next by the X chromosome, as a Dominant trait (Smilek, 2005). This could explain why Synesthesia runs in families.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, you may be familiar with the work of Richard E. Cytowic, a medical doctor and an Associate Professor of Neurology at George Washington University, and a leading authority on synesthesia. He is the author of &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0262532557&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Man Who Tasted Shapes&lt;/a&gt;, and was featured a few years ago on the American television program &quot;60 Minutes.&quot; He may be interested in your experiences. You might want to contact him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; &quot;There are several screening techniques that are used in diagnosing and confirming Synesthesia. … These are called pop-out, segregation, cross-modality imagery, and the Stroop test.&quot; — from &lt;a href=&quot;http://voices.yahoo.com/synesthesia-medical-condition-associating-letters-257423.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Synesthesia: The Medical Condition of Associating Letters and Numbers With Certain Colors&lt;/a&gt; (2007), by Jennifer Rossman, citing Crane, Carol A. (2006). Synesthesia. A neuropsychological and familial study of developmental synesthesia. Dissertation Abstracts International, 66(8-B), 4477,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goucher.edu/documents/verge/papers4/davis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A Summary of Current Ideas on Synesthesia&lt;/a&gt; (2007?), by Megan Davis, for an undergraduate seminar in Cognitive Psychology at Goucher College.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; A FAQ about synesthesia on &lt;a href=&quot;http://11-synesthesia-justin.wikispaces.com/FAQ?responseToken=1f5e13c5cf46af04f87aae6e7b1ceb67&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a blog published on wikispaces.com&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://everything2.com/title/Synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A document about synesthesia&lt;/a&gt; published on everything2.com&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.blendedsenses.com/maureen-seabergs-synesthesia-story-video/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Maureen Seaberg’s Synesthesia Story (Video)&lt;/a&gt;, a blog post on blendedsenses.com&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; Rossman, citing Ramachandran, Vilayanur S. &amp;amp; Hubbard, Edward M. (2005). Hearing colors, tasting shapes. Scientific American Mind,16, 16-23.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3adoi/10.1371/journal.pone.0039799&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pseudo-Synesthesia through Reading Books with Colored Letters&lt;/a&gt; (2012), by Olympia Colizoli, Jaap M. J. Murre, and Romke Rouw.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Rossman, citing Smilek, Daniel, &amp;amp; Dixon, Mike J. (2005) Synesthesia: Discordant male monozygotic twins. Neurocase,11(5), 363-370.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3949" LastEditorUserId="3949" LastEditDate="2013-12-17T07:34:47.353" LastActivityDate="2013-12-17T07:34:47.353" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5146" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5125" CreationDate="2013-12-17T06:13:39.310" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;After a fair amount of research, I came across &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.brunel.ac.uk/~hsstnns/&quot;&gt;Noam Sagiv, PhD&lt;/a&gt;, a professor at the Centre for Cognition and Neuroimaging who has done research into synesthesia, including visual-gustatory synesthesia (the proper term for seeing-tasting synesthesia). I contacted him about this and he said the following (reproduced with permission):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I can understand your frustration with finding information about this.&#xA;  As you probably know already from trying to look up information on&#xA;  synaesthesia, there is a lot more research on coloured letters and&#xA;  numbers than anything else.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are a few types of synaesthesia&#xA;  where taste is the inducer (e.g., coloured taste) and a few that&#xA;  involve taste as the synaesthetic experience: For example, musical&#xA;  notes/intervals &gt; taste, or lexical &gt; gustatory that you mentioned&#xA;  already.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In our experience there are also two other variants; there are no&#xA;  published papers yet that I am aware of but we recently accepted an&#xA;  invitation to write one.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;1) We tentatively&#xA;  labelled it mirror-taste synaesthesia - this is where you see someone&#xA;  else eating something (with no smell - e.g., on TV) and experience a&#xA;  flavour experience that mirrors the other person's - i.e., similar&#xA;  principle to &quot;mirror touch&quot; synaesthesia, where you see someone being&#xA;  touched, and feel the same experience on your own body. The &quot;social&quot;&#xA;  aspect here is critical - it's not enough to see the food, you need to&#xA;  see another person eating it. My conference presentations covered this&#xA;  one - particularly a brain imaging study we conducted, where we found&#xA;  that basically, we all do something similar, even if only a minority&#xA;  of individuals actually experience it: What we found is very simple,&#xA;  that videos of people eating activate not only the visual cortex&#xA;  (which is what everyone expects) but also the gustatory cortex,&#xA;  despite the absence of direct stimulation of the sense of taste.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;2) The other type of gustatory-visual synaesthesia we would like to&#xA;  start exploring soon, is the more direct type you describe. You see&#xA;  something that you've tasted before, and experience the taste&#xA;  involuntarily/automatically and vividly. We have a couple of anecdotal&#xA;  cases but haven't started the formal survey. I expect this to be more&#xA;  common with foods than with non-edible things, but the fact that you&#xA;  get this for some early experiences is consistent with findings from&#xA;  gustatory lexical synaesthesia (where the synaesthetic taste&#xA;  &quot;repertoire&quot; includes things you've eaten as a child, even if you&#xA;  haven't had those for 30 years, and doesn't include things you eat&#xA;  often now, but haven't tried as a child; these things probably&#xA;  consolidate in the first decade of life, probably first half).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We&#xA;  often find we learn new things from synaesthetes and enquiries like&#xA;  yours. I'd be grateful if you did participate in our forthcoming&#xA;  survey, and/or other studies in the lab if you are in the area (West&#xA;  London, UK).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the short answer from a leading expert in the field is: this area has not been extensively researched, but tasting something you see does indeed seem to be a form of synesthesia, possibly including the situation that I described in the question above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr. Sagiv has also extended the invitation to participate in research on synesthesia to everyone here on CogSci Stack Exchange, so feel free to &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.brunel.ac.uk/~hsstnns/&quot;&gt;contact him&lt;/a&gt; to discuss any synaesthetic experiences, volunteer to participate in a survey, and/or go to his lab in West London.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3967" LastEditorUserId="3967" LastEditDate="2013-12-17T06:47:20.827" LastActivityDate="2013-12-17T06:47:20.827" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5147" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5141" CreationDate="2013-12-17T10:06:09.060" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you read Ebbinghaus' article carefully, you will note that in &lt;em&gt;Chapter III. The Method of Investigation, Section 13. Establishment of the Most Constant Experimental Conditions Possible&lt;/em&gt;, Ebbinghaus gives the following third of seven rules &quot;for the process of memorising&quot;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;3 . Since it is practically impossible to speak continuously without variation of accent, the following method was adopted to avoid irregular variations: either three or four syllables were united into a measure, and thus either the 1st, 4th, 7th, or the 1st, 5th, 9th ... syllables were pronounced with a slight accent. Stressing of the voice was otherwise, as far as possible, avoided.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This rule results in 3- or 4-syllable substrings. Of course &lt;strong&gt;the whole string of syllables to be memorized must be a multiple of either 3 or 4&lt;/strong&gt;, if it is to follow this rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your answer is: Ebbinghaus chose 8, 12 or 16 syllables, to keep the experimental conditions constant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2013-12-17T10:06:09.060" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5149" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1567" CreationDate="2013-12-17T13:26:16.023" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In chimpz, we see stronger chimps beating up weaker chimps that have consensual sex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically sex is not a purely consensual matter among chimps. It's to the best interest of stronger males to prohibit weaker males from entering mating market especially if the weaker males are more attractive. In gorilla, sex is not about consent at all. The stronger Gorilla beat the hell out of weaker gorilla and get all the girls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.doctornerdlove.com/2013/03/toxic-alpha-male/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.doctornerdlove.com/2013/03/toxic-alpha-male/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Amongst primates that live in social groups (baboons, chimpanzees, gorillas), the largest, strongest of the male apes is the alpha male; the others are betas. The alpha rules the pack by dint of his strength and furious violence; he gets the greatest amount of food and unlimited sexual access to the females. The betas subsist on the scraps that are left over once the alpha has moved on and are excluded from sex with any of the females on threat of death. The alpha alone gets to pass along his genes; many apes – chimps and gorillas especially&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In humans, it's not much different. The more powerful sultan live in a harem and kill his peasant children by tricking them into jihad. In humans, power is more political than muscle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are a very attractive weaker chimps, what would you do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You do it in private.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In humans, sex is also not purely consensual. There are so many rules created by more politically powerful humans to prevent weaker humans from having sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, it doesn't really matter what the terms are. Someone somewhere somehow will have incentive to hurt you for having sex. I mean, if you get a hot girl, for example, her ex boyfriend would want you death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most obvious way to avoid conflict is then to hide your success and have sex in private.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more a society is based on consent instead of force, the less you have to worry about other seeing you getting the hot mates. Those societies will have more public sex &amp;amp; porn etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or lets' put it this way:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do you get for having sex in public?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Other girls got impressed with your size and want you too? Not applicable for most males.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You like fresh air?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There isn't much benefit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What can go wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can get mugged, robbed, raped, while naked.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People know you don't have gun with you.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Knowledge is power. If people know too much about you, that's usually bad.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="699" LastEditDate="2015-03-28T04:48:22.500" LastActivityDate="2015-03-28T04:48:22.500" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5150" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-17T15:44:28.700" Score="6" ViewCount="368" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if there has been any research to suggest that when given a list of options to choose from, people are more likely to pick an option if it looks different to the other options? My intuition tells me that this is likely true but I cannot find any evidence for this or a name for such a phenomenon. An example might be if people are given this option: 'How many extra refills would you like to buy?' and were given the options in the following layouts A and B. Would you expect 0/&quot;I do not want to buy any extra refills&quot; to be chosen more frequently in any A or B? My intuition says B). Is there any evidence that this is true or false?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A) 0 / 1 /2 / 3 / 4&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;B) I do not want to buy any extra refills / 2 / 3 / 4&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3999" LastEditorUserId="4008" LastEditDate="2013-12-21T03:09:10.390" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T20:32:42.240" Title="Are people more likely to pick the odd one out?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5151" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5152" CreationDate="2013-12-17T17:00:37.770" Score="4" ViewCount="3291" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are different kinds of psychometric tests, I think the numerical and verbal ones are fair enough, I can see their usefulness. However, I cannot understand how the 'soft' psychometric tests work and how they apply to a particular career.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just finished one which consisted of 90 'questions', except they were not questions, they were all &quot;pick one of the two following sentences&quot; 90 times. Some made sense, such as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Do you like to lead a group.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Do you like to fit in with a group.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But others I could not answer because I could not choose either option for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;You are slow at planning.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;You are slow at making decisions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have to answer one. In this case, I'd say that I am not slow in either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How exactly (detail) do these types of psychometric tests work? A link to an open one would be what I am looking for. How do they create the answers? How do they pair them? Do they change based on your previous answers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4006" OwnerDisplayName="Sam Leach" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-18T03:03:46.697" LastActivityDate="2015-04-02T22:27:44.553" Title="How do personality tests work that require you to choose one of two statement that applies most to you?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5152" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5151" CreationDate="2013-12-17T22:11:44.590" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The basic idea is that you get a sample population. Let's say you have 100 people. You give each of those a creativity rating through some process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Afterwards you give every person in the sample population a stack of questions. You run statistical tests to determine which of those questions correlate with someone being creative.  You keep all the questions that strongly correlate with your original creativity rating and throw questions that don't correlate away. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When making a test for a job application you also throw questions that seem to have &quot;correct&quot; answer and who therefore allow for cheating away. Alternatively you can also use those questions to determine the amount to which the test subject tries to game the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastActivityDate="2013-12-17T22:11:44.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5153" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-18T01:14:48.107" Score="5" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I make a bad decisions,  I feel regret. But why do I feel regret? What benefit do I, or does anybody, get when they feel regret? What is the benefit of regret for those regretting?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-18T04:40:56.717" LastActivityDate="2013-12-18T04:51:41.260" Title="Why do we feel regret?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5154" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5192" CreationDate="2013-12-18T03:05:29.580" Score="0" ViewCount="431" Body="&lt;p&gt;I previously asked about whether &lt;strong&gt;physics could explain the occurrences of the rogue waves which could psychology explain the eyewitnesses' perceptions of the Loch Ness monster?&lt;/strong&gt; (The &lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/90372/is-optical-illusion-responsible-for-loch-ness-monster&quot;&gt;Physics.SE question&lt;/a&gt; has been put on hold because not all of it is about physics.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rL4cC.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the psychological explanation for reports of Loch Ness monster?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Could it be related to the dark, undulating pattern under the crests of the white-caps?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt; You are walking along a country lane, when a sudden motion on the water catches your eye. Followed by the sound of a crashing wave. Within seconds, only ripples remain on the surface. You remember the image as shown above. It could be a white-cap on a wave, but everyone who has been to the beach knows that waves come in one-after-another, and there are no other waves, so it can't be a wave. You notice the darker area under the white-cap and realize the only possible explanation is: you have just seen a large animal dive under the surface. Like a sounding whale. (Or monster?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Loch Ness is located near a major fault line that has seismic activity. Physicists can explain that a wave created by seismic activity is a rogue wave or tsunami. They can also explain why the wave does not reach shore and, why the area under the white-cap is always darker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, could a collaboration between physics and psychology show this illusion is a possible explanation for Nessi?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4004" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T11:18:52.523" Title="Psychological explanation for perceptions of the Loch Ness monster" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5155" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5151" CreationDate="2013-12-18T03:21:43.333" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a large general literature evaluating the degree to which personality tests predict job performance. In particular see for example the review by Barrick et al (2001). In general such reviews find that personality measures provide a small but meaningful prediction of job performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Ipsative testing&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in general, you are asking about how personality tests work. But more specifically, you are asking about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipsative&quot;&gt;ipsative personality tests&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ipsative is a descriptor used in psychology to indicate a specific&#xA;  type of measure in which respondents compare two or more desirable&#xA;  options and pick the one that is most preferred (sometimes called a&#xA;  &quot;forced choice&quot; scale).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding your statement that you could not answer one of the questions, presumably the instructions asked you to indicate which statement applied most. Thus, it would be hoped that even if there were two statements that both applied to you a lot, or both applied a little, you would be able to indicate which applied more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For general scientific use where you can rely on people to answer honestly, researchers typically do not use ipsative testing. Ipsative testing generally distorts the correlations between subscales.However, ipsative tests is popular in applied settings such as in selection and recruitment. The argument is that ipsative testing reduces faking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Relevant references include:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heggestad et al (2006) interpreted their results to indicate that ipsative testing was not a viable method for controlling for faking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recent research suggests multidimensional forced-choice (MFC) response&#xA;  formats may provide resistance to purposeful response distortion on&#xA;  personality assessments. It remains unclear, however, whether these&#xA;  formats provide normative trait information required for selection&#xA;  contexts. The current research evaluated score correspondences between&#xA;  an MFC format measure and 2 Likert-type measures in honest and&#xA;  instructed-faking conditions. In honest response conditions, scores&#xA;  from the MFC measure appeared valid indicators of normative trait&#xA;  standing. Under faking conditions, the MFC measure showed less score&#xA;  inflation than the Likert measure at the group level of analysis. In&#xA;  the individual-level analyses, however, the MFC measure was as&#xA;  affected by faking as was the Likert measure. Results suggest the MFC&#xA;  format is not a viable method to control faking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, Bowen et al reached a more positive conclusion about ipsative testing and the degree to which it is faking-resistant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The current study extends previous research by comparing empirical&#xA;  data on ipsative and normative versions of the 30-scale Occupational&#xA;  Personality Questionnaire (OPQ). Participants were randomly assigned&#xA;  to “honest” or “faking” groups. Results support the proposition that&#xA;  when the number of scales is large, the measurement dependency problem&#xA;  associated with the ipsative format is negligible. There was&#xA;  satisfactory convergent validity between ipsative and normative forms&#xA;  in both groups. On both forms, the distance between an ideal profile&#xA;  and participants' ratings were narrower in the faking group than in&#xA;  the honest group. The results suggest that though ipsative measures&#xA;  were not completely free from faking, they were relatively more&#xA;  effective in guarding against faking than more commonly used normative&#xA;  measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meade (2004) discuss ipsative measurement more generally. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Data are described as ipsative if a given set of responses always sum&#xA;  to the same total. However, there are many properties of data&#xA;  collection that can give rise to different types of ipsative data. In&#xA;  this study, the most common type of ipsative data used in employee&#xA;  selection (forced-choice ipsative data; FCID) is discussed as a&#xA;  special case of other types of ipsative data. Although all ipsative&#xA;  data contains constraints on covariance matrices (covariance-level&#xA;  interdependence), FCID contains additional item-level&#xA;  interdependencies as well. The psychological processes that give rise&#xA;  to FCID and the resultant psychometric properties are discussed. In&#xA;  addition, data from which both normative and ipsative responses were&#xA;  provided by job applicants illustrate very different patterns of&#xA;  correlations as well as very different selection decisions between&#xA;  normative, FCID and ipsatized measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K., &amp;amp; Judge, T. A. (2001). Personality and performance at the beginning of the new millennium: what do we know and where do we go next?. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9(1‐2), 9-30. &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.175.8429&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bowen, C. C., Martin, B. A., &amp;amp; Hunt, S. T. (2002). A comparison of ipsative and normative approaches for ability to control faking in&#xA;personality questionnaires. International Journal of Organizational&#xA;Analysis, 10(3), 240-259.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heggestad, E. D., Morrison, M., Reeve, C. L., &amp;amp; McCloy, R. A. (2006). Forced-choice assessments of personality for selection:&#xA;Evaluating issues of normative assessment and faking resistance.&#xA;Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(1), 9.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Meade, A. W. (2004). Psychometric problems and issues involved with creating and using ipsative measures for selection. Journal of&#xA;Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(4), 531-551.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-12-18T03:21:43.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5156" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5153" CreationDate="2013-12-18T04:51:41.260" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gilovich and Medvec's (1995) article in Psychological Review is a good place to start reading about psychological theories of regret.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They discuss economic approaches which interpret anticipated regret as influencing current actions.  Thus, on a functional level, the desire to avoid regret could motivate us to make better decisions in the here and now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, many decisions do repeat in some form. Thus, the theory would be that we learn from our mistakes and by ruminating on our mistakes, we think about how we could do things differently in the future. Of course, this is a fairly adaptive response, and not all regret is this adaptive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, Gilovich and Medvec (1995) provide a good general summary of forces that reduce or increase the pain associated with regrettable actions both in relation to life long regrets and more short term regrets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gilovich, T., &amp;amp; Medvec, V. H. (1995). The experience of regret: what, when, and why. Psychological review, 102(2), 379. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.cornell.edu/sites/default/files/Gilo_%26_Medvec_95.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2013-12-18T04:51:41.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5157" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-18T06:46:02.060" Score="1" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books/about/Psychology_and_Life.html?id=E39WAAAAYAAJ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychology and Life&lt;/a&gt; (Chapter 1, 18th edition), the authors (Gerrig and Zimbardo) write that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to the psychodynamic perspective, behavior is driven, or&#xA;  motivated, by powerful inner forces. In this view, human actions stem&#xA;  from inherited instincts, biological drives, and attempts to resolve&#xA;  conflicts between personal needs and society’s demands. Deprivation&#xA;  states, physiological arousal, and conflicts provide the power for&#xA;  behavior just as coal fuels a steam locomotive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if these two lists &quot;match up.&quot; In other words:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;inherited instincts — deprivation states &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;biological drives — physiological arousal &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;attempts to resolve conflicts between personal needs and society’s demands — conflicts&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &quot;match up, I mean are they related as elements are in the following example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud's structural model of the psyche includes the id, the ego, and the superego, which relate to instinctual drives, the need to develop and maintain an organized and realistic perception of the world, and the internalization of cultural rules, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's this &quot;respectively&quot; part I'm focused on. Did the authors write those sentences with that sort of relationship in mind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3949" LastActivityDate="2013-12-18T13:27:36.073" Title="How are inherited instincts related to deprivation states?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5158" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9842" CreationDate="2013-12-18T08:39:27.247" Score="3" ViewCount="335" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do you know any research/survey results comparing how happy do people feel in marriage (after a few years) comparing marriages who lived together before marrying and living separately? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many studies into comparing divorce rate among spouses living or not living together before marrying, but I think it has a serious flaw - religious views can make couples still live together in marriage even though they feel unhappy. I think feeling happiness could be more interesting statistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is premarital cohabitation associated with later marital satisfaction?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4005" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-24T17:21:53.077" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T19:15:12.897" Title="Looking for happines in marriage survey according to living/not living together before marriage" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;love&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5159" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5157" CreationDate="2013-12-18T13:27:36.073" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, not really. In the first quote, deprivation states are mentioned separately from physiological arousal because &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.a2zpsychology.com/psychology_guide/motivation.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;homeostatic and nonhomeostatic motives for behaviour&lt;/a&gt; are often discussed as separate forces:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Homeostatic motives&lt;/strong&gt; include hunger, thirst, respiration, and&#xA;  excretion. They work to keep the body in a balanced internal state.&#xA;  The term homeostasis refers to the body's tendency to maintain such a&#xA;  balanced internal state. Many homeostatic motives are set in motion&#xA;  either by bodily deficits or bodily excesses. When the body needs&#xA;  water, for example, changes occur that cause thirst and motivate the&#xA;  person to seek something to drink. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nonhomeostatic motives&lt;/strong&gt; include sex, such activity as nest building,&#xA;  and curiosity about the environment. These motives are aroused by&#xA;  occasional forces. In the absence of such forces, nonhomeostatic&#xA;  motives may be inactive. In contrast, the needs for food, water, and&#xA;  air--homeostatic motives--have almost continuous influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first quote thus just acknowledges this distinction without discussing it further. Here, deprivation states refer to homeostatic motives and physiological arousal to non-homeostatic ones. Freud does not make this distinction when he discusses instinctual drives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2013-12-18T13:27:36.073" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5160" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-18T15:37:13.903" Score="6" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;What cognitive models of human imagination exist? How does the human imagine things that don't exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose I ask anyone to imagine himself climbing a mountain. He can't imagine that until he has some experience about mountaineering whether through a movie, documentary or some reading material and Wikipedia page on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Imagination&lt;/a&gt; says that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...without knowledge, imagination can not be developed...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If he has this experience he would be able to imagine himself climbing a mountain. Are there any theories that explain this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4007" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-21T17:49:45.277" LastActivityDate="2017-07-21T17:49:45.277" Title="What are some theories or cognitive models of human imagination?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5161" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-18T22:03:26.803" Score="2" ViewCount="508" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't met a person who wouldn't at least glance at a camera's lens from time to time when they're aware it's capturing an image or a video of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually creatures transmit a lot of information through their eyes and face, so it's natural for us to look at someone's eyes, but when we know cameras don't work like that, why do we still keep looking at them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="975" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-19T01:11:45.327" LastActivityDate="2013-12-19T01:11:45.327" Title="What makes us look into camera lens when we're being filmed?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-12-17T15:13:31.713" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5162" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5150" CreationDate="2013-12-18T22:58:51.467" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not sure I understand the refill example, and I do not have any empirical study in mind, but here is a classical fictitious  example drawn from Mas-Collel, Winsthon and Green, Microeconomics, which might be relevant to your question. The example is slightly far-fetched but I think it's good to get the idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose you want to choose a color to paint your bathroom. You go to two shops who have the same colors available but walk you through a different choice process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both shops have available colors number 1 and 20 in the following grid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pjH9m.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here comes the difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Shop 1&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The seller ask you whether you prefer color 1 to color 20. You are rather a green person so you say  &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$20\succ 1$&lt;/span&gt;, meaning you prefer 20 to 1. As a consequence, you chose color 20 for your bathroom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Shop 2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The seller still has only 1 and 20 available but walks you through a different process to elicit your preferences. He first asks you whether you prefer 1 to 2. Really, the difference is so small that you cannot see it, so you say &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1 \sim 2$&lt;/span&gt;, meaning that you are indifferent between 1 and 2. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then he asks you whether you prefer 2 to 3, and again you answer &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$2 \sim 3$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the process keeps unfolding, you eventually get to the point where your preferences are &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1 \sim 2 \sim 3 \sim \dots \sim 19 \sim 20$&lt;/span&gt;. So if you are consistent (i.e., if your preferences are &quot;transitive&quot;), you should admit that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1\sim 20$&lt;/span&gt;, that is you are indifferent between 1 and 20 and you might end up letting the seller chose for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now this argument is usually used to demonstrate that people preferences are &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; always transitive : &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1\sim 2$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$2\sim 3$&lt;/span&gt; does not always imply &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1 \sim 3$&lt;/span&gt;. In the shop example it makes little sense to claim  that you are really indifferent between 1 and 20. In fact, you really prefer green but you have been tricked by the progressiveness of the preference elicitation process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also consider other situations in which you would be tricked so subtly that you would not change you preference at the end of the choice process. Suppose I come in you bedroom every month and repaint it following the same pattern (from color 20 to 1), without you knowing it. Chances are you will not realize it, get use to the new color and end up claiming that you prefer the final color, although at the beginning of the repainting process you strictly preferred green to yellow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess this is a common strategy in marketing. Not so long ago, Mc Donalds steadily changed the background of their logo from red to green. They could have done this all at once, in a week say. But they did not. They changed the background color of some restaurant first, and others later. My impression is that they purposely spread the repainting process in order to get people used to the new green color. The likely outcome of such spreading is that some people who were initially disgusted by the new green color steadily started wondering how they ever liked the red background in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4008" LastEditorUserId="4008" LastEditDate="2019-01-10T20:32:42.240" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T20:32:42.240" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5163" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-18T23:30:04.117" Score="8" ViewCount="306" Body="&lt;p&gt;As someone that works troubleshooting stuff, I've seen a surprising amount of people that, when confronted with messages, warnings and errors, tend to seek help fast (or early in the process) in the hope someone will understand what their problem is, rather than reading the error and searching directly for a solution, or solving what they did wrong independently. To illustrate this, consider an example (I'm not sure if this captures the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/qi#Noun&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;qi&lt;/a&gt; of the problem, but here it goes):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;User $A$ performs a certain action that leads to the current error/warning/message:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;Error: your input was greater than two, please use $X$ tool when input is greater than two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the user is presented with an error message, there are 4 things that could happen:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;User comes back and uses the correct tool.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;User tries again until frustrated.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;User tries again until frustrated and seeks help.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;User tries again until frustrated, seeks help and doesn't get it. The user either figures out the message or just leaves things as they are.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: why do endings &lt;code&gt;2&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;3&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; happen? Is the message too difficult for some people to understand, or do they believe they are not wrong and the tool should do what they want or the message should be more calling (IN CAPS or &lt;strong&gt;bold&lt;/strong&gt;)? Do people ignore seemingly perfectly crafted messages? Or have we learned to ignore them, given all the &lt;em&gt;media&lt;/em&gt; with which we are bombarded?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4009" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-23T18:29:40.157" LastActivityDate="2020-06-04T23:54:54.697" Title="Is ignoring messages a learned behavior?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;hci&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5164" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5163" CreationDate="2013-12-19T03:22:21.083" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if this an answerable question but I &lt;strong&gt;KNOW&lt;/strong&gt; exactly what you're taking about. I think much of it can be attributed to how humans learn new things. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People need to be reassured that the process, methods, and results they're getting are correct. When doing something for the first time yourself you need this feedback. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I tend to attribute this behavior as a manifestation of this. Until a person has been properly grounded in something, their confidence in their own ability and performance of a set of tasks is low. Only with feedback from other humans that they're doing it correctly, does ones confidence rise to a point where they no longer need the affirmation/reaffirmation from others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4011" LastActivityDate="2013-12-19T03:22:21.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5165" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5197" CreationDate="2013-12-19T08:59:42.717" Score="4" ViewCount="212" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't slept for a day, but feel fine. It is sometimes assumed that one needs 8 hours of sleep each night, but I think this is sometimes not true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it okay to get no sleep one night and then 8-9 hours sleep the next night, as long as it only happens occasionally (e.g., once a month)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3451" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-22T02:14:45.590" LastActivityDate="2014-04-22T02:14:45.590" Title="Do you need sleep every night?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5166" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4243" CreationDate="2013-12-19T13:33:53.530" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a famous Ted talk on the topic of fairness, by Frans de Waal. It does not really address the question of whether the moral of fairness is universal across &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; species, but makes a very interesting case that fairness might be &quot;universal&quot; across primates at least:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/frans_de_waal_do_animals_have_morals.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ted.com/talks/frans_de_waal_do_animals_have_morals.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4008" LastActivityDate="2013-12-19T13:33:53.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5167" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-19T14:10:57.487" Score="5" ViewCount="301" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.currentpsychiatry.com/index.php?id=22661&amp;amp;tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=169044&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fairly&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.psychcentral.com/nlp/2013/12/early-life-stress-makes-you-susceptible-to-chronic-physical-pain-and-depression/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;well&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://bbrfoundation.org/discoveries/childhood-trauma-what-role-does-it-play-in-depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;documented&lt;/a&gt; that childhood trauma (such as chronic illness) can lay the neurochemical groundwork for conditions like depression later in life. A paper, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18602762&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The link between childhood trauma and depression: insights from HPA axis studies in humans&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We here summarize results from a series of clinical studies suggesting that childhood trauma in humans is associated with sensitization of the neuroendocrine stress response, glucocorticoid resistance, increased central corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) activity, immune activation, and reduced hippocampal volume, closely paralleling several of the neuroendocrine features of depression. &lt;strong&gt;Neuroendocrine changes secondary to early-life stress likely reflect risk to develop depression in response to stress&lt;/strong&gt;, potentially due to failure of a connected neural circuitry implicated in emotional, neuroendocrine and autonomic control to compensate in response to challenge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2169505/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Late Consequences of Pediatric Chronic Illness&quot;&lt;/a&gt; has some related findings too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in what &lt;em&gt;psychological&lt;/em&gt; groundwork might be also laid by early life stress such as childhood illness, also contributing to the development of mental health conditions. For example, I've read of cases where chronic childhood pain may cause the patient to have an unhealthily high acceptance (not tolerance) of stress as an adult, meaning they persist in stressful situations where others would not. They've learned that pain is to be accepted and worked through to an extent beyond which many would think reasonable, and this may lead to stress related illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any other maladaptive behaviours, cognitive distortions or similar that commonly occur in adults who experienced chronic childhood illness?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Also interested in evidence related to my anecdotal example.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT (31st Dec 2013):&lt;/strong&gt; Thanks to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/3832/caseyr547&quot;&gt;caseyr547&lt;/a&gt; for &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5217/3854&quot;&gt;his answer&lt;/a&gt;. To clarify, I'm particularly interested in answers using the behavioural, cognitive and psychodynamic models, as opposed to the biological or stress-vulnerability models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3854" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T17:13:55.377" Title="What maladaptive behaviours or cognitive distortions develop as a result of chronic childhood illness?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5168" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-20T08:10:41.343" Score="5" ViewCount="503" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's take a picture of apples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/I0Y3Y.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there experiments conducted that study the distribution of the following answers to the question &quot;How many apples are on this picture?&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Very little&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Little&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Normal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Many&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lots of&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, of course, this specific picture doesn't matter, but this &lt;em&gt;type&lt;/em&gt; of questions is important for many applications, like in surveys, when people rate things on subjective scales, so that in particular situations we can compare neither across questions with the same scale nor across persons answered the same question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, think of 360-degree surveys when a person rates himself and is rated by others, so to compare in the end the two ratings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4020" LastEditorUserId="4020" LastEditDate="2013-12-20T08:35:27.600" LastActivityDate="2014-02-12T04:07:38.820" Title="How do people perceive subjective scales?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5170" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5168" CreationDate="2013-12-20T10:12:09.440" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd narrow this question: how people perceive different things in different situations (as well as set of things is narrowly specified). Because there is no simple answer - it is a cognitive function of the state in the states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for that picture (or similar), when I'm hungry I tend to see &lt;em&gt;little&lt;/em&gt; apples (cause driven by the instincts I'm worring about me to be not satisfied) so when I had a king-size meal I'd say &lt;em&gt;a lot&lt;/em&gt; when looking at that basket.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3446" LastActivityDate="2013-12-20T10:12:09.440" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5171" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5168" CreationDate="2013-12-20T12:27:10.007" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Well, of course, this specific picture doesn't matter, but this type&#xA;  of questions is important for many applications, like in surveys, when&#xA;  people rate things on subjective scales, so that &lt;strong&gt;in particular&#xA;  situations we can compare neither across questions with the same scale&#xA;  nor across persons answered the same question&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But we can, and do. Note that the point is not really to assess how many apples there are based on subjective answers. Usually the point is to see whether the type of people who say that there are many apples are also the type that will say something else (e.g. that the sky is blue). You are just looking for a relationship in the way a person answers different types of questions, and whether there are some general patterns that people follow when doing this. Then you go on to conclude something very general (and bold) about people, for example that they can be divided into optimists and pessimists. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually tests like this explain very little variance in actual behaviour, so there is a lot of measurement noise - and a large part of it stems from subjectivity. But still there may be some patterns underneath all this noise, and those are of interest to psychologists.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note also that you would probably not get just one question aiming to measure one construct. If the construct is ability to discern amounts of apples, you would get a series of questions with pictures. In this case, you would go through a process of scaling based on the pictures you saw: you'd say there are many apples on the pictures that show the most apples in the series, and few on pictures that show the fewest. So your subjective inner scale adjusts to the scale presented to you. This takes away some measurement noise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2013-12-20T12:27:10.007" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5172" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-20T14:59:29.747" Score="2" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is something I recall from a class on human perception: vision is based on &quot;movement&quot; or change in what hits receptors, so if your eyes were perfectly still you couldn't see, but always-present minor head movements are enough to allow you to see even when objects and you are &quot;still&quot;, or at least what is perceived as still.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is this true? I kept google searching but couldn't find a formal source for this, but I'm not sure if I'm simply missing the term to search for. I also can't find my textbook which, I assume, covered this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19" LastActivityDate="2013-12-21T13:46:18.360" Title="Is all vision based on movement?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5175" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-21T10:33:50.967" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I feel that if I have unsweetened tea, it has a stronger hit. i.e. it is more stimulating than a similar cup of tea in which some sugar has been added. I can say the same about coffee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it just me or is it something which is commonly perceived? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a biochemical basis for this feeling or is it psychological due to the slight bitter taste?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4027" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-23T17:32:12.397" LastActivityDate="2013-12-23T17:32:12.397" Title="Is unsweetened tea 'stronger' than sweetened tea" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-12-10T09:47:30.490" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5176" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5172" CreationDate="2013-12-21T12:56:02.190" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;No.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certainly, in case of artificial vision we know that useful information can be derived from stagnant stimulus on the receptors. Where upon the spatial density of the receptor elements is uniform across the sensor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saccadic eye movements make up for the fact that the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cis.rit.edu/people/faculty/montag/vandplite/pages/chap_9/ch9p1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;receptor density&lt;/a&gt; especially for color vision falls off sharply as the angle of view increases. So we can view color and sharp detail in a very small field of view. But, intuitively, within this cone developed minds do perceive detail and color since they have special neural connections that can fire if details such as edges of certain angles and thicknesses fall upon them. Also, intuitively, outside of the field of view receptors should be able to perceive details low in spatial frequency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quick google on 'vision without saccadic eye movements' revealed &lt;a href=&quot;http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/gilchrist%20%281997%29%20saccades%20without%20eye%20movements.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; paper which mentions a subject without the ability to move her eyes, who could read with amazing ease. However, she used her head movements to make up for it. One way to know a real answer to your literal unqualified question would be to do an experiment with such a subject and see what she can perceive without head movements. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One other way to see it is mentioned on chap11, page4 from the book referred in the first link in my post:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Zihl, et al. (1983), reported a patient who had a stroke that damaged a particular region homologous to area MT (MT is in the monkey brain). This patient could no longer see motion although her vision was otherwise normal. This is known as motion agnosia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certainly we are not born with developed visual neural pathways and how changing stimuli and feedback help us develop them with time is being studied actively such as in &lt;em&gt;Project Prakash&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4027" LastEditorUserId="4027" LastEditDate="2013-12-21T13:46:18.360" LastActivityDate="2013-12-21T13:46:18.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5178" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5255" CreationDate="2013-12-22T06:24:50.560" Score="3" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;In family psychology are there any normal (not abnormal) reasons to give up and cut off communication with your child (adult or otherwise)? I would think it would be rational to have a closed adoption of a baby and communication might need to stop if the child presents a constant danger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2013-12-24T04:07:54.313" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T19:34:54.723" Title="What are some psychologically normal reasons for a parent to reject their child?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5179" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5286" CreationDate="2013-12-22T09:50:19.857" Score="1" ViewCount="1016" Body="&lt;p&gt;In business classes we are told to be responsible and take responsibility for our action. Get mugged? Well, lock your door next time. That sort of thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But that's not how most humans behave. Humans blame others for their mistakes and problems they could have prevented. Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the benefit of blaming others compared to taking responsibility?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2013-12-23T05:45:52.047" LastActivityDate="2014-01-04T05:12:03.300" Title="Why do people blame others rather than take responsibility?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;attribution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5180" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-22T14:27:22.993" Score="4" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder if it's known how &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;time perception&lt;/a&gt; works at the fundamental level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, to count accurately a minute/hour, do we have to keep track of the time passed counting in our minds or observing our enviroment? In the same way we can't know how much distance we've really travelled if there is no reference frame, if we were totally isolated, would we measure time accurately?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or we could have some &lt;em&gt;internal clock&lt;/em&gt; which helps us to measure time. I think that one problem to test this is that things like hunger, sleep, etc. could also work as clocks, so we can't be totally isolated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Richard Feynman though that every person could count a minute with some error, but the error will always be the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3371" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T23:17:25.883" Title="What is the mechanism behind time perception?" Tags="&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5183" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4243" CreationDate="2013-12-23T08:28:42.803" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can think of a view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Love toward ones' offspring. That's pretty universal.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not harming others, especially those that can hit back. Lions don't attack stronger lions. Weaker chimps obey stronger chimps. Peasants obey their tyrants while both self deceive themselves that it's for some higher purposes. Basically both sides realize that mutually assured destruction sucks that both choose the higher road.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastActivityDate="2013-12-23T08:28:42.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5184" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5191" CreationDate="2013-12-23T12:11:21.907" Score="0" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an objective question even though the example I have mentioned below is subjective.  Is this a universal phenomenon, or is it only something that I have perceived?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scenario1:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Event:&lt;/em&gt; This person has either done a good job or asked a good question during meetings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;His/Her Mind reading:&lt;/em&gt; He/She feels that everybody are impressed with the job done or  with the question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Reaction:&lt;/em&gt; He/She feels a sense of worth, feel good, also feel better because of sense of job security etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scenario2:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Event:&lt;/em&gt; This person has fail to do a job or done it but not upto the expectation or didn't raised questions or actively participated in meetings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;His/Her Mind reading:&lt;/em&gt; Afraid that his/her manager or others might feel that this person is not having the potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Reaction:&lt;/em&gt; He/She feels lack of confidence, anxiety, depression because of job security, feeling miserable about herself/himself, fear that he/she may lose the job.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to know the root cause of this thought process and what clinical methods are used to resolve it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3879" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-12-24T04:30:49.930" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T10:23:20.040" Title="Why does one's mind swing between different moods based on external circumstances?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5185" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5168" CreationDate="2013-12-23T23:45:00.463" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I understand you correctly, you are trying to learn about good practice in designing studies involving subjective scales? Then getting actual answers to such surveys might not be very helpful. You might rather want to know the impact of your survey design and the answering-environment on the answers of the respondent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are broad questions. Neither do I have the expertise nor the space to give you comprehensive answers here. Some suggestions though. As far as study design is concerned, you may want to consult &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.be/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=pLIDVtNMkbQC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=survey%20methodology&amp;amp;ots=OorpTbyPPw&amp;amp;sig=pj2k58x_2sD7KZ7Eqdj2rBhpqhY#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Survey Methodology&lt;/a&gt;. In particular, section 5.3.5 deals with the implications of the type of scales used as possible answers. In fact, any other Survey Methodology textbook should cover this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of experiments also study the impact of social environment on perceptions and the construction of subjective opinions. Among others, Solomon Asch is a pioneer of experimental investigations of subjective perception. His most famous experiment is related to the conformity effect. He shows that people tend to conform to the perception of the group they are put in, even when this goes against strong visual evidences, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FnT2FcuZaYI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FnT2FcuZaYI&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another famous experiment, Asch studied the &quot;recency&quot; and the &quot;primacy&quot; effect. The subject of the experiment where enumerated a list of personality traits (generous, peaceful, wise, mean,...) and subsequently asked to described the person. Asch question was whether, in describing the fictitious individual, people would rely more heavily on the first enumerated traits (the &quot;primacy&quot; effect), or would rather focus on the last ones they where presented (the &quot;recency&quot; effect). Asch results tend to show a dominance of the &quot;primacy&quot; effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, it would be too long to present a list of the numerous experiments and theoretical attempt to grasp perceptions mechanisms here. The literature is broad but the topic is classical. If you read french, it is notably covered in chapter two of &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.be/books?id=Kh8XbzGsPJYC&amp;amp;lpg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=psychologie%20sociale%20yzerbyt&amp;amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=psychologie%20sociale%20yzerbyt&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Psychologie Sociale&quot; by Jacques-Philippe Leyens and Vincent Yzerbyt&lt;/a&gt;, but it should be covered in any good (social) psychology textbook. Unless you have a more specific question, this might be the right way to start learning about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4008" LastEditorUserId="4008" LastEditDate="2014-02-12T04:07:38.820" LastActivityDate="2014-02-12T04:07:38.820" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5187" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5219" CreationDate="2013-12-24T01:01:58.093" Score="3" ViewCount="301" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that a newborn (3 days or less) can mimic facial expressions such as tongue protrusion and head movement. This means that the child can detect faces, segment various parts of face like tongue, associate it with its own tongue and similarly detect its head, determine its position with respect to the shoulders and relate it to its own head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I correct in concluding that a newborn's vision is much more advanced than state of art computer vision?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4040" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-12-24T04:33:37.430" LastActivityDate="2013-12-27T11:39:50.833" Title="What are the visual cognitive abilities of a new born?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5191" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5184" CreationDate="2013-12-24T10:12:19.433" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Abnormal psychology is a tricky thing. You did not give us enough information to determine accurately which disorder you might be referring to. The reactions you describe sound rational: a pattern of responding with a positive emotion to positive experiences and negatively to negative experiences. Mental illness can be thought of as extremes of normal emotions for the sake of this discussion so what really matters is how frequent and proportionately the emotion was to the stimuli. It is normal to feel sad when you fail at a task and when more major events happen in life it is normal to absolutely grieve for a short time. At a point the response becomes abnormal (it interferes with normal life tasks or the correct response is is repressed) and can be treated by medication and therapy by a psychiatrist and/or psychologist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The person you describe might be perfectly normal needing no treatment. They might have ADD with depressive features which is treated with dopamine receptors enhancers like Aderall. I think every working person on the planet would like ADD medication as they are a performance enhancing drug however the side effects make them unsuitable for all people. They might be bipolar which is treated with mood stabilizers like lithium and anti-psychotics like zyprexa. They might just be depressed which is treated by anti-axiety/depressive medication like celexa an SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor). Maybe even some kind of performance Obsessive Compulsive Disorder which is treated with anti-anxiety medications or anti-psychotics sometimes. Maybe their poor performance was caused by poor quality or quantity of sleep and a sedative like Ambien is used the treat the insomnia. I'm sure there are a whole host of other illnesses and treatments that might fit the profile you describe and it is impossible to know without more information and a doctor's diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Talk therapy treatments are more diverse than drug treatments. With many different combinations helping various illnesses. Common treatments include Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT), Psychodynamic, Individual or Group counseling. Each practitioner implements talk therapy differently following a general guideline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2013-12-24T10:23:20.040" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T10:23:20.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5192" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5154" CreationDate="2013-12-24T11:18:52.523" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_mentality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Herd mentality&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hallucinations&lt;/a&gt; can explain many things like the Loch Ness monster, ware wolves, vampires and ghosts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hallucinations involve sensing things while awake that appear to be real, but instead have been created by the mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extreme emotional states can cause &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychosis&lt;/a&gt; which leads to hallucinations and delusions and other thoughts which are removed from reality. Many things can stir an otherwise normal person into a frenzy which then provides the vulnerability for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychosis&lt;/a&gt;. Then at the sight of wave their imagination is more real than what their eyes see and the image of a monster is imprinted in their memory. If the monster is attacking them or something else it might be an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrusive_thoughts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;intrusive thought&lt;/a&gt; as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After the initial hallucination the story is repeated and herd mentality will cause others to experience something similar at the sight of the wave. As more people experience the sighting it becomes more popular continuing and expanding the myth. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T11:18:52.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5193" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-24T13:15:13.693" Score="5" ViewCount="690" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is getting the hiccups sometimes related to our mental condition, i.e., stress level, etc?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4041" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-12-24T14:22:54.033" LastActivityDate="2014-02-01T20:13:15.960" Title="Is there a psychological basis for getting hiccups?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5194" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5472" CreationDate="2013-12-24T13:31:30.533" Score="10" ViewCount="556" Body="&lt;p&gt;In some spiritual premises, the &lt;strong&gt;soul&lt;/strong&gt; is said to belong to the Almighty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Religions (Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism) all talk about cleansing our inner being because only when it's pure, its actual purpose is served.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But modern science gives evidence that most of the &lt;strong&gt;sentiments&lt;/strong&gt; have a &lt;strong&gt;neurological&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;psychological&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;physical&lt;/strong&gt; basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then does this narrow down the concept of the soul (if science opines that it exists at all) to just the &lt;strong&gt;element&lt;/strong&gt; within us that binds all life together?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some beliefs that stem out of the concept of soul:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Soul decides who we love (our soul mates)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Soul guides us when we are stuck in deciding whether something is moral or immoral&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Soul is essentially linked to how we live our life&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;E.g., goodness cleanses our soul, and hatred sullies the soul, and so on.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do such beliefs have any relevance in the scientific world where everything good or bad is more or less a &lt;strong&gt;hormone&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;environmental adaptation&lt;/strong&gt; or some other &lt;strong&gt;scientific phenomenon&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do any &lt;strong&gt;scientific&lt;/strong&gt; theories &lt;strong&gt;support&lt;/strong&gt; the existence of a higher form of sacred energy, i.e. &lt;strong&gt;soul&lt;/strong&gt; within us that guides us to a more meaningful existence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3747" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-05T18:37:25.347" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T20:48:59.500" Title="Can scientific evidence support concepts of the soul?" Tags="&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;love&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5196" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-24T13:58:56.507" Score="7" ViewCount="2099" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do humans (other living things too, but not sure) scream and make high pitched sounds when in pain&lt;sup&gt;* &lt;/sup&gt; or when in fear that something painful&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; will imminently be inflicted upon them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;* &lt;/sup&gt; both physical and emotional.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-12-24T14:23:42.597" LastActivityDate="2018-10-31T21:05:37.607" Title="Why do we scream in pain and fear?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5197" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5165" CreationDate="2013-12-24T18:41:19.950" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's why people need to sleep:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain does its &quot;cleaning up&quot; during sleep. As cells in the nervous system are active, waste products are produced. In the rest of the body, waste removal is carried out by the lymphatic system, but this system does not extend to the brain. Instead, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) must be pumped through the brain tissue in order to flush waste back into the circulatory system where it can be excreted by the liver. Pumping CSF seems to require a great deal of energy, and researchers speculate that this energy expenditure is incompatible with the intense metabolic demands of brain cells during wakefulness. Also, cells in the brain shrink considerably during sleep, resulting in a 60% increase in interstitial space which allows CSF to wash more freely through the brain tissue. The consequence is significantly faster clearance of neurotoxic waste (e.g., β-amyloid). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6156/373&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6156/373&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/4/147/147ra111&quot;&gt;http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/4/147/147ra111&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4044" LastEditorUserId="4044" LastEditDate="2013-12-24T23:57:34.730" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T23:57:34.730" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5198" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5110" CreationDate="2013-12-24T18:53:19.480" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. The best reviews are done circumscribed to certain areas of focus, like disorder. For example, here is a study that examines the comparative efficacy of all &quot;bona fide&quot; treatments for trauma (e.g., prolonged exposure, EMDR, cognitive therapy, etc): &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18055080&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18055080&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also wider comparisons, but these are fraught with controversy. Lester Luborsky and colleagues performed one of the first comparative studies in 1975. Their conclusions were that there were few significant differences between in outcomes across different therapies. This became known as the Dodo Bird Effect: &quot;Everybody has won and all must have prizes.&quot; You can read more about this here, and also find the long list of comparative studies that have been produced ever since: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodo_bird_verdict&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodo_bird_verdict&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4044" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T18:53:19.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5199" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5201" CreationDate="2013-12-24T20:44:30.133" Score="17" ViewCount="9834" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, I've come across two different forgetting curve equations.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$R = e^{-\large \frac{t}{s}}$$ where $R$ is retention, $t$ is time and $s$ is strength can be found on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetting_curve&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;. And $$b = \frac{100k}{c\log(t) +k}$$ where $b$ is retention, $t$ is time, $k = 1.48$ and $c = 1.25$, can be found in &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/memory7.htm&quot;&gt;Ebbinghaus's study chapter 7&lt;/a&gt;.  I've also seen it &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ideationizing.com/2009/06/brief-synopsis-of-long-history-of.html&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=ePBfcz7dnuwC&amp;amp;pg=PA197&amp;amp;lpg=PA197&amp;amp;dq=1.84%20and%201.25,%20ebbinghaus&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=usfbEh0puj&amp;amp;sig=4EkyYh6jcrXNkACoruxcS5azjwo&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=seu5UqbnCojlsASQ-YKwCw&amp;amp;ved=0CFEQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=1.84%20and%201.25,%20ebbinghaus&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;here also.&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My first question is which forgetting curve is correct?  And if both or the latter is, where did the constants $k$ or $c$ come from?  What do they represent?    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3989" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-30T22:28:30.190" LastActivityDate="2016-07-25T12:09:29.510" Title="Which equation is Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve and what do the constants represent?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5200" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5180" CreationDate="2013-12-24T23:17:25.883" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several mechanisms for time perception that depend on the task performed (counting, judging prospectively, retrospectively) as well as on the duration of the interval to be judged (duration perception for 1s intervals works differently from 1minute or 1 year). Overall the idea you advance of multiple mechanisms is well accepted. This is just a link to an article just published on the matter.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=your-brain-has-two-clocks&amp;amp;utm_source=feedburner&amp;amp;utm_medium=feed&amp;amp;utm_campaign=Feed%3A+sciam%2Fpsychology+%28Topic%3A+Psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=your-brain-has-two-clocks&amp;amp;utm_source=feedburner&amp;amp;utm_medium=feed&amp;amp;utm_campaign=Feed%3A+sciam%2Fpsychology+%28Topic%3A+Psychology%29&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps if you could be more precise in your question and restrict your domain it will be much easier to answer about the neural foundations you are looking for&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4046" LastActivityDate="2013-12-24T23:17:25.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5201" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5199" CreationDate="2013-12-25T02:08:34.487" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question &lt;em&gt;which of these two descriptions is correct?&lt;/em&gt; is perhaps natural in the context of, say, someone studying for an examination. Epistemologists might suggest that a better formulation would be is &lt;em&gt;either&lt;/em&gt; of these  correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as stated here there are clear reasons for preferring the first formulation to the second. I shall first explain why, and then attempt to reconstruct a more useful form for the second approach. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By substituting the value $t=0$, a time value (however the time variable is scaled) at which we would expect retention to be a maximum, we obtain:&#xA;$$ R_0 = 1 \\&#xA;b_0 = 0&#xA;$$&#xA;Another peculiarity of the second equation is that if $T=0.4297...$ we have:&#xA;$$&#xA;b_T = \pm \infty&#xA;$$&#xA;The latter is shorthand for the fact that as $t$ approaches $T$ from below then $b_t \rightarrow -\infty$, whilst $b$ then flips to $+\infty$ as soon as $t \gt T$ and thereafter decreases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The factor of $100$ in the numerator of the fraction in equation $2$ suggests this was intended to be adapted to percentage correct, and should be dropped to make the two formulations more easily comparable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The least changed version of eq. $2$ which makes some kind of sense would be:&#xA;$$ R_t = \frac1{1 + a \; ln(1+ \lambda t)}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This yields $R_0 = 1$, whilst $R_t$ is now a convex, strictly decreasing function of $t$. Surely both of these features are desiderata for &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; expression for retention. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that now (what we may term) model $1$ ($M1$) is a 1-parameter model, whereas $M2$ has two parameters, which might be preferred for an empirical data-fitting exercise. Both models have a linear approximation for small values of the time variable, namely:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$ (M1) \; \; \; R_t = 1 -\frac{t}{s} $$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$(M2)  \; \; \;  R_t = 1 - a \lambda t $$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So that we require $ \frac1s = a \lambda$ for compatibility. This suggests that a more useful form of $M2$, retaining the &lt;em&gt;strength&lt;/em&gt; factor from the first model, is:&#xA;$$ R_t = \frac1{1 + \frac1{\lambda s} ln(1 + \lambda t)}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where now $\lambda$ is clearly seen to be a &lt;em&gt;scaling factor&lt;/em&gt; which must be applied to both variables, time and strength. This is perhaps a slight conceptual clarification, since the intervening variable &lt;em&gt;strength&lt;/em&gt; is shown to be &lt;em&gt;dimensionally equivalent to time&lt;/em&gt;. A strong memory is one that lasts for years, whereas, with the possible exception of the type of mnemonist studied by Professor Luria, few of Ebbinghaus' experimental subjects would retain any memory of his deliberately unmemorable nonsense syllables after the passage of more than a few weeks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This observation also has a bearing on experimental methodology. Some nonsense syllables might be more memorable for a given subject - for example if, by chance, the syllable happened to match the subject's own initials etc. Such effects should, however, merely contribute a small addition of random noise to the experimental data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4047" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2016-07-25T12:09:29.510" LastActivityDate="2016-07-25T12:09:29.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5202" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5194" CreationDate="2013-12-25T02:43:37.267" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Science has not found a soul but it will never be able to disprove the existence of a soul because it would be non-material. Instead we can look at the nature of sentience and at some point in the future it will be well understood. We are unable to ascertain the exact functionality of sentience and the nature of emotions based on a purely materialistic view point at this time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2013-12-25T02:43:37.267" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5204" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5194" CreationDate="2013-12-25T03:52:30.730" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;one difficulty with our current conception of &lt;em&gt;soul&lt;/em&gt; is shown by the ease with which we use this word with possessive pronouns. if I say &lt;em&gt;my&lt;/em&gt; soul, or &lt;em&gt;her&lt;/em&gt; soul, then this seem to imply a relation of belonging or ownership. but what (or who) is it that the soul &lt;em&gt;belongs&lt;/em&gt; to? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the same question can, for that matter, be asked about the body. if I refer to &lt;em&gt;my body&lt;/em&gt;, who or what is the owner of this body? when we speak like this we can hardly be intending to imply that the body belongs &lt;em&gt;to itself&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;of course there are many uses of the word &lt;em&gt;soul&lt;/em&gt; which are less problematic. terms like &lt;em&gt;soul music&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;soulful eyes&lt;/em&gt;, or expressions like &lt;em&gt;with all my heart and soul&lt;/em&gt; may be explained without raising the spectre of arcane problems of ontology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;on the other hand when I say, in a non-metaphorical sense &lt;em&gt;my shadow&lt;/em&gt; then even though shadows themselves are rather tricky things to interpret as material objects, I do mean &lt;em&gt;the shadow of this body&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in view of these kind of reasonings, it may well be that at our current level of development the most productive ways of thinking about what we mean by the word &lt;em&gt;soul&lt;/em&gt; will be found in the use of analogy or metaphor. for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;the soul is to the body as meaning is to the sequence of words making up a sentence&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;the soul is to the body as a Schrodinger wave is to the proton, electron or quark whose behaviour it directs&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;such metaphors can hardly be completely satisfying as explanations, but they do allow us to engage our intuition in a creative way with the question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;as a student of mathematics I am partially familiar with a whole world of things which are both absolutely definite and completely non-material - for example the wonderful number $\pi$ or the mysterious square roots of minus one. in the unique 4-space of quaternions, discovered by Sir William Hamilton, the unit sphere in the 3-space of pure quaternions is made up entirely of square roots of minus one, whilst the existence of this unique hypernumeric realm seems the most satisfying &quot;explanation&quot; I have found for the fact that the world of our experience has three dimensions of space and one dimension of time. it also demonstrates quite clearly that time is &lt;em&gt;real&lt;/em&gt; and space &lt;em&gt;imaginary&lt;/em&gt;, (which of course is only a manner of speaking, yet one which physicists have taken great trouble to suppress). now there have been very materialistic philosophers who have made the ridiculous claim that mathematics is simply the result of human neural activity. these dull souls are immune to the celestial harmony expressed in remarkable &lt;em&gt;truths&lt;/em&gt; such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$ \frac{\pi}4 = 1 - \frac13 +\frac15 - \frac17 + \frac19 - \dots$$ &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or the infinite product expression demonstrated by John Wallis in 1655:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$ \frac{2^2.4^2.6^2.8^2...}{\pi} = \frac{1^2.3^2.5^2.7^2...}2 $$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;finally, as a musician, I am wholly in agreement with Frederic Chopin's opinion that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;the sustain pedal is the soul of the piano&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4047" LastEditorUserId="4047" LastEditDate="2013-12-25T04:22:15.970" LastActivityDate="2013-12-25T04:22:15.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5206" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5196" CreationDate="2013-12-25T13:13:03.180" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As every evolved mechanism, scream must give some advances over non screamers. The most important are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;signal to other beings that they've hurt other being able to use violence in self protection&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;signal the danger to other group members, sharing the same genes&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;signal the danger to parents, which will come to rescue the child&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2550" LastActivityDate="2013-12-25T13:13:03.180" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5208" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-25T22:19:41.303" Score="5" ViewCount="205" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently watch &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JHIi8KwtFlY&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Steven Pinker's video&lt;/a&gt; on violence and figured out that I don't understand the difference between violence and aggression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Wikipedia aggression is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Aggression, in its broadest sense, is behavior, or a disposition, &#xA;      that is forceful, hostile or attacking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and for Violence they use the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WHO's&lt;/a&gt; definition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, &#xA;  against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, &#xA;  which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, &#xA;  death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At first sight it seemed that the difference could be intentionality, i.e., aggression has intentionality attached to it and violence doesn't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the WHO's report linked says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The definition used by the WHO associates intentionality with the committing of the act itself, irrespective of the outcome it produces&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the difference is not all that clear to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4050" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-26T15:55:32.763" LastActivityDate="2015-08-27T07:36:44.470" Title="From a psychosocial standpoint, how is violence different from aggression?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5211" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5221" CreationDate="2013-12-26T10:30:30.313" Score="0" ViewCount="254" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like to know the differences in the objectives of those fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4054" LastEditorUserId="4054" LastEditDate="2014-01-07T11:33:20.310" LastActivityDate="2014-01-07T11:33:20.310" Title="Difference between the strong-AI (AGI) and cognitive science" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2014-01-06T10:41:59.550" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5212" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1993" CreationDate="2013-12-26T13:53:18.663" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alex, the following few remarks hardly deserve the status of an answer, but I think your interesting question, taken with with Greg's pertinent rider, makes it worth sharing a couple of ideas, even at the risk of downvotes from the type of churls and trolls I have already become familiar with on math stack exchange.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;really I just want to relate your question to a couple of other well-known phenomena in our mental life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;firstly, I have occasionally thought that there is a curious analogy between the sufferings related to grief (whether through bereavement or various forms of traumatic separation - e.g. at adoption, or in certain cases of asymmetric relationship breakdown) and the discomfort sometimes experienced after surgical or traumatic amputation known in the literature as &lt;em&gt;phantom limbs&lt;/em&gt;. personally I think this analogy tends to support some form of the hypothesis you propose regarding internal representations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Greg's question is useful: how can one distinguish such internal representations from memories? of course it all depends what is meant by &lt;em&gt;memory&lt;/em&gt;. so your question could, if necessary, be rephrased as a question about certain high-level &lt;em&gt;structural&lt;/em&gt; aspects of memory and perception. in this context it is also worth noting that the same type of things we call self-awareness, recognition of others, and grief, have been attributed to non-human animals, particularly some species of mammals and birds. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;my personal academic study of psychology took place in the early 1970's. this was an interesting time, because the intellectual bankruptcy of the still-dominant behavioristic paradigm had recently become very apparent due to its utter inadequacy to provide a basis for any but the most trivial aspects of psycholinguistics. in consequence there was a growing enthusiasm for the investigation of generative grammars and the complementary idea of species-specific biological bases for the deep structures which underlie complex aspects of perception, memory and cognition. this shift in paradigm was contemporary with a similar refocusing of interest in anthropology, which was part of a wider shift towards an approach which had become known as &lt;em&gt;structuralism&lt;/em&gt;. those within the orbit of Anglo-Saxon empiricism were in general more resistant to this new way of thinking, but the influence was notable nevertheless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;my second point is merely a simple observation, but one whose genuineness is unproblematic in informal discourse. in personal terms, I have often noticed myself in quite casual conversation confusing the names of two former partners. &lt;strong&gt;to me this is evidence (admittedly only one tiny piece of a very large jigsaw) for the existence of a deep-structure corresponding to the social category of &lt;em&gt;significant other&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. this, if it exists, is completely distinct from any kind of specific memory of individuals one has related to. of course the hard-core empiricist would still be obliged to insist this was &quot;merely&quot; a type of misremembering. but such a dogmatic approach ignores the insights which have long been available through the informal paradigm which underlies Freud's methodology in &lt;em&gt;The Psychopathology of Everyday Life&lt;/em&gt; and also perhaps &lt;em&gt;Jokes and the Subconscious&lt;/em&gt; - the general hypothesis that minor errors or distortions on the accessible surface of behaviour can offer valuable clues about the deeper mental processes which underlie the surface behaviour and play a key part in its production, but which are far less accessible to introspection. a very good example which clarifies this particular distinction is the &lt;em&gt;tip-of-the-tongue&lt;/em&gt; phenomenon where we &quot;know what we want to say&quot; but just &quot;can't find the word&quot;. often the sought-after word spontaneously arises in consciousness some time afterwards. i.e. the search, once initated, continues at the preconscious level, and this process continues to run - in the background, as it were, to use computer parlance - even though the conversation is long finished. have you ever rung a friend with some rather unimportant revelation of this type - &quot;I've just remembered the word I couldn't recall&quot; - only to find that the relevant context has been entirely forgotten by them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4047" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2014-11-06T23:56:19.547" LastActivityDate="2014-11-06T23:56:19.547" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5213" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-26T17:10:45.550" Score="1" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any clearly identifiable reason explaining why sleeping during the day (for longer than 30 minutes) could produce lowered mood, difficulty in concentrating, overall decreased cognitive performance etc., with symptoms persisting during the rest of the day? This might be somewhat related to sleep inertia (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_inertia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_inertia&lt;/a&gt;), but persistence of symptoms for many hours might prompt for a different explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2386" LastActivityDate="2013-12-26T17:10:45.550" Title="Effect of mid-day sleep on mood and performance" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5215" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-26T21:13:38.220" Score="2" ViewCount="267" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/96/research-suggesting-conscious-control-over-brain-region-activation&quot;&gt;this thread&lt;/a&gt;, certain regions of the brain, and even some distributed activation patterns can be up/down regulated via bio-feedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible in theory and is there any research where subjects were taught to consciously control neurotransmitter (e.g. serotonin, dopamine, etc...) levels?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that doing so would present with alternatives to pharmacological methods of altering neurotransmitter levels in treatment of various mood and cognitive disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-12-10T05:49:28.153" Title="Neurotransmitter control via biofeedback?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5216" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5215" CreationDate="2013-12-26T22:58:22.043" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly, you wouldn't be directly controlling neurotransmitter.  From the human perspective, you'd be controlling higher-level events (and they aren't necessarily describable on more than a phenomenological level).  Of course, this would also lead to some changes in neurotransmitter release, but in a complex way: that's all handled at a lower level by the cells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurofeedback&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neurofeedback&lt;/a&gt; is a (the?) clinical practice that most closely matches your question.  If you look at the references in the wiki page I linked, you will see lots of papers reporting on the findings and techniques.  I do not know the current state of the research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2013-12-26T22:58:22.043" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5217" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5167" CreationDate="2013-12-27T02:33:36.700" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many psychological models for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_abnormality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;abnormal behavior&lt;/a&gt; so there are many ways to answer your question.&#xA;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bhevolution.org/public/stress-vulnerability.page&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stress-Vulnerability model&lt;/a&gt; of mental illness is a well established biological theory. It states that biology provides from vulnerabilities to mental illnesses which are activated by stress and trauma. It would dictate that the stress/anxiety caused in the past and present by a bad childhood could result in &lt;strong&gt;any mental illness&lt;/strong&gt; based on what biological vulnerabilities were present in the person. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think you should read &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=7db5vDjMMM8C&amp;amp;lpg=PR9&amp;amp;ots=PfXE9i_RGi&amp;amp;dq=childhood%20maladaptive%20behaviours%20chronic%20childhood%20illness&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chronic childhood disease: An introduction to psychological theory and research&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00848259&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The occurrence of maladaptive health-related behaviors and teacher-rated conduct problems in children of chronic low back pain patients&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/09540269209066302&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Abnormal illness behaviour: childhood experiences and long-term consequences&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/content/22/2/149.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Relating Parent and Family Functioning to the Psychological Adjustment of Children with Chronic Health Conditions: What Have We Learned? What Do We Need To Know?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2013-12-31T15:21:32.260" LastActivityDate="2013-12-31T15:21:32.260" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5219" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5187" CreationDate="2013-12-27T11:39:50.833" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;At birth, &lt;strong&gt;visual structures&lt;/strong&gt; are fully present yet &lt;strong&gt;immature&lt;/strong&gt; in their potentials. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Following are the innate visual abilities of an infant&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;1. detect changes in brightness, &#xA;2. distinguish between stationary and kinetic objects, &#xA;3. follow kinetic objects in their visual fields. &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, many of these areas are very poorly developed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With physical improvements such as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;1. increased distances between the cornea and retina, &#xA;2. increased pupil dimensions, &#xA;3. strengthened cones and rods &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;an infant's visual ability improves with time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;neuro- pathway&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;physical changes&lt;/strong&gt; that underlie these &lt;strong&gt;improvements&lt;/strong&gt; in vision remains a strong focus in research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of an infant's inability to &lt;strong&gt;verbally&lt;/strong&gt; express their visual field, growing research in this field relays heavy on non-verbal cues including &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;an infants perceived ability to detect patterns and visual changes. &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may find more details &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_vision&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3747" LastActivityDate="2013-12-27T11:39:50.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5220" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-27T14:54:20.780" Score="3" ViewCount="190" Body="&lt;p&gt;When does thinking of the mind becomes overthinking? and How is it different from serious and critical thinking? What are the causes of it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="631" LastActivityDate="2013-12-27T14:54:20.780" Title="What does it mean to overthink?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-12-15T14:47:29.030" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5221" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5211" CreationDate="2013-12-27T15:45:32.663" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;An AGI is a man-made machine that can learn, adapt, think, plan, predict, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive science is the study of how our &quot;biological machines&quot; do those same processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4057" LastActivityDate="2013-12-27T15:45:32.663" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5223" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4369" CreationDate="2013-12-28T08:04:53.867" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes they have been found to not be effective in practice. In family therapy the ideas of emotional reasoning often give a false positives/negative. Family members tend to constantly profess their love in therapy because they realize that is the correct response but can act in an otherwise hostile manner outside therapy. The ideas of emotional reasoning as a &quot;fault&quot; in an individual can cause a therapist to miss signs of unhealthy or abusive relationships. Not all negative or positive feelings are irrational even if they are not expressed in a manner consistent with CBT. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm equally sure the other sets also give false positives/negatives and lead to improper treatments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2013-12-30T06:25:48.670" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T06:25:48.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5165" CreationDate="2013-12-28T11:27:37.013" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;As mentioned in one of the TED talks by Russell Foster, we need sleep not only for resting or cleaning up, but also for developing memories. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, a good sleep has also requirements (mostly environmental); e.g. no-light, no-noise room etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the talk: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/russell_foster_why_do_we_sleep.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ted.com/talks/russell_foster_why_do_we_sleep.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2689" LastActivityDate="2013-12-28T11:27:37.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5225" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4302" CreationDate="2013-12-28T11:56:52.820" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucinogen&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hallucinogens&lt;/a&gt; play an important psycho-social role in many societies. Their positive impact seem to be primarily religious (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://intentblog.com/tripping-the-way-to-god-hallucinogens-and-religion/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tripping the Way to God: Hallucinogens and Religion&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However they do play an important role in the lab inducing a state similar to psychosis. They also play a limited role in psychiatry.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychedelic psychotherapy&lt;/a&gt; as the name suggested is the combination of hallucinogens with a form of psychotherapy. It is not widely practiced.&#xA;Research into cannabidiol], a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletters/Harvard_Mental_Health_Letter/2010/April/medical-marijuana-and-the-mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cannabis&lt;/a&gt; constituent with anti-psychotic properties instead of the typical high anxiety and psychosis symptoms, has been published; see  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;amp;pid=S0100-879X2006000400001&amp;amp;lng=en&amp;amp;nrm=iso&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Cannabidiol, a Cannabis sativa constituent, as an antipsychotic drug&amp;quot; by Zuardi et al, 2006&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eli Lilly tried to make a drug based on these &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate_hypothesis_of_schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;glutamate receptors&lt;/a&gt; interactions called LY2140023. It was shown to be ineffective by itself.&#xA;Many hallucinogens are used for alternative primary purpose like benadryl and nitrous oxide (laughing gas).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="13937" LastEditDate="2020-12-28T14:33:51.400" LastActivityDate="2020-12-28T14:33:51.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5226" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-28T14:24:07.150" Score="0" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could someone here lead me to tried and tested methods to repair a malfunctioning thought process after depression? I have read through &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_disorder&lt;/a&gt;. Specifically to correct the ones here - Circumstantiality, Derailment, Echolalia, Flight of ideas, Loss of goal, Perseveration and Pressure of speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4063" LastActivityDate="2013-12-28T22:07:57.223" Title="Tried and tested way to repair malfunctioning thought process" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2013-12-31T14:11:36.073" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5227" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5278" CreationDate="2013-12-28T17:03:16.857" Score="1" ViewCount="6555" Body="&lt;p&gt;I mean the &quot;it's not your fault&quot; part at the end of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UYa6gbDcx18&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this movie segment&lt;/a&gt;. Could anybody explain this method and why it works? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens if the psychologist didn't get any reaction (like crying) from the case (Will), doesn't he look like a jerk repeating the same words 9 times?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3205" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-03T01:41:21.123" LastActivityDate="2014-01-03T10:32:01.607" Title="What is this method used in the &quot;it's not your fault&quot; segment of Good Will Hunting and why does it work?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5228" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5227" CreationDate="2013-12-28T21:37:11.587" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Its a &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/sindex/f/what-is-self-esteem.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-esteem&lt;/a&gt; technique used to decrease emotional abuse caused by internal turmoil from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/enlightened-living/201304/self-blame-the-ultimate-emotional-abuse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;blaming&lt;/a&gt; oneself irrationally. Not all blame is irrational of course but even rational blame can move into an irrational amount and importance. Victims tend to blame themselves for the traumas they endure especially as children. For instance its very common for children whose parents divorce to take the blame for their parents failed relationship. People who are abused emotionally or physically often think it is their fault for setting off an episode of abuse. Some unhealthy religions variants and social groups blame people with mental illnesses or poverty for their situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most changes are small and internal unlike the movie depicts. While an immediate reaction to psychotherapy is gratifying to psychologist most changes don't happen that way. Only people under an extreme burden of blame will respond with such strong emotions when that burden is removed. I've heard that sex offenders typically cry in response to this kind of psychotherapy because they often have been sexual abused themself but I cannot verify that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2013-12-29T03:10:42.920" LastActivityDate="2013-12-29T03:10:42.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5229" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5226" CreationDate="2013-12-28T22:07:57.223" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychotherapy&lt;/a&gt; is not something to be practiced without a licensed professional. It is very easy to cause damage to someone using tried and tested psychotherapy techniques. However from the standpoint of theory &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodynamics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychodynamics&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive Behaviour Therapy&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Interpersonal Therapy&lt;/a&gt; are typically used to treat depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2013-12-28T22:07:57.223" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5230" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4503" CreationDate="2013-12-29T00:12:15.420" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found a few papers published on the topic of therapy by court order and while incarcerated. Psychotherapy doesn't seem to work most of the time without the full and willing cooperation of the patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Over the past decade, the use of court-ordered psychotherapeutic treatments as a pretrial diversion or dispositional alternative has increased dramatically. Currently, little published research has documented the effectiveness of these court-ordered treatments. The studies reviewed here cast doubt on the assumption that mandatory psychotherapeutic treatments are effective in reducing future incidents of violence between spouses. The incremental benefit of court-ordered treatment over the deterrent effects of traditional criminal justice system remedies is unclear. Differences in abuse recidivism between subjects court-ordered into treatment and subjects arrested and untreated have been small. In addition, subjects withdraw from treatment despite a court order to attend, indicating that legal system involvement does not motivate many unwilling subjects. Furthermore, subjects who discontinue treatment prematurely remain violence-free almost as often as subjects who complete treatment programs, thus drawing into question the, specific impact of clinical treatment for men who abuse their spouses. Future research is necessary to elucidate the precise benefits and appropriate focus of court-ordered treatment programs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027273589290115O&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Court-ordered treatment of spouse abuse&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Interestingly, those who were mandated demonstrated less motivation at treatment entry, yet were more likely to complete treatment compared to those who were not court-ordered to treatment. While controlling for covariates known to be related to treatment completion, the logistic regression analyses demonstrated that court-ordered offenders were over 10 times more likely to complete treatment compared to those who entered treatment voluntarily (OR=10.9, CI=2.0-59.1, p=.006). These findings demonstrate that stipulated treatment for offenders may be an effective way to increase treatment compliance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Does%20mandating%20offenders%20to%20treatment%20improve%20completion%20rates&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Does mandating offenders to treatment improve completion rates&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Patients who require court-ordered medication over objection constitute a group that is high risk for nonadherence after discharge and being refractive to treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jaapl.org/content/41/2/236.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Outcomes Associated With Court-Ordered Treatment Over Objection in an Acute Psychiatric Hospital&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A significant decrease in the dynamic scale scores of the J-SOAP-II [Juvenile Sex Offender Assessment Protocol II] was found only for the moderate treatment group (9 to 23 months).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23475853&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Treatment Impact of an Integrated Sex Offender Program as Measured by J-SOAP-II&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2013-12-29T00:12:15.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5231" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4396" CreationDate="2013-12-29T01:13:44.073" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes this topic has been discussed in detail. There are two main ways of describing mental illness: Continuous and Discontinuous spectrum of behaviour. (Most clinicians favor discontinuous.) The Continuous spectrum of behaviour states that OCD and other mental illnesses are just extremes of normal behavior. The Discontinuous spectrum of behaviour states that while mental illness has some traits with normal behaviour they are not on the same spectrum as normal behaviour. Both theories hold to the fact that enough extremes of normal behaviour can cause mental illness. Whether someone actually has OCD involving technology or is just at an extreme normal behaviour can only be determined accurately by a psychologist/psychiatrist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't say that I agree with &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B00BJZG94G&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;iDisorder: Understanding Our Obsession with Technology and Overcoming Its Hold on Us&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Some of it is silly like counting the number of first person pronouns but some of the concepts it relates are interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obsessively checking in with technology seems to be the biggest attribute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2013-12-29T03:15:12.240" LastActivityDate="2013-12-29T03:15:12.240" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5232" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1123" CreationDate="2013-12-29T04:24:07.943" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Its difficult to understand exactly which type of parenting style and discipline you experienced so please allow me to describe what I was able to find on parenting. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many different &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/parenting-style.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;styles of parenting&lt;/a&gt;. Authoritarian which are strict and rule based. Authoritative which has rules which are followed more responsive to the child's needs and feelings. Permissive which are the &quot;lets be friends&quot; type. Uninvolved which providing basic physical care without communicating or in some cases becoming neglectful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each of these parenting styles tend to follow specific punishment outlines. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Authoritarian parents tend to spank and say things like &quot;Because I'm your parent. Because it is my house.&quot; rather than caring for the emotional needs of the child. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/2012/04/spanking.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Modern psychology&lt;/a&gt; never endorses &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/moral-landscapes/201309/research-spanking-it-s-bad-all-kids&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;spanking&lt;/a&gt; as healthy. Spanking teaches children to be aggressive. Possibly even associating such traits with love if a parent showed affection in association with spanking as is frequently practiced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/parenting/guide/discipline-tactics?page=2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Authoritative parents&lt;/a&gt; provide guidelines for children to live by which are punished by a logical system of positive and negative punishment. A logical system of punishment is one where it follows from your behaviour that such actions could be eliminated and or added. The punishment fits the crime. For instance sass off toward the authority figure with a cell phone can lead to the loss of the cell phone. This would be a negative punishment where privileges are removed. A positive consequence for not doing laundry might be a fee for the laundry done that day. It adds the burden of a payment to the child. Sometimes bad behaviour can cause you frustration and its never appropriate to discipline a child while angry. Time outs are also an important healthy way to punish children. This is punishment by boredom so its important that the pre-established place be safe and uninteresting. In my experience a chair in the corner is more effective than the bed in the bedroom. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_economy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Token economy&lt;/a&gt; a clear and consistent reward for behavior also works well. I never have experienced a situation where allowing a child to learn from their mistake by allowing &quot;natural consequences&quot; has worked well. Its labor intensive. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.takingchildrenseriously.com/natural_consequences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Most parents&lt;/a&gt; simply use &quot;natural consequences&quot; as an excuse to by proxy harm/abuse, disengage or nag rather than prop up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology also doesn't endorse the passive parent who never disciplines their child either or the extreme of the passive the uninvolved which abandons their child. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/parenting/guide/discipline-tactics?page=3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;follow up&lt;/a&gt; to discipline is just as important as the discipline itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like I said earlier with the information you gave its not possible to tell how healthy your punishments were. Its really not my place to judge your “Karmic Punishment”. From the descriptions I gave I think you can make up your mind. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2013-12-31T03:46:31.840" LastActivityDate="2013-12-31T03:46:31.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5233" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-29T06:09:33.877" Score="9" ViewCount="341" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;And this is not about procrastination (I'm almost certain).&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been noticing it since childhood that people (me included) tend to do unnecessary side activity, especially if they're invested in the main activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of main activity: having a thoughtful conversation, watching an interesting movie, crafting something manually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of side activities: doing tricks with a pen, playing with shirt buttons, doodling, tearing a piece of paper into smaller parts, attaching and detaching magnets, in other words almost anything slightly amusing/interesting/touch-pleasant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The side activity tends to increase with the intensity of main activity, only ceasing at the point where the main activity takes all the concentration a person can manage to attain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What causes this? Does it somehow help us perform the main activity? Then how exactly? Or is it a reaction to performing something effortsome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="975" LastActivityDate="2015-06-20T21:45:57.523" Title="Why do people often do unnecessary things while performing a main task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5234" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5233" CreationDate="2013-12-29T10:32:01.363" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the whole scheme of human consciousness, these movements may be a result of what one individual person's autonomic and central nervous system has been conditioned to &lt;em&gt;expect&lt;/em&gt;. While awake during different hours of different days, implying different variables to be present depending on [social code] &lt;em&gt;etc,&lt;/em&gt; our central nervous system (CNS) has a threshold for response- the level of response/arousal to sensory input accompanied by these variables stated above will ultimately help someone read what their basal level of arousal is. If that basal level arousal is not met in a certain social context (this basal level has increased via techna-cultural advancement) than the body may expend this energy via other methods of movement or concentration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4068" LastActivityDate="2013-12-29T10:32:01.363" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5236" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-29T16:13:54.197" Score="3" ViewCount="207" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumann&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;John Von Neuman&lt;/a&gt; believed that all organisms can be though of as information-processing systems. He built on the work of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Alan Turing&lt;/a&gt; (algorithmic) to create simulations of biological entities. This philosophy lead to the use of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_automaton&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cellular automaton&lt;/a&gt;. This kind of analysis allowed to gain many insights in biology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it make sense to you to reduce the behavior of an organism to the output of an algorithm? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several things that are not feasible in algorithmic. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Randomness&lt;/a&gt; is one of these. Does it seem fair to you to consider that we actually produce &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandomness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pseudorandomness&lt;/a&gt;, a function with a chaotic behavior that cycle and might end up repeating itself?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The questions in short:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can an organism be reduced to as being an algorithm as found in computers?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can an organism produce randomness (random choice, random behavior) or only pseudo-randomness?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4069" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-30T01:41:21.837" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T18:13:23.587" Title="Can a biological entity be thought as a simple algorithm? Case-study with the concept of randomness" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5237" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5236" CreationDate="2013-12-29T20:54:53.417" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;No.  Algorithmic behavior can be observed in organisms, but an organism cannot be reduced to just algorithms because the information processing is tightly coupled to the physical hardware, which evolves continuously and (largely) deterministically.  That is, nature doesn't break behaviors into discrete algorithmic steps.  Similar to how humans break up the color spectrum into colors, we break up these continuous processes into steps.  In some cases, this time discretization is physically meaningful, but not always.  So algorithms are necessary, but not sufficient.  And certainly one can draw on information theory and consider the algorithmic aspects of life to help understand it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Randomness and non-random (i.e. deterministic) are human modelling terms based on mathematics (time evolution of states).  It's more accurate to ask whether deterministic models or stochastic models best fit a particular phenomena.  That being said, there are lots of things that appear as stochastic processes in biological systems, but there's always the possibility that a very complex deterministic processes underlie them.  Most phenomena probably include some combination of deterministic and random processes.  And sometimes, no matter how stochastic the microstates are, the macrostate is robust (this is called 'degeneracy').  For instance, a given channel in the membrane of a neuron is stochastic with respect to inputs, but the population of channels will reliably lead to spiking for a given input current.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2013-12-30T18:13:23.587" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T18:13:23.587" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5239" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5246" CreationDate="2013-12-29T21:13:38.437" Score="3" ViewCount="562" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can be described as a morning person, where waking up at 4:20 AM to catch a flight is no problem. My colleague on the other hand go to bed no earlier than midnight and often later than that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We're both programmers, and if we're in a critical phase of a project, my colleague works until 3AM, and I start at 4AM. Still both times are in the middle of the night and we tend to get most work done at off working hours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question is why that is?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2013-12-30T19:28:47.793" LastActivityDate="2020-03-06T14:13:27.457" Title="Why do programmers work at night?" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5240" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-29T21:29:32.443" Score="3" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard this several times. People breaks things to feel more relaxed, less depressed or is there some other reason? What do you call this effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3205" LastActivityDate="2014-01-04T03:54:34.870" Title="Why is &quot;breaking a car&quot; considered a sort of therapy?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5242" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5244" CreationDate="2013-12-30T00:01:49.657" Score="4" ViewCount="190" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do connections in our brain have a direction, or do they behave equally in both directions? I am especially interested in the structures responsible for memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T22:24:45.453" Title="Are connections in the human brain directed?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5243" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5236" CreationDate="2013-12-30T00:38:40.843" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, &lt;strong&gt;you can think of biological entities as algorithms, but that doesn't give you any explanatory power.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, most people have little to no understanding of algorithms, and how little actually constraint is imposed on something when you say it is &quot;algorithmic&quot;. In particular, &lt;strong&gt;there is no restrictions on algorithms that require them to be deterministic.&lt;/strong&gt; When theoretical computer scientists talk about pseudorandom number generators, they are talking at &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/4807/29&quot;&gt;a much higher level of rigour&lt;/a&gt; than any biologist, psychologist, or neurologist ever uses. From their point of view, unless the biological entities you are thinking about are trying to defeat each other's cryptosystems, &lt;strong&gt;all random or stochastic events in biology can be viewed as pseudorandom with absolutely no consequence for biological theory&lt;/strong&gt;. In fact, Keegan's answer that we can think of stochastic events as deterministic events with a mechanism that is outside of our model scope would be equivalent to the worry of pseudorandom versus true-random numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if you subscribe to the (&lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/a/2663/500&quot;&gt;silly&lt;/a&gt;) Penrose-Hameroff stance that quantum effects in microtubles have a macroscopic effect at the level of consciousness that leads to &quot;true randomness&quot; then that still wouldn't place you outside of algorithmic thinking. You would just have to think in terms of quantum algorithms, which is more difficult mathematically, but a well studied field of computer science. Finally, cstheory extends the notion of algorithms beyond the typical confines of randomness as studied by statistics and most scientists, and looks at &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2013/09/13/worst-case/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rigorous models of non-determinism&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, there are people (for example, I advocate &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2013/06/26/algorithmic-philosophy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;algorithmic philosophy&lt;/a&gt; as an extension of standard analytic philosophy) that believe that any communicable theory is inherently algorithmic and ammendable to analysis of cstheorists. Hence, not thinking of something as algorithmic would be impossible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, is that useful? In general, no. &lt;strong&gt;Algorithms are incredibly difficult to study.&lt;/strong&gt; In the case of the computing machines, we make it easier by separating the algorithm underlying the physics of the hardware from an abstraction that we call the software. This often leads non-cstheorists (as you can see in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5237/29&quot;&gt;Keagan's answer&lt;/a&gt;) to thinking that the idea of algorithms applies only at this &quot;software abstraction&quot; level. Of course, this is not the case. However, this distinction can be a useful metaphor at times, and much of cognitive science is based on the idea that the mind is software that is at least in principle capable of being implemented by different hardware. This is the philosophical stance of &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/multiple-realizability/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multiple realizability&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuroscientists hold this stance much less often, and - as suggested in Keagan's answer - view the mind and brain as non-seperable and best analyzed at the same level. This does not make the process non-algorithmic, it just takes away any handles we have at easily isolating properties of this algorithm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we continue this idea further, and just consider an algorithmic black box then we return to the ideas of &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;behaviorism&lt;/a&gt; that are now considered passe in the cognitive sciences, but still popular in many parts of biology. In this setting, the black-box algorithm is a correct but completely useless notion. We have &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post&amp;#39;s_theorem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mathematical theorems&lt;/a&gt; that tell us that if we try to treat algorithms at this level of abstraction then we can never (in general) conclude anything. In this case, we have to be more restrictive than just &quot;algorithmic&quot; or &quot;computable&quot;. This can get us to fun cstheory questions like &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cstheory.stackexchange.com/q/5379/1037&quot;&gt;What is the complexity class most closely associated with what the human mind can accomplish quickly?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T00:38:40.843" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5244" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5242" CreationDate="2013-12-30T01:52:55.927" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two kinds of neuron-to-neuron connections in the brain.  The most well known is the chemical synapse, which is unidirectional.  Despite this, two neurons can each synapse on each other with a chemical synapse, and both types of connection are observable in brain networks (unidirectional and bidirectional)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second kind of connection is a gap-junction: electrical coupling.  In this case, it can be bidirectional or unidirectional, but all in the same synapse (whereas a bidirectional chemical synapse requires two synapses).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typically, the chemical synapses are associated with memory.  There have been synapses observed that behave as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engram_%28neuropsychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;engrams&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2013-12-30T22:24:45.453" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T22:24:45.453" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5245" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5240" CreationDate="2013-12-30T02:56:33.933" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe you're referring to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharsis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Catharsis&lt;/a&gt;. According to Freud, expressing anger serves to relieve it. However, a few more recent researchers have argued that expressing anger serves to reinforce aggressive behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@Chuck Take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-personal.umich.edu/~bbushman/bbs99.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this study&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=MOljg8xXI1oC&amp;amp;pg=PA321&amp;amp;lpg=PA321&amp;amp;dq=%22Catharsis%3a%20does%20%22getting%20it%20out%20of%20one%27s%20system%22%20really%20help?%22.%20Human%20Aggression&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=o7o97KktSn&amp;amp;sig=BgAJm6-mXytlpBYu6ecF6Pez4WE&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=j7vBUsjxHKS-sQS0m4KQDQ&amp;amp;ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this book excerpt&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastEditorUserId="4055" LastEditDate="2013-12-30T18:32:38.557" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T18:32:38.557" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5246" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5239" CreationDate="2013-12-30T03:04:31.577" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably both a combination of being more tired and fewer distractions. Most other people will be asleep during the night. Programming is adversely affected by context-switching, thus night-time with stimulant-enhanced soda is more likely to provide you with long periods of interruption free coding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update: The above situation creates the conditions where &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Csíkszentmihályi's Flow&lt;/a&gt; is most likely to take place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastEditorUserId="4055" LastEditDate="2013-12-30T18:25:04.587" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T18:25:04.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5247" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5023" CreationDate="2013-12-30T04:54:59.403" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will answer your questions out of order. I hope that is ok.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;6 I have dyslexia and other &quot;stuff&quot;. I have been diagnosed as such by a psychologist and diagnostician multiple independant times. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2 &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/126/2/482.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dyslexia&lt;/a&gt; is quantified as a &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychnews.psychiatryonline.org/newsarticle.aspx?articleid=1558424&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;DSM 5&lt;/a&gt; Neurodevelopment Disorders subcategory Learning Disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“difficulties learning and using academic skills.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before DSM 5 dyslexia was identified by a difference between verbal and performance IQ which would effectively measure the severity of the dyslexia in comparison with the persons ambition. I'm sure psychiatrist have a new standard test which is able to perform such functions as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1 Dyslexics typically learn coping strategies at school. Without foundation of those coping strategies I know reading and writing would be even more difficult for me. I was taught to read and spell with the Scottish Rite Dyslexia method. Its basicly phonics on steroids. It seemed to work very well for myself and the others with learning disabilities though not all were dyslexics. I would recommend finding curriculum based on the framework the Masons provide and that is at least is phonetic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3 Motivating an adult is very difficult. You might do some research on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_influence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Social Influence&lt;/a&gt; which is ethically acceptable manipulation like what doctors use. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4 Absolutely &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/learning-disability?tab=Causes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;no one&lt;/a&gt; knows what causes learning disabilities like dyslexia all major theories point to something biological involving the brain. Finding the source of the problem doesn't help the person. Only treating the symptoms is rational. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5 No. Your friend comes from a time just before the major push for treatment of learning disabilities in public schools. Now learning differences and disabilities are given coping strategies and other tools (primarily time and technology) to help them perform and live healthy normal lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T04:54:59.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5248" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5097" CreationDate="2013-12-30T08:54:00.270" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes there is a condition which often causes extreme acts of empathy. Its the hero disease: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/little-altruism/201001/altruism-heroics-and-extreme-altrusim&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;extreme altruism&lt;/a&gt;, x-altruism or &lt;a href=&quot;http://stuartschneiderman.blogspot.com/2013/06/pathological-altruism.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pathological altruism&lt;/a&gt;. Its not in DSM 5. x-altruism occurs when people are compelled to act on the basic feelings of empathy or sympathy they have toward others. Its common among police officers, firefighters and soldiers who have received the Purple Heart Medal as well as other high risk jobs which frequently place themselves in harms way to help others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unlike a normal person the x-altruist cannot resist the urge of empathy and will do seemingly irrational things to fulfill their need to help others. x-altruist are not perfect people but they do extraordinary things for the good of other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2013-12-30T09:58:14.590" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T09:58:14.590" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5249" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4369" CreationDate="2013-12-30T12:44:39.513" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you should change the question a little bit to &quot;What should be done to the Thinking Errors?&quot; or &quot;Just identifying and evaluating Thinking Errors might not be effective?&quot;. Yes, they may not be effective. Please be careful that all mental problems need to be treated by &lt;strong&gt;professional therapist&lt;/strong&gt; and a very important part of their expertise involves &lt;strong&gt;the diagnosis&lt;/strong&gt;. There are many anxiety or depressive disorders that they manifest similar &quot;Thinking Errors&quot; kind of thinking, but they have different underlying causes and should be treated differently. It's not to say that strategies like those described in The Feeling Good Handbook don't work, rather they work &lt;strong&gt;when things are simple&lt;/strong&gt;. If you feel that things are more complicated you should surely seek some professional advice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To illustrate this point to you by an example I would like to mention &lt;strong&gt;Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (or OCD)&lt;/strong&gt;. In OCD, there are some problems in cognitive system that makes the person being constantly paralyzed by lots of &lt;strong&gt;Intrusive Thoughts&lt;/strong&gt;. The content of these thoughts may be similar to &quot;Thinking Errors&quot; or could be corrected by similar strategies, but focusing on them and trying to correct them make them &lt;strong&gt;stronger, more sailient, and more frequent&lt;/strong&gt;. People with this disorder then feel that they are compulsively correcting their erroneous thoughts, but it seems they can never get rid of them. For this disorder, another treatment strategy has been offered called &lt;strong&gt;Exposure and Response Prevention (EX/RP)&lt;/strong&gt;. In this kind of treatment people are encouraged to face their intrusive thoughts, but don't respond to them.To try to &lt;strong&gt;accept their presence&lt;/strong&gt; and at the same time not to let them to make them do anything, or not do anything. There is abundant evidence that EX/RP is effective for OCD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And there are also other disorders with their idiosyncrasy. I'm not sure what kind of problem you're describing, but if you want to use self-help method (with all it's pro and cons) you could take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder#Diagnosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;diagnostic features of OCD&lt;/a&gt;.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4075" LastEditorUserId="4075" LastEditDate="2014-02-18T16:33:18.093" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T16:33:18.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5251" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-30T14:33:07.557" Score="2" ViewCount="220" Body="&lt;p&gt;During the course of normal brain development, what comes first:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;logical thinking or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;counting?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-09T05:07:16.867" LastActivityDate="2016-12-04T20:39:10.377" Title="Does logical thinking or counting develop first in children?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5251" CreationDate="2013-12-30T17:50:20.443" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Counting, easily.  It's a matter of rote and repetition, dominated by procedural learning.  Critical thinking requires more advanced circuitry and learning.  There is a lot of really rapid neural development still occurring in the first couple years and children are learning from society and parents and experience in the meantime.  During this time, they can easily count and say the alphabet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Logical thinking isn't apparent until around 3 or 4, though I suppose a robust discussion would require a formal definition of what constitutes logic.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2013-12-30T21:23:08.947" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T21:23:08.947" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5254" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5227" CreationDate="2013-12-30T19:08:23.177" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the scene, it looks like the therapist is confronting a correctly identified &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_repression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;repressed belief&lt;/a&gt;. As he tries to bring it to the patient's consciousness, the patient's defense mechanisms attempt to keep it repressed. You see him first deny it, then get angry, and then, finally, as the therapist breaks through all the defenses, you see relief and acceptance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The danger would come if the therapist did not identify the belief correctly and tried to confront it -- that would certainly create an awkward situation. However, in this situation, the therapist is experienced and does not make that mistake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T19:08:23.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5255" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5178" CreationDate="2013-12-30T19:34:54.723" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuckold&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cuckolded&lt;/a&gt; father would be likely to reject a child who is discovered to not be his own. From evolutionary perspective, men who get cuckolded and take care of a genetically-distant man's child would fail to reproduce their own genes and increase the chance of survival of the genes of the other man who did the cuckolding. Thus rejecting such a child would be an evolutionary adaptation to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~rakison/bussandschmitt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;problem of paternity uncertainty&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another reason could be that the mother misjudged the commitment of the father, and mated before such bond was established. This could be in combination with a father who's mating strategy favors &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~rakison/bussandschmitt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fertilizing high quantity of women&lt;/a&gt; over investing in few offspring with one woman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2013-12-30T19:34:54.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5256" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5434" CreationDate="2013-12-30T22:54:00.373" Score="7" ViewCount="606" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just watched an interesting TED talk (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1d5RetvkkuQ&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1d5RetvkkuQ&lt;/a&gt;) where a Stuart Hameroff proposes that a &lt;strong&gt;neuron's microtubules are responsible for computations&lt;/strong&gt;, and that they are able to do so on a &lt;strong&gt;quantum level&lt;/strong&gt;. He goes as far as to suggest that this ability to perform quantum computations is in fact the &quot;ghost in the machine&quot;, or the connection of our mortal body to the spiritual ethers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assumed that our computations were performed by action potentials, EPSPs, IPSPs, etc. Then we store memories and possibly reinforce processing pathways by strengthening synapses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While certainly interesting in a religious sense, &lt;strong&gt;what validity is there to the notion that microtubules are performing calculations / how do they play into this neuro-computational model?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4057" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T09:51:55.293" Title="Neural Microfilaments for Computation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5257" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5273" CreationDate="2013-12-30T23:55:05.723" Score="4" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_blindness#Other_causes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Color blindness&lt;/a&gt; may be caused by diabetes. Would a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;color-sound synesthete&lt;/a&gt; lose her/his ability to hear two different tones when he/she is watching, let's say, magnets:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gs4Zss.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-01-01T07:44:31.363" LastActivityDate="2014-01-02T13:46:00.737" Title="What would be the result if a color-sound synesthete were to go color blind due to diabetes?" Tags="&lt;color&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5258" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5256" CreationDate="2013-12-31T00:45:50.587" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a continuation of Penrose's Quantum Mind.  It's not taken seriously by the majority of the neuroscience or quantum community. Here are some references to get you started:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tegmark, M. (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/abs/quantph/9907009&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Importance of quantum decoherence in brain processes&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Physical Review E&lt;/em&gt;, 61(4), 4194.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Seife, C. (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/287/5454/791&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cold numbers unmake the quantum mind&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 287(5454), 791-791. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Craddock, T. J. A., &amp;amp; Tuszynski, J. A. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10867-009-9158-8&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A critical assessment of the information processing capabilities of neuronal microtubules using coherent excitations&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Biological Physics&lt;/em&gt;, 36(1), 53-70.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-13T16:36:55.407" LastActivityDate="2014-01-13T16:36:55.407" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5259" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2013-12-31T01:34:01.657" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that societies frequently construct systems that may be too complicated for any individual to operate competently within.  For example, the tax system, the legal system, the medical coding system, etc.  I have intuitions about how one might detect if any given system is too complex.  For example, a lack of consensus in how to perform system specific tasks (e.g. filling out a tax return), a large error rate among system task performers, a failure of system participants to get better over time.   I am interested in reading research in this area, if any exists.  Can some one provide me with suggested readings?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4077" LastActivityDate="2013-12-31T01:34:01.657" Title="Identifying Overly Complex Tasks" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5260" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4097" CreationDate="2013-12-31T03:14:53.040" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The idea that schizo type disorders may onset slowly is commonly accepted in the West. We do not have a separate diagnosis for this type of onset in the DSM. Psychotic episodes may happen to individuals before they experience all the symptoms of bipolar or schizo type disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is common that a patient may begin to hear voices during isolated instances without the trouble with emotions. Then develop trouble with emotions. Then progress into hallucinations. The individual may cope with the isolated psychosis until the psychosis becomes so severe that they are unable to do without medical attention. This progression sometimes takes years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is possible that any diagnosis of mental illness can be used for political reasons though. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2013-12-31T03:14:53.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5261" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5565" CreationDate="2013-12-31T06:10:55.013" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hypergraphia is a behavioral condition characterized by the intense desire to write. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergraphia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia hypergraphia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Its difficult to tell if this is hypergraphia but that is the closest mental illness to which I am aware. If she is just writing in their journal &quot;today I went to the store and met suzy and we went for coffee then I came home and watched tv&quot; it would not be hypergraphia. Hypergraphia would be a compulsion to write large amounts which are rational outlines or nonsense. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are medications to relieve some of the compulsions to write based on the cause of the hypergraphia. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2013-12-31T06:10:55.013" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5263" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5272" CreationDate="2013-12-31T14:10:49.953" Score="7" ViewCount="1001" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I wasn't eating at the proper time and I often skipped meals. I was angry, stressed before taking my meal, and suddenly, I felt good after having my dinner. I have felt the same way many times. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does food have that much effect on brain activity and emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4052" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-01-01T06:38:37.823" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T08:35:19.703" Title="The effect of proper food intake on emotions and brain function" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5265" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4885" CreationDate="2014-01-01T13:23:44.213" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychosis results in hallucinations. States of psychosis are thought to be like seizures caused by imbalanced levels of at least dopamine and serotonin. Psychosis like depression creates new pathways in the brain which allow for the senses to be flooded with internal information. The person who is experiencing hallucinations may be forced by the psychosis to think that it is real. Some are able to realize that the hallucination is not real. For instance, it is a common condition of humanity to have isolated instances of hallucinations. People hear music when there is none or think someone calls their name but no one did. Normal people are able to recognize that there was no music and no one called their name. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychosis can be caused by extreme excitement. Excitement alone impairs judgment but if it goes to an extreme a person can become psychotic and begin to hallucinate or have other odd behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often times people schizo type and bipolar disorder are accompanied with insomnia. If the illness progresses far enough the sick person can become caught in a state between awake and asleep. The hallucinations are combined with greater degrees of dissociation (day dream). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-01T13:23:44.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5266" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-01T17:08:12.607" Score="5" ViewCount="347" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinnitus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;tinnitus&lt;/a&gt; be measured with EEG or MEG (magnetoencephalography)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it visible in a power spectrum?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In an ERP/ERF?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4083" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-06T23:42:33.250" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T13:17:15.277" Title="Can tinnitus be measured with EEG or MEG?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5267" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5282" CreationDate="2014-01-01T17:36:40.657" Score="5" ViewCount="464" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human brain can achieve a remarkable ability to recognize visual patterns in an Invariant, selective and fast manner. The human visual system is quite powerful. It has an exquisite selectivity that allows us to distinguish among very similar objects. In addition, iy also allows Robustness (Invariance) to transformations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the model (Ventral stream pathway and architecture proposed by Poggio's group) shown in the image below, why the model is selective in S layers and invariant in C layers ?&#xA;I didn't understand well why the S layer achieves selectivity and C layer achieves invariance. Please can someone explain to me in details why the model is selective in S and Invariance in C layers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And who know the HMAX model, the model is called &quot;Hierarchical Model and X&quot;. why X? what was meant by &quot;X&quot; ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZlFnp.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;This figure is from Serre et al.'s &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17925239&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A quantitative theory of immediate visual recognition&lt;/a&gt;. Prog Brain Res. 2007.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help will be very very appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4084" LastEditorUserId="4084" LastEditDate="2014-01-01T19:38:56.843" LastActivityDate="2014-01-03T17:33:23.930" Title="Computational model of biological object recognition" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5268" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5405" CreationDate="2014-01-01T21:30:05.500" Score="4" ViewCount="197" Body="&lt;p&gt;We've all participated in &lt;em&gt;team building&lt;/em&gt; activities, where the goal is to get the team working better together in an environment very different from their usual occupation situation. As a team member you are supposed to build trust among other team players, and that they will trust you. This should have a positive impact on the teams effectiveness and efficiency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been told that a diverse team is better than a team less diverse. Of course it depends on the project to be executed, but nevertheless this is what I hear and read about all the time. There are little opposition to this position, maybe because it's politically incorrect?!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, on Wikipedias article &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_style&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive style&lt;/a&gt; one can read that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... team members with similar cognitive styles likely feel more positive about their participation with the team. While matching cognitive styles may make participants feel more comfortable when working with one another, this alone cannot guarantee the success of the outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if the team already find trust in each other based on their similar cognitive style, they would most probably start to be more effective than an unequal team. I'm not mixing cognitive style with diversity, but I feel there is more to it than just that. What would form the ultimate team? One with the same cognitive style, or one with different cognitive style? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How to create an effective and efficient team - with the same or different cognitive style?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-01-02T00:57:20.180" LastActivityDate="2014-01-24T21:27:12.173" Title="How to create an effective and efficient team - with the same or different cognitive style?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5269" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5263" CreationDate="2014-01-01T21:45:04.573" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are numerous of commercials exploring this fact, and I can only listen to my eight-year-old daughter when she gets cranky from not eating her breakfast. If you don't eat or you eat wrong kind of food, your emotions will suffer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Malnutrition and the Brain&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way not eating can affect the brain is through malnutrition. The cells of your brain rely on energy from food just like any other cell in the body. Without the nutrition that food supplies, both your neural function and brain chemistry can be negatively impacted. This in turn affects just about every facet of your bodily function that the brain is involved in, including concentration, memory, sleep patterns, &lt;strong&gt;mood&lt;/strong&gt; and your motor skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livestrong.com/article/482050-how-does-not-eating-affect-the-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How Does Not Eating Affect the Brain?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-01T21:45:04.573" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5270" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3350" CreationDate="2014-01-02T11:45:02.067" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know any actual &quot;faking bad&quot; studies or theories involving the Big Five, but there are some theories about the Big Five's general factor that can both explain the common finding you mention and inform a hypothesis about potential results from a study that would address your questions. &lt;sub&gt;I don't expect this will be a very satisfying answer, because I'm offering it in a bit of a hurry and referencing your own questions (and answer) to provide referential substance, but here it is anyway.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/2015/4086&quot;&gt;your question and answer&lt;/a&gt; point out, there is a general factor underlying the Big Five, an even bigger &quot;Big One.&quot; It partly reflects social desirability, as you know from &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1597/4086&quot;&gt;your other question&lt;/a&gt;, and partly reflects people's efforts to align their personalities (or at least their opinions about their own personalities) toward those more desirable poles of the dimensions. It may even reflect some adaptive advantage to being slightly toward the desirable side of average (though probably not all the way to the extreme end of that side). Whether people succeed at being these desirable, maybe better-adjusted versions of themselves in the long term is immaterial. They try in the short term, and tell themselves it's working for various reasons, including self-serving bias and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-perception_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-perceptive processes&lt;/a&gt; in identity (that inform judgments with recent behaviors).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People have some intuitive sense of the desirability of being sociable, stable, friendly, responsible, and curious (not to mention other aspects of each trait). If asked to act like a professionally desirable (i.e., hire-worthy) applicant, they will bias their answers in these socially desirable directions. These biases (whether intentionally deceptive or unconsciously ego-defensive) partly overlay some of the natural, independent variation with an internally consistent personality profile that suits the social consensus of what is desirable. Therefore people seem more uniform and correlations strengthen. Maybe you know other explanations of this finding as well; this may be one explanation, but I doubt it's the only.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this explanation could apply equally well if people were asked to &quot;fake bad.&quot; Again, a socially &lt;strong&gt;undesirable&lt;/strong&gt; personality profile is socially salient and consensual enough to overlay natural, independent variation with a relatively uniform pattern of bias. Most people know you're probably less likely to get hired if you act shy, edgy, hostile, impulsive, and stubborn (again, among other things that generally point in the same overall directions more often than not). Therefore I'd expect increased correlations in the &quot;faking bad&quot; scenario too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Not a well-researched theory here I'm afraid; just a hypothesis or half-educated guess. I hope it's helpful nonetheless, and would be happy to look further into it and edit if anyone's interested enough to comment on a pseudo-answer that's nine months late. I can definitely offer some references for at least some of the instrumental points of theory I offer here without explicit support if that's socially desirable enough!&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T22:32:35.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5271" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4233" CreationDate="2014-01-02T11:51:01.307" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is certain that a desire to have sex without contraception and a lack of desire to be a parent cause women to have multiple abortions. (precluding rape)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A certain amount of a desire to have sex is natural. Causes for increased sexuality are so numerous that is not tenable to search.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Risk taking behaviour is associated with sex without contraceptions. A stable long term relationship might be one reason to have sex without protection where the risk is perceived to be less based on the lack of infidelity. A lack of responsibility could also motivate someone to consistently not use protection. Peer pressure by the male or even religion is also possible. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Finally there are many reasons people decide not to be a parent. Primarily they are unable to be a mentor and they are incapable of nurturing. There are many additional reasons at this link about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/complete-without-kids/201209/six-great-reasons-never-have-children&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;why certain reasons to have children are irrational&lt;/a&gt;. However it should be stated that just because one is incapable of being a good parent doesn't leave abortion as the only option. The child can be given up for adoption however that is not popular.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-02T11:51:01.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5272" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5263" CreationDate="2014-01-02T13:01:11.457" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Part of the issue is maintaining blood-glucose concentration, which one doesn't always sense is crashing until it's already low and still crashing. As @BennySkogberg's answer implies, disruptions in the energy supply threaten cognitive function. This implies a loss of functional capacity and efficiency (which, when lacking, increase the probability of frustrating outcomes), as well as implying some disinhibition of impulses. Impulsivity relates to negative emotionality (including anger and stress), and interferes with attention. Reductions in the ability to focus attention on practical problems and address them planfully (problem-focused coping, which also relates to impulsivity, but negatively) would likely result; trouble envisioning solutions to problems might then decrease confidence and increase stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another part of the issue is the homeostatic equilibrium between the sympathetic (&quot;fight-or-flight&quot;) and parasympathetic (&quot;rest-and-digest&quot;) nervous systems. Even before getting the post-digestion blood-glucose boost, one might achieve relaxation by simply having something to digest. Food in the stomach triggers parasympathetic activation, which facilitates relaxation and dulls the senses somewhat. An increasingly urgent lack of food in the stomach might (don't actually know) trigger the sympathetic system, as hunger implies some need to wake up and act assertively to correct it and prevent starvation. Sympathetic activation promotes aggression (and thus anger) and emotional arousal (and thus stress, which is negatively valent emotional arousal).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a particularly extreme example of the effects of starvation, you might find the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Starvation_Experiment#Results&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;results of the Minnesota Starvation Experiment&lt;/a&gt; interesting. Food definitely has profound effects on psychological function; what you've felt may be a lesser shade of what these research participants reported after more prolonged deprivation. Also, FWIW, I've noticed the same effects you describe in myself and others I know well when starving (if only in the &quot;first world problems&quot; sense of being really hungry, having waited a couple hours too long to fix a meal). One doesn't need to prolong it to start seeing effects, especially when there's some violation of implicit expectations or customary levels of need satisfaction. Our bodies adapt to how well or how poorly we're fed on a regular basis, so those of us who are used to eating regularly may have exacerbated reactions to the rare violations of our habits, as our bodies haven't had the chance to adapt to deprivation gradually when the onset is sudden and unusual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; BTW, you might also find this question interesting (I've answered it similarly):&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5537/4086&quot;&gt;How is fasting related to insomnia?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T08:35:19.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5273" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5257" CreationDate="2014-01-02T13:46:00.737" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;To whatever extent colorblindness is a consequence of sensation loss, perceptual loss should necessarily follow. If colorblindness results from diabetes solely due to retinal damage, this means diabetes prevents these two colors from causing different sensory stimulation. If the sensory stimulation is truly the same, it should be perceived the same. A signal (red) that cannot be discriminated from another signal (green) in terms of the basic sensation information received at the retina (stimulation of the same sets of cones, for lack of a more specially sensitive alternative) cannot be better discriminated in perceptual processes that occur thereafter in the brain, unless there's some other source of discriminating information involved in that perceptual process (I doubt there is in this case).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer @ChuckSherrington's expansion of the question, common cases of genetic colorblindness involve abnormal function at the retina as well, so there is likely to be some similarity. I'm unaware of any inherited conditions resulting in colorblindness through abnormal perceptual function (in the brain). However, the Wikipedia page draks linked lists quite a variety of manifestations for genetic colorblindness, so there probably are some subtle differences between the consequences of some genetic abnormalities and the consequences of diabetes. For instance, it seems genetically-based loss of color vision can affect one or more colors, partially or completely. Maybe diabetes-based symptoms are similarly various at certain stages! It is a degenerative process that can result in complete blindness, but which aspects of visual sensation are the first to go may vary across individual cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-02T13:46:00.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5274" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5240" CreationDate="2014-01-02T16:55:33.910" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It was (is?) widely believed that a good way to reduce aggression was to just get it out of your system by, for example, punching a pillow, screaming or watching somebody else behave aggressively on the athletic field, in the boxing ring, on TV or in a movie, and so forth. The idea is to blow off steam, to vent, which was termed catharsis by Freudian psychoanalysts. Catharsis was an idea adapted by Sigmund Freud and others, as a sort of hydraulic model in which emotional pressures build and build until finally you release them by behaving aggressively or by watching other people do it for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bandura&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Albert Bandura&lt;/a&gt; and others after him have shown that contrary to the catharsis hypothesis, aggression begets aggression. This was shown in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_doll_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bobo Doll Experiment&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt;).The experiment was focused on social learning theory, and its results showed that observing aggression simply led to more aggression. While the experiment was focused on children, it has been replicated in different forms and carried out on different audiences, and the results have shown that the hypothesis is equally valid for adults. The hypothesis that aggression leads to more aggression directly contradicts the catharsis hypothesis and both schools of thought continue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" LastEditorUserId="2777" LastEditDate="2014-01-04T03:54:34.870" LastActivityDate="2014-01-04T03:54:34.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5275" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-02T18:19:27.543" Score="5" ViewCount="366" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose a computer simulates a human brain so that it passes the Turing test. Suppose that this brain is given sensory stimuli that correspond to an experience of being in an Earth-like world.  From my understanding, proponents of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;computationalism&lt;/a&gt; suppose that this simulated brain would have qualia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neural network, its state, and the program code are stored on a computer, and can only be observed if someone knows how to use this computer. How a neural network is represented in memory and on disk, depends on data structures, computer architecture, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;endianness&lt;/a&gt;, et cetera.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose then that the last human on Earth dies, but the simulation keeps running on the computer. If there is no one in the Universe who understands how this particular computer works, then no one would be able to observe this simulated brain.  In other words, this brain would be impossible to “decode”, and yet it would supposedly still experience qualia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It follows that if this is the case, then nothing prevents other “invisible” brains from existing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;We&lt;/em&gt; know that a computer is a computational device, and it is running a complex neural network that corresponds to a human-like mind, but the Universe doesn't “know” it.  It is &lt;em&gt;our&lt;/em&gt; interpretation of what is happening. I can't stray from the conclusion that if the premise is true, then there may be different processes that isomorphically correspond to computations, some of which may isomorphically correspond to minds, but we won't know it because we don't see this isomorphism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why couldn't processes inside the Sun correspond to some computation (albeit in a non-straightforward way) which corresponds to a mind? By that logic, there could be infinitely many minds, all experiencing some sorts of qualia, “encoded” in different ways in all processes in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversely, what if we replace a computer with a man (with a large lifespan) meticulously following the algorithm on paper. Would his computations somehow give rise to consciousness within a brain simulated on paper?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This just doesn't make sense to me.&#xA;Do computationalists believe this, or do they have a counter-argument?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4090" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-10-06T13:59:44.167" LastActivityDate="2018-12-17T19:17:28.737" Title="How can machine possibly possess consciousness if computation is a human idea?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;qualia&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5276" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5280" CreationDate="2014-01-03T09:14:50.023" Score="1" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember of having read that such effects do exist, but I don't remember where. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If that is true or if the hypothesis exist, I'd like to have references about it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-01-03T22:49:55.103" LastActivityDate="2014-01-03T22:49:55.103" Title="Is there some effect that forces humans to judge things and people according to the conception of their own image?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5275" CreationDate="2014-01-03T09:17:14.233" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This being cogsci.SE, not philosophy.SE, we cannot simply accept a philosophical definition of consciousness. From the perspective of experimental science, there is no universally accepted operationalisation of &quot;consciousness&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, it is impossible to measure consciousness directly. A usual approach is to let human subjects report their thoughts. But of course we do not know if they truthfully report (all of) their conscious thoughts, or if they are maybe even mistaken about what goes on in their minds. Also, we are thus unable to research the consciousness of beings that we cannot (reliably) communicate with, such as animals, children, and disabled persons. What we do is deduce from behavior that &lt;em&gt;appears&lt;/em&gt; to us to reflect consciousness that consciousness must be present. But experiments have shown that even human subjects can show such (e.g. purposeful) behaviour while they are themselves completely unaware (i.e. not conscious) of this. The only consciousness that is directly available to a researcher is his or her own, but introspection has been largely abandoned as reliable scientific method more than a hundred years ago, because, of course, from the perspective of &lt;em&gt;other people&lt;/em&gt; our reports are not trustworthy for the reasons outlined above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What follows is that while the cognitive sciences &lt;em&gt;attempt&lt;/em&gt; to study consciousness, they have not yet devised of a means to measure it. We, the cognitive scientists, are therefore unable to conclude if a computer, software or the sun have consciousness. Which makes discussions about the status of that consciousness after the disappearance of human beings rather futile for us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I am sure philosphers will be able to write whole books on the subject ;-) You might ask &lt;a href=&quot;http://philosophy.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;them&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-01-03T09:17:14.233" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5278" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5227" CreationDate="2014-01-03T10:02:05.090" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;An addition to the other answers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We must remember that we are watching a &lt;em&gt;movie&lt;/em&gt;. Movies are often called &quot;dramatizations&quot;, a term that makes very clear what this type of movie does: it creates drama. It was not made to educate the viewers about how a therapy works, but rather to evoke intense emotions in the viewers. We should even assume that this movie does not faithfully depict any actual therapy but rather takes up the ideas that most viewers have of what would be helpful and reflects them back at them, because reinforcing a belief that you already hold will create the strongest emotional echo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do most people do in a situation like that in the movie? They tell their friend that &quot;it is not your fault&quot;. Most therapists don't do that. Telling a patient how he or she should feel often has adverse effects: the person begins to defend his or her emotions from the devaluing judgment that they perceive the therapist's suggestion to be. What happens is that the belief in their own guilt gets cemented and harder to overcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good therapists helps a patient to arrive at the conclusion by themselves. The most powerful ideas, when it comes to changing yourself, are those insights that you have yourself. A therapist might use questions (&quot;Why do you think ...?&quot;) or careful suggestions (&quot;Do you think it is possible that ...?&quot;) to direct the thinking of the patient, or the example of himself or a group of other patients with similar experiences (in a group therapy). Another component is psychoeducation, i.e. explaining to the patient that feelings of guilt are common symptoms and why patients experience them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I cannot view the video, so my examples probably don't fit the situation at hand. Please always provide a short summary.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-01-03T10:32:01.607" LastActivityDate="2014-01-03T10:32:01.607" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5279" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5276" CreationDate="2014-01-03T11:58:38.083" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Judging something by your standard is evaluating another's culture based on your shared and differing experiences. Its commonly called ethnocentrism. Originating in the field of anthropology, the word is equally used in psychology as a bias for many theories originating in America and the West. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture. Ethnocentric individuals judge other groups relative to their own ethnic group or culture, especially with concern for language, behavior, customs, and religion. These ethnic distinctions and subdivisions serve to define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity.[2] Ethnocentrism may be overt or subtle, and while it is considered a natural proclivity of human psychology, it has developed a generally negative connotation.&#xA;  -&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocentrism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-03T12:12:56.473" LastActivityDate="2014-01-03T12:12:56.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5280" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5276" CreationDate="2014-01-03T14:06:16.680" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Egocentrism may be the more general answer. The fundamental nature of conscious human experience is individualized, such that everyone's perspective is anchored to oneself in many ways. One such way is through the influence of our senses, which receive information about life from points within our bodies (obviously). This is probably the majority of the information we have about life, so needless to say, it's influential. Since we basically always accompany our sensory organs, we are ourselves our own most familiar stimuli in many ways. Familiarity again implies influences on our own judgments about other things that might involve comparison to the information we have about the rest of the world, and the especially rich information we have about ourselves. This extends to more abstract aspects of ourselves such as behavior, cognitive features, personality, etc.: we observe our own much more often than we observe others, so we know it best. This provides us with a somewhat biased pool of information that disproportionally represents our own natures (or at least, our images thereof), yet this is the only pool of information we possess and can use to inform our judgments, so bias due to subjectivity and egocentricity is somewhat ubiquitous and inevitable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our attention is also anchored to our own concerns via our emotional systems and self-senses (e.g., hunger, fatigue, pain, comfort) in ways that we can't fully control or ignore. These facts inevitably bias our judgments to involve more complete information about our own concerns than about anyone else's. Even if one were to give no higher priority to one's own concerns despite this (most people usually do prioritize their own needs above others somewhat; this is probably adaptive and even pragmatically prosocial to some extent), one's concerns would still bias the pool of information one uses to judge others' concerns via over-representation in that pool of info. Our emotions and natural senses prevent us from ignoring our own concerns, and also encourage us to try to address them, whereas we lack this directly consequential connection to others' concerns. We can ignore them more easily and willfully, or we can simply remain ignorant of others' concerns passively by never seeking information about them that is independent of information we have about ourselves. Both of these pathways lead to further reinforcement of natural, partly inevitable egocentrism in motivation, values, goals, attitudes, beliefs, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-03T14:06:16.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5282" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5267" CreationDate="2014-01-03T17:33:23.930" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is resolved :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The name HMAX&lt;/strong&gt; ( Hierarchical Model And X ) was coined by “Mike Tarr”, who wrote the “News and Views” accompanying the paper in Nature Neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What was meant by Hierarchical?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The model has a hierarchical architecture : it contains different stages (layers). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-- Increase in receptive field size and complexity in unit feature preferences along the&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   hierarchy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What was meant by X?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it is the pooling operation (it refers to the MAX).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Selectivity in S layer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The activity of each S unit is highest if all the afferents have the specified values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Invariance in C layer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast to S units, the C cells pool over their afferents, and the response is high if &#xA;one of the afferents is high. This increases invariance if the afferents are tuned to the &#xA;same feature, but at different positions or scales. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4084" LastActivityDate="2014-01-03T17:33:23.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5285" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5275" CreationDate="2014-01-04T01:30:31.133" Score="7" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Introduction&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your thoughts seem to straddle &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panpsychism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;panpsychism&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;computationalism&lt;/a&gt;.  It is also possible you are just raising a question about &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;physicalism&lt;/a&gt;: &amp;quot;if mental thoughts are a result of physical interactions, then why would consciousness be limited to things with brains?&amp;quot;.  Well, the short answer is that it's fundamentally not, but neither is a fusion reaction and you don't see them popping up all over the place.  They only appear (or &amp;quot;emerge&amp;quot;, as it were) in specific places where the conditions are just right.  So, the physicalist presumes, does the mind.  I will also note that physicalism (a form of monism) is basically the mainstream scientific stance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Computationalism&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that your suggestion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would his computations somehow give rise to consciousness within a brain simulated on paper?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;would be an extreme interpretation of computationalism.  At it's core, computationalism just says that mental states are grounded in mental representations (semantics) operating on context (syntax): they are part of the cognitive process.  Individual computationalists can interpret, to varying degree, how stringent the requirements are on the underlying hardware.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Chomskian linguistics&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;David Marr's theory of vision&lt;/strong&gt; were two empirical studies that really influenced the perception of cognitive scientists in favor of computationalism in the 70's.  More recent neuroscience literature has favored the &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/connectionism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;connectionist&lt;/a&gt; view (note the two are not necessarily mutually exclusive).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more recent literature review of consciousness, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027700001232&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Towards a cognitive neuroscience of consciousness: basic evidence and a workspace framework&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, summarizes its empirical findings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Three fundamental empirical findings on consciousness&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive processing is possible without consciousness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Attention is a prerequisite of consciousness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consciousness is required for specific mental operations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3. would seem to be consistent with computationalism (the union of computation and consciousness).  More support for the &lt;strong&gt;computationalist&lt;/strong&gt; stance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v11/n2/full/nrn2787.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Agents can suppress free energy by changing the two things it depends on: they can change sensory input by acting on the world or they can change their recognition density by changing their internal states. This distinction maps nicely onto action and perception&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Connectionism:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet another empirical perspective comes from another physicalist view called connectionism.  Connectionism has gained popularity among neuroscientists as we develop technology to better probe brains and model neural mechanisms computationally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biolbull.org/content/215/3/216.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Consciousness as Integrated Information: a Provisional Manifesto&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(i) the quantity of consciousness corresponds to the amount of integrated information generated by a complex of elements; (ii) the quality of experience is specified by the set of informational relationships generated within that complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some literature that supports Tononi's idea:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16195466&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Breakdown of cortical effective connectivity during sleep.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23946194&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A Theoretically Based Index of Consciousness Independent of Sensory Processing and Behavior&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More support for &lt;strong&gt;connectionism&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v2/n4/abs/nrn0401_229a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The brainweb: Phase synchronization and large-scale integration&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The emergence of a unified cognitive moment relies on the coordination of scattered mosaics of functionally specialized brain regions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-04T13:41:00.240" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5286" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5179" CreationDate="2014-01-04T05:12:03.300" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Abilene Paradox is one of the situations in which individuals may blame others for their actions because that is how they perceived the situation. Consider &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abilene_paradox#Explanation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this anecdote&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_iGdiYO7gI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a hot afternoon visiting in Coleman, Texas, the family is&#xA;comfortably playing dominoes on a porch, until the father-in-law&#xA;suggests that they take a trip to Abilene [53 miles north] for dinner.&#xA;The wife says, &amp;quot;Sounds like a great idea.&amp;quot; The husband, despite having&#xA;reservations because the drive is long and hot, thinks that his&#xA;preferences must be out-of-step with the group and says, &amp;quot;Sounds good&#xA;to me. I just hope your mother wants to go.&amp;quot; The mother-in-law then&#xA;says, &amp;quot;Of course I want to go. I haven't been to Abilene in a long&#xA;time.&amp;quot; The drive is hot, dusty, and long. When they arrive at the&#xA;cafeteria, the food is as bad as the drive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They arrive back home four hours later, exhausted. One of them dishonestly says, &amp;quot;It was a great&#xA;trip, wasn't it?&amp;quot; The mother-in-law says that, actually, she would&#xA;rather have stayed home, but went along since the other three were so&#xA;enthusiastic. The husband says, &amp;quot;I wasn't delighted to be doing what&#xA;we were doing. I only went to satisfy the rest of you.&amp;quot; The wife says,&#xA;&amp;quot;I just went along to keep you happy. I would have had to be crazy to&#xA;want to go out in the heat like that.&amp;quot; The father-in-law then says&#xA;that he only suggested it because he thought the others might be&#xA;bored. The group sits back, perplexed that they together decided to&#xA;take a trip which none of them wanted. They each would have preferred&#xA;to sit comfortably, but did not admit to it when they still had time&#xA;to enjoy the afternoon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nobody wanted to go, yet the group decision was contrary to everyone's personal opinion since every individual perceived that another individual had taken a decision, arguing against which would simply result in discord.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the decision turns out to be bad, then everybody simply states what they initially believed which was that another individual of the group had clearly wanted to go, and they had simply consented to the decision. This of course, is one scenario, in which individuals may blame another (specific) person for a group decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The benefits of this can be explained in many ways. One of the ways to analyze the benefit is by using &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance theory&lt;/a&gt;. In simple terms, when our behavior (or thinking) does not match up with our belief, it results in mental stress due to the incongruity of the situation. To counter or save ourselves from that incongruity, we either adjust our belief or alter our behavior(thinking). In this case, the act of taking the trip was against our belief, and hence taking responsibility (agreeing that the decision was yours) for the action would be incongruous. Therefore, we blame another individual for the group decision, as that is easier to process (congruent) and less mentally stressful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2777" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-04T05:12:03.300" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5288" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5291" CreationDate="2014-01-04T15:13:24.470" Score="1" ViewCount="233" Body="&lt;p&gt;What method and/or technique is recommended to make an introverted person to gain high emotional intelligence, social skills and social competence in his/her personality?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I have seen the method is to train specific Japanese martial arts (not all Japanese martial arts), read books, staying in a big city for instance capital city etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3671" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T13:53:21.077" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T13:53:21.077" Title="Gain EQ for Introverted Person" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2014-12-17T01:24:16.657" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5290" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-04T19:35:32.683" Score="5" ViewCount="904" Body="&lt;p&gt;Human behavior towards other living beings can be classified into three categories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;altruistic:&lt;/em&gt; actively caring for the well-being of others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;cruel:&lt;/em&gt; deliberately inflicting pain and suffering&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;neutral:&lt;/em&gt; not affecting the life and well-being of others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You cannot always care for the well-being of everyone around you. Therefore active altruism cannot be a general guiding principle of behavior. But you can always chose not to be actively cruel. Lacking a better name, I will call this type of behavior, which includes both altruistic and neutral behavor, &lt;em&gt;&quot;non-cruel&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, as suggested by Nick Stauner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I would like to know is if there are predictors that differentiate between habitually cruel persons and those that are usually either actively altruistic or at least show a passive lack of deliberate cruelty and knowing acquiescence of suffering?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Which personality traits are responsible for habitually non-cruel behavior?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in traits in the traditional sense (patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion) as well as neural correlates of non-cruelty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-12-09T00:38:23.707" LastActivityDate="2017-03-01T19:41:05.000" Title="Which personality traits cause &quot;non-cruelty&quot;?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;altruism&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5291" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5288" CreationDate="2014-01-04T20:29:06.330" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basically an introverted or shy person is caught in a viscious circle:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;you don't interact with people much because often you don't feel the need&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;because of this you don't have much practice in interacting with other people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;so if you try to interact when you do feel the urge, you feel that you don't interact very successfully or even &quot;fail&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;this in turn reinforces your wish to not interact&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you need to do is break out of this self-reinforcing circle. But how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to become better at speaking a foreign language, reading books about language learning is not going to help you much. What you need to do is &lt;em&gt;practice&lt;/em&gt; that language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The only thing that will help you gain social competence is practice your social skills.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive-behavioural therapy for pathologically shy people consists of many components, such as psychoeducation (understanding the causes, stabilizing factors, and symptoms of your trait) and correction of dysfunctional beliefs (you are not worth less, on the contrary there are positive aspects of being introverted), which, in self-help, you can do with a book or through meditation, but the one central methodology, and the only thing that will instigate a change, is getting into the situation that you are afraid of: exposition (facing what you fear to lose your fear by realizing nothing bad is happening) and behavior training (building a new habit and competence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to help youself, you can of course read books on your problem to better understand what is going on and what you might do, but then you need to get out and do it. I would do:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;define your ultimate goal (e.g. I want to be able to talk in front of an audience without stuttering)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;break this mountain of a goal down into small, manageable goals (e.g. if you are afraid of approaching attractive girls, start with old ladies)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;all goals, the ultimate and the subordinate goals, must be concrete and measurable (e.g. not &quot;I want to be more extroverted&quot;, but &quot;I want to smile back next time Paul smiles at me&quot;); it must be absolutely clear and unmistakeable when you are in the situation you want to change and when you have achieved your goal; nothing vague and general that no-one can meet&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;practice regularly (e.g. consciously smile at every person you encounter on your way to work, every day)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;this may be hard, so don't force yourself to be friendly to everybody all the time, note that even extroverted people don't interact with everybody always, and certainly are not always friendly; give yourself breaks and allow yourself to rest from your exercises (e.g. plan to not smile on your way home)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;slowly increase difficulty (e.g. in week two start to say &quot;hi&quot; to those people that smile back; in week three, mention the wonderful weather; etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;accept that you are not extroverted, i.e. don't expect yourself to become what you are not comfortable with; be content with gaining confidence and competence to be outgoing whenever you feel like it, but allow yourself to remain by yourself when that is what you want; just try to observe yourself and take note of when you really want to be alone and when you are only afraid of socializing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;accept that not everyone will love you; competent extroverts experience many refusals, they just have many prositive encounters to balance them; you aren't interested in everybody either, are you? so don't take it personal, move on to the next person and see if he is more welcoming -- one of the next persons will be&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;write a diary of what you did, what happened, any changes in your feeling and behaviour and in the reactions of the other people, and plan the next step&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ask yourself: &quot;What would I do if I weren't afraid?&quot;, then do that&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-01-04T20:35:26.933" LastActivityDate="2014-01-04T20:35:26.933" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5292" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-04T21:02:46.013" Score="3" ViewCount="180" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am writing a book. It will be post-apocalyptic, and the apocalypse I'm thinking of will involve people being able to read each other's mind. Can any of you give me a slightly plausible reason that this would happen / be possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4103" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-06T02:58:37.680" LastActivityDate="2014-01-06T02:58:37.680" Title="What is a scientifically plausible method by which people might in the future be able to read minds?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2014-01-08T05:27:14.080" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5293" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5292" CreationDate="2014-01-04T22:12:50.630" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you don't need the mind readers to actually know the exact &quot;words&quot; of the person's thoughts, you could have people who are extremely well versed in &quot;reading&quot; another person's facial expressions, body posture, tone of voice etc. It is a fact that those outward behaviors reflect your internal state, and in fact we all read these signs with more or less accuracy, but there are a few people (and maybe you can train that) who are better than others to deduce how you feel and what you might be thinking from these. (see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_reading&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cold reading&lt;/a&gt;&quot;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you need actual mind readers, we are currently arriving at a point where we begin to be able to interpret &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fMRI&lt;/a&gt; images. There are some experiments where researchers were able to tell which images a test subject was looking at or which body parts they were moving from looking at their brain activity alone. I'm sure that our understanding of what goes on in the brain will progress and the technology to measure brain activity will get smaller and more exact, so you could have people use a device that reads minds. It is quite likely that such a device will exist in the not too far future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If, finally, you want real telepathy (which, just to cause no misunderstanding, cognitive scientists believe does not exist) you might base it on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;an organ in human beings sensitive to magnetic or electric fields, sensing (like EEG) the brain states of another human being; there are animals who can sense electricity or magnetism, but the problem with this is that magnetism surrounding us is stronger than that coming out of the brain and will make it impossible to &quot;feel&quot; a brain from farther than a few centimetres away&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;this organ might be in the skin (actually not one organ but many receptors) so the reader could cover the head of the person to be read with his hands, much like an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=EEG%20cap&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EEG cap&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the reader would need to be trained with people telling them what they think while he &quot;feels&quot; their brain, so that he can learn which &quot;sensations&quot; in his hands correspond to which thoughts and cognitions&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;maybe its possible to clone human beings with specific animal genes so that humans grow electrically or magnetically sensitive receptors, e.g. in their hands (research animals with electric and magnetic senses and how their receptors work)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm just trying to extrapolate (my understanding of) current research, here. I cannot foresee future discoveries either technological or psychological, so I'm keeping this within the realm of the possible as much as seems plausible to me. Again: We don't think telepathy in the traditional sense (concentrating your mental powers and knowing what someone thinks) exists. If you want that, I don't see how it could be possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seems to be some evidence of magnetoperception in humans:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoception#In_humans&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoception#In_humans&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.pe.tu-clausthal.de/agbalck/biosensor/magnetsinn.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www2.pe.tu-clausthal.de/agbalck/biosensor/magnetsinn.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is easy to imagine that this sensitivity to the earth's magnetic field might develop to discern even the much weaker magnetic fields of the brain. After all, the other senses show a huge variety between species, too. For example, the silk moth can detect single molecules of a female's pheromones. The current sensory ability of humans is not a fixed limit for how sensitive a sense can be. If the magnetism of the brain can be measured by an artificial detector, then it can potentially be measured by a biological detector.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-01-05T13:35:45.047" LastActivityDate="2014-01-05T13:35:45.047" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5296" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5292" CreationDate="2014-01-04T22:27:28.053" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;My idea was similar to what &quot;what&quot; said; however, instead of the reader needing to be &lt;strong&gt;trained&lt;/strong&gt; to the thoughts of other people and/or having to &lt;strong&gt;clone&lt;/strong&gt; humans with these genes, the OP could have it to where the post-apocalyptic world in which the book is set in features humans that have evolved into what they are now, with having these receptors in their skin included. Similar to your statement about body language detection, some people's electroencephalographic receptors might be better at detection, much like our eyes and other organs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4105" LastActivityDate="2014-01-04T22:27:28.053" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5297" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-05T09:20:25.180" Score="2" ViewCount="1310" Body="&lt;p&gt;If, by definition, manliness is &quot;the traditional male quality of being brave and strong,&quot; why does most of society perceive it differently? For example, a person who watches &lt;em&gt;My Little Pony&lt;/em&gt; and is not afraid to admit it, thus being brave. However, society would think of this person as not manly because he is watching a show meant for little girls. Do our minds perceive being manliness based on what other people think of as manly? Is this why society thinks of manliness differently than what it really is? And, if so, why do we base our opinions on those of others? Also, is manliness what it is defined as or what we have made it to be through society?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4105" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-05T17:45:34.273" LastActivityDate="2014-01-05T17:45:34.273" Title="Why does society interpret &quot;manliness&quot; differently?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;norms&gt;&lt;social-desirability&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5298" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5297" CreationDate="2014-01-05T12:07:42.310" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me give you some background to your question first. You're asking a question about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anthropology&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sociology&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychology&lt;/a&gt;. Anthropology basically studies &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;culture&lt;/a&gt;. Culture is all the learned behaviours we practice because of our development and training by our family and society in general.  Sociology focuses more on society itself, any group of humans functioning together. Psychology is all about behaviours of individuals and sometimes groups. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now to your question. Though a social, biological and psychological evolution traits for males and females has been ascribed, they are commonly referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_role&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;gender roles&lt;/a&gt;. A set of social &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_%28social%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;norms&lt;/a&gt; (behavior with is acceptable) for guys and girls. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_typing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gender typing&lt;/a&gt; is the process by which children identify their genders and begin taking on the traits of others who are also of their gender types, mainly their parents or other guardians. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One could argue that the origin of the aggressive male is biologically linked to our &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1589/670.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;primal origins&lt;/a&gt;. Our increased testosterone and muscle mass because at one time males were responsible for defending the family in addition to hunting and killing meat products. Females with increased estrogen and direct link to offspring are biologically designed to nurture children, at least until they have teeth. (Such theories have obvious flaws pointed out by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/experiments-in-philosophy/201202/why-are-men-so-violent&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;modern psychology&lt;/a&gt; but the idea in general is well accepted.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So watching &lt;em&gt;My Little Ponies&lt;/em&gt; is not a culturally typical behavior for masculine males fulfilling Western gender roles because it is not aggressive. In addition it was specially designed to fill the gender role of females. It would be acceptable behavior for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effeminacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;effeminate males&lt;/a&gt; in Western society. There is some argument that the Western male gender roles are becoming less of a polar opposite from the female roles, but that has not played out in &lt;a href=&quot;http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/gender-roles-society-changing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;general society&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While it may be brave to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterculture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;counterculture&lt;/a&gt;; society tends to reject said groups. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-05T15:09:17.747" LastActivityDate="2014-01-05T15:09:17.747" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5299" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5290" CreationDate="2014-01-05T13:16:39.833" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Empathy is a concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychology&lt;/a&gt;. Human individuals can attempt to understand the emotional state of another being and act in a way which that being would like to be treated. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Altruism&lt;/a&gt; is a different concept. Where individuals are compelled to act in a way which they view is the best for the welfare of the individual. Someone with extreme empathy might assist someone in committing suicide because they are able to feel the emotional or physical pain of the person contemplating death. Likewise a person with extreme altruism would go to great links to continue the life of someone on the brink of death. Like carrying a mother out of burning building as she screams and resists because she wants to search for her child.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is the contention of some psychologist that empathy can be taught especially to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.parentingscience.com/teaching-empathy-tips.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;children&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cameronlpc.com/sample-page/slide-4-thinking/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;prisoners&lt;/a&gt;. Likewise also some research has been done into teaching &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psmag.com/blogs/news-blog/compassion-can-be-cultivated-58355/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;altruism&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lessening egocentric behavior seems to be the theme of both programs to teach empathy and altruism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In non-scientific theological circles repeated exposure to principles of compassion (by lessening self-centeredness) have been known to induce altruism in certain individuals. Yet this same teaching of compassion has also been shown to induce sociopathic behaviour as well. Having the opposite effect of that which was intended. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-05T13:26:38.923" LastActivityDate="2014-01-05T13:26:38.923" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5300" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4380" CreationDate="2014-01-05T14:58:28.137" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anti social behaviour is the psychiatric standard for the disorders you discuss according to the DSM 5. Both psychopathy and sadistic personality disorder are subtypes of type of antisocial personality disorder. Both &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychnews.psychiatryonline.org/newsarticle.aspx?articleid=107089&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;diagnosis&lt;/a&gt; have a negative outlook.&#xA;Assuming the psychiatrist uses &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19072680&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Theodore Millon's or the like&lt;/a&gt; subtypes when psychopathy is a diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your assumption that all those who suffer from ASP are violent and citations as such are incorrect as things like &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02109936&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;non-violent gambling&lt;/a&gt; happen in ASP as well. There are books and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sociopathworld.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;webpages&lt;/a&gt; dedicated to high functioning ASP but it is not a well researched area of study. Even the term high functioning ASP is not in the literature. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-02-01T20:09:16.273" LastActivityDate="2014-02-01T20:09:16.273" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5301" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5297" CreationDate="2014-01-05T15:03:14.773" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of society can't agree entirely on how to define manliness. Two broad ways come to mind as to how it might be done though. The &lt;code&gt;first way&lt;/code&gt; would be to use &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gender&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sex&lt;/a&gt; (depending on one's reasons for asking, I suppose) as a criterion variable for exploratory analysis of related variables. A statistical analysis like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_regression#Multiple_explanatory_variables&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multiple logistic regression&lt;/a&gt; could be used to identify what information about people's other characteristics can help predict whether they're men or women. This would be the more objective, empirical way of defining what it means to be a man (or woman), at least probabilistically. The &lt;code&gt;second way&lt;/code&gt; is by defining gender roles, as @caseyr547 did. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second way definitely implies a choice to attend primarily to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructionism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social constructs&lt;/a&gt; rather than empirical reality. It's important to appreciate that gender roles do not define the actual behavior of people, so the extent to which people really follow their gender roles is limited; the first way I mentioned would produce a better description of actual behavioral profiles and sex/gender differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it's also important to appreciate that gender roles are, by definition, socially normative expectations based on gender, and therefore society imparts causal force to these constructs. People generally (society) want other people to fulfill their expectations, so gender roles also define what is socially desirable. Socially normative attitudes about what behaviors are desired, not merely expected, may even define gender roles, depending on whom you ask. People have very many ways of motivating others to care about their opinions, and to ultimately agree with and adopt/&quot;internalize&quot; them, so there is overlap in and feedback between the empirical reality of sex differences and the cultural context of gender roles.  That is, gender roles, being defined as expectations, change to suit how the genders actually behave, and people change the ways they behave to suit their cultures' gender roles. Thus some overlap is maintained dynamically, but still limited by human error, among other factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides human error (failing to calibrate expectations to reality, and failing to calibrate behaviors to expectations), one major factor that limits the overlap of expectations and reality is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_role#Culture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cross-cultural variation&lt;/a&gt;. Gender roles may vary widely across cultures, but mostly operate within cultures (due to too much ethnocentrism and not enough travel, among other factors), so each culture's specific gender roles may generalize poorly to other cultures realities, and influence them very weakly. If I had to choose one reason to bet you're right in saying &quot;most of society&quot; perceives manliness differently, it would be cultural differences. Still, there are other reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another major factor that limits the applicability of gender roles is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterculture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;counterculture&lt;/a&gt;, which does not simply represent the alternatives that society rejects. Counterculture is better defined as representing those who reject their cultural norms for various reasons. When imperfect norms are especially popular, their popularity may actually reinforce the popularity of the opposition as well, because exposure to an idea increases opportunities to become opinionated, explore counterarguments, and either agree or disagree rather than remaining neutral by default. Therefore subpopulations of intentional norm-violators are also maintained dynamically. Some may disagree simply because they like to disagree or differentiate themselves from others. Others may have principled objections to specific norms; their viewpoints gain popularity among dissenters when the majority exerts conforming pressure (which it pretty much always does). In this way, countercultural movements can become very stable and widely influential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, many may only be as stable as the norms they oppose. If the norm changes (and not necessarily for the better), the opposition may change in the opposite way to remain directly defiant. This may not suit the original principles of the opposition, but when such movements are dominated by leaders who focus more on defiance than their principles, they may sacrifice integrity to maintain popularity through their parasitic relationship with the mainstream. This sort of power motivation further reinforces a limited amount of norm violation regardless of what norm is in question. Note also that power carries sex appeal, so even if women didn't have other reasons to find effeminate men attractive, they would be attracted to effeminate men who belong to a powerful counterculture (and vice versa regarding men's attraction to masculine women). This (and other influences) means countercultures find support among people who may nevertheless adhere to norms in their own behaviors (e.g., feminine men may attract women regardless of the women's own femininity).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These dynamic processes make manliness very hard to pin down by the &lt;code&gt;second way&lt;/code&gt; that focuses on gender roles. To recap, reality influences them somewhat, so they reflect reality somewhat, and real people try to follow them somewhat, so reality reflects them somewhat...but some people also try not to follow them. This all plays out somewhat independently within separate cultures, so plenty of &quot;errors&quot; in the accuracy and influence of gender roles arise naturally from these two factors alone (not to mention others). Thus plenty of disagreement exists, and even gives rise to bizarre inversions of the normative archetype, such as the brave and (not so) thoroughly manly &lt;a href=&quot;http://whatisabrony.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brony meme&lt;/a&gt;, which like many countercultures is commonly, thoroughly misunderstood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/K3pdD.png&quot; alt=&quot;Society really doesn&amp;#39;t know what to think of bronies.&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless, this is not to say psychologists haven't tried to pin down gender roles. A fair amount of consensus may even exist on some essential aspects, especially in Western culture (probably because America and Europe have particularly active psychology programs). An interesting &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tc.umn.edu/~parkx032/NWL132.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of gender-linked traits&lt;/a&gt; by a philosophy author with a fairly sophisticated perspective on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tc.umn.edu/~parkx032/B-GEND.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gender-personality literature&lt;/a&gt; gives a decent picture of how gender roles might be measured in detail (among &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16138874&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;other ways&lt;/a&gt;, which probably are less detailed), as well as an opportunity to assess one's own alignment with Western gender roles. There are also Wikipedia pages on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculine_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;masculine&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminine_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;feminine&lt;/a&gt; psychology, which may be of interest. If nothing else, I find it funny that the masculine psychology page is tagged with disputes that suggest an egotistical tone, and the feminine psychology page is tagged for cleanup in a way that suggests scatter-brained writing. Both &quot;egotistical&quot; and &quot;scatter-brained&quot; fall under Park's respective lists of &quot;regrettable&quot; gender-linked personality traits! I'll let you decide whether you think they're manifesting on Wikipedia through real differences in the writing, or maybe through some other influence like stereotyping and confirmation bias (maybe even on my own part)!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-05T15:03:14.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5302" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5316" CreationDate="2014-01-05T19:33:09.320" Score="0" ViewCount="9155" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can an observer of women in &lt;strong&gt;red lipstick&lt;/strong&gt; or more darker shades interpret anything related to their psychology? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4022" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-06T06:36:32.720" LastActivityDate="2020-08-02T20:15:02.360" Title="Women in red-lipstick/darker shades?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5266" CreationDate="2014-01-05T22:51:35.313" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mst.nl/neurochirurgie/Onderzoek/tinnitus/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Michelle Heijblom's (2009) master thesis on Visualising tinnitus with fMRI and EEG&lt;/a&gt; mentions the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Different studies report that tinnitus is characterised by an increase&#xA;  in slow-wave activity (0.5- 4Hz: delta activity) and a decrease in&#xA;  alpha activity (8-12 Hz) at temporal regions. Recently it has been&#xA;  suggested that this loss of alpha power is related to an increase in&#xA;  gamma power. [Weisz 2005, Weisz 2007, Lorenz 2009, Ashton 2007,&#xA;  Wienbruch 2006]. Weisz et al. state that the alpha decrease and delta&#xA;  increase resemble the state during slow wave sleep. This supports the&#xA;  idea that the changes in spontaneous brain activity might be mediated&#xA;  by sensory deprivation (hearing loss).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-02-06T13:17:15.277" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T13:17:15.277" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5305" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5292" CreationDate="2014-01-05T23:36:13.733" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @what wrote, the state of our knowledge on Mind reading is low but it is an on-going research. The current research uses EEG and MRI techniques to retro-engineer (read and decipher) our thoughts and actions: see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/wiki/Introduction_To_Modern_Brain-Computer_Interface_Design&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Introduction To Modern Brain-Computer Interface Design&lt;/a&gt; linked to the EEGLAB software, or the Brain computer interface wikipedia page (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain&lt;/a&gt;–computer_interface). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most straightforward way to get to the apocalypse you described would be, in my opinion, the desire of human beings to &lt;strong&gt;enhance their cognitive abilities&lt;/strong&gt; (called Transhumanism, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3834/could-neuroscientific-knowledge-and-techiques-be-used-to-optimise-peoples-educa/3866#3866&quot;&gt;Could neuroscientific knowledge and techiques be used to optimise peoples&amp;#39; education and learning?&lt;/a&gt;). This would be realised by having some &lt;strong&gt;stimulation electrodes in the brain&lt;/strong&gt; (we actually do that for Parkinson). However, these &lt;strong&gt;electrodes could be hacked and be used as EEG readers&lt;/strong&gt;. Smartphones would be an ideal candidate for such a hack (see how smartphones can already be coupled with EEG, &lt;a href=&quot;http://milab.imm.dtu.dk/eeg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://milab.imm.dtu.dk/eeg&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-01-05T23:36:13.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5307" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5420" CreationDate="2014-01-06T04:57:28.273" Score="2" ViewCount="490" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the origin of non-incremental, revolutionary intuition and intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a human mind like Albert Einstein's can &quot;come up&quot; with revolutionary ideas and theories that correctly adhere to the law of physics. On the other hand, another mind can't even understand this theory, let alone &quot;create&quot; or come up with one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where does this initial intelligence and intuition (accurately proven) come from? Or what are the means by which modern humans achieve &quot;origins of&quot; intelligent intuition that adhere to science or nature? (Not talking about prophecy.)            &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="8556" LastEditDate="2015-06-09T17:41:43.243" LastActivityDate="2015-06-09T17:41:43.243" Title="How does cognitive science explain the origins of intuition and intelligence, that accurately describes the laws of nature?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5309" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5095" CreationDate="2014-01-06T09:13:58.527" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are a few off the top of my head from neuroscience:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;neural activity may primarily exist on low dimensional &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v16/n8/full/nn.3450.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;attractors&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;reconstructing PET signal origins from emitted gamma rays&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's widely believed our brains are gyrencephalic (wrinkly) to maximize surface area.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Various distance metrics (Euclidean, Mahalanobis) are common tools for clustering data, for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Spike_sorting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;spike sorting&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuron morphology (shape) follows function.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Microgeometry of objects is important for tactile texture perception.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bat echolocation and fish electrosensation are limited in range due to the inverse square law.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="332" LastActivityDate="2014-01-06T09:13:58.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5311" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5318" CreationDate="2014-01-07T18:20:41.400" Score="0" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;When someone says he is procrastinating, does that imply that he knows which exact action is better than the action that he is currently doing? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it called procrastination when you know that your current course of action is not optimal, but you don't know exactly what course of action would be better than your current course of action? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4117" LastActivityDate="2014-01-08T01:24:17.910" Title="Does procrastination imply knowledge of what is being delayed?" Tags="&lt;procrastination&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5312" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5302" CreationDate="2014-01-07T19:17:59.457" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Forgive me if I over analyze, but I assume that you refer to the fact that red lipstick in some places are commonly known to be a symbol of the woman trying to gain attraction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that case it doesn't say anything about her &quot;psychology&quot; rather her state of mind. But yet again everyone perceives these signals independently and it would therefore be a bit of a harsh conclusion to conclude anything from it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the different shades of red, i don't think there's made any scientific conclusions that prove it has any connection to the woman's psychology. I believe it's a simple matter of what her taste is like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4118" LastActivityDate="2014-01-07T19:17:59.457" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5314" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5311" CreationDate="2014-01-07T19:29:31.747" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand procrastination as something where you delay a task, and the fact that you delay the task enhances it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A basic example could be cleaning the dishes. You know that you could do it another time, but by delaying it there is even more dishes when you finally decide to do so, and therefore you have &quot;procrastinated&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4118" LastActivityDate="2014-01-07T19:29:31.747" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5315" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-07T20:08:43.437" Score="2" ViewCount="260" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes students lack the drive for problem solving. One might say that they are bored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, is there a scientific account on what causes ignorance of problem solving, when they simply are not interested in solving any problem? Like when they think that it is the grown-up's task to solve problems, not theirs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4119" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-01-08T09:29:35.930" LastActivityDate="2014-01-11T14:03:50.530" Title="What causes students not to be interested in problem solving?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5316" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5302" CreationDate="2014-01-08T01:06:30.347" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rarely does one find oneself wearing lipstick unintentionally, I'd venture to guess. Therefore, one can at least conclude simply, &amp;quot;They want their lips to look redder or darker.&amp;quot; There is added information in this conclusion, however sparse, about the motives of such women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might then wonder, &amp;quot;Why would women want their lips to appear redder or darker?&amp;quot; You might also note that most lipsticks have this effect, or add gloss to lips that are often paler and more matte naturally. Therefore you could probably consider the function of lipstick in general, not only red and dark shades, because this already includes most. Here's a recent article you might want to check out...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hill, S. E., Rodeheffer, C. D., Griskevicius, V., Durante, K., &amp;amp; White, A. E. (2012). Boosting beauty in an economic decline: mating, spending, and the lipstick effect. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103&lt;/em&gt;(2), 275–291. Available online, URLs: &lt;a href=&quot;http://gatorlog.com/handout/handouts/Hill_Rodeheffer_Lipstic_Effect.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://gatorlog.com/handout/handouts/Hill_Rodeheffer_Lipstic_Effect.pdf&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://personal.tcu.edu/sehill/LipstickEffectMS20March2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://personal.tcu.edu/sehill/LipstickEffectMS20March2012.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved January 7, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It mostly discusses beauty products in general, and uses lipstick as a particular operationalization of bueaty products, which might even be cause for some concern about their conclusions. In any case, it should give a decent introduction to how some psychologists think about the implications of lipstick in general. I agree with @KasperBruhn that you're unlikely to hear about any good empirical research about why women choose the colors they do, but you might...This question is already the fourth hit for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=lipstick+shade+psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a &amp;quot;lipstick shade psychology&amp;quot; Google search&lt;/a&gt;! Also, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-first-impression/201201/the-power-red-lipstick&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the first hit&lt;/a&gt; is pretty informative about the psychology of men viewing women with lipstick:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research has reasserted a strong link between males' perceptions of female attractiveness and red lipstick. Specifically, men are not only most drawn to a woman's lips, but, they spend the most time (7.3 seconds) fixated on a woman's lips when she is wearing red lipstick (as reported by the Daily Mail). Other research has similarly asserted perception of power is related to lipstick, again with red in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You've got to suspect that women know that they're doing this to us...The author clearly does! As for &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-1332709/Men-drawn-womans-lips-facial-feature.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Daily Mail's original contribution to the discussion&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scientists found that in the ten seconds after meeting a lady for the first time, the average chap will spend more than half his time gazing at her mouth. If she’s applied lipstick, he’ll find it difficult to look away, with a dash of pink holding his attention for 6.7 seconds and red keeping him fixated for 7.3 seconds. The study, carried out by scientists at Manchester University, involved tracking the eye movements of 50 men as they were presented with images of different women. When the women wore lipstick, the men gazed at their lips for an average of seven seconds – spending just 0.95 seconds looking at their eyes and 0.85 seconds studying their hair. But when they went without make-up, the men tired of looking at their lips after 2.2 seconds, instead devoting 2.97 seconds to admiring their eyes and 2.77 seconds to studying their noses. Full lips were deemed to be the most attractive feature, but the appeal of thin lips increased by more than 40 per cent once make-up had been applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr Geoff Beattie, who led the research, said: ‘This study proves that lips represent one of the most sensual aspects of a woman’s body and play a critical role in human sexual attraction. Full and red lips combined deliver the perfect pout to achieve male fixation, but women who simply wear lipstick – regardless of their lip type – secure significantly greater levels of attraction than those who do not. For centuries, women have painted their lips red to enhance their appeal, with this practice dating back as far as the Ancient Egyptians who commonly used red lipstick and rouge to enhance their attractiveness. The research suggests that red lips and perceived attractiveness are still inextricably linked, with red lipstick proving to be the most powerful attractor and significantly increasing visual fixation.’&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-08T01:06:30.347" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5315" CreationDate="2014-01-08T01:07:41.093" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nature supplies each of us with a Homo Sapien type brain with 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion synapses. However the brain is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;plastic&lt;/a&gt; and can change its structure based on the way it is programmed psychologically. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not all people are capable of solving all problems. Our abilities mental and physical are based on what we spend our time doing. Even the banal task that one could imagine is quite exhilarating to another person with a brain which was trained and programmed differently. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First the brains structure is made up of the connections the neurons make. My favorite study which shows this is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/97/8/4398.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the Cab Drivers Brain Experiment&lt;/a&gt;. It showed that after years of labor (and compared to a control group) London taxi drivers had enlarged in structure posterior hippocampus giving the cabbies the ability to store large amount of navigational data in their brain. (That is not to say that the cabbies all enjoyed driving though.) Another example of this includes changes to accommodate &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/267/5198/699.abstract?ijkey=4f434a5f26004a86a66ebf5f8b78eac9663bef87&amp;amp;keytype2=tf_ipsecsha&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;musical ability&lt;/a&gt;. Exploiting neural plasticity has led to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_ForWord&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;treatments for dyslexia&lt;/a&gt;. Likewise also everyone who uses the internet has seen ads for Luminosity but not everyone knows that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/abs/10.2217/ahe.10.54?journalCode=ahe&amp;amp;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;it doesn't work well&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who are mentally ill have connections in their brain that lead them to illness. These connections can be caused by physical or by self-psychological training. That is to say chemical imbalances are often the result of a structural or physical malformations. A brain may for whatever reason produces too much or little neurotransmitter or have many connections to an incorrect part of the brain. If the brain was a terrane the paths traveled more often would eventually become &quot;paved&quot; (somewhat permanent). It take medication and counseling to break up those bad pathways and form new and healthy pathways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nature or nurture has resulted in the group of people which I think you describe as somewhat &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dependent&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ADHD&lt;/a&gt;. Only proper counselling and perhaps even some medication will be able to free them from their lack of motivation. Even with proper treatment some people will for whatever reason never want to act in the way you see fit. Homework will always be at times left undone. This is a truth no matter how advanced the teacher is in academia or how driven and motivated the pupil. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-08T04:53:47.373" LastActivityDate="2014-01-08T04:53:47.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5318" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5311" CreationDate="2014-01-08T01:24:17.910" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. A person may claim to be procrastinating without putting any real thought into specific alternatives that are known to be better. For example, one might also claim this because one is aware of more socially desirable alternatives, which aren't necessarily better, or because one has been told by someone else (who isn't necessarily right) that one's behavior is procrastinatory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more general definition of procrastination may be found in the intro section of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procrastination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia article on procrastination&lt;/a&gt;, or on the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/procrastination&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;procrastination&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;procrastination&lt;/a&gt; tag wiki. I don't think the case you describe fits either definition, because not knowing a better approach implies that one's choice of approach (delay, presumably) isn't necessarily needless, but one may still choose this approach for purely rational reasons that have nothing to do with anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-08T01:24:17.910" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5320" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5321" CreationDate="2014-01-08T05:56:08.157" Score="3" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a person has embarked on an undertaking that is both unpleasant and important (a good example could be a 12 step drug treatment program), lets say they make progress, and then stall before completion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the the person significantly less likely to be successful as a result of the break in their momentum? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3751" LastActivityDate="2014-01-14T07:08:28.947" Title="Does stopping hard tasks midway through negatively affect your chances of success?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5320" CreationDate="2014-01-08T06:38:11.700" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are some thoughts on potentially important moderating factors for any such basic effect: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whether stalling is voluntary&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whether there are social or environmental reasons for stalling&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How long one stalls&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whether one has made a complete break from the undertaking&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whether one turns in the meantime to related matters that might facilitate or conflict with it &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not implying you have to narrow your question down to get a general answer, but the general answer might not be a noticeably influential factor in specific subsets of the general question. For instance, going to sleep before trying to finish something one has been working on all day might replenish momentum the next day; this is a short, voluntary stall that probably addresses a particular reason for stalling (e.g., fatigue, or maybe needing daylight or businesses to be open to make progress), and people consolidate experiences and replenish energy resources during sleep, so sleep is a facilitating matter to turn to in the meantime. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, stalling for months because of setbacks in one's personal life might better represent the kind of scenario you have in mind that would more likely prove detrimental. For example, say you're working on a research project, but happen to be living in an apartment you share with a crazy roommate. If your roommate suddenly becomes so disruptive that you have to find new housing, negotiate a breach of your lease, move out, and settle in to your new spot before you can get back to work a couple months later, your new rate of progress might be slower at first than when you left off. This stall is essentially involuntary, due to disruptive social influences in one's environment, long enough to potentially result in forgetting some aspects of how you were doing your work (which could require refamiliarizing with even your own organizational structure! My former advisor warned me about keeping detailed notes for this reason), and it's a complex enough reason to stall in the meantime that you might stop thinking about your research entirely, and have to focus on something completely unrelated...Then again, the result still might facilitate your rate of progress if your research was being hampered by living with that crazy roommate, and your new roommates aren't equally crazy.  (Based on a true story! :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suppose the implications for your question are that moderating factors like these may overwhelm any basic, duration-independent effect of stalling. Again, this is not to say the basic effect hasn't been studied, much less that it can't be...but my recent dissertation was on goal progress, and I haven't yet come across any sufficiently sophisticated research to address your basic issue, whereas there's plenty of research out there on relationships between progress and goal characteristics like environmental support and goal conflict, including a little bit of my own research. That being said, I'd love to see any research others might be able to contribute to this discussion, as I do find the basic issue interesting!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-08T06:54:35.007" LastActivityDate="2014-01-08T06:54:35.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5322" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5320" CreationDate="2014-01-08T07:09:19.057" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychotherapy and all other behavior modification programs work on a voluntary basis. Admittedly someone may initially not want to participate but after the initial period they should want to modify their behavior. If this key change does not occur then they will not benefit from slugging through hours and hours. Things like &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4503/how-effective-is-court-imposed-therapy/5230#5230&quot;&gt;court imposed therapy&lt;/a&gt; do not have as great an impact as voluntary therapy. This same principle applies to many forms of rehab. In recent years the total number of days after detox from drug rehabilitation has dropped from a month to a couple of weeks because for most people it is equally effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-01-08T07:09:19.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5323" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5089" CreationDate="2014-01-08T08:01:48.947" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Culture, psychology and physiology (gender) all play an important role is determining ones willingness and ability to compete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one sense your nationality influences your desire to compete. Competition and conflict does not originate with Americans but we have fostered via our culture a society of those who &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/wired-success/201208/why-do-we-have-obsession-winning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;compete&lt;/a&gt;. Human nature outside of modern social forces was largely &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0395631254&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;communal and cooperative based&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologically speaking on an individual basis what techniques you know to handle competition will help you perform under the stress of competition but will &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/138/6/1071/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;not itself cause you to be a better performer&lt;/a&gt;. It seems the challenge or resistance causes development; not competition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Testosterone and the male gender roles make competition easier for men. Men are less anxious to start competition. Being easier to start will cause more men to engage in competitive behavior than woman. (Even though women are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9639863&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;equally competitive&lt;/a&gt; once they begin). Men also outperform women on higher competitive test like college entrance exams where as women outperform men on high school exit exams. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(a) attitudes toward competition (although men may feel comfortable performing in a competitive setting, women may be more anxious about such prospects), (b) beliefs about relative performance (men may be more confident that they are among the highest-performing participants and thus be more inclined to compete), and (c) risk and feedback aversion (the tournament is not only competitive but is also more uncertain and provides more information about relative performance than the piece-rate scheme; if women are more averse to such factors, they may be less inclined to select&#xA;  competitive compensation). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stanford.edu/~niederle/NV.AnnualReview.Print.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gender and Competition: Why do woman shy away from competition.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-08T08:01:48.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5324" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-08T10:13:50.800" Score="10" ViewCount="13328" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do humans (primates) tend to be curious, inquisitive and explorative?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They want to &lt;em&gt;know&lt;/em&gt; things that they &lt;em&gt;do not&lt;/em&gt;. They explore stuff in an attempt to find something new which makes them adventurous and willing to accept challenges. They tend to be curious about what others are doing and going through, making them inquisitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the cause of this human (primate) behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-09T02:46:44.400" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T23:37:37.773" Title="What causes a person to be curious, inquisitive and explorative?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5325" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5095" CreationDate="2014-01-08T16:50:29.167" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Semantic foraging in memory is another nice example: concepts in memory can be represented spatially as locations in multidimensional space, and the route we travel in that 'space' has a lot in common with the optimal foraging movements animals adopt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~clcl/Papers/HTJ_Foraging.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.indiana.edu/~clcl/Papers/HTJ_Foraging.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-01-08T16:50:29.167" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5326" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-08T19:08:28.347" Score="2" ViewCount="414" Body="&lt;p&gt;My team and I are trying to use &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Inquisit&lt;/a&gt; for a reaction-time based experiment looking at attentional bias. However, with the no download policy on Mturk and CrowdFlower, we don't know a good site to recruit and pay subjects to participate in an experiment that requires a plug-in. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's a good way or site to solve this problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4125" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-13T09:55:26.343" LastActivityDate="2015-01-10T17:19:48.420" Title="Where to recruit paid participants for online Inquisit experiments?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;sampling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5327" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-09T00:20:01.457" Score="4" ViewCount="388" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_calculator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mental calculators&lt;/a&gt; are people with a prodigious ability in some area of mental calculation, such as multiplying large numbers or factoring large numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately I forgot where I heard it, but I remember that it was said that they use parts of the brain that are responsible of motion. So factoring for them is like hitting the light switch or walking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming that this is correct, isn't it possible to train this ability by performing arithmetics while walking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a computer scientist's view, I think this is comparable to the use of the graphic card's CPU to speed up computation. Mental calculators just have the right software to run their GPU. Or do they have a different hardware, and is there no way for the rest of us to achieve this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-09T02:46:52.620" LastActivityDate="2015-09-27T20:06:45.603" Title="How far can we train mental calculation?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5328" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5331" CreationDate="2014-01-09T00:41:08.640" Score="0" ViewCount="800" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to reply to this &lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/163065/mathematical-discoveries-that-were-made-or-supported-by-savants?noredirect=1#comment1332120_163065&quot;&gt;comment&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the percentage of people that are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_calculator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mental calculator prodigies&lt;/a&gt;?&#xA;How do they spread over the different parts of the world?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:19:23.180" LastActivityDate="2014-01-09T19:02:56.713" Title="What's the percentage of people that are mental calculator prodigies?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5329" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5330" CreationDate="2014-01-09T09:16:11.693" Score="0" ViewCount="325" Body="&lt;p&gt;While thinking we burn calories. For comparison: &quot;And if it’s the right wood and the right chess grand masters in the middle of a tournament, they are going through 6,000 to 7,000 calories a day thinking&quot; from &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/9391/can-we-measure-the-effort-to-create-a-mathematical-theory-in-terms-of-energy#comment23228_9391&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How many calories do we burn when we try to understand mathematical proofs?&#xA;How does it depend on the representation of the proof? For example, there are &lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/q/803/19341&quot;&gt;plenty of proofs for the Pythagorean theorem&lt;/a&gt;, even some &lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/q/103758/19341&quot;&gt;without words&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:42:22.350" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T16:32:22.203" Title="How many calories do we burn when we try to understand mathematical proofs?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5330" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5329" CreationDate="2014-01-09T16:49:52.890" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not many.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although firing neurons summon extra blood, oxygen and glucose, any local increases in energy consumption are tiny compared with the brain's gluttonous baseline intake. So, in most cases, short periods of additional mental effort require a little more brainpower than usual, but not much more. Most laboratory experiments, however, have not subjected volunteers to several hours' worth of challenging mental acrobatics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=thinking-hard-calories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scientific America Does Thinking Really Hard Burn More Calories?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our results conclude that the measured Ff,ATPase reflects the oxidative phosphorylation rate in resting rat brains, that this flux is tightly correlated to the change of energy demand under varied brain activity levels, and that a significant amount of ATP energy is required for “housekeeping” under the isoelectric state. These findings reveal distinguishable characteristics of ATP metabolism between the brain and heart, and they highlight the importance of in vivo 31P MT approach to potentially provide a unique and powerful neuroimaging modality for noninvasively studying the cerebral ATP metabolic network and its central role in bioenergetics associated with brain function, activation, and diseases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2359810/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PNAS Tightly coupled brain activity and cerebral ATP metabolic rate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-10T16:32:22.203" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T16:32:22.203" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5331" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5328" CreationDate="2014-01-09T19:02:56.713" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two common ways someone can become a mental calculator via &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=09vvgw2FxQsC&amp;amp;pg=PA118&amp;amp;lpg=PA118&amp;amp;dq=Wim%20Klein%20had%20an%20average%20iq&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=YB74QiIC7S&amp;amp;sig=dlgmk_U6GDfYn5nrHTR4M7wece8&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=YunOUrvHG--62gW55YDYCA&amp;amp;ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Wim%20Klein%20had%20an%20average%20iq&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;high iq or by savant ability&lt;/a&gt;. In exceptional cases someone may develop this ability while having only a average IQ but the level of dedication to such abilities is &lt;a href=&quot;http://stepanov.lk.net/mnemo/mkleine.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pathological&lt;/a&gt; interfering with normal development on the order of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;OCD&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming the mental calculator abilities are the function of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savant_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;savant ability&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_autism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;62 out of every 10,000 are autistic&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savant_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10% of all autistic person have a savant ability finally half of all savants are autistic so multiply the number of autistic savants by two&lt;/a&gt;. Which gives you 12/10,000 as a maximum amount of mathematical savants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About 1/1,000 people are geniuses with iq of 145 but i suspect it takes an Exceptionally Gifted person with an iq above 160 1/10,000 to have the capacity to become mental calculators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So by my high estimations between 1 and 5 people out of 10,000 are capable of being mental calculators. Because savantism, autism and iq occur semi randomly (due as best we know to genetics) you should expect their to be an equal distribution among all populaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-09T19:02:56.713" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5332" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-09T19:25:11.707" Score="3" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;In our phenomenal experience, different features of an object, like shape and color, seem to be &quot;bound&quot; together into a single percept, even though those features are represented in different parts of the brain. Explaining this phenomenon is known as the &quot;binding problem.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I look at a red apple, the internal representations of its red-ness and its apple shape are bound together. But what if I am not looking at the red apple -- what if my visual attention is not on the red apple? In that case, are the object's &quot;redness&quot; and &quot;appleness&quot; still bound together? Or does binding require attentional focus? Does it require consciousness? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2436" LastActivityDate="2014-02-11T10:27:51.040" Title="Are representations of unattended objects &quot;bound&quot;?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5333" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5376" CreationDate="2014-01-09T20:21:17.190" Score="5" ViewCount="535" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Our work shows that the price of higher intelligence and more complex&#xA;  behaviours is more mental illness.&quot;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;-Professor Seth Grant Professor of Molecular Neuroscience, University of Edinburgh&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this finding from this professor's work agreed upon in the scientific community?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there more dynamics, contexts or other aspects to this conclusion...or is this just a 1-to-1 correlation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any other evidence about these types of studies published, and what are their conclusions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank You.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ed.ac.uk/news/2012/intelligence-031212&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ed.ac.uk/news/2012/intelligence-031212&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2014-01-14T05:06:35.977" LastActivityDate="2018-08-19T11:47:35.423" Title="Is the price of higher intelligence and more complex behaviours more mental illness?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5334" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8916" CreationDate="2014-01-09T23:17:56.613" Score="9" ViewCount="39954" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have known people to behave in a way they despise, and they don't know why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3205" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-01-10T00:17:57.967" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T09:46:41.250" Title="Why does a person feel sad without knowing the reason?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5335" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4981" CreationDate="2014-01-10T00:23:57.857" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes but it is referred to as Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder in DSM 5 and is characterized by persistent irritability and frequent episodes of extreme, out-of-control behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T00:23:57.857" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5336" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5334" CreationDate="2014-01-10T00:50:39.060" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is only a guess at why one might feel sad and act irrational there are many other things which could cause such behaviour. (Like for instance something could cause you to be sad and depressed but you forget the thing that hurt you. Leading to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=6&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;ved=0CF4QFjAF&amp;amp;url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/mar03/whenanger.aspx&amp;amp;ei=r0PPUtP-NM3ksASz7IDoCw&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNHmRc1U7DtK2zDaHvLXM1yoZEIx8g&amp;amp;sig2=LK4D66HfLvNlgD2jt2ByCg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depression caused by anger&lt;/a&gt;. )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clinical depression otherwise known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Major depressive disorder&lt;/a&gt; afflicts many people world wide. Often it can be correctable with an anti-depressant. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64063/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM IV&lt;/a&gt; and DSM 5 have these listed as diagnostic criteria:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.Depressed mood most of the day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2.Diminished interest or pleasure in all or most activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3.Significant unintentional weight loss or gain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4.Insomnia or sleeping too much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5.Agitation or psychomotor retardation noticed by others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;6.Fatigue or loss of energy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;7.Feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;8.Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;9.Recurrent thoughts of death (APA, 2000, p. 356).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is easy to confuse MDD for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bipolar&lt;/a&gt; because bipolar has a depressive, hypomania (elated) and mania (angry, insomnia and hypersexuality) features and in DSM 5 Bipolar is a superset of MDD. Bipolar disorders are more difficult to correct and depending on the doctors diagnosis they may prescribe anything from lithium a mood stabilizer to major sedatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T00:50:39.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5337" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5334" CreationDate="2014-01-10T06:15:53.187" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Emotional experience may be modeled in a variety of ways. I favor the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification#Circumplex_model&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;circumplex model&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; for describing the structure of subjective emotional experiences in any given moment:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kGpN7.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, positive and negative &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;affect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; are not polar opposites as they occur over time; the relationship between frequencies of positive and negative emotions is only weakly to moderately negative, as befits the two-factor structure of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnbc.pt/jpmatos/28.Watson.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Positive and Negative Affect Schedule&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;PANAS&lt;/em&gt;; Watson, Clark, &amp;amp; Tellegen, 1988)&lt;/a&gt;, a common measure of retrospective affective experience over brief periods of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One may feel sadness, or self-loathing, or any emotion in a given moment without knowing why immediately, if ever. Self-awareness and emotional insight are separate from the capacity for emotion. Some people barely understand any of their emotions, let alone their sources, though I think most of us probably understand most of our emotions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the extremely limited information in this question (full disclosure: I flagged it as too broad...you'll see why by the time I'm done with this gargantuan answer), I've already offered two very general possibilities: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A person feels one of these emotions in a given moment and doesn't know why; maybe the emotion is unusual, but the person isn't necessarily, especially if it's an isolated event or an odd situation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A person lacks emotional insight or self-awareness, and may be somewhat unusual in this regard.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If&lt;/strong&gt; a person tends to experience a lot of negative emotion over a wide range of circumstances, it might not be so unusual to be confused about why it won't go away. Negative emotion tends to wear away at a person over time, especially when it's intense, unremitting, and therefore often self-reinforcing and somewhat irrational. In this case, one might also infer some information about that person's personality. Then again, this kind of consistency in a person's emotions and behavior can be fairly hard to observe, especially over a short time, especially without actually knowing that person well or communicating with her. Therefore the main message here is to withhold judgment unless you have really known someone across multiple contexts and a decent length of time, and talked to her about the relevant behavior. This isn't to say that our intuitive judgments are necessarily wrong; we're actually pretty good intuitive judges of each others' personalities. My point is that there is no certainty to be had on these matters, maybe not even over the course of a year of open interaction and observation in a professional psychotherapist's (or psychometrician's!) office. How could there be, when none of us &lt;em&gt;truly&lt;/em&gt; understand our every single emotion, and when even a sense of certainty can prove false? Epistemological issues like these are somewhat inescapable in matters of subjective phenomenology like emotion (of any kind).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further cautions are in order in light of @caseyr547's answer. The answer is not invalid, but it is rather focused on abnormal psychological issues related to the emotions described vaguely in the OP: sadness, guilt, and &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-hatred&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-hatred&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. Major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder apply to a fairly extreme subset of the potential interpretations of your very broad question. If you take a look at the diagnosis section of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder#Diagnosis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;major depression Wiki&lt;/a&gt;, you'll see it's not a simple matter to qualify. For instance, &quot;A major depressive episode is characterized by the presence of a severely depressed mood that persists for &lt;strong&gt;at least two weeks&lt;/strong&gt;.&quot; [Emphasis added.] Another glance at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder#Epidemiology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the epidemiology section&lt;/a&gt; will tell you that major depression is pretty rare; maybe rarer than you'd expect, especially after a brief skim of that list of criteria that includes, &quot;Fatigue or loss of energy,&quot; and, &quot;Insomnia or sleeping too much.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, depression may be better understood more commonly as a symptom than as a disorder unto itself. Clinical and subclinical depression have a wide variety of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29#Causes&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;causes&lt;/a&gt;, some of which would make most of us depressed (without really modifying our personalities in a long-term way). Even within the domain of abnormal psychology, depression may result from a much broader and frequently comorbid spectrum of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29#Psychiatric_syndromes&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychiatric syndromes&lt;/a&gt; than merely bipolar disorder. The spectrum spans much of the first and second axes of the DSM-IV, and spans much of the third and fourth too if we loosen our definition of psychiatric syndromes enough. It's therefore important to recognize (and irresponsible to not mention) that depression, especially subclinical depression (e.g., lasting less than two weeks) can occur for a very wide range of reasons, &lt;strong&gt;most&lt;/strong&gt; of which &lt;strong&gt;do not require (or justify) medication.&lt;/strong&gt; Even those that may justify medication do not necessarily require it, nor should medication be assumed a sufficient treatment unto itself for any disorder. Most people with psychiatric disorders &lt;strong&gt;can benefit from counseling&lt;/strong&gt; (with or without pharmacotherapy), &lt;strong&gt;as can most everyone else. No stigmas, labels, or minimal criteria should be attached&lt;/strong&gt; (implicitly or otherwise) &lt;strong&gt;to the prospect of seeing a counselor for help with understanding or managing negative emotions of any kind. Some negative emotion is normal; no one need deal with it alone.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since some negative emotion is normal, negative emotionality also varies normally, and &quot;normal&quot; allows quite a lot of room for noticeable individual differences. Negative emotionality (as subjectively reported using the PANAS, and other similar measures) follows a roughly &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;normal distribution&lt;/em&gt; (&quot;bell curve&quot;)&lt;/a&gt;, meaning that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/68%E2%80%9395%E2%80%9399.7_rule&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;over two thirds of the population varies across a range of two standard deviations&lt;/a&gt;, which is more than enough to include perceptible differences as judged by others. If, for example, you would happen to score one &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;standard deviation (&lt;em&gt;SD&lt;/em&gt;)&lt;/a&gt; below the population average on a measure of negative emotionality, and you happen to know the other person reasonably well (e.g., you've been friends or even classmates for a year or two), and that other person happens to score one &lt;em&gt;SD&lt;/em&gt; above the population average on negative emotionality, I'd be willing to bet that with a difference of two &lt;em&gt;SDs&lt;/em&gt; between you, you're much more likely to be aware (than not aware) that the other person experiences more negative emotionality than you. Nevertheless, in this example, you would both still be essentially normal individuals (at least, insofar as I've described you two here at all), and nothing would be &quot;wrong&quot; with either of you necessarily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not to say that, in this example, you would both be equally likely to be psychologically healthy, let alone equally healthy. &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_well-being&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychological well-being&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, negative emotionality, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;neuroticism&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; are all roughly, normally distributed in the general population, and all three exhibit moderately strong bivariate correlations. That is, in this example, the person with more negative emotionality than you (+1 &lt;em&gt;SD&lt;/em&gt;, vs. your -1 &lt;em&gt;SD&lt;/em&gt;, a 2 &lt;em&gt;SD&lt;/em&gt; difference) would score about .9 &lt;em&gt;SD&lt;/em&gt; lower on psychological well-being (on average; that's a rough point estimate of &lt;em&gt;|r|&lt;/em&gt; = .45 with a big margin of error, as far as I know), and about .9 &lt;em&gt;SD&lt;/em&gt; higher on neuroticism (same disclaimers apply). Again, some neuroticism is normal, everybody's a little bit neurotic, myself included, and a little bit of it is probably good (that is, it's probably healthier to be average than extremely low). That's not to say more neuroticism isn't harmlessly different from less neuroticism, all else being &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; equal in proportion. As with negative emotionality, neuroticism relates to a lot of increased health risks, psychological and otherwise (see for instance &lt;a href=&quot;http://projects.ori.org/lrg/PDFs_papers/Roberts_etal_2007_Power_of_personality_PPS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Roberts, Kuncel, Shiner, Caspi, &amp;amp; Goldberg, 2007&lt;/a&gt;). It's in this sense that caseyr547's answer isn't wrong: there is a greater risk of those disorders at higher levels of negative emotionality and neuroticism, &lt;strong&gt;if that is in fact what we're talking about&lt;/strong&gt;. In this extended discussion of personality, do not forget that your question does not necessarily describe a usefully informative observation of personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, what's to be made of all this information? What should we do with it? I'm afraid I'm not making the slightly more negative-or-neurotic-than-average among us feel any better (though they are probably &lt;strong&gt;still well within the &quot;normal&quot; range of individual variation&lt;/strong&gt;)...and I'm afraid I might be talking to myself by asking these rhetorical questions, so I'll address both sides of the OP, but try to keep it brief. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If you're that person feeling sad, guilty, ashamed, or sick of yourself, don't take this as reason to worry more about it. Nothing is set in stone: not your personality if you want to change it, not your fate if you don't want to change, and not your attitude toward yourself or how you're feeling today, not even if you've been this way for years. Life is long, no one ever really stops growing until they die, so learn to love, or at least live with who you are and where you're at. In personality, most things are double-edged, so don't forget your strengths, and don't dwell on your weaknesses. You've got plenty of time to change if you want, and plenty of good reasons not to if you don't. For one thing, I'm about to see if I can get some more love flowing your way, so hang in there, keep your head up, and open your heart to those who reach out to you, even if it hurts.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If you know someone like the OP describes, &lt;strong&gt;don't judge; ask&lt;/strong&gt;. Not everyone who's having a bad day wants to talk to anyone, but a lot of them do, so stick your neck out a bit and talk to them. Better yet, get them talking to you, and listen! That's the only way you're really going to get to know what you're dealing with. Emotions are only scribbled on our faces, not spelled out in plain English; that's what plain English is for! Use it! You'll surely have an incomplete picture of &lt;strong&gt;why&lt;/strong&gt; they feel the way they do until you talk. Care enough to find out &lt;strong&gt;why from their perspective&lt;/strong&gt;, and see if you can't brighten it up a little bit just by understanding. You don't have to tell jokes or distract them or get them crunk to do them good. Sometimes all it takes is knowing that someone else cares enough to listen, to understand, to sympathize. That could be you! It's really pretty easy.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roberts, B. W., Kuncel, N. R., Shiner, R., Caspi, A., &amp;amp; Goldberg, L. R. (2007). The power of personality: The comparative validity of personality traits, socioeconomic status, and cognitive ability for predicting important life outcomes. &lt;em&gt;Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2&lt;/em&gt;(4), 313–345.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watson, D., Clark, L. A., &amp;amp; Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54&lt;/em&gt;(6), 1063–1070. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnbc.pt/jpmatos/28.Watson.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.cnbc.pt/jpmatos/28.Watson.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Accessed January 9, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T06:15:53.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5338" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5354" CreationDate="2014-01-10T09:22:22.937" Score="2" ViewCount="7976" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember reading this a while back. To be clear, I'm not talking about a phobia such as Automatonophobia (Fear of inanimate objects that resemble humans, such as dolls) or Pediophobia (Fear of dolls).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, what I read about seems to be something we are all programmed to feel. What I read was that people naturally fear things that look human, but at the same time, are not quite human. A good example I once read about is a game called LSD. Now if you guys Google this and take a look at the screenshots, the game doesn't look scary at all does it? How could it when it has such out dated and hilarious graphics. If you tried to play the game however, you'll soon find yourself becoming jumpy at every little thing in the game which sooner or later, you will start to see as really creepy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read that this seems to be a reason why some people find old horror games with old graphics much more frightening than newer games where character models look much more realistic and humanoid. This might also be unrelated, however looking at the horror genre overall, aren't we mainly scared of things that look human? Jason and Freddy are pretty deformed, however in essence human's in shape. Vampires look exactly like humans, but with paler skin and fangs. Zombies look just like humans, albeit with rotting flesh. etc&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a scientific name and reasoning behind all this? I mean if you think about it, the further you create something away from a humans shape, the less frightening it becomes (a blob monster for example). Slap on a pair of red eyes on a human however or fangs, and he instantly becomes pretty scary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4132" LastActivityDate="2021-01-28T16:54:52.557" Title="Fear of things that look like or resemble humans" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5339" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5332" CreationDate="2014-01-10T09:53:09.520" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming that the perception enters consciousness as a gestalt with all attributes bound, then when attention is diverted and the apple no longer present, then the decay of memory sets in. The two models neural-net, and &quot;holographic&quot; suggest different parameters for how to approach a measurement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under a &quot;holographic&quot; model, the connection might become more vague, but I think it could still be recalled, perhaps with the assistance of a tertiary related stimulus: viz. recalling a memory from an scent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a weighted-feedback neural-net model, you'd be looking for the moment when the physical link between the attributes decays, I think. Literally, the moment it becomes subliminal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking of McCulloch/Pitts nets specifically, as described in Marvin Minsky, &lt;em&gt;Finite and Infinite Machines&lt;/em&gt;, a classic, but not recent source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A cortex would be connected through layers to shape detectors and redness detectors, and these would connect to associative areas. The strength of the association would be dependant upon the weights of the neural connections between the two areas, and would begin to decay after the stimulus is discontinued.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... Or maybe I'm rationalizing with big words to save face after being foiled at a snarky answer?? Does any of this make sense? Does it help? I'm sleepy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4099" LastEditorUserId="4099" LastEditDate="2014-01-12T09:36:28.750" LastActivityDate="2014-01-12T09:36:28.750" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4022" CreationDate="2014-01-10T11:57:48.173" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Keith Stanovich&lt;/strong&gt; summaries a school of thought on this debate nicely in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.keithstanovich.com/Site/Research_on_Reasoning_files/Stanovich_TICS_2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;his review&lt;/a&gt; of Kahneman's 'Thinking, Fast and Slow'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, system 1 excels in 'benign' environments, where the cues that system 1 is adept at using are reliable indicators of the true state of the world, and no one else is trying to manipulate you by faking these cues.&#xA;System two is necessary in 'hostile' environments, either because the relationships between cues and reality have changed from what system 1 expects (and has come to expect through natural selection: for millions of years, these cues were reliable), or because there are other agents who are manipulating these cues deliberately (Stanovich cites 'advertisements,&#xA;or the deliberate design of supermarket floorspace to maximize revenue').&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a similar vein, &lt;strong&gt;Gerd Gigerenzer&lt;/strong&gt;, although not strictly speaking a dual process theorist, has long argued the positive role of heuristics (as opposed to the 'heuristics and biases' approach).  His main claim is that simple, automatic decision rules often outperform more complex reasoning, or even statistical approaches like linear regression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His examples include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A recognition heuristic - whatever the decision (predicting elections, sports, stock performances, consumer behaviour, etc.), the response you recognize is more likely to do well than the one you don't.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fluency - If you recognize both, the one that was easier to recognize will do better.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If you're not presented with multiple choice responses, the first response to come to mind is likely the best.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One-reason choices - it's more effective to rely on one reliable cue than to analytically compute all the available information (example: running to catch a high ball, try to modulate your speed to keep the angle between the ball and the ground constant).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's plenty more in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145346&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this review&lt;/a&gt; (warning: paywall).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, a really interesting recent approach has been to compare decisions 'made by the head' to analogous choices 'made by the hand', or in other words, design fast, action-based analogues to classic decision making tasks (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~msl/papers/trommeretal08.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this review&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll not go into details here, but essentially, we're extremely good at intuitively computing the probabilities involved in executing movements under uncertainty, presumably because mammals have been doing it for millions of years, but can be pretty awful at explicitly working out the right strategy for the same problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, **automatic, innate, intuitive processes work well for the evolutionary old tasks they were designed for, like movement planning, and a lot of real world decision making (for a certain value of 'designed': natural selection, etc.), but can lead up astray in evolutionary novel situations that human culture places us in, ranging from supermarkets, to psychology labs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps, sorry about the rambling!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T11:57:48.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5341" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4862" CreationDate="2014-01-10T12:38:58.820" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are in many cases certain attachments that are natural to the human condition. It is normal and natural to want your immediate family and sometimes extended family to love you. As humans we form long lasting relationships where we hope that our spouses and friends will become family as well and love us. However this is not always possible. Some fathers, mothers, siblings, lovers and friends cannot show or do not have the natural love or care. A normal person grieves for the loss of a close relationship. Part of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCbler-Ross_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;process of grieving&lt;/a&gt; typically involves denial and bargaining.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes this lack of love is caused by a legitimate mental illness like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Borderline personality disorder&lt;/a&gt; or versions of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bipolar&lt;/a&gt;. In some cases of BPD the loved one may swing between I love you and I absolutely hate you. The smallest or largest of offenses can cause the switch and sometimes it lasts for long periods of times Hours, Months or Years. Its difficult to deal with. You always hold out hope that the intensity of the relationship will swing back in your favor. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who grow up with mentally ill parents or experience such relationship with those they are close too have learned behaviors of dealing with rejection in a way that is not healthy for their self-esteem. It can result in any number of illnesses including pathological and nonpathological &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;OCD&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dependant Personality Disorder&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codependency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Codependency&lt;/a&gt; as you some what describe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T12:38:58.820" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5342" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-10T15:05:00.673" Score="1" ViewCount="928" Body="&lt;p&gt;My daughter (11), wife, and mother in-law all have extremely similar handwriting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this? Is handwriting a inheritable trait?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4136" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-13T01:18:45.917" LastActivityDate="2021-02-07T07:44:44.017" Title="Is handwriting style heritable?" Tags="&lt;parenting&gt;&lt;writing&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5343" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5342" CreationDate="2014-01-10T16:10:38.337" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your discussing the cog sci called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;graphology&lt;/a&gt;. It doesn't really work in general cases but its a nice idea. I would say its a happy accident that they look alike. My letter R look like my father's R because I wanted to please him at that age so I mimicked his handwriting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Graphology is the study of handwriting. As a theory or practice for inferring a person's character, disposition, and attitudes from their handwriting, graphology is generally considered pseudoscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Graphology has been controversial for more than a century. Although supporters point to the anecdotal evidence of thousands of positive testimonials as a reason to use it for personality evaluation, most empirical studies fail to show the validity claimed by its supporters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T16:10:38.337" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5344" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-10T17:59:18.357" Score="1" ViewCount="289" Body="&lt;p&gt;I sometimes hear from my friends that a man who has many female sexual partners is regarded as macho. But on the other hand, a woman with a lot of one-night stands is thought to be easy and desperate (without even mentioning harsher words).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what's the reason for this? What are the psychological roots? I would say two most important factors are &lt;em&gt;biological&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;social&lt;/em&gt; but how do they affect our opinions on this matter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4137" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T20:44:26.297" Title="Mulitiple partners: macho man vs. easy woman?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="15" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5345" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5344" CreationDate="2014-01-10T19:46:14.613" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Anthropology&lt;/a&gt; is the study of cultures what learned behaviour we receive from our environment and the physical biology of cultures and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subculture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;subcultures&lt;/a&gt;. (The show &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bones&lt;/a&gt; on television is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_anthropology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;forensic anthropology&lt;/a&gt; based drama that gives many interesting facts mostly centered on the biology side.) Culture includes things like music, art, religion, social structure. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_%28social%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Norms&lt;/a&gt; are the behaviours which are acceptable for a person fulfilling a role in a culture. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_role&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gender roles&lt;/a&gt; are the set of norms acceptable for a gender. Now within America or any other nation there is a mainstream culture which is shared by the majority and subcultures which exist inside mainstream or outside of mainstream. Some subcultures are even &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterculture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;counterculture&lt;/a&gt;. Holding a completely different set of norms than the mainstream culture. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our culture as Americans in a male centric because of our root in Western European countries. Likewise it's also the reason the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_%28music%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mode&lt;/a&gt; of our music is scaled and its the reason we still find female breasts sexualy attractive. Until &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;World War I&lt;/a&gt;, men worked at a job while the women were required to work in a less appreciated role mainly child care, food and house management. Women were not allowed to study beyond a certain level. They could not even vote until &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffrage&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;suffrage&lt;/a&gt; was &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;granted in 1929&lt;/a&gt;. If you think that was bad the history of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;female sexuality&lt;/a&gt; is more harsh. While mainstream American culture did at one time require men to be somewhat chaste but never to the degree which women were required. Throughout all American history female prostitutes have played an hidden and despised but accepted role in society. Only recently have male prostitutes become available for women. In the 1920s &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roaring_Twenties&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;casual sex&lt;/a&gt; become available for women but it was very counterculture. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_revolution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sexual revolution&lt;/a&gt; of the 1960s and 1970s changed mainstream America in many ways. It normalized casual sex and many other things. It brought &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;feminism&lt;/a&gt; and other changes for female and male sexuality. At that point women who had multiple partners were no longer social outcast or had to keep their sexuality hidden for fear of complete ostracism. Still though there remains a stigma to female sexuality as it is not as liberal in mainstream culture as male sexuality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In female centered cultures, (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matriarchy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Matriarchal&lt;/a&gt; rather than &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Patriarchal&lt;/a&gt;) female sexulaity is treated very differently. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/the-mosuo-matriarchy-men-live-better-where-women-are-in-charge-a-627363.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Mosuo Matriarchy&lt;/a&gt; in southern China have a very liberal sexual attitude where sex is very frequent they have no marriage (except that which is used as a threat to children). They sometimes have monogamous relations as long as they love each other then they move on to other partners. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other functioning societies have non monogamous relationships with a single woman and multiple male husbands called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyandry#Known_cases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Polyandry&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biology gives women many incentives to have multiple partners. Women are far more evolved than men in terms of ability to have multiple partners and receive pleasure. Males have only the primary sexualy pleasing organs of penis, scrotum and prostate. Women have their breasts, labia, G-spot (vagina) and the highly evolved for pleasure clitoris. Most men are physically incapable of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgasm#Subsequent_and_multiple_orgasms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;multiple orgasms&lt;/a&gt; without sexual stimulants like viagra because of the biologically mandated refractory period. Women have an undetectable refractory period and after they have one male partner they can easily be stimulated by another. You can read this psychology article about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/all-about-sex/201207/so-thats-how-it-feels&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;comparative feelings&lt;/a&gt; of the pleasure organs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-10T20:44:26.297" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T20:44:26.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5346" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5344" CreationDate="2014-01-10T20:14:05.843" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two very broad domains of theory that commonly address the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_standard&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;double standard&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; regarding &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promiscuity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;promiscuity&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Haven't got the time to lay it all out at the moment (would be happy to edit later to elaborate if you like; just comment on what aspects you'd like expanded!), but as you suspected, both biological and social factors pertain in ways that are essential to consider. In some senses the theories that focus on each oppose each other, as is a common consequence of any myopic discussion of an issue this complex and &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychologydictionary.org/multidetermined-behavior/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;multidetermined&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. One answer focuses on one aspect, another answer focuses on another aspect, conflicting explanations and predictions arise, and hopefully the debate incorporates this...but unfortunately often, the original theorists who focus on one (their) side of the issue become invested and entrenched in their perspective, and dismissive of others (another example with which I'm personally familiar arose as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person%E2%80%93situation_debate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;person-situation debate&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;). Keep this in mind if you choose to read further into the literature on these theories. The best answer is often the one that is informed by both, or more accurately, &lt;strong&gt;all&lt;/strong&gt; sides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/evolution&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;evolution&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;evolution&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;ary psychology&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is the side that argues for explanations in terms of biological factors. Evolutionary theories pertaining to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygyny&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;polygny&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monogamy#The_evolutionary_and_historical_development_of_monogamy_in_humanity%3a_nature_vs._nurture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;monogamy&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; are not hard to find; even from a male perspective, there are competing motives to address here. Meanwhile, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/social-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;social-psychology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;social-psychology&lt;/a&gt; has a lot to say about the influence of culture on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_%28social%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;social norms&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; regarding promiscuity, particularly in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;women's studies&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Again, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=women%27s+studies+sexual+double+standard&amp;amp;ie=utf-8&amp;amp;oe=utf-8&amp;amp;aq=t&amp;amp;rls=org.mozilla%3aen-US%3aofficial&amp;amp;client=firefox-a&amp;amp;channel=np&amp;amp;source=hp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a quick Google search on &quot;women's studies sexual double standard&quot;&lt;/a&gt; will give you more than you have time to read about that perspective. Bear in mind, these two are not the only ways to address the issue; they're just the most popular and most inclined to address this issue as a focal topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Enjoy, stay open-minded, and &quot;trust no one [completely]!&quot; :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T20:14:05.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5347" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5324" CreationDate="2014-01-10T21:15:42.710" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my modest point of view, I am guessing that curiosity is a trait that evolved with primates. Curiosity may have helped our ancestors find new sources of food, or better avoid predators by watching them and being more aware of their surroundings.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then human babies, if praised for their curiosity in their youth, grow up to love being curious. And become curious about things that have no apparent physical connection to survival, like mathematical proofs and physics theories. They become curious about subjects like astronomy, and computer science.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4140" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T21:15:42.710" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5348" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5338" CreationDate="2014-01-10T22:45:12.710" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the word you're looking for is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Xenophobia&lt;/a&gt; with ingroups being humanity and outgroups being humanoid non-humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Xenophobia is the irrational or unreasoned fear of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange. It comes from the Greek words ξένος (xenos), meaning &amp;quot;stranger,&amp;quot; &amp;quot;foreigner,&amp;quot; and φόβος (phobos), meaning &amp;quot;fear.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Xenophobia can manifest itself in many ways involving the relations and perceptions of an ingroup towards an outgroup, including a fear of losing identity, suspicion of its activities, aggression, and desire to eliminate its presence to secure a presumed purity. Xenophobia can also be exhibited in the form of an &amp;quot;uncritical exaltation of another culture&amp;quot; in which a culture is ascribed &amp;quot;an unreal, stereotyped and exotic quality&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-10T22:45:12.710" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5349" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5327" CreationDate="2014-01-10T23:02:55.777" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes the brain is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;plastic&lt;/a&gt; and expands certain areas while shrinking other areas. The more intense the training regiment the more likely it is to destroy the person's normality. Essentially increasing the power, overclocking and short circuiting the brain are possible through mental illness or the correction of mental illnesses. In America many professionals and college students go to psychiatrist to improve their performance. Commonly prescribed performance enhancing drugs are SSRI's which induce hypomania, ADHD drugs which increase dopamine as well as anti-anxiety drugs like the benzodiazepines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;OCD&lt;/a&gt; with the ritual of mathematics will cause further specialization at the cost of ability to control responses to anxiety. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychosis&lt;/a&gt; can cause people to be extremely focused on a single topic and their brain the work abnormally fast at the cost of their attachment to reality (It also can diminish intelligence over time). &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergraphia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hypergraphia&lt;/a&gt; will allow them to communicate the inspirations of psychosis in great detail. Finally &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mania&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mania&lt;/a&gt; will endow the person with the ability to sleep a minimal amount and give an abundance of energy at the expense of impulse management. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity_and_mental_illness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mental illness induced greatness&lt;/a&gt; are very numerous. Many advances in science and art happen because most geniuses in addition to having an high IQ are also mentally ill. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity_and_mental_illness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Extreme creativity and productivity&lt;/a&gt; are linked to mental illness. Such greats include &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Einstein&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Darwin&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Forbes_Nash,_Jr.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;John Forbes Nash, Jr.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Michelangelo&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Vincent van Gogh&lt;/a&gt;. Many great works of literature especially religious writings are caused by compulsions to share ie Hypergraphia. OCD can lead to perfectionism and questioning of validity of that which is known. Hypomania allows a person to be more productive than when they have full blown mania. Inducing hypomania (with caffeine and the like) is extremely common in academia as a means of studying or &quot;cramming&quot;. Students often go long periods of time with very little sleep and high energy qualify for manic disorder. Psychosis can be slow onset beginning with isolated episodes and developing into a major psychotic break. A sick person may cope with extreme levels of dopamine in their system without anti-psychotics. It is common to be psychotic (having special revelations, hallucinations, hearing voices and bizarre in behaviour) and be a religious important person. Not all spiritual/religious people are psychotic of course. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-11T07:08:40.687" LastActivityDate="2014-01-11T07:08:40.687" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5350" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5342" CreationDate="2014-01-11T02:30:45.167" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thing is, when we look at something for a while, it influences us to, in some ways, follow it. If I am not mistaken, a similar principle works for yawning and how a person can yawn just by looking at someone else who does. I wish to elucidate with a personal experience. In my high school, there was this girl with amazing handwriting. I got down with the pox so I used her notes to study. And soon, I realized I have started writing a bit like her. My letter were slightly tilted (hers was at a precise 80 degrees and was consistent across the page) and more cursive. My work became more neat like hers and far more presentable. And I wasn't making a conscious effort to mimic her handwriting at all. It just happens. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This might help to explain what I am trying to say a bit better, although it is not about writing, I think it can be extrapolated: &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4NpG4F9yq00&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4NpG4F9yq00&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3801" LastActivityDate="2014-01-11T02:30:45.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5352" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5315" CreationDate="2014-01-11T14:03:50.530" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you want to study Psychology in Germany, there is currently a numerus clausus of 1.3 (with 1 being the best mark and 6 being the worst). That means that only the best few percent of high school students are admitted to study Psychology (marks are approximately normally distributed between 1 and 4). We have tested the intelligence of our psychology students and found that it ranges from around 100 to around 140, with the majority scoring around 110 to 120. In fact their distribution looks like a 100 to 140 segment of the intelligence bell curve, with only a very few students scoring more than 130. This means that despite them being the top ranking students by school graduation marks, they don't rank among the top intelligent of the population!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if you remember that &lt;strong&gt;intelligence is defined as general cognitive problem-solving skill&lt;/strong&gt;, you cannot be surprised that at least for students of Psychology their problem-solving skills are only mildly above average. That they are not much interested in performing in a field they don't excel at, is not surprising.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With our students, I see the same thing you see with yours. Only a small number of people have this personality trait to an extent that they will excel in any academic discipline. The majority of students are in fact cull: they happen like sawdust. Which is a problem of bad admission selection based on irrelevant characteristics like school marks and memory capacity, which causes good marks in test like the GMAT or high school graduation, but not new ideas in research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically and to sum up, my answer would be: Most students are too stupid to solve problems and are only at a university because better admission selection would cost too much money and because a harsher selection contradicts the current ideology of equality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-01-11T14:03:50.530" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5353" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5334" CreationDate="2014-01-11T14:44:56.790" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;While the first post went on to explicate a model of emotional experience, it did not tackle the actual question of &lt;em&gt;why a person does not know why it feels that way&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, figuring out the reason why certain things are a certain way involves inferential processing and reasoning. Explaining one's behavior and emotional states to oneself fuels neortical processes which might not have the capacity to fully resolve the question.&#xA;From my point of view there are two possible heuristcs for this. Firstly, there might be a strong connection between the emotional processes and the thinking capabilities (in terms of causal reasoning), in which emotional default states corrupt reasoning. The habituation to and the reinforcement of behavioral patterns associated with emotional states may be so strong that problem solving is hardly possible (or the knowledge about behaviors might be seen as &quot;wrong&quot; only in retrospect but not when the critical situation is actually happening). It is established that the limbic system, a driving force of motivation and behavior, can effectively overrun neocortical activity (especially frontal cortical areas), rendering reasoning effectively incapable of problem solving under certain circumstances (known as &quot;being overrun&quot; by emotional states). This overrunning can persist chronically due to the strength of emotional activity and lead to behaviors and emotional states which might appear to be incontrolable by the subject - leading to repetition of behaviors which do not lead to an a priori desired state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, the exact opposite can also hold true, namely that emotional states may be too disconnected from reasoning. In this case, neocortical activity just has not the capacity to resolve the multidimensional problem space which is embodied in the limbic system activity. Limbic activity is mostly reward-driven, so that this part of the nervous system actively seeks for consummatory behaviors which are tightly connected to homeostasis (sexuality, food, drinking, relaxation ...). Since the neocortical activity relies on input to make conscious conclusions about certain states (internal or external), a weak connection between the midbrain and the endbrain might lead to a lack of understanding or misunderstanding of own behaviors - by still perpetuating the behaviors and emotional states which have certain motivations, but stay incapable of being reflected upon. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, &quot;feeling sad&quot; probably has many reasons, so a good solution to the problem is to talk to other individuals in order to receive new input and by this to outsource problem solving to helping others, so that own critical thinking becomes less corrupted by the system it resides in ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4143" LastActivityDate="2014-01-11T14:44:56.790" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5354" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5338" CreationDate="2014-01-11T15:26:21.717" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Might be &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncanny_valley&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Uncanny Valley&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The uncanny valley is a hypothesis in the field of human aesthetics which holds that when human features look and move almost, but not exactly, like natural human beings, it causes a response of revulsion among some human observers. Examples can be found in the fields of robotics,&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncanny_valley&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; 3D computer animation,[2][3] and in medical fields such as burn reconstruction, infectious diseases, neurological conditions, and plastic surgery.[4] The &quot;valley&quot; refers to the dip in a graph of the comfort level of humans as subjects move toward a healthy, natural human likeness described in a function of a subject's aesthetic acceptability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4146" LastActivityDate="2014-01-11T15:26:21.717" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5355" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5324" CreationDate="2014-01-11T18:15:31.637" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's an interesting abstract from a relevant paper I found a while back: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This paper proposes a new theoretical model of curiosity that incorporates the neuroscience of &quot;wanting&quot; and &quot;liking&quot;, which are two systems hypothesised to underlie motivation and affective experience for a broad class of appetites. In developing the new model, the paper discusses empirical and theoretical limitations inherent to drive and optimal arousal theories of curiosity, and evaluates these models in relation to Litman and Jimerson's (2004) recently developed interest-deprivation (I/D) theory of curiosity. A detailed discussion of the I/D model and its relationship to the neuroscience of wanting and liking is provided, and an integrative I/D/wanting-liking model is proposed, with the aim of clarifying the complex nature of curiosity as an emotional-motivational state, and to shed light on the different ways in which acquiring knowledge can be pleasurable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Litman, J. (2005). Curiosity and the pleasures of learning: Wanting and liking new information. &lt;em&gt;Cognition &amp;amp; Emotion, 19&lt;/em&gt;(6), 793–814. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic951139.files/curiosityPleasureOfLearning-litman.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic951139.files/curiosityPleasureOfLearning-litman.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4082" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T12:31:43.273" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T12:31:43.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5356" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5392" CreationDate="2014-01-11T22:32:19.727" Score="2" ViewCount="246" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just found this remarkable optical illusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://illusionoftheyear.com/2008/filling-in-the-afterimage-after-the-image/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8Eupd.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; title=&quot;link to source...&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;To do:&#xA;Fixate your gaze on the center of one of the figures and stare at it for some time (20-30 seconds) while it cycles (without moving your eyes). After several iterations you’ll start noticing that the empty outlines fill in with ghostly redish or bluish colors! These illusory colors are called “afterimages”. Interestingly, the colors of the afterimages vary, which is puzzling because they come from the same original figure. Moreover, the shape of the outlines determines the filled-in color, which is complementary to the color of the same shape in the original figure.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this some sort of soft-coded &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme%E2%80%93color_synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Grapheme-Color synethesia&lt;/a&gt;? &#xA;Do people with Grapheme-Color synethesia have hard-coded afterimages in their brains?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastActivityDate="2014-03-22T19:42:39.407" Title="Is this some sort of soft-coded Grapheme-Color synethesia?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5359" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5361" CreationDate="2014-01-12T01:50:09.830" Score="5" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know there is synaptic plasticity in the mature brain. There is a great number of plasticity mechanisms like LTD and LTP, acting on different time scales. Apart from the synaptic weight change, there is constant rewiring. New spines are being born, those who &#xA;find a synaptic bouton can even expel the previously connected spine to that bouton.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I don't know is the specific time constant associated with the rewiring. I also don't know the net effect of this plasticity. What is the average lifetime of the synapse? &#xA;What percent of the synapses are rewired, say, in a day? The motivation behind my question is to understand, how volatile is the brain and how fast does it change. For example, are my distant memories of childhood written in the synapses that never changed since their creation or have they been already rewritten several times?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that the answer depends on the species, brain area and type of activity.&#xA;Ideally it would be , say, human broca's area in normal lifestyle. But I'll be happy to know answers for other circumstances as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4141" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-13T04:33:38.913" LastActivityDate="2014-01-13T04:33:38.913" Title="What is the lifetime of the synapse in the mature brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5361" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5359" CreationDate="2014-01-12T21:37:45.533" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12490942&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;In adult mouse cortex&lt;/a&gt;, synaptic spines can last anywhere from days to months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure that any such work has been done on human Broca's area, but keep in mind that many synapses are experience dependent.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v483/n7387/full/nature10792.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;One study&lt;/a&gt; found that fear conditioning and fear extinction lead, respectively, to synapse formation and elimination.  So the lifetime of a synapse could depend largely on environmental conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-01-12T21:37:45.533" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5362" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5342" CreationDate="2014-01-13T01:24:40.567" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of any particular research that's looked at this, but based on general principles, I'd conjecture:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If a mother teaches their child to write, then it makes sense that they could share a handwriting style.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Within a society, there may be shared educational practices about how handwriting is taught, which could lead to similar writing styles. That said, such practices appear to change over generations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I imagine that writing style is culturally specific. That said, some traits that are heritable might be relevant to writing style. For example, various abilities often have a genetic component. In particular, various forms of fine motor control might be relevant to writing ability and style.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why any two people have similar handwriting could just be a coincidence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-01-13T01:24:40.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5363" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5404" CreationDate="2014-01-13T08:19:34.523" Score="0" ViewCount="943" Body="&lt;p&gt;The symptoms are muscle weakness, slow reaction time, visual perception issues, seizures, hearing loss, weight gain, general sense of pain and delusions. Using the above scanning techniques, a doctor concluded that there are problems in emission of neurotransmitters and secretion of hormones as well as myelin sheath of some neurons, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. Could you tell me how the doctor used the scanning tools to reach to his conclusion? I totally have no idea how the doctor learned that there's problem in emission of neurotransmitter by using scanning techniques. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4155" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-13T16:42:43.333" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T06:30:29.880" Title="How to make diagnosis of these symptoms using Pet scan, fMRI, and EEG?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-09-05T12:50:28.553" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5364" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5394" CreationDate="2014-01-13T09:03:16.237" Score="4" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;Multi-tasking lowers productivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What influences on attention cause the productivity of a multi-tasking person to be low?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of multi-tasking is that a person is working on his assignment while trying to memorize unfamilar Spanish words.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4155" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-14T00:08:35.787" LastActivityDate="2014-01-15T05:46:00.070" Title="How is attention involved with the performance drop associated with multi-tasking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5366" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5368" CreationDate="2014-01-13T09:42:46.383" Score="5" ViewCount="423" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm skeptical of the claim that brain training (dual-n back) can improve working memory; the improvement seems to be task-specific rather than generalize.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The average human being can only keep 7 things in his or her mind at one time. Brain training claims to be able to increase this capacity, but as said above, I am skeptical. Are there any studies that have have shown that the 7-limit short term memory capacity can be increased? Of course, we can abstract and have an mnemonic stand for seven things, but we are still only holding one thing (the mnemonic) in our minds..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4156" LastActivityDate="2014-01-13T15:04:32.957" Title="Can working memory actually be improved?" Tags="&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5367" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5373" CreationDate="2014-01-13T14:55:40.050" Score="4" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering if a person would experience an increase in the level of dopamine while doing something she/he enjoys such as playing guitar or reading a book. And what are some other neurotransmitter that would be released?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4158" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-15T04:37:49.110" LastActivityDate="2014-01-15T04:37:49.110" Title="Does a person experience release of dopamine while doing something she/he enjoys?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5368" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5366" CreationDate="2014-01-13T15:04:32.957" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;No program has been definitively proven to increase working memory in any generalizable way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The authors conclude that memory training programs appear to produce short-term, specific training effects that do not generalize. Possible limitations of the review (including age differences in the samples and the variety of different clinical conditions included) are noted.However, current findings cast doubt on both the clinical relevance of working memory training programs and their utility as methods of enhancing cognitive functioning in typically developing children and healthy adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22612437&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-13T15:04:32.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5369" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5367" CreationDate="2014-01-13T15:27:11.103" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes it takes a basic level of dopamine to have thoughts and maintain a non-comatic rest structure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are four basic kinds of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neurotransmitters&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Monoamines (dopamine, norepinephrin,  epinephrine, histamine and serotonin),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amino acids (glutamate, aspartate, D-serine, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peptides (somatostatin, substance P, opioid peptides)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Others ( acetylcholine, adenosine, anandamide, nitric oxide)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most widespread neurotransmitter is glutamate and so as one lives a daily life they experience excitation and stimulation to do what they desire by glutamate receptors. To control the excitation by glutamate the brain releases GABA which is enhanced in many sedatives. Likewise the brain excites and rewards you with dopamine throughout the day.  Likewise when you are happy the inhibitor serotonin is lowered making you &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_of_depression#Serotonin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;satisfied and something like good meal or sex happy&lt;/a&gt;. One can't forget the Opioid peptides which also make you feel pleasure.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-13T15:27:11.103" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5370" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-13T15:33:07.797" Score="2" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name of practice/method (if such exists) where psychologist uses a doll (or any other form of human-being representation) for patient to talk to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe I have seen it in a movie or had read in a book (not exactly sure)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess would be that it could be used for patients that feel more comfortable talking to not alive objects that have human form or that portrait a human-being but that cannot respond (subconscious security for a patient that an object will not be judgmental towards patients issues or something like that..)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. If such practice/method exists, which implications it has for the patient?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aWvxoEM41Ss&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aWvxoEM41Ss&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Movie: What about Bob?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;forward to 1:40&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Puppets allow a child to displace feelings from the significant&#xA;persons with whom they were originally connected. In doing so, puppets&#xA;offer physical and psychological safety that, in turn, invites greater&#xA;self expression.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF01875812#page-1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks to caseyr547 for Play therapy term&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4159" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-05-25T18:58:43.153" Title="Name needed for psychological practice which uses objects that represent humans [dolls/pictures/etc.] during patient treatment" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5373" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5367" CreationDate="2014-01-13T18:44:30.060" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like many topics in neuroscience, this is a controversial subject.  While dopamine is very popular among the public as a mechanism for pleasure, recent research challenges that view and has started to tease apart pleasure from motivation, finding a distinction in dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John Salamone's &lt;a href=&quot;http://today.uconn.edu/blog/2012/11/uconn-researcher-dopamine-not-about-pleasure-anymore/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;opinion&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Low levels of dopamine make people and other animals less likely to work for things, so it has more to do with motivation and cost/benefit analyses than pleasure itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and his peer reviewed research:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Salamone, John D. and Correa, Merc. (2012).  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273%2812%2900941-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Mysterious Motivational Functions of Mesolimbic Dopamine&lt;/a&gt;.  Neuron, 76:3, pp.470 - 485.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's more likely that the experience of pleasure is a distributed circuit phenomena, not down to any one neurotransmitter:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, Kyle S.; Mahler, Stephen V.; Peciña, Susana; Berridge, Kent C.&#xA;Kringelbach, Morten L. (Ed); Berridge, Kent C. (Ed), (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2009-13385-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pleasures of the brain&lt;/a&gt;. , (pp. 27-49). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press, viii, 343 pp.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-01-14T00:38:31.910" LastActivityDate="2014-01-14T00:38:31.910" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5375" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5370" CreationDate="2014-01-14T05:23:32.683" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Play Therapy sounds really broad, not as specific as getting a patient to speak more comfortably by directing communication toward a non-human surrogate who can't respond. The emphasis is on the one-way conversation, not on 'playing' with a toy.&#xA;No research to find a label already in use, but I like the phrase &quot;Conversational Surrogate&quot; to refer to dolls and the like inclusively, based on the function they perform in the context of the original question.&#xA;If an adult is talking to the surrogate, but not otherwise playing with it or other toys, Play Therapy is probably a misnomer in that case. As a therapeutic tool its use is not restricted to Play Therapy sessions, thats just an easy association.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4161" LastActivityDate="2014-01-14T05:23:32.683" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5376" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5333" CreationDate="2014-01-14T06:44:26.040" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Kazimierz Dabrowski had a great theory (the Theory of Positive Disintegration) about the relationship between psychoneuroses, the most common symptoms of mental illness, and the  developmental trajectories of gifted people. In brief, gifted people are more likely to live out-of-sync with their social environments (too smart, too intense, too righteous, too sensitive). This causes conflict with individuals and the world at large. Because they live in a state of inner and outer conflict due to their essential differences, they develop psychoneuroses (anxiety, obsessions, existential depression etc). These neuroses are evidence for positive disintegration in the gifted, as the process of becoming one's own person in a world that isn't made for the 'Scary smart' is psychologically painful. Many never pass the disintegrative phase, and live with these symptoms perpetually.&#xA;So I imagine that the correlation between smarts/creativity and mental illness arises from their characteristic unwillingness to abandon the parts of themselves that set them up to be at odds with 'normal' life. Those are the same intensities that make them exceptional. The upside is that unwanted symptoms of positive disintegration can be worked through and a 'personality ideal' - roughly analogous to a self-actualizing personality a la Maslow - can be achieved.&#xA;I hope that gives some insight into the context and dynamics behind that common observation in folk psychology. It's not &quot;smart people are all crazy&quot; but more like &quot;smart people face challenges that most others don't&quot; and that can make them seem crazy while on their hard path of personality development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4161" LastActivityDate="2014-01-14T06:44:26.040" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5377" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5320" CreationDate="2014-01-14T07:08:28.947" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Avoidance Learning occurs when someone faces an unpleasant stimulus (say, a 12-step), and is rewarded by the sense of relief they get from successfully getting away.&#xA;Of all sorts of behavioral learning (eg learning behaviors via reward and punishment), avoidance learning can take exceptionally deep hold because there is never an opportunity to feel rewarded for successful completion or get a realistic sense of what the outcome would be if not (habitually) avoided. You can't easily unlearn the habit of avoiding.&#xA;From that standpoint, quitting halfway through is avoiding the outcomes of continuing or finishing. Every time you avoid what you predict to be an unpleasant outcome, you become more likely to avoid in the future. So, all other things being equal, avoidance becomes a habit and if you are quitting something to avoid it, if you start again you'll be more likely to quit again, having already reinforced the avoidance habit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4161" LastActivityDate="2014-01-14T07:08:28.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5378" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1285" CreationDate="2014-01-14T12:42:49.810" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure the article really covers the economic aspects.  Drinking is an expensive hobby, enjoyed by many in well paid jobs who are able to fund it.  It's not just the social aspect it may be drinking at home but I would say this could also be impacted by the type of jobs that are better paid or require more intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many people in higher-end jobs find it hard to switch off, you can't just stop at 5pm and not think about work again until 9am the next morning whereas a regular factory/office worker could forget instantly about work tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been in the position of getting through 1+ bottles of wine a night as a rapid wind down, working late then have a bottle in an hour or two before bed, repeated at least 5-6 nights a week. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the other end of the scale the alcoholics give up everything to fund drink and I would dispute any argument that suggests these were the brightest kids in lower school.  From what I've seen they tend to be come from generations of low self-esteem and intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4164" LastActivityDate="2014-01-14T12:42:49.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5379" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5380" CreationDate="2014-01-14T14:04:17.870" Score="0" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've developed an interest in Behavioral Psychology. I don't have any background and I'm not taking any Psychology course or anything. I just want to learn. I was wondering if there's a good &quot;Beginners&quot; book on this topic, or a good place to start. Googling returned varied results, which confused me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summing up what I'm looking for:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An ordered series of Book titles (ordered by beginner level to expert level)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A website/blog/forum to follow&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4169" LastEditorUserId="4169" LastEditDate="2014-01-15T16:43:34.817" LastActivityDate="2015-02-28T20:30:54.320" Title="A good place to start learning Behaviorism for a Newbie?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5380" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5379" CreationDate="2014-01-14T16:41:40.237" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It would be better to follow a series of instructional courses provided on the internet. MIT in their Opencourseware has provided an &lt;a href=&quot;https://itunes.apple.com/us/itunes-u/introduction-to-psychology/id341596834?mt=10&quot;&gt;Introduction to Psychology&lt;/a&gt; class lectures through iTunesU. They also provide a structured study guide for the rest of their &lt;a href=&quot;http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/find-by-topic/#cat=socialscience&amp;amp;subcat=psychology&quot;&gt;Psychology courses&lt;/a&gt; (some have videos). Each course has a syllabus and assigned book reading. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-14T16:41:40.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5385" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-13T23:04:34.837" Score="17" ViewCount="1100" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard of classes that teach 'creativity'. To me, the whole concept is absurd. I approached a student of the aforementioned class and asked him why he chose to learn creativity. He stated that creativity is a process in which you learn the basics and the rules and then extrapolate it. I argued that real creativity is innate, and it depends on the surroundings of which you are a part. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then a thought struck me: What if no one is 'naturally' creative? After birth, a baby knows only what he sees. Whatever a person knows has been absorbed from the surroundings in the form of opinions and experiences. On these lines, anybody can be creative, provided he is exposed to the 'correct' stimulus. Ideas and philosophies are personal interpretations of experiences and opinions. It wasn't our creativity as a race that has made us who we are today, but it was actually necessity that propelled our species forward. What else would possibly stimulate our creativity as a race other than our necessity as a species to survive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, after an hour or so of arguments to and fro, my question: &lt;strong&gt;Can creativity be taught?&lt;/strong&gt; I don't mean by giving a kid a crayon and telling him how to draw an apple. I mean creativity at its most absolute form. &lt;strong&gt;Can creativity be inherited?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3801" OwnerDisplayName="Artemisia" LastEditorUserId="8556" LastEditDate="2015-06-09T15:35:10.730" LastActivityDate="2019-01-22T19:44:35.857" Title="Can creativity be taught?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="7" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5386" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5385" CreationDate="2014-01-14T05:06:13.397" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Creativity is an expression of intelligence. And can intelligence be taught? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human beings are naturally intelligent in many ways and creativity expresses itself in many ways. Through gesture and through speech. These are the raw materials via which formal artistry is attained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What can be taught are the skills through which expression is enacted. One cannot be a writer until one has been taught about writing. In todays world of mass literacy that fact is forgotten. Given the immense production of books one needs to know what is worth reading, and why. Hence the development of a canon. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Physics is creative - they create physics. Mathematician are creative - they create mathematics. Being far removed from the world-at-hand it is formal institutions of learning that transmit this body of knowledge and nurtures the conditions in which it flourishes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Famously Picasso dropped out of the art school in Madrid. But then he knew as well how to paint as his father was a polished painter of pigeons. He went to Paris - then the cultural centre of Europe. He went where the 'scene' was. Artistry requires a body of like-minded souls. It amplifies and makes real the substance of art.  This is as true of scholarly work as it is of what is known as the arts today. If one looks at the root meaning of college:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;college - late 14c., from Old French college &quot;collegiate body&quot; (14c.), from Latin collegium &quot;&lt;strong&gt;community, society, guild&lt;/strong&gt;,&quot; literally &quot;association of collegae&quot; (see colleague). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Braque, the leader of the surrealists, when he arrived in New York said that here there were artists, but no art. Meaning no collegial body of artists linked together by affinity and spirit; or perhaps it was a recognition of American Individualism that divides; or the mimicry of art rather than the art itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One can discrern two forms of creativity. The arrangement of what is already at hand put into a new form. And that which breaks new ground. Generally form and sensibility come together fluidly and coherently. One is inhabiting the art and made it ones home. I mean by art - artistry in its most general form - as artisan and craftsman - covering both the sciences and the arts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Artistry is not only thought but know-how. It is embodied thought. Thought made flesh and concrete. Ones hands work at their own accord so that composition can proceed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Socrates, so Plato tells us, examined the poet to find out if he understood the nature of poetry; and found that he did not. But a poet does not reflect on the nature of his art, or if he does, only in a cursory and casual way. Thus, this is the mode in which the rhapsode Ion answers Socrates in his eponymous dialogue. Socrates, also in this dialogue call poetry a gift of the gods, of the heavenly muse. Plato, through the figure of Socrates interrogating the poet was interrogating the nature of creativity. Look at the root meaning of poetry:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;poet (n.) early 14c., &quot;a poet, a singer&quot; (c.1200 as a surname), from Old French poete (12c., Modern French poète) and directly from Latin poeta &quot;a poet,&quot; from Greek poetes &quot;maker, author, poet,&quot; variant of poietes, from poein, poiein &lt;strong&gt;&quot;to make, create, compose,&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; from PIE *kwoiwo- &quot;making,&quot; from root *kwei- &quot;to pile up, build, make&quot; (cf. Sanskrit cinoti &quot;heaping up, piling up,&quot; Old Church Slavonic činu &quot;act, deed, order&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Creativity, to Plato displays a divine link. It has an affinity with the gods. One might suppose that Socrates or Plato was admitting that at bottom there is no such link. For who can now, believe in gods. Or the divine. The words are quaint or antiquarian. The word sacred is &lt;em&gt;demode&lt;/em&gt; (out of fashion). But Plato, is not the securalised and desacrilised philosopher of today. The Philosophers then moved in a world of thought that inhabited worlds of myth, religion and thought that today are divided strictly. The word philosopher today does not convey what the word philosophy then did. If one cannot take what Plato say seriously, then one should at least take seriously that the words that he made Socrates say were meant seriously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, No - creativity cannot be taught because its an expression of the person - soul, personality and intelligence. But it can be enhanced though the conditions that enable it to flourish: the habitus of an art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25601" OwnerDisplayName="Mozibur Ullah" LastActivityDate="2014-01-14T05:45:23.827" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5387" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5385" CreationDate="2014-01-14T14:20:19.363" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm afraid I have to disagree with Mozibur Ullah's answer. Instead of talking about Plato, Socrates and Picasso I'll mention one, incredibly creative and intelligent person: John Cleese.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Telling people how to be creative is easy, it's only being it what's difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Creativity is not a talent. It is a way of operating. Creativity is not an ability you either have, or not have. And it is absolutely unrelated to IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want creative workers, give them enough time to play.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most creative people have this childlike facility to play.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarise Cleese's point: creativity is a process that can be taught and learnt. It's about setting up a particular mood that opens up your mind and allows you to think up of things people see as creative. Of course, this process will vary for different people, but there are some key points. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;silence - you can't be creative when you surround yourself with distractions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;playfulness - you have to learn to enjoy your mind and thinking of funny, weird things without feeling ashamed or immature.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;trusted coworkers - gather together a group of people you trust and just throw ideas at each other. It is very important that you trust them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;no stress and deadlines - creativity requires time. A lot of it. Of course, you have to finish a project sometime, but if you want to be creative, you need to give yourself as much time as you need.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...and there's more. Please watch the &lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/AU5x1Ea7NjQ&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Full lecture&lt;/a&gt; if you want to fully understand what I mean (and learn how to be creative).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4183" OwnerDisplayName="Dunno" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-14T20:29:24.973" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5388" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5385" CreationDate="2014-01-14T17:44:02.377" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Creativity is an expression of intelligence&quot; - well, there's a bit more to it than that !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's original thought. An action resulting from inspiration (new idea) or synthesis of existing ideas, which is itself new to the person doing the creating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do you think of something original.. &#xA;If you go with the notion that we're a product of our reactions to our surroundings, then original thought can only come from memories and current circumstance, and thus can be taught/learnt or &quot;induced&quot; as 'Dunno' suggests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you believe there's a bit more that's intangible about creativity, an inexplicable spark which provides more possibilities than the surrounding circumstances logically imply, then the intangible nature of that spark probably means it can't be taught, and some people have more innate creativity about them than others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Necessity is the mother of invention&quot;- meaning one gets creative when it's required.&#xA;Why did the UK industrial revolution start with textiles ? Because it's cold here sometimes! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Creativity seems to be an attitude that can be adopted. Some people can / do adopt this generally more than others, some are inspired towards it by their environment, and some people are even made uncomfortable by the notion of trying someting new, so shy away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this because a relative of mine runs creativity courses with good results. So I would say .. can creativity be taught ? Yes, it's an attitude which can be adopted in amny guises but will only be comfortable for the student if their temperement suits it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user2808054" LastActivityDate="2014-01-14T17:44:02.377" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5379" CreationDate="2014-01-15T04:44:13.127" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A great open lecture set is Human Behavioral Biology by Robert Sopolsky through Stanford. It's on YouTube.  I also recommend Paul Bloom's Intro to Psych through Yale open courses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-01-15T04:44:13.127" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5392" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5356" CreationDate="2014-01-15T04:52:42.293" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Very cool image! As for your question, your link includes a link to &lt;a href=&quot;http://gif.neuralcorrelate.com/finalists_2008/vanlier/VanLier&amp;amp;Vergeer-ECVP2007-poster.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the authors' poster&lt;/a&gt;, which allows you to &quot;read more about the illusion and possible explanations.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the poster:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In conclusion, the observations so far suggest that the afterimage effect is not due to higher level effects of shape-specific coloured afterimages but rather to a rapid spreading of local patch-based afterimages within the outlines presented after the image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme%E2%80%93color_synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;Like all forms of synesthesia, grapheme → color synesthesia is involuntary, consistent...&quot; This illusion operates involuntarily as well, but is manipulable by the image designer, as the poster shows. Hence I think it's safe to say this has nothing to do with synesthesia as an abnormal condition, but it could probably be described in perceptual terms that apply to normative function. You might want to look for more of the authors' work or contact them if you're sufficiently curious! Please share with us here whatever info you receive if you do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-15T04:52:42.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5393" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5385" CreationDate="2014-01-15T05:09:43.040" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first Google hit for &quot;creativity training psychology&quot; &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mr-personality/201305/training-creativity-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chamorro-Premuzic, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt; seems to answer your question pretty thoroughly. Prof. Chamorro-Premuzic is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/experts/tomas-chamorro-premuzic-phd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pretty formidable psychologist&lt;/a&gt;, so it's no surprise coming from him! To quote the post:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In short, creativity is not 100% malleable, but it can be affected by deliberate interventions. People's generic creative potential is more dependent on personality than contextual factors, but domain-specific creativity depends more on acquired expertise and our inspiration to be creative is both dispositional and situational. In simple terms, if you want to be more creative there's a lot you can do to achieve this - the only difficulty is to achieve the same results with people who don't want to be more creative (once again, it is a case of the rich getting richer and...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's one particularly promising way to learn creativity: have other cultures teach you! Psychology Today &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ulterior-motives/201006/can-living-abroad-make-you-more-creative&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Markman, 2010&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt; offers a nice review of a study of multicultural experience and creativity &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com.uncensor.it/content/36/6/731.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Maddux, Adam, &amp;amp; Galinsky, 2010&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt; that found creative improvements among travelers abroad. Good excuse for a vacation!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2013, May 18). Training creativity: Can psychology boost our creative potential? &lt;em&gt;Psychology Today: Mr. Personality&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mr-personality/201305/training-creativity-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mr-personality/201305/training-creativity-0&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Maddux, W. W., Adam, H., &amp;amp; Galinsky, A. D. (2010). When in Rome... Learn why the Romans do what they do: How multicultural learning experiences facilitate creativity. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36&lt;/em&gt;(6), 731–741. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com.uncensor.it/content/36/6/731.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psp.sagepub.com.uncensor.it/content/36/6/731.full.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Markman, A. (2010, June 26). Can living abroad make you more creative? Learning to live in another culture has real benefits. &lt;em&gt;Psychology Today: Ulterior Motives.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ulterior-motives/201006/can-living-abroad-make-you-more-creative&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ulterior-motives/201006/can-living-abroad-make-you-more-creative&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-21T04:25:12.177" LastActivityDate="2014-02-21T04:25:12.177" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5394" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5364" CreationDate="2014-01-15T05:46:00.070" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;One important factor to consider is whether the separate tasks involve the same kind of mental process. For instance, among these multi-tasking scenarios:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;code&gt;listen to someone&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;read something at the same time&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;code&gt;listen to someone&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;walk&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;code&gt;walk&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;read something at the same time&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$\#1$ is generally harder than $\#2$, partly because both of its tasks involve linguistic processing, whereas walking does not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$\#2$ might be a somewhat unfair example at first glance, because walking is also more self-contained and automatic on flat ground. On uneven ground, however, $\#3$ would be much harder than $\#2$, because both walking and reading require visual processing in such circumstances. This point implicates automaticity and difficulty as (probably related) influential factors as well. I'm sure there are others, and I hope others will help fill in other ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-15T05:46:00.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5395" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5396" CreationDate="2014-01-15T15:07:55.233" Score="8" ViewCount="422" Body="&lt;p&gt;What impact does syntax highlighting have on students' progress in learning a new programming language?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for studies along the lines of the following hypothetical experiment, which involves two groups of students: one group would code in an editor performing poor to no syntax highlighting of the language in question...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qsQvw.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...while the other group would code in an editor performing comparatively richer syntax highlighting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nNgWG.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you know of any such studies? Do you have otherwise relevant references? A quick Google search hasn't returned much... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4179" OwnerDisplayName="Jubobs" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-16T01:08:26.737" LastActivityDate="2014-01-27T12:08:21.803" Title="How does syntax highlighting affect the learning of a new programming language?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;hci&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5396" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5395" CreationDate="2014-01-15T16:52:37.387" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Human-computer interaction&lt;/a&gt; describes the creation of programs that use &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=3&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;ved=0CD0QFjAC&amp;amp;url=http://pirun.ku.ac.th/~btun/pdf/color1.pdf&amp;amp;ei=fbfWUvG0HujF2AX5uIDQBg&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNERkWOGPrcieARbn7uRjhSlMW4mNw&amp;amp;sig2=K1-npSa6RFrKYIt67NPNlg&amp;amp;bvm=bv.59378465,d.b2I&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;colors effectively&lt;/a&gt;. Here we are not discussing how effective the implementation of the HCI colors are, but instead are focusing on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intropsych.com/ch06_memory/paired-associates_learning.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;learned pair association&lt;/a&gt; and repetition of color training in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychology of learning&lt;/a&gt; programming.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learned pair &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;association&lt;/a&gt; is a way of memorizing information by associating it with another set of information. In the United States and many other countries, when driving, there is an association between &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic-light_signalling_and_operation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;red traffic signals&lt;/a&gt; and &quot;stop.&quot; When people see the color red in a light or at a sign for a distance, they know to stop. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Repetition is the process of repeating the same association with and without exposure time delay until it becomes memorized. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Association with color reinforcements take advantage of the Stroop effect. After sufficient training the brain sees the color green and thinks &quot;comment&quot; or the color purple and thinks &quot;text string&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Such interference was explained by the automation of reading, where the mind automatically determines the semantic meaning of the word (it reads the word &quot;red&quot; and thinks of the color &quot;red&quot;), and then must intentionally check itself and identify instead the color of the word (the ink is a color other than red), a process that is not automatized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xlm/19/4/789/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Other research&lt;/a&gt; has been done with more alternations of text type. Consistency seems to reinforce learning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-16T01:53:05.457" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T01:53:05.457" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5397" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3555" CreationDate="2014-01-15T20:29:37.990" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a new program called &quot;Paradigm&quot; that has direct support for typed responses. It will measure the input speed, time to first key press and record the typed response. It's very easy to use and has a number of other great features. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check it out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paradigm&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.paradigmexperiments.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.paradigmexperiments.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4180" LastActivityDate="2014-01-15T20:29:37.990" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5398" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5395" CreationDate="2014-01-16T00:07:57.873" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.umn.edu/people/facultyprofile.php?UID=fletc002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Charles Fletcher&lt;/a&gt;, one of my professors as an undergraduate, studies reading comprehension. He once mentioned a program &lt;strong&gt;called&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.liveink.com/index.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LiveInk&lt;/a&gt;, which he &lt;strong&gt;researches&lt;/strong&gt;. This program &lt;strong&gt;is intended&lt;/strong&gt; to improve comprehension for ordinary English, not programming language, but I &lt;strong&gt;don't see&lt;/strong&gt; why it &lt;strong&gt;wouldn't work&lt;/strong&gt; for programming language as well, to some extent at least. It sometimes &lt;strong&gt;introduces&lt;/strong&gt; color (especially with verbs, apparently), but mostly breaks sentences into separate lines with varying indentation, which &lt;strong&gt;could be&lt;/strong&gt; a problem for programming I &lt;strong&gt;suppose&lt;/strong&gt;, but if not, indentation &lt;strong&gt;could&lt;/strong&gt; also &lt;strong&gt;be&lt;/strong&gt; another useful trick. I &lt;strong&gt;tried&lt;/strong&gt; using LiveInk to format my answer and give you a sense of how it works on a decent-sized batch of text. It used one color (maroon) on the words I &lt;strong&gt;have&lt;/strong&gt; bolded here, but I &lt;strong&gt;couldn't preserve&lt;/strong&gt; the indentation (at least, I'm not that good with HTML).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check it out! &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.liveink.com/research.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LiveInk's research page&lt;/a&gt; might &lt;strong&gt;give&lt;/strong&gt; you some better things to read than Google, depending on what search terms you &lt;strong&gt;choose&lt;/strong&gt; with Google, of course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; This question may also be relevant: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/688/4086&quot;&gt;Effect of words highlighting on reading comprehension&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-01-27T12:08:21.803" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5399" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5356" CreationDate="2014-01-16T00:09:41.753" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nick's answer links to the very interesting geometrical discussion by the authors, but they leave out some background.  The color after-image phenomena is best described by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opponent_process&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;opponent-process theory&lt;/a&gt;.  The basic idea is that the neural systems representing color have a competitive nature.  So the system that codes for red and green is the same system and cannot mix red and green.  This also explains why, for the most common variant of color-blindness, subjects can not differentiate between red and green.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The wiki gives the primary opponent colors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/E8unv.png&quot; alt=&quot;opposing colors&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The after-image opponent process itself is a static phenomena.  You can see it by staring at this flag for 1 minute, then staring at a white surface.  The authors extend this in a very interesting way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4LSeV.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;flag negative&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-01-16T02:36:37.037" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T02:36:37.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5400" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4036" CreationDate="2014-01-16T02:12:48.787" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to several studies in &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=kPdUHpwtCjYC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PR11&amp;amp;dq=sexual%20relationships%20and%20crime%20rate&amp;amp;ots=3JjI1tECM5&amp;amp;sig=yFYSPCXPN-reRJOMLbeHeijetOk#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=sexual&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sex Differences in Antisocial Behaviour: Conduct Disorder, Delinquency, and Violence in the Dunedin Longitudinal Study (Cambridge Studies in Criminology) page 50 and 109&lt;/a&gt;. Unrepressed sexuality in teens especially amoung females from risk groups correlates to antisocial behavior. The research only shows a correlation due to social factors rather than a causation. The relationship is more likely to be reverse causality from a underlying biological or social structure than sexuality itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T02:12:48.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5401" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-16T02:39:18.893" Score="14" ViewCount="994" Body="&lt;p&gt;Self Discipline, as defined in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline#Self-discipline&quot;&gt;this meagre Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; as being &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;as the ability to motivate oneself in spite of a negative emotion&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is partly distinct from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-control&quot;&gt;self control and willpower&lt;/a&gt; which from Wikipedia, is defined as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the ability to control one's emotions, behavior, and desires in order to obtain some reward, or avoid some punishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am referring to the former, where there may not necessarily be a reward or punishment involved.  I am interested in the neurological basis of self discipline, specifically, are there more primitive areas of the brain at play in trying to defeat our self-discipline that are in turn, inhibited by the frontal cortex or other parts of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user4185" LastActivityDate="2015-08-30T00:56:05.633" Title="What is the neurological basis of maintaining self discipline?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5403" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5363" CreationDate="2014-01-16T05:22:27.867" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;T2 weighted MRI scans can reveal white matter lesions, so that may explain the detection of demyelination. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, that's not fMRI...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="332" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T05:22:27.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5404" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5363" CreationDate="2014-01-16T06:16:46.800" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You would have to ask your doctor to be certain but it seems to me that the PET could have identified the myelin sheath problems by the MeDAS binding and certainly could identify the neurotransmitters which were out of balance. The neurotransmitters are found by using a radiotracer which makes them measurable on the PET. The fMRI would have confirmed or identified the myelin sheath problems in a more localized way. The EEG was also given to rule out certain kinds of seizures and possibly identify the correct type.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PET&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PET scanning is also used for diagnosis of brain disease, most notably because brain tumors, strokes, and neuron-damaging diseases which cause dementia (such as Alzheimer's disease) all cause great changes in brain metabolism, which in turn causes easily detectable changes in PET scans. PET is probably most useful in early cases of certain dementias (with classic examples being Alzheimer's disease and Pick's disease) where the early damage is too diffuse and makes too little difference in brain volume and gross structure to change CT and standard MRI images enough to be able to reliably differentiate it from the &amp;quot;normal&amp;quot; range of cortical atrophy which occurs with aging (in many but not all) persons, and which does not cause clinical dementia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;fMRI&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The primary form of fMRI uses the Blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) contrast, discovered by Seiji Ogawa. This is a type of specialized brain and body scan used to map neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals by imaging the change in blood flow (hemodynamic response) related to energy use by brain cells. Since the early 1990s, fMRI has come to dominate brain mapping research because it does not require people to undergo shots, surgery, or to ingest substances, or be exposed to radiation. Other methods of obtaining contrast are arterial spin labeling and diffusion MRI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The procedure is similar to MRI but uses the change in magnetization between oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood as its basic measure. This measure is frequently corrupted by noise from various sources and hence statistical procedures are used to extract the underlying signal. The resulting brain activation can be presented graphically by color-coding the strength of activation across the brain or the specific region studied. The technique can localize activity to within millimeters but, using standard techniques, no better than within a window of a few seconds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EEG&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In neurology, the main diagnostic application of EEG is in the case of epilepsy, as epileptic activity can create clear abnormalities on a standard EEG study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEG&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T06:30:29.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5405" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5268" CreationDate="2014-01-16T09:53:18.617" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me say first off that I don't know anything about cognitive style. However, I have recently read an interesting article by van Knippenberg and van Ginkel (2010) about diversity in work teams which might be relevant here. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Demographic Diversity.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;To explain the sometimes contradicting effects of diversity on work teams, the authors propose a model that differenciates between two types of diversity, &lt;em&gt;demographic&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;functional&lt;/em&gt; diversity. According to the authors, these two forms of diversity have opposing effects. According to &lt;em&gt;Self-Categorization Theory&lt;/em&gt;, demographic diversity (age, gender, country of origin, etc.) is likely to initiate categorization processes (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/673/can-an-individual-having-strong-identity-associations-with-groups-be-used-to-inf/3660#3660&quot;&gt;this post&lt;/a&gt; for more information) through which people perceive themselves as belonging to different groups. These perceptions of ingroup and outgroup might lead to conflict and thereby negatively impact team performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Functional Diversity.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Functional diversity on the other hand refers to different areas of knowledge and expertise, that members of a team might have and is seen as an informational ressource. A team with experts from different fields has a potential benefit (at least with regard to some tasks). This might also cling to cognitive style. This kind of diversity, then, can potentially increase a team's performance. However, it is not sufficient for a team to be functinally diverse. Rather, the members have to put this diversity to use by elaborating together on the task at hand. This Elaboration process is not automatic and involves the exchange, discussion and integration of information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Categorization-Elaboration Model of Work Group Diversity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to note that according to van Knippenberg &amp;amp; van Ginkel (2010), it is not the question, which one of these two approaches is the correct one. Instead, both kinds of diversity might be present at the same time and interact, leading to the often mixed results from studies on diversity. There are a couple of moderators in the model, as well. Task complexity is thought to be a factor with regard to funtional diversity: the more complex the task, the more schould the team benefit diversity. The two other moderators are motivation and ability, which are, as I would argue, not specific to the discussion of diversity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Team Design and Management&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What can one learn from this with regard to the design of work teams? The first thing that comes to mind is that teams should be functionally diverse. In addition, the importance of the elaboration process needs to be acknowledged, because otherwise informational ressources will not be put to good use. As to demographic diversity, the suggestion cannnot be to have teams not be diverse (to prevent categorization as ingroup and outgroup). Rather, the authors suggest to foster the importance of group members beliefs in the value of diversity. van Knippenberg &amp;amp; van Ginkel also prevent evidence that leaders can be trained in order to do so. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Van Knippenberg, D., &amp;amp; van Ginkel, W. P. (2010). The categorization-elaboration model of work group diversity: Wielding the double-edged sword. In R. J. Crisp (Hrsg.), &lt;em&gt;The psychology of social and cultural diversity&lt;/em&gt; (S. 257–280). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T09:53:18.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5406" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-16T10:43:41.630" Score="5" ViewCount="1011" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an interesting question on this site:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/68/does-writing-something-down-help-memorize-it?newreg=ad6b07f59ba04fd493e4c72fe9abfb2d&quot;&gt;Does writing something down help memorize it?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now my question is, does writing something on computer (i.e. using Word, Notepad, ...) help memorize it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I usually learn by rewriting texts I read on computer. I never use copy-paste and always rewrite text myself and change it a little (acording to my needs, also I often translate it).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I use computer mainly because:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I can write faster on computer than on paper&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am often lazy to find paper and I don't want to waste paper when I will probably throw it away 2 days later anyway (consider &lt;em&gt;environment&lt;/em&gt;, please don't consider as a &quot;&lt;em&gt;throw away exam&lt;/em&gt;&quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It easier to edit text written on computer, can search within it, ...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So does the writing text on computer have the same advantages as writing down on paper?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sub question: Does formatting of text have any influence on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4187" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T10:55:04.383" Title="Does writing something on computer help memorize it?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5407" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5413" CreationDate="2014-01-16T12:42:42.853" Score="6" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you've ever heard an echo of yourself on phone or video chat, you've probably noticed the phenomenon that you completely forget what you were talking about when you hear yourself talking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Have there been any studies that explain &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; this happens?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think there was an XKCD comic about it but I can't find it right now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="231" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2018-05-12T22:21:10.183" LastActivityDate="2018-05-12T22:21:10.183" Title="What is it about our brain that breaks when we hear ourselves with a delay?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5408" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5409" CreationDate="2014-01-16T12:47:23.747" Score="6" ViewCount="2529" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard once that the human eye has a logarithmic scale for luminance, e.g. to &quot;feel&quot; that a surface is three times as luminous compared to another, the former emits a light 8 times more powerful than the latter. Definitions are indeed vague as my memory doesn't serve me well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this based on anything scientific?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4188" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T21:45:56.027" Title="Sensitivity of human eye to luminance" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5409" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5408" CreationDate="2014-01-16T13:59:44.873" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;From Stevens &amp;amp; Galanter (1957)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although an extensive investigation of the subjective scale of&#xA;  brightness is still in progress in this laboratory, enough has been&#xA;  learned to show that, for patches of white light viewed in a dark&#xA;  room, &lt;strong&gt;subjective brightness is a power function of luminance&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;  Moreover, &lt;strong&gt;the exponent is of the order of one-third&lt;/strong&gt; which is in&#xA;  reasonable agreement with results obtained by Hanes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L3PrH.png&quot; alt=&quot;Fig. 1A from Stevens &amp;amp; Galanter (1957)&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stevens, S. S., &amp;amp; Galanter, E. H. (1957). Ratio scales and category scales for a dozen perceptual continua. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54(6), 377.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and the related study that is mentioned:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hanes, R. M. (1949). The construction of subjective brightness scales from fractionation data: a validation. Journal of experimental psychology, 39(5), 719.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T13:59:44.873" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5410" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5411" CreationDate="2014-01-16T14:32:20.110" Score="4" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that many people know for themselves some extraordinary things about consciousness but rare are the people that can provide a definition of it. I have never met two people providing the same definition of consciousness (I never talked with specialist of the field though but only to general and evolutionary biologists).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any, globally accepting definition of consciousness in cognitive science? What is it? If not, can you please provide a little review of the definitions that are most often used in scientific research. Critics for each definitions are welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4069" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T15:08:35.187" Title="Definitions of consciousness" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5411" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5410" CreationDate="2014-01-16T15:08:35.187" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consciousness is what makes us what we are; however it is very difficult to examine our internal workings and form an external definition for something everyone uses everyday. This is mainly because the mechanisms of consciousness are still a mystery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are two well accepted definitions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consciousness is the quality or state of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. It has been defined as: sentience, awareness, subjectivity, the ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness, having a sense of selfhood, and the executive control system of the mind. Despite the difficulty in definition, many philosophers believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. As Max Velmans and Susan Schneider wrote in The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness: &amp;quot;Anything that we are aware of at a given moment forms part of our consciousness, making conscious experience at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Philosophers since the time of Descartes and Locke have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness and pin down its essential properties. Issues of concern in the philosophy of consciousness include whether the concept is fundamentally valid; whether consciousness can ever be explained mechanistically; whether non-human consciousness exists and if so how it can be recognized; how consciousness relates to language; whether consciousness can be understood in a way that does not require a dualistic distinction between mental and physical states or properties; and whether it may ever be possible for computing machines like computers or robots to be conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 1994 David Chalmers &lt;a href=&quot;http://consc.net/papers/facing.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;published a paper&lt;/a&gt; explaining why consciousness is such a challenging phenomenon to understand. Although he wasn’t the first to discuss these challenges, he was the first to categorize them into two types of problems: “easy” problems and the “hard” problem. Easy problems involve the explanation of how the mind integrates information, focuses attention and allows us to report on mental states. Though not a piece of cake, such problems are easy because solving them only requires that we determine the mechanisms that explain these behaviors. Easy problems are physical by nature, falling within the empirical domains of psychology, cognitive science and neuroscience. Given the current trend in science of the mind, we’re confident that one day we will solve these problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hard problem, by contrast, may never be solved. Specifically, the hard problem is determining why or how consciousness occurs given the right arrangement of brain matter. What makes it hard is that we cannot just point to some physical mechanism to solve it, for that would be the solution to the easy problem. Instead, our goal is to explain why certain physical mechanism gives rise to consciousness instead of something else or nothing at all. Consider an analogy from physics: knowing every equation predicting how mass and gravity interact does not tell us why they interact in the way they do. To understand why mass and gravity interact, we must appeal to highly esoteric explanations involving relativity, quantum mechanics or string theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-superhuman-mind/201303/what-is-consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What is Consciousness?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T15:08:35.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5412" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-16T16:27:39.543" Score="3" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have a lot of data regarding a 5 point ordinal scale with descriptors for each point like 'very little' to 'very much'.  I am worried that this scale will show insufficient variance in a further study I am designing, and would like to extend it in some way which a) captures meaningful information but b) maintains maximum comparability to the previous data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Options under consideration:&#xA;1 - add blank items in between each of the old items on the horizontal row, rely on individuals to interpolate.&#xA;2 - invent new labels which somehow fit in between the old.  This may be linguistically challenging.&#xA;3 - convert to a numeric scale with comparably labeled beginning, mid, and endpoints&#xA;4- convert to a numeric scale using the old labels at every appropriate point, and blanks otherwise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adding additional questions to capture the variance is not an option, but I'm interested in any others I haven't thought of, and for and against arguments.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="629" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T21:43:50.813" Title="Extending a 5 point ordinal scale to 9 points while maintaining comparability" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5413" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5407" CreationDate="2014-01-16T19:02:41.437" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This phenomenon is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delayed_Auditory_Feedback&quot;&gt;delayed auditory feedback&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Why&lt;/em&gt; is still an open question, but two theories are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/60/3/213/&quot;&gt;Servomotor hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;: delayed auditory feedback creates an error signal, which the motor systems uses to attempt to correct the motor output.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2231590/&quot;&gt;Distruptive rhythm hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;: Speech is too fast for error correcting feedback (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt; speech is feedforward), delayed auditory feedback disrupts the rhythm of motor output.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="332" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T19:02:41.437" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5414" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4862" CreationDate="2014-01-16T20:52:08.903" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another component, which relies less on situations from one's past, are the effects of perceived scarcity. A paradigm in behavioral psychology which has become almost universally accepted is that the more scarce and hard to come by something is (be it a certain model of car, or the affection of another individual), the more valuable we perceive it to be. This is why a common sales tactic is to tell a potential customer that the item they are prospecting is one of the last in stock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you expand this principle into human interaction, its easy to understand why not reciprocating someone's interest can often lead them to double down and perhaps even desire attention and affection more than they originally had.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3751" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T20:52:08.903" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5415" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5408" CreationDate="2014-01-16T21:45:56.027" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This logarithmic increase in order to produce a just noticeable difference between stimuli of two different intensities is in fact a general property or the sensory system. It is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber%E2%80%93Fechner_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Weber-) Fechner's law&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Weber's law states that the just-noticeable difference between two&#xA;  stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the stimuli. Gustav&#xA;  Theodor Fechner (1801–1887), a scholar of Weber, later used Weber's&#xA;  findings to construct a psychophysical scale in which he described the&#xA;  relationship between the physical magnitude of a stimulus and its&#xA;  (subjectively) perceived intensity. &lt;strong&gt;Fechner's law (better referred to&#xA;  as Fechner's scale) states that subjective sensation is proportional&#xA;  to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T21:45:56.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5416" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5431" CreationDate="2014-01-16T21:56:08.073" Score="4" ViewCount="598" Body="&lt;p&gt;Despite the obvious difficulties pertaining to definition and measurement, and the various controversies surrounding the use of IQ-type scores in human beings, it seems unquestionable that there are significant intraspecies individual differences in some general component of learning ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have any such measures in fact been defined and investigated for any non-human species?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4047" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2021-03-20T17:29:43.487" LastActivityDate="2021-03-20T17:29:43.487" Title="Have IQ-type measures been tried for other animals?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5417" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1092" CreationDate="2014-01-16T22:18:39.920" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;'Reinforcement' is anything that increases the chances that an organism with repeat a behavior. When you are teaching a behavior, in the beginning, eliciting behavior takes a lot of reinforcement. So, for example, if you want to teach you dog to come to you every time you go to the back door, you feed him a cookie when you go to the back door. After a while this behavior becomes REALLY strong. He expects a cookie. Now you can work on another principle of operant conditioning called 'extinction'. It works like this. If you stop reinforcing a behavior, the dog in this case, gets frustrated, and trys really hard to get that reinforcement to continue. There are two possible outcomes. Either A: extinction, where the behavior that was being reinforced vanishes, or B: The behavior escalates until you reinforce it, and you get a new level of behavior. (this is how bad habits get worse, and good habits get better)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if you want to get a really strong behavior you need both kinds of reinforcement schedules. First you start off with a fixed reinforcement schedule to build the expectation of reinforcement, then you switch to a reinforcement schedule that causes some level of frustration to elicit the extinction response, and you intentionally 'fail' extinction to get a stronger behavior. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A completely random reinforcement schedule is not nearly as effective as a trainer that is tuned into the emotions of the animal that is being trained. A really good trainer can cause just enough frustration to get a little more behavior, without causing so much that the animal just gives up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4191" LastActivityDate="2014-01-16T22:18:39.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5418" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5412" CreationDate="2014-01-17T03:40:32.657" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;See this question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/6791/how-to-compare-likert-scales-with-varying-number-of-categories-across-time&quot;&gt;comparing scales with different response scales&lt;/a&gt;. In short, you have to do it with care. A good option for ensuring comparability is to get a sample of participants to provide responses on both response scales in order to see how they relate. This could then be used to create a conversion scale. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, there is a large debate about the optimal number of response options on traditional survey items. In particular, if you are more interested in means of groups rather than individual-level measurement or if you have multiple items that are aggregated, then the move from a 5 to a 7 or 9-point scale is not going result in much more differentiation. It can be good to think about how well and how consistently your participants interpret the meaning of the scale. Adding points would increase the variance, but a question remains about whether it reflects variance in the true score of interest, or whether it reflects rating bias or something else. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, if comparison with previous research is important, I'd generally leave the rating options as they were.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2014-01-17T03:40:32.657" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5419" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-17T04:01:57.240" Score="1" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard that &quot;90% of information flow in the brain (or maybe it was just the visual cortex) is top-down&quot;.  I'm not sure if this claim is substantiated, but I do get the impression that there is strong evidence that at least most of the information flow is top-down.  I'd like to know as specifically as possible what current theories in neuroscience say is going on here.  I'd appreciate details and reputable academic works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4194" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T00:38:25.857" Title="What is the current state of knowledge on the roles and mechanisms of top-down information flow in the brain?" Tags="&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5420" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5307" CreationDate="2014-01-17T04:26:28.717" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A couple of other interrelated perspectives are presented below.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first perspective comes from the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.97.6995&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Artificial Intelligence, Logic of Discovery and Scientific Realism&lt;/a&gt; (Alai), where they state, using scientific discovery as an example (as per the example in the question), that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;if the process of &#xA;  discovery is rational, mustn’t it therefore follow rational criteria and rules, hence a &#xA;  logic? On the other hand, it is well known that chance, luck, and insight often play an &#xA;  important role in discovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Effectively, almost like a case of someone 'tripping over' the final piece of their theorem.  The author goes further, contending that if their were a rational set of steps, thus&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;if &#xA;  discovery were just a matter of rule following, why couldn’t anyone learn the necessary rules and become a great scientist? Or why couldn’t the scientists themselves just follow &#xA;  the logic of discovery and program in advance new discoveries, and rapidly achieve &#xA;  such results as a cure for cancer, or the cold fusion of atom, which while sorely needed &#xA;  still elude the efforts of researchers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meaning, according to this article's perspective, that luck, chance and insight play a major role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The final factor, &lt;strong&gt;insight&lt;/strong&gt;, is alluded to in the website &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/origins_pathway/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Einstein's Pathway to Special Relativity&lt;/a&gt; (Norton), taking the example scientist from the question, Albert Einstein and how he developed, for example, the Theory of Special Relativity, which started when&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;he began to think about ether, electricity, magnetism and motion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, he had insight by  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;pondering these developments that led Einstein to discover the&#xA;  special theory of relativity in 1905. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A key point made is that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The discovery was not momentary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is crucial, the ideas didn't just 'pop' into his head, the theory was the outcome of having learned and developed an insight in the background information, latest developments in relevant disciplines and of course, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;in Einstein's own reckoning, seven and&#xA;  more years of work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an independent researcher, (and I am &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; comparing myself to Albert Einstein), the discoveries that I have found, have had successfully peer reviewed and have been published come from having some specific insight, through background reading, training, education etc, to topics and skills required relevant to the discovery, as well as a lot of work to bring these insights together with new observations to make a discovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user4185" LastActivityDate="2014-01-17T04:26:28.717" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5421" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-17T07:50:28.657" Score="4" ViewCount="486" Body="&lt;p&gt;This might sound funny. But I have been wondering why do humans/primates &lt;em&gt;laugh&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;smile&lt;/em&gt; when they are happy or find something funny?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why don't they &lt;em&gt;cry&lt;/em&gt; when they are happy and &lt;em&gt;laugh&lt;/em&gt;/*smile* when they are sad?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastActivityDate="2014-01-17T15:11:59.593" Title="Why do humans/primates laugh/smile when they are happy, and not cry?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5422" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5421" CreationDate="2014-01-17T12:11:05.183" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Subcortical unconscious programming originating in distance evolutionary relatives cause humans to smile when they feel happy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.davidmatsumoto.com/content/1993%20Consciousness,%20volition%20and%20the%20Neuropsychology.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Consciousness, Volition, and the Neuropsychology of Facial Expressions of Emotion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are disorders like the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudobulbar_affect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pseudobulbar affect&lt;/a&gt; which cause people to express a different emotion than what is typical like crying instead of smiling. With PBA the emotions displayed are sudden, frequent, extreme and uncontrollable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-17T15:11:59.593" LastActivityDate="2014-01-17T15:11:59.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5423" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-18T00:37:57.690" Score="1" ViewCount="2419" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to use the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory#NEO-FFI_and_TIPI%3a_shortened_versions_of_the_NEO_PI-R&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NEO-FFI&lt;/a&gt; instrument to measure the Big 5 psychological traits.  Is a license needed?   Are there any open, free, or public domain Big 5 tests that can be used for no (or minimal) cost?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4198" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T01:20:42.127" Title="Licensing when using the NEO-FFI instrument" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5424" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5419" CreationDate="2014-01-18T00:38:25.857" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;No the brain doesn't in practice work in a single flow. It takes a combination of top-down and bottom-up at various frequencies to perform any task. Outside a laboratory the amount of time you spend going top-down or bottom-up will depend on what kind of life you lead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hippocampal movement-related low-frequency oscillations are one of the most well-characterized and replicated findings across species. Previous literature has demonstrated that movement-related oscillations are distinct phenomenon from memory-related low-frequency oscillations. We suggest that movement-related oscillations arise, in part, due to entrainment from sensorimotor information inherited from upstream cortical areas and thus may represent largely bottom-up input. We also discuss memory-related low-frequency oscillations and their emergence when rodents retrieve information about which part of a maze to explore. These memory-related oscillations often appear coordinated between hippocampus and cortex and may reflect top-down, or rule based processing. The presence of both bottom-up and top-down low-frequency oscillations may be yet another example of spectral fingerprinting, in which different cognitive operations manifest in the same brain networks via different frequencies of synchronization. While many aspects of this idea remains to be tested, particularly in the context of navigation, we believe that these ideas represent one step in bringing some synchrony to an often desynchronized field on the study of neural oscillations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23792985&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Multifaceted roles for low-frequency oscillations in bottom-up and top-down processing during navigation and memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T00:38:25.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5425" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5423" CreationDate="2014-01-18T01:13:22.210" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, a license is needed for most uses of the NEO-FFI. Here's a quote from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www4.parinc.com/ProRes/permissions.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PAR's Permissions &amp;amp; Licensing page&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tests, test protocols, test items, normative data, score reports, and other related materials are copyrighted and may not be reproduced in whole or in part without written permission from PAR. The reproduction of any part of PAR’s copyrighted tests and related materials in any way, without permission, whether the reproductions are sold or provided free for use, is a violation of federal copyright law.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If you plan to use a test in its entirety, please purchase the published version of the test...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If you plan to modify or use only part of a test, written permission is required prior to using any PAR proprietary material. Written permission is required prior to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Using a translation. All of our translations have been approved. Back-translations have been conducted by an individual unfamiliar with the English version of the test and the back-translation has been forwarded to the author/PAR for review and approval.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Using any part of a test;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Using a modified format of a test;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Translating a test into a language for which it is not currently available;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Including a few sample items or other materials (i.e., tables, charts, graphs) in a publication or appendix of a dissertation or thesis. PAR will not grant permission to include an entire test or scale in any publication, including dissertations and theses.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, yes, there are plenty of free tests! One such resource my former advisor (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.ucr.edu/faculty/ozer/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dan Ozer&lt;/a&gt;, personality assessor extraordinaire) has always seemed to favor is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newMultipleconstructs.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Personality Item Pool&lt;/a&gt;. It might give you a headache to see how many options you actually have just through this source, just for measuring broad personality traits akin to the Big Five. In our work, we've generally used the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~johnlab/bfi.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big Five Inventory&lt;/a&gt; (BFI; John, Donahue, &amp;amp; Kentle, 1991), which is also freely available for non-commercial use, but is somewhat basic (44 items, 5 factors, no facets). If that's not basic &lt;em&gt;enough&lt;/em&gt; for you, you may also want to consider &lt;a href=&quot;http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~prsnlty/SAUCIER/Saucier.Minimarkers.Full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Saucier's (1994) Mini-Markers&lt;/a&gt;, which has 40 items and one fewer Likert scale option. Even shorter is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.westmont.edu/_academics/departments/psychology/documents/Rammstedt_and_John.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rammstedt and John's (2007) 10-item short version of the BFI&lt;/a&gt;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I should add that this question is a partial duplicate: @JeromyAnglim already asked (and answered!) the question about free alternatives here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/3335/4086&quot;&gt;What free scientific measures of Big 5 personality are available?&lt;/a&gt; His list is more comprehensive, and I'm about to go add Rammstedt and John's over there, so this post won't have anything unique from that thread once I do (except the bit about the NEO-FFI licensing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One might almost be inclined to say there are too many options! As for me, I'm with Martha Stewart on this one: &quot;It's a good thing.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., &amp;amp; Kentle, R. L. (1991). The big five inventory—versions 4a and 54. &lt;em&gt;Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley, Institute of Personality and Social Research&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rammstedt, B., &amp;amp; John, O. P. (2007). Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality, 41&lt;/em&gt;(1), 203–212. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.westmont.edu/_academics/departments/psychology/documents/Rammstedt_and_John.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.westmont.edu/_academics/departments/psychology/documents/Rammstedt_and_John.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saucier, G. (1994). Mini-markers: A brief version of Goldberg's unipolar Big-Five markers. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality Assessment, 63&lt;/em&gt;(3), 506–516. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~prsnlty/SAUCIER/Saucier.Minimarkers.Full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~prsnlty/SAUCIER/Saucier.Minimarkers.Full.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T01:20:42.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3335" CreationDate="2014-01-18T01:19:17.857" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;BFI-10&lt;/strong&gt; is another short version, a pared-down-to-ten-items variant of the Big Five Inventory...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rammstedt, B., &amp;amp; John, O. P. (2007). Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality, 41&lt;/em&gt;(1), 203–212. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.westmont.edu/_academics/departments/psychology/documents/Rammstedt_and_John.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.westmont.edu/_academics/departments/psychology/documents/Rammstedt_and_John.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-18T06:38:33.760" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T06:38:33.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5427" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5428" CreationDate="2014-01-18T05:55:36.517" Score="2" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently volunteering as a teacher to low income families.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have had no training on teaching. I am working for a B.S. in chemistry and mathematics. Furthermore, I am quite new at this. I would like to improve how I teach, and somewhat believe that understanding how someone learns would help me become a better teacher. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently taking a year off. Since I am no longer enrolled, I no longer have access to a library, journals, etc. Nevertheless, I would like to continue teaching and I am wondering what your opinion is on enrolling on a membership on a psychology journal, getting books, etc. So far I have narrowed my options down to the journal of applied psychology and the journal of learning, memory, and cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would you suggest?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4200" LastActivityDate="2014-02-01T20:01:14.090" Title="Would a teacher benefit from reading psychology journals?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5428" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5427" CreationDate="2014-01-18T10:12:18.583" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you don't have a decent amount of education in psychology already, I wouldn't recommend diving straight into journals...but I wouldn't recommend you don't either. If you want to check them out, I'd say the only harm is the cost and the chance of getting discouraged, so first of all, I'd recommend this: don't get discouraged! You're on the right track. The best teachers are those who still spend plenty of time learning (if only to keep up with their fields), IMO. Educational psychology (&quot;ed psych&quot;) is a deep subject—as deep or deeper than many, if not most. In my limited experience as a higher ed educator, I'd say I've learned more about teaching through experience than through what meager training I've been offered, and colleagues of mine who have sought more training haven't had good things to say about their programs...so I'd say you're not necessarily missing much for lack of training, relative to most of us, if you've got a good head on your shoulders, good communication skills, a professional attitude, plenty of respect and tolerance for the circumstances and shortcomings of others, and have paid attention to the teaching styles you admire in your own time as a student. To some extent, training programs mostly teach the basics of these qualities, and can't teach much more. However, I also have a colleague in an ed psych program, and judging from what I've heard from her (I admit I don't have any other real exposure to ed psych on which to base my opinion), I think we've all got plenty more to learn that they won't teach you in the average teacher training program anyway. Therefore I applaud your ambition for self-education, and certainly don't want to steer you away from going straight to the source. I hope I've already disillusioned you somewhat regarding the training you're lacking; it's important for maintaining minimal standards, but in my experience, it hasn't offered much guidance for growth beyond that. If you don't have any particular shortcomings that need ironing out—if you're already a halfway decent teacher—you're probably better off skipping the watered-down, &quot;common-sense&quot; sort of educational psychology you'd get from people who specialize in other things, and who are only teaching how to teach because it's a job they could get.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would, however, recommend testing the waters of those journals you're thinking of diving into before shelling out the subscription fees. Some journals can be quite dense and advanced reading without a proper introduction (especially cognitive psychology articles, in my experience). This isn't to say you can't hack it, but you may find a lot of articles referring to concepts that are introduced in other articles (or worse, books!) that you can't access for free except through your university, which might also require inter-library loaning (you might not be able to do that without being enrolled, but you should at least be able to get access to some journals by visiting an on-campus library). This becomes quite a lot of legwork, so don't dive in unless you're ready to swim the equivalent of the English Channel. Try looking for free articles from these journals you're interested in (e.g., the links on the right that you can access through &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=journal+of+applied+psychology&quot;&gt;a Google Scholar search for &quot;Journal of Applied Psychology&quot;&lt;/a&gt;), see how comfortable you are with reading them, and see how far you can follow the reference lists whenever you come across an interesting idea that you'd like to know more about. If you can make a go of it and be happy with what you get out of it, if you're not happy with what you can already access for free by means like Google Scholar or your university, and if you're willing to pay the price of subscription, I don't see any further reason to dissuade you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless (or &lt;em&gt;especially&lt;/em&gt; if these journals don't work out for you), I'd also recommend checking out more introductory literature on ed psych. The thing about journal articles (in case you don't already know this; forgive me if I'm getting pedantic) is that their authors often write to a fairly advanced research audience, so it's not exactly like learning to swim in the shallow end, where most inexperienced students would probably be better off starting. Some books are like this too of course, but it seems to me that most books in psychology are less afraid to belabor their points and more keen on appealing to a more general audience. Especially when setting the average book aside and looking directly to introductory books and textbooks, you can expect to find the process of learning the foundational theories of most domains a lot easier, and probably more efficient; again, I haven't tried doing this with ed psych texts myself, but I'd assume the same is true of this domain as it is of others. In general, the advantage of intro text/books is not just that they're directed at more general audiences; they'll also usually take a much broader overview of the field as a whole. You might have to do a LOT more reading to get the same breadth out of journal articles as you could out of an intro text/book.  You'd probably get a much deeper exposure through journals, but if your time is short enough as is, you're probably more concerned with covering all the fundamentals than with sharpening your knowledge on any specific subject, let alone all of them, by yourself!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're sold on the idea of checking out intro text/books, you don't actually have to &lt;em&gt;buy&lt;/em&gt; anything necessarily. For instance, check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.e-booksdirectory.com/listing.php?category=523&quot;&gt;this list of free e-books on ed psych&lt;/a&gt; that I just found. To make sure I wasn't tossing you a red herring, I went ahead and downloaded &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.e-booksdirectory.com/details.php?ebook=5421&quot;&gt;Seifert and Sutton's (2009) &lt;strong&gt;Educational Psychology&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; for myself, for free; it looks fairly solid to me at first glance. In any case, it's not your only free option on this list alone, and with a little extra effort or a trip to the library, I'm sure you could find plenty more options for free. If that won't cut it, or if you see recommendations for a particular text/book, consider ordering it used. You ought to be able to get plenty of them for &lt;em&gt;much&lt;/em&gt; less than the price of a subscription to the journals you mentioned, which look like they'd run you $\$455$ apiece. I'm a fan of &lt;a href=&quot;http://search.half.ebay.com/Educational-Psychology_W0QQsoZ2QQ_trksidZp2682Q2em1446Q2el2686QQmZbooksQQsortZ103&quot;&gt;Half.com&lt;/a&gt; for used book buying myself. I see &lt;a href=&quot;http://search.half.ebay.com/Educational-Psychology_W0QQsoZ2QQ_trksidZp2682Q2em1446Q2el2686QQmZbooksQQsortZ103&quot;&gt;some options here&lt;/a&gt; for less than $40!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good luck; I hope you learn a lot of good stuff, and come back to share some of your insights with us here! We could all stand to know more about these topics...Except maybe those who really know these topics, whom I hope will give you some answers of their own too!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T10:12:18.583" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5429" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5416" CreationDate="2014-01-18T12:27:28.607" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Animal cognition&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Plant Intelligence&lt;/a&gt; are active areas of research in the psychology of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;intelligence&lt;/a&gt;. Comparing abilities of memory, numerical concepts and language are possible but no standard IQ test has been developed at this time. Its difficult because every test must be crafted considering the abilities and &lt;a href=&quot;http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323869604578370574285382756?mg=reno64-wsj&amp;amp;url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887323869604578370574285382756.html#printMode&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychology&lt;/a&gt; of the individual species. Comparisons made inside a species are easy but those between species are difficult. Many types of animals are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_AI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;less generalized thinking machines&lt;/a&gt; (designed specifically for a series of tasks). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This history of animal cognition is controversial as it includes malformed examples of intelligence like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clever_Hans&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Clever Hans&lt;/a&gt;. Hans was a horse who learned to watch for ques from his owners in order to tap a certain amount of times. It gave the appearance of intelligence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-18T23:38:53.013" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T23:38:53.013" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5430" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-18T16:04:30.467" Score="2" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a set of 100 different objects in a box. I pull out 99 of them randomly and place them on a table and ask a person to take a look, then I put all objects back into the box. After a short (5 minutes) interval I pull out another 99 random objects from the same box. The person is asked to say whenever an object is the same as it was before. If the missing object did not stand out from all others on the first go, then the person will answer that the objects are all the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How many objects should there be in the box and how many should be placed on a table, assuming there is an equal chance for every object to be pulled out, in order to trick the average person into thinking that all or almost all of the objects are different? What if the process is repeated 6 times, every 5 minutes, would it have any noticeable effect on the results?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4201" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-18T19:39:37.897" LastActivityDate="2014-01-19T03:54:57.853" Title="What percentage of systematic data starts to be considered random" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5431" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5416" CreationDate="2014-01-18T16:26:25.920" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like any simple-seeming cognitive sciences question, it is important to start with a series of disclaimers. It might seem like human intelligence or intelligence more generally is an intuitive concept, but once you start to explore your intuition or look at historic definitions of intelligence, you see that &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2013/03/07/economic-turing-test/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;intelligence is a very ill-defined and slippery concept&lt;/a&gt;. You could, of course, take the behaviorist view, and define intelligence as performance on IQ-tests, and then your question has a simple answer: no, we can't measure that in most animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, you might try to look at general behaviors that you usually associate with intelligence, then you can often come up with tests for animals. However, this might challenge some of your preconceptions. I want to provide two example tests (but many many more exist) to illustrate my point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we usually think of 'intelligence' we are eager to associate things like behavioral flexibility and innovation with it. Both of these can be tested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Serial discrimination reversal learning&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Serial discrimination reversal learning is a relatively standard procedure for studying animal cognition. The first reference I can find to this specific methodology is from 1966 in the sea lion (Schusterman, 1966), but the basic ideas of using similar tests in animals was already common practice before WW2 (Spence, 1936).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The task is usually given in the form of a choice between two actions (say pushing a button). At first whenever the animal clicks the left button, it is given a treat, and nothing for the right button. This training phase is continued until the animal learns that left button gives food. At this point, the reversal phase is enacted, and suddenly the left button stops giving food, and the right button does, and the animal is trained to associate the right button with food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These learning, reversal, learning cycles are repeated several times and the rate of change from one button to the other after reversal, and consistency of picking the correct button during learning are tracked to give a measure of the animals behavioral flexibility. There is great inter-species variation on this, but also a lot of intra-species variation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Innovation tasks&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Innovation tasks are popular in the context of social learning, where the animal (and the species) has to &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2013/05/05/social-learning-dilemma/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;balance between innovating and copying behavior&lt;/a&gt; (Reader &amp;amp; Laland, 2003). The classic example of this is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Tit#Diet_and_feeding&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;English greats tits&lt;/a&gt; learning to break the foil caps of home-delivered milk bottles to eat the cream at the top (Hawkins, 1950).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example I want to highlight is from Griffin et al. (2013), where myna birds where tested with a &lt;em&gt;novel extractive foraging task&lt;/em&gt;. In this task, birds faced difficult foraging tasks like having to pull out a piece of paper from a champagne flute before getting food, or by having to open a dish with a lid that could only be lifted by a hook in the middle and not from the side. Birds show great interspecies and intraspecies diversity on these sort of innovation tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Challenging preconceptions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Naively, one might expect both reversal learning and innovation to be important components of intelligence, and 'smarter' animals to do better on both. This intuition would be well supported if you looked at the inter-species level, you would find an increase in innovation and behavioral flexibility with relative brain size. However, at the intra-species level, Griffin et al. (2013) show that this is not necessarily the case. Among myna birds, those that do better on the innovation task, tend to perform worse on the reversal learning, and those that do worse on the innovation task, tend to perform better on the reversal learning. This means that if you are looking for variation within a species, then you have to be careful with your tests. Two tests that both correspond to an intuitive notion of &amp;quot;intelligence&amp;quot; in humans, might in fact correspond to opposite ends of the spectrum in the non-human animal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Griffin, A. S., Guez, D., Lermite, F., &amp;amp; Patience, M. (2013). Tracking Changing Environments: Innovators Are Fast, but Not Flexible Learners. &lt;em&gt;PloS One&lt;/em&gt;, 8(12), e84907.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hawkins, T. (1950). Opening of Milk Bottles By Birds. &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; 165(4194): 435–436.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lefebvre, L. (2011). Taxonomic counts of cognition in the wild. &lt;em&gt;Biol. Lett.&lt;/em&gt; 7: 631–633.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reader, S.M. &amp;amp; Laland, K.N. (2003). Animal Innovation. &lt;em&gt;Oxford: Oxford University Press&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schusterman, R.J. (1966) Serial discrimination-reversal learning with and without errors by the California sea lion. &lt;em&gt;J. Exp. Anal. Behav.&lt;/em&gt; 9: 593–600.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spence, K. W. (1936). The nature of discrimination learning in animals. &lt;em&gt;Psych. Rev,&lt;/em&gt;, 43(5): 427.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T16:26:25.920" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5432" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3429" CreationDate="2014-01-18T19:11:01.657" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general social media is a positive inlet for self-esteem development. As people &quot;like&quot; the things you like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-affirmation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;your identity is reaffirmed&lt;/a&gt;. However if someone friend's the wrong people or uses it as a comparison engine it can become degrading to self-esteem. It should be noted that teenagers are trending away from traditional social networking moving to things like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapchat&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;SnapChat&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The aim of this study was to investigate the consequences of friend networking sites (e.g., Friendster, MySpace) for adolescents' self-esteem and well-being. We conducted a survey among 881 adolescents (10–19-year-olds) who had an online profile on a Dutch friend networking site. Using structural equation modeling, we found that the frequency with which adolescents used the site had an indirect effect on their social self-esteem and well-being. The use of the friend networking site stimulated the number of relationships formed on the site, the frequency with which adolescents received feedback on their profiles, and the tone (i.e., positive vs. negative) of this feedback. Positive feedback on the profiles enhanced adolescents' social self-esteem and well-being, whereas negative feedback decreased their selfesteem and well-being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/cpb.2006.9.584?prevSearch=allfield%3a%28friend%20networking%20sites%20and%20their%20relationship%29&amp;amp;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Friend Networking Sites and Their Relationship to Adolescents' Well-Being and Social Self-Esteem&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study assessed motives for social network site (SNS) use, group belonging, collective self-esteem, and gender effects among older adolescents. Communication with peer group members was the most important motivation for SNS use. Participants high in positive collective self-esteem were strongly motivated to communicate with peer group via SNS. Females were more likely to report high positive collective self-esteem, greater overall use, and SNS use to communicate with peers. Females also posted higher means for group-in-self, passing time, and entertainment. Negative collective self-esteem correlated with social compensation, suggesting that those who felt negatively about their social group used SNS as an alternative to communicating with other group members. Males were more likely than females to report negative collective self-esteem and SNS use for social compensation and social identity gratifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/cpb.2008.0228?journalCode=cpb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Older Adolescents' Motivations for Social Network Site Use: The Influence of Gender, Group Identity, and Collective Self-Esteem&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T19:11:01.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5433" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5412" CreationDate="2014-01-18T21:43:50.813" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just wrote three big comments on @JeromyAnglim's answer, but I'm opting to move them all to this answer instead. This isn't an attempt to answer the OP completely, but hopefully they'll be of some use for part of the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a mainly statistical and psychometric standpoint, I've heard (from an expert whose opinion I could mention confidently in a manuscript I'd intend to publish) that adding point options to extend a Likert scale tends to increase the size of the general factor (in principal components / factor analysis). This could be due in part to bias of the sort Jeromy mentions. Thought that might be useful to add.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another consideration is how one anchors those extra points. Being ordinal, a Likert scale can deliberately deviate from symmetry and even spacing between options in potentially useful ways. E.g., ratings from -1 to 5, or adding more extreme ratings like, &quot;0 - Absolutely not at all whatsoever,&quot; or &quot;6/max - As much as I could ever imagine for anyone ever in the history of humanity and within the laws of physics as we know them.&quot; These are slightly absurd wordings that I wouldn't recommend verbatim; slightly terser and more meaningful wordings might be more useful. In general, extreme wordings may serve to reduce ceiling/floor effects somewhat. On that topic, see also: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/4776/4086&quot;&gt;Reducing ceiling effect with a Likert scale measure&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, including anchors that are worded even as absurdly extreme as those I mentioned above might actually help for discriminating between useful, meaningful responses, and inattentive or biased responding, as where a person pays more attention to the number than the meaning you intend to assign to it with the anchor. This is one way of addressing the methodological problem of interpreting Likert scale responses and identifying response bias in general (though it's an untested idea of my own invention as far as I know).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-01-18T21:43:50.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5434" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5256" CreationDate="2014-01-19T00:29:18.173" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think Keegan provides a great set of references, but I just wanted to expand on his answer in a little bit more detail. Penrose and Hameroff's ideas are mentioned a lot on the internet and although they are often debunked, you can never do it enough. I want to discuss (1) what microtubules are and (2) are there quantum effects in them? And, more importantly, (3) does that even matter? and (4) is any of this new?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;What are microtubules?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Microtubules are a structure in the cytoskeleton that are &lt;strong&gt;found in all dividing eukaryotic cells and in most differentiated cell types&lt;/strong&gt; (Desai &amp;amp; Mitchison, 1997). They are by no means exclusive to neurons, so if you think they bestow consciousness then you have to grant consciousness to all eukaryotes (something that most philosophers would find strange), or you are back at the same difficulty as before in trying to explain how networks of microtubules give rise to consciousness and thus postulating them as your basic units instead of neurons gives you no explanatory power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Related discussions:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/q/1032/500&quot;&gt;Which organisms have the neuroanatomy Roger Penrose supposes play a role in consciousness?&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Are there quantum effects in microtubules?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the video, Hameroff describes quantum and classic effects as a ying-and-yang. This is a very misleading picture, for a physicist the world is fundamentally quantum but at large sizes, and high temperatures (i.e. a lot of interaction with an external environment) is well described by our more intuitive laws of classical physics. Thus, the question isn't are there quantum effects, but are the &lt;strong&gt;quantum effects significant enough to cause non-classical consequences&lt;/strong&gt;? Note, that most of chemistry can't be properly explained by classical physics, so every chemical reaction needs quantum effects to make sense, but we don't suggest that this makes every chemical reaction conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The exciting part is that &lt;strong&gt;quantum effects do matter in (a non-trivial way) in some biological systems&lt;/strong&gt;; most notably in photosynthesis (Engel et al, 2007). In particular, a certain energy perturbation after a photon is absorbed follows a quantum random walk, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2013/04/08/cell-computer/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;one could speculate&lt;/a&gt; that this can be used for quantum computing, but there is no reason to expect it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Microtubules are small enough to not completely rule out quantum effects. They are rope like polymers that grow to a length of about 25 micrometers (25000 nm), and have an outer-diameter of around 25 nm or about 200 atoms across. Researchers commonly use quantum dots to play with quantum effects, and these are typically spheres on the order of 10 to 50 atoms in diameter. Note, that we don't know how to couple 5000 quantum dots in one coherent chain (how many you would need to get the length of a microtubule).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the issue physicists usually raise, is not one of size but of the time that the microtubule would need to maintain coherence (i.e. a pure quantum state). The reason photosynthesis uses a quantum random walk, is because a classical one would not be fast enough to find a binding site. Thus, in that case the timescales involved are miniscule. The &lt;strong&gt;timescales involved in the function of microtubules are much longer, and physicists believe that their state is not coherence for that length of time&lt;/strong&gt; (Tegmark, 2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Even if microtubules are quantum, so what?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the real clincher, suppose quantum effects &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; important to microtubules. Suppose that whole networks of microtubules are able to keep coherent entanglement between. Heck, suppose that the brain is a giant quantum computer. So what?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a lot of people (like Hameroff), there is this misconception that classical physics does not allow for free well but quantum mechanics does because of wave function collapse. Thankfully, we have Conway &amp;amp; Kochen's (2006) &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will_theorem&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;free will theorem&lt;/a&gt; which says (more or less), &lt;strong&gt;any free will you give to an observer/experimenter in your philosophy of quantum mechanics, you will also have to give that some amount of agency to electrons and other subatomic particles.&lt;/strong&gt; In other words, if your interpretation of quantum mechanics somehow gives you free-will then it is a trivial kind of free will that every particle in the universe has. Of course, this argument can be explored in much more depth, but I suggest reading someone that is familiar with quantum computing (Aaronson, 2013) instead of Hameroff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For Penrose (see &lt;em&gt;The Emperor's New Mind&lt;/em&gt;) consciousness is non-algorithmic and he suggests that a magical quantum computer could do these non-algorithmic tasks. The reason I use 'magical' is because a real quantum computer is Turing-complete, &lt;strong&gt;if a classical computer cannot solve a problem then neither can a quantum one&lt;/strong&gt; (of course, if a classical computer can solve a problem, then quantum one can as well and might be able to do it qualitatively faster). For a nice computer science debunking of this part of Penrose's argument take a look a Scott Aaronson's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scottaaronson.com/democritus/lec10.5.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;lecture notes&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Is any of this even new?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me, the most disappointing part of this pseudoscience is its lack of novelty. The basic philosophical urge underlying Hameroff's speculation is an over-application of reductionism: consciousness can't be something emergent, there has to be a basic essence to it. Since he can't take the dualist stance of Descartes, he instead postulates that it is&amp;quot;quantum magic&amp;quot;. Even this use of quantum magic isn't original—it was an extremely popular type of hokum in the 70s that has been called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mysticism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;quantum mysticism&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Related discussion:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1556/29&quot;&gt;What makes people easily subscribe to pseudoscientific theories?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aaronson, S. (2013). The Ghost in the Quantum Turing Machine. &lt;em&gt;arXiv preprint&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/abs/1306.0159&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;arXiv:1306.0159&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conway, J., &amp;amp; Kochen, S. (2006). The Free Will Theorem. &lt;em&gt;Foundations of Physics, 36&lt;/em&gt;(10): 1441–1473.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Desai, A., &amp;amp; Mitchison, T. J. (1997). Microtubule polymerization dynamics. &lt;em&gt;Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology, 13&lt;/em&gt;(1): 83–117.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Engel GS, Calhoun TR, Read EL, Ahn TK, Mancal T, Cheng YC et al. (2007). Evidence for wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems. &lt;em&gt;Nature, 446&lt;/em&gt;(7137): 782–6.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tegmark, M. (2000). Importance of quantum decoherence in brain processes. &lt;em&gt;Physical Review E&lt;/em&gt;, 61(4): 4194–4206.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T09:51:55.293" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5435" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4141" CreationDate="2014-01-19T03:18:11.187" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are describing an observation as old as Freud, where he divided human's experience into three levels, roughly along the same lines as you. The &lt;em&gt;conscious&lt;/em&gt; as that clear and ill-defined concept that gives you the feeling of attention, awareness, and self. The &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preconscious&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;preconscious&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; as the level just outside of your current awareness but that could easily spring to your consciousness. Finally, the &lt;em&gt;unconscious&lt;/em&gt;, which is a level that doesn't have an analogy in vision: it corresponds to experiences that cannot come to your consciousness but that still affect your behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, this correspondence does not extend beyond analogy, for several reasons. From the point of view of introspection -- the oldest and arguably still only reliable method for studying consciousness -- it is not clear how you would distinguish the visual sensation of attending stimuli from the conscious. In particular, it is not at all clear that the experience you describe as visual is an artefact of the visual system and not consciousness itself. The reason to believe that this is a feature of consciousness and not the visual system is because you experience the same things for hearing, touch, and to-a-lesser-extent smell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moving onto the scientific basis is much more difficult, in particular, you write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It makes sense to me that the conscious mind would be patterned on the functional model of the visual field which is much older and more fundamental.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This to me seems like an unjustified assertion. Although we have &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/987/29&quot;&gt;some neurological models of consciousness&lt;/a&gt;, none of them are at the level where where we can start to date them on an evolutionary scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-01-19T03:18:11.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5436" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5430" CreationDate="2014-01-19T03:49:19.620" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Tests of randomness like (my favorite) &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov_complexity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kolmogorov complexity&lt;/a&gt; will tell you how random those objects seem scientifically. (I'm not certain but I think your describing &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;chaotic behavior&lt;/a&gt; rather than random behavior because the random objects can only be rearranged rather than replaced.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aside from mathematics this is an active area of psychological research. Those with disillusion illnesses like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schizo typical&lt;/a&gt; often have the trouble identifying when a pattern is random. The sick brain seeking to bring the universe into order or create a new reality to match its broken perceptions deludes itself into believing that random events happen as per a control. This is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareidolia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pareidolia&lt;/a&gt; (when there is something which might vaguely resemble a pattern) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Apophenia&lt;/a&gt; (when the data is obviously random). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your test would be measuring Pareidolia, Apophenia as well as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_recognition_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pattern recognition&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-19T03:54:57.853" LastActivityDate="2014-01-19T03:54:57.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5438" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4727" CreationDate="2014-01-20T16:52:13.247" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am unfamiliar with such research. However, considering this from a User Interface design perspective, as well as from a cognitive perspective, I would add one bit of clarification to the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we enter data at the speed of organized thought?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the limitations in user interface technology are overcome to the point where the input gate is no longer the limitation, it is quite possible that we would discover that our thought processes are so chaotic as to render the new technology virtually useless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As support for this I would point out that sitting and typing a message, while slow, is already a method by which thoughts evolve into lucid communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2014-01-20T16:52:13.247" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5439" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4727" CreationDate="2014-01-20T21:22:20.300" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could compare with other kinds of communication limitations, or bottlenecks if you wish. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, one could have problems keeping up with his thoughts while speaking. This would causes some lacks of information and create a gap in the representations of the subject between the two interlocutors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it's like the &quot;lost idea&quot; phenomenon, too much new information comes into consciousness and one cannot communicate efficiently enough to follow his &quot;flow of ideas&quot; while sharing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Who knows, maybe you are faster with a pencil, or a paintbrush.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4173" LastActivityDate="2014-01-20T21:22:20.300" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5440" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-21T03:01:12.497" Score="6" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/group-pushes-dcs-workaholic-adults-to-play/2012/04/18/gIQA50ioRT_story.html&quot;&gt;this Washingon Post article&lt;/a&gt; about groups that are trying to encourage play in &quot;workaholic&quot; adults. I'm curious if anything is known on the psychological effects of taking playful breaks at work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From personal experience, taking playful breaks seems to improve my productivity and resistance to distractions. On the other hand, maybe taking playful breaks makes work seem even more drab by comparison, lessening motivation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2448" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-21T03:04:14.987" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T07:38:59.907" Title="Is it good to take playful breaks at work?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5441" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5440" CreationDate="2014-01-21T03:46:01.263" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Leisure at work is an important concept in the new psychological ideal of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holistic_health&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;holistic employee treatment&lt;/a&gt;. It can work really well or really badly. If you love your job and your work load includes things considered leisure than you will be a psychologically more healthy individual. Those in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://hum.sagepub.com/content/56/11/1399.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;tourism industry&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19961807298.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;musicians&lt;/a&gt; among others can have such experiences. However for most people are working at an occupation where they derive little or no pleasure. Some originally enjoyed but have since lost the thrill. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People just burn out. Companies noticed this and have created better workplaces where productivity is increased by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/mar07/whole.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reducing stress&lt;/a&gt;. When the environment is less stressful and leisure is involved people can develop a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;positive association&lt;/a&gt; with the workplace. As people become more invested emotionally in the company the &lt;a href=&quot;http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/20/4/265.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sense of family&lt;/a&gt; is increased and it is easier for people to work toward otherwise mundane goals. There are many different ways to reduce &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28psychological%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;stress&lt;/a&gt; some active some passive. Food, entertainment, exercise, flex time, spirituality and self-reflection reduce stress. Companies and employees have to work together to find some holistic approach which works best. For instance it would be difficult to justify a company gym when your not already providing good health coverage or a day care when you allow no maternity leave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Employers can use leisure time at work as a noose. At one of my previous jobs my boss knew that providing a holistic environment looked good to investors. He bought a big screen tv and ps3. He purchased video games he liked and it was primarily for his use. He tended to yell frequently and during one of his rants he accused someone of abusing the tv which they had not used at all. This environment was not healthy even though play was encouraged it was also punished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-21T04:29:22.797" LastActivityDate="2014-01-21T04:29:22.797" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5442" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-21T06:43:52.050" Score="3" ViewCount="228" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been studying human sexuality and I have a question which I do not know the answer nor do I exactly know how to research. In the psychology of human sexuality specifically bisexuals what percentage are completely monogamous, polyandry, polygamy or (I don't know the word for having multiple partners of either sexes). Like mutual participation relationships like multiple bisexuals, combinations of bisexuals, heterosexuals and homosexuals. Generally and then specifically in the USA are these relationships typically stable and do they last lifetimes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-21T06:43:52.050" Title="Frequency in Human sexuality bisexual polyandry and polygamy and others?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5443" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5445" CreationDate="2014-01-21T06:52:24.367" Score="1" ViewCount="1124" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder if anybody could give some details about Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales. I tried to access &lt;a href=&quot;http://karnacbooks.metapress.com/content/77q15722681766q4/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;'The Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales: Normative Data and Implications' by Kenneth L. Davis, Jaak Panksepp, Larry Normansell&lt;/a&gt;, but I have no access. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastActivityDate="2014-03-28T02:57:07.563" Title="Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5445" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5443" CreationDate="2014-01-21T07:22:01.653" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;That paper is kinda old and as you point out it is paywalled. Try this free paper instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/3108107/A_Brief_Form_of_the_Affective_Neuroscience_Personality_Scales&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A brief form of the affective neuroscience personality scales.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (ANPS) were developed to measure behavioral traits related to 6 affective neurobiological systems (play, seek, care, fear, anger, and sadness). However, the ANPS has a number of problems, including an ill-defined factor structure, overly long scales, and items that are poorly worded, ambiguous, and of questionable content validity. To address these issues, we constructed an improved short form of the ANPS--the Brief ANPS (BANPS). Three studies demonstrated that the 33-item BANPS has a clear and coherent factor structure, relatively high reliabilities (for short scales), and theoretically meaningful correlations with a wide range of external criteria, supporting its convergent and discriminant validity. Unlike typical short-form scales, the BANPS improves upon the psychometric properties of the long form, and we recommend its use in all research contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the only other paper I have the ability to cite about ANPS:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763411000704&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The brain's emotional foundations of human personality and the Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The anatomical, neurochemical, and functional homologies of subcortical emotional networks strongly indicate underlying evolutionary continuities in affective principles in all mammalian brains (Panksepp and Biven, 2011). Since it is widely believed that individual's emotional inclinations (temperaments) are foundational for human personality development, the goal of the following work was to try to ground personality assessment on the affective circuits that all mammals share. But before we summarize work with the Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (ANPS), we briefly note historical antecedents of this way of thinking about human personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We sustained the capitalization convention in our attempt (i.e., the ANPS) to translate anoetic (without knowledge) emotional experiences to noetic (knowledge linked) and autonoetic (thought linked), language-based evaluations of the potential influences of primal affects in the personality structures of human minds. However, rather than RAGE and PANIC/GRIEF, we decided to use the terms ANGER and SADNESS in this paper and in our construction of the Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (ANPS), since those are labels that are generally more understandable for most individuals. Still, the theoretical implication is that these systems are critically important for the various feelings highlighted by these scientific terms – e.g., the ANGER system energizes states commonly labeled as ‘irritability’ and ‘anger’.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several principles basic to understanding these seven brain systems: (1) These emotion systems are subcortical networks and lower brain regions have evolutionary primacy in generating these basic emotions and their affects, while learning and higher brain functions can be deemed to be secondary and tertiary processes. (2) To the best of our knowledge, these emotion systems, situated in ancient brain regions, are largely homologous in all mammals. (3) These basic emotions also have similar chemistries in all mammals. (4) These brain systems generate instinctual behavioral responses that are closely linked to the raw, primal affects that accompany those responses. (5) The integrity of these seven systems is demonstrated by the ability to elicit coherent specific emotional responses and/or the associated affects with localized brain stimulation – as evaluated by the capacity of the subcortical arousals to mediate ‘reward’ and ‘punishment’ functions that control learning. (6) Lastly, these systems remain relatively unscathed in animals whose neocortices were surgically removed in early development (see Panksepp, 1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, emotional responses from each of the primary process emotions can be activated by localized subcortical ESB or chemical brain stimulation. That decortication of young animals generally leaves the expression of these emotions intact (Deyo et al., 1990 and Panksepp et al., 1994), further reinforces the subcortical nature of these emotion systems. Also, each instinctual emotional system engenders affective valence since animals terminate the stimulation of ANGER, FEAR, and SADNESS, while actively working to obtain SEEKING, LUST, CARE, and PLAY system arousals (Panksepp, 2005). However, there are reasons to believe the SEEKING system is foundational for aspects of all of the other primal emotions (e.g., during FEAR intensification, the shift from freezing to flight may be due to recruitment of SEEKING related dopaminergic psychomotor drive).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on our first study using these scales, reliabilities for the ANPS scales, computed as Cronbach's alpha, were reported ranging from .65 to .86 with the PLAY and SEEK scales below .70 and the FEAR, ANGER, and Spirituality scales above .80 (Davis et al., 2003). Multiple data sets using the revised ANPS 2.4, have shown all reliabilities now over .70 (unpublished data).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Contrasting self-rating data for ANPS and FFM scales, as seen in Table 1, revealed that each of the ANPS scales except Spirituality correlated strongly with at least one of the FFM scales as follows: (1) SEEK with Openness to Experience (r = .47), (2) PLAY with Extraversion (r = .46), (3) CARE with Agreeableness (r = .50), (4) FEAR with Emotional Stability (r = −.75), (5) SADNESS with Emotional Stability (r = −.68), and (6) ANGER with Emotional Stability (r = −.65) as well as with Agreeableness (r = −.48) (Davis et al., 2003). The data supported strong relationships between primary emotions and the most widely accepted model of human personality, which was consistent with the hypothesis that these six brain emotion systems form a foundation for the adult five-factor personality model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-21T14:11:06.133" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5446" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-21T09:31:23.307" Score="4" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any research or clues about whether anxious/calm people are more/less likely to be inventive / creative / develop innovations? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested about this both on an individual and cultural (peoples) level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="8556" LastEditDate="2015-06-09T15:35:02.130" LastActivityDate="2015-06-09T15:35:02.130" Title="Correlation between anxiety/calmness and innovation development?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5447" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5446" CreationDate="2014-01-21T14:47:34.680" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;Mr. Scott? We need more POWER!&quot;&lt;/em&gt; is the common call made to engineering from the bridge of the fictional Starship Enterprise. It seems common in science fiction for engineers to flourish under high amounts of pressure and overcome all odds. However this does not reflect reality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this answer I think it best to turn to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Individual Psychology&lt;/a&gt; as the creative process is more about a person's preference and comfort than a series of predefined conditions or mental states. Creativity flourishes in certain environments. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/48/2/393/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;High gain/high anxiety reward&lt;/a&gt; based systems do not encourage creativity. Creative people can be &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/66/6/1116/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;taught to cope&lt;/a&gt; with the existence of a reward and overcome the pressure. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fatih.edu.tr/~hugur/study_hard/Intrinsic%20and%20Extrinsic%20Motivation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Extrinsic motivation&lt;/a&gt; fosters competition and dependence on rewards which leads to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/meaningful-you/201309/how-overcome-sports-performance-anxiety&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;performance anxiety&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://amr.aom.org/content/15/4/666.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Intrinsic motivation&lt;/a&gt; leads to performance for one's own betterment at ones own pace and while it &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1977.tb02353.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;produces less results&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depression, Bipolar and Schizophrenia are thought to be caused by stress and anxiety acting on a biological vulnerability. So creativity may be a response and outlet to the anxiety the illness or life causes for these individuals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By themselves, artistic and creative people tend to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/prescriptions-life/201204/little-weird-prone-depression-blame-your-creative-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;experience higher anxiety and depression&lt;/a&gt;. However there are no conclusive causal relationships between depression and creativity. There have been stronger &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford-Hill_criteria&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;relationships&lt;/a&gt; between more serious mental illness like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schizo typical&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;bipolar&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A study looking at 300,000 persons with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or unipolar depression, and their relatives, found overrepresentation in creative professions for those with bipolar disorder as well as for undiagnosed siblings of those with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/199/5/373&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Creativity and mental disorder: family study of 300,000 people with severe mental disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="695" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T23:06:45.310" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T23:06:45.310" CommentCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5448" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2063" CreationDate="2014-01-21T15:32:36.543" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vumc.nl/afdelingen-themas/33760/101392/1207788/stam-brain2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stam et al.&lt;/a&gt; have carried out a functional connectivity study in patients with Alzheimer's Disease. I don't know if that answers your question at all. Connectomics is just starting to kick off. It's far from certain that they it will end up being a key player in functional neuropathology in the coming decades, but it's one out of many promising new avenues of research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4219" LastActivityDate="2014-01-21T15:32:36.543" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5449" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4931" CreationDate="2014-01-21T16:44:15.093" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would try to work on stimulating rejected candidates to become referrals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Every candidate who has been rejected is already quite well into what the job is all about. S/he should be very good at explaining the job requirements. (The pitfall of the majority of job ads, IMHO is that they bitterly fail at explaining what the job is about.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time rejected candidates must be likely to know colleagues good for that job. And it is in their self-interest to promote those colleagues, because they would have less competition for all the other vacancies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastActivityDate="2014-01-21T16:44:15.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5450" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-21T19:50:45.940" Score="5" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it necessary for humans to have dreams that only contain things they have witnessed/seen in their consciousness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastActivityDate="2015-09-17T11:10:03.310" Title="Do humans only dream of things they have actually witnessed/seen?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5451" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4593" CreationDate="2014-01-21T19:51:44.910" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;One way of thinking about speech production is using a spreading activation architecture. Say I want to produce the word &quot;rooster.&quot; I have a meaning to be expressed (feathery avian animal loud...etc). These semantic representations send activation down to various matching words (bird, rooster, chicken...etc). As these words collect evidence for themselves, they send activation down to their corresponding sounds (bird sends activation to the sounds /b/, /r/, and /d/; rooster sends activation to /r/, /u/, /s/, /t/ ..etc). Once any node (word, sound..etc) receives enough evidence for itself, it is selected. There are nuances about how and when nodes become selected and how activation is passed, but this is the gist. In addition, there is noise in the system based on words that were previously said, upcoming words, words that are semantically related and so on.  This noise introduces the possibility for speech errors. Some errors are more likely than others depending on the amount of evidence they have collected. For example, in the example I presented here, the /r/ sound got more activation than the other sounds because it is collecting activation because it appears once in the word 'bird' and twice in the word 'rooster.' This sound might be more or less likely to be produced erroneously compared to sounds like /s/. These error probabilities explain why we are more likely to make real word errors, and why tongue twisters are so tricky. See the following article for more information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dell, G. S. (1986). A spreading-activation theory of retrieval in sentence production. Psychological review, 93(3), 283.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4220" LastActivityDate="2014-01-21T19:51:44.910" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5452" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5450" CreationDate="2014-01-22T00:51:20.057" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;People often report dreaming about  things that they have not experienced in the real world (e.g., monsters, flying, falling off a building). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With our own imagination while awake most people can visualise many things that they have never actually seen. It seems likely that dreams would be at least as flexible as our own imagination. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Videos, stories, images, and other media might inform this imagination. Likewise, in general, daily thoughts, emotions, and experiences are often weaved into dreams. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is just a basic common sense answer. It takes for granted an information processing model of cognition that denies the existence of true psychic power in dreams. That said, a weak form of what might be labelled &quot;psychic&quot; or &quot;premonitions&quot; in dreams is still possible in the form of insight that was only first achieved in a dream. More deeply, it would be interesting to see another answer that compared the kinds of creative imagination exhibited in dreams relative to creative imagination while awake. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-22T01:10:49.283" LastActivityDate="2014-01-22T01:10:49.283" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5453" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4593" CreationDate="2014-01-22T03:30:22.827" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;No this is not dyslexia and depending on the frequency it can be normal or abnormal. Its called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;aphasia&lt;/a&gt; and in adults it may be triggered by many different things. The primary explanation for chronic Aphasia is brain damage as per &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurolinguistics&lt;/a&gt;. However your limited example of aphasia was more likely caused by anxiety, lack of sleep, low blood pressure, hypoglycemia or any of the myriads of things which cause cognitive process anomalies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bellow is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~sereno/170/readings/28-Aphasias.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Figure 54-3 from Disorders of Languages: The Aphasia&lt;/a&gt; which represents the process of language formation. It is my contention that in addition to permanent brain lesions temporary disruptions of pathways caused by abnormal states of neurochemicals, nutrients and electrical signals trigger symptoms which can only be quantified as aphasia or aphasia like as well. Evidence based medicine reflects this by listing aphasia as some of the symptoms for &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.joslin.org/2011/01/hypoglycemia-or-low-blood-sugar-the-symptoms/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypoglycemia especially in diabetes&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1280854&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sleep deprivation&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/70/3/451/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anxiety&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/109/3/393.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;low blood pressure&lt;/a&gt;. Of course I must mention &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alogia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alogia&lt;/a&gt; in schizo typical patients showing the long and brief psychotic episodes cause temporary aphasia as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/w80Ef.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Aphasia 54-3&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-22T07:57:14.613" LastActivityDate="2014-01-22T07:57:14.613" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5454" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3331" CreationDate="2014-01-22T10:13:44.113" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_pain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Phantom Pain&lt;/a&gt; happens when a limb is lost over the course of one's life or missing since birth. Essentially the brain generates pain and sensations for the missing limb. It is thought to be a psychological problem brought on by inherit physiological traits of the human brain. As a psychological problem it is subject to conscious and unconscious retraining. No treatment has as yet proven completely effective against phantom pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_box&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mirror Therapy&lt;/a&gt; is one scientific &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21326041&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;clinically useful&lt;/a&gt; treatment for phantom pain developed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilayanur_S._Ramachandran&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Vilayanur S. Ramachandran&lt;/a&gt;. It normally involves the use of a mirror box in later stages of rehabilitation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A mirror box was featured on the American Television show &quot;House&quot; as a treatment for a war veteran. This &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qbE2ch-9ZFc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;clip&lt;/a&gt; illustrating the fictional use of a mirror box from that episode is inaccurate as it shows the mirror box as a instant cure all however it does accurately describe the process by which the mirror box is used. The clip may be considered somewhat offensive because House is always somewhat offensive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a mirror box the patient places the good limb into one side, and the stump into the other. The patient then looks into the mirror on the side with good limb and makes &quot;mirror symmetric&quot; movements, as a symphony conductor might, or as we do when we clap our hands. Because the subject is seeing the reflected image of the good hand moving, it appears as if the phantom limb is also moving. Through the use of this artificial visual feedback it becomes possible for the patient to &quot;move&quot; the phantom limb&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_box&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mirror therapy has been proven by fMRI imaging to extort spatial attention. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this first study on the neuronal correlates of the mirror illusion in stroke patients we showed that during bimanual movement the mirror illusion increases activity in the precuneus and the posterior cingulate cortex, areas associated with awareness of the self and spatial attention. By increasing awareness of the affected limb the mirror illusion might reduce learned non-use. The fact that we did not observe mirror-related activity in areas of the motor or mirror neuron system questions popular theories that attribute the clinical effects of mirror therapy to these systems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://peer.ccsd.cnrs.fr/docs/00/57/87/09/PDF/PEER_stage2_10.1136%252Fjnnp.2009.194134.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The neuronal correlates of mirror therapy: an fMRI study on mirror induced visual illusions in stroke patients&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Attention (which is in this case not the same word as &quot;pay attention&quot;) is as &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.asu.edu/James/Principles/prin11.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;William James&lt;/a&gt; deﬁned &quot;withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.&quot;. Or as &lt;a href=&quot;http://aegean.psychology.uiowa.edu/Faculty/Vecera/lab/papers/vecera&amp;amp;rizzo_neuroclinics.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Shaun P. Vecera and Matthew Rizzo&lt;/a&gt; defined &quot;The processes that permit an organism to choose some environmental inputs over others&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spatial attention again defined by &lt;a href=&quot;http://aegean.psychology.uiowa.edu/Faculty/Vecera/lab/papers/vecera&amp;amp;rizzo_neuroclinics.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Shaun P. Vecera and Matthew Rizzo&lt;/a&gt; is &quot;restricted to visuospatial attention—those attentional processes that select visual stimuli based on their spatial location&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mirror therapy typically begins in a doctors office. A doctor trains a patient during in or out patient rehabilitation to look into the mirror and clench or move both the present and missing limb. After the technique has been proven useful to the individual it can be done &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3468806/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;at home&lt;/a&gt; without a doctor supervision and minimal training with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22378591&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;same overall results&lt;/a&gt; for both upper and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/23677239_Self-delivered_home-based_mirror_therapy_for_lower_limb_phantom_pain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;lower body&lt;/a&gt;. Home based treatment results in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hindawi.com/isrn/rehabilitation/2012/926784/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;nearly equal compliance&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is my hypothesis that increased prevalence of virtual and augmented reality will allow for new kinds of spatial attention treatments for those with multiple amputations and chronic arthritis effecting both hands. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-22T15:25:39.130" LastActivityDate="2014-01-22T15:25:39.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5455" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5499" CreationDate="2014-01-22T10:45:42.527" Score="3" ViewCount="1359" Body="&lt;p&gt;A common claim in business and self-help seminars is that &lt;strong&gt;optimists are luckier&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it true that optimism leads to greater success in life?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If so, what part of the brain support this so called &quot;higher self&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt; Basal ganglia?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-24T09:51:10.843" LastActivityDate="2014-11-24T09:51:10.843" Title="Does law of attraction have psychological basis?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2014-01-30T17:04:41.997" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5456" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5460" CreationDate="2014-01-22T12:01:37.780" Score="4" ViewCount="1311" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering what would happen if you took a split brain person and stimulated the pleasure center of one hemisphere and the pain center of the other hemisphere in conjunction with an external stimulus... basically Pavlov's Dog but applied differently to the two halves of the brain of the same person.  Of course, such an experiment is highly cruel and unethical, so it's safe to assume it was never done on a human.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, that got me wondering... we often experiment on animals when a procedure is too cruel to perform on humans (for better or worse, I'm not here to debate the ethics of animal experimentation).  Are there any split brain experiments that we've done on animals that we haven't tried on humans?  What have we learned from these experiments?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2997" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-01-27T05:16:19.013" LastActivityDate="2016-02-03T04:37:56.733" Title="Split Brain Experiments on Animals" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5458" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5455" CreationDate="2014-01-22T13:27:36.260" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ahh yes, &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/1582701709&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Secret&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. I'd recommend starting with Wikipedia for a critical view of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_attraction#Criticism_of_the_idea&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;law of attraction&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Secret_%28book%29#Criticism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the book as a whole&lt;/a&gt;. The former page has some particularly good excerpts to offer (emphasis added; hyperlinks not preserved, though I'd appreciate help editing them back in):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Skeptical Inquirer magazine criticized the &lt;strong&gt;lack of falsifiability and testability&lt;/strong&gt; of these claims.&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^{[6]}$&lt;/span&gt; Critics have asserted that the evidence provided is usually anecdotal and that, &lt;strong&gt;because of the self-selecting nature of the positive reports, as well as the subjective nature of any results, these reports are susceptible to confirmation bias and selection bias&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^{[18]}$&lt;/span&gt; Physicist Ali Alousi, for instance, criticized it as &lt;strong&gt;unmeasurable&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;questioned the likelihood that thoughts can affect anything outside the head&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^{[1]}$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Law of Attraction has been popularized in recent years by books and films such as The Secret...Writing for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, Mary Carmichael and Ben Radford wrote that &lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;neither the film nor the book has any basis in scientific reality&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;, and that its premise contains &lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;an ugly flipside: if you have an accident or disease, it's your fault.&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^{[6]}$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Others have questioned the references to modern scientific theory, and have maintained, for example, that the law of attraction misrepresents the electrical activity of brainwaves.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^{[20]}$&lt;/span&gt; Victor Stenger and Leon Lederman are &lt;strong&gt;critical of attempts to use quantum mysticism to bridge any unexplained or seemingly implausible effects&lt;/strong&gt;, believing these to be &lt;strong&gt;traits of modern pseudoscience&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To sum that up, the &amp;quot;law of attraction&amp;quot; hardly has a &lt;em&gt;physical&lt;/em&gt; basis, and it hardly could as it's been defined, given the joint lack of measurability, testability, and falsifiability. If it has a psychological basis that might explain why you've observed multiple independent authors advocating vaguely the same idea, that basis is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;selection bias&lt;/a&gt;, and the &amp;quot;law&amp;quot; is an illusory result of these biases. That is, it is not at all a law in the usual, scientific sense of a time-tested theory that explains a copious range of empirically verifiable facts; it is almost the furthest thing from a law in this sense. Advocates of the idea often borrow language from popularly recognized but poorly understood (by non-physicists) physical concepts like quantum mechanics and electromagnetism, but repurpose them to communicate metaphysical claims without clarifying whether their use is intended &lt;strong&gt;(a)&lt;/strong&gt; as analogy, or &lt;strong&gt;(b)&lt;/strong&gt; as literal claims for the physical mechanisms by which the metaphysical claims are proposed to operate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe Alousi's criticism in the above quote was a response to the latter interpretation: I think he's arguing that thoughts are unlikely to &lt;em&gt;directly&lt;/em&gt; cause physical effects outside the brain, presumably excluding effects on the rest of one's own body, and excluding effects that are mediated by behavior. No known process exists to affect &amp;quot;luck&amp;quot; or the realization of desires &lt;strong&gt;through thought alone&lt;/strong&gt;, so it's unlikely we've overlooked some secret mechanism through which such an effect could operate. Conversely, it seems plenty likely that, for instance, thinking I deserve a cookie would result in me getting a cookie, &lt;strong&gt;if&lt;/strong&gt; I don't exclude all the ordinary processes that mediate this effect (e.g., getting up, opening the cookie jar, stuffing my face)...but this is no secret.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Full disclosure: I haven't read &lt;em&gt;The Secret&lt;/em&gt;...and given my familiarity with its detractors, I'm not likely to.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[Edit]:&lt;/strong&gt; For another, broader response to the related concept of &amp;quot;autosuggestion,&amp;quot; check out &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/q/18562/16995&quot;&gt;this question on skeptics.SE&lt;/a&gt;. @Articuno's answer cites some interesting studies that seem to have identified &lt;strong&gt;counterproductive&lt;/strong&gt; effects of focusing on outcome goals (instead of process goals; Pham &amp;amp; Taylor, 1999) and positive fantasies of success before it is actually attained (Oettingen, 1996)! Maybe this is the real, dirty secret about &lt;em&gt;The Secret&lt;/em&gt; that's most worth knowing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oettingen, G. (1996). Positive fantasy and motivation. In P. M. Gollwitzer &amp;amp; J. A. Bargh (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior&lt;/em&gt;, pp. 236–259. New York: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pham, L. B., &amp;amp; Taylor, S. E. (1999). From thought to action: Effects of process-versus outcome-based mental simulations on performance. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25&lt;/em&gt;(2), 250–260.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T10:47:54.873" CommentCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5459" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5456" CreationDate="2014-01-22T14:02:20.443" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I definitely agree, and so have many of my intro psych classes! I'm only as familiar with split brain research as my intro students are though (okay, maybe a little more than that), so I'd love to see more answers here. As for mine, I don't have any references to contribute from comparative (animal) psychology...All I have to offer is an Intro Psych classic with which you might already be familiar: &lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/lfGwsAdS9Dc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an episode of Scientific American Frontiers that features Mike Gazzaniga's research&lt;/a&gt;. My personal favorite among the brief series of tests (quasi-experiments at best) portrayed here is the one that starts at about 5 minutes and 40 seconds in, because it involves a rationalization by the &quot;Man with two brains&quot; of his own subjective experience. Serious mental gymnastics on display right there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; The parts of the question I answered mostly have just been edited out. I should add that anyone interested in split-brain research in general might find other questions here that mention &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/search?q=%22split+brain%22&quot;&gt;&quot;split brain&quot;&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/search?q=&amp;quot;split-brain&amp;quot;&quot;&gt;&quot;split-brain&quot;&lt;/a&gt; interesting as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-01-27T06:53:18.380" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5456" CreationDate="2014-01-22T14:22:09.523" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Split-brain syndrome is caused when the corpus callosum is cut to prevent epileptic seizures from spreading from one side of the brain to the other. After some time passes from the procedure most patients are indistinguishable from a &amp;quot;normal&amp;quot; person because they adapt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a typical split-brain experiment, two stimuli are presented to the patient in such a way that one will be processed by the left hemisphere and the other by the right hemisphere. For example, the word ‘key-ring’ might be projected such that ‘key’ is restricted to the patient’s left visual field (LVF) and ‘ring’ is restricted to the patient’s right visual field (RVF). The contralateral structure of the visual system ensures that stimuli projected to the LVF are processed in the right hemisphere and vice-versa. Other perceptual systems can be studied in a similar manner. For example, tactile perception is examined by asking the patient to compare, either by verbal report or by pointing, objects presented to each hand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such studies have revealed two kinds of disunities in the split-brain: behavioral disunities and representational disunities. Behavioral disunities are most striking. When asked to report what she sees the patient in the key-ring experiment will typically say that she sees only the word ‘ring’; yet, with her left hand, the patient may select a picture of a key and ignore pictures of both a ring and a key-ring. Generally speaking, visual information projected to the RVF cannot be verbally reported, and visual information projected to the LVF is unavailable for behavior involving the right hand. In the tactile modality, the patient cannot describe, or use her right hand to respond to, objects palpitated by her left hand, and objects palpitated by the right hand cannot be reported via left-handed actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Representational disunities involve a lack of integration between the contents of the&#xA;patient’s conscious states. These states do not enjoy the inferential promiscuity that&#xA;conscious states typically enjoy. The patient in the key-ring experiment appears to have&#xA;representations of the words ‘key’ and ‘ring’ without having a representation of the word ‘key-ring’. Similarly, a patient might appear to be conscious of the identity of the objects palpitated by each hand but have no conjoint awareness of both objects. &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;As we shall see, the precise nature of behavioral and representational disunities differs from patient to patient, but the foregoing description captures the core features of the split-brain syndrome.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.philosophy.ox.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/12844/Unity_of_Consciousness__Split-brain_web.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Unity of Consciousness and the Split-Brain Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question specifically asks about what happens when there is conflict between the hemispheres. One side being pleasured and another side being tortured. In general the response mode will determine which action is taken. The right typically responding to visuo-structural similarities between two stimuli and the left functional-conceptual similarities according to Levy J (1976). However the left side of the brain tends to remain dominate in determining what the end result is during conflicting stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, not only partially but also fully split-brain patients behave in a coordinated, purposeful and consistent manner, belying the independent, parallel, usually different and occasionally conflicting processing of the same information from the environment by the two disconnected hemispheres. Free field performance often resembles that of the superior hemisphere (horse race), especially when the task is linguistic and performed better in the disconnected LH. Occasionally the LH dominates free field responses even when it is inferior to the RH. On rare occasions the RH dominates in spite of being inferior, particularly when the task has prominent visuospatial components. Thus, hemispheric dominance in responding is not al ways the same as the superior unilateral competence (Levy and Trevarthen, 1976).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the two hemispheres receive competing stimuli at the same time, the response mode tends to determine which hemisphere controls behavior: Lh responses reflect RH decisions and Rh responses reflect LH decisions, even when these decisions are in mutual conflict. A variant of this technique presents brief chimeras consisting of competing half stimuli around fixation, divided along the vertical meridian (Levy and Trevarthen 2). In this case, both the nature of the task and the response mode interact to select a behaviorally dominant hemisphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bimanual responses facilitate interhemispheric cooperation for compatible stimuli in the two VFs even in the split brain. It seems that motor responses tend to be unified so that in the chronic condition the two hands do not respond in conflict with each other even when the two hemispheres make conflicting decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The disconnected LH can be said to be generally dominant for several reasons. First, it is more likely than the RH to assume control over behavior in unlateralized situations. Second, it has better ipsilateral visual and tactile-kinesthetic sensory motor control than the RH. Third, LH performance is more stable and less sensitive to small task differences. Fourth, although each disconnected hemisphere is hemianopic with respect to ipsilateral half space and does not deny ipsilateral perceptual experience, the disconnected LH does routinely express disbelief of correct RH responses to left sensory field stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.its.caltech.edu/%7Ejbogen/text/ref130.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Split brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T15:04:57.037" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5461" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-22T18:04:34.507" Score="2" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is &quot;real&quot; or reality defined during childhood, or as adults? Is this caused by age, or an event?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4210" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T03:16:47.747" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T05:04:14.953" Title="At what point in our life do we know what is real?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5462" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18751" CreationDate="2014-01-22T18:36:42.337" Score="13" ViewCount="3480" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to fathom what it might be like for a person with aphasia and for one with agnosia. For a person with a visual agnosia I wonder this: if two unrecognizable objects are shown to them, and one is entirely within the background of the other, (say a fork on a cutting board) do these two objects mold into a single unrecognizable object or do they remain distinct unrecognizable objects? Or have I got it all wrong and they don't even &quot;see&quot; any object to speak of (regardless of how many or how they are positioned)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4226" LastActivityDate="2018-03-31T13:39:59.643" Title="is it possible to think without language?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5463" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-22T18:41:49.397" Score="3" ViewCount="163" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am referring specifically to a &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/abs/1401.1219&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;very recent paper&lt;/a&gt; by Max Tegmark.&#xA;In this paper he proposes 3 more criteria (independence, dynamics, and utility principle) in addition to Tononi's original criteria (information and integration).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen the paper being discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7024651&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hacker News&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.reddit.com/r/neurophilosophy/comments/1uq3c0/14011219_consciousness_as_a_state_of_matter/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reddit's r/neurophilosophy&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://lesswrong.com/lw/jgd/link_consciousness_as_a_state_of_matter_max/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;lesswrong&lt;/a&gt;, but I think they are mostly light jabs on the actual content of Tegmark's proposal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4225" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T08:38:43.213" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T08:49:43.663" Title="Is it truly necessary to upgrade Tononi's criteria of consciousness in the Integrated Information theory?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5464" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5462" CreationDate="2014-01-22T19:00:40.453" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Certainly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It depends on the type of learning process of a person. One can be better at remembering images, so he might access the images first when trying to define an object/event/etc. This can be thought of as having a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidetic_memory&quot;&gt;photographic memory&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main reason why most people think with words is because it is a much more sophisticated and structured learning process, and is taught young. Missing the opportunity to learn a language when youre young would most likely cause them to develop a different way of processing information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Same way goes for someone with visual agnosia. He might develop another way of recognizing objects. For example to use other senses (much like the blind uses his hands to &quot;see&quot;). So one with agnosia would have to use another approach to understand that the fork and the cutting board are two different objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Developing (with time or by injury) agnosia or aphasia at some point in your life would certainly mess your usual way of processing information; and it would be very hard to rebuild a new recognition system as old habits are hard to break.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On another note, some friend of mine claims that he consciously thinks with noises when playing and writing music. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4173" LastActivityDate="2014-01-22T19:00:40.453" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5465" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5461" CreationDate="2014-01-22T19:10:44.287" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ability to distinguish reality from fantasy &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743968/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;happens somewhere between 4 and 6&lt;/a&gt;. This is marked by the use of facts and evidence based research in deduction. This ability is gained through &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wisspd.org/htm/ATPracGuides/Training/ProgMaterials/CH980-09/BDCA.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;changes in the brain like increased&lt;/a&gt; cerebral volume, lateral ventricle volume, grey matter, white matter. Interesting the Mid-Sagittal Corpus Callosum also grows significantly during this time. The Corpus Callosum integrates signals from both sides of the brain but the Mid-Sagittal Corpus Callosum size has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/10265016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;negative correlation to IQ&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone above age 6 who is unable to distinguish reality from fantasy based on evidence is maldeveloped. Some behaviors associated with fantasy, irrational behavior or spirituality are common throughout life. Spirituality would in this case involve any set of beliefs about God or the spirit or psychic realm which are not provable with evidence based observations by science. Irrational value and moral based systems are also normal. These beliefs are typically built on the foundation of spirituality. Some fantasy like beliefs about Santa and other non-spirit but magical creatures are also normal. Irrational behaviors like needing to double check to make sure the clothes iron is unplugged and doors are locked are also common. Problems arise and need to be treated when these types of behaviors begin to interfere with the life of the person experiencing the behavior or those surrounding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In young adults &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychosis&lt;/a&gt; result in mental illnesses marked by an inability to distinguish reality from hallucinations and delusions. Psychosis may be drug induced by hallucinogens like cocaine or occur because of a stress vulnerability to a mental illness. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schizo typical&lt;/a&gt; illnesses can range from the minute of hearing voices which are not really there  with odd behavior to the extreme of becoming totally immersed in a delusional states of dream like trances and losing touch with reality. Psychosis caused by mental illness is correctable with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipsychotic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anti-psychotics&lt;/a&gt;. Major sedatives which help alleviate the insomnia immediately and over the course of months correct the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_hypothesis_of_schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dopamine overdose thought&lt;/a&gt; to be caused by psychosis. Some people must remain on maintenance levels of anti-psychotics all their lives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T05:04:14.953" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T05:04:14.953" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5466" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-22T20:17:46.347" Score="3" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to run an experiment in which 64 images are presented (1 at a time) and participants rate their preference for the image on a slider scale, and I'm wondering what the best and cheapest way to do this is? Are there some good, free software programs that I can use? I've looked at things like SurveyMonkey and Question Pro but have not found something that seems to work. I don't have any coding knowledge so I'd prefer not to build it from scratch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4227" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-09T02:37:28.427" LastActivityDate="2014-02-09T02:37:28.427" Title="Which ready-made programs can I use for running a preference-rating experiment?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5467" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="506" CreationDate="2014-01-22T20:46:34.897" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www4.parinc.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PAR&lt;/a&gt; has some tests available on PARiConnect, however they are very limited and mostly for psych evals (ie: BRIEF, CAD, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4228" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T08:35:34.697" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T08:35:34.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5468" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1845" CreationDate="2014-01-22T21:12:01.680" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are multiple reasons why we may like or dislike certain kind of music. For example, it may be because of nostalgia or because it helps one to relax or get into a certain mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also multiple kinds of listeners. Some just think of music as a background noise for their everyday activities while others may sit down and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_listening&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;actively listen&lt;/a&gt; to music. They will meditate or even fall in REM sleep while listening. In my opinion, the latest will experience more profound emotions and will be more emotionally attached to music listened that way. This kind of experience is what most progressive, jazz and classical (just to name a few) musicians seek in writing or playing music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While this is highly subjective, i believe that one of the reasons (while there can be many more and may change with time and experience) attract people to music is the unconscious desire to improve oneself and learn lessons. There is a similar behavior explained in the chapter about relationships in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.ca/Road-Less-Traveled-Timeless-Edition/dp/0743243153&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The road less Traveled&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that appreciation is one of those things that depends on so much variables that it can't be yet explained by rationalization. But we can still appreciate and explore this &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;chaotic&lt;/a&gt; branch of psychology with books such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.ca/Musicophilia-Tales-Music-Oliver-Sacks/dp/0676979793/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Musicophilia&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4173" LastActivityDate="2014-01-22T21:12:01.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5469" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5471" CreationDate="2014-01-23T02:47:35.840" Score="1" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; Once when I heard of a death in my locality, I was happy rather than feeling grief because I was thinking that the soul of that dead person has achieved the truth.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How does belief in souls or the afterlife influence emotions related to the death of others?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4229" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T03:20:28.260" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T06:02:24.523" Title="How does belief in souls or the afterlife influence emotions related to the death of others?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5470" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5462" CreationDate="2014-01-23T04:05:40.390" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the answer is a qualified yes, humans can think without language. Ultimately though it depends on what you mean by &quot;think.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a remarkably large number of deaf people who are not exposed either to a signed or spoken language even in developed countries. These people often invent their own gesture systems, referred to as home sign systems. These people  In these cases, the deaf children's systems are more complex than the gestures their parents use (Carrigan &amp;amp; Coppola, 2012). My dad was a home signer until after high school, and he learned how to work on his car, drove a motorcycle, and figured out how the furnace worked. Based on these examples, it is clearly possible to engage in fairly complex reasoning without language. In the article cited below, Spaepen et al. (2011) describe how home signers have some concept of number, albeit imprecise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is all to say that thinking is possible without language. Home signers are not catatonic, and can actually engage in complex reasoning. One the other hand, language is a huge cognitive advantage, and in this respect it certainly has an impact on thinking. Language facilitates transmission of information (learning), and it provides a way of organizing thought. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carrigan, E. M., &amp;amp; Coppola, M. (2012). Mothers Do Not Drive Structure in Adult Homesign Systems: Evidence from Comprehension. In N. Miyake, D. Peebles, &amp;amp; RP Cooper,(Eds.), Proceedings of the 34th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1398-1403).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spaepen, E., Coppola, M., Spelke, E. S., Carey, S. E., &amp;amp; Goldin-Meadow, S. (2011). Number without a language model. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(8), 3163-3168.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4220" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T04:05:40.390" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5471" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5469" CreationDate="2014-01-23T05:46:44.293" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Religion and spirituality provide coping strategies and relief for those who experience bereavement to help negate or provide incentive for surviving the trauma. Soul based beliefs tend to encourage the idea of an eventual reunification with the loved one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since this person was not a dear loved one your purely religious coping strategy is fine and perfectly normal. However I would be concerned and advise you to seek a doctor's help if you had the same absence of grief during the bereavement of a loved one.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The role of religion in dealing with bereavement is not well researched because its difficult to draw empirical data from unempirical relief. Especially with it being such a universally private and very tender time in a persons life. I did find one chapter from a book which provided a solid set of guidelines and so cite bellow. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People often report that their religion or spirituality was helpful or even essential&#xA;  for getting through and recovering from their grief (see Wortmann &amp;amp; Park, 2008,&#xA;  for a review) in spite of the lack of solid empirical evidence that this is so. indeed, there are strong theoretical rationales for positing that religion and spirituality can strongly impact the process of grieving.for many individuals, religion or spirituality underlies their general approach to life and forms the system of meaning through which they experience and understand the world and operate on a daily basis, making the universe seem benign, safe, just, coherent, and, ultimately, controllable (Park et al., in press). Clearly, when facing highly stressful experiences such as the death of a loved one, this meaning system will influence their responses to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Religious and spiritual perspectives provide many resources for understanding and coping with loss. Many traditions provide perspectives on death, such as viewing loss as illusory rather than real or as a necessary step toward a more glorious future. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Several predominant religious belief systems hold out possibilities for everlasting life and for reunification with the lost loved one after one’s own death (Greeley &amp;amp; hout, 1999). Beliefs in a soul that is separate from and persists after the death of the physical body also allows for the possibility of remaining in contact with the deceased (Benore &amp;amp; Park, 2004), a commonly reported experience in the United States (klugman, 2006).&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in addition, religious and spiritual traditions offer a panoply of coping resources for dealing with death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;these resources include social support from pastors and fellow congregants, and many rites and rituals to assist mourners through the process of grieving. for example, all religious traditions prescribe specific prayers, behaviors, and funeral ceremonies to deal with death, which comfort mourners and give them a sense of structure and a sense of belonging to a broader community (Wuthnow et al.,1980).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;through these resources, individuals may find solace and comfort and, over&#xA;  time, work through their grief in ways that allow them to find peace and acceptance&#xA;  and to return to their normal daily lives (halifax, 2008). of course, normal life is forever changed with the loss of a loved one, and people often carry a lingering sense of sadness and longing for the lost person (Stroebe, Abakoumkin, &amp;amp; Stroebe, 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;importantly, mitigating negative outcomes is not the only possibility represented&#xA;  by religious and spiritual approaches to bereavement. in fact, many religious and spiritual traditions hold that the suffering experienced through bereavement can be an impetus for transformative spiritual experience. Such a perspective holds that to deny grief is to rob one of the heavy stones that will eventually be the ballast for the two great accumulations of wisdom and compassion. indeed, grief is a vital part of our very human life, an experience that can open compassion, and an important phase of maturation giving depth and humility to life; it can be regarded as a gift. Grief can ruin or mature us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;like the mother who bathed her dead baby in her breast milk, grief can remind us not to hold on too tightly as it teaches us tenderness and patience with our own suffering. Many bereaved individuals report extensive personal growth following bereavement, including increased appreciation for life, enhanced spirituality, and closer interpersonal relationships, and religious and spiritual pathways are a common pathway to this transformative growth (Park, 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.upaya.org/uploads/pdfs/GriefasBurdenGriefasGift1.10.11.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Religion and Spirituality in Adjusting to Bereavement&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T06:02:24.523" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T06:02:24.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5472" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5194" CreationDate="2014-01-23T09:05:59.787" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[Edit]:&lt;/strong&gt; Parts of this answer respond to removed content in older versions of the OP, and to comments. The current version of the OP deserves some elaboration of this answer. (And, IMHO, other answers too!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other spiritual &amp;quot;worlds&amp;quot; than those that are dualistic. By common psychological definitions of spirituality, the existence of an &amp;quot;ethereal soul&amp;quot; is not a definitional belief. That is not to say the &amp;quot;spiritual world[s]&amp;quot; to which you're referring are invalid—only that spirituality does not necessarily require belief in anything supernatural or unobservable. Psychological theory on spirituality is quite diffuse itself; in my own study of it (it's among my top five research interests!), I've found it hard to really limit what kinds of belief systems qualify as &lt;em&gt;spiritual&lt;/em&gt;, except in as much as they entail some sense of self-transcendence, interconnectedness among identities of discrete beings, or at least an opposition to reductionistic or nihilistic systems that ascribe mundanity or emptiness to phenomena in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not to say that spirituality itself (i.e., spiritual beliefs) can't be studied scientifically either; in fact, some admirable progress has been made in defining a measurable set of dimensions by which spiritual beliefs can be assessed and compared at the individual level. Ralph Piedmont, with whom one of my former labmates has worked directly, has made a lot of this progress himself, so I'd recommend checking out some of his work to get a sense of what research on spirituality is like in the professional psychological community. He's even proposed spirituality as a &amp;quot;sixth major dimension of personality&amp;quot; that belongs in the same general domain of individual differences in personality traits as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big Five Factor Model&lt;/a&gt;, and he's reported success in generalizing his operationalization of spirituality cross-culturally (Piedmont, &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-6494.00080/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1999&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232602191_Spirituality_and_religiosity_as_cross-cultural_aspects_of_human_experience/file/32bfe50d10210133de.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://abs.sagepub.com/content/45/12/1888.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Piedmont &amp;amp; Leach, 2002&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I responded to your comment, &amp;quot;The oneness that we all share on accord of having the same Godly element within us&amp;quot; is also not a definitional belief in all forms of spirituality. You'll see this if you consider Piedmont's definition of spirituality (and don't find it too vague to be valid). Here's a brief quote from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232602191_Spirituality_and_religiosity_as_cross-cultural_aspects_of_human_experience/file/32bfe50d10210133de.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Piedmont (2007)&lt;/a&gt; that I think sums it up about as succinctly as any other quote from him that I've seen:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To capture a broad-based aspect of spirituality that would be nondenominational in nature, Piedmont (1999)...Working from a trait perspective for construing spirituality...operationalized spirituality as a motivational drive directed towards creating personal meaning for one’s life. Three correlated subscales were identified: &lt;em&gt;Universality&lt;/em&gt;, a belief in the unitive nature of life; &lt;em&gt;Prayer Fulfillment&lt;/em&gt;, a feeling of joy and contentment that results from personal encounters with a transcendent reality; and &lt;em&gt;Connectedness&lt;/em&gt;, a belief that one is part of a larger human reality that cuts across generations and groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look further into his work, you may note that the &amp;quot;unitive nature of life&amp;quot; is not required of all forms of spirituality. Universality is measured as one of three dimensional aspects, any one of which may be sufficient alone to qualify a belief system as spiritual (or at least, not completely non-spiritual) wherever present. Nor does Universality necessarily involve the existence of any &amp;quot;Godly element&amp;quot; anywhere. Even to whatever extent people believe we share oneness through having any of the same elements we have within us, Connectedness does not necessarily involve anything supernatural; definitionally (as in the above quote), it does not involve much more than &amp;quot;a larger human reality.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For reasons such as these, it is necessary that &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; narrow down the concept of a soul before it can find any scientific support. Consider your statement, &amp;quot;Everything that we feel or do or think is attributed to our soul.&amp;quot; This conflicts with most folk and religious concepts of a soul with which I am familiar, at least when taken literally (your intended meaning may be necessary to specify here as well, if you didn't mean this literally). Most concepts of a soul do entail some amount of dualistic belief, whereby some feelings/thoughts are attributed not to the soul, but to the brain, mind, or body. (Even these three entities are not necessarily the same thing either, depending on whom you're talking to!) This lack of consensus on basic, crucial definitions is partly what makes the issue so difficult to separate the scientific issue from philosophical or religious issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you can narrow it down, we might get somewhere, if only (I'd bet) to conclude that your definition of an ethereal soul is fundamentally inaccessible to empirical science for lack of measurability or falsifiability. Without narrowing down the concept of what would qualify as a soul more specifically than you have in your question, I suspect someone could come up with an equivalently strong counterargument to any scientific support one could give for an ethereal soul, so long as &lt;em&gt;ethereal&lt;/em&gt; means unobservable and unknowable in some sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;[Edit]:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One complication that remains in the updated OP so far is that biological, cognitive, or social explanations of sentiments don't necessarily preclude a loosely defined &amp;quot;soul&amp;quot; from adding explanatory power. These three kinds of scientific explanations often work together (and may not even be distinct from one another, ultimately) in our models of behavior, emotion, and cognition; I'd say there's still plenty of room for more explanatory factors. The hard part is finding others that actually provide falsifiable explanatory power in ways that existing scientific theories haven't covered already. I'm unaware of any way of measuring unique, useful information about the soul, so I'd say the prospect of doing so is pretty dismal, even though I can't rule it out entirely (and I don't see how others could either).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your examples of soul-relevant beliefs, I think this becomes even clearer. Each may deserve its own separate question and answers, but I'll respond very briefly to each here to help you decide whether you want to pursue them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, the soul mate concept is very loosely defined itself, and most plausible folk concepts don't seem universally applicable. Lots of research has examined romantic attraction and long-term commitment, and some very mundane factors (e.g., proximity, children) have a lot more influence than one might expect if people were routinely finding their soul mates in an idealized sense. Somewhat mundane factors like communication skills, shared values, and physical attraction seem to play predominant roles even in a more limited, rare sense of &amp;quot;true love&amp;quot;. There's surely more to it, but good luck improving any statistical models with a soul concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; third, the soul may ultimately be little more than a popular metaphor and folk concept of a person's ethical systems, impulse regulation, and psychological well-being. It certainly may not too, because it refers to something supernatural and apparently unfalsifiable; i.e., there may be much more to the soul than we'll ever know in this life (regardless of whether there are other lives). In either case, the challenge remains to distinguish the soul's role in moral behavior from the roles of factors that fall within the scope of scientific research, such as attitudes, values, and other cognitive processes for decision-making, impulse regulation, and internal conflict resolution. Similarly, consequences for the soul that people might be able to detect seem very hard to distinguish from purely secular consequences for well-being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, again, the idea of souls is useful to study scientifically as a belief and social construct regardless of whether souls exist independently of culture. Plenty of research examines the relationship between religiousness and well-being in general, and some even considers the specific relationship between religiousness and the experience of meaning in life. Thanks in part to my own research efforts as an undergraduate, there's even one published study out there that reports the specific relationship between self-reported meaning in life and belief in an afterlife (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$r=.32, p&amp;lt;.01$&lt;/span&gt;; Steger et al., 2010). That's the best empirical evidence of which I'm aware so far that &lt;strong&gt;belief in&lt;/strong&gt; a dualistic soul relates to the subjective meaningfulness of existence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piedmont, R. L. (1999). Does Spirituality Represent the Sixth Factor of Personality? Spiritual Transcendence and the Five‐Factor Model. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality, 67&lt;/em&gt;(6), 985–1013. &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-6494.00080/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-6494.00080/abstract&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piedmont, R. L. (2007). Cross-cultural generalizability of the Spiritual Transcendence Scale to the Philippines: Spirituality as a human universal. &lt;em&gt;Mental Health, Religion &amp;amp; Culture, 10&lt;/em&gt;(2), 89–107. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232602191_Spirituality_and_religiosity_as_cross-cultural_aspects_of_human_experience/file/32bfe50d10210133de.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232602191_Spirituality_and_religiosity_as_cross-cultural_aspects_of_human_experience/file/32bfe50d10210133de.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piedmont, R. L., &amp;amp; Leach, M. M. (2002). Cross-cultural generalizability of the Spiritual Transcendence Scale in India: Spirituality as a universal aspect of human experience. &lt;em&gt;American Behavioral Scientist, 45&lt;/em&gt;(12), 1888–1901. &lt;a href=&quot;http://abs.sagepub.com/content/45/12/1888.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://abs.sagepub.com/content/45/12/1888.short&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Steger, M. F., Pickering, N. K., Adams, E., Burnett, J., Shin, J. Y., Dik, B. J., &amp;amp; Stauner, N. (2010). The quest for meaning: Religious affiliation differences in the correlates of religious quest and search for meaning in life. &lt;em&gt;Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 2&lt;/em&gt;(4), 206–226.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-02-05T19:29:40.373" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5473" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5462" CreationDate="2014-01-23T11:11:47.613" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is hard to imagine what evidence might be found of thoughts existing without language. Even &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_child&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;feral children&lt;/a&gt; encounter language (either verbal or nonverbal) through limited contact with people or animals, and lab animals communicate nonverbally with researchers, even if only through their environments (the researcher observes the animal's behavior, and the animal observes how the researcher changes its environment, e.g., its food, waste, and cage furnishings). For reasons such as these, the prospect of thought without language may be somewhat untestable. Producing a sentient being that is never allowed the opportunity to communicate with others would also be unethical by most means I can imagine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your (largely unrelated) question about object discrimination in the absence of recognition, I can't offer any insight in the context of visual agnosia per se, other than to point out that (according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_agnosia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;), &quot;Visual agnosia...is not due to a deficit in...language.&quot; However, outside that context, I would recommend watching &lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/lfGwsAdS9Dc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an episode of Scientific American Frontiers, &quot;The Man with Two Brains&quot;&lt;/a&gt; that I mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5459/4086&quot;&gt;another answer of mine&lt;/a&gt; just yesterday! The effects of lacking communication between one's cerebral hemispheres are different from visual agnosia, but give some insight into how unknown objects (e.g., crude drawings) may be identified and differentiated in the absence of linguistic function, which is generally left-hemisphere-dominant. In this episode, Mike Gazzaniga also demonstrates how his split-brain case study subject attends differently to the components that comprise larger objects vs. the overall unity of those objects as one &lt;em&gt;meta-object&lt;/em&gt; (coined here for lack of a better term), depending on which hemisphere's visual field processes such an object comprised of smaller objects. The left hemisphere, in which linguistic functions primarily operate, tends to break down these meta-objects and perceive them separately, whereas the right hemisphere tends to notice mostly the overall silhouette of the meta-object. Thus when a still-life painting of a pile of objects that together resemble a face is presented to the right (relatively non-linguistic) hemisphere, a face is perceived, not a bunch of objects (that happen to be organized in a face-resembling pattern).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This sort of evidence might offer the next-best thing to what you'd hope to find through study of visual agnosia. From Gazzaniga's demonstrations with his split-brain case study subject, it seems likely that, without involving the left hemisphere (and thus largely avoiding the involvement of major linguistic processes), the right hemisphere operating alone would perceive a fork on a cutting board as one object in the shape of a cutting board, or would at least require stronger visual contrasts between the two (e.g., color, shadow, texture) to achieve a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-noticeable_difference&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;just-noticeable difference&lt;/a&gt; between the two, relative to the left hemisphere operating without the right. Whether that actually has anything to do with language though, or whether it's a separate qualitative difference in the functions of each hemisphere's visual processes, is another question on which I can hardly even begin to speculate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T11:11:47.613" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5474" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1845" CreationDate="2014-01-23T11:54:36.357" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Following the comments you've received, I'll add my own subjective answer in the affirmative to your first question. I think we've already compiled enough votes and comments here that support @JoshGitlin's unscientific answer to say that there is some empirical basis for theorizing the existence of a &amp;quot;taste&amp;quot; acquisition process in music. Nonetheless, here's another somewhat unscientific (and inadvertent) contribution from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquiring_the_Taste&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Acquiring the Taste&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; was the second album of English progressive rock band Gentle Giant...This was a departure from the blues and soul styles found on their self titled debut. It was more experimental, more discordant, and with more varied instrumentation. In the sleeve text, the band made this famous declaration:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;...It is our goal to expand the frontiers of contemporary popular music at the risk of being very unpopular. We have recorded each composition with the one thought - that it should be unique, adventurous and fascinating. It has taken every shred of our combined musical and technical knowledge to achieve this. From the outset we have abandoned all preconceived thoughts of blatant commercialism. Instead we hope to give you something far more substantial and fulfilling. All you need to do is sit back, and acquire the taste.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So there you have it: a fairly sophisticated band of musicians appealing to some common intuition about the very process in question, acquiring a taste for certain music. At the risk of being flagged for spamming, I'd even recommend that anyone curious enough to try out the process for oneself should &lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/qOjikpmXQuI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;give the album a listen&lt;/a&gt;; it's likely to be quite different from the music you're used to, but it's also likely to grow on you somewhat (it's certainly grown on me since I first heard it)!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your second question, generally speaking, aesthetic appreciation of a given, enjoyable stimulus (including, but not limited to discrete musical compositions) changes in at least two ways over repeated exposures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hedonic adaptation&lt;/a&gt; often occurs to some extent, such that as novelty wears off, so does enjoyment.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostalgia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nostalgia&lt;/a&gt; plays a somewhat opposite role under certain circumstances, such as those that associate the stimulus with a desirable memory.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's probably plenty more to it than just these two influences though. How it all actually plays out would be very interesting to see, so here's an upvote for any references others might be able to offer in their own answers!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T11:54:36.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5475" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5477" CreationDate="2014-01-23T10:55:54.623" Score="10" ViewCount="2236" Body="&lt;p&gt;Below is a snapshot of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.linkedin.com/today/post/article/20140123033511-64875646-who-s-been-paid-109-million-for-not-performing-at-their-job?trk=tod-home-art-list-large_0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an article linked from LinkedIn&lt;/a&gt; today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I find more disturbing than the topic at hand is the featured image used to head up the article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly it's important to provide suitable images to match content.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;But why is a face with no features so disturbing?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is facial recognition so deeply embedded into our subconscious that the inability to distinguish any features alerts us in some way? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it the deepest ravine of the uncanny valley?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6jATNl.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Or is it just me? I mean it's not &lt;em&gt;me&lt;/em&gt; obviously, in the image... is it just me that finds it disturbing?&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="518" OwnerDisplayName="Roger Attrill" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-24T12:31:03.977" LastActivityDate="2014-01-24T12:31:03.977" Title="Why is an image of a face without features disturbing?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5476" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5475" CreationDate="2014-01-23T11:15:36.967" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's because of the difficulty of traversing the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncanny_valley&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;uncanny valley&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4231" OwnerDisplayName="uprego" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T11:15:36.967" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5477" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5475" CreationDate="2014-01-23T13:37:42.117" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's from fear sprung out of the inability to clearly identify and interpret something and from that know how to react to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's something skewed with what you see, something deviating from your mental model of what a face (in this example) looks like. That makes us perceive it as something unknown, and what's unknown is also perceived as unpredictable and induces an uneasiness and discomfort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason why this is unpleasant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YVdm5.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this isn't:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7JN51m.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is because the latter is clearly an illustration and can be subconsciously dismissed as something static/dead, and by that predictable and nonthreatening. In the first image we have a hard time identifying what it is we see, whether it's something that's alive or if it's dead. This makes us uncomfortable since we don't know how we should react to it, even if it's just an image. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being confronted by it in real life would without a doubt be very disturbing since then there is no escape, it's very real, very unknown and therefore very unpredictable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4232" OwnerDisplayName="AndroidHustle" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T13:37:42.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5479" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-23T14:18:42.333" Score="4" ViewCount="2363" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question came up in relationships.SE (still in beta) in this &lt;a href=&quot;http://relationships.stackexchange.com/questions/55/how-can-you-avoid-having-an-unrequited-crush/62?noredirect=1#comment190_62&quot;&gt;lengthy thread&lt;/a&gt; (which I hope you can get access to).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically the disagreement goes as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Telling somebody with a crush&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It's possible that your crush object may never see you in a romantic light&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;will let them disregard the 'never' in favor of &quot;possible&quot;, because of what DVK calls &quot;confirmation bias&quot; (see note at the bottom). So they would draw possibly false hope from it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The presupposition is, that people with a crush on someone generally are delusional, at least with respect to said crush, thus suffering from this &quot;confirmation bias&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I disagree with the presupposition, but want to put the question, whether it's true or not, here, to ideally get a definitive answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note from DVK's comment:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a side note - I'm aware that &quot;Confirmation bias&quot; may be a technically incorrect term - call it &quot;Wishful thinking&quot; if you prefer. Basically, the fact that a person with a crush will only hear facts, or interpret anything they hear, in a way that is positive to their desired outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4233" LastEditorUserId="4233" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T14:32:11.793" LastActivityDate="2015-05-21T09:01:24.790" Title="Are people who have a crush on someone generally delusional with respect to their crush?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5480" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5475" CreationDate="2014-01-23T14:45:52.047" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a similar face possible in reality. It is a victim of burning who later received face transplantation. Looking at it is shocking. Maybe it leads to imagining the suffering? I am not posting it here—it is not pretty—but see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vreesloosafrikaans.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/1002.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this link&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: Actually, my example seems to be covered by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncanny_valley&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;uncanny valley&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;Examples can be found in the fields of ... and in medical fields such as burn reconstruction ... and plastic surgery&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4234" LastEditorUserId="4234" LastEditDate="2014-01-24T10:18:21.780" LastActivityDate="2014-01-24T10:18:21.780" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5481" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5466" CreationDate="2014-01-23T16:22:59.283" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.salleurl.edu/tsenyal/true/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TRUE&lt;/a&gt; and it seems quite fine. There is free access to&#xA;TRUE online version.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T16:22:59.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5482" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5479" CreationDate="2014-01-23T16:51:14.347" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unrequited_love&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Unrequited love&lt;/a&gt; is so common that it is funny. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-pleasures-sex/200911/unrequited-love-and-lust-when-the-one-you-want-doesn-t-want-you-back&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Most childhood crushes&lt;/a&gt; begin as such because children are unable to identify who is interested in them. More difficult it becomes when no one is inclined to be in love with them. Being a normal person attachments form to those nearest who show compassion or have some physically appealing trait. Such beings irrational behavior based on the lack of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologyineverydaylife.net/2013/02/22/unrequited-love-when-cupid-gets-it-all-wrong/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychological health&lt;/a&gt; in a person's life. Therapy can help identify why a person needs love from that individual and why they can't accept the lack of interest. Then it can help identify more suitable candidates for love who bear the same attractable traits. Finally it helps someone develop greater self-esteem and help them move on and cope with the strong pain of rejection. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due to the symptoms of their illnesses, those with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dependency&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;attachment&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;borderline personality&lt;/a&gt; disorders are more likely to experience unrequited love or even become obsessed with a person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the most extreme and rare form &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;stalking&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erotomania&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;erotomania&lt;/a&gt; can happen as a result of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychosis&lt;/a&gt;. These instances are actually disillusion. Normally this occurs with those who have a history of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;bipolar&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schizo typical&lt;/a&gt; and are symptomatic, not under a doctors care or taking &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipsychotic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anti-psychotics&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The literature describes the changes which happen in a normal person's brain caused by love not as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;delusion&lt;/a&gt; but as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;bias&lt;/a&gt;. It has been &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/eli-finkel/documents/InPress_LuchiesWieselquistRusbultKumashiroEastwickCoolsenFinkel_JPSP_001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;shown&lt;/a&gt; that if you trust someone and you love them your more likely to overlook their faults and systematically misremember their transgressions. Moreover though beauty is in the eye of the beholder it is likewise &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3adoi/10.1371/journal.pone.0021852;jsessionid=0F6DE17976F0663CD1774C0370A6A4E7.ambra01&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;enhanced by love&lt;/a&gt;. The person you love appears more attractive than they would otherwise. This is probably an evolutionary adaption to promote long lasting relationships. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T23:54:37.217" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T23:54:37.217" CommentCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5483" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-23T19:36:00.010" Score="3" ViewCount="957" Body="&lt;p&gt;Homosexuals are oft criticized for their sexuality to which they would say they are just not attracted to the member of the opposite sex and that it's the other way round.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is this attraction to member's of the same-sex a (by-birth) psychological illness (that could be treated), a natural disposition, or just voluntary choice? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or maybe something else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastActivityDate="2019-08-30T08:32:55.563" Title="Is homosexuality a psychological illness or a natural disposition of a person's sexual orientation?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5484" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5486" CreationDate="2014-01-23T20:17:33.600" Score="1" ViewCount="799" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is it that a sudden loud sound or movement, or some kind of surprise tends to invoke fear?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This phenomenon is not restricted to humans and can also be observed in animals&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0064640/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sheldon Cooper&lt;/a&gt; brought this up in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0898266/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TBBT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T20:42:46.343" Title="Why is surprise, sudden loud sound or movement an element of fear?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5485" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5483" CreationDate="2014-01-23T20:32:09.453" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It never should have been considered an illness. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Homosexuality&lt;/a&gt; was at one time viewed as a psychological illness from DSM-I in 1952 to the 7th printing of DSM-II in 1974. Psychologist corrected themselves and it is no longer viewed as an illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Homosexuality can happen as a result of scarcity and sexual drive. (as such often happens in prisons) It can also happen as a single sexual desire; those having no desire to have sex with the opposite gender. Most of the time it is present from birth but things can happen in someones life to cause them to have homosexual desires. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All attempts to &quot;treat&quot; homosexuality have failed as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy#Can_Some_Gay_Men_and_Lesbians_Change_Their_Sexual_Orientation.3F&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conversion therapy&lt;/a&gt; works only for those who are extremely religiously motivated and causes harm to those individuals. Abstinence works for both homosexuals and hetrosexuals who find conflict with their sexuality but autonomic functions eventually force the body to be somewhat sexual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-02-01T20:41:23.657" LastActivityDate="2014-02-01T20:41:23.657" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5486" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5484" CreationDate="2014-01-23T20:42:46.343" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Its an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;autonomic&lt;/a&gt; (something you cannot control) survival reaction commonly called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fight or flight&lt;/a&gt;. The fear you would be describing would be a flight reaction. Both fighting and fleeing are designed to help you survive life threatening confrontation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T20:42:46.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5487" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-23T21:03:40.557" Score="5" ViewCount="32233" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is it that upon seeing anything the involves gore, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;surgical cutting&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;excessive blood&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;blood and pain&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;causes nausea, vomiting or fainting?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And why does watching it repeatedly take away that feeling (desensitization)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the above is being watched in the form of a video/picture and the viewer is told that what is being shown is not real, but rather a video compositing technique, then the aforementioned feelings usually goes away. Why is that so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watching someone vomit can cause the viewer to follow suit; is the cause of this related to the one of the above?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-24T22:02:26.580" LastActivityDate="2014-01-25T00:39:49.037" Title="Why does the the sight of gore causes nausea, vomiting and/or fainting?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5488" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5324" CreationDate="2014-01-23T21:05:53.657" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are driven by &lt;strong&gt;this need to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/elements/2013/04/why-we-need-answers.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;find answer to our questions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many questions arise from one's mind by experiencing new events or feelings, or having to sort out a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt;. An example of this would be the need for victims to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.ca/trends/explore#q=who%20is%20the%20guilty&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;find the guilty&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When we can’t immediately gratify our desire to know, we become highly motivated to reach a concrete explanation. That motivation, in Kagan’s conception, lies at the heart of most other common motives: achievement, affiliation, power, and the like. We want to eliminate the distress of the unknown. We want, in other words, to achieve “cognitive closure.”&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/elements/2013/04/why-we-need-answers.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/elements/2013/04/why-we-need-answers.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Going further, there is an intimate relationship between &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openness_to_experience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;open mindedness&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and curiosity. Someone thinking he &lt;em&gt;knows it all&lt;/em&gt; will never seek for new information or experiences; he will probably stick to &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/defensemech_3.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;denial to protect his intellectual integrity&lt;/a&gt;, his homeostasis. Most religions are providing a preconceived cognitive model to answer all that is beyond our understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Skepticism&lt;/strong&gt; is also correlated to curiosity, as it reopens questions many thought answered for years and it's the base of scientific research. Like Scott Peck (and probably many others) said, science is the religion of skepticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I must say, the feeling of satisfaction is a great motivator for one to answer questions. These &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;eureka moments&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, when you know you found something, is what drives me to solve problems. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bgaw9qe7DEE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Pleasure Of Finding Things Out&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a great interview with Richard Feynman that will inspire many on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, curiosity (and scientific research in general) is a cycle that arises when one connects dots when analyzing new answers, which most of the time leads to more unanswered questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One makes connections with different sources of data&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Questions arises from these new connections&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Research is done until a plausible answer (rational and provable for scientists) is found&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One uses this new answers to explain some phenomenon, and then the cycle restarts&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But not all questions can be answered, because there is an &lt;strong&gt;infinite&lt;/strong&gt; amount of them in all directions. When we accept this fact, curiosity becomes voluntary based. We then have to choose &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_JTN7YnM72A&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;which answers&lt;/strong&gt; we are able to answer within our limited lifetime&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4173" LastEditorUserId="4173" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T23:37:37.773" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T23:37:37.773" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5489" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5487" CreationDate="2014-01-23T21:20:33.837" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Vomiting, fainting and nausea at the sight of something instinctively repulsive is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disgust&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;disgust&lt;/a&gt;. Its an evolutionary tactic to avoid things which cause disease. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desensitization_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Desensitization&lt;/a&gt; through controlled or positive exposure works against most evolutionary instincts including disgust. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Disgust is a type of aversive reaction that involves withdrawing from a being or object with strong expressions of revulsion. It can also be defined as a revulsion response towards potential contamination. It is a universal, basic emotion that functions to help protect an organism from ingesting potentially harmful substances, thereby promoting disease avoidance. It is one of the basic emotions and is typically associated with things that are regarded as unclean, inedible, infectious, gory or otherwise offensive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disgust&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T21:20:33.837" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5490" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5491" CreationDate="2014-01-23T21:50:15.980" Score="1" ViewCount="339" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found quite a bit of information of how, on a neurological level, we learn the most basic forms of maths. We seem to be hardwired from the get go, to deal with manageable quantities, can intuitively decide whether something is more or less and even add or subtract small integers together. There have even been tests that six-month-old children already have an intuitive sense of small numbers.&#xA;Basically, this covers basic arithmetic on natural numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I had a hard time finding anything about how we learn to deal with more abstract, higher level maths. What happens in our brain when we deal with functions and variables? Will they still be processed in the same region that is used for counting? - Especially when it comes to functions that do not even take numbers as inputs or outputs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am asking about math that can not be solved with simple arithmetic, and I wonder how an intuition of a generic mathematical concept would be represented in our brains. Has any research on this already been done? - Like something which isn't a numeric algorithm but rather symbolic manipulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4238" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-23T23:58:32.673" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T23:58:32.673" Title="How does the brain learn abstract maths?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5491" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5490" CreationDate="2014-01-23T22:05:46.507" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The parietal area and prefrontal cortex from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neocortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neocortex&lt;/a&gt; are the source of ones ability to perform algebra and most other logic and analytic intensive tasks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a brain imaging study of children learning algebra, it is shown that the same regions are active in children solving equations as are active in experienced adults solving equations. As with adults, practice in symbol manipulation produces a reduced activation in prefrontal cortex area. However, unlike adults, practice seems also to produce a decrease in a parietal area that is holding an image of the equation. This finding suggests that adolescents' brain responses are more plastic and change more with practice. These results are integrated in a cognitive model that predicts both the behavioral and brain imaging results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/101/15/5686.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The change of the brain activation patterns as children learn algebra equation solving&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-23T22:05:46.507" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5492" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5895" CreationDate="2014-01-24T01:38:04.097" Score="9" ViewCount="356" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read the following threads:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3738/is-it-possible-to-think-in-a-second-language/&quot;&gt;Is it possible to think in a second language?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/228/does-language-and-or-culture-affect-an-individuals-cognitive-capacity&quot;&gt;Does language and/or culture affect an individual&amp;#39;s cognitive capacity?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5462/is-it-possible-to-think-without-language&quot;&gt;is it possible to think without language?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Language is clearly a very good tool for structuring ideas and communicating. I want to know if there is a correlation between cognitive capacity (in the same way CheeseConQueso expressed it) and using two or more languages fluently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following questions might help define what I'm wondering:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it possible for someone who uses two or more languages daily to switch between &quot;thought languages&quot;?&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, would it help broadening one's conceptual skills and adaptability?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What language combinations would then be better mixed together?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4173" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T08:11:04.140" Title="Can the daily use of two or more languages impact cognitive capacity?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5493" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-24T04:02:37.443" Score="0" ViewCount="1177" Body="&lt;p&gt;in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes such as &quot;attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity and thinking.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if learning is also a mental process that cognitive psychology studies, although it is not mentioned in Wikipedia? Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="191" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-24T05:35:37.913" LastActivityDate="2014-01-24T05:35:37.913" Title="Is &quot;learning&quot; part of cognitive psychology?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5494" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5493" CreationDate="2014-01-24T04:11:08.080" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, cognitive psychology incorporates the study of learning. You can see this reflected in other sources that provide general descriptions of cognitive psychology, e.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/f/cogpsych.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/f/cogpsych.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.rutgers.edu/co&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psych.rutgers.edu/co&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://infed.org/mobi/the-cognitive-orientation-to-learning/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://infed.org/mobi/the-cognitive-orientation-to-learning/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not recommending these as especially definitive sources; these are just the other three of the first four hits for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=cognitive+psychology+learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a Google search of &quot;cognitive psychology learning&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, cognitive perspectives on learning are not the only perspectives available in psychological theory (see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_behaviorism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;radical behaviorism&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-24T04:11:08.080" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5495" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5525" CreationDate="2014-01-24T04:37:49.053" Score="2" ViewCount="312" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there online platforms for running &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhibition_of_return&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;inhibition of return&lt;/a&gt; experiments? I want to analyze different cultural groups and an online platform would be the only way to do so. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3036" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-24T05:36:43.243" LastActivityDate="2014-04-22T19:39:35.573" Title="How to run &quot;inhibition of return&quot; experiments online?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5497" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-24T08:39:23.127" Score="6" ViewCount="2536" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there some unifying characteristic that distinguishes women who wear form-fitting, lowcut, see-through and other kinds of revealing outfits?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are they more extroverted, do they rate higher in (sexual) sensation seeking, do they have high or low confidence etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-21T09:42:45.110" LastActivityDate="2015-01-20T11:19:17.557" Title="What personality traits does sexy and revealing clothing correlate with?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5498" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-24T09:25:55.177" Score="4" ViewCount="421" Body="&lt;p&gt;We want many things that we might never achieve or attain in real life. Often we dream, that we have these things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychological function of this type of dream? How does the satisfaction inside a dream relate to the dissatisfaction in reality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4041" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-01-26T13:00:54.283" LastActivityDate="2014-01-26T13:00:54.283" Title="Why do we dream of unattainable wishes being satisfied in dreams?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T19:01:14.257" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5455" CreationDate="2014-01-24T09:55:50.630" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I'm giving this as an answer, because it is too long for a comment:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Law of Attraction and Positive Thinking are not the same and should not be confused as they are in the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;Law of Attraction&lt;/strong&gt; – as it was developed in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Thought&quot;&gt;New Thought Movement&lt;/a&gt;, taken up and spread in the New Age community by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther_Hicks&quot;&gt;Esther and Jerry Hicks&lt;/a&gt;, and made popular by the movie &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Secret_%282006_film%29&quot;&gt;The Secret&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; –, states that if you achieve the state of being that corresponds to being rich (or having a partner or whatever you desire that you do not have in real life), the universe will match reality with your state of being and provide the wealth (or partner or whatever you wish). The claim is that if you truly achieve the state of being of having a pocket full of money, you will have a pocket full of money.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Positive Thinking&lt;/strong&gt; states that if you are in an optimistic frame of mind, you will overcome inner obstacles (such as limiting beliefs that keep you from trying what you actually could achieve) and recieve more support from other people (because they are not longer put off by your grumpiness).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Law of Attraction is magical thinking and opposed to the currently dominant scientific worldview as it contradicts physical laws, while Positive Thinking is supported by it and has been generally confirmed by psychological research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-01-24T09:55:50.630" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5500" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-24T14:22:38.767" Score="1" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you agree that the mind arises from the brain and is an emergent property of it, then the mind has to be strongly emergent, rather than weakly emergent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any other example in reality of a strongly emergent property or phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If not, doesn't this mean the mind has no basis in nature and is not natural? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4243" LastActivityDate="2014-01-24T15:30:51.550" Title="Is there another example of a strongly emergent phenomenon besides the mind?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5501" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5497" CreationDate="2014-01-24T14:40:32.470" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is primarily about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminine_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Feminine psychology&lt;/a&gt;. Men &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identification_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;identify&lt;/a&gt; less with their clothing than women and are stereotyped as promoting self-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_objectification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;objectification&lt;/a&gt; many times. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In American society clothing norms are for women are very complex and are difficult to navigate. Because sexuality is indeed related to which parts of your body you do or do not reveal there is direct clinical quality relationships between certain clothes and states of mind. However &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;generalizations&lt;/a&gt; made about a persons state of mind based on their clothing can often be faulty. People experience stimuli in their lives which prompt individual responses that do not match their overall personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Active research along these lines has been published. In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103112000200&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Enclothed cognition&lt;/a&gt; it is reported that a lab coat is able to change the perception and increase attention when associated with a doctor. Likewise in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.yale.edu/minddevlab/papers/body.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;More Than a Body: Mind Perception and the Nature of Objectification&lt;/a&gt; studies were done comparing the agency viewed by people on clothed, naked and sexualized pictures. In conclusion they said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Whatever the positive or negative effects of focusing on someone’s body, its effect on mind perception seems clear. Those perceived in terms of their physical characteristics are not completely stripped of mind but are, instead, seen to possess a different kind of mind, one lacking in self-control and moral responsibility but relatively more capable of pain, pleasure, and emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/lib/you-are-what-you-wear-what-your-clothes-reveal-about-you/00012269&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;You Are What You Wear: What Your Clothes Reveal About You&lt;/a&gt;&quot; shopping for clothes is treated as a therapy to correct negative schemas. Though its validity has not been proven it seems rational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To directly answer your questions about &quot;Are they more extroverted, do they rate higher in (sexual) sensation seeking, do they have high or low confidence etc.?&quot; according to &lt;em&gt;You Are What You Wear&lt;/em&gt; it largely depends on age and the norms for that age. A college age girl in a revealing dress would have a different state of mind than an older woman in a similarly revealing dress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-24T14:46:29.317" LastActivityDate="2014-01-24T14:46:29.317" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5504" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5500" CreationDate="2014-01-24T15:30:51.550" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you look at the paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://consc.net/papers/emergence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Strong and Weak Emergence&lt;/a&gt; by David J. Chalmers he states his belief that consciousness is the only example we have of strong emergence. However, he also states that it is quite possible that there is no such thing as strong emergence, and therefore, our perception of the mind as an example of strong emergence stems from our current lack of understanding of consciousness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess is that the emergent nature of the mind is actually weak; that is, its behavior stems from the massive interaction of all the components of its circuitry. If this is correct, then we may still never be able to understand precisely how this emergence works. However, we will likely be able to simulate it. One test for strong versus weak emergence that has been suggested is whether the emergence can be simulated. Consider the emergent properties of Artificial Neural Networks (especially recent work with Deep Belief Nets).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I would suggest that if the mind is strongly emergent, then it is not only natural, but is an example of nature at one of its most fundamental and mysterious points.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2014-01-24T15:30:51.550" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5507" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5487" CreationDate="2014-01-24T23:55:41.230" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR summary:&lt;/strong&gt; gore and your examples thereof belong to even broader classes of stimuli that activate a number of different aversion and defense systems. To some extent, no one really knows why, and some of the most appealing answers may come from somewhat unfalsifiable theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Building on @caseyr547's answer, disgust occurs somewhat automatically when viewing blood, injury, and vomit. The basic, somewhat unconscious judgment being made here is essentially, &quot;There but for the grace of God go I,&quot; and both the mind and body activate what defenses they have against going there, including the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray%27s_biopsychological_theory_of_personality#Behavioral_Inhibition_System&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;behavioral inhibition system (BIS)&lt;/a&gt;, according to Jeff Gray's theory. My point in mentioning that theory isn't to focus on it; I'm mainly trying to point out that there are very large and pervasive changes in physiological and psychological function in reaction to &lt;strong&gt;disgusting or otherwise threatening&lt;/strong&gt; stimuli, including the BIS, the sympathetic nervous system, the immune system, and some largely cognitive processes like attitudes (these aren't completely distinct from one another necessarily).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why? Here's a pseudo-evolutionary argument: prehistorically speaking, when have we most often encountered these stimuli? When something very dangerous was about! Nausea and fainting might not protect us directly from physical attack, but it certainly discourages us from cutting ourselves (or others) open...and we've always been a danger to ourselves in that regard. As for blood and vomit, they may transmit biohazards of all sorts. Purging our own contents is one way to make sure we're free of any similar biohazards, which we might've ingested too if we happen to see our friends or family suffering from food poisoning, for instance. Short of that, simply experiencing these aversive reactions is a strong motivator to avoid the causal stimuli entirely, which is also a good way to play it safe when the root threat might be something like toxic gas or airborne (or otherwise communicable) biological pathogens. One shouldn't underestimate the extent to which we may have generalized these semi-instinctual reactions unintentionally (as through evolutionary mechanisms) to control our conscious behaviors unconsciously! From an &quot;intelligent design&quot; perspective, wouldn't it make sense to program ourselves to break down and feel awful involuntarily when exposed to dangers like these, so long as it helps ensure that we &lt;strong&gt;choose&lt;/strong&gt; to get the hell away from them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are just thoughts (&quot;theories,&quot; maybe) about why, FWIW, and they're somewhat unfalsifiable. As @BenCole pointed out, a more biopsychological account of how we react and to what might be more useful, if anyone else can help flesh out that side of this discussion. However, this would answer a slightly different question than &lt;strong&gt;why&lt;/strong&gt;. One can explore and thereby better understand the broader class of stimuli that activate the aversive reaction systems in question, and thereby better understand how these particular stimuli belong to that broader class...but to some extent, &lt;strong&gt;we may never truly know why&lt;/strong&gt; our systems are semi-instinctually sensitive to these stimuli...and an argument that they are simply generalizations of the broader class of stimuli to which the systems inherently respond is &lt;strong&gt;still a non-answer as to why&lt;/strong&gt; the systems respond to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the partly non-instinctual, developmental processes of sensitization and habituation, caseyr547 is right again to say that these learning processes operate very broadly. They are deep subjects deserving of their own questions, if you have others. Somehow, habituation even has &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;its own Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; apart from the one caseyr547 linked! I would've understood desensitization and habituation as synonymous, but that too implies a separate question. My point is that these are known phenomena (or a known phenomenon) with a deep pool of research and theoretical literature that mostly explains itself. If you look further into it, I think you'll see that it's a rather small wonder to observe that it operates on the disgust reaction as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To once again offer an unfalsifiable, speculative, evolutionary perspective on why that might be, consider that some of us may choose or be otherwise predisposed to expose ourselves to these dangers more often than others, and may even profit by doing so. If you saw a profit in exposing yourself to danger of injury or infection, wouldn't you want to be able to develop a stomach for it? Prehistorically speaking, when there has been enough of a profit in overcoming instinctual aversions to justify doing so, maybe doing so has improved the selective fitness of those whose instincts are weaker, &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; the fitness of those who are better able to habituate to stimuli and attenuate instinctive reactions that are circumstantially, pragmatically counterproductive. Who knows? It would make enough sense if it were true, anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-25T00:39:49.037" LastActivityDate="2014-01-25T00:39:49.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5508" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-25T09:57:52.373" Score="2" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yesterday I made a guess: That perhaps there is a lock in some income classes - that there may be a trend that could get them stuck in there. But it's only a guess, I have no proof for such afirmation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So are there cognitive differences for people on different income classes (such as rich and poor) that somehow get them stuck in there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if this question is really on-topic here, but I guess this site could be a first trial. There's also something that I'd like to point out: My native languange is not english, and I've experienced sensitivity when dealing with such matters with inapropriate words: If my words were inapropriate, I didn't mean to be mean, I just don't have a good vocabulary. I also really don't know how to tag this question - If you know better tags, please edit. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-01T12:15:27.273" LastActivityDate="2019-04-01T12:15:27.273" Title="What cognitive properties change as the income vary?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5509" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5528" CreationDate="2014-01-25T10:12:59.243" Score="13" ViewCount="22202" Body="&lt;p&gt;Someone once quoted a research at me:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Men were shown photographs of female body parts and asked to judge the attractiveness. The result was that men (of all ages) found 14 year old females the most (sexually) attractive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have tried to locate this or similar research, but to no avail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do you know of experiments researching at what age (men or) women are perceived to be most attractive (by male or female judges)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any moderators of this judgement (like age or gender of judge)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2021-04-29T15:05:01.353" Title="At what age are women perceived to be most attractive?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5510" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5509" CreationDate="2014-01-25T10:30:21.860" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. Female beauty is believed to be related to the physical traits of their fertility which is maximized in the 20s. Men prefer partners around the age of 20 for one night stands  (this is true for their sexual fantasies as well) and for long term partners sometimes older than 20s but generally younger than themselves. Women prefer sexual partners of their own age. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The present study examined desired minimum and maximum ages for mates across five different levels of relationship involvement (marriage, serious relationship, falling in love, casual sex, and sexual fantasies) comparing individuals of 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 years old. Consistent with previous findings, women preferred partners of their own age, regardless of their own age and regardless of the level of relationship involvement. Men, on the other hand, regardless of their own age, desired mates for short-term mating and for sexual fantasies who were in their reproductive years. However, with regard to long-term mates, men preferred mates who, although younger than them, were sometimes above the age of maximum fertility. Explanations for these findings are discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513801000654&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Age preferences for mates as related to gender, own age, and involvement level&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the absence of contraception, female fertility reaches its maximum in the mid-twenties (which is the estimated age of evolved attractive composites), declines by about 20% in the mid-thirties, and then falls precipitously by a further 60% during the forties&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661305003207&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mate choice decisions: the role of facial beauty&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;female beauty can best be explained by a sexual selection viewpoint, whereby selection favors cues that are reliable indicators of fertility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/jbp/pc/2000/00000008/00000001/art00005&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Female facial beauty: The fertility hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-25T11:23:33.023" LastActivityDate="2014-01-25T11:23:33.023" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5511" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5508" CreationDate="2014-01-25T11:19:32.937" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sociology&lt;/a&gt; is the study of how we organize ourselves into groups. Common areas of specification in sociology are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social stratification&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social class&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_mobility&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social mobility&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_religion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;religion&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;secularization&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;law&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deviance_%28sociology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;deviance&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question specifically is about social mobility which is the movement of peoples between lower, middle and upper classes. It is commonly thought that education allows from vertical social mobility though an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achieved_status&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;achieved status&lt;/a&gt; but that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/futureofchildren/publications/journals/article/index.xml?journalid=35&amp;amp;articleid=90&amp;amp;sectionid=549&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;isn't accurate&lt;/a&gt;. A more advanced educational system than what is currently employed by the university system is necessary to advance socially. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now about the specific cognitive difference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt; In school, learning tends to be separate from relationships. In the situated learning of poverty, &#xA;  learning occurs in the context of relationships.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;In school, learning is abstract (represented on paper or computer), verbal (words are relied &#xA;  upon almost exclusively), and proactive (students must plan). In the situated learning &#xA;  environment of poverty, learning is based on sensory data, it relies on nonverbal data as much &#xA;  as verbal, and it is reactive. The two worlds are diametrically opposed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;In poverty, survival is a crucial skill. In formalized schooling, achievement is the crucial &#xA;  attribute. Survival means the ability to live in the “tyranny of the moment.” It also means one &#xA;  doesn’t develop a future story.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;School success is highly dependent on a student having an external support system. Often we &#xA;  find that students from poverty are the support system for the family and have very little &#xA;  support for themselves. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The intergenerational transfer of knowledge is a huge factor in school success. In a study in &#xA;  Australia that followed more than 8,500 children for 14 years, researchers found they could &#xA;  predict with reasonable accuracy the verbal reasoning scores of 14‐year‐olds based on the &#xA;  maternal grandfather’s occupation (Najman et al., 2004). In other words, the greater the &#xA;  language with young children, the greater their potential (see also No. 7 below). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The development of the pre‐frontal cortex, which is the executive function of the brain &#xA;  (impulse control, working memory, planning), generally is not developed by the environment &#xA;  of generational poverty. In a study released in 2008 using EEG (electroencephalogram) scans &#xA;  with poor and middle‐class children, researchers found that the prefrontal cortex of the brain in &#xA;  poor children was undeveloped and resembled the brains of adults who have had strokes &#xA;  (Kishiyama, Boyce, Jimenez, Perry, &amp;amp; Knight, in press). The researchers went on to say that the &#xA;  prefrontal cortex can be developed through intervention. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Poverty tends to be heavily dependent upon casual register, whereas school is heavily &#xA;  dependent upon formal register. Hart and Risley (1995) found in their research that the average &#xA;  4‐year‐old in a professional household has heard 45 million words, while a 4‐year‐old in a &#xA;  welfare household has heard 13 million words. In fact, they found that a 4‐year‐old in a &#xA;  professional household has more vocabulary than an adult in a welfare household (Hart &amp;amp; &#xA;  Risley). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;In any situated learning environment, there is a set of “hidden rules” that individuals tend to &#xA;  follow. Those “hidden rules” are usually not articulated, but they are equated with intelligence.Poverty has a differentset of “hidden rules” frommiddle class and a differentsetfromwealth.&#xA;  One set is not better than another; the sets of hidden rules are simply different and help you &#xA;  survive in a given environment.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ahaprocess.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Understanding-Poverty-How-Poverty-Impacts-Cognition-Learning.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How the Environment of Poverty (Having Fewer Resources) Impacts Cognition and Learning&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress is thought to be the mechanism by which the brain of poor children is degraded. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A massive literature documents the inverse association between poverty or low socioeconomic status and health, but little is known about the mechanisms underlying this robust relation. We examined longitudinal relations between duration of poverty exposure since birth, cumulative risk exposure, and physiological stress in two hundred seven 13-year-olds. Chronic stress was assessed by basal blood pressure and overnight cortisol levels; stress regulation was assessed by cardiovascular reactivity to a standard acute stressor and recovery after exposure to this stressor. Cumulative risk exposure was measured by multiple physical (e.g., substandard housing) and social (e.g., family turmoil) risk factors. The greater the number of years spent living in poverty, the more elevated was overnight cortisol and the more dysregulated was the cardiovascular response (i.e., muted reactivity). Cardiovascular recovery was not affected by duration of poverty exposure. Unlike the duration of poverty exposure, concurrent poverty (i.e., during adolescence) did not affect these physiological stress outcomes. The effects of childhood poverty on stress dysregulation are largely explained by cumulative risk exposure accompanying childhood poverty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17958708&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Childhood poverty and health: cumulative risk exposure and stress dysregulation.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-25T11:19:32.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5512" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5513" CreationDate="2014-01-25T22:19:46.443" Score="2" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5324/what-causes-a-person-to-be-curious-inquisitive-and-explorative/5488#5488&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; we learn, curiosity (and scientific research in general) is a cycle that arises when one connects dots when analyzing new answers, which most of the time &lt;strong&gt;leads to more unanswered questions&lt;/strong&gt; and the more unanswered questions, the more cognitive dissonance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also learn that the way to end the loop and dissonance is with &lt;strong&gt;no desire&lt;/strong&gt; to continue &quot;the infinite quest&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, is it possible to reach homeostasis and/or cognitive closure while still living with more infinite unanswered questions an or concrete explanations? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, what methods have been found to harmonize this cause and effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I would imagine some sort of elite Military training would touch on this to some degree?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-01-25T23:29:41.707" Title="How to achieve homeostasis and cognitive closure, while living with more infinite unanswered questions and concrete explanations?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5513" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5512" CreationDate="2014-01-25T23:29:41.707" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unanswered questions don't necessarily cause cognitive dissonance. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Need for closure&lt;/a&gt; varies across individuals; some of us don't mind having some (or even many) unanswered questions much at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One also moves forward along a path while &quot;looping,&quot; and that path isn't necessarily infinite; in fact, it probably isn't for any mortal, practically speaking. For people with relatively low personal need for structure, novelty (and presumably uncertainty) may even be somewhat reassuring when confronting one's mortality (&lt;a href=&quot;http://existentialandselfprocesseslab.yolasite.com/resources/Vess_et_al_2009.JPSP.deathmeaning.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Vess, Routledge, Landau, &amp;amp; Arndt, 2009&lt;/a&gt;). Maybe accepting mortality and one's inability to individually pursue the path to completion (regardless of whether completion is possible in any sense) is just another way to not desire the impossible, but it is not impossible to continue the quest for some distance. Depending on what one really wants, not continuing might be a more dissonant alternative to simply continuing as far as one can. If one wants to complete the quest in the sense that one can't, some dissonance may be inevitable; if one wants to participate in the quest without concern for completion, only stopping should cause dissonance with that motive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an interesting quote from &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3005&amp;amp;context=etd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Heflick (2006)&lt;/a&gt; relating mortality salience to need for closure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Landau and colleagues (2004) found that mortality salience increases desire for clear, well structured information and for paintings that have a clear, coherent meaning (Landau et al., 2006). Further, death salience has been found to increase preference for more cultivated landscapes (Koole &amp;amp; Van den Berg, 2003 [published 2005]), for letter sequences that have clear patterns (e.g., AAAABBBB instead of ABBBAABA; Dechesne &amp;amp; Wigboldus, 2002) and stereotypical individuals (Schimel et al., 1998 [1999 in references]). Lastly, these effects are typically stronger among people that are high in epistemic needs (e.g., Landau et al., 2004), including need for closure (e.g., Schimel et al., 2004 [not sure what is being cited here]).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This evidence further suggests (rather indirectly) that some people do find the the thought of uncertainty troubling in light of a threat to their ability to resolve it, but some people don't mind uncertainty all that much, depending partly on individual differences in need for closure. It might even have something to do with your political preferences (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/129/3/339/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski, &amp;amp; Sulloway, 2003&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/6216707_Are_needs_to_manage_uncertainty_and_threat_associated_with_political_conservatism_or_ideological_extremity/file/9fcfd507eeb6a8980d.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jost et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;)!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dechesne, M., &amp;amp; Wigboldus, D. (2002). [Terror management in a minimal worldview paradigm.] Unpublished raw data. [As referenced &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~heine/docs/MMM.PDF&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; with year 2001.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heflick, N. A. (2006). &lt;em&gt;Terror management and self-enhancement: The moderating role of self-esteem and need for closure&lt;/em&gt; (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida). Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3005&amp;amp;context=etd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3005&amp;amp;context=etd&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved January 25, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jost, J. T., Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A. W., &amp;amp; Sulloway, F. J. (2003). Political conservatism as motivated social cognition. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin, 129&lt;/em&gt;(3), 339.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jost, J. T., Napier, J. L., Thorisdottir, H., Gosling, S. D., Palfai, T. P., &amp;amp; Ostafin, B. (2007). Are needs to manage uncertainty and threat associated with political conservatism or ideological extremity? &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33&lt;/em&gt;(7), 989-1007. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/6216707_Are_needs_to_manage_uncertainty_and_threat_associated_with_political_conservatism_or_ideological_extremity/file/9fcfd507eeb6a8980d.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/6216707_Are_needs_to_manage_uncertainty_and_threat_associated_with_political_conservatism_or_ideological_extremity/file/9fcfd507eeb6a8980d.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved January 25, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Koole, S. L., &amp;amp; Van den Berg, A. E. (2005). Lost in the wilderness: Terror management,&#xA;action orientation, and nature evaluation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88&lt;/em&gt;(6), 1014-1028.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Landau, M., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T. &amp;amp; Martens, A. (2006). Windows&#xA;into nothingness: Terror management, meaninglessness and negative reactions to modern art.&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90&lt;/em&gt;, 879-892.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Landau, M., Johns, M., Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Martens, A., Goldenberg, J.L. &amp;amp;&#xA;Solomon, S. (2004). A function of form: Terror management and the structuring of the social world. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality of Social Psychology, 87&lt;/em&gt;, 190-210. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schimel, J., Simon, L., Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Waxmonski, J., &amp;amp;&#xA;Arndt, J. (1999). Support for a functional perspective on stereotypes: Evidence&#xA;that mortality salience enhances stereotypic thinking and preferences. &lt;em&gt;Journal of&#xA;Personality and Social Psychology, 77&lt;/em&gt;, 905-926. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vess, M., Routledge, C., Landau, M. J., &amp;amp; Arndt, J. (2009). The dynamics of death and meaning: the effects of death-relevant cognitions and personal need for structure on perceptions of meaning in life. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97&lt;/em&gt;(4), 728. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://existentialandselfprocesseslab.yolasite.com/resources/Vess_et_al_2009.JPSP.deathmeaning.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://existentialandselfprocesseslab.yolasite.com/resources/Vess_et_al_2009.JPSP.deathmeaning.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved January 25, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-25T23:29:41.707" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5514" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5515" CreationDate="2014-01-26T04:26:30.200" Score="2" ViewCount="696" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some religious or philosophical systems hold that there is an immaterial divine component to human existence, like the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Soul&lt;/a&gt; or the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_self&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Higher Self&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any kind of scientific evidence that such a supernatural essence of the person exists, and if so, can it be located in a specific part of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-01-26T12:46:08.587" LastActivityDate="2014-01-27T07:11:55.850" Title="What is our higher self?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="14" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-01-26T14:55:45.773" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5515" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5514" CreationDate="2014-01-26T06:49:52.360" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia's answer is a better answer than I could offer as to what the higher self is, because that's all you've used to define it, and as Wikipedia says, it's &quot;a term associated with multiple belief systems,&quot; and probably differs rather widely across the gamut. Regardless of how odd some of those beliefs might get, it probably &lt;em&gt;shouldn't&lt;/em&gt; be synonymous with the prefrontal neocortex or basal ganglia, each of which has multiple functions that couldn't simply be equated to what most people mean when they say &quot;higher self.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one aspect at least, there may be some overlap between the &quot;higher self&quot; concept and the prefrontal cortex. To whatever extent &quot;higher self&quot; means &quot;self-awareness,&quot; the prefrontal cortex is probably involved in that...&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mpg.de/5925490/meta-consciousness-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This article&lt;/a&gt; offers an interesting image from magnetic resonance tomography, and these quotes [emphasis added]:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A specific cortical network consisting of the &lt;strong&gt;right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt;, the &lt;strong&gt;frontopolar regions&lt;/strong&gt; and the &lt;strong&gt;precuneus&lt;/strong&gt; is...associated with self-reflective functions...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By comparing the activity of the brain during...lucid periods with the activity measured immediately before in a normal dream, the scientists were able to identify the characteristic brain activities of lucid awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So note that this is self-awareness in the context of dreaming. The original article (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3369221/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dresler et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;) is free, and mentions an interesting method for distinguishing lucid from normal dreaming, BTW. As for consciousness in general, we have some pretty interesting questions with richly informative answers here already, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/987/4086&quot;&gt;What are current neuronal explanations and models of &amp;#39;consciousness&amp;#39;?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1117/4086&quot;&gt;Is there a region of cortex which over a period of development becomes the seat of self?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/96/4086&quot;&gt;Research suggesting conscious control over brain region activation?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/40/4086&quot;&gt;If someone becomes a split-brain patient, which side will &amp;quot;maintain&amp;quot; the continuity in their consciousness?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And as for the subconscious, Wikipedia again gives a pretty decent answer. Since the term is frequently misattributed to psychoanalysis, and may be most popular in pseudoscientific contexts, I prefer to point you directly to the section on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subconscious#The_subconscious_and_psychoanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freud's answer&lt;/a&gt; and advocate his general practice of avoiding the term altogether (except for the sake of criticizing it). Freud used &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preconscious&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;preconscious&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and &quot;unconscious&quot; in distinct ways that cognitive psychology has adopted somewhat as well, so those terms are generally much more useful and well-defined scientifically...though that's not saying all that much. However, thanks to @ArtemKaznatcheev, we also have a question here that says a little more: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/992/4086&quot;&gt;Subconscious vs Unconscious&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dresler, M., Wehrle, R., Spoormaker, V. I., Koch, S. P., Holsboer, F., Steiger, A., Obrig, H., Sämann, P. G., &amp;amp; Czisch, M. (2012). Neural correlates of dream lucidity obtained from contrasting lucid versus non-lucid REM sleep: A combined EEG/fMRI case study. &lt;em&gt;Sleep, 35&lt;/em&gt;(7), 1017-1020. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3369221/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3369221/&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved January 25, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-01-27T07:11:55.850" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5516" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5520" CreationDate="2014-01-26T09:45:19.340" Score="1" ViewCount="3294" Body="&lt;p&gt;The prefrontal cortex has 3 parts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dorso prefrontal cortex &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ventro prefortal cortex&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Orbital prefrontal cortex&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does dorso, and ventro mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought orbital means back?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-26T12:46:10.580" LastActivityDate="2014-01-28T11:29:23.620" Title="What does dorso, ventro, and orbital mean in prefrontal cortext?" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5517" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5516" CreationDate="2014-01-26T09:59:58.207" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Wikipedia, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;orbitofrontal cortex&lt;/a&gt; &quot;gets its name from its position immediately above the orbits in which the eyes are located.&quot; &lt;strong&gt;Orbital does not mean &quot;back.&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Continuing from Wikipedia, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsum_%28anatomy%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dorsum&lt;/a&gt; is Latin for &quot;back,&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; and, &quot;Dorsal (posterior) means the back or toward the back of the body; behind.&quot; Venter is Latin for &quot;belly,&quot; and as for &quot;ventral&quot;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ventral&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merriam-Webster's definition&lt;/a&gt; 1b seems most pertinent: &quot;Being or located near or on the anterior or lower surface of an animal opposite the back.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR version:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pMofO.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-01-26T09:59:58.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5518" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5519" CreationDate="2014-01-26T10:10:33.237" Score="4" ViewCount="41498" Body="&lt;p&gt;I thought everything is in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we feel pain in our stomachs when we are sad?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-26T10:31:32.500" LastActivityDate="2018-08-30T19:53:58.317" Title="When we are sad, why do we feel pain in our stomachs?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5519" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5518" CreationDate="2014-01-26T12:05:11.750" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I certainly wouldn't say &quot;everything is in the brain&quot;; even the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;central nervous system&lt;/a&gt; is defined more broadly than that (to include the spinal cord)...and then there's everything else in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;peripheral nervous system&lt;/a&gt; to consider...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also wouldn't say that feeling pain in one's stomach when sad is normal (you didn't say this either, but it's implied by your phrasing, so I think you might've assumed it), but this and the many other varieties of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;somatization&lt;/a&gt; aren't necessarily abnormal either, in as much as it may occur for most people in some way at some point in life (an intuitive guess informed by personal experience; don't quote me on this). From Wikipedia: &quot;Somatization is a tendency to experience and communicate psychological distress in the form of somatic symptoms,&quot; which includes bodily pain of pretty much any variety. Note that this definition raises some interesting questions, e.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1922/4086&quot;&gt;How do you know if it&amp;#39;s psychosomatic or not?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1424/4086&quot;&gt;Can psychosomatic reactions be completely unconcious?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Setting these aside and assuming sadness is your original source of stomach discomfort, there are a number of ways this could occur, and the stress of strong &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5337/4086&quot;&gt;negative emotion (which includes sadness)&lt;/a&gt; could exacerbate it. Stress in general can cause ulcers (e.g., stress from head injury; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19996614&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Li et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;). Here's a good (and very long) section from &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=D8VE11Zcp74C&amp;amp;pg=PA120&amp;amp;lpg=PA120&amp;amp;dq=stress+cortisol+ulcers&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=YsusIA581-&amp;amp;sig=0WHsBE-T8ZymtdWaX0ixUNGKiaQ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=nebkUpC3CYbLsQSn14GIBQ&amp;amp;ved=0CEMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=stress%20cortisol%20ulcers&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Cortisol Connection (Talbott &amp;amp; Talbott, 2007)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; [&lt;strong&gt;bolding&lt;/strong&gt; added]:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The phenomenon of stress-induced ulcers and other digestive problems has been documented in the medical literature for more than fifty years. From a physiological point of view, we know quite clearly that &lt;strong&gt;any stressful event will cause digestion to cease&lt;/strong&gt;. Blood flow is diverted from the digestive organs to the heart and muscles, secretion of saliva and digestive enzymes is slowed, and intestinal contractions and absorption of nutrients stop. This rapid shutdown of the digestive process makes perfect sense, because from the standpoint of long-term survival it is more important to get away from the dangerous stressor (the lion) than to fully digest all your food...However...even while stress hormones are signaling the body to shut down digestion, these same hormones, when kept elevated for more than a few minutes, are telling us to eat...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Medical evidence shows quite clearly that &lt;strong&gt;ulcers&lt;/strong&gt; of the &lt;strong&gt;stomach&lt;/strong&gt; (gastric ulcers) and intestine (duodenal ulcers) are much more common in people who are anxious, &lt;strong&gt;depressed&lt;/strong&gt;, or under chronic or repeated &lt;strong&gt;stress&lt;/strong&gt;. In the face of these conditions, which are &lt;strong&gt;all also examples of chronic stressors&lt;/strong&gt;, many of the digestive actions are curtailed, and the body also backs off from its production of other protective measures—such as the mucus that lines the stomach, and the bicarbonate that counteracts the highly acidic gastric juices...The problems start to occur when a person experiences the repeated cycles of &lt;strong&gt;high stress&lt;/strong&gt; followed by low/normal stress...This sets up the digestive system for total confusion. Most of the time the body won't be able to secrete enough digestive enzymes to properly digest food (producing nausea, constipation, gas, and bloating). During the &quot;lucky&quot; times when a body &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; secrete enough digestive enzymes to properly break down food, the protective mechanisms are far from fully operational—which puts the person at risk for damage to her gastrointestinal tract (because the food enzymes digest the gut's lining in addition to digesting the food). This scenario says a lot about why &lt;strong&gt;several bouts of intense stress are known to cause more ulcers than a longer continuous period of heightened stress.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To compound the problem, other factors, such as immune-system function and the body's control of inflammation and wound healing, come into play. It is well described in the medical literature that both &lt;strong&gt;repeated periods of acute stress and continuous periods of chronic stress are associated with suppressed immune-system activity&lt;/strong&gt;. This has a direct bearing on ulcer development, because less immune-system activity means more growth and higher activity of a bacterium called &lt;em&gt;Helicobacter pylori&lt;/em&gt;, which infects the stomach and causes ulcers in 80 percent of the people infected with it. Compounding the tissue damage caused by the accelerated growth of &lt;em&gt;H. pylori&lt;/em&gt; is a suppression of the body's ability to heal that tissue damage because of an inhibition in prostaglandin synthesis. Prostaglandins are typically produced in response to tissue damage, where they help reduce inflammation and accelerate healing. During times of stress, however, the synthesis of prostaglandins is curtailed, which suggests that &lt;strong&gt;stress not only increases the rate at which ulcers may form, but also slows the rate at which they are repaired&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Aside from ulcers, the most common stress-related gut disease may be irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)&lt;/strong&gt;. Most of us will experience some degree of IBS during our lifetime. The name &quot;IBS&quot; is really a catchall for a variety of intestinal disorders...The majority of the gastrointestinal conditions falling under the IBS umbrella are either &lt;strong&gt;caused by or exacerbated by periods of heightened stress&lt;/strong&gt;. Irish researchers have solidified &lt;strong&gt;the link between stress, inflammation, and gastrointestinal diseases&lt;/strong&gt; such as IBS through a series of experiments involving 151 subjects that &lt;strong&gt;showed IBS to be clearly exacerbated by stressful psychological events&lt;/strong&gt;, with cortisol and inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-8 elevated in all forms of IBS...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So, again, we have bad news about stress and cortisol for an important bodily system. &lt;strong&gt;Stress leads to poor digestion, ulcerated stomachs, and inflamed intestines&lt;/strong&gt;—not a pretty picture. These effects tend to result in poor dietary choices, suboptimal nutritional status, and a &lt;strong&gt;drop in energy levels and overall feelings of well-being. Getting stress and cortisol levels under control can help to reverse these problems.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pardon the wall of text; I could hardly shorten it further without cutting out directly relevant material or supportive explanation of the responsible anatomical mechanisms. Anyway, given that sadness (a form of stress) can cause our stomachs to go haywire when it's intense or chronic enough, haywire stomachs can then reduce energy and well-being, which forms a wicked little feedback loop between emotional and gastrointestinal distress. Feeling stomach pain can also cause one to clench the abdominal muscles, leading to cramping, which itself also leads back to pain and stress, so that's two feedback loops! Severe and chronic stress can also lead to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumination_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rumination&lt;/a&gt; among those without better coping mechanisms, which is another cognitive-emotional feedback loop unto itself: the more you worry about your stress (both emotional and physiological) is the more you have to worry about!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given at least these three, distinct, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicious_cycle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;vicious cycles&lt;/a&gt;, it's not hard to imagine how a person can spiral out of control and into true disorder. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatization_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Somatization disorder&lt;/a&gt; (SSD) is one such possibility; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pain disorder&lt;/a&gt; is another. Both involve physical pain that is largely, sometimes completely caused by psychological stress, and are sometimes comorbid with mood disorders, among others. SSD is also sometimes comorbid with IBS. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extreme cases might best relate to the sentiment expressed in your question, but that doesn't mean your case is extreme or even abnormal necessarily. If you or anyone else is concerned that you might have a disorder such as pain disorder, SSD, IBS, or if you're in any way concerned about how depressed you feel, I'd encourage you to talk to a counselor or therapist (some help is even available for free), seek diagnosis only from licensed professionals, and focus on what you can do about it instead of how bad it might be right now. Most psychological problems can at least be improved through patience, persistence, and positivity, so don't worry about labeling your problem or yourself; focus on finding and pursuing improvements and hope.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some ideas that may help break feedback loops that exacerbate psychogenic stomach distress:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dietary choices that ease digestion (including anti-inflammatory, low acidity foods)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nutritional improvement (e.g., vitamins &amp;amp; minerals for stress response, probiotics for digestion)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stress reduction (as via lifestyle choices, R &amp;amp; R, social support, counseling, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive behavioral therapy and biofeedback&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Limited, careful, pharmacist-supervised medication of some physical and neurochemical problems&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;General mindfulness of automatic negative thoughts and unconscious muscle tension&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Exercise, recreation, and positivity—generally spending more time looking on the bright side of life!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Li, Z. M., Wang, L. X., Jiang, L. C., Zhu, J. X., Geng, F. Y., &amp;amp; Qiang, F. (2009). Relationship between plasma cortisol levels and stress ulcer following acute and severe head injury. &lt;em&gt;Medical Principles and Practice, 19&lt;/em&gt;(1), 17-21.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Talbott, S. M., &amp;amp; Talbott, S. (2007). &lt;em&gt;The cortisol connection: Why stress makes you fat and ruins your health - And what you can do about it&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 120-122). Hunter House.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-01-26T12:18:28.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5520" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5516" CreationDate="2014-01-26T12:23:22.233" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Those are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anatomical terms of location&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit_%28anatomy%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;orbits&lt;/a&gt; are the cavities in the skull that hold the eyes. You can easily remember this if you remember that an orbit, in English, is a circular object or path: the Moon orbits the Earth. So&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;orbito-&quot; means &quot;towards the eyes&quot;, i.e. on the underside of the prefrontal cortex&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a four footed animal like a dog or horse&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;dorsal means towards the back (i.e. where a rider would sit on a horse)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ventral means towards the belly (underside)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because human beings no longer walk on all fours, their &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuraxis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuraxis&lt;/a&gt; is bent, with the bend between the brain stem and the diencephalon:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;in the torso and old brain parts, dorsal means towards the back, ventral towards the belly and face&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;in the cerebrum and diencephalon, dorsal means towards the top, ventral towards the bottom of the skull&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an illustration (&quot;oder&quot; means &quot;or&quot; in German):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aYHCw.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find English a bit confusing as to what the word &quot;back&quot; denotes. In other languages, like Latin, the words for the spinal side of the torso (&lt;em&gt;dorsum&lt;/em&gt;, back) and the tail end of the body (&lt;em&gt;posterior&lt;/em&gt;, back) are distinct. In English, they are the same, and this makes an explanation of these anatomical terms confusing in English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-01-28T11:29:23.620" LastActivityDate="2014-01-28T11:29:23.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5521" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-26T15:09:33.037" Score="2" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is that of the title, but I came up with it with respect to a specific model so I'll state a more concrete variant of it as well:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are theories like the one presented in Daniel Dennetts book &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness_explained&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Consciousness Explained&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which say that the individual acts as agent in the world, the brain is running like a machine, and while the individual principally does what he does no matter what, the conscious experience is merely a part of the brain activity on which (though some process) it decides to put emphasis on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can this point of view explain the common idea that life passes on faster as we get older? In the way that as the agent encounters more and more daily routines, there are just fewer and fewer things which get experienced consciously and so people are actually &quot;less there&quot; when their live are &quot;more boring&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2297" LastActivityDate="2014-01-27T01:27:19.090" Title="Are there explanations for the thesis that life seems to pass by faster when you're older?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2014-01-27T04:09:39.383" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5522" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="129" CreationDate="2014-01-26T15:51:07.277" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Time perception&lt;/a&gt; is active field of study in psychology and neuroscience. How individuals experience time is so subjective and interwoven into the fabric of our being that it cannot be directly explained it can only be tested. Current theories include that of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2567500/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;lower dopamine&lt;/a&gt; in the aged (it is debated) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3477383/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;maturation&lt;/a&gt; of the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus (it is not debated). There are other minor theories which have less evidence for their validity. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.carlsonschool.umn.edu/assets/lib/assets/AssetLibrary/2012/Rudd_Vohs_Aaker_2012_psych%20science.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Emotions&lt;/a&gt; are known to affect our perception of time in a temporary way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-26T17:34:17.603" LastActivityDate="2014-01-26T17:34:17.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5523" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5547" CreationDate="2014-01-27T00:07:26.500" Score="6" ViewCount="6558" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lately, there is a lot of information on the psychological, experiential and behavioral aspects of DP/DR. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I find it most interesting as many have described it as having one foot in the spiritual realm and the other in this.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When is it defined as an experience and what is the criteria that makes it a disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a disorder how is DP/DR described from a scientific neurological point of view?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is some part of the brain damaged?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is it physically similar to other disorders or issues (stroke, epilepsy)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What methods directly or indirectly reverse the changes caused by it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this considered a relatively &quot;new disorder&quot; as I am sure it has been experienced in past decades?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible many have it and don't know it, as it appears there is a lot of subjectivity in defining it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any information is greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-28T05:05:06.607" LastActivityDate="2019-07-12T14:32:22.727" Title="What is depersonalization and derealization disorder from a neurological point of view?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="129" CreationDate="2014-01-27T01:27:19.090" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;To extend on @BenCole comment, an interesting summary of different models of time perceptions can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stochastik.uni-freiburg.de/~rueschendorf/papers/BrussRueSep3:Geron.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in this paper.&lt;/a&gt; These models are in a sense more descriptive than the fundamental biological hypothesis mentioned by caseyr547, so you might not be ready to call these &quot;explanations&quot;, depending on what you mean by that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The models attempt to give a precise (functional) form to the extent to which time perception decrease as the &quot;stock&quot; of experienced time increases. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A simple model which seem to have initially attracted some attention is the logarithmic time perception model (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kafalas.com/Logtime.html#LM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.kafalas.com/Logtime.html#LM&lt;/a&gt;) : &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[perception of change from time $t$ to $t'$] = constant * $[\log(t') - \log(t)]$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apparently, this model was an attempt to link time perception with the so-called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber%E2%80%93Fechner_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Weber-Fechner law&lt;/a&gt; relating the intensity of a perception to the magnitude of some initial stimulus of the same nature (e.g. the perceived increase in the weight of an object depending on the initial weight of the object).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, researchers seem to have found little evidence of such relationship in the case of time perception (see the aforementioned article and &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03204158#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03204158#page-1&lt;/a&gt;). So other model have been developed. The first paper describes some of these newer models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4008" LastEditorUserId="4008" LastEditDate="2018-06-20T08:00:16.367" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T08:00:16.367" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5525" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5495" CreationDate="2014-01-27T02:46:21.487" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes your experiment is possible. If all you need is the cued and uncued times its easy. Users can run an online applet demo provided by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psytoolkit.gla.ac.uk/library/ior/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psytoolkit&lt;/a&gt;. You can embed the applet in a survey where users can record their times. For more in detail data analysis I recommend that you roll your own based on psytoolkits model. Given how simple the experiment is even starting from scratch should be easy for a computer science undergrad with some experience in .net or another web language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-27T02:55:06.263" LastActivityDate="2014-01-27T02:55:06.263" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5526" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-27T06:55:18.260" Score="11" ViewCount="1604" Body="&lt;p&gt;A friend described consistent feelings and themes during a dream. It is my understanding that the contents of our dreams are our subconscious/unconscious/preconscious processing stimuli from the day or our general state of mind. Most of which research I've found relates back to Freud and his off incorrect psychoanalysis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can more easily relate to Domhoff's research into dreams as a reflection of schemas. It seems scientifically valid. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the overall view of the reliability of dream interpretation as described by Domhoff?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.ucsc.edu/dreams/Library/domhoff_2001a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Domhoff, G. W. (2001). A new neurocognitive theory of dreams. Dreaming, 11, 13-33&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/643/what-is-the-current-accepted-science-behind-dream-interpretation&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-26T07:45:29.283" LastActivityDate="2018-03-26T11:19:39.877" Title="Does data support Domhoff's neurocognitive theory of dreams?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5527" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5529" CreationDate="2014-01-27T11:10:23.767" Score="7" ViewCount="561" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am in the process of designing a nice OPEN sign, and I noticed that the vast majority of them are red. This seems bizarre to me, yet green open signs look odd. I just wondered if anybody knew why red seems to be the chosen colour, and what effect this is hoping to have on the viewer of the sign.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clarify, I am talking about an OPEN sign which will be placed in a sandwich board and stand outside a shop. But it can refer to any sign that indicates a retail establishment is open for business. I would also like to use the image on the website, though obviously in a smaller size, to be shown during the opening times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a for instance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://djangelo.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/OPEN-SIGN-RED3-590x410.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Open sign&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you Google &quot;open sign&quot; and look at the images, you will see that the most common colour is red. The green ones you see tend to be signs instructing you to push to open. The most common sign for open for business is red.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4264" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-10T09:42:37.433" LastActivityDate="2019-04-04T15:24:54.133" Title="What effect does the colour of an &quot;Open&quot; sign have on people's behavior?" Tags="&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5528" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5509" CreationDate="2014-01-27T11:16:09.897" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;OkCupid, a free online dating website (through which I've met two girlfriends myself, incidentally), does some pretty interesting research on the profiles and activity of its users. &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.okcupid.com/index.php/the-case-for-an-older-woman/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This particular research blog post&lt;/a&gt; presents some fairly on-topic results in &amp;quot;Exhibit C: Looks&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://cdn.okcimg.com/blog/older_lover/Overall-Attractiveness5.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@ArtemKaznatcheev rightly pointed out some range restriction here, so this can't address the validity of an age estimate below 18 years directly, but two things are worth noting:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The overall slope resembles a simple linear trend that might continue upward past 18 years young.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The absolute maximum here appears to be around 19, not 18. I doubt the difference is &amp;quot;significant&amp;quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not clear to me whose ratings these are or how exactly they were collected (as a user of the site, I remember a 1-5 rating index, and chose to rate women only), so it's hard to trust these results, especially in terms of their representativeness of a general population. Artem also pointed out that a better method for controlling social desirability in these ratings would hide direct information on age from respondents; OkCupid's research differs from the kind you're asking about in that regard too. Nonetheless, it's an empirical hint at the more explicit answer to the related, subjective question where respondents do have this info. Social desirability and age info are present in many normal social interactions after all, so removing age info deliberately might reduce naturalistic applicability of results anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This blog post presents many more graphs on related topics that might interest you (e.g., as alternative operationalizations of attractiveness, or as behavioral correlates), but only one seems to address a moderator directly. That moderator is attractiveness itself! A quote follows this graph:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://cdn.okcimg.com/blog/older_lover/Combined-Attractiveness6.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you separate out the absolute best-looking women, almost all of whom are very young, and also remove the people you won't realistically want to date (the worst-looking women), you find that everyone else's attractiveness doesn't change much with age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, given that nobody is drop-dead gorgeous or drop-dead hideous, your average 25 year-old is roughly as good-looking as your average 35 year-old. Yes, throwing out the prettiest of the pretty young things is a clumsy handicap to put on an age-by-age comparison. But at the same time, for the vast majority of men, the best-looking women are simply out of reach, so it's actually accurate to exclude them as possibilities. In fact, unrealistic male expectations inspired this article, so we want to do everything we can to correct for them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of you are probably scoffing at the idea that many 35 year-olds are as attractive as many 25 year-olds, but there are social factors at work that you might not consider as you go through life making judgments. Most importantly: nationwide, thirtysomethings are much more likely to be married and therefore much more likely to have stopped optimizing their attractiveness. So the typical 35 year-old woman you see out in the world isn't representative of the single 35 year-olds who are still dating and looking good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm particularly doubtful of this second graph though&lt;/strong&gt;, because it doesn't seem clear that the top and bottom deciles were identified and excluded separately within each year of age. &amp;quot;If you separate out the absolute best-looking women, almost all of whom are very young&amp;quot; actually sounds more like excluding the top decile while ignoring age, which might invalidate this graph. Removing the most extreme deciles of the sample while ignoring age would necessarily flatten the &amp;quot;everybody else&amp;quot; line somewhat, given any asymmetry in relationships between age and membership in these deciles of attractiveness across all ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit by &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt;. Delete or edit as you see fit.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nick, I too see a problem with how the most and least attractive women were deleted from the sample. I add this as an edit, as it does not warrant its own answer, but is too long for a comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If attractiveness declines with age, we must assume that it declines equally for all women, until this is disproven. So we must assume that a woman who is among the most beautiful at age 21, while still among the most beautiful at age 35, will have lost in overall attractiveness. The same goes for the average and the unattractive woman. We must assume (because we don't have the data) that over all women of all ages and all levels of attractiveness, we have a parallel decline in attractiveness with age, as shown in the graph below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UiB52.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if you delete the most and least attractive women from your sample, across all ages, you will, as the graph shows, create a sub-sample with no decline in attractiveness. &lt;strong&gt;This is an artifact of you tampering with the data and has no explanatory power whatsoever.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If on the other hand you delete the most and least attractive women &lt;em&gt;for each age group&lt;/em&gt;, the general &amp;quot;slant&amp;quot; of the graph and the decrease in attractiveness that it represents does not change at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I believe is that okcupid.com do not want to anger their older female customers, so they pimped or sugarcoated their data in a way that flatters the vanity of those women and allays their fears of being unattractive. In short: this section of their blog is advertising, not research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-27T13:50:26.787" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5529" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5527" CreationDate="2014-01-27T12:04:58.500" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a conscious choice, so to truly know why, you'd probably have to ask the sign designers themselves...but I can speculate a bit on reasons one might want to choose red. Red is often associated with appetite, impulsivity, and excitement, all of which a merchant might want to encourage in potential customers. Here are some excerpts [emphasis added] from one of many research articles relating color to emotion (&lt;a href=&quot;https://nzdis.org/projects/attachments/299/colorassociation-students.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaya &amp;amp; Epps, 2004&lt;/a&gt;; this site may raise security warnings with your browser):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is widely recognized that colors have also a strong impact on our emotions and feelings&#xA;  (Hemphill, 1996; Lang, 1993; Mahnke, 1996). For instance, the color &lt;strong&gt;red&lt;/strong&gt; has been associated with &lt;strong&gt;excitement&lt;/strong&gt; ...Red, symbolically known as a &lt;strong&gt;dominant&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;dynamic&lt;/strong&gt; color, has an &lt;strong&gt;exciting&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;stimulating&lt;/strong&gt; hue effect. It has both positive and negative impressions such as &lt;strong&gt;active, strong, passionate, warm&lt;/strong&gt;, but on the other hand &lt;strong&gt;aggressive, bloody, raging and intense&lt;/strong&gt;...Choungourian (1968) found that the colors &lt;strong&gt;red&lt;/strong&gt; and blue were the &lt;strong&gt;most preferred&lt;/strong&gt; colors &lt;strong&gt;among American&lt;/strong&gt; subjects, but were &lt;strong&gt;less preferred in other cultures&lt;/strong&gt;...Warm colors (e.g., red, yellow, orange) are seen as &lt;strong&gt;active&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;stimulating&lt;/strong&gt; (Ballast, 2002)...As cited in Lang (1993), Grandjean made observations about the effects of color on perceptions of room size and psychological response noting that...warm colors such as red, orange,&#xA;  and yellow make a space &lt;strong&gt;less spacious&lt;/strong&gt;, while &lt;strong&gt;increasing stimulation&lt;/strong&gt;. Furthermore, people exposed to red and yellow colors reported higher levels of &lt;strong&gt;anxiety&lt;/strong&gt; than did people exposed to cool blue and green colors (Kwallek, Lewis, &amp;amp; Robbins, 1988, Mahnke &amp;amp; Mahnke, 1993). However, &lt;strong&gt;in other studies, no relationships&lt;/strong&gt; have been found between the individuals' mood states and colors (Ainsworth, Simpson, &amp;amp; Cassell, 1993; Kwallek, Lewis, Lin-Hsiao, &amp;amp; Woodson, 1996)...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[From this study's own results]&lt;/strong&gt; About &lt;strong&gt;80%&lt;/strong&gt; of the responses to the principle hues, including red, yellow, green, blue, and purple were &lt;strong&gt;positive&lt;/strong&gt;...Only &lt;strong&gt;17.8%&lt;/strong&gt; of the responses to the principle hues' were &lt;strong&gt;negative&lt;/strong&gt;...The color &lt;strong&gt;green&lt;/strong&gt; attained the &lt;strong&gt;highest&lt;/strong&gt; number of positive responses (95.9%), closely followed by yellow (93.9%)...Among the principle hues, the next highest number of positive response was given for the color blue (79.6%), followed by &lt;strong&gt;red&lt;/strong&gt; and purple (&lt;strong&gt;64.3%&lt;/strong&gt; each)...The color &lt;strong&gt;red prompted both positive and negative emotional reactions&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Red was seen to be positive&lt;/strong&gt; because it was associated with &lt;strong&gt;love&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;romance&lt;/strong&gt;, while the &lt;strong&gt;negative aspects of red included&lt;/strong&gt; having associations with &lt;strong&gt;fight&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;blood&lt;/strong&gt; as well as &lt;strong&gt;Satan&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;evil&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like green might be a good choice too (this article had more to say about green than I've copied here), especially outside of USA, but red certainly isn't a bad choice for attracting interest, according to these references. Many of these associated emotions involve arousal of interest and activity, which might encourage a person to act on any impulse to gain something by entering. Any increase in anxiety or fear might also snap a person out of complacency if that person is on any level worried about passing up an opportunity or losing something by not entering. However, the opposites may be true too: red might encourage a person to continue pursuing other passions that preoccupy the person's attention before viewing the sign, even if the sign captures attention momentarily. If a person is afraid to enter for whatever reason, associating the store with anxiety, fear, evil, or of course Satan himself would certainly seem a likely disincentive. Nevertheless, positive responses seem more frequent in general, so a red sign might do a store more favors than harm overall, regardless of whether it's the best choice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; @DominicLloyd found &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.bufferapp.com/the-science-of-colors-in-marketing-why-is-facebook-blue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a cool article on colors in marketing&lt;/a&gt; that includes an interesting infographic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2ujww.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2ujww.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://bufferblog.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Screen-Shot-2013-04-25-at-10.57.04-AM.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;netdna-cdn.com&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not quite sure what evidence there is to support these claims, but the original source is &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.kissmetrics.com/color-psychology/?wide=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;KISSmetrics&lt;/a&gt;, so maybe one could follow up with them for details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ainsworth, R. A., Simpson, L., &amp;amp; Cassell, D. (1993). Effects of three colors in an office interior on mood and performance. &lt;em&gt;Perceptual &amp;amp; Motor Skills, 76&lt;/em&gt;, 235-241.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ballast, D. K. (2002). &lt;em&gt;Interior design reference manual&lt;/em&gt;. Professional Pub. Inc.: Belmont, CA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Choungourian, A. (1968). Color preference and cultural variation. &lt;em&gt;Perceptual &amp;amp; Motor Skills, 26&lt;/em&gt;, 1203-1206.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hemphill, M. (1996). A note on adults' color-emotion associations. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Genetic Psychology, 157&lt;/em&gt;, 275-281.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kaya, N., &amp;amp; Epps, H. (2004). Relationship between color and emotion: A study of college students. &lt;em&gt;College Student Journal, 38&lt;/em&gt;(3), 396-405. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;https://nzdis.org/projects/attachments/299/colorassociation-students.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://nzdis.org/projects/attachments/299/colorassociation-students.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved January 27, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kwallek. N., Lewis, C. M., &amp;amp; Robbins, A. S. (1988). Effects of office interior color on workers' mood and productivity. &lt;em&gt;Perceptual &amp;amp; Motor Skills, 66&lt;/em&gt;, 123-128.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kwallek, N., Lewis, C. M., Lin-Hsiao, J. W. D., &amp;amp; Woodson, H. (1996). Effects of nine monochromatic office interior colors on clerical tasks and worker mood. &lt;em&gt;Color Research and&#xA;Application, 21&lt;/em&gt;(6), 448-458.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lang, J. (1993). &lt;em&gt;Creating architectural theory: The role of the behavioral sciences in environmental design&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mahnke, F. (1996). &lt;em&gt;Color, environment, human response.&lt;/em&gt; New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mahnke, F. H., &amp;amp; Mahnke, R. H. (1993). &lt;em&gt;Color and light in man-made environments&lt;/em&gt;. New&#xA;York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-02-17T08:00:06.603" LastActivityDate="2019-02-17T08:00:06.603" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5531" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-27T20:32:22.117" Score="10" ViewCount="2335" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are the objects of visual perception processes divisible into individual, still frames, like video is? If so:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are the perceptions from different senses synced to the same frequency?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are these &quot;stills&quot; instances of perceiving motionlessness?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the perception of motion based on pattern recognition between the stills?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4268" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-28T00:32:17.510" LastActivityDate="2014-01-28T00:56:47.470" Title="Does perception have a &quot;frame rate&quot;?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;synchronization&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5532" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5527" CreationDate="2014-01-27T21:12:41.047" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are creating a sign that is lighted (like a neon sign), another factor favoring green is that moderate and bright green lights are easier to see than other colors, due to the cone activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think this would have any affect for non-lighted signs, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://sciencing.com/visible-colors-distance-8209029.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brief documentation of this phenomenon&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastEditorUserId="3643" LastEditDate="2019-04-04T15:24:54.133" LastActivityDate="2019-04-04T15:24:54.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5533" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5531" CreationDate="2014-01-28T00:34:28.633" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, that is not the current model of human vision. The refresh rate of our eyes varies. The upward limits are about 300Hz with a constant set around 60Hz (&lt;a href=&quot;http://michaelfrankdeering.org/Projects/EyeModel/limits.pdf&quot;&gt;Deering, 1998&lt;/a&gt;). Yet no experiments have definitely given the max refresh rate of the eye.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The human eye and its brain interface, the human visual system, can process 10 to 12 separate images per second, perceiving them individually. The threshold of human visual perception varies depending on what is being measured. When looking at a lighted display, people begin to notice a brief interruption of darkness if it is about 16 milliseconds or longer. When given very short single-millisecond visual stimulus people report a duration of between 100 ms and 400 ms due to persistence of vision in the visual cortex. This may cause images perceived in this duration to appear as one stimulus, such as a 10 ms green flash of light immediately followed by a 10 ms red flash of light perceived as a single yellow flash of light. Persistence of vision may also create an illusion of continuity, allowing a sequence of still images to give the impression of motion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_rate&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page on &quot;frame rate&quot;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Motion detection in the brain is performed by direction-sensitive units in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex#Primary_visual_cortex_.28V1.29&quot;&gt;primary visual cortex&lt;/a&gt; (which works in gray scale; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journalofvision.org/content/8/10/1.full.pdf+html&quot;&gt;Smith &amp;amp; Wall, 2008&lt;/a&gt;). How this part of the brain works, like many other parts, is a mystery. We know that direction-sensitive units (a neural cell) are mapped to specific places in vision and respond to changes (&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=EDXmJpEsJS0C&amp;amp;lpg=PA255&amp;amp;ots=QkW0mnSoEk&amp;amp;dq=direction-sensitive%20units%20in%20human%20vision&amp;amp;pg=PA13#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=direction-sensitive%20units%20in%20human%20vision&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;Bigun, 2006&lt;/a&gt;). This is of course without even beginning to talk about blindsight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If determining how we recognize movement is difficult, determining the nature of sensory integration is nigh impossible at this time. Neuroimaging studies with fMRIs (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/12/1110.full&quot;&gt;Calvert, 2001&lt;/a&gt;) and the like result in different centers of integration based on how the tests were run. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn23813-mindscapes-first-man-to-hear-people-before-they-speak.html&quot;&gt;Lesions in the brain have caused loss of sync in some individuals&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bigun, J. (2006). &lt;em&gt;Vision with direction: A systematic introduction to image processing and computer vision.&lt;/em&gt; Springer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Calvert, G. A. (2001). Crossmodal processing in the human brain: Insights from functional neuroimaging studies. &lt;em&gt;Cerebral Cortex, 11&lt;/em&gt;(12), 1110-1123. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/12/1110.full&quot;&gt;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/12/1110.full&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deering, M. F. (1998). The limits of human vision. In &lt;em&gt;2nd International Immersive Projection Technology Workshop&lt;/em&gt; (Vol. 2). Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://michaelfrankdeering.org/Projects/EyeModel/limits.pdf&quot;&gt;http://michaelfrankdeering.org/Projects/EyeModel/limits.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved January 27, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, A. T., &amp;amp; Wall, M. B. (2008). Sensitivity of human visual cortical areas to the stereoscopic depth of a moving stimulus. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Vision, 8&lt;/em&gt;(10), 1-12. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journalofvision.org/content/8/10/1.full.pdf+html&quot;&gt;http://www.journalofvision.org/content/8/10/1.full.pdf+html&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved January 27, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-28T00:56:47.470" LastActivityDate="2014-01-28T00:56:47.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5534" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5531" CreationDate="2014-01-28T00:54:45.997" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no true frame rate of the eyes, but there are limitations.  The brain uses blurring to simulate continuity.  Films are shot at 24 frames per second; if you go too much lower than that, the film will seem choppy.  This is because the motion blurring process is too fast and it finishes &quot;blurring&quot; before the frame changes, so you just see choppy frames.  If it's a bit faster, suddenly the blurring occurs in a time frame on the order of the frame changing and it looks smooth. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, audio doesn't really have a frame rate, but there are limitations to what frequencies the sensory can transmit into neural code. ~(20 Hz - 20kHz).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you do see some kind of frame rate for perception being plausible, and it turns out that higher-level perception rates are not fixed, but depends on the modality of the perceptions themselves:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recanzone has recently demonstrated that the perceived rate at which people judge a light to be flickering on and off can also be modulated by the rate at which a concurrent stream of auditory stimuli are presented&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if there weren't a frame rate, due to differences in processing times between the two systems, there would still be a synchronization process required:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Light travels through air far more rapidly than sound: 300,000,000 versus 330 metres per second. Differences in arrival time also occur for events that occur much closer to us, and yet we are rarely aware of them. Part of the reason for this is that the mechanical transduction of sound waves at the ear takes less time than that required for the chemical transduction of light at the retina. These physical and biophysical differences in the arrival time of light and sound cancel each other out when stimuli are approximately 10 metres from us, at the so-called ‘horizon of simultaneity’. Given most audiovisual events are not perceived at this ‘optimal’ distance, however, psychologists, neuroscientists and even philosophers have long puzzled over why the perception of multisensory synchrony should be such a pervasive aspect of our everyday phenomenology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spence, Charles, and Sarah Squire. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982203004457&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Multisensory integration: maintaining the perception of synchrony.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Current Biology 13.13 (2003): R519-R521.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-01-28T00:54:45.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5492" CreationDate="2014-01-28T04:00:18.823" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer the question of the title, yes, bilingualism is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_advantages_of_bilingualism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;beneficial in theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in practice, it is not so. In America we do not have a true bilingual system of education, so it is difficult to judge the success of bilingualism based on our public foreign &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_education&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;language education&lt;/a&gt;. With about 90% of American High Schools offering and sometimes requiring a foreign language, the benefits of bilingualism (if immersion and high proficiency was not required) are observed to be limited at best. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, fully &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;bilingual societies&lt;/a&gt; still have the same &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.statisticbrain.com/countries-with-the-highest-lowest-average-iq/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fluid intelligence overall&lt;/a&gt;. The nigh-universal &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Flynn effect&lt;/a&gt; isn't improved as societies become multilingual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, if you consider my reasoning biased by social stratification, let's examine a more equal set of multilingual groups. Consider (a) the computer science major in college where each student is tasked with learning and using in detail several computer languages of many differing types and forms and (b) the foreign language major. They score &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.statisticbrain.com/iq-estimates-by-intended-college-major/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;well on IQ tests&lt;/a&gt;, but so do many other majors not intrinsically requiring immersion into multilingualism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, switching the languages of thought is a non-task. I do not think (but I cannot prove) there are any advantages to the non-task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Computer Science (&lt;a href=&quot;http://thecodingbrain.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/dissertationfinal.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;and computer scientists have multilingual brains.&lt;/a&gt;) a diverse set of languages from multiple paradigms are taught as a general rule of thumb. This is done so that one is familiar with all the basic concepts of linguistics (declarative, imperative and functional come to mind). In spoken languages anthropology would point you to the most diverse set of languages to build a multilingual set of knowledge.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though this is anecdotal, my IQ as measured by a trained psychologist (both times) did increase a small amount (5 points) after my training in Computer Science was finished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-03-18T03:25:58.073" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T03:25:58.073" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5537" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5538" CreationDate="2014-01-28T07:03:45.700" Score="16" ViewCount="44030" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yesterday I started a new diet using intermittent fasting. For this reason I only ate one meal all day. I was pretty surprised how well I passed that day: I studied a lot, did some sports and fulfilled several programming exercises from university. After sports I had my first meal. Overall—a great day without any side effects from the intermittent fasting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, at 11 PM I went to bed. There I realized that I was not tired. So I read a book. One hour passed—still no feeling of fatigue. So, I thought, some push ups will make me tired. Nope, the push-ups did not work. It was already 1 AM, and I had to get up early. I decided to use my strongest means, which I only use before big exams: a glass of brandy. No effect! Meditation—nope. After that, 30 minutes of running outside in the cold—again, no effect. At 4 AM I decided to get up and study. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A weird experience. I know that I lack sleep; nevertheless, I can study and concentrate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I Googled the keywords &lt;em&gt;fastening&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;sleeplessness&lt;/em&gt;. Then I realized that it is a common pattern that some people sleep less during fasting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why is fasting related to insomnia?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4272" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-28T07:14:27.210" LastActivityDate="2018-03-19T16:33:59.800" Title="How is fasting related to insomnia?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5538" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5537" CreationDate="2014-01-28T07:23:28.877" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fasting causes stress and makes your body work off of fat rather than sugar. Sugar is of course related to insulin, which even in normal (non-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus&quot;&gt;diabetic&lt;/a&gt;) people must be maintained at a certain level (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppul.20306/abstract&quot;&gt;Kaditis et al., 2005&lt;/a&gt;). Without a proper level of insulin, your body will upregulate orexin in the brain until you eat (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.429?journalCode=neuro&quot;&gt;Willie, Chemelli, Sinton, &amp;amp; Yanagisawa, 2001&lt;/a&gt;). Orexin will give you artificial energy and inhibit sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kaditis, A. G., Alexopoulos, E. I., Damani, E., Karadonta, I., Kostadima, E., Tsolakidou, A., ... &amp;amp; Syrogiannopoulos, G. A. (2005). Obstructive sleep‐disordered breathing and fasting insulin levels in nonobese children. &lt;em&gt;Pediatric Pulmonology, 40&lt;/em&gt;(6), 515–523.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Willie, J. T., Chemelli, R. M., Sinton, C. M., &amp;amp; Yanagisawa, M. (2001). To eat or to sleep? Orexin in the regulation of feeding and wakefulness. &lt;em&gt;Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24&lt;/em&gt;(1), 429–458.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-28T07:46:24.837" LastActivityDate="2014-01-28T07:46:24.837" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5537" CreationDate="2014-01-28T07:36:33.867" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;One thing worth pointing out as a very terse hint of an answer: we all know that activation of the sympathetic nervous system is often referred to as the &quot;fight-or-flight response,&quot; but parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) activation is less commonly known as the &quot;rest-and-digest&quot; response...though this does appear on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's PNS page&lt;/a&gt;. Eating (or maybe just having fresh food in the early parts of one's gastrointestinal tract; I'm not sure) activates the PNS, which itself has soporific effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, a separate quote &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hypoglycemia.asn.au/2011/the-biochemistry-of-insomnia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;from the Hypoglycemic Health Association&lt;/a&gt; relating starvation to adrenaline production [emphasis added]:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When the brain is threatened with energy &lt;strong&gt;starvation&lt;/strong&gt; it will send a hormonal message to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-adrenal-glands.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adrenal glands&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;strong&gt;pour adrenaline into the system&lt;/strong&gt;. Adrenaline is a hormone that converts &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.answers.com/topic/glycogen&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;glycogen&lt;/a&gt; – strings of glucose molecules stored in the body – back into glucose, so as to feed the brain again. (See &lt;a href=&quot;http://curezone.com/upload/PDF/Articles/jurplesman/Adrenaline_Trigger.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;image&lt;/a&gt;). But &lt;strong&gt;abnormal adrenaline&lt;/strong&gt; secretion during the night can also cause &lt;strong&gt;insomnia&lt;/strong&gt; and nightmares...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If we are able to supply the body with all the nutrients, enzymes, coenzymes, vitamins and minerals, it will have all the ingredients to synthesize the necessary neurotransmitters and hormones that can make us feel happy and content when we should. A natural diet should provide us with all the components to build the necessary serotonin and melatonin to enable us to sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is from &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hypoglycemia.asn.au/2011/the-biochemistry-of-insomnia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Biochemistry of Insomnia&lt;/a&gt;,&quot; which may interest you more broadly, but I think I've quoted most of the content that pertains directly to diet here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; BTW, you might also find this question of interest (I've answered it somewhat similarly):&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5263/4086&quot;&gt;The effect of proper food intake on emotions and brain function&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T08:33:57.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5541" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5548" CreationDate="2014-01-28T15:08:42.593" Score="6" ViewCount="794" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know how psychologists come up with the questions they include in an IQ test and how they know that those questions will accurately measure intelligence? How has it been proved that IQ tests do indeed work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4277" LastEditorUserId="625" LastEditDate="2015-04-26T21:10:30.010" LastActivityDate="2018-01-17T00:49:32.617" Title="How are the questions in IQ tests formulated?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5542" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5549" CreationDate="2014-01-28T17:25:40.107" Score="4" ViewCount="165" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is it that the parents, specially the mother, generally have this unmatched &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storge&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;love&lt;/a&gt; for their children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychological reason behind it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it more biological than psychological?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-29T06:01:50.880" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T08:09:49.727" Title="What is psychological basis of the great love parents have for their children?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5543" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5556" CreationDate="2014-01-28T17:33:34.283" Score="8" ViewCount="987" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it true that parents tend to love or have a higher preference for some particular children of theirs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have any studies stated which of their children they love or prefer more?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-29T13:12:28.647" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T20:02:41.430" Title="Why do some parents prefer some children more than others?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5544" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5565" CreationDate="2014-01-28T21:15:51.340" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This sounds like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder&lt;/a&gt; to me. The diagnostic criteria of the DSM-IV are very similar to what you describe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I only give this answer because you appear intelligent enough to not trust an anonymous answer on the web, and reflected enough to notice when you need to get professional help. For a reliable diagnosis, see a psychologist or psychiatrist.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-01-28T21:15:51.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5545" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-28T21:44:05.217" Score="3" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Wiki page on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme%E2%80%93color_synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Grapheme–color synesthesia&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... one recent study has documented a case of synesthesia in which synesthetic associations could be traced back to colored refrigerator magnets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wiki points out that this might be an individual case, but let's assume that synesthesia &#xA;is something you can train. Let's further assume that everybody is more or (most of us) less a synesthesist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the level of synesthesia be measured by the following test:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You are shown a sequence of colored characters, i.e. number and letters, or the characters shown are placed on a colored background. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;After that you are asked to give the sequence.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Should there be a measurable statistical effect in remembering the sequences when they are colored in your specific color scheme?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-29T07:06:23.430" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T07:06:23.430" Title="Is recall for an appropriately color coded string of symbols a good measure of level of synesthesia?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5546" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-28T21:51:18.703" Score="2" ViewCount="333" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do people with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;chromesthesia&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinnitus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;tinnitus&lt;/a&gt; see the &quot;ringing&quot; caused by tinnitus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-29T08:41:39.370" LastActivityDate="2014-11-09T04:43:40.033" Title="Do people with chromesthesia and tinnitus see the &quot;ringing&quot; caused by tinnitus?" Tags="&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5547" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5523" CreationDate="2014-01-29T02:13:24.787" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;You ask for a very in detail analysis of depersonalization (DP) and derealization (DR) disorder. I'll try to meet your expectation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets start with some definitions. Depersonalization and derealization happen after people have experienced great amounts of psychological stress or brain injury. The likes of which their coping measures fail to handle. The brain in an effort to contain the pain cuts off some contact with reality or self identity. DP/DR can be a sign of the onset of psychosis in bipolar or schizo type individuals; however it is not correlary to psychosis.  &quot;it was like a dream&quot; is how someone speaks of derealization and &quot;did that happen to me or did I hear about it happening to someone else&quot; is depresonalization. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DP/DR (not the disorder) is very common among those who have been in any way traumatized (especially head trauma) happening about half the time. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00127-004-0701-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hunter 2004&lt;/a&gt;) Basically when you hear on TV &quot;He's going into schock&quot;. They mean the patient is experiencing an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;acute stress reaction&lt;/a&gt; one of which features is DP/DR. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because DP/DR is oft encompassed by shock let me describe the physiological symptoms and treatment of shock before we discuss the psychological and neurological signs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Appear as a living zombie. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cool, clammy skin which may be pale or gray. Ie the blood drained out of their face.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Abnormally weak or rapid pules and breathing. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Low blood pressure.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Absent staring eyes with occasional pupil dilation. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sometimes overly excited or catatonic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In response to shock always get professional medical help by dialing the emergency number of your town/nation like 911. Make the person as comfortable and still as possible with reassurances until professional help arrives. Do not give them any food or water as the body is unprepared to handle any additional input. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shock happens before DP/DR disorder. When the specific features of DP/DR continue or reemerge longstanding after trauma it becomes a disorder. (Simeon 2006)  As a disorder it is the third most frequent. (Simeon 2004) A self administered intake survey or an hour long psychological interview following DSM guidelines allows a doctor to make the diagnosis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general guidelines provided by the DSM-IV-TR: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Longstanding or recurring feelings of being detached from one's mental processes or body, as if one is observing them from the outside or in a dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reality testing is unimpaired during depersonalization&#xA;  Depersonalization causes significant difficulties or distress at work, or social and other important areas of life functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Depersonalization does not only occur while the individual is experiencing another mental disorder, and is not associated with substance use or a medical illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The DSM-IV-TR specifically recognizes three possible additional features of depersonalization disorder:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Derealization, experiencing the external world as strange or unreal.&#xA;  Macropsia or micropsia, an alteration in the perception of object size or shape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A sense that other people seem unfamiliar or mechanical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depersonalization_disorder#DSM-IV-TR&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia Depersonalization Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your first assertion that DP/DR is associated with spirituality is correct. As when psychotic hallucinations happen they typically have a DP/DR feature to them. It is common for something obviously psychotic like seeing an angel or devil to be associated with an out of body experience or vision type trance. Common is it for someone to experience a trip to the spirit world to see a loved one. Such events are to a limited extent drug induceable. (I do not like many other students of psychology believe that all spirituality is aberrant however much is caused by illness.) Psychologist typically teach a patient what is a hallucination and psychosis and allow the individual to label their experience as either spiritual or psychotic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now the neurological basis is diverse as it is not necessarily an organic originating condition but a response disease. I was able to find two main theories first a functional difference and the second based on lesions in the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On the basis of this, a new model is proposed according to which the state of increased alertness observed in depersonalization results from an activation of prefrontal attentional systems (right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and reciprocal inhibition of the anterior cingulate, leading to experiences of “mind emptiness” and “indifference to pain” often seen in depersonalization. On the other hand, a left-sided prefrontal mechanism would inhibit the amygdala resulting in dampened autonomic output, hypoemotionality, and lack of emotional coloring that would, in turn, be reported as feelings of “unreality or detachment.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322398000158&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Depersonalization: neurobiological perspectives&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although DP/DR can occur as a primary condition, it often accompanies other psychiatric  or neurological diseases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Most of the neurological conditions associated with DP/DR, such as epilepsy, migraine, and mild head trauma etc have poor localisation value. However, DP/DR have also been described accompanying localised lesions. This raises the question if the study of such cases (the lesion method) might be a valuable approach to study the neurobiology of DP/DR.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/72/4/530.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Separating depersonalisation and derealisation: the relevance of the “lesion method”&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Depersonalization appears to be associated with functional abnormalities along sequential hierarchical areas, secondary and cross-modal, of the sensory cortex (visual, auditory, and somatosensory), as well as areas responsible for an integrated body schema. These findings are in good agreement with the phenomenological conceptualization of depersonalization as a dissociation of perceptions as well as with the subjective symptoms of depersonalization disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleid=174424&amp;amp;RelatedWidgetArticles=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feeling Unreal: A PET Study of Depersonalization Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer another one of your questions as the above papers show it may or may not be caused by organic brain damage. It is co-morbid to epilepsy but is its own distinct diseases. That is to say epilepsy is caused by overloads in neural pathways like a neural thunderstorm. DR/DP is what is left over after the storm starts destroying pathways. Likewise with oxygen deprivation and a stroke. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are no drugs to treat all the symptoms of DR/DP instead antidepressants like Prozac and anti-anxiety like Klonopin are known to help sometimes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud created a very basic and useful treatment for DP/DR called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_testing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reality testing&lt;/a&gt; which is a main component in CBT. In it you logically examine and reflect on your emotional responses and see how you correctly or incorrectly responded. The you make adjustments to become more rational. Rather than fixing the underlying problem it allows the sufferer to adapt to the disease. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DR/DP is not always associated with a delusion. So sometimes people can self identify the onset of an episode.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All things psychological are new but DP/DR is not very new. It was introduced in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-search-self/201311/depersonalization-and-dsm-part-i-the-dsm-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-II in 1968&lt;/a&gt;. Yes DP/DR diagnostic is controversial in the psychological science. This is because it is used in criminal law. As it is a major question if someone who commits a crime in a DP/DR state should be held equally accountable. (Saks 2000)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hunter EC, Sierra M, David AS (2004). &quot;The epidemiology of depersonalization and derealisation. A systematic review&quot;. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 39 (1): 9–18. &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00127-004-0701-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doi:10.1007/s00127-004-0701-4. PMID 15022041&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simeon, D., &amp;amp; Abugel, J. (2006). Feeling Unreal: Depersonalization Disorder and the Loss of the Self. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simeon D (2004). &quot;Depersonalisation Disorder: A Contemporary Overview&quot;. CNS Drugs 18 (6): 343–54. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200418060-00002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doi:10.2165/00023210-200418060-00002. PMID 15089102.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sierra, M., &amp;amp; Berrios, G. E. (1998). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322398000158&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Depersonalization: neurobiological perspectives. Biological Psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;, 44(9), 898-908.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sierra, M., Lopera, F., Lambert, M. V., Phillips, M. L., &amp;amp; David, A. S. (2002). &lt;a href=&quot;http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/72/4/530.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Separating depersonalisation and derealisation: the relevance of the “lesion method”.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery &amp;amp; Psychiatry, 72(4), 530-532.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simeon, D., Guralnik, O., Hazlett, E. A., Spiegel-Cohen, J., Hollander, E., &amp;amp; Buchsbaum, M. S. (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleid=174424&amp;amp;RelatedWidgetArticles=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feeling unreal: a PET study of depersonalization disorder&lt;/a&gt;. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(11), 1782-1788.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saks, E. R., &amp;amp; Behnke, S. H. (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=TSZ_nG2UFyoC&amp;amp;lpg=PA174&amp;amp;ots=8954G0oHgu&amp;amp;dq=depersonalization%20in%20criminal%20law&amp;amp;pg=PA174#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=depersonalization%20in%20criminal%20law&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jekyll on trial: Multiple personality disorder and criminal law.&lt;/a&gt; NYU Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="23635" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2019-07-12T14:32:22.727" LastActivityDate="2019-07-12T14:32:22.727" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5548" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5541" CreationDate="2014-01-29T02:57:29.257" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Binet&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Alfred Binet&lt;/a&gt; developed the first intelligence measurement with some psychological validity. He asked general psychological questions from groups discovered by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Spearman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spearman&lt;/a&gt; of varying difficulty based in the (not yet discovered) concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fluid intelligence&lt;/a&gt; to children. Some did well some did not. This led to an age standardized test called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford%E2%80%93Binet_Intelligence_Scales&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test&lt;/a&gt;. Which essentially was problems of varying difficulty tested on many different children of diverse backgrounds to create a baseline. Results were grouped by age in order to give a predicted evaluation of common performance ability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;IQ&lt;/a&gt; tests do not work as a measurement of success and no one thinks that they do. They do work as a measurement of specifically identified and labeled cognitive ability. They are more useful psychologically in identifying cognitive problems to give treatments or accommodations than providing congratulatory measures to those who perform well.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-29T03:02:39.423" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T03:02:39.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5549" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5542" CreationDate="2014-01-29T05:01:52.283" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_in_adults&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Attachment theory in adults&lt;/a&gt; is concerned with care giving ability toward ones  friends, family, lover and child. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Oxytocin&lt;/a&gt; is the bonding hormone. If you have enough of it in theory you will be a monogamous, child loving adult. If you want to con someone by a grift you would secretly give them Oxytocin because it induces general trust. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However it is a misnomer to believe that the relationships formed between parent and child are always lifelong and strong. To examine the psychology as apposed to biology of what makes the feelings between a mother loving for a child lets look at what makes feelings for a child loving toward their mother.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To join this wonderful planet earth as a human being we have to spend around 9 months in the uterus of a woman. During this time she feeds us and her neurochemicals train our brain unconsciously. If she is stress there is a higher chance the we will be deformations. Our predominant auditory stimuli is her voice and the choice of company she keeps. After we survive maturation in the womb her breast sustain us through Colostrum and breast milk. They provide hormones like oxytocin which make us like her, advanced antibodies which keep us alive while our immune system develops and water, protein, sugar and fat which nurtures us and quenches our thirst. This is our first &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;positive association&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not all mothers want their children. The first psychological indicator of your abilities to &lt;strong&gt;easily&lt;/strong&gt; form a loving relationship with your children is how your mother treated you the first three years. If your mother did not properly form an attachment to you then you will be at a high risk for an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;attachment disorder&lt;/a&gt;. A state where its very difficult to have social experience and behavior matching social norms. Therapies for attachment issues are controversial and in many cases flat out bad. However not all adults with attachment disorders are bad parents, being abused doesn't force you to be abusive. It does mean you may lack skills learned in childhood which others can inversely apply.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201305/confessions-sociopath&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;high functioning very ill nonviolent (or controlled violent) sociopaths&lt;/a&gt; (ASPD) can make fine parents if they work hard enough at it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-29T08:09:49.727" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T08:09:49.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5550" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-29T06:27:23.000" Score="1" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes I see people that perform some kind of activity, which could entitle something to them and when the entitlement is made, they refuse being called that way - they prefer to avoid characterization or to characterize themselves with a new word that does not carry the (usually) pejorative meaning of the previous one and that, in their opinion, better characterize their activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I speculate some answers for why this phenomena happens, like for example: We may want to perform such activity without the effects of the stigma. I don't know if it's certain nor know what is the full extent of the study of such phenomena (perhaps there are a lot more things than I couldn't think about).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-29T10:13:19.547" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T12:49:36.430" Title="Are there studies on the evasion of characterization?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5551" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-29T08:53:17.397" Score="3" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;The non effects of vitamins has been in the new frequently recently. Do any supplements or psychoactive drugs for improving memory have solid long term research? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T08:53:17.397" Title="Do any supplements or psychoactive drugs for improving memory have solid long term research?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5553" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-29T09:01:36.080" Score="1" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;How plastic is the brain? What is the maximum amount of synapses? What processes (if any) increase synapse amount? What are some of the advantages of having more or less synapses?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-29T09:13:33.297" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T09:13:33.297" Title="What is the maximum amount of synapses? What processes (if any) increase synapse amount?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2014-12-17T15:14:04.063" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5555" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-29T09:08:44.163" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/seasonal-affective-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Seasonal Affective disorder&lt;/a&gt; SAD affects many people moods during seasons when the sun is less prevalent, myself no included. What is the current state of SAD treatment options according to published research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T00:16:04.443" Title="What is the current state of SAD treatment according to research?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5556" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5543" CreationDate="2014-01-29T09:14:07.880" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is quite a lot of research on &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=parental%20favoritism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;parental favoritism&lt;/a&gt;. I'll summarize some of the findings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;girls are more often parental favorites (Harris &amp;amp; Howard, 1985)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;women more often report parental favoritism (Chalfant, 1994)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;parents favor less aggressive children (which partially explains their preference for girls; Tucker et al., 2003)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the youngest child is more often the parental favorite (Harris &amp;amp; Howard, 1985; Rhode et al., 2003; Tucker et al., 2003)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the middle child is least often the parental favorite (Harris &amp;amp; Howard, 1985; Hertwig et al., 2002)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;19% of 1st-born siblings, 30% of middle-born, and 26% of last-born claimed to be their father's favorite (Chalfant, 1994)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;23% of 1st-born, 10% of middle-born, and 28% of last-born siblings claimed to be their mother's favorite (Chalfant, 1994)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;favoritism was most often reported from a parent of the opposite sex (Chalfant, 1994)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;only about 10% of children and 10% of parents felt or admitted that they had been favored or favored a child (Bedford, 1992)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;more than 75% of the siblings felt themselves to be the favorite of at least one of their parents (Kiracofe &amp;amp; Kiracofe, 1990)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, findings are somewhat contradictory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parental favoritism has consequences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-esteem in the child correlates to perceived parental favoritism (Felson &amp;amp; Zielinski, 1989; Zervas &amp;amp; Sherman, 1994). Children, whose parents had treated all children equally, rated highest in self-esteem; favored children rated lower, nonfavored lowest (Zervas &amp;amp; Sherman, 1994). Parents' supportive behavior affects the self-esteem of children but child self-esteem also affects how much support children report their parents give them; in addition, parents have a greater effect on the self-esteem of girls than of boys (Felson &amp;amp; Zielinski, 1989).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Siblings express less warmth and greater hostility toward one another when parents show favoritism (McHale et al., 1995)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;over time, being unfavored by parents produces behavior problems in children (Richmond, Stocker, &amp;amp; Rienks, 2005)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Explanations for parental favoritism include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stress predicts favoritism. Favoritism is more common when parents experience marital problems and when children have serious health problems (Singer &amp;amp; Weinstein, 2000).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personality of the child predicts favoritism (see e.g. aggression above).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is research on favoritism of children for parent also, as well as favoritism of adult children, both of which I did not report.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of the above is limted to Western cultures. As we know, there are some cultures where parents go so far in their favoritism that they &lt;em&gt;kill&lt;/em&gt; female children. The conclusion is that favoritism is not universal but culture specific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note:&lt;/em&gt; Most of the text above is copy/pasted directly from the quoted papers. I did not mark it as quotes as this would have greatly reduced readability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bedford, V. H. (1992). Memories of parental favoritism and the quality of parent-child ties in adulthood. Journal of Gerontology, 47(4), S149-S155.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chalfant, D. (1994). Birth order, perceived parental favoritism, and feelings toward parents. Individual Psychology: Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research &amp;amp; Practice.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Felson, R. B., &amp;amp; Zielinski, M. A. (1989). Children's self-esteem and parental support. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 727-735.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harris, I. D., &amp;amp; Howard, K. I. (1985). Correlates of perceived parental favoritism. The Journal of genetic psychology, 146(1), 45-56.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hertwig R., Davis J.N., &amp;amp; Sulloway F.J. (2002). Parental investment: How an equity motive can produce inequality. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 728–745.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kiracofe, N. M., &amp;amp; Kiracofe, H. N. (1990). Child-perceived parental favoritism and birth order. Individual Psychology: Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research &amp;amp; Practice.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McHale S.M., Crouter A.C., McGuire S.A., &amp;amp; Updegraff K.A. (1995). Congruence between mothers' and fathers' differential treatment of siblings: Links with family relations and children's well-being. Child Development, 66, 116–128.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Richmond M.K., Stocker C.M., &amp;amp; Rienks S.L. (2005). Longitudinal associations between sibling relationship quality, parental differential treatment, and children's adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 550–559.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rohde, P. A., Atzwanger, K., Butovskaya, M., Lampert, A., Mysterud, I., Sanchez-Andres, A., &amp;amp; Sulloway, F. J. (2003). Perceived parental favoritism, closeness to kin, and the rebel of the family: The effects of birth order and sex. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24(4), 261-276.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tucker C.J., McHale S.M., &amp;amp; Crouter A.C. (2003). Dimensions of mothers' and fathers' differential treatment of siblings: Links with adolescents' sex-typed personal qualities. Family Relations, 52, 82–89.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zervas, L. J., &amp;amp; Sherman, M. F. (1994). The relationship between perceived parental favoritism and self-esteem. The Journal of genetic psychology, 155(1), 25-33.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-01-29T20:02:41.430" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T20:02:41.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5557" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5550" CreationDate="2014-01-29T10:11:55.837" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Its a kind of non-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conformity&lt;/a&gt;. Its caused by desires for uniqueness. It can be treated if it becomes abnormal or interferes with life or the lives of those who love.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms. Norms are implicit, unsaid rules, shared by a group of individuals, that guide their interactions with others. This tendency to conform occurs in small groups and/or society as a whole, and may result from subtle unconscious influences, or direct and overt social pressure. Conformity can occur in the presence of others, or when an individual is alone. For example, people tend to follow social norms when eating or watching television, even when alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia Conformity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A high need for uniqueness undermines majority influence. Need for uniqueness (a) is a psychological state in which individuals feel indistinguishable from others and (b) motivates compensatory acts to reestablish a sense of uniqueness. Three studies demonstrate that a strive for uniqueness motivates individuals to resist majority influence. In Study 1, the need for uniqueness was measured, and it was found that individuals high in need for uniqueness yielded less to majority influence than those low in need for uniqueness. In Study 2, participants who received personality feedback undermining their feeling of uniqueness agreed less with a majority (vs. minority) position. Study 3 replicated this effect and additionally demonstrated the motivational nature of the assumed mechanism: An alternative means that allowed participants to regain a feeling of uniqueness canceled out the effect of high need for uniqueness on majority influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com/content/35/3/309&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;What Motivates Nonconformity? Uniqueness Seeking Blocks Majority Influence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T10:11:55.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5558" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5550" CreationDate="2014-01-29T13:10:11.357" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not sure which particular study to point you toward (there are probably plenty out there on variously related topics), but to me, it seems pretty unremarkable that people seek to avoid pejorative characterizations. Then again, it's pretty remarkable &lt;strong&gt;how far we'll go&lt;/strong&gt; to do this! We're social animals with a lot riding on our reputations, hence we're quite sensitive to others evaluations of us, and we're generally eager to please, or at least to be respected. Individual differences in these concerns exist in big ways though, as should surprise no one who's heard anything good about personality psychology lately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider checking out the literature on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-monitoring&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;self-monitoring&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. It's a well-studied individual difference in the tendency to alter one's self-presentation to please others, or at least control others impressions of oneself, basically (it's actually a somewhat complex construct, or two or three, depending on how you measure it). &lt;strong&gt;Low self-monitors&lt;/strong&gt; tend to act how they act without worrying too much about it, about who might be watching, or about what others might think about them. (Come to think of it, one might even call low self-monitoring a characteristic resistance to social psychological phenomena in general! There's a hypothesis worth testing...but don't quote me on it until you do!) Conversely, &lt;strong&gt;high self-monitors&lt;/strong&gt; make good actors / actresses: they know who's watching, how they look in front of &quot;the camera,&quot; and they know how to please their audiences (or, at least, they think they do; it's often measured by self-report). &lt;strong&gt;[Edit]:&lt;/strong&gt; Just in case it's unclear, I've described the meanings of &quot;high&quot; and &quot;low&quot; scores on a continuous dimension (or maybe two or three) of individual differences here; real people can be anywhere in-between too, or maybe even more extreme. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-monitoring might not be exactly what you're talking about—it's a characteristic adaptation to a pretty broad range of social situations—but I bet you could predict exactly what you're talking about with a nontrivial degree of accuracy using self-report questionnaire scores on self-monitoring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. Whenever I mention self-monitoring, I can't resist adding that I'm a former research assistant of the guy who came up with it. It entitles me to add that Mark Snyder is an awesome psychologist in general!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-30T12:49:36.430" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T12:49:36.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5559" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5566" CreationDate="2014-01-29T18:10:59.047" Score="4" ViewCount="754" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/mydeveloperworks/blogs/invisiblethread/entry/quality_assurance_for_dependable_systems1?lang=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Developing software is simultaneously artistic and scientific, which accounts for its appeal for some of the smartest and intuitive people on the planet&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a generally observable and most likely a statistically provable &lt;a href=&quot;http://articles.latimes.com/2013/oct/24/business/la-fi-tech-sexism-20131024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;scarcity of women in the&lt;/a&gt; programmer community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would it be right to conclude from this that men are generally more intelligent than women? If so, what's the cause of this? And if not, why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-30T00:56:34.750" LastActivityDate="2016-02-02T10:45:01.933" Title="Does the scarcity of female programmers, suggest that men are more intelligent than women?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5560" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5559" CreationDate="2014-01-29T19:18:08.457" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. In developing IQ tests for intelligence science has found that age not sex is the key difference between groups of people for which non-biased conclusions can be drawn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Most IQ tests are constructed so that there are no differences between the average (mean) scores of females and males. Areas where differences in mean scores have been found include verbal and mathematical ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_differences_in_human_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia Sex differences in psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anything &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/beautiful-minds/201207/men-women-and-iq-setting-the-record-straight&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;modern research&lt;/a&gt; purports that women have an insignificant half point above men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-01-29T19:18:08.457" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5563" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-29T23:24:35.773" Score="8" ViewCount="458" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in the difference between spike-triggered averaging and reverse correlation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some papers (i.e., Schwartz, Odelia, et al) I see the term 'Spike Triggered Averaging'.&#xA;In others, (ie Ringach et al 2004) I see the term 'Reverse Correlation'.&#xA;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike-triggered_average&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, they are the same: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Spike-triggered averaging is also commonly referred to as “reverse&#xA;  correlation″ or “white-noise analysis”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering though: &lt;strong&gt;Is there a subtle difference between  spike-triggered averaging and reverse correlation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schwartz, Odelia, et al (2006). &quot;Spike-triggered neural characterization.&quot; Journal of Vision 6.4 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ringach, Dario, and Robert Shapley. &quot;Reverse correlation in neurophysiology.&quot; Cognitive Science 28.2 (2004): 147-166&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4290" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-01-30T04:51:43.670" LastActivityDate="2014-02-17T20:23:53.457" Title="What is the difference between spike-triggered averaging and reverse correlation?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5564" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5555" CreationDate="2014-01-30T00:16:04.443" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Coming from the North, I'm most familiar with light treatments, where patients get on a regular schedule exposing themselves to a bright light every day.  Folklore in the North is that it needs to have high reds and blues like the spectrum of the sun;  I haven't read the papers in detail, so I don't know if that's true, but light therapy has been effective in small trials:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=493246&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Preliminary studies in 11 patients suggest that extending the photoperiod with bright artificial light has an antidepressant effect.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=496411&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Both morning and evening light therapy improved depressive symptoms in patients (of 30) with SAD independent of their circadian phase or sleep timing.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleID=162153&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Several patients (of 13) were able to maintain the antidepressant response throughout the winter months by continuing daily light treatments.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T00:16:04.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5565" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-30T00:33:43.377" Score="4" ViewCount="178" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm posting this question on someone else's behalf:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is the name for someone who has a compulsive need to&#xA;  categorically document everything they do and everything that happens&#xA;  to them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The only thing I can think of is &quot;information hoarder&quot; but suggests&#xA;  that any type of information will do, which is not what I'm looking&#xA;  for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T03:07:00.057" Title="What is the scientific term for compulsive documenting of life experiences?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5566" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5559" CreationDate="2014-01-30T00:55:47.293" Score="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer: &lt;strong&gt;No, sex differences in professions is not a good basis for judging the intelligence of males and females&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to address some of the assumptions and misconceptions in the question. First, I would like to deconstruct the question, and then answer it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Deconstructing the question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the earlier titles of the question was &amp;quot;Are men more intelligent than women?&amp;quot;. It starts with the observation that there are more males who work in areas related to mathematics and programming, therefore males are more intelligent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is a common bias in humans. People know a lot about their area of expertise and then judge others by their lack of understanding of what they are experts in. To take a stereotypical example, perhaps a female clinical psychologist, doctor,  or lawyer may wonder why so many males are mathematicians and programmers. She might think that this is because they lack the intelligence to function effectively in domains that require strong interpersonal skills. I am not defending this point of view either. I merely intend to highlight that to judge others by your own standards of what represents intelligence is problematic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Answering the question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have a read of page 91 of &amp;quot;Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns&amp;quot;, which represents the position of a large reputable APA task force of leading intelligence researchers. Summarising a huge literature, males tend to perform much better on visual-spatial intelligence test items such as mental rotation and tracking moving objects. Females often perform better on verbal abilities such as synonym generation and verbal fluency. Overall, there is minimal difference in full-scale IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also have a read of Hide's (2005) summary of meta-analytic sex differences across a wide range of cognitive tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, the author advances a very different view, the gender&#xA;similarities hypothesis, which holds that males and females are&#xA;similar on most, but not all, psychological variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this only addresses mean differences, and there is certainly much greater differences within sexes than between.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard Jr, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., ... &amp;amp; Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American psychologist, 51(2), 77. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/correlation/intelligence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hyde, J. S. (2005). The gender similarities hypothesis. American psychologist, 60(6), 581. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.careerpioneernetwork.org/wwwroot/userfiles/files/the_gender_similarities_hypothesis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-01-18T22:34:36.050" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5567" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-30T01:14:51.983" Score="3" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;Motivated by this question about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5559/does-the-scarcity-of-female-programmers-suggest-that-men-are-more-intelligent-t&quot;&gt;programming and intelligence&lt;/a&gt;, I've noticed that people often judge other people's competence in terms of how well they perform on the domains that they have more expertise. A few examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm a good programmer. This manager can't program.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm a good manager. This programmer doesn't know how to lead others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm a good statistician. This applied researcher knows so little about statistics.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm a good applied researcher. this statistician knows so little about the substantive problems in this research context.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, while such claims may be factual statements. The bias occurs when a person's overall competence is evaluated relative to your own standards of expertise, rather than what is objectively important for the other person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does this &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bias&lt;/a&gt; of evaluating others competence by your own areas of expertise have a formal name?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T03:54:21.847" Title="Bias in which you judge others by what you are good at?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5568" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5565" CreationDate="2014-01-30T03:07:00.057" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not sure about compulsive, but I heard of the term &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantified_Self&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Quantified self&quot;&lt;/a&gt; being used for people interested in all kinds of information about themselves.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T03:07:00.057" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5569" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5563" CreationDate="2014-01-30T03:39:28.270" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Spike trigger is a specific type or you could say a sub-set of reverse correlations, covariance and probabilities. Other various examples include &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2792887/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;differential reverse correlation&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.maths.uq.edu.au/courses/MATH3104/Lectures/goodhill/poisson_notes.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Poisson spike trains&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/academicPubs/desa/nonlinearreverse04.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;nonlinear reverse correlation&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/10883477_The_motion_reverse_correlation_%28MRC%29_method_a_linear_systems_approach_in_the_motion_domain/file/79e4150e3fd8a05854.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;motion reverse correlation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-30T03:53:39.700" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T03:53:39.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5567" CreationDate="2014-01-30T03:45:52.520" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think its &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/elsevier/professional-ethnocentrism-and-shared-learning-jHyote4DTr&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Professional Ethnocentrism&lt;/a&gt;. That is the professional culture of the programmer promoting itself automatically above the culture of the manager and likewise. Judging and comparison is a major problem in all ethnocentric behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture. Ethnocentric individuals judge other groups relative to their own ethnic group or culture, especially with concern for language, behavior, customs, and religion. These ethnic distinctions and subdivisions serve to define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity. Ethnocentrism may be overt or subtle, and while it is considered a natural proclivity of human psychology, it has developed a generally negative connotation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&amp;quot;the technical name for the view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it.&amp;quot;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocentrism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia Ethonocentrism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T03:54:21.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5571" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5463" CreationDate="2014-01-30T05:03:06.157" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes in science all things are constantly upgraded. My main concern is that Tegmark's level of specificity has not been validated through peer review so it may be faulty and not suitable to build future theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Rex Kerr points out in examining Tononi's general criteria I'd consider Tegmark's criteria more specific expositions rather than purely novel information. Further specification beyond Tegmark's work seems to be necessary to define consciousness beyond &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;primary&lt;/a&gt; like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;metacognition&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't see how a group of conscious individuals like a society having a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;collective consciousness&lt;/a&gt; by sharing information and integrating it into commonality like works of governance, science and art are differentiated from a conscious individual by either Tononi's or Tegmark's current level of specificity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edelman, G. M., Tononi, G. (2000). A Universe of Consciousness: How Matter Becomes Imagination. New York: Basic Books&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-30T08:49:43.663" LastActivityDate="2014-01-30T08:49:43.663" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5580" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="169" CreationDate="2014-01-31T04:26:36.523" Score="16" Body="&lt;h1&gt;TL;DR: tons of support (and complications) at each level. One sequence can't fit all (it didn't claim to), but it makes sense in general, and so do the exceptions, and so do other motive models.&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check out Kenrick and colleagues' (2010) recent article. Kenrick is a prominent evolutionary psychologist; he and his colleagues have &quot;renovated&quot; Maslow's motive hierarchy based on a little bit of everything, including evolutionary, biological, personality, social, and cultural psychology. &lt;sub&gt;It's got some speculative theoretical claims of its own, but offers a deep review of empirical research too, and attempts to synthesize them. I'll just quote some of the parts that reference other research here (without vouching that all of it is necessarily original or empirical) to give you a sense of where else you might look beyond this article itself, and how Kenrick and colleagues summarize their basic findings directly. They go much further than direct summary though, so as other answers here have noted, there are many alternatives to &lt;a href=&quot;http://downloads.joomlacode.org/trackeritem/5/8/7/58799/AbrahamH.Maslow-ATheoryOfHumanMotivation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow's (1943)&lt;/a&gt; original theory, including this one!&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kenrick and colleagues' (2010)&lt;/a&gt; model&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An &lt;strong&gt;updated&lt;/strong&gt; hierarchy of fundamental human motives...integrates ideas from life-history development with Maslow’s classic hierarchy...adds &lt;strong&gt;reproductive goals&lt;/strong&gt;, in the order they are likely to first appear &lt;strong&gt;developmentally&lt;/strong&gt;...[and] depicts the later developing goal systems as &lt;strong&gt;overlapping&lt;/strong&gt; with, &lt;strong&gt;rather than completely replacing&lt;/strong&gt;, earlier developing systems. Once a goal system has developed, its activation will be triggered whenever relevant &lt;strong&gt;environmental cues&lt;/strong&gt; are salient. [Emphasis added.]&#xA;  &lt;img src=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/bin/nihms310276f2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The overlapping triangles...explicitly reflect...that later developmental needs and goals add to, rather than replace, existing ones...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;h2&gt;Summary of Developmental Level of Analysis&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Developmental...life-history theory suggest[s]...revisions to Maslow’s original hierarchy...Three later-developing reproduction-focused goals of mate acquisition, mate retention, and parental care...different motives in the hierarchy continue to operate alongside those that develop later in life...reflected visually by the overlapping triangles...Important individual differences in motivational priorities...result from interactions between development and current environment...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;h2&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Developments [in] evolutionary biology, anthropology, and psychology...suggested...structural modifications to Maslow’s classic hierarchy of human motives...The ultimate functions of behaviors and of life-history development [suggest] explicit inclusion of motivational levels linked to mating and reproduction. Reproduction...is not ultimately about self-gratification, but involves a considerable diversion of resources away from selfish goals and toward other[s]...Life-history trade-offs also [imply] that later developing motive systems never fully replace earlier ones...they continue to coexist, ready to be activated depending on current opportunities and threats in the environment, in interaction with individual differences. Thus...the ongoing dynamic interaction between internal motives and their functional links to ongoing environmental threats and opportunities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/table/T1/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Table 1. How Different Motivational Systems Are Triggered by Proximate Cues and Individual Differences Linked to Fundamentally Important Threats and Opportunities.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obvious critique: some healthy people don't want kids, a mate, or even sex. I bet Kenrick would call them rare expressions of individual variations that society maintains to round itself out in adaptive or reactive ways. I've also covered &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5813/4086&quot;&gt;some other perspectives in this answer to a related question of social needs&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;General themes from the rest of the article:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Support for existence of many underlying mechanisms associated with each level&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some mechanisms are not definitionally tied to any one level.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Developmental, sociocultural, and individual differences in the order of emergence&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Maslow (1943) anticipated this, and presented his ordering as a general trend, not an inflexible, absolute sequence.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., &amp;amp; Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the pyramid of needs contemporary extensions built upon ancient foundations. &lt;em&gt;Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5&lt;/em&gt;(3), 292–314. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved January 30, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review, 50&lt;/em&gt;(4), 370–396. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://downloads.joomlacode.org/trackeritem/5/8/7/58799/AbrahamH.Maslow-ATheoryOfHumanMotivation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://downloads.joomlacode.org/trackeritem/5/8/7/58799/AbrahamH.Maslow-ATheoryOfHumanMotivation.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved January 30, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-02-21T23:58:21.553" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5581" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="587" CreationDate="2014-01-31T05:41:56.740" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is pedophilia a sexual orientation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The common definition of &lt;em&gt;&quot;sexual orientation&quot;&lt;/em&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A preference for sexual partners of a specific &lt;strong&gt;gender&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The common definition of &lt;em&gt;&quot;pedophilia&quot;&lt;/em&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A preference for sexual partners of a specific &lt;strong&gt;age&lt;/strong&gt; (prepubescent).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since age is not the same as gender, it follows that pedophilia is not a sexual orientation by definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is pedophilia a disorder?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pedophilia is a disorder according to the current diagnostic system DSM-5 only if a child is actually abused (Criterion B of the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Most people with atypical sexual interests do not have a mental disorder. To be diagnosed with a paraphilic disorder, DSM-5 requires that people with these interests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;• feel personal distress about their interest, not merely distress resulting from society’s disapproval;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;• have a sexual desire or behavior that involves another person’s psychological distress, injury, or death, or a desire for sexual behaviors involving unwilling persons or persons unable to give legal consent&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;See this question for a distinction between paraphilia and paraphilic disorder:&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5591/is-paraphilia-a-disorder&quot;&gt;Is paraphilia a disorder?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-02-01T10:17:15.360" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5586" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-31T10:45:59.400" Score="2" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a lecture, a prof claimed that in Western societies, people tend to value independence and uniqueness, whereas Eastern cultures tend to value helping each other and living harmoniously. In a nutshell, people in Eastern cultures think of the community more than themselves, whereas in Western cultures people tend to think about what makes themselves unique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that relate to these claims?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-09T02:30:34.353" LastActivityDate="2014-02-09T02:30:34.353" Title="Is there evidence that &quot;people in Eastern societies are more in touch with their communities while Western societies value uniqueness more&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5587" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5586" CreationDate="2014-01-31T12:49:02.643" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;While I can't, and won't make any comment on the accusations of racism (I think the comments below your question answer that quite well), the Western/Analytic vs. Eastern/Holistic dichotomy is pretty well established and supported by studies in cognitive and social psychological literatures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This may be a little different to what you had in mind, as your question is more about social notions like 'valuing independence' versus 'coexisting in harmony', which are harder to empirically demonstrate (I'm not a social psychologist).  What I'm referring to here is more like 'logic, rules, and working details out step by step' versus 'taking everything into account, and seeing the bigger picture'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the idea is a bit more complicated than what I'm able to explain in a few sentences.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&amp;amp;uid=2001-17194-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nisbett et al's (2001) review&lt;/a&gt; (free preprint copy &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-personal.umich.edu/%7Enisbett/images/cultureThought.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) is the Rolls-Royce of reviews when it comes to this, and that paper will address most of the questions you might have (note the racial diversity of the authors).&#xA;You can also find more work by the same authors &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-personal.umich.edu/%7Enisbett/selected.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(just the one)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., &amp;amp; Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological review, 108(2), 291.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-01-31T12:49:02.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5586" CreationDate="2014-01-31T12:50:35.640" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The difference between collectivistic and individualistic cultures is one of the recurring topics in introductory lectures in Social Psychology, I-O Psychology and related fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most widely cited book on culture is &lt;em&gt;Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind&lt;/em&gt; by Hofstede, Hofstede and Minkov (2010), originally published by Hofstede and Hofstede in 1991. In addition, here are two basic and popular publications on the topic, available online:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., &amp;amp; Minkov, M. (2010). &lt;em&gt;Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival&lt;/em&gt; (3rd ed.). New York: Mcgraw Hill.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Markus, H. R., &amp;amp; Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, 98(2), 224. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iacmr.org/v2/Conferences/WS2011/Submission_XM/Participant/Readings/Lecture8A_JiaLin/Markus%20et%20al%20%281991%29%20Culture%20and%20Self%20-%20Implications%20for%20Cognition%20Emotion%20and%20Motivation-8a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.iacmr.org/v2/Conferences/WS2011/Submission_XM/Participant/Readings/Lecture8A_JiaLin/Markus%20et%20al%20%281991%29%20Culture%20and%20Self%20-%20Implications%20for%20Cognition%20Emotion%20and%20Motivation-8a.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Suh, E., Diener, E., Oishi, S., &amp;amp; Triandis, H. C. (1998). The shifting basis of life satisfaction judgments across cultures: Emotions versus norms. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 74(2), 482. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/suh/file/The%20shifting%20basis%20of%20life%20satisfaction%20judgments%20across%20cultures_Emotions%20versus%20norms.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/suh/file/The%20shifting%20basis%20of%20life%20satisfaction%20judgments%20across%20cultures_Emotions%20versus%20norms.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's more, of course, but these and the references in Hofstede et al. will keep you busy for years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-01-31T23:46:28.487" LastActivityDate="2014-01-31T23:46:28.487" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5589" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5495" CreationDate="2014-01-31T12:59:57.317" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've done quite a lot of work on running experiments online over the last while, and have put together some of the code I've found useful in a project tentatively titled &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/EoinTravers/PsychScript&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsychScript&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will still need to actually program the experiment yourself in JavaScript, but with PsychScript you can do this by modifying a template and changing things around a little, rather than working from scratch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope thing helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-01-31T12:59:57.317" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5590" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-31T13:28:14.923" Score="9" ViewCount="781" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a man who is married or in a long term relationship wants to have sexual relationships with other women, is this pathological, deviant, maybe even a disorder? Or is it part of normal and healthy male sexuality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4304" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-02T11:47:56.870" LastActivityDate="2014-08-20T13:30:48.717" Title="Is it normal for men in long term relationships to want to have sexual relationships with other women?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5591" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-01-31T14:38:11.653" Score="7" ViewCount="764" Body="&lt;p&gt;There has been some confusion in recent questions about the term paraphilia. In most questions and answers, including my own, paraphilias have been seen as disorders that might require treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But are paraphilias disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-01-31T19:35:46.520" LastActivityDate="2014-01-31T23:47:55.503" Title="Is paraphilia a disorder?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5592" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5591" CreationDate="2014-01-31T14:43:09.590" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The DSM-5 does not list all paraphilia as a disorder! According to the DSM-5,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The term &lt;strong&gt;paraphilia&lt;/strong&gt; denotes any intense and persistent sexual interest other than sexual interest in genital stimulationor preparatory fondling with phenotypically normal, physically mature, consenting human partners.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What the DSM-5 does list are paraphilic disorders:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;paraphilic disorder&lt;/strong&gt; is a paraphilia that is currently causing distress or impairment to the individual or a paraphilia whose satisfaction has entailed personal harm, or risk of harm, to others. A paraphilia is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for having a paraphilic disorder, and a paraphilia b itself does not necessarily justify or require clinical intervention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the diagnostic criteria set for each of the listed paraphilic disorders, Criterion A specifies the qualitative nature of the paraphilia (e.g., an erotic focus on children or on exposing the genitals to strangers), and Criterion B specifies the negative consequences of the paraphilia (e.g. distress, impairment, or harm to others). In keeping with the distinction between paraphilias and paraphilic disorders, the term &lt;em&gt;diagnosis&lt;/em&gt; should be reserved for individuals who meet both Criteria A and B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-01-31T18:46:06.000" LastActivityDate="2014-01-31T18:46:06.000" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5595" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-01T07:17:58.543" Score="4" ViewCount="241" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm conducting a study about the effects of a verbally administered placebo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The actual setting and intervention are different from the example I give here, but similar enough that the example may serve as a basis for discussion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the study, a team of psychologists running a local practice offers a new experimental service. The psychologists have developed a diagnostic tool that allows them to predict with surprising accuracy if a single person will fall in love within the upcoming four weeks. To further test and refine this diagnostic tool they now offer a public service after having tested it on a small sample of students. So they invite local residents to their practice to be tested through an advertisement and offer them a free diagnosis, whether or not they will fall in love within the next two weeks. The participants are told that the diagnostic tool for this prognosis is being evaluated in its predictive power and that they should report back after four weeks and tell the researchers if they had fallen in love or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course there is no diagnostic tool. The psychologists believe that they are being perceived as experts by the laypeople, and that if they make such a prediction after some impressive psychological examination, this prediction will &lt;em&gt;cause&lt;/em&gt; people to fall in love, if without this intervention they would not have, or remain &quot;out of love&quot;, if they had fallen in love.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, the researchers do not want to give negative (not fall in love) prognoses, because they do not want anyone to refuse and miss out on an &quot;offer&quot; they would have been happy about. (They do not believe that they will cause people to fall in love with unsuitable suitors and cause grief, only that participants with a will-fall-in-love prognosis will react more benevolently and accepting to offers they receive.) And, in the absence of negative prognoses, the researchers will need a control group that receives no prediction, but still reports back after two weeks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The psychologists do not know how to set up this experiment so that they can give positive (fall in love) diagnoses or no diagnosis to random participants, without raising suspicion. Some of the patients will obviously know each other and talk about this experimental &quot;service&quot;, and they will notice that they know no one with a negative diagnosis. That would seem odd to them. Also the reason to not give a diagnosis to many participants must be valid without raising doubt regarding the validity of the prognoses that were given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What would you tell your participants to allay their doubts over the absence of negative prognoses?&lt;/strong&gt; And how would you explain that often you do not give a prognosis, without invalidating the prognoses you give?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the ethic concerns are being pushed to the forefront of the discussion, I have edited my question to include an example that more closely resembles the real research. Yet, I want to repeat that &lt;strong&gt;this is an example only&lt;/strong&gt;, so please don't get hung up on the specifics of falling in love. The real study includes psychologists and a behavior prediction, but not about falling in love. Similar research has been done in a laboratory setting, the difference is I want to do it out &quot;in the field&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are worried about psychologists lying to their participants, you need to understand that cover stories are a common method in psychological research. They are in fact so very common, that it is easier to list instances where cover stories are &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; used: only if the knowledge of the purpose of the study cannot falsify the results are participants told in advance what is being studied and how. In all other cases the researchers lie to the participants and debrief them after the experient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, if there is any danger that this lie would have lasting or strong negative effects, such research will not be conducted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can safely assume that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;participants will be informed that they are taking part in an experiment and asked to give their consent (this is easily part of the cover story, as it allows to not give a prognosis to some of the participants)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;participants will be debriefed by a trained psychologist&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;participants will be given contact information and told to contact a team member when they observe any kind of effect at all, positive or negative (since we want to measure these effects, this is easily part of the cover story)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;an ethics commitee of our university will evaluate the study design&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since similar &quot;lies&quot; have been told to participants of other experiments before, I am quite confident that this study will be approved by our ethics committee also. Here is an example of a study where the researchers lied to the participants about their sleep quality: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24417326&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24417326&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also many examples of research, where researchers actually induce negative (i.e. unwanted by the participants) effects in their participants. A recent example is experimentally lowering self-esteem: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178113007774&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178113007774&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-02-02T10:22:05.960" LastActivityDate="2014-02-02T10:22:05.960" Title="How to ethically research the effect of expert lies on lay people" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5596" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5595" CreationDate="2014-02-01T12:29:03.527" Score="4" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Scientific perspective&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a design perspective, it would not be difficult to set out a design where participants did not know each other or did not know each other well enough to deduce that the information was false. You could also include a manipulation check that probed participants at the conclusion of the study about the degree to which they believed the diagnosis provided, and filter out participants who doubted the validity of the diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Ethical perspective&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more fundamental question is whether the study is ethical to run. It violates several basic ethical principles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is no informed consent at least at time of initial participation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It may cause harm to people who rely on the information about their health&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It may also bring the medical profession or medical research into disrepute&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, in some cases you can justify lack of consent. In particular, you need to look at the risks and potential harm and weigh that against the potential social benefits. &#xA;On the face of it, I doubt the study as described would meet requirements for ethics approval.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-02-01T12:29:03.527" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5598" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-01T19:23:56.207" Score="6" ViewCount="544" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes I hear that one subject is harder than another, but never scientifically investigated. For example, in high school, it's commonly thought that mathematics is the hardest subject. But I think that this definition is poorly built. I remember when I was in high school, and mathematics wasn't hard, but I really had no interest, and I ignored it and obtained poor grades. Today I've started to like mathematics, and it's really not that hard. I can solve problems and prove propositions, and the only thing I feel that changed in my mind is the addition of interest. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that sometimes, the subject is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; hard, and the student is under the effect of something that compels him to not do it, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_anxiety&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mathematical anxiety&lt;/a&gt; or the lack of interest as I pointed out before. I believe that the concept of difficulty per se is a poor measure of skill needed for doing something and that it interacts with other aspects. So, I got curious: are there studies on the definition of difficulty?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1578/614&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; after making my question, and it seems to address some of the questions I've made, but it doesn't mention the effects of willingness or lack of interest in obtaining knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T21:16:52.700" Title="Is there a formal definition for the difficulty of learning something?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5599" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5427" CreationDate="2014-02-01T20:01:14.090" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a specialized field within psychology that combines clinical psychology with educational psychology to address the specific needs of teachers, pupils and parents. It is called &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;School Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The English Wikipedia article lists and links to several academic journals that will certainly hold valuable information: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It also lists introductory textbooks. I'd start with one of those to get a general grasp of the field first.&lt;/strong&gt; You can then dive deeper into those areas that interest you most.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If you live near a university, you can read journals and lend books even if you are not a student. (At least I could, while being a tourist in the US.) Some big public libraries have similar access to scholarly journals and recent textbooks. Ask.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Start with the most recent books and only move to older literature, if the newer articles and books advise you to. Science is progressing, and old information is often no longer considered valid.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is an International School Psychology Organization and similar organizations in all Western countries. Again, the Wikipedia article links to some of these organizations. They will certainly have information for teachers or help you locate relevant resources.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The sidebar in the Wikipedia article links to similar pages in other languages. Often the information differs, sometimes fundamentally, so you might find more links and information, if you read any of the other languages.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-02-01T20:01:14.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5600" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-01T21:19:50.110" Score="1" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the brain a purely energy conserving system that creates behaviours for conserving the energy distributed to the brain, based on the input of sensory information that our bodies take in? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4316" LastEditorUserId="4316" LastEditDate="2014-02-01T23:16:37.200" LastActivityDate="2014-02-01T23:16:37.200" Title="Are our brains just energy conserving systems?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2014-02-04T21:15:22.333" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5601" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5483" CreationDate="2014-02-01T21:42:22.313" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Freud (1905) believed that every human was innately bisexual, and that monosexuality (i.e. hetero- or homosexuality) is a result of internal and external influences during psychological maturation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Currently, the question of a biological, e.g. genetic or uterine, cause of non-heterosexual sexual orientation is still a subject of research and has not yet led to any conclusive results. Until that question has been answered with some level of certainy, &lt;strong&gt;we simply do not know&lt;/strong&gt; whether homosexuality is a natural variety of sexuality or a deviation from an inborn disposition through influences after birth. (Wikipedia summarizes the research well: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you must differentiate is &lt;em&gt;homosexual behavior&lt;/em&gt;, which can appear in heterosexual individuals such as experimenting adolescents or prisoners, and &lt;em&gt;homosexuality&lt;/em&gt;, which is a preference for same-sex partners, which might not show up in behavior at all. Historically, many homosexuals led heterosexual lives, marrying, mating with and procreating with opposite-sex partners, despite a contrary sexual preference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Freud, S. (1905). Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie. Leipzig: Deuticke.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-02-01T21:42:22.313" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5602" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4380" CreationDate="2014-02-01T22:07:09.810" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all you must understand that &quot;psychopathy&quot; or &quot;sadistic personality disorder&quot; are &lt;em&gt;names&lt;/em&gt; given by scholars to groups of behaviors that seem to have something in common. These categories are not god-given, but human made, and what they include or exclude changes with the progress of scientific knowledge as well as political interests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sadistic personality disorder&lt;/strong&gt; was a diagnosis proposed in the appendix of the DSM-III-R, but it has not been included in the DSM-IV or DSM-5. Currently it is not a diagnosis that can be given to anyone, although it is still used by some researchers, because they find it useful for research purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychopathy&lt;/strong&gt; has never been a distinct diagnosis in the DSM (or ICD), but the manual stated that &lt;em&gt;antisocial personality disorder&lt;/em&gt; includes what is referred to as psychopathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;difference&lt;/strong&gt; between sadistic personality disorder, as it was defined by the DSM-III-R, and psychopathy, as it is defined by different scholars using the term as well as the DSM's antisocial personality disorder, is that a sadist is cruel and aims at physically or mentally inducing pain and suffering, while the psychopath disregards norms and the rights of others. Their behavior might outwardly look the same, and they might have the same goal of dominance, but they differ in their personalities, which are perfectly described by the everyday meaning of the words &lt;strong&gt;sadistic&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;antisocial&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-02-01T22:07:09.810" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5603" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-02T11:06:56.597" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;In most business seminars, or in movie the secret, for example, it is said that if we want to be rich we need to believe we want to be rich.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We got to want peace, not anti war.&#xA;We got to be pro wealth, not anti poverty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is said that our subconscious mind can't process not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, anti war means want war. Anti poverty means pro poverty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which part of our brain subconciously guide us to the outcome we imagine? Is there such thing? Is it true that it cannot process no?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="699" LastEditDate="2014-02-02T11:52:35.617" LastActivityDate="2014-02-02T11:52:35.617" Title="Do our brains have difficulties detecting no?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T19:11:02.740" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5604" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5606" CreationDate="2014-02-02T11:54:42.500" Score="2" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many people have false beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact that they have those shows that those beliefs may carry some evolutionary advantage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can false beliefs be profitable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-02T18:28:27.593" LastActivityDate="2019-06-05T16:34:20.877" Title="Are there samples of false but beneficial beliefs?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5605" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5612" CreationDate="2014-02-02T12:08:25.490" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am undergraduate student in mathematics and a complete beginner in the field of neuroscience. I recently started a project in Mathematical biology which brought me to the above mentioned paper. I couldn't understand what is meant by the &quot;linear spatial weightings&quot; and &quot;specific temporal windows&quot; in the following passage :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We used a machine learning approach to identify linear spatial&#xA;  weightings of the EEG sensors for specific temporal windows which&#xA;  optimally discriminate between target (faces) and non-target (cars)&#xA;  trials.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would really appreciate if someone could break these things down in simpler terms and if possible suggest me some sources to refer.&#xA;( I was wondering if the 'linear spatial weightings' here is similar to the concept of 'Center of mass' which can be said as 'linear spatial weightings' of mass; just a guess.And the 'specific temporal windows' is some continuous range in the 'time taken' (to respond to stimulus) axis. Again, only a guess.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Philiastides, M. G., &amp;amp; Sajda, P. (2006). Temporal characterization of the neural correlates of perceptual decision making in the human brain. Cerebral Cortex, 16(4), 509-518.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4320" LastEditorUserId="4320" LastEditDate="2014-02-03T05:47:44.667" LastActivityDate="2014-02-03T05:50:01.527" Title="What are &quot;linear spatial weightings&quot; and &quot;specific temporal windows&quot; in Philiastides &amp; Sajda (2006)?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5606" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5604" CreationDate="2014-02-02T13:03:28.397" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I guess it depends on what you mean by &quot;false beliefs&quot;. If you mean beliefs such as magical thinking, illusory patterns, superstitious beliefs, etc, then the following may help. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From an evolutionary perspective, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/276/1654/31.full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Foster and Koko (2009&lt;/a&gt;) argue that false beliefs such as superstitious thoughts/rituals may arise due to the consequence of making a false-negative error (i.e. dismissing a real pattern) being potentially dire, while making a false-positive error (identifying a non-existant pattern) may have little consequence at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A psychological explanation that is popular is the formation of false-beliefs as a means of gaining control over ones environment. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com/content/28/1/102.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Keinan (2002)&lt;/a&gt; proposes three ways in which engaging in false-beliefs may improve one's sense of control:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;these beliefs may provide an explanatory power over perhaps&lt;br&gt;&#xA;inexplicable events, making the environment seem predictable and&lt;br&gt;&#xA;controllable;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;false-beliefs may appear to provide a means of controlling a situation, such as engaging in a superstitious ritual;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;engaging in false-beliefs may create a self-fulfilling prophecy (the person's faith in their beliefs may make them more optimistic of the situation, reduce their stress, and subsequently improve their performance).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3590" LastEditorUserId="3589" LastEditDate="2014-02-02T13:07:11.993" LastActivityDate="2014-02-02T13:07:11.993" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5607" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-02T16:30:04.247" Score="5" ViewCount="320" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know a little bit about negative and positive energies of human bodies and how it all works.&#xA;Recently, on Facebook, I saw an ad promoting some sort of audio recording and that it has something to do with the &lt;strong&gt;beta waves&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They claimed, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Listen to the 15-minute demo once per day, every day, for at least the next seven days. You'll soon start noticing the subtle, positive differences, if you haven't already.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I downloaded that audio clip (15 minutes long), expecting it to be something relaxing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As it turned out, it was the sounds of waterfalls, leaves and trees for the whole 15 minutes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though I like this 15 minute sound clip, I wonder how this could help in improving positivity if we listen to it regularly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the whole text that I received as e-mail after signing up for the AD,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some people report feeling much more relaxed. Others feel that time speeds up -- or slows down. Almost everyone reports that it's an enjoyable experience! And what about the sounds of rustling leaves and trickling waterfalls? We travelled to Derbyshire, in the heart of rural England, and spent a month capturing the natural sounds used in the BrainEv program. But what you might not realize is...There's actually much, much more going on in the background! You see, the sounds of the streams and trees are really just a rich &quot;sound mask&quot; for the powerful brainwave recordings that are playing in the background. Let me explain a little more...Your brain cells all talk to each other using tiny little electrical signals. With billions of these brain cells talking at once, that's a pretty significant amount of electrical activity -- and can be detected with an EEG machine. This electrical activity is what we call a brainwave. And the brainwave frequencies change, depending on what state you're in. When you're happy, when you're focused, when you're asleep -- your brainwaves all have very specific frequencies. And here's the exciting part. Using a science known as 'brainwave entrainment', we can now create special brainwave audio recordings, which play specific frequencies to the brain. The brain copies these frequencies, and effectively RECREATES the original brainwave pattern. That means we can recreate brainwave patterns that help you relax and release stress... that activate your intelligence... that improve your mood... that help you feel more focused during the day. Not only that, but by accessing these peak performance states on a daily basis (as with the BrainEv program), they'll start becoming second nature -- and available to you literally on-demand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4321" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-02T18:27:30.713" LastActivityDate="2015-03-16T23:45:36.290" Title="Brainwave audio recordings and beta waves: how do they affect positivity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5608" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-02T20:32:06.140" Score="4" ViewCount="521" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is generally observed that animals and human alike close their eyes when they sleep. It looks seemingly natural.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I have heard (and might have observed one too, just not sure whether he was actually sleeping or not) that there are certain people who can fall asleep with there eyes open.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is it possible to sleep with your eyes open?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-02T23:42:33.267" LastActivityDate="2014-02-09T06:58:47.883" Title="Is it possible to sleep with your eyes open?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5609" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5608" CreationDate="2014-02-02T21:02:55.927" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S154201241270263X&quot;&gt;Nocturnal lagophthalmos&lt;/a&gt; is the search term you're looking for.  But it's less that they &quot;can&quot; fall asleep with their eyes open and more that they &quot;can't&quot; close their eyes during sleep:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nocturnal lagophthalmos is the inability to close the eyelids during&#xA;  sleep. Lagophthalmos is associated with exposure keratopathy, poor&#xA;  sleep, and persistent exposure-related symptoms. There are a variety&#xA;  of causes of lagophthalmos, grouped as proptosis/eye exposure&#xA;  etiologies and palpebral insufficiency etiologies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-02T23:35:17.030" LastActivityDate="2014-02-02T23:35:17.030" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5610" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5641" CreationDate="2014-02-02T21:29:37.720" Score="9" ViewCount="5449" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I have been presented with the question, &quot;What makes something addictive, and why are some activities more addicting than others?&quot; This question intrigues me, as logically, the answer would be along the lines of, &quot;The mind has a constant desire / falsified need to go through the experience of the activity.&quot; And if you think about it, that's just a definition of what causes addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;what makes some fun things addictive and some things not, and overall, &quot;What is fun?&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; For example, your average adolescent would find playing video games, watching television and communicating through social media &quot;fun&quot;, while also finding recreational activities like drawing, playing sports, and, say, board games &quot;fun&quot;. Why then is the former list addicting and the latter non-addictive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If any activity the mind desires, once achieved, can be described as &quot;fun&quot;, then why aren't some things addictive?&lt;/strong&gt; And since some people find, say, studying or even work &quot;fun&quot;, then if some routine is made out of it, isn't it possible to become addicted to these activities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to channel our desires, define what we find fun, and choose our addictions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4322" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-05T04:26:57.660" LastActivityDate="2014-11-30T20:48:25.553" Title="What makes some things more fun than others universally?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5611" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-03T05:14:31.240" Score="4" ViewCount="525" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the psychological effects and correlates of &lt;strong&gt;social nudism&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;No opinions, only research, please.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T19:32:06.977" Title="Is being naked good for you?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2014-03-19T00:10:26.027" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5612" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5605" CreationDate="2014-02-03T05:50:01.527" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can make a guess, until someone who really knows the answer comes along :) I haven't read the paper and the answer I can give is probably not going to be formal enough for a math student. But I can tell you what I think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The goal of the paper, I'm guessing, is to look at the pattern of activation recorded by EEG when viewing pictures of faces and cars, and to try to say if the two activity patterns differ. One way to so this is to show some faces and cars, look at EEG activity and tell your algorithm which is which. Then, after a training period, let your algorithm classify future input into faces and cars as well as it can. In the end, you want to see if it can classify above chance. If yes, then you can say with certainty that the pattern of neural activity between cars and faces differs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might then wonder how it differs. If this guesswork is correct, then &lt;em&gt;temporal windows&lt;/em&gt; refers to moments in time when this pattern classification works best - for example, 150-200 milliseconds after the picture was displayed. This can tell you something about how much visual processing must happen before objects are seen as belonging to a certain category. If not done properly, though, you might just be detecting simple visual differences such as amount of information in a certain frequency band - not very exciting. A very early temporal window of best performance of your classifier algorithm would indicate that this is the case. In any case, you learn something from seeing where the best temporal window is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Spatial weightings of the sensors&lt;/em&gt; refers to the difference in activity recorded in each of the individual EEG sensors. From that, you might infer that the difference between cars and faces is most prominent in, say,  frontal sensors, which gives you a hint about the possible brain areas involved in category classification. The &lt;em&gt;linear&lt;/em&gt; I don't know what to make of unfortunately. It refers to the bit of the algorithm that decides how to classify these spatial patterns, perhaps by relying on how neural activity is spread over a distance (i.e. how activity originating at a certain place will be captured by the sensor just above it, and how by sensors further away), but to know what makes it linear, you would really need to see the algorithm. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2014-02-03T05:50:01.527" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5613" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4145" CreationDate="2014-02-03T05:55:12.240" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm only be able to answer part of your question in specific ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does having a wider short-term memory horizon of numbers (which I assume n-back produces) result in being able to keep track of more variables and rigorous proof steps in a sharper way (working memory) and in faster comprehension of mathematical concepts (fluid intelligence)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*&lt;em&gt;Answer&lt;/em&gt;*$\rightarrow$ dual-n-back in my experience was more like a booster to help me achieve my peak on working memory for several minutes and deduct while time goes by. The effect usually last for half a day. Since it is like a booster, it can't help me to maintain the peak high performance. The training gives &quot;intuition&quot; only; it helps me to verify logical fallacies most, and it does make me speak much more logically with only a sufficient number of words. (I did learn concrete some knowledge about different kind of fallacies.) Eliminating logical mistakes made me draw rational decisions.&#xA;But it is only a booster, and in fact I did maintain some of the &quot;recalling ability&quot;.&#xA;It is most likely possible to maintain the fruits, since I've given up some time to calm down after training, and it takes me long hours.&#xA;If you can't do this with the proof of actually knowing how exactly it affects you, don't train. It has side effect while you're over-trained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the training result in a larger attention span and therefore to better grades?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*&lt;em&gt;Answer&lt;/em&gt;*$\rightarrow$ I'm not sure about what you mean by attention span. But I can tell you that it helps to read effectively by eliminating crap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And most IMPORTANT, the gameplay of &quot;brainworkshop&quot; is not the best; time interval shouldn't be fixed while training and it varies for different people. This setting is the worst in that it could make your answers out of control. E.g., you can't recall the letter or the position without having 1 more second, and the task remaining will be ruined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4327" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-03T21:09:50.003" LastActivityDate="2014-02-03T21:09:50.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5614" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="46" CreationDate="2014-02-03T06:31:30.110" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the &quot;automate&quot; problem is caused by several reasons in my experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1:&#xA;brainworkshop's design on fixed time intervals between trials is bad. Some of the time, we increase our n-back level without some seconds more to recall the letter or position, which ruins the rest of the trials. And so, we chose to remember letters and positions and finally &quot;automate&quot; this bad practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2:&#xA;It is bad to have too many letters in brainworkshop. If you can, imagine how we tried to remember a long word while we were still children. So we suck the long chain of letters into our minds instead of recalling what we saw.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3: Positions are not the best way to practice n-back, just like in the last reason. The human brain can easily recognize this kind of 3x3 spatial pattern. While we are training, we can't avoid learning the 3x3 patterns eventually. How hard to stick a 3 position set and a 3 letter set in mind, right? But while we are sticking those, we have less parts of our minds available to recall memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4327" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-03T21:15:51.500" LastActivityDate="2014-02-03T21:15:51.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5615" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5619" CreationDate="2014-02-03T06:46:23.943" Score="5" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not the exact phrase, but I have heard variations of this claim. I am wondering whether such claim is supported by a study or experiment. I am also curious if there is a way to sort of vaguely quantify memory. In other words, is there a way to know how much memory/resources a type of task occupies? For example, is it possible to know experimentally whether the muscle memory required to play a piano needs more memory/resources than the memory needed to read a piano sheet? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4200" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-09T02:32:37.130" LastActivityDate="2014-02-09T02:32:37.130" Title="Regarding &quot;a human brain can hold enough information to fill 10 libraries&quot;, can we quantify the memory required for a given task?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5616" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5617" CreationDate="2014-02-03T08:46:20.503" Score="3" ViewCount="448" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have you ever experienced that feeling after watching a really great movie (somewhat like a dramatic one) that after watching the movie, you got carried away? Even though the movie ended well in a happy ending, there is that feeling inside you that remained. The feeling can't be explained, but the sad part of the movie remained somewhat. What do you call that feeling, and is there any explanation for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How and why can movies take us out of our everyday physical reality and into a fantasy world, so that when the movie ends, we are left feeling dissociated from our own lives, feeling feelings that don't belong to us, but to the fictional characters from the movie?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4270" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-03T21:02:15.343" LastActivityDate="2014-02-03T21:02:15.343" Title="How and why can movies take us out of our everyday physical reality and into a fantasy world?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5617" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5616" CreationDate="2014-02-03T09:33:08.747" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we &quot;enter&quot; a fictional world, we &lt;em&gt;imagine&lt;/em&gt; that we are there. The question therefore is: How can we imagine an experience? To answer this question, you have to understand how our perception of reality works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we perceive the world, we are not in direct contact with the world, but rather removed two steps: the physcial objects that (probably) surround us reflect light, cause sound, send out molecules and so on, and our sensory organs register these light particles, changes in air density, molecules (smell) etc. Our sensory organs then send signals to our brain, and our brains try to make sense of these signals by comparing them to information already stored in our memories. That information itself, of course, is only stored sensory input and the sense we gave it, so that in essence our knowledge of the world is like trying to decipher a text in an unfamiliar script: by observing regularities and repetition, i.e. a non-random &lt;em&gt;structure&lt;/em&gt;, can we deduce the &lt;em&gt;meaning&lt;/em&gt; that this text (or the world) has in relation to us. So in effect the &quot;real&quot; outside world, as we experience it through our bodies and in our minds, is an image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a graphic illustrating this idea (Velmans, 2008):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/07Sic.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we feel sad, because something sad happens in our lives, we do not actually experience any of the things that go on around us. What we experience is the image our mind creates from the sensory input. Our bodies may live in the outside phyisical reality, but our Self, as we are conscious of it, lives in a mental image of that outside world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This image of the world is being induced in our minds by the sensory input. But there are experiences that feel totally &quot;real&quot;, although they lack sensory input or are caused by input that does not resemble them, for example when we dream or when we halluciante. People who hallucinate cannot tell if what they &quot;see&quot; is real or imagined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you watch a movie, read a book or daydream, you &lt;em&gt;know&lt;/em&gt; of course that you are merely reading or watching a movie or daydreaming, but you &lt;em&gt;suspend&lt;/em&gt; that knowledge and allow the image that you create from that limited input to take up a large part of your thoughts. And like the image of the real world, this image created from text or moving pictures will of course trigger emotions. This image will be &quot;weaker&quot;, somewhat &quot;transparent&quot; (in the sense that you can still see the real world through it), so the emotions it causes are weaker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basis of the influence of media on you is your motivation. If you watch a movie with a critical eye, refusing to forget that what you see are paid actors that will take a shower and go home after shooting that scene, no image will form in your mind, you won't &quot;enter&quot; that fictional world, and you will feel nothing special, except maybe a numb back from sitting in the cinema for two hours. But if you &lt;em&gt;want&lt;/em&gt; to go to that wondrous place and &lt;em&gt;allow&lt;/em&gt; your imagination to be transported there, then your imagination will use the movie or book to create an image that cannot but affect you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The model of perception given above is the one most commonly held to be accurate by scientists and philosophers today. Max Velmans, from whose article I used an image to illustrate that model of perception, believes a different model, that of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_monism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reflexive monism&lt;/a&gt;, &quot;most closely follows the contours of ordinary experience, the findings of science, and common sense&quot;. Read the article linked to below, if you are interested in his views.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Velmans, M. (2008). Reflexive monism. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 15(2), 5-50. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/5730/1/reflexive_monism_final_version.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cogprints.org/5730/1/reflexive_monism_final_version.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I believe that this answer does not need any sources beyond the quoted image. All of the above follows logically from how our perception works, which, as it is taught in school, can be regarded as common knowledge.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-02-03T19:26:38.530" LastActivityDate="2014-02-03T19:26:38.530" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5618" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5385" CreationDate="2014-02-03T15:45:37.800" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well as such there is no definite set of rules that one can follow and achieve creativity. At the most they might inspire creativity in certain predefined situations after a lot of effort. BUT after all there is a method that can make a person creative. yes , make a person creative and not induce creativity. The methods I am talking about are taught under a programme called purushakar parakaram dhyan sadhna (search this page on facebook). The program consists of SCIENTIFIC techniques of meditation consisting of a simple process that takes less than  a 15 mins, to be done any time of the day, any posture, any place. While the meditation was not invented to make people creative as such but then creativity is certainly a byproduct. Let me know if you need more information on this technique. For learning this contact me on raj.bafna1704@gmail.com&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4330" LastEditorUserId="4330" LastEditDate="2014-03-01T19:42:58.973" LastActivityDate="2014-03-01T19:42:58.973" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5619" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5615" CreationDate="2014-02-03T17:18:37.667" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, consider that those questions can potentially be answered only in animals, like mice. There is no way to test such things in humans, because methods like fMRI give resolution of $\approx$1,000,000 neurons. In order to test your hypothesis, you need resolution below the neuronal level, because what your need to see is how the connections (&lt;em&gt;synapses&lt;/em&gt;) between neurons are established. Theoretically, you can train mice to run a maze. Then, with a microscope, one can count how many synapses were created. I think, to date, you cannot do this without killing the mice. If so, then you will take other mice and teach them to play piano :) So, the difference between change of connections might be your estimate. But you cannot know whether two tasks are equivalent, so you may end up comparing apples and tomatoes. Overall, the term &quot;memory&quot; is not something that is precisely defined on a biological level, like RAM or hard-drive capacity on a PC. There are prominent hypotheses about how memories are created (connections between neurons), but those are still hypotheses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might be interested to read this book; hopefully it is not too complicated without much background: &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0547508182&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Connectome: How the Brain's Wiring Makes Us Who We Are (Seung, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seung, S. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Connectome: How the brain's wiring makes us who we are&lt;/em&gt;. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4331" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-05T04:11:07.160" LastActivityDate="2014-02-05T04:11:07.160" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5621" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9943" CreationDate="2014-02-04T00:09:32.340" Score="3" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assume a certain sequence of N characters, displayed on a screen one by one, that should be memorized. The speed of the display is such that it doesn't produce much extra stress. You may assume that the test person might vary display speed within a reasonable range. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several ways to test memory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A multiple choice format that presents several control sequences.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A control sequence where you should point out differences from a given sequence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A control sequence, displayed character by character, and the opportunity to push a button as soon as you spot a difference.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Write down what you've memorized.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do these different ways of testing activate different parts of the brain? If so, where in the brain do these differences occur?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-03T11:20:37.887" LastActivityDate="2015-05-03T11:23:17.007" Title="Do different methods of testing memory for character sequences result in different brain activation?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5622" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-04T03:48:13.393" Score="3" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any way to explain veridical perception in near death experiences and out of body experiences, naturally? Or is it strong evidence that the mind is a soul?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4243" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-04T12:15:20.613" LastActivityDate="2014-02-04T22:06:36.070" Title="Is there any plausible answer for naturally explaining veridical perception in near death experiences?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5623" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5628" CreationDate="2014-02-04T10:29:16.667" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;My own experience was that my father and grandfather retold many puns as I was in my childhood and teens; at the time, I thought it was abysmal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I think they're the funniest things ever. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any evidence to suggest that telling puns to children makes them enjoy those puns when they are older?&lt;/strong&gt; I.e., are puns 'conditioned'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-05T01:51:37.510" LastActivityDate="2014-02-05T02:08:17.933" Title="Is there any evidence to suggest telling puns to a child makes them enjoy it when they are older?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5624" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5622" CreationDate="2014-02-04T20:16:34.480" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no evidence that &quot;the mind is a soul&quot;. This is what's known as the &quot;hard question of consciousness&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been some research conducted on &quot;out-of-body&quot; experiences. The only one I can remember offhand was a couple of years ago where words and numbers were placed on top of cabinets in operating theatres. The logic behind this was that if anyone genuinely had an out-of-body experience while under anaesthesia, they would be able to read, and later recall, these words and numbers. I hope I'm not misquoting the findings (I'm doing this from memory), but I seem to recall that they found no evidence whatsoever for these experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is far more likely that experiences prior to death are hallucinatory and caused by chemical changes, or degradation, of the brain. In a similar way, out of body experiences in an operating theatre are almost certainly the result of similar hallucinations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4287" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-04T22:06:36.070" LastActivityDate="2014-02-04T22:06:36.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5625" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-04T21:13:34.580" Score="10" ViewCount="1161" Body="&lt;p&gt;What makes something that we watch (a clown's antics, hidden camera pranks, etc.), hear (jokes), read (satire), or do (pranks) be perceived as funny?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even babies find certain actions and sounds funny, and they will laugh.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a common attribute in all of the above which triggers a canonical funny trigger? If so, what is it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-05T01:53:19.930" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T15:16:43.367" Title="How does our brain consider something to be funny?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5626" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5625" CreationDate="2014-02-05T01:40:16.540" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychological theories of humor are a growing area of research. I attended a seminar on it for a day as an undergraduate myself, but dropped it before giving the instructor a chance to demonstrate that there was much detailed knowledge out here. Also, this was several years ago, so I'm sure the field has progressed since then.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I doubt there is a single, common, canonical attribute that triggers the humor sense, but there are probably many, partially independent factors that each contribute to humorousness.&lt;/strong&gt; I'm familiar with four in particular&lt;sup&gt;$^{[1]}$&lt;/sup&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;&quot;funny because it's true&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; factor may explain why cleverness and originality are important. Myself and many others find stimuli funnier when we haven't encountered them before, and especially when they violate expectations. Novelty is an important factor in the experience of pleasure in general (&lt;a href=&quot;http://themythsofhappiness.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lyubomirsky, 2013&lt;/a&gt;), and this clearly applies in humor to some extent, in that jokes often &quot;get old&quot; eventually. At first hearing, a joke may offer more opportunity for new insights (depending on whether one &quot;gets it&quot; right away; this also explains why one generally won't laugh until one &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; get the joke), though it may continue to remain funny as one continues to process new insights gained from reconsideration of the joke's implications. I often find jokes less funny when they express misconceptions or depend on an ignorant perspective that I don't share (e.g., the suggestion that some apparent contradiction is absurd doesn't amuse me as much if I know the reason for the apparent contradiction already). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This isn't to say that something needs to be true or representative of reality in general to be funny though. Absurdist humor in particular relies on the violation of expectations in ways that seem coherent at least (i.e., it probably won't be funny if it's just too confusing or bizarre to make any kind of sense), but in ways that may seem particularly absurd (and probably novel too) due to violations of the laws or probabilities of physical or social reality. This principle suggests one reason tastes may vary in the sense of humor: individuals vary in their tolerance for expectation violations, and in their abilities to make sense out of them. Openness to experience relates to cultural preferences (e.g., traditional vs. avant-garde), level of educational attainment, and (negatively to) need for closure, which suggests a particular hypothesis of individual differences that may be worth testing: openness may relate positively to appreciation of absurdist humor, and negatively to appreciation of &quot;blue-collar&quot; comedy (at least when the latter appeals more to simple, traditional, or uneducated sensibilities, which it doesn't always).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;nervous laughter&lt;/strong&gt; factor may increase laughter as a sort of coping mechanism for social discomfort. This may partially explain the popularity of humor on taboo topics such as political incorrectness (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politically_Incorrect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Politically Incorrect&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;), demographic (e.g., gender, age, and ethnic) stereotypes, general immorality (e.g., &quot;dark humor&quot;), sex, and &quot;toilet humor&quot;. By nature of being taboos, experience with these topics and exposure to a variety of opinions on them are commonly limited, so this factor may depend partly on the novelty factor. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, nervous laughter does not involve novelty necessarily. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-perception&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-perceptive processes&lt;/a&gt; may produce the impression that something is funny because one is laughing, even when one is laughing for other reasons. Various social reasons may disincline people to express anxiety or discomfort directly (e.g., if a friend or comedian is obviously trying to amuse you with something distasteful), and forced laughter is a common and sometimes habituated way of hiding negative emotions through an opposite expression (a &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_formation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;reaction formation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;) of levity and enjoyment. This reasoning appeals to a somewhat circular theory of humor (i.e., our laughter defines humor as that which makes us laugh), but people use circular logic in many ways (e.g., early &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/behaviorism&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;behaviorism&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;behaviorism&lt;/a&gt; has been criticized as circular). Therefore, to whatever extent humor is a social construct by definition, theories of humor need not be less valid to the extent that they are circular and simply descriptive of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that relate to laughter. Over time and repeated exposure, people may come to commonly regard a topic as humorous simply because it provokes laughter, even if that laughter is only a nervous reaction initially.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A particularly loose line of reasoning that could tie nervousness to laughter would apply this explanation to the laughter reaction to tickling, which is a particularly odd unconditioned response (that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laughter_in_animals&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;seems to occur in animals too&lt;/a&gt;). Again, just a bit of personal speculation based on evolutionary theory, FWIW: in mammals, ticklish areas are often vulnerable to physical injury, and therefore sensitive. These areas seem to generate an odd sort of nervous discomfort reaction and motivate defensive movements reflexively, maybe to naturally prioritize protection of these areas from injury. Natural selection may have engendered such a reflex to extended this reaction even to sleep or intimate contact with trusted others (which could cause injury during aggressive play, sex, or by betrayal). Experience of this defensive reflex in action during seemingly inappropriate circumstances may generate laughter through surprise (thus involving the novelty factor again) or through reaction formation to nervous discomfort, among other possible explanations. For support of this explanation, note that the laughter response to tickling can be suppressed intentionally when the experience of tactile discomfort remains.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conformity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; may cause laughter and tickle the sense of humor in similar ways. Following the above reasoning somewhat, self-perceptive processes may kick in after one laughs to mimic others nearby. People conform to others' behavior for a wide variety of reasons, and in a wide variety of ways. This may explain why people sometimes enjoy stand-up comedy more when attending live performances than when watching them recorded from home, and why many television comedy shows use laugh tracks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One explanation of laugh tracks would again involve novelty somewhat. Subtlety in humor is often an expression and consequence of cleverness and originality in the delivery of a message, as by implication rather than explicit expression (comedians often try to avoid &quot;beating&quot; their audiences &quot;over the head&quot; with their punchlines). Yet again, one must notice and (often, but not always) comprehend a stimulus to find it funny. Thus a laugh track serves to cue the audience to parse stimuli for humorous content, and may help compensate for individuals' varying abilities to detect subtle stimuli or their implications. Cuing appropriate responses to ambiguous stimuli and situations is a common function of conformity in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conformity occurs even in the relative absence of ambiguity though (cf. the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Asch conformity experiments&lt;/a&gt;). This suggests another explanation of laugh tracks: a pure conformity manipulation aimed at manipulating humor judgments through self-perception. This explanation may apply more broadly to the commonly experienced social phenomenon of &quot;contagious&quot; laughing fits in groups, which some special groups capitalize upon (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.laughology.info/Laughology/LAUGHOLOGY_SCREENING_TOOLS.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Laughology&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://laughercize.com/Laughercize/Laughercize__How_it_works.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Laughercise&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;). Yet again, laughter may result in response to the novelty and seeming absurdity of such events as well.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, the social contagion of laughter and some instances of animal laughter suggest as an additional principle that laughter may arise as a simple behavioral manifestation of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_affectivity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive affect&lt;/a&gt; in general&lt;/strong&gt;. Joy and exuberance may naturally result in laughter as an exaggerated form of grinning. In this sense, &lt;strong&gt;intensity&lt;/strong&gt; of the stimulus becomes an important factor unto itself; consider how much harder one laughs at something especially hilarious. Next, consider the common emphasis on surprise as a comedic element, and the opposite effect of having to explain a joke. A sudden surprise may load all of the stimulus' information content into a briefer, more intense moment, thereby intensifying the emotional reaction. Conversely, spreading out that information over a long-winded explanation may spread out the emotional reaction so much that one no longer finds the joke funny for lack of emotional intensity, even though the same amount of information (and sometimes more) is ultimately conveyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because positive affect is generally desirable, and laughter is generally enjoyable, people may force laughter somewhat simply to enjoy themselves more, and this need not occur consciously. This implicit motive may lower people's thresholds for laughter (and thus the perception of humorousness) in situations where positive affect is generated by other factors, and maybe also in situations where positive affect is lacking (e.g., in the midst of sadness, frustration, or anxiety). Consider as (somewhat circumstantial) evidence how popular media such as movies often mix comedy and tragedy to accentuate each.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet &lt;em&gt;again&lt;/em&gt;, this effect may be partially mediated by the novelty factor if one is surprised at the depth of one's joy. The other social factors I've mentioned here might conceivably play mediating roles too. For instance, extreme joy might heighten emotional arousal past comfortable levels, leading to anxiety and nervous laughter; or one might force laughter to communicate a desire for levity or to manipulate one's social atmosphere through conformity-based mechanisms. This last point may apply especially to laughter as a direct coping mechanism for negative emotions: laughter may not only hide negative emotions, but may overwrite them somewhat with positive emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;$^{[1]}$ These theories don't necessarily apply to everyone (in light of the pervasiveness of individual differences in the ever-growing human population, one might argue they probably don't), but I'm unaware of exceptions. I'm not including any empirical research directly here, and would be happy to edit some in (or let others do so) if anyone else knows of some, but I'm short on time for reviewing literature right now. I'm answering mostly from personal experience and from memory of theories I've read here and there over the years, some of which may (or may not) have been based on empirical research.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lyubomirsky, S. (2013). &lt;em&gt;The myths of happiness: What should make you happy, but doesn't; What shouldn't make you happy, but does&lt;/em&gt;. The Penguin Press HC. Official website: &lt;a href=&quot;http://themythsofhappiness.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://themythsofhappiness.org/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-05T03:00:08.723" LastActivityDate="2014-02-05T03:00:08.723" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5627" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-05T01:45:25.040" Score="12" ViewCount="553" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently listened to a podcast, &lt;a href=&quot;https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/all-in-mind-program-podcast/id73330911?mt=2#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The music in your brain&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, in which &lt;a href=&quot;http://daniellevitin.com/publicpage/books/this-is-your-brain-on-music/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. Daniel Levitin&lt;/a&gt; suggests that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Soothing music can trigger release of oxytocin&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sad music triggers release of prolactin &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An unknown kind of music triggers release of dopamine.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This may be related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1882/is-there-psychoactive-music&quot;&gt;my previous question about &quot;psychoactive music&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there evidence to support the claim that music can trigger the release of specific neurotransmitters in the brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-09-14T20:46:43.713" Title="Is there evidence to suggest that music can trigger release of a particular kind of neurotransmitter?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5628" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5623" CreationDate="2014-02-05T02:08:17.933" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostalgia#As_a_comfort&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nostalgia for fond memories commonly produces positive emotion&lt;/a&gt; (for further review, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wildschut.me/Tim_Wildschut/home_files/emo-2012-05385-001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Chen, &amp;amp; Vingerhoets, 2012&lt;/a&gt;). As for the increase in your appreciation of these particular puns, I've mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5626/4086&quot;&gt;a very recent answer of mine to another very recent question about humor&lt;/a&gt; that positive emotion alone may encourage the sense that something is funny. Depending on the nature of the particular puns, they might also appeal to a certain sense of humor you've had to develop with age and experience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;This last point is just conditional speculation though; I also admit that the article I've cited doesn't pertain to humor directly, and I can't provide more direct evidence of the sort your question requests offhand. I hope someone else can!&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zhou, X., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Chen, X., &amp;amp; Vingerhoets, A. J. (2012). Heartwarming memories: Nostalgia maintains physiological comfort. &lt;em&gt;Emotion, 12&lt;/em&gt;(4), 678–685. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wildschut.me/Tim_Wildschut/home_files/emo-2012-05385-001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.wildschut.me/Tim_Wildschut/home_files/emo-2012-05385-001.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-02-05T02:08:17.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5629" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5598" CreationDate="2014-02-05T02:58:10.423" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, let me start by saying your topic is extremely broad.  There are many reasons why something may be difficult to learn.  However, the exact &quot;difficulty associated with learning something&quot; is known by many different terms in the scientific literature, and in particular, I have found &lt;em&gt;cognitive load theory&lt;/em&gt; to be a particularly useful description of this.  According to Sweller, Cognitive Load falls into three distinct domains:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Intrinsic cognitive load&lt;/em&gt; is that difficulty that is associated with the material itself, independent of the learner.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Extraneous cognitive load&lt;/em&gt; is associated with the instructional methods or materials (poor instructional techniques increase this load).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Germane cognitive load&lt;/em&gt; is load that the learner requires to create associations and connections among the concepts, and depends on the learner's knowledge base.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic premise is that subjects are difficult to learn if they require a great number of connections to be formed (a mental model or schema).  The greater the connections required, the greater the difficulty.  Complicating this, certain topics are inherently difficult, such as mathematical computation and critical thinking, and learners bring their own pre-conceived mental notions to the table.  Cognitive Load theory attempts to provide a framework for thinking about the interactions between these variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have studied the difficulty with teaching/learning engineering subjects, such as statistics, variability, critical thinking, etc. using controlled experiments that attempt to hone in on the second and third aspects of CLT. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pro.sagepub.com/content/56/1/2507.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here is a link to a conference proceeding&lt;/a&gt; that I published on the subject; I have another paper in-work that I can't share until it is published- but so far, my results very much support CLT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interest can be a factor, because attention given to a learning subject will take away from the students' ability to process other cognitive loads. Likewise, anxiety can also be a factor.  Lots of research left to do in this field if you ask me, though - so expect these theories to develop substantially in the next 10-20 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastEditorUserId="2937" LastEditDate="2014-02-05T03:16:53.557" LastActivityDate="2014-02-05T03:16:53.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5630" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5598" CreationDate="2014-02-05T03:59:36.850" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;@JeromyAnglim's &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/1582/4086&quot;&gt;answer to your linked question&lt;/a&gt; says most of what I'd have wanted to say in response to your original (title) question. Difficulty of any given question in terms of item response theory is generally defined as the probability of answering it correctly at a given level of a (often latent) relevant skill. This definition of difficulty can be applied to an aggregate of questions as well (e.g., the probability of getting an &quot;A&quot; as one's final grade in a math class).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mathematics may have a reputation for being a relatively &quot;hard&quot; subject because it relies more directly on quantitative, spatial, and logical reasoning than on verbal, social, or emotional reasoning. This may not be the case for many other subjects. These kinds of reasoning and the aptitudes associated with them aren't completely independent, but they are somewhat independent (i.e., intelligence as a whole is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_intelligences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;partly &lt;em&gt;multidimensional&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, though the extent to which this is true is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_intelligences#Critical_reception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;debated hotly&lt;/a&gt;), and may certainly be practiced somewhat independently. The latter set of reasoning skills (those not-so-relevant to math) may be practiced more frequently in everyday experience, especially during adolescence, and to a probably lesser extent, youth in general. Furthermore, those with special strengths in verbal, social, or emotional reasoning (and without corresponding strengths in math-relevant aptitudes, however rare that may be) may have more influence over the reputation of the subject. Thus the popular reputation may disproportionately reflect the opinions of those who are used to feeling stronger in other subjects, even though they may still be relatively strong in math as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A second major factor in both willingness to learn and the experience of interest is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype_threat&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;stereotype threat&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. This is one of probably many causes of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_anxiety&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;academic anxiety&lt;/a&gt; in topics such as math—in fact, stereotype threat in math may be one of the most commonly &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype_threat#More_empirical_studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;studied varieties of the general social phenomenon&lt;/a&gt;. This may be due to Western society's many demographic stereotypes and prejudices with respect to quantitative reasoning, most notably ethnicity and gender. Stereotype threat research describes &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype_threat#Mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a complex process&lt;/a&gt; beginning with incidental membership in a group with a relevant stereotype. When stereotyped individuals are aware of a negative stereotype (e.g., their group is bad at math), they often fear that they will confirm the stereotype through their behaviors (e.g., earning a bad grade in math). This fear interferes with performance in often already high-pressure testing environments, often making the feared outcomes harder to avoid (an example of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;self-fulfilling prophecy&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;). Fear also reduces the capacity to enjoy the challenge of a test or other learning opportunity; enjoyment and self-confidence are crucial to the experience of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;intrinsic motivation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Loss of interest and motivation, especially when due to fear, may often motivate use of cognitive coping mechanisms in defense of one's ego. One such mechanism is disparagement of the source of anxiety. In the all-too-common case of a person who experiences stereotype threat regarding his or (more likely) her mathematical ability, one may choose (not necessarily consciously) to see mathematics classes as inherently uninteresting, unfair, and difficult, even though none of these are necessarily true (for instance, imagine taking a middle school math class at your age). Naturally, one who believes these things is more likely to voice these things, particularly in as much as doing so may afford opportunities for ego compensation, or may be necessary to further offset others' negative judgments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stereotype threat theory has received &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype_threat#Criticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some pretty serious criticism via empirical study&lt;/a&gt; (e.g., it's not the only cause of differences; &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.asc.upenn.edu/usr/ogandy/C45405%20resources/Sackett%20et%20al%20stereotype%20threat.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sackett, Hardison, &amp;amp; Cullen, 2004&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;. Nonetheless, it seems to have survived the test of meta-analysis reasonably well &lt;sup&gt;(Nadler &amp;amp; Clark, 2011)&lt;/sup&gt;. These analyses have revealed several moderators, including strength of identification with mathematics among women &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/23489223_Does_stereotype_threat_affect_test_performance_of_minorities_and_women_A_meta-analysis_of_experimental_evidence/file/60b7d51a8da2aeacb0.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nguyen &amp;amp; Ryan, 2008&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Nadler, J. T., &amp;amp; Clark, M. H. (2011). Stereotype threat: A meta‐analysis comparing African Americans to Hispanic Americans. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41&lt;/em&gt;(4), 872–890.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Nguyen, H. H. D., &amp;amp; Ryan, A. M. (2008). Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Applied Psychology, 93&lt;/em&gt;(6), 1314–1334. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/23489223_Does_stereotype_threat_affect_test_performance_of_minorities_and_women_A_meta-analysis_of_experimental_evidence/file/60b7d51a8da2aeacb0.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/23489223_Does_stereotype_threat_affect_test_performance_of_minorities_and_women_A_meta-analysis_of_experimental_evidence/file/60b7d51a8da2aeacb0.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Sackett, P. R., Hardison, C. M., &amp;amp; Cullen, M. J. (2004). On interpreting stereotype threat as accounting for African American-White differences on cognitive tests. &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist, 59&lt;/em&gt;(1), 7–13. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.asc.upenn.edu/usr/ogandy/C45405%20resources/Sackett%20et%20al%20stereotype%20threat.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.asc.upenn.edu/usr/ogandy/C45405%20resources/Sackett%20et%20al%20stereotype%20threat.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T21:16:52.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5631" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5633" CreationDate="2014-02-05T07:30:02.853" Score="4" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was an interesting discussion &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/50259/why-do-washing-machines-have-windows&quot;&gt;on UX.StackExchange related to washing machines and their front windows&lt;/a&gt;. I was very surprised that it took me like 2 minutes or so to figure out why the washing machine has a window, but most of the answers or comments (including those with many votes) don't express the real reason, which would be similar to this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For front-loaders without viewing windows on the door, it is possible&#xA;  to accidentally pinch fabric between the door and the drum, resulting&#xA;  in tearing and damage to the pinched clothing during tumbling and&#xA;  spinning. - &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machine#Front-loading&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;: Does a more ergonomic and user friendly interface make the human brain work less, or less intensive, so it can not see the initial purpose of an improvement made in a system or on one of its elements?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4343" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:32:22.230" LastActivityDate="2014-02-07T02:43:51.840" Title="Does a more ergonomic and user friendly interface/device make the human brain work less?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5632" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5711" CreationDate="2014-02-05T08:40:45.020" Score="8" ViewCount="874" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read a book a while ago called &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B000QCTNIW&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Brain that Changes Itself&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Norman Doidge (2007), and it brought to my attention a machine known as a transcranial magnetic stimulator (TMS) which can noninvasively excite neurons in someone's brain. Doidge mentioned an experiment that used TMS to excite the neurons in patients' pleasure centers, which caused them so much enjoyment that some actually begged the researchers to do it again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have also learned about PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder) and how it happens when overly excited neurons are firing, creating a strong memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What if the TMS was made to excite the part of the brain that stores memory (the amygdala I believe) in a fashion similar to PTSD's inadvertently created states, and during the hyper-excited state, the subject was given accurate information to memorize? I specify &quot;accurate&quot; because whatever would be learned or observed in this state would be powerfully etched into memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not a neuroscientist, so please give answers in layman's terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if it is possible, what the mechanism would be that would allow us to experience improved learning and what the possible side effects would be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Doidge, N. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B000QCTNIW&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The brain that changes itself: Stories of personal triumph from the frontiers of brain science.&lt;/a&gt;  Official website: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.normandoidge.com/normandoidge.com/MAIN.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.normandoidge.com/normandoidge.com/MAIN.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4189" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-06-06T01:25:40.653" LastActivityDate="2018-06-06T01:25:40.653" Title="Can learning be facilitated by transcranial magnetic stimulation?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;&lt;cognitive-enhancement&gt;&lt;tms&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5633" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5631" CreationDate="2014-02-05T14:31:36.593" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9241&quot;&gt;ISO 9241&lt;/a&gt;, a standard covering ergonomics of human-computer interaction, defines in its subsection 9241-110, &quot;Dialogue Principles&quot;, that the interface in information systems should be (among other things):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;suitable for the task&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;facilitate learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;conform with user expectations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;describe its own purpose and functioning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could translate all this to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Don't make the user think too hard about what he has to do&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shneiderman, in his &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.washington.edu/jtenenbg/courses/360/f04/sessions/schneidermanGoldenRules.html&quot;&gt;Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and Nielsen in his &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nngroup.com/articles/ten-usability-heuristics/&quot;&gt;10 Usability Heuristics of User Interface Design&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (also on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_evaluation#Nielsen.27s_heuristics&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;), make this even more explicit:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shneiderman, Rule 8: Reduce short-term memory load&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nielsen, Heuristic 6: Recognition rather than recall&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reducing cognitive load is part of the industry definition of usability. By that definition a usable product &quot;makes the human brain work less&quot;.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ISO 9241-110:2006 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=38009&quot;&gt;http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=38009&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nielsen, J. (1994). Heuristic evaluation. In J. Nielsen &amp;amp; R. L. Mack (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Usability Inspection Methods&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 25-64). New York: Wiley.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shneiderman, B., &amp;amp; Plaisant, C. (2010). &lt;em&gt;Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction&lt;/em&gt; (5th ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-02-05T14:47:43.410" LastActivityDate="2014-02-05T14:47:43.410" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5634" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5637" CreationDate="2014-02-05T14:34:09.023" Score="10" ViewCount="3533" Body="&lt;p&gt;While going through the below-mentioned paper, I came across some plots which were said to be &quot;locked&quot; with reference to either &lt;em&gt;response&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;stimulus&lt;/em&gt;. Does the locking refer to the initiation of the measurement with starting cue being the presentation of the stimulus or the response of the subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Philiastides, M. G., &amp;amp; Sajda, P. (2006). Neural Representation of Task Difficulty and Decision Making during Perceptual Categorization: A Timing Diagram&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4320" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-08T05:16:45.377" LastActivityDate="2018-10-17T08:34:39.673" Title="What are “Stimulus locked” and “Response locked” in Philiastides &amp; Sajda (2006)" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5635" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5638" CreationDate="2014-02-05T15:21:15.603" Score="4" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;Muscles, if you don't use them, degenerate. Everyone who has had a broken leg in a cast for a few weeks and then seen the thin stick that reemerged once the cast was removed, can attest to that fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But does the same happen to the brain? Does mental ability or brain matter atrophy, if life is to easy for us because all the products we use are so highly usable that we don't have to think anymore?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4343" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-09T02:23:44.627" LastActivityDate="2014-02-09T02:23:44.627" Title="Can reduced cognitive load lead to some kind of mental or physical &quot;atrophy&quot;?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5636" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-05T15:40:05.643" Score="1" ViewCount="437" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the output of neurometric function the output of the pattern classifier i.e &#xA;is it calculated from processing the imaging data of brain as a prediction of what choice was made through psychometric function? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What confuses me is whether neurometric function is a &lt;em&gt;neural response&lt;/em&gt; to &lt;em&gt;pattern classifier response&lt;/em&gt; process or it is a process leading to conversion of &lt;em&gt;visual stimuli&lt;/em&gt; to &lt;em&gt;neural response&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4320" LastEditorUserId="4320" LastEditDate="2014-02-06T04:52:27.640" LastActivityDate="2014-02-09T05:19:09.373" Title="What is a neurometric function?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-04-28T14:52:00.320" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5634" CreationDate="2014-02-05T18:46:49.570" Score="12" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does the locking refer to the initiation of the measurement with&#xA;  starting cue being being the presentation of stimulus or the response&#xA;  of the subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More or less, yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When measuring brain activity, you usually make a long, continuous recording during which you expose your study participants to a task over and over again. There's a lot of noise in the recordings, so you need to average over many instances of a stimulus/task event to get an idea of what it does to the brain. To average, you need to cut the recording into trials (also called epochs). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You need to decide what to base these epochs on, i.e. what to cut around. Stimulus-locked measurements happen when you cut an epoch relative to the stimulus onset. The average over all trials will then give you a good impression of the sensory response to the stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are some higher order cognitive processes going on as well, and they will happen at different speeds over trials and over different subjects, so they will smear out in the average. If you want to look at these, it's wiser to do response-locked measurements, i.e. to cut the epochs around the moment that the study participant responded to the task.  This way, just prior to the button press (in the plot), you might get to see some evidence-accumulation or similar cognitive process going on. You can also see the motor response very well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2014-02-05T18:46:49.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5638" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5635" CreationDate="2014-02-05T20:47:59.383" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming you're getting at a related idea to your other recent question (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5631/4086&quot;&gt;Does a more ergonomic and user friendly interface/device make the human brain work less?&lt;/a&gt;), I wouldn't worry about user friendliness causing mental atrophy by precluding the need for thought. Thought continues well beyond matters of control to matters of application and optimization. (E.g., can I use my washing machine on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AstroTurf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;AstroTurf&lt;/a&gt;? How much high-efficiency detergent do I really need? &lt;a href=&quot;http://askville.amazon.com/regular-detergent-high-efficiency-washing-machine/AnswerViewer.do?requestId=8457912&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Can I still use the old stuff?&lt;/a&gt;) When systems work particularly well together, entirely new areas of thought may emerge (e.g., the Industrial Revolution and the Italian Renaissance depended largely on the stability and prosperity of their host societies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the &quot;use-it-or-lose-it&quot; principle may apply to specific skills and even general abilities and physical senses to some extent. Secondary language proficiency is one such popularly recognized example. I'd also recommend checking out the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pbs.org/saf/1101/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scientific American Frontiers miniseries, &lt;em&gt;Changing Your Mind&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (some episodes are available on YouTube). One particular episode with which I'm familiar features a research participant wearing a blindfold for a long period of time, during or after which a neuroimaging method (probably fMRI, but I can't quite remember) shows activity in her visual cortex when she's processing tactile stimuli. These sort of repurposing processes probably occur naturally throughout neurological development, especially in youth when &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroplasticity&lt;/a&gt; is greatest. AFAIK, neurological models of learning and development in general describe a lot of processes involving pruning of unused connections and reinforcement of frequently used connections. Others here probably know a lot more about these topics than I do, but it seems clear enough even to me that to some extent, atrophy is a natural and even adaptive part of the learning process. Even without referring to neurological substrates, one can argue that learning often involves the process of elimination, so the atrophy of ideas representing eliminated possibilities (e.g., the world is flat?) is desirable in some ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, not all atrophy is desirable, and not all results in adaptive repurposing of the relevant brain structures. My former doctoral advisor once told me a particularly disturbing story about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand_of_Austria#Trials_and_punishment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;punishment of one of the assassins of Archduke Franz Ferdinand&lt;/a&gt;, whose death played a role in sparking the first World War. I've looked into it a bit since, and suspect the story is apocryphal, but it's interesting nonetheless. Supposedly the assassin was locked away in a completely dark cell for so long that he went blind. If, as I suspect, this is mere apocrypha, I don't know whether this can happen in general, but the loss of vision in subterranean species of fish, lizards, and insects is well-documented in evolutionary theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-02-05T20:47:59.383" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5639" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-05T21:01:42.793" Score="2" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just read that in a survey on legalizing abortions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Responses depended strongly on the question wording. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I have also seen cases where question wording is largely irrelevant. As long as there are no intentional &quot;leading&quot; phrases or general errors like ambiguity, respondents are likely to respond in a similar manner to questions with a similar content. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My hunch, based on personal experience in non-survey contexts, would be that in issues where people have already formed strong attitudes on the topic, a wording which is congruent with existing attitudes will elicit more agreement, and a wording which implies disagreement will elicit more disagreement. But in cases where people don't already have attitudes, the question wording won't be that important. But this is really just a hunch, I have never seen data on that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a good scientific overview on the factors which determine the relationship between the question topic, the respondent (whether his attitudes or other characteristics), and the likelihood that a difference in question wording will cause a difference in response? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="723" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-05T23:10:08.423" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T21:22:45.103" Title="In measuring preferences, is the magnitude of the question wording effect topic-dependent?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5640" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5652" CreationDate="2014-02-05T21:45:42.247" Score="3" ViewCount="168" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently installed a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_reading&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;speed reader&lt;/a&gt; on my tablet. Now I wonder how the minimal time needed to read an $N$-letter word grows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was this previous question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1147/how-long-does-it-take-to-read-x-number-of-characters&quot;&gt;the relationship between sentence length and reading time.&lt;/a&gt; However, I'm particularly interested in the relationship between word length and reading specific words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does the time required to read an $N$-letter word grow linearly?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T12:51:14.737" Title="Does the time required to read a word grow linearly with the number of characters?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5641" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5610" CreationDate="2014-02-05T23:04:11.613" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a primary subject of study in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;game studies&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;em&gt;ludology&lt;/em&gt;, which are domains of theory and research unto themselves. Moreover, the question as it pertains to games might be interesting to ask over on &lt;a href=&quot;http://gaming.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Arqade&lt;/a&gt;, though I can't guarantee it would be &quot;on topic&quot; enough for their community. You might find the following questions from Arqade interesting, as they hint at some general principles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://gaming.stackexchange.com/q/1372/65954&quot;&gt;Techniques to deal with game 'addiction'&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://gaming.stackexchange.com/q/14625/65954&quot;&gt;How do I limit my gaming?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Problems I've seen mentioned in answers to these (to which I relate personally as a gamer) include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The ability to continue playing for a longer time than one can engage in other activities&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Costs of quitting freely and abruptly, such as loss of progress or satisfaction from proximal goals&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Proximity of goals in general, and immediacy of gratification&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social involvement and its time sensitivity: teamwork requires coordination with friends' schedules&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Availability of games on a PC: even when I go to work, I inadvertently bring games with me!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, the existence of consequent problems in general is an important part of what motivates the use of the negatively connoting word, &quot;addiction&quot;. Practically anything can be done to excess of course, but drawing and playing sports may have higher thresholds of activity before they become counterproductive overall. At high levels of activity and skill, drawing and sports become marketable trade skills, and athletic activity generally promotes health. Gaming has less obvious benefits too (see for review &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youngandwellcrc.org.au/document/ea0e9511fce02b8be23990_07ef7fc4c7/Videogames_and_Wellbeing.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johnson, Jones, Scholes, &amp;amp; Carras, 2013&lt;/a&gt;), but popular culture and research literature are both still catching up with this, as well as to the revelation that many of the supposed problems with gaming aren't so bad after all (e.g., aggression; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.christopherjferguson.com/Not%20Worth%20the%20Fuss.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ferguson, Garza, Jerabeck, Ramos, &amp;amp; Galindo, 2013&lt;/a&gt;). Therefore, I wouldn't read too much into popular (mis-)usage of &quot;addiction&quot; in this case. That's also not to say that true gaming addiction doesn't exist; I don't honestly know, but I've heard of cases that seemingly ought to justify application of addiction models to game obsessions, so it may just be a matter of time before the DSM takes note. (If it hasn't already; again, I don't know, and wish I had more time to look into it!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, considering what makes games fun might lead to some insights as to why they produce fanatics. Whether video games really produce more than these other hobbies is an empirical question that I haven't seen answered yet, but my intuition suggests you're probably right to think they do, because video games appeal to people on very many levels. Again, you might have a hard time finding articles on game studies that don't address ways to appeal to people and reinforce participation. By virtue of being designed expressly to entertain us and reinforce participation, video games represent a culmination of creative efforts and marketing experiences that probably should supersede less modern forms of entertainment and hobbies with other focal purposes, at least to the extent that game designers are good at what they do. They've been getting better with the advent of affordable, portable, high-powered computers designed to optimize the user interface; the advent of education in programming and game design; and the economic prosperity of game designing and publishing companies. Drawing, sports, and board games are more often (but not always) tied to simpler mechanisms and traditional designs, so it may make sense if these pastimes haven't been keeping up with those that capitalize directly on modern trends in technological and educational progress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since there's enough literature out there on game studies to keep anyone busy, I'll only list a subset of specific ways that video games appeal to players that relate to psychological theories of motivation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Enjoyment is what &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intrinsic motivation&lt;/a&gt; is made of. Producing enjoyment is a primary purpose.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Extrinsic motivation also arises from the structure of requirements games impose upon players seeking their more intrinsically desirable rewards (e.g., you have to beat a boss before you get to watch a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_motion_video&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;FMV&lt;/a&gt;, or &quot;grind&quot; to a higher level before you can use a spectacular new ability or exciting game mechanism)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scalable difficulty improves users' ability to optimize challenge, which leads to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29#Gaming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;flow experience in gaming&lt;/a&gt; when challenge is tuned just so to an individual's &quot;Goldilocks zone&quot;: not too high or low.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social interaction is facilitated by multiplayer games in a variety of ways.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cooperation satisfies the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_affiliation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;need for affiliation&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory#Relatedness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;relatedness&lt;/a&gt;, and promotes self-transcendence. Game objectives that require teamwork also play upon &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory#Extrinsic_motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;introjected motivation&lt;/a&gt; when a person plays to avoid the guilt of letting down a teammate. Social support has widely documented ramifications for well-being.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Competition satisfies the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_power&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;need for power&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory#Competence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;competence&lt;/a&gt; when it goes well for a player or promotes skill acquisition and refinement.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Both kinds may satisfy the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_achievement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;need for achievement&lt;/a&gt;, especially when one can show off to others! The promise of approval or respect from others is another form of extrinsic motivation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Variety in general is the &quot;spice of life&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2835153/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barrett, 2009&lt;/a&gt;; Kahn &amp;amp; Isen, 1993), and is readily available across the broad range of games.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Investment in goals with long time frames may promote well-being and intrinsic motivation. &#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;My own research (&lt;a href=&quot;http://escholarship.org/uc/item/3t34c68w&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stauner, 2013&lt;/a&gt;) demonstrates a weak, predictive relationship between the average time frame of students' goals (longer-term goals being rated higher) and change in well-being over an academic quarter $(\beta=.09, t_{(267)}=2.61,p=.009)$, though this isn't necessarily a causal relationship.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Manderlink and Harackiewicz (1984) also claim that setting long-term goals can &quot;enhance subsequent intrinsic motivation relative to conditions involving proximal goals or no goals.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Video games have surely been extending the time frames of their players' goals. In my own adolescence, I recall finding an RPG that required 60 hours to complete exceptional. Newer games—especially &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_role-playing_game&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MMORPGs&lt;/a&gt;—have increasingly adopted an expand-and-patch strategy to keep new content flowing for years of (potentially endless!) goal pursuit. Blizzard Entertainment's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_of_Warcraft&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;World of Warcraft&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a prime example of a game universe that's taken on a life of its own since its release in late 2004; I've &quot;met&quot; some players who have been around since then myself.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Long-term involvement in any goal or activity increases its relevance to a person's sense of identity, and may thereby affect the sense that the goal or activity is meaningful and important (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory#Extrinsic_motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;identified motivation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Behavioral economic principles like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunk_costs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sunk costs&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;escalation of commitment&lt;/a&gt; also explain why people have a harder time stopping a longer-term habit.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neurological bases of &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/habituation&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;habituation&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;habituation&lt;/a&gt; are also an ongoing area of research that longer-term involvement and routinization would naturally make increasingly relevant regardless of initial motives.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barrett, L. F. (2009). Variety is the spice of life: A psychological construction approach to understanding variability in emotion. &lt;em&gt;Cognition and Emotion, 23&lt;/em&gt;(7), 1284–1306. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2835153/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2835153/&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved February 5, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ferguson, C. J., Garza, A., Jerabeck, J., Ramos, R., &amp;amp; Galindo, M. (2013). Not worth the fuss after all? Cross-sectional and prospective data on violent video game influences on aggression, visuospatial cognition and mathematics ability in a sample of youth. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42&lt;/em&gt;(1), 109–122. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.christopherjferguson.com/Not%20Worth%20the%20Fuss.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.christopherjferguson.com/Not%20Worth%20the%20Fuss.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved February 5, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Johnson, D., Jones, C., Scholes, L., &amp;amp; Colder Carras, M. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Video games and wellbeing: A comprehensive review&lt;/em&gt;. Sydney: Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youngandwellcrc.org.au/document/ea0e9511fce02b8be23990_07ef7fc4c7/Videogames_and_Wellbeing.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.youngandwellcrc.org.au/document/ea0e9511fce02b8be23990_07ef7fc4c7/Videogames_and_Wellbeing.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved February 4, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kahn, B. E., &amp;amp; Isen, A. M. (1993). The influence of positive affect on variety seeking among safe, enjoyable products. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consumer Research, 20&lt;/em&gt;(2), 257–270.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Manderlink, G., &amp;amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (1984). Proximal versus distal goal setting and intrinsic motivation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47&lt;/em&gt;(4), 918–928.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stauner, N. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Personal goal attainment, psychological well-being change, and meaning in life.&lt;/em&gt; (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Riverside). Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://escholarship.org/uc/item/3t34c68w&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://escholarship.org/uc/item/3t34c68w&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:10:06.373" LastActivityDate="2014-02-05T23:04:11.613" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5642" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5661" CreationDate="2014-02-05T23:15:58.463" Score="8" ViewCount="970" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm wondering if there is a scientific term that describes when you fall asleep or pass out after some traumatic event?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This effect happens when people witness something gruesome (a friend being killed, for instance), have some major upheaval in their life, or experience some other trauma (eg. a bad breakup, losing a job, etc.). When the mind can't cope it simply shuts off and they fall asleep or pass out. A decent example I just though of can be seen in the first Matrix movie (not the first place I would have thought of to look for an example) when Neo finds out about the matrix and promptly vomits and passes out for a few hours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest term I'm aware of is a dissociative fugue or fugue state, though I'm unsure if that's related (possibly it's simply a more extreme version of the effect I tried to describe above).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4349" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-02-06T04:01:10.887" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T01:44:25.853" Title="Is there a scientific term for when you fall asleep because you can't handle something?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5643" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5648" CreationDate="2014-02-06T01:32:04.173" Score="19" ViewCount="1239" Body="&lt;p&gt;Parables, fables, myths, whatever you might call them, stories have always been part of human consciousness. Within recent decades, storytelling is recognized as a big component of advertising and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.com/andy-smith/the-seven-deadly-sins-of-_b_4564178.html&quot;&gt;marketing&lt;/a&gt;. Stories can capture our attention, motivate us, and make us feel. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any scientific research which provides an explanation as to why humans are so cognitively responsive to stories?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3751" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-24T19:19:16.313" LastActivityDate="2014-06-26T20:12:51.877" Title="Why is storytelling an effective way to transmit information between people?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;neuromarketing&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5644" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5643" CreationDate="2014-02-06T02:18:24.087" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that when a human being listen to a story then listener get some sympathy or emotional attraction towards some character and as you said that it motivates us, stories motivate us because we thing that we are equivalent to some character and we try ourselves to become like that or to achieve what the character have achieved. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You even said that stories capture our attention, in this case I am not with you.&#xA;Take an example, you yourself will not like(not being in attention) because you have some categories(like- love stories, horror, adventure etc.) let say that you like horror stories then I am sure that you can not give the same attention to stories other than horror.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This just the role of genes that decide the mood, likes, dislikes etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will like to know that you pay more attention in watching a horror movies than any other movie. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4229" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T02:18:24.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5646" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5639" CreationDate="2014-02-06T04:25:08.490" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Self-report methodology was one of my qualifying exam topics as a doctoral student of social and personality psychology, so I've got a ton of references to offer, but I confess I haven't read most of them very thoroughly (if at all), and I've forgotten where exactly I've read some of this. It's really a very broad topic as well, so I won't list most I know of that might be relevant here, but I can probably offer more on specific subtopics per request. &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Very many relationships exist between respondent characteristics and response biases that depend on survey design. It would be practically unimaginable if topic-in-question weren't a moderating factor for some of them. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_desirability_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Social desirability&lt;/a&gt; in particular is a form of bias that depends heavily on survey design, participant characteristics, and topic of study. Wikipedia offers a pretty good intro-level summary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The tendency poses a serious problem with conducting research with &lt;strong&gt;self-reports, especially questionnaires&lt;/strong&gt;. This bias interferes with the interpretation of average tendencies as well as individual differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Topics&lt;/strong&gt; where socially desirable responding (SDR) is of special concern are self-reports of &lt;strong&gt;abilities, personality, sexual behavior, and drug use&lt;/strong&gt;. When confronted with the question &quot;How often do you masturbate?&quot;, for example, respondents may be pressured by the societal taboo against masturbation, and either under-report the frequency or avoid answering the question. Therefore the mean rates of masturbation derived from self-report surveys are likely to be severe underestimates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When confronted with the question, &quot;Do you use drugs/&lt;strong&gt;illicit&lt;/strong&gt; substances?&quot; the respondent may be influenced by the fact that controlled substances, including the more commonly used marijuana, are generally &lt;strong&gt;illegal&lt;/strong&gt;. Respondents may feel pressured to deny any drug use or rationalize it, e.g., &quot;I only smoke marijuana when my friends are around.&quot; The bias can also influence reports of &lt;strong&gt;number of sexual partners&lt;/strong&gt;. In fact, the &lt;strong&gt;bias may operate in opposite directions for different subgroups&lt;/strong&gt;: Whereas men tend to inflate the numbers, women tend to underestimate theirs. In either case, the mean reports from both groups are likely to be distorted by social desirability bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Other topics that are sensitive to social desirability bias:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Personal income and earnings, often inflated when low and deflated when high.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Feelings of low self-worth and/or powerlessness, often denied.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Excretory functions, often approached uncomfortably, if discussed at all.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Compliance with medicinal dosing schedules, often inflated.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Religion, often either avoided or uncomfortably approached.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Patriotism, either inflated or, if denied, done so with a fear of other party's judgement.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Bigotry and intolerance, often denied, even if it exists within the responder.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Intellectual achievements, often inflated.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Physical appearance, either inflated or deflated&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Acts of real or imagined physical violence, often denied.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Indicators of charity or &quot;benevolence,&quot; often inflated.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Illegal acts, often denied.&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;[Emphasis added.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An arguable exception to the second-to-last appears in Smith (1987): people respond less generously and more negatively to &quot;welfare&quot; than &quot;poor&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia mentions one of many measures of socially desirable responding, but notes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The major concern with SDR scales is that they confound style with content. After all, people actually differ in the degree to which they possess desirable traits (e.g., nuns versus criminals).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another concern is the potential multidimensionality of social desirability bias. Some arises in consciously deceptive responding; another kind arises from unconscious self-deception. These extent of each of these kinds of social desirability bias may depend differently on individual differences in respondents and question topic and wording.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia also gives a brief overview of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_desirability_bias#Other_response_styles&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;other response styles&lt;/a&gt;, including extreme response style, which relates to demographic (Song, 2007) and personality (Hamilton, 1968) factors. An opposite sort of style, the tendency toward neutral / &quot;don't know&quot; responses may be caused by personal uncertainty, item difficulty, or the sensitivity of the topic (Coombs &amp;amp; Coombs, 1976), so this seems to be a pretty complete example of a kind of bias that depends on all three factors. Another one of these response styles, acquiescence (and vice versa), is a somewhat interesting personality variable unto itself (Couch &amp;amp; Keniston, 1960); its influence can be limited by avoiding the &quot;agree vs. disagree&quot; format, but this may be harder in attitude research than in some other topics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below this, Wikipedia mentions that anonymity, confidentiality, and neutralized administration can reduce social desirability bias, so in this sense, contextual factors outside the question itself can affect biasing, especially where the judgment of others (e.g., parents, peers, employers, law enforcement) is of concern (e.g., children of authoritarian parents, friends of judgmental people, job applicants facing personality tests, parolees and prior convicts).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A particularly good review article I have on hand (&lt;a href=&quot;https://edit.ethz.ch/oat/education/material/material_06_07/material_empirical_methods_06_07/American_Psychologist_Self-Reports.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schwarz, 1999&lt;/a&gt;) discusses issues of &quot;question wording, format, and context,&quot; including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ambiguity, obscurity, and wordiness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Open-ended responding (see also Geer, 1988) vs. frequency reporting and item rating&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Topical subjectivity, demand for expertise, and time-dependence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As this article is a review itself, you can also find plenty of other references through it. Another review article that might interest others here relates survey measurement issues to cognitive issues like memory, comprehension, and schema priming (Jobe &amp;amp; Mingay, 1991), each of which I could easily see being more or less relevant in certain contexts and for certain people in ways that would depend on how a question is worded. Again, another huge reference section to be mined for more specifics there too. Yet another review (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apologeticsinthechurch.com/uploads/7/4/5/6/7456646/nisbettwilson.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nisbett &amp;amp; Wilson, 1977&lt;/a&gt;) pertains specifically to error (not necessarily systematic bias) in self-reported information about mental processes due to limited self-awareness / insight and the influence of prior theories or plausibility judgments. Good stuff to bring up here, if I do say so myself!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coombs, C. H., &amp;amp; Coombs, L. C. (1976). “Don't Know” Item Ambiguity or Respondent Uncertainty?. &lt;em&gt;Public Opinion Quarterly, 40&lt;/em&gt;(4), 497–514.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Couch, A., &amp;amp; Keniston, K. (1960). Yeasayers and naysayers: Agreeing response set as a personality variable. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 60&lt;/em&gt;(2), 151–174.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Geer, J. G. (1988). What do open-ended questions measure? &lt;em&gt;Public Opinion Quarterly, 52&lt;/em&gt;(3), 365–367.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hamilton, D.L. (1968). Personality attributes associated with extreme response style. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin, 69&lt;/em&gt;(3), 192–203.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jobe, J. B., &amp;amp; Mingay, D. J. (1991). Cognition and survey measurement: History and overview. &lt;em&gt;Applied Cognitive Psychology, 5&lt;/em&gt;(3), 175–192.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nisbett, R. E., &amp;amp; Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review, 84&lt;/em&gt;(3), 231–259. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apologeticsinthechurch.com/uploads/7/4/5/6/7456646/nisbettwilson.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.apologeticsinthechurch.com/uploads/7/4/5/6/7456646/nisbettwilson.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved February 5, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwarz, N. (1999). Self-reports: How the questions shape the answers. &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist, 54&lt;/em&gt;(2), 93–105. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;https://edit.ethz.ch/oat/education/material/material_06_07/material_empirical_methods_06_07/American_Psychologist_Self-Reports.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://edit.ethz.ch/oat/education/material/material_06_07/material_empirical_methods_06_07/American_Psychologist_Self-Reports.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, T. W. (1987). That which we call welfare by any other name would smell sweeter: An analysis of the impact of question wording on response patterns. &lt;em&gt;Public Opinion Quarterly, 51&lt;/em&gt;(1), 75–83.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Song, X.-Y. (2007). Analysis of multisample structural equation models with applications to Quality of Life data. In S.-Y. Lee (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;Handbook of latent variable and related models&lt;/em&gt;, pp. 279–302. North-Holland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-08T21:22:45.103" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T21:22:45.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5643" CreationDate="2014-02-06T05:37:03.133" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Stories are an effective means for conveying ideas or messages and captivating our attention as it gives meaning to those idea's and messages, while also linking it to a themes and emotions, hence allowing us to reflect our own lives in these stories you hear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, imagine your self in the latter stone age where story telling was the most effective medium for passing down techniques. If you were told that to start a fire you had to simply collect and number of materials and stratch a piece of flint and steel to create sparks on the tinder, some may remember the process but for most a lot of effort and concentration would be required to memorise all of these items. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meanwhile, if you were told this process through a story with characters (for example a story of how fire was discovered that was most likely fictional) suddenly you are relating characters, themes and experiences to events in your own life, which would significantly increase the chance of you remembering it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, for the story teller, instead of having to remember a list of items required, all they would have to remember is a short story and the best part is the details of the characters do not have to be specific. Thus it would be much more enjoyable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly sotry telling is much more effective then memorisation, which is why it is being used up to this day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helped, Mona.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4322" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T05:37:03.133" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5648" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5643" CreationDate="2014-02-06T05:48:57.127" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Narrative psychology&lt;/a&gt; is probably the go-to domain of research and theory for questions about the power and popularity of stories. Here's an excerpt from the Wikipedia page (with added emphasis):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Narrative psychology&lt;/em&gt; is...concerned with the &amp;quot;storied nature of human conduct&amp;quot; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[(Sarbin, 1986)]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; or...how human[s]...deal with experience by constructing stories and listening to the stories of others. Operating under the assumption that &lt;strong&gt;human activity and experience are filled with &amp;quot;meaning&amp;quot; and stories, rather than logical arguments or lawful formulations&lt;/strong&gt;...[this] dichotomy...[appears &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Bruner, 1990)]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; as a distinction between &amp;quot;paradigmatic&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;narrative&amp;quot; forms of thought, in his understanding they are both fundamental but irreducible one to the another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Sarbin &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(1986)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;quot;narrative&amp;quot; is a root metaphor for psychology that should replace the mechanistic and organic metaphors which shaped so much theory and research in the discipline over the past century. The &lt;strong&gt;indisputable physical events of a personal occurrence&lt;/strong&gt; are different from a story that results from the storied cause and effect relationships. &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(McKinnon) [citation unavailable]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;strong&gt;Independent of any fiction in the actual physical matter told, are physical events that are as unequivocal as quantum mechanics and human chemistry.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm unfamiliar with examples of narrative psychological research of the sort you're looking for specifically, but the above seems to argue from psychological theory at least that narratives gain appeal and influence from their apparent factuality. Narratives may not claim to apply their principles generally, let alone acknowledge any limits to their generality, but maybe people naturally infer generality anyway, and are less likely to recognize limits on their own when they aren't mentioned...This is just speculation though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One other idea that's at least equally worth mentioning (which may not be saying much) is that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_identity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;narratives are particularly influential in the study of identity&lt;/a&gt;. Tying negative events in one's life into a redemptive life narrative relates to well-being, though causality isn't clear in this relationship &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(McAdams &amp;amp; McLean, 2013)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;. Maybe a similar principle applies from an observer's perspective: maybe consumers of stories &amp;quot;create meaning&amp;quot; vicariously by putting both good and bad events in the shared context of others' lives. Maybe advertisers' messages are more subtly appealing (and less overbearing) when embedded in the narratives of relatable, likable characters that seem to have more to say than just what their favorite shampoo is. Again, this is speculation; I'm no advertiser. I mostly hope I've given you some ideas to follow up on in study of the areas of psychological research with which I am somewhat familiar: narrative identity, and narrative psychology in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;·&lt;/strong&gt; Bruner, J. S. (1990). &lt;em&gt;Acts of meaning&lt;/em&gt;. Harvard University Press.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;·&lt;/strong&gt; McAdams, D. P., &amp;amp; McLean, K. C. (2013). Narrative identity. &lt;em&gt;Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22&lt;/em&gt;(3), 233–238.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;·&lt;/strong&gt; Sarbin, T. R. (1986). &lt;em&gt;Narrative psychology: The storied nature of human conduct&lt;/em&gt;. Praeger Publishers / Greenwood Publishing Group.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-06-26T20:12:51.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5642" CreationDate="2014-02-06T08:35:45.693" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not completely sure, but you may be referring to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncope_%28medicine%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Syncope&lt;/a&gt;, a medical term which describes events such as fainting or passing out which occurs upon low blood flow to the brain. As a result it can occur when under shock or trauma or a post-effect of stress. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, one would expect the opposite to happen in half the events, such as after vomiting, however when you said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;have some major upheaval in their life, or experience some other trauma (e.g., a bad breakup, losing a job, etc.). When the mind can't cope it simply shuts off and they fall asleep or pass out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realised you may be relating to someone feeling a depressed, in which case lowering of blood pressure is possible and thus he or she could suffer from syncope.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all honesty it is simply a technical term for fainting, and is more commonly used for people who suffer a disorder which will cause them to faint often.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4322" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-08T01:44:25.853" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T01:44:25.853" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5651" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5640" CreationDate="2014-02-06T10:16:10.720" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer your question, we must first understand what you mean with &quot;read&quot;. Since you ask in the context of speed reading, you appear to be interested in &lt;em&gt;extracting meaning from written text&lt;/em&gt;. So we can rephrase your question as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does the time to recognize and understand a word increase with word length?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effect of word length has been studied for two tasks, lexical decision and naming. In a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.artsci.wustl.edu/~dbalota/lexical_decision.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot; &quot;&gt;lexical decision task&lt;/a&gt; participants are presented with words or nonwords (e.g. &quot;dftrpg&quot;) and have to quickly press one specific key for words, and another for nonwords, on the keyboard. The time between the presentation of the stimulus and the key press (the reaction time) is registered. Since you are reading a text in which there are no nonwords, lexical decision is irrelevant in the context of your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A naming task is similar to a lexical decision task, with the exception that participants read the words aloud, and their responses trigger the computer via a microphone (&quot;voice key&quot;). Again, the reaction times between the presentation of the stimulus and the spoken word are registered. Since we cannot directly measure understanding, we assume that naming reflects understanding. (Of course you can speak words that you do not know, and even nonwords, but the reactions times would be significantly longer, so we would notice the difference. As long as RT is reasonably short, we may probably assume that the participant knows that word and has understood it.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not every time a participant names a word will he or she do so in the exact same time. Sometimes someone will be a bit slower to react, sometimes a bit faster. So we calculate the average reaction time for each word. What we note is that these average reactions times are not the same for different words, that is: the reaction times vary. Now, what we want to do, is explain this variance. Is it in some way related to word length? Or does it correlate to other characteristics of the words, such as number of syllables, word type (noun, verb, adjective), word frequency (how often a word is actually used in everyday spoken language), and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After a number of calculations on the data, we find that all these aspects explain a part of the variance in reaction times (Baayen, Feldman &amp;amp; Schreuder, 2006). Here is a table of the different word characteristics (the predictors), and how much of the variance in naming speed they predict. Only those predictors are listed that had a significant effect. The numbers are adjusted &lt;em&gt;R&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/em&gt; × 100, i.e. the percentage of variance uniquely accounted for by each predictor over and above all other predictors. You don't have to understand the meaning of these numbers, but they show the relative strength of the effect each predictor has on naming speed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Lower bounds for the percentage of variance (adjusted R2 × 100)&#xA;explained by the significant predictors in word naming&#xA;&#xA;Frequency                           6.08&#xA;Initial diphone 2                   4.33&#xA;Initial diphone (syllable-based)    3.88&#xA;Frication/Length first phoneme      2.24&#xA;Voicedness first phoneme            1.73&#xA;PC2 Consistency                     1.28&#xA;Length                              1.14&#xA;PC1 Consistency                     0.91&#xA;Written-to-spoken ratio             0.59&#xA;Neighborhood density                0.36&#xA;PC3 Consistency                     0.36&#xA;Inflectional entropy                0.34&#xA;Residual familiarity                0.31&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, the results are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The overall variance in reaction times is small. In young adults they range from around 300 to around 700 ms, with about two thirds of the RTs falling into a narrow slot of only 100 ms.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;All the predictors together explain only half of the variance in reaction time (&lt;em&gt;R&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/em&gt; = 0.4999), the rest of the variance must be attributed to unknown predictors or, more likely, are artifacts of the testing situation (distraction, boredom, etc.).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The single strongest predictor of naming speed is word frequency&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The contribution of each of the other single predictors is tiny (a few microseconds each).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Word length predicts only a few microseconds in variance.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;There is a word length effect only if words are presented individually, not in a text context&lt;/strong&gt; (Meyer, Roelofs &amp;amp; Levelt, 2003).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To answer your question, we can say that the length of the words has probably no noticeable effect on your text reading speed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baayen, R. H., Feldman, L. B., &amp;amp; Schreuder, R. (2006). Morphological influences on the recognition of monosyllabic monomorphemic words. Journal of Memory and Language, 55(2), 290-313.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Balota, D. A., Cortese, M. J., Sergent-Marshall, S. D., Spieler, D. H., &amp;amp; Yap, M. (2004). Visual word recognition of single-syllable words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133(2), 283.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Meyer, A. S., Roelofs, A., &amp;amp; Levelt, W. J. (2003). Word length effects in object naming: The role of a response criterion. Journal of Memory and Language, 48(1), 131-147.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-02-06T12:24:10.327" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T12:24:10.327" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5652" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5640" CreationDate="2014-02-06T12:51:14.737" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The average response times for single words in a lexical decision task (depart real words from nonsense words) is plotted below. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The curve follows a &lt;strong&gt;U-shape and span over several dozens of milliseconds&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Fo5eB.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Figure 2. Average reaction time and 95% confidence interval for words with lengths from 3 to 13 letters if length was the only factor having an influence (all other factors have been partialled out).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Ref&lt;/em&gt;: New et al., PBR (2006). &lt;a href=&quot;http://digirep.rhul.ac.uk/file/5b9f8c0a-8b02-1bda-36cb-e07ac5dd3c90/5/45_New%2520et%2520al%2520PBR%2520length.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reexamining the word length effect in visual word recognition: New evidence from the English Lexicon Project&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T12:51:14.737" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5653" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-06T13:47:38.297" Score="8" ViewCount="9187" Body="&lt;p&gt;I teach calculus to freshmen and currently spend most of the classroom time lecturing. To make classes more interactive I'd like to shift this phase of &quot;knowledge transfer&quot; outside of classes. Either by giving students reading assignments, or by giving them videos to watch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I was wondering if &lt;em&gt;reading&lt;/em&gt; as opposed to &lt;em&gt;watching a video&lt;/em&gt; of someone explaining the same thing, results in different learning outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An attempt to make the question more narrow: is there a difference in brain activity or knowledge retention between reading a text vs. watching another person reciting the same text?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4353" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-02-06T15:43:30.397" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T19:39:51.647" Title="Reading vs. watching a lecture: which activity results in higher knowledge retention?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5654" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-06T16:10:15.477" Score="2" ViewCount="1273" Body="&lt;p&gt;What I mean by this is to ask if each of the sensory inputs can be quantified by the amount of information the brain is receiving: For example,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain says: currently receiving 10 packets of visual information, 3 packets of auditory info, 20 packets of somatosensory input etc...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or maybe to put it in different terms, to measure the rate at which these sensory inputs are being recorded. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain says: currently capturing visual info at 120 frames per second, hearing 20k cycles per second, somatosensory input at ...!?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And thereafter calculate the information content coming from each (per unit of time?) and thereby list them in some order.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately what I'm trying to understand/see is: if you had such a list (say, 1. visual, 2. touch, 3. hearing,....etc) and you began to remove modes of input from largest to smallest, would/might we begin to see weaker sensory inputs begin to enter the picture (sensory inputs that were being drowned out by the other senses)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4226" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-06T18:18:38.127" LastActivityDate="2014-08-14T17:42:45.663" Title="Is there some hierarchy of the human senses?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5655" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5163" CreationDate="2014-02-06T16:57:50.917" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of context to extract from this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example if &quot;using the X tool&quot; requires a lot of time, it would be time-consuming to actually go by yourself and try for hours, when you could instead ask for help from someone who already has some knowledge of it.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, people are all different, some people want to know how &quot;things work in their details,&quot; while some just want results, so they will seek the fastest way to do it.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But to conclude, I tend to notice that as the time passes and technologies increase, people tend to be lazy and stop thinking for themselves, except to think, &quot;If it does not work, then the tool is broken, not me.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4244" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-06T17:24:49.480" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T17:24:49.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5656" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5664" CreationDate="2014-02-06T19:18:44.080" Score="3" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;You often hear that time passes more quickly when you're having fun. And the opposite is also &quot;true&quot; in common belief, that when you're bored time is very slow. But we know that time is almost linear and constant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any scientific proof of that time is perceived differently depending on feeling or mood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="566" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-08T01:38:54.917" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T01:38:54.917" Title="Can time be perceived differently depending on a user's feeling?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5657" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5653" CreationDate="2014-02-06T19:30:01.153" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider this, communication is more than 50% nonverbal. Studies vary (from 93% nonverbal to 75%) and the actual percentage is difficult to interpret, but it is generally accepted that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nonverbalgroup.com/2011/08/how-much-of-communication-is-really-nonverbal/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;most of the communication is nonverbal.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, a book is only written word and content, whereas a lecture is dynamic, versatile, and incorporates much of the nonverbal content.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, a lecture and video has much more stimulus going to the brain and this does have an impact on memory retention. Consider how PTSD cases arise; they are due to an individual experiencing hyper-stimulation (from the emotional brain) which in turn creates very strong memories. The same would hold true when comparing learning through reading and learning through a lecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;However&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This depends on many things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For example if the lecturer is boring and monotone, it's the same or worse (boring lectures can put people to sleep) than giving a student something to read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It also depends on the student's ability and motivation. If he or she is motivated and enjoys the subject, they will retain a lot of information from reading and working on their own due to their sense of joy in the subject--an emotional response will in turn encode memories more strongly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lastly it depends on how well the concept is explained. If a student does not understand a concept then for them to perform the calculations it will require a lot more memory work. If they understand something, then the actual memory work will be less, because they need not recall as much information in order to solve the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general though I would say that videos and lectures have more potential of creating memory retention due to providing more stimuli for the student.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4189" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-02-06T19:39:51.647" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5659" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5631" CreationDate="2014-02-07T02:38:33.977" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is &quot;yes.&quot;  The entire field of Human Factors and Ergonomics is devoted to enhancing the experience of the human user. Cognitive engineering is the branch of human factors that focuses specifically on how people perceive and respond to system interfaces.  Engineers and scientists in this field try to design components, systems, interfaces, and even training to be the best fit for the users.  By exploiting built-in capabilities and navigating around known pitfalls with human cognitive abilities, we can design systems that are more natural and thereby safer and more effective to operate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, as to whether the design of the interface has anything to do with people failing to see possible improvement(s) - I think this is unrelated. If you read Donald Norman's &lt;em&gt;The Design of Everyday Things&lt;/em&gt;, he makes a big deal about how people blame themselves for the ergonomic shortfalls of a poorly designed thing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take a push-pull door with pull handles on both sides of the door. The natural action is to walk up and pull on the handle, because handles afford pulling (regardless of what side of the door they are on).  So, you pull on the &quot;push side,&quot; then blame yourself for not reading the sign that said &quot;Push,&quot; when in fact it was a bad design that led you to pull in the first place. And you carry on without a second thought, nevermind the fact that it was the designer, not you, who is an imbecile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the short answer to the second part of the question is people don't generally think about improving the system, they think about how to avoid making mistakes in using the system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastEditorUserId="2937" LastEditDate="2014-02-07T02:43:51.840" LastActivityDate="2014-02-07T02:43:51.840" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5660" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5643" CreationDate="2014-02-07T03:17:54.367" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;No research can &lt;strong&gt;prove&lt;/strong&gt; any explanation as to why humans are so cognitively responsive to stories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, while one may be able to find evidence to support a plausible theory, such evidence will only be correlative, and as such cannot prove cause. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, there have been many studies about correlating emotional stress with with long term memorization. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;While the comprehension of bare facts does not require emotion, the full comprehension of a story does.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has also been shown, that when presented with a story, your mirror neurons are activated, and you become more susceptible to suggestions of feeling.  You then take on the emotions presented to you, and these emotions, much like the ones in the stress studies, are thought to help solidify memories in your mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite all of these insights of &lt;strong&gt;how&lt;/strong&gt; stories affect us, the &quot;why&quot; still cannot addressed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One might theorize about an &quot;explanation&quot; of how it might be evolutionary advantageous to remember things with strong emotional ties vs information without such context.  However, it is prudent understand that such explanations provide no testable hypotheses, and thus should not to be confused with &quot;scientific explanations&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As such, &lt;strong&gt;&quot;Why&quot; questions are generally the realm of philosophy and religion&lt;/strong&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user4360" LastEditorDisplayName="user4360" LastEditDate="2014-02-07T22:50:47.187" LastActivityDate="2014-02-07T22:50:47.187" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5661" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5642" CreationDate="2014-02-07T08:39:10.660" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The specific event you mention (my paraphrasing: &lt;strong&gt;loss of consciousness and motor control leading to a sleep/coma-like state due to acute circumstantial stress&lt;/strong&gt;) might best be classified according to @Monacraft's excellent answer. To build on that somewhat, we've &lt;a href=&quot;http://chat.stackexchange.com/rooms/12892/discussion-between-sam-whited-and-artem-kaznatcheev&quot;&gt;discussed in chat&lt;/a&gt; that there might be important distinctions among various levels of consciousness, such that, per your example, &quot;sleep&quot; might be usefully different from &quot;passed out.&quot; I've noted my own vague familiarity with theories of consciousness that model it in terms of discrete &lt;em&gt;levels of awareness&lt;/em&gt;. My off-the-cuff proposal for such a model was as follows: &#xA;$$\text{fully alert &amp;gt; calm}\ge\text{trance}\ge\text{drowsy} \\ \text{&amp;gt; REM sleep &amp;gt; deep sleep &amp;gt; &quot;KO'd&quot; unconscious}\\\text{&amp;gt; deep coma}\ge\text{Near-death experience}\ge\text{vegetative &amp;gt; kaput}$$&#xA;I see that Wikipedia has &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_level_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;its own page about &lt;em&gt;levels of consciousness&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; as well, which lists the following levels as a summary (using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_Record_Examinations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GRE&lt;/a&gt;-level vocab), for which it cites Porth (2007): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\text{conscious &amp;gt; confused &amp;gt; delirious &amp;gt; somnolent &amp;gt; obtunded &amp;gt; stuporous &amp;gt; comatose}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above Wikipedia page even mentions and links to a separate page about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Coma_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Glasgow Coma Scale&lt;/a&gt; (cf. Gill, Reiley, &amp;amp; Green, 2004), which is one of apparently many scales in medical use for measuring differences among unconscious states, so it seems one could take an even finer-grained or fully &lt;strong&gt;continuous approach to modeling individual differences in degree of conscious awareness&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=levels+of+consciousness&amp;amp;tbm=isch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Google image search for &quot;levels of consciousness&quot;&lt;/a&gt; also leads to a lot of rather suspicious-looking diagrams of levels of consciousness above sleep, so a continuous dimensional model would probably help reduce a lot of this theoretical mess if theorists could somehow be made to agree with it unanimously. Then again, one strong counterargument would be the often sudden loss of muscle tension that can occur in rapid transitions from awake to unconscious. That might better support a model with at least one such discrete state change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, this reminds me of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28biology%29#General_adaptation_syndrome_.28GAS.29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;general adaptation syndrome&lt;/em&gt; (GAS)&lt;/a&gt;, which describes normative stress response in terms of a &lt;strong&gt;curvilinear model of resistance as a continuous dependent variable changing over time&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/General_Adaptation_Syndrome.jpg/800px-General_Adaptation_Syndrome.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&#xA;Thus another conceivable, more general answer might simply be &quot;&lt;strong&gt;exhaustion&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;, as above. &lt;a href=&quot;http://fuzzyscience.wikispaces.com/General+Adaptation+Syndrome+%28GAS%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;One source on GAS that I was able to find online&lt;/a&gt; just now mentions &quot;passing out&quot; explicitly in association with the exhaustion stage, so this at least tentatively supports the interpretation of &lt;strong&gt;exhaustion as potentially leading to unconscious, sleep-like levels of consciousness&lt;/strong&gt;, though maybe more authoritative references than this could be found to provide such support (please comment or edit if you find any). Another parallel worth drawing here is between &quot;resistance to stress&quot; and emotional arousal, the vertical axis on the circumplex model of emotion I mentioned &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5337/4086&quot;&gt;in another answer here&lt;/a&gt;. Given a stressful circumstance, we'd of course be looking at the left side of that diagram, and reinterpreting the rise and fall of resistance as the transition from neutral, to nervous, to gloomy, and finally sluggish or tired. This might help explain why depression is a related issue. Long-term depression (such as in people suffering a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_episode#Sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;major depressive episode&lt;/a&gt;) naturally leaves a person exhausted, and maybe more likely to just pass out when overwhelmed by stress, because such a person is probably closer to &quot;overwhelmed&quot; from the outset.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://chat.stackexchange.com/rooms/12892/discussion-between-sam-whited-and-artem-kaznatcheev&quot;&gt;In our chat&lt;/a&gt;, we've discussed some other complexities on the &lt;em&gt;diathesis&lt;/em&gt; side of the stress response model; I think some of that is worth re-posting here. First, a handy (if simplistic) diagram from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diathesis%E2%80%93stress_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia on the &lt;strong&gt;diathesis-stress model&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Diathesisstressdualriskmodel.JPG&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;To apply this here, let's define the &lt;code&gt;negative outcome&lt;/code&gt; as that described in the OP; the &lt;code&gt;positive outcome&lt;/code&gt; as simply retaining consciousness, self-control, and effective coping capability; the &lt;code&gt;negative environment/experience&lt;/code&gt; as the class of traumatic events described in the OP; the &lt;code&gt;positive environment/experience&lt;/code&gt; as ordinary experience; the &lt;code&gt;resilient individual&lt;/code&gt; as the subpopulation of people who would score at least one &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;standard deviation (&lt;em&gt;SD&lt;/em&gt;)&lt;/a&gt; above average on measures of protective characteristics and one &lt;em&gt;SD&lt;/em&gt; below average on diathesis-exacerbating characteristics; the &lt;code&gt;vulnerable individual&lt;/code&gt; as the opposite subpopulation; and both lines as oversimplified predictions of average tendencies subject to probabilistic error. This allows us to accommodate a potentially endless list of &lt;strong&gt;individual differences that could moderate the normative tendency&lt;/strong&gt; to change one's level of conscious awareness in response to extremely shocking, traumatic stress. For now, I'll limit myself to mentioning only two, particularly relevant differences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardiness_%28psychological%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hardiness&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is the prototypical stress-resistance trait; you'd expect a resilient individual to have lots.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuroticism&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, the opposite of emotional stability, characterizes individuals with tendencies toward negative emotionality and stronger stress response. This would make an individual more reactive, likely to experience depression, and thus more likely to suffer chronic exhaustion and be vulnerable. &#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It relates to psychiatric illness in general, which &lt;strong&gt;relates to syncope&lt;/strong&gt; (Oh &amp;amp; Kapoor, 1997).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's &lt;strong&gt;negatively related to hardiness&lt;/strong&gt;, but partially distinct (Sinclair &amp;amp; Tetrick, 2000), so a neurotic person who also lacks hardiness would be especially vulnerable, and vice versa.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gill, M. R., Reiley, D. G., &amp;amp; Green, S. M. (2004). Interrater reliability of Glasgow Coma Scale scores in the emergency department. &lt;em&gt;Annals of Emergency Medicine, 43&lt;/em&gt;(2), 215–223.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oh, J. H., &amp;amp; Kapoor, W. N. (1997). Psychiatric illness and syncope. &lt;em&gt;Cardiology Clinics, 15&lt;/em&gt;(2), 269–275.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Porth, C. (2007). &lt;em&gt;Essentials of pathophysiology: Concepts of altered health states&lt;/em&gt;, pp. 835. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams &amp;amp; Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-7087-4. Retrieved July 3, 2008.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sinclair, R. R., &amp;amp; Tetrick, L. E. (2000). Implications of item wording for hardiness structure, relation with neuroticism, and stress buffering. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality, 34&lt;/em&gt;(1), 1–25.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-02-07T08:45:43.273" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5662" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-07T19:34:36.817" Score="1" ViewCount="1020" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans have the tendency to develop habits. Habits of an individual can be different, same, or unique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some have a habit of talking too much (chatty), drawing a box around the answer of mathematical problem, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit#Habit_formation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;regular repetition become automatic or habitual&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4012" LastEditorUserId="3944" LastEditDate="2014-02-07T23:40:11.723" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T10:12:19.660" Title="Why does regular repetition become a habit?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5664" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5656" CreationDate="2014-02-07T22:28:53.260" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's definitely scientific evidence that one's perception of time can be influenced by actions which in no way something's duration.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not &lt;em&gt;quite&lt;/em&gt; the happy/sad affect you're asking about, but it definitely suggests that one's perception of time can be meaningfully influenced by wholly unrelated information:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://healthland.time.com/2010/04/08/patients-more-content-confident-when-doctors-sit-to-talk/#ixzz2sg60rW3yhttp://healthland.time.com/2010/04/08/patients-more-content-confident-when-doctors-sit-to-talk/&quot;&gt;2010 Study: When doctors sit for patient consultations, they are perceived as staying longer, providing higher quality care&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patients consistently overestimated the time doctors spent with them &lt;em&gt;much more&lt;/em&gt; when the doctors sat down while talking to them then when they remained standing.  (The multiple was about 85% higher relative to the actual for the doctors who sat.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="997" LastActivityDate="2014-02-07T22:28:53.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5666" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5662" CreationDate="2014-02-08T00:59:45.353" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are some excerpts from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; you might find helpful for the (somewhat too-) general question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A habit...tends to occur subconsciously.[(Butler &amp;amp; Hope, 1995)]...[Andrews (1903)]...defined [habits as]: &amp;quot;...acquired through previous repetition of a mental experience.&amp;quot; Habitual behavior often goes unnoticed in persons exhibiting it, because a person does not need to engage in self-analysis when undertaking routine tasks. Habits are sometimes compulsory...Old habits are hard to break and new habits are hard to form because the behavioural patterns we repeat are imprinted in our neural pathways...but it is possible to form new habits through repetition [(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/habit-formation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rosenthal / Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt;)].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As behaviors are repeated in a consistent context, there is an incremental increase in the link between the context and the action. This increases the automaticity of the behavior in that context [(&lt;a href=&quot;http://dornsife.usc.edu/assets/sites/545/docs/Wendy_Wood_Research_Articles/Habits/wood.neal.2007psychrev_a_new_look_at_habits_and_the_interface_between_habits_and_goals.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wood &amp;amp; Neal, 2007&lt;/a&gt;)]...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Habit formation can be slow. Lally[, Van Jaarsveld, Potts, and Wardle] (2010) found the average time for participants to reach the asymptote of automaticity was 66 days with a range of 18–254 days...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Andrews, B. R. (1908). Habit. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Psychology, 14&lt;/em&gt;(2), 121–149. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1412711&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1412711&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Butler, G., &amp;amp; Hope, T. (1995). &lt;em&gt;Managing your mind: The mental fitness guide&lt;/em&gt;. Oxford Paperbacks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lally, P., Van Jaarsveld, C. H., Potts, H. W., &amp;amp; Wardle, J. (2010). How are habits formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world. &lt;em&gt;European Journal of Social Psychology, 40&lt;/em&gt;(6), 998–1009.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wood, W., &amp;amp; Neal, D. T. (2007). A new look at habits and the habit-goal interface. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review, 114&lt;/em&gt;(4), 843–863. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dornsife.usc.edu/assets/sites/545/docs/Wendy_Wood_Research_Articles/Habits/wood.neal.2007psychrev_a_new_look_at_habits_and_the_interface_between_habits_and_goals.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dornsife.usc.edu/assets/sites/545/docs/Wendy_Wood_Research_Articles/Habits/wood.neal.2007psychrev_a_new_look_at_habits_and_the_interface_between_habits_and_goals.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T00:59:45.353" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5667" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-02-08T05:26:55.843" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the physiological and embryological foundations of neural development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar to &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/developmental-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;developmental-psychology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;developmental-psychology&lt;/a&gt; which examines the evolution of, e.g., learning, throughout the lifespan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural Development&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-08T09:41:27.097" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T09:41:27.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5668" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-02-08T05:26:55.843" Score="0" Body="For questions about the physiological and embryological foundations of neural development" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-08T09:41:34.723" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T09:41:34.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5669" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-02-08T05:32:07.450" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the use of knowledge of the physiological responses of different areas of the brain in order to advertise or market a product.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromarketing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuromarketing&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B008BB7R74&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuromarketing: Exploring the brain of the consumer&lt;/a&gt; for a canonical text on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-08T09:41:24.223" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T09:41:24.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5670" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-02-08T05:32:07.450" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the use of knowledge of the physiological responses of different areas of the brain in order to advertise or market a product" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-08T09:41:30.427" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T09:41:30.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5671" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-08T07:15:50.760" Score="3" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose that you have a student that is bilingual. Take for example that the student speaks Chinese and English. Suppose that said student is very fluent in Chinese, but not so fluent in English. He/she can hold everyday conversations in English but he/she has a really hard time reading an English newspaper or magazine (i.e. Wall Street Journal and Times). Suppose that you are trying to teach English vocabulary to said student. Would you teach said student:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;New English vocabulary using English words that he already knows, or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;New English vocabulary by using translated Chinese?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there some research that is related to such scenario?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4200" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-29T19:14:01.247" LastActivityDate="2020-08-30T07:04:09.907" Title="Learning vocabulary: Is it better to learn the word through translations?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5673" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5662" CreationDate="2014-02-08T10:12:19.660" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why do often repeated behaviors become automatic?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;=&gt; Because that is efficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human behavior is often modelled in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dual process theory&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;if possible, act without thinking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;only if necessary, carefully consider the situation at hand and think&#xA;about the best reaction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you do the same thing over and over again, then obviously it is either the best possible or a sufficient reaction to the situation in which it occurs. To free some of the limited and valuable cognitive capacity, that behavior becomes automatic. Only if the situation is different and the habitual behavior does not properly fit, will you have to think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best known dual process theories are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_likelihood_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Elaboration Likelihood Model&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-systematic_model_of_information_processing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Heuristic-Systematic Model of Information Processing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T10:12:19.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5675" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5643" CreationDate="2014-02-08T15:54:54.010" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe because episodic memory is better developed then semantic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a nice study on how to teach virtual agent to use episodic memory:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.techfak.uni-bielefeld.de/~frabe/publications/Rabe2012-EpisodicMemory-ICAART2012-CameraReady.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.techfak.uni-bielefeld.de/~frabe/publications/Rabe2012-EpisodicMemory-ICAART2012-CameraReady.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-09T02:45:51.397" LastActivityDate="2014-02-09T02:45:51.397" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5676" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5196" CreationDate="2014-02-08T21:04:33.823" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;This question came up in our tri-monthly site evaluation queue (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.meta.stackexchange.com/q/800/4086&quot;&gt;Let's get critical: Feb 2014 Site Self-Evaluation&lt;/a&gt;), and I marked it as &quot;needs improvement,&quot; so here's an indication why, and my attempt to do so.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The next-highest Google hit for this question's title, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3344701/Science-why-we-scream.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Science: why we scream&quot; (Highfield, 2008)&lt;/a&gt; seems pretty useful. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/topics/about-us/3692012/Terms-and-Conditions.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Telegraph's terms and conditions&lt;/a&gt; are a little scary though, so I'll paraphrase some ideas rather than quoting directly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Darwin himself argued that emotional expressions may improve selective fitness. This could explain the relatively universal uniformity of fear expressions, which generally include widened eyes and nostrils, lifted eyebrows, and maybe some inclination to scream (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.yorku.ca/khoffman/Psyc6253/Susskind%2708_Meotions4perception.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Susskind et al., 2008&lt;/a&gt;). This may improve olfactory and visual sensory intake and motion tracking. Pragmatic benefits aside, William James, another prominent historical figure in psychology, was well ahead of his time in pointing out that expressions affect emotions; they also affect neural circulation!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are limits to the universality of fear expressions, and even to the uniformity of facial muscular anatomy (&lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.port.ac.uk/1629/1/WALLERetal2008b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Waller, Cray, &amp;amp; Burrows, 2008&lt;/a&gt;)! Basic expressions like &quot;happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust&quot; are handled pretty well by five essentially ubiquitous facial muscles, but people differ in the number of additional, facially expressive muscles they have (19 may be the maximum). I've edited this summary of Waller and colleagues' results into the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risorius&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page on the risorius muscle&lt;/a&gt; just now:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A study of 18 Caucasian cadavers found individual differences in the presence and bilateral symmetry of risorius muscles. Seven of these individuals (both men and women) clearly lacked the muscle; two were inconclusive; only four were conclusively symmetric.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Highfield (2008) associates the risorius muscle with &quot;expressions of extreme fear,&quot; but Wikipedia only associates it with an &quot;insincere-looking&quot; smile; Waller and colleagues (2008) associate no expressions explicitly with the risorius muscle, which they don't really discuss in specific depth. However, Highfield quotes Waller directly (suggesting further unpublished discussion that may have supported his interpretation of risorius' function) as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Everyone communicates using a set of common signals...so we would expect to find that the muscles do not vary. The results are surprising. Some less common facial expressions may be unique to certain people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other quick &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=scream+fear&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar results for &quot;scream fear&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=scream+pain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scream pain&lt;/a&gt;&quot; didn't produce anything promising at first glance) seem useful to mention here too. A study of rats and 160 undergrads found (in the human research) that a &quot;yell, scream, or call for help...was frequent for females, rare for males&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/11558273_Human_defensive_behaviors_to_threat_scenarios_show_parallels_to_fear-_and_anxiety-related_defense_patterns_of_non-human_mammals/file/9fcfd50c755e22230b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blanchard, Hynd, Minke, Minemoto, &amp;amp; Blanchard, 2001&lt;/a&gt;). A more general discussion of the function of fear screams in humans and other animals has also been published (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/2460982&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Högstedt, 1983&lt;/a&gt;), so you may want to check that out too. It includes some literature review, so its references could probably lead much deeper into the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.meta.stackexchange.com/q/814/4086&quot;&gt;than you may wish to pursue it&lt;/a&gt;... ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Caroline Blanchard, D., Hynd, A. L., Minke, K. A., Minemoto, T., &amp;amp; Blanchard, R. J. (2001). Human defensive behaviors to threat scenarios show parallels to fear-and anxiety-related defense patterns of non-human mammals. &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience &amp;amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, 25&lt;/em&gt;(7), 761–770. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/11558273_Human_defensive_behaviors_to_threat_scenarios_show_parallels_to_fear-_and_anxiety-related_defense_patterns_of_non-human_mammals/file/9fcfd50c755e22230b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/11558273_Human_defensive_behaviors_to_threat_scenarios_show_parallels_to_fear-_and_anxiety-related_defense_patterns_of_non-human_mammals/file/9fcfd50c755e22230b.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved February 8, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Highfield, R. (2008, June 17). Science: Why we scream. &lt;em&gt;The Telegraph: Science News&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3344701/Science-why-we-scream.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3344701/Science-why-we-scream.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Högstedt, G. (1983). Adaptation unto death: Function of fear screams. &lt;em&gt;American Naturalist, 121&lt;/em&gt;(4), 562–570. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/2460982&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/2460982&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Susskind, J. M., Lee, D. H., Cusi, A., Feiman, R., Grabski, W., &amp;amp; Anderson, A. K. (2008). Expressing fear enhances sensory acquisition. &lt;em&gt;Nature Neuroscience, 11&lt;/em&gt;(7), 843–850. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.yorku.ca/khoffman/Psyc6253/Susskind%2708_Meotions4perception.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.yorku.ca/khoffman/Psyc6253/Susskind%2708_Meotions4perception.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved February 8, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Waller, B. M., Cray Jr, J. J., &amp;amp; Burrows, A. M. (2008). Selection for universal facial emotion. &lt;em&gt;Emotion, 8&lt;/em&gt;(3), 435–439. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.port.ac.uk/1629/1/WALLERetal2008b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://eprints.port.ac.uk/1629/1/WALLERetal2008b.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. Retrieved February 8, 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-16T15:50:00.660" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T21:04:33.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5168" CreationDate="2014-02-08T21:37:13.050" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://edit.ethz.ch/oat/education/material/material_06_07/material_empirical_methods_06_07/American_Psychologist_Self-Reports.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schwarz (1999)&lt;/a&gt; reviews a variety of research on frequency estimation scales. That's not exactly the same kind of scale, but both request estimation of a count variable by choice among ordered, polytomized response options. Spector (1976, 1980, 1992) may also have something useful to say on this topic: he researched the effect of providing even vs. uneven interval categories for rating scales of frequency. Meanwhile, Moskowitz and a different Schwarz (1982) have compared the reliability and validity of behavior counts and ratings in personality research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Getting somewhat off-topic, culture may be important to consider for Likert scale response interpretation in general (see for example Lee, Jones, Mineyama, &amp;amp; Zhang, 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lee, J. W., Jones, P. S., Mineyama, Y., &amp;amp; Zhang, X. E. (2002). Cultural differences in responses to a Likert scale. &lt;em&gt;Research in Nursing &amp;amp; Health, 25&lt;/em&gt;(4), 295–306.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moskowitz, D. S., &amp;amp; Schwarz, J. C. (1982). Validity comparison of behavior counts and ratings by knowledgeable informants. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42&lt;/em&gt;(3), 518–528.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwarz, N. (1999). Self-reports: How the questions shape the answers. &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist, 54&lt;/em&gt;(2), 93–105. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;https://edit.ethz.ch/oat/education/material/material_06_07/material_empirical_methods_06_07/American_Psychologist_Self-Reports.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://edit.ethz.ch/oat/education/material/material_06_07/material_empirical_methods_06_07/American_Psychologist_Self-Reports.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spector, P. E. (1976). Choosing response categories for summated rating scales. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Applied Psychology, 61&lt;/em&gt;(3), 374–375.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spector, P. E. (1980). Ratings of equal and unequal response choice intervals. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Social Psychology, 112&lt;/em&gt;(1), 115–119.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spector, P. E. (Ed.). (1992). &lt;em&gt;Summated rating scale construction: An introduction&lt;/em&gt; (No. 82). Sage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-08T21:37:13.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5678" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="252" CreationDate="2014-02-09T02:27:20.010" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Venturing a contrasting view: VC dimension as cited by AK is a good/solid theoretical measurement of ANN complexity but would be unlikely to be applied to any real constructed ANN except as an estimate, and researchers/papers in large applied ANNs do not currently estimate VC dimension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a sense, how to measure complexity of an ANN is an open question that researchers are currently attempting to answer (&quot;work in progress&quot;) and won't be solved until there is some more general theory of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_detection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;feature detection&quot;&lt;/a&gt; which seems to be slowly emerging at the moment e.g., in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;deep learning&lt;/a&gt; research. such a theory is likely a long time in the making if it is even possible &amp;amp; ever is obtained. Roughly, in this view, a &quot;more complex&quot; ANN recognizes &quot;more complex&quot; features across different dimensions (spatial, temporal, different sensory modalities such as auditory, kinesthetic (robotics), etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is worthwhile &amp;amp; fairly objective however in the meantime to just consider a &quot;black box&quot; or &quot;operational&quot; style estimate based on intelligent functionality exhibited by the ANN. in other words, what can the ANN accomplish, and how does this compare to our only other benchmark of intelligence, namely biological?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You tend to rule this out in the question, but there is already a commonly used informal &quot;sliding scale&quot; of biological intelligence, e.g., with say small organisms at one end, moving through insects and mammals, etc., and humans at the other end. In animal science there are fairly conclusive questions &amp;amp; study to, e.g., &quot;which is smarter, a dog, a pig, or a cat&quot; with fairly nuanced/definitive answers (also with understanding that &quot;context matters&quot; &amp;amp; there are some various aspects of incomparability).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This approach basically dates to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Turing test&lt;/a&gt; and the Turing test is still a very valid scientific measurement of intelligence, still applied, e.g., in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loebner_contest&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Loebner contest&lt;/a&gt;, &amp;amp; seems to have roots also in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;behavioralist psychology&lt;/a&gt; principles. it involves the basic aspects of a scientific test such as a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;control&lt;/a&gt; &amp;amp; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;blind sampling&lt;/a&gt; etcetera.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, there are aspects of intelligence that are unique to humans such as speech recognition, image recognition, language translation, etc., and these lead to good benchmarks of ANNs that are targeted at human-like functionality as far as how well the ANN compares to human performance. it can even lead to measurements of supra-human performance in various cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This does not lead to a single quantifiable/numerical estimate of intelligence but in psychology, that premise is starting to be quite seriously questioned anyway, e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;theory of multiple intelligences&lt;/a&gt; &amp;amp; perhaps even refuted somewhat at this point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2733" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-09T02:43:14.820" LastActivityDate="2014-02-09T02:43:14.820" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5690" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5691" CreationDate="2014-02-09T08:21:39.957" Score="4" ViewCount="488" Body="&lt;p&gt;Achterberg and colleagues' (2005) study,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Concluded that instructions to a healer to make an intentional&#xA;  connection with a sensory isolated person can be correlated to changes&#xA;  in brain function of that individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I have also experienced (many) similar things. For example, if I get a &quot;feeling&quot; something is wrong with a close family member, I shortly receive a call about that person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does cognitive science explain these changes in brain activity and cognitive state, based on others thoughts and cognitive states—all in the context of physical distance or isolation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Achterberg, J., Cooke, K., Richards, T., Standish, L. J., Kozak, L., &amp;amp; Lake, J. (2005). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16398587&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Evidence for correlations between distant intentionality and brain function in recipients: a functional magnetic resonance imaging analysis.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Alternative &amp;amp; Complementary Medicine: Research on Paradigm, Practice, and Policy, 11&lt;/em&gt;(6), 965–971.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-09T20:31:36.323" LastActivityDate="2019-03-31T01:08:46.667" Title="How does cognitive science explain distant intentionality and brain function in recipients?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5691" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5690" CreationDate="2014-02-09T11:00:49.510" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pseudoscience&lt;/a&gt; based on false premises and misuse of statistics&lt;/strong&gt;, I'd say at first glance...but let's take a closer look at this article. First, I'm seeing among the references a lot of articles from journals with &quot;alternative&quot; in their titles, and other sources that strike me as either vaguely fishy or otherwise somewhat tangential. Not what I'd hope to get from an article claiming evidence of &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy_of_prayer#Second_person_studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;distant intentionality&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next, the one, lonely paragraph in which Achterberg and colleagues &lt;sup&gt;(2005)&lt;/sup&gt; offer their own half-hearted explanation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Given that &lt;strong&gt;there are no known biological processes that can account for the significant effect of the DI protocol&lt;/strong&gt;, the results of this study may be interpreted as consistent with&#xA;  the idea of entanglement in quantum mechanics theory &lt;sup&gt;[(Einstein, Podolsky, &amp;amp; Rosen, &lt;strong&gt;1935&lt;/strong&gt;)]&lt;/sup&gt;. Entanglement has been confirmed to occur between photons, and many have speculated that certain highly organized macroscopic systems, including the brain, exhibit the property of entanglement with other complex systems &lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[citation needed]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;. In a recent study evidence was found for nonlocal connections between separated preparations of human neurons &lt;sup&gt;[(&lt;a href=&quot;http://air.unimi.it/bitstream/2434/30203/2/spie2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pizzi, Fantasia, Gelain, Rossetti, &amp;amp; Vescovi, 2004&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;wrong title listed in reference section&lt;/strong&gt;)]&lt;/sup&gt;. These findings, plus the current study correlating brain activity in two sensory-isolated humans do not fit the classic model of physics and can be interpreted as consistent with entanglement at the macroscopic level. &lt;sup&gt;[Emphasis added.]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some &lt;strong&gt;pseudoscientific warning signs&lt;/strong&gt; to note here: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The direct acknowledgement that biological science can't explain their results&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One incredibly outdated reference from a physics journal about quantum entanglement&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Einstein and colleagues' &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;1935&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; article! Hardly the modern authority on quantum mechanics.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Many have speculated,&quot; with no citation as to who these &quot;many&quot; are or why anyone should care&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One other reference to proceedings from a society for optical engineering...In their reference section (not visible in the version I've linked in my own references here), Achterberg and colleagues &lt;sup&gt;(2005)&lt;/sup&gt; omit the last two authors' names and replace the word &quot;separate&quot; with &quot;human&quot; in the title for this article's entry. I've referenced it below properly, and provided a link; see what you think of it.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It mentions the Penrose–Hameroff model of quantum computation in neuron microtubules... Please see @ArtemKaznatcheev's take on &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5434/4086&quot;&gt;that whole mess of quantum quackery&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hardly any other attempts at explanation to be found throughout the very brief article.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wouldn't you expect more effort and enthusiasm on their part if they really, honestly believed in this themselves, &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; actually knew what they were talking about? I sure would...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for that significant effect that just can't be explained no matter how hard the authors (don't) try, why not scrutinize &lt;strong&gt;their entire results section&lt;/strong&gt; and see what's to be made of it, since it's so comically short:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;h2&gt;RESULTS&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The FSL software produces a quantitative table of cluster results that includes: cluster size, probability for each cluster, $z$ scores, $x\ y\ z$ coordinates of the cluster in Talaraich space and contrast of parameter estimates (see Table 1). If a cluster is significant in a group analysis it means that there were specific brain regions in which the combined subjects had enough activation to raise the $z$ score above the noise level threshold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In other words, if all of the subjects had random activation at different places in the brain, then there would be no group activation. &lt;strong&gt;One of the two clusters was highly statistically significant&lt;/strong&gt; $(p = 0.000127)$. Significant areas of apparent activation in the group analysis and total number of pixels activated for the group are reported in Table 2. A scan representing the group activation as a whole appears in Figure 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's seriously the entire results section. There's actually a lot more work in the methods section to set up the analyses...but evidently this is all that came of it and is fit to report? I don't understand that decision, because Table 2 (also not visible in the version I've linked) seems to list two very small $p$ values, and a lot of other inscrutable statistical information. Then again, it's not clear to me that the authors even paid that much attention to what they were writing here, because the $p$ value from the table that they seem to refer to in the results section is actually one order of magnitude higher than they say in the results (i.e., the table lists $p = 0.00127$: three zeros, not four).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Setting all these qualms aside, consider one more—maybe the most important: the authors seem to be claiming evidence of a process they don't understand (we might as well call it &quot;quantum magic&quot;) based on a single $p$ value. I'd bet that's only good enough to convince people who really don't understand what it means in the first place. If you want to give these statistics some serious thought, I'd recommend starting with Wagenmakers &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainlife.org/reprint/2007/Wagenmakers_EJ071000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt; and colleagues &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://mpdc.mae.cornell.edu/Courses/MAE714/Papers/Bem6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2011&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;. The first of these explains a wide variety of problems with $p$ values as they are commonly (mis)used and (mis)interpreted. The second takes a particularly close look at some much higher-profile quackery that made it into one of the biggest journals in my field &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://caps.ucsf.edu/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/bem2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bem, 2011&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;. Bem's pseudoscientific article caused quite a stir, because it claimed even better evidence of &lt;em&gt;precognition&lt;/em&gt;, and because Bem actually had a decent reputation as a social psychologist going into this fiasco...but now &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daryl_Bem#.22Feeling_the_Future.22_controversy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;his Wikipedia page has this sad blemish of a section&lt;/a&gt;, and it's all quite unsympathetic, as you can see for yourself. Maybe this is the price of bringing bad work into the spotlight; there but for the grace of obscurity and mediocrity go Achterberg and colleagues &lt;sup&gt;(2005)&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still, Bem's &lt;sup&gt;(2011)&lt;/sup&gt; a much better story in pseudoscience, as far as they go. If you're looking for the light reading version, you can find it in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.whatthefreud.com/skeptical-of-our-stories-you-might-be-psychic-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;my article for &lt;em&gt;WhatTheFreud.com&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, a website for psychology articles that a colleague / friend / former bandmate of mine made. That reminds me, I owe him another article...Maybe I'll try to dig up and synthesize some theories that could explain why so many of us are so desperate to believe in magic that we'll believe the first person who can throw a sufficiently confusing set of numbers at us and claim that they support just the right kind of magic we want to believe in (e.g., for your anecdotal reasons; not that I blame you for wanting to believe). Maybe I'll try to find a study of the harm journals do by having such shoddy standards for the work they accept...or maybe I'll just try to keep it light and write one about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokal_affair&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sokal affair&lt;/a&gt;. Now there was a guy who knew what it really means to get published in some random journal somewhere: it means you can successfully convince some small group of people that you know more than they do, and not necessarily anything more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Achterberg, J., Cooke, K., Richards, T., Standish, L. J., Kozak, L., &amp;amp; Lake, J. (2005). Evidence for correlations between distant intentionality and brain function in recipients: A functional magnetic resonance imaging analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Alternative &amp;amp; Complementary Medicine: Research on Paradigm, Practice, and Policy, 11&lt;/em&gt;(6), 965–971. Retrieved without figures, tables, or references from &lt;a href=&quot;http://stpresskit.files.wordpress.com/2008/08/evidence-for-correlations.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://stpresskit.files.wordpress.com/2008/08/evidence-for-correlations.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Bem, D. J. (2011). Feeling the future: experimental evidence for anomalous retroactive influences on cognition and affect. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100&lt;/em&gt;(3), 407–425. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://caps.ucsf.edu/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/bem2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://caps.ucsf.edu/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/bem2011.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Einstein, A., Podolsky, B., &amp;amp; Rosen, N. (1935). Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered complete? &lt;em&gt;Physical Review, 47&lt;/em&gt;(10), 777.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Pizzi, R., Fantasia, A., Gelain, F., Rossetti, D., &amp;amp; Vescovi, A. (2004). Non-local correlation between separated neural networks. In E. Donkor, A. R. Pirick, &amp;amp; H. E. Brandt (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Quantum Information and Computation II. Proceedings of SPIE, 5436&lt;/em&gt;, 107–117. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://air.unimi.it/bitstream/2434/30203/2/spie2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://air.unimi.it/bitstream/2434/30203/2/spie2004.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Wagenmakers, E. J. (2007). A practical solution to the pervasive problems of $p$ values. &lt;em&gt;Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 14&lt;/em&gt;(5), 779–804. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainlife.org/reprint/2007/Wagenmakers_EJ071000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.brainlife.org/reprint/2007/Wagenmakers_EJ071000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Wagenmakers, E. J., Wetzels, R., Borsboom, D., &amp;amp; Van der Maas, H. (2011). Why psychologists must change the way they analyze their data: The case of psi. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100&lt;/em&gt;, 426–432. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://mpdc.mae.cornell.edu/Courses/MAE714/Papers/Bem6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://mpdc.mae.cornell.edu/Courses/MAE714/Papers/Bem6.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-03-24T08:05:16.243" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5694" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1882" CreationDate="2014-02-09T15:55:50.703" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Also see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5607/brainwave-audio-recordings-and-beta-waves-how-do-they-affect-positivity&quot;&gt;Brainwave audio recordings and beta waves: how do they affect positivity&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5627/is-there-evidence-to-suggest-that-music-can-trigger-release-of-a-particular-kind&quot;&gt;Is there evidence to suggest that music can trigger release of a particular kind of neurotransmitter?&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, yes. All forms of stimulation result perceptions based on psychology and culture. It is, however, difficult to predict the way in which even the most &lt;em&gt;simple&lt;/em&gt; tones like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binaural_beats&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;binaural beats&lt;/a&gt; will affect emotions and behaviour, because of past associations and cultural biases. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A recent study not posted on Wikipedia (sorry for lack of citation) shows that binaural beats have no effects on the tested traits of visual attention and task switching by the Color Trails Tests or an ADHD test called &quot;test of variables of attention&quot; when compared with placebo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Repeated measures analysis of variance was used to analyze pre- and postintervention scores on the Color Trails Tests, Homework Problem Checklist, and the TOVA. The effect of time was significant on the Color Trails Test. However, there were no significant group differences on the Color Trails Test or the TOVA scores postintervention. Parents reported that the study participants had fewer homework problems postintervention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0882596308003321&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pilot Feasibility Study of Binaural Auditory Beats for Reducing Symptoms of Inattention in Children and Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This does not exactly answer your question, as binaural beats may have an effect on the brain which does not have to do with attention or task switching. In that case, further study would need to be done under controls of placebo, multinational and multiculturalism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-05-25T03:52:24.413" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5696" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5700" CreationDate="2014-02-09T21:47:20.457" Score="0" ViewCount="251" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3nwwKbM_vJc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Focused mindful self-awareness&lt;/a&gt; (Google talk Jon Kabat-Zinn) are common activities, used to help patients of a variety of mental illness of different degrees - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qcrGlUHlu4M#t=21m08s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;with some evidence of healing&lt;/a&gt; (Dr. Jeffery Schwartz).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a cognitive science perspective, what is this focused mindful self-awareness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2014-02-10T00:57:40.830" LastActivityDate="2014-02-10T18:38:27.337" Title="What is mindful focused self-awareness from a cognitive science perspective?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5697" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-10T09:57:33.233" Score="15" ViewCount="12214" Body="&lt;p&gt;Search for “432 Hz” in YouTube and you’ll find plenty of examples where people have applied a pitch shifter to alter music ranging from a Mozart Requiem to Oasis’ Wonderwall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But some claim that there is more to this than just preference. There are several blogs that claim that using a normal concert tuning of 440 Hz is bad for our health, but then what do you expect from something first promoted by the Nazis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The recent rediscoveries of the vibratory / oscillatory nature of the universe indicate that this contemporary international concert pitch standard may generate an unhealthy effect or anti-social behavior in the consciousness of human beings … There is a theory that the change from 432 Hz to 440 Hz was dictated by Nazi propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels. [Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.zengardner.com/440hz-music-conspiracy-to-detune-us-from-natural-432hz-harmonics/#sthash.hcAIX7N2.dpuf&quot;&gt;Zen Gardner&lt;/a&gt;.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;432 Hz is said to be mathematically consistent with the patterns of the universe. Studies reveal that 432hz tuning vibrates with the universe’s golden mean PHI and unifies the properties of light, time, space, matter, gravity and magnetism with biology, the DNA code and consciousness. When our atoms and DNA start to resonate in harmony with the spiraling pattern of nature, our sense of connection to nature is said to be magnified. The number 432 is also reflected in ratios of the Sun, Earth, and the moon as well as the precession of the equinoxes, the Great Pyramid of Egypt, Stonehenge, the Sri Yantra among many other sacred sites. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“From my own observations, some of the harmonic overtone partials of&#xA;  A=432hz 12T5 appear to line up to natural patterns and also the&#xA;  resonance of solitons. Solitons need a specific range to form into the&#xA;  realm of density and span from the micro to the macro cosmos. Solitons&#xA;  are not only found in water mechanics, but also in the ion-acoustic&#xA;  breath between electrons and protons.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;– Brian T. Collins &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another blog wrote that,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The noticeable difference music lovers and musicians have noticed with&#xA;  music tuned in A=432 Hz is that it is not only more beautiful and&#xA;  harmonious to the ears, but it also induces a more inward experience&#xA;  that is felt inside the body at the spine and heart. Music tuned in&#xA;  A=440 Hz was felt as a more outward and mental experience, and was&#xA;  felt at the side of the head which projected outwards. Audiophiles&#xA;  have also stated that A=432hz music seems to be non-local and can fill&#xA;  an entire room, whereas A=440hz can be perceived as directional or&#xA;  linear in sound propagation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, there is &lt;a href=&quot;https://soundcloud.com/groups/432-hz-music&quot;&gt;a group on SoundCloud where people everyday shares different sound tracks based on 432 Hz frequencies&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is still kind of ambiguous and unclear to me. Does it really work to tune your music to 432 Hz, or it is just a hoax? Does it really effect your sub-conscious state and your health?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4321" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-10T19:12:58.550" LastActivityDate="2017-02-23T04:46:54.587" Title="432 Hz vs. 440 Hz frequencies: health and psychological effects?" Tags="&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="17" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5699" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-10T18:12:47.053" Score="2" ViewCount="316" Body="&lt;p&gt;After going through some literature on values, beliefs and attitudes, I am confused. Values and beliefs are somewhat more clear, but what exactly is an attitude? What does it contain? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is &quot;I like X&quot; already an attitude towards X? Is anything beyond &quot;like&quot; also an attitude, such as &quot;I find X boring&quot;? If yes, then where is the border to related concepts (and which concepts are related - is an emotion towards an object an attitude)? If an attitude is only restricted to being a positive or negative disposition towards an object, how does it differ from a preference? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update&lt;/strong&gt; Nick Stauner's answer includes a citation claiming that an attitude is not affect. But the same citation insists that an attitude is about favorability, and if we reduce attitudes to &quot;I like X&quot;, how is &quot;like&quot; not considered affect? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="723" LastEditorUserId="723" LastEditDate="2014-02-10T23:23:31.497" LastActivityDate="2014-02-10T23:23:31.497" Title="Is there a precise definition of &quot;attitude&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5700" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5696" CreationDate="2014-02-10T18:38:27.337" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think your asking a psychologically healthy spiritual question. Psychologist are told to promote spirituality and many concepts from religion have affected current day therapies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bishop, Lau, and colleagues (2004) offered a two-component model of mindfulness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first component &lt;em&gt;of mindfulness&lt;/em&gt; involves the self-regulation of attention so that it is maintained on immediate experience, thereby allowing for increased recognition of mental events in the present moment. The second component involves adopting a particular orientation toward one’s experiences in the present moment, an orientation that is characterized by curiosity, openness, and acceptance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this two-component model, self-regulated attention (the first component) involves conscious awareness of one's current thoughts, feelings, and surroundings, which can result in metacognitive skills for controlling concentration. Orientation to experience (the second component) involves accepting one's mindstream, maintaining open and curious attitudes, and thinking in alternative categories (developing upon Ellen Langer's research on decision-making).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia mindfulness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a student of psychology, psychiatry and neuroscience I will give you my perspective of the cognitive science understanding of mindfulness. Then I'll give a less biased published view of a professor of psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I was 14 the church I belong to at the time was helped to be run by my Father. He built a pool for the church and right before the beginning of the High School semester we laid down concrete. For some reason the baseball coach decided to help us in exchange for some extra concrete for his field. I did not like laying concrete. The raking, bull float and constant worry that it would harden in an untenable way. To make matters worse the coach talked my dad into removing his partitions which would have made many small slabs around the pool into one giant slab. Anyone who knows about concrete in the south would immediately know that this means its going to crack and have to be sealed eventually. At the end of the day my muscles were give out and i lost my balance and my hand went into the crete a couple of times. In addition even though I count that day one of the times I worked extremely hard for no pay the coach had decided to call me various names and stuff. On the way home my father lost his temper with me. My grandparents put things into perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thier common way of doing it is consistent with Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) which uses mindfulness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive defusion: Learning methods to reduce the tendency to reify &lt;em&gt;(inforce negative and self defeating schema see this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZimx1wHYcs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example from The Help&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/em&gt; thoughts, images, emotions, and memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptance: Allowing thoughts to come and go without struggling with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Contact with the present moment: Awareness of the here and now, experienced with openness, interest, and receptiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Observing the self: Accessing a transcendent sense of self, a continuity of consciousness which is unchanging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Values: Discovering what is most important to one's true self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Committed action: Setting goals according to values and carrying them out responsibly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia ACT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They said, God loves you we love you don't worry &lt;em&gt;(Observing the self,Contact with the present moment,Values)&lt;/em&gt;, don't be upset at him &lt;em&gt;(Committed action)&lt;/em&gt; he's tired and isn't thinking clearly &lt;em&gt;(Acceptance)&lt;/em&gt;, of course you worked extremely hard today but your father wasn't watching you I was &lt;em&gt;(Cognitive defusion)&lt;/em&gt;, everyone loses their balance at some point especially during the last few hours it was easily correctable &lt;em&gt;(Cognitive defusion)&lt;/em&gt;. This common sense, non-judgemental, encouraged me to consider the situation rationally, accept the fact that I was limited and my father was limited and not hold ill feelings toward him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evangelical Christianity is all about &amp;quot;Contact with the present moment&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;Observing the self&amp;quot;, and &amp;quot;Values&amp;quot;. Services are chocked full of religious based phrases which lead people to experience a contact with the present moment through experiencing forgiveness, justification and cleansing of the past. God loves you it doesn't matter what you've done in the past your forgiven now, forget the past, your a new person in Christ now, there is hope for you, &amp;quot;Everything is working out for my good and for God's Glory&amp;quot;. While we don't have all of ACT down if you go to such a church you will certainly learn to live in the present by allowing God to deal with you past. Such may be the case in other religions but I do not know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following is an exerpt from Dr. McFadden's Mindfulness, vulnerability, and love: Spiritual lessons from frail elders, earnest young pilgrims, and middle aged rockers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Raised a nominal Roman Catholic, with no concrete plans for entering the ministry, John McFadden went on to serve as senior pastor of two large United Church of Christ (Congregational) faith communities for a total of 32 years. As a result, I became a “minister's wife” and received the blessings of friendship with many older men and women who were my first teachers about aging with grace. These lessons accrued through the years and inspired my academic exploration of the psychology of religion and aging. From the beginning, when we were 23 years old with no clue how to be a minister or a minister's wife, to the time my husband retired from ministry to a beloved congregation in 2006, it was the old people who reached out to us with a multitude of kind and generous acts. In our age-segregated society, if I had married an accountant, a dentist, or a professor, I probably never would have developed such treasured friendships with older adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My sense of time stops, and my identity as “Susan McFadden, Ph.D., Psychology Professor, wife, mother, blah blah blah” disappears as I crouch to grasp a hand, gaze at a face, and say “peace be with you.” Regardless of whether the person whose hands I hold can reply with a verbal blessing, the moment feels powerfully imbued with holiness. I face my own vulnerability, for one day I may be demented or immobilized by stroke. In that large, crowded room at the nursing home, I am uplifted by love given and love received.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although we cherish our worship experiences at the nursing home, most of the time we worship in a bar with pierced and tattooed young adults. The service starts at “10:30-ish,” the pastor sits on a barstool like everyone else, and music consists of everything from alt-rock to bluegrass. This bar is a long way from the staid Presbyterian church of my youth and the Congregational churches John served in his ministry. We decided that his leaving the ministry afforded us the possibility of doing something completely different and exploring a new way of being in Christian community. Called the “emergent church” by some scholars, these groups attract people who have been described as “avant-garde youth and aging hippies” (Byassee, 2006: 20). Many have fled “big box” Evangelical churches with their “Jesus goes to Vegas” style of worship and their political allegiance to conservative causes. They are seeking an authentic way of holding one another accountable to love God and one another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like worship at the county nursing home, worship at the bar evokes feelings of mindfulness, vulnerability, and love. The mindfulness derives from the desire to be fully present to the mostly young adults worshipping in that odd place, with its pool tables and dart machines. John and I do not want to play the role of know-it-all baby boomers, but rather to join these persons as fellow pilgrims. On the other hand, he is often asked to schedule a time for coffee and theological conversation, while I am frequently asked for advice about academic matters. Thus, mindfulness involves intentional awareness of how best to be respectfully present to others and to humbly offer whatever we have gained from our experiences that might be helpful. Vulnerability is located in the conviction that we have much to learn from these young adults, and that our own faith can grow as a result of knowing them and hearing their tales of spiritual journeys that sometimes have moved through treacherous territories of drug abuse and lost-ness. This little community often speaks about love, and the challenge of following Jesus' commandment to “love one another” in a world full of enticements to love self first and foremost, as well as repeated messages that the self is not good enough, attractive enough, rich enough, or sane enough to be loved by another person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these people—old and young—have taught me about relational mindfulness, vulnerability, and love. Their intensity, whether born of their conscious decisions to live by different values than those of the prevailing culture, or their un-chosen suffering, invites mindful engagement. All remind me about my various vulnerabilities, ranging from the existential reality of my finitude to my everyday struggles to live faithfully. Most importantly, they teach me new ways of giving and receiving love.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McFadden, S. H. (2008). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890406507000837&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mindfulness, vulnerability, and love: Spiritual lessons from frail elders, earnest young pilgrims, and middle aged rockers.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of aging studies, 22(2), 132-139.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-02-10T18:38:27.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5701" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5699" CreationDate="2014-02-10T18:39:43.467" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have you considered &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_%28psychology%29#Definitions_of_attitude&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's &lt;em&gt;Definitions of attitude&lt;/em&gt; page&lt;/a&gt;? Here are some excerpts with which I agree...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;An attitude can be defined as a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, event, activities, ideas, or just about anything in your environment, but there is debate about precise definitions.&lt;/strong&gt; Eagly and Chaiken [(1998)], for example, define an attitude &amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor&lt;/strong&gt;.&amp;quot; Though it is sometimes common to define an &lt;strong&gt;attitude as affect toward an object&lt;/strong&gt;, affect (i.e., discrete emotions or overall arousal) is generally understood to be distinct from attitude as a measure of favorability [(Ajzen, 2001)]. [Emphasis added.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me, this distinction means that affect exists apart from attitudes at the level of the person (e.g., &amp;quot;I feel [insert affect word &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt; here]&amp;quot;), but is influenced by affect at the level of the object (e.g., &amp;quot;I feel [insert affect word &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Y$&lt;/span&gt; here] toward [insert object &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z$&lt;/span&gt; here]&amp;quot;). Thus affect at the object level would more or less constitute an attitude, yet remain distinct from affect per se, which can occur at many levels, and not necessarily be directed toward any specific object. Examples of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X,\ Y,\ \&amp;amp;\ Z\ $&lt;/span&gt; could include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$X=Y=\text{&quot;resentful&quot;};\ Z=\text{&quot;Obama&quot;}$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, &amp;quot;I feel resentful,&amp;quot; states an affect, whereas, &amp;quot;I feel resentful toward Obama&amp;quot; states an attitude. However, you might prefer to consult Ajzen's (2001) own reasoning on the matter (TBH, I haven't).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further considerations from Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This definition of attitude allows for one's evaluation of an attitude object to vary from extremely negative to extremely positive, but also admits that people can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object meaning that they might at different times express both positive and negative attitude toward the same object. This has led to some discussion of whether individual can hold multiple attitudes toward the same object [(Wood, 2000)].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether attitudes are explicit (i.e., deliberately formed) versus implicit (i.e., subconscious) has been a topic of considerable research. Research on implicit attitudes, which are generally unacknowledged or outside of awareness, uses sophisticated methods involving people's response times to stimuli to show that implicit attitudes exist (perhaps in tandem with explicit attitudes of the same object). Implicit and explicit attitudes seem to affect people's behavior, though in different ways. They tend not to be strongly associated with each other, although in some cases they are. The relationship between them is poorly understood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ajzen, I. k. (2001). Nature and operation of attitudes. &lt;em&gt;Annual Review of Psychology, 52&lt;/em&gt;, 27–58.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eagly, A. H., &amp;amp; Chaiken, S. (1998). Attitude structure and function. In D.T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fisk, and G. Lindsey (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, pp. 269–322. New York: McGowan-Hill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wood, W. (2000). Attitude change: Persuasion and social influence. &lt;em&gt;Annual Review of Psychology, 51&lt;/em&gt;: 539–570.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-02-10T23:12:04.810" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5703" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1498" CreationDate="2014-02-10T19:25:11.967" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't imagine what kind of evidence there ever will be but I believe they are seperate. Of course the brain reacts to our mind because it is connected to our body, I feel as if they are seperate but when we feel sad the brain will release certain chemicals so our body feels it too. I'm not sure if this makes sense, it is hard to explain (but it makes sense to me). &#xA;The fact that I can often tell when my partner or mother are thinking about me (for example more often then not, when they 'randomly' pop into my mind and I check my phone to see if they have replied, I can see they are 'typing...' or I immediately receive a  message or a call). This is to me could be proof that the world isn't just what we physically see but that everything is connected on a different level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This isn't a very scientific answer but I just wanted to share my view &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4378" LastActivityDate="2014-02-10T19:25:11.967" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5704" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-10T20:41:06.203" Score="3" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;How good is blood flow (BOLD signal) as a measure of actual neural activity? What deficiencies exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4379" LastActivityDate="2014-02-10T23:29:24.973" Title="What is the current consensus on if fMRI studies in blood flow actually match brain activity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5706" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5710" CreationDate="2014-02-10T23:03:19.093" Score="-1" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's the purpose of rationalization, specifically in modeling human behaviors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is true that people use rationalization to prevent/avoid/justify disappointment? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4374" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-11T01:00:32.857" LastActivityDate="2014-02-11T04:20:18.750" Title="Is rationalization needed for learning human behaviors?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5707" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5704" CreationDate="2014-02-10T23:29:24.973" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood-oxygen-level_dependent#Criticism_and_limitations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's page on criticism and limitations of BOLD&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although most fMRI research uses BOLD contrast imaging as a method to determine which parts of the brain is most active, because &lt;strong&gt;the signals are relative, and not individually quantitative&lt;/strong&gt;, some question its rigor. Other methods which propose to measure neural activity directly have been attempted (for example, measurement of the Oxygen Extraction Fraction, or OEF, in regions of the brain, which measures how much of the oxyhemoglobin in the blood has been converted to deoxyhemoglobin[(&lt;a href=&quot;http://siba.unipv.it/fisica/articoli/M/MagneticResonanceInMedicine1994_32_6_749.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yablonskiy &amp;amp; Haacke, 1994&lt;/a&gt;)]), but because the electromagnetic fields created by an active or firing neuron are so weak, the signal-to-noise ratio is extremely low and statistical methods used to extract quantitative data have been largely unsuccessful so far.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The wisdom of discarding the low-frequency signals in BOLD-contrast imaging came into question in 1995, when it was observed that the &lt;strong&gt;“noise” in the area of the brain that controls right-hand movement fluctuated in unison with similar activity in the area on the opposite side of the brain associated with left-hand movement [(Raichle, 2006, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-brains-dark-energy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2010&lt;/a&gt;)]. BOLD-contrast imaging is only sensitive to differences between two brain states&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Raichle, M. E. (2006). The brain's dark energy. &lt;em&gt;Science, 314&lt;/em&gt;, 1249–1250.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Raichle, M. E. (March 2010). The brain's dark energy. &lt;em&gt;Scientific American: Mind &amp;amp; Brain&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-brains-dark-energy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-brains-dark-energy/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yablonskiy, D. A., &amp;amp; Haacke, E. M. (1994). Theory of NMR signal behavior in magnetically inhomogeneous tissues: The static dephasing regime. &lt;em&gt;Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 32&lt;/em&gt;(6), 749–763. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://siba.unipv.it/fisica/articoli/M/MagneticResonanceInMedicine1994_32_6_749.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://siba.unipv.it/fisica/articoli/M/MagneticResonanceInMedicine1994_32_6_749.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-02-10T23:29:24.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5708" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5654" CreationDate="2014-02-11T00:48:43.170" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm going to leave some commentary on your question—because you actually asked a lot of questions. Disclaimer—my answer is based on my understanding of human cognition, and I am not citing sources because I don't want this to be construed as a scientific answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;First question:&lt;/em&gt; does the brain have different &quot;sampling rates&quot; for the various senses?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Answer:&lt;/em&gt; yes and no. Yes, in the sense that some senses are more sensitive than others (e.g. ears are capable of higher resolution/sensitivity than eyes), but mostly no because the brain does not work that way.  It does not &quot;sample&quot; as a computer does.  In perceiving senses, the brain is interpreting analog signals, which do not have discrete time-domain sampling. Instead, various parts of the brain work on the analog signals, performing operations to deduct information based on those signals (for example, audio signals are processed for frequency, intensity, spatial balance, etc.), and those computations are then passed along to higher-order cognitive functions.  There is evidence that these lower-level processing centers are always operating, and that the resulting information is then processed by higher-order cognitive functions proportionally to the amount of attention you give to it (see information processing theory).  If you want to learn more about this, do a search for hearing and/or vision disorders—that's where scientists learn the most about how the lower-level sensory processing works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Second question:&lt;/em&gt; is there a rigid hierarchy for how the brain processes information from the senses?&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Answer:&lt;/em&gt; Probably not—how the brain processes information is very complex and I doubt anything about it is rigid. But this would be an interesting avenue of research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Third question&lt;/em&gt;: are some senses innately less developed than others?&lt;br&gt;  I'm sure the answer to this is yes, but I don't know, and I suspect that nobody else does either. A valid experiment to compare different sensory inputs would be very difficult to design, due to the limited nature of our understanding of how the senses coordinate together. Couple that with needing to control for individual differences, and you have a very difficult study. Furthermore, it has been shown that the brain can adapt to a loss of a sensory input (for example, the vestibular sense can be re-wired in the brain to respond to another stimuli, as in one study where electrical stimuli applied to the tongue of individuals who have lost it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, your question about &lt;code&gt;sensory inputs that were being drowned out by the other senses&lt;/code&gt; crosses the divide between sensing and perceiving. Perceiving requires conscious thought and attention, whereas sensing happens automatically with no conscious input required (as far as we know- that was the gist of the multimodality topic in the other answer).  So, maybe this can give you some things to think about?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-11T02:07:00.550" LastActivityDate="2014-02-11T02:07:00.550" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5709" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-11T03:13:15.950" Score="6" ViewCount="701" Body="&lt;p&gt;While Googling, I noticed there are 2 conferences for computational neuroscience: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cosyne.org/c/index.php?title=Cosyne_14&quot;&gt;Cosyne&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnsorg.org/cns-2014-quebec-city&quot;&gt;CNS&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;1) What are these conferences' differences in terms of material &amp;amp; impact/size?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2) Are there any other major computational neuroscience conferences I missed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4290" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-11T03:29:13.937" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T14:30:49.690" Title="Cosyne vs CNS conferences for Computational Neuroscience?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5710" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5706" CreationDate="2014-02-11T04:20:18.750" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've commented to request clarification of your first question, but would like to edit this answer to address it too if you can clarify for us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your second question, I'll begin where I often do when researching simple questions: with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_%28making_excuses%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;. Within our psychological context, it defines rationalization as a defense mechanism (citing &lt;a href=&quot;http://depression.about.com/od/glossary/g/rationalization.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schimelpfening, 2011&lt;/a&gt;). By &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_mechanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;definition, defense mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; exist &quot;to &lt;strong&gt;manipulate, deny, or distort reality&lt;/strong&gt; in order to &lt;strong&gt;defend&lt;/strong&gt; against feelings of &lt;strong&gt;anxiety and unacceptable impulses&lt;/strong&gt; to maintain one's self schema.&quot; (I found the cited link broken here, FWIW.) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanisms#The_ego.27s_use_of_defence_mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Further&lt;/a&gt;, &quot;When anxiety becomes overwhelming, it is the ego's place to protect the person by employing defence mechanisms. &lt;strong&gt;Guilt, embarrassment and shame&lt;/strong&gt; often accompany anxiety.&quot; Disappointment might be similar enough to anxiety for your purposes, but I would say it's a lower-arousal form of negative affect (see the circumplex model of affect I mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5337/4086&quot;&gt;a previous answer&lt;/a&gt;). Disappointment may be a bit closer to guilt, embarrassment, or shame in terms of relatively neutral / non-specific arousal, but that's just an educated guess / intuitive judgment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If disappointment $\approx$ these other negative emotions, let's return to Schimelpfening (2011): &quot;An unconscious defense mechanism in which irrational or unacceptable &lt;strong&gt;behavior&lt;/strong&gt;, motives, or feelings are logically &lt;strong&gt;justified&lt;/strong&gt; or made consciously tolerable by plausible means.&quot; Clearly behavioral justification is definitional. &quot;Post-decisional &lt;strong&gt;regret&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; – which sounds just about as similar to disappointment as any affect word I've mentioned yet – is avoided in the act of justifying a decision and prevented thereafter, according to cognitive dissonace theory (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://psypress.co.uk/smithandmackie/resources/topic.asp?topic=ch08-tp-01&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smith &amp;amp; Mackie, 2007&lt;/a&gt;; I may be interpreting loosely).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this satisfies you that rationalization serves the purpose of preventing/avoiding/justifying negative emotion $\approx$ disappointment, the only remaining question (aside from your first one) is whether people use it. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hide-and-seek/201203/self-deception-i-rationalization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Burton (2012)&lt;/a&gt; offers some pretty good examples from literature and history, so as @rmayer06 said, the answer is &quot;yes [more or less]&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burton, N. (2012). Self-deception I: Rationalization: Human beings are not rational, but rationalizing animals. &lt;em&gt;Psychology Today: Hide and Seek.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hide-and-seek/201203/self-deception-i-rationalization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hide-and-seek/201203/self-deception-i-rationalization&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schimelpfening, N. (2011). Rationalization. &lt;em&gt;About.com: Health: Depression: Glossary.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://depression.about.com/od/glossary/g/rationalization.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://depression.about.com/od/glossary/g/rationalization.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, E. R., &amp;amp; Mackie, D. M. (2007). &lt;em&gt;Social psychology&lt;/em&gt;. Psychology Press/Taylor &amp;amp; Francis (UK). Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psypress.co.uk/smithandmackie/resources/topic.asp?topic=ch08-tp-01&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psypress.co.uk/smithandmackie/resources/topic.asp?topic=ch08-tp-01&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-02-11T04:20:18.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5632" CreationDate="2014-02-11T05:09:25.403" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sadly (or should I be happy that Google is this awesome? Not to mention &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_singularity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the rate of scientific progress&lt;/a&gt;!), all I really had to do to come up with an answer was perform &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=learning+transcranial+magnetic+stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a Google search for &quot;learning transcranial magnetic stimulation&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. The first hit, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/01/110128121629.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a ScienceDaily page (Ruhr-University Bochum, 2011) page&lt;/a&gt;, lists some journal references (Mix, Benali, Eysel, &amp;amp; Funke, 2010; Benali et al., 2011) that effectively say (in laymen's terms), &quot;&lt;strong&gt;Yes!&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; Here's ScienceDaily's summary (I'll let you read the rest at the source):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What sounds like science fiction is actually possible: thanks to &lt;strong&gt;magnetic stimulation&lt;/strong&gt;, the activity of certain brain nerve cells can be deliberately influenced. What happens in the brain in this context has been unclear up to now. Medical experts have now shown that various stimulus patterns changed the activity of distinct neuronal cell types. In addition, certain stimulus patterns &lt;strong&gt;led to rats learning more easily&lt;/strong&gt;. [Emphasis added.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To show how hard I'm working to really earn that bounty of yours, here's the summary from the second Google hit, a review article on this very topic (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2621080/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reis et al., 2008&lt;/a&gt;; again, plenty more info at the source):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In summary, the scarce studies performed so far point to the encouraging conclusion that &lt;strong&gt;noninvasive brain stimulation can&lt;/strong&gt; contribute to the understanding of mechanisms underlying motor learning and motor memory formation and raise the exciting hypothesis that this increased understanding could in the future result in the development of new strategies to &lt;strong&gt;enhance specific stages of learning&lt;/strong&gt; and memory processing in healthy humans and in patients with brain lesions (see chapter by Gerloff et al.). [Gerloff et al. doesn't appear in the references; emphasis added.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; I see from your comment that you want me to explain the mechanism. Since you offer a bounty, I'll play along and dance for it a bit. Here's another excerpt from Reis and colleagues (2008, page 6 of 16):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It would be theoretically possible to facilitate motor learning processes in which [the primary motor cortex] is involved by &lt;strong&gt;enhancing excitability in the “learning” [primary motor cortex&lt;/strong&gt; (Pascual–Leone, Valls–Solé, Wassermann, &amp;amp; Hallett, 1994)] or by &lt;strong&gt;decreasing excitability in the “resting” [primary motor cortex&lt;/strong&gt; (Schambra, Sawaki, &amp;amp; Cohen, 2003; Plewnia, Lotze, &amp;amp; Gerloff, 2003)], but see also Wassermann[, Wedegaertner, Ziemann, George, &amp;amp; Chen (1998)]. The intrinsic intracortical mechanisms by which these oversimplified models may operate remain to be identified ([Perez &amp;amp; Cohen, 2008; Daskalakis, Paradiso, Christensen, Fitzgerald, Gunraj, &amp;amp; Chen, 2004; Koch, Franca, Mochizuki, Marconi, Caltagirone, &amp;amp; Rothwell, 2007;] see for discussion chapters by Walsh et al., Di Lazzaro et al., Berardelli et al.). [References unavailable for these three discussion chapters; emphasis added.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may want to read the review further for yourself or ask follow-up questions if this is an unsatisfactory explanation of the mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since that review was a little hesitant to conclude conclusively, and it's five years old now, I'll also throw in a brand-new bit of original research (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3859914/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wall et al., 2013&lt;/a&gt;) that demonstrates the supportive trend continues:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusion:&lt;/strong&gt; These preliminary findings suggest &lt;strong&gt;rTMS&lt;/strong&gt; does not adversely impact neurocognitive functioning in adolescents and &lt;strong&gt;may provide subtle enhancement of verbal memory&lt;/strong&gt; as measured by the CAVLT. Further controlled investigations with larger sample sizes and rigorous trial designs are warranted to confirm and extend these findings. [Emphasis added.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$\uparrow$ That $\uparrow$ was the fifth Google hit! Also, the seventh (Jelić et al., 2013) says it's not a placebo effect!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Going a little wide, transcranial &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;direct current&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; stimulation (which is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;somewhat different from magnetic stimulation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, though maybe not in ways that concern you) works too (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/amping-up-brain-function/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fields, 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/9011312_Facilitation_of_probabilistic_classification_learning_by_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_of_the_prefrontal_cortex_in_the_human/file/d912f50597d44df446.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kincses, Antal, Nitsche, Bártfai, &amp;amp; Paulus, 2004&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/7745540_Anodal_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_of_prefrontal_cortex_enhances_working_memory/file/9fcfd50a3483033595.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fregni et al., 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/10710628_Facilitation_of_implicit_motor_learning_by_weak_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_of_the_primary_motor_cortex_in_the_human/file/79e4150ae2024da0f0.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nitsche et al., 2003&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://diyhpl.us/~bryan/papers2/neuro/Time-dependent%20effect%20of%20transcranial%20direct%20current%20stimulation%20on%20the%20enhancement%20of%20working%20memory.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ohn et al., 2008&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/5548486_Noninvasive_brain_stimulation_improves_language_learning/file/5046351db1c615613a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flöel, Rösser, Michka, Knecht, &amp;amp; Breitenstein, 2008&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ingienous.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/snyder-9-dots-paper.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chi &amp;amp; Snyder, 2012&lt;/a&gt;)—&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.foc.us/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;you can even try it yourself for $249 or £179&lt;/a&gt;! I just had to follow a few links from the 14th Google hit (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.technologyreview.com/view/427177/diy-kit-overclocks-your-brain-with-direct-current/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mims, 2012&lt;/a&gt;) to find all that. I'm a little shocked (pardon the pun) at how legit this actually seems...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit (by Fizz): Note that a more recent &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28759803&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2017) meta-analysis of tDCS studies&lt;/a&gt; found significant problems with their &lt;a href=&quot;http://p-curve.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;p-curves&lt;/a&gt;, making the authors of this meta-analysis conclude that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using a p-curve analysis, we found no evidence that the tDCS studies had evidential&#xA;  value (33% power or greater), with the estimate of statistical power of these studies being&#xA;  approximately 14% for the cognitive studies, and 5% (what would be expected from&#xA;  randomly generated data) for the working memory studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Also&lt;/em&gt; (16th Google hit), it looks like the U.S. National Institutes of Health Clinical Center is currently recruiting participants for their study, &lt;a href=&quot;http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01260740&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The Effect of Transcranial &lt;strong&gt;Magnetic&lt;/strong&gt; Stimulation on Learning With Reward in Healthy Humans&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, so maybe you could even get Uncle Sam to pay you (for testing &lt;em&gt;magnetic, not electrical&lt;/em&gt; stimulation)! However, if I'm reading that right, it's a study of learning &lt;strong&gt;disruption&lt;/strong&gt;, which is another potential (and maybe not-so-desirable) application of TMS, according to the 18th hit (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/32/6/1981.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;De Weerd et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; Reis and colleagues (2008) also review this disruptive process somewhat; I get the impression that disruption is much easier than enhancement to achieve with magnetic stimulation (not sure whether this applies to direct electrical current as well). It seems TMS has been used mostly to knock out brain function temporarily in localized areas to simulate the effects of brain lesions. Use of TMS to enhance excitability rather than inhibit it seems to be the more recent innovation, and maybe a separable effect (i.e., it may be possible to excite the brain using TMS without causing inhibition).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In anticipation of the next question, &quot;Is it safe?&quot; I feel I should add that this is definitely not my area of expertise – I got a B- in biopsych as an undergrad – so again, I'll let the experts speak for themselves (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/6377248_Safety_aspects_of_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_concerning_healthy_subjects_and_patients/file/9fcfd50a34830ccb05.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Poreisz, Boros, Antal, &amp;amp; Paulus, 2007&lt;/a&gt;), but as a fan of dystopian sci-fi, I will at least say that the short-term dangers seem like they could've been much worse! Same for the ethical ramifications, more or less (&lt;a href=&quot;http://wernicke.ccn.upenn.edu/~chatterjee/anjan_pdfs/Neurology_2011_HamiltonMessing_Chatterjee.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hamilton, Messing, &amp;amp; Chatterjee, 2011&lt;/a&gt;). It's reassuring to see so much thought going into this already; I might otherwise be worried about how far behind the times we seem to be here! BTW, these last revelations come thanks in part to the 33rd Google hit (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/superman/2013/04/tdcs_and_rtms_is_brain_stimulation_safe_and_effective.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oremus, 2013&lt;/a&gt;). I'm afraid no amount of tDCS will allow us to keep up with Google...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. From what I've seen in skimming some of these, it doesn't have anything in particular to do with the limbic system (which includes the amygdala). I saw a brief explanation suggesting it affects myelination, which is basically the process by which the brain speeds up electrical signal transmission. Myelin is a sort of segmented coating for the axons of neurons, which can be quite long individually. Myelin allows electrical signals (&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;action potentials&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;) to jump across myelinated segments quickly, rather than propagating &lt;em&gt;relatively&lt;/em&gt; slowly across every millimeter in the normal fashion. I also saw some indication that transcranial electromagnetic (didn't note which) stimulation might speed up other aspects of neural construction, such as the rate at which connections form (not just the rate at which they upgrade from the neural equivalents of a dial-up modem to fiber-optic).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Benali, A., Trippe, J., Weiler, E., Mix, A., Petrasch–Parwez, E., Girzalsky, W., ... &amp;amp; Funke, K. (2011). Theta-burst transcranial magnetic stimulation alters cortical inhibition. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Neuroscience, 31&lt;/em&gt;(4), 1193–1203.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Boggio, P. S., Ferrucci, R., Rigonatti, S. P., Covre, P., Nitsche, M., Pascual–Leone, A., &amp;amp; Fregni, F. (2006). Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on working memory in patients with Parkinson's disease. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 249&lt;/em&gt;(1), 31–38. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tmslab.org/publications/154.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.tmslab.org/publications/154.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Chi, R. P., &amp;amp; Snyder, A. W. (2012). Brain stimulation enables the solution of an inherently difficult problem. &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience Letters, 515&lt;/em&gt;(2), 121–124. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://ingienous.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/snyder-9-dots-paper.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://ingienous.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/snyder-9-dots-paper.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Daskalakis, Z. J., Paradiso, G. O., Christensen, B. K., Fitzgerald, Gunraj, &amp;amp; Chen. (2004). Exploring the connectivity between the cerebellum and motor cortex in humans. Journal of Physiology, 557, 689–700. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1665103/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1665103/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;De Weerd, P., Reithler, J., van de Ven, V., Been, M., Jacobs, C., &amp;amp; Sack, A. T. (2012). Posttraining transcranial magnetic stimulation of striate cortex disrupts consolidation early in visual skill learning. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Neuroscience, 32&lt;/em&gt;(6), 1981–1988. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/32/6/1981.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/32/6/1981.long&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Fields, R. D. (2011, November 25). Amping up brain function: Transcranial stimulation shows promise in speeding up learning. &lt;em&gt;Scientific American: Mind &amp;amp; Brain.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/amping-up-brain-function/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/amping-up-brain-function/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Flöel, A., Rösser, N., Michka, O., Knecht, S., &amp;amp; Breitenstein, C. (2008). Noninvasive brain stimulation improves language learning. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20&lt;/em&gt;(8), 1415–1422. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/5548486_Noninvasive_brain_stimulation_improves_language_learning/file/5046351db1c615613a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/5548486_Noninvasive_brain_stimulation_improves_language_learning/file/5046351db1c615613a.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Fregni, F., Boggio, P. S., Nitsche, M., Bermpohl, F., Antal, A., Feredoes, E., ... &amp;amp; Pascual–Leone, A. (2005). Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex enhances working memory. &lt;em&gt;Experimental Brain Research, 166&lt;/em&gt;(1), 23–30. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/7745540_Anodal_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_of_prefrontal_cortex_enhances_working_memory/file/9fcfd50a3483033595.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/7745540_Anodal_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_of_prefrontal_cortex_enhances_working_memory/file/9fcfd50a3483033595.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hamilton, R., Messing, S., &amp;amp; Chatterjee, A. (2011). Rethinking the thinking cap Ethics of neural enhancement using noninvasive brain stimulation. &lt;em&gt;Neurology, 76&lt;/em&gt;(2), 187–193. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://wernicke.ccn.upenn.edu/~chatterjee/anjan_pdfs/Neurology_2011_HamiltonMessing_Chatterjee.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://wernicke.ccn.upenn.edu/~chatterjee/anjan_pdfs/Neurology_2011_HamiltonMessing_Chatterjee.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Jelić, M. B., Stevanović, V. B., Milanović, S. D., Ljubisavljević, M. R., &amp;amp; Filipović, S. R. (2013). Transcranial magnetic stimulation has no placebo effect on motor learning. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Neurophysiology, 124&lt;/em&gt;(8). 1646–1651.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kincses, T. Z., Antal, A., Nitsche, M. A., Bártfai, O., &amp;amp; Paulus, W. (2004). Facilitation of probabilistic classification learning by transcranial direct current stimulation of the prefrontal cortex in the human. &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychologia, 42&lt;/em&gt;(1), 113–117. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/9011312_Facilitation_of_probabilistic_classification_learning_by_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_of_the_prefrontal_cortex_in_the_human/file/d912f50597d44df446.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/9011312_Facilitation_of_probabilistic_classification_learning_by_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_of_the_prefrontal_cortex_in_the_human/file/d912f50597d44df446.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Koch, G., Franca, M., Mochizuki, H., Marconi, Caltagirone, &amp;amp; Rothwell. (2007). Interactions between pairs of transcranial magnetic stimuli over the human left dorsal premotor cortex differ from those seen in primary motor cortex. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Physiology, 578&lt;/em&gt;, 551–562. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2075160/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2075160/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Mims, C. (2012, March 8). DIY kit overclocks your brain with direct current. &lt;em&gt;Technology Review: View.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.technologyreview.com/view/427177/diy-kit-overclocks-your-brain-with-direct-current/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.technologyreview.com/view/427177/diy-kit-overclocks-your-brain-with-direct-current/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Mix, A., Benali, A., Eysel, U. T., &amp;amp; Funke, K. (2010). Continuous and intermittent transcranial magnetic theta burst stimulation modify tactile learning performance and cortical protein expression in the rat differently. European Journal of Neuroscience, 32(9), 1575–1586.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Nitsche, M. A., Schauenburg, A., Lang, N., Liebetanz, D., Exner, C., Paulus, W., &amp;amp; Tergau, F. (2003). Facilitation of implicit motor learning by weak transcranial direct current stimulation of the primary motor cortex in the human. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15&lt;/em&gt;(4), 619–626. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/10710628_Facilitation_of_implicit_motor_learning_by_weak_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_of_the_primary_motor_cortex_in_the_human/file/79e4150ae2024da0f0.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/10710628_Facilitation_of_implicit_motor_learning_by_weak_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_of_the_primary_motor_cortex_in_the_human/file/79e4150ae2024da0f0.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ohn, S. H., Park, C. I., Yoo, W. K., Ko, M. H., Choi, K. P., Kim, G. M., ... &amp;amp; Kim, Y. H. (2008). Time-dependent effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on the enhancement of working memory. &lt;em&gt;Neuroreport, 19&lt;/em&gt;(1), 43–47. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://diyhpl.us/~bryan/papers2/neuro/Time-dependent%20effect%20of%20transcranial%20direct%20current%20stimulation%20on%20the%20enhancement%20of%20working%20memory.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://diyhpl.us/~bryan/papers2/neuro/Time-dependent%20effect%20of%20transcranial%20direct%20current%20stimulation%20on%20the%20enhancement%20of%20working%20memory.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Oremus, W. (2013, April 1). Spark of genius. &lt;em&gt;Slate: Technology: Superman.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/superman/2013/04/tdcs_and_rtms_is_brain_stimulation_safe_and_effective.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/superman/2013/04/tdcs_and_rtms_is_brain_stimulation_safe_and_effective.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Pascual–Leone, A., Valls–Solé, J., Wassermann, E. M., &amp;amp; Hallett, M. (1994). Responses to rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation of the human motor cortex. &lt;em&gt;Brain. 117&lt;/em&gt;(4), 847–858.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Perez, M. A., &amp;amp; Cohen, L. G. (in press as cited in Reis et al., 2008). Mechanisms underlying functional changes in the primary motor cortex ipsilateral to an active hand. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Plewnia, C., Lotze, M., &amp;amp; Gerloff, C. (2003). Disinhibition of the contralateral motor cortex by low-frequency rTMS. &lt;em&gt;Neuroreport, 14&lt;/em&gt;, 609–612.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Poreisz, C., Boros, K., Antal, A., &amp;amp; Paulus, W. (2007). Safety aspects of transcranial direct current stimulation concerning healthy subjects and patients. Brain Research Bulletin, 72(4), 208–214. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/6377248_Safety_aspects_of_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_concerning_healthy_subjects_and_patients/file/9fcfd50a34830ccb05.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/6377248_Safety_aspects_of_transcranial_direct_current_stimulation_concerning_healthy_subjects_and_patients/file/9fcfd50a34830ccb05.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Reis, J., Robertson, E. M., Krakauer, J. W., Rothwell, J., Marshall, L., Gerloff, C., ... &amp;amp; Cohen, L. G. (2008). Consensus: Can transcranial direct current stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation enhance motor learning and memory formation?. &lt;em&gt;Brain Stimulation, 1&lt;/em&gt;(4), 363–369. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2621080/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2621080/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ruhr-University Bochum. (2011, January 29). Learn more quickly by transcranial magnetic brain stimulation, study in rats suggests. &lt;em&gt;ScienceDaily&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved February 10, 2014 from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/01/110128121629.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/01/110128121629.htm&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Schambra, H. M., Sawaki, L., &amp;amp; Cohen, L. G. (2003). Modulation of excitability of human motor cortex (M1) by 1 Hz transcranial magnetic stimulation of the contralateral M1. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Neurophysiology, 114&lt;/em&gt;, 130–133.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Wall, C. A., Croarkin, P. E., McClintock, S. M., Murphy, L. L., Bandel, L. A., Sim, L. A., &amp;amp; Sampson, S. M. (2013). Neurocognitive effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in adolescents with major depressive disorder. &lt;em&gt;Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4&lt;/em&gt;(165). Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3859914/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3859914/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Wassermann, E. M., Wedegaertner, F. R., Ziemann, U., et al. (1998). Crossed reduction of human motor cortex excitability by 1-Hz transcranial magnetic stimulation. &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience Letters, 250&lt;/em&gt;, 141–144.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-16T20:27:01.040" LastActivityDate="2018-01-16T20:27:01.040" CommentCount="13" CommunityOwnedDate="2014-02-12T10:43:37.013" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5712" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5721" CreationDate="2014-02-11T09:25:07.120" Score="6" ViewCount="506" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the funniest and most psychologically intriguing characters on TV (in my opinion) is Adrian Monk. If you don't know who he is, I highly recommend &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tv.com/shows/monk/watch/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;watching the TV show&lt;/a&gt;. It's called &amp;quot;Monk&amp;quot; (naturally).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the show, Monk is a character with pretty much every phobia imaginable. He has all the quirks and OCD stereotype characteristics. One of the challenges Monk faces often is inhibition when trying to make up his mind. Watch this clip for an example of what I mean:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OU5AZ2bq09s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Monk - Mr. Monk Gets Cabin Fever&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that Monk is a fictional character, but the symptoms he has are very real and suffered from by many people daily (although seldom all at once, as is Monk's case).&#xA;What I want to know is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What specifically is the trait that Monk exhibits in the clip?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does he have a phobia of being wrong, or is he just incapable of being sure of himself?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it as simple as him just being very indecisive?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Thanks Nick Stauner for pointing this out. I will clarify: This question is based on the premise that Monk (or any other person) exhibiting this behavior does this frequently; not just a one time occurrence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4380" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-02-13T04:31:37.690" Title="Why is Mr. Monk unsure?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5713" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-11T11:19:45.753" Score="5" ViewCount="264" Body="&lt;p&gt;On the blog, &lt;a href=&quot;http://positivepsychologyreview.blogspot.com/2011/07/coping-with-disappointment-congratulate.html&quot;&gt;Positive Psychology Review, I read the following&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;TRAIN YOUR BRAIN - LAW OF ATTRACTION&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Dwelling on disappointments mentally and physically trains your brain&#xA;  to attract more disappointment vibrations. When coping with&#xA;  disappointment, it’s significant to note that your thoughts multiple [sic].&#xA;  So, if you are fixated on a disappointment, instead of harnessing the&#xA;  positive power of your brain to find answers, you’re actually&#xA;  “sentencing” your brain to being imprisoned thinking about&#xA;  disappointment. Of greater significance is the fact that your brain is&#xA;  also putting out “addictive” chemicals that keep your body craving&#xA;  disappointment. Instead, notice when you’re thinking about&#xA;  disappointment and interrupt this thought pattern by thinking of&#xA;  something else… Perhaps congratulating yourself!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a scientific basis for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-11T17:42:13.673" LastActivityDate="2014-02-12T09:42:24.750" Title="If we concentrate on our disappointment do we really get more disappointment?" Tags="&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5714" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-11T13:14:49.893" Score="2" ViewCount="201" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background.&lt;/strong&gt; It happens often that, at the end of the day when I return to home, I try to recall past events that took place that day or the day before (memory rehearsal), but surprisingly I find that I have lost almost all details about some of them: while some  details are kept &quot;in good state&quot;, other are altered (false memory: wrong order of events, memory gaps, inconsistent and incoherent memories), and the rest are forgotten! Boundaries between details are blurred! Such things happen when I'm tired. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the one hand, if I don't try to recall events, e.g. when I postpone such practice to a later moment (after resting), I will forget some details as I have wasted time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, when I try to rehearse some memories that happened the same day, it seems that the biological state of tiredness affects the ability to recall in such a manner that details become altered and false memories are produced (again a loss of information)! Both cases are bad, but which one is the worse?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point of this question is to know whether the biological state of tiredness can definitely alter some critical events when we try to recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Should we avoid trying to recall events when we are tired?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3700" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-11T17:37:28.697" LastActivityDate="2014-03-14T08:23:26.060" Title="Is it good practice to try to recall things when we are tired?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5715" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5713" CreationDate="2014-02-11T14:05:21.540" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think some scientific insights on this can come from a couple of sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cognitive therapy&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a branch of psychological therapy that interprets the human experience as follows.&#xA;There is an event, then the evaluation of that event, and then the emotion. Disappointment would be the end result, the emotion. Regular therapy might focus on avoiding the event, the trigger. In cognitive therapy one would try to change the evaluation of the event, and as a result, change the triggered emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To put it simply by example, if you were once bitten by a dog, you evaluate seeing a dog as a threat, and therefore experience fear when you see one. By learning to evaluate dogs as friendly and nice, the fear goes away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, this seems to imply that there might be things you can concentrate on that make it more likely for negative emotions to go away. But you would have to look into the details of cognitive therapy to figure out how exactly this works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Learned optimism&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diener and Seligman have done quite some research on learned optimism. This includes the question of whether it's possible to &quot;teach&quot; a pessimist to become an optimist. In one of their studies (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11894851&quot;&gt;Diener &amp;amp; Seligman, 2002&lt;/a&gt;), they have identified the 10% of happiest people in a group of 222 undergraduates, and compared them to the unhappiest students. Both experienced the same amount of negative emotions, but the happy people got over it much faster because they had different cognitive interpretations of the events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also some studies, not sure by who, that have shown that applying simple techniques can turn you into an &quot;optimist&quot; [citation needed]. A few studies (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/27/33/8877.full&quot;&gt;Johnstone, van Reekum, Urry, Kalin, &amp;amp; Davidson, 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://brainimaging.waisman.wisc.edu/~perlman/0903-EmoPaper/CogRegEmoOschner.2002.pdf&quot;&gt;Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, &amp;amp; Gabrieli, 2002&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3252634/&quot;&gt;McRae et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3807005/&quot;&gt;Hecht, 2013&lt;/a&gt;) were able to see brain activity changes and brain-density changes in the prefrontal cortex. In &quot;optimists&quot; the left side is more active. In &quot;pessimists&quot; the right side is more active. So this might support the brain and &quot;chemicals&quot; claims. But you'd have to Google the exact reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Broaden and build&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barbara Fredrickson has some interesting research (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3122271/&quot;&gt;Fredrickson, B.L., 2001&lt;/a&gt;) on how negative emotional states limit your range of reactions to &quot;choose&quot; from in response to a situation. And how positive emotions increase this range. She calls it the broaden and build theory. The most limited range on this spectrum is the fight or flight reaction in times of great stress and danger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She does describe some &quot;spiral&quot; effects, where the negative emotional states (e.g. disappointment) can lead to cumulatively more restricted mindsets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Meditation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, maybe this is worth mentioning. There is a lot of research supporting the claim that meditation increases emotional stability. Mindfulness meditation specifically has been associated with the same changes in the brain as described earlier, associated with optimists. The &quot;technique&quot; taught here is to observe all events and emotions as if looking at them in third-person perspective, letting emotions rise and fall as they come without clinging to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would indicate that it's not the &quot;concentrating on disappointment&quot; that is the problem, but it is the &quot;type&quot; of concentrating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think on most of the above topics you should be able to find references quickly on Google. I don't have time to look up the actual papers...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diener, E., Seligman M.E., (2002). Very happy people. Psychological Science, 13(1):81-4. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11894851&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11894851&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The Role of Positive Emotions in Positive Psychology: The Broadenand-Build Theory of Positive Emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3122271/&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3122271/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hecht, D. (2013). The neural basis of optimism and pessimism. &lt;em&gt;Experimental Neurobiology, 22&lt;/em&gt;(3), 173–199. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://synapse.koreamed.org/search.php?where=aview&amp;amp;id=10.5607/en.2013.22.3.173&amp;amp;code=0142EN&amp;amp;vmode=FULL&quot;&gt;http://synapse.koreamed.org/search.php?where=aview&amp;amp;id=10.5607/en.2013.22.3.173&amp;amp;code=0142EN&amp;amp;vmode=FULL&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Johnstone, T., van Reekum, C. M., Urry, H. L., Kalin, N. H., &amp;amp; Davidson, R. J. (2007). Failure to regulate: Counterproductive recruitment of top-down prefrontal-subcortical circuitry in major depression. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Neuroscience, 27&lt;/em&gt;(33), 8877–8884. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/27/33/8877.full&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/27/33/8877.full&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McRae, K., Gross, J. J., Weber, J., Robertson, E. R., Sokol–Hessner, P., Ray, R. D., Gabrieli, J. D., &amp;amp; Ochsner, K. N. (2012). The development of emotion regulation: an fMRI study of cognitive reappraisal in children, adolescents and young adults. &lt;em&gt;Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7&lt;/em&gt;(1), 11–22. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3252634/&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3252634/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., &amp;amp; Gabrieli, J. D. (2002). Rethinking feelings: An fMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14&lt;/em&gt;(8), 1215–1229. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://brainimaging.waisman.wisc.edu/~perlman/0903-EmoPaper/CogRegEmoOschner.2002.pdf&quot;&gt;http://brainimaging.waisman.wisc.edu/~perlman/0903-EmoPaper/CogRegEmoOschner.2002.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2664" LastEditorUserId="2664" LastEditDate="2014-02-12T09:42:24.750" LastActivityDate="2014-02-12T09:42:24.750" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5716" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-11T15:22:10.883" Score="3" ViewCount="169" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to design an EEG paradigm for passive affective picture viewing. Can I use a block design for three different emotions, where each block represent a particular emotion? Or would a better design randomize all the images of all emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4385" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-16T23:29:31.253" LastActivityDate="2014-02-16T23:29:31.253" Title="How to structure affective picture stimuli for an EEG study?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5717" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5654" CreationDate="2014-02-11T15:37:49.493" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Now I think I have understood your mental model of human perception, I can give you an answer. Correct me if this is not what you meant to ask. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I understood you, you think that the human brain functions like a robotic brain. A sensor captures an image, sends it to the brain (which is comparable to a central processing unit), then the next one, etc. The brain then processes each incoming image. And analogically for senses other than vision. And you are asking if, if we stopped sending signals form one sense, the brain will have free capacity to process more informaiton from the other senses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The theory behind it&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that you can't define it as neatly as that. On a very high level, this model is almost right, except for the part where the brain takes in one &quot;captured frame&quot; after the other and processes a frame as a whole. Technically, the eye really captures one frame (a fixation), does not see while it moves to a different viewpoint (a saccade), then it captures again. But from then on, the analogy breaks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The captured light is not sent to a central perception-processing place in the brain as a package. Rather, there are many neurons on the first step of the visual processing (V1 area). And each of them is connected to a few retina cells, a few fellow neurons from the same area, and neurons from the next step of visual processing. No V1 neuron &quot;sees&quot; the whole frame. Each V1 neuron will fire when it is excited enough; but exciting and inhibiting signals come from all directions - retina cells, neighbour V1 neurons, hierarchically &quot;higher&quot; V2 neurons - which means that the input for the object we perceived is not just the light falling on the retina, but also what we have just perceived. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you pick a single V1 neuron and count how often it fires, you can certainly count some kind of average rate, but it will not be much dependent on the rate at which eye fixations happen (which is actually a constant). It will have something to do with the amount of light  falling on the retina, and the rate at which this light changes, but these are only a few of the contributing factors - what the brain has already recognized is another factor, through the signals coming from the &quot;higher&quot; neurons. So, if you try measuring at the first stage of the brain - which is the V1 neurons for vision - you can't operationalise your measures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides, at that stage, no consolidation has happened yet. The information output of the V1 neuron is not a recognized object, they do very low-level recognition of textures, contours and similar. Information coming from other senses - the classical five ones, but also ones not widely known in popular culture, and ones which are known but not categorized as senses (such as pain, body spatial orientation) - gets incorporated into the recognized object along the way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But one thing to recognize here is that, if you are asking about the effect &lt;em&gt;where the recognition process starts&lt;/em&gt;, then no, your idea won't work. The V1 neurons can't process information coming from the other senses. They are connected to the retina, not to the cochlea. If we amputate a person's eyes (good thing this is a thought experiment only), the V1 neurons won't start processing sound signals instead. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But you are probably aware that blind people can recognize more of their environment based on other senses like sound, than sighted people wearing eyecovers. This indicates that the brain has learned to use the information coming through the other channels more efficiently. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A speculation&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it is reasonable to assume that in the &quot;sense switched off&quot; situation the brain will also recognize more of the information coming in from other channels. The brain does not recognize everything that comes in from the senses, but only what it is interested in at the current moment. If there is nothing coming in through vision, it might &quot;decide&quot; to recognize more details coming in through sound than it would have otherwise. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that the assumption you mentioned in the comments is true, if we start looking at the effect &lt;em&gt;after recognition has happened&lt;/em&gt; - a person whose vision was &quot;switched off&quot; will extract more information out of the same amount of audio signals reaching the ear. But it is not really measurable, because we can only speculate how this information is represented within the brain. We don't have any metrics for &quot;information as represented in the brain&quot;. Shannon found out how to measure informaiton which is stored somewhere accessible, as in a written word, but the information within the brain is not accessible, and its amount is only weakly correlated with the information available to the sensory organs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Be aware that not only is the amount of the information in the brain not the one available to the sensory organs, but it is also created from a mix of sensory perceptions and knowledge. At that point, you can't hold apart what came from the senses and what didn't. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When we look at something, perhaps 95% of what we consciously perceive is not what is &quot;out there&quot; but what is already in our heads in long-term memory. [Colin Ware]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if we could make measurements there, we wouldn't be just measuring the impact of the senses. We would have big trouble distinguishing it from the impact of memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, can we have a hierarchy?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I explained why we can't have a hierarchy at the input-end of the recognition pathways. I speculated that we can have a hierarchy at the output-end - but even if my speculation is true, we can't measure anything at that end. So, the answer to the question as a whole is: &lt;strong&gt;if there is a hierarchy, we can't measure it in the way you propose&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think there are experiments which try to make some rude sort of hierarchy, using observation of the kind &quot;a person with covered eyes feels more disoriented than a person with stuffed ears&quot;. But this doesn't have the precision you are implying, does not answer to what extent the lower sense can be developed if the first one is missing permanently, and it can only be applied to the more prominent external senses like vision and hearing. (There are authors who argue that being certain of the truth of a statement is a sense - how do you turn that off?) Besides, experimentation with turning senses off can be dangerous, see research on sensory deprivation chambers for details. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have formatted citations for that post here. The information on the functioning of the visual pathway can be read in the book &quot;Visual thinking for design&quot; by Colin Ware. The info on how well one sense can replace another is certainly available in peer-previewed literature, but the one case I remember vividly is described by a journalist, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mensjournal.com/article/print-view/the-blind-man-who-taught-himself-to-see-20120504&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.mensjournal.com/article/print-view/the-blind-man-who-taught-himself-to-see-20120504&lt;/a&gt;. The author who claims certainty is a sense is Robert Burton. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="723" LastEditorUserId="723" LastEditDate="2014-02-11T15:58:05.777" LastActivityDate="2014-02-11T15:58:05.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5718" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5726" CreationDate="2014-02-11T20:28:30.987" Score="6" ViewCount="615" Body="&lt;p&gt;How much alcohol can you consume before it starts to kill a single neuron or interfere with proper brain functioning? Does it happen:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If you take just a few drops of alcohol? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If you drink a rum and coke cocktail? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If you get so drunk that you cannot remember what you have done?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I like drinking a bit when I go out to pubs or the like, as I didn't consider that taking a pair of cups approximately once per month could do anything to my brain, but I've reconsidered it, so I'd like to know how much is needed to produce negative effects on the brain. Hope you can guide me with this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-12T05:02:13.610" LastActivityDate="2014-02-12T12:22:34.303" Title="How much alcohol is negative for brain function?" Tags="&lt;alcohol&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5719" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-11T21:47:57.510" Score="2" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wake up during the night. Is there an easy way to tell whether I've woken up during REM or non-REM sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One way could be to look up the time, calculate how long I've slept and then take into account that, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep#Stages&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;An adult reaches REM approximately every 90 minutes&quot;&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there other ways?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-11T23:52:05.383" LastActivityDate="2014-02-11T23:58:20.900" Title="Is there an easy way to tell whether I woke up during REM or non-REM sleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5720" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5719" CreationDate="2014-02-11T23:58:20.900" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I tagged dreams here too because I think that's a prominent characteristic of REM sleep that might help you judge this. If I'm wrong, please remove the tag...but I don't think people remember dreams as often when they wake during non-REM sleep. That might be one cue, though I'm not certain of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another idea off the top of my head would be recording yourself. Since REM = &quot;rapid eye movement&quot;, you could probably tell whether you were in that stage before awakening if you trained a digital video recorder on your face (e.g., over your head, attached to a bedpost or headboard, aimed down at your face), and happen to sleep facing up sometimes. Rapid eye movements are noticeable through eyelids (kinda looks like a cat moving around underneath bedsheets—the raised hemispherical shape shifts around a lot), so given a decently high-resolution video recording of yourself, you could probably check this upon waking, or whenever afterward. If you don't see much eye movement, you might guess that you're not in REM sleep, though I'm not 100% sure you could make this judgment without error by yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A relatively foolproof third option would be to sign up for a sleep study! I believe they routinely monitor brain waves that are more definitional, physiological markers of sleep stages. That might cost you, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-11T23:58:20.900" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5712" CreationDate="2014-02-12T02:39:39.460" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, a major caveat: a less-than-30-second video clip of Monk in a particularly stressful context is insufficient basis for trait judgments, according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;trait theory&lt;/a&gt;, which defines traits &quot;as &lt;strong&gt;habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion&lt;/strong&gt;. According to this perspective, &lt;strong&gt;traits are relatively stable over time&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; (Kassin, 2003). Since this clip doesn't afford the opportunity to observe Monk over time, &lt;strong&gt;it's dangerous to assume his eccentric behaviors are a result of his personality, not of his circumstances&lt;/strong&gt;. Most people could find themselves behaving thusly in the right circumstances. BTW, I acknowledge that outside of this clip's context, Monk's (fictional) behavior is often stably similar to this. This point is mostly meant to dissuade application of my points to other cases where context outside a 30-second observation is unavailable. That's not to say personality is entirely unobservable in such a short time though, just that it's difficult. You may want to read about the Realistic Accuracy Model of personality judgment (&lt;a href=&quot;http://uwed.yolasite.com/resources/Funder_On%20the%20Accuracy%20of%20Personality%20Judgment%20A%20Realistic%20Approac_PR1995.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Funder, 1995&lt;/a&gt;, 1997) for a sense of when you can pick up on personality generally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Second, you might try directing this to &lt;a href=&quot;https://movies.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;the Movies &amp;amp; TV Stack Exchange&lt;/a&gt; as well (or instead, if you wish), since Monk is a popular fictional character, and people over there probably love questions like this (can't say for sure, as I haven't spent much time there myself). That's not to say I mind answering here though. I also see you have three upvotes from our community already (make that three plus mine, and one unexplained downvote—shame on them :P ). I appreciate your genuine interest in our perspectives here!&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third, &lt;strong&gt;assuming strictly for the sake of argument&lt;/strong&gt; that his behaviors &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; reflect his basic tendencies and characteristic adaptations (for context on these terms, see McCrae &amp;amp; Costa, 1999), &lt;em&gt;and not&lt;/em&gt; other endogenous causes like physiological conditions (e.g., Parkinson's disease, low blood glucose, drugs)...I can first note that this is a relatively good situation for making trait judgments, in that it's unstructured, hence there's freedom for self-expression (Snyder &amp;amp; Ickes, 1985; Funder &amp;amp; Colvin, 1991), and in that it's an emotionally arousing situation, hence it provokes personality expression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The strongest eccentricity I note is the &lt;strong&gt;fidgeting&lt;/strong&gt;. (BTW, I focus on strong eccentricities in general because normal behaviors are somewhat less diagnostic of traits, and more ambiguous for their inseparability from behaviors prescribed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(social)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social norms&lt;/a&gt;.)  To me, fidgeting is a signal of high emotional arousal, and probably also slightly negative emotional valence (see the diagram of the circumplex model of emotion I included in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5337/4086&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;). Again, this could just be an emotional state, but assuming it's trait-level &lt;strong&gt;negative emotionality&lt;/strong&gt;, this may imply &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;neuroticism&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-doubt&lt;/strong&gt; is also characteristic of definitionally neurotic individuals—e.g., Woody Allen, or at least &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody_allen#Writer_and_comedian&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;his public persona&lt;/a&gt;...though &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody_allen#Psychoanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia notes self-described phobias&lt;/a&gt;, which relate to neuroticism too. I wouldn't call this a phobia in &quot;unsure Mr. Monk's&quot; case though :) nor would I be sure that it's a result of his probable neuroticism. As a detective, it's his job to reason carefully and objectively. I probably should've mentioned before that we need to consider (and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controlling_for_a_variable&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;control&lt;/a&gt; in any statistical model) the stable influence of social roles when making judgments about role-relevant traits like self-doubt too. In this case, I'd read more into his personality from his initial certainty, which he then tempers with reason.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In contrast to self-doubt, the initial &lt;strong&gt;self-assurance&lt;/strong&gt; that he later judges to be inappropriate reminds me of &quot;black-and-white&quot; thinking (a.k.a., &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splitting_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;splitting&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;). To some extent, we all do this initially, as it takes time to elaborate our initial reactions into probabilistic, pluralistic, or otherwise non-absolute judgments. When we act on these thoughts without inhibition, though—even if we later renounce those actions on further reflection—that's another hint of high emotional arousal, and maybe neuroticism. Disinhibition can also indicate low &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conscientiousness&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;extraversion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (which relates to positive affect, including enthusiasm and confidence to the extent that these are emotions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, knowing what I do about Monk outside this context, I wouldn't say he's extraverted or unconscientious. If anything, I'd say his quick &lt;strong&gt;switch from enthusiastic confidence&lt;/strong&gt; (the eagerness in his &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka_moment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;eureka moment&lt;/a&gt;&quot;) &lt;strong&gt;to self-doubt&lt;/strong&gt; expresses a strong &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;need for affect&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.cf.ac.uk/esrcfertilitynetwork/pubs/Greg%20Maio_%20The%20need%20for%20affect%20Individual%20differences%20in%20the%20motivation%20to%20approach%20or%20avoid%20emotions.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maio &amp;amp; Esses, 2001&lt;/a&gt;). Basically, this is a trait-level motive to seek emotional experience, and relates to emotional intensity in general—both positive and negative. You can probably also infer this need from his initial &lt;strong&gt;decision to become a detective&lt;/strong&gt;—it's very emotion-provoking work. Also, his self-checking behavior and thorough reconsideration of the situation—even delayed as it is here—is a marker of high &lt;strong&gt;conscientiousness&lt;/strong&gt;. Both detective work and self-checking may also reflect strong &lt;strong&gt;needs for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognition&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_motivation#Need_for_achievement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;achievement&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Considering that he does the most &lt;strong&gt;talking&lt;/strong&gt; and is somewhat &lt;strong&gt;loud&lt;/strong&gt; at times, we might have more reason to infer extraversion, because this relates to talkativeness and dominance somewhat. However, again, considering his social role, and the context of the TV series overall (most of which I haven't watched, TBH), I don't really think he's particularly extraverted. This is one of those personality cues we'd probably read too much into if we only had this brief video clip to judge, and nothing more. However, a strong &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_power&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;need for power&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; might be safe to infer here—again, especially in light of his career choice in law enforcement. He might even tend toward high &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarianism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;authoritarianism&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, in as much as this trait entails tendencies toward favoring harsh punishment of rule-breakers and strict enforcement of societal law and order. Authoritarianism is very similar to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_dominance_orientation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social dominance orientation&lt;/a&gt; and related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conservatism&lt;/a&gt;, but I don't think we have much indication here of those traits.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Another source of information is his appearance. A colleague of mine, Laura &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5712/why-is-mr-monk-unsure/5721?noredirect=1#comment12085_5721&quot;&gt;Naumann(, Vazire, Rentfrow, &amp;amp; Gosling, 2009&lt;/a&gt;), would call the following &lt;em&gt;static cues&lt;/em&gt; (as opposed to &lt;em&gt;dynamic cues&lt;/em&gt;): he looks fairly healthy and neat (clean-shaven, clean clothes, buttoned shirt), and &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; what I would call fashionable. Here's what those cues indicated in Naumann and colleagues:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Healthy: extraverted, stable, likable, confident, and less lonely&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neat: extraverted, less open to experience, and less lonely&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unfashionable - introverted, lonely&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mixed signals here overall, especially in the context of the behaviors we've covered so far. The only not-so-mixed signals seems to be &quot;likable&quot; and &quot;not open to experience&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Your question itself provides some useful context: &lt;strong&gt;obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD)&lt;/strong&gt;. I add the &quot;P&quot; for &quot;personality&quot; here because I happen to know his obsessions and compulsions aren't specific, but generalized, and I've checked this against &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk_tv#Premise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the show's premise according to Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;. I'm no clinician, so I can't say for sure that he wouldn't get diagnosed differently by a professional (if he were a real person, not just portrayed by one). Then again, professionals often make mistakes, and as far as I know, this is one of the primary ways of distinguishing OCPD from OCD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OCPD may be useful for trait inferences, because in theory (Widiger, Trull, Clarkin, Sanderson, &amp;amp; Costa, 1994), it is an expression of pathologically extreme traits: i.e., extremely high neuroticism and conscientiousness. This is why I don't think he's unconscientious, and again, another reason why we might be wrong to read low conscientiousness into his initial disinhibition. (Also, a good example of why stability is so important in judging traits!) OCPD may also relate to low &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreeableness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openness_to_experience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;openness to experience&lt;/a&gt;, and to high extraversion, but again, this is according to Widiger and colleagues' (1994) theory, as cited in &lt;em&gt;The Personality Puzzle&lt;/em&gt; (Funder, 1997).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I express doubt because I tried to find an independent source for these relationships just now, and found Morey, Gunderson, Quigley, and Lyons (2000), which contradicts Widiger and colleagues (1994). Morey and colleagues' data shows a pattern of &lt;strong&gt;high neuroticism, low extraversion (i.e., introversion), and low agreeableness and conscientiousness in OCPD patients&lt;/strong&gt; relative to community norms. Low conscientiousness is the main contradiction of Widiger and colleagues. The low extraversion contradicts my previous understanding too, but I expected low agreeableness and high neuroticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BTW, the distinction between OCD and OCPD is important for judging trait relationships, as &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/177/5/457.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Samuels and colleagues (2000)&lt;/a&gt; found some different relationships between OCD and the Big Five. Unfortunately, I don't think they report their data about relationships between OCPD and the Big Five...&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;summary&lt;/strong&gt;, that adds up to the following list of probable trait scores:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;High neuroticism and negative emotionality&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;High conscientiousness?&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Monk's character seems based on the theoretical prototype of a conscientious person with OCPD (as in Widiger et al., 1994), but real people with OCPD tend not to be conscientious (Morey et al., 2000).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moderate-to-high extraversion?&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This doesn't sit well with me for Monk. It might be indicated in this clip, but it seems unlikely for a real OCPD case, and doesn't suit my impression of Monk in general.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moderate-to-low openness to experience?&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Indicated by his neat appearance, and maybe Widiger and colleagues' (1994) theory of OCPD&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Real people with OCPD seem to be relatively average on openness (Morey et al., 2000).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Somewhat high needs for achievement, power, cognition, and affect.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I know this theory a bit less well, but I'm comfortable saying he wouldn't score low on these.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Maybe moderate-to-high authoritarianism?&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A loose inference based on his profession and other apparent traits.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If I had to guess his political orientation from his traits, I'd say he's conservative. However, the show is set in San Francisco, which is relatively liberal, so this is also iffy.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Funder, D. C. (1995). On the accuracy of personality judgment: A realistic approach. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review, 102&lt;/em&gt;(4), 652–670. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://uwed.yolasite.com/resources/Funder_On%20the%20Accuracy%20of%20Personality%20Judgment%20A%20Realistic%20Approac_PR1995.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://uwed.yolasite.com/resources/Funder_On%20the%20Accuracy%20of%20Personality%20Judgment%20A%20Realistic%20Approac_PR1995.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Funder, D. C. (1997). &lt;em&gt;The personality puzzle&lt;/em&gt;. W. W. Norton &amp;amp; Co.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Funder, D. C., &amp;amp; Colvin, C. R. (1991). Explorations in behavioral consistency: properties of persons, situations, and behaviors. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60&lt;/em&gt;(5), 773–794.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kassin, S. (2003). &lt;em&gt;Psychology&lt;/em&gt;. USA: Prentice–Hall, Inc.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Maio, G. R., &amp;amp; Esses, V. M. (2001). The need for affect: Individual differences in the motivation to approach or avoid emotions. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality, 69&lt;/em&gt;(4), 583–614. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.cf.ac.uk/esrcfertilitynetwork/pubs/Greg%20Maio_%20The%20need%20for%20affect%20Individual%20differences%20in%20the%20motivation%20to%20approach%20or%20avoid%20emotions.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psych.cf.ac.uk/esrcfertilitynetwork/pubs/Greg%20Maio_%20The%20need%20for%20affect%20Individual%20differences%20in%20the%20motivation%20to%20approach%20or%20avoid%20emotions.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;McCrae, R. R., &amp;amp; Costa Jr., P. T. (1999). A five-factor theory of personality. &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, 2&lt;/em&gt;, 139–153.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Morey, L. C., Gunderson, J. G., Quigley, B. D., Shea, M. T., Skodol, A. E., McGlashan, T. H., ... &amp;amp; Zanarini, M. C. (2002). The representation of borderline, avoidant, obsessive-compulsive, and schizotypal personality disorders by the five-factor model. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality Disorders, 16&lt;/em&gt;(3), 215–234.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Samuels, J., Nestadt, G., Bienvenu, O. J., Costa, P. T., Riddle, M. A., Liang, K. Y., ... &amp;amp; Cullen, B. (2000). Personality disorders and normal personality dimensions in obsessive—compulsive disorder. &lt;em&gt;The British Journal of Psychiatry, 177&lt;/em&gt;(5), 457–462. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/177/5/457.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/177/5/457.long&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Snyder, M., &amp;amp; Ickes, W. (1985). Personality and social behavior. In G. Lindzey &amp;amp; E. Aronson (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Handbook of social psychology&lt;/em&gt; (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 883–948). New York: Random House.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Widiger, T. A., Trull, T. J., Clarkin, J. F., Sanderson, C., &amp;amp; Costa, P. T. (1994). A description of the &lt;em&gt;DSM-III-R&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;DSM-IV&lt;/em&gt; personality disorders with the five-factor model of personality. In P. T. Costa &amp;amp; T. A. Widiger (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Personality disorders and the five-factor model of personality&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 41–58). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-02-13T04:31:37.690" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5722" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5725" CreationDate="2014-02-12T05:48:04.380" Score="3" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Historically speaking, this misconception used to exist, right? Somewhat like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernican_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Copernican heliocentrism&lt;/a&gt;, no? When (and, if you wish, how) did this folk concept regarding the biological basis of cognition come to be revised?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When was it recognized that thinking occurs in the brain and not in the heart?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user2678" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-02-14T14:59:05.907" LastActivityDate="2014-02-14T14:59:05.907" Title="When was it recognized that thinking occurs in the brain and not in the heart?" Tags="&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5723" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5714" CreationDate="2014-02-12T05:57:23.497" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might not be looking for an answer about sleep deprivation per se—you might just be interested in normal daily fatigue immediately before normal sleep—but of course sleep deprivation results in tiredness, so the answer seems likely to be equivalent (though I'm not a sleep researcher by specialty). Here's an answer for sleep deprivation and memory (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc2656292/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Alhola &amp;amp; Polo-Kantola, 2007&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Total [&lt;strong&gt;sleep deprivation] impairs&lt;/strong&gt; attention and &lt;strong&gt;working memory&lt;/strong&gt;, but it also affects other functions, such as &lt;strong&gt;long-term memory&lt;/strong&gt; and decision-making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And another equivalent answer (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.med.upenn.edu/uep/user_documents/Cheeetal--Functionalimagingofworkingmemory--NeuroImage2006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chee, Chuah, Venkatraman, Chan, Philip, &amp;amp; Dinges, 2006&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Performance &lt;strong&gt;accuracy declined significantly&lt;/strong&gt; during the performance of...&lt;strong&gt;working memory tasks following [sleep deprivation]&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alhola, P., &amp;amp; Polo-Kantola, P. (2007). Sleep deprivation: Impact on cognitive performance. &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 3&lt;/em&gt;(5), 553–567. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc2656292/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc2656292/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chee, M. W., Chuah, L. Y., Venkatraman, V., Chan, W. Y., Philip, P., &amp;amp; Dinges, D. F. (2006). Functional imaging of working memory following normal sleep and after 24 and 35 h of sleep deprivation: Correlations of fronto-parietal activation with performance. &lt;em&gt;Neuroimage, 31&lt;/em&gt;(1), 419–428. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.med.upenn.edu/uep/user_documents/Cheeetal--Functionalimagingofworkingmemory--NeuroImage2006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.med.upenn.edu/uep/user_documents/Cheeetal--Functionalimagingofworkingmemory--NeuroImage2006.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-12T05:57:23.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5724" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5290" CreationDate="2014-02-12T07:02:53.003" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;I've been commenting a lot and not answering for quite some time now! My hesitation was largely due to the terms &quot;unfailingly&quot;, the mixture of &quot;altruism&quot; and &quot;non-cruelty&quot;, and having forgotten my intention to answer. My answer certainly won't be foolproof (haven't yet heard of a trait model that is), and I may not cover both altruism and non-cruelty, but here are some pointers anyway...&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To start this answer off &quot;Big&quot;, I'll begin with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreeableness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;agreeableness&lt;/em&gt; (and its Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt;, which has a lot to offer on the topic), one of the Big Five personality traits [emphasis added throughout]:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Agreeableness is a personality trait manifesting itself in &lt;strong&gt;individual behavioral characteristics&lt;/strong&gt; that are perceived as &lt;strong&gt;kind, sympathetic, cooperative, warm and considerate&lt;/strong&gt; [(Thompson, 2008)].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these aspects (traits unto themselves, really) will relate somewhat to non-cruelty or altruism; even cooperation entails not harming one's teammates and sometimes putting them first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People scoring &lt;strong&gt;low on agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt; are generally &lt;strong&gt;less concerned with others' well-being and report having less empathy&lt;/strong&gt;. Therefore, these individuals are &lt;strong&gt;less likely to go out of their way to help others&lt;/strong&gt;. Low agreeableness is often characterized by skepticism about other people's motives, resulting in suspicion and unfriendliness. People very low on agreeableness have a tendency to be &lt;strong&gt;manipulative&lt;/strong&gt; in their social relationships. They are also more likely to &lt;strong&gt;compete&lt;/strong&gt; than to cooperate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Less concern for others' well-being and emotions in general means greater freedom to disregard or willfully harm them, as are often useful to do for personal gain via manipulation or competition. Here we also have a direct connection to altruism, and a few indirect connections, including disinterest and mistrust of others' concerns. Yet the most direct connection to altruism appears in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facet_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;facets&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; of agreeableness (lower-order factors in a second-order model of agreeableness as a multidimensional construct; see Figure 1 for a similar model):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Agreeableness is considered to be a superordinate trait, meaning that it is a grouping of personality sub-traits that cluster together statistically. The lower-level traits, or &lt;strong&gt;facets, grouped under agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt; are: &lt;strong&gt;trust, straightforwardness, altruism&lt;/strong&gt;, compliance, modesty, and &lt;strong&gt;tender-mindedness&lt;/strong&gt; [(Matsumoto &amp;amp; Juang, 2012)].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've emphasized trust and straightforwardness above because the Big Five model of personality isn't the only one that relates trust to altruism—see also:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Figure 1. Second-order model of trust linking altruism to honesty&lt;/strong&gt; (Perepelkin &amp;amp; Di Zhang, 2011).&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CfwJ8.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, logically, a lack of trust would likely reduce motivation to help others altruistically. As for straightforwardness, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreeableness#Straightforwardness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; notes, &quot;Low scorers...are generally deceitful or manipulative.&quot; Again, these behaviors are likely to relate to some form of cruelty more often than not (i.e., &quot;white lies&quot; are the exception, I assume). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, from the same section, &quot;Straightforwardness is similar to the honesty aspect of honesty-humility in the HEXACO model&quot; (Ashton &amp;amp; Lee, 2005). So, speaking of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HEXACO_model_of_personality_structure&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;HEXACO&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The factors of Agreeableness, Honesty-Humility and Emotionality are distinctly different from their counterparts on the Five Factor Model (FFM). Honesty-Humility, Emotionality and Agreeableness are proposed to be measures of Altruistic versus Antagonistic behaviour. Honesty-Humility and Agreeableness both measure two different aspects of Reciprocal altruism, high levels of which indicate a propensity for helping behaviour and cooperation as opposed to the exploitation of others. The Honesty-Humility factor represents a person's tendency for pro-social altruistic behaviours [(&lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.uoregon.edu/gsaucier/comp_val.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thalmayer, Saucier, &amp;amp; Eigenhuis, 2011&lt;/a&gt;)], while Agreeableness indicates an individual's tendency to forgive and to show tolerance. Emotionality is a measure of kin altruism, that is, the tendency to show empathy and attachment to one’s kin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This implies a little complexity in altruism itself, but brings agreeableness, honesty-humility, and emotionality directly into the equation within the HEXACO model. It may also claim that emotionality is &quot;distinctly different&quot; from neuroticism, but I'm not sure I'd go so far. Consider that neuroticism relates negatively to happiness in the context of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruistic#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page on altruism itself&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies have found that generosity increases linearly from sad to happy affective states [(Underwood, Froming, &amp;amp; Moore, 1977)]...While generous acts make people feel good about themselves, it is also important for people to appreciate the kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed that &quot;a conscious focus on gratitude led to reductions in negative affect and increases in optimistic appraisals, positive affect, offering emotional support, sleep quality, and well-being&quot; [(Shimai, Otake, Park, Peterson, &amp;amp; Seligman, 2006).]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This adds happiness and gratitude to the equation as well, which can be measured at the trait level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BTW, since empathy has come up a fair amount, you may be interested in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy-altruism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;empathy-altruism hypothesis&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. This also implicates empathy as a trait of sorts that relates to altruism, but I'm not sure this adds anything to what I've said above. Also, while I'm disclaiming, I may not have addressed cruelty sufficiently yet, much less neural correlates. Both are likely to make the necessary answer much bigger, so I'm at least going to take a break on this one for now. I'd encourage someone else to step up and cover those bases in the meantime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;- Ashton, M. C., &amp;amp; Lee, K. (2005). Honesty-Humility, the Big Five, and the Five-Factor Model. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality, 73&lt;/em&gt;(5), 1321–1354.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Matsumoto, D., &amp;amp; Juang, L. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Culture and psychology&lt;/em&gt; (5th ed.), pp. 271. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Perepelkin, J., &amp;amp; Di Zhang, D. (2011). Brand personality and customer trust in community pharmacies. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Marketing, 5&lt;/em&gt;(3), 175–193.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Post, S. G. (2005). Altruism, happiness, and health: It's good to be good. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 12&lt;/em&gt;(2), 66–77.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Schwartz, C., Meisenhelder, J., Ma, Y., &amp;amp; Reed, G. (2003). Altruistic social interest behaviors are associated with better mental health. &lt;em&gt;Psychosomatic Medicine, 65&lt;/em&gt;(5), 778–785.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Shimai, S., Otake, K., Park, N., Peterson, C., &amp;amp; Seligman, M. P. (2006). Convergence of character strengths in American and Japanese young adults. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Happiness Studies, 7&lt;/em&gt;(3), 311–322.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Thalmayer, A. G., Saucier, G., &amp;amp; Eigenhuis, A. (2011). Comparative validity of brief to medium-length Big Five and Big Six Personality Questionnaires. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Assessment, 23&lt;/em&gt;(4), 995–1009. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.uoregon.edu/gsaucier/comp_val.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://pages.uoregon.edu/gsaucier/comp_val.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Thompson, E. R. (2008). Development and validation of an international English big-five mini-markers. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences, 45&lt;/em&gt;(6), 542–548.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-Underwood, B., Froming, W. J., &amp;amp; Moore, B. S. (1977). Mood, attention, and altruism: A search for mediating variables. &lt;em&gt;Developmental Psychology, 13&lt;/em&gt;(5), 541–542.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-18T07:47:35.483" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T07:47:35.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5725" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5722" CreationDate="2014-02-12T08:28:50.763" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alcmaeon of Croton&lt;/a&gt;, who lived in the late 6th and early 5th century B.C., is said to have been the first to discover the optical and other sensory nerves. He believed that the nerves were hollow and conducted the sensation to the brain. Alcmaion saw the brain as the organ of perception, memory, thought and the control of action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia article on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;History of Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; gives some more information on the later developments of this view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lloyd, G. (1975). Alcmeon and the early history of dissection. &lt;em&gt;Sudhoffs Archiv, 59&lt;/em&gt;, 113–47.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-02-12T09:32:07.143" LastActivityDate="2014-02-12T09:32:07.143" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5726" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5718" CreationDate="2014-02-12T09:19:45.237" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some debate as to wether alcohol consumption actually destroys brain cells or not. Jensen &amp;amp; Pakkenberg (1993) counted the neurons in the neocortex of deceased acoholics and found that they have the same number of neurons as non-alcoholic men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately the non-alcoholic control group did not consist of teetotallers but only &quot;did not have any history or histological signs of alcohol abuse&quot;. It is not unprobable that the brains of people who never drank any alcohol and those of people who drank an amount of alcohol that is merely not considered abusive – a level that is certainly strongly influenced by cultural norms – do differ, so the results of this study have to be interpreted with some caution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What Jensen and Pakkenberg did find was a reduction of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_matter&quot;&gt;white brain matter&lt;/a&gt; to which they attribute the functional deficits that follow alcohol abuse. This brain size reduction is replicated by several other studies, some of which find a reduction in grey matter volume of the frontal lobe as well (Pfefferbaum et al., 1997). For example, Ding et al. (2004) found that the chronic consumption of even smal amounts of alcohol causes brain size reduction. Ding et al. asked 1909 middle-aged adults for their drinking habits, took MRI scans, and found that &quot;each additional alcoholic drink per week was associated with a 0.01 grade greater ventricular size (P=0.03) and a 0.009 grade greater sulcal size (P=0.02) after adjustment for age, sex, race, body mass index, smoking, income, sports index, and diabetes.&quot; The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventricular_system&quot;&gt;ventricles&lt;/a&gt; are cavities inside the brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulcus_%28neuroanatomy%29&quot;&gt;sulci&lt;/a&gt; are the furrows that structure the surface of the brain. What the study found, in other words, was that chronic alcohol consumption enlarged these spaces between brain matter, which means that the brain matter was being reduced in volume.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While Jensen &amp;amp; Pakkenberg (1993) found no difference in the number of neurons of alcoholic and non-alcoholic brains, other studies did find differences, although limited to certain cortical regions. Harper and Kril (1989) found &quot;that alcoholics have reduced neuronal counts in the superior frontal region of the cerebral cortex&quot;. That Jensen and Pakkenberg did not find these differences can probably be attributed to a &quot;combined analysis of several cortical regions (Brooks, 2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In summary, a combination of neuroimaging and histopathological data indicates that &lt;strong&gt;heavy alcohol consumption over a long period of time as occurs in chronic alcoholics can result in the death of neurons in specific regions of the human brain, particularly the frontal cortical regions&lt;/strong&gt;. Careful selection criterion of subjects, along with unbiased stereological techniques, has provided strong evidence that this neuronal loss in ‘uncomplicated’ alcoholics is due to direct neurotoxic effects of alcohol itself, and not to other factors such as malnutrition or liver disease. (Brooks, 2000; emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The good news is that stopping to drink will have a positive effect (Pfefferbaum et al., 1998):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, brain atrophy and related neurological deficits induced by chronic alcohol abuse may be partially reversible through sustained abstinence. (Ding et al., 2004)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Sustained&quot; in this context means that it will take years for the brain to recover, not just the five workdays between weekend drinking bouts ;-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from neuronal death and brain atrophy directly caused by alcohol, chronic alcohol consumption has many other negative effects on the human organism. For example it damages the blood-brain barrier (Philips, 1982; Kornhuber et al., 1987; Elmas et al., 2001), which is a main factor in the development of neurodegenerative diseases (Singh et al., 2007). Effects on other organs such as the liver or heart can indirectly cause damage to the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was unable to find any sources that give exact numbers for how much alcohol (in what period of time) destroys how many neurons, directly or indirectly. The only indication I came upon is the correlation between brain volume reduction and drinks per week given in the study by Ding et al. (2004), that I quoted above. This gives some indication at least to the amount of damage, and that &lt;strong&gt;every glass per week counts&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you read scientific studies about the effects of alcohol, you must consider the author's affiliation. Many studies are financed by the beverage industry and may be biased. For example, a study that found that alcohol protected against diabetes was financed by the &lt;em&gt;Alcohol Task Force&lt;/em&gt; of the foundation &lt;em&gt;International Life Sciences Institute&lt;/em&gt;, in which Moët &amp;amp; Chandon, Allied Domecq, Brasseries Kronenbourg, Heineken und Diageo are members (Exler, 2007). Studies that show that consumption of red wine reduces the threat of cardiovascular diseases, were forged (Jaslow, 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brooks, P. J. (2000). Brain atrophy and neuronal loss in alcoholism: a role for DNA damage?. &lt;em&gt;Neurochemistry international, 37&lt;/em&gt;(5), 403-412.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ding, J., Eigenbrodt, M. L., Mosley, T. H., Hutchinson, R. G., Folsom, A. R., Harris, T. B., &amp;amp; Nieto, F. J. (2004). Alcohol Intake and Cerebral Abnormalities on Magnetic Resonance Imaging in a Community-Based Population of Middle-Aged Adults The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. &lt;em&gt;Stroke, 35&lt;/em&gt;(1), 16-21. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000105929.88691.8E&quot;&gt;10.1161/​01.STR.0000105929.88691.8E&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Elmas, I., Küçük, M., Kalayci, R. B., Çevik, A., &amp;amp; Kaya, M. (2001). Effects of profound hypothermia on the blood–brain barrier permeability in acute and chronically ethanol treated rats. &lt;em&gt;Forensic Science International, 119&lt;/em&gt;(2), 212-216.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Exler, A. (2007, March 7). Vom Wein beseelt. &lt;em&gt;Die Zeit&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.zeit.de/2007/11/Weinlobby&quot;&gt;http://www.zeit.de/2007/11/Weinlobby&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harper, C., &amp;amp; Kril, J. (1989). Patterns of neuronal loss in the cerebral cortex in chronic alcoholic patients. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 92&lt;/em&gt;(1), 81-89.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jaslow, R. (2012, January 12). Red wine researcher Dr. Dipak K. Das published fake data: UConn. &lt;em&gt;CBS&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cbsnews.com/news/red-wine-researcher-dr-dipak-k-das-published-fake-data-uconn/&quot;&gt;http://www.cbsnews.com/news/red-wine-researcher-dr-dipak-k-das-published-fake-data-uconn/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jensen, G. B., &amp;amp; Pakkenberg, B. (1993). Do alcoholics drink their neurons away?. &lt;em&gt;Lancet, 342&lt;/em&gt;(8881), 1201-1204.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kornhuber, J., Kaiserauer, C. H., Kornhuber, A. W., &amp;amp; Kornhuber, M. E. (1987). Alcohol consumption and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier dysfunction in man. &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience Letters, 79&lt;/em&gt;(1), 218-222.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pfefferbaum, A., Sullivan, E.V., Mathalon, D.H., &amp;amp; Lim, K.O. (1997). Frontal lobe volume loss observed with magnetic resonance imaging in older chronic alcoholics. &lt;em&gt;Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 21&lt;/em&gt;, 521–529.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pfefferbaum, A., Sullivan, E. V., Rosenbloom, M. J., Mathalon, D. H., &amp;amp; Lim, K. O. (1998). A controlled study of cortical gray matter and ventricular changes in alcoholic men over a 5-year interval. &lt;em&gt;Archives of General Psychiatry, 55&lt;/em&gt;(10), 905-912.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Phillips, S. C., &amp;amp; Cragg, B. G. (1982). Weakening of the blood-brain barrier by alcohol-related stresses in the rat. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 54&lt;/em&gt;(2), 271-278.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Singh, A. K., Jiang, Y., Gupta, S., &amp;amp; Benlhabib, E. (2007). Effects of chronic ethanol drinking on the blood–brain barrier and ensuing neuronal toxicity in alcohol-preferring rats subjected to intraperitoneal LPS injection. &lt;em&gt;Alcohol and Alcoholism, 42&lt;/em&gt;(5), 385-399.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-02-12T12:22:34.303" LastActivityDate="2014-02-12T12:22:34.303" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5728" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-12T18:50:42.063" Score="9" ViewCount="2198" Body="&lt;p&gt;A personality is developed by innate factors and by the things that happen in your life, but how would your personality be if you either had received the same amount of positive and negative stimuli from those, or if your stimuli from those influences had always been neutral? How would you be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'd like to know if tests of innate personality exist, and if not, why not.&lt;/strong&gt; I think this could be helpful in some psychological treatments. If a person has depression, I think that the treatment should be different if that person has an innate tendency to be depressive, as opposed to if he or she is depressive because a lot of things have made him or her depressive. I think these types of tests would be worth trying to develop, though they might be difficult to do. Thanks for your time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-13T07:17:27.960" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T18:41:06.493" Title="Innate personality tests: do they exist? If not, why?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1556" CreationDate="2014-02-12T19:16:48.423" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are now many full-length books that focus on this deep, complex question about human nature/psychology and note newer/ongoing/active research in the area, some of it cited in them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0805070893&quot;&gt;Why people believe weird things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time&lt;/a&gt; Shermer and Gould&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0195147103&quot;&gt;Voodoo Science: The Road from Foolishness to Fraud&lt;/a&gt; Park&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0691145970&quot;&gt;Superstition: Belief in the Age of Science&lt;/a&gt; Park&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainpickings.org/index.php/2011/04/04/must-read-books-being-wrong/&quot;&gt;5 Must-Read Books on the Psychology of Being Wrong&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But some counterpoint from the reverse, flip side. Science is a complex, evolving, and at times subtle field in a way that was not fully recognized largely until the research in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm_shift&quot;&gt;Kuhnian shifts&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0452289327&quot;&gt;When Science Goes Wrong&lt;/a&gt; LeVay&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1601631022&quot;&gt;Science was Wrong: Startling Truths About Cures, Theories, and Inventions &quot;They&quot; Declared Impossible&lt;/a&gt; Friedman &amp;amp; Marden&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1621450090&quot;&gt;They Got It Wrong: Science: All the Facts that Turned out to be Science Fiction&lt;/a&gt; Donald&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newscientist.com/special/rewriting-the-textbooks&quot;&gt;Rewriting the textbooks: When science gets it wrong&lt;/a&gt; New Scientist&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2733" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-13T07:08:05.693" LastActivityDate="2014-02-13T07:08:05.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5730" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5716" CreationDate="2014-02-12T22:06:50.493" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Disclaimer: These are my preferences, biased by my own research experience.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I am not a fan of block designs. Blocking introduces difficulty in comparing both neural and behavioural activity between blocks due to effects of practice, fatigue, adaptation, learning, boredom, muscle tension and possibly others. It is of course possible to counter-balance block order across participants, but then you have to hope that &lt;em&gt;within&lt;/em&gt; participants these effects will be roughly of the same magnitude in order to properly cancel out. Since in neuroimaging research we often don't go for large numbers of participants, I tend to prefer event-related designs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also sometimes look at signals which are so low in intensity (such as gamma power) that I want to avoid anything that will saturate the signal, and previous trials of the same type do generally saturate it quite a lot, sometimes to the point that I can't see it any more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I also have two reasons for avoiding purely event-related designs. One is that some effects might depend on previous trials. If, for example, people don't react as much to happy stimuli if they're still recovering from the previous angry stimulus, or if they're surprised by the trial change (there's another emotion for you) and you are interested in the happy reaction itself, then you do need blocks... and you also need to discard the first few trials when a block changes. Another reason is that I might be manipulating too many variables in the task and it gets difficult for the study participants. In that case I might decide to manipulate one variable in a block-wise fashion and another in a trial-by-trial fashion. Only you know whether these restrictions apply to your design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But even if I do go for a block design, I would never* do all the trials in one trial type at once. Instead, I would create &lt;strong&gt;mini-blocks&lt;/strong&gt;, consisting of a small number of trials, for example 10-20. Then I shuffle these mini-blocks randomly per participant, without repetitions. That way you can get all the positive effects from blocking with minimal negative effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.* never again, that is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2014-02-13T04:32:27.673" LastActivityDate="2014-02-13T04:32:27.673" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5732" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-13T04:13:50.603" Score="6" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a A+ video mentor that I got through school. I was wondering if playing the videos as if they were music and just going about the rest of my tasks on the computer would help me to learn the information. Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4395" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-16T01:20:48.830" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T23:39:16.763" Title="Will hearing but not listening to a video mentor help me learn?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5733" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5728" CreationDate="2014-02-13T08:48:36.650" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;A useful model for topics like this comes from McCrae and Costa (1999):&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FPdNT.gif&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&#xA;There's quite a lot more going on here than is pertinent to your question, but note that influences originate from biological bases on the top left, and from external influences on the upper right. Everything else is modeled as an effect of mediated, dynamic processes between these two...except basic tendencies. McCrae and Costa's theory claims that &quot;basic tendencies&quot; such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big Five&lt;/a&gt; are in fact those aspects of innate personality you'd probably want to test: truly innate, and separable from external influences. However, McCrae and Costa (2003) themselves had to back off of this claim somewhat and present a more qualified model, so the goal remains elusive by practically all accounts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_genetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Behavioral genetics&lt;/a&gt; is making a lot of progress in sorting out what's definitionally innate, but there's a lot of progress left to make. Half of the progress is in discovering the complexities that explain why simpler theories don't work as often as we'd like. Dealing with those complexities is another matter in itself. I agree that tests of genetic factors that influence behavior are very valuable, and far too few at present, but we're definitely working on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another approach that's making a lot of progress on the experiential side is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cross-cultural psychology&lt;/a&gt;. The story is much the same as with behavioral genetics: our access to the methods for investigating these influences is growing rapidly, hence so are our understandings of both the questions and answers. Ask again in another decade and we'll have much more to tell you than we do right now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@Ana raises a great point that complicates matters quite a bit: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene-environment_interaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gene-environment interaction&lt;/a&gt;. So much of who we're born as determines how we interact with our parents, and whether we choose to be like them or different. Choices of identity thus reflect both our genetic heritage and our environmental interactions. Genetic influences even affect whether we experience given stimuli as positive or negative, and then go on to influence how we choose to react. Over time, it becomes very difficult to separate environmental influences from innate influences, because our choices shape who we are, and our identities become innate in many ways too. Another useful term in this vein of theory is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_determinism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;reciprocal determinism&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which refers to this sort of bidirectional causality we see between innate and environmental factors in development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my limited experience teaching on these topics, I've found some particular examples of reciprocal determinism especially illustrative of both the complexity of the problem and the degree of progress we've made. Two worth offering here are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAO-A&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A)&lt;/a&gt; is sensitive to genetic variation that decreases its concentration in the body. MAO-A deficiency increases stress vulnerability (or &lt;em&gt;diathesis&lt;/em&gt;: see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5661/4086&quot;&gt;another answer of mine&lt;/a&gt; for another example of the diathesis-stress model) in terms of the likelihood of aggressive maladaptation (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bioforensics.com/conference07/DNA_and_behavior/Abnormal_behavior.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brunner, Nelen, Breakefield, Ropers, &amp;amp; van Oost, 1993&lt;/a&gt;). In children born with the gene that leads to MAO-A deficiency, a stressful environment such as one involving child abuse will be very likely to cause antisocial behavior in those children later in their lives, whereas children without MAO-A deficiencies tend to withstand such stressful environments better (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.crassh.cam.ac.uk/uploads/documents/Caspi1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Caspi et al., 2002&lt;/a&gt;). Furthermore, aggressive tendencies are much more similar regardless of MAO-A levels when childhood environments aren't so stressful. Thus one could test for the relevant gene to identify an innate vulnerability to aggressive maladaptation, but whether a person with genetic risk would see that risk realized would remain to be determined by the environment.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Genetic variation may also determine the environment at a cultural level to some extent. This is where the worlds of behavioral genetics and cross-cultural psychology play very well together. An example of why we really need tons of research in both and cross-pollination between their respective theories arises in the &quot;A118G single nucleotide polymorphism of the mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1),&quot; which, first of all, relates to pain sensitivity (Fillingim et al., 2005). The global cultural relevance emerges clearly in this figure (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2894685/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Way &amp;amp; Lieberman, 2010&lt;/a&gt;):&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2894685/figure/F1/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/corecgi/tileshop/tileshop.fcgi?p=PMC3&amp;amp;id=911338&amp;amp;s=21&amp;amp;r=1&amp;amp;c=1&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Bear in mind that this is correlational evidence though; hence it's also worth considering whether cultures in these areas could've selected certain alleles like A118G over the course of history. A great many factors powerfully influence cultures besides genes, after all (Diamond, 1998; see for a book review &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/Volumes/06/01/0084-0088.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Venkatachalam, 2001&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5HTTLPR#Personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5-HTTLPR gene&lt;/a&gt; may relate to innate tendencies toward anxiety, but doesn't seem to relate consistently (Ebstein, 2006). Culture may have something to do with this (&lt;a href=&quot;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/277/1681/529.full.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chiao &amp;amp; Blizinsky, 2009&lt;/a&gt;):&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/277/1681/529/F1.expansion.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GDMHe.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top left: collectivism (vs. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualistic_culture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;individualism&lt;/a&gt;), from low in yellow to high in red&lt;br&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top right: frequency of the anxiety-prone allele of 5-HTTLPR&lt;br&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bottom left and right: prevalence of anxiety and mood disorders, respectively&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These maps demonstrate that despite the much higher genetic vulnerability to anxiety in China vs. USA (top right), anxiety and mood disorders appear to have much lower prevalences there than here (speaking as an American myself; see the bottom two maps). Chiao and Blizinsky argue that the higher genetic vulnerability to anxiety in China might've led to a collectivist culture there through a coevolutionary process of cultural adaptation to an ethnically linked genetic predisposition. It's an interesting argument that these innate factors could actually lead to such a strong compensatory shift in culture that the innate influence would be not only dwarfed, but reversed. As to whether that's a falsifiable theory, on the other hand...You'd probably want to read and judge for yourself; I get a little fuzzy on the details here. I suppose I make a decent example of how hard it is to keep up with theoretical advances like these though.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aside from all that, understanding how personality develops is tricky enough already without trying to separate genetic from environmental factors. There's a rich history of debate on the degree to which stable personalities even exist, and the general consensus now is that they do, but reaching this conclusion took a lot of work (see the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person%E2%80%93situation_debate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;person–situation debate&lt;/a&gt;), much of which is far from settled in the details. Personality does change over time, but subtly, and with resistance – a useful simile is that personality sets like plaster over time (&lt;a href=&quot;http://j.b5z.net/i/u/2043019/i/PersonalityDevelopmentInAdults.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Srivastava, John, Gosling, &amp;amp; Potter, 2003&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;- Brunner, H. G., Nelen, M., Breakefield, X. O., Ropers, H. H., &amp;amp; Van Oost, B. A. (1993). Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A. &lt;em&gt;Science, 262&lt;/em&gt;(5133), 578–580. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bioforensics.com/conference07/DNA_and_behavior/Abnormal_behavior.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.bioforensics.com/conference07/DNA_and_behavior/Abnormal_behavior.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., Taylor, A., &amp;amp; Poulton, R. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. &lt;em&gt;Science, 297&lt;/em&gt;(5582), 851–854. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.crassh.cam.ac.uk/uploads/documents/Caspi1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.crassh.cam.ac.uk/uploads/documents/Caspi1.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Chiao, J. Y., &amp;amp; Blizinsky, K. D. (2010). Culture–gene coevolution of individualism–collectivism and the serotonin transporter gene. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277&lt;/em&gt;(1681), 529–537. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/277/1681/529.full.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/277/1681/529.full.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Diamond, J. M. (1998). &lt;em&gt;Guns, germs and steel: A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years&lt;/em&gt;. Random House.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Ebstein, R. P. (2006). The molecular genetic architecture of human personality: beyond self-report questionnaires. &lt;em&gt;Molecular Psychiatry, 11&lt;/em&gt;(5): 427–445. Retrieved from www.nature.com/mp/journal/v11/n5/full/4001814a.html.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Fillingim, R. B., Kaplan, L., Staud, R., Ness, T. J., Glover, T. L., Campbell, C. M., ... &amp;amp; Wallace, M. R. (2005). The A118G single nucleotide polymorphism of the μ-opioid receptor gene (&lt;em&gt;OPRM1&lt;/em&gt;) is associated with pressure pain sensitivity in humans. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Pain, 6&lt;/em&gt;(3), 159–167.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- McCrae, R. R., &amp;amp; Costa Jr, P. T. (1999). A five-factor theory of personality. &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, 2&lt;/em&gt;, 139–153.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- McCrae, R. R., &amp;amp; Costa, P. T. (2003). &lt;em&gt;Personality in adulthood: A five-factor theory perspective&lt;/em&gt;. Guilford Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Srivastava, S., John, O. P., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Potter, J. (2003). Development of personality in early and middle adulthood: set like plaster or persistent change? &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84&lt;/em&gt;(5), 1041–1053. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://j.b5z.net/i/u/2043019/i/PersonalityDevelopmentInAdults.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://j.b5z.net/i/u/2043019/i/PersonalityDevelopmentInAdults.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Venkatachalam, S. (2001). Guns, germs and steel: A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years. &lt;em&gt;Resonance&lt;/em&gt;, 84–88. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/Volumes/06/01/0084-0088.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/Volumes/06/01/0084-0088.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Way, B. M., &amp;amp; Lieberman, M. D. (2010). Is there a genetic contribution to cultural differences? Collectivism, individualism and genetic markers of social sensitivity. &lt;em&gt;Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5&lt;/em&gt;(2–3), 203–211. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.replicatedtypo.com/science/genetic-components-and-cultural-differences-the-social-sensitivity-hypothesis/1620/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.replicatedtypo.com/science/genetic-components-and-cultural-differences-the-social-sensitivity-hypothesis/1620/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-02-13T18:41:04.723" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5735" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6403" CreationDate="2014-02-13T23:44:09.773" Score="7" ViewCount="187" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Brain_Project&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Blue Brain project&lt;/a&gt; led by Henry Markram focused on simulating &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortical_column&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cortical columns&lt;/a&gt; under the idea they form basic processing units of the brain/cognitive function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What functional purpose does a cortical column serve?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for (synapses) of mathematical, conceptual, &amp;amp; scientific models. What is a leading theory, what is the evidence for it, etc?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2733" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-13T17:24:55.423" LastActivityDate="2016-01-13T17:24:55.423" Title="What functional purpose does a cortical column serve?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5736" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5778" CreationDate="2014-02-13T23:54:11.953" Score="3" ViewCount="525" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed for myself that sometimes, certain muscles may become unsteady. Here are three examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes it is more difficult to hold my hand still in the air. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Another example is how my calf muscles are not able to extend smoothly--when they get to a certain point, it sort of spasms and it is difficult to just maintain a slow steady movement.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Just today I noticed my right thumb, when holding down on the touch pad left click button, tends to spasm--my left thumb doesn't feel this way. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also don't believe this can be contributed to lack of motor coordination since I have good coordination to play guitar with the finger picking style and therefore my fingers should be quite dexterous. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though I am not sure if the first example is related to the other two. I am more curious about my thumb spasming since it can affect my guitar playing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4189" LastEditorUserId="4189" LastEditDate="2014-02-18T16:07:38.757" LastActivityDate="2014-04-30T09:01:23.537" Title="What causes a muscle to be unsteady?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5737" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-14T03:58:28.260" Score="2" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently heard a podcast by mr Flynn, the discover of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flynn effect&lt;/a&gt;. According to him, populations worldwide are gaining about 3 points of IQ with each generation, but the kind of their intelligence is changing from more &quot;down to earth&quot; to more abstract. For example, he mentions how in 1920s, people in Siberia could not or would not answer the question like &quot;What color are bears on the North Pole?&quot;, because they have never seen one and all the bears next to them were brown. Flynn suggests that their thinking was much more down to earth and practical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested &lt;strong&gt;if &quot;danger, coffee may be hot&quot; and such warning labels a by-product of American legal system, or are indeed indicators of change in the quality of intelligence of the general population?&lt;/strong&gt; Do &quot;dumb warning labels&quot; exist worldwide?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5nRgq.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-02-14T03:58:28.260" Title="Are &quot;dumb product warning labels&quot; an indicator of change of intelligence of general public?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2014-12-20T21:42:14.663" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5738" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="494" CreationDate="2014-02-14T08:07:43.013" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this recent paper fits your requirements. It considers biological plausibility by showing that the number of neurons required in the proposed method is within a reasonable size for the human brain, and dismisses a series of unreasonable models. Specifically, they create a neural network using the Neural Engineering Framework (NEF) and the Semantic Pointer Architecture (SPA). The network contains 2.5 million neurons to contain a network of 100,000 concepts, which would only require 14.7mm$^2$, in contrast to another model discussed in the paper, which would required 500cm$^2$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also &quot;high-level&quot; enough that it does not just consider relative strengths of nodes, but applies them to analysing vocabulary semantic information. For example, one of the three tests discussed in the paper is to see if the network is &quot;smart&quot; enough to determine that the word &quot;dog&quot; is a synonym for &quot;canine&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper itself is kind of hard to swallow if you don't have the background with the NEF and SPA to approach it, so I recommend reading either &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/sharma.2016.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this tutorial paper&lt;/a&gt; to get started or &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eric Crawford, Matthew Gingerich, and Chris Eliasmith. &lt;a href=&quot;http://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2013/papers/0099/paper0099.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Biologically plausible, human-scale knowledge representation&lt;/a&gt;. In &lt;em&gt;35th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society&lt;/em&gt;, 412–417. 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-07-06T01:06:28.637" LastActivityDate="2016-07-06T01:06:28.637" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5740" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5743" CreationDate="2014-02-14T09:00:18.827" Score="13" ViewCount="4281" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are recent theories on the relation between personality and facial or body shape, and are there studies to support them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See Wikipedia on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;physiognomy&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatotype_and_constitutional_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;somatotypes &amp;amp; constitutional psychology&lt;/a&gt; for background.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I would be most happy if you could go beyond the well-known facts about intelligence and beauty.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-12T00:00:38.450" LastActivityDate="2018-08-04T11:37:24.373" Title="Are there recent theories on physiognomy?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5741" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-14T15:12:54.323" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to compute the accuracy of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://maxlab.neuro.georgetown.edu/hmax/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;HMAX model&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;I am using the &lt;code&gt;Face&lt;/code&gt; category (containing 435 images) from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vision.caltech.edu/Image_Datasets/Caltech101/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Caltech101 database&lt;/a&gt;. I split it into $x$ training and $y$ testing. At each time, when $x$ increases, the accuracy also increases. Furthermore, I heard that the number of training should be equal to 80% by comparing it to the tests. So when I split my data into 348 positive training and the rest for positive testing, I got an accuracy that it is smaller than the other smaller splits (when $x&amp;lt;348)$!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, I also used the &lt;code&gt;Background&lt;/code&gt; category and I split it into 50 negative training and 50 negative testing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do I get smaller accuracy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4084" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-16T23:27:15.570" LastActivityDate="2014-04-27T18:52:43.240" Title="Why do I get smaller accuracy when I use 80% of training sets using HMAX model?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5742" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-14T18:04:08.117" Score="6" ViewCount="611" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am running a language production study, and I want to collect reaction times. I am considering getting a button box, because I understand that my laptop (macbook pro) keyboard is not precise enough for many reaction time studies. I am looking for recommendations for a relatively inexpensive button box.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4220" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-10-10T01:44:20.727" LastActivityDate="2016-10-10T01:44:20.727" Title="Button box for a reaction time study on OS X" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5743" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5740" CreationDate="2014-02-14T23:49:25.920" Score="14" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Facial shape&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aggression relates to facial width-to-height ratio &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://carrelab.com/Carre_et_al_2009_Psyc_Sci.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carré, McCormick, &amp;amp; Mondloch, 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/275/1651/2651.full.pdf%20html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carré &amp;amp; McCormick, 2008&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;. The width-to-height ratio is the distance between the left and right zygion (the outside of the cheek bone) divided by the distance between the top of the upper lip and the mid-brow. Here's a useful image displaying the meaning of this ratio from &lt;a href=&quot;http://carrelab.com/Carre_et_al_2009_Psyc_Sci.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the 2009 article&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rf3GT.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carré et al. found that the lower the width-to-height ratio, i.e. the shorter the distance between lip and brow in relation to the distance from cheekbone to cheekbone, the more aggressive the person is (as measured through a well-validated laboratory task) and is perceived by strangers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the Big Five differ in &lt;strong&gt;observability&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.alittlelab.stir.ac.uk/pubs/Penton-Voak_06_kernaloftruth_SocCog.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Penton-Voak, Pound, Little, &amp;amp; Perrett, 2006&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;. Participants were asked to rate the Big 5 aspects of the personality of strangers. There was a strong agreement between these ratings and the results of a personality test the depicted persons had filled in (reliability calculated as Cronbach's $\alpha=.70\text{–}.89$ for all dimensions, only male conscientiousness was $.63)$. Similar results were found with composite images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some composite facial images from that article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eanhW.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&#xA;  &lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TY84l.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Differences are subtle, but perceptible! BTW, I think I came across this from &lt;em&gt;The Personality Puzzle&lt;/em&gt; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Funder, 1997)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; originally, but I'm not 100% certain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of these facial differences may relate to testosterone. Dominance and masculinity relate to perceptible differences in male facial shape due to the prenatal influence of testosterone, but fortunately for the scope of this answer, these differences do not affect attractiveness to females &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691489/pdf/14561281.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neave, Laing, Fink, &amp;amp; Manning, 2003&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691166/pdf/12495494.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Swaddle &amp;amp; Reierson, 2002&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Body shape&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Body mass index&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some evidence that body mass index (BMI) relates to higher extraversion and psychoticism and lower neuroticism in middle-aged Japanese people &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Kakizaki et al., 2008)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;, impulsivity &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Murphy, Stojek, &amp;amp; MacKillop, 2014;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; first citation of the new year!), hypomania &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nspb.net/index.php/nspb/article/viewFile/204/294&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Valenti, Omizo, &amp;amp; Mehl-Madrona, 2011&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;, and worse cognitive executive functioning &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://postcog.ucd.ie/files/Gunsted.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gunstad et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;. However, one study did not find a relationship between BMI and personality psychopathology &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Picot &amp;amp; Lilenfeld, 2003)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;. Another study found a positive relationship between neuroticism and BMI in middle-aged American women only (the opposite of the relationship in the Japanese population according to Kakizaki et al., who did not mention prominent sex differences) and extraversion among men only (same direction as in Kakizaki et al., but again, more sex differences), as well as negative relationships with openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/222514224_NEO_personality_domains_and_gender_predict_levels_and_trends_in_body_mass_index_over_14_years_during_midlife/file/79e4150c9d3cd9eeb1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brummett et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;. Low conscientiousness related more strongly to BMI in women, and predicted BMI increases over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Testosterone&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another set of correlations between personality and body shape are mediated by testosterone, which &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosterone#Health_effects&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;affects several, readily observable, physical characteristics&lt;/a&gt;, including muscle mass, bone length, vocal pitch and tone, hair growth patterns, body odor, dermal oil secretion and acne, subcutaneous facial fat and facial bone contours, and prominence of the Adam's apple. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosterone#Romantic_relationships_and_fatherhood&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Testosterone relates to many behavioral patterns in romantic relations&lt;/a&gt;, the general trend being toward more competitive promiscuity and less long-term fidelity with increasing testosterone (e.g., &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bec.ucla.edu/papers/Gray_10-20-03.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Burnham et al., 2003&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;. Testosterone increases in men anticipating competition, but may decrease in women &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/630/1/Pong.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mazur, Susman, &amp;amp; Edelbrock, 1997&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;. This effect may be moderated by implicit power motivation &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych2.phil.fau.de/~oschult/humanlab/publications/scm1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schultheiss, Campbell, &amp;amp; McClelland, 1999&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;; if so, it's conceivable that personality could affect appearance over time by altering testosterone levels. Power motivation interacts in complex ways with sex and the outcome of social contexts in affecting testosterone &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych2.phil.uni-erlangen.de/~oschult/humanlab/publications/s2005jpsp.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schultheiss et al., 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych2.phil.uni-erlangen.de/~oschult/humanlab/publications/sws2004hb.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schultheiss, Wirth, &amp;amp; Stanton, 2004&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the underlying personality differences associated with testosterone appears to be in sexual motivation, which &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosterone#Mammalian_studies&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;manifests in non-human animals as well&lt;/a&gt;. Testosterone also relates to sensation-seeking &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;ftp://psyftp.psychology.mcmaster.ca/dalywilson/Papers/DawnPatrol/Roberti2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Roberti, 2004&lt;/a&gt;; Gerra et al., 1999; Daitzman &amp;amp; Zuckerman, 1980; Zuckerman, Buchsbaum, &amp;amp; Murphy, 1980)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; and risk tolerance &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2741240/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sapienza, Zingales, &amp;amp; Maestripieri, 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3653580/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanton et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scottliening.com/research/publications/StantonLieningSchultheiss_HB.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanton, Liening, &amp;amp; Schultheiss, 2011&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;, though the relationship exhibits some complexities across domains of risk &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Stenstrom, Saad, Nepomuceno, &amp;amp; Mendenhall, 2011)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;. The relationship between testosterone and risk aversion may be mediated by abstract reasoning ability &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0029842#pone-0029842-g001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brañas-Garza &amp;amp; Rustichini, 2011&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Testosterone also relates to dominance &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/663/1/bbs_mazur.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mazur &amp;amp; Booth, 1998&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;, aggression &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://aggroreview.googlecode.com/svn-history/r31/sources/downloaded/testosterone/Archer_2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Archer, 2006&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ima.org.il/FilesUpload/IMAJ/0/54/27288.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Birger et al., 2003&lt;/a&gt;; Ehrenkranz, Bliss, &amp;amp; Sheard, 1974; Archer, Birring, &amp;amp; Wu, 1998)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;, and lack of empathy, the last of which appears to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/extra-testosterone-reduces-your-empathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;an empirically established effect of testosterone&lt;/a&gt; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.autismresearchcentre.com/papers/2006_Chapman_etal.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapman et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/7540638_Fetal_testosterone_and_empathy/file/50463515da285cea18.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Knickmeyer, Baron-Cohen, Raggatt, Taylor, &amp;amp; Hackett, 2006&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/49817064_Testosterone_administration_impairs_cognitive_empathy_in_women_depending_on_second-to-fourth_digit_ratio/file/d912f50b5d773ca9e0.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;van Honk et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/dana_carney/published.Ronay%26Carney.2012.SPPS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ronay &amp;amp; Carney, 2013&lt;/a&gt;; see also Auyeung &amp;amp; Baron-Cohen, 2013)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;. Testosterone may even explain deficits in social development &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Knickmeyer &amp;amp; Baron-Cohen, 2006)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; and autistic traits in general &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~sxs02dtf/auyeung2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Auyeung et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://beyond-belief.org.uk/sites/beyond-belief.org.uk/files/Baron-Cohen%20hormonesandbehavior.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ingudomnukul, Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, &amp;amp; Knickmeyer, 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;, according to a theory that conceptualizes autism as extreme cognitive maleness &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.bme.hu/~ivady/bscs/read/bc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baron-Cohen, 2002&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://docentes.cs.urjc.es/~odeluis/Docencia/ABP/Articulos/baroncohen.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baron-Cohen, Knickmeyer, &amp;amp; Belmonte, 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aur.80/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chakrabarti et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Testosterone relates positively to emotional arousal and anger, but also relates positively to attentiveness to angry facial expressions in others &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(van Honk et al., 1999)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;. This latter result demonstrates that testosterone doesn't unilaterally decrease awareness of others' emotional states, especially to whatever extent they pose immediate threat. The relationship between testosterone and antisocial behavior is also moderated by socioeconomic status &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://connect.issaquah.wednet.edu/cfs-file.ashx/__key/telligent-evolution-components-attachments/13-8431-00-00-00-04-77-28/Testosterone-and-Antisocial-behavior.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dabbs &amp;amp; Morris, 1990&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;. These complexities may limit the otherwise impressive relationships between personality and testosterone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In women, estradiol may instead play a similar role to testosterone in men, modifying dominance motivation &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2818294/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanton &amp;amp; Schultheiss, 2009&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol#Sexual_development&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia lists some observable physiological effects of estradiol&lt;/a&gt;, but these claims currently lack supporting citations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt; (there's a ton; I recommend zooming in with &lt;kbd&gt;Ctrl&lt;/kbd&gt;+&lt;kbd&gt;+&lt;/kbd&gt; or copy-pasting into a word processor)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Archer, J. (2006). Testosterone and human aggression: An evaluation of the challenge hypothesis. &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience &amp;amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, 30&lt;/em&gt;(3), 319–345. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://aggroreview.googlecode.com/svn-history/r31/sources/downloaded/testosterone/Archer_2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://aggroreview.googlecode.com/svn-history/r31/sources/downloaded/testosterone/Archer_2004.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Archer, J., Birring, S. S., &amp;amp; Wu, F. C. (1998). The association between testosterone and aggression among young men: Empirical findings and a meta‐analysis. &lt;em&gt;Aggressive Behavior, 24&lt;/em&gt;(6), 411–420.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Auyeung, B., Baron‐Cohen, S., Ashwin, E., Knickmeyer, R., Taylor, K., &amp;amp; Hackett, G. (2009). Fetal testosterone and autistic traits. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Psychology, 100&lt;/em&gt;(1), 1–22. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~sxs02dtf/auyeung2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~sxs02dtf/auyeung2009.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Auyeung, B., &amp;amp; Baron‐Cohen, S. (2013). Prenatal and postnatal testosterone effects on human social and emotional behavior. In S. Baron-Cohen, M. Lombardo, H. Tager-Flusberg, &amp;amp; D. Cohen (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Understanding Other Minds: Perspectives from developmental social neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;. Oxford University Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6&lt;/em&gt;(6), 248–254. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.bme.hu/~ivady/bscs/read/bc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cogsci.bme.hu/~ivady/bscs/read/bc.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Baron-Cohen, S., Knickmeyer, R. C., &amp;amp; Belmonte, M. K. (2005). Sex differences in the brain: implications for explaining autism. &lt;em&gt;Science, 310&lt;/em&gt;(5749), 819–823. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://docentes.cs.urjc.es/~odeluis/Docencia/ABP/Articulos/baroncohen.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://docentes.cs.urjc.es/~odeluis/Docencia/ABP/Articulos/baroncohen.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Birger, M., Swartz, M., Cohen, D., Alesh, Y. A., Grishpan, C., &amp;amp; Kotelr, M. (2003). Aggression: The testosterone-serotonin link. &lt;em&gt;IMAJ-RAMAT GAN-, 5&lt;/em&gt;(9), 653–658. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ima.org.il/FilesUpload/IMAJ/0/54/27288.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ima.org.il/FilesUpload/IMAJ/0/54/27288.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Brañas-Garza, P., &amp;amp; Rustichini, A. (2011). Organizing effects of testosterone and economic behavior: Not just risk taking. &lt;em&gt;PLoS ONE, 6&lt;/em&gt;(12), e29842. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0029842#pone-0029842-g001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0029842#pone-0029842-g001&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Brummett, B. H., Babyak, M. A., Williams, R. B., Barefoot, J. C., Costa, P. T., &amp;amp; Siegler, I. C. (2006). NEO personality domains and gender predict levels and trends in body mass index over 14 years during midlife. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality, 40&lt;/em&gt;(3), 222–236. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/222514224_NEO_personality_domains_and_gender_predict_levels_and_trends_in_body_mass_index_over_14_years_during_midlife/file/79e4150c9d3cd9eeb1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Burnham, T. C., Chapman, J. F., Gray, P. B., McIntyre, M. H., Lipson, S. F., &amp;amp; Ellison, P. T. (2003). Men in committed, romantic relationships have lower testosterone. &lt;em&gt;Hormones and Behavior, 44&lt;/em&gt;(2), 119–122. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bec.ucla.edu/papers/Gray_10-20-03.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.bec.ucla.edu/papers/Gray_10-20-03.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Carré, J. M., &amp;amp; McCormick, C. M. (2008). In your face: Facial metrics predict aggressive behaviour in the laboratory and in varsity and professional hockey players. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 275&lt;/em&gt;(1651), 2651–2656. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/275/1651/2651.full.pdf%20html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/275/1651/2651.full.pdf%20html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Carré, J. M., McCormick, C. M., &amp;amp; Mondloch, C. J. (2009). Facial structure is a reliable cue of aggressive behavior. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science, 20&lt;/em&gt;(10), 1194–1198. 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Norton &amp;amp; Co.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Gerra, G., Avanzini, P., Zaimovic, A., Sartori, R., Bocchi, C., Timpano, M., Zambelli, U., Delsignore, R., Gardini, F., Talarico, E., &amp;amp; Brambilla, F. (1999). Neurotransmitters, neuroendocrine correlates of sensation-seeking temperament in normal humans. &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychobiology, 39&lt;/em&gt;, 207–213.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Gunstad, J., Paul, R. H., Cohen, R. A., Tate, D. F., Spitznagel, M. B., &amp;amp; Gordon, E. (2007). Elevated body mass index is associated with executive dysfunction in otherwise healthy adults. &lt;em&gt;Comprehensive Psychiatry, 48&lt;/em&gt;(1), 57–61. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://postcog.ucd.ie/files/Gunsted.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://postcog.ucd.ie/files/Gunsted.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Ingudomnukul, E., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., &amp;amp; Knickmeyer, R. (2007). Elevated rates of testosterone-related disorders in women with autism spectrum conditions. &lt;em&gt;Hormones and Behavior, 51&lt;/em&gt;(5), 597–604. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://beyond-belief.org.uk/sites/beyond-belief.org.uk/files/Baron-Cohen%20hormonesandbehavior.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://beyond-belief.org.uk/sites/beyond-belief.org.uk/files/Baron-Cohen%20hormonesandbehavior.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Kakizaki, M., Kuriyama, S., Sato, Y., Shimazu, T., Matsuda-Ohmori, K., Nakaya, N., ... &amp;amp; Tsuji, I. (2008). Personality and body mass index: A cross-sectional analysis from the Miyagi Cohort Study. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64&lt;/em&gt;(1), 71–80.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Knickmeyer, R. C., &amp;amp; Baron-Cohen, S. (2006). Fetal testosterone and sex differences. &lt;em&gt;Early Human Development, 82&lt;/em&gt;(12), 755–760.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Knickmeyer, R., Baron-Cohen, S., Raggatt, P., Taylor, K., &amp;amp; Hackett, G. (2006). Fetal testosterone and empathy. &lt;em&gt;Hormones and Behavior, 49&lt;/em&gt;(3), 282–292. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/7540638_Fetal_testosterone_and_empathy/file/50463515da285cea18.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/7540638_Fetal_testosterone_and_empathy/file/50463515da285cea18.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Mazur, A., &amp;amp; Booth, A. (1998). Testosterone and dominance in men. &lt;em&gt;Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21&lt;/em&gt;(3), 353–363. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/663/1/bbs_mazur.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cogprints.org/663/1/bbs_mazur.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Mazur, A., Susman, E. J., &amp;amp; Edelbrock, S. (1997). Sex difference in testosterone response to a video game contest. &lt;em&gt;Evolution and Human Behavior, 18&lt;/em&gt;(5), 317–326. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/630/1/Pong.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cogprints.org/630/1/Pong.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Murphy, C. M., Stojek, M. K., &amp;amp; MacKillop, J. (2014). Interrelationships among impulsive personality traits, food addiction, and Body Mass Index. &lt;em&gt;Appetite, 73&lt;/em&gt;, 45–50.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Neave, N., Laing, S., Fink, B., &amp;amp; Manning, J. T. (2003). Second to fourth digit ratio, testosterone and perceived male dominance. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 270&lt;/em&gt;(1529), 2167–2172. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691489/pdf/14561281.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691489/pdf/14561281.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Penton-Voak, I. S., Pound, N., Little, A. C., &amp;amp; Perrett, D. I. (2006). Personality judgments from natural and composite facial images: More evidence for a “kernel of truth” in social perception. &lt;em&gt;Social Cognition, 24&lt;/em&gt;(5), 607–640. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.alittlelab.stir.ac.uk/pubs/Penton-Voak_06_kernaloftruth_SocCog.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.alittlelab.stir.ac.uk/pubs/Penton-Voak_06_kernaloftruth_SocCog.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Picot, A. K., &amp;amp; Lilenfeld, L. R. (2003). The relationship among binge severity, personality psychopathology, and body mass index. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Eating Disorders, 34&lt;/em&gt;(1), 98–107.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Roberti, J. W. (2004). A review of behavioral and biological correlates of sensation seeking. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality, 38&lt;/em&gt;(3), 256–279. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;ftp://psyftp.psychology.mcmaster.ca/dalywilson/Papers/DawnPatrol/Roberti2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ftp://psyftp.psychology.mcmaster.ca/dalywilson/Papers/DawnPatrol/Roberti2004.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Ronay, R., &amp;amp; Carney, D. R. (2013). Testosterone’s negative relationship with empathic accuracy and perceived leadership ability. &lt;em&gt;Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4&lt;/em&gt;(1), 92–99. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/dana_carney/published.Ronay%26Carney.2012.SPPS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/dana_carney/published.Ronay%26Carney.2012.SPPS.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Sapienza, P., Zingales, L., &amp;amp; Maestripieri, D. (2009). Gender differences in financial risk aversion and career choices are affected by testosterone. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106&lt;/em&gt;(36), 15268–15273. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2741240/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2741240/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Schultheiss, O. C., Campbell, K. L., &amp;amp; McClelland, D. C. (1999). Implicit power motivation moderates men's testosterone responses to imagined and real dominance success. &lt;em&gt;Hormones and Behavior, 36&lt;/em&gt;(3), 234–241. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych2.phil.fau.de/~oschult/humanlab/publications/scm1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.psych2.phil.fau.de/~oschult/humanlab/publications/scm1999.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Schultheiss, O. C., Wirth, M. M., &amp;amp; Stanton, S. J. (2004). Effects of affiliation and power motivation arousal on salivary progesterone and testosterone. &lt;em&gt;Hormones and Behavior, 46&lt;/em&gt;(5), 592–599. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych2.phil.uni-erlangen.de/~oschult/humanlab/publications/sws2004hb.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.psych2.phil.uni-erlangen.de/~oschult/humanlab/publications/sws2004hb.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Schultheiss, O. C., Wirth, M. M., Torges, C. M., Pang, J. S., Villacorta, M. A., &amp;amp; Welsh, K. M. (2005). Effects of implicit power motivation on men's and women's implicit learning and testosterone changes after social victory or defeat. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88&lt;/em&gt;(1), 174–188. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych2.phil.uni-erlangen.de/~oschult/humanlab/publications/s2005jpsp.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.psych2.phil.uni-erlangen.de/~oschult/humanlab/publications/s2005jpsp.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Stanton, S. J., Liening, S. H., &amp;amp; Schultheiss, O. C. (2011). Testosterone is positively associated with risk taking in the Iowa Gambling Task. &lt;em&gt;Hormones and Behavior, 59&lt;/em&gt;(2), 252–256. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scottliening.com/research/publications/StantonLieningSchultheiss_HB.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.scottliening.com/research/publications/StantonLieningSchultheiss_HB.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Stanton, S. J., O’Dhaniel, A., McLaurin, R. E., Kuhn, C. M., LaBar, K. S., Platt, M. L., &amp;amp; Huettel, S. A. (2011). Low-and high-testosterone individuals exhibit decreased aversion to economic risk. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science, 22&lt;/em&gt;(4), 447–453. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3653580/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3653580/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Stanton, S. J., &amp;amp; Schultheiss, O. C. (2009). The hormonal correlates of implicit power motivation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality, 43&lt;/em&gt;(5), 942–949. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2818294/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2818294/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Stenstrom, E., Saad, G., Nepomuceno, M. V., &amp;amp; Mendenhall, Z. (2011). Testosterone and domain-specific risk: Digit ratios (2D: 4D and &lt;i&gt;rel&lt;/i&gt;2) as predictors of recreational, financial, and social risk-taking behaviors. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences, 51&lt;/em&gt;(4), 412–416.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Swaddle, J. P., &amp;amp; Reierson, G. W. (2002). Testosterone increases perceived dominance but not attractiveness in human males. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 269&lt;/em&gt;(1507), 2285–2289. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691166/pdf/12495494.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691166/pdf/12495494.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Valenti, M. P., Omizo, M. M., &amp;amp; Mehl-Madrona, L. (2011). Personality and obese Body Mass Index. &lt;em&gt;The New School Psychology Bulletin, 9&lt;/em&gt;(1), 34–38. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nspb.net/index.php/nspb/article/viewFile/204/294&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.nspb.net/index.php/nspb/article/viewFile/204/294&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; van Honk, J., Schutter, D. J., Bos, P. A., Kruijt, A. W., Lentjes, E. G., &amp;amp; Baron-Cohen, S. (2011). Testosterone administration impairs cognitive empathy in women depending on second-to-fourth digit ratio. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108&lt;/em&gt;(8), 3448–3452. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/49817064_Testosterone_administration_impairs_cognitive_empathy_in_women_depending_on_second-to-fourth_digit_ratio/file/d912f50b5d773ca9e0.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/49817064_Testosterone_administration_impairs_cognitive_empathy_in_women_depending_on_second-to-fourth_digit_ratio/file/d912f50b5d773ca9e0.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; van Honk, J., Tuiten, A., Verbaten, R., van den Hout, M., Koppeschaar, H., Thijssen, J., &amp;amp; de Haan, E. (1999). Correlations among salivary testosterone, mood, and selective attention to threat in humans. &lt;em&gt;Hormones and Behavior, 36&lt;/em&gt;(1), 17–24.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Zuckerman, M., Buchsbaum, M. S., &amp;amp; Murphy, D. L. (1980). Sensation seeking and its biological correlates. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin, 88&lt;/em&gt;(1), 187–214.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-02T01:19:58.447" LastActivityDate="2014-06-02T01:19:58.447" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5745" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-15T05:49:55.097" Score="8" ViewCount="1798" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am from Brazil – at the current moment, education in this country is undoubtedly poor. I've been learning some things over the years on my own, mostly downloading content from the internet and reading. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whenever I tell people (in my country) that I learn in such way, they usually say that I am an autodidact – and when arguing about this, they seem to imply that this is a unique feature for some special people that are born with this (they don't think that it's an ability that anyone could develop). However, I'm a little skeptical about this, and I'm expanding the reasons below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;As I pointed out in the beginning, the education in our country is a failure. We're not taught how to think and develop solutions to problems with minimal information beforehand. Education is more of a fake spectacle provided by the government to pretend the country is a good place for international investors. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Trying to learn after being a student that spent years in such a scheme is usually painful, and I say this from experience. Managing energy, motivation, discipline, systems for controlling procrastination, the idea that you yourself have to manage such features and other aspects of learning alone is hard.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Our school gives us the impression that learning is linear and continuous, that there aren't pitfalls and that spending some days stuck with a problem means that one cannot learn something alone.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;When speaking with people from other countries, it seems utterly trivial to learn something alone. I've even gotten some syllabi from universities such as Cambridge and Oxford, and the way these syllabi are written seems to be made for a student that has been taught in a more sophisticated and independent way. They list the topics that need to be learned, they give the student a manual on how to study, and they give them the list of books – I'm finding it perfect to learn using their syllabi as a guide. On the other hand, the syllabi of Brazilian universities are terrible, they don't mention books, they don't mention a order for which the topics must be studied, they just list everything only with dates, and there's no guide for self-study: The syllabi seems to be made for a completely dependent student.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the arguments above, I'd like to know: Is autodidactism really a unique, rare feature that I possess? I ask because I do not feel so; I feel that I could teach it to everyone, and that some of our beliefs about education and self-education are wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-15T07:36:15.773" LastActivityDate="2017-02-17T18:06:19.137" Title="Is autodidactism a feature that can only be possessed by special kinds of individuals?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5746" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5745" CreationDate="2014-02-15T08:04:14.163" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd recommend checking out &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodidacticism&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's article on autodidacticism&lt;/a&gt; for a start. This might give you a better sense of the context surrounding the word, and whether it really means so much as you feel it does. My first impression is that this is not much more than a semantic issue (but I have a second impression, which I'll get to next). The literal definition seems to be, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/autodidact&quot;&gt;A self-taught person&lt;/a&gt;,&quot; which isn't very interesting. In this sense, of course you are. That's what you're describing: self-teaching.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My second impression is that this is interesting inasmuch as self-teaching is actually rare. That seems odd to me; in what sense doesn't everyone teach themselves to some extent? If we interpret it instead as &quot;&lt;em&gt;primarily&lt;/em&gt; self-taught&quot;, then I could see autodidacticism being rarer. People usually find educational systems guided by others preferable (or mandatory, as is the case in the USA), but maybe not in a situation such as you describe (whether it's true of Brazil in general or not). When educational systems provided by traditional, mainstream, or public infrastructure are poor, it seems quite likely that one would opt to take advantage of other educational sources as you have. In the past decade or so, the internet has been particularly instrumental in providing this option globally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I get the impression that using others' educational materials (including syllabi) for otherwise self-guided education doesn't violate the generally intended meaning of autodidact. A stricter definition might limit it only to learning through direct experience with life, but it's hard to imagine anyone short of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_child&quot;&gt;feral child&lt;/a&gt; fitting this definition truly enough. If an autodidact can learn through contact with others and their guidance and still be an autodidact simply because one has pursued education independently of structured guidance in the form of a professional relationship with a particular teacher, then I agree, it's not that unusual. If it's a question of whether you're &lt;em&gt;primarily&lt;/em&gt; self-taught, that might be unusual, but it's not unique. Your particular circumstances seem especially likely to result in such a choice. The ongoing advent of internet-based educational resources makes it more likely that people will &quot;teach themselves&quot; in the same way you do, though it's an interesting semantic issue to consider whether this is truly self-teaching when you're taking advantage of structured lessons provided by others without their knowledge. It seems likely to me that the term &quot;autodidact&quot; itself will begin to lose its meaning in this evolving context of freely, globally available information. In any case, if autodidacticism is at all unique now, it seems unlikely to remain that way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-15T08:04:14.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5747" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5709" CreationDate="2014-02-15T16:37:45.373" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have participated in NIPS, CNS, and COSYNE at least a couple times each. In fact, I have participated in &lt;a href=&quot;http://memming.wordpress.com/category/event/conference-event/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;all 3 last year&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;COSYNE is the smallest conference, but it's growing fast. It's a great conference because it has a good balance between experimentalists and theorists. It takes an extended abstract (2 pages). It emphasizes the systems aspect of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CNS has more physicist/mathematicians (COSYNE and NIPS also have a high number of them, but CNS has the most), and has a feeling of &quot;European&quot; science. The themes are more theory oriented. I heard that it is usually bigger when it's held in Europe (it alternates).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NIPS started half machine learning, half neuroscience a long time ago, but it has been overrun by ML people. But, in recent years, I see more and more computational neuroscience coming back to NIPS. It has a strict double blind reviewing with high rejection rate around 25% for an 8 page full paper (+1 page reference).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each conference has its own niche, so the impact would depend on your area within computational neuroscience. NIPS is the only one with a full paper, so it tends to be cited more. However, a lot of networking happens in COSYNE and CNS among neuroscientists, so it would definitely have more impact to experimentalists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feel free to ask me more questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastEditorUserId="301" LastEditDate="2015-05-15T14:30:49.690" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T14:30:49.690" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5748" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5732" CreationDate="2014-02-15T18:42:22.933" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have no experience at cognitive sciences formally, but what comes next is result of my own experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly anyone can say, you can try and see.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then, humans can multitask and it is a matter of choice. So when you keep your listening device and go about doing other works, if you do not condition your mind, what happens is known only to you, but if you consciously put effort to listen to it, even in bits and pieces, you will recon it later.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4407" LastActivityDate="2014-02-15T18:42:22.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5749" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1949" CreationDate="2014-02-15T21:22:42.343" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've found an additional concept that may be related to the original question: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;prototype theory&lt;/a&gt;. Here's a summary from Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Prototype theory is a mode of graded categorization in cognitive science, where some members of a category are more central than others. For example, when asked to give an example of the concept furniture, chair is more frequently cited than, say, stool. Prototype theory has also been applied in linguistics, as part of the mapping from phonological structure to semantics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to this theory, &lt;strong&gt;rather than a common ancestor for words, there's a common shared category&lt;/strong&gt;, which can be thought as a parent object. A potato and a fist sized  rock would share the rounded object category, but the rock would also have a &quot;rocky texture&quot; category&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2014-02-16T21:39:12.597" LastActivityDate="2014-02-16T21:39:12.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5750" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-16T02:50:03.533" Score="3" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking about studying neuroscience, but the only &lt;strong&gt;interests I have in the general area&lt;/strong&gt; are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Where thought or consciousness come from and how it all works&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How memory works and why it can't be accessed at all times&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can it be increased, and does it have a limit?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How a smell can bring back a memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why, if I remember a scene or a moment, can I not relive an entire day or month? Will this be possible in the future?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I love biology and am doing a course in chemistry and lab work at the moment, but I'm afraid I'll be disappointed if I study neuroscience for these reasons. &lt;strong&gt;Are these questions more theoretical and philosophical than what a neuroscience student would actually study?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4410" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-16T04:16:04.547" LastActivityDate="2014-03-07T23:32:13.113" Title="Neuroscience student" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-03-03T18:02:45.470" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5751" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5753" CreationDate="2014-02-16T02:57:38.613" Score="7" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed the following pattern within my own thinking - multiple unrelated events &quot;combine&quot; to produce a certain action, particularly creativity and innovation. I'm trying to understand if this phenomenon is true or common among people. As a way to learn more about this, I thought that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placebo#Expectancy_and_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;placebo effect&lt;/a&gt; would be a good place to start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clarify my question: imagine you are going to get a drug prescription. It will be a placebo, but you don't know that. &lt;strong&gt;Would combining factors like below increase the effectiveness of placebo?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;clean doctors office&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a traditional white coat doctor like on stock photos treating you&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;positive demeanor of staff&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;perception of privacy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;thinking you are being prescribed a drug you have researched well and feel safe about&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;seeing a presentation about the advances of modern medicine within a week before &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Contrast this with the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a dark, cramped waiting room&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;long wait and short consultation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a physician assistant or a nurse practitioner seeing you instead of MD&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;unknown drug you have never heard of&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;perceiving some negative news within last week&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand &lt;strong&gt;if a combination of unrelated events indeed does combine to affect the effectiveness of placebo?&lt;/strong&gt; If so, is there the primary cause of change (like PA-C prescribing vs MD)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placebo#Expectancy_and_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;following on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; which makes me even more curious:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The expectancy effect[of placebo] &lt;strong&gt;can be enhanced&lt;/strong&gt; through factors such as the&#xA;  enthusiasm of the doctor, differences in size and color of placebo&#xA;  pills, or the use of other interventions such as injections. In one&#xA;  study, the response to a placebo increased from 44% to 62% &lt;strong&gt;when the&#xA;  doctor treated them with &quot;warmth, attention, and confidence.&quot;[47]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is what I think the traditional expectation of a doctor is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7Qoly.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T07:31:52.813" Title="Can placebo effect be increased by modifying the perception about prescription/intake setting?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5752" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5750" CreationDate="2014-02-16T09:30:24.487" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive sciences are an interdisciplinary field between:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;psychology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sociology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;philosophy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;medical sciences&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;biology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;physics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;chemistry&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;palaeontology / anthropology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ethnology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;information sciences&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;linguistics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I believe I forgot something&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The core is probably somewhere around psychology, neurobiology (including endocrinology) and artificial intelligence, though others would lay the focus elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It does not matter much which of these fields you study, if you aim at an academic career studying cognition, because you will have to make yourself familiar with, or even an expert, in most of the other fields, if you want to go beyond a master's degree. Where you put &lt;em&gt;your&lt;/em&gt; focus, is a matter of personal preference, and no matter where that is, you will be working in a team of experts from different fields. I'm studying psychology, and at our institute (of psychology) we have researchers who studied medicine, physics, information science, and pedagogy. In the neuroscience institute next door, there are psychologists, biologists, medical scientists (including psychiatrists) and probably more that I don't know. Despite their different backgrounds, they now all work on the same research topics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So while it does not matter (much) which first topic you choose, you need to be open and curious of mind, to be successful in science. If, as you say, you are interested only in a very narrow field, interdisciplinary work will be impossible for you. You won't be able to follow your topic to where it leads you. Sometimes, when you research something, you realize that the answer to a relevant question, that you need to answer before you can go on, lies in another field. Then you must study that field. If you don't, that will hamper your understanding and research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best scientists, in my opinion, are those that are basically curious and want to understand and learn. They all have their individual talents, and certainly no one can know and understand everything, but the most successful researchers today are experts in several fields and interested in several others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, there are those hard working lab rats that get things done, and they are invaluable, too. The question is, can you see yourself as doing the grunt work, or do you want to really understand it all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then maybe that is all something you cannot know in advance. You need to experience things to know if they are for you or not. When I was fresh from school, I had very limited interests and a wide array of clearly defined dislikes (everything I had to learn in school). But in the years that followed, I understood that I am basically interested in everything, even the subjects that I hated in school. And what I found the most interesting at first, I lost interest in after studying it for a few years. Now I study something else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I would recommend is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;read the internet sites of the university institutes and some introductory textbooks in the three or four fields that you are most interested in&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;choose the one whose &lt;em&gt;methodology&lt;/em&gt; you like best: do you want to dissect brains, do statistical data analysis, program software, work on people or animals, theorize or spend nights in the lab, ... ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;study that&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;if after a year or two you realize you want something else, switch (but understand that every field includes stuff you find boring)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;finish your master's&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;reflect on what you learned and understand what interests you for the next few years&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;find a research group and do your Ph.D.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;again reflect and decide on the next steps&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;don't worry, there are many successful non-linear careers in science&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-02-16T09:30:24.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5753" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5751" CreationDate="2014-02-16T10:00:51.707" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the field of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;persuasive communication&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is relevant for your answer, as well as research into the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy#Criticisms_and_questions_regarding_effectiveness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;efficacy of psychotherapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Customers trust advertising if it is communicated by:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;attractive persons&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;credible experts&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychotherapy is more effective if:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the therapist believes that his methods are effective (!)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;patient and therapist share the same world view and values&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;patient and therapist like each other&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What constitutes attractiveness, expertise, common values, and sympathy, will differ among individuals. For some, expensive architecture makes a bank more trustworthy; for others it is a sign of waste and mismanagement. So you will have to identify the exact parameter value for each target group or, for perfect fit, even each individual person. But basically what you have here are &lt;em&gt;moderators&lt;/em&gt; that affect the efficacy of a placebo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is noteworthy is that the belief of the person administering the placebo has an effect. So it's better they don't know it is a placebo, but have been given it by a person they in turn trust.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is &lt;em&gt;a lot&lt;/em&gt; of research into both areas; I give only one introductory source each (both of which respectively include what I quoted above):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Goldstein, N. J., Martin, S. J., &amp;amp; Cialdini, R. B. (2008). &lt;em&gt;Yes!: 50 Scientifically Proven Ways to Be Persuasive&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Simon and Schuster.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wampold, Bruce E. (2001). &lt;em&gt;The Great Psychotherapy Debate: Models, Methods and Findings&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Routledge.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Don't be fooled by the popular nature of the first book; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cialdini&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Robert Cialdini&lt;/a&gt; is an eminent expert on persuasion. If you want, there are more scientific publications by this author.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-18T07:31:52.813" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T07:31:52.813" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5754" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1949" CreationDate="2014-02-16T10:24:42.747" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are looking at learning from the wrong direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A child does not learn a word. A child learns about a detail of the world &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; the word that is used to denote it. The word comes with the experience and is only attached to that experience as a label. What the child learns is the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adult learning is mostly similar. You either observe or experience that applying a certain action to a certain object leads to a certain result. You label these objects, actions and results with words for easy communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g. you won't understand what an accelerator pedal is, unless you observe, experience or have explained what it does and how it is used. That is, learning about complex objects, like the accelerator pedal, you will have to put them in relation to other aspects of the world that you have already learned (what is a car? what is the purpose of transportation? etc.). The first and very simple details about the world that we learn as children will have no previous knowledge that they can be related to, so you learn them &lt;em&gt;as is&lt;/em&gt;: red creates this reaction in your brain, sour makes your face scrunch up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Children learn the fundamental aspects of the world before they even know their first word, and they will continue learning, even if they are not or only rarely exposed to language (e.g. with mute parents). Words are not necessary for learning, although they can facilitate it greatly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-02-16T10:24:42.747" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5755" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5760" CreationDate="2014-02-16T15:51:58.957" Score="4" ViewCount="7958" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am preparing a presentation on &quot;Mind Reading Computer&quot;, and all articles that I came across were focused on reading interpretations from brain through sensors. Articles like  &lt;a href=&quot;http://kadampa.org/reference/what-is-the-mind/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; clearly show a distinction between them, but from an engineering perspective, I need scientific facts. Does &quot;mind reading computer&quot; imply &quot;brain reading computer&quot;, or does the term &quot;mind&quot; have totally a different meaning in the context? Any help and facts relating to the topic will be highly appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4022" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-17T21:16:03.403" LastActivityDate="2014-10-06T16:53:11.850" Title="What's the major difference between mind and brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="8" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5756" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9840" CreationDate="2014-02-16T20:50:14.760" Score="6" ViewCount="1660" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have come across a theory relating to Jung Function Theory normally addressed as 'Dom-Tert' loops. I will briefly explain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Jung Function Theory, everyone has 4 of 16 functions. They split into Introverted/Extroverted, Sensing/Intuiting, and Thinking/Feeling. These, in broad strokes, aim to explain how people function in both Information Gathering (S/N) as well as Information Processing (T/F) and whether that has a subjective base, or an objective base (I/E).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://personalitycafe.com/articles/25205-dominant-tertiary-loops-common-personality-disorders.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; theory lays out that the first (or &lt;b&gt;dom&lt;/b&gt;inant) function and the third (or &lt;b&gt;tert&lt;/b&gt;iary) function form a feedback loop, and the second function becomes underdeveloped. Below is an excerpt that hopefully gives an example of this at work (Myers Briggs notation is used as shorthand here):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ENTP/ESFJ: Ne/Fe or Fe/Ne--Narcissistic Personality Disorder.&lt;/strong&gt; This type often behaves impulsively and manipulatively, needing constant approval and admiration from others, running around investing in new thing after new thing, but never developing the self-confidence of a strong, subjective perspective. Fe used negatively may use its awareness of the cultural standards of others to intentionally offend or upset them, in order to service Ne's curiosity about the patterns in their responses. If Ti/Si were working properly, it would give the user a balancing sense of personal, subjective importance and free him of his dependence upon the adulation and unconditional acceptance of others. (Horrible example: Patrick Bateman from American Psycho.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The crux being that everyone must use a balance of subjective and objective reasoning and perception to function correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I realise that Jung Function theory is a favourite with armchair psychologists, and it's validity &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1402/4413&quot;&gt;has&lt;/a&gt; been &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1553/4413&quot;&gt;questioned&lt;/a&gt;, but I wanted to know if this theory is either &lt;strong&gt;a)&lt;/strong&gt; expressed formally in any kind of Jung Function theory study, or &lt;strong&gt;b)&lt;/strong&gt; if something like this imbalance leading to personality disorders exists in other psychological theories? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where does this idea come from? The writer of the above forum post doesn't seem to take credit for the idea or even lead us to what inspired them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4413" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T15:29:17.383" Title="What is the basis behind the idea of Dom-Tert loops in Jung Function Theory?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5757" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-16T21:48:29.883" Score="3" ViewCount="279" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the benefit or purpose of having different hemispheres of the brain contribute more to different cognitive processes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3808" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-18T00:13:00.800" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T00:13:00.800" Title="What is the purpose of hemispheric specialisation in the brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5758" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-17T00:39:18.823" Score="2" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm asking specifically about nostalgia for a time before you were born, e.g. the Blitz parties / 40s tea dances that have big in the UK for the past decade, or the popularity of Speakeasy-themed bars in the US. I'm thinking of nights that require you to dress in theme specifically and celebrate that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was discussing it with a friend today, and I said it seems like it's a way to participate in something your grandparents did that strengthens your bonds to your own family, but she (rightly) replied that her own grandma had never been to a dance – she'd been too poor. It seems to me like when we're at the tea dance or in the speakeasy or whatever, we're doing something more than faithfully reenacting the things our forebears did, but I'm not sure what that is or why. Are we celebrating the best bits and leaving the rest behind? Are we thoughtlessly celebrating a time of awful gender and racial inequality? Does anyone have any insight into this kind of nostalgia, the nostalgia for things you've never experienced yourself, and the act of participating in themed events, and what functions that has socially/psychologically?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4416" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-17T05:16:23.707" LastActivityDate="2014-02-17T06:32:57.870" Title="What is the psychological function of nostalgically reenacting activities from before we were born?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5759" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5757" CreationDate="2014-02-17T04:51:09.340" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, biological features do not always arise from some intrinsic benefit.  They can also be byproducts of other adaptations, or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;spandrels&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, one example of a possible benefit is specialization.  For instance, birds will develop asymmetries in their visual system based on light inputs to their outward-facing eye (one eye faces the eggshell, the other is obscured within the egg).  Distinct asymmetries in the brain allow birds to use one eye or brain region for finding and tracking prey (a very robust detail-oriented object identifier), and the other will be turned towards the sky, looking out for predators (and isn't as detail-oriented).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v13/n12/full/nrn3371.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Encoding asymmetry within neural circuits&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ckyGC.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-17T20:43:11.647" LastActivityDate="2014-02-17T20:43:11.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5760" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5755" CreationDate="2014-02-17T04:58:05.143" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sure, to some extent mind reading implies brain reading.  For instance, if you were reading someone's mind by their behavior or their heart rate, it would be through their brain's effect on those organs.  We largely do this through inference.  Without a heart monitor or perspiration monitor, we have whole sections of brain dedicated to recognizing human faces and interpreting emotions and we tend to automatically assume things that look like us think and feel like us.  This can be helpful for mind reading, but it can also lead to misconceptions, because not everyone responds the same way to stimuli.  Some people laugh to cope with tragedy, some people cry.  Additionally, some people use deceitful facial expressions to hide their feelings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the brain is a physical object, whereas the concept of the mind is more obfuscated.  Some people emphasize the experiential aspects of the mind (phenomenology or subjective experience), while others emphasize the functional aspect of the mind (function, cognition).  There is still a lot of arguing left to do over what &quot;mind&quot; means, whereas we can pretty much all agree what a brain is.  So they're not the same thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-09-02T16:44:35.150" LastActivityDate="2014-09-02T16:44:35.150" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5761" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5758" CreationDate="2014-02-17T06:32:57.870" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Historic reenactment and historically themed social events may serve a variety of functions for the different people that participate in different events:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some people in virtually all societies value traditionalism (&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.220.3674&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schwartz, 1992&lt;/a&gt;).&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Traditionalism relates to religiosity (among Judeo-Christian faiths; Schwartz &amp;amp; Huismans, 1995).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some hold romantic ideals of the past (e.g., the notion of &quot;simpler times&quot;). Personality traits related to these attitudes &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; (I'm speculating here) include the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/lib/whats-your-time-perspective/0001365&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;past-positive type of time perspective&lt;/a&gt; (Zimbardo &amp;amp; Boyd, 1999) and low &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openness_to_experience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;openness to experience&lt;/a&gt;, which also relates to traditionalism.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some may desire an escape from the ordinary environments they're used to in daily life.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some enjoy dated fashions that don't seem quite right to wear in ordinary, modern contexts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some events involve celebration of history, which is valuable in its own right.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some attendees probably enjoy any opportunity to dress up, act a part, or socialize in general.&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Extraversion&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_monitoring&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-monitoring&lt;/a&gt; may be relevant traits for understanding these motives.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The motive itself may be the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_affiliation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;need for affiliation&lt;/a&gt;, which is stronger in some individuals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social contact serves many psychological functions, including the enhancement of well-being.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Surely some celebrants are ignorant of the social issues of those times, but some aren't. Either way, many choose to celebrate the times for their good aspects, and at least a few probably feel the good aspects include the less modern social views of those times. It's conceivable that some people would even feel more comfortable in situations where attitudes such as misogyny or racism could be expressed more freely by excusing them as part of an act. However, my mere intuition and very limited personal experience suggest that most celebrations of the past aren't celebrations of the more controversial aspects such as these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. &lt;em&gt;Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25&lt;/em&gt;(1), 1–65. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.220.3674&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.220.3674&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwartz, S. H., &amp;amp; Huismans, S. (1995). Value priorities and religiosity in four Western religions. &lt;em&gt;Social Psychology Quarterly, 58&lt;/em&gt;(2), 88–107.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zimbardo, P., &amp;amp; Boyd, J. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-difference metric. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77&lt;/em&gt;, 1271–1288.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-17T06:32:57.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5762" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5563" CreationDate="2014-02-17T15:11:53.277" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's the naïve version of spike triggered averaging, and the sophisticated version. Both of them are consistent estimators for a linear-nonlinear system under certain conditions (Paninski, 2003).&#xA;If your stimulus is $x_i$ and your spike count in a small bin is $y_i$, naïve version is&#xA;$$\mathrm{STA} = \frac{1}{N} \sum_i x_i y_i$$&#xA;The sophisticated version is equivalent to linear regression where a (pseudo-)inverse of the stimulus covariance is premultiplied to the naïve version. The naïve version converges slower in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, both of them are trying to estimate the same thing and will converge to the same thing, and sometimes called the same thing. However, it could refer to different things too, so read the methods section of papers before figuring out which one is which.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Paninski, L. (2003). Convergence properties of three spike-triggered analysis techniques. &lt;em&gt;Network: Computation in Neural Systems, 14&lt;/em&gt;, 437–464.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dayan, P. and Abbott, L. F. (2001). &lt;em&gt;Theoretical neuroscience: Computational and mathematical modeling of neural systems&lt;/em&gt;. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. &lt;a href=&quot;http://amzn.to/1nGUdII&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://amzn.to/1nGUdII&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-17T20:23:53.457" LastActivityDate="2014-02-17T20:23:53.457" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5763" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-17T16:21:23.127" Score="1" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been searching everywhere I know of for research concerning the topics listed below, but have been unable to find anything. The best I can come up with is general literature on feedback. Specifically I am looking for research on the following subjects:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The effects of feedback on an artifact given &lt;em&gt;in-context&lt;/em&gt; of artifact versus &lt;em&gt;out-of-context&lt;/em&gt;. A concrete example is feedback on a report; is it preferable to provide written feedback in the report margins (in-context) or in a separate document (out-of-context), and why/why not?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Context switches in workflows and why they are bad/good in general.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Related to 2: theory supporting integration of related workflows into a single computer, supported workflow. A concrete example is Microsoft Word which has a feature to edit images inside the application itself even though it is a word processor. Why is this preferable compared to e.g. editing the image in an external application and inserting it afterward?  And is it (always)?  Are there special cases where it may be counter-productive?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Properties of effective feedback. Preferably supporting the theses that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4.1 feedback on a produced artifact is more effective if given early than late. This could be supported by arguments about memory and learning in general, e.g. that it's easier to remember what you did just now than a few hours ago, and thus also easier to comprehend feedback about what you did and the artifacts you produced in that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4.2 feedback on an artifact is more effective when the receiver is in the same &quot;environment&quot; he was in when the artifact was produced. A counterexample would be to give feedback on a report written in Microsoft Word by copying the report onto a web page and writing the feedback there. In that case the environment where the feedback is read by the receiver (the webpage) is completely different from the one where the artifact was produced (Microsoft Word). This has negative effects on effectiveness (which and why?).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine the literature would be within cognitive load theory, learning theory, user interface design, usability design etc, but any suggestions are very much appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4417" LastActivityDate="2019-02-18T09:47:56.860" Title="Research on properties of effective feedback" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5764" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-17T18:34:20.323" Score="3" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;If one is experiencing elaborated visual hallucinations, what will happen when one puts on reversing goggles? Will hallucinations change their orientations as well? Links to relevant papers will be most welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="448" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-17T19:00:42.553" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T09:02:19.223" Title="How do hallucinations appear through reversing goggles?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5765" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-17T20:19:36.260" Score="10" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am curious to know as to why long range, myelinated axons prefer to convene and form white matter tracts, rather than simply reach its target in an arbitrary fashion. Is there some kind of evolutionary advantage to this phenomena? Or is this an ongoing research question? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4418" LastActivityDate="2014-07-26T01:21:58.703" Title="Why do long range axons in mammals travel in white matter tracts?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5766" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5763" CreationDate="2014-02-17T20:36:44.797" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are a few theories and sources I happen to know that relate to your questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextual_cueing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Contextual cues&lt;/a&gt; aid recall of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-dependent_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;context-dependent memories&lt;/a&gt;. Plenty of research exists on these topics. An easily digestible example may be found through &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/news/2009/12/14/how-cues-and-context-help-memory/10159.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychCentral (Nauert, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We have another great question about context-switching here already that you might want to check out: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/4993/4086&quot;&gt;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/4993/4086&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haven't got much to offer in response to this question beyond the suggestion that you see what they have to say about it over at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ux.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;User Experience Stack Exchange&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theories to support your theses 4.1 and 4.2:&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This idea seems to relate to the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recency_effect#Primacy_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;primacy&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recency_effect#Recency_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recency&lt;/a&gt; effects&lt;/em&gt; in memory, which promote recall of first and last items in a list, respectively. Here's a graph from Wikipedia that combines these ideas into the &lt;em&gt;serial position effect:&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xIxQU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xIxQU.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Serial_position.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikimedia.org&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haven't got more to add here beyond the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/4993/4086&quot;&gt;link to the other question I mentioned in response &lt;code&gt;2.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt; I hope you get some other, helpful responses here!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nauert, R. (2009, December 14). How cues and context help memory. &lt;em&gt;PsychCentral: Psychotherapy News.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/news/2009/12/14/how-cues-and-context-help-memory/10159.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psychcentral.com/news/2009/12/14/how-cues-and-context-help-memory/10159.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-02-18T09:47:56.860" LastActivityDate="2019-02-18T09:47:56.860" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5767" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5755" CreationDate="2014-02-17T21:13:46.863" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia is often a good place to start for basic questions like these. Wikipedia has separate pages devoted to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind&quot;&gt;mind&lt;/a&gt;, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain&quot;&gt;brain&lt;/a&gt;, and even the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind-body_problem&quot;&gt;mind–body problem&lt;/a&gt;, which is one example of the many theoretical challenges implied by the distinctions between &quot;mind&quot; and &quot;brain&quot;. Simply stated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The brain is a physical organ. It's entirely possible that much of its structure has relatively little bearing on the nature of the mind. For instance, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroglia&quot;&gt;glial cells&lt;/a&gt; are more numerous than &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron&quot;&gt;neuronal cells&lt;/a&gt;. Glial cells play a relatively more supportive function than neurons, the direct functions of which may be more closely related than glial cells' to the functions of what we consider to constitute the mind.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wikipedia describes the mind as, &quot;The set of cognitive faculties that enables consciousness, perception, thinking, judgement, and memory.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=mind+definition&quot;&gt;Google offers this primary definition&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;The element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness and thought.&quot; Neither of these definitions directly necessitate a physical substrate such as the brain. However, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/mind&quot;&gt;The Free Dictionary's primary definition&lt;/a&gt; includes the phrase, &quot;Originates in the brain.&quot; These differences belie the controversiality of the term itself, as does @KeeganKeplinger's helpful answer.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wikipedia's mind page has &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind#Relation_to_the_brain&quot;&gt;a section dedicated to its relation to the brain&lt;/a&gt;. This section mentions the mind–brain problem, as well as three philosophical stances on the problem:&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism&quot;&gt;Materialism&lt;/a&gt;: briefly, that there is no valid distinction, and all mental activities have neural bases&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism_%28philosophy%29&quot;&gt;Idealism&lt;/a&gt;: essentially that all physical objects and processes are truly mental in nature&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism_%28philosophy_of_mind%29&quot;&gt;Dualism&lt;/a&gt;: that the mind exists somewhat independently of the brain and body, possibly as an aspect or property of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit&quot;&gt;spirit&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul&quot;&gt;soul&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus a simple answer would be that &quot;mind&quot; does imply &quot;brain&quot; for many if not most audiences, but some may opine that these are different (though probably not &lt;em&gt;totally&lt;/em&gt; different) entities. Arguably the best approach would be to tailor your word choice to suit whichever entity your computer concept proposes to read most directly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-17T21:13:46.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5768" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5742" CreationDate="2014-02-17T21:48:10.487" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, what button-box you use is going to be influenced by what software you're using to run the experiment, so ideally you should specify that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pstnet.com/hardware.cfm?ID=102&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PST serial response box&lt;/a&gt; is probably the industry standard, and is what we have in my lab, although a lot of that is probably down to it coming from the makers of EPrime.  EPrime doesn't work on OSX though, and the PST box isn't cheap, so you might want to consider...&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758%2FBF03192764&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neil Stewart&lt;/a&gt; has done some work on building your own accurate button boxes.  I haven't tried this myself, but if you are, or know someone who is, up to the technical challenge, this could be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Caveat: The paper describes how to do it on Linux.  It almost definitely wouldn't work on Windows, but OSX and Linux are pretty similar deep down.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Caveat #2: Do Macbooks have serial ports?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I started writing this, I thought I knew of other, cheaper makers or SR boxes. Apparently I imagined that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whatever you end up doing, make sure you also take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/508/how-can-i-create-computer-based-psychology-experiments-using-os-x&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;How can I create computer based psychology experiments using OS X?&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-02-17T21:48:10.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5769" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5774" CreationDate="2014-02-17T22:46:48.397" Score="5" ViewCount="491" Body="&lt;p&gt;After reading 'The Brain That Changes Itself' by Norman Doidge, 'The Mind and The Brain' by Jeffrey Schwartz and a few other books, I've become curious about the science of neuroplasticity, which, as I understand, is a new paradigm in neurophysiology that replaced the older doctrine of brain immutability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a wealth of empirical evidence in studies conducted by Bach-y-Rita, Taub, and Merzenich that confirms that brain remains plastic for pretty much the whole life, after a period of hyperplasticity in childhood. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to be a powerful tool that can contribute to treatment of various disorders, such as depression and anxiety, especially in cases when the condition is resistant to medication. I'd like to know if this idea has been applied with some success, and if anyone developed a specific neuroplasticity-based approach.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4382" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-18T03:42:52.727" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T18:23:12.220" Title="Neuroplasticity and Treatment of Depression" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5770" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5764" CreationDate="2014-02-18T00:05:33.333" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Karl Jaspers describes clinical reports in which patients hallucinatory perception was changed in accordance with the optical distortion. For example, a prism would double the images of devils, binoculars enlarge or decrease the image, colored glasses make it colored, etc. He refers &quot;Seppilli, Contributo allo studio delie allucinazioni unilaterali. Riv. sper. di fren. 16, 82. 1890&quot; and &quot;Pick. Beitrage zur Lehre von den Halluzinationen. N. C. 11. 329. 1892&quot; Now, the question is, has anyone done a study on that in the 20th century. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="448" LastEditorUserId="448" LastEditDate="2014-02-18T09:02:19.223" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T09:02:19.223" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5771" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-18T00:16:47.703" Score="4" ViewCount="2352" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;History of question:&lt;/strong&gt; This &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5757/what-is-the-purpose-of-hemispheric-laterality&quot;&gt;previous question asked about both hemispheric specialisation and control of opposite sides of the body&lt;/a&gt;. The point was made that these are two very different questions. So the original question has been reduced to the specialisation topic, and the &quot;opposite sides&quot; question is asked here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question here is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why do the hemispheres of the brain control or receive sensory input from the opposite sides of the body? What is the benefit or purpose of this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T23:49:23.447" Title="Why do the hemispheres of the brain control the opposite sides of the body?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5772" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5779" CreationDate="2014-02-18T00:26:46.323" Score="10" ViewCount="2332" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there mathematical models of memory in humans or animals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to know how neuroscientists use mathematics to describe memory in living creatures. &lt;strong&gt;How do neuroscientists model memory and show how it works by mathematics?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a theoretical physics PhD student, and interested in neuroscience too. The only tool which I have and I could use to study neuroscience is mathematics and programing. That's why I want to know how neuroscientists address the memory by mathematics. I know how math works to describe neurons oscillations and action potential, but I don't know how it works for memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any reference or review article is welcome too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4420" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-02-18T12:23:28.750" LastActivityDate="2018-09-29T10:15:39.800" Title="What are the mathematical models of memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5774" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5769" CreationDate="2014-02-18T05:08:06.967" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It may interest you to know that depression and anxiety relate to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism#Emotional_stability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotional stability&lt;/a&gt; (essentially the opposite of neuroticism), a personality trait which tends to decrease over the lifespan, especially in young adulthood (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743415/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Roberts &amp;amp; Mroczek, 2008&lt;/a&gt;). Here's a figure depicting this trend (bottom left):&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743415/figure/F1/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743415/bin/nihms115884f1.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This article points out that most of the personality changes depicted above occur during young adulthood. This supports the hypothesis that plasticity is an important enabling factor in these changes. Roberts and Mroczek also describe these changes as mostly positive, which supports the hypothesis that these changes are a partly intentional process of social adjustment. I'm not aware of any evidence that supports these hypotheses more directly, but any such evidence would also support the plausibility of interventions that target neuroticism during earlier life stages when plasticity is generally greater.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The language of plasticity appears sparsely in a similar article that describes change in adult personality (&lt;a href=&quot;http://j.b5z.net/i/u/2043019/i/PersonalityDevelopmentInAdults.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Srivastava, John, Gosling, &amp;amp; Potter, 2003&lt;/a&gt;), though no explicit references to &lt;em&gt;neural&lt;/em&gt; plasticity appear. However, this article also presents a complication and a challenge through its own evidence of change in neuroticism over the lifespan, depicted in this figure (top left; neuroticism $\approx (-1)\cdot$ emotional stability):&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Vc7o7.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The complication is the sex difference in change over time: only women's neuroticism seems to decrease in this study's evidence. The challenge is the apparent linearity of both trends; neither supports the importance of plasticity. Therefore it's not clear that any intervention focused on altering neuroticism would function equally well for both sexes, nor take advantage of neuroplasticity. Nonetheless, a very recent article recognized the malleability of neuroticism and recommended exploration of options that would intervene at this basic trait level of disorder development (Barlow, Sauer-Zavala, Carl, Bullis, &amp;amp; Ellard, 2013, in press). Thus it seems further evidence to support your idea may be forthcoming!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuroticism aside&lt;/strong&gt;, other recent articles have promoted &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofeedback&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;biofeedback&lt;/a&gt;, neural decoding, and neural interface technology as ways of &quot;targeting&quot;, &quot;promoting&quot;, and &quot;exploiting&quot; neuroplasticity in treating neurological dysfunction (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2788507/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wang et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;; Seitz, 2013; incidentally, Seitz works at my alma mater and published this shortly after I graduated...it's a small world). Biofeedback and neurofeedback have established applications in the treatment of depression and anxiety (see for review &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.archive.org/web/20101009135554/http://isnr.org/uploads/EvidenceBasedYuchaMontgomeryW.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yucha &amp;amp; Montgomery, 2008&lt;/a&gt;). Biofeedback methods seem to have been around just about as long as theories of neuroplasticity (discounting &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity#Proposal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one particularly early study at the end of the 18th century&lt;/a&gt;), so I wouldn't say biofeedback was intended as a neuroplasticity-based approach, but evidently it has turned out to be a somewhat inadvertent application of neuroplasticity. Clearly, theorists and clinicians are actively capitalizing on this convenient convergence of neurology and clinical methodology – this trend seems likely to continue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;- Barlow, D. H., Sauer-Zavala, S., Carl, J. R., Bullis, J. R., &amp;amp; Ellard, K. K. (2013, October 14; in press). The nature, diagnosis, and treatment of neuroticism: Back to the future. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Psychological Science&lt;/em&gt;, DOI: 10.1177/2167702613505532.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Roberts, B. W., &amp;amp; Mroczek, D. (2008). Personality trait change in adulthood. &lt;em&gt;Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17&lt;/em&gt;(1), 31–35. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743415/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743415/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Seitz, A. R. (2013). Cognitive neuroscience: targeting neuroplasticity with neural decoding and biofeedback. &lt;em&gt;Current Biology, 23&lt;/em&gt;(5), R210-R212.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Srivastava, S., John, O. P., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Potter, J. (2003). Development of personality in early and middle adulthood: set like plaster or persistent change? &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84&lt;/em&gt;(5), 1041–1053. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://j.b5z.net/i/u/2043019/i/PersonalityDevelopmentInAdults.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://j.b5z.net/i/u/2043019/i/PersonalityDevelopmentInAdults.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Wang, W., Collinger, J. L., Perez, M. A., Tyler-Kabara, E. C., Cohen, L. G., Birbaumer, N., ... &amp;amp; Weber, D. J. (2010). Neural interface technology for rehabilitation: exploiting and promoting neuroplasticity. &lt;em&gt;Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, 21&lt;/em&gt;(1), 157–178. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2788507/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2788507/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Yucha, C., &amp;amp; Montgomery, D. (2008). &lt;em&gt;Evidence-based practice in biofeedback and neurofeedback&lt;/em&gt;. Wheat Ridge, CO: AAPB. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.archive.org/web/20101009135554/http://isnr.org/uploads/EvidenceBasedYuchaMontgomeryW.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://web.archive.org/web/20101009135554/http://isnr.org/uploads/EvidenceBasedYuchaMontgomeryW.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-10T09:42:37.573" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T18:23:12.220" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5775" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-18T05:42:50.080" Score="5" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that certain aspects of ant colony behavior seem almost like economic decision-making in behavior. There are also links between ant colony optimization and features of the brain like selective attention. I was just wondering if any research group has taken up the problems of cognition from the perspectives of economics and/or ant colonies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may seem to be mostly analogy on the surface, but the interface of the three seems like a fruitful area to look for new ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4424" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-18T07:07:25.777" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T13:36:20.103" Title="Are there any agent based cognitive models that are inspired by complex systems studies of ant colonies and economies?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5776" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5775" CreationDate="2014-02-18T13:36:20.103" Score="4" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Partial answer:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Douglas Hofstadter has written quite a lot about this from a more philosophical approach.&#xA;His style isn't for everyone, I think it's introduced well in &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.whitman.edu/%7Eherbrawt/classes/110/hofstadter.PDF&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this chapter ('Ant Fugue')&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more applied work from the same, you might look at Mitchell and Hofstadter's CopyCat model of analogies (described briefly &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.cecs.pdx.edu/%7Emm/amcas.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, as well as on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copycat_(software)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All this aside, I don't know of any empirical work along the same lines, but I wouldn't rule it out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T13:36:20.103" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5778" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5736" CreationDate="2014-02-18T21:28:27.147" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, adrenalin reduces hand steadiness and increases anxiety &lt;sup&gt;(Basowitz, Korchin, Oken, Goldstein, &amp;amp; Gussack, 1956)&lt;/sup&gt;, so other causes of anxiety seem likely to reduce steadiness by promoting the release of adrenalin. Next, here's an odd reference for a more voluntary psychopharmacological cause of hand-arm unsteadiness: drug abuse (including alcohol; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-09-0-000-000-2007-Web/Anth-09-4-000-07-Abst-PDF/Anth-09-4-299-07-393-Kaur-Gaganpreet/Anth-09-4-299-07-393-Kaur-G-Tt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kaur, Sandhu, &amp;amp; Sandhu, 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;. Caffeine and nicotine both impair hand steadiness, apparently without interacting &lt;sup&gt;(Smith, Tong,  &amp;amp; Leigh, 1977; Heatherley, Hayward, Seers, &amp;amp; Rogers, 2005; Rogers et al., 2005; Richardson, Rogers, Elliman, &amp;amp; O'Dell, 1995; Bovim, Næss, Helle, &amp;amp; Sand, 1995;&lt;/sup&gt; see also for a review of caffeine effects and original evidence of a lack of interactions with alcohol &lt;sup&gt; Franks, Hagedorn, Hensley, Hensley,  &amp;amp; Starmer, 1975)&lt;/sup&gt;. Daily consumption of caffeine does not appear related though, and the effect of active caffeine can be blocked medically &lt;sup&gt;(Arnold, Springer, Engel, &amp;amp; Helveston, 1993)&lt;/sup&gt;. A small dose of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propranolol&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;propranolol&lt;/a&gt; may also reduce hand tremors regardless of caffeine use &lt;sup&gt;(Humayun, Rader, Pieramici, Awh, &amp;amp; de Juan, 1997)&lt;/sup&gt;, though interested readers should consider &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propranolol#Precautions_and_contraindications&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;precautions and contraindications regarding propranolol&lt;/a&gt;, including &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoglycaemia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hypoglycaemia&lt;/a&gt; or diabetes, asthma, and abnormal blood pressure, among several others &lt;sup&gt;(Rossi, 2006)&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Physical exertion &lt;sup&gt;(Mürbe et al., 2001; Simon &amp;amp; Dare, 1965; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1359164/pdf/jphysiol01371-0105.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Halliday &amp;amp; Redfearn, 1956&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;, skill in manual labor, and sex &lt;sup&gt;(Gray, Sustare, &amp;amp; Thompson, 1953)&lt;/sup&gt; appear relevant as well. Gray and colleagues found greater hand steadiness in men, but a more recent study found the opposite, except in women during premenstrual phases and women using oral contraceptives &lt;sup&gt;(Hudgens, Fatkin, Billingsley, &amp;amp; Mazurczak, 1988)&lt;/sup&gt;. A loosely related sex difference emerged in a study of marksmanship, suggesting men's accuracy endures longer than women's &lt;sup&gt;(Johnson &amp;amp; Merullo, 1996)&lt;/sup&gt;; incidentally, this study found no effect of caffeine on marksmanship. Also, another study found lesser effects of caffeine on motor performance in women who use caffeine regularly &lt;sup&gt;(Jacobson &amp;amp; Thurman-Lacey, 1992)&lt;/sup&gt;. A particularly old study seems to have found a weakly negative (and quite possibly spurious) correlation between performance on a mental multiplication test and hand steadiness, as well as a positive experimental effect of humidity &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=7uU-AQAAMAAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA59&amp;amp;lpg=PA59&amp;amp;dq=hand+steadiness+psychology&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=puFuottF4N&amp;amp;sig=q072lzSHPezfKU-AFH4lnANfNdw&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=oqgDU_DMA8Ks2gWziYDQDw&amp;amp;ved=0CGwQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=hand%20steadiness%20psychology&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stecher, 1916&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An early &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;electroencephalographic (EEG)&lt;/a&gt; study emphasized the distinction between low-frequency, high-amplitude tremors, and the opposite kind, suggesting that the latter is less affected by cortical activity &lt;sup&gt;(Lindqvist, 1941)&lt;/sup&gt;. Two relatively recent studies produced apparently conflicting evidence about the relationship between hand and finger tremors and EEG activity: one succeeded &lt;sup&gt;(Isokawa &amp;amp; Komisaruk, 1983)&lt;/sup&gt; and another failed to influence hand tremors with rhythmic flashes of light, even though this induced changes in EEG activity &lt;sup&gt;(Lakie &amp;amp; Combes, 1999)&lt;/sup&gt;. Other articles on hand steadiness research have been published in psychological journals to which I don't have access; the first of these even considers personality factors such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;extraversion&lt;/a&gt; &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=AVUiAQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA174&amp;amp;lpg=PA174&amp;amp;dq=hand+steadiness+psychology&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=7SCJyldgsc&amp;amp;sig=CKpMN-e5g3cMjMxBiWNORExn658&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=oqgDU_DMA8Ks2gWziYDQDw&amp;amp;ved=0CG4Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=hand%20steadiness%20psychology&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Treadwell, 1960&lt;/a&gt;; Fleishman, 1956; Lovell, 1941)&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Last (for this edition of this answer), some evidence supports the effectiveness of yoga for hand steadiness &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.libraryofyoga.com:8080/bitstream/handle/123456789/60/II.1994.15.pdf?sequence=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Telles, Hanumanthaiah, Nagarathna, &amp;amp; Nagendra, 1994&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;, finger flexibility, grip strength and endurance &lt;sup&gt;(Garfinkel, Schumacher, Husain, Levy, &amp;amp; Reshetar, 1994; &lt;a href=&quot;http://icyer.com/documents/18.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Madanmohan, Jatiya, Udupa, &amp;amp; Bhavanani, 2003&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://yoga4arthritis.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/20010101_ihgsnvrapfyt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dash &amp;amp; Telles, 2001&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ijpp.com/IJPP%20archives/1992_36_4/229-233.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Madanmohan et al., 1992&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ow.ly/tL6NG&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Raghuraj, Nagarathna, Nagendra, &amp;amp; Telles, 1997&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.libraryofyoga.com:8080/bitstream/handle/123456789/57/II.1997.25.doc?sequence=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Raghuraj &amp;amp; Telles, 1997&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;, and stability of knee extensors &lt;sup&gt;(Bukowski, Conway, Glentz, Kurland, &amp;amp; Galantino, 2006)&lt;/sup&gt;. These references were cited in a recent review that deserves mention itself &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232207909_The_Effect_of_Yoga_Postures_on_Balance_Flexibility_and_Strength_in_Healthy_High_School_Females/file/72e7e515448e1c52be.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Donahoe-Fillmore, Brahler, Fisher, &amp;amp; Beasley, 2010&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;- Arnold, R. W., Springer, D. T., Engel, W. K., &amp;amp; Helveston, E. M. (1993). The effect of wrist rest, caffeine, and oral timolol on the hand steadiness of ophthalmologists. &lt;em&gt;Annals of Ophthalmology, 25&lt;/em&gt;(7), 250–253.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Basowitz, H., Korchin, S. J., Oken, D., Goldstein, M. S., &amp;amp; Gussack, H. (1956). Anxiety and performance changes with minimal dose of epinephrine. &lt;em&gt;AMA Archives of Neurology &amp;amp; Psychiatry, 76&lt;/em&gt;(1), 98–105.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Bovim, G., Næss, P., Helle, J., &amp;amp; Sand, T. (1995). Caffeine influence on the motor steadiness battery in neuropsychological tests. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 17&lt;/em&gt;(3), 472–476.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Bukowski, E. L., Conway, A., Glentz, L. A., Kurland, K., &amp;amp; Galantino, M. L. (2006). The effect of iyengar yoga and strengthening exercises for people living with osteoarthritis of the knee: A case series. &lt;em&gt;International Quarterly of Community Health Education, 26&lt;/em&gt;(3), 287–305.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Dash, M., &amp;amp; Telles, S. (2001). Improvement in hand grip strength in normal volunteers and rheumatoid arthritis patients following yoga training. &lt;em&gt;Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 45&lt;/em&gt;(3), 355–360. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://yoga4arthritis.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/20010101_ihgsnvrapfyt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://yoga4arthritis.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/20010101_ihgsnvrapfyt.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Donahoe-Fillmore, B., Brahler, C. J., Fisher, M. I., &amp;amp; Beasley, K. (2010). The effect of yoga postures on balance, flexibility, and strength in healthy high school females. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Women’s Health Physical Therapy, 34&lt;/em&gt;(1), 10–17. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232207909_The_Effect_of_Yoga_Postures_on_Balance_Flexibility_and_Strength_in_Healthy_High_School_Females/file/72e7e515448e1c52be.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232207909_The_Effect_of_Yoga_Postures_on_Balance_Flexibility_and_Strength_in_Healthy_High_School_Females/file/72e7e515448e1c52be.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Franks, H. M., Hagedorn, H., Hensley, V. R., Hensley, W. J., &amp;amp; Starmer, G. A. (1975). The effect of caffeine on human performance, alone and in combination with ethanol. &lt;em&gt;Psychopharmacologia, 45&lt;/em&gt;(2), 177–181.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Fleishman, E. A. (1956). Psychomotor selection tests: Research and application in the United States Air Force. &lt;em&gt;Personnel Psychology, 9&lt;/em&gt;(4), 449–467.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Garfinkel, M. S., Schumacher Jr., H. R., Husain, A. B. I. D., Levy, M., &amp;amp; Reshetar, R. A. (1994). Evaluation of a yoga based regimen for treatment of osteoarthritis of the hands. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Rheumatology, 21&lt;/em&gt;(12), 2341–2343.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Gray, J. S., Sustare, G., &amp;amp; Thompson, A. (1953). An apparatus for measuring operational hand steadiness. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Applied Psychology, 37&lt;/em&gt;(1), 57–58.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Halliday, A. M., &amp;amp; Redfearn, J. W. T. (1956). An analysis of the frequencies of finger tremor in healthy subjects. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Physiology, 134&lt;/em&gt;(3), 600–611. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1359164/pdf/jphysiol01371-0105.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1359164/pdf/jphysiol01371-0105.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Heatherley, S. V., Hayward, R. C., Seers, H. E., &amp;amp; Rogers, P. J. (2005). Cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood, and pressor effects of caffeine after 4, 6 and 8 h caffeine abstinence. &lt;em&gt;Psychopharmacology, 178&lt;/em&gt;(4), 461–470.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Hudgens, G. A., Fatkin, L. T., Billingsley, P. A., &amp;amp; Mazurczak, J. (1988). Hand steadiness: effects of sex, menstrual phase, oral contraceptives, practice, and handgun weight. &lt;em&gt;Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 30&lt;/em&gt;(1), 51–60.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Humayun, M. U., Rader, R. S., Pieramici, D. J., Awh, C. C., &amp;amp; de Juan, E. (1997). Quantitative measurement of the effects of caffeine and propranolol on surgeon hand tremor. &lt;em&gt;Archives of Ophthalmology, 115&lt;/em&gt;(3), 371–374.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Isokawa, M., &amp;amp; Komisaruk, B. R. (1983). Convergence of finger tremor and EEG rhythm at the alpha frequency induced by rhythmical photic stimulation. &lt;em&gt;Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 55&lt;/em&gt;(5), 580–585.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Jacobson, B. H., &amp;amp; Thurman-Lacey, S. R. (1992). Effect of caffeine on motor performance by caffeine-naïve and familiar subjects. &lt;em&gt;Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74&lt;/em&gt;(1), 151–157.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Johnson, R. F., &amp;amp; Merullo, D. J. (1996). Effects of caffeine and gender on vigilance and marksmanship. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 40&lt;/em&gt;(23), 1217–1221.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Kaur, G., Sandhu, S. S., &amp;amp; Sandhu, J. S. (2007). Comparison of arm-hand steadiness for shooting perfection in armed forces and Punjab police. &lt;em&gt;Anthropologist, 9&lt;/em&gt;(4), 299–304. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-09-0-000-000-2007-Web/Anth-09-4-000-07-Abst-PDF/Anth-09-4-299-07-393-Kaur-Gaganpreet/Anth-09-4-299-07-393-Kaur-G-Tt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-09-0-000-000-2007-Web/Anth-09-4-000-07-Abst-PDF/Anth-09-4-299-07-393-Kaur-Gaganpreet/Anth-09-4-299-07-393-Kaur-G-Tt.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Lakie, M., &amp;amp; Combes, N. (1999). The phase of postural hand tremor is not influenced by repetitive photic brain stimulation. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Neurophysiology, 110&lt;/em&gt;(12), 2020–2025.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Lindqvist, T. (1941). Finger tremor and the α‐waves of the electro‐encephalogram. &lt;em&gt;Acta Medica Scandinavica, 108&lt;/em&gt;(6), 580–585.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Lovell, C. (1941). A study of personal variation in hand-arm steadiness. &lt;em&gt;The American Journal of Psychology, 54&lt;/em&gt;(2), 230–236.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Madanmohan, Jatiya, L., Udupa, K., &amp;amp; Bhavanani, A. B. (2003). Effect of yoga training on handgrip, respiratory pressures and pulmonary function. &lt;em&gt;Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 47&lt;/em&gt;(4), 387–392. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://icyer.com/documents/18.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://icyer.com/documents/18.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Madanmohan, Thombre, D. P., Bharathi, B., Nambinarayan, T. K., Thakur, S., Krishnamurthy, N., &amp;amp; Chandrabose, A. (1992). Effect of yoga training on reaction time, respiratory endurance and muscle strength. &lt;em&gt;Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 36&lt;/em&gt;, 229–233. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ijpp.com/IJPP%20archives/1992_36_4/229-233.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ijpp.com/IJPP%20archives/1992_36_4/229-233.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Mürbe, D., Hüttenbrink, K. B., Zahnert, T., Vogel, U., Tassabehji, M., Kuhlisch, E., &amp;amp; Hofmann, G. (2001). Tremor in otosurgery: Influence of physical strain on hand steadiness. &lt;em&gt;Otology &amp;amp; Neurotology, 22&lt;/em&gt;(5), 672–677.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Raghuraj, P., Nagarathna, R., Nagendra, H. R., &amp;amp; Telles, S. (1997). Pranayama increases grip strength without lateralized effects. &lt;em&gt;Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 41&lt;/em&gt;(2), 129–133. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://ow.ly/tL6NG&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ow.ly/tL6NG&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Raghuraj, P., &amp;amp; Telles, S. (1997). Muscle power, dexterity skill and visual perception in community home girls trained yoga or sports and in regular school girls. &lt;em&gt;Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 41&lt;/em&gt;(4), 409–415. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.libraryofyoga.com:8080/bitstream/handle/123456789/57/II.1997.25.doc?sequence=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.libraryofyoga.com:8080/bitstream/handle/123456789/57/II.1997.25.doc?sequence=1&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Richardson, N. J., Rogers, P. J., Elliman, N. A., &amp;amp; O'Dell, R. J. (1995). Mood and performance effects of caffeine in relation to acute and chronic caffeine deprivation. &lt;em&gt;Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 52&lt;/em&gt;(2), 313–320.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Rogers, P. J., Heatherley, S. V., Hayward, R. C., Seers, H. E., Hill, J., &amp;amp; Kane, M. (2005). Effects of caffeine and caffeine withdrawal on mood and cognitive performance degraded by sleep restriction. &lt;em&gt;Psychopharmacology, 179&lt;/em&gt;(4), 742–752.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Rossi, S. (Ed., 2006). &lt;em&gt;Australian Medicines Handbook&lt;/em&gt;. Adelaide.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Simon, J. R., &amp;amp; Dare, C. E. (1965). Effects of physical exercise on hand steadiness. &lt;em&gt;The Laryngoscope, 75&lt;/em&gt;(11), 1737–1740.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Smith, D. L., Tong, J. E., &amp;amp; Leigh, G. (1977). Combined effects of tobacco and caffeine on the components of choice reaction-time, heart rate, and hand steadiness. &lt;em&gt;Perceptual and Motor Skills, 45&lt;/em&gt;(2), 635–639.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Stecher, L. I. (1916). The effect of humidity on nervousness and on general efficiency. In R. S. Woodworth (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;Archives of Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, No. 38, pp. 40–65. New York: The Science Press / Columbia University. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=7uU-AQAAMAAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA59&amp;amp;lpg=PA59&amp;amp;dq=hand+steadiness+psychology&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=puFuottF4N&amp;amp;sig=q072lzSHPezfKU-AFH4lnANfNdw&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=oqgDU_DMA8Ks2gWziYDQDw&amp;amp;ved=0CGwQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=hand%20steadiness%20psychology&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Books&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Telles, S., Hanumanthaiah, B. H., Nagarathna, R., &amp;amp; Nagendra, H. R. (1994). Plasticity of motor control systems demonstrated by yoga training. &lt;em&gt;Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 38&lt;/em&gt;(2), 143–144. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.libraryofyoga.com:8080/bitstream/handle/123456789/60/II.1994.15.pdf?sequence=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.libraryofyoga.com:8080/bitstream/handle/123456789/60/II.1994.15.pdf?sequence=1&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Treadwell, E. (1960). The effects of depressant drugs on vigilance and psychomotor performance. &lt;em&gt;Experiments in Personality, 1&lt;/em&gt;, 159–196. An alternate publication can be previewed through &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?id=AVUiAQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA174&amp;amp;lpg=PA174&amp;amp;dq=hand+steadiness+psychology&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=7SCJyldgsc&amp;amp;sig=CKpMN-e5g3cMjMxBiWNORExn658&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=oqgDU_DMA8Ks2gWziYDQDw&amp;amp;ved=0CG4Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=hand%20steadiness%20psychology&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Books&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-18T21:28:27.147" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5779" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5772" CreationDate="2014-02-18T22:48:39.300" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Very many references may easily be found with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=mathematical+model+memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a Google search for &quot;mathematical model memory&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Probably the most classic and iconic reference is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rca.ucsd.edu/selected_papers/IMSSS_79.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Atkinson and Shiffrin &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(1965)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which is also &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;described on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;. Its three components and their relationships are nicely encapsulated in this figure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multistore_model.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Multistore_model.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many other, lesser-known mathematical models of memory exist, including but not limited to these:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A model of recognition memory &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Atkinson &amp;amp; Juola, 1974)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A model of the circular process in short-term memory &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Min'ko &amp;amp; Petunin, 1981)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An application of interference theory to memory retention failures &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Anninos, 1972)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A model of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus#Role_in_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hippocampus&lt;/a&gt; activity involving affine and chaotic rules &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Yamaguti, Kuroda, Fukushima, Tsukada, &amp;amp; Tsuda, 2011; see also Tsuda, Yamaguti, Kuroda, Fukushima, &amp;amp; Tsukada, 2008; Fukushima, Tsukada, Tsuda, Yamaguti, &amp;amp; Kuroda, 2009)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A computer simulation model of short-term learning &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Anderson, 1983; see also a simpler model proposed by Hicklin, 1976, cited in &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.3660210910/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a review of Anderson's article by Preece &amp;amp; Anderson, 1984&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A computer simulation model of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;operant conditioning&lt;/a&gt; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Bower, 1967; Mandler, 1967)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Hopfield &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC346238/pdf/pnas00447-0135.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1982&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC345226/pdf/pnas00611-0151.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1984&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/ftp/q-bio/papers/0609/0609006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2006&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Hopfield_network#Associative_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neural network model of associative memory&lt;/a&gt; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://page.mi.fu-berlin.de/rojas/neural/chapter/K13.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rojas, 1996&lt;/a&gt;; see also &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopfield_network#Human_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;; thanks @Memming!)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; describes neural activity as binary, the attributes of memories as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_space&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;state space&lt;/a&gt; locations, and the system as governed by a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Lyapunov_function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lyupanov function&lt;/a&gt;. Much more could be said about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network#Types_of_models&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;artificial neural network models of memory&lt;/a&gt; in general (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_short_term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LSTM&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.eecs.utk.edu/~itamar/courses/ECE-692/Bobby_paper1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hochreiter &amp;amp; Schmidhuber, 1997&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.learnartificialneuralnetworks.com/art.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ART&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Carpenter &amp;amp; Grossberg, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ao/fulltext.cfm?uri=ao-26-23-4919&amp;amp;id=30891&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1987a&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.70.9588&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1987b&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may also be interested in the following references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A book chapter, &quot;Mathematical models of human memory&quot; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Raaijmakers, 2008)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A book, &lt;em&gt;Mathematical Models in Psychology&lt;/em&gt; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Restle, 1971)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://page.mi.fu-berlin.de/rojas/neural/neuron.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rojas' &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(1996)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; entire book, &lt;em&gt;Neural Networks: A Systematic Introduction&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; seems pertinent. (And free!)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a related question here, in which &quot;memory&quot; comes up twice:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1391/4086&quot;&gt;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1391/4086&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Anderson, O. R. (1983). A neuromathematical model of human information processing and its application to science content acquisition. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20&lt;/em&gt;(7), 603–620.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Anninos, P. A. (1972). Mathematical model of memory trace and forgetfulness. &lt;em&gt;Kybernetik, 10&lt;/em&gt;(3), 165–167.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Atkinson, R. C., &amp;amp; Juola, J. F. (1974). Search and decision processes in recognition memory. In D. H. Krantz, R. C. Atkinson, R. D. Luce, &amp;amp; P. Suppes (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Contemporary developments in mathematical psychology: I. Learning, memory and thinking&lt;/em&gt;. Oxford, England: W. H. Freeman.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Atkinson, R. C., &amp;amp; Shiffrin, R. M. (1965). Mathematical models for memory and learning. &lt;em&gt;Technical Report No. 79: Psychological Series.&lt;/em&gt; Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences, Stanford University. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rca.ucsd.edu/selected_papers/IMSSS_79.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.rca.ucsd.edu/selected_papers/IMSSS_79.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Bower, G. (1967). A multicomponent theory of the memory trace. In K. W. Spence &amp;amp; J. T. Spence (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;The psychology of learning and motivation: I&lt;/em&gt;. Oxford, England: Academic Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Carpenter, G. A., &amp;amp; Grossberg, S. (1987). ART 2: Self-organization of stable category recognition codes for analog input patterns. &lt;em&gt;Applied Optics, 26&lt;/em&gt;(23), 4919–4930. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ao/fulltext.cfm?uri=ao-26-23-4919&amp;amp;id=30891&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ao/fulltext.cfm?uri=ao-26-23-4919&amp;amp;id=30891&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Carpenter, G. A., &amp;amp; Grossberg, S. (1987). A massively parallel architecture for a self-organizing neural pattern recognition machine. &lt;em&gt;Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, 37&lt;/em&gt;(1), 54–115. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.70.9588&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.70.9588&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Fukushima, Y., Tsukada, M., Tsuda, I., Yamaguti, Y., &amp;amp; Kuroda, S. (2009). Coding mechanisms in hippocampal networks for learning and memory. In &lt;em&gt;Advances in Neuro-Information Processing&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 72–79). Springer: Berlin Heidelberg.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Hicklin, W. J. (1976). A model for mastery learning based on dynamic equilibrium theory. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 13&lt;/em&gt;(1), 79–88.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Hochreiter, S., &amp;amp; Schmidhuber, J. (1997). Long short-term memory. &lt;em&gt;Neural Computation, 9&lt;/em&gt;(8), 1735–1780. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.eecs.utk.edu/~itamar/courses/ECE-692/Bobby_paper1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://web.eecs.utk.edu/~itamar/courses/ECE-692/Bobby_paper1.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Hopfield, J. J. (1982). Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 79&lt;/em&gt;(8), 2554–2558. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC346238/pdf/pnas00447-0135.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC346238/pdf/pnas00447-0135.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Hopfield, J. J. (1984). Neurons with graded response have collective computational properties like those of two-state neurons. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 81&lt;/em&gt;(10), 3088–3092. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC345226/pdf/pnas00611-0151.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC345226/pdf/pnas00611-0151.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Hopfield, J. J. (2008). Searching for memories, Sudoku, implicit check bits, and the iterative use of not-always-correct rapid neural computation. &lt;em&gt;Neural Computation, 20&lt;/em&gt;(5), 1119–1164. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/ftp/q-bio/papers/0609/0609006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://arxiv.org/ftp/q-bio/papers/0609/0609006.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Mandler, G. (1967). Organization and memory. In K. W. Spence &amp;amp; J. T. Spence (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;The psychology of learning and motivation: I&lt;/em&gt;. Oxford, England: Academic Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Min'ko, A. A., &amp;amp; Petunin, Y. I. (1981). Mathematical modeling of short-term memory. &lt;em&gt;Cybernetics, 17&lt;/em&gt;(2), 287–298.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Preece, P. F., &amp;amp; Anderson, O. R. (1984). Mathematical modeling of learning. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 21&lt;/em&gt;(9), 953–955. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.3660210910/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.3660210910/pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Raaijmakers, J. G. W. (2008). Mathematical models of human memory. In &lt;em&gt;Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference, Vol. 2: Cognitive Psychology of Memory&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 445–466). Elsevier.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Restle, F. (1971). &lt;em&gt;Mathematical models in psychology&lt;/em&gt;. Harmondsworth: Penguin.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Rojas, R. (1996). &lt;em&gt;Neutral networks: A systematic introduction&lt;/em&gt;. Springer. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://page.mi.fu-berlin.de/rojas/neural/neuron.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://page.mi.fu-berlin.de/rojas/neural/neuron.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Tsuda, I., Yamaguti, Y., Kuroda, S., Fukushima, Y., &amp;amp; Tsukada, M. (2008). A mathematical model for the hippocampus: Towards the understanding of episodic memory and imagination. &lt;em&gt;Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement, 173&lt;/em&gt;, 99–108.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Yamaguti, Y., Kuroda, S., Fukushima, Y., Tsukada, M., &amp;amp; Tsuda, I. (2011). A mathematical model for Cantor coding in the hippocampus. &lt;em&gt;Neural Networks, 24&lt;/em&gt;(1), 43–53.&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-09-29T10:15:39.800" LastActivityDate="2018-09-29T10:15:39.800" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5780" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5782" CreationDate="2014-02-19T00:48:48.883" Score="4" ViewCount="210" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can one apply CBT without a therapist?&lt;br&gt;Or is there something similar that can be used without anyone's help?&lt;br&gt; Is there any danger in using it without anyone's help? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-19T02:44:36.060" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T07:47:15.440" Title="CBT (or something similar): can it be used without a therapist?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5781" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="506" CreationDate="2014-02-19T01:20:11.413" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cognitive-innovations.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;www.cognitive-innovations.com&lt;/a&gt; just released an iPad based cognitive assessment. Looks pretty comprehensive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4432" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T01:20:11.413" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5782" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5780" CreationDate="2014-02-19T05:38:07.540" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some research into the efficacy of self-help versus therapy. Usually these studies find that &lt;strong&gt;self-help is less effective or not effective at all&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g. Ehlers et al., 2003, to give just one example), although the relative effectiveness depends on the type and severity of disorders. For example, fear of flying is probably easier to self-treat than a personality disorder like antisocial behavior. The problem with this research in the context of your question is, that the self-help in these studies does not consist in handing out CBT manuals to the patients, but &quot;self-help booklets&quot;, and that of course these are limited in content when compared to the full knowledge of a therapist. So to answer your question, I will assume that the &quot;patient&quot; in question knows as much about CBT as any therapist would. Because that would be the prerequisite to applying CBT to him- or herself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion there are several problems with self-therapy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The first step in any therapy is a &lt;strong&gt;careful diagnosis&lt;/strong&gt;. You want to know what your problem is, before you start working on something that you don't suffer from. E.g. you might &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; that you have a depression, when in truth you are suffering from something that also has depressive symptoms, e.g. social phobia or an eating disorder. Diagnostics is a science of its own and psychologists spend quite some time during their education to learn it. I don't think a layperson can reliably diagnose a psychological problem.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Even if you are an educated psychologist yourself, an honest self-diagnosis might be impossible. Most people – and psychologists are just normal people in this – &lt;strong&gt;don't perceive themselves clearly, but are influenced by shame or misconceptions&lt;/strong&gt;. A typical example is an eating disorder: the whole problem with most eating disorders is that the patients are unable to understand that they have a completely faulty image of themselves. They believe they are overwheight, while they are in fact completely normal or even underwheight. Such a person would never diagnose herself with an eating disorder. Most other mental disorders are the same: the concerned persons don't perceive their problems as problems, or not accurately.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Let's assume you have an accurate diagnosis. Maybe a psychologists diagnosed you, or you are uncommonly objective in your self-assessment (although most likely you fool yourself here, but let's just assume you know what you have). There is the problem that even therapists don't usually know what a patient has at the beginning of a therapy, or not definitely or completely. Their &lt;strong&gt;diagnoses are given provisionally, and adapted to new insights they may gain during therapy&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Okay, but let's assume you really, really know what your problem is. Couldn't you help yourself? To answer that, we must understand what a psychological disorder is. There is this model that thinks of &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; human behavior, normal as well as deviant, as an adaptation to a certain surrounding. You are being abused by your parents, and you develop dissociation to deal with it. This strategy of survival persists even after the situation that caused it no longer exists, because it was a successful strategy and because either it still works (to some degree) or you find yourself unable to unlearn it. There is something inside yourself that keeps you applying the same solutions to the same problems over and over again, even though other solutions would be better. There might be an underlying fear, or simply a deeply ingrained learning, whatever it is, &lt;strong&gt;you will find yourself faced with a very strong inner resistance against changing your behavior&lt;/strong&gt;. What the therapist does is he adapts the therapeutic strategy to your resistance. He observes how you react to the therapy and finds just the right amount of therapy to slip in under your resistance. He finds the kind of things you find yourself able to do. And he offers his emotional support. In a therapy you are not alone, there is someone you can fall back to, someone who understands, accepts and appreciates you &lt;em&gt;as you are&lt;/em&gt;, and at the same time supports your attempts at change. It is more than just doing gymnastics exercises blindly each morning. If CBT was only a number of exercises, there would be no therapists, only researchers that published these books with exercises. But these exercises lack adaptability and the human interaction that breaks your resistance to change.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Okay, but what if I know my problem and I'm not self-delusional and I'm really able to deal with my inner resistance? Well, chances are that &lt;strong&gt;you don't have a psychological disorder anyway&lt;/strong&gt;. If your fears and habits don't keep you from dealing with your problems, then you don't have problems. Or only because you don't suffer enough from them to take care of them.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All disorders show a certain percentage of what is called &quot;&lt;strong&gt;spontaneous remissions&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;: the problems disappear without therapy. I'm pretty sure that in some of these cases the persons dealt with their problems themselves in some way. &lt;em&gt;They got over it.&lt;/em&gt; Not everyone remains hampered for life after child abuse. Some people look at that experience, limit it to the people who abused them, and have normal and healthy relationships with everyone else. Somehow some people get out of their disorders after some period of &quot;darkness&quot; and are able to lead a normal happy life without the help of a therapist. Probably reading a CBT manual and applying some of the insight to one's own life will help some people make a change on their own, and it very likely won't hurt any of the others, but most likely it was something in that person, a certain &lt;strong&gt;resilience&lt;/strong&gt;, or something in their surroundings, like the &lt;strong&gt;support&lt;/strong&gt; of friends or familiy members, or a fundamental &lt;strong&gt;outside change&lt;/strong&gt;, like moving to a new city, that effected this self-healing, not a CBT manual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., McManus, F., Fennell, M., Herbert, C., &amp;amp; Mayou, R. (2003). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive therapy, a self-help booklet, and repeated assessments as early interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder. &lt;em&gt;Archives of General Psychiatry, 60&lt;/em&gt;(10), 1024-1032.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-02-19T07:47:15.440" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T07:47:15.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5785" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1687" CreationDate="2014-02-19T09:49:32.727" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is now a new app available for iOS - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.reporter-app.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reporter&lt;/a&gt; (from Nicholas Feltron) - that pretty much ticks all my boxes. It allows to design any experience sampling questionnaire with different type of answers (number, multiple choose, etc.), smart and intuitive interface, export options with JSON and CSV, as well as Dropbox synch of data. It also records background information such as weather, location, noise level which is simply an awesome addition. The notifications are send in random intervals and you can choose how many notifications you get. You can't set up specific waking/sleep times but you can notify app when you fog asleep - this one is not ideal but still works ok. Overall, definitely the best solution of this type on the market at the moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/M83GK.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="508" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T09:49:32.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5786" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1687" CreationDate="2014-02-19T11:09:57.867" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A recent study of adolescent depression (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3414872/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kauer et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;) used a Java program written at the Murdoch Children's Research Institute (MCRI) called Mobile Tracking Young People's Experiences or &lt;em&gt;mobiletype&lt;/em&gt;. The program in this study saves encrypted, time-stamped data on the host phone and also uploads it to a MCRI website. It tells users to log a response by sound notification, and reminds them five minutes later if necessary. Responses can be logged at any time, but notifications only occur between 8 AM and 10 PM and at randomized intervals within blocks of time – I assume this schedule can be modified straightforwardly enough. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see other studies using it as well, but haven't been able to find a way to obtain the program. The best leads I have found so far are a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00794222&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ClinicalTrials.gov page&lt;/a&gt;, a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.beyondblue.org.au/resources/research/research-projects/research-projects/improving-the-engagement-detection-and-management-of-adolescent-depression-applying-the-mobiletype-program-to-general-practice-settings&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;research projects page on beyondblue.org.au&lt;/a&gt;, and a couple studies that are used as references for the program (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/23476040_A_mobile_phone_program_to_track_young_people%27s_experiences_of_mood_stress_and_coping._Development_and_testing_of_the_mobiletype_program/file/d912f50c7d3239833b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reid et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/24233559_Investigating_the_utility_of_mobile_phones_for_collecting_data_about_adolescent_alcohol_use_and_related_mood_stress_and_coping_behaviours_lessons_and_recommendations/file/d912f50c7d324015a8.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kauer, Reid, Sanci, &amp;amp; Patton, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another method that seems quite flexible and amenable to your requirements is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mood247.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mood 24/7&lt;/a&gt;, which contacts respondents with SMS messages, to which they respond (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jopm.org/columns/innovations/2011/09/26/just-text-me-using-sms-technology-for-collaborative-patient-mood-charting/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Foreman, Hall, Bone, Cheng, &amp;amp; Kaplin, 2011&lt;/a&gt;). However, I'm not sure if you can modify the program to suit your specific purposes, as opposed to those for which Kaplin has programmed it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;FWIW, another study developed &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.trackyourhappiness.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Track Your Happiness&lt;/a&gt;, which also seems to do very much what you want, but may not be reprogrammable without some help or at least permission from the programmer. Its use led to the high-profile publication I had in mind when I first started writing this answer (&lt;a href=&quot;http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/images/application_uploads/KILLINGSWORTH-WanderingMind.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Killingsworth &amp;amp; Gilbert, 2010&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Foreman, A. C., Hall, C., Bone, K., Cheng, J., &amp;amp; Kaplin, A. (2011). Just text me: Using SMS technology for collaborative patient mood charting. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Participatory Medicine, 3&lt;/em&gt;, e45. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jopm.org/columns/innovations/2011/09/26/just-text-me-using-sms-technology-for-collaborative-patient-mood-charting/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jopm.org/columns/innovations/2011/09/26/just-text-me-using-sms-technology-for-collaborative-patient-mood-charting/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Kauer, S. D., Reid, S. C., Crooke, A. H. D., Khor, A., Hearps, S. J. C., Jorm, A. F., ... &amp;amp; Patton, G. (2012). Self-monitoring using mobile phones in the early stages of adolescent depression: randomized controlled trial. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Medical Internet Research, 14&lt;/em&gt;(3). Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3414872/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3414872/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Kauer, S. D., Reid, S. C., Sanci, L., &amp;amp; Patton, G. C. (2009). Investigating the utility of mobile phones for collecting data about adolescent alcohol use and related mood, stress and coping behaviours: Lessons and recommendations. &lt;em&gt;Drug and Alcohol Review, 28&lt;/em&gt;(1), 25–30. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/24233559_Investigating_the_utility_of_mobile_phones_for_collecting_data_about_adolescent_alcohol_use_and_related_mood_stress_and_coping_behaviours_lessons_and_recommendations/file/d912f50c7d324015a8.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Killingsworth, M. A., &amp;amp; Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. &lt;em&gt;Science, 330&lt;/em&gt;(6006), 932–932. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/images/application_uploads/KILLINGSWORTH-WanderingMind.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/images/application_uploads/KILLINGSWORTH-WanderingMind.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Reid, S. C., Kauer, S. D., Dudgeon, P., Sanci, L. A., Shrier, L. A., &amp;amp; Patton, G. C. (2009). A mobile phone program to track young people’s experiences of mood, stress and coping. &lt;em&gt;Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 44&lt;/em&gt;(6), 501–507. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/23476040_A_mobile_phone_program_to_track_young_people%27s_experiences_of_mood_stress_and_coping._Development_and_testing_of_the_mobiletype_program/file/d912f50c7d3239833b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T11:09:57.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5787" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5755" CreationDate="2014-02-19T15:30:26.573" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many languages, there is no word similar in meaning to the English word &lt;em&gt;mind&lt;/em&gt;. In my opinion that fact illustrates an inherent problem with the scientific use of that word: that &lt;em&gt;mind&lt;/em&gt; does not even denote a unified concept at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Oxford English Dictionary lists the following current meanings of &lt;em&gt;mind&lt;/em&gt;, among others (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/118732&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/118732&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;I. Senses relating to memory.&#xA;    1. The state of being remembered; remembrance, recollection.&#xA;    3. That which is remembered, a memory.&#xA;&#xA;II. Senses relating to thought.&#xA;    * The action of thinking or the occurrence of a thought, idea, or intuition.&#xA;    ** Intention or wish.&#xA;    *** Inclination.&#xA;    **** Opinion or judgement.&#xA;&#xA;IV. Mental or psychic faculty.&#xA;    19.&#xA;        a.&#xA;            (a) The seat of awareness, thought, volition, feeling,&#xA;                and memory; cognitive and emotional phenomena and&#xA;                powers considered as constituting a presiding influence;&#xA;                the mental faculty of a human being (esp. as regarded&#xA;                as being separate from the physical); (occas.) this&#xA;                whole system as constituting a person's character or&#xA;                individuality.&#xA;        c. Freq. in theistic (esp. Christian) contexts: transcendent&#xA;           intelligence, rationality, or being, esp. that seen as&#xA;           initiating or controlling the universe.&#xA;    21.&#xA;        a. A person's cognitive, rational, or intellectual powers;&#xA;           the intellect; esp. as distinguished from the emotions,&#xA;           and freq. opposed to heart&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;mind&lt;/em&gt; can take on almost any meaning relating to mental processes, from memory, to feeling, to thought, to attention.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;em&gt;Mind&lt;/em&gt; is not a useful scientific term and should be avoided in research literature.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T15:30:26.573" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5788" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-19T22:13:35.443" Score="1" ViewCount="581" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_likelihood_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;elaboration likelihood model&lt;/a&gt;, if an advertisement contains an attractive person, would this be using the central route or peripheral route? I would guess it would be peripheral route, since people don't tend to think about if a person is attractive or not, but on the other hand, if the person does think about the person's appearance and finds them attractive, then it could be considered central.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-19T23:18:10.487" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T23:33:52.220" Title="Elaboration likelihood model: would attractiveness be a peripheral or central route?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;automaticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5789" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5732" CreationDate="2014-02-19T22:16:29.157" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From experience and some knowledge gathered from all over the place, yes and no. For example, if you want to do two things that are both mind-engaging, you'll probably end up doing both sloppily, or one much better than the other. But if one task is mundane and other mind engaging, like listening to music and doing math problem, or listening to a lecture and cleaning a room, you can probably do them both with no problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, &quot;multitasking&quot; does not actually exist. You can find many articles on this subject. What we think of as multitasking is actually task-switching. Your brain does not do two things at once, but switches from one thing to another. Task-switching is demanding a lot of energy, so some people may feel tired from it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people are better than the other at task-switching, and can do it for some time without getting that much tired. I don't know how good you are at it, but you can try. If you haven't trained your mind to work efficiently like that, you might get better after some time, or just keep doing one thing at a time. (I know person who wasn't much of a &quot;multitasker&quot; but got better after some years of practically forcing it.) Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-19T23:39:16.763" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T23:39:16.763" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5790" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5788" CreationDate="2014-02-19T23:33:52.220" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unless the advertisement is actually advertising the person's attractiveness directly, this should be a peripheral issue. Consider &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_likelihood_model#Central_route&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's description of the central route&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Central-route processes involve &lt;strong&gt;scrutiny&lt;/strong&gt; of persuasive communication (e.g., a speech or an advertisement) &lt;strong&gt;to determine the arguments' merits&lt;/strong&gt;. Under these conditions, a person's cognitive &lt;strong&gt;response to the message&lt;/strong&gt; determines its persuasive outcome. If they &lt;strong&gt;evaluate a message as reliable, well-constructed and convincing&lt;/strong&gt;, it may be received favorably even if it contrasts with the receiver’s original position on the message.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus the only circumstance in which a person's attractiveness should be a central route is one in which the advertisement's argument is about the person's attractiveness per se...I'm not sure I can even think of a good example of such an advertisement. Even beauty product advertisements (which are about the product, not the person) routinely appeal through peripheral routes by using supermodels with immaculately styled hair, wearing much more makeup than the object of the advertisement – not to mention expensive clothes and other fashion accessories – in idealized, studio-lighted environments. If anything, factors like these obscure the real efficacy of the given beauty product, because most observers will just be overwhelmed by the model's beauty and by the desire to emulate it, regardless of how little the product in question has to do with it. Again, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_likelihood_model#Peripheral_route&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia on the peripheral route&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Peripheral-route processes &lt;strong&gt;do not involve elaboration of the message through cognitive processing of an argument's merits. They rely on a message's environmental characteristics&lt;/strong&gt;: the perceived credibility of the source, message presentation quality, &lt;strong&gt;the source's attractiveness&lt;/strong&gt; or a catchy slogan, and is &lt;strong&gt;frequently used when the argument is weak or lacks evidence&lt;/strong&gt;. The peripheral route is a mental shortcut which accepts (or rejects) a message based on external cues, rather than thought. It is used when the audience is unable to process the message due to the message's complexity or the audience's immaturity. The &lt;strong&gt;commonest influences are rewards&lt;/strong&gt; such as food, &lt;strong&gt;sex&lt;/strong&gt; or money, which create rapid changes in mind and action. Celebrity status, likability, humor and expertise are other factors governing the peripheral process. &lt;strong&gt;Appearance can gain an individual's attention&lt;/strong&gt;; while it can create interest in a topic, it will not effect strong change. The goal of the peripheral process is to create change which can be weak (or temporary) compared with the strong, lasting change of the central route.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T23:33:52.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5791" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5771" CreationDate="2014-02-19T23:49:23.447" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The formal name for crossing in biology is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decussation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;decussation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  It is thought to be a result of anatomical development as well as a recovery mechanism.  Essentially, it's an emergent result of negotiations between genetics, development, and environment.  I've emphasized the relevant sentences in two abstracts below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract:&lt;/strong&gt; The crossing of nerve tracts from one hemisphere in the brain to the contralateral sense organ or limb is a common pattern throughout the CNS, which occurs at specialised bridging points called decussations or commissures. &lt;strong&gt;Evolutionary and teleological arguments suggest that midline crossing emerged in response to distinct physiological and anatomical constraints. Several genetic and developmental disorders involve crossing defects or mirror movements, including Kallmann's and Klippel-Feil syndrome, and further defects can also result from injury. Crossed pathways are also involved in recovery after CNS lesions and may allow for compensation for damaged areas. The development of decussation is under the control of a host of signalling molecules.&lt;/strong&gt; Growing understanding of the molecular processes underlying the formation of these structures offers hope for new diagnostic and therapeutic interventions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vulliemoz, S., Raineteau, O., &amp;amp; Jabaudon, D. (2005). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15664541&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reaching beyond the midline: why are human brains cross wired?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. The Lancet Neurology, 4(2), 87-99.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract:&lt;/strong&gt; Many vertebrate motor and sensory systems “decussate” or cross the midline to the opposite side of the body. The successful crossing of millions of axons during development requires a complex of tightly controlled regulatory processes. Because these processes have evolved in many distinct systems and organisms, &lt;strong&gt;it seems reasonable to presume that decussation confers a significant functional advantage—yet if this is so, the nature of this advantage is not understood&lt;/strong&gt;. In this article, we examine constraints imposed by topology on the ways that a three-dimensional processor and environment can be wired together in a continuous, somatotopic, way. &lt;strong&gt;We show that as the number of wiring connections grows, decussated arrangements become overwhelmingly more robust against wiring errors than seemingly simpler same-sided wiring schemes.&lt;/strong&gt; These results provide a predictive approach for understanding how 3D networks must be wired if they are to be robust, and therefore have implications both for future large-scale computational networks and for complex biomedical devices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shinbrot, T., &amp;amp; Young, W. (2008). &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ar.20731/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why decussate? Topological constraints on 3d wiring&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. The Anatomical Record, 291(10), 1278-1292.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-02-19T23:49:23.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5792" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5793" CreationDate="2014-02-20T01:04:57.327" Score="4" ViewCount="1788" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm visualizing structural data in FSLVIEW, but the sagittal and coronal planes are both upside-down / not in the conventional orientation, i.e. rotated by 90º and 180º. I understand that this upside-down view is due to the images being displayed in the order that they are stored on disk, but as I need to anatomically define ROIs on my structural, it would be more convenient if the brain were correctly oriented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any ideas on how to rotate these two views? The actual orientation labels themselves (S/I, A/P) are correct. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4212" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-21T06:21:01.250" LastActivityDate="2017-05-20T13:43:20.390" Title="MRI images upside-down in FSLVIEW" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5793" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5792" CreationDate="2014-02-20T05:17:28.343" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Totally out of my league here, but judging from a quick Google search, this seems to be a common problem in FSL. You've said &lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/7KY-446Vhuw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this YouTube video&lt;/a&gt; helps, so that's good...but since it uses an applescript, I suppose it requires the Mac OS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You say &lt;a href=&quot;http://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/fswiki/mri_convert&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Freesurfer's mri_convert&lt;/a&gt; works in Linux using this code:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;mri_convert &#xA;--in_orientation [file's current storage order, e.g. LAS]&#xA;--out_orientation [desired storage order] &#xA;&amp;lt;in volume&amp;gt;&#xA;&amp;lt;out volume&amp;gt;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4212" LastEditDate="2014-02-21T03:07:08.020" LastActivityDate="2014-02-21T03:07:08.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5794" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4402" CreationDate="2014-02-20T06:03:13.500" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;To build on @ChuckSherrington's answer, I agree that what you're hypothesizing is essentially an application of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_formation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reaction formation&lt;/a&gt; theory. I don't know if your particular applications have been studied, but the reaction formation process in general has been researched and supported &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/vollarj/baumesiter%20roy%20-%20freudian%20defense%20mechanisms.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baumeister, Dale, &amp;amp; Sommer, 1998&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-deception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-deception&lt;/a&gt; is one of many factors that distinguishes &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych2.phil.uni-erlangen.de/~oschult/humanlab/research/differences.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;implicit from explicit motivation&lt;/a&gt; (see also &lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://lab4.psico.unimib.it/nettuno/forum/free_download/mcclelland_89_355.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McClelland, Koestner, &amp;amp; Weinberger, 1989&lt;/a&gt;; Emmons &amp;amp; McAdams, 1991)&lt;/sup&gt;. Reaction formation seems a likely marker of self-deception in cases where implicit and explicit motives conflict...especially if the reaction formation involves complaining! Concordance among various kinds of motives (implicit, explicit, goals, values, strivings, etc.) is important for well-being &lt;sup&gt;(e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/26268289_Effects_of_achievement_goal_striving_on_well-being_the_moderating_role_of_the_explicit_achievement_motive/file/3deec5279fa74c183e.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Job, Langens, &amp;amp; Brandstätter, 2009&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;, so expressing negative attitudes like in your examples might be a sign of negative affect elevated by internal conflict.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I could easily see your hypothesis being falsified for good reasons. While it's true that people's personalities affect their choices of situations to which they expose themselves &lt;sup&gt;(e.g., Beck &amp;amp; Clark, 2009)&lt;/sup&gt;, many of the situations people find themselves in are certainly not chosen. Situations can thus operate independently of preexisting personality characteristics in affecting attitudes &lt;sup&gt;(e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0070876940/355897/sample_ch04.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McShane, 2009&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;/sup&gt; see also the first figure in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5733/4086&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt; depicting influences of both personality and external factors on attitudes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More concretely speaking, it seems likely that many people who &quot;hate drama&quot; feel this way because they can't avoid it, regardless of whether they're actually trying. For instance, my personal experience with &quot;drama&quot; has probably increased due to indirect consequences of choices I've made based on entirely different motives, such as trying to save money by living with several roommates in cheap housing. Those experiences certainly taught me a new level of hatred for drama that now compels me to avoid living with roommates, but I'd sooner say I chose those experiences to avoid financial drama than to test my luck with social drama. Even at the times of those decisions (i.e., even before learning my new level of drama hatred), I recall feeling aversion to the social consequences of my financially driven decisions, not some guilty hint of secret excitement. This is anecdotal of course, but conversations with friends and colleagues lead me to believe my experiences weren't unrepresentative of typical roommate drama.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Baumeister, R. F., Dale, K., &amp;amp; Sommer, K. L. (1998). Freudian defense mechanisms and empirical findings in modern social psychology: Reaction formation, projection, displacement, undoing, isolation, sublimation, and denial. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality, 66&lt;/em&gt;(6), 1081–1124. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/vollarj/baumesiter%20roy%20-%20freudian%20defense%20mechanisms.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/vollarj/baumesiter%20roy%20-%20freudian%20defense%20mechanisms.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Beck, L. A., &amp;amp; Clark, M. S. (2009). Choosing to enter or avoid diagnostic social situations. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science, 20&lt;/em&gt;(9), 1175–1181.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Emmons, R. A., &amp;amp; McAdams, D. P. (1991). Personal strivings and motive dispositions: Exploring the links. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17&lt;/em&gt;(6), 648–654.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Job, V., Langens, T. A., &amp;amp; Brandstätter, V. (2009). Effects of achievement goal striving on well-being: The moderating role of the explicit achievement motive. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(8), 983-996. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/26268289_Effects_of_achievement_goal_striving_on_well-being_the_moderating_role_of_the_explicit_achievement_motive/file/3deec5279fa74c183e.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/26268289_Effects_of_achievement_goal_striving_on_well-being_the_moderating_role_of_the_explicit_achievement_motive/file/3deec5279fa74c183e.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., &amp;amp; Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review, 96&lt;/em&gt;(4), 690–702. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://lab4.psico.unimib.it/nettuno/forum/free_download/mcclelland_89_355.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://lab4.psico.unimib.it/nettuno/forum/free_download/mcclelland_89_355.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- McShane, S. L. (2009). &lt;em&gt;Organizational behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 7th ed. (pp. 106). McGraw-Hill. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0070876940/355897/sample_ch04.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0070876940/355897/sample_ch04.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T11:22:29.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5795" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5440" CreationDate="2014-02-20T07:38:59.907" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Building on @caseyr547's answer, and especially the second link in the first reply to your comment, &lt;strong&gt;yes!&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www120.secure.griffith.edu.au/rch/file/16034620-6834-02f5-2d07-79df62b21e6c/1/02Whole.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cook's (2009) abstract&lt;/a&gt; (emphasis added):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Over the past decade, there have been numerous claims in the popular media relating to having fun at work, touting a plethora of benefits for both individuals and organisations that have to date not been empirically investigated. Thus far, any research related to fun in the workplace has often been &lt;strong&gt;indiscriminate with its use of terms, interspersing fun with humour and play, thus adding confusion to an already inadequately defined construct&lt;/strong&gt;. The aim of this research is two fold: to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the construct to &lt;strong&gt;differentiate and define fun in a work context, and to measure the perceived impact of having fun in the workplace&lt;/strong&gt;. In order to locate fun as a unique construct, literature related to fun, humour and play/playfulness was reviewed and positioned in a nomological net utilising a three phase framework consisting of presage, process and product (3P). Four studies in this research program investigated the domain of fun activities in the workplace, the underlying structure of the construct, the process of having fun and the perceived impact of fun specifically in relation to job satisfaction, stress reduction, effectiveness and workplace relationships. Results identified a domain of &lt;strong&gt;15 distinct fun activities&lt;/strong&gt;. Using multidimensional scaling, an underlying structure of &lt;strong&gt;four neighbourhood clusters (humour and play, informal socialising, formal socialising and organisational activities)&lt;/strong&gt; and two dimensions (contextual connections with others and activity structure and intensity) were identified. The investigation of the process of fun was conducted by examining case vignettes using the 3P framework. Results suggest the &lt;strong&gt;experience of fun at work is activity based, with an emotionally qualitative dimension that is highly socially interactive and engaging.&lt;/strong&gt; The organisational context for fun appears to be embodied in supportive management and colleagues, positive team dynamics and a non stressed environment. The participant experiencing the fun is usually in the role of contributor rather than observer, is &lt;strong&gt;highly engaged, experiencing amusement, laughter, flow, social connection and as an outcome, an increase in positive mood. While humour and play contribute to the process of fun, fun appears to be a uniquely distinct construct. Finally, the present results suggest the perceived impact of having fun at work, while positive, was not reported globally to the extent suggested in the popular press. The most significant outcome of having fun was the reporting of improved positive mood after the fun event&lt;/strong&gt;, with the related cascading organisational effects discussed. Complimentary to this, having fun at work was &lt;strong&gt;perceived to positively influence workplace relationships to a moderate-high degree, contribute to managing stress to a moderate degree, improved job satisfaction to moderate degree and was reported to have a little more than neutral, direct impact on workplace effectiveness. These outcomes must however be examined in the context of results, suggesting not only are different types of fun activities enjoyed more, but different types of activities are highly salient in relation to the particular organisational variable measured&lt;/strong&gt;. Results of this series of studies have provided a revised nomological net that can be used in further research to define the construct of fun in a workplace context. Supplementary to this, outcomes suggest having fun at work has positive impacts for both individuals and workplaces and therefore further&#xA;  investigation, at multiple organisational levels is required, ranging from individual&#xA;  disposition in relation to fun, to the effects of fun on workplace culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, @what is right to be concerned about the definition of &quot;playful break&quot;. The particular kind of fun activity in question seems to moderate the effects quite a bit. Popular media seems to have over-hyped the effects somewhat. Still, overall, fun is indeed fun – i.e., the behavior affects affect and cognition. It may also improve coworker relations, reduce stress, and make people happier with and better at their jobs...but these results may be too subjective to trust on their own, and deserve replication and reexamination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cook, K. (2009). &lt;em&gt;Fun at Work: Construct Definition and Perceived Impact in the Workplace.&lt;/em&gt; (Doctoral dissertation.) Griffith University. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www120.secure.griffith.edu.au/rch/file/16034620-6834-02f5-2d07-79df62b21e6c/1/02Whole.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www120.secure.griffith.edu.au/rch/file/16034620-6834-02f5-2d07-79df62b21e6c/1/02Whole.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T07:38:59.907" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5796" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-20T08:28:11.910" Score="2" ViewCount="2671" Body="&lt;p&gt;I tried to change my brother's beliefs. He gets motivated by some bad ideas. Following my attempt to change his beliefs, his beliefs have become even stronger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4436" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-20T11:21:02.743" LastActivityDate="2014-11-06T11:31:43.760" Title="How to change someone's beliefs?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-01-08T12:41:59.487" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5797" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-20T08:57:50.167" Score="1" ViewCount="769" Body="&lt;p&gt;I talked about this with a friend: he told me that there are differences on how people react when they are accused of something. He mentioned that in some countries, people try to avoid it at any cost. In the case, he mentioned that my country (Brazil) has this feature. He also mentioned that he watched the Olympics with narration in both English (from England) and Portuguese (from Brazil) and the narration was quite different when someone made a mistake:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brazil: He hadn't luck.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;England: He didn't train enough.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He also argued that Brazilians prefer to &lt;em&gt;escape&lt;/em&gt; to some metaphysical realm and that people from England follow a more pragmatic approach for when they do something wrong. He promised to deliver me some anthropological studies about that, but I guess he forgot it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-20T10:36:40.247" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T10:36:40.247" Title="Are there international differences on how people react when they are guilty of something?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;attribution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5798" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5796" CreationDate="2014-02-20T09:40:57.373" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a little unclear to me from what you've said that your efforts are truly affecting your brother's ideas. It's also unclear whether those ideas are objectively bad, or whether you should be trying to change them. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.meta.stackexchange.com/a/503/4086&quot;&gt;In general, we have to be careful to avoid recommending specific actions for specific people here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, the general phenomenon you seem to describe is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;reactance&lt;/em&gt;. Excerpts from Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reactance is a motivational reaction to offers, persons, rules, or regulations that threaten or eliminate specific behavioral freedoms &lt;sup&gt;[(Brehm, 1966; Brehm &amp;amp; Brehm, 1981)]&lt;/sup&gt;. Reactance occurs when a person feels that someone or something is taking away his or her choices or limiting the range of alternatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reactance can occur when someone is heavily pressured to accept a certain view or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attitude&lt;/a&gt;. Reactance can cause the person to adopt or strengthen a view or attitude that is contrary to what was intended, and also increases resistance to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;persuasion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. People using &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reverse psychology&lt;/a&gt; are playing on at least an informal awareness of reactance, attempting to influence someone to choose the opposite of what they request...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to William R. Miller &lt;sup&gt;[(2000)&lt;/sup&gt;,] &quot;Research demonstrates that a counselor can drive resistance (denial) levels up and down dramatically according to his or her personal counseling style&quot;. &lt;strong&gt;Use of a &quot;respectful, reflective approach&quot; described in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivational_interviewing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motivational interviewing&lt;/a&gt; and applied as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivational_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motivation enhancement therapy&lt;/a&gt;, rather than by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentation_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;argumentation&lt;/a&gt;, the accusation of &quot;being in denial&quot;, and direct confrontations, lead to the motivation to change and avoid the resistance and denial, or reactance, elicited by strong direct confrontation&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[(Miller &amp;amp; Rollnick, 1991)]&lt;/sup&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Silvia's 2005 study &lt;em&gt;Deflecting reactance: The role of similarity in increasing compliance and reducing resistance&lt;/em&gt; concluded that one way to increase the activity of a threatened freedom is to censor it, or provide a threatening message toward the activity. In turn a &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boomerang_effect_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;boomerang effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&quot; occurs, in which people choose forbidden alternatives. This study also shows that &lt;strong&gt;social influence has better results when it does not threaten one's core freedoms&lt;/strong&gt;. Two concepts revealed in this study are that a communicator may be able to increase the positive force towards &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compliance_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;compliance&lt;/a&gt; by &lt;strong&gt;increasing their credibility, and that increasing the positive communication force and decreasing the negative communication force simultaneously should increase compliance&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.niu.edu/user/tj0bjs1/psyc624/Silvia%20%282005%29.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Silvia, 2005&lt;/a&gt;)]&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may want to follow some of the hyperlinks above. They're all useful concepts for this issue, and may help you understand what you're doing and what your alternatives are. As a general principle, counselors and therapists avoid trying to change others' beliefs and attitudes explicitly and directly. Instead, they focus on understanding their clients, and in the process, they prompt their clients to reexamine themselves and find their own reasons to change. It's subtle yet impressive social jujutsu.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Brehm, J. W. (1966). &lt;em&gt;A theory of psychological reactance&lt;/em&gt;. Academic Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Brehm, S. S., &amp;amp; Brehm, J. W. (1981). &lt;em&gt;Psychological reactance: A theory of freedom and control&lt;/em&gt;. Academic Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Miller, W. R. (2000) Motivational enhancement therapy: Description of counseling approach. In J. J. Boren, L. S. Onken, &amp;amp; K. M. Carroll (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Approaches to Drug Abuse Counseling&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 89–93). National Institute on Drug Abuse.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Miller, W.R. &amp;amp; Rollnick, S. (1991). &lt;em&gt;Motivational interviewing: Preparing people to change addictive behavior.&lt;/em&gt; New York: Guilford Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Silvia, P. J. (2005). Deflecting reactance: The role of similarity in increasing compliance and reducing resistance. &lt;em&gt;Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27&lt;/em&gt;, 277–284. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.niu.edu/user/tj0bjs1/psyc624/Silvia%20%282005%29.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.niu.edu/user/tj0bjs1/psyc624/Silvia%20%282005%29.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-16T15:50:00.660" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T09:40:57.373" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5799" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5797" CreationDate="2014-02-20T10:35:56.620" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you're describing &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error#Cultural_differences_in_the_error&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cultural differences in the &lt;em&gt;fundamental attribution error&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which, according to Wikipedia, is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People's tendency to place an undue emphasis on internal characteristics to explain someone else's behavior in a given situation, rather than considering external factors. It does not explain interpretations of one's own behavior, where situational factors are more easily recognized and can thus be taken into consideration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an excerpt from the cultural differences section (emphasis added):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are many cultural differences which arise when attempting to explain this error &lt;sup&gt;[(Lagdridge &amp;amp; Butt, 2004)]&lt;/sup&gt;. Previous research has shown that cultural differences exist in the susceptibility of making fundamental attribution error: people from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualistic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;individualistic&lt;/a&gt; cultures are more prone to the error while people from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivistic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;collectivistic&lt;/a&gt; cultures are less prone &lt;sup&gt;[(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/n/x/nxy906/COMPS/indivdualismandcollectivism/culture%20lit/to%20print/Miller1984culturalexplanation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Miller, 1984&lt;/a&gt;)]&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It has been found that there is a differential attention to social factors between independent peoples and interdependent peoples in both social and nonsocial contexts. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takahiko_Masuda&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Takahiko Masuda&lt;/a&gt; and his colleagues (2004) in their cartoon figure presentation experiment showed that Japanese people's judgments on the target character's facial expression are more influenced by surrounding faces than those of the Americans, whereas Masuda and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nisbett&lt;/a&gt; (2001) concluded from their underwater scenes animated cartoon experiment that Americans are also more likely than Japanese participants to mark references to focal objects (i.e. fish) instead of contexts (i.e. rocks and plants). These discrepancies in the salience of different factors to people from different cultures suggest that &lt;strong&gt;Asians tend to attribute behavior to situation while Westerners attribute the same behavior to the actor&lt;/strong&gt;. Consistently, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.southalabama.edu/psychology/gordon/EmotionCulture%281994%29MorrisPeng.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Morris &amp;amp; Peng (1994)&lt;/a&gt; found from their fish behavior attribution experiment that &lt;strong&gt;more American than Chinese participants perceive the behavior&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g. an individual fish swimming in front of a group of fish) &lt;strong&gt;as internally rather than externally caused&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One explanation for this difference in attribution lies in the way in which people of different cultural orientation perceive themselves in the environment. Particularly, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iacmr.org/v2/Conferences/WS2011/Submission_XM/Participant/Readings/Lecture8A_JiaLin/Markus%20et%20al%20%281991%29%20Culture%20and%20Self%20-%20Implications%20for%20Cognition%20Emotion%20and%20Motivation-8a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Markus and Kitayama (1991)&lt;/a&gt; mentioned how (individualistic) &lt;strong&gt;Westerners tend to see themselves as independent agents&lt;/strong&gt; and therefore focus more on individual objects rather than contextual details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To apply this information to your specific comparison between England and Brazil, consider the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brazilian culture is fairly moderate in terms of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualistic_culture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;individualism&lt;/a&gt; vs. collectivism.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ibr/article/viewFile/10019/7136&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tu, Lin, &amp;amp; Chang (2011)&lt;/a&gt; found India more individualistic, China more collectivistic, and Russia roughly equivalent to Brazilian culture in terms of individualism/collectivism.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;English culture is highly individualistic &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.replicatedtypo.com/science/genetic-components-and-cultural-differences-the-social-sensitivity-hypothesis/1620/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Way &amp;amp; Lieberman, 2010&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;See the second figure depicting cultural differences in individualism/collectivism in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5733/4086&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Way and Lieberman found English culture more individualistic than Russian and Indian culture.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;However, Way and Lieberman found Indian culture less individualistic than Russian culture.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore the contrast between American and Chinese culture – which is a contrast between extremes of individualism and collectivism, respectively – applies to a lesser extent when contrasting England and Brazil. This contrast points in the direction your friend observed: individualistic cultures (including English) attribute successes and failures to personal factors (including effort) more often than collectivistic cultures, which tend to attribute such outcomes to situational factors (including &quot;luck&quot;). Brazilian culture isn't especially collectivistic, but it is probably less strongly individualistic than English culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's very cool that your friend could pick up on these cultural differences in attributional tendencies among Olympics commentators! Hopefully that wasn't due to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Lagdridge, D., &amp;amp; Butt, T. (2004). The fundamental attribution error: A phenomenological critique. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Social Psychology, 43&lt;/em&gt;(3), 357–369.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Markus, H. R., &amp;amp; Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review, 98&lt;/em&gt;(2), 224–253. Retrieved from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iacmr.org/v2/Conferences/WS2011/Submission_XM/Participant/Readings/Lecture8A_JiaLin/Markus%20et%20al%20%281991%29%20Culture%20and%20Self%20-%20Implications%20for%20Cognition%20Emotion%20and%20Motivation-8a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Association for Chinese Management Research&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Masuda, T., Ellsworth, P. C., Mesquita, B., Leu, J., &amp;amp; van de Veerdonk, E. (2004). &lt;em&gt;A face in the crowd or a crowd in the face: Japanese and American perceptions of others’ emotions&lt;/em&gt;. (Unpublished manuscript). Hokkaido University.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Masuda, T., &amp;amp; Nisbett, R. E. (2001). Attending holistically versus analytically: Comparing the context sensitivity of Japanese and Americans. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81&lt;/em&gt;(5), 922–934.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Miller, J. G. (1984). Culture and the development of everyday social explanation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46&lt;/em&gt;(5), 961–978. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/n/x/nxy906/COMPS/indivdualismandcollectivism/culture%20lit/to%20print/Miller1984culturalexplanation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/n/x/nxy906/COMPS/indivdualismandcollectivism/culture%20lit/to%20print/Miller1984culturalexplanation.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Morris, M. W., &amp;amp; Peng, K. (1994). Culture and cause: American and Chinese attributions for social and physical events. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 67&lt;/em&gt;(6), 949–971. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.southalabama.edu/psychology/gordon/EmotionCulture%281994%29MorrisPeng.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.southalabama.edu/psychology/gordon/EmotionCulture%281994%29MorrisPeng.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Tu, Y. T., Lin, S. Y., &amp;amp; Chang, Y. Y. (2011). A cross-cultural comparison by individualism/collectivism among Brazil, Russia, India and China. &lt;em&gt;International Business Research, 4&lt;/em&gt;(2), 175–182. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ibr/article/viewFile/10019/7136&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ibr/article/viewFile/10019/7136&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Way, B. M., &amp;amp; Lieberman, M. D. (2010). Is there a genetic contribution to cultural differences? Collectivism, individualism and genetic markers of social sensitivity. &lt;em&gt;Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5&lt;/em&gt;(2–3), 203–211. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.replicatedtypo.com/science/genetic-components-and-cultural-differences-the-social-sensitivity-hypothesis/1620/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.replicatedtypo.com/science/genetic-components-and-cultural-differences-the-social-sensitivity-hypothesis/1620/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T10:35:56.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5800" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="512" CreationDate="2014-02-20T11:17:29.340" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an element of selfish antisociality in the alternately possessive and dismissive social behavior you describe. This may imply or otherwise resemble symptoms of: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An unhealthy &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory#Attachment_patterns&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;attachment style&lt;/a&gt; due to the lack of relational investment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Borderline personality / emotional dysregulation disorder&lt;/a&gt;, which is marked by love/hate relationships&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Any of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Triad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the dark triad&lt;/a&gt; traits &lt;sup&gt;(see Jakobwitz &amp;amp; Egan, 2006)&lt;/sup&gt; due to the selfish, manipulative lack of empathy:&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machiavellianism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Machiavellianism&lt;/a&gt; is characterized by manipulation and exploitation of others, a cynical disregard for morality, and a focus on self-interest and deception.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Narcissism&lt;/a&gt; is characterized by grandiosity, pride, egotism, and a lack of empathy.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychopathy&lt;/a&gt; is characterized by enduring antisocial behavior, impulsivity, selfishness, callousness, and remorselessness.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional dysregulation / borderline, narcissistic, and antisocial (which very closely resembles psychopathy, especially &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy#Primary_and_secondary&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;secondary&lt;/a&gt;) personality disorders are all Axis II disorders, so I'd say yes, the behavior you describe is a warning sign of such plausible psychopathologies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dysfunction in the OFC may play a role in the development of antisocial disorders, including psychopathy. An excellent review of relevant research is freely available (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3283581/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Séguin, 2004&lt;/a&gt;). This review also mentions OCD, so I think it might just have everything you're looking for!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Jakobwitz, S., &amp;amp; Egan, V. (2006). The dark triad and normal personality traits. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences, 40&lt;/em&gt;(2), 331–339.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Séguin, J. R. (2004). Neurocognitive elements of antisocial behavior: Relevance of an orbitofrontal cortex account. &lt;em&gt;Brain and Cognition, 55&lt;/em&gt;(1), 185–197. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3283581/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3283581/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T11:17:29.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5801" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3795" CreationDate="2014-02-20T12:21:08.410" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm surprised to see seven answers to this question and no mention of &lt;em&gt;directly&lt;/em&gt; relevant theory on personality change thus far. Certainly some exists – though I sympathize with the first comment on the OP – and it's really not hard to find. The sixth current &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=change+personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google hit for &quot;change personality&quot;&lt;/a&gt; is a directly pertinent literature review by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.stanford.edu/dept/psychology/cgi-bin/drupalm/cdweck&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a prominent social/personality/developmental psychologist&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/cd/17_6_inpress/Dweck.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dweck, 2008&lt;/a&gt;), and its conclusion favors the feasibility of change in general. Dweck argues that beliefs and expectations are key factors in the process, particularly as they pertain to one's ability to change. This supports a popular aphorism: &lt;strong&gt;the surest way to fail is to not try&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other answers of mine are worth referring to here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5733/4086&quot;&gt;This answer regarding innate personality&lt;/a&gt; incorporates a figure and discussion of how biological and environmental factors interact to change personality, which gradually &quot;sets like plaster&quot; over time.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5774/4086&quot;&gt;This answer about neuroticism and neuroplasticity&lt;/a&gt; incorporates two figures depicting personality change over time, and cites theory that summarizes these changes as positive and more rapid in young adulthood. Thus intentional change may require less time if one starts relatively early.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5270/4086&quot;&gt;This answer about social desirability&lt;/a&gt; suggests the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_structure_of_the_Big_Five#Superordinate_Factors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;general factor of personality&lt;/a&gt; may be driven by intentional realignment with social demands. I should probably add some references here!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is just the bare skeleton of an answer to what is potentially a very broad and deeply controversial question. Much more can be added if you wish. For instance, strong evidence of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion#Biological_factors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;biological factors in extraversion&lt;/a&gt; implies that some substantial amount of individual differences in this trait are relatively immutable, so it may be quite unlikely that an always-basically-&lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt; shy individual would become truly &quot;extroverted from the ground up&quot;...though in the spirit of Dweck's answer, I would never call this or any other form of self-motivated growth impossible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BTW, more of those Google hits are also worth citing here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/personality-change&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hit #5: Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt; has a nice section organizing personality change articles, including:&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ulterior-motives/201309/extended-travel-affects-personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A review&lt;/a&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/105/3/515/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a study of short-term personality change resulting from international travel&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/teen-angst/201301/right-here-right-now&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An article on relatively more concrete life choices&lt;/a&gt; that probably affect personality somewhat&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-human-beast/201212/trauma-resets-personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An article on traumatic experience&lt;/a&gt;, recovery from which is &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0195176936&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;important in personality development&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/schlepping-through-heartbreak/201312/my-husband-was-abducted-aliens-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An article about personality change from the perspective of a significant other&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_changes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hit #7: Wikipedia on personality changes&lt;/a&gt;, some of which result from social role choices&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_in_personality_over_a_lifetime&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hit #8: Wikipedia (again) on changes in personality over the lifetime&lt;/a&gt;, some of which is fairly rapid&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/21/personality-type-science-video_n_4134103.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hit #10: Dan McAdams on personality theory, levels, and change (a 5-minute video)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dweck, C. S. (2008). Can personality be changed? The role of beliefs in personality and change. &lt;em&gt;Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17&lt;/em&gt;(6), 391–394. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/cd/17_6_inpress/Dweck.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/cd/17_6_inpress/Dweck.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-10-30T09:24:15.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5802" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-20T15:38:11.530" Score="3" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work with questionnaire data and am fairly sensitive to good practice in questionnaire construction. Usually I generate my own, but when I draw on existing literature to use reliably reproduced measurement scales, sometimes the items are poorly worded or vague enough that I would not consider them appropriate or valid. Consider the item:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Weeds should be eradicated because they inhibit the full development of useful and ornamental plants.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A participant can say that they disagree with this item. So do they think weeds shouldn't be eradicated? Or that they &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; be eradicated, but not for the reason given. Maybe they think that weeds &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; inhibit the full development of useful plants, but that is not sufficient cause for eradication of weeds. The question is vague enough that it doesn't confer any useful information about the participant's broader view on weeds except in the one fringe case where they agree with it as stated. Clearly it should be split into two items and already the scale is much improved by it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other examples that are much more shockingly bad, but have been reproduced enough times that they form reliable scales. Is it better to use them as-is, with all their flaws, or to use them as fully as possible while fixing any glaring errors, or not to use them at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4444" LastActivityDate="2014-02-21T02:14:04.267" Title="What is the appropriate action when using poorly worded scales from previous literature?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5803" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5806" CreationDate="2014-02-20T16:35:28.450" Score="5" ViewCount="1736" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lifehack.org/articles/communication/12-toxic-thoughts-you-need-drop-for-better-life.html?ref=fbp&amp;amp;n=1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lifehack&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Thinking that having a significant other will complete you.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are not a whole person already, then having a romantic partner will&#xA;not make you whole. Plus, it puts a lot of pressure on the other&#xA;person to “make you happy.” You need to be happy with yourself with or&#xA;without someone. Having a significant other doesn’t make you happier.&#xA;Only you can make yourself happy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, on many other self help sites I have noticed similar statements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't understand this. For example, because you are a human, you probably want to have a man or woman in your life who would love you both mentally and physically, so how exactly are you going to make yourself happy if you don't have that significant other or can't get one?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does that quote mean that you need to forget/suppress your human needs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3040" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-02-19T23:07:39.017" Title="What exactly is meant when it is said that only you can make yourself happy?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5804" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5802" CreationDate="2014-02-20T18:08:00.313" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If you change the items in a questionnaire, you have a different questionnaire.&lt;/strong&gt; All the psychometric properties such as reliability or validity and the normative data no longer apply. You need to be able to compare your measurement to a normative sample to receive a meaningful measurement. If you change a questionnaire, you have to test it against your construct, calculate its reliability etc., and normalize it over a large representative sample. Otherwise any conclusions you draw from your experiments will be at best tentative and potentially false.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The meaning of a questionnaire item is not the literal meaning &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; make of that &quot;sentence&quot;, but the relation that the behavior of answering this item has with other behavior that you know represents your construct.&lt;/strong&gt; For example, the item &quot;Weeds should be eradicated because they inhibit the full development of useful and ornamental plants.&quot; is from a questionnaire on environmental attitudes (Milfont &amp;amp; Duckitt, 2004) and measures &quot;necessity of development&quot; (NoD). If a significant number of your sample answer &quot;yes&quot; to the question about weeds, and they also rate high in NoD in a valid NoD task, then this item can be used to measure NoD. If you change the words, this correlation might no longer hold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Milfont, T. L., &amp;amp; Duckitt, J. (2004). The structure of environmental attitudes: A first- and second-order confirmatory factor analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24&lt;/em&gt;, 289–303. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://gip.uniovi.es/gdiyad/docume/arti_jep01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://gip.uniovi.es/gdiyad/docume/arti_jep01.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-20T21:26:30.643" LastActivityDate="2014-02-20T21:26:30.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5805" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5802" CreationDate="2014-02-20T23:23:02.273" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To reiterate @what's answer, here are a few simple rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Change wording when...&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You want to improve the scale and are prepared to engage in a thorough validation process of the new scale. E.g., comparing the new with the old version; re-running factor analyses, reliability analyses, validation. Naturally you'd only do this if you felt that you could make a substantial improvement to the scale.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You need to substantially adapt a scale to your context. E.g., the test was looking at attitudes to X and you want to look at attitudes to Y. You only have room in your scale for a subset of the items. In all these cases, you are only loosely drawing on the existing validity information for the scale. And adapting a scale to your context should not be your first choice if there is an existing scale already suited to your context.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Don't change wording when...&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You think that minor changes would make the scale better (e.g., by adding/removing an item; tweaking the wording). Such changes prevent you from comparing your data to other normative studies. While if the changes are minor, the changes to the psychometrics are also likely to be minor, this is ultimately an empirical question. And thus, you are limited in drawing on the psychometric evidence of other studies after you have made changes. Thus, it is rarely worth it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Thoughts on changes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When using an unmodified scale, you can just refer to it. However, if you do make changes, you need to supply a copy of the full modified scale somewhere when you publish. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-21T00:42:15.783" LastActivityDate="2014-02-21T00:42:15.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5806" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5803" CreationDate="2014-02-21T01:12:55.490" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;That's simple. Many celebrities commit suicide, or are drug addicts. Why? They have the money, they have the lover, they have the fans, they have the fame, the power. They have it all. Do they? No, that's not the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets define happiness; we don't know what happiness is, but we do know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's not about the money&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's not about the fame, the power&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's not about love. Or is it? I'll discuss that in a minute.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_suicide_rate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The suicide rate is higher in developed, not poor&lt;/a&gt; countries, that means the rich are less happy than the poor. I live in Lebanon, a small country next to Syria and Israel, it's shitty here, and we are ranked I think as the 10th happiest population :)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll talk about love in a bit, but lets talk about happiness in general; if all the things listed above doesn't make you happy, what does?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What makes you happy (I believe) is the hope for a better day. When you lose the hope, you lose everything you ever had; you lose the reason for staying alive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why isn't Stephen Hawking sad? Because he continues to discover new things, people appreciate these things, it makes him happy and hopeful that one day he'll be regarded as the greatest scientist. He doesn't care about money. What could he do with money? Go to a club, get a beer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets talk about celebrities, they have everything, it's not good, because when you say, &lt;em&gt;&quot;I have everything,&quot;&lt;/em&gt; what you really mean is, &lt;em&gt;&quot;I have nothing else to do.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;George Eastman, founder of the Kodak corporation and inventor of the &quot;snap-shot&quot; camera, shot himself in the heart after leaving a note reading: &quot;To my friends: My work is done, why wait?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those who think that their work is done, are less happy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Wait a second! This question is about love.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets ask two questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When do people want get married?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do they want to get married?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've never been in love; I'm not romantic, but the answer is pretty easy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to the first question, you can have a girlfriend forever. People tend to want to get married when they are financially stable, and therefore they want to &lt;strong&gt;start a family&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to the second question is because they want to start a family, AKA &lt;strong&gt;have kids.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why the hell would they want that? Well yes, there's love and all that silly stuff :) but I'm answering a philosophical question, I have to have a better answer than that shit :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know about you, but in my society, when the women are like 28 years old and not in love, other women start to tell them &lt;em&gt;&quot;Go on, what are you waiting for? Marry anyone; have kids; you don't want to be alone all your life; no one will marry you if you can't have kids.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Think of life as a video game: you pass a level, you go to another level, just like Super Mario, and finally he rescues the princess!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being in love – I mean the state where you dream about the other person and can't eat or sleep – is only temporary. When you get married, it's routine. Kids are the next challenge for you; you hope that your kids will grow up; you hope that they graduate; that's hope I talked about above; every day there's new challenge. Those who can't continue the game will quit, divorce or something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it's not her, your wife, that's making you happy; the best that she can do is raise &lt;strong&gt;your&lt;/strong&gt; self esteem, encouraging &lt;strong&gt;you&lt;/strong&gt;, but notice it's all about &lt;strong&gt;you&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No one would love someone that doesn't make him happy, in the sense that if you're a programmer, you can't love someone who hates programmers and keep calling them nerds sitting in front of a laptop all day; the other person will be lowering your self esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But you can't expect someone to make you happy, as I discussed above; happiness is about you fulfilling your dreams, challenging yourself. How can your partner fulfill your dreams if you never had a dream?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3359" LastEditorUserId="3359" LastEditDate="2014-02-21T13:20:03.810" LastActivityDate="2014-02-21T13:20:03.810" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3514" CreationDate="2014-02-21T01:42:52.183" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not the best man to answer the question – I don't have any reference; I do have some logic behind what I'm saying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many years ago, very few people were educated, very few knew how to do math, but they all had money. And they had to count it, and do some math.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I have 10 employees, each wants 5 coins, I have 1000 coins, I pay 50 and I still have 950 to party. If I have 2243 workers, I have to pay each 227 coins and I have 19353256421 coins in my account, well then, where's my calculator? Oh, no calculator. Call my math genius slave; if you can't find him, kill every worker! :) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We love numbers that can easily be divided and multiplied, It happens to be the even numbers and the 5, because it's easy to divide by 5 and the 1, because getting 1 is easy to work with in math, and 0 of course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;\$1, \$5, \$10, \$20, \$50, \$100: pretty much all currencies in the world are like that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Old habits die hard: you go to a restaurant, you have to pay \$13. Where's the tips? Most people will usually pay \$15. If you have to pay \$36 for what you ate, most people will pay $40 in total.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's really about the money, because unless you're a mathematician or something, you'd use numbers for counting money mostly in your daily life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3359" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-02-21T02:54:05.413" LastActivityDate="2014-02-21T02:54:05.413" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5802" CreationDate="2014-02-21T02:14:04.267" Score="2" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Intro&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a slightly more compromising (yet arguably more demanding) answer than what's, which is probably a good representative of how the idea of changing items will generally be received by reviewers, supervisors, or substantive theorists. From the perspective of a methodology nerd (don't mean to deny @what that dubious distinction too BTW), there are some reasons to consider reworking this questionnaire and certainly very many other measures in common usage. It's true that this changes the latent construct and threatens its comparability to that estimated in previous research, but changes may be justified, and comparability may be worth sacrificing or even entirely undesirable if the measurement model in previous research was just that badly invalid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also true that there is a lot of sophisticated, challenging, expensive work to do in the construct validation process, but as such, much of this work never gets done. For both theoretical and practical reasons, as much of this work as is feasible should be completed, reported, and kept up-to-date, and it's not necessarily any less important to do when one isn't motivated to change the measure. Building on a long line of previous research by using old methods mostly protects comparability of results within that line of research; it doesn't protect the line of research as a whole from its systemic flaws. Enough long lines of heralded theory have fallen over time to discourage complacency based on unquestioning deference to seemingly established methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Scrutiny of &lt;a href=&quot;http://gip.uniovi.es/gdiyad/docume/arti_jep01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milfont &amp;amp; Duckitt (2004)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;em&gt;The question in question is questionable.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To demonstrate the methodological vulnerabilities of even relatively modern research, I'll nitpick your specific example. First, as you've noted, the focal question itself is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-barreled_question&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;double- or even triple-barreled&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Should weeds be eradicated?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do weeds inhibit the full development of &lt;em&gt;useful&lt;/em&gt; plants?&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do weeds inhibit the full development of &lt;em&gt;ornamental&lt;/em&gt; plants?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This decreases interpretability of results somewhat needlessly (the measure is long enough already that one extra question wouldn't hurt noticeably...and what good does the distinction between useful and ornamental plants do?) and probably increases measurement error, as respondents are likely to rate their agreement somewhat haphazardly based on whichever part of the question elicits the strongest attitudinal response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, this particular item loads rather weakly ($\lambda=.38)$ on a factor (the tenth and least reliable factor, $\alpha=.58$) with no negatively-weighted items. &lt;a href=&quot;http://gip.uniovi.es/gdiyad/docume/arti_jep01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milfont and Duckitt &lt;sup&gt;(2004)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; critique another measure for possessing unbalanced subscales, which by their own admission are &quot;open to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquiescence_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;acquiescence bias&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Yet they haven't fully balanced their own subscales, including also those for factors 2, 4, and 6 – this is just one shy of the number of unbalanced subscales in the measure they critique!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless, &quot;balancing&quot; subscale items doesn't eliminate acquiescence bias; it only &quot;balances&quot; its effects on latent factor scores to the extent that they are calculated based on an equal number of equally-and-oppositely weighted items. In the authors' own usage of the measure (the structural equation model in Figure 1, p. 299), it appears that factor scores were based on the items weighted by their factor loadings, which are not equal. Hence even the factors that do have equal numbers of oppositely-weighted items (of which there are only two: factors 3 and 8) do not truly balance the effects of acquiescence bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, even the false ideal of a set of items with equal, opposite, and balanced weighting would not truly balance acquiescence effects, as these also depend on item content and respondents' item-specific expertise &lt;sup&gt;(McClendon, 1991a)&lt;/sup&gt;, both of which vary across items, of course. In the case of our double/triple-barreled question, the second/third barrel particularly concerns horticultural knowledge, so this item seems likely to suffer specially from acquiescence bias due to that second/third barrel that arguably does more harm than good. Personally, I'm somewhat surprised to find theoretical basis for suspecting that this expertise issue with one (or two) particular barrel(s) causes more acquiescence problems than the ambiguity of the question overall &lt;sup&gt;(McClendon, 1991b)&lt;/sup&gt;, as is due to its compound nature. Acquiescence may be measurable and controllable &lt;sup&gt;(Billiet &amp;amp; McClendon, 2000)&lt;/sup&gt;, but it's not always a big threat, it's not the only response-style-based threat &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2736523/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hinz, Michalski, Schwarz, &amp;amp; Herzberg, 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;, and balancing oppositely-weighted items halfheartedly is surely an incomplete amelioration &lt;sup&gt;(Schriesheim &amp;amp; Hill, 1981)&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;em&gt;The model is not a model model.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This leads to further concerns with the overall measurement model. It seems to have been developed with methods that are somewhat &lt;strong&gt;inappropriate for Likert rating data&lt;/strong&gt;, which are technically ordinal (i.e., discrete and ranked). The authors don't specify how exactly they handled item scoring, so they probably gave it the simple, conventional treatment as continuous data. This is not altogether indefensible with a seven-point Likert scale (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/a/86959/32036&quot;&gt;this answer on Cross Validated&lt;/a&gt;), but it's not ideal. The particular item in question appears on a scale with only four items, which is probably insufficient for producing a scale score by simple summation or averaging according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_test_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;classical test theory (CTT)&lt;/a&gt;; this may further explain the scale's relatively dismal $\alpha$ reliability. Nonetheless, the authors probably used some such CTT method to calculate the scale scores they tested for gender differences in their Table 4, as they haven't referred to these as factor scores, much less specified which kind of factor scores they might be (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://pareonline.net/pdf/v14n20.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DiStefano, Zhu, &amp;amp; Mîndrilă, &lt;sup&gt;(2009)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; for a review of six popular options).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, the scale scoring system appears to have been developed through application of principal components and principal axis factor extraction from a simple covariance matrix that probably treated the data as continuous, as well as maximum likelihood estimation of a confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) model's fit to that same matrix. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/2374/32036&quot;&gt;this question on Cross Validated, &quot;Factor analysis of questionnaires composed of Likert items&quot;&lt;/a&gt; for discussion of preferable methods and other unaddressed issues, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Other estimation algorithms that are less biased by ordinal data than maximum likelihood&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fitting latent factor models to a polychoric correlation matrix, not a covariance matrix&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Exploration of bifactor structure in the case of a strong general factor amidst multiple dimensions&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This may be a particularly important alternative to consider alongside a second-order model.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Preemptive control of various biases, including extreme response style, as via unfolding models&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also a bit fishy to perform exploratory factor analysis on the same sample as a CFA (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/83512/32036&quot;&gt;yet another question on Cross Validated, &quot;Regression testing after dimension reduction&quot;&lt;/a&gt;), though at least Milfont and Duckitt &lt;sup&gt;(2004)&lt;/sup&gt; did this in the less objectionable order to confirm and explore somewhat distinct latent structures. In sum, reasons such as these may explain the authors' failure to achieve good model fit by the conventional standards they cited themselves. When model fit is inadequate, path coefficients may be biased, which may pose several further problems for the proposed latent factor structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;General reflection on alternative priorities&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the end, problems such as these vary widely in consequentiality depending on the egregiousness of particular instances. Older measures probably generally suffer more for their age, as many of the methodological issues I've raised here arise from relatively modern research. Unfortunately, this may threaten the validity of retrospective comparisons most where they might otherwise be most richly informative – where lines of research reach back across several decades and even generations – but other sociological factors (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohort_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cohort effects&lt;/a&gt;) may limit the equivalence of old research to new research anyway. Reasons such as these to give up on traditional methods are at least as numerous and important as reasons to adhere loyally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In more modern instances such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://gip.uniovi.es/gdiyad/docume/arti_jep01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milfont and Duckitt &lt;sup&gt;(2004)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, there may be less to lose by parting ways with less established and replicated methods (though I see &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=14421768210628985778&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;their article has been cited at least 180 times already&lt;/a&gt;), but there may also be less to gain. &lt;strong&gt;Some of these issues I've raised may be fairly inconsequential, or if resolved, might even absolve their theory&lt;/strong&gt; by improving model fit and demonstrating a lack of cause for further concern. One simply can't be sure without trying. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How much of this effort is worthwhile is an open question, a balancing act, a fundamental career choice, and even a bit of a gamble. Deep, unresolved, and even unresolvable epistemic problems underlie every application of empirical scientific methodology – this may be especially true of the social sciences – but time spent on basic research is not generally time spent directly on application of theory to contemporarily exigent problems. Thus one confronts the &lt;strong&gt;fundamental dilemma of addressing &quot;real-world problems&quot; now vs. theoretical problems for future applications&lt;/strong&gt;, and through it the career choice of applied vs. theoretical and methodological research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One way to strike a balance is to prognosticate the societal impact of your options, and in any given choice to go with the option most likely to matter. If your methodological problem seems more pragmatically consequential than your applied problem, solve it first, or instead if necessary! (This I've stated as an idealized, no-brainer platitude, but intended to reflect a subtler judgment call.) Another is to contribute in the ways you value most – the ways most motivating for you, be they immediate career advancement or long-term legacy – as service to your own values is service you're most likely to perform best and most valuably to all beneficiaries (yourself included). Another is to consider your implicit motives and core strengths: &lt;strong&gt;what do you like to do, and what do you do best?&lt;/strong&gt; These factors will affect the value of your work too, and should inform your choices of basic priorities and specific endeavors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopefully you can find ways to make these priorities align in your work, but everyone's bound to face conflicts. I'm working through some of these conflicts presently myself – hence the indulgence in the preceding exegesis – but I'll spare you further autobiography. Ponder instead &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=txWWi2n76FI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the wisdom of Peppy Hare&lt;/a&gt;, and let me know if you've got some data and want to collaborate on updating your measurement models!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Billiet, J. B., &amp;amp; McClendon, M. J. (2000). Modeling acquiescence in measurement models for two balanced sets of items. &lt;em&gt;Structural Equation Modeling, 7&lt;/em&gt;(4), 608–628.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- DiStefano, C., Zhu, M., &amp;amp; Mîndrilă, D. (2009). Understanding and using factor scores: Considerations for the applied researcher. &lt;em&gt;Practical Assessment, Research &amp;amp; Evaluation, 14&lt;/em&gt;(20), 1–11. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://pareonline.net/pdf/v14n20.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://pareonline.net/pdf/v14n20.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Hinz, A., Michalski, D., Schwarz, R., &amp;amp; Herzberg, P. Y. (2007). The acquiescence effect in responding to a questionnaire. &lt;em&gt;GMS Psycho-Social Medicine, 4&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2736523/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2736523/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- McClendon, M. J. (1991a). Acquiescence and recency response-order effects in interview surveys. &lt;em&gt;Sociological Methods &amp;amp; Research, 20&lt;/em&gt;(1), 60–103.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- McClendon, M. J. (1991b). Acquiescence: Tests of the cognitive limitations and question ambiguity hypotheses. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Official Statistics, 7&lt;/em&gt;(2), 153–166.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Milfont, T. L., &amp;amp; Duckitt, J. (2004). The structure of environmental attitudes: A first- and second-order confirmatory factor analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24&lt;/em&gt;, 289–303. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://gip.uniovi.es/gdiyad/docume/arti_jep01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://gip.uniovi.es/gdiyad/docume/arti_jep01.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Schriesheim, C. A., &amp;amp; Hill, K. D. (1981). Controlling acquiescence response bias by item reversals: The effect on questionnaire validity. &lt;em&gt;Educational and Psychological Measurement, 41&lt;/em&gt;(4), 1101–1114.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2014-02-21T02:14:04.267" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5809" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3514" CreationDate="2014-02-21T03:06:09.953" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are numbers - as in groups of objects - that are easily divisible so may have the appeal of symmetry.  Other numbers may align with the number system.   However, there are different number systems.  The ancient Egyptians counted on their fingers using the each knuckle of the four fingers sequentially, so 3 knuckles x 4 fingers allowed them to count to twelve.  It's not a bad system.  I think they would have liked the number 3 and possibly 3/6/9/12 as &quot;natural&quot; feeling numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As someone who is a bit fascinated with mathematics - and maybe a slightly perverse personality - I have a bit of an attraction for numbers that are difficult: favorite number 17.  It's a prime so doesn't divide and it doesn't fit anything much.  There are other primes but they don't cut it.  1,2,3: too small; 5: five fingers; 7:lucky number; 11: double one; 13: unlucky number.  17 is the first number without any &lt;em&gt;obvious&lt;/em&gt; narrative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you might be able to test for number preferences but what would it mean?  It would be tied up with the individual's cultural milieu and number system.  It is likely that counting beyond a few is a relatively recent development that only really got going with farming like 10k years ago - counting sheep and grain quantities - so a deeper/evolutionary basis probably doesn't exist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4381" LastActivityDate="2014-02-21T03:06:09.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5813" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5803" CreationDate="2014-02-21T23:55:35.243" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's mostly a fairly &lt;strong&gt;vapid &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;truism&lt;/strong&gt; (see the rhetorical sense)&lt;/a&gt;. Here's a diagram from a popular theory from a positive psychologist at my doctoral alma mater of &lt;strong&gt;[what really makes people happy (or not)&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.edbatista.com/2010/09/happiness.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XYIc3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.edbatista.com/images/2010/09/lyubomirsky_chart.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;edbatista.com&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;  (&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/B0028N72O4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lyubomirsky, 2008&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Thus the truer truism would be, &quot;You can make yourself happ&lt;b&gt;ier, to some extent&lt;/b&gt;...&quot; but it's tricky enough to justify the existence of very many books, studies, even the entire field of &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/positive-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;positive-psychology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;positive-psychology&lt;/a&gt;, due to catches like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the &lt;em&gt;hedonic treadmill&lt;/em&gt; (essentially the process by which our pleasures &quot;get old&quot;)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for &lt;strong&gt;the need for others&lt;/strong&gt;, it's something of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_affiliation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a personality variable&lt;/a&gt;, or two &lt;sup&gt;(McAdams &amp;amp; Constantian, 1983)&lt;/sup&gt;, or maybe &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory#Needs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;three by a different theory's construction (i.e., relatedness, not all three here)&lt;/a&gt;. That is to say it's &lt;strong&gt;not universal, much less invariant&lt;/strong&gt;. In reading @huseyintugrulbuyukisik's answer, consider the following question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/169/4086&quot;&gt;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/169/4086&lt;/a&gt; You'll find &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5580/4086&quot;&gt;an answer from me based on a recent evolutionary psychological review&lt;/a&gt; there as well. It largely supports your assumption that people will want a significant other sooner or later, and surely this is true for most people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are certainly &lt;strong&gt;exceptions to the false &quot;rule&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexuality#Prevalence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Asexuality&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; may best describe as much as 1.1% of the general population &lt;sup&gt;(Bogaert, 2004, 2006)&lt;/sup&gt;.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1811293/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A great documentary on an asexuality awareness advocate&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;https://movies.netflix.com/WiMovie/_A_Sexual/70261008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;available on Netflix&lt;/a&gt;. He strikes this personality psychologist right here as quite happy, healthy, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;generative&lt;/a&gt;. He seems to suffer most from the transience of adult relationships where they lack romantic commitment. I would argue that this is our cultural problem, not his personal problem.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asociality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Asociality&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a commonly familiar amotivational characteristic that relates to several other traits, states, and disorders, including:&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion#Introversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introversion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, a &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big Five&lt;/a&gt;&quot; trait dating back to Carl Jung&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asociality#Depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Depression&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which is a broader state of amotivation and negative affect&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asociality#Personality_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Avoidant, schizoid, and schizotypal personality, social anxiety, and autism spectrum &lt;strong&gt;disorders&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The generally undesirable tone of these exceptions belies the social nature of humanity, as does reflection on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Zone#Characteristics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;benefits of family and social engagement for longevity&lt;/a&gt;...but as it is also the nature of humanity to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual_differences#Importance_of_individual_differences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;differ individually&lt;/a&gt;, almost no statement of human nature is absolute. See health-relevant Wikipedia pages on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solitude&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;solitude&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_isolation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social isolation&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hikikomori&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hikikomori&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Several cultural references may serve to flesh out the variation in &lt;strong&gt;human experience of solitude&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The history of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hermitude&lt;/a&gt;, non-&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenobite&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cenobitic&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;em&gt;eremitic&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monasticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;monasticism&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchorite&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anchorites&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylite&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stylites&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poustinia#The_Poustinik&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;poustiniks&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-sufficiency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-sufficiency enthusiasts&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loner&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;loners&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misanthropy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;misanthropes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An &lt;a href=&quot;http://solitary-lives.apps.cironline.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;investigative report on solitarily confined inmates&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Into_the_Wild_%28book%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nonfiction book&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0758758/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a movie based on it&lt;/a&gt; with a particularly poignant ending (mind the spoilers in the preceding links!)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An excellent, recent album by the Australian band &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tame_Impala&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tame Impala&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/zP0b3a2JkgI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Lonerism&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonerism#Sound_and_style&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;partly celebrates self-awareness&lt;/a&gt;:&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;This album is like...someone growing up and discovering other people and just realising their place is not involved with the rest of the world kind of thing. Like discovering that you're a loner.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.whitsundaytimes.com.au/story/2012/07/09/first-taste-new-tame-impala-album/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[27]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;...&quot;It's about the persona of someone who is really isolated – but not necessarily deliberately. Most of the songs are really about other people, being amongst other people. It's really just the idea of being someone who doesn't feel part of the rest of the world, someone trying to figure out where their place amongst everyone else is, and having a really confusing time with it and then slowly accepting that it's in their blood just to be a solitary wanderer. It's meant to put it in a positive light but also a negative light, as the album progresses.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thisisfakediy.co.uk/articles/features/tame-impala-its-all-about-being-an-imbecile/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://themusic.com.au/interviews/all/2012/09/27/tame-impala-kevin-parker/9021/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[13]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&#xA;  &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Parker revealed that the album title and general themes of isolation and introspection were selected when &quot;We were touring so much and doing all these gigs and going to places with people. It reminded me of when I was a kid trying to be social and trying to be a people person and realising that I'm not. The last years of touring and me being a people person is just something that's not in my blood. All these cool parties just make me realise I'm just a total outcast. I just can't really talk to anyone without feeling stupid.&quot; and &quot;sometimes I just want to run home and never come out of my bedroom again&quot;.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.whitsundaytimes.com.au/story/2012/07/09/first-taste-new-tame-impala-album/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[27]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Bogaert, A. F. (2004). Asexuality: Prevalence and associated factors in a national probability sample. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Sex Research, 41&lt;/em&gt;(3), 279–287.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Bogaert, A. F. (2006). Toward a conceptual understanding of asexuality. &lt;em&gt;Review of General Psychology, 10&lt;/em&gt;(3), 241–250.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). &lt;em&gt;The how of happiness: A scientific approach to getting the life you want&lt;/em&gt;. Penguin.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- McAdams, D. P., &amp;amp; Constantian, C. A. (1983). Intimacy and affiliation motives in daily living: An experience sampling analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45&lt;/em&gt;(4), 851–861.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-02-19T23:07:39.017" LastActivityDate="2019-02-19T23:07:39.017" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5814" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3514" CreationDate="2014-02-22T13:47:54.597" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some &lt;strong&gt;ancient historical precedent exists for preferring $10$&lt;/strong&gt;, but also for $6$, so that's mixed support from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfection#Perfect_numbers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia on perfect numbers&lt;/a&gt;. As for honest-to-goodness modern research, here's one quick result on prevalence of &lt;strong&gt;round prices in marketing&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/35537/1/sp05kl01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Klumpp, Brorsen, &amp;amp; Anderson, 2005&lt;/a&gt;): it's higher than for non-round prices. Some other results are reviewed within, including those of Kandel, Sarig, &amp;amp; Wohl (2001), who claim &quot;direct evidence that &lt;strong&gt;investors prefer round&lt;/strong&gt; numbers,&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~keechung/TEM/Journal%20Articles/Clustering%20-%20Harris.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Harris (1991)&lt;/a&gt;, who claims, &quot;Stock &lt;strong&gt;prices cluster on round&lt;/strong&gt; fractions,&quot; and &lt;a href=&quot;ftp://www.econ.bgu.ac.il/courses/Signaling_in_Financial_Markets/Readings/Articles/2009-01-14%20Technical%20Analysis/Currency%20Orders%20and%20Exchange%20Rate%20Dynamics%20An%20Explanation%20for%20the%20Predictive%20Success%20ofTechnical%20Analysis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Osler (2003)&lt;/a&gt;, regarding whose results Klumpp and colleagues wrote, &quot;[market] trends tend to increase after certain prices levels (specifically round prices) are crossed.&quot; Osler's own wording (with numeric list reformatting and emphasis added):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;trends tend to reverse course at predictable support and resistance levels, and &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;trends tend to be unusually rapid after rates cross such levels. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The data are the first available on individual currency stop-loss and take-profit orders. &lt;strong&gt;Take-profit orders cluster particularly strongly at round&lt;/strong&gt; numbers, which could explain the first prediction. &lt;strong&gt;Stop-loss orders cluster strongly just beyond round&lt;/strong&gt; numbers, which could explain the second prediction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Klumpp and colleagues' research claims to be a relatively new attempt to apply these ideas outside of financial market analysis...but to some extent, wheat is just another form of currency, so this is debatable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for substantive theoretical explanations, a good review and test of theory is freely available (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.clevelandfed.org/Research/workpaper/1996/wp9604.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kahn, Pennacchi, &amp;amp; Sopranzetti, 1999&lt;/a&gt;). This paper mentions many circumstantial and traditional peculiarities about financial markets as motivating factors, but the ideas most interesting for our audience pertain to memory. Here's an excerpt (emphasis added):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Experimental tests performed by Schindler and Wiman (1989) find that individuals tend to &lt;strong&gt;recall odd-ending prices less accurately than even-ending prices&lt;/strong&gt;, and that &lt;strong&gt;expressing a price as odd-ending increases the likelihood that it will be underestimated when recalled&lt;/strong&gt;. A biological explanation for this downward bias in recalling odd-ending prices is offered by Brenner and Brenner (1982). They propose a &lt;strong&gt;theory of fixed storage capacity&lt;/strong&gt; which assumes that the &lt;strong&gt;extra decision of rounding the initially observed number is costly&lt;/strong&gt;, so that the &lt;strong&gt;cheapest transfer mechanism involves simply storing the first digit&lt;/strong&gt;. Hence, if a prices &lt;strong&gt;right-most digits are not stored in memory, odd-ending prices will tend to be underestimated&lt;/strong&gt;. If firms recognize consumers downward bias in recalling odd-ending prices, they may significantly increase the demand for their products by making odd-ending price quotes rather than slightly higher even-ending ones. Even-ending quotes will then represent pricing points where product demand experiences a discrete decline. Blinder (1991) reports some empirical support for this notion. Based on interviews with firm managers, he finds that a majority were reluctant to cross the &lt;strong&gt;psychological barrier of raising prices from an odd-ending quote to an even-ending one&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In summary&lt;/strong&gt;, it seems people prefer to ignore the last available digit for conservation of memory and attentional resources. People use round numbers as arbitrary thresholds for decision making, probably because they can be simplified by dropping the lowest digit, and hence require less unnecessary cognitive elaboration to select when the decision really is arbitrary anyway. Busy people with lots of other things to worry about would probably experience cognitive dissonance when finding themselves thinking about such arbitrary decisions any harder than they have to. Since people pay more attention to that second-to-last digit, they notice when that number &quot;rolls over&quot;, and evidently find it a suitable stimulus to trigger premeditated actions like buying and selling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't seen any particular references to five or symmetry in general, but if you look into these references further yourself, you might find more than what I've reviewed here. &lt;strong&gt;[Edit]:&lt;/strong&gt; On second thought, here's one (emphasis added again):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Consumers disproportionately selected round, whole-dollar, and half-dollar amounts. About 73 percent of customers tipped a round, whole-dollar amount, and an additional 8 percent rounded their tips to a half dollar. They also &lt;strong&gt;clustered their tips around multiples of $5&lt;/strong&gt;. And on the occasions when the bill didn’t end in .00, nearly a quarter of diners left an unrounded tip that when added to the bill, came to a round total. This requires some mental math skills, the authors note, implying that consumers’ &lt;strong&gt;preferences for round prices is so strong that they’ll calculate an exact tip amount to arrive at a round total&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This demonstrates that ordinary people have these preferences too, not just financial marketeers. Read the rest &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.strategy-business.com/blog/The-Psychology-of-Pricing-Customers-Prefer-Round-Numbers?gko=f4877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here (Palmquist, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;, or at his source, a study of tipping behavior in the &lt;strong&gt;Journal of Economic Psychology&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://tippingresearch.com/uploads/Round_Prices_JEP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lynn, Flynn, &amp;amp; Helion, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Blinder, A. S. (1991). Why are prices sticky? Preliminary results from an interview study. &lt;em&gt;American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings, 81&lt;/em&gt;, 89–96.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Brenner, G. A., &amp;amp; Brenner, R. (1982). Memory and markets, or why are you paying \$2.99 for a widget? &lt;em&gt;Journal of Business, 55&lt;/em&gt;, 147–158.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Harris, L. (1991). Stock price clustering and discreteness. &lt;em&gt;Review of Financial Studies, 4&lt;/em&gt;(3), 389–415. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~keechung/TEM/Journal%20Articles/Clustering%20-%20Harris.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~keechung/TEM/Journal%20Articles/Clustering%20-%20Harris.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Kahn, C., Pennacchi, G., &amp;amp; Sopranzetti, B. (1999). Bank deposit rate clustering: Theory and empirical evidence. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Finance, 54&lt;/em&gt;(6), 2185-2214. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.clevelandfed.org/Research/workpaper/1996/wp9604.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.clevelandfed.org/Research/workpaper/1996/wp9604.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Kandel, S., Sarig, O., &amp;amp; Wohl, A. (2001). Do investors prefer round stock prices? Evidence from Israeli IPO auctions. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Banking &amp;amp; Finance, 25&lt;/em&gt;(8), 1543–1551.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Klumpp, J. M., Brorsen, W., &amp;amp; Anderson, K. B. (2005). The preference for round number prices. &lt;em&gt;Selected paper prepared for presentation at the Southern Agricultural Economics Association annual meetings, Little Rock, Arkansas, February 5–9, 2005&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/35537/1/sp05kl01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/35537/1/sp05kl01.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Lynn, M., Flynn, S. M., &amp;amp; Helion, C. (2013). Do consumers prefer round prices? Evidence from pay-what-you-want decisions and self-pumped gasoline purchases. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Economic Psychology, 36&lt;/em&gt;, 96–102. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://tippingresearch.com/uploads/Round_Prices_JEP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://tippingresearch.com/uploads/Round_Prices_JEP.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Osler, C. L. (2003). Currency orders and exchange rate dynamics: an explanation for the predictive success of technical analysis. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Finance, 58&lt;/em&gt;(5), 1791–1820. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;ftp://www.econ.bgu.ac.il/courses/Signaling_in_Financial_Markets/Readings/Articles/2009-01-14%20Technical%20Analysis/Currency%20Orders%20and%20Exchange%20Rate%20Dynamics%20An%20Explanation%20for%20the%20Predictive%20Success%20ofTechnical%20Analysis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ben-Gurion University's Department of Economics&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Palmquist, M. (2013, November 21). The psychology of pricing: Customers prefer round numbers. &lt;em&gt;Strategy + Business.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.strategy-business.com/blog/The-Psychology-of-Pricing-Customers-Prefer-Round-Numbers?gko=f4877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.strategy-business.com/blog/The-Psychology-of-Pricing-Customers-Prefer-Round-Numbers?gko=f4877&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Schindler, R. M., &amp;amp; Wiman, A. R. (1989). Effects of odd pricing on price recall. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Business Research, 19&lt;/em&gt;(3), 165–177.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-22T14:00:34.643" LastActivityDate="2014-02-22T14:00:34.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5815" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-22T15:38:01.847" Score="6" ViewCount="304" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm completing a project that involves synchronising two audio sources over a network, and I need to find some figures that represent what kind delay would be seen as &quot;noticeable&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've tried searching but haven't found much; all I can find is papers on localisation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is anyone aware of any studies or papers that look into this area? Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4453" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-22T22:23:16.997" LastActivityDate="2014-04-10T15:58:39.547" Title="What delay between two audio sources is seen as &quot;noticeable&quot; to most people?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;psychoacoustics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5816" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-22T19:31:21.743" Score="4" ViewCount="255" Body="&lt;p&gt;I guess it's possible to surgically restore neural connection after a trauma (e.g. a severed hand can be reattached if done quickly).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And, from history of evolution of hominids, it seems that just by increasing brain size by 30% it's possible to develop a radically higher level of cognitive abilities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Putting these two ideas together, I wonder if anyone tried to grow a neural link between two separate brains. Maybe even a narrow, low-bandwidth wisp of neurons between two brains would adapt itself to expand the consciousness. I wonder what will be the effect of such a 100% increase in brain size. And if it works, we can connect three brains, then four, five, etc. Of course, these &quot;compound people&quot; would have trouble moving around as they won't be able to separate their heads more than few centimeters...but if the tradeoff is that they become exponentially more sentient...? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you please point to some research performed in this direction? &#xA;Is it even legal in developed countries? Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4456" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-22T22:03:42.477" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T11:54:14.620" Title="Neurosurgically grown neural link between two brains?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5818" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5816" CreationDate="2014-02-23T00:07:21.393" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research exists on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniopagus_twins&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;craniopagus twins&lt;/a&gt;, maybe most notably &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniopagus_twins#The_.22Link.22_Between_the_Two:_The_Case_of_Tatiana_and_Krista&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tatiana and Krista&lt;/a&gt;, who seem to share sensory input somewhat. I doubt that connective mechanisms such as this abnormal case would suffice to permit &quot;compound cognition&quot; in ways that would enhance cognitive ability similarly to your point about hominid evolution. Your relatively simple proposal for a connective cord of neurons strikes me as roughly equivalent, though more complex connections may not be entirely unfeasible in the long run.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before I move on to speculating about that, consider a few other points from cognitive neuroscience thus far. Plenty of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;split-brain research&lt;/a&gt; (on people and animals with dysfunctional &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_callosum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;corpus callosums&lt;/a&gt;) exists as well, little of which shows what I would call &quot;radical effects on cognitive abilities&quot;. Results are somewhat more subtle than that: e.g., involving object recognition more than what laypeople would recognize as intelligence, especially social communication and basic reasoning, which remain relatively intact. You might also be surprised at the modest effects of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispherectomy#Results&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;losing an entire cerebral hemisphere&lt;/a&gt;: again, it's not what I would call a 50% reduction in cognitive ability, at least as we understand and use such abilities in modern social contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Non-biological methods are already being experimented with for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain-to-computer&lt;/a&gt; and even human brain-to-brain interfacing (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.washington.edu/news/2013/08/27/researcher-controls-colleagues-motions-in-1st-human-brain-to-brain-interface/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Armstrong &amp;amp; Ma, 2013&lt;/a&gt;), but we're some distance away from really augmenting cognitive abilities through such methods in the way evolution seems to have augmented them in hominids. Consider also that evolution seems to have proceeded in far more complex manners than those by which we're connecting brains now. Changes occurring organically throughout the brain over millions of years of natural selection may have developed our cognitive abilities well beyond those of smaller-brained animals, but these changes have probably been much more sophisticated than simply wiring disparate parts together, let alone only one part to only one other. Cognitive processes are functionally dispersed broadly across our incredibly complex neural structures; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_percent_of_brain_myth&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;we definitely use more than 10% of our brains&lt;/a&gt;. There's really no particularly promising hub-of-all-cognitive-ability through which one could connect and expect to provide consciousness-wide augmentation (that I know of), nor would it be as simple as connecting one brain to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To throw in a halfhearted computer metaphor, consider how little processing ability is gained simply by connecting two computers by LAN cable. In very many ways, computer processing augmentation has had to proceed much more incrementally, component by component. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-core_processor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multi-core processors&lt;/a&gt; and several sticks of RAM per computer are commonplace now, but to truly augment computing performance with these, fundamental architectural changes in connective design have necessarily occurred. Far more than one wire connects these compound components.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thinking in this manner might pave the way to future innovations that may someday achieve the effects you have in mind. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transhuman&lt;/a&gt; cognitive augmentation research is rapidly advancing in very many directions, some of which may bear satisfying similarities to your idea. They're all well beyond the scope of my knowledge or of this answer though, so I'll just toss some Wikipedia links at you to get things started. Please feel welcome to ask separate questions to follow up on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberpsychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cyberpsychological&lt;/a&gt; topics; I find them all very exciting, and would be very eager to explore them further with you and our community! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_amplification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Intelligence amplification&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyborg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cyborgs&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cybernetics&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberware&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cyberware&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Exocortex&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; – artificial external augmentation system for high-level cognitive processes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroprosthetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Neuroprosthetics&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; – devices to substitute motor, sensory, or cognitive modalities&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_prosthesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual prosthetics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Artificial brains&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Brain_Project&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Blue Brain Project&lt;/a&gt; – a molecular reverse-engineering of the mammalian brain&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Artificial intelligence&lt;/a&gt; – arguably more on-topic at the dedicated &lt;a href=&quot;https://ai.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;AI Stack Exchange&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_Temporal_Memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hierarchical temporal memory&lt;/a&gt; – online machine learning structural neocortical model&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetware_computer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Wetware computers&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; – built from organic, living neurons!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Nootropics&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; – cognition, memory, intelligence, motivation, attention, and concentration drugs&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;See a related question, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/4070/4086&quot;&gt;Do smart drugs (nootropics) make you smarter?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampakine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Ampakines&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; – compounds that enhance attention span, alertness, learning, and memory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_direct-current_stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transcranial direct-current stimulation&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;See a related question, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5632/4086&quot;&gt;Can learning be facilitated by transcranial magnetic stimulation?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_uploading&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Mind uploading&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; – copying mental content from a brain substrate to another computational device&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Depends on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain-reading&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain reading&lt;/a&gt; / &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_fingerprinting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fingerprinting&lt;/a&gt; / &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_identification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;thought identification&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmented_reality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Augmented reality&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_consumer_brain-computer_interface_devices&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Consumer brain-computer interface devices&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurofeedback&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurofeedback&lt;/a&gt; – illustration of brain activity to teach self-regulation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmented_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Augmented learning&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; – adaptive learning environments&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Electronic learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web-based_simulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Web-based simulation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wearable_computer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wearable computers&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heads-Up_Display&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Head-up displays&lt;/a&gt; – transparent data displays that accommodate users' usual viewpoints&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bionic_contact_lens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bionic contact lenses&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_retinal_display&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;virtual retinal displays&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_head-mounted_display&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Optical head-mounted displays&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EyeTap&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EyeTap&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Glass&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Glass&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;Armstrong, D., &amp;amp; Ma, M. (2013, August 27). Researcher controls colleague’s motions in 1st human brain-to-brain interface. &lt;em&gt;Washington University: News and Information&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.washington.edu/news/2013/08/27/researcher-controls-colleagues-motions-in-1st-human-brain-to-brain-interface/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.washington.edu/news/2013/08/27/researcher-controls-colleagues-motions-in-1st-human-brain-to-brain-interface/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T11:54:14.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5819" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-23T05:22:16.503" Score="4" ViewCount="3134" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently became interested in the effects if testosterone on the cognitive function in men, but cannot find much hard scientific evidence on the subject. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the cognitive effects of increasing testosterone levels in men?&lt;/strong&gt;. There's a tremendous amount of anecdotal evidence from body builders, etc, but I'm looking for hard science, where the levels were measured before and after, and the trials were less than a month long.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the claims made about increased testosterone levels seem very interesting, and I would like to know if any of that is true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;does increasing testosterone levels increase subjective feeling of well being in men?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;does increased testosterone benefit concentration ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;does increased testosterone benefit non-sexual motivation or ambition?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;does increased testosterone benefit logical/math/engineering endeavors?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's what I see on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosterone#Brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia snippet on testosterone and brain&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;literature suggests that attention, memory, and spatial ability&#xA;  are key cognitive functions affected by testosterone in humans&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;  Preliminary evidence suggests that low testosterone levels may be a&#xA;  risk factor for cognitive decline and possibly for dementia of the&#xA;  Alzheimer's type,[70][71][72][73] a key argument in life extension&#xA;  medicine for the use of testosterone in anti-aging therapies. Much of&#xA;  the literature, however, suggests a curvilinear or even quadratic&#xA;  relationship between spatial performance and circulating&#xA;  testosterone,[74] where both hypo- and hypersecretion (deficient- and&#xA;  excessive-secretion) of circulating androgens have negative effects on&#xA;  cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-22T00:56:10.860" LastActivityDate="2014-11-22T00:56:10.860" Title="What are the cognitive effects of increasing testosterone levels in men?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;testosterone&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5820" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-23T14:30:45.797" Score="4" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;Today most of the people spend a lot of time socializing. What people post on Facebook/Twitter or any other social platform directly or indirectly reflects a person's psyche. I've developed a habit of studying patterns/behaviours of people while on social networks. I would very much like to study it methodically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a notable work done in this regard? I'm looking for a book or blog or anything that explores the topic in depth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4169" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-23T18:32:33.437" LastActivityDate="2014-02-23T18:32:33.437" Title="Notable work in social or personality psychology regarding social networking?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5822" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5819" CreationDate="2014-02-24T00:08:19.207" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've discussed a lot of this recently on my answer to this question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5740/4086&quot;&gt;Are there recent theories on physiognomy?&lt;/a&gt; In summary, yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can't remember which of the tons I referenced mentioned well-being, but if you run a search function (&lt;code&gt;Ctrl F&lt;/code&gt;, or &lt;code&gt;⌘F&lt;/code&gt; if you don't like good computers) on the text of the freely available articles I provided hyperlinks for, I guarantee you'll find it, and it was a positive relationship with testosterone.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Testosterone ($T$) might affect concentration, but I'd bet it's not a beneficial effect if so, or at least that it's moderated strongly by context. $T$ relates to spatial intelligence, but also to aggression, which may reflect some effect on impulsivity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$T$ affects motivation, but again, I wouldn't call it a benefit, as the specific motives it affects probably aren't optimally healthy to say the least, and every action has its opportunity cost. Specifically, $T$ increases dominance and competitiveness in men, which is probably to say that it increases the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_power&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;need for power&lt;/a&gt;. It also increases sensation seeking and risk tolerance / decreases risk aversion, which is probably to say that it affects the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray%27s_biopsychological_theory_of_personality#Behavioral_Inhibition_System&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;behavioral activation and inhibition systems&lt;/a&gt;. Some evidence suggests testosterone interacts with competitive experiences differently for women.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For logical/math/engineering problems, $T$ is probably more unequivocally beneficial, because it relates to spatial intelligence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$T$ is probably most studied in men; I'm not sure effects are similar for women in general. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Estradiol&lt;/a&gt; in women may act more like testosterone in men in some ways. &lt;sub&gt; I can copy content from &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5743/4086&quot;&gt;my other answer&lt;/a&gt; here if desired, or expand on particular points if there is further interest. Please comment if so; I would also welcome collaborative edits.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-02-24T00:08:19.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5823" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5815" CreationDate="2014-02-24T02:57:50.767" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It greatly depends on what you mean as 'noticeable' - what/why do you want to synchronise, and how it reaches the ears from physical speakers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind that a sound source being 30cm/1 feet further from the ear is about the same effect as a millisecond of delay (speed of sound ~340m/s) - thus, synchronising on the order of microseconds is generally unneccessary unless you somehow have and need sub-millimeter localisation accuracy. That being said, small delays can cause phase cancellation issues which would be noticeable, but would depend on exact placement of sound sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if we're talking about the limits of the mind - there are two well known phenomena; first is the limit where mind perceives sound as simultaneous with visual stimulus (despite them really being slightly offset), and the second is where mind perceives two close-but-separate sound spikes as a single event (with the loudest masking the weaker). I can't find the exact limits now, but both of them should be somewhere between 1 millisecond and 5 milliseconds if I recall correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4467" LastEditorUserId="4467" LastEditDate="2014-02-24T13:44:08.283" LastActivityDate="2014-02-24T13:44:08.283" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5824" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-24T03:16:48.500" Score="3" ViewCount="418" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the second edition of Rudolf Arnheim's &lt;em&gt;Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye&lt;/em&gt;, published in 1974, (Google Books Preview available &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Art_and_Visual_Perception.html?id=9RktoatXGQ0C&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) the opening chapter on &amp;quot;balance&amp;quot; begins with a discussion of &amp;quot;perceptual forces&amp;quot; in static imagery, such as line drawings and paintings. For Arnheim, perceptual forces are literal forces that act on perceived objects, with a point of application, a direction, and a magnitude. They usually do not have direct counterparts in physical reality, but &amp;quot;Perceptually and artistically, they are quite real.&amp;quot; On page 17, available &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RktoatXGQ0C&amp;amp;pg=PA17&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, Arnheim states that he doesn't know where these forces are represented in the brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;… Where, then, are these forces?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to answer this question we must recall how an observer obtains his knowledge of the square and the disk. Light rays, emanating from the sun or some other source, hit the object and are partly absorbed and partly reflected by it. Some of the reflected rays reach the lenses of the eye and are projected on its sensitive background, the retina. Many of the small receptor organs situated in the retina combine in groups by means of ganglion cells. Through these groupings a first, elementary organization of visual shape is obtained very close to the level of retinal stimulation. As the electrochemical messages travel toward their final destination in the brain, they are subjected to further shaping at other way stations until the pattern is completed at the various levels of the visual cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;At which stages of this complex process the physiological counterpart of our perceptual forces originates, and by what particular mechanisms it comes about, is beyond our present knowledge.&lt;/strong&gt; If, however, we make the reasonable assumption that every aspect of a visual experience has its physiological counterpart in the nervous system, we can anticipate, in a general way, the nature of these brain processes. We can assert, for instance, that they must be field processes. This means that whatever happens at any one place is determined by the interaction between the parts and the whole. If it were otherwise, the various inductions, attractions, and repulsions could not occur in the field of visual experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An observer sees the pushes and pulls in visual patterns as genuine properties of the perceived objects themselves. …&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Emphasis mine.) What scientific progress on this problem has been made in the 40 years since?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have we confirmed the existence of a universal, involuntary process that generates perceptual forces? If so, what is its mechanism? Where and how early are the forces perceived? To what extent are they influenced by top-down attention? Does the mechanism share neural resources with the perception of motion, or with other senses?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3387" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-07-29T14:36:17.203" Title="Progress on Arnheim's perceptual forces in vision" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5825" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5826" CreationDate="2014-02-24T11:11:46.987" Score="3" ViewCount="132" Body="&lt;p&gt;I knew a psychologist who was calling it &lt;em&gt;self-referentiality&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People are always trying to see only the &lt;em&gt;sentence&lt;/em&gt; which confirm their &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;beliefs&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the correct name for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-02-27T01:22:54.277" LastActivityDate="2014-02-27T01:22:54.277" Title="How to refer to the phenomenon of people only absorbing evidence which confirms their beliefs?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5826" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5825" CreationDate="2014-02-24T13:59:49.273" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The actual act of &quot;Trying to see only the sentence which confirms his beliefs&quot; would generally be called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4467" LastActivityDate="2014-02-24T13:59:49.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5827" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3095" CreationDate="2014-02-24T14:13:27.383" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps you should think not only about 'parts of brain' but 'functions of the brain' - the feeling of sexual attraction will release multiple hormones throughout the &lt;em&gt;whole&lt;/em&gt; brain, altering the functionality/balance for the same parts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, there are observed increases in risk-taking behavior (change in loss aversion for decisionmaking) for men in the presence of attractive females - however, I'm not sure if explaining it by 'parts of brain locking up' describes reality, it seems more like a colloquial analogy instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4467" LastActivityDate="2014-02-24T14:13:27.383" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5828" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5837" CreationDate="2014-02-25T07:01:35.943" Score="2" ViewCount="738" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does mental satisfaction lead to physical satisfaction?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does physical satisfaction lead to mental satisfaction?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4322" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-27T06:10:15.013" LastActivityDate="2014-02-27T06:10:15.013" Title="Does mental satisfaction lead to physical satisfaction?" Tags="&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5829" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18535" CreationDate="2014-02-25T09:33:03.840" Score="7" ViewCount="1398" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a correlation between mental disorders and mental rigidity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect that when people have very strong beliefs and it happens that this beliefs are dysfunctional they can incur into mental disorders.&#xA;To further clarify the question it can be also reformulated in another way.&#xA;Is it possible to state that most of people change their beliefs to become adaptive to the requirements of society while stubborn people don't?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2015-10-05T09:15:46.207" LastActivityDate="2017-11-26T01:18:20.420" Title="Does mental rigidity cause psychological problems?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5830" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5816" CreationDate="2014-02-25T11:25:31.530" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nick Stauner’s reply has some nice discussion about concrete existing work; we also discussed some more speculative possibilities in (&lt;a href=&quot;http://kajsotala.fi/Papers/CoalescingMinds.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sotala &amp;amp; Valpola 2012&lt;/a&gt;), considering the possibility of merging together the minds of two distinct people so that they could share thoughts and skills. In particular, we considered the possibility of “exocortices”, neural prostheses which could first become integrated with the brain of a single individual and which could then be used as an intermediary connection to link up with other exocortex-equipped brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to considering the technical feasibility, we speculated on some of the potential uses of exocortices, such as allowing two experts in widely different domains to share and pool their skills. This was mostly just speculation, though - nobody knows how it would really work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another speculative look is &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0199231907&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hirstein (2012)&lt;/a&gt;, which is a more philosophical treatise which nonetheless has an impressive discussion about the neuroscience of a hypothetical process of “mindmelding”: not a full-blown merging of minds, but rather a link that would allow one person to experience the conscious states of another. I've written a &lt;a href=&quot;http://kajsotala.fi/2013/07/book-review-mindmelding-consciousness-neuroscience-and-the-minds-privacy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;review of Hirstein’s book&lt;/a&gt; that covers it in more detail and contrasts it with our paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Refs&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hirstein, William (2012) &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0199231907&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mindmelding: Consciousness, Neuroscience, and the Mind's Privacy&lt;/a&gt;. Oxford University Press, USA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sotala, Kaj &amp;amp; Valpola, Harri (2012) &lt;a href=&quot;http://kajsotala.fi/Papers/CoalescingMinds.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Coalescing Minds: Brain Uploading-Related Group Mind Scenarios&lt;/a&gt;. International Journal of Machine Consciousness 4 (1), 293-312.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="262" LastActivityDate="2014-02-25T11:25:31.530" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5832" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5833" CreationDate="2014-02-25T14:44:46.003" Score="3" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;I plan to study educational psychology in the near future. I know research methods is a big thing for educational psychologists, so I wanted to get a firm grip on the statistical knowledge required for research methods. Thus, I am looking for good stats books for educational psychologists? Either that or a lists of stats methods that an educational psychologist should master/know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4479" LastActivityDate="2014-02-26T03:46:22.990" Title="Statistics books for educational psychologists?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5833" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5832" CreationDate="2014-02-25T18:27:58.467" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cross Validated has a long list of answers to, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/421/32036&quot;&gt;What book would you recommend for non-statistician scientists?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; including &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/a/488/32036&quot;&gt;an answer from our own&lt;/a&gt; @JeromyAnglim regarding &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-01.ibm.com/software/analytics/spss/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SPSS&lt;/a&gt; for psychologists. Jeromy has also listed a number of good recommendations in response to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/853/4086&quot;&gt;The current recommended text for statistics in behavioural sciences&lt;/a&gt;, and @Mike suggested one for &lt;a href=&quot;http://cran.r-project.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;R&lt;/a&gt; users such as myself. I hesitate to recreate their content here because their original wording seems appropriate to preserve, and I'd rather have you read their answers and upvote them than try to take any credit myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd offer additional recommendations of my own if I had any good ones, but my stats textbooks were pretty deficient in retrospect, and I've had to overwrite a great deal of my formal education in psychological statistics through more diffuse study of sources other than textbooks. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5808/4086&quot;&gt;My standards for &quot;a firm grip&quot; on statistical research methods&lt;/a&gt; are probably more stringent than is truly necessary though, so my experience shouldn't concern you necessarily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, FWIW, I had good but limited experiences with the textbooks that were assigned to me in my graduate stats classes for all areas of doctoral study in psychology (which excluded ed psych at my alma mater). My experiences with these were limited because I borrowed from colleagues instead of buying to save money. I will provide references to these books below. They were assigned by two psychometricians whose professional opinions I hold in high regard, one of whom is the primary author, Bob Rosenthal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., &amp;amp; Aiken, L. S. (2003). &lt;em&gt;Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences&lt;/em&gt; (3rd ed.). Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rosenthal, R., &amp;amp; Rosnow, R. L. (2007). &lt;em&gt;Essentials of behavioral research: Methods and data analysis&lt;/em&gt; (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. &lt;a href=&quot;http://product.half.ebay.com/Essentials-of-Behavioral-Research-Methods-and-Data-Analysis-by-Robert-Rosenthal-and-Ralph-L-Rosnow-1991-Hardcover-Revised/29355&amp;amp;tg=info&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Presently available used from \$1.11&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-02-25T18:27:58.467" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5836" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5832" CreationDate="2014-02-26T02:15:25.560" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my country, studying educational psychology is a postgraduate qualification. It implies that you have completed an undergraduate sequence in psychology, and therefore would have already been exposed to the basics of statistics and research methods (e.g., univariate, bivariate statistics, significance testing, various ANOVA, regression, study designs, measurement reliability/validity, etc.). This may also include a subject on multivariate methods (e.g., factor analysis, logistic regression, perhaps a little SEM, etc.). Popular texts within psychology courses for this material include Andy Field's book and Tabachnick and Fidell &lt;em&gt;Using Multivariate Statistics&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, for students coming into an postgraduate Educational Psychology program, they may need a refresher or consolidation of the above statistical methods. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, educational psychology uses a lot of the same statistical techniques as other areas of psychology. A few techniques of particular relevance include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Multivariate methods: In particular, regression, factor analysis, SEM and so on are all common techniques for analysing observational studies common in educational psychology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Multi-level modelling: to model longitudinal data (e.g., student change) or students nested within classrooms or schools&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Various models related to measurement and test design: In particular Item Response Theory, Classical Test Theory, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Meta-analysis: to systematically evaluate interventions and other findings across studies&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately, how well you want to learn any of the above techniques depends on your aims. These more advanced techniques can help you read the literature, and are particularly important if you want to do research using the technique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-26T03:46:22.990" LastActivityDate="2014-02-26T03:46:22.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5837" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5828" CreationDate="2014-02-26T06:44:00.877" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ontario.cmha.ca/mental-health/connection-between-mental-and-physical-health/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Canadian Mental Health Association of Ontario&lt;/a&gt; is pretty unambiguous about the bidirectionally causal relationships between physical and mental well-being:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mental and physical health is fundamentally linked. There are multiple associations between mental health and chronic physical conditions that significantly impact people’s quality of life, demands on health care and other publicly funded services, and generate consequences to society.  The World Health Organization (WHO) defines: health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.   The WHO states that “there is no health without mental health.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nowhere is the relationship between mental and physical health more evident than in the area of chronic conditions. The associations between mental and physical health are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Poor mental health is a risk factor for chronic physical conditions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;People with serious mental health conditions are at high risk of experiencing chronic physical conditions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;People with chronic physical conditions are at risk of developing poor mental health.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The social determinants of health impact both chronic physical conditions and mental health. Key aspects of prevention include increasing physical activity, access to nutritious foods, ensuring adequate income and fostering social inclusion and social support. This creates opportunities to enhance protective factors and reduce risk factors related to aspects of mental and physical health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/content/assets/PDF/publications/lets-get-physical-report.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Mental Health Foundation's report, &quot;Let's get physical: The impact of physical activity on wellbeing&quot;&lt;/a&gt; offers a good review of several connections between exercise and well-being of both kinds. It's very broad, yet accessible, so I'll let it speak for itself. A peer-reviewed research literature review on the same topic is also available &lt;sup&gt;(Penedo &amp;amp; Dahn, 2005)&lt;/sup&gt;, as well as some original correlational research that linked physical and psychological health subjectively &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sirc.ca/newsletters/mid-jan10/documents/S-996370.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Edwards, Ngcobo, Edwards, &amp;amp; Palavar, 2005&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;. These are just some quick results from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=physical+mental+well-being+correlation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a Google search for &quot;physical mental well-being correlation&quot;&lt;/a&gt;; plenty more out there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Edwards, S. D., Ngcobo, H. S., Edwards, D. J., &amp;amp; Palavar, K. (2005). Exploring the relationship between physical activity, psychological well-being and physical self-perception in different exercise groups. &lt;em&gt;South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, 27&lt;/em&gt;(1), 75–90. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sirc.ca/newsletters/mid-jan10/documents/S-996370.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sirc.ca/newsletters/mid-jan10/documents/S-996370.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Penedo, F. J., &amp;amp; Dahn, J. R. (2005). Exercise and well-being: A review of mental and physical health benefits associated with physical activity. &lt;em&gt;Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 18&lt;/em&gt;(2), 189–193.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-26T06:44:00.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5838" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5891" CreationDate="2014-02-26T09:40:06.720" Score="3" ViewCount="639" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any research investigating whether the human cognitive system has a tendency to reduce complex systems or spectra of data in terms of binary contrast?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many common-sense dual taxonomical sets. Some of these have a basis in objective reality (the binary male/female has proved an especially effective evolutionary strategy), others may be argued to be more in the eye of the beholder. Day and night could be said to be extremes in a cycle; left and right, conservative and liberal are ranges on a spectrum (cf. friend and foe; &quot;there are only two kinds of people&quot;). A lot has been written about gender identity and sexual orientation in the framework of a Hegelian master/slave dialectic, but I am not interested in the &lt;em&gt;relationship&lt;/em&gt; between the members in an oppositional set. Structuralist theorists and anthropologists have claimed and then disclaimed that societies organize themselves in binary sets, but more interesting to me than factual organization is how reality is perceived. Also, when an anthropologist or theorist says most concepts are defined by contrast with their opposites, I can't help but wonder whether we have quantifiable data along these lines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am hoping to find out whether these common-sense binary taxonomies correlate with cognitive/perceptive processes. Especially interesting to me is the question whether there are certain low-level cognitive strategies, though I am also interested in high-level processes (e.g. formal logic is mostly organized along binary lines, true/false). Since the cognitive sciences are not my field, I would be very grateful for references to both foundational studies and &quot;raw&quot; field work. General works on the reduction of reality to accommodate limited processing power are also welcome. Visual processes are not my primary interest, but if you can point to a single &quot;best primer&quot; on the filter that allows us to &quot;see&quot; an entire bookcase but not all book titles in a single glance, that would be a helpful bonus. I know nothing about the workings of biological neural networks, but if there is a binary selection at any point in their operation, I would be very grateful to see that explained in an accessible but peer-reviewed text. Finally, keywords to help me find more on this in scholarship search engines would be most helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4482" LastEditorUserId="4482" LastEditDate="2014-02-26T09:52:02.923" LastActivityDate="2014-03-04T16:16:47.143" Title="Binary classification as a cognitive strategy?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5839" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5838" CreationDate="2014-02-26T11:03:40.320" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there is a misperception at work in your question. There is a wide variety of objects that we never perceive in such a binary manner: colors, fruit (apples, oranges, plums, ...), weather, and basically every other concrete objects. &lt;strong&gt;The only things we perceive in a binary fashion are abstract ideas!&lt;/strong&gt; Good versus evil. Liberal versus conservative. And here we can ask about the reality (which is more complex) and the function of this simplification. The answer is: &lt;em&gt;speed of decision making&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic binary classification is &lt;strong&gt;negation&lt;/strong&gt;: x versus not x. The usefulness of this distinction becomes apparent when you put it in context: Is this berry edible or not? Do I want to trust this person or not? All binary opposites have a negation at their basis and divide the world into things you want to avoid and things you want to interact with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And since human beings have to decide about one million things every day, they make life easier by using &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;heuristics&lt;/a&gt; to make most of these decisions: simple rules based on experience, so you don't have to think before you vote for your next president.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The few binaries that are more or less objective, are categories of measurement: long/short, hot/cold, bright/dark, etc. That the physical reality underlying these measurements is maybe more complex (e.g. coldness depends not only on temperature, but also on the humidity of the air and the speed of the wind), is not relevant to the one-dimensionality of our sensation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Night and day is not binary, since we have dawn and dusk and late afternoon and early morning and the dead of night as well to differentiate subjective time, relative visibility, quality of light, restedness/tiredness etc., that all make up the meaning of &quot;night&quot;, &quot;day&quot; and other daytime names. The phrase &quot;day and night&quot; is binary only in certain phrases where they have symbolic meaning (e.g. &quot;day&quot; = &lt;em&gt;good&lt;/em&gt;, &quot;night&quot; = &lt;em&gt;evil&lt;/em&gt;, or &quot;working night and day&quot; = &lt;em&gt;working all the time, without resting&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studying the development of thinking styles in college students, Perry (1970) found that as they grow their thinking advances from a dualistic black-and-white perspective to a multiplicity of truths that allows for uncertainty. They also grow from a purely intellectual to an ethical perspective. In the course of this development, dualistic thinking can serve as an alternative to forward progression, and persons that already have developed to a higher level of thinking can use dualistic thinking as a &quot;retreat&quot; (Zang, 2002): &quot;a student returns to a dualistic orientation to find security and the strength to cope with an overchallenging environment&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Binary thinking is related to personality disorders such as borderline personality and narcissism (Oshio, 2012): &quot;The results indicated that thinking dichotomously may lead to&#xA;wide-ranging personality disorders.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oshio, A. (2012). An all‐or‐nothing thinking turns into darkness: Relations between dichotomous thinking and personality disorders. &lt;em&gt;Japanese Psychological Research, 54&lt;/em&gt;(4), 424-429. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5884.2012.00515.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1468-5884.2012.00515.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perry, W. G. (1970). &lt;em&gt;Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years: A scheme&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zhang, L. F. (2002). Thinking styles and cognitive development. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 163&lt;/em&gt;(2), 179-195.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-02-27T08:20:24.233" LastActivityDate="2014-02-27T08:20:24.233" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5840" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5741" CreationDate="2014-02-26T17:31:42.847" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I got the answer for this question:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the dataset becomes imbalanced. That is why the performance of our classifier decreases instead to decrease. Usually you should have a balance between out positive and negative training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4084" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-26T17:37:28.510" LastActivityDate="2014-02-26T17:37:28.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5841" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5842" CreationDate="2014-02-26T19:19:06.043" Score="6" ViewCount="427" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Michael Berk et al, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/11/200&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;So depression is an inflammatory disease, but where does the inflammation come from?&lt;/a&gt;, BMC Medicine 2013, 11:200, doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-200&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it is presented as an undisputed fact that depression is an inflammatory disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example (the first sentence of the abstract):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We now know that depression is associated with a chronic, low-grade inflammatory response and activation of cell-mediated immunity, as well as activation of the compensatory anti-inflammatory reflex system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, AFAIK, we are far from understanding the etiology of depression (perhaps there is no universal one). Sure, there are many correlates (for example – levels of neurotransmitters), but I haven't heard  that there a single, accepted cause (except for the cited paper). For the reference, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia mentions inflammation as one of multiple related conditions in the &quot;Other hypotheses&quot; section&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, as of now, &lt;strong&gt;is it universally accepted that depression is an inflammatory disease?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;And if not, is it at least one of many mainstream opinions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7305938&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Discussion on HN&lt;/a&gt;, through which I've learnt about this paper&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-26T22:33:03.487" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T01:15:17.053" Title="Is depression an inflammatory disease?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5841" CreationDate="2014-02-26T22:05:22.120" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There certainly isn't a single &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29#Causes&quot;&gt;cause of depression. Wikipedia does not list inflammation&lt;/a&gt;, so that seems to be sufficient disproof of universal acceptance, and at least one candidate for representative of mainstream opinions. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/11/200&quot;&gt;Berk and colleagues &lt;sup&gt;(2013)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; make a pretty convincing case though, so it may only be a matter of time, exposure to the evidence, and someone bothering to update Wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For another, partially independent (probably cites some of the same studies), preexisting reference on the matter, check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-breakthrough-depression-solution/201111/the-brain-fire-inflammation-and-depression&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/em&gt;'s article, &quot;The Brain on Fire: Inflammation and Depression: Inflammation and Its Effects on Mood&quot; &lt;sup&gt;(Greenblatt, 2011, November 23)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. It too supports the potentially causal relationship, though I don't see any direct evidence of inflammation causing depression here. You may want to scrutinize it more closely than I have; if you find anything, please comment or edit!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-02-26T22:05:22.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5843" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5846" CreationDate="2014-02-26T22:41:48.237" Score="0" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I look at medical journal articles on &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.it/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; I see a lot of stuff based on double blind placebo tests. From this, I've gathered that medicine often performs experiments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been in touch with cognitive behavioral psychological therapy, but not enough to say whether psychology is more &quot;philosophical&quot;, in being hypothesis based, or instead bound to strict experiments using statistics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-27T03:11:19.450" LastActivityDate="2014-02-28T02:43:28.480" Title="Is cognitive science hypothesis-based or bound to strict experiments involving statistics?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5844" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5847" CreationDate="2014-02-26T22:56:15.537" Score="6" ViewCount="383" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it right to say that a &lt;em&gt;really strong attitude and stubbornness to do something&lt;/em&gt; is &lt;em&gt;really similar to an obsession&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll try to explain better what I mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's take a really good developer or a really good scientist. Very often the reason which is leading him to be so good is the addiction to his work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some guys, for example, the respect for the rule should be &lt;em&gt;maniacal&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is it possible to state that a strong perfectionism / addiction is often readable as a form of obsessive personality trait? (maybe ego-syntonic, and since not a disorder)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-27T02:47:01.240" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T22:46:02.010" Title="Is perfectionism related to OCD?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5845" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-26T23:10:19.960" Score="1" ViewCount="362" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does thought work at the biological level of individual neurons? I believe there are many neurons which are active in the brain at the same time. For example, our senses are constantly taking in sensory information on a continual basis. However, most of the neurons activated by sensory input are not capturing our attention, and as a result, our thoughts are elsewhere. I believe that thought, an &quot;active cognitive process,&quot; is a collection of neurons which are responsible for engaging our complete attention. This collection of neurons shifts as our attention shifts. But this does not explain what is responsible for controlling our attention at the neural level. Can't find any answers to this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4493" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-26T23:31:36.303" LastActivityDate="2014-03-20T21:55:42.733" Title="How do thoughts work at the neuron level?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5846" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5843" CreationDate="2014-02-26T23:12:04.050" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may want to have a look at our 40 questions to date that use the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/statistics&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;statistics&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;statistics&lt;/a&gt; tag. These may demonstrate the complexity of our applications in statistics. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_statistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia also has an entire psychological statistics page&lt;/a&gt; that seems intended to index other pages on specific applications. Psychological experiments commonly test null hypotheses (e.g., $H_0$: the experimental treatment and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placebo-controlled_study&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;placebo control&lt;/a&gt; conditions will not differ in measures of an outcome variable), so experimental methods and hypothesis testing methods do not exclude one another. Moreover, concern for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placebo_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;placebo effects&lt;/a&gt; implies a study may be at least loosely related to &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/cognitive-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;cognitive-psychology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;cognitive-psychology&lt;/a&gt; itself, as &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/placebo&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;placebo&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;placebo&lt;/a&gt; effects involve &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/cognitive-neuroscience&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;cognitive-neuroscience&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;cognitive-neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neurobiology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;neurobiology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neurobiology&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/psychopharmacology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;psychopharmacology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;psychopharmacology&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/experimental-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;experimental-psychology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;experimental-psychology&lt;/a&gt;, maybe among others. Plenty to read!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-26T23:28:23.053" LastActivityDate="2014-02-26T23:28:23.053" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5847" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5844" CreationDate="2014-02-27T02:45:17.797" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps check out the Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire which is designed to measures dysfunctional beliefs related to OCD. There are several papers that examine the factor structure, and perfectionism is typically seen as one of the major aspects of obsessive beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it seems to be a particular form of maladaptive perfectionism. See these perfectionism items from the OBQ:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;In order to be a worthwhile person, I must be perfect at everything I do&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;If I can’t do something perfectly, I shouldn’t do it at all&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Even minor mistakes mean a job is not complete&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;For me, things are not right if they are not perfect&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;For me, making a mistake is as bad as failing completely.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;I must keep working until it’s done exactly right.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, this is more than just doing your best to achieve good outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moulding, R., Anglim, J., Nedeljkovic, M., Doron, G., Kyrios, M., &amp;amp; Ayalon, A. (2011). The Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire (OBQ):Examination in non-clinical samples and development of a short version. Assessment, 18, 357-374. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Myers, S. G., Fisher, P. L., &amp;amp; Wells, A. (2008). Belief domains &#xA;of the Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire-44 (OBQ-44) and their &#xA;specific relationship with obsessive-compulsive symptoms. &#xA;Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 475-484.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. (2001). Development and initial validation of the obsessive beliefs questionnaire and the interpretation of intrusions inventory. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 987-1006.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. (2005). Psy- chometric validation of the obsessive belief questionnaire and interpretation of intrusions inventory—Part 2: Factor analyses and testing of a brief version. Behaviour Research and Ther- apy, 43, 5127-1542.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-02-27T02:45:17.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5843" CreationDate="2014-02-27T03:10:44.903" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm still not clear on what is your question. You ask whether psychology and medicine differ in some aspect of their methodological approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Experiments&lt;/em&gt; are typically analysed using &lt;em&gt;statistics&lt;/em&gt; to test &lt;em&gt;hypotheses&lt;/em&gt;. So those things all go together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology and medicine both perform controlled experiments and observational studies. &#xA;They both perform studies some of which aim to test a particular hypothesis and others which are more exploratory or data driven.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They both heavily rely on the scientific method, quantification, measurement, and statistics to draw inference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-28T02:43:28.480" LastActivityDate="2014-02-28T02:43:28.480" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5849" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8300" CreationDate="2014-02-27T03:34:27.423" Score="5" ViewCount="589" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been multiple &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wired.com/magazine/2009/10/mf_optigenetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;articles&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V43t_S7VGJA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;videos&lt;/a&gt; circulating on the Internet claiming that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optogenetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;optogenetics&lt;/a&gt; has made it possible to have perfect input/output to the brain from a computer. This is obviously false or someone would be making a lot of money selling this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consequently, I'm curious as to why this is false. Why does having the ability to fire and read the firing information off of individual neurons not imply that a seamless human-computer interface is possible? I'm assuming that this has something to do with the limits of the processing power of our brain and the limits of neuro-plasticity, but my experience in this domain is limited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this question is too broad (and I think it is), it can be reframed as a request for references. What current research is being done on this problem? What are the current approaches? Who is working on it? Are there any publications that nicely describe the progress in this (hypothetical) domain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-02-27T03:59:52.833" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T04:37:17.867" Title="Why does optogenetics not mean that perfect brain-computer interfaces are possible?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5851" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5853" CreationDate="2014-02-27T13:26:26.303" Score="0" ViewCount="478" Body="&lt;p&gt;While it is possible to  tell someone that they are affected by OCD or they are narcissistic, I think that trying to help people simply by giving them direct advice doesn't work. I also think that citing authoritative sources, which show that they are positive to some disorder diagnostic test, usually doesn't work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dale Carnegie explains that people don't take into consideration what is right or the truth, but what doesn't hurt their self-esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can you explain me better why psychotherapy is not directly telling patients what their diagnosis is? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why is it more effective to avoid being direct in trying to correct people's personality traits?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this phenomenon bound to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-02-28T01:35:16.210" LastActivityDate="2014-03-02T09:12:26.407" Title="Why isn't psychotherapy more direct with patients?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5853" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5851" CreationDate="2014-02-27T20:13:54.987" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;One therapeutic issue with being &lt;strong&gt;confrontational&lt;/strong&gt; – a problem that does not arise unless one is &lt;strong&gt;direct in a bad way&lt;/strong&gt; – is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;reactance&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. I've described this issue in a separate answer to a question you commented on five days ago, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5796/4086&quot;&gt;How to change someone&amp;#39;s beliefs?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Telling someone who doesn't believe he or she has a problem that s/he does have a problem implies that s/he should change. If the person is inclined to deny the premise of this implied suggestion, the person may also resent the suggestion itself. Thus resistance and defensiveness may arise in reaction to the suggestion that s/he is not free to simply continue behaving &quot;normally&quot; without further consequence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another potential problem with &lt;strong&gt;directness in a bad way&lt;/strong&gt;  may arise by carelessly assigning diagnoses. Diagnosis of psychopathology is a very difficult process; despite my PhD, I am not qualified to perform it. Even those who are qualified (officially, at least) do not perform it with satisfactory accuracy by my (high) standards. Part of the problem is directness &lt;strong&gt;in the context of careless inattention or inexperience&lt;/strong&gt; (see also &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_%28psychology%29#Modification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;schema modification&lt;/a&gt;). I.e., directness is not the real problem here, but it provides a channel for these problems to cause other problems via communication of &lt;strong&gt;misinformation&lt;/strong&gt;, especially in the context of professional authority. Non- psychologists tend to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_influence#Obedience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defer to the authority&lt;/a&gt; of psychologists even on topics beyond the expertise of both parties. This makes restraint on the part of the more authoritative party very important. Failure to withhold first impressions and unexamined opinions about possible diagnoses can result in psychologically harmful &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labeling_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;labeling&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. This can impose anxiety-exacerbating pathological characteristics on the identity of the person so labeled, especially if s/he does not possess the wherewithal to question these labels or is predisposed toward anxiety or self-loathing, as often apply to psychotherapy patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the opposite contexts of psychotherapy that is not pejorative or otherwise invalidating (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogerian_psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rogerian&lt;/a&gt; and other &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;humanistic&lt;/a&gt; modalities) practiced by therapists with appropriate restraint and excellent breadth of experience, directness is probably desirable and helpful. Methods such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivational_interviewing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motivational interviewing&lt;/a&gt; benefit from their direct focus on clients' own ambivalence toward positive changes, which is often the root problem, especially with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egosyntonic_and_egodystonic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego-syntonic&lt;/a&gt; disorders. Conversely, ego-dystonic disorders may benefit from treatment via methods such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive behavioral therapy&lt;/a&gt; that directly address problematic, derogatory aspects of clients' identities, such as the inflexible conviction: &quot;Something is wrong with me.&quot; Thus directness itself is not the problem, but more a moderator of the consequentiality of a therapist's choice of approach to the problem a client presents. If the approach chosen is bad, harm may be reduced by self-restraint. If the approach is good, benefit may be enhanced by directness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-02-27T20:30:05.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5854" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-28T04:54:00.267" Score="8" ViewCount="1116" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm very interested in dreaming and have pretty good dream recall. This makes me able to recall and distinguish hundreds of experience within my memory and label them as &quot;dreams&quot;. &lt;strong&gt;I'm trying to understand if there's indeed some feature of a dream memory that makes it different from an ordinary waking memory?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Upon reflection on my personal experiences, it appears to me that &lt;strong&gt;when I recall a waking life memory&lt;/strong&gt;, typically the process is two fold and sequential - first recall the scene then recall the action and combine the two. For example: &lt;em&gt;I was sitting in a room at a local hackerspace + I was talking to fellow hackers there.&lt;/em&gt; I can then proceed to try to recall pieces of that conversation. This process seems sequential to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;strong&gt;when I recall the dream memory&lt;/strong&gt;, it seems that I recall both place and action at the same time, together, with a typically longer sequence of events all recalled much quicker. For example: &lt;em&gt;I was locked in a room with no exit and has created a portal in the wall to escape from the room, flying out of a portal in some other location.&lt;/em&gt;  These events are recalled all together, in less than a second, and are clearly identified as a dream along with the recall. The content of that dream, although clearly non-real is similar to a video game called &quot;Portal&quot; that I played on a computer in the waking life. I can recall the waking life expeirence of playing that game, although in a linear fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Has there been any brain imaging studies or other evidence that supports the idea that the recall of dreams is different from the recall of waking life experiences?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2018-02-21T00:12:26.350" Title="Is there difference between a memory of a dream and memory of waking experience?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5855" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1415" CreationDate="2014-02-28T21:53:51.200" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One might argue that the skill of critical thinking is the sum of the goal of higher education. I certainly take that view. On the other hand- we don't really have a good definition of exactly &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; comprises critical thinking. Without a concise definition, it is difficult to answer the question (see the last paragraph below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a purely anecdotal perspective of a teacher though: when you see students come into an engineering program as freshmen and leave as seniors, you have absolutely no doubt whatsoever that critical thinking, in every sense, can most definitely be taught.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an excerpt from a paper that I have published on the topic (if I don't remember to put the link in, please leave a comment to remind me).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Excerpt from &lt;em&gt;How engineers learn: a study of problem-based learning in the engineering classroom and implications for course design&lt;/em&gt; (Mayer and Stone, 2013)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be said that the most important quality in an engineer is the&#xA;ability to think critically—to analyze a given proposition from a&#xA;variety of angles and determine its strengths and weaknesses.&#xA;Critical thinking is generally accepted as a primary goal of higher&#xA;education (Mason 2007, Abrami et al. 2008, Bailin and Siegel 2003,&#xA;Sheffler 1973).  As educators, it is our responsibility to build these&#xA;skills in our engineering students, or we will produce engineers who&#xA;can pass courses but who cannot function in the workplace.  Therefore,&#xA;both the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking skills are very&#xA;important in an engineering curriculum (Douglas, 2012).  It stands to&#xA;reason that the goals of an engineering education process might best&#xA;be met through methods which can be proven to build critical thinking&#xA;skills, in addition to conveying subject-specific knowledge.  This&#xA;implies a need to reliably evaluate both students’ contextual&#xA;knowledge and their critical thinking abilities simultaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As recently as 2008, Abrami and his colleagues performed an exhaustive&#xA;analysis of literature concerning the teaching of critical thinking&#xA;skills.  They mainly found that methods which attempt to teach&#xA;critical thinking skills are generally successful at doing so.  In&#xA;particular, they found that students learn critical thinking most&#xA;reliably when CT skills acquisition is a stated objective of the&#xA;course; indirect approaches, where students are expected to learn CT&#xA;as a by-product, are generally not as effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are, however, some important limitations to the current&#xA;literature on critical thinking.  As Abrami et al. (2008) observe,&#xA;“[critical thinking] is a complex and controversial notion that is&#xA;difficult to define and, consequently, to study.”  Most definitions&#xA;take a pornographic (“I know it when I see it”) approach to defining&#xA;critical thinking, which is not terribly useful from a research&#xA;perspective.  On the other hand, the current scientific definition of&#xA;critical thinking (as defined by the American Philosophical&#xA;Association – Facione, 1990) comprises the better part of a paragraph,&#xA;which is nice, but intractable (Anderson et al., 2001).  Therefore, it&#xA;can be argued that there needs to be an engineering-specific&#xA;definition of what comprises critical thinking, and that this specific&#xA;skill can be taught in the classroom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-03-02T15:30:46.250" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5857" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5858" CreationDate="2014-02-28T22:16:04.057" Score="1" ViewCount="563" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giulio_Cesare_Giacobbe&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Giulio Cesare Giacobbe&lt;/a&gt; is an expert of psychosynthesis. In one of his books (&lt;em&gt;Alla Ricerca delle Coccole Perdute&lt;/em&gt;) he speaks of childish, neurotic people. He says most people are childish and neurotic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dale Carnegie explains in his book &lt;em&gt;How to Win Friends and Influence People&lt;/em&gt; that people are often cocky, narcissistic and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wayne Dyer writes in his book &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Erroneous_Zones&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Your Erroneous Zones&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; that the instruction system creates distortion and problems in persons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One statistic described 3.5% of people experiencing psychological dystonic problems (anxiety, OCD, etc.). I would guess that the number or people experiencing bad thinking, cognitive distortion, and other strong, dysfunctional personality traits could be very high. Are there any statistics on that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-02-28T22:57:48.420" LastActivityDate="2014-03-01T09:50:58.923" Title="Prevalence of psychological &quot;problems&quot;" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5857" CreationDate="2014-03-01T00:06:05.113" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not entirely sure what specific stats you'd be interested in, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevalence_of_mental_disorders#Anxiety_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia has plenty on prevalences of specific mental disorders&lt;/a&gt;. For anxiety disorders, which include obsessive compulsive disorder:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A review that pooled surveys in different countries up to 2004 found &lt;strong&gt;overall average prevalence estimates for any anxiety disorder of 10.6%&lt;/strong&gt; (in the 12 months prior to assessment) &lt;strong&gt;and 16.6%&lt;/strong&gt; (in lifetime prior to assessment), but that &lt;strong&gt;rates for individual disorders varied widely&lt;/strong&gt;. Women had generally higher prevalence rates than men, but the magnitude of the difference varied &lt;sup&gt;[(&lt;a href=&quot;http://ww1.cpa-apc.org/Publications/Archives/CJP/2006/february/sommers-RP.asp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Somers, Goldner, Waraich, &amp;amp; Hsu, 2006&lt;/a&gt;); emphasis added]&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety_disorder#Epidemiology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's section on epidemiology of anxiety disorders page&lt;/a&gt; gives different numbers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Globally&lt;/strong&gt; as of 2010 approximately 273 million (&lt;strong&gt;4.5%&lt;/strong&gt; of the population) had an anxiety disorder &lt;sup&gt;[(Vos et al., 2013)]&lt;/sup&gt;. It is &lt;strong&gt;more common in females (5.2%) than males (2.8%)&lt;/strong&gt;. In &lt;strong&gt;Europe, Africa and Asia, lifetime rates&lt;/strong&gt; of anxiety disorders are between &lt;strong&gt;9 and 16%&lt;/strong&gt;, and yearly rates are between 4 and 7% &lt;sup&gt;[(Simpson, Neria,  &amp;amp; Lewis-Fernández, 2010)]&lt;/sup&gt;. In the &lt;strong&gt;United States&lt;/strong&gt;, the lifetime prevalence of anxiety disorders is about &lt;strong&gt;29%&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/faculty/detels/PH150/Kessler_DSMIV_AGP2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kessler et al., 2005&lt;/a&gt;)]&lt;/sup&gt; and between 11 and 18% of adults have the condition in a given year. &lt;sup&gt;[Emphasis added.]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder#Epidemiology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;OCD specifically&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;OCD occurs in between 1 to 3% of children and adults&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[(Sarvet, 2013)]&lt;/sup&gt;. It occurs equally in both sexes...A 2000 study by the World Health Organization found some &lt;strong&gt;variety in prevalence and incidence of OCD around the world&lt;/strong&gt;, with figures in Latin America, Africa, and Europe at two to three times those in Asia and Oceania &lt;sup&gt;[(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/healthinfo/statistics/bod_obsessivecompulsive.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ayuso-Mateos, 2000&lt;/a&gt;); emphasis added]&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a cool figure of &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_adjustment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;age-standardized&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALY&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;disability-adjusted life year&lt;/a&gt; rates from OCD by country (per 100,000 inhabitants)&quot; uploaded to Wikipedia by &lt;a href=&quot;http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Lokal_Profil&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lokal_Profil&lt;/a&gt; (darker $&amp;gt;$ lighter; click for the scale):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Obsessive-compulsive_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Obsessive-compulsive_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/800px-Obsessive-compulsive_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Bad thinking, cognitive distortion, and other strong, dysfunctional personality traits&quot; is a little too vague to work with much further, but here's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevalence_of_mental_disorders#Personality_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's info on prevalence of personality disorders&lt;/a&gt; in general:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies of the prevalence of personality disorders (PDs) have been fewer and smaller-scale, but a broader Norwegian survey found a similar overall prevalence of almost 1 in 7 (&lt;strong&gt;13.4%&lt;/strong&gt;), based on meeting personality criteria over the prior five-year period. Rates for specific disorders ranged from 0.8% to 2.8%, with rates differing across countries, and by gender, educational level and other factors &lt;sup&gt;[(Torgersen, Kringlen, &amp;amp; Cramer, 2001)]&lt;/sup&gt;. A &lt;strong&gt;US&lt;/strong&gt; survey that incidentally screened for personality disorder found an &lt;strong&gt;overall rate of 14.79%&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[(Grant et al., 2004); emphasis added]&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;neuroticism&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a continuous dimension of individual differences with an approximately normal distribution. As such it is largely defined in terms of degree relative to population norms, and it doesn't make much sense to say &quot;most people are childish and neurotic.&quot; (That is, I imagine we'd want to define &quot;childish&quot; in a similar way if we wanted to make any objective statements about population levels.) I'm unaware of any &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_measurement#Ratio_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ratio-scaled&lt;/a&gt; measures of neuroticism (and find it hard to imagine any that wouldn't be very controversial), so as an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_measurement#Interval_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interval-scaled&lt;/a&gt; construct at best, &lt;strong&gt;there is no meaningful &quot;zero neuroticism&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;. Hence, depending on what it means to you, you could either say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Everyone's a &lt;em&gt;little&lt;/em&gt; bit neurotic (at least)!&quot; or, &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;$\approx49.\bar{9}\%$ of the population is neurotic, and the same proportion are not.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Statement 1 would be Giacobbe's best defense, but that's not saying much – nor does the statement as I've phrased it, though it's an improvement. A better interpretation of his statement (at least, as you've phrased it) would probably be as the subjective opinion, &quot;I find most people to be childish and neurotic [compared to myself, or compared to how I would expect them to act due to other factors, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;which I'm probably ignoring&lt;/a&gt;].&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Ayuso-Mateos, J. L. (2000). Global burden of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the year 2000. World Health Organization. Global program on evidence of health policy, global burden of disease. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/healthinfo/statistics/bod_obsessivecompulsive.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.who.int/healthinfo/statistics/bod_obsessivecompulsive.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Grant, B. F., Hasin, D. S., Stinson, F. S., Dawson, D. A., Chou, S. P., Ruan, W., &amp;amp; Pickering, R. P. (2004). Prevalence, correlates, and disability of personality disorders in the United States: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65&lt;/em&gt;(7), 948–958.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., &amp;amp; Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. &lt;em&gt;Archives of General Psychiatry, 62&lt;/em&gt;(6), 593–602. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/faculty/detels/PH150/Kessler_DSMIV_AGP2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/faculty/detels/PH150/Kessler_DSMIV_AGP2009.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Sarvet, B. (2013). Childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder. &lt;em&gt;Pediatrics in Review, 34&lt;/em&gt;(1), 19–28.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Simpson, H. B., Neria, Y., &amp;amp; Lewis-Fernández, R. (Eds., 2010). &lt;em&gt;Anxiety disorders: Theory, research and clinical perspectives&lt;/em&gt;. Cambridge University Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Somers, J. M., Goldner, E. M., Waraich, P., &amp;amp; Hsu, L. (2006). Prevalence and incidence studies of anxiety disorders: A systematic review of the literature. &lt;em&gt;Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 51&lt;/em&gt;(2), 100–113. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://ww1.cpa-apc.org/Publications/Archives/CJP/2006/february/sommers-RP.asp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://ww1.cpa-apc.org/Publications/Archives/CJP/2006/february/sommers-RP.asp&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Torgersen, S., Kringlen, E., &amp;amp; Cramer, V. (2001). The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample. &lt;em&gt;Archives of General Psychiatry, 58&lt;/em&gt;(6), 590–596.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Vos, T., Flaxman, A. D., Naghavi, M., Lozano, R., Michaud, C., Ezzati, M., ... &amp;amp; Brooker, S. (2013). Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. &lt;em&gt;The Lancet, 380&lt;/em&gt;(9859), 2163–2196.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-10T09:42:37.633" LastActivityDate="2014-03-01T00:06:05.113" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5859" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5851" CreationDate="2014-03-01T09:28:25.610" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many kinds of psychological disorders where the patient is &quot;directly confronted&quot; with the diagnosis or even knows it before he or she contacts the therapist. These disorders include, but are not limited to, pedophilia, eating disorders, post traumatic stress disorder, substance dependence and phobias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a person seeking help because he is afraid of flying knows perfectly well what he is being treated for. Similarly, heroin addicts are not left in doubt about the focus of their treatment. In fact, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoeducation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychoeducation&lt;/a&gt;, i.e. the explanation of the causes, symptoms, prevalence and treatment of a disorder, is a common part of cognitive behavioral therapy of almost all disorders and a basic element in its effectiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem, as Nick already mentioned, is that often, especially with personality disorders, it is not completely clear what the patient is actually suffering from, and that giving a definite diagnosis is simply impossible. Depending on the type of therapy, a therapist will likely explain this difficulty and not be secretive about it. In our psychological day care clinic all patients know their diagnosis, from depression to enuresis to internet addiction – though of course not all patients accept the diagnosis they are given, and (see what Nick wrote about reactance) many abort their treatment because of a lack of self-insight!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychoanalysis is a bit different in that the therapist attempts to be a neutral plane for the projections of the patient, and therefore often avoids delimiting statements. Here, not giving a diagnosis may be part of the therapy, although of course the patient has the (legal) right to receive it, if he so insists. A psychoanalyst might answer to the patient's complaint that he did not get a diagnosis with: &quot;You only have to ask me for it.&quot; And then, quite usually, the patient avoids this direct inquiry, and the therapy turns to the reason why the patient complains and avoids to demand what is his right to know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-03-02T09:12:26.407" LastActivityDate="2014-03-02T09:12:26.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5860" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5857" CreationDate="2014-03-01T09:50:58.923" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem with this question is that the answer depends on your definition of psychological health. In &lt;em&gt;Civilization and Its Discontents&lt;/em&gt; Freud argued that civilization itself is a source of suffering and that basically all civilized human beings develop neurotic symptoms due to the repression of their drives. According to this theory the prevalence of &quot;psychological problems&quot; would be close to 100%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If on the other hand your definition of health is functional, instead of naturalistic, you might say that only those people that are unable to &quot;function&quot; within their society are psychologically &quot;dysfunctional&quot;. As we all know, many people are well able to raise children and contribute to the gross national product despite severe psychopathological symptoms. From a functional perspective they have no psychological problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question what normality and what pathology are has remained unanswered to the present day. What we have is an arbitrary but practical definition that allows us to treat the worst cases but does not flood the public health system with more cases than taxes can afford to pay for and causes more absences from work than our economy can handle. Prevalence, therefore, is as low as politics can make it, and as high as health professionals can make it. It is a constant and ongoing struggle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-03-01T09:50:58.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5861" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5870" CreationDate="2014-03-01T11:41:31.080" Score="6" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;At least in my country, undergoing psychotherapy is perceived negatively.&#xA;People in my country perceive people as either healthy (normal), or mad and in need of a psychologist. My perception is different. I think most people would benefit from psychological therapy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does the evidence support the idea that most people would benefit from psychotherapy?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-02T06:17:15.913" LastActivityDate="2014-03-02T07:34:42.250" Title="Would most people benefit from psychotherapy?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5862" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-01T11:43:05.610" Score="3" ViewCount="788" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read that serif fonts have more distinctive characters, and I was wondering if, at the brain level, the fact that something is written with more distinctive characters would be more easily remembered?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I saw &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.dictionary.com/comic-sans-font/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a study&lt;/a&gt; telling that less legible fonts were easily remembered, but actually, I'm wondering if they are more easily remembered because they are less legible or more because they have more distinctive characters (even Comic Sans MS that is considered by many, including me, as a very bad font, have some characters that are pretty distinctive)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4498" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-03-03T06:01:16.693" LastActivityDate="2020-12-27T16:53:07.167" Title="Are words and ideas written in a distinctive font easier to remember?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5864" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5866" CreationDate="2014-03-01T18:02:45.467" Score="-1" ViewCount="5038" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can you briefly explain in a non-technical way which are the main differences between the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Myers–Briggs Type Inventory&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;MMPI&lt;/a&gt; test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-23T23:16:49.843" LastActivityDate="2014-03-23T23:17:49.007" Title="What is the difference between the MMPI and the Myers–Briggs Type Inventory?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5865" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5385" CreationDate="2014-03-01T19:39:42.647" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just realised that I could share something more helpful and so another answer. This is again scientific and I have learnt it from a jain saint teacher in India. Again its scope is far more greater than creativity, but I will stick to it in this answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of studies that talk about the left brain being the creative one and right one being the analytical one. And there have been surgeries whereby the connection between left brain and the right brain was severed to cure sudden brain impulses that brought tremors to the patient when the moved between the two portions. And so both the brains of the patient worked independently and he was able to use both sides of his body independent of the other eg write with both hands. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this also brought many limitations as for most situations in life we need a certain coordination between our brains, where we need both analytical abilities and creativity to arrive at a solution. Till date modern science (as well as alternative medical fields and philosophers) have not been able to understand this phenomenon, let alone providing a solution to it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The technique I'm talking about is called swar shastra which involves monitoring and changing the flow of air from our nostrils and by that means controlling which part of the brain shall remain active and which part inactive. If you frequently examine your breathing, you will realise that you seldom breathe using both nostrils. This is because either your right brain is more active, dominant or the left. Sometimes your creative side is active when you actually need your analytical brain to work or vice versa say when solving a mathematical problem, and you realise that even a seemingly easy problem is taking a significant amount of time and effort to be solved. And no matter how hard you try you just don't seem to move any forward. If you manage to block the active nostril and force breathe from the previously blocked nostril, you will soon realise a shift in your thoughts and the way you feel. This requires training and should be practiced under guidance. You may nevertheless try yourself as it has no side effects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4330" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-22T19:44:35.857" LastActivityDate="2019-01-22T19:44:35.857" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5866" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5864" CreationDate="2014-03-02T03:06:47.493" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The MMPI calculates scale scores from dichotomous responses; hence those scale scores – the constructs of actual interpretive interest – are roughly continuous, or at least polytomous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, there are very many other tests that can assess personality traits that can aid in diagnosis. I'm not sure what you mean by &quot;mature&quot;, and I hesitate to judge their sophistication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing by &quot;INFJ&quot; you're referring to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Myers–Briggs Type Indicator&lt;/a&gt;, of which &quot;INFJ&quot; is one available type. Typology is one primary difference from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;MMPI&lt;/a&gt;, which measures traits in terms of continuous dimensions. I'll leave the rest of the differences to Wikipedia for now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-23T23:17:49.007" LastActivityDate="2014-03-23T23:17:49.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5867" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-02T04:26:03.487" Score="0" ViewCount="22899" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand the basic differences, in layman's terms, between a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schema&lt;/a&gt; and a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;heuristic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4509" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-03T04:53:29.760" LastActivityDate="2014-03-03T04:53:29.760" Title="What is the difference between a schema and a heuristic?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-08-28T10:40:33.903" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5868" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5845" CreationDate="2014-03-02T04:37:47.940" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0030141&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;proposed&lt;/a&gt; that spontaneous cortical activity may have a lot to do with cortical processing not related to external sensory.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Within a spontaneously active network, we observe the sudden “ignition” of one out of many possible coherent states of high-level activity amidst cortical neurons with long-distance projections. During such an ignited state, &lt;strong&gt;spontaneous activity can block external sensory processing&lt;/strong&gt;. We relate those properties to experimental observations on the neural bases of endogenous states of consciousness, and particularly the blocking of access to consciousness that occurs in the psychophysical phenomenon of &lt;strong&gt;“inattentional blindness,”&lt;/strong&gt; in which normal subjects intensely engaged in mental activity fail to notice salient but irrelevant sensory stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The spontaneous cortical activity itself has been &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v16/n10/full/nn.3499.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;studied&lt;/a&gt; at a more reductionist level where they've been separated into multimodal functional motifs.  Perhaps these functional motifs form the basis for the nature of stray thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-03-20T21:55:42.733" LastActivityDate="2014-03-20T21:55:42.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5869" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5862" CreationDate="2014-03-02T04:39:20.803" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't think of any information relating directly to distiction of letters in the english Alphabet, so instead I pulled out some stuff on our corrolations between shapes and long/short term memory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18717388/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Abstract&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In four experiments, we examined the effect of pairing colors with either homogeneous or heterogeneous shapes on a short-term memory task. In Experiment 1, we found no differences in color memory for displays in which colors were each associated with different shapes, paired with individual homogeneous shapes, or paired with heterogeneous shapes. In contrast, in Experiment 2, we found that when participants were asked to remember the specific pairings of colors, memory was improved for heterogeneous-shape displays. The benefit for heterogeneous shapes appears to be memorial, rather than one that occurs at the time of encoding (Experiment 3) or retrieval (Experiment 4). The present study suggests that distinctive shapes can be used to help bind color associations in visual short-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However focusing more on shape I think &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webdesignerdepot.com/2012/08/the-psychology-of-logo-design/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; by Ray Vellest, and particularly its section &amp;quot;Shapes&amp;quot;, goes into a nice discussion of how logo's are designed to engage long term memory, and how by differntiating the type font, new meaning can be given to the letter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This substantially answers your question by giving examples of how differentiating shapes, such as the type font, can make letters easier to remember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DBq4g.png&quot; alt=&quot;A simple &amp;quot;M&amp;quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Pc5DJ.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Pc5DJ.gif&quot; alt=&quot;A Mcdonalds M without Colour&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://img03.mar.cx/_images/AT79392&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;img03.mar.cx&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly, just a small change to the shape of the letter makes it have a completley different meaning. In this case, the sort of letter you would find in your text book, and the one you immeadiately associate with McDonalds&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apllying this to fonts would involve similar logic, but I'm hoping someone can pull in some information more directly related to the Alphabet then shapes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides that, I hoped this helped you out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mona&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Delvenne JF1, Dent K. (2008). Distinctive Shapes Benefit Short-Term Memory for colour association, but not for colour. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18717388&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18717388&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ray Vellest (2012). THe pychology of logo Design. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webdesignerdepot.com/2012/08/the-psychology-of-logo-design/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.webdesignerdepot.com/2012/08/the-psychology-of-logo-design/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4322" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2020-12-27T16:53:07.167" LastActivityDate="2020-12-27T16:53:07.167" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5870" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5861" CreationDate="2014-03-02T07:34:42.250" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The same methods that psychotherapy utilizes to help people overcome psychological problems are used in &lt;strong&gt;coaching&lt;/strong&gt; to help healthy and successful persons to become even more successful and feel even more better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, yes, &lt;strong&gt;everyone can benefit from psychotherapy&lt;/strong&gt;, you just don't have to call it that, which might make it easier for most people to accept it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I were a psychotherapist, I would call my service &quot;mental fitness&quot; and advertise it in the same manner as gyms advertise their services as a lifestyle (&quot;Be sexy and successful!&quot;) instead of a health product (&quot;Fight obesity!&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-03-02T07:34:42.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5871" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5867" CreationDate="2014-03-02T09:33:01.627" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A heuristic consists of preferences that help you decide in a situation where you do not have enough information or do not care enough to make an informed decision&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, when you want to buy yoghurt, but are no nutritionist, you might decide on which yoghurt you buy by the familiarity of the brand name (you prefer the familiar, this is called the familiarity heuristic) and other aspects that have nothing to do with the yoghurt itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A schema is a workflow or storyboard that tells you what to do in a recurring situation&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, when you go shopping you might follow an internal script to make shopping more efficient: you pick the same products in the same sequence every time. You know in advance what you will buy, there are no decisions involved, in fact you ignore all alternative products. A schema allows you to navigate familiar, recurrent and similar situations by following the same sequence of actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-03-02T20:13:32.830" LastActivityDate="2014-03-02T20:13:32.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5872" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5385" CreationDate="2014-03-02T10:39:33.550" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Within the research community the generally accepted view today is that aspects of cognitive performance such as what are commonly called &quot;intelligence&quot;, &quot;creativity&quot; or &quot;emotional intelligence&quot; are mostly inborn and can be modified both positively and negatively by nutrition, health, a stimulating environment and other factors only to a certain degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence is much better researched, and there are many studies that illustrate how certain interventions affect it, but there has been some research on the effectiveness of creativity training as well. A meta-analysis (Scott, Leritz &amp;amp; Mumford, 2004) found that creativity training has an average effect size of Cohen's &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = .68. What does that mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's illustrate it by looking at intelligence. Most people have an average intelligence, and higher and lower intelligence are increasingly rare. This results in a typical bell shaped distribution of intelligence that shows how many people within a certain population are how intelligent:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AE0Gc.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, about 68% of all people are of average intelligence, that is they have an IQ between 85 and 115. The mathematical average (i.e. the mean) intelligence is an IQ of 100. Of course only some people have exactly the mean IQ of 100 and most people deviate from this mean to some degree. To better grasp how far most people deviate from the mean intelligence, a &quot;standard deviation&quot; is calculated. For IQ this standard deviation is 15 IQ points above or below the mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you train intelligence, and you find that the average intelligence of your group of trainees has risen by 15 IQ points (for example from 110 to 125) that is an effect size of 1. &lt;strong&gt;If you find an effect size of .68 (as in the meta-analysis on creativity training) this means that your training raised the IQ about two thirds of one standard deviation, which is about 10 IQ points.&lt;/strong&gt; An intelligence training that was as effective as the average creativity training would increase your intelligence by 10 points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, as far as I know there is no standard scale for creativity similar to the IQ for intelligence, so I cannot translate the effect size into CQ for you, but I hope through my analogy you have an idea of how much you can increase creativity through training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effect is certainly noticeable, but you cannot turn an uncreative person into an artist, just as you cannot train a stupid person to win the Nobel prize. You can get better by training, but you need a good basis to start from, if you want to make creativity your job.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scott, G., Leritz, L. E., &amp;amp; Mumford, M. D. (2004). The effectiveness of creativity training: A quantitative review. &lt;em&gt;Creativity Research Journal, 16&lt;/em&gt;(4), 361-388.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-03-02T10:39:33.550" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5873" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5886" CreationDate="2014-03-02T13:05:29.160" Score="4" ViewCount="540" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mass-media marketing seems to strongly influence people's beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are perceptions of beauty and the ideal partner mostly determined by what mass media proposes?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-03T04:54:48.467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T12:05:24.740" Title="Are perceptions of beauty and the ideal partner mostly determined by mass media?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;&lt;neuromarketing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5874" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5880" CreationDate="2014-03-02T13:21:16.403" Score="2" ViewCount="805" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is neuroticism related to harming others? Is neuroticism related to increased criminal behaviour?&#xA;And in this case, would it be useful to coach / help a neurotic person through psychotherapy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-03T04:46:10.823" LastActivityDate="2014-03-03T04:46:10.823" Title="Does neuroticism cause people to hurt others?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5875" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5876" CreationDate="2014-03-02T14:03:59.413" Score="-1" ViewCount="845" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any other newer / more sophisticated and valid test useful in a diagnosis and further treatment of clinical problems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in clinical diagnosis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2014-03-02T15:02:56.367" Title="Are there more recent and more scientifically valid alternatives to MMPI?" Tags="&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5876" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5875" CreationDate="2014-03-02T15:02:56.367" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In clinical psychology, two kinds of &lt;em&gt;general&lt;/em&gt; personality tests are in use today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One kind of test is not a specialized clinical test but tests personality in general. These tests are used outside of clinical contexts as well. There are many models of personality and a multitude of tests to measure personality according to each model, but the most popular model of general personality today is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Big Five&lt;/a&gt; or Five Factor model, and one of the most valid and reliable tests for this model is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEO-PI-R&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NEO-PI-R&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other kind of test is one that tests for symptoms of psychological disorders according to one of the two popular diagnostic manuals, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD)&lt;/a&gt;. The most popular test today is probably the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_Clinical_Interview_for_DSM-IV&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides these general tests, clinicians will use one or more tests to measure specific aspects of personality or specific symptoms, according to their impression of the patient or a diagnosis given by the refering phyisician, psychiatrist or psychologist. These specialised tests are too numerous to list here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-03-02T15:02:56.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5877" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5867" CreationDate="2014-03-02T15:38:08.137" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schema and Heuristic are two different things- not really related to one another, so I'm not sure asking for the difference between the two makes sense. That said-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;Schema&lt;/strong&gt; is a cognitive framework for storing information and relating it together. Schemas form the basis for knowledge in the head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;Heuristic&lt;/strong&gt; is a mechanism for solving problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, a schema is more associated with &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; topics a person might make decisions upon, whereas a heuristic is more associated with &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; a person makes those decisions. Heuristic methods very well may depend upon existing schema; however, schema do not necessarily require the existence of a heuristic method.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastEditorUserId="2937" LastEditDate="2014-03-02T23:11:30.593" LastActivityDate="2014-03-02T23:11:30.593" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5878" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5881" CreationDate="2014-03-02T20:39:43.030" Score="3" ViewCount="3682" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people are &lt;em&gt;stubborn&lt;/em&gt;, with strong, absolute &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;beliefs&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, and it's really hard to change the ideas. They tend to see just the evidence that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;confirms their ideas&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the scientific name of this phenomenon? Confirmation bias? Mental rigidity? Stubbornness?&#xA;Can you give me some explanation of that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-24T00:28:36.417" LastActivityDate="2018-05-24T11:43:04.003" Title="Which is the scientific name of stubbornness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5879" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5882" CreationDate="2014-03-02T21:15:37.563" Score="3" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;The phrases &quot;&lt;em&gt;No more Mr Nice guy&lt;/em&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;em&gt;Nice guys finish last&lt;/em&gt;&quot; imply that being a good person can sometimes be detrimental to your well-being.&#xA;In corrupt societies being fair and good might be detrimental. I'm interested in what research says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the relationship between being a good and fair person and adaptive outcomes in society?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is being good and fair sometimes detrimental to one's well-being? If so, what contextual or other factors are related to this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-03T04:51:28.567" LastActivityDate="2014-03-03T13:12:05.820" Title="What is relationship between being a good person and functioning in society?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5880" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5874" CreationDate="2014-03-03T01:01:08.447" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;I've edited your question somewhat; I hope I preserved its meaning.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuroticism relates to personal discomfort largely by definition, and probably to uncomfortable social interaction as well, though somewhat less by definition. Consider this hypothetical, mediated pathway:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuroticism $\rightarrow$ Anxiety $\rightarrow$ Social&lt;/strong&gt; anxiety $\rightarrow$ Personal social &lt;strong&gt;discomfort $\rightarrow$ Others'&lt;/strong&gt; discomfort&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first three of these paths are almost definitional; the last only assumes that people ordinarily feel more comfortable when interacting with others who are comfortable. Each step from neuroticism to others' discomfort changes the construct slightly, so the relationship attenuates across each step to whatever extent these mediators are all necessary, but I suspect the relationship is still reasonably strong from one end to the other. For a bit of empirical support (indirect – best I could find quickly), note that marriage satisfaction relates negatively to the neuroticism of one's partner &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.recoveryonpurpose.com/upload/Neuroticism%20and%20Marital%20Satisfaction.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fisher &amp;amp; McNulty, 2008&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;, though this may be less true of women with neurotic husbands &lt;sup&gt;(Whiteford, 2010; for other moderators, see Larson, Blick, Jackson, &amp;amp; Holman, 2010)&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The relationship between neuroticism and crime is somewhat more complex, largely because crime itself is diverse. Incarcerated populations are more neurotic &lt;sup&gt;(Dang &amp;amp; Sharma, 1995; Singh, Singh, Sinha, &amp;amp; Kumari, 1985; Eysenck &amp;amp; Eysenck, 1971; I also found support for this via negative emotionality in my own work as a research assistant in Robert Krueger's lab at the University of Minnesota in 2005)&lt;/sup&gt;, but neuroticism may not be the best trait predictor of delinquency (self-reported; &lt;sup&gt;Furnham &amp;amp; Thompson, 1991)&lt;/sup&gt;, antisocial behavior, or aggression – &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreeableness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;agreeableness&lt;/a&gt; seems to relate more strongly (negatively; &lt;sup&gt;Jones, Miller, &amp;amp; Lynam, 2011)&lt;/sup&gt;. Neuroticism relates to these, and to substance abuse and antisocial personality disorder, but not as strongly as to agreeableness or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conscientiousness&lt;/a&gt; (both negative correlates; &lt;sup&gt;Ruiz, Pincus, &amp;amp; Schinka, 2008; see also Walters, 2014)&lt;/sup&gt;. Neuroticism doesn't predict criminal recidivism very well compared to demographic factors either &lt;sup&gt;(Gendreau, Little, &amp;amp; Goggin, 1996)&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @what implied in his response to your other question, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5861/4086&quot;&gt;Would most people benefit from psychotherapy?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; it seems safe enough to assume that anyone could benefit from psychotherapy, criminals included. Neuroticism is often undesirable from a personal standpoint, so neurotic individuals per se might be fairly motivated therapy clients, whereas &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)&lt;/a&gt; is more ego-syntonic. ASPD is notoriously difficult to treat, though this reputation may be debatable. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder#Treatment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;ASPD is considered to be among the most difficult personality disorders to treat &lt;sup&gt;[(Gabbard &amp;amp; Gunderson, 2000)]&lt;strong&gt;[verification needed]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;. Because of their very &lt;strong&gt;low or absent&lt;/strong&gt; capacity for &lt;strong&gt;remorse&lt;/strong&gt;, individuals with ASPD often &lt;strong&gt;lack&lt;/strong&gt; sufficient &lt;strong&gt;motivation&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;fail to see the costs&lt;/strong&gt; associated with antisocial acts...They &lt;strong&gt;may only simulate remorse&lt;/strong&gt; rather than truly commit to change: they can be seductively charming and dishonest, and &lt;strong&gt;may manipulate&lt;/strong&gt; staff and fellow patients during treatment &lt;sup&gt;[(Oldham, Skodol, &amp;amp; Bender, 2005)]&lt;strong&gt;[verification needed]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;. Studies have shown that outpatient &lt;strong&gt;therapy is not likely to be successful&lt;/strong&gt;, however the extent to which persons with ASPD are entirely unresponsive to treatment &lt;strong&gt;may have been exaggerated&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/11564340_Psychopathy_and_therapeutic_pessimism._Clinical_lore_or_clinical_reality/file/60b7d5162d67bf28b8.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salekin, 2002&lt;/a&gt;)]&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Those with ASPD may stay in treatment only as required by an external source&lt;/strong&gt;, such as a parole. Residential programs that provide a carefully controlled environment of structure and supervision along with peer confrontation have been recommended &lt;sup&gt;[(Gabbard &amp;amp; Gunderson, 2000)]&lt;/sup&gt;. There has been some research on the treatment of ASPD that indicated &lt;strong&gt;positive results for therapeutic interventions&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[(Derefinko &amp;amp; Widiger, 2008)]&lt;/sup&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_Therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schema Therapy&lt;/a&gt; is also being investigated as a treatment for ASPD &lt;sup&gt;[(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schematherapytraining.com/storage/Bernstein.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bernstein, Arntz, &amp;amp; Vos, 2007&lt;/a&gt;)]&lt;/sup&gt;. A review by Charles M. Borduin features the strong influence of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multisystemic_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multisystemic therapy (MST)&lt;/a&gt; that could potentially improve this imperative issue. However this treatment requires complete cooperation and participation of all family members &lt;sup&gt;[(Gatzke &amp;amp; Raine, 2000)]&lt;/sup&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Therapists of individuals with ASPD may have considerable negative feelings toward clients with extensive histories of aggressive, exploitative, and abusive behaviors &lt;sup&gt;[(Gabbard &amp;amp; Gunderson, 2000)]&lt;/sup&gt;. Rather than attempt to develop a sense of conscience in these individuals, therapeutic techniques should be focused on rational and utilitarian arguments against repeating past mistakes. These approaches would focus on the tangible, material value of prosocial behavior &lt;sup&gt;[(Beck, Freeman, &amp;amp; Davis, 2006); emphasis added]&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting interaction may occur between ASPD and neuroticism (via depression, a correlated emotional state) in predicting psychotherapeutic outcomes for substance abuse: patients with both ASPD and depression respond better than those with ASPD only &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://vuir.vu.edu.au/19368/27/00jpr001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gabbard, 2000&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;. This further supports a mediated link between neuroticism and criminality:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuroticism $\rightarrow$ Substance abuse $\rightarrow$ Criminality&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuroticism $\rightarrow$ Depression $\rightarrow$ Better outcomes for psychotherapy of substance abuse, given ASPD $\rightarrow$ Less recidivism? Worth testing at least!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&#xA;- Beck, A. T., Freeman, A., &amp;amp; Davis, D. D. (2006). &lt;em&gt;Cognitive therapy of Personality Disorders&lt;/em&gt; (2nd Ed.). Guilford Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Bernstein, D. P., Arntz, A., &amp;amp; Vos, M. D. (2007). Schema focused therapy in forensic settings: Theoretical model and recommendations for best clinical practice. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 6&lt;/em&gt;(2), 169–183. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schematherapytraining.com/storage/Bernstein.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.schematherapytraining.com/storage/Bernstein.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Dang, R., &amp;amp; Sharma, M. (1995). Study of neuroticism and socio-demographic factors amongst female undertrials. &lt;em&gt;Indian Journal of Criminology, 23&lt;/em&gt;(2), 65–70.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Derefinko, K. J., &amp;amp; Widiger, T. A. (2008). Antisocial personality disorder. In S. H. Fatemi &amp;amp; P. J. Clayton (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;The Medical Basis of Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 213–226). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Eysenck, S. B., &amp;amp; Eysenck, H. J. (1971). A comparative study of criminals and matched controls on three dimensions of personality. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 10&lt;/em&gt;(4), 362–366.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Fisher, T. D., &amp;amp; McNulty, J. K. (2008). Neuroticism and marital satisfaction: The mediating role played by the sexual relationship. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Family Psychology, 22&lt;/em&gt;(1), 112–122. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.recoveryonpurpose.com/upload/Neuroticism%20and%20Marital%20Satisfaction.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.recoveryonpurpose.com/upload/Neuroticism%20and%20Marital%20Satisfaction.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Furnham, A., &amp;amp; Thompson, J. (1991). Personality and self-reported delinquency. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences, 12&lt;/em&gt;(6), 585–593.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Gatzke, L. M., &amp;amp; Raine, A. (2000). Treatment and prevention implications of antisocial personality disorder. &lt;em&gt;Current Psychiatry Reports, 2&lt;/em&gt;(1), 51–55.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Gabbard, G. O. (2000). Psychotherapy of personality disorders. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research, 9&lt;/em&gt;(1), 1–6. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://vuir.vu.edu.au/19368/27/00jpr001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://vuir.vu.edu.au/19368/27/00jpr001.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Gunderson, J. G., &amp;amp; Gabbard, G. O. (Eds.). (2008). &lt;em&gt;Psychotherapy for personality disorders&lt;/em&gt; (Vol. 13). American Psychiatric Publishing.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Gendreau, P., Little, T., &amp;amp; Goggin, C. (1996). A meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: What works! &lt;em&gt;Criminology, 34&lt;/em&gt;(4), 575–608.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Jones, S. E., Miller, J. D., &amp;amp; Lynam, D. R. (2011). Personality, antisocial behavior, and aggression: A meta-analytic review. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Criminal Justice, 39&lt;/em&gt;(4), 329–337.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Larson, J. H., Blick, R. W., Jackson, J. B., &amp;amp; Holman, T. B. (2010). Partner traits that predict relationship satisfaction for neurotic individuals in premarital relationships. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Sex &amp;amp; Marital Therapy, 36&lt;/em&gt;(5), 430–444.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Oldham, J. M., Skodol, A. E., &amp;amp; Bender, D. S. (Eds.). (2007). &lt;em&gt;The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders&lt;/em&gt;. American Psychiatric Publishing.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Ruiz, M. A., Pincus, A. L., &amp;amp; Schinka, J. A. (2008). Externalizing pathology and the five-factor model: A meta-analysis of personality traits associated with antisocial personality disorder, substance use disorder, and their co-occurrence. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality Disorders, 22&lt;/em&gt;(4), 365–388.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Salekin, R. T. (2002). Psychopathy and therapeutic pessimism: Clinical lore or clinical reality? &lt;em&gt;Clinical Psychology Review, 22&lt;/em&gt;(1), 79–112. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/11564340_Psychopathy_and_therapeutic_pessimism._Clinical_lore_or_clinical_reality/file/60b7d5162d67bf28b8.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/11564340_Psychopathy_and_therapeutic_pessimism._Clinical_lore_or_clinical_reality/file/60b7d5162d67bf28b8.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Singh, U. P., Singh, L. B., Sinha, B., &amp;amp; Kumari, R. (1985). Extraversion, neuroticism and criminality: A comparative study of different criminal groups. &lt;em&gt;Indian Journal of Social Work, 46&lt;/em&gt;(2), 259–266.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Stone, M. H. (1993). &lt;em&gt;Abnormalities of personality: Within and beyond the realm of treatment&lt;/em&gt;. WW Norton &amp;amp; Co.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Walters, G. D. (2014). &lt;em&gt;Drugs, crime, and their relationships: Theory, research, practice, and policy.&lt;/em&gt; Jones &amp;amp; Bartlett Publishers.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Whiteford, N. R. T. (2010). &lt;em&gt;Neuroticism, marital interaction, and relationship satisfaction: An exploration of affect mediation.&lt;/em&gt; (Doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado at Boulder).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-03-03T01:01:08.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5881" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5878" CreationDate="2014-03-03T02:24:01.223" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few bits of useful jargon come to mind...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Low &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_complexity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive complexity&lt;/a&gt; may lead to simplistic and absolutist thinking, which one may also refer to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splitting_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;splitting&lt;/a&gt; or &amp;quot;black-and-white&amp;quot; thinking (because there's no recognition of &amp;quot;grey areas&amp;quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Need for closure&lt;/a&gt; and low &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openness_to_experience&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;openness to experience&lt;/a&gt; may lead to &lt;em&gt;resistance to change&lt;/em&gt;, which is a somewhat less pejorative alternative to &amp;quot;stubbornness&amp;quot;. &amp;quot;Mental rigidity&amp;quot; is a little more subtly pejorative, in that you'd probably feel a little offended if someone called you mentally rigid, but clinical literature sometimes uses these terms nonetheless. Hence it has more pathological connotations than &amp;quot;stubborn&amp;quot;, which I think people recognize as more normally applicable – i.e., you can be stubborn without being psychologically abnormal or clinically dysfunctional, but you probably won't feel proud of it, and would prefer more euphemistic terms like &amp;quot;assertive&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;traditional&amp;quot;...which differ in literal meaning from stubbornness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess that's the sort of cognitive distortion that you'd expect to result from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-serving_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-serving bias&lt;/a&gt;: &amp;quot;I'm not stubborn! I just happen to be right!&amp;quot; Then again, if I were to say that, I might not be biased; I might actually be right! How's that for self-serving bias? :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt; differs somewhat from these. Its effects appear when actually seeking to confirm a belief (or hypothesis in a research context, wherein which we're probably most familiar with it), as opposed to when simply stating an absolute, simplistic belief, or refusing to question it at all. If I actually engage in argument and ignore your counterpoints, then you could say I'm demonstrating confirmation bias, but if I simply &amp;quot;tell you how it is&amp;quot; or tell you that you're wrong and refuse to change, that's really not a matter of confirmation bias per se.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-03-03T02:24:01.223" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5882" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5879" CreationDate="2014-03-03T03:21:45.490" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since you asked a vague question, I will provide a relatively vague answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A standard way to &lt;strong&gt;test fairness experimentally&lt;/strong&gt;, is by having people play the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimatum_game&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ultimatum game&lt;/a&gt;. This is an interaction between two participants, one is randomly assigned to be Alice and the other is Bob. Alice is given a couple of days wage in money (either the local currency or other common units of exchange like tobacco) and can decide what proportion of it to offer to Bob. She can choose to offer as little or as much as she wants. Bob is then told what proportion Alice offered and can decide to accept or reject. If Bob accepts then the game ends and each party receives their fraction of the goods. If Bob declines then both Alice and Bob receive nothing and the game terminates. The interaction is completely anonymous and happens only once. In this setting, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_economicus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;homoeconomicus&lt;/a&gt; would give the lowest possible offer if playing as Alice and accept any non-zero offer as Bob (any money is better than no money).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Henrich et al. (2001) studied the behavior of people from 15 small-scale societies in the ultimatum game and showed a &lt;strong&gt;great variability in how fairness is conceived&lt;/strong&gt; across the societies they studied. None of the small scale societies behaved in the same way as economists would predict (i.e., take everything), and none behaved the way western university student do (western university students tend to offer around 50% and reject offers below 20% about 40% to 60% of the time).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Read more&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2013/03/17/cultural-fairness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Games, culture, and the Turing test (Part II)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Related questions&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/251/29&quot;&gt;What are popular rationalist responses to Tversky &amp;amp; Shafir?&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1548/29&quot;&gt;Human behaviour in one-shot perfect information games&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To restate in other words, in such settings it is in our objective self-interest (homoeconomicus) to be unfair, but our subjective conceptions (shaped by evolutionary and cultural forces) entice us to act prosocially. A lot of times this seeming irrationality can be explained as evolutionarily adaptive if we consider concepts like &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2013/03/25/if-vs-gs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inclusive fitness or group selection&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Read more&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2013/07/09/evolving-useful-delusions-to-promote-cooperation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evolving useful delusions to promote cooperation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, it is an &lt;strong&gt;ongoing research question&lt;/strong&gt; to understand why and to what extent humans and various other organisms cooperate in such games and how this relates to evolution. It is usually studied under the banner of &lt;strong&gt;evolution of cooperation&lt;/strong&gt;. For an introduction that highlights some of the common themes see Nowak (2006), West et al. (2007), or for a video/blog form: &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2012/10/28/evolving-cooperation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Introduction to evolving cooperation&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a focus on ethnocentrism (one of the highlighted mechanisms) see this question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1034/29&quot;&gt;Do people like those who are similar to them and why?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E., Gintis, H., &amp;amp; McElreath, R. (2001). In Search of Homo Economicus: Behavioral Experiments in 15 Small-Scale Societies. &lt;em&gt;American Economic Review&lt;/em&gt;, 91(2), 73-78&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nowak MA (2006). Five rules for the evolution of cooperation. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 314 (5805), 1560-3.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;West, S. A., Griffin, A. S., &amp;amp; Gardner, A. (2007). Evolutionary explanations for cooperation. Current Biology, 17(16), R661-R672.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-03T03:27:10.487" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5884" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-03T17:01:20.017" Score="4" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, it is dim light and an object is in partial shade, hiding some features of an object. It is a rounded, dark brownish object. The object is rather ambiguous - it could be a rock, a potato, a turtle, a grenade, a ball, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looking at an ambiguous object like that described above, &lt;strong&gt;do different neural networks get activated with different intensity?&lt;/strong&gt; Does the brain pick the highest probability and the person label the object with that name? For example, does the brain get input like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;63% of potato detecting neurons get activated, saying it looks like a potato&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;50% ball&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;34% turtle&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;28% grenade&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Or is it the feature recognition that helps distinguish objects?&lt;/strong&gt;  For example:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;potato has skin texture and dimples&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ball is perfectly round&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;turtle has irregular edge and rectangular pattern&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;grenade has a handle and pin&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If an object has one of these features, it is unlikely to be another object?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EcyOP.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/stFq0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-03-03T20:51:15.383" Title="How does human brain pick out the most likely representation of object when an object is ambiguous?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-04-10T16:24:17.253" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5886" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5873" CreationDate="2014-03-03T20:14:13.460" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sexual attraction has mostly but not only a biological roots.&#xA;Can this particular woman bear healthy children for me? Do I want this man? Can he be a good father? In a few seconds, someone can evaluate this simply in his/her mind&#xA;(evaluate such factors as: height, weight, balance, hips, hair, smell, voice, how healthy the person looks, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, social factors have an influence on our expectations.  Mass media is part of our life, we live in its circle, it forms our culture, makes trends, and influences the path we are making and choices in our life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The power of influence depends on few factors: the place someone lives (open/close to mass media), the family (all we are from our childhood), and some basic physiological factors we were born with, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Locus of control defines the orientation of a person (internal/external) while choosing the way of living. For some it's more important that their partners are good from the society view (from mass-media view); for others it's not so important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Wiki, not very close, but interesting:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consumer research&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Locus of control has also been applied to the field of consumer research. For example, Martin, Veer and Pervan (2007) examined how the weight locus of control of women (i.e., beliefs about the control of body weight) influence how they react to female models in advertising of different body shapes. They found that women who believe they can control their weight (&amp;quot;internals&amp;quot;), respond most favorably to slim models in advertising, and this favorable response is mediated by self-referencing. In contrast, women who feel powerless about their weight (&amp;quot;externals&amp;quot;), self-reference larger-sized models, but only prefer larger-sized models when the advertisement is for a non-fattening product. For fattening products, they exhibit a similar preference for larger-sized models and slim models. The weight locus of control measure was also found to be correlated with measures for weight control beliefs and willpower&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also there is a good test: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.uncc.edu/pagoolka/LC.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Locus of Control &lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question can be answered simply; it has deep roots and looks interesting for me too. I'll try to find some more modern research to post here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4519" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-03-03T23:11:34.450" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5889" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-04T10:08:33.613" Score="6" ViewCount="1790" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have taken some tests for Asperger's which gives a rating point, and the higher you score its more likely that you have asperger. I was just wondering if this means that there are degrees of asperger, that everyone is asperger to some degree, or is this rating just a property of the test, and people either have asperger syndrome or not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user4527" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-05T03:57:53.283" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T19:18:00.377" Title="Does everyone have some degree of Aspergers?" Tags="&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5890" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-04T10:21:52.100" Score="5" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on a driving simulator that uses an eyetracker to monitor the users gaze behavior. Based on a &lt;a href=&quot;http://ediss.sub.uni-hamburg.de/volltexte/2009/4223/pdf/Dissertation_Untersuchung_Blickbewegung_06.07.2009.pdf&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; I modeled an optimal scanpath that the users should follow in order to best maneuver through curves. If the users gaze hasn't hit certain AoIs in time, a visual cue is being shown to manipulate the user to include this point in his scanpath.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, should I explain the meaning of the cues and the system behind them to the testers? Wouldn't that bias their scanning behavior? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2323" LastActivityDate="2014-07-05T05:27:37.870" Title="Does explaining a visual guidance system affect visual attention distribution?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5891" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5838" CreationDate="2014-03-04T16:16:47.143" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Binary processes may be observed at various stages of intuitive and deliberative thought, which may in some cases plausibly be modelled as categories, but you’ll want to consider that on a case-by-case basis. Many of the relevant processes are binary simply because like formal logic, they involve toggle switches (true/false).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Heuristics&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The simplifying processes alluded to in the question have been studied above all in the form of heuristics, i.e. mental strategies for judgement and decision-making that bypass a good deal of relevant computation in favour of simple cues that seem to (but may not) correlate well with success (Payne, Bettman, and Johnson 1993; Gigerenzer and Todd 1999; Czerlinski, Gigerenzer, and Goldstein 1999). A variety of models exist, most of which concern preferential decision-making, but categorization models also exist, and at any rate the two are closely intertwined. Most models involve binary processes in the selection process, particularly because judgement and decision-making involve matching objects against a criterion. Examples are the decision-making model Elimination by Aspects (Tversky 1972) and the categorization model Categorization by Elimination (Beretty, Todd, and Blythe 1997), which cycle through features in order of descending salience and/or effectiveness at narrowing down choice. Objects (options) that fail to meet the criterion under review are ruled out; it could thus be said that there is a binary matching principle at work even in cases where the cue (e.g. wine aroma) is not binary. Another popularly studied example is the recognition heuristic, which associates the known objects in a set with a higher criterion value than unknown objects in the same set: this strategy is modelled on a binary cue (match or no match, as opposed to a graded scale). The particular effectiveness of simple heuristics in situations with binary cues is discussed in Hogarth and Karelaia 2006.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be noted, however, that some of the most commonly mentioned studies of preferential decicion-making involve binary choice: which of the two? This binary feature is a research bias: binary choice is the minimal working example of preferential decision-making. Still, the recognition heuristic is of relevance to the question precisely because it does not provide a complete strategy for dealing with a variety of objects with different degrees of familiarity. It says simply that a first strategy can be to distinguish between completely unknown and not completely unknown, at which point the use of this heuristic is exhausted and the mind turns to other strategies. The real significance of this heuristic to the question therefore depends on its validity and documented application with non-binary sets and relative familiarity; the outcome of such tests would tell you a good deal about the real-world attestation of dichotomous thinking along these lines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the tradition of Payne and Gigerenzer, adaptiveness is a critical part of the heuristic process: environmental factors determine what reductive strategies we use. When simplifying reality through heuristic means, what features survive in our cognitive model of the world at the moment of judgement or decision-making will thus depend on why we are accessing these concepts in the first place. A binary set like day and night is more likely to occur to us when deciding whether to bring our bicycle lights when leaving the house, and less likely when scheduling a dentist appointment (though this too involves a binary set, available/unavailable).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Linguistics&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The elimination models developed for decision-making have also been used to model memory access to semantic content. Rachel Giora has written a slew of articles advancing the idea that word senses that are salient in the mental lexicon are accessed first; other senses are activated if the first does not match the context (e.g. Giora 1999). The same matching paradigm could be extended across many aspects of syntax, for instance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Keywords&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That should be a start, but it’s a topic of some scope. Keywords could combine members of the following sets:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;contrast, contrastive, binary, dual, dualistic, dichotomous, dichotomy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;heuristic, cognitive, salience, simplify, simplification, judgment, judgement, decision&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@Nick Stauner's &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5838/binary-classification-as-a-cognitive-strategy#comment12266_5838&quot;&gt;comment&lt;/a&gt; and @what's &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5839/4482&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; contain references to significant additional avenues to investigate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Bibliography&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berretty, Patricia M., Peter M. Todd, and Philip W. Blythe. 1997 “Categorization by Elimination: A Fast and Frugal Approach to Categorization.” &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Conference of&#xA;the Cognitive Science Society&lt;/em&gt;. Eds M.G. Shafto and P. Langley. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Czerlinski, Jean, Gerd Gigerenzer, and Daniel G. Goldstein. 1999. “How Good are Simple Heuristics?” &lt;em&gt;Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart&lt;/em&gt;. Eds. Gerd Gigerenzer and Peter M. Todd. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 97–118.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gigerenzer, Gerd, and Peter M. Todd, eds. 1999. &lt;em&gt;Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart&lt;/em&gt;. Oxford: Oxford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Giora, Rachel. 1999. “On the Priority of Salient Meanings: Studies of Literal and Figurative Language.” &lt;em&gt;Journal of Pragmatics&lt;/em&gt; 31: 99–129.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hogarth, Robin M., and Natalia Karelaia. 2006. “ ‘Take-the-Best’ and Other Simple Strategies: Why and When They Work ‘Well’ With Binary Cues.” &lt;em&gt;Theory and Decision&lt;/em&gt; 61: 205–49.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Payne, John W., James R. Bettman, and Eric J. Johnson. 1993. &lt;em&gt;The Adaptive Decision Maker&lt;/em&gt;. Cambridge: Cambridge University press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tversky, Amos. 1972. “Elimination by Aspects: A Theory of Choice.” &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt; 79.4 (July): 281–99.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4482" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-04T16:16:47.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5892" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5889" CreationDate="2014-03-04T20:17:33.550" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whatever test you took, it does not test Asperger. It tests for symptoms that are typical in someone with Asperger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example one Asperger test asks you to rate the following statement (translated from German) on a skale from &lt;em&gt;1 = &quot;totally disagree&quot;&lt;/em&gt; to &lt;em&gt;4 = totally agree&quot;&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I prefer to spend my leisure time with other people rather than alone.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now of course people with Asperger often tend to stay by themselves and undertake things alone rather than with friends, but many non-Asperger people might feel that they sometimes enjoy time alone also, for example if they are naturally shy and find being with others enjoyable but exhausting, or if they have a job dealing with people and they like to have some free time by themselves to relax from the constant interaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just this weekend I read an interview with one of the most influential German movie directors, Doris Dörrie, who said how she likes to go on holidays by herself, especially to foreign countries where she cannot interact with anyone because she does not speak the language, and she goes on to tell how she went to Japan and enjoyed her aloneness tremendously and spent whole days basking in being outside society and looking on. Totally Asperger, if you think about it. But her job is to intensely interact with people, and she simply needs time off from that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's totally unremarkable that many people show some of the behaviors or emotions that people with Asperger (or other psychological disorders) show. It does not mean that they have Asperger to some degree. Rather, if someone rates very high in that test, that is merely an indication that they very likely have Asperger. No psychological diagnosis relies purely on a single self-report measure, but on a complex series of observation, interviews, and a battery of tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also see the answer by Eoin for a different perspective on the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-03-05T12:46:40.830" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T12:46:40.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5893" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5841" CreationDate="2014-03-04T23:20:54.017" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;While it is indeed one of the theories, it is by no means not the mainstream one. Nowadays, it seems the neurogenic theory of depression is gaining a lot of support, if one looks at recent publications. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Briefly, the theory claims that impaired neurogenesis prevents replenishment of parahippocampal granule cells that normally inhibit the amygdala – a structure harboring fear and anxiety circuits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neurogenic theory also explains some of the correlations between inflammation and depression, namely the involvement of a factor known as NFkB. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're interested in knowing more, I'd be happy to recommend readings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4533" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-05T01:15:17.053" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T01:15:17.053" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5894" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9919" CreationDate="2014-03-05T04:24:34.153" Score="4" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;For those unfamiliar with the term &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_cost_averaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dollar cost averaging (DCA)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is an investment strategy for reducing the&#xA;  impact of volatility on large purchases of financial assets such as&#xA;  equities. By dividing the total sum to be invested in the market (eg&#xA;  \$100,000) into equal amounts put into the market at regular intervals&#xA;  (eg \$1000 over 100 weeks), DCA reduces the risk of incurring a&#xA;  substantial loss resulting from investing the entire &quot;lump sum&quot; just&#xA;  before a fall in the market.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.figuide.com/dollar-cost-averaging-facts-and-myths-2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dollar cost averaging appears to perform worse than lump sum investment&lt;/a&gt;. If this is the case, then why do a lot of people engage in dollar cost averaging instead of lump sump investment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My own guess is that dollar cost averaging &quot;allows you to sleep better&quot; at night because the chances of making catastrophic losses are smaller than lump sum investments; in other words, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;loss aversion&lt;/a&gt; is at work here. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I right? In other words, I have two intertwined questions here&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does dollar cost averaging have a lesser chance of blowing up?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If yes, is this why people prefer it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4535" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-01T10:21:14.093" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T10:21:14.093" Title="Can we explain the tendency of investors dollar cost averaging in terms of loss aversion?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5895" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5492" CreationDate="2014-03-05T10:53:40.203" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of research seems to have been done on the challenges multilingualism poses for the human brain, but not so much on how much actually meeting those challenges improves one's overall cognitive capacity. At present the general approach seems to be summed up: &quot;Cognitive science suggests that the brain has selective resources with limited capacity&quot; (Emily Holmes et al.). Stanislas Dehaene in particular asks, &quot;How can cerebral circuits that normally handle a single phonology, lexicon and syntax adapt to the storage of multiple language systems?&quot;, and suggests that &quot;sophisticated mechanisms of segregation must exist to prevent cross-talk.&quot; These can be witnessed in action when &quot;anyone trying the well-known party trick of reciting the number sequence while switching languages (for instance &lt;em&gt;un&lt;/em&gt;, two, &lt;em&gt;trois&lt;/em&gt;, four, &lt;em&gt;cinq&lt;/em&gt;) will recognise that central coordination is a very plausible source of difficulty in translation and language switching.&quot; Source of difficulty maybe, but not yet apparently evidence of positive capacity for other tasks. Hopefully some work has gone down that road since. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Holmes, E. et al. &quot;Can Playing the computer game 'Tetris' reduce the Build-Up of Flashbacks for Trauma? A proposal from Cognitive Science&quot; Abstract.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0004153&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0004153&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dehaene, S. &quot;Fitting two languages into one brain&quot; Brain (1999) 122(12)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Since this answer I have indeed found some reports on the beneficial cognitive effects of bi- if not multi-lingualism:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Researchers said the extra effort involved in using more than one language appeared to boost blood supply to the brain and ensure nerve connections remained healthy - two factors thought to help fight off dementia.&#xA;&quot;We are pretty dazzled by the results,&quot; Professor Ellen Bialystok of Toronto's York University said in a statement.&#xA;&quot;In the process of using two languages, you are engaging parts of your brain, parts of your mind that are active and need that kind of constant exercise and activity, and with that experience [it] stays more robust,&quot; she later told CTV television.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;(Bilingualism delays onset of dementia&#xA;23:22 12 January 2007 by New Scientist and Reuters)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;So his team compared the age dementia symptoms appeared in some 650 natives of Hyderabad, India, over a six-year period. About half spoke at least two languages. This group's symptoms started on average four and a half years later than those in monolingual individuals.&#xA;The same pattern appeared for Alzheimer's, frontotemporal and vascular dementia. The results also held true for a group of people who were illiterate, suggesting that the benefits of being bilingual don't depend on education (Neurology, DOI: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000436620.33155.a4).&#xA;A leading theory as to why bilingualism may affect dementia involves the constant suppression of one language, and switching between the two. &quot;This permanent switching and suppressing offers you constant brain training,&quot; says Bak.&lt;/em&gt; (&quot;Learn une autre langue to hold off dementia&quot; New Scientist 9 November 2013.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4536" LastEditorUserId="4536" LastEditDate="2014-04-16T08:11:04.140" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T08:11:04.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5896" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5873" CreationDate="2014-03-05T12:05:24.740" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The 'hardwired' things we value in partners include not only physical and psychological suitability for  procreating, but also social &lt;em&gt;status&lt;/em&gt;. Thus, any visible indicators that we associate with high status are also perceived as sexy even if they don't have no direct match to anything else, and mass media can affect what properties indicators are perceived this way, by associating them with 'high social status' celebrities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the classic example used to illustrate this phenomenon is sun tan - a few centuries ago lack of sun tan used to illustrate high status (possibly because it demonstrated that you don't have to do physical work outdoors) and was perceived as attractive; and in 20th century sun tan used to illustrate high status (possibly because it demonstrated that you can spend your time vacationing in sunny climates) and was perceived as attractive.  Nowadays tan is much less informative, but this shows how preferences can switch to opposite effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T12:05:24.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5897" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5889" CreationDate="2014-03-05T12:42:35.913" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Two additional points to the previous answer from &lt;code&gt;what&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;With the release of the 5th edition of the  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), Asperger's is no longer classified as a condition in its own right, but as Autism coupled with high intelligence and intact language skills.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Almost all accounts of Autism hold that it exists as a &lt;strong&gt;spectrum&lt;/strong&gt;, or a &lt;strong&gt;continuum&lt;/strong&gt;: some people are very typical of the condition, some people are very strongly the opposite, and most people are somewhere in between.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Autism (and Asperger's) is characterized by a 'triad of impairments' to social interaction,communication (less so for Asperger's), and flexible imaginative functions (i.e. repeated/stereotyped behaviours and interests).  Obviously, these are traits that vary across the general population as well (I, like many scientists, can be very focused and one-track in my interests).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recently also came across a paper by Happé and Ronald (2008) (&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11065-008-9076-8#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;) arguing that, genetically speaking, these traits vary independently of each other in the general population.  It's only when someone has high levels of all three that they are diagnosed as having Autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, for an even more broad theory of Autistic traits in the general population, take a look at Simon Baron-Cohen's &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.bme.hu/~ivady/bscs/read/bc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;extreme male brain theory of autism&lt;/a&gt;, which states that people differ in the fundamental trait of being either 'empathizing' or 'systematizing', with men tending to be more 'systematizing'.  Autism, then, is just a case of being more like a male brain then usual, or super-systematizing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this is some help!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-09-09T09:27:27.867" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T09:27:27.867" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5898" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19214" CreationDate="2014-03-05T13:08:40.577" Score="4" ViewCount="351" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anorexia&lt;/a&gt; is a complex phenomenon&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;I've been reading on Wikipedia that: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sociocultural studies have highlighted the role of cultural factors,&#xA;  such as the promotion of thinness as the ideal female form in Western&#xA;  industrialized nations, particularly through the media. There is a&#xA;  necessary connection between anorexia nervosa and culture; culture may&#xA;  be a cause, a trigger, or merely a kind of social address or envelope&#xA;  which determines in which segments of society or in which cultures&#xA;  anorexia nervosa will appear. The strong thesis of this connection is&#xA;  that culture acts as a cause by providing a blueprint for anorexia&#xA;  nervosa. A moderate thesis is that a specific cultural factors trigger&#xA;  the illness which is determined by many factors including family&#xA;  interactions, individual psychology, or biological predisposition.&#xA;  Culture change can trigger the emergence of anorexia in adolescent&#xA;  girls from immigrant families living in highly industrialized Western&#xA;  Societies.&lt;sup&gt;[89]&lt;/sup&gt; People in professions where there is a particular&#xA;  social pressure to be thin (such as models and dancers) were much more&#xA;  likely to develop anorexia during the course of their career,&lt;sup&gt;[90]&lt;/sup&gt; and&#xA;  further research has suggested that those with anorexia have much&#xA;  higher contact with cultural sources that promote weight-loss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa#Sociological&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sociological section of Wikipedia on anorexia nervosa&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that the mass media can contribute in the diffusion of anorexia.&#xA;But I wonder if &lt;strong&gt;statistics suggest that this disease has got a boom of cases of in the last years.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa#Media_effects&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Media effects section of Wikipedia on anorexia nervosa&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-03T23:21:10.300" LastActivityDate="2018-03-07T08:45:46.430" Title="Correlation between anorexia and mass media stereotypes" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;&lt;eating-disorders&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5899" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-05T18:03:58.900" Score="2" ViewCount="588" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a good tutorial or simplified overview of the paper, '&lt;a href=&quot;http://cns-classes.bu.edu/cn550/Readings/mcculloch-pitts-43.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Logical calculus for nervous activity' (McCullough &amp;amp; Pitts, 1943)&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;McCullough, W. S., &amp;amp; Pitts, W. (1943). A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity. &lt;em&gt;The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5&lt;/em&gt;(4), 115–133. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://cns-classes.bu.edu/cn550/Readings/mcculloch-pitts-43.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://cns-classes.bu.edu/cn550/Readings/mcculloch-pitts-43.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4538" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-03-05T22:46:46.910" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T22:46:46.910" Title="Overview of Pitts &amp; McCullough (1943) &quot;A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity&quot;" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5900" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-05T18:07:08.853" Score="2" ViewCount="3629" Body="&lt;p&gt;A while back I created &lt;a href=&quot;https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/augmented-reality-glamour/id497623306?mt=8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an iPhone app that helps me create a composite like the one below&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Can observing such a composite have an impact of attributing the qualities perceived in the composite to oneself?&lt;/strong&gt; For example feeling more open or extraverted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BVIZ9.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I'm asking is that I found&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5740/are-there-recent-theories-on-physiognomy&quot;&gt;this answer to question about facial features and personality&lt;/a&gt;. Within an answer, there's a link to this paper: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.alittlelab.stir.ac.uk/pubs/Penton-Voak_06_kernaloftruth_SocCog.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Personality judgments from natural and composite facial images&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper suggests that ordinary, untrained people &lt;strong&gt;are capable of naturally recognizing and rating a face on a big 5 personality traits&lt;/strong&gt;. The author proceeds to show that composite faces that are rated high on the &quot;socially - desirable&quot; traits, like extraversion, openness and agreeableness are rated as more attractive by the study's test subjects:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TY84l.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the attractiveness ratings summary from the male faces above:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9dui6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When using my app, the user's brain is tricked into recognizing the composite image as one's own, because it is made of a live camera image + static image, and the image can blink, smile, frown, etc. The brain merges the two images, potentially distorting the true geometry of one's face by perceiving a composite image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a quote from that article on the self fulfilling prophesy effect (page 635):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, people with facial features that elicit attributions of&#xA;  agreeableness may be treated as more trustworthy and may perhaps&#xA;  consequently develop more agreeable personality characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested if perceiving such composite can activate the same mechanisms used to judge other faces, thus creating the same self-fulfilling prophesy &lt;strong&gt;and having an impact on one's personality?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably a part of the answer to the question is in answering the question: &lt;strong&gt;&quot;does one's own image in the mirror affect one's personality?&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-01-01T17:54:30.113" LastActivityDate="2019-01-01T17:54:30.113" Title="Can observing a composite photo of one's own face have an impact on own personality?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5901" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5899" CreationDate="2014-03-05T19:51:47.483" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems there is! Check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/modOverview.php?modGUI=212&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Marsalli's module from The Mind Project's curriculum&lt;/a&gt; and let me know if it works for you. It seems McCullough and Pitts' paper was important enough to be cited very many times, so there are probably several other options out there for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Marsalli, M. McCulloch-Pitts neurons. &lt;em&gt;The Mind Project: Curriculum.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/modOverview.php?modGUI=212&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/modOverview.php?modGUI=212&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T19:51:47.483" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5903" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5844" CreationDate="2014-03-05T22:46:02.010" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maniacal stubbornness and perfectionism could be symptoms of &lt;strong&gt;anankastic personality disorder&lt;/strong&gt;, classified in ICD-10 as &lt;strong&gt;F.60.5&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Personality disorder characterized by feelings of doubt, perfectionism, excessive conscientiousness, checking and preoccupation&#xA;  with details, stubbornness, caution, and rigidity. There may be&#xA;  insistent and unwelcome thoughts or impulses that do not attain the&#xA;  severity of an obsessive-compulsive disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Personality (disorder): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;compulsive&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;obsessional&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;obsessive-compulsive&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F60.5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F60.5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further reading: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_personality_disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2550" LastActivityDate="2014-03-05T22:46:02.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5904" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-05T23:15:48.043" Score="6" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a big music enthusiast myself, and one thing I noticed about myself, and not exactly about other people, is that I don't have any music genre I prefer listening to. For example, I don't mind it being rock, rap, techno or any music genre for that matter. As long as the beat is catchy, the quality of execution is there, and I can enjoy listening to it, I'll do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, I've been wondering if there is any correlation between people liking certain kinds of genres and having certain qualities, skills or personality traits? For example, are people who like certain genres more creative or outgoing? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4540" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-06T02:45:55.020" LastActivityDate="2014-03-07T10:18:38.587" Title="How is music preference related to personality traits or particular qualities?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5906" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-06T00:21:46.707" Score="0" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which topics in a dual degree in Cognitive science and Computer science at the graduate level  or systems neuroscience (experimental + theory) graduate degree will better prepare for a research career in theoretical neuroscience? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(trying to frame it in a more objective manner, as stackexchange forums prefer that)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4538" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-06T06:19:45.887" LastActivityDate="2014-03-06T20:59:58.223" Title="What subjects to study in order to prepare for a research career in theoretical neuroscience?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5910" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5906" CreationDate="2014-03-06T19:17:23.727" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several approaches to theoretical neuroscience.  I am currently taking the physics/mathematics approach: modelling the currents in neurons and coupling several neurons together through differential equations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Computer Science, the tendency is more towards machine learning: Bayesian statistics, artificial neural networks, signal processing, robotics, artificial intelligence.  It really depends on what level you want to engage the field.  For instance, if you want to study vision science, you'll want to learn more about vision and color perception and some basic physics/optics.  But I also think neurochemistry and neurophysics is important, just for breadth.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Computer scientists often use the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_neuron_model#Leaky_integrate-and-fire&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;leaky integrate and fire&lt;/a&gt; model or rate coding models.  There's something called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/research/nef.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neural engineering framework&lt;/a&gt; that seeks to make networks of neurons do standard logical operations.  One of their projects is &lt;a href=&quot;http://nengo.ca/build-a-brain/spaunvideos&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;SPAUN&lt;/a&gt;, a whole brain simulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-03-06T20:59:58.223" LastActivityDate="2014-03-06T20:59:58.223" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5911" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="78" CreationDate="2014-03-06T19:23:07.267" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Trolling is a complex subject now under serious study in science fields (e.g. sociology, psychology, social networking, etc.), but arguably it is not new behavior. Something like it has probably existed as long as humans have, even though the term &amp;quot;trolling&amp;quot; seems to originate in cyberspace. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trolling#Origin_and_etymology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia etymology&lt;/a&gt; indicates it significantly predates cyberspace. Imagine comments or cartoons left on a public bulletin board, or even &lt;em&gt;graffiti&lt;/em&gt; could be seen as a form/type of &amp;quot;trolling&amp;quot;. Anonymity/pseudonymity certainly relate to it (possibly increasing it), but of course it happens even with full identification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certainly cyberspace seems to possess aspects that can amplify the behavior. However, people sometimes just use the word &amp;quot;troll&amp;quot; as a derogatory epithet against people they merely don't like/disagree with, or e.g. those who are sarcastic with genuine but controversial views, so it can sometimes be really difficult to classify objectively. Somewhat like other terms such as &amp;quot;stalker&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;sexual harassment&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;sexual offender&amp;quot; etc., it's a &amp;quot;hot button&amp;quot; term with definition that can apparently shift significantly depending on context, and that carries high charge in cyberspace &amp;amp; modern era. It also ties in with an increase in social awareness/sensitivity of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullying&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bullying&lt;/a&gt;. It also has connections to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gossip&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gossip&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just ran across this new scientific paper (Feb. 2014) apparently getting major media coverage that states it's correlated with what is known as the so-called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad#Similar_concepts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;dark tetrad&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; of character features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886914000324&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trolls just want to have fun&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Individual Differences,&lt;/em&gt; Erin E. Buckels, Paul D. Trapnell, Delroy L. Paulhus:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In two online studies (total &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$N = 1215$&lt;/span&gt;), respondents completed personality inventories and a survey of their Internet commenting styles. Overall, strong positive associations emerged among online commenting frequency, trolling enjoyment, and troll identity, pointing to a common construct underlying the measures. Both studies revealed similar patterns of relations between trolling and the Dark Tetrad of personality: trolling correlated positively with sadism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism, using both enjoyment ratings and identity scores. Of all personality measures, sadism showed the most robust associations with trolling and, importantly, the relationship was specific to trolling behavior. Enjoyment of other online activities, such as chatting and debating, was unrelated to sadism. Thus cyber-trolling appears to be an Internet manifestation of everyday sadism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2733" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-03-07T10:26:39.940" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5913" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-06T21:59:48.283" Score="1" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;What topics would fall under theoretical cognitive science, if there could be such a term? I am referring to the more mathematical, foundational topics vs. topics dealing with specific cognitive phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4538" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-06T23:11:16.347" LastActivityDate="2014-05-06T05:45:24.270" Title="What topics are included in theoretical cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-05-09T15:58:34.980" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5914" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5915" CreationDate="2014-03-06T23:05:44.983" Score="0" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of people drop discussion easily. Some others don't. As if they would like to argue. &#xA;They feel that they have to demonstrate something. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a formal trait to describe people who enjoy arguing and the behavior of enjoying an argument?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-06T23:35:19.430" LastActivityDate="2014-03-07T02:48:10.083" Title="Is there a formal name for the &quot;love&quot; of arguing?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5915" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5914" CreationDate="2014-03-07T02:48:10.083" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't think of any clinical term for it, but a contentious individual is one who is eager to fight. Another term, pugnacious, is a little less derogatory than contentious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4534" LastActivityDate="2014-03-07T02:48:10.083" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5913" CreationDate="2014-03-07T02:54:07.440" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would imagine that artificial intelligence and any other kind of cognitive modelling of behaviour or the brain would fall under that category. Essentially, anything that isn't about directly describing human behaviour, but is about modelling it computationally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Look up the research on Theoretical Neuroscience, it's really quite fascinating. There is also an going project about literally building a brain: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Brain_Project&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Brain_Project&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's really neat stuff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4534" LastActivityDate="2014-03-07T02:54:07.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5904" CreationDate="2014-03-07T02:57:10.830" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As your luck would have it, there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1022547520656&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a study by Schwartz et al. (2003) that examines just that&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They found that there was a specific personality type associated with music preference in adolescents. The paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://familywise.ca/documents/MusicPreferencesPersonalityStyle.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;is freely available on familywise.ca&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Schwartz, K. D., &amp;amp; Fouts, G. T. (2003). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1022547520656&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Music preferences, personality style, and developmental issues of adolescents.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of youth and adolescence, 32(3), 205-213. &lt;a href=&quot;http://familywise.ca/documents/MusicPreferencesPersonalityStyle.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(PDF)&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4534" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-03-07T10:18:38.587" LastActivityDate="2014-03-07T10:18:38.587" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5918" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5890" CreationDate="2014-03-07T03:01:42.540" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whether you tell them is going to depend on what you are trying to accomplish. What is the nature of the cues? If they capture strictly exogenous attention, what you tell won't affect how they allocate their attention because orienting is completely involuntary. However, if the cues involve your participants having to decide to redirect their attention, explaining it to them will affect how they allocate their attention and will likely lead to them relying more on your cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4534" LastActivityDate="2014-03-07T03:01:42.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5919" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-07T03:41:39.160" Score="1" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are ways to explore metamathematics from a cognitive science/neuroscience lens to understand the evolution of mathematics based on structural and perceptual processing biases introduced due to our cognition? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kind of work has been done/can be done to inform metamathematics from cognitive science? Who are some leading researchers and/or important works to read?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assumption: Mathematics is invented, not discovered; so it is not Platonic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4538" LastEditorUserId="4538" LastEditDate="2014-03-19T22:11:40.920" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T22:11:40.920" Title="What are ways to explore metamathematics from a cognitive science/neuroscience lens?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5920" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5926" CreationDate="2014-03-07T11:58:52.750" Score="6" ViewCount="6043" Body="&lt;p&gt;In CBT one of the core concepts is ANTs (automatic negative thoughts) that form the basis of depressive feelings: they are repetitive, conscious, mostly ungrounded negative thoughts about one's existence, talents, capabilities, etc. Most applied CBT literature discusses how to get rid of these thoughts and replace them with more realistic or at least more positive ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ANTs don't exist by themselves though; they derive from core beliefs or schemas that are quite elusive and often unconscious (unlike ANTs). Currently I've read the following books on the subject: &lt;em&gt;Schema Therapy&lt;/em&gt; by Young et al., &lt;em&gt;Schema Therapy: Distinctive Features&lt;/em&gt; by Eshkol et al., and a few articles, which helped me identify some of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any good literature on working with ANTs? I'm especially interested in cases when ANTs are not particularly evident, so it's quite hard to identify them. It's almost like it's subconsciousness, but of course it is not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4382" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-07T23:29:26.733" LastActivityDate="2019-01-02T19:49:05.477" Title="What is an effective way of working with core beliefs/schemas?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;automaticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5921" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-07T13:12:23.540" Score="9" ViewCount="319" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Originally posted on &lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/702044&quot;&gt;Math.SE&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;but it was suggested cogsci.SE would be a more suitable venue.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of two publications that have trickled onto the radar screens&#xA;of non-specialists:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.princeton.edu/sites/opplab/papers/Diemand-Yauman_Oppenheimer_2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Fortune Favors the Bold&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Diemand-Yauman &amp;amp; Oppenheimer&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/super/theses/PhD(Muller).pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Designing Effective Multimedia for Physics Education&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;/a&gt; by Derek Muller&#xA;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RQaW2bFieo8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TED talk&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The former focuses on the impact of &quot;disfluency&quot; on retention and success when processing written material, and the latter seems to focus on learning in the &#xA;case where preexisting misconceptions need to be corrected (physics).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested to hear about similar research results in the learning of&#xA;abstract concepts, specifically mathematics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The motivation described in the original question on Math.SE is the&#xA;fact that many mathematicians seem to hold the (painful, to students) &#xA;belief that forcing students to struggle (in some sense) is beneficial.&#xA;I've quoted multiple examples of this attitude from various sources in &#xA;the original question, you are welcome to have a look.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does current research support the belief that (in mathematics) difficult&#xA;learning is better learning?&#xA;This might be in terms of retention, long-term achievements, motivation, etc'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've posted an expanded form of the question on matheducators.SE beta: &lt;a href=&quot;https://matheducators.stackexchange.com/questions/875/&quot;&gt;https://matheducators.stackexchange.com/questions/875/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still hoping for helpful answers from the cogsci.SE community. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user4549" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user4549" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:50:24.040" LastActivityDate="2014-03-27T10:47:36.720" Title=".Do students learn better when challenged (specifically, in math education)?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5922" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-02-03T05:56:06.647" Score="5" ViewCount="291" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to WordNet 3.0, quoted at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/schema&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;TheFreeDictionary.com&lt;/a&gt;, in psychology, &lt;em&gt;schema&lt;/em&gt; means &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/schema&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;an internal representation of the world; an organization of concepts and actions that can be revised by new information about the world&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within psychology, specifically as applied to learning or education, are there terms to describe schemata at different stages of acceptance, e.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;schema present in an individual&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;schema currently being added or adjusted by an individual&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;potential &quot;schemata/patterns/ideas&quot; out in the world not yet encountered by the individual&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there specialized terms to distinguish these?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6702" OwnerDisplayName="Village" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-06T20:13:59.467" LastActivityDate="2017-04-12T18:38:06.160" Title="What terms describe &quot;schema&quot; at various stages of acceptance?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;ideation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5926" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5920" CreationDate="2014-03-08T02:14:34.593" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;I'm lucky enough to know a counselor-in-training whose preferred modality is CBT; here's what she suggested.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Identifying those core beliefs is indeed the important part. Useful tools include the &lt;a href=&quot;http://media.psychologytools.org/Worksheets/English/CBT_Thought_Record.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CBT Thought Record worksheet&lt;/a&gt;, which pretty well explains itself, and the downward arrow technique illustrated in this figure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oodegr.com/english/psyxotherap/cognitive_therapy.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fPKC3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(Trader, 2011).&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One less-than-self-evident trick in applying these methods is refusing to take &quot;I don't know&quot; for an answer – it's a cop-out, my counselor connection says! Assuming this works well enough, and that you can get to the core belief more or less, you can then check a list like &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/lib/15-common-cognitive-distortions/0002153&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Grohol's &lt;sup&gt;(2009)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; for help in identifying the particular cognitive distortion at hand. He also lists Beck &lt;sup&gt;(1976)&lt;/sup&gt; and Burns &lt;sup&gt;(1980)&lt;/sup&gt; as references on these theories. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_T._Beck#Works&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The work of Aaron T. Beck&lt;/a&gt; covers very many angles of CBT, and so would be good to study for further details. As Wikipedia says, &quot;He is regarded as the father of cognitive therapy,&quot; so you probably can't go wrong with anything he's written.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bringing these core beliefs to the conscious &quot;surface&quot; is a very good start. ANTs have a lot more power when they're preconscious (not &quot;subconscious&quot;, BTW; see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/992/4086&quot;&gt;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/992/4086&lt;/a&gt;), because at this level, they have plenty of emotional impact but receive little or no rational scrutiny. When a person actually states a core belief aloud, that belief might not sound so reasonable, because the believer has to process the belief more deeply and consciously, which engages the error-checking cognitive mechanisms that an unconscious belief does not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes hearing oneself speak the belief aloud is enough to realize that it doesn't make sense, and to start catching oneself in the act of reacting emotionally to unreasonable ANTs. Further therapy is necessary sometimes, and often more can help. For instance, the first question a therapist might ask in response to the core belief in the above figure could be, &quot;I hear you expressing a very broad belief about yourself: you don't seem to think you have ever succeeded at anything. Am I understanding you correctly?&quot; That's a very gentle response style based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflective_listening&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reflective listening&lt;/a&gt;; do you see how it does more than simply repeat the client's words back to him/her? If someone can say, &quot;I am a failure at everything!&quot; with a straight face, hopefully he/she at least can't say, &quot;Yes, it's correct that I've never succeeded at anything.&quot; I don't think that's true of anyone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the client still can't see this, the therapist may have to up the ante a bit. One generally has to stop short of calling one's client a deluded fool, but various modalities take differing perspectives on confrontationality in talk therapy. Other usual precautions in counseling apply, but within the boundaries of accepted practice, whether differences in therapeutic style produce different outcomes is an open, empirical question, and will depend largely on the character of the client in question. Further detail is probably beyond the scope of this answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;- Beck, A. T. (1976). &lt;em&gt;Cognitive therapies and emotional disorders&lt;/em&gt;. New York: New American Library.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Burns, D. D. (1980). &lt;em&gt;Feeling good: The new mood therapy&lt;/em&gt;. New York: New American Library.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Grohol, J. (2009). 15 common cognitive distortions. &lt;em&gt;Psych Central.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved on March 7, 2014, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/lib/15-common-cognitive-distortions/0002153&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psychcentral.com/lib/15-common-cognitive-distortions/0002153&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Trader, A. (2011). A meeting of minds. &lt;em&gt;Cultivating the garden of the heart: Patristic counsel and cognitive techniques for schema reconstruction&lt;/em&gt; (1st ed., chapter 9, pp. 217–250). Peter Lang Publishing. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oodegr.com/english/psyxotherap/cognitive_therapy.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.oodegr.com/english/psyxotherap/cognitive_therapy.htm&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;P.S. Thanks Andréa!&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-01-02T19:49:05.477" LastActivityDate="2019-01-02T19:49:05.477" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="5927" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5940" CreationDate="2014-03-08T10:24:11.490" Score="6" ViewCount="1040" Body="&lt;p&gt;When speaking, I hear my own voice &lt;strong&gt;very&lt;/strong&gt; differently from how others do and from what it really is. The sound differs in tone, pitch, volume, etc. For example, recordings of my singing or speaking in foreign languages sounded a lot worse than what I heard in my own head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that a popular phenomenon? Or is that a &quot;syndrome&quot;, and which parts of sensation and perception are unusual? Last, is it modifiable? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4555" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-10T06:00:08.563" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T15:34:03.140" Title="Why does your recorded or objective voice sound different to what you hear in your own head?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5928" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-08T10:56:49.880" Score="4" ViewCount="233" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am confused by the following. Apparently the resting potential of -65mV is reached when the two forces, diffusion and electrical gradient are in equilibrium. So why does the book say &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The electrical potential difference across the membrane [..] charge is maintained by the work of the ion pumps.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why should it be &quot;maintained by the pumps&quot; if it is an equilibrium anyway?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One possible answer I can imagine is: the equilibrium is too unstable and so the pumps are stabilizing it. But I have no idea if this is correct. Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4556" LastActivityDate="2015-10-10T00:04:37.300" Title="The function of pumps in forming the resting potential" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5929" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5928" CreationDate="2014-03-08T11:30:48.543" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You're on the right track: it is a dynamic equilibrium that must be maintained actively, not a chemically automatic equilibrium that occurs passively (without biological action). Excerpts from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_potential#Resting_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Values of resting membrane potential in most animal cells usually vary between the potassium reversal potential (usually around -80 mV) and around -40 mV. The resting potential in excitable cells (capable of producing action potentials) is usually near -60 mV—&lt;strong&gt;more depolarized voltages would lead to spontaneous generation of action potentials&lt;/strong&gt;. Immature or undifferentiated cells show highly variable values of resting voltage, usually significantly more positive than in differentiated cells.&lt;sup&gt;[23]&lt;/sup&gt; In such cells, the resting potential value correlates with the degree of differentiation: undifferentiated cells in some cases &lt;strong&gt;may not show any transmembrane voltage difference at all&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maintenance of the resting potential can be metabolically costly for a cell because of its requirement for &lt;strong&gt;active pumping of ions to counteract losses due to leakage channels&lt;/strong&gt;. The cost is highest when the cell function requires an especially depolarized value of membrane voltage. For example, the resting potential in daylight-adapted blowfly (Calliphora vicina) photoreceptors can be as high as -30 mV.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC2229225/pdf/jg1043593.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[24]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; This elevated membrane potential allows the cells to respond very rapidly to visual inputs; the cost is that maintenance of the resting potential &lt;strong&gt;may consume more than 20% of overall cellular ATP&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v1/n1/full/nn0598_36.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[25]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, the high resting potential in undifferentiated cells can be a metabolic advantage. This apparent paradox is resolved by examination of the origin of that resting potential. Little-differentiated cells are characterized by extremely high input resistance,&lt;sup&gt;[23]&lt;/sup&gt; which implies that few leakage channels are present at this stage of cell life. As an apparent result, potassium permeability becomes similar to that for sodium ions, which places resting potential in-between the reversal potentials for sodium and potassium as discussed above. The &lt;strong&gt;reduced leakage currents also mean there is little need for active pumping in order to compensate, therefore low metabolic cost&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;sub&gt;[Emphasis added.]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus it turns out that resting potential is an interesting, functionally variable quality of different cells, and sometimes costs quite a bit of energy to maintain!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[23]&lt;/sup&gt; Magnuson, D. S., Morassutti, D. J., Staines, W. A., McBurney, M. W., &amp;amp; Marshall, K. C. (1995). In vivo electrophysiological maturation of neurons derived from a multipotent precursor (embryonal carcinoma) cell line. &lt;em&gt;Developmental Brain Research, 84&lt;/em&gt;(1), 130–141.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[24]&lt;/sup&gt; Juusola, M., Kouvalainen, E., Järvilehto, M., &amp;amp; Weckström, M. (1994). Contrast gain, signal-to-noise ratio, and linearity in light-adapted blowfly photoreceptors. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of General Physiology, 104&lt;/em&gt;(3), 593–621. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC2229225/pdf/jg1043593.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC2229225/pdf/jg1043593.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[25]&lt;/sup&gt; Laughlin, S. B., van Steveninck, R. R. D. R., &amp;amp; Anderson, J. C. (1998). The metabolic cost of neural information. &lt;em&gt;Nature Neuroscience, 1&lt;/em&gt;(1), 36–41. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v1/n1/full/nn0598_36.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v1/n1/full/nn0598_36.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-03-08T11:30:48.543" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5931" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-09T00:31:51.687" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there studies on the beliefs of polemical people? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone tried to classify the most common beliefs behind the automatic thoughts of polemical people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-09T01:02:46.993" LastActivityDate="2014-03-09T01:02:46.993" Title="Beliefs of polemical people" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T19:03:57.243" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5933" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5935" CreationDate="2014-03-09T08:24:49.350" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;After doing a home remodel, I leaned that within the interior design community, most professionals refer to their work by the &quot;&lt;strong&gt;vibe&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;, &quot;&lt;strong&gt;energy&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;strong&gt;feeling&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; their design of a room (or house) creates, within the individual occupying the property.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A simple example, a &lt;a href=&quot;http://hookedonhouses.net/2011/11/30/jack-hannas-cozy-log-cabin-in-montana/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wood log cabin designed home&lt;/a&gt; creates a very different &quot;feel/vibe&quot; than a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.houseplans.com/plan/3146-square-feet-4-bedrooms-2-5-bathroom-modern-house-plan-2-garage-37342&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sleek modern home.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitively speaking, what exactly is this &quot;vibe&quot; and &quot;energy&quot; that is referred to and what is happening within an individual that causes it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, are some people more sensitive to the &quot;vibe&quot; the environment gives off and why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help is appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastActivityDate="2014-03-09T11:43:39.440" Title="What is the cognitive mechanism that creates strong feelings, from environmental organization and appearance?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5934" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9640" CreationDate="2014-03-09T08:25:12.290" Score="4" ViewCount="1565" Body="&lt;p&gt;When people laugh, the most common sound is &quot;ha&quot;, while some may &quot;ho&quot; or &quot;he&quot;. When do people pick this up when they grow, or is this just natural?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people laugh differently again, but I tend to believe they are just acting, not naturally letting it out, just so they feel different from others. Is this true? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4565" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-10T05:43:00.510" LastActivityDate="2015-03-28T13:39:02.650" Title="Why do most people laugh with a &quot;ha&quot; sound?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5933" CreationDate="2014-03-09T11:43:39.440" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't take these terms too literally. I'm no interior designer, so I can't really rule out special meanings within the trade, but my impression of common usage is that these are informal, rough synonyms for the emotions evoked by the aesthetic characteristics of an environment. Urban Dictionary may be an unlikely source for an authoritative &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=vibe&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;definition of &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;vibe&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, but I'm inclined to endorse this particular definition anyway:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Noun)A distinctive emotional atmosphere; sensed intuitively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;It gave me a nostalgic vibe&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&amp;quot;That man gives off bad vibes&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From this, it's apparent that emotions and intuition play a role in &amp;quot;vibe&amp;quot; perception. Emotion is fairly basic in phenomenology, so it seems sufficient to say that stimuli that provoke emotion can thus be said to possess or influence &amp;quot;vibes&amp;quot;. The additional specification of intuition implies to me that the experience is somewhat beyond the person's complete, rational comprehension. Maybe some subjective sense of confusion, uncertainty, or non-rational (though not necessarily &lt;em&gt;irrational&lt;/em&gt;) processing is also inherent in the experience of a &amp;quot;vibe&amp;quot;. As a snide aside, there's at least some confusion implicit in the misapplication of vibration and (electromagnetic? thermal? paranormal?) &amp;quot;energy&amp;quot; as metaphors for aesthetic &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;qualia&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. This is probably the philosophical equivalent of what they mean to say, and much more carefully defined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IMHO, your second question is much more interesting. Indeed some people may be more sensitive to &amp;quot;vibes&amp;quot; or qualia. A lesser-known personality trait I've always found really fascinating is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;absorption&lt;/a&gt;. It subsumes several interesting tendencies involving attention responsiveness and regulation, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Intensity of experiences, both real and imagined&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Capacity for the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;flow&lt;/em&gt; experience&lt;/a&gt; of deep task engagement and loss of self-awareness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Susceptibility to hypnotism, daydreaming, nightmares, and psychopharmacological effects&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Absorption relates strongly to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openness_to_experience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;openness&lt;/a&gt;, which is much better known as a personality trait. Supposedly composed of six facets (these are somewhat more a matter of debate), openness relates to absorption primarily through the fantasy, feelings, and aesthetics facets &lt;sup&gt;(Glisky, Tataryn, Tobias, Kihlstrom, &amp;amp; McConkey, 1991)&lt;/sup&gt;. Again, I can't say for sure, but I'd bet that these feelings and aesthetics facets would be particularly relevant to individual differences in the sort of sensitivity you have in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Glisky, M. L., Tataryn, D. J., Tobias, B. A., Kihlstrom, J. F., &amp;amp; McConkey, K. M. (1991). Absorption, openness to experience, and hypnotizability. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60&lt;/em&gt;(2), 263–272.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-03-09T11:43:39.440" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5938" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-09T17:49:25.420" Score="5" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive science holds that smell is the sense that has the strongest ability to trigger memories. It is discussed in awe. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We see anecdotes such as the sudden striking memory of sitting in your grandmothers kitchen when you were 6 - because you have just smelled the same scent of the food she cooked (30 years later). Has anyone been using scent timed with instruction to improve performance? I am only seeing studies of the effect of certain smells (peppermint, cinnamon, etc) on the neural activity of lab rats being watched with fMRI. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any research in which a control group (no smells) performed worse than an experimental group (had smells during learning and testing?)&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4568" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T03:27:35.477" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T03:27:35.477" Title="Is there any research showing success of teaching with smell?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5940" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5927" CreationDate="2014-03-10T07:53:19.220" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this is not a psychological syndrome but just a reflection of the physical procesces. As such it might not be on-topic for this site. Having this said, here is a quick answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you hear your own while speaking, the sound source is in a different place than it is, when you hear a recording of your voice through a loudspeaker. In addition, when you hear your own voice while speaking, you not only hear the sound that is &quot;in the air&quot;, but you also have the vibrations from within your body, which is an additional sound source. Others don&quot;t have the additional source. So these two factors alone make for a very different sound quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides, not every recording of your voice sounds the same. Now, I am sure there are a lot of psychological processes at work, when your hear a recording of your own voice. Unfortunately I don't know about these. But for example the position of the microphone will greatly affect the sound of the recording. Any musician who has tried to record himself will attest to that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't be so sure, though, that the recording sounds worse than your &quot;real voice&quot;. That's probably just a your subjective perspective. I also found it interesting that you talk about how your voice &quot;really is&quot;. I think that the sound of your voice that you hear while speaking and the sound of your voice that others hear when they listen to you are both instances of your voice as it really is, just from different perspectives, whereas on a recording you could actually change the sound of your voice by means of a lot of different sound effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="695" LastActivityDate="2014-03-10T07:53:19.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5941" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8868" CreationDate="2014-03-10T16:43:34.847" Score="14" ViewCount="54115" Body="&lt;p&gt;As per the title, why is it some days it just feels like a day can go so fast, yet other days can feel slow? Every day has the same amount of hours, minutes and seconds after all. What is the actual science behind our state of mind when we feel like this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4574" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-11T01:39:04.550" LastActivityDate="2019-11-26T03:40:05.543" Title="Why do some days feel fast and others feel slow?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5942" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5919" CreationDate="2014-03-10T17:11:29.747" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You'll be interested in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where_Mathematics_Comes_From&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Where Mathematics Comes From&lt;/a&gt;, by George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez. Lakoff &amp;amp; Núñez argue that all of our mathematical concepts are based on some kind of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_metaphor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conceptual metaphor&lt;/a&gt;, where we take the rules of a domain that we understand intuitively and apply them into a new, mathematical context. For example, the concept of &amp;quot;motion along a path&amp;quot; gives us the concept of a number line, which in turn provides a natural way to think about negative numbers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, this metaphor provides a natural extension to negative numbers - let the origin be somewhere on a pathway extending indefinitely in both directions. The negative numbers will be the point-locations on the other side of zero from the positive numbers along the same path. This extension was explicitly made by Rafael Bombelli in the second half of the sixteenth century. In Bombelli's extension of the point-location metaphor for numbers, positive numbers, zero, and negative numbers are all point-locations on a line. This made it commonplace for European mathematicians to think and speak of the concept of a number &lt;em&gt;lying between&lt;/em&gt; two other numbers - as in &lt;em&gt;zero lies between minus one and one&lt;/em&gt;. Conceptualizing all (real) numbers metaphorically as point-locations on the same line was crucial to providing a uniform understanding of number. These days, it is hard to imagine that there was ever a time when such a metaphor was not commonly accepted by mathematicians! (Lakoff &amp;amp; Núñez, p. 73)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lakoff &amp;amp; Núñez explicitly argue that all of human mathematics is created by the application of human-specific cognitive machinery and culture, and that the mathematics of an alien species might look very different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following references might or might not be useful for purposes of metamathematics, but mentioning them anyway since I happen to have them at hand from a course on number cognition that I took some years back: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627306009895&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Piazza et al. (2007)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1626588/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brannon (2006)&lt;/a&gt; on how numbers are represented in the brain, &lt;a href=&quot;http://hum.uchicago.edu/ck0/kennedy/classes/s09/experimentalsemantics/carey04.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carey (2004)&lt;/a&gt; on how children come to learn the concept of integers, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.letras.ufrj.br/poslinguistica/recursion/papers/18-frank-et-al.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frank et al. (2008)&lt;/a&gt; on numbers as a cognitive technology, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://hum.uchicago.edu/ck0/kennedy/classes/s09/experimentalsemantics/gallistel-etal05.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gallistel et al. (2006)&lt;/a&gt; for an argument that real numbers rather than integers are what the brain represents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally I also think that an extraordinarily interesting paper is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627307007593&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dehaene &amp;amp; Cohen (2007)&lt;/a&gt;, which argues that the existence of specialized neuronal circuitry for purposes such as arithmetic and reading is possible because our culture has managed to &amp;quot;hijack&amp;quot; pre-existing circuits which originally evolved for other purposes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neuronal recycling hypothesis consists of the following postulates:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Human brain organization is subject to strong anatomical and connectional constraints inherited from evolution. Organized neural maps are present early on in infancy and bias subsequent learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cultural acquisitions (e.g., reading) must find their “neuronal niche,” a set of circuits that are sufficiently close to the required function and sufficiently plastic as to reorient a significant fraction of their neural resources to this novel use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;As cortical territories dedicated to evolutionarily older functions are invaded by novel cultural objects, their prior organization is never entirely erased. Thus, prior neural constraints exert a powerful influence on cultural acquisition and adult organization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you accepted these postulates, then arguably the neural constraints of the older circuits might considerably bias the way that human mathematics is carried out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brannon, E.M. (2006) The representation of numerical magnitude. Curr Opin Neurobiol. Apr 2006; 16(2): 222–229. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1626588/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1626588/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carey, S. (2004) Bootstrapping &amp;amp; the origin of concepts. Daedalus, Winter 2004. &lt;a href=&quot;http://hum.uchicago.edu/ck0/kennedy/classes/s09/experimentalsemantics/carey04.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://hum.uchicago.edu/ck0/kennedy/classes/s09/experimentalsemantics/carey04.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dehaene, S. &amp;amp; Cohen, L. (2007) Cultural Recycling of Cortical Maps. Neuron, Volume 56, Issue 2, Pages 384–398. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627307007593&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627307007593&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frank, M.C. &amp;amp; Everett, D.L. &amp;amp; Fedorenko, E. &amp;amp; Gibson, E. (2008) Number as a cognitive technology: Evidence from Pirahã language and cognition. Cognition 108, 819-824. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.letras.ufrj.br/poslinguistica/recursion/papers/18-frank-et-al.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.letras.ufrj.br/poslinguistica/recursion/papers/18-frank-et-al.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gallistel, C.R. &amp;amp; Gelman, R. &amp;amp; Cordes, S. (2006) The Cultural and Evolutionary History of the Real Numbers. Culture and evolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. &lt;a href=&quot;http://hum.uchicago.edu/ck0/kennedy/classes/s09/experimentalsemantics/gallistel-etal05.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://hum.uchicago.edu/ck0/kennedy/classes/s09/experimentalsemantics/gallistel-etal05.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lakoff, G. &amp;amp; Núñez, R.E. (2001) Where Mathematics Come From: How The Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics Into Being. Basic Books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piazza, M. &amp;amp; Pinel, P. &amp;amp; Bihan, D.L. &amp;amp; Dehaene, S. (2007) A Magnitude Code Common&#xA;to Numerosities and Number Symbols in Human Intraparietal Cortex. Neuron 53, 293–305. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627306009895&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627306009895&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="262" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-03-10T17:11:29.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5944" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5927" CreationDate="2014-03-11T11:03:21.433" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Jens&lt;/code&gt;' answer is pretty much spot on, but misses the fact, remembered from my undergraduate lectures, that your ears actually partially 'turn off' when you speak (or chew), in what's called the stapedius reflex (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_reflex#Vocalization-induced_stapedius_reflex&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most common reference I've seen for this is Møller (2000), which unfortunately is a book, but I'm sure more information could be found with a little digging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reference&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Møller, Aage (2000). Hearing: It's Physiology and Pathophysiology (illustrated ed.). Academic Press. pp. 181–90.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-03-11T11:03:21.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5945" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-11T18:13:46.207" Score="8" ViewCount="48873" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am writing a novel and was wondering if there was a specific term for someone unable to express his own emotions or feelings. The catch here is, this doesn't mean he doesn't know what anger or love is for example, but just can't express it through his own body language. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main idea is someone like a method actor for example might have so much experience taking on a certain role and become so good at adopting other personalities and portraying them, that he has forgotten how to be himself. While he might be a expert at taking on the role of a scared child for example, when confronted with something fear inducing out of character, he simply can't express it whether verbally or physically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example might be someone unable to express happiness, but when given dolls or sock puppets, he can very easily show happiness and mood through the puppet/doll. The only issue is expressing this through his own body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If any of you have seen the TV show &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroes_%28TV_series%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hereos&lt;/a&gt;, there is a character called &lt;a href=&quot;http://heroeswiki.com/Sylar&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sylar&lt;/a&gt; who has the power to steal other peoples abilities. This is all fine and dandy, but once he steals the ability to shape shift, he starts to lose a sense of who he is. While he can transform and impersonate other people flawlessly, each time he does so he seemed to lose a sense of who he was originally. Essentially, he slowly starts to forget how to be himself. This seems to be the best example I can think of that I've seen on TV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In essence, I'm looking for a better way to describe what I've listed above in a way other than just 'someone who has trouble expressing emotion'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4132" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-02T01:18:04.340" LastActivityDate="2016-04-07T16:44:39.843" Title="Is there a term to describe an inability to express emotion or feelings?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5946" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-12T06:47:23.557" Score="4" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is a sinoatrial node action potential (AP) considered a Ca2+ dependent (No Na+) action potential? &#xA;I was under the understanding that Ca2+ dependent APs were present only in Purkinje and endocrine cells, while cardiac and skeletal myocytes elicited Na+/Ca2+ dependent APs. But I am not sure which category sinoatrial node APs fall under. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4581" LastActivityDate="2014-03-25T08:53:36.667" Title="Is pacemaker action potential considered a calcium dependent or sodium/calcium dependent?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5947" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-12T12:46:21.657" Score="4" ViewCount="651" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any open software to support a visualization category learning experiment? It should be open-source, and I can add more functions designed by myself to implement this experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4583" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-12T16:25:22.007" LastActivityDate="2014-05-13T02:42:34.670" Title="Free software to run online visual category learning experiment" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5949" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-12T15:16:40.697" Score="6" ViewCount="223" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a book that people with Asperger's can read to better understand their diagnosis and how to cooperate with people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user4527" LastEditorDisplayName="user4527" LastEditDate="2014-03-18T18:07:56.603" LastActivityDate="2014-05-17T20:10:20.253" Title="Book about Asperger's for Asperger's" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5950" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-12T15:54:23.187" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question occured to me as I was walking along the street today. I saw two fashionable-looking women on the street ahead of me. One of them pointed to something outside of my field of view, and said &quot;Oh look, Katy's Boutique!&quot; When I turned to look, I saw no boutique, but I did see a branch of the bank HSBC, which made me realize that the woman must have said &quot;Oh look, HSBC!&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, maybe I'm wrong here, but I can't imagine that I would have heard &quot;Katy's Boutique&quot; if I had seen two men rather than two women. It seems that my preconceptions caused me to interpret the same stimuli differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have any studies been done on this? How well known is the effect, and can we say anything quantitative about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4589" LastActivityDate="2014-03-12T15:54:23.187" Title="What is known about how visual stimuli / preconceptions influence auditory perception?" Tags="&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-07-30T19:58:56.870" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5952" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5953" CreationDate="2014-03-12T18:17:20.963" Score="15" ViewCount="2576" Body="&lt;p&gt;The sentence could look as a provocation for many people, but the thoughts are not always rational and linear. But why this happens? Is it possible to give a short answer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;Counter to what you might think consciously, few people are really persuaded by logical and rational arguments&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gLFhCrTt-ZA&amp;amp;t=1m20s&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gLFhCrTt-ZA&amp;amp;t=1m20s&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-13T05:17:58.763" LastActivityDate="2016-04-09T02:44:59.693" Title="Why are most people not persuaded by rational arguments?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5953" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5952" CreationDate="2014-03-12T19:07:09.830" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may be thinking of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://youarenotsosmart.com/2011/06/10/the-backfire-effect/&quot;&gt;Backfire Effect&lt;/a&gt;. When presented with logical and rational evidence disputing a strongly-held belief, most people's natural tendency is to hold on even tighter to those beliefs rather than to reassess their position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; it happens... that's a matter of some debate (surprise, surprise), but the general thinking seems to be that it's a mental reaction to avoid cognitive dissonance. The page I linked contains references to several studies on the subject, though as you might expect, the results vary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4591" LastActivityDate="2014-03-12T19:07:09.830" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5955" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5968" CreationDate="2014-03-12T20:44:54.607" Score="-2" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Carnegie&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dale Carnegie&lt;/a&gt; was the developer of famous courses in&#xA;  self-improvement, salesmanship, corporate training, public speaking,&#xA;  and interpersonal skills. He was the author of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Win_Friends_and_Influence_People&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How to Win Friends and&#xA;  Influence People (1936)&lt;/a&gt;, a massive bestseller that remains popular&#xA;  today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thesis explained in the book are really well synthesized in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Carnegie&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Don't criticize, condemn, or complain. Give honest and sincere&#xA;  appreciation. Smile. Remember that a person's name is, to that person,&#xA;  the sweetest and most important sound in any language. Be a good&#xA;  listener. Encourage others to talk about themselves. Talk in terms of&#xA;  the other person's interest. Make the other person feel important –&#xA;  and do it sincerely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The strategies don't talk about telling the truth, presenting rational arguments, and citing the sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive Psychology explains the reasons behind this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Confirmation bias&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Backfire Effect&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;self-serving bias&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Rationalization&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cognitive dissonance&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these terms suggest that changing people's ideas requires an effort in a direction that is not &lt;em&gt;rational&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why is it hard to change other's people beliefs?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it true that marketing strategies are more effective than rational argument in changing other's beliefs?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Refer also to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5952/why-are-most-people-not-persuaded-by-rational-arguments&quot;&gt;Why are most people not persuaded by rational arguments?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5878/which-are-consequences-of-confirmation-bias&quot;&gt;Which is the scientific name of stubbornness?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5851/why-isnt-psychotherapy-more-direct-with-patients&quot;&gt;Why isn&amp;#39;t psychotherapy more direct with patients?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5825/how-to-refer-to-the-phenomenon-of-people-only-absorbing-evidence-which-confirms&quot;&gt;How to refer to the phenomenon of people only absorbing evidence which confirms their beliefs?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-14T11:45:08.860" Title="Is it hard to change people's beliefs without resorting to marketing techniques? And if so, why?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5957" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5952" CreationDate="2014-03-13T01:24:42.640" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not a cognitive science expert, but I happen to have some experience in change management / trying to convince people. There are in fact a lot of &lt;em&gt;logical&lt;/em&gt; reasons for refusing logical and rational arguments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose someone tries to share an idea with you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will pass on the very obvious problems of &quot;not befitting my interest&quot; / &quot;triggering culpability&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A VERY common problem is the fallacy that, &quot;If I am wrong, then my opponent is right.&quot; If you hate your opponent (or whatever maybe impolite person is trying to tell you to change your ideas, e.g. your &quot;bad way of living&quot;, or arrogantly seeing you as a miseducated inferior), then you'd rather die than accept that idea, which would $\rightarrow$ (fallacy) prove him right and thus $\rightarrow$ (fallacy) superior to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another common problem (colleagues!) is, &quot;I must show I'm the most intelligent.&quot; If someone tries to challenge one of your ideas, then it $\rightarrow$ (fallacy) makes him more intelligent than you, since $\rightarrow$ (fallacy) you were wrong. You will then try to find whatever counter-argument you can to prove him wrong, (fallacy) $\rightarrow$ thus reasserting yourself as more intelligent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another common but more subtle problem is that we all unconsiously build a representation of the world so that we can think on how to adapt to it (evolution). And of course we stabilize this representation when it fits correctly $=$ when we are in no immediate danger &lt;em&gt;and also&lt;/em&gt; when we are in a comfortable position ;) Example: &quot;The society rules are that people who adhere to the dominant opinion are more likely to succeed&quot; (adaptation to environment) $+$ &quot;People who don't share this dominant opinion are fascists/integrists/extremists, etc., who are a minority anyway&quot; (rationalization of why I adhere to it, advantageous position). Now suppose that an idea challenges your representation of the world. Then it implies $\rightarrow$ that you are no longer in a superior position, and $\rightarrow$ that the rules of the world may not be what you thought, and that $\rightarrow$ you may be bad at understanding the world, thus in a weak position for planning corrective actions ($=$ adapting). Such a calling into question is incredibly painful! To evolve from this situation, one needs to experience full grief (as in &quot;Five Stages of Grief&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I speak from experience. I once had the mindset, &quot;Rules of the world are following religion X&quot; $+$ &quot;Those who don't follow religion X are pagans/heretics/whatever bad people&quot; (but it's the same even outside religion). The challenge was when I realized after an event that $1)$ I was not that good, and $2)$ &quot;pagans/heretics&quot; were actually better than me on this subject. This triggered a very painful 5-stage grief process over more than 6 months where I suffered a lot before re-establishing a new, more correct vision of the world fitting those new pieces. I still needed a few years to fully unwrap things. From my experience, it seems I was lucky to be able to do that since it's not a given (cf. all possible failures of the 5-stages). And seeing backward, it was not the fault of religion X at all. I had built this simple and a bad representation myself to avoid facing some unpleasant truths.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another common problem is the incorrect mixing of opinions and culture, which fallaciously leads to: idea challenged $\rightarrow$ (fallacy) culture challenged $\rightarrow$ (fallacy) our identity is challenged $\rightarrow$ (fallacy) our ancestor's work and worth challenged. Who would want that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you should understand is that the mind needs some security and self-confidence. All the mechanisms I exposed are mostly subconscious and argument rejection results mostly from an auto-defense of the mind, though we still &lt;em&gt;have&lt;/em&gt; partial control over it. (I'm sure you have examples of people who honestly face the truth and others who never want to face it.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you encounter people that have realized all those points, discussion is easy even if you are not polite or your ideas are not well refined. They will look at the good points, accept the ideas and even help you refine your ideas. This is how everyone should be!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For other people, I've found that challenging ideas is better done when:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;you are polite and non-threatening&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;you first outline the strength and qualities of the people you speak to their culture $+$ their ancestors &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;you clearly separate the challenged ideas from culture and show similar idea change by good/respected people in their own culture &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;as much as possible you make the new idea look like it comes from themselves.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oh, and one last thing: humility. Everyone trying to spread an idea obviously thinks of it as &quot;logical and rational&quot;, so if it's not accepted $\rightarrow$ (wrong!) it means that people are not rational $\rightarrow$ (wrong!) people need to be reeducated $\rightarrow$ (wrong!) there are some horrible opponents who fight my ideas, I must suppress them. Such thoughts led and are still leading to atrocities. Maybe it's just you who are wrong, illogical and irrational ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4596" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-13T03:06:32.013" LastActivityDate="2014-03-13T03:06:32.013" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5958" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5952" CreationDate="2014-03-13T05:31:15.507" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some generalizations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Because Enlightenment-era rationality, with its values of liberalism and rationality and progress, has a very bad (read: hypocritical) historical track record of irrational, inegalitarian, maximally exploitative colonialism. Phrenology and Orientalism are among its crown jewels. The first chapter of Immanuel Wallerstein's &lt;em&gt;World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction&lt;/em&gt;, dedicated entirely to post-Enlightenment knowledge-structures, is a very good read on this.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Because all too often in relationships, &quot;rationality&quot; is a fantastic card to play for manipulative, abusive boyfriends/girlfriends everywhere. &lt;em&gt;Captain Awkward&lt;/em&gt; is a fantastic blog for this, search its entries for &quot;rational&quot; sometime.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Because rationality is often a function of education, and education is often a function of wealth.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Because the true rationalist and the true narcissist both claim to be completely rational. Rationality is a &lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt; widely held virtue, for better &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; for worse.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Because the Newtonian/Euclidean/Cartesian foundations of our understanding of the world are in serious question right now, in this era of quantum mechanics and chaos theory. What if the universe &lt;em&gt;itself&lt;/em&gt; was irrational? Nonrational? Extrarational?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People aren't stupid. An intuitive distrust of the institutions associated with &quot;rationality&quot; isn't necessarily irrational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4599" LastEditorUserId="4599" LastEditDate="2014-03-13T05:50:26.000" LastActivityDate="2014-03-13T05:50:26.000" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5959" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-13T09:31:13.433" Score="6" ViewCount="771" Body="&lt;p&gt;Following a question on UX.Stackexchange about &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/53839/analog-clock-or-digital-clock-to-tell-the-time&quot;&gt;whether or not to use an analog or digital clock on a website from a user-interface perspective&lt;/a&gt; it occurs to me that there is probably a psychological difference between using one or the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My hypothesis is that it takes longer to know the time when reading digital instead of analog because as children we are taught to understand time via analog clocks (5 past, half past, quarter to etc) so when confronted with a digital clock we have to do some internal calculations to convert from digital numbers into a mental analog clock before we actually understand what the time is. (&lt;em&gt;&quot;07:47, ok so if 07:45 is quarter-to that means it's now half-way between quarter-to and ten-to eight...&quot;&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I'm aware this may just be my own internal process I'm citing rather than being how people in general use clocks so I'm interested to know if my hypothesis is actually supported / disproved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="665" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:32:22.230" LastActivityDate="2019-02-24T14:27:51.817" Title="Does it take more cognitive effort to tell the time when reading a digital clock instead of analog?" Tags="&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5961" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5959" CreationDate="2014-03-13T12:14:05.297" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer depends of course on the factors mentioned in the comments; however, one important factor to consider is the intended purpose of reading the clock. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An analog clock presents information in graphical form, in a similar way to how a pie chart might present information. This is opposed to a digital clock, which presents symbolic information, in a similar way to what might be found in a table of values.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cognitive Fit Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;According to research by Iris Vessey (&lt;em&gt;cognitive fit theory,&lt;/em&gt;) the least cognitive effort will be required when the presentation format of the data matches the intended cognitive use. Vessey's research shows that symoblic information, such as that presented by a digital clock, is best when one needs to evaluate a single number (for example, to answer the question &quot;What time is it now?&quot;).  On the other hand, graphical information, such as that presented by the analog clock, is best when one desires to make a comparison between different numbers (for example, to answer the question &quot;How much time has elapsed?&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, your example in the question (how much time has elapsed past the hour) is best answered with an analog clock, whereas if I want to know what time my alarm is set for, the digital clock on my cell phone is a better format.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I might argue that the analog clock format does not do a good job presenting the graphical information, but that is best saved for another paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2014-03-13T12:14:05.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5962" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6023" CreationDate="2014-03-13T16:28:09.240" Score="7" ViewCount="1070" Body="&lt;p&gt;In particular, theoretical and computational neuroscience seem to be synonymous with each other. Neuroinformatics at least seems to deal somewhat more with solving things numerically and the usage and creation of algorithms and programs.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4553" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T20:36:15.720" Title="What is the difference between computational neuroscience, theoretical neuroscience, and neuroinformatics (if there is one)?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5963" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5796" CreationDate="2014-03-13T20:44:37.103" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to put an answer based on my experience in training and coaching others. I used to shoot small video conversations (up to 5 min) and than we analyzed carefully. Analysis took up to 30-40 min. By doing this we could see every small emotional changes during argumentation/communication process.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After 2 years of such experience I can say that &lt;strong&gt;the most common mistakes are&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;when opponents are not ready to change their own position. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Competitive position provokes competition in 50% of cases. So if one wants to influence important to be open to others position. It is hard but really helps to establish partnership and trust. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;when opponents react and concentrate only at that things said by other you don't agree with. You listen until hearing something to disagree with then you stop listening and start arguing. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It increases stress. It is better to find things to which you both can agree. There are always some points but usually we forget about them especially under high emotions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;concentration on rational arguments while preparing to talk and while communicating.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By this you can forget about the person in front of you, about his/her emotional state which is more important than any rational arguments. He or she may be angry at you and hardly listen. To avoid this important to react at your opponents reactions. See him/her nodding or having sceptical grimace? Ask, talk about it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise its only in your own head you are a winner with the best arguments ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;when an object of discussion is not reconciled clearly. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Its important to clarify all the details: opponents positions, logics etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;dominating by using &quot;smart&quot; words, phrase constructions etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any type of dominating can provoke negative emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you start your communication with strong assumptions that someone beliefs are bad and wrong one can feel it and start to protect it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Partnership, openness, trust, respect, clarity helps to persuade others. The key is attention to emotions of your partner, we are not so rational as we wish to look like. &#xA;When you really want to understand him/her position it feels and that is where your dialog can start. It sounds simple and even as some basic stuff but it works both in persuading and in establishing good relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4519" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-03-18T13:01:03.277" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T13:01:03.277" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5964" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-14T05:19:37.957" Score="3" ViewCount="481" Body="&lt;p&gt;Today I learned that a sudden jerk that you sometimes experience when you are just about to fall asleep due to a sense of free-fall or weightlessness is&#xA;called a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnic_jerk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hypnic jerk&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If, while sleeping, I roll over to the edge of the bed, I feel free-fall &amp;amp; jerk up from sleep if I am about to topple down.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;But in case I am comfortably lying down in the middle of the bed with no chance of toppling down, how do I feel&#xA;weightlessness or free-fall when I am just about to fall asleep and jerk up, i.e. &lt;strong&gt;hypnic jerk&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;And not just on the bed; this is also experienced if you are sleeping on the ground where u cannot possibly physically fall.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A bit more research in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falling_sensation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Falling sensation&lt;/a&gt;  tells me its the ears &amp;amp; the eyes that sense the free-fall.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sensation of falling can be induced when the eyes detect rapid&#xA;  apparent motion with respect to the environment.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is this accounted for during sleep. Or is it something entirely different?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3221" LastEditorUserId="3221" LastEditDate="2014-03-14T06:06:56.417" LastActivityDate="2014-07-16T15:05:34.163" Title="How does the body experience free-fall during a hypnic jerk" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5966" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5967" CreationDate="2014-03-14T11:00:49.993" Score="2" ViewCount="557" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concept of fairness, in my opinion, is somehow defined by the concept of &lt;strong&gt;empathy&lt;/strong&gt; through some searches by &lt;em&gt;Daniel Goleman&lt;/em&gt; in his book &lt;em&gt;Social Intelligence&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book deals with &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;scientific measurement through MRI&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ethic&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;Moral&lt;/strong&gt; are also trying to define what is fair. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you give me some hint achieving a definition of what is fair? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i.e. why killing people, slavery, exploiting are not fair stuff?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2019-10-29T21:17:12.417" Title="Is there a scientific definition of &quot;fairness&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5966" CreationDate="2014-03-14T11:36:24.890" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd say that 'fairness' would be best treated as a narrow concept not encompassing the whole of empathy/ethics/morals, otherwise the term ceases to be specific and useful. I.e., something could be perceived as both cruel/evil but still fair/just; and harsh 'eye for eye' style punishments are perceived as fair in some cultures but still require some disconnect of empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uwlax.edu/faculty/giddings/ECO474/Week9/Fairness_KahnemanKnetschThaler1986.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;experiments of Kahneman and others such as the Dictator game&lt;/a&gt; are a good place to start - as this way can measure [an aspect of] fairness in a somewhat objective way and observe how the concept of fairness is different for different cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-14T11:36:24.890" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5968" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5955" CreationDate="2014-03-14T11:45:08.860" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Mu&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is like a tautology - &lt;em&gt;ALL&lt;/em&gt; effective ways of changing people's beliefs would automatically be valid marketing techniques, pretty much by definition. Marketing is not a subset of all possible techniques, it's a discipline on using all those for the specific purpose of marketing goods/services.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rational argument is also a classic marketing technique, in areas where you have a clear rational advantage over your competitors, you want to nudge customers to situations and environments where they would not be 'thinking emotionally', hear your rational argument clearly, and thus choose the way you want them to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-14T11:45:08.860" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5969" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5993" CreationDate="2014-03-14T12:41:25.327" Score="2" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some of us are often in hurry and always late. Some make mistakes while evaluating time-needs for tasks. How is our sense of time connected with our personality? Is it more correlated with the process we are involved in? How we can develop this sense so to make more of our time? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4519" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-24T03:15:18.200" LastActivityDate="2014-11-24T03:15:18.200" Title="Sense of time: Evaluation and correlation with psychological traits and states" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5970" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-14T13:33:21.250" Score="2" ViewCount="7720" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think I need to give evidence that people do seek acknowledgement; if it's not from parents, it's from lovers or friends. It can be things as big as life ambitions/achievements (e.g. 'I will support your dreams are!', to smaller things like acknowledging you understand ('I understand what you're going through').&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Possible pointers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What makes us seek acknowledgement? (evolutionarily-wired or socially-induced)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the process that turns this acknowledgement into a good feeling?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've come across a lot of blogs and opinions, I am interested in seeing if there's any scientific research on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4612" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-14T20:40:13.490" LastActivityDate="2014-04-30T21:45:18.150" Title="Why (and how) do people seek acknowledgement?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5972" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4644" CreationDate="2014-03-14T13:56:16.797" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To be honest I think it can be very beneficial. Mindfulness is not concentrating on thoughts; it's accepting and labeling thoughts so they can go away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, when someone feels anxiety coming up, they can label it as 'thoughts' and let it go. Labeling thoughts makes them emotionally neutral and stops more thinking about them, therefore it's much easier to let them go drift away. When you have labeled the thought, you should focus on how your belly moves with each breath, so you are totally in this moment again (mindfulness).&#xA;If you focus on or fight the thoughts, you will make them much worse (the 'don't think of a polar bear' principle).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress, panic, anxiety, and depression all have to do either with your past or your future; your past has happened and can't be changed, but your future has not happened yet and can be changed by acting this moment. So live in this moment! Enjoy everything you do, see, hear, feel, taste, and smell at this moment! Negative mental states can only occur by focusing on your past or future, and therefore you will not be able to enjoy the beauty of the present! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This way of thinking can be pretty helpful for schizophrenic patients, since depression, anxiety and stress (this can even trigger an episode) is very common amongst them. Maybe they can even let go of some 'positive symptoms' like delusions when they feel them coming up. Instead of indirectly investing in them by paying attention to them, just don't let the delusions develop. This can be very helpful in combination with a therapist specialised in reality-testing therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4613" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-14T20:31:59.777" LastActivityDate="2014-03-14T20:31:59.777" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5973" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-14T14:18:28.980" Score="5" ViewCount="24880" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is it about the sound of running water that soothes the brain and the soul?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what I found on the internet:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our species evolved where trees met savannahs and where freshwater&#xA;  sources were present. Our brains are deeply encoded with the love of&#xA;  water – we revel in the delicious feel and noise of burbling brooks…&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I personal think we LOVE the sounds of running water because inside&#xA;  the womb of our mothers, that's what we hear...along with the sounds&#xA;  of her beating heart. I was told that we hear the blood running&#xA;  through her veins in utero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4321" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-11T09:01:22.027" LastActivityDate="2017-12-11T09:01:22.027" Title="Why is the sound of running water soothing?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5975" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6259" CreationDate="2014-03-15T00:20:11.533" Score="6" ViewCount="321" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some time ago I &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3675/what-is-the-difference-between-drug-withdrawal-and-sleep-deprivation-effects&quot;&gt;opened a question comparing drug withdrawal and sleep deprivation symptoms&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, my main objective for that question was to know if there was by any chance, a possibility to live without sleeping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I got a good answer for the “Why we need sleep?” question, mentioning all the injuries that its deprivation causes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So here are my current questions :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What really happens in our brain during sleep that makes us feel much more &quot;light&quot; when we wake up and that its deprivation kills us? Is it memory cleanup?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any research done on the reproduction of those “cleanup” processes without sleeping?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3157" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-01-17T05:23:16.857" Title="Is it possible to induce the processes that occur during sleep such as memory &quot;garbage collection&quot; without actually sleeping?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5976" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5973" CreationDate="2014-03-15T00:40:26.217" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the answer to this is on a question I did some time ago:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4167/why-does-being-in-a-natural-environment-induce-some-kind-of-peace-state-while&quot;&gt;Why does being in a natural environment induce some kind of &amp;quot;peace&amp;quot; state while mecha/tech ones induce the opposite?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We feel relaxed when listening to the sound of water, because we associate the sound to something like a beautiful waterfall, and to waterfalls/nature, the majority of us will associate peace, water has always been good to us, drinking water for example. Another example of &quot;the things we use to consider good are the things that make us feel good&quot; is the sound of birds telling there is no danger around, as Randy mentions in his answer to that question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3157" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-07-22T10:20:29.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5977" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5952" CreationDate="2014-03-15T06:59:28.173" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not an expert, but I have given this question a fair bit of thought. I would suggest that the tendency to oppose rational arguments in favor of maintaining beliefs depends upon what beliefs we are speaking of. There are many beliefs that do change, but these tend to revolve around mere fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you look at deeper belief, much of it is based upon self image. People often decide what type of person they are (or want to be) and then adopt the beliefs they think that type of person is supposed to have, complete with the standard rationales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, when you challenge their belief, you are not just challenging some rational thought, but rather challenging how their world works and who they are. When that happens, there is considerable cognitive dissonance, and people start doing mental gymnastics to find a way out of the situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2014-03-15T06:59:28.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5978" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5796" CreationDate="2014-03-15T07:04:53.493" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the most part, you don't change people's beliefs. When deeply held beliefs change, it is often due to a change in self image and often triggers further change in self image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, asking someone to change deeply held beliefs is tantamount to asking them to change who they are. I agree with the previous replies that you should really question your desire to change someone at that level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2014-03-15T07:04:53.493" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5979" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4954" CreationDate="2014-03-15T07:45:17.853" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the physics(acoustics) perspective, the sensory input changes depending upon pitch. When you hear a sound that is high-pitched, your head blocks the sound wave, creating a sound shadow for the ear on the opposite side of your head from the sound source. This sound shadow means that your ears hear the sound at two different volumes, which the brain then uses to calculate direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For low-pitched sound, the distance between your ears creates a phase difference between the sound perceived in each ear. And that phase difference indicates sound direction. If I understand your question, it centered upon the brain's processing of this phase difference information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For mixed-pitch sounds, you utilize both, which makes complex sounds even easier to locate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2014-03-15T07:45:17.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5980" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5921" CreationDate="2014-03-15T08:06:12.233" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have an anecdotal answer with regard to learning Physics. I sat in on a colloquium where a Physics professor discussed his experience with a course that was taught completely through experimentation. Students had to derive their learning of Physics completely through semi-guided experiments, and no lecture. In the beginning of the course, the professor reports that students found the process very tedious. However, as they got the knack for experimentation, they enjoyed it more, and retained their learning exceptionally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case, I think that struggle can lead to better learning. If you personally derive a concept from first hand experimentation, you are very likely to remember it. In that case, you are not learning science, you are learning to be a scientist. That distinction between learning about versus learning to be almost always deepens understanding, and consequently recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, this does not apply to struggle for struggle sake. It seems likely that there are some teaching methods that require students to struggle, and actually work. Yet there may be other methods where the struggle is fruitless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2014-03-15T08:06:12.233" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5921" CreationDate="2014-03-15T14:02:43.430" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me begin by saying that the answer is nowhere near as simple as you or I would like it to be. There are several reasons for this, but the main reason is that there are myriad ways that students can struggle through the material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I became interested in this subject when I was a graduate teaching assistant in the Industrial Engineering program at Iowa State. One of the classes that I taught dealt with the concept of measurement variation, which inescapably includes several important statistical concepts, which to me (having had four advanced statistics/methods courses) were painfully obvious; however, my students had no hope whatsoever.  When lab report grading time came around, I was very disappointed to see that even my brightest students completely missed the point of the experiment, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;sarcasm&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; despite my obviously brilliant instruction &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;/sarcasm&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I set out to do research and conduct experiments into exactly &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; my students had trouble with this material.  I've written two papers on the subject (with a third in-work).  Here are some of my general findings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The learning process depends upon the learner (pre-existing knowledge and conceptions), the material (type and difficulty), and the teaching method. These three interact in a complex way, as several researchers have explored. The most comprehensive set of literature on this can be found by searching &lt;code&gt;Cognitive Load Theory&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;code&gt;Problem-based learning&lt;/code&gt; (which is what @JohnYetter describes in his answer) has been proven to be a highly effective teaching method for science and math &lt;em&gt;when executed properly.&lt;/em&gt;  Proper execution of PBL requires that students are familiar with the method, and my studies have shown that &lt;em&gt;properly-designed&lt;/em&gt; scaffolding (things that help guide the process and point out key concepts) is a significant, essential component.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lecture does not appear to have any effect on learning (at least for measurement variation and the related concepts), and may actually harm the learning process (this is what I am studying further right now).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theories agree that the reason PBL is effective is that it forces students to make the necessary schematic connections to build their knowledge. The intent of the process is to take novices and begin to develop their knowledge base such that it functions more like an experts' knowledge base (there are proven differences between how novices and experts explore problems).  Along with this, I think that you need to have a particular type of student, one who has self-discipline and doesn't give up. Such students are well-suited for engineering and science; students who don't possess these abilities or who are not capable of rapidly adapting find themselves on the way over to a non-technical degree (so my studies of engineering students only automatically exclude this population of students, which is another piece I need to study further).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2014-03-15T14:02:43.430" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5982" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5966" CreationDate="2014-03-15T14:15:53.027" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a variety of decidedly simple concepts that become infinitely complex when placed under the microscope of scientific scrutiny. I believe you have hit one of them right on the head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's consider a parallel example: pornography. At first glance, what constitutes pornography is decidedly simple and obvious; yet, when the Supreme Court of the United States was asked to formally define pornography, the best that Justice Potter Stewart could come up with was &quot;I know it when I see it.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly, one person does not always see what another does. The same can be said of many such concepts, including fairness and justice. If we truly had a scientific definition of these things, society would be free of nearly every problem we currently face. But, we don't, and we won't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2014-03-15T14:15:53.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5984" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6036" CreationDate="2014-03-15T19:07:58.567" Score="-2" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's assume that one man has the following &lt;em&gt;belief&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Everyone&lt;/strong&gt; has to take care of himself; &lt;strong&gt;it's not mandatory for people to be nice&lt;/strong&gt; and good, &lt;strong&gt;it's mandatory to defend ourselves&lt;/strong&gt; from others and to avoid letting the others exploit us.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first time he will need to rationalize one of his egoistic behaviours to avoid guilty feelings, the thought could become: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;No one is guilty if he exploits someone&lt;/strong&gt;, since he should not let me exploit him.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a correlation between the first and the second beliefs?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further explanation of  what I'm wondering: in some way the first belief can be considered similar to assertiveness. It's a mantra about putting effort in every action of our life, going out of the comfort zone, and so on. The second instead is, in my opinion, a degeneration of the first thought, which is rationally prevented mostly by empathy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5989/can-a-strong-lack-of-empathy-be-considered-a-disorder&quot;&gt;lack of empathy can result to disorders&lt;/a&gt;, is it correct to state that holding the second belief increases the likelihood that a person would be diagnosed with a disorder like psychopathy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T22:55:36.440" Title="Could an ethic stating that everyone should care about himself go into justifying exploitment?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5985" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6011" CreationDate="2014-03-16T02:32:23.937" Score="2" ViewCount="1588" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the requirements for &lt;strong&gt;Paranoid Personality Disorder&lt;/strong&gt; as specified by the current revision of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4626" LastActivityDate="2014-03-20T21:32:05.767" Title="What are the DSM requirements for 'Paranoid Personality Disorder'?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5986" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5985" CreationDate="2014-03-16T09:15:58.990" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sadly, the DSM 5 is under &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/Pages/PermissionsPolicy.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a very strict copyright&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is a list of PPD requirements in the ICD-10 that is publicly available online:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F60.0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ICD-10: F60.0 Paranoid personality disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That section of the manual describes Paranoid Personality Disorder as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;F60.0 Paranoid personality disorder&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Personality disorder characterized by excessive sensitivity to setbacks, unforgiveness of insults; suspiciousness and a tendency to distort experience by misconstruing the neutral or friendly actions of others as hostile or contemptuous; recurrent suspicions, without justification, regarding the sexual fidelity of the spouse or sexual partner; and a combative and tenacious sense of personal rights. There may be excessive self-importance, and there is often excessive self-reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4626" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-03-18T04:57:44.323" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T04:57:44.323" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5987" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-16T09:47:08.553" Score="9" ViewCount="30705" Body="&lt;p&gt;They are specifically listed as two separate disorders in the ICD, but what are the differences between Asperger's Syndrome and Schizoid Personality Disorder? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since both result in a withdrawal from social situations, the two can seem quite similar to an outside observer; is there any accurate method used to distinguish between the two in a subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4626" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T11:44:31.427" Title="What are the differences between Asperger's Syndrome and Schizoid Personality Disorder?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5988" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5921" CreationDate="2014-03-16T10:07:33.633" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Norman Triplett's research on social facilitation shows, that people tend to be better in simple tasks or physical activity (cyclists were faster) in presence of others. However, in cases such as solving mathematical tasks, quantity of tasks solved increases, while the quality decreases (social loafing). The answer therefore depends on whether you use &quot;be better than all these people&quot; challenge or &quot;show yourself you're the best&quot; challenge.&#xA;Most of the researches, however, show that motivating or challenging students causes rather  stress and tension than better results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4551" LastActivityDate="2014-03-16T10:07:33.633" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5989" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6006" CreationDate="2014-03-16T11:10:28.747" Score="2" ViewCount="808" Body="&lt;p&gt;Premise from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;More recently, popular science writer and Psychologist Daniel Goleman has drawn on&#xA;  social neuroscience research to propose that social intelligence is&#xA;  made up of social awareness (including empathy, attunement, empathic&#xA;  accuracy, and social cognition) and social facility (including&#xA;  synchrony, self-presentation, influence, and concern).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thesis behind the book is that the neurological structure of human being suggest the importance of the empathy. He also states that scientific researches shows three types of individual lacking of empathy: narcissistic, Machiavellian, and psychopathic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The hypothesis of Goleman accomunating these 3 kind of people to the lack of empathy are shared by the cognitive sciences?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T07:47:12.767" Title="Can a strong lack of empathy be considered a disorder?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5990" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5947" CreationDate="2014-03-16T13:19:46.630" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are some open-source software for you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychopy.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsychoPy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://osdoc.cogsci.nl/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;OpenSesame&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pebl.sourceforge.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PEBL&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2555" LastActivityDate="2014-03-16T13:19:46.630" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5992" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5921" CreationDate="2014-03-16T23:13:47.207" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Robert Bjork calls this &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/pubs/RBjork_inpress.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;desirable difficulties&lt;/a&gt;. That is, students seems to learn best when they are required to encode and retrieve information. Some examples of desirable difficulties include: testing, spacing/interleaving, generating information, changing studying environments, etc. In the long run, these seem to promote long term learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="2920" LastEditDate="2014-03-16T23:18:50.367" LastActivityDate="2014-03-16T23:18:50.367" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5993" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5969" CreationDate="2014-03-16T23:40:26.830" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;People who are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sitemaker.umich.edu/eob/files/time2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;entitled&lt;/a&gt; tend to have a slower perception of time. In any given situation, a person can feel some level of entitlement. If a person is waiting in line for 10 minutes to check out groceries, he would experience that 10 minutes as passing by very slowly. On the other hand, if that same person was waiting 10 minutes to meet the President, he would experience the 10 minutes as passing by quickly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So time perception can be manipulated in any given situation. It depends on the level of entitlement you are feeling in that environment. Perhaps entitlement could artificially be manipulated to create different perceptions of time (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3433/can-hypomania-be-induced-by-just-thinking-quickly-and-variably&quot;&gt;by thinking quickly and variably&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Time Crawls When You're Not Having Fun: Feeling Entitled Makes Dull Tasks Drag On&lt;/em&gt;. Edward H. O'Brien, Phyllis A. Anastasio and Brad J. Bushman, Pers Soc Psychol Bull published online 12 May 2011, DOI: 10.1177/0146167211408922&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-03-16T23:46:14.213" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5994" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="5999" CreationDate="2014-03-17T07:12:18.250" Score="8" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a class of error that is sometimes colloquially referred to as &quot;not paying attention&quot;. These are the sorts of error where the subject knows the correct way to perform a task, but fails to follow it due to a lapse in whatever mental process is responsible for ensuring that actions are carried out according to intention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A mathematically competent adult solving an advanced math problem incorrectly because of a simple arithmetic mistake, such as 5+3=15.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A well-prepared student getting a multiple choice question wrong because it was asking &quot;which of the above are not true&quot;, but she mistakenly selected the ones that are true.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A skilled roboticist damaging an expensive circuit because he accidentally wired the components incorrectly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mixing up two terms which refer to different things, despite understanding very well the concept that either term refers to.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Typos and simple grammar errors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I do not necessarily mean attention in the sense of being able to concentrate on and pay attention to a topic. I am specifically talking about the ability to not make mistakes (where mistakes are simple errors, which the subject is capable of recognizing as errors, but happens not to &lt;em&gt;in that particular instance&lt;/em&gt; - not errors committed because of imperfect knowledge, understanding, or reasoning). Thus, &quot;mistakes&quot; are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not reproducible: If the subject is asked to repeat the task, they will probably do it correctly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unrecognized: The subject believes that the task was completed correctly, until explicitly checked.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Paradoxical: If asked about how the task should be performed, the subject answers correctly - but occasionally fails to perform as described.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mental: The mistake is not due to failures in fine motor control but has to do with the output of the mind. The mistake may be due to incorrect interpretation of sensory stimulus, but not due to an overt corruption of the stimulus itself (a person with good vision &quot;misreading a word&quot; in a brightly lit room from a black on white page with a suitably large font counts, but trying to read by starlight on a moonless light doesn't).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, my question: Is there scientific research dealing with &quot;attention&quot; in this sense (ability to make few mistakes)? What factors influence it? Can it be trained, or is it an innate, invariant quality of a person that can only be accepted and accommodated?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I am asking specifically about &quot;healthy and normal adults&quot;, not disorders such as ADHD (unless the pathology helps elucidate the healthy case). As the saying goes, to err is human - but some humans err more than others, and I am interested in understanding why (and what strategies are available to reduce this tendency).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(edited from my original question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://academia.stackexchange.com/questions/16533/how-can-i-improve-my-attention-and-make-fewer-mistakes&quot;&gt;Academia.SE&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4633" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:49:49.363" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T07:35:36.040" Title="Can attention be improved to reduce the frequency of mistakes?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5995" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6015" CreationDate="2014-03-17T10:41:29.513" Score="1" ViewCount="327" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following books are explained from a cognitive sciences perspective and rely strongly on psychology or sociology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-help books&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Carnegie&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dale Carnegie&lt;/a&gt; - Social Intelligence (empathy, emotional intelligence)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Dyer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wayne Dyer&lt;/a&gt; - &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Erroneous_Zones&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Your Erroneous Zones&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0762415339&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;No more Mr. Nice guy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Carnegie&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dale Carnegie&lt;/a&gt; - How to win friends and influence people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Books about Seduction&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The mystery method&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example one of the books about seduction speaks of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pavlovian conditioning&lt;/a&gt;. Additionally, even though they don't often use words like &quot;rationalization&quot; the books are often written by psychologist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are these books classified as psychology books?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Further clarification&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under the name of Cognitive Sciences are going a lot topics. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;From very &lt;em&gt;low level science&lt;/em&gt; to more applied. But the books I've cited are at a very &lt;em&gt;high level&lt;/em&gt; (and since that also less verifiable). This kind of stuff is still classified as &quot;applied psychology&quot; or something like that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They don't deal with stuff like &quot;rationalization&quot; but with the consequences of it. (i.e. childish behaviour, assertive behaviour, seduction, manipulation, conditioning, emotions, self-esteem handling, NLP, and so on..)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2014-03-17T11:07:17.843" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T12:49:53.180" Title="Are most self-help books properly rooted in cognitive sciences?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5997" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6034" CreationDate="2014-03-17T13:30:38.907" Score="-1" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;Take this sentence from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort_zone&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a psychological article on wikipedia about the comfort zone&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, White (2009) also observes that if the work of Robert Yerkes&#xA;  (1907) is considered in which he reported '&lt;strong&gt;Anxiety improves&#xA;  performance until a certain optimum level&lt;/strong&gt; of arousal has been reached.&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Beyond that point, performance deteriorates&lt;/strong&gt; as higher levels of&#xA;  anxiety are attained', &lt;strong&gt;if a person steps beyond the optimum&#xA;  performance zone they enter a &quot;danger zone&quot; in which performance will&#xA;  decline rapidly&lt;/strong&gt; as higher levels of anxiety or discomfort occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case, scientific evidence are suggesting that anxiety &lt;strong&gt;initially&lt;/strong&gt; improves the performance but when it raises it has the opposite effect. Since that the word &quot;excess&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometime is really less intuitive that a raise of something which is initially good will become un-optimal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An excess of perfectionism could lead to OCD and to an anankastic disorder. See: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5844/is-perfectionism-related-to-ocd&quot;&gt;Is perfectionism related to OCD?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it's very less intuitive. Starting from this consideration, at an intuitive level, I would guess that every good thing when applied and applied will become suboptimal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(*)The concept of &quot;too-much&quot; and &quot;excess&quot; is already bound to the consequence and applies only when there are negative consequences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it a generalizable result that very often the complete lack of something or the excessive presence of it can lead to problems?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T21:07:36.147" Title="Increasing the quantity of something which is initially good will always lead to an excess?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="5999" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5994" CreationDate="2014-03-17T18:09:45.583" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sounds like a class of faults resulting mainly from a common sequence: habituation, automation, assimilation, discrimination error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Habituation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/strong&gt; The tasks you describe are generally simple, ordinary, and as you say, there is a &quot;correct&quot; way to do them that is known. This would encourage a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;heuristic&lt;/a&gt;-based approach to problem-solving response generation. Heuristics are generally not foolproof, but they're fast and relatively effortless. Suits these &quot;mindless&quot; tasks well when there are lots to do that just need doing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automaticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Automation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/strong&gt; The easier and more routine a task becomes is the more one will handle it without conscious, deliberate thought: i.e., without attention to detail or inhibition of first-impression-based impulses. One focuses instead on other decisions or plans; there's always the rest of the week to look forward to or worry about, and the task at hand is so boring that focusing on it is aversive.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/aindex/g/assimilation.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Assimilation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/strong&gt; Rote task performance that thus motivates diversion of attention for the sake of both efficiency and entertainment thereby encourages assimilation of new stimuli. In many ways, this process actually comes first, leading to habituation and automation. I bring it up now to transition my focus from the learning processes to the case-by-case response pattern that results. Assimilation is the foundation of habituation and automation, but it also results, as these are the processes of self-reinforcing feedback from assimilation decisions. More simply stated, when assimilation happens often, habits form. As habits flourish, automaticity sets in. At this point, one almost always chooses to assimilate a new scenario into existing &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;schemas&lt;/a&gt;; it's harder to resist the urge.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Discrimination&lt;/a&gt; error.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Motivated inattention and hastened task processing inhibits &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/glossaryfromatoz/g/Accommodation.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;accommodation&lt;/a&gt;. Thus when one operates on an imperfect heuristic (that may be redundant), applying incomplete schemas to new situations that are not represented accurately in these classes of supposedly known problems leads to errors. E.g., seeing a ton of multiplication problems might bias one toward ignoring the operator, failing to notice a 45º rotation of the symmetrical cross shape, and producing 15 when presented with $3+5$. Being frustrated with my elaborate jargon and complex sentence construction might incline a reader to skim; if the reader's intended task is to edit, s/he might expect more errors where errors are to be found, and in skimming, miss the extra word in a the sentence that constitutes an error. After frequent experiences of assimilation produce automated habits, one can hardly be blamed; the tendency is innate, adaptive, and somewhat invariant in terms of simple prevalence. I.e., most normal people do it, and variation mostly exists in relative frequencies $&amp;gt;0$.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Excluding abnormal individuals might make the phenomenon more invariant. Abnormal function like in the cognitive tendencies of people with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;obsessive compulsive personality disorder&lt;/a&gt; might present stronger exceptions to the rule that &quot;everybody makes dumb mistakes sometimes,&quot; even somewhat often. But then again OCPD might not be such an exception, as its theoretical representations don't entirely match its real manifestations. (Same for its fictional representations; see my answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5712/4086&quot;&gt;Why is Mr. Monk unsure?&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm sure plenty of research can be found on how to encourage adaptive accommodation to prevent errors. I'm inclined to look toward motivation- and personality-based approaches, as those are my specialties – hence you might say they inform my own schemas and heuristics, encouraging me to assimilate your problem as just another of the kind I'm familiar with. If I fail to respond appropriately to any subtleties in your question as a result, consider it a demonstration! I admit I've spent most of my time so far on just reformulating and recapitulating the issue you describe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moving briefly into some modification strategies then, consider motivating attention. This can be achieved by increasing the sense of challenge to optimal levels that induce &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;flow&lt;/a&gt;, which is a state of very intense, self-motivated, even blissful focus. Just produce the challenge by requiring higher accuracy, not faster task completion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On somewhat less modifiable notes pertaining to individual differences in error frequencies, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conscientiousness&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_complexity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive complexity&lt;/a&gt; seem like relevant traits. Conscientiousness relates to attention to detail and concern for error prevention. Cognitive complexity relates to adaptive thought and tolerance for complex or multitudinous schemas, which would discourage over-application of too-simple schemas for every problem encountered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-17T18:09:45.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5997" CreationDate="2014-03-18T02:45:57.327" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think what you are getting at is the concept of &quot;stimulation&quot;. It has been shown in literature that individuals have varying &quot;ideal&quot; levels of stimulation and this can be measured using popular scales (Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale being one of them). The stimulation - performance relationship can be thought of an inverted U-shaped curve with a peak stimulation point. If you are far to the left of this peak point, you feel bored and seek varied behavior to increase stimulation. If you are far to the right of this peak point, you feel anxious/restless. Both these states could potentially be detrimental to one's performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ref:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensation_seeking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensation_seeking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4627" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T02:45:57.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6003" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5995" CreationDate="2014-03-18T03:14:07.053" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Everything is psychology. The question do these books have a basis in scientific principles of well established healthy psychology. Modern scientific progress is found through peer review. All of those books did not pass peer review and probably contain poor citations so technically the answer is no they are not well founded on psychological science. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However just because it isn't properly founded in correct methodology doesn't mean it cant contain nuggets for use in psychology. You can learn many things from tearing down a bad prototype engine and finding out what went wrong and right in the design.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T03:14:07.053" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6005" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5995" CreationDate="2014-03-18T03:39:44.787" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sparringmind.com/psychology-books/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sparring Mind lists an exhaustive list of the best cog sci books&lt;/a&gt;, focusing particularly on peer influence and persuasion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The books range from selp-help tips and tricks to more focused research on a particular aspect of social psychology. The best thing about some of the books listed here is that the anecdotes are not just interesting to read, but are also well grounded in published psych research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some personal favorites from this list:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cialdini's &quot;Influence: Science and Practice&quot;  &amp;amp; &quot;Yes! (50 Scientifically Proven Ways to be Persuasive)&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kahneman's &quot;Thinking, Fast and Slow&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heath brother's &quot;Made to Stick: Why Some Ideas Survive and Others Die&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McGonigal's &quot;The Willpower Instinct: How Self-Control Works&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also try to read up any new stuff that comes from Dan Ariely and Sheena Iyengar. I've found their insights very helpful to (and at times in opposition with) my day to day decision-making. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4627" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-03-18T12:49:53.180" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T12:49:53.180" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6006" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5989" CreationDate="2014-03-18T03:43:12.523" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes he is at least somewhat correct and the terms he uses are commonly called the Dark triad. Now whether he is correctly diagnosing the ASPD and NPD is a question to which I am unable to delve further into because I have not read the books but strongly lacking empathy is characteristics of actual diseases. So I will give you a resemblance of the correct diagnosis criteria for those terms from an old DSM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The dark triad is a group of three personality traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy. The use of the term &quot;dark&quot; reflects the perception that these traits have interpersonally aversive qualities&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Narcissism is characterized by grandiosity, pride, egotism, and a lack of empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Machiavellianism is characterized by manipulation and exploitation of others, a cynical disregard for morality, and a focus on self-interest and deception.&#xA;  Psychopathy is characterized by enduring antisocial behavior, impulsivity, selfishness, callousness, and remorselessness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The dark triad may refer to these traits at only a subclinical level. All three traits have been associated with a callous-manipulative interpersonal style. Jakobwitz and Egan carried out a factor analysis and found agreeableness strongly dissociated with these traits, and other factors, such as neuroticism and a lack of conscientiousness, associated with some traits. However, it has been suggested that agreeableness is not relevant to the core of the dark triad, and that instead the common variance is accounted for by callousness and manipulation. In other words, once callousness and manipulation are accounted for, the dark triad characteristics are unrelated to each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia dark triad&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Narcissistic&lt;/strong&gt; is listed in the DSM as a clinical illness recognized by all psychologist and psychiatrist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Diagnostic criteria for 301.81 Narcissistic Personality Disorder&#xA;  These criteria are obsolete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;DSM IV - TR&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(cautionary statement)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), need for admiration, and lack of empathy, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(1) has a grandiose sense of self-importance (e.g., exaggerates achievements and talents, expects to be recognized as superior without commensurate achievements) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(2) is preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(3) believes that he or she is &quot;special&quot; and unique and can only be understood by, or should associate with, other special or high-status people (or institutions) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(4) requires excessive admiration &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(5) has a sense of entitlement, i.e., unreasonable expectations of especially favorable treatment or automatic compliance with his or her expectations &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(6) is interpersonally exploitative, i.e., takes advantage of others to achieve his or her own ends &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(7) lacks empathy: is unwilling to recognize or identify with the feelings and needs of others &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(8) is often envious of others or believes that others are envious of him or her &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(9) shows arrogant, haughty behaviors or attitudes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reprinted with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Copyright 2000 American Psychiatric Association&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://behavenet.com/node/21653&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Diagnostic criteria for 301.81 Narcissistic Personality Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Machiavellian&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;psychopathic&lt;/strong&gt; disorders are part of what is commonly called by psychologist Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASP) . ASP is in the DSM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;DSM-IV-TR&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The APA's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV-TR), defines antisocial personality disorder (in Axis II Cluster B):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A) There is a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others occurring since age 15 years, as indicated by three or more of the following:&#xA;  failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest; deception, as indicated by repeatedly lying, use of aliases, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure; impulsivity or failure to plan ahead; irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fights or assaults; reckless disregard for safety of self or others; consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations; lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;B) The individual is at least age 18 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;C) There is evidence of conduct disorder with onset before age 15 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;D) The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not exclusively during the course of schizophrenia or a manic episode.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;ASPD falls under the dramatic/erratic cluster of personality disorders. In the DSM-5, the diagnosis antisocial personality disorder is kept, but it is no longer on another axis as the other mental disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder#DSM-IV-TR&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia ASPD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-03-18T07:47:12.767" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T07:47:12.767" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5966" CreationDate="2014-03-18T03:57:32.490" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would also urge you to think about equality vs. equity as two important facets to understanding fairness, especially in the context of heterogeneous societies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simply put, Equality is the idea that all individuals are exactly equal. If X people work on a project, all of them would get remunerated exactly the same amount.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, Equity is the idea that there exists a quid pro quo i.e. if X people work on a project individuals would get paid proportional to the amount of work they put in. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both could be considered &quot;fair&quot; depending on your perspective. In fact, it has been shown that individuals tend to switch between equity and equality when self-presentational concerns are made salient. &#xA;(Ref: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022103176900792&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022103176900792&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Needless to say, this &quot;fairness&quot; debate guides discussion on Affirmative Action in the West and social reservation policies in countries like India.  I like the following piece which sums up this discussion nicely:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ala.org/offices/oif/iftoolkits/toolkitrelatedlinks/equalityequity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ala.org/offices/oif/iftoolkits/toolkitrelatedlinks/equalityequity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4627" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T03:57:32.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6009" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5975" CreationDate="2014-03-18T04:08:22.783" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This answer seems pretty obvious to me. Maybe? Yes with enough genetic engineering or chemical perturbation it might be possible to remove the need for sleep because it is uncertain if all multicellular organism sleep at this time. If it ever is proven that all multicellular organisms must sleep then the answer would be No.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I’ll cannibalize the user &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/3116/what&quot;&gt;what&lt;/a&gt;’s comment:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Read the Wikipedia article on sleep: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep Sleep appears to have phyisiological functions (healing, rejuvenation etc.) that go beyond mere memory funtions. On the other hand people meditating or doing yoga report needing less sleep and feeling refreshed after their exercises. Both practices induce states similar to sleep (relaxation, brain waves, disregard of outside stimuli), which might explain how they can have similar effects. –  what yesterday &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I will say there is a definate connection between &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unc.edu/~coolsen/psych10/consciousness.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;states of consciousness&lt;/a&gt; and memory rejuvenation especially &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_and_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sleep and memory&lt;/a&gt; however the exact methods are largely unknown. Thought I was able to find one paper: &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Taken together, these observations that signaling lipids participate&#xA;  in synaptic plasticity, cognition, and survival indicate that lipid&#xA;  signaling is closely associated with several functions (e.g; learning&#xA;  and memory, sleep, and experimental stroke) and pathologic events.&#xA;  Alterations in endogenous signaling lipids or their receptors&#xA;  resulting from drug abuse lead to changes in synaptic circuitry and&#xA;  induce profound effects on these important functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1098882305000791&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lipid signaling: Sleep, synaptic plasticity, and neuroprotection&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-01-17T05:23:16.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6010" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3253" CreationDate="2014-03-18T04:23:17.193" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is often a common phenomenon, but the context that you cited in your question might hold the key to one possible explanation. When you are presenting your design to someone who is &quot;supposed&quot; to evaluate your design, finding flaws enforces the self-efficacy of the evaluator and signals to him that he's doing his job well. So, the boost to self-efficacy/self-esteem might be a strong motivation for the evaluator to disproportionately criticize small issues with your design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, there is an even more fundamental human psychology that plays a role here -- the egocentricity/false consensus bias i.e. the idea that everyone else shares the same opinion about an idea as we do. The evaluator of the design might have an expectation of what the &quot;correct&quot; submission looks like, and any deviation from this expectation will be immediately noticed (and frowned upon). I've worked in a software development firm for a while and I see this happening all the time in teams that span product developers, product testers and product managers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Ref: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False-consensus_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False-consensus_effect&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4627" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T04:23:17.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6011" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5985" CreationDate="2014-03-18T05:25:45.863" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your asking for a very small citation from the DSM 5. I believe it falls under &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl102.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fair use&lt;/a&gt;. I'd be glad to add this to the internet for scholarship and research with another citations about Cluster A because it makes no changes to the value of DSM-5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paranoid Personality Disorder&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diagnostic Criteria 301.0 (F60.0)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A. A pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of others such that their nfiotives are inter­ preted as malevolent, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of con­ texts, as indicated by four (or more) of the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Suspects, without sufficient basis, that others are exploiting, harming, or deceiving him or her.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is preoccupied with unjustified doubts about the loyalty or trustworthiness of friends or associates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is reluctant to confide in others because of unwarranted fear that the information will be used maliciously against him or her.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reads hidden demeaning or threatening meanings into benign remarks or events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Persistently bears grudges (i.e., is unforgiving of insults, injuries, or slights).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Perceives attacks on his or her character or reputation that are not apparent to oth­ ers and is quick to react angrily or to counterattack.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Has recurrent suspicions, without justification, regarding fidelity of spouse or sexual partner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;B. Does not occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia, a bipolar disorder or depressive disorder with psychotic features, or another psychotic disorder and is not attributable to the physiological effects of another medical condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: If criteria are met prior to the onset of schizophrenia, add “premorbid,” i.e., “paranoid personality disorder (premorbid).”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-DSM-5&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A general explanation of DSM Cluster A is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cluster A: Paranoid, Schizoid, and Schizotypal Personality Disorders&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cluster A is called the odd, eccentric cluster. It includes Paranoid Personality Disorder, Schizoid Personality Disorder, and Schizotypal Personality Disorders. The common features of the personality disorders in this cluster are social awkwardness and social withdrawal. These disorders are dominated by distorted thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Paranoid Personality Disorder* is characterized by a pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of other people. People with this disorder assume that others are out to harm them, take advantage of them, or humiliate them in some way. They put a lot of effort into protecting themselves and keeping their distance from others. They are known to preemptively attack others whom they feel threatened by. They tend to hold grudges, are litigious, and display pathological jealously. Distorted thinking is evident. Their perception of the environment includes reading malevolent intentions into genuinely harmless, innocuous comments or behavior, and dwelling on past slights. For these reasons, they do not confide in others and do not allow themselves to develop close relationships. Their emotional life tends to be dominated by distrust and hostility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://sevencounties.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&amp;amp;id=479&amp;amp;cn=8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5: The Ten Personality Disorders: Cluster A&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T11:31:18.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6014" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6037" CreationDate="2014-03-18T07:44:20.140" Score="9" ViewCount="460" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes when I have negative feelings, it seems that a deep breath resets these feelings. Does that really happen? Is there any research on the effect of taking a deep breath on reducing the experience of negative emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-02-20T05:41:57.927" LastActivityDate="2017-02-20T05:41:57.927" Title="Does taking a deep breath reduce the experience of stress and negative emotions?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6015" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5995" CreationDate="2014-03-18T09:08:35.907" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can probably classify non-fiction books written for a lay audience into three categories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Books written by experts and summarizing research in a non-technical language that can be understood by non-experts. The only difference between such a book and a research article is that this book simplifies the findings and cites its sources in a vague and general manner.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Books written by non-experts who quote only those research findings that appear to support their opinion and dismiss (and do not mention) what contradicts them.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fantasy, prejudice, and other ignorant ramblings.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the Pick Up theory falls into the second category. People like Mystery are successful with their pick up routines in a specific setting and with a highly select sample of women (US, white, middle-class, club goers). So their methods are valid. What is completely false is their assumption that all women (and men) are the same and that their methods will work for everyone everywhere. They read some popular science books, and whenever they read something that resonates with their experience, they believe they have found the scientific proof for how and why what they did worked for them and they quote it in their books to give them credence. European Pick Up Adepts have found that much of what people like Mystery recommend (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://it.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=peacocking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;peacocking&lt;/a&gt;) does not work in their culture. Many others find that many women do not react favourably to other routines (e.g. push-and-pull). The very fact that even &quot;master&quot; PUAs have to &quot;next&quot; many women (or stand on the street for minutes before they find someone whose body language signals the right kind of susceptibility) shows that the popular claim that you can pick up any woman any time is nothing but a power fantasy and marketing lie. Pick Up only works for those women and men for whom it works, and that is all the &quot;science&quot; there is to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dale Carnegie is a &lt;em&gt;motivational&lt;/em&gt; speaker. His books fall into the third category. They are as true as religion. They have positive effects for those who believe in them, but you can be equally successful by doing everything completely different than he recommends. They don't &quot;work&quot;, because they are true, but because they make you believe in yourself and give you the courage to try.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2014-03-18T09:52:13.393" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T09:52:13.393" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6016" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3253" CreationDate="2014-03-18T10:58:14.987" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This sounds to me very much (but not exactly) like a phenomenon Dan Ariely has done some research on, which he terms 'the IKEA effect'.&#xA;Of course, he will describe it better than me, specifically in &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.duke.edu/~dandan/Papers/Upside/IkeaEffect1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Norton and Ariely (2012)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.duke.edu/~dandan/Papers/Upside/meaning.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ariely et al (2008)&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_ariely_what_makes_us_feel_good_about_our_work&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this TED talk&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, what he's found is that people value things (furniture, lego models, plans) more when they themselves have contributed their own labour in creating them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Ariely et al (2008), they found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People are more willing to do dull, monotonous paperwork for less money if their name goes on the top of the sheet, and less willing if the paper was shredded after they had finished.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The same effect is found if you pay people to put together Lego models: people do more for less money if you don't take apart the models afterwards.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Norton and Ariely (2012) took a different approach, but showed largely the same thing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People believe that the IKEA furniture which they themselves assembled was worth more than anyone else's furniture (measured by how much they would pay to keep it)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The same effect was found for origami animals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;..and for Lego models, but not if you take the model apart after you build it (because it's no longer the thing which &lt;strong&gt;you&lt;/strong&gt; created).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;...and not getting to finish assembling the furniture reduces this bias.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopefully, the link between this research and your question should be clear: by making changes to a solution, that solution becomes in some way 'ours', and because of that, we overestimate it's intrinsic value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Michael I. Norton, Dan Ariely, and Daniel Mochon (2012), “The IKEA effect: When labor leads to love.” Journal of Consumer Psychology. Vol. 22: 453-460.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dan Ariely, Emir Kamenica and Drazen Prelec (2008), “Man’s Search for Meaning: The Case of Legos.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization. Vol. 67: 671-677. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T10:58:14.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6017" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5970" CreationDate="2014-03-18T12:35:36.120" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Freud would say its all your Mother's fault you want acknowledgement! She should have never told you thats a good job. Indeed current &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/pride-and-joy/201309/should-parents-praise-their-children&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pseudo-scientific psychologist&lt;/a&gt; say our childhood programming given to us by our guardians and peers are the reason why we seek affirmation through certain means. Their thought is if your parent created an appetite in you for praise and external affirmation then you will seek such from other people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thought that children are addicted to parental approval may be valid however I doubt such addictions come through praise alone. I suspect that gifting and rewarding much in the way Prince Horace was spoiled in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Whipping_Boy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Whipping boy&lt;/a&gt; or the complete inverse like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lex_Luthor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lex Luthor's&lt;/a&gt; relationship with his father in the Smallville DC universe or &lt;a href=&quot;http://shadowhunters.wikia.com/wiki/Jace_Lightwood&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jace Lightwood's&lt;/a&gt; relationship with Valentine Morgenstern in the Mortal Instruments Universe. In these cases the parent was cruel to the child demanding an unnatural level of performance. In modern and real life that would be the bad sports scholarship parent vs the &lt;a href=&quot;http://growingleaders.com/blog/what-parents-should-say-as-their-kids-perform/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;good parent&lt;/a&gt; involved in the life thier children which includes sports. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Science on the other hand offers a more clear view our desires for affirmation come from a maldeveloped self-esteem. As individuals we should not require the praises of others to remain mentally stable and happy. However when people base their self esteem on the praises and acclamations of others. They create a system which they are not running but an external group must continue and this is counter productive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;College students who based their self-worth on academic performance did not receive higher grades despite being highly motivated and studying more hours each week than students who did not rate academic performance as important to their self-esteem, Crocker found. Students who based their self-worth on academic outcomes also were more likely to report conflicts with professors and greater stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;They feel motivated to do well in academics, but having their self-worth on the line doesn't help their performance,&quot; Crocker says. She speculates that students who base their self-worth on academic performance might become anxious and distracted and threatened by feelings of failure, and, as such, their anxiety might then interfere with their memory.&#xA;  Students who based their self-esteem on internal sources--such as being a virtuous person or adhering to moral standards--were found to receive higher grades and less likely to use alcohol and drugs or to develop eating disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We really think that if people could adopt goals not focused on their own self-esteem but on something larger than their self--such as what they can create or contribute to others--than they would be less susceptible&quot; to some of the negative effects of pursuing self-esteem, Crocker says. &quot;It's about having a goal that is bigger than the self.&quot;&#xA;  Crocker's research appeared in a recent issue of the Journal of Social Issues (Vol. 58, No. 3).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec02/selfesteem.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;APA Self-esteem that's based on external sources has mental health consequences, study says&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The follow is a valid summary of the science behind the previous series of work:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Authentic self-esteem is not dependent upon others or things external to us. Such self-esteem is a manifestation of our relationship with our self. The essence of self-esteem is that it flows from within. If we lay ourselves bare in our vulnerability and strip away our careers, our families, our friends, our possessions and achievements, what are we left with? And how does that feel? Beyond the obvious losses, do we like and respect who we are, irrespective of the markers of other-esteem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We modify and mold so much of our behavior and even more, our very personality to achieve other-esteem. We literally create personality masks in this endeavor, presenting to others the person we think they would approve of. In such circumstances we are abandoning our true self to derive approval or recognition from others. Not only is this a self-deprecating experience, it also sabotages our relationships, for they are far from authentic. When we act in this manner we are literally taking our well being and serving it up to other people. It then becomes the other person's to decide if we are worthy. This is not a healthy place to be and it is a soul-defeating exercise. We should never judge ourselves based upon who we think others see us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Who is the Judge?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The simple truth is that others don't judge us. They may have opinions of us. Yet, to elevate their opinion to the status of a judgment is simply ridiculous. No one can judge you unless you grant him or her the power of being your judge. Why would we put a judge's robes on an ordinary person and confer such power upon them? The only person who you might grant such power to works in a courtroom; all others are people with opinions. With a healthier measure of self-esteem we might more easily tolerate other's opinions without escalating them into counterfeit judgments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Esteem most be generated from within and can then radiate outward. When we focus outwardly for approval, we are seeking it in the wrong place. And in so doing, we subordinate our authentic being in a vain attempt at happiness. Such fulfillment must be dependent and superficial and undermines our personal evolution. This process of external gratification is other-esteem. Self-esteem is not contingent upon others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When we set up this drama around approval, we create issues in regard to notions of rejection. The issue of rejection can be misleading. With a healthy self-esteem one doesn't consider rejection. It is actually the rejecting of one's self that inclines people to seek approval from others. In such cases, we're not content with ourselves and so we solicit that acceptance from others. If that approval isn't granted, we have a habit of claiming that we were rejected. In truth, we have rejected ourselves when we set others up as judge. The degree to which we are reactive to other's opinions of us in likely inversely correlated to our level of self-esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A reconsidering of our understanding of self-esteem might be helpful in reframing our cultural expectations of happiness. Almost all parents would claim that they are thoroughly invested in their children's self-esteem. Educators and other professionals place great value on the development of children's self-worth. Yet, I would argue that most don't begin to comprehend self-esteem. If an A student becomes depressed by a B, it is abundantly clear that their grades are a product of other-esteem. As such, the diminishment of other-esteem leaves them feeling devalued. Their sense of well being is dependent upon factors outside of themselves. Similarly, athletic achievement or popularity are things that we understandably encourage in our children. When put into proper perspective we might see that these experiences might enhance their lives. But it is critical that they not be the cornerstones of how they see themselves. For in that case, the average student or the mediocre athlete is relegated to the imprisonment of low self-esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-esteem is the legitimate foundation for a healthy relationship with our selves and others. Genuine self-esteem removes the construct of neediness so prevalent in most relationships. And liberates us to thrive, as issues of rejection and judgment recede. If we seek our esteem from outside, we leave ourselves in a tentative and dependent place. When the sense of worth emanates from within, life unfolds in a empowered way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/shift-mind/201002/self-esteem-or-other-esteem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Self-Esteem or Other-Esteem?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T12:35:36.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6019" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6032" CreationDate="2014-03-18T13:22:20.283" Score="-1" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_morality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_morality&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nietzsche argued that there were &lt;em&gt;two fundamental types of morality&lt;/em&gt;:&#xA;  '&lt;strong&gt;Master morality&lt;/strong&gt;' and '&lt;strong&gt;slave morality&lt;/strong&gt;'. &lt;strong&gt;Slave&lt;/strong&gt; morality &lt;strong&gt;values things&#xA;  like kindness, humility and sympathy, while master morality values&#xA;  pride, strength, and nobility&lt;/strong&gt;. Master morality weighs actions on a&#xA;  scale of good or bad consequences unlike slave morality which weighs&#xA;  actions on a scale of good or evil intentions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion the effort of Nietzche of splitting the world in a dichotomy is really interesting for science and applied psychology. Since, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;if the master morality, doesn't have to deal with empathy&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; it should follow that it's more &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;based on competition&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it should be really useful for describing the &lt;strong&gt;beliefs of nations like Japan, USA or China&lt;/strong&gt; (competitive, less assistentialistic) while the slave morality should fit more countries with a strong influence of church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Did someone continue the studies of Nietzche from a Psychological point of view?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2014-03-19T15:20:30.507" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T15:20:30.507" Title="Modern name for the two kind of ethics proposed by Nietzche" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6022" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5949" CreationDate="2014-03-18T18:46:17.923" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Aspergers as a diagnosis is no more its been merged into autism spectrum disorder. Its really not that bad of a diagnosis compared to full blown Autism or something like Schizo, Bipolar or BPD. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some books and resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0983638802&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ASD Me Learning Functioning Spectrum&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0205545750&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Autism Spectrum Disorders: Foundations, Characteristics, and Effective Strategies&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B00DUFO4QI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ten Things Every Child with Autism Wishes You Knew: Updated and Expanded Edition&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asperger_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Asperger's From Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can speak from personal experience the therapies for AS listed on wiki sometimes really work; CBT and anxiety medication really helped me. My brain kinda adapted to the anti-depressant though and I haven't found or really needed anything anxiety in a few months. You'll find social skills like cooperation are this wonderful thing you can practice online with friends and if you mess it up they will be really kind and understanding. I really fail when interacting with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenemy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;frenemies&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have fun talking to people at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wrongplanet.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wrong Planet&lt;/a&gt; (an autism community) as well. Some people there are less functioning than AS so you have to have compassion and understanding. Others still are higher functioning than me which of course makes me a little jealous but I've learned that I'm not alone and neither are you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorDisplayName="user3832" LastEditDate="2014-03-18T18:58:23.443" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T18:58:23.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6023" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5962" CreationDate="2014-03-18T20:36:15.720" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no difference between &quot;computational neuroscience&quot; and &quot;theoretical neuroscience&quot; in practice.  The two are almost always used interchangeably.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuroinformatics, like bioinformatics, is more about managing data and designing analysis software (that's always somehow integrated with data storage and management).  Generally, it is informational specialists that work in neuroinformatics, as it is basically applied information science (applied to neuroscience, specifically).  In some ways, neuroinformatics can serve as a bridge between experimentalist and theoretician.  Experimentalists use neuroinformatic software to analyze and save their data and store their results... then the theoreticians can take that and make a model, then informatics can design a new program that incorporates the model to help experimentalists analyze their data.  This is a very ideal simplification, but it gives an idea of how the three play off each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T20:36:15.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6024" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6043" CreationDate="2014-03-18T21:00:38.930" Score="0" ViewCount="852" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the psychological term for people who believe that: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;they have strong rights&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;that others &lt;strong&gt;should&lt;/strong&gt; be nice&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;that others &lt;strong&gt;should&lt;/strong&gt; respect unwritten &lt;strong&gt;rules&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;that others &lt;strong&gt;should not&lt;/strong&gt; lie&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They believe in rules that everyone should respect. They may hate hypocrisy, but for sure they judge other's behaviour and thinks that others should behave according to the rules. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the scientific term for this personality trait?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-20T03:43:50.307" LastActivityDate="2014-03-20T20:28:07.713" Title="Scientific term for people who value following the rules" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6025" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3253" CreationDate="2014-03-18T22:38:15.717" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is easy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Something bad happened, spreads fast, and is related with psychological satisfaction.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Something good will be forgotten fast because you are satisfied you are done with it. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your example, the solution does not satisfy audience. They wanna make changes. After changes they will forget about the solution, because the solution satisfied them. &#xA;This is similar to bad customer service: see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.marketingcharts.com/wp/interactive/bad-customer-service-interactions-more-likely-to-be-shared-than-good-ones-28628/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bad Customer Service Interactions More Likely to be Shared Than Good Ones&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perspective matters! &#xA;You can go from point A to B by car, train, motorbike, bus, ship, plane, helicopter etc.&#xA;Going with a car is your solution, but going with a train is somebody else's solution.&#xA;It is all about satisfaction, psychology and perspective! &#xA;Regards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4647" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-19T05:12:29.390" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T05:12:29.390" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6026" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6027" CreationDate="2014-03-18T18:09:45.917" Score="5" ViewCount="597" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basic theory building goes like this: you create a theory which has an independent variable and a dependent variable. I have also been taught to use &quot;explanatory variable&quot; as synonym for &quot;independent variable&quot; and &quot;goal variable&quot; and &quot;response variable&quot; as synonyms for &quot;dependent variable&quot;. Then you do empirical research and measure the connection strength, or find out that there is no connection after all :( &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As this is rarely complex enough for theories in disciplines where humans are involved, there is also the option to create a multivariate model, where many independent variables will explain a dependent (or goal) variable. There, the terminology is still unambiguous. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But many models from recent publications are more complex than this. Consider this path model: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/y4d6f.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Continuance intention seems to be the goal variable, because it doesn't lead to any other variables. Interaction and User value are certainly independent variables in this model, because they don't depend on others. But what are Satisfaction and Flow experience? They depend on lots of other variables, but they are not our goal variable, because this model is about Continuance intention, not about Satisfaction or Flow experience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what is the proper terminology for such variables stuck in the middle of a multi-level model? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Citation for the picture: Examining users′ intention to continue using social network games: A flow experience perspective&#xA;Chiao-Chen Chang (2013)&#xA;Telematics and Informatics  30 (4) p. 311-321 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="723" OwnerDisplayName="rumtscho" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2018-07-12T10:06:29.850" LastActivityDate="2018-07-12T10:06:29.850" Title="What do we call the &quot;middle&quot; variables in a complex research model?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;model&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6027" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6026" CreationDate="2014-03-18T18:39:34.163" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've always found it difficult to pack up real-world data into the neat boxes of methodology textbooks, but if you really need a label for these, I'd go with &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wisc.edu/henriques/mediator.html&quot;&gt;mediator variable&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.public.asu.edu/~davidpm/classes/psy536/Baron.pdf&quot;&gt;famous article&lt;/a&gt; on these variables:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Specifically, we differentiate between two often-confused functions of&#xA;  third  variables: (a) the moderator function of third variables, which&#xA;  partitions a focal independent variable into subgroups that establish&#xA;  its domains of maximal effectiveness in regard to a given dependent&#xA;  variable, and (b) &lt;strong&gt;the mediator function of a third  variable, which&#xA;  represents the generative mechanism through which the focal&#xA;  independent variable is able to influence the dependent variable of&#xA;  interest&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baron, R. M., &amp;amp; Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. &lt;em&gt;Journal of personality and social psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 51(6), 1173.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" OwnerDisplayName="Ana" LastActivityDate="2014-03-18T18:39:34.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6028" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6030" CreationDate="2014-03-19T10:10:03.563" Score="0" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which personality traits are strong in people with values such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;kindness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;humility&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sympathy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;empathy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;abnegation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;church-professed values&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;solidarity &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;love for others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;forgiving the other&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;defending the weak&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;putting the interest of other people at the same level of our interest&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trying to maximize your own profit is not the primary value, helping the other is the first value.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;being good&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;mercy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;charity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2014-03-19T10:37:22.357" LastActivityDate="2014-11-18T00:40:01.460" Title="Which personality traits relate to prosocial values?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6030" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6028" CreationDate="2014-03-19T11:33:48.597" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=z9vHEy0osBAC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA1&amp;amp;dq=schwartz+1992+universals&amp;amp;ots=Pfwwi1iYfG&amp;amp;sig=JKPk-oPl_9n8ccKgKro-9jIcaM0#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=schwartz%201992%20universals&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schwartz &lt;sup&gt;(1992)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_values#Psychology_and_the_search_for_universal_values&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;universal values&lt;/a&gt;. His Figure 2 places wealth within the power value space, but near achievement, and opposite from benevolence and universalism. Benevolence, universalism, and to some extent tradition would probably subsume the values you've mentioned in the OP, whereas power and achievement would probably more than cover &quot;trying to maximize your own profit&quot; as a value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also developed my own measure of values &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slideshare.net/NickStauner/apa-2010-poster-draft-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stauner, Boudreaux, &amp;amp; Ozer, 2010&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt; to manage the ceiling effect I've found in using the Schwartz Values Survey. I've found a similar opposition between valuation of &quot;Helping people&quot; and &quot;Being or becoming financially secure&quot;. This corroborates your intuition about the strong difference between these values. I have data from the same surveys on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Big Five traits&lt;/a&gt;, but I haven't analyzed these relationships yet, so it's a little too early for me to weigh in on trait relationships myself. If I ever get around to publishing these analyses of my data, I'll try to remember to edit in a summary here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the meantime, check out Roccas, Sagiv, Schwartz, and Knafo &lt;sup&gt;(2002)&lt;/sup&gt; and Vecchione, Alessandri, Barbaranelli, and Caprara &lt;sup&gt;(2009)&lt;/sup&gt;. Roccas and colleagues found that benevolence mostly relates to agreeableness, universalism to openness, and traditionalism to agreeableness and a few facets of other traits. Conversely, power relates negatively to agreeableness and openness, basically. Achievement relates to certain facets of extraversion, conscientiousness, and (negatively:) agreeableness. It's somewhat more complex than this, so I hope you can access the article through a library and take a closer look yourself. Vecchione and colleagues' article is even harder to sum up without sacrificing its nuances, but to put it very bluntly, their results seem roughly comparable, though the method is different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Roccas, S., Sagiv, L., Schwartz, S. H., &amp;amp; Knafo, A. (2002). The Big Five personality factors and personal values. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28&lt;/em&gt;(6), 789–801.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. &lt;em&gt;Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25&lt;/em&gt;(1), 1–65. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=z9vHEy0osBAC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA1&amp;amp;dq=schwartz+1992+universals&amp;amp;ots=Pfwwi1iYfG&amp;amp;sig=JKPk-oPl_9n8ccKgKro-9jIcaM0#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=schwartz%201992%20universals&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Books&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Stauner, N., Boudreaux, M. J., &amp;amp; Ozer, D. J. (2010). &lt;em&gt;Factor structure of the Values Q-Set&lt;/em&gt;. Poster presented at the 118th convention of the American Psychological Association, San Diego, CA. Available at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slideshare.net/NickStauner/apa-2010-poster-draft-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.slideshare.net/NickStauner/apa-2010-poster-draft-1&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Vecchione, M., Alessandri, G., Barbaranelli, C., &amp;amp; Caprara, G. V. (2009). Personality determinants of political participation: The contribution of traits and self-efficacy beliefs. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences, 46&lt;/em&gt;(4), 487–492.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2014-03-19T13:11:18.503" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T13:11:18.503" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6031" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6026" CreationDate="2014-03-19T12:39:27.740" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;@Ana is correct. &lt;code&gt;Satisfaction&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;Flow Experience&lt;/code&gt; are mediator variables in this path analytic model linking &lt;code&gt;Interaction&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;User Value&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;Continuance Intention to Use Social Network Games&lt;/code&gt;. I don't see any indication that this is a multilevel model; I think you might be mistaken about that, or at least might be excluding any information that would make this relevant. There could be a second level fit to &lt;code&gt;Interaction&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;User Value&lt;/code&gt; directly rather than to the two variables contained in each of those boxes, but I don't see any paths leading from those outer boxes, so I assume there is no second level...and again, &quot;mediator variables&quot; would still work as the term you probably want. In this model, the middle variables completely mediate the relationship of the leftmost variables to the rightmost, but &lt;code&gt;Flow Experience&lt;/code&gt; only partially mediates the relationship of &lt;code&gt;Satisfaction&lt;/code&gt; to the rightmost, because &lt;code&gt;Satisfaction&lt;/code&gt; also has a direct pathway depicted. The coefficient of this pathway indicates any independent relationship those two variables have when controlling &lt;code&gt;Flow Experience&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another distinction can be made between the variables on the left with no inbound arrows and all others that do have inbound arrows: they are &quot;exogenous&quot; and &quot;endogenous&quot;, respectively. That is, even though the mediator variables have both inbound and outbound arrows, they are endogenous. Only the leftmost four variables in this path diagram are exogenous. Exogenous variables are strictly independent, but only the rightmost variable is strictly dependent. All endogenous variables are at least dependent on some other variables, but in this path model, &lt;code&gt;Satisfaction&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;Flow Experience&lt;/code&gt; may be treated as independent variables when estimating their paths to the final outcome variable on the right. They have dual status as in/dependent variables in this model, at least if it is estimated piece-by-piece. It might be misleading to call the mediator variables independent if the whole model is fit simultaneously via SEM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T12:39:27.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6032" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6019" CreationDate="2014-03-19T13:16:51.620" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to this answer: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/6030/4425&quot;&gt;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/6030/4425&lt;/a&gt; I would say that Nietzche's moralities can be classified according to the research on universal values made by &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=z9vHEy0osBAC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA1&amp;amp;dq=schwartz+1992+universals&amp;amp;ots=Pfwwi1iYfG&amp;amp;sig=JKPk-oPl_9n8ccKgKro-9jIcaM0#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=schwartz%201992%20universals&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schwartz &lt;sup&gt;(1992)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_values#Psychology_and_the_search_for_universal_values&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;universal values&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;slave morality&lt;/strong&gt; deals with: Benevolence, universalism, and to some extent tradition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;master morality&lt;/strong&gt; deals with: power and achievement&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The researches seems to suggest what Nietzche was suggesting: &lt;strong&gt;the two morality are diverging&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;benevolence&lt;/strong&gt; mostly relates to &lt;strong&gt;agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;universalism&lt;/strong&gt; to &lt;strong&gt;openness&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  and &lt;strong&gt;traditionalism&lt;/strong&gt; to &lt;strong&gt;agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt; and a few facets of other traits. &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;power&lt;/strong&gt; relates &lt;em&gt;negatively&lt;/em&gt; to &lt;strong&gt;agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;openness&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Achievement&lt;/strong&gt; relates to certain facets of &lt;strong&gt;extraversion&lt;/strong&gt;, &#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;conscientiousness&lt;/strong&gt;, and (&lt;em&gt;negatively&lt;/em&gt;:) &lt;strong&gt;agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feel free to improve my answer&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T13:16:51.620" CommentCount="4" CommunityOwnedDate="2014-03-19T13:16:51.620" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6026" CreationDate="2014-03-19T13:53:21.633" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To repeat what's been said, @Ana's answer is correct, to a point.&#xA;I think a more powerful way to look the kind of data you're talking about is using &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;structural equation modelling&lt;/a&gt;. In SEM terminology, your middle variables could either be manifest (if you're measuring them directly), or latent (if they're inferred from other variables).&#xA;The terminology is explained quite well &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.gsu.edu/~mkteer/sem2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It definitely does &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; have anything to do with neural networks, although they could at a stretch be used to model the same phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit:&#xA;I meant to also say that the language and analysis framework you use is often dependent on the specific field you're coming from.  Mediation and moderation analyses are most common in social psychology, but to the best of my knowledge unheard of in cognitive psychology. SEM is more common in psychometrics, and for researchers looking at things like anxiety and OCD (I can't reference this, as I'm mostly going by who I know in my own university).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T13:53:21.633" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6034" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5997" CreationDate="2014-03-19T21:07:36.147" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a pretty huge question due to its generality, but at that level, it's probably safe to say most things can produce problems in excess. The only specific &lt;code&gt;things&lt;/code&gt; you've mentioned are anxiety and perfectionism as far as I can tell. More specifics would help generate clearer answers, but @Prasanta's is good for anxiety, and your intuition resembles theory (if not necessarily reality) about the relationship between perfectionism and obsessive disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More broadly, I recall reading a chapter (not sure which, but I'd guess it was David Buss') in John, Robins, and Pervin &lt;sup&gt;(2010)&lt;/sup&gt; that argued personality traits in general tend to vary naturally because this increases the adaptive versatility of the society that contains individuals with different talents, responsibilities, and not all the same vulnerabilities. This is similar to the immunological theory that if all members of a species shared the same vulnerability to a certain pathogen, that pathogen could wipe out the entire species if it arose and spread. Individual differences protect the species (or the society) by increasing the likelihood that some individuals will be resistant to sudden selective pressures and survive in the case of catastrophe. The principle also works at less extreme levels of pressure: e.g., having some individuals high in neuroticism may improve the society's responsiveness to subtle, looming dangers that necessitate preventative effort well before the danger takes consequential effect. For example within this example, people who worry excessively about government conspiracies help ensure that the rest of us don't grow complacent about a lack of transparency in governmental functions. In a more evolutionary context, hypervigilant worrywarts would tend to help protect their neighbors from predators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given these selective pressures at the societal level that promote variation, some outliers may arise naturally. Even though neuroticism tends to be psychologically unhealthy, neurotic individuals may adapt optimally to certain circumstances, especially threatening ones. In this sense, &quot;excess&quot; depends on context: many excessively strong traits in normative contexts may be adaptive in rarer contexts. It's even conceivable that in certain circumstances, one could be excessively average! E.g., if a socially polarizing issue divides people into violently conflicting groups, having no strong leaning could endanger moderate individuals by making them misfits in either polarized group, especially if group protection is crucial. Such scenarios are probably applicable to a minority of selective pressures though, so your intuition about polar extremes being more problematic is probably more generally applicable, if somewhat unfalsifiable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;John, O. P., Robins, R. W., &amp;amp; Pervin, L. A. (Eds., 2010). &lt;em&gt;Handbook of personality: Theory and research&lt;/em&gt;. Guilford Press.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T21:07:36.147" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6035" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-19T21:07:51.540" Score="7" ViewCount="2504" Body="&lt;p&gt;Despite a recent dubious claim that placebos don't require deception (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/placebo-effects-without-deception-well-not-exactly/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;critiqued here&lt;/a&gt;), placebos appear to function on the basis that a subject believes &lt;code&gt;X&lt;/code&gt; will have effect &lt;code&gt;Y&lt;/code&gt;. Without knowing too much detail, we say that the subject's mind/body will assist or attempt to achieve &lt;code&gt;Y&lt;/code&gt; upon the &lt;em&gt;perception&lt;/em&gt; that &lt;code&gt;X&lt;/code&gt; causes &lt;code&gt;Y&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can a person, &lt;em&gt;without&lt;/em&gt; self-deception [1] and &lt;em&gt;with&lt;/em&gt; knowledge of the placebo effect, induce a placebo response? Or can a person knowledgeable of the placebo effect induce the same &quot;reactions&quot; that a placebo can normally be used to induce?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Consider a silly example.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Persons A and B each have a headache. They are told that &lt;em&gt;balancing a spoon on one's nose eliminates headaches with very high success rates by conducting electricity via the sinuses&lt;/em&gt;. Person A believes the claim. Person A balances a spoon on their nose, and their headache is eliminated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person B, having a background in medicine, doesn't believe it &lt;em&gt;at all&lt;/em&gt;. Person B, to prove the point, balances the spoon on their nose and remains in pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At this point, is there any way for Person B to &quot;simply decide&quot; that this ritual, which he knows to be an attempt at a placebo, to start working?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would there be a difference using a pill instead of something purely ritualistic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[1] &lt;strong&gt;self-deception&lt;/strong&gt;. [for the purpose of this question,] any mental activity in the general category of suspending one's &quot;participation&quot; in the full body knowledge they normally possess.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4654" LastEditorUserId="4654" LastEditDate="2014-03-21T21:08:34.650" LastActivityDate="2014-03-21T21:08:34.650" Title="Can a person &quot;self-induce&quot; the placebo effect?" Tags="&lt;deception&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="16" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6036" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5984" CreationDate="2014-03-19T22:44:17.600" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of direct research on these exact beliefs, but since &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/6032/4086&quot;&gt;you've asked&lt;/a&gt;, I'll offer some indirect theoretical support for a positive correlation hypothesis. First, I'll reframe your belief constructs in terms of known and studied phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;1) &lt;strong&gt;Everyone&lt;/strong&gt; has to take care of himself; &lt;strong&gt;it's not mandatory for people to be nice&lt;/strong&gt; and good, &lt;strong&gt;it's mandatory to defend ourselves&lt;/strong&gt; from others and to avoid letting the others exploit us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This statement implies advocacy of independence, an internal &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;locus of control&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_value#Psychology_and_the_search_for_universal_values&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;security values&lt;/a&gt;, wariness of others' intentions, and devaluation of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_value#Psychology_and_the_search_for_universal_values&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;benevolence&lt;/a&gt;. Attitudes like these may relate to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conservatism&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-wing_Authoritarianism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;authoritarianism&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Dominance_Orientation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social dominance orientation (SDO)&lt;/a&gt;, and low &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreeableness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;agreeableness&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;2) &lt;strong&gt;No one is guilty if he exploits someone&lt;/strong&gt;, since he should not let me exploit him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This resembles the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_world_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;just-world hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victim_blaming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;victim blaming&lt;/a&gt; in general. These attitudes also relate to internal locus of control, negative evaluations of others, devaluation of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_value#Psychology_and_the_search_for_universal_values&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;universalism&lt;/a&gt; (which is adjacent to benevolence in value space and opposite from power values, which are adjacent to security values), conservatism, authoritarianism, SDO, and low agreeableness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because your two statements resemble markers of attitudes with common correlates, it is likely these attitudes correlate directly (though not necessarily without mediation by their common correlates). As for your second question, in as much as victim blaming occurs to reduce &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt; or justify behaviors to others when questioned, it is likely to occur when one is resisting social or internal pressures to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;empathize&lt;/a&gt; with the victim. It's hard (though not impossible) to be diagnosed as disordered by being too empathetic, whereas it's much easier to be diagnosed with disorders like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychopathy&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;antisocial personality disorder&lt;/a&gt; for lack of empathy. Hence if one blames a victim to justify non-empathetic behavior to oneself or others, one is more likely to behave this way in the future, and more likely to be seen as lacking empathy by others. Yes, it stands to reason that one would increase one's chances of being diagnosed with a disorder by displaying such a symptom of empathy-deficient disorders...but this doesn't mean that believing the just-world hypothesis increases the likelihood of becoming a psychopath. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being a psychopath probably increases the likelihood of believing the just-world hypothesis, but clinical definitions of psychopathy do not generally conceptualize psychopathy as caused by beliefs. Diagnoses may be caused (partially) by beliefs, but where the true disorder exists, it probably has &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy#Causes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;other causes&lt;/a&gt;. However, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy#Personality_dimensions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychopathy as a continuous personality trait&lt;/a&gt; might be affected by victim blaming. Since this definition is somewhat less strict, and it's probably even normal to score above the minimum on given measures of psychopathic personality dimensions, it's somewhat less remarkable if (i.e., more likely that) a belief affects these scores. For instance, it's not hard to imagine an experiment achieving an effect on psychopathic trait dimension scores by priming the just-world hypothesis. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-perceptive processes&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreading_activation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;spreading activation&lt;/a&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;semantic networks&lt;/a&gt; that link various beliefs and attitudes marked by low empathy could easily explain such effects. For example, consider this experimental priming research design:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Participants are randomly sampled from the same population and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Both read vignettes about a homeless person being violently mugged, inducing strong emotions and cognitive dissonance.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The experimental group's vignette presents the victim's background in a culpable light, such as by describing the victim's lack of effort to graduate from high school, get a job, control his alcohol addiction, stay away from dangerous people, and accept help from relatives and public support systems.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The control group's vignette presents the victim's background in a neutral, relatively character-irrelevant manner, as by describing his favorite foods, colors, place of birth, normal performance in high school, and maybe a few normal relationships with others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Both groups complete measures of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychoticism&lt;/a&gt; and rate agreement with various statements of the just-world hypothesis and general victim blame (as a manipulation check).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Group differences in psychoticism and its correlation with levels of just-world hypothesis endorsement are calculated. Hypothetically higher psychoticism in the experimental group and a positive correlation with just-world hypothesis endorsement, &lt;em&gt;if&lt;/em&gt; found, are interpreted as support for the theory that just-world hypothesis belief and victim blaming attitudes induce psychotic states. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Participants could complete the same measures as in step 2 at a later time to assess lasting effects on trait-level psychoticism. Other measures with established convergent validity could also be introduced at later assessments (and probably administered first) to help rule out effects of familiarity with the original measures and memory of one's previous responses. Stronger manipulations would likely be required to produce reliable group differences at later assessments, but if not, this would be a pretty important result. Someone should probably try this experiment!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, it's designed to be falsifiable, so a lack of support or even counterevidence could also result, and positive results would need to be interpreted cautiously. This design would only produce direct evidence of any effects on psychoticism, not psychopathy &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;. There's also reason for ethical concern here, as one certainly wouldn't want to experimentally induce lasting changes in psychopathy, which is related after all. However, with a strong debriefing process that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;explains the moral relevance of the manipulation &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;preaches caution about endorsement of the just-world hypothesis &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;emphasizes that the experimental vignette was completely fictional and intended to reflect real stereotypes about homeless people that are often unfounded and socially harmful, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;refers participants to the right mental health support resources if they are distressed, and maybe some charity or volunteer organizations that support the local homeless population if they are interested...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this design could pass institutional review.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-19T22:55:36.440" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6037" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6014" CreationDate="2014-03-20T00:03:49.413" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yup; basically, it works. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hsj.gr/volume5/issue2/521.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Varvogli and Darviri &lt;sup&gt;(2011)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; review research on diaphragmatic breathing, reporting:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Deep breathing&lt;/strong&gt; has been successfully used to decrease the &lt;strong&gt;fatigue&lt;/strong&gt; associated with haemopoietic stem cell transplantation patients &lt;sup&gt;55&lt;/sup&gt;, to reduce the &lt;strong&gt;anxiety&lt;/strong&gt; and asthma signs/symptoms of children with asthma &lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt;, in the management of &lt;strong&gt;acute stressful&lt;/strong&gt; tasks &lt;sup&gt;57&lt;/sup&gt; showing that the slow-breathing technique can have a significant effect on improvement of the hemodynamic changes following the &lt;strong&gt;acute stressful&lt;/strong&gt; tasks. Furthermore, it has been used to influence autonomic functions in patients with essential hypertension and thus reduce it &lt;sup&gt;58–59&lt;/sup&gt;, in the management of male adolescent &lt;strong&gt;aggressive&lt;/strong&gt; behaviour &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;, in long term prophylaxis of migraine &lt;sup&gt;61&lt;/sup&gt;, in &lt;strong&gt;stress&lt;/strong&gt; related to dental visits &lt;sup&gt;62&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fatigue, anxiety, stress, and aggression are all negatively valent (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5337/4086&quot;&gt;the diagram in this answer&lt;/a&gt;; aggression doesn't appear, but is a form of negative arousal). It wouldn't be surprising if effects on hypertension and migraine incidence are partially mediated by emotional changes either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Varvogli, L., &amp;amp; Darviri, C. (2011). Stress management techniques: Evidence-based procedures that reduce stress and promote health. &lt;em&gt;Health Science Journal, 5&lt;/em&gt;(2), 74–89. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hsj.gr/volume5/issue2/521.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.hsj.gr/volume5/issue2/521.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;As cited within Varvogli &amp;amp; Darviri (2011):&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;$55$. Sang-Dol, K., &amp;amp; Hee-Seung, K. (2005). Effects of a relaxation breathing exercise on fatigue in haemopoietic stem cell transplantation patients. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Clinical Nursing, 14&lt;/em&gt;(1), 51–55.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$56$. Chiang, L. C., Ma, W. F., Huang, J. L., Tseng, L. F., &amp;amp; Hsueh, K. C. (2009) Effect of relaxation-breathing training on anxiety and asthma signs/symptoms of children with moderate-to-severe asthma: A randomized controlled trial. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Nursing Studies, 46&lt;/em&gt;(8), 1061–1070. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/24043294_Effect_of_relaxation-breathing_training_on_anxiety_and_asthma_signssymptoms_of_children_with_moderate-to-severe_asthma_a_randomized_controlled_trial/file/60b7d52a52b71eff5e.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$57$. Nogawa, M., Yamakoshi, T., Ikarashi, A., Tanaka, S., &amp;amp; Yamakoshi, K. (2007). Assessment of slow-breathing relaxation technique in acute stressful tasks using a multipurpose non-invasive beat-by-beat cardiovascular monitoring system. &lt;em&gt;Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc&lt;/em&gt;, 5323–5325.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$58$. Mourya, M., Mahajan, A. S., Singh, N. P., &amp;amp; Jain, A. K. (2009). Effect of slow- and fast-breathing exercises on autonomic functions in patients with essential hypertension. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 15&lt;/em&gt;(7), 711–717.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$59$. Kaushik, R. M., Kaushik, R., Mahajan, S. K., &amp;amp; Rajesh, V. (2006). Effects of mental relaxation and slow breathing in essential hypertension. &lt;em&gt;Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 14&lt;/em&gt;(2), 120–126.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$60$. Gaines, T., &amp;amp; Barry, L. M. (2008). The effect of a self-monitored relaxation breathing exercise on male adolescent aggressive behavior. &lt;em&gt;Adolescence, 43&lt;/em&gt;(170), 291–302.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$61$. Kaushik, R., Kaushik, R. M., Mahajan, S, K., &amp;amp; Rajesh, V. (2005). Biofeedback assisted diaphragmatic breathing and systematic relaxation versus propranolol in long term prophylaxis of migraine. &lt;em&gt;Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 13&lt;/em&gt;(3), 165–174.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$62$. Biggs, Q. M., Kelly, K. S., &amp;amp; Toney J. D. (2003). The effects of deep diaphragmatic breathing and focused attention on dental anxiety in a private practice setting. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Dental Hygiene, 77&lt;/em&gt;(2), 105–113.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-20T00:03:49.413" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6041" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5987" CreationDate="2014-03-20T15:20:58.830" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schizoid personality disorder is characterized by a lack of interest in social relationships. However, with asperger syndrome, it's a limited empathy and understanding of other's situations. In other words, asperger syndrome deals with the inability to empathize while schizoid personality disorder deals with apathy toward other's emotions. Additionally, people with apserger syndrome tend to be less withdrawn than people with schizoid personality disorder. People who have asperger syndrome show repetitive behavior and interests, while schizoid personality disorder does not show this fixation toward repetitive behavior. Asperger syndrome is probably genetically linked somehow and is placed on the autism spectrum. However, schizoid personality disorder is not on the autism spectrum. I hope this response helped!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4658" LastActivityDate="2014-03-20T15:20:58.830" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6042" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6014" CreationDate="2014-03-20T18:15:43.570" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nick's answer is very thorough. I would add that the physiological symptoms of high-stress (muscle tightening, accelerated heartbeat, shallow quick breath) can be reversed by controlling breath voluntarily. So, when you change these physical conditions, emotional state often follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2014-03-20T18:15:43.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6043" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6024" CreationDate="2014-03-20T20:28:07.713" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concept you are looking for is &lt;strong&gt;social conformity&lt;/strong&gt;, which is opposed to &lt;strong&gt;personal autonomy&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scales measuring this concept, such as the Feldman conformity scale (Feldman, 2003) and the conformity subscale of the &quot;Portraits Value Questionnaire&quot; (Schwartz et al., 2001), contain items similar to your examples, e.g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Obeying the rules and fitting in are signs of a strong and healthy society.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feldman, S. (2007). Enforcing social conformity: A theory of authoritarianism. &lt;em&gt;Political Psychology, 24&lt;/em&gt;, 41-74.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schwartz, S. H., Melech, G., Lehmann, A., Burgess, S., Harris, M., Owens, V. (2001). Extending the cross-cultural validity of the theory of basic human values with a different method of measurement. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32&lt;/em&gt;, 519–542.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-03-20T20:28:07.713" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6044" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6035" CreationDate="2014-03-20T20:54:35.443" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Not an answer, because I couldn't find any studies, but too long for a comment:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Placebos aren't arbitrary.&lt;/strong&gt; You are not given chocolate chips as a placebo treatment for a cold. The placebeo has the form of a &quot;real&quot; treatment for the illness or disorder, e.g. a pill without an agent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that in your experiment your subjects must treat themselves with what looks like a real treatment but isn't. It must look like it &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; work.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Placebos are not administered without the knowledge of the sick person&lt;/strong&gt;, e.g. while that person sleeps. Placebos are administered in what is effectively a ritual: you go visit an expert, the expert speaks some magic words (the latin names of your organs and illness), the expert gives you a magic potion (the sugar pill), and touches you and transfers some of his or her power to you. Well, of course he doesn't, but the similarity between religious and magic rituals and what a doctor does are striking and have been studied by ethnologists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that in your experiment your subjects must explicitly &lt;em&gt;treat&lt;/em&gt; themselves and not just eat breakfast and decide after the fact that one of those chocolate chips was the placebo. They need to plan how, with what, and when they want to treat themselves, and then administer the treatment in the way it was designed.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If, in this way, you consider what a placebo actually is – a ritualised administration of a faux treatment – it becomes immediatly apparent that this treament contains several psychologically powerful elements that must certainly have some kind of effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-03-21T19:29:02.593" LastActivityDate="2014-03-21T19:29:02.593" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6046" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6047" CreationDate="2014-03-21T00:14:41.227" Score="1" ViewCount="487" Body="&lt;p&gt;My psychology professor is very hard to understand and can't speak English well. She was saying something about a study was done that found the best indicator of a physical attractiveness is feet, and that men preferred small feet and women prefer large feet. Does anyone know the study being referred to? I can sort of see what is being said, as perhaps women are attracted to tall men and there's a correlation between height and foot size. What confuses me is my prof was definitely saying something about &quot;the best indicator&quot; as if the most attractive part of a person is their feet. Can someone provide a reference to such a study?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-24T00:25:10.930" LastActivityDate="2019-02-21T17:51:48.543" Title="Is there a correlation or cause-effect relationship between attractiveness and feet?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6047" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6046" CreationDate="2014-03-21T01:19:12.300" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a weird one! Looks like your professor's on to something. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19118-why-men-are-attracted-to-women-with-small-feet.html#.UyuGf4V5Pmw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Holmes' &lt;sup&gt;(2010)&lt;/sup&gt; New Scientist article, &quot;Why men are attracted to women with small feet&quot;&lt;/a&gt; gives an interesting intro based on Atkinson and Rowe &lt;sup&gt;(2010)&lt;/sup&gt;, which was a rather hard-to-track-down poster (not that I've retrieved the original). They produced facial composites of eight women each based on longest and shortest foot length, and other composites based on other measurements, and had men rate their attractiveness. Composites look something like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dHZWP.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dHZWP.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newscientist.com/data/images/ns/cms/dn19118/dn19118-1_300.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;newscientist.com&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;   &lt;sup&gt;(Not sure which measurement was the criterion used for these two.)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a dude myself, I guess I'd rank the left composite as more attractive, but opinions vary, and it's worth noting that both benefit from a basic effect of facial composites: they reduce asymmetries and increase normativity, which are attractiveness enhancements, speaking basically, objectively, and generally. In any case, hopefully this demonstrates the research method clearly enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Atkinson and Rowe found that about 7 out of 9 men preferred the composite formed from the faces (i.e., not displaying the feet!) of the eight women with the shortest feet over the composite of the eight with the longest feet. This isn't support for the &quot;best indicator&quot; status though. Composites based on thigh length demonstrated favor for women with long thighs in 8 out of 9 men, and 11 out of 12 men prefer a composite of narrow-hipped women! That one surprised me a bit. Better indicators out there, it seems.&#xA;Holmes doesn't mention any results from Atkinson and Rowe regarding male foot length, but long torsos and small wrists seem more noteworthy, at least in terms of their relationships with attractive male faces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an original article on foot length and attractiveness, check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.danielmtfessler.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Voracek-et-al-2007-foot-length.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Voracek, Fisher, Rupp, Lucas, and Fessler &lt;sup&gt;(2007)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. There's quite a story to tell here, it seems to have everything you're looking for, and Fessler is hosting the article for free access, so I'll just hook you with an excerpt of the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Relative foot length was smaller in young, nulliparous, and slim women...A vast majority of both men and women favored small feet in women, but large feet in men. One's own foot  size appeared to correspond to evaluations of attractiveness; particularly, women with small feet preferred small feet in women in general. The preference for small feet in women&#xA;  was convergent across different methods of evaluating attractiveness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Atkinson, J., &amp;amp; Rowe, M. (2010, June 17). &lt;em&gt;Pretty women have petite feet: An EP analysis of the homo sapiens skeleton.&lt;/em&gt; Poster presented at the 22nd annual meeting of The Human Behavior and Evolution Society. Eugene, OR, USA: University of Oregon.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Voracek, M., Fisher, M. L., Rupp, B., Lucas, D., &amp;amp; Fessler, D. M. (2007). Sex differences in relative foot length and perceived attractiveness of female feet: Relationships among anthropometry, physique, and preference ratings. &lt;em&gt;Perceptual and Motor Skills, 104&lt;/em&gt;(3), 1123–1138. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.danielmtfessler.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Voracek-et-al-2007-foot-length.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.danielmtfessler.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Voracek-et-al-2007-foot-length.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-02-21T17:51:48.543" LastActivityDate="2019-02-21T17:51:48.543" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="6048" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-21T09:02:53.180" Score="6" ViewCount="530" Body="&lt;p&gt;Regular split-brain patients still have some remaining connection between the hemispheres, but would it be possible for their hemispheres to fall asleep independent of each other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about when not just the &lt;em&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/em&gt;, but also the &lt;em&gt;anterior&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;posterior&lt;/em&gt; commissures are not functioning for interhemispheric communication?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4664" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-01T13:23:08.680" LastActivityDate="2016-09-01T13:30:26.077" Title="Can split-brain patients sleep like whales?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6049" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6035" CreationDate="2014-03-21T14:07:27.207" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that even if you tell a patient this pill is placebo and it's not going to help you, there's still some positive effect. It's all about perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LWQfe__fNbs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a really good TED talk with the topic &lt;em&gt;&quot;Is there scientific proof we can heal ourselves?&quot;&lt;/em&gt; at TEDxAmericanRiviera presented by Lissa Rankin&lt;/a&gt;, MD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4667" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-03-21T14:54:40.550" LastActivityDate="2014-03-21T14:54:40.550" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6051" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6052" CreationDate="2014-03-21T23:20:56.490" Score="5" ViewCount="695" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I Google this, the results are about misinterpreting what we hear to suit what we want or expect. However, I'm interested to know if we ignore specific things we hear and focus on things we are interested in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if you are in a public hall, and there are 4 or 5 conversations within your hearing range, will you focus onto the ones you are interested in while completely ignoring the ones you are not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4322" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-21T23:34:19.030" LastActivityDate="2014-03-22T00:04:21.700" Title="Do we only hear what we want to hear?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6052" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6051" CreationDate="2014-03-22T00:04:21.700" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer ought to be a qualified &quot;Yes.&quot; We don't &lt;em&gt;only&lt;/em&gt; hear what we want, in as much as motivation has zero direct control over the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transduction_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;transduction&lt;/a&gt; of auditory signals in a sensory sense. Motivation affects which way we turn our ears and whether we keep them in a room with sounds we want to hear vs. a room with sounds we don't want to hear, but if those sounds hit our ears, whether we want to hear them shouldn't affect whether the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereocilia_%28inner_ear%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;stereocilia&lt;/a&gt; in our &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochlea&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cochleae&lt;/a&gt; wiggle and tell our brains all about it. That's the only qualification of the otherwise plainly affirmative answer that occurs to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a perceptory sense, motivation matters a lot more, because transfer from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_memory#Echoic_Memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;echoic memory&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;working memory&lt;/a&gt; is a matter of attention, and motivation certainly affects attention. E.g., if you're listening for a particular sound, you'll notice it better (hence the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocktail_party_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cocktail party effect&lt;/a&gt;), and you'll even experience more &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_1_error#False_positive_error&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;false alarms&lt;/a&gt; in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_detection_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;signal detection&lt;/a&gt; sense. A personal example within the general example: all the sounds that had the same pitch and tone as the first note of my cell phone ringtone used to drive me nuts when I would take a shower while anticipating a call from a girl I really wanted to talk to, who would often call me unexpectedly and complain when I didn't answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Transfer from working memory to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;long-term memory&lt;/a&gt; is arguably even more sensitive to motivation, because it depends greatly on elaborative rehearsal. Hence the more obsessed (or just interested) you are with a particular topic is the more often and deeply you'll think about it, and the more likely you'll remember it after your working memory's fairly short duration is up. If you don't remember something, you can't say whether you heard it, so the better you remember is also the more evidence you can offer that you have heard it. This is important in an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology#Empiricism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;empirical epistemic&lt;/a&gt; sense for our purposes, partly because it exacerbates the effect as perceived retrospectively, and thus reinforces the folk theory in your title.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-03-22T00:04:21.700" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6053" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6470" CreationDate="2014-03-22T03:12:15.943" Score="5" ViewCount="497" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm just curious to know: why do people stress over the smallest of issues? Not only is it common to almost everyone I know, but it is something that can drive people crazy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, getting really stressed when you can't get something to work (even if it's a simple as a new program on your computer), or stressed when you misplace your keys at home and immediately blame your partner. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These rather simple things cause a great deal of stress (even for myself). While looking at my friends or family, stress over them cause me to realise how petty they are. Hasn't there got to be some cognitive reason for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was having a discussion with my friend two days ago, when he told me these small stresses were a good thing, in that they make us forget about the big problems like recent job losses or events such as global warming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we encapsulate ourselves in these petty matters as a means of protecting ourselves, or are we just selfish and ignorant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4322" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-22T03:35:00.140" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T08:34:31.927" Title="Why do we stress over the smallest things?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6054" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-22T11:07:25.187" Score="5" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;As part of my bachelor thesis on eyetracking-based gaze guidance, I've done quite a bit of reading (again) on visual attention and visual attention distribution. What caught my attention (haha) earlier this morning is a section about a two-part framework for visual attention distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ref. to the article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Laurent Itti, Christof Koch (2000). A saliency-based search mechanism&#xA;  for overt and covert shifts of visual attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Page 2, left column, second paragraph from the top, it states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Much evidence has accumulated in favor of a two component framework for&#xA;  the control of where in a visual scene attention is deployed&#xA;  [References here]: a bottom-up, fast, primitive mechanism that biases&#xA;  the observer towards selecting stimuli based on their saliency (most&#xA;  likely encoded in terms of center-surround mechanisms) and a second&#xA;  slower, top-down mechanism with variable selection criteria, which&#xA;  directs the ‘spotlight of attention’ under cognitive, volitional&#xA;  control. Whether visual consciousness can be reached by either&#xA;  saliency-based or top-down attentional selection or by both remains&#xA;  controversial.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this article being from 2000 and pretty much every reference to support this dated between 1980 and 1998, is there any current work (2000+) to support this model, or has it even been refuted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are quite a lot of visual attention distribution models centering around saliency as the core parameter that seem to fit pretty well, but what about the second component of the framework that is suggested here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking forward to some interesting answers. I can provide additional references if needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2323" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-22T18:55:35.743" LastActivityDate="2014-03-22T18:55:35.743" Title="Evidence for a 2-component framework of visual attention distribution" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6055" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5356" CreationDate="2014-03-22T19:42:39.407" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;My problem with explaining the illusion in terms of complementary colours using the opponent process theory is that the two alternating colours, red and blue, in the illusion aren't actually complementary, at least not according to the colour chart in Keegan's answer where red complements green and blue complements yellow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theory might well account for afterimages, but is that what we're seeing here? Could it be rather a &lt;em&gt;pre&lt;/em&gt;-image? The brain is filling in the shape with the colour it expects on the basis of past experience. The blind spot in the retina provides another example of visual confabulation/interpolation using surrounding detail. Why one should expect blue for the four-pointed star shape in one orientation and red in the other needs further explanation of course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4536" LastActivityDate="2014-03-22T19:42:39.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6056" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6214" CreationDate="2014-03-22T20:03:24.877" Score="6" ViewCount="770" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to posses a self awareness without having any sort of language at hand, not even a personal sign system. How would such an languageless experience be like?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure if this can be correlated, but how would be the experience or awareness of an Infant before gaining self-awareness and language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4672" LastEditorUserId="4672" LastEditDate="2014-03-22T20:12:48.870" LastActivityDate="2014-04-12T16:14:54.113" Title="How would self awareness be limited without languages" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6061" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6073" CreationDate="2014-03-23T22:29:18.507" Score="6" ViewCount="456" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychtronics.com/2013/12/13-amazing-facts-about-your-brain.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pavan Teja says on Psychtronics&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Did you know that ... 12 percent of our dreams are in black and white?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 12% even split up between young and old. From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810008001323&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Do we only dream in colour? A comparison of reported dream colour in younger and older adults with different experiences of black and white media&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... Moreover, there were inter-group differences in the recall quality of colour and black and white dreams that point to the possibility that true greyscale dreams occur only in people with black and white media experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2015-11-03T19:38:23.237" LastActivityDate="2015-11-03T19:38:23.237" Title="12 percent of our dreams are in black and white?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6062" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6069" CreationDate="2014-03-24T00:15:55.953" Score="2" ViewCount="1459" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there some branches of NLP which are considered scientific?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Bandler and Grinder also claim that NLP can treat problems such as&#xA;  phobias, depression, habit disorder, psychosomatic illnesses,&#xA;  myopia,&lt;sup&gt;[8]&lt;/sup&gt; allergy, common cold&lt;sup&gt;[9]&lt;/sup&gt; and learning disorders, often in a&#xA;  single session.&lt;sup&gt;[10]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[11]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[12]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[13]&lt;/sup&gt; NLP has been adopted by some&#xA;  hypnotherapists and in seminars marketed to business and&#xA;  government.&lt;sup&gt;[14]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[15]&lt;/sup&gt; Reviews of empirical research find that NLP's core&#xA;  tenets are poorly supported.&lt;sup&gt;[16]&lt;/sup&gt; The balance of scientific evidence&#xA;  reveals NLP to be a largely discredited pseudoscience. Scientific&#xA;  reviews show it contains numerous factual errors,&lt;sup&gt;[14]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[17]&lt;/sup&gt; and fails to&#xA;  produce the results asserted by proponents.&lt;sup&gt;[16]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[18]&lt;/sup&gt; According to&#xA;  Devilly (2005),&lt;sup&gt;[19]&lt;/sup&gt; NLP has had a consequent decline in prevalence&#xA;  since the 1970s. Criticisms go beyond lack of empirical evidence for&#xA;  effectiveness, saying NLP exhibits pseudoscientific&#xA;  characteristics,&lt;sup&gt;[19]&lt;/sup&gt; title,&lt;sup&gt;[20]&lt;/sup&gt; concepts and terminology as&#xA;  well.&lt;sup&gt;[21]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[22]&lt;/sup&gt; NLP is cited as an example of pseudoscience when&#xA;  teaching scientific literacy at the professional and university&#xA;  level.&lt;sup&gt;[23]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[24]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[25]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[26]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[27]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[28]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[29]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[30]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[31]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[32]&lt;/sup&gt; NLP also appears on&#xA;  peer reviewed expert-consensus based lists of discredited&#xA;  interventions.&lt;sup&gt;[16]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;. I've made a fast search on Wikipedia, but I cannot access the papers. Also, going deep into this topic would be really demanding. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-24T06:47:35.750" LastActivityDate="2014-03-24T15:34:37.633" Title="Is Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) a science or pseudoscience?" Tags="&lt;neuro-linguistic-prog&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6063" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-24T00:27:25.857" Score="1" ViewCount="177" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainsync.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the website&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;BRAIN SYNC meditation CDs and guided imagery techniques are proven to&#xA;  significantly improve mental performance. In two decades, nearly 3&#xA;  million Brain Sync users have experienced the powerful benefits of&#xA;  deep meditation to accelerate healing, learning, recovery and personal&#xA;  growth. Brain Sync brainwave technology blends advanced meditation&#xA;  techniques with harmonically layered binaural beat frequencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there scientific support for Brain Sync music in improving cognitive functioning?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4676" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-25T03:19:04.010" LastActivityDate="2014-03-25T03:19:04.010" Title="Is Brain Sync music effective in increasing cognitive functioning?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-04-01T01:05:15.617" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6069" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6062" CreationDate="2014-03-24T06:40:43.307" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have quite a few questions on this site about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/tagged/neuro-linguistic-prog&quot;&gt;Neuro-linguistic-programming&lt;/a&gt;. In general I think it is more productive to talk about a particular scientific claim or a particular treatment rather than an entire paradigm. Paradigms that are not grounded in the scientific method may incidentally reflect the truth when studied relative to scientific standards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3788/is-neurolinguistic-programming-effective-in-influenceing-sales-processes&quot;&gt;this question on NLP and sales effectiveness has mostly been answered in a general sense&lt;/a&gt;. In particular, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/3793/52&quot;&gt;@what's answer&lt;/a&gt; makes reference to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming#Scientific_evaluation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scientific evaluation&lt;/a&gt; section on Wikipedia which basically states that NLP is not scientifically based or validated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-03-24T06:48:24.217" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6070" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6099" CreationDate="2014-03-24T09:33:31.853" Score="2" ViewCount="2028" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to these answers &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6062/is-neuro-linguistic-programming-nlp-a-science-or-pseudoscience/6069#6069&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3788/is-neurolinguistic-programming-effective-in-influenceing-sales-processes&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt; and to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming#Scientific_evaluation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, NLP seems to be a pseudoscience, which has shown no real effectiveness, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there scientific proved alternatives to NLP?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-03-27T01:50:21.683" Title="Are there scientific alternatives to Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)?" Tags="&lt;neuro-linguistic-prog&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6073" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6061" CreationDate="2014-03-24T16:32:54.750" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's difficult to tell. Dreams are very hard to analyse scientifically since they can't be objectively measured, only self-reported. Dreams are notoriously difficult to recall after waking, so it's almost impossible to tell for certain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some self-report studies which do assert that some proportion of dreams are in black and white, but this pattern is not seen in dream reports in various historical sources, so a plausible explanation is that black-and-white dreaming is caused mainly by exposure to black-and-white film media throughout the early 20th century, and that the percentage of dreams that are in black-and-white are skewed toward older populations who grew up with black-and-white films (though I don't personally know of any hard data on this point)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See this article by Schwitzgebel, 2001, who recounts several primary sources to this effect: &lt;a href=&quot;http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/267/1/dreamb&amp;amp;w010430.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/267/1/dreamb&amp;amp;w010430.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reference&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwitzgebel, E. (2002). Why did we think we dreamed in black and white?. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A, 33(4), 649-660. &lt;a href=&quot;http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/267/1/dreamb&amp;amp;w010430.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4444" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-25T01:12:03.150" LastActivityDate="2014-03-25T01:12:03.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6074" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4564" CreationDate="2014-03-24T16:53:42.393" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depending on what you consider 'photographic memory', there is a documented psychological syndrome called 'hyperthymesia' or 'highly superior autobiographical memory'. People with this condition can recall mundane aspects of nearly every day of their lives, such as what shoes a stranger was wearing 20 years ago. It's not quite the same as what 'eidetic memory' refers to but it does reflect an exceptionally acute memory system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Wikipedia there are 25 recorded cases in peer-reviewed journals. The Wiki article is here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthymesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthymesia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4444" LastActivityDate="2014-03-24T16:53:42.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6075" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-24T23:16:53.463" Score="4" ViewCount="9771" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychtronics.com/2013/11/interesting-ways-to-lucid-dream.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pavan Teja says on Psychtronics&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Drink a lot of water. The more water you drink before bed, the more vivid your dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true? Is this because I'm more alert not to, you know, and therefore sleep less deep and therefore experience more dreams?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-25T00:21:22.770" LastActivityDate="2018-10-08T02:48:44.630" Title="Is it true that drinking water before bed causes dreams to be more vivid?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6076" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5946" CreationDate="2014-03-25T00:07:18.867" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cardiac cells rely on calcium for upstroke of the action potential, which is why they tend to have a slower rise than cells that rely on sodium for upstroke.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vSqWe.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Comparison of nerve cell to cardiac cell&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-03-25T00:07:18.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6077" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-25T00:21:10.510" Score="5" ViewCount="321" Body="&lt;p&gt;Where does Freud say, &quot;The unconscious mind can only wish?&quot; I've been tasked with either agreeing or disagreeing with this statement, but I cannot find exactly where Freud is said to have made this statement, thus no context. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4687" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-25T01:09:35.017" LastActivityDate="2014-03-25T18:59:06.237" Title="Where does Freud say, &quot;The unconscious mind can only wish?&quot;" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6078" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6077" CreationDate="2014-03-25T00:39:31.160" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.depthinsights.com/Depth-Insights-scholarly-ezine/e-zine-issue-3-fall-2012/hijacked-by-a-dream-by-paco-mitchell/#_edn6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Paco Mitchell at Depth Insights&lt;/a&gt; lists the following reference for “the unconscious can only wish”:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For an informed critique of Freud’s comment and of psychoanalytic theory in general, see C. G. Jung, &lt;em&gt;The Theory of Psychoanalysis&lt;/em&gt; (New York: Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1915).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://archive.org/stream/theoryofpsychoan00jungiala/theoryofpsychoan00jungiala_djvu.txt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Full text is available at Archive.org&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;You may also want to search for &quot;can only wish&quot; on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scribd.com/doc/26077433/Freud-and-Psychoanalysis-C-G-Jung&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scribd's copy of Jung's &lt;em&gt;Freud and Psychoanalysis&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://archive.org/stream/mechanismsofchar00whituoft/mechanismsofchar00whituoft_djvu.txt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Archive.org's full text of William White's &lt;em&gt;Mechanisms of Character Formation: An Introduction to Psychoanalysis&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. These provide plenty more context, though I'm not seeing a direct reference to the original source of the quote...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-03-25T00:39:31.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6079" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5946" CreationDate="2014-03-25T08:48:16.177" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The initiation of SA node action potential is through slow Na+ channels (slow, inward depolarising current, note there are no fast Na channels. These pacemaker setting Na channels only act when it is VERY hyperpolarised, won't initiate otherwise). As the membrane potential rises, you get the additional opening of T-type calcium channels and then the opening of L-type calcium channels. These all add to the depolarisation until you reach the threshold potential where an AP can then fire. I think some K+ channels also close during this early depolarisation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During the action potential rising phase (after threshold), it is primarily L-type Ca channels that are bringing Ca into the cell (the other channels close off a bit). As you reach the peak of the action potential, the L-type channels close and the K+ dawgs open, causing the repolarisation phase. Also note that the speed in which Ca2+ can move in through L-type channels is somewhat compromised compared to other channels, so it's slower and causes that slower up/rising phase (which is what you want in a pacemaker cell - check out the link for the shape of the SA node AP).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cvphysiology.com/Arrhythmias/A004.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://cvphysiology.com/Arrhythmias/A004.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4688" LastEditorUserId="4688" LastEditDate="2014-03-25T08:53:36.667" LastActivityDate="2014-03-25T08:53:36.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6081" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6077" CreationDate="2014-03-25T18:30:26.653" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &quot;quote&quot; seems not to be verbatim, at least not from Freud. Ferenczi (&lt;a href=&quot;https://archive.org/stream/IntrojektioneUndUbertragung/Deuticke_Ferenczi_1910_Introjektion#page/n21/mode/2up&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1910, p. 21&lt;/a&gt;) describes Freud's views of the unconscious with the words:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Das Unbewußte kann nichts als wünschen&quot;, sagt Freud. [&quot;The unconscious can only wish,&quot; says Freud.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Others, like Kaplan (1917), von Geijerstam (1920), or Jung (see Nick's answer), have used similar phrases to summarize Freud's theory. The idea expressed in the &quot;quote&quot; must be older than Frenczi's publication from 1910, so it belongs to Freud's first &quot;topography&quot; of the psyche (Unconscious, Pre-Conscious, Conscious) and does not related to the second (Id, Ego, Super-Ego).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether Freud ever &quot;said&quot; or wrote the exact words like Ferenczi gives them, is unclear. I cannot find any variation of the phrase in Freud's published works, which proves nothing, only that he might have used slightly different words than I can think of. But then he might have actually &lt;em&gt;said&lt;/em&gt; them – in a conversation or conference presentation –, or Ferenczi might mean that Freud's views can be summarized with this phrase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whatever the origin of the &quot;quote&quot;, the important aspect in it becomes clear when we look at the context these autors put it in. Frenczi writes that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;wenn zwei Menschen sich begegnen ... das Unbewußte stets den Versuch der Übertragung macht. [if two people meet ... the unconscious always attempts &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transference&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;transference&lt;/a&gt;. (&quot;There is no 'No' in the unconscious ... the unconscious can only wish,&quot; says Freud.)]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wilhelm Reich (&lt;a href=&quot;https://archive.org/stream/InternationaleZeitschriftFrPsychoanalyseXvi.Band1928Heft2/IZ_XVI_1928_Heft2#page/n107/mode/2up&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1928, p. 260&lt;/a&gt;), in a review, poses the rethorical questiion, if this is true:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Oder sollte sich der Freudsche Satz &quot;Das Unbewußte kann nur wünschen&quot;, also nichts ablehnen, nichts verneinen, als unrichtig herausstellen? [Or should Freud's statement that &quot;The uncouscious can only wish&quot;, i.e. refuse nothing, deny nothing, prove to be false?]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So apparently the idea expressed by Freud is that not only can the unconscious not do anything else than wish, it also &lt;em&gt;must&lt;/em&gt; wish, always.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud himself expressed his theory in the &lt;em&gt;Interpretation of Dreams&lt;/em&gt; (1900, p. 573), where he writes of the unconscious,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;welches kein anderes Ziel seiner Arbeit als Wunscherfüllung kennt und über keine anderen Kräfte als die der Wunschregungen verfügt. [which knows no other aim than wish-fulfilment, and which has at its disposal no forces other than the wish-impulses. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psywww.com/books/interp/chap07c.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;trans. A. A. Brill, 1911&lt;/a&gt;)]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With these hints I'll leave the rest of your assignment to you. We want to avoid that your teacher googles your essay and wants to give the course credit to me ;-) Find out about the origin of the unconscious, what it consists of and what it does, and the answer to your question should be apparent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ferenczi, S. (1910). &lt;em&gt;Introjektion und Übertragung&lt;/em&gt; [Introjection and transference]. Leipzig: Deuticke.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reich, W. (1928). Referate: Fortschritte der Sexualwissenschaft und Psychoanalyse, herausgegeben von Dr. Wilhelm Stekel [Review of Advances of Sexology and Psychoanalysis, edited by Dr. Wilhelm Stekel]. &lt;em&gt;Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse, 14&lt;/em&gt;(2), p. 259-266.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Freud, S. (1900). &lt;em&gt;Die Traumdeutung&lt;/em&gt; [The interpretation of dreams]. Leipzig. Deuticke.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-03-25T18:59:06.237" LastActivityDate="2014-03-25T18:59:06.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6082" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-25T21:42:05.510" Score="4" ViewCount="157" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to this question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5861/would-most-people-benefit-from-psychotherapy&quot;&gt;Would most people benefit from psychotherapy?&lt;/a&gt; most people would benefit from psychotherapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm trying to narrow that question to only the people who have experienced some &lt;em&gt;psychopathology&lt;/em&gt; and went into a &lt;em&gt;cognitive therapy&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counseling#Differenze_tra_counseling_e_psicoterapia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; explains that the differences between psychotherapy and counseling can be summarized in the following sentence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Unlike the patient in psychotherapy, the client in counseling does not&#xA;  need to be cured or helped to overcome a psychological suffering, but draws on the skills of the counselor as an aid skills they already possess in order to achieve the goals you want, in the ways and in the times that are responsive.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the evidence support the idea that most people affected by psychopathology would &lt;strong&gt;strongly&lt;/strong&gt; benefit from continuing cognitive psychotherapy / counseling after the main problems disappear?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T13:24:09.810" Title="Would a patient benefit from continuing cognitive therapy even after solving his pathology?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6086" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6088" CreationDate="2014-03-26T10:23:34.743" Score="1" ViewCount="2999" Body="&lt;p&gt;David Burns in his book &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling_Good%3a_The_New_Mood_Therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Feeling Good&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; describes &quot;labeling and mislabeling&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_distortion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive distortions&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Personal labeling means creating a completely negative self-image based on your errors. It is an extreme form of overgeneralization. The philosophy behind it is &quot;The measure of a man is the mistakes he makes.&quot; There is a good chance you are involved in a personal labeling whenever you describe your mistakes with sentences beginning with &quot;I'm a...&quot; For example, when you miss your putt on the eighteenth hole, you might say, &quot;I'm a born loser&quot; instead of &quot;I goofed up on my putt.&quot; Similarly, when the stock you invested in goes down instead of up, you might think, &quot;I'm a failure&quot; instead of &quot;I made a mistake.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Labeling yourself is not only self-defeating, it is irrational. Your self cannot be equated with any one thing you do. Your life is a complex and ever-changing flow of thoughts, emotions, and actions. To put it another way, you are more like a river than a statue. Stop trying to define yourself with negative labels—they are overly simplistic and wrong. Would you think of yourself exclusively as an &quot;eater&quot; just because you eat, or a &quot;breather&quot; just because you breathe? This is nonsense, but such nonsense becomes painful when you label yourself out of a sense of your own inadequacies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When you label other people, you will invariably generate hostility. A common example is the boss who sees his occasionally irritable secretary as &quot;an uncooperative bitch.&quot; Because of this label, he resents her and jumps at every chance to criticize her. She, in turn, labels him an &quot;insensitive chauvinist&quot; and complains about him at every opportunity. So, around and around they go at each other's throats, focusing on every weakness or imperfection as proof of the other's worthlessness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mislabeling involves describing an event with words that are inaccurate and emotionally heavily loaded. For example, a woman on a diet ate a dish of ice cream and thought, &quot;How disgusting and repulsive of me. I'm a pig.&quot; These thoughts made her so upset she ate the whole quart of ice cream! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But labeling and mislabeling seem equivalent. I see no difference between, &quot;She's irritated by me, therefore she's an uncooperative bitch,&quot; and, &quot;I ate a dish, therefore I'm a pig&quot;. How does David Burns differentiate between these cognitive distortions? How do other cognitive therapists differentiate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="961" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-26T18:00:40.083" LastActivityDate="2014-03-26T18:00:40.083" Title="How is &quot;mislabeling&quot; cognitive distortion different from &quot;labeling&quot;?" Tags="&lt;attribution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6087" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-26T11:19:42.213" Score="4" ViewCount="2560" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_D._Burns&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;David Burns&lt;/a&gt; is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive therapist&lt;/a&gt;, who in his &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling_Good%3a_The_New_Mood_Therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Feeling Good&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; describes how to overcome depression. He states that depression is a logical result of irrational negative thoughts, which can be generalized to a finite set of thought patterns called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_distortion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive distortions&lt;/a&gt;. For example, one such cognitive distortion is &lt;strong&gt;over-generalization&lt;/strong&gt;, an example of a negative irrational thought matching this pattern is &lt;em&gt;&quot;this girl rejected my advances outright, i'll probably never have success with  a girl&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. In general, cognitive therapy states that our thoughts determine emotions, feelings, moods, habits and behaviors. Thoughts here not only mean thought-phrases, but also perceptions, interpretations, attitudes and beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Carr&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Allen Carr&lt;/a&gt; was a smoking cessation expert, who wrote &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Easy_Way_to_Stop_Smoking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Easy Way to Stop Smoking&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. In short, his method revolves around changing your perception of smoking and quitting, and if you succeed, you will quit easily, painlessly and instantly, as if you were never a smoker. First, Carr deconstructs every single argument for smoking, such as concentration, relaxation, stress coping aid, taste, hobby and so on, showing that they are just incorrect rationalizations of an addicted mind. Then he explains the mechanism of addiction — you smoke to relieve the unpleasant withdrawal symptoms, your mind associates sense of relief with the cigarette, therefore cigarette deprivation is so painful, even though it itself doesn't bring pleasure, only returns you to the state, in which non-smokers always are. Finally, he goes through the fears of quitting and deconstructs them by showing that physical withdrawal symptoms are mild, and the cravings are creatures of the deluded mind, that quitting is not a sacrifice and a chore, and the only obstacle was fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carr meticulously describes every facet of smoking, therefore his book doesn't propose written exercises and ideally takes only one reading through to quit smoking. Burns's approach, in contrast, is generic and gradual, he gives you some tools, namely, list of cognitive distortions and a vast amount of written exercises, and asks you to manually apply them in everyday situations. His therapy course lasts for several weeks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, can Carr's method viewed as a kind of cognitive therapy? What is its relation to a vast ontology of cognitive-behavioral therapy variants, what is the same and what is different? Do mainstream cognitive therapy academics acknowledge Carr's method and his similarities with their approach?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="961" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-25T12:56:24.453" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T12:56:24.453" Title="Is Allen Carr's &quot;easy way to stop smoking&quot; a form of cognitive therapy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6088" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6086" CreationDate="2014-03-26T11:19:47.337" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that in this case David Burns describes Labeling as an overgeneralization, not necessarily a misattribution. As in his example, a breather does breathe, it is just not the only aspect of the breather.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mislabeling in this example is an inaccurate label, not an overgeneralization but qualitatively false, and &quot;emotionally heavily loaded&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This explanation would fit with regular English semantics for the words, so it seems to make sense. I would not qualify the terms Labeling and Mislabeling as rigidly defined per this text though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4664" LastActivityDate="2014-03-26T11:19:47.337" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6089" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-26T11:59:30.197" Score="4" ViewCount="1496" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many similar questions here ask either about working or short-term memory, or about various tricks and techniques to efficiently remember information. My question is, is it possible to improve the capability for remembering long-term itself? So that learning/memorizing something would take less time or repetition, and the acquired knowledge/information will be stored for longer and with less distortions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effect might not be permanent, but it should be prolonged and substantial. To illustrate my point, let's assume for argument's sake that learning poems has the effect of improving long-term memory. This would mean that, after regularly memorizing new poems for several weeks, i find that i'm able to memorize new poems spending less time, the poems retain remembered for longer. I'm also able to remember content of non-fiction and fiction texts better too, so that i can recall tricky facts and logical inferences, which before memorizing poems i tended to forget. So, is there a method to improve the general efficiency of your long-term memory? In other words, ability to retain more information for longer periods with less effort?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="961" LastEditorUserId="961" LastEditDate="2014-03-27T17:22:57.067" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T19:38:31.857" Title="Is it possible to permanently improve long-term memory?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6090" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-26T16:53:56.053" Score="3" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read numerous different papers each claiming that antipsychotic medication either helps maintain brain volume or causes brain volume reduction in patients with schizophrenia and other psychotic psychiatric disorders. I have to admit that I am confused on this subject. What is the clinically accepted position on brain volume and antipsychotic medication?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4692" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-26T18:03:57.203" LastActivityDate="2014-03-26T18:03:57.203" Title="What are the effects of antipsychotic medication on brain volume?" Tags="&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6091" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-26T19:31:00.870" Score="4" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am developing a personalized android program designed to expand vocabulary for students learning English as a second language. It includes &quot;story-reading&quot; and &quot;Word-Meaning Quizes&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, students take a test to specify their level. Then they start reading stories at that level. They can then look up a word while reading from a pop-up dictionary, and this word is registered to a database as &quot;seen&quot;. After reading some stories, students take a word quiz.  Questions about word-meaning are asked using  words  seen in the stories and words not seen in the story but also at the students' level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What theory or approach can I use to select &quot;word meaning&quot; items and prepare quizzes in a logical way?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am using Item Response Theory to estimate user's level of cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4701" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-02T00:30:36.480" LastActivityDate="2014-04-02T00:30:36.480" Title="How to select vocabulary items for a test designed to expand vocabulary in English as a second language students?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6092" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6094" CreationDate="2014-03-26T19:33:29.237" Score="4" ViewCount="3331" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading a lot of books about seduction. Most of them rely on (approximative) psychological basis and presents really interesting insights. Robert Greene - Art of seduction, for example presents a lot of interesting factual happening and present some intuitive psychological interpretation.  The generalization made by Mistery and Greene are not very scientific. But it's possible to try to give an interpretation of the facts described by this books based on cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are really many fields of applied psychology. However, it seems to me that there is no official Seduction psychology.&#xA;For example, topics might include stereotypes, concept of beauty, importance of beauty, appearance and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there psychological research on seduction?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What field of psychology does research on seduction?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-24T20:54:54.473" LastActivityDate="2014-08-24T20:54:54.473" Title="Is there psychological research on seduction?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6093" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6101" CreationDate="2014-03-26T19:37:05.040" Score="5" ViewCount="257" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any evidence suggesting that the more introvert people could be more subject to psychological problems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is possible to hypothesize that one of the causes is the lack of ideas in comparison with other people from the community?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-27T01:48:59.517" LastActivityDate="2014-03-27T03:00:15.270" Title="Do introverts tend to experience more psychological problems?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6094" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6092" CreationDate="2014-03-26T19:59:40.357" Score="12" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Attraction&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social psychology deals extensively with (sexual, erotic, friendly) human-to-human attraction. If you understand attraction, you know how to seduce.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is true that social psychology does not provide a manual for seduction, and in my opinion this may have two reasons. Social psychology is not an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;applied&lt;/a&gt;, but a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_science_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;basic science&lt;/a&gt;, interested in understanding human behavior, not directing it. And there may be ethical objections to providing scientifically proven methods for maliciously manipulating the most intimate emotions, thus providing &amp;quot;weapons&amp;quot; in the &amp;quot;war of the sexes&amp;quot; and causing further discontent in an area of human interaction that is already rife with accusations of abuse. Economic psychology, an applied psychological field, provides manuals of seduction for human-to-product attraction. This is called &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;persuasive communication&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;. It seems to me that human dating behavior is dysfunctional enough as it is, and does not need more manipulative methods – and what else is seduction if not manipulating someone who would not be attracted to you as you are into being attracted? –, but rather to be freed from them so that we could approach each other with more honesty and mutual understanding and less fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Dating Anxiety&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dysfunctions are the speciality of clinical psychology, and in fact clinical psychology has developed treatments (and manuals) for what is commonly (among psychologists) called &amp;quot;dating anxiety&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;heterosocial anxiety&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A short introduction into dating anxiety is provided by Grover, Esterline and Nangle (2014); a conprehensive description of the concept and research (up to their publication) is provided by Hope and Heimberg (1990). A related concept is &amp;quot;courtship disorder&amp;quot; (Freund, 1983).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The treatment of dating anxiety is similar to that of phobias:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Psychoeducation and modification of (false) cognitive biases:&lt;/em&gt; The therapist explains that dating anxiety is a common occurence, why it happens, and how dating works, including the perspective (and fears) of the &amp;quot;other side&amp;quot;, thus reducing shame and increasing self- and mutual understanding.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Social skills training:&lt;/em&gt; Many people suffering from dating anxiety lack in social skills, so a part of the therapy is training how to more successfully interact with other people in general, outside of dating.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Practice dating:&lt;/em&gt; Patients train dating with the therapist or with other patients in a group setting.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Systematic desensibilisation:&lt;/em&gt; Confronting the patient with desirable persons and frightening situations will cause his fears to abate with habituation. There is a case study of using surrogate partners for this (Zentner &amp;amp; Knox, 2013), but usually the patient has to do this as a homework.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Much of this is similar to what &amp;quot;Pick-Up Artists&amp;quot; teach to the &amp;quot;Seduction Community&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Pick-Up Artists and the Seduction Community&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are only about a handful (psychological, linguistic and sociological) research publications dealing with the seduction community and pick-up artists. Looking at all publications that came up through a Google Scholar search for the phrase &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22pick%20up%20artist%22%20OR%20%22pickup%20artists%22&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;'pick up artist' OR 'pickup artist'&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; and similar searches on PsychINFO, I found the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pick-up artists use verbal techniques to establish inequality in social status (the authors of the paper call this &amp;quot;doing inequality&amp;quot;), which they then immediately overcome by showing affiliation and affection and making compliments. In this way pick-up artists avoid the impression of threat and dishonor that many women have when men approach them in an openly positive way (Hambling-Jones &amp;amp; Merrision, 2012).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pick-up artists &amp;quot;perform on a stage&amp;quot;, where they are critically judged by an audience, and in the face of this high social risk many techniques only indirectly serve to &amp;quot;pick up&amp;quot; the woman, or not at all, but rather serve to &amp;quot;save face&amp;quot; (Lee, 2009).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The three phases of human courtship behavior – attraction, building comfort and trust, and seduction – have been confirmed by social, physiological and evolutionary psychology (Oesch &amp;amp; Miklousic, 2011).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The assertive and negative (e.g. devaluing the prospective partner) courting methods propagated in pick-up are being used more by men who show high scores in the dark triad of personality traits (narcissism, machiavellism, psychopathy), an &amp;quot;unrestricted&amp;quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociosexual_orientation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;sociosexual orientation&lt;/a&gt; (i.e. they tend to sexual contacts without emotional involvement), and a high need for sex and dominance (Crecelius, 2013). Women with low self-esteem, high interpersonal dependence, a strong desire for affiliation and an &amp;quot;unrestricted&amp;quot; sociosexual orientation are more receptive to these negative courtship methods (ibd.).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tales of failed pick-ups serve to establish homosocial cohesion among male adolescents (Korobov, 2009).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The sexual conquests serve to prove heterosexuality and masculinity and establish &amp;quot;alpha male status&amp;quot; among pick-up artists (Larsen, Kyselova, Monari &amp;amp; Sørensen, 2012).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some more publications, mostly sociological, but they are all essayistic and not based on empirical studies. They deal mostly with defective male self-schemata and male degradation of women. In my eyes they don't provide anything new to an already over-emotional and mostly destructive discussion, so I don't list or summarize them here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Crecelius, E. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Dispositional factors that predict the use and success of negative short-term mating tactics&lt;/em&gt; (Dissertation). California State University, Fullerton.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Freund, K., Scher, H., &amp;amp; Hucker, S. (1983). The courtship disorders. &lt;em&gt;Archives of Sexual Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 12(5), 369-379.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grover, R. L., Esterline, K. M., &amp;amp; Nangle, D. W. (2014). Dating anxiety in adolescents. In L. Grossman &amp;amp; S. Walfish (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Translating Psychological Research into Practice&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 405-407). New York: Springer.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hambling-Jones, O., &amp;amp; Merrison, A. J. (2012). Inequity in the pursuit of intimacy: An analysis of British pick-up artist interactions. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Pragmatics, 44&lt;/em&gt;, 1115-1127.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hope, D. A., &amp;amp; Heimberg, R. G. (1990). Dating anxiety. In H. Leitenberg (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Social and Evaluation Anxiety&lt;/em&gt; (S. 217–246). New York: Plenum.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Korobov, N. (2009). ‘He's got no game’: young men's stories about failed romantic and sexual experiences. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Gender Studies, 18&lt;/em&gt;(2), 99-114.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Larsen, V., Kyselova, M., Monari, K., &amp;amp; Sørensen, S. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Beyond ›The Game‹:&#xA;Performing masculinity&lt;/em&gt; (Dissertation). Roskilde University, Dänemark.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lee, J. (2009). Escaping embarrassment: Face-work in the rap cipher. &lt;em&gt;Social Psychology Quarterly, 72&lt;/em&gt;(4), 306-324.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oesch, N., &amp;amp; Miklousic, I. (2011). The dating mind: Evolutionary psychology and the emerging science of human courtship. &lt;em&gt;Evolutionary Psychology, 10&lt;/em&gt;(5), 899-909.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zentner, M., &amp;amp; Knox, D. (2013). Surrogates in relationship therapy: A case study in learning how to talk, touch, and kiss. &lt;em&gt;Psychology Journal, 10&lt;/em&gt;(2), 63-68.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-03-29T08:54:43.700" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6097" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-26T22:29:14.763" Score="2" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any places where is possible to find historical data for trends of psychological disease? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example some Google website (similar to google trends or &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/ngrams&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NGrams&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-27T01:35:05.300" LastActivityDate="2014-04-26T12:08:57.053" Title="Where to find statistical prevalence data for psychopathology over time?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6098" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6100" CreationDate="2014-03-26T22:47:56.790" Score="1" ViewCount="408" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm lacking of an academic background. I thought there were only 4 or 16 personality traits. But a fast search on google is showing a huge number: according to this &lt;a href=&quot;http://ideonomy.mit.edu/essays/traits.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt; they should be 638.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this information correct? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which are the most accredited tests for measuring personality traits?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2014-03-27T01:48:02.827" Title="Which are the most accredited tests for measuring personality traits?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6099" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6070" CreationDate="2014-03-27T01:32:08.777" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;positive psychology&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaching&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;coaching&lt;/a&gt;, and counselling are all fields that endeavour to help people achieve their potential. All these areas have scientific literature built around them. That said, there is a degree to which coaching and counselling are practical skills. Most psychologists aspire to follow the scientist-practitioner model. That said, specific practitioners may vary in the degree to which they follow this model versus using more intuitive approaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-27T01:50:21.683" LastActivityDate="2014-03-27T01:50:21.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6100" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6098" CreationDate="2014-03-27T01:48:02.827" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How many personality factors are there?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;The history of personality testing can be summarised in terms of an initial period where there was a vast number of personality traits. In response to this, there have been various attempts to synthesise these traits into a smaller number of underlying factors. There is a huge literature on this process (e.g., Digman, 1990; McCrae &amp;amp; John, 1992). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of researchers who have proposed variations on the five factor model (commonly labeled OCEAN: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion agreeableness, and neuroticism). That said, you will find a range of other factorial models (e.g., Eysenk's three factor model; the &lt;a href=&quot;http://hexaco.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HEXACO&lt;/a&gt; six factor model).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has also been subsequent challenges to the resulting dominance of factorial models.&#xA;For example, see the research of Sampo Paunonen (e.g., Paunonen &amp;amp; Ashton, 2001) which suggests that we may have gone too far in embracing the factorial models of personality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related to this debate, there are a range of hiearchical theories of personality where facets are nested within factors. So you can either get a very general representation of personality with say 5 factors, and a more detailed representation with say 30 facets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are valid measures of these factors?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;There are a large number of well validated personality tests.&#xA;Tests are typically built around particular representations of personality.&#xA;There are a range of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3335/what-free-scientific-measures-of-big-5-personality-are-available&quot;&gt;free measures of the Big 5 listed here&lt;/a&gt; with some discussion around validity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The NEO is one of the most well-known and used commercial measures of the Big 5. That said, there are a wide range of well validated commercial personality tests available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual review of psychology, 41(1), 417-440.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McCrae, R. R., &amp;amp; John, O. P. (1992). An introduction to the five‐factor model and its applications. Journal of personality, 60(2), 175-215.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Paunonen, S. V., &amp;amp; Ashton, M. C. (2001). Big five factors and facets and the prediction of behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 81(3), 524.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-03-27T01:48:02.827" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6093" CreationDate="2014-03-27T03:00:15.270" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several other disorders relate to introversion, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Avoidant personality disorder &lt;sup&gt;(Morey et al., 2002)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Obsessive-compulsive disorder &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/177/5/457.long&quot;&gt;Samuels et al., 2000&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schizotypal personality disorder &lt;sup&gt;(Funder, 1997? Don't have it on-hand, but will try to verify this later when I do.)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schizoid personality disorder &lt;sup&gt;(Morey et al., 2002)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Generalized anxiety disorder in young adults (ages 25–39; &lt;sup&gt;Kessler et al., 2008)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would not expect lack of ideas to mediate these relationships. Introversion is sometimes thought to relate to &quot;richer inner worlds&quot; (can't recall where I read that, and I don't put a lot of stock in the claim). Introversion relates negatively to openness to experience, but seems to have a complex relationship with creativity. A common theory about introversion is that it relates to interest in reading (found some such evidence in Chinese adolescents so far; &lt;sup&gt;Lau &amp;amp; Cheung, 1988);&lt;/sup&gt; this would certainly help with any lack of ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Funder, D. C. (1997). &lt;em&gt;The personality puzzle&lt;/em&gt;. W. W. Norton &amp;amp; Co.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Kessler, R. C., Gruber, M., Hettema, J. M., Hwang, I., Sampson, N., &amp;amp; Yonkers, K. A. (2008).  Comorbid major depression and generalized anxiety disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey follow-up.  &lt;em&gt;Psychological Medicine, 38&lt;/em&gt;(3), 365–374.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Lau, S., &amp;amp; Cheung, S. M. (1988). Reading interests of Chinese adolescents: Effects of personal and social factors. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Psychology, 23&lt;/em&gt;(1-6), 695–705.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Morey, L. C., Gunderson, J. G., Quigley, B. D., Shea, M. T., Skodol, A. E., McGlashan, T. H., ... &amp;amp; Zanarini, M. C. (2002). The representation of borderline, avoidant, obsessive-compulsive, and schizotypal personality disorders by the five-factor model. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality Disorders, 16&lt;/em&gt;(3), 215–234.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Samuels, J., Nestadt, G., Bienvenu, O. J., Costa, P. T., Riddle, M. A., Liang, K. Y., ... &amp;amp; Cullen, B. (2000). Personality disorders and normal personality dimensions in obsessive—compulsive disorder. &lt;em&gt;The British Journal of Psychiatry, 177&lt;/em&gt;(5), 457–462. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/177/5/457.long&quot;&gt;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/177/5/457.long&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-03-27T03:00:15.270" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6102" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-27T07:43:32.410" Score="2" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are plenty of stories flying around of people having been in a coma, but able to hear the outside world. They usually include either hearing malicious things said by staff, or encouragement by loved ones.&#xA;Are &lt;strong&gt;any&lt;/strong&gt; of these cases recorded and verified, not just apocryphal?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4626" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-27T07:52:51.113" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T12:17:17.567" Title="Are there any recorded cases of hearing the outside world while in a coma?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6103" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6089" CreationDate="2014-03-27T07:52:37.263" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume memories aren't static. And like any physical memory source, it has its own memorizing limits. So there are no permanent effects here. You can improve your memory capacity with different training methods, but effects decrease with time if you stop it, just like with muscles.&#xA;There are also displacement and packing mechanisms that make you remember more/evaluate things faster, but instead you become &quot;awkward&quot; in other purviews. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE:&lt;/strong&gt; Your example represent how memorizing is working - you did something once, brain make some new neuron connections and when you trying to do something similar brain use it and try to optimize it if possible. So to improve your brain possibilitis you just need some brain workouts. It doesn't really only about long-term memory. For clearer and longer memorizing you just need more new/optimized neuron connections. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simple scheme looks like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Find something new to you (Learning poems)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Repeat it until it gets easier (now you spent 1 days instead of 3)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Go to step 1 (start learn scenes)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4186" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-12-23T05:55:29.557" LastActivityDate="2014-12-23T05:55:29.557" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6104" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6105" CreationDate="2014-03-27T08:03:02.300" Score="1" ViewCount="426" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could a single individual have the abilities of Gauss in mathematics, play soccer like Messi, write like Dostoyevsky, play chess like Carlsen, have ideas in physics comparable to those of Einstein, have the talent of Mozart in music, and so on for every area? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since this have never happened, maybe there are limitations to how talented a person can be, or time limitations for a single individual to develop all of them. What does neuroscience have to say about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I got this question from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sigmasociety.com/oraculo/sigma_oraculo42.asp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sigma Society&lt;/a&gt; (in Portuguese). I've found nothing more about it, maybe because it's too speculative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4703" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-27T08:07:27.917" LastActivityDate="2014-03-27T08:27:46.137" Title="Super polymath feasibility: Is it possible to have the highest intellectual ability in every area?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6105" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6104" CreationDate="2014-03-27T08:27:46.137" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm inclined to see it as more a matter of statistics. Since you're asking a question of rank, the possibility depends on the population. For an extreme example, if you were the last man on earth, you'd be your own super polymath by default! Given a population of $N&amp;gt;7\rm B$, competition is of course much fiercer. Since the chance of being #1 in any skill is infinitesimal to begin with, the chance of being #1 in multiple skills is several times more infinitesimal. Granted, these are not independent probabilities; there is evidence of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_factor_%28psychometrics%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a general factor of intelligence&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, math, soccer, creative writing, chess, physics, and music all involve somewhat different kinds of intelligence; quantitative, kinesthetic, verbal, strategic, spatial, and musical intelligences may all be partially independent. Furthermore, none of these are purely intuitive for anyone. Culture-dependent conventions influence each to at least limited extents. Therefore experience comes into play, and some amount of practice may be necessary to express ability in any of these domains. The more separate domains a person of any innate ability attempts to master through practice is the thinner the person's time for each will be spread, which further reduces one's competitiveness versus specialists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In issues of rank, sometimes very small practical differences separate the performances of competitors; you need only watch a few minutes of the Olympics to see this principle demonstrated. You may also disagree with scoring systems in the Olympics if you watch a little longer. This indicates another problem with high-level competition: ability measurement becomes less reliable at extremes. See a related question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/3400/4086&quot;&gt;How can psychometry measure the very high IQ&amp;#39;s in adults?&lt;/a&gt; Taking this into account, we now face the dual challenge of first producing an incredibly improbable individual with maximally extraordinary abilities, then having identified this individual (itself not a trivial task), performing accurate assessments demonstrating her/his superiority over all others. Again, from a statistical standpoint, odds aren't good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-03-27T08:27:46.137" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6106" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1507" CreationDate="2014-03-27T12:34:22.543" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a different way to treat the question, as being &lt;em&gt;&quot;are instructor &#xA;evaluations by students an effective way to measure performance?&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's an obvious moral hazard created by student evaluations where&#xA;the attempt to incentivize educator's to perform well makes a form of &#xA;collusion attractive: Students get good grades and teachers are rewarded &#xA;with good feedback. Other things being equal, that could indicate a &#xA;lowering of standards rather then improved performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a bit of a stretch to apply this directly to the context of SE, but&#xA;bear in mind that if a policy change (&quot;be nice&quot;) is intended to improve quality, it's important to monitor quality independently from the supposed surrogate metric. You may find that people report a friendlier environment while overall quality decreases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0821813986&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;How to teach mathematics, 2nd Ed&quot;, Steven kranz 1999&lt;/a&gt; devotes a section to the subject of teacher evaluations and cites several studies. I'll describe some of them, with a bias towards those critical of such evaluations. The book is more balanced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://inst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~cs301/sp14/resources/Williams_Howm_I_Doing.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;How'm I doing&quot;, Ceci &amp;amp; Williams (1997)&lt;/a&gt; laments the lack of experimental data to support the increasing weight given to such evaluations. They do claim studies show a positive correlation between higher grades and higher ratings (your original question), though as I just mentioned you can paint the causation picture in a sinister way. For example, I would imagine&#xA;bad questions/answers that get bad feedback will elicit complaints of&#xA;&quot;unfriendliness&quot;. Discouraging people from giving negative feedback would&#xA;reduce those and thus improve reported &quot;friendliness&quot;, but quality seems&#xA;likely to suffer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another study described is &lt;a href=&quot;http://ambadylab.stanford.edu/pubs/1993Ambady.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ambady &amp;amp; rosenthal (1993)&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;which compared the teacher ratings given by a group after a full term group To those given by a seperate group after viewing a 30 second segment of &#xA;the teacher's recorded lecture (without sound). The ratings agreed to&#xA;a high degree which, either way you look at it, suggests that &quot;first impressions&quot; are either a good predictor or strongly bias the final&#xA;rating given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The core study detailed demonstrated that a deliberate change in delivery style (enthusiasm) had a significant (statistically and quantitatively) effect on how the teacher's knowledgeability, accessibility, and tolerance were rated. &#xA;Read the paper for caveats and study design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Dr. Jekyll or Professor Hyde?&quot; by Martino is cited (I could not locate a pdf) which contains multiple examples of samples evaluations from students in a course which state completely opposite evaluations. The obvious question &#xA;being, If A and B have  roughly identical interactions with you, yet one &#xA;claims you're friendly and the other says you're mean, what are you really?.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book goes on to detail multiple studies that show evaluations do have&#xA;many good properties such as consistency over time, good correlation&#xA;with peer evaluation and so on. I suggest you follow up on it to complete&#xA;the partial and rather biased view I gave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0821813986&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.com/How-Teach-Mathematics-Steven-Krantz/dp/0821813986&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://inst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~cs301/sp14/resources/Williams_Howm_I_Doing.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://inst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~cs301/sp14/resources/Williams_Howm_I_Doing.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ambadylab.stanford.edu/pubs/1993Ambady.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ambadylab.stanford.edu/pubs/1993Ambady.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user4549" LastEditorDisplayName="user4549" LastEditDate="2014-04-04T14:45:25.810" LastActivityDate="2014-04-04T14:45:25.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6107" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21359" CreationDate="2014-03-27T12:43:43.313" Score="8" ViewCount="528" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm talking about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaison#Amnesia&quot;&gt;Henry Molaison (HM), the famous memory research patient.&lt;/a&gt; I hear that he could converse normally with a researcher until he &quot;got distracted&quot;, at which point he no longer remembered ever meeting the researcher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Molaison was able to remember information over &lt;strong&gt;short intervals of&#xA;  time.&lt;/strong&gt; This was tested in a working memory experiment involving the&#xA;  recall of previously presented numbers; in fact, his performance was&#xA;  no worse than that of control subjects (Smith &amp;amp; Kosslyn, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If distractions were avoided, how long could HM focus and remember the present or task at hand?&lt;/strong&gt;  How long could he talk to researcher before forgetting ever meeting him? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hear that he was tested for hours. During those tests, did he had to be reminded at some time interval about the test procedure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2018-12-26T09:18:48.543" Title="How long could Henry Molaison keep his memory of the present?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6108" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11049" CreationDate="2014-03-27T13:08:12.400" Score="8" ViewCount="802" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people remember dreams, others don't. The same person can wake up with dream recall one day and without on other days. I know that the association between REM sleep and dreaming was initially established by awakening test subjects during REM and asking them what they remember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is about the dream recall phenomenon – imagine a person is woken up from a dream while his brain is being scanned. &lt;strong&gt;What is the difference in brain region activations shortly before awakening between the case where a dream is recalled and a dream is not recalled?&lt;/strong&gt; In both cases polysomnographic readings would conclude that REM is experienced and probability of dreaming is high.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm asking this question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6107/how-long-could-henry-molaison-keep-his-memory-of-the-present&quot;&gt;in relation to this question about working memory of the memory recall patient HM&lt;/a&gt;. As I heard about his case, I could not help but think that his &quot;living in the present&quot; seems very similar to the experience of dreaming. While dreaming, one does not have a clear memory of the past events, or any desire to even access this memory. I'm trying to understand: &lt;strong&gt;can the difference in dream recall for the same test subject be localized to some inhibition of hippocampus or another brain structure,&lt;/strong&gt; similar to what HM had surgically removed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dreams are prone to be &quot;episodic&quot;, where a continuous dream of say 20 minutes may contain several very distinct scenes (2–5 minutes each) that have no relation to each other. I'm interested if such dream changes involve the same mechanism that HM experienced when he was distracted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-08-28T18:35:46.887" Title="What brain regions are activated when a dream is remembered?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6109" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-27T14:26:05.333" Score="2" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the term for when a person starts to like something they previously didn't like due to exposure from a friend? What is the term for such phenomenon in social psychology? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I don't like soccer, but since my friend likes and watches a lot of soccer, I also start to like it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4704" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-28T00:16:25.483" LastActivityDate="2014-03-28T00:26:28.837" Title="Terminology for when a person starts to like something they previously didn't like due to exposure from a friend" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6110" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8912" CreationDate="2014-03-27T17:24:18.763" Score="4" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;There seem to be at least two kinds of confusion regarding novel concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one, the brain simply can't form an abstract model from whatever information is being presented. It's where you can't &quot;wrap your head around&quot; something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another, the brain perceives a cognitive dissonance, where something doesn't &quot;add up&quot;, but further information provides a unifying model that can explain everything being presented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They seem to be related.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The brain is somehow able to evaluate the fidelity of an abstract model that it's trying to construct. How does this happen?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4705" LastActivityDate="2015-02-22T18:34:02.190" Title="How does the brain know whether or not it comprehends a novel concept?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6112" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6109" CreationDate="2014-03-28T00:26:28.837" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the most obvious match to what you are talking about in terms of social psychology terminology is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;cognitive dissonance theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. This theory covers a lot of phenomena, but in relation to friendship an attitude formation, it suggests that we will tend to like what our friends like in order to achieve a state of belief consistency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a more sociological perspective, you could look into &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophily&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;homophily&lt;/a&gt;. This is the idea that &quot;birds of a feather flock together&quot;. But in addition to people being attracted to those similar to them, there is also a process by which such an effect emerges over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general there many mechanisms that could describe the process of starting to like something because your friends like it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mere-exposure effect&lt;/a&gt;: Merely experiencing something can help you to like something. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Persuasion, learning, etc: In general, a friend may help you to appreciate something. If its sport, they may explain the rules and communicate the finer points of strategy. If its music, the friend may explain the history of the style, the meaning of the lyrics, or the emotional importance of the music.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Positive associations: Spending time with a friend whose company you enjoy will help to create positive associations with other things you do with them. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social norms: Spending time with your friend may create social norms that the things that they do are normal and appropriate.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-03-28T00:26:28.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6113" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-28T01:17:35.080" Score="1" ViewCount="164" Body="&lt;p&gt;There seems to be evidence to suggest that long term psychiatric conditions have effects on grey matter in the brain and the development of certain sections of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do antipsychotics have a protective effect on the brain against the degenerative effects of schizophrenia relapse?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found many academic papers both supporting and contradicting a protective effect, but finding an agreed upon consensus is difficult. I'm also looking for evidence indicating what effect a schizophrenic relapse has on the brain and the exact degenerative effects that occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4692" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-04-02T10:14:10.193" LastActivityDate="2014-04-06T04:20:35.663" Title="Brain damage / change in long term psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6114" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5443" CreationDate="2014-03-28T02:57:07.563" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sorry this is a little late, and I couldn't comment on the previous comment, but a good and comprehensive (if not somewhat dated) reference for what the ANPS is all about can be found here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/019517805X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.com/Affective-Neuroscience-Foundations-Emotions-Science/dp/019517805X#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the text in which Jaak Panksepp basically sets out the decades of animal research that led to his creation of the original ANPS :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4707" LastActivityDate="2014-03-28T02:57:07.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6115" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6118" CreationDate="2014-03-28T12:46:42.657" Score="5" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am basically looking for two words which are related to some degree. Ultimately the same word might even be the answer to both parts of this question. &#xA;I split them up into two questions (see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/6116/4086&quot;&gt;Technical term for the loss of words in your mother-tongue when speaking a different language&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyhow, here's what I'm trying to give a name.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;If you think about a random word – take any – and you say it repeatedly, over and over again, and think even more about it, then – sometimes – it may happen to you that the word sounds more unfamiliar to you, and you start wondering if this word exists at all. Then, if you use it in a specific phrase or sentence, you also start doubting if you can use this word in that context at all.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a technical term for the loss of understanding of words or phrases which you actually not only know by heart but also are able to use off-the-cuff under normal circumstances?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4711" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-03-28T20:22:39.080" Title="Technical term for the temporary loss of understanding a word" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6116" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-28T12:52:06.787" Score="6" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am basically looking for two words which are, though, related to some degree. It might even be that ultimately the same word is the answer to both parts of this question.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I split them up into two questions. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/6115/4711&quot;&gt;That's the related question.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyhow, here's what I'm trying to give it a name.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;My mother-tongue is German. I, obviously, speak German very fluently and can convey any kind of ideas. However, if I speak in English for a while and then have to translate something into German, I sometimes fail to come up with German phrases. In that very moment, only English idioms come to my mind. Under different circumstances I certainly could say it in German, but right in that moment I feel like German would be my second language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a technical term for the inability to express certain things with words or phrases which you actually know by heart and that you would use off-the-cuff under normal circumstances?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4711" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T05:44:30.367" Title="Technical term for the loss of words in your mother-tongue when speaking a different language" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6118" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6115" CreationDate="2014-03-28T20:16:53.147" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sounds like what you're describing is &quot;semantic satiation&quot;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_satiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia explains&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The explanation for the phenomenon was that verbal repetition repeatedly aroused a specific neural pattern in the cortex which corresponds to the meaning of the word. Rapid repetition causes both the peripheral sensorimotor activity and the central neural activation to fire repeatedly, which is known to cause reactive inhibition, hence a reduction in the intensity of the activity with each repetition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/6170/is-there-a-word-or-phrase-for-the-feeling-you-get-after-looking-at-a-word-for-to&quot;&gt;English.SE also has some good answers&lt;/a&gt; related to usage of this term, rather than the neurological/psychological mechanics of the phenomenon itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3854" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2014-03-28T20:22:39.080" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6119" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9569" CreationDate="2014-03-29T04:05:54.210" Score="1" ViewCount="277" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not know whether this is the most appropriate place to post this question, but since the book is related to psychology, I will post it here. &#xA;If there is a more appropriate place to ask this question, please direct me to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering whether or not the book &quot;The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance&quot; is the best in its category (study of expertise) and is worth reading. If not, can you recommend me better books?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing I want to ask is, judging from the table of contents, the book does not seems to cover the domain of expertise on Visual Arts (such as drawing, painting, sculpting, etc.). Is it true? If so what is the reason of the exclusion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4714" LastEditorUserId="4714" LastEditDate="2014-03-29T04:11:03.527" LastActivityDate="2015-03-20T10:02:48.840" Title="Is the book &quot;The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance&quot; worth reading?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-05-05T22:15:51.993" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6123" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-29T09:49:11.533" Score="4" ViewCount="657" Body="&lt;p&gt;With sexualization, I mean the reaction that one has when seeing the desired sexual &lt;em&gt;object&lt;/em&gt;. I guess that in some countries, their cultures may have softer reactions, while in others, a stronger reaction could even imply rape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-03-29T23:02:32.530" LastActivityDate="2014-03-30T21:23:26.300" Title="Are there studies on international differences on sexualization?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6124" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-29T15:56:18.043" Score="5" ViewCount="913" Body="&lt;p&gt;Everyone in my organization wants to make our products &amp;amp; website as simple as possible for our customers. My concern is that &quot;simple&quot; means different things to different people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a definition of cognitive simplicity (or complexity) that diverse stakeholders (including corporate strategists, product owners, &amp;amp; especially web designers) can agree on. The more research that supports this definition, the better it will work for my stakeholders.  (I am not concerned with computational complexity or the complexity studied by the Santa Fe Institute.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only research-based attempt I've found to create a definition of simplicity / complexity comes from Simon Collinson &amp;amp; Melvin Jay in their 2012 book &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplicity-consulting.com/book/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;From Complexity to Simplicity: Unleash Your Organisation's Potential&lt;/a&gt;.&quot; They base their book on research concerning the corporate effectiveness of 100s of companies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe they have a good definition, but I'm not sure it's the best for diverse audience:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Complexity = the &lt;strong&gt;number of components&lt;/strong&gt; in a system + the &lt;strong&gt;variety of&#xA;  relationships&lt;/strong&gt; between these components + the &lt;strong&gt;pace of change&lt;/strong&gt; of both&#xA;  the components and the these relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone seen a another good definition of simplicity or complexity that might appeal to corporate strategists, product owners, &amp;amp; web designers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4718" LastActivityDate="2014-03-29T15:56:18.043" Title="Need a definition of Cognitive Simplicity (or Complexity) that would appeal to a wide audience" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6125" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6126" CreationDate="2014-03-30T10:51:45.023" Score="15" ViewCount="26676" Body="&lt;p&gt;You possibly are familiar with the following situation, I do not know if this is a researched phenomena or not however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You look straight at somebody for some time and suddenly, even though he or she does not consciously know that you are looking at him or her, he or she suddenly starts to look back at you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering why and how this is happening?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How are people unconsciously recognizing other people looking at them and what makes them look back to them?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3441" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-09-03T16:37:27.020" LastActivityDate="2017-09-03T16:37:27.020" Title="Why do people suddenly look back if you look at them for a while?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6126" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6125" CreationDate="2014-03-30T14:47:13.020" Score="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you describe is an illusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;(a)&lt;/strong&gt; The human field of view is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eye#Field_of_view&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;almost 180°&lt;/a&gt; when staring straight ahead and 270° with eyeball rotation (looking to the side without turning your head).&#xA;If you look at someone from slightly behind and to the side, they will appear to be gazing forward, and you may feel unnoticed, but in fact you are within their field of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QMre6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;(b)&lt;/strong&gt; The peripheral field of view is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3953752&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;highly sensitive to motion&lt;/a&gt;. So if you turn your head towards someone while you are within their peripheral vision, their attention will automatically focus on this (danger! predator!) stimulus and they will turn their head to you. This is a reflex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;(c)&lt;/strong&gt; On the bus or subway, if someone sits in your field of vision, they will have noticed you when you or they came in and therefore know you are there. If you both are in a public place, they might not have seen you arrive, but they will know that someone might have. Self-conscious people feel observed, and they continually check if someone watches them, who it is, and how they react. Now if you look in the general direction of a self-conscious person, and this person looks around like they do every few seconds, this movement will cause &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; to look at them in reflex, giving them the impression that you have been staring at them all along. If both of you stay in the same place for some time and they continually check on you, and their movement makes you look up almost every time, they will feel like you are watching them all the time, although you are focused on something else and only &lt;em&gt;react&lt;/em&gt; to them looking at you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;(d)&lt;/strong&gt; Please also look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6125/why-do-people-suddenly-look-back-if-you-look-at-them-for-a-while/6134#6134&quot;&gt;Eoin's great answer&lt;/a&gt; explaining illusory correlation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T17:14:22.560" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6127" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6132" CreationDate="2014-03-30T15:25:31.740" Score="0" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard that IPIP project consists of 2600 public domain questions.&#xA;Where I can find download those questions?&#xA;Is there any web address?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-31T02:44:34.453" LastActivityDate="2014-03-31T02:44:34.453" Title="Where to obtain full set of IPIP items on the internet?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;ipip&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6128" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6131" CreationDate="2014-03-30T15:27:52.773" Score="1" ViewCount="247" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any lie or social desirable questions in the IPIP pool of 2600 question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can I construct psychometrically such a scale if it does not exists by default?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-03-31T02:37:06.547" LastActivityDate="2014-03-31T02:37:06.547" Title="Are there lying or social desirability items in IPIP pool?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;social-desirability&gt;&lt;ipip&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6129" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6123" CreationDate="2014-03-30T15:35:15.940" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anthropologists have shown that all cultures have the same &quot;amount&quot; and &quot;intensity&quot; of modesty, shame and sexual excitability. What differs are clothing and behavioral habits, and therefore what is considered modest, what causes shame, and what causes sexual arousal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most extensive meta-analytic study on this topic is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Peter_Duerr&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hans-Peter Duerr&lt;/a&gt;'s five volume &lt;em&gt;Der Mythos vom Zivilisationsprozeß&lt;/em&gt; [The Myth of the Civilizing Process] (1988-2002), in which he collects and interprets ethnological, archaelogical and sociological research from all cultures and times regarding nudity and shame, intimity, obscenity and violence, eroticism, and defecation, in a reply to Norbert Elias' famous &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Civilizing_Process&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Civilizing Process&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (1939).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can think of the variation in modesty and sexualization over cultures as a border of the public display of the body that can be moved along a continuum from the eyes (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burqa&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;burqa&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iXzDz.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;via the extremities (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modesty&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Victorians had to cover their legs&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wXAW4.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;more and more towards the center of the body (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimsuit&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;swimsuit&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hmjwT.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;narrowing down to the secondary sex characteristics (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bikini&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;bikini&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QcfFQ.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the genitals (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koteka&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;penis sheath&lt;/a&gt; or female modesty girdle [pictured below])&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kqf4w.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and finally the male glans (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynodesme&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;kynodesme&lt;/a&gt;) and the inside of the female labia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kpQK8.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That peoples that live totally nude are not without shame and modesty can be seen from their social rules and the reactions to their transgression that Duerr reports. A telling example is how the girls of one naked tribe are not allowed to sit with their legs spread (so the insides of the labia don't become visible to the men), how the men attempt to catch a glimpse while the girls and women go about their day and react with excitement when they manage to see something forbidden, and how girls are being ridiculed if this happens. This is much the same as how we act with short skirts, the blowing wind and candid street photography.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Duerr lists page after page after page of research showing examples similar to this and to the one you gave in your comment (desexualized breasts). Unfortunately I don't know of a good English language overview so I can only recommend that you follow Nick's links and research tipps, if you want to get more deeply into this hotly debated area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-03-30T21:23:26.300" LastActivityDate="2014-03-30T21:23:26.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6131" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6128" CreationDate="2014-03-31T02:36:16.137" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are IPIP self-deception and impression management scales presumably modelled on the similarly named Paulhus scales (reliabilities in brackets):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SOURCE: &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newPASKey.htm#Self-Deception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ipip.ori.org/newPASKey.htm#Self-Deception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;SELF-DECEPTION [.80]&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;+ keyed &#xA;    Always know why I do things.&#xA;    Just know that I will be a success.&#xA;    Know that my decisions are correct.&#xA;    Feel comfortable with myself.&#xA;    Like to take responsibility for making decisions.&#xA;&#xA;– keyed &#xA;    Am not always honest with myself.&#xA;    Sometimes have trouble making up my mind.&#xA;    Dislike myself.&#xA;    Worry about what people think of me.&#xA;    Have a low opinion of myself.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;IMPRESSION-MANAGEMENT [.82]&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;+ keyed &#xA;    Would never take things that aren't mine.&#xA;    Would never cheat on my taxes.&#xA;    Believe there is never an excuse for lying.&#xA;    Always admit it when I make a mistake.&#xA;    Rarely talk about sex.&#xA;    Return extra change when a cashier makes a mistake.&#xA;    Try to follow the rules.&#xA;    Easily resist temptations.&#xA;    Tell the truth.&#xA;    Rarely overindulge.&#xA;&#xA;– keyed &#xA;    Have sometimes had to tell a lie.&#xA;    Use swear words.&#xA;    Use flattery to get ahead.&#xA;    Am not always what I appear to be.&#xA;    Break rules.&#xA;    Cheat to get ahead.&#xA;    Don't always practice what I preach.&#xA;    Misuse power.&#xA;    Get back at others.&#xA;    Am likely to show off if I get the chance.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-03-31T02:36:16.137" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6127" CreationDate="2014-03-31T02:41:09.913" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The IPIP website provides what I think is a complete list of the items:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a a table of contents here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newIPIPitemsTOC.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ipip.ori.org/newIPIPitemsTOC.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and this appears to be a complete list of items: &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/new2413Items.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ipip.ori.org/new2413Items.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-03-31T02:41:09.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6133" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-03-31T11:39:56.027" Score="8" ViewCount="2283" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socionics&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Socionics&lt;/a&gt; superficially looks exactly as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;MBTI&lt;/a&gt;. 8 functions, 16 personality types. There's even a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socionics#The_16_types&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;table&lt;/a&gt;, perfectly corresponding socionics types with MBTI types. Then what makes socionics and MBTI importantly differ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="961" LastActivityDate="2020-10-28T01:07:19.410" Title="How exactly are socionics and MBTI different?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6134" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6125" CreationDate="2014-03-31T13:57:50.843" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rather than discuss limits of the human field of view, or extrasensory perception (I don't know anything about the first, and the second is a myth), I think we can look at this as a simple case of illusory correlation (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_correlation&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;), which is both a psychological phenomenon, and something psychologists need to overcome to investigate other phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In a nutshell, people aren't automatically good at thinking about when events co-occur, and have an inbuilt tendency to see things that happen together, like looking at someone, and having them look back, as being related, rather than random coincidence.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your example, there are four possible incidents:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You look at someone, and they turn around.&#xA;You have a pretty good idea of how often this happens.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;You look at someone, and they don't turn around.&lt;/strong&gt; You can find this out, but people are much worse at making use of this kind of information.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You don't look at someone, but they turn around anyway.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You don't look at someone, they don't turn around.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In these terms, your question is simple:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is someone I'm looking at more likely to turn and look at me then someone I'm not looking at?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If somehow you could data all four occurrences above, you might run an experiment where you sit on a bus behind 5 other people, and look at each of them for 4 1-minute intervals each.&#xA;Looking at 5 people 4 times each, there's 20 opportunities for them to look back at (first column), but there's also 4 times as many opportunities (80; second column) for one of the people &lt;strong&gt;you're not looking at&lt;/strong&gt; to be looking at you.&#xA;Let's also assume that during this experiment, you're looked back at on 10 of the trials (so not looked back at on the other 90).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under the null hypothesis (the default you assume if there's no effect of looking at people), if people only look at you on 10% of the trials, you would expect them to look at you on 10% of the trials where you're looking at them (2 trials), and 10% of the trials where you're not looking (8 trials). You can tabulate this expectation like so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;|                       | I'm looking | I'm not looking | Total |&#xA;|-----------------------|-------------|-----------------|-------|&#xA;| They look at me       | 2           | 8               | 10    |&#xA;| They don't look at me | 18          | 72              | 90    |&#xA;| Total                 | 20          | 80              |       |&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If, however, you're right, and looking at people does cause them to look back, you should find a significantly greater proportion of people looking back when you look at them, and so a higher value in the top left cell here. The technique we use for finding out if the proportions are different to what you'd expect by chance is called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Pearson%27s_chi-square_test&quot;&gt;Pearson's chi-square test&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem, to repeat, is that people aren't good at intuitively figuring out these proportions, and tend to overemphasise those few cases where both events happen (you look, and they look back), without appreciating the other 3 cells in the table. And this, my friend, is why we run experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="4124" LastEditDate="2014-04-01T09:59:28.740" LastActivityDate="2014-04-01T09:59:28.740" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6137" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6139" CreationDate="2014-04-01T19:39:39.730" Score="2" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some examples of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What makes us:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feel we just HAVE TO watch that video or an image again, it's common with comedy videos&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feel we need to stare at a such a beautiful sight, a person or an image&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not that something is particularly interesting to the conscious mind, but yet we still can't resist but watch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the science behind this process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2787" LastEditorUserId="2787" LastEditDate="2014-04-01T19:57:58.057" LastActivityDate="2014-04-01T23:10:00.997" Title="What makes a sight or an image mesmerizing and irresistible?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6138" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-01T22:15:39.590" Score="4" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sensory maps are defined functionally: they exist for a certain time window, are overwritten quickly, are generally inaccessible to introspective control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Topographic maps are defined biologically: neurons within the map are organized spatially, so that nearby neurons store subtly different information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has the relationship between the two been studied in much detail?  Wikipedia tells me that the basis of, say, visual persistence iconic memory is neural persistence.  The kind of question I want an answer to: how adequately can the properties of various retinotopic maps explain known features of visual persistence iconic memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3049" LastEditorUserId="3049" LastEditDate="2014-04-01T23:51:36.510" LastActivityDate="2014-04-01T23:51:36.510" Title="What is the relationship between topographic maps and sensory memory?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6139" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6137" CreationDate="2014-04-01T23:10:00.997" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Setting aside the encyclopedic issue of what might make an unspecified stimulus funny, beautiful, or otherwise pleasing for its &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/aesthetics&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;aesthetics&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;aesthetics&lt;/a&gt;, it's at least evident that you're asking about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reinforcing&lt;/a&gt; stimuli that provide &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incentive&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;incentives&lt;/a&gt; via &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/emotion&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;emotion&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt;al &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_%28psychology%29#Psychological_reward&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reward(s)&lt;/a&gt;. It's not clear how you expect to rule out conscious interest, but reinforcement learning may not necessitate consideration of conscious control, so I suppose we can disregard the whole issue of &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/consciousness&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;consciousness&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;consciousness&lt;/a&gt; at this level of generality (or ambiguity/vagueness). That is essentially the approach of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_behaviorism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;radical&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/behaviorism&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;behaviorism&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;behaviorism&lt;/a&gt;, after all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aside from the tags and links included so far, there's plenty of science available on psychological reward:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Relevant neural structures include the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area#Reward_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ventral tegmental area&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens#Pleasure_and_reinforcement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nucleus accumbens&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine#Reward&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dopamine&lt;/a&gt; is probably the most relevant &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neurotransmitter&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;neurotransmitter&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neurotransmitter&lt;/a&gt;, but other &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catecholamine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;catecholamines&lt;/a&gt; such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrine#Epinephrine_and_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adrenalin&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine#Decision_making&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;norepinephrine&lt;/a&gt; may affect impulse regulation and attention.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Relevant &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/personality&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;personality&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;personality&lt;/a&gt; factors include the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_activation_system#Behavioral_Activation_System&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;behavioral activation system&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensation_seeking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sensation-seeking&lt;/a&gt;. Other factors become more or less relevant depending on the nature of the stimulus, e.g.:&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openness_to_experience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Openness to experience&lt;/a&gt; affects aesthetic preferences, especially in art and culture.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cultural background affects interests, preferences, and incentives through &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquired_taste&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;taste acquisition&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arousal#Introversion_and_extraversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional stability and extraversion&lt;/a&gt; may affect &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/attitudes&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;attitudes&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;attitudes&lt;/a&gt; toward arousing or social stimuli.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_desire#Theoretical_perspectives&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sexual desire&lt;/a&gt; may be relevant, depending on the stimulus and the individual.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotional and physiological states affect the strength and relevance of other needs / motives.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conscientiousness&lt;/a&gt; or control affects impulse regulation, which is relevant if urge resistance is.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We have a dedicated question about humor: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5625/4086&quot;&gt;How does our brain consider something to be funny?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-04-01T23:10:00.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6140" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6141" CreationDate="2014-04-02T01:44:14.900" Score="2" ViewCount="465" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.policymic.com/articles/86593/you-can-predict-this-man-s-iq-just-by-looking-at-his-picture?utm_source=policymicFB&amp;amp;utm_medium=main&amp;amp;utm_campaign=social&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;claims that humans can recognize others' IQ&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the difference between the below images that shows men's IQ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2N21L.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I can &quot;feel&quot; that the guy with high perceived intelligence (on the right) does indeed look the most intelligent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, what is the reason behind this gut feeling? The nose being wider? Is it  the slanting eyes? I found the associated grid drawings, but I still can't seem to figure it out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-17T07:09:45.987" LastActivityDate="2017-08-17T07:09:45.987" Title="How exactly do we construct perceived IQ by facial features?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6141" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6140" CreationDate="2014-04-02T03:30:31.010" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;The images you've linked are composites, and so probably don't contain the characteristics by which raters were able to judge IQ accurately. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0081237&quot;&gt;The original article &lt;sup&gt;(Kleisner, Chvátalová, &amp;amp; Flegr, 2014)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is freely available and appears to answer your question in its abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Faces that are perceived as highly intelligent are rather prolonged with a broader distance between the eyes, a larger nose, a slight upturn to the corners of the mouth, and a sharper, pointing, less rounded chin. By contrast, the perception of lower intelligence is associated with broader, more rounded faces with eyes closer to each other, a shorter nose, declining corners of the mouth, and a rounded and massive chin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These differences only relate to perceived intelligence, not measured intelligence.&#xA;From the conclusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;No specific traits that correlated with real intelligence were detected with standard geometric morphometric methods. Men and women with specific facial traits were perceived as highly intelligent. However, these faces of supposed high and low intelligence probably represent nothing more than a cultural stereotype because these morphological traits do not correlate with the real intelligence of the subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors speculate on (but did not analyze) other factors that might explain the perceptibility of actual intelligence apart from the factors visible in the composites, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Particular configurations of eyes or gaze, colour of eyes, hair and skin, or skin texture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these characteristics would be wiped out in facial composites, so you probably can't actually perceive intelligence accurately from the images you've embedded according to this study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kleisner, K., Chvátalová, V., &amp;amp; Flegr, J. (2014). Perceived intelligence is associated with measured intelligence in men but not women. &lt;em&gt;PloS One, 9&lt;/em&gt;(3), e81237. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0081237&quot;&gt;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0081237&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-04-02T03:30:31.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6142" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-02T08:57:49.860" Score="1" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been interested in preferences, personality types and related topics for about two years, mainly as a by-product of a personal introspection process. For a long while, I have been quite enthusiastic about Myers-Briggs types, and saw the whole typology thing as an interesting model that can provide insights about ourselves. Nevertheless, I have now realized many of its pitfalls, like the often too categorical classifications and bogus descriptions, and more importantly the lack of scientific testability. I have studied some alternatives like enneagram, but these models seem to fall within the same class of funny, interesting but probably not very scientific toys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my question: is it possible to devise a scientifically valid, testeable model for personality preferences or tendencies? Does something like &quot;personality&quot; exist or is just mumbo-jumbo?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user4721" LastEditorDisplayName="user4721" LastEditDate="2014-04-02T10:31:45.210" LastActivityDate="2014-04-02T10:31:45.210" Title="Is it possible to devise a scientifically valid model for personality preferences or tendencies?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2014-04-04T21:08:08.480" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6143" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6148" CreationDate="2014-04-02T10:00:05.617" Score="5" ViewCount="860" Body="&lt;p&gt;How are personality traits – such as optimism, sensation seeking or need for cognition – &quot;encoded&quot; in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do people with different levels of, say, extraversion have &lt;strong&gt;different neuronal structures&lt;/strong&gt;? Or do they have different amounts of certain neurochemicals, different numbers of receptors, or other kinds of &lt;strong&gt;functional differences&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if you want to change a trait, can you simply stimulate or supplement neuronal functionality, e.g. by administering the lacking neurochemicals, or do you have to &quot;destroy&quot; and &quot;rebuild&quot; the neuronal structure, e.g. through learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-04-06T07:53:46.823" Title="How are personality traits &quot;encoded&quot; in the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6144" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6147" CreationDate="2014-04-02T11:08:38.853" Score="4" ViewCount="149" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have recently read interesting article about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.todoinstitute.org/morita.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Morita therapy&lt;/a&gt;. &#xA;I have a hard time finding articles,books or research on this subject, and how it works in the West since this therapy was developed and mostly applied in Japan. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is interesting about it : this therapy (or just Morita's philosophy) doesn't try to change person's feelings of fear/anxiety. It teaches person to understand his/her feelings and live with them. Doing things that need to be done despite fear/anxiety. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does Morita's idea have western counterpart? Any free reading on it ? (something I don't have to buy) And is there any research paper on it that is reliable and accessible? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any idea of something similar is welcome. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-02T23:56:29.103" LastActivityDate="2014-04-02T23:56:29.103" Title="Morita therapy - does it have a western counterpart?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6145" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-02T13:33:05.233" Score="11" ViewCount="216" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several scientific projects are trying to map the connectome, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neuroscienceblueprint.nih.gov/connectome/&quot;&gt;The Human Connectome Project&lt;/a&gt;. The connectomes of other organisms, such as &lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt;, have been mapped already.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having an organism's connectome, what information can we extract from it? And, most importantly, what information will still be missing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, can we extract the following functional information from the connectome:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the synapse connection excitatory or inhibitory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which ions does the synaptic connection use?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the strength of the synaptic connection?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For simplicity, let's assume that we're using the best imaging and data gathering techniques available (including combinations of techniques).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2909" LastEditorUserId="2909" LastEditDate="2014-04-03T15:25:22.990" LastActivityDate="2014-12-05T04:18:51.793" Title="What kinds of information can (and cannot) be extracted from connectome?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6146" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6153" CreationDate="2014-04-02T14:00:52.023" Score="1" ViewCount="1420" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was taking a practice ap psychology test and was curious how operant and classical conditioning are different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My test claims that the difference comes from the fact that Classical conditioning is based on an involuntary action and Operant Conditioning is based on voluntary action but obviously this is false since what may be involuntary/reflexive for some may not be the same for others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example they gave is how someone may move their hand away from an iron because of 'reflex' whereas they will attempt to do well on a test because they are aware of a reward, but what about someone that has a lot of experience with the given subject and simply does well on the test because they reflexively feel the need to do well. I know for me personally when given a math problem that I can't immediately solve or outline a heuristic for solving I tend to drop all external thoughts and work on it, often with a the same determination with which my dog chases after a squirrel. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is of course because over time I have gained enough experience, practice, and interest in the field to do so. Thus for others attempting to solve problems will be a voluntary action, but for me personally I have an involuntary need to work on them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then again, when someone throws a ball at me, being that I don't have much experience with sports, I tend to first think &quot;theres a ball!&quot; before the reflex for catching initiates while for others that tends to fire off immediately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what is the actual difference between voluntary and involuntary actions besides familiarity with said action?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if familiarity is the only difference then honestly how do Classical and Operant conditioning differ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4730" LastEditorUserId="4730" LastEditDate="2014-04-02T14:08:16.170" LastActivityDate="2014-04-03T15:36:57.477" Title="How does Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning really differ?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6147" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6144" CreationDate="2014-04-02T14:49:31.400" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reminds me a bit of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;existential therapy&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;humanistic psychology&lt;/a&gt; in general. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditional_positive_regard&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Unconditional positive regard&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivational_interviewing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;motivational interviewing&lt;/a&gt; both insist on approaching undesirable feelings from the client's perspective without imposing fixes or changes on the person through pressure or blunt confrontationality. Existential theory even presumes major, inevitable negativity in life experience for which no individual &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; be blamed. There are plenty of terrible realities for every individual to face and accept in the process of adjustment and maturation. The individual must do this freely, idiosyncratically, and earnestly for oneself, or so the theory goes. Focus is not on eliminating negativity but on finding meaning amidst it. I hope these Wikipedia pages give you plenty to read for starters, but I can try to find more if you like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-04-02T14:49:31.400" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6148" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6143" CreationDate="2014-04-02T15:00:50.343" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cool question...really huge though. I'll have to revisit this as I find time to add more. For starters, I just saw an interesting link in @ForbiddenOverseer's question, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1546/4086&quot;&gt;Are there any personality theories that use the scientific method?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; For some info on cerebral blood flow and extraversion, check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleid=173270&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johnson and colleagues &lt;sup&gt;(1999)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Here's an excerpt of the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;RESULTS&lt;/strong&gt;: Overall, introversion was associated with increased blood flow in the frontal lobes and in the anterior thalamus. Regions in the anterior cingulate gyrus, the temporal lobes, and the posterior thalamus were found to be correlated with extraversion. &lt;strong&gt;CONCLUSIONS&lt;/strong&gt;: The findings of the study lend support to the notion that introversion is associated with increased activity in frontal lobe regions. Moreover, the study suggests that individual differences in introversion and extraversion are related to differences in a fronto-striato-thalamic circuit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an earlier answer today (to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/6137/4086&quot;&gt;What makes a sight or an image mesmerizing and irresistible?&lt;/a&gt;), I implied that sensation-seeking relates to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_activation_system#Behavioral_Activation_System&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;behavioral activation system&lt;/a&gt;, the nucleus accumbens and VTA, and dopamine. Support for those relationships ought to be available through Wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a summary of other info from my lecture on biopsych for my class on personality a few years ago:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Frontal lobe&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Activity has been correlated to negative emotionality via fMRI.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cooperative people show more activity during social interaction, implicating reward sensitivity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Aversive attention and motivation is right lateralized; approach motivation and aversion inhibition is left lateralized.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) knocks out self-enhancement bias temporarily.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Damage reduces emotional experience, regulation, and inhibition – cf. Phineas Gage, Capgras syndrome, and the history of frontal lobotomies.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Amygdala&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Implicated in identification of rewards &amp;amp; threats&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Activates in extraverts receiving pleasant stimuli (e.g., happy faces, scenes, &amp;amp; emotion words; pleasant tastes)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Activates during social attraction; generates sexual responsiveness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Activates in shy people viewing unfamiliar faces&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Also in pessimists when shown a picture of a snake&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Overactive in people with anxiety disorders such as PTSD&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Activated by unexpected emotional conflict – stronger in neurotics viewing conflicting cues.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inhibited by anterior cingulate – cf. brain tumor in Charles Whitman, UT tower sniper ’66&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;“I have been a victim of many unusual and irrational thoughts.  These thoughts constantly recur, and it requires a tremendous mental effort to concentrate on useful and productive tasks.”&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ascending reticular activating system&lt;/strong&gt; – acts like a valve on incoming stimulation&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;More “wide open” (active) in introverts&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stronger reaction to lemon juice stimulus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Faster responses to noises in brainstem via EEG&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reaction to erotica, violence, mutilation, insects, etc.:&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;High sensation-seeking: arousal and reward area activation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Low sensation-seeking: emotional self-control area activation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Electrode stimulation of substantia nigra $\rightarrow$ depression!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Governs reactivity, not baseline arousal&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Optimal arousal threshold is the same distance from rest regardless of extraversion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ARAS affects acceleration from stimulation toward the threshold. See simplistic figure:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yUeQZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;A simplistic figure I made a few years ago&quot;&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've got a few answers here on neurotransmitters and hormones already:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Testosterone affects aggression, competitiveness, sexual motivation, sensation-seeking, risk aversion, empathy, and abstract reasoning. See &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5740/4086&quot;&gt;Are there recent theories on physiognomy?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5819/4086&quot;&gt;What are the cognitive effects of increasing testosterone levels in men?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Monoamine oxidase A affects maladaptive vulnerability to stress resulting in antisocial behavior. Mu-opioid receptors relate to collectivism and pain sensitivity. Serotonin also relates to collectivism and anxiety. See &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5728/4086&quot;&gt;Innate personality tests: do they exist? If not, why?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Judging from effects of TMS (and tDCS), intelligence may relate to cortical excitability and myelination – see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5632/4086&quot;&gt;Can learning be facilitated by transcranial magnetic stimulation?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; As for changing personality in general, neuroplasticity may be important to consider, but biofeedback may be able to take advantage of it to alter neuroticism – see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5769/4086&quot;&gt;Neuroplasticity and Treatment of Depression&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Chronic malnutrition might even affect neuroticism by deeper mechanisms than subjective stress resulting directly from deprivation – see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5263/4086&quot;&gt;The effect of proper food intake on emotions and brain function&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Other links seem to exist between physical and mental well-being – see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5828/4086&quot;&gt;Does mental satisfaction lead to physical satisfaction?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; – but I'm probably getting further afield here than you intended answers to go.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Johnson, D. L., Wiebe, J. S., Gold, S. M., Andreasen, N. C., Hichwa, R. D., Watkins, G. L., &amp;amp; Ponto, L. L. B. (1999). Cerebral blood flow and personality: A positron emission tomography study. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Psychiatry, 156&lt;/em&gt;(2), 252–257. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleid=173270&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journals.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleid=173270&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-04-06T07:53:46.823" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6150" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="789" CreationDate="2014-04-02T21:22:03.103" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The search terms &quot;gradual-interval recall&quot; may give you another area to research.  I found that in a blog posting about SRS&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/p/5481606b087a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://medium.com/p/5481606b087a&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;In a paper on gradual-interval recall published by Paul Pimsleur in&#xA;  1967, he hypothesizes the following intervals: 5 seconds, 25 seconds,&#xA;  2 minutes, 10 minutes, 1 hour, 5 hours, 1 day, 5 days, 25 days, 4&#xA;  months, and 2 years. Although the exact intervals varied by subject,&#xA;  Pimsleur’s intervals give you an idea about the exponential nature of&#xA;  memory retention.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pimsleur_method&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pimsleur_method&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4607" LastActivityDate="2014-04-02T21:22:03.103" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6151" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-02T21:39:32.967" Score="2" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;Early symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) includes the loss of short term memory including prospective memory.  On a physical level brain cells are being destroyed and that disrupts the neural pathways that form memory.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My interest is on cognitive remediation programs that use spaced repetition (spacing effect/spaced retrieval/gradual interval recall).   A Google scholar search&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22spacing+effect%22+Alzheimer%27s&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;as_ylo=2000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22spacing+effect%22+Alzheimer%27s&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;as_ylo=2000&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;lists many papers that show a positive effect but I don't know how to search for what is happening at a physical level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone describe the effect at the physical level?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the book &quot;The Foundations of Remembering: Essays in Honor of Henry L. Roediger, III&quot; page 95:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Camp and colleagues have argued that expanded retrieval training makes use of implicit memory, which is relatively spared even in the later stages of AD&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is implicit memory and why is it not affected by AD until late stages?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4607" LastEditorUserId="4607" LastEditDate="2014-04-06T04:41:01.013" LastActivityDate="2014-04-06T04:41:01.013" Title="Early Alzheimer's and cognitive remediation programs" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6152" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5945" CreationDate="2014-04-03T10:09:53.810" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;It &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; alexithymia if you're looking for a diagnostic term. It is not a case of &quot;you either have it or you don't—alexithymia is a continuum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There even exists a scale, which is a professional scale so to get it you need to pay for it and be a researcher. It's called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Alexithymia_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3000" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-04-07T16:44:39.843" LastActivityDate="2016-04-07T16:44:39.843" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6153" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6146" CreationDate="2014-04-03T11:12:35.440" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first thing to note is that both classical and operant conditioning are &lt;strong&gt;theories&lt;/strong&gt; that attempt to explain how specific observable learning behavior works. They are not natural laws that psychology has uncovered, but models. In certain cases, scholars disagree and debate wether what they observed was caused by classical or operant conditioning. An example is apparative treatment of nighttime bedwetting (enuresis nocturna).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;A common treatment for nighttime bedwetting includes bedwetting alarms: the child wears special underwear with a sensor that registers moisture and triggers an alarm that wakes the child when the first drops of urine are released. Now the goal of the treatment is that the child notices the stimulus &quot;full bladder&quot;, wakes up and goes to the toilet. A treatment that helps the child to wake up after the bed has been wet does not help, because you want to avoid the bedwetting, and the children usually wake up by themselves when they are wet anyway. So how does the alarm treatment for bedwetting work? How does waking a child up *upon* urine release teach a child to wake up *before* urine release?&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;It could be classical conditioning, but then we would have backward conditioning, because the alarm goes off some time after the stimulus &quot;full bladder&quot;. But backward conditioning has been shown to either not work at all or not work well. But the alarm treatment is highly effective. So likely what goes on is operant conditioning, where the wakeup alarm, getting out of bed and changing the bedclothes are aversive elements, and the success (getting up with only a few drops into the bed), the happiness and praise of the parents, and the feeling of competence are rewards.&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The debate about how alarm treatment of enuresis works tends towards operant conditioning, but it is by no means decided. Alarm treatment of enuresis could be one rare case of effective backward conditioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, we can look at what the &lt;em&gt;theoretical&lt;/em&gt; difference between classical and operant conditioning are, keeping in mind that these may not be factual, &quot;real&quot; differences in the mechanisms of learning, only in the model:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;in &lt;strong&gt;operant conditioning&lt;/strong&gt; a behavior is strengthened because of its &lt;em&gt;consequences&lt;/em&gt;: what you do (e.g. smoke as a teen) leads to a reward (e.g. peer approval) or punishment (e.g. angry parents), so you repeat or avoid it, to repeatedly receive the reward or avoid the punishment&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qya1m.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;in &lt;strong&gt;classical conditioning&lt;/strong&gt; the trigger (e.g. food) of a naturally occuring reaction (e.g. salivation) is paired with some random, unrelated stimulus (e.g. a bell sound), this co-occurence is learned, and as a consequence the orginally unrelated stimulus is perceived as a signal that the trigger will appear; the consequences of the reaction (e.g. drooling or digestion) are completely irrelevant for the learning&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oUrQ0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can see that in operant conditioning the original cause (trigger) of the behavior plays no role, while the reinforcement is causally related to the behavior. In classical conditioning the outcome of the behavior plays no role and the learned stimulus has no natural relation to the behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-04-03T15:36:57.477" LastActivityDate="2014-04-03T15:36:57.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6155" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6171" CreationDate="2014-04-03T20:27:57.650" Score="7" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the following EM image (1um scale), there are several synapses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://synapses.clm.utexas.edu/atlas/1_6_2.stm&quot;&gt;Image&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://synapses.clm.utexas.edu/atlas/1-6-2.bmp&quot;&gt;HD Version&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What information about the synaptic strengths can be extracted from this image?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does vesicle count contain information?&#xA;What about the cross sectional &quot;length&quot; of the synaptic cleft?&#xA;If serial sections were used to reconstruct a 3D version of a synapse, would the surface area of the synapse reflect the strength of the synapse?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2014-04-06T19:15:02.300" Title="What can be inferred about the strength of the synapse from an electron microscope image?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;ltp&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6158" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6143" CreationDate="2014-04-03T23:06:15.627" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Personality studies are typically investigated via the &amp;quot;big five&amp;quot; traits.  Some attempts to legitimize the personality traits through biology have been pursued [1].  Following are some excerpts from a particular study that proposed a hypothesis and searched for confirmation in 116 subjects.  Of course, this means we should be wary of confirmation bias when interpreting the results.  Interestingly another investigation framed the question as &amp;quot;personality influences on brain reactivity&amp;quot; [2].  I personally find this backwards.  I think personality is an ermegent property of brain (coupled with environmental influences and social roles, of course).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors predict mechanisms for personality traits depend on sensitivity and efficiency of processing circuits.  So, for instance, someone may be more neurotic because their circuits that detect dangers and threats have a lower threshold for detection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Detection threshold play an important role because no detection system is perfect; for a sufficiently complex detection process, you have to set your threshold to bias either towards false positive or false negatives.  If you were in the military or medical profession, you'd likely want to to learn more towards false negatives because you'd rather spend time on an innocent/benign than let a guilty/malignant through.  Whereas, if your in business and going for efficiency, you might lean towards false positives and go ahead and sell the customer malfunctioning goods and hope only half of them want a return (as long as your customer isn't military or medical).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So a neurotic person could be said to have a detection system that leans further towards false positives than the &amp;quot;neurotypical&amp;quot; person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extraversion&lt;/strong&gt; was associated with the volume of medial orbitofrontal cortex. This region is involved in coding the reward values of stimuli, and has therefore been hypothesized to be a substrate of Extraversion (Depue &amp;amp; Collins, 1999), which appears to reflect sensitivity to reward. Increased volume of orbitofrontal cortex has been associated with Extraversion in two other studies (Omura, Constable, &amp;amp; Canli, 2005; Rauch et al., 2005), and our study provides further evidence for this association.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuroticism&lt;/strong&gt; was associated with reduced volume in dorsomedial PFC and a segment of left medial temporal lobe including posterior hippocampus, and with increased volume in the mid-cingulate gyrus, including both gray and white matter. These associations are consistent with the theory that Neuroticism represents the primary manifestation in personality of sensitivity to threat and punishment, encompassing traits that involve negative emotion and emotional dysregulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt; was associated with reduced volume in posterior left superior temporal sulcus and with increased volume in posterior cingulate cortex. The superior temporal sulcus is involved in the interpretation of other individuals’ actions and intentions on the basis of biological motion (Pelphrey &amp;amp; Morris, 2006), a process that may be more efficient in individuals who score higher in Agreeableness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conscientiousness&lt;/strong&gt; was associated positively with volume of the middle frontal gyrus in left lateral PFC. The region of association was large, stretching from close to the frontal pole to the posterior region of lateral PFC. The middle frontal gyrus is crucially involved in maintaining information in working memory and in the execution of planned action. In terms of brain function, moving from posterior to anterior regions of lateral PFC appears to entail an increasing hierarchy of abstraction and complexity, in terms of rules that are maintained and selected to guide behavior&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We found no associations with &lt;strong&gt;Openness/Intellect&lt;/strong&gt; in regions large enough to be significant at p &amp;lt; .05, corrected. However, we did find that Openness/Intellect was associated—at p &amp;lt; .01, uncorrected—with one region consistent with our hypotheses: an area of parietal cortex involved in working memory and the control of attention. A previous study found that a nearly identical region (Talairach coordinates: 46, −33, 45) showed the strongest correlation between neural activity (during a difficult working memory task) and intelligence (J.R. Gray et al., 2003). This finding is significant because Openness/Intellect is the only Big Five trait that has been consistently and positively associated with intelligence (DeYoung et al., 2005)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] DeYoung, C. G., Hirsh, J. B., Shane, M. S., Papademetris, X., Rajeevan, N., &amp;amp; Gray, J. R. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/21/6/820.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Testing predictions from personality neuroscience brain structure and the big five. Psychological Science&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, 21(6), 820-828.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Canli, T., Zhao, Z., Desmond, J. E., Kang, E., Gross, J., &amp;amp; Gabrieli, J. D. (2001). &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bne/115/1/33/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;An fMRI study of personality influences on brain reactivity to emotional stimuli&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Behavioral neuroscience, 115(1), 33.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-04-04T16:22:46.377" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6160" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-04T06:18:33.613" Score="0" ViewCount="6930" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I have gathered of low latent inhibition, it is an extreme increased level of dopamine in the brain.. dopamine is a neurotransmitter and hormone. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Increasing it has many advantages and a few nasty disadvantages.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While improving concentration, mood, energy, and libido for starters,&#xA;too much can cause side effects such as addiction and a host of mental disorders. (schizophrenia and bipolar to name two)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for those who might have more knowledge of the subject than I do: there is a lot of controversy over the internet and half of it can't be believed.&#xA;So, for the question part:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Is increased dopamine levels the source (or at least main source) of LLI?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2.Is Dopamine increased more through direct supplements such as DHA which supposedly affect Dopamine levels directly, or supplements such as L-Dopa which claim to affect the precursors?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I've done my own research and am still looking for answers to the benefits, risks, and induction of such to lower latentcy... just looking for others' knowledge and/or experiences.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4741" LastEditorUserId="4741" LastEditDate="2014-04-08T20:26:21.280" LastActivityDate="2017-07-11T22:01:35.830" Title="Inducing long term low latent inhibition" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6161" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6143" CreationDate="2014-04-04T07:00:20.153" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;On a totally personal basis..&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know music stimulates the brain drastically. I've noticed those that seem to love learning tend to lean more toward Classic music or Techno... (&lt;em&gt;that's a totally biased opinion though&lt;/em&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;On a researching note..&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_basis_of_personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_basis_of_personality&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The above link should be a great start for you!&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The biological basis of personality is the theory that personality is &#xA;  influenced by the biology of the brain. Though closely related to &#xA;  personality psychology, the biological basis of personality focuses on&#xA;  why or how personality traits manifest through biology, in addition to&#xA;  identifying personality traits. This is investigated by correlating &#xA;  personality traits with scientific data from experimental methods such&#xA;  as brain imaging and molecular genetics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I have been researching ways to decrease latent inhibition and the answer seems to be to increase certain chemical levels in the brain such as Dopamine.. &#xA;but the down side is the increased chance of becoming Schizophrenic...&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;But as far as the optimism thing goes, increasing Serotonin levels might be the way to go..&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2077351/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2077351/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above is a helpful article on how to increase the Serotonin levels in your brain without the use of drugs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lower platelet serotonin receptor function was associated with lower&#xA;  mood in one study, whereas better mood was associated with higher&#xA;  blood serotonin levels in another. Two studies found that greater&#xA;  prolactin release in response to fenfluramine was associated with more&#xA;  positive mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps and good luck with your research!!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4741" LastEditorUserId="4741" LastEditDate="2014-04-04T11:03:19.657" LastActivityDate="2014-04-04T11:03:19.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6162" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6160" CreationDate="2014-04-04T10:57:09.830" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_inhibition#Low_latent_inhibition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Low latent inhibition&lt;/a&gt; is not an ideal state...Wikipedia lists several potential problems including attentional and emotional dysregulation, psychosis, and negative emotionality. Wikipedia also suggests that intelligence may moderate effects on well-being, such that more highly intelligent people could cope with stronger stimulation more effectively, and possibly enhance creativity &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/5995267_Decreased_latent_inhibition_is_associated_with_increased_creative_achievement_in_high-functioning_individuals/file/32bfe50ef2db07d099.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carson, Peterson, &amp;amp; Higgins, 2003&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dopamine&lt;/a&gt;, there's a lot to read and thoroughly reconsider before going ahead with any attempt to alter it. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_hypothesis_of_schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt; is one particularly noteworthy concern with heightened dopamine levels; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine#Nausea&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nausea&lt;/a&gt; is another risk, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine#Drug_addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;addiction to the means of alteration&lt;/a&gt; is another. I don't know that this last risk is any less serious with legal drugs, or even naturally rewarding behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, some regulated drugs are prescribed for disorders of low dopaminergic activity, including Parkinson's and (to some extent) attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-DOPA#Possible_overdose_symptoms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;$_\mathbf L$-DOPA&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylphenidate#Overdose_and_toxicology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;methylphenidate&lt;/a&gt;. I link here to the overdose sections to emphasize that using them is not a good idea without a strong recommendation from a doctor in support and supervision of medicinal use. Even those with severe disorders who basically need these medications may suffer complications, so the likelihood of normally functioning individuals benefitting safely from (ab)use of these drugs is rather low at best.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BTW, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6160/inducing-long-term-low-latent-inhibition/6180#comment12959_6162&quot;&gt;@ChuckSherrington's comment is wisely made&lt;/a&gt;, and I want to emphasize also that I'm only mentioning these drugs because they exist and are sometimes prescribed for disorders that sometimes result from harmfully low dopamine levels. These medications should NOT be used by normally functioning individuals. They have several undesirable side effects, and could be particularly dangerous if used to deliberately elevate dopamine receptor activity above normal. Beside that, many if not most are regulated substances, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://alcoholism.about.com/od/teenfaq/a/illegal_pills.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;illegal to use without a prescription&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not a place to look for people who have experimented with dopaminergic drugs on normally functioning individuals: such experimentation is dangerous and unethical, especially if conducted in an uncontrolled manner without professional medical support on hand. Personal use of a drug like $_\rm L$-DOPA or methylphenidate without a prescription is not experimentation in a scientific sense, but is abuse in a legal sense. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some properly ethical and cautious research has investigated the effects of various dopaminergic drugs on normal populations, and results seem mixed at best, and quite scary at worst. As a near-worst case, consider &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocaine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cocaine&lt;/a&gt;: it acts on much more than dopamine, and tends to dysregulate it, not just temporarily block its reuptake. These aspects make it a very messy way of manipulating dopamine, and leads to some of its well-known dangers. This may be an extreme example, but one shouldn't assume so; any psychoactive drug has some potential to upset homeostasis in a lasting way and in more ways than one intends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Methylphenidate might be a near-best case &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylphenidate#Pharmacodynamics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pharmacodynamically&lt;/a&gt;, but it too affects more than just dopamine, and has its share of dangers, as I mentioned above. What makes it noteworthy is the debate surrounding it as a potential nootropic vs. drug of abuse. Here's an interesting excerpt from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylphenidate#Abuse_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Methylphenidate is sometimes used by students to enhance their mental abilities, improving their concentration and helping them to study. Professor John Harris, an expert in bioethics, has said that it would be unethical to stop healthy people taking the drug. He also argues that it would be &quot;not rational&quot; and against human enhancement to not use the drug to improve people's cognitive abilities.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://livingtomorrow.livejournal.com/59100.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;97&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt; Professor Anjan Chatterjee however has warned that there is a &lt;strong&gt;high potential for abuse and may cause serious adverse effects on the heart, meaning that only people with an illness should take the drug&lt;/strong&gt;. In the British Medical Journal he wrote that it was premature to endorse the use of Ritalin in this way as the &lt;strong&gt;effects of the drug on healthy people have not been studied&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1079&amp;amp;context=neuroethics_pubs&amp;amp;sei-redir=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;98&lt;/a&gt;][&lt;a href=&quot;http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8106957.stm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;99&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt; Professor Barbara Sahakian has argued that the use of Ritalin in this way may give students an unfair advantage in examinations and that as a result universities may want to discuss making students give urine samples to be tested for the drug.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/feb/21/smart-drugs-students-universities&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;100&lt;/a&gt;][Emphasis added.]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evidently there are cases to be made for both perspectives on methylphenidate, and a variety of ramifications to consider. More research would be helpful, especially for the sake of isolating important mechanisms of action and reducing undesirable side effects. Until that much is done successfully, methylphenidate seems too controversial to recommend at best, and downright dangerous to recommend at worst. Furthermore, being a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_II_drugs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schedule II drug in USA&lt;/a&gt;, it is illegal to possess or distribute without prescription.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another notable prospect of sorts (though still Schedule II) is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bupropion#Recreational_use&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;buproprion&lt;/a&gt;. From Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The primary pharmacological action of the drug is as a mild &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_reuptake_inhibitor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dopamine reuptake inhibitor&lt;/a&gt; and also a much weaker &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine_reuptake_inhibitor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor&lt;/a&gt; as well as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinic_acetylcholine_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nicotinic acetylcholine receptor&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_antagonist&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;antagonist&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to the US government classification of psychiatric medications, bupropion is &quot;non-abusable&quot;.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64916/table/A67504/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;93&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt; In animal studies, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squirrel_monkey&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;squirrel monkeys&lt;/a&gt; and rats could be induced to self-administer bupropion, which is often taken as a sign of addiction potential; however, there are significant interspecies differences in bupropion metabolism.&lt;sup&gt;[54]&lt;/sup&gt; There have been a number of anecdotal and case-study reports of bupropion abuse, but the bulk of evidence indicates that the subjective effects of bupropion are markedly different from those of addictive stimulants such as cocaine or amphetamine.&lt;sup&gt;[94]&lt;/sup&gt; However bupropion is reported to be abused in Canada.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://globalnews.ca/news/846576/antidepressant-wellbutrin-becomes-poor-mans-cocaine-on-toronto-streets/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;95&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://globalnews.ca/news/846576/antidepressant-wellbutrin-becomes-poor-mans-cocaine-on-toronto-streets/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tryon and Logan &lt;sup&gt;(2013)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is more than enough to tell that the US government is wrong yet again on drug abuse; this one can definitely be abused in a really unsettling way (seriously, view at your own risk; it's got some gruesome imagery). However, to be fair, I can't verify that the cited source for the US government &lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64916/table/A67504/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;93&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt; says &quot;non-abusable&quot;; the link only leads to a table where bupropion is listed under &lt;code&gt;Low Abuse Potential&lt;/code&gt;...but this seems pretty outdated in light of the news from Canada, unfortunately. Granted, this is primarily a problem with intravenous administration, which is not intended...but clearly the potential exists, and is bad enough to outweigh any merits of deregulation I could imagine. Again, further demonstration of how hazardous this psychopharmacological minefield of dopaminergic drugs really is...The only safe advice is to steer clear – barring any exigent need and prescription for personal medical use, of course – but that doesn't apply here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Carson, S. H., Peterson, J. B., &amp;amp; Higgins, D. M. (2003). Decreased latent inhibition is associated with increased creative achievement in high-functioning individuals. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85&lt;/em&gt;(3), 499–506. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/5995267_Decreased_latent_inhibition_is_associated_with_increased_creative_achievement_in_high-functioning_individuals/file/32bfe50ef2db07d099.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;54. Dwoskin, L. P., Rauhut, A. S., King‐Pospisil, K. A., &amp;amp; Bardo, M. T. (2006). Review of the pharmacology and clinical profile of bupropion, an antidepressant and tobacco use cessation agent. &lt;em&gt;CNS Drug Reviews, 12&lt;/em&gt;(3–4), 178–207.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;93. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. (2000). Abuse potential of common psychiatric medications. In &lt;em&gt;Substance abuse treatment for persons with HIV/AIDS&lt;/em&gt; (Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 37, pp. 83–84). Rockville, USA: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64916/table/A67504/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64916/table/A67504/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;94. Lile, J. A., &amp;amp; Nader, M. A. (2003). The abuse liability and therapeutic potential of drugs evaluated for cocaine addiction as predicted by animal models. &lt;em&gt;Current Neuropharmacology, 1&lt;/em&gt;(1), 21–46.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;95. Tryon, J., &amp;amp; Logan, N. (2013, September 18). Antidepressant Wellbutrin becomes ‘poor man’s cocaine’ on Toronto streets. &lt;em&gt;Global News: Health.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://globalnews.ca/news/846576/antidepressant-wellbutrin-becomes-poor-mans-cocaine-on-toronto-streets/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://globalnews.ca/news/846576/antidepressant-wellbutrin-becomes-poor-mans-cocaine-on-toronto-streets/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;97. Harris, J. (2009). Is it acceptable for people to take methylphenidate to enhance performance? Yes. &lt;em&gt;British Medical Journal, 28&lt;/em&gt;(8), b1955. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://livingtomorrow.livejournal.com/59100.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://livingtomorrow.livejournal.com/59100.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;98. Chatterjee, A. (2009). Is it acceptable for people to take methylphenidate to enhance performance? No. &lt;em&gt;British Medical Journal, 338&lt;/em&gt;, b1956. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1079&amp;amp;context=neuroethics_pubs&amp;amp;sei-redir=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1079&amp;amp;context=neuroethics_pubs&amp;amp;sei-redir=1&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;99. BBC News. (2009, June 19). &lt;em&gt;Ritalin backed as brain-booster&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8106957.stm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8106957.stm&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;100. Davies, C. (2010, February 21). Universities told to consider dope tests as student use of 'smart drugs' soars. &lt;em&gt;The Observer: Education: Student Health.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/feb/21/smart-drugs-students-universities&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/feb/21/smart-drugs-students-universities&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-04-08T12:28:48.753" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6163" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-04T14:52:41.380" Score="5" ViewCount="931" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have started to do some research on EEG analysis. One of the challenging things I have found is the variability on the formats for the EEG files. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do you do when you receive data your software does not support? Is it reasonable to ask the collaborators to convert the data to another format? Do you modify your software to incorporate the details of the new format?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any EEG format out there that is considered standard? Do the EEG manufacturers provide converters to that format in their software?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-drd  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4746" LastEditorUserId="17605" LastEditDate="2018-03-06T21:11:02.910" LastActivityDate="2018-03-14T10:51:49.373" Title="Is there any file format standard for EEG data?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6164" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6160" CreationDate="2014-04-04T19:41:12.867" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have to agree with @NickStauner - it sounds like you (as most people do; television is a culprit here) have a relatively rose-tinted view of people with a lower latent inhibition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not an answer, this is an anecdote.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off, a person's 'level of latent inhibition' will fluctuate.  I have low latent inhibition (if you &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lowlatentinhibition.org/what-is-lli/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;read this&lt;/a&gt; - yep, that's a description of me), but it changes from day to day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On good days, great days, having this is one of the best blessings anyone could have (in my opinion, of course).  I can attend to - entirely literally and without exaggeration - &lt;em&gt;everything&lt;/em&gt; in my visual/aural sensory field (and if it's an awesome day, all at the same time).  I'm aware of everything around me, down to the insects within a few feet.  My brain registers and tracks &lt;em&gt;everything&lt;/em&gt; and nothing escapes my senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On bad days, this is a curse.  Yes, it's cliched, but it's true.  On bad days, I'm not tracking &lt;em&gt;anything&lt;/em&gt;... but I &lt;em&gt;am&lt;/em&gt; registering it.  Everything.  I know people with ADD/ADHD, and on bad days I'm almost exactly like them.  And the worst days, it happens over and over and over again.  Imagine driving, except that you don't just see the things around you - you see the things around you again, and again, and again, and again.  It's not that you don't remember, it's just that your brain temporarily says, &quot;hey, wait, what's that, that's new...oh wait, no, it's not.... oh hey!&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most days are somewhere in between.  Thankfully, there's a &lt;em&gt;lot&lt;/em&gt; I can do - sleeping properly, eating properly, and exercise have &lt;strong&gt;no&lt;/strong&gt; substitutes!  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now for more anecdotal stuff:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I've found that inducing a 'flow' state improves my ability to handle this sensory deluge.  Music, and certain activities (there are a number of questions on CogSci.SE about the flow state) in particular.  Trance-inducing activities and meditations also help.  Certain binaural beats also help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This, again, isn't an answer.  I don't know how to induce this state in others.  Drugs...don't really work, as far as I can tell - at least not the ones around currently.  Stimulants have too many side effects, or are too strong, or cause too strong of focus, or in general overshoot their target most of the time.  Classic stimulants, such as ADHD drugs, definitely don't induce this state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will say this: by and far, if you want it, then do it:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pay attention to &lt;em&gt;everything&lt;/em&gt;.  Make yourself pay attention to everything.  Register everything in your sensory fields.  As soon as you register something, register something else.  If something moves, register it.  If something makes a sound, isolate, orientate to, and register it.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Then make yourself question everything - &lt;em&gt;why is anything the way it is?&lt;/em&gt;  This is not about actually answering, but about making your brain work differently.  Do this constantly, all the time, it's all that exists to you: registering and analyzing everything.  Verify everything afterwards, but go as far as you can, &lt;em&gt;then&lt;/em&gt; go as fast as you can.  Be correct before you're fast (this is reallllly important.  If you're fast but incorrect, you start to believe in supernatural events.  Sounds ridiculous, but ... well, anecdotally true, at least).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Push yourself to do it faster, faster, faster.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now here's the problem - you're trying to do this from the top-down.  There are things you won't be able to induce, things that may, or may not, eventually appear on their own:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Automatically orientating on new sensory stimuli.  As mentioned, if something moves, I know it's there; no exceptions.  A spider could move in the very corner of my peripheral vision, and I'd have registered it.  That said, I don't necessarily know &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; moved, but I know that &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; moved.  When I'm tired though, there are a lot of false positives.  If I go for long enough with little enough sleep, I'll start to see shadows move.  This is NOT fun.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Automatically knowing something is different.  This isn't conscious, nor is it specific.  If you've gotten new glasses, or a new haircut, or changed something else, I'll know something is different (again, most days).  But it might take me a bit to figure out what the difference is.  Chances are, I'll be looking at you funny while trying to figure it out.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reading non-physical 'energies' around me.  This one is...so hard to grasp and explain.  I don't fully understand it, so explaining it is difficult.  It's a 'soft focus' where I'm not truly paying attention to any one thing.  Instead, I'm watching (again) &lt;em&gt;everything at the same time&lt;/em&gt;.  If I'm in a room with people, I know when things will happen before they do.  I know if people are bored, or angry, happy, or jealous.  I know if people are hiding something, or if they need to share.  I can read the stress in your voice and I can know from the way that you're holding yourself that you slept poorly last night.  Some of this is the LLI, but there's another half of it:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Read everything.  &lt;em&gt;Everything&lt;/em&gt;.  Nothing is possible if you don't understand how it all fits together.  Read about people especially, and how people work - individually, in isolation, in groups, as followers, as leaders, and when they're interacting with others.  Read about physics to understand exactly how to throw the skeeball (with the proper 'soft focus'/'not trying') to get the 100.  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(Learn to) Juggle.  I don't have a link with me, but juggling improves your brain in many different ways.  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;And lastly, always always always (x 1000) do the &lt;strong&gt;Big 3&lt;/strong&gt;: eat properly, sleep properly, and exercise properly.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, given all that - THIS IS NOT AN ACCEPTABLE ANSWER, SO DON'T ACCEPT IT (if you do, I'll make it CW and give it away anyway).  I have no sources, no citations, and no backup.  I have nothing but anecdotal evidence, and &lt;em&gt;this is the internet&lt;/em&gt;.  You shouldn't trust me even if I did - almost anything can be skewed to support anything else.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want LLI, start to figure everything out for yourself!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastActivityDate="2014-04-04T19:41:12.867" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6167" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-06T04:59:33.910" Score="5" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is much study of spaced learning (expanded retrieval, spaced retrieval, spaced repetition system, gradual-interval recall, etc), and much of the discussion is about around the optimal distribution of the recall over time (often in comparison to equally spaced recall events or mass recall).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of a focus on time, have studies considered the nature of the data to be remembered?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1)&lt;/strong&gt; Have studies considered autobiographical data in comparison to non-autobiographical?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, for example, if the data to be remembered are personal and relate to, say, family and friends, then will the use of spaced learning be more effective than, say, learning new vocabulary?   I am thinking about people with Alzheimer's or other diseases that impact memory.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Put another way: is spaced learning more effective when applied to personal facts vs. impersonal facts?  Or does it make no difference what the data are?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2)&lt;/strong&gt; Is there any impact if the data are all related in some way?  For example, suppose the task is to learn vocabulary for parts of system (e.g. family, parent, child, sibling, etc or the parts of an automobile, ...)  in comparison to a set of unrelated words.    Does it make a difference if the set of concepts to be remembered have associations which the mind can use to link them together?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4607" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-06T07:59:40.467" LastActivityDate="2014-05-06T08:45:43.823" Title="Effectiveness of spaced learning when the data have personal meaning" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6168" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6167" CreationDate="2014-04-06T08:14:30.090" Score="4" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm not sure if personal relevance of data has been studied directly, but this factor seems related to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_%28memory%29#Depth_of_processing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;depth of processing &lt;sup&gt;[Wikipedia link A]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which improves memory encoding. I'm not aware of any research on an interaction between &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;depth of processing &lt;sup&gt;[Wikipedia link B]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and whether learning is spaced (as an experimentally controlled variable). I hope others will have more info for you on these questions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Relatedness of data has a clear effect on learning and recall. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chunking&lt;/a&gt; is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mnemonic&lt;/a&gt; technique that capitalizes on relationships among data to facilitate info-reconstructive processes in memory. This can even be performed on ostensibly unrelated data using &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_rehearsal#Elaborative_Rehearsal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;elaborative rehearsal&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;sup&gt;(See also depth of processing link A.)&lt;/sup&gt;  Example methods include combining disparate elements in a narrative, or associating them with landmarks using the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;method of loci&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-04-06T08:14:30.090" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6169" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6172" CreationDate="2014-04-06T11:06:06.507" Score="8" ViewCount="664" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may be a stereotype, but many of us encounter a lot of people who insist that they can't learn a new technology because they're too old. Some of these people can be brilliant learners in their youth - doctors, lawyers, prominent businessmen, academics. It's so common that one benchmark of good web design is whether the 'average grandma' can use it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A part of this might be from the formation of habits - someone who's used to reading the newspaper for 50 years would have trouble replacing that with online news. Another possibility is that they may feel that they have limited years to live and don't want to spend their limited time learning a new skill, or that they would have a poor ROI on these skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But do they actually have more difficulty learning from a physical perspective or is it just psychological?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2644" LastActivityDate="2020-03-16T18:06:09.243" Title="Why do people get &quot;too old to learn&quot;?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6170" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6163" CreationDate="2014-04-06T17:55:27.757" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, short answer is no - there is no gold standard for EEG files. But EEG is a time series (amplitude) from several channels. So the most common way to represent it is columns as electrodes and rows as points of time. I think almost all software is possible to read such structure as txt file. But EEG is not only time series. Usually it is important to have additional channel with event markers. It make the situation a little bit tricky. But usually popular software is able to read most of EEG data formats and it's not difficult to write a custom function for reading your data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2555" LastActivityDate="2014-04-06T17:55:27.757" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6171" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6155" CreationDate="2014-04-06T19:15:02.300" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v10/n3/abs/nn1849.html&quot;&gt;Vesicle count&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/28/11/2753.short&quot;&gt;spine morphology&lt;/a&gt; are two of the better-known predictors of synaptic strength.  But they are not the whole story.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Glia, like astrocytes &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197018610000823&quot;&gt;can also modulate synaptic strength&lt;/a&gt; by releasing their own neurotransmitter or co-agonist, but you need more than just images to detect that process.  There is also the matter of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v2/n5/abs/nn0599_454.html&quot;&gt;receptor distribution&lt;/a&gt; in the postsynaptic cell inside the synapse.  Even if you make more vesicles, it won't matter if there's not enough receptors.  It also depends on how much agonist, co-agonist, and antagonist are present, which could be the result of any particular molecular signaling cascade.  There are also modulators which can increase or decrease the effectiveness of a particular receptor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-04-06T19:15:02.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6172" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6169" CreationDate="2014-04-06T19:25:49.377" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly, the matter of lifestyle is probably a significant factor.  Someone who is an alcoholic their whole life and never tries or learns new things is going to have a different outcome that somebody who is still learning new things and exercising and eating healthy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, lifestyles equal, there's at least two factors in age-associated reduction in memory and learning.  Firstly, just like hips and shoulders start falling apart, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197458088801179&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;so does the brain&lt;/a&gt; (characterized by morphological abnormalities and synapse loss).  Organisms are very complex machines and lots of the equipment is gradually failing throughout our life.  Dementia is a typical result of age-induced wear and tear on the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other is reduced plasticity.  We start off with a very plastic brain, which allows us to learn our environment.  However, part of the process of learning is to stabilize our learning circuits so that they can't be changed again (i.e. you want memories to stay as robust as possible).  Our whole brain goes through series of this stabilization.  At 4-5 years, pruning removes &quot;unused circuitry&quot;, greatly reducing plasticity.  In the early 20's, our frontal lobes finalize and myelinate (and this is thought by some to pertain to why people start practicing better judgment at this point).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-04-08T23:46:07.633" LastActivityDate="2014-04-08T23:46:07.633" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6173" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5922" CreationDate="2014-04-06T20:43:25.737" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of separate terms to differentiate 'schema present in an individual' from &#xA;'potential &quot;schemata/patterns/ideas&quot; out in the world not yet encountered by the individual', but with regard to 'schema currently being added or adjusted by an individual', I can at least offer some related terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/glossaryfromatoz/g/Accommodation.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Accommodation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is the process by which schemata are adjusted most generally.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;With respect to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Marcia#The_four_identity_statuses&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;identity status&lt;/a&gt;, which might be considered self-schemata, one's status is classified as in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Marcia#Moratorium&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;moratorium&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; during periods of active adjustment. I find James Marcia's theory useful often, because it differentiates individuals in terms of two factors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whether they have a sense of personal identity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whether they have attempted to scrutinize and develop their personal identities&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm only wary of dichotomizing these factors, which might be better understood as dimensions (I doubt whether anyone is truly at an absolute zero)...but that's slightly tangential, as it's somewhat easier to imagine schemata being completely stable or absent in a meaningfully dichotomous sense.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-04-06T20:43:25.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6175" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-07T06:24:01.963" Score="4" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain consumes energy at eight times the rate that would be predicted from mass alone (20% of total organismic load).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How much of this is drawn from the visual system?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;How does the metabolic load change among the blind?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;How about for people with their eyes closed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3049" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-07T06:30:03.950" LastActivityDate="2014-04-13T02:50:11.073" Title="What is the metabolic load of the visual system?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6176" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5922" CreationDate="2014-04-07T10:57:43.963" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not able to directly answer your question, but I would suggest you take a look at some of the ideas association with Lev Vygotsky (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; is as good a place to start as any).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schema theory is a relatively static idea - schemata exist as simplified internal representations of an external reality, and are symbolic, much like the memory of a computer. I'm not sure, for that reason, if there should be any term for your &lt;code&gt;potential &quot;schemata/patterns/ideas&quot; out in the world not yet encountered by the individual&lt;/code&gt;, because a schema is nothing more than a representation (although see Plato's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Forms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;theory of forms&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Vygotskian theory (or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural-historical_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cultural-historical psychology&lt;/a&gt;), on the other hand, knowledge is seen as something that emerges from the interaction between a person, the people they encounter, and their broader social and cultural environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know I can't do justice to these ideas myself, but I offer them as a starting point to better understand the concepts you're getting at in your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry about all the wikipedia links.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A very good starting point is the following book. It should be retrievable quite easily over the Internet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). &lt;em&gt;Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes&lt;/em&gt;. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorDisplayName="user14074" LastEditDate="2017-04-12T18:38:06.160" LastActivityDate="2017-04-12T18:38:06.160" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6178" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6179" CreationDate="2014-04-07T19:44:45.017" Score="2" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking to input pictures into a system to successful measure potential biases.&#xA;For example let's say I have a set of pictures and I would like the user to press either left or right once they are in the system to signify picture preference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a system available that already does this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4756" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-08T06:05:57.207" LastActivityDate="2014-04-08T06:05:57.207" Title="How to create an online test of bias using preference judgements on pairs of pictures?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6179" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6178" CreationDate="2014-04-08T06:05:14.903" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer your general question, many psychology experiment delivery systems, and even general programming languages could be used to present a set of trials where participants provide responses regarding pairs of visual stimuli. &#xA;In particular, I've found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Inquisit to be a good option&lt;/a&gt; if you want to deliver the experiment online. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you examine the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;task library&lt;/a&gt; you can find examples of IAT and GNAT studies which involve pairs of stimuli in order to estimate implicit bias. If you look around you should be able to find some examples involving visual stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-04-08T06:05:14.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6181" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6187" CreationDate="2014-04-08T11:02:00.290" Score="3" ViewCount="230" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working through &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0199794545&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How to Build a Brain&lt;/a&gt; and I keep getting confused on the relation between Nengo, the Semantic Pointer Architecture (SPA) and the Neurological Engineering Framework (NEF).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there general names and a general way to describe these components? I'm assuming the individual tasks they are performing are not unique, although I do believe that the result is unique. For example, I believe the role performed by SPA is similar to the one proposed by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/3196/1/neuralarchs.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural Blackboard Architecture&lt;/a&gt;, but I would really like to know if there is an equivalent to NEF and/or Nengo. Also, where does ACT-R fit into this whole thing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-11-23T20:49:26.353" LastActivityDate="2014-11-23T20:49:26.353" Title="Relation between Nengo, SPA and NEF with respect to other Neural Models" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6184" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1627" CreationDate="2014-04-08T17:50:05.163" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;other answers are helpful but what is missing from them so far is that there seems to be basic golden ratios built into the natural human body proportions eg relative dimensions of body parts, including esp in the face dimensions, which is highly oriented with perception of beauty (but dont have an immediate authoritative/scientific ref for this). not sure but possibly DaVinci was interested in this connection eg in the iconic &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvian_Man&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Vitruvian Man diagram&lt;/a&gt; but whether DaVinci used the golden ratio &lt;em&gt;intentionally&lt;/em&gt; is subject to intense scholarly debate. it is possible that his artwork was just so lifelike that it naturally mimicked the golden ratio in natural human proportions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it is natural to speculate whether these proportions emerged from maybe evolutionary constraints, or some kind of feedback loop between psychology and biology ala evolutionary psychology. but in any case the golden ratio has emerged in &lt;em&gt;many&lt;/em&gt; other biological organism morphology/dimensions, so it is not outlandish to observe it naturally evolving in humans also.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;so the appearance of the golden ratio in geometric designs as &quot;intrinsically beautiful to humans&quot; might have marginal scientific support, but it seems to be encoded into natural human dimensions. also it is now well established in the field of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;evolutionary psychology&lt;/a&gt; that human [sexual] attraction is highly oriented around ideal physical features, esp in the face. this overall topic could easily fill a thesis or book. for now heres at least one ref&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/plasreconsurg/Citation/1964/10000/The_Golden_Proportion_and_Beauty.7.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Golden Proportion and Beauty&#xA;SEGHERS, M. J. M.D.; LONGACRE, J. J. M.D., AND; DESTEFANO, G. A. M.D.; e, Longacr&lt;/a&gt; Plastic &amp;amp; Reconstructive Surgery, Journal of American Society of Plastic Surgeons&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_designed_with_the_golden_ratio&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;List of works with the golden ratio&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2733" LastActivityDate="2014-04-08T17:50:05.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6187" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6181" CreationDate="2014-04-09T07:29:24.610" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't read the book, just googled, so:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;NEF&lt;/strong&gt; is a mathematical model that simulates neural systems. It consists of formulae that you can use to (manually) compute the behavior of neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;NENGO&lt;/strong&gt; is a software (version 1.0 in the programming language Java and is scriptable in Python, &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/ctn-waterloo/nengo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;version 2.0&lt;/a&gt; is pure python) that implements the NEF, so that it computes the behavior of neurons (according to the NEF) for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can think of the relation between NEF and NENGO as similar to that between arithmetic (the rules for computation: addition, subtraction etc.) and a pocket calculator (which &quot;knows&quot; those rules and calculates for you).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;SPA&lt;/strong&gt; is another mathematical model. It uses the basic neural functionality modelled in the NEF to build a large scale cognitive model. In the book, NENGO is used to implement SPA/Spaun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can think of the relation between NEF and SPA as similar to that between arithmetic (the basic rules of calculation) and algebra (a more complex set of rules that uses the basic rules of arithmetics to solve more complex problems).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two websites explaining it all:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://nengo.ca/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://nengo.ca/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/research/spa.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/research/spa.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will find the relevant pages explaining what I summarized above through Google.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-04-09T12:04:07.677" LastActivityDate="2014-04-09T12:04:07.677" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6188" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6169" CreationDate="2014-04-09T12:05:26.490" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;It's better that way&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Disregarding &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; this is implemented biologically, the answer to &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; is because it provides optimal results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In learning systems where you are able to freely adjust the ability to learn - e.g., AI research 'reinforcement learning' paradigm, there is a tradeoff commonly called Exploration vs Exploitation - i.e., should the agent focus on gaining new experiences by trying out new solutions that might be worse or better (but you don't know), or should it do things in the way that it believes to be best, and ignore the other options.  Quite intuitively, you do get the best results by focusing on exploration early-on when you have little knowledge, and avoiding exploration after you have 'sufficient' amount of experience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, in learning systems which &quot;passively&quot; receive new knowledge, there is a balance decision - how much should you alter your beliefs after seeing new evidence. If a two year old kid saw a flying man, it'd make sense to believe that men could fly - after all, two year olds see radically new phenomena almost every day, and it is useful to adjust their beliefs to note &quot;ok, X is working that way, and Y always happens before Z&quot; - even if they'd just seen it a single time.  However, if a sixty year old saw a flying man, it'd instead make sense to look for wires and a movie camera crew.  Similarly, in machine learning systems it is optimal to slow down belief adjustment(=learning) with time - as you've accumulated a larger baggage of earlier evidence, the newer evidence is comparatively much less important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, going back to people - as per the above examples, in any learning system, you get the best results by slowing down your learning rate with time. Learning is a very useful capability for survival&amp;reproduction; doing learning &lt;em&gt;properly&lt;/em&gt; is a competitive advantage in natural selection. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So there is evolutionary pressure to do it this way - it should be expected that all animals, including us, would have evolved some biological way to adjust their learning so that it slows down with age. Animals would experiment and learn during adolescence, and afterwards mostly stick to the already formed habits. Changing neuronal plasticity is one way to implement this, there may be others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, it may be that it's no longer optimal given the radical change in our lifespan - if you live twice longer, then it'd be useful to learn twice longer as well - but it's originally implemented because it is (was?) actually an advantage to have it that way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4467" LastActivityDate="2014-04-09T12:05:26.490" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6189" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9884" CreationDate="2014-04-09T12:11:34.547" Score="2" ViewCount="1829" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Since I lack of academic formation please be tolerant if I write something not correct.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you know the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) test is based on 4 personality dimensions (E/I, S/N, T/F, J/P) each of which can assume two possible values (I think the name is trait) for a total of 16 clusters. &lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator#Cognitive_learning_styles&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are gender differences with regard to a number of psychological variables (see for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_roles&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;gender roles&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_differences_in_human_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia Sex differences in human psychology&lt;/a&gt;). These differences may be due to education, culture, hormonal difference and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the stereotype, many women are more judging than men. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does any empirical evidence show that the prevalence of Judging is higher in women compared to men?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-04-28T09:09:24.017" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T11:49:52.433" Title="Are woman more Judging than men in the MBTI?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;gender&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6190" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6189" CreationDate="2014-04-09T12:11:34.547" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the following document there is a prevalence of the Judging trait  most of women seems to be Judging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the stereotype that females prefer routines, plans and outlines is&#xA;  largely justified; the majority fall into the judging category. It may&#xA;  come as a surprise, however, that the majority of boys (about 52-58&#xA;  percent) are judging types as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://schreibendepot.wordpress.com/2007/02/23/mbti-and-gender-a-personality-divide/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://schreibendepot.wordpress.com/2007/02/23/mbti-and-gender-a-personality-divide/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However a stronger difference, correlated to gender, from MBTI is about other traits (dimension?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following picture, taken from this article is interesting:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xETHv.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.statisticbrain.com/myers-briggs-statistics/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.statisticbrain.com/myers-briggs-statistics/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2014-04-09T12:11:34.547" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6191" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-09T14:11:27.037" Score="8" ViewCount="277" Body="&lt;p&gt;I realize that the diagnostic criteria for Asperger's Syndrome (AS) have changed with the latest version of the DSM, but there was a criterion in the DSM-IV for AS that I didn't understand: &quot;marked impairments in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as ....&lt;em&gt;gestures to regulate social interaction&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. Can anyone please tell me what this means or give some common examples of behaviors that would qualify?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, when one evaluates &quot;empathy&quot;, is one considering the internal state of the subject or his manifest behaviors? For example, I may not truly empathize with your situation, but from society, maybe I know that I should, so I &quot;act&quot; as if I do. &#xA;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4769" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-09T15:43:34.470" LastActivityDate="2014-06-08T16:33:12.920" Title="Criterion for Asperger's Syndrome" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6192" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6191" CreationDate="2014-04-09T16:06:10.577" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know what the author(s) or editors intended this to mean exactly, but I would guess that examples could include smiling, shrugging, head-scratching, pointing, holding out one's hand to invite a handshake, management of personal space, etc. I'd love to know if I'm incorrect on any of these, but I'm a little pessimistic about finding out TBH. There may be no strict definition available. As such, matters like these are sometimes left open to interpretation based on professional experience, local clinical goals and policies, or whatever really...It's a bit of a problem for criterion validity, to say the least.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your second question about empathy is a little unspecific, but maybe this is your intention. Generally speaking, there are several ways to evaluate empathy. Behavioral data allow objective assessment by others, but as you suspect, subjects can often act in ways that deceive clinicians, researchers, or other observers deliberately. Physiological data may be harder to manipulate, but this is not always the case, as the history of physiological lie detection has demonstrated (e.g., I've heard of subjects jabbing themselves with thumbtacks hidden in their shoes to elevate their stress at baseline measurements). &quot;Internal states&quot; as otherwise defined tend to be accessible only to subjective experience, which must be self-reported. Clearly this is no more lie-proof. Thus the optimal solution when deception is expected is probably to try to catch liars and exclude their data for any purposes with larger concerns than the liars in question (e.g., nomothetic population research). Where the individual is the primary concern (e.g., clinical diagnosis for the patient's sake), I'm afraid I don't know of a reliable solution for deception in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-04-09T16:06:10.577" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6193" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9472" CreationDate="2014-04-10T01:19:23.067" Score="5" ViewCount="75948" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't seem to understand the difference. From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_norms_approach&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Injunctive norms involve perceptions of which behaviors are typically&#xA;  approved or disapproved They assist an individual in determining what&#xA;  is acceptable and unacceptable social behavior. This would be the&#xA;  morals of your interpersonal networks and surrounding community .&#xA;  Descriptive norms involve perceptions of which behaviors are typically&#xA;  performed They normally refer to the perception of others' behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-28T13:56:44.507" LastActivityDate="2016-02-16T01:44:59.530" Title="What's the difference between injunctive norms and descriptive norms?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;norms&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6197" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-10T15:24:37.300" Score="5" ViewCount="199" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; In winter, daytime is very short where I live. A few months ago, due to a bad sleeping habit, I had not seen sunlight for almost a month. Then I noticed some strange things had been happening to me for a few days. I wasn't feeling any emotion (especially fear). In addition, ability to distinguish between right and wrong was slowly fading away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does not seeing any sunlight for some number of days affect sense of morality and emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update&lt;/strong&gt;: As I recall, this happened to me 3 times over 4 years of time. But I wasn't aware of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4779" LastEditorUserId="4779" LastEditDate="2014-04-11T05:41:40.357" LastActivityDate="2014-06-11T15:53:14.843" Title="Does not seeing sunlight for several days impair moral judgment and lower mood?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6198" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6197" CreationDate="2014-04-10T17:01:46.240" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes and no. As organisms in environment emotions could be defined as our bodies reaction to our environment so yes if your environment changes then of course your emotions will change. So there's that. However if you're asking what I think you're asking which is for some sort of explanation for the observed changes in your behaviour that have been caused by changes in your environment, then I could try to sound all knowledgeable about this and say &quot;Sure! Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is a well known syndrome etc etc.&quot; However SAD is not an explanation for your condition, it's merely us categorising phenomena and then saying that what we observe is an explanation for what happened, when it's really not, and in fact this act by its very definition is an observation of what happened and not an explanation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to sum up, have you observed changes in your physiology as a result of changes in your environment? Of course, and that's normal. It's almost a statement of the obvious when you think about it. Do we have an explanation for this in terms of psychology? No, not if we're being intellectually honest about it. Personally I'd argue that it's not a psychological problem at all, but a natural bodily reaction to a change in its environment. It just so happens that we as a society have begun to medicalise normal bodily reactions to environmental changes, claimed that because we have them that there is something wrong with us (as opposed to something being wrong with our environment) and started giving them names such as SAD, or anxiety, or depression etc etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4781" LastActivityDate="2014-04-10T17:01:46.240" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6199" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-10T22:49:35.677" Score="2" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed frequently, when in a very stressful situation (particularly emotional stress), I will forget things very quickly. To give an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, I got in a heated argument with a friend. During the fight, a third friend came in and tried to break it up. &quot;What is this about?&quot; he asked. I was about to answer, and then it occurred to me I didn't know. I was still angry, but the information had already escaped my mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have noticed this happen more than once. I asked someone about it, and they said they had had similar experiences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there some hard science to support the idea that stress negatively affects short term memory?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4786" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-11T04:42:27.990" LastActivityDate="2014-04-13T02:27:44.173" Title="Does stress impair your short term memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6200" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-11T09:45:14.153" Score="2" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had a conversation with my colleague about the estimated cost for validating a psychometric test (e.g., personality test in I/O psychology)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How many people should be included and what are they job description?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-23T07:36:49.383" LastActivityDate="2014-04-23T07:36:49.383" Title="What is the estimated cost of validating a psychometric test?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-15T20:20:04.740" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6201" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6199" CreationDate="2014-04-11T09:51:42.810" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can remember experiment where we (in faculty days) induced electro stimulation of middle pain and measure list of words and how much participants will rememember in group with electro stimulation and without it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;group with not induced pain (or stress) remember more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunatelly I cant find research paper for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is neuroscientific explanation why stress cause short time memory loss:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/03/080311182434.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/03/080311182434.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2014-04-11T09:51:42.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6203" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-11T12:35:14.037" Score="2" ViewCount="767" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm aware that all tasks that a person undertakes involve both halves of the brain. At the same time, there are studies of people who have communication between brain halves severed or suppressed and they produce dramatically different drawings of the same object with different hands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me ask - &lt;strong&gt;is there some sort of a (non-FMRI) test that involves drawing or other activity and can:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Determine if one half of the brain is dominant at the given moment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Determine if communication between brain halves is fluctuating over multiple days&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Determine if one half of the brain does not consistently function at the same level of activity?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/jill_bolte_taylor_s_powerful_stroke_of_insight&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ted talk: My stroke of insight&lt;/a&gt;, in which a neuroscientist describes the experience of having a stroke affect one half of her brain, dramatically altering her perception and ability to process real world information. For example she describes being unable to recognize digits in a phone number and &quot;hunting&quot; for the right digit by tracing its shape on the phone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The images below were made using 100% input from one brain half and 0% from the other. &lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if different levels of activity in brain halves, like 100%/50% or 100%/80% or 60%/70% would also create noticeable differences in style.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/F6h1e.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HxTI0.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-08-09T20:49:06.827" Title="Can brain hemisphere activity/ dominance be inferred from the test subject's drawings?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6204" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6199" CreationDate="2014-04-11T14:09:38.903" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not only it does, this phenomenon can be influenced by drugs. Beta-blockers increase memory function under stress, while reboxetine (an NRI antidepressant) actually decreases it! See eg. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16642355&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16642355&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="127" LastActivityDate="2014-04-11T14:09:38.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6205" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3419" CreationDate="2014-04-11T17:57:50.050" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I personally used BRIAN simulator. Its a Python based library specialised in cortical neurons modelling and make network connections. I did my master thesis using it, I also have a published IEEE paper done using it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4792" LastActivityDate="2014-04-11T17:57:50.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6206" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6203" CreationDate="2014-04-11T19:28:31.387" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You say you are &quot;aware that all tasks that a person undertakes involve both halves of the brain&quot;. Then, On what kind of patients would this hypothetical test be suitable as healthy people use both hemisphere and split brain use just one hemisphere depending on the drawing hand ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you refer to healthy patients I don't think such a test is possible.&#xA;For the moment left-brain/right-brain dominance is usually considered as a neuromyth.For example:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- this blog article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-myths/201206/why-the-left-brain-right-brain-myth-will-probably-never-die&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-myths/201206/why-the-left-brain-right-brain-myth-will-probably-never-die&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- or this paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v7/n5/full/nrn1907.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v7/n5/full/nrn1907.html&lt;/a&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe some tests (drawing or whatever) would correlate a bit with partial and short term hemispheric activation with desirable inter-individual differences. But aiming for a test bringing more than that is in my humble opinion vain hopes, as hemispheric dominance on healthy subjects has weak (or no) scientific ground.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4772" LastActivityDate="2014-04-11T19:28:31.387" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6210" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-12T08:55:03.180" Score="0" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;I asked 200 people (who include my friends and family members in age group of 15 to 70 years living in cities) how they feel about time ? Do they feel that the time is passing faster as compared to when they were child? &#xA;95% of those people say that now a days time is passing much faster than lets say 50 years back when they were younger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this an established fact and can be explained using theory of relativity or any other law that time (may be on average) is passing faster &lt;em&gt;now&lt;/em&gt;  as compared to lets say 50 yrs or may be 1000 yrs back?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Or is it only a subjective experience? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="909" OwnerDisplayName="gpuguy" LastActivityDate="2014-04-12T13:03:33.470" Title="Time passing faster now as compared to 50 years (or 1000yrs) back ?" Tags="&lt;time&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2014-04-12T15:00:35.770" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6212" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6210" CreationDate="2014-04-12T09:52:29.700" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is really not physics at all, but I think it can most readily be explained by the fact that people generally experience time as moving faster as they get older. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is because as we age, things that happened a year ago don't seem so distance, because we can also remember things that happened 10 years ago. If you were only 5 years old, something that happened a year ago happened a 5th of your life ago - a huge amount of time compared with your current lifespan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, there is no law that says time passes any slower or faster depending on the age of the (universe) earth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: I have just seen this, a much better answer to the question than mine. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/129/perception-of-time-as-a-function-of-age/&quot;&gt;Perception of time as a function of age&lt;/a&gt; (thanks jinawee)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Nathan Moynihan" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-04-12T09:52:29.700" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6213" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-12T15:01:23.607" Score="6" ViewCount="287" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that the concept of working memory may be subject to discussion. Still, there is a storage capacity limit. This is a real mystery to me. Working memory is known to be positively correlated to various tests (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.genepi.qimr.edu.au/contents/p/staff/CV317.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;IQ for example&lt;/a&gt;). Why did natural selection not grant us a better storage capacity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before asking this question, I read some hypotheses by Cowan: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2864034/#S2title&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Magical Mystery Four: How is Working Memory Capacity Limited, and Why?&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Two camps are presented: capacity-limit-as-weakness and capacity-limit-as-strength.&#xA;Basically the first camp explains this weakness from a neuronal point of view, claiming that keeping many items active is greedy and can cause interference. The second camp pretends that the lesser the number of items accessible is the quicker the cognitive processes are (chunking, searching, etc.). Honestly I don't know what to think. More than that, I don't feel its very convincing. If our neural system has evolved toward some incredibly powerful processing modules and can't even keep 10 items active at the same time, there must be a reason. I am more inclined to think that the capacity limit is a kind of strength somewhere, but I don't feel very convinced by the examples provided in the short passage I mentioned.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do you have any extra arguments for/against any of these theoretical positions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;My preconception is that this limit constrains us to encode the real in the most powerful fashion. In short, we are always forced to learn more complex patterns. Is it relevant or not? Do you have any source which could challenge or back up this view?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4772" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-16T02:52:49.893" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T02:52:49.893" Title="Why is working memory so small?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6214" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6056" CreationDate="2014-04-12T16:08:27.007" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we think of self-awareness as an evolved &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810097903056&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;brain circuit phenomenon&lt;/a&gt;, its existence probably has little dependence on language in particular.  This is evidenced by the fact that &lt;a href=&quot;http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277953602004768?via=sd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Alzheimer patients loss of self-awareness&lt;/a&gt;, as well as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09602010500412830#.U0lmAPldWMM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;changes in self-awareness due to injury&lt;/a&gt; are associated with the frontal lobe.  That's not to say that the self and self-awareness aren't heavily modulated by language (as are most mental constructs!)  There are several non-human &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_test#Animal_species_capable_of_passing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;animals that pass the self-awareness test&lt;/a&gt; but most of them are creatures that many consider to be closer to the intelligence of humans than other animals (namely, great apes, elephants, and dolphins).  Consequentially, many of these animals have also developed methods of communication, though language might be too strong of a word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, such a dependence would imply that the strong version of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Sapir%E2%80%93Whorf_hypothesis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sapir-Whorf hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; has some legitimacy (especially when it comes to the self) but there's been no evidence found in support of the strong version, and most cognitive scientists favor the weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-04-12T16:14:54.113" LastActivityDate="2014-04-12T16:14:54.113" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6217" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6199" CreationDate="2014-04-13T02:27:44.173" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It really depends on the timing of the stressful event, as well as anticipation. From an evolutionary standpoint, &quot;stress&quot; developed for a reason in the context of heightened arousal, attention, preparation for action, etc. Say you encounter a lion in your backyard: Not only will your sympathetic nervous system be on full speed, but several cortices are also geared up to processing what's going on. The idea is that you want to make a quick behavioral response, so inducing stress short term actually facilitates many different processes, including encoding of memory. See the link below for some research on this, I grabbed one that should be open access.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22483973&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22483973&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically short term, acute stress may help encoding of memory, whereas long term, chronic stress not so much. Also consider whether or not you are learning something and then hear a loud human scream in your ear. This may disrupt encoding. So again, it's the timing that is important. And I would say it depends on the type of stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4803" LastActivityDate="2014-04-13T02:27:44.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6175" CreationDate="2014-04-13T02:50:11.073" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have an answer in terms of percentages, but I thought I could offer at least some insight I may have. Really cool question though, never really thought of this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So two ways to go about this answer. For one, when you close your eyes you immediately can register so called alpha waves from an EEG (electroencephalography). This was actually how EEG was first discovered, it's the easiest brain oscillation we can capture through scalp potentials and see with our bare eyes. You find these alpha oscillations at occipital and parietal locations, and are slow waves (8-12Hz). If you compare an alert person in an awake state, and someone who is tired or even deep sleep, you see a difference in oscillatory activity, so more alert higher frequencies (gamma bursts &gt;50Hz) versus asleep slow wave (theta, delta). I may be wrong and this, and someone do correct me if I am, but I would propose that high frequencies would indicate more neuronal activity, whereas low frequencies less so. There is of course a preference in neuronal populations to have a frequency they best oscillate at, so then maybe that hypothesis is out the door. In any case, as soon as you shut your eyes, you get these slower oscillations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But even when your eyes are open and processing visual information, already 100ms later does that information get to other brain areas. So things like ERPs (event related potentials) have shown emotional differences in those waveforms already after 100, 200ms. This indicates that already the brain is processing that stimulus, not JUST the visual cortex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time though, that is only lower-tier visual cortex. Almost the entire back portion of our heads and part of the temporal lobes are all higher order processing. We are very unique among vertebrates for having so much of our brain devoted to visual processing. Most other mammals rely mostly on olfaction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So taken together, I would say that just due to the amount of neuronal mass that is committed to processing visual information, yes a significant amount of the energy budget goes to vision. If you look at fMRI images, you can see the entire occipital cortex light up, only when viewing pictures, as well as other areas talking to the visual cortex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Very cool question, I'm curious if someone has a more accurate prediction of just how much energy it takes for our camera to work!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4803" LastActivityDate="2014-04-13T02:50:11.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6219" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4385" CreationDate="2014-04-13T03:11:15.740" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just wanted to add to the current answers, that this idea of one element of a network results in the entire network becoming active (aka a smell triggers the memory) is thought of as a Hebbian cell assembly. Donald Hebb introduced the idea of &quot;neurons that fire together, wire together&quot;. And with that in becomes easier to think of how one spark (for whatever reason that may be) will activate the whole network, or only the strongest parts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4803" LastActivityDate="2014-04-13T03:11:15.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6220" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5097" CreationDate="2014-04-13T17:13:24.037" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I experience empathy to the extent that it causes massive social phobia and other such problems. Other human beings end up being a constant sort of noise even when they're silent and being around them too often drains me of all my energy, but I don't actually produce my own emotions a lot of the time (or I can't recognize them as well not sure) so being left alone causes me an extreme feeling of emptiness and leads to massive depression. No medical health professionals have ever listened when I've brought it up as a potential problem. They tend to tell me not to worry about it and seek other causes for my anxiety instead of trying to help me learn to cope with it. I would say it's problematic especially in the sense that no one takes it seriously. I mean it's seen as such an unerringly positive thing that normal people cannot possibly imagine it being detrimental in any way but it is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some have named this hyper empathy syndrome, categorized as a personality disorder (NOS)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4807" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-09-25T20:22:26.117" LastActivityDate="2017-09-25T20:22:26.117" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6222" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6224" CreationDate="2014-04-14T01:42:42.660" Score="1" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wearing a pair a 3D glasses. The &lt;strong&gt;left lens&lt;/strong&gt; is &lt;strong&gt;red&lt;/strong&gt; and the &lt;strong&gt;right lens&lt;/strong&gt; is &lt;strong&gt;cyan&lt;/strong&gt;. However, when I take them off, my &lt;strong&gt;left eye&lt;/strong&gt; sees in &lt;strong&gt;cyan&lt;/strong&gt; and my &lt;strong&gt;right eye&lt;/strong&gt; sees in &lt;strong&gt;red&lt;/strong&gt;, the complete opposite of the glasses. Why does this happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4815" LastActivityDate="2014-04-14T03:19:18.433" Title="3D Glasses Aftereffect" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6223" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6225" CreationDate="2014-04-14T03:00:46.800" Score="5" ViewCount="970" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose a human ran across a letter written at a 45 degree angle. How does the brain read this text?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IoGhX.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most people don't often see text written at an angle, so it seems safe to assume that the brain has to do some extra work to recognize the text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess is the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brain tries to read it normally. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brain figures something is wrong because the letter is not a good match to known letters.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brain tries to &quot;fix&quot; the image by mentally rotating it, flipping it, etc., and feeds to &quot;fixed&quot; image back into V2 area of the cortex.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Once the brain finds something that appears to be a letter, the brain stops.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the letter above is pretty ambiguous. It could be a partial &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt; written normally, it could be an &lt;strong&gt;S&lt;/strong&gt; rotated counter-clockwise, or it could be an &lt;strong&gt;n&lt;/strong&gt; rotated clock-wise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2909" LastActivityDate="2014-04-14T03:55:52.010" Title="How does the brain read rotated text?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6222" CreationDate="2014-04-14T03:19:18.433" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opponent-process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Opponent-process theory&lt;/a&gt; explains this.  Here's an excerpt from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opponent_process&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;opponent process page on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; (different page than the opponent-process theory for some reason):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Besides the cones, which detect light entering the eye, the biological basis of the opponent theory involves two other types of cells: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bipolar cells&lt;/a&gt;, and ganglion cells. Information from the cones is passed to the bipolar cells in the retina, which may be the cells in the opponent process that transform the information from cones. The information is then passed to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ganglion cells&lt;/a&gt;, of which there are two major classes: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnocellular_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;magnocellular&lt;/a&gt;, or large-&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cell&lt;/a&gt; layers, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parvocellular&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parvocellular&lt;/a&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://toolserver.org/%7Edispenser/cgi-bin/dab_solver.py?page=Opponent_process&amp;amp;editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/editintro&amp;amp;client=Template:Dn&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;disambiguation needed&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;, or small-cell layers. Parvocellular cells, or P cells, handle the majority of information about color, and fall into two groups: one that processes information about differences between firing of L and M cones, and one that processes differences between S cones and a combined signal from both L and M cones. The first subtype of cells are responsible for processing red–green differences, and the second process blue–yellow differences. P cells also transmit information about intensity of light (how much of it there is) due to their &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptive_field&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;receptive fields&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;citation needed&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This Wikipedia page needs a little work, but it already knows more than I do about the wiring. Basically, in effect, strong and prolonged stimulation of one kind of cone (e.g., the red cone) will gradually build a visual signal of the opposite color (blue in this example). When the (red) stimulus is removed, the opposing signal begins to fade, but remains long enough to produce an opposite-color (blue) illusion or afterimage. Lots of fun optical illusions are based on this principle. It works with all colors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's my favorite example for intro psych classes...stare at the black dot in the center and enjoy!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nE9Tl.gif&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Not sure what the original source for this is BTW. It comes up all over the place with a Google image search, but I haven't found a proper citation yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-04-14T03:19:18.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6225" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6223" CreationDate="2014-04-14T03:55:52.010" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well for one, the first neurons to decode this symbol are orientation neurons, in V1 of the primary visual cortex. So some neurons have enhanced firing for say a 45 degree angle, and neighboring neurons for a 46 degree angle, and so on. Higher up the processing stream groups of neurons respond to shapes, that are a conglomerate of the orientation lines. Then higher order visual cortices will process the seen image, as well as feeding back to the original orientation neurons, fine tuning their processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an example though of something our brains can encode, albeit taking a bit longer because it is out of the ordinary to see it this way. When we see faces, there is an area in the temporal lobe called the fusiform face area (a higher order visual processing area) that becomes particularly active. In EEG recordings, there is a negative component of the event related potential (ERP), the N1. When viewing faces compared to other objects, this N1 component (at 100ms) becomes enhanced in amplitude (more negative) as well as latency. So it has been termed the N170, for occurring later in time at 170ms. When viewing INVERTED faces, this effect becomes even stronger. It has been hypothesized that this is due to the fact that we process faces in a holistic manner, so that when it is inverted, there is a 'lag' in processing speed to figure out this is a face. This has been attributed to a delay in the fusiform face area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize this is not reading, but I think it touches on the concept you're asking about. Our brains are incredibly good at pattern recognition, at filling in the blanks, and decoding reality presented to us from our senses. So I would say yes, there would be a bit of 'extra' work in deciphering the text at an angle. And mind you, we see slanted text all the time, we don't always have our heads and eyes straight ahead! But also, it is strongly context dependent. If other digits or numbers were in combination with this image, we would either see a 5 or S, respectively. It would be a terrible evolutionary adaptation if we couldn't read or process images that were not ideal. A certain amount of interpretation or assumption goes in to perception. That's what is referred to as top-down processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4803" LastActivityDate="2014-04-14T03:55:52.010" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6226" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6263" CreationDate="2014-04-14T05:07:51.090" Score="7" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the papers I've read about it, the Semantic Pointer Architecture (SPA) embodied in &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/spaun.pdf&quot;&gt;Spaun&lt;/a&gt; is said to be more biologically plausible than many other proposed architectures such as the Neural Blackboard Architecture, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACT-R&quot;&gt;ACT-R&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://mind.cog.jhu.edu/faculty/smolensky/050.326-626/Foundations%20Readings%20PDFs/Smolensky&amp;amp;Legendre-2006-Ch2.pdf&quot;&gt;ICS&lt;/a&gt;. However, I was wondering if they had any shared attributes? If this is too broad of a question, which one can SPA considered most similar to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently reading &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith to answer these questions and will post my own answer shortly, but I was hoping for other perspectives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-22T16:32:02.660" LastActivityDate="2018-05-22T16:32:02.660" Title="Common components of other cognitive architectures and the Semantic Pointer Architecture" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="6227" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-14T06:34:16.900" Score="5" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I first saw this video of Spaun and the tasks it can complete (solving the Towers of Hanoi problem, completing the Raven matrices), I was really impressed, but then I realized I didn't really know what other tasks were being completed by other neural architectures. Consequently, I almost asked a question here that was basically &quot;How does Spaun compare in terms of task complexity to other neural architectures?&quot;. However, I realized that it would be better to if I could learn how to do this evaluation myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what metrics or heuristics can be used to evaluate the complexity of a task completed by a neural architecture? How can one evaluate the complexity of a problem/puzzle such at the Tower of Hanoi, to another problem, such as modelling how people solve algebraic equations, like ACT-R has accomplished? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T22:08:49.013" Title="How to compare tasks completed by neural architectures objectively?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6228" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6232" CreationDate="2014-04-14T14:32:45.347" Score="5" ViewCount="1856" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of main characteristics of Five Factor Model is that factors are not orthogonal as in some other personality models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why it is tolerated that those factors are not independent?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it possible to find biological basis if factors are not independent?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-15T07:51:37.537" LastActivityDate="2020-06-01T06:54:02.223" Title="Why are the Big Five factors of personality correlated?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6229" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-14T14:33:11.750" Score="9" ViewCount="402" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any scientific evidence to support the idea that you only have so much cognitive energy in a given day; and if so, would the mental abilities of someone who focuses on as little as possible all day be greater than someone who stays engaged all day long?  Can the brain experience fatigue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's book &lt;em&gt;Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience&lt;/em&gt; (1990), he says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;At this point in our scientific knowledge we are on the verge of being&#xA;  able to estimate how much information the central nervous system is&#xA;  capable of processing. It seems we can manage at most seven bits of&#xA;  information - such as differentiated sounds, or visual stimuli, or&#xA;  recognizable nuances of emotion of thought - at any one time, and that&#xA;  the shortest time it takes to discriminate between one set of bits and&#xA;  another is about 1/18 of a second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He goes on to infer that &quot;psychic energy&quot; should be invested and shouldn't be wasted. At least, this was my interpretation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4347" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-15T08:07:25.883" LastActivityDate="2020-07-21T18:18:37.957" Title="Does limiting mental activity during the day increase mental performance later in the day?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6230" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6235" CreationDate="2014-04-14T18:10:18.930" Score="3" ViewCount="1145" Body="&lt;p&gt;A (former) friend of mine shows lots of symptoms of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychopathic disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Years later after we both met the last time, I'm still not sure whether he is/was aware of this disorder or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So my question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is a person with potentially psychopathic behaviour aware of why he behaves like he does or not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plus: If he &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; aware, do such persons usually suffer from that knowledge/disorder or like it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1199" LastActivityDate="2014-05-02T03:35:31.553" Title="Is a person with a psychopathic disorder aware of it?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6231" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6230" CreationDate="2014-04-14T18:58:27.433" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes they are aware.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example a manic-depressive is mostly aware of having a psychological problem during his depressive phases, but will usually perceive himself well while manic. Schizophrenics often understand that they have delusions, but many of them can only understand this while they are in a non-delusional phase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sadists are often aware of being deviant, but usually enjoy what they do. Manics don't suffer either, but feel grandiose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oops, I read &quot;psychiatric disorder&quot; instead of psychopathy. So obviously most of what I wrote is beside the point here. Read what I wrote about sadists and ignore the rest. Sorry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Working in a psychiatric ward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-04-14T18:58:27.433" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6232" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6228" CreationDate="2014-04-14T20:43:03.190" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are no personality models in which the factors are orthogonal in the strict sense of being at 90 degrees from one another, unless an orthogonal rotation method is used to extract them. I think you meant to say that the Big Five factors are less independent (or more strongly inter-correlated) relative to the factors in other models. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether or not one wants to obtain orthogonal factors depends on what one is trying to achieve. In most cases, you want an orthogonal solution if you want simple structure, i.e. you want to figure out which factor indicators unambiguously cluster together to form a relatively independent factor. But in general, factors are allowed to correlate because that just happens to be the &quot;reality&quot; and there is no theory suggesting that they should be completely independent. There are of course plenty of reasons why relatively independent factors might correlate and it doesn't mean that biological bases cannot be found; it could mean that there are biological bases that are shared among traits and there are those that are unique to each trait. For example, the relationship between Openness and Extraversion could in part be due to shared genes related to exploration (I forget the source for this). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3077" LastActivityDate="2014-04-14T20:43:03.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6233" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-14T20:58:02.353" Score="3" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;What motivates you towards choosing the career/job orientation you have chosen? Discuss and explain with reference to three of the motivational theories discussed during the course&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm used to writing more scientific essays in the field of psychology, but I am finding some difficulty introducing and maintaining this assignment with a more subjective approach. We are expected to keep with APA rules and formatting and stick to a scientific method of writing. Yet if I am to write a theoretical paper, how am I to keep the focus on what motivates me personally?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4826" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-15T07:34:05.370" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T04:27:02.730" Title="How to apply different motivational theories to understand career orientation?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6234" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-14T21:45:42.613" Score="3" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most studies that I know of use yellow text on blue background (though with different hues). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This choice is mostly motivated by tradition (&quot;We always did it like that. Never touch a running system&quot;). But is this combination really the best one? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found a number of studies about color combinations and readability. Some suggest that black text on white background is the best, others say white on blue, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine that there are specific requirements for EEG studies as they are regularly run in dim lit rooms. So a completely bright white screen maybe not the best idea, I think. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It surely does make a difference if the task is dependent on, e.g., quick word recognition or reading a short story. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what about flat screens vs. CRT screens? Are there different optimal color combinations for these screen types?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any general optimal combination? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4827" LastActivityDate="2014-04-15T02:43:30.213" Title="What is the optimal combination of text and background color for EEG experiments?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6235" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6230" CreationDate="2014-04-14T22:08:08.900" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is important for us not to mix up the two words psychopathy and psychosis...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term “psychosis” has its roots in the ancient Greek words for an aberration or abnormality (osis) of the mind or soul (psyche). Thus, the psychotic mind is literally a mind that has stopped functioning normally. A psychotic person has  lost the capacity to think and behave rationally, and this usually results in greatly impaired contact with reality. The most typical manifestations of psychosis are bizarre and false beliefs (delusions), and unusual or false perceptions (hallucinations?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certain mental illnesses are commonly associated with psychotic states, especially schizophrenia, and less frequently, bipolar disorder. Their brains are malfunctioning in such a way that they have lost the capacity to correctly judge things in their environment and to relate to others in a coherent, rational fashion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, the term “psychopathy” was first used in the early 19th century to describe a pathology of personality characterized by an extreme lack of empathy that leads to guiltless and remorseless use and abuse of others. Shallow emotions, a chilling lack of fear, extreme manipulativeness, frequent and seemingly nonsensical lying, and behavioral irresponsibility are common, as is the tendency to display superficial charm.But, although psychopaths have a world view greatly aberrant compared to most, they are neither out of contact with reality nor incapable of rational thought. In fact, their thinking is often distinctly rational and goal-oriented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With that said I'm going to go ahead and assume that you were of course referring to psychopathy in your question, and tell you that virtually all psychopaths know early on in life that they're different from other people. Perhaps not to the extend of knowing about their disorder, but they are in touch with reality and can definitely be able to notice certain differences between themselves and other people such as differences in emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4826" LastActivityDate="2014-04-14T22:08:08.900" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6236" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5060" CreationDate="2014-04-14T22:17:03.617" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just a few words on mnemonics before answering your question. I have been practicing for two years. First because I was impressed how easy it was to remember items using these techniques. My personal best time for learning the order of 52 cards is 1min 40s, which is not really good compared to real competitors, but the point is that practicing 30min a day during 3 months can be enough to get this kind of performances. Of course to do that you have to &lt;strong&gt;learn a code that binds numbers or cards to predefined images&lt;/strong&gt;. I can't be more specific because I would risk to be off topic.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However don't expect too much from these techniques concerning &lt;strong&gt;real world knowledge&lt;/strong&gt;. With training you can learn fast as hell a list of words, but learning more semantic knowledge is - I think - more challenging. If you find good images, It can provides you a perfect recall, but you would need &lt;strong&gt;spaced repetition&lt;/strong&gt; to ensure it on the long term. If you don't repeat, you take the risk to loose everything you learned, more than with classic methods I think. Unfortunately, I don't have many sources apart from my experience and experiences of friends to back up this claim. However, I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.520&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a study by Wang et al. (1992)&lt;/a&gt; cited &lt;a href=&quot;http://marker.to/XVMEI9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;in part 7 of an interesting review on learning techniques&lt;/a&gt; by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dunlosky et al. (2013)&lt;/a&gt; which found this effect on the use of mental imagery on vocabulary learning. There is no absolute proof that mnemonic techniques can  work for everything, but (1) it's interesting to see how it works (2) it is funny, especially memory palace building (3) if you spend enough time to learn a code, you can learn phone numbers, credit cards, poker odds and things like that very easily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concerning your practical questions, a good approach would be to check how the community proceeds to use mnemonic strategies. Have a look on &lt;a href=&quot;http://mnemotechnics.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the Mnemotechnics Forum on ArtOfMemory.com&#xA;&lt;/a&gt; for example or their &lt;a href=&quot;http://mnemotechnics.org/wiki&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt;. I think you would get more reliable advices than in books. For example the peg technique you mention (i.e. loci object in your words) is clearly less popular than the &lt;strong&gt;use of real place as locis&lt;/strong&gt;. It has two main advantages :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It provides a good organization (your list order follows the spatial order of your locis). Then to remember your list, you just have to do a mental travel. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It is easier to store an image in a place, no need to find specific association, just picture your mental object like if it were really in your loci and let the magic happen.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, to answer your question, you really just need to memorize &lt;strong&gt;1 thing&lt;/strong&gt; : the images. Loci are just a powerful way to retrieve these images, like a storing device. Images are chosen to be firmly tied up with the item you want to learn so you don't have to spend time to learn the association you made. &#xA;Images don't have to be '&lt;strong&gt;absolutely bizzare&lt;/strong&gt;', it makes things more memorable but it's not an absolute condition. Trying to prove this, a study found no effect for learning a list of words, but I don't have the reference now. Same remarks for the stories. It makes things more memorable, and can provide you some links between the images, but again it's not an absolute condition. Moreover, &lt;strong&gt;stories&lt;/strong&gt; can be very short, like a simple action or context linking the image 1 and the image 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You should not waste time and energy on creating associations. On the opposite, you should relax and let them come to your mind, and take the first things popping up. This kind of creativity is not a sort of adult-creativity for which time and work is needed, but rather a sort of child-creativity for which you just have to let your imagination take the control of your thoughts. It should not be a painful task, on the contrary, &lt;strong&gt;you should get some fun&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Wang, A. Y., Thomas, M. H., &amp;amp; Ouellette, J. A. (1992). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.520&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Keyword mnemonic and retention of second-language vocabulary words.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 520.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., &amp;amp; Willingham, D. T. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4772" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-08-14T12:33:55.713" LastActivityDate="2014-08-14T12:33:55.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6237" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6233" CreationDate="2014-04-15T02:05:17.023" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming the specific case of being &quot;motivated towards a career&quot; rather then simply getting a job to make ends meet, there can be several factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social status is probably the most common pursuit of a career.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Enjoyment, which is the ideal reason for pursuing a career. Usually a career sought for enjoyment is referred to as 'pursuing one's dream'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Proximity (a.k.a. convenience) is another driving factor. Which could also be considered the &quot;path of least resistance&quot;. An example of this is following in your parents' footsteps. Another example could be someone's part-time job turning into a full-time career.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Addition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found these two article which describes the work of John Holland and his theory of career choice. (not the scientific essay as requested in the comments but perhaps with more time I, or someone else, could elaborate on this topic further. It is definitely a good one)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mr-personality/201106/the-psychology-career-choices-why-personality-matters&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mr-personality/201106/the-psychology-career-choices-why-personality-matters&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.careerkey.org/choose-a-career/hollands-theory-of-career-choice.html#.U04FZfldXh5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.careerkey.org/choose-a-career/hollands-theory-of-career-choice.html#.U04FZfldXh5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4809" LastEditorUserId="4809" LastEditDate="2014-04-16T04:27:02.730" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T04:27:02.730" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6238" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6234" CreationDate="2014-04-15T02:43:30.213" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are you trying to measure something specific to the stimulus you are presenting or is it just a matter of displaying text on a screen where what you are measuring is unrelated to the text per se?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, experiments I run depend on the stimulus presentation. We are targeting a certain visual pathway, so for example one stimulus is red/green and high contrast, the other black/white and low contrast, both on a black background. We have also run on a grey background as that can be easier for the eyes. And we also have dim lit rooms, to help amplify the signal or even lights off. Also, the stimuli are flickering at a high rate so we use a LCD monitor with a refresh rate of 120hz. We used to use CRT monitors though as the black color is blacker there then newer monitors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It just depends on why you need to optimize it. Is it for a true signal you are recording? Or simply comfort and ease for the participant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it is simply for comfort, I would recommend no color, but grey background and black letters, and dimmed lights. If the contrast is too high, such as black background and white letters, this could be a strain to read over time. There is no gold standard. It's according to what your needs are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4803" LastActivityDate="2014-04-15T02:43:30.213" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6239" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6233" CreationDate="2014-04-15T07:43:14.333" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Much of the scientific literature in psychology is concerned with proposing and empirically testing theories. However, if you are a practitioner you are interested in how you can apply these ideas to achieve applied goals. This requires that you understand the support for various scientific ideas and that you are able to apply them to a specific situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_characteristic_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Job Characteristics Model&lt;/a&gt;. This model suggests that five core job characteristics (i.e., skill  variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) tend to increase motivation (among other outcomes and mediating processes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, you could apply such a theory to make decisions about career choices. For example, all else being equal you might evaluate career choices by the degree to which they allow for autonomy, use of meaningful skill, and so on. Or you could use the ideas to think about how you could modify your position to make it more motivating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or take another example, of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Codes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Holland's Codes&lt;/a&gt; which provides a scheme for understanding individual differences in vocational preference. You could use this to think about what particular jobs you might find more motivating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And of course there are many theories directly concerned with understanding &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;motivational processes&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-16T03:31:47.370" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T03:31:47.370" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6240" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6228" CreationDate="2014-04-15T08:03:14.957" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This previous answer talks about evidence for a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/2015/what-is-the-support-for-a-global-personality-factor/2019#2019&quot;&gt;global or possibly two factor model partially explaining the correlations between the Big 5&lt;/a&gt;. In general this global factor may reflect some form of positive, well-being, social adjustment type variance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, having orthogonal factors is desirable from a parsimony perspective. It's useful when predicting other outcome variables. However, orthogonality is not the only criteria. in fact many psychological scales are explicitly hierarchical with global scales  accompanied by correlated subscales (e.g., many cognitive measures; the facets in the NEO-PI-R, etc). As @AlexR notes factor analysis can force an orthogonal rotation, but this  doesn't mean that scales formed by summing corresponding items yield uncorrelated scales.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard it said that the Big 5 is too complex to have a natural mapping to biological processes. That said, height and weight are correlated and they certainly have a biological basis. So orthogonality is not a requirement. And twin studies support the observation that personality has a fairly large heritable component. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T03:32:47.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6241" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-15T09:54:50.727" Score="2" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does taking SSRI and antipsychotic result in cognitive dysfunctions?  What should happen to restore the Cognitive functions like problem solving skills, thinking, memory? What are the most effective ways either medication or program?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3733" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-04-16T12:07:12.587" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T12:07:12.587" Title="SSRI and Antipsychotic Effect on Cognitive Functions" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T21:55:10.727" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6242" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6213" CreationDate="2014-04-15T13:16:16.770" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a huge amount of perspectives you could take in answering a question like this, but I would like to approach it from the perspective of dual process theories (see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Evans, 2008 Annual Review paper&lt;/a&gt; for an outline). I'm not going to reference this answer much beyond that, because almost all the information is adapted from this review, with some explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's any number of specific dual process theories, but they all state that cognition is divided between type 1 processes, which are fast, parallel, automatic, implicit, and generally don't vary between people, and type 2 processes, which are slow, serial, controlled, explicit, and crucially, &lt;strong&gt;rely on working memory&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The evolutionary side to this is type 1 processes are the specialized, domain specific evolved functions of our brain to deal with specific problems, like predicting the destination of moving objects, recognising faces, or figuring out how similar lions are to tigers. Type 2 processes (i.e. working memory), on the other hand, are domain general, in that they can be flexibly applied to any domain, rather than just the task they evolved to solve, but &lt;em&gt;this flexibility comes at cost of limited capacity, increased mental effort, and so slower processing&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This limitation is referred to in the dual process literature as 'the singularity principle' (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17048720&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Evans, 2006&lt;/a&gt;) - system one, by processing in parallel, can deal with an incredible amount of information at the same time (and needs to, because it takes care of the basic functions that keep us alive from day to day), while the slower type 2 processes can only actively process one piece of information at a time (but can keep &quot;7 plus or minus 2&quot; &quot;chunks&quot; of information in mind if they don't have to be manipulated; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.comp.dit.ie/dgordon/Courses/ILT/ILT0003/TheMagicalNumberSevenPlusOrMinusTwo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Miller, 1956&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...By analogy, think of the difference between the old-fashioned telephone in your house, which was designed for only one function, and so performs it perfectly, with minimal resources, and a smartphone, which can theoretically perform any computational or communicative function, but occasionally disconnects your calls for no apparent reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Some References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evans, J. S. B. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 59, 255-278.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evans, J. S. B. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 59, 255-278.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological review, 63(2), 81.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-04-15T13:16:16.770" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6243" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3361" CreationDate="2014-04-15T15:03:02.993" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From split brain studies I find it might be possible that the right and left hemisphere differences are caused from reading top down left to right. So perhaps learning a written language that reads right to left would prove beneficial. But from what I found walking also increases the corpus callosum. But walking is found to benefit the brain density in general. Also Einstein did have an enlarged corpus callosum and did take violin lessons when he was young, which reconfirms the idea previously mentioned. I think perhaps the sports tennis ping pong and golf might help as well. Along with compassion meditation. My reason for this is because they have the fastest brain waves of any other activities excluding drugs, but needs to take 15 years to build up from practice. People who lived very long have also played tennis, although it is just one person who comes to mind, it might still be pertinent. The longest lived American woman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4830" LastActivityDate="2014-04-15T15:03:02.993" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6247" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9826" CreationDate="2014-04-16T07:27:05.067" Score="10" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the first chapter of the book &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot;, Chris Eliasmith quickly establishes some criteria which he will use to evaluate Spaun, the cognitive system described in the book. He describes them in great detail in Chapter 8, but below is my attempt at summarizing them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;1. Representational Structure&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Systematicity&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The system should connect concepts in an inter-connected way and understand there are classes of concepts, since human thought is systematic. For example, given &lt;code&gt;blue ball&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;red square&lt;/code&gt;, it should be possible for the system to reason about the concept of &lt;code&gt;blue square&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Compositionality&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concepts should be created off of the combination of concepts to the degree supported by real cognitive systems. For example, given the concepts of &lt;code&gt;pet&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;fish&lt;/code&gt;, it should be possible to reason about the novel concept &lt;code&gt;pet fish&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Productivity&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The system should be able to create many representation based off of a few basic representations to the degree supported by real cognitive systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Massive Binding Problem&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The system should identify a binding operation that scales well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;2. Performance Concerns&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Syntactic generalization&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ability to exploit the structure of language regardless of content.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Robustness&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Losing a few neurons or being exposed to noise shouldn't break the system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Adaptability&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You should be able to use a single system for multiple task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Memory&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The system should be able to show the relation to the various types of memory (working, long-term).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Scalability&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Large portions of the brain should be modeled and able to complete a wide variety of tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;3. Scientific merit&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Triangulation&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Contact with the most sources of experimental data as possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Compactness&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good theories can be stated compactly and without ad-hoc additions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He explains in the chapter that this is actually a synthesis of various other criteria proposed by various authors. Although the scientific merit seems rather straightforward to me and has been elaborated upon on great length, the other criteria I am less certain about in terms of completeness and acceptance. Have attempts at unified criteria been made before? Are there more complete criteria? Are these criteria at odds with any other ideas about what a cognitive system should embody?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-01-19T17:44:56.770" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T01:31:21.177" Title="Criteria for evaluating cognitive systems" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6248" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-16T08:34:55.803" Score="5" ViewCount="954" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_D._Burns&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;David Burns&lt;/a&gt; in his self-help book about overcoming depression, anxiety and interpersonal problems called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Feeling_Good_Handbook&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Feeling Good Handbook&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;¹ states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...neurotic anxiety results from distorted thoughts that have little to no basis in reality. If you are having a panic attack, you may believe that something terrible will happen if you let your anxiety get out of hand. You might think you'll pass out from a stroke or have a heart attack or go crazy. Although these fears seem legitimate, they're quite unrealistic because: (1) Anxiety &lt;em&gt;never&lt;/em&gt; causes strokes or heart attacks. (2) Most people who are afraid of passing out during a panic attack have never once passed out when in a state of panic. In fact, you &lt;em&gt;cannot&lt;/em&gt; pass out during a panic attack because your heart is beating rapidly and pumping extra blood to the brain. (3) Panic attacks never lead to insanity or loss of control. You are worrying about something that's blatantly unrealistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a revelation to me. Is it true that it is impossible for a panic attack to cause heart attacks? black-outs? insanity? If there are exceptions, how are they explained? Does this extend to all forms of anxiety, fears and phobias, not only panic attacks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;¹ Part III “Feeling confident: how to conquer anxiety, fears, and phobias”, Chapter 11: “Understanding anxiety”, page 212.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="961" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T08:50:16.863" Title="Can anxiety cause a heart attack, black-out or insanity?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6249" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6248" CreationDate="2014-04-16T08:50:16.863" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently we had and interesting symposium on stres, anxiety and psychoimunology.&#xA;Guest were psychologists from UCLA stresslab&#xA;In this website: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uclastresslab.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.uclastresslab.org/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;you can find a bunch of researches which conect various human mental conditions (including anxiety) with interkulin 6 and cortisol. Those two supstances are conected to hearth attack and other diseases.&#xA;I hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T08:50:16.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6250" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6228" CreationDate="2014-04-16T13:33:36.827" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to answer this question from a mathematical point of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The word &quot;openness&quot; means something that is real and correlated with some other aspects. Let's assume a 3 dimensional space. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we would like to choose the other dimensions as perpendicular to this first one, we could simply define them by their correlation with the first one being 0.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The definition is mathematic. Given a vector finding ortogonal ones means finding something that could exist or not in the nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given 5 dimensions which are correlated and really exists (i.e. the big five traits), we could easily find a new space made by one real dimension and 4 dimension ortogonal to the first one &lt;strong&gt;which doesn't exist in the reality&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then we could project every person analisys from the Big Five Space to the second perfectly orthogonal space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Every dimension of the second space could be also defined as a mix of the dimensions of the first space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could ask for a better answer here but I hope something of what I said was clear. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/382195/translation-an-orthogonal-transformation&quot;&gt;https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/382195/translation-an-orthogonal-transformation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:19:23.180" LastActivityDate="2014-04-16T13:33:36.827" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6251" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11054" CreationDate="2014-04-16T20:26:46.850" Score="3" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read some articles and science papers about Parkinson's disease and found out that many patients often have cognitive difficulties, if not all of them. For memory difficulty, medications to treat Alzheimer's are used, but is there something for other cognitive difficulties, e.g., for focus and executive dysfunction? No medication was mentioned in some papers I've read, so I wonder if there is any medication that helps with those problems at the moment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, what is the actual damage in the brain after having Parkinson's for about 15 years? Is memory irreversibly damaged, i.e., can't be retrieved with medications?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-04-18T22:12:17.287" LastActivityDate="2019-06-08T02:47:48.517" Title="Is there any treatment for cognitive difficulties of patients with Parkinson's disease?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6252" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-17T06:14:51.050" Score="2" ViewCount="1357" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have to design my own psychometric test to measure a construct. I have a construct, but part of the requirement is to include a rationale for the number of items in the instrument, which I don't know how to justify. Also, using a Likert scale, I have to justify why I am using a 5-point Likert scale. It would be great to have some literature to refer to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4845" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-17T07:09:04.803" LastActivityDate="2014-04-17T07:54:03.723" Title="How many items do I need to design a measure?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6252" CreationDate="2014-04-17T07:54:03.723" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cross Validated has plenty of info on this topic; arguably it's a duplicate of some question over there. Check out &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/10/32036&quot;&gt;Under what conditions should Likert scales be used as ordinal or interval data?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and my synopsis of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.statpt.com/correlation/bollen_barb_1981.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bollen and Barb &lt;sup&gt;(1981)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; in &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/a/86959/32036&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;. If you have more to say about why this is a question specific to Cognitive Sciences (beyond the presumable involvement of subjective judgments and self-reporting on attitudes), you should say it; I might be able to add unique substance to this answer. (BTW, there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale#References&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;plenty of literature out there&lt;/a&gt; on this question. Frankly, I'd guess you haven't tried very hard in looking for yourself. If you have, you could also improve answers by noting what you know so far.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for non-unique substance that mostly approaches the problem from a statistical perspective, consider what you'll probably want to do once you have the data. If your theory of your latent construct is typical, you probably want to estimate individuals' scores on a continuous dimension, not just rank people. I.e., you probably want to be able to say how different one person is from another, not just who ranks higher and how many people are between them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic problem with Likert scales is that they don't really allow you to do this inherently. E.g., the difference between ratings &lt;code&gt;3&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; isn't necessarily the same as the difference between &lt;code&gt;2&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;3&lt;/code&gt; even if you use exactly opposite anchors like &lt;code&gt;2&lt;/code&gt;/&lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt;$=$&lt;code&gt;dis&lt;/code&gt;/&lt;code&gt;agree&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;3&lt;/code&gt; is given a completely neutral anchor. Therefore you can't really assume the sum of a few items has this property (interval-level measurement, basically) if you just treat these ratings as numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another halfway decent place to start reading is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_test_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's classical test theory (CTT) page&lt;/a&gt;. This might not be the gentlest introduction to the underlying issues, but it's probably nicer than sending you straight to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Item_response_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IRT&lt;/a&gt;. IMO, that's where one ultimately has to go to understand latent dimension estimation in terms of thresholds between Likert scale points...but if you can satisfy CTT assumptions, you can avoid a lot of complexity, which I assume you want to do, for better or worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bollen and Barb &lt;sup&gt;(1981)&lt;/sup&gt; demonstrate that Likert scales with $\ge5$ rating options can be treated like interval measures without weakening correlations too terribly much, but more is diminishingly better. Fewer simplifies the rating task somewhat in general, but can sometimes make it harder for respondents with nuanced opinions that can't be reflected accurately with fewer options...and either way, it costs you info. Conversely, having tons of options might start to elicit arbitrary noise rather than meaningfully distinct responses...so consider whether additional options actually mean something different from existing ones. If they do, you're probably not going to do any harm by adding them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another technical issue for which I have no better reference than my former advisor (he never told me where he read it): more scale options tends to increase the size of the general factor (in a factor-analytic sense). I suspect this has something to do with response biases like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquiescence_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;acquiescence bias&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_desirability_bias#Other_response_styles&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;extreme response style&lt;/a&gt;. If you know what you're doing, you can control for &quot;nuisance factors&quot; like these, but it's advanced stats. See &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/2374/32036&quot;&gt;Factor analysis of questionnaires composed of Likert items&lt;/a&gt;&quot; for more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the number of items, it depends somewhat on similar concerns: your abilities to approximate and estimate a continuous dimension, and your ability to differentiate items meaningfully. A minimum of three items are necessary for statistically meaningful estimation of latent factor scores (this may be true of latent score $(\theta)$ estimation using IRT as well; I'm not sure, but I think it should be). Two doesn't permit identification of a unique solution in factor analysis – there's no indication of how to weigh your two items as measures of any common factor(s). If you're trying to measure more than one latent construct (or trying to separate out nuisance factors from your construct of interest), you'll need at least one item for each that only really measures that construct, and three that measure each. That's only four items for two correlated constructs, but six for two unrelated constructs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, more items is generally better for the sake of approximating and estimating a continuous latent dimension...but if you're just going to sum or average Likert ratings, you're implicitly assuming that all items measure the latent construct equally well, or that their inequalities at least balance out overall. Therefore you don't want to just add more items if they're going to be substantially worse, unless you're willing to do some nontrivial statistical work to sort them out properly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also hesitate to add overly duplicative items, because that could encourage inattentive responding and thus engender both arbitrary noise and (more) systematic bias. Using semantic opposites might be defensible: e.g., 1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://video.adultswim.com/tim-and-eric-awesome-show-great-job/tumblers.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tumblers are better than pumpers&lt;/a&gt;; 2) Pumpers are better than tumblers...? This can help manage acquiescence bias if it's done properly, but it can also irk respondents and introduce nuisance multidimensionality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Multidimensionality is yet another problem that can arise with too many items...but again, it's not necessarily a problem if you know what you're doing statistically. There are ways of separating factors of interest from others that might influence responses if you have enough items. If you or someone else might actually figure out how to do this someday (it's not THAT hard), it's better to have the items from the outset than to have to add or change them later, because you probably want to maintain a consistent stimulus across all data you collect over the long-term life of the measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if it's important to keep it simple for the sake of avoiding complex calculation or for the sake of reducing respondent fatigue (yet another source of inattentive responding, noise, and bias), you might want to limit yourself to 10–20 short, clearly-phrased, single-idea items. Some questionnaires have 100–500 items, but that requires some serious compensation for a participant's time and concentration; people do not like to think that hard for that long. Consider the concerns of your target population and any distracting elements in your response collection scenario, and try piloting your first draft of the test with a few people to see how it comes across and whether it takes as long to complete as you think it should. Several stages of revision aren't uncommon when this is done properly, but improper practice isn't uncommon either, nor is it much easier to fail completely than it is to pull it off perfectly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2014-04-17T07:54:03.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6256" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6257" CreationDate="2014-04-18T02:49:16.643" Score="1" ViewCount="529" Body="&lt;p&gt;How would a two-halved brain work? If it would, could we still control things like motion, and would hearing, vision, and other senses still function?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4808" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-04-18T22:09:41.800" LastActivityDate="2014-04-22T13:45:13.623" Title="What would happen if we cut the corpus callosum?" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6257" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6256" CreationDate="2014-04-18T03:10:39.547" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basically the same as a normal two-halved brain. Circumstances in which function is altered are fairly limited. For details, see case reports on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's split-brain page&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/lfGwsAdS9Dc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this episode of Scientific American Frontiers that features Mike Gazzaniga's research&lt;/a&gt;, as mentioned &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5459/4086&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. Gazzaniga's research was reviewed in a Nature news feature (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/the-split-brain-a-tale-of-two-halves-1.10213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wolman, 2012&lt;/a&gt;), which you may also find helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, yes to all questions of control, except maybe hearing...not sure how we control that normally, other than in terms of attention (see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/6051/4086&quot;&gt;Do we only hear what we want to hear?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;), which still operates normally AFAIK. Control breaks down unusually in mostly special circumstances where stimuli are presented to only one side of the brain. Both ears usually hear most sounds, and both eyes' fields of vision overlap quite a lot, so these circumstances need to be created experimentally to demonstrate really clear effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-04-18T03:10:39.547" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6258" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-18T06:17:05.190" Score="2" ViewCount="1239" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in human emotion. Particularly, we have many words for different emotions, such as love, hate, etc. The issue arises that I have not found words for some of the emotions I've heard my friends describe and which I too have felt. These feelings do not appear to be accessible to everybody, because I have spoken with numerous people and only two of them so far have not met me with a blank stare or tried to fit my description to commonly described emotions like 'love' or 'anger'. Generally, the emotions are much more complex than the behaviours those words entail&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, one of these feelings is the sensation of something missing, the sensation that there's more to life, and which embodies itself as a sense of vague, omnipresent dissatisfaction. Both I and a friend of mine have had this sensation and when we are happy, it is still there. If we think about it, it easily sobers the sensation of happiness, but at the same time, it is 'deeper', for lack of a better term, than standard emotion because it does not exclude other emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another such emotion, which does not seem to have a name is one I have experienced. It is a strong sensation of attachment to a girl who I used to date. We broke up, but remained friends, and I weathered through the resentment to keep the friendship because she thinks in a similar way to me. The sensation is very strong and brings to mind the idea that, regardless of what happens, I want her to be happy, whether we date again, remain friends, or become strangers. It is not an urge or compulsion to action, and like the sense of dissatisfaction, is omnipresent. It is also not linked to her presence or absence. Perhaps empathy or respect is the best word for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious about the terminology for sensations that exist only in relation to a mental concept and nothing tangible. Largely, it seems that language is inadequate to convey feelings of this kind, but I'm intensely interested in the terminology that may exist for these sensations. There are more of them, and they generally correspond to simpler emotions and concepts, but they have a very distinct and complex nature when compared to both the sensations and behaviours associated with those simple emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there words to communicate these feelings without grossly simplifying and misrepresenting them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4850" LastActivityDate="2014-04-19T06:33:45.030" Title="Terminology for deep-seated feelings?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6259" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5975" CreationDate="2014-04-18T15:50:00.680" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The so-called glymphatic system, pump washing the brain with cerebrospinal fluid during sleep, has already been mentioned in answer to the SE question &quot;Do you need to sleep every night?&quot; It seems more than just a memory cleanup process as if on a computer, but &quot;has significant implications for treating 'dirty brain diseases like Alzheimer's&quot; and understanding it &quot;is a critical first step in efforts to modulate this system and make it work more efficiently&quot; (Maiken Nedergaard). That should go towards answering Q2, at least if such interventions take place in the waking state at the experimental stage. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another recent report concerns brain cells known as microglia, which also play a role in mopping up neurotoxic brain waste such as beta-amyloids.  In addition they monitor the growth of synapses and prune connections between neurons so that the brain can refine its circuits and conserve resources, particularly during adolescence. Relevant maybe, as this is a period in life known for prolonged sleep. Some research on mice suggests a preference on the part of microglia for carrying out their work when the organism is in darkness. Hyperactive microglia however are conjectured to be implicated in Alzheimer's by stripping too many synapses when these are inadvertently tagged by the brain for destruction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;To Sleep, Perchance to Clean. Study* reveals brain takes out the trash while we sleep&quot; University of Rochester News Room 17 Oct 2013&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Nedergaard M (corresponding author) et al &quot;Sleep drives metabolite clearance from the adult brain&quot; Science 18 Oct 2013&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The Mind Minders - a fertile, flexible brain couldn't live without its roving band of caretakers&quot;. New Scientist, 12 Oct 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4536" LastActivityDate="2014-04-18T15:50:00.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6260" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="660" CreationDate="2014-04-18T16:21:42.683" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As mentioned in the other comments, ANOVA is problematic when mixing types of predictor variables. (Generalized) mixed effects models are gaining popularity these days and actually provide a very convenient way for modelling such things. A paper demonstrating the efficacy of this approach as well as giving a tutorial-like introduction is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Davidson, D. J. und A. E. Martin (2013). Modeling accuracy as a function of response time with the generalized linear mixed effects model. Acta Psychologica, 144:83– 96.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/25548/analysis-of-speed-accuracy-tradeoff-in-lmer&quot;&gt;related post&lt;/a&gt; on CrossValidated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3670" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2014-04-18T22:39:39.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6261" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6258" CreationDate="2014-04-18T17:53:43.387" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can only provide a vocabulary with which someone else may answer your second question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you would like to ground the emotion you feel towards your ex, you would do well to explore attachment theory, and particularly adult attachment. Attachment relationships can be modeled as a location on a two dimension spectrum (low vs. high anxiety, low vs. high avoidance). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TqwpQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;Spectrum of different Attachment Styles&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These relationship-specific characteristics help individuate the operation of your attachment system:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KGQv9.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;A Control System model of your Attachment System&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good way to diagnose whether your relationship with this girl involves the attachment system is given by Fraley &amp;amp; Shaver (taken from [ 1 ]):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;First, an attachment bond is marked by the tendency for an individual&#xA;  to remain in close contact with the attachment figure. Second, an&#xA;  attachment figure is used as a safe haven during times of illness,&#xA;  danger, or threat. In other words, the attached individual uses the&#xA;  attachment figure as a haven of safety, protection, and support.&#xA;  Third, an attachment figure is relied on as a secure base for&#xA;  exploration. The presence of the attachment figure promotes feelings&#xA;  of security and confidence, thereby facilitating uninhibited and&#xA;  undistracted exploration. These methods instruct people to nominate&#xA;  one or more individuals whom they use as (a) a target for proximity&#xA;  maintenance, (b) a safe haven, and (c) a secure base. According to&#xA;  Hazan et al.'s cross-sectional research, children primarily nominate&#xA;  their parents for these roles or functions, but adolescents and adults&#xA;  tend to nominate their peers (close friends or romantic partners).&#xA;  According to Hazan et al.'s model, the three functions are serially&#xA;  transferred from one attachment figure, or set of attachment figures,&#xA;  to another, with proximity maintenance being transferred first,&#xA;  followed by safe haven and, finally, secure base. This pattem of&#xA;  transfer corresponds to the stages of attachment development that&#xA;  Ainsworth (1972; elaborating on Bowlby, 1969/1982, pp. 265-268) called&#xA;  &quot;preattachment,&quot; &quot;attachment in the making,&quot; and &quot;clear-cut&#xA;  attachment.&quot; The best candidate for a true attachment relationship is&#xA;  one in which all three functions are present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, romantic love is not necessarily synonymous with your attachment system, but can be understood as the confluence of different modules ([ 1 ]):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although romantic love is partly an attachment phenomenon, it involves&#xA;  additional behavioral systems, caregiving and sex, that are&#xA;  empirically intertwined with attachment but theoretically separable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, [ 2 ] view love as the intertwining of lust, attraction, and attachment.  I prefer to synthesize the two approaches, and conceptualize full romantic love as the interplay of (at least) lust, attraction, attachment, and caregiving.  &quot;Falling in love&quot;, then, can be modeled as fusing these modules together; &quot;breaking up&quot; can be modeled as some or all of these modules becoming disassociated with this individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this context, emotions you feel are simply &lt;em&gt;outputs&lt;/em&gt; of such systems.  If you provisionally accept this module language, perhaps you can begin to understand your emotional reaction to this individual.  Perhaps you still feel attached because your attachment system is still bound securely, and your caregiving system is still active towards her, etc.  You can hope to explain why the &quot;taste of your emotions&quot; differs from most others (why you get blank stares) by appealing to the complexities of the underlying modules and their interactions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[ 1 ] Fraley &amp;amp; Shaver (2000) - Adult Romantic Attachment: Theoretical Developments, Emerging Controversies, and Unanswered Questions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[ 2 ] Fisher et al (2006) - Romantic Love: a mammalian brain system for mate choice&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3049" LastActivityDate="2014-04-18T17:53:43.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6262" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6145" CreationDate="2014-04-18T18:17:15.347" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;An answer to Question 1 about synapse connections might possibly be found in a New Scientist article earlier this month on brain maps of human foetuses using laser microdissection:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;the team has already found that a collection of genes associated with autism is particularly active in the newly developed excitatory neurons in the cortex.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ed Lein et al &quot;Transcriptional landscape of the prenatal human brain&quot; Nature, DOI:10.1038/nature3185&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Brain map to zoom in on neural blips&quot; New Scientist, 5 April 2014&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4536" LastActivityDate="2014-04-18T18:17:15.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6263" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6226" CreationDate="2014-04-19T00:35:31.543" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot;, Chris Eliasmith draws parrallels between Spaun and various architectures. All of my quotes in my answer are from that book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;Dynamic Field Theory of Cognition&lt;/strong&gt; is similarly pre-occupied with outside stimulation as being essential to understanding cognitive function, consequently &quot;there is little in the SPA that could not be reformulated using terms more familiar to dynamic systems theorists&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Leabra&lt;/strong&gt; shares an emphasis on implementation on a realistic biological substrate. In particular, the cortex-&gt;basal ganglia-&gt;thalamus loop for action control/decision, as well as the effects of dopamine on Spaun, were heavily influenced by Leabra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ACT-R&lt;/strong&gt; also shares the cortex-&gt;basal ganglia-&gt;thalamus loop, but more importantly puts a similar emphasis on timing. That is, there is a specific time for switching between tasks and reacting to stimuli that must be followed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ICS&lt;/strong&gt; shares the similar mathematical binding operation as SPA, thus many of the results of the ICS are informative for SPA and &quot;how such representations can be related to a wide variety of linguistic processing&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While these similarities give a good reference frame of where Spaun stands in the realm of neural architectures, it is much more interesting (and important!) to note where it deviates. A topic which is obviously covered in great detail in &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2014-04-19T00:35:31.543" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2014-04-23T05:21:10.903" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6264" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6258" CreationDate="2014-04-19T06:33:45.030" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angst&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Angst&lt;/a&gt; seems to fit your first example about as well as I could imagine any one word fitting. Angst is somewhat complex and ambiguous because it's used in many contexts with different connotations. It's roughly a combination of smoldering frustration and creeping anxiety as I understand it. It's more of a latent restlessness than an overt, clear emotion – somewhat more &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;trait&lt;/a&gt;-like than most emotions, which are generally more transient &lt;em&gt;states&lt;/em&gt;. Its use in existentialism particularly suits the global feeling of incompleteness you describe. IMO, it's a more cognitive or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conative&lt;/a&gt; term than most emotion words too, in that it is sometimes thought to arise from unresolved &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt; regarding one's identity and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_(existential)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;meaning in life&lt;/a&gt;. Emotions are more often automatic reactions to present circumstances, generally speaking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I understand this contrast, the usual emotions may occur on a somewhat different level of conscious experience. The ordinary emotional level fluctuates and cycles like the stimuli and routines that provoke them, somewhat like echoes of the stimuli. One may focus on them, or choose to let them pass, depending on the extent to which they hold one's attention, I suppose. The more cognitive side of experience is somewhat more stable. In some ways, people are built to resist changing their minds in response to every new stimulus. To be fair, most don't want to have a strong emotional reaction to every stimulus either, but the resistance is stronger with respect to beliefs and attitudes, or &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;schemata&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; in general. (I've described this resistance somewhat further in my answer to, '&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5994/4086&quot;&gt;Can attention be improved to reduce the frequency of mistakes?&lt;/a&gt;')&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schemata are more heavily involved in emotions about the self and life in general. Arguably, these emotions about subjects are attitudes, and thus subsumed partially within schemata as a broader class...but I haven't got a citation for that; it's just my understanding of how these concepts intertwine. (See also my answer to, '&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5699/4086&quot;&gt;Is there a precise definition of &amp;quot;attitude&amp;quot;?&lt;/a&gt;') IMO, it explains why feelings like angst, which often reflect discontented attitudes toward oneself or life at large, don't fluctuate as much and resist attempts to cheer up. The problems these attitudes indicate generally can't be resolved by just having a little fun or forgetting about them, as people often do to cope with simpler, more circumstantial, negative emotions. These problems tend to require attitude change to resolve, which surely is a deeper process. I see no problem with referring to this as &quot;deeper&quot; BTW; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depth psychology&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;existential psychology&lt;/a&gt; both use this term extensively to differentiate higher-level (i.e., more complex or developmentally advanced) motivational content from the simpler stuff people are more used to discussing casually, atheoretically, or from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;folk psychological&lt;/a&gt; perspectives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your second example, &lt;em&gt;companionate love&lt;/em&gt; from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular_theory_of_love&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sternberg's triangular theory&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storge&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;storge&lt;/a&gt; from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_styles#Storgic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Lee's / Hendrick &amp;amp; Hendrick's theory of love styles&lt;/a&gt; would seem to fit equally and more or less synonymously. Again, it's more of an attitude about an enduring identity (hers, rather than yours, or that of life itself) than an emotional reaction to present, transient circumstances, so relative stability and independence from daily fluctuations in emotional states is to be expected. I would say empathy and respect are components of the emergent property of companionate love, especially the intermediate component of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intimacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intimacy&lt;/a&gt; (one half of companionate love, according to Sternberg). Here's the diagram:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triangular_Theory_of_Love.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Triangular_Theory_of_Love.svg/500px-Triangular_Theory_of_Love.svg.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Lnesa&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lnesa&lt;/a&gt;, I think...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feel free to comment or edit if I've missed your point by addressing your examples too specifically or narrowly. If you have other feelings that need classifying, I'd be happy to see more questions like this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-04-19T06:33:45.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6265" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-19T11:15:41.117" Score="9" ViewCount="430" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do we have to strictly focus on something to really see what it looks like? Is everything else around blurred, or is our brain trained only to see in the center of the image projected on the retina?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2559" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-22T04:23:17.580" LastActivityDate="2019-02-24T18:54:12.293" Title="Why can we not see around our point of focus of our eyes?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6266" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-19T12:32:57.477" Score="9" ViewCount="3941" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working through the tutorial of section 2.4 of &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; and I've encountered this graph of a neuron tuning curve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ebbUy.png&quot; alt=&quot;neuron_tuning_curves&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand the Y axis is the firing rate of the neuron, that each curve is the response of a single neuron (there are 100 neurons represented here) and that this plot shows a variety of &quot;on&quot; and &quot;off&quot; neurons, but what does the X axis represent? Is it the action potential input? Is X the value that the neuron represents by firing at that rate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please allow me to give some context around the tutorial. You first create a population of 100 neurons to represent an input that will vary from -1 to 1. You notice that this works well, but that the representation degrades when you exceed this range falls apart and you cannot represent anything the range past -2 to 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You then use a new population of neurons to build upon this newly acquired knowledge of how neurons can represent functions, to make them represent a 2-dimensional vector similar to the monkey-arm motor experiment performed by Georgopolous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could take the leap of faith here and just take for granted that neurons can represent functions and that the more neurons you have, the better approximation of the function you can get, but I feel like understanding these fundamental concepts are important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-01-11T03:27:55.903" LastActivityDate="2015-01-13T10:04:26.763" Title="How to read a neuron tuning curve graph?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6267" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6316" CreationDate="2014-04-19T13:15:13.820" Score="5" ViewCount="1580" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a proverb: &quot;everything's decided in mind&quot; - changing attitude of thing may help going through things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it also mean that if someone is depressed then there'd be enough to change how he sees the world to cure his/her depression? Or is it a deeper problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3323" LastActivityDate="2019-02-22T19:46:01.140" Title="Can changing attitude cure depression?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6270" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6265" CreationDate="2014-04-19T20:37:54.967" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basically, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;retina&lt;/a&gt; contains two different kinds of receptors: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_cell&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;rods&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_cell&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cones&lt;/a&gt;. Cones are concentrated in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fovea_centralis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;fovea&lt;/a&gt; and activate &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ganglion cells&lt;/a&gt; more discretely than rods. Rods are more interconnected by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_horizontal_cell&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;horizontal cells&lt;/a&gt; (if I'm not mistaken...), so multiple rods can often activate the same ganglion cell, whereas each cone is more likely to have its own ganglion cell. Ganglion cells transmit visual sensory input to the brain, so information that is consolidated into one before transmission can't really be discriminated by the brain as coming from one rod or another if both rods connect to the same ganglion cell. Since cones have more independent ganglion cells, they transmit info to the brain more individually. Where cones are concentrated (the focal area of the retina), the resolution of visual perception is more fine-grained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a somewhat simplistic illustration:&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tDkX0.gif&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tDkX0.gif&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://photo.net/learn/optics/edscott/retina.gif&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;photo.net&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Note the single ganglion cell connected to all three rods, and the three separate cells for each cone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-02-24T18:54:12.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="6273" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-21T18:56:46.683" Score="5" ViewCount="500" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that curiosity is developed kinda on it's own. You don't know when you'll become curious. But is it possible to train one's mind to become curious about certain subject? I've seen titles and tips on &quot;how&quot; to become curious, but I don't think those &quot;X steps&quot; will make someone's mind budge.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to sort of prime oneself to become curious? Mind priming seams powerful for certain things, and it's only thing that I thought could work. Again, priming mind that knows it's gonna be primed sounds rather tricky. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I know the question is messy,so please,do correct me and tag appropriately if needed . :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastActivityDate="2014-04-29T16:59:09.517" Title="Is it possible to develop curiosity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6275" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-22T03:12:59.507" Score="6" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I have read, its been given that muscle functioning and coordination involves two processes: frequency summation and muscle recruitment. What I want to know is that, do these two processes work simultaneously or are these two stages separate? As in, both frequency summation and muscle recruitment contributes to modulating the amount of force which makes me wonder why two processes are required to satisfy the same purpose?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The conclusion I could come to was that, frequency summation applies to only a single muscle fiber and when the fiber saturates and no more force can be recruited more muscles are recruited to increase the amount of force applied. An example scenario of this occurring would be a person is lifting a very heavy object. I want to know whether my inference is right or wrong? If wrong I would like someone to explain to me the exact mechanism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4871" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-04-23T04:28:31.277" LastActivityDate="2014-04-24T12:30:25.303" Title="What exactly is the neurobiological mechanism behind the functioning of the human muscle?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6276" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-22T04:18:22.790" Score="5" ViewCount="1459" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that Freud in his &amp;quot;Interpretation of dreams&amp;quot; provides a number of examples of events influencing dreams several days to several months after the event has occurred. For example, a person sees a red bicycle in a shop and a week later may have a dream about riding/fixing/seeing the same type of red bicycle. Freud provides on example where an event took place months before the dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;Has there been any research that explained why there can be a long (4-7 days) delay between a real life event and a dream with elements from the event?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just to clarify, these are not recurring dreams, but single occurrence dreams about past experiences. Typically the delay between the event and the dream is several days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="9512" LastEditDate="2021-04-23T17:01:49.453" LastActivityDate="2021-04-23T17:02:19.807" Title="Why past events reappear in dreams after a certain delay?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="6277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6276" CreationDate="2014-04-22T12:36:05.637" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because memory is consolidated during sleep (and dreaming).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/11/6/671.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/11/6/671.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/news/2010/04/26/dreams-are-key-to-memory/13157.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psychcentral.com/news/2010/04/26/dreams-are-key-to-memory/13157.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also some psychological benefits from easing painful memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2011/11/23/dream-sleep/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2011/11/23/dream-sleep/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="9512" LastEditDate="2021-04-23T17:02:19.807" LastActivityDate="2021-04-23T17:02:19.807" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="6278" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5975" CreationDate="2014-04-22T13:38:09.397" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There has been studies that shown that cerebrospinal fluid's circulation in the brain is dramatically(20x) increased during sleep. It is believed that &lt;strong&gt;during sleep, cerebrospinal fluid circulation helps clear out toxic by products of brain metabolism.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As a result, the cerebrospinal fluid could not only flow more freely&#xA;  but it could also reach further into the brain. In an awake brain, it&#xA;  would flow only along the brain’s surface. Indeed, the awake flow was&#xA;  a mere 5 percent of the sleep flow. In a sleeping brain, waste was&#xA;  being cleared two times faster. “We saw almost no inflow of&#xA;  cerebrospinal fluid into the brain when the mice were awake, but&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;then when we anesthetized them,&lt;/strong&gt; it started flowing. It’s such a big difference&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/12/opinion/sunday/goodnight-sleep-clean.html?_r=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/12/opinion/sunday/goodnight-sleep-clean.html?_r=0&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nih.gov/researchmatters/october2013/10282013clear.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nih.gov/researchmatters/october2013/10282013clear.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just a guess - if anesthesia improves cerebrospinal fluid flow, maybe then a combination of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_tank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;isolation/sensory deprivation tank&lt;/a&gt;and anesthesia  would help achieve a cleansing effect? Either way, it does not appear that a human can be running around and working during such cleanup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-04-22T13:38:09.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6279" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6256" CreationDate="2014-04-22T13:45:13.623" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've asked &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6203/can-brain-hemisphere-activity-dominance-be-inferred-from-the-test-subjects-dra&quot;&gt;this question about dominance of brain hemispheres.&lt;/a&gt; in the question there are examples of drawings made by split brain patients using only one hand and eye at a time. I don't know if using both eyes while drawing produces different results, but the images suggest that the ability to process memory of objects is impaired:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/F6h1e.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-04-22T13:45:13.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6280" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6267" CreationDate="2014-04-22T13:54:10.960" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not any kind of professional in this field, but I can say just a few things about this from experience in my family. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought depressive feelings and being diagnosed with depression are one and the same. But health of a family member gave me insight into feelings that can't be changed just because your belief changes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depressed person, with altered brain chemistry, is not a person whose mood you can change by persuading him/her and changing his/her beliefs. Once brain chemistry is not in balance, like in average healthy person, it's not a healthy brain anymore. You can feel ups and downs, but depressed person is feeling down or pretending to be ok. It's not a regular mood wave of the day. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, even if you could present to such person different beliefs, I believe they are unable to change/learn because of their dark mood. I mean, who in the world learns with mind focused on depressive thoughts? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person that isn't ill, and is just feeling down during the day is the one that can change their depressive feeling with change of beliefs, because it's temporary anyway. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, when I feel down, i have two options, keep feeling down until it's gone on it's own,or look at my belief and check if I'm too negative/harsh. But someone who is ill,isn't really capable of looking inwards with compassion or with rationality,for that matter. It's really two different worlds. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps any.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastActivityDate="2014-04-22T13:54:10.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6281" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-22T14:02:59.227" Score="2" ViewCount="309" Body="&lt;p&gt;How to call such a cognitive process of a person, who often keeps monitoring his or her behaviour by asking oneself questions like &quot;why you are doing it&quot; or &quot;what do you really want to attain&quot;, someone who investigates the real causes of his/her behaviour, even if it's painful and requires to face defence mechanisms? I thought it was a ''self-reflection'' or a ''mindfulness''... but I'm not sure [Please don't give me a link to wikipedia, 'cause this article is not finished]. Thank you in advance :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask this question in the context of doing some research or writing some popular science article or reviewing some science literature about it. It's easier to dig in Ebsco bases knowing which term is proper. I just don't want to end up confusing terms, like many laypeople do with &quot;fear&quot; and &quot;neuroticism&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4874" LastEditorUserId="4874" LastEditDate="2014-04-23T09:03:50.557" LastActivityDate="2014-04-23T09:03:50.557" Title="Self-reflection? Mindfulness?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-19T18:23:20.893" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6282" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6298" CreationDate="2014-04-22T15:10:31.870" Score="0" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;I forgot the name, but I remember reading about it in lifehacker or i09 some time ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the group feels a certain way, but say that they feel the other way to avoid being the only one to agree. Despite all of them feeling the same way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a group goes to a restaurant. All of them hate the food. But no one wants to be the one to say it, so they all unwittingly say it's great and that they are enjoying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4662" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-23T07:29:48.113" LastActivityDate="2014-09-05T11:02:22.013" Title="Phenomena where group truly feels a certain way, but each member says that they feel the other way to avoid being the odd one out" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6283" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6282" CreationDate="2014-04-22T16:20:33.003" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe the name you are searching for is &lt;strong&gt;conformity&lt;/strong&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the most well-known examples: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Asch Conformity Experiments&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3049" LastActivityDate="2014-04-22T16:20:33.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6285" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="699" CreationDate="2014-04-22T19:27:26.680" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been developing an online platform to run HTML5/Javascript experiments, recruit participants via email, Facebook, or Twitter, and collect and evaluate results in real time. Neither you nor your participants require anything but a web browser.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree with @vizzero that timing behavior is a challenge. I optimized timing by preloading all assets and generally recommend Google Chrome, as its internal clock has the highest resolution of all modern web browsers. However, you have to verify that browser based experiments meet your needs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please see &lt;a href=&quot;http://statode-demo.herokuapp.com/mental-rotation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;stato.de&lt;/a&gt; for a demo; it does not require signup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4876" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-22T19:30:48.857" LastActivityDate="2014-04-22T19:30:48.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6286" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5495" CreationDate="2014-04-22T19:39:35.573" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been developing an online platform to run HTML5/Javascript experiments, recruit participants via email, facebook, or twitter, and collect and evaluate results in real time. Neither you nor your participants require anything but a web browser.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Eoin already mentioned you will still need to develop the experiment yourself in HTML5/Javascript. However I may be able to help you with development, but please consider that the experiment would be open to the general public then.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please see &lt;a href=&quot;http://statode-demo.herokuapp.com/mental-rotation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://statode-demo.herokuapp.com/mental-rotation/&lt;/a&gt; for a demo, it does not require signup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4876" LastActivityDate="2014-04-22T19:39:35.573" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6287" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5947" CreationDate="2014-04-22T19:43:14.023" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been developing an online platform to run HTML5/Javascript experiments, recruit participants via email, facebook, or twitter, and collect and evaluate results in real time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The platform itself is not open source but many of the experiments are right now and more will be soon. You may also add your own experiments if you are comfortable developing HTML5/Javascript.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please see &lt;a href=&quot;http://statode-demo.herokuapp.com/mental-rotation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://statode-demo.herokuapp.com/mental-rotation/&lt;/a&gt; for a demo, it does not require signup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4876" LastActivityDate="2014-04-22T19:43:14.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6289" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6281" CreationDate="2014-04-23T00:19:35.777" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Self aware or introspection would probably be the a good way to describe it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/fl/What-Is-Introspection.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a non wikipedia link which gives a detailed explanation of interospection&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also say self conscious but that is sometimes associated with a negative emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4809" LastEditorUserId="4809" LastEditDate="2014-04-23T00:24:41.393" LastActivityDate="2014-04-23T00:24:41.393" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6290" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="506" CreationDate="2014-04-23T00:26:50.583" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been developing an online platform to run HTML5/Javascript experiments, recruit participants via email, Facebook, or Twitter, and collect and evaluate results in real time on any web browser including mobile devices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobile devices are challenging though: On the one hand the different and limited form factors of phones and tablets impose restrictions on any experiment's layout; on the other hand, as @Steve Trawley pointed out, the devices inherent delay to recognize touch events impose restrictions on any experiment's accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However depending on your use case the experiment may still produce viable results on mobile devices. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please see &lt;a href=&quot;http://statode-demo.herokuapp.com/mental-rotation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;stato.de&lt;/a&gt; for a demo that works on phones, tablets, and desktops; it does not require signup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4876" LastActivityDate="2014-04-23T00:26:50.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6292" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-23T08:55:49.080" Score="4" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;What will happen when a team is either split or joined with another team?&#xA;After reading about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_86.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tuckman's stages of group development&lt;/a&gt;, I understand that the new team will probably start at the beginning or go back a few stages depending on how much they know each other and how much they have worked together before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has there has been done any research on why you should or should not join or merge teams in short time periods?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;By how much will the efficiency drop by on average?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How long does it take on average to become as efficient as before?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: To read more about tuckman's stages of group development you can go to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_86.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this site.&lt;/a&gt; There is also some books written but to get a quick introduction this would suffice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4880" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-26T00:47:53.647" LastActivityDate="2014-04-26T10:21:59.303" Title="Efficiency drop when joining and splitting teams" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6293" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-23T22:25:09.080" Score="3" ViewCount="20804" Body="&lt;p&gt;How to find out IQ from bhatia battery test? Suppose time for each of the 5 subtests is noted down. What are the steps to reach at an IQ value from here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4883" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-26T07:13:35.587" LastActivityDate="2018-04-20T16:31:22.583" Title="How to calculate IQ from bhatia battery test?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6295" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6293" CreationDate="2014-04-24T01:42:05.983" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hadn't heard of the Bhatia measure before. A little research (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com.au/books?id=f8fJu3jSXJ0C&amp;amp;pg=PA42&amp;amp;lpg=PA42&amp;amp;dq=Bhatia%27s+Battery+of+Performance+Tests&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=844j20AWvN&amp;amp;sig=fDChH_SPJuBjlU6TmOfDB9g6T6w&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=amhYU56NHMXOkQWkx4CwCQ&amp;amp;ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Bhatia%27s%20Battery%20of%20Performance%20Tests&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;page 42 of Sharma and Sharma&lt;/a&gt;) explains that it is a performance based measure of ability for children in India. In general, you should obtain the test manual to learn about the recommended scoring procedure. A quick Google suggests it might be available from here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npcindia.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.npcindia.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reference&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Experimental Psychology&lt;/em&gt;  By Ram Nath Sharma, Rachana Sharma&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-26T00:44:25.980" LastActivityDate="2014-04-26T00:44:25.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6296" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6275" CreationDate="2014-04-24T12:30:25.303" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both recruitment and firing rate contribute to the overall &quot;strength&quot; of muscle action, but there are early and late stage depending on the load under which the muscles are operating.  This allows more precision for lighter objects (where muscle recruitment is the dominant mechanism).  For heavier objects, most of the muscles get recruited and all the body can do at that point is increase the firing rate more.  Note that &lt;strong&gt;throughout the whole process, both mechanisms are occuring&lt;/strong&gt;: it's just a matter of which mechanism dominates at which stage/degree of muscle exertion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And this makes sense: for smaller objects that you will be manipulating, you want more precision, so having muscle recruitment control gives you that spatial precision that allows you to manipulate objects (like tools) in novel ways.  Whereas when you're just trying to lift  a giant rock, to block a small stream, there isn't much precision required, you're just trying to get it to go a general direction (up and over), so you recruit all muslces and drive the spiking frequency as high as it will go.  Whether you fail or not at these extreme loads depends on your personal pain tolerance and your muscle's tensile strength (people with a higher pain tolerance are more likely to snap a tendon or muscle, or even bone).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-04-24T12:30:25.303" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6298" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6282" CreationDate="2014-04-25T14:33:35.920" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I finally found it - It was group polarization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4662" LastActivityDate="2014-04-25T14:33:35.920" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6300" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-25T23:03:56.583" Score="5" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any efficient ways to overcome the fear and depression before death  (supposing you know you are going to die soon) ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4899" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-26T00:46:24.377" LastActivityDate="2018-12-18T15:41:57.973" Title="How can depression and fear be effectively managed in people who know they will die soon?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6302" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-26T05:37:52.460" Score="4" ViewCount="6280" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a signal detection theory newbie. I have data with a classical SDT design: the participants can answer YES or NO to a question where the correct answer is YES or NO, depending on the presence or absence of a stimulus feature. I looked online for a script to calculate d', and found one which is confusing me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's confusing is that the criterion is calculated in two different ways. Does anybody have an idea why this is the case? These are the relevant lines of (matlab) code:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;% Convert to Z scores &#xA;     zHit = norminv(proportion_of_hits) ;&#xA;     zFA = norminv(proportion_of_false_alarms) ; &#xA;% Calculate d-prime &#xA;     dPrime = zHit - zFA ;&#xA;% calculate BETA &#xA;     beta = exp((zFA^2 - zHit^2)/2); &#xA;% calculate C &#xA;     C = -.5 * (zHit + zFA);&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in beta and C - how one interprets them, how they differ from each other, what a high/low score in each of the two means. And also, which is the one that is more likely to be understandable to a reader who knows SDT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2014-04-26T06:47:20.647" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T20:50:06.507" Title="Two different values for criterion in signal detection theory?" Tags="&lt;signal-detection&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6292" CreationDate="2014-04-26T10:21:59.303" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Has there has been done any research on why you should or should not&#xA;  join or merge teams in short time periods?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One big difference in how the troops were maintained in the second world war was that for the allied forces when a person died/got seriously injured this person was always replaced with another one (under the assumption &quot;you always want the troops to be fully staffed&quot;), whereas the Germans did not replace troop members and the troop kept its original staffing until it became too small when it was just broken up (motivated by group dynamics as you are asking about).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems at first a bit counter intuitive, but the Germans performed better due to their strategy than just continuously replace personnel. I am sure there exists a lot of research into this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="662" LastActivityDate="2014-04-26T10:21:59.303" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6304" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4082" CreationDate="2014-04-26T10:52:14.177" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Changing body expression does provably change how we feel. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Facial_feedback_hypothesis&amp;amp;oldid=603780115#Strack.2C_Martin_.26_Stepper.27s_test_of_the_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A study&lt;/a&gt; was made where some participants read comics with a pen in their mouth in a way simulating a smile while some other were reading it with the pen placed so it should simulate more of a frown. The smile group reported significantly higher amusement ratings than the other group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="662" LastActivityDate="2014-04-26T10:52:14.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6305" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6342" CreationDate="2014-04-26T11:53:47.290" Score="4" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;Would it be possible to activate the human memory and &quot;access&quot; it by means of encouraging certain hormones, to assist a sleeping body to memorize dreams and later (meaning minutes, days, months or even years) access it again with the same hormones - something like a trained body function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could perhaps help in solving certain criminal cases or assist in psychological healing (for schizophrenia and the likes). I'm just curious about the possibilities and have absolutely no knowledge of how the brain works. This was just a wild idea that came to mind and I was wondering about the possibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4902" LastActivityDate="2015-10-12T09:29:55.483" Title="Can dreams be memorised?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6308" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-26T23:36:44.010" Score="8" ViewCount="497" Body="&lt;p&gt;The symptom most people think about when hearing &quot;Schizophrenia&quot; is hallucination. However, &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F20&quot;&gt;ICD-10's entry for schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt; seems to list auditory hallucinations as just one of many possible symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In practice, are hallucinations a &lt;strong&gt;required&lt;/strong&gt; symptom for a diagnosis of Schizophrenia, or can a diagnosis be made based on other symptoms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4626" LastActivityDate="2015-02-06T00:51:28.360" Title="Are hallucinations a requirement for Schizophrenia?" Tags="&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6309" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2014-04-27T02:29:24.623" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;For an open source JavaScript/HTML/CSS solution, check out jsPsych: &lt;a href=&quot;http://jspsych.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jspsych.org&lt;/a&gt;. It  can be used for reaction time measurement and interactive designs. An &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-014-0458-y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article describing the library&lt;/a&gt; was recently published in Behavior Research Methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13428-015-0567-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;subsequent article&lt;/a&gt; investigated the properties of reaction time distributions collected with JavaScript compared to those collected with MATLAB and Psychtoolbox. The main result is that JavaScript was 10-40ms slower, but had equivalent variance across different experimental conditions and equal sensitivity to the experimental manipulation of set size in a visual search task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several good answers to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9584/how-valid-are-reaction-times-collected-from-online-studies&quot;&gt;this related question&lt;/a&gt; about the validity and accuracy of response time measurements online. Many of those answers discuss findings that are relevant to JavaScript libraries like jsPsych.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;de Leeuw, J. R. (2015). jsPsych: A JavaScript library for creating behavioral experiments in a Web browser. &lt;em&gt;Behavior Research Methods&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;47&lt;/em&gt;(1), 1-12.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;de Leeuw, J. R., &amp;amp; Motz, B. A. (2015). Psychophysics in a Web browser? Comparing response times collected with JavaScript and Psychophysics Toolbox in a visual search task. &lt;em&gt;Behavior Research Methods&lt;/em&gt;, advance online publication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-05-22T16:41:39.637" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6310" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6308" CreationDate="2014-04-27T02:36:53.463" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;No – at least, they shouldn't be required. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia#Criteria&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia describes the DSM-5&lt;/a&gt; as requiring &quot;delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech&quot;. Delusions are distinct from hallucinations in that they aren't necessarily perceptual in a conventional sense, though both diverge a person's conscious experience from empirical reality. Disorganized speech is characteristic of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disorganized_schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;disorganized / hebephrenic schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt;, regarding which Wikipedia states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The most prominent features of disorganized schizophrenia are not delusions and hallucinations, as they are in paranoid schizophrenia,&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://schizophrenia.about.com/od/whatisschizophrenia/f/schiz_diagnosis.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;][&lt;a href=&quot;http://counsellingresource.com/lib/distress/schizophrenic/schizophrenia-icd/hebephrenic/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt; although fragmentary delusions and hallucinations may be present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This doesn't seem to be the only (partial) exception to the rule you ask about, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F20.1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;your source mentions it too&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;Affective changes are prominent, delusions and hallucinations fleeting and fragmentary&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-04-27T02:36:53.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6311" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7719" CreationDate="2014-04-27T03:20:36.043" Score="3" ViewCount="689" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a method in mnemonics to quickly find out the number of objects in, for example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://thumbs.dreamstime.com/z/many-chaotic-scattered-toothpicks-18216553.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a heap of tooth picks&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HaYwTxDfmHU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;scene in the movie &lt;em&gt;Rain Man&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, where the autistic protagonist can tell the number of toothpicks at a glance. Is something similar possible for &quot;normal&quot; people with the right kind of training or technique?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4907" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-04-27T08:51:03.657" LastActivityDate="2014-07-01T10:36:24.590" Title="Is there a method to count objects without a pattern?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;procedural-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6312" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9684" CreationDate="2014-04-27T08:31:26.790" Score="8" ViewCount="690" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.agilemanifesto.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Agile&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scrum.org/Portals/0/Documents/Scrum%20Guides/2013/Scrum-Guide.pdf#zoom=100&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scrum&lt;/a&gt; methodologies are well known and often studied and written about in software development. But these methodologies are about managing the activities and the workplace itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there psychologic or sociologic theories (like those studied in Industrial and organizational psychology) that could explain the effectiveness, or lack of it, of Agile / Scrum methodologies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am aware of experimental work on the topic, like that by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ewhitworth.com/academics.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elizabeth Whitworth&lt;/a&gt;. However, I am not interested in empirical studies about the effectiveness of using Agile / Scrum. I am interested in theoretical justifications for why we would expect Agile/Scrum to be effective or ineffective based on what we know about social and io-psychology. &lt;strong&gt;Are there existing psychological or sociological theories that explain the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of Agile/Scrum?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;Related questions on SE:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/questions/230905/scrum-how-to-integrate-work-done-by-an-overachieving-developer-out-of-band&quot;&gt;How to integrate work done by an overachieving developer out of band&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/questions/101409/does-scrum-turn-active-developers-into-passive-developers&quot;&gt;Does Scrum turn active developers into passive developers?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/questions/80751/how-can-we-make-agile-enjoyable-for-developers-that-like-to-personally-independ&quot;&gt;How can we make Agile enjoyable for developers that like to personally, independently own large chunks from start to finish&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4909" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-12T07:31:54.790" LastActivityDate="2015-04-02T23:03:07.870" Title="Theoretical grounding for Agile/Scrum methodologies in software development" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6316" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6267" CreationDate="2014-04-27T22:06:07.393" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The proverb you mention is overly general to the point of being largely false (or at least unfalsifiable, to give some credit to the defensibility of philosophical &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solipsism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;solipsism&lt;/a&gt; otherwise). @JunJun and @felino's answers also generalize too much, but this is partly a consequence of a lack of specificity in the OP. Depression in general is widely misunderstood and commonly oversimplified. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I prefer to conceptualize depression in general as a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_variable&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;latent&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dimensional&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptom&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;symptomatic&lt;/a&gt; state that is linked to its causes by theory, not by definition. This means not directly measured, not truly dichotomous (like clinical diagnosis often is – people are generally either diagnosed as having a mood disorder or not having one, but whether they truly are depressed is more a matter of degree), not a disease or disorder per se but rather a consequence thereof, and not defined as resulting from any one cause. This concept permits research to identify several partial influences that may operate together or separately to produce depression, and this is in fact what research on depression has done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @what points out, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(mood)#Causes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depression is known to have both genetic and environmental influences&lt;/a&gt;. Environmental influences are certainly not decided exclusively in the mind – this is the first reason your proverb overgeneralizes. Second, genetic influences are hardly &lt;em&gt;decided&lt;/em&gt; in the sense of being voluntary. What remains may permit voluntary intervention, but not every case of depression leaves anything remaining.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some cases arise entirely due to overwhelming, unforeseeable, and effectively unavoidable stress.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some cases arise entirely due to genetic or other neurochemical influences (e.g., drugs, disorders).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Attitude change may aid coping in these circumstances, but one could hardly expect it to cure depressed affect altogether when one has good reasons to feel depressed or no real control over its sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, many cases may arise from problematic attitudes (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-esteem#Importance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;low self-esteem&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_control#Personality_orientation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;external locus of control&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_alienation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social alienation&lt;/a&gt;). As mentioned in my answer to &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5803/4086&quot;&gt;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5803/4086&lt;/a&gt;&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B0028N72O4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lyubomirsky &lt;sup&gt;(2008)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; argues that for average people in average circumstances, roughly 2/5 of one's happiness may be altered voluntarily, as through attitude change: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.edbatista.com/2010/09/happiness.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wvtD8.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.edbatista.com/images/2010/09/lyubomirsky_chart.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;edbatista.com&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;sup&gt;(Based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/B0028N72O4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lyubomirsky, 2008&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, this won't be true in every case, especially those affected by special circumstances or involuntary or biological factors. Still, in many cases, it's enough malleability to facilitate important changes. In a falsely dichotomous model of depression, it's plenty of room in which to cross a clinical threshold and thereby become &quot;not depressed&quot;. From a more dimensional standpoint, it's not going to allow anyone to change from the most depressed person to the happiest or vice versa: it's only enough to allow a percentile change of roughly 40% on average.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several therapeutic modalities and positive psychological interventions incorporate attitude change, e.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive behavioral therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_Psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Positive psychotherapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressive_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Expressive therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Narrative therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratitude#Psychological_interventions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gratitude exercises&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loving_kindness_meditation#.22Compassion_meditation.22_research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Compassion meditation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/B0028N72O4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The how of happiness: A scientific approach to getting the life you want&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. Penguin.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-02-22T19:46:01.140" LastActivityDate="2019-02-22T19:46:01.140" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="6317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6267" CreationDate="2014-04-27T22:42:29.653" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not an expert but I would like to try an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud said: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There's a story behind every person. There's a reason why they're the&#xA;  way they are. They aren't just like that because they want to.&#xA;  Something in the past created them, and sometimes it's impossible to&#xA;  fix them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wayne Dyer in his main &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0060919760&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;book&lt;/a&gt; clearly explains the influence of the education on the making of our beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive psychology&lt;/a&gt; explains how beliefs, emotions and behavior are strongly bound each together. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For personal experience I can state that changing our beliefs is a really slow process. It's like drop some colour in a point of a spider net. The color changes but the net has thousand of joints and it's hard to spread the change of color to all the joints.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are techniques such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_movement_desensitization_and_reprocessing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EMDR&lt;/a&gt; for helping at spreading the thought restructuration from more and more thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some one may state that Freud's sentence is lacking of a scientific evidence based demostration, but it doesn't mean that it's false. It only mean that it should be proved by other researches. And that it could be partially true and partially false.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However an intuitive proof of the validity of Freud theory could come by Warren Buffet. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Warren Buffett took the Dale Carnegie course &quot;How to Win Friends and&#xA;  Influence People&quot; when he was 20 years old, and to this day has the&#xA;  diploma in his office.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.it/search?q=cognitive%20behavioral%20therapy%20efficacy&amp;amp;rlz=1C1CHFX_itIT495IT495&amp;amp;oq=Cognitive%20behavioral%20therapy%20eff&amp;amp;aqs=chrome.2.69i57j0l5.3523j0j9&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;es_sm=93&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I simply think that it's very intuitive that it's easier to be happier if we are winner and receive positive feedback by the society, and this can be learned as everything else. I believe that the available data on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.it/search?q=cognitive%20behavioral%20therapy%20efficacy&amp;amp;rlz=1C1CHFX_itIT495IT495&amp;amp;oq=Cognitive%20behavioral%20therapy%20eff&amp;amp;aqs=chrome.2.69i57j0l5.3523j0j9&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;es_sm=93&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;effectiveness of cognitive &amp;amp; comportamental psychotherapy at solving anxiety, doc, anxious attack and depression&lt;/a&gt; proves this hypothesis very well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.it/search?q=cognitive%20behavioral%20therapy%20efficacy&amp;amp;rlz=1C1CHFX_itIT495IT495&amp;amp;oq=Cognitive%20behavioral%20therapy%20eff&amp;amp;aqs=chrome.2.69i57j0l5.3523j0j9&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;es_sm=93&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;: Brady, Diane (July 22, 2013). &quot;Charles Manson's turning point: Dale Carnegie classes&quot;. Business Week. Retrieved October 23, 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2014-04-27T22:42:29.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6318" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-27T23:31:26.193" Score="7" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hazelden.org/web/public/minnesotamodel.page&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Minnesota 12 steps model&lt;/a&gt; claims to cure drug addiction, but doesn't deeply deal with the personality structure underlying addiction. We know today how addiction is a problem with an enormous range of factors causing it, being personality or/and psychopathology and coping strategies some of the most important. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The method uses 12 steps to free individuals from drugs, but it doesn't use any deep approach to their personalities and its duration is also too short to do it (&quot;The primary care program was intended to last up to 60 days in a residential setting&quot;, &quot; &quot;insurance companies then set 28 days as a reimbursement guideline in order to ensure sufficient coverage&quot;(1).&#xA;There is even little evidence that this model is effective, and it received criticisms.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence my questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it really producing changes, or only temporary changes which can collapse every time that personality is challenged?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can it be realistically expected that the individuals treated by this method have their personalities really transformed and would never feel the necessity of consuming drugs, or have other type of addictive behaviours?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64351/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64351/&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4914" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-16T15:07:36.397" LastActivityDate="2015-05-16T15:12:19.787" Title="Does the Minnesota 12 steps model really produce an effective change in the treatment of drugs addictions?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6311" CreationDate="2014-04-28T02:14:27.527" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. This amazing ability is not well explained nowadays and it is a characteristic of individuals usually called the idiot savants. Most of them suffer from autism. One of the explanations is about their extreme attention and memory to details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4914" LastEditorUserId="4914" LastEditDate="2014-04-28T02:19:35.847" LastActivityDate="2014-04-28T02:19:35.847" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6322" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6308" CreationDate="2014-04-28T02:50:00.197" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. Hallucinations are not necessarily present, although they use to be observed or reported. Hebephrenic schizophrenia does not have hallucinations as a main symptom, and simple schizophrenia doesn't have them at all. The criteria are very clear. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4914" LastActivityDate="2014-04-28T02:50:00.197" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6324" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6326" CreationDate="2014-04-28T03:43:15.433" Score="2" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a cognitive biasing effect that makes people believe that long statements / expressions / articles / books are more truthful than short ones (assuming that they are equal semantically)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4916" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-28T05:32:52.607" LastActivityDate="2014-05-01T06:00:09.217" Title="Is there a bias where long statements, books, articles, etc. are seen as more truthful?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6325" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6324" CreationDate="2014-04-28T04:18:08.300" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like a casual version of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_validity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;illusion of validity&lt;/a&gt;, but the illusion of validity is a more general bias that additional data generates additional validity.  It's often used more in a lab setting then a debate setting, where an additional experiment may be included to lend support to a hypothesis, but the experimental outcome isn't actually surprising given the results of other experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-04-28T04:18:08.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6326" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6324" CreationDate="2014-04-28T06:13:14.003" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Message length is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_Likelihood_Model#Peripheral_Path&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;peripheral cue in the elaboration likelihood model&lt;/a&gt;. This means that a message's length affects the likelihood that its recipient will be persuaded when the recipient is not scrutinizing the message's content attentively. When a message is evaluated through peripheral attention instead of central focus, simple heuristics that are easily fooled determine the extent of persuasion that results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Petty and Cacioppo &lt;sup&gt;(1986, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/pc86.part1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;part 1&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt; cite their earlier study &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/pc84a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Petty &amp;amp; Cacioppo, 1984&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt; as demonstrating that more arguments in favor of a message increases attitude positivity toward the message when the audience is not personally invested in understanding it &lt;strong&gt;even if the arguments are weak&lt;/strong&gt;. This doesn't work when the audience is highly involved – then a greater number of weak arguments only makes attitudes worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Petty and Cacioppo &lt;sup&gt;(1986, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/pc86.part2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;part 2&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt; also cite &lt;a href=&quot;http://goo.gl/nZgcNz&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wood, Kallgren, and Preisler's &lt;sup&gt;(1985)&lt;/sup&gt; study&lt;/a&gt;, which persuaded its relatively inattentive participants more strongly with long messages than short messages. Again, this effect did not vary with message quality, but disappeared among participants who paid closer attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@Eoin recommended &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.ucmerced.edu/sites/default/files/eheit/files/argument%202012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Heit and Rotello &lt;sup&gt;(2012)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, who replicated the results of Wood and colleagues. In fact, they even found the effect of message length among participants who were &lt;strong&gt;told not to judge arguments by length&lt;/strong&gt;. This also occurred when listening to verbal arguments. Good stuff...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Heit, E., &amp;amp; Rotello, C. M. (2012). The pervasive effects of argument length on inductive reasoning. Thinking &amp;amp; Reasoning, 18(3), 244-277. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.ucmerced.edu/sites/default/files/eheit/files/argument%202012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://faculty.ucmerced.edu/sites/default/files/eheit/files/argument%202012.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Petty, R. E., &amp;amp; Cacioppo, J. T. (1984). The effects of involvement on responses to argument quantity and quality: Central and peripheral routes to persuasion. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46&lt;/em&gt;(1), 69–81. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/pc84a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/pc84a.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Petty, R. E., &amp;amp; Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. &lt;em&gt;Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19&lt;/em&gt;, 123–205. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/pc86.part1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/pc86.part1.pdf&lt;/a&gt; (part 1), &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/pc86.part2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/pc86.part2.pdf&lt;/a&gt; (part 2), and &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/pc86.part3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/pc86.part3.pdf&lt;/a&gt; (part 3).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Wood, W., Kallgren, C. A., &amp;amp; Preisler, R. M. (1985). Access to attitude-relevant information in memory as a determinant of persuasion: The role of message attributes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21(1), 73–85. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://goo.gl/nZgcNz&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://goo.gl/nZgcNz&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-01T06:00:09.217" LastActivityDate="2014-05-01T06:00:09.217" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6328" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-28T15:23:22.173" Score="1" ViewCount="376" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm attempting to learn a very specific skill (perfect pitch) and I'm considering nootropic supplements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I can find plenty of websites offering these supplements and making big claims, I can't find any rigourous scientific experiments backing these claims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand I can't find any rigourous scientific experiments debunking them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would imagine such an experiment would not be too hard to set up; for example, performance on a simple &quot;pairs&quot; card game could give a measure of short-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How might I intelligently go about searching for such experimental results?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4920" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2015-10-14T13:36:06.957" LastActivityDate="2015-10-14T13:42:54.053" Title="Is there any scientific evidence that nootropics improve synaptic plasticity / learning ability?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6329" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6328" CreationDate="2014-04-28T15:49:35.500" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll have to leave it to someone else to provide real expert advice and references on this point but I do offer the following skeptical points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Brain Training Doesn't Work&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge, there is no reliable data whatsoever that says domain general brain-training has any effect. Basically, you can spend as long as you like practice pitch recognition, or anagrams, or any other cognitive task, but the transfer to unpracticed tasks will be minimal - you'll simply improve at the task you've practiced. &lt;strong&gt;You cannot increase IQ/Working Memory/Cognitive Capacity in this way&lt;/strong&gt;. See, for example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v465/n7299/full/nature09042.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Owen et al, 2010&lt;/a&gt;. The only benefit accrued from these games is in cases of cognitive decline, such as dementia, Alzheimers, and other neurodegenerative conditions, where training can slow decline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Nootropic Drugs Don't Work&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've seen no evidence, ever, that shows long term benefits of nootropics, beyond the usual, possibly valid claims about fatty acids found in fish. I can't find references for this right now, unfortunately, but really the onus is on those who claim that these supplements do have an effect to point to unbiased evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2015-10-14T13:42:54.053" LastActivityDate="2015-10-14T13:42:54.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6331" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="699" CreationDate="2014-04-28T18:32:06.880" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;For an open source JavaScript/HTML/CSS solution, check out jsPsych: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jspsych.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jspsych.org&lt;/a&gt;. It can be used for reaction time measurement and interactive designs. An article describing the library was recently published in Behavior Research Methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;de Leeuw, J. R. (2014). jsPsych: A JavaScript library for creating behavioral experiments in a Web browser. Behavior research methods, 1-12.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-04-28T18:32:06.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6332" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6333" CreationDate="2014-04-28T19:49:47.130" Score="1" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;People with Apraxia of speech have two basic problems: monotone pronunciation and slow speech.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;) Might someone with Apraxia of speech who does not seek treatment have psychological problems? They just don't care about not talking with people who don't want to wait and listen to their thoughts. Is that arrogance? low self-esteem? severely anti-social?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;) Is Apraxia of speech degenerative? Without treatment, speaking will become more, and more, difficult?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt;) Is it socially unacceptable to speak slowly with a monotone pronunciation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4900" LastEditorUserId="4900" LastEditDate="2014-04-28T20:01:40.267" LastActivityDate="2014-04-28T20:16:09.573" Title="Why would someone seek treatment for Apraxia of speech?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6332" CreationDate="2014-04-28T20:09:39.933" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There appear to be more than your two basic problems: see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apraxia_of_speech#Characteristics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's list of characteristics&lt;/a&gt;. Subjective difficulty in producing speech appears to be one particularly plausible reason to self-initiate treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I don't see any indication of a lack of concern for how speech is received by others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apraxia_of_speech#Progressive_apraxia_of_speech&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Some forms seem to be progressive&lt;/a&gt;, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apraxia_of_speech#Acute_apraxia_of_speech&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;not all are&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recent research has established the existence of primary progressive apraxia of speech caused by neuroanatomic motor atrophy.&lt;sup&gt;[19][&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3338923/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;20&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By comparison, stroke can introduce acute apraxia of speech that can (rarely) improve over time.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I wouldn't say &quot;unacceptable&quot;, but &lt;em&gt;undesirable&lt;/em&gt; seems true enough in general. Plenty of variation in rate of speech is normal and acceptable, but extremely slow speech can be grating. Tonal variation is expected in most languages with which I'm at all familiar, but again, most people probably understand that some people will be more or less monotone. Again, extreme monotonicity will tend to violate expectations and raise complaints, because variations in pitch and emphasis carry useful semantic information in normal speech. Personally, I've been criticized for speaking in monotone at many times in my life, but never for having too wildly fluctuating intonation, even though I've tried to exaggerate this quality somewhat compensatorily. Yet as with all anecdotes, your mileage may vary.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;19. Josephs, K. A., &amp;amp; Duffy, J. R. (2008). Apraxia of speech and nonfluent aphasia: A new clinical marker for corticobasal degeneration and progressive supranuclear palsy. &lt;em&gt;Current Opinion in Neurology, 21&lt;/em&gt;(6), 688–692.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;20. Josephs, K. A., Duffy, J. R., Strand, E. A., Machulda, M. M., Senjem, M. L., Master, A. V., Lowe, V. J., Jack, C. R. Jr., &amp;amp; Whitwell, J. L. (2012). Characterizing a neurodegenerative syndrome: Primary progressive apraxia of speech. &lt;em&gt;Brain, 135&lt;/em&gt;(5), 1522–1536. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3338923/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3338923/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-04-28T20:16:09.573" LastActivityDate="2014-04-28T20:16:09.573" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6335" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-28T20:52:06.113" Score="3" ViewCount="742" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a strong feeling that many people consider life as a zero-sum game, i.e. they always assume that you'll benefit, if you harm/disadvantage someone. Any research on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4916" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-04-29T04:33:18.323" LastActivityDate="2016-08-17T06:42:55.740" Title="Why do some people believe that life is a zero-sum game and that if you harm someone, you will benefit?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6337" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6273" CreationDate="2014-04-29T00:33:03.013" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;On a related note, I attempted an answer on the question: &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5324/what-causes-a-person-to-be-curious-inquisitive-and-explorative/5488#5488&quot;&gt;What causes a person to be curious, inquisitive and explorative?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Context&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The younger generations (like mine) have developed in an over-stimulated environment. We are no longer satisfied nor amazed by simple things. As budgets for show-business and entertainment companies grew, so did our standards for amazement and wonder. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennials&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;In our increasingly complex world, the amount of information required to master any particular discipline — e.g. computers, life insurance, medicine — has expanded geometrically. We are forced to become specialists, people who know more and more about less and less.&lt;/em&gt; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://jpederzane.wordpress.com/2012/04/22/lack-of-curiosity-is-curious/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like this quote denotes, I sometimes feel that everything is already explored or have been done before. This vision often cause a reflex to search for existing answers before even tackling a problem on my own. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He continues by saying that we are not going to school because of an initial desire to learn and understand the world, but because the existing world wants us to learn what it considers important:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;In this frightening new world, students do not turn to universities for mind expansion but vocational training.&lt;/em&gt; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://jpederzane.wordpress.com/2012/04/22/lack-of-curiosity-is-curious/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Factors of influence&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Motivation (in any flavor) can be influenced by personality characteristics, environmental factors and social situations. For example, there is a negative correlation between being in a depressed state and demonstrating curiosity in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;It has been suggested that &lt;strong&gt;a decline in curiosity is one characteristic manifested by depressed individuals&lt;/strong&gt;. [...] Results indicated that subjects made temporarily depressed reported significantly less state curiosity, perceived value of information, and desire for additional knowledge than elated or neutral subjects.&lt;/em&gt; [&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01183135#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now if we look at &lt;em&gt;Maslow's hierarchy of needs&lt;/em&gt;, it seems obvious that people with less satisfied needs are not naturally led to be curious. This implies that any society, family or individual that never approves the work of others, that can't provide security or food to its members doesn't provide an environment suitable for curiosity to develop.&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DBTeo.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Maslow&amp;#39;s hierarchy of needs&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There might also be physiological and developmental predispositions to grow up curious about the world. You can read more about these &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quora.com/Why-are-some-people-more-curious-than-others&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://susantblake.com/captains-curious-why-are-some-people-more-curious-than-others/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Training?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The next section is highly subjective as it contains personal opinions&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there are things you can do to increase the likelihood of becoming curious about a particular subjects, I don't believe curiosity is something you can unlock with a magical treatment. Don't force it. It develops with time and new experiences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thing I would suggest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Making practical uses of a subject, making links to other subjects you are already interested in. For instance, I became highly motivated in math and physics classes after finding an application for it in 3D game development. On another note, some people tackle life's problems with metaphors of things they know well.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Breaking the desire for stability, security and familiarity. Here is some media on the subject: &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9XRPbFIN4lk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sell your crap. Pay your debt. Do what you love&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jordanphoenix.quora.com/Fuck-Your-Comfort-Zone&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fuck your comfort zone&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Learning to learn (as stereotypical as it may sound) and doing things that you love.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Surround yourself with curious, motivated and interesting people. It will lead to very interesting discussions and you will learn lots of stuff from each other.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4173" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-04-29T00:33:03.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6340" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-29T08:24:20.407" Score="3" ViewCount="280" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a little bit of &lt;strong&gt;music especially handedness.&lt;/strong&gt; But I do believe it's more inclined to cognitive sciences. Here's my case. I'm naturally a right handed person, writing, throwing, picking up objects. When I clap, it's my right hand that does most of the clapping, when I drink, I lift the glass with my right hand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I also play guitar with my right hand.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Right handed guitar playing means, you strum with your right, and&#xA;fret with your left. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Left handed guitar playing on the other hand is    strumming with&#xA;your left and pressing the fret board with the right.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sadly with the loss of my left pinky, I am unable to play the guitar effectively. I've known people losing the dominant parts of their body (some even a whole arm) and forcing them to adapt, and use their non dominant part. And through time and practice, they've managed to use the non dominant part effectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I've been researching some articles regarding left handedness, cross dominance, and ambidexterity, interesting reads. I've read an article about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodfinancialcents.com/benefits-of-using-your-opposite-hand-grow-brain-cells-while-brushing-your-teeth/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;benefits of using your opposite hand&lt;/a&gt; stating that using your non dominant hand &lt;strong&gt;strengthens neural connections&lt;/strong&gt; in your brain, and even grow new ones, increases &lt;strong&gt;creativity&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;strong&gt;memory function&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anythinglefthanded.co.uk/children/changing-left-to-right.html#sthash.eS9UKwyh.bkyGXW3i.dpbs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;another article&lt;/a&gt; states that it is &lt;strong&gt;actually harmful&lt;/strong&gt; for a person to switch from his dominant side to his non dominant function, effects include :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stuttering  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Poor concentration&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bad memory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neurotic personality&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of resources stating the same negative effects of cross dominance, and forcing oneself to become ambidextrous. But most of the articles I've read (supported by studies) are concerned with children under pre-teenage years, having abnormalities in cognitive and psychological development - causing from being forced to write with their right hand even if they're naturally lefties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for adults, who are considerably grown. and people who have lived their entire lives right handed, Would shifting to a non dominant hand to perform a task such as playing the guitar affect (while keeping other tasks the same) a person's entire cognitive and psychological function? (I'm limiting this just to guitar playing)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4928" LastActivityDate="2018-09-20T11:49:26.933" Title="Is it harmful for a right handed person to play a left handed guitar" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6342" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6305" CreationDate="2014-04-29T13:47:59.300" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know how it is when it goes about hormones but for sure dreams can be remembered and this remembering of dreams can be improved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the most popular methods is trying to think about somebody's dreams just after waking up. It is also important to tell it loudly, record it or write it down.&#xA;After some time (even few days) of writing down your dreams a person is able to remember not one, but two, three or more dreams from one night.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The case of getting access to your previous dreams lately is connected with lucid dreaming - if you are able to have lucid dreams whenever you want, you also can initiate these situations which you like. But it is much less scientifically described case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4930" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2015-10-12T09:29:55.483" LastActivityDate="2015-10-12T09:29:55.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6345" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-29T16:32:24.297" Score="1" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently taking a course in Risk Management and we have been asked to give a presentation on Psychology and its effect on investment/market behavior. My group has created a solid presentation but we thought that it might be cool to perform a class activity that demonstrates some real life effects. We're considering offering people in the class a fair bet but analysing their decision, or something simple in a similar style. Does anyone know of any easy/cool demonstrations that might be worth looking into?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="jameselmore" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T14:47:55.490" Title="Examples of Psychology in Finance" Tags="&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6346" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6345" CreationDate="2014-04-29T19:04:33.520" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is quite a broad question, and the feasibility of any answer will depend on the time and resources available for performing a demonstration, assuming the objective isn't just to present a summary of existing research. A relatively simple principle to demonstrate in a risk management context would be the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;framing effect&lt;/a&gt;, whereby the emphasis on gain or loss in a given decision can affect people's preferences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To demonstrate this quickly and easily, you could pass out a shuffled deck of small cards to your audience, with one of two versions of a question printed on each card. The question can present a single dilemma from two perspectives: one that frames a decision in terms of how much the respondent stands to gain with one of two choices, and another that frames it in terms of the cost of each choice. If half of the audience gets one version of the question, and the other half gets the other version of the question, you may be able to demonstrate a difference in the choices people make based on which version they receive with a couple polling questions. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)#Research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; cites &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.hanover.edu/classes/cognition/papers/tversky81.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tversky and Kahneman's &lt;sup&gt;(1981)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; example of a dilemma framed from gain and loss perspectives:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[Text from Tversky and Kahneman, 1981:]&lt;/sup&gt; Imagine that the U.S. is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual Asian disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed. Assume that the exact scientific estimate of the consequences are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$\begin{array}{c|c|c}{\rm Framing}&amp;amp;{\rm Treatment A}&amp;amp;{\rm Treatment B}\\\hline{\rm Positive}&amp;amp;\text{&quot;Saves 200 lives&quot;}&amp;amp;\text{&quot;A 33% chance of saving all 600 people,}\\&amp;amp;&amp;amp;\text{66% possibility of saving no one.&quot;}\\\hline{\rm Negative}&amp;amp;\text{&quot;400 people will die&quot;}&amp;amp;\text{&quot;A 33% chance that no people will die,}\\&amp;amp;&amp;amp;\text{66% probability that all 600 will die.&quot;}\end{array}$$&lt;/span&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[Table from Wikipedia]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other examples are available, and the principle is general enough that you could probably expect it to work with your own variations on the theme. This particular version produced a 72% preference for Treatment A in the positively framed version, and a 22% preference for Treatment A in the negatively framed version. Tversky and Kahneman also describe several examples with risk framed in terms of financial gain and loss, but they might require a different setup for demonstration. An experimental effect of this size ought to stand a decent chance of appearing even in a fairly small audience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Tversky, A., &amp;amp; Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. &lt;em&gt;Science, 211&lt;/em&gt;(4481), 453–458. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.hanover.edu/classes/cognition/papers/tversky81.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psych.hanover.edu/classes/cognition/papers/tversky81.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-04-29T19:04:33.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6350" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-30T09:11:29.057" Score="1" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for theories or articles that focused on cognitive elements contributing to risk-taking behaviors. For example it is known that response inhibition is linked to impulsive behaviors.&#xA;I am looking for any neurocognitive parameters that meet criteria of antisocial personality disorder in DSM-5, especially including impairments in self-functioning such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-direction: Goal-setting based on personal gratification; absence of prosocial internal standards associated with failure to conform to lawful or culturally normative ethical behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4936" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-03T18:23:22.427" LastActivityDate="2014-05-03T18:23:22.427" Title="What are the cognitive elements of dangerous behaviors?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2014-05-01T04:14:40.477" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6351" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-04-30T16:05:48.007" Score="3" ViewCount="5059" Body="&lt;p&gt;My wife has been diagnosed with Bipolar disorder and as her husband and care giver I'm trying to delve into both understanding this disease and being an intelligent guide to freedom from as many of the negative symptoms as is possible. I've been reading up on hypnotism and would like to consider it as a future treatment but I'm wondering if the nature of Bipolar creates any unique environments where hypnotism might harm rather than heal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4938" LastActivityDate="2018-03-03T13:04:59.837" Title="Are there any negative effects from hypnotherapy for bipolar disorder?" Tags="&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6352" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6350" CreationDate="2014-04-30T20:32:39.683" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are correlations betweeen risk behaviours and temperament traits. According to Strelau's theory of temperament (1998) people are devided into those who have low and high demand for stimulation. The second one will probably do risk behaviours more often. There are also anothar temperament traits which can influence sb's behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can read more there:&#xA;Strelau (1998) Temperament: A Psychological Perspective&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And some other scientific articles with research results:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871603003570&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871603003570&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/73/5/1052/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/73/5/1052/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4930" LastActivityDate="2014-04-30T20:32:39.683" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6353" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6335" CreationDate="2014-04-30T20:48:03.300" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This kind of thinking can be connected simply with psychoticism, which is classed as personality trait by Eysenck (1976). One pole of this trait is connected with altriusm and pro-social behaviours and the second one with psychopathy, schizofrenic and criminality behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Eysenck, H. J (1976) Psychoticism as a dimension of personality&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Erik Woody†,* andGordon Claridge (2011) Psychoticism and thinking&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4930" LastActivityDate="2014-04-30T20:48:03.300" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6354" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4111" CreationDate="2014-04-30T21:05:49.070" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there are many determinants of jealousy. The very basic one is evolutionary explanation. For example, jealousy was necessary for male to extend his genes. If he wasn't, the another male could &quot;take over&quot; his female partner.&#xA;Another (more interesting for me) explanation is psychoanalytic one. You can read more for example in Bowlby's books, but also more classic ones. As &quot;more classic&quot; I mean these works which talk about Oedipus complex or other phenomenon which influence our approach (e.g.projection) to other people in future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Buss,Larsen,Westen,Semmelroth - Sex Differences in Jealousy: Evolution, Physiology, and Psychology&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) White, Gregory L.; Mullen, Paul E. (1989) Jealousy: Theory, research, and clinical strategies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) Pines, Aronson (2006), Antecedents, correlates, and consequences of sexual jealousy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) Bowlby (1953) Some pathological processes set in train by early mother-child separation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4930" LastActivityDate="2014-04-30T21:05:49.070" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6355" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5970" CreationDate="2014-04-30T21:45:18.150" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looking for acknowledgment is so important trait that some authors extracted specific contruct which can be responsible for this tendency - need for social approval. Polish researchers use Social Approval Questionnaire (by Drwal, 1995) next to the other tests, in order to exclude from their data base unreliable responses. It can be interesting for you what kind of questions are in this Questionarie. They are for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I have never been late for school.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I have got friends who I don't like. etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These questions are obvious for people whose need for social approval is not pathological. ALL of us was late for school, even one time. And there is no person who like everyone. People who are looking for acknowledgment, whose need for approval is very big, answer YES in those questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also read more in some english sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bibliography&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Drwal (1995), Kwestionariusz Aprobaty Społecznej KAS (Social Approval Questionnaire)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Millham (1980) Need for social approval: Impression management or self-deception?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4930" LastActivityDate="2014-04-30T21:45:18.150" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6359" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-01T11:53:49.180" Score="2" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did a preliminary research on brain structures in which activity might underlie risk-taking behavior. I came to two research that described &lt;strong&gt;right prefrontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt; (Knoch et al., 2006), or &lt;strong&gt;orbitofrontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt; in relation to &lt;strong&gt;accumbens&lt;/strong&gt; (Galvan et al., 2006) as the structures that might be involved. What are other brain structures that might be related to this kind of behavior ? And is there any integrated theories about&#xA;the structures involved ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Galvan, A., Hare, T. A., Parra, C. E., Penn, J., Voss, H., Glover, G., &amp;amp; Casey, B. J. (2006). Earlier development of the accumbens relative to orbitofrontal cortex might underlie risk-taking behavior in adolescents. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26(25), 6885-6892.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Knoch, D., Gianotti, L. R., Pascual-Leone, A., Treyer, V., Regard, M., Hohmann, M., &amp;amp; Brugger, P. (2006). Disruption of right prefrontal cortex by low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation induces risk-taking behavior. The Journal of neuroscience, 26(24), 6469-6472.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4075" LastEditorUserId="4075" LastEditDate="2014-05-01T19:14:52.510" LastActivityDate="2014-05-01T19:14:52.510" Title="Brain structures related to risk-taking behavior" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6362" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-01T21:16:41.963" Score="13" ViewCount="306" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since the time of Peter Kropotkin, it's been &lt;a href=&quot;http://egtheory.wordpress.com/2013/03/24/environmental-austerity/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;observed and theorized that cooperation and mutual aid are more common in austere environments&lt;/a&gt;. A classic biological example would be slime mold spore-making (Starssman &amp;amp; Queller, 2011), and anecdotal example would be people coming together to face a natural disaster. I am interested in more systematic studies of this in modern human society under more extended time-frames than reactions to disaster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://evoanth.wordpress.com/2013/08/27/humans-apes-and-monkeys-share-food-for-the-same-reasons/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;In monkeys, apes, and primitive human societies&lt;/a&gt;, a typical measure of cooperation and mutual aid is food sharing (Jaeggi &amp;amp; Gurven, 2013). I am interested in seeing studies like this that use naturalistic measures like this, instead of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1548/29&quot;&gt;artificial games&lt;/a&gt; like dictator or ultimatum (even though these do provide interesting economic and anthropological results at times; Henrich et al., 2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the few truly austere environments remaining in Western society is the plight of the homeless. For example, the U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness (1999) has found that 28% of homeless people nationwide sometimes or often do not get enough to eat (compared with 12% for the poor), 20% eat one meal a day or less, and 40% reported that they went one or more days in the last 30 days without anything to eat (compared to 3% for the poor).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, consistent with the Kropotkin's views, anecdotal evidence (i.e. what I hear from friends that have been run aways, and from the occasional homeless that I have a chance to talk to) suggests that food sharing is common among the homeless. As a highlight, here is an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.reddit.com/r/cogsci/comments/24cwnn/what_tasks_does_bayesian_decisionmaking_model/ch6qdq5&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;anecdote I encountered recently of reddit&lt;/a&gt; (empasis added by me):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is why I, as a homeless person, gets &lt;strong&gt;offered more food from other homeless people than from wealthier people I come in contact with&lt;/strong&gt;. This holds even though there is no pity parties among the homeless, and many food sharers will stab your back in a heartbeat if they perceive longer term gains. Or, in some cases, when more primal needs are at stake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This brings me to my questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How common is food sharing among the homeless?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it primarily driven by empathy/egalitarianism, reciprocity, tolerated theft, or other mechanisms?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does it compare to rates of food sharing in modern hunter-gatherer societies?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am more interested in anthropological studies done in western populations and developed countries, especially big urban centers, but comparisons to homeless populations in developing countries is of interest as well. I also prefer academic studies instead of governmental/activist ones, since the latter tend to have a policy bias; but I'll take what I can get!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jaeggi, A. V., &amp;amp; Gurven, M. (2013). Reciprocity explains food sharing in humans and other primates independent of kin selection and tolerated scrounging: a phylogenetic meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 280(1768).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E., Gintis, H., &amp;amp; McElreath, R. (2001). In Search of Homo Economicus: Behavioral Experiments in 15 Small-Scale Societies. &lt;em&gt;American Economic Review&lt;/em&gt;, 91 (2), 73-78&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Strassmann, J., &amp;amp; Queller, D. (2011). Evolution of cooperation and control of cheating in a social microbe. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 108(2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness (1999). &lt;em&gt;Homelessness: Programs and the People They Serve – Findings of the National Survey of Homeless Assistance Providers and Clients&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-08-16T19:59:18.440" Title="Food sharing and mutual aid among the homeless" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;&lt;anthropology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6364" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6230" CreationDate="2014-05-02T03:35:31.553" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question essentially addresses the difference between &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egosyntonic_and_egodystonic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego-syntonic and -dystonic&lt;/a&gt; disorders.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;To quote Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Egosyntonic is a psychological term referring to behaviors, values, feelings that are in harmony with or acceptable to the needs and goals of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego,_super-ego,_and_id&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego&lt;/a&gt;, or consistent with one's ideal &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-image&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-image&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Egodystonic...is the opposite of egosyntonic and refers to thoughts and behaviors (e.g., dreams, impulses, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive_compulsive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;compulsions&lt;/a&gt;, desires, etc.) that are in conflict, or dissonant, with the needs and goals of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego,_super-ego,_and_id&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego&lt;/a&gt;, or, further, in conflict with a person's ideal &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-image&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-image&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;personality disorders&lt;/a&gt; are considered to be egosyntonic and are, therefore, difficult to treat. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anorexia nervosa&lt;/a&gt;, a difficult-to-treat &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_I_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Axis I disorder&lt;/a&gt;, is also considered egosyntonic because many of its sufferers deny that they have a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive_compulsive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Obsessive compulsive disorder&lt;/a&gt; is considered to be egodystonic as the thoughts and compulsions experienced or expressed are not consistent with the individual's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-image&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-perception&lt;/a&gt;, meaning the patient realizes the obsessions are not reasonable.&lt;sup&gt;[2][3]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The egosyntonic and egodystonic concepts are studied in detail in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abnormal_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;abnormal psychology&lt;/a&gt;; while 'the notion of ego syntony plays an important part in psychoanalytic &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego psychology&lt;/a&gt;'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalizing_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;internalizing&lt;/a&gt; / &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mood&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anxiety&lt;/a&gt; disorders tend to be ego-dystonic, while &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_Impairment_-_Externalizing_Behavior#Externalizing_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;externalizing disorders&lt;/a&gt; tend to be ego-syntonic. This latter class includes &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_abuse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;substance abuse&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;antisocial disorders&lt;/a&gt;, such as those that relate to strong &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dark triad&lt;/a&gt; traits. This in turn includes &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychopathy&lt;/a&gt;, and in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad#Dark_tetrad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dark tetrad model&lt;/a&gt;, sadism as well, which @what has mentioned in his answer. Of course, it would be unwise to speculate about your friend's personal case, but in general, psychopaths are likely to lack some degree of self-awareness. More definitionally, psychopaths lack remorse, and often &amp;quot;suffer&amp;quot; more from megalomaniacal delusions. There is a thin line between primary psychopathy and narcissism, and disorders don't get much more ego-syntonic than narcissism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;2. Aardema, F. &amp;amp; O'Connor, K. (2007). The menace within: Obsessions and the self. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 21&lt;/em&gt;(3), 182–197.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;3. Aardema, F. &amp;amp; O'Connor, K. (2003). Seeing white bears that are not there: Inference processes in obsessions. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 17&lt;/em&gt;(1), 23–37.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-05-02T03:35:31.553" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6369" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12748" CreationDate="2014-05-03T02:37:04.313" Score="4" ViewCount="270" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is commonly quoted in popular literature that 10% of people are &amp;quot;highly hypnotizable&amp;quot;. Given a set of 10 suggestions, such people would have 7 or more suggestions become active. On the other end of the spectrum, there are people who are very hard to hypnotize and will have 0 out of 10 suggestions become active. Everyone else falls somewhere in between.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if the person's susceptibility to hypnosis can be altered?&lt;/strong&gt; Can a person who would previously respond to 7/10 suggestions be made to respond to 1/10, thus becoming hard to hypnotize (or vice versa)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, what is the mechanism behind such change - is it localized to some brain area?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-06-26T19:19:37.143" Title="Can a person's susceptibility to hypnosis be altered?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6372" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-03T16:58:56.713" Score="1" ViewCount="208" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do we repress aggression the same way we repress sexual urges?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;There is enough treachery, hatred, violence, absurdity in the average&#xA;human being to supply any given army on any given day&quot;&#xA;--Bukowski&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2407" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-04T08:23:56.550" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T14:34:44.633" Title="Do we repress aggression the same way we repress sexual urges?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6375" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-04T11:38:53.883" Score="5" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any experiments on binocular rivalry in animals? (In humans, brain responses to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubin_vase&quot;&gt;Rubin's vase&lt;/a&gt; are for example well studied.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4956" LastActivityDate="2014-05-05T08:18:02.433" Title="Binocular rivalry in animals?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6376" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6372" CreationDate="2014-05-04T13:20:52.923" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is at least one somewhat influential theory according to which inhibition of sexual urges, aggressive urges, and many others (such as inhibition of racist behaviour for prosocial reasons) depend on a common pool of resources: the so-called &lt;em&gt;ego depletion theory&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Ego depletion&lt;/em&gt; means that inhibiting urges draws from a finite resource, and once it is spend, inhibition becomes harder and harder. Some experiments seem to show that inhibition in one domain (having to do a hard math test) makes it harder to consecutively inhibit in another domain (inhibit racist thoughts).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even more general, according to &lt;em&gt;general arousal theory&lt;/em&gt;, there is much overlap between sexual arousal and many possible reasons for aggression, such as fear; entailing that a general competence of arousal management supports both violence control and sexual control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as is, the question is too broad to answer. Aggression is not repressed in only one way, and neither are sexual urges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumeister, R. F. and Vohs, K. D. (2007), Self-Regulation, Ego Depletion, and Motivation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1: 115–128. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00001.x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2014-05-04T13:20:52.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6377" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-04T16:34:01.113" Score="7" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard that the visual system is one of our slowest sensory systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How fast is the visual system, and how does it compare to other sensory systems (auditory, mechanosensory, pain, etc.)? For example, how long does it typically take for a visual stimulus from the external world to cause a neuron to fire in the V1 region of the cortex?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2909" LastActivityDate="2014-05-07T20:49:00.713" Title="How fast is the visual system?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6378" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6375" CreationDate="2014-05-05T08:18:02.433" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yes! &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binocular_rivalry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Binocular rivalry&lt;/a&gt; has been studied in monkeys&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/schall/pdfs/binmoriv.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Logothetis &amp;amp; Schall, 1990&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/0042698995002324/1-s2.0-0042698995002324-main.pdf?_tid=25af4bdc-d3cc-11e3-a725-00000aab0f01&amp;amp;acdnat=1399236131_ac69cb6c271b1998f5bdca29d8759e09&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lehky &amp;amp; Maunsell, 1996&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;and extensively in cats&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;sup&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/94/23/12699.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fries, Roelfsema, Engel, König, &amp;amp; Singer, 1997&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/0042698994001256/1-s2.0-0042698994001256-main.pdf?_tid=975fc6a8-d3cc-11e3-adba-00000aacb362&amp;amp;acdnat=1399236321_92dcf038bbf45976561c9b0473d1a312&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sengpiel, Blakemore, &amp;amp; Harrad, 1995&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/14/11/6855.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sengpiel, Blakemore, Kind, &amp;amp; Harrad, 1994&lt;/a&gt;; Sengpiel, Bonhoeffer, Freeman, &amp;amp; Blakemore, 2001; Varela &amp;amp; Singer, 1987; Moore, Spear, Kim, &amp;amp; Xue, 1992; Tong, Guido, Tumosa, Spear, &amp;amp; Heidenreich, 1992)&lt;/sup&gt;,  to say the least. This is all the further I got into a literature search today, but I'm sure there's much more out there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Fries, P., Roelfsema, P. R., Engel, A. K., König, P., &amp;amp; Singer, W. (1997). Synchronization of oscillatory responses in visual cortex correlates with perception in interocular rivalry. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 94&lt;/em&gt;(23), 12699–12704. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/94/23/12699.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/94/23/12699.full&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Lehky, S. R., &amp;amp; Maunsell, J. H. (1996). No binocular rivalry in the LGN of alert macaque monkeys. &lt;em&gt;Vision Research, 36&lt;/em&gt;(9), 1225–1234. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/0042698995002324/1-s2.0-0042698995002324-main.pdf?_tid=25af4bdc-d3cc-11e3-a725-00000aab0f01&amp;amp;acdnat=1399236131_ac69cb6c271b1998f5bdca29d8759e09&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ScienceDirect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Logothetis, N. K., &amp;amp; Schall, J. D. (1990). Binocular motion rivalry in macaque monkeys: Eye dominance and tracking eye movements. &lt;em&gt;Vision Research, 30&lt;/em&gt;(10), 1409–1419. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/schall/pdfs/binmoriv.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/schall/pdfs/binmoriv.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Moore, R. J., Spear, P. D., Kim, C. B., &amp;amp; Xue, J. T. (1992). Binocular processing in the cat's dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus III. Spatial frequency, orientation, and direction sensitivity of nondominant-eye influences. &lt;em&gt;Experimental Brain Research, 89&lt;/em&gt;(3), 588–598.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Sengpiel, F., Blakemore, C., &amp;amp; Harrad, R. (1995). Interocular suppression in the primary visual cortex: A possible neural basis of binocular rivalry. &lt;em&gt;Vision Research, 35&lt;/em&gt;(2), 179–195. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/0042698994001256/1-s2.0-0042698994001256-main.pdf?_tid=975fc6a8-d3cc-11e3-adba-00000aacb362&amp;amp;acdnat=1399236321_92dcf038bbf45976561c9b0473d1a312&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ScienceDirect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Sengpiel, F., Blakemore, C., Kind, P. C., &amp;amp; Harrad, R. (1994). Interocular suppression in the visual cortex of strabismic cats. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Neuroscience, 14&lt;/em&gt;(11), 6855–6871. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/14/11/6855.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/14/11/6855.full.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;- Sengpiel, F., Bonhoeffer, T., Freeman, T. C., &amp;amp; Blakemore, C. (2001). On the relationship between interocular suppression in the primary visual cortex and binocular rivalry. Brain and Mind, 2(1), 39–54.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Tong, L., Guido, W., Tumosa, N., Spear, P. D., &amp;amp; Heidenreich, S. (1992). Binocular interactions in the cat's dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus, II: Effects on dominant-eye spatial-frequency and contrast processing. &lt;em&gt;Visual Neuroscience, 8&lt;/em&gt;(06), 557–566.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Varela, F. J., &amp;amp; Singer, W. (1987). Neuronal dynamics in the visual corticothalamic pathway revealed through binocular rivalry. &lt;em&gt;Experimental Brain Research, 66&lt;/em&gt;(1), 10–20.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-05-05T08:18:02.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6379" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-05T12:35:00.497" Score="0" ViewCount="181" Body="&lt;p&gt;or the mind is a mere collection of memories, experiences stored in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4912" LastActivityDate="2014-05-05T13:53:21.053" Title="is the mind independent of the brain?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-05-06T16:24:05.813" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6380" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1776" CreationDate="2014-05-05T13:08:21.047" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hi there had the same problem but i found the original report:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Wickens, C. D., Helleberg, J., Goh, J., Xu, X., &amp;amp; Horrey, W. J.&#xA;  (2001). Pilot Task Management: Testing an Attentional Expected Value&#xA;  Model of Visual Scanning (Technical Report No. ARL-01-14/NASA-01-7).&#xA;  NASA Ames Research Center. Retrieved from&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aviation.illinois.edu/avimain/papers/research/pub_pdfs/techreports/01-14.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.aviation.illinois.edu/avimain/papers/research/pub_pdfs/techreports/01-14.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;enjoy!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4961" LastActivityDate="2014-05-05T13:08:21.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6381" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6379" CreationDate="2014-05-05T13:53:21.053" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Of course the mind is not independent of the brain.  Otherwise, nobody would do recreational drugs, psychiatric drugs would be useless, and our whole theory of light and color perception, sound perception, and every other sensory perception would be useless and make no predictions.  All of these things tell us how signal in the environment are transduced into electrical signals and processed in the brain.  And while we don't know exactly how it becomes a mental experience (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&quot;&gt;The Hard Problem&lt;/a&gt;), we know that there are many direct relationships between activity in the brain and perceptions and states in the mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mind isn't just memories and experiences stored in the brain though, it's also active processing of current stimuli, which includes &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v16/n10/full/nn.3499.html&quot;&gt;spontaneous activity&lt;/a&gt; that may randomly draw on memories and experiences, but not in a sensible or meaningful way.  That is to say, there are biological processes that aren't really necessary to brain/mind, but to metabolism or long-term evolutionary benefit, yet they still influence brain/mind and we sometimes ascribe meaning to them without merit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-05-05T13:53:21.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6382" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6383" CreationDate="2014-05-05T18:44:37.543" Score="4" ViewCount="372" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a rulebook writer and editor, and I have been digging into the literature for cognitive effects and heuristics that affect one's ability to learn and remember complicated concepts from text. For example, the &lt;em&gt;primacy effect&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;recency effect&lt;/em&gt; show that it's easier to recall information stated at the beginning and end of a list. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are some other predominant cognitive effects or heuristics that affect learning and recall from text?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12" LastActivityDate="2014-05-05T20:18:43.440" Title="What are the predominant cognitive effects that influence textual learning and recall?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6383" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6382" CreationDate="2014-05-05T20:18:43.440" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both the primacy and recency effects may also be referred to as parts of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_position_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;serial position effect&lt;/a&gt;. Wikipedia has a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_memory_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;list of memory biases&lt;/a&gt; you may want to peruse. Most entries are potentially relevant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptomnesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cryptomnesia&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: a form of misattribution where a memory is mistaken for imagination, because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/~jose/courses/578_mem_learn/2012/readings/Schacter_1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;][See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;misattribution of memory&lt;/a&gt;.]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentric_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Egocentric bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: recalling the past in a self-serving manner, e.g., remembering one's exam grades as being better than they were...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fading_affect_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fading affect bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: a bias in which the emotion associated with unpleasant memories fades more quickly than the emotion associated with positive events.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://goo.gl/zs179s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Google effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: the tendency to forget information that can be easily found online...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Humor effect&lt;/strong&gt;: that humorous items are more easily remembered than non-humorous ones, which might be explained by the distinctiveness of humor, the increased cognitive processing time to understand the humor, or the emotional arousal caused by the humor...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Leveling and Sharpening&lt;/strong&gt;: memory distortions introduced by the loss of details in a recollection over time, often concurrent with sharpening or selective recollection of certain details that take on exaggerated significance in relation to the details or aspects of the experience lost through leveling. Both biases may be reinforced over time, and by repeated recollection or re-telling of a memory.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://academic.udayton.edu/SusanDavis/PSY%20522/Articles/Towards%20a%20psychology%20of%20memory%20accuracy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Levels-of-processing effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: that different methods of encoding information into memory have different levels of effectiveness (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.numyspace.co.uk/~unn_tsmc4/prac/labs/depth/craiklock.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Craik &amp;amp; Lockhart, 1972&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List-length_effect&amp;amp;action=edit&amp;amp;redlink=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;List-length effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: a smaller percentage of items are remembered in a longer list, but as the length of the list increases, the absolute number of items remembered increases as well...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Misattribution of memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: when information is retained in memory but the source of the memory is forgotten. One of &lt;a href=&quot;http://nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/~jose/courses/578_mem_learn/2012/readings/Schacter_1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schacter's (1999) Seven Sins of Memory&lt;/a&gt;, Misattribution was divided into Source Confusion, Cryptomnesia and False Recall/False Recognition.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/~jose/courses/578_mem_learn/2012/readings/Schacter_1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_inhibition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Memory inhibition&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: that being shown some items from a list makes it harder to retrieve the other items (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tamu.edu/faculty/stevesmith/689/Inhibition/Slamecka%201968.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Slamecka, 1968&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modality_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Modality effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: that memory recall is higher for the last items of a list when the list items were received via speech than when they were received via writing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Mood congruent memory bias&lt;/strong&gt;: the improved recall of information congruent with one's current mood...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Peak-end effect&lt;/strong&gt;: that people seem to perceive not the sum of an experience but the average of how it was at its peak (e.g. pleasant or unpleasant) and how it ended...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picture_superiority_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Picture superiority effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: that concepts are much more likely to be remembered experientially if they are presented in picture form than if they are presented in word form.&lt;sup&gt;[7]&lt;/sup&gt;...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivity_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Positivity effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: that older adults favor positive over negative information in their memories.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primacy_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Primacy effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recency_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Recency effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &amp;amp; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_position_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Serial position effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;sup&gt;[10]&lt;/sup&gt; that items near the end of a list are the easiest to recall, followed by the items at the beginning of a list; items in the middle are the least likely to be remembered.&lt;sup&gt;[10]&lt;/sup&gt;...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rosy retrospection&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: the remembering of the past as having been better than it really was.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Reference_Effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-reference effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: the phenomena that memories encoded with relation to the self are better recalled than similar information encoded otherwise...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source Confusion&lt;/strong&gt;: [Omitted; redundant with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;misattribution of memory&lt;/a&gt;.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spacing effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: that information is better recalled if exposure to it is repeated over a longer span of time. [Also mentioned as &quot;lag effect&quot;.]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stereotypical bias&lt;/strong&gt;: memory distorted towards stereotypes (e.g. racial or gender), e.g. &quot;black-sounding&quot; names being misremembered as names of criminals.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/~jose/courses/578_mem_learn/2012/readings/Schacter_1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Suffix effect&lt;/strong&gt;: the weakening of the recency effect in the case that an item is appended to the list that the subject is not required to recall (Morton, Crowder &amp;amp; Prussin, 1971)...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Testing effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: that frequent testing of material that has been committed to memory improves memory recall.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Tip of the tongue&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: when a subject is able to recall parts of an item, or related information, but is frustratingly unable to recall the whole item. This is thought to be an instance of &quot;blocking&quot; where multiple similar memories are being recalled and interfere with each other.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/~jose/courses/578_mem_learn/2012/readings/Schacter_1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Verbatim effect&lt;/strong&gt;: that the &quot;gist&quot; of what someone has said is better remembered than the verbatim wording (Poppenk, Walia, Joanisse, Danckert, &amp;amp; Köhler, 2006).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Von Restorff effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: that an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items (von Restorff, 1933).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeigarnik_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Zeigarnik effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: that uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've reproduced most of the list, because most could apply for one kind of written material or another (e.g., novels, textbooks, one's own work). I've noted a few redundancies in brackets, but I may have missed others. I've also embedded a few extra hyperlinks to original sources where freely available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;1. Schacter, D. L. (1999). The seven sins of memory: Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience. &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist, 54&lt;/em&gt;(3), 182–203. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/~jose/courses/578_mem_learn/2012/readings/Schacter_1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/~jose/courses/578_mem_learn/2012/readings/Schacter_1999.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;4. Walker, W. R., Skowronski, J. J., &amp;amp; Thompson, C. P. (2003). Life is pleasant—and memory helps to keep it that way! &lt;em&gt;Review of General Psychology, 7&lt;/em&gt;(2), 203–210. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://goo.gl/zs179s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://goo.gl/zs179s&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;6. Koriat, A., Goldsmith, M., &amp;amp; Pansky, A. (2000). Toward a psychology of memory accuracy. &lt;em&gt;Annual Review of Psychology, 51&lt;/em&gt;(1), 481–537. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://academic.udayton.edu/SusanDavis/PSY%20522/Articles/Towards%20a%20psychology%20of%20memory%20accuracy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://academic.udayton.edu/SusanDavis/PSY%20522/Articles/Towards%20a%20psychology%20of%20memory%20accuracy.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;7. Nelson, D. L., Reed, V. S., &amp;amp; Walling, J. R. (1976). Pictorial superiority effect. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 2&lt;/em&gt;(5), 523–528.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;10. Martin, G. N., Carlson, N. R., &amp;amp; Buskist, W. (2007). &lt;em&gt;Psychology&lt;/em&gt; (3rd ed., pp. 309–310). Pearson Education.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Craik, F. I., &amp;amp; Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11&lt;/em&gt;(6), 671–684. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.numyspace.co.uk/~unn_tsmc4/prac/labs/depth/craiklock.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.numyspace.co.uk/~unn_tsmc4/prac/labs/depth/craiklock.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Morton, J., Crowder, R. G., &amp;amp; Prussin, H. A. (1971). Experiments with the stimulus suffix effect. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology, 91&lt;/em&gt;(1), 169–190.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Poppenk, J., Walia, G., Joanisse, M., Danckert, S., &amp;amp; Köhler, S. (2006). Why is form &#xA;information in sentences poorly remembered? An fMRI study on the role of &#xA;novelty-encoding processes. &lt;em&gt;Supplement of the Journal of Cognitive &#xA;Neuroscience, 18&lt;/em&gt;, (Paper presented at the 13th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive &#xA;Neuroscience Society, San Francisco, California, USA).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Slamecka, N. J. (1968). An examination of trace storage in free recall. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76&lt;/em&gt;(4), 504–513. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tamu.edu/faculty/stevesmith/689/Inhibition/Slamecka%201968.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.tamu.edu/faculty/stevesmith/689/Inhibition/Slamecka%201968.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- Von Restorff, H. (1933). Über die wirkung von bereichsbildungen im spurenfeld. &lt;em&gt;Psychologische Forschung, 18&lt;/em&gt;(1), 299–342.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-05-05T20:18:43.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6385" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6377" CreationDate="2014-05-05T21:02:32.313" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;researched with &quot;sensory cortex latency&quot; on google:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;according &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7786857&quot;&gt;nowak et al&lt;/a&gt;, latency in macaque v1 is ~75 ms, although there are cells with latency as short as 30 ms.  according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2012/10/16/1206387109.full.pdf&quot;&gt;camalier at al&lt;/a&gt;, latency in macaque A1 is more like 15-25 ms.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info%3adoi/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002536&quot;&gt;shriki et al&lt;/a&gt; for a computational perspective on latency coding in V1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is research into the latency of population responses recorded at the skin called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatosensory_evoked_potential&quot;&gt;evoked potentials&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, reviewed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001346949700117X&quot;&gt;Nuwer&lt;/a&gt;. He says that there are evoked potentials over somatosensory cortex 20 ms after stimulus, whereas the potential over V1 is more like 100 ms after stimulus.  All taken together, it does seem that the visual system is slower&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2014-05-05T21:02:32.313" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6386" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4763" CreationDate="2014-05-05T21:18:27.467" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301008298000124&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural Mechanisms of Stereoscopic Vision&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This paper is a 1998 review of the experimental data surrounding stereoscopic vision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.utoronto.ca/~fleet/research/Papers/visRes-96.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural Encoding of Binocular Disparity: Energy Models, Position Shifts, and Phase Shifts&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In this paper, Heeger puts forward computational models of binocular disparity using phenomenological models of neurons (i.e., using receptive fields of neurons, not using biophysical mechanisms).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016622369190043T&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural Models of Stereoscopic Vision&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A 1991 review of computational models of neural responses to binocular disparity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2014-05-06T17:31:29.283" LastActivityDate="2014-05-06T17:31:29.283" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6387" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-06T01:41:28.920" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a theory (Perhaps Freudian) concerning that of &quot;Being&quot; and that of &quot;Happening&quot;? I vaguely recall learning about it many years ago in H.S. Psych, but of course any search for either of these keywords results in non-relevant returns as both being and happening are common words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is, if there is a theory concerning these concepts - what is the gist? But as importantly, what are keywords that I could use to find useful results?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4963" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-06T02:16:07.457" LastActivityDate="2014-05-07T06:37:01.160" Title="What theory discusses modes of &quot;Being&quot; vs. that of &quot;Happening&quot;?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6391" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-06T22:15:22.497" Score="2" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wold like to know who are the main authors (and texts) which studied meditation using a scientific method and reported their results in a text that I can use for reference when I'm talking about meditation. Is there a scientific text which has been used for reference on this topic in the last years or there are only spread articles? An historical prospective is however welcome if is a good reference in the topic for the historical part.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3767" LastActivityDate="2014-05-06T22:49:10.937" Title="Who are the main authors who studied meditation with scientific methods?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6392" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6391" CreationDate="2014-05-06T22:49:10.937" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Searching for &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=meditation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;meditation&quot; on Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;  sorts articles by relevance and provides counts of citations that each has received. From the first page of about 686,000 results, these are the references with over 1000 citations each (I've sorted them by citations, which &lt;a href=&quot;https://webapps.stackexchange.com/q/20280&quot;&gt;Google Scholar does not do easily&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. Hyperion.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=2060926625997771428&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1971 citations&lt;/a&gt;!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Davidson, R. J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., Rosenkranz, M., Muller, D., Santorelli, S. F., ... &amp;amp; Sheridan, J. F. (2003). Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. &lt;em&gt;Psychosomatic Medicine, 65&lt;/em&gt;(4), 564–570.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=14241580908681193794&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1811 citations&lt;/a&gt;!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kabat-Zinn, J. (1982). An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: Theoretical considerations and preliminary results. &lt;em&gt;General Hospital Psychiatry, 4&lt;/em&gt;(1), 33–47.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=16075555766756988623&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1315 citations&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peterson, L. G., &amp;amp; Pbert, L. (1992). Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders. &lt;em&gt;Am J Psychiatry, 149&lt;/em&gt;, 936–943.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=17004682168331206187&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1295 citations&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kabat-Zinn, J., Lipworth, L., &amp;amp; Burney, R. (1985). The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 8&lt;/em&gt;(2), 163–190.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=11242372435581649956&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1002 citations&lt;/a&gt;; same author as the top result – probably one to follow for &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/buzzworthy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;buzzworthy&lt;/a&gt; work.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, you can edit the search terms, or set a custom range of publication dates if you want to look for references of more historical relevance. I don't think you should prefer textbooks over articles unless you're really looking to refer your audience to a comprehensive introduction to the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:57:25.103" LastActivityDate="2014-05-06T22:49:10.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6393" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-07T01:47:25.757" Score="4" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Reference_Effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-reference effect&lt;/a&gt; has been widely &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.carlsonschool.umn.edu/Assets/71676.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;researched&lt;/a&gt; in marketing for its ability to improve how favorably consumers remember a message, but less so for its ability to improve recall and learning of text. For example, whether the following information &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;You bought some milk and cheese.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;would be more effectively recalled than&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;He bought some milk and cheese.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The self-reference effect appears to improve information encoding by using autobiographical memory, but does any work  specifically look at relationships between using the 2nd or 3rd person and learning/recall?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12" LastActivityDate="2014-05-07T01:47:25.757" Title="Does the self-reference effect extend to improved recall of 2nd-person text vs. 3rd-person text?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6394" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6387" CreationDate="2014-05-07T06:37:01.160" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe you are referring to Erich Fromm's work on the &amp;quot;having&amp;quot; (not &amp;quot;happening&amp;quot;) and &amp;quot;being&amp;quot; modes. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_Have_or_to_Be%3F&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;See here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3077" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-05-07T06:37:01.160" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6396" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6398" CreationDate="2014-05-07T17:19:01.397" Score="1" ViewCount="165" Body="&lt;p&gt;Scenario:&#xA;Mary and John are in a relationship.&#xA;Elen is Mary's best friend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What will make Mary devalue Elen more?&#xA;Hearing that Elen likes John (romantically) or hearing that John likes Elen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's assume that Mary and John have been dating for a few months. Mary is a dependent person with low self-esteem who would go to great lengths not to lose her boyfriend. All three of them are around 20 years old.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4972" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-07T18:07:27.323" LastActivityDate="2014-06-13T15:15:20.657" Title="Which is more likely to cause a person to devalue some other person?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6397" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3396" CreationDate="2014-05-07T17:31:16.497" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From Shepherd's Synaptic Organization of the Brain (5th ed, pg 513):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the cat visual cortex, the terminal arbors of each individual&#xA;  thalamic afferent may extend over 1-5 mm of the cortical surface (&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/aPfhIX1.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fig. 12.11&lt;/a&gt;) &#xA;  so that each point in layer 4 is covered by the arbors of at least 1000 &#xA;  separate thalamic relay cells. Thus, the dendritic tree&#xA;  of an average layer 4 neuron, which extends for 200-300 micron, could&#xA;  receive input from many more thalamic afferents. However, the&#xA;  connections are not made randomly between the geniculate afferents&#xA;  and the cortical neurons. Selectivity is expressed in several ways.&#xA;  For example, there is a high degree of precision in the visuotopic map&#xA;  recorded in the first-order cortical neurons in the input layer, i.e.,&#xA;  those receiving mono-synaptic activation by the thalamic afferents.&#xA;  This clustering is made according to the eye preference of the arbors.&#xA;  The afferents of those thalamic relay neurons that are driven by the&#xA;  right eye cluster together in regions about 0.5 mm in diameter and are&#xA;  partially segregated from the afferents that are driven by the left&#xA;  eye. This segregation forms the basis of ocular dominance columns.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are, of course, many other factors in the specificity of thalamocortical projections.&#xA;Point here being that thalamocortical projections are not necessarily limited to cortical neurons with a shared receptive field in visual space, but may be limited in other ways.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, the corticothalamic feedback projection is also not limited to shared spatial receptive fields (Shepherd, p. 321ff.):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Thus, for the lateral geniculate nucleus, this cortical pathway comes&#xA;  from visual cortex (mostly areas 17, 18, and 19), and likewise,&#xA;  somatosensory and auditory cortex project back, re- spectively, to the&#xA;  ventral posterior lateral and medial geniculate nuclei. One&#xA;  implication of this reciprocity is that the corticothalamic pathway&#xA;  faithfully ad- heres to the map established in the thalamic nucleus.&#xA;  For instance, the corticogenicu- late pathway conforms to the&#xA;  retinotopic map in the lateral geniculate nucleus. However, there is&#xA;  some question as to the extent to which the maps match at the cellular&#xA;  level. This is based on evidence that, in the cat (Murphy and Sillito,&#xA;  1996), the spread of an individual corticogeniculate axon arbor can be&#xA;  quite extensive, reaching well beyond the region within which&#xA;  receptive fields that match those of the cortical axon can be&#xA;  recorded. The corticogeniculate terminals have a maximal extent of 1.5&#xA;  mm compared with the spread of a typical retinogeniculate arbor of&#xA;  only about 0.2-0.4 mm (Bowling and Michael, 1984; Sur et al., 1987).&#xA;  The retinogeniculate arbor's expanse roughly corresponds to the size&#xA;  of a geniculate receptive field, implying that the corticogeniculate&#xA;  axonal arbor can contribute to subtle effects on relay responses&#xA;  beyond the &quot;clas- sic&quot; receptive field. However, the majority of the&#xA;  corticothalamic terminals lie in a central core that roughly&#xA;  corresponds to the classical receptive field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2014-05-07T17:31:16.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6398" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6396" CreationDate="2014-05-07T20:39:19.540" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According with the description of Mary, I think that she would devalue her best friend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Explanation:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Elen and Mary have been friends for more time than John and Mary have been dating; this means that Mary could feel more betrayed because she trusted a lot in her friend, and respected her boyfriend. She's more likely to think that John does not like her because she's not enough good for him (because of her self-esteem), and that would generate more dependence (she would try to fix this problem because a part of her identity is at stake).&#xA;Hope this help you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4934" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-07T20:59:14.233" LastActivityDate="2014-05-07T20:59:14.233" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6399" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6377" CreationDate="2014-05-07T20:49:00.713" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ahh, don't forget that there are 576 megapixels by each eye, at 35 frames per second... It's so fast, some researchs show that we need at least 50 milliseconds to process an image&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also it's well known that our auditory system is faster than the visual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/42666-human-brain-sees-images-record-speed.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.livescience.com/42666-human-brain-sees-images-record-speed.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4934" LastActivityDate="2014-05-07T20:49:00.713" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6400" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-08T01:41:08.993" Score="2" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;After a specially intense workout (biking, running...), listening to music with headphones, I hear the music pitch has dropped slightly. What I find odd is that not all parts of the sound are detuned, just the low frequencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It happens to me every time I push the workout a bit harder than normal. I can hear the bass out of tune with the rest of the instruments. After a couple of minutes of rest, my hearing is back to normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What could be causing this effect? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4973" LastActivityDate="2014-05-08T01:41:08.993" Title="Why low audio frequencies seem to detune after an intense workout?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-06-09T16:50:56.727" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6402" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-08T22:02:29.317" Score="3" ViewCount="265" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read articles such as...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wired.com/2009/09/forgottenmemories/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.wired.com/2009/09/forgottenmemories/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and they say forgotten memories are still stored in your brain.  What about partially remembered memories.  For example, I can remember getting into a fight with someone but I might not be able to remember when, how the other person looked at the time, or how the exact motions played out.  Does your brain still store these details?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4978" LastActivityDate="2014-05-08T22:02:29.317" Title="Are partially forgotten memories still in your brain?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6403" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5735" CreationDate="2014-05-09T12:12:40.573" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have worked with the theory that the column is the binary unit involved in all cortical processing and memory for many years. Articles are available at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Robert_Moss2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;my profile page (Robert Moss) at researchgate.net&lt;/a&gt; and academia.com. The first article was &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255969149_Of_bits_and_logic_Cortical_columns_in_learning_and_memory._The_Journal_of_Mind_and_Behavior_27_215-246?ev=prf_pub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;published in 2006&lt;/a&gt; with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236145789_A_Theory_of_Hemispheric_Specialization_Based_on_Cortical_Columns?ev=prf_pub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;an update in 2012&lt;/a&gt;. I have published several non-peer-reviewed, more easily understandable articles that are also posted at those sites. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262932793_The_Role_of_Dynamic_Columns_in_Explaining_Gamma-band_Synchronization_and_NMDA_Receptors_in_Cognitive_Functions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;One major paper&lt;/a&gt; has been recently published that explains the possible microcircuitry of dynamically formed columns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4981" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-12T19:37:03.363" LastActivityDate="2016-01-12T19:37:03.363" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6405" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6415" CreationDate="2014-05-09T19:02:32.277" Score="7" ViewCount="1529" Body="&lt;p&gt;From Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Instinct or innate behavior is the inherent inclination of a living&#xA;  organism towards a particular complex behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The example that I find is the easiest to touch upon is the spider and how it knows how to spin it's web. What are the current theories about the origin of this knowledge without learning in the traditional sense? I understand that all knowledge is encoded somehow within neurons in the brain, but where does this encoding come from?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4930" LastEditDate="2014-05-11T20:58:46.090" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T07:41:04.390" Title="Where does instinctual knowledge come from?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6406" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6407" CreationDate="2014-05-09T22:53:46.463" Score="1" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately the school I'm starting at this coming fall doesn't offer a cognitive science degree (note: I've just read that they do have a cognitive science lab in the psychology department), but seeing as cognitive science is a multidisciplinary field, I was wondering whether or not it would be unwise to focus on one particular sub-field (say, philosophy or computer science) and try to work my way into cognitive science from there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that I have a very strong background in computer science, and I'm up in the air about whether I want to study philosophy or linguistics.  Based on my understanding, all of these fall under the umbrella of cognitive science, am I correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it unheard of for someone to move into cognitive science from a linguistic or philosophical background?  What do you suggest I do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4984" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-11T02:21:27.747" LastActivityDate="2014-05-11T02:21:27.747" Title="Can someone move into cognitive science from a linguistic or philosophical background?" Tags="&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6407" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6406" CreationDate="2014-05-09T23:06:04.243" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is common for psychology departments to have a cognitive specialization available at the graduate level.  At the undergrad level, I would expect to be forced to choose between psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, or something else. That is, cognitive science does not include philosophy or computer science by most academic systems for demarcating scientific domains. In scientific reality, all these domains bleed into one another of course, but you can probably expect to have to choose among them for any degree program. One can often pursue interdisciplinary study to some extent too (e.g., double-major, minor, or have two graduate advisors).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not &lt;em&gt;unheard of&lt;/em&gt; to approach any degree from any other degree / background as far as I'm aware. Of course it's less likely for a creative writing major to apply for an organic chemistry doctoral program as compared to a biology major, but that's not to say either option is impossible. I don't think it would be exceptionally difficult to transition into a cognitive science from a philosophy background, and I imagine it would be easier still to transition from linguistics to psychology or neuroscience, but it's probably the easiest to stick with a single degree program the whole way. Easiest is not necessarily best, of course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider how competitive you can be for each program, and compare with how badly you want to pursue each and what the world needs most from you. Consider what career options are for each, and which suits you best. Travel into the future and ask your future self what choices you regret...No other method is foolproof, unfortunately. Fortunately, career change is always an option, if not always easy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-05-09T23:06:04.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6408" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-10T05:57:27.717" Score="2" ViewCount="10680" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to start a project about the best schedules for learning activities focused on college students.&#xA;Since sleeping patterns are totally different in a young adult/teenager, and many of the classes at my university start at 6:00 AM, I had the idea to measure the level of learning capacity or memory an individual between 17–20 years old can achieve at different hours of the day, and assess if it is actually affected by time of day. But first I need to know what kind of tests I could use for this study. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What test could I use to measure the short term memory capacity of a group of &quot;normal&quot; people without any diagnosed learning difficulties?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4985" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-10T11:26:46.873" LastActivityDate="2014-05-11T09:45:08.760" Title="What test could I use to measure the short-term memory capacity of a group of people?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6409" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-10T07:37:02.330" Score="-2" ViewCount="7108" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given that the different parts of our brain are constantly competing for brain real estate and learning requires brain real estate, is it the case that we can only master x amount of skills due to the limit of our brain size? If we train hard enough at something is it possible that that skill can remain with us forever? If so, how much training is required before a skill can become a permanent feature in our brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4189" LastActivityDate="2015-01-16T01:09:10.237" Title="Is there a limit to how many skills a person can master?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6410" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-10T21:06:08.567" Score="4" ViewCount="461" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine a population of people in an office environment.  There is a small war going on about whether &lt;em&gt;this&lt;/em&gt; brand of coffee machine is better than &lt;em&gt;that&lt;/em&gt; one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How would you go about testing which coffee maker is truly most preferred?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My current plan is to take 10 people out of that population and make them each drink two cups of coffee, one made by each machine.  People will be given the choice of preparation styles for their individual trial, black, milk, sugar, or both.  Both cups will be made in the exact same way for that individual trial.  Whether a given cup will have coffee from machine &quot;A&quot; or &quot;B&quot; will be randomized to avoid people's preference for their first taste being taken into account.  Neither the participants, nor the administrator of the test will know which cup was made with which machine, to avoid unconscious biases.  Lastly, each participant will be independent of each other to avoid a bias forming from everyone else choosing a particular cup.  (Though the randomized nature of the study should make this a moot issue, but still.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there anything I'm forgetting to make this a more perfect study?  I would love to have a larger sample than 10, but alas, that's not an option.  Also, I'm worried that allowing people to choose how their coffee will be prepared will skew the results, but as long as both cups within a trial are made the same way, it shouldn't be a problem, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4990" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-11T01:37:05.283" LastActivityDate="2014-05-11T02:19:27.943" Title="How to design an experiment to measure coffee preferences?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6411" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6410" CreationDate="2014-05-11T01:36:53.340" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The study design sounds pretty good. Some of the good things you are proposing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Using a &lt;strong&gt;repeated measures design&lt;/strong&gt; will give you more statistical power than a between subjects design, which is particularly useful when your sample size is small. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Randomising or &lt;strong&gt;counterbalancing for order&lt;/strong&gt; should mostly control for order effects.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Double blind&lt;/strong&gt; will focus the test on taste rather than branding and as you say limit experimenter effects&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few further suggestions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You could provide a little bread and water between the two tastings or separate the tastings by some longer period of time to limit any residual taste effects from the first taste.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And yes, as you say, increasing sample size will increase your statistical power. That said, if your sample is your population (e.g., you have an office of 10 people), then the smaller sample size doesn't matter.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You should consider how the response scale you will use for rating taste. You could simple get a binary preference. But I think it might be better to use some form of scale that rates preference in addition to an explicit question at the end about preference. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-11T02:19:27.943" LastActivityDate="2014-05-11T02:19:27.943" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6412" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6408" CreationDate="2014-05-11T09:45:08.760" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several commonly used measures of &lt;strong&gt;Short Term Memory&lt;/strong&gt; (STM). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Memory span&lt;/strong&gt;: lists of items are presented sequentially and the participant has to repeat each list after it ends. The lists become progressively longer. The most common variant is called &lt;strong&gt;Digit span&lt;/strong&gt;, in which the items in the lists are spoken digits. Another common variant is called &lt;strong&gt;Backwards Digit Span&lt;/strong&gt;, in which the participant has to repeat the list in backwards order. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WAIS&lt;/a&gt; test battery has an implementation of both, along with a standardized scoring method.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free Recall&lt;/strong&gt;: a list of stimuli (usually nouns) are presented. After the presentation ends, the participant has to recall, in any order, as many items as possible from the list. The list is typically, 10-15 items long. This task has been used for a long time (e.g. [1]) and is still used in current research (e.g. [2]). Note that there is another variant of the task that is called Serial Recall, in which participants have to recall the items in the order in which they were presented. This variant is essentially identical to the Memory span described above, except the lists used are usually of constant length, and not successively longer as in the memory span task.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;N-Back&lt;/strong&gt;: a stream of stimuli is presented, and the participant has to respond whenever the stimulus presented is identical to the stimulus presented N steps ago. N usually starts at 2, and increases as the participant performs better. This task has been used for a long time (e.g. [3]) and is still used in current research (e.g. [4]). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You should also be aware of the close term &lt;strong&gt;Working Memory&lt;/strong&gt; (WM). The distinction between STM and WM is not really clear. If there is such a distinction, STM deals with simply holding information in memory &quot;As-Is&quot;, and WM deals with the ability to perform mental operations on it (such as comparison to other stimuli, mental rotation, re-ordering, etc.).&#xA;Backwards memory span and N-back are usually considered tests of WM, while forwards memory span and free recall are considered tests of STM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a side note: if you are interested in improving learning/teaching methodologies such as the schedule of classes, I'm not sure why you are interested in measuring STM. I would guess a more relevant property to measure would be the long term retention of what was learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Murdock Jr, B. B. (1960). The immediate retention of unrelated words. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(4), 222.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Farrell, S. (2012). Temporal clustering and sequencing in short-term memory and episodic memory. Psychological review, 119(2), 223.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Kirchner, W. K. (1958). Age differences in short-term retention of rapidly changing information. Journal of experimental psychology, 55(4), 352.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Jaeggi, S. M., Studer-Luethi, B., Buschkuehl, M., Su, Y. F., Jonides, J., &amp;amp; Perrig, W. J. (2010). The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning—Implications for training and transfer. Intelligence, 38(6), 625-635.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2014-05-11T09:45:08.760" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6415" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6405" CreationDate="2014-05-11T18:49:02.617" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my mind there are two main explanations of this kind of instinct behaviours. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The first one is rooted in &lt;strong&gt;evolution&lt;/strong&gt;. There are many examples of human innate behaviours which we can't explain e.g. when we see a lace or tape on the street we automatically jump and feel scared. Although we live in big city our brain associates the lace with a snake. It is an effect of our &quot;prememories&quot;, memories of our ancestors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&gt; Buss D., Evolutionary Psychology: the New science of the Mind (1999)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The second explanation is more connected with your question as it refers to animals' innate instincts such as birds' travels (how do they know where to fly?) etc. Some interesting experiments were conducted on a phenomenon called &lt;strong&gt;epigenetic inheritance&lt;/strong&gt;. An example is teaching animals some reactions after specific stimulus (e.g.fear after specific smell etc.). Then we observe the learned behaviours in the descendants of these animals. Offspring of trained animals show the same reaction , although nobody trained them to do that. There is an abstract of such experiment with mice:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v17/n1/full/nn.3594.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v17/n1/full/nn.3594.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And there you can read more about it in another article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/fearful-memories-haunt-mouse-descendants-1.14272#/b1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/news/fearful-memories-haunt-mouse-descendants-1.14272#/b1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&gt; Griffiths, Gelbart, Miller. Modern Genetic Analysis.(1999)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4930" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-05-15T07:41:04.390" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T07:41:04.390" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6416" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10862" CreationDate="2014-05-12T12:09:35.497" Score="2" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a person takes dopamine increasing medication for some illness, what effect will it have on his/her mental health considering that medication doesn't target just one area of the brain ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Parkinson's disease, dopamine is lacking in the brain area responsible for motor functions i.e. muscle movement hence creating  spasms in muscles. &#xA;Dopamine medication corrects this but it doesn't target just that area of the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious what happens with all the dopamine roaming in other parts of the brain, and how it affects mental health? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: I've made some changes, I hope it's more understandable now. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastEditorUserId="4431" LastEditDate="2015-02-26T16:06:18.237" LastActivityDate="2015-08-09T07:22:59.243" Title="How does excess of dopamine affect one's mental health?" Tags="&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6418" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6476" CreationDate="2014-05-12T18:11:54.003" Score="3" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been told of an article about the effects of bedtime stories. The findings of this article are that countries in which the more popular bedtime stories are active were more productive than the ones in which the popular bedtime stories were passive (Passive means someone came and rescued the princess, Active means the princess fought and got her happy ending)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've never actually read the article, and I don't even know it's name or authors. I'm hoping someone here can help me find it (or anything similar). I've tried google/scholar.google with no success. I'm pretty sure the article predates the world wide web...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'm not sure if the article in question calls the bedtime stories &quot;active&quot; or &quot;passive&quot;. I just used these words because they seemed appropriate)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5006" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-13T19:35:14.873" LastActivityDate="2014-05-31T15:25:37.790" Title="What article looked at the relationship between bedtime stories and national productivity?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6419" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19115" CreationDate="2014-05-12T20:03:19.617" Score="7" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;Human muscles are controlled by action potentials that travel along the nerves. Below is an image of a train of action potentials that are decoded by the brain into a sensation or interpreted by a muscle group as a command.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if it is possible to record such action potential sequence and then &quot;play it back&quot; for that person.&lt;/strong&gt; For example, a person is moving a leg, a recording of action potentials is made. Can such recording be transferred back to the nerves to create an illusion of movement or repeat the muscle movement?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ygqBA.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Action potentials&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T09:49:33.480" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T19:42:32.990" Title="Is it possible to imitate two way communication between a brain and a limb?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6420" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5745" CreationDate="2014-05-12T21:04:41.090" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The point is relevant in backward countries like Brazil. There are &quot;sebos&quot;, where second-hand books can be bought for very little money. Public libraries for free. Free internet access in &quot;Tele&quot; or &quot;Info&quot; centres. Free &quot;palestra&quot; conferences. I have myself attended class at the University of Sao Paulo-Butanta, and nobody has asked my status as a student there. Yet, most Brazilians have it in their heads that they need a certificate. My Brazilian pupils certainly have got this idiotic assumption. That is why they are enrolled in some institution, BESIDES paying me as their private tutor. In my experience, although every person occasionally learns something on his own, purely out of curiosity, it is only a minority that possesses the talent of self-didactism (auto-didacticism) for being PRIMARILY teachers of ourselves. Most people cannot do it. They lack intelligence or motivation for the effort of self-guide and self-discipline. They are imitators, and there is no social encouragement for autodidacts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5009" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-13T01:13:56.243" LastActivityDate="2014-05-13T01:13:56.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6421" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5947" CreationDate="2014-05-13T02:42:34.670" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might want to take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jspsych.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;jsPsych&lt;/a&gt;, which is an open-source JavaScript library for building experiments. There is an &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/jodeleeuw/jsPsych/wiki/jspsych-categorize&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;example of running a visual categorization task&lt;/a&gt; in the documentation for the library.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-05-13T02:42:34.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6423" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-13T15:34:14.467" Score="2" ViewCount="1100" Body="&lt;p&gt;What analogy can a teacher use to teach a child about neuroplasticity? It'd be easier to explain this to an adult, but a child probably doesn't know enough to understand neuroplasticity. Do you know or have you heard of an analogy that explains neuroplasticity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5011" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-13T17:41:27.357" LastActivityDate="2014-05-20T13:27:49.977" Title="What analogy can a teacher use to teach a child about neuroplasticity?" Tags="&lt;plasticity&gt;&lt;teaching-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6424" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6425" CreationDate="2014-05-14T02:52:18.290" Score="1" ViewCount="804" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any list of or a research of recommended 2D (or eventually 3D) shapes that should be used in psychology test stimuli? For example, circle, square, triangle, star, oval, rectangle etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I would like to create a cognitive test with multiple elements. I will pick a circle, a square, a triangle and an oval. However, an oval has some properties similar to the circle and that can possibly lead to some distortion in the data. Do you know of any research that has addressed this issue? Or do you know of any list of recommended shapes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2335" LastActivityDate="2014-05-14T03:42:31.373" Title="Psychology test stimuli recommended shapes" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6425" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6424" CreationDate="2014-05-14T03:42:31.373" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If your goal is to find a set of shapes that are unique and easily distinguishable from each other, you might be interested in stimuli that get used in visual statistical learning experiments (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/people/aslin/pdfs/Fiser_Aslin_JEPLMC2002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fiser &amp;amp; Aslin, 2002&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/ntblab/pdfs/Turk-Browne_JEPG_2005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Turk-Browne, Junge, &amp;amp; Scholl, 2005&lt;/a&gt;). The same set of shapes tends to get used across multiple studies in this literature. Some examples of these shapes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://raw.githubusercontent.com/jodeleeuw/Visual-Statistical-Learning-Stimuli/master/1.gif&quot; width=&quot;200&quot; height=&quot;200&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://raw.githubusercontent.com/jodeleeuw/Visual-Statistical-Learning-Stimuli/master/2.gif&quot; width=&quot;200&quot; height=&quot;200&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://raw.githubusercontent.com/jodeleeuw/Visual-Statistical-Learning-Stimuli/master/3.gif&quot; width=&quot;200&quot; height=&quot;200&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/jodeleeuw/Visual-Statistical-Learning-Stimuli&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;repository of some of these shapes on GitHub&lt;/a&gt;. You can download the images there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that there hasn't been research on these shapes, just that they are commonly used shapes in the literature when arbitrary 2D shapes are needed. It is likely that some pairs of these shapes are more similar than others, but since there are a couple dozen different shapes, you may be able to control for that by randomly selecting a different subset of the shapes for each subject in the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-05-14T03:42:31.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6426" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-14T13:35:55.907" Score="5" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;I proposed this question as an example question for the &lt;a href=&quot;http://area51.stackexchange.com/proposals/57490/mathematical-modeling/61941#61941&quot;&gt;Area51 proposal &quot;Mathematical modeling&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. User &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/29/artem-kaznatcheev&quot;&gt;Artem Kaznatcheev&lt;/a&gt; suggested that it be asked here too, which I thought was a good idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I am looking for a list of experiments which cannot be accounted for by the expected utility model. By the expected utility model, I mean the model of individual preferences over vectors of uncertain events (e.g. $\Big(P(rain) = 0.4, P(sunshine) = 0.6\Big)$ and $\Big(P(rain) = 0.6, P(sunshine) = 0.4\Big)$)  which satisfies a list of axioms proposed by Von Neuman and Morgernstern, namely&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Completeness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Transitivity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Continuity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Independence &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A rigorous formulation of these axioms can be found on page 8 of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.econ2.jhu.edu/people/karni/chapter.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Axiomatic Foundations of Expected Utility and Subjective Probability, by Edi Karni, from the Handbook of Economics of risk and uncertainty.&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;The violations of these axioms I am most interested in are the ones related to the Independence axiom&lt;/strong&gt; (violations of completeness, transitivity and continuity would deserve a separate question. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5150/are-people-more-likely-to-pick-the-odd-one-out/5162#5162&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; for an example of intransitivity.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, by Von-Neuman and Morgenstern's representation theorem (page 9 of the same reference), these axioms are know to be equivalent to the fact that the preferences of the agent can be represented by a utility function of the form (in the discrete case):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$U(L) = \sum_{all~possible~events &quot;e&quot;} P(e)u(e)$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where $P(e)$ is again the probability that $e$ occurs and $u(e)$ is the utility of getting event $e$ for sure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for situations which cannot be accounted for by the expected utility model. Some well-known examples are the the Allais and Ellsberg paradoxes (although there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vanderbilt.edu/econ/conference/rational-choice/Bradley.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;still a debate regarding Ellsberg paradox&lt;/a&gt;). On the other hand, I do not see the Saint-Peterborough paradox as contradicting expected utility theory, because it can be accounted for by the theory if one assumes an appropriate degree of risk aversion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this question can serve as a repository of famous experiments contradicting expected utility theory, so feel free to add many. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4008" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-12-01T21:59:41.133" Title="List of experiments contradicting the expected utility model" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6428" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-15T03:20:29.840" Score="4" ViewCount="278" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking about trying to implement object recognition/tracking using a silicon retina (also known as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.inilabs.com/products/dvs128&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dynamic Vision Sensor&lt;/a&gt;) and using the Semantic Pointer Architecture as my cognitive model. However, I want to make sure that it is biologically plausible, that is it respects the experimental limitations observed with human subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consequently, what human limitations on object tracking and recognition have been observed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-21T14:49:01.493" LastActivityDate="2014-11-21T14:49:01.493" Title="What human limitations are there to object tracking and recognition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6431" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6428" CreationDate="2014-05-16T12:40:39.513" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you will want to look into ecological psychological models for perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some cornerstones include &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/6727-invisible-gorilla-test-shows-notice.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;'the gorila study'&lt;/a&gt; show &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inattentional_blindness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;inattentional blindness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Others are among the many sub-phenomenon with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_of_vision&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Persistence of Vision&lt;/a&gt; studies, many of which now focus on the a concept called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Iconic Memory&lt;/a&gt;.  These matters deal with misapprehension of (usually incomplete) visual stimuli due to the action of cognition to create a meaningful recogition (e.g. probably what is 'ready for encoding / memory').  This also generally covers the phenomenology where we receive too-few stilimuli (objects moving too fast), and must cognize the available information to create meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a few good perspectives on human vision.  This is far from being a comprehensive set of human vision limitations, but if you dig into their references, you will find much of the community that studies this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Shaffer, D., Dolgov, I., Maynor, A., &amp;amp; Kelly, K. (in press). &lt;em&gt;Blind(fold)ed by science: &#xA;A constant target-heading angle is used in visual and nonvisual pursuit.&lt;/em&gt; &#xA;Psychological Science. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Schwark, J., Sandry, J., McDonald, J., &amp;amp; Dolgov, I. (2012). &lt;em&gt;False feedback in vigilance &#xA;tasks.&lt;/em&gt; Attention, Perception, &amp;amp; Psychophysics, 74, 1583-1589&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dolgov, I., McBeath, M., &amp;amp; Sugar, T. (2009). &lt;em&gt;Evidence for axis-aligned motion &#xA;bias: Football axis-trajectory misalignment causes systematic error in projected &#xA;final destinations of thrown American footballs.&lt;/em&gt; Perception, 38(3), 399-410.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(source / disclosure, I know some of the authors of the above papers)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastActivityDate="2014-05-16T12:40:39.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6432" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-16T15:45:55.873" Score="2" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt;  All of us have dreams at night, and I believe that all of us wonder how a dream of a lapse of seconds could convince our consciousness that this has taken the span of a lifetime.&#xA;As far as I know, the REM phase – in which we have dreams – does not take more than 20 min, while we can feel after a dream that it's a year after the last time we have been awake...Please correct me if I'm wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another interesting aspect in dreams is that space and time are subject to distortion, and the capacities of the mind to handle information is far away from its capacities in the awakened state, so the acuity with which someone can paradoxically &quot;resolve&quot; problems while asleep is no wonder, and by that I mention lucid dreaming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Drugs can alter our capacities to perceive our environments and ourselves, so that someone can ignore even the worst feeling of pain while he is taking barbiturates for instance, and the point of this is that what can be illogical within some context can be possible and therefore logical in another context.&#xA;Not to mention that hypnosis can bring a hidden aspect of our personality to higher levels of consciousness, make someone think he is another person or even another &quot;thing&quot; and so on...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if it is possible to provoke a state that is similar to lucid dreaming in a person that is awake...The idea is intuitive, even childish, and I received a comment that it's not logical, as lucid dreaming while awake contradicts the definition of awakened/sleep states...Of course this should be illogical at the first glance, but that is the point of my question.&#xA;I hope I found the right words to explain my idea...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Is it possible to provoke a fusion between dreams and reality so that our brains handle information of the real world in the same way as it happens in dreams?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3700" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-23T01:53:29.133" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T02:31:44.323" Title="Bringing dreams to conscious awareness" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-06-25T23:48:16.867" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6433" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3708" CreationDate="2014-05-16T18:44:50.430" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's the link to an interview to a Stanford researcher, Clifford Nass, where he answers questions about the topic. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/2013/05/10/182861382/the-myth-of-multitasking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.npr.org/2013/05/10/182861382/the-myth-of-multitasking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some links to one of his published research papers:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/106/37/15583.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/106/37/15583.short&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;(I recommend searching in Google Scholar for other papers by him, to the people interested in the topic.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I quote a fragment from the interveiw which I consider very relevant to the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People who multitask all the time can't filter out irrelevancy. They&#xA;  can't manage a working memory. They're chronically distracted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;They initiate much larger parts of their brain that are irrelevant to&#xA;  the task at hand. And even - they're even terrible at multitasking.&#xA;  When we ask them to multitask, they're actually worse at it. So&#xA;  they're pretty much mental wrecks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(LAUGHTER)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;FLATOW: Wow. But they don't think they are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;NASS: No. You're...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;FLATOW: And that's the danger, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;NASS: That's right. No, they actually think they're more productive.&#xA;  They actually think they tend to - and most notably, they think they&#xA;  can shut it off, and that's been the most striking aspect of this&#xA;  research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We - the people we talk with continually said, look, when I really&#xA;  have to concentrate, I turn off everything and I am laser-focused. And&#xA;  unfortunately, they've developed habits of mind that make it&#xA;  impossible for them to be laser-focused. They're suckers for&#xA;  irrelevancy. They just can't keep on task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5026" LastActivityDate="2014-05-16T18:44:50.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6434" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6432" CreationDate="2014-05-16T18:44:51.060" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just speaking from personal experience, I've never experienced time distortion in my dreams as extremely as you describe. I've experienced moments scattered throughout narratives that would take longer than 20 minutes to elapse in real life, but since I never recall experiencing every single moment of those narratives, I wouldn't assume my sense of time had altered while dreaming. Maybe I'd just skipped around, experiencing only 20 minutes' worth of the dreams' narratives, or maybe I'd only imagined those moments as joined by an implicit narrative and not really experienced time passing during any one of them. I'd love to see empirical research on this, but it's somewhat hard for me to imagine how reliable information on these matters could be collected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The duration of REM sleep is more objectively observable than the contents of dreams; I was surprised to find that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=duration+of+rem+sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google produces a reference immediately in response to the query, &quot;duration of rem sleep&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The first REM period of the night may be less than 10 minutes in duration, while the last may exceed 60 minutes. &lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1188226-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stevens, 2013&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While cognitive function is clearly different while dreaming, I'm unaware of any evidence that it's enhanced in any ways that would be desirable during wakefulness. If you or anyone else can find any references to support your ideas, we could probably have a much more productive discussion here. Similarly, I'm skeptical of the comparisons of lucid dreaming to hypnosis and intoxication. These may be very different states of consciousness, and I definitely wouldn't call them &quot;higher states&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Just to preserve the coherence of your response to my answer, here's the old content worth keeping:&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucid_dream&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lucid dreams&lt;/a&gt; are by definition both conscious and occurrent during sleep, therefore:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's not logically possible to have a lucid dream while awake. If you're trying to refer to a similar state that is not a dream, please define it directly rather than by analogy to a dream state.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lucid dreams do not need to be brought to the boundaries of consciousness; they occur within those boundaries by definition. Maybe you mean to ask for ways of making ordinary dreams lucid.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://chat.stackexchange.com/transcript/message/15307766#15307766&quot;&gt;The old &quot;Let me Google Scholar that for you&quot;&lt;/a&gt; offers plenty on lucid dreams and means of induction.  I'll even copy, paste, and format some below...(I'm absolutely not vouching for their scientific validity BTW. &quot;&lt;em&gt;Medical Hypotheses&lt;/em&gt;&quot;? &lt;a href=&quot;http://knowyourmeme.com/memes/seems-legit-sounds-legit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sounds legit&lt;/a&gt;...) Looks like there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=lucid+dream&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;about 2,878 more where these came from&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Barrett, D. (1992). Just how lucid are lucid dreams? &lt;em&gt;Dreaming, 2&lt;/em&gt;(4), 221–228.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Garfield, P. (1975). Psychological concomitants of the lucid dream state. &lt;em&gt;Sleep Research, 4&lt;/em&gt;, 184.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Gillespie, G. (1983). Memory and reason in lucid dreams: A personal observation. &lt;em&gt;Lucidity Letter, 2&lt;/em&gt;(1), 8–9.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Green, C. E. (1968). &lt;em&gt;Lucid dreams&lt;/em&gt; (Vol. 1). Institute of Psychophysical Research.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Hearne, K. M. (1983). Lucid dream induction. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Mental Imagery, 7&lt;/em&gt;(1), 19–23.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; LaBerge, S. P. (1980). Lucid dreaming as a learnable skill: A case study. &lt;em&gt;Perceptual and Motor Skills, 51&lt;/em&gt;(3f), 1039–1042.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; LaBerge, S. P., Nagel, L. E., Dement, W. C., &amp;amp; Zarcone Jr, V. P. (1981). Lucid dreaming verified by volitional communication during REM sleep. &lt;em&gt;Perceptual and Motor Skills, 52&lt;/em&gt;(3), 727–732.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Sergio, W. (1988). Use of DMAE (2-dimethylaminoethanol) in the induction of lucid dreams. &lt;em&gt;Medical Hypotheses, 26&lt;/em&gt;(4), 255–257.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Stevens, M. S. (2013).  Normal sleep in adults, infants, and the elderly. &lt;em&gt;Medscape: Normal sleep, sleep physiology, and sleep deprivation&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1188226-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1188226-overview&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Tart, C. (1979). From spontaneous event to lucidity: A review of attempts to consciously control nocturnal dreaming. In B. Wolman, M. Ullman, &amp;amp; W. Webb (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Handbook of dreams: Research, theories and applications&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 226–268). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Tart, C. (1984). Terminology in lucid dream research. &lt;em&gt;Lucidity Letter, 3&lt;/em&gt;(1), 4–6. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sawka.com/spiritwatch/terminol.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sawka.com/spiritwatch/terminol.htm&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Tholey, P. (1983). Relation between dream content and eye movements tested by lucid dreams. &lt;em&gt;Perceptual and Motor Skills, 56&lt;/em&gt;, 875–878.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; van Eeden, F. (1969). A study of dreams. In C. Tart (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;Altered states of consciousness&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 145–157). New York: Wiley.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-23T02:31:44.323" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T02:31:44.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6435" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-17T01:05:35.170" Score="9" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;Epigenetic memory is seen as the most evolutionarily plausible way of learning from experiences and gaining instinctual knowledge accross generations, as established by the answer to one of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6405/where-does-instinctual-knowledge-come-from&quot;&gt;my previous questions&lt;/a&gt;. However, is it known how epigenetic memories are translated from the DNA into neurons? Alternatively, I may be approaching this from the wrong direction and may need to read more papers, so links helping me clarify my question would be appreciated as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-06-07T23:23:02.027" LastActivityDate="2016-06-07T23:23:02.027" Title="How is epigenetic memory expressed in neurons?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6436" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6435" CreationDate="2014-05-17T11:13:21.213" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are (at least) two ways epigenetic traits are inherited.  The important background in both cases is gene expression: there is a misconception that genes are for this or that, where the reality is that most traits come from an overlap of several genes expressing themselves in different ratios.  As a simple example, consider two varieties of bird of the same species, but one has a longer beak.  One might conclude that the genes involved in the morphology of the beak were expressed longer or in greater quantity in the bird with the bigger beak.  Epigenetics describes inherited expression schemes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The well known method of epigenetic transfer is DNA methylation.  The DNA itself is not actually changed, but the methylation sites act like tags, altering the expression rate of those particular genes.  Another way is through histones, which are part of packing and unpacking DNA between storage and use.  Alterations in histones can also alter gene expression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-05-18T21:54:05.233" LastActivityDate="2014-05-18T21:54:05.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6438" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4037" CreationDate="2014-05-20T01:29:16.750" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually, animals are able to imagine the future, at least to the extent that they use prospective control of their movements. And there are fantastic arguments for animals being self-aware, considering self-related processing as a feature of at least mammals if not many more animals (Northoff and Panksepp, The trans-species concept of self and the subcortical-cortical midline system, 2008). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A core self may be based on an integrating neuronal mechanism that accounts for self-related processing, integrating &lt;em&gt;exteroception&lt;/em&gt; (perception of the external world via sight, sound, etc.) and &lt;em&gt;interoception&lt;/em&gt; (perception of internal states of being) with emotional processing all in relation to a goal. It is coordinated action in the world, colored by emotional evaluation of anticipated and realized results. In fact, Solms and Panksepp (The &quot;Id&quot; Knows More than the &quot;Ego&quot; Admits: Neuropsychoanalytic and Primal Consciousness Perspectives on the Interface Between Affective and Cognitive Neuroscience, 2012) make a convincing case for affective consciousness, that attributing a positive or negative value to an experience and the arising movements/behaviors might be the whole point of consciousness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar to other social animals, humans move in ways that reveal their attention, intentions, and feelings (Colwyn Trevarthen – pretty much everything he's written), but there are a few things that are different. Humans have an internal mechanism for time-keeping which Trevarthen describes as the &lt;em&gt;Intrinsic Motive Pulse&lt;/em&gt;, or the natural flow of energy cycles in our brain that shape our movements and create a sense of time, allowing us to create memories and anticipate the future in unique ways. Rhythms between infants and adults are the same, so that we are able to communicate non-verbally, sharing pulse and quality to create narratives in a &quot;communicative musicality&quot; (Malloch, Mother and infants and communicative musicality, 1999). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, we begin to make cooperative meaning with one another from the moment we are born; that leads eventually to the transmission of culture, even across generations (Trevarthen, What is it like to be a person who knows nothing?). We make symbols and rituals that fill our world with meaning. Language is a product of the ways in which people are able to create consensual domains (Maturana, Biology of Language, 1978), the root of which is in sympathetic movement (Delafield-Butt and Trevarthen, Theories of the development of human communication, year?). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5042" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-20T02:03:38.367" LastActivityDate="2014-05-20T02:03:38.367" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6439" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4879" CreationDate="2014-05-20T02:17:57.507" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, I'm not sure there's a quick answer to the exact amount of overlap, but you may be able to get an estimate by comparing the list of journals included in Medline (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nlm.nih.gov/archive/20130415/tsd/serials/lji.html.notice.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nlm.nih.gov/archive/20130415/tsd/serials/lji.html.notice.html&lt;/a&gt;) to the list of journals covered by PsycINFO (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/coverage.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/coverage.aspx&lt;/a&gt;). Also, keep in mind that each database has it's own thesaurus and preferred search terms, and the terms you're using might pull up different results in different databases. You may be able to optimize your results by using search terms specific to each database.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-05-20T02:17:57.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6444" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-20T19:48:01.203" Score="0" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a term beyond 'low self esteem' or 'neurotic' that describes a person that is compulsive in thinking the entire world is looking down on them? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5046" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-05-22T17:16:04.270" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T17:16:04.270" Title="Is there a term for compulsively thinking the whole world &quot;hates&quot; you?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6445" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6444" CreationDate="2014-05-20T20:20:43.637" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecutory_delusion&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;persecutory delusion&lt;/a&gt;. They are compulsive in that they manifest as extreme, irrational suspicions with little or no basis in reality. The irrational components often involve absurdly elaborate conspiracy theories, so this is probably close enough to &amp;quot;the entire world&amp;quot;, but it often goes much further than &amp;quot;looking down&amp;quot; into more severe forms of persecution. I don't know what you mean by &amp;quot;beyond&amp;quot; though. Persecutory delusions will probably enhance neuroticism and may erode self-esteem or arise from problems with it, but they have somewhat separate etiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Response to your comment&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Persecutory delusions are a prominent feature of paranoid schizophrenia, but they are not unique to that disorder. IMO, ordinary people may experience them. What you describe in your comment below doesn't sound like a delusion though, or even a compulsion necessarily. It sounds more like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;projection&lt;/a&gt; of the person's own self-deprecating thoughts. I would rather call this a habitual reliance on a classic defense mechanism than call it a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsive_behavior&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;compulsion&lt;/a&gt;, which has a subtly different technical meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems the person is seeking external confirmation of his/her self-perceptions, or maybe seeking help in refuting them somewhat manipulatively. By putting harsh words in your mouth, the person urges you to deny them, and in the process fishes for affirming words to the contrary from you. It's hard to tell whether any of these words represent stable beliefs or just momentary thoughts and appeals for reassurance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-05-20T21:28:32.003" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6446" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-20T20:54:32.313" Score="4" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;Referring to (for example) &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0123708966&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Visual Thinking for Design&lt;/a&gt;, the book discusses various low-level processing channels in the brain. Colour and orientation are two examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if transparency is another such channel; and if it isn't, how exactly transparency manifests itself within the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-23T07:40:05.150" LastActivityDate="2019-01-04T18:32:21.870" Title="Does transparency have its own visual channel?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6447" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6409" CreationDate="2014-05-20T21:52:39.717" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Given that the different parts of our brain are constantly competing for brain real estate and learning requires brain real estate&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nothing competes with nothing within our brain. In fact, it's a pretty harmonious machine. Literarily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is just a vast network of neurons where a lot of activity happens in parallel. Unfamiliar complex tasks pose greater load on the network (meaning they require activity to spread more and be sustained for longer), and such load may spread into areas that would have done other things otherwise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is it the case that we can only master x amount of skills due to the limit of our brain size?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mathematically speaking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To learn an infinite number of skills we would need an infinitely neuron-dense brain and infinite time. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If each neuron in our brain would serve as a skill (obviously you need more than one neuron for a skill, but let's just say), we could have only acquired around hundred billion skills.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then the brain size is a poor indicator to abilities. Elephants has a brain more than 3 times the size of ours, yet they exhibit a highly limited set of skills compared to humans. It's more about how much stuff there is there, and how is it 'wired'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If we train hard enough at something is it possible that that skill can remain with us forever?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if you haven't or don't train at all some skills will remain with you forever (or in most people's case, until they die). Like your skill to speak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But generally speaking, if something becomes a 'skill' it means that it is heavily integrated in our neural network in a way that makes interpretation and execution unconscious processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain has no native conscious mechanism to forget things (although in some cases and if you know how you can exercise a mild ability to forget).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If so, how much training is required before a skill can become a permanent feature in our brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How long is a piece of string? It depends of what you already capable of doing, how you train, how hard the skill you try to acquire is, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if I read between the words, then basically you can master any skill you wish, so long it is realistic and you spend the time practicing it. Some people who late in their life became blind later became proficient craftsman - the brain is a wonderful machine, just waiting for you to explore and utilise it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2014-05-20T21:52:39.717" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6448" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4249" CreationDate="2014-05-21T02:01:46.587" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pathological Intoxication was removed as a diagnosis from the DSM-IV (the psychiatric diagnostic manual used by American psychiatrists) when it was published in 1994, but was left in the ICD-10 (the diagnostic manual published by the World Health Organization) which was published in 1992. The decision to remove the disorder from the DSM-IV was based on literature reviews indicating there was no evidence for a separate syndrome of pathological intoxication (Salloum &amp;amp; Mezzich, Psychiatric Diagnosis: Challenges and Prospects, 2009, John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, pg. 123). The disorder is not included in the DSM-5, which was published in 2013. The ICD-11 draft redirects searches of &quot;pathological intoxication&quot; to the &quot;alcohol intoxication&quot; entry; pathological intoxication is listed as a narrower term, but no additional information is provided (&lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd11/browse/f/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f1339202943&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd11/browse/f/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f1339202943&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 2012 review (Fuelner, T., The minotaur defense: The myth of the pathological intoxication defense, American Criminal Law Review, 49(i4), pp.1969-1999; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=264897&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=264897&lt;/a&gt;) provides an overview of the historical and current medical and legal definitions of the condition. The author concludes that the concept has largely been discredited in psychiatry, but has some continued support in legal circles. However, the author argues the use of the condition in criminal defense should be eliminated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-05-21T02:01:46.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6450" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-21T10:35:59.057" Score="4" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any research investigating the effect (or correlation) of a military background of a person on his productivity, effectiveness and other characteristics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is often casually claimed that a person with a military background is more disciplined, hardworking and so on, but it is interesting to find out whether it is has a scientific proof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There some other supporting reasons like that Harvard accepts a lot of people with a military background or many of them succeed in the business world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also the same question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://productivity.stackexchange.com/questions/9690/does-military-background-enhance-productivity&quot;&gt;Productivity Stack Exchange&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4685" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-25T11:25:48.487" LastActivityDate="2014-05-25T11:25:48.487" Title="Does military background enhance personal productivity?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;military-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T23:22:54.920" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6451" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-21T12:20:17.863" Score="14" ViewCount="1607" Body="&lt;p&gt;If one is more interested in understanding how algorithms in the biological brain solve problems (theoretically, particularly the mathematical aspect), and possibly in building brain-inspired computation (applied theory, particularly neurorobotics), then is it suggested to focus more on studying computational neuroscience rather than artificial neural nets/machine learning? It seems the latter one is more oriented toward any algorithms just to solve problems via computer simulations without the constraints of biological brains, though there are still large areas for theory of machine learning and artificial neural nets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5052" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-21T16:51:55.047" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T02:58:10.063" Title="How distantly related are research in computational neuroscience and neural networks/machine learning?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6452" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-21T15:36:33.743" Score="2" ViewCount="3034" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that whenever I am driving I've always got to pick my nose. I've also noted that other people do this on a daily basis as well. Why do people have the tendency to pick their nose while driving?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5054" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-22T00:42:40.227" LastActivityDate="2016-07-08T02:44:30.640" Title="Why do people have the tendency to pick their nose while driving?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6454" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-05-22T00:21:15.217" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Military psychology is the research, design and application of psychological theories and empirical data towards understanding, predicting and countering behaviours either in friendly or enemy forces or civilian population that may be undesirable, threatening or potentially dangerous to the conduct of military operations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-22T00:21:15.217" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T00:21:15.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6455" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-05-22T00:21:15.217" Score="0" Body="Military psychology is the research, design and application of psychological theories and empirical data towards understanding, predicting and countering behaviours either in friendly or enemy forces or civilian population that may be undesirable, threatening or potentially dangerous to the conduct of military operations. " OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-22T00:21:15.217" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T00:21:15.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6456" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6452" CreationDate="2014-05-22T00:41:55.297" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suppose one explanation of this observation is that being a driver in a car is a semi-private space. It is semi-private in that it often feels like people can't see you. In addition, even if someone sees you, you will be driving away from them shortly. And it is unlikely that they know who you are and that your nose picking will ever affect your reputation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, presumably there are many activities that people tend to do more in private, that occur often in a car. E.g., random singing, farting, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T00:41:55.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6457" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-20T21:03:55.780" Score="3" ViewCount="3224" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm neither a academic nor familiar with the proper English choice of words regarding research. However, I would really like to know a few things about the process of doing a research with people itself as a subject, so that I can apply it to my work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know how normally the participants are divided into multiple groups, so that the results can be scientifically compared to each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand this can have detailed answers, I am really looking for a abstract method to achieve this such that I have meaningful results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Tim" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-22T03:01:09.257" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T10:19:07.860" Title="How are research participants normally divided into equal groups to allow scientific comparison?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6458" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6457" CreationDate="2014-05-21T00:44:33.273" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you are talking about random allocation of participants to groups for the purpose of running a between-subjects experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can learn more by reading about&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;randomized controlled trials&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_assignment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;random assignment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of practical details for random assignment, there are many ways that you can do random assignment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Social Psychology Network has an online application that generates random assignments to groups: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.randomizer.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.randomizer.org/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can use your own  random number generator &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Most software for running psychological experiments (e.g., Inquisit) will have tools for randomising the allocation of participants to groups&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" OwnerDisplayName="Jeromy Anglim" LastActivityDate="2014-05-21T00:44:33.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6459" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6116" CreationDate="2014-05-22T05:44:30.367" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that it'd be a type of a tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon caused by bilingualism. If you don't use German regularly, it might be attributed to language attrition, but this seems unlikely if you're still being exposed to German more than English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip-of-the-tongue_phenomenon#Effects_of_bilingualism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip-of-the-tongue_phenomenon#Effects_of_bilingualism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5050" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T05:44:30.367" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6457" CreationDate="2014-05-22T10:19:07.860" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Adding to Jeromy's answer, the answer to your question would depend on what you want to study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you study &lt;strong&gt;normal behavior&lt;/strong&gt;, common to all people, you assign your participants randomly to the experimental and control group. The experimental group receives the factor you want to study (e.g. watches some advertising), while the control group does not, and then you calculate the avarage difference in their behavior (do those that watched the advertising buy more of that product?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you study &lt;strong&gt;abnormal behavior&lt;/strong&gt;, found only in certain people, these certain people (e.g. people suffering from some mental disorder) go into one group, people without this abnormality (e.g. people without that mental disorder) go into another group. Both receive the factor your want to study or are given the same task, and then you calculate the average difference in their behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This, obviously, is not a random assignment. There are different techniques to counter biases (such as more old people with dementia in one group, because dementia usually happens in old age, so that performance differences might be attributable to age, not dementia). For example, you may &quot;match&quot; participants in relevant aspects, so that when you find a participant with, say, dementia, you search for a participant without dementia who has the same age, same sex, same educational background etc., so that their differences are unlikely to result from these secondary factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also experiments &lt;strong&gt;without control groups&lt;/strong&gt;, or any kind of group assignments. For example, if you study something in which all (healthy) people are the same, you do not need a control group. For example, if you want to research human three dimensional vision, you could work with only one participant, because you could rightfully assume that all human beings have two eyes in approximately the same position, so that individual differences would not influence understanding the basic process. Many classic experiments in fundational fields of psycholoy such as perception were done with only one or a mere handful of participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T10:19:07.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6461" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="861" CreationDate="2014-05-22T13:21:44.433" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quote from article at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23805119&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23805119&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Infants prefer speech to non-vocal sounds and to non-human vocalizations, and they prefer happy-sounding speech to neutral speech. They also exhibit an interest in singing, but there is little knowledge of their relative interest in speech and singing. The present study explored infants' attention to unfamiliar audio samples of speech and singing. In Experiment 1, infants 4-13 months of age were exposed to happy-sounding infant-directed speech vs. hummed lullabies by the same woman. They listened significantly longer to the speech, which had considerably greater acoustic variability and expressiveness, than to the lullabies. In Experiment 2, infants of comparable age who heard the lyrics of a Turkish children's song spoken vs. sung in a joyful/happy manner did not exhibit differential listening. Infants in Experiment 3 heard the happily sung lyrics of the Turkish children's song vs. a version that was spoken in an adult-directed or affectively neutral manner. They listened significantly longer to the sung version. Overall, happy voice quality rather than vocal mode (speech or singing) was the principal contributor to infant attention, regardless of age. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T13:21:44.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6462" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6372" CreationDate="2014-05-22T14:34:44.633" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is a bit vague.&#xA;If you are asking whether we normally do repress aggression in general, then there is much reason to believe so.&#xA;In research studies, America and Japan are often used to show cultural differences. One of the bigger differences between these two cultures is how Japanese children are taught to repress anger. Anger, or aggression, is socially unacceptable in Japan, but not in western cultures.&#xA;ALso, most people easily learn with age that showing anger\aggression is not a good way to get along with other people, and that sooner or later we will need other people's help.&#xA;We are evolutionary fit for keeping together and cooperating in communities, because that is how our species has survived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's some links related to cultural differences in showing aggression, telling us that some cultures repress aggression more than others:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Park et al. found that Americans who reported lower subjective social&#xA;  status were more likely to report being angry, with the link between&#xA;  status and anger mediated by level of frustration. Conversely,&#xA;  objectively higher status Japanese were more likely to report anger,&#xA;  with the link between status and anger mediated by decision-making&#xA;  authority. These results suggest culture moderates the link between an&#xA;  individual’s expression of anger and his or her social status.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://thepsychreport.com/research-lead/nov-dec-2013/social-status-and-anger-expression-the-cultural-moderation-hypothesis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://thepsychreport.com/research-lead/nov-dec-2013/social-status-and-anger-expression-the-cultural-moderation-hypothesis/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Briggs lived as the daughter of an Utku family describing their&#xA;  society as particularly unique emotional control. She rarely observed&#xA;  expressions of anger or aggression and if it were expressed, it&#xA;  resulted in ostracism.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_and_culture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_and_culture&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T14:34:44.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6464" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6451" CreationDate="2014-05-22T20:43:28.767" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Computational neuroscience and neural networks are both studied on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sussex.ac.uk/easy/smsc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this MSc at the University of Sussex&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;When I took the course in 2004/5, the Neural Networks module was compulsory, and the Computational Neuroscience was optional in the 2nd semester, so that would suggest the course designers (world leaders in biologically inspired computing) thought that studying neural networks first might aid the study of computational neuroscience.&#xA;I think some of the other subjects taught on the course would be of interest to you, e.g. evolving genetic algorithms for robot control (see Rodney Brooks – and the iRobot corporation). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly to answer the question(!), I think you probably need some understanding of (simple) neural networks (artificial or otherwise) to understand more in-depth concepts in computational neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5061" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-22T21:29:53.330" LastActivityDate="2014-05-22T21:29:53.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6465" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5048" CreationDate="2014-05-23T01:09:05.723" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Empirically supported treatments are specific interventions which controlled (generally quantitative) research has demonstrated to be effective for specific populations (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice&lt;/a&gt;). The empirical literature on gratitude is rapidly expanding, but, as many of the reviews I will mention note, still emerging. Several recent reviews and meta-analyses address the support for gratitude interventions, including journaling. A 2010 dissertation reviewed 12 gratitude studies and found that letter-writing and list-making (e.g. gratitude journals) were associated with positive psychological outcomes (Borgueta). A 2010 narrative review also looks at 12 gratitude studies, and reports that while most studies find positive results, methodological limitations make it difficult to draw firm conclusions (Wood, Froh, &amp;amp; Geraghty). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 2009 meta-analysis of 51 studies assessing the impact of positive psychology interventions on depression found small to moderate effects (Sin &amp;amp; Lyubomirsky). That meta-analyses included 20 studies with gratitude or positive writing interventions, and provides a discussion of possible moderators. A 2013 meta-analysis of 39 positive psychology studies found smaller, but still significant, effects for similar interventions on psychological well-being and depression, some of which remained at 3-6 month follow up (Bolier, L. et al). This analysis included at least 12 studies that used gratitude or positive writing interventions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These studies do note that the interventions are not effective for everyone and discuss some factors (gender, positive affect, length, etc) which may impact receptiveness to and effectiveness of these interventions (Parks, Schueller, &amp;amp; Tasimi, in press). Clear demographic and situational moderators are only beginning to emerge, but these reviews may help you determine the clients for whom these interventions may be most effective. In general, although some studies did not find the interventions to be effective, there is little mention of the interventions being harmful. Additionally, the interventions tend to be easily understood and implemented, requiring few materials and a brief time commitment; thus, they may be worth trying, even if a study has not been conducted on a sample with demographics that precisely matches your clients. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These studies list a range of possible gratitude interventions and the current evidence for each approach. As with most therapeutic interventions, the answers here are not black and white. Practicing evidence-based care involves not only identifying the best available support for those treatments, but then using clinical judgment to determine whether it would be worthwhile to implement the approach with a particular client, given the client’s individual characteristics and the therapist’s competence in providing the intervention (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.asha.org/members/ebp/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.asha.org/members/ebp/&lt;/a&gt;). Hopefully these resources will provide some support for that decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bolier, L., Haverman, M., Westerhof, G. J., Riper, H., Smit, F., &amp;amp; Bohlmeijer, E. (2013). Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. &lt;em&gt;BMC Public Health, 13&lt;/em&gt;, 119-129.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Borgueta, A. M. (2010). Adapting gratitude interventions to the practice of clinical psychology: Considerations for treatment selection and implementation. Dissertation, Palo Alto University. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parks, A.C., Schueller, S. &amp;amp; Tasimi, A. (in press). Increasing happiness in the general population: Empirically Supported Self-Help? To appear in I. Boniwell &amp;amp; S. David (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Oxford Handbook of Happiness&lt;/em&gt;. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://hiram.us/h/images/pdfs/psychology/parks-increasing-happiness.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://hiram.us/h/images/pdfs/psychology/parks-increasing-happiness.pdf&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sin, N. L., &amp;amp; Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: A practice-friendly meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65&lt;/em&gt;(5), 467-487.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wood, A. M., Froh, J. J., &amp;amp; Geraghty, A. W. A. (2010). Gratitude and well-being: A review and theoretical integration. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Psychology Review, 30&lt;/em&gt;(7), 890-905. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T01:09:05.723" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6466" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3393" CreationDate="2014-05-23T02:10:58.270" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The table found at your second link (comparing the IPIP NEO and official NEO) seems to have come from this paper by Goldberg (1999): &lt;a href=&quot;http://projects.ori.org/lrg/PDFs_papers/A%20broad-bandwidth%20inventory.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://projects.ori.org/lrg/PDFs_papers/A%20broad-bandwidth%20inventory.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. This paper discusses the generation of the IPIP items as well as the sample it was originally administered in. A 2006 paper (also by Goldberg) provides additional information on IPIP development: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, I was unable to locate information on the factor structure of the IPIP NEO 30 facet form, only the IPIP 50-item FFM (Ehrhart, Roesch, Ehrhart, &amp;amp; Kilian, 2008), which seems to be a different measure (&lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newFinding_Labeling_IPIP_Scales.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ipip.ori.org/newFinding_Labeling_IPIP_Scales.htm&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ehrhart, K. H., Roesch, S. C., Ehrhart, M. G., &amp;amp; Kilian, B. (2008). A test of the factor structure equivalence of the 50-Item IPIP Five-Factor Model Measure across gender and ethnic groups. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality Assessment, 90&lt;/em&gt;(5), 507–516.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goldberg, L. A., Johnson, J. A., Hogan, R. , Ashton, M. C., Cloninger, &amp;amp; Gough, H. G. (2006). The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain personality measures. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality, 40&lt;/em&gt;, 84–96.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T02:10:58.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6468" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1017" CreationDate="2014-05-23T07:09:10.193" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Grabner-Kräuter et al (2003) suggest that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lack of trust is one of the most frequently cited reasons for&#xA;  consumers not purchasing from Internet vendors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grabner-Kräuter, S., &amp;amp; Kaluscha, E. A. (2003). Empirical research in on-line trust: a review and critical assessment. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 58(6), 783-812. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=941185&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=941185&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-23T07:37:59.980" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T07:37:59.980" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6469" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4358" CreationDate="2014-05-23T08:29:43.060" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The university of Oslo teaches a rather big part of the history of psychological research. I've completed it myself, so I know for sure. Do note that the subject also involves a lot more than just history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/sv/psykologi/PSYC1200/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/sv/psykologi/PSYC1200/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T08:29:43.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6470" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6053" CreationDate="2014-05-23T08:34:31.927" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is highly individual, and related to the personality trait neurotocism.&#xA;From wiki:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Individuals who score high on neuroticism are more likely than the&#xA;  average to experience such feelings as anxiety, anger, envy, guilt,&#xA;  and depressed mood.[2] They respond more poorly to stressors, are more&#xA;  likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor&#xA;  frustrations as hopelessly difficult.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T08:34:31.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6471" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4234" CreationDate="2014-05-23T08:59:11.823" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gathered from M. Pecina et al., “Personality Trait Predictors of Placebo Analgesia and Neurobiological Correlates,” Neuropsychopharmacology, doi: 10.1038/NPP.2012.227, 2012:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A recent study has found that personality traits appear to influence&#xA;  how strongly a person responds to a placebo treatment for pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/unique-everybody-else/201301/personality-and-pain-relief&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/unique-everybody-else/201301/personality-and-pain-relief&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pain relief tended to be stronger in participants who rated themselves&#xA;  higher in the personality traits of ego resiliency and agreeableness&#xA;  and lower in neuroticism.&#xA;  [...]&#xA;  The facets that predicted placebo response most strongly were high altruism and straightforwardness (facets of agreeableness) and low angry hostility (a neuroticism facet that is also related to low agreeableness).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More thorough explanations are found in the link provided.&#xA;Further information on the same study:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/33300/title/Personality-Predicts-Placebo-Effect/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/33300/title/Personality-Predicts-Placebo-Effect/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T08:59:11.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6472" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3687" CreationDate="2014-05-23T10:34:08.147" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to this study, there really is a correlation:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/climate_desk/2014/02/internet_troll_personality_study_machiavellianism_narcissism_psychopathy.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/climate_desk/2014/02/internet_troll_personality_study_machiavellianism_narcissism_psychopathy.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The research, conducted by Erin Buckels of the University of Manitoba&#xA;  and two colleagues, sought to directly investigate whether people who&#xA;  engage in trolling are characterized by personality traits that fall&#xA;  in the so-called Dark Tetrad: Machiavellianism (willingness to&#xA;  manipulate and deceive others), narcissism (egotism and&#xA;  self-obsession), psychopathy (the lack of remorse and empathy), and&#xA;  sadism (pleasure in the suffering of others).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is hard to overplay the results: The study found correlations,&#xA;  sometimes quite significant, between these traits and trolling&#xA;  behavior. What’s more, it also found a relationship between all Dark&#xA;  Tetrad traits (except for narcissism) and the overall time that an&#xA;  individual spent, per day, commenting on the Internet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The research document itself can be found here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886914000324&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886914000324&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T10:34:08.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6473" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5406" CreationDate="2014-05-23T10:55:04.383" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to a study by Anne Mangen and Jean-Luc Velay of the University of Stavanger, handwriting is better than typing for learning:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uis.no/research-and-phd-studies/research-areas/school-and-learning/learning-environment/better-learning-through-handwriting-article29782-8869.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.uis.no/research-and-phd-studies/research-areas/school-and-learning/learning-environment/better-learning-through-handwriting-article29782-8869.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mangen refers to an experiment involving two groups of adults, in&#xA;  which the participants were assigned the task of having to learn to&#xA;  write in an unknown alphabet, consisting of approximately twenty&#xA;  letters. One group was taught to write by hand, while the other was&#xA;  using a keyboard. Three and six weeks into the experiment, the&#xA;  participants’ recollection of these letters, as well as their rapidity&#xA;  in distinguishing right and reversed letters, were tested. Those who&#xA;  had learned the letters by handwriting came out best in all tests.&#xA;  Furthermore, fMRI brain scans indicated an activation of the Brocas&#xA;  area within this group. Among those who had learned by typing on&#xA;  keyboards, there was little or no activation of this area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm having a hard time finding the actual research paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T10:55:04.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6474" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5003" CreationDate="2014-05-23T11:50:27.130" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several factors may influence a person to finish off other peopla's sentences.&#xA;- The person may be stressed (and some people stress more often than others, thus stress may cause some people to do this more often)&#xA;- ADHD is said to cause an impatience, making the clients finish off other people's sentences:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.healthline.com/health/adult-adhd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.healthline.com/health/adult-adhd&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;- A person may have a lot of energy, spending a bit of this energy on finishing off other's sentences.&#xA;- The speaker and the listener might ble close to eachother, and know eachother very well, maybe the listener was &quot;just thinking of just the same thing&quot;..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether or not I can find sources on &quot;emotionally intense&quot; people doing this, depends on how one defines being &quot;emotionally intense&quot;. You could probably call any of the above examples emotionally intense people...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T11:50:27.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6475" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6102" CreationDate="2014-05-23T12:17:17.567" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's a study on Brain Response to One's Own Name in Vegetative State, Minimally Conscious State, and Locked-in Syndrome:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://archneur.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=791093&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://archneur.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=791093&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;  A major challenge in the management of severely&#xA;  brain-injured patients with altered states of consciousness is to&#xA;  estimate their residual perception of the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Objective&lt;/strong&gt;  To investigate the integrity of detection of one's own name&#xA;  in patients in a behaviorally well-documented vegetative state (VS),&#xA;  patients in a minimally conscious state (MCS), and patients with&#xA;  locked-in syndrome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Design&lt;/strong&gt;  We recorded the auditory evoked potentials to the patient's&#xA;  own name and to 7 other equiprobable first names in 15 brain-damaged&#xA;  patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Results&lt;/strong&gt;  A P3 component was observed in response to the patient's name&#xA;  in all patients with locked-in syndrome, in all MCS patients, and in 3&#xA;  of 5 patients in a VS. P3 latency was significantly (P&amp;lt;.05) delayed&#xA;  for MCS and VS patients compared with healthy volunteers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions&lt;/strong&gt;  These results suggest that partially preserved semantic&#xA;  processing could be observed in noncommunicative brain-damaged&#xA;  patients, notably for the detection of salient stimuli, such as the&#xA;  subject's own name. This function seems delayed in MCS and (if&#xA;  present) in VS patients. More important, a P3 response does not&#xA;  necessarily reflect conscious perception and cannot be used to&#xA;  differentiate VS from MCS patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-05-23T12:17:17.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6476" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6418" CreationDate="2014-05-24T00:53:04.517" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe this is referring to David McClelland's 1961 book &quot;The Achieving Society.&quot;* McClelland proposed that an achievement motivation (desire for achievement) could predict economic growth and success. He examined this from a range of social and individual psychological factors, including the achievement content of &quot;cultural products&quot; such as children's stories and folk tales. He developed a value coding system for children's stories that centered on the impact of different story characteristics on the ego (this is your passive vs active term). Examples include whether the protagonist was of high or low social standing (ego status), influences on the ego (fate or man), how the ego responds (brains vs brawn), and whether the ego (protagonist) engages in work in order to achieve a goal. These in turn were coded into achievement motivation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Among his findings, McClelland noted that cultural products high in achievement motivation were associated with how many full-time entrepreneurs were found in pre-literature cultures, the economic success of different historical empires, and the rate of growth in national consumption of electric power (and presumably industry) in the early twentieth century. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McClelland continued to publish on the topic (1975), though the theory received criticism and some subsequent studies failed to replicate his results (Gilleard, 1989; Mazur &amp;amp; Rosa, 1977). However, a more recent study suggested that an expansion of the theory would more readily capture the impact of motivation on economics in Eastern cultures, and might strengthen the predictive power of this method (Doyle &amp;amp; Doyle, 2001). Additionally, a 2009 study (Engeser, Rheinberg, &amp;amp; Moller) comparing achievement imagery in school textbooks in different German states found that the more economically successful regions had books with more achievement images. The introduction to the Engeser &amp;amp; colleagues paper also provides some links to related studies, for your reference.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Doyle, K. O., &amp;amp; Doyle, M. R. (2001). Meanings of wealth in European and Chinese fairy tales. &lt;em&gt;American Behavioral Scientist, 45&lt;/em&gt;(2), 191-204.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Engeser, S., Rheinberg, F., &amp;amp; Moller, M. (2009). Achievement motive imagery in German schoolbooks: A pilot study testing McClelland's hypothesis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality, 43&lt;/em&gt;, 110-113.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gilleard, C. J. (1989). The achieving society revisited: A further analysis of the relation between national economic growth and need achievement. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Economic Psychology, 10&lt;/em&gt;(1), 21-34. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mazur, A. &amp;amp; Rosa, E. (1977). An empirical test of McClelland's &quot;Achieving Society&quot; Theory. &lt;em&gt;Social Forces, 55&lt;/em&gt;(3), 769-774.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*McClelland's book was originally published by D. Van Nostrand Co., Princeton, NJ, but seems to have been republished in 2010 by Martino Fine Books (ISBN:  978-1891396397). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastEditorUserId="5041" LastEditDate="2014-05-31T15:25:37.790" LastActivityDate="2014-05-31T15:25:37.790" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6477" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7631" CreationDate="2014-05-24T09:42:28.597" Score="3" ViewCount="1577" Body="&lt;p&gt;One may cause to argue that Fun activities are solely based off psychological and physical identification with certain activities, but surely there is a deeper analysis on why we find things fun. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, what is the relationship of personal experience to what an individual finds fun. Some argue that what we find fun is solely defined by personal experiences, but what about activities that many individuals find fun- regardless of personal experiences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4322" LastActivityDate="2019-12-29T15:49:23.250" Title="Why do we find things fun?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6478" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-24T13:02:16.590" Score="2" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know if/how my brain differs from other brains. I'm also interested in knowing exactly how my brain changes when I smoke marijuana, as it is claimed that it affects individuals differently. Fortunately I live in the Netherlands. Is it likely that researchers would welcome me to come, scan my brain, let me get high and do some more scanning? If the case is that researchers crave material, then this seems like a win-win. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5068" LastActivityDate="2014-05-29T03:58:18.100" Title="Getting analysis of changes in MY brain upon cannabis consumption" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2014-06-21T22:37:25.793" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6479" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-24T15:35:56.787" Score="3" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm creating a game, and I would like to know what research I can consult to make it more &quot;addicting&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The game is a casual one, like Candy Crush, Angry Birds, etc&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4666" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-05-24T15:42:34.240" LastActivityDate="2014-05-24T15:42:34.240" Title="What does current research tell us about addictive behaviors in games?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6480" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4130" CreationDate="2014-05-24T16:55:30.280" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Witkowski has written several articles reviewing NLP (2010, 2012) and in each case has found few studies that indicate clear support for the technique. He also argues that the articles which indicate no support for NLP are generally of stronger methodological quality than those which do not. The fast phobia cure is not directly mentioned in either paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jemmer (2005) provides an overview of the fast phobia technique, and describes a handful of studies which have used and reported on it; you may find his paper to be a starting point for identifying information on the technique, although it seems most of the studies he cited are in the NLP database and it is unclear if they have been published in peer review journals. Jemmer's article acknowledges the lack of evidence, and is primarily written from a theoretical perspective.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 2011 review identified three peer-reviewed studies and 1 dissertation that examined NLP techniques for phobia and reported the techniques to be effective (Biswal &amp;amp; Prusty). The review does not go into detail as to the exact NLP techniques used in these studies but this may be a source of literature for further reading. Biswal and Prusty (2011) also highlight some of the theoretical issues which have hampered NLP research and provide a helpful overview distinguishing some of NLP's techniques from other psychotherapeutic techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 2012 review examined 10 peer-reviewed NLP studies which were either randomized controlled trials or pre-post designs, 3 of which assessed fast phobia techniques (Sturt et al.). Some effects were found in terms of decreased fear or anxiety, but these generally occurred in all treatment groups (not just NLP) or in studies with no control group. Most outcomes were self-report measures. However, these studies may be the most relevant to your initial question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, the consensus of these reviews indicates that there is little evidence to support the use of NLP in general, including the fast phobia cure. However, the studies also note that the lack of high quality research may indicate more rigorous studies are needed before discarding the NLP concept entirely. Additionally, the reviews point out that several NLP phobia techniques are similar to other psychotherapy techniques for treating phobia, so there may be stronger evidence for those subcomponents elsewhere in the literature. These reviews should provide a good starting point and working vocabulary if you are interested in researching those subcomponents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biswal, R., &amp;amp; Prusty, B. (2011). Trends in neuro-linguistic programming (NLP): A critical review. &lt;em&gt;Social Science International, 27&lt;/em&gt;(1), 41-56.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jemmer, P. (2005). Phobia: Fear and loathing in mental spaces. &lt;em&gt;European Journal of Clinical Hyponosis, 6&lt;/em&gt;(3), 24-32.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sturt, J., Ali, S., Robertson, W., Metcalfe, D., Grove, A., Bourne, C., &amp;amp; Bridle, C. (2012). Neurolinguistic programming: A systematic review of the effects on health outcomes. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of General Practice&lt;/em&gt;, November, e757-e764.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Witkowski, T. (2010). Thirty-five years of research on neuro-linguistic programming. NLP Research Database. State of the art or pseudoscientific decoration? &lt;em&gt;Polish Psychological Bulletin, 41&lt;/em&gt;(2), 58-66.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Witkowski, T. (2012). A review of research findings on neuro-linguistic programming. &lt;em&gt;The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice, 9&lt;/em&gt;(1), 29-40.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-05-24T16:55:30.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6481" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4358" CreationDate="2014-05-25T00:09:45.007" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The American Psychological Association requires graduate programs to cover a range of core competencies, including &quot;the breadth of scientific psychology, it's history and development, it's research methods, and its applications. To achieve this end, the students shall be exposed to the current body of knowledge in at least the following areas:...history and systems of psychology...&quot; (APA Guidelines and Principles for Accreditation of Programs in Professional Psychology, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/ed/accreditation/about/policies/guiding-principles.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/ed/accreditation/about/policies/guiding-principles.pdf&lt;/a&gt;). This applies to all APA accredited doctoral programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology. Many programs meet this requirement with a History and Systems course, which covers development of psychology as a field as well as different branches of psychological theory. However, some graduate programs may choose to meet the requirement by requiring students to complete an independent study on this topic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The APA does not accredit master's or bachelor's programs, so there may be more diversity as to whether a history of psychology course is provided or required at that level. A 2010 APA Monitor article discusses this issue (Chamberlin, 2010). The reasons for teaching the history of psychology vary. At my undergraduate university a History and Systems course was a required course in your senior-year, as the program felt it not only provided a sound theoretical foundation but also served as an excellent review for the GRE Psychology subject test. A 2011 dissertation explored the content of history of psychology courses in APA accredited programs, and may provide additional information on the presence of the history of psychology in American education (Petzolt, 2011). The author noted that there are many reasons typically given for this APA requirement, including &quot;the belief that the study of history is a way of unifying the different branches of the field, that it helps to ground current psychological research in tradition and theory, and that it establishes a framework from which all applications can be derived&quot; (Petzolt, 2011). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chamberlin, J. (2010). Don't know much about history. &lt;em&gt;APA Monitor, 41&lt;/em&gt;(2), 44. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/2010/02/history.aspx&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/monitor/2010/02/history.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Petzolt, N. M. (2011). Teaching the graduate course in the history of psychology in APA accredited programs. St. John's University (New York), 53 pages. UMI Proquest Publication number: 3445776.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-05-25T00:09:45.007" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6482" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5370" CreationDate="2014-05-25T05:40:11.350" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's often referred to as &quot;doll therapy&quot; or &quot;play therapy&quot; and applies to adults as much as it does to children. For example, this new product, the &quot;Inner Critic Doll&quot; enables adults to hold a physical manifestation of their inner critic and start a dialogue with it. It has a zipper mouth which can be zipped shut to physically silence this inner voice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The doll enables adults to confront an otherwise &quot;formless&quot; part of their psyche and has proven to be highly effective.&#xA;It's used frequently by writers, artists, those suffering low self-esteem, etc., and I've even seen family members address each other on challenging topics via their inner critic doll, as it was easier than talking face-to-face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5073" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-25T18:58:43.153" LastActivityDate="2014-05-25T18:58:43.153" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6483" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18709" CreationDate="2014-05-25T09:06:25.473" Score="13" ViewCount="608" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand how free-to-play games like Candy Crush Saga use existing knowledge of the human brain to keep people engaged and how they convince players to pay money for in-game goods. Some of their game mechanics remind me of the Skinner box. Interestingly, some sources &lt;a href=&quot;http://venturebeat.com/2014/02/26/only-0-15-of-mobile-gamers-account-for-50-percent-of-all-in-game-revenue-exclusive/&quot;&gt;claim&lt;/a&gt; that a very small percentage of players contribute 50% of their revenue. I'm assuming this is because not everyone is as susceptible to their monetization tricks. Some &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/195806/chasing_the_whale_examining_the_.php?print=1&quot;&gt;addicted players&lt;/a&gt; dump all their money into the game, which puts pressure on game developers to protect vulnerable customers from themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research on big spenders in free-to-play games seems to be scarce, but are there any parallels with existing research (e.g. on gambling) that explain why many people will never spend a dime on these games while others are struggling not to spend their life savings on it? For example, is there a significant difference in how individuals respond to conditioning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5075" LastEditorUserId="5075" LastEditDate="2014-05-25T19:52:15.367" LastActivityDate="2017-12-21T15:43:58.960" Title="Why do many people play Candy Crush without ever buying anything while some spend all their money on it?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;hci&gt;&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6484" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-05-25T14:36:08.427" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2014-05-25T14:36:08.427" LastActivityDate="2014-05-25T14:36:08.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6485" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-05-25T14:36:08.427" Score="0" Body="The subjective experience of sensory perceptions, including taste, sight, smell, hearing, and touch." OwnerUserId="5041" LastEditorUserId="5041" LastEditDate="2014-05-26T04:21:59.530" LastActivityDate="2014-05-26T04:21:59.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6486" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-05-25T14:44:21.677" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;International Personality Item Pool&lt;/a&gt; is a collection of personality inventory items available in the public domain which assess the Big Five personality traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:45:41.180" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:45:41.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6487" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-05-25T14:44:21.677" Score="0" Body="The International Personality Item Pool is a collection of personality inventory items available in the public domain which assess the Big Five personality traits." OwnerUserId="5041" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:45:41.180" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:45:41.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6488" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-05-25T14:48:41.490" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2014-05-25T14:48:41.490" LastActivityDate="2014-05-25T14:48:41.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6489" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-05-25T14:48:41.490" Score="0" Body="Theory of how the mind processes and organizes perceptual information as a whole, rather than as individual components" OwnerUserId="5041" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-25T18:51:18.200" LastActivityDate="2014-05-25T18:51:18.200" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6492" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-25T22:27:22.207" Score="4" ViewCount="2174" Body="&lt;p&gt;My research is to evaluate change of emotional responses of participants, after performing two types of game activities. Two groups of participants, Group A and Group B, will be assigned to Activity A and Activity B respectively. The research design does not cater for a control group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I plan to measure the baseline emotions (using the Mood Questionnaire) [1] of all the participants. The arousal and valence components will be measured using the Self Assessment Manikin (SAM) questionnaire [2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So now, I have pre-test responses from Mood Questionnaire (baseline emotional responses), and the post-test responses from SAM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure how to proceed with the data from each instrument. For instance, how do I obtain a change in emotional responses from each subject? How do we normalize the baseline emotions in this case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mood Questionnaire available at&#xA;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.metheval.uni-jena.de/mdbf.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.metheval.uni-jena.de/mdbf.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SAM questionnaire available at&#xA;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;http://irtel.uni-mannheim.de/pxlab/demos/index_SAM.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://irtel.uni-mannheim.de/pxlab/demos/index_SAM.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5082" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-25T23:54:31.340" LastActivityDate="2014-05-26T03:40:13.587" Title="How to measure change in emotional responses when pre and post tests use different measures?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6493" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6492" CreationDate="2014-05-25T23:59:17.200" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Normally, I'd recommend using the same mood measure pre and post manipulation. This allows you to assess the size and direction of change. It also likely removes more error variance from the post-test measure (which would increase statistical power), because using the same measure is likely to increase the correlation between pre and post.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, if you've used different measures pre and post, then you could &lt;strong&gt;perform an ANCOVA&lt;/strong&gt; with group as independent variable, baseline mood as the covariate, and post-test mood as the dependent variable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A slight possibility is that you could  map scores on both tests to a common scale. This might allow you to make qualified claims about whether emotions increased or decreased. That said, this would require that you have access to additional data on people who completed both tests in a non-experimental context. You could then use the means and correlations between the two tests to develop a mapping to a common scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-26T03:40:13.587" LastActivityDate="2014-05-26T03:40:13.587" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6494" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-26T13:20:35.247" Score="4" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;In an experimental setting where a categorical response has to be given, the same response can, in theory, be generated by different latent processes. For example, in an experiment where participants have to indicate whether a particular word was part of a word list they learned earlier, some correct responses may be based on actual recollection of the word, and some may be due to guessing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on the proportions of certain responses in different conditions, multinomial process models allow one recover the occurrence probabilities of these latent processes. However, different latent processes may be associated with different response latencies. &lt;strong&gt;Is there an extension of multinomial process models that takes response latencies into account, and if so, is there software for doing that?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="571" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-05-27T07:07:52.277" LastActivityDate="2014-05-27T07:07:52.277" Title="Is there an extension of multinomial process models that incorporates response latencies?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6495" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-26T13:23:20.433" Score="2" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;Background:&#xA;In the last few days, I came across an experience that made me wonder how our brain manages &quot;memory resources&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As time progresses further from an experience I've had in my life, I realize that I have begun to forgot details that are important and supposed to be &quot;kept&quot;, not lost since I was able to recall them in the first days following the event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember what happened, who was present, and why it happened, but I'm beginning to lose track of &quot;when&quot; the event happened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This may be a filtering process or a defense mechanism, but in any case, I'm not focusing on the reason behind that, rather I'm interested in avoiding such &quot;holes&quot; in memory in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a generalized way, given the facts that we can obtain by answering the questions &quot;what&quot;, &quot;why&quot;, &quot;who&quot; and &quot;when&quot;, which of these are the first facts to be forgotten? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3700" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-05-26T19:11:14.007" LastActivityDate="2014-05-27T08:14:42.423" Title="Which are the specifics of a memory that are lost first?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6496" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-05-26T14:01:25.923" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2014-05-26T14:01:25.923" LastActivityDate="2014-05-26T14:01:25.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6497" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-05-26T14:01:25.923" Score="0" Body="The study of the impact of psychological processes (e.g., cognitive, emotional) on economic behavior and decision making." OwnerUserId="5041" LastEditorUserId="5041" LastEditDate="2014-05-30T00:19:03.517" LastActivityDate="2014-05-30T00:19:03.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6498" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6499" CreationDate="2014-05-26T15:43:34.640" Score="14" ViewCount="6690" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we look at the cortex of the brain, it has a folded structure. It is said that this is because this enables a greater number of neurons to exist, which is obviously advantageous. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, we could pack in the same amount of 'volume' into a smaller space without any folding, sacrificing that surface area it results in. Why does this lead to fewer neurons? Can neurons only exist near surfaces? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4418" LastEditorUserId="4418" LastEditDate="2014-05-26T18:50:21.433" LastActivityDate="2021-02-10T21:25:10.527" Title="Folding (wrinkles) in cortex: Why is surface area more important than volume?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6498" CreationDate="2014-05-26T16:18:02.160" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;The key point is that the brain is not a uniform structure. The outer layer, known as grey matter, is a relatively uniform and flat structure. Underneath the grey matter is white matter. An overly-simple characterization of these two areas is that grey matter performs computations, and white matter lets different areas of grey matter talk to each other. Here's an image of a dissected brain from wikipedia where you can clearly see the ring of grey matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hUlxR.jpg&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One reason for the folds might be that if you want to fit a flat structure (like grey matter) into a tight space, folding it is one way to fit more of it. Another aspect of this is that the folds bring different areas of grey matter closer together, which means less white matter is needed to connect the areas together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2014-05-26T18:25:02.770" LastActivityDate="2014-05-26T18:25:02.770" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6502" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6495" CreationDate="2014-05-26T19:06:04.353" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was taught that recall and forgetting are somewhat worse for episodic memories as compared to semantic memories. I'm having trouble finding a supportive reference now, but that may be due to how basic the concept is (or it may just be wrong). The example I recall was the difference between remembering how to ride a bike vs. remembering the experience of learning to ride a bike – one expects more people to remember how to ride a bike than to remember learning how. This isn't the cleanest example of two different kinds of memories, because knowing how to ride a bike is also more likely an implicit, procedural memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In any case, forgetting &quot;when&quot; seems likely if this entails the circumstantial aspects of the event. If it's not especially important that the event in memory happened at a particular time or in a particular situation, those elements of the episodic memory could be forgotten quite readily. I don't think &quot;when&quot; information is categorically forgettable though, as I can imagine some memories being tied very closely to that info – e.g., memories about parties on holidays or birthdays.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-05-26T19:06:04.353" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6503" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6446" CreationDate="2014-05-26T22:00:19.010" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;One interesting way to study transparency is by looking at cases where we perceive transparency even though there isn't any objective transparency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take this illusion from &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mit.edu/persci/people/adelson/pub_pdfs/gazzan.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adelson (2000)&lt;/a&gt; as an example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/C0Zor.jpg&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the both panels the diamonds have the same physical brightness (pixel value on the monitor), but our perception of the diamonds on the right is warped by the seemingly-transparent dark stripe that covers the diamonds on the top. Thus, even low-level image features like brightness are perceptually warped by the way our brain perceives the structure of the image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a large number of papers on mathematical models of illusory transparency perception. A starting point might be &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mit.edu/persci/people/bart/Perception_Neon.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anderson (1997)&lt;/a&gt; and the references within. But, the general message from this research is that we sometimes perceive transparency as the result of imposing some kind of higher-order structure to make sense of the image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-01-04T18:32:21.870" LastActivityDate="2019-01-04T18:32:21.870" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="6504" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="522" CreationDate="2014-05-27T00:40:54.213" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another relevant resource might be Stephen Kosslyn's &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0195320697&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Clear and to the Point&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. It's a book about designing presentations based on psychological principles. The principles that he covers certainly generalize beyond slides for presentations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read it myself, and would recommend it to designers who are unfamiliar with psychological research. If you are already well versed in major psychological findings of the past 100 years, then this book won't offer much that you don't already know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-05-27T00:40:54.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6495" CreationDate="2014-05-27T08:14:42.423" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been several studies of memory and memory loss(forgetting) related to 9/11.&#xA;One article based on these studies says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;They believed that their 9/11 memories were much more accurate than&#xA;  their regular memories. One finding especially popped out for Rubin:&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;People had already changed their stories of how they heard about the&#xA;  attacks over just a few days&lt;/strong&gt;, from the day after the event to one week&#xA;  later. &quot;Because at that point you've told 35 people how you heard&#xA;  about it, and it's been solidified in your memory the way you're&#xA;  telling it, not necessarily how it really happened,&quot; he explains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;And &lt;strong&gt;it isn't that people just make errors of omission and forget&#xA;  details, notes Talarico. &quot;They make errors of commission as well,&#xA;  changing a red shirt to a blue one, or saying they were with different&#xA;  people from those they first said they were with.&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It turned out that the rate of forgetting for both types of memory&#xA;  slowed and stabilized after a year. But overall flashbulb&#xA;  recollections declined more than factual recollections, possibly&#xA;  because nonstop media coverage bolstered people's factual memories&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  (see sidebar).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&quot;What we're really looking at in flashbulb studies is consistency of&#xA;  people's stories, and we found a dramatic inconsistency in what people&#xA;  report after one week and after 36 months,&quot; Hirst says of the results,&#xA;  which were published in the Journal of Experimental Psychology:&#xA;  General (Vol. 138, No. 2). &quot;People are changing who they were with,&#xA;  how they found out about the attacks, those sorts of aspects.&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Forty percent&lt;/strong&gt; of the time people misremember some aspect of their 9/11&#xA;  experience, the study indicates. And &lt;strong&gt;the part they get the most wrong&#xA;  is how they felt&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;strong&gt;You tend to project your current feelings about 9/11 on what you felt&#xA;  then,&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; explains Hirst. &quot;You see this in other aspects of daily life.&#xA;  For instance, if we ask college students how they feel about a&#xA;  boyfriend or girlfriend now, everything's good. But if you ask them&#xA;  about the person after they break up, they'll say they knew he or she&#xA;  was bad for them. Our emotions change over time, and it's hard to get&#xA;  back in that initial emotional space.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/monitor/2011/09/memories.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/monitor/2011/09/memories.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-05-27T08:14:42.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6506" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-27T19:49:51.363" Score="5" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember having read a article in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.economist.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Economist&lt;/a&gt;'s Science and Technology section that presented evidence to the effect that attention and learning benefits from some forms of eye contact. If I am not mistaken it cited some academic work where probands had to complete a cognitive task on a computer screen and results improved if they saw their friends' eyes on the screen as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can somebody please point me to this missing article and the cited academic work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5093" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-01-12T18:57:45.857" LastActivityDate="2018-07-13T22:03:17.550" Title="Does eye contact improve attention and learning?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6509" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6510" CreationDate="2014-05-28T17:52:35.170" Score="3" ViewCount="212" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I had a brain in front of me, would I be able to find some kind of crevasse or something separately each lobe from the next? I guess what I'm asking is, are lobes more arbitrarily-defined regions of the brain, or is there a definite distinction between them anatomically?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5100" LastActivityDate="2014-05-29T16:06:51.313" Title="Are the lobes of the brain anatomically distinct, or is the distinction between them not as well-defined?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;frontal-lobes&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6510" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6509" CreationDate="2014-05-28T18:07:04.550" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are anatomical features that make lobe demarcations fairly non-arbitrary. From &lt;a href=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/LobesCaptsLateral.png/640px-LobesCaptsLateral.png&quot;&gt;Wikipedia:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/LobesCaptsLateral.png/640px-LobesCaptsLateral.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;by Sebastian023&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some borders here that may be more arbitrary than others:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The border between the occipital and parietal lobe between the preoccipital notch and parieto-occipital sulcus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The border between the parietal and temporal lobes between the preoccipital notch and the lateral fissure&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The little space between the central sulcus and the lateral fissure that separates the parietal and frontal lobes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These lines seem to be anchored on non-arbitrary points, but their flatness (lack of curves/bumps) may be somewhat arbitrary. An analogy would be the southern border of my home state, Minnesota. It's a flat east-to-west line between two rivers that form the eastern and western borders. The rivers aren't arbitrary, but the southern border didn't have to be a straight line. (Why not a sine wave? That surely would've made things more interesting!) If there's more to these borders of the brain than just their anchor points at either end, it's not apparent to me from this image or any other sources I know offhand, but it would be nice to see another answer from anyone who might know better than I.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-05-28T18:07:04.550" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6511" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6528" CreationDate="2014-05-28T18:28:14.103" Score="0" ViewCount="343" Body="&lt;p&gt;How exactly does alcohol consumption damage dendrites? I'm not talking about over a long period of usage, but just one instance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5100" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-28T19:09:43.407" LastActivityDate="2014-05-29T19:47:31.987" Title="How exactly does alcohol consumption damage dendrites?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6512" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-28T20:43:56.967" Score="7" ViewCount="680" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to characterize a binary time-series signal &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; (derived from neuron action potential data) in the frequency domain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Should I use the FFT of the original signal &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;, or the power spectrum (FFT of the autocorrelation of &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;, which is defined as $k(n)=E[x(t)\cdot x(t-n)]$ )?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, does anyone know any literature which explicitly talks about this, or at least took sides?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4290" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-09-04T02:43:50.063" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T19:08:07.530" Title="For binary (spike train) signals, take FFT of signal or autocorrelation of signal?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6513" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6509" CreationDate="2014-05-28T23:39:25.517" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Building off of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/6510/4906&quot;&gt;Nick Stauner's answer&lt;/a&gt;, the lobes are named after the cranial bones that cover them. You can see the overlap by looking at the bones of the skull (image from Wikipedia).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HT4IL.png&quot; alt=&quot;human skull&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm speculating now, but my guess would be that an anatomist simply picked sulci (the &quot;valleys&quot; in the folds of the cortical surface) that were close to the bone boundaries and used those as the demarcating lines of the various lobes. Maybe someone else can verify, or correct me!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-05-29T16:06:51.313" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6514" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-29T01:32:28.653" Score="0" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hear a lot of people making inferences about others based on their faces, but that's common sense. Are there really properties that could be deduced from ones face?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastActivityDate="2014-06-01T23:39:26.067" Title="Are there connections between some properties in peoples faces and their behavior?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6515" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6478" CreationDate="2014-05-29T03:58:18.100" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both the Amsterdam University (UvA) and Radboud University use a public online system for applying for participation in experiments. I forget which system UvA uses, but Radboud uses the sona system (just google it, you can creat an account). There you can see ongoing studies and apply for experiments. Both these cities are big research hubs for neuroimaging. And other universities surely also have similar systems for recruiting participants, but I don't have experience with them so I don't know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, nobody will tell you about the difference between your brain and other brains. This is simply not a topic of research. It's kind of like asking what's the difference between this grain of sand and all other grains - there are too many to list, the similarities stick out more clearly, and even if there are some differences who knows which ones are important. Neuroscience is a new thing, and we're still cataloging the basics. Unless there's something grossly distorted about your brain, nobody can give it a casual look and tell you something about your personality or behaviour. And if there is something grossly distorted, they'll contact your doctor, and not discuss it with you directly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, if there are marijuana studies you can take part and ask for feedback. At the Donders Institute in Nijmegen you can get a CD with your brain scan for your participation. But the feedback you get will depend on the question the researcher is asking. Typically this question would pertain to shared effects of marijuana on everyone, and not to individual differences. Individual differences studies are still rare, as they require huge numbers of participants while scanning resources are very limited and costly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2014-05-29T03:58:18.100" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6516" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-29T04:12:12.130" Score="2" ViewCount="376" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does it matter which one of the three scales we use: A, B, or C in the attached questionnaire? Each one will have a different interpretation of the data. Please advise how should we analyze the bi-polar items of this questionnaire. Thank you.&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XoTPw.png&quot; alt=&quot;Questionnaire&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5082" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-09T06:49:28.557" LastActivityDate="2014-06-09T06:49:28.557" Title="How to assign numbers to response options on a bipolar scale?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6517" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6516" CreationDate="2014-05-29T04:24:28.820" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, it matters, and you should probably go with scale &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt; if you have to use numbers. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/a/96880/32036&quot;&gt;my answer here on Cross Validated&lt;/a&gt; in response to, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/32389/32036&quot;&gt;Is 0 a valid value in a Likert scale?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; The zero in the middle of &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; is confusing (this isn't to say I don't understand it, but do you really trust that every respondent you ever come across will?), but even if you were to replace it with 4 and add 1 to the options currently labeled 4–6, you might get different answers than if you go with (-3)–(+3). Either way, there's some connotation of &quot;less&quot; applied to the options on the left, which may bias responses. Option &lt;code&gt;C&lt;/code&gt; even confuses me, so I'd say you should throw that out completely...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IMO, the safest bet would be to label your rating options with words, not numbers. To make responding easy, let people check boxes or provide abbreviated codes for their preferences such as &quot;Strongly prefer left option&quot; = &lt;code&gt;SL&lt;/code&gt; or &quot;Right option is a mildly better fit&quot; = &lt;code&gt;Rm&lt;/code&gt;. Here's how I presented these suggestions in my other answer, and the supporting reference &lt;sup&gt;(Schwarz, Knäuper, Hippler, Noelle-Neumann, &amp;amp; Clark, 1991)&lt;/sup&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Allow respondents to check cells in a table corresponding to their answer preference: each row can be a different item, and each column can be labeled with your rating anchor, or vice versa – no numbers involved. Here's how that might look (if one were to answer wisely):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;$\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline&amp;amp;\tiny\text{Strongly Disagree}&amp;amp;\tiny\text{Disagree}&amp;amp;\tiny\text{Mildly Disagree}&amp;amp;\tiny\text{Mildly Agree}&amp;amp;\tiny\text{Agree}&amp;amp;\tiny\text{Strongly Agree}\\\hline\tiny\text{Tumblers: better than pumpers!}^*&amp;amp;&amp;amp;&amp;amp;&amp;amp;&amp;amp;&amp;amp;\checkmark\\\hline\tiny\text{I look fat in this dress.}&amp;amp;\checkmark\\\hline\end{array}$&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://video.adultswim.com/tim-and-eric-awesome-show-great-job/tumblers.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;*&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; gives another style using marked options (by &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Mr.Olas&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nicholas Smith&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Example_Likert_Scale.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Example_Likert_Scale.svg/200px-Example_Likert_Scale.svg.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Letter codes can also be substituted for numeric options if blanks are to be filled for a list of very many items; e.g., {&lt;code&gt;SD&lt;/code&gt;,&lt;code&gt;D&lt;/code&gt;,&lt;code&gt;MD&lt;/code&gt;,&lt;code&gt;MA&lt;/code&gt;,&lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt;,&lt;code&gt;SA&lt;/code&gt;}. Just don't forget to include the legend!&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;hr&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Schwarz, N., Knäuper, B., Hippler, H. J., Noelle-Neumann, E., &amp;amp; Clark, L. (1991). Rating scales numeric values may change the meaning of scale labels. &lt;em&gt;Public Opinion Quarterly, 55&lt;/em&gt;(4), 570–582.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2014-05-29T04:24:28.820" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6518" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6519" CreationDate="2014-05-29T06:42:40.383" Score="5" ViewCount="664" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;I've kind of already answered this question for myself, but I can't resist sharing it anyway. Please feel welcome to add anything you can in another answer.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Stare at the cross in the middle and try to resist moving your eyes.&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VT9i99D_9gI&amp;amp;feature=youtu.be&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20140913103328/http://s3-ec.buzzfed.com/static/2014-05/enhanced/webdr08/28/13/anigif_enhanced-buzz-23298-1401296978-8.gif&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What the devil is going on here? Is this proof that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0096256/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;They Live&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;? I'm not even wearing sunglasses! Are you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-07-16T05:26:56.160" Title="Distortion of faces presented serially in peripheral vision" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="6519" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6518" CreationDate="2014-05-29T06:42:40.383" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Seems this is a newly discovered phenomenon! &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psy.uq.edu.au/~jtangen/TanMurTho2011.pdf&quot;&gt;Tangen, Murphy, and Thompson &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(2011)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/a&gt; describe this as a result of their method of presentation: alignment of the pupils and fast cycling through faces with different proportions. It is also important that the cycle of new images remain uninterrupted. They say &quot;relative encoding seems to drive the effect,&quot; and list several other references for related phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://io9.com/an-explanation-for-why-your-peripheral-vision-is-comple-1349170436&quot;&gt;Dvorsky &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(2013)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/a&gt; offers (slightly) further explanation [emphasis added]:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The answer may have to do with the &lt;strong&gt;lack of information&lt;/strong&gt; going to our visual cortex. Neuroscientist Mark Changizi explained it to me this way:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Because the faces are in the periphery, there's not enough information&lt;/strong&gt; for the brain to realize it's a bunch of different people's faces appended one after another — something that's very non-natural. Instead, the &lt;strong&gt;brain presumes&lt;/strong&gt; the reasonable: &lt;strong&gt;that it's a single person's face in the periphery, and then the face-changes are treated as this person's facial expression changes&lt;/strong&gt;. Basically, each of those photographs has a different resting face expression, relative to the one before it, and these become drastic, cartoon-like, facial expressions on a single dynamic monstrously cartoon-like expressive creature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not entirely convinced of this explanation (much less satisfied), but it seems plausible enough, I suppose. More research may be necessary to explain this, as the authors themselves don't seem to fully comprehend what's going on here. Maybe more is out there already, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=784918768043367291&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;hl=en&quot;&gt;Google Scholar indicates only one citation&lt;/a&gt; at the time of this post, and it seems they only cited it for the materials used; no other substantive connection is apparent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would warmly welcome any better answers than this. I've taught intro psych classes and collected a pretty decent trove of optical illusions, because these are always popular instructional material. This one is definitely getting filed away with the rest of them, but strikes me as quite unique among them all. (Not to mention mysterious and disturbing!) Compare the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thatcher_effect&quot;&gt;Thatcher effect&lt;/a&gt;, which &lt;strong&gt;reduces distortion when presented abnormally&lt;/strong&gt;; staring at it right-side-up makes the distortions more obvious!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File%3aIain_MTeffect.jpg&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Iain_MTeffect.jpg/360px-Iain_MTeffect.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;sup&gt;Thatcher effect demonstration by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User%3aAdodge&quot;&gt;Alex Dodge&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Dvorsky, G. (2013, September 19). An explanation for why your peripheral vision is completely borked. &lt;em&gt;io9&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://io9.com/an-explanation-for-why-your-peripheral-vision-is-comple-1349170436&quot;&gt;http://io9.com/an-explanation-for-why-your-peripheral-vision-is-comple-1349170436&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Tangen, J. M., Murphy, S. C., &amp;amp; Thompson, M. B. (2011). Flashed face distortion effect: Grotesque faces from relative spaces. &lt;em&gt;Perception, 40&lt;/em&gt;(5), 628–630. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psy.uq.edu.au/~jtangen/TanMurTho2011.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www2.psy.uq.edu.au/~jtangen/TanMurTho2011.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-29T06:49:20.007" LastActivityDate="2014-05-29T06:49:20.007" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6520" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-29T07:33:59.130" Score="4" ViewCount="1670" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fonts (i.e. letters) that facilitate reading in print don't always read well on a computer screen. New fonts such as Verdana have been developed especially for screen presentation of text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some research that compares the readability of those fonts that are available across most operating systems: Times, Arial, Helvetica and Arial. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.dsv.su.se/~jpalme/internet-course/font-report.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this study&lt;/a&gt; found that Times New Roman can be read faster than Verdana.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there are thousands of other fonts, and maybe one font not commonly shipped with any OS would be even more easily readable, or at smaller sizes. Of course no empirical research can include all fonts that exist, but maybe there is some research that goes beyond the common &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_typography#Web-safe_fonts&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;websafe fonts&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Have there been attempts to create the most readable screen font that were supported by empirical tests? Or is there empirical research into screen font readability including non-websafe fonts?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T16:42:35.517" Title="What is the most readable screen font?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6521" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6522" CreationDate="2014-05-29T09:38:34.460" Score="1" ViewCount="248" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are right-handed person, does it mean that you often use left brain (the left part that contain analysis, language etc.)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you often use right leg being crossed over left leg, what part of the brain do you use? Maybe left brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3671" LastActivityDate="2014-05-29T12:18:22.027" Title="About the left and right side of the brain" Tags="&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6522" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6521" CreationDate="2014-05-29T12:18:22.027" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Persons of each handedness use both hemispheres of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're asking specifically whether taking an action with your right hand preferentially activates motor control in the left hemisphere, the answer is yes. Motor function for the right side of your body is mapped to the left side of your brain, and vice versa. So for crossing your right leg over your left, that specific action uses your left brain to move your right leg. But that does not mean a person who crosses his or her leg right-over-left all the time is a &quot;left-brained&quot; person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Analysis is left-brain&quot; is a pop psychology myth. A specific capability may be found in one place (e.g. speech production in Broca's area, which is often in the left hemisphere), but higher-level functionality like logical analysis or creativity have been found not to be lateralized (i.e. not fixated in one hemisphere or the other).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nielsen, et al. 2013. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0071275&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;An evaluation of the left-brain vs. right-brain hypothesis with resting state functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; PLOS ONE&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5101" LastActivityDate="2014-05-29T12:18:22.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6524" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-29T15:33:17.107" Score="1" ViewCount="316" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard that people with Asperger syndrome have a problem with the right brain, but it increases the ability of the left brain. In other words, AS people has two left brains; the second left brain replaces the right brain. Is this true? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3671" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-30T18:16:03.547" LastActivityDate="2014-05-30T18:16:03.547" Title="Do people with Asperger syndrome have two left brains?" Tags="&lt;aspergers&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6525" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8726" CreationDate="2014-05-29T16:45:02.247" Score="13" ViewCount="1830" Body="&lt;p&gt;Self-destructive behavior is usually related to the stress response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that the world is a big source of stress and stress usually is also a source of evolution (since we must adapt to survive), is there any evolutionary theory that explains (or try to explain) the self destructive behavior under stress?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean, if the idea is to survive, wouldn't make more sense if, under stress, we could just try harder instead of giving up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5103" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-05-29T19:32:13.500" LastActivityDate="2016-12-30T06:20:52.507" Title="Is there any evolutionary theory for self-destructive behavior?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6528" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6511" CreationDate="2014-05-29T19:47:31.987" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernicke%E2%80%93Korsakoff_syndrome#Alcohol-thiamine_interactions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernicke%E2%80%93Korsakoff_syndrome#Alcohol-thiamine_interactions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Strong evidence suggests that ethanol interferes directly with&#xA;  thiamine uptake in the gastrointestinal tract. Ethanol also disrupts&#xA;  thiamine storage in the liver and the transformation of thiamine into&#xA;  its active form.[20] The role of alcohol consumption in the&#xA;  development of WKS has been experimentally confirmed through studies&#xA;  in which rats were subjected to alcohol exposure and lower levels&#xA;  thiamine through a low-thiamine diet.[21] In particular, studies have&#xA;  demonstrated that clinical signs of the neurological problems that&#xA;  result from thiamine deficiency develop faster in rats that have&#xA;  received alcohol and were also deficient in thiamine than rats who did&#xA;  not receive alcohol.[21] In another study, it was found that rats that&#xA;  were chronically fed alcohol had significantly lower liver thiamine&#xA;  stores than control rats. This provides an explanation for why&#xA;  alcoholics with liver cirrhosis have a higher incidence of both&#xA;  thiamine deficiency and WKS.[20]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[20] Todd, K. G., Hazell, A. S., &amp;amp; Butterworth, R. F. (1999). Alcohol thiamine interactions: an update on the pathogenesis of wernicke encephalopathy. Addiction Biology, 4, 261-272.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[21] He, X., Sullivan, E. V., Stankovic, R. K., Harper, C. G., &amp;amp; Pfefferbaum, A. (2007). Interaction of thiamine deficiency and voluntary alcohol consumption disrupts rat corpus collosum ultrastructure. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 2207-2216.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but this is of course over a long period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;for just one instance, there's no scientifical evidence AFAIK&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5103" LastActivityDate="2014-05-29T19:47:31.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6529" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-29T22:23:39.300" Score="2" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wanted to know whether there are known cases of people who unwillingly enter a state of obedience due to specific external triggers. Is this considered normal, and if not, are there known treatments?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5102" LastActivityDate="2014-05-29T22:23:39.300" Title="triggered state of obedience" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2016-07-05T12:49:47.470" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6531" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6308" CreationDate="2014-05-30T06:54:52.047" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the DSM V, for the diagnosis of schizophrenia, the following is necessary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;two (or more) of the following, each present for a significant portion of time during a 1-month period (or less if successfully treated):&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  (1) Delusions&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  (2) Hallucinations&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  (3) Disorganized speech&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  (4) Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  (5) Negative symptoms, i.e., affective flattening, alogia, or avolition.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where one of the symptoms &lt;strong&gt;must&lt;/strong&gt; be delusions, hallucinations, &lt;strong&gt;or&lt;/strong&gt; disorganized speech. So, no, hallucinations do not need to be present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-05-30T06:54:52.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6532" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6524" CreationDate="2014-05-30T06:58:23.717" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most neuroscientists have dropped the &lt;em&gt;right brain-left brain differentiation&lt;/em&gt; because cross-over of functions at multiple levels is now so widely recognized. So your understanding of &lt;em&gt;two left brains&lt;/em&gt; is not current (if it ever was).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-05-30T06:58:23.717" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6533" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6534" CreationDate="2014-05-30T12:20:25.513" Score="0" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, the amount of energy that is available for the brain to use, or the amount that the brain consumes with respect to time? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4316" LastActivityDate="2014-05-31T03:14:53.420" Title="Are there any systems in the brain that are responsible for monitoring energy" Tags="&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6534" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6533" CreationDate="2014-05-31T03:14:53.420" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very broad question. I'll simplify greatly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like most systems, the brain regulates it's moment-to-moment energy needs through control of it's vascular supply. While the vascular supply (to the heart and brain) is regulated (by both baroreceptors and other) to protect against decreased blood flow (that is, the heart and the brain will be preferentially protected against decreased blood flow), the day-to-day energy need fluctuations are still met by brain parenchymal vasodilation/vasoconstriction, often mediated by ion concentration in response to CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; levels, etc. There are a host of local and peripheral vasodilators. The most instantaneous of these are a result of Ca&lt;sup&gt;++&lt;/sup&gt; and K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The matching of blood flow to regional brain function, called functional hyperemia or neurovascular coupling, involves the coordinated activity of neurons, astrocytes, and parenchymal arterioles. Under physiological conditions, localized neuronal activation leads to elevated astrocyte endfoot Ca(2+) and vasodilation, resulting in an increase in cerebral blood flow. (see also Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012 May 22;109(21):E1387-95. for Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The simplest answer to your question of how the energy needs are met by the brain is through vascular control of the supply of nutrients. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-05-31T03:14:53.420" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6535" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6537" CreationDate="2014-05-31T04:16:07.890" Score="2" ViewCount="1526" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am socially anxious person with wooden behavior and emotions. Unlike others, I try to suspend emotions and stay stoic when I feel uncomfortable. That's my weakness because I don't let others see how I feel and that only let's them the freedom to behave as they want with me. I am not talking about cultural, polite and compassionate people, but less civilized ones who are opposite to description I just gave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I have noticed is that such people react differently to emotional people who do not hold anything in them and behave as they see fit. I have noticed that look, tone and voice can manipulate behavior and instill fear in non-emotional people. I have listed 3 examples below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Look&lt;/strong&gt; - when you are being talked to with angry look, if you don't show same angry look and react in a normal polite way, you just give person freedom to keep talking in such manner to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Voice&lt;/strong&gt; - if you are being talked to with raised voice, you need to adjust to same voice of person talking to you, but stay calm and you give freedom to person talking to you to treat you that way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Tone&lt;/strong&gt; - we'll take customer service as an example when it comes to customers fighting for their rights and claiming what they deserve. Because in phone conversation there's only hearing involved, tone and voice play important roles that determine the outcome of conversation. Polite and cultural people are easy to deal with while it's hard to deal with opposite people who don't feel limits in how they react. Those impudent people usually get what they want by being emotionally manipulative compared to the opposite type of people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess with this question I wanted to get more input from others here and to know how wooden people should deal in stressful situations being as they are, implying freedom to emotionally-unrestricted people to talk to them as they see fit. Should such susceptible people keep being socially avoidant type of people to avoid conflicts or become as their opposites through cognitive behavioral therapy or hypnosis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4366" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-22T13:49:03.107" LastActivityDate="2014-11-22T13:49:03.107" Title="How does look, tone and voice manipulate behavior" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6536" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4502" CreationDate="2014-05-31T04:21:21.973" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a substantial body of literature addressing each of these questions (why do people quit therapy and what predicts positive outcomes); unfortunately there are no easy answers. In part, this is because the literature has looked at these questions from a range of angles, including client characteristics (age, race, gender, motivation, education level, diagnosis), therapist characteristics (demographics, years of experience, therapeutic orientation [cognitive vs psychodynamic]), therapeutic dynamic characteristics (client-therapist demographic match, therapeutic alliance),  and treatment characteristics (whether treatment is manualized, group vs individual therapy, type of therapy). I’ve provided brief answers to both below, but you’ll likely need to do additional literature searches if you have a question about a specific group of patients or therapy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why do people quit therapy?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Swift &amp;amp; Greenberg (2012), conducted a meta-analysis of 699 studies and found a nearly 20% dropout rate for therapy. They found that younger clients, clients who were attending university clinics, those with personality or eating disorders, and those seen by providers-in-training had higher dropout rates. Some of these factors may be correlated; younger clients may be more likely to attend university clinics, and those clinics often use graduate student therapists-in-training to provide services. The study also found dropout rates were higher in studies where the therapist rated/decided if a client had dropped out, which may reflect the therapists’ perspective. Additionally, therapy that was not time-limited and not manualized had higher dropout rates. Whether it was group vs individual therapy, the orientation of therapy, provider race or gender, and client race or employment status had no effect. Results were mixed for other client demographic variables such as gender, education and marital status. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another meta-analysis of 11 studies found that dropout was higher when therapeutic alliance, the relationship between the client and therapist, was weaker (Sharf, Primavera, &amp;amp; Diener, 2010). However, the authors noted that this was moderated by the client’s level of education and the length of treatment. Clients with more education were less likely to dropout. The longer the treatment the higher the dropout rate, though, as in the Swift &amp;amp; Greenberg (2012), it may also reflect the perception of the person reporting dropout. Clients may have felt the therapy was completed, while therapists may have felt the client “dropped out.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, a recent meta-analyses examined the impact of accommodating client preferences on treatment outcomes and dropout rates (Swift, Callahan, Ivanovic, &amp;amp; Kominiak, 2013). There is extensive literature exploring the importance of client preferences related to type of therapist (sex, race), type of treatment (therapy and meds, therapeutic orientation), or style (collaborative, prescriptive) on therapeutic outcomes. Swift and colleagues (2013) found that accommodating client preferences resulted in better outcomes and decreased dropout; these effects did not vary based on client demographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status, etc.). They also noted that clients who were not accommodated were especially likely to dropout of short term therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What predicts therapeutic outcome?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several recent studies examined the role that therapeutic alliance had on outcomes. A Swedish study of 646 patients found that alliance impacted symptom level in the next therapy session in a feedback loop, such that stronger alliance predicted stronger change in symptoms, which in turn strengthened alliance (Falkenstrom, Granstrom, &amp;amp; Holmqvist, 2013). However, the authors noted that the effect was stronger for some clients (personality disorder patients), than others, indicating that client factors also impact outcomes. Therapy type (supportive, CBT, psychodynamic) did not impact symptom reduction. &#xA;Another study found only a weak indication that therapeutic relationship impacts outcomes in complex treatment for psychosis (Priebe, Richardson, Cooney, Adedeji, &amp;amp; McCabe, 2011); these results may reflect a similar finding to Falkenstrom and colleagues (2013), in that diagnosis impacts the role of alliance in outcomes. McEvoy, Burgess, &amp;amp; Nathan (2014) found that another client factor, level of interpersonal problems, predicted dropout and poorer outcomes, regardless of alliance. They also found that type of treatment impacted this relationship, as those patients in CBT who had better alliance were more likely to stay in treatment, but that neither alliance nor personal problems predicted outcomes in those clients.  A 2012 meta analysis questioned previous findings that found alliance predicted outcomes (Fluckiger, Del Re, Wampold, Symonds, &amp;amp; Horvath); they found small effects of alliance and outcomes early in therapy, but not for longer-term therapy and did not find sustained relationships with any other commonly noted predictors, such as type of therapy. In contrast, a recent study (Gullo, Lo Coco, &amp;amp; Gelso, 2012) found that a genuine and real (i.e. accurate and not distorted by past conflict or bias) therapeutic relationship predicted successful outcomes for those clients who stayed with treatment, but not those clients who terminated early. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of other client characteristics that can impact outcomes, one study of 60 Caucasian and Asian American clients found that those with more somatic symptoms and who used avoidant coping had poorer psychosocial functioning and psychological discomfort at end of treatment (Kim, Zane, &amp;amp; Blozis, 2012). They also found that those who preferred Non-English language therapy had worse outcomes and that this was mediated by avoidant coping. The authors proposed that Asian American patients who preferred non-English language therapy may have used coping styles that were culturally relevant to them, but which fit poorly with the style of therapy they received. The expression of psychological symptoms and illness is culturally defined, and should be kept in mind when reading meta-analyses that may reflect the dominant culture. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another meta-analysis of 23 studies found a small to medium effect of homework compliance (completing therapeutic assignments given by the therapist) on client outcomes, which was present regardless of the client’s primary symptom presentation (Mausbach, Moore, Roesch, Cardenas, &amp;amp; Patterson, 2010). This may reflect the importance of client buy-in and effort in therapy, though it should be noted the effect size varied according to certain methodological factors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other analyses have examined the importance of therapist characteristics or client-therapist match on outcomes. A meta-analysis of 64 studies found therapist sex did not impact client outcomes or dropout (Bowman, Scogin, Floyd, &amp;amp; Mckendree-Smith, 2001). As noted in my answer to the dropout question above, Swift and colleagues (2013) noted a range of domains in which clients can prefer to be matched in regards to therapy. A 2011 (Cabral &amp;amp; Smith) meta-analyses of 52 studies found almost no effect for race-ethnicity matching and outcomes when looking across all studies. However, the authors did note that African Americans had mildly better outcomes when matched with African American therapists, a trend which did not hold for the other racial and ethnic groups in the study (Caucasians, Hispanics, and Asian Americans). A second meta-analyses of 7 studies found similar results, with a negligible effect size for ethnic match across all samples, though matching had a greater effect for ethnic minority samples than Caucasians in terms of preventing dropout and increasing the number of sessions attended (Maramba &amp;amp; Hall, 2002). Again, these findings call attention to the importance of multicultural conceptualization when identifying treatments and approaches for clients; this diversity is also an excellent example as to why your questions have no simple answers.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note: None of the studies I found, focusing on recent, meta-analytic literature, addressed whether the clients found the therapy “helpful” (as indicated in your question) as a primary research question.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bowman, D., Scogin, F., Floyd, M., &amp;amp; Mckendree-Smith, N. (2001). Psychotherapy length of stay and outcome: A meta-analysis of the effect of therapist sex. &lt;em&gt;Psychotherapy, 38&lt;/em&gt;(2), 142-148&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cabral, R. R., &amp;amp; Smith, T. B. (2011). Racial/Ethnic matching of clients and therapists in mental health services: A meta-analytic review of preferences, perceptions, and outcomes. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58&lt;/em&gt;(4), 537-554. DOI: 10.1037/a0025266&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Falkenstrom, F., Granstorm, F., &amp;amp; Holmqvist, R. (2013). Therapeutic alliance predicts symptomatic improvement session by session. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60&lt;/em&gt;(3), 317-328. DOI: 10.1037/a0032258&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fluckiger, C., Del Re, A. C., Wampold, B. E., Symonds, D., Horvath, A. O. (2012). How central is the alliance in psychotherapy? A multilevel longitudinal meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59&lt;/em&gt;(1), 10-17. DOI: 10.1037/a0025749&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gullo, S., Lo Coco, G., &amp;amp; Gelso, C. (2012). Early and later predictors of outcome in brief therapy: The role of real relationship. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68,&lt;/em&gt; 614-619. DOI: 10.1002/jclp.21860&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kim, J. E., Zane, N W., &amp;amp; Blozis, S. A. (2012). Client predictors of short-term psychotherapy outcomes among Asian and White American outpatients. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68&lt;/em&gt;, 1287-1302. DOI: 10.1002/jclp.21905&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maramba, G. G., &amp;amp; Hall, G. C. N. (2002). Meta-analyses of ethnic match as a predictor of dropout, utilization, and level of functioning. &lt;em&gt;Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8&lt;/em&gt;(3), 290-297. DOI: 10.1037//1099-9809.8.3.290. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mausbach, B. T., Moore, R., Roesch, S., Cardenas, V., &amp;amp; Patterson, T. L. (2010). The relationship between homework compliance and therapy outcomes: An updated meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Therapy Research, 34&lt;/em&gt;, 429-438. DOI: 10.1007/s10608-010-9297-z&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McEvoy, P. M., Burgess, M. M., &amp;amp; Nathan, P. (2014). The relationship between interpersonal problems, therapeutic alliance, and outcomes following group and individual cognitive behavior therapy. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Affective Disorders, 157&lt;/em&gt;(20), 25-32. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2013.12.038. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Priebe, S., Richardson, M., Cooney, M., Adedeji, O., &amp;amp; McCabe, R. (2011). Does the therapeutic relationship predict outcomes of psychiatric treatment in patients with psychosis? A systematic review. &lt;em&gt;Psychosomatics, 80&lt;/em&gt;(2), 70-77. DOI: 10.1159/000320976&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sharf, J., Primavera, L. H., &amp;amp; Diener, M. J. (2010). Dropout and therapeutic alliance: A meta-analysis of adult individual psychotherapy. &lt;em&gt;Psychotherapy Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 47&lt;/em&gt;(4), 637-645. Doi: 10.1037/a0021175&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Swift, J. K., Callahan, J. L., Ivanovic, M., Kominiak, N. (2013). Further examination of the psychotherapy preference effect: A meta-regression analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 23&lt;/em&gt;(2), 134-145. DOI: 10.1037/a0031423&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Swift, J. K., &amp;amp; Greenberg, R. P. (2012). Premature discontinuation in adult psychotherapy: A meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80&lt;/em&gt;(4), 547-559. doi: 10.1037/a0028226&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-05-31T04:21:21.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6537" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6535" CreationDate="2014-05-31T09:18:32.010" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if this will help you, but when I first started to see patients (somewhat similar to customers), I was taught by attending physicians that what &lt;em&gt;I  felt&lt;/em&gt; after a few minutes was most likely &lt;em&gt;what the patient felt&lt;/em&gt; because of clues given off by patients in their look, manner, words, posture, etc. If the patient felt hopeless, I started to feel that way as a doctor; is he felt anxious, so would I; the same with anger. Once I really trusted that, I could step back from it and use it as a &lt;strong&gt;tool&lt;/strong&gt; to understand the patient's feelings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who do not hold anything in them and behave as they see fit are usually not well adjusted socially, and that intimidates people who are more empathetic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You ask:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Should such susceptible people keep being socially avoidant type of people to avoid conflicts or become as their opposites through cognitive behavioral therapy or hypnosis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before seeking cognitive therapy to become more assertive, there is the possibility of trying the following (which is what we were taught to do as physicians):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Step back in your mind and describe how you feel (angry, afraid, insignificant, anxious, what exactly?)&#xA;2) Decide what the opposite emotions are (calm, confident, capable, peaceful, etc).&#xA;3) Try responding consistently in the opposite manner until they have calmed down (it usually works). It's like taking the wind out of someone's sails instead of blowing back. (This will work if someone is &lt;em&gt;normal&lt;/em&gt;. With mentally ill patients, it's still very helpful, but there are other behaviors to use as well.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This way, you can defuse situations instead of escalating them while staying true to yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-05-31T09:18:32.010" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6538" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-05-31T13:54:05.760" Score="7" ViewCount="33645" Body="&lt;p&gt;What brain wave states are most correlated with deep hypnosis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5108" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-05-31T19:22:55.567" LastActivityDate="2018-05-17T06:55:53.783" Title="What brain wave states are associated with hypnosis?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4835" CreationDate="2014-05-31T17:30:57.147" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are systematic ways to compare similar tests and determine which test best fits your needs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Construct Definition&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Identify the constructs (in this case, traits or abilities) you are interested in and clearly define the meaning of each construct. Cognitive performance can encompass many domains, including memory, processing speed, psychomotor functioning, and various aspects of intelligence (including social intelligence). Once you’ve identified which components you consider to be key to “peak cognitive processing,” use literature in your field to develop accepted or theory-driven operationalized definitions for each construct so you have a standard to which you can compare different tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Test Identification&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Identify potential tests; generally their title or brief description will allow you to identify tests that are assessing constructs of interest. When comparing tests, however, there are several things to consider in order to 1) ensure the test is actually measuring your construct of interest, 2) compare similar types of tests, and 3) select the test which best suits your needs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Validity&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Assess various aspects of test validity for each tests. &lt;em&gt;Construct validity&lt;/em&gt; assesses whether the test measures the construct of interest; a quick (though not thorough) way to assess construct validity is to compare the definition or theory the test’s developers use to the definition you have created. If you’ve defined “depression” in cognitive terms (difficulty thinking, distraction, ruminative thoughts) and the test you’re assessing has defined it in emotional or somatic terms (sad, hopeless, problems sleeping, loss of appetite), then that test would not match your definition of depression and may not capture the construct you are interested in. I advise using these definitions as a starting place, so that you feel confident the test is appropriate for your purposes. However, you should also consider other types of validity as well. &lt;em&gt;Content validity&lt;/em&gt; assesses whether it captures part of a construct (like factual knowledge) or the whole construct (like factual knowledge and the application of that knowledge). &lt;em&gt;Criterion/predictive validity&lt;/em&gt; is whether the test has shown to predict certain outcomes measured at a later time; an example is seeing if a reading test predicts year end grades in reading. Criterion validity is most often used in achievement or employment testing and may not be relevant to your work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Other Psychometric Properties&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Assess additional psychometric properties of each measure. Is there evidence of convergent (is it positively correlated with similar variables) and divergent (is there a negative or null correlation with dissimilar variables) validity? Has test-retest or inter-rater reliability been established? Do the scales have good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha)? Is the sensitivity (number of true positives identified) and specificity (number of true negatives) known?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Norms and Development&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Think about what groups the test has been used with and developed in. Was it developed only based on samples of college students? Has it been validated in diverse groups? Some of the more well-known batteries may be “normed” tests, which allow you to compare scores to a well-defined reference sample. However, if that sample is drastically different from the population you work with, it may not be helpful to make that comparison. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Test Burden and Assessing Secondary Traits&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;You will also need to decide if there are certain factors that might complicate the use of a test, such as excessive length or a high reading level or difficulty. Finally, when you’ve settled on a valid, reliable, assessment of appropriate length that matches your construct of interest, look over the measure and be aware of any &lt;em&gt;construct contamination&lt;/em&gt; issues. An example is a working memory test (perhaps making someone do solve oral story problems in his head) that is also timed. In this case, if the person is penalized for not working quickly enough, you might be capturing deficits in processing speed rather than working memory. Similarly, if you’re using the test to assess math skills, you might be capturing working memory problems rather than an accurate assessment of math ability; the person may be able to correctly complete the math problems on paper pencil if they are not required to remember the problem while solving it. You may be able to counter the effects of contamination by measuring the same skill (math) multiple ways (both orally and on paper, both timed and untimed).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summary for identifying and comparing assessments:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ensure the test is assessing the construct of interest using the&#xA;operationalized definition you have in mind. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Assess reliability and validity (including norms, sensitivity, and&#xA;specificity)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ensure length, language, etc. are practical for your purposes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Be aware of possible construct contamination&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Groth-Marnat, G. (2009). &lt;em&gt;Handbook of psychological assessment.&lt;/em&gt; (5th Edition). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furr, R. M., &amp;amp; Bacharach, V. R. (2008). &lt;em&gt;Psychometrics: An introduction.&lt;/em&gt; Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-05-31T17:30:57.147" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6540" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6553" CreationDate="2014-06-01T16:55:18.673" Score="8" ViewCount="2547" Body="&lt;p&gt;What keeps the cerebrospinal fluid circulating? Is it pumped by something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This picture from wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; seems to indicate that it pulsates as though it is pumped:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zcUNy.gif&quot; alt=&quot;CSF&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5100" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-02-14T09:51:25.570" LastActivityDate="2021-01-29T14:08:15.190" Title="What keeps the cerebrospinal fluid circulating? Is it pumped by something?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6542" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6565" CreationDate="2014-06-01T21:56:50.630" Score="6" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a physicist and the other day, a friend of mine pointed out something that I had never noted explicitly before. This is an empirical observation, but it seems true to me, and it may raise a lot of questions about the current organization of research. I wonder whether this has already been documented and studied, either from the sociological or psychological points of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The observation is that fundamental discussions on physics (i.e. implying non-standard physics and epistemology) often occur in discussions involving at most 2 or 3 good friends (all being physicists). The more people you involve (5 or 6 good friends), the harder it is to speak about these subjects. It is not &quot;explicit&quot;; it is just a personal feeling that a kind of &quot;social pressure&quot; appears and tends to bring the discussion closer to &quot;standard discussion subjects&quot;. And it seems to occur even if all possible subgroups of 2 or 3 people among the global group of 5 or 6 people are OK with having fundamental discussions on physics when they are isolated from each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this a well-known effect? (Any links to studies?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is its origin?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How to avoid it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5110" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-01T22:10:01.877" LastActivityDate="2014-06-05T18:28:21.010" Title="Difficulty of having profound scientific discussions with more than 2 or 3 people?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6543" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6514" CreationDate="2014-06-01T23:39:26.067" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some research in the realm of sex differences and hormonal effects of aggression. The hypothesis meant by that is not so much the rather obvious one that male faces reliably cue &quot;male&quot; behaviour; although that is an important fact. For example, if a person has a beard, they are much more likely to be sexually attracted to women than to men. However, perhaps more in response to the intent than the phrasing of the question, researchers have speculated that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18713717&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;sexually dimorphic facial width-to-height ratio may be an 'honest signal' of propensity for aggressive behaviour&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. The idea behind this is that a common component, testosterone, underlies and causes both wide, masculine faces and aggressive behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I personally am not yet convinced of the reliability of this research - for example, in the progress of this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.carrelab.com/PUBLICATIONS.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;research programme&lt;/a&gt;, more and more mediators are discovered, which by some might be interpreted to indicate an unreliable finding. However, the basic concept seems to be what you're looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, for now, even the linkage between hormones or neuroanatomy on one hand, and behaviour on the other hand is rarely clear, reliable and strong. Few of the variance in behaviour can be expected to be read off of facial configurations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2014-06-01T23:39:26.067" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6544" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3603" CreationDate="2014-06-02T09:28:14.443" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I encounter a lot of situations like this in personality research. I don't think it's true that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As natural scientists they know they cannot present their limited observations as general fact, but only falsify a hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Limited observations of empirical information are still as factual as anything else. One may not want to present explanations of them as general &lt;em&gt;theory&lt;/em&gt;, but one doesn't need a null hypothesis to generate theory. If the ministry's budget for the study is set, and the sampling procedure is too, then why not just collect the data and describe it the best one can? The scenario suggests a natural quasi-experiment, so causal inference would be limited unless laboratory-controlled experiments were used instead of naturalistic observation...and controlled experiments still might fail to apply to natural ecosystems by limiting the bugs' expression of any preferences they might have. Given no perfect solution, it seems inferential power is inevitably limited in this scenario. I don't see any hope for retaining a confirmatory hypothesis testing framework either, given the explicit lack of a hypothesis to confirm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an exploratory framework, clear data description is roughly as good as (even debatably better than) hypothesis testing. It doesn't pretend to be something it's not if reported appropriately, and doesn't replace real information with a choice of simplistic models. One way to take an exploratory approach in this case would be to estimate the effect size of the group difference and calculate confidence intervals. If zero is within your confidence interval, you might not want to reject the null hypothesis, but then again, why wouldn't you? It's probably false anyway, even if it's only ever-so-slightly off in whichever direction, even if only due to other uncontrolled variables. IMO, better to focus on what you &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;$${\rm Apple}_{\rm bug}\ne{\rm Apple}_\text{no bug}\\d=\frac{\bar{x}_{\rm bug} - \bar{x}_\text{no bug}}{s_{\rm pooled}}\\{\rm CI}_{d(1-\alpha)}=\text{[Lower bound, Upper bound]}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't see why the ministry couldn't make an appropriate decision based on this information; none of its limits are unnecessary AFAIK, whereas the value of a test statistic is tied to the choice of null. What if the ministry only cares about substantial nonzero effects, but throws enough money at it to detect very small effects reliably? A rejected null then does less good than a narrow confidence interval, which might rule out both zero effect and substantially larger than zero effects given a small effect and large sample.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-06-02T09:28:14.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6545" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6568" CreationDate="2014-06-02T10:13:29.820" Score="1" ViewCount="1041" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a common knowledge that several brain areas are involved in memory processes and each area is involved in a different aspect of memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But where do our memories get stored and how are they retrieved again?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1003" LastActivityDate="2014-06-05T22:54:33.093" Title="Where do our memories get stored and how are they retrieved again?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6546" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6548" CreationDate="2014-06-02T16:59:40.500" Score="1" ViewCount="182" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there self-regulation or self monitoring test. I am interested in measuring why people are not commited to their goals (quit smoking, dieting etc) so you can suggest another measure instead of self-regulation failure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-03T05:58:48.467" LastActivityDate="2018-08-29T12:55:45.510" Title="What is a good measure of self-regulation?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6547" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4938" CreationDate="2014-06-03T01:17:55.663" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd go for the jugular in non-empathetics: sociopaths and psychopaths, people who clinically lack the ability to empathize. There &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; a difference in their brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might be interested in the story of the neuroscientist &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-neuroscientist-who-discovered-he-was-a-psychopath-180947814/?no-ist=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. James Fallon.&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fallon wanted to identify lack of empathy as a brain patern. He had PET scans of serial killers mixed with a host of other mental illnesses and disorders in an attempt to predict accurately psychopaths. He found a particular pattern again and again which was striking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“I was looking at many scans, scans of murderers mixed in with schizophrenics, depressives and other, normal brains,” he says. “Out of serendipity, I was also doing a study on Alzheimer’s and as part of that, had brain scans from me and everyone in my family right on my desk.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“I got to the bottom of the stack, and saw this scan that was obviously pathological,” he says, noting that it showed low activity in certain areas of the frontal and temporal lobes linked to empathy, morality and self-control. Knowing that it belonged to a member of his family, Fallon checked his lab’s PET machine for an error (it was working perfectly fine) and then decided he simply had to break the blinding that prevented him from knowing whose brain was pictured. When he looked up the code, he was greeted by an unsettling revelation: the psychopathic brain pictured in the scan was his own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps because boldness and disinhibition are noted psychopathic tendencies, Fallon didn't hide that discovery; instead he started to study it. He found that his family line included seven alleged murderers, including &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizzie_Borden&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lizzie Borden&lt;/a&gt;*. A series of genetic tests revealed the presence of high-risk alleles for aggression, violence and low empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can see normal empathy vs. psychopath scan differences in the linked source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Maybe you remember this childhood rhyme (I do): Lizzie Borden took an axe/ gave her mother forty whacks./ When she saw what she had done,/ She gave her father forty-one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-06-03T01:26:24.017" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6548" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6546" CreationDate="2014-06-03T04:51:57.353" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could look at the Self-Regulation Questionnaire. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CCYQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fcasaa.unm.edu%2Finst%2FSelfRegulation%2520Questionnaire%2520%28SRQ%29.pdf&amp;amp;ei=r1ONU9nINIXfkwWI84HIBw&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNFFW-t3FvFD4CI1pS3zQSWyvUOuhQ&amp;amp;sig2=6SS-vDzfJIsxWwQeNk4KYg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;See here for a summary of the instrument&lt;/a&gt; in terms of what it purports measure, items, response scales, psychometric properties such as reliability and validity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brown, J. M., Miller, W. R., &amp;amp; Lawendowski, L. A. (1999). The Self-Regulation Questionnaire. In L. VandeCreek &amp;amp; T. L. Jackson (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A source book (Vol. 17, pp. 281-289). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-06-03T04:51:57.353" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6550" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-03T05:54:50.257" Score="0" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a psychological term for finding your former partner sexually attractive, or for wanting to get back with your ex? How does science describe this condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5121" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-03T06:20:47.663" LastActivityDate="2014-06-27T20:02:44.107" Title="Is there a psychological term for finding your former partner sexually attractive?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6551" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6550" CreationDate="2014-06-03T08:02:51.327" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;FWIW, I've tried to find existing research on this and come up with next-to-nothing. Hypothetically speaking, I doubt it would be constructive to adopt new psychological jargon that even social and personality psychologists (like myself) have never heard of, given how little research there appears to be on this. The closest match I found was the following reference, which doesn't really discuss sexual attraction or infatuation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Rubin, Z., Peplau, L. A., &amp;amp; Hill, C. T. (1981). Loving and leaving: Sex differences in romantic attachments. &lt;em&gt;Sex Roles, 7&lt;/em&gt;(8), 821–835. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.peplaulab.ucla.edu/Peplau_Lab/Publications_files/Rubin_Peplau_Hill_81.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.peplaulab.ucla.edu/Peplau_Lab/Publications_files/Rubin_Peplau_Hill_81.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, if it's jargon you want, you might consider &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_%28emotion%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;passion&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lust&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;lust&lt;/a&gt; (this has somewhat more negative connotation than I'd expect an author to desire, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://goo.gl/Z3xVTr&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;at least one article uses it&lt;/a&gt;), &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;limerence&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular_theory_of_love#Forms_of_love&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;infatuated love&lt;/a&gt;. These don't connote the existence of a broken commitment, but infatuated love does connote a lack of commitment or intimacy by Sternberg's definition, and all connote sexual attraction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-06-03T08:02:51.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6553" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6540" CreationDate="2014-06-04T04:58:01.783" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no evidence that the CSF has a pump. A link to a Chiropract Medicine page (a good one, from my reading) tells us that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It is something of a misnomer to speak of CSF “circulation,” particularly in the spinal canal, as there is no continuous loop circulation of CSF&lt;/strong&gt; as in the cardiovascular system. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2842089/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CEREBROSPINAL FLUID STASIS AND ITS CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Whedon et. al., Altern Ther Health Med. 2009 May–Jun; 15(3): 54–60.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is in keeping with the findings of decades of research in western medicine (M.D., Ph.D., D.O., etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For quite some time, it has been known that CSF movement results from the formation of new CSF and motion of cilia on the surface of the choroid plexus and ependyma lining the ventricles. - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fluidsbarrierscns.com/content/10/1/36&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fluids and Barriers of the CNS&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &amp;quot;circulation&amp;quot; of the CSF, as already mentioned, is something of a misnomer. CSF is not known to &amp;quot;circulate&amp;quot; in the manner of blood. It does get &lt;em&gt;agitated&lt;/em&gt; by pressure differentials, and it is 'circulated' in terms of being reabsorbed and replaced every 6-7 hours. Other than that, no circulation occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Blood&lt;/em&gt; circulation is not generated only by the heart. Pressure differentials throughout the body affect the circulation of blood as well. One that is easily demonstrated (first documented in 1733) is the effect of intrathoracic (chest) pressure on circulation. The blood pressure of healthy people falls during spontaneous inspiration. When someone takes a deep breath, the blood return to the heart via the vena cava decreases, and pressure is exerted on the right atrium. Both cause decreased filling, which will drop blood pressure. Although this is best demonstrated with a blood pressure cuff, it can be demonstrated without. An unrecommended method is exemplified in a childhood game of &lt;em&gt;passing out&lt;/em&gt;. A Valsalva maneuver (deep breath and glottal closure) decreases blood flow to the heart. Squeezing the chest further decreases return, resulting in fainting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same pressure differentials agitate the CSF. Additionally, smaller movements were seen with pressure differentials caused by the beating of the heart.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By employing this respiration-induced spin labeling bSSFP cine method, we were able to visualize CSF movement induced by respiratory excursions. CSF moved cephalad (16.4 ± 7.7 mm) during deep inhalation and caudad (11.6 ± 3.0 mm) during deep exhalation in the prepontine cisternal area. Small but rapid cephalad (3.0 ± 0.4 mm) and caudad (3.0 ± 0.5 mm) movement was observed in the same region during breath holding and is thought to reflect cardiac pulsations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The image in the OP's question is of a patient with normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) showing pulsations of CSF &lt;strong&gt;with heartbeat,&lt;/strong&gt; nothing more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other factors that cause movement of CSF, but they are intermittent and variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fluidsbarrierscns.com/content/10/1/36&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Influence of respiration on cerebrospinal fluid movement using magnetic resonance spin labeling, Yamada et. al., Fluids and Barriers of the CNS 2013, 10:36&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid#mediaviewer/File:NPH_MRI_272_GILD.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MRI showing pulsation of CSF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-01-29T14:07:48.487" LastActivityDate="2021-01-29T14:07:48.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="6554" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-04T05:09:31.607" Score="4" ViewCount="324" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a computer science student [assume I have very little knowledge of the biological part of EEG]. I recently came across the topic EEG and was pretty interested in it. As far as I know, we get an analog signal (measuring potential) from the brain, convert it to digital and feed to computer, and thus we are able identify different brain activities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is how reliable this signal is. Will we be able to differentiate between different activities (like a thought to increase volume of television, not feeling well, etc.)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5127" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-04T06:01:42.083" LastActivityDate="2014-06-04T16:54:51.800" Title="Is EEG brain-computer interface reliable?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6555" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6546" CreationDate="2014-06-04T16:50:00.817" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can also use a stop signal task that measure response inhibition. It has been associated with dependencies like smoking &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3077266/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3077266/&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0018898&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0018898&lt;/a&gt; for a go/nogo task, though the stop signal task is preferred. There is also some studies linking inhibtion to self regulation and self control, although I dont remember the sources at the moment. Sorry for poor formatting, new here at s.e.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5129" LastActivityDate="2014-06-04T16:50:00.817" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6556" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6554" CreationDate="2014-06-04T16:54:51.800" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;This very much depends on what, &lt;em&gt;exactly&lt;/em&gt;, you're trying to do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EEG measurements tend to be extremely reliable, but the inferences one may draw on mental state are not necessarily so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EEG-driven BCI overwhelmingly relies on machine learning to correctly classify signals into a finite number of categories and act upon them.  Typically, you'll do something like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Record EEG sessions where people are cued to think of any number of 'triggers' (e.g. turning up the volume of a television set).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Segment the recording into epochs by drawing a window around the time at which the subject was told to think of the trigger.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Extract time-insensitive features from the epochs and label them based on the trigger type.  (e.g.:  something as simple as a rolling-window mean over each sensor).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Train a supervised classifier (usually a support vector machine) on the feature vectors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use the classifier to decode future brain activity in real time.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there are many subtleties and machine learning is a vast topic in and of itself.  The point here is that your question is too ambiguous to be answered directly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To reiterate, EEG is reliable, but as with most things, it comes with a number of caveats:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scalp-level voltage topographies can vary massively across individuals because of anatomical differences&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;EEG is very sensitive to electromagnetic noise&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Non research-grade EEGs (e.g.: EMOTIV EPOC) have few channels, tend to be noisy, and often lose contact&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cap placement is hard to do reliably outside of the laboratory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2014-06-04T16:54:51.800" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6557" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6558" CreationDate="2014-06-04T17:13:52.490" Score="3" ViewCount="395" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm in the process of creating a simple contrast staircase function where subjects are initially presented with high-contrast Gabor patches and are subsequently queried as to their orientation in a forced-choice task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I only understand staircase functions superficially, which is to say that I conceive them as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;present a stimulus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;query some feature of the stimulus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If correct, reduce the intensity of the stimulus by &lt;code&gt;n&lt;/code&gt;, else increase its intensity by &lt;code&gt;m&lt;/code&gt; where &lt;code&gt;m &amp;lt; n&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intuitively, it seems like this should converge on a hit-rate of .5, but I know for a fact that a staircase can be designed to converge on an arbitrary hit-rate.  How would I modify my simplistic algorithm to converge on, say, .8 ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2014-06-09T07:26:13.627" Title="How can I design a staircase function that converges on a given hit-rate?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6558" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6557" CreationDate="2014-06-04T20:13:34.443" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;If &lt;code&gt;n != m&lt;/code&gt; then it will not home in on the 50 % threshold. In these simple N-up/N-down staircases, you can modify either the stepsize (as you proposed) or the number of successes/failures to act as a criterion for upgrade/downgrade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A comprehensive introduction to these staircases and the effect of changing these properties can be found in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698997003404&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;. The 80 % threshold is simple because it's simply nDown=1 and nUp=3 with the same stepsize in either direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several staircase methods are implemented in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychopy.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsychoPy&lt;/a&gt; python package/software and it actually has the nDown=1 and nUp=3 as default value if you don't specify anything else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: If you can assume a nice mathematical relationship between stimulus parameter and perception (i.e. linear, logistic, power etc.), then it'll probably be more efficient to use regression because even though your parameter is way off the desired threshold, it's still informative about the mathematical relationship. Thus you can use it to infer where the threshold should be and home in much more efficiently than the &quot;scanning-like&quot; approach of N-up/N-down methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5130" LastEditorUserId="5130" LastEditDate="2014-06-09T07:26:13.627" LastActivityDate="2014-06-09T07:26:13.627" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6559" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-04T21:44:19.127" Score="3" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've found lots of info on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.motivationalinterviewing.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;motivational interviewing&lt;/a&gt; for strengthening a person's own motivation and commitment to change, but I'm wondering if this technique has been adapted to help people who won't or can't get to a counselor or therapist.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is a therapist required to administer the interviews?  Has anyone used the technique without having therapist appointments, e.g., could an interactive website provide similar guidance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4718" LastActivityDate="2014-06-04T21:44:19.127" Title="Could motivational interviewing techniques be used without engaging with a counselor?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6560" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7640" CreationDate="2014-06-04T23:53:19.850" Score="15" ViewCount="1780" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Internet is of course full of memes from Sherlock Holmes show, based &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9sUVrVS4co&quot;&gt;on one of the episodes&lt;/a&gt; having Sherlock self-diagnose:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'm not a psychopath, I'm a highly functioning sociopath&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;But what exactly is the difference?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; does not actually seem to offer any meaningful distinction between the two, including seemingly indicating that they are synonymous in DSM but not actually named there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The DSM and International Classification of Diseases (ICD) subsequently introduced the diagnoses of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and dissocial personality disorder, stating that these have been referred to (or include what is referred to) as psychopathy or sociopathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2638" LastEditorUserId="25157" LastEditDate="2020-08-16T17:46:36.663" LastActivityDate="2020-08-16T17:46:36.663" Title="What is the difference between a psychopath and sociopath?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6561" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-05T04:22:36.447" Score="2" ViewCount="225" Body="&lt;p&gt;I stumbled upon the book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0972474218&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The never ending quest&quot;&lt;/a&gt; by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clare_W._Graves&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Clare W. Graves&lt;/a&gt;. It looks interesting to me, but I suspect that he is not as scientific as he pretends to be. Is this author's theory of hierarchy considered credible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5133" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-05T04:47:18.573" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T13:46:43.517" Title="Is Clare W. Graves a credible author?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-18T12:33:48.010" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6562" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-05T05:29:48.607" Score="0" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a computer science student, and as part of my project, I would like to develop a system that changes the TV channel, increases its volume, etc. by just the thought of it. My primary investigation paved the way to EEG BCI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which fields should I research in order to develop such a system, and what equipment in general is necessary? As far as I know we need an EEG device attached to head, a transmitter to send the signal to the TV, a receiver at the TV side, and proper processing of signals and feeding to the TV. &lt;strong&gt;I mostly need more explanation of the EEG side.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5127" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-05T16:54:25.297" LastActivityDate="2014-06-08T01:05:56.200" Title="Knowledge in what fields is necessary to develop an EEG brain-computer interface?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6563" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8123" CreationDate="2014-06-05T05:31:49.770" Score="1" ViewCount="976" Body="&lt;p&gt;Two years ago I started to learn (as self-education) evolution theory and neurobiology&#xA;for to understand - &lt;em&gt;who we are and where we came from?&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Now I see clearly that we are our brains, which are the result of RNA &amp;amp; DNA selection&#xA;and replication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of the issues now resolved for me: about love and intuition, origin of religion and art etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But one question remains &quot;a mystery&quot;:&#xA;why are there so many wishes, desires, urges?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;What is the neurobiology base for a monstrous amount of consumer goods, objects of art etc.?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most primitive idea is &quot;complexity of brain -&gt; intricacy of processes -&gt; lots of desires&quot;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Another naive answer has to do with so called &quot;play-explore-investigation instinct&quot;,&#xA;which plays an important role when two basic instincts are &quot;still&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But to me, human wishes and urges look like more of a  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackermann_function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Akkerman function&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;than just &quot;a lot of&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I belive that (sooner or later) evolution and neuroscience will give answers to all questions &#xA;about our mind and behavior.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;So glad to hear something about this one!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5132" LastActivityDate="2019-05-11T11:45:28.227" Title="Why do we have so many wishes and desires?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6565" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6542" CreationDate="2014-06-05T07:25:47.827" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to be related to a kind of &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_pressure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Peer pressure&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is due the change of the context. A profound discussion is regarded as &lt;em&gt;confidential talk&lt;/em&gt; and you will notice that the voice volume is lower than a discussion with many people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But why is a profound discussion regarded as confidential?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe because you could touch scientific taboos. Every time you touch the foundation of a world view you will confront all participants with their fears. The world view represents a aspect of security. Exposing lacks in a world view will expose the fears of them too. Then it's much more difficult to find a common ground for a solution. Not everybody is willed to accept the implication of a certain insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A discussion with more people will tend to go towards superficial topics, cars, home, family, weather and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it depends on who initiate the talk and if this person is keen enough to enforce this topic. And I think that Keegan is right, sometimes we just want to be polite and we want the discussion to be more open ... maybe more open to the &quot;general context&quot; of the situation itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5134" LastActivityDate="2014-06-05T07:25:47.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6567" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6545" CreationDate="2014-06-05T08:00:21.833" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a good question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question of &quot;where&quot; is not answered yet by mainstream science. One problem is the huge amount of data we get only through our eyes each day, approximately about one terrabyte if this data is compressed by modern algorithms. A lifetime of 100 years would be almost impossible to store &quot;&lt;em&gt;inside our brain&lt;/em&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some alternative theories which could explain how the brain stores data. Maybe our brain works like a antenna, similar to a computer which has a access to a vast data pool from the internet. You could ask the question where is the movie inside the television or where is the internet inside the computer? Certainly a computer has a harddrive, a local data storage unit and a cpu, but it is very limited in processing everyday data for a lifetime. It would be very restricted if it would not access to outer data pools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carl Gustav Jung has wrote about the theory of a collective subconsciousness and he was in contact with Wolfgang Pauli, a quantum physics pioneer. I would not wonder if we one day discover that our memory is nonlocal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5134" LastActivityDate="2014-06-05T08:00:21.833" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6568" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6545" CreationDate="2014-06-05T09:25:37.290" Score="-5" Body="&lt;p&gt;To explain this, it depends how far we want to go with the answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Wikipedia, it's one of the question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;List of unsolved problems in neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Learning&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;memory&lt;/a&gt; which are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Where do our memories get stored and how are they retrieved again?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can learning be improved?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the difference between explicit and implicit memories?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What molecule is responsible for synaptic tagging?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many unknowns in that field, because it's paradox of using our brains to understand our brains. Basically our brains are too complex and if we were simpler, we'd be dumber and couldn't understand it, anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Ian Stewart quotes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;'If our brains were simple enough for us to understand&#xA;them, we'd be so simple that we couldn't.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some answers according to mainstream science:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All our memories do get stored by the brain for varying periods of&#xA;time; some are stored in our short term memory and don't stick with us&#xA;for very long, while others are filed away in our long term memory.&#xA;The actual capacity of our brains for storing memories has been&#xA;difficult for scientists to determine, though it is believed that&#xA;because our brains consist of a vast number of neurons&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Experts believe the brain uses three memory-storing stages: sensory,&#xA;short-term and long-term. The different stages act as filters,&#xA;beginning with when we first see something, until the flood of&#xA;information is processed. The filtering protects us from having too&#xA;much unnecessary information requiring storage. Perception, therefore,&#xA;is the first step in memory creation and is associated with the&#xA;sensory stage, where the registration of information during perception&#xA;takes place for a brief second. Sensory and short-term memory&#xA;information tends to decay rapidly, with only the important&#xA;information gradually moved to long-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short-term memories like a possible chess move, or a hotel room number&#xA;are processed in the front of the brain in a highly developed area&#xA;called the pre-frontal lobe, according to McGill University and the&#xA;Canadian Institute of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Science tells us that while our brain may store different types of&#xA;memories in various areas of the brain, recalling a memory is a&#xA;brain-wide process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Types of memories and where they are stored in the brain include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Semantic memory: General knowledge, trivia and facts are stored in    the temporal lobe and the cortex.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Episodic memory: New data and    recent events are stored in the prefrontal cortex and the temporal    lobe.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Working memory: Information and knowledge required for daily    life -- such as telephone numbers and learned skills like driving --&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;are stored in the prefrontal cortex.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Procedural memory: Secondhand    skills, things we take for granted, such as walking and cycling, are    stored in the cerebellum.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While it isn't known exactly how many connections are possible in the&#xA;brain, or how large the storage area for memory might be, scientist do&#xA;know that our memories are not stored in one memory center in the&#xA;brain, rather, the events and experiences of a single memory may be&#xA;stored in many different areas of the brain. For example, when someone&#xA;recalls a trip to the beach, he or she might remember that the sand&#xA;was white, the ocean was blue, the air smelled like salt water and&#xA;seagulls were squawking. To recall that one memory, the brain doesn't&#xA;visit the &amp;quot;beach memory center,&amp;quot; but pulls the different components&#xA;together from various cortices. The blue water and white sand are&#xA;retrieved from the visual cortex, the salt water smell from the&#xA;olfactory cortex, and the squawking gulls from the auditory cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the average person, not every memory is consolidated, or stored,&#xA;in long term memory, freeing up space. But in certain rare cases of&#xA;exceptional memories, some people have been known to store and&#xA;perfectly recall nearly every detail of every memory from most of&#xA;their lives, a syndrome known as hyperthymestic syndrome. Researchers&#xA;declared the first known case of hyperthymesia in a subject known as&#xA;AJ, a then 40-year-old woman could accurately recall every event that&#xA;had ever happened to her since the time she was 14 years old.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing what is also interesting to point, that &lt;a href=&quot;http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/what-happened-to-einsteins-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Einstein's brain was removed during an autopsy&lt;/a&gt; and kept it in hopes of studying it to unlock the secret of Einstein's genius. It's theorized that the lack of the fissure allowed his brain cells to communicate faster than the average human's. In summary the three histological studies of Einstein’s brain have, in spite of claims to the contrary, found essentially no differences between his brain and that of controls. This should not come as any great surprise. The brain is obviously an extremely complex structure… to believe that the analyses of one or a few tiny slices of a single brain could reveal anything related to the specific cognitive abilities of that brain is naive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/memories-still-stored-our-brains&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Are all the memories we've ever had still stored in our brains?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-memory-trace/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Where Are Old Memories Stored in the Brain? from the Scientific American&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/human-memory1.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How Human Memory Works&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein%27s_brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Albert Einstein's brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/neuroskeptic/2014/05/24/myth-einsteins-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Myth of Einstein’s Brain?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Age&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;New Age&lt;/a&gt; movement and similar (not supported by the mainstream science) our brain is a biological computer that interfaces with a conscious entity (our &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;consciousness&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;soul&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_self&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;higher-self&lt;/a&gt;). And our experiences/memories are stored in forms of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akashic_records&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the akashic records&lt;/a&gt; (on quantum level in forms of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;photons&lt;/a&gt;) in our DNA (which is our &lt;a href=&quot;http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/%7Esai/quant_biology.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;quantum mechanical biowave computer&lt;/a&gt;) as part of our &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etheric_body&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;etheric body&lt;/a&gt; and are retrieved by our &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;consciousness&lt;/a&gt; by our &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_free_will&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;free will&lt;/a&gt;. Various of peoples &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-body_experience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;out-of-body experiences&lt;/a&gt; supports that theory including some &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.near-death.com/evidence.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scientific evidences&lt;/a&gt;. Our brains still have some storage function, but it's not the main repository of our memories/experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The scientific theories are in favor for above:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_paradigm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Holonomic brain theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_principle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Holographic principle&lt;/a&gt; (universe existing as a 'hologram' and everything is made of electromagnetic fields)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-slit_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Double-slit experiment&lt;/a&gt; (which proves consciousness on quantum level)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ciencia/ciencia_genetica04.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The DNA Phantom Effect&lt;/a&gt; discovered by quantum physicist Dr. Vladimir Poponin&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Big Bang theory&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Crunch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Big Crunch&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_biology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quantum phenomena in biology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Including controversial project called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Consciousness_Project&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Global Consciousness Project&lt;/a&gt;  relating to the anomalous spikes that precede the towers being hit &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attacks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;9/11&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the &lt;a href=&quot;http://themindunleashed.org/2014/01/scientists-found-memories-may-passed-generations-dna.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;new research from Emory University School of Medicine&lt;/a&gt;, in Atlanta, has shown that it is possible for some information to be inherited biologically through chemical changes that occur in DNA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z6adHSKxF2A&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DNA is a Torsion field antenna by Dr. Len Horowitz&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.collective-evolution.com/2011/09/02/scientist-prove-dna-can-be-reprogrammed-by-words-and-frequencies/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scientist proves DNA can be reprogrammed by words and frequencies&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scientists which support New Age theory are i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Max Planck&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lanza&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robert Lanza&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregg_Braden&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gregg Braden&lt;/a&gt; and many more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Famous quotes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“I  regard consciousness as fundamental. I regard matter as derivative&#xA;from consciousness. We cannot get behind consciousness. Everything&#xA;that we talk about, everything that we regard as existing, postulates&#xA;consciousness.” – Max Planck, Nobel Prize winning originator of&#xA;quantum theory, as quoted in The Observer (25 January 1931)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Max Planck said &amp;quot;As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most&#xA;clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a&#xA;result of my research about atoms this much: There is no matter as&#xA;such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which&#xA;brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute&#xA;solar system of the atom together. We must assume behind this force&#xA;the existence of a conscious and intelligent mind. This mind is the&#xA;matrix of all matter&amp;quot; in 1944.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Albert Einstein: &amp;quot;A human being is a part of the whole, called by us&#xA;&amp;quot;Universe,&amp;quot; a part limited in time and space. He experiences himself,&#xA;his thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest—a kind&#xA;of optical delusion of his consciousness. The striving to free oneself&#xA;from this delusion is the one issue of true religion. Not to nourish&#xA;it but to try to overcome it is the way to reach the attainable&#xA;measure of peace of mind.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1003" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-06-05T22:54:33.093" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6542" CreationDate="2014-06-05T18:28:21.010" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I see the issue in question is this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a larger group of cohorts the topic of conversation becomes less than profound due to a sense of pressure to remain within an accepted norm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One could definitely say that this is a &quot;well known effect&quot; simply because we all experience it at some point in our lives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This closely resembles the infamous &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bystander_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bystander Effect&lt;/a&gt;, where the size of the group directly impacts the likelihood an individual will take action. Whatever the reasons may be for people in academia to succumb to social peer pressures is anyone's guess :) and I am fairly certain many of you reading this question can answer this, albeit to yourselves but for more insight as to why this might happen - Stanley Milgram's work might shine some light on this. A good summation of his work is described &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologyinaction.org/2014/04/29/milgrams-other-work/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here, on the Psychology in Action&lt;/a&gt; site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A specific answer to the origin of this really depends on your school of taught (not thought :)). Ultimately, this discussion would boil down to nature or nurture, do we shape our environment or does it shape us?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately, to avoid it, simply be the bold one to bring up profound topics of conversation with the purpose of enriching those around you. This will prove a wondrous thing for those 2 to 3 friends with whom you have these conversations. For the rest, well, does it really matter - you can bring a horse to water, but you ...we all know this one :).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind that profound conversation will lead to profound results, which is important in your field, perhaps more than any other - Physics define our reality!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5138" LastActivityDate="2014-06-05T18:28:21.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6571" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-05T18:56:45.293" Score="2" ViewCount="204" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am learning about stress and anxiety recently. I understood what stress is, but I couldn't get exactly what anxiety is. I know there are six types of anxiety disorders, and I understood them. But anxiety is a widely-known term used a lot on the internet, but I don't know what exactly they mean by that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One difference I came across is that the stress after the stressor is gone is known as anxiety.&#xA;So if someone can tell me what exactly this anxiety is, I will be glad. &#xA;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5139" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-05T19:23:11.177" LastActivityDate="2015-11-29T00:54:15.987" Title="Difference between anxiety and stress?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6572" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6571" CreationDate="2014-06-05T18:58:52.237" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/?gws_rd=ssl#q=what%20is%20anxiety&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;What is Anxiety?&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Give this a read.&#xA;I like this explanation of anxiety best, however:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, typically about an imminent event or something with an uncertain outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/?gws_rd=ssl#q=what%20is%20stress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;What is Stress?&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Give this a read also.&#xA;For an explanation of stress as it pertains to your question, I like this best:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or very demanding circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do the two differ? One can cause the other.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003211.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Give this a read&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;Ultimately, stress can lead to anxiety, meaning that mental or emotional strain can lead to a general sense of fear toward imminent events with uncertain outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, everything we experience in our lives where we feel discomfort can be described as stress or stressful, but it's not until it leads to an immobilizing state where we cannot process the world around us – e.g., inability to move, speak or think because of an onset of fear caused, typically, by an interpretation of a previous event where the outcome was too painful, or in other ways emotionally damaging, that one might then attribute said stress to be anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5138" LastEditorUserId="5138" LastEditDate="2015-11-29T00:54:15.987" LastActivityDate="2015-11-29T00:54:15.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6573" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6562" CreationDate="2014-06-05T19:01:52.630" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;On the EEG side, you'll need a way to access the EEG data in real-time so that you can perform whatever computational techniques you need to do in order to generate signals to control the TV. Some of the newer commercial-oriented EEG headsets have SDKs that you may be able to use. We've used the &lt;a href=&quot;http://emotiv.com/eeg/features.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Emotiv system&lt;/a&gt; in our lab for mobile EEG research, and they have an SDK that can be purchased for parsing the raw EEG data. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The processing pipeline will probably be something like: EEG -&gt; Computer that is processing the EEG signal -&gt; TV Transmitter -&gt; TV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-06-05T19:01:52.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6574" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6571" CreationDate="2014-06-05T21:00:14.993" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Everyone normally experiences anxiety. Worrying is a form of anxiety, as is nervousness. People have normal anxieties about all kinds of things: a coming review or exam, an illness or our health, our weight, our food, social gatherings with persons not well known, public speaking, financial uncertainties, the way we are disciplining our children, whether our children will turn out well, what we should do with our lives, etc., etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anxiety is part of every life. If you have ever worried, fussed, hovered, feared, gotten butterflies in your stomach, or wanted to &quot;run and hide&quot;, you have experienced anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anxiety occurs on a continuum. It is abnormal to feel no anxiety. On the other end, it is abnormal to feel too much anxiety, or irrational anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But when you say, &quot;I couldn't get exactly what anxiety is&quot;, it's because you're calling it something else. If you've ever been surprised (not in a good way) by a police car behind you turning on it's lights, or have been nervous about an approaching dog, worried you left the stove on, a window opened or the doors unlocked, have feared getting into trouble, worried about meeting your girlfriend's parents or felt uncomfortable walking in a bad neighborhood alone, then you know what anxiety is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An anxiety disorder occurs when anxiety is so intense that it is interfering in some way with your normal life. But since you did not ask about anxiety disorders, I will leave it at that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-06-05T21:00:14.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6575" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6538" CreationDate="2014-06-05T23:12:37.427" Score="-2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There does seem to be changed activity in the brain, however. The most&#xA;  notable data comes from electroencephalographs (EEGs), measurements of&#xA;  the electrical activity of the brain. Extensive EEG research has&#xA;  demonstrated that brains produce different brain waves, rhythms of&#xA;  electrical voltage, depending on their mental state. Deep sleep has a&#xA;  different rhythm than dreaming, for example, and full alertness has a&#xA;  different rhythm than relaxation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In some studies, EEGs from subjects under hypnosis showed a boost in&#xA;  the lower frequency waves associated with dreaming and sleep, and a&#xA;  drop in the higher frequency waves associated with full wakefulness.&#xA;  Brain-wave information is not a definitive indicator of how the mind&#xA;  is operating, but this pattern does fit the hypothesis that the&#xA;  conscious mind backs off during hypnosis and the subconscious mind&#xA;  takes a more active role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Researchers have also studied patterns in the brain's cerebral cortex&#xA;  that occur during hypnosis. In these studies, hypnotic subjects showed&#xA;  reduced activity in the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, while&#xA;  activity in the right hemisphere often increased. Neurologists believe&#xA;  that the left hemisphere of the cortex is the logical control center&#xA;  of the brain; it operates on deduction, reasoning and convention. The&#xA;  right hemisphere, in contrast, controls imagination and creativity. A&#xA;  decrease in left-hemisphere activity fits with the hypothesis that&#xA;  hypnosis subdues the conscious mind's inhibitory influence.&#xA;  Conversely, an increase in right-brain activity supports the idea that&#xA;  the creative, impulsive subconscious mind takes the reigns. This is by&#xA;  no means conclusive evidence, but it does lend credence to the idea&#xA;  that hypnotism opens up the subconscious mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Whether or not hypnosis is actually a physiological phenomenon,&#xA;  millions of people do practice hypnotism regularly, and millions of&#xA;  subjects report that it has worked on them. In the next section, we'll&#xA;  look at the most common methods of inducing a hypnotic trance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/extrasensory-perceptions/hypnosis4.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How Hypnosis Works at How Stuff Works&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1003" LastActivityDate="2014-06-05T23:12:37.427" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6576" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3420" CreationDate="2014-06-05T23:32:19.757" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Main difference is that the meditation is self-induced and with full self-awareness, whereas hypnosis is usually induced by another person (unless is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-hypnosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-hypnosis&lt;/a&gt; which is self-induced) and the person is in state of trance, amnesia or unconscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypnosis is defined by the U.S government as &quot;the bypass of the critical factor of the conscious mind and the establishment of acceptable selective thinking.&quot;.&#xA;Hypnosis can help you in various ways and is a calm state of altered-consciousness that allows a person to recall memories or be guided to change a behavior (in example to help someone stop smoking).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While meditation is a practice in which an individual trains the mind or induces a mode of consciousness.&#xA;An ordinary person may be consider meditation as a prayer or total stillness, but the goal of meditation is to focus and quiet your mind, eventually reaching a higher level of awareness and inner calm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to some beliefs or movements, the meditation from ancient times is the method of communication with other realms/planes of existence (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephirot&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sephiroth&lt;/a&gt;) and entities (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_self&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;higher self&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.alchemyrealm.com/entities.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;astral beings&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.erinpavlina.com/blog/2007/09/qa-on-the-dead-and-the-afterlife/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dead relatives&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demon&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;demons&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://arcturi.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;aliens&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascended_master&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ascended masters&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;angels&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;God&lt;/a&gt;, etc.), &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astral_projection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;astral travel&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_viewing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;remote viewing&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clairvoyance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;clairvoyance&lt;/a&gt; or altering your body (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reiki&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reiki&lt;/a&gt;, activating &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikihow.com/Open-Your-Spiritual-Chakras&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;chakras&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikihow.com/Open-Your-Third-Eye&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;3rd eye&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.learniet.com/12_strand_dna2.asp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;DNA activation&lt;/a&gt;) or &lt;a href=&quot;http://psi.wikia.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;time-space reality&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychokinesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychokinesis&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psi.wikia.com/wiki/Telekinesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;telekinesis&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wingmakers.co.nz/Physical_Teleportation.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;teleportation&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://gregdougall.wordpress.com/2013/12/12/121213-global-meditation-the-portal-opening-to-changeover-at-new-earth/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;opening portals&lt;/a&gt;) and many more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whereas hypnosis was introduced to European society in 18th century and it is sometimes described as &lt;a href=&quot;http://educate-yourself.org/zsl/hypnotismblackmagic20dec10.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;black magic and dangerous&lt;/a&gt; for our body and spirit, because the person is just the victim on stage with implanted suggestion by hypnotist. If it's done incorrectly, the victim suffers nightmares and aberrant behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1003" LastEditorUserId="1003" LastEditDate="2014-06-06T09:14:04.577" LastActivityDate="2014-06-06T09:14:04.577" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6577" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-06T07:26:04.490" Score="2" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;What makes a human processing information so different from a set of instructions in a computer? Solving a problem for any human operating with concepts is still much superior to lots of computer processing. I fail to verbalize what this 'extra' capability is. I just see the result when observing humans solving problems, but what is the mechanism that allows humans to process differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3354" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2014-06-18T06:36:04.133" LastActivityDate="2014-06-20T06:44:02.657" Title="What do brains do when processing information, that Von Neumann machines cannot (yet?) imitate?" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6579" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6560" CreationDate="2014-06-06T17:16:30.223" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding of the distinction is that psychopaths are the way they are from birth, while sociopaths become antisocial due to upbringing or other environmental factors. As well, psychopaths have a high tendency towards violence but generally low impulsiveness, while sociopaths may not be as violent but have high impulsiveness. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.diffen.com/difference/Psychopath_vs_Sociopath&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Diffen&lt;/a&gt; has a nice and fairly comprehensive comparison of the two terms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3409" LastActivityDate="2014-06-06T17:16:30.223" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6580" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6560" CreationDate="2014-06-06T19:57:25.027" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is very nice article about difference:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://knowledgenuts.com/2013/11/03/the-difference-between-psychopaths-and-sociopaths/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://knowledgenuts.com/2013/11/03/the-difference-between-psychopaths-and-sociopaths/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is some history of psychopathy diagnosis:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://law.jrank.org/pages/1884/Psychopathy-What-psychopathy.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://law.jrank.org/pages/1884/Psychopathy-What-psychopathy.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short APA made fusion of sociopathy and psychopathy diagnosis in DSM, but lot of researches was conducted in prisons. So they omited &quot;snakes in the suits&quot; whicha are very inteligent and charming and often climb very sucsesfully on corporate ladder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2014-06-06T19:57:25.027" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6581" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-06T21:02:38.087" Score="4" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know answers to the following questions :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why do I feel curious sometimes to check out sites of &quot;real accidents&quot; such as &quot;Documenting Reality&quot; or &quot;Live Leak&quot; ?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why do I feel nauseous when I have seen a few of these events, such as videos / images of real motorcycle accidents ?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am confused that I feel both occasionally (every 3 months say) curious to see what really happens to people in these accidents as well as feel physically ill once I have seen that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suppose this is somewhat similar to the reason people slow down to &quot;take a look&quot; at a motor vehicle accident while driving past on the highway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess what I am also interested in is -- how is it possible for people to feel turned on by this same content -- such as &quot;self harmers&quot; or psychopaths? Is there a &quot;causal emotional chain&quot; that could be explained the reactions of such people as compared with the feeling of aversion ... or is such arousal just random and unexplainable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5142" LastEditorUserId="2926" LastEditDate="2014-06-08T08:59:51.897" LastActivityDate="2014-06-08T08:59:51.897" Title="Explanations of responses to real graphic harm" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6582" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6590" CreationDate="2014-06-07T00:27:13.567" Score="5" ViewCount="238" Body="&lt;p&gt;By &quot;ether&quot; I mean to no post-synaptic cell in particular. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is the case, how common is it for an axon terminal to not be part of a synapse?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related question: do axon terminals &lt;em&gt;form&lt;/em&gt; only as part of a synapse? Or are they formed ahead of time, and then connect to form synapses as needed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5100" LastEditorUserId="5100" LastEditDate="2014-06-07T01:02:46.653" LastActivityDate="2014-06-08T00:48:42.063" Title="Are axon terminals always part of a synapse, or are there any that just release neurotransmitters into the ether during an action potential?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6583" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6582" CreationDate="2014-06-07T04:33:06.460" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;By definition, &lt;a href=&quot;http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/axon+terminals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;axon terminals&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; are part of a synapse:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The somewhat enlarged, often club-shaped endings by which axons make synaptic contacts with other nerve cells or with effector cells. Also called end-feet, neuropodia, terminal boutons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Structural remodeling of synapses and formation of new synaptic connections has been observed since 1999.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10586883&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; Neurotrophins are proteins that activate neurons to produce more and new synaptic connections, allowing survival of neurons, regeneration, and neuroplasticity.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22367796&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The very complex pathways involved in neuroplasticity would suggest that neurons don't put out random axons or dendrites, but do so purposefully to increase synaptic density and neuronal health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A random growth of dendrites or axons would be both wasteful and deleterious to a highly integrated nervous system, and therefore is as unlikely to be &lt;em&gt;normal&lt;/em&gt; as non-directionally-oriented and non-innervated skeletal muscle cell formation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastEditorUserId="5104" LastEditDate="2014-06-07T06:08:48.020" LastActivityDate="2014-06-07T06:08:48.020" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6584" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7611" CreationDate="2014-06-07T04:52:57.697" Score="8" ViewCount="201" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've had more than one mathematics teacher say to me that they had heard of a link between music and maths ability. I thought I observed it informally myself, but it was difficult to tell if those kids just had very motivated and caring parents. (ie few control data points of music and not mathematics and vice versa). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;Is there any evidence of a relationship between learning music and increased ability in Mathematics?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastActivityDate="2014-06-11T02:48:05.223" Title="Is there any evidence of a relationship between learning music and increased ability in Mathematics?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6585" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4509" CreationDate="2014-06-07T05:58:18.080" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;@ChuckSherrington is correct except for a few very minor errors/simplifications. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, the three semicircular canals that form the Vestibular (or balance) System are located in a safe little pocket of bone called the inner ear. The three canals are oriented at (basically) 90° angles to each other so that we can maintain our balance no matter which position our head is in (e.g. hanging from monkey bars upside down does not make young people dizzy, nor does it change their sensation of gravity.*) Finally, and crucially, they are linked with our ocular system through a neuronal connection called the vestibolo-occular reflex (VOR).&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt; Because the connections are excitatory, increased firing from a canal afferent leads to contralateral movement of the eyes (which is how spinning ice skaters can keep track of / focus on where they are visually). I will not elaborate on the role of the vestibulocollic reflex (VCR) in the stabilization of visual acuity for brevity's sake. Normally all this occurs without notice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latency of action of the rotational vestibuloocular reflex (r-VOR) is 7-15 milliseconds, which is the time required for the eyes to respond in an equal, but opposite, manner to the motion of the head. This time is remarkably fast compared with the latency for visually mediated eye movements, which is longer than 75 milliseconds.&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens is that with spinning (say, in one plane), the cilia of the hair cells (see @Chuck Sherrington's diagram) are displaced, and remain displaced as long as one is spinning with the same velocity and direction. Once the spinning suddenly stops, the cilia proceed to move to their default position, &lt;em&gt;tricking the VOC into moving the eyes in the opposite direction repeatedly until the cilia come to a complete stop&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt; You can &lt;em&gt;observe&lt;/em&gt; this phenomenon by looking into the person's eyes immediately after they stop spinning (make sure they are safe from falling.) Once things settle down in the inner ear, the vertigo (perception of spinning) stops shortly thereafter as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The perception described by @what is different altogether.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7363/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Anatomy and Physiology of the Vestibular System&lt;/a&gt; Gizzi, et. al.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1836134-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Vestibuloocular Reflex Testing - Amin, et. al.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;[3] &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=bCuHZgwSRC4C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP2&amp;amp;dq=vestibulo+ocular+reflex+and+physiologic+vertigo&amp;amp;ots=A5rMJ0X1Ks&amp;amp;sig=XobkDjkD-jId7DnUhQpBQouCGlc#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=vestibulo%20ocular%20reflex%20and%20physiologic%20vertigo&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Baloh and Honrubia's Clinical Neurophysiology of the Vestibular System&#xA; By Robert William Baloh, Kevin Kerber, MD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*I say young people because some decreased sensitivity to semicircular canal fluid movement occurs as we age, and elderly people may, indeed, become dizzy with drastic changes in position. This decreased sensitivity is often a contributing factor to falls in the elderly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-06-07T05:58:18.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6586" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-07T11:04:38.120" Score="0" ViewCount="6475" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why some pains are sweet? Some pains give pleasure not even bodily pains but mentally also in daily affairs, an individual may intentionally impose mild difficulties on his self. Is there a cognitive or evolutionary reason behind it or it is a disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user2678" LastActivityDate="2014-06-07T19:37:45.537" Title="What is a sweet pain, exactly?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6587" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6581" CreationDate="2014-06-07T15:42:13.340" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not an expert in social cognition and this may be considered somewhat speculative, but I wouldn't be surprised if the literature found a link between shocking images and their high informational value (along the lines of a &lt;em&gt;delta&lt;/em&gt; in reinforcement-learning models).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intuitively, one would expect that visual representations of potentially dangerous situations would be extremely informative and therefore extremely salient.  Indeed, emotion-induced blindness studies suggest that gory stimuli benefit from the deployment of massive attentional resources, to the point that they may exclude other salient stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where this gets speculative is why this is experienced as something pleasurable.  I'd suggest that highly-informative stimuli might be pleasurable in general.  On the pure social psychology end of things, a search for &quot;morbid curiosity&quot; is bound to turn up some relevant results (as suggested by @medica).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll leave it up to you to explore these three bibliographic trails. =)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="2926" LastEditDate="2014-06-07T15:50:25.933" LastActivityDate="2014-06-07T15:50:25.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6577" CreationDate="2014-06-07T16:44:04.210" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm taking your question to be equivalent to &amp;quot;how does the human brain differ from a computer?&amp;quot;.  Indeed, it's well-established that humans outperform computers in a large number of contexts, but it's difficult to pinpoint exactly &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; this is.  The best answer you'll get is one that outlines how the two computational systems differ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me start with three obvious differences, which IMHO are the most important:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brains are analog machines, whereas computers are digital.  This means that brains can apply any number of continuous, non-linear transforms to solve problems.  If you're mathematically or programmatically inclined, here's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dropbox.com/s/c5aiph75xhy51na/Machens_etal_2005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wonderful paper&lt;/a&gt; that demonstrates how a brain can elegantly and efficiently discriminate between two stimulus frequencies (supplementary materials &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dropbox.com/s/ch7hzyynjkfep8b/Machens_etal_2005_supp.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; if you want to mess with the code yourself).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brains are good at fuzzy-logic and uncertainty.  Contrary to computers, brain activity can &amp;quot;evoke&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;activate to varying degrees&amp;quot; similar representations.  Intuitively, you can think of this as local activation spreading to adjacent areas (although this is a gross oversimplification).  On a more cognitive level, this enables things such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/119/5/1587.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;semantic priming&lt;/a&gt; to be implemented quite naturally, whereas this is horrifyingly complex with digital computers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Synaptic connections are much, much, much, much, &lt;strong&gt;much&lt;/strong&gt; more complex than logic gates.  Synaptic connections can be reinforced and inhibited on either end of the cleft (presynaptic or post-synaptic).  Moreover, the dynamic nature of synaptic connections allows for some interesting emergent properties such as mutual inhibition, or the formation of multiple iso/nullclines in firing rates via more complex interactions (see the Machens et al. paper I linked to in point 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this having been said, let me reiterate the point I made in my previous comment.  Human brains have cognition, in the true sense.  This alone makes them able to solve problems that other systems can't.  To use your own words, humans have conceptual reasoning, whereas computers do not... which is to say the answer was in your question to begin with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To expand on what is admittedly a not-very-useful last paragraph, it seems as though you are conflating &lt;em&gt;concept&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;representation&lt;/em&gt;.  A concept implies conceptual knowledge, which is simply non-applicable to a non-cognizant system.  As to how the representations differ, this is where point &lt;code&gt;2&lt;/code&gt; is relevant.  In this case, the representation of a face evokes activation corresponding to various related representations (e.g. on the semantic level).  Importantly, this &amp;quot;spillover&amp;quot; occurs by the very nature of the system -- it's not something that's artificially tacked on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's the &lt;em&gt;relationship&lt;/em&gt; between your representation, other representations, and the sensorimotor system (&amp;quot;self&amp;quot;) that arguably constitute a &lt;em&gt;concept&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fletcher, P. C., Shallice, T., Frith, C. D., Frackowiak, R. S. J., &amp;amp; Dolan, R. J. (1996). Brain activity during memory retrieval The influence of imagery and semantic cueing. Brain, 119(5), 1587-1596.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Machens, C. K., Romo, R., &amp;amp; Brody, C. D. (2005). Flexible control of mutual inhibition: a neural model of two-interval discrimination. Science, 307(5712), 1121-1124.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-06-20T06:44:02.657" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6589" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6586" CreationDate="2014-06-07T19:37:45.537" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorphins&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Endorphins&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_experience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;flow experience&lt;/a&gt; I suppose. Seems adaptive enough to have some mechanism for overcoming short-term distress for the sake of long-term gains, but like most things, this can be taken to extremes. There's some debate regarding the status of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadism_and_masochism_as_medical_terms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;masochism&lt;/a&gt; within the normal–abnormal spectrum. See also &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;internalization&lt;/a&gt;, which &lt;a href=&quot;http://bpd.about.com/od/glossary/g/Internalizing.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;includes&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-harm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-harm&lt;/a&gt; among other forms of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maladaptation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;maladaptation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-06-07T19:37:45.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6590" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6582" CreationDate="2014-06-08T00:48:42.063" Score="6" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By &quot;ether&quot; I mean to no post-synaptic cell in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes; this is an important mechanism, as it allows the &lt;em&gt;volume conduction&lt;/em&gt; of neuroactive chemicals. For example, many brainstem nucleus, such as the &lt;em&gt;locus coeruleus&lt;/em&gt;, are small in size, yet affect much or even most of the cortex by this mechanism. Neurotransmitters are released and diffuse in the fluid-filled &lt;em&gt;extracellular space&lt;/em&gt; (what you call &quot;ether&quot;), affecting many cells at once without making specific synaptic contact with any of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This mode of conduction is slow and spatially nonspecific compared to synaptic transmission, but it underlies much of neuromodulation, such as the setting of cortical states via norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If this is the case, how common is it for an axon terminal to not be part of a synapse?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This depends on what brain systems you're talking about. Intracortical connections and most direct afferent and efferent projections are mostly synaptic (since they require speed), but many other systems are greatly, or even mostly, volume conducting. Again, the brainstem nuclei are a good example, but gut neurons are another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Related question: do axon terminals form only as part of a synapse? Or are they formed ahead of time, and then connect to form synapses as needed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some synapse quickly, others never synapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://biomedphys.sgu.ru/Files/LIB/Springer/Handbook%20of%20Neurochemistry%20and%20Molecular%20Neurobiology%20--%20neurotransmitters/04.pdf&quot;&gt;Vizi, E. S. &amp;amp; B. Lendvai (2008): Synaptic and Nonsynaptic Release of Transmitters. &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Neurochemistry and Molecular Neurobiology&lt;/em&gt;, pp 101-111&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/data/Journals/NP/929763/iv.pdf&quot;&gt;Taber, Katherine H. &amp;amp; Robin A. Hurley (2014): Volume Transmission in the Brain: Beyond the Synapse. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences&lt;/em&gt; 4-4.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2014-06-08T00:48:42.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6591" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6562" CreationDate="2014-06-08T01:05:56.200" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Beyond what you've already listed, you'll need advanced &lt;em&gt;signal processing&lt;/em&gt; skills, as so far, nobody has figured out how to get much more meaningful information out of the EEG than broad attentional state (alpha blocking and the P300, and the evoked potentials), and maybe some correlates of motor imagery, though none of these have realistically proved themselves yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will need to clean the signal using techniques such as independent component analysis/ICA and wavelet denoising, and identify some weak correlate of mental activity in the strong irrelevant &quot;background&quot; activity. Approaches regarding the latter fall into two camps, as I've noted above: either try to identify some well-known neuropsychological component, such as the P300, on a single-trial basis; and/or use machine learning to agnostically identify a signal, with Support Vector Machines being en vogue right now as far as I know. I assume the latter part you're already informed about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/wiki/MoBILAB&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;MOBILab&lt;/a&gt; for some of the leading figures with regards to EEG signal processing, but be aware that the EEG is an extremely noisy measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2014-06-08T01:05:56.200" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6592" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6595" CreationDate="2014-06-08T09:09:37.200" Score="4" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;age of eighteen&lt;/strong&gt; is an age that in many societies gives rise to various additional rights and responsibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a scientific reason for assigning such right and responsibilities at the age of 18?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are some of reasons and history for this convention?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4306" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-08T09:30:10.870" LastActivityDate="2014-06-09T01:47:45.103" Title="Is there a psychological explanation for the age of 18 being important in many societies?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6593" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="6594" CreationDate="2014-06-08T09:47:23.657" Score="1" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name of the law and the equation that says that &quot;the more time an organism is working the slower (or less precise) its movements.&quot; ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read once that there is a law in behavioral science that says that: &quot;The more an organism is doing something(working) the slower its movements are (or less precise, can't remember exactly).&quot;. That law also has equation that describes it. I need to know the name of that law.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5146" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2014-06-08T16:27:55.133" LastActivityDate="2014-06-08T16:27:55.133" Title="Law and its formula that says: more time organism working the slower (or less precise) the movements" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6594" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6593" CreationDate="2014-06-08T14:43:27.227" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is a bit vague, but it sounds like you might be looking for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hick%27s_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hick's Law&lt;/a&gt;.  Hick's law states the relationship between the number of possible responses that an organism can provide for a given task and the minimum time necessary to engage a response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may have also been thinking of one of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-alternative_forced_choice#Computational_models_of_decision_making_in_2AFC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;computational models for two-alternative forced-choice tasks (2AFC)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me know if any of this rings a bell!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2014-06-08T14:43:27.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="6595" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6592" CreationDate="2014-06-08T14:47:57.697" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_majority&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cursory search&lt;/a&gt; strongly suggests that the distinction is arbitrary and practical, with little link to developmental science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can find no evidence for any particularly compelling biological change centered around the age of 18.  That, along with the fact that the age of eighteen is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; a universal age-of-majority, makes me say that there is no scientific basis for the choice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="2926" LastEditDate="2014-06-09T01:47:45.103" LastActivityDate="2014-06-09T01:47:45.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7595" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-09T07:39:50.953" Score="8" ViewCount="547" Body="&lt;p&gt;Around the Internet, especially in social media, we see examples of hyperlinks in a common format that has been cynically dubbed &quot;&lt;strong&gt;click bait&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; or &quot;&lt;strong&gt;link bait&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is that authors publish these links with evocative titles, trying to entice a casual browser into clicking the link and viewing the content (where the resultant loading of the advertisements presumably earn some small amount of money for the content provider).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples of click bait (with links removed, to protect everyone's sanity) are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Watch out, these &lt;strong&gt;15&lt;/strong&gt; baby penguins are waddling off to steal your heart. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;31&lt;/strong&gt; creative life hacks every girl should know&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;20&lt;/strong&gt; Powerful D-Day Photos On The 70th Anniversary Of The Invasion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt; Sexy Star Wars Tattoos&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of these kind of links use provocative phrasing, like &quot;you won't believe&quot; and &quot;will shock you&quot;. I can see intuitively why this works to entice people to click the link.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the reason for giving a number, like in the examples? Is there any psychology involved in this trend?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question comes from someone who doesn't really know anything about psychology or cognitive science; I'm just interested. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6152" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-10T08:10:44.717" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T14:06:32.713" Title="Why does clickbait use numbers?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7596" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6577" CreationDate="2014-06-09T13:58:27.883" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intuition is what distinguishes human intellect with classical computers. The human intellect is intuitive in the first place and it builds strict logical (conscious) mind on top of it. Computers are opposite. They act according to concrete algorithms. Yet, &lt;strong&gt;you can achieve intuition by emulating it with computer logic&lt;/strong&gt;. There is nothing that prevents machines to become intellectual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I you want details, the intuition is achieved through connectionism (Neural Network), a computational model alternative to the hardwired logic of computers. The Neural Network is ultimately parallel computer. It consists of utterly stupid computational units, neurons, every is connected with (tens of ) thouthands of other neurons. Connection pass simple pulses, raised by neurons. The reaction of the brain depends on the weights of these connections (synapses). &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Artificial_Neural_Networks/Hebbian_Learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Learning is basically adjusting of these weights&lt;/a&gt;. This is one of the strength of intellect over computer -- it programs it itself, by the environment, which allows to make decisioins for the problems which are intractable to formalize and it guesses the best answer in the abscense of complete information and does so immediately (in matter of couple of neuron pulses, in fractions of a second), thanks to the &lt;strong&gt;immense parallelism&lt;/strong&gt;. These are the things unattainable by stupid, programmed sequential algorithm. I have told that parallelism is achieved through the myriad (100 billion neurons x tens of billions of connections per each = &lt;strong&gt;quadrilions of processing units in one head&lt;/strong&gt;) of connections, working in parallel. You thus may guess that even Blue Gene has problem to compete with it with the tasks that are difficult to formalize or which have large search space. You may also notice that parallelism of NN is squred by the fact that &lt;strong&gt;every synaps holds all the images exposed to the brain before&lt;/strong&gt;. Yes, every element holds all immense informatioin known to you and you have quadrilions of such elements in your head and they work in parallel (see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture#Von_Neumann_bottleneck&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;von Neumann Bottleneck&lt;/a&gt; why it is important that every processor has all memory available locally).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more parallel machine you have, the more undeterministically it behaves. You cannot predict the outcome computed by ultimate intuition therefore, especially after it constantly self-learning by environment to solve unformalized problems from the environment. This makes it also impossible to grasp the algorithm of the brain that was used to derive the outcome. It reminds the quantum computation/coherence/uncertainty/miracles: the elementary you go, the more miraqulous your particles become (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.ee/#q=roger+penrose+The+Emperor%27s+New+Mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Penroze even foolishly decided that NN intuition miracles from Quantum Computation&lt;/a&gt;, which can also instantly reduce immense search spaces into a single optimal solution). You, thus may tell that computers are predictable while people are creative (unpredictable). Yet, that is another story. The point is that classical machines can imitate human mind but you need a lot of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-learning connecitons&lt;/a&gt; to diffuse your computation. Classical computers (especially supercomputers) can emulate neural networs but they still do not have enough processors &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.ee/search?q=blue%20brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;to emulate the whole brain&lt;/a&gt; (the intellect is growing with the number of synapses and neurons, you know). The classical supercomputers are not just efficient enough to emulate the NN models. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scribd.com/doc/36080303/Neural-computation-platforms-to-the-Blue-Brain-and-beyond&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Special neural computers&lt;/a&gt; are 1000 times more efficient. Yet, even those machines still cannot simulate one human brain. Might be you can simulate a cockroach. It will not add numbers very well but it will bypass obstacles much more efficiently programer-hardwired logic. The latter is likely to never terminate because it will never be able to consider all situations (like blue brain in the chess contest). Intuition by its miracle just picks one, seeming the best and does not consider individual solutions, not even in the background. Yet, programmer will be able to approach the cocroach creativity developing more and more complex algorithm, likewise Deep Blue is looking more intellectual with more CPUs, more brute force and more complex algorithm. The classical approach approaches the intuition model as it becomes more elaborated and difficult to grasp. In the end, programmer may end up with the program, identical to what cocroach have learned naturally without hassle and this program will be a hell. You better start with NN right away. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only problem why this was not done so far is that it is still costly to produce quadrillion of transistors/synapses. Nevertheless, &lt;strong&gt;the real brains are specialized NN hardware, after all&lt;/strong&gt; and there is nothing in theory that can forbid miracles of artificial intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A bit messy but I think that the idea is clear. We need an efficient computer to emulate a neural network and thus we'll get an intuition. All the (classical) computers we have around are intended for execuing statements like &quot;if input = this value then set that register/output that value, proceed to next statement&quot;. This way you program stupid, non-creative slaves, uncapable to learn and react immediatly finding more or less optimal solutions in the sea yet difficiency of required information. On the other hand, deterministic predictibility of the slaves is more efficient for routine, easy to formalize tasks like adding two numbers where intuition machine is overkill and may simply refuse to follow your commands being in bad mood, you know. You'll have to negotiate with AI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3177" LastEditorUserId="3177" LastEditDate="2014-06-09T14:28:16.217" LastActivityDate="2014-06-09T14:28:16.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7597" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-08T01:41:29.790" Score="2" ViewCount="37998" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do you report F statistics in APA format? I am working on PHD and am not certain that I am reporting the F statistics in the proper manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been reporting it as F (_,_). The second space I am unclear as to what number gets placed there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3718810" LastEditorUserId="21788" LastEditDate="2019-10-10T12:43:38.463" LastActivityDate="2019-10-10T12:43:38.463" Title="How to report an F statistic in APA style?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;publication-process&gt;&lt;apa-style&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7598" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7597" CreationDate="2014-06-09T15:08:53.227" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The numbers inside the parentheses are the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ron.dotsch.org/degrees-of-freedom/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;degrees of freedom&lt;/a&gt; for the F-statistic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second number is the within-group degrees of freedom. When you have the same number of subjects in all conditions, then the second number will be the number of subjects - the number of cells (conditions) in your design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-06-09T15:08:53.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7599" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-09T20:00:04.003" Score="-1" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we assume that everything has conciousness – plants, animals, even rocks, then can we say that technical hardware, like a calculator for example, has a higher level of conciousness than a rock?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6156" LastEditorUserId="1003" LastEditDate="2014-06-23T02:26:52.157" LastActivityDate="2014-07-07T09:31:43.793" Title="Assuming everything has conciousness, can technical hardware have higher level of conciousness than a rock?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-06-21T22:34:48.327" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7600" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7597" CreationDate="2014-06-10T00:23:55.093" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The F ratio statistic has a numerator and denominator degrees of freedom. Thus, you report:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;F (numerator_df, denominator_df) = F_value, p = ..., effect size = ...&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The numerator degrees of freedom relates to the factor of interest; the denominator degrees of freedom corresponds to the degrees of freedom for the error variance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The exact way that these degrees of freedom are calculated depends on the statistical test you are using. Standard textbooks will describe these approaches.&#xA;For example, in a standard one-way between subjects ANOVA with $k$ groups and $n$ participants per group, you would have $k-1$ numerator degrees of freedom and $kn-k$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, you will be able to read off these numbers from the output of your statistics package.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Example&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an example with k=3 groups and n=5 participants. See the df in the &quot;group&quot; row and the &quot;error&quot; row.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;F(2, 12) = 24.667, p &amp;lt; .001.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JrUou.png&quot; alt=&quot;anova&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-06-10T00:23:55.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7601" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-10T01:05:39.323" Score="3" ViewCount="183" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing it may be some combination of the two. If so, which is the more frequent situation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm also guessing it varies depending on the type of memory being formed. Let's take for instance, my memory of opening up this tab and clicking the &quot;Ask Question&quot; button about 30 seconds ago. Surely this can't just be a case of strengthening former synaptic connections, right? It's a completely new and specific memory. So would it be a case of (for the most part) many new synapses being formed to somehow encode this memory? It seems hard to believe that there could be so many new synapses being created constantly in order to encode so many memories. It must happen lightning-fast, no?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5100" LastEditorUserId="5100" LastEditDate="2014-06-10T02:15:56.443" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T04:08:28.117" Title="Is learning and memory formation mostly comprised of new synapses forming, or already-existent synapses strengthening?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7603" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-10T08:18:08.747" Score="1" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;We all want/wish to avoid heavily crowded places. There are a few such places we daily encounter - office closing hours traffic, heavy rush at the food counter at lunch time, bank closing hours, evenings in markets. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No one likes to stand in a queue or move at a snail's pace in a heavily crowded street. But why do we still find these rushes occurring every day ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This either means that - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not everyone hates queues. There are people who will prefer going amidst heavy traffic. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not everyone knows how to avoid these - which is quite hard to believe. Its common knowledge that if you leave by 6pm (or whenever your office ends) you will find huge rush on the main road. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some people try to act smart(or try to bluff) - they think many people won't turn up at the peak hours fearing the rush, so let me go at the usual time. This is what &quot;majority&quot; of the people end up thinking and thus the rush happens again.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[I can't think of any sensible reasons]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any reasonable scientific/rationale explanation for the above phenomenon ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3675" LastActivityDate="2014-06-10T14:57:44.933" Title="Why does not everyone avoid peak hour rushes?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2014-12-13T20:33:20.393" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7604" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7609" CreationDate="2014-06-10T11:33:27.480" Score="5" ViewCount="1062" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a computer science major. Currently I'm working on a project for which I want to expose users to different levels of information depending on their distance from displays.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone who ever saw a control room of a power plant or the management software of brokers knows that the persons are bombarded with information (directly like numbers, and aggregated like graphs). I think that it might be a good idea to reduce the shown information depending on the distance and the direction one is looking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm pretty sure that psychologists have already done research in that regard, but I'm totally unable to find any paper on that subject.&#xA;Is there a specific scientific term for this kind of information flood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6159" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-10T18:59:23.647" LastActivityDate="2014-06-11T01:19:15.493" Title="What is the scientific term for information overload?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7605" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1498" CreationDate="2014-06-10T12:27:55.857" Score="-6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Evidence &quot; means physical evidence, I guess. The paradox is this - are there non-physical phenomena for which there is physical evidence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there evidence for Out-of-body experiences? If you never had one, you would say no. However, try to guess the answer before jumping &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.happinessinthisworld.com/2011/05/15/the-neurology-of-near-death-experiences/#.U5bvuvmSzp-&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; :-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we do a thought experiment? Nuclear war, Solar flares, green house effect, whatever. Humanity has gone blind. Lost the sense of sight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus shapes, colours, forms, changes of state of these properties etc cannot be perceived. They do not see clouds, the blue sky, the far-away stars, birds flying silently in the sky, distant blue seas, lush green forests and so on. Undoubtedly a greatly diminished life, compared to people like us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if one or two of them acquire eyes somehow, a whole new world opens up. They start experiencing and describing things that seem incredible to other people. They may be considered to have too much imagination, or even mad. They may eventually be persecuted or thrown out of the human community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The history of science itself has plenty of these happenings. Until radio waves were discovered, Science did not know of its existence, though radio waves have existed for all time. This example extends to x-rays, gamma radiation and many other phenomena discovered at some point in time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If due to some future catastrophes, suddenly the faculty of colour is lost, then Science will gradually start to deny the existence of colour. If people with long memories, or memories of their ancestors’ tales, talk about these things, they will be &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/allegory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;considered superstitious&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update: (@Josh) - Another thought experiment. A 2-dimensional being cannot fathom that things are happening in a 3-dimensional world. Any physical phenmenon will appear to arise from other physical phenomena in 2 dimensions. Similarly, things coming from a 4th dimension will appear to be happening in the 3-dimensional world that appears to our senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fourth dimension theories of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ibiblio.org/eldritch/chh/h1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hinton&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/to/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ouspensky&lt;/a&gt; have a thorough treatment of the subject.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6160" LastEditorUserId="6160" LastEditDate="2014-06-10T21:48:47.520" LastActivityDate="2014-06-10T21:48:47.520" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7606" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7601" CreationDate="2014-06-10T12:50:02.113" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Formation of a synapse does not automatically mean learning. It is the strength of the synapse that makes it a &quot;skill&quot;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_07/i_07_cl/i_07_cl_tra/i_07_cl_tra.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hebb's rule for learning&lt;/a&gt; states that if a Neuron A repeatedly takes part in firing Neuron B, then the synapse from A to B is strengthened. We should also consider the fact that a neuron can be either excitatory or inhibitory to another neuron. If it is excitatory, the mental habit or skill improves, and otherwise it deteriorates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory formation can be modeled as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/rnn.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;recurrent neural networks&lt;/a&gt;, where outputs continue to occur even after input to network has ceased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6160" LastActivityDate="2014-06-10T12:50:02.113" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7608" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9841" CreationDate="2014-06-10T17:33:03.390" Score="5" ViewCount="243" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider 2 groups of any number of persons. Assume that the &quot;dominant&quot; group acts without any regard for the other group.&#xA;Assume that there seem to be no consequences in the short time for the dominant part.&#xA;In a generalized experiment over a very long time, I think the feelings of the oppressed group will create motivation to react.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Let's consider an example:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Women's rights had been limited for centuries. More recently the situation has been changing, and nowadays the opposite is being argued:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nuovadelsud.it/primo-piano/primo-piano-news/cronaca/4683-brienza,-costretto-a-dormire-in-macchina-senza-poter-vedere-i-miei-figli.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A bias in the laws in Italy seems to favor women&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.senato.it/documenti/repository/commissioni/comm02/documenti_acquisiti/957%20FENBI%20-%20A.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Official documents delivered in Italian's Senato describe many cases of women making false accusations to win divorce processes in a range of 16 years&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_accusation_of_rape&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia on false accusations of rape&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was also an interesting study on the prevalence of sexual dependency among men and women: the number of male patients was 5 times greater than the number of female patients. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider the hypothesis: &lt;strong&gt;&quot;History goes from one extreme to the other.&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Oppression &amp;amp; exploitation of one group &lt;strong&gt;leads to&lt;/strong&gt; discomfort, &lt;strong&gt;which leads to&lt;/strong&gt;  motivation to react and fight, &lt;strong&gt;which leads to&lt;/strong&gt; reaction (from the oppressed side) and maybe guilty feelings (on the oppressor's side), &lt;strong&gt;which leads to&lt;/strong&gt; an egoistic solution, which is not always the more ethical.  (In this case, a partial oppression of the previously dominant group).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-24T16:57:10.797" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T16:57:10.797" Title="Does society swing back and forth from one extreme to the other?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7609" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7604" CreationDate="2014-06-11T01:19:15.493" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If what you are seeking is &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; to present material so that cognitive overload does not occur, you are in the realm of learning theory.&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive load theory and schema (learning) theory go hand in hand in. &lt;em&gt;Schemas&lt;/em&gt; are &lt;em&gt;frameworks of information&lt;/em&gt; (like a steel-framed skyscraper in your mind); they start as very basic (&quot;This is a cell&quot;) and become more complex and facile (&quot;NADH-Q oxidoreductase, Q-cytochrome c oxidoreductase, and cytochrome c oxidase are mitochondrial transmembranous enzyme complexes responsible for oxidative phosphorylation, etc.&quot;) They &lt;em&gt;allow&lt;/em&gt; (and form) &lt;em&gt;Long Term Memory&lt;/em&gt; (LTM). We need a framework (&quot;cell&quot;) into which we can stick a fact before we can remember it for more than a very few minutes. The more we know about something (the better our schemas are), the more easily we learn. &lt;em&gt;Working Memory&lt;/em&gt; (WM) allows us to process what we are exposed to and place it &lt;em&gt;into a schema&lt;/em&gt; so that we can remember it. Like a computer, we have limited WM (processing ability) available to us at any given time. Efficient processing results in placing material into a schema which then facilitates Long Term Memory (LTM). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inefficient Processing results in an inability to understand what one was just exposed to. Failed schema identification means leads to inability to use information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where does cognitive load come in? Cognitive Load takes up processing speed (reducing WM). If cognitive load is great enough, all WM is used up, and we will be unable to identify/form a schema. There are several types of Cognitive load: intrinsic (how complex the information is), extrinsic/ineffective (a bunch of things including distractions, emotionally demanding states [e.g. stress], and especially &lt;strong&gt;the way in which material is presented&lt;/strong&gt;, e.g. inducing splitting of attention, etc.) and germane (what's left over to actually form schemas). They are (kind of) additive. Good schemas &lt;em&gt;reduce&lt;/em&gt; cognitive load (increasing WM).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The linked site presents different models of presenting information that promotes schema formation, identification and processing in different situations, and links to further work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://prezi.com/1apjupioiqts/schema-theory-and-cognitive-load-theory/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; Schema Theory and Cognitive Load Theory&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-06-11T01:19:15.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7610" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7612" CreationDate="2014-06-11T02:32:23.050" Score="0" ViewCount="1280" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it mostly intellectual (correcting people's pronunciation, explaining errors in their logic) or physical (fixing their clothing, letting them know about flaws they may be unaware of (&quot;your shirt's on backward&quot;), providing advice about appearance or health, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5050" LastActivityDate="2014-06-11T11:35:07.230" Title="What is the extent of social grooming in humankind?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7611" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6584" CreationDate="2014-06-11T02:48:05.223" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a clear association between musical ability and mathematical ability, perhaps best recognised in savantism in people with developmental disabilities. There are limited domains in which savantism appears to occur, including mathematical calculations, reproducing music instantly, recalling specific facts, and perfect-perspective drawing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a number of psychological theories from this literature that tie maths and music as related abilities. One is the &quot;male-brain&quot; theory, which argues that male-brains are better at systemising (prediciting how systems work through rules) than empathising (predicting how people work through their emotions and thoughts), while female-brains work vice-versa (&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.bme.hu/~ivady/bscs/read/bc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baron-Cohen, 2002&lt;/a&gt;). Both music and maths are highly systemised, making them well-suited to &quot;male-brained&quot; individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another relevant theory is the &quot;Central Coherence&quot; theory, which again argues for different cognitive styles that may assist individuals to excel at both maths and music. &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1369.full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Happe and Frith (2009)&lt;/a&gt; note that individuals with weak central coherence process information in fine detail, often at the expense of the greater context in which these details occur. This method of information processing may be beneficial to developing talents in both maths and music. The authors give the example of developing absolute pitch - a common ability in musical savants - as this requires attention to the exact notes rather than the relationship between notes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3590" LastActivityDate="2014-06-11T02:48:05.223" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7612" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7610" CreationDate="2014-06-11T11:35:07.230" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12144-007-9009-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;literature on social grooming in humans&lt;/a&gt; mentions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;examples of grooming, most of which are unique to humans, include: running fingers through another’s hair, giving massages, washing the body or hair, shaving, removing lint or hair from another’s clothing, swatting away insects, and giving manicures or pedicures, and removing pus from blemishes or wounds. Grooming for humans can also include applying something to the skin or body as with lotion, nail polish, or make-up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, probably the more prominent and interesting line of research in this regard concerns language. The foundational BBS article by &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=6742756&amp;amp;fileId=S0140525X00032325&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dunbar (1993)&lt;/a&gt; argues that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Group size covaries with relative neocortical volume in nonhuman primates. This regression equation predicts a group size for modern humans very similar to that for hunter-gatherer and traditional horticulturalist societies. Similar group sizes are found in other contemporary and historical societies. Nonhuman primates maintain group cohesion through social grooming; among the Old World monkeys and apes, social grooming time is linearly related to group size. Maintaining stability of human-sized groups by grooming alone would make intolerable time demands. It is therefore suggested (1) that the evolution of large groups in the human lineage depended on developing a more efficient method for time-sharing the processes of social bonding and (2) that language uniquely fulfills this requirement. Data on the size of conversational and other small interacting groups of humans accord with the predicted relative efficiency of conversation compared to grooming as a bonding process. In human conversations about 60% of time is spent gossiping about relationships and personal experiences. Language may accordingly have evolved to allow individuals to learn about the behavioural characteristics of other group members more rapidly than was feasible by direct observation alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, under Dunbar's proposal, because human groups are so large and complex, if we were to use the regular, manual grooming of our relatives, we would have to spend around half (e.g. 42% in Dunbar 1993) of our time grooming, which is entirely unsustainable. Language is instead used (and evolved) to more economically fulfill that role. Linguistic gestures, especially small talk, largely overtake the role of manual grooming in humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Make of this what you will, it's certainly an important and interesting proposal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2014-06-11T11:35:07.230" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7614" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6197" CreationDate="2014-06-11T15:53:14.843" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although not the question you asked, there has been at least one study looking at the influence of 'cave-like environments' on cognition - people are more prone to magical thinking/illogical beliefs (not their term) when placed in a dark, windowless environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2013/papers/0905/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rigoli et al (2013): Cave-like Environments Facilitate Magical Thinking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abstract&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cognitive mechanisms that underlie beliefs in the supernatural are not well understood. In an attempt to understand this phenomenon, we hypothesized that the cave environment “affords” such usage. In our experiment, 52 participants completed a survey about their metaphysical beliefs inside a room providing a great deal of natural light, while another 52 participants completed the same survey in a dark and windowless room. The survey asked participants to rate their beliefs in a variety of supernatural phenomena and also included multiple-choice questions which described bizarre scenarios that could be explained either scientifically or supernaturally. The supernatural responses to both the rating-scale questions and to the multiple-choice questions were significantly higher in the cave-like condition. These results are consistent with anthropological claims that the dark zones of caves may have played a role in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness that contributed to humans’ tendency toward magical thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-06-11T15:53:14.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7615" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-11T17:50:18.587" Score="3" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any good source for statistics regarding average attention span? More specifically- what is the average attention compensation time, meaning- how long does a person need to rest in order to fully restore his/her attention?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6163" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-04-24T12:39:29.043" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T12:39:29.043" Title="average attention time and attention compensation time" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-30T19:59:30.697" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7616" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-11T21:13:54.777" Score="3" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is common to refer to an athlete who is enjoying a sustained period of success (e.g. a long consecutive game hitting streak in baseball) as being &quot;hot&quot;, suggesting that something about their physical or psychological state is different. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, hitting streaks and other sustained periods of success are bound to happen just by random chance. Therefore, it might be a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot-hand_fallacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fallacy&lt;/a&gt; to believe that a person is &quot;hot&quot; when really their behavior is expected by random fluctuations in performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that indicates hot-streaks are real? If so, is there a known psychological basis? (For example, does confidence in one's ability actually improve performance?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-14T01:49:31.187" LastActivityDate="2014-06-14T01:49:31.187" Title="Are hot-streaks in athletics real, and if so, is there a known psychological basis?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;sport-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7617" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7616" CreationDate="2014-06-11T22:14:34.893" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Andrew Gelman has &lt;a href=&quot;http://andrewgelman.com/2014/03/11/myth-myth-myth-hot-hand/&quot;&gt;blogged&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/research/published/bayes_management.pdf&quot;&gt;published&lt;/a&gt; about the &quot;hot hand&quot; phenomenon from a statistical perspective. His statistical perspective is probably fairly authoritative, and his psychological perspective, at least in being very inclusive, not implausible. His basic idea is the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Previous wins are very &lt;em&gt;unlikely&lt;/em&gt; to have &lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt; effect on future performance.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Previous wins (or losses) are likely to have some, albeit probably small, effect.&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For example, a player's performance could decrease, maybe due to overconfidence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A player's performance could increase, for example, due to increase confidence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rather than asking if there is any &quot;hot hand&quot; effect at all, the better question is: of what kind is this effect?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the sense of the latter, the existing studies are actually fairly homogenous: they all argue for a small to marginal effect, on the order of a few percentage points or less. So the idea that the &quot;hot hand&quot; effect is a small and highly variable phenomenon is supported both by a priori reasoning, and by the bulk of the data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond that, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.cornell.edu/sites/default/files/Gilo.Vallone.Tversky.pdf&quot;&gt;Gilovich, Vallone, and Tversky (1985)&lt;/a&gt; have demonstrated that people reliably over detect &quot;hot hands&quot;; we see patterns in near-random variance that aren't really there. Moreover, combining what we know about our perception of the &quot;hot hand&quot;, and our statistical knowledge about it, we can establish one more fact: very often, when you think you're observing a &quot;hot hand&quot;, you're wrong. This is because the effect size for the &quot;hot hand&quot; appears very small, so small that it is statistically questionable, and if even repeated statistical analyses have trouble establishing its size, we can be sure that the naked eye will not be able to reliably identify it in an individual case. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All this is an example of the debate between &lt;em&gt;null hypothesis testing&lt;/em&gt; versus &lt;em&gt;parameter estimation&lt;/em&gt; statistics. From the perspective of null hypothesis testing, we consider plausible that the effect might be truly zero, or something else, and zero is our null hypotheses. From the perspective of parameter estimation, we are interested in what the effect actually is, and it being precisely zero is rather unlikely to begin with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I believe it justified to say this about the &quot;hot hand&quot; effect:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It exists, in some form or other.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is likely small, and highly variable (sometimes positive, sometimes close to zero, sometimes even negative).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whenever you think you see it, you probably don't.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2014-06-11T22:14:34.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7619" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7622" CreationDate="2014-06-12T01:54:37.577" Score="2" ViewCount="649" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to estimate the properties of a response time distribution (mean, variance, tail-length) for individual subjects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How many samples (trials) do I need to collect to get reliable estimates? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it depend on the method of estimation (i.e. maximum likelihood versus hierarchical Bayesian)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-06-12T12:20:40.700" Title="How many trials are needed to estimate a response time distribution?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7620" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6560" CreationDate="2014-06-12T05:27:36.127" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychopathy is a diagnosis with high reliability and validity, which is based on research originally begun by psychologist Robert Hare and now continued by many others. It is often used in forensic settings, and its use requires specialized training. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sociopathy isn't a diagnosis and has no generally accepted clinical definition (unless it's in the ICD, which I don't use); but it's often associated with Antisocial Personality Disorder in the DSM-5. APD has less research behind it, and lower reliability and validity.  It is more likely to be used in clinical settings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As someone else noted here, there is some overlap between the two, but they are distinctly different diagnoses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6166" LastEditorUserId="6166" LastEditDate="2014-06-16T05:41:52.177" LastActivityDate="2014-06-16T05:41:52.177" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7621" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7619" CreationDate="2014-06-12T10:44:12.063" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer: I'm not generally doing experiments where reaction time is the primary DV. But I thought I'd look at this issue and explored RTs from a neuroimaging dataset, and I think the findings are relevant to the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think without further qualification, this question doesn't have an answer. Here I've plotted the estimation of reaction time/RT over the time course of an experiment (248 trials total), based on the RTs collected up to each time point, for a single subject:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/nerTiZ4.png&quot; alt=&quot;rts&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For each point, the CI is the CI of the mean for all trials up to the respective trial number; so at x = 10, it's the CI for the mean based on the first 10 trials. Incremental mean is the mean over all trials up to this point; it is not the mean of means, but the mean of RTs. The total mean is the mean over all trials collected in this experiment.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I'm ignoring that the data is probably not normal for now.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, the &lt;em&gt;width&lt;/em&gt; of the confidence interval of the mean asymptotes fairly quickly and doesn't get much better after 100 or so trials. However, you also see that the &quot;incremental mean&quot; (the mean of all trials up to this point) has not yet reached the true (&quot;total&quot;) mean yet. This is likely because of a significant practice effect; the longer the experiment goes on, the faster the subject becomes. So while the precision of the estimate does not improve much after the 100th trial, the CI doesn't actually contain the &quot;true&quot; value- because the &quot;true&quot; value is non-stationary!&lt;br&gt;&#xA;So maybe 200, 250 trials is not enough!? But I don't think the mean would have become stationary at a certain time point/trial count. Rather, eventually, fatigue would have overtaken the practice effect and RTs would have started rising again. &lt;em&gt;d'&lt;/em&gt; would probably worsen, and variance rise, etc.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Metaphorically, we could call this Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle in experimental psychology, in that we change what we measure by the process of measurement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now as you can see, this experiment is fairly special in that RTs are quite high - around 1500 msec. This is because my paradigm is comparatively complicated. Maybe practice would matter less, and the estimates asymptote more quickly, and more stable, in a different paradigm; for example, a very simple low-level signal detection experiment.  This is why I'm saying there is no straight-forward answer so far, as the specific behavior of RT depends on the paradigm.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe you could try to account for the time effect - for example, with a regression with time as a predictor and estimation of the subject-specific intercept for RT independent of the time term. But then, that's &quot;subject-specific RT intercept after removal of covariates&quot; or something like that, not &quot;reaction time mean&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2014-06-12T10:44:12.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7622" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7619" CreationDate="2014-06-12T12:20:40.700" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The number of samples that are necessary for a good parameter estimation does indeed depend on the estimation method. I am not aware of a simple rule of thumb to determine an optimal sample size, but there has been a lot of literature on this topic. A paper that might be a good starting point for a literature search is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Van Zandt T. (2000) How to fit a response time distribution. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review 7(3): 424-465. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03214357&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Link&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="616" LastActivityDate="2014-06-12T12:20:40.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7623" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-12T16:08:33.273" Score="2" ViewCount="1407" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose you tell a riddle to your friend, e.g. a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situation_puzzle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;situation puzzle&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A man walks into a bar, and asks the bartender for a drink of water. The bartender pulls out a gun, points it at the man, and cocks it. The man says &quot;Thank you&quot; and leaves. What happened?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then during the question and answer phase you accidentally let slip irrelevant information:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The man was a cowboy. Sorry, he wasn't a cowboy. Actually, this is irrelevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even after explicitly stating that the information is irrelevant, there is a chance the friend is now unable to clear the mind from the cowboy bit, and the thinking goes astray. The friend thinks about Wild West, saloons, duels etc, reasoning that there might be a reason why you mentioned the cowboy bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the name of this cognitive effect? Why does it happen and what are its properties? Please describe in detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="961" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-06-12T16:47:19.657" LastActivityDate="2014-07-17T12:17:30.507" Title="Why can't people solve a riddle if you tell them irrelevant information?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7624" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7616" CreationDate="2014-06-12T20:03:48.730" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;@jona is correct: from a statistical point of view, this &quot;hot hand&quot; effect is often an illusion, produced by our own faulty statistical intuitions.&#xA;However, this isn't the whole story - even if we overestimate it, performance does systematically vary over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the work on this, or at least most of the work I know, has been in the &lt;strong&gt;Positive Psychology&lt;/strong&gt; tradition. &lt;strong&gt;Flow&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V9KrQgAACAAJ&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Csikszentmihalyi, 1990&lt;/a&gt;, see also &lt;a href=&quot;http://myweb.stedwards.edu/michaelo/2349/paper1/ConceptOfFlow.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this scanned book chapter&lt;/a&gt;), in this literature, is a positive state complete absorption, where task demands, available resources, and a whole lot of other factors, reach an optimal balance for enjoyable, high-level performance (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; covers this as well as anywhere else).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How this applies to sport should be obvious (and is presumably quite well covered in &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=Jak4A8rEZawC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PR8&amp;amp;dq=psychology++flow+sport&amp;amp;ots=GvQzqE7paP&amp;amp;sig=u-QWyQYQbb22jPq_LMj7OVEF57o#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=psychology%20%20flow%20sport&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this book&lt;/a&gt;): athletes will perform close to the peak of their abilities when in a flow state, and so this will correspond to a &quot;hot hand&quot; streak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-06-12T20:03:48.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7625" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7626" CreationDate="2014-06-13T06:37:26.133" Score="6" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a question about the averaging involved in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bereitschaftspotential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bereitschaftspotential&lt;/a&gt;. On the wiki page you can read that, because it is so small, the Bereitschaftspotential only becomes apparent after averaging. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: do they mean averaging over different electrodes, but in a single trial?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or do they mean averaging over electrodes AND over trials?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6175" LastEditorUserId="2584" LastEditDate="2015-12-21T13:42:58.887" LastActivityDate="2015-12-21T13:42:58.887" Title="How is averaging used in calculating the Bereitschaftspotential?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7626" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7625" CreationDate="2014-06-13T11:13:52.413" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally, EEG potentials are primarily averaged over trials, not electrodes. Averaging over electrodes is often done in addition to trial averaging, but this by itself does not make the potentials visible on a single-trial basis since the &quot;noise&quot; overshadowing the potentials is largely shared by all adjacent electrodes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Bereitschaftspotential is also averaged over trials, especially since it is usually specified to be observed over specific electrodes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you note in a comment, single-trial identification of EEG phenomena, such as the Bereitschaftspotential (or the P300), is being attempted using machine learning techniques. However, these work far from reliably, and the original work on the Bereitschaftspotential was done far before these powerful machine learning techniques became available. So in the original BP work, averaging was done over trials (and often, over subjects, too). This is apparent in for example the Methods section of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6640273&quot;&gt;Libet's famous paper from 1983&lt;/a&gt; (p. 624):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For present purposes, analysis of RPs is made for those recorded at the vertex, where they were all maximal. ... 40 trials were performed and averaged by a computer of average transients &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;vertex&lt;/em&gt; = electrode Cz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2014-06-13T14:25:05.263" LastActivityDate="2014-06-13T14:25:05.263" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7627" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6477" CreationDate="2014-06-13T14:41:12.810" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that a person finds something fun if it is challenging (it makes you learn something new, grow, etc.), yet he/she has a talent for it so he/she is doing well at it. Isn't that fun. On the other hand if you do something and it's hard and you're just not getting it, it's not fun and you'll probably consider exploring something else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6172" LastActivityDate="2014-06-13T14:41:12.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7628" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6396" CreationDate="2014-06-13T15:15:20.657" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because Mary is in a relationship with John she likes him sexually. Liking somebody sexually has more value then a regular friendship, thus, even to begin with Elen has less value to Mary than the relationship that she has with John. Now, in addition to that, Elen begins to pose a threat to Mary's relationship with John by liking John. If that was not enough, John likes Elen, too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that it's not rare that when a person starts dating somebody they stop being friends with other people. So, to answer the question: Mary will devalue Elen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6172" LastActivityDate="2014-06-13T15:15:20.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7630" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-13T17:24:10.180" Score="1" ViewCount="834" Body="&lt;p&gt;My favorite thing to do is to think about why people behave the way they do. I found that in Psychology there is a branch called Personality Psychology which deals with this kind of stuff. I would like to be with like-minded people and discuss people's personality. Can anybody advise what steps I can take to have a life in which I can devote time to discussing with people things like these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6172" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-14T01:56:23.837" LastActivityDate="2014-06-14T01:56:23.837" Title="How to get more involved with personality psychology as a hobby?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2014-12-23T05:42:10.397" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7631" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6477" CreationDate="2014-06-13T18:30:17.760" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would argue that a positive emotional experience is something that evolved for conscious organisms in order for consciousness to function in a way that supports survival and reproduction (thus, sex and eating are pleasurable experiences).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once having this system, an organism can then find other ways to trigger it that may not lead to better survival or reproduction, but still don't compromise survival and reproduction.  Often, this may be through human invention.  For example, our love of sugar evolved in a world where sugar indicated health (high energy foods that help you survive).  Now, we're able to produce the sugar by itself with technology; it no longer occurs only in the context of nutritional food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, humans are able to exploit their reward systems and &quot;fun&quot; need not pertain to healthy activities, but may have roots in the evolutionary purpose of pleasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-06-13T18:30:17.760" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7633" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-06-14T01:50:13.303" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-14T01:50:13.303" LastActivityDate="2014-06-14T01:50:13.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7634" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-06-14T01:50:13.303" Score="0" Body="Sport psychology is an interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from many related fields including biomechanics, physiology, kinesiology and psychology. It involves the study of how psychological factors affect performance and how participation in sport and exercise affect psychological and physical factors." OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-14T01:50:13.303" LastActivityDate="2014-06-14T01:50:13.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7635" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7636" CreationDate="2014-06-15T10:52:21.730" Score="7" ViewCount="267" Body="&lt;p&gt;Person A has led a successful career and is very well renowned in field A.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Later in life, person A moves to field B, a field they're curious about but have very little experience in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person A struggles to accept their limited understanding of their new domain, having been an expert in their own domain for so long, and imposes their (usually) incorrect views on a field B topic on others based on a confidence they've built from being good in field A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a term in psychology for this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6183" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-16T02:45:49.843" LastActivityDate="2018-06-27T10:19:12.530" Title="Is there a term for a person who moves from one field of expertise to a new field and has an inflated belief in their competence in the new field?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7636" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7635" CreationDate="2014-06-15T17:11:14.840" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9formation_professionnelle&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Déformation professionnelle&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is probably the closest match:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Déformation professionnelle&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language&quot;&gt;French&lt;/a&gt; phrase, meaning a tendency to look at things from the point of view of one's own &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profession&quot;&gt;profession&lt;/a&gt; rather than from a broader perspective. It is often translated as &quot;professional deformation&quot; or &quot;job conditioning&quot;. The implication is that professional training, and its related socialization, often result in a distortion of the way one views the world.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sueddeutsche.de/karriere/deformation-professionnelle-beruflich-bedingte-missbildung-1.786888&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Followed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_instrument&quot;&gt;the law of the instrument / Maslow's hammer&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The concept known as &lt;strong&gt;the law of the instrument, Maslow's hammer, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavel&quot;&gt;Gavel&lt;/a&gt; or a golden hammer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_instrument#cite_note-1&quot;&gt;a&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt; is an over-reliance on a familiar tool; as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslow&quot;&gt;Abraham Maslow&lt;/a&gt; said in 1966, &quot;I suppose it is tempting, if the only tool you have is a hammer, to treat everything as if it were a nail.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_instrument#cite_note-maslow66-2&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;1 [déformation professionelle]. Bönisch, J. (2007, November 30). Déformation professionnelle: Beruflich bedingte Missbildung. &lt;em&gt;Süddeutsche Zeitung&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sueddeutsche.de/karriere/deformation-professionnelle-beruflich-bedingte-missbildung-1.786888&quot;&gt;http://www.sueddeutsche.de/karriere/deformation-professionnelle-beruflich-bedingte-missbildung-1.786888&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;1 [law of the instrument]. Maslow, A. H. (1966/2004). &lt;em&gt;The psychology of science&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 15). Maurice Bassett.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-06-15T17:11:14.840" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="909" CreationDate="2014-06-15T19:38:39.383" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is related to very interesting questions about the specific biological structures that evolved in the brains of our primate ancestors that differentiated them from all other animals in terms of human cognitive abilities and how that &quot;new wiring&quot; unleashed such  fantastic human creativity in every field of art, music, science and technology. It seems that the consciousness of other animals operate essentially in &quot;real-time&quot; mode whereas humans can access their memories at any time, even when the external stimulus is no longer present. It's almost like there is some kind of gate between conscious awareness and our memory patterns. In other animals that gate is closed when the stimulus is no longer present (vision, scent, sound, taste, etc). A dog, for example, no longer thinks about the fire or the squirrel it was chasing once the sensual inputs are no longer present. Humans, on the other hand, whether day-dreaming about the vacation they are planning, or contemplating the steak they had at yesterday's BBQ, have no difficulty with this type of thinking. Is this because some form of an open neural gate evolved in humans which allowed ones memories to be accessed at any time and thought about?           &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6185" LastActivityDate="2014-06-15T19:38:39.383" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7638" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7691" CreationDate="2014-06-16T13:40:50.197" Score="3" ViewCount="253" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see this kind of trait in &lt;strong&gt;some&lt;/strong&gt; of the people who fear the commitment (in a marriage) since they don't want to have to renounce their vows when their feelings toward their spouses change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see this kind of trait also in those who go to discos to find a &lt;strong&gt;better&lt;/strong&gt; partner, who looks for the &lt;strong&gt;perfection&lt;/strong&gt;, who thinks they deserve more, they seem unable to be satisfied with what they have. It happens often with narcissism. I think it's a way to manage anxiety: &quot;I'm not enough, I need external validation, I must be more and more to be sure I will always be loved, because I'm not good.. and the other will realize.. so he must love me really a lot&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people prefer not to build a &lt;strong&gt;good&lt;/strong&gt; relationship because they are scared to lose the chance for their &lt;strong&gt;better&lt;/strong&gt; relationship. Some expect to get &lt;strong&gt;very strong&lt;/strong&gt; feelings and emotions from a relationship, and that they will find someone who is able to really &quot;get&quot; them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I would call it the illusion of being able to fully satisfy our expectations, without the ability to renounce the things they have, or to be easily satisfied by them.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What could this phenomenon be named and related to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2016-01-12T11:57:42.440" LastActivityDate="2016-02-03T22:10:11.380" Title="Is there a term that describes the personality trait of always desiring more?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7640" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6560" CreationDate="2014-06-16T17:52:00.290" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ironically enough, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociopathy#Sociopathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; offer as meaningful a distinction as any of the answers here so far:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term &lt;em&gt;sociopathy&lt;/em&gt; may have been first introduced in 1909 in Germany by biological psychiatrist &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Birnbaum&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Karl Birnbaum&lt;/a&gt; and in 1930 in the US by educational psychologist &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_E._Partridge&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;George E. Partridge&lt;/a&gt;, as an &lt;strong&gt;alternative to, or a subtype of,&lt;/strong&gt; the concept of &lt;strong&gt;psychopathy&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;[137]&lt;/sup&gt; It was used to indicate that the &lt;strong&gt;defining feature is violation of social norms, or antisocial behavior&lt;/strong&gt;, and has often also been associated with postulating &lt;strong&gt;social as well as biological causation&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;[139][140][141][&lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/76/315/838.1.extract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;142&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are various contemporary usages of the term. Robert Hare, who may believe that biological factors are predominant in causing psychopathy,&lt;sup&gt;[143]&lt;/sup&gt; claimed in a 1999 &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_science&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;popular science&lt;/a&gt; book that &lt;strong&gt;sociopathy and psychopathy are often used interchangeably&lt;/strong&gt;, but in some cases the term sociopathy is preferred because it is less likely than is psychopathy to be confused with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychosis&lt;/a&gt;, whereas in other cases which term is used may &amp;quot;reflect the user's views on the origins and determinates of the disorder&amp;quot;. Hare contended that the term sociopathy is preferred by those that see the causes as due to social factors and early environment, and the term psychopathy preferred by those who believe that there are psychological, biological, and genetic factors involved in addition to environmental factors.&lt;sup&gt;[78]&lt;/sup&gt; Hare also suggests another possible distinction: he defines psychopathy as not having a sense of empathy or morality, but sociopathy as only differing in sense of right and wrong from the average person.&lt;sup&gt;[144][145][verification needed][bolding added for emphasis]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While this largely echoes the existing answers, it includes references to published books and articles, involves the idea's history, and gives the impression that the distinctions between psychopathy and sociopathy are largely in the mind of the authors. They vary somewhat from one author to the next, and don't seem to have much empirical support as distinct diagnoses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One also ought to question the utility of the proposed distinctions. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociopathy#Primary_vs._secondary&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Secondary psychopathy&lt;/a&gt; is also meant to imply social etiology, but also lacks empirical support somewhat. Defining a disorder by violation of social norms is a particularly poor approach to abnormal and clinical psychology, because social norms are typically subjective and ill-defined themselves, and do not necessarily apply outside a contemporary cultural context. Such a definition must possess very limited reliability across time and space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;78. Hare, R. D. (1999). &lt;em&gt;Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Guilford Press.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;137. Rutter, S. (2007). &lt;em&gt;The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 37). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;139. Partridge, G. E. (1930). Current conceptions of psychopathic personality. &lt;em&gt;The American Journal of Psychiatry, 1&lt;/em&gt;(87), 53–99.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;140. Felthous, A., &amp;amp; Sass, H. (2008). &lt;em&gt;International handbook on psychopathic disorders and the law&lt;/em&gt;, Vol. 1. Wiley.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;141. Hildebrand, M. (2005). &lt;em&gt;Psychopathy in the treatment of forensic psychiatric patients: Assessment, prevalence, predictive validity, and clinical implications&lt;/em&gt;. Rozenberg Publishers.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;142. Partridge, G. E., &amp;amp; Hamblin Smith, M. (1930). Epitome of current literature: Current conceptions of psychopathic disorder. &lt;em&gt;The British Journal of Psychiatry, 76&lt;/em&gt;, 838. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/76/315/838.1.extract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/76/315/838.1.extract&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;143. Ronson, J. (2011). The psychopath test (pp. 225). Riverhead Books.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;144. Hare, R. (2006). &lt;em&gt;Snakes in suits: When psychopaths go to work&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;145. Skilling, T.A., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., &amp;amp; Quinsey, V. L. (2002, March). &lt;em&gt;Identifying persistently antisocial offenders using the Hare Psychopathy Checklist and DSM antisocial personality disorder criteria&lt;/em&gt;. American Psychological Association.&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-06-16T17:52:00.290" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7641" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1845" CreationDate="2014-06-16T18:16:49.563" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is that &lt;strong&gt;it depends on what music you've been exposed to.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, it's important to understand what music is. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Music is layers of mathematical patterns&lt;/strong&gt;. To be more specific it is a range of frequencies that have a mathematical relationship between them (in frequency) which are periodically played in a manner which displays a mathematical relationship of time. The range of frequencies makes up our musical system and is usually based off of A at 440hz. &lt;strong&gt;All other notes have a fraction with a nice integer of 440hz&lt;/strong&gt;. It is important to understand that it doesn't &lt;em&gt;need&lt;/em&gt; to be 440hz, but the notes do need to be relative to each other in a way that produces a relationship with a nice fraction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On top of that, &lt;strong&gt;the mathematical pattern that makes up our musical system is further extended into scales&lt;/strong&gt;. For example the C major scale is made up of the following pattern: tone-tone-semitone-tone-tone-tone-semitone. Actually, all major scales have this pattern. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mymusictheory.com/for-students/grade-1/grade-1-course/111-10-tones-a-semitones&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;here&quot;&gt;(See here)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To add another layer of mathematical relationship, &lt;strong&gt;we have rhythm and timing in our musical system&lt;/strong&gt;. I'm sure you are aware of the relationship between notes having fractions of timing; the half note counts for half of the beats that a whole note does and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point to realize about all of this is that we enjoy music because of the patterns our brains find in them. Sometimes we don't understand music and therefore we don't enjoy it. The more we are exposed to a certain type of music, usually equates to a greater interest in said music. See the question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://music.stackexchange.com/questions/17737/does-a-taste-in-music-reflect-an-understanding-of-that-music&quot;&gt;Music.SE here&lt;/a&gt; regarding this phenomenon; in summary, it was explained that it is indeed the case that exposure equals a greater appreciation for music and this is why big producers often pay radio stations to play their songs so that it gets greater exposure and more record sales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider this, you have a specific background and exposure in life to a certain kind of music (whatever that music may be), do you think you could enjoy music from a completely different culture the first time you hear it and to the same degree that the locals do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My unsolicited personal opinion, made through intrapersonal observation, is that the brain enjoys patterns and the ability to predict the result of a pattern. How often do you find yourself thinking about the next note that will be played when listening to a song that you really enjoy? I think this anticipation and ability to decode the pattern plays a major role in us acquiring the taste of a particular song or genre. I have personal had the experience to come to like genres of music which I disliked very much in the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extra reading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1997/11.13/HowYourBrainLis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;How Your Brain Listens to Music&quot;&lt;/a&gt; - an article about people with auditory cortex damage and how they experience music&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4189" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:41:41.487" LastActivityDate="2014-06-16T18:16:49.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7642" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-17T01:16:59.267" Score="3" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Building rapport&quot; is often mentioned as one of the most fundamental sales techniques, but I had a hard time understanding the cognitive mechanism behind this. Is this really a state of awareness that can be analysed via cognitive science tools, or just a salespeople buzzword?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5102" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-17T06:01:06.373" LastActivityDate="2015-06-02T10:33:20.660" Title="Is rapport a cognitive phenomenon?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7643" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7635" CreationDate="2014-06-17T06:57:51.853" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People base their perceptions of performance, in part, on their preconceived notions about their skills. Because these notions often do not correlate with objective performance, they can lead people to make judgments about their performance that have little to do with actual accomplishment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an example of the Dunnig-Kruger effect&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt; Simply stated, it is the cognitive bias that people who are ignorant of a subject/field overestimate their competence in that subject/field. &lt;em&gt;People tend to be unaware of their incompetence.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though this is an interesting phenomenon, it is not as specific to acheivement impairing one's ability to gauge competence as is &lt;em&gt;Déformation professionnelle.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[1] Why People Fail to Recognize Their Own Incompetence, Dunnig et. al., Current Directions in Psychological Science, 82 (2002)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-06-17T06:57:51.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7644" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7635" CreationDate="2014-06-17T12:05:52.207" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the most common verbage would be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Poseur&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though often used in subcultural contexts, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseur#Etymology_and_definitions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;'posuer / poser' means someone who affects an attitude or position&lt;/a&gt; — which is very much the case when someone comes in from an external field and acts with the authority of a resident expert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still, I stand by my position that this question is best served at the English Language site, since the community there will provide amore-rich breadth of answers for consideration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastActivityDate="2014-06-17T12:05:52.207" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7645" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-17T14:03:52.560" Score="8" ViewCount="162" Body="&lt;p&gt;Every few days there is a new question here at Cognitive Sciences asking for a scientific term to describe a behavior that the inquirer finds fault with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/7635/is-there-a-term-for-a-person-who-moves-from-one-field-of-expertise-to-a-new-fiel&quot;&gt;Is there a term for a person who moves from one field of expertise to a new field and has an inflated belief in their competence in the new field?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5914/is-there-a-formal-name-for-the-love-of-arguing&quot;&gt;Is there a formal name for the &amp;quot;love&amp;quot; of arguing?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/7639/is-there-a-formal-name-for-the-annoyed-by-who-tries-to-force-me-trait&quot;&gt;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/7639/is-there-a-formal-name-for-the-annoyed-by-who-tries-to-force-me-trait&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3586/name-of-the-bias-where-someone-really-needs-something-after-they-find-out-it-exi&quot;&gt;Name of the bias where someone really needs something after they find out it exists&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3296/is-there-a-name-for-the-tendency-to-use-proper-nouns-often-in-conversation&quot;&gt;Is there a name for the tendency to use proper nouns often in conversation?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and so on&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading this type of question, I often get the impression that the person asking them is affronted that the person they describe in obsessive detail did not agree with their view or follow their advice, and now want to regain their sense of self-importance by pathologizing the other. It seems to me that many, if not most, of these questions are not based on facts but on the egomaniacal deslusion of knowing better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example (using the first question above):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does the inquirer know that the person moving to a new field is not an expert in it? Is he himself expert enough to judge the other's expertise? It is a well-known fact that even experts often disagree so violently that they accuse each other of complete ignorance. So how can the average cogsci.SE passer-by competently judge anyone's expertise or lack thereof?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll be easily able to find similar objections to all other questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So what is the name for that affliction?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-06-21T06:44:23.063" Title="Is there a name for a person who looks for a name for another person's supposed faults?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7646" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-17T15:53:09.573" Score="7" ViewCount="12191" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a well-established standardized test to measure frustration (level) of humans. Is there such an instrument?&#xA;I'm looking for a relatively short test that assesses frustration level at the point in time when the participant completes it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6189" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-17T17:56:36.480" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T09:05:12.187" Title="Is there any standardized test / questionnaire to measure frustration?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7647" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-17T18:15:43.963" Score="5" ViewCount="907" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that it is possible to detect &quot;focus&quot; with a consumer EEG with a single electrode and a reference point (ear clip), even without conductive gel, but is it possible to detect a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;flow state&lt;/a&gt; with any level of technology (whether it be professional or consumer)? Are flow states and focus synonymous? Is the mechanism of flow by it's nature undetectable by EEG?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-06-19T00:44:31.927" LastActivityDate="2016-12-28T06:06:59.770" Title="Is it possible to detect the mental flow state with EEG?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7648" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-17T23:34:07.183" Score="4" ViewCount="27182" Body="&lt;p&gt;How long, on average (and with as much other statistical data, e.g. standard deviation, as possible) does physical attraction between male and female in a permanent relationship last? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe this is a well-founded question based on the assumption that elderly couples are almost never physically attracted to one another, so almost always there is a point of earliest physical attraction loss. If you think that assumption is false, please let me know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6194" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-11-23T05:06:38.350" LastActivityDate="2014-11-23T05:06:38.350" Title="How long does physical attraction typically last in a permanent relationship?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7649" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7654" CreationDate="2014-06-18T03:19:33.500" Score="4" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;Also, will the axon terminals in a given motoneuron ever run out of neurotransmitters to release if they are constantly undergoing action potentials (say in the situation outlined above where a muscle is being kept flexed)? Or is there always enough reuptake to ensure that this could never happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5100" LastActivityDate="2014-06-18T23:27:57.407" Title="If one is flexing a muscle, for any given motoneuron involved, how many action potentials occur per second to keep the muscle flexed?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7599" CreationDate="2014-06-18T12:21:48.240" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a philosophical stance called panpsychism that addresses this question.  Of course, there is no proof, but the fundamental question is really about humans.  Is consciousness an intrinsic property of matter or does it emerge from complex matter structures?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's probably something we'll never know, but Tononi's model of consciousness leans towards emergence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-06-18T12:21:48.240" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7651" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-18T13:32:44.427" Score="4" ViewCount="9022" Body="&lt;p&gt;First a few disclaimers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am from a scientific background but a marine biology and computing one, so I apologise if I get any concepts wrong, but I will try my best. I have never been hypnotised, but I am given to understand that hypnotherapy has been researched, written up and peer reviewed, so there is clearly some efficacy to it, although I personally have no idea how much or what its limitations are, but I am curious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know hypnotherapy has been mooted for weight loss, and although that is my goal (I run and occasionally use a gym), what I am interested in is not so much whether hypnotherapy might help stop me liking lardy snacks, but if it can help me change my tastes in food. My issue is that I hate salad. Can't stand the stuff. I have no problem with most green vegetables and so on, although I wouldn't say I go out of my way for them, but for some reason I find lettuce, cucumber, tomatoes and the like detestable. But I can think of no good reason why beyond that lettuce is either a bit tasteless or tastes earthy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I like the idea of eating salad, just not the reality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can hypnotherapy help a person enjoy the taste of healthy food that they otherwise don't?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If it wouldn't work, why not? Is it because that level of suggestion simply isn't possible or some other deeper physiological reason?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6200" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-19T00:25:07.053" LastActivityDate="2017-06-26T19:41:54.643" Title="Can hypnotherapy help to change my tastes in food?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7652" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-18T13:44:27.397" Score="0" ViewCount="1042" Body="&lt;p&gt;A person says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;It turns out that the synaptic barriers of dendrite brain cells are too thick for nerve signals to classically cross. This means that nerve signals need to use Quantum tunneling to cross the dendrite synaptic barrier.&quot;&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is supposed to have the consequence that all classical models of the brain are false, and that only quantum based models of consciousness can work for explaining the mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true? Is there a way for particles or nerve signals to cross the dendritic synaptic barrier without quantum processes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4243" LastActivityDate="2014-07-29T10:27:47.723" Title="Is quantum tunneling required for nerve signals to cross the dendritic synaptic barrier?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7653" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7652" CreationDate="2014-06-18T22:32:04.280" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know what precisely &quot;nerve signals&quot; is supposed to refer to, but neurons exchange information mainly via one pathway: neurotransmitters. And these do not travel the synaptic cleft via quantum tunnelling - obviously, since &lt;strong&gt;quantum tunnelling is a phenomenon on a quantum scale (concerning electrons), while neurotransmitters are far larger, at the molecule level&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There are a number of other ways by which neurons cooperate, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v14/n2/abs/nn.2727.html&quot;&gt;ephaptic coupling&lt;/a&gt;. However, the main one is the release of neurotransmitters following an action potential in the presynaptic neuron. Neurons are connected at their synapses, mostly via axo-dendritic chemical ones. That means that one neuron's axon (its &quot;output line&quot;) is met by a part of another neuron's dendrite tree. The point where the two meet is the synapse. Axon and dendrite do not actually touch; there is a microscopic &quot;synaptic cleft&quot; between the two, in which the extracellular fluid which fills the brain flows. I assume it is the synaptic cleft which the &quot;dendritic synaptic barrier&quot; is supposed to refer to.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;During the action potential, the presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters, such as GABA or Glutamate, into the cleft. These passively diffuse within the cleft, eventually coming in contact with the post-synaptic neuron. There, they bind to receptors which activate the post-synaptic neuron.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;As far as I know, neither the release of neurotransmitters at the presynaptic neuron, nor the passive diffusion process through the synaptic cleft, or the binding to postsynaptic receptors require quantum tunnelling to any interesting degree. Basically, the stuff just floats around in the extremely narrow synaptic cleft until it comes across a receptor.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Possibly, the &quot;person&quot; you are talking about means some other aspect of the process, such as the receptor binding. Alas, I do not see how the specific way by which action potentials propagate is relevant for consciousness. Consciousness does not seem to depend on what happens at a specific synapse, but to the large-scale patterns of neuronal activity. &lt;strong&gt;If neurons were to communicate via lasers, electrically, or as they do (chemically) hardly seems to matter - what matters is that they communicate, and which neurons communicate, and what they communicate.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of this are very basic, well-established facts about the workings of the brain. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_synapse&quot;&gt;wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; is a perfectly fine introduction, though literally any neuroscience textbook will explain it like that, and countless research papers in peer-reviewed journals have investigated the process in detail, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7791901&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There exist a number of theories regarding cognitively relevant quantum phenomena in the brain, most prominently probably &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661300017745&quot;&gt;Orch OR&lt;/a&gt;. As far as I understand it, Orch OR does not focus on the communication between neurons at chemical synapses, but on quantum states within neurons and other forms of coupling (some ephaptic coupling/electrical synapse hybrid?). Regardless of what Orch OR proposes of how the brain works, the chemical synapse is commonly thought to be the primary way by which brain neurons exchange information, and there, neurotransmitters don't tunnel, but diffuse - trivially; since neurotransmitters, being molecules, are far too large to quantum tunnel.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Furthermore, Orch OR is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction#Criticism&quot;&gt;universally assumed to be a rather bad model of the brain&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Certainly, other perspectives exist; but the basic process of action potential propagation via chemical synapses has a well-deserved near dogmatic status in the neurosciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, the person you're quoting seems quite confused about very fundamental brain anatomy. For example, there are no &quot;dendrite brain cells&quot;. The brain hosts &lt;em&gt;neurons&lt;/em&gt;, each a &lt;em&gt;single cell&lt;/em&gt;, each with a &lt;em&gt;dendrite tree&lt;/em&gt; (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron#mediaviewer/File%3aPurkinjeCell.jpg&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; for a famous picture). I wouldn't expect anybody who doesn't even understand what a neuron is to revolutionise neuroscience any time soon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2014-06-18T22:39:48.533" LastActivityDate="2014-06-18T22:39:48.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7654" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7649" CreationDate="2014-06-18T23:12:45.263" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Second question: won't happen in the healthy individual/inapplicable.&#xA;Anatomically speaking, muscles don't flex, they contract. Joints flex. And muscles never fully relax to the point of zero contraction/zero firing. (The flexion of a joint can be achieved passively, even when the animal is dead.)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Even at rest, muscle is kept in a constant state of at least slight tension, the basic &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_tone&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;tonus&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Skeletal muscles are usually set up in antagonistic pairs, with one flexing and one extending a joint. A specific balance of agonist and antagonist tonus implements a stable position of the joint, and stable positions can be achieved near-permanently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First question: depends on effort.&#xA;Muscle firing during increased, active contraction is a function of effort, as muscle contraction is increased via &lt;em&gt;rate coding&lt;/em&gt;. The stronger a muscle is supposed to contract, the higher the motor unit's firing rate has to become. (I should probably mention the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henneman%27s_size_principle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;size principle&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; here...)&#xA;Motor neurons are reported to reach firing rates of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bu.edu/nmrc/files/2010/04/EMG_Decomposition.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a few tens (up to 50) of hz during high effort&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A question you're possibly interested in: for how long can extremely high firing rates be sustained? Or: is muscle failure under sustained extreme effort, corresponding to high firing rates, sometimes a result of motor neuron drop-out rather rather than e.g. ATP depletion at the muscle itself?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Note first that muscle force is greater for eccentric and isometric activity (ie., release under control or static tension); voluntary contraction is a bit weaker. From another perspective, if a muscle is electrically stimulated externally, it is still able to exert force far beyond the point where the subject cannot voluntarily uphold the tension. This means short-term fatigue following high tension is primarily neural.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I do not know what precisely causes this fatigue (nor do I think the experts have uncovered it yet), but the limiting aspect does not seem to be neurotransmitter re-uptake, or even metabolic processes in general. As &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9578373&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gandevia&lt;/a&gt; writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;intrinsic moto neuronal properties, reflex inhibition and disfacilitation, Renshaw cell inhibition, and insufficient drive from supraspinal sites may all contribute to the decline in moto unit firing rate in fatigue&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also see &lt;a href=&quot;http://nro.sagepub.com/content/2/4/203.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2014-06-18T23:27:57.407" LastActivityDate="2014-06-18T23:27:57.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7655" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7647" CreationDate="2014-06-19T06:57:28.470" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bearing in mind the fact that I can't prove a negative, I'm going to say &quot;No, it's not (yet) possible&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Flow&lt;/em&gt; is rather loosely defined (e.g. &quot;merging of action and awareness&quot;), so coming up with hard measures is a challenge in and of itself -- even without bringing electrophysiology into the equasion.  As a &lt;em&gt;Positive Psychology&lt;/em&gt; concept, it belongs to the realm of &quot;soft science&quot; psychology, and this tends to make fuzzy things stay fuzzy.  (Please note that I'm not using &quot;soft science&quot; pejoratively).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the best you can do is measure correlates of alertness and attention (e.g. look for desynchronization in the alpha band).  If you come up with a very clever design, you might even be able to elicit ERP components related to conscious awareness of a stimulus of interest (e.g. P300b complex), but even that will be very difficult in non-laboratory conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, you could turn to machine learning to search for patterns associated with the conscious processing of a stimulus of interest.  If you want to go that route, I'd strongly encourage you to read one of my colleagues' Ph.D dissertation [1].  This dissertation proposes some novel approaches to pattern classification with EEG (and MEG/iEEG).  Note that this problem is a much easier one (classification of non-communicative patients).  That, along with the insane amount of noise you're likely to get and the need for a very inventive design, earns you a hearty &quot;good luck&quot; ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theses.fr/2014PA066023&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Characterizing the Electro-magnetic Signatures of Conscious Processing in Healthy and Impaired Human Brains&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-12-28T06:06:59.770" LastActivityDate="2016-12-28T06:06:59.770" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7658" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-20T01:53:58.383" Score="4" ViewCount="563" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read a recent article, suggesting that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the nicest guys in a society are selected last by females.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article continues to identify the cause as a lack of aggressive nature and competitiveness, with these being ostensibly desirable traits. This is a common sentiment that is often expressed in popular media, yet rarely sourced. I was wondering if there were any psychology studies exploring this topic, or any further explanation to shed light on this topic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is male prosocial activity and perceived niceness associated with sexual outcomes?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6213" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-03-21T15:05:07.733" LastActivityDate="2015-03-21T15:05:07.733" Title="Do nice guys finish last?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7661" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7662" CreationDate="2014-06-21T01:14:53.277" Score="10" ViewCount="820" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the Wikipedia article for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Computational Theory of the Mind&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;NOT&lt;/strong&gt; to be confused with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational-representational_understanding_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Computational Representational Understanding of Mind&lt;/a&gt; which includes Connectionism), it is mentioned that alternatives to this philosophical view are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Connectionism&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamicism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dynamicism&lt;/a&gt; (though there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~celiasmi/Papers/thirdcontender.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;some debate&lt;/a&gt; as to how different Dynamicism is). Why is this? Since they still use mathematical models run by computers, which still take in information and still process it, they seem to still fall under the Computational Theory of the Mind. What distinction am I missing here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-07-05T11:52:41.950" LastActivityDate="2014-07-06T14:26:57.820" Title="Why aren't Connectionism and Dynamicism considered part of the Computational Theory of the Mind?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;&lt;dynamic-systems&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7662" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7661" CreationDate="2014-06-21T09:55:07.880" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Computational Theory of Mind&lt;/a&gt; is not that the mind does some form of computation in the wide sense of computation. Rather, look at the examples for the CToM given in the Wikipedia article; people like Fodor, Pinker, Marr. Their view is very much the opposite to the Connectionist position of West Coast scientists like Rumelhart, Elman and McClelland. Both assume the brain does some form of computation, but they differ greatly about what &lt;em&gt;kind of computation&lt;/em&gt; it is doing. Fundamentally, by the CToM, cognition is &lt;em&gt;symbol manipulation&lt;/em&gt; and the mind Von Neumann-like (with a central-processor accessing memory), and to Connectionism, it isn't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Historically, much of the foundations of CToM as it is currently used was &lt;a href=&quot;http://kybele.psych.cornell.edu/~edelman/marr.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;first and best articulated by David Marr&lt;/a&gt; (although the basic thought is of course much older). Marr assumed cognition can be described on 3 distinct levels; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a &lt;em&gt;computational level&lt;/em&gt;, which describes what job the system is supposed to do; for example, the visual system is supposed to discover cues for depth, object boundaries, and so on&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;em&gt;algorithmic level&lt;/em&gt; is a description of which calculations are used to perform this computation; for example, in the case of vision, by computing a Laplacian transformation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;em&gt;implementational level&lt;/em&gt; is how neurons are actually wired together to perform these algorithms - the &lt;em&gt;wet&lt;/em&gt;, and to many researchers, not so interesting part.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This framework is basically what much of modern CToM operates within.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fodor or Pinker assume minds operate like a specific form of computer: somewhat akin to a Von Neuman machine. Specifically, minds do &lt;em&gt;symbol manipulation&lt;/em&gt;. Symbols are distinct, abstract cognitive entities which are assigned some meaning. Typically, they represent something. So to a CToM person, the mind works by taking a symbol, such as a low-level representation of a small part of the outside world, and performing an operation on it. In vision, it might take low-level visual items and add them together to construct a 3D representation of the outside world. In language, it might take lexical units and operate on them using linguistic rules, yielding a linguistic/semantic representation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, in all of these, the thing which is operated on (the symbol) and the thing which does the operation (some mental module) are distinct. Symbols are manipulated via mental modules showing rule-like, algorithmic behaviour. In at least some theories, each manipulation within a module follows in sequence after another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So CToM typically entails a symbolic and &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-representation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;representational&lt;/a&gt; theory of mind; it also often comes as a &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/modularity-mind/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;modular&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/innateness-cognition/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;nativist&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;universalist&lt;/a&gt; theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/connectionism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Connectionism, in contrast&lt;/a&gt;, does not assume any of these, and it was in fact originally proposed as a direct answer and alternative to the CToM. In connectionism, the 3 levels approach is often not seen as foundational, or even useful; to study how neurons work is to study how cognition works. In Connectionism, there is no central processing unit and no distinct symbol. There is no difference between &quot;data&quot; (symbols, representation) and the processor. Processing and symbols are implicitly distributed amongst neurons; processing doesn't happen in modules and in sequence, but in parallel. The central unit is not the module, but the network. Neuronal systems don't implement specific rule-like operations like a &quot;normal&quot; computer program, but deal with the world by finding patterns in the input and linking it to dynamically created response patterns. In some frameworks, representationality is disputed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two Stanford Encyclopedia articles on &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CToM&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/connectionism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Connectionism&lt;/a&gt; are a good introduction to the topic and the long and intense argument between the two schools about what the mind does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same spiel also goes for the Dynamical Systems take on cognition, because when compared to CToM, the two - Dynamicism and Connectionism - are united in what distinguishes them from the CToM. When comparing Dynamicism to the CToM at length, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10097022&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;van Gelder&lt;/a&gt; immediately and explicitly aligns connectionism and dynamicism when comparing them to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the computational hypothesis (CH) that cognitive agents are basically digital computers. Perhaps the most famous rendition is Newell and Simon’s doctrine [:] “a physical symbol system ...&quot;  ...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  In recent years, however, the ... alternative has been gaining momentum. One of the most notable developments has been the rise of connectionism, which models cognition as the behavior of dynamical systems ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dynamicism, like connectionism, is non-symbolic, not sold on the Von Neumann model, and emphasizes adaptive processes (such as learning) over static, modular faculties. Moreover, Dynamicism emphasizes interactions with the outside world as well as embodied, non-symbolic phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a post-script, I want to note that Marr is perhaps a bit straw manned when he is (by people on the CToM side, usually!) painted as the Arch Symbolist. Marr developed his foundational work together with Poggio, who has worked with neural networks and stochastic models a lot, and is sometimes presented as a Dynamicist(!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also: to add to the confusion, CToM research usually features much less interest in &lt;em&gt;explicit computational models&lt;/em&gt; than connectionist work. Connectionist research almost always features computer implementations of models, and dynamicism can be heavy on the formulas. CToM research often prefers qualitative descriptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2014-07-06T14:26:57.820" LastActivityDate="2014-07-06T14:26:57.820" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7663" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7648" CreationDate="2014-06-21T15:39:55.077" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think here is study you are looking for: Sex Differences in the Implications of Partner Physical Attractiveness for&#xA;the Trajectory of Marital Satisfaction&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Report from 4 independent longitudional studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not so easy question to answer. For sure there are difference between male and female in M and sd. Especially it is determined by interpersonal dynamics (Koch, Mansfield...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second difference is in love style (Sternberg, Triangular theory of love)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also it is known that attractivnes at age 16 is also important (Benzeval, Green...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Andy many other variables is important for this simple question...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;0) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24128188&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24128188&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19817035&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19817035&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;2) &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular_theory_of_love&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular_theory_of_love&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;3) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0063975&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0063975&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: Im sorry for bad formating. I am on work now so I wanted to reply quick. In first study (you have to download the study and read it) you have a lot of predictors of martial satisfaction including atractivnes of wife) at beginning  of relationship and later. So you can track how physical atractivness decline and other predictors raise in concept of martial satisfaction) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other articles are here to describe other influential variables which are not described in first article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please read the first article, you have APA full text in the upper right corner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="3001" LastEditDate="2014-06-21T16:02:00.307" LastActivityDate="2014-06-21T16:02:00.307" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7664" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7646" CreationDate="2014-06-21T15:53:17.783" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Frustration is measured in various ways. In psychology, frustration is seen as occurring when an anticipated reward or outcome is blocked (Berkowitz, 1989). The block can be either internal (the person’s lack of skill, knowledge) or external (environment, situation) (Shorkey &amp;amp; Crocker, 1981). Some papers and measures focus on the block itself (Dollard et al, 1939), while others focus on the individual’s reaction to the block (Amsel, 1958). Others focus on frustration tolerance, which is the degree to which a person can tolerate being frustrated and persist in that situation. Frustration tolerance is more trait-like (measuring a consistent way someone handles challenging situations, which is stable over time), and from your question it sounds like you’re more interested in something that measure state frustration (emotional reaction in the moment). Unfortunately, there are more validated instruments that assess frustration tolerance than “in the moment” frustration, though some might be adapted for your purposes. Options for both are summarized below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Frustration Tolerance&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Harrington’s Frustration Discomfort Scale assesses frustration intolerance beliefs using four subscales: discomfort intolerance emotional intolerance, achievement frustration, and entitlement (Harrington, 2005). Each subscale consists of 7 items which are answered on a 5 point Likert-type scale ranging from “absent” to “very strong.” Items are designed to tap “common thoughts and beliefs people may have when they are distressed or frustrated.” Questions are phrased to refer to general reactions, not a specific situation. A five-subscale version also exists, though the four-subscale version appears to have been used more often (Jibeen, 2013; Stankovic &amp;amp; Vukosavljevic-Gvozden, 2011; Wilde, 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wright, Lam, &amp;amp; Brown (2009) – The five item Frustrative Nonreward Responsiveness Scale seems to assess the likelihood an individual will quit or lose interest in a task when they cannot meet their goal, but does not seem to tap the emotion of anger. (This is a good reminder that the frustration “block” can precede many emotions such as anger, sadness, and boredom). Items are answered on a four point scale ranging from “very true for me” to “very false for me.” Questions are phrased in a way that asks the person to predict how they will respond to a frustrating situation.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Frustration Scale consists of 3 items asking how frustrating a particular job or task has been; items are answered on a 7-point Likert scale, with higher scores indicating more frustration (Peters, O’Connor, &amp;amp; Rudolf, 1980). Questions are asked in the past tense, &lt;em&gt;but if administered immediately following the task, this may meet your needs.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In the Moment Frustration&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Scime and Norvilitis (2006) presented children with a challenging task (blindfolding them and asking them to complete a 15 piece puzzle). They assessed frustration by having children report their frustration level on a 4 point scale (“a lot” to “not at all”) and whether they were more likely to quit and more likely to get frustrated than other children on a 5 point scale (“a lot more” to “a lot less”). They also asked the children to describe (open response) how they knew they were frustrated and how they manage frustration. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Other studies have measured frustration by a combination of direct survey questions (similar to those used by Scime &amp;amp; Norvitilis, 2006, typically limited to 1-2 items) and physiological data such as heart rate, strength of grip or speed of use of a computer mouse or lever, or the electrical impulses from facial muscles  (Douglas &amp;amp; Perry, 1994; Hazlett, 2003; Reynolds, 2001)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hoppmann (2009) describes the use of think-aloud techniques (having the participant narrate their experience out loud) in order to identify rising frustration and the “tipping point” of frustration. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a side note, as a psychologist I typically conceptualize emotions as a single word or image, and cognitions as full sentences. Many validated symptom or personality trait measures seek to capture the person’s experience over a certain period of time (a week, a month), because you can capture many instances of the emotion and come up with a cohesive assessment. However, if I were to clinically ask a client about a particular emotion “in the moment,” as is done in some anxiety or trauma therapies (e.g., how angry/frightened/anxious are you right now), I would do so in a single question. If I wanted to understand why they felt that way, I would ask more questions and start tapping into cognitions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amsel, A. (1958). The role of frustrative nonreward in noncontinuous reward situations. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin, 55&lt;/em&gt;, 102-119.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin, 106&lt;/em&gt;(1), 59-73.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dollard, J. Doob, L., Miller, N., Mowrer, O., &amp;amp; Sears, R. (1939). &lt;em&gt;Frustration and Aggression&lt;/em&gt;. New Haven: Yale University Press.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Douglas, V. I., &amp;amp; Perry, P. A. (1994). Effects of reward and nonreward on frustration and attention in attention deficit disorder. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22&lt;/em&gt;(3), 281-302.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hazlett, R. (2003). Measurement of use frustration: A biologic approach. CHI EA ’03 Extended Abstracts in Human Factors in Computing Systems, ACM, New York, New York, 734-735. Doi:10.1145/765891.765958&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harrington, N. (2005). The Frustration Discomfort Scale: Development and psychometric properties. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 12&lt;/em&gt;, 374-387. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hoppmann, T. K. (2009). Examining the ‘point of frustration.’ The think-aloud method applied to online search tasks. &lt;em&gt;Quality &amp;amp; Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, 43&lt;/em&gt;, 211-224. DOI 10.1007/s11135-007-9116-0 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jibeen, T. (2013). Frustration intolerance beliefs as predictors of emotional problems in university undergraduates. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp;amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 31&lt;/em&gt;(1), 16-26. Doi: 10.1007/s10942-012-0154-8. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peters, L. H., O’Connor, E. J., &amp;amp; Rudolf, C. J. (1980). The behavioral and affective consequences of performance-relevant situational variables. &lt;em&gt;Organization Behavior &amp;amp; Human Performance, 25&lt;/em&gt;(1), 79-96. doi: 10.1016/0030-5073(80)90026-4 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reynolds, C. J. (2001). The sensing and measurement of frustration with computers. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, (&lt;em&gt;unpublished Master’s Thesis&lt;/em&gt;). Cambridge, MA. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://vismod.media.mit.edu/tech-reports/TR-559.pdf&quot;&gt;http://vismod.media.mit.edu/tech-reports/TR-559.pdf&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scime, M., &amp;amp; Norvilitis, J. M. (2006). Task performance and response to frustration in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. &lt;em&gt;Psychology in the Schools, 43&lt;/em&gt;(3), 377-386. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shorkey, C. T., &amp;amp; Crocker, S. B. (1981). Frustration theory: a source of unifying concepts for  generalist practice. &lt;em&gt;Social Work, 26&lt;/em&gt;(5), 374-379&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stankovic, S. &amp;amp; Vukosavljevic-Gvozden, T. (2011). The relationship of a measure of frustration intolerance with emotional dysfunction in a student sample. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp;amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 29&lt;/em&gt;(1), 17-34. DOI: 10.1007/s10942-011-0128-2. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wilde, J. (2012). The relationship between frustration intolerance and academic achievement in college. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Higher Education, 1&lt;/em&gt;(2), 1-8. DOI: 10.5430/ijhe.v1n2p1 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wright, K. A., Lam, D. H., &amp;amp; Brown, R. G. (2009). Reduced approach motivation following nonreward: Extension of the BIS/BAS scales. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences, 47&lt;/em&gt;(7), 753-757. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2009.06.015&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-06-21T15:53:17.783" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7665" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7648" CreationDate="2014-06-21T17:27:36.700" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure I can give you the data purely for &lt;em&gt;physical attractiveness&lt;/em&gt;, but what &lt;em&gt;has&lt;/em&gt; been intensively researched is &lt;em&gt;passionate love&lt;/em&gt;, which includes physical attraction. Passionate love is usually assumed to include sexual desire, and correlates quite well with rated attraction. As &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.elainehatfield.com/ch113.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hatfield writes&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Generally, passionate love is associated with the terms “arousal,” “desire,” “lust,” “passion,” and “infatuation&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope that's what you're asking for.&#xA;Elaine Hatfield (of the &quot;would you go to bed with me?&quot; study fame) has developed the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.elainehatfield.com/ch113.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Passionate Love Scale&lt;/a&gt;; Tennov has researched Limerence. Other famous names in this regard are Liebowitz and (Helen) Fisher. The counterpart to passionate love is often called companionate love, attachment, or affection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Qualitatively speaking, on average, passionate love goes down with relation length. As Hatfield says, time has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://interpersona.psychopen.eu/article/view/17&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;corrosive effect&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Past researchers conceptualize this in a multi-stage model of relationships, where relationships naturally transition from passionate love into compassionate attachment. A well-known correlate of this is the &quot;7-year itch&quot;, corresponding to a globally consistent mode around 4 years after marriage for divorces. However, some people report passionate love after decades of being together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all attempts to quantify any of this, there are a number of critical cofounds. @what has already brought up that some objective component of attractiveness might naturally decline with age. I'm not so sure this is that dramatic though, because there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uiowa.edu/~grpproc/crisp/crisp.6.5.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;well-known compensatory mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; for attraction within relationships that might be more important than e.g. decline of outsider-rated attractiveness with age. After all, what correlates with how attractive you rate someone is not the same as how attractive your partner is to you.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Moreover, there is a reliable difference between studies on younger and on older couples; the correlation between relationship length and passionate love/attraction is very reliable in young couples, but much weaker in older couples, and while younger couples often break up seemingly because passion has waned (as passion and satisfaction are correlated), there are older couples who're passionately in love (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&amp;amp;id=2009-02787-006&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/01/05/scan.nsq092.full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). As Hatfield speculates, this might be because couples were passion is stable have a much higher chance to last, but those where it wanes quicker, end quicker. So that's for cofounds. I did not find any clear solution to this problem, and I can't really think of a good way of dealing with the self-selection problem (where longer relationships will inherently qualitatively differ from younger ones because they &lt;em&gt;must&lt;/em&gt; have certain qualities to have come that far).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;However, the relationship &lt;em&gt;within&lt;/em&gt; relationships seems to hold, with a negative correlation within both older and younger relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quantitatively speaking, a much-quoted figure is Tennov's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.helenfisher.com/downloads/articles/04natofrl.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;18 months to three years&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Exceptions are assumed to be comparatively rare, but also known to exist.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I can't give you the standard deviation on this, but I can give you something better: a regression model. One is by &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1998.tb00459.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sprecher &amp;amp; Regan, page 172&lt;/a&gt;, one by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.hawaii.edu/~elaineh/71.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hatfield, page 404&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Of course, this will not give you the single point in time where passionate love suddenly ends; but this is not realistic either. In relationships, attraction usually doesn't suddenly stop, it wanes. Graphically speaking:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/ATJ36Gg.png&quot; alt=&quot;passion over time&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I also found a much more optimistic picture for physical attractiveness over time in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uiowa.edu/~grpproc/crisp/crisp.6.5.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;large (almost 2000 people) sample&lt;/a&gt;:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/aMTYxhT.gif&quot; alt=&quot;passion over time 2&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is clear even here however is the &quot;7th-year itch&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2014-06-21T17:27:36.700" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7666" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-06-22T14:37:51.040" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2014-06-22T14:37:51.040" LastActivityDate="2014-06-22T14:37:51.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7667" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-06-22T14:37:51.040" Score="0" Body="The systematic organization of stimuli, cognitive processes, or theory; also, categorical models" OwnerUserId="5041" LastEditorUserId="5041" LastEditDate="2014-06-25T01:05:50.303" LastActivityDate="2014-06-25T01:05:50.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7668" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-23T10:05:12.920" Score="3" ViewCount="240" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;DSM&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ICD&lt;/a&gt; define a mental disorder called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;major depressive disorder&lt;/a&gt; (MDD), and I suppose the notion of MDD defines quite rigorous criteria and methods to diagnose it in people. I don't know, how MDD is defined, what is its criteria, what are its diagnostic methods. On the other hand, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive behavioral therapy&lt;/a&gt; practitioners, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_D._Burns&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;David Burns&lt;/a&gt;, define depression through the use of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_D._Burns&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;rating scales&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, David Burns has a questionnaire, called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_D._Burns#Burns_Depression_Checklist&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Burns Depression Checklist&lt;/a&gt; (BDC). It asks you 25 questions about various thoughts and moods you experienced at least once during the week. Then it asks you to assign a number from 0 to 4 to each of them, meaning how strongly you experienced it, 0 meaning “not at all”, 4 meaning “a lot”. Then you add the numbers up, and if you get more than 10, you have a depression: mild depression (11-25), moderate depression (26-50), severe depression (51-75), extreme depression (76-100). The questions are very different, they ask if you feel sad, or discouraged, or worthless, or guilty, or lonely, or demotivated, or sleep to much, and so on. Therefore you can have different combinations of physical and emotional symptoms, and still have depression according to BDC. For example, i could put number 4 to questions about guilt, hopelessness, and self-esteem, yet put number 0 to questions about motivation, interest in work, and feeling tired; or I could do the other way around, and it would still mean i have a mild depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the study called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/faculty/detels/PH150/Kessler_Depression_JAMA2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Epidemiology of Major Depressive Disorder&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, 16.2% of US citizens experienced MDD in their lifetimes. If we assume Burns's definition of depression through result of BDC scale, then this study's data contradicts common sense and my anecdotal evidence. I gave BDC to various friends of mine, and all of them showed at least mild depression. From behavior and self-accounts of many people I meet every day I can safely assume that mild and moderate depression (in Burns's definition) are the statistical norm; the depressed people are the &lt;em&gt;majority&lt;/em&gt; of population. I understand that anecdotal evidence means nothing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is as follows. What exactly is major depressive disorder? How it is defined in a formal way? What are the criteria, which a person should met, to be diagnosed with MDD? What are the methods to diagnose it (for example, do psychiatrists use rating scales like BDC)? Finally, how MDD is different from the many alternative definitions of “depression”, including the colloquial ones?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask this because I can't reconcile my intuitive hunch that most people around me are depressed, some of them heavily, yet studies show that depression, while serious, isn't that widespread. If MDD is defined in a very different way, than Burns's depression, then it would mean that only a minority experiences MDD, so there's no contradiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="961" LastActivityDate="2014-06-24T20:07:42.453" Title="What is, formally speaking, major depressive disorder?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7669" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7670" CreationDate="2014-06-23T10:14:37.357" Score="4" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a names / examples of a tests that determine if the child is thinking on its own (I have tried searching on wikipedia topics about cognitive sciences/ psychology etc. with no luck). To be more specific, long time ago I saw a video that described two tests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first, a teacher was given two cookies, and the kid just one. Teacher asked the child &#xA;&quot;Is it fair that I have two cookies and you just one&quot; and the kid replied as it was supposed to &quot;No&quot;. &#xA;Teacher then has split kid's cookie in half and asked again &quot;Is it fair now?&quot; and kid stated &quot;Yes, cause we both have two now&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My memory fails at accurate description of second test, but I remember that it was supposed to determine if the kid is thinking 'What I know is what everybody knows'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's like if you put two kids in the same room with a large amount of 'sth', and asked one, let's call it 'Martha', to leave the room.&#xA;Then, you make the kid that stayed take for example two instances of 'sth' and afterwards ask him 'Do you think the kid that left the room knows that you took it?&quot; and kid kid replies &quot;Yes&quot; because it cannot differentiate 'Martha's' knowledge from it's own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd appreciate any ideas where to seek.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6231" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-24T05:14:49.733" LastActivityDate="2014-06-24T05:14:49.733" Title="Name of a cognitive test assessing whether a child can think independently" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7670" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7669" CreationDate="2014-06-23T11:42:42.473" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first one is a test if a child has understood conservation of matter. It is an example of a &lt;em&gt;conservation task&lt;/em&gt;. These belong to the tests used in the framework of Piaget to test what stage of development a child is in.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/YtLEWVu815o?t=2m47s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a video demonstration of the cookie task. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/94/what-was-the-experiment-where-you-pour-liquid-from-a-tall-container-to-a-short-o?rq=1&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is another question on this site pertaining to a different conservation task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second one is an example of a &lt;em&gt;false-belief task&lt;/em&gt; test for the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/~aleslie/images/publications/Baron-Cohen%20Leslie%20&amp;amp;%20Frith%201985.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Theory of Mind&lt;/a&gt;. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10980256&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; for some criticism of the false-belief task, questioning if it truly tests what it aims to test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think it's appropriate to say either of these is used to test if children are &quot;thinking on their own&quot; for what it's worth. They're about developmental stages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-06-23T19:54:42.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7671" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-23T13:34:00.817" Score="5" ViewCount="198" Body="&lt;p&gt;It’s a cliché in movies. The boss fires the employee, and they reply “you can’t fire me, because I quit”. Similarly, when in a romantic relationship, one person may decide to end it and the other answers the news with “well, I have been thinking about ending this for some time” (whether true or not).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both of these replies should be unwarranted and effectively meaningless: the end result is the same. Yet, people often feel this need to “one-up”&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; one another. Does this need have a name? And do we have any formal findings (or ongoing research) as to why we have it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Not exactly “one-upping”, since you’re not outdoing the first person — more like preemptively doing what they’re doing, as if life works like a &lt;a href=&quot;http://mtgsalvation.gamepedia.com/Stack&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;MTG game&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIFO_%28computing%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the last thing any of you do is the first to happen&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6232" LastActivityDate="2014-07-23T20:37:05.503" Title="Name for the need to reply “you can’t fire me, I quit”" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7672" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-23T15:55:12.630" Score="3" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a research field which holds close connections between computational neuroscience and classical robotics, particularly building corresponding robots to  implement and test the theories from computational neuroscience ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5052" LastActivityDate="2014-06-23T16:42:24.563" Title="Is there a research field which holds close connections between computational neuroscience and classical robotics" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7673" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7672" CreationDate="2014-06-23T16:42:24.563" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, it's often called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurorobotics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neurorobotics&lt;/a&gt;. There are several labs doing this kind of research. Here's a small sample:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.socsci.uci.edu/~jkrichma/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jeff Krichmar at UC Irvine&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neurorobotik.de/index_en.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Neurorobotics Research Laboratory at Humboldt Unveristy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://biomed.drexel.edu/new04/neurorobotics/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Neurorobotics Lab at Drexel University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neurorobot.kaist.ac.kr/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jun Tani at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://nxr.northwestern.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NxR at Northwestern&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-06-23T16:42:24.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7671" CreationDate="2014-06-23T20:02:59.767" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of any term that refers specifically to this sort of counter-offensive reaction to ending a social relationship (be it romantic, professional, or otherwise), but I vaguely recall reading about some theory that distinguished reactions to relational stress as follows:&#xA;$$\begin{array}{c|c|c|}&amp;amp;\mathbf{Active}&amp;amp;\mathbf{Passive}\\\hline\mathbf{Constructive}&amp;amp;\rm Actively\ constructive&amp;amp;\rm Passively\ constructive\\\hline\mathbf{Destructive}&amp;amp;\rm Actively\ destructive&amp;amp;\rm Passively\ destructive\\\hline\end{array}$$&#xA;The reaction in question is &lt;em&gt;actively destructive&lt;/em&gt;. A &lt;em&gt;passive&lt;/em&gt; alternative would be less decisive / assertive, and either patient / understanding / cooperative (i.e., &lt;em&gt;constructive&lt;/em&gt;) or apathetic / pessimistic / negative (i.e., &lt;em&gt;destructive&lt;/em&gt;). Sorry I don't have a reference off the top of my head; I think this came from &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0130288640&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;my social psych textbook as an undergrad&lt;/a&gt;, but I'm not sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for plausible explanatory constructs, consider:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dominant personality&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Avoidant or anxious-ambivalent (i.e., &lt;em&gt;insecure&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_styles#Attachment_patterns&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;attachment style&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Needs for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_power&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;power&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory#Autonomy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;autonomy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Behavioral tendencies involving &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defensiveness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;defensiveness&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reactance&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Certain defense mechanisms may apply depending on whether the person is reacting genuinely or just defensively (and doesn't actually want to end the relationship).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-06-23T20:02:59.767" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7676" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7668" CreationDate="2014-06-24T10:42:53.173" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The ICD and DSM definitions can be a bit opaque, but there are several criteria that are usually considered necessary for diagnosis. Different practitioners may diagnose more conservatively or more pervasively, but those differences are based on their professional experience, and they are all meant to interpret from similar guidelines. Because there are different severities of depression, as with any illness, diagnosis relies also on the subjective judgement of a doctor or other mental health practitioner. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, if one experiences a persistently low mood and low energy for a period of longer than two weeks, they may be diagnosed with so-called &quot;clinical&quot; depression. Usually this entails disruption to one or more aspects of daily living, e.g. food, sleep, interpersonal relationships, work or hobbies. This type of disruption is sometimes termed &quot;clinically significant distress&quot;, a fairly common criterion for mental illness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prevalence is difficult to accurately assess. The NIMH reports 6.7% 12-month prevalence in the US. The CDC has a map of US states showing statistics for current depression, ranging from under 5% to as high as 15%. Other statistics exist in other countries. These data may reflect the best methodology available, but they are still fallible. Epidemiology of mental illness is a difficult field of study. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The inventory you cite is one of several commonly used ones. It's also important to remember that a psychiatrist will not rely on self-report questionnaires for diagnosis. A doctor would conduct a thorough intake interview which takes into account many other factors. A fifteen or twenty question survey is not sufficient to definitively diagnose anyone. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6237" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-24T20:07:42.453" LastActivityDate="2014-06-24T20:07:42.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7677" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-24T15:22:44.250" Score="3" ViewCount="3456" Body="&lt;p&gt;My rudimentary understanding of the neuronal firing rate is that it varies person to person, and neuron to neuron. So any specific number for a firing rate would be specific to the test subject and type of neuron etc. However aside from this I'm interested to find out if any medication or specific dietary constituents have been shown to increase neuronal firing rate in average test subjects. To be clear I understand that some medication has been shown to help suffers of diseases such as Alzheimer's, but I'm interested in the typical human brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6238" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-24T20:05:23.903" LastActivityDate="2014-07-21T00:16:57.907" Title="Can the neuronal firing rate be increased through medication/diet?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7678" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13535" CreationDate="2014-06-24T23:59:46.237" Score="3" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;When people think &quot;I must&quot;, &quot;I have to&quot;, &quot;I should&quot;, &quot;he should&quot;, or &quot;people have to&quot; it can become a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's studied by Cognitive Behavioural Therapy but I don't know the name for this kind of problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the explanation in another language (translated in english): &lt;a href=&quot;https://translate.google.it/translate?sl=it&amp;amp;tl=en&amp;amp;js=y&amp;amp;prev=_t&amp;amp;hl=it&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allenavita.com%2F2013%2F07%2Fil-veleno-che-distrugge-lanima-le.html&amp;amp;edit-text=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-14T01:09:40.697" LastActivityDate="2016-03-14T01:09:40.697" Title="What is the word for: &quot;I have to do&quot; in CBT?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7679" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7681" CreationDate="2014-06-25T01:13:45.840" Score="4" ViewCount="765" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am putting together a study that attempts to assess whether people assign particular affective or emotional states to images--specifically, animated GIFs. Is there a &quot;standard&quot; list of emotional states that has been used in research before, or that tends to be favored by researchers who study emotions? I'm considering something like &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.archive.org/web/20010818040222/http://americanscientist.org/articles/01articles/plutchikcap6.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Plutchik's three-dimensional circumplex model&lt;/a&gt;, but I didn't know if there was something else that tended to be more favored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6242" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2014-06-25T04:37:27.740" LastActivityDate="2014-06-25T09:57:47.973" Title="List of affective states for a study?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7680" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7678" CreationDate="2014-06-25T01:15:44.320" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could be referring to two different things. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) This is an example of an intermediate belief. Cognitions can be thought of as three levels: automatic thoughts (which are the first thoughts that pop into our heads), intermediate beliefs (which often take the form of rules, attitudes, and assumptions), and core beliefs (which reflect our deepest levels of thought and core values). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Situation: Not understanding part of a lecture&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Automatic thought: I'll never learn this! I'm an idiot! Why bother trying?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Intermediate beliefs: (which can take the form of &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;must&lt;/em&gt; statements)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Attitude: Failing at anything is terrible&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Assumption: If I challenge myself, I'm sure to fail. If I do things that come easily, I'll succeed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Rule: If I can't do this easily, I should just give up.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Core belief: I'm incompetent &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) The statements you mention are also examples of dysfunctional thoughts (also called &lt;em&gt;cognitive distortions&lt;/em&gt;), specifically all-or-nothing thinking (seeing things in black or white) or &quot;imperatives&quot; (should or must statements).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;These errors in thinking are our tendency to draw invalid conclusions or selectively pay attention to evidence to support our thinking. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Example of all-or-nothing thinking: If I don't get a 100% on the test, I'm a failure. If she doesn't return my phone call immediately, she hates me. (That second example is also a bit of jumping to conclusions). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Example of imperatives: Making any mistake is terrible; I should always do my best. If I ask for help, I am weak; I must be completely self-reliant. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Search these terms for more information: Intermediate beliefs, dysfunctional thoughts, cognitive distortions &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beck, J.S. (2011). Cognitive Behavior Therapy. 2nd Edition. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-06-25T01:15:44.320" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7681" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7679" CreationDate="2014-06-25T02:03:29.123" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a range of &quot;adjective checklists&quot; that have been developed to assess affective states, personality traits, or characteristics of individuals. Two of the most widely cited measures are the Multiple Affective Adjective Check List (MAACL) and the Multiple Affective Adjective Checklist-Revised (MAACL-R) (Zuckerman &amp;amp; Lubin, 1965; Zuckerman &amp;amp; Lubin, 1985). Although the actual MAACL-R manual may require purchase, lists of the affective items are available in other publications (Gotlib &amp;amp; Meyer, 1986). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clinically, I have used the How Do I Feel Right Now? chart for clients who have difficulty identifying and naming their emotional states (&lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.oregonstate.edu/careerservices/2012/11/30/emotional-intelligence-what-is-it-and-why-do-employers-want-emotionally-intelligent-employees/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://blogs.oregonstate.edu/careerservices/2012/11/30/emotional-intelligence-what-is-it-and-why-do-employers-want-emotionally-intelligent-employees/&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other sources of emotion lists in the field of psychology include: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shaver and colleagues have a heavily cited paper on types of emotions (1987)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Geneva Emotional Music Scale (Zenter, Grandjean, &amp;amp; Scherer, 2008)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gotlib, I. H., &amp;amp; Meyer, J. P. (1986). Factor analysis of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List: A separation of positive and negative affect. &lt;em&gt;Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 50&lt;/em&gt;(6), 1161-1165. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.6.1161&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., &amp;amp; O'connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: further exploration of a prototype approach. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52&lt;/em&gt;(6), 1061.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zentner, M., Grandjean, D., &amp;amp; Scherer, K. R. (2008). Emotions evoked by the sound of music: Characterization, classification, and measurement. &lt;em&gt;Emotion, 8&lt;/em&gt;(4), 494-521. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.4.494&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zuckerman, M., &amp;amp; Lubin, B. (1985). Manual for the MAACL-R: The Multiple Affect Adjetive Check List Revised. Educational and Industrial Testing Service.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zuckerman, M., &amp;amp; Lubin, B. (1965). The Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist (MAACL).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-06-25T02:03:29.123" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7682" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5005" CreationDate="2014-06-25T09:01:36.747" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is episodic. Episodic memory is responsible for storing information about events (or episodes) we have experienced; whereas semantic is for storing information about the world, such as the meaning of words. &#xA;While semantic memory would be required to understand and thus encode the words in the first place, remembering the list of words would require episodic memory.&#xA;Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6244" LastActivityDate="2014-06-25T09:01:36.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7683" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7679" CreationDate="2014-06-25T09:57:47.973" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are far from having any standards on the topic of emotions, and there are numerous ways to gather a user's emotional feedback. Of course, there is no optimal solution, and the choice mostly depends of your protocol requirements and expectations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using emotional terms, for instance, might be limited, as there is a bias of common understanding by every users, and a bias of granularity due to the terms categorization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you look for a quite comprehensive list of emotional terms, I would invite you to check &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-sciences.org/system/files/webpage/FiveLangAffectTerms_0.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this &lt;em&gt;list of related terms&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; of the Geneva Emotion Research Group. Other relevant research material is also available from their website.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3656" LastActivityDate="2014-06-25T09:57:47.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7684" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-25T12:56:36.073" Score="6" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that we typically view the center of the image first and then are likely to move on a horizontal axis, but is there evidence that we tend to follow a clockwise path when viewing more complex visual stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, for individuals who speak languages that are read and written from right to left (Urdu, Hebrew, etc.), is there evidence that they tend toward a counterclockwise visual path?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4847" LastActivityDate="2014-06-26T04:59:27.077" Title="Do we have a predisposition to view visual stimuli in a clockwise pattern?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7685" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7684" CreationDate="2014-06-25T15:02:21.113" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022191224006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Abed, 1991&lt;/a&gt; found cultural differences in visual scanning patterns that seem to reflect differences in the languages of the cultural groups. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Individuals from cultures with languages than may be read vertically as opposed to horizontally tended to have more vertical eye movements than individuals from cultures with horizontally-read languages.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Individuals from cultures with languages that are read right-to-left tended to show more right-to-left eye movements than individuals from cultures with languages that are read left-to-right.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abed, F. (1991). Cultural influences on visual scanning patterns. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;22&lt;/em&gt;(4), 525-534. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022191224006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Link to article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-06-25T15:02:21.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7687" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-25T19:24:13.840" Score="1" ViewCount="381" Body="&lt;p&gt;*This question is based on my observations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q:&lt;/strong&gt; What is the reason people trust their peers implicitly in extreme (or not) situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am walking with a friend, and I am telling him something. Now we need&#xA;  to cross a road to the other side (not at the crosswalk; we both&#xA;  know that, so this fact is not communicated – we just proceed to the&#xA;  other side) while I am still telling him something. Unconsciously&#xA;  I understand that we are crossing a road at this point, and I am aware&#xA;  of the possible dangers even at that same point when I am thinking&#xA;  about it, but still I do not look to the right or left and continue&#xA;  following my friend, putting my well-being on his shoulders for that&#xA;  moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This may not be the worst case scenario and maybe not so extreme, but it is imaginable, and such a pattern is common in many different situations when one person relies on others' awareness of the dangers the current situation possesses without analysing and watching out for such dangers himself, thus dismissing the self-preservation instinct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4159" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-11T08:50:45.547" LastActivityDate="2017-08-19T17:03:26.487" Title="Why do we rely on others in dangerous situations?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7688" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4175" CreationDate="2014-06-25T19:45:00.647" Score="6" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;What is the effect of completing &quot;brain training&quot;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Is there any evidence for domain general benefits to cognitive functioning that extend beyond the specific task practiced?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain training at the very least improves skill levels in the domain being trained. That is now well established.  The big challenge is of course to create forms of training whose effects generalize beyond the domain trained.  Things have not been so promising to date in this regard.  According to one recent study by Adrian Owen (Owen, A., et al., 2010, &quot;Putting brain training to the test&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Nature 465&lt;/em&gt;: 775–779) training effects barely generalize to even near similar domains. The weight of evidence is that as of yet no popular brain training methods can significantly increase mental ability in any domain.  The only exciting exceptions are the well established effects of the dual &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;-back task on fluid intelligence (a subtype of intelligence measured using the Raven's matrices test), and the newly emerging relational frame training approach which seems to lead to large increases in full scale IQ, despite the fact that the training does not resemble IQ test content.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Is there any evidence that brain training prevents any neurological diseases?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain training critics are only too familiar with the ACTIVE studies that have all but dismissed the effects of brain training methods on cognitive decline in the elderly (e.g., Ball, K; Berch DB; Helmers KF; et al., 2002. &quot;Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults: A randomized controlled trial&quot;. &lt;em&gt;JAMA 288&lt;/em&gt;(18): 2271–81. doi:10.1001/jama.288.18.2271. PMC 2916176. PMID 12425704).  The public confusion around this issue stems from the fact that is it is not very well established that keeping our brains and minds active does protect against cognitive decline.  The problem is that it is not yet known if brain training alone is sufficient to prevent decline in cognitive abilities as we age.  So researchers are not incorrect that brain stimulation may well stem cognitive decline, but it does not follow from this that brain training can produce the same effects as perhaps decades of mental and physical stimulation across a wide variety of contexts. The theory certainly suggest that brain training should be able to have these positive effects, but it is too early to say for sure yet if we have developed techniques that can &#xA;reliably do this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Is there anything particularly &quot;neural&quot; or &quot;brain&quot;-like about brain training?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everything we do &quot;trains&quot; our brains.  We know this from decades of research on neuroplasticity or &quot;neurogenesis&quot;.  The problem, however, is that not all forms of mental stimulation lead to neural changes that allow us to perform new skills more easily.  If we practice the piano, we get better at the piano, and in so doing our brain changes measurably.  But the promise of brain training is that practicing a skill such as piano playing might make us better at math for example.    This kind of generalization of skills across domains is not so easy to prove, even though it is now well established that neurogenesis does occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general public is easily fooled that any training that changes our brain and builds grey matter must be good, but fails to understand that this is often of little consequence.  More recent behavioral approaches, in the field of Relational Frame Theory are starting to show that generalization can be achieved across skill domains.  Using a technique called relational training, researchers are starting to see changes in verbal ability, from training in forms of logical reasoning for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6245" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-25T20:25:33.490" LastActivityDate="2014-06-25T20:25:33.490" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7689" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5765" CreationDate="2014-06-26T00:35:52.630" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.0010078&quot;&gt;Wen &amp;amp; Chklovskii (2005)&lt;/a&gt; looked at exactly this question through a simulation study. They assumed that the segregation of white and gray matter was the the result of evolutionary pressure to maximize some aspect of connectivity. They tested the idea that simultaneously maximizing interconnectivity (neurons should be able to connect to all other neurons without too many intermediate steps) and minimizing conduction delay (time required for a signal to travel from one neuron to another) would result in the segregation of gray and white matter. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Through computational simulation, they were able to determine that these simultaneous pressure were sufficient to drive the white/gray matter divide. Part of what they were able to show is that, under some simple geometric assumptions, a mixed (homogeneous) design that had white matter interspersed with gray matter led to much higher conduction delays than a segregated design. The basic reason is that when white matter is mixed in with the gray matter, the short-range connections between nearby neurons in gray matter are longer to account for the interference of the white matter tracts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wen, Q., and Chklovskii, D.B. (2005). Segregation of the brain into gray and white matter: A design minimizing conduction delays. &lt;em&gt;PLoS Comput Biol&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;1&lt;/em&gt;(7): e78. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.0010078&quot;&gt;doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.0010078&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-06-26T00:35:52.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7691" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7638" CreationDate="2014-06-26T00:55:49.140" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not entirely sure what you mean by &quot;renounce,&quot; but you may find some answers to your question in the fields of &lt;strong&gt;social psychology&lt;/strong&gt; and b&lt;strong&gt;ehavioral economics&lt;/strong&gt;. The first part of your question describes someone who is &lt;strong&gt;unwilling to commit or make a decision&lt;/strong&gt; for fear of losing out on future opportunities. There has been research to indicate that having more options when making a decision is actually stressful and can provoke anxiety (Ackerman, Gross, &amp;amp; Celly, 2014). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One recent study found that individuals who were presented with all options at once were more satisfied than those who were shown options one at at time (Mogilner, Shiv, &amp;amp; Iyengar, 2013). The individuals who were given options one at a time tended to imagine a better, ideal option was yet to come; the authors noted that these participants were less happy with their choices in part because of that hope. The introduction to this paper references several other papers which found that individuals who were focused on possible options were less satisfied with the choices they may and were less likely to stick with those choices because of the hope for &quot;something better.&quot; The paper specifically cites several articles which indicate that a person's commitment to their romantic partner is not necessarily influenced by the partner's characteristics, but by the person's focus on other options (Gange´ and Lydon 2001; Johnson and Rusbult 1989; Lydon et al. 1999; Rusbult, Martz, and Agnew 1998). Similarly, Miller (1997) found that awareness of and attention to alternative partners was the highest predictor of failure in romantic relationships. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How people approach decisions also impacts how they address the options presented.&lt;/strong&gt; In choice deferral, a person puts off a decision that requires difficult compromises (such as committing to one partner and thus losing the freedom to continue dating) in order to avoid the negative emotions linked to that decision (Luce, 1998). Some people may be more prone to this behavior than others. &lt;strong&gt;Schwartz&lt;/strong&gt; and colleagues (2002) have proposed that people fall into &lt;strong&gt;two groups&lt;/strong&gt;: those who seek to maximize their decision by finding the very best option out of choices presented (&lt;strong&gt;maximizers&lt;/strong&gt;), and those who have an idea in mind of what would be an &quot;acceptable&quot; option and settle for the first choice that surpasses their expectations (&lt;strong&gt;satisficers&lt;/strong&gt;). Maximizers are always on the look out for &quot;the best,&quot; are less satisfied with their choices, more likely to &quot;socially compare&quot; their options to others, and more likely to experience regret (Ma &amp;amp; Roese, 2014). Another recent publication proposed that when individuals experience &quot;choice closure,&quot; and stop re-evaluating the non-selected alternative options, satisfaction with choice can increase (Gu, Botti, &amp;amp; Farro, 2013). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, I am not certain I understood all of your question, but I hope that this provides you with a starting point to find the answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ackerman, D., Gross, B. L., &amp;amp; Celly, K. S. (2014). Having many choice options seems like a great idea, but...: Student perceptions about the level of choice for a project topic in a marketing course. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Marketing Education.&lt;/em&gt; April, e-pub ahead of print. Doi: 10.1177/0273475314522038 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gagne, F. M., &amp;amp; Lydon, J. E. (2001). Mindset and relationship illusions: The moderating effects of domain specificity and relationship commitment. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27&lt;/em&gt;(9), 1144-1155. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gu, Y., Botti, S., &amp;amp; Faro, D. (2013). Turning the page: The impact of choice closure on satisfaction. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consumer Research, 40&lt;/em&gt;(2), 268-283. DOI: 10.1086/670252&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Johnson, D. J., &amp;amp; Rusbult, C. E. (1989). Resisting temptation: Devaluation of alternative partners as a means of maintaining commitment in close relationships. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57&lt;/em&gt;(6), 967-980.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luce, M. F. (1998). Choosing to avoid: Coping with negatively emotion-laden consumer decisions. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consumer Research, 24&lt;/em&gt;, 409-433. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ma, J., &amp;amp; Roese, N. T. (2014). The maximizing mind-set. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consumer Research, 41&lt;/em&gt;(1), 71-92. DOI: 10.1086/674977&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, R. S. (1997). Inattentive and contented: Relationship commitment and attention to alternatives. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37&lt;/em&gt;(4), 758-766. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mogilner, C., Shiv, B., &amp;amp; Iyengar, S. S. (2013). Eternal quest for the best: Sequential (vs. simultaneous) option presentation undermines choice commitment. &lt;em&gt;Journal Of Consumer Research, 39&lt;/em&gt;(6), 1300-1312. doi:10.1086/668534&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rusbult, C. E., Martz, J. M., &amp;amp; Agnew, C. R. (1998). The Investment Model Scale: Measuring commitment level, satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size. &lt;em&gt;Personal Relationships, 5&lt;/em&gt;(4), 357-391.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwartz, B., Ward, A., Monterosso, J., Lyubomirsky, S., White, K., &amp;amp; Lehman, D. R. (2002). Maximizing versus satisficing: Happiness is a matter of choice. &lt;em&gt;Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 83&lt;/em&gt;(5), 1178-1197. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.5.1178&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2016-02-03T22:10:11.380" LastActivityDate="2016-02-03T22:10:11.380" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7693" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7698" CreationDate="2014-06-26T03:43:42.500" Score="4" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Anchoring&lt;/a&gt; is the behavioral pattern where the first piece of information we receive about a situation is what all other data points are compared to. For example, the price of the first menu item we see at dinner, the degree of physical pain experienced when exercising, or perceived positivity or negativity in an interaction with a person -- whatever our first experience of these contexts might be, we're likely to view all information received afterward as being either worse or better than those initial impressions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I’ve read about anchoring, its been discussed as a cognitive bias, and it appears to be viewed as a huge blind spot in human reasoning. But if this is such a strong tendency, it must serve us in some contexts (or have served us at one point in time).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, does anchoring ever improves our judgement, instead of deprecating it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3751" LastEditorUserId="3751" LastEditDate="2014-06-26T20:19:40.957" LastActivityDate="2014-06-26T20:19:40.957" Title="When does anchoring improve our judgement?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7694" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-26T04:05:11.697" Score="3" ViewCount="223" Body="&lt;p&gt;We term pre-test as the data collection/measures before conducting an experiment and post-test is data collection/measures after the experiment. How do we term the process of data collection/measures during the experiment (such as physiological measures)? I am looking for a specific &quot;term&quot; to describe the &quot;during-test&quot; event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5082" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-06-26T07:29:24.207" LastActivityDate="2014-07-11T06:19:23.680" Title="What to call measures obtained between pre-test and post-test?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7695" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7684" CreationDate="2014-06-26T04:59:27.077" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a large body of work researching eye movements and what drives viewing patterns. I'll put in some citations later, but it depends on what you're looking at. Things like viewing perspective can modulate how many vertical/horizontal saccades (eye movements) you make. It can depend on the context of the picture, say a face. Here you'll scan the eyes and then up and down towards the mouth if you're American, whereas research shows some Asian cultures focus more heavily on the mouth. A lot of research goes into scanning of emotional scenes. One in particular showing that in the first few hundred milliseconds we do broad scanning of the image, but then focus on the salient elements, or the 'good parts'. And that patterns of cycling through those interesting features will loop over and over. Basically you want to get your bearings and then pay attention to what may be informative or relevant to you. Now there is some research showing cultural differences due to reading, although there is also evidence against that. A thing such as clockwise viewing seems unlikely. In certain situations though there my be a bias to viewing the top or bottom half of an image more, but this may be attributed to inter-individual differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4803" LastActivityDate="2014-06-26T04:59:27.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7696" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7694" CreationDate="2014-06-26T16:52:56.697" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe the prefix you're looking for is &lt;em&gt;per&lt;/em&gt;.  In latin, &lt;em&gt;pre&lt;/em&gt; means &quot;in front of&quot;, &lt;em&gt;per&lt;/em&gt; means &quot;through&quot; and &lt;em&gt;post&lt;/em&gt; means behind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2014-06-26T16:52:56.697" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7698" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7693" CreationDate="2014-06-26T19:17:43.570" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The underlying cognitive process that produces the &quot;anchoring bias&quot; in decision-making is the same one that produces the &quot;primacy and recency effect&quot; in learning and memory. Your attention is drawn to novel, salient and recent stimuli, and are more likely to learn about and remember more about the first example of something and the last (most recent) example of something. This means that you are able to learn and adapt faster than you would be able to under an unbiased learning method; in some situations, you can effectively generalize from only one example (you only have to touch a hot stove once). For real-world situations, this speed of learning gives you an enormous advantage. For an additional set of real- and abstract- cases, you will have the opportunity to revise and improve your anchored estimate with small or zero penalty. In all of these cases, having a fast-learning, pattern-seeking heuristic-based cognitive system beats a slow-learning but unbiased cognitive system (which you still have, running on top of the faster system).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is less powerful in cases where you are doing abstract numeric reasoning (for which there is no plausible estimate) or are negotiating competitively with another person who is faster/better/more informed/able to deceive you through anchoring or other techniques. In these cases, the drawbacks of the system predominate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6254" LastActivityDate="2014-06-26T19:17:43.570" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7701" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-27T17:00:59.380" Score="2" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people say that smart people sleep less, other say that smart people sleep more. I also heard that Napoleon used to sleep 4h/day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is sleep-time related to any other characteristics like intelligence, strength, etc. ?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3205" LastActivityDate="2014-06-27T21:37:16.943" Title="Is sleep time related to any other characteristic?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7703" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6311" CreationDate="2014-06-27T21:06:36.100" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is typical of a group of people that have what is properly known as savant syndrome. It is not limited to autistic people, although it is most prevalent among them. People that display these abilities are usually elevated on the autism scale, and have had some sort of traumatic brain injury or neurodevelopmental disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, the methods by which they appear and function are not understood, although several theories (usually regarding the lower functions of the brain, inaccessible to normal conscious control) have tried to explain it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term &quot;idiot savant&quot; was originally used starting in the late 1800s, but isn't used now because not all savants fit the definition of idiot (severe mental retardation). While most savants are limited in scope of ability (i.e. one or two abilities), there have been some with multiple. The character in &lt;em&gt;Rain Man&lt;/em&gt; is based on one, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Peek&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kim Peek&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as mnemonics go, there have been many methods developed for being able to do things quickly (such as reading or memorizing items), but none have been able to approach the speed and completeness of a savant's ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3791" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-27T21:43:28.663" LastActivityDate="2014-06-27T21:43:28.663" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7704" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7701" CreationDate="2014-06-27T21:37:16.943" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both sleep time, onset and duration have been correlated in various studies, some hard and some soft with intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://personal.lse.ac.uk/KANAZAWA/pdfs/PAID2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This study&lt;/a&gt; suggests that the more intelligent people tend to be night owls, and stay up later in the day. This is somewhat related to intelligent people tending to seek out things that are not the &quot;norm&quot; for stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related to that, is a theory that smart people need less sleep, as their brains are more efficient while they are asleep. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20604614&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This study&lt;/a&gt; bears that out, as a group of 60 children from 7 to 11 years old exhibited higher cognitive function when getting less sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both of these tend to bear out the perception that smart people sleep less. Napoleon is estimated to have an IQ of 145, using various estimations of accomplishments versus age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversely, physical activity is known for needing higher amounts of sleep, and lack of sleep can impact both physical and mental recovery. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3119836/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This study&lt;/a&gt; with basketball players showed both mental and physical improvements with extended (10 hour) sleep periods. However, I could not find anything suggesting that stronger people slept more or less as a condition of being strong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3791" LastActivityDate="2014-06-27T21:37:16.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7705" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7706" CreationDate="2014-06-28T22:16:24.577" Score="1" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was amazed by finding out the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dark triad&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;But I have a doubt. I know some &quot;narcissists&quot; and I would not say that they cannot see other people emotions. I would say that they think they have the right to disrespect them or they cannot realize when they are disrespectful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I imagine the following beliefs from a narcyssist:&#xA;People have to make effort&#xA;Who doesn't make effort doesn't deserve pity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bullism is very bad&#xA;Who is a bullist doen't deserve to live&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course seeing emotions and respecting them is really different.. Narcyssism is ONLY about not perceiving other emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2014-06-29T05:44:01.993" Title="What do we mean by saying: Narcissist are not empathetic?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7706" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7705" CreationDate="2014-06-29T05:44:01.993" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The people you know may have narcissictic personality traits, but that doesn't mean that they meet all the criteria. Criteria lists can be very confusing. Most of the time, people who are diagnosed with mental illnesses &lt;em&gt;don't&lt;/em&gt; meet all the clinical criteria, even if their pathology is quite severe. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think the statements you give are necessarily narcissitic. A statement that describes the style of lack of empathy of a narcissicist might be something like, &quot;I don't care if you want to eat pasta, because I want to eat sushi and what I want is more important.&quot; This is how psychology usually describes lack of empathy: a pathological inability to recognize that other people's feelings are equally as valid as one's own. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At any rate, lack of empathy is only one of several features of narcissicistic personality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6237" LastActivityDate="2014-06-29T05:44:01.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7708" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-29T11:58:51.947" Score="3" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;I really liked the movies &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0870111/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Frost/Nixon&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Thank You for Smoking&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;The Social Network&lt;/em&gt; and then I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://doonesbury.washingtonpost.com/strip/archive/2014/4/23&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this Doonesbury comic strip&lt;/a&gt;. I want to know how to train oneself in this art of obfuscation. I am not saying I want to be (or can be) someone like Nixon, but I am trying to look at it from the perspective of a ethical hacker. How can one learn this kind of political maneuvering, if I can call it that?&#xA;Can anyone suggest any books/movies for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: It seems that I am being seen as a wannabe bad guy. It's not just about being Nixon. The movies &lt;em&gt;Thank You for Smoking&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;The Social Network&lt;/em&gt; have depicted similar behaviour, and I liked these movies because they kept a non-judgmental undertone (my opinion). &#xA;My intention was to read/watch something intellectually stimulating. The cancer is not to be hated/feared, but studied and understood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6267" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-06-30T19:05:13.330" LastActivityDate="2014-06-30T19:05:13.330" Title="How to train oneself in the art of obfuscation" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T21:37:47.237" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7709" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="772" CreationDate="2014-06-29T16:29:25.340" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't recommend anyone purposefully attempting to induce low latent inhibition as if they haven't lived with it their entire lives, it will be extremely overwhelming for their brain as it basically wont at all be used to handling the sheer volume of stimuli. That is often why those who smoke marijuana can experience paranoia, they have lowered their latent inhibition by taking marijuana due to the dopamine and THC, and their brain then starts to pick up on forms of stimuli it doesn't usually - for example the person may notice sounds that they haven't previously noticed and will usually assume those sounds are to do with them as an individual (hence bringing about paranoia). Someone who's lived with LLI in the same circumstance as the one mentioned above would however have been noticing those sounds their entire life and would be able to objectively categorize them rather than experiencing the sort of &quot;What are these sounds to do with me and why are they now here&quot; effect. The sounds have always been there, they just haven't noticed them without having low latent inhibition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is what life is like for those with low latent inhibition - they notice things all around them that the majority of others simply do not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6268" LastActivityDate="2014-06-29T16:29:25.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7710" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-29T19:22:08.477" Score="7" ViewCount="443" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are lots of popular articles out there giving listings of steps one can do to concentrate and focus better. But they seldom or never give links to studies that prove any of the steps work, at least to back up their lists.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to know if science proved that any of the possible exercises, diets, behavior changes, etc. can do something positive for the concentration and focus? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have much access to certain studies, and I'm not even competent enough to read those science papers. So I need someone, who already read about this (so he/she knows where to look and isn't bothered much) to explain to me in plain english (not to plain) what can I do on my own to increase concentration and focus. What is proven to work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NOTE: Tag appropriately if needed. Thank you :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastActivityDate="2014-06-30T22:29:16.330" Title="Are there any proven ways to increase concentration and focus?" Tags="&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7711" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-30T08:43:58.713" Score="2" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been thinking about positive reinforcement occasionally, and I've always found myself wondering about various things that can influence it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I'm looking for information (results of empirical studies) about the variables affecting positive reinforcement, in hopes of finding answers to my questions and questions that I haven't even thought of, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does knowing what the positive stimulus is for affect the change? What happens if I did two things, and I don't know which one of them led to the positive stimulus? e.g. I solved a math problem and won some game, and then I received a prize, and I don't know for which one of these things&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens If (as far as I'm concerned) I did nothing, and then I receive a prize?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If I receive a prize for something I did an hour earlier, for example, will it still change my behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does receiving a prize while I do a task has a stronger effect? weaker?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any other interesting questions (as well as answers to them) are welcome &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(And since someone is probably going to make a few changes and add tags - thank you and forgive me. English is not my native language, and I don't have much of a background in psychology)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5006" LastEditorUserId="5006" LastEditDate="2014-06-30T17:58:25.093" LastActivityDate="2014-06-30T21:23:17.270" Title="Variables in positive reinforcement in human beings" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7712" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7711" CreationDate="2014-06-30T11:31:57.203" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is, in essence, a request for a mathematical model of &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholarpedia.org/article/Temporal_difference_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Temporal Difference Reinforcement Learning&lt;/a&gt;.  In a nutshell, temporal difference models add a notion of time to reinforcement learning models, which describe reinforcement learning as a comparison between what was expected and what actually occurred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think most of your answers can be found in the article above.  =)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt; re: my insistence on mathematical models providing the answer to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just to be clear, mathematical models don't exist in a vaccuum.  &lt;em&gt;Good&lt;/em&gt; models are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;built from constraints imposed by experimental observation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;tractable; that is, they reflect the (presumed) underlying implementation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Case and point, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Rescorla-Wagner_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rescorla-Wagner model&lt;/a&gt;'s&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;code&gt;delta&lt;/code&gt; (prediction error) parameter has been &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/80/1/1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;correlated to the phasic activity of dopaminergic neurons&lt;/a&gt;.  This is precisely why the model is so hugely successful; it describes not only the experimental data, but the apparent neurological underpinnings, at least superficially.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this is a very important kind of validity for neurological models, so much so, in fact, that there is an entire class of neuroimaging papers dedicated to finding functional activations that correspond to various parameters in such high-quality models.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627303001697&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Exhibit B.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think your confusion arises from a lack of familiarity with the modelling approach to cognitive neuroscience (and that's okay! It's not obvious!), as well as a non-trivial distinction between the questions &quot;what happens&quot;, &quot;how does it happen&quot; and &quot;where does it happen&quot;.  You specifically asked &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; happens, which is the realm of formal mathematics.  &lt;em&gt;What happens&lt;/em&gt;, as best we can tell, is that learning is driven by updating a prediction about what will happen concomitantly with (or shortly after) a stimulus, with what &lt;em&gt;actually happens when that stimulus is sensed&lt;/em&gt;.  The models describe the exact nature of this interaction.  If you want to be more specific than this, you need to dive into the math.  If you want to know where or how these computations are performed, then that's another question entirely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1.&lt;/strong&gt;  this model doesn't integrate any notion of time, contrary to the above TDRL model&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="2926" LastEditDate="2014-06-30T21:23:17.270" LastActivityDate="2014-06-30T21:23:17.270" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7713" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-06-30T16:48:47.410" Score="4" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anyone know studies or theories that explain how massive competition events between countries or parties, like the Soccer World Cup Tournament finals or Olympic Games affect our brains?&#xA;Why do people suffer so much over these events?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to understand the fact that people get so excited or so depressed about that events that have no real impact in their lives. Seeing people cry because their teams lose is incredible, and I think that these reactions are unconscious and must have an explanation involving how these events affect out brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6272" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-06T10:01:46.193" LastActivityDate="2014-07-06T10:01:46.193" Title="How does an understanding of the brain explain why people experience strong emotional responses to major sporting events?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7716" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7710" CreationDate="2014-06-30T22:29:16.330" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/721609.Spark&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spark: The Revolutionary New Science of Exercise and the Brain&lt;/a&gt; details a number of studies that link exercise to concentration and students' results. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://sparkinglife.org/page/the-new-p-e&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;accompanying website&lt;/a&gt; is a good primer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3520" LastActivityDate="2014-06-30T22:29:16.330" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7717" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7713" CreationDate="2014-07-01T03:29:20.767" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is only a partial answer (since the question scope is so large) but it is one of my favorite empirical findings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It turns out that simply &lt;em&gt;watching&lt;/em&gt; your favorite team win or lose has physiological impacts. Specifically, if a team you are rooting for wins, your testosterone levels will increase, and they will decrease if your team loses. This was demonstrated by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938498001474&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bernhardt, Dabbs Jr., Fielden, &amp;amp; Lutter (1998)&lt;/a&gt;. In two experiments, they measured testosterone levels in male sports fans before and after watching their team win or lose. In both experiments, people who were rooting for the winning team showed an increase in testosterone relative to their testosterone level before the match, while people who were rooting for the losing team showed a corresponding decrease in testosterone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This doesn't explain &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; we get so invested in sports, but it might help us understand some of the extreme reactions that sports fans have after a particularly exciting match. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-07-01T03:29:20.767" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7719" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6311" CreationDate="2014-07-01T10:36:24.590" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The act of perceiving quantity without actually counting is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subitizing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;subitizing&lt;/a&gt;, and it's something we can all do up to quantities of about 4 (i.e. you can tell how many fingers someone is holding up without counting them, right?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/352/1/012046/pdf/1742-6596_352_1_012046.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; open access article seems to review the idea quite nicely (although I've only skimmed it), including reference to so called &quot;savants&quot;. There's also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.centreforthemind.com/publications/SavantNumerosity.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, claiming that transcranial magnetic stimulation can temporarily induce subitizing abilities for larger numbers in participants, though personally I'm dubious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, to the best of my knowledge, the original, and definitive account of this ability (on which the scene in Rain Man was apparently based; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Peek&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kim Peek&lt;/a&gt;, the inspiration for most of the film, apparently didn't couldn't, or didn't subitize like this) was by Oliver Sachs, in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_Who_Mistook_His_Wife_for_a_Hat&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this wonderful book&lt;/a&gt;, but basically summarized in &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/fire-in-the-mind/2013/02/25/oliver-sacks-and-the-amazing-twins/#.U7KN-bGce-k&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;. If you really are interested, I can't recommend the book strongly enough, it's the reason I did psychology in the first place. It should probably be noted that I've heard criticisms of Sachs' account of the Twins somewhere, but I can't currently find a reference for them, so I don't think it's universally accepted that anyone &lt;strong&gt;can&lt;/strong&gt; actually do this in reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-07-01T10:36:24.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7720" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-01T23:49:05.047" Score="1" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am an undergrad, I am planning to do some research to see how much I enjoy it before I apply for grad programs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am researching the effects of a certain characteristic of a presenter making people upset, uncomfortable, aggravated or displeased during a short clip like a TV commercial. My plan is to have subjects watch a short clip with a presenter and see if they are they aggravated, upset, uncomfortable with the presenter based on that one characteristic changing and compare this across demographics. I do not have much experience with setting up and performing experiments so any help would be much appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I quantify how upset, uncomfortable, aggravated or displeased the subject felt?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I make sure that every subjects experience is the same expect for that one factor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do I have to do anything special because I will not be able to run the same test on the same exact subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I really want to know how to best perform this experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6276" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-07-02T11:53:34.090" LastActivityDate="2014-07-02T11:53:34.090" Title="Best way to capture effect of making people upset?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7720" CreationDate="2014-07-02T03:59:39.823" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Without knowing exactly what the factor you are interested in is, it is hard to predict how feasible it would be to manipulate it. For example, is it possible to make two videos of the speaker, one with the factor, and one without, with nothing else changing? My guess is that you probably can't do this, so I'm going to focus on how you might be able to run the experiment without that kind of very specific control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One option would be to make several videos, half of them with the critical factor, and half without. There will be lots of other things that vary between these videos, but as long as the only thing that varies systematically is the factor you are interested in, then you can run an informative experiment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You asked: How do I make sure that every subjects experience is the same expect for that one factor? The answer is that you can't really do this. You can try to get close, but subjects will always have slightly different experiences. This is why we need to run many subjects to determine if an effect is reliable. Any given subject may just be tired/hungry/cranky when they come to the experiment and this will affect your results. But, if you run lots of subjects then it is likely that tired/hungry/cranky subjects will be in both conditions, and therefore on average won't impact your conclusions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on how long the videos are, you could potentially show multiple videos to a single subject, and measure their emotional responses to each one. This is a within-subject design, and the advantage of this is that it controls for some of the random variation (tired/hungry/crankiness) between different subjects in your experiment. If subject A tends to be crankier than subject B, it will introduce noise into your results if each subject only sees one kind of video. But if subjects see both kinds of videos, you can test whether videos with the factor tended to make subjects more aggravated, controlling for their 'baseline' level of aggravation. If the videos are longer, then you could just show one kind of video to each subject (a between-subjects design) but this will probably require collecting data from more subjects to wash out the noise of some subjects being more prone to aggravation than others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-07-02T03:59:39.823" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7722" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-02T07:47:46.683" Score="5" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there contemporary research in trait psychology, which attempts to operationalize the structures behind a strategic thinking style? I'm thinking of a style of problem solving as taught in officer training, and to a lesser extent, manifesting in strategically-oriented games like chess. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize that this sounds perhaps a little vague. However, in common usage it's not unusual to refer to a person's being a &quot;strategic thinker&quot; or a &quot;problem solver&quot;. I wanted to know whether these traits have been studied or deconstructed in a more formal capacity, so as to define them in a manner consistent with trait psychology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there scientific definitions of strategic thinking with empirical support?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6237" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-04-18T17:26:38.547" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T08:49:55.930" Title="Research operationalizing so-called strategic thinking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;military-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7723" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-01T20:44:36.063" Score="0" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am an undergrad, I am planning to do some research to see how much I enjoy it before I apply for graduate programs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am researching the effects of a certain characteristic of a presenter making people upset, uncomfortable, aggravated or displeased during a short clip like a TV commercial.  My plan is to have subjects watch a short clip with a presenter and see if they are they aggravated, upset, uncomfortable with the presenter based on that one characteristic changing and compare this across demographics.  I do not have much experience with setting up and performing experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I quantify how upset, uncomfortable, aggravated, or displeased the subject felt?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I make sure that every subjects experience is the same except for that one factor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do I have to do anything special because I will not be able to run the same test on the same exact subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6276" OwnerDisplayName="user18101" LastActivityDate="2014-07-02T10:32:12.037" Title="Best way to capture effect of making people upset?" Tags="&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2014-07-02T11:50:28.063" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7724" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7720" CreationDate="2014-07-01T20:58:48.367" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Polygraph-style measurements might be useful to get some hard data - emotional excitement and stress have biological effects, and measuring+recording heart rate and blood pressure can be done rather simply.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For qualitative analysis, it would be useful to capture as much as you can of the experiment - e.g. a video recording of the face to analyse expression changes, as well as a whole body video recording. You also need to have a solid way to sync the recording with the shown stimulus, so you can match the event times afterwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4467" OwnerDisplayName="Peteris" LastActivityDate="2014-07-01T20:58:48.367" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7725" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7720" CreationDate="2014-07-02T02:15:53.657" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see you want to measure reactions based on viewing a clip by demographics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How do I quantify how upset, uncomfortable, aggravated or displeased&#xA;  the subject felt?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You quantify it by gathering hard data: heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation (if you can get it in the video), and whatever other similar experiments have measured. You have a standard questionnaire.  But you should also attempt to get some qualitative data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How do I make sure that every subjects experience is the same except&#xA;  for that one factor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You do the best you can, document any possible failure points, and have a system to randomize who gets what.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do I have to do anything special because I will not be able to run the&#xA;  same test on the same exact subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You should review the literature on these types of experiments and try to follow the safeguards other experimenters used. I recall a leading theoretician complained that no-one follows the safeguards established by the person who established different ways rats had of sensing where the food was. You've got to take great pains to ensure you follow the best practices of doing this research, or you'll undermine your credibility as a researcher and the credibility of your results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6280" OwnerDisplayName="Aaron Hall" LastActivityDate="2014-07-02T02:15:53.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7726" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7720" CreationDate="2014-07-02T02:27:19.230" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another experimental approach is to have the subjects perform some task &lt;em&gt;before and after viewing the video&lt;/em&gt;, where their individual task performance varies according to the subject's emotional state: comfort vs discomfort, relaxation vs agitation, calm vs upset.  Ideally, the task is simple and not something that involves thought or skill.  In this setup, your goal is to have subjects reveal their emotional state through their performance in this task, and not through any direct revelation or awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other advantage of this approach is that you aren't signaling to the subjects that you are testing for their emotional state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of such a task is interpreting the emotional state of another person's facial expression.  For example, the task might be to evaluate a series of photos with ambiguous facial expressions and put them into two categories:  &quot;Trusted&quot; vs. &quot;Not trusted&quot;.  (You can put this in a simple setting: &quot;Imagine that you are in the library.  You need to step outside to take a call. Would you trust this person to watch your valuables (computers, books) for a few minutes?&quot;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though I don't have a reference for you, I believe I read some research on this that found that subjects were more likely to interpret ambiguous facial expressions positively if the subject was in a positive emotional state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are even simpler tasks that might be good candidates. You could probably find a list of candidates by reading the experimental research literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, all you care about in this experiment is the &lt;em&gt;difference&lt;/em&gt; between each individual's performance when they are upset vs. at ease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can test the validity of this experimental method independently.  Recruit some subjects for a randomized control trial.  Instead of showing them the video, you will directly irritate them (stimulus group) or not (control group).  Your stimulus could be 15 second audio recording of fingernails scraping over a blackboard.  For the control, you could use 15 second audio recording of a sin wave tone (around 400 hz).  Your performance on pre- and post-tasks should be very different for the stimulus group and show no change in the control group. (For best results, you should randomly assign subjects to groups, and even you should not know who is in what group -- &quot;double blind&quot;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The besides validity testing, this experiment will give you a standard of comparison to evaluate just how irritating or upsetting your videos are, compared to fingernails scraping over a blackboard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;: If you know the TV show &quot;Mythbusters&quot;, they have done experiments involving sleep deprivation and also drinking where the subjects had to perform the same task before and after the stimulus.  As I recall, the &quot;beer goggles&quot; episode involved a task of scoring faces for attractiveness before and after drinking heavily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;: The other answers advise you to measure physiological phenomena through direct sensors. Even if you can get the sensors and data recorders, analyzing the data can be more complicated than it sounds.  It's not so easy to aggregate those data into a reliable overall assessment of emotional state along a single dimension: at ease vs upset.  Inferring emotional state from physiological variables is a whole research field in itself!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="MrMeritology" LastActivityDate="2014-07-02T02:37:40.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7727" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7729" CreationDate="2014-07-02T15:08:55.947" Score="1" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm curious about how the tax system affects the reward center in the brain and how that influences the perception of happiness with one's life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My hypothesis is that subject &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; would make \$3500 a month doing something he/she loves in a city he/she likes, etc. The subject pays a 20% overall tax in order to receive the \$3500, so the actual value before tax would be \$4200. Subject &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt; makes the same amount of money, doing exactly the same in the same city, etc. What I'm interested in is in isolating the tax variable, so in this case Subject &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt; would pay 50% tax (that would make it $7000 before tax).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So both subjects have the same life-style and make the same amount of money, but what I'm guessing is that &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; feels more rewarded than &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt;, and if so, Subject &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt; would feel more entitled to pursue more money (reward) because he feels that the reward is lower than what he should be getting. By pursuing this extra reward then, Subject &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt; would fall into the trap of constantly struggling to feel rewarded (because of the high tax value marked on his payslip and this alone). On the other hand, to prove that Subject &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; was &quot;happier&quot;, we could actually launch a second hypothesis where &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; would make \$3000 and &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt; the same \$3500, and &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; would again feel more rewarded because of the lower tax rate he paid to get his salary (20% on &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; vs. 50% on &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This in turn would open a bunch of other interesting questions, like how to navigate the thin, invisible line that might trigger minor/major complaints on people about the feeling of being happy with their salary/government.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question then is: has this been studied in depth before (I imagine so), and if so, where can I read about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6281" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-03T00:57:13.553" LastActivityDate="2014-07-03T00:57:13.553" Title="How higher/lower taxes can affect reward system and overall satisfaction of someone" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7728" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-02T16:29:04.793" Score="0" ViewCount="1592" Body="&lt;p&gt;The seeming elegance and symmetry of the table of functions prompted me to use a technical side of my brain to ask a &quot;what if&quot; question about the other possible Jungian functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I used combinatorics(math) to calculate all possibilities of arranging letters F,S,T,N as well as adding an alternating i/e &quot;flavor&quot;. There are two options for the flavors (once we know the i/e &quot;flavor&quot; of the first function, the rest are determined because they alternate).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For illustration, I enumerated one quarter of all possibilities (only those starting with an F but you can keep going yourself if you like). The original 16 types are listed below that. As you can see, there are many gaps - only 4 of 12 used here and 16 of 48 used overall. So, exactly 1/3 utilization. The mathematical elegance is a tease, makes me think that this theory is based on something real, but is it? Could it be an elegant accident or an elaborate hoax instead? Why are some combinations not possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;E/I 1   2   3   4   functions   MBTI?&#xA;e   F   N   S   T   FeNiSeTi    ENFJ&#xA;i   F   N   S   T   FiNeSiTe    INFP&#xA;e   F   N   T   S   FeNiTeSi    ?&#xA;i   F   N   T   S   FiNeTiSe    ?&#xA;e   F   S   N   T   FeSiNeTi    ESFJ&#xA;i   F   S   N   T   FiSeNiTe    ISFP&#xA;e   F   S   T   N   FeSiTeNi    ?&#xA;i   F   S   T   N   FiSeTiNe    ?&#xA;e   F   T   N   S   FeTiNeSi    ?&#xA;i   F   T   N   S   FiTeNiSe    ?&#xA;e   F   T   S   N   FeTiSeNi    ?&#xA;i   F   T   S   N   FiTeSiNe    ?&#xA;.................................&#xA;&#xA;MBTI    1   2   3   4&#xA;INTP    Ti  Ne  Si  Fe&#xA;ISTP    Ti  Se  Ni  Fe&#xA;ENTP    Ne  Ti  Fe  Si&#xA;ENFP    Ne  Fi  Te  Si&#xA;ISFP    Fi  Se  Ni  Te&#xA;INFP    Fi  Ne  Si  Te&#xA;INTJ    Ni  Te  Fi  Se&#xA;INFJ    Ni  Fe  Ti  Se&#xA;ESTJ    Te  Si  Ne  Fi&#xA;ENTJ    Te  Ni  Se  Fi&#xA;ESFJ    Fe  Si  Ne  Ti&#xA;ENFJ    Fe  Ni  Se  Ti&#xA;ISTJ    Si  Te  Fi  Ne&#xA;ISFJ    Si  Fe  Ti  Ne&#xA;ESTP    Se  Ti  Fe  Ni&#xA;ESFP    Se  Fi  Te  Ni&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6282" LastActivityDate="2014-07-11T14:53:03.153" Title="Why only 16 Jungian types? Combinatorially it should be 2 * 4! = 48" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-07-11T17:43:18.910" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7727" CreationDate="2014-07-02T16:43:08.243" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is pretty close to being a classic example of a &lt;strong&gt;framing effect&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framing_effect_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;), originally described in the literature by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/2352759&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tversky &amp;amp; Kahneman (1986)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In essence, our subjective valuation of a choice or outcome isn't invariant, as economic theory says it should be, but instead &lt;em&gt;is influenced by contextual effects, such as &lt;strong&gt;riskiness&lt;/strong&gt;, and if the outcome is &lt;strong&gt;seen as a loss or a gain&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know much specifically about framing effects and framing effects and taxation, and haven't time to do any research, but a &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?q=Framing+effect+tax&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Scholar search for the terms&lt;/a&gt; throws up &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167487005000851&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167487003000916&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;, among other articles, which seem to cover what you're talking about (although they may be behind a paywall, I don't know).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking back at your question, your hypothesis seems about right: while both people end up with the same amount of money, person B will perceive a greater loss due to taxation, and so, when both are thinking about their earning from this perspective, should be less satisfied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if decades of research have shown us one thing, it's that high-level cognitive effects like this are extremely context dependent. What happens when both individuals aren't thinking about their income in terms of taxation, but with reference to the minimum, or average, wage in that region? Or what if the comparison happens in a context where public services, like education, are salient? Would person B be happier, because they feel they have contributed more to their community? Where I'm going with this basically that psychology can be &lt;a href=&quot;http://hardsci.wordpress.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;very very hard&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, and that context &lt;strong&gt;always&lt;/strong&gt; matters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="4124" LastEditDate="2014-07-02T16:50:59.063" LastActivityDate="2014-07-02T16:50:59.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7730" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7728" CreationDate="2014-07-02T17:27:50.430" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's because order doesn't matter with the types:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ENTJ == ENJT&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you remove the permutations of order, there are only 16 possibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to think about it is that there are 4 traits, and each trait can take one of two values, so there should be 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 possibilities, which is 16.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-07-02T17:27:50.430" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7733" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7752" CreationDate="2014-07-02T23:38:00.547" Score="3" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;My female colleague cannot remember a discussion (dialogue) from a couple days ago or even yesterday, much less the full, exact sentences spoken. She jokes about having sclerosis. I can remember many dialogues from the last couple of years and even further, including the exact sentences – not all the dialogues from my life, but like 80% of those which were interesting, odd, or very funny, or made at least small impact in my life. Is this kind of long memory normal in people? Does it have a name?&#xA;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6285" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-08T04:09:01.127" LastActivityDate="2014-07-08T04:09:01.127" Title="A type of long-term memory where I can remember full dialogues" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7735" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7733" CreationDate="2014-07-03T10:55:58.233" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The remembering of specific events is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Episodic memory&lt;/a&gt;, and you can find plenty about it online. It's usually contrasted with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Semantic memory&lt;/a&gt;, which is generalized knowledge such as that &quot;Paris is the capital of France&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to leave it to other users, or myself at a later date, to provide additional references/explanation, but those are the terms you're looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-07-03T10:55:58.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7736" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-03T12:39:20.923" Score="9" ViewCount="5238" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for (particularly negative) emotion inducing pictures or videos. After some research, I think the best known and widely used database is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://csea.phhp.ufl.edu/media/iapsmessage.html&quot;&gt;International Affective Picture System (IAPS)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is a problem. You do have to request access, then you get have to send them a letter and then it takes up to 30 days to get the pictures. For me, this is way to long. Therefore, I'm looking for a good alternative to either speed this process up significantly or to find an alternative that is also widely used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6189" LastActivityDate="2018-05-25T23:53:18.533" Title="Is there any good alternative to the International Affective Picture System (IAPS)?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7737" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-03T19:17:12.477" Score="1" ViewCount="2954" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a CS student who has to do an analysis on the NEO-FFI test. I have the results of the questionnaire, however, I couldn't find how to calculate &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;-scores or raw scores. There are lots of academic papers, but no one has the calculations in them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is an example from &lt;a href=&quot;http://romania.testcentral.ro/media/neoffi-m-en-DW6CADC4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;McCrae's paper&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;Like in this example, I have the answers, but can't calculate the scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6289" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-03T19:47:26.173" LastActivityDate="2014-07-06T08:41:28.483" Title="NEO-FFI $t$-score calculation" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7738" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7736" CreationDate="2014-07-03T19:22:29.143" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you have nothing against crawling the figurative arse of the internet, then 4chan's /b/ board might provide what you're seeking.  I managed to scrape together a few hundred images for a quick-and-dirty EIB study using this approach (I don't have the images anymore, else I'd gladly forward them to you).  Just make sure the ethics committee doesn't have a problem with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4chan requires no subscription, so you could even start a so-called &quot;gore thread&quot; yourself and save everything that pops ups.  If you'd like to automate this, you can use my (still unstable) &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/louist87/lurkmoar&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Python API wrapper&lt;/a&gt;.  I simply ask that you report any bugs you encounter, and in return I'll try to iron them out post haste (I have tomorrow off ;) )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using the above library, you could also search all through the text portion of all posts looking for words like &quot;gore&quot; and grab all images from those threads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you don't know Python, I'd be more than happy to assist!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2014-07-03T19:22:29.143" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7739" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7736" CreationDate="2014-07-04T09:34:24.527" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would recommend the 730 pictures Geneva affective picture database (GAPED).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been validated worldwide, and the cultural bias is more limited than other image resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are general positive/neutral/negative images, with valence and activations scores. Some other more specific images are also provided (snakes, spîders).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-sciences.org/system/files/webpage/GAPED_2.zip&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Download the datebase and ratings here&lt;/a&gt; Read the .txt provided.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dan-Glauser, E. S., &amp;amp; Scherer, K. R. (2011). The Geneva affective picture database (GAPED): a new 730-picture database focusing on valence and normative significance. Behavior Research Methods, 43(2), 468-477. doi: 10.3758/s13428-011-0064-1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: The GAPED Pictures can be downloaded from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-sciences.org/en/home/research/materials-and-online-research/research-material&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Swiss Center for Affective Sciences site&lt;/a&gt; (or directly from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-sciences.org/index.php/download_file/view/288/296/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3656" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2016-11-23T16:10:19.347" LastActivityDate="2016-11-23T16:10:19.347" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7740" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7770" CreationDate="2014-07-04T20:14:04.243" Score="10" ViewCount="509" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a consensus on whether computation using Neural Synchrony is reasonable or not? In &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot;, Chris Eliasmisth cites Yuko Munakata and R. C. O'Reilly as saying that &quot;the available evidence does not establish that the observed synchrony of firing&#xA;is actually used for binding,instead of being an epiphenomenon&quot; to dismiss current architectures such as LISA and DORA which use synchrony. Yet, there still seems to be papers published on using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002561#abstract0&quot;&gt;neural synchrony for computation&lt;/a&gt;. Additionally, &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/Articles/molecules.html&quot;&gt;Thagard&lt;/a&gt; still seems convinced of their importance saying that &quot;spiking neurons have psychologically important qualitative properties such as becoming synchronized with each other, and neural synchrony has been proposed as a crucial ingredient in inference, analogy, and consciousness&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are the authors of these new papers naive or is there convincing evidence for the meaningfulness of synchrony that Chris and I are missing here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;O’Reilly, R. C. &amp;amp; Munakata, Y. (2000).Computational Explorations in Cognitive Neuroscience: Understanding the Mind by Simulating the Brain (1 ed.).&#xA;Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-07-05T01:01:03.743" LastActivityDate="2014-07-08T18:04:20.827" Title="Importance of Neural Synchrony to Cognition" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7741" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7736" CreationDate="2014-07-05T00:36:22.323" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;If your time constraint isn't too strict, I would say its well worth it. And sometimes they can get it out faster than 30 days. I actually work in the lab that made the IAPS and especially the mutilation ones are pretty gruesome. Depends on what category of negative ones you need, some databases specialize in only select ones. The IAPS has mutilation, violence, disgust, accident scenes and loss/death scenes. I know I know, total advertisement. =]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4803" LastActivityDate="2014-07-05T00:36:22.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7743" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-05T07:59:54.593" Score="1" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;Popping bubble wrap can be a lot of fun and is said to relieve stress. How does it have these effects? Is it to do with the popping sound, or the physicality? How effective are substitutes such as software programs where users click on virtual bubble wrap?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3197" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-06T08:30:31.257" LastActivityDate="2014-07-09T19:29:45.007" Title="Why is bubble wrap so fun?" Tags="&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;psychoacoustics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2014-12-17T01:24:58.110" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7744" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7737" CreationDate="2014-07-06T08:41:28.483" Score="2" Body="&lt;h3&gt;NEO FFI Scoring&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The test manual describes how to calculate raw scores for the NEO-FFI. If you have been asked to do an analysis of the NEO-FFI then you should be given access to relevant details in the test manual. If you don't have access, you may wish to contact your local psychology department. They will often have a test library with the NEO-FFI manual. Alternatively, you can contact a test distributor, although there are often educational requirements in order to be allowed to purchase such a manual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/klocke/neo_scoring.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This website&lt;/a&gt; seems to provide a web description of how to obtain raw scores for the NEO FFI. For norm referenced scores such as t-scores, presumably you would need access to norm tables supplied in the test manual. One exception would be where you are using your own sample norms as the distribution. In this case of t-scores, you would convert raw scores to z-scores and then multiply by 10 and then add 50. See for example this article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_score&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;standard scores&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General scoring advice&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, when scoring psychological tests, the most common approach is to use a unit weighted sum or mean of items after item reversal. I have a &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeromyanglim.blogspot.com.au/2009/10/calculating-scale-scores-for.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;post that describes this in more detail with reference to SPSS and R&lt;/a&gt;. So, you simply need to know which items belong to which scales and which items need reversing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-07-06T08:41:28.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7746" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7748" CreationDate="2014-07-06T18:37:35.950" Score="1" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some persons pretends that to be curious of other's people life facts is disrespectful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagined that this belief comes from coherence and a projection on others of our worrying about privacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm strongly worried about my privacy =&gt; others could be as well =&gt; curiosity is disrespectful&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this hypothesis correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2014-07-06T23:19:06.410" Title="What indicates an extreme worry about privacy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7748" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7746" CreationDate="2014-07-06T22:21:37.067" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm by no means an expert or qualified, but here's my thoughts.&#xA;I believe there are a few factors at play:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Our Privacy&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first is the perception that the information carries some threat to their lifestyle or reputation, e.g. an adult who views pornography or a cheating spouse, for both of whom this causes that initial concern of the threat of exposure (and we may over-estimate their impact upon exposure as a form of impact bias).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, narcissism: they're worried their actions could be considered damaging to their image and believe that those who invade their privacy (a government / a social network selling aggregate topic stats to marketers, etc.) would take great delight in exposing their behaviour. Of course they wouldn't, but people generally like to think their own lives are of importance to everyone, and so why wouldn't their &quot;important&quot; secrets be of importance to everyone else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Others' Privacy&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First I'll throw in that the person may remember the last time they were burnt by their privacy being invaded by others (such as malicious gossip), which may serve as a negative reinforcement to not infringe on others'. You remember the last time and how much it hurt you and don't wish to knowingly inflict that on someone else, especially for no personal gain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the thought that if we do a good deed that others will reward us for it...or if we deem ourselves to have done something selfless, we derive gratification from it. This is also closely linked to narcissism. I read something ages ago that inferred there is never a truly selfless act, as we often do it to feed our ego.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If legislative changes are made to protect privacy generally (e.g. social networks' usage of private messages are tightly controlled), then we also could benefit from this, so there is also potentially some selfish gain in concern over other people's privacy, and we can project how we are annoyed at a particular company doing something with our data on &quot;behalf of a friend&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, if we believe strongly that our own &quot;privacy&quot; is important (when in reality most people are just referring to morally questionable behaviour they would like to suppress), then we also see others' as just as important as some way to justify that our own belief in the protection of our privacy is founded. A &quot;bias blind spot&quot; and &quot;confirmation bias&quot; appear in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;list of cognitive biases&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6299" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-06T23:19:06.410" LastActivityDate="2014-07-06T23:19:06.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7749" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4572" CreationDate="2014-07-06T23:03:57.663" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;For me it is the inference that the more notifications I have the more value I will have in bothering to click it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That 1 notification on a social networking site might be a request to play some terrible game.. however 24 notifications are likely to yield at least something beneficial for me to justify having bothered clicking it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The higher the number the increased urgency I feel to check them (maybe the same person is repeatedly trying to make contact and I am unintentionally ignoring them!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for there being a notification with no number, that is easier for me to ignore. In the case of the Windows' PC issues (Action Center) in the task-bar, there is always a notification in it for me, so I have learnt to dismiss it.. I have become de-sensitised to seeing that alert. If however the icon increased in number and I detected this change, then I would deem that to be an increase in urgency and would be more likely to click it again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think if I kept clicking Action Center and felt it yielded little value to me then I would be able to filter out if the numbers were to keep increasing, but I would find it more difficult to ignore and feel tricked by it just in-case this new state meant something important this time round..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6299" LastEditorUserId="6299" LastEditDate="2014-07-06T23:10:02.420" LastActivityDate="2014-07-06T23:10:02.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7752" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7733" CreationDate="2014-07-06T23:57:07.347" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;the cognitive skills of a human population have a great variance. I am more like your friend, with episodic memory below average but semantic memory above average. You seem to have episodic memory above average (I envy you on that, because a large part of our feeling of self identity depends on episodic memory). There are extreme cases of people that remember almost everything they experience or read, or hear. A nice book on the topic is Luria's book &quot;the mind of a mnemonist&quot;. It is a short book, and I'm sure you'll find it pretty interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4547" LastActivityDate="2014-07-06T23:57:07.347" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7753" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="506" CreationDate="2014-07-07T01:34:25.140" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a program called Paradigm that allows you to build millisecond-accurate neurocognitive experiments for iOS devices. The experiment builder is like E-Prime&#xA;but easier to use. The app is available in the app store. You upload your&#xA;experiments to a Dropbox and then log in to access them through the app. &#xA;It's pretty flexible. I've used it to build n-back, Visual World, and Match-To-Sample&#xA;tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paradigm &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.paradigmexperiments.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.paradigmexperiments.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6300" LastActivityDate="2014-07-07T01:34:25.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7754" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7789" CreationDate="2014-07-07T07:40:06.863" Score="3" ViewCount="7136" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a statistician and doing some data analysis in cognitive sciences. &#xA;I noticed that the distribution of response time (RT) is chisq-squared-like, and I want to do Box-cox transformation to make it look normal distributed. Because before I did not think much for this transform, my question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does a box-cox transformation  need to be applied to response times? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, what do the results mean? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For t-test, ANOVA and other tests, will the result be valid for the original response time data? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If not, should we transform the data since analysis of these data is based on the normality hypothesis?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6302" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-09T05:01:46.233" LastActivityDate="2014-07-12T14:28:50.883" Title="Should raw response time data be transformed?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7754" CreationDate="2014-07-07T10:49:48.077" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can transform RT, i.e., by log(1/RT). This makes the distribution roughly normal.  The problem is that you don't usually run the ANOVA on the RT values collected at each trial, but on the average for each participant. So the distribution across participants need to be normal. A trick is to transform the single RT values, calculate the mean for each participant and condition, and then transform the value back with the inverse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, you can run ANOVAs without corrections if you use the appropriate one (i.e., normality not assumed... this will lead to oddly-looking DOF with decimal values).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4046" LastActivityDate="2014-07-07T10:49:48.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7757" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-07T15:02:52.847" Score="4" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;A professor in an online lecture I was watching referenced a study which he said showed that our ability as humans to detect objects within scenes (especially complex scenes) was very much connected with our familiarity to the objects in the scene.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, one of the images in the study was this one:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/coCoR.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He said that the study reported that if the subjects had never seen a dalmation before then they often failed to segment the picture accurately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6304" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-07T22:06:08.053" LastActivityDate="2014-07-07T22:06:08.053" Title="What study showed that humans can successfully detect objects within images once they are able to recognize those objects?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7758" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7765" CreationDate="2014-07-07T15:13:13.923" Score="1" ViewCount="263" Body="&lt;p&gt;Please do not discuses about IQ tests that have problems like: 2,4,8,16,... what is the next number? having the answer as 32, because one can relate any number of random numbers mathematically! Whenever I ask this question to someone they would just say: yes!  getting top marks and ranks in school or college does make one intelligent because they could just score a top rank in IQ tests!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paradox about such IQ tests not being correct can obviously be reasoned, but are top rank holders in proper subjects at school or college more intelligent than the rest of the students?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree upon the fact that there can be diverse definitions for the word &amp;quot;intelligent&amp;quot;. The definition I use for the term intelligent is: a person who has the ability to learn any kind of subject that involves reasoning and extend his abilities to be able to develop that subject**; time frame is not a problem in my definition. To be elegant, I believe that one who has the ability to learn and research on any subject is intelligent. I do not consider people who could do stuff any computer program can do, as the existence of an algorithm to solve that task makes that task less imaginative but could involve high calculation ability (a weight lifter is different from a martial artist) . Scientists haven't achieved human level intelligence in machines and that makes me set machines as my reference point for intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;please provide references enough to convince me and others on your answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*lets imagine relating a series 2,4,8,16,111; to do this we would first have to define a 5th degree polynomial with unknown coefficient values. equate: &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$f(1) = 2, f(2) = 4,...f(5) =111$&lt;/span&gt;. Its obviously possible to solve and get 4 values for each coefficients and the rest 2 coefficients end up being linearly related to each other (substitute any value other than zero for one and get the other). So hence you have a polynomial relating 2,4,8,16,111!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;**when I say &amp;quot;develop that subject&amp;quot; I do not mean writing books and teaching, but I refer to the method of using one's creativity to enlighten themselves on the deepest regions of that subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. also please suggest the best possible ways to measure one's intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;update:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;could you also please explain why we rely on tests that do not have defined answers to its questions &lt;em&gt;for measuring one's IQ&lt;/em&gt;? Whenever I see a question that first gives a series like 2, 4, 6, 8. ? and ask for the missing number, I would be tempted to write 15356346546434 instead of 10 and form a polynomial relation that expresses the term in the series given its term number (like &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$f(n)$&lt;/span&gt; would express the &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n^{th}$&lt;/span&gt; term).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have also seen IQ question papers with questions that has a star drawn on with random numbers displayed within each blank loop we find within the star and a question mark in one of the blank loops which asks for the answer. Even they have arbitrary answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6235" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-10-08T08:28:37.367" Title="does getting top marks and ranks in school or college make one intelligent?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7759" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7767" CreationDate="2014-07-07T15:50:29.103" Score="5" ViewCount="1200" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any difference between the terms &lt;code&gt;brain disease&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;brain disorder&lt;/code&gt;? They are often used in combination without specifying the difference, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainfacts.org/diseases-disorders/diseases-a-to-z-from-ninds/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6305" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-09T00:02:37.400" LastActivityDate="2014-07-10T15:52:50.493" Title="Difference between brain disease and brain disorder" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7760" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7754" CreationDate="2014-07-07T17:15:02.520" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;My impression is that, recently, a consensus began to form recently that RTs should be transformed to satisfy model assumptions. This is especially true when data is analyzed with mixed models instead of ANOVAs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concerning the stability of effects under different transformations, you may find this paper interesting: &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.uvic.ca/psyc/masson/KMR10.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://web.uvic.ca/psyc/masson/KMR10.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="571" LastActivityDate="2014-07-07T17:15:02.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7761" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-07T19:11:50.993" Score="6" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am doing some research on perception and gamma activity in V1 area.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;To check some of my results I need to find an experimental result, from which I would know which orientations and frequencies of grating are most &quot;popular&quot; in V1. So I need to know two things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1: Which orientation(s) induces most gamma?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;The experiment could be something like: take few monkeys/people, show them bunch of gratings with different orientations and record gamma. The orientations which induced highest gamma level is what I want to know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2: Which grating frequency induces most gamma?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;The experiment could be something like: take few monkeys/people, show them bunch of gratings of different frequency patterns and record gamma. The frequencies which induced highest gamma level is what I want to know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6306" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-09-04T02:43:03.960" LastActivityDate="2017-09-04T02:43:03.960" Title="Grating orientation &amp; frequency which induces highest gamma" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7763" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-07T21:24:27.033" Score="7" ViewCount="1277" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm under the impression that standard cognitive load manipulations (e.g., remember a 7-digit number while completing some other task) wouldn't work for online subject pools like Mechanical Turk. Are there other cognitive load manipulations that might work online? Time pressure is an obvious one, but anything else? Thanks! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6307" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2014-07-08T22:19:11.950" LastActivityDate="2017-05-02T18:26:55.080" Title="Manipulating cognitive load in online experiments" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;mechanical-turk&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7764" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7757" CreationDate="2014-07-07T21:53:47.983" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Using Google's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.com/insidesearch/features/images/searchbyimage.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;search by image&lt;/a&gt; feature, I found that the image is usually entitled &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?tbs=sbi%3aAMhZZitbLIYGvEdmHf6B8_1DYalktue5isC3qp231BI3ADVkhXhIDshPN_1YhJrg1qeeI8Aq6B4qnzGRpUieA7fVC6ArlI8IEwXAIZhgGyBnZTGEYoEpJ3KYkkYhk1SEGNhm46w1kiWVD-ynvK-PP41jtapo00byDjYkF1KYkB3Wc5a8ethOXleE5lFT1RTOLMddd6-LaELYvMFFefAws4PZg7zBuDqrkiLuT4-w0A9jY7AkZBewvDG4f5nJoqhQuhG_1K00CpKsiV3L_1zcSalJBLvJ3xrrqOQ-zlHrQ3rWJLDNVAqZS9J2AIBkDCeU8Ab9PbrUp_1vPI-sOYZZzwuV34nqVegUnMAMFSJDjPMPP-4vvnwtpCUtFq86lxt6WdFoaI_1-jmPFYmW73FY_107JRQQz3FIjjPhvmGm6j4h2eZt-VjdYK29iUtpErbouSMrOuhWjncHEzSxeOqByTbq9AxuZ6tEV4wbsfUpSHIekT5bkz3TYi4Qen5LTlTQIHAWj4lClUNi43IxzE6cKBi5NMkPufA1qcZZeQDJkt01CjGsZZd958GS19bxfoTx47TpBjRRWdAx5ZpdjCnnr5FpMV_1xM4hLpbFdZfFGan2CueKkkkQ53zjH-A2ZtAA4N7-kldmd-xlRJuPpKJ_1x8ZRe4R4-XAytLlDNyZSQS1J_1OhpeQj6hO5cFSGtOhSJrkvjdj8qTdvLOLTeaneXeahIFzW3_17FMwwwZeU2UeMIuHKy2GMltHfdo_1FnXEttsjj9URJtU_1xUOApGZd_1Kj3xjpfkccYFyGlFHf-ss6nunmTTDQvlK-mSkahnGJCkS9P_1Ia66Nk6F_15g6kRq8TyLbERtDJrISUiKmL6b73hX5Qor1PRcfqnQNBP5rey2x4D7jRL8B1fP22h6tJJtS6OmkDvMOGbGXGSZ-orrmlvxuO2ZMaY--VCgA5_1zL1T3wpM-TrL4n0kmYSHE_1Va0SpgD8KavFKzoPjPdLePjdOjS5vyxd71si66qN8ly0Hi_1FCySomLOZ4prfVtdw32XYK-o1G8f9Uvnr1uChz0h8PuWAuWpJ86bxgs6vneB6q0HRiegru3a063OArOAdB_1GJpCpCldEjoSgEh0Y1aHA4FqSNUL0SZ-QBg2Re38_12HW9RiocodhLYDacPq_1JMCtAWXnnazLkKeY6BMLlHjFhbFyo4SmImON7zmaFFvXhW1_1f3Pcggjq8Ow2C1FukOByQQDCqWNm0ywe70c1BBnH3ssAqPa3mm_155FgQ2tMPNZMtT71abIWmaCyf_1Hf46felxAl18xUhoaQSdR2iDfFF_1gKouPq99wUSOEQ_1i3zp2MX9ynyo7dS_1fkPOfgkUguiQxFPGNHi5rD52EapNS7W9iHHiEhFrhEezL0qBPDsRUB50b6e470_14EAdrbOYl94-9fx9bsf6kuS-88rRzbvXu7KPxOTBuxRFjXrzyN54gu_1Ed89zdPbEIZBE6Id7Hn0u_1SaD7&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;biw=1375&amp;amp;bih=805&amp;amp;site=imghp&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=rhW7U8iELoqp7Aax_IHQCQ&amp;amp;ved=0CBoQ9Q8oAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Richard Gregory dalmatian&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From there, I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.michaelbach.de/ot/cog_dalmatian/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this page&lt;/a&gt;, which cites the image as coming from Gregory's 1970 book &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B000K52DBO&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Intelligent Eye&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. There's also, incidentally, a good list of Gregory's publications on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.richardgregory.org/papers/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this personal web page&lt;/a&gt;, which is probably worth looking at.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a theoretical perspective, the image is a demonstration of the role of top-down expectations in perception - we see not what's there, but a combination of the input to our retinas and what our prior knowledge tells us should be there. This is a case of Bayesian perception, and can be read up on in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~mannr/cs886-w10/annurev.psych.55.090902.142005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kersten et al (2004)&lt;/a&gt;, amongst many other places.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-07-07T21:53:47.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7758" CreationDate="2014-07-08T03:43:31.727" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you have three core questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is true intelligence and how can it be measured?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent does school performance correlate with true intelligence?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent does school performance cause  true intelligence to change?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence tests provide the best known means to measure general cognitive ability. There is a huge literature on intelligence tests. Good intelligence tests will generally sample from a wide range of cognitive domains (e.g., verbal, spatial, numerical, etc.). The literature on intelligence tests shows them to be a strong predictor of a wide range of important life outcomes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in essence, I reject your assumption that seems to dismiss the validity of intelligence tests. Over a hundred years of research and thousands of studies tell a rich story about the inter-correlation of different ability tests and their correlations with variables like educational performance, work performance, and many other variables. The review by Neisser et al (1996) is an excellent introduction to this literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this existing &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1290/what-is-the-correlation-between-grade-point-average-gpa-and-intelligence&quot;&gt;question on the correlation between GPA and IQ provides a reasonable answer to your question&lt;/a&gt; about the association between school performance and intelligence. In short, there is a very strong correlation between the two variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The final question is actually very interesting. I.e., what is the causal effect of education on intelligence? and what is the effect of a student applying additional effort to their education on intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not as familiar with literature evaluating the causal question. The default assumption given the stability of intelligence and the plausible causal mechanisms is that intelligence causes school performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, education must on some level cause forms of intelligence to develop. My sense is that interventions targeted at increasing intelligence have generally not had sustained success. Also, twin studies generally show a negligible correlation between adopting parent intelligence and child intelligence, which also reinforces the strong role of genetics. There may also be differences between education increasing domain specific knowledge as opposed to increasing general intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neisser, Ulrich; Boodoo, Gwyneth; Bouchard, Thomas J.; Boykin, A. Wade; Brody, Nathan; Ceci, Stephen J.; Halpern, Diane F.; Loehlin, John C.; Perloff, Robert; Sternberg, Robert J.; Urbina, Susana (1996). &quot;Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns&quot;. American Psychologist. 51:77–101.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-07-08T05:43:10.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7766" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-08T04:27:55.360" Score="4" ViewCount="7440" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it true that we were evolved to dislike people of other races genetically?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If so, why are some people attracted to people of races other than their own?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6310" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-07-08T08:03:11.760" LastActivityDate="2018-04-05T01:29:00.903" Title="Why are some people attracted to people of other races?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7767" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7759" CreationDate="2014-07-08T05:04:32.000" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many who will tell you authoritatively that a disease is acquired (e.g. infection, cancer, etc.) whereas disorder is something curable or genetic. These are imprecise and untrue. Basically a disturbance in normal functioning can be either a disorder or a disease, regardless of it's curability or method of acquisition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From your link, the second entry (for acid lipase disease) contains this information:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Two rare lipid storage &lt;em&gt;diseases&lt;/em&gt; are caused by the deficiency of the enzyme lysosomal acid lipase: Wolman’s &lt;em&gt;disease&lt;/em&gt;... is an autosomal recessive &lt;em&gt;disorder&lt;/em&gt;... Infants with the &lt;em&gt;disorder&lt;/em&gt; appear normal at birth... Cholesteryl ester storage &lt;em&gt;disease&lt;/em&gt; (CESD) is an extremely rare &lt;em&gt;disorder&lt;/em&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Alexander &lt;em&gt;disease&lt;/em&gt; is one of a group of neurological conditions known as the leukodystrophies, &lt;em&gt;disorders&lt;/em&gt; that are the result of abnormalities in myelin... Alexander disease is a progressive and often fatal disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This might lead you to deduce that the disease is the manifestation, whereas disorder is the source. Though I would say that this is as close to a real distinction you'll find, even that doesn't consistently hold up. We talk about infectious &lt;em&gt;diseases&lt;/em&gt; though we know the etiology and pathology, and inherited &lt;em&gt;diseases&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;disorders&lt;/em&gt;. Mental &lt;em&gt;diseases&lt;/em&gt; are mostly &lt;em&gt;disorders&lt;/em&gt; regardless of their genetics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The truth is that nomenclature is subjective. It has something to do with history (if the person who discovers or elucidates the disorder an illness names it a disease, a disease it will tend to remain, e.g. Huntington's disease/Crohn's disease), precedent, and advances in understanding. I think there is a tendency to name things &lt;em&gt;disorders&lt;/em&gt; today, as &lt;em&gt;disease&lt;/em&gt; carries certain connotations. It is all very subjective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edited to add: no disease or disorder occurs without some change in underlying structure. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (closely related to Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy - also known as Mad Cow Disease) occurs in an inherited form, a sporadic form, and a transmitted form. In all cases, the etiologic agent is thought to be a self-replicating tiny bit of protein called a prion. Prions occur normally, and are replicated and broken down. When the abnormal prion (same chemical structure but a different spatial structure) is introduced, this new prion, because of it's different shape, cannot be broken down, accumulating in the brain, eventually to the extent that normal brain cells are destroyed by the stores of prion within the brain. The same can be said of any illness: something of normal order is disturbed (e.g. smokers and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastEditorUserId="5104" LastEditDate="2014-07-10T15:52:50.493" LastActivityDate="2014-07-10T15:52:50.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7768" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7759" CreationDate="2014-07-08T07:46:53.117" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Oxford English Dictionary lists the following definitions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;disease, &lt;em&gt;n.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1 Absence of ease; uneasiness, discomfort; inconvenience, annoyance; disquiet, disturbance; trouble. (For long &lt;em&gt;Obs.&lt;/em&gt; but revived in modern use with the spelling dis-ease.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2 A condition of the body, or of some part or organ of the body, in which its functions are disturbed or deranged; a morbid physical condition; ‘a departure from the state of health, especially when caused by structural change’ &lt;em&gt;(New Sydenham Soc. Lexicon)&lt;/em&gt;. Also applied to a disordered condition in plants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3 &lt;em&gt;fig.&lt;/em&gt; A deranged, depraved, or morbid condition (of mind or disposition, of the affairs of a community, etc.); an evil affection or tendency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;disorder, &lt;em&gt;n.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1-3 Absence or undoing of order or regular arrangement; confusion; confused state or condition. ... Disturbance, commotion, tumult; &lt;em&gt;esp.&lt;/em&gt; a breach of public order, riot, mutiny, outrage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;†4 Disturbance or agitation of mind, discomposure. &lt;em&gt;Obs.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5 A disturbance of the bodily (or mental) functions; an ailment, disease. (Usually a weaker term than disease &lt;em&gt;n.&lt;/em&gt;, and not implying structural change.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As we can see, the common meanings of &lt;em&gt;disease&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;disorder&lt;/em&gt;, in our context, tend towards:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Disease&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a physiological dysfunction &lt;em&gt;caused by structural change&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Disorder&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a physiological dysfunction &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; caused by structural change, or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a psychological dysfunction (caused by a physiological dysfunction, learning or the environment)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The use of the words &lt;em&gt;disease&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;disorder&lt;/em&gt; by medical experts will likely be influenced by this lay meaning of the two words. Here are some definitions given by medical dictionaries:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dorian, A. F. (1987). &lt;em&gt;Elsevier's Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Medicine&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;disease&lt;/strong&gt; Any impairment of the normal state of the organism, interrupting or affecting the performance of its vital functions. More specifically, all physical and mental reactions to some noxious agent, an injury, a defect, a deficiency, or a degenerative process.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;disorder&lt;/strong&gt; A condition characterized by a derangement of normal functions of the body.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stedman, T. L. (1995). &lt;em&gt;Stedman's Medical Dictionary&lt;/em&gt; (26th ed.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;disease&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;1.&lt;/strong&gt; An interruption, cessation, or disorder of body functions, system, or organs. SYN illness, morbus, sickness. &lt;strong&gt;2.&lt;/strong&gt; A morbid entity characterized usually by at least two of these criteria: recognized etiologic agent(s), identifiable group of signs and symptoms, or consistent anatomical alterations. SEE ALSO syndrome. &lt;strong&gt;3.&lt;/strong&gt; Literally, dis-ease, the opposite of ease, when something is wrong with a bodily function.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;disorder&lt;/strong&gt; A disturbance of function, structure, or both, resulting from a genetic or embryologic failure in development or from exogenous factor such as poison, trauma, or disease.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Becker, E. L., et al. (eds). (1986). &lt;em&gt;International Dictionary of Medicine and Biology&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;disease&lt;/strong&gt; A condition which alters or interferes with the normal state of an organism and is usually characterised by the abnormal functioning of one or more of the host's systems, parts, or organs. It may be due to an unknown cause or may result from an inherent metabolic or structural deficiency, including congenital and hereditary defects and degenerative processes, or from such factors as stress, noxious stimuli, toxic agents, injury, or infection. A given disease is often manifested by a characteristic set of signs and symptoms, although a host organism can be asymptomatic while having microscopic, serologic, or immuniologic evidence of diseease. • &lt;em&gt;Disease&lt;/em&gt; is usually distinguished from &lt;em&gt;injury&lt;/em&gt;, the disruption of an organism's integrity, espeially by an external agent, and often from &lt;em&gt;syndrome&lt;/em&gt;, a complex of symptoms descriptive of a disorder, especially a particular combination of phenotypic manifestations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;disorder&lt;/strong&gt; An alteration of the function or struture of an organ or the body as a whole.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dorland, W. A. N. (1994). &lt;em&gt;Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary&lt;/em&gt; (28th ed.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;disease&lt;/strong&gt; any deviation from or interruption of the normal structure or function of any part, organ, or system (or combination thereof) of he body that is manifested by a characteristic set of symptoms and signs and whose etiology, pathology, and prognosis may be known or unknown.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;disorder&lt;/strong&gt; a derangement or abnormality of function; a morbid physical or mental state.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, medical experts love clear, distinct, and unambiguous, definitions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-07-09T15:42:46.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7769" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7766" CreationDate="2014-07-08T08:07:37.750" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is in reply to your first question.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taste – in food, music, and sex – is in part a result of &lt;strong&gt;imprinting&lt;/strong&gt;. You find women or men attractive that are like your parents or the community you grew up in because of sexual imprinting (e.g. Aronsson, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aronsson writes of a &lt;em&gt;sensitive period&lt;/em&gt; where this imprinting happens, but I am not so sure that the development of aesthetic taste is actually limited to certain phases in a child's development. Caton et al. (2014) showed that children can acquire the taste for &quot;greens&quot; if they are repeatedly exposed to the food (e.g. having to eat one spoon every time spinach is served). And tobacco, beer, and coffee are prime examples for voluntarily &quot;acquired tastes&quot; later in life. Nevertheless, even an acquired taste is a result of exposure and habituation. Coffee, beer and tobacco are not &quot;exotic&quot; in our culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bem (1996) posited the theory that adults find erotic what was exotic in their early childhood. Thus, a girl that felt different from other girls in childhood would become a lesbian, being attracted to what she was not. This theory has been refuted (e.g. Peplau et al., 1998) on the grounds that it was not supported by empirical evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could not find anything more substantial in psychological research during a cursory search. What I found are books and articles in cultural theory that look at the popularity of exotic women in the media (e.g. Mendible, 2010). Scanning the contents of those books, I thought that maybe men who are attracted to exotic women are not only attracted to their physical appearance, but also to what these women &lt;em&gt;represent&lt;/em&gt;. Thus, Latin women may signify lust for life, African men might stand for physical prowess, Asian women might signify servility, or Oriental women might siginify sophistication and mystery. I'm just quoting some common stereotpyes here as examples for how attraction happens not only on the visual level but also in what we project into the person we desire. Men who like women with glasses might not find them visually beautiful, but might be attracted to the idea of an intelligent or &quot;bookish&quot; and shy person, and this fantasy and eroticsim will even hold despite a contradicting personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I want to suggest with this is that reasons for some kinds of attractions might not be systematic (i.e. the same for a large enought group of persons to discover this connection through empirical studies) but widely different between individuals: one white man loving black women might love them for reasons completely unlike those of any other white man loving black women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But maybe someone else has the time for a more thorough search and will find a study on this subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Aronsson, H. (2011). On Sexual Imprinting in Humans. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:415143/FULLTEXT01.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:415143/FULLTEXT01.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bem, D. J. (1996). Exotic becomes erotic: A developmental theory of sexual orientation. Psychological Review, 103(2), 320. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;https://labs.psych.ucsb.edu/roney/james/other%20pdf%20readings/Bem%25201996%2520Exotic%2520becomes%2520erotic.pdf&quot;&gt;https://labs.psych.ucsb.edu/roney/james/other%20pdf%20readings/Bem%25201996%2520Exotic%2520becomes%2520erotic.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Caton, S. J., Blundell, P., Ahern, S. M., Nekitsing, C., Olsen, A., Møller, P., ... &amp;amp; Hetherington, M. M. (2014). Learning to Eat Vegetables in Early Life: The Role of Timing, Age and Individual Eating Traits. &lt;em&gt;PloS one, 9&lt;/em&gt;(5), e97609. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0097609&quot;&gt;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0097609&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mendible, M. (Ed.). (2010). From bananas to buttocks: The Latina body in popular film and culture. University of texas Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peplau, L. A., Garnets, L. D., Spalding, L. R., Conley, T. D., &amp;amp; Veniegas, R. C. (1998). A critique of Bem's&quot; Exotic Becomes Erotic&quot; theory of sexual orientation. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://folk.uio.no/thomas/gnd/critique-of-ebe-theory.pdf&quot;&gt;http://folk.uio.no/thomas/gnd/critique-of-ebe-theory.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-07-08T08:45:54.240" LastActivityDate="2014-07-08T08:45:54.240" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7770" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7740" CreationDate="2014-07-08T10:07:43.907" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;As you have already hinted at, the issue is controversial. I could leave it at that and say &quot;no, there is no consensus&quot;, and it would be a true answer, but it wouldn't be satisfying, wouldn't it? Instead, I'll briefly define the topic, give a few examples, and then a few recent criticisms. My answer will be weighted somewhat towards &quot;cognition&quot; instead of &quot;computation&quot;, however different you consider them. It's more of a safari than a good answer I fear, I hope you're getting something out of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neural synchrony is usually used to refer to oscillatory alignment; that means, some sort of oscillation occurs in a population of neurons, for example, an alpha rhythm as a ~10 Hz pulse; and neuronal synchrony is both, on the individual level, the degree to which individual neurons either take part in this oscillations, and/or align their spiking behaviour to certain parts of this oscillation, and on the population level, how other neuronal populations are aligned with this oscillation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is doubtlessly true is that the brain is full of oscillations. We know that at the very least since &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Berger&quot;&gt;Hans Berger&lt;/a&gt; discovered the alpha wave back in the 1920s. When someone closes their eyes, we quickly see the 10 Hz rhythm. But once they open the eyes, or are disturbed in any way, it quickly disappears. Are these oscillations important per se, or just an epiphenomenon? Berger himself assume them to be the direct manifestation of unified brain state. But Berger was a bit of a crank. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Douglas_Adrian&quot;&gt;well-respected British researcher and Nobel price laureate Lord Adrian&lt;/a&gt; who first replicated this finding assumed the 10 Hz rhythm was simply the &quot;idling of the brain&quot;, the very absence of computation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One contemporary researcher who assigns a functional and active role to the alpha rhythm is &lt;a href=&quot;http://cerco.ups-tlse.fr/~rufin/CVRufin.html&quot;&gt;VanRullen&lt;/a&gt;, and I think much of his work is very interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's look at some of the rather basic ways how oscillations and timing are relevant in the brain. First, timing in general. Our original understanding of neural communication (in part unveiled by aforementioned Lord Adrian!) focuses on the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_coding&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;rate coding&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;population coding&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;; the net amount of spiking activity in a neuron, or in a population, is what matters. This is for example what happens in the peripheral nerve cells; when heat or pressure or pain are applied to the skin, the responding neurons directly communicate the degree of heat or pressure or pain by how much they ramp up their firing (at least at first, before &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Spike_frequency_adaptation&quot;&gt;Spike Frequency Adaption&lt;/a&gt; sets in).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Initially, this was seen as fully consistent with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory&quot;&gt;Hebbian learning&lt;/a&gt; - the more one neuron fires, the stronger the synapses with its targets become. But then &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Spike-timing_dependent_plasticity&quot;&gt;Bi &amp;amp; Poo discovered Spike-Time Dependent Plasticity (STDP)&lt;/a&gt;, and now everything is a bit more complicated. Remember Hebb's Law says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hebb's Law goes beyond saying A has to fire lots. It says, A's firing has to &lt;em&gt;cause&lt;/em&gt; B's firing. And one component of causation is temporal precedence; so A's firing has to occur before B's firing for increasing synaptic strength. And this is just what Bi &amp;amp; Poo observed; only when A's spikes arrive in a short temporal window &lt;em&gt;before&lt;/em&gt; B's own spike does Long-Term Potentation occur. If however B's spikes happen a bit before A's spikes, Long-Term &lt;em&gt;Depression&lt;/em&gt; occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the temporal order of spikes matters. Neurons causing others to spike gain more influence over them, and neurons who're followers, not leaders are demoted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another bound for plasticity is of a neurochemical nature. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15924857&quot;&gt;Levels of catecholamines (neuromodulators) regulate if the hippocampus will encode an incoming stimulus, depending, for example, on its novelty&lt;/a&gt;. So &lt;em&gt;only&lt;/em&gt; if neuromodulator levels are up does incoming information lead to lasting adaptations. During sleep, were we assume reconsolidating to happen, we observe that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21670101&quot;&gt;the brain stem sources of catecholamines (like the neurotransmitter norepinephrin and dopamine) are temporally correlated with the slow wave occurring during sleep&lt;/a&gt;. Specifically, Locus Coeruleus neurons spike right at the onset of the transition to the Up state. It seems the cortical oscillation is timed so that active states co-occur with high catecholamine levels.&#xA;This is a form of temporal coding called &lt;em&gt;phase coding&lt;/em&gt;. The phase of the ongoing oscillation matters with respect to the incoming spike. It is also observed, for example, in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16158423&quot;&gt;theta oscillation in the hippocampus&lt;/a&gt;. A range of theories exist for a possible function of theta phase locking; examples are that certain theta phases again indicate more receptive states (so that incoming information has a higher chance of being encoded during certain parts of the theta oscillations), or that the part of a theta phase a neuron spikes at indicates how important the information this neuron is encoding is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond phase coding, we find Singer's very popular &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Binding_by_synchrony&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;binding by synchrony&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. How do to parts of the brain communicate to each other that they are &quot;talking&quot; about the same thing? Well, by alignment in the gamma band, that is, by phase locking of the two populations to the same ~40 Hz rhythm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;But how believable is all this?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many theoretical objections to specifically high-frequency binding by synchrony. For example, the power of oscillations fall of over distance as a function of its frequency; that means, slow oscillations travel far, but synchrony in fast oscillations cannot be sustained over long distances. (Slow oscillations are simply too slow for &lt;em&gt;binding by synchrony&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another question is if there are even any gamma oscillations at all, if they are truly clock-like wave patterns or if they are simply a methodological artefact - traces of the sensitivity of the Fourier transformation to asynchronous activity, or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3518456/&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;filtered noise&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At least for humans, gamma band synchrony findings have become strongly suspect as it was shown that these patterns are better explained as the EEG traces of small eye movements or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273%2808%2900301-2&quot;&gt;micro-saccades&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this must not spell the death of all theories for a functional role of timing and oscillations, of all &lt;em&gt;temporal codes&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;phase codes&lt;/em&gt;. In STDP, we have clear, anatomically sound evidence for the importance of temporal order in spiking, and simple evolutionary principles suggest neuronal populations will exploit such phenomena. However, the field is diverse and controversial. There is no universally accepted phenomenology, methodology, or theory. We have tidbits and fascinating findings, but nothing coherent. Cortical oscillations are sill mostly a riddle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think most recent contribution is the discovery of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3359652/&quot;&gt;Cross-Frequency Phase Coupling&lt;/a&gt; by Canolty et al. They observe that the &lt;em&gt;amplitude&lt;/em&gt; of the fast (gamma) oscillations depends on the &lt;em&gt;phase&lt;/em&gt; of the slower theta or delta rhythms. The basic finding is quite similar to the observation of LC spike/cortical state phase coupling noted earlier, but now we observe this in the awake animal. And a clear proposal for a functional role of this mechanism has been made, too; I can simply quote the abstract of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18388295&quot;&gt;Lakatos et al.&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Whereas gamma-band neuronal oscillations clearly appear integral to visual attention, the role of lower-frequency oscillations is still being debated. Mounting evidence indicates that a key functional property of these oscillations is the rhythmic shifting of excitability in local neuronal ensembles. Here, we show that when attended stimuli are in a rhythmic stream, delta-band oscillations in the primary visual cortex entrain to the rhythm of the stream, resulting in increased response gain for task-relevant events and decreased reaction times. Because of hierarchical cross-frequency coupling, delta phase also determines momentary power in higher-frequency activity. These instrumental functions of low-frequency oscillations support a conceptual framework that integrates numerous earlier findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://vimeo.com/17091296&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a video presentation on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-07-08T18:04:20.827" LastActivityDate="2014-07-08T18:04:20.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7772" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5251" CreationDate="2014-07-08T18:53:43.353" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a real answer on this topic, you need two things: one is to understand your question, and the other is an understanding of Jean Piaget's masses of research into the development of intelligence (from birth to adulthood).&#xA;Regarding understanding your own question, you must appreciate that decades of philosophy and psychology reveal that you cannot separate logic from mathematics. Even at the simplest of levels , young children around 4 years old will demonstrate semi-logical skills together with primitive counting skills. The reason for all this is that the level of abstraction above perception (i.e. in thinking) required for both logic and number is the same, and there is  a hierarchy of such abstractions  that can be traced throughout the development of intelligence common to every individual. Jean Piaget is the one you want to read, and epistemology (study of knowledge) is the domain you are asking about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6311" LastActivityDate="2014-07-08T18:53:43.353" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7773" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7780" CreationDate="2014-07-09T05:15:11.857" Score="4" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just recently learned (indirectly from &lt;a href=&quot;http://cnl.salk.edu/~terry/BGGN/reynolds.NN.02.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this source&lt;/a&gt;) that long-term potentiation/depression only takes place when you have large/small amounts of dopamine present at the relevant synapse. However, my understanding is that early in the process of learning behavior, dopamine isn't released until after a reward is received. If I'm a monkey who has to look one way or the other to get some juice, by the time I drink the juice and get the resulting dopamine, the neurons I used to move my eye are presumably not firing any more, right? So then how does this work? Is it that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There's a slow bootstrapping process. Something like: first the&#xA;monkey has to learn that the taste of juice leads to the reward of&#xA;sugar. Then the monkey has to learn that the sight of juice&#xA;correlates to the taste, and extend the chain one step further,&#xA;etc., etc., such that by the time you actually have the monkey in&#xA;the lab there's a very small inferential step needed to plug into a&#xA;larger reward chain.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The neurons don't actually stop firing. There is some sort of&#xA;system in play that keeps the neurons firing afterwards, waiting for&#xA;fluctuations in dopamine level to tell it whether or not it should&#xA;increase or decrease long term potentiation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Something I haven't thought of?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6314" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-08-03T15:09:08.643" LastActivityDate="2014-08-03T15:09:08.643" Title="How does the timing work out for dopamine to affect the development of long-term potentiation?" Tags="&lt;plasticity&gt;&lt;ltp&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7775" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7778" CreationDate="2014-07-09T06:27:54.127" Score="5" ViewCount="642" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/09/science/european-effort-for-computer-simulated-brain-draws-fire.html&quot;&gt;NY Times article&lt;/a&gt; about the European effort to simulate a human brain and the criticism regarding the (non-)feasibility of such an endeavor (not to mention the astronomical costs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this article, there's mention of the current inability to simulate the 302 neurons in a nematode brain, so my (layman's) question is simple:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;why is it so hard to simulate a neuron?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6315" LastActivityDate="2014-07-09T14:01:16.670" Title="Why is it hard to simulate a neuron?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7776" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7775" CreationDate="2014-07-09T11:19:36.770" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think it &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; hard to simulate a neuron. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neuron.yale.edu/neuron/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NEURON&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simulating a &lt;em&gt;brain&lt;/em&gt; however is a much more difficult (and unaccomplished) task, even if the brain only consists of 302 neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-07-09T11:19:36.770" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7777" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7687" CreationDate="2014-07-09T11:46:06.207" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;One human-being reliance on other(s) awareness is defined by the level of trust between the humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is that the reliance has differents degrees and is dependent of the level of trust established with their peers. In your example your talking about a &lt;em&gt;friend&lt;/em&gt; and so the level of trust - and so the degree to follow his instructions - is higher than when you would be walking with a random stranger. Then you'll probably ask yourself more questions at every move &lt;em&gt;the peer&lt;/em&gt; takes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A second factor is the context. It's not possible to describe an actor without describing it's environment. It depends if the environment is familiar or new. A new environment will trigger our (own) instinct more to check it for potential dangers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4149" LastActivityDate="2014-07-09T11:46:06.207" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7778" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7775" CreationDate="2014-07-09T12:47:33.403" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Complexity.  That is, the fundamental laws governing the behavior isn't terribly difficult to comprehend or model.  However, putting it all together and hoping it reproduces the correct behavior is a great challenge.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once you develop a model that has the appropriate underlying mechanisms in it's components, you still have to put them all together and choose the right parameters and hope you didn't miss anything in terms of modulators that would actively adjust those parameters.  So even if the functional mathematical form of your model is correct, you still have 5-10 parameters for each neuron in the network that you have to get to the right value, including the parameters describing the strength and dynamics of the coupling between neurons.  Just being off by values as small as .001 can sometimes mean the difference between a working model and a failing model.  Now you have 5-10 parameters for 300 neurons... that's 1500-3000 parameters that all need to be &quot;correct&quot; at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, it's not like we are exceedingly accurate in our models of even single neurons.  We make simplifications and take averages.  There's lots of second messenger and genetic processes involved in neuron function that many models neglect.  This isn't meant to disparage modeling.  It implies that no complex mathematical model will probably ever be able to generalize the neuron for all cases.  Instead, we make models focused on asking specific questions.  We investigate two or three mechanisms at a time and hold all the other considerations constant in order to isolate those mechanisms we're interested in.  So a model I develop to study the effects of the diversity of calcium channels on neuron excitability will have many differences (in parameters selection) from the same model used by somebody studying diversity of potassium channels.  And in some cases, we may even simplify less relevant aspects of the model, e.g., I may only have one potassium channel in my neuron to generalize and average all potassium channels so that I can focus only on calcium diversity and not fuss with more parameters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-07-09T14:01:16.670" LastActivityDate="2014-07-09T14:01:16.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7780" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7773" CreationDate="2014-07-09T13:06:47.033" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The ability of dopamine to work on different time scales is discussed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17600522&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schultz&lt;/a&gt;. More generally, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.behavioralandbrainfunctions.com/content/1/1/6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;basic idea of prediction error reinforcement based learning and DA is that the prediction error signal &quot;propagates back in time&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. There is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18789964&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;some doubt for how temporally precise this DA signal actually is, and if DA is fast enough to support RPE TD learning.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does that answer the question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2014-07-09T13:06:47.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7781" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7687" CreationDate="2014-07-09T13:27:34.347" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many harding / flocking dynamics that reinforce this behavior: in birds, fish, cattle, and more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These dynamics reinforce safety.  Seeing animal precedent may influence human decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Study of these group utility functions has been studied:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;S Morgan, Michael McBeath. What's the point? Determining the group's center-of-attention. Journal of Vision (2004).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fnhum.2010.00206/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Glenberg, A.M., Lopez-Mobilia, G., McBeath, M., Toma, M. Sato, M., &amp;amp; Cattaneo, L.. Knowing beans: Human mirror mechanisms revealed through motor adaptation.. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (2010).&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A major area of research that includes this topic is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ecological Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastActivityDate="2014-07-09T13:27:34.347" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7782" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7822" CreationDate="2014-07-09T14:47:03.293" Score="5" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;The primary learning mechanism of artificial neural networks (ANN) is back-propagation, which is not biologically plausible [2].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trevor Berkolay created an alternative to this learning with the Neurological Engineering Framework (NEF) and Nengo called &lt;a href=&quot;http://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2013/papers/0058/paper0058.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hPES (Homeostatic Prescribed Error Sensitivity)&lt;/a&gt; [1]. But how does it's learning capabilities compare to the standard supervised and unsupervised learning of ANNs in terms of computational power required and speed of learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] See also, &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith chapter 6.4&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Further details around this claim can be found in the question &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/16269/4397&quot;&gt;Is back-prop biologically plausible?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; This question portrayed ANNs and the NEF as adversarial, which really isn't the case. Spaun the brain model, which is kind of the poster child of the NEF, uses ANNs (Convolutional Neural Networks specifically) converted into spiking neurons in it's vision system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-06T02:43:07.317" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T02:43:07.317" Title="How does hPES compare to the learning rates of ANNs?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="7784" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-10T01:31:39.187" Score="5" ViewCount="184" Body="&lt;p&gt;People seem to have a preference for celebrating &quot;big round numbers&quot;, like the 2,000 post in the forum (although the 10,000 post would probably be more &quot;special&quot; - but not the 10,234 post, so it's not strictly a magnitude bias). There are lots of examples of this. Sports stats are another: baseball players celebrate 3,000 hits, 500 home runs, and 20 wins. Football players 1,000 yard seasons, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we prefer marking events that are round numbers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-10T01:47:51.480" LastActivityDate="2018-05-30T02:12:29.013" Title="This is the 2,000th question posted. Why do people care about big round number events more than the surrounding events?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7785" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7784" CreationDate="2014-07-10T03:29:36.613" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because round numbers are easier than full numbers. For instance, $$10^9=1000000000$$ saves a  lot, instead of $$997843863678632762767267863$$ I do not know how to give you a short description of this number.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4547" LastEditorUserId="6323" LastEditDate="2014-07-10T18:08:57.437" LastActivityDate="2014-07-10T18:08:57.437" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7786" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7787" CreationDate="2014-07-10T05:24:02.880" Score="2" ViewCount="479" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that OCD is something that causes sufferers to perform irrational behavour consciously, I also understand that the motivation comes from performing the irrational behaviour/behaviours to release the anxiety experienced. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although, what causes sufferers to pursue specific goals whether it be career choice, physical achievement, etc. ? According to my (hopefully trustworthy) sources the neurotransmitter &quot;dopamine&quot; plays a huge part in motivation, setting the bar high and making people do whatever it takes to reach that goal of &quot;happiness&quot; or &quot;achievement&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe OCD is somewhat related with &quot;serotonin&quot;, but all I know is that there is an allele gene Alpha 2 which causes some sort of susceptibility to a few different disorders, OCD being one of them. Does OCD motivation have any correlation with the neurotransmitter &quot;dopamine&quot;? Thanks in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6323" LastActivityDate="2014-07-10T06:28:10.797" Title="OCD Motivation and Dopamine Motivation, is there a connection?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7787" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7786" CreationDate="2014-07-10T06:28:10.797" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your information is basically sound. Serotonin and dopamine are both neurotransmittors that are connected, in different ways, with positive feelings or elevated mood. The buzzword for dopamine (in this context, as it has many functions) is &quot;reward&quot; - the presence of dopamine in the brain modulates the feeling of satisfaction from achievement, and encourages people to pursue the course of action that produced it. Meanwhile serotonin has been linked to positive moods, for example in clinical depression which is often treated with medication that affects serotonin action in the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OCD has traditionally been linked to serotonin, as it is classified as an anxiety disorder and sometimes treated with antidepressents. However, there has also been research linking &lt;em&gt;certain kinds&lt;/em&gt; of OCD to an imbalance between the functions of serotonin and dopamine (see for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/15554783&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&#xA;The role of dopamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: preclinical and clinical evidence&lt;/a&gt;). From what I have read, research on this subject has led to the use of antipsychotics in treatments, in particular in cases where patients don't respond well to SSRIs (antidepressents) alone. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary: yes, there is a connection between dopamine, the &quot;reward chemical&quot;, and obsessive compulsive disorder. It appears the connection is stronger or more apparent in patients who also have Tourette's syndrome. With respect to genetic markers, as far as I know the genetic research is in an early stage. It cannot be said that any one gene &quot;causes&quot; a specific illness, only that there is a statistical link between them. Correlation does not imply causation, and genetic researchers are unlikely to say that a gene causes an illness if they can't demonstrate a mechanism by which it does so. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6237" LastActivityDate="2014-07-10T06:28:10.797" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7788" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7784" CreationDate="2014-07-10T11:28:52.417" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I might be wrong but it might have something associated with the numerical goals we acheive as children, young adults and grown up. For example, becoming 10 years of age is a sign of maturity, mainly due to the double digits it contains. This leads us (as children) to believe that we are that much closer to becoming adults. When people turn 40 or 50 they put a lot more pressure on them selves than they would have if that number was decreased a year or two. Maybe it's the obvious facts such as 50 is closer to 60 than 49 is?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, when we learn how to count, we don't necessarily stop at 3, or 7, 10 is usually the number that kids are first introduced to, and once they learn it get appraise from external figures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, our preffered simplicity for numbers may or may not reflect our own personal achievements during our childhood and other significant life experiences. I know for a fact that I wouldn't be as proud of running a 39.7K as I would have been for running a 40K, even though the difference is a tiny 0.3. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we announce our achievements to others we say &quot;I'm in the top 10 for my age in cross-country!&quot;, assuming we come 7th, top ten sounds like a greater acheivement, this is just me, others may have different opinions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Growing up and being congratulated for our achievements by older family members and other adult figures for unspecified winnings might have an impact on our greater admiration of &quot;rounded numbers&quot;. I'm not quite sure whether or not I explained my self very well but I hope you understand what I'm saying. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6323" LastEditorUserId="6323" LastEditDate="2018-05-30T02:12:29.013" LastActivityDate="2018-05-30T02:12:29.013" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="7789" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7754" CreationDate="2014-07-10T13:20:23.453" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1077&amp;amp;context=tpr&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This article by Whelan (2010)&lt;/a&gt; is one of the best introductory papers I've found on the subject.  Normalization is covered quite clearly and extensively, including the caveats and &quot;gotchas&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whelan, R. (2010). Effective analysis of reaction time data. The Psychological Record, 58(3), 9.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="2926" LastEditDate="2014-07-12T14:28:50.883" LastActivityDate="2014-07-12T14:28:50.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7790" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8164" CreationDate="2014-07-10T13:27:58.407" Score="3" ViewCount="550" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need to carefully control the latency and timing of auditory stimulation in an upcoming experiment.  Some of this depends on software, but my question is specifically relating to &lt;strong&gt;hardware&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;drivers&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;OS kernel&lt;/strong&gt;.  In other words, I'm not looking for advice on programming languages; I have that part covered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Driver &amp;amp; OS&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm somewhat familiar with the ASIO4ALL driver suite in Windows, but I was weighing this against the option of using a Linux distribution (e.g. Ubuntu) with a real-time kernel installed.  My concern is that sound is notoriously problematic in Linux.  I seem to recall real-time audio being all but impossible if you're working with ALSA.  Is the same true of Pulseaudio?  Has anybody successfully set up low-latency audio output in Linux?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Hardware&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What sound cards are commonly used?  Can anybody suggest some specialized hardware?  Ideally, I'd like to stick with a PCI card of some sort and not have to resort to bulky external sound cards, but I could be swayed if these cards offer significant advantages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-10-09T09:25:34.660" Title="What hardware setup is commonly used for low-latency audio stimulation?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7791" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7687" CreationDate="2014-07-10T14:31:37.380" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In poker, this is called a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.poker.tj/pokerstrategyconcept/the-protected-pot.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;protected pot.&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, if you are alone with an opponent who bets, you may &quot;call&quot; his bet with a weak hand, because there is a very good chance he is bluffing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, if it is &quot;three way,&quot; the opponent bets, a second person calls, you can &quot;fold&quot; a weak hand with a lot more assurance that the bettor is not bluffing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the bettor is betting against two people (one of whom has called), there is a greater chance that he has a strong (dangerous) hand, and you're not &quot;missing out&quot; by folding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2017-08-19T17:03:26.487" LastActivityDate="2017-08-19T17:03:26.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7792" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7766" CreationDate="2014-07-10T14:40:37.600" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is said that American society up to around 1950 came in three flavors, vanilla, chocolate and strawberry. That America was intolerant of interracial marriage, which was against the law in many &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;states&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An ice-cream metaphor for modern American society is Baskin-Robbins' 31 flavors. That society puts a premium on &quot;diversity,&quot; including in dating and marriage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people will want &quot;variety&quot; and will seek it through interracial marriage.  Others will prefer uniformity and shun it. A third group may be swayed by a &quot;side&quot; factor, such as the chance to upgrade one's genes, or simply because they like a particular person, regardless of race.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But society defines and sometimes restricts our choices. The America of 1950 suppressed the &quot;variety-seeking&quot; type of people, meaning that only the bravest would violate then-prevailing taboos. It was only in the 1970s and later that one found many couples like the parents of (Yankees' baseball player) Derek Jeter (black father, white mother). But the success of that one couple may have encouraged many more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2016-05-16T12:08:01.893" LastActivityDate="2016-05-16T12:08:01.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7793" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15813" CreationDate="2014-07-10T15:38:30.663" Score="5" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do blind people who haven't always been visually impaired deal with their day-to-day lives? I've heard rumors (very, very unreliable rumors) that once you stay in the dark for too long you'll start to go insane, but I haven't met one &quot;insane&quot; blind person yet, nor have I ever heard of one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it's proven that low levels of dopamine result in depression, anxiety, etc. And low levels of dopamine just means a lack of production or intake by the dopaminergic receptors. If the lack of happiness results in disorders such as depression, what would a lack of light do? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, why do their other senses strengthen? I read a question earlier about how someone trained themselves to write and read upside down, but then had trouble writing b's, p's and q's, apparently this was due to a process called &quot;negative transfer&quot;, does this have anything to do with it? Less energy used meaning more available to enlarge the other's capabilities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6323" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-31T10:18:36.913" LastActivityDate="2016-08-31T10:18:36.913" Title="What are the effects of visual deprivation on mental health and the other senses?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7794" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5772" CreationDate="2014-07-10T18:41:10.463" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Memory is a big word. Usually, neuroscientists and psychologists will try to model a specific cognitive process: for example, long-term recognition memory (the ability to distinguish between previously learned items and new items). Here is a link to a very good introductory text in computational neuroscience (which includes a section about memory and learning): &lt;a href=&quot;http://grey.colorado.edu/CompCogNeuro/index.php?title=CCNBook/Main&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://grey.colorado.edu/CompCogNeuro/index.php?title=CCNBook/Main&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a link to a bible of neural networks: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ru.lv/~peter/zinatne/ebooks/The%20MIT%20Press%20-%202003%20-%20The%20Handbook%20of%20Brain%20Theory%20and%20Neural%20Networks%20-%202nd%20Edition%20-%20ISBN%200262011972%20-%201309s%20-%20TLFeBOOK.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ru.lv/~peter/zinatne/ebooks/The%20MIT%20Press%20-%202003%20-%20The%20Handbook%20of%20Brain%20Theory%20and%20Neural%20Networks%20-%202nd%20Edition%20-%20ISBN%200262011972%20-%201309s%20-%20TLFeBOOK.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6328" LastActivityDate="2014-07-10T18:41:10.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7795" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7935" CreationDate="2014-07-11T00:05:03.227" Score="6" ViewCount="2960" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are Rorschach tests still used as a diagnostic tool today, or are they just a relic from the 60's? If they are still in use, what sort of information do they provide?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4626" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-11T00:15:47.010" LastActivityDate="2014-08-05T12:35:54.487" Title="Are Rorschach (inkblot) tests still used as a diagnostic tool?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7797" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7815" CreationDate="2014-07-11T03:31:10.547" Score="14" ViewCount="1894" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can autism spectrum disorders be acquired or are they inherited traits only, especially in the case of Asperger syndrome or pervasive developmental disorders where they lie on the lower end of the spectrum? If so, does there seem the be a cut-off age, like the onset of adolescence or adulthood? Or can it be acquired at any point in one's life? I understand it can be discovered later in life, but can it actually develop due to one's environmental factors? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3829" LastActivityDate="2014-07-14T03:26:09.927" Title="Can autism spectrum disorders be acquired or are they inherited traits only?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7798" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-11T03:46:40.397" Score="6" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on a project that looks at how information about one's health affects smoking decisions. I have an economic background, and not familiar with the psychology literature. So my questions are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How accurate are people in estimating their mortality risk? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How well can people estimate smoking's impact on their mortality ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does the new information about health status change people's belief about their mortality and smoking's impact on their mortality?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6332" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-13T05:05:44.413" LastActivityDate="2014-07-15T21:24:42.657" Title="How do people estimate smoking's impact on their mortality?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7799" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7694" CreationDate="2014-07-11T06:19:23.680" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;People use a wide range of language to describe measurement points in repeated measures design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example if you measured some dependent variable on multiple occasions you might have something like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;baseline (B)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;treatment week 1 (T1)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;treatment week 2 (T2)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;post treatment (F0)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;six month follow up (F6) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;one year follow (F12)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously such a design has aspects that are consistent with a pre-post test design, but it has more time points than just that. So my suggestion is to just have clear descriptive labels for the measurement points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-07-11T06:19:23.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7800" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7687" CreationDate="2014-07-11T08:20:31.350" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Q: What is the reason for people to implicitly trust their peers in extreme (or not) situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reliance is basically the dependence or trust in someone, to each lies a limited capability of being relied on due to our limited capacity as human beings. What I'm trying to imply is that your friend might have been able to consciously lead you across the road without you questioning his judgement, but in a time of crisis would you let that same friend tell you that it's best to invest all of your money into a shoe shining company? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We depend, or rely on specific people for specific things. Growing  up we rely on our mother to provide us with the maternal support and experience required, just as we rely on our father (or father figure) to teaching us what it means to be a man. (Assuming the example human is a male..)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you were a CEO of a huge company, you would have no trouble relying on your employees to do a specific job in which you ordered them to complete, but only knowing them on a work-basis what are the chances of you trusting them to the extent of looking after your children for a week while you're on holiday? (Also assuming the example human is a parent..).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trust is a huge factor in the concept of persuasion, and to pursuade someone is to induce someone to do somthing through reasoning or argument. You are more likely to be pursuaded by someone whom you trust in, rather than someone you don't. That person you have relied on has shown to prove the actuality of being credible and knowledgable in the field in which you have decided to trust them in, thus allowing them to lead or guide you as an authority figure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, childhood experience highly influence who we trust and to what extent, but that is an area in which I have little knowledge available to answer you question. I hope I made my message clear. Nonetheless, these are based off of opinion, although @denniswennen had a similar argument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6323" LastActivityDate="2014-07-11T08:20:31.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7803" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7728" CreationDate="2014-07-11T14:53:03.153" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are not 16 Jungian types. There are 16 MBTI combinations and 16 Kersian (sub-)temperament types. All are related and easily confused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jung, in Psychological Types (Collected Works, Book 6), defines two Attitude Types and four functions, splitting the latter into two groups of two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Attitude Type is Extraversion and Introversion and takes up 9 of the 10 chapters in the work. In the 10th chapter, he explains the four functions: Sensation, Intuition, Thinking, and Feeling. The first two are irrational functions, the second two, rational functions. This makes a total of three groups of two. Though, Jung treats all four functions as one group, it is helpful to remember they can be bifurcated thusly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of both the two Attitude Types and the four functions, one is &lt;em&gt;preferred&lt;/em&gt; from each. That is, everyone has all the types and functions, but everyone &lt;em&gt;prefers&lt;/em&gt; one from each group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chapter 10 then explains how the functions play out within the two Attitude Types, leading to 8 explanations, which are Extraversion and Introversion with each of the four functions. He &lt;em&gt;also&lt;/em&gt; explains the role of the secondary function. The secondary function will be the opposite of the primary function. That is, if the primary is irrational, the secondary will be rational, and vice-versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before Jung published Psychological Types, but based on his works, Meyers-Briggs created the MBTI (Meyers-Briggs Type inventory), a personality inventory based on Jung's functions. The first letter is the preferred Attitude Type, the second letter is the preferred irrational function, the third letter is the preferred rational function, and the fourth letter indicates which function is preferred to be extraverted. Note, the fourth letter does not indicate the primary function. It indicates whether the preferred extraverted function is irrational or rational, which is the inverse of the introvert's primary function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The combination of one of two Attitude Types, one of two irrational functions, one of two rational functions, and one of two preferred extraverted functions, makes 16 combinations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Gifts Differing, Meyers-Briggs defined four function groups (ST, SF, NT, NF) which are like groups to the 16 types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keirsey, working on Temperament theory (reactions to the external environment), found a connection between his work and the MBTI. Note, he did not find a connection between Temperament and Jung's theory. Indeed, he could not, because Jung did not have the fourth letter defined by the MBTI, which is integral to the connection Keirsey found. He also grouped the letters differently than the MBTI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keirsey's groups are SP, SJ, NF, NT, which can be matched to the four historical temperaments: Artisan, Guardian, Idealist, Rational. The history of Temperament theory gives many different names for these groups, so Keirsey, in his main work, Please Understand Me II, says he based it on The Republic. In Keirsey's last work, Personology, however, he focuses much less on those names and uses his own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With a connection between the MBTI and Temperament theory established, Keirsey &lt;em&gt;extended&lt;/em&gt; Temperament theory to include four sub-types for each of the four temperaments. This makes a total of 16 sub-types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6336" LastActivityDate="2014-07-11T14:53:03.153" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7804" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-11T20:56:13.727" Score="5" ViewCount="10020" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is more of a subtlety and goes beyond general English Language &amp;amp; Usage and is more about the cognitive process surrounding the use of language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like I heard once that, while it is common to say, using a phrase like &quot;Don't forget&quot; or &quot;don't miss&quot; is essentially a cognitive &lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/31671/what-constitutes-a-double-negative&quot;&gt;double negative&lt;/a&gt;. Consciously we understand that &quot;Don't forget&quot; means to &quot;remember&quot; but unconsciously our minds drop the &quot;don't&quot; and file it as &quot;forget,&quot; thus conveying the opposite message.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The argument goes that if I tell you &quot;don't think of a pink elephant&quot; then you need to first think of the pink elephant before you can cognitively not think of it. Later if you recall back to the conversation you would remember it was about pink elephants and not thinking of them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="486" OwnerDisplayName="Jim McKeeth" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2019-10-22T17:56:37.883" Title="Is it better to say &quot;Don't forget&quot; or &quot;Remember&quot; in written encouragement?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7805" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-11T21:13:13.667" Score="9" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand a neuroscience article by Karl Friston. In it he gives three equations that are, as I understand him, equivalent or inter-convertible and refer to both physical and Shannon entropy. They appear as equation (5) in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/doc/papers/Action_and_behavior_A_free-energy_formulation.pdf&quot;&gt;this article (PDF&lt;/a&gt;; DOI 10.1007/s00422-010-0364-z). Here they are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Energy minus entropy: $F = −{\ln p(\tilde s,Ψ|m)}q + {\ln q(Ψ|μ)}q$&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Divergence plus surprise: = $D(q(Ψ|μ)||p(Ψ|\tilde s,m)) − \ln p (\tilde s|m)$&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Complexity minus accuracy: = $D(q(Ψ|μ)||p(Ψ|m)) − {\ln p(\tilde s|Ψ,m)}q$&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The things I am struggling with at this point are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the meaning of the || in the 2nd and 3rd versions of the equations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the negative logs&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help in understanding how these equations are actually what Fristen claims them to be would be greatly appreciated. For example, in the 1st equation, in what sense is the first term energy, etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6339" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-11T22:40:54.853" LastActivityDate="2015-12-17T21:05:34.800" Title="Trying to understand equations in Karl Friston article" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7806" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7804" CreationDate="2014-07-11T21:21:38.470" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd argue that Churchill's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/w/winstonchu143691.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;strong&gt;Never&lt;/strong&gt;,  never, NEVER give up&quot;&lt;/a&gt; didn't reputedly have this effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With 'Don't forget' the 'don't' may well outweigh the infinitive verb in its cognitive effect, especially if stressed. The language here is of stimulation, incentivising, or command, and I'd say the more likely undesired reaction is the dislike of the perceived patronising (or, certainly, the imperious) approach. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With 'Don't think of a pink elephant' there is little likelihood that one feels patronised or browbeaten. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6340" LastActivityDate="2014-07-11T21:21:38.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1116" CreationDate="2014-07-12T00:32:26.663" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Jung had the notion of an archetype, a universally known symbol.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Archetypes and symbols are two different things. Jacobi explains it in her excellent book, &lt;em&gt;Complex Archetype Symbol in the Psychology of C. G. Jung.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;there is a lot of evidence that he viewed archetypes as innate predispositions with an organizing function&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to see that &quot;evidence&quot;. You can see Jung's idea develop over the years in his many publications, but he was consistent in that it affected the person, though it is never described as a predisposition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is hard to see an archetype because we only see its affects or the results of its projection. A psychologist, after dealing with many patients, may see the patterns emerge. Jung, an experienced psychologist, explains the ideas and Jacobi elucidates some of the more confusing areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6336" LastActivityDate="2014-07-12T00:32:26.663" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7804" CreationDate="2014-07-12T03:15:06.643" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think &quot;remember&quot; might be a better choice than &quot;don't forget&quot; because the former would be taken more as a suggestion while the latter sounds limiting (as if it were a prohibition of sorts). Humans probably in average respond better to positively formed suggestions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6341" LastActivityDate="2014-07-12T03:15:06.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7809" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-12T17:44:56.423" Score="1" ViewCount="169" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the psychological advantage of having a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology#Happiness_set_point&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;happiness set point&lt;/a&gt;? If one found a way to constantly be attached to this set point, what would the advantages be (other than perpetual happiness ^^)? How could a person become grounded in a perpetual state of happiness? What specifically would pull a person out of this state? How does a person get back in if they leave?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6258" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-12T21:42:32.013" LastActivityDate="2014-07-12T22:55:14.537" Title="What is the psychological advantage of having a happiness set point?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7810" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6266" CreationDate="2014-07-12T17:52:27.737" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the comments:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to hazard a guess that these are neurons that are tuned to a particular direction in space and that the x-axis is the angle in multiples of π radians, particularly since these are related to the work of &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurosci.umn.edu/faculty/georgopoulos.html&quot;&gt;Georgopoulos and colleagues&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since we know these are positionally tuned neurons, you can see some other examples in &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_coding#Position_coding&quot;&gt;this Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; for some other examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A typical population code involves neurons with a Gaussian tuning curve whose means vary linearly with the stimulus intensity, meaning that the neuron responds most strongly (in terms of spikes per second) to a stimulus near the mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, as mentioned above, the independent variable here is the stimulus &quot;intensity&quot; (in this case abstracted by the quantity of direction) and the firing rate is the dependent variable, hence their positions on the axes in the plot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some of the more theoretical studies of this type of phenomenon, I would definitely check out the work of &lt;a href=&quot;http://homes.cs.washington.edu/~todorov&quot;&gt;Emo Todorov&lt;/a&gt;, among many others, as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastActivityDate="2014-07-12T17:52:27.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7812" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7809" CreationDate="2014-07-12T22:55:14.537" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you've misunderstood the set point. It's a point of balance (or imbalance) of positive and negative affect toward which a person naturally gravitates. As such, there's not much need to do anything about leaving the set point except to wait / go on living and let time, neurochemistry, and daily life do the work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deliberate effort is more likely to attempt to increase positive affect beyond the set point. Thus the common struggle is generally against the effect of the &quot;hedonic treadmill&quot; pulling oneself back down to a more neutral or discontent set point after moments of hard-won happiness. Perpetual happiness is an elusive target for almost anyone, including positive psychologists. Most positive interventions have somewhat temporary effects (again, due largely to the true nature of the set point), though the small catalog of events that induce lasting changes to happiness is growing slowly through ongoing research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From an evolutionary perspective, advantages to this aspect of human nature might include resilience, impulse control, and stabilization of one's identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The hedonic set point pulls either way depending on the direction of deviation, and downward deviations are generally more threatening. The natural tendency to &quot;bounce back&quot; from depression, calm down from high alert, and otherwise recover from traumatic stress is the upside to the set point for most people (though some have set points that we classify as depressed, unfortunately).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Excessive exuberance can be dangerous as well. It may relate to mania and disinhibition of impulses (I'd prefer to say excessive happiness sometimes results from these, but I'm not sure enough of it). If unusual circumstances increase happiness excessively (e.g., winning the lottery), dysregulated behavior with negative consequences may result. This may also be a mechanism of regression to the set point. Anxiety and discontent can also have motivating effects, whereas survival needs aren't always well-served by a state of bliss, especially when they entail hard work and worry for the future.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Both individuals and groups may benefit from the affective stability of personality. This point is somewhat more speculative than the others on my part, but to motivate it, consider &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-verification theory&lt;/a&gt; and the social undesirability of moodiness and anger. People prefer to be able to predict emotions in themselves and others, as the motivational impact of unexpected depression, unreliable energy, or uncontrollable anger is disruptive and sometimes dangerous. Of course, we live with this challenge anyway, but without a natural process for restoring emotional equilibrium, our vacillations could be more chaotic and troublesome than they already are.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plenty of theoretical literature and research exists on this topic, and it's not hard to find. E.g., see the Wikipedia page you linked in your question. I listed one of those in my answer to this question:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/5803/4086&quot;&gt;What exactly is meant when it is said that only you can make yourself happy?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). &lt;em&gt;The how of happiness: A scientific approach to getting the life you want&lt;/em&gt;. Penguin.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-07-12T22:55:14.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7814" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-13T07:54:40.110" Score="-1" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the newly emerging field, Neurorobotics. Can one list several highly recommended prerequisite courses prior to entering this field ? Except for classical machine learning, computational neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or specifically for either neuronally modelling and implementation of neural principles to robotic platforms etc...., does one need to establish a deeply solid foundation in something like analog/electric circuits analysis, Signal processing, Optics, Sensor fusions, kinematics etc.... by reading textbooks on them ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5052" LastEditorUserId="5052" LastEditDate="2014-10-22T16:34:35.690" LastActivityDate="2014-10-22T16:34:35.690" Title="Prerequisite Request: Neurorobotics" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2014-07-17T23:46:15.217" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7815" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7797" CreationDate="2014-07-13T23:11:08.530" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anybody with enough will and persistence can find support for almost any viewpoint they desire concerning autism, depending especially on (lower) quality of source material. However, if you read enough, consistent patterns will emerge in the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This issue of &lt;a href=&quot;http://pubmedcentralcanada.ca/tocrender.cgi?iid=107944&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; is all about autism. Although all of it is valuable, I strongly encourage you to work through the wealth of information in &lt;a href=&quot;http://pubmedcentralcanada.ca/articlerender.cgi?accid=PMC3513682&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions&lt;/a&gt; by&#xA;Pauline Chaste, MD, PhD. and Marion Leboyer, MD, PhD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In it you will discover that autism is more and more thought to be a disorder caused by a combination of genetics and environment: genetic factors, epigenesis, maternal environment, drug exposure during pregnancy and a host of other factors, all occurring before of during birth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seem to be two types: the slow progressive and the loss of developmental skills type. For this reason the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/Pages/Prevalence-of-Autism-Spectrum-Disorders.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;American Academy of Pediatrics&lt;/a&gt; recommends screening for autism at 18 and 24 months, though some Pediatricians start screening at 9 or 12 months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The short answers to your questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can autism spectrum disorders be acquired or are they inherited traits only, especially in the case of Asperger syndrome or pervasive developmental disorders where they lie on the lower end of the spectrum?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Autism Spectrum Disorder appears to be genetic and environmental, but that environment is strongly in utero or at birth. So, no, it does not appear that one can acquire ASD as one might acquire, say, chicken pox if unvaccinated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If so, does there seem the be a cut-off age, like the onset of adolescence or adulthood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although people with autism may take a long time to be diagnosed, it is not 'acquired' later in childhood or adolescence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other degenerative neurological disorders can occur later in life, for example lead poisoning or other diseases, but they are not autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastEditorUserId="5104" LastEditDate="2014-07-14T03:26:09.927" LastActivityDate="2014-07-14T03:26:09.927" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7816" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13993" CreationDate="2014-07-14T02:55:18.653" Score="16" ViewCount="11971" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently become aware of this - I kinda knew I was always doing it, but just now it got me self conscious and thinking about it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When crossing paths with a stranger, you are supposed to be friendly and smile at them, acknowledge them through a nod, and so on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is particularly the case in many service industries: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;grocery stores - associates and customers acknowledging each other (not during checkout, but just walking around in the store)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;fellow gym members as well as staff and members (again only walking around, not during particular business related interactions)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example might be you walk in a public bathroom and someone just comes out the door, you'll look each other briefly in the eyes, &quot;smile&quot;, nod, acknowledge each other, and move on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now here's the thing I've become aware of, and mostly guys do this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;We don't actually smile.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, we are kind of grumpy looking. Our mouth and eyebrows go into a frown, we press our lips together, and the only thing close to a smile that we do is to create a crease on the sides of our mouth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hard to explain... And hard to find actual pictures of this...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/weIfY.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;besides that he looks in the distance and he looks concerned, but imagine he looks at you and gives you a nod like that. pretty close!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yaDnf.png&quot; alt=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;he looks slightly more surprised, and worried, then what people usually look like, especially because the eyebrows are going up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fjNzS.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;he's got too much &quot;darnit!&quot; on his face, and his eyes are sad looking, but again, the general idea comes across.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Qtf3I.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;he has an actual upward curved smile going on, but definietly the lips pressed together like that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So again:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mostly guys do it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it is done for acknlowledgement/politeness when you cross paths&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it usually goes with a nod and brief eye contact, whereas the nod goes down&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the eyebrows might seem kind of like a frown, since you're noding down, while looking upwards in the persons eyes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;your lips are pressed together&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;often the mouth will actually go into a reverse smile curve (meaning frown)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the mouth gets kinda pulled to the sides, like we're making a wide mouth, just like when smiling.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all: Do you know what I'm talking about? Do you do it? Has it been done to you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it have a proper name?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we do it? Why don't we actually smile? We do we look rather grumpy when smiling like that? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that we do a similar face in many different situations. Sometimes someone might tell you something that might make you smile or even laugh, but to them it's rather sincere, so you press your lips together, trying to make a frown, but you still can't help to smile a little.&#xA;There are many expressions that this kind of face can express (as you can see in the pictures), they all have a certain subtle difference to them, and definitely very different meanings, but I feel as if the mouth pressed together and kinda mixing a grin with a frown remains constant. The particular facial expression I am talking about is also accompanied by a nod, making it distinct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we do this so often?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are we hiding something? Is this some sort of a default expression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6350" LastActivityDate="2019-08-07T14:47:12.080" Title="Body Language: Why do we give each other the grumpy/frowning fake smile?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7819" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5772" CreationDate="2014-07-14T05:12:02.593" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you have a physics background, you may be particularly interested in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparse_distributed_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sparse Distributed Memory&lt;/a&gt;, a model that provides a number of psychologically plausible characteristics, and is also neuroscientifically plausible.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The model and some of its characteristics are summarized in &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00222/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many great references have been provided by Nick Stauner, but this model is, in my view, one of the most promising and comprehensive ones in Cognitive Science.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6351" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-04-11T15:43:01.020" LastActivityDate="2015-04-11T15:43:01.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7820" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6247" CreationDate="2014-07-14T05:23:35.527" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hofstadter provides a detailed set of criteria in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_Concepts_and_Creative_Analogies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies.&lt;/a&gt;  Some of his criteria that I do not see mentioned above concern &lt;em&gt;the flow of information-processing&lt;/em&gt;:  whether or not the model evaluated &lt;em&gt;flows through possibility space in a psychologically plausible way&lt;/em&gt;, and how to measure that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance...  Suppose the following: &quot;A bat and a ball cost usd110. The bat costs usd100 more than the ball. How much is the ball?&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, cognitive psychology has shown that people are primed to say &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Reflection_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;the ball costs usd10.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; Which is wrong! A good cognitive model should also &quot;think&quot; usd10, before considering usd5. Otherwise, it doesn't respect information-processing flow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He also mentions, metaphorically, the idea of including &quot;lesions&quot; in the model, such that, if some component of the model is &quot;lesioned&quot;, the expected outcome from that component should drastically change.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6351" LastEditorUserId="6351" LastEditDate="2015-04-24T08:04:35.040" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T08:04:35.040" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7822" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7782" CreationDate="2014-07-14T20:35:00.803" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the paper, the advantage of this new approach over conventional ANNs, Deep Belief  Networks (DBN) and Self-Organising Networks (SON) are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Remains functional during online learning.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Requires only two layers&#xA;  connected with simultaneous supervised and unsupervised learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Employs spiking neuron models to reproduce central features of&#xA;  biological learning, such as spike-timing dependent plasticity&#xA;  (STDP)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So arguably, hPES is superior to ANNs in terms of capability, but in terms of performance, you'll have to compare &lt;a href=&quot;http://github.com/tbekolay/cogsci2013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the code from his experiments&lt;/a&gt; with ANNs meant to accomplish the same task, but since both methodologies are designed with different purposes in mind, it might not be worth comparing. Additionally, it should be noted that although the author claims to have created a SON, the validation of this claim in the paper (and his master's thesis) is pretty weak. In the paper he only proves that the SON increases sparsity, which is not what SONs (for example Kohonen networks) are generally used for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, note that although hPES is &lt;em&gt;more&lt;/em&gt; biologically plausible, it still has some of the same problems that ANNs have. Namely, the parameters that it takes in must be optimized for the specific task it's learning (some approaches for solving this with ANNs include Genetic Algorithms) even if it is &lt;em&gt;less&lt;/em&gt; sensitive to parameter modification. The author mentions this investigation of parameters as being part of future work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-09-15T23:22:08.330" LastActivityDate="2015-09-15T23:22:08.330" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7823" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-15T02:29:07.710" Score="3" ViewCount="480" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the average &lt;em&gt;raw&lt;/em&gt; scores, and standard deviations for the WAIS-IV subtests (scores are normalized)?&#xA;For example, the digit symbol task gives you 120 seconds to substitute as many digits for symbols, given a key. What would the average person score &lt;em&gt;in terms of number of symbols completed&lt;/em&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6355" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-15T05:58:45.817" LastActivityDate="2014-07-15T05:58:45.817" Title="What are the average raw scores, and standard deviations for the WAIS-IV subtests?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7825" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7814" CreationDate="2014-07-15T03:03:16.530" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following book may help you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wermter, S., Palm, G., &amp;amp; Elshaw, M. (Eds.). (2005). Biomimetic neural learning for intelligent robots: Intelligent systems, cognitive robotics, and neuroscience (Vol. 3575). Springer. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.homeshop18.com/biomimetic-neural-learning-intelligent-robots-intelligent-systems-cognitive-robotics-neuroscience/author:na/isbn:9783540274407/books/computers/product:23600193/cid:11167/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;LINK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is about neurology and robotics. One should have a strong background in many subjects.&#xA;Search Google with the following phrase&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;neurorobot filetype:pdf&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiotics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiotics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6356" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-15T06:26:19.233" LastActivityDate="2014-07-15T06:26:19.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7826" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-15T11:16:59.557" Score="2" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've dealt with a few people having a &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;narcissistic&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; personality trait / disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me it's interesting to see the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;defense pattern&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; they adopt through &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(making_excuses)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;rationalization&lt;/a&gt; to defend their &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-image&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-image&lt;/a&gt; and to avoid changing their &lt;code&gt;beliefs&lt;/code&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;). &#xA;&lt;em&gt;The pattern seems to be almost identical in the various subjects.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;em&gt;could be functional to these subjects to read a book which tries to change their beliefs? At least could it be used to speed-up the therapy?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It could be described as follow:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The subject feels ashamed, weak or &quot;bad&quot; on some area. He develops the belief to be superior to others on another area (strong, very rational).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The subject feel a strong need to defend this superiority. Any attempt to change his belief is perceived as an aggression.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The strategy of defense include: use of cognitive distortion to confirm his belief, discrediting of the other idea, personal offence or provocation, getting annoyed and emotional, focusing on everything but his error / responsibility / distorted belief&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The subject usually raise the level of the argument in an emotional way. He appears completely stubborn or use verbal strategy to obstacle the interlocutor. He appeals to any formal argumentative error.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The subject claim to be unique and use typical &quot;excuses&quot; connected to relativism like: &quot;why should I change?&quot;. But actually he use relativism only when it comes to be useful to justify his own belief. Otherwise his beliefs appears very absolute and dichotomic.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is it correct to suppose that million of narcissists share the same &quot;defensive&quot; pattern? Has it been already studied?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-09-15T19:52:43.310" LastActivityDate="2014-12-14T22:11:27.973" Title="Can reading [self-help] books aid in therapeutic treatment of the narcissistic rationalization pattern?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2015-04-28T14:51:27.043" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7827" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1554" CreationDate="2014-07-15T20:55:04.220" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's a link to a socionics wiki page on a study of reinin types in Russia.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikisocion.org/en/index.php?title=Reinin_Dichotomies:_Study_Results&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.wikisocion.org/en/index.php?title=Reinin_Dichotomies:_Study_Results&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They did a lot of research on experimental data to prove that reinin traits exist in different types of people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you don't know the reinin dichotomies, they are traits that were mathematically calculated by a Russian socionist named Grigoriy Reinin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The traits are like the dichotomies of the types: &#xA;sensation/intuition, logic/ethics that are combined to form a combination: INTp, ESFP, ESTj, INFj&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference is that they categorize the combinations based on the patterns of traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the reinin dichotomy Judicious/decisive is determined by whether the combination(socionics type) values Si and Ne(Judicious) or Se and Ni(Decisive).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the reinin dichotomy comes in as a further category of the already established types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With that given, INTp and ESFp have Ni or Se as a first function or a suggestive function. Both of these functions are valued and so INTp and ESFp value Ni and Se. Therefore, they are categorized as Decisive because of definition I stated above&#xA;(Decisive types value Se and Ni).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The names of this dichotomy would not have formed if this study of the Reinin types was not conducted. Using the correlation of identified types they find behaviors that align with these dichotomies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For details of the study read this paragraph I have found that describes it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2003, a socionics research group at the laboratory of interdisciplinary researches of The Institute of Biology and Psychology of Humans (IBPCH) has conducted a study which attempted to test for, characterize and substantially augment what is known about several Reinin groups, presented actual statements made by research subjects, as well as advance and test a number of hypotheses. Their publication can be found here: Reinin Dichotomies: Study Results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The link that I have given you is the one stated in the paragraph above (Reinin Dichotomies: Study Results.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This may not be about information metabolism or where or how it works in the brain but it is at least proof that there are types involved in different people and that there is a way to mark and categorize it. Also Model A, is not the only theory of socionics that exists, there are others that may have more potential like Model T. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I think that the psychological functions and aspects of socionics are just an extremely high model of the hierarchy of the mind. Very abstracted states of mind that survived in the evolution of humans or some other species before that. In other words, parts of the mind that can't be accessed through the brain structure. Rather, through something one could call as part of the &quot;software&quot; of the brain as apposed to the &quot;hardware&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of treating the aspects(Se,Ni,Fe,Ti,Te,Fi,Ne,Si) as physical parts of the brain structure(the &quot;hardware&quot;) but rather as nothing but psychological and mental(the&quot;software&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6364" LastEditorUserId="6364" LastEditDate="2014-07-15T21:22:58.873" LastActivityDate="2014-07-15T21:22:58.873" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7828" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7798" CreationDate="2014-07-15T21:24:42.657" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;How accurate are people in estimating their mortality risk?&quot; &quot;How well can people estimate smoking's impact on their mortality?&quot; (I grouped these.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not accurate at all. One problem with your question is that the accuracy of predicting/estimating risk is difficult to do without the actual outcome: if a smoker predicts he will get cancer, and does develop it, that's 100% accuracy. (See [1] and [2].) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many studies show that smokers underestimate their &lt;em&gt;relative risk&lt;/em&gt; of all smoking-related disorders (including cancer, heart disease, chronic lung infections, etc.) compared to non-smokers. Also, smokers believe they have a lower risk of developing lung cancer &lt;em&gt;than the average smoker&lt;/em&gt;. This has been labeled by some as “unrealistic optimism”. &lt;sup&gt;[1][2]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Together, the accumulated data demonstrate convincingly that smokers have a very imperfect understanding of the risks of smoking and of risk statistics in general. Furthermore, regardless of what they may acknowledge about the risks faced by other smokers, they believe that their own risk is less. Given the accumulated evidence, the argument that people begin to smoke or continue to smoke with adequate knowledge of the potential risks appears indefensible. &lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smokers do react behaviorally to bad news. In one study of smokers who received annual spiral CT scans x 3, 48% of smokers quit after &lt;em&gt;three&lt;/em&gt; abnormal scans; 28.0% quit after &lt;em&gt;two abnormal scans&lt;/em&gt;; 24.2% quit after &lt;em&gt;one abnormal scan&lt;/em&gt; (compared to 19.8% with no abnormal screens).&lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt; A larger, later study (the Danish Lung Cancer Screening Trial [DLCST]) confirmed that quit rates were higher and relapse rate lower among subjects with initial CT findings that necessitated a repeat scan 3 months later.&lt;sup&gt;[4]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding other forms of &quot;bad news&quot;, the effect was less pronounced:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of the fifteen included studies, only two detected a significant effect of the intervention. Spirometry combined with an interpretation of the results in terms of 'lung age' had a significant effect in a single good quality trial but the evidence is not optimal. A trial of carotid plaque screening using ultrasound also detected a significant effect, but a second larger study of a similar feedback mechanism did not detect evidence of an effect. Only two pairs of studies were similar enough in terms of recruitment, setting, and intervention to allow meta-analyses; neither of these found evidence of an effect. Mixed quality evidence does not support the hypothesis that other types of biomedical risk assessment increase smoking cessation in comparison to standard treatment. There is insufficient evidence with which to evaluate the hypothesis that multiple types of assessment are more effective than single forms of assessment.&lt;sup&gt;[5]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this is enough to get you started.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[1] Smokers’ unrealistic optimism about their risk, N D Weinstein et. al., &#xA;Tob Control 2005;14:55-59 doi:10.1136/tc.2004.008375&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[2] Perceived risks of heart disease and cancer among cigarette smokers, Ayanian JZ, JAMA. 1999 Mar 17;281(11):1019-21.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[3] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15825210&quot;&gt;Relation between smoking cessation and receiving results from three annual spiral chest computed tomography scans for lung carcinoma screening&lt;/a&gt;, CO Townsend et. al., Cancer. 2005 May 15;103(10):2154-62.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[4] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19052048&quot;&gt;Effect of CT screening on smoking habits at 1-year follow-up in the Danish Lung Cancer Screening Trial (DLCST)&lt;/a&gt;. Ashraf H et. al., Thorax. 2009 May;64(5):388-92.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[5] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23235615&quot;&gt;Biomedical risk assessment as an aid for smoking cessation&lt;/a&gt;. Bize R, et. al., Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Dec 12;12:CD004705.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-07-15T21:24:42.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7829" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-15T22:33:38.583" Score="2" ViewCount="201" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been learning about hypnosis, inductions etc. and I have heard how there is a spectrum of how able people are to be hypnotised. There are those who will go into trance at the drop of a hat, and others who are near-impossible to induce a trance state on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, is there a correlation between where one is on this spectrum, and the success rates of rapid compared to standard hypnosis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any extra info would be nice. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6365" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-18T11:48:47.077" LastActivityDate="2015-07-17T13:37:31.730" Title="Is hypnotic susceptibility associated with responsiveness to rapid vs. standard hypnosis induction?" Tags="&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7830" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7831" CreationDate="2014-07-16T09:45:54.983" Score="-1" ViewCount="2662" Body="&lt;p&gt;On social networks I found many people who don't answer to some polite questions. In real life it would be considered unacceptable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read an italian resource where it calls this way of behaving denying. Like I deny that you exist by not answering you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read that it's also a manipulatory technique used by narcissists and borderline. Can you help me to make this statement more scientific?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This other question can lead to the answer: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/13167/why-being-ignored-is-painful-for-human-beings&quot;&gt;Why being ignored is &amp;#39;painful&amp;#39; for human beings?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be useful to check also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_treatment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;silent threatment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-02-03T11:00:06.603" Title="Ignoring someone can be considered aggressive?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7831" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7830" CreationDate="2014-07-16T10:02:45.863" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To drop a relationship which has no direction (at this time in life) is healthy. Sometimes the reasons for which we drop a relationship reflect negatively on our personality and can result on hurt feelings for the person we are removing from our lives so it's best to do a clean cut for the other person and ourselves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Technically this technique of quietly asserting ones self at the expense of someone else's feelings is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;passive aggressive&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;an indirect negative behavior &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2015-04-21T09:50:18.083" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T09:50:18.083" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7834" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-16T13:56:14.163" Score="12" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;p&gt;Marketers use the fact that different letters are associated with different mental images and emotions when they create &lt;strong&gt;brand names&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies show that letters and their combinations produce different connotations in terms of size, shape, brightness and overall impression of an object. The letters &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;a&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;o&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; symbolize depth and size, while &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; evokes the mental image of something small. Among consonants, soft, voiced sounds such as &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;d&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;l&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;m&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;n&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;w&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; can be distinguised from hard, voiceless sound such as &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;f&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;k&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;r&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;t&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;. The soft consonants evoke associations of harmony, softness, gentleness and femininity, while the hard cononants are connected to hardness, dynamism, vigor, strength and masculinty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(translated from &lt;a href=&quot;http://comrecon.wordpress.com/2010/02/26/namen-sind-wegweiser-bei-konsumentscheidungen-naming-branding/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://comrecon.wordpress.com/2010/02/26/namen-sind-wegweiser-bei-konsumentscheidungen-naming-branding/&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On some other brand name blog I read that the letter &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;b&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; is associated with trustworthiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are those studies, and what else has been found regarding the psychology of letters (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-05-12T22:20:33.003" Title="Psychology of brand names" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7842" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7887" CreationDate="2014-07-16T21:17:45.883" Score="0" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some persons gets really annoyed if we try to demonstrate our thesis to them or to put in light that they are behaving in a childish way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Carnegie&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dale Carnegie&lt;/a&gt;, in his most famous book: &lt;code&gt;How to win friends and influence people&lt;/code&gt;, wrote that it's almost completely unuseful to try to criticize others even if we are completely right. Even if we are trying to help them. The psychological reason behind is that we hurt their self-esteem / ego.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But when does this come to be extreme? When people are extremely stubborn and any attempt to change their mind or to show a different point of view becomes like a fight with them? &#xA;(Of course this definition is usually related to some of their belief on which they can become oversensitive).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can happen when they have a strong need to confirm their beliefs, but also if their belief is that to insist is disrespectful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this trait is very frequent in Narcyssistic (which thinks to be super rational).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This trait can be explicitated both in an &lt;strong&gt;aggressive&lt;/strong&gt; way and in a &lt;strong&gt;passive resistence.&lt;/strong&gt; The description provided by wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology, passive-aggressive behavior is characterized by a&#xA;  habitual pattern of passive resistance to expected work requirements,&#xA;  opposition, stubbornness, and negativistic attitudes in response to&#xA;  requirements for normal performance levels expected of others. Most&#xA;  frequently it occurs in the workplace where resistance is exhibited by&#xA;  such indirect behaviors as procrastination, forgetfulness, and&#xA;  purposeful inefficiency, especially in reaction to demands by&#xA;  authority figures, but it can also occur in interpersonal contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2014-07-24T16:43:26.277" LastActivityDate="2014-11-18T00:32:48.253" Title="Is there a formal name for &quot;I'm right, don't try to challenge me&quot; / &quot;if you push against me I will be 100x more stubborn&quot; personality trait?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7843" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3201" CreationDate="2014-07-17T04:34:21.993" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, there is one informal theory known as the cosmic orgasm (reference needed&#xA;), that states that very highly advanced civilization will move to a virtual reality state of pure pleasure and stop contact with other civilizations. This is one of the ways to solve the Fermi paradox (why haven't we been contacted by alien civilizations?).&#xA;I never tried it, but they say that the first injection of heroin is a state of pleasure of about two minutes superior to a continuous orgasm. I am pretty sure that if you could manipulate synaptic changes at the microscale at will, that state could be reached forever without decay.&#xA;The fact that its decay is a mater of the specific way our brain adapts to chemicals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4547" LastEditorUserId="2664" LastEditDate="2014-07-17T19:21:56.723" LastActivityDate="2014-07-17T19:21:56.723" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7844" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-17T07:57:17.603" Score="3" ViewCount="307" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently read a fascinating article about the pattern of young women receiving ADHD diagnoses after first displaying symptoms in their late teens or early twenties, typically corresponding to college and post-college years. While very interesting, it was written from an informal, personal perspective. I'd like to know more about the subject from a research perspective. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been much research regarding gender differences in ADHD, specifically about different presentation and age of onset? Within this subject, has there been any research into the effects of estradiol levels on ADHD-like symptoms? I know that consensus is not very common in the research community, especially with a diagnosis as controvertial as ADHD, but I would still like to know whether late-onset in young women is at all commonly accepted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6237" LastActivityDate="2014-07-17T07:57:17.603" Title="ADHD Symptoms Emerging in Adolescence or Young Adulthood" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7847" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-17T09:46:22.173" Score="2" ViewCount="804" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term &quot;Shiny Object Syndrome&quot; is used to describe the tendency to start new ideas without thinking them through, especially in business.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does this phrase represent an actual clinical diagnosis? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there people who are more likely than others to be distracted by &quot;shiny objects&quot;? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can &quot;shiny objects&quot; cause further effects other than distraction?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5102" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-07-22T01:22:29.337" LastActivityDate="2015-01-19T23:18:27.077" Title="Is there really a Shiny Object Syndrome?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7623" CreationDate="2014-07-17T12:17:30.507" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hope you still see this. I don't know a specific term for the exact kind of problem you mentioned. However, I would think that it can be explained by linguistic as well as cognitive or memory processes. Hence, my proposed explanation comes in two parts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Linguistics&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One view would be that it has to do with how we interpret language, specifically that we usually try to avoid irrelevant information. A classic in pragmatics (the field of linguistics that deals with how we actually use language to achieve things - make someone understand something, request things, or pose riddles) is the work by Paul Grice (1975).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Grice posited that we usually try to communicate cooperatively, i.e. in such a manner that it is easy for our communication partner to understand what we are saying. He said that we usually adhere to four &lt;em&gt;conversational maxims&lt;/em&gt;: information (say as much but not more than is required for understanding the message), truth (say what you think is true), relation (be relevant), and manner (be clear and brief).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The important part is that, when trying to understand what someone has said, we also assume that the other is also following that rule. So when you say the cowboy thing, we usually assume that it's informative, relevant, and true and base all our interpretations and deliberations on that. This essentially means that to understand a statement you have to accept it as true. (Actually, Grice has fallen a bit out of favour with linguists, but newer accounts like relevance theory would lead to roughly the same conclusion.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Memory&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But that would not explain why that should still be the case after you tell the guesser that the information is actually irrelevant. This can likely be explained by the way memory works. A good start on this is the article by Lewandowsky and colleagues (2012). As soon as we get some information, we connect it to other information that is also currently relevant in our memory. That means that as soon as you say that the man is a cowboy, he is one in our memory. We connect the man (which was before just a non-descript man in a bar) with our mental concept of a cowboy. These connections get stronger the more they are used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your assertion that he actually wasn't a cowboy doesn't delete that connection, it likely only adds a &quot;NOT&quot; tag to it, but the connection itself is still there and has actually been strengthened further by the repeated mention. What is more, you do not provide an alternative (e.g., he's a truck driver or whatever) which could have lead to another, competing connection. To actually consider that &quot;NOT&quot; connection is effortful and strengthens the man--cowboy connection even further. Research usually calls this the &lt;em&gt;misinformation effect&lt;/em&gt; or continued influence of misinformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps! If someone with a better grip on pragmatics and/or memory processes is willing to correct (ha!) my explanation, I'd appreciate it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole &amp;amp; J. Morgan (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Syntax and semantics&lt;/em&gt; (Vol. 3). New York, NY: Academic Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., &amp;amp; Cook, J. (2012) Misinformation and its correction: continued influence and successful debiasing. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science in the Public Interest (13)&lt;/em&gt;. doi:10.1177/1529100612451018 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6372" LastActivityDate="2014-07-17T12:17:30.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7849" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5114" CreationDate="2014-07-17T12:31:27.263" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Glamorization of a criminal is no different than glamorization of a non-criminal, except for the added excitement of doing something wrong. Not that glamorizing something wrong is the impetus for the glamorization itself, but it does add to its excitement. The more the excitement, the more the interest, and hence, what the media covers. In some cases, the individual may not be &quot;interesting enough&quot; without the added excitement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A second factor is appreciation. Appreciating expertise in a specific field is closely related to our own involvement in that field. For example, while a person may watch the World Cup with interest, he might not fully appreciate the expert performance unless he has played the sport himself. The more he tries to become an expert himself, the more he would appreciate the actual experts. Similarly, the more he reads about a subject, the more he appreciates the experts in the field. (Pun intended.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a criminal takes an action, it is generally not random. Usually, there is a goal that most people can understand or there is a consistent set of actions along some line. People who have an appreciation of the goal or the subject, even if they &quot;would never do it themselves&quot;, are led to an appreciation of the perpetrator as an expert in the field. If they have a latent desire to perpetrate the same action, but suppress the desire rather than sublimate it, they will identify with the perpetrator as well, or in extreme cases, see them as a form of secret hero, whether they realize it or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6336" LastEditorUserId="6336" LastEditDate="2014-07-17T13:08:16.873" LastActivityDate="2014-07-17T13:08:16.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7850" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1402" CreationDate="2014-07-17T13:31:00.617" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does the MBTI have a fundamental background?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes. It is based on Jung's work, later published as Psychological Types (Collected Works, Book 6). Katherine Briggs, Isabel Myer's mother, did the initial work via communication with Jung. Like Jung, she had different theories at first, but dropped them when she heard of Jung's research on the subject. She developed the Attitude Type and four functions into a consistent theory (further than Jung did, at least at first). She also added the external function indicator as she was focused on getting jobs for women, and the externalized function was seen to be a major component. Its importance  was shown even more strongly by Keirsey's work on Temperament Theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Were there any scientific experiments conducted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If by &quot;scientific&quot; you mean objective, verifiable tests, the answer is no. Currently, at least, that is impossible, being the perception of the Attitude Type and functions are subjective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6336" LastEditorUserId="6336" LastEditDate="2014-07-17T16:12:20.800" LastActivityDate="2014-07-17T16:12:20.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7853" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5509" CreationDate="2014-07-18T07:04:09.360" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513802001216&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Waist to hip ratio seems to be a strong indicator of mate choice, even more than facial beauty&lt;/a&gt; (which was alluded to above). &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=waist%20hip%20mate%20choice&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C44&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google scholar will point you to hundreds of articles concerning the subject.&lt;/a&gt;  Hence the age group with the 'optimum' waist to hip ratio (~0.7) will tend to be favored by men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6351" LastActivityDate="2014-07-18T07:04:09.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7855" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8181" CreationDate="2014-07-18T14:18:57.527" Score="7" ViewCount="6537" Body="&lt;p&gt;Supposing that neurons function similarly to transistors: A neuron able to fire $200$ times per second and transistors can be switched on and off more than $100,000,000,000$ ($10^{11}$) times per second. Let's say it fires 1 out of 2 times in average.&#xA;We have $86,000,000,000$ ($8.6 \cdot 10^{10}$) neurons in a brain, and $4,000,000,000$ ($4 \cdot 10^9$) transistors in medium CPU.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$\text{Units count} \cdot \text{firing probability} \cdot \text{firing rate} = \text{total fires per second}$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A brain's total fires per second: $(8.6 \cdot 10^{10}) \cdot 1 \cdot 200 = 1.72 \cdot 10^{13}$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A CPU's total fires per second: $(4 \cdot 10^9) \cdot \frac{1}{2} \cdot 10^{11} = 2 \cdot 10^{20}$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A CPU is faster than a brain by $\frac{2 \cdot 10^{20}}{1.72 \cdot 10^{13}} = 1.16 \cdot 10^7$, or about 12 million times faster. I gave the brain an advantage that every neuron is firing non-stop instead of just 1%, and that they fire at the rate of the fastest neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why isn't this argument valid?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5037" LastEditorUserId="4474" LastEditDate="2017-08-11T21:04:18.167" LastActivityDate="2018-01-02T22:42:22.363" Title="Why do scientists say brains are faster than computers?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7857" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-18T23:54:23.143" Score="5" ViewCount="352" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is / are there any scientific studies on factors which affect the general intelligence (g) factor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did a Google search, but could not find any academic papers on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6379" LastActivityDate="2014-07-19T13:29:00.450" Title="What factors affect the g factor?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7855" CreationDate="2014-07-19T01:47:27.103" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have you ever seen IBM's Watson? Watson is composed of a cluster of &lt;em&gt;ninety&lt;/em&gt; IBM Power 750 servers, each of which uses a 3.5 GHz POWER7 eight core processor, with four threads per core. In total, the system has 2,880 POWER7 processor cores and has 16 terabytes of RAM. It must be kept in a (very) large refrigerated room.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watson_%28computer%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Watson&lt;/a&gt; is a question answering (QA) computing system that IBM built to apply advanced natural language processing, information retrieval, knowledge representation, automated reasoning, and machine learning technologies to the field of open domain question answering. According to John Rennie, Watson can process 500 gigabytes, the equivalent of a million books, per second. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watson's official debut was on the game show &lt;em&gt;Jeopardy&lt;/em&gt;, where it was pitted against two of &lt;em&gt;Jeopardy's&lt;/em&gt; best players. It won, but the humans gave it a run for its money. Most believe the win was more due to Watson's faster response time (it was electronically keyed into the buzzer; Watson could activate the buzzer within about eight milliseconds, whereas the human response time to the &lt;em&gt;go ahead&lt;/em&gt; light signal is several tenths of a second. In addition, to access memory more quickly, content was stored in Watson's RAM for the game because data stored on hard drives are too slow to access.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watson was devised as a medical diagnostician (as well as other applications). With many years, scores of technicians, who knows how many billions of dollars, and access to medical encyclopedias, books, medical journals and the internet, it can outperform &lt;em&gt;third year medical students&lt;/em&gt; in only one area: oncology (and even then, only lung, prostate and breast CA).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, one average medical resident (4 years of medical school, and, say, second year of residency) can outperform a very, very fast medical supercomputer 99% of the time. I specialize in Primary Care medicine: Family and Emergency Medicine. With a few exceptions per year, within minutes of initiating a conversation with a patient, by watching the patient, reading his vital signs, and hearing answers to perhaps a dozen questions, I already have narrowed down my diagnoses to 2 or 3 top candidates and several other lesser considerations. I am one individual with one brain which accesses only to the information to which I've been exposed, yet I will outperform a medical supercomputer &gt;99% of the time. In under 10 minutes. (This does not mean that I only spend 10 minutes with a patient. Medicine is about more than the correct diagnosis.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is Watson:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/V7WFX.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My brain is about the size of the &quot;W&quot; etched on the room's window.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You tell me: Which is &quot;faster&quot;, a supercomputer or a human brain? It really does depend on your definition of &quot;faster&quot;, doesn't it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watson_%28computer%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Putting Watson to Work: Watson in Healthcare. IBM.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-02/11/ibm-watson-medical-doctor&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;IBM's Watson is better at diagnosing cancer than human doctors&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.techrepublic.com/article/ibm-watsons-impressive-healthcare-analytics-capabilities-continue-to-evolve/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;IBM Watson's impressive healthcare analytics capabilities continue to evolve&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-07-19T01:47:27.103" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7859" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7855" CreationDate="2014-07-19T02:35:56.357" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure the math checks out in the question (the CPU cycles per second seems awfully high), but I think there are some useful principles to keep in mind regardless of the details of the math. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So let's assume that we do have a computer that can perform more operations per second than the combined sum of all action potentials in the brain per second. Is the computer faster than the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer is it depends on what the question is. There are certainly types of information processing that computers are much faster at than human brains. A cheap calculator can solve the problem 2854 x 239 much faster than the average human brain. But brains tend to be much faster than computers at pattern recognition type problems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main point is that looking at the speed of transistors and neurons is the wrong level -- or at least it provides an incomplete picture -- to be thinking about the speed of information processing. Not that the 'hardware' doesn't matter, but other factors matter too. For a computer, the software matters. For a brain, the network of connections between neurons matters. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-07-19T02:35:56.357" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7861" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7857" CreationDate="2014-07-19T07:13:41.117" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;So you're basically asking what are the causes of interpersonal differences in intelligence as typically measured by standardised psychometric tests. This question forms the basis for a large proportion of the literature on intelligence. For example see a journal like &lt;em&gt;Intelligence&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a review you could read  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/correlation/intelligence.pdf&quot;&gt;Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few quick observations include that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Genetics is a major cause&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Environmental causes are often less well understood&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Head start and related programs designed to increase intelligence typically lead to limited long term gains&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Severe environmental factors will negatively affect intelligence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2014-07-19T13:29:00.450" LastActivityDate="2014-07-19T13:29:00.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7862" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-19T18:17:44.983" Score="10" ViewCount="263" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was watching this &lt;a href=&quot;http://vimeo.com/13704095&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/a&gt; by Phil Plait given at TAM(The Amazing Meeting) 8. You can find a partial transcript &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ooblick.com/weblog/2010/07/14/the-dont-be-a-dick-heard-round-the-world/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. It will help provide some context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the talk he makes the following claim:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Studies have shown that people who lose their faith tend to replace it with something else, with a different type of belief. If you start out religious and lose your faith in God, you’ll replace that with something else, some other non-evidence-based reasoning.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q1:&lt;/strong&gt; Which studies is he referring to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q2:&lt;/strong&gt; How much evidence is there to support the claim ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6382" LastEditorUserId="6382" LastEditDate="2014-07-21T19:48:19.233" LastActivityDate="2015-04-20T01:51:55.587" Title="Do people who lose their faith tend to replace it with other non-evidence-based reasoning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7863" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7869" CreationDate="2014-07-20T11:16:57.510" Score="5" ViewCount="521" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is a straight line, which visually looks like a straight line:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uT5T3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At first look (lets say minimum 2–3 sec.) the line below looks straight, but after some time you can see that it is actually an inclined line. You need some time (more then 5–8 sec.) to classify that line as a inclined line.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yJflv.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an inclined line, which looks like an inclined line at first look:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dCYo4.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; Is there any study that determines the minimum angle at which a line should be inclined to be visually classified at first look as an inclined line?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5146" OwnerDisplayName="vasili111" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-22T07:02:07.127" LastActivityDate="2014-07-22T13:27:05.327" Title="What is the minimum angle off horizontal before a line visually appears inclined at first glance?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7864" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4121" CreationDate="2014-07-20T15:44:57.720" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a large and diverse literature on this topic which paints a complex picture of the relationship between trauma and empathy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some studies have found significant trauma symptoms to be related to less empathy. A study of Israeli children who had experienced the trauma of Arab missile attacks found that 66% of children with very negative attitudes towards Arabs had severe posttraumatic symptoms, while none of the children who expressed balanced attitudes towards Arabs had severe posttraumatic symptoms (Laor, Wolmer, &amp;amp; Cohen, 2004). Children with balanced attitudes also exhibited more prosocial behavior, offering to donate 35% more candy to ill peers than children with more negative attitudes. Overall, the authors found that those with very negative attitudes were less able to regulate their behavior, had poorer defense mechanisms, and had more externalizing and PTSD symptoms, while children with balanced attitudes were older and had fewer symptoms and more positive defenses. Thus, while children with better coping styles had both fewer trauma symptoms and were more empathetic/generous, is not possible to determine the direction of these relationships in this study. Also, the coping styles and attitudes of these child could be highly influenced by the environment (i.e., their parents’ behavior and attitudes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study of college students found that over 26% reported significant PTSD symptoms and 29-58% various forms of psychological distress following the 9/11 attacks, despite having no personal connection to the event (Woodward, Murrell, &amp;amp; Bettler, 2005). The study also found that a person’s level of empathy was positively correlated with the amount of traumatic stress symptoms they reported; perhaps not surprising, as you might need a certain level of empathy to experience someone else’s trauma so acutely. Additionally, while traumatic stress symptoms were positively correlated with the amount of psychological distress the person was experiencing, empathy was negatively correlated with psychological stress, both directly and via the person’s interpersonal style. That is, those individuals with more empathy and with positive interpersonal styles (a combination of coping skills, attachment, and social support), had better psychological functioning in the face of trauma. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other studies have found that trauma may impact empathy in different ways, depending on the type of trauma. One study suggests that trauma which is directed at the self (abuse or severe illness) may not stimulate empathy for the self, resulting in negative psychological  outcomes, but that trauma directed at another (losing a loved one, witnessing injury/abuse of a loved one) may stimulate empathy to help the other person (Keinan, Shrira, &amp;amp; Shmotkin, 2012). Thus, even if the person experiences an event as traumatic, the motivation to help the victim (or others who care about the victim) may result in surges of empathy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another study found that only certain types of empathy were impacted by trauma (Nietisbach, Maercker, Rossler, &amp;amp; Haker, 2010). When these authors compared individuals with PTSD to those without PTSD, they found that both groups had similar levels of the complex empathic skills such as social cognition (i.e., being able to recognize faux pas or take the perspective of others), but individuals with PTSD symptoms were less likely to demonstrate more basic empathic skills such as “empathic contagion,” yawning or laughing when seeing someone else yawn or laugh. The authors also noted that individuals with PTSD for whom more time had passed since their trauma had a greater ability to take the perspective of others compared to individuals with PTSD who were closer to their time of trauma; this may indicate a change in empathic ability over time. Finally, they found that both individuals with PTSD and those without PTSD reported similar self-reported levels of empathy for others, but that those with PTSD reported greater distress when faced with the difficulties of others. The authors hypothesized that individuals with PTSD may be consciously avoiding empathic contagion due to this heightened experience of distress when watching others struggle, meaning part of the empathic deficit may actually be a defense mechanism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study of veterans with PTSD found that those who lacked empathy were more likely to be verbally, but not physically or impulsively, aggressive (Teten, Miller, Bailey, Dunn, &amp;amp; Kent, 2008). However, those veterans who also experienced alexithymia, meaning they are unable to name or describe their emotions with words, were more likely to be impulsively aggressive; a lack of empathy was not significantly associated with impulsive aggression. So, when considering aggressive behavior and trauma, it may be important to recognize that not all negative behavior is necessarily due to trauma’s impact on empathy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other studies have focused on the role of trauma in increasing empathy or helping behavior. One study found that individuals with greater numbers of lifetime traumatic events had greater self-reported empathy and volunteering behavior than those with fewer traumatic events (Frazier et al., 2013). However, this study was unable to conclude whether trauma had led to increases in empathy and whether such an increase was the reason for the increased prosocial behavior. Staub and Vollhardt (2008) have suggested that there are a specific set of experiences that may promote “altruism born of suffering” (i.e., increased empathy in reaction to trauma). Specifically, they propose if individuals who experience a traumatic event then experience psychological healing, social support, positive self-action, and altruistic role models, they may experience a range of post-traumatic growth including increased empathy and prosocial behavior. Staub and Vollhardt (2008) do note as others authors have that empathizing with other people’s distress can cause distress and possibly decrease empathy unless sufficient coping mechanisms are in place. A 2009 paper reviews recent evidence for this concept, and emphasizes the need for a better understanding of the experiences which lead to altruism following trauma, rather than suffering or revenge (Vollhardt, 2009). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In sum, trauma can impact empathy and prosocial behavior in a variety of ways, depending on individual characteristics and context. The links below should provide you a starting point to find additional resources on this topic. While most of the literature focuses on the impact of trauma on adults with “normal” empathic responses prior to the trauma, Music (2012) provides a theoretical argument that the development and acquisition of empathy may not occur properly when children are subjected to significant abuse or neglect. His paper may be a good reference if you’re interested not only in how trauma impacts existing capacity for empathy, but in how it impacts the development of empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frazier, P., Greer, C., Gabrielsen, S., Tennen, H., Park, C., &amp;amp; Tomich, P. (2013). The relation between trauma exposure and prosocial behavior. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5&lt;/em&gt;(3), 286-294. DOI: 10.1037/a0027255.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keinan, G, Shrira, A., &amp;amp; Shmotkin, D. (2012). The association between cumulative adversity and mental health: considering dose and primary focus of adversity. &lt;em&gt;Quality of Life Research, 21&lt;/em&gt;, 1149-1158.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Laor, N., Wolmer, L., &amp;amp; Cohen, D. J. (2004). Attitudes toward Arabs of Israeli children exposed to missile attacks: The role of personality functions. &lt;em&gt;The Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 41&lt;/em&gt;(1), 23-32.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Music, G. (2012). Selfless genes, altruism, and trauma: Research and clinical implications. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Psychotherapy, 28&lt;/em&gt;(2), 154-171. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-0118.2012.01276.x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nietlisbach, G., Maercker, A., Rossler, W., &amp;amp; Haker, H. (2010). Are empathic abilities impaired in posttraumatic stress disorder? &lt;em&gt;Psychological Reports, 106&lt;/em&gt;(3), 832-844. DOI: 10.2466/PR0.106.3.832-844&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Staub, E., &amp;amp; Vollhardt, J. (2008). Altruism born of suffering: The roots of caring and helping after victimization and other trauma. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78&lt;/em&gt;(3), 267-280. DOI: 10.1037/a0014223&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Teten, A. L., Miller, L. A., Bailey, S. D., Dunn, N. J., &amp;amp; Kent, T. A. (2008). Empathic deficits and alexithymia in trauma-related impulsive aggression. &lt;em&gt;Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 26&lt;/em&gt;, 823-832. DOI: 10.1002/bsl.843&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vollhardt, J. (2009). Altruism born of suffering and prosocial behavior following adverse life events: A review and conceptualization. &lt;em&gt;Social Justice Research, 22&lt;/em&gt;, 53-97. DOI: 10.1007/s11211-009-0088-1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Woodward, L. E., Murrell, S. A., &amp;amp; Bettler, R. F. (2005). Empathy and interpersonal style: A mediational model of secondary traumatic stress symptomology following 9/11. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, &amp;amp; Trauma, 11&lt;/em&gt;(4), 1-28. DOI: 10.1300/J146v11n04_01&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-07-20T15:44:57.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7865" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3201" CreationDate="2014-07-20T22:45:52.750" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The experience machine is meant to be an argument against hedonism in that it's supposed to show that humans value other things than happiness and therefore wouldn't/shouldn't hook themselves up to the machine (whether it succeeds in doing this is another matter; Nozick simply points out that it would be &quot;absurd&quot; for anyone to connect oneself to the machine, an in my opinion extremely weak argument). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As such, the machine in the thought experiment is meant to supply you with whatever experiences that will create the largest amount of happiness for you (however, it's never explicitly stated that the experiences would have to be happy experiences; it's simply stated that the machine would be able to supply you with whatever experiences you desired, and when addressing a hedonist, those experiences would be happy experiences). If this means that you need a big chunk of sad, soul crushing experiences from time to time just to be happy the rest of the time, then so be it; as long as there is some pattern of experiences that in the end would generate more happiness for you than what you would experience in real life (a.k.a your real life isn't perfect), the thought experiment applies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, regarding your last question, the thought experiment really is immune to the kind of objections that you bring up, which means that we can't be informed about the solution to it by empirical research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;With that said&lt;/em&gt;, the question of how much and what type of negative experiences, if any, we need to be able to experiences happiness is interesting, but I don't have the answer to that one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;strong&gt;Random speculations mode commencing:&lt;/strong&gt; However, &lt;em&gt;in my view&lt;/em&gt;, this seems to be more of an assumption that people make rather than something that is firmly based in science. Do we have the same intuition when it comes to pain? Would we say that a person who was raped and tortured since birth wouldn't be worth rescuing since she because of the lack of positive experiences didn't experience any negative experiences? Is there a reason to believe that this alleged relationship between positive and negative experiences isn't symmetrical?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="86" LastEditDate="2014-07-20T22:57:16.537" LastActivityDate="2014-07-20T22:57:16.537" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7866" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7677" CreationDate="2014-07-21T00:16:57.907" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;You've received a few great comments from our neuroscience-savvy users that indicate ways in which this question can be construed as particularly challenging or maybe even unanswerable. However, I think there's a much more basic and limited understanding of your question that takes into account your self-professed unfamiliarity with neuropharmacology and permits a perfectly good intro-level answer. I don't specialize in this – I'm a psychologist, but more of a dabbler in neuroscience – but I'll take a crack at it anyway.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agonist&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Agonists&lt;/a&gt; activate cellular &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;receptors&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter#Excitatory_and_inhibitory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Excitatory receptors&lt;/a&gt; produce &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)&lt;/a&gt;; i.e., they encourage neurons (of which they are components) to &quot;fire&quot;. Hence the simple answer: any agonist of a neuron's excitatory receptors increases its firing rate by definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate#Neurotransmitter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Glutamate&lt;/a&gt; is an excitatory neurotransmitter. It binds to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate_receptors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;glutamate receptors&lt;/a&gt;, which increase the likelihood or frequency of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;action potentials&lt;/a&gt; (i.e., firing events) in their neurons when activated. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMDA_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NMDA receptors&lt;/a&gt; (a type of glutamate receptor) play a role in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;long-term potentiation&lt;/a&gt; (effectively increasing the probability of firing and other criteria of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_strength#Synaptic_strength&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;synaptic strength&lt;/a&gt;), so the effects of glutamate sometimes outlast its direct activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMDA_receptor#Agonists&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia lists several NMDA agonists&lt;/a&gt;, some of which are prescribed as ingested drugs. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-Cycloserine#D-Cycloserine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;D-Cycloserine&lt;/a&gt;  has applications in anxiety and addiction treatments. However, there is a balance to maintain, and the objective of medication is generally to restore a normative balance given some abnormality or damage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitotoxicity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Excitotoxicity&lt;/a&gt; due to excessive glutamate release and impaired uptake occurs as part of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischemic_cascade&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ischemic cascade&lt;/a&gt; and is associated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;stroke&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;sup&gt;[4]&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;autism&lt;/a&gt;, some forms of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_disability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;intellectual disability&lt;/a&gt;, and diseases like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;amyotrophic lateral sclerosis&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lathyrism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;lathyrism&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Alzheimer's disease&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;[4][&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15234100&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;14&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evidently treating Alzheimer's isn't as simple as increasing EPSPs – that might even be a move in the wrong direction. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotine#Health_effects&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nicotine may help with Alzheimer's&lt;/a&gt;, but the mechanism is more complex:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While tobacco smoking is associated with an increased risk of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Alzheimer's disease&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2642819&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;85&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt; there is evidence that nicotine itself has the potential to prevent and treat Alzheimer's disease.&lt;sup&gt;[86]&lt;/sup&gt;...A study has shown a protective effect of nicotine itself on neurons due to nicotine activation of α7-nAChR and the PI3K/Akt pathway which inhibits &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptosis-inducing_factor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;apoptosis-inducing factor&lt;/a&gt; release and mitochondrial translocation, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspase_3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cytochrome c&lt;/a&gt; release and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytochrome_c&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;caspase 3&lt;/a&gt; activation.&lt;sup&gt;[90]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would seem nicotine's direct action is agonistic, but its mediated effect is antagonistic, and that's the effect that matters for Alzheimer's outcomes. Another wrinkle to nicotine's pharmacology is its agonistic role with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylcholine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;acetylcholine&lt;/a&gt;, a neurotransmitter that plays excitatory and inhibitory roles for different purposes. This demonstrates the practical complexity of action potentials' causes and consequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;4. Sapolsky, R. (2005). &lt;em&gt;Biology and human behavior: The neurological origins of individuality&lt;/em&gt; (2nd ed.) The Teaching Company. &quot;see pages 19 and 20 of Guide Book&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;14. Hynd, M., Scott, H. L., &amp;amp; Dodd, P. R. (2004). Glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity and neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease. &lt;em&gt;Neurochemistry International, 45&lt;/em&gt;(5), 583–595. DOI:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuint.2004.03.007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.neuint.2004.03.007&lt;/a&gt;. PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15234100&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;15234100&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;85. Peters, R., Poulter, R., Warner, J., Beckett, N., Burch, L., &amp;amp; Bulpitt, C. (2008). Smoking, dementia and cognitive decline in the elderly, a systematic review. &lt;em&gt;BMC Geriatr 8&lt;/em&gt;(36). DOI:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2318-8-36&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1186/1471-2318-8-36&lt;/a&gt;. PMC &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2642819&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2642819&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;86. Henningfield, J.E., &amp;amp; Zeller, M. (2009). Nicotine psychopharmacology: Policy and regulatory. &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, 192&lt;/em&gt;, 511–34. DOI:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-69248-5_18&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1007/978-3-540-69248-5_18&lt;/a&gt;. ISBN &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-69246-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;978-3-540-69246-1&lt;/a&gt;. PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19184661&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;19184661&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;90. Yu, W., Mechawar, N., Krantic, S., &amp;amp; Quirion, R. (2011, November). α7 nicotinic receptor activation reduces β-amyloid-induced apoptosis by inhibiting caspase-independent death through phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling. &lt;em&gt;J. Neurochem. 119&lt;/em&gt;(4), 848–58. DOI:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1471-4159.2011.07466.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07466.x&lt;/a&gt;. PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21884524&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;21884524&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-07-21T00:16:57.907" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7868" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-21T10:44:12.403" Score="3" ViewCount="294" Body="&lt;p&gt;Following up on &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/7857/what-factors-affect-the-g-factor&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What method(s) are available which demonstrably increase a person's* g factor, (assuming such are available)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(*if a specific target individual is necessary to respond meaningfully to the question, please substitute &quot;person&quot; with &quot;healthy, heterosexual male of age 35 years&quot;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6390" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-07-22T07:03:54.857" Title="What method(s) are available which demonstrably increase a person's g factor, (assuming such are available)?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7869" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7863" CreationDate="2014-07-21T13:05:00.417" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Citing Muller et al’s, (1955) work on electronic displays, Eastman Kodak’s (1983) &lt;em&gt;Ergonomics Design for People at Work&lt;/em&gt; states that people can discriminate 24 different absolute angles of inclination under optimum viewing conditions. This implies that an angle of 360/24 = 15 degrees can be readily classified as inclined rather than flat. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I’d say 15 degrees is probably overly conservative. It applies to discriminating one arbitrary angle of inclination from another when each is shown in isolation. Discriminating flat (0 degrees) from inclined is apparently a special case that is easier to do, as indicated by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/7863/visual-identification-of-inclined-lines/7870#7870&quot;&gt;study cited by Josh&lt;/a&gt; where people quickly detected inclinations as small as 0.5 degrees. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming you’re talking about imagery you create in the built environment (e.g., for an information display), there are often vertical and horizontal references to compare the line to (e.g., the edges of a page, the bezel of a monitor, the doorway to a room). In fact, the presence of such references probably defines what “flat” means (e.g., people will still call your first line above “flat” even if they cock their head a bit to look, or even if their respective tablets/laptops are in their laps and not completely level). So, in a built environment (and outside a field-dependence laboratory), detecting an inclined line often has a degree of relative discrimination that I expect helps a lot. As for detecting inclinations in the natural world, well, there’s a reason carpenters use levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you’re building an information display (e.g., a graph), you can go to smaller angles by adding reference marks, as shown below. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GOIqi.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Static marks at each end of line&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/70Tn9.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Static marks at each end of line&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This changes the viewers’ task from recognizing an inclination to recognizing vertical gap size. People can spot a gap as small as few arc-minutes of visual angle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Muller PF Jr, Sidorsky RC,  Slivinski AJ, Alluisi EA, &amp;amp; Fitts PM&#xA;(1955). &lt;em&gt;The symbolic coding of information on cathode ray tubes and&#xA;similar displays&lt;/em&gt; Technical Report 55-375. Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, October.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eastman Kodak Company (1983). &lt;em&gt;Ergonomic design for people at work&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Van Norstrand.(&lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.ge/books?id=FSgcaAIoHu8C&amp;amp;pg=PA230&amp;amp;lpg=PA230&amp;amp;dq=Ergonomic%20design%20for%20people%20at%20work%20pdf#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6391" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-07-22T13:27:05.327" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7870" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7863" CreationDate="2014-07-21T14:41:56.280" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Vogels and Orban (1985) asked subjects to complete several thousand angle judgments at near-principal angles (horizontal or vertical). They found that the just-noticeable difference (JND), the threshold at which people could reliably detect deviation from a horizontal line, was &lt;strong&gt;0.5 degrees&lt;/strong&gt; after a 600ms exposure to the stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The real purpose of their study was to compare learning effects for judgments of deviations from principal orientations with judgments of deviations from oblique (diagonal) angles. They found that while people could double their sensitivity over extensive training to small changes in oblique angles, the principal angles showed no such learning effects, as you can see in this graph:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dC7jU.png&quot; alt=&quot;results graph&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, the threshold for detection of changes from principal angles was about twice as good as the oblique angles, even after 5000 trials of practice discriminating oblique angles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vogels, R., &amp;amp; Orban, G. A. (1985). The effect of practice on the oblique effect in line orientation judgments. &lt;em&gt;Vision research&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;25&lt;/em&gt;(11), 1679-1687.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2014-07-21T19:31:12.527" LastActivityDate="2014-07-21T19:31:12.527" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7871" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-21T17:30:43.120" Score="4" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Word Wide Web Consortium (W3C) has a formula for the contrast ratio of any two arbitrary colors, which they use to set minimum standards for text legibility: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG20-TECHS/G18.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG20-TECHS/G18.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Step 1 of the process is relatively straight-forward - it uses a well known conversion from sRGB to XYZ and keeps the Y component for the next step. Step 2 is the same for the second color.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question comes in step 3, where the ratio is determined as &lt;code&gt;(L1 + 0.05) / (L2 + 0.05)&lt;/code&gt; with L1 and L2 being the luminances of the lighter and darker colors from steps 1 and 2. Where does the magic constant 0.05 come from? It's obvious that some constant offset is needed, otherwise pure black would have infinite contrast against every other color. But how is it derived?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, does this contrast ratio reasonably describe how easy it is to discern text against a background? Or is there a different formula that would be better?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask because it seems to favor black over white - where I see better results with white text, the formula suggests black is better. I'd like a clearer understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6392" LastActivityDate="2014-07-21T17:30:43.120" Title="What is the source for the W3C's Contrast Ratio formula?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7873" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9791" CreationDate="2014-07-22T11:46:48.083" Score="7" ViewCount="238" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that people often manage to become moderately good at something, but seem to reach some sort of peak at that level and then rapidly start getting worse again. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've seen this happen with videogames (most notably Starcraft 2), pool games, badminton, and even drawing/painting. People can get from complete beginner to a mediocre level in all these things, and then at some point they will start getting worse at them again. Not all the way back to a beginner level, but far enough to notice a serious difference in results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there are no physical changes that are causing this, is there any explanation for this problem with learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6399" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-19T09:53:53.377" LastActivityDate="2015-04-19T09:53:53.377" Title="What causes people to rapidly lose skill after becoming moderately good at something?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7874" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-22T17:42:04.523" Score="2" ViewCount="674" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on: J. P. Carvalho, &quot;On the Semantics and the Use of Fuzzy Cognitive Maps in Social Sciences&quot; (WCCI, 2010 -- &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.inesc-id.pt/pt/indicadores/Ficheiros/6431.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;) and Richard Dagan's web page &lt;a href=&quot;http://richarddagan.com/cogmap.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Mapping&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A cognitive map consists of nodes representing concepts and ties indicating relationship between the concepts. &#xA;In Carvalho section IV, the semantics is used in perspective of the presented model. Dagan's definition of semantic map is that it is a tree like structure branching from a main concept. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the answer &lt;a href=&quot;https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/9800/are-semantic-networks-ontologies?rq=1&quot;&gt;https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/9800/are-semantic-networks-ontologies?rq=1&lt;/a&gt; further adds to my confusion as to what is the significant different between cognitive map where nodes are concepts and semantic map where also the nodes are concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am unable to find significant difference between concept map and semantic map. Can somebody please explain in simple language? Thank you&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6402" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:38.617" LastActivityDate="2014-07-23T22:32:11.927" Title="What is a semantic cognitive map?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7875" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-22T18:37:04.000" Score="9" ViewCount="350" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am curious: When do we label a person as being 'intelligent', 'smart' or 'clever'? This is subjective, and it seems unlikely that it is possible to reach a bulletproof definition. A high IQ has been used for some time, but it seems that taking IQ tests is a learnable skill as any other, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://io9.com/5959058/further-evidence-that-iq-does-not-measure-intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; (other sources contradict this fact, however, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/what-an-iq-test-measure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;). But when do we say when somebody is 'smart'? It is not rare to hear people utter 'Wow, he's really smart!'. Does he have a high IQ score? Does he know all the capitals of all countries in the world? Does he play piano extremely well, have a Ph.D. in mathematics or paint incredibly beautiful paintings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do laypeople form a judgment that another person is smart or intelligent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://io9.com/5959058/further-evidence-that-iq-does-not-measure-intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://io9.com/5959058/further-evidence-that-iq-does-not-measure-intelligence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/what-an-iq-test-measure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/what-an-iq-test-measure&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6403" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2017-08-19T20:47:31.487" LastActivityDate="2017-08-19T20:47:31.487" Title="How do laypeople form a judgment that another person is smart or intelligent?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-08-09T23:07:22.830" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7876" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8258" CreationDate="2014-07-22T23:56:33.987" Score="7" ViewCount="686" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4034/what-forms-of-the-travelling-salesman-problem-are-difficult-for-humans-to-solve&quot;&gt;noted&lt;/a&gt; that humans are good at solving the travelling salesmen problem under certain constraints. Are there other NP-hard or NP-complete problems that human beings are good at solving? Has there been other research (psychological, neurobiological) on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One lead I'm currently investigating is how humans are good at playing Minesweeper, despite the fact that is it is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minesweeper_(video_game)#Computational_complexity&quot;&gt;NP-Complete&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2014-09-23T12:51:17.373" Title="Are there NP-Hard or NP-Complete problems that humans a really good at solving?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7877" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1546" CreationDate="2014-07-23T00:35:56.333" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enneagram_of_Personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Enneagram Personality Theory&lt;/a&gt; is a non-trait-based personality theory that could be (though, to my knowledge, hasn't yet been) evidenced in a predictive manner through scientific research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many authors exist, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.enneagraminstitute.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Riso and Hudson&lt;/a&gt; are the ones who bring it from a quasi-spiritual concept to a contemporary personality theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept posits that there are nine essential &quot;types&quot;, which are driven by distinct motivations.  Every individual can be said to &quot;have&quot; all nine types in different proportions, but there is a single, defining motivation that drives a person from birth to death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The desire to be good and right (vs the fear of being wrong)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The desire to be loved (vs the fear of being unloved)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The desire to be valuable (vs the fear of being worthless)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The desire to be unique (vs the fear of being without identity)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The desire to have mastery (vs the fear of being incompetent)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The desire to have support (vs the fear of being without guidance)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The desire to be satisfied, comfortable, and have fun (vs the fear of being bored, in pain, or deprived)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The desire to be safe and protected (vs the fear of manipulated or harmed)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The desire to be at peace (vs the fear of being in conflict)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6401" LastActivityDate="2014-07-23T00:35:56.333" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7880" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13645" CreationDate="2014-07-23T13:41:55.210" Score="11" ViewCount="51297" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read that neural networks are of two types:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;a) Biological neural networks&lt;br&gt;&#xA;b) Artificial neural networks (or ANN)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read, &quot;Neural Networks are models of biological neural structures,&quot; and the biological neural structure referred to the brain in the context of that text. Is the brain called a biological neural network? If not, what is the difference between the two terms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6411" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-28T08:11:55.427" LastActivityDate="2020-12-20T11:10:37.647" Title="What is the difference between biological and artificial neural networks?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7881" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1546" CreationDate="2014-07-23T14:41:02.513" Score="-1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there any existing personality theories (that are being researched), that could one day be backed up by scientific research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jung's two Attitude Types and four functions have been the study of some research attempting to find a physical basis in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the misnamed book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0761123695&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Introvert Advantage&lt;/a&gt;, Chapter III, &lt;em&gt;The Emerging Brainscape: Born to Be Introverted&lt;/em&gt;, the author mentions some research basing Introversion and Extraversion on pathways in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0979868475&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuroscience of Personality: Brain Savvy Insights for All Types of People&lt;/a&gt;, the author attempts to show a correlation between neuroscience and the Jungian functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether or not these researches will bear fruit is not known at this time. However, considering the interest and ongoing research, it may very well one day be backed up by scientific research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6336" LastActivityDate="2014-07-23T14:41:02.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7887" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7842" CreationDate="2014-07-24T14:39:35.817" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Defensive Pride&lt;/strong&gt; I would say match your question title.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6400" LastActivityDate="2014-07-24T14:39:35.817" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7889" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6561" CreationDate="2014-07-24T19:54:05.810" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes.  Clare W. Graves was a contemporary of Maslow.  He and Maslow used to go back and forth – as Graves thought Maslow's theory was incomplete (too closed).  At the end, Maslow agreed with Graves.  Graves died before much of his work was really accepted.  Cowan and Beck carried on his work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is, in my humble opinion, the most brilliant explanation for human development ever created.  It covers humanity as individuals and as collections (cultures), and Graves also created a system of change theory that matched.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll find the most ardent advocate is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Beck_(management_consultant)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Don Beck&lt;/a&gt;, who was largely responsible (using the theories developed by Graves) to assist Mandela in South Africa.  It's called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spiraldynamics.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spiral Dynamics Integral&lt;/a&gt; now by Don Beck.  There are many who continue studying this work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research confirms it.  There is ongoing research (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.peoplescanservices.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Online PeopleScan&lt;/a&gt;) that is used by cutting-edge consultants in business and organizations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6417" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-24T21:29:33.307" LastActivityDate="2014-07-24T21:29:33.307" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7890" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7876" CreationDate="2014-07-25T10:40:11.683" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Collective responses can be aggregated to combine common solution fragments into a global solution. Maybe a key to solve NP-hard/complete is having enough diversity, hence working in a collective sense. &#xA;Check out The Wisdom of the Crowd in Combinatorial Problems, from Sheng Kung Michael Yi,a Mark Steyvers,a Michael D. Lee,a Matthew J. Dryb&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6421" LastActivityDate="2014-07-25T10:40:11.683" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7891" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7880" CreationDate="2014-07-25T12:52:42.980" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are mathematical constructs, originally designed to approximate biological neurons. Each &quot;neuron&quot; is a relatively simple element --- for example, summing its inputs and applying a threshold to the result, to determine the output of that &quot;neuron&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several decades of research went into discovering how to build network architectures using these mathematical constructs, and how to automatically set the weighting on each of the connections between the neurons to perform a wide range of tasks. For example, ANNs can do things like recognition of hand-written digits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &quot;biological neural network&quot; would refer to any group of connected biological nerve cells. Your brain is a biological neural network, so is a number of neurons grown together in a dish so that they form synaptic connections. The term &quot;biological neural network&quot; is not very precise; it doesn't define a particular biological structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the same way, an ANN can mean any of a large number of mathematical &quot;neuron&quot;-like constructs, connected in any of a large number of ways, to perform any of a large number of tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2014-07-25T12:52:42.980" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7892" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7904" CreationDate="2014-07-25T13:02:49.070" Score="0" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bob suffers from depression and thinks he has dementia. He goes to see a Psychologist who conducts &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rorschach_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rorschach test&lt;/a&gt; and gives the following evaluation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;The problem might be because of Inter-Personal Conflict&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not an expert in Psychology. What does it means and what inference can we draw from it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2496" LastActivityDate="2014-07-27T06:50:52.207" Title="What does Inter-Personal conflict means in clinical evaluation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7893" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5973" CreationDate="2014-07-25T14:11:28.637" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It may have something to do with the manner in which the water flows. Disturbed or moving water has a frequency content/distribution that approaches noise (think ocean waves lapping up against the the shoreline/beach, which is close to white noise).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our hearing system tends to tune out when presented with white noise, mainly due to there being no discernible pattern in the sound for the hearing system to focus on. The mind then starts to drift (excuse the pun) ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6354" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-27T04:09:54.207" LastActivityDate="2014-07-27T04:09:54.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7894" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-25T17:22:24.800" Score="8" ViewCount="180" Body="&lt;p&gt;My seventeen year old brother is severely autistic and unable to communicate. He can produce sounds, and imitate words, but he doesn't respond to words in a way that suggests he understands them. His imitations are always imperfect, and this is what interests me most. For example, he can sort of say the first twenty numbers ('ah', 'tih', 'ee', 'hoh', that sort of thing.) He sort of gets rhythm, but not intonation or pitch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, every child is different, but are there reasons why an autistic teen who can clearly hear words has never in 17 years learned to accurately reproduce them? Dad once speculated that it was auditory, that he can't hear the sounds properly, but I suspect that it's physiological. I'd like to hear thoughts from people who know what they're talking about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6425" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-10T18:08:46.413" LastActivityDate="2016-05-26T08:14:30.693" Title="Why does autism sometimes impede the ability to produce speech?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7895" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-26T00:05:01.150" Score="4" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;I find from personal life experience that arguing with someone is hardly a good way to try to convince someone of something. You might end up getting whatever you'd like from the person you are trying to convince, but not because you have convinced him or her; it's more likely he ends up doing what you want because he or she is tired from arguing or fed up with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this can be seen easily in discussion forums on the internet where there are some things that are repeated over... and over... and over... And very few people seem to be convinced by what the other people say, so it's unlikely to be a good way to try to convince someone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any study of these problems? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-06T12:42:28.703" LastActivityDate="2020-01-29T17:33:44.697" Title="Is it usually worthwhile to argue to try to convince someone?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;persuasion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7897" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7894" CreationDate="2014-07-26T05:40:48.363" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Difficulties with language is not actually a symptom of autism. Autism Spectrum Disorder involves difficulties in social communication and interaction, as well as restricted and repetitive interests or behaviours &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism/diagnosis/dsm-5-diagnostic-criteria&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(DSM-V, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;. The term &quot;social communication&quot; is referring to difficulties in the social aspects of language and other communication, such as matching verbal and non-verbal behaviour, rather than difficulties in language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The language difficulties as described in the question sound like they could be related to the age-equivalence of the individual, although of course physiological hearing difficulties can't be ruled out until it is assessed. All children progress through a sequence of language development &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2819321/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Tager-Flusberg et al., 2010)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pre-Verbal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Babbling, gestures&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Typically developing children aged 6-12 months&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;First Words&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Non-imitated, spontaneous single words&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some of the speech is intelligible, and uses consonant sounds typical in babble&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Typically developing children aged 12-18 months&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Word Combinations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;2 and 3 word combinations, including nouns, adjectives and verbs&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Typically developing children aged 18-30 months&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sentences&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Children create sentences, now using plurals and prepositions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Typically developing children aged 30-28 months&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Complex Language&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Language for a range of topics, using complex grammar, in different discourse contexts&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pre-school aged typially developing children&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tager-Flusberg et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2819321/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2010&lt;/a&gt;) have a great table (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2819321/table/T1/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Table 1&lt;/a&gt;) in their article outlining their proposed benchmarks for each of these phases. As the child progresses, their phonology (speech sounds) improves as well as their vocabulary, grammar, etc. Thus, your brother may be imitating the sounds he hears as best he can within his level of language development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3590" LastActivityDate="2014-07-26T05:40:48.363" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7898" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7900" CreationDate="2014-07-26T09:36:15.277" Score="3" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to make a project for EEG signal processing, and in my research I found the concept of SSVEP, which means that if you have a stimulus with low frequency applied to the eye, the electrical activity (measured via EEG) of the brain will change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is whether is it known how the electric activity of brain will change? And a second thing, does it mean that each frequency applied the eye has a fixed reaction for the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastActivityDate="2014-07-26T20:56:04.127" Title="How does the frequency of a visual stimulus affect the steady-state visually evoked potential?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7899" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-26T10:22:36.183" Score="0" ViewCount="614" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the Richard Morgan's sci-fi debut Altered Carbon, the technology exists to separate a person's consciousness and put it into another body or &quot;sleeve&quot;. The protagonist Takeshi Kovacs, is downloaded into the sleeve of Elias Ryker, who was romantically involved with Kristin Ortega before his own consciousness was put in storage. Kovacs, through Ryker's body, is attracted to Ortega, and the two become a pair. Then, when Kovacs leaves Ryker's body, he no longer feels attracted to Ortega, and suggests that this is because the attraction was between Ryker and Ortega's bodies, not their minds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is, is there anything to support this notion that attraction is purely physical? Is the brain involved at all in sexual/romantic attraction, and if we separated the mind from the body, do we think that we would still have the same feelings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6425" LastActivityDate="2014-07-27T05:25:21.833" Title="Is attraction between two people just physical, not neurological/psychological?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7900" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7898" CreationDate="2014-07-26T18:04:19.750" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The steady state response is a sustained oscillatory response to a stimulus that is varying in strength with some regularity. But it is not a true oscillation, it's closer to an ERP in nature: it is a stimulus-driven response to variations in the stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In auditory processing, which I am familiar with, people take a tone and then add an amplitude modulation to it. This means that the sound level increases and decreases regularly at a certain frequency. Increases and decreases in neural stimulation are clearly visible in the brain, so if you average the frequency decomposition of your signal over all trials, you get a response at the frequency of the amplitude modulation. If you then manage to change something about this frequency response (e.g. the power) over different experimental manipulations, then most likely you've found some true top-down effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In vision I assume it would be similar if you flicker a picture: the stimulation will increase and decrease regularly and you should get a response at the frequency of the flicker. I haven't got a clue what would happen if you would split the frequency rate for the two eyes though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing that mystifies me is that in audition, the steady-state response is particularly well picked up if the amplitude modulation is around 20 or 40 Hz. I have no idea why this is. I also don't really understand what the advantages are over just recording brain activity and looking at the ERP. With the steady-state response, you're in danger of covering up genuinely interesting oscillatory activity with the frequency of the flicker. Also, I'd expect that you'd also pick up a flicker that matches the frequency of the refresh rate of your display. I don't know how that would influence the steady state response (we don't have that problem in audition). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2014-07-26T20:56:04.127" LastActivityDate="2014-07-26T20:56:04.127" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7901" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7906" CreationDate="2014-07-26T20:56:27.793" Score="2" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, is there a well-defined relationship between &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animals_by_number_of_neurons&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;number of neurons in the cortex&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and some measure of &quot;intelligence&quot; in animals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm familiar with the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encephalization_quotient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;encephalization quotient&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; - that is, &quot;the ratio between actual brain mass and predicted brain mass for an animal of a given size,&quot; which is hypothesized to be a rough estimate of an animal's intelligence.  Are there any other similar concepts?  Or, are there any brain structures or measures of complexity that are only present in &quot;higher functioning&quot; animals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6432" LastActivityDate="2014-07-28T01:17:24.053" Title="What are the neurobiological factors associated with intelligence in animals?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7902" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7899" CreationDate="2014-07-27T05:25:21.833" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;All attraction involves the brain. The brain is responsible for consciousness, perception, and motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not all attraction is physical. In two structural theories of love with which I'm familiar, physical attraction corresponds to a minority of what constitutes love. Love isn't exactly the same as attraction, but much of these theories' content implies attraction that is more than sexual and sometimes not sexual at all. In &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular_theory_of_love&quot;&gt;Sternberg's triangular theory of love&lt;/a&gt;, passion often entails physical attraction, but the theory frames intimacy and commitment as somewhat independent and based on other aspects of interpersonal relationships such as trust, closeness, benevolence, role identification, and cooperation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People have many reasons to desire these relationships besides sex. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_styles&quot;&gt;Lee's love styles&lt;/a&gt; considers physical passion a defining aspect of only one of six styles. Other motives drive the other styles: power, affiliation, teamwork, emotional fusion and obsession, and altruism. However, one might argue that some of these are not clearly approach motives (mania in particular may be more fear-driven), or that the other person is more a means to an end than the object of desire (particularly pragma and ludus). Regardless, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storge&quot;&gt;storge&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agape&quot;&gt;agape&lt;/a&gt; are clearly more &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_love&quot;&gt;platonic&lt;/a&gt; (though not necessarily nonsexual) forms of attraction with a person as the primary object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Separating the mind from the body is not possible at present within the scope of mainstream empirical science. Hence all questions that depend on this premise are very likely to be speculative and controversial, and probably off-topic for this site, which discourages opinion solicitation. Even so, the logic of these theories seems to indicate clearly enough that while many aspects of attraction do not depend on sexuality, some do, and that much might change if the physical object of sexual attraction changes. Furthermore, many physiological elements that influence the brain during attraction would have to be emulated in the alternate host to have unchanged consequences, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenalin&quot;&gt;adrenalin&lt;/a&gt;, which is produced in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland&quot;&gt;glands atop the kidneys&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine&quot;&gt;Dopamine&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotonin&quot;&gt;serotonin&lt;/a&gt; also play important roles in love style variation (see the reference below); their influence would require emulation as well if the mind were somehow separated from the physical sources of these neurotransmitters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Emanuele, E., Brondino, N., Pesenti, S., Re, S., &amp;amp; Geroldi, D. (2007). Genetic loading on human loving styles. &lt;em&gt;Neuro Endocrinology Letters, 28&lt;/em&gt;(6), 815–21. PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18063936&quot;&gt;18063936&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-07-27T05:25:21.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7903" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7895" CreationDate="2014-07-27T06:27:21.213" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Plenty. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_likelihood_model&quot;&gt;elaboration likelihood model&lt;/a&gt; compares the efficacy of persuasive argument under various conditions – this wouldn't be worthwhile if its efficacy were zero. Attention plays an important role: if an audience is inattentive, the semantic content of an argument may matter less than other factors involved in persuasion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_(psychology)&quot;&gt;Reactance&lt;/a&gt; is also relevant in that arguing with a particularly resistant audience may result in even less compliance and more opposition. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_(psychology)#Empirical_evidence&quot;&gt;This has been studied empirically&lt;/a&gt;. It is also not universal; reactance varies with personality and other developmental factors. Thus both compliance and resistance exhibit variation empirically – enough to make persuasive argumentation viable with some people some of the time. This conclusion is also the corollary of a popular (if unscientific) aphorism:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You can fool all the people some of the time and some of the people all the time, but you cannot fool all the people all the time. — &lt;a href=&quot;http://quoteinvestigator.com/2013/12/11/cannot-fool/&quot;&gt;Paraphrased from Jacques Abbadie&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-07-27T06:27:21.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7904" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7892" CreationDate="2014-07-27T06:50:52.207" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A common definition of &quot;conflict&quot; is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=conflict&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;readily retrievable&lt;/a&gt; and applicable in the context of clinical evaluation – i.e., conflict has no particularly unusual primary meaning in clinical psychology. &quot;Interpersonal&quot; also operates as an ordinary adjective with the usual meaning. Thus &lt;em&gt;interpersonal conflict&lt;/em&gt; is conflict between persons, as might be distinguished from &lt;em&gt;intrapersonal&lt;/em&gt; conflict (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt;). In some cases, one might also distinguish interpersonal conflict from impersonal conflicts with people in general, such as alienation, aggression, or other antisocial impulses when these do not have a specific person or a small group of specific persons as the object of negativity or source of opposition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two important inferences that one might consider based on such an evaluation include the plausibility of problems with social skills and problems arising from the other person(s) involved. People who have not developed strong social skills like empathy, conflict resolution, tolerance, or politeness experience interpersonal conflicts more often, but even people with strong social skills and other essentials of psychological health may find themselves at conflict with others who are the primary source of distress or disagreement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-07-27T06:50:52.207" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7905" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7917" CreationDate="2014-07-27T18:51:26.207" Score="4" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background motivation:&lt;/strong&gt; Is there is a way to correct sleeping patterns to go to bed at least at midnight, not later than that? If I do not feel tired/sleepy enough, can I &quot;prime&quot; or &quot;cheat&quot; myself to fall asleep earlier?  Is there any kind of method that works for someone who is not tired enough to fall asleep? I tried waking up earlier, but then when I get tired too early during the day and decide to wait for a time to sleep, somehow I get energized again. I get a new kick of energy, and I'm not sleepy until 2 AM again. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any effective methods for moving the time you fall asleep back by a few hours?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any effective methods for falling asleep when you are otherwise not tired?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-28T06:28:52.643" LastActivityDate="2014-07-29T17:29:51.483" Title="Is there a way to make oneself more sleepy?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7906" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7901" CreationDate="2014-07-28T01:17:24.053" Score="3" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Title question: See below&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Question 1: Sort of.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Question 2: Yes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Question 3: Yes. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The wrinkly outer layer of the human brain, the neocortex, is an anatomical feature found only in mammals. It is largely responsible for our ability to process sensory information in great detail, and plays a large role in memory formation, recognition, and higher thought. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unlike the thalamus or cerebellum, the shapes of which could be characterized as 'lumps', the neocortex can be thought of as a sheet; a larger surface area is related a larger neocortex, which translates directly to a greater supply of computational resources. Thus the wrinkly nature of the exterior of the human brain shows its usefulness; more wrinkles means more surface area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be useful to keep in mind with regard to humans that our own accomplishments, often attributed to our intelligence (and rightly so), have depended on much more than our brain. Our physical ability to speak, which allows us to quickly share ideas and learn from one another, is not a feature shared with other animals (See reference 1). Moreover, our ability to manipulate objects allows us to record information, enabling us to much more easily stand on the shoulders of the giants who have preceded us. Were we lacking in either of these abilities, or both, we may not appear as intelligent as we do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diagrams:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Here is a diagram of the brains of various animals including both mammals and non-mammals: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neurocomputing.org/Images/Brain_Introduction/Comparative_Neuro/brainpicts.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.neurocomputing.org/Images/Brain_Introduction/Comparative_Neuro/brainpicts.gif&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unfortunately, I'm new and don't have the reputation score sufficient to post more than two links&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notes for further reading: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jeff Hawkins' book &quot;On Intelligence&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Although more perception-specific, the topic of cortical magnification is a handy topic to know&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mpi.nl/q-a/questions-and-answers/why-cant-apes-speak&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.mpi.nl/q-a/questions-and-answers/why-cant-apes-speak&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;On Intelligence, by Jeff Hawkins&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6434" LastActivityDate="2014-07-28T01:17:24.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7907" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-28T04:40:49.583" Score="1" ViewCount="392" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of research work is being conducted on artificial intelligence and robotics. Terms like cognitive robotics are used. What is the difference between cognitive robotics and artificial intelligence or are they the same?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6402" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2014-07-28T21:14:16.510" LastActivityDate="2014-07-28T21:14:16.510" Title="What is the difference between cognition and artificial intelligence in the context of robotics?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7910" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7911" CreationDate="2014-07-28T07:13:19.680" Score="2" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;It happens many times when you visit a place you have never been before, you feel &lt;code&gt;subconsciously&lt;/code&gt; you have been there already. And the events and people you are meeting and experiencing have already taken place sometimes back and you are just &lt;code&gt;re-experiencing&lt;/code&gt; it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is this condition called? Is there any scientific study on the same?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2496" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-28T07:57:09.590" LastActivityDate="2014-07-29T04:50:44.613" Title="What is the name of the condition where you feel like you have been somewhere before?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7911" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7910" CreationDate="2014-07-28T07:55:57.887" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term is typically called déjà vu..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9j%C3%A0_vu#Scientific_research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;section on wikipedia discussing scientific research&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brown (2003) looks like a good starting point for a more rigorous scientific analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kusumi (2006, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.educ.kyoto-u.ac.jp/cogpsy/personal/Kusumi/dejavu.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;) has another scientific review article on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brown, A. S. (2003). A review of the déjà vu experience. Psychological bulletin, 129(3), 394.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kusumi, T. (2006). Human metacognition and the déjà vu phenomenon. Diversity in cognition: Evolution, development, domestication, and pathology, 302-314.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.educ.kyoto-u.ac.jp/cogpsy/personal/Kusumi/dejavu.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.educ.kyoto-u.ac.jp/cogpsy/personal/Kusumi/dejavu.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-29T04:50:44.613" LastActivityDate="2014-07-29T04:50:44.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7912" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7907" CreationDate="2014-07-28T13:20:01.897" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The distinction isn't rigid, but it has to do with whether the program controlling the robot is designed to mimic the human mind in some way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the robot is a model of human cognition, then the term cognitive robotics is sometimes used. Artificial Intelligence is a general term for software that behaves in an intelligent manner. There are plenty of intelligent robots that are not thought to be models of how the human mind works, because they achieve their intelligent behavior in a manner that is inconsistent with what we know about cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-07-28T13:20:01.897" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7913" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7905" CreationDate="2014-07-28T17:29:07.123" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Taking melatonin is a popular technique. Basically it's a hormone that regulates your sleep schedule- you can buy it anywhere that sells vitamins or dietary supplements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a very detailed writeup on the costs and benefits of taking melatonin that comes out unambiguously in favor of taking it: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gwern.net/Melatonin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.gwern.net/Melatonin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6314" LastActivityDate="2014-07-28T17:29:07.123" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7914" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-28T17:58:15.923" Score="3" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am new to the field of semantic knowledge representation and all I get information about the term semantics = meaning. Can somebody please explain to me what is semantics and how it is important in cognition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6402" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-07-28T23:47:35.847" LastActivityDate="2014-07-28T23:47:35.847" Title="What is the meaning of semantics to cognition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7915" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7914" CreationDate="2014-07-28T21:03:40.793" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Logical semantics&lt;/strong&gt; is one of the three sections of &lt;strong&gt;logical semiotics&lt;/strong&gt; (in addition to syntax and pragmatics) dealing with the relations between signs (in particular the expressions) and reality, to which they refer. In addition to basic semantic functions, we can include, e.g. &lt;strong&gt;semantic connotation&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;determination&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;denotation&lt;/strong&gt;, where the basic terms of semantics are &lt;strong&gt;meaning&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;truth&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;For example, I recommend Benthem (1986) and maybe &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;'s definition at the beginning of your journey. For further reading I can also recommend Friedenberg &amp;amp; Silverman (2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can the relation between signs, expressions, symbols, and reality, in which semantics works so hard, be referred to in cognitive science? One very simple (at the beginning) answer - &lt;strong&gt;representations&lt;/strong&gt;. It is one of the fundamental processes in cognitive science; a &lt;strong&gt;representation is something that stands for something else&lt;/strong&gt;. Single words can be good examples here, e.g., &lt;em&gt;apple&lt;/em&gt;. When we say it, then in the mind of someone who knows English, the concept of a particular type of fruit will pop up. One will see it, taste it, and maybe touch it in his/her imagination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other types of representations. For example there are &lt;strong&gt;propositions&lt;/strong&gt;, which are statements about the world and which can be illustrated with sentences. The sentence, e.g &lt;em&gt;John is eating a red apple&lt;/em&gt; is a proposition, that is itself made up of a few concepts. There are also &lt;strong&gt;rules&lt;/strong&gt;, which are another type of representation, and they can specify relationships between prepositions. Let's say the rule, &lt;em&gt;If it is raining, I will not go with you to ZOO&lt;/em&gt; makes the second proposition contingent on the first one. Also, there are &lt;strong&gt;analog representations&lt;/strong&gt;, which help us make comparisons between two similar situations, objects, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Benthem, J.V. (1986). &lt;em&gt;Essays in Logical Semantics.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Friedenberg, J., &amp;amp; Silverman, G. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Science. An Introduction to the Study of Mind.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6439" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-28T21:29:51.833" LastActivityDate="2014-07-28T21:29:51.833" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7910" CreationDate="2014-07-29T03:25:43.597" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is more appropriate as a comment but I don't have sufficient reputation at the moment.  Jeromy Anglim's answer is excellent but I thought I'd mention that the term was missing the diacritic marks, or pronunciation symbols above the e and a: déjà vu.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This viral video by vsauce is excellent and entertaining, so I thought it was worth mentioning: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CSf8i8bHIns&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CSf8i8bHIns&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This video by TED-Ed is also excellent in it's depiction and description of déjà vu: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=foVMwJtlR5s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=foVMwJtlR5s&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2893" LastActivityDate="2014-07-29T03:25:43.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7905" CreationDate="2014-07-29T04:36:02.457" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you google &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=sleep%20hacks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep Hacks&lt;/a&gt;&quot; you'll get a lot of good answers.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Start by tracking your sleep with &lt;a href=&quot;http://mysleepbot.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;My Sleep Bot&lt;/a&gt; for Android or iPhone, or &lt;a href=&quot;https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/sleep101/id524193798&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep101&lt;/a&gt; for iPhone. This will help you know more precisely what does and doesn't work. Each app also provides a lot more helpful features for better sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Turn off bright lights within an hour before going to bed. Your body is trained to wake up with the sun and go to sleep when it's dark. Also decrease as much light and sound as you can while you sleep. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Condition your body with the environment. Only use your bed for sleeping, nothing else. Once you train your body to associate your bed with sleeping, it'll have a better chance of going to sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Condition your body with routine. Always have the same routine for going to bed. If you can train your body that the same routine happens followed by sleep, the body will follow the pattern and be primed for sleep. This is classical conditioning. Reading, stretching, breathing exercises, mindfulness, meditation, etc are all excellent ways to help relax before bed. &#xA;As a personal example, I made a CD with some really soothing music that I would listen to every night. Because it conditioned me, I went from taking 20-30 minutes to get to sleep to 10-12 minutes. If I heard any of those songs during the day, I was so conditioned that my entire body would get really relaxed and I'd want to go to sleep. It was amazing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology Richard Wiseman used the best research available to make the most relaxing music possible. You can check out the video about it along with the link to it here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqvD8H32wYA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqvD8H32wYA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Caffeine not only increases energy, it also increases tension. Although caffeine can be alright early in the day, avoiding caffeine altogether will decrease tension, stress, and help you relax more effectively.  Which in turn will help with sleep at night. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eat healthy and exercise during the day. Getting your body what it needs and building in better rhythms during the day will help it sleep better at night. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a list of 40 awesome sleep hacks from optimizing psychology, diet, using technology, and much more: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scribd.com/doc/3932344/40-Sleep-Hacks-The-Geek-s-Guide-to-Optimizing-Sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.scribd.com/doc/3932344/40-Sleep-Hacks-The-Geek-s-Guide-to-Optimizing-Sleep&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And here's another resource which supports some of the tips above and provides some more: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/17/better-sleep-tips-best_n_4958036.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/17/better-sleep-tips-best_n_4958036.html&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Best of luck!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tips in a visual form:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mh5FI.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Sleep Tips Infographic&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2893" LastEditorUserId="2893" LastEditDate="2014-07-29T17:29:51.483" LastActivityDate="2014-07-29T17:29:51.483" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7919" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7923" CreationDate="2014-07-29T13:50:35.663" Score="2" ViewCount="617" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steady_state_visually_evoked_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;steady state visually evoked potentials (SSVEP)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P300_(neuroscience)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;P300&lt;/a&gt; as different subjects. But it seems that they are related to each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is P300 a kind of SSVEP?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastEditorUserId="13937" LastEditDate="2020-12-24T05:20:58.910" LastActivityDate="2020-12-24T05:20:58.910" Title="Difference between SSVEP and P300" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="7920" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-29T15:47:09.100" Score="3" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've learned that the pilots of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Arrows&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Red Arrows&lt;/a&gt; never refer to each other by name but by number in the briefing room in order to avoid conflict.&#xA;Is there a name for this trick? Do any studies say this kind of psychological trick leads to better results? Are there any applications in other fields?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6447" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-29T15:56:00.880" LastActivityDate="2014-07-31T18:25:06.580" Title="Does referring to each other by number in group meetings lead to better results?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;military-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7921" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-29T15:50:54.287" Score="6" ViewCount="956" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many studies report that a speed-accuracy trade-off (SATO) did not occur in the data since there is a positive correlation between RTs and error rates. In other words, people took longer to respond for the trials that were more difficult, i.e. the same that elicited more errors on average, rather than trading speed for accuracy or vice-versa, a participant behaviour seen as undesirable. The absence of a SATO is then strongly indicative of a participant having given their best during the task, i.e. correctly following the usual instructions to give fast but accurate responses. A certain level of skill is then said to characterise a particular SATO curve, and this parameter of the curve can change as people become better at the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, rarely if ever have I seen papers that DO report a SATO, i.e. a &lt;em&gt;negative&lt;/em&gt; correlation betewen RTs and error rates, or, in other words, participants that remained at a relatively constant level of skill but simply moved &quot;up and down&quot; their SATO curve. Clearly this is not a sign of &quot;good data&quot;, but still, what is the correct analysis to perform in such situations, assuming that you can't just proceed to do analyses on RTs and error rates the way you normally do (in the absence of a SATO)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the above two paragraphs refer to the cases where a RT-errors correlation exists and is positive (1st para) or negative (2nd para). But what if there isn't a significant correlation at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good paper discussing this phenomenon is Pachella's 1974 &lt;strong&gt;Unclassified US Air Force paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/787880.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Interpretation of Reaction Time in Information Processing Research&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. However, I don't believe it addresses my questions above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pachella, R. G. (1974). &lt;em&gt;The interpretation of reaction time in information-processing research&lt;/em&gt;. University of Michigan Human Performance Center Technical Report No.45 [PDF Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/787880.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Defence Technical Information Centre&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-07-29T16:04:16.757" LastActivityDate="2017-07-29T16:04:16.757" Title="What to do when you have a speed-accuracy trade-off in your data?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7922" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-30T04:44:15.873" Score="4" ViewCount="212" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that one of the application of cognitive science is military science. Unfortunately I haven't found a good source on how cognitive science could benefit military training. Is there any comprehensive and simple source to read? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6449" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-30T05:12:55.540" LastActivityDate="2014-07-30T05:12:55.540" Title="What is a good general reference on cognitive science in military training?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;military-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7923" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7919" CreationDate="2014-07-30T12:11:35.250" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not at all. The SSVEP is a stimulus-driven reaction, a fluctuation in the neural signal driven by the fluctuation in the observed visual signal. The SSVEP begins and ends with the presence of the visual signal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The P300 a reflection of cognitive processing, an increased response in the presence of deviance detection, decision making, attention, categorization... some higher order processing. The sensory stimulation can be long gone from the display, but as long as it's still being processed by the cognitive apparatus, the P300 can arise. The 300 stands for milliseconds, i.e. it roughly begins about that much after stimulus onset. The only connection between the two is that they're electrophysiological measures, i.e. you can capture both with M/EEG, and that you might observe both in the same brain regions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2014-07-30T12:11:35.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7925" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-31T03:53:22.097" Score="2" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering exactly how ligands bind to and release from receptors. Until recently I presumed ligands were attracted to receptors through electrostatic forces with no chemical interaction involved, and that catabolic enzymes (MAO, AChE) were simply present in the extracellular fluid. I hadn't given much thought as to how they disengage, but assumed ligands were brushed off by the extracellular fluid. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, recently, I was reading about acetylcholinergic signaling and how it can be disrupted by, and I've come to realize is that everything I thought I knew about neurotransmission may be wrong. What I've read suggests this (article linked below):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;AChE is membrane-bound&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;AChE is part of the AChR, or just happens to be is close enough proximity that the AChE can catabolize the ligand while bound to the receptor&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The AChR attracts ACh's positively-charged amine, which brings the acetyl group within range of AChE's reactive alcohol group. This alcohol group cleaves the acetyl group from ACh&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It is not until the acetyl group is cleaved that the ligand disengages from the receptor&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is all of this correct?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are the AChR and AChE distinct? If so, how can both simultaneously interact with a single molecule given their much larger size? If not, why are they ever spoken of as different?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is this sort of catabolism-mediated disengagement the case with other neurotransmitters? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Where can I read more about this, and what is this sort of interaction called? It's been difficult finding information on this.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's the source I was reading on ACh transmission:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.umich.edu/~essen/html/web_mod/cobra/respiration_detailed.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.umich.edu/~essen/html/web_mod/cobra/respiration_detailed.html&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6434" LastEditorUserId="13859" LastEditDate="2019-09-09T16:47:42.930" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T16:47:42.930" Title="How do ligands bind to and release from receptors?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cell-signaling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-07-12T21:27:52.713" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7926" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7919" CreationDate="2014-07-31T05:41:08.173" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;@Ana is basically correct (possibly baring the fact that the P3 is famous for being latency variant, not stable at 300msec), and I really don't want to contradict her or steal her checkmark, but since it's recent and interesting, I would like to point to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v15/n12/abs/nn.3248.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some recent research by O'Connell and colleagues&lt;/a&gt; looking at correlations and similarities between the two measures, as the primary EEG indexes of &lt;em&gt;attention and evidence accumulation&lt;/em&gt;. Incidentally, it also shows the differences in topography, polarity and size for the two, as well as the slight dissociation in time course. (Note also that the P3 is a distinct, monophasic peak - it has an amplitude; the SSVEP is a periodic pattern, strictly speaking, it rather has power.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the following picture, the close correspondence between the SSVEP and the P3 is demonstrated; see the figure caption below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/V6eP0ZL.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(a) Target contrast reduction time course. (b) Grand-average reaction time (RT) distribution (19 subjects). Single trials were sorted by reaction time and divided into three equal-sized bins. (c) Neural signals undergoing gradual changes on the timescale of the physical contrast change, aligned to stimulus onset (left) and response (right). Vertical dashed lines denote mean reaction time. Markers running along the bottom of each plot indicate time points at which a linear regression of signal amplitude onto reaction time reached significance (P &amp;lt; 0.05). (d) The cumulative sum of SSVEP divergence from baseline provided a better fit for the dynamics of the LHB and CPP signals than the raw SSVEP amplitude. To facilitate visualization of the comparison, we baseline-subtracted and inverted SSVEP amplitude. LHB was transformed for each participant so that it reflected the percentage decrease from baseline, then inverted. (e) Single-trial surface plots showing the temporal relationship between each neural signal (normalized relative to each individual's baseline average) and target detection latency (curved black line). Single-trial SSVEP, LHB and CPP signals were pooled across participants, sorted by reaction time and smoothed over bins of 50 trials with a Gaussian-weighted moving average using the EEGLAB toolbox38. The latency of action execution was closely tied to that of the two decision signals, but was less closely related to the sensory evidence signal. (f) Signal scalp topographies, all with pretarget baseline subtracted. Color bars in e and f represent amplitudes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2014-08-01T01:27:01.153" LastActivityDate="2014-08-01T01:27:01.153" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7927" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7929" CreationDate="2014-07-31T08:29:06.300" Score="2" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a brain-computer interface paper, I found the following paragraph: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Effective assessment of BCI performance requires two levels of evaluation: the user and the system. The user must control the signal features ...&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is how can a person control the signal features of his/her brain signal? Does this mean, for example, that a person can give more attention to increase signal to noise ratio for the P300 signal, and be able to look more carefully at the screen that shows flashes in an SSVEP experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-07-31T11:16:31.907" LastActivityDate="2014-07-31T11:23:50.840" Title="Can a person control their brain's electrical activity?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7928" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8110" CreationDate="2014-07-31T10:59:28.827" Score="3" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for pictograms repositories for non-verbal people. I found two types: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ones that I need to pay like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pecsusa.com/pecssamples.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PECS&lt;/a&gt; or SPC,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and others that are free but they have a no-commercial license like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.catedu.es/arasaac/index.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;arasaac&lt;/a&gt; or PiktoPlus.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: Is there a pictograms repository under an open license and that I could use its pictograms with commercial purposes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6452" LastActivityDate="2014-09-02T10:31:53.130" Title="Is there a pictograms repository under an open-commercial license?" Tags="&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7929" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7927" CreationDate="2014-07-31T11:13:22.640" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, and no.  Biofeedback has been an active field of research since the 70s, but has been a bit &quot;fringified&quot; as a cure for ADHD, etc.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is possible to fine tune the brain activity for specific tasks.  To borrow an example from BCI, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_wave&quot;&gt;Rolandic Mu Rhythm&lt;/a&gt; can be used to &quot;train&quot; a user to refine the movement of a cursor or other pointing device.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wadsworth.org/resnres/bios/wolpaw.htm&quot;&gt;Jonathan Wolpaw&lt;/a&gt; has been doing BCI work long before it was &quot;cool&quot;, so his work on BCIs for ALS patients is definitely worth checking out. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to whether you could train the P300, this signal is seen most prevalently in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddball_paradigm&quot;&gt;&quot;oddball&quot; paradigm&lt;/a&gt;, which by nature relies on the stimulus that evokes it being of low probability. Letting the user know that a low probability stimulus is about to occur would eliminate most of the response.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-07-31T11:23:50.840" LastActivityDate="2014-07-31T11:23:50.840" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7930" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-31T12:57:22.870" Score="4" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand how the length and diameter of a compartment are specified. For example, in the Hodgkin–Huxley model, we only have conductances specified in $\rm mS/cm^2$. How do you specify that a compartment is say $100 \mu\rm m$ long?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6453" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-31T19:33:38.793" LastActivityDate="2017-07-20T17:57:56.007" Title="Where do spatial dimensions enter in single compartment neuronal models?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7932" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7920" CreationDate="2014-07-31T18:25:06.580" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is way outside of my area, but reducing identity expression definitely can increase group conformity. This is the basic idea underlying e.g. school uniforms and cultural restrictions in totalitarian regimes. It might be important to keep in mind that identity expression could promote many positive outcomes (greater creativity, more flexible approaches to problem solving, etc) in addition to increased conflict.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3709" LastActivityDate="2014-07-31T18:25:06.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7933" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-31T19:12:49.037" Score="5" ViewCount="836" Body="&lt;p&gt;The typical &quot;Hollywood&quot; representation of Schizophrenia involves vivid visual hallucinations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in practice, the dozen or so people with a diagnosis of Schizophrenia I have worked with have only had auditory hallucinations. I can't tell if visual hallucinations are very uncommon, or if my selection size isn't large enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any statistics showing what percentage of patients diagnosed with Schizophrenia have visual hallucinations, compared to aural hallucinations, or even &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/6308/4626&quot;&gt;no hallucinations at all&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4626" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-08-11T13:52:07.223" Title="How common are visual hallucinations in Schizophrenics?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7934" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-31T19:23:03.020" Score="4" ViewCount="3218" Body="&lt;p&gt;In US English, &lt;em&gt;&quot;Schizoid&quot;&lt;/em&gt; is considered a derogatory term, while &lt;em&gt;&quot;patient/person with Schizoid Personality Disorder&quot;&lt;/em&gt; is the &quot;politically correct&quot; term (and more accurate).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this reason I wanted to be sure, is calling someone &lt;em&gt;&quot;Schizophrenic&quot;&lt;/em&gt; (assuming the diagnosis is correct) considered offensive in any way? Is is more &quot;correct&quot; to use the full &lt;em&gt;&quot;patient/person with schizophrenia&quot;&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4626" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-07-31T20:39:13.760" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T10:19:19.887" Title="Is &quot;Schizophrenic&quot; considered to be a derogatory or offensive term?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7795" CreationDate="2014-07-31T20:22:00.800" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, they are still in use, and they provide rather bad information. My former advisor once worked with a clinician who told him that the main reason they're any better than using the weather report as a projective stimulus is that the Rorschach tests have been in use as-is for decades. Hence we have a better understanding of how people normally react to them, and some catalog of unusual reactions that have been associated with particular characteristics. Had we started with a set of weather reports and stuck with them though, maybe not much else would be different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, here are some excerpts from Wikipedia about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rorschach_test#Prevalence&quot;&gt;usage&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;h2&gt;United States&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Rorschach test is used almost exclusively by psychologists. In a survey done in the year 2000, 20% of correctional psychologists used the Rorschach while 80% used the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory&quot;&gt;MMPI&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;[8]&lt;/sup&gt; Forensic psychologists use the Rorschach 36% of the time.&lt;sup&gt;[79]&lt;/sup&gt;&#xA;  In custody cases, 23% of psychologists use the Rorschach to examine a child.&lt;sup&gt;[80]&lt;/sup&gt;&#xA;  Another survey found that 124 out of 161 (77%) of clinical psychologists engaging in assessment services utilize the Rorschach,&lt;sup&gt;[81]&lt;/sup&gt; and 80% of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology&quot;&gt;psychology&lt;/a&gt; graduate programs teach its use.&lt;sup&gt;[9]&lt;/sup&gt;&#xA;  Another study found that its use by clinical psychologists was only 43%, while it was used less than 24% of the time by school psychologists.&lt;sup&gt;[79]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;h2&gt;United Kingdom&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many psychologists in the United Kingdom do not trust its efficacy and it is rarely used.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/nov/08/hermann-rorschach-google-doodle-inkblot-test&quot;&gt;82&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt; Although skeptical about its scientific validity, some psychologists use it in therapy and coaching &quot;as a way of encouraging self-reflection and starting a conversation about the person's internal world.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18952667&quot;&gt;25&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt; It is still used, however, by such prestigious mental health organisations as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavistock_Clinic&quot;&gt;Tavistock Clinic&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01l0kch&quot;&gt;83&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;h2&gt;Japan&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Shortly after publication of Rorschach's book, a copy found its way to Japan where it was discovered by one of the country's leading psychiatrists in a second-hand book store. He was so impressed that he started a craze for the test that has never diminished. The Japanese Rorschach Society is by far the largest in the world and the test is &quot;routinely put to a wide range of purposes&quot;.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01l0kch&quot;&gt;26&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt; The test has recently been described as &quot;more popular than ever&quot; in Japan.&lt;sup&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01l0kch&quot;&gt;83&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rorschach_test#Method&quot;&gt;the objects of (intended / purported) measurement&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The general goal of the test is to provide data about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition&quot;&gt;cognition&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_psychology&quot;&gt;personality&lt;/a&gt; variables such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation&quot;&gt;motivations&lt;/a&gt;, response tendencies, cognitive operations, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_(psychology)&quot;&gt;affectivity&lt;/a&gt;, and personal/interpersonal &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception&quot;&gt;perceptions&lt;/a&gt;. The underlying assumption is that an individual will class external stimuli based on person-specific perceptual sets, and including &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need&quot;&gt;needs&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_motive&quot;&gt;base motives&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_conflict&quot;&gt;conflicts&lt;/a&gt;, and that this clustering process is representative of the process used in real-life situations.&lt;sup&gt;[33]&lt;/sup&gt; Methods of interpretation differ. Rorschach scoring systems have been described as a system of pegs on which to hang one's knowledge of personality.&lt;sup&gt;[34]&lt;/sup&gt; The most widely used method in the United States is based on the work of Exner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;8. Raynor, P., &amp;amp; McIvor, G. (2008). &lt;em&gt;Developments in social work offenders (Research highlights in social work)&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 138). London: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica_Kingsley_Publishers&quot;&gt;Jessica Kingsley Publishers&lt;/a&gt;. ISBN: 1-84310-538-1.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;9. Weiner, I. B., &amp;amp; Greene, R. L. (2007). &lt;em&gt;Handbook of personality assessment&lt;/em&gt;. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons. ISBN: 0-471-22881-8.&#xA;25. BBC News. (2012, July 24). What's behind the Rorschach inkblot test? &lt;em&gt;BBC News Magazine&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved July 31, 2014 from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18952667&quot;&gt;http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18952667&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;26. Fidgen, J. (2012, July 25). On A. Hall (Producer), Dr Inkblot. &lt;em&gt;BBC Radio 4&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved July 31, 2014 from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01l0kch&quot;&gt;http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01l0kch&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;33. Groth-Marnat, G. (2003). &lt;em&gt;Handbook of psychological assessment&lt;/em&gt;. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons. ISBN: 978-0-471-41979-2.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;34. Mons, W. (1950). &lt;em&gt;Principles and practice of the Rorschach Personality Test&lt;/em&gt; (2nd ed., pp. 30–31). Faber.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;79. Hughes, Gacono, C. B., &amp;amp; Owen, P. F. (2007). Current status of Rorschach assessment: Implications for the school psychologist. &lt;em&gt;Psychology in the Schools, 44&lt;/em&gt;(3), 281. DOI: 10.1002/pits.20223.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;80. Butcher, J. N. (2009). &lt;em&gt;Oxford handbook of personality assessment (Oxford Library of Psychology)&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 290).  Oxford University Press. ISBN: 0-19-536687-5.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;81. Camara, Nathan, J. S., &amp;amp; Puente, A. E. (2000). Psychological test usage: Implications in professional psychology. &lt;em&gt;Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31&lt;/em&gt;(2), 131–154. DOI: 10.1037/0735-7028.31.2.141.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;82. Guardian staff. (2013, November 8). Hermann Rorschach Google doodle asks users to interpret inkblot test. &lt;em&gt;The Guardian&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved July 31, 2014 from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/nov/08/hermann-rorschach-google-doodle-inkblot-test&quot;&gt;http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/nov/08/hermann-rorschach-google-doodle-inkblot-test&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;83. Hall, A. (2012, July 25). Dr Inkblot. &lt;em&gt;BBC Radio 4&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved July 31, 2014 from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01l0kch&quot;&gt;http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01l0kch&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-07-31T20:22:00.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7936" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-07-31T20:45:09.153" Score="3" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;In synthetic biology, an organization called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://biobricks.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BioBricks Foundation&lt;/a&gt; tries to identify modular biological components that are amenable to engineering design, and publishes them in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://parts.igem.org/Main_Page&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Registry of Standard Biological Parts&lt;/a&gt;. Does an analogous movement/organization/research group exist in the neuroscience community working on finding general &quot;NeuroBricks&quot;? These could come in the form of either individual neurons with well-defined abstracted functions or neural networks that do predictable things (i.e. adders, logic gates, amplifiers, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask because I know that the field of neuroengineering is a thing, but I have no idea how possible it is to do direct engineering of neural networks or neurons (it seems like the current consensus is somewhere in the range of really really hard to impossible).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6314" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-02T20:47:34.303" LastActivityDate="2015-11-18T16:20:51.947" Title="Are there any programmes to identify modular &quot;NeuroBricks&quot;?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7937" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7934" CreationDate="2014-07-31T20:59:57.997" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;You never know what's gonna offend &lt;em&gt;someone&lt;/em&gt;...That being said, &quot;hallucinations in people with schizophrenia&quot; does seem the safer option, but &quot;schizophrenics&quot; (not capitalized) is used plenty often. Here's an interesting &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=schizophrenics&quot;&gt;Google&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sardaa.org/schizophrenics-anonymous/what-is-sa/&quot;&gt;result&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Schizophrenics Anonymous (SA) is a self-help group for persons who have schizophrenia or a schizophrenia-related illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't see them using &quot;schizophrenics&quot; outside of the title though, which further supports the use of &quot;persons / people with schizophrenia&quot;. This follows a general guideline: one should avoid defining people by their afflictions and emphasize their personhood foremost. It might seem trivial with occasional use, but conflating a condition with an object category (person) might affect perception of those people, including their self-perceptions / identities, since these are largely matters of emphasis already.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;(This is armchair theorizing without references...or any arms on the chair...Please edit or comment with any support or disagreement.)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-07-31T20:59:57.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7939" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-01T15:54:25.913" Score="7" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_anisotropy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fractional Anisotropy&lt;/a&gt; (FA), a measure in diffusion tensor imaging, called &quot;fractional&quot;? I'd have thought &quot;local&quot;, i.e. voxel-wise, would have been the correct way to qualify the anisotropy that is calculated from the tensor model, so why fractional?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-05T18:12:25.127" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T18:12:25.127" Title="Why &quot;fractional&quot; anisotropy?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7940" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5945" CreationDate="2014-08-02T01:16:11.617" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in this from the perspective of normal-range human functioning, then you could look at the literature on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;emotional intelligence&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional intelligence is a broad construct. For example, an ability model breaks emotional intelligence up in terms of ability ion perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions. Thus, it does include the ability to express emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately, there seem to be some issues of measurement related to emotional intelligence. There are typical self-report measures (e.g., self-ratings on questions like &quot;I am good at managing my emotions&quot;) which typically correlate highly with traditional Big 5 models and related models of personality. Then there are &quot;ability-based measures&quot; such as the MSCEIT which involve IQ-style questions related to emotion (e.g., classifying emotions in facets, etc.). The ability measures often show some correlations with IQ measures and limited correlations with self-report measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, it doesn't seem like most measures do a great job at measuring actual skills in emotional expression. My general impression is that there may be a greater need for more ecologically valid measures of emotional intelligence, particularly as it relates to emotional expression. For example, role play exercises, other reports, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-08-02T01:16:11.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7942" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-02T11:56:11.350" Score="8" ViewCount="1333" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for cognitive neuroscience (and related) mailing lists. For some time I have been subscribed to &lt;a href=&quot;http://visionscience.com/mailman/listinfo/visionlist&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visionlist&lt;/a&gt; and found it to be a tremendous source of information about conferences, PhD and postdoc opportunities.&#xA;Does anybody else know any similar, good sources?&#xA;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6469" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-05-13T15:32:16.833" Title="Cognitive (neuro)science and related mailing lists" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7944" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7936" CreationDate="2014-08-02T20:25:07.930" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming that by &quot;neurobricks&quot; you imply the ability to design systems using modular neuronal components, then I think the &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/research/nef.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neurological Engineering Framework&lt;/a&gt; (NEF) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/nengo/nengo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nengo&lt;/a&gt;, the software used to leverage the NEF, is what you're looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, groups of neurons fire together as a way to encode information from various sources. So you can get simple things like an integrator or something that keeps track of where to move a joystick (like in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_coding#Population_coding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;research by Georgopolous&lt;/a&gt;), but that can scale up (because it's just a group of neurons) all the way to a complex model of the brain like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6111/1202.full?ijkey=y5vph.jw5AgRQ&amp;amp;keytype=ref&amp;amp;siteid=sci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spaun&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of engineering applications, there's a lot of things that these neurons are particularly good at, such as robotic arms, as shown in Spaun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-11-18T16:20:51.947" LastActivityDate="2015-11-18T16:20:51.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7945" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7956" CreationDate="2014-08-03T03:11:07.340" Score="3" ViewCount="557" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know if it is possible to design an experiment on PsychoPy or Open Sesame in which the subject does a self-paced reading (with measuring the reading times for each word), and then after they've read the last word, they judge whether the sentence is grammatical or not (also need RT measured from the end of reading the sentence until responding to the grammaticality question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not familiar with the two programs, but I plan on learning (I played with PsychPy for a mini-experiment). I want to know whether I'll be able to do such an experiment with either of these of these programs before going any further in my methodology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6472" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-05T00:56:25.297" LastActivityDate="2014-08-09T16:49:14.583" Title="Can a self-paced-reading &amp; grammaticality judgment task be programmed in PsychPy or Open Sesame?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7946" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7947" CreationDate="2014-08-03T08:19:18.737" Score="-2" ViewCount="325" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have 1day for the exam and there is much to study and Is there anyway to study Effectively.. This is not just for tommorrow this is for the entire life.. I'm feeling little low. Is there any medication or vitamins that enhance study.. I feel like there is nothing in my brain and no motivation. Please Help me on this. Is there any mental excercise that I can follow to get my brain work more efficient.. The worst thing is I'm doing math as my major I have Chemistry and Physics with me. So I got lot to coverup think.. Please Help me..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6473" LastActivityDate="2014-08-03T09:07:50.843" Title="Study Effectively" Tags="&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2014-08-04T00:12:34.870" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7947" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7946" CreationDate="2014-08-03T09:07:50.843" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no medicine that I would recommend, and unless you have a vitamin deficiency there is no point in taking any extra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem in your situation is firstly procrastination. What happens when there is one day left before an exam, for which you are not adequately prepared, is that your stress levels go up. Acute stress enhances long term memory by potentiating the hippocampus through glucocorticoid receptors (cortisol, the stress hormone, is a glucocorticoid). This is good because it helps you remember nasty situations, and allows you to avoid them in the future. Another effect is that is blocks memory retrieval. This is obvious, and something we have all experienced in exams. A lesser known effect, one that is not readibly noticeable, is that it diminishes the function of your working memory. The working memory is crucial for performing tasks such as mathematics, writing, planning (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory#Effects_of_stress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory#Effects_of_stress&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two things you can do until next time:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing is to plan your studying better. By reviewing a little bit each day you lower the load on the days leading up to the exam. You also enhance your memory that way (cramming isn't as efficient as long term learning), and lower your stress (which makes your brain less inhibited).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing you can do, and there is some research showing its beneficial effects, is to train your working memory. By doing that you can increase its capacity. Bear in mind though that the effects are not always carried over to other tasks than the one you are practicing. You will need to look around for this since I'm not sure which exercises are the best (I enjoy Lumosity.com). Another &quot;mental enhancer&quot; is exercise. By going for a jog, or to the gym, once a day, you will both decrease stress and enhance several functions of the brain (increased BDNF for example. I mentioned BDNF in another answer: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4139/does-intermittent-fasting-increase-intelligence/4417#4417&quot;&gt;Does intermittent fasting increase intelligence?&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness and meditation can help decrease acute stress; instead of focusing on everything you have to learn, focus on something else for a while. Or pick out a managable part of what you have to learn and spend time on that. That way you will learn more (as a percentage of the whole) than if you try to learn everything at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It all comes down to planning and efficient learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3459" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-08-03T09:07:50.843" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7948" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-03T11:40:56.527" Score="21" ViewCount="1748" Body="&lt;p&gt;Right after you wake up from a dream, you seem to be able to remember most if not all of the details.  Then, over time, these details fade and often disappear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a form of regression?  Why is it harder to solidify memories of dreams?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="228" LastActivityDate="2015-09-27T20:59:52.987" Title="Why do dreams lose clarity quickly over time after we awaken?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7949" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7976" CreationDate="2014-08-03T13:57:17.337" Score="6" ViewCount="307" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading Marvin Minsky's &lt;em&gt;The Society of Mind&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This (practice makes perfect) is really is quite curious. You might expect, instead, that the more you learned, the slower you would get-from having more knowledge from which to choose! How does practice speed things up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another related observation is that more practice also make things less effortful, to the extent that people can &quot;autopilot&quot; after practicing for long enough, like driving. But what makes this shift from consciousness to unconsciousness possible? What happens in the process? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6186" LastActivityDate="2014-08-18T16:08:18.687" Title="What's the neurological basis for &quot;practice makes perfect&quot;?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7950" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7949" CreationDate="2014-08-04T21:27:23.423" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a good book about this called &lt;a href=&quot;http://thetalentcode.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Talent Code&lt;/a&gt;. To sum it all up, when you are learning a skill, your entire nervous system is literally rewiring itself. Your myelin and neural pathways begin to restructure. The more a given skill is embedded in your nervous system, the more auto pilot it becomes. The more autopilot the skill becomes, the more it enables you to focus on higher level functions within the context of the skill since you have more attention freed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6475" LastActivityDate="2014-08-04T21:27:23.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7951" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6563" CreationDate="2014-08-04T21:34:27.137" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly, we need to draw the difference between a need and a belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Needs are what everybody really wants, and beliefs are the vehicles which people meet those needs. For example, everybody has a need to feel significant or unique, but the way that person goes about doing that is based on their beliefs. To some people, robbing a bank in their mind will make them significant, to others helping people will make them signifcant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason this distinction is essential is because it allows you to see that humans really only have a few true desires. The basic human needs for survival: certainty, variety, connection, significance, etc. All the different desires humans have stem from the drive to meet these needs. The reason we have so many desires is because we have various needs, many of which are in conflict.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6475" LastActivityDate="2014-08-04T21:34:27.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7952" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-04T23:19:23.930" Score="1" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any research on an effect described in the proverb in the title, i.e. when people who work well are requested to work even more, while weak workers are usually left without attention?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4916" LastActivityDate="2014-08-04T23:19:23.930" Title="&quot;All lay loads on a willing horse&quot;" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7953" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7795" CreationDate="2014-08-05T12:29:13.110" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The whole controversy over the Rorschach test leads us to see it as a useful medium but not as a valid personality test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In using the Rorschach test, the tester should then focus on &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; the subject considers the test procedure, the pictures and how he/she identifies the inkblots... or refuses to, rather than focus on &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; the subject tells he sees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @NickStauner states, in this regard you could even use weather forecasts as a test medium... Rorschach inkblots in this respect are probably appreciated because they show a rich palette of patterns and colors which have already been listed and commented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6476" LastEditorUserId="6476" LastEditDate="2014-08-05T12:35:54.487" LastActivityDate="2014-08-05T12:35:54.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7955" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7983" CreationDate="2014-08-05T16:24:44.257" Score="1" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;I refer it especially to what men and women look for in the partner. Of course, this is a generalized speech. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a correlation between the model of beauty proposed to men and what men sees as beauty. And, as well, there seems to be a strong correlation between what women search and what soap opera propose as the winning model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Which is the cause and which is the consequence?&lt;/strong&gt; Mass media propose what people already desire? Does this affect people desire? Can it be considered a loop?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the question can be answered by comparing different stile of life across countries and centuries. For example the desire of being slim (see the growth of speaking about liposuction) has increased when the idea of beauty has become a synonim of being very slim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=Albert%20Einstein%2CSherlock%20Holmes%2CFrankenstein%2Cliposuction&amp;amp;year_start=1980&amp;amp;year_end=2000&amp;amp;corpus=15&amp;amp;smoothing=3&amp;amp;share=&amp;amp;direct_url=t1%3B%2CAlbert%20Einstein%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CSherlock%20Holmes%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CFrankenstein%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cliposuction%3B%2Cc0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Link Ngram&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any element to hypothesize that a person's desire is bound to his internal dialogue? To his fears? To his beliefs? To what he perceive as needs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2014-08-12T12:24:23.147" Title="Are desires influenced by beliefs?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7956" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7945" CreationDate="2014-08-05T18:56:06.803" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Disclaimer - I'm a big fan of, and occasional contributor to, OpenSesame. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, but you can't expect anyone here to do it for you. &#xA;I would recommend using OpenSesame for this, as you'll need to use Python, and OpenSesame makes this side of things easier for beginners. &#xA;My advice is to head over to the website, take a look at the documentation there, have a go yourself, and use the &lt;a href=&quot;http://forum.cogsci.nl&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;forum&lt;/a&gt; there to ask for help in specific points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will say though, that it's much better to attempt to design the experiment yourself and ask for help, rather than looking for someone to do it for you. The OpenSesame people really appreciate that! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-08-05T18:56:06.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7957" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="909" CreationDate="2014-08-05T20:37:22.173" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;im new here, so maybe i do not answer according to the rules, please tell me if so.&#xA;i think the prove should be on the negative, because theirs no reason to believe animals do not daydream. &#xA;if you ask a person if he can not daydream for a year.. he will probably answer he wont. also, you see people daydream from the moment they ware child's&#xA;so, what i mean is that if you think reasonably and look at the facts around you, you get to the understanding that people cant control on the need to daydream&#xA;if so, why cant we call it the nature of a humans&#xA;if so, when we look at animals, we see their nature and needs are very similar or even identical to humans. you see some animals got angry, fear, have sax, we also know they dream at sleeping, social needs, needs for being the leader, take control, ext... &#xA;i cant see why is not reasonable to think that they have a certain amount of daydream that has been happening to them like it happening to humans. i believe you right scientificly you should prove you cant say they don't,  but reasonably it worth give it a try&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6482" LastActivityDate="2014-08-05T20:37:22.173" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7958" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-06T11:07:43.063" Score="4" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the effects of social networking websites in the evolution of humans (behavioral, intellectual, etc.)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have their been any studies (published research, articles) on positive or negative effects of social networking websites such as Facebook, Twitter, etc. on human brain/social interaction among people / on kids or any aspect of human evolution?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I have a computer science background.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1279" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-06T17:42:26.977" LastActivityDate="2014-08-06T17:42:26.977" Title="Effects of Social Networking websites on Humans?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7959" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-06T21:30:31.750" Score="3" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read articles stating that Albert Einstein had an average brain volume but couldn't find a specific measurement. I'm curious because the articles are all so ambiguous. He could have been on the upper or lower side of average.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6484" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-06T21:49:08.010" LastActivityDate="2014-08-18T00:27:07.190" Title="What was the quantified brain volume of Albert Einstein?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7961" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7962" CreationDate="2014-08-07T11:53:47.640" Score="0" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;Every evening I spend considerable time and energy trying to get my kids to eat their dinner, holding off treats such as chips or dessert. My experience was that my parents did the same. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found over the course of my higher-education studies, that my ability to delay gratification was a big factor in my ability to complete degrees in Law and Computer Science. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;What evidence is there to suggest that delayed gratification is taught and learned and not genetic?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ie Did I learn delayed gratification or did I just have it? (I didn't seem to have it as a child at the dinner table). Now as a parent with my children at the dinner table, do I have a hope of teaching them delayed gratification?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastActivityDate="2014-08-07T14:41:54.127" Title="What evidence is there to suggest that delayed gratification is taught and learned and not genetic?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7962" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7961" CreationDate="2014-08-07T14:41:54.127" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;whilst the nature-nurture issue in mammalian (and particularly human) behaviour is a perennially-fascinating topic, we have learned to be cautious about attempting to construct any strict dichotomies between learned and innate behaviour. suppose you had asked: &quot;did I learn English or just have it?&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;successful delayed gratification most likely involves cognitively-mediated inhibition channeled via the frontal lobes. the behaviour must be learned, but it relies on a genetically encoded neural substrate. since it has been claimed (on the basis of longitudinal studies) that the degree of success in delayed gratification tasks persists over time, it may be interesting to ask a related question: if a person has a below-average ability to successfully delay gratification, to what extent is this due to poor teaching and to what extent is it based on neurological factors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4047" LastActivityDate="2014-08-07T14:41:54.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7966" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-08T10:52:42.830" Score="3" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if the notion of reflection/introspection in computing has prompted research in other fields other than computer science, e.g cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, I would love to read any work that makes the connection between reflection/introspection and metacognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_introspection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; has a concise introduction on the two notions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In computing, type introspection is the ability of a program to examine the type or properties of an object at runtime. Some programming languages possess this capability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Introspection should not be confused with reflection, which goes a step further and is the ability for a program to manipulate the values, meta-data, properties and/or functions of an object at runtime. Some programming languages, e.g. Java, also possess that capability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6491" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-08-08T15:21:04.850" Title="Research connecting reflection/introspection in computing and metacognition" Tags="&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-03-25T04:58:31.323" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7967" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7979" CreationDate="2014-08-08T15:48:42.700" Score="5" ViewCount="3856" Body="&lt;p&gt;Knowing there are &lt;strong&gt;100,000,000,000&lt;/strong&gt; neurons in an average human brain, and &lt;strong&gt;7,000&lt;/strong&gt; dendrites in each neuron, and neurons are connected to each other by dendrites and axon terminals, how many synapses are there in an average human brain? (I don't know how many axon terminals per neuron there are on average.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6492" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-08T16:38:05.603" LastActivityDate="2019-03-27T00:01:12.243" Title="How many synapses in the average human brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7968" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-08T16:36:25.437" Score="3" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apart from Polya's definition of problem solving in 1981, &quot;finding a way out of a difficulty, a way around an obstacle, attaining an aim that was not immediately attainable.&quot;, is there a better modern definition that would reflect the systematic nature of problem solving?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Polya, G. (1981). &lt;em&gt;Mathematics discovery: An understanding, learning, and teaching problem solving (combined edition)&lt;/em&gt;. New York: John Willey &amp;amp; Son.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6410" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-06T09:03:44.617" LastActivityDate="2018-03-06T09:03:44.617" Title="What is the modern definition for problem solving?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7969" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="7975" CreationDate="2014-08-08T18:04:32.893" Score="0" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need to perform a questionnaire as part of my final project. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the quick-and-dirty rules for knowing how many respondents I need to get meaningful results? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6493" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-10T03:19:16.130" LastActivityDate="2014-08-10T03:35:57.867" Title="What is a good rough rule of thumb regarding required sample size for questionnaire studies?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7970" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8837" CreationDate="2014-08-09T11:12:32.060" Score="10" ViewCount="2180" Body="&lt;p&gt;I saw the image below on facebook. At first, I thought it's a GIF animation since it doesn't appear static but it turned out to be a static JPEG image and the apparent motion is caused by the brain. So why does my brain trick me into believing that there's something moving? Does the brain have a purpose to do this optical illusion?&#xA;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fp895.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;illusion&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3205" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-10T04:09:32.443" LastActivityDate="2015-03-08T14:19:11.920" Title="What's the explanation of this optical illusion where many coloured arcs radiate from a central point?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7971" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3248" CreationDate="2014-08-09T15:04:34.287" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some very good answers, and i note &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/3248/does-associating-a-color-with-numbers-improve-math-learning/7971#comment6569_3257&quot;&gt;the important remark of @indolering&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that synesthesiacs perform worse in math, but I'm too lazy to look up the research. – Indolering Mar 11 '13 at 1:13&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, particularly if we generalize the question slightly to symbols rather than just numbers, it would be bold to assert that aside from motivational effects there is never any pedagogic benefit to be obtained from the use of colouring. We should not neglect the role played by selective attention in following an intricate symbolic argument. (training of visual selective attention is of especial importance in studying complex geometrical figures, and has to some extent been used, i think - but this is well beyond the scope of OP's question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also we should remember individual differences. Most trivially, if color were found to be of benefit in learning some mathematical idea or result, one would expect this benefit to be reduced for individuals with some degree of achromatopsia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One should finally note that whilst the content of mathematics is objective, our conceptualizations depend quite strongly on the development of notation. Many typographical conventions are already in existence which certainly enhance learning of abstract concepts in mathematics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The unfortunate truth of the matter is that to date the teaching of elementary maths is of a uniformly low quality, which there are reasons for, perhaps. Not least the domination of education theory by an arithmophobic intelligentsia to whom self-esteem is more important than the needs of both children and the society they grow up in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Footnote&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@caseyr5471 &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5490/how-does-the-brain-learn-abstract-maths?rq=1&quot;&gt; here&lt;/a&gt; included the following relevant quotation (italicized) from &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5490/how-does-the-brain-learn-abstract-maths?rq=1&quot;&gt;&#xA;this paper&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The parietal area and prefrontal cortex from the neocortex are the source of ones ability to perform algebra and most other logic and analytic intensive tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;In a brain imaging study of children learning algebra, it is shown that the same regions are active in children solving equations as are active in experienced adults solving equations. As with adults, practice in symbol manipulation produces a reduced activation in prefrontal cortex area. However, unlike adults, practice seems also to produce a decrease in a parietal area that is holding an image of the equation. This finding suggests that adolescents' brain responses are more plastic and change more with practice. These results are integrated in a cognitive model that predicts both the behavioral and brain imaging results.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4047" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-06T09:05:23.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="7972" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7945" CreationDate="2014-08-09T16:49:14.583" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in alternatives to PsychoPy and OpenSesame and running your experiments in a web browser, setup exercises, recruit participants via email, facebook or twitter, and evaluate your results online please visit &lt;a href=&quot;http://stato.de&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;stato.de&quot;&gt;stato.de&lt;/a&gt; and checkout one of the demos like &lt;a href=&quot;http://stato.de/portfolio-item/mental-rotation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Mental Rotation&quot;&gt;Mental Rotation&lt;/a&gt; (the demos do not require signup).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;stato.de may implement this experiment for you if you agree that the experiment will subsequently be released as open source and hosted on github; if you agree stato.de will credit you with the conception of this experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested please contact me via the &lt;a href=&quot;http://stato.de/contact/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Contact&quot;&gt;stato.de contact form&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4876" LastActivityDate="2014-08-09T16:49:14.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7973" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-09T17:38:03.720" Score="4" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychological experiment where subjects are first taught to move a object just by thinking about moving it (subject's brains are being read with a machine that moves the object). Then the object is being moved by someone else and subject only sees the object moving. As a result would subject think that he or she moved the object?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the moment I am thinking that the answer would be yes, which is somewhat counterintuitive. Please prove me wrong. Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6498" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-10T04:05:43.217" LastActivityDate="2014-08-10T04:05:43.217" Title="Is there an experiment where participant tries to move object with brain-machine interface and object is moved by someone else?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7969" CreationDate="2014-08-10T03:18:05.680" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Obviously, this question is highly under-specified. The sample size you need depends a lot on the aims of your analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, when thinking about sample size requirements, you need to think about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_power&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;power analysis&lt;/a&gt; and desired precision of estimation. This in turn requires you to think about your research question and expectations about results (e.g., effect sizes, expected means, and so on).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, you asked about a few simple rules of thumbs for questionnaire style research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These would be my rough rules of thumb:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are wanting to do a proper survey study of the population and are aiming to get good  estimates of proportions, then I'd think you'd want at least 1,000 participants in order to get reasonable standard errors. But if you are doing this kind of study, you are going to want to know a lot more about sampling than this question implies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More likely, you are thinking about rules of thumb for a standard observational psychology study. In these kinds of studies, you are typically measuring several psychology scales perhaps along with some demographics. A typical analysis might involve correlations, regression-type models, and perhaps some reliability analysis and factor analysis to check the scales. In these kinds of studies, I generally think of a sample size of 100 as a reasonable starting point, 200 as good, and 300+ as very good, and of course even bigger samples are better. These rules of thumb are related to the precision with which you are estimating correlations which in turn relate to the precision of predictive models and so on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more discussion of rules of thumb, see this question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/10079/rules-of-thumb-for-minimum-sample-size-for-multiple-regression&quot;&gt;rules of thumb for regression&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, the above are just rough rules of thumb. There are trade-offs between required resources and sample size. More importantly, if you are serious about these things you should analyse your problem in terms of either power analysis or desired precision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2014-08-10T03:35:57.867" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7976" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7949" CreationDate="2014-08-10T08:18:16.683" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The cortex and more of the higher centers are involved in a process when we first learn it. For example it has been tested that basketball players can improve by simply thinking about shooting baskets and not actually doing it. Prior to puberty a lot of neurological &quot; pruning&quot; takes place. This was eloquently discussed in Satinovers book &quot; The Quantum Brain&quot; which talks about models of machine learning based on our understanding of the human brain. Once a process has been repeated over and over again several things seem to happen and one is definitely that neural pathways are reinforced and neural connections get stronger the more we use them. This is only part of the picture however. It appears that older parts of the brain, things closer to what we would call &quot; reflexes&quot; can take over a process that has been rehearsed over and over again. This would be a process occurring in the cerebellum that once required the cortex to fully participate in the process before it was rehearsed over and over. My college piano teacher told me that even though i had not practiced piano a lot in my 20's it would still be easier for me to learn piano again because i studied in my teens. This is an example of the neural connections being maintained even after years of non use, though anecdotal of course, but certainly there are millions of such examples. Hope this explanation helps. Now everyone go get that 10 000 hours in and become experts. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6502" LastActivityDate="2014-08-10T08:18:16.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7978" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7933" CreationDate="2014-08-11T04:29:21.397" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2399817&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mueser and colleagues (1990)&lt;/a&gt; examined 117 &lt;em&gt;DSM-III-R&lt;/em&gt; schizophrenic or schizoaffective disorder patients and reported a prevalence of 16% for visual hallucinations. Interestingly, they found that the global severity of illness was higher in patients with schizophrenia and visual hallucinations. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2660156/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Teeple and colleagues (2009)&lt;/a&gt; observe that this finding makes sense of the widely varying estimates of prevalence of visual hallucinations in schizophrenic patients, since patients with more severe illness might be expected to experience more visual hallucinations than those with less severe illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6480" LastEditorDisplayName="user6480" LastEditDate="2014-08-11T13:52:07.223" LastActivityDate="2014-08-11T13:52:07.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7979" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7967" CreationDate="2014-08-11T08:14:57.847" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human neocortex contains approximately 1.5x10^14 synapses, connecting its 19–23 billion neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Pakkenberg, B., Pelvig, D., Marner, L., Bundgaard, M. J., Gundersen, H. J. G., Nyengaard, J. R., &amp;amp; Regeur, L. (2003). Aging and the human neocortex. Experimental Gerontology, 38(1-2), 95-99. doi:10.1016/S0531-5565(02)00151-1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastEditorUserId="6422" LastEditDate="2014-08-30T12:09:56.693" LastActivityDate="2014-08-30T12:09:56.693" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7981" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-11T16:58:44.897" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;People perceive numbers, percentages and values in different ways depending on what it is and how it is presented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for research on when to communicate with an actual percentage and when it is perceived better to say &lt;em&gt;n out of x&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example in commercials we hear,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;9 out of 10 dentists recommend&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We do not hear&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;90% of dentists recommend&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm currently working on some marketing materials and a study has found &lt;code&gt;4 out of 5&lt;/code&gt; in one instance and &lt;code&gt;12 out of 19&lt;/code&gt; in the other. I believe &lt;code&gt;4 out of 5&lt;/code&gt; works better than &lt;code&gt;80%&lt;/code&gt; but &lt;code&gt;Over 65%&lt;/code&gt; sounds better than &lt;code&gt;12 out of 19&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone have information about the way humans perceive percentages and how to determine the most favorable format?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="455" LastActivityDate="2014-08-15T09:21:25.877" Title="When should a percentage be written as a percentage and when should it be written x out of n?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7982" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-11T17:51:26.650" Score="4" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusional_misidentification_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;delusional misidentification syndrome&lt;/a&gt; (DMS) is a condition in which a patient consistently misidentifies persons, places, objects, or events. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.academia.edu/167434/The_Rationality_of_Psychosis_and_Understanding_the_Deluded&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Broome (2004)&lt;/a&gt; affirms that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The most common form of delusional misidentification is not that of either the exotic Capgras or Fregoli syndromes but delusional misidentification for place... delusional misidentification tends to occur in the context of a patient believing that they are at home or on holiday rather than in hospital and may not necessarily involve close family members or other intimate relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While &lt;a href=&quot;http://toddfeinberg.com/accelsite/media/mediaFile3100.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Feinberg and Roane (2005)&lt;/a&gt; claim that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The most common form of misidentification is the Capgras syndrome... this disorder consists of the delusional belief that a person or persons have been replaced by ‘‘doubles’’ or imposters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to be the most widely held opinion. Cf. &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com.br/books?id=GnN2nEmpyIMC&amp;amp;lpg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=Essentials%20of%20Postgraduate%20Psychiatry&amp;amp;pg=PA356#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=The%20most%20common%20of%20these%20is%20the%20Capgras%20delusion&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;David (1997)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;None of these authors provide a reference (they may be referring to their private clinical experience). Can anyone provide a reference that substantiates or contradicts this claim?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6480" LastEditorDisplayName="user6480" LastEditDate="2014-08-12T01:49:00.380" LastActivityDate="2014-08-12T01:49:00.380" Title="What is the most common form of delusional misidentification?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7983" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7955" CreationDate="2014-08-12T12:24:23.147" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very big and broad question in terms of the fundamentals that underpin it, which are basically nature vs nurture based. There are some desires we have that are innate and core to our being, and then there are desires that are learned. The interaction between them is very complex, but you can give some obvious examples of how both are important. On all of these, there's heaps of research, but any research is complicated because the interaction between nurture and nature is so complicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The human being can rewire almost any impulse. This is what is so special about the human being, and which is why cultures vary so hugely. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An obvious example is a young girl lead to believe to be too fat, proven to be thanks to a broken capacity of seeing themselves properly, and this cancelling out her innate motive to eat. However, if you want to look at the mechanics of how that works, you'll see a hugely complex interaction of genetic, biological, and environmental factors at play, as this wiki section shows very clearly: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa#Causes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa#Causes&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To continue towards your actual question, if you take that mechanism to mass media, you have to look at the motivations of the whole industry. It is in the mass media's interest to provide you with new reasons to consume them. A human being has natural impulses to be stimulated as well as comforted, so it will be attracted to everything that does either or both. And then there are companies that make things for consumption that have long ago discovered that mass media are an efficient way to help make you want to consume their product. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the whole sea-change of evolution and invention, things are always changing enough for people to look for new (or new-looking) solutions to (new or old) problems or the satiation of an innate desire (eating fat or sugar, finding a mate, standing out or blending in socially, etc.). The power of mass media and marketing comes from bridging the distance between what they are ready to offer that is different enough from what's already out there and the desire you want to satiate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, the loop / spiral is very likely the best way to describe the interaction. And it can lead to some pretty excessive and problematic behavior with all three parties involved. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6514" LastActivityDate="2014-08-12T12:24:23.147" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7984" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8108" CreationDate="2014-08-12T20:08:25.450" Score="0" ViewCount="1608" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we are our brains, and our brains know how they work, this means that this information is stored somewhere in the brain, like the inferior temporal cortex is the part of the brain that recognizes numbers. &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Where is knowledge of how the brain works stored?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6518" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-12T20:54:41.923" LastActivityDate="2014-09-05T10:29:14.177" Title="Where is knowledge of how the brain works stored?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7985" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1287" CreationDate="2014-08-12T21:44:30.723" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Savants apparently don't compute consciously; from what I've seen, they see numbers as shapes. When savants multiply numbers together, they see two shapes. The image starts to change and evolve, and a third shape emerges. That's the answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humans can have &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;synesthesia&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. It is a process in the brain which can associate numbers or names to certain shapes. For example, consider the two shapes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y2VDH.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y2VDH.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cdn.sciencebuddies.org/Files/5835/11/Bouba-Kiki-effect-shapes.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sciencebuddies.org&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tests like this demonstrate that people do not attach sounds to visual shapes arbitrarily. Which shape would you call &quot;Bouba&quot; and which &quot;Kiki&quot;?&#xA;I would call the one on the left &quot;kiki&quot; and the one on the right &quot;Bouba&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z22H89rIMHk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this interesting video&lt;/a&gt; on the wonderful savant Daniel Tammet. Start from 32:16 if you want to see how a neurology team administered various tests to him to make sure he's not using some techniques. See also how he uses &quot;Kiki-Bouba&quot;-like shapes to do complex computations at 40:35.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6519" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-02-26T04:32:27.673" LastActivityDate="2019-02-26T04:32:27.673" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="7986" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7984" CreationDate="2014-08-13T10:08:16.290" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This type of knowledge is known as &quot;semantic memory&quot;; a type of &quot;declarative memory&quot;. We don't yet know where semantic memory is stored in the brain, although there is evidence that hippocampal and/or parahippocampal structures are required to store semantic memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fine details of exactly what a &quot;memory&quot; is in terms of neurobiology, where and how it is stored, and how it is retrieved is an area of neuroscience that is currently under very active research. However, our knowledge is very rudimentary at present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2014-08-13T10:08:16.290" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7987" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-13T15:07:51.187" Score="3" ViewCount="241" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do beavers use cognitive moves, learning, memory or skill acquisition in their life to build better? Or do they simply repeat instinctive gestures and end up with stereotyped architecture always?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6410" LastActivityDate="2020-01-31T22:24:42.337" Title="Do beavers make dams purely by instinct?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7988" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-13T16:05:30.427" Score="2" ViewCount="1249" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know any good definition of emotion. I don't know what they really are, subjectively. &#xA;I don't understand what makes an experience an emotion, as opposed to a thought or a sensation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is a good definition of emotion?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How is an emotion different from a thought or a sensation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6527" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-14T07:34:19.283" LastActivityDate="2014-09-13T15:07:19.527" Title="How is an emotion different from a thought or a sensation?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7988" CreationDate="2014-08-13T18:50:51.533" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Right. No need to reinvent the wheel, so &lt;a href=&quot;http://lmgtfy.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;let me Google that for you&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=emotion+definition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Emotion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a natural instinctive state of mind deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &quot;she was attempting to control her emotions&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;em&gt;synonyms&lt;/em&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20feeling&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCUQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;feeling&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20sentiment&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCYQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sentiment&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20reaction&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCgQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reaction&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20response&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCkQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;response&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\quad\quad\quad\quad$&quot;she was good at hiding her emotions&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\quad\quad\quad\ $ &lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20passion&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCoQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;passion&lt;/a&gt;, strength of feeling, warmth of feeling&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\quad\quad\quad\quad$&quot;overcome by emotion, she turned away&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;middot;&lt;/strong&gt; instinctive or intuitive feeling as distinguished from reasoning or knowledge.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\ \ $&quot;responses have to be based on historical insight, not simply on emotion&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\ \ $synonyms:   &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20instinct&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCsQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;instinct&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20intuition&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CCwQ_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;intuition&lt;/a&gt;, gut feeling; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;amp;q=define%20sentiment&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=IrLrU5b3MMKbyATCvYCYAw&amp;amp;ved=0CC4Q_SowAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sentiment&lt;/a&gt;, the heart&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  $\quad\quad\quad\quad$&quot;responses based purely on emotion&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-08-13T18:50:51.533" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7992" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-14T09:12:18.780" Score="2" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a researcher in computer science, and I am looking for some literature in the field of psychology related to the task of connecting information; something like a study &#xA;or a theory relevant to the process that the human brain does when solving the problem of connecting information. For example, when someone needs to compare two pieces of information and find the similarities, or when someone sees a person and immediately some information about an event comes to her mind, because she relates the person with such an event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be grateful if someone could suggest names of concepts or theories, cite papers containing studies, give titles of books or point to digital libraries on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6530" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-15T00:07:04.423" LastActivityDate="2014-08-17T10:04:18.447" Title="Bibliographic references about the task of connecting information" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-31T16:51:28.237" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7995" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-14T17:47:35.677" Score="1" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can we differentiate between the following two processes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brain receives information via senses, such as eye, ear, nose, skin and tongue. That is, vision, hearing, smell, touch and taste.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brain stops receiving information via senses; but continuously keeps processing previously accumulated information from the mind: for instance, death of a loved one.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6533" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-08-15T10:59:15.510" LastActivityDate="2014-08-15T10:59:15.510" Title="Difference between real time and old information processing in the brain" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7998" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7995" CreationDate="2014-08-15T00:29:10.267" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Of course. You've differentiated the two already by describing two mutually exclusive processes. If you're looking for terminological differences that delineate theory along this distinction, it seems you're looking to distinguish &lt;strong&gt;perception&lt;/strong&gt; from &lt;strong&gt;cognition&lt;/strong&gt; as it exists and operates independently from the direct influence of sensation. Plenty of cognition does not involve sensation or perception directly. Metacognition is a sort of self-perceptive process that operates apart from sensation in the traditional &quot;five senses&quot; sense, but not all cognition even involves self-perception or conscious awareness of the cognitive processes in question. This may be debatable, but I would call perception a special case of cognition – i.e., cognition is the broader domain of mental processes that subsumes perception, but does not always involve it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One might also argue that you've only described &lt;strong&gt;sensation&lt;/strong&gt; in your first sentence, not perception. Perception refers more directly to the processing of sensory information that the brain &lt;em&gt;has received&lt;/em&gt;, whereas sensation refers to all processes leading up to sensory information processing. Thus sensation may include the process of delivering sensory information to the brain, depending on whose definition you subscribe to. Cognitive processes only enter the equation once the information has arrived, because cognition refers to the processes carried out by the brain – mostly the higher processes, so (again, maybe this is debatable) not even what happens in the rest of the central nervous system. E.g., the optic nerves feed cognitive processes, but do not carry out cognitive processes themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summary:&lt;/strong&gt; If your first sentence only refers to raw sensory information being conveyed to the brain before the brain does any work to process this information, then I don't think it describes cognition at all, whereas the second sentence describes cognition directly. If you mean to include the brain's interpretive process in the &quot;receives information&quot; step of the first sentence, then it describes perception, which is only one kind of cognition (or maybe also distinct from cognition by some definitions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-08-15T00:29:10.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="7999" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-15T01:22:56.323" Score="8" ViewCount="609" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm curious if there is any neurological mechanism that explains why falling asleep is easier in the dark.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recognize that this isn't true universally -- a phobia of darkness might make it easier to sleep with the lights on -- but it seems to be true for most people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm particularly curious if there is a &lt;em&gt;general&lt;/em&gt; explanation that might explain why it is easier to fall asleep in the absence of much sensory stimulation (i.e., a quiet environment versus a noisy one, or if darkness is a special case due to our circadian rhythms).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T16:00:58.153" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T22:01:22.570" Title="Why is it easier to fall asleep in the dark?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8000" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-15T02:31:10.897" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is a bit of a long shot for this site but it is psychology-related so I thought I'd give it a try. This is a little thought exercise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was driving down the expressway toward downtown Chicago this afternoon, frustrated at the gridlocked traffic. I thought to myself &quot;wouldn't it be great if the people that were going to get off on an exit soon drove in the far right lane while those that would be driving a long distance drove in the far left lane.&quot; This way we'd be able to maximize speed for those that are passing through and avoid the delays of weaving in and out of traffic for the short distance drivers. Unfortunately people don't do this, we look at the lanes as fast or slow. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to help &quot;stratify&quot; the drivers instead of a big weaving blob, I wondered whether or not something like a sticker on the back of the car where the color of the sticker was associated w/ how far you had to drive from the city center would work. When people act as a herd, would something like function as a little trigger? If a person was a &quot;red&quot; and saw other red drivers, would that kind of mark push the driver to say, &quot;those people are going where I am going. I will model my driving speed/lane selection after theirs.&quot; I know that this depends on the individual. Could we use herd behavior to an advantage?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6534" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-15T04:14:37.917" LastActivityDate="2014-08-15T04:14:37.917" Title="Could markers on cars indicating a common destination improve highway driving efficiency?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7988" CreationDate="2014-08-15T06:43:05.183" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Technically speaking, an emotion is not different from thought the way it is processed in brain, both involve neurotransmitters. But a thought may not always be an emotion as it may include logical thinking too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6535" LastActivityDate="2014-08-15T06:43:05.183" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8003" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7988" CreationDate="2014-08-15T09:20:51.293" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is hard to delineate emotion completely from thoughts or sensations, because emotion can contain both. If you're in a certain emotional state, that means you're reading your bodily state via a series of sensations (so called interoception, as opposed to sensations originating from the world around you). You can also think about the fact that you're feeling a certain way, and having a concept for your emotional state becomes part of the state as well. What makes emotion different from thinking about some other sensations (such as: 'this is green') is that emotions are fueled by an underlying feeling of pleasantness or unpleasantness. However, even this is difficult to completely delineate from some sensations. It is difficult to feel emotionally neutral about the sensation of physical pain, for example. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2014-08-15T09:20:51.293" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8004" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7981" CreationDate="2014-08-15T09:21:25.877" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Two comments. First: the &quot;frequentist&quot; format appears to be easier to understand than the normed percentages, at least if information needs to be chained as in Bayesian reasoning. On the other hand, probably normed percentages are easier to understand if two fractions are to be compared. &#xA;Second, I'd say that you should only use percentages if your sample is large enough. For example, &quot;4 out of 5 respondents&quot; amounts to 80% but the latter figure would probably suggests higher confidence than is warranted, given that it is really only a single respondent away from 3 out of 5 (60%)…&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6537" LastActivityDate="2014-08-15T09:21:25.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8006" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-15T15:07:46.457" Score="6" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most major league sports have some form of tournament bracket where there are several rounds of elimination before a winner is determined.  In most of them, the winning team is undefeated over the course of the whole tournament.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question considers the losers and their fans.  Specifically, &lt;strong&gt;do fans of a losing team prefer that the team which beat them go on to be the overall winners&lt;/strong&gt; (the &quot;We lost to the best&quot; scenario) or that &lt;strong&gt;the winning team lose in the next round&lt;/strong&gt; (the &quot;Revenge&quot; scenario)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any studies of this?  Is there a difference between the attitude of the losing team's players and the losing team's fans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6540" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-31T22:59:52.940" LastActivityDate="2015-08-29T21:31:34.993" Title="Does a loser prefer the winner to subsequently lose or win?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;sport-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8009" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-16T23:19:04.353" Score="3" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;Would repetitive football injuries to the cranium show up decades later, causing symptoms resembling mild retardation, OCD, etc.? What is the best way to determine this in terms of imaging, testing, etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6544" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-25T17:46:31.727" LastActivityDate="2015-01-18T14:30:48.520" Title="Can repetitive sports-related head injuries make a person senile many years later?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8010" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-17T06:55:41.537" Score="8" ViewCount="390" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often times, I wake up with an amazing, yet fleeting glimpse of a dream I had. I would like to recollect those events I had in my dream, and try to adopt ways to better remember those dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a few (random) ways that I have tried, but I would like to know if there are studied ways of accomplishing this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can I easier remember my dreams and record them for the future?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6545" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-19T00:44:03.060" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T22:39:56.773" Title="How to better remember your dreams?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8012" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8081" CreationDate="2014-08-17T10:11:20.687" Score="3" ViewCount="4735" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the differences between a schema and a mental model? Do they overlap, or is the mental model a subtype of the schema?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2014-08-17T15:12:13.987" LastActivityDate="2020-07-28T01:07:53.417" Title="Difference Between Schema and Mental Model" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8013" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7959" CreationDate="2014-08-17T15:11:05.643" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was interested in the same question a while ago. Unfortunately, Witelson et al (1999) reported here (&lt;a href=&quot;http://penthai.sc.mahidol.ac.th/html/articles/newsletter/paper3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://penthai.sc.mahidol.ac.th/html/articles/newsletter/paper3.pdf&lt;/a&gt;) that  volume measurements haven't been taken at the time. Weight data is available, but weight and volume aren't correlated perfectly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Witelson, S. F., Kigar, D. L., &amp;amp; Harvey, T. (1999). The exceptional brain of Albert Einstein. The Lancet, 353(9170), 2149-2153.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6385" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-18T00:27:07.190" LastActivityDate="2014-08-18T00:27:07.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8014" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7949" CreationDate="2014-08-18T16:08:18.687" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you try to learn something your brain sends signals over the same path everytime. By going over that path over and over again the connection becomes stronger and stronger. Like an engravement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6552" LastActivityDate="2014-08-18T16:08:18.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8015" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8009" CreationDate="2014-08-18T16:18:51.107" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's hard to say just, because it depends on the location of the head injury and how severe the head injury is. The brain is composed of several lobes which all have a different functions. Depending on the location and severity of the brain injury, the symptoms show up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, when you get brain injury in the frontal cortex, and this is severe enough, a person can become somewhat antisocial. With antisocial I mean saying whatever they think of. This causes awkward social situations. The impulse brake is gone then. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say you have a hemorrhage. The location of the hemorrhage is key to predicting which kind of symptoms you are going to show if the hemorrhage is severe enough. Some people who have had an hemorrhage experience a change in personality and likes and dislikes. Other people who have had an hemorrhage experience trouble in their motor skills, like dressing themselves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question: it depends on the severity and location. A brain injury, repetitive or not, can cause a variety of symptoms, but you can't experience a mental illness like schizophrenia when you get brain injury, because the base genetic predisposition towards schizophrenia is already there when you are born, just like OCD. Brain injury which is not already there when you are born is called Acquired Brain Injury, or in Dutch, N(iet) A(angeboren) H(ersenletsel). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6552" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-21T04:34:24.873" LastActivityDate="2014-08-21T04:34:24.873" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8016" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4144" CreationDate="2014-08-18T17:09:36.393" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is funny that you ask this question. The answer is you can't. When you dont get enough sleep and you feel tired and your brain activity is lower (for example, trouble remembering what you were doing or where you left your keys) you cant catch up to it. You might take a powernap (not longer than 90 minutes) to give you a sensation of feeling awake, but the brain doesnt become more active. I dont know exactly why you cant catch up to lost hours of sleep, but you just cant. That also the reason, besides a messed up biogical clock according to light, why people working night shift experience more mental and health issues. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6552" LastActivityDate="2014-08-18T17:09:36.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8017" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5590" CreationDate="2014-08-18T17:32:50.783" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Biologically speaking you could say that being in a monogamous relationship is not beneficial for men, because they can't produce enough offspring. Historically and for animals, it's more beneficial to spread your genes over multiple wives, but I have not found any scientific proof that men who want to have other sexual relationships besides their own girlfriends or spouses is &quot;normal, deviant or a disorder&quot;. Beside that, humans have been in monogamous relationships for so long now, the question should be if we still have this instinct to spread our genes as much as we can. Maybe the person in the relationship doesn't feel attracted to him or her anymore. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Attraction is also dependent on smell. In science they call that specific smell phermonones. Each person has his own kind of pheromone chemicals. The smell of these chemicals can change, for example when a woman is pregnant, ovulates or is having her period. For men these pheromones change when they are in a long-term relationships or when they are a father. You can't &quot;smell&quot; these pheromones consciously. The registration of these pheromones happens unconsciously. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, either the male doesn't feel attracted to the smell of the pheromones of the female or doesn't satisfy other needs. I don't think being attracted to another female sexually is a normal part of healthy male being. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6552" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-20T04:20:41.537" LastActivityDate="2014-08-20T04:20:41.537" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8018" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8010" CreationDate="2014-08-18T19:47:21.567" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of information on 'dream recall' related to research on lucid dreaming. For some quick information, I would take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Lucid_Dreaming/Dream_Recall&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikibook's page on Lucid Dreaming/Dream Recall&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have tried some of these techniques, and I found that what has worked for me in the past was &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;trying to write down everything I can as soon as I wake up&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lying in bed, not moving, and just letting my mind wander over what I could remember (this usually helps other memories about the dream pop up)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;doing this consistently every day.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last one is the most important, you really notice that if you are consistent you start remembering more and more when you wake up. I highly recommend the book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/034537410X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Exploring the World of Lucid Dreaming&quot;&lt;/a&gt; by Howard Rheingold and Stephen LaBerge. It was the required reading for a Psychology of Dreams class I took and is based on a lot of cool research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6556" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-08-19T12:45:57.350" LastActivityDate="2014-08-19T12:45:57.350" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8019" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6409" CreationDate="2014-08-18T23:04:42.640" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given that mastering a skill is often regarded to take 10,000 hours of practice, if you assume 10 hours a day that would be of the order of three years per skill - and assuming a 75 year life span (just to keep the maths easy) would imply the answer's about 25 skills wouldn't it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6558" LastActivityDate="2014-08-18T23:04:42.640" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8021" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-19T00:14:04.097" Score="9" ViewCount="824" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know it's a myth that we only use 10% of our brain, but the point is that we use less than 10% in any given moment; only by using different parts of our brain for various tasks over time do we ultimately use 100%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's imagine that we have a GPU, a CPU, a quantum computer, and a biological computer that can work perfectly.  It's obvious that some of them are going to be better at performing some things than others, but the point is that anything that can be computed can be done by any of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that similar logic should apply within our brain: Although some areas of the brain might not be too good at processing some things, they could also work towards the result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the reason that this doesn't happen?  I believe that it would be a significant improvement in the brain's performance, although it would be very energy consuming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-02-25T03:54:32.493" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T21:38:05.320" Title="Why can't we use 100% of the brain in a certain moment?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8022" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-19T01:33:35.907" Score="4" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;A Scientific American article, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/childhood-stress-decreases-size-of-brain-regions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Childhood Stress Decreases Size of Brain Regions&quot;, by Christie Nicholson&lt;/a&gt; briefly mentions the implications of childhood neglect and abuse on brain structures. I was interested in the reduction of the hippocampus. Are there any studies that explain the reasoning behind this reduction? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could the reduction be a coping mechanism in reducing the probability of remembering extremely negative memories (ex. physical abuse)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6548" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-08-20T09:31:05.657" LastActivityDate="2014-08-20T09:37:48.237" Title="Reduction of the hippocampus due to childhood neglect/abuse" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8023" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-19T01:40:55.650" Score="9" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is pruning defined as neural apoptosis or are connections (neural synapses) simply separated? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At what rate, if known, does this occur in individuals (ages 18+)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6548" LastActivityDate="2014-08-27T07:38:41.313" Title="How actively does your brain physically prune connections?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8024" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8165" CreationDate="2014-08-19T10:09:40.097" Score="8" ViewCount="308" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently working with Spiking Neural Networks and multi-(meta)-stable attractor states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I observe in my simulations are 'bump' attractors that appear, disappear, and may wander around. Here is a screen shot from a simulation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8MIiD.png&quot; alt=&quot;Bump Activity&quot;&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dark blue dots represent excitatory neurons' spikes (fading into white to leave a trace), and dark red triangles representing inhibitory neurons' spikes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If neurons are currently part of a 'bump' cluster, they exhibit a high firing rate, otherwise the rate is much lower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neurons are arranged on a 2D torus map (periodic boundary conditions).&#xA;Thus, for every neuron I have its respective x and y coordinate plus the timing of the spikes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I want and need is a algorithm that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;can detect and distinguish neurons within the bump state from non-bump states&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;measure the average size of a bump&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the average number of bumps per unit time and unit map size&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the average lifetime of bump (as I said they are meta-stable)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In case the bumps are &quot;wandering&quot; the average speed or drift of a bump&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What might be a suitable clustering algorithm in order to perform these steps? Would it be more useful to convolve the spike times with a filter in order to get some rate representation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6562" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-08-19T11:46:40.990" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T09:21:26.387" Title="Spiking Neural Network Simulation: Measuring and Classifying Bump Attractor States" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;dynamic-systems&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8025" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8021" CreationDate="2014-08-19T12:30:32.347" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;The widely quoted figure of &quot;10% at a time&quot; is actually overestimating simultaneous brain activity by up to an order of magnitude. As demonstrated by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/people/plennie/pdfs/Lennie03a.pdf&quot;&gt;Lennie 2003 (Current Biology)&lt;/a&gt;, the &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;number of neurons that can be substantially active concurrently&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is possibly as small as 1% of the brain's neurons, due to the &lt;em&gt;high metabolic cost of spiking&lt;/em&gt;. Generally, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/107/27/12329.full&quot;&gt;metabolic cost is a major determinant in brain activity&lt;/a&gt;. This in turn entails that even&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;less than 10% of cortex could be active at all&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;, to quote Lennie again. This number, derived for humans, is lower than for other animals, who are capable of sustaining a larger fraction of their brain's neurons simultaneously. This means that rats and hamsters use more of their brains than humans do.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paradoxically, the highest metabolic cost comes from inhibitory activity. Also, neurons restrict their own firing rates via refractory periods. For the best example of a failure of this inhibitory control of excessive spiking, consider epileptic fits, which correspond to extreme synchronization of neural activity, in a sense an over activation of the brain.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I think considering that two examples of brains showing more concurrent activity than the healthy human brain are 1. the rat brain, 2. the epileptic brain, it becomes obvious that increasing total activity would not inherently improve brain function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2014-08-19T20:04:04.333" LastActivityDate="2014-08-19T20:04:04.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8026" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8022" CreationDate="2014-08-20T09:17:05.780" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many studies scientists claim that the early exposure to stress can cause a hippocampal remodeling (or atrophy) &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300528&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Andersen &amp;amp; Teicher, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. The atrophy is a disbalance in the brainpart were one part is bigger than the other. The decreased hippocampus is also associated with a decrease in dendritic branching and neurogenesis. Neurogenesis is the development and growth of neurons (in short) and these neurons are important for functioning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a study done by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1196/annals.1364.024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Teichera et al. (2003)&lt;/a&gt; they come with two explanations for the reduced volume of the hippocampus. One explanation is that the reduced hippocampus volume is associated with adolescence alcohol abuse due to the child abuse. The other explanation they have is that it is not the childhood abuse causing the reduced volume, but a risk factor for the persistence of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in adulthood. So they are already born with a slightly decreased hippocampus volume, but this gets more when child abuse is involved. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Andersen, S. L. &amp;amp; Teicher, M. H. (2004). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300528&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Delayed Effects of Early Stress on Hippocampal Development&lt;/a&gt;. Neuropsychopharmacology 29,1988–1993&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Teichera, M. H., Andersena, S. L., Polcarib, A., Andersona, C. M., Navaltaa, C. P. &amp;amp; Kim, D. K. (2003). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1196/annals.1364.024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood&#xA;maltreatment&lt;/a&gt;. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 27, 33-44&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6552" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-08-20T09:37:48.237" LastActivityDate="2014-08-20T09:37:48.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8027" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5590" CreationDate="2014-08-20T12:58:11.397" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe most/all men will have external desires, no matter the length of the relationship. It may prove to me more so the longer you have been with one person as we are programmed as animals to spread our seed as much as we can. It does not mean you have to act on it though. I would say it is normal and healthy as long as you are not screaming out other women's names in the heat of the moment.. that would then be very healthy and could lead to amputation of your cherished member, broken objects, and divorce..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This can also be seen by the man that land extremely hot wives and run astray and fine even less attractive women to have relations with. I cannot recall the book at this moment but when I was studying PUA (long long ago) there was a book that was pretty much dedicated to how we are mammals like all others and we have the same needs and desires as the animals. I tried doing a google search but I just cannot remember the name, I think it was the Mating Mind but I could be wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not scientist though, I am just stating my experience from talking to other males and from what I have read in books back when I was big into the PUA stuff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, it is one thing to think about and desire another person, it is a completely different thing to act upon it especially when you are in a committed relationship. I would not nor have I ever cheated on my wife.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6573" LastActivityDate="2014-08-20T12:58:11.397" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8028" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5590" CreationDate="2014-08-20T13:30:48.717" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The issue here is 'normality' - &lt;code&gt;normal&lt;/code&gt; is a shifting social construct, meaning that any answer concerning &lt;code&gt;normal&lt;/code&gt; will be based on culture, and thus could change depending on the culture in context.  A better question would be, is it adaptive or maladaptive for the person in question.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I don't think that's what you're asking - (I could be wrong) it seems you're asking more about satisfaction of desire and whether a single partner can accomplish that.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me flip the question around:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If a woman who is married or in a long term relationship wants to have sexual relationships with other men, is this pathological, deviant, maybe even a disorder? Or is it part of normal and healthy female sexuality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can flip the gender pronouns - but in doing so, we notice an underlying assumption of male promiscuity in the original question (likely related to the idea of 'spreading seed' or a belief in a biological imperative to have as many children as possible (if this is actually true, why aren't all people constantly having children?  I'm not saying it's &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; true; I'm saying it's much more &lt;em&gt;complicated&lt;/em&gt; than that)).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Getting closer to an answer, let me pose more questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does a happy/successful/[insert judgment function here] relationship require that both partners be satisfied in all of their desires?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-- or --  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does a happy/successful/[insert judgment function here] relationship require that both partners learn how to control their own desires instead of being directed by them?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But that's a false dichotomy; the answer will never just be one or the other.  A successful relationship will, first and foremost, involve communication.  If you can communicate your desires with each other, you can both, jointly/together, pursue a sense of satisfaction (or a sense of control over that desire).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But not being able to communicate dissatisfaction is itself a sign of underlying problems in a relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastActivityDate="2014-08-20T13:30:48.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8030" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-20T17:48:50.783" Score="5" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am asking a question related to adolescents and their response to either monetary or social reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the effect of income levels on monetary vs. social reward? Do higher income children respond better to one over the other, or vice versa? Does preference for one or the other have any indications for overall self-perceived life satisfaction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any links to papers dealing with the issue or even similar issues will be much appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, it would be nice to understand the underlying neuroscience behind your answers. What is happening in the brain?&#xA;This is a very internist question!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6575" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-21T04:30:51.283" LastActivityDate="2014-08-21T04:30:51.283" Title="What is the effect of income on an adolescent's reward response to monetary vs. social reward?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8031" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3604" CreationDate="2014-08-20T18:34:14.323" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This type of sensor is hardly revolutionary, it seems that the integration and miniaturization are the key differences between say Melon, or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=bl_sr_electronics?ie=UTF8&amp;amp;field-brandtextbin=NeuroSky&amp;amp;node=172282&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;, or a 7-point sensor such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.choosemuse.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Muse&lt;/a&gt;, which supposedly monitors alpha and beta waves, and is already in production.&#xA;Note that the 10/20 System is as old as I am: 30+ years. Additionally, it is an analog, dumb device, without interpretation or adaptive algorithms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most obvious non-listed application for this device is to train yourself to be a better video gamer. &#xA;Seriously, the pre-frontal cortex, real time executive function, and a &quot;focused state&quot; would have all kinds of useful applications, especially for real-time activities involving executive function: video games, race car driving, piloting under extreme weather, or 1-on-1 sports such as tennis. &#xA;This may be considered the &quot;future&quot; in some neuroscience textbook like the one copied and pasted above. However, this is very much reality, as the military, MIT, and other serious research institutions have been using this tech for many years for that exact purpose.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not a neuroscientist; I have a background in computing and liberal arts/research. However, according to: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainm.com/help/Positions_and_brain_function.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.brainm.com/help/Positions_and_brain_function.htm&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Fp1 controls:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Logical Attention&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Orchestrate network &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interactions planning &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Decision making &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Task completion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Working memory &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears that they are attempting to integrate a tilt sensor, which could be used to control the left-right axis, such as in a video game. The documentation and specifications are lacking or vague. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6544" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-22T16:44:24.490" LastActivityDate="2014-08-22T16:44:24.490" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8032" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7987" CreationDate="2014-08-21T03:28:00.543" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that running water triggers some sort of instinct: &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://juneauempire.com/stories/050408/out_275269543.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://juneauempire.com/stories/050408/out_275269543.shtml&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6544" LastActivityDate="2014-08-21T03:28:00.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8033" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8034" CreationDate="2014-08-21T03:38:46.037" Score="2" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just want to verify this statement if this is a fact. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;When people can't process something horrible. The mind creates all kinds of protections to help them cope. Once that belief's taken root, the mind takes random information and forces it to support that narrative.&quot; — Oculus&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6578" LastEditorUserId="6578" LastEditDate="2014-08-21T04:37:47.720" LastActivityDate="2014-08-21T09:54:40.720" Title="Verifying this statement in a movie named Oculus" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8034" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8033" CreationDate="2014-08-21T09:54:40.720" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The mind creates all kind of protections to help them cope. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that is a very simplified, narrative-oriented perception of certain extreme responses to trauma. From a cursory googling, I see the movie in question is refering to traumatic exposure to violence in childhood. Yes, in situations such as these, some children develop psychological defense mechanisms, which may confer a distorted view of reality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Defense mechanisms&lt;/strong&gt; don't really function in the extreme way generally shown in narrative, though. There are many documented defense mechanisms, all of them have their own unique characteristics, and all of them can vary in intensity. It's also vital to remember that not everyone who survives a traumatic event, no matter how violent, will develop post-traumatic symptoms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[T]he mind takes random information and forces it to support that narrative. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is less post-trauma, and more the purview of cognitive psychology. &lt;strong&gt;Cognitive distortions&lt;/strong&gt; exist and are quite common. How common is a matter of some controversy. This particular statement describes a kind of &lt;strong&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/strong&gt;, which manifests as overconfidence in one's own views. It is not particularly related to trauma, as far as I know. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, I would say that the kind of extreme reinterpretation of facts that is suggested by the quote you posted, is not a common thing. Reactions of a similar tenor may be usual, but as always, &lt;strong&gt;reality is more ambiguous than fiction&lt;/strong&gt;. I would not call this statement fact so much as a directed or tendentious interpretation of facts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6237" LastActivityDate="2014-08-21T09:54:40.720" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8035" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3604" CreationDate="2014-08-21T12:05:11.350" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Point by point:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Melon headband has three electrodes. Our primary electrode is on the forehead region known as FP1, where Melon can monitor brainwave activity from the prefrontal cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with this is that electricity doesn't work like that. Current always flows between two points, and our electrodes measure the potential between two locations. After its discovery by Tönnies somewhere in 1938, most EEG amplifiers have been of the differential amplifier design. That means every electrode recording is made up of 3 different sites: the Ground electrode, the Reference, and the target site. What is being reported as activity at FPz is truly ((FPz-Ground) - (Reference-Ground)).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What this entails is that our measurement at the so-called active electrode is not an isolated measure of the activity directly under that electrode alone, but a mix of the activity underlying multiple sites. So what you observe in such a setup is highly dependent on where your Reference is located. I couldn't find where the Melon's Reference sits, but it has to be somewhere on the headband. The headband encircles the skull, and all of the positions allowed by the headband are over cortical areas.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Typical locations for Reference are Cz, Nose or the average, neither of which are possible or meaningful in a 3-electrode headband context. Possibly, the reference is located over the temporal or occipital lobes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what the Melon will report as activity at FPz will in truth be a mix between activity at FPz, and activity at some further site also above the cortex. (It is possible they placed their Ground very close to the Reference, which is a very unusual setup ...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, individual electrodes never pick up isolated brain sites. Electrical fields, as those projected by cortical clusters firing in synchrony, are propagated field-like. Every recording site therefore picks up a distinct mix of all of the brain. The activity of sites closer to the electrode will be somewhat stronger since field strength falls off with the square of distance, but the part of the cortex directly under the electrode will still be overwhelmed by the summed activity of everything next to and below it.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;All the more so as the strongest activity patterns of the cortex come from the occipital lobes - the so-called alpha rhythm. Alpha usually dominates the cortical activity, as it is a simple synchronized firing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, alpha will most likely be artificially reenforced on the Melon by the site of reference, since depending on where the reference is placed, it will necessarily be closer to the occipital lobe than FPz, FPz receives alpha with the inverted polarity of most of the scalp, and subtracting from the residual inverted alpha at FPz the alpha from the reference will lead to substantial alpha effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both of these problems are well known since basically the beginning of the EEG, since Hans Berger himself, discoverer of the EEG, already stumbled on the phenomenon that regardless of where he put his two electrodes (Berger never really got around to appreciating Tönnies' proposal), he'd see very similar activity. Berger's interpretation was that all of the brain partially does basically the same thing, everything in the brain is partially united by one huge common shared oscillatory pattern - alpha.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The activity associated specifically with frontal sites, especially the theta rhythm, is much weaker. Extracting just prefrontal theta activity can be a very hard task, as one can tell from the elaborate methods employed by papers trying to isolate just that, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15927487&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/27/44/11949.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What especially the second paper will show you however is the most dominant activity at FPz: eye blinks. Here I'm showing you activity from FPz in an experiment of mine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/OXh3JdI.png&quot; alt=&quot;FPz ERPimage&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you mostly see in the top right image are the red dots. Each of these is a blink by our subject. You see that the dots totally overwhelm the overall activity. The spectrum below gives the same information: it's a simple power-law spectrum with almost all power in very low frequencies, without a specific peak in a frequency range such as theta or alpha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I wonder: What can I measure with such an EEG? What applications would be unlikely?&#xA;  How can &quot;focus&quot; be quantified?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, this might even be possible, since one of the best EEG predictors of focus is alpha amplitude. The distinct prefrontal cortex signals however are not very important here. Rather, the alpha signal is.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Alpha is a very rough indicator of attentiveness, and you'll always get less information out of a single sensor than by simple introspection (&quot;do I feel droopy?&quot;). But you might get a rough correlate of current awareness from looking at alpha power, assuming you position the thing so you get as much alpha out of it as possible (ie., not over FPz). The research in this regard is still in the explorative stage, much before you'd rely on the systems. See for a few examples: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22255044&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a three-channel system like the Melon&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/~yijun/pdfs/BIOCAS12.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 4-channel system&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://dspace.unimap.edu.my/dspace/bitstream/123456789/35668/1/Classification%20of%20driver%20drowsiness%20level%20using%20wireless%20EEG.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;14 electrodes&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;When I say &quot;it is possible&quot; to do that using a 3-channel system, I do not mean it is possible &lt;em&gt;right now&lt;/em&gt;. Nobody has that technology yet. Rather, it might become possible in the future. Although even then I'd rather hope for a larger sensor array.&#xA;Note also that these are still very rough guesses - they can tell you if you're drowsy or not, if you are currently falling asleep or not. They won't be able to distinguish more subtle states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Would it be possible to identify (different) states of sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll have to pass on this one. I'm not a sleep expert. I think the location of the Melon is wrong though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Could it be possible to control a cursor/game (left/right movements)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Possibly - if you place it so that your eye movements reflect as strong positive and negative currents. From brain activity? No. Movement decoding requires much more sensors over very different sites. Motor areas are closer to the middle of the brain, roughly speaking, and that's where you'd need very dense electrode coverage to see anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Postscript edit: a few references for decoding movement intentions using (multichannel) EEG. As you see, even with multichannel, high-quality EEG, performance is not especially good.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fnins.2014.00222/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fnins.2014.00222/abstract&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00124/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00124/full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2014-08-23T17:43:45.827" LastActivityDate="2014-08-23T17:43:45.827" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8036" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-21T12:10:42.670" Score="8" ViewCount="530" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there are two types of thinking:&#xA;with and without language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For my entire life, in my opinion, I have always thought without language. Some people say it's impossible and that we think with language without knowing it. But the fact is that I can distinguish them pretty well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading the answers on &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5462/is-it-possible-to-think-without-language&quot;&gt;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5462/is-it-possible-to-think-without-language&lt;/a&gt; I see that the answers focus on other &quot;senses thinking&quot;. By this I mean, the answers focus on other forms of communication that we have, turned into thinking, such as, thinking based on images, sounds, etc. But in my opinion those are just &quot;tools for thinking&quot;, they are just something like super rapid accesses on memory to rationalize things and not the real source of &quot;thinking&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So here I am, stuck on &quot;What is this thinking process? How does it happen? It just looks like magic.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you ask me to describe it, I would say it is a weird mix of--well, I can't even explain it. I just have some perception of the mix of things received from memory like something operating on memory really, really fast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am very slow and bad at thinking with language which results in big difficulties in explaining anything. &#xA;I feel language is like putting what we have in so many dimensions into a single one like taking a colorful picture with a sense of depth and turning it into a flat black and white image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know any studies done on this? What is this weird form of thinking? It's hard in terms of communications, but it's awesome to feel things intensely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please remember I am really talking about this &quot;weird thinking&quot; and not confusing it with feelings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3157" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-06-19T08:15:12.780" LastActivityDate="2018-06-19T09:45:26.343" Title="What is it called to think without language? Are there studies around it?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8037" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-21T17:49:51.967" Score="4" ViewCount="182" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say a person's brain experiences how a vehicle/object looks for the very 1st time. It would require lot of attention/focus/processing to analyse the object, extract features and train its neural networks. After many such experiences (don't know the statistics, does anyone have any clue?), when it sees/experiences the same vehicle/object, it won't need much self/conscious intervention to be able to understand the presence of it. Remember, when driving a car, how many times do we need to actually focus on vehicles/objects? Presumably 0 except for some personal interests (reading number plates, unusual activities) or trigger events that might excite us to do so (turn indicators, possible threats, unusual activities, etc.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a caveat associated with this behaviour: the brain just knows/believes the vehicle/object exists there with some minimal set of attributes, but it can't read/interpret minute details (like texts/numbers, precise boundaries etc). To do this it requires visual focus as well as the brain's attention, I think.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What brain functions are involved in this activity? What are those features that help the brain perform such tasks without requiring much intervention/processing? Is there any technical term for this behaviour? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6577" LastEditorUserId="6577" LastEditDate="2014-08-21T18:01:48.137" LastActivityDate="2014-08-21T18:01:48.137" Title="What functions does the brain perform to recognize a familiar object unconsciously?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8038" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-22T03:21:15.057" Score="6" ViewCount="771" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that there are similar symptoms shown by people who suffer social anxiety and shyness, but what is actually the main difference between them? Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6589" LastEditorUserId="6594" LastEditDate="2014-08-22T12:22:42.393" LastActivityDate="2018-06-27T15:45:07.063" Title="What is the difference between social anxiety disorder and shyness?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8041" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8038" CreationDate="2014-08-22T17:37:36.923" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a matter of degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, &quot;shyness&quot; is not a psychological or psychiatric term, but an everyday English word denoting a commonly observable personality characteristic on a par with courage, cheerfulness, or honesty. The meaning of &quot;shyness&quot; is not exactly defined, and people may use the word &quot;shyness&quot; to refer to different kinds of behaviors, from being introverted (and not interested in social interaction) to being afraid of social interaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Social anxiety disorder&quot;, on the other hand, is a psychiatric and clinical psychological term, the meaning of which is clearly and exactly defined by the scientific community. That means that while there is of course some debate about what social anxiety disorder is, there is agreement about what the term currently means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the relation between shyness and social anxiety disorder, shyness is generally conceived as a mild from of social anxiety, which leaves the person able and functioning in his or her life, while social anxiety disorder is such a strong anxiety that the person suffering from it cannot partake in a normal way, is disabled by this anxiety, and suffers from its effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-08-22T17:37:36.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8042" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-22T18:34:01.647" Score="5" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/delusion/#TypDel&quot;&gt;Monothematic delusions&lt;/a&gt; are delusions that concern a single topic (&lt;a href=&quot;https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&amp;amp;type=summary&amp;amp;url=/journals/philosophy_psychiatry_and_psychology/v008/8.2davies.html&quot;&gt;Davies et al. 2001&lt;/a&gt;). They are often the result of acquired brain damage and include the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusional_misidentification_syndrome&quot;&gt;Delusional Misidentification Syndromes&lt;/a&gt;, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capgras_delusion&quot;&gt;Capgras delusion&lt;/a&gt; (which involves the conviction that a close relative or spouse has been replaced by an impostor), as well as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotard_delusion&quot;&gt;Cotard delusion&lt;/a&gt; (which may involve the conviction that one is dead) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatoparaphrenia&quot;&gt;somatoparaphrenia&lt;/a&gt; (which involves the conviction that a limb or an entire side of one's body is not one's own).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there are untold numbers of &lt;a href=&quot;http://schizophrenia.about.com/od/livingwithschizophrenia/a/schiz_experien.htm&quot;&gt;first person (experiential) accounts&lt;/a&gt; of schizophrenia and, therefore, schizophrenic delusions (which usually present as polythematic), from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Paul_Schreber&quot;&gt;Daniel Paul Schreber&lt;/a&gt;'s &lt;em&gt;Memoirs of My Nervous Illness&lt;/em&gt; (1903) to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elyn_Saks&quot;&gt;Elyn Saks&lt;/a&gt;'s &lt;em&gt;The Center Cannot Hold&lt;/em&gt; (2007) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/search?tocsectionid=First%20Person%20Account&amp;amp;sortspec=date&amp;amp;submit=Submit&quot;&gt;various accounts published in &lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, I have not come across first person accounts of any monothematic delusions so far.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6480" LastEditorDisplayName="user6480" LastEditDate="2014-08-22T18:43:52.873" LastActivityDate="2014-08-27T00:49:59.717" Title="Are there first person accounts of monothematic delusions?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8043" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-22T20:23:33.287" Score="7" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alpha brain waves show up in your &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EEG&lt;/a&gt; when you close your eyes. Alpha waves are brain waves between 8 and 13 Hz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does this frequency range distribute over a population of people? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T19:14:34.707" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T18:10:03.267" Title="How does the alpha brain wave frequency range distribute over the population?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8044" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-23T07:28:08.913" Score="9" ViewCount="6594" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;I have never been able to recall melodies to songs. I can play a song over and over again but the moment it stops, I cannot remember what it sounds like. I am referring to the music/beat/melody and not the lyrics. Even when I memorize the lyrics and try to sing a song out loud or even in my head, I simply cannot recall the music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I like Adele but as I type this, I have no idea what her songs sound like. If I play one of her songs, I will recognize it. So it is not as if I have lost all memory of the song.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Over the years I have come up with certain tricks to remember some very rudimentary melodies. I know what Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, the happy birthday song, Jingle Bells sound like but it took work. For Jingle Bells, I would knock on a table as it played. And I was able to get the rhythm. The lyrics to Twinkle Twinkle and the birthday song flow like a poem and so the melody strives from that  (at least that's how it seems to me).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though I have no idea what my favorite songs sound like, I do know what emotions they evoke. When songs move me, it is as if something flows in me. I have heard stories from my mom about how I used to close my eyes and sway when listening to music. I learned not to do that in public after the teasing at school :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have tried to research this on my own and have come up with nothing. Any insight is greatly appreciated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What causes an inability (or difficulty) to recall a melody, music, or beat?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6599" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-24T06:39:20.783" LastActivityDate="2018-08-07T08:41:13.187" Title="What causes an inability to recall a melody, beat, or music?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8046" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-23T15:21:57.777" Score="10" ViewCount="1046" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we all agree that dreams are created by our own minds, then how could some dreams surprise us, since, after all, all the things that could happen in a dream are made up by us, and should be utterly predictable and be of no surprise at all?  For example, if you are awake and doing some day dreaming, you would never be surprised by what you are imagining, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then why some dreams are surprising, and kind of unpredictable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6601" LastEditorUserId="6601" LastEditDate="2014-10-11T03:15:34.277" LastActivityDate="2017-03-05T21:35:18.077" Title="Why dreams can be surprising?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8047" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-23T16:40:18.967" Score="3" ViewCount="389" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a study regarding guilt complex associated with masturbation? &#xA;I am interested to what it can be traced down to. I&#xA;wonder what actually happens in the brain before, during, and after the process on a subatomic (for want of a better word) level.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6602" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-24T06:21:38.577" LastActivityDate="2014-08-24T06:21:38.577" Title="What causes post-masturbation guilt?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2014-12-20T21:41:11.847" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8050" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8044" CreationDate="2014-08-24T06:35:50.580" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following answer is based on my own experience learning music combined with general principles of cognitive psychology related to skill acquisition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that learning music would help a person recall a melody, a beat, and music in general. Formal training would be particularly helpful, but informal training would also often have a similar result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, learning music teaches you how music is structured. This training teaches you a whole range of skills. You learn to isolate instruments. You learn about the structure of songs (e.g., bars, beats, sections, repetition). You learn about melody (e.g., scales, intervals, chords, progressions, etc.). You learn about rhythm. &#xA;There is a theoretical aspect to this knowledge whereby you conceptually understand the ideas. However, there is also a large procedural component whereby you train your ear to identify different sequences, and you also learn to produce such sequences with a suitable instrument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning to sing can be particularly helpful in training your ability to reproduce melody without the song present. Singing trains you to be able to reproduce intervals, scales, and so on without an external source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All this declarative and procedural knowledge of music simplifies and enables the mental recall of music. For example, instead of seeing a pop-song as a 3 minute stream of sound, You start to see the simplicity of for example, 3 chords, and 2 major melodic elements. You see the similarities with other songs in terms of the chord progressions, scales, and rhythm. It's similar to the way that language becomes simpler once you appreciate the basic principles of vocabulary and grammar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond musical skill, actual repetition and spending time seriously thinking about the song should also help in the recall a that specific song.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-08-24T06:35:50.580" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8051" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8052" CreationDate="2014-08-24T09:57:03.007" Score="6" ViewCount="3028" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I am a student currently doing my undergraduate degree (Electrical and Electronics, if it interests anyone). I am very much interested in studying psychology. I have read quite a bit on psychology, mostly on PsychCentral and PsychologyToday, but the knowledge I have is in bits and pieces. I want to have a well-organised knowledge of psychology like a student who is pursuing a career in psychology. The knowledge that I have right now feels like 'Googled knowledge' to me. I am of the belief that anyone should be able to learn anything he wants to, irrespective of whether he goes to college for it or not.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What subjects does a good university course on psychology have? (Yes! List all of them. Along with the years in which you studied them, starting from the freshman year!)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What are good textbooks for these subjects?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[It is not possible for me to get formal education in psychology. I would really appreciate it if you just accept this fact and not challenge it. :-)  The resources that I really have to study are the internet and books. (Yes, I'll buy them.) I want to make the best I can with what I've got.]  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6605" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-24T18:30:25.767" LastActivityDate="2014-08-28T05:33:12.840" Title="What books should I study to have a decent understanding of psychology?" Tags="&lt;teaching-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8052" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8051" CreationDate="2014-08-24T15:05:43.667" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’ve compiled a reading list based on the books I acquired during my undergraduate and graduate psychology programs. I’ve not listed the year I took the course because, with the exception of Introduction to Psychology being required first year and History and Systems being required in our last year (History and Systems was supposed to serve as a GRE study aid), the order of the courses were very flexible. Although there were some topics that were more likely to be taken in the second or third year, that was primarily due to how the instructor had structured the course; courses with more rigorous writing or exam requirements were reserved for later years. Because you will be conducting a self-study, you should generally be able to read/explore these topics in the order that you want. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, please note that all programs have a range of elective topics and areas of concentration that will vary. Finally, these books were all sufficient textbooks but are not the only option. In my experience, if you look at the top three psychology textbooks on Amazon for a given topic (e.g., social psychology) they will generally cover the same information and should meet your needs. I recommend using this list as a starting place to develop a list of psychology topics, rather than a strict list of books. You can read textbook reviews or consumer feedback and determine which book you prefer for a given topic. I have listed the most recent editions for the books that I used, but for most topics (except perhaps the neuropsychology books and abnormal [due to DSM-5]) you could safely use older editions dating back ten years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introduction to Psychology:&lt;/strong&gt; This will provide you with an introductory overview of the field, including major theories and areas of psychology. The areas listed in this book (biological psychology, sensation and perception, consciousness, learning, memory, thinking/language/intelligence, motivation and emotion, lifespan development, human sexuality, personality, social psychology, and abnormal psychology) make up the core classes that were part of my undergraduate program. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hockenbury, D. H., &amp;amp; Hockenbury, S. E. (2012). Psychology. Worth&#xA;Publishers. ISBN: 1429243678&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abnormal Psychology&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2001). Abnormal Psychology. McGraw Hill. ISBN:&#xA;0-07-235799-1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Barlow, D., &amp;amp; Durand, V. (2014). Abnormal psychology: An integrative&#xA;approach. Cengage Learning. ISBN: 1285755618&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Halgin, R. P. (Ed.). (2000). Taking sides: Clashing views on&#xA;controversial issues in abnormal psychology. Dushkin/McGraw-Hill.&#xA;ISBN: 0-07-237193-5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Social Psychology&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brehm, S. S., Kassin, S. M., &amp;amp; Fein, S. (2001). Social Psychology.&#xA;Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN: 0-618-12964-2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Biological Psychology/Neuropsychology&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kalat, J. (2012). Biological psychology. Cengage Learning. ISBN:&#xA;1111831009&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kolb, B., &amp;amp; Whishaw, I. Q. (2009). Fundamentals of human&#xA;neuropsychology. Macmillan. ISBN: 0716795868&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sensation and Perception:&lt;/strong&gt; Neuropsychology specific to the five senses&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Goldstein, E. (2013). Sensation and perception. Cengage Learning.&#xA;ISBN: 1133958494&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Lifespan Development:&lt;/strong&gt; The psychology of cognitive, emotional, and social development from birth to death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Berger, K. S. (2003). The developing person through childhood and&#xA;adolescence. Macmillan. ISBN: 1-57259-429-2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Berk, L. (2013). Development through the lifespan. Pearson Education&#xA;India. ISBN: 0205957609&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;History and Systems of Psychology:&lt;/strong&gt; While Intro to Psych will provide an overview of major areas and disciplines of psychology, this will provide a better sense of the development of psychology as a field and origin of different branches of psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thorne, B. M., &amp;amp; Henley, T. B. (1997). Connections in the history and&#xA;systems of psychology. Houghton, Mifflin and Company. ISBN:&#xA;0-618-41512-2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Behavior Therapy/Learning:&lt;/strong&gt; This was an undergraduate introduction to classic learning theory and cognitive behavioral therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Powell, R., Honey, P., &amp;amp; Symbaluk, D. (2012). Introduction to&#xA;learning and behavior. Cengage Learning. ISBN: 111183430X&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Spiegler, M., &amp;amp; Guevremont, D. (2009). Contemporary behavior therapy.&#xA;Cengage Learning. ISBN: 049550906X&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Seligman, M. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and&#xA;death. A series of books in psychology. New York, NY: WH&#xA;Freeman/Times Books/Henry Holt &amp;amp; Co. ISBN: 0-7167-0752-7&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Human Sexuality&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Miracle, T. S., Miracle, A. W., &amp;amp; Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Human&#xA;sexuality: Meeting your basic needs. Prentice Hall. ISBN:&#xA;0-13-032658-5&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Research Methods and Statistics:&lt;/strong&gt; Included here because it is required in most programs, though it may not be of interest to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Smith, R., &amp;amp; Davis, S. (2012). The psychologist as detective: An&#xA;introduction to conducting research in psychology. ISBN: 0205859070&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gravetter, F., &amp;amp; Wallnau, L. (2006). Statistics for the behavioral&#xA;sciences. Cengage Learning. ISBN: 0-495-60220-5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My graduate work focused on clinical psychology and research, which this reading list reflects:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sansone, C., Morf, C. C., &amp;amp; Panter, A. T. (Eds.). (2003). The Sage&#xA;handbook of methods in social psychology. Sage Publications. ISBN:&#xA;076192535X&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Knapp, S. J., &amp;amp; VandeCreek, L. D. (2006). Practical ethics for&#xA;psychologists: A positive approach. American Psychological&#xA;Association. ISBN: 1-59147-326-8&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Egan, G. (2013). The skilled helper: A problem-management and&#xA;opportunity-development approach to helping. Cengage Learning. ISBN:&#xA;0-495-60189-6&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dobson, K. S. (Ed.). (2009). Handbook of cognitive-behavioral&#xA;therapies. Guilford Press. ISBN: 978-1-60623-437-2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beck, J. S. (2011). Cognitive behavior therapy: Basics and beyond.&#xA;Guilford Press. ISBN: 978-1-60918-504-6&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Corrigan, P. W., Mueser, K. T., Bond, G. R., Drake, R. E., &amp;amp; Solomon,&#xA;P. (2012). Principles and practice of psychiatric rehabilitation: An&#xA;empirical approach. Guilford Press. ISBN: 978-1-60623-344-3&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sue, D. W., &amp;amp; Sue, D. (2012). Counseling the culturally diverse:&#xA;Theory and practice. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons. ISBN: 978-0-470-08632-2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-08-24T15:05:43.667" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8053" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8059" CreationDate="2014-08-24T17:41:24.867" Score="7" ViewCount="223" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt; is the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses. And &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00214.x/abstract;jsessionid=839D3182A0E3E3CEB82BDDF6444E943E.f02t02&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;some results&lt;/a&gt; illustrate that people set higher standards of evidence for hypotheses that go against their current expectations, an effect sometimes referred to as &quot;disconfirmation bias&quot;. However, I would like to know if there is a specific name (and literature) related to the tendency among scientists to &lt;em&gt;resist disconfirmation&lt;/em&gt; of their theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6480" LastEditorDisplayName="user6480" LastEditDate="2014-08-25T14:41:03.620" LastActivityDate="2014-08-28T19:06:13.743" Title="Is there a name for a scientist's resistance to disconfirmation of his or her theories?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8055" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8062" CreationDate="2014-08-24T20:48:24.187" Score="1" ViewCount="1788" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I tried to do a self-control exercise that involved doing something boring like folding clothes while the exercise part involved repeatedly saying &quot;focus&quot; in my head, to stop daydreaming. However, after 15 minutes, my internal voice suddenly became weaker and weaker until it stopped to echo in my head. I tried to scream &quot;focus&quot; inside my head and it felt like moving a hand while in sleep paralysis, nothing echoed, while my front head (not forehead) felt weird.&#xA;I am confused as knowing nothing about what actually happened and why. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Off-Question Notes: I have ADD, that sometimes something feels so boring I can't focus on it (The purpose of the exercise), but it doesn't seem to be the case, because I couldn't say anything else in my head nor think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the cause of the phenomena whereby repeating words inside your head begin to fade from consciousness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5037" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-25T04:25:07.867" LastActivityDate="2020-01-26T05:30:58.033" Title="What causes words repeated in your head to start fading away from consciousness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8056" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-24T21:07:28.253" Score="5" ViewCount="1055" Body="&lt;p&gt;Forgive me for lacking rigor, but if what I know is correct, it is established that consciousness and other higher functions characteristic of humans are a consequence of our cortex, specifically neocortex. However, what has always puzzled me is the neurobiological basis that gives rise to the phenomenon that we associate our bodies with ourselves – i.e., why does my brain think of my physical body as &quot;me&quot; and make me care for it? In other words, why is me me at this particular point in time and not some other body living e.g. centuries ago? Why do I not associate &quot;me&quot; with multiple bodies living at the same time, or have identity at all? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A naive, materialist answer would perhaps be that given our nervous system etc., &quot;me&quot; is only a sort of an illusion created by the brain which acts as a kind of &quot;least thinkable unit&quot; that has no neural connections to other physical bodies. Still, &lt;strong&gt;what is the process that &quot;picks&quot; precisely my brain and my body to become &quot;me&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; – why have I not sensed reality from the viewpoint of e.g. Albert Einstein or Brad Pitt?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if any empirical answers to such questions can be given, or at least if these questions have been reformulated to a set of more well-defined questions in the light of modern neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;A better way to form this question would be: if two bodies come to exist at the same time, and consciousness is an emergent, materialistic phenomenon of the body, why do I experience the emergence of consciousness in one specific body (i.e. the one I call my own) and not in another?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5109" LastEditorUserId="5109" LastEditDate="2014-08-30T01:11:53.843" LastActivityDate="2015-10-08T19:05:37.080" Title="How does subjective experience arise from matter?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8057" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8053" CreationDate="2014-08-25T13:18:06.130" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This isn't quite what you are looking for, but it's close enough that it might help you find additional information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cebma.org/wp-content/uploads/Munro-The-Scientific-Impotence-Excuse.pdf&quot;&gt;Munro (2010)&lt;/a&gt; found evidence that people tend to discount the scientific possibility of studying something when presented with scientific evidence that goes against their current beliefs. In other words, if people were shown a result that went against their beliefs, then people were more likely to conclude that it was not possible to conduct rigorous scientific experimentation on the topic. He called this &lt;strong&gt;the scientific impotence excuse&lt;/strong&gt;. In the experiment, subjects were shown an (artificial) abstract that claimed there was either a link between homosexuality and mental illness or claimed there was no link. A control group saw the same abstracts, but instead of a link between homosexuality and mental illness, the link was between a made-up group like &lt;em&gt;Zavs&lt;/em&gt;. After reading the abstract, subjects were asked to indicate whether or not it was possible to investigate such links with scientific methods. If the results of the abstract were contradictory towards a subject's prior beliefs (as measured by a questionnaire at the start of the experiment), then the subject was more likely to say that the question cannot be investigated in a scientific manner. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study was done with college students, who are not trained scientists, so it's unclear whether the result would generalize to scientists or not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-08-25T13:18:06.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8058" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8087" CreationDate="2014-08-25T16:08:28.623" Score="4" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading about &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2014/papers/221/paper221.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hierarchical learning&lt;/a&gt; (a variant of reinforcement learning from what I understand) and how it is shown to allow learning of a higher-level task (the main example is assembly). I made the mistake of assuming that since the paper shows how a set of sequential actions are learned more quickly when the individual tasks are learned beforehand, that the same could be accomplished with a set of tasks to be combined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, imagine learning to play hockey. First, you have to learn how to skate effectively. Secondly, you learn how to handle the puck with a stick. Thirdly, you have to learn to be aware of the other players and their movement. Finally, you combine all of these and sometimes have to spend time refining the lower end skills to become an effective hockey player.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this type of learning and a model associated to it? Is this type of learning encompassed in hierarchical learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-08-26T07:58:55.337" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T02:22:46.680" Title="How do humans learn to combine tasks?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8059" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8053" CreationDate="2014-08-25T18:01:51.983" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand confirmation bias as including this. The Wikipedia page you link has &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief_perseverance#Persistence_of_discredited_beliefs&quot;&gt;a section on &quot;persistence of discredited beliefs&quot;&lt;/a&gt; that corroborates my perspective:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Confirmation biases can be used to explain why some beliefs persist when the initial evidence for them is removed.&lt;sup&gt;[45]&lt;/sup&gt; This belief perseverance effect has been shown by a series of experiments using what is called the &quot;debriefing paradigm&quot;: participants read fake evidence for a hypothesis, their attitude change is measured, then the fakery is exposed in detail. Their attitudes are then measured once more to see if their belief returns to its previous level.&lt;sup&gt;[44]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A common finding is that at least some of the initial belief remains even after a full debrief.&lt;sup&gt;[46]&lt;/sup&gt; In one experiment, participants had to distinguish between real and fake suicide notes. The feedback was random: some were told they had done well while others were told they had performed badly. Even after being fully debriefed, participants were still influenced by the feedback. They still thought they were better or worse than average at that kind of task, depending on what they had initially been told.&lt;sup&gt;[47]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In another study, participants read job performance ratings of two firefighters, along with their responses to a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_aversion&quot;&gt;risk aversion&lt;/a&gt; test.&lt;sup&gt;[44]&lt;/sup&gt; This fictional data was arranged to show either a negative or positive &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation&quot;&gt;association&lt;/a&gt;: some participants were told that a risk-taking firefighter did better, while others were told they did less well than a risk-averse colleague.&lt;sup&gt;[48]&lt;/sup&gt; Even if these two case studies were true, they would have been scientifically poor evidence for a conclusion about firefighters in general. However, the participants found them subjectively persuasive.&lt;sup&gt;[48]&lt;/sup&gt; When the case studies were shown to be fictional, participants' belief in a link diminished, but around half of the original effect remained.&lt;sup&gt;[44]&lt;/sup&gt; Follow-up interviews established that the participants had understood the debriefing and taken it seriously. Participants seemed to trust the debriefing, but regarded the discredited information as irrelevant to their personal belief.&lt;sup&gt;[48]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;hr&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  44. Ross, Lee; Anderson, Craig A. (1982), &quot;Shortcomings in the attribution process: On the origins and maintenance of erroneous social assessments&quot;, in Kahneman, Daniel; Slovic, Paul; Tversky, Amos, Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases, Cambridge University Press, pp. 129–152, ISBN 978-0-521-28414-1, OCLC &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7578020&quot;&gt;7578020&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  45. Nickerson, Raymond S. (1998), &quot;Confirmation Bias; A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises&quot;, Review of General Psychology (Educational Publishing Foundation) 2 (2): 175–220, doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/?&amp;amp;fa=main.doiLanding&amp;amp;doi=10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175&quot;&gt;10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175&lt;/a&gt;, ISSN &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldcat.org/title/review-of-general-psychology-journal-of-division-1-of-the-american-psychological-association/oclc/34948489&quot;&gt;1089-2680&lt;/a&gt;, p. 187&#xA;  46. Kunda, Ziva (1999), Social Cognition: Making Sense of People, MIT Press, ISBN &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-61143-5&quot;&gt;978-0-262-61143-5&lt;/a&gt;, OCLC &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40618974&quot;&gt;40618974&lt;/a&gt;, p. 99&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  47. Ross, Lee; Lepper, Mark R.; Hubbard, Michael (1975), &quot;Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: Biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm&quot;, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (American Psychological Association) 32 (5): 880–892, doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.32.5.880&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-3514.32.5.880&lt;/a&gt;, ISSN &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3514&quot;&gt;0022-3514&lt;/a&gt;, PMID &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1185517&quot;&gt;1185517&lt;/a&gt; via Kunda 1999, p. 99&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  48. Anderson, Craig A.; Lepper, Mark R.; Ross, Lee (1980), &quot;Perseverance of Social Theories: The Role of Explanation in the Persistence of Discredited Information&quot;, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (American Psychological Association) 39 (6): 1037–1049, doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0077720&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0077720&lt;/a&gt;, ISSN &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3514&quot;&gt;0022-3514&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-08-25T18:01:51.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8060" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8042" CreationDate="2014-08-25T23:42:20.170" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since asking the question, I was able to locate a first-person account of monothematic delusion, namely, of denial of ownership of one's own limbs (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatoparaphrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;somatoparaphrenia/asomatognosia&lt;/a&gt;). It is due to the neurologist and writer &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Sacks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Oliver Sacks&lt;/a&gt;, who in his fourth book &lt;em&gt;A Leg to Stand On&lt;/em&gt; (1984) described his recovery after a fall in a remote region of Norway in which he injured his leg. Following surgery to reattach his quadriceps muscle, he experienced an emotional period in which his leg no longer felt a part of his body. He describes his confusion, seeing the “disowned” plastered limb (Sacks 1984: 45,49, 49–50):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I had felt the leg in front of me . . . but now I could see it wasn’t&#xA;  there at all but had got shifted and rotated. . . . I had a&#xA;  sudden sense of mismatch, of profound incongruity –&#xA;  between what I imagined I felt and what I actually saw,&#xA;  between what I had “thought” and what I now found. I felt, for&#xA;  a dizzying, vertiginous moment, that I have been profoundly&#xA;  deceived. . . .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experience of touching the leg was “inconceivably shocking and uncanny”:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I seemed to have lost “my leg” – which was absurd, for there it&#xA;  was, inside the case, safe and sound – a “fact.” How could&#xA;  there be any doubt in the matter? And yet there was. On this very matter of “having” or “possessing” a leg, I was&#xA;  profoundly doubtful, fundamentally unsure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This alarming state of uncertainty later resolves itself into&#xA;what seems closer to a fully delusional state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[the leg] became a foreign, inconceivable thing, which I looked&#xA;  at, and touched, without any sense whatever of recognition or&#xA;  relation. It was only then that I gazed at it, and felt I don’t&#xA;  know you, you’re not part of me, and, further, I don’t know this&#xA;  “thing,” it’s not part of anything. I had lost my leg. Again and&#xA;  again I came back to these five words: words which expressed&#xA;  a central truth for me, however preposterous they might&#xA;  sound to anyone else. In some sense, then, I had lost my leg.&#xA;  It had vanished; it had gone; it had been cut off at the top. I&#xA;  was now an amputee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;: I have found a first-person account of Cotard delusion in &lt;a href=&quot;http://the-toast.net/2014/06/25/perdition-days-experiencing-psychosis/view-all/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this blog post&lt;/a&gt;, thanks to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.national.slam.nhs.uk/about-us/our-experts/dr-vaughan-bell/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Vaughan Bell&lt;/a&gt; who found it through &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/philosophy/frankish.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Keith Frankish&lt;/a&gt; (both authors working extensively with delusions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6480" LastEditorDisplayName="user6480" LastEditDate="2014-08-27T00:49:59.717" LastActivityDate="2014-08-27T00:49:59.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8061" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8055" CreationDate="2014-08-26T06:15:11.407" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you use a slightly different (and to my own experience more common) phrasing of this phenomenon to look for information you find immediate relevant results on Google. Rather than referring to words &lt;em&gt;fading from consciousness&lt;/em&gt; I've usually heard it being stated as &lt;strong&gt;repeating a word often makes it lose its meaning&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first hit is a Wikipedia article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_satiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;semantic satiation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Semantic satiation (also semantic saturation) is a psychological&#xA;  phenomenon in which repetition causes a word or phrase to temporarily&#xA;  lose meaning for the listener, who then perceives the speech as&#xA;  repeated meaningless sounds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2014-08-26T06:15:11.407" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8062" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8055" CreationDate="2014-08-26T10:57:34.287" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @Steven Jeuris has said, the phenomena is best known as &lt;strong&gt;semantic satiation&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;It's not as popular a topic of study as it used to be (&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?q=semantic+satiation&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;most references I can find for it&lt;/a&gt; come from the 1960s), but, to the best of my memory, the actual &lt;em&gt;cause&lt;/em&gt; of the phenomena is down to how meaning is represented in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll explain this by loosely paraphrasing an account of the phenomena in &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FLZII0uI0kgC&amp;amp;lpg=PA427&amp;amp;ots=umS60zHzOw&amp;amp;dq=semantic%20satiation%20spivey&amp;amp;pg=PA24#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=semantic%20satiation%20spivey&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Michael Spivey's book, The Continuity of Mind&lt;/a&gt;, but there are some (interesting) theoretical claims in that book which I won't bother with for the scope of this answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general consensus on neural representations of meaning is that semantic information (i.e. the meaning of a word, although this can include much more than that) is encoded as a pattern of activation across many neurons. Exposure any given word (let's use &lt;code&gt;giraffe&lt;/code&gt; as our example, following Spivey) causes that specific pattern to become partially activated, and so we experience the &quot;meaning&quot; of the word - the more accurately the pattern is recreated, the more intense our conscious experience of the meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, individual neurons are subject to &lt;strong&gt;adaptation&lt;/strong&gt;, or &lt;em&gt;fatigue&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_adaptation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;): if a particular neuron has been firing for a prolonged period of time, it begins to weaken, and it's firing rate slows, until it has time to recover (think of a drummer's arm muscles, performing the same action repeatedly until he tires out). When you repeat a specific word (&lt;code&gt;giraffe&lt;/code&gt;), the neurons used in the corresponding pattern become fatigued in this way, and so the corresponding meaning (&quot;long-necked African mammal&quot;) fades, or is replaced by other, possibly related meanings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Spivey, M. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FLZII0uI0kgC&amp;amp;lpg=PA427&amp;amp;ots=umS60zHzOw&amp;amp;dq=semantic%20satiation%20spivey&amp;amp;pg=PA24#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=semantic%20satiation%20spivey&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The continuity of mind.&lt;/a&gt; Oxford University Press.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-08-26T11:03:43.770" LastActivityDate="2014-08-26T11:03:43.770" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8063" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="351" CreationDate="2014-08-26T12:18:32.217" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;As mentioned in a recent study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735611400173&quot;&gt;Thompson et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt;, there are two perspectives which account for the effects of background music on reading comprehension specifically (but as I argue later, these seem generalizable): the &lt;em&gt;Cognitive-Capacity&lt;/em&gt; hypothesis and the &lt;em&gt;Arousal-Mood&lt;/em&gt; hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In short, the potential &lt;em&gt;cost&lt;/em&gt; of background music listening for&#xA;  reading comprehension is that it places demands on attention. The&#xA;  potential &lt;em&gt;benefit&lt;/em&gt; of background music listening is that it can&#xA;  enhance arousal levels and mood. The overall effect of background music on task performance may be a balance between these costs and benefits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Drawing from multitasking literature, one would expect that depending on the cognitive requirements of the task you are performing, it might be possible that certain music is either appropriate or not. The ACT-R architecture (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195324259.001.0001&quot;&gt;Anderson. J. R., 2007&lt;/a&gt;) assumes &lt;em&gt;&quot;the human cognitive architecture consists of a set of largely independent modules associated with different brain regions&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. E.g. vision, audition, manual control and speech. Although all modules can operate in parallel, each module can only serve one task at a time. Some music (e.g. vocal) may cause more &lt;em&gt;capacity interference&lt;/em&gt; when tasks compete for limited resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735611400173&quot;&gt;Thompson et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt; investigate specifically the effect of tempo and intensity of background music on a reading comprehension task, but provide a nice review of earlier studies. Check out the full paper (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/~w3psygs/ThompsonEtAl2012.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;). Their findings indicate ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] that &lt;strong&gt;listening to background instrumental music is most likely&#xA;  to disrupt  reading comprehension when the music is fast and loud&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;  Music listening may consume more of  listeners’ finite attentional&#xA;  resources when it comprises a greater number of auditory events per&#xA;  unit time that are difficult to ignore because of greater intensity. [...]&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Music that was slow and/or soft had no significant detrimental effects on reading comprehension&lt;/strong&gt;, [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although reporting on an overall null effect, an older meta-analysis by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735610376261&quot;&gt;Kämpfe et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; had a conflicting conclusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] &lt;strong&gt;a comparison of studies that examined background music compared to no&#xA;  music indicates that background music disturbs the reading process&lt;/strong&gt;,&#xA;  has some small detrimental effects on memory, but has a positive&#xA;  impact on emotional reactions and improves achievements in sports. A&#xA;  comparison of different types of background music reveals that the&#xA;  tempo of the music influences the tempo of activities that are&#xA;  performed while being exposed to background music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As proposed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735610376261&quot;&gt;Kämpfe et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt;, and indicated by the results of Thompson et al., such interference effects are dependent on the structural characteristics of the music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall it seems not all music has been shown to be detrimental as background music, but fast and loud music is more likely to disrupt ongoing tasks. To my knowledge no more detailed studies have been done which incorporate both type of tasks and different types of music. The question also arises to which degree these studies capture longitudinal effects in a real world environment with more complex tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Thompson, W. F., Schellenberg, E. G., &amp;amp; Letnic, A. K. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735611400173&quot;&gt;Fast and loud background music disrupts reading comprehension.&lt;/a&gt; Psychology of Music, 40(6), 700-708.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Anderson, J. R. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195324259.001.0001&quot;&gt;How can the human mind occur in the physical universe?.&lt;/a&gt; Oxford University Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kämpfe, J., Sedlmeier, P., &amp;amp; Renkewitz, F. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735610376261&quot;&gt;The impact of background music on adult listeners: A meta-analysis.&lt;/a&gt; Psychology of Music, 0305735610376261.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2014-08-26T12:18:32.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8064" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-26T12:29:55.597" Score="4" ViewCount="432" Body="&lt;p&gt;In experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience today, with the exception of a few specific subdisciplines, the consensus seems to be that an experimental study has to be performed on a group of subjects which are considered as a sample from an underlying population. Statistics is then applied in such a way as to allow an inference on &lt;em&gt;properties of the distribution in that population&lt;/em&gt; of a certain psychological function or feature, most often the population mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: When was this consensus established, with which reasoning, and on whose initiative?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience, current textbooks on statistics in psychology discuss the statistical procedures in great detail, but contain only a few cursory remarks on the &lt;em&gt;psychological&lt;/em&gt; (not statistical) motivation of these procedures. They do not discuss why a cognitive scientist should be interested in a population-average reaction time, a population-average event-related potential etc. – instead of e.g. effects that are present in every single individual in the population, or a specific sub-population. Or maybe I'm just looking at the wrong books?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6615" LastActivityDate="2014-09-01T07:50:52.577" Title="Origin of group-level statistics in psychology and cognitive neuroscience" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8066" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8075" CreationDate="2014-08-26T15:46:44.657" Score="2" ViewCount="286" Body="&lt;p&gt;I noticed on several occasions after long-haul flights (greater than eight hours) that I would still feel a sensation of turbulence or movement as if I were still in the aircraft. These would be persistent for approximately a day and occur periodically every minute or so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As there is no sensory input from reality which could cause these sensations, are they technically proprioceptive hallucinations? If so, why do they occur? (I am assuming the abnormality or cause lies in the brain and central nervous system as my inner ear is not infected or altered.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6619" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-26T16:37:33.047" LastActivityDate="2014-08-28T05:23:13.697" Title="Are sensations of turbulence after flights proprioceptive hallucinations?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8068" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5755" CreationDate="2014-08-26T20:23:09.717" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Modern neuroscience has left behind the notion of mind-brain separation. Neuroscientists typically accept that everything from our breathing to our emotions and the complex sense of &quot;self&quot; that we have is a product of our brains. We have yet to discover exactly how/when/why the &quot;mind&quot; emerged from the brain, but we do know that most of our mental processing happens unconsciously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6620" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-26T22:31:27.783" LastActivityDate="2014-08-26T22:31:27.783" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8069" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8036" CreationDate="2014-08-26T20:37:52.110" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you can definately think of a concept without having the words to explain it, I do it all the time and it sucks, because I cant remember well, or explain to others what the thought was, but I do know it didn't have words because It would have said so much in such a succinct manner that it would be impossible to describe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously you can think without language, that shouldn't even be a question, i mean we had to think to invent language in the first place. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;as for thinking in images and sounds:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do think its possible that we think based on sensory input and simply can't recognize it as such by the time it is in our consciousness, but I think the answer that you are looking for is &quot; what is the origin of thought?&quot; and that I do not  know.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6620" LastActivityDate="2014-08-26T20:37:52.110" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8070" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-27T01:42:42.573" Score="4" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to test an idea about how the perception of decision making process alignment with another party influences the tendency to accept information from that party. For example, if my wife and I both consider the cost, nutrition, and the presence of a toy when considering breakfast cereals, I'm more likely to take her cereal recommendation when I go to the grocery store. Likewise, if somebody else only considers taste, I'm less likely to heed his advice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking in the literature, I can't seem to find any measures of decision making process alignment between two people. Does anybody know of a related construct that has been validated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="373" LastActivityDate="2017-01-25T03:35:47.207" Title="Are there validated measures to perception of decision making process alignment?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8071" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1535" CreationDate="2014-08-27T03:38:42.017" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have started to see a fair bit of discussion about reproducible meta-analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tim Churches seems to have a github repository with a &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/timchurches/meta-analyses&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;few examples of meta-analyses in R&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See in particular the public health example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/timchurches/meta-analyses/blob/master/benefits-of-reproducible-research/benefits-of-reproducible-research.Rmd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;RMarkdown source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/timchurches/meta-analyses/blob/master/benefits-of-reproducible-research/benefits-of-reproducible-research.md&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Formatted Markdown output&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-08-27T03:38:42.017" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8072" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-27T06:01:48.290" Score="3" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;Microdialysis is a common method to study the effects of drugs on specific mamal brains zones (mostly in rats), in order to study the it's interaction with the function of those specific areas that controls or mediates in complex behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are invertebrates who are well known for providing genetic tools to study both behaviour and pharmacology of drugs, like c. elegans and Drosophila melanogaster. The last one has been also used for attention, learning and hyperactivity study, as a model for ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I found a couple of studies which uses microdialysis on insect brains, I couldn't reach anyone for microdialysis in Drosophila. Is it possible to do microdialysis in Drosophila? Otherwise, there are alternatives to oral administration of drugs in insects like Drosophila?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--&#xA;Edit: Thanks for your insights, I have a computer science background and its hard to me to try to talk with property about these things completely out of my comfort zone. &#xA;Also, I specified the original target, Drosophila Melanogaster, since there are bigger parients like Hawaian D. heteroneura and D. cyrtoloma. where current probes could be used &quot;&quot;&quot;without too much trouble&quot;&quot;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6621" LastEditorUserId="6621" LastEditDate="2014-08-27T18:53:20.437" LastActivityDate="2014-08-27T18:53:20.437" Title="Can microdialysis be made in Drosophila melanogaster?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8073" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8023" CreationDate="2014-08-27T07:38:41.313" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apoptosis is the programmed death of a cell. This is not required for pruning of connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During development, axons and dendrites of neurons undergo extensive lengthening, branching and also retraction. Simultaneous with this process, many many synapses are being constructed and deconstructed between axons and nearby dendrites. Also during adulthood, synapses are constructed, strengthened, weakened and deconstructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hard numbers:&#xA;Between the ages of 20-90, a 10% reduction in number of neurons occurred. On average, neurons make around 7000 synapses per neuron. Under the assumption that the number of synapses per neuron doesn't change, there will be around a 10% reduction of synapses between ages 20-90. The paper referenced below states that estimates of numbers of synapses over different ages is in progress, but I couldn't find a follow-up publication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Pakkenberg, B., Pelvig, D., Marner, L., Bundgaard, M. J., Gundersen, H. J. G., Nyengaard, J. R., &amp;amp; Regeur, L. (2003). Aging and the human neocortex. Experimental Gerontology, 38(1-2), 95-99. doi:10.1016/S0531-5565(02)00151-1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2014-08-27T07:38:41.313" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8075" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8066" CreationDate="2014-08-27T10:53:42.443" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As there is no sensory input from reality which could cause these sensations, are they technically proprioceptive hallucinations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not really, although I think it wouldn't be &lt;em&gt;completely&lt;/em&gt; inaccurate to think of them that way. A hallucination has no basis in reality (e.g. auditory hallucinations); what you're describing has a physical basis in reality. It is based on a physical disconnect between your previous reality (a mildly turbulent flight of significant hours duration) and the removal of such stimuli (your disembarkation) while your sensitized vestibulo-occular mechanism continues to function as if you were on board.  First noticed on ships, but expanded to flights and other stimuli, it's been called &lt;em&gt;landsickness&lt;/em&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt; when of short duration, and Mal de Debarquement if it lasts longer much longer than 1-2 days.&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To understand this, a bit of basic physiology is in order. First, there are three semicircular canals located in little pockets of bone called the inner ear, one on each side. The three canals are oriented at (basically) 90° angles to each other so that we can maintain our balance no matter which position our head is in. These are also connected to one's ocular reflexes. Together they're called the vestibolo-occular system, which functions as a reflex (VOR).&lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt;  Because the connections are excitatory, increased firing from a canal afferent leads to contralateral movement of the eyes (which is how spinning ice skaters can keep track of / focus on where they are visually). Normally all this occurs without our notice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latency of action of the rotational vestibulo-ocular reflex (r-VOR) is 7-15 milliseconds, which is the time required for the eyes to respond in an equal, but opposite, manner to the motion of the head. This time is remarkably fast compared with the latency for visually mediated eye movements, which is longer than 75 milliseconds.&lt;sup&gt;[4]&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens is that with excitation (say, spinning in one plane), the cilia of the hair cells (see @Chuck Sherrington's diagram &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4509/why-do-ones-surroundings-still-seem-to-rotate-when-you-stop-whirling-around/4510#4510&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) are displaced, and remain displaced as long as one is spinning with the same velocity and direction. Once the spinning suddenly stops, the cilia proceed to move to their default position, tricking the VOR into moving the eyes in the opposite direction repeatedly until the cilia come to a complete stop.[3] You can observe this phenomenon by looking into the person's eyes immediately after they stop spinning (make sure they are safe from falling.) Once things settle down in the inner ear, the vertigo (perception of spinning) stops shortly thereafter as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Flying or being on a ship causes multiple VOR inputs and adjustments (by our brains) to this movement. As the flight continues and you experience choppy motions, your VOR &quot;adjusts&quot; to these frequent shifts and you don't feel them as much. When you disembark, however, there is an adjustment period to go through; we are still receiving mixed signals until we are completely sensitized to the new &quot;normal&quot;. It is of varying intensity and duration, and can appear suddenly (maybe on head movement or rapid eye movement) and be persistent or transient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you can relax, you can enjoy these tricks the brain is playing on your mind, and marvel at how well we are adaptable. I had my first truly noticeable episodes of this phenomenon while traveling on the vaporetti in Venice for a few days. If you feel it's worse that what I describe, I would start my search with &lt;em&gt;sea legs&lt;/em&gt;, landsickness, and MDDS (though the latter is highly unlikely).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;http://health.howstuffworks.com/mental-health/neurological-conditions/landsickness1.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;landsickness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;http://health.howstuffworks.com/mental-health/neurological-conditions/landsickness1.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mal de Debarquement Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[3] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7363/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anatomy and Physiology of the Vestibular System&lt;/a&gt; Gizzi, et. al.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[4] &lt;a href=&quot;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1836134-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vestibuloocular Reflex Testing - Amin, et. al.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[5] &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=bCuHZgwSRC4C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP2&amp;amp;dq=vestibulo+ocular+reflex+and+physiologic+vertigo&amp;amp;ots=A5rMJ0X1Ks&amp;amp;sig=XobkDjkD-jId7DnUhQpBQouCGlc#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=vestibulo%20ocular%20reflex%20and%20physiologic%20vertigo&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baloh and Honrubia's Clinical Neurophysiology of the Vestibular System&#xA; By Robert William Baloh, Kevin Kerber, MD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-08-28T05:23:13.697" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8076" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8058" CreationDate="2014-08-27T19:57:39.950" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that humans initially understand all of life as a &quot;oneness&quot; and learn to differentiate and mentally &quot;un-integrate&quot; things according to what each individual considers pertinent characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think another question that will have the same answer as the answer you seek for your question is &quot;How do humans so effectively reduce complicated processes to their constituent tasks?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6624" LastActivityDate="2014-08-27T19:57:39.950" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8077" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-27T21:04:45.207" Score="4" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a binary prediction task, people often match choice probabilities to outcome probabilities (a phenomenon known as &lt;em&gt;probability matching&lt;/em&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, under certain circumstances (eg, existence of a pattern), people perform maximization (always choosing the more probable outcome).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there evidence in the literature, that even when people are maximizing, they internally learn the underlying probabilities of outcomes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6625" LastActivityDate="2014-08-27T21:04:45.207" Title="Frequency estimation in binary prediction task" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8080" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8051" CreationDate="2014-08-28T05:33:12.840" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are hundreds of introductory textbooks out there, not just for psych in general but for the fields in psychology, so choosing a text isn't straightforward. You would be best off asking for an expert opinion from those who have taught intro courses at a university, and then check the ratings on Amazon. For example, you can go the psychology department webpage of any U to find the emails of faculty members in different areas or you can try the undergraduate administrator. At the University of Minnesota, the intro psych text being used is &lt;strong&gt;Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding&lt;/strong&gt; by Scott Lilienfeld (first author). You should also absolutely check out the book &lt;strong&gt;How to Think Straight About Psychology&lt;/strong&gt; (by Keith Stanovich) which appears to have become a classic and is now in its 10th edition. I know that it is used at several universities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might even find the answer to your question by googling something like &quot;best &lt;strong&gt;_&lt;/strong&gt; psychology textbook&quot;. Should be able to come across some qualified opinions on the web.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3077" LastActivityDate="2014-08-28T05:33:12.840" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8081" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8012" CreationDate="2014-08-28T05:57:03.597" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;At a high level, schemas and mental models are of a kind in cognitive science. You can think of both as cognitive or representational structures that aid in the storage and retrieval of information. Schemas were introduces earlier (Bartlett, 1932), and were followed by concepts such as scripts and frames (Schank &amp;amp; Abelson, 1975; Rumelhart, 1972). All of these, in general, describe the way that information can be structured in the mind such that we can easily navigate complex yet familiar situations, as well as adapt to and learn how to navigate novel situations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I usually attribute the introduction of mental models to Johnson-Laird (1980, 1983). A lot of this work was based on evidence of spatial representational structures in peoples' minds when they do things like read a story, and (since I'm a language guy), these ideas were further extended to situation models of text, which suggest we hold mental representations outside of the realm of space and time, and into causality and goals (e.g., Kintsch &amp;amp; van Dijk, 1983; Zwaan &amp;amp; Radvansky, 1998; and others such as Glenberg, Morrow, ...). I kind of think of this work as extending more abstract notions such as schemas into people's actual memories and experiences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5123" LastActivityDate="2014-08-28T05:57:03.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8082" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8036" CreationDate="2014-08-28T06:02:40.620" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a lotta good stuff out there, I'll give you one that outlines one line of thought (no pun...) on your general question: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674724778&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tomasello's &quot;A Natural History of Human Thinking&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a book, so even though it isn't exactly beach reading, it provides a unique view of the development of both thought and language (not that it is going to fill in all of the gaps of this rather large story).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5123" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-06-19T09:45:26.343" LastActivityDate="2018-06-19T09:45:26.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8083" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-28T06:19:17.473" Score="1" ViewCount="177" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm sorry if this is off-topic, but I think the users of this SE site would be best equipped to answer it. It's a question about the historical development of an anthropological idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are unaware, there is a list of nations in Genesis 10 descended from Noah's three sons, from where a tradition comes that the three sons when in three separate directions after the flood to repopulate the Earth. One North, one South, and one East.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The anthropological distinction of the races as being part of these three group, Caucasoid, Negroid, or Mongoloid, could be seen as North, South, and East, respectively, from the approximate location of the Ark's final resting place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is did the old tradition about Noah's sons influenced the anthropological distinctions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6628" LastActivityDate="2014-08-30T15:57:20.593" Title="Was the anthropological &quot;Negroid, Mongoloid, Caucasoid&quot; distinction inspired by the Bible story of Noah's sons?" Tags="&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;&lt;anthropology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2014-08-30T15:57:32.810" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8085" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8830" CreationDate="2014-08-28T13:15:26.510" Score="4" ViewCount="17482" Body="&lt;p&gt;Congenital insensitivity to pain is a rare condition where a person cannot feel pain (physical). Is there any condition relates to emotional pain or any pain not related to physical that a person cannot feel? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6578" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-13T02:17:06.877" LastActivityDate="2021-02-02T21:31:22.510" Title="Is there a condition where a person doesn't feel emotional or non-physical pain?" Tags="&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8086" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8053" CreationDate="2014-08-28T19:06:13.743" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this is more related to the &lt;strong&gt;Observer-expectancy effect&lt;/strong&gt;, where the researchers, looking for a certain result in an experiment, may inadvertently manipulate or interpret the results to reveal their expectations. That's what you a looking for, I suppose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user5023" LastActivityDate="2014-08-28T19:06:13.743" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8087" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8058" CreationDate="2014-08-28T19:18:12.473" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term I was looking for is &quot;concurrent activities&quot;. Some research in the domain of hierarchical learning has been done in this domain by &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/pdf/1301.2307.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rohanimanesh and Mahadevan&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.cs.umass.edu/~mahadeva/papers/hrl.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this literature review on hierarchical learning&lt;/a&gt;, basically what they did was determine how multiple tasks can be managed without interfering with one another and how they should be scheduled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find any cognitive models of this concurrency, so there appears to be quite a bit of work done on the idea of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cs.drexel.edu/~salvucci/publications/Salvucci-PR08.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;multi-tasking&lt;/a&gt;, which might be synonymous. Unfortunately, most of this seems to be quite firmly in the camp of the Classical Cognitive Science Paradigm (such as the work by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ai.rug.nl/~niels/procedural.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Niels Taatgen which interestingly rejects hierarchy&lt;/a&gt;) with not a lot of thought put into neurobiological plausibility. Additional answers pointing to fMRI experimental data similar to the one found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627310001960&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; for hierarchical learning would be greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-04-22T02:22:46.680" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T02:22:46.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8089" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-29T18:46:51.393" Score="4" ViewCount="207" Body="&lt;p&gt;There exists a psychological phenomenon whereupon a person may encounter a rather trivial or mundane statement or thought, but would not recognize it as such; instead a person would experience a sense of revelation and even pride in being able to think about that particular statement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above phenomenon may happen to everyone occasionally, but some people are considerably more prone to it and may experience trivial &quot;intellectual revelations&quot; on a regular and frequent basis. I recall reading an article on the topic, and apparently the phenomenon is well recognized and even has a proper name (something derived from Greek, if I'm not mistaken). Would anybody be able to remind me of that name for the sake of further research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6637" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-29T21:54:14.550" LastActivityDate="2015-08-24T17:15:06.560" Title="Tendency to see novelty in mundane and trivial statements" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8091" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8056" CreationDate="2014-08-29T23:57:56.877" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is partially an aspect of the binding problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sensory information arrives in parallel as a variety of heterogeneous hints, (shapes, colors, motions, smells and sounds) encoded in partly modular systems. Typically many objects are present at once. The result is an urgent case of what has been labelled the binding problem. We must collect the hints, bind them into the right spatial and temporal bundles, and then interpret them to specify their real world origins. (2003, 97)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/attention/&quot;&gt;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/attention/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bottom line is that our senses are integrated and some of our most important senses (smell, sight, hearing) all have their organs located very close together.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/352/1360/1411.short&quot;&gt;Spatial perception is (at least partially) stored in the parietal lobes.&lt;/a&gt; The parietal lobes integrate information from somatosensors like muscle spindles to relay the body's position in space as well as the eyes (and ears), which help form a perspective of the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also consider Tononi's framework for consciousness: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19098144&quot;&gt;integrated information theory&lt;/a&gt; which presumes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(i) the quantity of consciousness corresponds to the amount of integrated information generated by a complex of elements; (ii) the quality of experience is specified by the set of informational relationships generated within that complex. Integrated information (Phi) is defined as the amount of information generated by a complex of elements, above and beyond the information generated by its parts. Qualia space (Q) is a space where each axis represents a possible state of the complex, each point is a probability distribution of its states, and arrows between points represent the informational relationships among its elements generated by causal mechanisms (connections). Together, the set of informational relationships within a complex constitute a shape in Q that completely and univocally specifies a particular experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the deeper question we need answered before we get to your specific question is &quot;how does a subjective experience arise from matter in the first place?&quot;.  Other than that, your question is no different than &quot;why did that rock not get this rock's blemish?&quot;.  It was mostly likely just a matter of chance in initial conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-08-30T00:07:21.513" LastActivityDate="2014-08-30T00:07:21.513" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8092" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8064" CreationDate="2014-08-30T04:08:14.540" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;p&gt;In simplest terms, they are searching for objective, observable truth. Wikipedia seems to have quite a few references to this, see the quote/link below. &#xA;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;In terms of the One-Factor-at-a-time, OFAT method was first recorded to have been used by James Lind.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics#Design_of_experiments&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;i&gt;&quot;In 1747, while serving as surgeon on HM Bark Salisbury, James Lind carried out a controlled experiment to develop a cure for scurvy. In this study his subjects' cases &quot;were as similar as I could have them&quot;, that is he provided strict entry requirements to reduce extraneous variation. The men were paired, which provided blocking. From a modern perspective, the main thing that is missing is randomized allocation of subjects to treatments.&lt;/i&gt;&#xA;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&#xA;Fast forward a hundred years or so, and:&lt;br&gt; &#xA;&lt;i&gt;&quot;As is well know, statistic methods--and by &quot;statistical methods&quot; I mean probability-based modeling and inference--entered into psychology in 1860 in the work of Gustav Fechner (1860) in psychophysics (Boring 1961;Stigler 1986).&quot;&lt;/i&gt;&#xA; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1085417&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;A Historical View of Statistical Concepts in Psychology and Educational Research&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;American Journal of Education, 101, 1992.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6544" LastActivityDate="2014-08-30T04:08:14.540" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8056" CreationDate="2014-08-30T04:49:35.833" Score="6" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;what has always puzzled me is the neurobiological basis that gives&#xA;  rise to the phenomenon that we associate our bodies with ourselves –&#xA;  i.e., why does my brain think of my physical body as &quot;me&quot; and make me&#xA;  care for it? In other words, why is me me at this particular point in&#xA;  time and not some other body living e.g. centuries ago? Why do I not&#xA;  associate &quot;me&quot; with multiple bodies living at the same time, or have&#xA;  identity at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because your brain is connected, via nerves, to your body, in both directions, sensory and motor. Every time your body's sensory apparati sense something, only your brain is alerted to this, and no other. Every time your brain activates its motor centers, it observes only your body moving as a result, and no other. And it constantly receives reinforcement of this tight mapping every waking moment of your life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is the process that&#xA;  &quot;picks&quot; precisely my brain and my body to become &quot;me&quot; – why have I not&#xA;  sensed reality from the viewpoint of e.g. Albert Einstein or Brad&#xA;  Pitt?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because your brain is not wired to the bodies of those people. If it were, you would. You would see through their eyes, like in &lt;em&gt;Being John Malkovich&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I wonder if any empirical answers to such questions can be given, or&#xA;  at least if these questions have been reformulated to a set of more&#xA;  well-defined questions in the light of modern neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People have reported that their sense of the extent of their bodies can change depending on if they are using tools. The tips of the tools can seem to be part of them.  For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neurophysiological evidence indicates that after repeatedly using a&#xA;  tool, changes in the body representation (of humans and trained&#xA;  monkeys) occur, and over time the tool is perceived as if being an&#xA;  integral part of the body. The phenomenon describing the extension of&#xA;  the body representation to include non-corporeal objects in the&#xA;  peripersonal space, such as tools or prosthetic devices, has been&#xA;  extensively reported in the literature&#xA;    (PDF of &quot;Adaptive Body Schema for Robotic Tool-Use&quot; found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cota_Nabeshima/publication/220671553_Adaptive_body_schema_for_robotic_tool-use/links/09e415108684204ab1000000&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point is, one's body schema is flexible based on the nature of the inputs the brain receives. The map is plastic. But it also may shed light on your question, since it suggests that correlation of brain activity and body function is what gives rise to the matching between your body consciousness and your particular body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;UPDATE: A better way to form this question would be: if two bodies&#xA;  come to exist at the same time, and consciousness is an emergent,&#xA;  materialistic phenomenon of the body, why do I experience the&#xA;  emergence of consciousness in one specific body (i.e. the one I call&#xA;  my own) and not in another?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because consciousness of the body is not divorced from facts about the body; it is conscious &lt;em&gt;of&lt;/em&gt; some body schema, and that requires &quot;facts&quot; in the cortex that register &lt;em&gt;your&lt;/em&gt; body as the one it is conscious about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastActivityDate="2014-08-30T04:49:35.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8095" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3982" CreationDate="2014-08-30T13:58:43.280" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psych Forums has a section for posting studies to a section of their forum. However, they&#xA;  do require some form of payment for posting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact it's not exact. As explained here : &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychforums.com/surveys-studies/topic44450.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychforums.com/surveys-studies/topic44450.html&lt;/a&gt; if you are a &quot;professor/researcher/student in a university/college/institute/faculty of psychology&quot; it's entirely free and you get your links somehow included in specific forums so you have exact targeted audience for your studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that psych forums has more than 125'000 members, hundreds of forums and gets about 40'000 visitors a day so it's kind of ideal if you have any research to achieve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6645" LastActivityDate="2014-08-30T13:58:43.280" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8097" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8064" CreationDate="2014-08-31T11:02:15.113" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are actually asking about is the debate surrounding the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Can psychological quantities be measured?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Up until about 1800 psychological questions where discussed by philosophers. A separate psychological discipline did not yet exist. Answers to questions relating to perception, emotion and cognition where attempted on the basis of religious beliefs, philosophical tradition and unsystematic observation and introspection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Over the course of the eighteenth century, the body-mind dualism was slowly being resolved, which allowed first &lt;strong&gt;physiologists&lt;/strong&gt; and then &lt;strong&gt;physicists&lt;/strong&gt; over the course of the nineteens century to begin to apply their &lt;em&gt;methodology&lt;/em&gt; of experimenting with plants and animals and &lt;em&gt;mathematical principles&lt;/em&gt;, as they had been developed within the natural sciences, to psychological questions. In the middle of the nineteenth century, the first psychological institutes were founded, the first by Wundt (in Leipzig, Germany), and the discipline of psychology came into existence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at the history of psychology, you will realize that while psychological questions are as old as humanity, &lt;strong&gt;the academic discipline of psychology came into existence when scholars began to measure, i.e. quantify, the psyche&lt;/strong&gt;. This was in accordance with the rise of the natural sciences during the Enlightenment and their dominance over our whole worldview (almost?) until today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In his classice monography, &lt;em&gt;Psychometric Methods&lt;/em&gt; (1936), J. P. Guilford writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The progress and maturity of a science are often judged by the extent to which it has succeeded in the use of mathematics. The “psychometric methods” are procedures for psychological measurement. Measurement means the description of data in terms of numbers and this, in turn, means taking advantage of the many benefits that operations with and mathematical thinking provide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, while psychological questions have traditionally been considered in the humanities and arts, the academic discipline of psychology has been created and finds its home within the &lt;strong&gt;natural sciences&lt;/strong&gt; and shares their basic approach of quantitative measurement and statistical analysis. Philosophical and artistic &quot;psychology&quot; have continued to exist parallel to institutionalized academic psychology and have given rise to psychoanalysis (Freud), humanistic psychology (Rogers) or critical psychology (Holzkamp), among others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The principles and standards of psychological experimentation and statistical analysis as we know them today where not discovered instantaneously but developed and refined until the middle of the twentieth century. In 1936 Guilford found that the natural sciences lacked a common theory of measurement:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Measurement in the physical sciences has come so naturally that in that connection little thought has had to be given to what measurement really is. There are some physical scientists who maintain that what is called measurement in psychology is not measurement at all. It is true that the term measurement is sometimes defined in such a way that it does not apply to most of the operations in psychology commonly known as measurement. Definition of an abstract term such as measurement is an arbitrary matter, however, and psychologists will either define it to cover what they are doing under that concept or they will invent a new term for what they are doing with numbers and arithmetical operations. Fortunately, measurement can be defined sufficiently broadly to include the operations known as psychological measurement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Four years before this statement, in 1932, the &lt;em&gt;British Association for the Advancement of Science&lt;/em&gt; had established a committee of scientists that should consider the problem of measurement in the empricial disciplines. The committee was especially asked to resolve the question, whether a measurement of sensation was possible. The answer to this question would decide wether psychology was a natural science coequal to physics or chemistry. Psychologist S. S. Stevens (1946) writes about the committee's discussions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For seven years a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science debated the problem of measurement. Appointed in 1932 to represent Section A (Mathematical and Physical Sciences) and Section J (Psychology), the committee was instructed to consider and report upon the possibility of “quantitative estimates of sensory events” — meaning simply: Is it possible to measure human sensation? Deliberation led only to disagreement, mainly about what is meant by the term measurement. An interim report in 1938 found one member complaining that his colleagues “came out by that same door as they went in,” and in order to have another try at agreement, the committee begged to be continued for another year. For its final report (1940) the committee chose a common bone for its contentions, directing its arguments at a concrete example of a sensory scale. This was the Sone scale of loudness (S.S. Stevens and H. Davis, &lt;em&gt;Hearing&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Wiley, 1938), which purports to measure the subjective magnitude of an auditory sensation against a scale having the formal properties of other basic scales, such as those used to measure length and weight. Again the 19 members of the committee came out by the routes they entered, and their views ranged widely between two extremes. One member submitted “that any law purporting to express a quantitative relation between sensation intensity and stimulus intensity is not merely false but is in fact meaningless unless and until a meaning can be given to the concept of addition as applied to sensations.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, while the committee could not agree on the question wether sensation can be measured, they made it clear that &lt;strong&gt;an empirical equivalent to arithmetic addition&lt;/strong&gt; would constitute measurement. This refers to the foundation of the measurement of physical quantities by Hermann von Helmholtz (1887) and defined axiomatically by Hölder (1901).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't want to go into the details of this argument, because it goes beyond the scope of this question. In short, Helmholtz sought to base measurement on the empirical comparison of so-called &quot;extensive quantities&quot;, for example physical length or mass. He &lt;strong&gt;correlated arithmetic addition to physical combination (e.g. lineal apposition of staves to measure lengths) and the equality of two numbers to a method of &quot;physical comparison&quot;, for example the comparison of weights on a beam balance)&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How these principles of extensive measurment can be applied in psychology, and if it should, has been heavily debated, and different &quot;test theories&quot; have been developed, such as classical test theory, latent trait theory, or the theory of knowledge spaces. Foundational texts for a &lt;strong&gt;representational theory of measurement&lt;/strong&gt; are those by Krantz, Luce, Suppes, and Tversky (1971, 1989, 1990) and Robers (1979), if you are interested in this aspect. All books feature some general introduction but require mathematical understanding to follow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;This requirement of a broad and deep understanding of mathematics is the reason why all psychology looks the same to you.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most currently publishing psychologists have only a superficial understanding of methodology. Gigerenzer, Krauss and Vitouch (2004) explain some of the methodological shortcomings and mistakes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of us once had a student who ran an experiment for his thesis. Let us call him Pogo. Pogo had an experimental group and a control group and found that the means of both groups were exactly the same. He believed it would be unscientific to simply state this result; he was anxious to do a significance test. The result of the test was that the two means did not differ significantly, which Pogo reported in his thesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 1962, Jacob Cohen reported that the experiments published in a major psychology journal had, on average, only a 50 : 50 chance of detecting a medium-sized effect if there was one. That is, the statistical power was as low as 50%. This result was widely cited, but did it change researchers’ practice? Sedlmeier and Gigerenzer (1989) checked the studies in the same journal, 24 years later, a time period that should allow for change. Yet only 2 out of 64 researchers mentioned power, and it was never estimated. Unnoticed, the average power had decreased (researchers now used alpha adjustment, which shrinks power). Thus, if there had been an effect of a medium size, the researchers would have had a better chance of finding it by throwing a coin rather than conducting their experiments. When we checked the years 2000 to 2002, with some 220 empirical articles, we finally found 9 researchers who computed the power of their tests. Forty years after Cohen, there is a first sign of change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Editors of major journals such as A. W. Melton (1962) made null hypothesis testing a neces- sary condition for the acceptance of papers and made small p-values the hallmark of excellent experimentation. The Skinnerians found themselves forced to start a new journal, the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, to publish their kind of experiments (Skinner, 1984, p. 138). Similarly, one reason for launching the Journal of Mathematical Psychology was to escape the edi- tors’ pressure to routinely perform null hypothesis testing. One of its founders, R. D. Luce (1988), called this practice a “wrongheaded view about what constituted scientific progress” and “mind- less hypothesis testing in lieu of doing good research: measuring effects, constructing substantive theories of some depth, and developing probability models and statistical procedures suited to these theories” (p. 582).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The student, the researchers, and the editors had engaged in a statistical ritual rather than sta- tistical thinking. Pogo believed that one always ought to perform a null hypothesis test, without exception. The researchers did not notice how small their statistical power was, nor did they seem to care: Power is not part of the null ritual that dominates experimental psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The articel runs on and explains what the p-value can and cannot do (read it, if you are a psychologist). I only quoted the beginning in length to show you that a methodologically savvy minority among psychologists believes that the majority of scholars publishing in their discipline &lt;strong&gt;does not know what they do&lt;/strong&gt;. They follow a &quot;ritual&quot; of blindly applying the same methods to all problems, thus hampering the progress of the discipline and reducing the value of their findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless, while widely ignored, progress has been made (see my brief remarks about different theories of measurement above).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to learn more about the development of psychology as a natural science, grab any book on the history of psychology from a nearby university library. Make sure you pick one that starts at least in the nineteenth century, but for a better understanding it is necessary to look back until Leibnitz and his contemporaries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to learn more about measurement in psychology, books such as Joel Michell's &lt;em&gt;Measurement in Psychology: A Critical History of a Methodological Concept&lt;/em&gt; provide a good introduction. I have not read any of those books and cannot recommend one. My own knowledge (and the summary given here) stems from a couse in psychometrics I took while studying psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize, &lt;strong&gt;academic psychology uses experimentation and statistical analysis because it is a natural science and adheres to the basic principles that define these disciplines&lt;/strong&gt;. The belief that the universe is probabilistic (and events are distributed and these distributions can be described through arithmetic means and such) rules most of the natural sciences today and is not unique to psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond this unifying foundation, the different fields of psychology have quite different goals and methods. For example, general psychology (including the psychology of perception) is not interested in the distribution of a trait (such as intelligence) across a population, but in understanding, for example, the principles that govern learning in all individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not true that experiments have to be performed on a group of subjects. In the psychology of perception, for example, which does not deal with interspecies differences but with the basic principles of human psychology, it is common to use only one single subject, because it is assumed that certain aspects of perception, such as trichromatic vision, are the same in all members of the population and can be investigated in any (healthy) individual. But of course this one test subject has to perform multiple trials, which are then analysed statistically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Statistical analysis and the application of mathematics to reality itself goes back to ancient times. Bakker (2003) finds predecessors of contemporary statistical concepts as far back as ancient Indian texts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In an ancient Indian story, Rtuparna estimated the number of leaves and fruit on two great branches of a spreading tree (Hacking 1975). He estimated the number on the basis of one single twig, which he multiplied by the estimated number of twigs on the branches and found a number, which after a night of counting turned out to be very close to the real number.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aristotle, in the &lt;em&gt;Nichomachean Ethics&lt;/em&gt; calculated the mean as &quot;a point equally distant from either extreme&quot;, and this was developed further by Ticho Brahe and others until Legendre introduced the least squares method, that we use today, in 1805.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to know about the history of statistics, that is beyond the scope of this site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The answer to your question in detail&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why group level statistics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because there is no other way of measurement. As a physicist you know that every measurement is a sample from a population. If, for example, you measure weight, each measurement of the same weight will be different, if your scale is sensitive enough. You will then calculate the distribution and its characteristics (mean, slope, range etc.) to describe that distribution. If you do only one measurement, then that is because the differences are negligible for your purpose (e.g. human body weight) or measurement is too expensive and time consuming.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Since when group level statistics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ancient Indian example shows that group level statistics has been done since the dawn of time: a representative sample of leaves where drawn from a tree to understand the whole population of leaves. Of course that Indian &quot;mathematician's&quot; estimations where primitive, since the relevant mathematics hadn't been invented yet. The arithmetic mean was defined as late as 1805. But the basic idea and principles are identical to ours: estimate the properties of a population from a representative sample.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why group level statistics in psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason is not a psychological but a methodological one, and it is given in the quote by Guilford: It is the dominating belief of our culture that a true science must employ mathematics. So as soon as psychology was created as a separate scientific discipline, it &lt;em&gt;had to&lt;/em&gt; use statistics. Otherwise it would have remained an area of speculation, in the eyes of the scientific community.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Since when did psychology employ group level statistics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Building on the groundbreaking work of Ernst Heinrich Weber, &lt;strong&gt;Gustav Fechner defined the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_threshold&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;absolute threshold&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; as the statistical mean of all threshold values in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysics#Method_of_limits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;method of limits&lt;/a&gt; in his work &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://archive.org/details/elementederpsych001fech&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Elemente der Psychophysik&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (1860)&lt;/strong&gt;. Fechner also developed the notion of the median (in 1878).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But my answer describes that the use of mathematical methods in psychology was not so much a singular event that affected the rest of the science like an explosion, but a gradual process that happened as psychology was slowly detached from philosophy and grew into a natural science from around 1800 to around 1950, when the process was largely finished (with Stevens' publication).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And again, you must understand that the theory of measurement – and even statistics itself! – was in development in all of the natural sciences at the same time. For example, the arithmetic mean was defined in 1805, Legendre published the least squares method in the same year, and Gauss defined the normal distribution and maximum-likelihood estimation in 1809. This ongoing development was why the British committee on measurement was set up in 1932: because no satisfying theory of measurement had been created until then!&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why the popularity of the mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because most psychologists don't understand statistics well enough to do more than that.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why population average instead of effects that are present in every single individual in the population, or a specific sub-population?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You obviously did not read a lot of psychological texts. The field of general psychology focusses on effects that are present in every single individual and often does experiments of one proband. Only the field of differential psychology explores the distribution of traits among the population. Other fields look at sub-populations (e.g. children or old people, psychiatric patients, workers of a certain occupation, and so on).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the history of psychology, the first studies (all through the 1800s) explored general psychology: perception, cognitition, memory. Beginning around 1900, differential psychology began first with the measurement of intelligence, and then the study of medical psychology in psychiatric patients. Around the First World War occupational psychology began to study work behaviour and pedagogical psychology began to apply the findings to the training of future workers and soldiers. Workers and soldiers are groups, so there is also an economic and political reason for group-focussed psychology. Advertising and Human Resources are still today the largest areas of psychology beside clinical psychology, which partially explains the continuing focus on population based studies.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, of course there are scholars that employ a more refined statistics and do not focus on the mean so much, and there are scholars that believe there are aspects of human psychology that are not covered by a statistical approach. If you are interested in them, go deeper into psychology or create your own alternative methodology that represents what &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; believe about the human psyche.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;All of this is of course my personal opinion. I am no historian of psychology and do not have the overview to judge the correctness of my interpretation. I used the small sample of publications that my professor for methodology provided and that I hope is representative. From this sample, I&lt;/em&gt; estimated &lt;em&gt;the history of psychology, and my estimation may, of course, be wrong.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bakker, A. (2003). The early history of average values and implications for education. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Statistics Education, 11&lt;/em&gt;(1), 17-26.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fechner, G. Th. (1860). &lt;em&gt;Elemente der Psychophysik [Elements of Psychophysics]&lt;/em&gt;. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gigerenzer, G., Krauss, S., &amp;amp; Vitouch, O. (2004). The null ritual. &lt;em&gt;The Sage book of quantitative methodology for the social sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 391-408.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Guilford, J. P. (1936). &lt;em&gt;Psychometric Methods&lt;/em&gt;. New York: McGraw-Hill.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Helmholtz, H. (1887). Zählen und Messen erkenntnistheoretisch betrachtet. In &lt;em&gt;Philosophische Aufsätze Eduard Zeller zu seinem fünfzigjährigen Doctor-Jubiläum gewidmet&lt;/em&gt;. Leipzig: Fues.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hölder, O. (1901). Die Axiome der Quantität und die Lehre vom Mass&quot;. &lt;em&gt;Berichte über die Verhandlungen der Koeniglich Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Mathematisch-Physikaliche Klasse, 53&lt;/em&gt;, 1–46.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Krantz, D.H., Luce, R.D., Suppes, P. &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1971). &lt;em&gt;Foundation of measurement. Vol. I. Additive and polynomial representations&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Academic Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Luce, R.D., Krantz, D.H., Suppes, P. &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1990). &lt;em&gt;Foundation of measurement. Vol. III. Representation, axiomatization, and invariance&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Academic Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Roberts, F.S. (1979). &lt;em&gt;Measurement theory with applications to decisionmaking, utility, and the social sciences&lt;/em&gt;. Reading: Addison-Wesley.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stevens, S. S. (1946). On the theory of scales of measurement. &lt;em&gt;Science, 103&lt;/em&gt;, 667-680.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Suppes, P., Krantz, D.H., Luce, R.D. &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1989). &lt;em&gt;Foundation of measurement. Vol. II. Geometrical, threshold, and probabilistic representations&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Academic Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-09-01T07:50:52.577" LastActivityDate="2014-09-01T07:50:52.577" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8098" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8100" CreationDate="2014-08-31T12:46:07.737" Score="4" ViewCount="325" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have run an experiment on consonance-dissonance evaluation of musical intervals on 40 individuals using all the possible intervals from 3 registers (plus their inversions), and I want to apply a multidimensional scale analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My problem is that the stress plot indicates the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/h56di.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;stress plot 8dim&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess it would not be desirable to limit my analysis to 2 or 3 dimensions since the stress is high at these points, but I am not sure if adding dimensions helps either. Is there an optimal number of dimensions that I should consider, or should I follow the stress curve wherever it may take me?&#xA;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-31T19:46:25.113" LastActivityDate="2014-09-01T01:49:07.007" Title="Optimal number of dimensions in multidimensional scaling" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;psychoacoustics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8099" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-08-31T19:36:14.307" Score="3" ViewCount="241" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a neurological component to selfishness? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Awhile back, I witnessed a mentally retarded person who was severely possessive of a water fountain, claiming it was &quot;his&quot;.  &lt;br&gt;&#xA;I've also seen toddlers exhibit this same behavior. &lt;br&gt; Is this a form of arrested development?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6544" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-08-31T20:13:17.270" LastActivityDate="2014-09-08T00:21:11.520" Title="Neurological basis of selfishness?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8100" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8098" CreationDate="2014-09-01T01:49:07.007" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I guess it depends on your purpose. If you are doing the MDS for more heuristic purposes, then often two dimensions (or possibly three) will provide the greatest visual insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, my sense from looking at your dimension by stress plot is that the greatest gains are attained when going from one to two dimensions, that the gain from two to three dimensions is still substantial, but after that there are minimal gains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-09-01T01:49:07.007" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8099" CreationDate="2014-09-01T02:26:04.650" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure how constructive it is to think of it in terms of &quot;components&quot;, because there are so many that contribute to selfishness: for example, you only feel your body's pain.  Food and sex only feel good to you when you're the one experiencing them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, it might be more constructive to look for components of selflessness and altruism, them being the exception.  And that, according to some, lies in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kin_selection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;kin selection&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-09-01T02:26:04.650" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8104" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4051" CreationDate="2014-09-01T13:10:50.097" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The adverse effects of meditation as reported in scientific studies are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;relaxation-induced anxiety and panic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;paradoxical increases in tension&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;less motivation in life&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;boredom&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;pain&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;impaired reality testing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;confusion and disorientation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;feeling 'spaced out'&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;depression&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;increased negativity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;being more judgmental&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;feeling addicted to meditation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;uncomfortable kinaesthetic sensations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;mild dissociation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;feelings of guilt&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;psychosis-like symptoms&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;grandiosity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;elation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;destructive behavior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;suicidal feelings&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;defenselessness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;fear&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;anger&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;apprehension&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;despair&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;increased false-memory susceptibility&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, anecdotal evidence suggests that meditation can worsen symptoms of some psychiatric problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Study from 1992:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1428622&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1428622&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Adverse effects of meditation: a preliminary investigation of&#xA;  long-term meditators, by Shapiro DH Jr.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, California College of Medicine, University of California, Irvine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Abstract&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Adverse effects of meditation were assessed in twenty-seven long term&#xA;  meditators (average 4.27 years) both retrospectively (time one) and&#xA;  prospectively at one month (time two) and six months (time three)&#xA;  following a meditation retreat. At both time one and time three&#xA;  subjects reported significantly more positive effects than negative&#xA;  from meditation. However, of the twenty-seven subjects, seventeen&#xA;  (62.9%) reported at least one adverse effect, and two (7.4%) suffered&#xA;  profound adverse effects. When subjects at time one were divided into&#xA;  three groups based on length of practice (16.7 months; 47.1 months;&#xA;  105 months) there were no significant differences in adverse effects.&#xA;  How the data should be interpreted, and their implications both for&#xA;  the clinical and psychotherapeutic use of meditation as a&#xA;  relaxation/self-control strategy, and as a technique for facilitating&#xA;  personal and spiritual growth, are discussed. Limitations of the study&#xA;  and suggestions for future research are also offered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meta-analysis from 2000:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Meditation: concepts, effects and uses in therapy by Alberto&#xA;  Perez-De-Albeniz and Jeremy Holmes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;International Journal of Psychotherapy, Mar2000, Vol. 5 Issue 1,&#xA;  p49, 10p&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Abstract: This article reviews 75 scientific selected articles in the&#xA;  field of meditation, including Transcendental Meditation among others.&#xA;  It summarizes definitions of meditation, psychological and physiological&#xA;  changes, and negative side-effects encountered by 62.9% of meditators&#xA;  studied. While the authors did not restrict their study to TM, the&#xA;  side-effects reported were similar to those found in the &quot;German&#xA;  Study&quot; of Transcendental Meditators: relaxation-induced anxiety and&#xA;  panic; paradoxical increases in tension; less motivation in life;&#xA;  boredom; pain; impaired reality testing; confusion and disorientation;&#xA;  feeling 'spaced out'; depression; increased negativity; being more&#xA;  judgmental; feeling addicted to meditation; uncomfortable kinaesthetic&#xA;  sensations; mild dissociation; feelings of guilt; psychosis-like&#xA;  symptoms; grandiosity; elation; destructive behavior; suicidal&#xA;  feelings; defenselessness; fear; anger; apprehension; and despair.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;New study shows increase in cortisol reactivity (a biological marker of stress): &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24767614&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24767614&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The present study provides an initial indication that brief&#xA;  mindfulness meditation training buffers self-reported psychological&#xA;  stress reactivity, but also increases cortisol reactivity to social&#xA;  evaluative stress. This pattern may indicate that initially brief&#xA;  mindfulness meditation training fosters greater active coping efforts,&#xA;  resulting in reduced psychological stress appraisals and greater&#xA;  cortisol reactivity during social evaluative stressors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another new study shows increased susceptibility to false memories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/26/10/1567&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/26/10/1567&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Increased False-Memory Susceptibility After Mindfulness Meditation by Brent M. Wilson, Laura Mickes, Stephanie Stolarz-Fantino, Matthew Evrard and Edmund Fantino in Psychololgical Science&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Abstract&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The effect of mindfulness meditation on false-memory susceptibility&#xA;  was examined in three experiments. Because mindfulness meditation&#xA;  encourages judgment-free thoughts and feelings, we predicted that&#xA;  participants in the mindfulness condition would be especially likely&#xA;  to form false memories. In two experiments, participants were randomly&#xA;  assigned to either a mindfulness induction, in which they were&#xA;  instructed to focus attention on their breathing, or a mind-wandering&#xA;  induction, in which they were instructed to think about whatever came&#xA;  to mind. The overall number of words from the Deese-Roediger-McDermott&#xA;  paradigm that were correctly recalled did not differ between&#xA;  conditions. However, participants in the mindfulness condition were&#xA;  significantly more likely to report critical nonstudied items than&#xA;  participants in the control condition. In a third experiment, which&#xA;  tested recognition and used a reality-monitoring paradigm,&#xA;  participants had reduced reality-monitoring accuracy after completing&#xA;  the mindfulness induction. These results demonstrate a potential&#xA;  unintended consequence of mindfulness meditation in which memories&#xA;  become less reliable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Official recommendations in the US:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://nccam.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm#sideeffects&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://nccam.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm#sideeffects&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Side Effects and Risks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Meditation is considered to be safe for healthy people. There have&#xA;  been rare reports that meditation could cause or worsen symptoms in&#xA;  people who have certain psychiatric problems, but this question has&#xA;  not been fully researched. People with physical limitations may not be&#xA;  able to participate in certain meditative practices involving physical&#xA;  movement. Individuals with existing mental or physical health&#xA;  conditions should speak with their health care providers prior to&#xA;  starting a meditative practice and make their meditation instructor&#xA;  aware of their condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6657" LastEditorUserId="6657" LastEditDate="2015-11-09T10:09:29.847" LastActivityDate="2015-11-09T10:09:29.847" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8105" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8109" CreationDate="2014-09-01T19:45:21.097" Score="9" ViewCount="2994" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't understand why people commit suicide. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I imagine myself in a really bad situation and make a list of what kind of things I would do in that situation, I don't have suicide even in my top-100 things to do in my list! In the worst situation I would abandon everything and go on a trip!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why do people not just throw away everything instead of committing suicide?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6660" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2014-09-04T08:11:20.987" LastActivityDate="2020-02-02T15:06:41.193" Title="Why do people commit suicide?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8107" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8105" CreationDate="2014-09-01T21:40:39.737" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;The truth is that &lt;em&gt;very few people&lt;/em&gt; who haven't seriously contemplated suicide, or who haven't dealt extensively with many people who have, really understand it. They will, like you, not figure it out, thinking there are so many other options available to them. It is even more puzzling when wealthy people, who have so many more options than most, do so, while hungry homeless people hang on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are serious about the answer, I recommend reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://hyperboleandahalf.blogspot.com/2013/05/depression-part-two.html&quot;&gt;this blog post&lt;/a&gt; for a quick and accurate cartoon version of one person's deep depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the US (where I live), suicide is the third leading cause of death for adolescents 15 to 19 years old.&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt; From 1999 to 2010, the age-adjusted suicide rate for adults aged 35–64 years in the United States increased significantly by 28.4%, from 13.7 to 17.6 per 100,000 population.&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt; There are ~35,000 known suicides/year (and likely more undiscovered.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;J.John Mann MD, a leading researcher in the neurobiology of suicide (trained in Psychiatry and Internal Medicine with a Doctorate in Neurochemistry) employs functional brain imaging, neurochemistry and molecular genetics to probe the causes of mental illness and suicide. A number of abstracts of his papers are available online. His research points to problems in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex of the brain.&lt;sup&gt;[3][4]&lt;/sup&gt; A recent paper&lt;sup&gt;[5]&lt;/sup&gt; summarizes the neurobiological, environmental, genetic and familial influences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps most relevant to your question is that there seem to be prerequisites to suicide which you may never have experienced, which must include all of the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;psychological pain (a sense of being a burden to others)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;a profound sense of loneliness, alienation and isolation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;a pervasive sense of pessimism/hopelessness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;a sense of fearlessness (or impulsivity and aggression)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one is afraid of death, one will not likely commit suicide.&lt;sup&gt;[6]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pub/youth_suicide.html&quot;&gt;CDC.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6217a1.htm&quot;&gt;Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[3] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v4/n10/full/nrn1220.html&quot;&gt;Neurobiology of suicidal behaviour&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[4] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.columbia.edu/itc/hs/medical/psychmed/1_2004/neuro_suicide.pdf&quot;&gt;The Neurobiology of Suicide&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[5] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.omh.ny.gov/omhweb/savinglives/Volume2/neurobiological.html&quot;&gt;Neurobiological Aspects of Suicide&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;[6] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&amp;amp;id=29060&quot;&gt;An Interview with Thomas Joiner, Ph.D. on Why People Commit Suicide&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastEditorUserId="5104" LastEditDate="2014-09-01T22:14:53.273" LastActivityDate="2014-09-01T22:14:53.273" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8108" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7984" CreationDate="2014-09-02T02:38:17.330" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that you focus this question in the wrong way. There is no place in the brain where the &quot;instructions&quot; are stored. The brain don't need &quot;know&quot; how it works to work. The way in that the brain works is an emergence from the structure and the biological dynamics. All of this is based in all the layers of biological computation (genetic/molecular/cellular/organ/...) and the interaction with the environment. So there is no a particular place, if you want to discover how the brain works you must to study all the system.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually we can built iterative process that show complex behaviors but the laws that control this behavior is implicit and is not stored in the result. See The game of the life. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6591" LastEditorUserId="6591" LastEditDate="2014-09-05T00:04:27.573" LastActivityDate="2014-09-05T00:04:27.573" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8109" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8105" CreationDate="2014-09-02T09:03:31.687" Score="23" Body="&lt;h3&gt;People who kill themselves usually believe that they are in an unbearable situation from which they cannot escape and that things won't ever get better.&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with research into the reasons for suicide is that those that successfuly killed themselves can no longer explain their motives, and those that survived might – consciously or unconsciously – have planned not to die, so their motivations might not be motivations to die but motivations to affect others or to relieve tension (similar to non-suicidal self-injury).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A close friend who only accidentally survived a suicide attempt (because, not being a physician or apothecary, she had unknowingly chosen sleeping pills that cannot kill you, no matter how many you take) had been abused as a child, consequently lost all self-worth, felt she would never experience love and happiness, and finally tried to end her misery when she was 21. Her survival was followed by another, successful, suicide, which to me shows that her first attempt was earnest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the only person I know who wanted to die and told me her reasons, between the two attempts. More abstractly, her reason was the one stated at the beginning of my answer: not simple depression or hopelessness. We all go through such phases, but we know they pass, so we bear them and wait for better times. This person had been depressed and miserable for so long, that she could no longer imagine things changeing for the better. Unable to bear the idea of having to endure another eighty years of unhappiness, she ended it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some research into reasons for suicide, which, as far as I know, does not emphasise this point and thus fails to explain why some people kill themselves in a moment of hopelessness, while others don't. For example, Brown, Comtois and Linehan (2002) interviewed women who attempted suicide and compared their motivations to women who performed non-suicidal self-injury. Their abstract summarizes (my emphasis):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, reasons given for suicide attempts differed from reasons for nonsuicidal self-injury. Nonsuicidal acts were more often reported as intended to express anger, punish oneself, generate normal feelings, and distract oneself, whereas suicide attempts were more often reported as &lt;strong&gt;intended to make others better off&lt;/strong&gt;. Almost all participants reported that both types of parasuicide were intended to relieve negative emotions. It is likely that suicidal and nonsuicidal parasuicide have multiple intents and functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some old people who ask physicians for assisted suicide report that they don't want to burden their families. I think it is a true reason for some people, while others would probably rather want to live, &lt;em&gt;if they could stop being debilitated by old age&lt;/em&gt;. Again, the underlying reason is that these people feel they cannot change their situation to the better. Borderline women might feel the same, since their emotional instability, inability to have functioning relationships, fear and depression, are not momentary but have usually been there for all their adult lives, often as effects of some trauma such as childhood abuse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adolescents, who are often thought to be more self-centered and less socially concerned in their motives than old people, also report more self-centered reasons to kill themselves. In their study of adolescent suicide, Boergers, Spirito and Donaldson (1998, my emphasis) found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consistent with prior research, the most frequently endorsed motives for self-harm were &lt;strong&gt;to die, to escape, and to obtain relief&lt;/strong&gt;. More manipulative reasons for overdose (such as making people sorry) were endorsed less frequently. Adolescents who cited death as a reason for their suicide attempt reported &lt;strong&gt;more hopelessness, socially prescribed perfectionism, depression, and anger expression&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the restriction that we don't know who of the suicide attempters really wanted to die, nevertheless for most of them the primary reason was to end a life they had no hope of changing to the better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because what does it mean that you feel you are not perfect enough? For adolescents it usually means that you feel you are so ugly no one will ever love you, or that you are introverted and cannot make friends and have been outside the ingroup for so long that you no longer believe that anyone will ever love you. It does not matter if other, less pretty people, can be happy, or if other loners can make loner friends, the important aspect is that you feel you are not good enough to be loved by those that you want to love you and that nothing you ever do (makeup, bringing home good marks) can change that, because in truth, for example, it is not actually you who are unlovable but your parents who are unable to love you because of their own mental disorders (and that is how some of them are passed on through the generations).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studying &lt;em&gt;successful suicides&lt;/em&gt;, Cavanagh, Carson, Sharpe and Lawrie (2003) found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;mental disorder was the most strongly associated variable of those that have been studied. ... Suicide prevention strategies may be most effective if focused on the treatment of mental disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is of course a very global result, but it shows that people don't usually kill themselves because they experience dire circumstances or a bad phase in their lives, but only if &lt;em&gt;their long term mental well-being is destroyed&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Linehan, Goodstein, Nielsen and Chiles (1983) have studied the reasons why people do &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; kill themselves. The primary reasons for living, if suicide was contemplated, were:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Survival and Coping Beliefs, Responsibility to Family, Child-Related Concerns, Fear of Suicide, Fear of Social Disapproval, and Moral Objections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides fear (of dying and death and the judgment of God and men) and responsibility for family and children, the main reason to keep people alive was their &lt;strong&gt;belief that they could survive and cope&lt;/strong&gt;! If we turn this around, the main reason to die (besides having no responsibility and not being afraid, or overcoming those concerns) is the belief of &lt;strong&gt;not being able to cope&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What makes you kill yourself, in sum, is that you can no longer take it and believe you cannot change it. Very simple – and horribly tragic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Boergers, J., Spirito, A., &amp;amp; Donaldson, D. (1998). Reasons for adolescent suicide attempts: Associations with psychological functioning. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the American Academy of Child &amp;amp; Adolescent Psychiatry, 37&lt;/em&gt;(12), 1287-1293.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brown, M. Z., Comtois, K. A., &amp;amp; Linehan, M. M. (2002). Reasons for suicide attempts and nonsuicidal self-injury in women with borderline personality disorder. &lt;em&gt;Journal of abnormal psychology, 111&lt;/em&gt;(1), 198.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cavanagh, J. T., Carson, A. J., Sharpe, M., &amp;amp; Lawrie, S. M. (2003). Psychological autopsy studies of suicide: a systematic review. Psychological medicine, 33(03), 395-405.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Linehan, M. M., Goodstein, J. L., Nielsen, S. L., &amp;amp; Chiles, J. A. (1983). Reasons for staying alive when you are thinking of killing yourself: the reasons for living inventory. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 51(2), 276.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-03-07T20:00:55.010" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8110" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7928" CreationDate="2014-09-02T10:31:53.130" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found one! &lt;a href=&quot;http://straight-street.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://straight-street.org/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those pictos have a &lt;a href=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Creative Commons BY-SA&lt;/a&gt; license.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6452" LastActivityDate="2014-09-02T10:31:53.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8111" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-02T14:22:34.853" Score="2" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that the field is very broad, but I'm trying to arrive at a better idea of how different disciplines use the word &quot;data&quot;.  For example, for computers it is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the quantities, characters, or symbols on which operations are&#xA;  performed by a computer, which may be stored and transmitted in the&#xA;  form of electrical signals and recorded on magnetic, optical, or&#xA;  mechanical recording media.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the same cannot be always so for data in the cognitive sciences. Can you give some examples of data in your research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6493" LastActivityDate="2014-09-04T19:48:24.220" Title="What sort of things are considered as &quot;data&quot; in cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8112" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8111" CreationDate="2014-09-03T01:20:06.387" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Data could be defined like: &lt;strong&gt;Information stored and obtained by a method&lt;/strong&gt;. The information could be a way to measure the status of a system in a moment or across the time. Why I used the terms &quot;stored&quot; and &quot;methods&quot;, because the information could be under the influence of the technology used to save it and the measure method also affect to the reality. &lt;strong&gt;This stuff made data a representation of the reality.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Cognitive Science data could be any representation of the reality (Mainly behaviors and brain-derived information) that help us to understand the animal cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6591" LastActivityDate="2014-09-03T01:20:06.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8114" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8115" CreationDate="2014-09-03T13:36:51.913" Score="1" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see many children that do (at times) not listen to their parents, or even do the complete opposite of what other people want them to do. That while the social environment supports them (with positive feedback on positive behaviour and possibly negative feedback on negative behaviour) to do what they are told.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we know the main drivers for why kids (at times) do not do what they are told to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it their drive for freedom and autonomy? Attention? Something else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3685" LastActivityDate="2018-03-28T12:22:36.033" Title="Why do children sometimes not do what they are told, even though their environment supports them fully to do so?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8115" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8114" CreationDate="2014-09-03T14:55:59.647" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Children go through many phases of independence to detach from their parents.  The most (in)famous is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brighthorizons.com/family-resources/e-family-news/2014-toddlers-and-twos-the-no-stage&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;no&quot; stage&lt;/a&gt; (around 2 years old).  But they also get to a point where they actively do things that get a reaction.  There are two major incentives: one, it gets them attention on demand, and two, it establishes some power for them in the relationship.  Many parents reply with bribes, which validates the power struggle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a good thing; by the time they are teenagers, a lot of what they do will be with their peer group and if they've gotten some practice, they'll be able to establish more favorable positions in power relationships with their peers.  If they're punished for questioning authority, they might form the habit of following authority without question, and once an authority has been established in their peer group, they won't question or challenge their decisions for the group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-28T12:22:36.033" LastActivityDate="2018-03-28T12:22:36.033" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8116" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3982" CreationDate="2014-09-03T15:14:54.707" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, Psychforums.com is by far the best place to post online studies, but your school/university needs to establish a partnership with them first. Best is to speak with  your professor or someone responsible for your Psychology department in order to have that partnership in place, which is in fact really easy (see the post before). Once done, all the students/researchers/professors of your school will be able to post there, so it's not on a per-study basis. Also, your study can be exposed in 3 specific forums.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with the other places is that it's focusing on online studies, so only people searching specifically for online studies will found them, and you also only get participants interested in cash reward, which I suspect change results, as it drags in people that might not be interested in your online study at all. On Psychforums you can have very specific targeted audience as well as a very general audience depending on which forum you ask to be exposed to, and those participants are not coming to Psychforums initially to participate in a study. Of course it depends on your study, but in my personal experience, I got more than 50 participants in a week, while all the other places I've posted brought me less than 5 participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6672" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-09-03T18:43:21.543" LastActivityDate="2014-09-03T18:43:21.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8117" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8121" CreationDate="2014-09-03T15:58:35.417" Score="11" ViewCount="4339" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm starting some EEG studies on attention, and would really like to use R for preprocessing (filtering/artifact rejection), visualization, and analysis, but I can find very little in the way of tools. If there isn't a standalone package, what packages might be useful? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Things I want to do:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Condition categorization according to events, and comparing all subsequent analyses by condition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Power spectral density in specific frequency bands (SMR, theta, beta, alpha, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Event-related potentials&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;LORETA (low-resolution electromagnetic tomography)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="25157" LastEditDate="2020-08-13T21:38:26.463" LastActivityDate="2020-09-21T14:22:40.330" Title="What tools are available for EEG analysis on the R platform?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8120" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-03T21:42:03.040" Score="6" ViewCount="1290" Body="&lt;p&gt;Extraversion is a personality trait that, as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; describes, causes people &quot;to enjoy human interactions&quot;, to be sociable, outgoing and love crowds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social anxiety disorder&lt;/a&gt; (SAD), on the other hand, causes people to fear being judged and often makes them avoid social situations, either in general or at least those aspects that would lead to the person to &quot;stand in the spotlight&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From their definitions, extraversion and SAD seem to exclude each other. It seems impossible that they can co-occur in the same person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible that an extraverted person suffers from social anxiety disorder?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6674" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-11-21T09:57:43.900" LastActivityDate="2015-08-16T13:09:39.623" Title="Can an extravert suffer from social anxiety disorder?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8121" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8117" CreationDate="2014-09-03T22:27:15.870" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Antoine Tremblay has just released an advanced analysis toolbox: &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/psyp.12299/abstract&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/psyp.12299/abstract&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's missing about half the features on your list, although fundamentally, spectral density is a simple task and LORETA is a stand-alone package anyways (although similar approaches, e.g. general CSD estimation, are implemented in many packages). Basically, once you got the EEG data read into R and cleaned of artifacts, ERPs (simple averaging) and spectra are fairly basic tasks and LORETA is an external toolbox agnostic of where it's getting its data from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, I would propose to use either one of the two standard MATLAB-based solutions (EEGLAB or Fieldtrip), or MNE in one of its iterations (e.g. the one in Python). All of these will handle the tasks you're talking about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2014-09-03T22:27:15.870" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8123" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6563" CreationDate="2014-09-04T00:31:24.683" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the context of evolution, desires and dreams (beyond the lower tier of Maslow's Hierarchy) could be seen as, not an adaptation, but a spandrel of the adaptation of consciousness.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consciousness allows us higher cognitive skills, particularly the ability to reflect on events and predict events through modelling, which allows us to modify our behavior in a succesful way.   But this extra predictive power also gives us an imagination with which we can imagine ourselves in a better position to exploit our dopamine centers (seek pleasurable activities that don't propagate the species). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-09-04T00:31:24.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8124" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8120" CreationDate="2014-09-04T04:59:18.760" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's pretty difficult to imagine a person with Social Anxiety Disorder being an extrovert.  The symptoms of SAD include &lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Intense fear of interacting with strangers and of being judged&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Worrying about embarrassing or humiliating yourself or that others think that you look anxious&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Anxiety that disrupts your daily routine, work, school or other activities&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Avoiding doing things or speaking to people out of fear of embarrassment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Avoiding situations where you might be the center of attention&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Difficulty making eye contact or talking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Signs and symptoms include blushing, sweating, trembling or shaking, fast heartbeat, upset stomach, nausea, shaky voice, muscle tension, confusion, diarrhea, and cold, clammy hands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extroverts, on the other hand, usually don't have any problems with the above situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Introversion and extroversion are not either/or, but exist on a continuum. One can have attributes of both, and empathy with both. SAD is not on this continuum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/social-anxiety-disorder/basics/symptoms/con-20032524&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mayo Clinic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-09-04T04:59:18.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8127" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1022" CreationDate="2014-09-04T11:31:49.183" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say 'Herd mentality' or 'Conformity' comes close.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, I think it is important to note that 'thinking logical' is a pretty ambiguous term in itself. Everybody has their own image of what is logical and what is not, but that image is mainly formed by what others tell you what's 'normal'. People's opinions and actions are much less based on logic than you might think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.lucs.lu.se/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Asch-1955-Opinions-and-Social-Pressure.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Solomon Asch's experiments&lt;/a&gt; found that 74% of their tested individuals would choose an obviously incorrect answer if a group (3 or more people) would choose that incorrect answer as well. And this was the case in something simple like matching the length of some sticks. Imagine what could happen when we are confronted with more complex choices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So befóre you take any action, you look around to see what others think or do, and it might very well be that you will do what they do because it seems more 'logical' that yóu make an error in reasoning than that áll the others made a mistake in their reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, áfter the fact, people have a great tendency to justify everything they have done as if it was a good thing. This is caused by what we call &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.mst.edu/~psyworld/general/dissonance/dissonance.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;'cognitive dissonance' (Festinger, 1957)&lt;/a&gt;, or the tendency to preserve a stable, positive self-image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g. once somebody has murdered somebody he has two choices: regret or justify himself by saying the person deserved it etc. Justifying yourself is often a lot easier than feeling regret, even more so when your social environment (e.g. the Nazi party) steers you towards justification rather than towards regret. And that again paves the road for identical actions in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the answers on SE, I'm not sure if that has to do with Conformity (it is not as if other people see that you upvote or downvote an answer), but it might be based on wanting to stimulate the pro users into keep giving great answers (even though that one particular answer might be worse than usual) or wanting to stimulate the pro user into improving his answer, because you know he can produce great answers, because you know he did that in the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3685" LastEditorUserId="3685" LastEditDate="2018-05-07T08:50:11.783" LastActivityDate="2018-05-07T08:50:11.783" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8128" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8111" CreationDate="2014-09-04T14:09:36.087" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Really, there's two kinds of data in cognitive science, &lt;strong&gt;information&lt;/strong&gt; (the data used by the cognitive systems we're interested in), and &lt;strong&gt;experimental data&lt;/strong&gt; (and similar, such as correlational data), which we collect and analyse to try and better understand cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It sounds like your question is about information, so I'll focus on that, but please correct me if that's not what you meant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The Computational Approach&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most cognitive scientists, from the 1960s onwards, explicitly or implicitly accept what's referred to as the &quot;computational theory of mind&quot;, which says the purpose of a brain, or any other cognitive system, is to processes information, in much the same way as a computer does. From this point of view your &quot;data&quot; are &lt;strong&gt;neural representations&lt;/strong&gt; of just what you talk about in computer science, with patterns of neural activation representing logical symbolic states, which are manipulated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Alternative Approaches&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Connectionism&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An extremely influential counterpart to this &quot;brain as computer&quot; approach is the the Connectionist, or &quot;parallel distributed processing&quot; approach.&#xA;Here, the brain still represents information in patterns of neural activation,&#xA;but rather than using &quot;symbols&quot; as you would in a digital computer,&#xA;sub-symbollic features of the world around us are represented by&#xA;various overlapping patterns across nodes of neurons,&#xA;in a way first proposed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.minicomplexity.org/pubs/1943-mcculloch-pitts-bmb.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;McCulloch and Pits (1943)&lt;/a&gt;, but developed hugely since then,&#xA;and &quot;data&quot; constitutes various &lt;strong&gt;combinations of these different feature node&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Dynamical, Embodied, Situated (and beyond) approaches&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a final note, a completely different approach to cognitive science, the &quot;&lt;strong&gt;dynamical approach&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;, argues that the brain is best seen as a complex, non-linear dynamical system, with a state (pattern of firing neurons) that is constantly evolving through exposure to&#xA;the environment, and complex recurrent feedback loops (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iub.edu/~cogdev/labwork/PLM.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spivey and Dale, 2004&lt;/a&gt; give a good introduction to this).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looked at this way, the brain doesn't deal with discrete &quot;data&quot; (which, remember, is the plural of &quot;datum&quot;), but rather represents the world as continuous patterns of neural activation, connections between neurons and patterns.&#xA;Extending this notion, it has been argued, and shown experimentally, that information defined this way goes beyond what's in the brain: we can store and manipulate data using our bodies (&quot;&lt;strong&gt;embodied cognition&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;), and even our immediate environment (&lt;strong&gt;situated cognition&lt;/strong&gt;, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~johnson/COGS102B/Hutchins95.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hutchins, 1995,&lt;/a&gt; for an excellent discussion of this in the context of flying a plane). Finally, although I can't remember where, I have seen studies that claim that the same can be said for our clothes, giving rise to &quot;&lt;strong&gt;enclothed cognition&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-09-04T14:09:36.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8129" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8140" CreationDate="2014-09-04T14:15:59.903" Score="2" ViewCount="4477" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know a bunch of people that are always in deep denial (at least trying to appear so) of other people achievements. It can be another country or another group or another religion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, when you tell them, &quot;Did you hear about Mike? He just bought a Lamborghini,&quot; they have several type of answers ready for this situation, like: &quot;Who cares? Lamborghini was never good, you need to go to gas station every 15 minutes,&quot; or like, &quot;But don't you know how terrible his wife is?&quot; or, &quot;He might have stolen someone's money,&quot; etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They know they are wrong, but they say these types of things to ease their deep internal pain. You would call them some sort of jealous people, but it's not only jealousy. Sometimes when you tell them things like, &quot;Did you see the recent car Germany just built? It just runs on salt water!&quot; They come back with sentences like, &quot;Whatever, I would die rather than living for a second in Germany.&quot; Everyone would be like, &quot;WHAT?&quot; But yes, they say these sort of things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what do you call these people? What's their problem? Do you have any advice to offer these people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6679" LastEditorUserId="4086" LastEditDate="2014-09-04T18:39:22.280" LastActivityDate="2019-01-01T19:23:32.270" Title="What's the term for people who deny others' achievements?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8111" CreationDate="2014-09-04T19:48:24.220" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://wwnorton.com/college/psych/personalitypuzzle6/ebook.aspx&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Personality Puzzle&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(2012)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;, David Funder describes a taxonomy of four different kinds of data  that I've always found useful. &lt;em&gt;The Personality Puzzle&lt;/em&gt; is a textbook in personality psychology, so its take on psychology is somewhat more as a social than biological science (though biology has its place too).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Briefly, here are the four kinds of data as described therein:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-reports:&lt;/strong&gt; information provided by oneself about oneself, especially subjective info to which no one would otherwise have access; e.g., attitudes, beliefs, emotions, opinions, preferences, etc. This is often the domain of the Likert scale, though that's only one of very many assessment methods.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Informant reports:&lt;/strong&gt; info provided about one person by others that is intended to describe the first person (not project info of interest about those reporting on that person). This info may also be subjective or socially constructed, but may be best operationalized as descriptions or judgments polled from people in a manner that welcomes this subjectivity. For example, a person's reputation or other characteristics may be assessed through the perspectives of others who may (or may not) know that person. Methods are otherwise similar to self-report in general.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Behavioral data:&lt;/strong&gt; strictly objective and often observed in controlled environments or otherwise collected with a repeatable, classically empirical sampling method. This includes counts, measurements, or categorizations of behaviors like lever presses, choices or performance in a game or test, reaction time, stimulus discrimination accuracy, etc. These also include observations about autonomically regulated biological processes such as results from f/MRI, PET, CAT, EEGs, EKGs, heart rate or blood pressure readings, GSR, pupil dilation, etc., even enlargement of erectile genital organs (those studies are always interesting).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Life outcomes:&lt;/strong&gt; also strictly objective, but generally less available to experimental manipulation, naturalistic, and often historical (i.e., already recorded or otherwise resolved to the state of interest). Examples include info about birth, graduation, employment, marriage, childbirth, divorce, death, etc., such as age at the time, location, partner, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4086" LastActivityDate="2014-09-04T19:48:24.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8133" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-05T04:35:27.227" Score="1" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any models of Human Cognition that do not depend on Physicalism or materialism? Could Cognition models that say 'mind' states are actually 'brain states' and that we are therefore neuro-chemical mechanisms ; could these models miss important factors like how 'behavioral algorithms' of the 'mind-brain' are organised and how they interact and how the mind-brain 'makes new 'behavioral algorithms'. What I call Behavioral Algorithms could be called 'mental programs' or 'mental software'. So are there models of Cognition that do not focus on Physicalism ( the philosophy that everything that exist has a physical basis and nothing else like  emergent qualities or something 'intangible')?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4959" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-09-05T06:14:38.380" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T08:21:55.047" Title="Are there any models of human cognition that do not depend on physicalism or materialism?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8134" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5755" CreationDate="2014-09-05T05:47:06.033" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: Mind and brain are the same system, and reading the mind is just a matter of a) knowing which brain states represent the (more abstract) 'mind' information you are trying to read, and b) being able to monitor these states with appropirate technology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long answer: what is to some extent right when he/she says that &quot;mind&quot; is not a scientifically useful term - it adds no explanatory value to our conceptions of mental function. However, since the brain is a complex biological system that can be described on many levels, it can be useful to make a distinction between the higher ones and the lower ones - the brain sciences (neuroscience, neurology, biology, biological psychology, etc.) are different enough from the mind sciences (psychology, cognitive science, etc.). The main way in which they are different is that they describe cognition on a more abstract level - the properties that psychology describes emerge from the underlying biological structure. So, in a practical sense, it may be useful to keep the term &quot;mind&quot; to describe these higher-level sciences. Furthermore, one could argue the so-called &quot;dual-aspect monism&quot; position - mind and brain are (obviously) the exact same system, but one can view them from two different perspectives - objectively and subjectively. Scientists who study the brains of bats, for example, will never &lt;em&gt;feel&lt;/em&gt; what it is like to be a bat. This is the reason some researchers say we should correlate objective data with subjective data for a complete pictures of how the brain works. For a theoretical overview of how such a position fits into brain science, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.igpp.de/english/tda/pdf/dualaspect.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.igpp.de/english/tda/pdf/dualaspect.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastEditorDisplayName="user6682" LastEditDate="2014-09-05T10:15:03.650" LastActivityDate="2014-09-05T10:15:03.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8135" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7984" CreationDate="2014-09-05T10:29:14.177" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally speaking, Kato's answer is good. I'd like to add that there is a fascinating way in which the brain understands other brains - also called mindreading or theory of mind (the basis for empathy). This process is heavily reliant on the sensory modalities. When you put yourself in someone else's shoes, your brain attempts to imagine their experiences (including their emotions). This consists of a reactivation of various aspects of your own previous sensory experiences, in an attempt to simulate their state of mind. The brain does this all the time, but especially when it is trying to understand other brains. Of course, this isn't the only mechanism at work - more logical modes of thought probably also play a role. For a discussion of this, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ianapperly.eclipse.co.uk/Apperly%20ST%20TT%20Final%20version.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ianapperly.eclipse.co.uk/Apperly%20ST%20TT%20Final%20version.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-05T10:29:14.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8137" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6282" CreationDate="2014-09-05T11:02:22.013" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the title and the example given described 2 slightly different situations, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Answering strictly from the title:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also believe that &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/socialinfluence/f/conformity.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conformity&lt;/a&gt; is what you are looking for, or more specifically &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/conformity.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;normative conformity&lt;/a&gt;, in relation to the &quot;odd one out&quot; feeling that you mentioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Closely related to conformity, Groupthink may also explains the phenomenon, which stated that an individual might suppresses a dissenting/opposing opinion to keep the peace &amp;amp; harmony of a group, though it's more commonly explained in group decision-making situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, Group Polarization mainly refers to group phenomenon where a group tend to take a more extreme decisions than the initial inclinations of its members. Meaning that such decisions are less likely to be taken in individual situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, answering from the given example is a little bit harder because it depends on what made them not wanting to voice their opinion (that they hated the food).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it's purely because none of them wanted to go against the others opinions, then it's conformity/groupthink as stated above. But how can one go against others opinion when their opinion is one and the same? I would argue that they don't necessarily know that all of them have the same opinion, instead it's very plausible that a few misreading of body-language, or some misunderstood comments would make someone thinks that everyone enjoyed the food, and thus acted accordingly, which in turn would reinforce the others to act the same way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6461" LastActivityDate="2014-09-05T11:02:22.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8138" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8099" CreationDate="2014-09-05T12:16:26.577" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Improving your self-image (having more posessions, looking better, and all the other components of selfishness) probably engages various subcortical emotional circuits involving the amygdala, hypothalamus, and so on. This is where basic drives are also implemented. This is by far not a disorder, nor necessarily a subject for neurology! Selfishness, in moderation, helps you improve yourself (and the genes of your successors, by picking good mates!) whilst giving you an advantage through the posessions you collect. It can also help society - some great inventions of mankind were developed because scientists wanted a discovery to be &quot;theirs&quot;. However, assuming somebody incessantly steals from others, this could be a neurological symptom where the &quot;selfishness&quot; has gone wrong - when everyone hates you it's generally maladaptive, I guess. When you constantly cling to the same object, it's probably also a sign of something gone wrong - although it might be solvable by a psychotherapist, not necessarily requiring a neurological explanation...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-05T12:16:26.577" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8139" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-05T15:27:30.867" Score="2" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a ton of neuromorhpic hardware being pumped out these days. Off the top of my head, I can name &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.research.ibm.com/cognitive-computing/neurosynaptic-chips.shtml#fbid=WCIDcTXRNC3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;IBM&lt;/a&gt; (BlueGene and TrueNorth), &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.technologyreview.com/news/520211/qualcomm-to-build-neuro-inspired-chips/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Qualcomm&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.stanford.edu/group/brainsinsilicon/neurogrid.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neurogrid&lt;/a&gt;, Brainstorm (Neurogrid 2.0), &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.artificialbrains.com/spinnaker&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spinnaker&lt;/a&gt;, (questionably) &lt;a href=&quot;http://higherintelligencebook.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Peter van der Made's chip&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.artificialbrains.com/brainscales&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BrainScaleS&lt;/a&gt;, in addition to various FPGA and VLSI implementations that I've come across.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, has there been an extensive comparison of these various hardware approaches and their usefulness/extensibility?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an example of the comparison I'm looking for, Spinnaker can run Nengo (a brain simulation software based on the NEF), while Peter's chip doesn't run software, thus I would claim that Spinnaker is more useful than Peter's. I would assume (naively) that IBMs TrueNorth chip would be somewhere in the middle, since it is programmable, but does not support learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-11-18T18:21:58.227" LastActivityDate="2014-11-18T18:21:58.227" Title="Differences between the many versions of neuromorphic hardware" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-04-20T06:50:32.027" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8140" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8129" CreationDate="2014-09-05T20:10:48.657" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Regarding &quot;What's their problem?&quot; Question,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Social Psychology recognizes the concept of construals, which are how individuals perceive, comprehend, and interpret the world around them, particularly the behavior or action of others towards themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two of the basic source/motive of construal in human beings is the need to feel good about ourselves and the need to be accurate. These two needs, however, doesn't always coincide one-another; and when they don't, it builds-up anxiety inside oneself. Leon Festinger further explained those situations as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive Dissonance&lt;/a&gt;, an uncomfortable feeling that arose from having two conflicting beliefs/ideas/values at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As stated in the linked wikipedia article, to reduce dissonance, someone may do one of these 4 things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Change behavior/cognition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Justify behavior/cognition by changing the conflicting cognition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Justify behavior/cognition by adding new cognition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Ignore/Deny any information that conflicts with existing beliefs&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your case, your information most likely triggered a cognitive dissonance for him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Caused by either an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_comparison_theory#Self-evaluation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;upward social-comparison&lt;/a&gt; process, which has been proved to be able to happen both subliminally and automatically in a study; and may resulted in negative-affect, especially for someone with low self-esteem and negative mood. i.e &quot;That makes Mike better than me&quot; or &quot;That shows how great Germans are, but I'm not German!&quot; An existing contradicting beliefs. i.e &quot;I hate Mike/Germany&quot; or &quot;I'm far richer than Mike/My country is better than Germany.&quot; Having done or still doing something which conflicted with the new information. i.e he just bragged about his brand new car, just explained how Germany is not good, just turned down an offer to live in Germany, etc. Or a combination of all three.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, to reduce the dissonance, they just changed their cognition to justify themselves (Lamborghini is not that good anyway), create a new cognition (but his wife is terrible), or simply deny (he must have stolen someone's money) or ignore (whatever, not going to live in German anyway) the information. All those strategies would be easier to employ than actually changing their own behavior (buy a better car than Lamborghini, make an even better invention) or cognition (motivate themselves to earn more money or study more)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short Answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;You indirectly arouse his anxiety, either by lowering their self-esteem by presenting a concrete and unavoidable better social comparison target; or by presenting an information which conflicts with his beliefs/ideas/values. In order to reduce that anxiety, and so making them feels good about themselves again, people will either change their behavior/cognition, make justifications, or simply ignore/deny the conflicting information/stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Really Short Answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;They are most likely trying to reduces the anxiety which was caused by your information&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6461" LastActivityDate="2014-09-05T20:10:48.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8141" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8142" CreationDate="2014-09-05T21:02:02.357" Score="7" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;Aside from obvious biological plausibility, from a computational standpoint, what's the motivation of using the Neural Engineering Framework (NEF) instead of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) for computing functions? From what I can tell, they both approximate functions, have the ability to learn new functions and the ability to create self-organizing networks. What makes the NEF different?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-06T02:38:01.383" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T02:38:30.767" Title="What's the functional difference between the NEF and normal ANNs?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8142" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8141" CreationDate="2014-09-05T21:02:02.357" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, let's take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/stewart.2012d.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the basic principles of NEF&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first two principles (Representation and Computation) do seem analogous to trained ANN models. Additionally, with the hPES learning rule that I've described &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/7782/how-does-hpes-compare-to-the-learning-rates-of-anns&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, they seem to have the same learning (gradient-descent) capabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where the NEF differentiates itself the most from ANNs is when it starts to describe dynamics (oscillators, attractors). For a description on how it does this and what it accomplishes, check out Terry Stewart's course notes found &lt;a href=&quot;http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/tcstewar/syde556/blob/master/SYDE%20556%20Lecture%205%20Dynamics.ipynb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Describing dynamics is important in the brain, since simple oscillators and integrators seem to be the foundation of many different cognitive abilities such as working memory and motor control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-06T02:38:30.767" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T02:38:30.767" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8143" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-06T13:56:55.980" Score="4" ViewCount="764" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for an old program called SPAD-T that is still used for textual analysis (especially in psychology). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anybody tell me where I can download or purchase a legal copy?  Failing that, does anyone know how I could contact the original publisher/developer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I have &lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/questions/8942/linguistics-software-spad-t&quot;&gt;cross-posted the question here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6684" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:54:11.280" LastActivityDate="2016-02-02T10:29:04.130" Title="Is the SPAD-T textual analysis software still available?" Tags="&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8145" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-06T22:08:45.110" Score="5" ViewCount="227" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a speech language pathologist. I have a 19 year old patient who grew up with a number of different speech impediments (&lt;em&gt;not a stutter&lt;/em&gt;). He was bullied a lot, and because of this he is very sensitive about how he speaks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, he has become so anxious about it he has developed a stutter. Note that stuttering was &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; one of the impediments he grew up with. He only developed it a couple of months ago because of his anxiety. He is not in a financial position to afford a psychologist, so I decided to help him with his anxiety. I know I'm not in a position to get rid of his anxiety; thats outside my scope of practice - I'm only trying to help with the manifestation of his anxiety in his speech, which is within my scope.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He blocks completely - in other words, when trying to pronounce certain words, he becomes completely silent for a couple of seconds as he tries to &quot;push&quot; the word out. Rather than the usual case of repeating the same sound over and over again, he simply becomes silent while he waits for the word to come out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His main fear is not being able to get the word out and just being completely silent while the other person is waiting for him to complete his sentence. This fear is quite justified unfortunately - most of us would be confused if a person just stopped talking and would ask him to continue. I've used CBT for a stutter before, but that was to show the patient that some of their fears (i.e. being laughed at) were irrational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I address the anxiety that stems from a fear that is relatively justified and logical?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6685" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-09-07T02:43:27.053" LastActivityDate="2019-11-12T06:36:26.550" Title="Using CBT for a justified fear?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8147" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8129" CreationDate="2014-09-07T23:47:36.740" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you were just looking for a noun (my initial interpretation of the question), the most usual to my knowledge is &quot;detractor&quot;. &quot;Disparager&quot;, &quot;vilifier&quot;, &quot;belittler&quot;, &quot;deprecator&quot;, &quot;discreditor&quot;, &quot;nay-sayer&quot; are all lexically acceptable and self-explaining, though obviously they imply different senses of the word &quot;deny&quot; (e.g. &quot;refuse to give due credit&quot; vs &quot;actively contest&quot; vs &quot;attack&quot; vs &quot;prohibit&quot; )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6689" LastActivityDate="2014-09-07T23:47:36.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8148" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8099" CreationDate="2014-09-08T00:21:11.520" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hypothalamus (mediating the four F's) septal area and amygdala (hedonic states); orbito-frontal cortex, mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway (incentive orientation), for some contributory possibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6689" LastActivityDate="2014-09-08T00:21:11.520" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8149" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7948" CreationDate="2014-09-08T01:03:16.673" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;My suggestion would be that, as with all forms of mental imagery, short-term working memory circuits are responsible for keeping dreamt images active, i.e. in consciousness. Distraction by competing perceptual representations would cause immediate disruption of one's dreamt images; without such distraction, imagery in short-term memory typically starts to rapidly fade after about 8 seconds, unless it's highly relevant to one's immediate situation on waking, and hence promptly acted on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6689" LastActivityDate="2014-09-08T01:03:16.673" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8150" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-08T04:37:01.783" Score="6" ViewCount="2936" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many professionals have said that when you're attracted to someone, you tend to fidget, run your hands through your hair, sit with your legs facing them, and that our faces light up around them, which are all actions that happen involuntarily. Why does this happen? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6692" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-09T04:04:38.697" LastActivityDate="2015-04-07T06:33:43.737" Title="Body Language: Why do we act differently around someone we're attracted to?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8151" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8150" CreationDate="2014-09-08T08:38:42.583" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally speaking, romantic love can be considered an emotional process. From an embodied perspective, emotions are to a large extent interactions with sensorimotor processes (connected to the body). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iep.utm.edu/emotion/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.iep.utm.edu/emotion/&lt;/a&gt; provides a good overview of the various emotional theories, of which the feedback theories are my favorite. The feedback theories essentially state that body states cause valenced (positive or negative) feelings in a bottom-up manner, and that cognitions (higher-order thought on a 'symbolic' level, such as appreciating someone's qualities) cause embodied reactions in a top-down manner (these are the quirky love-induced reactions you speak of). This goes on in a feedback loop. In this process, neurotransmitter systems are highly important. One of the most popular theorists out there in this area is neuroscientist Antonio Damasio - his somatic marker hypothesis is a really interesting theory: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iee.unibe.ch/unibe/philnat/biology/zoologie/content/e7493/e7854/e8920/e8926/DamasioPhilTransRSocB96.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.iee.unibe.ch/unibe/philnat/biology/zoologie/content/e7493/e7854/e8920/e8926/DamasioPhilTransRSocB96.pdf&lt;/a&gt;. (He applies it to decision making in the end, but the basic principles are all there) If you're interested, you could also read his book &quot;The Feeling of What Happens&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that these quirky little habits we have when we are nervous around someone we care about in that special way are mostly unintended side effects of a significant release of neurotransmitters (like dopamine, serotonin, etc.). These neurotransmitter systems are connected to several brain areas, but especially also to our action systems, causing us to fidget, smile, shiver, or otherwise display exceptional behavior. Of course, some of these behaviors are socially adaptive - smiling is useful to communicate that you appreciate the other person, for instance, whereas fidgeting is probably not socially useful. The reason there is such a strong release of these is that romantic attraction is a mixture of a emotions/desires which are very important to reproduction. For a light (not too academic) read about the biological basis of love, I recommend &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.de/Why-We-Love-Chemistry-Romantic/dp/0805077960&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.de/Why-We-Love-Chemistry-Romantic/dp/0805077960&lt;/a&gt;. For a condensed version in a TED talk, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/helen_fisher_studies_the_brain_in_love&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ted.com/talks/helen_fisher_studies_the_brain_in_love&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastEditorDisplayName="user6682" LastEditDate="2014-09-08T11:29:34.020" LastActivityDate="2014-09-08T11:29:34.020" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8152" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8161" CreationDate="2014-09-08T11:00:06.933" Score="8" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been digging in the literature lately, but I haven't found a nice answer  with clear cut numbers (avg +- std) to this question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How many presynaptic inputs receives a pyramidal cell in primary visual cortex (preferably in cat)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be a bit more precise here I also would like to know the following details:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Number of inputs in terms of synapses as well as number of presynaptic cells&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Depending on the layer the postsynaptic cell resides in&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Depending from where the inputs originate (afferent, horizontally recurrent, vertically recurrent etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How many total synapses vs from how many presynaptic cells these originate, i.e. average number of synapses per pre/post cell pair&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Depending on distance of presynaptic cells to the postsynaptic one&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Depending on type of input, excitatory vs. inhibitory&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I highly appreciate if you can direct me to literature listing actual numbers :-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6562" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T08:50:25.090" Title="Number of presynaptic inputs per cell in primary visual cortex" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8153" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4759" CreationDate="2014-09-08T14:52:34.987" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Auditory information is conveyed to the brain from the cochlea via the VIII cranial nerve (aka vestibulocochlear nerve). Under standard conditions the vestibular system gets activated when we move our heads. If we spin around rapidly this can obviously make us feel dizzy and nauseous. The vestibular system can also be activated do to other causes. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positional_alcohol_nystagmus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;positional alcohol nystagmus&lt;/a&gt; (aka the drunk spins) occurs due to alcohol changing the densities of the endolymph and the cupula (part of the sensory organ in the semicircular canals). It turns out that low frequency pressure waves at high enough levels can activate the sensory cells in the vestibular system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some causes of deafness and hearing loss the vestibular system remains normal, or near normal. These individuals are therefore susceptible to these feelings. Other causes of deafness destroy the vestibular system making individuals immune to these feelings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-11-27T11:45:34.413" LastActivityDate="2014-11-27T11:45:34.413" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8154" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3377" CreationDate="2014-09-08T15:00:45.847" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the only documented case of this is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Harbisson&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neil Harbisson&lt;/a&gt;. From my understanding he has a camera attached to an implanted bone vibrator and a processor unit that converts color to audible frequencies. I believe, although cannot find any references, that the implanted portion of the device is similar to a bone anchored hearing aid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-09-08T15:00:45.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8155" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1835" CreationDate="2014-09-08T15:08:46.330" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not aware of any use in using &quot;high audio frequencies&quot; in commercials, but there is a history of making commercials louder (presumably to attract attention). There are laws prohibiting increasing the loudness of commercials  (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Advertisement_Loudness_Mitigation_Act&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CALM Act&lt;/a&gt;). Increasing the loudness, without remotely adjusting the volume on the TV is not a trivial thing and potentially involves careful mixing of the audio signals as well as allowing acceptable levels of distortion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-09-08T15:08:46.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8156" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-08T17:27:13.510" Score="2" ViewCount="1061" Body="&lt;p&gt;Folk cognitive psychology has it that doing activities that remove you from your intellectual work (such as taking a shower or, like Einstein is reported to have done when it a rut, playing the violin) increases your chances of having unexpected insights. Is there a name for this phenomenon and a dedicated scientific literature for it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6480" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-09-09T03:32:40.373" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T03:32:40.373" Title="Is there any scientific literature on the &quot;shower principle&quot; (i.e., taking a break from a task leads to unexpected insights)?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8157" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8156" CreationDate="2014-09-08T17:38:07.603" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;That moment is often called the &quot;aha moment&quot;, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka_effect&quot;&gt;Eureka&lt;/a&gt; effect, or more generally, insight.  There is literature on it, but as you might expect, it is a pretty difficult thing to produce in a lab.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some references:&#xA;The AHA! experience: Creativity through emergent binding in neural networks.&#xA;Thagard, Paul; Stewart, Terrence C.. Cognitive Science35.1 (Jan-Feb 2011): 1-33.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gaining insight into the &quot;aha&quot; experience.&#xA;Topolinski, Sascha Reber, Rolf. Current Directions in Psychological Science19.6(Dec 2010): 402-405.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The aha! Moment: The cognitive neuroscience of insight.&#xA;Kounios, John; Beeman, Mark. Current Directions in Psychological Science18.4(Aug 2009): 210-216.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neural correlates of the “aha” experiences: Evidence from an fMRI study of insight problem solving.&#xA;Qiu, JiangView Profile; Li, Hong; Jou, JerwenView Profile; Liu, Jia; Luo, Yuejia; et al. Cortex: A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior46.3 (Mar 2010): 397-403.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-09-08T17:38:07.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8158" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-08T21:32:31.270" Score="4" ViewCount="679" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I understand, since we receive a lot of information every day, our brains are tasked with remembering the few important bits and ignoring (or forgetting) everything else. I also know of habituation, how we become ignorant of stimuli that repeat often and are irrelevant. I also know of the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.barcoding.com/images/rfid-rev-pyramid.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;learning pyramid&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. This is what I'm interested in: the internet, especially some parts (reddit, facebook, 9gag and so on), constantly bombards us with various &quot;facts&quot; - generally useless information. Is it possible that our brains, as a reaction to extensive internet usage, learn to ignore information that is only heard or read (we go two/three steps up on the learning pyramid)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask this because I think it was a lot easier for me to remember things a few years back (I'm 17 now), when I wasn't using the internet as much, or at all. I know you learn easier when you are younger, but I don't think I'm that old yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6700" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-09-10T05:56:21.173" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T14:08:24.183" Title="Does learning too much useless information weaken my memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8159" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8120" CreationDate="2014-09-09T06:33:02.147" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;On the surface, it does seem like social anxiety disorder and extroversion shouldn't both exist in the same person. On the other hand, anongoodnurse has already touched upon a point which leads us to a different conclusion - these traits are on different dimensions. When one takes a closer look at what the two dimensions actually mean, (especially as confirmed in latest psychological research) it seems like they can co-exist just fine, and most people probably have one or two (or many more) aquaitances with both traits (to some degree or other). anongoodnurse has already described SAD. Unlike it is traditionally assumed by the layman, the introversion-extroversion scale does not measure a social property, however. Rather, it describes to what extent a person derives rewards from stimuli - extraverts simply derive more pleasure from environmental stimuli (of any kind). [1] Recent neuroscientific research has confirmed this: modifying the neurotransmitter systems of reward/punishment (i.e. dopamine) modifies introversion/extraversion. [2] Of course, an arbitratily chosen person who derives pleasure from the environment probably also usually derives pleasure from social environments. However, this is surely not always the case - there are plenty of people in academia, for instance, who love exploring environments - just not social ones ;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Gray, Jeffrey A. &quot;The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion.&quot; Behaviour research and therapy 8.3 (1970): 249-266.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Depue, Richard A., and Yu Fu. &quot;On the nature of extraversion: variation in conditioned contextual activation of dopamine-facilitated affective, cognitive, and motor processes.&quot; Frontiers in human neuroscience 7 (2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T06:33:02.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8160" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8133" CreationDate="2014-09-09T08:21:55.047" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Algorithms can be seen as rules defined on various states of the system. Thus, there must be a mapping of the physical states to the abstract states, as well as a mapping of the physical rules/transitions to the abstract rules. David Chalmers is one of the most popular philosophers who discusses the notion of when a physical system implements an abstract computational system. [1] It seems like you are asking for theories of cognition that are truly emergent, however. These do exist - for an overview, see [2]. &lt;em&gt;&quot;Models governed by simple laws, especially models that learn, can give rise to emergent patterns that were not predicted in advance and that, even after they have been observed, may not be fully comprehended by the modeler. To what extent such patterns can or ever will be fully understood remains an open question.&quot;&lt;/em&gt; This vision of the cognitive sciences falls under the epistemological framework of explanatory pluralism - the view that properties exist on many levels, but their physical basis is the same. However, this is still physicalism - everything supervenes on the physical. [3] Furthermore, we are often required to simulate the basic rules in order to even see the emergent properties in the first place. [4] &lt;strong&gt;I think the take home message of this situation is that we can't have science without physicalism.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Chalmers, David J. &quot;A computational foundation for the study of cognition.&quot; (1993).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] McClelland, James L. &quot;Emergence in cognitive science.&quot; Topics in cognitive science 2.4 (2010): 751-770.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2009/entries/physicalism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2009/entries/physicalism/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Baker, Alan. &quot;Simulation-based definitions of emergence.&quot; Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation 13.1 (2010): 9.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T08:21:55.047" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8161" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8152" CreationDate="2014-09-09T08:50:25.090" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Very detailed estimates for almost all of your points, for cat, can be found in Binzegger, T., Douglas, R. J., &amp;amp; Martin, K. A. C. (2004). A quantitative map of the circuit of cat primary cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 24(39), 8441-8453.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T08:50:25.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8162" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8166" CreationDate="2014-09-09T08:59:12.260" Score="3" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking into several systems for improving learning speeds and ran into a question I seem unable to answer on my own:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we read a word, it somehow gets converted into it's abstract meaning.&#xA;To be clear in my further descriptions, I will encapsulate written information into &quot; and abstract information into + &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a person fluent in English and Japanese (or Chinese for this particular example) could look at the letters&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&quot;Tree&quot;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&quot;木&quot;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and in both cases convert this information into the internal representation of +tree+.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is my understanding of the reading process accurate?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If yes, what zone(s) of the brain would handle this conversion?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Where in the brain on the 10-20 System would these zones be located?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="765" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T19:15:39.380" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T19:15:39.380" Title="Where in the brain is meaning extracted from visual information?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8163" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3377" CreationDate="2014-09-09T09:16:04.717" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, a definition: &quot;Synaesthesia is a curious condition in which an otherwise normal person experiences sensations in one modality when a second modality is stimulated.&quot; [1] There are two basic explanations for this phenomenon: the hyperconnectivity&#xA;hypothesis and the disinhibition-unmasking hypothesis [2]. The former says that the condition results from excessive neural connections between two modalities, and the latter says that it results from a lack of inhibition of signals. A quick search reveals that it is indeed possible to induce this condition (with drugs, for example), and it isn't necessary to rewire any neural connections [2,3,4]. This is an example of how the brain transmits/filters information by many mechanisms, connectivity being just one of them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Ramachandran, Vilayanur S., and Edward M. Hubbard. &quot;Synaesthesia--a window into perception, thought and language.&quot; Journal of consciousness studies 8.12 (2001): 3-34.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Kadosh, Roi Cohen, et al. &quot;Induced cross-modal synaesthetic experience without abnormal neuronal connections.&quot; Psychological Science 20.2 (2009): 258-265.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Ramachandran, Vilayanur S., and Diane Rogers-Ramachandran. &quot;Synaesthesia in phantom limbs induced with mirrors.&quot; Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 263.1369 (1996): 377-386.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Luke, David P., and Devin B. Terhune. &quot;The induction of synaesthesia with chemical agents: a systematic review.&quot; Frontiers in psychology 4 (2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T09:16:04.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8164" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7790" CreationDate="2014-09-09T09:21:10.540" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It generally helps to provide some sort of specification as to how well you want to control the timing. There are 4 orders of magnitude difference between the 100 ms timing accuracy required for auditory and visual stimuli to be judged simultaneous (&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03193329s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Zampini et al. 2005&lt;/a&gt;) and the 0.1 ms timing accuracy required for binaural stimuli to be judged simultaneous (&lt;a href=&quot;http://scitation.aip.org/content/asa/journal/jasa/46/6B/10.1121/1.1911887&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hershkowitz and Durlach 1969&lt;/a&gt;). There are two types of latency when it comes to audio stimulation, what I will refer to as the ongoing and onset latencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ongoing Latency&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine a study on virtual reality where the subjects head orientation is being tracked in real time presented sound depends on the orientation. In this type of study it is not possible to load the sound in advance onto the sound device. If the audio device requires 1000 ms of sound in advance so as to not drop samples, there will be a noticeable lag between moving the head and the sound position updating. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.idc.ul.ie/icad2005/downloads/f39.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scarpaci et al. (2005)&lt;/a&gt; found that an for these types of studies an overall latency of under 32 ms is desirable. This overall latency needs to include the time required to read the current position as well as generate the sound and then buffer the sound. Depending on the speed of other devices and the amount of required processing time, this may only leave 5-10 ms for sound buffering. Head movements are relatively slow and our sensitivity to the location of a sound is relatively poor, and other experiments may require much lower latencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A perfect sound device would have an ongoing latency less than a sample. With a sample rate of 10 kHz, the sound hardware has 0.1 ms per sample, but at 100 kHz it only has 0.01 ms per sample so when choosing a sound device it is important to consider the sample rate. Off the shelf systems with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.portaudio.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PortAudio&lt;/a&gt; can provide ongoing latencies on the order of 10 ms. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://docs.psychtoolbox.org/PsychPortAudio&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsychToolbox patches PortAudio&lt;/a&gt; and can achieve lower ongoing latencies. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.idc.ul.ie/icad2005/downloads/f39.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scarpaci et al. (2005)&lt;/a&gt; achieved subsample ongoing latency with a 44.1 kHz sample rate by using a real time Linux kernel and a dedicated DA board. Custom systems by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tdt.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TDT&lt;/a&gt; can provide subsample ongoing latency with a 200 kHz sample rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Onset Latency&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine an EEG study in which one wants to start recording from the EEG electrodes at the same time as the sound starts playing. Unlike ongoing latency, it is possible to load the stimulus onto the sound device in advance. The goal is then to have the sound device start as quickly as possible. In my opinion, it is more important to minimize the variability in this latency rather than minimize the latency itself. If it takes between 99 and 101 ms (high latency, low variability) to start the sound, then if the EEG recordings are delayed by 100 ms, the onset of the sound and recordings will be within +/-1 ms. If however, it takes between 0 and 20 ms (low latency, high variability) and the EEG recordings are delayed by 10 ms, then the onset asynchrony can be as large as 10 ms. The case where the onset latency really matters is when the start of the sound is externally triggered. For example if a subject presses a button to start the sound, having a &quot;long&quot; delay would be problematic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar to ongoing latencies off the shelf systems can provide onset latencies on the order of 10 ms and &lt;a href=&quot;https://docs.psychtoolbox.org/PsychPortAudio&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsychToolbox&lt;/a&gt; can get down to about 5 ms (maybe less). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.idc.ul.ie/icad2005/downloads/f39.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scarpaci et al. (2005)&lt;/a&gt; did not measure onset latency and performance is likely poor since the system was not optimized for that aspect of sound delivery. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tdt.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TDT&lt;/a&gt; systems provide an external trigger and can provide onset latencies down to levels that make it difficult to measure (sub microsecond). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.crsltd.com/tools-for-vision-science/auditory-stimulation/audiofile-audio-stimulus-processor/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CRS&lt;/a&gt; provides custom hardware that can be externally triggered so should provide extremely low onset latencies, but the system requires the stimulus to be loaded in advanced so it essentially has an infinite ongoing latency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T09:21:10.540" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8165" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8024" CreationDate="2014-09-09T09:21:26.387" Score="1" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;0: As you suggested, use a temporal filter to get a smoothed rate representation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1.a: Clean up each frame by using (e.g.) a morphological opening then closing step&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1.b: Locate the centres of bumps, perhaps using non-maximum suppression.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1.c: Choose a reasonable activity threshold for neurons to still be &quot;inside&quot; the bump: Maybe 80% of the distance between zero and the activity at the bump-centre.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1.d: Assign neurons to bumps by finding connected regions around the bump centres.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;2, 2: Once you have the neurons assigned to bumps, this is just simple stats&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;4: Track bumps between frames by assigning nearest bump centres across frames. Apply some uniqueness criterion to detect bumps appearing and disappearing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;5: This is also easy once you have the bumps tracked.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T09:21:26.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8166" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8162" CreationDate="2014-09-09T10:13:30.050" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is we don't know for sure. Look up &quot;alexia&quot; and &quot;agraphia&quot;; pinpointing the regions of the brain that, if damaged, interfere with reading might give some indication of the cortical regions involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Visual cortex (back of the brain) is obviously necessary for the general population, but it's clearly possible for blind people to learn to read without vision. I'm not aware if blind people require an intact visual cortex or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a nice study showing that semantic information is present in a very compact form in the hippocampus: Invariant visual representation by single-neurons in the human brain.&#xA;Quian Quiroga R, Reddy L, Kreiman G, Koch C and Fried I&#xA;Nature, 435: 1102-1107; 2005. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vis.caltech.edu/~rodri/papers/nature03687.pdf&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T10:13:30.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8167" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4954" CreationDate="2014-09-09T10:37:42.933" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The location of a sound is defined on three dimensions: distance, elevation, and azimuth. When the distance between a listener and a sound source is changed there is a change in the overall level as well as the relative levels of direct and reverberant sound energy. When the elevation is changed the overall level and the direct to reverberant ratio say roughly constant. The pinna, and to some extent the head and body, shape the spectrum of the sound in an elevation dependent way. This so called pinna filtering is typically talked about as introducing a notch in the spectrum, at around 8 kHz, and that the frequency of this notch varies with elevation. Changing the azimuth of a sound changes the relative levels at the two ears and the relative timing between the ears. The interaural level difference (ILD) arises from the head shadow effect, basically the head blocks some of the sound from reaching the &quot;far&quot; ear. The interaural time difference (ITD) is a result of differences in the distance the sound needs to travel; a sound coming from the side needs to travel about 0.5 ft further, which takes about 0.6 ms, to get to the &quot;far&quot; ear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the information the brain has about a sound comes from the auditory nerve. The firing rate of auditory neurons depend on the spectrum of the sound and the sound level. In addition to firing rate, auditory neurons have the remarkable ability to &quot;phase lock&quot; to a stimulus up to 1-2 kHz. How the brain decodes the pattern of firing rate and timing information across the neuron is not fully understood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The lateral superior olive (LSO) has neurons that are responsible for extracting ILD cues. The neurons receive excitatory inputs from the ipsilateral ear and inhibatory inputs from the contralateral ear. This excitatory-inhibitory (EI) layout means the firing rate is essentially invariant to overall level, but changes with the ILD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The medial superior olive (MSO) has neurons that are responsible for extracting ITD cues. The neruons receive excitatory inputs from both the ipsilateral and contralateral ears. The is specialized anatomy that preserves the timing of the neural firings such that these excitatory-excitatory (EE) neurons can act as a coincidence detector and only fire if they receive both ipsilateral and contralateral input at the same time. In some species there are intricate axonal &quot;delay lines&quot; that change the relative time of arrivals of the contralateral and ipsilateral inputs such that each MSO neuron is tuned to a particular ITD. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v417/n6888/full/417543a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brand et al. (2002)&lt;/a&gt; argue that fast inhibitory inputs are required for ITD tuning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) has neurons that are thought to be responsible for detecting spectral notches due to the convergence of both narrow band and wide band inhibitory inputs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sensitivity to changes in overall level is generally well predicted by the rate level (and to some extent timing) behaviour of the auditory nerve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not much work has looked at the neural processing of the direct to reverberant ratio.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T10:37:42.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8168" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5927" CreationDate="2014-09-09T11:17:26.950" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two sound pathways by which we hear: bone conduction and air conduction. The air conduction pathway involves vibrations in the air being transmitted from the ear drum, through the bones of the middle ear, which act as a lever, to our fluid filled inner ear. The lever acts as an impedance matcher between the air and fluid filled inner ear. It effectively provides about 60 dB of gain, although there is a strong frequency dependence, and therefore is the normal conductance pathway for hearing. The bone conduction pathway involves vibrations in our skull, typically due to vibrations in the air, being transmitted directly to our fluid filled inner ear. For pressure waves in the air there is a large impedance mismatch between the air and fluid filled inner ear making this an inefficient pathway. When we speak, the vibrations in our skull are not due to vibrations in the air, but rather vibrations in the vocal tract. This means that the impedance mismatch is substantially reduced and the normal conductance pathway when we are speaking is through bone conductance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Things are a little more complicated because our vocal tract is not a rigid system, but rather has muscles and soft tissue. This changes the filtering characteristics of the bone conduction pathway by adding more attenuation to the lower frequencies than is typically seen when measuring bone conduction with external sources. Further, our vocal system and hearing systems are linked and there are feedback mechanisms, including the stapedius reflex, that change our perception of our speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T11:17:26.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8169" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8158" CreationDate="2014-09-09T13:03:51.627" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Current evidence suggests that internet access is not weakening memory, but changing what information is prioritized.  This study referenced below suggests that when people expect to have future access to information, they are less likely to remember the information itself and more likely to remember where or how that information can be found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/333/6043/776.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Effects on Memory: Cognitive Consequences of Having Information at Our Fingertips&#xA;Betsy Sparrow, Jenny Liu, Daniel M. Wegner Science 5 August 2011: Vol. 333 no. 6043 pp. 776-778.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DOI: 10.1126/science.1207745&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="6750" LastEditDate="2014-10-15T14:08:24.183" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T14:08:24.183" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8170" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8120" CreationDate="2014-09-09T20:25:31.657" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a big difference between &lt;em&gt;being&lt;/em&gt; X and &lt;em&gt;showing signs&lt;/em&gt; of X. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, given reasonable incentives (that are quite abundant in society), people can fake appearances of extroversion and empathy, and some people can do it quite successfully. Some disorders may make it hard[er] to accomplish, but people with a severe lack of empathy (psychopathy) often are able appear more empathetic than the average.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, a highly introverted person (though probably not with Social Anxiety Disorder) could plausibly behave as very extroverted; it could be unpleasant and stressful for them, but they can do it if they choose, and have focused on the relevant skills that might have come naturally for the more extroverted people simply by more exposure and practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4467" LastActivityDate="2014-09-09T20:25:31.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8172" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-10T09:13:45.677" Score="0" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I read Jung's Psychological Types out of self-questioning. I would like to analyze myself in such a fashion more &quot;professionally&quot;, however I do not profess to be able to do that myself, having no prior education and training in psychology. I have already done the MBTI test, but after reading Jung's book, I realize that the test is not exhaustive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is - which types of therapists or specialists normally perform these analyses? Do some psychologists base their analysis on Jung's theory? Is it possible to ask &quot;just&quot; for a personality analysis based on Jung's Psychological Types? Or is this theory just an auxiliary method, and does not play as an approach per se?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6708" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-09-10T22:56:25.697" LastActivityDate="2014-10-11T09:13:08.800" Title="Analysis according to Jung's Psychological Types" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8174" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-10T09:49:58.807" Score="10" ViewCount="4935" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA-TLX&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX)&lt;/a&gt; is a subjective, multidimensional assessment tool that rates perceived workload. A set of different scales (Mental Demand, Physical Demand, Temporal Demand, Performance, Effort, Frustration) are combined into one measure ranging from 0 to 100, the task load index. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which statistical tests can be used to compare these test results? I am particularly concerned with whether or not the task load index could be considered an interval variable, and thus whether, for example, a simple student &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;-test could be used. In particular, is the NASA-TLX scalar invariant? Can a difference between two means (e.g., 50 and 60) be interpreted as equal to a difference between two other means (e.g., 10 and 20)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If not, what are the consequences of using a wrong test? What &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; a suitable test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-08T08:32:22.553" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T06:42:57.957" Title="Which statistical tests to use when analyzing NASA TLX?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8176" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="998" CreationDate="2014-09-10T13:44:12.493" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;At the heart of the matter is the fact that 60% &quot;yes&quot; responses independent of the stimulus level (i.e., the problematic data) can arise from both an extremely sensitive subject (i.e., steep slope) with a moderate bias and a high lapse rate and an extremely insensitive subject (i.e., shallow slope) with a moderate bias and a low lapse rate. For your data the steep slope/high lapse rate fit is slightly better than the shallow slope/low lapse rate when your prior on the lapse rate is based on a Beta distribution. My guess is if you used a uniform prior on the lapse rate, and possibly on the guessing rate, this will result in the shallow slope fit being better. I would try something like &quot;Uniform(0,0.1)&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-09-10T13:44:12.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8177" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6302" CreationDate="2014-09-10T16:09:20.543" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;For these types of questions I really like &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P094AgAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PP5&amp;amp;lpg=PP5&amp;amp;dq=%22detection+theory+a+user%27s+guide%22+lawrence+erlbaum&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=bcpb0yLd9Z&amp;amp;sig=sdnEW6z6b3DCYh_4dcEd6nd9Qug&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=sG8QVLffC4vkapvEgtgL&amp;amp;ved=0CEUQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22detection%20theory%20a%20user%27s%20guide%22%20lawrence%20erlbaum&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Detection Theory: A User's Guide&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Macmillan and Creelman. They consider 3 types of bias. The criterion location &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c$&lt;/span&gt; is calculated relative to the zero-bias point and expressed in units of standard deviations, such that a &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c$&lt;/span&gt; of 1 means the criterion is 1 standard deviation to the right of the zero-bias location and a &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c$&lt;/span&gt; of -2 means the criterion is 2 standard deviations to the left of the zero-bias location. Since &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c$&lt;/span&gt; is relative to the zero-bias location, if &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c$&lt;/span&gt; is held constant, then as &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'$&lt;/span&gt; changes the distance of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c$&lt;/span&gt; to the mean of the distribution changes.  Arguably, this means that there is a change in response bias, but the measure of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c$&lt;/span&gt; does not reflect that (after all, the distance to the zero-bias location, which is &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c$&lt;/span&gt;, does not change with changes in &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'$&lt;/span&gt;).  The response bias metric &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c'=c/d'$&lt;/span&gt; avoids this issue by taking sensitivity (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'$&lt;/span&gt;) into account. The third measure of bias &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\beta$&lt;/span&gt; is defined as &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\beta = e^{cd'}$&lt;/span&gt; (which if you do the math is what your code calculates). This measure of bias is based on the likelihood ratio of the two distributions. Because of the mathematical relationship between the measures, they tell you the same thing. There isn't a correct measure and it is easy to switch between the measures, so it does not matter which you report.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further reading, see also Stanislaw &amp;amp; Todorov (1999), &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jessicagrahn.com/uploads/6/0/8/5/6085172/stanislawtodorovdprim1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Calculation of Signal Detection Theory Measures&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-26T20:50:06.507" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T20:50:06.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8178" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8172" CreationDate="2014-09-11T08:29:09.920" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are simply interested in how your personality would be construed within this specific psychoanalytic framework out of pure curiosity, I'm sure one of those Jungian psychanalists Chuck Sherrington mentioned would be tell you something about it (they get paid for it, after all). However, I think they would use the MBTI - that seems to be the only real implementation of a test of Jung's psychologcal types. Furthermore, I feel compelled to caution against personality type tests such as the MBTI from a scientific point of view, because they seem to have little to no empirical basis [1]. There are better personality tests out there. In fact, I would caution against psychoanalytic approaches in general, because they are hardly scientific. [2] So, &lt;em&gt;in my personal opinion&lt;/em&gt;, if you are just curious, go for it. If, however, your purpose is anything more than entertainment, steer clear. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Pittenger, David J. &quot;Measuring the MBTI… and coming up short.&quot; Journal of Career Planning and Employment 54.1 (1993): 48-52.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] de Maat, Saskia, et al. &quot;The current state of the empirical evidence for psychoanalysis: a meta-analytic approach.&quot; Harvard review of psychiatry 21.3 (2013): 107-137.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-11T08:29:09.920" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8181" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7855" CreationDate="2014-09-11T12:39:52.850" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a basic epistemological problem here that was only touched upon by Chuck Sherrington - everyone is making the assumption that the brain processes the same kind of information as a digital computer. There is no real evidence to suggest that it does, in fact. A digital computer is an instantiation of a Turing machine, which is equivalent to certain kinds of automata. &lt;strong&gt;In order for the &quot;processing power&quot; of the brain to be compared to that of a digital computer in the first place, one needs to show that the brain employs representations (discrete entitites/states like bits) and rules (well-defined transitions between states/bits).&lt;/strong&gt; Nobody has even come close to doing this, &lt;em&gt;even for a subsection of the brain&lt;/em&gt;. This would be done by showing that the brain implements some digital computation - David Chalmers' famously [1] explains how this needs to be done. &lt;strong&gt;According to current the state of research, the brain seems to be a complex biological system, operating at multiple levels of measurement, and does not process information in discrete terms!&lt;/strong&gt; And yes, Chuck Sherrington says it, neurons are not simply on/off!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Chalmers, David J. &quot;A computational foundation for the study of cognition.&quot; (1993).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-11T12:39:52.850" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8182" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9422" CreationDate="2014-09-11T19:43:25.487" Score="19" ViewCount="6397" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many contexts (family, colleagues, etc), say there is a box of donuts for people to take (or any kind of treat or snack). A lot of the times we can observe that there will be only one left and people just avoid taking the last one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a psychological theory/reasoning behind this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6716" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-03-03T22:57:45.820" LastActivityDate="2020-08-19T10:53:51.027" Title="Why do people avoid taking the last &quot;donut&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;&lt;norms&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8184" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8038" CreationDate="2014-09-12T09:39:43.290" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The accepted answer is correct, it is basically a matter of degree, plus some other things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adding more details, refer to the following definition of &lt;a href=&quot;https://socialanxietyinstitute.org/dsm-definition-social-anxiety-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Social Anxiety Disorder&lt;/a&gt; (previously known as Social Phobia) taken from The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A.  A persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations&#xA;  in which the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to possible&#xA;  scrutiny by others. The individual fears that he or she will act in a&#xA;  way (or show anxiety symptoms) that will be embarrassing and&#xA;  humiliating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;B.  Exposure to the feared situation almost invariably provokes&#xA;  anxiety, which may take the form of a situationally bound or&#xA;  situationally pre-disposed Panic Attack.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;C.  The person recognizes that this fear is unreasonable or excessive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;D.  The feared situations are avoided or else are endured with intense&#xA;  anxiety and distress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;E.  The avoidance, anxious anticipation, or distress in the feared&#xA;  social or performance situation(s) interferes significantly with the&#xA;  person's normal routine, occupational (academic) functioning, or&#xA;  social activities or relationships, or there is marked distress about&#xA;  having the phobia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;F.  The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting 6&#xA;  or more months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;G. The fear or avoidance is not due to direct physiological effects of&#xA;  a substance (e.g., drugs, medications) or a general medical condition&#xA;  not better accounted for by another mental disorder&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps more specifically, it is written in this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/Social%20Anxiety%20Disorder%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;DSM-5 Social Anxiety Disorder Fact Sheet&lt;/a&gt;, that (emphasizes are from me):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Social anxiety disorder is about more than just shyness and can be&#xA;  considerably  disabling&lt;/strong&gt;. A diagnosis requires that a person’s fear or&#xA;  anxiety be out of proportion—in  frequency and/or duration—to the&#xA;  actual situation. The symptoms must be persistent,  lasting six months&#xA;  or longer ... &lt;strong&gt;To be diagnosed with social anxiety disorder, the person&#xA;  must suffer significant distress or impairment that interferes with&#xA;  his or her ordinary routine in social settings, at work or school, or&#xA;  during other everyday activities&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also important to note that there's been a great deal of effort in defining abnormality (disorder). I don't own any version of DSM (I do have a physical copy of Clinical Psychology by Andrew M. Pomerantz and Abnormal Psychology by Nolen-Hoeksema, but they are currently borrowed by friends), but the criteria for abnormality usually involves (as seen &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.csun.edu/~hcpsy002/Nevid_ch03.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/58622_Chapter_7_Pomerantz_(Clinical)_I_Proof_(Low_Res)_4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotional distress&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Impaired functioning in day-to-day life&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Deviance from cultural norm&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Statistical infrequency&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Behavior that places people at risk for personal suffering, pain,&#xA;disability, or death&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it usually has to last for a certain period of time before it can be diagnosed as a disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;DO NOTE&lt;/strong&gt;, however, that no matter how much you feel that you or anyone you know seems to fit with one or more of the above criteria, you &lt;strong&gt;CAN'T&lt;/strong&gt; simply conclude that he/she/they have a mental disorder. Diagnosis of mental disorder should only be done by someone who is certified by law to do so, such as psychologist or psychiatrist. And even then, it should be done only after complete, thorough, and proven analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6461" LastEditorUserId="6461" LastEditDate="2014-09-12T09:54:33.827" LastActivityDate="2014-09-12T09:54:33.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8186" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-12T18:15:13.777" Score="3" ViewCount="1142" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I meditate, I concentrate on my breathing; if my mind wanders, I bring its attention back to my breathing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I watch a movie/show, I concentrate on it; if my mind wanders, I bring its attention back to the movie/show.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what's the difference? (other than one is more entertaining than the other)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6719" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T10:17:10.543" Title="Difference between meditating and watching a movie" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2014-09-30T11:12:48.567" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8189" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8145" CreationDate="2014-09-13T14:56:58.193" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The first option&lt;/strong&gt; is to investigate exactly what his worries are and to put them in perspective. Often, people catastrophize their fears, imagining the worst possible scenario for a given situation. While that outcome may be a realistic possibility, often is not the only or even the most likely possibility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, is he afraid that people will think he lacks intelligence? Or that people will laugh and make fun of him? You might examine his thought this way:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What is the worst possible outcome if he stutters or freezes in&#xA;front of another person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What is the best possible outcome in the same situation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What does he think is the most likely outcome? (Usually this is&#xA;somewhere in between the two extremes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Second&lt;/strong&gt;, you can caution him against mind-reading (i.e., assuming he knows what others will say, do or think). If he is concerned that when he freezes, &amp;quot;people will think I'm stupid,&amp;quot; encourage him to think of other possibilities. They might think that, or they might just be confused, or they might recognize he's socially uncomfortable and have compassion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Third&lt;/strong&gt;, while the thought or fear itself may be true (e.g. &amp;quot;She made fun of me&amp;quot;) the meaning he attaches to it might not be completely valid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;What does it say about him?&lt;/em&gt; For instance, if he thinks &amp;quot;She's right, I'm stupid, I'm a loser&amp;quot; you can explore all of his strengths and things he does well. Often people maximize painful experiences or don't give themselves credit for other accomplishments. Other thoughts, such as &amp;quot;This is something I struggle with, but I'm good at other things,&amp;quot; might be more adaptive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;What does it say about that other person?&lt;/em&gt; You could work with him to reframe his thoughts (e.g. &amp;quot;She just doesn't understand and isn't sure how to react,&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;That person has to be mean to others to make himself feel good; what he says isn't really true.&amp;quot;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;What does it mean if someone reacts poorly when he freezes?&lt;/em&gt; If his thought is akin to &amp;quot;They'll think I'm stupid&amp;quot; figure out what it would mean in his life if they thought that way. How would that impact him? Is it &amp;quot;If I freeze, they'll think I'm stupid, and then I won't....get the job, make a friend, etc.&amp;quot;? If you can figure out what consequences he is concerned about, then you can go back to option 1 and think through how likely those scenarios are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often fears and anxieties have some kernel of realistic risk to them. Some spiders or snakes can be dangerous, some people can judge us and be cruel, etc. However, if the fear is paralyzing, there is often a distortion to the thoughts that can be discussed and possibly adapted to reduce anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This book may provide additional ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beck, J. S. (2011). Cognitive behavior therapy: Basics and beyond. Guilford Press. (pgs. 1801-84 discuss some of the points mentioned above).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-09-13T14:56:58.193" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8190" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7988" CreationDate="2014-09-13T15:07:19.527" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In terms of thoughts vs emotions, from a clinical psychology perspective, I conceptualize an emotion as a single word or an image (e.g. anger or &quot;seeing red&quot;) while I conceptualize thoughts as sentences. So, if I ask a client what he was thinking, and he says &quot;I was angry,&quot; I would label that an emotion and encourage them to expand on the thought (&quot;I thought she was being mean, and felt angry.&quot;) Again, this may be more relevant to clinical settings than from a basic research perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-09-13T15:07:19.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8191" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-13T19:21:18.277" Score="5" ViewCount="265" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most people are held accountable for their actions. If diagnosed with a &quot;mental disorder&quot; however, they are often forgiven/treated more leniently and exempted from punishment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same thing couldn't be said about a bad personality trait however. No one is exempted from murder for say &quot;not being very compassionate&quot; or &quot;being an asshole&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mental disorders however only seem to be a term of describe a set of bad personality traits that are displayed concurrently though. So why the special treatment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the difference between a mental disorder and a bad personality trait?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6685" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-08-05T18:41:54.277" LastActivityDate="2016-08-05T18:41:54.277" Title="What's the difference between a &quot;mental disorder&quot; and a bad personality trait?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8192" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8214" CreationDate="2014-09-14T01:53:40.500" Score="0" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;My friend is working on a robot that can be mind controlled. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He basically wears a headset, and that headset translate brain signal into control signal to move a robot. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XewJh_0nLvM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XewJh_0nLvM&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What could be the potential advantage of these kind of robots versus robots controlled by remotes (99.99% of all robots nowadays)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6730" LastActivityDate="2014-09-17T09:34:49.217" Title="Neural robots vs conventional robots" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8194" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8195" CreationDate="2014-09-14T08:43:03.003" Score="1" ViewCount="202" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to Record an eye blinking waveform signal from EEG signals , but it need to make a quiscent periods of recording , So how to make this quiescent periods(i.e the signal has a zero amplitude at all time in the quiescent recording except the eye blinking time)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-09-15T20:17:22.517" LastActivityDate="2014-09-15T20:17:22.517" Title="Record an eye blinking waveform signal from EEG signals" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8195" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8194" CreationDate="2014-09-14T11:19:17.843" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can't. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Flatline EEG is how brain death is defined, and while it may be possible to induce an eye blink in a deceased human, I am sure ethics will not approve, and it won't be scientifically satisfactory. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;even in the case of a real flatline EEG, there will always be some remaining residual activity (albeit very weak), such as line noise. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the eye blink is a few orders of magnitude stronger than the ongoing EEG&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;you can isolate eye blink activity using techniques such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/~scott/pdf/CLINPH00.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ICA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2014-09-14T20:53:23.117" LastActivityDate="2014-09-14T20:53:23.117" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8197" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6145" CreationDate="2014-09-16T05:43:45.020" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;First at all, the connectome must be interpreted like a static picture of the brain. So anything related with plasticity and dynamical processes will be lost in this map. There are connectome at macroscopic areas using fNMR but I'm going to focus in the cellular level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can define three types:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dense Connectome - It is the classical idea of connectome that consist in mapping all the neuronal connections of the whole nervous system or a part of it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pubfacts.com/author/Kazunori+Shinomiya&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Functional Connectome&lt;/a&gt; - It is focus only in the connections that play any role in a process (i.e. perception of a color, motor action,...)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://lichtmanlab.fas.harvard.edu/people/haruo-mizutani&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Saturated Connectome&lt;/a&gt; - It is the most wide definition. It is the mappping of all the cells and organelles in the nervous system. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before answer your questions I need to advise that all of this is limited by the technology. The most extended technique is the electron microscopy (EM) because we obtain a nice resolution for mapping, the problem is that is very hard automatize the annotation step (Characterize different cells and processes). The last year a new technique was released called &lt;a href=&quot;http://clarityresourcecenter.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Clarity&lt;/a&gt; this can be used in the connectome but it's too early to see results. In response to your questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yes, with techniques like Clarity we can use markers for the different neurotransmitters. I'm not completely sure if we can characterize the vesicle type with EM, but we can define the pre and post synapses and know the strength (via the amount of vesicles).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do you mean the amount of ions in the synaptic terminal and in the extracellular space? I think that it could be realize with markers but it is out of the connectome purpose. (Maybe in the Saturated connectome)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yes. (Answer 1)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion the most interesting part of the connectome is the mathematical analysis of the network topology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check the authors bibliography in the 3 connectome kinds for more info. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6591" LastActivityDate="2014-09-16T05:43:45.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8198" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6145" CreationDate="2014-09-16T06:17:00.737" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's also possible to extract functional information on a larger measurement scale (especially cognitive function, which depends on the interaction of many parts) from the connectome by running some neurocomputational simulations. This is what the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.humanbrainproject.eu&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Human Brain Project&lt;/a&gt; aims to do, for example, even though it's been getting a lot of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/neuroscience-where-is-the-brain-in-the-human-brain-project-1.15803&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;criticism&lt;/a&gt; lately (one of the reasons being a lack of detail in current connectome information). Some of the areas that are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811913002656&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;challenging&lt;/a&gt; for connectomics to dive into are the dynamic ones, such as neural plasticity - in reality we all have physically unique brains that have learned from experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-16T06:17:00.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8199" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8204" CreationDate="2014-09-16T06:43:10.523" Score="2" ViewCount="20922" Body="&lt;p&gt;In psychological research, a single dissociation is when a manipulation leaves one cognitive function (say, A) intact whilst severing another (say, B). This indicates the functions A and B are at least partially independent. A double dissociation is when there exists, in addition, a manipulation that does the reverse (i.e. leave B intact whilst severing A). On the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociation_(neuropsychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; for dissociation in neuropsychology/cognitive neuroscience (I'm assuming the &quot;manipulation&quot; is a brain lesion now) it says that &quot;establishing a single dissociation between two functions provides limited and potentially misleading information, whereas a double dissociation can conclusively demonstrate that the two functions are localized in different areas of the brain.&quot; This can't really be true, can it? Consider the following Venn diagram, where the (necessary) neural substrate of A and B are represented, including their intersection: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ebs7v.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Neural substrates of A and B&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A double dissociation could consist of a manipulation in A \ B and another in B \ A. The functions would still be partially dependent, however, and not localized in completely different areas of the brain. So, in effect, the only thing a single dissociation proves is that the circles for A and B are not identical, and the only thing a double dissociation proves (in addition to the fact that they're not identical) is that one is not a subset of the other. Is that about right? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastEditorDisplayName="user6682" LastEditDate="2014-09-16T06:56:56.960" LastActivityDate="2014-09-16T16:34:26.327" Title="What does double dissociation really tell us?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8200" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8210" CreationDate="2014-09-16T08:43:26.150" Score="2" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could anyone tell me if there are any serious neuroscientific mechanisms that have been proposed to explain how feelings of body states take on a positive or negative character (valence)? An example biocomputational approach based on Bayesian inference can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1003094&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. Also related to the Bayesian brain: there is evidence that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v16/n7/full/nn.3448.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dopamine communicates prediction error&lt;/a&gt;, which has been proposed as a unifying principle for cognition - so I was wondering whether there were any comprehensive theories applying predictive coding to emotion (i.e. valence as prediction error of interoceptive (body) perception). Of course, any theories of valence with similarly broad import would be interesting too. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastEditorDisplayName="user6682" LastEditDate="2014-09-17T09:06:53.530" LastActivityDate="2014-09-22T14:00:05.563" Title="Are there any serious neuroscientific theories of emotional valence?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8201" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8191" CreationDate="2014-09-16T09:25:16.830" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't want to address the issue of defining mental disorders in general here, because just about any malfunctioning system in the brain can be considered a disorder. However, &lt;strong&gt;some disorders affect the set of processes in the brain which ultimately determine whether or not someone takes an action&lt;/strong&gt; (the neural basis of volition, or &quot;free will&quot;, if you will...). If these decision processes are broken, people shouldn't be held responsible for what they do, because they &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt; have no control. So, a &quot;mental disorder&quot; which exempts one from responsibility can be considered one which consists of damage to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrainandthemind.co.uk/Build/Assets/readings/Human%20Volition%20Patrick%20Haggard.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;following processes&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1CCDx.png&quot; alt=&quot;Each of these have identifiable neural correlates, see article in link.&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there is the philosphical objection that mechanistic explanation (deterministic or random, doesn't matter) means nobody has free will - but the issue in society is really about free will as the ability to learn rules and follow them. A bad personality trait usually doesn't affect the above processes, and therefore doesn't impede someone's ability to make their own decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-16T09:25:16.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8202" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-16T13:21:13.413" Score="2" ViewCount="280" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to learn how to manipulate McCulloch-Pitts neurons in order to determine their weights and bias based off of inputs. In this example I have inputs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;x, y, z ∈ {−1,1}&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neuron's output is z if x = -1 and y = 1, and is -1 otherwise. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I compute the weights and bias for the neuron? An example or link to an example would be greatly appreciated. (Having a hard time finding examples online). Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I have been using the equation out = sgn((w1)(in1) + (w2)(in2) + (w3)(in3) - theta), but I am unsure whether or not I am taking the correct initial steps to solving this problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6737" LastActivityDate="2015-06-14T09:06:27.457" Title="How to compute weights and bias for a McCulloch-Pitts neuron?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8203" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-16T15:07:31.817" Score="14" ViewCount="2356" Body="&lt;p&gt;I certainly don't question the existence of subliminal perception which has been demonstrated many times in priming studies like those of Daniel Schacter and many others, nor do I reject the notion of the cognitive unconscious introduced by Kihlstrom (I definitely have my doubts on the psychodynamic unconscious however).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is about certain big claims like those of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/686039.Subliminal_Seduction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bryan Wilson Key&lt;/a&gt; on subliminal messages with sexual content and consumer behaviour, those about subliminal self-help tapes or those even more suspicious that are about subliminal messages detering shoplifters to steal. Other than null results or junk science I haven't seen any convincing study supporting these claims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, studies by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.40.11.1231&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vockey and Read (1985)&lt;/a&gt; challenged the effect of subliminal messages in songs and a meta-analysis carried out by Charles &lt;a href=&quot;https://ir.nctu.edu.tw/bitstream/11536/14246/1/A1996UZ40600005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trappey (1996)&lt;/a&gt; showed a negligible effect on consumer behavior. Also, what I get from most psychology textbooks is that the general consensus is that subliminal messaging has a poor and temporary effect &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Psychology.html?id=-9x8dngFRe0C&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Schacter, Gilbert and Wegner, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, one has to consider if subliminal perception is qualitatively and quantitatively different depending on the modality of the stimuli but then again I am unconvinced of a considerable effect of subliminal messaging on behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any thoughts on that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T. &amp;amp; Wegner, D. M. (2009). Psychology. New York, NY: Worth Publishers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trappey, C. (1996). &lt;em&gt;A meta-analysis of consumer choice and subliminal advertising&lt;/em&gt;, Psychology &amp;amp; Marketing, 13(5): pp. 517—530&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(199608)13:5%3C517::AID-MAR5%3E3.0.CO;2-C/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(199608)13:5&amp;lt;517::AID-MAR5&gt;3.0.CO;2-C&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;PDF Available FREE from &lt;a href=&quot;https://ir.nctu.edu.tw/bitstream/11536/14246/1/A1996UZ40600005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Chiao Tung University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vokey, J. R. &amp;amp; Read, J. D. (1985). &lt;em&gt;Subliminal messages: Between the devil and the media&lt;/em&gt;, American Psychologist, 40(11): pp. 1231—1239&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4083611&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4083611&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.40.11.1231&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0003-066X.40.11.1231&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-01-09T17:11:04.957" LastActivityDate="2018-01-09T17:11:04.957" Title="Has there been any serious research on subliminal messaging?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8204" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8199" CreationDate="2014-09-16T16:34:26.327" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Double dissociation does not prove the independence of certain cognitive functions and their neural substrates. What it does is provide stronger evidence for which the best explanation is the independence of certain neurocognitive systems. &#xA;The brain is on many aspects not a marvel of engineering with many areas being responsible for a spectrum of functions and behaviours or for different aspects of a seemingly unitary cognitive faculty. On top of that, it is often difficult to make a proper classification and distinction between certain functions and behaviours (examples are episodic/semantic memory and perceptual/semantic priming) which, in many cases, limits the validity of the conclusions drawn. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I don't know if a &quot;conclusive demonstration&quot; is possible. However, under properly defined terms, a double dissociation can provide strong support for independence with little possibility of an intersection between neurocognitive systems because if an intersection existed, it would be highly possible for a function to be retained at some level even after the hypothetical brain system responsible for it, suffers a lesion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-09-16T16:34:26.327" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8205" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-16T18:18:28.250" Score="5" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on a literature review of total reaction time to an auditory alert, in a transport context.  All of the literature I can find about perception-response times are in the context of visual obstacles while driving, but in this case I'm interested in perception-response times to auditory-only warning signals (and not specifically drivers).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are the best sources on PRT I have found so far, all to visual stimuli:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Olson, P.L. &amp;amp; Sivak, M. (1986) Perception-response time to unexpected roadway hazards.   Human Factors, 28, 96-99.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Olson, P., &quot;Driver Perception Response Time,&quot; SAE Technical Paper 890731, 1989, doi:10.4271/890731.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Summala, H. (2000). Brake Reaction Times and Driver Behavior Analysis. Transportation Human Factors, 2(3), 217-226.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the equivalents examining perception-response time to auditory stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-10-19T17:56:56.540" LastActivityDate="2014-10-19T17:56:56.540" Title="How do people respond to auditory warning signals?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8206" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8208" CreationDate="2014-09-16T18:54:22.947" Score="2" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a rough estimation of the number of action potentials from other neurons required to cause a neuron to fire?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read &lt;a href=&quot;https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/ap.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; that a potential of ~ -55mv must be reached before an action potential is fired in a neuron, my thought is how many action potentials from other cells would (roughly) be required to reach this - and in what required time (if it matters)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I am not a neuroscientist and suspect this question is unanswerable but though this was the place to ask!&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6739" LastActivityDate="2015-05-27T19:47:47.283" Title="How many action potentials from presynaptic neurons would be required to make a postsynaptic neuron fire?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8207" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8191" CreationDate="2014-09-16T18:58:03.243" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I Upvoted @StrangeLoop's excellent answer. I did want to point out that the law is applied unevenly across the United States.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are people ever exempted from prosecution for being a$$holes? Absolutely. The California Highway Patrolman who beat the homeless woman trying to cross the highway was supported by his commander (I haven't heard the latest; I know she's suing.) The video is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kSktBppDiLg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. The CHP beat her up to &quot;protect her from injuring herself&quot;. Read about police killing mentally retarded, unarmed teenagers, little old ladies, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most people in prison have a mental illness called &lt;em&gt;Conduct Disorder&lt;/em&gt;. The key deciding factors in prosecution of people with mental illness are 1. does the person know right from wrong, and 2) can they control their behavior. In Conduct Disorder, the answer is yes to both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was a fascinating case in the news of an epileptic who had a part of his &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.businessinsider.com/radiolab-story-on-klverbucy-syndrome-2013-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;brain removed to control his seizures&lt;/a&gt;. After the surgery, he began to buy pornography, then child pornography. Neurosurgeons testified that the part of the brain they removed was indeed responsible for this predilection, but because he knew better than to put the porn on his work computer, he was judges to be in charge of at least some of his behavior. He got half the usual sentence and drugs have rendered him back into the nice guy he was before (and he really was. You can listen to his story on Radiolab.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An entire field called neurolaw has cropped up to deal with how the law should treat criminals with neurological conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your original question, many people with bad personality traits have mental disorders. Borderline Personalities drive people crazy. So do kids with Oppositional Defiant Disorder. These people, as long as they are &quot;rational&quot; aren't spared from the law (Jodi Arias, for example, probably suffers from Borderline Personality Disorder. Still, she knew killing someone wasn't really a reasonable option.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Andrea Yates, though, suffering from severe post-partum depression with psychosis, really believed that the only way to &quot;save&quot; her children from hell was to drown them. The most responsible person in that case - her husband - got off scott-free. (He was warned after her PPD/P with her fourth child that she should &lt;strong&gt;never&lt;/strong&gt; get pregnant again. He wanted a basketball team of children (he actually said this). He stopped her psychiatric visits and meds, got her pregnant again, and in the midst of her psychosis, even though she admitted she felt the need to kill her children (which his family and the psychiatrist she was seeing knew; he stopped those visits, too), he left her alone with the kids.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Th point is the law (courts) is not consistent or even consistently necessarily rational. Often, though, it does the right thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-09-16T18:58:03.243" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8208" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8206" CreationDate="2014-09-16T19:35:22.800" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is highly variable, depending on the strength and placement of the synapse (which in turn depends on synapse activity and how often the two neurons fire together, among other things).  The wikipedia page &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_synapse#Synaptic_strength&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is a pretty good place to start, or if you want more detail on how that pulls together in an actual system, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/48/17555.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; is a good place to start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-09-16T19:35:22.800" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8209" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-16T21:26:50.680" Score="5" ViewCount="206" Body="&lt;p&gt;What I get from Trevarthen's theory of innate intersubjectivity (2010) and the theory of theory of mind (Perner, 1999) is that they don't agree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A considerable number of studies in theory of mind development suggest that infants are cognitively egocentric, that is they cannot understand that others may have different thoughts, feelings and points of view than they do until the age of 3 or 4 when a shift in cognitive development occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trevarthen on the other hand states that a newborn's view of the world is already intersubjective, that is a newborn can share parts of his/her inner world (thoughts, feelings) with other people and sense other people's intentions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was having a disagreement with my developmental psychology professor who thought they were reconcilable if one does a proper conceptual analysis of the statements of each theory and the methods and data that they use to formulate their theories, but she did not get any more specific as to what can be defined alternatively and how can this be done to avoid conflict.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any thoughts on that?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-09-17T01:48:34.013" Title="Are innate intersubjectivity and theory of mind opposing theories or are they reconcilable?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8210" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8200" CreationDate="2014-09-16T21:54:13.340" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no such universally accepted model.  It seems to me that this a specific instance of the hard problem: how can matter have a subjective experience at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course we know positive experience is associated with dopaminergic action, and often the mechanism has the evolutionary function of surviving and reproducing... and we can argue the same for noxious stimuli - they signal danger in the environment and lead to aversive behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this still ignores the phenomenology step, between stimulus and behavior; the nature of the subjective experience.  Friston's approach is interesting.  I wonder if there is any relationship to be found betweem it and Tononi's model of consciousness (&lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/23165867&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;integrated informatiom theory&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2014-09-17T01:00:25.873" LastActivityDate="2014-09-17T01:00:25.873" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8213" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8244" CreationDate="2014-09-17T09:23:12.070" Score="3" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in reading on the influence of exogenous attention on cortical representations in early visual areas, but so far my google-fu seems to be failing me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seems to be some literature involving &lt;em&gt;endogenous&lt;/em&gt; attention (Kamitani &amp;amp; Tong 2006, for instance), but nothing involving cueing, for instance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does anybody know of any papers demonstrating either of the following?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;fMRI decoding of the effects of attentional cueing on V1?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;fMRI decoding of (cued) attentional effects on V1 activity using at-threshold stimuli?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks very much in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt;  Okay, so I found two that hit the topic center-mass:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kok et al., 2011  &lt;em&gt;Less Is More: Expectation Sharpens&#xA;Representations in the Primary Visual Cortex&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kok et al., 2012  &lt;em&gt;Attention Reverses the Effect of Prediction in Silencing Sensory Signals&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anything else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="2926" LastEditDate="2014-09-17T13:18:44.450" LastActivityDate="2014-09-21T21:28:36.150" Title="Are there any fMRI decoding papers examining the relationship between attentional cueing and activity in V1?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;cueing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8214" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8192" CreationDate="2014-09-17T09:34:49.217" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The advantage (at the current state of the technology) is that you don't need to use a remote with your hands, so the paralyzed could move their exoskeletons, for instance. For now, there is still the downside that the the device needs to be trained and the commands that can be read are rather simplistic. &lt;strong&gt;However, in the future these types of devices will greatly enhance human-computer interaction by allowing the brain the communicate in the same way as it communciates naturally with the environment.&lt;/strong&gt; So, imagining yourself as the robot moving around (and the robot following your imagined moves) is a lot more fluent, intuitive, and precise than pressing a bunch of buttons! The technology still needs to get to this stage, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-17T09:34:49.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8215" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-17T10:34:07.987" Score="1" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;Literature suggests that analogies are helpful in teaching and learning science concepts. But every concept can not and should not be taught using analogies as there are some concepts that can be better taught using examples and learning by doing .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is &quot; for what kind of concepts do we really need an analogy ?&quot;&#xA;Answers may include a reference to a piece of literature / some insights from teaching experience /blogs etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user4236" LastActivityDate="2014-10-17T12:47:46.883" Title="For what kind of concepts do we really need an analogy?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8216" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8215" CreationDate="2014-09-17T11:47:31.583" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Loosely defined, analogy is the process by which &lt;a href=&quot;https://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/view?isbn=0262571390&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;novel situations and problems can be understood in terms of familiar ones&quot;.&lt;/a&gt; By this definition, a number of cognitive scientists would and do say that analogy plays a role in acquiring just about any new concept - they would say that &lt;em&gt;especially&lt;/em&gt; examples and learning by doing are means of refining one's ability to map from the known to the unknown and uncover the latter's structure/properties. In addition to the linked book, which offers a collection of papers/essays in cognitive science on analogy, you could check out Douglas Hofstadter's &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.de/books?id=XkQT5eTnurYC&amp;amp;lpg=PT194&amp;amp;ots=W2vcZO_6Y5&amp;amp;dq=surfaces%20and%20essences%20literature&amp;amp;hl=de&amp;amp;pg=PT212#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=surfaces%20and%20essences%20literature&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Surfaces and Essences&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;Analogy-making, far from happening at rare intervals, occurs at all moments, defining thinking from top to toe, from the tiniest and most fleeting thoughts to the most creative scientific insights.&quot; In the appendix there is a &lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt; long list of scientific publications supporting his assertions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-17T11:47:31.583" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8217" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-17T16:10:16.190" Score="6" ViewCount="1890" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is common knowledge that neuroscience -- particularly experimental neuroscience -- uses MATLAB more than any other programming language. I have always just taken this as a given, and pointed to existing toolboxes, legacy lab codebases, and social pressure as the reasons why this continues to be the case, even though &lt;a href=&quot;http://abandonmatlab.wordpress.com/&quot;&gt;concrete reasons to switch&lt;/a&gt; are widely known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to go past these general reasons and pin down the exact causes of MATLAB's stronghold in Neuroscience. Things like&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;file formats that can only be read in MATLAB&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;acquisition systems that are highly coupled to MATLAB&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;toolboxes that are widely regarded as the &quot;gold standard&quot; for something&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;labs or companies that train many researchers on MATLAB and advocate for it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;introductory neuroscience programs / textbooks that teach concepts through MATLAB examples&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or any other tangible things to point to would be excellent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3551" LastActivityDate="2014-09-24T21:36:46.427" Title="Why is MATLAB so common in Neuroscience?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="643" CreationDate="2014-09-17T18:22:29.837" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if you want this type of answer, but I would like to focus on conceptual issues as well that I thought as necessary.&#xA;Well, to ask if a certain approach to the meaning of dreams is better or more accurate, one has first to ask if dreams have meaning and this also requires a definition of meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the first question, there is an approach by Allan Hobson that says dreams have no meaning. Dreams come to be when neural impulses from the brainstem are received by the cortex which reacts producing images thoughts and feelings relating to what lies in the memory storage. So dreams may be personal but there is not any meaning to them.&#xA;The other approach is by Anttio Revonsuo who supports the meaning of dreams in the sense that they have evolutionary value. Dreams in this case, enrich our experiences relating to dangerous events and allow us to be more careful in a consequent dangerous situation. And of course psychodynamic theories of which you are aware, support the meaning of dreams but the interpretations differ depending on the psychoanalyst which makes the whole thing seem suspicious.(for an overview of the above check Kolb and Whishaw's &quot;An introduction to Brain and Behaviour&quot;, it has a chapter about sleep and dreams)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what do we mean by meaning is not all that clear.The concept of meaning has been a waste basket of evaluative and aesthetic judgements, as well as used in divergent trends and in different contexts. Also, meaning is a concept that cannot be discussed without intentionality, that is meaning has to be meaning to someone that only he/she can feel directly. You can have meaning in the level of society or civilization but again it reduces to personal experience. Because meaning is subjective, I don't know if it can be studied scientifically. Qualitative research that studies meaning is quite informative and interesting to do but it can hardly be viewed as scientific. That is what dream interpretation is. A qualitative analysis of experiences. So when a psychoanalyst claims he can uncover the meaning that my dreams have to me, what he does is fit the reported experiences in a set of theoretical constructs. In other words, he constructs a meaning of my dreams imposing a psychodynamic frame of reference which is no different from a common man's frame of reference in terms of validity. After all, if one gives their own meaning to their dreams, isn't that a meaning also?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope that this makes clear that no approach of dream interpretation can be considered better or worse because the act of interpretation is subjective and although we can study (through psychological research methods) what mechanisms and resources are used by people to construct meaning, there is no evidence that could be used to support a kind of meaning over another. It is like asking what literary approach is more accurate or more accepted to interpret a surrealistic poem. Literature theorists can develop different trends the acceptance of which depends on sociological factors and not on empirical validation.Thus, anyone can interpret the poem as he wants and his meaning will be accurate for him.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-09-17T18:22:29.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8219" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-18T09:55:51.267" Score="1" ViewCount="225" Body="&lt;p&gt;When someone who eats food is munching, it sounds quite unpleasant for most of the people.&#xA;What is the reason for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-09-19T05:50:39.270" LastActivityDate="2014-09-20T08:51:41.623" Title="Why does munching sound unpleasant to most people?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2014-12-09T12:58:14.543" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8221" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-18T10:43:27.313" Score="4" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been wondering whether neural simulations have had applications in (cognitive)neuropharmacological research already. One always reads about the &lt;em&gt;promise&lt;/em&gt; of the technology in helping us cure various brain disorders, but I only know of relatively theoretical (general) models thereof derived from / supported by simulation. Has anyone actually attempted to identify drug targets computationally?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-11-25T04:25:10.960" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T04:25:10.960" Title="Neuropharmacology and Simulation" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-03-27T04:36:30.430" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8222" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8205" CreationDate="2014-09-18T11:09:50.110" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often, very similar phenomena have different names when studied in different modalities, because they are studied by different communities. That's why searching for &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=perception-response%20times%20auditory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;perception response times + auditory&lt;/a&gt; doesn't yield great results (Although I did find [1] this way).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Something else to try, is to pick a highly cited paper that you did find, and then search within paper citing it for relevant terms. I started from Olson's 2000 paper which you mentioned, and searched for &quot;auditory&quot; within citing papers, and quickly found [2] and [3]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also look for other papers by the same authors - people tend to keep studying similar questions for a while, and often keep using the same methodologies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Cheng, B., Hashimoto, M., &amp;amp; Suetomi, T. (2002). Analysis of driver response to collision warning during car following. JSAE review, 23(2), 231-237.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Fitch, G. M., Blanco, M., Morgan, J. F., &amp;amp; Wharton, A. E. (2010, September). Driver braking performance to surprise and expected events. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting (Vol. 54, No. 24, pp. 2075-2080). SAGE Publications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Cao, Y., Mahr, A., Castronovo, S., Theune, M., Stahl, C., &amp;amp; Müller, C. A. (2010, February). Local danger warnings for drivers: The effect of modality and level of assistance on driver reaction. In Proceedings of the 15th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces (pp. 239-248). ACM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2014-09-18T11:09:50.110" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8223" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8240" CreationDate="2014-09-18T15:02:31.263" Score="3" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have always had some trouble deciding what to use as the default answers when using Likert 'type' scales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a default list of accepted answers to particular types of questions which are used by survey designers?&lt;/strong&gt; e.g. &quot;Level of effect&quot;, &quot;Amount you agree with&quot;,  &quot;Make you act&quot; &quot;Level of Awareness&quot; type questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I accept that there is a huge range of types of questions but if there was some sort of semi standardised list of 5, 6 and 7 point answers it would be very handy. In many cases I have difficulty thinking of just one of the answers or the correct terminology or syntax which should be used to ensure that each of the answers are 'appropriately distributed'... if that makes sense&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For many types of questions there are existing examples online e.g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What most clearly reflects your political leaning? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Strong Democrat &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Not so strong Democrat &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Independent leaning Democrat&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Independent &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Independent leaning Republican &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Not so strong Republican&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Strong Republican &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Other &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Don't know&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The county is on the right economic path&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Strongly agree &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Agree &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Neither or N/A &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Disagree &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Strongly Disagree&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However in other instances it is more difficult to figure out what answers should be used&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In your opinion, does a perceptible level of bias in a particular news&#xA;  story affect the overall level of credibility the story has?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Yes, most definitely &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Yes, to some degree &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Yes, a slight effect &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;No, ???? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;No,not really  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;No, not at all&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help or links to resources would be seriously appreciated. Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4552" LastActivityDate="2014-09-21T03:33:33.623" Title="Is there a standard list of Default Answers which are used in Likert 'type' Scales" Tags="&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1946" CreationDate="2014-09-18T20:25:50.003" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all I should say that I'm not a neuroscientist so take my answer with a grain of salt. Your first question was &quot;Why can't human brains be used to do massive parallel processing in the same way computers are doing today?&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the answer to this question has to do with the difference between the multi-core processors computers have and the nuro networks that exist in the human brain. Most processors on a regular computer, with the exception of the GPU, are general purpose processors so that any program or algorithm can be run on any core of the computer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The human brain on the other hand has specific areas of the brain specializing in processing different kinds of input. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the human brain the part of the human brain which controls higher cognitive function is called the prefrontal cortex and one of the jobs of the prefrontal cortex is to determine what from other parts of the brain to listen to and what parts of the brain should be ignored. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also I question your assertion that the human brain does not in fact already engage in parallel processing. Anybody able to hold a conversation while walking or driving is engaging in parallel processing. This is possible because the areas of the brain engaged in language processing are different than the areas associated with image processing and movement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6754" LastActivityDate="2014-09-18T20:25:50.003" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8225" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8252" CreationDate="2014-09-19T00:31:05.980" Score="9" ViewCount="1267" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found many allusions to this feud, e.g. from &lt;a href=&quot;http://nickdunbar.net/2012/05/23/thinking-fast-and-slow-by-daniel-kahneman/&quot;&gt;http://nickdunbar.net/2012/05/23/thinking-fast-and-slow-by-daniel-kahneman/&lt;/a&gt; and in Kahneman's trade book &quot;Thinking, Fast and Slow&quot;. However, I have not found any concise explanation of what Kahneman and Gigerenzer actually disagreed on, other than that Gigerenzer felt that some of the Kahneman/Tversky biases were artefacts of their method and Kahneman/Tversky disagreed with this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="8310" LastEditDate="2014-09-19T00:42:14.177" LastActivityDate="2015-12-09T13:59:41.683" Title="What differences of opinion led to the Kahneman-Gigerenzer feud?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8226" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8312" CreationDate="2014-09-19T10:55:19.367" Score="8" ViewCount="781" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been reading about neuron creation, guidance cues and all sorts of highly complex mechanisms used to allow one neuron axon to extend or connect - but to what end?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Why&lt;/em&gt; does &lt;em&gt;one&lt;/em&gt; neuron end up connecting to another? &lt;em&gt;(instead of all the others)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6739" LastEditorUserId="6739" LastEditDate="2014-09-19T12:22:35.363" LastActivityDate="2019-08-22T14:41:59.593" Title="Why does a neuron choose to connect to another?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8227" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8226" CreationDate="2014-09-19T11:46:09.020" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Donald Hebb originally formulated what would later come to be known as spike-time dependent plasticity by famously stating &quot;neurons that fire together wire together&quot;. In actuality, the firing has to be sequential (not simultaneous) and causal: if a neuron A fires and causes B to consequently fire, the synaptic strength between them increases. This is how the brain implements learning and memory. [1] This principle fits with the idea that the brain essentially learns causal relationships that exist in the world, as formalized in the Bayesian brain hypothesis [2]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Markram et al., &quot;A history of spike-timing-dependent plasticity&quot;: &lt;a href=&quot;http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/168812/files/fnsyn-03-00004.pdf&quot;&gt;http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/168812/files/fnsyn-03-00004.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Clark et al., &quot;Whatever next? Predictive brains, situated agents, and the future of cognitive science&quot;: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/~karl/Whatever%20next.pdf&quot;&gt;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/~karl/Whatever%20next.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-19T11:46:09.020" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8229" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8219" CreationDate="2014-09-19T12:41:39.410" Score="-6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have speculated that it arises from two cognitive biases — but pardon that I will present my conjecture without citations.  (This isn't my focal area)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;our bias for music shows we dis-prefer arhythmic noises.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the arhythmic noise is unpredictable.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think there may also be dissonance between a sympathetic response (to hunger at food odors and others' savoring of flavors), against a conscious choice not to be eating at that time. (only in the case where the person(s) experience &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&amp;amp;ion=1&amp;amp;espv=2&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8#q=misophonia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;misophonia&lt;/a&gt; are not also eating)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastActivityDate="2014-09-19T12:41:39.410" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8230" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8256" CreationDate="2014-09-19T16:59:00.633" Score="2" ViewCount="181" Body="&lt;p&gt;When my dog (an English Cocker Spaniel, for what its worth) is behind some glass (e.g. a glass door or a car window) and someone taps on the glass, even just a little bit, she gets into a fit of rage. She has always been treated quite well, so I can't imagine what causes her to behave like this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first thing that came to my mind is that she perceives whoever is tapping the glass as teasing her, and she feels disrespected, or something like that. This sounds far fetched, but could there be any merit to this theory? If not, what else would cause her to do this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe we know that monkeys interpret teasing correctly (I don't know this for a fact). That is, they know when they are being teased and they (correctly) interpret it as being disrespected. Could the same thing be true for less intelligent animals like dogs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6759" LastActivityDate="2014-09-23T08:24:57.320" Title="Annoyance in animals" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8231" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8249" CreationDate="2014-09-19T17:06:27.420" Score="1" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is often stated that Alzheimer's disease can be prevented to some extent when a person engages more often in challenging mental activities (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/alzheimers-disease/basics/risk-factors/con-20023871&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/alzheimers-disease/basics/risk-factors/con-20023871&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I can imagine that solving mathematical problems is more difficult than watching reality shows on TV, the criteria for this classification are vague to me (Ok not so vague because mathematics requires more cognitive load, but this may not be the only factor). I am interested in how could a psychometric scale that quantifies level of difficulty in a broad range of activities be constructed as it would be useful in research on prevention and rehabilitation of certain neurocognitive disorders. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has such a scale been developed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-09-22T12:43:29.300" Title="Is there a psychometric tool for measuring the difficulty of mental activities?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8234" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8246" CreationDate="2014-09-19T21:32:33.257" Score="5" ViewCount="2092" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible for people with face blindness / prosopagnosia to draw other people (whose faces they cannot recognize) such that non-face-blind people can recognize the people being drawn ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6761" LastEditorUserId="6761" LastEditDate="2014-09-20T18:36:11.100" LastActivityDate="2017-09-19T17:26:21.013" Title="Can prosopagnostic (face-blind) people draw other people recognizably?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8235" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8234" CreationDate="2014-09-19T21:35:00.197" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apparently at least some are able to portrait people realistically, some like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Close&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chuck Close&lt;/a&gt; even photorealistically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slhuang.com/blog/2012/12/19/prosopagnosia-a-tale-of-someone-with-face-blindness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.slhuang.com/blog/2012/12/19/prosopagnosia-a-tale-of-someone-with-face-blindness/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of the weirdest things about all of this is that I’m an artist—a&#xA;  pretty good artist—and when I draw a portrait, it looks like that&#xA;  person’s face.  So I’m clearly able to see distances and features the&#xA;  way I would on an inanimate object.  But for some reason, the&#xA;  “recognition” part of facial recognition in my brain is broken.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/faceblind/conversations/messages/1648&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/faceblind/conversations/messages/1648&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Unfortunately, the linked GeoCities image of the drawing seems to be unavailable, at least not on &lt;a href=&quot;http://archive.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;archive.org&lt;/a&gt; and the GeoCities mirrors I consulted.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/faceblind/conversations/topics/3012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/faceblind/conversations/topics/3012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I draw really well, even though I can't necessarily remember a face.&#xA;  Drawing it helps. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My life drawings don't emphasize the face, though, and what I usually&#xA;  do with a face is the significant gestures of the nose, eyebrows, and&#xA;  mouth, rather than a full rendering. I would hate to do a lot of&#xA;  portraits. My flower portraits, however, are right on!  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This post also seems to indicate that drawing other people &lt;em&gt;might&lt;/em&gt; help face-blind people to better / more quickly recognize characteristic facial features by training observation skills &lt;em&gt;(assumption mine)&lt;/em&gt; although the author admits to struggle with considering &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; features as I understand it.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://legionofhonor.famsf.org/blog/invisible-man-self-portrait-chuck-close&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://legionofhonor.famsf.org/blog/invisible-man-self-portrait-chuck-close&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A famous example for the assumption above is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photorealism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;photorealist painter&lt;/a&gt; Chuck Close who himself says that creating portraits of people helps him &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/entertainment-july-dec10-close_07-06/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;remember faces better&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;CHUCK CLOSE: Yes. I have a great deal of difficulty recognizing faces,&#xA;  especially if I haven’t — if I have just met somebody, I — I — it’s&#xA;  hopeless. I will never remember them again, unless it’s reinforced&#xA;  over and over and over.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6761" LastEditorUserId="6761" LastEditDate="2014-09-20T16:15:50.973" LastActivityDate="2014-09-20T16:15:50.973" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8236" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8009" CreationDate="2014-09-19T21:42:26.450" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A neurodegenerative disorder that appears in boxers after repeated hits on the head is called Dementia pugilistica. I have heard some people call it punch-drunk disease. It manifests as Dementia but often involves paranoia. There is an article on wikipedia about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-09-19T21:42:26.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8237" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-20T16:21:31.077" Score="5" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Our consciousness lags 80 milliseconds behind actual events...The 80-millisecond rule plays all sorts of perceptual tricks on us. As long as a hand-clapper is less than 30 meters away, you hear and see the clap happen together. But beyond this distance, the sound arrives more than 80 milliseconds later than the light, and the brain no longer matches sight and sound. What is weird is that the transition is abrupt: by taking a single step away from you, the hand-clapper goes from in sync to out of sync.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2011/09/15/time-on-the-brain-how-you-are-always-living-in-the-past-and-other-quirks-of-perception/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This made me curious - say we have the following experiment based on the above:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;subject (listening subject)&lt;/strong&gt; wears headphones synchronized with the &lt;strong&gt;hand-clapper&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the &lt;strong&gt;hand-clapper&lt;/strong&gt; starts from 5 meters away and slowly moves to 60 meters away&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;during this time, the &lt;strong&gt;listening subject&lt;/strong&gt; would hear a clapping sound as they would naturally hear the sound &lt;em&gt;based on&lt;/em&gt; the distance of the &lt;strong&gt;hand-clapper&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If, once the &lt;strong&gt;hand-clapper&lt;/strong&gt; reaches 60 meters, the audio is &lt;em&gt;tweaked&lt;/em&gt; such that the &lt;strong&gt;listening subject&lt;/strong&gt; would hear the hand-clapping sound &lt;em&gt;as if&lt;/em&gt; the &lt;strong&gt;hand-clapper&lt;/strong&gt; were only 5 meters away: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Would your typical &lt;strong&gt;listening subject&lt;/strong&gt; visually perceive the&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;hand-clapper&lt;/strong&gt; as having suddenly moved closer (similar to the concept of how we perceive the moon as being &quot;larger&quot; when it's closer&#xA;  to the horizon)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In other words -- under what circumstances, if any, can sound influence&#xA;  our visual perception of depth/proximity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6764" LastEditorUserId="6764" LastEditDate="2014-09-25T12:35:27.693" LastActivityDate="2014-09-25T12:35:27.693" Title="Can our auditory perception be used to trick our visual perception?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8239" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-21T01:53:24.617" Score="2" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm in the process of designing a self-paced-reading &amp;amp; a grammaticality-judgment-task experiment, which should be performed by second language learners. It is crucial to the study is how the subjects differ in their proficiency levels based on which their results on the SPR and GJT will be interpreted. While I need to assess proficiency, the experiment is long enough itself and, therefore, making it difficult to test them on a regular proficiency test besides the experiment they're required to do. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the GJT is a variable meant to be tested in the experiment, I cannot use it as a proficiency measure in addition to the limitations they may involve when it comes to testing language proficiency. Therefore, since the experiment will include many filler items (distractors), I'm trying to find a way to make use of such items to test proficiency without affecting the other target items I'm measuring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm asking is whether there are any testing possibility within this experiment's framework that can be useful to be taken as a reliable measure of language proficiency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd appreciate any reliably applicable ideas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) The experiment involves a sentence self-paced-reading window and then follows it another window with the grammaticality judgment question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) The self-paced reading task is intended for only part of the sentence, so other parts are open for possible use. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6472" LastEditorUserId="6472" LastEditDate="2014-09-21T02:24:27.660" LastActivityDate="2014-09-21T02:24:27.660" Title="How can I embed language proficiency assessment within an unrelated experiment design?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8240" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8223" CreationDate="2014-09-21T03:33:33.623" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are links to several lists of common Likert-type response anchors (the first link provides a nice variety):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.clemson.edu/centers-institutes/tourism/documents/sample-scales.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.clemson.edu/centers-institutes/tourism/documents/sample-scales.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rpgroup.org/sites/default/files/Surveys%20Interactive%20Activity%20-%20Examples%20of%20Likert%20scales.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.rpgroup.org/sites/default/files/Surveys%20Interactive%20Activity%20-%20Examples%20of%20Likert%20scales.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And these links provide suggestions regarding designing these scales and may help you determine how to adapt the anchor options from the first set of links:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uwex.edu/ces/4h/evaluation/documents/wordingforratingscales.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.uwex.edu/ces/4h/evaluation/documents/wordingforratingscales.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://surveynet.ac.uk/sqb/datacollection/likertfactsheet.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://surveynet.ac.uk/sqb/datacollection/likertfactsheet.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://academics.lmu.edu/spee/officeofassessment/surveysevaluation/surveydesign/step3determinetheformatoftheresponseoptions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://academics.lmu.edu/spee/officeofassessment/surveysevaluation/surveydesign/step3determinetheformatoftheresponseoptions/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dism.ssri.duke.edu/pdfs/Tipsheet%20-%20Response%20Scales.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.dism.ssri.duke.edu/pdfs/Tipsheet%20-%20Response%20Scales.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2014-09-21T03:33:33.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8241" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8242" CreationDate="2014-09-21T14:13:06.730" Score="3" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read an article about the consciousness in vegetative patients. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Owen&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Adrian Owen&lt;/a&gt; is one of the neuroscientist making research on this field. The article published on &quot;Le scienze&quot; was about the usage of fMRI before and EEG later, to check the presence of a consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you know of similar group of research in Italy? &#xA;Is their work consolidated enough to be applied in the clinical practice by another neurologist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2014-09-21T18:52:21.097" Title="Finding consciousness through EEG" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8242" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8241" CreationDate="2014-09-21T18:52:21.097" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know any such group in Italy but there is a group in Liege, Belgium which is called Coma Science Group. It consists of scientists of various disciplines and their main interest is understanding disorders of consciousness. Also their work has a clinical orientation as well. From your description, I think it will be interesting to you. Their website is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.coma.ulg.ac.be&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.coma.ulg.ac.be&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-09-21T18:52:21.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8243" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8200" CreationDate="2014-09-21T19:30:46.070" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;With regard to the body perception question, I hope you have read &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/111/2/646.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; (doi: 10.1073/pnas.1321664111)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6767" LastEditorUserId="6767" LastEditDate="2014-09-22T14:00:05.563" LastActivityDate="2014-09-22T14:00:05.563" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8244" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8213" CreationDate="2014-09-21T21:28:36.150" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ha, I was going to mention the Kok Neuron paper :) The Cerebral Cortex one does not use decoding however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This one may also be of interest to you:&#xA;Vetter, P., Smith, F. W., &amp;amp; Muckli, L. (2014). Decoding Sound and Imagery Content in Early Visual Cortex. Current Biology, 24(11), 1256-1262.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lars Muckli is in general someone who might have more of the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also know &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeheelab.org/publications.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this lab&lt;/a&gt; does decoding and attention and V1, so maybe some of those publications will capture all three.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll edit later if I think of something else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2014-09-21T21:28:36.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8245" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8276" CreationDate="2014-09-22T00:28:41.830" Score="2" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psiexp.ss.uci.edu/research/teaching/Tversky_Kahneman_1974.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tversky &amp;amp; Kahneman (1974)&lt;/a&gt; asserts that it is so, and some scrabble-playing experience convinces me that it's true. However, I've never seen an explanation of why it is true. I assume it has something to do with how the lexicon is organized, but I haven't been able to find any sources on that point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastActivityDate="2014-09-26T16:14:02.820" Title="Why is it easier to search memory for words starting with a particular letter than for words with that letter in a later position?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8246" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8234" CreationDate="2014-09-22T10:51:34.530" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Bruce &amp;amp; Young model (1986), face recognition is composed of 2 main sub-processes, one more &quot;perceptive&quot; (called structural encoding) and the other one more &quot;associative&quot; (fru, pin, name generation). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/cms/attachment/551174/3919027/gr5.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bruce &amp;amp; Young model&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person with &quot;apperceptive prosopagnosia&quot; cannot create a precise percept, that is a mental representation of who he's looking at. He's unlikely to be able to draw other people face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person with &quot;associative prosopagnosia&quot; can create a percept of who he sees, but he cannot understand who the person is, deficit is semantic not perceptive. In this case, he is able to draw other people face, even though he cannot recognize it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This subdivision can be found also in object recognition process and its related impairments: apperceptive agnosia and associative agnosia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's important to note that all this stuff is heavily theoretical. Reality is much more complex and sometimes unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psicologia1.uniroma1.it/repository/13/Bruce_1986_copia.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bruce, V., &amp;amp; Young, A. (1986). Understanding face recognition. British journal of psychology, 77(3), 305-327.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6768" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-10-10T09:08:10.550" LastActivityDate="2016-10-10T09:08:10.550" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8247" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8217" CreationDate="2014-09-22T11:51:12.740" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I completely agree with most the factors you've identified, but before I suggest some additional points, &lt;strong&gt;I'd like to correct one of yours:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;file formats that can only be read in MATLAB&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unless you're talking about some obscure format that I'm unaware of (entirely possible!), MATLAB files &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; readable by non-MATLAB tools.  In particular, &lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy/reference/io.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;scipy.io&lt;/a&gt; provides flawless I/O from/to .mat files (especially since yours truly submitted a minor patch ;) ).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mention this because it's an excellent argument for making the switch towards the scientific python stack;  my Ph.D advisor only knows MATLAB, but she has become much less reluctant to work with Python since I explained that everything I did could be trivially made to interact with existing MATLAB code.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additional (Python-centric) reasons why MATLAB remains king:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;There's what I call &quot;battered spouse syndrome&quot;:&lt;/strong&gt;  researchers are used to the pain and suffering caused by MATLAB and wrongly assume that it's just part of the programming landscape.  In other words, &lt;strong&gt;they don't know any better&lt;/strong&gt;.  They don't realize that there are tools that are more pleasant to use, more robust, (often) faster, more reliable, free and extensible.  It's a classic case of thinking that all programming languages (eligible bachelors) are as abusive as your current tool (spouse).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Researchers are put off by IDLE and aren't aware of such great tools as:&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;IPython&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;IPython Notebook  (this will really rock your socks if you haven't seen it yet)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spyder  (for those seeking a MATLAB-esque graphical interface)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People haven't seen the &lt;a href=&quot;http://pandas.pydata.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pandas library&lt;/a&gt; in action.  I know it's a bit presumptuous to claim that a single library can convert steadfast MATLAB users, but Pandas, especially when combined with the IPython notebook, makes dealing with labeled matrices downright enjoyable.  It offers such things as:&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;string-labeled columns and/or rows&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;groupby, split &amp;amp; merge operations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;baked-in plotting with fine-grained control&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;baked-in summary &amp;amp; inferential statistics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Python has historically been quite a pain in the ass to install on windows and OSX, and most potential users are still unaware that the &lt;a href=&quot;https://store.continuum.io/cshop/anaconda/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Anaconda distribution&lt;/a&gt; has all but completely solved the problem.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My reason for bringing up point &lt;code&gt;3&lt;/code&gt; is more than just a shameless plug for the Pandas library.  I wanted to draw your attention to the fact that Pandas manages to combine MATLAB's most sought-after features (fast numerical arrays, logical indexing, plotting &amp;amp; myriad 3rd party libraries) with some of the most useful features of the R language (DataFrame-like structures, summary stats, split/combine/apply operations, missing data management (e.g. fill-forward, interpolation, etc).  With this library, you can essentially make the argument that you're replacing &lt;em&gt;two&lt;/em&gt; languages for most common purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And now a &lt;em&gt;real&lt;/em&gt; shameless plug:  I'm one of the moderators on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.reddit.com/r/pystats&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reddit's /r/pystats&lt;/a&gt;.  Anybody trying to ditch Matlab is more than welcome around these parts ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="2926" LastEditDate="2014-09-22T12:43:08.497" LastActivityDate="2014-09-22T12:43:08.497" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8248" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8237" CreationDate="2014-09-22T12:26:29.400" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is definitely yes, if you take a slightly different example &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03206096#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;MacDonald &amp;amp; McGurk (1978)&lt;/a&gt;.  The McGurk effect in linguistics is quite well-known: given video of a mouth pronouncing a bilabial consonant, and synced audio of a nonlabial consonant, the viewer will generally report hearing a consonant whose place of articulation is roughly the average of the bilabial vs nonlabial POAs.  (The audio of the nonlabial consonant alone is generally identified accurately.)  Speech is often a bit of a special case when it comes to perception, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MacDonald, J., &amp;amp; McGurk, H. (1978). Visual influences on speech perception processes, &lt;em&gt;Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics&lt;/em&gt; May 1978, Volume 24, Issue 3, pp 253-257. DOI 10.3758/BF03206096&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-09-22T12:26:29.400" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8249" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8231" CreationDate="2014-09-22T12:43:29.300" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a workload measure called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://pro.sagepub.com/content/50/9/904.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NASA-TLX&lt;/a&gt; (Task Load Index), one component of which measures mental workload.  It is self-reported workload, however, and also requires interrupting most tasks, so it has some theoretical as well as practical weaknesses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also decently good data that working memory load can be extracted from theta-band activity in the frontal regions, possibly due to the parieto-frontal circuits between the anterior cingulate, inferior frontal, and posterior parietal cortices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(All of this, however, assumes that working memory load and &quot;difficulty&quot; are the same thing.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nasa-Task Load Index (NASA-TLX); 20 Years Later. Hart, S. (2006). Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting October 2006 vol. 50 no. 9 904-908 doi: 10.1177/154193120605000909&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evidence for effects of task difficulty but not learning on neurophysiological variables associated with effort. Brouwer, A. &amp;amp; al. (2014). International Journal of Psychophysiology Volume 93, Issue 2, August 2014, Pages 242–252. &#xA;doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.05.004&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Working memory load modulation of parieto-frontal connections: Evidence from dynamic causal modeling. Ma, L.; Steinberg, J.; Hasan, K.; Narayana, P.; Kramer, L.; et al. Human Brain Mapping 33.8 (Aug 2012): 1850-1867.&#xA;doi: 10.1002/hbm.21329&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-09-22T12:43:29.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8250" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-22T14:25:32.533" Score="3" ViewCount="162" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychiatrists and psychologists are often tasked with assessing a criminal defendant's competency to stand trial or his capacity for criminal responsibility. What objective tests are useful for assessing whether the person is malingering or faking symptoms to appear not competent to stand trial or not guilty by reason of insanity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a prosecutor in the US. We are getting more cases where the defendant's competency to stand trial is called into question by defense counsel. Many of the forensic examiners are concluding that defendants are not competent without seeming to use objective measures to rule out malingering. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6770" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-09-23T07:44:05.590" LastActivityDate="2014-09-23T07:44:05.590" Title="How to test for malingering in criminals trying to deny capacity for criminal responsibility?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8251" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8250" CreationDate="2014-09-22T15:42:11.473" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Tests for malingering are founded on the following assumption: there are symptomps that even the worst illness doesn't include. These tests aim at assessing these symptomps, that are unrealistic, fake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A famous memory test for malingering is Digit Memory Test (Hiscock et al., 1989)&#xA;It is a very easy test, even a person with Alzheimer can perform well.&#xA;Moreover, the subject is told that is very difficult and everyone has some trouble in aswering some questions (this is an alternative way to say: if you are going to fake, do your best!)&#xA;They worked out that by answering randomly there is 50% probability of correct answers. &#xA;Thus, the hypotesis is that one who gets a lower score is simulating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stef from Italy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6768" LastActivityDate="2014-09-22T15:42:11.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8252" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8225" CreationDate="2014-09-22T16:15:37.117" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been quite astonished by this nonsensical yet lasting quarrel. You didn't find how they disagree because they don't disagree. The sole difference is that if asked &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;are human rational ?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;, Gigerenzer answers &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;yes&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;, Kahneman answers &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, their model of human reasoning are consistent with each other. They just don't use the word &quot;rational&quot; in the same way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When asked whether humans are rational, Gigerenzer understands the question as &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Are human cognitive mecanisms fitted to the environment ?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;, whereas Kahneman understands this question as &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Are human taking decisions that maximize their utility function ?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;. Kahneman study decisions, and he finds that they are not good/not efficient (i.e., not rational). Gigerenzer study reasoning mechanisms (his heuristics), and he argues that those mechanisms are good/efficient (i.e, rational). Decisions and mechanisms are not the same thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you ask Gigerenzer whether humans take decisions that maximize their utility function, he will happily answer &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;No&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;. Indeed, Gigerenzer wants people to take better decisions, but he will not call those &quot;more rational decisions&quot;.&#xA;If you ask Kahneman whether human cognitive mecanisms are adapted to the environment, he will happily answer &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Obviously, because evolution is true&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;. To me, Kahneman's definition of rationality makes much more sense. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a more extended discussion, you can find the following paper which settles the question on google scholar : Samuels, R., Stich, S., &amp;amp; Bishop, M. (2012). Ending the Rationality Wars. Collected Papers, Volume 2: Knowledge, Rationality, and Morality, 1978-2010, 2, 191.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6771" LastEditorUserId="6771" LastEditDate="2015-12-09T13:59:41.683" LastActivityDate="2015-12-09T13:59:41.683" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8254" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-22T18:08:33.497" Score="1" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard and experienced a little that unconscious mental processes involved in storing memories work really well when you are not thinking about your study subject during rest. However, I'm not sure mental effort such as reading a novel is as effective as physical effort for consolidation of studied information. What is the effect of irrelevant mental exercise on memory consolidation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6712" LastEditorDisplayName="user6682" LastEditDate="2014-09-25T23:26:15.223" LastActivityDate="2014-09-25T23:26:15.223" Title="What is the effect of irrelevant reading after study on memory consolidation?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8255" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8250" CreationDate="2014-09-23T05:32:49.340" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;More comprehensive ones than the abovementioned memory test include the &lt;a href=&quot;http://cjb.sagepub.com/content/32/6/591.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Miller Forensic Assessement of Symptoms&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0957/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms&lt;/a&gt;. These assess a wide variety of psychiatric symptoms and are supposedly very hard to fake. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-23T05:32:49.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8256" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8230" CreationDate="2014-09-23T08:11:30.907" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Teasing generally seems to have two components. First, as mentioned in the title of your question, it is a matter of becoming &lt;em&gt;annoyed&lt;/em&gt;; specifically at behavior that is (often repetitively) enacted towards oneself. Furthermore, to know that someone is teasing you it is necessary to be able to conceptualize their intentions (otherwise known as having a &quot;&lt;em&gt;theory of mind&lt;/em&gt;&quot;), which is necessary in order to potentially feel disrespected. It is uncontroversial that dogs can feel annoyed, just try relieving one of its food (or tapping on the glass it is behind ;). &lt;strong&gt;However, the extent to which dogs are able to conceive of the mental states of others is debated in animal psychology&lt;/strong&gt;. It has been shown, for instance, that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.ufl.edu/~caninecognition/Documents/Animal%20Behaviour%202008%20wolf%20dog%20article.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;certain populations of dogs are unable to spontaneously adapt to human social cues&lt;/a&gt;. However, naturally, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/spackled/2011readings/Udell%20Dorey%20Wynne.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;many pet domestic dogs are great at adapting to their owners behaviors&lt;/a&gt;. Dogs are not &quot;man's best friend&quot; for no reason - they do possess the ability to learn social cues. However, it seems that this has to be taught, whereas it seems that humans have a much greater &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.casinapioiv.va/content/dam/accademia/pdf/sv121/sv121-frithu.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;innate predisposition to TOM/mentalizing&lt;/a&gt;. In conclusion, dogs' TOM seems to be a significantly more superficial ability than it is in humans. This leads me to suggest that tapping on the glass causes your Cocker Spaniel to either a) want to play oh-so-badly, or b) get (really) annoyed. They surely don't understand teasing with the full social capacity of a human.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastEditorDisplayName="user6682" LastEditDate="2014-09-23T08:24:57.320" LastActivityDate="2014-09-23T08:24:57.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8258" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7876" CreationDate="2014-09-23T12:51:17.373" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;With regard to the relationship between the brain and complexity theory, I think it's important to remember that the brain hardly ever comes up with exact solutions to problems and seems to prefer inductive reasoning to deduction. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kde.cs.uni-kassel.de/ws/LLWA03/fgml/final/pena.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How to induce a minesweeper strategy computationally&lt;/a&gt;) Furthermore, we mostly conjure up approximations. &lt;a href=&quot;http://matt.colorado.edu/teaching/highcog/readings/oc9.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Précis of Bayesian Rationality: The Probabilistic Approach to Human Reasoning&lt;/a&gt; discusses problem solving in inexact (probabilistic) terms. I believe that one of the follow-up articles (Identifying the optimal response is not a necessary step toward explaining function, page 85) is relevant to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;An explanation requiring an optimal response function must also&#xA;consider that: (e) for problems of inductive inference, the optimal&#xA;response is often analytically intractable to determine with exact&#xA;methods, and will not be unique; (f) behavioral responses are typically&#xA;approximately optimal, revealing a tendency rather than a&#xA;correspondence&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-23T12:51:17.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8259" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-23T15:49:32.117" Score="3" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;First question - sorry Cognitive Science is a closed book to me so I hope someone can give me an insight into this phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have a child's toy that is activated by clapping of the hands. To me, I always perceive the activation of the toy to take place a split second &lt;strong&gt;before&lt;/strong&gt; I perceive the sound of the hand clap - even, perhaps &lt;em&gt;especially&lt;/em&gt;, when it is me that is doing the hand clapping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recognise that this must be a perception issue because the sound has to travel, perhaps 12 times the distance to the toy compared to my ears, then be processed by the electronics before the sound of the toy reaches back to me. How is it possible that I hear the sound of the toy before the sound of the handclap?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6774" LastActivityDate="2014-09-25T15:34:56.250" Title="Perception of abrupt noise" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8260" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8259" CreationDate="2014-09-23T19:31:11.343" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Judging from your description I think it has to do with the predictability of a certain event (the activation of the toy in this case) after a certain action (the hand clapping), altering your perception of temporal order between the event and your action. David Eagleman has done some research on this suggesting that when one has the intention of generating a certain event that has a high probability to occur, this event can be perceived to happen earlier than the action that caused it. That maybe explains why it especially happens when you are the agent. At least that is what I got from reading this paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.usyd.edu.au/staff/alexh/research/papers/EaglemanHolcombeTiCS2002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psych.usyd.edu.au/staff/alexh/research/papers/EaglemanHolcombeTiCS2002.pdf&lt;/a&gt; Feel free to correct me if you think my description is wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless, the field of time perception has generally revealed many illusions in human timing and if you are interested in more you can read the work of Benjamin Libet as well on time and conscious awareness &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/067401846X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.com/Mind-Time-Consciousness-Perspectives-Neuroscience/dp/067401846X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-09-23T19:31:11.343" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8263" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8237" CreationDate="2014-09-24T10:05:40.800" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't buy it the claim made in the quote. The speed of sound is roughly 1 foot per millsecond so even if you take a large 3 foot step you are changing the audio visual onset asynchrony by only 3 ms. What this means is that if you present a flash and a click with various onset asynchrony to subjects you would expect there to be a narrow range of lags (less than 3 ms) over which they stop reporting that the flash occurred first. This study was run by &lt;a href=&quot;http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/285/art%253A10.3758%252FPP.70.6.955.pdf?auth66=1411724940_c6ca400a0ac5f5955debf70b4619f206&amp;amp;ext=.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;van Eijk et al (2008)&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KkDKI.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The relevant data are the temporal order judgements (TOJ) and it is clear that it is a smooth transition between thinking the flash was first and the click was first and not an abrupt step. Further, the transition takes around 200 ms or to get back to the original claim, about 100 steps. The 80 ms claim seems reasonable in that you do not consistently report the visual stimulus as occurring first more than 70% of the time until it occurs more than 80 ms before the sound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-09-24T10:05:40.800" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8264" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8259" CreationDate="2014-09-24T10:30:48.737" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is possible that the acoustics of the situation can explain the perception. If the clapping of your hands acts as a highly directional sound source (I cannot quickly find any measurements of the acoustic directionality of hand claps) then it is possible that very little direct sound reaches your ears and you are only hearing the &quot;echo&quot; of the clap. In other words the sound waves propagate from your hands to a reflecting surface like a wall and then to your ears. Depending on how far away these reflecting surfaces are could mean the sound reaches the toy substantially before it reaches your ears. A way to test this would be to see if your perception changes in an anechoic chamber where there are no reflecting surfaces. If you do not have an anechoic chamber in your basement, and I pity you if you don't, then you can go outside away from any buildings and walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-09-24T10:30:48.737" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8265" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="29" CreationDate="2014-09-24T11:23:25.857" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Malone and Lepper (1987) is often cited as the seminal paper regarding gamification for education. They started off by identifying factors which affect computer game preferences and then identified motivational factors. &lt;a href=&quot;http://sag.sagepub.com/content/36/4/483.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Habgood et al (2005)&lt;/a&gt; built on this taxonomy and developed a high quality game for supporting the teaching of division. My understanding is that the key finding from that study is that the motivating factors should ideally be linked to the learning material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Malone, T. &amp;amp; Lepper (1987). Making Learning Fun: A Taxonomy of Intrinsic Motivations for Learning. In Snow, R. &amp;amp; Farr, M. J. (Ed), Aptitude, Learning, and Instruction Volume 3: Conative and Affective Process Analyses. Hillsdale, NJ&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-09-24T11:23:25.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8266" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8217" CreationDate="2014-09-24T14:37:37.840" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the major reason is inertia, in the sense that many labs use Matlab, so many Matlab toolboxes are available, so many labs train people in the use of Matlab...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as a trained software engineer turned Neuroscientist who has been programming in various languages for close to 30 years, there are several reasons why I actually enjoy using Matlab. One can also make arguments for why it's a good fit for labs filled with people who aren't programmers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(As an aside, the &lt;code&gt;.mat&lt;/code&gt; file format is actually a standard file format called &quot;HDF&quot;. So I don't think that file format lock-in is a real reason.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Things Matlab does well&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Very good cross-platform support.&lt;/strong&gt; Matlab runs out of the box on every major platform. In research, when you want something to &lt;em&gt;just work&lt;/em&gt;, spending days getting a python distribution configured with a mutually-compatible set of package versions is just ridiculous. Caveat: I haven't tried anaconda, which hopefully has solved this problem.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Very low housekeeping overhead.&lt;/strong&gt; No other serious language (is BASIC a serious language?) lets you start writing code without having to include headers, define namespaces, allocate memory... For biologists without programming experience, this is a godsend.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Integrated debugging environment.&lt;/strong&gt; Non-programmers will not easily be able to learn a language that does not come with an IDE. R, I'm looking at you. Python has very nice options now.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intrinsic vectorisation of operations.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;code&gt;for&lt;/code&gt; loops are kind of ugly and error-prone, when what you really want to do is perform an operation on every element of a matrix or perform matrix operations. I know that Python has some add-ins to accomplish matrix operations, but Python itself is not vectorised.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Support for object-oriented software design.&lt;/strong&gt; As a legacy language, Matlab has a whole bunch of baggage. Mathworks is slowly improving the design of the language and adding other niceties (the parallel computing toolbox is pretty great): the class system; &lt;code&gt;table&lt;/code&gt;s with named columns; the ability to ignore return and input arguments in function calls; function handles; namespaces...&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ability to work across machine abstraction levels.&lt;/strong&gt; Matlab used to be slow, but the JIT compilation works wonders and keeps improving. You can operate at a very high level of abstraction with classes and objects; if you need something fast and low-level, you can write a small amount of C code and call it natively from Matlab.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Things Matlab does badly&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Graphics and GUIDE.&lt;/strong&gt; Oh my god. Handle graphics is pretty horrible. I know they are working on version 2, and it can't come soon enough. &lt;code&gt;matplotlib&lt;/code&gt; in Python looks much better, and R makes amazing graphs out of the box. GUIs are pretty ugly to design in any language, but GUIDE makes it very easy to write some really horrible code.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Global namespace.&lt;/strong&gt; This is sort-of true, and sort-of makes sense for convenience's sake. It's an inherent tradeoff between ease of use and nice encapsulation. Matlab does provide namespace support now, but I think it's still true that the vast majority of toolboxes don't use it.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;First-class functions.&lt;/strong&gt; If the anonymous function system could be upgraded slightly to handle multiple return arguments and to handle currying... Also, intrinsic support for named arguments and parameters would be greatly helpful, especially considering that many Matlab functions accept named parameters as part of their calling syntax.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastEditorUserId="6422" LastEditDate="2014-09-24T21:36:46.427" LastActivityDate="2014-09-24T21:36:46.427" CommentCount="18" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8267" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-24T17:10:52.967" Score="3" ViewCount="1097" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would really like to know what are the differences between the form A and form B of Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test scale 3?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge (reading the &quot;methods&quot; section in the scientific literature) they seem to have the same number of problems and subsets. Do they differ in the time allowed to solve them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes the researchers use both forms together (A+B) sometimes they only use one. Why? Less administration time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or are they alternative versions which exist to be able to test the subjects twice?&#xA;Are there reasons to prefer one over the other (MENSA only uses form A)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6781" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-09-24T23:13:07.507" LastActivityDate="2017-06-15T14:44:38.550" Title="Difference between forms of Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT) scale 3" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8268" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-25T06:51:47.267" Score="3" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is a widespread notion in psychology that there are two dimensions to emotion: valence (aversiveness or attractiveness of some entity) and intensity. However, recent experimental studies in neuropsychology (e.g. those listed below) have given strong evidence for two distinct pathways which process reward and punishment associated with some input. This in turn compellingly suggests that valence is in fact made up of two independent dimensions, and I'm guessing there are behavioral studies reaching similar conclusions (i.e. that persons are able to have &quot;mixed feelings&quot;). How do we reconcile these views? Are we forced to reject one-dimensional valence on the basis of the evidence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Distinct pathways for reward/punishment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Paton, Joseph J., and Kenway Louie. &quot;Reward and punishment illuminated.&quot; Nature neuroscience 15.6 (2012): 807.&#xA;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/225043743_Reward_and_punishment_illuminated/file/e0b495227b6d325c3d.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/225043743_Reward_and_punishment_illuminated/file/e0b495227b6d325c3d.pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fujiwara, Juri, et al. &quot;Segregated and integrated coding of reward and punishment in the cingulate cortex.&quot; Journal of Neurophysiology 101.6 (2009): 3284-3293.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Monosov, Ilya E., and Okihide Hikosaka. &quot;Regionally distinct processing of rewards and punishments by the primate ventromedial prefrontal cortex.&quot; The Journal of Neuroscience 32.30 (2012): 10318-10330.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2015-02-22T21:18:30.070" Title="Reconciling one-dimensional valence with distinct mechanisms for reward/punishment" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8270" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8254" CreationDate="2014-09-25T12:12:59.623" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/6615472_High_impact_running_improves_learning/links/00463529f1df0d6a7b000000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;citation on the neurochemical effects of exercise beneficial to memory consolidation&lt;/a&gt;. Certain activities (post-study) that modulate neurotransmitter systems have generally been shown to affect how well the brain stores memories, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v17/n2/full/nn.3623.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;caffeine consumption&lt;/a&gt;. Regarding the topic of your question, i.e. the effect of mental exercise on memory consolidation, it seems that post-study mental exertion has a &lt;strong&gt;negative&lt;/strong&gt; effect on consolidation. &lt;a href=&quot;https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=oberlin1371024975&amp;amp;disposition=inline&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This work&lt;/a&gt; cites a number of studies which generally show something along the lines of: &quot;wakeful rest provided a more favorable condition for memory consolidation than the non-verbal cognitive task.&quot; Generally speaking, memory consolidation seems to work best under the influence of specific neurotransmitter release (induced by physical activity, for instance) or &lt;strong&gt;rest&lt;/strong&gt;. After all, one main theory of why we sleep is that it is for the purpose of storing memories. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-09-25T12:12:59.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8271" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3957" CreationDate="2014-09-25T15:04:24.100" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a theory that laughter like this expresses a reaction to absurdity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a situation is serious but cannot be assimilated because of dissociation or shock, it is in the same state as an absurd statement -- you are trying to take it seriously, or find meaning in it, but you just can't.  You keep giving up, but then trying again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the situation is &lt;em&gt;real&lt;/em&gt; in this case, the impulse toward laughter can be much stronger than real humorous laughter evokes.  In my experience it is accompanied by a specific feeling of dissociation, like living in a Lewis Carroll novel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who use forms of therapy that involve planned confrontation can evoke this kind of irresistible laughter by challenging a core belief so directly that the client detaches in the same way they might in an emergency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6786" LastActivityDate="2014-09-25T15:04:24.100" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8272" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8268" CreationDate="2014-09-25T15:17:01.987" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that we are.  But the notion of 'valence' is already problematic, as a variation on mathematical negation, which produces bizarre mathematical artifacts like Russel's Paradox.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is tempting to follow natural language and find two balancing processes always add up to a sign and a magnitude.  But in fact no two processes are ever going to consistently align in perfectly opposite directions, and in the gaps there is still interesting behavior.  Something as clean as real negation only ever occurs in language and in theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We know from earlier studies of memory that positive or negative memories are the result of separate reactions from the back-brain and the frontal lobe, and that people can actually become attached to negative stimuli like physical pain for the pleasure they produce.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One would expect the same sort of balancing act, if not exactly the same process in a less direct form, to explain the effects of reward and punishment.  So there will be places, parallel to the situation of attraction to pain, where reward and punishment do not align as opposites.  (Situations of getting attention through punishment, or in its aftermath come to mind.)  In such situations, the notion of valence only gets in the way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6786" LastActivityDate="2014-09-25T15:17:01.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8274" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8285" CreationDate="2014-09-26T10:49:15.643" Score="0" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know an individual who has incredibly aggressive mannerisms including snatching things, raising voice and speaking with a very aggressive tone of voice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, since this person is completely non-violent - would never raise a finger against anyone, no-one ever &lt;em&gt;considers&lt;/em&gt; them aggressive - and nor does this individual, as their response is always &quot;I'd never hit anyone&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a word or psychological term which describes this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6739" LastActivityDate="2014-09-27T22:48:05.177" Title="Is there a name for highly aggressive non-violent people?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8276" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8245" CreationDate="2014-09-26T16:14:02.820" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very interesting question. Unfortunately, I was not able to find something that would give you a clear answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In essence, I think this question is asking for a cognitive mechanism underlying word generation in phonemic/phonological &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_fluency_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;verbal fluency test&lt;/a&gt; which is a matter that has rarely been addressed &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/06/04/brain.aws142.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Robinson et al, 2012).&lt;/a&gt; Studies such as the previous and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2832834/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; have revealed that the neural systems for word generation by letter and by semantic cue are different, so one can assume that the explanation for the phenomenon you mention is probably not relevant to semantic properties of the word. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, studies by Troyer et al (1997, mentioned &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.gr/books?id=jQ7n4QVw7-0C&amp;amp;pg=PA503&amp;amp;lpg=PA503&amp;amp;dq=phonemic%20clusters&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=F61TTFMA26&amp;amp;sig=lbPxGyaIHCbEU-FQEcN_PP0DAp0&amp;amp;hl=el&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=xoQlVLDkAsXOygOe_ICIDg&amp;amp;ved=0CIMBEOgBMA4#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=phonemic%20clusters&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) have shown that in a phonemic fluency test, a person often uses a strategy called &quot;clustering&quot;. In this case, it is phonemic clustering and &quot;clusters are defined as successively generated words that begin with the same first two letters, differing only by a vowel sound, or are homonyms&quot;. This may be indicative of how words are organized and represented in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;verbal memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the question remains as to why this form of organization and representation occurs instead of another. A possible explanation may lie in the ways we use to learn words, namely in what has been named as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_learning_in_language_acquisition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;statistical learning&lt;/a&gt;. This correlation I am making is certainly a speculation and I don't know if it is a valid one but I imagine that because syllables form into words according to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cog.jhu.edu/courses/334-f2005/ngrams&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;transitional probabilities&lt;/a&gt; from one to another, a phonological representation of a word might be more easily activated by the first letters while a parallel activation might also occur throughout a certain phonemic cluster for successively generated words.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-09-26T16:14:02.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8277" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8286" CreationDate="2014-09-26T16:24:51.227" Score="7" ViewCount="513" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In spring 1998, Robert Plomin claimed to have discovered a gene linked with intelligence. &lt;strong&gt;More recently, the Human Genome Project was cautious when approaching areas implying racial differences since research actually shows greater genetic differences within races than between races.&lt;/strong&gt; However, not all individuals are endowed with the same intelligence and many believe this must have something to do with our genes and the way they interact with the environment. Identical twins are more likely to obtain the same score in an IQ test than twins from two separate eggs that have a different genetic make- up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is important to remember that genes work by interacting with the environment, so social factors will also infl uence intelligence. Intelligence tests may be more of an assessment of social factors, such as your educational background. &lt;strong&gt;Black children adopted into white middle-class families score signifi cantly higher on average than those in working-class families – implying a cultural slant to tests.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My classmate thinks that this article suggests that race is suggested as determining intelligence, because race is mentioned several times in the article as being linked to intelligence, whether genetically or through social factors. &#xA; I want to check this before confronting her, but I think not. Who's right? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my view, the first bolded sentence dismisses race as a determinant, because there are 'greater  genetic differences within' each race than between different races. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second bolded sentence also rejects race, because it only shows a cultural slant to tests and the first sentence of the last para states 'social factors will also infl uence intelligence.' &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: ‘Are you born brainy?’, 17 November 2004, from BBC News at www.bbcnews.com&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-09-28T05:18:00.557" LastActivityDate="2014-09-29T22:03:20.140" Title="How to interpret a BBC news article on the effect of race on intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8280" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-27T01:40:33.037" Score="4" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember stumbling across a very interesting study/experiment a few months ago. Now I want to try to find it again. Unfortunately I cannot for the life of me recall the name of the experiment nor the names of the experimenters. I was hoping somebody here could help me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study went something like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two groups of subjects are shown the same set of images, but with different labels on them. &#xA;Later they are asked to draw the same images from memory.&#xA;The results showed that they tended to draw a picture that more closely represented the label that was on it than the original. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure if this was meant to show perceptual sets, priming, context effects or what have you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anybody know which study this was?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6793" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-09-28T10:46:55.813" LastActivityDate="2014-09-28T13:31:31.533" Title="Study of recollection of drawings based on labels" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8281" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8282" CreationDate="2014-09-27T03:18:19.370" Score="1" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have the tendency to get obsessively interested in a subject for 2 weeks, get bored, and then move on to something else.  For instance I have just started learning about chess and find myself extremely interested in it at the moment but know it will most likely pass soon.  In the last year I have looked at window farms, cooking, entrepreneurship (I started a muse business), tea, classic books (such as huckleberry Finn and Waldon), graphic novels... you get the idea!  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point is that most the time I do not find myself repeating the same topics again or express much interest towards them.  It might be more that I enjoy learning the topics but not going in depth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering, is there a name for this tendency?  Is this a trait found more often in men than women?  I don't really find it a problem, if anything it is beneficial because it pushes me to learn new things.  But nonetheless I am curious if there is a name for this behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6789" LastEditorUserId="6789" LastEditDate="2014-09-27T05:33:23.567" LastActivityDate="2014-09-27T05:33:23.567" Title="Is there a name for having an obsessive interest in new topics for short periods of time?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8282" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8281" CreationDate="2014-09-27T05:31:43.293" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;That's great that you have this ability -- it's your &quot;special power&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't believe there is a special term for &quot;intense preoccupations with narrow subjects&quot;, but such behavior is a common, but not necessary, feature of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asperger_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Asperger Syndrome&lt;/a&gt; or AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;AD does occur more often in men than women. According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jaacap.com/article/S0890-8567%2809%2961723-8/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, prevalence in men is between 2-4X greater than in women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2014-09-27T05:31:43.293" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8283" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8280" CreationDate="2014-09-27T10:52:21.507" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on your description I was able to find the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Klatzky, R.L. &amp;amp; Rafnel, K. (1976).Labeling effects on memory for nonsense pictures. &lt;em&gt;Memory &amp;amp; Cognition, 4&lt;/em&gt;(6), 717-720. (there is a pdf version on researchgate.net, I couldn't upload it here)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Bower, G.H., Karlin, M.B., &amp;amp; Dueck, A. (1975). Comprehension and memory for pictures. &lt;em&gt;Memory and Cognition, 3&lt;/em&gt;(2), 216-220. (pdf &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03212900&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the design and results of those studies are a bit different from what you describe. Labeling facilitated free recall (reproduction) better than no labeling when someone was presented with droodles (images with no meaning). Also, in the Klatzky and Rafnel study, it was shown that meaningful labels contributed to significantly better free recall of images than meaningless labels. So I am not sure if this is what you are looking for, but you can take a look.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-09-28T13:31:31.533" LastActivityDate="2014-09-28T13:31:31.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8284" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1749" CreationDate="2014-09-27T21:52:22.623" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following comes from my research experience using fMRI to study the human visual system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, peoples brains are similar to each other on higher scales, and become very different from each other as the scale becomes smaller.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Differences between different people start with brain size and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sulci&lt;/a&gt; patterns. Also male and female brain anatomies will be slightly different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wiring patterns within same brain regions will be similar between people, but as you get to individual neurons, it starts to look very chaotic. Dendrites will have stereotypical tree shapes for certain neurons (i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramidal_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pyramidal cells&lt;/a&gt;), but individual branches will be somewhat randomly distributed within their stereotypical areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you get to the synaptic receptor/&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_channel&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ion channel&lt;/a&gt; level, their distribution will be even more chaotic. Keep in mind the receptors themselves will behave stochasticaly, opening and closing based on when a particular ligand molecule binds to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The anatomical shapes of the brains will be mostly based on genes, so people within the same haplogroup should have brain anatomies slightly more similar than general population, but even those should have individual variations. Dendrite and receptor distribution generally depends on learning, so people with different initial conditions and environments during development will have dendrites wired differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the most fascinating aspect of these differences is that human minds are essentially slightly different neural networks that perceive the world in their own slightly different ways. The closer the genes and development environment between two people, the more similar will be their perceptions of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2014-09-27T21:52:22.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8285" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8274" CreationDate="2014-09-27T22:48:05.177" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Passive-aggressive, hostile, officious?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their response is also biased, we may say we'll never do something.. it's still possible we will though given the right circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6299" LastActivityDate="2014-09-27T22:48:05.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8286" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8277" CreationDate="2014-09-28T05:47:11.130" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The relationships between race and IQ is a sensitive topic for many good reasons. It also raises a lot of deep questions about how to assess the role of genetics and environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good summary of the literature on Intelligence with a discussion of racial differences can be found in the article &quot;Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~maccoun/PP279_Neisser1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(FREE PDF)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Within-group versus between-group variance&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In my view, the first bolded sentence dismisses race as a determinant, because there are &gt; 'greater genetic differences within' each race than between different races.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Group differences can be quantified. They are often quantified in psychology in terms of cohen's d (i.e., the size of group differences in terms of the standard deviation). You sometimes hear the claim that within group differences are larger than between group differences. This point is often highlights that just because a group on average is higher on a variable, there is a large proportion of people in the lower group than are higher than people in the higher group. The claim is often made to remind people not to stereotype. However, from a scientific perspective, we are often quite interested in the size of the difference between group means and the causes of such differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, group differences need to be very large before between-group variance is larger than within group variance. A grouping variable can have an effect of an outcome variable without needing to achieve this degree of group difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The size of the group differences says very little about whether the effect is causal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Race as cultural slant&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The second bolded sentence also rejects race, because it only shows a cultural slant to &#xA;  tests and the first sentence of the last para states 'social factors will also influence intelligence.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think the second bolded sentence entirely rejects race. However, the wording &quot;cultural slant&quot; does go some way towards this argument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'd challenge the &quot;cultural slant&quot; argument. In particular, if some environments lead to higher IQ, I would be more inclined to interpret that as an effect of environment on IQ rather than saying that IQ tests have a cultural bias. You might argue that the kind of intellectual functioning represented by IQ tests is more valued by some cultures, but that's quite different. Once you operationalise IQ in terms of a general factor that emerges from a wide range of cognitive ability measures, then it makes sense to proceed with this. This is the variable that has been validated (i.e., predicts educational attainment; entry into prestigious professions; job performance particularly in cognitively demanding job; future income; etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, to show that environment influences IQ is interesting, but it does not refute the role of genetics. Researchers in this space (e.g., looking at twin studies) often aim to estimate the proportion of variance in IQ due to environment and genetics. To show an effect of $A$ does not mean that there is not an effect of $B$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-09-29T22:03:20.140" LastActivityDate="2014-09-29T22:03:20.140" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8290" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-28T09:55:04.110" Score="0" ViewCount="2068" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are given two jugs whose capacity are 5 litre and 3 litre. No jugs have any measuring marks on it. You have one source of water. How can you measure 4 litre of water in 5 litre jug ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6798" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2014-09-28T16:33:39.730" LastActivityDate="2014-09-28T16:33:39.730" Title="Water Jug Problem in AI" Tags="&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2014-09-28T16:55:02.113" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8291" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8558" CreationDate="2014-09-28T12:42:09.500" Score="5" ViewCount="186" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like pleasure goes beyond needs. What is its purpose? Is it supposed to make you not do anything, because of how good you feel?&#xA;Are there animals that don't feel pleasure, but only have needs to satisfy, and how would their CNS differ from human/primate CNS?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My main question: What is the motivation for there being some sort of pleasure, as opposed to simply the absence of a certain need? In the case of an orgasm, why exactly does a person feel very good for a while - why doesn't he just go directly into a state of neutrality, with there no longer being a need for sex? If a person defecates, why is there a momentary pleasant feeling - why doesn't the person simply go into a 'no longer have the need to defecate' state?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It really seems that there is an unnecessarily large amount of pleasure, as opposed to a mere lack of need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like there are 2 mechanisms that motivate action - the need to satisfy an unfulfilled need, and the need to achieve a reward. Is this the case? If yes, what is useful about this? It seems like a the 'need to satisfy an unfulfilled need' by itself should be good enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, we have an instinctive need to not feel like starving, or to not feel extremely tired - we simply don't want to feel that way. However with some things, it seems like there's more than just a need - with sex, there is a 'need' to have sex - a male who hasn't had sex for long enough, will simply want to have sex, so that he gets rid of the feeling of wanting sex - but there is also the motivation of expected pleasure from the orgasm. Similarly, I'd say that there is some sort of pleasure from food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is true (that there are 2 motivating factors, not just one), and I think that it's quite weird in some sense. Why isn't there just a need - why doesn't a male after sex simply stop having the need to have sex? I think I've read something about the pleasure having something to do with encouraging certain types of behavior, but I really don't know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6801" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-08-29T18:45:00.743" LastActivityDate="2015-08-29T19:00:14.540" Title="Evolutionary motivation for the existence of pleasure?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8292" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8290" CreationDate="2014-09-28T16:33:16.640" Score="1" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Empty the small jug.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fill the large jug.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use the large jug to fill the small jug. This leaves 2L in the large jug and 3L in the small jug.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Empty the small jug.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use the large jug to fill the small jug. This leaves 0L in the large jug and 2L in the small jug.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fill the large jug.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use the large jug to fill the small jug. This leaves 4L in the large jug and 3L in the small jug.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2014-09-28T16:33:16.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8295" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-25T22:04:41.760" Score="3" ViewCount="1820" Body="&lt;p&gt;So this is a question that requires maturity and discretion.  I present it as an authentic point of research for a class I am taking.  I understand the basic principles of mania, psychomania, and manic episodes.  However one thing that pops into question are possible explanations for nymphomania.  To the scientific community I ask:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the condition of nymphomania coupled as a symptom of mania?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or is it some kind of hormonal/biochemical imbalance that presents itself as it's own issue?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or is it just some addiction to the hormones released via copulation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not referring to women or men with high sex drive, clearly nymphomania is in it's own class.  I personally have postulated to my class that it is something that is coupled together with mania, or as a symptom of bipolar/mood disorder in patients that are not well controlled on their medications.  My professor then instructed me to post it up here to gather knowledge and present it to my class at some point.  Any thoughts and/or opinions must be clean and professional, any nasty/vulgar language will be reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="MolecularBiologist7" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-09-28T23:49:02.520" LastActivityDate="2014-10-04T15:38:37.657" Title="The psychology of nymphomania" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8296" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-28T22:18:46.410" Score="6" ViewCount="1329" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember having dreams whose contents were physically impossible, to the point that when I thought about them afterwards, I couldn't reconcile them with reality in a meaningful way, although when I dreamed them, they seemed to be logical and coherent with reality. The only example I can recall: I was climbing a set of stairs, and there was a large gap in the middle where there were no stairs, and logically I shouldn't have been able to cross from the bottom step to the top, and yet I did. When I think about it afterwards, I can only visualise this as some sort of cheap visual effect, by either teleporting between the two steps, or unnaturally distorting my limbs; but I remember that while dreaming, there was no such effect. It just worked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is it that I could dream something that is completely incoherent with reality, or completely impossible, that I can't fully reproduce in my head while awake?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6425" LastActivityDate="2014-10-03T01:14:25.473" Title="How can I dream things that are impossible?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8298" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7855" CreationDate="2014-09-29T07:16:13.690" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Anology&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Taking the analogy and calculations directly, you are assuming that the fundamental computing unit of the brain is the neuron; we do not know if this is true. It could be a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-personal.umich.edu/~rickl/pubs/simen-etal-2003-iccm.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cortical column&lt;/a&gt;, a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005627/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;group of several neurons&lt;/a&gt;, the neuron, a &lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.ucsd.edu/neurophysics/courses/physics_171/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135703.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dendritic branch&lt;/a&gt; (a fascinating review paper!), a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v431/n7010/full/nature03010.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synapse&lt;/a&gt;, receptors or neurotransmitter vesicles (how about glial cells?). &lt;a href=&quot;http://zadorlab.cshl.edu/PDF/zador2000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; describes the somewhat accidental fascination with the historical view of a neuron being 'the unit'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, to the numbers. If one treats a singular neuron's action potential as a 1/0 like a transistor, sure you're numbers kind of make sense. (Not sure where you got the 1% figure from?) However this is making the assumption I eluded to above. If you were to run the numbers with synapses, the brain might win.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are further assuming that a 1/0, spike or no spike, representation of a neuron is all that the brain does. We do not know how the brain encodes information -- as others have said, it might not work in the same serial 1/0 fashion that we have engineered computers to operate. Information/processing in the brain could be via individual neurons firing rates, population firing rates, spike timing, etc.  (&lt;a href=&quot;http://icwww.epfl.ch/~gerstner/SPNM/node2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sections 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7 review some&lt;/a&gt;). Imagine that the timing of when a transistor flipped compared to another was important! Moreover, this only considers action potentials (or EPSPs if one redoes the numbers with synapses). Neurons (and synapses) are extremely non-linear and a lot of information/processing might be undertaken before or after an action potential (EPSP). This is the age old question of analogue (brains) vs. digital (modern computers).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Serial vs. parallel&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I think an important point missing from previous answers is the fact that the brain is massively parallel. That is, there is not one processor serially undertaking instructions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A typical CPU (core to be specific) in a computer may be very fast in terms of calculations per second -- arguably a great deal faster than a single neuron -- however, there are very few of these individual units when compared to the brain. This is why supercomputers take advantage of hundreds of CPUs (and cores). However, the numbers of these cores is extremely low when compared to the brain (if we are assuming that a neuron is the fundamental unit, see above), where an analogy might be that each core/neuron is a lot slower, there are however millions (trillions if 'the unit' is a synapse) of cores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, you have considered that a CPU has many many transitors on it, however the CPU itself it still only processing information in a serial fashion. It does this operation, then this operation, then this etc. As I said above, this is why supercomputers use many CPUs as this allows them to do a somewhat parallel process. However this is more complicated as in reality, a computer's parallel programme is typically just a serial one split a few times. For example, you want to calculate what A+b is where A is a huge matrix and b is a constant. One can do this in serial by iterating through all the elements in A and adding b; or, one can 'parallelise' this by using 10 CPUs and splitting the matrix in to 10 subsets and having each CPU do a serial operation on their own subset and finally concatenate the resulting subsets back in to A again. This isn't really parallel computing but rather smaller serial operations (&lt;a href=&quot;http://parallel.illinois.edu/blog/three-challenges-parallel-programming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parallel programming is hard&lt;/a&gt;). The brain is truly parallel. (The quote in the answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1946/difference-between-parallel-processing-done-by-human-brain-and-by-computers&quot;&gt;this previous question&lt;/a&gt; has a great analogy in it.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To compare the two is fundamentally flawed as the way we quantify the performance of a CPU does not apply to the brain. It might be possible to compare them if a common metric could be devised, but this would mean we would need to understand how the brain processes information in the first place, which is a long long way off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a final note, have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://scienceblogs.com/developingintelligence/2007/03/27/why-the-brain-is-not-like-a-co/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Edited to include more detail as there was interest/comments.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6811" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T03:48:26.093" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8299" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7601" CreationDate="2014-09-29T07:34:00.910" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: current evidence is unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Learning&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;As Contrarian mentions, formation of a synapse does not always mean 'learning' as synapses are formed and eliminated &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20646057&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;all the time&lt;/a&gt;, however -- both -- formation and elimination have been &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v483/n7387/full/nature10792.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;found to be linked with learning&lt;/a&gt; (interestingly the same spines that are 'learnted' can be 'unlearnted'). So in this sense, the formation of a new synapse or the elimination of an existing one could be 1) 'learning' or it could be 2) a stochastic process unrelated to any learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, we know that synapses have variable efficacy, which is commonly assumed to underlie learning (evidence on this is less clear). As Contrarian mentions, Hebb's postulate is a nice place to start. It is far from complete however as much evidence suggests that sometimes when 'Neuron A' takes part in the firing of 'Neuron B' a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3018773/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conjoining synapse may be weakened&lt;/a&gt;. Hebb's postulate is a very simplified view (and originally didn't even include weakening at all).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Memory&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;When it comes to memory, many people assume that synapses are the substrate for memory, and this may be accurate however it is still an assumption as current evidence is not concrete (for example, here is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11994750&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a paper&lt;/a&gt; with evidence that CaMKII, a protein kinase, could be a candidate for the molecular basis of memory, or perhaps &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23050060&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a combination of several molecules&lt;/a&gt; -- &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867406012062&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a nice review paper&lt;/a&gt;). It is usually assumed that strong synapses represent memories however this may not be the case, it could be that a weak synapse represents a memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important note to this, is the time scale which you elude to. Synapse formation/elimination will take longer than the time for you to remember clicking the 'Ask Question' button. In this case it might be that a group of neurons (commonly called assemblies) are 'remembering' this with their activity, independent of any changes in synapses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Substantial evidence has been collected to suggest that the basis of a memory is a group of neurons (often termed a cellular assembly) and their connections, simply put: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tonegawalab.org/research/publications/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;see papers from the Tonegawa Lab&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Edited to include some references.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6811" LastEditorUserId="6811" LastEditDate="2014-09-30T04:08:28.117" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T04:08:28.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8300" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5849" CreationDate="2014-09-29T07:47:36.993" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;has made it possible to have perfect input/output to the brain from a computer&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perfect? Definitely not: the complexities of optogenetics of a single mm square of cortex, of a mouse lets say, are extremely complex. As Chuck mentions, many neurons/synapses may be activated by a single LASER and current technologies allow only a few different LASER frequencies to be used simultaneously. For 'perfect  input/output' it is easy to imagine a system whereby one would need thousands of different LASER operating at different frequencies to individually control/read thousands of neurons. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://markgbaxter.wordpress.com/2013/08/21/on-optogenetics/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This blog post&lt;/a&gt; by Mark Baxter is a nice summary of the issue of hype with optogenetics.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, this assumption completely ignores &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v431/n7010/full/nature03010.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;synapses&lt;/a&gt;, glial cells, &lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.ucsd.edu/neurophysics/courses/physics_171/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135703.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dendritic branchs&lt;/a&gt; etc. which may be important for computation in the brain and might therefore need to be considered for any I/O system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why does having the ability to fire and read the firing information off of individual neurons not imply that a seamless human-computer interface is possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are assuming that everything the brain does is encoded in the firing rate of individual neurons. This is a massive assumption to which a lot of evidence is in the contrary. For example, there is &lt;a href=&quot;https://fias.uni-frankfurt.de/~triesch/courses/260object/papers/SpeedOfProcessing.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;evidence&lt;/a&gt; suggesting that the visual system does not have time to encode information in firing rates and it is postulated that the 'time to first spike' is important in this domain (&lt;a href=&quot;http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/58/04/88/PDF/masquelier_t_10_1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;first paragraph of the introduction&lt;/a&gt; has a nice summary of the reasoning/evidence behind this hypothesis). Furthermore, as I mentioned above, firing rates are an extremely small part of the brain, and just one of many many different ways the brain may encode/decode information (we do not know which, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://icwww.epfl.ch/~gerstner/SPNM/node2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sections 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7&lt;/a&gt; for different methods the brain may employ).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To finish, one point which comes to mind currently limiting optogenetics is 'depth'. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.openoptogenetics.org/index.php?title=Transmission_Through_Brain_Tissue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Light transmission falls off quickly through neural tissue&lt;/a&gt;: reduced by 50% after 100 $\mu$m, and by 90% after 1mm. If one wanted an input/output system connected to a computer to control/read a part of a brain 1cm below the surface one would (currently) have to chop out the neural tissue in the way -- this is a big problem!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Edited with some references.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6811" LastEditorUserId="6811" LastEditDate="2014-09-30T04:37:17.867" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T04:37:17.867" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8302" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8305" CreationDate="2014-09-29T22:14:17.070" Score="2" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I study information systems technology, networking, programming, system security as my main focuses on school with a lot of reading material and a ton of independent research. My major problem is not remembering where I read something. The thing is I can remember something from it such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have to remember to remember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But without looking it up I would have no idea of the source. This leads me to want to find the source thus wasting large amount of time trying to remember where I read it. This happens with all of my areas of study. I worry I consume to much knowledge in a day and need to better document my findings and notate the sources but because I love my courses I'm always reading or researching so it's hard to constantly be writing stuff down and documenting all of it. I would end up with way to many pages reviewing them would be a task in itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone explain why I can't remember the source of information I have learned or how to better remember the source. I always go back and re learn things that I can't remember. I suffer from major anxiety and depression so I know that can hurt my memory but it's weird because I can typically remember a lot of the content just not the source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know it's a weird question but this problem uses so much of my time and evergy. It also makes me ignore my lectures because it's right there I just can't remember. I find it happens because my teacher or myself brings up a topic which I have studied previously. There is a lot of repetition in my course because the underlying concepts need to be burned in. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6814" LastEditorUserId="6814" LastEditDate="2014-09-29T23:39:19.583" LastActivityDate="2015-02-27T06:25:13.557" Title="Memory - Remembering a Source" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8296" CreationDate="2014-09-30T00:25:22.233" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dreams aren't logical. Your mind is in a relaxed state when you dream. Thoughts become super-imposed and intertwined with each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideas and imagination is never directly related to interpretation. When you say you imagined stairs, it's actually your idea of stairs. It has no correlation to the real world at all. Your idea of stairs or empty space by themselves have no information related to how objects can physically move from one place to another. Therefore when your mind is being lazy and not focusing, concepts like logical physical movement can be ignored entirely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We still don't know much about dreams that isn't still speculated about. These are some pretty good places to check out; &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/dream.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;How Stuff Works - Dreams&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream#Neurological_theories_of_dreams&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipeia - Theories&lt;/a&gt;,  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.ucsc.edu/dreams/TSSOD/chapter1.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Scientific Study of Dreams&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6816" LastEditorUserId="6816" LastEditDate="2014-10-01T00:54:59.460" LastActivityDate="2014-10-01T00:54:59.460" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8304" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-30T03:15:33.847" Score="2" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can anyone point out a situation, based in real world events, or an entirely hypothetical situation, where it would be ok/right for someone to delude themselves into believing&#xA;something false?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, the psychosomatic effect of placebos can lead to people actually feeling&#xA;better, and in some cases, actually recovering from illness. However, reliance on the placebo effect to cure people is not good medicine, and is even malpractice. Saying crystal therapy will cure someones cancer may make them feel more confident, lowering the mental and physical stress they feel, thereby increasing their bodies ability to fight the tumor/s. However, again, the placebo effect decreasing their stress levels may not be enough to effectively combat the cancer, ad so it would be wrong of a doctor to not ensure they clearly drive home the fact that their patient should not rely on the &quot;alternative treatment&quot;.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any valid situation anyone can think of where it's perfectly acceptable, or even necessary for people to delude themselves into believing a falsehood? I am not solely looking for examples that are related to physical health by the way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6746" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T03:15:33.847" Title="Are there any legitimate, and reasonable circumstances, where self-delusion is acceptable and/or required?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-03-23T08:20:20.167" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8305" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8302" CreationDate="2014-09-30T03:30:51.387" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is around retaining information when you are immersed in four major fields of study. Yes you want a solid foundations from which to build- but perhaps you simply are taking on too much information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seems to be a focus in many educational systems on producing knowledge which is to be memorized in a formal, didactic, manner of &quot;direct-instruction&quot;. However, much is to be said as well for the accrual of knowledge via conversation which seeks to solve a problem alongside another person or within a group- that which stays with you because you have an emotional connection to the process of procuring that knowledge- you feel rewarded once you've &quot;won&quot; the answer- and you remember these answers because you were both teaching and evaluating the answers alongside another person- developing and testing hypotheses and validities. Here you are not only processing content to reach an end result but also perhaps taking more time than you would on your own to assess content itself in relation to, say, the importance of the answer (or lack thereof). In this way the learning experience may feel more satisfying - you may feel a decrease in the drive to accrue lots of information on your own (phew- pressure, eh?) While it makes sense for one to want to document evidence of further validation of knowledge in a way that is, it could be that your process is dragging the knowledge down given the amount of purpose you find personally in documenting vs. that which is required to further good workmanship within the program. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In looking at context/environment of your learning: within academia, where is there overlap between your expectations vs. those of your program of study (i.e. do you have the capacity to develop a niche given your current psychosocial/socioemotional inputs?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be curious to see a copy of a meta-mind-map if you were to draw one- you'd probably fill pages in minutes with the content of the information...and I wonder how the flow of this content would compare to the flow of a meta-mind-map of the processing of that content. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope that this makes sense and isn't too high on the advice-giving end especially since I'm sure that all of this writing could be so easily summed up in a visual involving just those systems which you study like a melted cpu or .... something...which of course goes against my own claim of the value of finding good mental heuristics..... .....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6817" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T03:30:51.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8306" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6525" CreationDate="2014-09-30T03:44:28.140" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There actually is. Self-sacrifice may not be common in the animal kingdom but it does occur.&#xA;Ant's will intentionally fight to the death, even when retreat is possible, to defend their colony. Such behavior ensures the overall survival of their hive/nest. This means their genes stick around, and spread the &quot;self-sacrifice&quot; gene. This is, in a way, a positive form of self-destruction, with the goal of ensuring the survival of others. However, there is also evolutionary basis for negative self-destruction. This is particularly noticeable in humans.&#xA;Humans do not usually have the same environmental pressures (at least to the same degree) acting on us, that animals do. This means that folks with weaker hearts don't get eaten by the lion, and so they pass on the genetic predisposition to heart disease. Combine this with human social psychology, and you have a situation where not only do they not get eaten, but they are shunned by healthier folks, and are more likely to mate with someone around the same overall genetic fitness, which leads to their offspring being around their same general level of genetic fitness. Combine this with the fact that folks are more likely to be poor when they have rolled poor genes, and poor folks are more likely to have more children, and you end up with a higher number of folks who's brains are extremely impulsive, obsessive (in the wrong ways), or erratic, and higher rates of cancer among other things. This isn't a hard and fast rule, with genetically based mental illnesses for example, being exhibited in someone extremely successful and rich, leading them to suicide.&#xA;People like Robin Williams have brains that, due to weird quirks of genetics, managed to&#xA;override some pretty serious issues that they are suffering, leading them to be more successful and pass on the genetic trait that may lead to them to self-destruction eventually. This kind of weird situation where harmful genetic traits slip by nature are also noticeable in creatures which over-specialize in surviving particular environments.&#xA;For instance, plague-level viruses are actually TOO GOOD at what they do. If they are too specialized, they may wipe out the entire species of host that they have come to rely on, and be unable to adapt quickly enough to infect new host species, leading to their own extinction as well. At the time, it seemed like a good idea...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2461362?uid=3739256&amp;amp;uid=2129&amp;amp;uid=2&amp;amp;uid=70&amp;amp;uid=4&amp;amp;sid=21104792679333&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2461362?uid=3739256&amp;amp;uid=2129&amp;amp;uid=2&amp;amp;uid=70&amp;amp;uid=4&amp;amp;sid=21104792679333&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our early ancestors are said to have suddenly reached a point in brain development that they quickly developed the tools necessary to kill massive herds of animals. They sometimes killed most, if not all in the herd, and drove the herds into the ground through at least lack of genetic diversity. This behavior resulted from our ancestors brains developing such that they had the means, but not the understanding. So there is more than one way for self-destructive behavior to come about genetically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another resource which is more specifically targeting this exact topic:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.allexperts.com/q/Evolution-3839/2009/5/Evolution-Genetics-bad-traits.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.allexperts.com/q/Evolution-3839/2009/5/Evolution-Genetics-bad-traits.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further research, look into studies concerning increasing rates of cancer, for which there are a million studies. One such example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.breastcancer.org/symptoms/understand_bc/statistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.breastcancer.org/symptoms/understand_bc/statistics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;About 5-10% of breast cancers can be linked to gene mutations (abnormal changes) inherited from one’s mother or father. Mutations of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are the most common. Women with a BRCA1 mutation have a 55-65% risk of developing breast cancer before age 70, and often at a younger age that it typically develops. For women with a BRCA2 mutation, this risk is 45%. An increased ovarian cancer risk is also associated with these genetic mutations. In men, BRCA2 mutations are associated with a lifetime breast cancer risk of about 6%; BRCA1 mutations are a less frequent cause of breast cancer in men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For folks with a genetic predisposition to develop breast cancer, their increased survival rate means an increase of the gene in the population over time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6746" LastEditorUserId="6746" LastEditDate="2014-10-01T01:24:29.840" LastActivityDate="2014-10-01T01:24:29.840" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8307" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="833" CreationDate="2014-09-30T04:02:24.197" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The probability of what you'll dream is really dependent on a ton of factors. Stress can harm your ability to remember, and process, your memories during sleep. If you are highly stressed due to hunger later in the day, you brain may be more likely to process the memories of events before hunger set in. However, the opposite may be true for others. schizophrenics for example, have problems with how they process memories. Our brains can accidentally be configured to process memories in an atypical/unhealthy way. Also, extreme time-dilation can affect us. Personally, while in basic training, we got a lot less sleep than I was used too. I started noticing that the days seemed to blend together, and time moved quicker. My dreams, during that period, never seemed to follow any pattern based on time that I can remember, and it's likely true for most people in similar situations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article talks about sleep deprivation and how it affects the dreaming process/length:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/strange-but-true-less-sleep-means-more-dreams/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/strange-but-true-less-sleep-means-more-dreams/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article details the effects of memory processing during sleep: &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534695/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534695/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study looked into how alcohol affects memory storage:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-2/186-196.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-2/186-196.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously there are many things besides alcohol which can affect your ability to form and store memories, so taken together, all of these indicate that the order of the events of our day, processed in our dreams, is affected by how you formed those memories while actually experiencing them awake.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6746" LastEditorUserId="6746" LastEditDate="2014-10-01T23:03:42.327" LastActivityDate="2014-10-01T23:03:42.327" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8308" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8295" CreationDate="2014-09-30T04:15:23.110" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;::: It seems like you're trying to get to the root cause as either organic or functional? Maybe a bit of both. They jury will forever be out thus we have the stress-diathesis model for comfort. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cds.web.unc.edu/files/2013/07/Youngstrom_2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is some interesting discussion&lt;/a&gt; on the norm-referencing in assessment of manic behavior such as hypersexuality and the implications of various factors like gender. OOhh - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbp/v32n3/aop1310.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this is&lt;/a&gt; a good one too actually- a very large study on the whole range of abnormal sexual activity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In working with individuals who are hypersexualized, i've found that it's learned, it's reactive attachment gone awry...co-occurring borderline meets cyclic dysthmia.... it's never just hormone or just addiction. I have not looked at extreme cases really, though...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6817" LastEditorUserId="6817" LastEditDate="2014-09-30T04:21:41.403" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T04:21:41.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8309" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8186" CreationDate="2014-09-30T04:54:33.253" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is unclear. To address your specific examples directly, probably not much, you are simply paying attention to something. In your first example, you are paying attention to your breathing, and if you get distracted you try to pay attention again. In the second example, the same is true, but for a movie/show.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are questioning why watching a movie is not like meditating then that is an unanswerable question, it is like asking 'why is driving a car not like riding a bicycle? in both cases I am sat down in/on a moving hunk of metal.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6811" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T04:54:33.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8310" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-30T05:27:06.787" Score="2" ViewCount="168" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a Robot system with an advanced A.I. operating system had the 'ability' to 'do' 'undirected' or 'semi-undirected' introspection and 'form' all sorts of 'thought' structures about any subject matter (that didn't directly have something to do with important 'operating' functions) could these not-necessarily important 'thought structures' and the 'managing' of such cause something analogous to psychological problems in the robot?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4959" LastActivityDate="2014-10-08T19:07:57.960" Title="About the possibility of 'Robot Psychology'" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8311" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4302" CreationDate="2014-09-30T09:12:16.097" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychotroph substances assume to have a lot of potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due they where banned pretty soon after their appearance in western culture, we know almost nothing about them. In some cultures there is a large knowledge about spiritual usage, but as it is in cultural things, near to none scientific research.&#xA;In the UK they started research in the 1990s and it seems like LSD/Psylocibin (which seem to have nearby exact the same effect on our brain) can be used to tread phobia and psychcological traumata in manifold issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Albert Hofmann(who discovered LSD) said, LSD would not alter the consciousness but expand it. Like an catalystic converter wich is needet to use the full potential of our consciousness.&#xA;In his book &quot;LSD - Mein Sorgenkind&quot; he wrote that the things a proband sees are not hallucination but input to his sensory organ which he doesn't know and wich might overexcite him.&#xA;This catches up with expirienced users of such drugs(multiple 10 times to over 100 uses), wich tell that the chance of horrortrips lowered with every usage and also they gained the abillity to &quot;controll&quot; their expirience in some form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beside of this, there are many artists wich tell that their creativity expand under influence of LSD, and even a single use in lifetime had expand the creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's assumed that depressive people have a high chance to better their condition. But the chance of horrortrips, even if this chance is really low, is a too high risk to use it in that issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6819" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T09:12:16.097" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8312" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8226" CreationDate="2014-09-30T09:14:38.377" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Donald Hebb's postulate only applies when two neurons are already connected. It seems you are asking more specifically, 'when two neurons are not already connected and they want to connect, how and why?' Correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case, we do not know. StrangeLoop mentions it is due to the location of the neurons and the spreading of activation. Yes these might be the case but evidence is extremely limited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be the case that correlated activation of two neurons instigates the formation of a synapse between them. It may also be the case that synapses form &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20646057&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;completely randomly&lt;/a&gt; and plasticity takes advantage of any new synapses (don't forget &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3018773/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;anti-hebbian&lt;/a&gt;). It may also be a combination of both. We do not know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We further do not know concretely what happens in the reverse; for example, what causes a synapse to be eliminated, is it activity driven or a stochastic process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some recent evidence showed that spine generation and elimination are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v483/n7387/full/nature10792.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;related to 'learning' and 'unlearning'&lt;/a&gt;. This suggests that activity driven plasticity can form/eliminate synapses, but my previous reference shows strong evidence that formation/elimination are stochastic -- hence we do not know!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing which is not clear from your question, as James mentions, is at what age you are considering. Early development of synapses is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptogenesis#Synapse_Formation_Specificity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;more well understood&lt;/a&gt; and it may be the case that during early development a group of mechanisms determine why/where/how a synapse forms/eliminates and during adult another set of mechanisms are in charge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in the early post-natal visual system, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/671298&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;it is found that cells have responses with similar properties as adult; however, later on in development visual experience is required to maintain these properties&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2822731/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Furthermore, these changes must occur within a critical period for activity-dependent plasticity.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6811" LastEditorUserId="6811" LastEditDate="2014-10-03T00:08:10.627" LastActivityDate="2014-10-03T00:08:10.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8313" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8186" CreationDate="2014-09-30T10:17:10.543" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are comparing two totaly different things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While watching a movie/show, you let allday grind behind you and consume the input you get.&#xA;This can have several effects on your consciousness, both temporal and permanent, just like meditation. &#xA;But these two points are everything what meditation and watching a movie/show are having in common.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everyone knows what watching a movie/show is due everyone has expirience in it, so I will not go further to this point.&#xA;But I assume that you do not anderstand the point of meditation.&#xA;It's not only about watching your breath and prevent your thoughs of wandering around.&#xA;Für meditation-beginners this might be true, due they first have to lern to focus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But meditation is a lot more. Depending on what a person wants to archive by meditation.&#xA;Essentially one focus his mind on either the body, the mind itself(like in a mirror) or both at the same time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One can write a lot of books about what you can archive due meditation, so I avoid to write a long text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most people do not explore their mind. They see it as a kind of invisible organ which is just there and has a function.&#xA;But as many people do sport to train their body, other people meditate to train their mind.&#xA;Not only to focus their thoughs on one spot, but also to conditionate their thoughts, overcome traumatic memory or just to archive highest cognitive capacity without using drugs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due meditation, one discovers his own mind. This will take years and the exploration will never ends, due the mind changes his state with the years.&#xA;By meditation one watches the mind changing, finds his own  weakpoints, learns on wich kind of input it reacts in wich way and to avoid &quot;bad&quot; input and search &quot;good&quot; input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typical results of years of meditations can be:&#xA;- Acceptance to things that stressed the mind in the past.&#xA;- Or exactly the opposite: rais of the courage to change something one suffered for a while.&#xA;- More happyness due the &quot;I really controll myself&quot; state, like a athlete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the end I tell you:&#xA;If you want to know what meditation is about, you have to try it out.&#xA;If you are willing to do, I recommend you to start the &quot;focus on breath&quot; technique to learn the focus, but keep in mind that this is just a small step. The aim is to focus the mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want more information, sent me a message.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6819" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T10:17:10.543" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8314" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-09-30T16:15:39.450" Score="4" ViewCount="238" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been reading a book entitled &quot;The Geography of Thought&quot; by Richard Nisbett. He talks about how easterners and westerners think differently. I am not all the way through it, but I agree with a lot of his points, because he stresses no true biological differences between the two groups but instead suggests that the difference in cognitive processes takes place over time as a result of cultural factors or &quot;nurture&quot; rather than &quot;nature.&quot; I am reading this book as a part of a class I am taking entitled &quot;perspectives on knowledge&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To accompany this book, we are watching a video series entitled &quot;Brain Sex&quot; which talks about the effects of hormones on the developing brain and supports the hypotheses that Males and Females have different cognitive processes. (More specifically male and female BRAINS, as you can have a male brain in a female body or have a brain that is actually more like a hybrid between the two due to hormonal abnormalities) This would be a difference of nature that is accentuated through out life through nurture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that this video series is a VHS and is over 20 years old. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering what science's view is on the universality of mind is today. My question can actually be summed up by a question my professor asked us to think about in class:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Do different people think differently, or is the mind universal. If people think differently, is this difference due primarily to nature or nurture?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;I have been developing my argument and I am going to defend my long term belief that people think differently, but after much thought I am torn as to where the &lt;strong&gt;primary&lt;/strong&gt; cause for this difference could lie. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the first half of my argument which sets up the first major premise, which is that people think differently:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The physiology of our brain can be mapped directly to our&#xA;psychological “mind” regardless of the absence of a proven causal&#xA;relationship. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Our brains undergo a large amount of physiological change throughout&#xA;life due to  their plastic nature&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;People think differently as a result.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Premise 4 is where I am torn. &#xA;Both cultural factors and physical ones have a huge effect on our brains. non-physical cultural factors and physical ones, like hormones, both effect the way our brains are wired. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;amount&lt;/strong&gt; of cultural priming throughout our life heavily outweighs our physical priming, but our physical priming takes place &lt;strong&gt;earlier&lt;/strong&gt; in life, even pre-birth. presumably to me, this would make it a primary factor, because of a compound effect, making these developments more significant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but I have no evidence to support either view point, so i'm looking for actual references that I can look at that address the significance of these factors as well as critiques of my argument in case I am operating off of some fallacy I am unaware of because of my limited perspective here. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand this question is subjective. I am honestly just looking for references related to my argument because it can be hard me to find good scientific references.... but the opinions of others would be awesome as well!&#xA;Thank you in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;UPDATE&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just stumbled across this again, and I actually wrote a paper on the matter which specifically answers the question. You can read it &lt;a href=&quot;https://docs.google.com/document/d/163g_-dKqWBfDSizGPwAVD5KqXwsDpo7otI4QwKhjRHM/edit?usp=sharing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My conclusion is that the mind is not universal and nature is the primary cause. My explanation is somewhat nuanced, but very strictly logical in nature and I trace out the premises in the first page. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6620" LastEditorUserId="6620" LastEditDate="2015-01-31T13:53:53.477" LastActivityDate="2015-04-01T14:33:38.127" Title="Universal Mind? Nature or Nurture?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-05-05T22:14:44.257" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8315" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4346" CreationDate="2014-09-30T17:55:19.940" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depends on the pattern of how this occurs -- the situation, consistency, and severity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If across situations, across different other people, and across different settings, this would indicate a personality trait. The person might be unaware of the social cues of others and draw attention to ideas that are interesting to them. Most people are interested in talking about themselves. Combine this tendency with lack of awareness, and you might see what you're describing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If they consistently dominate the group conversation across different people and different situations, to the point where the pattern negatively affects their life or work, they might have a narcissistic trait or even &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NPD&lt;/a&gt;. In such case, the person's concept of self-worth may be abnormally modulated by the positive attention they receive from others. They might have a need to be the focus of attention, because otherwise they may feel degrees of worthlessness. This need may have developed during childhood from one or a series of traumatic events (i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_parent&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;narcissistic parent&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this happens consistently only with one group of people, it could be that the people in the group consistently have conversations that are uninteresting to the person. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, the group of people might be meeting in a certain place or a certain time, during which the person might be more likely to want to talk about themselves. Perhaps, the group meets after the person has finished their soccer practice, or after a weekly meeting with their boss. If so, the person might be particularly excited to talk about their game events, or how pressured they feel at work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2014-09-30T17:55:19.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8316" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8324" CreationDate="2014-09-30T18:31:29.457" Score="3" ViewCount="404" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know if there is a phrase or term that describes the frustration an introvert experiences when they have had too much social exposure and need to be alone?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an analogy, I recently heard the phrase &quot;hangry&quot; used to describe the state of anger/irritability that some people suffer when they are hungry, and find it infinitely useful to instantly convey that state of emotion with a single phrase. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having a similar phrase so that others know that a person isn't upset with them, but just needs to be alone would save me, and probably many other people, a lot of frustration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6823" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-24T09:48:56.250" LastActivityDate="2014-12-12T02:07:22.883" Title="Terminology for introvert's frustration after excessive social exposure" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;introversion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8318" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9974" CreationDate="2014-10-01T15:58:40.227" Score="3" ViewCount="3766" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found in &lt;a href=&quot;http://thearchdruidreport.blogspot.ro/2014/07/the-gray-light-of-morning.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this blog post the following definition&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychologists have a concept they call “&lt;em&gt;provisional living&lt;/em&gt;.” That’s&#xA;  the insistence, so often heard from people whose lives are stuck on a&#xA;  dysfunctional merry-go-round of self-inflicted crisis, that everything&#xA;  they don’t like about their lives will change just as soon as&#xA;  something else happens: as soon as they lose twenty pounds, get a&#xA;  divorce, quit their lousy job, or what have you. Of course the weight&#xA;  never goes away, the divorce papers never get filed, and so on,&#xA;  because the point of the exercise is to allow daydreams of an&#xA;  imaginary life in which they get everything they think they want take&#xA;  the place of the hard work and hard choices inseparable from personal&#xA;  change in the real world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Searching on the web or in Google Books I didn't find a definition of &lt;em&gt;provisional living&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found on a blog a similar definition as the above &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.philipcarr-gomm.com/essays/eye-storm-stay-sane-insane-world/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;in this blog post&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychologists sometimes call this ‘provisional living’, whereby you&#xA;  tell yourself that you’ll truly come alive, truly be fulfilled and&#xA;  optimally creative when you’ve moved, married, divorced, retired or&#xA;  whatever. So much of our culture is based on it, it’s hard to resist.&#xA;  When the mortgage is paid then you’ll really be free, when you move to&#xA;  the country, when you no longer have to earn a living, when, when,&#xA;  when…and then of course you die.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a reference of &lt;em&gt;provisional living&lt;/em&gt; linking it with the passage ritual also in the book &lt;strong&gt;Close Relationships : Family, Friendship, Marriage Studies in&#xA;Jungian Psychology By Jungian Analysts&lt;/strong&gt; by &lt;em&gt;Bertine, Eleanor&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To overcome the father and the mother is to take up the&#xA;  responsibilities of adulthood, to sacrifice provisional living. Then&#xA;  life will surely become harder and more problematic, but potentially&#xA;  more meaningful. It is a momentous step, so much so that primitive&#xA;  peoples, who are close to the unconscious and its eternal laws,&#xA;  celebrate the transition by the always serious and sometimes rather&#xA;  grim rites of initiation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was not able to find a definition in a psychology dictionary or anywhere. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the source of this concept? Is it used in psychology and is there a equivalent term that is more used? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6827" LastEditorUserId="6827" LastEditDate="2014-10-01T18:40:07.940" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T13:14:18.953" Title="What is the source and real meaning of &quot;provisional living &quot; concept and is there an equivalent term?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8319" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8318" CreationDate="2014-10-01T18:08:59.287" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;After searching a bit more on the Internet I found that the more used term is &lt;strong&gt;provisional life&lt;/strong&gt; not &quot;provisional living&quot;  and found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jungny.com/lexicon.jungian.therapy.analysis/carl.jung.152.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a definition in a Jungian lexicon&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Provisional life&lt;/strong&gt; A term used to describe an attitude toward life that is more or less imaginary, not rooted in the here and now,&#xA;  commonly associated with puer psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Acordin to the same &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jungny.com/lexicon.jungian.therapy.analysis/carl.jung.161.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jungian lexicon&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Puer aeternus.&lt;/strong&gt; Latin for &quot;eternal child,&quot; used in mythology to designate a child-god who is forever young; psychologically it refers&#xA;  to an older man whose emotional life has remained at an adolescent&#xA;  level, usually coupled with too great a dependence on the mother.[The&#xA;  term puella is used when referring to a woman, though one might also&#xA;  speak of a puer animus-or a puella anima.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the term &lt;a href=&quot;http://thwordinc.blogspot.ro/2013/02/growing-up-or-growing-cold.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;provisional life&lt;/em&gt; is told to be coined and used by Jung and is associated with the Puer Psychology and the Peter Pan Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologist Dan Kiley, defined 'Peter Pan Syndrome' in 1983 and it seems it is a real social issue according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070501112023.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;an article&lt;/a&gt;  based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20091212173337/http://prensa.ugr.es/prensa/research/verNota/prensa.php?nota=446&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article hosted by University of Granada&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The 'Peter Pan Syndrome' affects people who do not want or feel unable&#xA;  to grow up, people with the body of an adult but the mind of a child.&#xA;  The syndrome is not currently considered a psychopathology. However,&#xA;  an increasingly larger number of adults are presenting emotionally&#xA;  immature behaviors in Western society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has also some informative &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puer_aeternus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article on puer psychology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6827" LastActivityDate="2014-10-01T18:08:59.287" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8320" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-01T22:03:23.000" Score="2" ViewCount="674" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_(psychology)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology and cognitive science, a schema (plural schemata or&#xA;  schemas) describes an organized pattern of thought or behavior that&#xA;  organizes categories of information and the relationships among&#xA;  them.[1] It can also be described as a mental structure of&#xA;  preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world,&#xA;  or a system of organizing and perceiving new information.[2] Schemata&#xA;  influence attention and the absorption of new knowledge: people are&#xA;  more likely to notice things that fit into their schema, while&#xA;  re-interpreting contradictions to the schema as exceptions or&#xA;  distorting them to fit. Schemata have a tendency to remain unchanged,&#xA;  even in the face of contradictory information. Schemata can help in&#xA;  understanding the world and the rapidly changing environment.[3]&#xA;  People can organize new perceptions into schemata quickly as most&#xA;  situations do not require complex thought when using schema, since&#xA;  automatic thought is all that is required. [3]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People use schemata to organize current knowledge and provide a&#xA;  framework for future understanding. Examples of schemata include&#xA;  academic rubrics, social schemas, stereotypes, social roles, scripts,&#xA;  worldviews, and archetypes. In Piaget's theory of development,&#xA;  children adopt a series of schemata to understand the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder what the opposite concept to schema?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Btw, I guess the schema in database theory is related to the one in psychology. How is it related, if any?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="191" LastActivityDate="2014-10-02T00:14:42.173" Title="What is the concept that schema is opposed to" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8320" CreationDate="2014-10-02T00:14:42.173" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are approaches in cognitive psychology that either emphasize &lt;a href=&quot;http://cognitivepsychology.wikidot.com/cognition:topdown&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;top down or bottom up perceptual processes&lt;/a&gt;, or in some cases a combination of two. Psychology began using those terms after being radically influenced by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processing_theory#Human_as_computer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;information processing framework&lt;/a&gt;. So I think that if a proper distinction is to be made, it would be better to put it in those terms namely, top down vs bottom up processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that &lt;a href=&quot;http://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/Schema_Theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schemas are associated with top down processes&lt;/a&gt; as they involve the influence of &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/phc3.12043/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;knowledge on perception&lt;/a&gt;. So an opposite concept to schemas, if this is the right way to put it, would possibly be the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;affordances&lt;/a&gt; which is associated with bottom up processes. James Gibson in his &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.gr/books?hl=el&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=b9WWAwAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA56&amp;amp;dq=theory%20of%20affordances%20gibson&amp;amp;ots=KUXswMkqx8&amp;amp;sig=nn-DDD9PnuGHey0SwDZGRDMO9js&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;theory of affordances&lt;/a&gt; states that a sufficient amount of information is contained in the environment itself. Affordances in this sense, are &quot;action possibilities&quot; latent in the environment and are objectively measured contrary to schemas which are subjective by definition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-10-02T00:14:42.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8322" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8314" CreationDate="2014-10-02T16:47:08.193" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading a book called The Way of The Shaman by Michael Harner. In it, I found three quotes on page 24 which describe how people perceive the world in different ways based on what could be cognitive biases. In the one quote Harner writes, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“In engaging in shamanic practice, one moves between what I term an&#xA;  Ordinary State of Consciousness (OSC) and a Shamanic State of&#xA;  Consciousness (SSC). These states of consciousness are the keys to&#xA;  understanding, for example, how Carlos Castaneda can speak of an&#xA;  ‘ordinary reality’ and a ‘nonordinary reality.’”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another quote he writes,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;To understand the deep-seated, emotional hostility that greeted the&#xA;  works of Castaneda in some quarters, one needs to keep in mind that&#xA;  this kind of prejudice is often involved. It is the counterpart of&#xA;  ethnocentrism between cultures. But in this case it is not the&#xA;  narrowness of someone’s cultural experience that is the fundamental&#xA;  issue, but the narrowness of someone’s conscious experience. The&#xA;  persons most prejudiced against a concept of nonordinary reality are&#xA;  those who have never experienced it. This might be termed&#xA;  cognicentrism, the analogue in consciousness of ethnocentrism.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the third quote Harner writes,   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Anthropologists teach others to try to avoid the pitfalls of&#xA;  ethnocentrism by learning to understand a culture in terms of its own&#xA;  assumptions about reality. Western shamans can do a similar service&#xA;  with regard to cognicentrism. The anthropologists’ lesson is called&#xA;  cultural relativism. What Western shamans can try to create, to some&#xA;  degree, is cognitive relativism. Later, when an empirical knowledge of&#xA;  the experiences of the SSC is achieved, there may be a respect for its&#xA;  own assumptions. Then the time will perhaps be ripe for unprejudiced&#xA;  analysis of SSC experiences scientifically in OSC terms.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if these quotes answer your question well enough since they attempt to explain the mind more than the brain but I thought they were somewhat related to what you've asked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6832" LastEditorUserId="6832" LastEditDate="2014-10-02T16:53:08.687" LastActivityDate="2014-10-02T16:53:08.687" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8323" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8316" CreationDate="2014-10-02T20:16:17.897" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think of it as &quot;over-stimulated&quot; when I find myself in that situation. I haven't needed to use it with others but it strikes me as a positive expression - too much of a good thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6838" LastActivityDate="2014-10-02T20:16:17.897" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8324" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8316" CreationDate="2014-10-02T21:10:40.387" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This does not constitute a definitive answer, so I invite criticism and feedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't believe there is a specific term for this state, as energy management and the introversion/extroversion scale seem to be a somewhat recent area of focus. However, it seems reasonable to think that the feelings experienced by an over socialized introvert may be similar to experience of decision fatigue, which is when the quality of ones decisions worsen the more decisions they need to make. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since socialization for introverts often requires more deliberate internal calculations than extroverts, decision fatigue and the experience you're seeking a name for might be cousins. As such, perhaps 'social fatigue' is a useful term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3751" LastActivityDate="2014-10-02T21:10:40.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8325" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8310" CreationDate="2014-10-03T00:37:17.367" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depending on the definition of &quot;psychology&quot; and &quot;psychological problems&quot; sure. The APA &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;defines psychology&lt;/a&gt; as &quot;the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes.&quot; If we take this to only apply to biological systems (as I am sure many researchers do) then no, because the robot is not a biological system and therefore we can not study it under the heading of psychology and we would probably study it under something more akin to &quot;engineering&quot;. However, if one is happy applying the same to robots, as I assuming you are, then yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming the latter, and if you think that a being's &quot;'ability' to 'do' 'undirected' or 'semi-undirected' introspection and 'form' all sorts of 'thought' structures about any subject matter&quot; is a cause of psychological problems, and we are further assuming that a robot could do this, then yes, the robot will have psychological problems by definition. (Is there direct evidence suggesting these are causes though?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6811" LastEditorUserId="6811" LastEditDate="2014-10-03T01:27:12.090" LastActivityDate="2014-10-03T01:27:12.090" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8326" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8296" CreationDate="2014-10-03T01:14:25.473" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;We do not know. Simply put, we do not understand the function and mechanism of dreams enough. Much talk about dreams are hypotheses based on our extremely limited understanding (see references in Josh's answer).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You think that you have dreamt of something that is impossible, therefore I think you are not asking &quot;is it possible to dream of something that is impossible&quot; but more asking, &quot;what procedure/what things/drugs can I do/take before I go to sleep to have a dream that is impossible&quot;. As I said above, from a scientific point of view, we do not understand dreams enough to answer such a question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, many people may suggest that certain things/drugs make changes to dreams, abut these are anecdotal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6811" LastActivityDate="2014-10-03T01:14:25.473" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8327" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8337" CreationDate="2014-10-03T04:15:47.997" Score="1" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;If an A.I. system ( 'housed' in a Robotic exterior) actually passed the Turing test and was therefore 'functionally similar to the human 'mind-brain' would it also have the potential for information processing instability analogous to 'mental' problems in the mind-brain. ( Where the instabilities are not just because of information or important-definitions mismanagement but are also from info.-processing mismanagement.) Could one A.I system test another with the Turing Test and regard the other as an 'unstable', human , if the responses were sufficiently 'unstable' sounding? Could an A.I. system pretend through the Turing Test to be 'stupid' to another A.I. system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4959" LastEditorUserId="4959" LastEditDate="2014-10-03T19:07:09.213" LastActivityDate="2014-10-04T19:19:05.150" Title="About the Turing test and a Robot's psychology" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2014-11-26T13:30:22.543" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8328" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-03T13:32:19.597" Score="5" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a motor vehicle increases in speed, we soon adjust to the faster pace of movement; seemingly by processing incoming information faster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this purely psychological, with the brain &quot;dropping&quot; peripheral information to catch up with the flow of new information? Or does the brain actually put more physical energy (kilojoules) into the task, like muscles using more energy during exercise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or put another away - do we simply think we are processing more information or are we actually doing so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine this distinction would be relevant for fighter pilots and competitive racers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6842" LastActivityDate="2014-10-03T13:32:19.597" Title="Is the mind's adaptation to increased traveling speeds, physical or psychological?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8331" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-03T15:50:52.017" Score="3" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a person intentionally &quot;thinks quickly&quot; would this affect how much glucose the brain consumes? Or would it not be very significant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6845" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-15T04:49:34.647" LastActivityDate="2014-10-23T10:51:59.177" Title="Does the brain burn more calories when &quot;thinking quickly&quot;?" Tags="&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2015-04-21T12:36:26.490" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5755" CreationDate="2014-10-04T08:22:07.703" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to equate the brain with computer hardware while equating the mind with the software. Interestingly the brain executes the steps or the perceptional aspects of human thinking while the mind interacts with the world and changes, alters and re-configures ones perceptions and operational brain functions. For example when one is interacting with the outside world the same scene or stimuli may have different brain response under the depressed state of mind while it may be totally opposite when in an elated state. So the plasticity of the brain can change by the operations of the mind. So how do we define mind, simply said it is the collective contribution of ones memory of past experiences, current state of being and the relationship between the two, while resolving the current perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6851" LastActivityDate="2014-10-04T08:22:07.703" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8334" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8338" CreationDate="2014-10-04T10:54:48.470" Score="1" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some researchers and writers published books about this topic: how the psychology influence the taste of the readers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's very intuitive that the word choice matters when we want to be persuasive, capture the listener's attention or simply avoid to hurt him. The importance of the presentation is clear to the human kind since thousand of years, but only with the psychological studies we have clearer some influences of a speech which are counterintuitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To better clarify the topic: trying to help someone may hurt his self-esteem if he interpret our attempt like a statement of superiority. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I was looking at this revision, which I put also here for easyness: &lt;a href=&quot;https://academia.stackexchange.com/posts/29363/revisions&quot;&gt;https://academia.stackexchange.com/posts/29363/revisions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3Qqxt.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last part which was deleted contained an opinion which was slightly critical. Another user deleted it. We may some reasons to agree with his behavior but this is the point. Why do we agree on his revision? Why human being living in different countries developed the same beliefs about focusing the discussion on xxx and rejecting yyy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pscychology somehow teached us that beliefs are not absolute as everyone would think of his one. So, if every convention was caused by something. The convention related to the definition of rethoric and dialectic should be deep into the human brain structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NLP is not a science, however are there serious books to study about communication seen in a scientific way? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why are that kind of sentences (the one expressing polemical opinions) rejected by most of people?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:49:49.363" LastActivityDate="2014-10-04T22:19:58.573" Title="How cognitive science explain the stylistic convention in text writing?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8335" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5755" CreationDate="2014-10-04T11:34:00.493" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think hardware and software are both brain-the matter and function. Mind decides what you use it for, and is based on your learning based on experiences. The learning is not only over one life but continues and is updated. I think the gist of learning is in the soul and is updated based on new experiences. I think soul is software for learning with Data/information (learning) and has also a java like program that enables updating of the laerning. It also has rules - soul can only be in a living organism, hence leaves at death. the program also calculates the frequency ( to define how much you have learned and zero frequency means you have learnt the Truth). At death, the soul leaves the body and keeps wandering, until it finds a body being born that has a matching frequency in it's previous life and the other soul lodges in it. The soul when it leaves one body goes just like a wireless cell phone.  my hypothesis- not proven but scientifically plausible.&#xA;Kul razdan&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6853" LastActivityDate="2014-10-04T11:34:00.493" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8336" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8295" CreationDate="2014-10-04T15:38:37.657" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mania and nymphomania are related in the same way that nut and donut are. In other words: don't let a partial homophony or possible common etymology fool you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A mania is a psychiatric disorder that appears to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mania#Cause&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;caused by overactivity of certain brain processes&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nymphomania is currently not a recognized disorder in the DSM. It is, in the ICD-10 (&quot;Hypersexuality&quot;), and its inclusion in a future edition of the DSM is being discussed. This shows that there is disagreement about the status of nymphomania and hypersexuality and that scholars have not yet reached a clear understanding of the phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One possible perspective is that hypersexuality is nothing but a possible symptom of certain different disorders, such as neurodegenerative diseases, autism, or bipolar disorder. It can be one symptom of a manic episode.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this it is similar to coughing, which can be caused by a wide variety of causes, from particles in the healthy lung, to an infection, to psychological causes such as simple nervousness or a tic disorder. A cough is not a disease, and nymphomania is maybe not a disorder. It is a behavior which may by symptomatic for a disorder, but it may also be caused by a person's attitude, upbringing, life circumstances, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may acutally be, by itself, just an extreme form of a completely healthy behavior, similar to people who need only four hours of sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-10-04T15:38:37.657" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8337" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8327" CreationDate="2014-10-04T19:08:51.770" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mental disorders, which are fundamentally undesirable phenomena, can be both environmentally and innately caused.  There are both neurological components as well as environmental components almost exclusively sourcing from childhood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the same way, a &quot;thinking machine&quot; can have the same undesirable problems.  I imagine the &quot;neurological problems&quot; would be tantamount to bugs in the original software and hardware malfunctions.  Much more common would be the environmental causes, similarly in the AI's &quot;childhood&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human childhood is a very impressionable time.  Love and proper care leads to healthy growth, proper perspectives of safety and danger, proper priorities leading to healthy adult human lives.  Abuse and neglect lead to psychological malformations such as unhealthy concepts of danger, of self, of the meaning of love and family, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, AI &quot;childhood&quot; will be the beginning period of discovery and learning (which may happen in R&amp;amp;D labs, rather than the real world, depending on the circumstances).  While it's difficult to say what might cause malformations, it's safe to assume that improper training of the AI, just like improper raising of a human child, will result in odd, unpredictable, and undesired behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a note, this is all technically true for AI less sophisticated than &quot;thinking&quot;, but the simpler it is, the easier it is to properly train and prevent hardware and fundamental software errors.  For example, an AI that identifies pictures would show unpredictable and undesirable behavior if, for some reason, it was trained randomly (say, by using crowd-sourced training and being the victim of trolling).  A 'thinking' AI would likewise have undesirable results if it were &quot;abused&quot; or never taught the value of, say, life.  One, in that case, might easily end up with a &quot;sociopathic&quot; AI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6401" LastEditorUserId="6401" LastEditDate="2014-10-04T19:19:05.150" LastActivityDate="2014-10-04T19:19:05.150" CommentCount="16" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8338" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8334" CreationDate="2014-10-04T22:19:58.573" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think there is a stylistic convention in text writing that prevent the expression of an opinion. There are countless texts expressing a subjective view or controversial points. The example you picked up is somehow very specific to &lt;a href=&quot;http://academia.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;academia.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The website explicitly tries to prevent the expression of an opinion - see &lt;a href=&quot;https://academia.stackexchange.com/help/dont-ask&quot;&gt;https://academia.stackexchange.com/help/dont-ask&lt;/a&gt; about the possible reasons for a question to be flagged (and removed) as &lt;code&gt;primarily opinion-based&lt;/code&gt; - e.g. a rant in disguise. This rule echoes the way science is made of - facts and interpretation -, especially in its formal way of communication. Researchers sometimes express an opinion in an article but it is usually advertised as such - see the specific section called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/authors#3a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;opinions&lt;/a&gt;&quot; in the journal Trends in Cognitive Science for example. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of the removed sentence, I guess that the reviewer relied on &quot;I would prefer&quot; and &quot;my opinion&quot; to build his/her opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:49:49.363" LastActivityDate="2014-10-04T22:19:58.573" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8339" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-05T05:57:09.883" Score="0" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the necessary background to read this book and comprehend it?  I've taken Calc I-II, Chem 1A and Bio 1A.  Is this enough?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6855" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-06T00:01:17.000" LastActivityDate="2014-10-09T14:59:48.577" Title="What background is required to understand the book &quot;Principles of Neural Science&quot;?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8339" CreationDate="2014-10-05T08:30:06.997" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you should reverse your approach.  Rather than trying to find every prerequisite, start reading sections of PNS and as you encounter something you don't understand, look up the background information.  It's an exhaustive work (and well worth reading!) but you're going to find different sections require different levels of background.  For example, the section on ion channels requires a bit of E&amp;amp;M physics, and the section(s) on neurotransmitters will make more sense with some basic organic chem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you get through some of it and feel like you need more of the basics, a book like &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0781760038&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bear's&lt;/a&gt; is a bit more accessible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0838522459&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;another version&lt;/a&gt; of Kandel (it's probably older than you are, but your library might be able to get it) that takes a slower approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="31" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-10-06T20:12:12.770" LastActivityDate="2014-10-06T20:12:12.770" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8345" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5755" CreationDate="2014-10-06T16:53:11.850" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain is a physical object whereas the mind is an abstract entity consisting of thoughts. There is a mapping between the two which works bilaterally,each one can influence the other.&#xA;A mind reading computer would receive its inputs in physical form and would then map out the mind by using the corelations between the two.&#xA;These corelations would be complex sensory inputs to the brain can influence the mind but the mind also receives inputs of a non sensory kind which can influence the brain.&#xA;If it is hardware and software analogy then we are dealing with a software which changes the hardware.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6861" LastActivityDate="2014-10-06T16:53:11.850" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8346" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7758" CreationDate="2014-10-07T07:12:57.700" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your definition of intelligence (&quot;...the ability to learn and research on any subject...&quot;) is exactly what IQ tests measures; general abstraction and reasoning ability. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/unique-everybody-else/201311/the-illusory-theory-multiple-intelligences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A nice article about the validity of IQ and the flimsy scientific basis of multiple intelligences.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;strong&gt;That is surely the best way to measure intelligence.&lt;/strong&gt; However, IQ tests aren't completely fair - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.svt.ntnu.no/iso/torberg.falch/Articles/Article.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;studies have shown that education can influence IQ&lt;/a&gt;. That's why most IQ tests use people of comparable education as your reference group. Furthermore, not all IQ tests are created equal - some emphasize memory (recall) more, for instance. Someone with eidetic memory would obviously have an advantage in these cases that shouldn't be attributed to the ability to abstract or reason. There are also abilities that can arguably be dissociated from IQ which matter in academic pursuits (i.e. &quot;enlightening oneself in the deepest region of a subject&quot;). One of these is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.keithstanovich.com/Site/Research_on_Reasoning_files/Stanovich_ThePsychologist.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;rationality&lt;/a&gt;. Another is personal motivation - lazy people generally achieve less.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastEditorDisplayName="user6682" LastEditDate="2014-10-08T08:28:37.367" LastActivityDate="2014-10-08T08:28:37.367" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8347" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8348" CreationDate="2014-10-07T08:31:17.180" Score="1" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering what happens if we lose all electrical impulses in our nervous system for a minimum amount of time. So first of all it is obvious that we will break together, as we are dead while we are in black out state, but I am interesting in the &quot;afterwards&quot;.&#xA;I could also put it this way: &#xA;Is our brain like a RAM or a Harddrive? &#xA;So, if we have a complete elec. blackout, is our memory erased?&#xA;Or is our consciousness based soly on the synapsis in our brain and does not care about the electrical state? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6867" LastActivityDate="2014-10-07T18:25:06.933" Title="Brain after (electrical) blackout" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8348" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8347" CreationDate="2014-10-07T18:25:06.933" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I was wondering what happens if &lt;strong&gt;we&lt;/strong&gt; lose all electrical impulses in our&#xA;  nervous system for a minimum amount of time...  if we have a complete elec. blackout, is our memory erased? Or is our consciousness based soly on the synapsis in our brain and does not care about the electrical state?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If &quot;we&quot; includes other animals down to frogs, then the answer may be that the structure could survive.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00785295&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;springer.com/article&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Preparations with chronically implanted electrodes showed that there&#xA;  are periods during which no electrical activity is present in the&#xA;  brain of intact, non-anesthetized frogs sitting unconstrained in water&#xA;  in a jar. The activity appeared immediately upon stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results obtained confirm the suggestion of I. M. Sechenov that the&#xA;  electrical activity of the brain occurs either reflexly, or is due to&#xA;  direct effects on the brain. Without such effects, there is no&#xA;  electrical activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As in a flash drive, there should be a distinction between &quot;electrical potential&quot; and &quot;electrical activity&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An &quot;older&quot; part of our brain is named &lt;strong&gt;reptilian&lt;/strong&gt; and extrapolation from the frog would be tempting. I have no background in biology, but since animal models are generally accepted, would say that we may well be the same unless evidence shows us to be different. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To support this intuitively:  an instant view of electrical state of our brain would contain many fewer bits of information than the topology of its whole network. paul_wi11iams &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6869" LastActivityDate="2014-10-07T18:25:06.933" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8350" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-08T18:07:40.810" Score="6" ViewCount="302" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have asked a question before about how does smoker's decision react to new personal health information. Link here.&#xA; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/7798/how-do-people-estimate-smokings-impact-on-their-mortality&quot;&gt;How do people estimate smoking&amp;#39;s impact on their mortality?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I have a follow up question. Psychologists have termed smokers's over confidence about their chance of not being hurt by smoking as optimism bias. My question is: has there been any neuroscience, medical or psychology research about the mechanisms of optimism bias?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6332" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T09:40:20.927" Title="What are the underlying mechanisms for optimism bias?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8351" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8555" CreationDate="2014-10-08T19:28:25.927" Score="5" ViewCount="1457" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for an explanation for why people will try to make themselves feel better by treating others poorly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, imagine a group of girls are sitting in a cafe. Within that group are two girls in particular, Sally and Anne. Sally is beautiful, intelligent, and popular. Sally knows she's blessed, but she doesn't like to highlight that fact. She shies from attention and deflects most compliments. Anne on the other hand, is normal, at least she thinks of herself as normal. Anne doesn't often receive compliments like Sally does. As the group of girls sit in the cafe sipping latte's and chatting, the conversation makes its way to Sally's recent success at school. Sally scored top of the class in the last bout of exams. This angers Anne, she herself didn't do so well on her exams. She feels ashamed. Suddenly she blurts &quot;Oh Sally its great that you did well on your exams, I'm surprised you had so much time to study, I thought you'd be too busy with Jack?&quot;. Jack was Sally's fiance, they recently split up when Sally caught Jack with another woman. At this, Sally cowers like a wounded animal. She quickly mumbles something and excuses herself from the table. The conversation falls flat. Everyone at the table knew what happened between Sally and Jack. The other girls stare awkwardly at their mugs, shooting furtive looks at Anne. Anne knows what she did was wrong, evil even. But hurting Sally felt good, real good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To rephrase the question in the context of the scene: Is there a name for Anne's behaviour at the cafe?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not just looking for a word that would describe Anne's behaviour. Depending on how you interpret the story, Anne's behaviour can be described with many words (bullying, jealousy, spitefulness etc.). What I'm looking for is an explanation of Anne's behaviour in terms of psychoanalytic theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6873" LastEditorUserId="6873" LastEditDate="2014-11-11T01:29:35.600" LastActivityDate="2020-06-01T02:14:50.177" Title="Why do people try to make themselves feel better by treating others poorly?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8352" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8354" CreationDate="2014-10-08T22:20:53.213" Score="0" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;I find that things you learn in school are much easier to learn than before you take the course. For example, there is a mathematical theorem that seems unnerving when I self studied calculus, but the same theorem appeared to be so much easier when I actually learned it in school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is it easier to learn something when you have a teacher explain it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6875" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T19:32:18.040" LastActivityDate="2014-12-07T04:37:06.377" Title="Why is it easier to learn something when you have a teacher explain it?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8354" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8352" CreationDate="2014-10-09T12:01:13.317" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what you mean by harder, because I find things about the same, if not easier(thanks internet), after leaving school and understanding how our memory works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think you're noticing the difference between a teacher and a book. A teacher will draw pictures, use gestures, tone of voice, and answer any questions. A book will just tell you things, and assume you understand, and leave you to set the tone of voice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to learn maths, give the site Khan Academy a go. Also if you really want to learn, use a flashcard program like Anki. I use Anki for learning &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;everything&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Once you learn something, you easily forget it. I use Anki to keep reminding me of whatever I'm learning, so I never forget it. You do have to use it every day, but it's a good habit to get into, whilst having breakfast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: added this:&#xA;You'll also notice on Khan Academy, Sal Khan uses just a blackboard and his voice, because the tone of voice really helps get the point across, also he draws and moves things around, so you can see and hear how it all goes together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6877" LastActivityDate="2014-10-09T12:01:13.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8356" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8339" CreationDate="2014-10-09T14:59:48.577" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basic concepts of biochemistry and some knowledge of general biology (mainly, general cytology) are sufficient (Chem1A and Bio1A would be fine); some specific chapter requires a little more advanced knowledge of molecular biology and human physiology, but nothing &quot;over the top&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6878" LastActivityDate="2014-10-09T14:59:48.577" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8357" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8351" CreationDate="2014-10-09T17:26:42.890" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It can be devaluation principle in narcisstic personality disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2014-10-09T17:26:42.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8358" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8351" CreationDate="2014-10-10T06:00:06.560" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/spitefulness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spitefulness: having or showing a desire to harm, anger, or defeat someone.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastActivityDate="2014-10-10T06:00:06.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8360" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-11T06:58:43.967" Score="3" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;I guess many of us have experienced it. The moment that you understand that &quot;the person you love, in whom you've trusted, is now with someone else, enjoying every moment with him/her&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's so widespread that it might not be inaccurate that if we say that more than half of the people on Earth would experience it, and it's a universal feeling which is not dependent on race, culture and education.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, apart from those presumptions, what I've felt during those moments was:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Great pain (maybe not even pain, an instability) in the stomach, below the diaphragm&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The feeling of insecurity, as if everything is frightening&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No interest in anything, and I mean ANYTHING at all. No interest in food, in entertainments, music, even sex, nothing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Coldness in my extremities&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if cognitive sciences have ever conducted a research on this subject or not. For example, which neurotransmitters are active in creating this feeling? What hormones are in action? Which part of the brain is responsible for the feelings related to infidelity? How can we treat it using medications, or other scientific methods, not fatherly advices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2850" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-10-23T08:42:08.920" LastActivityDate="2014-10-23T08:42:08.920" Title="What happens inside our body, when we experience betrayal and infidelity?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8361" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8366" CreationDate="2014-10-11T20:23:28.123" Score="3" ViewCount="936" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the best short set of 20 questions that can give meaningful information about a person's big five personality? In case that's not possible with 20 questions, what's the minimum and where do I find such a set of questions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-13T00:41:07.817" LastActivityDate="2014-10-13T00:41:07.817" Title="What is the best short (i.e., roughly 20 item) measure of Big Five personality?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8362" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8363" CreationDate="2014-10-11T23:07:59.167" Score="3" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a teleoperation system and I want to see how much stress a person is under before during and after operating it. I thought cortisol would be a correlate of stress. Can I measure levels rapidly, say over minutes, and detect an appreciable difference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a better way? How? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6890" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-14T03:08:36.330" LastActivityDate="2014-10-14T03:08:36.330" Title="Is cortisol an effective measure of stress for pre and post task performance?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8363" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8362" CreationDate="2014-10-12T08:35:09.020" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think measuring serum cortisol levels would be a great method of testing for stress. It is expensive, painful, and the results are difficult to interpret. Salivary levels might be better, but this would also be expensive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To actually determine the effect of stress on cortisol levels, you would need to control for variables including (but not limited to): age, gender, sex steroid levels, pregnancy, lactation, smoking, coffee and alcohol use, diet, level of exercise, genetic factors and habituation to repeated psychosocial stress exposures.&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An easier and less costly method would be before and after blood pressure and heart rate measurements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journals.elsevier.com/psychoneuroendocrinology/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Why do we respond so differently? Reviewing determinants of human salivary cortisol responses to challenge? Psychoneuroendocrinology Volume 34, Issue 1, January 2009, Pages 2-18&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastActivityDate="2014-10-12T08:35:09.020" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8364" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8368" CreationDate="2014-10-12T14:43:22.367" Score="16" ViewCount="1493" Body="&lt;p&gt;I guess this question is quite context dependent, and here in Sweden there is a general movement for more evidence-based psychology. I &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; one of our biggest medical universities recently abandoned psychodynamics in favour of a more empirical approach to the field. In this general context it feels like it often happens that Freud and his work gets ridiculed and seen as pseudo-science by a lot of people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have only a basic knowledge and overview in the field, but I have to confess that I currently subscribe to the pseudo-science view of Freud's work as well. Is there anything he proposed or accomplished that actually has a sound scientific basis? Have there been any studies providing empirical support for freudian psychoanalytic concepts that I can use to form a critical view of his work which is more balanced and fact-dependent? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6894" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-10-13T01:20:30.523" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T15:37:04.230" Title="Is there anything in Freudian psychoanalytic theory that is scientifically sound?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8366" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8361" CreationDate="2014-10-12T23:48:12.130" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In most cases, increasing the number of items on a personality test will increase the reliability of measurement (see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%E2%80%93Brown_prediction_formula&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spearman-Brown formula&lt;/a&gt;). Thus, there is a trade-off between test length and reliability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several 10 item measures of the Big 5. Notably, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sjdm.org/dmidi/Ten_Item_Personality_Inventory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TIPI&lt;/a&gt; and BFI-10 (Rammstedt et al, 2007). However, I would strongly discourage anyone from using a 10 item measure unless you are severely limited in time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My feeling is that around 10 items per measure (i.e., 50 items in total) starts to give you quite good reliability and allows for breadth in item measurement. Many standard measures of the Big 5 that are not trying to measures facets within the Big 5 are around this length (e.g., NEO-FFI, IPIP 50 item, etc.), although 100 items will of course have benefits for reliability. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3335/what-free-scientific-measures-of-big-5-personality-are-available&quot;&gt;this answer for suggestions of additional scales&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in some respects 20 to 25 items is a middle ground between too short and a good length. I would only use such a scale if time constraints were a major factor.&#xA;You might want to have a look at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.msu.edu/~lucasri/ipip.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mini-IPIP&lt;/a&gt; (Donnelan et al 2006). It's a 20 item measure based on the IPIP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Donnellan, M.B., Oswald, F.L., Baird, B.M., &amp;amp; Lucas, R.E. (2006). The mini-IPIP scales: Tiny-yet-effective measures of the Big Five factors of personality. Psychological Assessment, 18, 192-203.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gosling, S. D., Rentfrow, P. J., &amp;amp; Swann, W. B. (2003). A very brief measure of the big-five personality domains. Journal of Research in Personality, 37(6), 504-528. doi: 10.1016/S0092-6566(03)00046-1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rammstedt, B., &amp;amp; John, O. P. (2007). Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(1), 203–212. Available online, URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.westmont.edu/_academics/departments/psychology/documents/Rammstedt_and_John.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.westmont.edu/_academics/departments/psychology/documents/Rammstedt_and_John.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-10-13T00:40:08.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8367" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8381" CreationDate="2014-10-13T07:19:54.293" Score="2" ViewCount="5971" Body="&lt;p&gt;People often see unknown things, places, and people in their dreams. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is it possible to have such perceptions in our dreams that go beyond our actual experiences and memories?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9599" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-15T04:46:16.807" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T07:22:06.947" Title="Why do we see unknown people and places in dreams?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8368" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8364" CreationDate="2014-10-13T11:32:40.390" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Freudian psychology (and it's derivatives) are indeed pseudoscience, by and large.  That said, Freud was arguably the first to systematically theorize and study human behavior and cognition, and in so doing laid the foundation for the scientific study of psychology.  It's generally useful for the purpose of such discussions to distinguish between Freudian &lt;em&gt;psychoanalysis&lt;/em&gt; and Freudian &lt;em&gt;psychodynamics&lt;/em&gt;.  The latter is generally sound though embryonic to the point of near-uselessness to contemporary students (except of course, from a historical perspective).  As such, there are concepts in Freud's work that have been scientifically validated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic premise that we're unaware of the majority of our mental processes, for example, is perfectly valid.  More generally, the idea that behavior is the sum of concrete biological forces (what Freud called &lt;em&gt;psychic energy&lt;/em&gt;) has been substantiated by quantitative evidence time and time again.  Once again, the problem is that it's very superficial and hand-wavy by modern standards, not to mention its &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x16d4fv_le-mur-ou-la-psychanalyse-a-l-epreuve-de-l-autisme_webcam#from=embediframe&quot;&gt;propensity to be severely abused&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Modern attachment theory, that is, the idea that emotional bonds are an essential part of infant development, also very clearly originates with Freud.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most interestingly, IMHO, is the concept of defense mechanisms.  Indeed the study of psychology and cognitive science has been impeded for years because of an over-reliance on subjective self-report.  Thanks to Freud, we recognize that people can be unaware of their own misrepresentations of fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's actually quite difficult to find a nook of cognitive science that hasn't been positively influenced by Freudian psychology in some meaningful way.  Freud got many things right, but wasn't very concerned with establishing the validity of his claims.  In practical terms, this means that studying Freud from a historical perspective will be quite informative, but one will have a hard time applying his theories directly to modern research or therapy.  And of course, there are a significant number of Freudian claims that have been positively disproven in all but the most metaphorical sense (the general &quot;death wish&quot; comes readily to mind).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to look at this is as a modeling problem.  Freudian psychology proposes a number of models of how the human psyche works, most notably the Id/Ego/Superego hierarchy.  At the time, this was a very useful model, but it has since been supplanted by better models that better predict behavior.  This having been said, Freud's groundwork is readily visible:  everybody agrees that automatic non-conscious processing occurs and that it influences conscious perception.  Similarly, it's well known that top-down influences of expectation, cultural bias or attention can affect conscious processing.  In this sense, the Id/Ego/Superego model is alive and well... it's just been refined a &lt;strong&gt;great&lt;/strong&gt; deal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="2926" LastEditDate="2014-10-13T13:06:54.953" LastActivityDate="2014-10-13T13:06:54.953" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8369" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-13T13:36:50.363" Score="1" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if somebody could give me some references on the latency of the pupil response after a cognitive stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that the light reflex is quite fast compared to cognitive stimulation, but I could not find more information than this. Does anyone know how long it takes the pupil to react toward a cognitive task? Or a good reference where I could read it on my own?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6879" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-10-01T14:33:26.540" LastActivityDate="2015-10-01T14:33:26.540" Title="Pupillometry: how long needs the pupil to respond towards an cognitive stimuli?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8370" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8369" CreationDate="2014-10-13T13:45:26.750" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are you trying to do?  If you're trying to leverage pupil-dilation data from an eye-tracker, there are ways to deconvolute the timeseries if you can make a strong inference as to exactly when the stimulus of interest took place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think you'll find everything you're looking for &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Niels_Taatgen/publication/224958750_Pupil_dilation_deconvolution_reveals_the_dynamics_of_attention_at_high_temporal_resolution/links/0fcfd506c99e4e468c000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2015-09-30T16:28:17.010" LastActivityDate="2015-09-30T16:28:17.010" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8371" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-13T18:26:32.360" Score="23" ViewCount="55765" Body="&lt;p&gt;When two coherent sounds with nearly similar frequencies are presented to each ear respectively with stereo headphones, the brain integrates the two signals and produces a sensation of a third sound called &lt;strong&gt;binaural beat&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried to google, but a lot looks like fake evidences and not having any scientific evidences. &lt;strong&gt;What is the evidence for binaural beat music producing different cognitive and/or neural effects as compared to non-binaural beat music?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5037" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2015-06-24T16:07:35.073" LastActivityDate="2017-07-13T05:35:30.233" Title="Is there scientific evidence on the benefits of binaural beats?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;binaural-beats&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8372" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8374" CreationDate="2014-10-14T01:24:55.480" Score="0" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm attempting to find an example of a learning machine/neural network that achieves zero variance, but I am having a hard time finding an example anywhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Variance&lt;/strong&gt; is defined as the generalization error for a neural network or in other words the difference between the learning function derived from a specific sample and the function derived from all training samples. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know an example that they can share? Any help would be greatly appreciated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6737" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T05:12:41.907" Title="What is an example of a learning machine that achieves zero variance?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8373" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8388" CreationDate="2014-10-14T11:05:48.647" Score="1" ViewCount="406" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is a common belief that the heart is somehow related to emotions. When we are nervous,our heartbeat is effected (increased heart rate) and when we are happy, another pattern in heart function can be observed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is the following. Does the heart have a significant role in the occurence of emotions, or is it that the heart is just an organ that pumps blood and these physiological changes are merely a by-product of processes relevant to emotion?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Is the heart's function of interest to any cognitive scientific field of study? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9599" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-10-15T06:32:37.560" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T10:48:30.297" Title="Does the heart play a role in the occurrence of emotions?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8374" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8372" CreationDate="2014-10-14T12:43:39.313" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, a definition, which is basically what you said but refers to elements in the domain of the function: &quot;A learning algorithm has high variance for a particular input x if it predicts different output values when trained on different training sets.&quot; So, in order to have zero variance, the machine/NN must output the exact same value for x across training sets. The only way to achieve zero variance with respect to all possible x is if you have a constant (non-learning) machine/NN (because then it will trivially maintain its output/function), or if you have training samples perfectly sampled from the same (computable in your machine/NN!) function without noise. An example of such training data would be samples consisting of elements (x,y) all sampled from the same linear function. However, in most real world applications this won't be the case. Furthermore, it isn't necessarily advisable to minimise variance because you will overgeneralize (assume a function for the underlying distribution that is too simple). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;S. Geman, E. Bienenstock, and R. Doursat (1992). Neural networks and the bias/variance dilemma. Neural Computation 4, 1–58.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastEditorDisplayName="user6682" LastEditDate="2014-10-15T05:12:41.907" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T05:12:41.907" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8376" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5199" CreationDate="2014-10-14T13:46:04.410" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is the illustrate of both equation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vuRwS.png&quot; alt=&quot;Illustration of both equation&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make them visible at same time, I changed 100 to 1 and set memory strength as 1. They look alike.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6905" LastActivityDate="2014-10-14T13:46:04.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8377" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8380" CreationDate="2014-10-14T13:58:46.947" Score="6" ViewCount="4524" Body="&lt;p&gt;I saw quite some illustration about how reviewing helps remembering. Like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jhvLf.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;From Mentor Me blog&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SOURCE: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mentormegate.com/wordpress/2014/06/10/mentor-me-gate-the-forgetting-curve/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.mentormegate.com/wordpress/2014/06/10/mentor-me-gate-the-forgetting-curve/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder how are these calculated? Are there reliable sources of the data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6905" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-14T23:04:16.040" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T04:30:17.357" Title="How are these review-forgetting curve calculated?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8378" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-14T15:14:57.513" Score="5" ViewCount="173" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if there is any neurological/neuropsychological difference between the anticipation of an event to come, and the remembrance of that event. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically, is there any difference between when (I remember|think of) some future event, and the remembrance of a past event ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the role of anticipation, withstanding the valence of that event, in the workings of memory? Are the same brain structure involved ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6906" LastEditorUserId="6906" LastEditDate="2014-10-15T21:53:35.743" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T21:53:35.743" Title="The role of Anticipation in acquisition, consolidation, retrieval of memory" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8380" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8377" CreationDate="2014-10-15T04:30:17.357" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;While I can't speak about the specific graph in question, I can explain the process of obtaining an empirical estimate of a forgetting curve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic process is (1) collect data; (2) model and graph data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Collecting data&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A standard design would involve a set of participants completing an initial learning exercise (e.g., a word list; a set foreign language words with meanings; a set of facts; etc.). Participants would then be given a recognition task to measure proportion of facts remembered (e.g., a recall task; a recognition task, etc.). The recognition task would then be repeated at various intervals (e.g., after a few minutes, a day, a week, a month).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Model and graphing&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could then graph mean performance (i.e., proportion correct) on the recognition task at each time point (i.e., baseline and various follow-up time points). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A typical forgetting curve involves a monotonic reduction in recall over time where the rate of forgetting slows and recall approaches an asymptote. See for example Averell and Heathcote (2011) for discussion of power and exponential functions of forgetting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could then use the lines of best fit to interpolate points between the measured time points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Comments on review and forgetting curves&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is research that looks at the combination of practice and forgetting and the resulting memory consolidation that occurs through spaced practice. See for example Pavlik and Anderson (2005). The general finding is that (a) people forget over time; (b) revision restores recall; (c) forgetting is less after second and subsequent revisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, the basic idea implied by the graph that spaced revision improves longer term recall is supported by research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The smooth increase shown in the plot is incorrect. Presumably revision would be a relatively short and discrete event (i.e., perhaps 20 minutes) which leads to an abrupt increase in recall. Furthermore, the size of the gains achieved by repeated practice would depend on a range of other factors and may not be as great as implied by the graph.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Averell, L., &amp;amp; Heathcote, A. (2011). The form of the forgetting curve and the fate of memories. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 55(1), 25-35.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pavlik, P. I., &amp;amp; Anderson, J. R. (2005). Practice and Forgetting Effects on Vocabulary Memory: An Activation‐Based Model of the Spacing Effect. Cognitive Science, 29(4), 559-586.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T04:30:17.357" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8381" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8367" CreationDate="2014-10-15T06:05:45.557" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The mind/brain imagines things in a very uncontrolled way when we're asleep, and it basically does this by using various stimuli (sights/sounds/etc.) we've experienced before and combining them in expected or unexpected ways. By &quot;expected&quot; I mean that we may recall a known/real person in our dreams from memory, and by &quot;unexpected&quot; I mean that we may randomly piece together an imaginary person from various memories. As far as I know, there is very little conclusive research about why we dream what we dream (which is often unrealistic) - however, there are a few theories. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8036518&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The most popular (experimentally tested!) one is that we dream to consolidate memories&lt;/a&gt;. Accordingly, our dreams are often about the day's events - but reimagined by the brain in often very weird ways. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/5490/350&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;So, for example, if one plays Tetris for a few hours before sleeping, one might have dreams with block-like shapes and falling-like movement&lt;/a&gt;. In general, it is very hard to predict what a person will dream, and it seems to be a relatively random reactivation of various connections between stimuli we've experienced previously. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v427/n6972/full/nature02223.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Some research&lt;/a&gt; suggests that we recombine 'pieces' of memories in creative ways during sleep because it might help inductive thinking/insight. A tentative suggestion is that dreams somehow help the brain &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v497/n7447/full/nature12112.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;predict&lt;/a&gt; things it hasn't experienced yet. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastEditorDisplayName="user6682" LastEditDate="2014-10-15T07:22:06.947" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T07:22:06.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8382" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8373" CreationDate="2014-10-15T06:16:21.243" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Emotions are attached to heart.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eg. if you feel scared in dangerous situation, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sympathetic&lt;/a&gt; part of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;autonomic nervous system&lt;/a&gt; is activated. It increases heart rate and then blood flow to brain is elevated. More blood transports more oxygen and then brain functions better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="6750" LastEditDate="2014-10-15T08:53:43.857" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T08:53:43.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8384" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8364" CreationDate="2014-10-15T08:41:39.137" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hard question to answer. Some of his ideas  appear to have found little in the way of experimental support, some of his ideas are at present untestable, some have been supported by experimental studies. The late psychometrician Paul Kline conducted a number of studies and found mixed results. I can recommend his book on Freudian theory and psychology. He breaks down Freud's theory into various hypotheses and examines each to see what is supported and what isn't. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of Kline's research:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1977.tb00238.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A factor analytic study of the oral character, 1977&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00221325.1980.10534099?journalCode=vgnt20#preview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Etiology of the Oral Character, The Journal of Genetic Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of his books on Freudian theory: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Fact_and_fantasy_in_Freudian_theory.html?id=tcRrAAAAMAAJ&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fact and fantasy in Freudian theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6908" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-06-20T15:37:04.230" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T15:37:04.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8385" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-15T09:26:35.013" Score="1" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the area of computational neuroscience, there are basic theories from electric circuits and signal processing to be applied. For background study, which reference will be more suitable ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I don't have any background knowledge in circuit, or signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Cited by Dayan's book in Theoretical Neuroscience)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Circuits, Signals and Systems&quot; , William M. Siebert&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This book seems contains both electric circuits and signal processing, but maybe not from the ground.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or combination or following two books&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Signals and System&quot;, Oppenheim&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits&quot;, Agarwal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These two are much heavier than Siebert's, they are good ones, but is it necessary to thoroughly read these two complete detailed books for computational neuroscience ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5052" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-10-15T12:47:55.770" LastActivityDate="2014-10-18T02:21:48.900" Title="Reference request in Circuit and Signals for Computational Neuroscience" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8386" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8554" CreationDate="2014-10-15T09:49:28.223" Score="23" ViewCount="10115" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the relationship between time perceived in a dream and time in the external world?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is time running in  dreams always faster than the time running in the real world? Is it  ratio of real time and dream's time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6909" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-16T03:59:54.420" LastActivityDate="2019-03-24T07:50:56.790" Title="How long do dreams last?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8387" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6451" CreationDate="2014-10-15T10:16:38.707" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neural networks constitute one (very important) level of organization that is modelled computationally in brain research. Computational neuroscience attempts to make these as biologically realistic as possible, often creating models that operate at multiple levels, such as having the neural networks exhibit electrochemical &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.izhikevich.org/publications/dsn.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dynamics&lt;/a&gt; - something that is obviously not the goal of standard machine learning research. Thus, in a sense, studying computational neuroscience will necessarily make you more of an expert in artificial neural networks than studying machine learning ever will. The type of neural networks used in machine learning are much too basic to explain the brain. However, machine learning texts could give you insight into, well, how information about the environment could potentially be saved in the brain. Computational neuroscience as a field is still in its infancy, especially what concerns modelling learning in the brain. Even Chris Eliasmith's spiking neural network model Spaun (which is quite impressive!) &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/eliasmith.2013a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;has been criticized by Henry Markram&lt;/a&gt; (the guy that got 1 billion Euro from the EU for the Human Brain Project) for being biologically unrealistic. In short, you won't get around the basic ANN theory in studying computational neuroscience, and you will expand on it significantly in biological terms. However, you might want to check out machine learning texts to see how neural networks could possibly store patterns. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastEditorDisplayName="user6682" LastEditDate="2014-10-15T10:35:22.533" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T10:35:22.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8388" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8373" CreationDate="2014-10-15T10:48:30.297" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As it has been pointed in the other answers and the comments, the heart is indeed only an organ that pumps blood and all the processes responsible for emotions are carried out &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#Neurocircuitry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;by the brain&lt;/a&gt;. However, the heart and generally the autonomous nervous system is of critical importance to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#Somatic_theories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;somatic theories of emotion&lt;/a&gt;. These theories propose that bodily responses in the presence of a certain stimulus, initiate emotional processing. However, it is not that the heart, for instance, creates an emotion. It is the brain that notices any significant physiological changes like the heart rate being increased and makes an interpretation of this internal state taking into account the available stimuli. This idea originates with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%E2%80%93Lange_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;William James' theory of emotion&lt;/a&gt; but it was also incorporated in more recent approaches like the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis#Working_mechanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;somatic marker hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; by Antonio Damasio.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T10:48:30.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8390" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15745" CreationDate="2014-10-15T16:53:27.873" Score="7" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;A software I'm using has implemented two unsupervised learning algorithms, Oja's and Bienenstock, Cooper, Munro's (BCM) learning rule. I understand that they are two very different algorithms for adjusting a neuron's connection weight, but I was wondering what is the relation between them. Do they both have the same plausibility? Can they be used together or are they mutually exclusive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-08-19T17:38:03.850" Title="What's the relation between BCM and Oja's learning rule?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8371" CreationDate="2014-10-15T18:13:17.637" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is very little controlled, modern research on binaural beats.  I could only find one source, referenced below, from the late nineties (although there are a few other, more recent non-experimental &quot;pilot studies&quot;).  According to their study, &quot;presentation of beta-frequency binaural beats yielded more correct target detections and fewer false alarms than presentation of theta/delta frequency binaural beats. In addition, the beta-frequency beats were associated with less negative mood.&quot;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be noted, however, that this study is comparing performance with beta BB to performance with theta/delta BB, not performance with BB to performance without BB.  (Apparently there was a condition with &quot;pure tones&quot;, but it isn't mentioned in any of the analysis.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938497004368&quot;&gt;Binaural Auditory Beats Affect Vigilance Performance and Mood. James D Lane, Stefan J Kasian, Justine E Owens, , Gail R Marsh. Physiology &amp;amp; Behavior Volume 63, Issue 2, January 1998, Pages 249–252.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;DOI: 10.1016/S0031-9384(97)00436-8&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T18:13:17.637" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8392" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-15T18:59:40.863" Score="4" ViewCount="255" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that recursive neural integrators (let me know if I need to clarify this term) can be considers soft normalizers, since their feedback loop means that any stimulus eventually saturates the neuron. However, I often see the term &quot;divisive normalization&quot; (which is apparently a synonym for divisive/shunting inhibition confusingly &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunting_inhibition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;according to Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gatsby.ucl.ac.uk/~pel/papers/nips99.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;) and I'm not sure what it means and how it relates to soft normalization. They both seem to be regulating the responses of neurons, but they seem to be doing them in different ways. Is that all there is to it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Explanation of the relation between the two concepts is appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2014-10-15T18:59:40.863" Title="What's the difference between divisive and soft normalization?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8393" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8906" CreationDate="2014-10-15T23:03:11.703" Score="9" ViewCount="691" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm often surprised by the human ability to correctly identify other individuals despite significant modifications due to ageing, hairstyle, injury etc. But, sometimes the addition of a beard and a hat can radically increase the identification error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are all facial regions  equally important when we try to recognise human faces? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do we focus more on some regions than others? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-23T00:57:37.577" LastActivityDate="2014-12-24T09:26:12.420" Title="Are some facial features more important than others in human facial recognition?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8394" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="793" CreationDate="2014-10-16T01:08:31.513" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Under normal cirmumstances, death is indeed inconceivable. However, there is a rare psychiatric condition called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotard_delusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cotard Delusion or Cotard's syndrome&lt;/a&gt; where patients believe that they are dead. Strange as it may seem, there have been reports by such patients who deny the existence of parts of their bodies or claim to smell the rotting flesh of their allegedly dead bodies. Also some of these patients deny their existence completely. I think this condition, rare and extreme though it may seem, it certainly qualifies for providing the possibility of a realistically false but phenomenologically true and direct conception of death. For a review of this syndrome you can have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19470281&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; the full text of which is available on researchgate.net.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-10-16T01:08:31.513" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8395" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8385" CreationDate="2014-10-16T09:31:02.110" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pearsonhighered.com/educator/academic/product/0,3110,0138147574,00.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Signals and System&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Oppenheim (and others) was developed while he was teaching &lt;a href=&quot;http://student.mit.edu/catalog/m6a.html#6.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;6.003&lt;/a&gt; at MIT. Similarly &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.elsevier.com/books/foundations-of-analog-and-digital-electronic-circuits/agarwal/978-1-55860-735-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Agarwal (and others) was developed while he was teaching &lt;a href=&quot;http://student.mit.edu/catalog/m6a.html#6.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;6.002&lt;/a&gt; at MIT. &lt;a href=&quot;http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/circuits-signals-and-systems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Circuits, Signals and Systems&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Siebert was written while he was teaching at MIT. Siebert was before my time, but I believe &lt;a href=&quot;http://student.mit.edu/catalog/m6a.html#6.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;6.002&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://student.mit.edu/catalog/m6a.html#6.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;6.003&lt;/a&gt; where separate even when he was teaching and that despite the name, there is not much circuits in the book. I would suggest the Oppenheim book over the Siebert book, purely because it is newer, but unless you have an EE background, there are probably better references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2014-10-17T12:09:47.120" LastActivityDate="2014-10-17T12:09:47.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8396" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-16T12:50:15.787" Score="2" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to determine the position of a single calcium ion or its population in the context of a three dimensional space with relatively good time frequency, say 1 Hz, taking into account possible dense presence of the other types of ions in the neighborhood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The qeustion is asked in the strong relation to the nervous system, but any pure-theory or computer-simulation driven concepts are also welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6439" LastActivityDate="2015-03-10T01:32:20.950" Title="Determining the position of the calcium ion in the three dimensional space" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8397" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-16T16:53:08.257" Score="1" ViewCount="172" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; The reason for this post is that I have noticed that many people have a desire to make that which is pretty safe seem dangerous.  It is very perplexing to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite holding a master's degree my psychology education is limited to 101, yet I am still curious about a trend I am seeing.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My neighborhood facebook page, which can be very helpful, is also scattered with posts from a subset of people who want to make the neighborhood seem dangerous.  It is a bit large, 1300, homes and really very safe.  There was some vehicle &quot;break-ins&quot;, which was really change and loose items being taken from cars that were unlocked.  My family locked our three cars and never had a problem.  That is really the extend of the crime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One person recently posted:  &quot;Large box truck pulling a trailer on Xxx Pkwy. No company name. Anyone expecting home builder maintenance?&quot;.  The street in question services all the homes an an elementary school.  About 5% of residents are actually on the facebook page.  It is a public street, not gated.  How would one reasonably expect this to get any &quot;traction&quot;.  Turns out it was a crew painting fire hydrants.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example:  Guy posts a picture of a car stopped in front of his house.  &quot;What are you doing in front of my house at 1:12 pm.  Be warned I will not be robbed.&quot;  Again this was just after lunch on a side street, but still public.  One person points out that the house across from him is for sale.  They were probably checking it out.  To my knowledge there have been no reported break ins, other then abandoned houses, in the last 8 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why might people post seemingly excessive concerns regarding the danger in their neighbourhood?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems counterproductive as it would tend to drive down property values.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;My thought is that this behavior fulfils a particular need, but perhaps I am thinking about it wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6916" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-17T04:04:24.583" LastActivityDate="2015-03-18T19:47:53.727" Title="So why might people post seemingly excessive concerns regarding the danger in their neighbourhood?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8399" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="508" CreationDate="2014-10-16T20:21:01.663" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been a while since I asked this question, but I've tried out &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychopy.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsychoPy&lt;/a&gt; as some people suggested in the comments, and so far I'm really digging it. If you want you can use only the GUI to create your experiment, but if you're doing more advanced stuff you can export the code and start digging around in it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a bonus, it's also compatible with all major operating system, that is: Windows, OS X, and Linux.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="86" LastEditDate="2014-10-16T20:30:10.577" LastActivityDate="2014-10-16T20:30:10.577" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8401" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-17T19:06:35.117" Score="3" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;Retinal bipolar cells are known to have resting potentials from which they can become more &lt;em&gt;or&lt;/em&gt; less polarized. What I'm wondering is whether a bipolar cell's neurotransmitter-release rate is zero when it's at resting potential, or whether it's zero when it's fully hyperpolarized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2526" LastActivityDate="2014-10-31T11:39:10.967" Title="What is the relationship between neurotransmitter release and resting potential in retinal bipolar cells?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8403" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8422" CreationDate="2014-10-17T21:22:42.287" Score="1" ViewCount="199" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to research a particular issue that arises as a side effect of anxiety and depression. I'm finding it tricky to get information, mostly because I'm not sure what it's technically called (if it has a term, or if it is documented at all).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subject has a compulsive need to appear to be experiencing the same symptoms of illness of an important loved one, in particular symptoms that are difficult to disprove (e.g. pain, soreness). For example if the subject's partner has a cold and complains of a sore throat, the subject will immediately claim to also have a sore throat. The subject will also have a compulsive need to take the same medication or treatments as the loved one. The subject will claim all of this fiercely, and will take great to offence to mistrust.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems strikes a similar chord with Münchausen syndrome, but the subject does not specifically want care from medical professionals and it only occurs to mirror a key loved one's symptoms. I'm not entirely sure if it is issue of attention seeking, due to attention being cast on their loved one instead; or if it's fear of severe illness and death of another, and by both being ill makes it easier to cope somehow?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The overall cause is not especially relevant, and probably impossible to reckon without further counselling. But the overall compulsion to mimic symptoms of illness - is this a documented disorder? This is a fact finding mission, so any information would be greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6925" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-10-20T20:33:34.540" LastActivityDate="2014-10-22T02:17:09.130" Title="Name for compulsive need to mimic another's symptoms of illness?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8404" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8385" CreationDate="2014-10-18T02:21:48.900" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you don't have a strong background in circuits &amp;amp; signals, I highly recommend:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Circuits, Signals, and Systems for Bioengineers: A MATLAB-Based Introduction (Biomedical Engineering) by John Semmlow (Mar 21, 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also grab some Schaum's Outlines along the way if you want added practice.&#xA;And if you enjoy the circuits section, grab an electronics kit at Makershed or Pololu.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6926" LastActivityDate="2014-10-18T02:21:48.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8405" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-18T18:11:04.173" Score="4" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name of the theory that states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;if someone is having fun beforehand, the next activity they do will also seem fun regardless of what the activity is.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;so like continuing fun... Any similar theories is welcome. I heard about this theory from my lecturer but I can't remember the name of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6928" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-19T00:43:11.760" LastActivityDate="2014-11-18T12:54:22.783" Title="What to call theory where next activity following a fun activity is also perceived as fun?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8406" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-19T05:43:29.833" Score="3" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a well-studied cognitive bias that describes a situation in which a person expresses a positive attitude towards something because his or her's friends have a positive attitude about that thing as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am speaking mostly in the context of social networks - people pressing the &quot;Like&quot; button on Facebook because they saw that their friends have liked a certain something as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwagon_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bandwagon effect&lt;/a&gt; but that doesn't quite seem to fit my description exactly - mostly because it seems to apply to how one's beliefs are influenced by one's peers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am looking for is something that describes the situation in which a person likes something independently of what others tend to think, but the person's decision to actually share that liking attitude to the world is triggered by seeing that others have shared that positive attitude already.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, if you have a list of articles on this subject, I would be very grateful if you shared them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6929" LastActivityDate="2014-10-19T12:32:06.193" Title="Cognitive bias - Confirming the attitudes of your peers" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8407" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8408" CreationDate="2014-10-19T09:15:14.823" Score="0" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like you to recommend me a definitive book about concept maps. I've been taking a look to a wide variety but none of them seemed clear to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6930" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T19:12:45.830" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T19:12:45.830" Title="Concept maps. What exactly they are?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2014-12-03T19:12:54.850" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8408" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8407" CreationDate="2014-10-19T12:13:42.030" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_map&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A concept map or conceptual diagram is a diagram that depicts&#xA;  suggested relationships between concepts. It is a graphical tool that&#xA;  designers, engineers, technical writers, and others use to organize&#xA;  and structure knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A concept map typically represents ideas and information as boxes or&#xA;  circles, which it connects with labeled arrows in a downward-branching&#xA;  hierarchical structure. The relationship between concepts can be&#xA;  articulated in linking phrases such as &lt;em&gt;causes, requires, or&#xA;  contributes to&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The technique was first developed in 1970's by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_D._Novak&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Joseph D. Novak&lt;/a&gt;. You can try one of his books e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0415991854&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Learning, Creating, and Using Knowledge: Concept Maps as Facilitative Tools in Schools and Corporations&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2014-10-19T12:13:42.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8409" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8406" CreationDate="2014-10-19T12:32:06.193" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think what you are describing here is the balance theory by Fritz Heider.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following extract is from Online Psychology Laboratory, &lt;a href=&quot;http://opl.apa.org/Experiments/About/AboutSocialBalance.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social balance&lt;/a&gt; article :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Heider's Balance Theory (Heider, 1946) primarily focused on&#xA;  perceptions of relationships in the form of a triad. This triad,&#xA;  typically involving two people (the perceiver and another person) and&#xA;  an object of their attitudes, included three relationships. Heider&#xA;  (1958) labeled these attitudes as &quot;sentiments,&quot; personal evaluations&#xA;  of other entities that underlie people's actions. A triad of&#xA;  attitudinal relationships is considered balanced if all three&#xA;  relationships are positive, or if one is positive and two are&#xA;  negative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2014-10-19T12:32:06.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8410" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8405" CreationDate="2014-10-19T12:50:21.240" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most related experiment that I can think, is the one that people were willing to drink more water after seeing a happy face, because they evaluated the water as more positive. See full article bellow :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/archive/newsrel/soc/WinkielmanFaces.asp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Face Value: Hidden Smiles Influence Consumption And Judgment&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2014-10-19T12:50:21.240" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8411" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1597" CreationDate="2014-10-20T06:31:47.810" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Backstrom et al (2009) have a paper devoted to the question of whether the intercorrelations between the Big 5 scales is due to social desirability bias or substantive factors.&#xA;In Study 2 they re-wrote each item on a 100 item IPIP scale so that each item had reduced positive bias. They then administered the original and neutrally worded items to a sample of participants. They found that when IPIP items were worded in a more evaluatively neutral fashion, the correlations between the Big 5 were substantially reduced. Specifically, they state that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The first component accounted for 19.3% of the variance in the IPIP&#xA;  items as compared with the variance of the first component from the&#xA;  analysis of the neutral items of 10.5%. The mean correlation between&#xA;  the first principal component and the items was .40 for the IPIP items&#xA;  and .12 for the neutral items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their first paragraph in the discussion captures several interesting conclusions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Taken together, the two studies presented here support a model that&#xA;  still appears to be controversial. The model can be described as&#xA;  follows: when we use self-ratings for the measurement of personality&#xA;  traits, some items tend to activate social desirability concerns. In&#xA;  the scores, the participants’ tendency to respond in a socially&#xA;  desirable way is mixed with the descriptive aspect of the items, which&#xA;  is supposed to measure the FFM. The result is a common factor related&#xA;  to all of the other factors in the inventory (Edwards and Edwards,&#xA;  1991 and Peabody and Goldberg, 1989). It has been shown several times&#xA;  that this factor can be reduced, and that when this is done the items’&#xA;  descriptive quality stands out more clearly. In previous studies the&#xA;  social desirability of the items has been reduced by simply selecting&#xA;  items that correlate weakly with social desirability inventories (e.g.&#xA;  Jackson et al., 1996). In the present study, the focus was on the&#xA;  semantic content of the items. By systematically making the items from&#xA;  the IPIP-100 less attractive, without changing their meaning in any&#xA;  crucial way, we could get rid of almost all common variation between&#xA;  the factors, i.e. variation related to social desirability. These new&#xA;  items appeared to measure the same thing as the original items in the&#xA;  IPIP-100, except social desirability. This shows that it is relatively&#xA;  easy to create personality inventory items that measure FFM traits&#xA;  with less influence of social desirability. We therefore encourage&#xA;  inventory constructors to henceforth strive for making inventories&#xA;  where descriptive scales are less confounded with social desirability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bäckström, M., Björklund, F., &amp;amp; Larsson, M. R. (2009). Five-factor inventories have a major general factor related to social desirability which can be reduced by framing items neutrally. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(3), 335-344. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.subjectpool.com/ed_teach/y5_ID/jc/personality_g/Backstrom2009J.R.Pers.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-10-20T06:31:47.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8412" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-16T20:52:50.307" Score="3" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;Put it more formally, how to let your mind subconsciously work on a research problem when you are not actively thinking about it, e.g., during sleep, dinner, walking, or shower? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often I hear stories where a person gets stuck on a problem for months, only waking up and finding the problem works itself out in the shower. There are many great researchers echoing this ability , such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~robins/YouAndYourResearch.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;creativity comes out of your subconscious&quot; by Richard Hamming &lt;/a&gt;. Also, many professors I know seem to master such skill, including my advisor. Having seen some occasional discussions like &lt;a href=&quot;https://academia.stackexchange.com/a/15509/13081&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; at SE, I am wondering if this ability is innate or can be learned. If the latter, what are the techniques to help cultivate this ability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6949" OwnerDisplayName="sinoTrinity" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:49:49.363" LastActivityDate="2014-10-22T05:55:36.753" Title="How to work on a research problem while sleeping?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-11-10T01:37:50.613" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8413" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-20T13:35:46.237" Score="3" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a standardised psychological test to measure how people react to positive and negative emotions. More precisely I want to use such tests to investigate whether an individual is very tolerant against positive and negative emotions and does not perceive and shows them as intensively as other individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen that there are frustration tolerance tests, but I'm not interested in this specific emotion but more on general positive and negative emotions. I have also seen that there are tests to measure the emotional intelligence, and part of the emotional intelligence is the ability to assess one's own emotions. This would be okay for me, but I'm looking for a dedicated test into this direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've also found tests (NEO FFI) to measure the big five personality traits and one could argue that some of these traits are linked to more openness towards emotions, but still, it's not a dedicated test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is, if there is a dedicated test for that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6189" LastActivityDate="2014-10-22T00:08:23.887" Title="Is there a standardised test about emotion perception?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8415" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-20T18:57:24.917" Score="14" ViewCount="3147" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found two articles that mention that taking SSRI for depression can actually make the depression worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mad-in-america/201106/now-antidepressant-induced-chronic-depression-has-name-tardive-dysphoria&quot;&gt;&quot;Now Antidepressant-Induced Chronic Depression Has a Name: Tardive Dysphoria&quot;&lt;/a&gt; on Psychology Today.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.behaviorismandmentalhealth.com/2014/04/08/antidepressants-make-things-worse-in-the-long-term/&quot;&gt;&quot;Antidepressants Make Things Worse in the Long Term&quot;&lt;/a&gt; on the Behaviorism and Mental Health blog.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true? Can Tardive Dysphoria (delayed depression) be caused by SSRI?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They seem pretty convincing and I can't find anything against it but if it's true, it basically means that depression treatment is going back to the 60's before SSRI were invented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6935" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-10-23T08:41:19.587" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T16:51:55.090" Title="Can SSRI make things worse in the long term or cause delayed depression?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8416" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8413" CreationDate="2014-10-21T01:39:09.607" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is pretty broad at the moment. But a few starting points:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The PANAS is a commonly used measure of mood or well-being that asks respondents to rate how frequently they have experienced a set of positive and negative emotions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many broad-based personality measures such as those based on the Big 5 will have  have factors or facets that relate to emotional experience.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also a range of common emotional intelligence measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is a popular ability based measure of emotional intelligence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are also several self report (personality-style) measures of emotional intelligence: e.g., EQ-i, the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT), and the Schutte EI model&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-22T00:08:23.887" LastActivityDate="2014-10-22T00:08:23.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8417" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8418" CreationDate="2014-10-21T08:22:44.723" Score="2" ViewCount="15389" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I've been reading about the subject, and I have trouble finding a definite difference between the two. What is the difference between behaviorism and cognitivism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6936" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T09:36:34.067" LastActivityDate="2017-05-13T19:36:46.637" Title="What is the difference between behaviorism and cognitivism?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8418" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8417" CreationDate="2014-10-21T08:45:43.620" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer:  Behaviorism treats the human brain/mind like a black box whose internal processes cannot be known.  As such, behaviorists claim that it only makes sense to study the association between a given stimulus and the behavioral output it produces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitivists, on the other hand, examine internal mental processes (attention, executive control, predictive coding, etc) and are just as interested in &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; behavior a stimulus elicits as &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; it elicits it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="2926" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T09:33:08.823" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T09:33:08.823" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8419" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-21T17:20:37.260" Score="5" ViewCount="223" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking to do some research about flow and optimal experience with EEG. &#xA;I don't have access to a lab and I was wondering if the new devices that are available to the public (i.e. Melon, Muse, iFocust,...) are any good to conduct research? Is it all just a marketing gimmick?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4364" LastActivityDate="2014-10-21T20:30:26.377" Title="Are recent affordable EEG devices any good?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;devices&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8420" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8419" CreationDate="2014-10-21T20:30:26.377" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://peerj.com/articles/38/&quot;&gt;Emotiv system&lt;/a&gt; has been evaluated in a research setting. &lt;a href=&quot;https://peerj.com/articles/38/&quot;&gt;Badcock et al. (2013)&lt;/a&gt; recorded EEG activity with the Emotiv EPOC and a more conventional laboratory system simultaneously, and found that both systems produced similar results for ERPs with a relatively high signal-to-noise ratio, but it was harder to detect less reliable signals with the EPOC than with the standard lab setup they used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Badcock, N. A., Mousikou, P., Mahajan, Y., de Lissa, P., Thie, J., &amp;amp; McArthur, G. (2013). Validation of the Emotiv EPOC® EEG gaming system for measuring research quality auditory ERPs. &lt;em&gt;PeerJ, 1&lt;/em&gt;, e38. &lt;a href=&quot;https://peerj.com/articles/38/&quot;&gt;fulltext&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-10-21T20:30:26.377" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8421" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8415" CreationDate="2014-10-22T01:46:29.160" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general no SSRIs lasts long enough as an effective treatment for most patients to cause long term harm. Most of the time people are only on them for weeks or months before many of their symptoms are reduced. If someone remains on antidepressants for long term treatment for something like OCD intrusive thoughts or major depression it is possibility for the medicine to harm the nervous system. This is unlikely though because SSRIs are not that effective and most of the time they have to cycled to another kind of medicine for most diseases as the diseases adapt to the medication. The meds stop working and the doctor and patient must switch to another type. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes Tardive Dysphoria does really happen and its happened to me but no its not a big deal nor is it life altering. No we are not going back to the 60s. As there are other options in treatments. Doctors have known that inappropriate dosages or incorrect medications do cause depression. Sometimes more of the same SSRI will fix the problem. The antipsychotics and antidepressants have long since been known to sometimes have inverse effects on some patients. This is the reason why abilify though it be the latest and greatest antipsychotic is not necessarily the medicine of choice because of it high probability to induce psychosis. Thats because there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iflscience.com/brain/schizophrenia-revealed-be-8-genetically-distinct-disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;8 genes responsible&lt;/a&gt; for the schizo type psychosis and how each person &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/11206608&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;responds to medication&lt;/a&gt; varies based on their gene and biology. Likewise also for depression a much less understood condition the person's biology is going to determine their response to medication and final treatment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastActivityDate="2014-10-22T01:46:29.160" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8422" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8403" CreationDate="2014-10-22T02:05:50.607" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Siblings as children do this alot. Most people grow out of it. I would think these symptoms reflect a kind of hypochondriasis which is a factitious disorder with an underlying dependant (or inverse dependence) disorder. It could also be an incorrect empathic response due to a narcissistic disorder. The aggressive features as a response to others doubts definitely is a little paranoia and tends me to lean to some kind of narcissistic attention getting type thing. In rare cases it could be a full blown extreme factitious disorder. Faking tests and everything. They had an entire episode of house (s5e18) dedicate to the lady who publically urinated green and faked a seizure to get House interested in her fake illness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorDisplayName="user6939" LastEditDate="2014-10-22T02:17:09.130" LastActivityDate="2014-10-22T02:17:09.130" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8425" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-22T08:08:50.443" Score="1" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublimation_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the wikipedia article on sublimation&lt;/a&gt;. The article says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology, sublimation is a mature type of defense mechanism where socially unacceptable impulses or idealizations are consciously transformed into socially acceptable actions or behavior, possibly resulting in a long-term conversion of the initial impulse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it's not clear to me how these impulses are transformed. Are these impulses transformed inside the mind of the one who do them or are they transformed in a social level (via persuasion)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rephrasing the question: Does him argue with himself and make himself believe that the unacceptable behavior is actually a good thing or succeeds to persuade others to believe that behavior is a good thing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorUserId="614" LastEditDate="2014-10-22T08:15:33.600" LastActivityDate="2014-10-22T19:54:51.233" Title="Clarification on the definition of sublimation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8425" CreationDate="2014-10-22T08:44:50.480" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Awh I've used that word before to describe the state of my illness. Sublimation in my case would mean mostly subsyndromal but still under treatment. That is to say the probability that something bad could happen like symptom recurrence or new disease emergence is not 0 due to the nature of the illness being lifelong but treatment continues and as issues of the mind present themself they are resolved through psychological and psychiatric techniques. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So its impossible to answer your rephrased question without knowing the exact person and their intention. I would imagine that is your interpretation rather than theirs. Should someone experience such an internal battle and deciding abnormality is normality they should seek immediate medical treatment as its not necessary and potentially harmful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this word was again used as I used it by someone like minded I would suggest instead that this individual seeks not to justify his abnormality but seeks to acknowledge his rationality about his abnormality and his potential greater than normal sanity due to constant correction which is lacking in most sick but untreated and yet labeled sane individuals. As I think everyone knows and freud so intended the war for a long, healthy, rational life is not won by the idle but those who actively engage in the treatment of their individual brand of abnormal physical or mental humanity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorDisplayName="user6939" LastEditDate="2014-10-22T09:23:00.930" LastActivityDate="2014-10-22T09:23:00.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8427" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8425" CreationDate="2014-10-22T10:10:23.447" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sublimation is a term from psychoanalytic theory. In short, the internatlized norms - the so-called Super-Ego - directs the drives to outlets that are free of guilt or shame. The whole process takes place inside the individual, and in fact the norms that individual has internalized (in his childhood) need not be identical to the norms that the adult person is surrounded by.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-10-22T19:54:51.233" LastActivityDate="2014-10-22T19:54:51.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8428" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8432" CreationDate="2014-10-22T16:30:43.697" Score="3" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I understand of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/research/nef.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neurogical Engineering Framework&lt;/a&gt; (NEF), groups of neurons are used to compute functions. However, I'm not clear if these calculations take into account neurons of different shapes/sizes and their attributes/uses in the brain. How well does the NEF capture heterogeneity and how is it used?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-11-23T20:45:07.587" LastActivityDate="2014-11-23T20:45:07.587" Title="How well does the NEF capture neuronal heterogeneity?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8429" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8430" CreationDate="2014-10-22T17:00:11.940" Score="3" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;How much does the SPAUN and the Semantic Pointer Architecture (SPA) that was used to build it take neurotransmitters into account? In the book How to Build a Brain, various inhibitory and excitatory connections are mentioned as supplying a biological foundation for implementing the Basal Ganglia. Additionally, it's mentioned that the learning rule that the SPA uses, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/7782/how-does-hpes-compare-to-the-learning-rates-of-anns&quot;&gt;hPES&lt;/a&gt;, uses dopamine to modulate learning. However, I'm still a bit confused on the details of all this. How do neurotransmitters fit into Nengo? How much detail does Nengo go into in regards to neurotransmitters? Does it take into account the neurotransmitter distribution and consumption as observed in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: For more information on the relation between Nengo, SPA and SPAUN, please see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6181/relation-between-nengo-spa-and-nef-with-respect-to-other-neural-models&quot;&gt;my previous question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-11-23T20:45:42.673" LastActivityDate="2014-11-23T20:48:29.583" Title="How well are neurotransmitters used in SPA?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8430" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8429" CreationDate="2014-10-22T18:47:39.860" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;At this point in time, the difference in neurotransmitter types affect the synaptic time constant (i.e. the filter on the incoming spike train) between neurons in Nengo. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/eliasmith2003a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural Engineering&lt;/a&gt; p.112 and &lt;a href=&quot;http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/tcstewar/syde556/blob/master/SYDE%20556%20Lecture%203%20Temporal%20Representation.ipynb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;these notes&lt;/a&gt; (see the section called &quot;Biologically plausible filter&quot;) from a course covering the book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurotransmitters are also leveraged more theoretically. For example, in connection between neurons that involve learning, dopamine is often said to modulate this learning. For example, see Dan Rasmussen's neural hierarchical reinfrocement learning implementation (PHD link pending).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypothetically, it would be possible to implement a back-end to Nengo using a more biologically detailed software such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/neuro.11.001.2009/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuron&lt;/a&gt; to take into account neurotransmitter generation, concentration and consumption. Although I can attest anecdotally that this has been attempted with mixed success, there has been no formal release or publication of this approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-11-23T20:48:29.583" LastActivityDate="2014-11-23T20:48:29.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8431" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-22T18:50:05.607" Score="3" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that neurotransmitters are used to send signals between neurons in the brain and that some are used for rather specific functions. However, is the exact distribution/concentration/consumption and tolerances of neurotransmitters in various areas of the brain known?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related and considered: &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1748/which-neurotransmitters-can-be-measured-in-a-living-human-brain&quot;&gt;Which neurotransmitters can be measured in a living human brain?&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1215/neurotransmitter-based-imaging-techniques&quot;&gt;Neurotransmitter based imaging techniques&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2014-10-24T02:14:31.423" Title="How does neurotransmitter distribution and usage vary thought the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8432" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8428" CreationDate="2014-10-22T19:20:26.367" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To review how neurons encode information, please check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/tcstewar/syde556/blob/master/SYDE%20556%20Lecture%202%20Representation.ipynb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;these class notes&lt;/a&gt; review encoding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In those notes, you'll notice the intercept $J_{bias}$ and the maximum firing rate $\alpha$ are randomly selected when encoding functions in large populations of neurons. These variations can account for heterogeneity in attributes of neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2014-10-22T19:20:26.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8433" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-22T22:59:27.270" Score="3" ViewCount="465" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the book &quot;Thinking, Fast and Slow&quot;, the author claims that there are two systems of thinking. System 1 is quick, instinctive and emotionally driven while System 2 is more logical and deliberate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, has there ever been any physiological proof, in terms of brain activation areas or other signs, that these two systems exist. If they do exist, have they ever been capture in a cognitive model, regardless of biological plausibility?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2014-11-11T21:31:50.667" Title="Different neural structures for quick vs. methodical decision making" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8434" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8433" CreationDate="2014-10-23T05:30:02.473" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Regarding the first question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cmu.edu/dietrich/sds/docs/loewenstein/RoleofEffectEmotion.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;well documented that emotions guide/modulate &quot;higher&quot; cognitive processes&lt;/a&gt;. A more specific theory of how this could work is, for instance, Antonio Damasio's &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=C33D0096A1D7344258635AA6F6A9669E?doi=10.1.1.114.1001&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;somatic marker hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;. Additionally, I'm not so sure emotion and &quot;cold&quot; cognition can really be categorically seperated, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-science.org/pubs/2007/ar2007.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;seeing as they share a lot of the same brain structures/processes: &quot;Brain structures at the heart of the neural circuitry for emotion (e.g., the amygdala) impact cognitive processing from early attention allocation (Holland &amp;amp; Gallagher 1999) through perceptual processing to memory (for a recent review, see Phelps 2006). Similarly, brain structures involved in the neural circuitry for cognition, such as DMPFC and VLPFC, have an intrinsic role in the experience of emotion&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. So (although his work is obviously great and meaningful), his mistake seems to be the categorical distinction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6682" LastEditorDisplayName="user6682" LastEditDate="2014-10-24T12:32:47.730" LastActivityDate="2014-10-24T12:32:47.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8435" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8433" CreationDate="2014-10-23T12:21:57.047" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neuroanatomically speaking I think Kahneman may be talking about the &amp;quot;hot&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;cold&amp;quot; executive function pathways (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; is fairly informative on the subject).  &lt;strong&gt;Hot executive function is thought to involve affect or reward processing&lt;/strong&gt;, and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is generally thought to be crucial for this.  &lt;strong&gt;Cold executive function is thought to be invoked more by abstract tasks with little reward involvement&lt;/strong&gt;, and is associated with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This extract from Prencipe et al. (2011, cited below) has more to say about the cognitive modeling of this theory--the article is from a developmental standpoint, so it speaks specifically to children and adolescents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather than considering executive function (EF) in hot and cool situations in a dichotomous&#xA;fashion, this characterization recognizes the interplay between&#xA;relatively hot aspects of EF and relatively cool aspects of EF&#xA;(Cunningham &amp;amp; Zelazo, 2007). According to this model, information is&#xA;processed hierarchically, with relatively quick evaluative reactions&#xA;followed by the generation of approach–avoidance-oriented responses.&#xA;These relatively simple responses may suffice, or, if necessary,&#xA;further processing and reprocessing of information may ensue that&#xA;allows reflection on context and future consequences, and that&#xA;supports the top-down control of behavior. The extent to which a&#xA;reflective response is likely to be generated depends on a number of&#xA;factors, including time, motivation, and neural and cognitive&#xA;maturity. Given that neural development also proceeds in a generally&#xA;hierarchical fashion, with areas of the brain associated with more&#xA;complex processing developing later than areas of the brain associated&#xA;with more automatic processing (e.g., Bunge &amp;amp; Zelazo, 2006), children&#xA;and adolescents may be expected to be less reflective than adults.&#xA;Moreover, difficulty in generating reflective responses is likely to&#xA;be most evident in emotionally charged situations that have meaningful&#xA;personal consequences; in these situations, emerging cognitive control&#xA;must be implemented in the context of potential interference from&#xA;relatively automatic responses to potential rewards and punishments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't read &amp;quot;Thinking Fast &amp;amp; Slow&amp;quot; but I would in general be pretty skeptical of claims that there are two &amp;quot;systems&amp;quot; for thinking; it is a bit more accurate in my view to say that these are two capabilities that can be brought to bear on a situation, and most situations will involve some combination of both.  In addition, &lt;strong&gt;I have never heard any evidence that there are processing-speed differences between hot and cold&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prencipe, Angela; Kesek, Amanda; Cohen, Julia; Lamm, Connie; Lewis, Marc D.; Zelazo, Philip David (2011). &amp;quot;Development of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence&amp;quot;. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 108 (3): 621–637. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.008. ISSN 0022-0965.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-10-23T15:18:18.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8436" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8437" CreationDate="2014-10-23T13:52:08.787" Score="1" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I'm reading the documentation of importing events in EEGLAB from a file &lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/wiki/A02:_Importing_Event_Epoch_Info&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; I have noticed that when we used a stimulus , we must know which time  we will apply it , since in the dataset file , you have to identify  of what times stimulus happen . &lt;br&gt; I don't know if my understanding is right or not , since i didn't  deal with EEG data practically (but in 2 weeks I will), but I was  reading a theoretical topics and papers on that.&#xA;&lt;br&gt; thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-10-24T04:00:02.030" Title="reading an EEG dataset using EEGLAB" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8437" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8436" CreationDate="2014-10-23T17:13:29.557" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I understand your question correctly, yes, since ERP involves averaging over similar events, very accurate time-locking to stimulus onset is critical.  The idea of an ERP is that activity relevant to the stimulus will happen at a similar timepoint after similar stimuli--if you don't have an accurate time stamp (usually to the level of single milliseconds if not better), then the activity will be &quot;smeared&quot; across the time course.  For a good overview of ERPs, see the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.4103%2F0972-6748.57865&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Event-related Potentials: An Overview&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-10-23T17:13:29.557" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8438" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8439" CreationDate="2014-10-24T00:00:42.260" Score="3" ViewCount="202" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/research/nef.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neurological Engineering Framework&lt;/a&gt; can be used to create systems that use memory in interesting ways. One system (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6111/1202.full?ijkey=y5vph.jw5AgRQ&amp;amp;keytype=ref&amp;amp;siteid=sci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spaun&lt;/a&gt;) is able to memorize (and forget) lists much in the same way as humans do. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2014/papers/221/paper221.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Another system&lt;/a&gt; can learn tasks and apply the knowledge to subtasks using hierarchical reinforcement learning. Both of these tasks involve memory, but how is memory contained within the Neurological Engineering Framework?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-12T00:24:09.597" LastActivityDate="2016-01-12T00:25:20.703" Title="How is memory accounted for in the NEF?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8439" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8438" CreationDate="2014-10-24T00:16:43.437" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Neurological Engineering Framework does not explicitly state a mechanism for memory. There is no &quot;hard-drive&quot; in the brain for easy retrieval and access. Rather, memory is captured in the connection weights between neural populations and the dynamics of the network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the Hierarchical Reinforcement Learning example, linked to in the previous question, the &quot;memory&quot; of the map for the navigation task is saved by modifying the connections weights of the neurons representing the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the serial list memorisation task, the working memory for saving the semantic pointer list items is preserved in an integrator, which is essentially a neuron population that feeds back on itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are examples of working memory, in other words, the memory that allows you to drive a car without really remembering how exactly you drove it. Long term memory modeling requires quite a few more mechanisms (memory reconsolidation) and structures (hippocampus, amygdala) that haven't been captured in any system built with the NEF yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-12T00:25:20.703" LastActivityDate="2016-01-12T00:25:20.703" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8441" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8433" CreationDate="2014-10-24T11:19:17.493" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would disagree with @Krysta: the distinction between system 1 and system 2 processes goes far beyond that of cognition with/without emotion: it's a complex debates that's been going on since the 70s (in it's current form, it's echoed in a wider debate going back centuries). For the sake of brevity, let me resort to bullet points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For psychologists, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ualberta.ca/~francisp/Phil488/EvansDualProcessing2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Evans (2008)&lt;/a&gt; is the go to reference on this matter. Obviously, Kahneman is the grandfather of this topic, and his book is a great introduction for the layman, you'll find a much more rigorous discussion here.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There's a lot of variation in terminology here - while &quot;&lt;em&gt;dual process theory&lt;/em&gt;&quot; is the commonly accepted generic term for this idea, you'll also see it as &quot;type, or system 1/2 processes&quot;, &quot;intuition/logic&quot;, &quot;associative/controlled processes&quot;, etc. Again, see Evans (2008).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A nice simplification of the distinction would be to say there's two kinds of processes, System 2 processes, which requires Working Memory (i.e. maintaining, updating, and manipulating a representation of information over a period of time), and System 1 processes, which don't. System 1, when taken this way, isn't a single &quot;subsystem&quot;, its a diverse set of processes (this idea is nicely laid out in &lt;a href=&quot;http://keithstanovich.com/Site/Research_on_Reasoning_files/Stanovich_Two_MInds.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stanovich, 2009&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;who uses the term &quot;The Set of Autonomous Systems (TASS&quot;)),&#xA;amongst other sources) including evolved, domain specific &lt;em&gt;modules&lt;/em&gt; for solving specific problems (i.e. recognising faces), the emotion subsystem, and rules and associations which have become automatic through experience, and implicit learning (stereotypes, for example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;To finally get to your question, &lt;strong&gt;yes, this does translate into specific neural systems&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Working Memory (and thus system 2 processes) is pretty clearly localised to the prefrontal cortex (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://diyhpl.us/~bryan/papers2/neuro/working-memory/A%20parametric%20study%20of%20prefrontal%20cortex%20involvement%20in%20human%20working%20memory%20-%201997.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Braver et al, 1997&lt;/a&gt;, for example).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;System 1, not being a single &quot;system&quot;, obviously can't be localized to a single brain region. However, many of it's component processes can be: emotion to the limbic system, face recognition to the fusiform face area, etc. (I don't know much about localization of implicit learning, but I would guess the hippocampus is involved).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I've just realised I haven't answered your second question, about cognitive models. I'll come back to this at a later date.&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt; I've just noticed you're working with Chris Eliasmith. I can think of few people better qualified to answer your second question than he is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Reading&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ualberta.ca/~francisp/Phil488/EvansDualProcessing2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Evans, J. S. B. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 59, 255-278.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://keithstanovich.com/Site/Research_on_Reasoning_files/Stanovich_Two_MInds.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stanovich, K. E. (2009). Distinguishing the reflective, algorithmic, and autonomous minds: Is it time for a tri-process theory. In two minds: Dual processes and beyond, 55-88.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-10-24T11:19:17.493" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8442" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-24T16:53:29.563" Score="2" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perforated patches are a special type of patch clamping. I understand that it is sometimes preferred to whole-cell recordings because it prevents complete diffusion of the electrode solution into the clamped cell, but I was wondering:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the antibiotics/antifungals used to induce holes into the membrane produce perforations of differential size, so that the researcher can control which types of molecules will make it into the cell?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe somebody has experience with this technique (I have never done it myself), and could share why they prefer it to whole-cell recordings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6489" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-28T01:57:41.490" LastActivityDate="2014-10-28T01:57:41.490" Title="Perforated patches: Can antibiotics used to induce holes in membrane produce perforations of differential size?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-03-28T18:30:35.177" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8443" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-24T17:14:45.897" Score="3" ViewCount="747" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone give me a brief explanation of this term? Found it in a paper but there doesn't seem to be an explanation that is consistent out there to my knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6489" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-10-26T23:20:51.990" LastActivityDate="2014-10-26T23:20:51.990" Title="What is runaway excitation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8444" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8460" CreationDate="2014-10-24T18:26:44.423" Score="1" ViewCount="381" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there an EEG brain signal that has specific features resulting from imagination? For example, if a subject sees a car and imagines that the car is moving left. Could we capture this signal and decrypt what was the person imagining?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-11-25T13:29:35.030" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T13:29:35.030" Title="Detect an imagination EEG signal" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8445" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-24T23:37:09.357" Score="6" ViewCount="480" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am studying eeg signals with the aim of distinguishing between preictal and interictal epilepsy states based on the eeg signal. I have read some papers and one of the metrics used to distinguish between the states has to do with measuring the phase synchronization between eeg samples from multiple electrodes. In this regard, I thought the most straightforward way to measure phase difference between two signals would be to compute the cross correlation function, and find the time $\tau$ at which the cross correlation function reaches a maximum - call this &lt;strong&gt;Method 1&lt;/strong&gt;. However, in practice what is usually done is to fourier transform the signals and measure phase difference of the complex fourier transform (and possibly average it over a frequency band of interest). Details are explained e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Measures_of_neuronal_signal_synchrony&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; - see the section on phase synchronization. Call this &lt;strong&gt;Method 2&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is: what is wrong with Method 1? It seems more intuitive, direct and computationally easier to me. Could someone explain this to me?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; thinking about this even further, it seems the method employed in practice and described at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Measures_of_neuronal_signal_synchrony&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Measures_of_neuronal_signal_synchrony&lt;/a&gt; is actually &lt;strong&gt;Method 3&lt;/strong&gt; and distinct from &lt;strong&gt;Method 2&lt;/strong&gt; above. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nbtwiki.net/doku.php?id=tutorial:phase_locking_value#.VErmifnF_5M&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; link shows how it can be implemented in MATLAB. Consider two signals $x(t)$ and a time shifted version of it $x(t+T)$. The Fourier Transforms will be $X(\omega)$ and $X(\omega)e^{j\omega T}$ respectively. Using &lt;strong&gt;Method 1&lt;/strong&gt; one would get $T$ as measure of phase difference. Using &lt;strong&gt;Method 2&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;$\Delta \phi$ = $\omega T$ and this averaged over $[\omega_1,\omega_2]$ will give phase difference as $T\frac{\omega_1+\omega_2}{2}$. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;But what would Method 3 give? Is there a difference between phase difference and phase synchronization of two signals?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3904" LastEditorUserId="3904" LastEditDate="2014-10-25T17:16:26.090" LastActivityDate="2014-10-25T17:26:02.970" Title="Measurement of phase difference between two signals using cross correlation vs. fourier transform" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;synchronization&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8446" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8445" CreationDate="2014-10-25T08:50:10.573" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Methods 1 and 2 are matematically equivalent, but I have experienced that method 2 is computationally more efficient for high sampling rates and large ranges of delay (notice that method 2 does not require a loop). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4046" LastActivityDate="2014-10-25T08:50:10.573" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8447" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8458" CreationDate="2014-10-25T10:28:30.260" Score="0" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0180093/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Requiem for a Dream&lt;/a&gt; is the best &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stevenaitchison.co.uk/blog/why-reqium-for-a-dream-is-a-motivating-movie/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;negative motivation&lt;/a&gt; movie I ever seen. This movie really helped me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And recently I started to notice that &lt;strong&gt;negative motivation&lt;/strong&gt; is the only type of motivation that really helps me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What other [really good] &lt;strong&gt;negative motivation&lt;/strong&gt; movies do you know? Or may be books, something else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe this question is &lt;em&gt;off-topic&lt;/em&gt; here. But I really need to know other &lt;strong&gt;negative motivation&lt;/strong&gt; movies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sorry for my English&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6608" LastEditorUserId="6608" LastEditDate="2014-10-27T05:17:55.393" LastActivityDate="2014-10-27T05:17:55.393" Title="The best &quot;negative motivation&quot; movies (or books, etc.)?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2014-11-26T13:33:37.907" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8448" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8449" CreationDate="2014-10-25T11:12:07.950" Score="4" ViewCount="349" Body="&lt;p&gt;Jewish people are overrepresented in politics and science especially in the United States. Do they have better cognitive abilities than average population? If yes, what is the reason for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Statistics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;0.2% of world population is Jewish&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Jews&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;About 1.7% - 2.6% of Americans are Jewish&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_affiliation_in_the_United_States_Senate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10% of US senators are Jewish&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;About 23% of Nobel prize winners are Jewish&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="6750" LastEditDate="2014-10-25T11:28:33.420" LastActivityDate="2014-10-28T08:20:33.870" Title="Do Jewish people have better cognitive abilities than average population?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8449" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8448" CreationDate="2014-10-25T13:15:04.810" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your explanation limits your question to the present day United States. Richard Lynn (2004) indeed found that American Jews have a higher verbal intelligence than non-Jewish whites by an average of 7.5 IQ points. But since American Jews are largely descendants of European immigrants, their higher relative intelligence might be a result of so-called &quot;eugenic practices&quot; (Zeidner, 2012): many highly intelligent Jews (e.g. scientists and artists) received special help from foreign parties to flee the Nazi holocaust, and those that where wealthy (presumably because they were more intelligent) had better resources, e.g. to bribe German officials (which is documented) or simply to pay for their transportation. From the current situation in the US it is therefore unclear if Jews are hereditary more intelligent or other factors have influenced the selection of Jewish American immigrants, if compared to the descendants of non-Jewish immigrants, many of which where poor (and uneducated). As other studies show (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ_and_the_Wealth_of_Nations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ_and_the_Wealth_of_Nations&lt;/a&gt;), intelligence is influenced by food (= wealth) and education (= wealth) by about 10 IQ points. So the higher intelligence of American Jews lies within what those factors might explain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking a wider view, there are other studies that find higher intelligence in Jews as far back as the middle ages or in other areas of the world also. The debate is summarized in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jewish_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; as well as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=jews%20intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;countless articles on the web&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lynn, R. (2004). The intelligence of American Jews. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences, 36&lt;/em&gt;(1), 201-206.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zeidner, M. (2012). The Chosen People: A Study of Jewish Intelligence and Achievement (Review). &lt;em&gt;Times Higher Education&lt;/em&gt;. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/books/the-chosen-people-a-study-of-jewish-intelligence-and-achievement/418945.article&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/books/the-chosen-people-a-study-of-jewish-intelligence-and-achievement/418945.article&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-10-26T09:33:15.203" LastActivityDate="2014-10-26T09:33:15.203" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8450" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8457" CreationDate="2014-10-25T16:48:30.447" Score="9" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;Adaptation is a very robust feature of sensory processing: when a stimulus is displayed for a prolonged period, or repeatedly, the neural response to it will diminish. This process creates a local change in cortical sensitivity, which is behaviorally evident through worse sensory discrimination of subsequent stimuli which are similar to the adaptor stimulus, but better discrimination of dissimilar ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the visual domain, there is also the concept of an &lt;strong&gt;afterimage&lt;/strong&gt;. If one looks at a green patch for a long time, then a white wall will appear red. If one looks at a curved line for a long time, a straight line will appear to curve the other way. The landscape next to a waterfall will look like its traveling upwards, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anything similar exist in the auditory domain? Can adaptation lead to illusory percepts in audition? And if not, why do you think this would be? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm particularly interested in the neural level of explanation, and would be very happy to hear all speculations, however far out they are. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="388" LastEditDate="2014-10-25T16:53:51.867" LastActivityDate="2014-10-26T16:27:01.140" Title="aftereffects of auditory adaptation" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8451" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-25T17:04:13.347" Score="1" ViewCount="7888" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are people who hate (or don't prefer ) things that are mainstream, is there a term for them ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any references to cognitive reasons for some people being odd in that way would be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6945" LastActivityDate="2019-07-16T20:24:28.860" Title="Is there a term for people who hate (or don't prefer ) things that are mainstream?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8452" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8445" CreationDate="2014-10-25T17:26:02.970" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;To clear this up, there is a distinction between &lt;strong&gt;phase difference&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;phase synchronization&lt;/strong&gt;.  &lt;strong&gt;Phase synchronization = is the phase difference constant with time?&lt;/strong&gt; One crude way to measure phase synchronization would be to partition long signals $x(t)$ and $y(t)$ into many disjoint windows, compute the phase difference in each window using either Method 1 or Mathod 2, and then determine if the phase difference is the same across windows. Method 3 gives a more sophisticated method of measuring phase synchronization where we measure the instantaneous phase of signals and track the difference over time to see if its constant. For completeness, I have come across another &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/ftp/q-bio/papers/0612/0612004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; that talks about yet another way to measure phase synchronization. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also for $x(t)$ and $x(t+T)$ Methods 1 and 2 give the same answer (discarding the frequency term in method 2) but in general I have a feeling that Method 1 and 2 would give different answer for two arbirary signals $x(t)$ and $y(t)$ and would be very interested if someone could explain this mathematically and elaborate on the relationship if any between the answers obtained from Method 1 vs Method 2, which method is better and why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3904" LastActivityDate="2014-10-25T17:26:02.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8453" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8451" CreationDate="2014-10-25T18:02:37.280" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is more an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anthropology&lt;/a&gt; question than psychology. Counter cultures and cults definitely are against mainstream society. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In America during the 60s there was a counter culture revolution. People found ideas from other cultures or invented cultural ideas and tried to bring them into mainstream. We called them all hippies at that time but now they are just ordinary people because their cultural revolution was largely popularized. People primarily associate hippies with a leftist movement but the Jesus freaks or Jesus movement was the equivalent in the religious conservative realm. Jesus freaks moved outside the realms of ordinary church. They were fundamentalist but spawned a diverse set of beliefs. The Jesus movement was also absorbed into mainstream culture and these two polar groups are a large reason why American belief systems are polarized between left and right in certain demographics at the moment.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cults aggrandize a certain person, group of people or idea above family, government and the typical place of religion. I lived in Texas for a while so the first example that comes to my mind is Waco's Koresh who formed the group that was destroyed at their compound by the Clinton administration. He had a messiah complex mixed with some kind of hypersexualism. He was very charismatic and drew many people into his group with his pazazz. The of course the oft rumoured but very oft not found fundamental mormons which allow their people to be polygamist but god forbid any of those women ask to do polyandry. Putting a leader of a mormon church breakaway in jail became a national priority because in addition to the the polygamy there was incest in his groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subcultures tend to be inside the realms of mainstream but hold to specific values that set the distinct. This might include the cowboy subculture, city dweller, yankee and southerner, various sexuality types, religious in various degrees and types. Freud had an interesting view that I've chosen to cherish his idea was like don't let yourself be defined by your sexuality (or other characteristic) instead embrace being human and all that it means. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed people are drawn into counter-cultures outside of mainstream sometimes for positive and negative reasons. In general disenfranchisement by mainstream policies or values tends to lead people into depressive states which allows them to make atypical decisions to escape the pain of sadness. Oft people are drawn into cults by the charisma and happiness offered by the cult head or central idea. People tend to be born into subcultures and then choose to remain or seek out another group. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastActivityDate="2014-10-25T18:02:37.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8454" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8450" CreationDate="2014-10-25T18:19:20.337" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_hallucination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Auditory hallucinations&lt;/a&gt; happen very often and are non-pathological for most individuals. When triggered by psychosis (through excessive emotions, chemical imbalances, brain pathway failure) and do not stop they become pathological. In general things like hearing music when none is playing, hearing a ringing (outside of tinnitus) or hearing someone call your name (when no one is speaking or someone is referring to someone else) are this type of hallucination. Typically this happens when spazzed out high, experiencing some kind of cognitive dissonance, stressed, sleepy, it also thought that sensory deprivation triggers hallucinations of various types. In general the sensory deprivation hallucinations are thought to be caused by spontaneous firing of the auditory nerves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The opposite case is also true when someone does have tinnitus the brain adapts in a way to ignore the spurious humming and detracts that sound from the interpretation of life around them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastActivityDate="2014-10-25T18:19:20.337" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8456" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8443" CreationDate="2014-10-26T09:41:02.873" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I have used (or seen) this term, it usually means that recurrent excitatory connections in a network have become stronger than the inhibitory feedback. This means that excitatory activity will grow stronger and stronger, without inhibitory influences to keep it in check. Eventually, the activity within the network will be limited only by spike-rate saturation. This type of network configuration is sometimes used as a model for an epileptic seizure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2014-10-26T09:41:02.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8457" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8450" CreationDate="2014-10-26T14:51:28.257" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most well known sensory after effect illusion in the auditory system is probably the &lt;a href=&quot;http://scitation.aip.org/content/asa/journal/jasa/36/12/10.1121/1.1919373&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zwicker tone (Zwicker, 1964)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If a white noise with a half‐octave‐band suppression placed anywhere from 300 to 7000 Hz is presented at an over‐all sound‐pressure level of about 60 dB for 1 min and then switched off, a decaying, poststimulatory sound similar to a pure tone is heard for about 10 sec. The pitch of the post‐stimulatory tone corresponds to a frequency within the suppressed band.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10162-002-3039-1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Norena and Eggermont (2003)&lt;/a&gt; argue that compared to non Zwicker tone stimuli, Zwicker tone stimuli give rise to an increased firing rate and an increase in the between neuron correlation of spike trains (I think) in the primary auditory cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2014-10-26T16:27:01.140" LastActivityDate="2014-10-26T16:27:01.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8458" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8447" CreationDate="2014-10-26T17:01:49.897" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Goodfellas and the Wolf on Wall Street both leave the watcher contemplating the results of the actors bad behaviour. The two movies are highly related; one is about the mob and the other about the market place. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning from bad behaviour and seeing it fail is method used in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storytelling&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;moral storytelling&lt;/a&gt; called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conditioning&lt;/a&gt;. Its an old idea that goes all the way back to ancient animal training but was first formally studied by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pavlov&lt;/a&gt;. Negative reinforcement causes people to lose an appetite for evil by seeing the devastating outcomes and punishment so that those behaviours are associated with pain and loss to cause avoidance.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also worth noting are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Great Gatsby (old and new)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bruce Almighty&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Click &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pay it Forward&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inception&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oedipus the King&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Romeo and Juliet (West Side Story)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Crucible&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dances with Wolves (Avatar)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Necklace &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Tell-Tale Heart&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Most episodes of Scandal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Matrix Revolutions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cloud Atlas &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Star Wars: Episode III&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;House of Flying Daggers&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A Beautiful Mind&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Good Will Hunting&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;TRON: Legacy &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How to Train Your Dragon 2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harry Potter &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Butterfly Effect movies especially the last one&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorDisplayName="user6939" LastEditDate="2014-10-26T20:35:12.467" LastActivityDate="2014-10-26T20:35:12.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8459" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-26T20:16:50.283" Score="2" ViewCount="299" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a painter and digital artist working with color and colorimetry.&#xA;Recently I noticed HUGE &quot;illusions&quot; (impressions of depths) in a print &#xA;composed of very saturated colors, that I programmed to have the highest &#xA;chroma my printer could achieve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately this is undisplayable on screen (out of gamut), but the picture&#xA;can give you an idea...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iqvqf.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;detail of a recent artwork - with incorrect colors&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the transition between Black and light Grey-ish that passes from&#xA;Red to Green to Blue-Greyish, one can see on the print very abrupt &quot;3D effects&quot; or in other words &quot;impressions of several groups of different depth&quot;, like a &quot;staircase&quot; with 3 or 4 steps.&#xA;We sometimes see similar so-called &quot;optical illusions&quot; occuring between fields of colours. If I remember well, dark-blue often seems &quot;further away&quot; than yellow for example.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched on internet for an explanation but I can only find some quite old non-quantitative theories that explain poorly the phenomenon with a theory of &quot;warm&quot; and &quot;cold&quot; colors...&#xA;That's far from being a satisfactory explanation... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering if:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the impression of depth has anything to do with the eye's optics (like the different colors are not diffracted equally)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;what is the cause of the illusion from the viewpoint of the retina's structure?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;can it be described in mathematical terms with the help of colorimetry?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;has it been completely described, can it be simulated, can we actually predict for which colors it's gonna happen?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6958" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T22:47:41.373" Title="Is there an explanation of why some colors seem to move forward/backward on a 2D plane?" Tags="&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8444" CreationDate="2014-10-27T01:01:52.330" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes of course. Most work with eeg and imagination focuses on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagined_speech&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;inner voice&lt;/a&gt; and what people are telling themselves and thinking to themselves. Imagine (pun intended) if we could reach into the mind of a terrorist and as they think about plots. Its not really all that hard but its not at all covert at the moment (all the schizoiod type personalities can relax). With a bunch of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.katu.com/news/local/Washington-researchers-transfer-human-thoughts-over-the-Internet-221656251.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;electrodes connected&lt;/a&gt; to the brain we are able to transfer what one person's imagined actions into another persons head for execution. Its really crude at the moment but at some point it will revolutionize the way we think about communication, art, education and intimacy. Connecting to imagined visualizations would be simular only instead of involving the motor cortex it would work with the visual centers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastActivityDate="2014-10-27T01:01:52.330" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8464" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-28T20:24:05.050" Score="5" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the brain require more sleep in the following night, if you have used a lot more of its capacity that day than usually?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastActivityDate="2014-11-02T07:59:43.747" Title="Does the brain need more sleep after heavy load?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8465" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-28T20:47:19.593" Score="7" ViewCount="261" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been trying to calculate PLV using the hilbert transform &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nbtwiki.net/doku.php?id=tutorial:phase_locking_value#.VFAAPvnF99o&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(reference)&lt;/a&gt;. To test if it even works or not, I calculated PLV between $x(t)$ and $x(t-T)$. i find that it drops to zero very quickly as $T$ becomes nonzero as shown in following figure:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4RViz.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this as expected? I would expect PLV between $x(t)$ and $x(t-T)$ to be 1. In above graph shift is a normalized quantity such that $T=\rm{shift}\times\rm{length}(x)$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; thinking about this some more. Let us first define what PLV is. If we define PLV as the phase locking between instantaneous phases of two signals $x(t)$ and $y(t)$ where instantaneous phase is defined according to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_signal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;analytic signal&lt;/a&gt;, then I am not able to derive a mathematical relationship asserting that $PLV(x(t),x(t-T)) = 1$. But then &lt;strong&gt;what is the PLV good for? What kind of transformation could be applied to $x(t)$ to yield a $y(t)$ s.t. $PLV(x,y)=1$?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3904" LastEditorUserId="3904" LastEditDate="2014-11-14T04:08:03.387" LastActivityDate="2015-04-13T06:54:46.850" Title="Phase locking value (PLV) between $x(t)$ and $x(t-T)$" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8466" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4178" CreationDate="2014-10-28T22:45:23.587" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Question: Are there any techniques to improve reading from screen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes!  I employ many different &quot;techniques&quot; myself: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Temporary on-the-fly changes to websites which I do not frequent.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cut-N-Paste content to a text editor.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Temporary changes for my viewing needs.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Permanent changes for my viewing needs to sites I frequent.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You bring an important point regarding readability.  It is such a problem for those of us who work at a computer most of the day, that many programmers have come up with some tools to help with the readability of websites which we frequent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1)  While most web browsers support increasing/decreasing font size (Ctrl+ / Ctrl-), they do not allow easily changing actual font or colors on websites.  Ignorance of html/css programming by non-programmer &quot;web designers&quot; have recently lead to many websites inadvertently not even allowing the above-mentioned font-size changes!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2)  If I'm on a website which does not allow quickly changing text size, I simply cut-n-paste the text into a text-editor.  I can then easily change font-size there.  That also allows me to save the URL of the site where the information was found.  I suppose this dates, me but this is a twist on technique of using index cards for term paper research.  It saves you from trying to figure out where material originated from.  If you are like me and prefer hard-copy, placing file-path &amp;amp; file-name on the bottom of your page, can help you find your saved copy (as often websites disappear or change content).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3)  I use a debugging add-on tool within firefox (called &quot;Firebug&quot;) to make temporary changes to a page I am viewing.  If I frequent that page, I can make those changes more permanent by putting those changes in item 4 below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(4)  Changing the way text is displayed helps so much with readability, that there is an add-on for Firefox which allows just that:  &quot;Stylish&quot;.  It is extremely useful for people who have problems due to color-deficiency(color-blindness).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This particular forum (and other stackexchange forums), does allow the Ctrl+/Ctrl- font-size changing!  Adjusting font-size helps; however it is not always enough.  Personally, I find that adjusting the font, color, and background increase readability dramatically.  Since I spend so much time on-line for work, I use Firefox web browser, along with and add-on called &quot;Stylish&quot; which allows me to customize frequently-used websites to make them more readable to me!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For websites/forums which I frequent, then creating a special &quot;Stylish&quot; modification for that site makes sense to me.  I can modify the actual font, as well as the font-color and background on which the font is displayed for websites which I visit frequently. Knowing html/css allows me to customize a websites readability to my preferences!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I actually used Firefox with &quot;Stylish&quot; add-on modifications for a client who had an older employee with vision problems.  The web-based hotel reservation software had poor readability on a couple of screens for which I had no direct control of.  The software has since been modified, allowing each individual user to select background color in those text areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is now an updated version of Stylish For Firefox.  Also, there is now a version of stylish for Chrome as well...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, you no longer need to have extensive css/html background to use Stylish.  Along with the new Stylish version, there are numerous pre-made Stylish Alternative Themes/Skins for many popular websites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Many of the alternate &quot;themes&quot; are specifically geared towards helping with eye-strain -- look for the word &quot;dark&quot; in their name.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://userstyles.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://userstyles.org&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;If you use openid, you can use your stackexchange openid&#xA;You can use your openid login by choosing &quot;login&quot; then &quot;openid&quot;, then&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://openid.stackexchange.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://openid.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;An example of an alternate &quot;theme&quot; which will help with eye strain is here:&#xA;Youtube - Lights Out - A Dark Youtube Theme&#xA;This dark grey background with light text is much easier on the eyes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6968" LastEditorUserId="6968" LastEditDate="2014-10-29T13:21:07.997" LastActivityDate="2014-10-29T13:21:07.997" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8467" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-29T05:20:23.437" Score="2" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are quite a few videos on YouTube (search &quot;trippy videos&quot;) that feel &quot;trippy&quot;. From what I've heard, some psychedelic artists are just reproducing what they experience when they trip on drugs like LSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few patterns I've noted:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Other humans/animals looking straight into the camera.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Looping motion of objects.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brilliant colors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research into what makes trippy videos trippy? I don't even know if trippiness is supposed to be subjective(in which case, I suppose this question must be closed). Any pointers would be really helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6970" LastActivityDate="2014-11-02T01:14:38.117" Title="What makes trippy audiovisuals trippy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8468" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-27T04:13:06.987" Score="5" ViewCount="2231" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work in Social Science Research (Management)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my school, Likert Scale is extensively used to measure attitudes.(Strongly disagree to Strongly agree). So, I kind of assumed that it's an absolute standard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But recently, while I was reading material on designing surveys, I came across the argument that highly criticized this format of response categories, owing to a tendency called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://srmo.sagepub.com/view/encyclopedia-of-survey-research-methods/n3.xml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;acquiescence response set&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm working on my questionnaire and have drafted several questions that measure the attitude of respondents related to an information system. Ex: The system provides accurate information. (strongly agree, Agree, Neither, Disagree, Strongly disagree)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is - what are the alternative scales I can use to measure the attitudes of the respondents? what is the more reliable way to measure attitudes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6967" OwnerDisplayName="siri" LastEditorUserId="6967" LastEditDate="2014-10-29T16:53:43.940" LastActivityDate="2014-11-28T18:08:51.067" Title="Survey Questionnaire design - What are the alternatives to Likert scale in measuring attitudes?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8469" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8473" CreationDate="2014-10-29T14:43:37.377" Score="4" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a several theories on personality: the Big Five personality traits, Watson en Clark's extraversion en neuroticism, Grey's Behavioural Inhibition &amp;amp; Behavioural Activation (BIS/BAS), Eysecks Psychotocism, Extraversion and Neuroticism (PEN) model, the Socionics &amp;amp; Information Metabolism theory discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1554/is-the-theory-of-information-metabolism-a-reasonable-scientific-theory&quot;&gt;this related question&lt;/a&gt;, the list goes on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But are there any theories proposing 'translations' from a personality described according to one theory, to the same personality described according to one of the others? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would expect that this translation would be mediated through latent variables. &#xA;However i have not found any research that does this, while there are papers on the relatioships between test-results. That is, there is empirical research that describes the correlations between the scores on questionnaires that are designed to measure personality according to different theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: From BIS/BAS to the big five - Smits and Boeck - European Journal of Personality Vol 20, no 4, 255–270&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason i ask, is because i have a dataset of some 460 subjects who took several personality questionnaires (big 5 as well as BIS/BAS), in addition they completed the Adjective Check List (ACL). Test subjects also did tests which measure impulsiveness: a Response Inhibition task, a Reversal Learning task and the Balloon Analogue Risk Task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it would be interesting to compare a model based on literature to the correlations found in this dataset. &#xA;Specifically i would try to predict certain approach/avoidance measurements (test-subjects also completed an approach-avoidance task) from the rest of the test data and the theoretical connections between the different factors that are supposed to underlie the measurements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other related questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/2015/what-is-the-support-for-a-global-personality-factor?rq=1&quot;&gt;What is the support for a global personality factor?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3881/what-is-understood-about-interactions-between-personality-types-or-traits?rq=1&quot;&gt;What is understood about interactions between personality types or traits?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6973" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-10-29T17:36:13.497" Title="Connections between different theories of personality" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8470" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8480" CreationDate="2014-10-29T14:48:51.027" Score="5" ViewCount="290" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often experience paralysis in the face of an irreversible decision or action. What is the term for this or what is it that I'm looking for to describe it and/or research it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples of this feeling:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Leaving for a trip: if I forgot something, once I'm at the airport it'll be too late to go back&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Throwing a garbage bag in a dumpster: if I dropped my phone in the garbage at some point, I'm never getting it back&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dropping a bundle of letters into a mailbox: if I got someone's address wrong, I can't just reach in and pull the letters back out&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Buying something without a return policy: if I don't like it, I'm never getting that money back&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;About to jump out of a plane (e.g., skydiving): if I don't like the feeling, I can't just hop back on the plane immediately&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was listening to a podcast in which this was referred to as the &quot;call of the void&quot;. However, the (not) ever-reliable &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=the%20call%20of%20the%20void&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Urban Dictionary describes the call of the void&lt;/a&gt; as the &quot;what if I jumped&quot; thought, which seems different somehow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is related to (but I think not a duplicate of) the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/476/what-is-the-term-for-when-too-many-choices-results-in-inability-to-decide&quot;&gt;Paradox of Choice&lt;/a&gt;, which, as I understand it, states that when people are given more choices, they tend to have difficulty making the decision and are often dissatisfied with the choice they made. It seems this anxiety I'm describing has more to do with the &lt;em&gt;irreversible&lt;/em&gt; nature of the decision or action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3471" LastActivityDate="2014-11-24T23:17:04.360" Title="What is the fear/paralysis that occurs before doing an irreversible action?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8472" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8468" CreationDate="2014-10-29T17:19:19.807" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In attitude psychology Likert response scales are still the norm. They do have their problems (and there are a good deal of problems), but many of them can be addressed satisfactorily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The acquiescence bias you mention is a small issue. It can be balanced out by reverse coding roughly half of your test items. The acquiescence bias then becomes random noise rather than a systematic bias, which is annoying but not very damaging as long as your analysis has good power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if you have a 4-item scale that measures roughly the same thing, you could mix items like &quot;The system provides accurate information&quot; with items like &quot;I would not recommend the system to others&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does that make sense?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6974" LastActivityDate="2014-10-29T17:19:19.807" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8473" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8469" CreationDate="2014-10-29T17:36:13.497" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's unclear if the idea of 'translation' from one personality framework to another is a meaningful concept. A score on any given personality factor represents some weighted combination of measures - usually endorsement of questionnaire items like &quot;I am the life of the party&quot;, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As such, every factor score is a unique variable that probably doesn't reflect some underlying property of the human brain, but is a scientifically convenient construct &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though personality theories are usually based on how different trait scores factor analyse, and so they often have a lot of overlap. Eysenck's Neuroticism and Extroversion factors are very similar to the Big Five N and E factors, because those emerge very strongly when you look at the common clusters of human traits. But they aren't identical, because they're comprised of different items and exist in a different multidimensional test structure with different cross-loadings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The different theories are different &lt;em&gt;because&lt;/em&gt; they cannot be translated to one another, though similarities can always be drawn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6974" LastActivityDate="2014-10-29T17:36:13.497" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8474" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-29T21:46:37.797" Score="7" ViewCount="216" Body="&lt;p&gt;Kahneman and Tversky (1979) show findings that can be summarized in this plot:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0OJcX.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They show that humans dislike losses &quot;more&quot; than they like comparable nominal gains. The results come from a series of brief experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can these results be valid in the following situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A loss or gain is a one-time event, but the impact (negative or positive disutility) persists and affects decisions over days, weeks?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Losses or gains across multiple individuals lead to a decrease or increase in (hypothetical) aggregate utility, without cancelling each other.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, if workers become unemployed in a recession, can we apply the Kahneman–Tversky framework to explain, say, their likely protests (and it's not enough to restore their incomes because the loss is overweighted)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or from the point of psychology, a wage loss looks differently? To clarify the latter, a wage loss leads to a series of negative events, each of which has a negative impact. But does this chain still yield the effect similar to the depicted one, as we sum up the impacts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, how often does the reference point tend to refresh itself, so that we could treat the next event as happening at (0, 0) in the plot and not just as an add on to the previous event?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The framework is not so literal, anyway; but maybe the question still makes sense at the given level of abstraction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kahneman, Daniel, and Amos Tversky. “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk.” Econometrica 47, no. 2 (March 1, 1979): 263–91. doi:10.2307/1914185.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4020" LastActivityDate="2014-11-29T23:29:50.043" Title="Do Kahneman–Tversky results hold for longer periods and aggregate behavior?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8475" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-30T15:20:47.430" Score="-2" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/questions/26655534/how-does-catcomplete-works&quot;&gt;opened a question trying to point out every doubt I had on a language of development&lt;/a&gt;: I thought it could be constructive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm pretty proud of the formulation of this question since it gives almost nothing as understood. While I was studying math at university many books were giving many concept as known.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the moment in which I'm writing 5 persons downvoted the question saying: &quot;&lt;em&gt;How about learning something about 1) JavaScript objects ({}), 2) jQuery callbacks 3) jQuery plugins?&lt;/em&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually there is a cognitive error in this sentence. He thinks (opinion) that I've lacked of effort, but actually I've studied Javascript at the university (fact). I've also tried to google for it (fact), but without the exact knowledge of what to look for I could not find an explanation. &lt;em&gt;I'm making an assumption interpreting his sentence.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Another guy simply answered in a constructive way.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that this cognitive error is pretty diffuse. How is it called? Is it an attribution error? Can it be motivated by the need for feeding self-esteem while putting no effort in making something constructive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-05-23T12:41:53.730" LastActivityDate="2014-10-31T12:16:34.600" Title="Attitude to judge and avoid efforts" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="14" ClosedDate="2014-10-31T12:19:24.293" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8477" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8485" CreationDate="2014-10-30T23:11:21.500" Score="1" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; Recently I have been doing mathematics a whole lot,and I have noticed that my output varies wildly from many external factors,but mostly it is the enviorment I am working in. Namely one of the most unexpected things is that most my output depends on the quality of pen I am using and kind of notebook I am writing in. Last day I went to buy new notebooks and I laid my eyes upon one with especially distinguishing blue-white color scheme,and in my mind it was already set that it will be notebook I will write abstract algebra into,and truly while using that notebook I feel really motivated, it feels like the color of it and the subject of abstract algebra are intertwined in my brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the phenomena called where features of the work environment such as type of pen or color of paper influence productivity or workplace well-being? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can such features be used to improve productivity?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6981" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-11-27T05:20:44.427" LastActivityDate="2017-04-11T07:56:43.883" Title="How do features of the work environment such as type of pen or color of paper influence productivity and workplace well-being?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8478" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8475" CreationDate="2014-10-31T09:58:06.237" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The competence you have and the competence you need has a big gap to understand the code.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You said that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;He thinks (opinion) that I've lacked of effort, but actually I've&#xA;  studied Javascript at the university (fact).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My assumption (might be wrong) is that you have taken one or two courses of JavaScript there. If you have studied JavaScript at the university, that does not prevent you to study more of it at your own to understand the basic code syntax better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overly exaggerated example of this case would be that someone asks at Physics forum:&#xA;&quot;Could you explain me the theory of relativity in detail?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...and the person has just taken one physics course in high school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If many users ask that kind of questions, expect answers and get them on Stackoverflow, then it is full of similar questions and more experienced users have nothing else to do than to explain things in words of one syllable. In that case the forum would not work efficiently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did not answer to your questions, because I think that you are approaching this problem from a wrong angle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, you are correct that users in Stackoverflow should behave more constructive way. People are more critical there to the formulation of the questions than in other StackExchange sites for some reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="6750" LastEditDate="2014-10-31T10:17:00.053" LastActivityDate="2014-10-31T10:17:00.053" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8479" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8401" CreationDate="2014-10-31T11:39:10.967" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bipolar cells reduce transmitter release when hyperpolarized, see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell#cite_note-isbn0-87893-694-7-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt;. When the bipolar cell is fully hyperpolarized it will basically stop releasing neurotransmitters. If transmitter release ever becomes totally zero I do not dare to say, however. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2014-10-31T11:39:10.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8480" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8470" CreationDate="2014-10-31T13:19:49.773" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Philosopher Walter Kaufmann calls this fear &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;decidophobia&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, but I have never read and &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Decidophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cannot find&lt;/a&gt; any psychological publications using that term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you think about the phenomenon, it becomes apparent that anyone can clearly observe when a person hesitates to decide, but even that person herself could probably not clearly identify all the emotions that accompany this behavior, and, if there is fear, what the exact object of that fear is – the fear could be of anything from deciding between two equally desirable alternatives (fear to decide) to the outcome of a decision that is in fact already made (fear to finalize the decision and face the results).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology therefore prefers to study observable behavior and calls this behavior &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12555797&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;decision avoidance&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above answers the question you asked in the title of you question. Your post itself describes a bundle of symptoms that to me are reminiscent of what persons with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;obsessive-compulsive disorder&lt;/a&gt; experience. Many such disorders begin with a worry that something was forgotten and lead to extended rituals of checking for hours if the water is turned off or the lights are out. The problem here is that these people become increasingly incabable of trusting their perceptions and have to repeat certain actions until they are finally convinced the thing was done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example is of a woman who frequently goes on business trips and, upon returning home, has to read the name of her city several times loudly letter-by-letter at the airport to get the feeling that she is actually there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I know nothing about you beyond your post, your problem – if it is one – is hard to diagnose. If this &quot;fear to decide&quot; affects your well-being, I recommend you go see a psychologist and talk to them about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-10-31T13:36:12.433" LastActivityDate="2014-10-31T13:36:12.433" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8481" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6265" CreationDate="2014-10-31T13:36:25.723" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I basically agree with @Nick Stauner, but I want to add another important aspect, namely the gradient of photoreceptor densities in the human retina: In the fovea there is a sharp peak in cone density compared to more eccentric regions, as described in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cis.uab.edu/sloan/PRtopo/Curcio_JCompNeurol1990_PRtopo_searchable.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Curcio et al. (1990)&lt;/a&gt; and see the following graph obtained from &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/imageswv/Ostergr.jpeg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Web Vision&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/POB6W.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;photoreceptor densities&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cones have a different retinal circuitry, as about 20-100 cones converge onto one ganglion cell via bipolar cells (&lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-iii-retinal-circuits/cone-pathways-through-the-retina/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Webvision&lt;/a&gt;. In contrast, tens of thousands of rods may connect onto a single ganglion cell through massive convergence of rod input into bipolar cells and amacrine cell connections &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-iii-retinal-circuits/circuitry-for-rod-cells-through-the-retina/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Webvision)&lt;/a&gt;. This, together with the exceptional high density of cones in the fovea result in excellent visual acuity in the central field of view, and far lower acuity more eccentrically. Indeed, eccentric vision is used for movement detection and rod-driven night vision (conditions of low lighting), while central vision is used for tasks where high-acuity is preferred (analysis of fine spatial detail such as reading).    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cis.uab.edu/sloan/PRtopo/Curcio_JCompNeurol1990_PRtopo_searchable.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Curcio et al. J Comp Neurol 1990; &lt;strong&gt;292&lt;/strong&gt;:292-523&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Webvision The Organization of the Retina and Visual System, Utah University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-30T10:54:35.370" LastActivityDate="2015-08-30T10:54:35.370" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8482" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-10-31T17:55:37.043" Score="3" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://productivity.stackexchange.com/questions/671/what-is-the-optimal-text-width-for-speed-reading&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; and remember back to the 70s when our local newspaper changed formats. In an article about why they made the changes that they did, one of the points they mentioned was that by making the columns narrower, you would retain more because the brain didn't process the words when the eyes were moving. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Over the past few years working in instructional design, I've often wanted to cite a reference for my newspaper's statement, or at the very least a reference that debunks it. I've been unsuccessful finding anything on google, but I'm not sure if I'm asking the right questions or not. It may very well be that this was a theory in the 70's, since disproven, junk science, or something very real for which I've not stumbled upon the right search terms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In any case, it seems to me that I'm the only person in the world whose ever heard this idea, and I'd like to find some reference, positive or negative, to it. Can anyone direct me to some research on the topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6987" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:52:19.620" LastActivityDate="2014-11-04T13:37:45.823" Title="Does the brain stop processing data when the eyes move?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8483" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8508" CreationDate="2014-10-31T20:26:07.623" Score="1" ViewCount="315" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do children from bilingual families learn two languages faster than children from monolingual families learn one language? In other words, I'm wondering if there's a language learning advantage to growing up in a bilingual home. If that is the case, what about for families that speak 3 languages or more?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="3471" LastEditDate="2014-11-01T15:15:13.650" LastActivityDate="2014-11-03T16:27:34.017" Title="Do bilingual children learn two languages faster than monolingual children learn one language?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8484" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8493" CreationDate="2014-11-01T00:00:27.407" Score="2" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;I´d like to make a little case study about the impact of including regular weight training in life. I know one man who is going to start to excercise regularly and I have an opportunity to talk with him regularly (for example every month) for about six months, maybe longer. Is there any other option of making this research than via regular interview with direct questions about his view of the impact of sports in his life (for example question: What do you think you´ve learned from training?)? &#xA;I mean - If I will watch for example self-esteem and it will grow, how can i know it grew thanks to sports and not because of any other change in his life? How to relate any watched cathegory to the regular training?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6990" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-11-02T01:58:21.890" LastActivityDate="2014-11-02T05:54:19.990" Title="How to study the effect of sustained exercise and sport on well-being?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;sport-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8485" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8477" CreationDate="2014-11-01T00:44:34.030" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Environment can be highly motivating through positive and negative forces. The conditions of the world motivated the scientists of the Manhattan project to violate some of their ethics and risk destroying the world in order to create the atomic bomb. Likewise also the oppressed scientist some of which where Jews who were forced into labor on the same project destroyed and sabotaged their work in order to prevent the weapons control by the Nazi's. Then also the USSR was not capable of creating an atomic bomb because of their culture conformity to a specific tenant of Bolshevik and Stalinism stating the atom cannot be subdivided. Galileo also comes to mind yet slaves built the pyramids. These principles of being open free to create, having every comfort of home and preference then motivated in a social and personal way free from tyranny of governmental and cultural oppression allow people to do their best work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud would say your maternal or paternal figure may have wore a blue and white dress during a birthday party or Christmas or other extremely positive event in your childhood which caused you to associate those colors with successes. Which no one could prove unless you happen upon some memory of why those colors are important to you. Likewise also you (or someone else) may have had success with some kind of work or test with a specific kind of pen or pencil. This irrational &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;association&lt;/a&gt; connecting certain operating items and conditions with success is fundamental to the human condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See below paper for further information:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://medind.nic.in/jak/t08/i1/jakt08i1p47.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Effects of Perceived Work Environment on Employees’ Job Behaviour and Organizational Effectiveness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A.K. Srivastava&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study examined the effect of two constituents of work environment (i.e. physical and psychosocial on employees’ job satisfaction and performance, and organizational effectiveness in a sample of 360 technical supervisors and operating core personnel. The analyses revealed that participants who perceived their work environment as to be adequate and favourable scored comparatively higher on the measures of job satisfaction, performance, and perceived organizational effectiveness. The two constituents of work environment were also found causing significant variance in employees’ job behaviour and their perception of organizational effectiveness. Regression analyses revealed that among the various components of work environment, working condition, welfare provisions, interpersonal relations, and trust and support predominantly contribute to employees’ job behaviour and organizational effectiveness. The results also specified that psycho-social environment in work-place exert more impact on employees’ job behaviour and organizational effectiveness than the physical environment does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-11-01T00:44:34.030" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8486" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-01T03:24:19.100" Score="2" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the effects of MRIs and other electromagnetic devices on the human brain? Naturally they could move metals to or through the brain cell's membrane. I can also see the experience of being in a strange position, meditating, and attempting to be as still as possible for an hour and a half, might cause some long term effect. Have the effects of MRIs and other electromagnetic devices been studied comparatively on human psychology or neurology? Could you also mention the mental health aspects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-06-25T21:56:01.580" LastActivityDate="2017-06-25T21:56:01.580" Title="Have the effects of MRIs and other electromagnetic devices on human psychology been studied?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8487" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8484" CreationDate="2014-11-01T05:20:09.663" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Take a multispectrum approach. These are a few relevant tests I could think of that would give you a general view of the person's mental and physical health. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Personality test&lt;/a&gt;. Myers Briggs, MMPI, Revised NEO Personality Inventory and Kinsey Scale. eHarmony personality test advanced version available to subscribers (multiple times different accounts), iq test, clinical psychology: ask him to describe the happenings in his life major positive and negative events. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sociocultural views polling&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sensory analysis&lt;/a&gt;. Huntington's disease test.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/clinical-practice/screening-tools&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mental Health Assessments&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Physical Changes. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fMRI&lt;/a&gt;, x-ray, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B00GJG79LM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fitness and Sleep monitoring&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://emotiv.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EEG testing&lt;/a&gt;, physical measurements, blood testing, tissue specific genomic testing.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastActivityDate="2014-11-01T05:20:09.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8488" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8490" CreationDate="2014-11-01T10:27:13.740" Score="3" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that different points of the brain correspond to different point of the body. But how a sensory information reaches its correct corresponding area?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, let say I put a pencil's extremity on position A of the thumb tip and then on position B always of the thumb tip. &#xA;How do I discriminate between A and B?&#xA;Does these electrical activities travel trough two completely different pathways?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6992" LastActivityDate="2014-11-01T12:38:07.207" Title="How do we localize pain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8489" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8522" CreationDate="2014-11-01T11:20:01.223" Score="5" ViewCount="627" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider a psychophysics procedure using a standard staircase method to adaptively find the threshold, using a 2AFC paradigm and a 1-up, 3-down method to determine the 75% threshold. Now suppose the use of steps that are unequal in size. I am &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; referring to decreasing the step size after a certain amount of reversals as described by &lt;a href=&quot;http://scitation.aip.org/content/asa/journal/jasa/49/2B/10.1121/1.1912375&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Levitt (1971)&lt;/a&gt;, but to the use of unequal step sizes. So for example suppose that the available steps are 0.5 - 0.5 - 0.5 - 1 - 1.5 - 0.5 - 2.5 - 2. So this would translate to a discrete set of available stimulus levels of: 0 - 0.5 - 1 - 1.5 - 2.5 - 4 - 4.5 - 7 - 9. Since step size can be used to alter the correct rate at which the staircase procedure converges (e.g., 50%, 75% etc.) &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03214307&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kaernbach (1991)&lt;/a&gt;, I was wondering what my proposed stimulus-level distribution would mean for the threshold definition of a 1-up 3-down procedure intended to converge onto a 75% threshold?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2014-11-05T11:52:05.063" LastActivityDate="2014-11-05T11:52:05.063" Title="Do unequal step sizes in staircase procedure affect the convergence?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8490" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8488" CreationDate="2014-11-01T12:38:07.207" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vEih5.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cell.uchc.edu/pdf/fein/nociceptors_fein_2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NOCICEPTORS AND THE PERCEPTION OF PAIN&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The pain from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nociceptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nociceptors&lt;/a&gt; remain in bundles for that region until they reach the spinal cord at which time the signal begins to be processed to the appropriate pathway with primitive intelligence (like instinctive jerk away) till the signal reaches the brain and is processed by sentient intelligence (form a plan to avoid these situations in the future). The resolution of pain is something like 100x the size of a nerve branch equal to one bundle in theory but the minimum resolution of pain varies from person to person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-11-01T12:38:07.207" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8491" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8482" CreationDate="2014-11-01T23:03:12.700" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm sorry you happened upon that research from the 70s. Should it have been true those with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nystagmus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nystagmus&lt;/a&gt; (constant involuntary eye movement) would never learn anything so it must be in a general sense false.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a current thoughts and research into the subject:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4006019/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eye movement-related brain activity during perceptual and cognitive processing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For several decades researchers have been recording electrical brain activity associated with eye movements in attempt to understand their neural mechanisms. However, recent advances in eye-tracking technology have allowed researchers to use eye movements as the means of segmenting the ongoing brain activity into episodes relevant to cognitive processes in scene perception, reading, and visual search. This opened doors to uncovering the active and dynamic neural mechanisms underlying perception, attention and memory in naturalistic conditions. The present eBook contains a representative collection of studies from various fields of visual neuroscience that use this cutting edge approach of combining eye movements and neural activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The majority of the articles in the eBook combine the measurement of eye movements with the recording of the electroencephalogram (EEG) in human subjects performing various psychological tasks. The most common methodological approach is examination of the EEG activity time-aligned to certain eye movement events, such as the onset of a fixation or a start of a saccadic eye movement (Fischer et al., 2013; Frey et al., 2013; Henderson et al., 2013; Hutzler et al., 2013; Nikolaev et al., 2013; Richards, 2013; Simola et al., 2013). Several works employ the time-frequency and synchrony analysis (Fischer et al., 2013; Hoffman et al., 2013; Ito et al., 2013; Nakatani and Van Leeuwen, 2013; Nakatani et al., 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-11-01T23:03:12.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8492" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8467" CreationDate="2014-11-02T01:14:38.117" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many of our &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;associations&lt;/a&gt; for color, order and music are derived from our culture rather than from biology or some inert psychology. That is to say the bright green house with Christmas lights and tinsel on it all year long might look trippy to you but to the person who designed it it appears to match their society's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(social)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;norms&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you experience the trip its because of the violation of the norm of images your brain has been trained to recognise. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_shock&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;culture shock&lt;/a&gt; eventually errodes as you watch the videos more often because your brain begins to learn the patterns and incorporates it into your culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastActivityDate="2014-11-02T01:14:38.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8493" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8484" CreationDate="2014-11-02T02:11:42.237" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just to give you a few ideas. The ideas are ordered from better to worse. They are also mostly ordered from serious and expensive research to less serious and cheap research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Randomised control trial&lt;/strong&gt;: &#xA;If you are really interested in causality, you would randomly allocate a large group of people to either and exercise or one or more control conditions (e.g., no exercise; alternative activity; etc.) . You would then use various well-validated measures to measure the dependent variable of interest. For example, if you are interested in self-esteem, then you might get self-report measures using something like the Rosenberg Self-esteem scale. An even better study would measure a range of related dependent variables (reports by others of well-being; physical health; other life outcomes of interest).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you are interested in longitudinal trajectories of this effect, so you'd want to measure these outcome variables on multiple occasions (e.g., baseline, 1 month, 2 months, 6 months, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'd probably also want to do some kind of intention to treat analysis. Basically, there are two questions. What is the effect of the intervention for those who actually follow the protocol, and what is the effect of the intervention for those who are assigned to it but may or may not actually engage in the exercise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;One sample longitudinal study:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;A simpler design would just be the same as above but without the control group. You'd have more threats to causal inference, but nonetheless, results would still be informative to the effect of exercise on self-esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Single participant longitudinal study:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;It seems like this is what you are talking about. There are many issues with this design. Do the results generalise to other people? Is the increase due to other factors in the person's life? That said, if this is just for hypothesis generation or exploring the ideas, it might be interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Qualitative versus quantitative measurement:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Quantitative measurement of self-esteem is generally better if you are trying to test formal hypotheses about change. &#xA;Qualitative methods (e.g., asking open ended questions) is often more useful in generating hypotheses and explanations for the obtained results. That said, much more subjectivity can enter interpretation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an aside, it is interesting that the vast majority of infomercials selling exercise equipment rely on the cheapest and worst design: qualitative single observation measurement (i.e., anecdotes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-11-02T05:54:19.990" LastActivityDate="2014-11-02T05:54:19.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8494" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8464" CreationDate="2014-11-02T06:30:08.343" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;After stressful events the brain is energized by various (evil in this case) hormones from the adrenal system like cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine. Good luck getting sleep without some medical help after trying to solve some major world, work or personal issues. So while the brain still needs its normal rejuvenation and maybe an extra 30 minutes or hour to deal with the bad stages of sleep but its probably not going to get it. That is to say there are several stages of sleep and the adreno hormones mess with the length and quality of the stages which can be fixed by a longer amount in some situations or just flat out starting over the next night and trying to catch up on the debt over the course of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/7854_2014_314&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stress, Arousal, and Sleep&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress is considered to be an important cause of disrupted sleep and insomnia. However, controlled and experimental studies in rodents indicate that effects of stress on sleep–wake regulation are complex and may strongly depend on the nature of the stressor. While most stressors are associated with at least a brief period of arousal and wakefulness, the subsequent amount and architecture of recovery sleep can vary dramatically across conditions even though classical markers of acute stress such as corticosterone are virtually the same. Sleep after stress appears to be highly influenced by situational variables including whether the stressor was controllable and/or predictable, whether the individual had the possibility to learn and adapt, and by the relative resilience and vulnerability of the individual experiencing stress. There are multiple brain regions and neurochemical systems linking stress and sleep, and the specific balance and interactions between these systems may ultimately determine the alterations in sleep–wake architecture. Factors that appear to play an important role in stress-induced wakefulness and sleep changes include various monominergic neurotransmitters, hypocretins, corticotropin releasing factor, and prolactin. In addition to the brain regions directly involved in stress responses such as the hypothalamus, the locus coeruleus, and the amygdala, differential effects of stressor controllability on behavior and sleep may be mediated by the medial prefrontal cortex. These various brain regions interact and influence each other and in turn affect the activity of sleep–wake controlling centers in the brain. Also, these regions likely play significant roles in memory processes and participate in the way stressful memories may affect arousal and sleep. Finally, stress-induced changes in sleep-architecture may affect sleep-related neuronal plasticity processes and thereby contribute to cognitive dysfunction and psychiatric disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/psychosomaticmedicine/Abstract/1971/11000/Stress_and_Neonatal_Sleep_.2.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stress and Neonatal Sleep&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Routine circumcision, done without anesthesia in the newborn nursery, was usually followed by prolonged nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Since this form of sleep has been described as a low point on an arousal continuum, we consider its increase to be consistent with a theory of conservation-withdrawal in response to stressful stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user6939" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-11-02T07:59:43.747" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8495" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8499" CreationDate="2014-11-02T11:13:32.990" Score="-1" ViewCount="465" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose I make the following statement: &quot;There should be no quota for women or minorities in any sort of company, people should be hired based on their capabilities, regardless of their gender or skin color&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are people who are going to disagree with that. There could be a discussion about it and things could be learned from said discussion, while people respect each other's rights to have a different opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then there are going to be people who not only disagree, but claim to be offended by it in such a way that they feel it necessary to try and ruin people's lives for adhering to said opinion. Who will try to find your personal information and post it online in the hopes that someone attacks you for sharing said opinion. This is a practice known as &quot;doxxing&quot;. They will send anonymous death threats and go to sites like reddit or forums which have a userbase which they agree with, share the URL in which you stated this opinion, in an attempt to get as many people as possible in on trying to destroy your life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These people seem to believe this vigilante behavior is somehow justified and necessary. That instead of discussion and education and even questioning their own beliefs, the way to achieve your goals is by eradicating all opposition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is: is this system of going after someone because they have an opinion you don't like, a indicator of a psychological disorder? If so, which one?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And finally, where do people learn that this is acceptable behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6998" LastActivityDate="2014-11-03T00:28:10.913" Title="Is being &quot;hyper&quot;-offended, no matter the cause, an indicator that someone might be a socio-/psychopath?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-12-03T19:12:15.783" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8498" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8465" CreationDate="2014-11-02T17:51:37.600" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;PLV is good for correlating signals that seem out of phase to our measurement techniques due to the digital nature of our recordings but are in sync because of the electro chemical biological nature of the CNS. If you transform two signals into phase you can determine the relatedness of the two signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://praneethnamburi.wordpress.com/2011/08/10/plv/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phase Locking Value NeuroBytes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The schematic below illustrates how PLV is computed in this implementation. Explanation for each step follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RNuIw.gif&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-11-02T17:51:37.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8495" CreationDate="2014-11-02T22:25:21.970" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You're not describing a vigilante but an Avengers. No on Cap. America, Princess Thor and Hulk but the kind of self focused individuals who view the world only how they are affected. Vigilantes are people who decide to enforce a law which is not being enforced by the government Avengers make their own laws. Sometimes avenging a wrong is justified as righteous behaviour in America. A business rips you off? Dispute the transaction with the mediating credit card company. Someone breaks something you own? File a civil case. Buy a Red Bull, Don't get wings? Join the class action lawsuit and get 10 bucks. Doctor screws you over with bad service or meds? File a complaint against their license. That behaviour adheres to the norms of of culture some of which is leaking into to other societies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The kind of Avenging you describe does not adhere to the norms of our society though and is considered pathological. They have a perpetual victim mentality due to some hurt that happened in their past or some way they hurt someone in their past which they are not able to face as their responsibility. They also could have just been hit in the head or blood vessel popped causing brain injury. All types are bullies. They may think their actions are for the cause. Foremost in their thoughts is purity, morality and correctness: intellectual purity of the academic institute or webpage, the political and religious purity of the society, racial and physical purity of humanity. They think their support is empathic to the cause and world but really they are just sadistically getting high off someone elses pain. Often sadistic people were abused as children and have love and pain confused on some level. Many murders had bad relationships with their father figures and never learned to be their own parent or the work they did as their own parent was not rational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In exteme cases these individuals do actual acts of terrorism like Timothy Mcveigh. They have long since aired their grievances generally about one specific topic before they become violent. You'll want to watch Criminal Minds s1e13 Poison for an indepth amount of dramatization on the type.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Creating an artificial intelligence to find individuals who are in danger of becoming violent would be quite easy but the FBI has not seen fit to commision such work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Originally you asked about antisocial personality disorder or as most people call it sociopathy. This is a citation of DSM 5 describing the disorder numbered 301.7.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A. A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others, occurring since age 15 years, as indicated by three (or more) of the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors, as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fights or assaults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reckless disregard for safety of self or others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;B. The individual is at least age 18 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;C. There is evidence of conduct disorder with onset before age 15 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;D. The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not exclusively during the course of schizo­phrenia or bipolar disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Diagnostic Features&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The essential feature of antisocial personality disorder is a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. This pattern has also been referred to as psychopathy, sociopathy, or dyssocial personality disorder. Because deceit and manipulation are central features of an­tisocial personality disorder, it may be especially helpful to integrate information acquired from systematic clinical assessment with information collected from collateral sources. For this diagnosis to be given, the individual must be at least age 18 years (Criterion B) and must have had a history of some symptoms of conduct disorder before age 15 years (Criterion C). Conduct disorder involves a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms or rules are vio­lated. The specific behaviors characteristic of conduct disorder fall into one of four cate­gories: aggression to people and animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, or serious violation of rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user6939" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-11-03T00:28:10.913" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8500" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8486" CreationDate="2014-11-03T02:10:37.130" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, the effects of electromagnetic fields on the brain have been studied extensively, especially with respect to cellphone, WiFi, and other small devices that emit such fields.  The results are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20001702&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;typically mixed&lt;/a&gt;, but the overall consensus is that &quot;it depends&quot; - on the strength of the field, the environment, length of exposure, etc - and most modern consumer devices operate at levels well below safety margins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effects of MRIs on cognitive function have been studied to some degree, starting in the 1990s, early in their history.  The most prominent cognitive effects known include dizziness, vertigo, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120829195215.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;concentration, and awareness&lt;/a&gt;.  Most of these effects are temporary (limited to the time spent inside the MRI machine), typically only found in high-intensity MRIs, and in most cases &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22930737&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;require movement&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogns.northwestern.edu/cbmg/2_Magnetic_Field_Vertigo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;movement is theorized to induce a changing magnetic field&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The long-term effects of exposure to MRIs are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2705217/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;not well known&lt;/a&gt;.  However, as MRIs are in very common use, and are often a core part of studies on mental health and cognitive function, their safety is indirectly tested regularly.  As such, there is not much impetus to conduct a controlled long-term study.  Note also that MRI-related health risks tend to be more important for the operators who are chronically exposed, rather than for the patients who are only briefly exposed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For your case, you should find out the MRI field strength used: &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging#How_MRI_works&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the majority of systems operate at 1.5T, commercial systems are available between 0.2T–7T.&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  Most of the known effects on cognitive function are found with MRIs above 3T, which are relatively uncommon.  Even if you were inside a particularly powerful MRI machine, as long as you remained perfectly still, no significant magnetic field fluctuations should occur, and even if you did move, the effects are temporary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2014-11-04T02:00:57.123" LastActivityDate="2014-11-04T02:00:57.123" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8502" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-03T04:49:02.603" Score="5" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do antidepressant drugs influence someone's personality?  Do they induce a major change in an individual's personality, or do they just negate the influence of depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, is the personality of someone taking depressants the same as it would be if they were not subject to the causes of depression in the first place?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7003" LastEditorUserId="7003" LastEditDate="2014-11-03T05:58:10.963" LastActivityDate="2014-11-03T07:29:41.237" Title="Influence of antidepressant drugs upon personality" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8504" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7862" CreationDate="2014-11-03T07:47:58.967" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting question, so I'll take a stab at it.  Direct evidence for the claim is hard to come by.  Generally, religious affiliations, conversions, and loss of faith are self-identified in surveys.  The reliance on self-identification makes it difficult to test the claim that people move to some other non-evidence-based reasoning, as they may not be aware of it.  Indirect evidence is easier to find.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The extensive &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/04/fullreport.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Religious Landscape Survey (2009) by the Pew Forum on Religion &amp;amp; Public Life&lt;/a&gt; for example, asks the self-identified &quot;unaffiliated&quot; who grew up religious to explain their reasons for leaving their faith.  Only about 40% leaving Christianity cite not believing in God as their reason, and less than 30% leaving Catholicism cite no longer being religious in some way.  Looking at specific survey responses, most converts leave their religion for reasons other than relying on science and logic, and remain &quot;spiritual&quot; in some way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to test the claim is to ask people about their beliefs, as is nicely summarized &lt;a href=&quot;http://nineteensixty-four.blogspot.ca/2012/07/schisms-of-religiously-unaffiliated.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, from the same survey.  A large proportion of non-religiously affiliated participants - even some self-identified atheists - believe in God, the afterlife, or some other type of spirituality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9Wgbg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-04-19T21:14:37.183" LastActivityDate="2015-04-19T21:14:37.183" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1977" CreationDate="2014-11-03T12:48:20.463" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally, &lt;strong&gt;therapy is more successful, the more resources a patient brings to the therapy&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a generally healthy person will recover quickly from a flu, while an old person with fragile health may even die from it. The same goes for psychotherapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more &quot;functional&quot; a person was before he or she developed a psychological disorder, the more friends they have, the more functional their family was when they were children, the better educated that person is, and so on – the more likely it is that this person's psychological health can be restored through treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=moderator%20treatment%20outcome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moderators of therapy success&lt;/a&gt; are the same as for the absence of a disorder in the first place. That is, &lt;strong&gt;the more likely it is for someone to develop a disorder, the less likely it is that treatment will be successful.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-11-03T12:48:20.463" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8508" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8483" CreationDate="2014-11-03T15:42:08.417" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it's all about passion for languages. I have bilingual children and my first was having difficulties with my native language compared to the second one. It's all individual...So the answer is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;it depends&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in my opinion I think there is no advantage over the children from monolingual. Children from bilingual families take 2 different languages as one. So in some sense there are still monolingual... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;here is some paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because a key expectation parents have is for their child to perform&#xA;  well in school, it is important for parents to know that bilingual&#xA;  children and monolingual children develop their learning abilities at&#xA;  different speeds. Children learning two languages learn each language&#xA;  more slowly than monolingual children learn their native languages. It&#xA;  is easy to understand why -- children have a limited amount of time&#xA;  with which to dedicate to listening and reading language; if a child&#xA;  is bilingual, he will split that time between the two languages, which&#xA;  slows his learning speed. This often affects the academic performance&#xA;  and communication skills of bilingual children, which can cause stress&#xA;  in the family. In a sense, the average school is set up to go at a&#xA;  monolingual speed, which might outpace bilingual children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://everydaylife.globalpost.com/child-development-bilingual-vs-monolingual-household-7371.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://everydaylife.globalpost.com/child-development-bilingual-vs-monolingual-household-7371.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Bilingual 12-year-olds perform worse at school than their monolingual&#xA;  peers, a researcher at Sweden's Örebro University has found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thelocal.se/20110323/32766&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.thelocal.se/20110323/32766&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7005" LastEditorUserId="7005" LastEditDate="2014-11-03T16:27:34.017" LastActivityDate="2014-11-03T16:27:34.017" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8509" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8516" CreationDate="2014-11-03T18:33:37.060" Score="6" ViewCount="412" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_systems_theory#In_human_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dynamical systems theory&lt;/a&gt; as it is used in the context of developmental psychology, and by some psychoanalysts &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psybc.com/pdfs/library/Seligman_Metaframework.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;as in this article&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jbRbm2niWK8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in this video by the first speaker&lt;/a&gt; can be described as an attempt to introduce mathematical concepts in the study of psychological phenomena. Unlike &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/288/what-are-good-examples-of-applying-dynamical-systems-in-cognitive-science/290#290&quot;&gt;other applications&lt;/a&gt; of dynamical systems theory, the above seem to use terms like &quot;attractor&quot; in an abstract or metaphorical sense, that is, outside of a formal mathematical context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this kind of application useful or just a bunch of preety words, stripped of their real meaning ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do we have a better understanding of psychological phenomena through such a framework?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-01-01T17:49:47.823" Title="Dynamical systems theory as a metaphor in psychology: is it useful or not?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8510" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8523" CreationDate="2014-11-03T19:50:45.567" Score="10" ViewCount="3624" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading about the human mind, I sometimes come across attempts to classify human emotions using various scales. The one that comes to mind most often is the 6 scale circle model shown below. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there one or more models of human states of mind or emotions that as of 2014 is most accepted or best regarded by the fields of cogsci/psychology/psychiatry?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clarify my question - using a model like that, any ordinary experience of &quot;being&quot; can be identified as consisting of various shades of different emotions represented by the model. ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/h52o3.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/bK5fkkk.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or even an attempt to create a periodic table:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QzGGA.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-09-19T08:59:41.060" LastActivityDate="2020-06-18T02:32:41.047" Title="What is the most comprehensive system of describing human emotions or states of mind?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8511" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8509" CreationDate="2014-11-03T22:03:46.383" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The premise of this answer is that if math can be applied to accurately used for psychic phenomena than meta use of math can be applied accurately as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychoanalysis is a tricky subject. Unlike cognitive behavioural psychotherapy its goal isn't expressly to teach a new behavior but to find a &lt;em&gt;source&lt;/em&gt; of a stimulus. If strands of thought based on rational movement and happenings were a line then the human condition certainly would be nonlinear because so much of what we do is a reflection of our training and associations from the past both conscious and subconscious. Though we know not the exact equation of consciousness we can accurately theorize that human intelligence is reflected in the artificial intelligences we have created. For instance some decisions can be mapped out as a proposition logical equation simular to a decision tree. Other decisions are based purely on instinct like neural networks and some come from recognizing and finding things that please and displease us like SVMs. Some of those equations would have random variables of course but much of what we do has been predetermined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Something like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=images&amp;amp;cd=&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CAcQjRw&amp;amp;url=%2Furl%3Fsa%3Di%26rct%3Dj%26q%3D%26esrc%3Ds%26source%3Dimages%26cd%3D%26cad%3Drja%26uact%3D8%26ved%3D0CAcQjRw%26url%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fpalpable-prostate.blogspot.com%252F2007%252F02%252Fprosate-cancer-calculators.html%26ei%3DEfVXVKXGPMuayASI04H4DA%26bvm%3Dbv.78677474%2Cd.aWw%26psig%3DAFQjCNFhtNpNvPf9w5dk6awOyeZCwCFErw%26ust%3D1415136922748654&amp;amp;ei=HfVXVPrHBI2BygSkvYLgDA&amp;amp;bvm=bv.78677474,d.aWw&amp;amp;psig=AFQjCNFhtNpNvPf9w5dk6awOyeZCwCFErw&amp;amp;ust=1415136922748654&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; decision tree probabilities and truth values of situations contribute to the end result:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rpjXj.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=images&amp;amp;cd=&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CAcQjRw&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Flogic.stanford.edu%2Fintrologic%2Fchapters%2Fchapter_05.html&amp;amp;ei=qfVXVPzwOcaiyAT-7YGwBQ&amp;amp;bvm=bv.78677474,d.aWw&amp;amp;psig=AFQjCNHQsfF4P_yz-_hAr5i0-3WAPaP7nQ&amp;amp;ust=1415137055593173&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EtZ21.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other decisions can only be explained in terms of an equation of neurons firing and pleasure or goodness derived from each neuron like an SVM or Neural Net. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SVMs create linear and nonlinear discriminants which is a line that tells groups apart based on features. They can be quite complex in their ability to discriminate between pleasure and pain or classify an object. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HdkWJ.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neural networks work based on several input senses which are weighted then ran through a function to determine if a pathway is activated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5RZ7v.gif&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The equation for sexual position of greatest preference might include things from past experiences, prejudices and preferences for pornography actors who were in that position, feelings associated with bending and flexing that way. Then as Freud acuaratly pointed out seeming random things from childhood that logically should be completely separate from sexuality but because we are connected individuals built systematically. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes using math especially those related to artificial intelligence, time series and propositional logic are useful methods in describing psychic phenomena. Simplifications of the aforementioned sometimes contributes to misunderstanding of how humans think but can be implemented in ways that facilitate understanding for those of less experience or education.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorDisplayName="user6939" LastEditDate="2014-11-04T19:01:19.217" LastActivityDate="2014-11-04T19:01:19.217" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8512" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-04T11:08:27.827" Score="5" ViewCount="1172" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone has &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;eutress&lt;/a&gt; it supports his/her mental development and learning of new skills. It is so called optimal level of stress as illustrated in the figure below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any ways to measure that you are within these limits of eutress in that curve?&#xA;For my experience it is quite difficult to detect that you don't go to the distress side of that curve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Only things that I know to measure it is resting heart rate and sleep quality, but I would like to know if there are some other ways to do it also.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Mkvsx.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Stress curve&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="6750" LastEditDate="2014-11-05T07:41:11.867" LastActivityDate="2018-04-03T17:10:53.963" Title="How to measure your stress levels?" Tags="&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8514" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-04T13:39:44.483" Score="5" ViewCount="1597" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any quantitative measure associated with the strength of a friendship or relationship? Ideally it should be able to be calculated based on observable factors, but should not require interaction with the subjects, just observation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: Specifically I am analyzing fictionalized novels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7015" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-11-05T02:44:13.100" LastActivityDate="2020-04-25T13:14:03.997" Title="How to quantitatively measure strength of friendship using observable factors?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8516" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8509" CreationDate="2014-11-04T17:03:05.713" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like all models and modeling frameworks, the utility of the approach is often tied to how much it increases our understanding of the phenomena of interest. As summarized nicely by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~cogdev/labwork/dynamicsystem.pdf&quot;&gt;Smith &amp;amp; Thelen (2003)&lt;/a&gt;, there are developmental questions that are better conceptualized through the framework of DST than through alternative modeling frameworks due to the richly interactive and multi-causal structure of the phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll also find that applications of DST in Developmental Psychology are not just appealing to the metaphorical use of DST. There are rigorous mathematical uses of the tools of DST to explain developmental phenomena. One of the most cited examples is &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogs.indiana.edu/~cogdev/labwork/DynamicsEmbodiment.pdf&quot;&gt;Thelen et al. (2001)&lt;/a&gt;, who modeled the A-not-B error. There is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uiowa.edu/~icdls/dft/dft-publications.html&quot;&gt;a lot of similarly inspired modeling work&lt;/a&gt; being done throughout the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-11-04T17:03:05.713" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8519" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-04T20:12:08.413" Score="3" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;or years, I've always thought I can do a pretty good job of identifying when I have committed a bias, fallacy or some other heuristic.   I'm not saying I avoid them, but at least can admit to myself I did it.  If I'm researching a point online to back up an argument, I know I'm committing Confirmation bias when I'm only looking for articles that support my point of view.   Or, if I'm driving and I'm stuck behind a car that's driving too slow, I immediately think &quot;asshole&quot; even while knowing I'm committing the Fundamental attribution error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However,  I'm also aware of the Bias blind spot and the Introspection illusion  and know that I may not be nearly as capable of self-identifying heuristical errors as I believe I am.  Part of my identity is as a person who can be honest with himself when deciding how my behaviors and decisions were flawed due biases, fallacies, etc.  I'd love to find out for sure how much of that is just an illusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm especially interested in research in Metacognition, introspection, and how it relates to the bias blind spot and introspection illusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7021" LastActivityDate="2014-11-04T20:31:54.407" Title="Can a person be able to objectively identify when and how their thinking process is being affected by cognitive biases?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8521" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8529" CreationDate="2014-11-05T10:06:53.583" Score="1" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often people go to a therapist when they start to experience a strong personal discomfort, however often this never happens as because their personality is egosyntonic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However for whoever is standing near to those persons the situation can become very annoying  (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5874/does-neuroticism-cause-people-to-hurt-others&quot;&gt;Does neuroticism cause people to hurt others?&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The narcissist is often unconscious to have a &quot;problem&quot;, he simply thinks that the problem comes from others and that his way of thinking should be taken also by others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How to address a narcissist toward going to therapy? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T09:49:07.967" Title="How to address a narcissist to go to therapy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8522" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8489" CreationDate="2014-11-05T11:47:49.643" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is going to mean bad things. If you can only create stimuli with a predefined non uniformly sampled set of &quot;levels&quot; then the the corresponding percent correct that the staircase will track will depend on the threshold of an individual observer. For example, if you can create stimuli with levels of 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., 100, 110, 130, 170, 250, 410, where for small levels the up and down step sizes are equal, but for large levels the up step size is twice the down step size. This means the percent correct point is going to be different depending on the threshold of the subject. You wouldn't have to worry about it if you use something like the method of constant stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-11-05T11:47:49.643" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8523" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8510" CreationDate="2014-11-05T12:03:10.600" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;There a are globally two perspectives&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the discrete perspective uses a categorization system. There are many different systems, with more or less core emotions and sub-emotions. As the one shown in your post.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the dimensional perspective considers one, mainly two, sometimes more, scales to identify an emotional value. Valence (happy/sad) and arousal (sleepy/excited) are quite frequent for those models.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not so easy to choose between the two perspectives. And there are different models for each perspective. Discrete based models are easier to handle by anyone because they make use of usual names. But it suffers a bias of interpretation of those names meaning.&#xA;In this way, indicating a level of valence or arousal is maybe more accurate,  but less user-friendly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the dimensional perspective, Scherer's Component Process Model version (2005) is quite comprehensive,  based on the updated model of Russell (2003).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending of the model, some tools are developed to assess the emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://lep.unige.ch/node/686&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scherer, K. (2005) &lt;em&gt;What are emotions and how can they be measured?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/psyc-rev2003.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Russell, J. A. (2003). Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, 110, 145-172.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3656" LastEditorUserId="3656" LastEditDate="2014-11-08T08:26:08.647" LastActivityDate="2014-11-08T08:26:08.647" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8524" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8631" CreationDate="2014-11-05T12:13:57.557" Score="13" ViewCount="534" Body="&lt;p&gt;A Bayesian Quest adaptive procedure (&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03202828&quot;&gt;Watson and Pelli 1983&lt;/a&gt;) is the theoretically most efficient procedure for estimating thresholds under a certain, potentially unrealistic, set of constraints. In my field a transformed up-down method (&lt;a href=&quot;http://scitation.aip.org/content/asa/journal/jasa/49/2B/10.1121/1.1912375]&quot;&gt;Levitt 1971&lt;/a&gt;) is used much more commonly. Has any work been done comparing the efficiency of the transformed up-down method with the method of constant stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="38" LastEditDate="2014-11-19T07:10:05.347" LastActivityDate="2014-11-19T08:07:10.557" Title="Are staircases more efficient than the method of constant stimuli?" Tags="&lt;signal-detection&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8526" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-05T17:45:59.543" Score="2" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;When the traffic light is red you are aware that a car might comes rushing in. So you are extra careful and always check the street before you actual cross the street. But one the other hand if you have green light and think you are good to go, it seems to be very likely that you just walk over the street without even taking a glance. There is still the danger of a car/cyclist, however, that may run a red light. Not looking could thus seriously be harmful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to put it in a more general context. Does expecting to be in a safe situation elicit or allow unsafe behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7025" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-06-27T22:04:13.303" LastActivityDate="2016-06-27T22:04:13.303" Title="Does expecting to be in a safe situation elicit unsafe behavior?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;situation-awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2014-11-25T04:22:47.253" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8528" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10037" CreationDate="2014-11-06T00:27:37.687" Score="3" ViewCount="594" Body="&lt;p&gt;Jungian or Myers Briggs type indicator reserves &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/judging-or-perceiving.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the last letter of a 4 letter archetype to stand for Judging or Perceiving.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part of being a Judging type is punctuality - being on time, keeping appointments, taking commitments seriously. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time, for a Perceiving type time has a lot less meaning, and such people are not as punctual and can be late, miss appointments or just drop commitments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From personal experience, it appears that the same individual can alternate between these two archetypes. &lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if there's a distinct neurobiological process or a brain region that is responsible for punctuality - being on time, keeping commitments, etc.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-11T12:15:11.753" LastActivityDate="2015-05-13T07:51:23.343" Title="What is the neurobiological difference between Jungian Judging and Perceiving individual?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8529" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8521" CreationDate="2014-11-06T00:41:18.897" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The person prolly isn't a clinical narcissists only a psychologist could diagnose as such. When you do find one though it's a very tough case. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be honest one of my current psychologist and I discussed the situation of narcissist therapy in detail. I dated someone who fell somewhere in the empathy disorder spectrum. The person wanted me to announce them to the world and due to my socio-economic situation it would result in what little family I have left disowning me. In general psychotherapy can teach someone who is thus sick how to behave in a manner consistent with the norms of society but there remains some question of current methods ability to remedy the disorder in a way that the changes cause the universe which that person experiences not to revolve around them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suggest an appeal to ego might work. My appeals to morals, emotions and logic did not work. When I bruised this persons ego centered around them doing something obviously stupid that was causing them physical pain they responded well. The person hurt their foot after we broke up and the doctor would not give them pain meds because they would not ask for fear of becoming addicted. They had however discussed their affinity for Mary Jane so I offered to buy them some pot and they refused. It's legal here but could not afford the trip to the special doctor or the pot itself. I swore fine and when you want your nose reattached for you seem to have your mind to remove it I will pay the plastic surgery. They asked what do you mean and I explained the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting_off_the_nose_to_spite_the_face&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cutting off the nose to spite the face&lt;/a&gt;. Then my help was accepted. So I would frame the argument around self betterment. Do not attempt to point out fallibility of the individual to self help. They love gifts. Maybe buy a book that deals with psychotherapy and includes something that resembles their problem. (Mean Mothers: Overcoming the Legacy of Hurt if they are female and maybe the lesser The Emotionally Absent Mother: A Guide to Self-Healing and Getting the Love You Missed&#xA;If male a lot of problems are so inherited from parents and learning about their parents flaws may help them self identify) A lot of important people in the world bare some of the dark triad traits and have learned through therapy how to be more successful and influence people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorDisplayName="user6939" LastEditDate="2014-11-07T01:59:53.850" LastActivityDate="2014-11-07T01:59:53.850" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8530" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8526" CreationDate="2014-11-06T01:14:03.763" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The psychology of the Jay walker or those who violate small laws (virtually unimportant to society expect when assigning blame and compensation for damages) is indeed a tricky thing. The motivational force behind the jay walking and the present awareness of the dangers of the situation often prove key to determining if the person will experience hardship as a result of their choices. That is to say the drunk or otherwise impaired will be at a higher risk of improperly crossing the street and being harmed. Then those experiencing emotional extremes are thus also likely to be biased to ignore danger. Likewise those who are otherwise sick or mentally afflicted. However the level headed person who is fully aware of the situation would have an increased probability of assuming his action is dangerous and may take more precautions. Those who fail to understand the danger of the situation though fully aware may not be as vigilant and may experience additional harm. Likewise also some drunks drive excessively slow knowing that what they are doing is wrong and dangerous but because of their impairment the amount of damage they do can still be catastrophic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastActivityDate="2014-11-06T01:14:03.763" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8531" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-06T07:55:57.773" Score="4" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a test method of proving a person being color-blind, without letting the test subject know, that he/she is being tested?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g. showing the person cards with colored dots like depicted &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishihara_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is not a valid answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7031" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2014-11-07T17:19:59.250" LastActivityDate="2014-11-08T04:30:02.290" Title="A subtle test for color-blindness" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8533" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-06T12:04:26.613" Score="5" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;The visually deprived brain undergoes extensive remodeling due to cross-modal plasticity. This leads to increased areas of the cortex being available for other purposes such as tactile processing. Now I am wondering if there is anything known about how long it takes for the blind to learn Braille as compared to normally sighted people? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2014-11-06T15:19:33.557" Title="Is there a difference between the time/effort it takes for the blind and the sighted to learn to read Braille?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8531" CreationDate="2014-11-06T14:30:13.560" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depending on the instructions that you give to the person, you might be able to disguise the fact that they are completing a color-blindness test. You could use stimuli like those in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishihara_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ishihara test&lt;/a&gt;, but instead ask the subject to do a math problem where they add the previous two numbers. You can also tell them that sometimes no number will be presented, and have a few cases of actual blank tiles mixed in with the regular stimuli. If a subject reports the wrong sum consistently for trials that involve a particular hue, you can be reasonably confident that they are colorblind for that hue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a short test developed by researchers at City University London which has subjects track a square during a movie. It's probably no more subtle than the Ishihara test, but it is less well known and therefore subjects might not infer what the purpose is. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.city.ac.uk/health/research/centre-for-applied-vision-research/a-new-web-based-colour-vision-test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.city.ac.uk/health/research/centre-for-applied-vision-research/a-new-web-based-colour-vision-test&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-11-06T14:30:13.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8536" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8533" CreationDate="2014-11-06T15:19:33.557" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The time required to learn Braille may vary depending on factors such as age, partial/full and early/late blindness and individual differences &lt;a href=&quot;https://nfb.org/images/nfb/publications/fr/fr14/fr04se22.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(see here)&lt;/a&gt;, but what has come out of studies such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.washington.edu/ionefine/KauffmanTheoretPascual-Leone_2002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; is that visual deprivation appears to speed up Braille learning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the study I cite, all subjects received the same degree of training, but individuals who had been blindfolded for five days performed better in a Braille discrimination task compared to sighted subjects. The authors take these results to be possibly indicative (though there are some concerns on this suggestion in the article) of neuroplastic changes &lt;a href=&quot;http://public.psych.iastate.edu/almorris/519%20readings/Hamilton_PascualLeone.1998.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Hamilton &amp;amp; Pascual-Leone, 1998)&lt;/a&gt; specifically in the somatosensory and visual cortices. Visual deprivation might lead to the recruitment of visual cortex areas for tactile discrimination thus enabling for faster Braille learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-11-06T15:19:33.557" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8537" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-06T19:06:46.147" Score="3" ViewCount="1828" Body="&lt;p&gt;Where to obtain the Bukowski Friendship Qualities Scale?&#xA;How do you calculate the scores from it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It might be available here but I'm not sure because I don't have access to the article: &lt;a href=&quot;http://spr.sagepub.com/content/11/3/471.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://spr.sagepub.com/content/11/3/471.short&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bukowski, W. M., Hoza, B., &amp;amp; Boivin, M. (1994). Measuring friendship quality during pre-and early adolescence: The development and psychometric properties of the Friendship Qualities Scale. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11(3), 471-484.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7015" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-11-08T01:38:23.940" LastActivityDate="2017-05-13T17:06:50.593" Title="Where to obtain and how to score the Bukowski et al &quot;Friendship Qualities Scale&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8538" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15835" CreationDate="2014-11-06T20:13:40.503" Score="11" ViewCount="1583" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand the relationship between positive/negative memories and the congruence of memory to existing beliefs.  These quotes are from Wikipedia, presented in alphabetical order:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Choice-supportive bias&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;positive aspects tend to be remembered as part of the chosen option, whether or not they originally were part of that option, and negative aspects tend to be remembered as part of rejected options.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentric_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Egocentric bias&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;This bias suggests that people remember the past as&#xA;they want it to be rather than the way it was&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fading_affect_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fading affect bias&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;a psychological phenomenon in which information&#xA;regarding negative emotions tends to be forgotten more quickly than&#xA;that associated with pleasant emotions.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_memory_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mood congruent memory bias&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;the improved recall of information&#xA;congruent with one's current mood.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemic_neglect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mnemic neglect&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;a pattern of selective forgetting in which certain&#xA;autobiographical memories tend to be recalled more easily if they are&#xA;consistent with positive self-concept.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negativity_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Negativity bias&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;the psychological phenomenon by which humans have a&#xA;greater recall of unpleasant memories compared with positive&#xA;memories.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_memory_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Placement bias&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;tendency to remember ourselves to be better than&#xA;others at tasks at which we rate ourselves above average and tendency&#xA;to remember ourselves to be worse than others at tasks at which we&#xA;rate ourselves below average.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollyanna_principle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pollyanna principle&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;the tendency for people to remember pleasant items more accurately than unpleasant ones.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivity_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Positivity effect&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;older adults' memories are more likely to consist&#xA;of positive than negative information and more likely to be distorted&#xA;in a positive direction.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rosy retrospection&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;refers to the finding that subjects later rate&#xA;past events more positively than they had actually rated them when&#xA;the event occurred&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-verification&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;self-views bias memory recall to favor&#xA;self-confirming material over non-confirming elements.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of these suggest congruence with existing beliefs rather than a strict positive bias, but since &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory#Tension_with_self-enhancement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;on the balance, most people tend to view themselves positively,&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00354.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;most people are happy&lt;/a&gt;, it makes sense that there would be a positivity bias overall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The oddball in the above list is Negativity bias, that appears to contradict other findings.  Another exception is Mnemic neglect: &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemic_neglect#Hypothesized_mechanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mnemic neglect is based on self-protection rather than self-verification&lt;/a&gt;&quot; - ie, there is a strict positive bias, rather than a congruence with existing beliefs, in direct contradiction with research in Self-verification and others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the resolution of these apparent contradictions is in the details: Is the memory about personal experience or just memorizing items?  Is the memory self-referent or otherwise?  Is the bias referring to memory encoding or memory recall?  Is it an issue of missing or distorted memories?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is, is anyone aware of any studies that look at the circumstances under which memory bias is strictly positive, congruent with existing beliefs, strictly negative, or unaffected by mood or belief?  Or failing that, a comprehensive review of memory bias that might clarify this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-07-30T20:31:53.483" LastActivityDate="2019-08-03T14:54:06.710" Title="Is memory biased towards positive or negative memories?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;mood&gt;&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8539" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-06T23:20:27.413" Score="12" ViewCount="2677" Body="&lt;p&gt;The reasons for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;behaviourism&lt;/a&gt; as a philosophy and school of psychology to have fallen out of favour are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_revolution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;well known and documented&lt;/a&gt;.  However, when Newton's view of gravity was replaced by general relativity, his entire works were not then tossed aside as if discredited.  But this is, practically speaking, what has happened to behaviourism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beahviourism has always focused on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;learning-based mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; (eg, conditioning, role modelling, enculturation) that are highly evidence-based, repeatable, and generalizable.  Today, cognitive / computational-model theories dominate many fields, but their explanatory approach rarely considers learning-based theories traditionally associated with behaviourism.  Why is that?  More specifically, my question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Have there been any surveys or studies asking cognitive psychology researchers whether or not they incorporate learning mechanisms in their theories, and why or why not?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A nice &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/uncategorized/what-happened-to-behaviorism.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article I ran across&lt;/a&gt; suggests some reasons why cognitive research may not consider learning mechanisms, but it is purely speculative, with no data to back anything up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today, behaviourism continues to thrive in the form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism#21st-century_behavior_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;behaviour analysis&lt;/a&gt;, and its history is regularly taught as part of introductory psychology courses.  However, while other branches of cognitive science often collaborate (as for example cognitive psychology and neuroscience forming &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;), behaviourism's learning models are rarely incorporated into other works.  The founding ideologies of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_behaviorism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;radical&lt;/a&gt; version of this school of psychology have long been discredited, but ignoring over a century of highly productive research into an influential branch of cognitive science seems to me like throwing the baby out with the bathwater.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: Questions like this tend to attract opinion-based answers, that are discouraged on this forum.  Despite the catchy title, I am interested in evidence-based answers, and the bolded question suggests the kind of evidence that could be pertinent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: Examples of well-established cognitive theories with evidence of learning but yet fail to incorporate learning mechanisms in their explanatory approach include: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-serving_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-serving bias&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;metacognition&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-02-25T18:32:20.847" LastActivityDate="2017-02-25T18:32:20.847" Title="Why has behaviourism fallen out of favour?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8540" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8778" CreationDate="2014-11-06T23:41:33.353" Score="7" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;Children develop different senses of self at a couple of different ages. Normally developing children pass the '&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally%E2%80%93Anne_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sally-Anne&lt;/a&gt;' test at about 4 years of age and the '&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mirror test&lt;/a&gt;' at around 18 months. My question refers to these cognitive tests and the relation any loss of sense has on these developmental stages. I'm aware of the case studies of down-syndrome, and autism however i'm currently interested in the effect of blindness, loss of hearing, smell and if the effects of reduced sensory perception causes a delay in when these tests are passed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6816" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-07T22:47:08.277" LastActivityDate="2014-12-07T22:47:08.277" Title="What is the correlation between the development of the sense of self and the senses?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8541" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8543" CreationDate="2014-11-06T23:51:23.853" Score="4" ViewCount="871" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can a person with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/dissociative-identity-disorder-multiple-personality-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multiple personality disorder&lt;/a&gt; have one of their personality based on a real person encountered during their lifetime?&lt;/strong&gt; For example, in a family with multiple children, can one of the children with multiple presonality disorder have one of their personas be a &quot;clone&quot; of sibling? If so, how close are the two, and more interestingly, what happens when the two meet?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1993/is-there-evidence-for-a-unique-isolated-internal-representation-of-loved-ones&quot;&gt;related to this one about isolated internal representation of people&lt;/a&gt;, and potentially to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imprinting_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;phenomenon of imprinting&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-11-07T07:03:48.883" Title="Can a person with multiple personality disorder have one of their personality based on a real person?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8542" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8544" CreationDate="2014-11-07T03:49:23.730" Score="1" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example: If I was trying to recall the name Elaine but instead only the name Ellen could come to mind. It's as though I know 'where' the memory is, but since the memory is poor and so similar to another name with more associated memories, the more dominant, false memory is recalled instead. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not really sure the proper way to describe my question but perhaps one of you can infer what a fool like me is trying to ask. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7033" LastActivityDate="2014-11-07T13:34:32.780" Title="Is there a technical term for when the brain recalls an incorrect, but almost correct answer when trying to recall a word/name?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8543" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8541" CreationDate="2014-11-07T07:03:48.883" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article you link to is fairly comprehensive, and probably already answers your questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dissociative Identity Disorder is no longer referred to as multiple personality disorder.  This is a highly misunderstood disorder, and involves many possible symptoms besides the appearance of &quot;alters&quot;.  &quot;The diagnosis itself remains controversial among mental health professionals.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;It is now acknowledged that these dissociated states are not fully mature personalities, but rather they represent a disjointed sense of identity.&quot;  This answers your question about how close a &quot;clone&quot; personality would be to the real thing - ie, only in a limited sense.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Similarly, note that in most cases this disorder manifests in childhood &quot;(usually before age 9)&quot;.  While I don't doubt that &quot;alters&quot; are modelled on people (fictional and real) that the patient has observed in their past, any actor will tell you that creating a &quot;clone&quot; personality takes a lot of work, and is likely far too much to expect of a child, let alone one suffering from the extreme level of abuse or neglect that typically initiates this disorder.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Sometimes the alters are imaginary people; sometimes they are animals.&quot;  So while I can't say for sure if it's possible for an &quot;alter&quot; to be an imitation of a real person, it's certainly not common.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moreover, it is believed that &quot;The distinct personalities may serve diverse roles in helping the individual cope with life's dilemmas.&quot;  In other words, &quot;alters&quot; are formed to avoid stress, not increase it, so it wouldn't be in the patient's interest to imitate a real person.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Finally, &quot;Environmental triggers or life events cause a sudden shift from one alter or personality to another,&quot; so this is the likely outcome should a &quot;clone&quot; alter meet its inspiration.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2014-11-07T07:03:48.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8544" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8542" CreationDate="2014-11-07T13:34:32.780" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you want a very technical term, you could use &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphasia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paraphasia&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, but most people just call it a &quot;speech error&quot; or &quot;naming error&quot;. These are usually categorized according to error type: such as semantic (cat --&gt; dog), phonological or &quot;formal&quot; (cat --&gt; mat), mixed (both semantic and phonological: cat --&gt; rat), nonword (cat --&gt; kag), unrelated (cat --&gt; log), etc. Your example would probably be considered a mixed error because it was semantically similar (another common female name) and phonologically similar (shared at least 2 phonemes). Tip of the tongue refers to a more specific case where you have a strong sense of knowing the name and some aspects of it, but not being able to recall it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're interested in the neural correlates of these errors, Myrna Schwartz, Gary Dell, and their colleagues have published a series of articles investigating naming errors in stroke patients with language deficits (aphasia). A recent paper mapped aspects of their computational model of word production onto lesion locations in the left hemisphere (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027713001005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dell et al., 2013, Cognition, 128:3, 380-396&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2014-11-07T13:34:32.780" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8545" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-07T15:25:43.443" Score="5" ViewCount="3968" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How does rationality and the logical thought processes of those with and without ADHD compare? Please explain the source of the differences. Are the differences thought to be caused by dopamine, serotonin, or norepinephrine? Or is there some other neurological explanation?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How do the math skills of those with ADHD compare to others? As above, please explain in detail from a biochemical perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7035" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditorDisplayName="user6939" LastEditDate="2015-08-18T11:44:25.260" LastActivityDate="2015-08-18T11:46:03.490" Title="How are the logical and mathematical skills of people with ADHD?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8546" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8553" CreationDate="2014-11-07T19:10:44.350" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can one feel/experience &quot;any&quot; neuronal activity in oneself?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7037" LastEditorUserId="7037" LastEditDate="2014-11-11T11:19:01.823" LastActivityDate="2014-11-11T11:19:01.823" Title="Experiencing neuronal activity inside the body/brain" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8548" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8537" CreationDate="2014-11-08T01:37:47.960" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Obtaining:&lt;/strong&gt; Yes, the items are listed in Bukowski et al (1994). See Table 1.&#xA;You could always email the author explaining your research project and ask him whether he would allow you to use the measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scoring&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;A quick look suggests that each item is scored on a 1 to 5 scale.&#xA;Table 1 suggests that there is a scale-level, and subscale-level of scoring (i.e., 5 scales, and 10 subscales). Table 1 shows how items relates to scales and subscales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scoring scales and subscales seems to be just a matter of getting the mean of constituent items. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bukowski, W. M., Hoza, B., &amp;amp; Boivin, M. (1994). Measuring friendship quality during pre-and early adolescence: The development and psychometric properties of the Friendship Qualities Scale. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11(3), 471-484.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-11-08T01:37:47.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8549" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8514" CreationDate="2014-11-08T01:42:49.017" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's not my area, but a quick Google revealed this one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.midss.org/content/mcgill-friendship-questionnaire-%E2%80%93-respondents-affection-mfq-ra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The McGill Friendship Questionnaire - Respondent's affection (MFQ-RA)&lt;/a&gt;. Item and validation information is available on the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also mentions that it takes inspiration from  &quot;the Friendship Questionnaire&quot; and the &quot;Friendship Qualities scale&quot;. So they might also be worth checking out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-11-08T01:42:49.017" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8552" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8545" CreationDate="2014-11-08T07:38:47.863" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can understand having learning disabilities. I as well have some mostly mine are linguistic and auditory but when I was little the teachers wanted to give me ritalin. Its funny now I'd like some (really its cousin adderall) but cannot have it because of my other problems that developed along the way. Generally speaking &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.edst.purdue.edu/zentall/resume/articles/07Zmath.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;learning difficulties tend to come in bunches&lt;/a&gt;. Math learning disorders tend to happen among those who have somthing else. So there is a higher probability that those with ADHD will have trouble with something else besides paying attention but that does not mean you have a math ld only that there is a higher chance you will have it. It might go away too. As peoples brains develop sometimes we mature out of parts of the learning disability. I couldn't spell beyond phonics at all even into the 6th grade but by the time I was in high school it became less and less of an issue. Propositional logic and OCD go well together. Finding solutions to logical math requires the detailed work that someone with unnatural amounts of focus can supply. Its difficult for someone with ADHD to argue with the problem to resolve it especially when the answer is obvious from the start. However those with ADHD can master prop log its just not as easy. Logic in general and philosophies tend to come easy for ADHD people because they can grasp the big picture concepts of Kant, Mill and Aristotle ect. There do exist rationality disorders which have faulty logic but they are mostly inversely related to adhd. They are in the schizoid range right around delusions. When a adhd person has trouble with logic it tends to be in maintaining the strand of logical process rather than getting confused about what is true and false. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you asked about dopamine and I'm sorry to say that the ADHD disorder is not chemically well understood. There is some conflict in the literature. That is to say the schizod series is known to be caused by an imbalance of several chemicals that is corrected in a majority of patients by lowering dopamine (first and second generation antipsychotics) or slightly rising dopamine and lowering serotonin (third generation antipsychotics). It is not currently thought that there is anything wrong with the levels of the chemicals in the ADHD brain but that medicines are able to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/136/11/3252&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;therapeutic to the structural difference&lt;/a&gt; by raising your levels higher or lower than normal. Others disagree with this new work though and continue to affirm that ADHD is a chem imbalance. This has prompted some to explore expanding beyond the use of major stimulants and ventured into mild stimulants from the antidepressant class like Wellbutrin for the treatment of ADHD. Even third generation antipsychotics show some positive effects in ADHD treatment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6939" LastEditorDisplayName="user6939" LastEditDate="2014-11-08T07:44:01.877" LastActivityDate="2014-11-08T07:44:01.877" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8553" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8546" CreationDate="2014-11-08T13:07:14.443" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Without neural activity you wouldn't experience or perceive anything. Perception in itself is a reflection of neuronal activity. If you are referring to the question whether you can feel a neuron fire - then no, that is not possible. To 'experience' neuronal activity you should record it. There are a wide variety of methods to do that: EEG, MEG, fMRI, PET etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-11-09T08:58:03.603" LastActivityDate="2014-11-09T08:58:03.603" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8554" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8386" CreationDate="2014-11-08T20:00:00.473" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/time-passes-dreams/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;experiments conducted&lt;/a&gt; in the 1950's, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_C._Dement&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;William C. Dement&lt;/a&gt;, a pioneer sleep researcher, asked subjects to write down their dream content.  What he found was that the number of words in the subjects' dream diaries correlated strongly with REM time, suggesting that &lt;strong&gt;perceived dream time matches actual dream time&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although REM time is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0361923094900043&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;no longer considered a reliable measure&lt;/a&gt; of dream time, this paradigm of using Total Word Count (TWC) or sometimes Total Recall Count (TRC) from dream diaries (referred to as sleep mentation reports) to measure dream length, is in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810084710026&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;common use today&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further validation of this method was found in subjects with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep_behavior_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;RBD&lt;/a&gt;, a disorder that features twitching and movements during sleep, and other parasomnias such as sleep talking.  Here, timings in dream reports match recorded timings of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8923491&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;muscle movements&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ca/books/about/Sleep_talking.html?id=opaF3ZXJcq8C&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;sleep talking&lt;/a&gt;.  In other experiments, &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11818-009-0417-5&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;external stimuli delivered during dreaming&lt;/a&gt; - such as sounds, smells, or touch - are incorporated into dream content, again with timings matching reports.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampal_replay&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent research&lt;/a&gt; by Matthew Wilson focusing on memory consolidation in dreams adds an important detail to this however.  Dream sequences are often disjointed, on a faster time-scale, and sometimes in reverse order with respect to the events they reflect.  Think of it this way: If you watch a video in fast-forward (ie, skipping frames), then the time in the video is faster than real-time, but you are nonetheless aware that you have been watching for a shorter period of time.  The same appears to be true of dreaming: Dreams may play in fast-forward (also skipping frames), but dreamers are nonetheless aware of the actual passage of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the experiments with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anapsid.org/ethology3.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;rats traversing a maze&lt;/a&gt; for example, dream imagery reflected important points in the maze, such as major intersections, areas with unique smells, obstacles, etc, rather than long boring monotonous hallways.  Think of it like a tourist taking photos of a hiking trail: The photos are not evenly spaced out in time - there are fewer photos from boring parts of the trail, and more photos from the interesting parts.  That is, dream content does not necessarily play at a constant speed relative to real-time - it may be faster (skip frames) or slower (add frames), and change over the course of each dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: Dreams are typically 30 minutes or less in length.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-04-25T21:45:53.727" LastActivityDate="2017-04-25T21:45:53.727" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8555" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8351" CreationDate="2014-11-08T23:07:33.697" Score="5" Body="&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;What I'm looking for is an explanation of Anne's behaviour in terms of&#xA;psychoanalytic theory.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Freudian psychology this is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_%28psychology%29#Aggression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Displacement&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... an unconscious defense mechanism whereby the mind substitutes&#xA;  either a new aim or a new object for goals felt in their original form&#xA;  to be dangerous or unacceptable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a college student may snap at his or her roommate when upset about&#xA;  an exam grade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that psychoanalytic theory is outdated, and for the most part &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis#Criticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;considered pseudoscience&lt;/a&gt;.  The concept of defence mechanisms in general has largely been superseded by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not related, but you may also be interested in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schadenfreude&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schadenfreude&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-05-29T15:48:45.887" LastActivityDate="2016-05-29T15:48:45.887" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8556" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15261" CreationDate="2014-11-09T00:21:50.813" Score="3" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many different incremental models of the hippocampus and it's role in learning as shown by a quick search. However, have there been any efforts to combine these various models into a single unified functional model?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-06-18T20:21:42.460" Title="What is the most unified functional model of the hippocampus?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8557" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8581" CreationDate="2014-11-09T00:33:11.313" Score="6" ViewCount="210" Body="&lt;p&gt;ACT-R was the first big cognitive model and excels at modelling human behavioral data quite accurately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spaun, which is the world's largest functional brain model, took a lot of ACT-R's insights and applied them, most notably in it's model of the basal-ganglia-thalamus loop. More importantly, it did so in biologically plausible manner while ACT-R has been struggling recently to map it's functions onto brain areas and functionality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, ACT-R still seems to have an extremely active community and Spaun's developers are mostly restricted to the lab from which it originated. An obvious reason for not converting is if Spaun's range of cognitive functionality is missing some components of ACT-R. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What functionality of ACT-R isn't found in Spaun?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-01-11T13:56:14.260" LastActivityDate="2015-01-11T13:56:14.260" Title="What aspects of ACT-R are not contained within Spaun?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8558" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8291" CreationDate="2014-11-09T03:04:14.690" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;First a couple of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement#Reinforcement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;definitions&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Positive reinforcement&lt;/strong&gt; occurs when an event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the behavior increases.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Negative reinforcement&lt;/strong&gt; occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because an aversive event or stimulus is removed or prevented from happening.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning may occur as a result of negative or positive reinforcement; ie, through the elimination of a need, or through the pleasure of reward.  Traditionally, these have indeed been thought of as two complementary mechanisms as you suggest, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2755378/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the modern view&lt;/a&gt; is that they are actually synonyms.  They are different ways of looking at the same thing, like describing a glass of water based on how full or how empty it is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, eating can be described as the elimination of hunger (negative reinforcement) or as the pleasure of taste (positive reinforcement).  The choice depends on the context of the situation, but it is always possible to describe any reinforcement as both negative and positive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for why the feeling of pleasure exists at all, you can think of it this way: If an action only results in the elimination of a need, then there is no motivation for the subject to do any better than that.  We can fulfil our hunger with rice-cakes, but we are motivated to seek high-calorie foods because of the pleasure they give.  This was an essential survival mechanism for our ancestors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-08-29T19:00:14.540" LastActivityDate="2015-08-29T19:00:14.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8560" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-09T05:08:18.717" Score="1" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;After many years of research I found that I am a vibration (sound) to color and feeling synesthete. Everything I have read says that the colors one sees with an associated vibration should be consistent, but this is not the case for me. Anyone know why this would be? My mom, also a synesthete, sees the same colored numbers for each note she plays or hears. I don't see numbers, just colors as clouds that sometimes form patterns. The colors change but they feel similar. For example, the color I see when I hear or play A sharp changes from one moment to the next but the colors stay in the same color family. And most of the colors I see are not truly one color but more of a continuum of a few colors. I have tried to paint the colors but they are almost impossible to create with paint. Any input would be greatly appreciated.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Thank you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7040" LastEditorUserId="7040" LastEditDate="2014-11-09T05:14:11.250" LastActivityDate="2014-11-09T05:14:11.250" Title="Why do the colors I see associated with a particular vibration/sound change?" Tags="&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2015-04-21T00:45:18.210" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8562" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-09T10:33:22.353" Score="3" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know, how dementia can be recognized in the EEG signal of patients with dementia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I have found so far:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to (&lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&amp;amp;arnumber=1658150&amp;amp;tag=1&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D1658150%26tag%3D1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Henderson et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;) subjects with dementia are characterized by a decrease in high frequencies, and an increase of the low frequencies in the EEG. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any more characteristics in the EEG that could be used to detect dementia? Which channels of the EEG will be more influenced by dementia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6988" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-11-09T10:50:35.783" LastActivityDate="2014-11-09T10:50:35.783" Title="Detecting signs of dementia in EEG signal" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8564" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8845" CreationDate="2014-11-09T17:52:54.493" Score="3" ViewCount="656" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have there been any studies that found that an extremely high (or low) &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stroop test&lt;/a&gt; score correlates with certain personal characteristics, abilities or aptitudes, or would all such conclusions be outside the test's scope?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5109" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-21T10:16:49.810" LastActivityDate="2014-12-17T16:09:41.517" Title="Does Stroop test performance correlate with any personal characteristics or abilities?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8567" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5129" CreationDate="2014-11-10T07:06:20.113" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are quite astute to have noticed the difference between your stated preferences and actual preferences - most people don't.  Yes, there has been a fair bit of research on prediction techniques and their effectiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2008, in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~efi614/documents/EastwickFinkel2008_JPSP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; by Paul Eastwick and Eli Finkel, participants were asked to predict their romantic preferences - what they found attractive in potential mates.  The subjects were then followed up on speed dating and other dating behaviour over the following month to see how their actual choices compared with their predictions.  The results showed that both men and women have no useful insight into their own romantic preferences that could be used to predict their actual dating choices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A number of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sjLDomII6No&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;other studies&lt;/a&gt; examining a variety of methods for matching dating partners using questionnaires, physical traits, personality characteristics, dating techniques, and other theories of compatibility all failed to find a correlation between people's expressed preferences and actual dating behaviour.  Many online dating sites promote their compatibility calculation tools that are based on self-reported preferences, but research so far suggests that none of them do much better than random.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2014-11-10T07:06:20.113" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8570" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-10T13:06:30.167" Score="5" ViewCount="2888" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand if there's &lt;strong&gt;a specific process or part of the human brain which, when activated, causes the person to daydream, engage in fantasy or come up with ideas that are far from common reality?&lt;/strong&gt; In other words, what is the trigger that initiates imagination process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Examples&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Looking at the clouds and guessing their shapes - there's no animals, unicorns or majestic castles in the sky - there are clouds, but the brain still comes up with unusual explanations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thinking about &amp;quot;What would I do if I was teleported back in time&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;what if I had super powers&amp;quot;. I'm interested in what causes this slip into daydreaming.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When a person in love is fantasizing about a romantic partner and attributes all kinds of traits to them. Once again, some kind of trigger modifies thinking pattern.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon I'm talking about might be related to when people suddenly start to think about all kinds of stuff, real or imaginary upon going to bed (which prevents them from falling asleep).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that all of these share a common theme, and I'm trying to learn if they are bound by some physical process or part of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/5063/what-triggers-creative-thought-in-humans&quot;&gt;this question about factors that trigger creative thought in humans&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-09-08T18:39:32.427" Title="Is there a part of the human brain responsible for triggering imagination, fantasy and coming up with unusual stories?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;ideation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8572" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-10T16:43:41.410" Score="7" ViewCount="511" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently experienced a number of hypnogogic near sleep states characterized by change in thinking (stage 1-2 sleep). I noticed that if I let go and get absorbed in the state, I can follow it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can describe the hypnogogic sensation as a feeling of empty space without a definite boundary. Typically the state arises at 17-23 minutes after bedtime (I'm using a timer to check). However, as soon as I activate &quot;inner voice&quot; or think a thought spoken in that voice, those other near sleep states get completely suppressed. Literally, a single word disrupts these states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me interested &lt;strong&gt;what happens in the brain when a person thinks using a single threaded, spoken train of thought?&lt;/strong&gt; (&quot;I'm typing a question on cogsci right now&quot; or &quot;I'm reading a question right now&quot;) Is there some part of the brain that gets activated while others get suppressed? In particular I'm interested &lt;strong&gt;why spoken thought suppresses other non-verbal states&lt;/strong&gt; that a brain can consciously experience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_monologue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Internal monologue, also known as inner voice,&lt;/a&gt; internal speech, or&#xA;  verbal stream of consciousness is thinking in words. It also refers to&#xA;  the semi-constant internal monologue one has with oneself at a&#xA;  conscious or semi-conscious level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be interesting to know if there's some difference that fMRI can show between a brain that's reading using voice and brain that's reading non-verbally. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recall reading about similar phenomenon in the eastern spiritual traditions, like Taoism or Buddhism, where the states of mind they are trying to achieve are also incompatible with inner voice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-03-19T16:49:04.900" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T14:48:27.597" Title="What is the neurobiological basis of the &quot;inner voice&quot; used for thought or reading?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8574" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8711" CreationDate="2014-11-10T20:53:14.927" Score="3" ViewCount="235" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, what should happen between the occurrence of a &lt;em&gt;negative automatic thought&lt;/em&gt; and, finally, its &lt;em&gt;neutralization&lt;/em&gt; is &lt;em&gt;logical thinking&lt;/em&gt;: looking at the &lt;strong&gt;evidence for&lt;/strong&gt; the automatic thought, and the &lt;strong&gt;evidence against&lt;/strong&gt; the automatic thought, and coming to the conclusion that the automatic thought is not worth thinking about. Or that it wasn't valid at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an &lt;em&gt;emergency situation&lt;/em&gt; coupled with &lt;em&gt;very high anxiety&lt;/em&gt;, an &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;intervention&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is needed. The therapist uses the CBT model to show the patient that the negative automatic thought is not valid. This is especially important for patients with anxiety disorders. &lt;strong&gt;This is CBT performed in a timely, efficient and immediate manner (perhaps on the phone), when waiting for the next therapy session to come by is not an option.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a way patients can &lt;em&gt;perform a CBT intervention without the aid of a therapist&lt;/em&gt; in a high intensity, emergency situation, with high propensity for negative thinking, and high anxiety, &lt;em&gt;just in case the therapist isn't reachable/available at that moment&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="7049" LastEditDate="2014-11-29T14:28:53.763" LastActivityDate="2014-11-29T14:28:53.763" Title="&quot;Do it yourself&quot; Cognitive-Behavioral-Therapy-style intervention methods" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8575" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19140" CreationDate="2014-11-10T22:34:43.130" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are multiple examples in the machine learning literature of trying to learn the hierarchical structure of a reinforcement learning problem, however have there been any papers tying this learning to neurological activity in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The type of evidence I would like some indication of a neural substrate indicating some type of activity when learning a hierarchical structure is necessary to solve a problem vs. when a simple problem is attempted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-02-15T17:10:44.310" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T00:42:49.007" Title="Brain areas active while learning hierarchical structure of a problem" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8576" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8557" CreationDate="2014-11-10T22:56:31.440" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Long-term memory storage and forgetting are the two main features that are found in ACT-R, but are missing from Spaun. Currently, Spaun only has a working memory and a fixed long-term memory; it lacks the ability to store new items in a long-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is currently being tackled by trying to create better &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-2202-15-S1-P166.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hippocampal models&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/voelker.2014a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;encoder learning rules&lt;/a&gt;. However, there is clearly still a lot of work to be done. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-01-11T02:02:52.803" LastActivityDate="2015-01-11T02:02:52.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8577" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-10T23:02:43.060" Score="3" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Wikipedia's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; on evolutionary psychology, two of six given key premises of EP are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Different neural mechanisms are specialized for solving problems in humanity's evolutionary past.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The brain has evolved specialized neural mechanisms that were designed for solving problems that recurred over deep evolutionary time, giving modern humans stone-age minds.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am neither a professional psychologist nor a professional biologist, but I am very curious as to where I could (preferably in a freely available paper, website, etc.) find a list of the aforementioned &quot;problems in humanity's evolutionary past.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming that Wikipedia's claim that we still have stone-age minds is correct, I would like to know which tasks we performed during the stone age that shape the tasks that we can perform effectively today.  For example, did some task of hunter-gatherers (like gathering berries and hoarding them) eventually translate into going grocery shopping at a supermarket and buying 75 items?  (I can't think of any better examples, unfortunately.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for any help you can provide.  I glanced at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_adaptation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this page&lt;/a&gt;, but couldn't find a good list of EPMs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4429" LastEditorUserId="4429" LastEditDate="2014-11-10T23:09:12.780" LastActivityDate="2014-11-10T23:09:12.780" Title="What are some key behaviors that stone-age humans evolved to help them survive and reproduce?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-04-23T13:21:46.160" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8578" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-11T08:45:34.947" Score="5" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many activities are possible in dreams, but reading (and related tasks) is not one of them. In an dream with awareness, trying to read a label or enter a phone number can be very frustrating and can cause the dream to focus on trying to acheive what was an insignificant passing task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the reason? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7053" LastActivityDate="2014-11-11T08:45:34.947" Title="Why is it so problematic to read in a dream?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-06T15:11:32.083" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8579" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-11T14:30:14.770" Score="2" ViewCount="251" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why does it seem that people behave like they are supposed to when they are being observed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example. If you place a fake security camera on an employee, they would behave better (or at least appear to).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, when a system or workflow becomes transparent, it seems to me that people would make an extra effort to do better since they are more exposed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any particular identified effect, cognitive bias, or phenomenon that describes the reasons behind this change of behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7055" LastActivityDate="2014-11-18T00:47:40.800" Title="Why do people behave better when observed?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8581" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8557" CreationDate="2014-11-11T16:51:06.890" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both ACT-R and Spaun are modular, and could be extended to include capabilities of each other. Comparing the functionalities of the two architectures by a simple checklist is not the most appropriate way to compare them. Here are some points to consider:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) ACT-R is primarily symbolic, whereas Spaun is a neural network. ACT-R is actually making a theoretical claim by committing to a symbolic architecture. This is one of the most famous debates in cognitive science; the upshot is that the two approaches each have limitations, and they go about solving problems in different ways. For a good starting point in this debate, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0010027788900315&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fodor &amp;amp; Pylyshyn (1988)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Architecture aside, different algorithms can be implemented to solve the same problem. Maybe both Spaun and ACT-R can do simple declarative memory retrievals, but do they predict the &lt;em&gt;same&lt;/em&gt; response times and accuracies for a given retrieval? I suspect they don't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) As mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/8576/55&quot;&gt;your answer&lt;/a&gt;, Spaun does not include a of long-term memory but does include working memory. In ACT-R, long-term memory and working memory are not distinct concepts; working memory can be construed as a subset of items in memory that are highly activated. There is no discrete distinction. This suggests that the structure of components in ACT-R is fundamentally different than Spaun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-11-11T16:51:06.890" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8582" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-11T18:19:19.627" Score="7" ViewCount="1800" Body="&lt;p&gt;Over the years I've seen numerous articles about introverts that mention that they dislike large social interactions (meetings, parties, etc) because they drain their energy. These articles mention that it can take days or weeks to recharge this energy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is anecdotal evidence, but I've personally felt it twice in the last week, which peaked my interest. A good way to describe this phenomena is - after a couple hours of large corporate meeting, the energy is gone, and I feel demotivated and just want to go home. &quot;Feeling drained&quot; is another good way to put it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there scientific theories about what is causing introverts to lose energy in social settings?&lt;/strong&gt; Is it related to mirror neurons? Is it related to a particular neurotransmitter system in the brain? Maybe it is related to a specific neurotransmitter receptor mutations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8316/terminology-for-introverts-frustration-after-excessive-social-exposure?rq=1&quot;&gt;this relevant question that asks for the name of the &quot;introverts losing energy&quot; phenomenon&lt;/a&gt;. It mentions the following terms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social overload&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social exhaustion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Decision fatigue&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Over stimulated&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-12-25T20:14:52.887" Title="What causes introverts to lose &quot;energy&quot; in social settings and require recovery afterwards?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;&lt;introversion&gt;&lt;mirror-neurons&gt;&lt;social-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8583" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-11T18:44:29.497" Score="8" ViewCount="1245" Body="&lt;p&gt;While marking undergraduate coursework relating to gender differences,&#xA;it occurred to me that there could well be systematic effects of gender on IQ among the undergraduate populations relied on for so much of psychological research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My impression is that male psychology students, who are in the minority, are likely to be on average more intelligent than female ones, because &lt;strong&gt;(warning, anecdotal evidence, and broad sweeping statements, ahead)&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Women tend to study psychology at undergraduate level in the belief that it will involve &lt;em&gt;understanding&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;helping&lt;/em&gt; people, while men tend to be more interested in psychology as a science.&#xA;Although women's motivation is probably the more admirable one, men's seems likely to indicate higher general intelligence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Despite making up a small minority of undergraduate students, men make up about 50% of psychologists at later stages (PhD onwards), with the possible exception of clinical/educational psychologists.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Men's IQ's are more variable - there are more male geniuses, but also more men with extremely low IQ's. Since university students will have above average IQs in general, we would expect more men to have extremely high IQs in this sample (for the same reason as we would expect men who don't finish second-level education to have lower IQs on average than women who don't).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, all this speculation aside, I haven't been able to find any research putting this apparently simple, and possibly very important, for the interpretation of a lot of research, idea to the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2015-05-19T21:09:22.327" LastActivityDate="2019-05-16T13:28:17.083" Title="Gender differences in IQ among undergraduate psychology students" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8584" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-11T20:30:37.013" Score="2" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Kahneman–Tversky interpretation of biases as deviation from rationality was challenged by Gigerenzer on the basis that heuristics help making decisions and, thus, rational from the evolutionary point of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But are individuals born with significantly biased judgment as part of their genetic heritage or biases come mainly from early education and later experience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given a wide variety of issues implied in this question, maybe you can answer about some biases?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4020" LastEditorUserId="4020" LastEditDate="2014-11-13T20:23:38.803" LastActivityDate="2014-11-13T20:23:38.803" Title="Are cognitive biases hardwired in the brain or they are acquired during lifetime?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8585" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8433" CreationDate="2014-11-11T21:31:50.667" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The previous answers have elaborated quite well in terms of whether an actual physiological division of the two types/speeds of processing actually exist. In regards to the &quot;model&quot; aspect of my question, the only model that I know intimately, Spaun. Spaun does have these two types/speeds of processing mapped to two different circuits, if we are focusing on Eoin's definition of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8438/how-is-memory-accounted-for-in-the-nef&quot;&gt;working-memory&lt;/a&gt; vs. non-working-memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Spaun, most (if not all) of the tasks using working memory must be routed through the basal-ganglia-thalamus loop and tasks that don't require working memory are encoded in the neuron weights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in the counting task, Spaun is shown some commands that give it a range for counting. The command recognition is done quickly once via neuron weights adapted from a trained deep-belief network. The actual counting is done via the much slower and iterative basal-ganglia-thalamus loop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2014-11-11T21:31:50.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8586" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8579" CreationDate="2014-11-12T00:08:51.247" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like rational behaviour (i.e., it is not a cognitive bias). Monitoring generally creates a closer link between behaviour and social consequences (either rewards or punishments).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A huge number of theories capture ideas about how the social context influences behaviour (e.g., social norms).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the work context, you could look at ideas around &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typical_versus_maximum_performance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;maximal and typical performance&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, there is literature that looks at the pros and cons of monitoring on workplace performance. In particular, excessively fine grained monitoring can lead to increased stress, lower job satisfaction, turnover, etc. See for example Kinnie et al for a discussion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kinnie, N., Hutchinson, S., &amp;amp; Purcell, J. (2000). 'Fun and surveillance': the paradox of high commitment management in call centres. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 11(5), 967-985.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-11-12T00:08:51.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8587" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-12T00:46:11.927" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;Contempt is expressed asymmetrically - one lip corner is pulled in and back, in what could be described as a half-smile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any trends in terms of people or societies which prefer pulling in one particular side over the other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is completely anecdotal, but ever since I originally learned about the standard emotions, I try to pay more attention to my own face, and in that time, I can't think of a single time I've ever done it with my right side - it always displays on my left.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7058" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-11-12T01:52:35.987" LastActivityDate="2014-11-12T01:52:35.987" Title="Is there a left or right preference to raising one side of the lip in contempt?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8588" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8589" CreationDate="2014-11-12T02:05:58.023" Score="9" ViewCount="1333" Body="&lt;p&gt;Masking occurs when the delay between the target and the mask is less than a threshhold (say 50 milliseconds). If sensory data passes from lower to higher visual cortices/processing regions as in a linear one way street, how can the mask (which comes later) influence the perception of the target (which moved ahead of the mask)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So does this mean masking works because the neuro-network consists of nested connections folding back and forth on itself? If so, at what scales do they operate? Do they occur both within higher regions and between higher and lower regions? Do we understand how they work in detail in the case of masking?    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I learned that masking is often used as a research tool for subconsciousness/unconsciousness. But maybe neuro-feedback disruted using masking is just one of the many ways subconscious perception can occur? If so, shouldn't we reserve some qualms about general conclusions about subconsciousness/unconsciousness drawn using the masking method?      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6186" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-21T11:23:24.283" LastActivityDate="2018-11-18T11:58:55.043" Title="How does masking work?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8589" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8588" CreationDate="2014-11-12T02:55:16.773" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apparently your question is on &lt;strong&gt;backward masking&lt;/strong&gt;, which means that the masker follows the stimulus (probe) in time. &lt;strong&gt;Backward masking generally occurs at higher levels, typically the cortex&lt;/strong&gt;. In case of visual stimuli this can be the primary visual cortex, or V1 (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/227311155_Recent_models_and_findings_in_visual_backward_masking_A_comparison_review_and_update/file/3deec52e7d61e601fc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mace et al. 2005&lt;/a&gt;). Ongoing processing of the probe is then thought to be interfered with by the subsequent presentation of the masker, as long as the masker-probe interval is not too long. The PNAS article by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/92/12/5587.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Covaks et al., 1995&lt;/a&gt; shows this nicely at the cortical level: neurons working on the stimulus change their response patterns when a masker is presented afterwards. So although there may be &lt;strong&gt;connections folding back and forth onto themselves&lt;/strong&gt;, a serial 'one-way' route where the processing of a stimulus changes upon arrival of the masker is the most parsimonious, and experimentally supported explanation. Cortical processes are often affected by &lt;strong&gt;consciousness&lt;/strong&gt; (alertness/vigilance) so the presence of backward masking effects can be interpreted as a marker of &lt;strong&gt;cortical higher-level processing&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Forward masking&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;strong&gt;simultaneous masking&lt;/strong&gt;, on the other hand, work at the neural level through adaptation processes. Although the effects of forward masking can be observed at the cortical level as shown by &lt;a href=&quot;http://jindal.utdallas.edu/~kilgard/04b%20BroschSchreiner_JNeurophys1997.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brosch &amp;amp; Screiner 1997&lt;/a&gt;, forward masking is caused by processes occurring in the periphery (e.g., the cochlea or auditory nerve in hearing) and are unaffected by mental state. Hence, the presence of forward masking indicates that the neural process under investigation reflects a peripheral process that can also occur subconsciously, whereas the presence of backward masking generally point towards a higher-level neural process that is typically affected by mental state. Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-18T11:58:55.043" LastActivityDate="2018-11-18T11:58:55.043" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8590" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-12T19:37:07.850" Score="10" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social network analysis&lt;/a&gt; is an indiscpensable tool for sociology, and is becoming increasing popular in anthropology, social-psychology and other fields. There are many papers that examine the structure of various social networks, especially modern ones derived from Facebook or Twitter data.&#xA;However, if you are a theorist, it is often difficult to get your hands on publicly available social networks data, especially from non-modern networks (for a great modern -- but not internet-based --  network see the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.framinghamheartstudy.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Framingham Heart Study&lt;/a&gt; as used in Christakis &amp;amp; Fowler (2007)).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, I am interested in social networks in apes, hunter-gatherer, or 'primitive' tribal societies. &lt;strong&gt;Can you recommend a reference that contains data for such social networks?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some desired properties include: 100-500 people, non-directed edges (so the directed learning networks of Henrich &amp;amp; Broesch (2011) are not quite what I am looking for), and relative general kinds of interactions (like friendship, mutual grooming, or interaction time). The hope is for the raw network (as an adjacency matrix, for example) to be available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Christakis, N. A., &amp;amp; Fowler, J. H. (2007). The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. &lt;em&gt;New England Journal of Medicine&lt;/em&gt;, 357(4): 370-379.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Henrich, J., &amp;amp; Broesch, J. (2011). On the nature of cultural transmission networks: evidence from Fijian villages for adaptive learning biases. &lt;em&gt;Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 366(1567): 1139-1148.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-11-12T19:37:07.850" Title="Publicly available social networks in apes and hunter-gatherer societies" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;anthropology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8592" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8659" CreationDate="2014-11-13T11:00:25.053" Score="0" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;I live in Finland where it is not acceptable to emphasize of being rich, eg. buying expensive sportcars/houses/apartments and introduce them on &quot;yellow press&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there is one exception. If you have earned your money doing sports (eg. playing ice hockey, driving Formula One) it seems to be totally acceptable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychology behind this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="6750" LastEditDate="2014-11-13T14:35:19.870" LastActivityDate="2014-11-21T12:30:17.697" Title="Why is it more acceptable to get rich doing sports than business?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8593" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8584" CreationDate="2014-11-13T11:02:32.110" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Addressing your first question (like @Josh, I would advice moving the other point to a new question), &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022096507001105&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Morsanya &amp;amp; Handley (2008)&lt;/a&gt; (I can't find an open-access copy, sorry) have recently argued that heuristics have to be learned and acquired over time.&#xA;They presented a group of children aged 5 - 11 with several multiple-choice reasoning tasks, consisting of conjunction fallacy tasks, if-only fallacy tasks (concerning counterfactual reasoning), sunk cost fallacy tasks, and syllogistic reasoning, and found that as children got older, or scored more highly on an IQ test, they tended to provide more &quot;heuristic&quot; responses, and less &quot;correct&quot; ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They interpret this result as indicating that younger/less intelligent children aren't sophisticated enough to figure out the correct response, but haven't developed the heuristics either, so respond as random. As children become older/more intelligent, heuristics develop, but the children still haven't developed enough to produce the correct responses (bear in mind that with adults, more intelligent individuals produce more correct and less heuristic responses, so the trend reverses once people are advanced enough to figure out the correct response).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Reference&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kinga Morsanyi, Simon J. Handley, How smart do you need to be to get it wrong? The role of cognitive capacity in the development of heuristic-based judgment, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, Volume 99, Issue 1, January 2008, Pages 18-36, ISSN 0022-0965, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2014-11-13T11:02:32.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8594" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-13T19:26:17.230" Score="4" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;My 20-month old has learned many words to express herself.  In addition she says many other words that are indecipherable from context nor pronunciation.  It's most noticeable in novel or unusual situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is she inventing words to express the new or not-yet-learned situation?  If so, (until she learns the &quot;correct&quot; word), will she continue to use the invented word for a while, or will she invent a different word should the situation recur? What does the literature in developmental psychology have to say about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7072" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-07-05T18:22:43.310" LastActivityDate="2016-07-05T21:52:58.107" Title="How many words are toddlers &quot;making up&quot;?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8596" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-13T20:24:12.747" Score="7" ViewCount="266" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Kahneman–Tversky interpretation of biases as deviation from rationality was challenged by Gigerenzer on the basis that heuristics help making decisions and, thus, rational from the evolutionary point of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What drawbacks of &quot;fixing&quot; biases have been empirically confirmed? I mean, avoiding heuristic rules requires more cognitive efforts, which possibly affect really important decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: This question was separated from &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8584/are-cognitive-biases-hardwired-in-the-brain-or-they-are-acquired-during-lifetime&quot;&gt;Are cognitive biases hardwired in the brain or they are acquired during lifetime?&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4020" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2020-05-03T04:40:09.637" Title="Does fixing cognitive biases do more harm than use?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8597" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8660" CreationDate="2014-11-14T04:32:57.703" Score="4" ViewCount="3280" Body="&lt;p&gt;A couple of years back I was in the midst of a lot of competitive exams (for my career, degree etc.). I needed to put my mind to a lot of work. Maths problems, physics problems, logic and GMAT-type questions; you name it.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I haven't been doing these rigorous mental exercises recently. Now, I find that in class I struggle to grasp even the simplest of new concepts.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;So, my question: Does the brain lose its edge if out of practice?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(Please state your reasoning. Any references would be appreciated too.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6605" LastActivityDate="2014-11-24T22:20:42.827" Title="Does the brain get rusty if out of practice?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8601" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21108" CreationDate="2014-11-14T18:51:47.523" Score="5" ViewCount="282" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, major depressive disorder is treated with pharmacotherapy, and talk therapy, as well as other little things written below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People know what the little things you can do if you're depressed are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;exercise often&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;make sure your eating is sufficient/not excessive &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;make sure your sleep is sufficient/not excessive&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;don't engage in &quot;depressive&quot; behaviors such as isolation, rumination etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;get involved more socially&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;separate yourself from stressful situations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, I can't think of any of the little things associated with thought disorders, like schizophrenia...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some reason the only thing I can think of is Cognitive Remedial Therapy...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the corresponding little things that are the counterpart of the list shown above for thought disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-11-25T04:26:41.463" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T21:34:23.523" Title="How, other than pharmacotherapy, can those diagnosed with thought disorders be treated?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8602" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8658" CreationDate="2014-11-14T20:41:02.167" Score="1" ViewCount="232" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking at the Myers Briggs type indicator and am trying to understand if type/personality preferences are a human only construct. I'm talking about Introversion-Extraversion, Sensing or iNtuition, Thinking-Feeling, Judging-Perceiving. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading books on personality, human children are frequently described as already having some type preference (for example the intuitive child versus sensing child) which gets developed as the child matures. This makes me question as to where this original preference comes from. If it comes from some brain structure, I'm interested if lower animals also have these structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that animals have alpha/beta males which determines social dominance, but &lt;strong&gt;are there other personality traits that have been identified in animals?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a common proverb is &quot;curiosity killed the cat&quot; - are some cats more curious than others? Are some specimens of the same species more sociable (extraverted) than others? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example would be  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/27448/title/Can-monkeys-mislead-/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;experiments in primates, where monkeys were able to deceive their peers&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-11-29T01:53:58.583" LastActivityDate="2014-11-30T05:49:59.057" Title="Do animals have some kind of rudimentary personality types or preferences?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8603" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8596" CreationDate="2014-11-15T04:43:33.867" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Fixing&quot; (compensating for) a cognitive bias means &quot;improving the result&quot;, so by definition, the result is always better.  The drawback, as stated, is in the time and resources spent getting there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, even when time spent is controlled for, there are scenarios where subjects make better decisions when they &quot;trust their gut&quot; rather than &quot;think things through&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One example, cited &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-knowledge_%28psychology%29#Arguments_against_introspection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Students were asked to select a poster to take home, and then followed up a few weeks later to find out how happy they were with their selection.  The control group simply chose their preferred poster, while the experimental group was asked to provide reasons first.  The results: Students who provided reasons for their choice made different choices – preferring a different style of poster – and their satisfaction levels at follow-up were significantly lower.  Winner: Heuristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example described &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_thought_theory#The_origins_of_UTT&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subjects were given descriptions of several cars, in the form of pros and cons, and asked to select the “best” one.  Most of the cars had an equal number of pros and cons or more cons than pros, but one of the cars had 75% pros and 25% cons, making it the correct choice.  Subjects in the experimental group were asked to give their decision some thought, while subjects in the control group were given the same amount of time to decide but asked to perform a distraction task during that time.  Clearly the experimental group had the advantage of dedicated mental resources to make a deliberated decision, while the control group would rely on heuristics.  The results: When the total number of pros and cons is small (4), conscious decisions are indeed  significantly better than unconscious decisions.  However, when the total number of pros and cons is relatively large (12), heuristics have the edge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_rationality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bounded rationality&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2020-05-03T04:40:09.637" LastActivityDate="2020-05-03T04:40:09.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8604" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8737" CreationDate="2014-11-15T05:00:09.677" Score="11" ViewCount="215" Body="&lt;p&gt;Currently I am involved in constructing an EEG-Based BCI. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The goal of the BCI is to control which light in a series of lightbulbs lights up. The plan is to use different images (i.e. a flower versus a tiger) to elicit different neuron response that will show up on the EEG. The light bulb will light up in any order these images are given (tiger -&gt; flower -&gt; mountain -&gt; sky -&gt; white noise -&gt; bright red...etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know if there has ever been a successful realization of such system? Please provide me with a link to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6730" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T13:58:02.473" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T13:58:02.473" Title="Is there a report of a successfully EEG-Based Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) using image training?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8605" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8596" CreationDate="2014-11-15T12:43:56.040" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is asked – and Arnon's answer is given – based on the assumption that biases play a role only in &quot;momentous&quot; descisions, that is decisions that are relatively rare and can profit from rational consideration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;biases&lt;/a&gt; play a constant role in navigating your everyday life. For example, you don't do the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepsi_Challenge&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pepsi Challenge&lt;/a&gt; every time you buy food. You just pick the joghurt that you know you like (bias), or whose list of contents appear most healthy to you (bias), or the price of which you find signals quality (bias) or is cheap (bias). Assuming that you understand the effects of food packaging, placement, shop lighting, muzak, shop aisle geography, price structure, advertisement you don't even remember having seen, etc., and can ignore its effects is just another bias. And maybe you are a nutritional scientist and actually (think that your science enables you to = bias) know what is healthy food, you probably are not a psychologist, financial expert, political scientist, sociologist, and so on, too, and will have to rely on hearsay (bias) or experience (bias) for most of your other decisions. And since you are almost constantly making decisions throughout the day – which turn do I take?, should I brake when the traffic light is yellow?, is it worthwhile to fight this out with my wife or will we have better sex when I let her be right?, should I correct my son or am I being overprotective?, what clothes should I wear today?, will it be fun to watch tv or will I have more fun tomorrow if I go to bed now?, is this online debate really worth my comment?, etc. etc. etc. –, and rational decision making is effortful (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Baumeister#Self_regulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Baumeister&lt;/a&gt;), most of your decisions must be made heuristically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Removing biases and forcing you to rationally process all information would leave you overwhelmed and unable to function. You simply don't have the time and mental resources to make every minor decision rationally. Biases are absolutely necessary for your survival. Without them you are reduced to a state similar to that of a toddler, who has yet to acquire biases, i.e. develop this mechanism that automatically filters the relevant from the irrelevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course biases can lead to wrong decisions. But these errors do not indicate that you should abandon all biases completely, but that you need to &lt;em&gt;refine&lt;/em&gt; those that are misleading to more accurately reflect reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2015-01-15T08:45:26.003" LastActivityDate="2015-01-15T08:45:26.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8606" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8607" CreationDate="2014-11-15T15:17:17.257" Score="7" ViewCount="2203" Body="&lt;p&gt;I summarise &lt;a href=&quot;http://rayedwards.com/always-give-a-reason-why/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://rayedwards.com/always-give-a-reason-why/&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Dr. Robert Cialdini’s book, &lt;em&gt;Influence&lt;/em&gt;, he cites a research study showing that simply adding the word “because” to a request multiplies the likelihood of compliance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, the study seems to indicate that the legitimacy of the reasons supplied did not seem as important to the outcome as you might suppose. In fact, it seems hardly necessary to have a real reason at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, you might ask to cut line at the post office, and be more likely to get a “yes” response from the person in front of you if you simply frame your question by saying something like, “Would it be possible for me to please cut a front of you in line, &lt;strong&gt;because I’m really in a hurry&lt;/strong&gt;.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recognise the lack of substantiated evidence in the above quote, but I'm interested in learning about such empirically, scientifically proven behaviour and human psychology (eg through reputable peer-reviewed articles). To clarify, I seek not the hard data itself, but only conclusions and tips supported by credible evidence. I only chanced upon that above link, so to discover more in this area methodically and productively,  what are some key words terming this subject? Where should I start?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've no training in sciences, so I'd cherish answers and advice written in lay, simple, readable language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T09:45:39.987" Title="'Always Give a Reason Why' - How to describe this subject area?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;&lt;persuasion&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8607" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8606" CreationDate="2014-11-15T19:13:40.893" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This particular study, sometimes called the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/36/6/635/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Xerox Experiment&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, was done by Ellen Langer, who studies &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mindfullness&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, but that may not be what you are looking for.  It is also cited on Wikipedia under &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change#Heuristic_processing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Attitude Change - Heuristic Processing&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, people are more likely to grant favors if reasons are&#xA;  provided. A study shows that when people said, &quot;Excuse me, I have five&#xA;  pages to xerox. May I use the copier?” they received a positive&#xA;  response of 60%. The statement, “Excuse me, I have five pages to&#xA;  xerox. I am in a rush. May I use the copier?” produced a 95% success&#xA;  rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is worth noting however, that a study published in the same year by Stanley Milgram (famous for his obedience experiments in the 60's), cited on Wikipedia under &quot;Breaching Experiments&quot;, about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breaching_experiment#.22On_maintaining_social_norms:_a_field_experiment_in_the_subway.22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;people giving up their seats in the subway&lt;/a&gt; found a similar success rate when no reason was given, but a significantly lower compliance rate if a trivial reason was provided:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the second condition, the trivial justification ... a much lower number gave&#xA;  up their seats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A related field that a layman might find more accessible, is called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_economics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;behavioural economics&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, and there is also a lot of overlap with &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive bias&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  Search YouTube for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=dan%20ariely&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dan Ariely&lt;/a&gt;, you'll learn lots of neat tips and tricks just like this one, backed by peer-reviewed studies, about how easily people can be manipulated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-05-06T03:56:39.783" LastActivityDate="2016-05-06T03:56:39.783" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8608" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8606" CreationDate="2014-11-15T22:37:18.487" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cialdini's book &lt;em&gt;Influence&lt;/em&gt; is great, I wish I hadn't lost my copy of it...I always considered that to be a social psych book, so perhaps you should study social psychology if you have an interest in this sort of thing.  You could also consider glancing at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cialdini&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;his Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; for more information about where his journal articles were published...this could provide some clues as to which journals/textbooks to look into.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note, the idea of adding the word &quot;because&quot; to a request is related to the idea of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretext&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pretexting&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/strong&gt; which is studied by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)#Pretexting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social engineers&lt;/a&gt;.  While (I think) this isn't technically considered part of psychology, I would imagine that social engineering is considered relevant to cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer:  I am not a professional psychologist, just an enthusiast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4429" LastActivityDate="2014-11-15T22:37:18.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8610" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13766" CreationDate="2014-11-16T08:59:01.553" Score="5" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we record an EEG signals, we apply an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_component_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ICA&lt;/a&gt; on it. This algorithm assumes that the sources of signals are independent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could I assume that each region in the brain works independently, i.e., the region that the point C3 represents, is independent of the region that the point CZ represents?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-04-15T11:44:29.653" LastActivityDate="2016-04-15T11:44:29.653" Title="Dependency EEG signals from regions of the brain" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8612" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-16T14:36:57.730" Score="2" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Title says it all: Do more creative people have more unusual dreams?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7085" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-06-09T17:35:52.870" LastActivityDate="2015-06-09T17:35:52.870" Title="Do more creative people have more unusual dreams?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2015-04-21T09:58:19.487" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8613" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-16T19:25:55.917" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;Despite being a night owl, I find when I'm up and about at sunrise&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; I feel mentally much better than any other time of day - regardless of how much sleep I've had or whether I've been awake for many hours prior to sunrise. Indeed I'd almost imagine getting up for dawn and then going back to bed would be beneficial in and of itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Why is sunrise therapeutic?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;And are there reasons above and beyond the circadian rhythm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;1. Strictly speaking, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight#Nautical_twilight&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;nautical twilight&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;2. Since the psychological effect of sunrise can apply even when jet lagged or are so frequently a night owl that prior reinforcement of experience is unlikely.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6842" LastEditorUserId="6842" LastEditDate="2014-11-16T20:08:54.090" LastActivityDate="2014-11-16T20:08:54.090" Title="Why is sunrise therapeutic?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;mood&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-03-23T11:50:11.530" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8614" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-17T15:29:24.123" Score="2" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name of a &lt;strong&gt;cognitive bias where a person takes all of their knowledge of a particular subject (at a point in time) and arranges it in a hypothesis or world model&lt;/strong&gt; that makes sense to that individual?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular I'm thinking of Sigmund Freud and his work on the interpretation of dreams. It seems to me that he took what he knew at the time and arranged it in a hypothesis, selectively including or excluding facts to the point where he deemed just about everything in dreams, from hats to stairs to buildings and mountains in dreams as referring to sexual content.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that Freud himself, in his book mentions that before him people were evaluating dreams as various influences of spirits or divines. A modern researcher might interpret dreams as a product of interaction of brain regions and neurotransmitter systems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a cognitive bias or a general way in which a certain kind of brain (rational temperament) works?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-12-17T17:51:30.770" Title="What is the name of a cognitive bias by which existing facts are tailored to fit a personal hypothesis?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8615" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-17T15:43:55.070" Score="7" ViewCount="456" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed that I feel much more mentally sharp after doing an hour of moderate exercise in the morning. On the contrary, when I meditate, I feel no such difference in my mental alertness. Isn't meditation supposed to improve working memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7094" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-02-17T01:28:05.563" LastActivityDate="2015-03-19T02:02:02.207" Title="Does meditation improve working memory more than exercise?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8616" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8614" CreationDate="2014-11-17T17:30:09.627" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;I think you are referring to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (from wikipedia)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias, also called myside bias, is the tendency &lt;strong&gt;to search&#xA;  for, interpret, or prioritize information in a way that confirms one's&#xA;  beliefs or hypotheses&lt;/strong&gt;. It is a type of cognitive bias and a&#xA;  systematic error of inductive reasoning. People display this bias when&#xA;  they gather or remember information selectively, or when they&#xA;  interpret it in a biased way. &lt;strong&gt;The effect is stronger for emotionally&#xA;  charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs&lt;/strong&gt;. People also tend to&#xA;  interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-11-17T17:30:09.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8618" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8619" CreationDate="2014-11-18T00:01:10.857" Score="3" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;People often identify themselves are visual, audio or kinesthetic learners. This at first sounds plausible, but when I reflect on myself, I find that I am unable to define exactly what it means to be either type of learner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone provide some scientific article discussing actual scientific evidence for different learning styles and perhaps some example to exactly what different learning styles means? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6730" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-11-18T00:19:18.763" LastActivityDate="2014-11-18T00:19:18.763" Title="Is there any scientific basis to different learning styles?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8619" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8618" CreationDate="2014-11-18T00:19:02.057" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In response to a related question about learning styles, I provided &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/962/52&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that answer, I quote Pashler et al (2009) which is generally critical of the learning styles literature.&#xA;I quote Pashler et al where they state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our review of the literature disclosed ample evidence that children&#xA;  and &lt;strong&gt;adults will, if asked, express preferences about how they prefer&#xA;  information to be presented to them&lt;/strong&gt;. There is also plentiful evidence&#xA;  arguing that people differ in the degree to which they have some&#xA;  fairly specific aptitudes for different kinds of thinking and for&#xA;  processing different types of information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However they find minimal experimental evidence to indicate that students assigned to educational conditions that are adjusted to their stated learning style preferences do any better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., Bjork, R. (2009). Learning Styles&#xA;Concepts and Evidence. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9&lt;/em&gt;, 105. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psi.sagepub.com/content/9/3/105.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ARTICLE&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2014-11-18T00:19:02.057" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8620" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7842" CreationDate="2014-11-18T00:32:48.253" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is the opposite of Agreeableness, part of the 5-factor model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4429" LastActivityDate="2014-11-18T00:32:48.253" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8621" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7645" CreationDate="2014-11-18T00:36:26.227" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I personally, but explicitly do not support the teachings of Freud, but this sounds like what Freud would call &quot;Intellectualization.&quot;  This is supposedly a defense mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4429" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-21T06:44:23.063" LastActivityDate="2017-06-21T06:44:23.063" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8622" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6028" CreationDate="2014-11-18T00:40:01.460" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe that the most commonly accepted personality model in psych is the 5-factor model.  I would argue that Conscientiousness and Agreeableness are pro-social, in the sense that Agreeableness captures many of the values you've listed, while Conscientiousness captures many other pro-social values, such as willingness to work hard and desire for achievement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4429" LastActivityDate="2014-11-18T00:40:01.460" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8623" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8579" CreationDate="2014-11-18T00:47:40.800" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is called the observer effect or the Hawthorne effect.  Also, I don't really know what this is, but I recently stumbled across the term &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactivity_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reactivity&lt;/a&gt;, which seems to be the same sort of thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4429" LastActivityDate="2014-11-18T00:47:40.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8624" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3586" CreationDate="2014-11-18T01:07:23.497" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I never knew the name for this before and used to just call it &quot;awareness bias&quot;; however, upon reading your question, I did a little bit of digging on Wikipedia and found out about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mere exposure effect&lt;/a&gt;, also known as the &quot;familiarity principle&quot; in social psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My other source was &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this page&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4429" LastActivityDate="2014-11-18T01:07:23.497" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8625" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-18T02:19:08.973" Score="9" ViewCount="423" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763412000899&quot;&gt;Modern science of sleep is starting to lean towards a viewpoint that dopamine has an important function in dreaming&lt;/a&gt;, and that dopaminergic pathways - mesolimbic and mesocortical are activated during dreaming. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's what the list of functions that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine#In_the_brain&quot;&gt;dopamine&lt;/a&gt; is responsible for in the human brain: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Inside the brain, dopamine plays important roles in motor control,&#xA;  motivation, arousal, cognition, and reward, as well as a number of&#xA;  basic lower-level functions including lactation, sexual gratification,&#xA;  and nausea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this in mind, I'm posing the following question: &lt;strong&gt;Can random activation of dopaminergic system during dreaming cause dreams of stimuli which activated dopaminergic system during waking state?&lt;/strong&gt; In other words, if perceiving sexual stimuli triggers dopaminergic system activation, can similar activation during dreaming cause recollection of the sexual stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To simplify: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Seeing erotic image -&gt; causes dopaminergic system activation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Activation of dopaminergic system -&gt; can it cause recall of erotic image or some other experience from the list above?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any research into what happens when a person's dopaminergic system (mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways of Ventral Tegmental Area) is artificially stimulated (like during brain surgery) - does this cause recall of experiences, desires or cravings or other things people &quot;want&quot;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-09-20T15:36:49.753" LastActivityDate="2020-09-20T15:36:49.753" Title="If stimulus triggers dopamine release, can dopamine release trigger memory recall of stimulus?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8626" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-18T02:43:36.887" Score="10" ViewCount="10092" Body="&lt;p&gt;After reading the book Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman, I'm having a difficult time comparing emotional intelligence (EQ) with Intelligence Quotient (IQ).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When talking about someone's IQ we use adjectives as: intelligent, genius, fool, stupid, brilliant, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What adjectives can we use to describe the competences of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;being able to recognize and name one's emotions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;being able to recognize and name other people's emotions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;being able to understand the root cause of certain emotions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;being able to keep calm in the middle of strong emotions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I'm not really sure if this question belongs to Cognitive Science Stack Exchange, if not please point me in the right direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7097" LastActivityDate="2020-11-21T00:08:20.797" Title="What adjectives can be used to describe emotional intelligence competences?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8627" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8642" CreationDate="2014-11-18T16:10:25.810" Score="11" ViewCount="254" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering whether increasing the volume would result in (a) a neuron that was already firing to now increase its spike rate, (b) a different group of neurons to add their activity to the population total, (c) a different group of neurons, coding for the new volume, to become active while the first group of neurons silences, or (d) some combination of the above. In particular, I am curious about the subcortical portion of the auditory pathway. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-24T11:07:38.950" LastActivityDate="2016-06-21T12:54:19.917" Title="How is tone volume encoded?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8629" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16186" CreationDate="2014-11-18T22:27:08.263" Score="5" ViewCount="416" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suppose I'm thinking specifically about head injuries, though this question applies to any injury that causes unconsciousness for, say, a few minutes. If you would revive so soon, why would you fall unconscious in the first place? What exactly is happening physiologically during brief unconsciousness? Is it a sort of healing process? Once you're unconscious in cases like this, what causes revival? Also, is such unconsciousness on the same spectrum as coma, physiologically, or do they have different causes and/or mechanisms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4705" LastActivityDate="2016-11-08T18:58:41.160" Title="Why does injury cause brief unconsciousness?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8630" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8601" CreationDate="2014-11-19T01:54:39.713" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a long time now I wanted to write a book on the subject of states of mind. Here are my findings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People are normally prone to experience different states of mind throughout the day. From love to anxiety to anger to creativity. Each one distinctly colors Cognition and affects the outlook on past, present and future. For a certain time only. The state of mind affects the kind of action people are likely to take.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, romantic love is a state of motivation towards a specific individual. It is characterized by perceiving over-idealized image of a that person, desire to talk and be close to that person. Fantasies and thinking of that person. In case of love, there is clear, irrational thinking pattern of &quot;putting that special person on the pedestal&quot;. The state of love would affect the lovers outlook on marriage and children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each state has a certain onset time and duration. In your question you mentioned avoiding reminiscences, as they are likely to pull the person into some of the more negative states of mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Same kind of definitions can be obtained for other cognitive states of mind that can &quot;pull wool over ones eyes&quot;- anxiety, fear, creativity, happiness, etc. &lt;strong&gt;The little thing that can be done is remembering what different states feel like, what kind of actions they prompt and how they affect the outlook on the past, present and future.&lt;/strong&gt; This removes the fear of unknown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most important thing to remember is that each state is temporary, but yet it feels so seamless, that it is common to think this is how things would be forever. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course persistent cognitive disorders like schizophrenia can produce much more intense and bizzare states than an ordinary person would experience, but the mechanism of onset-experience-change should still be the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2014-11-19T02:01:30.037" LastActivityDate="2014-11-19T02:01:30.037" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8631" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8524" CreationDate="2014-11-19T08:07:10.557" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was a special issue of the journal Perception and Psychophysics in 2001, titled &lt;strong&gt;Psychometric Functions and Adaptive Methods&lt;/strong&gt;. It contains several papers relevant to your question. Klein's paper [1] references all the others and reviews what each is about. It should serve as a good starting point. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An excerpt from Klein's summary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol start=&quot;6&quot;&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The simple up–down (Brownian) staircase with threshold estimated by&#xA;     averaging levels was found to have nearly optimal efficiency in agreement&#xA;     with Green (1990)&lt;/strong&gt;. It is better to average all levels (after about four&#xA;     reversals of initial trials are thrown out) rather than average an even&#xA;     number of reversals.Both of these findings were surprising. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;As long as the starting point is not too distant from threshold, Brownian &#xA;     staircases with their moderate inertia have advantages over the more prestigious &#xA;     adaptive likelihood methods&lt;/strong&gt;. At the beginning of a run, likelihood methods may have &#xA;     too little inertia and can jump to low stimulus strengths before the observer is &#xA;     fully familiar with the test target. At the end of the run, likelihood methods &#xA;     may have too much inertia and resist changing levels even though a non stationary &#xA;     threshold has shifted. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Klein, S. A. (2001). Measuring, estimating, and understanding the psychometric function: a commentary. Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics, 63(8), 1421–55. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11800466&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11800466&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="38" LastActivityDate="2014-11-19T08:07:10.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8633" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9872" CreationDate="2014-11-19T15:02:50.067" Score="6" ViewCount="189" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies on the possibility of visually recognizing someone's personality?&#xA;When I say &quot;visually recognizing&quot; I mean things like clothes, accessories, body attitude, visible behavior, vehicles driven etc.&#xA;When I say personality I mean things like Big 5 traits, personal motivations (money, love, attention, etc) and life goals (die rich, have a happy family, have high career, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, I realized that big seller personalities (loves money, loves attention, will lie for any sale, loves to manipulate) would wear (or want) a gold watch. So when you see someone wearing a gold watch there is a high chance the person is a big seller-personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I would claim that everyone spends the most money, the most time and the most attention on what is most important to them. But what is the most important owned properties for different personalities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T13:49:07.710" LastActivityDate="2015-04-27T11:05:52.910" Title="Studies on visually recognizable personality traits?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8634" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10676" CreationDate="2014-11-19T15:10:31.763" Score="12" ViewCount="820" Body="&lt;p&gt;We all know that extroverts are in general more talkative than introverts in oral form. But how about written communication?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After having talked with lots of people on the internet and met several of them, I have the impression that the most talkative online are the most introverted offline and vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Half a year after posting this question I've got a personal confirmation from one extrovert I talked to: He told me doesn't like to write much, because he prefers the more 'personal' communication from spoken communication.&#xA;Another extrovert told me he prefers speaking on the phone rather than writing messages. &#xA;Introverts, on the other hand, often dislike phones and prefer messages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So there does indeed seem to be something in my theory, but I need more objective, statistical datas on it.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-04-27T10:50:18.927" LastActivityDate="2015-08-05T21:33:36.253" Title="Are introverts more talkative in written form than extroverts?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;introversion&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8635" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10292" CreationDate="2014-11-19T15:16:50.253" Score="4" ViewCount="201" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are any kinds of behavior proved to correlate with testosterone levels?&#xA;Any studies done on this? Any indications of such correlations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-21T09:08:49.883" LastActivityDate="2015-07-28T05:42:36.800" Title="Are any kinds of behavior proved to correlate with testosterone levels?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;testosterone&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8636" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8709" CreationDate="2014-11-19T15:24:23.973" Score="6" ViewCount="318" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm sure many of us have this experience: &#xA;When I'm proofreading my own writing I will pass over it multiple times, but miss mistakes since I read what I intended to write (what's &quot;in my head&quot;) and not what is actually on the page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this? I tried searching google, but had no luck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7109" LastActivityDate="2016-10-21T03:50:45.087" Title="Is there a name for reading things how you meant to write them?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8637" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-19T16:43:20.760" Score="1" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Would a person exhibiting some of these symptoms be a candidate for Auditory Processing Delay, or does it possibly suggest some other sort of diagnosis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some basic symptoms/examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A seeming inability to follow directions.  When zipping a suitcase the other day, subject was instructed to, &quot;Open the top compartment and close the side.&quot;  Subject opened both up.  When asked, &quot;Can you repeat what I just said to you?&quot;  He paused, correctly repeated the instructions and understood his error.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;An almost comic inability to remember song lyrics or tunes.  He is completely tone deaf and can't even recall simple children's songs, even after excessive amounts of repetition.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;While carrying some boxes last week, subject was about to crash into some things.  Someone shouted, &quot;Watch out!&quot; and he kept walking, knocking over some things.  When questioned after, he said, &quot;I didn't know what that meant!&quot;  &quot;Stop?&quot; was suggested, &quot;Do anything but continue doing what you're doing?&quot;  &quot;I guess,&quot; he replied, &quot;I didn't think of that.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Frequent excuses of &quot;I forgot&quot; when given a list of instructions/tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7110" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-22T19:10:01.250" LastActivityDate="2017-09-22T19:10:01.250" Title="Is this Auditory Processing Delay?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8638" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8635" CreationDate="2014-11-19T16:55:11.020" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an illness, not a behavior, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://theconversation.com/scientists-unpack-testosterones-role-in-schizophrenia-13729&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt; is known to be correlated with high testosterone levels.  Of course, as the article I linked to itself states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“However, as with most endocrine and mental illnesses, schizophrenia is multifaceted (genetic, environmental etc.)...”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this is just one example, but I always thought the schizophrenia-testosterone link was interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4429" LastActivityDate="2014-11-19T16:55:11.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8639" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5829" CreationDate="2014-11-19T19:15:28.663" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read that a tendency to &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/17/5/332.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;jump to conclusions&lt;/a&gt;&quot; has an impact on certain psychological afflictions, such as having delusions.  As you may know, the definition of a delusion is as follows (this is just from Google dictionary):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;an idiosyncratic belief or impression that is firmly maintained despite being contradicted by what is generally accepted as reality or rational argument, typically a symptom of mental disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am assuming that that sort of uncritical thinking is at least part of what you meant by &quot;mental rigidity.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4429" LastActivityDate="2014-11-19T19:15:28.663" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8640" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-19T23:23:49.390" Score="4" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;What physiological changes are seen in the brain when a person is experiencing frustration? What effects do these changes have on learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Optional background:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I'm trying to figure out an exploration schedule (exploration = increasing the noise in the action selection neural population) for &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2014/papers/221/paper221.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hierarchical Reinforcement Learning&lt;/a&gt; and I'm wondering if there's an easy way to base it biologically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-11-20T00:44:53.817" LastActivityDate="2014-11-20T00:44:53.817" Title="Physiological mapping of frustration" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8641" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-20T00:24:49.760" Score="2" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work on a rather specific subject, namely developement and inventing of writing systems (simply - alphabets). For some years it was just a hobby and creative exercise, but with time this hobby developed in a serious work of mine, with a series of very interesting discoveries which could lead in serious improvement of reading performance. First thing which motivated my work was the clear understanding of the fact that the Latin alphabet (Roman 'minuscule') is the most readable system of all existing in the world. So at least one has something to start with. At the same time it is clear that the one and the only objective criteria for the developement is the readability of the system, and that all imposes the task very clearly - the more readable the system is, the better the system is, so we have a strictly definite and objective scale of &quot;goodness&quot; of the system. &#xA;On the other hand this task is (IMHO) of a great social and knowledge importance. BUT, strangely enough this subject is so little examined and almost does not develop, if at all. So it seems like I am pioneering this knowledge area, since I have never found any serios works or even examination attempts on the subject, well aside one hobbyist site &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.omniglot.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.omniglot.com&lt;/a&gt;, however I find most of the works presented there childish and none of them are even close to the Latin regarding readability.&#xA;So it turns out that my last succesful &quot;workmates&quot; were medieval masters (e.g. Claude Garamond), whom is the development of modern Latin minuscule is ascribed, and who stay &quot;unbeaten&quot; almost 500 years! Very interesting topic, but since its a Q&amp;amp;A forum I'll try to put clear questions, which are worrying me much:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;From your point of view, how big is the importance of text information in our world by comparison to other media, like audio/visual media, and how the priorities of those types of media will rearrange in the future?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What do you think about the fact that there are absolutely no success or significant effort to develop this important tool (writing system) or at least attempt to define guidelines for its developement?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7114" LastActivityDate="2014-11-20T00:24:49.760" Title="Writing system, its future and social importance" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-04-21T06:35:04.007" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8642" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8627" CreationDate="2014-11-20T03:18:26.597" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are quite a few stations between cochlea and the brain and I will focus on the auditory nerve. That said, your theories (a) and (b) are both correct, and therefore (d) applies as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;(a)&lt;/strong&gt; Neurons in the auditory nerve increase their firing rate when sound level is increased (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/43/15424.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Heil et al, 2011&lt;/a&gt;). This can be regarded as the primary mechanism for encoding sound level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;(b)&lt;/strong&gt; Increased sound levels are accompanied by a larger area in the cochlea being activated due to the low-frequency tail (&lt;a href=&quot;http://research.meei.harvard.edu/eplhistory/Kiang_papers_CD_contents/1974_Kiang_Moxon.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kiang &amp;amp; Moxon, 1974&lt;/a&gt;). Hence, more neurons start firing at higher sound levels when the tone frequency is the same. Although this may add in the perceived sound level, it is likely of less importance than (a), as it is basically a reflection of the mechanical properties of the basilar membrane in the cochlea and primarily reduces frequency resolution. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;(c)&lt;/strong&gt; There are no neurons ever identified that are dedicated to sound level encoding. Instead, auditory nerve fibers encode sound frequency (according to the place-frequency map of the cochlea) and they encode sound intensity via their firing rate.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;(d)&lt;/strong&gt; Hence, since both (a) and (b) are correct, your hypothesis (d) holds, as it is a combination of the above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One can safely assume these intensity-coding mechanisms hold up in the responses of neurons in the next station - the cochlear nucleus. However, the higher up you go in the auditory system, the less likely a 1:1 relationship as found in the far periphery applies.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/43/15424.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Heil et al., &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; 2011; &lt;strong&gt;31&lt;/strong&gt;(43): 15424-37&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; - &lt;a href=&quot;http://research.meei.harvard.edu/eplhistory/Kiang_papers_CD_contents/1974_Kiang_Moxon.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kiang &amp;amp; Moxon, &lt;em&gt;JASA&lt;/em&gt; 1954; &lt;strong&gt;55&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 620-30&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-21T12:54:19.917" LastActivityDate="2016-06-21T12:54:19.917" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8643" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3958" CreationDate="2014-11-20T06:44:03.963" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Conditioning is considered an example (type) of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;association&lt;/a&gt; by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_ideas&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;associationism&lt;/a&gt;, a school of philosophy in psychology that suggests that all mental processes may be based on similar or proximal mental states.  Usually this idea is too broad and vague to be very practical to apply, but it has spawned a number of useful fields of study, including &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;connectionism&lt;/a&gt;, a general strategy used in neural networks and learning modelling, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;schemata&lt;/a&gt;, used in memory research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using connectionist models, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;artificial neural networks&lt;/a&gt; have demonstrated learning in a variety of subject areas, including operant and classical conditioning (examples of association), and handwriting recognition and sign reading (examples of symbols).  This suggests that the process involved may be essentially the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the major challenges to basic associationism has been that in practice, associations do not seem to obey any straightforward rules.  For example, children learn to associate words like &quot;food&quot; with their meaning very quickly with few (sometimes no) repetitions, while branding requires many more repetitions, and other associations (there is nothing intrinsically bad about this song) may never be learned.  For this reason, more rigorous theories, such as conditioning, are preferred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-11-11T02:11:06.917" LastActivityDate="2016-11-11T02:11:06.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8644" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8627" CreationDate="2014-11-20T11:31:47.850" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Siebert (1968) modelled level discrimination based on the information in the firing rate of auditory nerve fibers. The model does a reasonable job over a narrow range of conditions, but misses a large number of effects. Since Siebert's original effort, a number of more advance models have been developed. A more recent model by &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10162-002-1090-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Colburn et. al (2003)&lt;/a&gt; highlights just how complicated sound level encoding is at the level of the auditory nerve:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is shown that the rate information provided by individual AN fibers is more constrained by increases in variance with increases in rate than by saturation. As noted in previous studies, there is sufficient average-rate information within a narrow-CF region to account for robust behavioral performance over a wide dynamic range; however, there is no model based on a simple limitation or use of AN information consistent with parametric variations in performance. This issue is explored in the current study through analysis of performance based on different aspects of AN patterns. For example, we show that performance predicted from use of all rate information degrades significantly as level increases above low–medium levels, inconsistent with Weber’s Law. At low frequencies, synchrony information extends the range over which behavioral performance can be explained by 10–15 dB, but only at low levels. In contrast to rate and synchrony, nonlinear-phase cues are shown to provide robust information at medium and high levels in near-CF fibers for low-frequency stimuli. The level dependence of the discharge rate and phase properties of AN fibers are influenced by the compressive nonlinearity of the inner ear. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Siebert, W. M. (1968). Stimulus transformations in the peripheral auditory system. Recognizing patterns, 104-133.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-11-20T11:31:47.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8645" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8637" CreationDate="2014-11-20T11:43:27.227" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research into auditory processing deficits is a minefield and there is no real consensus as to what is and is not a deficit in auditory processing. Further, and possibly more relevant for individuals with, or dealing with, a processing disorder, is how to treat/manage the disorder. Again, unfortunately, there is no real consensus on the issue. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ihr.mrc.ac.uk/downloads/research/apd/MAF_Article.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ferguson (2009)&lt;/a&gt; presents a relatively non-technical overview of the issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ferguson MA (2009) Diagnosing Auditory Processing Disorders. ENT News, January/February.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-11-20T11:43:27.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8646" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-20T12:06:20.903" Score="5" ViewCount="1265" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a computer science undergraduate I was wondering if there are any special data structures used by the brain to save data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am especially interested in the hash tables data structure. If data are saved in this type of data structure then you could search, insert and delete them in a short time no matter the size of the data (or technically speaking in O(1)).    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if the brain works in the same way or not?  And if it does, how does it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7116" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-06-16T17:52:40.483" LastActivityDate="2018-06-16T17:52:40.483" Title="What is the data structure used by the brain to store data?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8646" CreationDate="2014-11-20T12:24:56.597" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain structure for memory, association, learning and thinking works more like a network of weighted, linked nodes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;in machine learning and related fields, artificial neural networks (ANNs) are computational models inspired by an animal's central nervous systems (in particular the brain)&#xA;  [...]&#xA;  Artificial neural networks are generally presented as systems of interconnected &quot;neurons&quot; which can compute values from inputs, and are capable of machine learning as well as pattern recognition thanks to their adaptive nature.&#xA;  [...]&#xA;  For example, a neural network for handwriting recognition is defined by a set of input neurons which may be activated by the pixels of an input image. After being weighted and transformed by a function (determined by the network's designer), the activations of these neurons are then passed on to other neurons. This process is repeated until finally, an output neuron is activated. This determines which character was read.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-11-20T12:24:56.597" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8648" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-20T13:57:36.080" Score="1" ViewCount="399" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a Java developer completely naive of brain waves and such. Could anyone tell me how to compare them? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, how can I compare: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6CDRd.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and this: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/u9hpL.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What fields of study should I focus on? I understand there are some Pattern Recognition involved. Other than that, what else? &#xA;Related Questions: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6554/is-eeg-brain-computer-interface-reliable&quot;&gt;Is EEG brain-computer interface reliable?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8628/brain-computer-interface?rq=1&quot;&gt;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8628/brain-computer-interface?rq=1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7102" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T19:16:34.063" Title="How to compare brain waves?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8649" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8646" CreationDate="2014-11-20T17:25:12.837" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Memory in the brain isn't super-well understood, so going to the level of &quot;data-structures&quot; isn't really possible with purely biological models. Not that a purely biolgocial description would be very useful anyways. When people ask how the brain works, they typically don't want to be told &quot;molecule A interacts with molecule B, which triggers molecule C&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since you're coming from computer science, I am going to assume that you're probably more interested in models or the &quot;data-structures&quot; (how to structure data, like a list or a tree) we assign to a brain. One way to build biologically plausible brain models is with the Neurological Engineering Framework (NEF) and there's been a couple data structures based on this that have been used. You can see more detail on this in my other answer &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8438/how-is-memory-accounted-for-in-the-nef&quot;&gt;How is memory accounted for in the NEF?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it's important to note that the NEF is a framework, thus much work is being done on implementing more complex data structures than the ones mentioned in that question. In particular, Aaron Voekler has implemented a &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/voelker.2014a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dynamic hetero-associative&lt;/a&gt; memory using the framework, which functions somewhat in the same manner as a hash table.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this answer gives you a good starting point for further investigation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-11-25T15:12:19.357" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T15:12:19.357" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8650" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8654" CreationDate="2014-11-20T20:28:11.997" Score="6" ViewCount="485" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is true that blood flows to wherever the brain is most activated and does fMRI measure the blood flow inside of the brain through oxygen content?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6730" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-11-21T06:27:31.207" LastActivityDate="2014-11-21T06:27:31.207" Title="What does fMRI measure exactly" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8651" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8648" CreationDate="2014-11-20T20:44:01.387" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The field of study you should focus on is the one for which you have already identified in your paragraph above which is EEG based &amp;quot;brain-computer interface&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EEG signals are compared by their &amp;quot;features&amp;quot;. Each of the signal you have provided above have different features. These features can be mean, variance, frequency, kurtosis, skewness of each of the signals (statistical parameters which also includes fractal dimension, Hjorth parameters, common spatial pattern, fano factor... ...) or power as computed through frequency space algorithms such as fast fourier transform.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More sophisticated techniques such as blind source separation, empirical mode decomposition and wavelet coherence (a phase domain approach) should yield additional insights but these are more reserved for research purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most common algorithm for post processing is the wavelet transform which plots the energy as a function of both time and frequency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During a seizure, the wavelet transform will display a clear high energy periodic signal at the lower frequency. While highly efficient in pin pointing exactly where and how the seizure is happening, the wavelet transform is highly advanced (challenging to implement) and runs at O(n^2) for a naive implementation and O(nlogn) for a fast implementation. It is quite computationally expensive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZPt6p.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you need to implement is a real time seizure detection based on EEG features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(offline)&#xA;This is done first by grabbing the EEG signal when he has a seizure using EEG headsets or through research, estimate what the characteristics of this type of seizures are. (this can be done even with a single electrode).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(real time)&#xA;Once this done, hook the patient with the EEG headset and compute the features of the seizure signal at every other other second worth of samples as they stream into a computing platform. The features are constantly compared to the threshold features. When all these features are have their respective threshold (A and B and C and D all meets threshold). Send alert that a seizure is happening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The threshold approach is a basic one, but because our brain continuously changing and EEG depends on many many external variables, what is commonly used in practice are the detection of seizure through artificial neural networks (ANN) - it will not only tell you when a seizure is happening but could in fact PREDICT when a seizure will occur! (*)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One challenge I can see with what you are attempting to do is that the patient will be constantly hooked up with a headset in order to perform real time seizure prediction. The distance between your USB and the headset will be a hard constraint. The headsets needs to be recharged frequently. Emotiv EPOC (one popular headset) contains 16 electrodes which can be quite burdensome when worn. Wet electrodes provides better data but requires delicate preparation which can take a long time. If worn constantly, I would pick a headset containing a few electrodes at key places like the frontal-polar lobe (since seizure is more easily picked up than other EEG patterns, we don't need many electrodes) and would choose one that is aesthetically pleasing (one from Neurosky or one of the recent headset from Emotiv i.e. insight) and has a long battery life time&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good luck&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(*) &lt;em&gt;Prediction of seizure onset in an in-vitro hippocampal slice model of epilepsy using Gaussian-based and wavelet-based artificial neural networks. - A. Chiu&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6730" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-11-21T04:27:54.743" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8652" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-20T22:26:31.687" Score="3" ViewCount="213" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short, I'm interested in cognitive, neuroscientific, biological and/or computational perspectives on what we vaguely refer to as meaning seeking. Of course, this is a large topic, but any information would be highly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Background&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humans tend to desire meaning in their lives. While it would be hard to agree on a precise definition of &lt;em&gt;meaning&lt;/em&gt;, it often refers to positioning oneself in a way that is compatible with one's beliefs, ambitions and values, allowing the individual to make sense of the world and of himself, and to pursue whatever (often transcendental) goals he considers worthy (i.e. meaningful). In simpler words, meaning could refer to making peace with the perceived reality of the world and with oneself. At first glance, it seems to me that a meaningful existence requires &lt;strong&gt;the absence of cognitive dissonances&lt;/strong&gt;, but I wonder what science would have to say about this, and if there is any empirical basis for claiming this. Or perhaps the questions is misformulated and such behavior should not be put into the domain of meaning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Possible explanations&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A simple evolutionary argument could be that meaning-seeking behavior originates from our impulse to belong (isolation means death), but how do we then explain hermits or dissidents or all other individuals who have effectively made themselves suffer/die in order to uphold meaning in their lives (i.e. dying for one's beliefs)? So the argument that meaning-seeking behavior is a purely evolutionary phenomenon that serves only to maximize one's potential for reproduction doesn't appear sufficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Questions&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can meaning seeking be thought of as an &lt;strong&gt;optimization problem of some&#xA;biological parameters&lt;/strong&gt; on an individual level, e.g. in terms of&#xA;energy required for various cellular processes, homeostatic gene&#xA;expression dynamics etc.? For example, depression (which can have an&#xA;existential origin) is damaging to health and has been linked to&#xA;epigenetic modifications (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v38/n1/full/npp201273a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sun et al. 2012&lt;/a&gt;), so having a mechanism that would seek&#xA;to minimize such damage would seem to be beneficial for an organism.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can we construct a more formal definition of meaning that would be&#xA;less anthropocentric? In other words, how far would we need to curb&#xA;the definition so that humans would no longer qualify as the only&#xA;meaning-seeking organisms? Or are we indeed the only species with the required neural capacity to express such behavior?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Could modern experimental methods such as EEG, fMRI, gene&#xA;expression profiling and epigenome sequencing be used to answer some of these questions at&#xA;least to a degree? E.g. would a comparison of individuals who claim&#xA;to live a meaningful life vs those who don't make any sense? Of&#xA;course, even if a some significant differences were observed, an&#xA;obvious next question would be what caused them, i.e. a mind-body-environment&#xA;problem ...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd be happy to know at least if there are some research groups or labs that try to tackle such questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5109" LastEditorUserId="5109" LastEditDate="2014-11-25T21:25:22.000" LastActivityDate="2015-02-27T19:04:21.120" Title="Is meaning-seeking behavior a biological optimization problem?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8653" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8775" CreationDate="2014-11-21T02:04:41.173" Score="3" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've encountered the following phenomenon : within a single night of starting a dream journal again, my dreams became more numerous, recall improved and I'm waking up after each sleep cycle except the 1st one with more recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, I scribble down my dreams on paper immediately upon awakening from a dream. This happens 5-6 times a night.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me ask- does activating dream recall mechanism in the middle of the night alter brain chemistry or dream process, facilitating more recall?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-12-07T15:10:17.550" Title="Does dream recall alter the dreaming process?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8654" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8650" CreationDate="2014-11-21T02:29:37.070" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a slight modification of your statement: blood flow &lt;em&gt;increases&lt;/em&gt; wherever activity in the brain &lt;em&gt;increases&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The type of fMRI that uses this principle is blood-oxygenation-level-dependent fMRI or  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/milestones/milespin/full/milespin19.html&quot;&gt;BOLD fMRI&lt;/a&gt;. MRI in general detects signals by picking up proton signals from water molecules. This proton signal is basically caused by magnetizing the protons causing their spin to change. A subsequent powerful radiowave disrupts this spin and the following relaxation phase of the protons to the original state can be detected by MRI. Water, and hence protons are everywhere in the body, including the brain and the blood. Deoxygenated hemoglobin (hemoglobin without oxygen) in blood changes the proton signal in its immediate surroundings due to the magnetic properties of deoxyhemoglobin. This is caused by the fact that deoxygenated hemoglobin is paramagnetic and decreases the signal that protons release. In fact, it has been regarded as noise in structural MRI scans. Oxygenated hemoglobin does not have this property. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://radiopaedia.org/articles/bold-imaging&quot;&gt;Radiopaedia&lt;/a&gt; has a nice explanation as to exactly how the BOLD signal is used in BOLD fMRI, and I quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When a specific region of the cortex increases its activity in response to a task, the extraction fraction of oxygen from the local capillaries leads to an initial drop in oxygenated haemoglobin [...]. Following a lag of 2-6 seconds, cerebral blood flow (CBF) increases, delivering a surplus of oxygenated haemoglobin, washing away deoxyhemoglobin. It is this large rebound in local tissue oxygenation which is imaged. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to sum up: brain activity increases the BOLD signal by picking up oxygen-changes after an increased blood flow to that specific part of the brain. So your statement that fMRI measures blood flow is technically incorrect. Doppler techniques can be used to measure the actual flow of blood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-11-21T04:08:14.653" LastActivityDate="2014-11-21T04:08:14.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8656" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-11-21T11:21:22.967" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Physical or psychological attraction, causing an individual to emotionally value and seek an object&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T13:51:48.837" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T13:51:48.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8657" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-11-21T11:21:22.967" Score="0" Body="Physical or psychological attraction, causing an individual to emotionally value and seek an object" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-11-24T09:46:37.797" LastActivityDate="2014-11-24T09:46:37.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8658" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8602" CreationDate="2014-11-21T11:47:25.047" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;strong&gt;are there other personality traits that have been identified in animals?&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are quite a bit of hits on Google about this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a foundation dedicated to research on animal personalities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Animal Personality Institute (API), founded in 2004, is an interdisciplinary group of researcher dedicated to advancing the scientific understanding of personality and temperament in non-human animals. &#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://animalpersonalityinstitute.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://animalpersonalityinstitute.net/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a summary of a study on some personality traits among ducks:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Weissing and his colleagues ran various model simulations of scenarios that included a resource as well as responsive and unresponsive animals. He said the new model shows, for example, when it's optimal for animals to react to a change in food and when it's not. It turns out that competing personalities help to keep a healthy balance in a group. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research on personality among fish:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Working with Dr Bart Adriaenssens at the University of New South Wales, Dr Biro observed the behavior of adult male mosquitofish over 132 days. They found that the behavior of some individuals was consistently more predictable in a given context than others. Mosquitofish were used for the study because they are widespread and easily sampled from ponds in and around cities.&#xA;  &quot;We observed that individuals differed in their average levels of activity, but also differed in variability about their average activity,&quot; Dr Biro explained. &quot;Some individuals chose to be active, others chose to be sedentary, some were consistent in their chosen level of activity, others not. But, we found no association between activity levels and predictability.&#xA;  &quot;What this tells us is that the fish differed in how unpredictable they were, and that this unpredictability is a consistent attribute over time.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131031092311.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131031092311.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a research document on animal personalities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The past decade has seen a very rapid growth in research on animal&#xA;  personality. The growth is taking place across a wide variety of fields&#xA;  ranging from &lt;strong&gt;applied ethology, beha&#xA;  vioral ecology, and zoo management&#xA;  to biology, primatology, and comparative psychology&lt;/strong&gt;. Having established&#xA;  that &lt;strong&gt;personality exists in animals and can be measured&lt;/strong&gt;, researchers have&#xA;  begun to exploit numerous benefits of animal research, such as the&#xA;  high degree of experimental control, the ability to measure a range of&#xA;  physiological parameters, the opportunities for naturalistic observation,&#xA;  and animals’ accelerated life span. &#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/HomePage/Group/AnimPersInst/Animal%20Personality%20PDFs/G/Gosling%202008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/HomePage/Group/AnimPersInst/Animal%20Personality%20PDFs/G/Gosling%202008.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia also has an article on the topic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Personality is the consistent patterns in cognitive and behavioral traits, such as affect, cognition, and behavior.[1] These traits are measurable, are found in a broad array of species, and are commonly transferable among species (Gosling, 2008).&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_in_animals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_in_animals&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2014-11-22T00:54:46.277" LastActivityDate="2014-11-22T00:54:46.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8659" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8592" CreationDate="2014-11-21T12:30:17.697" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's all about what people think are your motives for what you do, how hard people think you work for your money, and how nice people think you are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If people think you earn money just because you love money, you can easily come off as cold and less pro-social. That makes people skeptical of you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A bias makes people tend to think that whatever work they don't see you do, you never did (personal experience). This makes people value you less and admire you less if they can't actually see your contributions to society. Most office-work is prone to this bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People tend to see social people as more nice than less social people, and like them more. This is likely due to the advantage our race gains from social cooperation, which we would not have survived without. We prefer people who we think we can cooperate with and get well along with. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Talking about getting well along, we also prefer people with whom we share any interest, hobby, attitude, history etc because it increases the chance we get well along with them. Birds of a feather flock together.&#xA;This means that 1) We prefer people we know are social and 2) we prefer people who share some of our interests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Business people will go well along with their kind. They might not be very fond of athletes.&#xA;Athletes go well along with their kind. They might not be very fond of business people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fact is, that which of these &quot;professions&quot; is more popular depends entirely on who you ask and the circumstances.&#xA;So I take it you wonder why the &lt;em&gt;general&lt;/em&gt; attitude is that business people are less popular than athletes. Well, that's because most people feel they have more in common with athletes (who share their passion for sports) than business people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-11-21T12:30:17.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8660" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8597" CreationDate="2014-11-21T12:39:23.137" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It doesn't lose its edge; it loses the strength of related associations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognition and skills is very much about memory, and it's all about the neural networks that make up our mental associations.&#xA;It might feel like you haven't forgotten anything from the past, but in reality you have forgotten more than you know. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are not aware that you have forgotten something until something reminds you of something you can't quite remember exactly. &#xA;Then you might think &quot;I know I used to know this, I know it's somewhere in my head&quot;, or you're more like &quot;How did I use to do that?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our neural networks (that is, our associations, our memory) will weaken over time if not used. Whenever we think of something, that association will strengthen. The more we think about something, the stronger the association will get, and that is why we can remember by repeating something again and again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So when you used to study, your associations got strong because you thought about things often. Then you stopped thinking about most of it, and the association(the memory) weakened a lot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you have to train your memory back to where it used to be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-11-24T22:20:42.827" LastActivityDate="2014-11-24T22:20:42.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8661" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9723" CreationDate="2014-11-21T14:17:27.927" Score="6" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am using nilearn and nipy package for python processing FMRI data. When computing mask, it says: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Compute and write the mask of an image based on the grey level This is based on an heuristic proposed by T.Nichols: find the least dense point of the histogram, between fractions m and M of the total image histogram.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is based on an heuristic proposed by T.Nichols: find the least dense point of the histogram, between fractions lower_cutoff and upper_cutoff of the total image histogram.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In both masking functions of nilearn and nipy. Who is T.Nichols? I wasn't able to google him/her out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;here are the links to the functions: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://nipy.org/nipy/stable/api/generated/nipy.labs.mask.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://nipy.org/nipy/stable/api/generated/nipy.labs.mask.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://nilearn.github.io/building_blocks/generated/nilearn.masking.compute_epi_mask.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://nilearn.github.io/building_blocks/generated/nilearn.masking.compute_epi_mask.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7123" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-04-09T02:50:15.170" LastActivityDate="2015-04-11T08:36:10.943" Title="Reference request for creator of heuristic for processing fMRI data (T.Nichols)" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8662" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8582" CreationDate="2014-11-21T15:28:26.407" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;My sister and I are both introverts, and have been talking about this before.&#xA;We have agreed about the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When being social, we feel like we are obliged\expected to do\say certain things and avoid doing\saying others. We are supposed to ...&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;go where the others go.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;be nice and agree rather than say what we think&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;do the same activity as everyone else&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;do it at the same time as everyone else&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;listen to the same music&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;eat the same or at the same place&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc etc etc...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Our will to do\say what &lt;em&gt;we&lt;/em&gt; like\want is challenged whenever we are social. We feel restrained, and We feel that we are unable to relax because we are restrained from doing what we feel like doing. Sometimes being social feels like being at work with colleagues all day - it feels like it's more obligations than our will.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We happen to love some activities that happens to not be a good party activity. Like reading, programming, painting, etc. We need to choose either these activities or being social, and &lt;em&gt;we prefer to have some of both&lt;/em&gt;, but we are forced to choose.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When I was a kid I had this dilemma that I wanted to play computer games, but my friends didn't want to. So at my computer I missed my friends, and with my friends I missed my computer. See the problem?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Introverts are just not that interested in talking just for the sake of talking. In my case, I go into different modes: In social mode I will chitchat and spend all my attention to people. In private mode(most of the time) I really don't care to talk unless there's something specific I &lt;strong&gt;need&lt;/strong&gt; to talk about, and then I just space out of every discussion around me. I've never used to be interested in talk that has no clear purpose. It's like why talk if you don't have a point?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When we don't feel like being social this is often partly because our thoughts are focused on completely different things - not on the people around us. My experience (from me, my sister and friends) is that introverts are more interested in inanimate stuff and topics than extroverts are. This might be false, and it might not.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;While being social I am mostly unable to really think through anything. When I don't filter out what people are saying, all my thoughts are interrupted and I have a hard time thinking anything logic. I'm not comfortable with this, it makes me feel unsure of my decisions, and I hardly trust my own decisions in this situation.&#xA;When I later get back to my private sphere I will spend time thinking through everything again. Make up my mind again for anything I've been talking about, figure out my decisions again for anything I had to decide, and so on.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-11-21T15:28:26.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8664" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8694" CreationDate="2014-11-21T16:14:52.080" Score="4" ViewCount="282" Body="&lt;p&gt;Already in 9 years, I was identified as ADHD child. I was quite obviously weird.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can observe many known symptoms of ADHD even now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm unable to focus on stereotypic tasks which results in many failures in work, where I'm usually supposed to assemble electrical devices.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I often just stop listening what somebody is talking directly to me. This happens so often that I stopped pretending anything what's so ever. I just say &quot;Sorry, I wasn't listening. Could you repeat it?&quot;. Friends just repeat it, other people are usually so shocked that they repeat it too.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In school, I always used to draw stuff al over my notebooks instead of paying attention. But I think even totally normal people do this. &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7HDAf.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maybe just not as much.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now while this all happens, when I have an interesting programming project I can focus on it for hours. Yes, it's true that I often distract myself with various details instead of doing the main task, but generally I'm still concentrated on some intellectual task without losing train of thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So where does my problem disappear?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7124" LastActivityDate="2014-11-26T13:21:38.210" Title="If I have ADHD, how can I focus on programming task for hours?" Tags="&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2014-11-26T13:18:27.000" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8665" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-11-22T00:02:36.983" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/research/nef.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural Engineering Framework&lt;/a&gt; defines a methodology for constructing simulations of neural system. It is based on three principles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Representation: Ensembles (populations) of neurons represent signals&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Transformation: The connection weights between ensembles compute functions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dynamics: When connected recursively, neurons exhibit dynamics, such as attractors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The software that implements this mathematical framework is called Nengo. Nengo has been used to create Spaun, the world's largest functional brain model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Use this tag to ask about the theory behind the NEF or about questions about it's uses and applications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-11-24T09:48:07.300" LastActivityDate="2014-11-24T09:48:07.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8666" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-11-22T00:02:36.983" Score="0" Body="The Neural Engineering Framework is a framework mapping functions, dynamics and learning onto neurons, allowing for testing and creating of large-scale, biologically-plausible models." OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2014-11-22T04:40:58.557" LastActivityDate="2014-11-22T04:40:58.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8668" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-23T05:05:51.593" Score="12" ViewCount="7812" Body="&lt;p&gt;Everybody dreams, and I'm trying to understand if there is a cause and effect relationship between ability to dream and recall dreams and creativity as an adult. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would &lt;strong&gt;define the kind of creativity&lt;/strong&gt; I'm talking about as creating art, designing products, inventing and making original stuff. These people are at the upper end of a bell curve of creativity or are outside the curve completely (extraordinary creative genius). This is in contrast to ordinary people who would be somewhere towards the middle of the creativity bell curve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The kind of dreaming I'm talking about is long, clear or multi episode dreams lasting over 5 minutes&lt;/strong&gt; as opposed to fragments and vague impressions of activity. Let's say 2+ dreams per night.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do highly creative people dream more and recall more than average or analytical people?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does active interest in dreams as a child or teenager(like keeping a dream journal) influences creativity as an adult?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found some evidence to support that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incubation_%28psychology%29#The_Cases_For_and_Against_Dreams_Being_Useful_In_Problem-Solving&quot;&gt;dreams and creativity are related, particularly in visual fields, like graphic design&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Barrett also interviewed modern artists and scientists about their use&#xA;  of their dreams, documenting dramatic anecdotes including Nobel Prizes&#xA;  and MacArthur 'genius grants' whose ideas originated in dreams.[6] Her&#xA;  research concludes that while anything—math, musical composition,&#xA;  business dilemmas—may get solved during dreaming, the &lt;strong&gt;two areas dreams&#xA;  are especially likely to help&lt;/strong&gt; are 1) anything where vivid&#xA;  visualization contributes to the solution, whether in artistic design&#xA;  or invention of 3-D technological devices and 2) any problem where the&#xA;  solution lies in thinking outside the box—i.e. where the person is&#xA;  stuck because the conventional wisdom on how to approach the problem&#xA;  is wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.ucsc.edu/dreams/Library/domhoff_2000d.html&quot;&gt;example from an overview of the modern theory of dream content&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Second, dreams cannot be the guardians of sleep if there are people who can sleep even though they do not dream, and we now have reason to believe there are such people, including young children (Foulkes, 1999), leucotomized schizophrenics (Jus et al., 1973), neurology patients suffering from parietal lobe injuries (Solms, 1997), and &lt;strong&gt;perhaps normal adults with weak visuospatial skills (Butler &amp;amp; Watson, 1985)&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example comes from &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0452287812&quot;&gt;Nancy Andersen's book &quot;the Creative Brain&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, in which she suggests that highly creative people, like Issac Newton, Albert Einstein, Virgina Wolf, etc may be capable of thinking in a very different ways from ordinary people. She suggests this may be due to increased or different communication between their centers of the brain responsible for combining information and sensory input. It appears to me that dreaming is very related to this kind of information assimilation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.ucsc.edu/dreams/Library/domhoff_2001a.html&quot;&gt;Domhoff's neurocognitive theory of dreaming&lt;/a&gt;. Spatial construction is required for &quot;traditional&quot; creative venues, like painting, sculpture and architecture. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, the complete loss of dreaming in adults due to injuries&#xA;  to either inferior parietal lobe, when placed alongside the finding&#xA;  that &lt;strong&gt;increased dream reporting in young children correlates with&#xA;  visuospatial skills&lt;/strong&gt;, suggests that the ability to dream in children&#xA;  depends in part upon the development of the neural network for spatial&#xA;  construction centered in the parietal lobes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2014-12-02T21:05:54.237" LastActivityDate="2021-04-14T11:29:05.583" Title="Do highly creative people dream more and/or differently than ordinary people?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8671" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13806" CreationDate="2014-11-23T23:08:36.903" Score="3" ViewCount="894" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &quot;Memento&quot; the main character has got anterograde amnesia, but he's aware of it. Is it even possible and how, if it is? Compare it to &quot;50 First Dates&quot; &amp;mdash; the heroine is not aware of her condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine you wake up in the morning. How would you come to awareness that you've got anterograde amnesia, if you don't remember anything since the moment you got it, including that? And even if you find this out by logical thinking, you'll forget it soon (in &quot;Memento&quot;, what, in several minutes?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7133" LastEditorUserId="7133" LastEditDate="2017-09-07T14:43:01.870" LastActivityDate="2017-09-07T14:43:01.870" Title="Is it possible for a person to have anterograde amnesia and be aware of it?" Tags="&lt;short-term-memory&gt;&lt;amnesia&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8673" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8671" CreationDate="2014-11-24T00:37:52.490" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A very famous neurological patient, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaison&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Henry Molaison&lt;/a&gt; (known as H.M. in the literature until his death) had severe anterograde amnesia.  I don't believe he remembered the details of his condition, but he knew that he couldn't remember things, and he knew that something was wrong with him.  I have never read any solid explanation of how that might work; I have heard a conjecture that when it is the hippocampi that are primarily affected, then the patient is aware, but this theory becomes a bit doubtful when you realize that H.M. had more extensive damage than was initially thought (it was not only his hippocampus that was extracted but the entire medial temporal lobe).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-11-28T23:23:51.707" LastActivityDate="2014-11-28T23:23:51.707" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8652" CreationDate="2014-11-24T05:26:12.603" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;it seems to me that a meaningful existence requires&#xA;  the absence of cognitive dissonances, but I wonder what science would&#xA;  have to say about this, and if there is any empirical basis for&#xA;  claiming this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difficulty, as you've pointed out, is that there isn't agreement on the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in this context.  Meaning can be interpreted by different people (and cultures) variously as: &quot;accomplishment&quot;, &quot;social good&quot;, &quot;altruism&quot;, &quot;realizing potential&quot;, &quot;inner peace&quot;, &quot;knowledge&quot;, and on and on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the argument that meaning-seeking behavior is a purely evolutionary&#xA;  phenomenon that serves only to maximize one's potential for&#xA;  reproduction doesn't appear sufficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Read about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism#Evolutionary_explanations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;evolutionary explanations for altruistic behaviour&lt;/a&gt; for example to see how this can be addressed: &quot;Every single instance of altruistic behavior need not always increase inclusive fitness; ... it would be beneficial to err on the side of caution and usually be altruistic even if in most cases there were no benefits.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;how far would we need to curb the definition so that humans would no&#xA;  longer qualify as the only meaning-seeking organisms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Social good&quot; and &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism_%28biology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;altruism&lt;/a&gt;&quot; are examples of meaning-seeking behaviours commonly found in many animal species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Could modern experimental methods such as EEG, fMRI, gene expression&#xA;  profiling and epigenome sequencing be used to answer some of these&#xA;  questions at least to a degree?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sure, why not.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism#Neurobiology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;For example&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'd be happy to know at least if there are some research groups or&#xA;  labs that try to tackle such questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The area of psychology most likely to address such an abstract concept as meaning-seeking is probably &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Humanistic Psychology&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;Human beings are intentional, aim at goals, are aware that they cause future events, and seek meaning, value, and creativity.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can read about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology#The_meaningful_life&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;research done in this field&lt;/a&gt; - there isn't very much of it though - and also about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-actualization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-actualization&lt;/a&gt; (another common interpretation of meaning-seeking in psychology).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-02-27T19:04:21.120" LastActivityDate="2015-02-27T19:04:21.120" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8676" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-24T16:34:10.503" Score="7" ViewCount="588" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_phi_phenomenon&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;color phi phenomenon&lt;/a&gt; is a perceptual illusion in the visual domain which was demonstrated in an experiment by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0042698976901929&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kolers and von Grunau (1976)&lt;/a&gt;. The experiment is as follows. A sequence of coloured (usually red and green) dots is presented in a way that the illusion of motion is created. At a certain point in the sequence, the color of the dots that are presented changes abruptly, say from green to red. At the end of the sequence, participants are asked to report what they saw. What is interesting in this case is that  participants report seeing the abrupt color change before the second dot (i.e. with the different color) is actually presented. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I certainly have some questions on the procedure concerning the spacing and the interstimulus interval used and to what extent they are crucial to the color phi phenomenon.Unfortunately, I don't have access to the original article and I could not find anything on the web so if anyone knows anything, feel free to address those points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However my main concern is this: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q&lt;/strong&gt;: Has anyone attempted to explain the color phi phenomenon in neuroscientific terms, that is, identifying a neural mechanism responsible for this illusion?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-11-26T23:43:24.073" LastActivityDate="2014-11-26T23:43:24.073" Title="Has there been a neuroscientific explanation of the color phi phenomenon?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8678" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8626" CreationDate="2014-11-24T21:15:37.677" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, you address things that are being addressed by different adjectives, in this combination contradicting in some of their other meanings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I should provide a list of common words for every trait you have described:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sincere, honest (as of not being afraid to admit the emotions), self-aware (as of understanding what's going on inside)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sensitive (feeling with others), empathetic, solicitous (caring for other people)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Here I'm a bit lost but:&lt;/em&gt; Insightful (a person that generally &lt;em&gt;understads&lt;/em&gt;, but needs a context specification as it could as well apply to a mechanic and machines), wise (a general word for somebody with experience and the ability to use it).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Calm, wise (again, universal word that fits any context)... &lt;em&gt;Well anything you'd call Obi Wan Kenobi&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now some of the therms might probably sound contradicting if used together. For example a &lt;em&gt;sensitive&lt;/em&gt; person is not expected to withstand strong emotions calmly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However these are just words I thought up. I'm not native English speaker so you only get the words that are frequently used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't see what do all these words have to do with Cognitive sciences. I think this should get moved on English.SE. In that case I hope my answer gets deleted as native English speakers would downvote the hell out of me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7124" LastActivityDate="2014-11-24T21:15:37.677" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8682" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-25T04:23:04.493" Score="5" ViewCount="169" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is cognitive science apart of psychology? If I major in psychology, will it be easy for me to be a cognitive scientist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7139" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-11-25T04:24:28.627" LastActivityDate="2014-11-28T06:14:21.143" Title="Is cognitive science a concentration of psychology?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8683" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8682" CreationDate="2014-11-25T05:05:08.397" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's the other way around: Psychology is a discipline within &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science&quot;&gt;Cognitive Science&lt;/a&gt;, which includes Artificial Intelligence, Neuroscience, and possibly Philosophy of Mind.  Research work in Psychology presumably makes you a Cognitive Scientist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T05:05:08.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8685" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8682" CreationDate="2014-11-25T13:36:08.167" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/8683/4906&quot;&gt;Arnon's answer&lt;/a&gt; is right, but I thought it might help to explain why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive Science is the study of minds. This can include human minds, other animal minds, and artificial minds. The method could be to study how agents with minds behave in experiments (psychology), to study the physiological properties of biological minds (neuroscience), to create and model synthetic minds (artificial intelligence), to theorize about properties of minds (philosophy), to study the cultures and history of agents with minds (anthropology), and/or to study particular, especially complicated, aspects of minds (linguistics). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology is just one way of approaching the problem (which can tell us quite a bit about minds), but a broader perspective would be needed to get a complete picture of what minds are and how they work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T14:40:21.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8686" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5130" CreationDate="2014-11-25T15:55:49.847" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to share an observation from a personal experiment, loosely based on creative thinking exercises I've read about &quot;somewhere&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Over a course of 21 days, I was looking for innovative products in the world around me. I took pictures of them using my iPhone, and then did a short writeup about what problem this innovation is trying to solve and why I think it is awesome. &lt;strong&gt;In short, the exercise is two fold: first see solutions applied to problems (like below), then see problems that don't have solutions yet.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example - looking at cars in a parking lot, I noticed something like this - a roof rack with a little cloth piece in front of it which reduces drag caused by the roof rack. These things did not exist in the 90s:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Duzpa.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example would be a promotional flag like the one below. The curved top shape means that the flag is always stiff. It's rotating flag base prevents the flag from tangling around the pole:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KwLm3.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet another example would be stackable office chairs like the ones below. Not only does their architecture save storage space, but it allows a single person to move multiple chairs at once:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vCPYD.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T15:55:49.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8687" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8692" CreationDate="2014-11-25T19:08:40.643" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering how to call the phenomenon that happens when people spend a lot of time together and end up sharing similar vocabulary or reusing the other's expressions? Is there a term for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4364" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T22:01:50.063" Title="Is there a term to define the influence and sharing of common expressions among people?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8688" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-25T19:43:25.937" Score="5" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) has been shown to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0036220&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;modify suppression in the visual cortex&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811914004558&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;GABA suppression in motor control&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As of now, the exact neurobiological mechanism that creates this phenomenon isn't known, but what are the neurotransmitters that can be modified by this methodology? To what degree can these neurotransmitter levels be manipulated? Are there limitations to the parts of the brain this technique can be applied?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-11-25T19:52:37.690" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T19:52:37.690" Title="What neurotransmitters can be suppressed/promoted by tDCS" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;tdcs&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8689" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-11-25T19:49:52.277" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) is the clinical technique of applying low current to the human brain for neurostimulation. Its clinical applications range from suppressing neurotransmitters and enhancing performance in various cognitive tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This tag should be used on questions relating to research involving and applications of tDCS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2014-11-25T20:02:44.947" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T20:02:44.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8690" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-11-25T19:49:52.277" Score="0" Body="Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) is the clinical technique of applying low current to the human brain for neurostimulation. This tag should be used on questions relating to research involving and applications of tDCS." OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:37:06.587" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:37:06.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8692" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8687" CreationDate="2014-11-25T22:01:50.063" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might be referring to &lt;em&gt;mimicry&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;linguistic mimicry&lt;/em&gt;. Mimicry is more broad than just vocabulary and expressions, but the general principle of imitating what others in a social group are doing applies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-11-25T22:01:50.063" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8694" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8664" CreationDate="2014-11-26T11:55:28.460" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you don't focus, then your efficiency easily drops to 50% of other people. But if the task is truly engaging you, you work 200% compared to other people and you forget everything else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has a name: Hyperfocus!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Like distractibility, hyperfocus is thought to result from abnormally low levels of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is particularly active in the brain's frontal lobes. This dopamine deficiency makes it hard to &quot;shift gears&quot; to take up boring-but-necessary tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Children and adults with ADD have difficulty shifting attention from one thing to another,&quot; says Russell Barkley, Ph.D., a research professor of psychiatry at SUNY Upstate Medical University in Syracuse, New York. &quot;If they're doing something they enjoy or find psychologically rewarding, they'll tend to persist in this behavior after others would normally move on to other things. The brains of people with ADD are drawn to activities that give instant feedback.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.additudemag.com/adhd/article/612.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.additudemag.com/adhd/article/612.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hyperfocus is an intense form of mental concentration or visualization that focuses consciousness on a subject, topic, or task. In some individuals, some subjects or topics may also tend toward including daydreams, concepts, fiction, the imagination, and other objects of the mind. Hyperfocus on a certain subject can cause side-tracking away from assigned or important tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hyperfocus may bear a relationship to the concept of flow.[1] In some circumstances both flow and hyperfocus can be an aid to achievement, but in other circumstance or situations, the same focus and behavior could be a liability, distracting from the task at hand. However, unlike hyperfocus, &quot;flow&quot; is often described in more glowing terms, suggesting they are not two sides of the same condition under contrasting circumstance or intellect.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a more personal note:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been doing programming since I was about 16 y.o, I was diagnosed with ADHD at about 24, and I have now been working as an in-house hired developer for a year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I personally experience that when I work on a topic that honestly interests me and engages me, I will be more focused and have more energy than everyone around me. I've been told by friends etc several times &quot;God, how do you have time for all that? How are you able to do all that?&quot;&#xA;At the same time I can be incredibly inefficient with my time on less interesting tasks. Often I don't even understand what I've spent all my time on, because I haven't really done anything. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2014-11-26T13:21:38.210" LastActivityDate="2014-11-26T13:21:38.210" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8695" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1581" CreationDate="2014-11-26T20:59:23.163" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The only modelling method that I know of for creating large-scale biologically based models is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/research/nef.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural Engineering Framework&lt;/a&gt; (NEF).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The NEF is basically a framework for associating functional computations and dynamic systems to biologically plausible populations of neurons. Given this foundation, advanced applications linking behaviour to neural function become much easier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of this is &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2014/papers/221/paper221.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dan Rassmussen's work on hierarchical reinforcement learning&lt;/a&gt;, which relates behaviourist reinforcement learning to neural activities and brain regions as observed in neural data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6111/1202.full?ijkey=y5vph.jw5AgRQ&amp;amp;keytype=ref&amp;amp;siteid=sci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spaun&lt;/a&gt;, which is an amalgamation of many isolated models (basal ganglia, visual cortex) created using the NEF, has also replicated various human behaviour (same rate of forgetting, recognition and recall) in simple tasks such as list memorization.﻿&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2014-11-26T20:59:23.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8696" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8697" CreationDate="2014-11-27T03:50:26.627" Score="12" ViewCount="1203" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lately, a friend of mine has been telling me that he's been having recurring dreams involving a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Meir_Kagan&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;certain rabbi&lt;/a&gt;, who died around a hundred years ago.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Since there's been some &lt;a href=&quot;https://judaism.stackexchange.com/q/30731/5323&quot;&gt;controversy&lt;/a&gt; surrounding the truth of several famous pictures of him (some say that the most famous images of him really show someone else), I wanted to ask my friend which picture he looked like.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Luckily, I stopped myself before I did -- this friend of mine is blind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, I'd like to know what the blind experience when they dream -- do their dreams contain whatever types of experience they have in real life (ie, purely based on touch, hearing, smell, etc), or might they dream with vision? If they dream with vision, do they see color?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Is this impacted by whether the particular person in question had ever had sight (or partial sight) at any point in their life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7156" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:42:08.477" LastActivityDate="2014-11-27T10:32:28.903" Title="How do the blind dream?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8697" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8696" CreationDate="2014-11-27T05:24:52.767" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may want to read Meaidi et al (2014). They obtained dream reports from congenitally blind, late blind, and matched sighted controls.&#xA;To quote the abstract, they found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;All blind participants had fewer visual dream impressions&#xA;  compared to sighted control participants. In late blind participants, duration of blindness&#xA;  was negatively correlated with duration, clarity, and color content of&#xA;  visual dream impressions. Congenitally blind participants reported more auditory,&#xA;  tactile, gustatory, and olfactory dream components compared to sighted control&#xA;  participants. In contrast, late blind participants only reported more tactile&#xA;  dream impressions. Blind and sighted control participants did not differ with&#xA;  respect to emotional and thematic dream content. However, congenitally blind&#xA;  participants reported more aggressive interactions and more nightmares&#xA;  compared to the other two groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our data show that blindness considerably alters the&#xA;  sensory composition of dreams and that onset and duration of blindness&#xA;  plays an important role. The increased occurrence of nightmares in congenitally blind&#xA;  participants may be related to a higher number of threatening&#xA;  experiences in daily life in this group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summarising previous research they note that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;previous studies seem to suggest that individuals who&#xA;  become blind after the age of 7 years retain visual imagery in their&#xA;  dreams, though congenitally blind or early blind (onset of&#xA;  blindness before the ages of 5–7 years) individuals do not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They cite a number of previous studies that have looked at dreams of blind people that you may want to check out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;[5] Kerr NH. Dreaming, imagery and perception. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, editors. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company; 2000. p. 482–90.&#xA;[6] Amadeo J, Gomez E. Eye movements, attention, and dreaming in subjects with life-long blindness. Can Psychiatry Assoc J 1966;11:501–7.&#xA;[7] Berger R, Olley P, Oswald I. The EEG, eye movements, and dreams of the blind. Quart J Exp Psychol 1962;14:183–6.&#xA;[8] Kerr NH, Foulkes D, Schmidt M. The structure of laboratory dream reports in blind and sighted subjects. J Nerv Ment Dis 1982;170:286–94.&#xA;[9] Hurovitz CS, Dunn S, Domhoff GW, Fiss H. The dreams of blind men and women: a replication and extension of previous findings. Dreaming 1999;9:183–93.&#xA;[10] Kirtley D. The psychology of blindness. Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall; 1975.&#xA;[11] von Schumann H. Träume der blinden. Basel: S. Karger Co.; 1959.&#xA;[12] Sabo KT, Kirtley DD. Emotions in the dreams of the blind. Int J Rehabil Res    1980;3:382–5.&#xA;[13] Cason H. The nightmare dream. Psychol Monogr 1935;46:1–51.&#xA;[14] Kirtley D, Cannistraci K. Dreams of the visually handicapped: toward a   normative approach. Am Found Blind Res Bull 1973;27:111–33.&#xA;[15] Spielberger CD, Gorsuch RL, Lushene PR, Vagg PR, Jacobs AG. Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory (Form-Y). 2nd ed. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting    Psychologists Press, Inc.; 1983.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meaidi, A., Jennum, P., Ptito, M., &amp;amp; Kupers, R. (2014). The sensory construction of dreams and nightmare frequency in congenitally blind and late blind individuals. Sleep medicine, 15(5), 586-595. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2013.12.008&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2013.12.008&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-11-27T05:30:14.883" LastActivityDate="2014-11-27T05:30:14.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8698" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-27T07:01:33.480" Score="8" ViewCount="515" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm pretty familiar with the results of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_predominantly_inattentive&quot;&gt;having not enough dopamine&lt;/a&gt;, though the reasons are not so clear to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To get a better insight on the topic I'd like to know something about having too much dopamine:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What behaviour is result of having too much dopamine?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why does it happen?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am aiming to get insight in disease states associated with excess dopamine, not drug-induced states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7124" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-16T14:55:54.363" LastActivityDate="2015-08-18T00:07:29.233" Title="What is the result of an excess of dopamine?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8699" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-27T08:56:17.947" Score="2" ViewCount="855" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there some program that given the x,y,z coordinates of a area in a given brain template, gives the histological Brodmann area relative to that template?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in associating x,y,z coordinates in the ICBM152 atlas to Brodmann areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Something like this for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;-6.2731  34.705  -5.0925  --&amp;gt;  Broadmann Area 23&#xA;-4.5387  46.539   3.0627  --&amp;gt;  Broadmann Area 24&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7153" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-11-28T23:23:18.470" LastActivityDate="2014-11-28T23:23:18.470" Title="Are there some tools to get human brain Brodmann areas from X,Y,Z coordinates?" Tags="&lt;software&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8705" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-27T19:11:06.047" Score="4" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;Infants learn different things in different ages.&#xA;Let's say infant A learns to speak at age 1 (I have no idea what is normal), and infant B learn to speak at age 1.5.&#xA;Does the age of learning say anything of who will be better (at any skill) in grown up age? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We know that it is easier to master something that we are truly interested in, as the interest will motivate and fuel us to progress.&#xA;We also know that personal characteristics and general interests start at very low age and possibly before birth. Based on this, it would make sense if infants with an inborn interest for something (for instance language) are faster at learning the relevant skill (talking) than infants with less interest in it.&#xA;Is there any research on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-11-27T19:11:06.047" Title="Age of learning versus relative mastery - are they linked?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8707" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-27T20:18:29.107" Score="7" ViewCount="571" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I have two short audio signals, for example pure tone C4 and C#4, so half-tone difference, how short can they be that the human can hear the difference in pitch? Was there any blind-experiment/research with a good set of subjects done about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was causally testing with a short script and it seems I am able to distinguish down to 30 ms long samples if I play one sample, then one second of pause, and another half tone higher sample.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can also do it for shorter, but I am not sure anymore if I really hear it, or if I just imagine hearing the difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bonus question: how short can it be if the signal consists of two tones. So of both C4 and C#4 at the same time. Can one hear that there are both C4 and C#4 in the signal if it is only 30 ms long?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7169" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-11-27T21:52:37.900" LastActivityDate="2014-11-28T13:35:40.610" Title="Which is the shortest duration for a pitch difference in audio signals to be perceived by the human auditory system?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;psychoacoustics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8708" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8707" CreationDate="2014-11-27T20:35:44.573" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I used 5 ms long tone bursts in an experiment where people had to discriminate between a 1000 Hz and a 1200 Hz pure tone (or rather, click). They could generally do this very well, if I remember correctly accuracy was above 90%.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I then had a different paradigm which was a bit more difficult in terms of the task, and I had to increase the tones to 20 ms for similar accuracy. So I would guess that 30 ms should be plenty, if your sound equipment is reasonably good. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My study participants were healthy young people (otherwise known as students) of normal hearing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2014-11-27T20:35:44.573" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8709" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8636" CreationDate="2014-11-27T21:33:12.460" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unofficially, it has been called &quot;illusion of expectation&quot; by Christopher Chabris and Daniel Simons, the guys famous for the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inattentional_blindness#Invisible_Gorilla_Test&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Invisible Gorilla&lt;/a&gt; experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Technically it falls under &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inattentional_blindness#Blindness_despite_fixation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;inattentional blindness&lt;/a&gt; (or perceptual blindness):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the event in which an individual fails to recognize an unexpected&#xA;  stimulus that is in plain sight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-10-21T03:50:45.087" LastActivityDate="2016-10-21T03:50:45.087" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8710" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8682" CreationDate="2014-11-28T06:14:21.143" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I agree with Arnon that cognitive science is, by most people's definition, multi-disciplinary. And one of those disciplines included is psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you were to attend a cognitive science conference or read a cognitive science journal, you would see that it mostly includes areas of psychology that broadly relate to cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many sub-disciplines of psychology that would not readily identify with cognitive science. For example, clinical psychology, I/O psychology, most of social psychology, most of personality psychology, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, you might want to think of cognitive science and psychology in terms of partially overlapping Venn Diagrams. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a final note, we use the term &quot;cognitive sciences&quot; on this site in a very inclusive sense. It is unfortunate that there is no single word that easily captures all that psychology and cognitive science encompasses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-11-28T06:14:21.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8574" CreationDate="2014-11-28T08:40:12.313" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually, reconceptualization is only one tool of CBT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basis is still what you might call &quot;conditioning&quot; or &quot;skills training&quot; (depending on the disorder). The depressed person does not &quot;think away&quot; (or &quot;feel away&quot;) his depression, but learns and practices new behaviors until they become habitual. And it is this behavior change that leads to different experiences, new insights, and to a different &quot;feeling&quot; and &quot;thinking&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a person with Social Anxiety will simply learn social skills and practice them until they become second nature. This person &lt;em&gt;experiences&lt;/em&gt; that they are not repulsive (as they had thought), when their new skills (e.g. smiling when approaching a stranger) lead to positive outcomes (e.g. the stranger smiling back). Discussing the mental concepts (&quot;Believing that you are repulsive has the function to help you avoid situations that cause you fear.&quot;) and changing them (&quot;I behave in a way that repulses people, and I can change that behavior.&quot;) helps motivate the patient to commit to the therapy and supports the practical exercises.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reconceptualization accompanies behavioral methods and complements them. That is why it is not called Cognitive Therapy, but Cognitive &lt;em&gt;Behavioral&lt;/em&gt; Therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, what CBT does is &quot;faking it&quot;: you act as if you weren't afraid of spiders, until you have lost your fear; you act as if you weren't depressed, until you no longer are. The C-part helps you understand what you are doing and process your experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you also need to keep in mind is that behavior change might entail removing the patient from a pathogenic environment. For example, an alcoholic might profit from not going to bars to meet his dinking buddies. A depressive might profit from divorcing an abusive spouse or finding a job more in tune with his values and interests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading through the old edits of your question, I realize that I have probably misunderstood your intent. Please comment, if you are looking for something else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-11-28T09:06:49.050" LastActivityDate="2014-11-28T09:06:49.050" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8712" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8707" CreationDate="2014-11-28T12:03:08.703" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It really depends on what you mean by difference in pitch. Subjects can discriminate differences in frequency for very short tones, but it does not mean they are being perceived as pitch differences. The classic paper in this area is &lt;a href=&quot;http://scitation.aip.org/content/asa/journal/jasa/54/3/10.1121/1.1913640&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moore (1973)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KVxTw.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the duration is reduced from 200 ms to 6.25 ms, performance falls off, especially for low frequency tones. It is worth noting that creating extermely short sounds with narrow bandwidths is difficult. With a 12.5 ms duration, subjects can still discriminate between tones with frequencies of 250 Hz and 255.7 Hz (a Delta f of 5.7 Hz and a (Delta f)/f of 0.023).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;C4 has a frequency of 261.63 Hz and C4# has a frequency of 277.18 Hz for a Delta f of 15.55 Hz and a (Delta f)/f of about 0.06. One would expect that you could discriminate C4 from C4# with durations substantially shorter than 12.5 ms&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In regards to your &quot;bonus question&quot;, when the stimulus consists of two tones, things get very complicated. Judgements like can you hear both tones are very different from can you hear the difference between a single tone and the pair of tones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-11-28T12:03:08.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8713" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8707" CreationDate="2014-11-28T13:30:36.560" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The absolute minimum duration of tone bursts is limited by mathematical (physical) limitations and more importantly, your hardware. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mathematically, the minimum duration will depend on the frequency, as one period is the minimum time necessary to mathematically define a particular frequency. For example, to complete one period of a 100 Hz tone, at least 10 ms is needed. For a 10 kHz tone 0.1 ms is enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the hardware limitations - presenting a short tone burst may result in &lt;a href=&quot;http://jp.physoc.org/content/338/1/179.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;frequency splatter&lt;/a&gt;. This phenomenon is hardware-dependent and even the most expensive speaker systems are subject to this effect. Basically it's the result of the generation of unwanted frequencies due to the onset and offset of the tone burst. The splatter can be reduced by using onset and offset ramps. Onset and offset ramps are used in order to gradually increase and decrease the power of the signal at the start and end of the tone burst, respectively. Exactly how long these ramps have to be depends on the hardware used. As a rule of thumb, onset and offset ramp times of 2 periods can be used with a plateau phase of at least 2 periods in-between. This adds up to a total of 6 periods. A 500 Hz tone burst, then, would need at least 6*2 ms = 12 ms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At relatively high frequencies (say 1 kHz and above) this rule of thumb may not apply as periods become very short. At higher frequencies, therefore, the answer by @Strongbad will give a good indication of the lower duration limit. However, keep in mind that introducing onset and offset ramps is always a good idea, even at long stimuli (say 100 ms) since frequency splatter always contaminates the signal.      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-11-28T13:35:40.610" LastActivityDate="2014-11-28T13:35:40.610" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8714" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-28T21:31:34.720" Score="8" ViewCount="469" Body="&lt;p&gt;It appears that, from time to time, everybody has a strong desire for some specific food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to know whether this is the feedback of the body needing certain nutrients or whether it's purely related other influences such as emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q:&lt;/strong&gt; To what extent are such cravings influenced by current nutrient levels&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; in the body?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;: When you're dying of thirst you'll definitely want some water. I'm rather talking about &quot;Damn, I really want an orange.&quot; (lack of citric acid and vitamin C).&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7124" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-03-29T22:03:56.213" LastActivityDate="2015-03-30T01:17:10.187" Title="Is a desire for a certain food related to the nutritional need for that food?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8715" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8714" CreationDate="2014-11-28T21:55:08.393" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer to that question is Yes, but...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is whole new science of psychofisics which is trying (and succeding)&#xA;in makeing food more palatable...&#xA;So you have combination of sugar, salt and fat which can be choosen over missing nutritiens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Look for key words satiation, palatable, salt crawing, bliss point and psychophisics of taste in your search.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2014-11-28T21:55:08.393" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8716" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8751" CreationDate="2014-11-28T23:38:14.893" Score="3" ViewCount="384" Body="&lt;p&gt;The [stroboscopic effect][1] is often explained as one of the problems of sampling. If sample rate is too low, you might have the impression of the signal frequency being low or even reverse. There are many animations on the internet describing the process but I find static sinus function graph more comprehensible:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/a2QsS.png&quot; alt=&quot;stroboscopic effect sinus wave&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You definitely know this effect from car wheels or plane propeller in movies. That's because the movie captures certain amount of frames. If the event is significantly shorter than capture rate, the output doesn't make any sense anymore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, how can I observe the stroboscopic effect in full light with my very own eyes? I thought there's no fixed frame-rate for human vision. I thought it's an analogous process (continuous stream), rather than digital (timed sampling).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q:&lt;/strong&gt; How can be human vision in non-flashing (such as sun) light be subject to stroboscopic effect? Where does the damage happen?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7124" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T14:36:43.363" LastActivityDate="2014-12-04T12:45:50.463" Title="Effective sampling rate in human visual system" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8718" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-29T10:32:00.580" Score="5" ViewCount="220" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How accurate is colour memory for the standard person?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would seem most people are quite good at remembering the colour of objects by visualising the object. But in some cases peoples visualisation could be wrong. This is the case I am interested in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can this visualised 'incorrect' colour be shifted in a specific way?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any known reason why someone would visualise objects colour incorrectly in some set shifted way. E.g. They always remember things by their composite colour?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Motivation:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My memory self ranked:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Faces - Great&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Names - Average&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Geography - Poor&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Colour - Non-existent&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some reason, I find myself incapable of remembering colours unless I specially label it with a colour, and often people will ask me to get something of theirs without telling me the colour, and I will be unable to find it because I can visualise it perfectly in the &lt;strong&gt;wrong&lt;/strong&gt; colour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One example I can remember. A large brick wall on my drive, I can perfectly remember(still can) that it was a light lime green, roughly &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/search?q=lime%20green&amp;amp;es_sm=93&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;imgil=wagYH4e4E8FMzM%253A%253B-cZGmOUsO1ZgJM%253Bhttp%25253A%25252F%25252Fcolors.findthebest.com%25252Fl%25252F433%25252FLime-Green&amp;amp;source=iu&amp;amp;pf=m&amp;amp;fir=wagYH4e4E8FMzM%253A%252C-cZGmOUsO1ZgJM%252C_&amp;amp;usg=__BFDsyiOl_ZsOfxhqpT_aH4HQybI%3D&amp;amp;biw=1920&amp;amp;bih=955&amp;amp;ved=0CCoQyjc&amp;amp;ei=-p95VNnhA4rj8AXGQw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this colour&lt;/a&gt;, and I was thinking about it in the car as I was planning my route mentally. Once I reached it I saw that it was purple, my girlfriend tells me essentially &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/search?q=purple&amp;amp;es_sm=93&amp;amp;source=lnms&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=N6B5VKDaFYnn8gX_s4LQBQ&amp;amp;ved=0CAgQ_AUoAQ&amp;amp;biw=1920&amp;amp;bih=955#facrc=_&amp;amp;imgdii=_&amp;amp;imgrc=CpekwSgVZFfjFM%253A%3BcEg2mIQqtTJ2yM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fblogs.independent.co.uk%252Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2011%252F04%252Fcolor-purple1.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fblogs.independent.co.uk%252F2011%252F04%252F19%252Fpurple-prose%252F%3B499%3B499&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this colour&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7176" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T14:34:44.853" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T14:34:44.853" Title="The accuracy &amp; malleability of memory for color" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8719" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-11-29T14:38:03.533" Score="3" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I have read that caffeine is not a good drink for sufferers of anxiety disorders. This is common sense given that it may increase agitation.&#xA;I noticed when I started a low carb diet that my OCD became somewhat less intense. I think that this happened simply because I was &lt;em&gt;too tired, physically and mentally&lt;/em&gt;. I couldn't even concentrate on studying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How does diet affect engaging in OCD?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-02T00:12:55.173" LastActivityDate="2014-12-02T00:12:55.173" Title="How does diet affect OCD?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-07-05T18:46:51.190" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8720" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8723" CreationDate="2014-11-29T17:09:17.747" Score="2" ViewCount="1046" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a non-native English speaker I recently tried to understand difference in phrases &quot;to study&quot; and &quot;to learn&quot;. I found some explanations here on &lt;em&gt;English language and usage SE&lt;/em&gt;, stating that learning is a subconscious activity. Then in some articles I've found, authors stated that language learning is subconscious and that acquiring knowledge and skill isn't the same  [ also that learning language is actually learning a skill, while learning history is acquiring knowledge.] .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I got confused : &lt;strong&gt;is all learning subconscious or not?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a difference in learning language and learning anatomy, laws of physics or programming?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally some articles got me confused, especially  those that want to sell you hypnosis  DVDs and instruction manuals to &quot;boost&quot; your subconscious mind. Aren't we already equipped with proper subconscious mind? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastActivityDate="2014-11-30T14:18:56.607" Title="Is all learning a subconscious activity?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8722" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8720" CreationDate="2014-11-30T12:56:32.247" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you describe here is two types of memory the &lt;strong&gt;declarative memory&lt;/strong&gt; and the &lt;strong&gt;implicit memory&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Declarative memory is consciously retrieved and stored. It is this kind of memory that is used to store historical facts. See below extract from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Declarative memory (sometimes referred to as explicit memory) is one&#xA;  of two types of long-term human memory. Declarative memory refers to&#xA;  memories that can be consciously recalled such as facts and knowledge&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Implicit memory is created with practice, by doing things. This is the type of knowledge that is mostly used in language learning (We also learn some declarative knowledge at the beginning e.g. grammar rules. But after we apply these rules many times, implicit memory is created and usually the declarative rules fade away). See below extract from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Implicit memory is a type of memory in which previous experiences aid&#xA;  the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these&#xA;  previous experiences. ... In daily life, people rely on implicit&#xA;  memory every day in the form of procedural memory, the type of memory&#xA;  that allows people to remember how to tie their shoes or ride a&#xA;  bicycle without consciously thinking about these activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2014-11-30T12:56:32.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8723" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8720" CreationDate="2014-11-30T14:18:56.607" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;We should not confuse the psychological terminology of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;consciousness&lt;/a&gt;, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subconscious&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;subconscious&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;unconscious&lt;/a&gt; with the lay meaning of activities being performed consciously or subconsciously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The distinction between &amp;quot;conscious&amp;quot; learning and &amp;quot;subconscious&amp;quot; acquisition of linguistic knowledge goes back to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Monitor Model&lt;/a&gt; that linguist Stephen Krashen developed in the 1970s and 1980s. According to this theory, human beings develop linguistic skills in two ways: either we&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&amp;quot;subconsciously&amp;quot; &lt;strong&gt;acquire&lt;/strong&gt; knowledge, without realizing that we do so (e.g. by growing up in a certain linguistic environment), or we&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&amp;quot;consciously&amp;quot; &lt;strong&gt;learn&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g. by memorizing lists of words in a foreign language).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Krashen's theory has been both praised and criticized, but this is not the place to go into that debate. It should be enough to note that the hypothesis has as yet not been empirically proven.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a psychological point of view, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;learning&lt;/a&gt; – of which &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning#Acquisition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;acquisition&lt;/a&gt; is a part, namely that a response to a stimulus has been established – is &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; not conscious. A conscious activity is one that we are aware of (like intentionally putting a book on a shelf), but learning, that is: the storing of information in the brain, takes place through processes of which we are unaware and in parts of our anatomy over which we have no control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, when you try to memorize a foreign word and its meaning, you cannot consciously put that knowledge in your memory like you can place a book on a shelf. What you must do, for example, is repeat the information until you no longer forget it. But you have no awareness of wether or not the storage was successful. You can only deduce that success from your ability to retrieve the information (i.e. correctly remember). A conscious storage would give you a direct (sensory) feedback of the storage process, similar to how your eyes show you wether or not the book is now on the shelf. If the placing of a book on a shelf worked subconsciously like storing knowledge in your brain, you'd have to retrieve the book from the shelf again to know that it had been put there. Until you took it off the shelf, you couldn't know if it was actually there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;For a psychologist, all learning is &amp;quot;subconscious&amp;quot; (but he would not use that word).&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-11-30T14:18:56.607" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8726" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6525" CreationDate="2014-12-01T06:34:14.767" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many different uses for the word &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stress&lt;/a&gt;&quot; that should not be confused with one another.  For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-destructive_behaviour&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-destructive behaviour&lt;/a&gt; may be used to cope with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28psychological%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological stress&lt;/a&gt;.  Other examples are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stress response&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28biology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;biological stress&lt;/a&gt;, both of which have very different meanings.  An important driving force of natural selection - a key process in evolution - is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;selection pressure&lt;/a&gt;, which is yet another entirely different kind of stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evolution certainly has great explanatory power, but it doesn't explain all behaviour - especially not the kind that is learned rather than inherited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not aware of any evidence that self-destructive behaviour is inherited, but there is some evidence that it &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-destructive_behaviour#Causes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;may be learned&lt;/a&gt;.  As such, there is no impetus to explain this behaviour in an evolutionary context.  Having said that, self-harm is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-harm#Other_animals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;found in animals&lt;/a&gt; besides humans, suggesting that perhaps something may be inherited (eg, the basic &quot;learning mechanism&quot; in humans has many similarities to other animals) that has this side-effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of human behaviour does not &quot;make sense&quot; in the immediate context.  Much human behaviour relies on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic#Theorized_psychological_heuristics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;heuristic rules&lt;/a&gt; that work most of the time, but fail some of the time.  So for example, if self-harm results from learning, then well, most of the time our built-in learning mechanism serves us well, but sometimes it fails us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-12-30T06:20:52.507" LastActivityDate="2016-12-30T06:20:52.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8727" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10286" CreationDate="2014-12-01T08:28:47.360" Score="5" ViewCount="265" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is known that psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar I, and bipolar II are for life, and require long term treatment (lifelong).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this always the case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer could include reference to &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; disorder, even those not listed in the DSM, &lt;em&gt;say bipolar III, bipolar IV, bipolar V, etc.&lt;/em&gt; This refers to what is known as &lt;em&gt;bipolar spectrum disorder&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="7049" LastEditDate="2014-12-26T17:28:29.957" LastActivityDate="2020-02-07T15:56:30.817" Title="Are there any circumstances where schizophrenia or bipolar disorder are not lifelong?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8728" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8741" CreationDate="2014-12-01T09:19:29.060" Score="0" ViewCount="269" Body="&lt;p&gt;Self-destructive habits include:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- smoking whilst being aware of the effects&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- not exercising whilst knowing that it is healthier to do so&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- taking one more hit of a drug &quot;for the last time, really&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any truth to the following statement?:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freudian repressed unconscious is what allows us to be in conflict with our emotions. If &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow#Two_systems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;System 1&lt;/a&gt; were consciously aware of these hidden things, self-destructive behavior wouldn't exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;This question is inspired by the following book:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;O'Connor, Richard - Rewire: Change Your Brain to Break Bad Habits, Overcome Addictions, Conquer Self-Destructive Behavior - Penguin Group US.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="7049" LastEditDate="2014-12-04T17:36:27.497" LastActivityDate="2014-12-04T17:36:27.497" Title="Freudian repressed unconscious as the biological reason behind self-destructive behavior?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8729" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12321" CreationDate="2014-12-01T09:31:59.000" Score="5" ViewCount="192" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to facilitate incubation as well as consciously think about a different problem &lt;em&gt;at the same time&lt;/em&gt;, in effect &lt;strong&gt;multitasking&lt;/strong&gt;, in order to gain insights more quickly, without having to stop and take a break. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For context, see this question on incubation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1/how-is-it-that-taking-a-break-from-a-problem-sometimes-allows-you-to-figure-out&quot;&gt;How is it that taking a break from a problem sometimes allows you to figure out the answer?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T05:00:48.640" Title="Can incubation be facilitated, while, at the same time, being focused on a different problem?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8730" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8740" CreationDate="2014-12-01T09:38:58.180" Score="2" ViewCount="414" Body="&lt;p&gt;Having disorganized thinking is different for everyone. But, it is sometimes described as not being able to connect thoughts together. &lt;em&gt;I am asking about disorganized thinking other than communication problems.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;To be more specific, disorganized thinking, relating to the thoughts one forms, that causes disorganized behavior.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a biological reason behind this, something relating to dopamine activity in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="7049" LastEditDate="2014-12-02T18:24:51.983" LastActivityDate="2014-12-02T18:24:51.983" Title="What is the biological reason behind disorganized thinking and disorganized behavior in thought disorders?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8732" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8738" CreationDate="2014-12-01T13:06:37.297" Score="8" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gollisch &amp;amp; Meister (2010) state that &quot;the retina receives little efferent input from the brain&quot; (p. 157). Could anyone describe what exactly this &quot;little efferent input&quot; (where it originates, whether it is present in primates, its function ...) is or point me to the relevant literature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the paper in question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hebb.mit.edu/courses/connectomics/Gollisch%20Meister%20eye%20smarter%20scientists%20believed%20neural%20computations%20circuits%20retina%2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gollisch, T., &amp;amp; Meister, M. (2010). Eye smarter than scientists believed: neural computations in circuits of the retina. Neuron, 65, 150–64.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="448" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-21T11:25:57.183" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T11:25:57.183" Title="What is the meaning of &quot;little efferent input&quot; to retina?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8733" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-01T17:50:50.917" Score="3" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given the controversies surrounding DSM-5, has there been any research into its impact on prescription practice (in the United States)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, what are the changes that have resulted in increased use of medications?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7188" LastActivityDate="2014-12-01T17:50:50.917" Title="What changes brought into DSM-5 have increased therapeutic use of medications?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8734" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6426" CreationDate="2014-12-01T21:59:41.133" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I asked the same question in the private beta of the newly open Economics.SE and got some interesting answers. You can check them out at &lt;a href=&quot;https://economics.stackexchange.com/questions/95/experiments-contradicting-the-expected-utility-model&quot;&gt;https://economics.stackexchange.com/questions/95/experiments-contradicting-the-expected-utility-model&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4008" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:51:38.313" LastActivityDate="2014-12-01T21:59:41.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8736" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8742" CreationDate="2014-12-02T01:30:15.767" Score="3" ViewCount="591" Body="&lt;p&gt;Episodic memory is defined as the difference between remembering and knowing. Roughly speaking, the criteria for episodic memory is a memory which you remember from a first person vantage point, contains visuals, and is remembered as a specific singular instance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would likely effects be of someone losing the ability to access this type of memory, or to process events into memories in this way? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3751" LastActivityDate="2014-12-02T19:07:24.287" Title="How would losing episodic memory affect a person's functioning?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8737" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8604" CreationDate="2014-12-02T02:57:17.973" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0020674&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This article by Bobrov et. al&lt;/a&gt; seems to be similar to what you are looking for. They were able to classify (at above chance performance) whether subjects were imagining houses or faces. The training protocol is particularly interesting: they started by showing subjects pictures, but then used a feedback process of showing the subjects the output of the classifier while they were imagining the images to try and improve the subjects' 'imagination' of the images. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-12-02T02:57:17.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8738" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8732" CreationDate="2014-12-02T11:11:31.843" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting question! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper you read should have inserted an appropriate citation. Moreover, &quot;little input&quot; is a subjective statement and doesn't make much sense in the context, as it can mean that there are few efferent axons (which may still have large effects on retinal functioning), or that the efferent input is relatively unimportant when compared to the afferent visual projections (which may indeed be so). In fact, I think what the authors actually try to say is that there is not much data available on efferent retinal input. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question: The efferent projections from the brain back to the retina, referred to as &lt;strong&gt;centrifugal projections&lt;/strong&gt;, are indeed not extensively studied. The studies done were mainly performed in avian species. However, centrifugal projections have been shown to exist in &lt;strong&gt;monkeys and humans&lt;/strong&gt;. In the macaque, they originate in the brain in the &lt;strong&gt;hypothalamus&lt;/strong&gt;, and constitute &lt;strong&gt;histaminergic&lt;/strong&gt; neurons which are thought to be involved in &lt;strong&gt;regulating blood flow&lt;/strong&gt; in the inner plexiform layer of the retina. They may also be involved in &lt;strong&gt;regulating retinal dopaminergic amacrine cells&lt;/strong&gt;, at least in mice and other species. Specifically, dopaminergic amacrine cells in the retina may be receiving centrifugal input from the &lt;strong&gt;suprachiasmatic nucleus&lt;/strong&gt; (SCN, situated in the hypothalamus) where &lt;strong&gt;circadian rythms&lt;/strong&gt; are initiated from melanopsin containing ganglion cells. The dopaminergic amacrine cells in the retina target photoreceptors, horizontal cells and amacrine cells and thereby regulate the retina depending on the state of the &lt;strong&gt;circadian clock&lt;/strong&gt;. Most studies are histological in nature and functional data remains scant.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-iii-retinal-circuits/feedback-loops/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Webvision - Feedback Loops (by Helga Kolb)&lt;/a&gt;          &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T00:08:43.503" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T00:08:43.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8739" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8588" CreationDate="2014-12-02T14:15:36.977" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are different types of masking that may have different mechanisms. Even backward masking may mean:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;noise masking - such as when white noise is presented&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;pattern masking - when target-resembling pattern of lines is shown&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;metacontrast masking - when an object adjacent to target (but not occluding it) and highly different in contrast is used&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;object substitution masking - when target itself is not occluded by mask (e.g., four dots are present near the corners of a target), but nevertheless is not perceived&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, different explanations exists for different types of masks and different conclusions can be made both about consciousness and about brain mechanisms. What I mean is that no clear answer on your question is possible without specifying further what kind of masking we are talking about.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See, for example, these papers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Delord, S. (1998). Which Mask is the Most Efficient: A Pattern or a Noise? It Depends on the Task. Visual Cognition, 5, 313–338. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Enns, J. T., &amp;amp; Lollo, V. Di. (1997). OBJECT SUBSTITUTION:. A New Form of Masking in Unattended Visual Locations. Psychological Science, 8, 135–139.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goodhew, S. C., Pratt, J., Dux, P. E., &amp;amp; Ferber, S. (2013). Substituting objects from consciousness: A review of object substitution masking. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review. doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0400-9&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="448" LastActivityDate="2014-12-02T14:15:36.977" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8740" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8730" CreationDate="2014-12-02T14:32:39.603" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some evidence that thought disorder (also called loose association) arises, at least partially, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/34/3/473.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;increased spreading activation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;; schizophrenics, for example, often show a greater increase in activation to indirectly related words compared to unrelated words, than do non-thought disordered controls.  This is primarily a cognitive mechanism, not a biological one, of course, and I have found very little biologically-based explanation of spreading activation itself; it comes from the computational cognitive science end of things, and is often discussed as part of a neural network model of cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To address Alex Stone's comment above, I believe what he is talking about is either Broca's area (the language-dominant hemisphere's inferior frontal gyrus), generally understood to be important for producing language as well as comprehending complex sentences, or Wernicke's area (the language-dominant hemisphere's posterior superior temporal gyrus), which is generally thought to be important for processing the dominant meaning of words as well as understanding nonliteral language such as jokes, sarcasm, etc.  There is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23522907&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;some evidence for a &lt;strong&gt;correlation&lt;/a&gt; between volume reduction in both Broca's and Wernicke's areas, and thought disorder symptoms&lt;/strong&gt;.  Again, however, no mechanism has been suggested; and as with much imaging research, it is at this stage impossible to tell whether the neural abnormalities are the cause of the symptom or themselves a symptom of another cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schizophr Res. 2013 May;146(1-3):308-13. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.02.032.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Schizophr Bull (2008) 34 (3): 473-482. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbm108&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Neural Basis of Semantic Memory, ed. Kraut &amp;amp; Hart (2007).  Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-12-02T14:41:31.660" LastActivityDate="2014-12-02T14:41:31.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8741" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8728" CreationDate="2014-12-02T18:58:51.867" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been a while, but I've always understood the theory to say that the superego, the internalization of values and rules, can cause us to repress ideas that aren't inline with our values. Basically, as we continue to do things that we 'know' are 'wrong' there is a resultant feeling of anxiety, which we often seek to avoid. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are better ways to explain this type of phenomenon though; I would suggest some basic cognitive behaviourism. For instance, if we suggest that a person's thoughts of guilt, let's say around exercise, create a punishing effect, then we can in turn come to associate exercise with the negative feeling of guilt. If we expand out and include the further associations of obesity/guilt and their close association with exercise, we can start to build a theoretical model of why neurotic behaviors develop around exercise. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-edit-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll do a quick edit to respond to the a comment about sources. I was doing some research after I posted this, I managed to find an article discussing how attitudes relate to the avoidance of exercise: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1038/oby.2010.234/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1038/oby.2010.234/full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm having a harder time finding anything specifically talking about exercise and the types of avoidance/escape you see in high anxiety behaviour. Here's an article talking about how avoidance and escape can serve as reinforcing mechanism for phobias: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gracepointwellness.org/1-anxiety-disorders/article/38494-operant-conditioning-and-avoidance-learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.gracepointwellness.org/1-anxiety-disorders/article/38494-operant-conditioning-and-avoidance-learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7192" LastEditorUserId="7192" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T01:27:15.033" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T01:27:15.033" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8742" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8736" CreationDate="2014-12-02T19:07:24.287" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The best evidence for what you are asking comes from amnesic patients. The most famous and most close to the condition you describe was &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaison#Contribution_to_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;patient H.M.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See below some extracts from wikipedia :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Molaison's general condition has been described as heavy anterograde&#xA;  amnesia, as well as temporally graded retrograde amnesia (Smith &amp;amp;&#xA;  Kosslyn, 2007).Since HM did not show any memory impairment before the&#xA;  surgery, the removal of the medial temporal lobes can be held&#xA;  responsible for his memory disorder. Consequently, the medial temporal&#xA;  lobes can be assumed to be a major component involved in the formation&#xA;  of semantic and episodic long-term memories&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Despite his amnesic symptoms, Molaison performed quite normally in&#xA;  tests of intellectual ability, indicating that some memory functions&#xA;  (e.g., short-term stores, stores for words, phonemes, etc.) were not&#xA;  impaired by the surgery (Smith &amp;amp; Kosslyn, 2007; Corkin, 2002).&#xA;  However, for sentence-level language comprehension and production,&#xA;  Molaison exhibited the same deficits and sparing as in memory (MacKay,&#xA;  James, Taylor &amp;amp; Marian, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In addition to his intact working memory and intellectual abilities,&#xA;  studies of Molaison's ability to acquire new motor skills demonstrated&#xA;  preserved motor learning (Corkin, 2002). In a study conducted by&#xA;  Milner in the early 1960s, Molaison acquired the new skill of drawing&#xA;  a figure by looking at its reflection in a mirror (Corkin, 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Experiments involving repetition priming underscored Molaison's&#xA;  ability to acquire implicit (non-conscious) memories, in contrast to&#xA;  his inability to acquire new explicit semantic and episodic memories&#xA;  (Corkin, 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2014-12-02T19:07:24.287" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8743" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-02T19:32:42.337" Score="4" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are various ways of writing down dreams upon awakening in one's dream journal. I've seen long, detailed descriptions that read like novels and take a page or two. Then there are terse notes of place, action and characters. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In both cases, it is possible that the dream is forgotten, and upon reading the description, no recall happens, instead the mind starts to visualize the writing anew.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me ask - &lt;strong&gt;Is there a key feature of a dream that prompts recall upon reading/thinking it?&lt;/strong&gt; Is it a place, a feeling or something else? Is it recalling a known dream, then reading the description? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in my current dream journal, i note the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Record the location, note indoors/outdoors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Record the main action, focusing on feelings&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Record light level (ex: dark/light)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mention dream characters&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Record the topic of conversation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Record any remembered phrases or response&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the above list is still not guaranteed to trigger recall&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T17:03:57.010" Title="What are the key features of dreams that trigger dream recall in the waking state?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8744" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4996" CreationDate="2014-12-02T19:49:15.723" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is difficult to say that &quot;common sense&quot; is rigidly defined enough to be studied in the way stated above. There are interesting topics concerning common sense in Psychology, but most don't come from the angle you are suggesting. For instance, here is a really decent article discussing cognitive bias and common sense: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.elkinsappsych.com/uploads/8/4/3/5/8435157/cognition-_cognitive_biases_make_common_sense_neither.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.elkinsappsych.com/uploads/8/4/3/5/8435157/cognition-_cognitive_biases_make_common_sense_neither.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also have to consider that common sense doesn't tend to employ rigid enough requirements for theories; we also allow for conflicting theories to serve as 'valid' explanations. Take for instance: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Birds of a feather flock together vs. opposites attract. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7192" LastActivityDate="2014-12-02T19:49:15.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8745" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8743" CreationDate="2014-12-02T20:28:19.400" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;No recall happens when reading the description is probably because one is focusing on reading and visualizing it but not recalling. I think there are different key features to prompt recall for different dreams, since dreams are a mixture of several features, and their proportion or intensities varies in different dreams (Foulkes and Vogel, 1965). E.g., in a dream with intense emotion, emotion/feeling contributes more to the recalling while people, place account more for the recalling in a dream consists of events. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Foulkes, D., &amp;amp; Vogel, G. (1965). Mental activity at sleep onset. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 70(4), 231.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="7138" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T17:03:57.010" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T17:03:57.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8747" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-02T23:17:52.903" Score="4" ViewCount="3174" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first two questions on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nwmtcounseling.com/forms/ncac4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Burns Depression Checklist&lt;/a&gt; ask about (1) Feeling Sad and (2) Feeling Unhappy. Specifically, they ask how much you have experienced:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feeling sad or down in the dumps&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feeling unhappy or blue&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between these two questions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The BDC is from the book Feeling Good, by David Burns.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7194" LastEditorUserId="7194" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T06:25:05.990" LastActivityDate="2014-12-04T16:36:24.133" Title="What is the difference between feeling sad and feeling unhappy?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8749" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10240" CreationDate="2014-12-03T04:59:41.557" Score="3" ViewCount="472" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trypophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Trypophobia&lt;/a&gt; is the &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;alleged pathological fear of objects with irregular patterns of holes, such as beehives, ant hills and lotus seed heads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find some sample pictures that relevant to trypophobia sickening, because they remind me of a human flesh infested with some parasites. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I wondered whether there can be an evolutionary formed reflex making people feel disgust when they see a certain geometrical patterns, to prevent them from being infested.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this sound like a sensible explanation for the reasons behind trypophobia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4916" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-19T16:31:27.237" LastActivityDate="2015-10-30T10:01:28.953" Title="Is fear of parasites an explanation for trypophobia?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8750" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8747" CreationDate="2014-12-03T05:52:14.680" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is common for psychological tests to include multiple items with similar meaning. These items are then combined to form an overall scale score (e.g., depression or depressed thoughts). Multiple items with a similar meaning are used to increase the reliability of measurement, which is also important for validity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think there is a huge difference in meaning between the two items, and presumably they are highly correlated. However, they may provide slightly different connotations to different people. Thus, by having multiple items, the scale may have improved reliability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-03T23:15:04.653" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T23:15:04.653" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8751" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8716" CreationDate="2014-12-03T15:02:11.867" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, you can experience the stroboscopic effect under continuous illumination. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagon-wheel_effect#Under_continuous_illumination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; does a nice job of summarizing relevant findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned in the article, there are two competing theories for how the stroboscopic effect happens under continuous illumination in the human visual system. The first theory is that human visual processing is like a movie camera and it operates on roughly discrete frames. The second theory is that &lt;strong&gt;neural adaptation&lt;/strong&gt; is responsible: the brain adapts to the very regular patterns of motion, which can cause visual after-effects where the opposite pattern is perceived. Overlaying the actual motion with the visual after-effect will 'cancel out' the perceived motion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2856842/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kline and Eaglemen (2008)&lt;/a&gt; present evidence against the discrete sampling hypothesis and supporting the adaptation hypothesis. &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13414-013-0555-5/fulltext.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Macdonald et al. (2014)&lt;/a&gt; present evidence for the discrete sampling account.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2014-12-04T12:45:50.463" LastActivityDate="2014-12-04T12:45:50.463" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8753" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8727" CreationDate="2014-12-03T15:36:41.443" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The current understanding, I believe, is that symptomatic psychiatric disorders may or may not be lifelong according to many factors, but that the susceptibility to them probably is lifelong. Some examples. . .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance-induced_psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Substance-induced psychosis&lt;/a&gt; (which is pretty much what it sounds like) is often though not always temporary.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Certain types and locations of brain tumors may &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2688330/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cause psychotic symptoms&lt;/a&gt;, which may or may not reverse on treatment.&#xA;Afr Health Sci. Dec 2004; 4(3): 190–194.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra073096&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Major depressive disorder&lt;/a&gt; has a highly variable course, and may reoccur or may not.&#xA;N Engl J Med 2008; 358:55-68. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra073096&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-12-03T15:36:41.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8755" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-03T19:42:15.980" Score="0" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the purposes of this question, I will define unconscious/subconscious as the parts of the human mind that are not normally available for introspection or control, but which are still involved in cognition. These parts of the mind might be involved in memory recall or assimilation of information. While I would define communication as receiving a recognizable response to input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Have there been experiments attempting to establish communication with the researchers own unconscious mind?&lt;/strong&gt; If so, what were their results? I'm not looking for &quot;new age&quot; kind of articles, but genuine scientific research findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most &lt;strong&gt;direct&lt;/strong&gt; way of communication that comes to mind would be talking to dream characters in a lucid dream and evaluating their responses upon awakening. Such characters are capable of semi-intelligent speech, and their responses at least casually appear to be related to the question at hand.  A consistent pattern of responses over several dreams might be considered a form of communication. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another experiment I can think of, which uses &lt;strong&gt;non-verbal&lt;/strong&gt; communication would be using some daily activity to consistently triggers a recurring dream setting at night. For example, intense study causing dreams of classrooms or exams. In this case, the setting can be considered a response of unconscious system. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example I can think of is exposing a person to a stimuli which consistently causes  some song to surface and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earworm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;get stuck in one's head&quot; - earworms&lt;/a&gt; during waking cognition. Alternatively, some saying or &lt;strong&gt;thought&lt;/strong&gt; might arise unbidden in response to the stimuli. In this case, this can be considered another form of response. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been scientific experiments along the lines described above? What would be the term I would use to search for &quot;communicating with unconscious&quot; in a scientific setting?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2014-12-05T00:19:16.217" LastActivityDate="2014-12-05T00:19:16.217" Title="Have there been any scientific experiments attempting to communicate with one's unconscious mind?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8756" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-04T00:30:19.773" Score="9" ViewCount="1323" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently applying to graduate programs in Computer Science in the United States for admission next fall. I am particularly interested in the convergence of Computer Science and Computational Neuroscience, particularly in biologically-realistic neural computation and the analysis of human brain circuits and algorithms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The faculty of most Computer Science departments I'm looking at, however, do not seem to be directly involved with Computational Neuroscience, and Neuroscience as a whole is dealt with as a separate department with faculty mostly from biology and psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know whether there exist particular universities with Computer Science departments where there is an active research group working on Neuroscience and brain circuitry. Also, if I were to apply to universities where the Computer Science and Neuroscience departments are completely disparate, how could I possibly go about convincing the admissions department about the interdisciplinary research that I'd like to undertake, without undermining my entire application?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I apologize if this isn't the right place to post this question. I considered posting it on academia, but it seemed a bit too specific a subject for it to belong there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7201" LastActivityDate="2014-12-07T22:12:46.107" Title="Research groups in Computer Science which study Computational Neuroscience" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8757" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8756" CreationDate="2014-12-04T01:43:31.263" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;My general advice would be to start by tracking down the faculty that are doing the kind of research you want to do. A good way to do this is to identify journal articles that appeal to you, and then figure out what lab they originated from. The labs might be in a computer science department, a neuroscience department, or even a computational neuroscience department. If the lab seems interesting, then evaluate the program to see if it seems like a good fit. For most graduate programs, individual faculty members have a lot of input into admissions. If there is someone who does the kind of work you want to do, then they are more likely to support your application.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://fairhalllab.com/2013/06/14/pursuing-computational-neuroscience/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This article&lt;/a&gt; has some really helpful advice about how to pursue computational neuroscience in programs that are not specifically 'computational neuroscience' programs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there are some computational neuroscience programs, where interdisciplinary research will be the norm. A small sample of the ones that I am aware of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bu.edu/neuro/graduate/computational-neuroscience/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Boston University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.salk.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;UC San Diego&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnbc.cmu.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition at CMU/Pitt&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-12-04T01:43:31.263" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8758" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8756" CreationDate="2014-12-04T03:20:03.657" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what you describe, computational neuroscience programs should fit your interests as they are highly multidisciplinary. Josh gave a great answer, so I only wanted to add the following. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://home.earthlink.net/~perlewitz/centers.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This website&lt;/a&gt; contains links to various programs and labs that match your interests. Some are European but you can ignore them.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I don't remember if it is mentioned in the above website but Caltech has a program that you might know and it's called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.caltech.edu&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural Systems and computation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.csd.cs.cmu.edu/research/areas/compneuro/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Computer Science department&lt;/a&gt; of Carnegie Mellon has faculty doing research in computational neuroscience&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-12-04T12:06:46.580" LastActivityDate="2014-12-04T12:06:46.580" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8759" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8755" CreationDate="2014-12-04T09:19:12.297" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In order to find such studies, it's a good idea to start off with mapping out what kind of situations would be relevant - that is, in what cases would it even be possible to communicate with someone's unconsciousnes?&#xA;Then you need to define what kind of communication you are interested in. &#xA;Here are some ways to find some kind of unconscious communication: Sleepwalkers, hypnosis(highly controversial), vegetative states and the like, subliminal messages, facial expressions, etc. &#xA;As such, the short answer to your question is &quot;yes&quot;. The long answer is that your question is too wide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an article on using unconscious communication as a way of identifying narcissism:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this paper I suggest that analytical material implicitly carries in it a message proceeding from the unconscious and which is transmitted through representations. The message is expressed only when the object is recognized as such by the subject. In the narcissistic situation the unconscious message is not emitted. &#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/3667086&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/3667086&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An article on communicating with patients suffering from trauma:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The interface among trauma, dissociation, and regression is discussed in the context of unconscious communication as a transferential enactment of unsymbolized experience.The view is offered that for certain patients in particular, past experience is not so much unconscious as “frozen in time” and that a key element of the psychoanalytic relationship is bridging dissociated aspects of self through the creation of a dyadic experiential field that is both “inside” and “outside.”&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10481889109538911?journalCode=hpsd20#.VIAkl8mZGkU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10481889109538911?journalCode=hpsd20#.VIAkl8mZGkU&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research on facial expressions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies reveal that when people are exposed to emotional facial expressions, they spontaneously react with distinct facial electromyographic (EMG) reactions in emotion-relevant facial muscles. These reactions reflect, in part, a tendency to mimic the facial stimuli. We investigated whether corresponding facial reactions can be elicited when people are unconsciously exposed to happy and angry facial expressions. Through use of the backward-masking technique, the subjects were prevented from consciously perceiving 30-ms exposures of happy, neutral, and angry target faces, which immediately were followed and masked by neutral faces. Despite the fact that exposure to happy and angry faces was unconscious, the subjects reacted with distinct facial muscle reactions that corresponded to the happy and angry stimulus faces. Our results show that both positive and negative emotional reactions can be unconsciously evoked, and particularly that important aspects of emotional face-to-face communication can occur on an unconscious level. &#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/11/1/86.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/11/1/86.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-12-04T09:19:12.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8760" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8203" CreationDate="2014-12-04T10:03:30.993" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;First we need to define what &quot;subliminal messaging&quot; means. I take it you mean to send a subliminal command and make someone obey that command.&#xA;Based on that definition, here's some of what I find from googling:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Effectiveness&#xA;  The effectiveness in subliminal messaging has been demonstrated to prime individual responses and stimulate mild emotional activity.[3][4] Applications, however, often base themselves on the persuasiveness of the message. Importantly, research on action priming has shown that &lt;strong&gt;subliminal stimuli can trigger only those actions that one plans to perform anyway: an action can be triggered subliminally only if the person already has the specific intention to perform this specific action&lt;/strong&gt;.[5] The following sections have more information on specific studies in which the effectiveness of subliminal stimuli are investigated.[6][7]&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An article with several links to research on the topic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 1979 that nearly 50 department stores in the U.S. and Canada had been &lt;strong&gt;using subliminal messages over their music systems which had resulted in a significant reduction in both customer based shoplifting and employee theft&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;  One East Coast chain amounted savings of 600,000 over a nine-month period.&#xA;  Another story in the Wall Street Journal in 1980 stated that subliminal messaging a New Orleans supermarket resulted in an all time low within 6 months of use - from 50,000 per six month period to a figure of 13,000! Furthermore cashier shortages dropped from 125 per week to below 10 per week.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.realsubliminal.com/subliminal-messages-scientific-research&quot;&gt;http://www.realsubliminal.com/subliminal-messages-scientific-research&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subliminal advertising:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;University College London researchers have found the first &lt;strong&gt;physiological evidence that invisible subliminal images do attract the brain's attention on a subconscious level&lt;/strong&gt;. The wider implication for the study, published in Current Biology, is that techniques such as subliminal advertising, now banned in the UK but still legal in the USA, certainly do leave their mark on the brain. &#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/03/070308121938.htm&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/03/070308121938.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More information on subliminal and supraliminal messages and the differences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Generally, there are three types of subliminal messages&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;  1. Subvisual messages – visual cues that are flashed so quickly (generally a few milliseconds) that people don’t perceive them.&#xA;  2. Subaudible messages – low volume audio cues that are inserted into a louder audio source, such as music.&#xA;  3. Backmasking – an audio message that is recorded backwards, with the intention of playing it forward to disguise the reversed message.&#xA;  Does that mean subliminal messages don’t work? &lt;strong&gt;A few decades ago, researchers would have agreed that subliminal messages were BS. They found little, if any, support that they were effective&lt;/strong&gt; (Vokey &amp;amp; Read, 1985).&#xA;  In recent decades, however, things have been changing. &lt;strong&gt;Emerging research has shown that subliminal messages can influence our thoughts and behavior&lt;/strong&gt; (see Kunst-Wilson &amp;amp; Zajonc, 1980 for one of the first notable studies).&#xA;  For instance, &lt;strong&gt;new research has shown that subliminal messages in advertising can, in fact, influence our purchasing behavior&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, participants in one study were significantly more likely to choose a Lipton Ice drink when they were subliminally primed with “Lipton Ice” (Karremans, Stroebe, &amp;amp; Claus, 2006). Pretty cool.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nickkolenda.com/subliminal-messages/&quot;&gt;http://www.nickkolenda.com/subliminal-messages/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;..And lots more articles, if you were to ask a more specific question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-12-04T10:03:30.993" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8761" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8747" CreationDate="2014-12-04T16:36:24.133" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that there is some difference, at least to me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All emotions are results of thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sadness is most likely a result of negative thoughts about past or future (and, therefore, disconnecting from present moment).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Feeling unhappy&quot; is often misunderstood, because people often mistake true happiness for external stimulation/excitement. So I think what people are experiencing, when they say they're feeling blue, is simple lack of excitement. It doesn't have much in common with happiness (which is almost the opposite - it comes from the inside and is permanent).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6455" LastActivityDate="2014-12-04T16:36:24.133" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8762" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8988" CreationDate="2014-12-05T01:48:53.433" Score="8" ViewCount="519" Body="&lt;p&gt;Meditation practice focuses on emotional acceptance (Teper &amp;amp; Inzlicht, 2013), and self-regulation is related to emotional control (Braumeister, 2003). Could someone provide me with pointers to some models/theories or related literature (if there is any) contrasting these two mental states?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Teper, R., &amp;amp; Inzlicht, M. (2013). Meditation, mindfulness and executive control: the importance of emotional acceptance and brain-based performance monitoring. &lt;em&gt;Social cognitive and affective neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 8(1), 85-92.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Ego depletion and self‐regulation failure: A resource model of self‐control. &lt;em&gt;Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research&lt;/em&gt;, 27(2), 281-284.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-01-07T17:50:39.110" Title="Are there any theories suggesting mindfulness is the opposite mental state to self-regulation?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8764" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8910" CreationDate="2014-12-05T09:58:15.327" Score="6" ViewCount="937" Body="&lt;p&gt;In their seminal paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v436/n7052/abs/nature03721.html&quot;&gt;Hafting, Torkel, et al. &quot;&lt;em&gt;Microstructure of a spatial map in the entorhinal cortex&lt;/em&gt;.&quot; Nature 436.7052 (2005): 801-806.‏&lt;/a&gt; the Mosers have discovered the grid cells. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To show the existence of these cells, they have counted spikes as a function of location, plotted (figure 1.b) a rate map and finally the most known figures of autocorrelogram which beautifully visualize the grid response pattern of these cells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Auto-correlation is measured between a signal and itself (e.g. when one of the signals is shifted in time). &lt;strong&gt;My question is&lt;/strong&gt;, what is the signal from which the autoelectrogram is calculated and what are the different states of that signal, between which the correlation is calculated (explanation is given at the paper's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v436/n7052/extref/nature03721-s1.pdf&quot;&gt;methods section&lt;/a&gt;, but it still didn't help me much). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7212" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2014-12-05T13:16:19.257" LastActivityDate="2014-12-24T09:35:38.723" Title="Grid cells : Between what is the correlation of autocorrelogram measured?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4588" CreationDate="2014-12-05T12:38:09.750" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Seizures induced by stroboscopic lights are an example of reflex seizures. This type of epilepsy includes seizures evoked by touch and movements as well. The mechanism behind generalized reflex seizures (generalized epilepsy, as opposed to partial epilepsies, is accompanied by a loss of consciousness) was abstracted nicely by &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/brain/128/4/700.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ferlazzo &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, 2005&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Patients with [] generalized reflex seizures appear to have regions of cortical hyperexcitability overlapping or coinciding with areas physiologically activated&#xA;  during specific sensory stimulations and cognitive or motor activities. When these areas receive appropriate afferent volleys and a critical mass of cortex is activated, an epileptic activity is produced that ultimately involves cortico-reticular or cortico-cortical pathways resulting in a generalized or bilateral epileptic event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, stimuli such as stroboscopic light evoke activity in sensory cortex. If the area of excitation is large enough and occurs in a region of the brain that has an epileptic focus (hyperexcitable cortex) than it may trigger a seizure characterized by an uncontrolled wave of activity spreading across the cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically for flashing-light induced seizures it is thought that seizures start in the visual cortex in the occipital lobe due to impaired cortical mechanisms of contrast gain control for certain visual patterns, producing an abnormal excitatory response to patterns of relatively low temporal frequency and high luminance contrast. Specifically, the seizures may be caused by a loss of control over high-frequency oscillatory processes that normally operate transiently to connect the involved neural assemblies. Generalized seizures can occur if normal excitation of visual cortex involves a ‘critical mass’ of synchronized activity in a cortical area with synchronization and subsequent spreading of excitation from the occipital lobe trigger zone (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15791146&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Parra &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2005&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/brain/128/4/700.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ferlazzo &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Brain&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;128&lt;/strong&gt;: 700–10&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15791146&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Parra &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Curr Opin Neurol&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;18&lt;/strong&gt;(2):155-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-13T06:15:33.137" LastActivityDate="2015-08-13T06:15:33.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8767" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8764" CreationDate="2014-12-05T13:09:11.967" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The recorded signal&lt;/em&gt; are &lt;strong&gt;spike responses (action potentials)&lt;/strong&gt; (p.2 Method section), the &lt;em&gt;different states&lt;/em&gt; are &lt;strong&gt;spike rates&lt;/strong&gt; (p.4), and the calculated &lt;em&gt;correlation&lt;/em&gt; is determined between &lt;strong&gt;spike rates and maze coordinates&lt;/strong&gt; (p.5). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-06T05:42:51.650" LastActivityDate="2014-12-06T05:42:51.650" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8768" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-05T22:54:03.320" Score="-1" ViewCount="832" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can  this question be answered in terms of the relationship between handedness and hemispheric asymmetry. so the left hand controlled by the right hemisphere, and right hand controlled by left hemisphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7215" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-07T23:10:17.557" LastActivityDate="2014-12-07T23:10:17.557" Title="Are the two halves of the brain mirror images of each other?" Tags="&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2014-12-13T20:34:00.120" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8770" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8771" CreationDate="2014-12-06T05:00:09.563" Score="4" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of my teachers in Computer Science explained this idea about requirements:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Product owners don't know what they want, they need a feedback loop of requirements gathering to push them to say precisely what the requirements should be. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know there are plenty of exceptions to this, but in my experience this has been generally true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He explained that it was related to an idea in psychology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;What is the name of the concept in psychology that makes requirements hard to articulate?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastActivityDate="2014-12-08T18:33:50.330" Title="What is the name of the concept in psychology that makes requirements hard to articulate?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8771" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8770" CreationDate="2014-12-06T18:15:25.067" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the concept you are looking for is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacit_knowledge&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tacit Knowledge&lt;/a&gt; (aslo known as implicit knowledge).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main reason that users cannot articulate what they want, is that they do not have any conscious access to the knowledge they have acquired over the many years of practice. That’s why an iterative process is needed to bring the tacit knowledge on users awareness, so that they can articulate it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definition from wikipedia :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tacit knowledge (as opposed to formal, codified or explicit knowledge)&#xA;  is the kind of knowledge that is difficult to transfer to another&#xA;  person by means of writing it down or verbalizing it. For example,&#xA;  stating to someone that London is in the United Kingdom is a piece of&#xA;  explicit knowledge that can be written down, transmitted, and&#xA;  understood by a recipient. However, the ability to speak a language,&#xA;  knead dough, use algebra, or design and use complex equipment&#xA;  requires all sorts of knowledge that is not always known explicitly,&#xA;  even by expert practitioners, and which is difficult or impossible to&#xA;  explicitly transfer to other users.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2014-12-08T18:33:50.330" LastActivityDate="2014-12-08T18:33:50.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8772" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8768" CreationDate="2014-12-06T19:33:38.413" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Are the two halves of the brain mirror images of each other&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if this will answer your question but here goes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we look at the two hemispheres say from a axial view (looking down from the top), we'd find there's some asymmetry there. In terms of internal brain structures and &quot;regions&quot; yes, what's in the left hemisphere is also in the right hemisphere. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we then look at function or &quot;activity&quot; related to certain actions and or cognitive processes in a &quot;neural typical&quot;(brain of a &quot;normal&quot; person) you'd again see some asymmetries. For example, spoken and written language is USUALLY , primarily &quot;processed&quot; by the left hemisphere. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a contralateral nature in terms of wiring for the left and right portions of our brains and body &amp;amp; this may just be a consequence of wiring. However, if say you take a patient who's missing some portion of their brain, in the left hemisphere, where there is an association of some function to activity in that brain area and if this is the condition from a very early age, what you find is the right hemisphere for that area will take over that function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If they have the same structures, same sulci and gyri, and can take over the function of the other half(to an extent) when the other half is damaged does this mean they are mirror images? I don't know. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, it's difficult to give a definitive answer for this (at least with my limited knowledge).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7217" LastEditorUserId="7217" LastEditDate="2014-12-06T19:41:12.173" LastActivityDate="2014-12-06T19:41:12.173" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8773" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8784" CreationDate="2014-12-06T21:57:45.353" Score="6" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently got to wondering whether certain eye movements or pupillary responses were correlated with disorders of consciousness (coma, VS, MCS, or even locked-in syndrome).  I know that the pupillary response to a direct light-source is part of the usual coma evaluation scale, but my question deals more with resting-state oculomotor activity or stimulus-evoked responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of such research might be (for example) a paper in which changes in pupil response co-varies with conscious-state changes in an MCS patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anybody know of any such research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2014-12-08T12:56:58.570" LastActivityDate="2015-04-23T10:37:12.267" Title="Relationship between oculometry/pupillometry and disorders of consciousness" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8774" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8046" CreationDate="2014-12-07T01:16:25.950" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although both daydreaming and dreaming are created by our own mind, they happen in different mental states. Daydreaming happens in wakefulness, there is still some awareness involved, it's one actively imagine things; while dreaming occurs in sleep usually we are not aware of that we are dreaming unless in lucid dream (LaBerge, 1980). Hope this answers your question why daydream doesn't surprise us but dream does. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LaBerge, S. P. (1980). Lucid dreaming as a learnable skill: A case study. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 51(3f), 1039-1042.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastActivityDate="2014-12-07T01:16:25.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8775" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8653" CreationDate="2014-12-07T01:42:54.950" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your experience with more dream following dream recall can be explained in this paper, Effect of encouragement on dream recall (Halliday, 1992). People experience lighter sleep when they recall dream upon awakening (Shapiro, Goodenough, &amp;amp; Gryler, 1963), Armitage (1992) reported that males had more dream recall in low stress days while females showed the opposite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Armitage, R. (1992). Gender differences and the effect of stress on dream recall: A 30-day diary report. Dreaming, 2(3), 137. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0094354&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0094354&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Halliday, G. (1992). Effect of encouragement on dream recall. Dreaming, 2(1), 39.&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0094346&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0094346&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shapiro, A., Goodenough, D. R., &amp;amp; Gryler, R. B. (1963). Dream recall as a function of method of awakening. Psychosomatic medicine, 25(2), 174-180.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="7138" LastEditDate="2014-12-07T15:10:17.550" LastActivityDate="2014-12-07T15:10:17.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8776" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8352" CreationDate="2014-12-07T04:37:06.377" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A bad teacher would explain things in a manner that's harder to digest, when compared to a good teacher. However, in general, for any teacher, even a tutor, it is easier to concentrate because the prefrontal cortex is reminded continuously of the goal (of learning). This is called goal-directed behavior. Learning alone, however, makes it harder to concentrate at the same level. I may have misunderstood what you you were looking for in the answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastActivityDate="2014-12-07T04:37:06.377" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8778" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8540" CreationDate="2014-12-07T14:37:58.147" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is quite broad, firstly, because these tests measure different (though interrelated) cognitive faculties and at different developmental stages and secondly because there is a lot to say for each sensory impairment. However, it touches on quite interesting topics for which there have been many studies and I think a summary of the findings can be made without being too big. For this purpose, it will be more useful to talk about the capacities that are associated with the tests rather than just studies with these tests, in order to get the bigger picture. Also , I would like to point that my answer is almost entirely about visual and auditory impairment because that is what I could find. If anyone knows of anything else, feel free to edit my post.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally%E2%80%93Anne_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sally-Anne test&lt;/a&gt; is used by developmental psychologists to test the ability to attribute &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind#False-belief_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;false belief&lt;/a&gt; which is a measure of one's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind#False-belief_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;theory of mind&lt;/a&gt;. Theory of mind is the &quot;&lt;em&gt;ability to attribute mental states — beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc. — to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that are different from one's own&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. As you described, this skill is almost fully developed at around 5 years of age.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mirror test&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_test#Rouge_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rouge test&lt;/a&gt; (specifically for human infants) is used by develompental psychologists to test &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-awareness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self recognition/self awareness&lt;/a&gt; which can be defined as &quot;&lt;em&gt;the ability to become aware of one’s own mental&#xA;and bodily states (e.g. perceptions, attitudes, opinions,&#xA;intentions to act) as one’s own mental and bodily states&lt;/em&gt;&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12517357&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Vogeley &amp;amp; Fink, 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. As you described infants pass this test around 18 months of age, however it has been suggested that self-awareness should not be viewed as a unitary achievement but rather as a process that has successive stages being fully developed at around 5 years of age &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.emory.edu/cognition/rochat/Five%20levels%20.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Rochat, 2003)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both these tests have to do with the sense of self as distinct from other beings which according to the proposed developmental pattern that it follows is also not to be treated in a unitary fashion (for a review see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.google.gr/books?hl=el&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=88b0ru42ACQC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA139&amp;amp;dq=Baumeister%20the%20self&amp;amp;ots=it4ISl1Kds&amp;amp;sig=VDUHXSrN9NYRXRbWNRhrZ8efUTE&amp;amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Baumeister%20the%20self&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Baumeister, 2010&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://ns1.fidushost.ro/~devpsych/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/y4t7x_Geangu_ccc_mar2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Geangu, 2008&lt;/a&gt;). Theory of mind is more associated with the aspect of self which is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_self#Interpersonal_self&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;interpersonal self&lt;/a&gt; while self recognition as measured by the mirror test is associated with what has been called as bodily self or body image (&lt;a href=&quot;http://ns1.fidushost.ro/~devpsych/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/y4t7x_Geangu_ccc_mar2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Geangu, 2008&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So referring to your question about the effect of sensory impairment to these abilities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Regarding the theory of mind, there have been studies on blind and deaf children.&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193397305000511&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Yagmurlu et al (2005)&lt;/a&gt; summarized such studies in their article. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research with deaf children has emphasized the role of environment, particularly exposure to&#xA;  conversation, in theory of mind development (Peterson &amp;amp; Siegal, 2000). In their review, Peterson and&#xA;  Siegal (2000) have shown that children’s access to conversation is correlated with theory of mind&#xA;  development. They found that profoundly deaf children with hearing parents who generally have almost&#xA;  no access to any communication means until they start school are more severely impaired in theory of&#xA;  mind development than orally trained deaf children who use hearing aids or deaf children with deaf&#xA;  parents who use sign language from an early age (Peterson &amp;amp; Siegal, 1998, 1999; Woolfe, Want, &amp;amp;&#xA;  Siegal, 2002) Further, Peterson and Siegal (2000) argue that early conversations, especially those about&#xA;  imaginary or abstract ideas, or about beliefs appear to be necessary cognitive input in theory of mind&#xA;  development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research on children with visual impairment also shows that these children are delayed in theory of&#xA;  mind development (Green, Pring, &amp;amp; Swettenham, 2004; McAlpine &amp;amp; Moore, 1995; Minter, Hobson, &amp;amp;&#xA;  Bishop, 1998; Peterson, Peterson, &amp;amp; Webb, 2000). Visual impairment may limit communication with&#xA;  parents due to lack of shared visual experience (Minter et al, 1998), and may also impair understanding&#xA;  what is in others’ minds because access to visual cues is cut (Peterson et al., 2000). Despite this&#xA;  disadvantage, language skills of visually impaired children continue to improve, and their social&#xA;  experiences with peers and teachers become richer, which contribute to a gradual acquisition of theory of&#xA;  mind skills (Green et al., 2004)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reviewing the findings of some of the above studies Malle &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/3317/1/Evol_of_language_%26_ToM.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(2002)&lt;/a&gt; suggested that anything that prevents the development of language and communication in general, is likely to cause a delay in the development of theory mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Regarding the mirror test, as it is dependent on visual cues alone, I don't think blind people would be able to pass it, while there is no reason to expect that people with hearing or olfactory impairment wouldn't pass it. Of course an inability to pass this test does not lead to the conclusion that blind people and especially congenitally blind people lack a sense of self and specifically a body image. This is likely achieved through different sensory inputs. Geangu &lt;a href=&quot;http://ns1.fidushost.ro/~devpsych/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/y4t7x_Geangu_ccc_mar2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(2008)&lt;/a&gt; noted that while a perceptual sense of self requires the integration of sensory information such as visual, auditory, tactile and kinesthetic, it is the proprioception and visual processing of the body that have  higher relevance for the construction of a personal representation of one’s body in space. &lt;a href=&quot;http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/kinsbourne%20%281998%29%20awareness%20of%20one%27s%20own%20body.%20an%20attentional%20theory%20of%20its%20nature,%20development,%20and%20brain%20basis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bermudez (1998)&lt;/a&gt; had a slightly different opinion.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The developing child may first acquire&#xA;  a sense of self when it becomes able selectively to attend , in however ill&#xA;  differentiated a fashion , to its individual body parts in the somatosensory&#xA;  modality . It would then become acquainted with the internal causal consistency&#xA;  of their positions and displacements relative to its own volitions .&#xA;  The assumption that the visual channel soon reveals to the infant which&#xA;  body parts are its own (Neisser 1978) may be mistaken . Logically , the visual&#xA;  channel should soon betray which (body) parts are always present and&#xA;  one&#xA;  '&#xA;  s own and which (external ) objects are present only sometimes&#xA;  (Neisser 1978)&#xA;  . But the mechanisms for accomplishing this during development&#xA;  (Gibson 1969, Bower 1974) may follow rather than precede somatosensory&#xA;  attending . Poeck and Orgass (1964a, 1964b) found that blind&#xA;  children developed knowledge of their body at about the same age as&#xA;  sighted children&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, maybe blind people can rely on auditory input from early age to form a sense of self and this view is supported by a recent imaging study &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.pku.edu.cn/~hanshihui/2011/2011%20Ma%20and%20Han%20Brain%20reprint.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Ma &amp;amp; Han, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, to conclude this section, while I didn't find enough empirical data on blindness or anything on deafness to support a typical development of self awareness in these people, I don't think there are enough reasons to think that such a developmental delay occurs when these sensory systems are impaired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastActivityDate="2014-12-07T14:37:58.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8779" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8756" CreationDate="2014-12-07T22:12:46.107" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would also recommend to subscribe to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnbc.cmu.edu/connectionists&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;connectionist mailing list&quot;&gt;connectionist mailing list here&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neuroinf.org/mailman/listinfo/comp-neuro&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Computational neuroscience mailinglist&quot;&gt;comp-neuro mailing list here&lt;/a&gt; where you can find frequent announcements of (new) PhD and master programs in computational neuroscience, besides conferences, workshops all over the world and other interesting things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7220" LastActivityDate="2014-12-07T22:12:46.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8780" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-08T02:03:10.313" Score="2" ViewCount="2761" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is general level of concordance for twins and is it higher for monozygotic twins?&#xA;What research is available on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7219" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-13T18:21:00.737" LastActivityDate="2016-06-19T14:42:18.017" Title="What is the concordance rate for schizophrenia in monozygotic and dizygotic twins?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;&lt;twin-study&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8781" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8780" CreationDate="2014-12-08T03:35:09.850" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia article seems to provide a summary of this information with links to the primary literature&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_schizophrenia#Genetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_schizophrenia#Genetics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Concordance rates between monozygotic twins vary in different studies,&#xA;  approximately 50%; whereas dizygotic twins was 17%. Some twin&#xA;  studies (Koskenvuo et al; Hoeffer et al) have found rates as low as 11.0%–13.8% among&#xA;  monozygotic twins, and 1.8%–4.1% among dizygotic twins, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Koskenvuo M, Langinvainio H, Kaprio J, Lönnqvist J, Tienari P; Langinvainio; Kaprio; Lönnqvist; Tienari (1984). &quot;Psychiatric hospitalization in twins&quot;. Acta Genet Med Gemellol (Roma) 33 (2): 321–32. PMID 6540965.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hoeffer A, Pollin W; Pollin (November 1970). &quot;Schizophrenia in the NAS-NRC panel of 15,909 veteran twin pairs&quot;. Arch Gen Psychiatry 23 (5): 469–77. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1970.01750050085012. PMID 5478575.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2014-12-08T03:35:09.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8784" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8773" CreationDate="2014-12-08T12:17:09.030" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have listed several articles below for your reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Search terms: &quot;&lt;strong&gt;oculometry pupillometry disorders of consciousness&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; in Google Scholar, nothing special):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3920102/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Grandchamp et al, 2014, DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00031&lt;/a&gt; - A primary research article related to consciousness (mind wandering) where the authors investigated various pupillometric responses, among other measures. Good journal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Search terms: &quot;&lt;strong&gt;pupillometry consciousness&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; in Google scholar):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pps.sagepub.com/content/7/1/18.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Laeng et al., 2012, DOI 10.1177/1745691611427305&lt;/a&gt; - Nice looking review on pupillometry and consciousness that should be a good source of additional references;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0018298&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Smallwood et al., 2011, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018298&lt;/a&gt; - A primary research article on attention and perception in Plos One. It is open source, but not my favorite journal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-23T10:37:12.267" LastActivityDate="2015-04-23T10:37:12.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8785" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-08T13:17:22.933" Score="5" ViewCount="2023" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some background to explain my question:&#xA;I recently overheard a conversation, between two men working in the same firm.&#xA;One of them (A) is thinking about finding a new job, as he is not happy where he is. The other (B) says &quot;A, you have very valuable skills in this, nobody else knows as much as you do about this! You will have no problem at all finding a better job!&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can see and hear that A is very hesitant to find a new job, he looks uncertain and not convinced that he will indeed find a better job.&#xA;A says he feels a need for external validation. A does not seem to have low self-esteem, so the need for external validation seems to be unrelated to self-esteem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In the Big 5, which personality trait(s) would explain such a need for external validation?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Neuroticism and agreeableness might be able to answer the question, but that depends on the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Would a high-neuroticism low-agreeableness person crave for external validation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is high agreeableness alone enough to make someone crave for external validation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is high neuroticism alone enough to make someone crave for external validation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-04-27T10:39:14.363" LastActivityDate="2017-10-07T15:10:59.993" Title="Which personality trait(s) characterize high need for external validation?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8786" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-08T13:45:59.213" Score="1" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has there been study done in regards to the phenomenon of avoiding thinking about things that would emotionally trigger depression or anxiety?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I mean is, a person will think about something randomly, and if they don't push the thoughts away immediately, they will start to obsess over those thoughts and become depressed. Is this a known phenomenon? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7225" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-09T00:38:03.527" LastActivityDate="2015-03-09T02:22:34.737" Title="Research on avoiding thinking about things that trigger depression or anxiety" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8787" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5290" CreationDate="2014-12-08T15:27:33.160" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I interpret your question as a search for all kinds of characteristics for habitually non-aggressive people. &#xA;Logically you could also put your question this way: What is characteristic only for people who are generally aggressive? How do you tell the difference between someone generally aggressive and someone not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some things that recognize above average habitual aggression:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Biochemicals&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zinc deficiency can lead to symptoms that include aggression and violence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Low serotonin leads to increased aggression.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;High testosterone (males are more prone!)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Abnormal glucose metabolism&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Brain functions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Temporal lobe issues, including temporal lobe epilepsy: &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/123/2/234&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/123/2/234&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amygdala properties: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22256828&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22256828&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Emotions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anger, frustration, jealousy and fear can all lead to aggression. We all know that many criminals have had bad childhoods, were bullyed at school, grew up without their parents or other sad things.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Investigators from the Université de Montréal in Canada found that negative behavior at age 6, such as fighting, disobedience, and a lack of empathy, predicted criminal convictions by age 24.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/781279&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/781279&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Depression is sometimes linked to aggression: &lt;a href=&quot;http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/15/4/271.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/15/4/271.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bipolar Disorder:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The study concluded: &quot;BP, particularly during acute episodes, is associated with increased self-reported verbal and physical aggression, anger, and hostility. - See more at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/bipolar-disorder/risk-aggressive-behavior-bipolar-disorder#sthash.N8E37ibO.dpuf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/bipolar-disorder/risk-aggressive-behavior-bipolar-disorder#sthash.N8E37ibO.dpuf&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/bipolar-disorder/risk-aggressive-behavior-bipolar-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/bipolar-disorder/risk-aggressive-behavior-bipolar-disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kids who constantly expect rejection are more aggressive and get into trouble more with teachers than do their classmates.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Competitive cultures, the realistic conflict theory: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realistic_conflict_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realistic_conflict_theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Genes&lt;/strong&gt;: Some say that 50% of aggressivenes is caused by genes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Low Agreeableness: As mentioned in the post by Nick Stauner&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;High Neuroticism: Facet N2, Angry Hostility makes a person annoyed, angry, frustrated, bitter, intolerant, and have a bad temper, short fuse.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Learned aggression&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Studies have shown that children imitate the behavior of grownups and cartoons (see Bobo doll experiment). They imitate both physical behavior and aggressive attitudes. This is especially the case when they observe someone behave aggression without being punished for it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The bobo doll experiment indicates that children with aggressive parents are likely to imitate their parents' behavior - which is also supported by studies:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dick's research found that three factors can predict violence in men with 88 percent accuracy: Men who have witnessed their fathers abuse their mothers, men who are victims of a father's abuse themselves and men who have low self-esteem are the most likely to be violent themselves. &#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uc.edu/info-services/batter.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.uc.edu/info-services/batter.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Desensitizing is when an individual is exposed to a stimuli often enough to become less sensitive to it. This may happen in several ways, like TV-shows\movies, military training, bad childhoods or sub cultural norms.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desensitization_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desensitization_%28psychology%29&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parenting mistakes like giving up and giving a child what it wants because it won't stop crying - it will teach the child that the behavior leads to something it wants (reinforcement, think Pavlovs dogs). It may be hard to ignore a child that beats other children, but some children will do such things exactly because they know it gives them the attention they want.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Social norms&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-84653-3_9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-84653-3_9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stress&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;See Friedman and Rosenman's Type A personality: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_A_and_Type_B_personality_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_A_and_Type_B_personality_theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the mentioned causes are long-lasting or even permanent.&#xA;So there isn't any short or easy answer as to what makes a person aggressive.&#xA;All I can say is that people who are habitually aggressive have some kind of...issue... and they can't really help it, because most of these causes have no simple treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-12-08T15:27:33.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8788" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-12-08T16:36:30.483" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2014-12-08T16:36:30.483" LastActivityDate="2014-12-08T16:36:30.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8789" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-12-08T16:36:30.483" Score="0" Body="For questions about the effect of social processes on the brain and the neural basis of social cognition and behaviour." OwnerUserId="6610" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-12-15T14:46:27.270" LastActivityDate="2014-12-15T14:46:27.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8790" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-12-08T16:40:16.017" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2014-12-08T16:40:16.017" LastActivityDate="2014-12-08T16:40:16.017" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8791" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-12-08T16:40:16.017" Score="0" Body="An implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus, without the person having awareness of it" OwnerUserId="6610" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-12-15T14:46:16.870" LastActivityDate="2014-12-15T14:46:16.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8792" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8572" CreationDate="2014-12-08T17:56:50.733" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Preliminary answer I intend to improve later. Stumbled upon this in the context of description of how people read:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mona.uwi.edu/cop/sites/default/files/resource/files/plugin-26851_Chapter_1_The_Reading_Brain,_Literacy_Instruction,_and_RTI.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper on readin (Sousa, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;, novice readers internally verbalize written words of English and German using &lt;strong&gt;&quot;an area of the brain just above and behind Wernicke's area&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;. This area then communicates with the Broca's area and the frontal lobe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Found &lt;a href=&quot;http://scicurious.scientopia.org/2013/01/23/silent-reading-isnt-so-silent-at-least-not-to-your-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this additional article which mentions that people use the same area of the brain when reading silently as when listening actively&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-08-21T14:48:27.597" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T14:48:27.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8794" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8786" CreationDate="2014-12-08T18:42:32.147" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, one way to break this &lt;em&gt;cycle&lt;/em&gt; is to examine the intensity of the anxiety, or the propensity to think anxiety-inducing thoughts, in different locations, home, shopping, gym, library, movie. Breaking the &lt;em&gt;cycle&lt;/em&gt; by limiting time spent in the anxiety-inducing location is beneficial because triggering depression might trigger more anxiety-inducing thoughts, which will add to the depression...etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastActivityDate="2014-12-08T18:42:32.147" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8795" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-08T18:59:30.583" Score="7" ViewCount="289" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find a clear explanation of the difference between Logan's instance theory &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/logan/Logan_2002_PR.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Logan, 2002)&lt;/a&gt; and the Exemplar-Based Random Walk theory &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/nosofsky/pubs/1997_rmn-tjp_pr_an.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Nosofsky &amp;amp; Palmari, 1997)&lt;/a&gt;. Am I mistaken that they are two separate ways of dealing with the question of time and speed of categorization and the Generalized Context Model &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/nosofsky/pubs/1986_rmn_jep-g_attention.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Nosofsky, 1986)&lt;/a&gt;? If anyone knows the details of this, I'd be seriously grateful for some help as I am studying abroad in a second language and am finding this topic difficult. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7226" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-08T23:18:49.273" LastActivityDate="2014-12-08T23:18:49.273" Title="Difference between Logan's Instance theory and Exemplar-Based Random Walk (EBRW) theory" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8796" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2014-12-08T21:03:12.400" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2014-12-08T21:03:12.400" LastActivityDate="2014-12-08T21:03:12.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8797" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2014-12-08T21:03:12.400" Score="0" Body="For questions about the study and measurement of the electrical activity of neurons" OwnerUserId="6610" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2014-12-10T09:53:22.687" LastActivityDate="2014-12-10T09:53:22.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8798" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-08T23:14:34.207" Score="3" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some economists/political scientists/philosophers (it's sometimes hard to classify them) have used in their theories a concept of &quot;empathetic preferences&quot;, also known as &quot;extended sympathy preferences&quot; - by which they they understand a preference of being a person &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; under a circumstance &lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt; than a person &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; under a circumstance &lt;em&gt;q&lt;/em&gt;, i.e. a counterfactual comparison of two different persons under two different situations. One needs to both empathise with two different persons to take into account their different preferences and create his own preference, hence the name empathetic preferences. A problematic concept to say at least, but nothing really important for those who used it (Kenneth Arrow, Patrick Suppes). But &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Binmore&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ken Binmore&lt;/a&gt;, quite a known chap in math, game theory and economics, devised a whole theory explaining humans' natural sense of fairness in which empathetic preferences play a crucial role, grounding interpersonal comparisons of utility (technical exposition in &quot;Game Theory and the Social Contract&quot; from 1994, more readable in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0199791481&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Natural Justice&lt;/a&gt; from 2005&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anything remotely relevant been studied by psychologists/cognitive scientists? Binmore is claiming that empathetic preferences are very similiar to empathy and basically &quot;every properly socialized human being has them&quot;. He also claims that there are tons of research on empathy that support his view, without citing anything relevant. The problem is that he is not &quot;philosophising&quot; them, conjuring them out of nothing like some political philosophers - he claims that this is how human beings work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Binmore's example of empathetic preference - if we know that Eve likes apples and Adam does not mind being naked, we might think &quot;I would rather be Eve eating an apple than Adam wearing a fig leaf&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me this seems utterly implausible, and making such comparison is just impossible. Also, as we are never different persons, why would we be capable of doing that? But it's not like he was some guy on a University of Woolamaloo writing things that only his PhD students read, he's a world-class economist, claiming empirical support of his work, and I'm curious if there is any.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7227" LastActivityDate="2014-12-08T23:14:34.207" Title="Any research on a concept of 'empathetic preferences' used in economics?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8799" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-09T03:50:29.593" Score="3" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; Every time I sprint, I feel smarter the day after. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why would someone feel smarter after they have been sprinting?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7230" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-09T05:45:49.703" LastActivityDate="2014-12-09T18:55:05.783" Title="What makes you feel smarter after sprinting?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;sport-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2014-12-15T14:52:44.350" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8800" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8801" CreationDate="2014-12-09T04:03:23.630" Score="2" ViewCount="1167" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a computer science student and I'm doing something for a psychology professor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have EEG data from an experiment where a person was shown 140 images for 2 seconds each. We placed 64 electrodes on the scalp so we have 64 channels of continuous data. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We want to correlate each node with every other node so that we can graph it using a &lt;a href=&quot;http://bl.ocks.org/mbostock/4062006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;chord diagram&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since my professor is abroad, I am having trouble with the directions he gave me to manipulate the data to get the correlations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Once you are able to read the matrix of channels I suggest subtracting the mean signal from each, filtering to remove noise above 30 Hz.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is how to remove the noise above 30 Hz? For example, data for 1 electrode for 10 milliseconds looks like this (measured in uV):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;[ 31172.50, 31173.53, 31174.80, 31177.34, 31173.73,&#xA;  31172.85, 31172.75, 31172.70, 31174.95, 31178.95]&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The python script I am using also gives this data:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;sampling rate: 1000.0 Hz&#xA;time: 0.0 s to 1883.15 s&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone point me in the right direction what steps to take to remove noise above 30 Hz? And also, is that a good way to compute the correlations between the electrodes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7229" LastActivityDate="2019-07-30T06:22:16.920" Title="How to filter noise in EEG data" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8801" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8800" CreationDate="2014-12-09T05:23:45.720" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Removal of noise&lt;/em&gt; can be done in various ways:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conventional filters&lt;/strong&gt;: You could create a digital low-pass filter, such as a Chebyshev or Butterworth filter with a cut-off frequency at 30 Hz (&lt;em&gt;filt&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;filtfilt&lt;/em&gt; function in Matlab).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;FFT-based filtering&lt;/strong&gt;: FIR filters remove frequencies in the frequency domain. So first a Fourier transform is done and then the frequencies &gt;30 Hz can be removed from the signal simply by assigning '0' to the FFT coefficients at &gt;30 Hz. A reverse FFT then brings your signal back (&lt;em&gt;fftfilt&lt;/em&gt; in Matlab).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Wavelet transforms&lt;/strong&gt;: Being a relatively complex and processing-power-hungry method, it may not be the method you are after. However, it may be more efficient in removing certain types of noise or to extract certain features from a signal (&lt;em&gt;cwt&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;dwt&lt;/em&gt; functions in matlab).     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not familiar with Python. Finding the corresponding filters in Python should be fairly straightforward. There are more filtering procedures but the above should get you going. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Correlation analysis&lt;/em&gt; can be done by various methods, including &lt;strong&gt;Pearson product moment correlation&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;Spearman rank order correlation&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;Kendall rank order correlation&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;mutual information&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CCMQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%252Fs11571-013-9267-8&amp;amp;ei=8IaGVPvCMsXRmwX05ID4Aw&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNHqJ-spqchQgXNuD0GvhxyAnjIwqw&amp;amp;sig2=1BOhWqCSCJEfbF9gjFMFxg&amp;amp;bvm=bv.81449611,d.dGY&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;See Bonita et al., 2014, DOI: 10.1007/s11571-013-9267-8&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Subtracting the mean signal&lt;/em&gt; from a particular channel basically reduces signal offset (the DC signal), comparable to a high-pass filter with a very low cut-off frequency. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-10T11:04:16.620" LastActivityDate="2014-12-10T11:04:16.620" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8803" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-09T17:52:54.930" Score="8" ViewCount="274" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gender is often loosely described as the psychological parallel of sex. But this is more like a simile than a description. It is also often noted as being in the mind e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://itspronouncedmetrosexual.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Genderbread-Person-3.3.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the genderbread man&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you look for a more complete description results vary. It is sometimes described as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A person's expectation of their physical sex. This implies that we know in our heads what our secondary sexual characteristics ought to be, in the same way that we have an awareness of where our arms and legs are. This relates strongly to gender dysphoria. Under this definition of gender transgender people are defined by their feelings of gender dysphoria, which is to feel that your secondary sexual characteristics are somehow incorrect.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gender is also sometimes described as a personality label. Under this definition we associate different genders with different averaged personality. No real personality exactly fits a gender, but like the difference between a feminine face and a masculine face we identify ourselves by that which we are closer to. So for example having a larger nose is generally a masculine face trait but there would still be predominantly female faces with large noses, just as attention to detail is predominantly a female trait but there will still be male personalities that incorporate high attention to detail.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gender is also described as a set of socially constructed roles. There are behavior patterns and activities that are associated with different genders. The behavior of an individual defines their gender. This would make gender entirely a social construct.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is probably not a complete list. I also suspect that multiple items might be 'true' (or perhaps useful is a better word) simultaneously. The word gender clearly has many different meanings to different people. I would like to know what meanings are out there and who uses each meaning. Please feel free to only add one definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7233" LastEditorUserId="7233" LastEditDate="2015-10-29T18:23:52.013" LastActivityDate="2018-05-24T14:47:48.727" Title="What are the meanings of the word 'gender'?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8805" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3422" CreationDate="2014-12-09T19:55:43.423" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question was a loooooong time ago, but I just ran across a couple of good references explaining what backward masking does and how to choose one.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/089892999563409#.VIdQwzHF9u1&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt;(1) is a great paper examining the neural mechanisms and timing of visual backward masking; according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03212157#page-1&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; (2) 2000 review of masking theory, there are four subtypes of backward masking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Backward masking can be achieved by &lt;Br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;light&lt;/strong&gt;, when the target is masked by a larger and spatially overlapping uniform flash of light.  &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;metacontrast&lt;/strong&gt;, when the mask does not overlap the mask spatially.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;structure&lt;/strong&gt;, when the mask overlaps the target as well as shares many structural features of the target.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;noise&lt;/strong&gt;, when the mask consists of random-dot noise over the target.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(There are some papers from the 1960s &amp;amp; 1970s talking about the transient vs sustained activation theory of backward masking function, but they are hard to find online because of their age so I have not included them.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's probably a good idea to go and read the 2000 review paper--the full paper is publicly available at that URL--because what kind of backward mask you choose depends on the hypothesis of the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(1) Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, May 1999, Vol. 11, No. 3, Pages 300-311. doi: 10.1162/089892999563409&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(2) Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics, December 2000, Volume 62, Issue 8, pp 1572-1595. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-12-09T19:55:43.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8807" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-10T02:49:15.887" Score="4" ViewCount="570" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VALS&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;VALS&lt;/a&gt; framework stands for&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(&quot;Values, Attitudes And Lifestyles&quot;) [and] is a proprietary research&#xA;  methodology used for psychographic market segmentation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is VALS still relevant, outdated or has it maybe been improved upon and taken a different form over the years?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to streamline identifying the right consumer category for a product that is always different (real estate).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7237" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-10T04:47:45.853" LastActivityDate="2014-12-10T04:47:45.853" Title="Is the VALS framework still relevant to market segmentation?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8572" CreationDate="2014-12-10T04:51:32.093" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Verbalizing out loud is a technique that is actually very useful. Once this begins (out loud, I'm not sure about in your head) the amygdala gets slower and the prefrontal cortex lights up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastActivityDate="2014-12-10T04:51:32.093" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8809" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5215" CreationDate="2014-12-10T05:49:28.153" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Turns out this is possible with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microdialysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;microdialysis&lt;/a&gt;. Microdialysis uses small probes that can continuously sample the concentrations of target compounds (i.e. neurotransmitters when embedded in a brain). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In theory, though somewhat invasively, one could insert a few of these probes in a person's brain, display the neurotransmitter concentrations on a computer screen, and train the subject to change the neurotransmitter concentrations through his/her thoughts as they would in a bio-feedback setup. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the concentrations are associated with some neurological disease (i.e. depression, anxiety, schizophrenia), the subject could learn to alter their neurotransmitter levels, and possibly reduce their symptoms, without the use of pharmacological interventions and their associated side-effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2014-12-10T05:49:28.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8810" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7894" CreationDate="2014-12-10T08:54:58.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are often motor control issues, the case study below exemplifies these and an approach to overcoming them with help from technology.  As well as the below, there are many personal accounts such as those of Carly Fleischman and Tito Mukhopadhyay that describe the struggle to align output with inner thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Language is More than Speech: A Case Study&#xA;Morton Ann Gernsbacher, Ph.D.&#xA;Abstract: Some individuals face severe challenges with producing oral language (i.e., speech). In this article a case study of a child who experienced severe challenges with speech development is presented. Medical records, historical home videos, audio recordings, and photographs, in conjunction with an extensive journal maintained by the child’s mother provide the basis for this report, which profiles the child’s development from birth to age 8;0. This child’s development demonstrates the necessity of distinguishing between language—the mental representation of concepts and their relations—and speech—one means for communicating mental representations.&#xA;Journal of Developmental and Learning Disorders, Vol.8, 81-98.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7238" LastActivityDate="2014-12-10T08:54:58.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8811" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6498" CreationDate="2014-12-10T11:52:57.143" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, the human brain is distinctively larger than that of any other primate, mainly due to the great expansion of the cerebral cortex. The underlying structures have remained relatively stable (&lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/18/10/2352.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Toro et al., 2008&lt;/a&gt;). As the cortex overlies the rest of the brain, a solution had to be found, because the whole brain did not have to inflate to increase intelligence in men, just the cortex. The answer by @Josh touches on the solution, as folding the cortex increases the surface-to-volume ratio such that an expanding cortical surface fits onto a relatively stable base.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the question basically, and very rightfully states: &amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;why not increase volume in order to fit those extra neurons in&lt;/strong&gt;?&amp;quot;. Since the volume of a ball increases by a third power with radius, why on earth would nature keep holding onto increasing the surface area, and not simply inflate the cortex by enhancing its thickness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has to do with the fact that the &lt;em&gt;vertical architecture&lt;/em&gt; of the cortex has remained remarkably stable during evolution. In other words, evolution of a bigger cortical area to enhance higher cognitive processes has occurred in the most parsimonious way so typical for evolution: take an existing structure and enlarge it when there is need for more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cortex typically consists of a thin sheet covering the brain, and is not more than 3 mm thick. The neocortex represents the great majority of the cerebral cortex. It has six layers and contains between 10 and 14 billion neurons. The six layers of this part of the cortex are numbered with Roman numerals from superficial to deep. Layer I is the molecular layer, which contains very few neurons; layer II the external granular layer; layer III the external pyramidal layer; layer IV the internal granular layer; layer V the internal pyramidal layer; and layer VI the multiform, or fusiform layer (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dartmouth.edu/%7Erswenson/NeuroSci/chapter_11.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Review of Clinical and Functional neuroscience, chapter 11&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IZz9D.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Cortical Layers&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, layer IV receives most input from the periphery via the thalamus (visual, auditory, tactile inputs etc.), layer II/III take care of horizontal projections for further processing, while layer V takes care of the output (motor output etc.). This basic architecture cannot be changed easily without changing the entire core workings of the cortex. As an analogy - to speed up computers in a parsimonious way, one can expand the number of processors quite easily. Coming up with a speedier processor is difficult these days, as evolution of single processor capabilities is pretty much at a dead end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, to increase the number of cortical neurons, the cortical surface must be enlarged. As the basis (subcortical structures) remain pretty much the same, creating folds (gyri and sulci) is the best way, and perhaps the only way to increase cortical surface area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And to answer the last subquestion - &lt;strong&gt;no, neurons do not only exist near surfaces&lt;/strong&gt;, it is the fact that the cortex is the outer shell of the brain and to expand it, this surface had to increase in size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/18/10/2352.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Toro &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Cerebral Cortex (2008); &lt;strong&gt;18&lt;/strong&gt;(10): 2352–7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-10T21:25:10.527" LastActivityDate="2021-02-10T21:25:10.527" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8813" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-10T15:40:52.580" Score="7" ViewCount="530" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for cognitively interesting event-related potentials at places like FP1, FP2, TP9 or TP10 that can be measured with consumer-grade EEG hardware. Right now I have an Interaxon Muse EEG and want to see how effective it can be for capturing ERPs.  Does anyone have any experience/recommendations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7242" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-22T06:58:19.320" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T14:51:12.377" Title="What cognitively interesting event-related potentials at FP1, FP2, TP9 or TP10 can be measured with consumer-grade EEG hardware?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;event-related-potential&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8814" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-10T16:21:46.523" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;This term gets thrown around quite a lot on cogsci.SE. States (or maybe, to my understanding, states of mind, psychological states, or mental states) could be defined as schemas of a temporal nature (they last a certain period of time before the next one begins). Is there too little information in the question right now to get me any feedback? This is actually inspired by an answer from &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8601/how-other-than-pharmacotherapy-can-those-diagnosed-with-thought-disorders-be-t&quot;&gt;another question&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2014-12-13T05:28:24.603" Title="Where can one read about states?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2014-12-12T20:34:13.063" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8818" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6525" CreationDate="2014-12-11T05:54:13.367" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The only evolutionary backed self destructive behavior I can think of is that which in certain situations the act of  sacrificing one's self will aid the passing of one's genes through the next of kin. MAYBE one can come up with a scenario where say, two siblings encounter a lion, one then acts as a sacrifice so that the other can survive. That's a long shot though, and isn't all that relevant to your question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As previously pointed out, stress and psychological stress aren't necessarily the same thing. A stress response in the body can be induced, independent of psychological factors. If the stress you speak of results in suicide ( and if this is in fact what you mean) the only explanation which would be congruent with biology &amp;amp; evolution is some how, in some way, the act of suicide by the stressed individual will increase the chances for this individual's sister or brother to reproduce. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7217" LastActivityDate="2014-12-11T05:54:13.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8820" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3529" CreationDate="2014-12-11T12:43:07.670" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting question! Trying to interpret your question, I think what you are after is a model that can predict the saccade endpoint based on eye tracking data? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following answer is more of a basic neuroscientific approach:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neuronal responses (spike rates) in the &lt;strong&gt;superior colliculus&lt;/strong&gt; (SC) can be accurately used to predict the total saccade as a vector. Basically, when you model the response properties of all the SC neurons involved in a saccade, one can calculate the vector sum of all these different neurons. With this vector sum the saccade can be totally described in terms of its direction and amplitude. With the vector sum, hence, the end point can be predicted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this subject is of interest to you, the early work of Van Gisbergen and John van Opstal (based in Nijmegen, the Netherlands) are a good source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mbfys.ru.nl/staff/j.vangisbergen/endnote/endnotepdfs/artikelen_groep/van%20Gisbergen%201987.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Van Gisbergen et al., 1987&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-01-05T11:16:33.093" LastActivityDate="2015-01-05T11:16:33.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8821" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-11T21:31:00.970" Score="2" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know of anecdotal evidence for the following drug-related side-effects:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It can happen while getting used to a new drug, or when quitting a drug. Probably also some other situations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The feeling lasts a split second.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;All hearing disappears when it happens.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Before and after the hearing disappears, there is some sort of auditory noise that lasts about equally long.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It will feel like some sort of mental disconnection, as if you passed out for just a split second - except you don't lose physical control.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It can happen many times every day.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;All cognitive and physical functions seem to work like normal.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It can happen with different medications, including Effexor/Venlafaxin and 5-htp.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What can this temporary black-out be? Does it have a scientific name (i.e., is it a known and recognized phenomenon?)&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2014-12-12T17:17:25.847" LastActivityDate="2014-12-12T17:17:25.847" Title="What is a short, drug-induced &quot;blackout&quot; experience called?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-07-30T19:59:13.390" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8824" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-12T02:41:13.733" Score="2" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is it, when we need to cry, it sometimes doesn't work? &#xA;Is there any psychology explanation for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7249" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-12T05:43:48.333" LastActivityDate="2014-12-12T05:43:48.333" Title="Why can some people not cry on demand?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-01-14T01:21:42.427" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8825" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8831" CreationDate="2014-12-12T09:49:59.260" Score="5" ViewCount="294" Body="&lt;p&gt;The title pretty much says it all.  I need to do some fMRI data analysis and I can't find any entry-level tutorials for Statistical Parameter Mapping (SPM).  I've looked at some of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/course/video/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the videos on the official SPM website&lt;/a&gt;, but I find that videos are not the most effective way of learning a new computerized tool -- I'm in the market for reading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anybody have a go-to reference that's a bit less verbose and a bit more crash-course-y than the official manual?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-13T01:22:51.327" LastActivityDate="2014-12-13T02:30:10.830" Title="Is there a good entry-level tutorial for SPM?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8827" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8850" CreationDate="2014-12-12T14:58:05.380" Score="2" ViewCount="205" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm coming from the idea that the way we perceive sound is a reaction to a certain signal, sent to our brain by ears. Of course this feeling intensifies as volume of the sound increases and our ears send us a stronger signal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now here I am wondering if we can augment that signal in our brain, so when the volume stays the same - we will be able to perceive it louder. Can that be done without any kind of chemical or surgical intrusion, just by sheer force of will? Do such perception &quot;controllers&quot; even exist and we just haven't learned to control them?&#xA;This question is about auditory system, but since it touches the brain signal interpretation you could explain this from a different perspective (visual or even tactile).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This isn't part of the question, but I also wonder, if previous is possible, than can the same be done to mentally create sounds in your head and hear them as if they were real..?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7251" LastActivityDate="2014-12-15T23:48:26.103" Title="Can one alter their auditory perception?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8828" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8834" CreationDate="2014-12-12T19:20:45.757" Score="6" ViewCount="327" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given the serotonin hypothesis of depression, increasing synaptic serotonin level may cause anti-depressive effects.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hallucinogens seems to have such advantages:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They improve mood at once, but not after a while as SSRI. So hallucinogens may actually act faster.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are more types of hallucinogens, then there are SSRIs. They have a wider pharmacological effect on serotonin receptors than antidepressants do.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are hallucinogens anti-depressive agents?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which are their advantages and problems in comparison with modern antidepressants?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7084" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-13T17:17:58.433" LastActivityDate="2014-12-13T17:17:58.433" Title="Can hallucinogens treat depressive states?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8830" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8085" CreationDate="2014-12-12T22:12:04.220" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital_insensitivity_to_pain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP)&lt;/a&gt; is a condition in which a person &lt;em&gt;cannot&lt;/em&gt; feel physical pain.  There is no known analogue encompassing all &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_pain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotional (psychological) pain&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are certain conditions in which a person may not be able to feel certain types of emotions, such as in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychopathy&lt;/a&gt; and related &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anti-social personality disorder&lt;/a&gt;.  This &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder#Limbic_neural_maldevelopment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;may be related to abnormalities&lt;/a&gt; in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;limbic system&lt;/a&gt; - an area of the brain associated with processing emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is not always clear whether or not individuals who appear to lack the ability to feel certain types of psychological pain (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PTSD&lt;/a&gt;) in fact &lt;em&gt;cannot&lt;/em&gt; feel it, or they can feel it but are indifferent to it, as in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blunted_affect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotional numbness&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;apathy&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#Cognitive_theories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;modern theories of emotion&lt;/a&gt; suggest that emotion is &amp;quot;subjective&amp;quot; (context-dependent) - that is, physiological aspects of emotion (such as pain) are only part of the picture, and many other cognitive factors come into play.  So for example, in the case of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broken_heart&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;broken heart&lt;/a&gt;, as with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_pain#Neural_mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological pain in general&lt;/a&gt;, it &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broken_heart#Psychological_and_neurological_understanding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;appears to share some mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; with physical pain - ie, this type of pain is effectively the same as physical pain.  Nonetheless, CIP patients appear to be able to feel emotions such as heartache normally, suggesting that the mechanism is much more complex, and physical pain is neither necessary nor sufficient for feeling psychological pain.  The added complexity may be the reason why an emotional analogue to CIP is not known - the number of systems that would need to malfunction simultaneously is too unlikely.  It is also probable that given the importance of emotion to normal functioning, that a condition of not feeling it would be equivalent to death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: Sorry that I don't have any book recommendations for you, but Wikipedia articles I linked to contain many references to literature you can check out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-02-02T21:31:22.510" LastActivityDate="2021-02-02T21:31:22.510" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8831" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8825" CreationDate="2014-12-13T02:30:10.830" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The best way to learn is probably not by reading, but by doing. The SPM website contains a number of useful &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/data/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;datasets with tutorials&lt;/a&gt; for various tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also find PowerPoint slides from lectures and talks useful. There are a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/course/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;bunch of slides&lt;/a&gt; on the SPM website, but you can also find more on Google by limiting your results to &lt;code&gt;type:pptx&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2014-12-13T02:30:10.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8832" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-13T07:32:10.100" Score="4" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a way to propose a consumer-psychology study (as a business) and work with the university for the benefit of all people. Or do they only do studies around current subjects or select them internally?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7237" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-16T04:58:11.923" LastActivityDate="2014-12-16T08:03:02.883" Title="How to collaborate with a university on a consumer psychology study?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8833" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8832" CreationDate="2014-12-13T11:07:15.187" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two factors at work in what is being researched: interest and money.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers research what they find interesting. So if you can interest someone in your idea, then chances are that they will want to research it. But wether they will actually do that research will depend on wether it seems more interesting to them than what they are currently doing, have been investing a lot of time and effort into, and have already employed a team to research. So, your topic has to be really, really interesting to an advanced researcher to pick it up, which is unlikely. If it were so interesting to them, they would have thought of it themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers usually depend on third party funds. Those third parties only finance what they find relevant. There is research on how topics that are currently considered important by the media and populace are more researched. A good example is research on video game violence which was intensely researched after the Columbine shooting. Much relevant research is not done, because it is not currently politically opportune. Many researchers report how they were unable to continue research, because there was no funding. So if your topic is of current popular interest, and politicians can get voted if they care for it, chances are someone is going to research it. If not, not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If, on the other hand, you &lt;em&gt;pay&lt;/em&gt; for the labs and the people, you will have no problem finding researchers, and you can approach any expert in the relevant field. With money being notoriously scarce at many universities, and many young researchers working in underpaid, short-term positions, it is highly likely that &lt;em&gt;someone&lt;/em&gt; will be happy to hear from you and make your research happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Practical real world example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A company produces a biofeedback device for a certain condition. To better sell their product, they want scientific research proving its therapeutic effectiveness. They approached my professor (who is a clinical psychologist, but does not do research in that field). Another psychologist, who had earned his doctorate with my professor and is now working in a relevant clinic, was found and conducted a study, the pracical side carried out by student interns. My professor appointed me, one of his student assistants, to do the statistical analysis of the data. The resulting article, which was written by the aforementioned psychologist, his students, and myself (I wrote the results section), has been peer reviewed for publication and the feedback is currently being worked into the paper. If all goes well (which I expect), a year from now the company will quote this paper on their website to emphasize the effectiveness of their device. All my professor did is write some emails and find some people, and now he has another publication under his belt. No money was involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2014-12-16T08:03:02.883" LastActivityDate="2014-12-16T08:03:02.883" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8834" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8828" CreationDate="2014-12-13T12:06:10.663" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of the 'true' hallucinogens are classified as 5HT2A agonists. 5HT2A is a postsynaptic serotonin receptor. Serotonin-specific reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) on the other hand act by increasing serotonin (5HT) levels in the brain, which in turn activates presynaptic 5HT1A receptors. Due to a continuous stimulation of these 5HT1A receptors they become downregulated (&lt;a href=&quot;http://jop.sagepub.com/content/14/2/177.short&quot;&gt;Hjorth et al., 2000&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5HT1A receptors are crucial for the negative feedback loop that controls 5HT release from the raphe nucleus neurons. When they release 5HT, they will postsynaptically activate a myriad of targets, but also presynaptically activate 5HT1A receptors, which inhibit 5HT release. Continuous 5HT1A receptor stimulation through SSRIs downregulates the 5HT1A receptors, thereby disrupting the negative feedback and resulting in a continuous, disinhibited flutter of 5HT release, in turn leading to overall elevated 5HT in the brain and suppression of depressive symptoms (&lt;a href=&quot;http://jop.sagepub.com/content/14/2/177.short&quot;&gt;Hjorth et al., 2000&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Among the most well-known 'true' hallucinogens we have LSD, mescaline, psylocibin and dimethyltryptamine (DMT). All of these are thought to act as 5HT2A antagonists (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.heffter.org/docs/hrireview/02/chap5.pdf&quot;&gt;Nichols &amp;amp; Sanders-Bush, 2001&lt;/a&gt;) and do not elevate mood. Although they may induce euphoria, they may well induce a state of terror as well, dependent on the nature of the 'trip', which heavily depends on the acute mental state of the person ingesting the drug.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The one class of hallucinogenic drugs that may act as an antidepressant from a neuropharmacologic point of view is MDMA (ecstacy) and related compounds (MDA, MDEA etc). These drugs can, arguably, be classified as a hallucinogenic, although their hallucinogenic properties are far less pronounced as compared to mescalin and LSD. MDMA and related compounds evoke massive 5HT release, among other effects and induce acute euphoria, and virtually never dysphoria seen with the 'true' hallucinogens. However, after the effects wear off, a backlash typical for these drugs may be experienced, reminiscent of a dysphoric state associated with a burning out of the 5HT in the brain. Therefore, its effects are too transient to be classified as antidepressant. Long-term MDMA use is associated with brain damage (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/15/8/5476.full.pdf+html&quot;&gt;Fisher et al., 1995&lt;/a&gt;). Short-term euphoria is also seen with dopamine-agonists like amphetamine, meth and cocaine, drugs associated with even more severe comedown ('crash') after the effects wear off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To wrap up, and answer your questions: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;em&gt;Are hallucinogens anti-depressive agents?&lt;/em&gt; - No.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;em&gt;Which are their advantages and problems in comparison with modern antidepressants?&lt;/em&gt; - They act too shortly by inducing a few hours of euphoria, after which a period of dysphoria follows. Long-term use of MDMA and related compounds will lead to insomnia,  addiction, and brain damage which are unwanted side-effects. Hence, these illicit compounds are not suitable for replacement of regular antidepressants.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-13T12:57:11.873" LastActivityDate="2014-12-13T12:57:11.873" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8835" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8827" CreationDate="2014-12-13T16:00:36.137" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;We can easily alter the signal that arrives at the eardrum by changing our position/orientation relative to the sound source (and any reflections and any noise sources). If we limit ourselves to cases where the sound pressure at the ear drum is identical, there are still things that can be done. For example, it might be possible to voluntarily control the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_reflex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;middle ear reflex&lt;/a&gt; which changes the transfer function characteristics of the middle ear and can change the sound level by approximately 20 dB. If we further limit ourselves to cases where the pressure at the stapes is identical, there are things that affect the transmission properties of the ear. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivocochlear_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;olivocochlear system&lt;/a&gt; is thought to control the gain properties of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochlear_amplifier&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cochlear amplifier&lt;/a&gt;. While I am not aware of any studies that have demonstrated conscious control of the oliviocochlear system, it is definitely possible through surgery and likely drugs. Our auditory perception is also driven by the chemical composition of the fluid in the cochlea and neurotransmitter reserves in the auditory nerve. It seems less likely that we could consciously control these chemical states, but surgery and drugs definitely can alter them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2014-12-13T16:00:36.137" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8836" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3505" CreationDate="2014-12-13T19:29:51.463" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The correlation between physical attractiveness and IQ is somewhere between &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1992-19831-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;insignificant&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289610001315&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mildly positive&lt;/a&gt;, with a slightly higher correlation for men.  The correlation between physical attractiveness and &lt;em&gt;perceived&lt;/em&gt; intelligence is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect#Academics_and_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more significant&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are typically two approaches to explain the (albeit mild) correlation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nature: From an evolutionary psychology perspective, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2004.03.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one theory&lt;/a&gt; is that intelligent men are (on average) somewhat more successful, mate with more physically attractive women, resulting in offspring that are both more intelligent and more attractive than average.  Evidence does support these assertions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nurture: However, there is an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness_stereotype&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;alternative explanation&lt;/a&gt; that accounts for these findings as an environmental (rather than hereditary) effect due to a self-fulfilling prophecy.  According to this hypothesis, attractive children are perceived as more intelligent, resulting in more and better opportunities for them, that lead to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/2787149?seq=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;better education&lt;/a&gt;, living standards, and ultimately higher intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;heritability of IQ&lt;/a&gt;, based on twin studies for example, is under some dispute, but suggests that both nature and nurture are significant factors, making both approaches equally valid.  The debate may be resolved by examining cultures that don't associate physical attractiveness with intelligence (Eastern), but unfortunately, most of the research has focused on cultures that do (Western).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-05-21T05:58:39.367" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T05:58:39.367" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8837" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7970" CreationDate="2014-12-14T07:44:14.627" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a type of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_motion&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;illusory motion&lt;/a&gt; (or motion illusion) called the Enigma Illusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FNv1c.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cause of motion illusion in general is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mnn.com/lifestyle/arts-culture/stories/why-do-these-still-images-appear-to-move&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;not well understood&lt;/a&gt;, but research suggests that there may be &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21541810&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;slightly different reasons&lt;/a&gt; for the different types of motion illusions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common theory is that particularly high-contrast colours are perceived separately in the retina (perhaps turning photoreceptor cells on takes a slightly different amount of time than turning them off), and as a result, the signals from the retina arrive at the visual cortex at slightly different times, causing the illusion of motion.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16839290&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Comparison of brain activity using fMRI&lt;/a&gt; between actually moving and apparently moving images shows similar activity in the visual cortex, supporting the assertion that the illusion is caused at the retina rather than at the visual cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the particular case of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wired.com/2008/11/eye-flicker-exp/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Enigma Illusion&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When the eye movements, called microsaccades, were suppressed, test&#xA;  subjects reported that the Enigma illusion — an illustration that&#xA;  seems to flicker and turn — remained stationary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, small, rapid, unconscious eye movements are also involved in creating the illusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a nice collection of different illusory motion images: &lt;a href=&quot;http://brainden.com/eye-illusions.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://brainden.com/eye-illusions.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_illusion#Cognitive_processes_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;reason for optical illusions&lt;/a&gt; such as this one is a side-effect of the way the brain processes typical visual information efficiently, at the expense of handling unusual situations incorrectly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2014-12-14T18:20:48.497" LastActivityDate="2014-12-14T18:20:48.497" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8838" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8046" CreationDate="2014-12-14T08:51:22.543" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's first dispel this myth: &quot;all the things that could happen in a dream are made up by us, and should be utterly predictable&quot;.  This is a common fallacy known as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introspection_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;introspection illusion&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The introspection illusion is a cognitive bias in which people wrongly&#xA;  think they have direct insight into the origins of their mental&#xA;  states. ... In certain situations, this illusion leads people to make&#xA;  confident but false explanations of their own behavior (called &quot;causal&#xA;  theories&quot;) or inaccurate predictions of their future mental states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a common notion in psychology research.  So the more interesting question is not why are we surprised by our dreams, so much as why are we not surprised by our non-dreams.  But I digress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dream imagery is often &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidation#Sleep_consolidation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;generated partly from long-term memory&lt;/a&gt; rather than external stimuli.  Unlike normal perception, which is continuous and generally sensical, dream imagery is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream#Evolutionary_psychology_theories_of_dreams&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;disjointed and not sensical&lt;/a&gt;.  Interestingly however, subjects of dream research report only realizing the bizarre nature of their dreams &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream#Neurobiology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;after they wake&lt;/a&gt; - they are not &quot;surprised&quot; by the imagery during the dream:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;During most dreams, the person dreaming is not aware that they are&#xA;  dreaming, no matter how absurd or eccentric the dream is. The reason&#xA;  for this may be that the prefrontal cortex, the region of the brain&#xA;  responsible for logic and planning, exhibits decreased activity during&#xA;  dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-03-05T21:35:18.077" LastActivityDate="2017-03-05T21:35:18.077" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8839" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8840" CreationDate="2014-12-14T21:35:54.250" Score="6" ViewCount="362" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studying the structure of the visual cortex, it seems there are many neural structures specifically dedicated to detecting and interpreting colour. For example, parvocellular cells are particularly sensitive to colour. Consequently, in a colour blind person, are parvocellular cells or other neural structures less prominent? What are the differences in brain structure between a colour blind person and a normal seeing person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-15T02:52:34.137" LastActivityDate="2014-12-15T13:14:43.323" Title="Do the colour blind have a distinct visual cortex structure?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8840" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8839" CreationDate="2014-12-15T03:01:00.843" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting question! I performed a fairly extensive search in Google Scholar and Scopus using various keyword searches, including, but not limited to &quot;&lt;em&gt;color blindness and plasticity&lt;/em&gt;&quot;, &quot;&lt;em&gt;color blind and brain&lt;/em&gt;&quot;, &quot;&lt;em&gt;dichromates brain&lt;/em&gt;&quot;, and &quot;&lt;em&gt;monochromates brain&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. Strikingly, I found nothing. The reason is aptly explained by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4126041/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Solomon &amp;amp; Rosa, 2014&lt;/a&gt; and I quote from their interesting review:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As yet &lt;strong&gt;no anatomical correlates of color blindness&lt;/strong&gt; have been found in the &lt;strong&gt;retina&lt;/strong&gt; (Chan and Grünert,1998; Chan et al.,2001; Jusuf et al.,2006a,b), &lt;strong&gt;thalamus&lt;/strong&gt;, or &lt;strong&gt;primary visual cortex&lt;/strong&gt; (Goodchild and Martin,1998; Solomon, 2002). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If desirable, you should be able to re-trace the relevant citations from the cited review, as it is open source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-15T10:40:11.793" LastActivityDate="2014-12-15T10:40:11.793" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8841" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8842" CreationDate="2014-12-15T11:29:51.793" Score="9" ViewCount="39469" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a non-specialist, I am unclear as to the exact meaning of the terms &lt;strong&gt;pre-synaptic&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;post-synaptic&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, do they refer to &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;the same&lt;/em&gt; neuron, either transmitting or receiving, before and after the chemical synapse has occurred, OR&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;two different&lt;/em&gt; neurons, i.e. &quot;pre-synaptic&quot; = the transmitting neuron, and &quot;post-synaptic&quot; = the receiving neuron?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask this because the terms are often used in ways that do not make it clear which meaning is the one intended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="6446" LastEditDate="2017-03-03T19:05:12.883" LastActivityDate="2017-12-29T19:31:51.160" Title="What is the difference between pre-synaptic versus post-synaptic?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8841" CreationDate="2014-12-15T11:50:37.060" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Typically 'presynaptic' and 'postsynaptic' are used to indicate two neurons that are connected, as you indicate correctly in your second example. Information flow in the nervous system basically goes one way. If one neuron fires (presynaptic cell) it can chemically activate another cell on which it synapses (the postsynaptic cell), as shown in the following figure 1.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aANAN.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 1: Presynaptic versus postsynaptic&quot;&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an illustrative example consider the auditory system (figure 2). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ljM0O.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 2: auditory system&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cells that send their axons from the inner ear to the cochlear nucleus (the first central auditory structure in the auditory pathway) are called spiral ganglion cells. The axons from the &lt;strong&gt;auditory nerve cells&lt;/strong&gt; form the auditory nerve. The auditory nerve cells release glutamate from their axon terminal into the synapse, that in turn activates the cochlear nucleus cells. In this scheme, the auditory nerve cells are &lt;strong&gt;presynaptic&lt;/strong&gt;, and the cochlear nucleus cells are &lt;strong&gt;postsynaptic&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Translating this example into Figure 1, the axon on top would be the auditory nerve cell and the postsynaptic neuron the cochlear nucleus that receives input from the auditory nerve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, to continue with the peripheral auditory system as example, the auditory nerve cells receive their input peripherally from hair cells in the inner ear, while the cochlear nucleus cells send their output centrally to the olivary complex. Hence, auditory nerve cells can also be classified as postsynaptic, while cochlear nucleus cells are also presynaptic. Again, as illustrated by this auditory-system-based example, it all depends on the &lt;strong&gt;context&lt;/strong&gt; and the specific system under investigation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The terminology can, however, point to a single cell as well. In the hypothetical scenario a neuron would send a collateral axon to its own cell body, it would be the presynaptical as well as postsynaptical cell. In the figure, the axon on top of the image (still correctly labeled as presynaptic) would then come from the neuron shown on the bottom of the image (still labelled correctly as being postsynaptic).    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-29T19:31:51.160" LastActivityDate="2017-12-29T19:31:51.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8843" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8839" CreationDate="2014-12-15T13:14:43.323" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't speak to color blindness, but a little about the neural correlates of color processing in general.  There has been some thought that macaque V4 (non-primary or extrastriate visual cortex) and the &lt;strong&gt;human V4 topologue may be responsible for color processing&lt;/strong&gt;--some studies have found wavelength-specific cells in V4, but other studies have found no greater concentration of these in V4 than in V1.  There has been significant disagreement about this depending on methodology and task details; it seems that overall, &lt;strong&gt;imaging studies tend to find selective activity for color in V4 but lesion studies with damage to V4 often do not find damaged color discrimination&lt;/strong&gt;.  It also seems that the macaque V4 has both a dorsal and a ventral component, where the human dorsal component does not seem to respond to color, complicating the topologue comparison.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imaging studies&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Brouwer and Heeger (2013). Clustering of the Neural Representation of Color. J. Neurosci.,  33(39):15454 –15465. DOI:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2472-13.2013&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Brouwer and Heeger (2009). Decoding and Reconstructing Color. J. Neurosci.,  29(44):13992–14003. DOI:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3577-09.2009&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Goddard et al. (2011). Color responsiveness argues against a dorsal&#xA;component of human V4. Journal of Vision, 11(4):3, 1–21. doi: 10.1167/11.4.3&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lesion studies&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Schiller PH (1993) The effects of V4 and middle temporal (MT) area lesions on visual performance in the rhesus monkey. Vis Neurosci 10:717–746.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Walsh V, Carden D, Butler SR, Kulikowski JJ (1993) The effects of V4 lesions on the visual abilities of macaques: hue discrimination and colour constancy. Behav Brain Res 53:51–62.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Heywood CA, Gadotti A, Cowey A (1992) Cortical area V4 and its role in the perception of color. J Neurosci 12:4056–4065.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Heywood CA, Gaffan D, Cowey A (1995) Cerebral achromatopsia in monkeys. Eur J Neurosci 7:1064–1073.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-12-15T13:14:43.323" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8844" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8841" CreationDate="2014-12-15T16:32:06.113" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my undergraduate biology degree, I am only familiar with the &lt;strong&gt;second&lt;/strong&gt; use of the terms which you describe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, &lt;strong&gt;the terms pre-synaptic and post-synaptic describe a spatial relationship&lt;/strong&gt; to the synapse, which has directionality, as you know. If the terms are used to describe whole cells, as AliceD covers, and as people often do when describing a neural pathway; then for clarity the relevant synapse should be named. This is because many neurons both receive input and give output at different synapses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first use that you suggest is unfamiliar to me, I have not heard this usage. This meaning could perhaps be better understood from the terms &quot;pre- or post-transmission&quot; or &quot;pre- or post-synaptic event&quot;, but I am not sure how useful these terms are (I will explain why:)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some structures of the synapse for which it might be useful to think about states before and after a single synaptic event: the ion channels and population of neurotransmitter vesicles of the axon terminus, and the ion channels of the post-synaptic bulb. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The whole system present at the synapse is dynamic, however, and I believe new action potentials can arrive at the synapse more frequently than the time it takes for the synapse to recover - hence there is really a heterogeneous population of states with time rather than two clear ones. A single isolated transmission event can be used as a thought-experiment for understanding the molecular biology, which is why textbooks teach the series of events of synaptic transmission.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could argue that synaptic transmission refers to the entire event including recovery - and so there is no meaningful difference between synapses before and after transmission. Exceptions to this might be Long-Term Potentiation/Depression, but they are conditional on more activity than just a single action potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, &quot;pre-/post-synaptic&quot; &lt;strong&gt;are not used to refer to states of the synapse&lt;/strong&gt;, in time. My view is that there is no such useful distinction between a pre- and post-event synapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The synapse in neurobiology is a structure, with direction - hence pre- and post- have spatial meaning. The event of transmission ought not to be called &quot;synapse&quot;, I feel this brings confusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7262" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-28T21:07:19.027" LastActivityDate="2017-12-28T21:07:19.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8845" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8564" CreationDate="2014-12-15T17:20:35.680" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;N.B.: There are many varieties of &quot;Stroop-like&quot; tasks, which as a class are often called implicit association tests or IATs.  Since those are likely to test attributes related to their specific construction, I have excluded them from this answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been a variety of papers studying correlations of Stroop performance with other characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ward et al. (2001) examined the correlation between Stroop effects and executive control, finding that &lt;strong&gt;Stroop costs and other measures of executive control were not well correlated&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brewer et al. (2008) found &lt;strong&gt;sizable correlations between neural activation in Stroop testing and treatment outcomes among cocaine-dependent patients&lt;/strong&gt;; they interpret this to suggest executive control differences are determinative in treatment outcome, but this interpretation is contradicted by Ward et al. above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Less recently, Golden (1975) found the &lt;strong&gt;Stroop test to correlate with measures of creativity&lt;/strong&gt;; I have found no more recent discussion of this so cannot speak to its currency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ward, G., Roberts, M., &amp;amp; Phillips, L. (2001). Task-switching costs, Stroop-costs, and executive control: A correlational study. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A: Human Experimental Psychology Volume 54, Issue 2, pages 491-511. DOI:10.1080/713755967&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brewer, J., et al. (2008). Pretreatment Brain Activation During Stroop Task Is Associated with Outcomes in Cocaine-Dependent Patients. Biological Psychiatry Volume 64, Issue 11, 1 December 2008, Pages 998–1004. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.05.024&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Golden, C. (1975). The Measurement of Creativity by the Stroop Color and Word Test. Journal of Personality Assessment. Journal of Personality Assessment Volume 39, Issue 5, 1975 pages 502-506. DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa3905_9&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-12-15T17:20:35.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8846" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3376" CreationDate="2014-12-15T20:25:46.713" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is the first study with fMRI, EEG and eye-video simultaneously recorded while subjects were performing a task (Poudel et al., 2014).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;fMRI analysis revealed a transient decrease in thalamic, posterior cingulate, and occipital cortex activity and an increase in frontal, posterior parietal, and parahippocampal activity during microsleeps. The transient activity was modulated by the duration of the microsleep. In subjects with frequent microsleeps, power in the post-central EEG theta was positively correlated with the BOLD signal in the thalamus, basal forebrain, and visual, posterior parietal, and prefrontal cortices. These results provide evidence for distinct neural changes associated with microsleeps and with EEG theta activity during drowsiness in a continuous task.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Poudel, G. R., Innes, C. R., Bones, P. J., Watts, R., &amp;amp; Jones, R. D. (2014). Losing the struggle to stay awake: divergent thalamic and cortical activity during microsleeps. Human brain mapping, 35(1), 257-269. doi: 10.1002/hbm.22178.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="7138" LastEditDate="2014-12-15T20:39:16.280" LastActivityDate="2014-12-15T20:39:16.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8847" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-14T23:20:51.410" Score="15" ViewCount="202" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many lectures I heard, I basically copied the lecture notes of the professor from the board into my notebook (I study mathematics). For me those lectures are comparable with going into the library, taking a textbook and making a handwritten copy from it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question I asked myself today: &lt;strong&gt;Is there a study investigating what is more effective? Going to lectures where I copy the professor's lecture notes from the board or making a handwritten copy from the lecture notes by myself?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I assume here that the lecture notes are available, e.g. from the lecture's homepage)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the one hand the professor might give additional comments in the lecture. On the other hand one can take the time he needs to understand a complicated paragraph when he works by himself and is not in the lecture. One also can skip easily understandable parts when he works by himself...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7271" OwnerDisplayName="gerd87654" LastActivityDate="2014-12-19T15:03:17.073" Title="Is there any study on the effectiveness of taking notes in a lecture vs taking notes on written materials?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8847" CreationDate="2014-12-14T23:31:05.833" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The primary value of taking notes by hand is not the record that you create, but that &lt;a href=&quot;http://wac.colostate.edu/journal/vol16/boch.pdf&quot;&gt;the act of taking notes causes your brain to engage more deeply with the material&lt;/a&gt;.  You might never look at your notes again, but taking them has a strong positive effect on your ability to understand and remember the material that you are taking the notes about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As such, you could potentially get similar value not by copying but by &lt;em&gt;summarizing&lt;/em&gt; a text by hand.  Taking notes in lecture gives at least one additional benefit: it provides a focused block of time in which distractions are less available to you.  With a good lecturer, you get a second benefit: a lecturer is often much better than a text at directing your attention to the most important concepts in material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="jakebeal" LastActivityDate="2014-12-14T23:31:05.833" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8849" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8847" CreationDate="2014-12-15T20:49:01.653" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have studied in the two universities (have two diplomas). In the first university I studied, lots of attention was given for the lecture material, basically assuming that only facts, formulas and diagrams communicated during the lecture should be asked during the exam. Lecture notes contained exactly the needed material to prepare for the exam. Attending lectures and taking notes was vital. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my second university, however, the emphasis was placed on learning to find and understand the needed material self-dependently. In addition, the lecture slides used to be published in the university website. Taking notes looked largely useless and even the need of attending all lectures looked questionable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence depends on the general culture and style of the university, and you are out of luck if you misinterpret. I am not sure which approach is better, both can teach high level. The first approach gives more exactly knowledge. The second approach gives less for the same amount of student effort, but adds skills of the self-dependent work. Best would be to know the style before applying for studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="h22" LastActivityDate="2014-12-15T20:54:03.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8850" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8827" CreationDate="2014-12-15T23:42:05.957" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine a music recording studio, with a band playing in the soundproof room.  Now imagine 2 mic-&gt;speaker connections: A mic inside the room records the music, and plays it on a speaker outside, and then another mic records the sound coming out of that speaker, and delivers it to the recording equipment.  You can imagine the loss of quality involved in that set up I'm sure, but bear with me.  Both mic-&gt;speaker connections are set to 50% volume.  Say we want to increase the volume: We can increase the volume on either connection (or both).  If we increase the volume to 100% on only one of the 2 connections, then the volume of the recorded sound will increase by approximately the same amount whichever one we choose.  However, increasing the volume of the first connection is better - it results in a better quality recording.  This is because each connection can only lose quality, not add it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, supposing that the first mic-&gt;speaker connection represents the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;auditory nerve&lt;/a&gt; (ear -&gt; primary auditory cortex), and the second connection represents &quot;perception&quot; (auditory cortex -&gt; rest of brain), then we can discuss increasing the &quot;volume&quot; at either &quot;connection&quot; via conscious control (I'm assuming that this is what you mean by &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volition_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;force of will&lt;/a&gt;&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The auditory nerve passes through the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_system#Central_auditory_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;central auditory system&lt;/a&gt;, an area of the brain considered &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_cortex#Function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;unconscious&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Damage to the Primary Auditory Cortex in humans leads to a loss of any&#xA;  awareness of sound, but an ability to react reflexively to sounds&#xA;  remains as there is a great deal of subcortical processing in the&#xA;  auditory brainstem and midbrain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, so far as we know, there is no conscious control over this &quot;connection&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuroplasticity of &quot;perception&quot; is much greater.  A &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC544930/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;variety of studies&lt;/a&gt; have shown certain improved hearing capabilities in blind people, correlating with how early hearing loss occurs (the earlier the better), and the involvement of neuroplasticity as the visual cortex can be usurped for auditory processing.  Whether or not this corresponds to a change in &quot;volume&quot; is unclear, and this effect does not appear to be &quot;consciously&quot; controlled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, more &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/05/120508152002.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;recent research&lt;/a&gt; has demonstrated how similar effects can be induced in non-blind adults: Through temporary blindness (as little as 90 minutes with a blindfold).  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/02/06/blinding-hearing-study/5254753/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Corresponding research&lt;/a&gt; on mice has shown that this may be the result of increased &quot;volume&quot; in perception:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The cells fired faster and more powerfully in response to sounds and&#xA;  were more sensitive to quiet sounds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So not exactly &quot;sheer will&quot;, but temporary blindness, that you can easily induce on yourself consciously, may improve certain aspects of hearing, possibly including &quot;volume&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2014-12-15T23:48:26.103" LastActivityDate="2014-12-15T23:48:26.103" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8851" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3602" CreationDate="2014-12-16T13:09:50.423" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In general, I don't think the answers to these questions are known.&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00039-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; is a good review of unihemispheric slow-wave sleep (USWS); &lt;strong&gt;the section on neurophysiological mechanisms is largely speculation&lt;/strong&gt; based on how slow-wave sleep is generally thought to function--despite its lack of answers, that section is good reading anyhow, since it covers current evidence (in 2000, anyway!) and lines of inquiry.  I dug through its citing articles as well, hoping for a more informative update; the best I found was &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4328(01)00346-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, which shows &lt;strong&gt;small differences (which may or may not be statistically significant) between the openness of the ipsi &amp;amp; contralateral eyes to the sleeping hemisphere based on right/left&lt;/strong&gt;--which does suggest at least some hemispheric dominance at play. Eared seals also sleep on their side during USWS, and leave the sleeping side of the body out of the water, while the awake side of the body paddles to keep their nostrils from submerging; I found nothing suggesting hemispheric dominance issues there, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as hemisphere-switching mechanisms go, that first paper mentions work finding that unihemispheric slow-wave sleep develops only following sagittal transsection of the lower brainstem in cats--even when the interhemispheric commissures were not involved; that implies some kind of uncoupling of lower brainstem sleep regions, but that's about as far as anybody's got (or as far as I could find!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting question!  If you find more work, come back and tell me about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;br&gt;&#xA;1 Rattenborg, Amlaner, &amp;amp; Lima (2000). Behavioral, neurophysiological and evolutionary perspectives on unihemispheric sleep. Neuroscience &amp;amp; Biobehavioral Reviews Volume 24, Issue 8, December 2000, Pages 817–842.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2 Lyamin, O., &amp;amp; al. (2002). Unihemispheric slow wave sleep and the state of the eyes in a white whale. Behavioural Brain Research Volume 129, Issue 1-2, 1 February 2002, Pages 125-129.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-12-16T13:09:50.423" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8853" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10249" CreationDate="2014-12-16T15:31:45.997" Score="8" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cephalopod brains are toroidal (high surface area to volume ratios!), with the esophagus passing through the, uh, donut hole; octopodes are very intelligent, particularly spatially.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Where can I find more information on the functional and anatomical comparisons between human and cephalopod brains, and its consequences for the cognitive abilities of both?&lt;/strong&gt;  Specifically questions like&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does the functional neuroanatomy of the cephalopod compare to&#xA;human functional neuroanatomy?   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does cortical organization (both    perpendicular to the surface&#xA;and across the surface) between    cephalopods and humans compare?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do human spatial cognitive abilities differ from those of the octopus?  (Somewhat akin to how the pigeon's object recognition capabilities are less dependent on canonical views of familiar objects than the human system.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bonus points for answer materials that are aimed at those with a knowledge of other neural systems, particularly human.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-19T16:29:16.900" LastActivityDate="2015-05-21T02:22:35.153" Title="Comparative functional neuroanatomy: humans &amp; octopodes" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;&lt;comparative-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8854" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9780" CreationDate="2014-12-16T19:12:29.160" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recall a study that concluded the &lt;strong&gt;risk of falling into poverty / homelessness&lt;/strong&gt; increases dramatically after experiencing 5 (or 7?) &lt;strong&gt;traumatic life events&lt;/strong&gt;, such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Death of a loved one&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Abandonment by spouse&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bankruptcy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Being fired&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Foreclosure&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;etc (a &lt;strong&gt;threshold effect&lt;/strong&gt;). That's about as clear a memory as I can form, and search engines don't help. Anybody know about this study? It might have been from New Zealand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7272" LastEditorUserId="7272" LastEditDate="2014-12-17T09:27:07.140" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T18:12:54.177" Title="What study examined the effect of number of traumatic life events on falling into poverty?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8855" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-16T20:47:24.110" Score="4" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have devised a study that may provide an ethical way to invoke similar behaviours in participants, as those demonstrated by individuals in pain. Obviously it is extremely hard to correctly test people's cognitive abilites in a lab when looking at the effects of pain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question is, would anyone be able to mention some citations I could look into where they have attempted to recreate in a lab an ethical way to demonstrate the same responses that pain creates in order to test memory, and other cognitive processes?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My Idea is to utilize different diluted sample of capsaicin, and provide comparisons to the type of hot pepper for participants. I believe that if I could find a way to gain ethical approval that the feelings and then behaviors one experiences when eating an extremely hot pepper, are in fact similar to those of a person in the position of an aactual injury. If in fact correct it can provide a safe and controlled way to test cognitive functioning under these conditions. high fat dairy products would be on hand for the participants to assist, and in fact the distraction of participants for using on those to relieve symptoms during testing would add to the collective data. This can provide important information related to victim testimony, ability of individuals to make appropriate decisions, or give consent under pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand this is long, and that it is touchy within the ethics views, which is why I present to you my intent, thoughts, and ask for assistance in gathering other literature from those who have succeeded in attempting to study this in the lab as opposed to case studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7274" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-30T14:17:41.290" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T23:21:21.070" Title="How can the effects of pain on cognitive functions be tested in an ethically accepted way?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8856" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-16T21:03:58.383" Score="3" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking to replicate the findings of Leder, forster, and Gerger (2011) in their publication of the glasses stereotype revisited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I intend to examine the same conditions of no-glasses, rimmed glasses, and rimless glasses, whilst adding an extra condition of sunglasses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Currently my struggle is finding a facial database that has identical pre-rated images for each condition. I am hoping to avoid taking my own images, as I would then have to score and test them for neutraL facial expressions as well as make sure that I limit the possibility of previous/ future exposure between models and participants, as they will be rated on percieved intelligence, attractiveness, trustworthiness, and success. If anyone is able to point out some possibilities that would be great. I have found somewith either, glasses present vs glasses not present, and some with sunglasses present vs sunglasses not present, but no unified database with identical models for each condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reference&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leder, H., Forster, M., &amp;amp; Gerger, G. (2011). &lt;em&gt;The glasses stereotype revisited: Effects of glasses on perception, recognition and impressions of faces&lt;/em&gt;. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 70: pp. 211—222.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185/a000059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1024/1421-0185/a000059&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7274" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-07-29T16:08:05.153" Title="Where to find images of the same faces with and without glasses for experiment?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8857" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8859" CreationDate="2014-12-17T11:39:54.560" Score="6" ViewCount="706" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard a claim that people with lower voice pitch are perceived as more credible than people with higher pitch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-12-17T13:52:29.207" Title="Does your voice pitch affect your perceived authority?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;trust&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8858" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-17T12:40:45.503" Score="1" ViewCount="2588" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pretend a woman watching tv and she is moved by the speaker's credibility and his ability to speak at length on the new product. She also notes that he is attractive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in this case she is likely being influenced by 'Peripheral route', but does she also have been influenced by 'central route' ? (Minded because of the credibility of the speaker. Or is that also a characteristic of the peripheral way?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7278" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-01-06T15:13:03.757" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T15:13:03.757" Title="Central and peripheral route dilemma" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;persuasion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8859" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8857" CreationDate="2014-12-17T13:52:29.207" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's quite a bit of research related to this topic: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Male CEOs with deeper voices make more money and manage larger companies &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513813000238&quot;&gt;(Mayew et al., 2013)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People are more likely to say they would vote for a political candidate with a deeper voice (&lt;a href=&quot;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/279/1738/2698&quot;&gt;Klofstad et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.voiceresearch.org/pdf/tigue%20et%20al%202012.pdf&quot;&gt;Tigue et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People rate lower-pitched voices as more persuasive than higher-pitched voices (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/effects_of_pitch_and_speech_rate_on_personal_attributions.pdf&quot;&gt;Apple et al., 1979&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Somewhat contrary to the above findings, people tend to raise the pitch of their voice when they are in a position of authority (&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/early/2014/11/20/0956797614553009.abstract&quot;&gt;Ko et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-12-17T13:52:29.207" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8860" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8564" CreationDate="2014-12-17T16:09:41.517" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Stroop test also correlates with age and education level (Van der Elst et al. 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When emotionally charged words are presented (Emo-Stroop), the Stroop task was found to correalte with high state anxiety.(Dresler et al 2009)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find a review in &quot;Secondary Influences on Neuropsychological Test Performance&quot;, edited by Peter Arnett. (Its on google books)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;references:&lt;br/&gt;&#xA;Wim Van der Elst, Martin P. J. Van Boxtel, Gerard J. P. Van Breukelen, Jelle Jolles (2006) The Stroop color-word test: influence of age, sex, and education; and normative data for a large sample across the adult age range. Assessment. Vol 13, Issue 1, Mar 2006, Pages 62-79.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thomas Dresler, Katja Mériau, Hauke R. Heekeren, Elke van der Meer (2009) Emotional Stroop task: effect of word arousal and subject anxiety on emotional interference Psychological Research Vol 73, Pages 364–371&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6973" LastActivityDate="2014-12-17T16:09:41.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8861" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8867" CreationDate="2014-12-17T16:46:27.150" Score="0" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work on a theological reflection of coaching. I would like to list some basic directions/approaches/ways/schools that differ each other. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My attempt:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuroscience based coaching&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Systemic coaching&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;NLP coaching&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Narrative coaching.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6773" LastActivityDate="2014-12-18T10:40:36.580" Title="Approaches to life coaching" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;leadership&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8862" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5987" CreationDate="2014-12-17T19:58:02.580" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schizoid Personality Disorder has nothing to do with psychosis.  A personality disorder is an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates from the norm of the individual’s culture. The pattern is seen in two or more of the following areas: cognition; affect; interpersonal functioning; or impulse control. The enduring pattern is inflexible and pervasive across a broad range of personal and social situations. It typically leads to significant distress or impairment in social, work or other areas of functioning. The pattern is stable and of long duration and its onset can be traced back to early adulthood or adolescence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7281" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-05T11:44:31.427" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T11:44:31.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8863" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3376" CreationDate="2014-12-17T22:15:45.647" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You're describing &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnagogia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hypnagogia&lt;/a&gt;. There has been some research on the EEG states during hypnagogia: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To identify more precisely the nature of the EEG state which accompanies imagery in the transition from wakefulness to sleep, Hori et al. proposed a scheme of 9 EEG stages defined by varying proportions of alpha (stages 1–3), suppressed waves of less than 20μV (stage 4), theta ripples (stage 5), proportions of sawtooth waves (stages 6–7), and presence of spindles (stages 8–9). Germaine and Nielsen found spontaneous hypnagogic imagery to occur mainly during Hori sleep onset stages 4 (EEG flattening) and 5 (theta ripples).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7282" LastActivityDate="2014-12-17T22:15:45.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8864" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1946" CreationDate="2014-12-18T05:25:44.243" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;As computers have a different architecture, you are all just comparing an Apple with a Pie, or a Melon with a Pineapple. How can such a comparison ever be correct?&#xA;I have never seen any fruit tasting the same, and you all think the human brain(whereof we believe is conscious) is comparable with a computer whereof we don't even know if it is conscious after all. I am not a computer, so how will I ever know for sure a computer is conscious. How do I even know the people around me are conscious? I try to say, that you cannot only rely on a observation that's just a assumption of reality!&#xA;That's why the holy bible said:&#xA;Don't judge!&#xA;And just to clarify,&#xA;I do not deny any religion, neither do I try to prove it's legitimacy.&#xA;Grow up please,&#xA;and leave unanswerable questions out of the question.&#xA;The get back to what we do know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humans can give input to a computer as we assume. Computers can't give input to humans, as far as we assume.&#xA;Humans can decide as far as we assume, computers can't as far as we assume.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the specific problem in this case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I do just walk through a &quot;Don't walk sign&quot;, I might get troubles!&#xA;If a computer walks through a &quot;Don't walk sign&quot;, it asks us what to do.&#xA;Which decision is faster?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When calculating what to do next, a &quot;Don't walk sign&quot; involves abstract thinking, which is almost impossible to computers. Computers can do commands very easily, humans simply can't follow up commands easily. What do you think that happens if humans have a faster brain, but simply review their decision many times before making a decision, talking about emotions and fears and other stuff. We have to keep track of much more parameters, of which computers cannot even be aware of. Have you ever seen a small kid of about five years old, keeping track of all the parameters adults have to be aware of? Guess why adults learn slowly!&#xA;Our brain isn't just placing ones and zeros on a harddrive!&#xA;We are a living organism, and we cannot just place information somewhere.&#xA;Our brain is continuously fragmenting, just like computers, but humans are defragmenting all of the time, where computers start do have the ability to perform such a task simultaneously to it's calculations. But humans are basically performing a few hundreds, maybe even a few thousands of brain tasks before we even do something. Have you ever seen computers keeping track of these parameters? Till then, it's just comparing a cockroach to a human.&#xA;Does a cockroach know?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7283" LastActivityDate="2014-12-18T05:25:44.243" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8865" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1946" CreationDate="2014-12-18T08:15:38.307" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Others have answered to explain that the brain can indeed do parallel processing, or how the structure of the brain and a computer differ. I'm gonna answer your &amp;quot;Why?&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Because your brain was &amp;quot;built&amp;quot; to do specific tasks, and not others.&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question is like asking why a car cannot fly, if planes can fly. The answer is simple: Because cars were optimized to drive on a road.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your brain evolved to be perfect at helping you hunt antelopes, interact with other humans in a complex society, and survive virus infections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;That was the answer to the &amp;quot;Why?&amp;quot; of your question. What follows here are some thoughts on the extent and the form of the differences between a computer and the brain.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your brain – which, as others have pointed out, actually &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; massive parallel processing – did not evolve to do &amp;quot;scientific simulations, modeling, video/image processing etc.&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oh, wait, doesn't the brain process images? Sure, it processes the input from the eyes, and the constant, video-like flow of visual information your eyes send to the brain is certainly larger than any digital image or video file (which, by the way, a computer may be able to perform interesting looking video effects on, but quite simply cannot even begin to understand). Oh, and doesn't the brain also do scientific simulations and modeling? Sure, or how do you think we have an idea of the world and solve problems? When I sit down and wonder &amp;quot;what if&amp;quot;, that isn't any different from a &amp;quot;scientific simulation&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it seems to me that the brain does everything that you say it doesn't. It even scans a huge database (i.e. your whole memory) in milliseconds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But let's get back to the part where I said that the brain even fights a viral infection of the body. This seems exceptionally important to me:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The brain is connected and regulates the whole of the body that it resides in.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A computer processor does not even note if a key on the keyboard no longer works, much less repair itself. In a computer, the processor is separate and barely connected to most of the other parts that make up the whole of the computer. Your brain is not a distinct part of your body. It is so intimately interwoven with it that it is difficult to tell where it begins and ends. From everywhere in your body nerve fibres lead to your brain, and your brain is in fact the collection of the endpoints of these nerve fibres. You may have heard of the second nerve center, the so-called &amp;quot;second brain&amp;quot; in your guts. You have more neurons in your intestines than in your spinal cord. In a computer, there are no other parts where there are processors or their axons, and the connections of the processor to the interfaces, the memory and a handful of other parts, are few.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then neurons and their electricity are only one channel of information flow in the brain/body-whole. Information in the human body is stored and processed in the form of chemicals also. And in the form of growth and decay of cells. The form and shape of your body is in fact also memory, and this information is available to your brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, the brain and the body are an inseparable unit. As research into emotion shows,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&amp;quot;processing&amp;quot; of information does not take place only in the brain, but in the whole of the body,&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;all the time, and the amount of information that the sum of these – parallel! – processes make up is as yet unfathomed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A computer is a badly designed box in which a processor is screwed that does mathematical calculations. A human being is an organism that survives and procreates. How anyone could think of comparing the two is a mystery to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, the human brain cannot count from 1 to one billion as quickly as a computer can, but that seems like an irrelevant exercise to me anyway. If you think of other complex calculations like the weather, a human who is given the current weather data can predict the weather almost as accurately as any computer can. What does that tell us about the impressive calculation power of computers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What? Google's computers can scan billions of web pages and create translations that are almost correct? Interesting. I can come up with translations that &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; correct. Well, sure, someday Google may have perfected that algorithm to no longer make mistakes, but that's a lot of effort, people, time, and money, put into doing something that half of humanity can already do, and the other half could learn if they could go to school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What? Computer software can render a photorealistic landscape? Looks good. With all the time the modelling, texturing and light set up took, a good human painter can do the same in acrylic or oils. And the painting even looks less sterile and more alive :-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2014-12-18T08:15:38.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8867" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8861" CreationDate="2014-12-18T10:40:36.580" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Coaching is not as well researched and not as well conceptualized as for example psychotherapy. There are no clear and distinct schools and approaches, especially since many certifying institutes require by contract that the coaches they train must not disclose the copyrighted methods to third parties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, literature on coaching and the reports of coaches show that coaching uses a &quot;toolbox&quot; of methods taken from any and all schools of psychotherapy (from behavioral therapy to humanistic therapy to Gestalt therapy to psychoanalysis to systemic therapy and so on) and sociology as well as other, even New Age methods (see for example Rupert, 1992) of personality development, most prominently NLP. Usually the tools are used in an eclectic, &quot;experimental&quot; (try-what-works) manner. Rarely is there a theoretic &quot;framing&quot; of methodology (one example is Schmidt-Lellek &amp;amp; Schreyögg, 2008, who use a phenomenological frame).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;(I'm currently enrolled in a psychological seminar on methods in and evaluation of coaching)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rupert, G. (1992). Employing the New Age: training seminars. In J. R. Lewis &amp;amp; J. G. Melton (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Perspectives on the New Age.&lt;/em&gt; Albany, NY: SUNY Press., 127-35.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schmidt-Lellek, C. J., &amp;amp; Schreyögg, A. (Eds.) (2008). &lt;em&gt;Praxeologie des Coaching.&lt;/em&gt; Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2014-12-18T10:40:36.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8868" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5941" CreationDate="2014-12-18T11:41:00.617" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several factors are proven to affect our experience of time. Those that differ from one day to the next include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Biochemistry affects our perception of time.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stimulants produce overestimates of time duration, whereas depressants and anesthetics produce underestimates of time duration.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fear affects our perception of time:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hammond points to a study in which people with arachnophobia were asked to look at spiders — the very object of their intense fear — for 45 seconds and they overestimated the elapsed time. The same pattern was observed in novice skydivers, who estimated the duration of their peers’ falls as short, whereas their own, from the same altitude, were deemed longer&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When a person is scared, a brain area called the amygdala becomes more active, laying down an extra set of memories that go along with those normally taken care of by other parts of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;In this way, frightening events are associated with richer and denser memories,&quot; Eagleman explained. &quot;And the more memory you have of an event, the longer you believe it took.&quot; &#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainpickings.org/2013/07/15/time-warped-claudia-hammond/&quot;&gt;http://www.brainpickings.org/2013/07/15/time-warped-claudia-hammond/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/2117-time-slow-emergencies.html&quot;&gt;http://www.livescience.com/2117-time-slow-emergencies.html&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Our attention affects our perception of time:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Wearden et al. (2014) administered a questionnaire which asked about passage of time in different drug and emotional states, and generally found that situations associated with “distraction” from time were associated with faster passage of time, in accord with the idea that “attention to time” is an important determinant of time judgements. &#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mind-and-brain.de/postdoctoral-program/scientific-events/archive/time/&quot;&gt;http://www.mind-and-brain.de/postdoctoral-program/scientific-events/archive/time/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Having fun(or not):&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When this was tested by Kellaris (1992), they found that when listeners enjoyed the music more, time seemed to slow down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Or—prepare yourself for a 180 degree about-face—it could all be the other way around. Perhaps you’re having fun when time flies. In other words, we assume we’ve been enjoying ourselves when we notice that time has passed quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There’s evidence for this in a recent experiment by Sackett et al. (2010). Participants doing a boring task were tricked into thinking it had lasted half as long as it really had. They thought it was more enjoyable than those who had been doing exactly the same task but who hadn’t been tricked about how much time had passed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Being tired:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When we’re tired, though, our perception of time goes awry and we find it more difficult to distinguish between short spaces of time. This fact can be used to measure whether people are too tired to fly a plane, drive a truck or be a doctor. Indeed just such simple hand-held devices that quickly assess your tiredness are already being developed (Eagleman, 2009).&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spring.org.uk/2011/06/10-ways-our-minds-warp-time.php&quot;&gt;http://www.spring.org.uk/2011/06/10-ways-our-minds-warp-time.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Emotional self-regulation:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The effort of trying to either suppress or enhance our emotional reactions seems to change our perception of time. Psychologists have found that when people are trying to regulate their emotions, time seems to drag on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Vohs and Schmeichel (2003) had participants watch an 11 minute clip from the film Terms of Endearment. Some participants were asked to remain emotionally neutral while watching the clip and others were told to act naturally. Those who tried to suppress their emotions estimated the clip had lasted longer than it really had.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spring.org.uk/2011/06/10-ways-our-minds-warp-time.php&quot;&gt;http://www.spring.org.uk/2011/06/10-ways-our-minds-warp-time.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Body temperature:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Experiments have found that when body temperature is raised our perception of time speeds up (Wearden &amp;amp; Pento-Voak, 1995). Conversely when we are cooled down, our sense of time also slows down.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spring.org.uk/2011/06/10-ways-our-minds-warp-time.php&quot;&gt;http://www.spring.org.uk/2011/06/10-ways-our-minds-warp-time.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2014-12-18T11:41:00.617" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8869" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-18T13:24:36.510" Score="11" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;What does research have to say about defining &quot;fun&quot;--what it is or when it happens?  I've found some research on whether or not people rate specific things as fun, and lots of misleading titles with the word &quot;fun&quot; in them, but very little on what fun is (cognitively, neurologically, affectively, socially) and when it happens.  I also found a couple of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6477/why-do-we-find-things-fun&quot;&gt;cogsci.SE&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5610/what-makes-some-things-more-fun-than-others-universally&quot;&gt;questions&lt;/a&gt; but the answers are either entirely unsupported or stray into other waters (motivation, addiction).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a cognitive or scientific definition of &quot;fun&quot;?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Is there a body of research on when fun happens?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-09-25T06:37:24.830" Title="Definition of or research on fun" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8872" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-18T19:44:36.843" Score="5" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;As computational neuroscience has the mainstream on single neuron/network modelling for biochemical aspect, and computational modelling of physiological mechanism of hippocampus for analytic study of memory system. And also there already exists an area in affective computing, but it seems much more focused on image analysis aspect, e.g. how to detect human emotion via mathematical modelling from pictures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather than these, I am more interested in computational modelling or analysis of physiological mechanism in affective neuroscience, for the study of human emotion system in an biochemical level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, some (if possible) fundamental research papers or monographs are welcomed to be mentioned. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5052" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2014-12-19T02:21:20.130" LastActivityDate="2014-12-19T02:21:20.130" Title="Research on computational models of physiological mechanisms in affective neuroscience at a biochemical level" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8876" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-19T02:07:30.983" Score="2" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, I show to my students that X&lt;em&gt;Y=Z, so I ask for them to do some exercises, so in the future, they will always know that X&lt;/em&gt;Y=Z.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any known study relating the numbers of exercises needed to learn a subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And that relates the numbers of steps with the amount of practise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because we can see clearly that the sequency 1-3-8 is easier to remember than 1-3-8-6-9-8-7-5-5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the second sequency will need three more times of exercise to remember?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this may be useful in my studies, considering time a important factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a do just some exercises, I just can half learn, and if I study much more than I need, I waste my time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7290" LastEditorUserId="7290" LastEditDate="2014-12-19T10:33:33.713" LastActivityDate="2015-02-18T06:57:59.210" Title="Number of exercises and the learning of some subject?" Tags="&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8877" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1966" CreationDate="2014-12-19T09:52:23.137" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is probably a bit old but there is a free iOS app called the PIEL Survey. It is in the App store. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pielsurvey.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;There is a web site which explains how to set up Experience Sampling surveys.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7294" LastActivityDate="2014-12-19T09:52:23.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8878" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3834" CreationDate="2014-12-19T11:53:47.863" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is one more way how to use neuroscience for better education and learning - the brain-based coaching by David Rock. This kind of applied neuroscience is part of some managerial courses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The limits of neuroscience has been mentioned by Benedict XVI. in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20090629_caritas-in-veritate_en.html#76.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;his encyklica Caritas in Veritate&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6773" LastActivityDate="2014-12-19T11:53:47.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8879" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8847" CreationDate="2014-12-19T15:03:17.073" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A related question is whether taking notes by hand or by typing is more effective. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pagesped.cahuntsic.ca/sc_sociales/psy/introsite/article/ecrire-ordi-crayon.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mueller &amp;amp; Oppenheimer (2014)&lt;/a&gt; found that taking notes by hand is more effective, and claim that this is because taking notes on a laptop results in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;shallow processing&lt;/a&gt; of the material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect that the most effective strategy in this case is to print out the slides beforehand, and use the margins to summarize and re-phrase things in your own words. Copying the slides verbatim when they are already available online is probably not a good use of your time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2014-12-19T15:03:17.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8880" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8882" CreationDate="2014-12-20T05:45:35.253" Score="2" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen people tightly focused on a problem, in a state of 'flow' and when you break out of it there seems to be a couple of seconds of confusion when they adjust to the circumstances at hand. It is almost as if there is only blood flow, or electrical activity to one part of the brain, and other parts of the brain are dormant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes I see this with people who are doing computer programming and drinking coffee. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;What evidence is there for a correlation between being tightly focused on a problem and only using one part of your brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastActivityDate="2014-12-20T08:53:15.087" Title="What evidence is there for a correlation between being tightly focused on a problem and only using one part of your brain?" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8881" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8876" CreationDate="2014-12-20T06:38:08.727" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Learning is a very complex process, do not expect to find precise answers like “5 exercises are required to learn a new subject”. There are many factors that affect learning, just to name a few:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your existing knowledge.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your engagement with the subject.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How you learn. Deep Vs shallow processing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The complexity of the subject.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your personal characteristics e.g. IQ.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your current state, how much tired you are etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With so many factors involved is impossible to give precise answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2014-12-20T06:38:08.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8882" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8880" CreationDate="2014-12-20T08:53:15.087" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may find some explanation from the research done for &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;attention&lt;/a&gt;. In the most famous experiment done by Simon and Chabris 1999 (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt;), participants inhibited irrelevant information that was not related to the task of counting passes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you are performing a task, you pay attention to what is relevant to the task, and inhibit irrelevant internal and external distractions. The more focused you are the more inhibitions occurs. The degree of focus you devote to a task depends from the difficulty of the task and the engagement you have for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Programming is a very highly demanding task and usually programmers are very passionate about it. So programming is a very focused task, thus everything unrelated to the task of programming is inhibited. When you do programming, you inhibit information like where you are, who else is in the room, hunger signals (I know programmer who forget to go to lunch) etc. When you are interrupted you need some time to re-activate all those things that have been inhibited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2014-12-20T08:53:15.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8883" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1944" CreationDate="2014-12-20T09:35:36.813" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Having experienced this, here is the outcome :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When having back to back Lucid dreams, one begins to create a new world in which, you begin to have real problems when dreaming or when awake, and essentially comes to make a choice as to which one YOU would like to live in, or to determine which is the real world.  This occurs when one has evolved to the point where your Lucid dream would continue from being Awake in the exact same manner that life continues while you are asleep.  I am not sure how this happens, but the effects can be quite confusing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When doing this, I had no problems with obtaining REM, and in fact found that it was much easier to obtain that state within a few minutes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mastering lucid dreaming is beneficial, however you will begin to notice that the world you created are bound by laws as well -- albeit a completely different set of rules.  For example, one common pretext for dreaming is the wish to fly.  When adopted into your world, you may find that you CAN fly, or do pretty much anything, but it requires and existential resource which may or may not be limited in quantity.  You are also able to sense that Death in a Lucid dream will definitely kill you, but you start to lose touch with the vice-vera.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To use the state for higher-learning, happens at entry level lucid dreaming where you are in control, but everything may still be a bit &quot;fuzzy&quot;. Your dream may carry you through whatever it is that you wish to learn.   When mastering Lucid dreams, it works a bit different, in that the whole environment now has it's own life that continues while you are awake.  A good (simple) example of this would be if you were to consider the following :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Real Life&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are a passenger in a car and you fall asleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before falling asleep, you notice that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; * The driver is smoking&#xA; * You are nearing the exit of the city you are leaving&#xA; * It's raining&#xA; * A certain song is playing on the radio&#xA; * Your cushion is chilly&#xA; * Your little brother is playing with his phone&#xA; * Your little sister is sleeping&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;When you wake up,&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;  * The driver is no longer smoking&#xA;  * You are just entering the driveway of your destination&#xA;  * It is bright and sunny&#xA;  * &quot;News&quot; is playing on the radio&#xA;  * Your cushion is now too warm&#xA;  * Your little brother is asleep&#xA;  * Your little sister is now awake and playing video games on her portable game device.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now picture all of that happening, but replace 'Real Life' with Lucid dream, and your sleeping with 'wake up' and your wake up' with sleeping.  You can begin to understand how mastering Lucid dreaming can then become a real problem the longer this process continues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My advice, is instead of mastering Lucid dreaming, would be to utilize the benefits of entry level lucid dream states for higher learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To this day, I still have no idea whether I am awake or asleep, and that is not a philosophical reason for it, but from my experiences of Lucid dreaming.  Is this 'real' or is it 'real' when I am in my dream world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For those seeking citations from other experiences that are similar to my own and relay the same concept that reality and dream differentiation can become very blurred, here are two references :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.haverford.edu/decentered/2016/06/13/zhuangzis-butterfly-dream/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zhuangzi’s Butterfly Dream&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Zhuangzi stated &quot;Once I dreamed I was a butterfly, and when I woke, I wasn't sure if I was a butterfly dreaming I was a man, or a man who dreamed of being a butterfly&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This shows that reality comes into question which is the &quot;real&quot; one. My experience is this happens after a lot of &quot;practice&quot;, and you keep going further without caring which is which, until you need to make a choice for yourself which one you want to believe and accept as real.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also this handy bit on Psychology Today &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/dream-catcher/201106/dream-and-reality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dream and Reality&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I can not find any studies, I am not surprised as how would one go about studying that which you only have someones word for it.  I suspect if you are looking for irrefutable and empirical data, you will find the only real &quot;test&quot; you can do, is to achieve the same level of lucid state for yourself, which is something hinted at, in the works of 3rd parties (and cited in papers since) who are all long since dead so you can not question them any further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you wish to know the truth, explore for yourself, and I hope you achieve both the capability to reach the same heights, and the wisdom when it comes time to decide which fate you choose as your reality. Barring that, perhaps accept (or reject) the experiences of those who have tangible results (higher &quot;IQ&quot;, more knowledge about things,  patience, and wisdom all come with the package).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the end of the day, it is up to you to decide, and research (beyond any possible included citations), what data you wish to accept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have since tracked my sleep using a FitBit Versa for whatever it's worth, which shows that I have much longer REM states than &quot;normal&quot; (and this is decades after the experience i described above), and that my other cycles of sleep are typically very short, and restless - although when I awake, I appear to have not moved (same position, blankets/etc still taut, and so on).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7299" LastEditorUserId="7299" LastEditDate="2019-06-15T03:32:51.030" LastActivityDate="2019-06-15T03:32:51.030" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8889" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7847" CreationDate="2014-12-20T22:11:05.377" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does this phrase represent an actual clinical diagnosis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no such diagnosis in the DSM. Based on your definition (&lt;em&gt;the tendency to start new ideas without thinking them through&lt;/em&gt;), it is probably correlated with psychological constructs such as impulsivity or deliberation. These can be measured using tests such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barratt_Impulsiveness_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Barratt Impulsivity Scale&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Reflection_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive Reflection Test&lt;/a&gt;, respectively. Whether or not people who fall prey to &quot;shiny object syndrome&quot; in business are actually more impulsive or less deliberate is not clear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there people who are more likely than others to be distracted by &quot;shiny objects&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since &quot;shiny object syndrome&quot; hasn't been operationalized, it's impossible to say for sure. I think it's reasonable to believe there is individual variation here, either because some people are more cautious than others, or because they have learned from their mistakes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can &quot;shiny objects&quot; cause further effects other than distraction?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sure, why not? By definition, it sounds like there would be a drop in efficiency or productivity, which can at least cause negative monetary outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2014-12-20T22:11:05.377" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8892" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-21T07:58:21.427" Score="9" ViewCount="572" Body="&lt;p&gt;Glial cells comprise about 80% of the cells in the human brain. But physiological models of EEG and fMRI often relate only to neuronal activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do glial cells affect large-scale imaging modalities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, does glial activity artifact dye imaging and local field potentials? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are microscale recordings more sensitive to artifacts due to glial activity than macroscale recordings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7306" LastEditorUserId="7306" LastEditDate="2014-12-22T00:37:32.750" LastActivityDate="2014-12-22T16:59:45.567" Title="How does glial cell activity influence fMRI, EEG signals?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8895" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8911" CreationDate="2014-12-22T03:13:30.943" Score="4" ViewCount="4705" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I don't stutter at least not always. For example, if I be reading out a article to myself, It is sure that I will not stutter even that I am reading it out loud.&#xA;The times when I do stutter is say when I am doing a presentation in class! or just saying something to my mother.The time always came up without warning. I will not know If I am gonna be stuttering reading a certain word until I actually reach it. It really creates a problem for me, and I can't find the reason for it..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do people stutter when they are nervous?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6875" LastEditorUserId="6875" LastEditDate="2014-12-22T14:23:48.450" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T11:05:10.097" Title="Why do some people stutter only when they are nervous?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8897" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-22T14:59:58.940" Score="0" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would be very grateful if someone could direct me towards any literature on the following thoughts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have always wondered if my brain were split into 2 and separated while being kept alive and then rebuilt into 2 fully functioning brains, which one would I (my current self/consciousness) occupy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this is all debatable but I came to a fairly satisfactory answer (for myself) that there exists some sort of module within the brain that emulates my conscious self and whichever half of the brain got that module would be the one my current consciousness would inhabit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it then seems that consciousness is simply an illusion from the brain. That the question if (in the Ship of Theseus type of thinking) your whole body where to be decomposed and rebuilt would the new consciousness still be the same as the old is simply answered by the fact there was no real consciousness in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I however find this very hard to wrap my head around as it seems like a logical answer, yet every waking moment I feel as if I have a very real consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could anyone direct me to a book that discusses this in more detail?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="rwolst" LastActivityDate="2014-12-22T16:12:48.987" Title="The 'self' and partitioning of the brain" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2014-12-22T23:12:04.707" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8898" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8892" CreationDate="2014-12-22T16:59:45.567" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm only going to attempt to answer a small part of your question: how does glial activation affect the blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) response measured by fMRI?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schulz et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt; were able to investigate the role of glial signaling on fMRI activity by simultaneously measuring neuronal responses with invasive optical imaging and fMRI. They found that glial activation prolonged the BOLD response, as shown in this figure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/W58ZG.png&quot; alt=&quot;figure from Schulz et al.&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's how they interpret this result:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although these glial responses did not initiate vessel dilations, they were associated with prolonged BOLD signals, suggesting a possible contribution to persistent vascular responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words: they hypothesize that the activity of the glial cells prolongs the dilation of the blood vessels, which is detected as a prolonged BOLD response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2014-12-22T16:59:45.567" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8899" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9093" CreationDate="2014-12-22T21:26:12.123" Score="3" ViewCount="190" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know how some music notes combinations &lt;a href=&quot;http://musicmasterworks.com/WhereMathMeetsMusic.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sound pleasing, yet others do not&lt;/a&gt;. Does the same occur with different frequencies of light (colors)? Since spectral color and acoustic pitch are both defined by their respective wavelengths (frequencies), it made me think that the psychological properties of the two may be related. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So do light waves, for example one with the same wave length as a mid-C and another with a mid-F wave, look nicely together? Or do certain colors when viewed simultaneously, or side by side, appear pleasing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7318" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-01-16T00:33:56.020" LastActivityDate="2016-03-23T14:29:16.687" Title="Acoustic and light wave coherency?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8900" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-22T22:55:15.107" Score="2" ViewCount="172" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the most efficient method learning multiple academic topics in parallel with each other. I propose, for a small number of different things (say 4), the best method is to cycle the topics, over the course of 4 days, i.e. topic 1,2,3,4,1... on days 1,2,3,4,5... respectively and working full days on each topic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am just wondering in terms of cognitive effectiveness is this the best strategy? Would changing up the topic every half day be more effective? I would tend to think that switching every half day could improve brains ability to work (reduced 'boredom') but maybe as the 2 topics would be inherently different it could hinder information retention for the first subject. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of any studies done which could relate to this or have any ideas themselves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7320" LastEditorUserId="7320" LastEditDate="2014-12-23T00:03:33.960" LastActivityDate="2015-03-24T10:09:38.943" Title="Short term memory and an effective learning strategy" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-03-27T04:41:44.090" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8902" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-23T12:13:16.837" Score="11" ViewCount="263" Body="&lt;p&gt;The so-called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat_Park&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Rat Park&quot;&lt;/a&gt; study conducted in the late 1970s indicated that lonely rats get drug addicted more easily than social ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know if there are more recent studies about the topic? About drug addictions or other addictions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alexander, B. K., Coambs, R. B., &amp;amp; Hadaway, P. F. (1978). The effect of housing and gender on morphine self-administration in rats. &lt;em&gt;Psychopharmacology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;58&lt;/em&gt;(2), 175-179. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00426903&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;doi:10.1007/BF00426903&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-05-13T17:38:56.320" LastActivityDate="2019-05-10T00:03:15.763" Title="Do lonely people get addicted more easily than social counterparts?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8906" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8393" CreationDate="2014-12-24T04:30:38.690" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/11189525_Visual_scanning_of_faces_in_autism/file/79e41506462f293e76.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pelphrey et al., 2002&lt;/a&gt; the authors show that when people are asked to scan a face, they spend about 80% of the time looking at the eyes, about 10% on the nose region, and a few percents on the mouth (the remaining few percentages were spent on other non-core features such as ears, forehead etc). &lt;strong&gt;Hence, the eyes by far draw the most attention and represent the most important feature when it comes to facial processing&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A typical example of a visual scan by a human subject as examined by eye tracking is the following (taken from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/11189525_Visual_scanning_of_faces_in_autism/file/79e41506462f293e76.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pelphrey et al., 2002&lt;/a&gt;), which shows that the subject scanned the core features of the facial image (eyes, nose, mouth):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/k4HTC.png&quot; alt=&quot;FaceScan&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, the presence of a complete face makes recognition more efficient than when looking at incomplete faces (&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.uvic.ca/psyc/vizcoglab/pubPDFs/Tanaka%26Farah.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tanaka &amp;amp; Farah, 1993&lt;/a&gt;)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-24T09:26:12.420" LastActivityDate="2014-12-24T09:26:12.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8908" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8900" CreationDate="2014-12-24T08:37:17.530" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;By one of Tony Buzone's memory book, I would say the right way is to memorize a topic/data, then do a 10 minute break. After 10 minutes, repeat it again. Then, Repeat it the next day, the next month and then the next half a year. That should put the topic in your memory in the long term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it also depends on what kind of data there is in each topic. If the data is too similar with each topic, it will be too hard to memorize all topics at once without being confused and without mixing up facts. Other factors that you didnt mention are the volume of material in each topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, order of topics is not important. You may reverse the order of the topics to devote your mental effort to the hardest topic as being hte first...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7308" LastActivityDate="2014-12-24T08:37:17.530" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8909" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6089" CreationDate="2014-12-24T08:55:20.953" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is what I do to store something in the long term memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Place it in the short term memory (those methods depend on the material).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use mnemonic memory techniques.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Repeat the facts in different order.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Relate the facts to something that you already know.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Organize the facts in a logical order (order improves memory).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Try to find semantic meaning the facts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Practice with active learning methods like writing and talking rather than with passive learning methods like listening and seeing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Make the learning experience engaging. Get involved with different activities that include using the material you have learnt. For example, teach it to others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Draw a vivid mind map of what you learnt.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jot down self questions on the material you had to remember.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Take a 10 minute break.&#xA;Answer the test that you designed and the mind map that you drew in step 1, all from memory.&#xA;Repeat step 1 for the facts which are the answers to the questions that you didn't answer correctly in step 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) The day after. Do another repetition.&#xA;Repeat what you didn't in step 2. This time mark the questions to your test that weren't answered correctly.&#xA;During the month, every day, try to answer the questions that were marked as wrong by the previous day.&#xA;So for example, if in day 3 you didn't answer right to question 4,6,8.. mark them and repeat only them on day 4. If you answered question question 4 and 8 correctly and 6 incorrectly, mark question 6 as wrong. Repeat the process every next day, until all the questions are right, then stop the process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) The next month from the day you started step 3.&#xA;Repeat step 1-3. First, answer all the questions in your test, then make a general repetition. Design a new test..answer with the same technique described in step 3 to eliminate memory fading after the revision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5) After half a year repeat step 4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just to add. I memorize dictionaries using this technique. If you have a lot of meaningless data to memories (dictionaries, encyclopedia, lexicons, fact books), you need a technique like mine, because most of the other techniques out there are too passive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My technique also trains the memory better. It helps you to transfer memory from short term to long term (Especially the mnemonic techniques). The example that you bring relates to the idea of familiarity and semantic meaning. If you memorize English words, overtime it would be easier to memorize more English words than, let's say, french words.&#xA;It does only increase long term memory for a specific topic, not for everything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other factors that help to improve your long term memory are amount of sleep, physical health and nutrition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tony Buzon. Memory books.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Introduction to psychology book  (A-level). Cognitive psychology chapter.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-study skills gained through university.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Semantic memory might be the reason you find it easier to remember more and more poems as you continue reading them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some research:&#xA;Semantic memory - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022537173800568&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022537173800568&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7308" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-26T19:38:31.857" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T19:38:31.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8910" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8764" CreationDate="2014-12-24T09:35:38.723" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Autocorrelation is calculated between the spikes-histogram and itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experiment is carried out while the activity of a specific neuron is recorded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Histogram&lt;/strong&gt; - An animal runs in a circular arena which we divide into multiple squared bins, whenever the cell fires (i.e. generate an action potential) 1 counter is added to the location (the bin) in which the animal is currently located.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Autocorrelation&lt;/strong&gt; - Two instances of the spikes histogram are observed such that one is &quot;placed on-top of the other&quot; and the correlation between the two instances is calculated.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;the two instances are perfectly aligned&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, their&#xA;autocorrelation is 1 (they perfectly match).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Now we start &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;moving one of the instances&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The match between the two instances is not perfect (the autocorrelation is smaller than 1) but because there are peaks (at the spikes-histogram) all across the arena, if we shift one of the instances such that it would be &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;on top&quot; of another peak&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g. each peak is aligned with the peak directly to its right) the autocorrelation would, once again, equal 1.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;(τX,τY)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; - The shift of one of the instances is carried out for &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;every value of x and y&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of the arena (i.e. for every &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;phase&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;) and the value of autocorrelation for each (τX,τY) shift of the first instance relative to the stationary second instance is plotted - this is what the autocorrelation figure shows.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What should we learn from the autocorrelation figure&lt;/strong&gt; - That the cell response is indeed represented by &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;a grid&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The figure exemplifies that when the spikes histogram is shifted in a single full period (i.e. to the next peak) it fully matches itself, so the grid pattern indeed characterize similarly the whole arena (&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;tessellating&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; it).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7212" LastActivityDate="2014-12-24T09:35:38.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8911" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8895" CreationDate="2014-12-24T13:55:42.507" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting question! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming you are talking about stuttering, as occurs in about 1% of the population (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.keck.ucsf.edu/~houde/speech/stutter/MSommer03a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sommer et al., 2003&lt;/a&gt;), as opposed to non-pathological stammering during stressful situations that many more people experience, my answer is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress and speech disruption in stutterers are undoubtedly related (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://jshd.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1775558&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Craig, 1999&lt;/a&gt;). In fact, they may be causally related, as stress can provoke or aggravate stuttering, which in turn may cause more stress to the stutterer due to feelings of shame or loss of control. This in turn may induce more stuttering and may thus lead to a downward spiral, or vicious circle (&lt;a href=&quot;http://copingwithstuttering.blogspot.com.au/2010/02/stuttering-child.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schwartz, The Stuttering Child&lt;/a&gt;) that may grossly disrupt speech. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The underlying physiological basis of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; stress provokes stuttering has been addressed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2273884&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Weber &amp;amp; Smith, (1990&lt;/a&gt;). It shows that speaking increases autonomic activity (elevated blood flow, increased heart rate, sweating) and that this sympathetic arousal was correlated with increased stuttering behaviors in stutterers. Interestingly, the sympathetic arousal of stutterers was found not to be outside the range of controls. The authors bring up several hypotheses as to why sympathetic activity may deteriorate speech fluency in stutterers: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased autonomic activity has been associated with &lt;strong&gt;irregular breathing&lt;/strong&gt;, which may affect speaking;       &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Release of the &lt;strong&gt;stress hormone adrenalin&lt;/strong&gt; may induce &lt;strong&gt;muscle tremor&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;spasms&lt;/strong&gt; that can affect speech production;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sympathetic regulation of &lt;strong&gt;afferent control of the sensitivity of sensory receptors&lt;/strong&gt; (muscle spindles and mechanoreceptors) in the &lt;strong&gt;oralmotor, laryngeal and respiratory system&lt;/strong&gt; may affect speech motor processes;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;gain of reflex arches&lt;/strong&gt; (feedback) involved in the &lt;strong&gt;musculature engaged in speech&lt;/strong&gt; may be modulated such that speech fluency is negatively impacted. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These processes may aggravate the underlying pathology of stutterers (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0020046#pbio-0020046-g003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Büchel &amp;amp; Sommer&lt;/a&gt;) and hence lead to more pronounced stuttering under stress.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;em&gt;PS: Being a stutterer myself since early childhood, I support the behavioral consequences of stress mentioned in above studies by anecdotal experience :)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0020046#pbio-0020046-g003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Buchel &amp;amp; Sommer, &lt;em&gt;PLoS Biol&lt;/em&gt; 2004; &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;(2): e46&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- &lt;a href=&quot;http://jshd.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1775558&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Craig, &lt;em&gt;J Speech Hear Disorders&lt;/em&gt; 1990; &lt;strong&gt;55&lt;/strong&gt;: 290-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- &lt;a href=&quot;http://copingwithstuttering.blogspot.com.au/2010/02/stuttering-child.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schwartz, The Stuttering Child, Coping With Stuttering&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.keck.ucsf.edu/~houde/speech/stutter/MSommer03a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sommer et al., &lt;em&gt;Movement Disorders&lt;/em&gt; 2003; &lt;strong&gt;18&lt;/strong&gt;(7): 826*30&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2273884&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Weber &amp;amp; Smith, &lt;em&gt;J Speech Hear Res&lt;/em&gt; 1990;&lt;strong&gt;33&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 690-706&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-24T11:05:10.097" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T11:05:10.097" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8912" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6110" CreationDate="2014-12-24T17:42:41.603" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting question!  A related phenomenon called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://scienceblogs.com/mixingmemory/2006/11/16/the-illusion-of-explanatory-de/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;illusion of explanatory depth&lt;/a&gt; (IOED) suggests that the human cognitive system has a systematic weakness in this kind of evaluation--I believe the classic example is asking people if they know how a helicopter works (most people say yes), and then asking them to explain how a helicopter works (very few people even get as far as mentioning airfoils or lift).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the mechanism behind the illusion of explanatory depth (and thus the mechanism behind evaluation of incomprehension in general) is understudied, a 2010 review examined six studies and drew a few conclusions: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;IOEDs have been found in natural, mechanical, and social-psychological domains.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People who adopt a concrete construal style (as opposed to an abstract style), either naturally or from prompting, diminish the scope of their IOED. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Missing the trees for the forest: A construal level account of the illusion of explanatory depth. Alter, Adam L.; Oppenheimer, Daniel M.; Zemla, Jeffrey C. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 99(3), Sep 2010, 436-451. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0020218&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0020218&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2014-12-24T17:42:41.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8913" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8915" CreationDate="2014-12-24T19:10:37.607" Score="2" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm fairly new to the field of social psychology so forgive me if this sounds like a naive question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just read about the consistency principle - &quot;Once we make a choice or take a stand, we will encounter personal and interpersonal pressures to behave consistently with that commitment. Those pressures will cause us to respond in ways that justify our earlier decision.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have the question - exactly what kind of decision/commitment are we talking about? As in, how do we reliably identify a situation in which a person has made a decision/commitment such that he will now behave as per the consistency principle?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the consistency principle is really so pervasive, then why do people often back out of promises? There are tons of situations when people don't honor their &quot;commitment&quot; towards other people (for example not showing up for some social event, or not showing up for a date, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7327" LastActivityDate="2014-12-25T00:16:07.950" Title="Consistency Theory - Why do we go back on promises" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;commitment&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8914" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-24T20:38:27.463" Score="2" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;People seem to believe that one's consciousness is a &quot;different&quot; consciousness than that of others, but the &quot;same&quot; consciousness as the one that has been in one's body in the past and the one that will be in one's body in the future. How likely is this to be true? I have almost no knowledge about neuroscience, so please refrain from using much neuroscience jargon if feasible, even if it's at the cost of not giving a thorough explanation. A simple &quot;yes,&quot; &quot;no,&quot; or &quot;we have no idea&quot; answer would suffice if need be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7329" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-03-26T01:04:15.973" LastActivityDate="2015-03-26T01:04:15.973" Title="Is the consciousness currently in oneself the same as the consciousness that used to be or in the future will be in oneself?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8915" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8913" CreationDate="2014-12-25T00:16:07.950" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's no reason that consistency and promise-breaking can't both be pervasive.  In the first place, if 20% of the population always broke promises and another 20% always obeyed the consistency principle then we would still call it pervasive and we still have 60% of the population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But an additional complication is that no person always breaks promises or always obeys consistency and most people do both at some point. We can imagine a scenario in which a politician could simultaneously break a promise (to a rival political force) and obey consistency principle (keeping the promise would have betrayed his base).  So the two aren't really contradictory since consistency principle doesn't require one to be consistent about everything always.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2014-12-25T00:16:07.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5334" CreationDate="2014-12-25T03:39:40.533" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#Cognitive_theories&quot;&gt;Modern theories of emotion&lt;/a&gt; suggest that like many aspects of self-knowledge, emotion is &quot;inferred&quot; rather than &quot;introspected&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is exemplified by a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misattribution_of_arousal#Experiment&quot;&gt;classic experiment&lt;/a&gt; in which men were surveyed by an attractive female interviewer while on a bridge.  Some of the men were on a &quot;fear-arousing&quot; suspension bridge, while other men were on a &quot;non-fear-arousing&quot; solid bridge.  Men surveyed on the suspension bridge were more likely to include sexual content in their answers, and more likely to call the interviewer later.  Presumably the men on the suspension bridge were more aroused than the ones on the solid bridge, and misattributed their arousal to the attractiveness of the interviewer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-factor_theory_of_emotion#Empirical_support&quot;&gt;Similar research&lt;/a&gt; supports the idea that physiological inputs (eg, the effects of hormones in our system) are combined with a process of inference to produce emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine having a low level of serotonin in your brain.  This may cause a negative effect on your mood - sadness.  Now you want to know why.  So you search for possible reasons: Maybe a conversation you had recently didn't go well, maybe your bank account is low on funds, maybe you notice that you haven't spent time with friends lately...  Successful &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;attribution&lt;/a&gt; typically requires a plausible cause-and-effect relationship - that is, the most likely explanation is probably the correct one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Put another way, people in general sense physiological states (such as sadness) without knowing why.  They then (unconsciously) &quot;guess&quot; why through inference.  Sometimes they get it right, and sometimes they get it wrong.  If you've ever had a girlfriend on her period blame her feelings on the way you treat her, then you know what I mean.  So the reality is that people who feel sad and don't know why, are ... accurate.  The only difference between feeling sad and knowing why, and feeling sad and not knowing why, is successful attribution - coming up with a plausible guess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2014-12-25T03:39:40.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4229" CreationDate="2014-12-25T07:43:39.217" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pornography laws are a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pornography#History&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;relic of the Victorian era&lt;/a&gt;, and not based on any science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research that can conclusively determine the effect of pornography on children is hard to come by due to the resultant ethical environment.  Most research depends on self-reports: Surveys ask adolescents how much pornography they have been exposed to, and attempt to correlate this with other variables such as personal attitudes about sex.  Such surveys are subject to a variety of memory and other biases affecting accuracy, but more importantly, correlations fail to establish cause and effect - that is, it is equally likely that pornography consumption affects attitudes as it is that pre-existing attitudes affect pornography consumption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_pornography#School-age_juveniles&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;number of reviews&lt;/a&gt; of current literature on adolescents conclude that there is an association between consumption of pornography and certain negative attitudes about sex, and promiscuous and/or risky sexual behaviour.  The reviews acknowledge that the data contains much contradictory evidence however, as well as failing to establish cause and effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UK Children's Commissioner's report (2013): &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/id/eprint/10692&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Basically... Porn is everywhere&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Owens et al (2012): &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2012.660431&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Impact of Internet Pornography on Adolescents&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, a paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://idei.fr/sites/default/files/medias/doc/conf/sic/papers_2007/kendall.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kendall (2006)&lt;/a&gt; found a correlation between pornography accessibility and rape for 15-19 year old adolescents - but in the opposite direction, that could be interpreted to mean that access to pornography reduces rape crime in this demographic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research on pre-adolescents is even more scant.  A more conclusive effect is seen between exposure to depictions of violence and negative effects on attitudes and behaviour, though these may be short-lived.  A &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_doll_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;landmark study&lt;/a&gt; from the 1960's (no longer ethical to replicate) demonstrated that children do role model from violent media.  The reviews listed above extend this finding to attitudes and behaviours of adolescents exposed to pornography depicting violence.  Evidence linking this to criminal offences in adulthood is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_pornography#Sexual_violence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;still controversial&lt;/a&gt; however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In adults, studies across multiple countries (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9696-y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diamond, Jozifkova, &amp;amp; Weiss, 2010&lt;/a&gt;) have documented significant declines in physical sex offenses as accessibility of pornography increases, again suggesting the possibility that pornography provides a substitute for sex crimes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-05-25T06:41:26.260" LastActivityDate="2021-05-25T06:41:26.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8918" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8902" CreationDate="2014-12-25T10:05:06.643" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, the rat experience is not so relevant to  a great extent to the question.&#xA;Animals can't reason (they can't have their own belief system and plan for the future).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is some similarity with rats and humans. Rats are social creatures too. It could be that loneliness causes bad feelings and a distraction technique could be the drugs to which they got addicted. &#xA;That might explain why the rats got addicted to the drugs. For animals is all about stimuli, they don't have a belief system. I think that even if a social rat saw the drug and tried it once and a few more times it would get addicted. Same for people, drugs can be as part of a recreational/social activity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another comment, is that loneliness is basically the feeling of stress (because it is an inner feeling of unhappiness and a mix of anxiety, all which brings the person to rationalize that he is lonely). I would argue that since loneliness creates stress, to relief stress the individual turns to an avoidant stress coping strategy which is  drugs consumption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My account is one, there are more accounts of that relationship that other people add. But I struggle to bring any other relationships that will not be seen as being too much based correlation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that there are different mentality behind different psychology. Addiction of gambling is not the same as being addicted of drugs. In the former, the addict is addicted to win and in the latter the addict is addicted to the drug that kills the mental/physiological pain s/he has.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some research:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924977X03001779&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924977X03001779&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7308" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-26T19:41:00.467" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T19:41:00.467" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8919" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-25T13:51:59.513" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I studied some cognitive psychology of problem solving. But I havent studied the psychology of intelligence in depth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wanted to ask, to what extent do IQ/psychometric tests predict academic performance?&#xA;Einstein was said to have a high IQ and there are maths/physics prodigies out there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What intelligence limitations limit an average person to achieve similar academic achievements such as of Albert Einstein's?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any reference to research on psychology of intelligence is welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7308" LastActivityDate="2014-12-25T13:51:59.513" Title="Psychology of intelligence" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2015-01-06T14:08:01.120" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8920" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12193" CreationDate="2014-12-25T22:36:50.430" Score="9" ViewCount="369" Body="&lt;p&gt;Muraven and Baumeister (2000) proposed that self-control is a limited resource akin to strength or a muscle, to deplete this limited resource leads to subsequent self-regulatory failure. Ego depletion, the temporary depletion of self-regulatory capacity by an initial act of self-control, has a significant effect in decreasing performance in self-control tasks (Hagger et.al, 2010). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know the methods to induce ego depletion, so far I only come across studies using emotional videos and thought suppression (Baumeister et.al., 2003) to achieve this cognitive process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Ego depletion and self‐regulation failure: A resource model of self‐control. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 27(2), 281-284. &#xA;DOI: 10.1097/01.ALC.0000060879.61384.A4&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hagger, M. S., Wood, C., Stiff, C., &amp;amp; Chatzisarantis, N. L. (2010). Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: a meta-analysis. Psychological bulletin, 136(4), 495. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0019486&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0019486&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Muraven, M., &amp;amp; Baumeister, R. F. (2000). Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle?. Psychological bulletin, 126(2), 247. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.247&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.247&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-01-12T18:13:50.693" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T07:10:00.870" Title="What are other methods to induce ego depletion besides using emotional videos and thought suppression?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;ego-depletion&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8921" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8914" CreationDate="2014-12-25T22:49:44.607" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;After reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Consciousness&lt;/a&gt; article from wikipedia, my answer is no.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Consciousness is the quality or state of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;First to deny consciousness exists seems so absurd for undeniably thoughts do exist and over time our awareness grows or falls our thougts change, so by stated definition our consciousness changes over time.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I think that if consciousness was the same in all people individuality and free will wouldn't exist. We are conscious that means we can take control and effect our lives.&#xA;I've learned from vedas that we can divide our concious self to thoughts, emotions and focus. We can control our focus because we have free will to do so, and our focus is used to focus our thoughts to whatever we want.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Carl Gustav Jung coined a term &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_unconscious&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;collective unconscious&lt;/a&gt;&quot; it is proposed to be a part of the unconscious mind. Jung distinguished the collective unconscious from the personal unconscious, in that the personal unconscious is a personal reservoir of experience unique to each individual, while the collective unconscious collects and organizes those personal experiences in a similar way with each member of a particular species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7288" LastEditorUserId="7288" LastEditDate="2014-12-26T14:41:12.920" LastActivityDate="2014-12-26T14:41:12.920" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8922" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-26T07:50:00.210" Score="5" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that during our lifetime the brain develops new neural connections. In addition, there is pruning of neural connections. These phenomena together are called neuroplasticity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research on part(s) of the brain that are fixed in terms of structure and other properties? In other words, &lt;strong&gt;are there regions in the brain where neuroplastic changes do not occur&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7335" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-18T12:47:40.557" LastActivityDate="2017-04-18T12:47:40.557" Title="Are there parts of the brain which don't change over a lifetime?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8923" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-26T09:29:11.490" Score="13" ViewCount="389" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am referring to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_neuroscience&quot;&gt;computational neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; side of neural network research that focuses on biological accuracy.  I've read references to improving biological realism (using say &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_neuron_model&quot;&gt;spiking neurons&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_neuron&quot;&gt;binding neurons&lt;/a&gt; of various types) by emulating known properties of real neurons (action potentials and what not).  However, I haven't been able to find any detail on how the effectiveness of such attempts is measured empirically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultured_neuronal_network&quot;&gt;cultured neuronal networks&lt;/a&gt; (such as a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurochip&quot;&gt;neurochip&lt;/a&gt;) could be used as a benchmark: Create an ANN and a BNN with the same number and arrangement of neurons, give them the same inputs, and compare the results...  Has anything like that been attempted?  How is the biological accuracy of ANNs typically measured?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-11-13T14:56:57.687" Title="How is the biological accuracy of ANNs typically measured?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8923" CreationDate="2014-12-26T14:19:01.220" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Due to my newness to the field, I can only talk about comparisons of biological plausibility when discussing the &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/research/nef.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural Engineering Framework&lt;/a&gt; (NEF) and functional modeling. What is missing from this answer is a purely bottom-up modelling perspective in the same vein as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://bluebrain.epfl.ch/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blue-Brain project&lt;/a&gt;, but I'll leave that to another user.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the claims driving the push towards cognitive modelers using the NEF is the fact that it is more biologically plausible than back-prop ANNs. What is typically discussed is the neural mechanism for encoding, decoding and learning of the NEF has more scientific evidence claiming their plausibility than &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/16269/4397&quot;&gt;back-prop ANNs&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a more systematic biologically plausible perspective, the NEF is also used to build neural networks that use Semantic Pointer Architecture, which is also claimed to be more biologically plausible for a number of reasons. First of all, the number of neurons required for most models in significantly less than other proposed models (&lt;a href=&quot;https://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2013/papers/0099/paper0099.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;see Eric Crawford's work on knowledge representation&lt;/a&gt;). Secondly, modifications to the network mimicking the effects of neurological disorders can be shown to have the same effect of those disorders (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289613001542&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;see Dan Rasmussen's work on general intelligence&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of the bottom up perspective, the NEF could help here as well. The NEF is neuron-model agnostic, so it can be used with any of the neuron models you mentioned in the question. Hypothetically, it could be possible to create a similar network to one grown on a Neurochip and compare the various inputs and outputs as you suggested, but I've never heard of such a study being done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-11-13T14:56:57.687" LastActivityDate="2018-11-13T14:56:57.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8925" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12188" CreationDate="2014-12-26T16:42:17.773" Score="5" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any way to detect a subject being focused or highly motivated (assuming that these two states are essentially the same) using any sort of external detection, such as fMRI or EEG? How would the accuracy of these measurements be compared? I have a hard time imagining what the &quot;ground-truth&quot; of these measurements might be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T10:05:14.967" Title="Neurophysiological indications of focus and motivation" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8926" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8937" CreationDate="2014-12-26T18:39:56.630" Score="6" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading about various memory techniques : mnemonics, memory space, peg system, space repetition etc . They are used when I have to memorize something by myself for longer duration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many other memories which are in my mind but I dint memorize them by myself. They are automatically stored. Like : my travel experience, some childhood activity etc . Some of them are faded some are still very clear. I can visualize them clearly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there are some memories, I cant visualize them. But I still remember. For example : if I try to visualize or write position of 'G' key on laptop keyboard, I can't. But still when I type, my fingers know its exact position. Similarly, if someone asks me to write my national anthem, I can't. But I can sing it without any mistake. Why does it happen so. Can't I remember everything in this way instead of any other memory technique? The advantage of this is quick recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7338" LastActivityDate="2014-12-28T12:30:00.077" Title="What kind of memory it is?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8928" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8997" CreationDate="2014-12-27T07:35:39.250" Score="6" ViewCount="325" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently setting up and experiment that utilises a visual search task that contains a circular array of target letters and a distractor that falls outside the circle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously the further away from the fovea the distractor moves the more difficult it is to see.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone point me to some literature as to how one would go about scaling the size of the distractor relative to the target letters to maintain comparable levels of acuity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the literature I've read doing similar experiments make the distractor bigger for this very reason. |But I'm having a hard time figuring how how one goes about deciding how much bigger the distractor should be. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6415" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-01-06T14:53:10.317" LastActivityDate="2015-03-20T20:27:22.753" Title="Visual acuity and offset stimuli" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8930" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8971" CreationDate="2014-12-27T15:53:00.573" Score="6" ViewCount="2635" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often encounter publications where the authors try to &quot;increase the SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) of electroencephalogram (EEG) signals&quot;. Some define a numeric value of SNR of EEG signals, but I am confused as to the exact &lt;strong&gt;definition of the SNR&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;how it can be measured&lt;/strong&gt; for ERPs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Previously, I have calculated the SNR using a model of noise, for example a Gaussian model. I have also encountered SNR calculations based on a ratio between the mean and the standard deviation of a signal, but both of these approaches seem to be impractical. When I process the EEG signal, I would like to emphasize how the ERP changes in the EEG signal. All of this is strongly related with variance. If the variance approaches to zero, then theory tells me that SNR goes to infinity (a really good signal), but the signal that I will have is useless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a better way to measure the SNR then I have mentioned?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-22T07:03:34.223" LastActivityDate="2017-06-30T20:55:33.393" Title="How is the signal-to-noise ratio of an event-related-potential measured?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;event-related-potential&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8931" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8932" CreationDate="2014-12-27T16:37:45.423" Score="8" ViewCount="502" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read the following &lt;a href=&quot;https://papers.cnl.salk.edu/PDFs/Extended%20ICA%20Removes%20Artifacts%20from%20Electroencephalographic%20Recordings%201998-3137.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; , which is try to remove EOG artifacts from EEG signal , the authors give the following figure .&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VaDAc.png&quot; alt=&quot;ICA of EOG &quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors claim that components 1 and 2  represent electro-oculographic (EOG) artifacts. This is because its scalp map refers to locations very near to eye. My first question is &lt;strong&gt;how we map an ICA component to a certain location on scalp map&lt;/strong&gt;. Secondly, how do we know &lt;strong&gt;a component lies on the front of the head&lt;/strong&gt;, and not on another location, for example the center? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastEditorUserId="6428" LastEditDate="2014-12-28T18:41:11.870" LastActivityDate="2014-12-28T18:41:11.870" Title="Removing ocular artifacts from EEG signals" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8932" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8931" CreationDate="2014-12-27T17:22:09.670" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short: we know that eye-blinks are reflected frontally in the EEG data and we use that knowledge to identify which components reflect for example eye-blinks. It would not make sense to identify a component related to eye-blinks on the back of the head - there would be something wrong with your data. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What ICA does is (data driven) estimate a number of statistically independent components (if you have 64 channels you get 64 components) based on your data. The input data is usually in the form of channels X timepoints X trials. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eventually the output of ICA gives you, for each component, a weight for each channel which you can use to create the component scalp map. Together, the component scalp maps, the time course of the components, and frequency information of the component provide supplementary information that you can use to identify artifacts such as (but not limited to) eye-blinks, horizontal eye movements and heart beat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the above figure component 14 and 15 do not seem to be eye artifacts. (1) they are very focal, which is probably related to noise specific to that channel. (2) They look to be completely uncorrelated with the eye blinks in the original signal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7343" LastActivityDate="2014-12-27T17:22:09.670" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8934" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8923" CreationDate="2014-12-27T21:45:01.460" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;One way the biological plausibility of an artificial neural network could be assessed is to look at how much a neural network abstracts away from the behavior of real neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, it is common in psychology and machine learning to use a sigmoidal &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activation_function&quot;&gt;activation function&lt;/a&gt; to determine the output of a node. If biological plausibility is a concern, one might prefer to use the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model&quot;&gt;Hodgkin-Huxley model&lt;/a&gt;. (See also: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_neuron_model&quot;&gt;other neuronal models&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To many practitioners, biological plausibility is not a primary concern. In most ANNs, each node is not really believed to be implemented by a single neuron in the brain, and thus using a more realistic activation function does not necessarily make the network more biologically realistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I don't think looking at the behavioral accuracy of a biological neural network (compared  to an artificial neural network) says anything about the network's biological plausibility. Using more abstractions might produce more similar behavior due to less overfitting. Another concern is that the ANN could produce the same behavior as a BNN even if the actual computations involved are quite different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2014-12-27T21:45:01.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6300" CreationDate="2014-12-28T05:47:19.907" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm no expert on imminent death handling but I have some concepts to share. My suggestions are general suggestions that don't only apply for this scenario but that can be applied more generally, including that scenario.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overcoming fear of death already is not easy, having to do it in an expedited fashion is even more challenging. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear of death comes from resistance to it, there are a lot of books that teach how to surrender to it to drop all resistance and the fear of death with it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would recommend reading about &quot;impermanence&quot; in Buddhism, the &quot;dying before you die&quot; concept, &quot;the power of now&quot;, &quot;spiritual enlightenment&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those family of books on &quot;spiritual enlightenment&quot; and &quot;power of now&quot; teach you how to surrender and not resist to things you can't control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7346" LastEditorUserId="7346" LastEditDate="2014-12-28T05:53:40.337" LastActivityDate="2014-12-28T05:53:40.337" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8936" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8938" CreationDate="2014-12-28T11:38:25.740" Score="5" ViewCount="2742" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are presynaptic puncta? And what makes them different from presynaptic terminals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6489" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2014-12-29T15:43:50.023" LastActivityDate="2014-12-29T15:43:50.023" Title="What are presynaptic puncta?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8937" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8926" CreationDate="2014-12-28T12:30:00.077" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The travel experience etc, are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;episodic memories&lt;/a&gt;. The duration of these memories mostly depend on emotion and novelty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The typing and singing, are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;procedural memories&lt;/a&gt;. They are formed with practice. Repetition and consistency are the two most important factors for this type of memory. We do not have any conscious access to procedural memory, we simply perform what we know. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The PIN memory can be explained with &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_%28memory%29#Cued_recall&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cued recall&lt;/a&gt;. The image of the post office is associated with the PIN, so whenever you imagine the post office the PIN number is also activated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2014-12-28T12:30:00.077" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8938" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8936" CreationDate="2014-12-28T12:34:26.600" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the article you provided (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CCEQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fjournal%2Fv509%2Fn7499%2Ffull%2Fnature13161.html&amp;amp;ei=RPyfVKuNOqW1mwW5i4C4CQ&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNGhsmKcVjR5jxR2yAHIAQH8cAbtfQ&amp;amp;sig2=S4j4HaaZN6Oq9rFqenBvUQ&amp;amp;bvm=bv.82001339,d.dGY&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Molofsky et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;) the authors refer back to (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CB0QFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cell.com%2Fneuron%2Fabstract%2FS0896-6273%252812%252900477-1&amp;amp;ei=OfqfVNGqGaG1mwWJi4HQBA&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNGwadJMd5v0jeYduatYNs-sTu4bFQ&amp;amp;sig2=1Ih6j6-tnvBq_ZJlxOOTUw&amp;amp;bvm=bv.82001339,d.dGY&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Arber, 2012&lt;/a&gt;) and surprisingly, the term &lt;em&gt;puncta&lt;/em&gt; is not used in the latter. So that's pretty much a dead end. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found another article (&lt;a href=&quot;http://labs.cellbio.duke.edu/Eroglu/Eroglu_Lab/Publications_files/JoVE_Protocol_2270.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ippolito &amp;amp; Eroglu, 2010&lt;/a&gt;) in which the authors do explicitly clarify their use of the word &lt;em&gt;puncta&lt;/em&gt;. In this article, &lt;em&gt;puncta&lt;/em&gt; is a term used in the Puncta Analyzer plugin for &lt;em&gt;ImageJ&lt;/em&gt;. Image J is freeware to analyze histological preparations and features many options for histological analyses. ImageJ was also used in the article you originally referred to (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CCEQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fjournal%2Fv509%2Fn7499%2Ffull%2Fnature13161.html&amp;amp;ei=RPyfVKuNOqW1mwW5i4C4CQ&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNGhsmKcVjR5jxR2yAHIAQH8cAbtfQ&amp;amp;sig2=S4j4HaaZN6Oq9rFqenBvUQ&amp;amp;bvm=bv.82001339,d.dGY&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Molofsky et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;). The plugin specifically analyzes co-localizing spots identified in a preparation. Co-localization can be studied by, e.g.,  labeling of two different antigens (double-labeling). Co-localizing fluorescent markers in a preparation often indicate that the two proteins are localized very closely in the cell, and are probably involved in the same mechanism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To extrapolate the information back to your question we could formulate a hypothetical histological example involving neurotransmission. &lt;strong&gt;Presynaptic puncta&lt;/strong&gt; could then be formed when (e.g. red) fluorescent antibodies for an autoreceptor and another (e.g. green) fluoresecent antibody targeting a modulator of the autoreceptor would colocalize on a presynaptic membrane of a certain synapse. The green and red would appear as a purple spot in the overlaid image, and the plugin would identify this as &lt;em&gt;puncta&lt;/em&gt;, in turn showing that the two are very close in the synapse on the presynaptic membrane.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, given the heterogeneity of the articles reviewed and their use of the term &lt;em&gt;puncta&lt;/em&gt;, I think '&lt;em&gt;puncta&lt;/em&gt;' can be loosely defined as: &lt;strong&gt;&quot;(immuno-)histological locations defined by computer algorithms using ImageJ and related plugins&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-29T13:05:49.153" LastActivityDate="2014-12-29T13:05:49.153" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8939" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10300" CreationDate="2014-12-28T13:00:06.810" Score="5" ViewCount="5275" Body="&lt;p&gt;When something critical and bad happens, like a house on fire with people inside it, people react very differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some persons will &lt;strong&gt;usually&lt;/strong&gt; panic, cry and can barely be soothed. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some persons will &lt;strong&gt;usually&lt;/strong&gt; manage to stay calm, think rational and&#xA;actively do the best out of the situation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sometimes people go into shock, freeze&#xA;and are unable to act. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a long time I have wondered what is the difference between people with different reactions. What characterizes those who always seem to keep calm? What is the reason that some never seem to be able to stay calm? What happens mentally when someone freezes and neither panics/cries nor acts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect this has to do with Big5 Neuroticism or Big5 Openness facet #3(&quot;Feelings&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-04-20T10:37:23.280" LastActivityDate="2015-05-28T08:31:53.313" Title="What characterises people who stay calm in crisis situations?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8940" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-28T13:04:52.933" Score="3" ViewCount="337" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mimicry is the behaviour in which one person subconsciously imitates the gesture, speech pattern, or attitude of another person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people believe that mimicry has strong social effects. For example, according to NLP, mimicry can be used strategically to build rapport (here, the technique is called &quot;mirroring&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any scientific research on the effects of mirroring?&#xA;If so, does research support the notion that mirroring builds trust?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-26T14:32:02.017" LastActivityDate="2015-08-27T07:40:19.460" Title="Does research support the notion of mimicry building trust?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;trust&gt;&lt;body-language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8941" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-28T13:10:00.983" Score="5" ViewCount="359" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the empirical, measurable, objective differences between extroverts and introverts?&#xA;I'm not interested in self-report studies, only objective measurements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2020-08-23T09:03:40.387" Title="Objective differences between extroverts and introverts" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;introversion&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8942" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-29T02:03:37.727" Score="4" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been looking into focus aids and I've come across &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.focusatwill.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/White-Paper-on-Focus@Will-Reading-Research.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;some music&lt;/a&gt; which markets itself as entertaining your &quot;limbic system&quot;. Although it's been asked before &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1882/is-there-psychoactive-music&quot;&gt;how music can affect mental states&lt;/a&gt;, I'm trying to figure the accuracy of the claim that the &quot;limbic system&quot; is the source of distraction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are the neurophysiological mechanisms associated with distraction really as distributed as the &quot;limbic system&quot;? I typically associate the salience managers of the brain to be found in the basal-ganglia and thalamus, but I don't have any proof for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2014-12-30T14:08:46.527" LastActivityDate="2014-12-30T14:08:46.527" Title="What neurophysiological mechanisms are typically associated with distraction?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8944" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-29T10:24:17.863" Score="9" ViewCount="391" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently came across a code refactoring problem. Considering the risk of getting into a risky bug later I switched to my usual mode of think and solve it, rather than go and make the changes fast. However, another colleague of mine solved the same problem with a fast paced code changes approach. Both of them worked correctly. However, this incident made me wonder whether it was actually a problem with one's ability to solve the problem that led one to take a slower approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is, whether intelligent people actually can finish their tasks faster, or whether it is the speed of working that gives an illusion of intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the significance of speed in finishing tasks in general?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6833" LastEditorUserId="6833" LastEditDate="2014-12-31T08:57:07.333" LastActivityDate="2015-08-26T04:35:26.600" Title="Is there a relation between speed of executing a task and ones intelligence?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8947" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-29T13:30:07.343" Score="7" ViewCount="2809" Body="&lt;p&gt;In marketing the terms needs and wants are usually used to refer to different concepts. It is not clear to me what exactly they mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology what are the definitions for needs and wants? What is the difference between them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-09T06:11:43.607" LastActivityDate="2018-05-22T15:24:46.787" Title="&quot;Need&quot; vs &quot;Want&quot; in psychology" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8948" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-29T16:25:36.200" Score="3" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we took an EEG data from subjects, does the subject have to be in  &quot;neutral state&quot; i.e there is no anger, no sadness,   no happiness ...etc. and they also in situation that they  neither do any logical operations nor any concerns in their life events?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often when I read in the literature, they assume that the subject is in this situation above! For example if someone want to elicit the emotion state on the subject from an EEG signal , it's feature extraction process depends on the variance of the signal, and it's assumed that all variance in the EEG is for only the emotions. The brain process a lot of processes, and the signal will contains Emotion , logical operation ,  the usually processes to organize human functions ... etc . &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what is the rational judgment on this experiment? Assuming that the subject so clever and operated with experimenter, how much will he really control on his mind behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short : &lt;strong&gt;how can we depend on parameters (i.e variance) for evidence when this parameter does not only depend on the behavior that we want to make a decision with?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that when we deal with event related potentials (ERPs) , we  make the parameters  highly dependent on that event , but this is does not apply on inner-voice research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastEditorUserId="6428" LastEditDate="2014-12-30T14:39:39.023" LastActivityDate="2014-12-30T14:39:39.023" Title="Isolating the desired event in EEG signals" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2015-04-30T17:22:05.173" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8949" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8950" CreationDate="2014-12-30T06:43:34.230" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, I studied a paper called &quot;What Does Your Chair Know About Your Stress Level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be download at the link below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.barnrich.ch/wiki/data/media/pub/2010_what_does_your_chair_know_about_your_stress_level.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.barnrich.ch/wiki/data/media/pub/2010_what_does_your_chair_know_about_your_stress_level.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;at page 210, Fig.5 (picture 5) mentioned that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Spectra of the norm of the CoP vector during the experiment (stages 3–7) for the same subject used in Fig. 4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How did they do to transform Fig.4 to Fig.5? And what do x-axis and y-axis mean in Fig.5?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fig4&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Iq7qc.png&quot; alt=&quot;Fig4&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fig5&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7HPxu.png&quot; alt=&quot;Fig5&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7351" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2014-12-30T11:52:10.603" LastActivityDate="2015-01-24T21:55:34.450" Title="How to transform data to a frequency spectrum?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8950" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8949" CreationDate="2014-12-30T11:01:50.907" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the cited paper their methodology is explained in the Materials and Methods section on  p.209, where it says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fig. 4 shows the norm of the CoP during the experiment [...] which are represented by spikes in the norm of the CoP [...] In order to characterize the movement properties of the CoP, we have computed the corresponding spectra over the experiment stages [...]. Fig. 5 shows the spectra of the norm of the CoP [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spectra, or more appropriately called &lt;strong&gt;frequency spectra&lt;/strong&gt; or spectrograms, are typically generated by &lt;strong&gt;Fast Fourier Transformation&lt;/strong&gt; (FFT). FFT essentially decomposes a signal into a collection of sine waves. The &lt;strong&gt;x-axis&lt;/strong&gt; of a spectrogram (like Fig. 5 in the article) represents the &lt;strong&gt;frequency&lt;/strong&gt; of each sine wave, the &lt;strong&gt;y-axis&lt;/strong&gt; the magnitude (amplitude or more aptly the '&lt;strong&gt;power&lt;/strong&gt;') of each sine wave in the frequency spectrum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-01-24T21:55:34.450" LastActivityDate="2015-01-24T21:55:34.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8951" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-30T14:54:08.137" Score="5" ViewCount="437" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are 'having fun in doing something' and 'being motivated to do something' the same thing? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If not, how are fun and motivation related? Is there any formal definition on this? Would it be possible to be motivated to do something without having fun in it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3685" LastActivityDate="2015-01-14T20:35:43.840" Title="What is the relation between fun and motivation? Are they the same?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8952" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5509" CreationDate="2014-12-30T19:23:18.017" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's data in this reddit post that points to about 14 being the age girls are at their most attractive to men (exactly as biology predicts): &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/2nh1nb/science_ama_series_we_are_alan_sanders_michael/cmds0hy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Science AMA Series: We are Alan Sanders, Michael Bailey, and Gary Beecham, co-authors of a recently published study on the genetics of male sexual orientation, Ask Us Anything!&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7353" LastEditorUserId="13937" LastEditDate="2021-01-01T00:23:08.050" LastActivityDate="2021-01-01T00:23:08.050" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8954" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-30T20:03:35.127" Score="3" ViewCount="877" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why some people find dark humour funny but other people feel embarrassed when they hear such jokes? Some people laugh at cabarates but other feel bored watching them. What is the reason that people have different sense of humour?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7354" LastActivityDate="2014-12-30T20:03:35.127" Title="Why do people have different sense of humour?" Tags="&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T19:04:32.637" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8955" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-31T03:20:49.340" Score="8" ViewCount="2339" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; After staying awake for an entire night without sleeping medication, some individuals report feeling tired while others report feeling euphoric and at some point begin to hallucinate with funny noises endlessly repeating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What neural or psychological mechanisms could make an individual want to experience the effects of sleep deprivation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is sleep deprivation addictive?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does sleep deprivation count as a drug? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is enjoying sleep deprivation related to having Asperger's Syndrome?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13" LastActivityDate="2020-12-28T02:41:30.233" Title="Is it possible to become addicted to sleep deprivation?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8956" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8957" CreationDate="2014-12-31T04:22:11.797" Score="-1" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;A friend sometimes speaks with incorrect word ordering. However, he writes English at a professional level. How could this be? His vocabulary is fine, just the word ordering is weird sometimes when he speaks. I always understand his meaning. He seems to not know that he is using incorrect word ordering. He speaks very slowly. His reading and listening appear fine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6870" LastEditorUserId="6870" LastEditDate="2014-12-31T04:58:23.473" LastActivityDate="2014-12-31T06:26:12.417" Title="What are the possible causes of sometimes using incorrect word ordering when speaking?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8957" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8956" CreationDate="2014-12-31T06:26:12.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have you noticed your own word ordering as well as your word decisions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Better: &lt;em&gt;Sometimes, a friend says his words jumbled, seemingly out of place. Though I understand him, always, he seems to be unaware of how he speaks. As well, she speaks slowly.&#xA;Yet, this friend writes well. Also, he seems to listen well. What could cause his problem?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Look up &lt;em&gt;Anosognosia&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Aphasia&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7359" LastActivityDate="2014-12-31T06:26:12.417" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8960" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2014-12-31T19:02:24.830" Score="5" ViewCount="4375" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is speaking (or preferring to speak, even if not actually doing it) about oneself in third person a symptom of any specific mental condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can remember a person in an IRC role playing chat room who preferred to speak this way. But apart from this specific case, I am also asking in a broader context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-01-01T12:00:47.127" LastActivityDate="2017-04-11T05:21:32.143" Title="What does speaking in third person denote?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8961" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8960" CreationDate="2014-12-31T21:56:11.560" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Speaking about oneself in the third person is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illeism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;illeism&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not a symptom of any mental condition listed in the DSM. As Wikipedia notes, it is sometimes used in speech and literature for stylistic reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2014-12-31T21:56:11.560" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8962" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8964" CreationDate="2015-01-01T02:43:36.453" Score="4" ViewCount="454" Body="&lt;p&gt;Once I &quot;learned&quot; for a condition in which you have a specific solution of a problem, but you are only thinking of it and do not realize there are other / probably more appropriate / solutions. Something like.. being stuck to an attempt of a solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So there was a name for it. But google results for tokens such as &quot;Problem Solving Disease&quot; lead me to nothing related.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7367" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2015-01-01T04:49:12.720" LastActivityDate="2015-01-01T04:49:12.720" Title="What do you call the inability to see alternative solutions to a problem?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8964" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8962" CreationDate="2015-01-01T04:46:01.830" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstellung_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Einstellung effect&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...Einstellung refers to a person's predisposition to solve a given problem in a specific manner even though &quot;better&quot; or more appropriate methods of solving the problem exist&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is related to the idea of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_fixedness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;functional fixedness&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used. `&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2015-01-01T04:46:01.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8967" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8969" CreationDate="2015-01-02T21:29:53.040" Score="11" ViewCount="324" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence of a hypnotist making someone do something against their will while in a hypnotic state?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know there are many sites by practicioners that state it is impossible, but they have a vested interest in making their potential patients feel safe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7377" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2015-01-03T03:14:55.953" LastActivityDate="2015-01-05T15:27:50.303" Title="Is it really impossible for a hypnotist to make a participant do something against their will?" Tags="&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8968" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-03T02:56:44.740" Score="4" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reinforcement learning is the act of learning how to preform a task given punishment and reward. A &quot;state-space&quot; is the space of choices in a context. When performing a reinforcement learning task, is there an underlying methodology to how mammals (humans, monkeys, rats) explore the state space of a task and has is been embodied in any cognitive models?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-01-03T02:56:44.740" Title="How do mammals explore state spaces in reinforcement learning tasks?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8969" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8967" CreationDate="2015-01-03T03:10:16.990" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question cannot be answered empirically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Thus, a refusal to carry out antisocial actions can be ascribed to insufficient depth of hypnosis (or inadequate hypnotic technique), while the behavior of S[ubject]s who comply can be explained by asserting that the action merely represents what they would have done anyway. (Orne, 1972)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Orne, M. T. (1972). Can a hypnotized subject be compelled to carry out otherwise unacceptable behavior? A discussion. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 20&lt;/em&gt;(2), 101-117.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2015-01-03T03:10:16.990" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8970" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8967" CreationDate="2015-01-03T06:04:16.733" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just to add to @what's great answer (that this is not a testable question), a while ago I watched a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90xfZJQzAhc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Derren Brown episode&lt;/a&gt; where he successfully hypnotizes someone to assassinate a co-conspirator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was supposedly to test the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theories#Manchurian_candidate_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Manchurian Candidate hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; (and incorporating a polka-dot dress) - a conspiracy theory that the CIA used hypnosis to train unsuspecting victims to assassinate on command.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-01-05T15:27:50.303" LastActivityDate="2015-01-05T15:27:50.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8971" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8930" CreationDate="2015-01-03T11:26:59.863" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on your comments I interpret your question as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;(1) What is the definition of the signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) and (2) how do I determine the SNR for event-related potential (ERP) amplitudes in an EEG signal?&quot;.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Signal-to-noise_ratio_in_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Signal-to-noise-ratio&lt;/a&gt; (SNR)&lt;/strong&gt; is a term often encountered in electrophysiology (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/eeg/basics/definition/prc-20014093&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EEG&lt;/a&gt;) and signal processing and can be loosely defined as the ratio of the relevant signal divided by the noise level. The signal in this example is the ERP amplitude, while the noise is the remaining background activity in the EEG that distorts the ERP (unwanted noise). Noise includes hardware noise, movement artifacts by the subjects, random synchronized brain activity and so on. So SNR = signal/noise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) In case of ERP amplitude being the signal you are after, than the noise is the amplitude of the background EEG (SNR&lt;sub&gt;ERP_amplitude&lt;/sub&gt; = ERP&lt;sub&gt;amplitude&lt;/sub&gt; / NOISE&lt;sub&gt;amplitude&lt;/sub&gt;). The ERP amplitude can be defined by determining peak amplitude (e.g. relative to baseline). A straightforward (and widely accepted method) to characterize noise amplitude is determining the standard deviation (SD) of the entire EEG epoch (e.g., 500 ms) in which the ERP was recorded (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S105381190901297X#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hu et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;). Then, the &lt;strong&gt;SNR&lt;/strong&gt; becomes ERP&lt;sub&gt;amplitude&lt;/sub&gt; / SD&lt;sub&gt;EEGepoch&lt;/sub&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: your comment &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If the variance approaches to zero, then theory tells me that SNR goes to infinity (a really good signal), but the signal that I will have is useless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is incorrect. The signal is always part of the EEG epoch. Assuming there is a measurable ERP on a flatline background EEG (amplitude=0), than the signal will be the only thing that adds to the noise component. This is counter intuitive, but note that when noise amplitude is defined as, e.g., the SD, than this SD will be very small as it is determined across the entire EEG epoch. Hence, the peak-amplitude of the ERP will be much larger than the SD. In this ideal ERP recording the SNR will be large, but it will &lt;em&gt;never become infinitely large&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Signal-to-noise_ratio_in_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hu &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;NeuroImage&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;50&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 99-111&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-30T20:55:33.393" LastActivityDate="2017-06-30T20:55:33.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8973" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9234" CreationDate="2015-01-03T21:08:51.130" Score="3" ViewCount="702" Body="&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find any valid information on what causes &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impostor_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;impostor syndrome&lt;/a&gt;. Are there any studies of it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="6750" LastEditDate="2015-02-07T07:25:43.467" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T22:33:59.033" Title="What causes impostor syndrome?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2015-01-03T22:38:51.617" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;We just released a beta version of Tatool Web based on JavaScript and HTML 5 which allows for running web experiments in the browser and measuring reaction times. You can check it out on www.tatool-web.com and of course it's open source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tatool-web.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.tatool-web.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7384" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-01-05T03:16:05.757" LastActivityDate="2015-01-05T03:16:05.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8975" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9041" CreationDate="2015-01-04T03:13:12.930" Score="8" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1207/how-to-computationally-model-the-wisconsin-card-sorting-task&quot;&gt;As discussed previously&lt;/a&gt;, there are a wide range of models that have been applied to the Wisconsin card sorting task. However, which one is most biologically plausible? That is, uses a realistic model of neurons, respects the constraints of the human brain and maps readily onto experimental data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-06-12T15:35:24.273" Title="Biologically plausible cognitive model of Wisconsin card sorting task" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8976" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8979" CreationDate="2015-01-04T07:28:46.610" Score="8" ViewCount="13529" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I can tell, both megalomania and narcissism are found in [delusions of] grandiosity. Perhaps megalomania has more focus on power, rather than just being well liked?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the primary difference between the two?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are all megalomaniacs narcissists? Or all narcissists megalomaniacs? Or are they completely separate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7263" LastActivityDate="2020-07-26T02:24:41.887" Title="What is the difference between Megalomania and Narcissism?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8978" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-05T00:16:12.647" Score="3" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like a database that has information like that fact that a table is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;made of wood&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;is composed of a top and legs&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;is used for eating food off&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I'd like this information to be semantically structured, rather than in natural language. By that, I mean that I would like there to be an ontology defined with terms like isMadeOf, hasColorOf, isUsedFor etc, so that it becomes easy to select all white objects, or all objects made of wood etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there such a publicly available database or something along those lines? I've found ontologies such as OWL that, if I understand correctly, define things like ways of noting that two objects are symmetrical etc, but I haven't so far found any decent size databases that contain actual knowledge. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many thanks for your help!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7391" LastActivityDate="2015-01-05T01:28:00.027" Title="Where can I find a database, preferably OWL-based, that contains structured information about everyday objects?" Tags="&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8979" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8976" CreationDate="2015-01-05T01:15:40.773" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) doesn't distinguish between megalomania and narcissism. The most recent edition of the DSM (DSM-5) classifies both as a form of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder&quot;&gt;narcissistic personality disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-01-05T01:15:40.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8980" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8978" CreationDate="2015-01-05T01:28:00.027" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cyc&lt;/a&gt; is similar to what you are looking for. It is a database of general knowledge and is organized semantically. It is free to use for &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cyc.com/platform/researchcyc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;research purposes&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-01-05T01:28:00.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8986" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="8987" CreationDate="2015-01-05T16:10:44.433" Score="0" ViewCount="4271" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose that someone develops liking (or even obsessing with) something since very early life, e.g watching football from age 5 to age 25. Is it possible to consciously make oneself hate it when one is older?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the converse happen also? Is it possible to hate something at a young age and then consciously make oneself like it when older?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this &quot;brain rewiring&quot; can happen, what are the methods to achieve it? Is there any research on this subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7395" LastActivityDate="2018-01-14T04:39:32.983" Title="Can you make yourself like/hate something when you learned to hate/like it during early life?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8987" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8986" CreationDate="2015-01-05T20:07:32.730" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think most of &quot;loving&quot; and &quot;hating&quot; happens on unconscious level or conscious but automatic level. Aaron T. Beck noticed that thoughts were not as unconscious as Freud had previously theorized and called them &quot;automatic thoughts&quot;.&#xA;I don't see any reason for someone to start hating football but also you can get bored for watching it for 20 years.&lt;br&gt; But you have techniques, exercises and therapies that can help you love yourself, start hate smoking or stop overeating for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive behavioral therapy&lt;/a&gt; (CBT) can be used for solving current problems and modifying dysfunctional (inaccurate and/or unhelpful) thinking and behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7288" LastEditorUserId="7288" LastEditDate="2015-01-05T21:03:32.940" LastActivityDate="2015-01-05T21:03:32.940" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8988" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8762" CreationDate="2015-01-06T00:25:56.707" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think there's any evidence suggesting that mindfulness or meditation are the opposite of self-regulation. In arguing why, it'll be useful to define terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Meditation and mindfulness&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off, meditation and mindfulness are not the same thing. Meditation generally refers to a family of practices for investigating or inducing different states of consciousness. For example, &amp;quot;loving-kindness&amp;quot; meditation requires focusing your attention on the feelings of love and closeness you have towards someone in your life (and has been studied by Fredrickson, et al., 2008). There are many forms of meditation, and so the link between meditation and self-regulation could vary based on the type of meditation one is thinking of. The type of meditation you seem to be thinking of is mindfulness. So let's talk about what mindfulness is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness is generally thought to have two components: 1) a regulation of attention to conscious experience of the present moment and 2) non-judgement or non-evaluation of that experience. (a definition I paraphrased &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0036206#pone-0036206-g001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;from Greenberg et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt;; note that they discuss alternative conceptualizations as well). So, when you catch yourself in yoga class, daydreaming about what you're going to make for dinner tomorrow, and then stressing about whether or not your dinner guests will like it, you are failing both criteria for mindfulness. Conversely, if you find yourself in a yoga class, aware of how each of the positions makes your body feel, and you simply notice (rather than judge or react to) these feelings, then you're being mindful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Emotional self-regulation&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question relates to the link (if any) between mindfulness and emotional self-regulation in particular. So, let's clarify what emotional self-regulation is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional self-regulation is the ability to override one's undesirable emotional impulses into more desirable ones. For instance, you may find your mother-in-law insanely irritating. When she comes around, you have a strong impulse to yell and shout about how obnoxious she is. However, this action doesn't really jive with your goal of maintaining a peaceful, pleasant relationship with your spouse. So, if you manage to suppress the urge to shout at your mother-in-law, and replace it with a more acceptable tight-lipped grin, you've successfully self-regulated (much better than I probably could).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Link between the two&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that mindfulness ought to increase one's ability to self-regulate in this way. Specifically, mindfulness should help one A) identify the emotional impulse as it shows up by increasing attention to one's present moment and B) neutralize the intensity of the emotional impulse by reducing the extent to which one justifies or identifies with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're viewing emotional impulses mindfully (noticing them as they show up, and not judging or evaluating them), then you're simply treating them as perturbations of conscious experience. In other words, they're just another change in your experience, as if someone had changed the color of the lights in the room. Seeing emotional impulses as mere changes in conscious experience creates some mental space between you and them. All of a sudden you don't feel so identified with your emotional experience (any more than you feel identified with the color of the light in the room).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The literature offers some support for these arguments. Brown &amp;amp; Ryan (2003) find a positive correlation between trait mindfulness (one's general propensity for mindfulness) and several constructs related to emotional self-regulation. It's correlational work, so we're not sure which of these is causing the other. Nevertheless, the signs of the correlations suggest the concepts are, at the very least, not opposites. More mindfulness tends to be associated with more emotional self-regulation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brown, K. W., &amp;amp; Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 84(4): 822. &lt;a href=&quot;http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2003_BrownRyan.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2003_BrownRyan.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., &amp;amp; Finkel, S. M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 95(5): 1045. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2008-14857-004&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2008-14857-004&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Greenberg, J., Reiner, K., &amp;amp; Meiran, N. (2012). “Mind the trap”: mindfulness practice reduces cognitive rigidity. &lt;em&gt;PLoS One&lt;/em&gt;, 7(5): e36206.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7396" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-01-07T17:50:39.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8989" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-06T00:34:39.443" Score="10" ViewCount="2382" Body="&lt;p&gt;Scientists maintain that &quot;a physical action requires a physical cause&quot;.&#xA;However, if I am in deep thought about my dead spouse, for example, and a tear comes to my eye, how is it that the mind (thought) can cause a physiological response (a tear)?&#xA;Does this not contradict the (physical) law of cause and effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7397" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-01-06T20:04:49.467" LastActivityDate="2019-02-17T12:13:49.463" Title="Can the mind affect the physical brain? - a simple thought experiment" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="8" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8990" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8989" CreationDate="2015-01-06T01:27:59.660" Score="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is no, this doesn't violate the law of cause and effect because the mind itself is a physical entity. Your thought experiment hinges on the debate of materialism (the mind is a physical thing) versus dualism (the mind is a different kind of thing than physical things). Most cognitive scientists believe that materialism is the correct view. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2019-02-15T15:19:41.797" LastActivityDate="2019-02-15T15:19:41.797" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8991" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-06T05:36:49.183" Score="11" ViewCount="428" Body="&lt;p&gt;Happiness is a state of mind. Can we retain this state even in the case of sadness, depression, or a dire situation through training? What methods could one use in order to train the brain to retain the happy state?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7400" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-02-18T06:48:44.430" LastActivityDate="2015-09-30T04:44:34.160" Title="Can the brain be trained into a state of persistent happiness?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8992" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-06T05:46:16.210" Score="5" ViewCount="1310" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently read a book by an autistic author who relates his experiences in professional life in IT. (He was diagnosed only in mid adulthood.) Colleagues see him as highly intelligent but also stubborn and egocentric. He explains that he cannot read people's faces  and therefore misses out on the non-verbal part of human communication, which is 80%. Because he cannot remember faces, he often cannot greet acquaintances, which obviously causes consternations. One also gets the sense that neither would be inclined to do so because he abhors all situations with idle small talk. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many outer markers of his biography reminded me of a friend of mine: also high IQ, also in IT, with his private life (perennial single) and professional life now somewhat in shambles. That friend also often irritates people and avoids small talk. But while he seems similar to an autist on the surface he may be very different on a deeper level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whereas the autistic author (at least by his own account) has very little empathy, this friend may have too much. He can (or &quot;can&quot;) read the faces of other humans, but somehow he does not seem to be able to trust much of what he sees. Some of his intelligence seems to stem from being constantly on the guard, as if to form models in his head about what really is going on and where he can fit in, but never arriving at safe conclusions. I know that there were unspoken tensions between his parents when he grew up. He is not obviously constrained in public and dear to some who know him well, but struggles with the scale of human relationships in between at a severe price.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is this: Does this ring any bells? Is there a name for this condition? Any books that I might follow-up and/or recommend?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5093" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-01-06T11:28:05.363" LastActivityDate="2015-01-07T07:29:57.133" Title="Does a condition exist that resembles autism, but featuring much instead of little empathy?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8993" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8989" CreationDate="2015-01-06T07:40:44.877" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This would be analogous to a factory robot mounting a door on a car that is being built. There is no &quot;physical&quot; reason that the untrained eye can see, which compels the robot to do what it does. There is no visible system of weights and pulleys that moves the robot's arm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact all the instructions the robot needs to do its task are encoded on a chip as different voltage levels in some microscopic elements. So there is still a physical cause for what the robot is doing, it is just not immediately obvious to people who aren't engineers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same applies to the brain, except that the links between physical cause and effect there are even more unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7401" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-02-15T19:24:23.493" LastActivityDate="2019-02-15T19:24:23.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="8996" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8989" CreationDate="2015-01-06T14:47:35.877" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Regardless of which side of the materialism vs dualism debate you find yourself on, the result is the same. If the mind is &quot;material&quot; then there is no issue. If the mind is immaterial, then the mind is the same kind of thing as a running software program. In that case, it doesn't have a physical form, but affects the state of the device that is running it. How? As long as you remember not to conflate the binary image of the program's instructions with the running task itself, then it makes sense. A running task is little more than a series of states in the device that is running it. Even the active instructions are nothing more than a collection of states. These state collections are constantly accessed as the result of previous state changes from other state collections in the device. The brain can thus be viewed as an insanely complicated collection of nano-computers running software called &quot;mind&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7407" LastActivityDate="2015-01-06T14:47:35.877" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8997" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8928" CreationDate="2015-01-06T14:50:13.927" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Visual acuity is highest in the foveal region, namely around &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; of a degree, &lt;strong&gt;or 1 minute of arc (1 MAR)&lt;/strong&gt;. At about &lt;strong&gt;30 degrees&lt;/strong&gt; of eccentricity, visual acuity is reduced to anywhere between &lt;strong&gt;1.5 and 10 MAR&lt;/strong&gt; when determined by a shape recognition task, as shown in Fig. 1 taken from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7210524&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lie, 1980&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TfwW4.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Lie, 1980&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A later study (&lt;a href=&quot;http://jp.physoc.org/content/442/1/47.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anderson et al., 1991&lt;/a&gt;) shows the following picture:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vRGny.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Anderson, 1991&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This figure shows that chromatic (color) visual acuity is about 60 cycles/degree in the fovea (i.e., 1 MAR) and approximately 0.4 cycles/degree at 30 degrees eccentricity temporally, which means a &lt;strong&gt;reduction in acuity of 150x&lt;/strong&gt;.  At 30 degrees eccentricity to the nasal side acuity drops to 1 cycle per degree, which means a &lt;strong&gt;60x reduction&lt;/strong&gt;. Under achromatic (black-and-white) conditions it drops about &lt;strong&gt;60x temporally&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;30x nasally&lt;/strong&gt; at 50 degrees eccentricity. These tests were done using colored (red/green) and black-white grating-visual acuity tasks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7210524&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lie, 1980&lt;/a&gt; study mentions several references and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vRGny.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anderson, 1991&lt;/a&gt; study is definitely worth checking out as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To get back to your scaling question: it is difficult to directly translate these findings into scaling factors for your stimuli as you make no mention of their approximate size, or their eccentricities. What the figures do show, however, is that people may not be able to see much detail in their periphery and that &lt;strong&gt;acuity may drop as much as 150x&lt;/strong&gt; at an eccentricity of 30 degrees. It also shows that &lt;strong&gt;black-and-white stimuli may be better visible&lt;/strong&gt; in the far periphery and also, quite interestingly, that &lt;strong&gt;acuities deteriorate at a faster rate&lt;/strong&gt; with eccentricity &lt;strong&gt;in the temporal retina&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-03-20T20:27:22.753" LastActivityDate="2015-03-20T20:27:22.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8998" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8989" CreationDate="2015-01-06T15:11:39.657" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your line of reasoning seems to be that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;just thinking is not a physical action, a tear is a physical action, so just thinking cannot cause a tear&lt;/em&gt;. There is a lot of this naive materialism going on, even in the scientific circles, but this seems to be changing. There are so many things wrong with this argument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Just thinking&quot; is a very significant action, a view that, even before modern neuroscience, was embraced e.g. by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_technique&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Alexander Technique&lt;/a&gt;. It can take a lot of energy. For example, when I was at an &lt;a href=&quot;http://eyebody.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EyeBody retreat&lt;/a&gt;, we used to get very hungry after sitting all day long, try to connect with our eyes. Are you still claiming it is not &quot;material&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Then what is material? Consider W.V.O.Quine's &lt;a href=&quot;http://tu-dresden.de/die_tu_dresden/fakultaeten/philosophische_fakultaet/iph/thph/braeuer/lehre/metameta/Quine%20-%20On%20What%20There%20Is.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;On What There Is&lt;/a&gt;. Things that exist are, well, the ones that we include in our scope of reference. Because if you say that thoughts or feelings are not material, that they don't exist &quot;here&quot;, then &quot;where&quot; is it that they exist? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How do you know that the thought about a spouse is what is causing the tear? Correlation does not imply causation. This strikes me as a very simplistic view. As someone with considerable meditation experience, I can suggest that it seems to be more tricky than that. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The concept of a &quot;law of cause and effect&quot;, the way you seem to be using it, is itself so simplistic as to almost be useless. What exactly is causality, in your view? For your further research, note that in Hinduism basically the same concept is known as &quot;karma&quot;.  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;As a postscript, this is just a very narrow way of looking at things. This is like saying &quot;science has proved that there is no God&quot;, and if someone disagrees, concluding that they are a crazy religious fanatic who does not believe in science. &lt;em&gt;Science hasn't even proved that the total entropy in the Universiy is increasing.&lt;/em&gt; Furthermore, &lt;em&gt;the First Law of Newton cannot even be proved, in theory.&lt;/em&gt; Here I would suggest e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Method&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Against method&lt;/a&gt; by Paul Feyerabend. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7408" LastEditorUserId="7408" LastEditDate="2015-01-06T15:16:52.153" LastActivityDate="2015-01-06T15:16:52.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="8999" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4808" CreationDate="2015-01-06T15:43:21.963" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;While the impact of the first love experience can be very deep, many patterns start long before that. There are so many emotions we pick up from our parents and from the environment that, quite often, our perception of love is not even the result of our personal love experience.Often, it is not even our own pain, but perhaps our parents', that we've internalized as part of a general worldview, and then it gets manifested when we fall in love; and then we think it was our love experience that produced that pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, regarding *the initial pain of love misadventure *, that &quot;pain&quot; usually has less to do with love and more with the ego: I wanted X, and I did not get what I wanted, or got it, but not for very long. (Incidentally, this pain is intrinsic to being alive, as pointed out by the Buddha.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You've touched on so many things, I don't consider addressing them all... In any case, any trauma can be healed, no matter how deep (notwithstanding exceptions from war and concentration camps).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7408" LastEditorUserId="3700" LastEditDate="2015-01-07T13:14:05.293" LastActivityDate="2015-01-07T13:14:05.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9002" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8991" CreationDate="2015-01-06T20:27:33.473" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure about the trained part, but there have been cases where people have spontaneously shifted into a very enjoyable state of mind for a very long time, for example: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eckhart_Tolle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Eckhart Tolle, who supposedly spent 2 years in utter bliss&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-01-06T20:27:33.473" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9003" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-06T21:54:00.777" Score="1" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have the intuition that at a first level is the capability of an individual to predict outcomes of her/his/its own actions in a environment were he/she/it has familiarity with (don't you feel stupid when you find yourself stranded in unknown environment?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then at higher level intelligence should correspond to be able to predict the outcomes of the actions of the other agents in the same environment, especially if they have a significant impact on the subject autonomy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does my intuition make sense?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7413" LastEditorUserId="7413" LastEditDate="2015-01-08T06:41:27.063" LastActivityDate="2015-01-08T06:41:27.063" Title="What is Intelligence? Is it based on prediction capability of an agent?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2015-01-10T01:21:30.260" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9004" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="546" CreationDate="2015-01-06T23:05:21.050" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very broad topic.  I'll attempt to quickly summarize the most relevant findings from a wide variety of research areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Post-rationalization:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a fair bit of evidence that explanation follows decision-making, rather than the other way around.  Here is a nice quote from Wikipedia attributed to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect#Zajonc_.281960s.E2.80.931990s.29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robert Zajonc&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;decisions are made with little to no cognitive process ... we make judgements first, and then seek to justify those judgements by rationalization.&quot;  My favourite example of rationalization is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introspection_illusion#Choice_blindness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Choice Blindess&lt;/a&gt; experiments, where subjects are &quot;tricked&quot; into believing that they made decisions that they did not actually make, but they nonetheless explain them as if they did.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dual Process Theory:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part of the implication of this phenomenon is that the human mind is divided into (at least) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory#Dual-process_accounts_of_reasoning&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2 seemingly independent processes&lt;/a&gt; - an unconscious process that makes the decision, and a conscious process that seeks to justify it after the fact.  Emotion plays an important role in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;some of these theories&lt;/a&gt;, though not all.  Emotion certainly &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change#Emotion-based&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;affects decision-making&lt;/a&gt;, and may &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;help decision-making&lt;/a&gt; under some circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pre-rationalization:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The tendency to make decisions unconsciously - biased by emotion and many other &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive biases&lt;/a&gt; - can be overcome in a straightforward manner.  In several experiments, this is done simply by ... asking.  For example, Timothy Wilson induced different (rational) decisions from subjects by simply asking them to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-knowledge_%28psychology%29#Arguments_against_introspection&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;provide reasons for their decisions&lt;/a&gt; before making them.  Similarly, Ap Dijksterhuis induced rational decisions from subjects by asking them to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_thought_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;think about their decisions&lt;/a&gt; before making them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bounded Rationality:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, the results of the above experiments demonstrate that decision-making is not always improved by conscious deliberation before making a decision.  This is because sometimes decisions need to take emotions into account to be successful (as in Timothy Wilson's experiments where subjects are asked to predict their preferences), and other times human deliberation is limited by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_rationality&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;bounded rationality&lt;/a&gt; - we have a very limited capacity for logical thought.  Perhaps the best way to overcome some of our cognitive limitations is to use computers to make rational decisions, but at the moment, humans are still better at making decisions than computers in many areas where rule-based decision-making is not practical to use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-02-20T19:01:15.717" LastActivityDate="2015-02-20T19:01:15.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9005" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-07T01:02:54.437" Score="9" ViewCount="1406" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it true that a person's emotional state (such as arousal, fear, etc) can be determined by looking solely at the persons eyes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here I am assuming that this may be the case only in limited circumstances (specific scenarios or specific basic emotions such as fear) but if emotional state can be determined from the eyes, is there any research on the extent to which this is possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7410" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-01-07T02:05:12.183" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T19:41:26.757" Title="To what degree is emotional state visible in a person's eyes?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9006" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8992" CreationDate="2015-01-07T07:29:57.133" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many issues packed into this question. I am pretty sure the answers will lead to many more questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People diagnosed with autism tend to perform worse than the average population on standard IQ tests, but there is evidence that alternative measures of &quot;intelligence&quot; (whatever that is) are more accurate and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controversies_in_autism#Intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;demonstrate that autistic persons, as a group, are not cognitively impaired.&lt;/a&gt; The high IQ of the book author is almost certainly unrelated to his autism.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For your friend, my perception is that many of the details that he shares with the book author are coincidental and distracting from the real problem. (The previous statement is harsh because it strongly implies that your friend has a disorder, but he might not have a disorder.) I believe your friend's IQ and occupation are irrelevant.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Let's take a break from your friend and directly address the question, &quot;Does a condition exist that resembles autism, but featuring much instead of little empathy?&quot; In short, no. However, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Williams syndrome&lt;/a&gt; is often called &quot;the opposite of autism&quot; specifically because people with Williams syndrome are exceptionally sociable, friendly, talkative, have relatively low inhibitions in social situations, more willing than a normal-developing person to interact with strangers, are aware of negative social actions of others but have reduced negative reactions to other people's actions (such as criticism), and many other remarkable traits related to sociability and empathy. Unlike autism, however, people with Williams syndrome, as a group, have significant cognitive impairment and important differences in physical development that affect their lives in multiple and significant ways. Williams syndrome is not the true opposite of autism.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your description of your friend's social interaction are clearly not Williams syndrome. Based on your description, I would be surprised if he were diagnosed with hyper-empathy disorder, which is a personality disorder (not otherwise specified), because &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.steadyhealth.com/articles/exploring-hyper-empathy-syndrome-a4203.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;people with hyper-empathy disorder are hyper social and tend to prioritize the needs of others&lt;/a&gt; so highly that their own life is damaged.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In your description of your friend, some phrases jumped out at me: &quot;life now somewhat in shambles&quot;, &quot;irritates people&quot;, &quot;not ... able to trust ... what he sees&quot;, &quot;constantly on the guard&quot; modeling (evaluating?) the actions of other people, and &quot;never arriving at safe conclusions [about the intentions or actions of other people]&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;If&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; your friend has a disorder (please start with the assumption that he does not have a disorder), I feel your description most strongly points towards &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;borderline personality disorder&lt;/a&gt;. I feel this because I sense a lack of stability and predictability and relatively poor ability to form typical relationships with most people. You mention he has some good relationships, but I am speaking to my impression that the majority of his relationships and interactions are disordered in some way.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;On the other hand, many of the things you mention suggest some type of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranoia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paranoia&lt;/a&gt;, most especially &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranoid_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paranoid personality disorder&lt;/a&gt;. If he is constantly evaluating other people for potential threats and regularly perceives threats then that is well outside of normal emotional reactions. But paranoia is most often accompanied by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizoid_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schizoid&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt; symptoms and you did not describe anything that suggests either issue to me. Still, it is possible to have PPD without schizoid disorder &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; PPD and BPD are common bedfellows, so it is possible that your friend is struggling with both disorders.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Finally, if you don't mind, I want to suggest a small shift in perspective. A &quot;disorder&quot; is &lt;em&gt;anything&lt;/em&gt; that interferes with normal life functioning. Hoarding of mustard could be a disorder if it interfered with normal life functioning. The specific label, such as autism, BPD, or PPD, is most useful to professionals creating a treatment plan. For the rest of us, one of the best ways to help our friends is to pay little attention to the label and to pay a lot of attention to anything that is interfering with normal life functioning. Let a professional therapist try to figure out if the disorder was triggered by daddy issues or a car accident. As the person's friend, and as a non-professional, it is much easier for you to help gently steer your friend away from actions and situations that will interfere with normal life functioning and towards habits and actions that will allow your friend to have a healthier life.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In any event, whether or not your friend has a disorder, he is lucky to have people in his life who notice that his life is in shambles &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; want to help him improve things. Kudos to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7386" LastActivityDate="2015-01-07T07:29:57.133" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9003" CreationDate="2015-01-07T08:36:14.750" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no agreement among scholars about what intelligence might be. You must keep in mind that we cannot directly see intelligence. We don't even know if it actually exists! The idea of intelligence was invented to describe what we &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; might be the cause of certain observable behaviors, but there are others who think that we are throwing together disparate things in one pot that are caused by a whole variety of different powers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Think of it like you think of love. Does anyone really love anyone? Or do we only follow a bunch of emotions like sexual attraction, fear of being alone, and so on? And even if there is &quot;true love&quot;, what is it? Is it the love of a mother for her child? The love of a person for his job? The love of a teenager for an unattainable celebrity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar confusion and doubts pertain to the concept of intelligence. Is there such a thing as a unified intelligence? Or is it made up of a set of partial intelligences (verbal intelligence, mathematical intelligence, spacial intelligence, and so on)? Or is there no &quot;intelligence&quot; at all and only things like memory capacity, processing speed and so on? And even if there were such a thing as general intelligence, is it the actual current ability to solve a problem, or the level of the most difficult problem you could potentially solve if you were trained to your maximum? Is it the ability to find a solution fast, or to find the best solution?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology tries to avoid the pitfalls of these concepts and rather investigates the observable behavior itself: e.g. mate choice in the case of love, or problem solving behavior in the case of intelligence. Because that way we can all agree on what we are talking about, and it can be measured and quantified and interventions can be planned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence is not a really useful concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2015-01-07T13:23:26.227" LastActivityDate="2015-01-07T13:23:26.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9010" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10083" CreationDate="2015-01-07T09:42:56.150" Score="9" ViewCount="1313" Body="&lt;p&gt;The impression that I got from looking at a couple of articles on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien_hand_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;alien hand syndrome&lt;/a&gt; was that it was an extremely common or basically guaranteed result of getting a callosotomy to treat severe epilepsy. However, I just ran into &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s004150050187&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a study&lt;/a&gt; that showed essentially no effect from being born without a corpus callosum:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The pattern of anatomical features of the brain revealed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is described in six patients incidentally identified as having acallosal brains... Conventional clinical testing revealed no abnormalities except a slight impairment of walking heel-to-toe in two patients. None of the patients had subjective restrictions of activities of daily life, which shows the efficacy of unknown compensatory processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Questions&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How common is alien hand syndrome?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How frequently do callosotomies result in alien hand syndrome?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How often is there severe damage to the corpus callosum unaccompanied by alien hand syndrome?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How many cases of alien hand syndrome are there with no visible damage to the corpus callosum?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6314" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T20:51:18.450" Title="How common is alien hand syndrome?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9011" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-07T11:48:28.517" Score="4" ViewCount="565" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have recently read the following Yahoo article: &lt;a href=&quot;https://in.lifestyle.yahoo.com/guys-why-never-post-too-many-selfies-social-053412852.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Guys, this is why you should never post too many selfies on social media&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article describes a study that correlates selfies taken by men and their psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is where to find a similar study about women?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7416" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-01-07T15:51:20.457" LastActivityDate="2017-02-01T09:46:16.960" Title="Where to find a study on women and selfies?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;social-desirability&gt;&lt;social-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9012" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9011" CreationDate="2015-01-07T12:12:04.173" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Yahoo Lifestyle website gives a popular description of the following study: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886914007259&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fox &amp;amp; Rooney&lt;/strong&gt;. The Dark Triad and trait self-objectification as predictors of men’s use and self-presentation behaviors on social networking sites. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;76&lt;/strong&gt; (2015) 161–165&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study basically concludes that in a population of males (and I quote from the abstract):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-objectification and narcissism predicted time spent on SNSs.&#xA;  Narcissism and psychopathy predicted the number of selfies posted, whereas narcissism and&#xA;  self-objectification predicted editing photographs of oneself posted on SNSs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to females, the authors justify their choice of a male population on p.162 at the end of the Introduction, and I quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although some research on SNSs and other interactive media has shown a relationship between use and self-objectification among females (e.g., Fox, Bailenson, &amp;amp; Tricase, 2013; Fox, Ralston, Cooper, &amp;amp; Jones, in press; De Vries &amp;amp; Peter, 2013; Meier &amp;amp; Gray, 2013; Vandenbosch &amp;amp; Eggermont, 2012), at this time little is known about men. Given previous findings with females, we anticipate that trait self-objectification will be associated with greater social networking site use [...], more frequently posting selfies [...], and more frequent photo editing [...] by men. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, &lt;strong&gt;in females the relation between self-objectification and use of interactive media was already known. The authors have therefore addressed the issue in a population of men.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sifting through the studies cited in the Fox &amp;amp; Rooney article, and taking into account that your question emphasizes your interest in selfies, the De Vries and Peter study cited in the quote above is probably the reference you are after: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257253074_Women_on_display_The_effect_of_portraying_the_self_online_on_women%27s_self-objectification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;De Vries and Peter&lt;/strong&gt;. Women on display: The effect of portraying the self online on&#xA;women’s self-objectification. &lt;em&gt;Computers in Human Behavior&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;29&lt;/strong&gt; (2013) 1483–1489&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="2890" LastEditDate="2017-02-01T09:46:16.960" LastActivityDate="2017-02-01T09:46:16.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9014" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1078" CreationDate="2015-01-07T16:19:21.647" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some mentions of Evolutionary Game Theory in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/psychology/ppl/amc/articles-pdfs/coopbbs.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this Behavior &amp;amp; Brain Sciences (BBS) article by Andrew Colman (2003)&lt;/a&gt;. The main article itself only has a brief section on EGT. However, like all BBS articles, there are short commentary articles after the main article. A few of these deal directly with EGT. I was able to find the relevant articles within the larger document by doing a find for &quot;evolutionary game theory&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a few references throughout the BBS article to studies within cognitive science using EGT. One particularly relevant one to your question is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/psychology/ppl/amc/articles-pdfs/apd.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Colman &amp;amp; Wilson (1997)&lt;/a&gt;. They modeled antisocial personality disorder in an evolutionary game, to show that stable states arise in a variety of situations in which some of the agents behave antisocially. They treat this as a model for explaining why there seems to be a relatively stable proportion of people who behave in an antisocial manner across societies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-01-07T16:19:21.647" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9015" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-07T16:42:38.133" Score="6" ViewCount="1054" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read the whole Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;. But I still have doubts. Is art therapy effective? If so, in which ways has it been studied?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7417" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-01-07T23:36:14.290" LastActivityDate="2018-03-02T16:15:37.757" Title="Is art therapy really effective?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9017" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8989" CreationDate="2015-01-08T08:09:18.560" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I disagree with @Josh (and all the other answers) that a materialist viewpoint is required to resolve this apparent contradiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, we should not infer that the thought caused the tear.  As an example, if I were to press the PrintScreen key on my keyboard, then a popup message would appear on my screen saying &quot;printing to deskjet printer&quot; and then shortly after that, the printer would print a copy of this answer.  However, the popup preceding the printing does not mean that the message caused the printing.  Presumably, pressing the PrintScreen key caused both events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We might also ask what caused the pressing of the PrintScreen key in the first place. One might then suggest, &quot;well, I thought about pressing the PrintScreen key, and that caused me to press it.&quot;  But it turns out that this is not likely the case.  In his &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Libet#Volitional_acts_and_readiness_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;seminal experiment&lt;/a&gt;, Benjamin Libet demonstrated that awareness of pressing the key comes &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; pressing it, not before (and a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19152537&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;later replication of this experiment&lt;/a&gt; further demonstrated that in fact pressing the key actually &lt;em&gt;causes&lt;/em&gt; the thought of pressing it, not the other way around).  So we cannot be certain that the thought even preceded the tear, let alone caused it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#Cognitive_theories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Modern theories of emotion&lt;/a&gt; suggest that much like decision awareness, emotion is similarly &quot;inferred&quot; from a combination of physiological cues and other context information - that is, first I feel sad, then I infer that the cause of that sadness is the memory of my late spouse.  So more likely something else (perhaps a feeling of sadness) caused both the thought and the tear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_free_will&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;large body of research&lt;/a&gt; that was spurred on by Libet's experiment has significantly changed our understanding of the role of &quot;thought&quot; or &quot;will&quot; or &quot;volition&quot; in the causal chain, such that they now appear to be a side-effect rather than cause of physical action.  So regardless of whether you prefer a physicalist or dualist view, there is no contradiction here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-i3AiOS4nCE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nice video clip&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-01-09T19:57:22.900" LastActivityDate="2015-01-09T19:57:22.900" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9018" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-08T16:44:51.127" Score="4" ViewCount="773" Body="&lt;p&gt;Personality traits tend to correlate. That is, the factors 'reward seeking', 'fun seeking' and 'drive' of the BIS/BAS scales are inter-correlated and similary in the Big 5 theory, the factor Neuroticism negatively correlates with Extraversion and Conscientiousness. (In the general population.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering, does either of the personality theories (or any other personality theory) propose that there exists a balance between personality traits? Or that certain combinations of traits are meaningful. For example would high Neuroticism and high Extraversion describe some subgroup and be predictive in any way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6973" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-01-09T01:12:29.180" LastActivityDate="2015-01-14T18:29:28.700" Title="Do Big 5 or BIS/BAS personality theories propose that combinations of personality traits are meaningful?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9019" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8989" CreationDate="2015-01-08T16:58:00.290" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;That the &quot;mind itself is a physical entity&quot;,seems to be very controversial,to say the least.In this respect Henry Stapp (a physicist at Berkeley) was asked during a lecture &quot;what is this &quot; I &quot; you are talking about&quot;.He answered:&quot;It might be that at some point the mind will be found to be material,but so far there is no evidence whatsoever that that will be the case&quot;&#xA;Also,when it comes to the so called &quot; the causal closure of Physics&quot; ( every physical effect has a physical cause) is also questioned  by a number of scholars,including Stapp,who has comented that it is a remnant of Classical Physics and no longer valid as the observer,and his mind,has entered the picture with the advent of Quantum Mechanics.&#xA;And relating to materialism,even Einstein remarked: &quot;In modern Physics there is no place for matter and the field,because the only reality is the field&quot;.&#xA;So,as a layman,I am not sure what is the basis of materialism anymore,I would think that after Quantum Mechanics replaced the Newtonian physics there would be no more materialism.&#xA;I would appreciate it if someone would shine a light into these subjects.&#xA;Alberto&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7397" LastEditorUserId="7397" LastEditDate="2015-01-09T04:23:53.153" LastActivityDate="2015-01-09T04:23:53.153" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9020" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4885" CreationDate="2015-01-08T20:14:53.477" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One way of describing it is that the brain is experiencing a case of non-shared deception. I say, &quot;non-shared deception&quot;, for the following reasons....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People see cars stop, move, move faster, slow down, and stop again. However, a simple analysis of &quot;motion&quot;, via the use of nothing but the mind, soon leads you to seeing the fact that all cars are constantly in motion, and that they never stop moving. This constant motion applies to all objects. All that can be done is change the direction of this constant motion as it is constantly on the go within a 4 dimensional structure known as Space-Time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This simple ABC analysis of motion soon has you independently understanding Special Relativity, and it also has you independently, and successfully, creating all of the Special Relativity equations with absolute ease. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(To watch this easy breezy analysis of motion in action, goto youtube videos 1-9 at &lt;a href=&quot;http://goo.gl/fz4R0I&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://goo.gl/fz4R0I&lt;/a&gt; )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, those who see objects, such as cars, speed up and slow down etc., are those whom are obviously &quot;Seeing something that isn't really there.&quot;. They are experiencing an hallucination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now if the outward extension of the mind is reduced to an even smaller scale, via drugs or whatever, then the magnitude of the ongoing hallucinations are magnified even further, magnified to an even greater scale than the hallucinations that are being shared on a global scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7372" LastActivityDate="2015-01-08T20:14:53.477" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9021" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4885" CreationDate="2015-01-08T20:43:15.990" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is &quot;Yes&quot; - there is a practice of taking conscious control of one's dreams called &quot;Lucid Dreaming&quot;. This practice involves a number of techniques used to achieve awareness and control within a dream. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the techniques, called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.world-of-lucid-dreaming.com/wake-induced-lucid-dreams.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wake Induced Lucid Dreaming (WILD)&lt;/a&gt; involves staying still in bed for extended periods of time. After a fairly long time (~45 minutes) the dreamer slips into a dream while being awake. &lt;strong&gt;The transition between waking state and dreaming state, when experienced consciously features numerous different types of hallucinations.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon has been confirmed by a lot of people, the types of hallucinations most frequently described are: feeling &quot;vibrations&quot;, hearing things, seeing things, feeling a presence of others in the room, falling through one's bed or being drawn out of the body. In most cases the dreamer is acutely aware that everything that is being felt is just a symptom of the WILD transition phase.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of the diversity of hallucinations experienced, I would conclude that dreaming and hallucinations are connected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-01-08T20:43:15.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9023" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9026" CreationDate="2015-01-09T06:48:17.627" Score="0" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;About the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8989/can-the-mind-affect-the-physical-brain-a-simple-thought-experiment&quot;&gt;'Can the mind mind affect the brain?'&lt;/a&gt;: Some responses are 'no' because the mind is a physical 'thing' or structure (if I read it correctly). Yet if the Mind is only a physical structure why couldn't the mind affect the brain if they are &lt;strong&gt;both&lt;/strong&gt; physical systems? The brain, the physical system regarding active neural excitation events and the mind, the physical system dealing with the manipulation and organization of 'established' patterns of neural-signalling. The 'higher-level' organization of the physical system, the mind, could manipulate or alter the physical system called the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7340" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-01-11T03:44:15.733" Title="Regarding the mind and what it can affect" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9025" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-09T13:55:58.707" Score="3" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm familiar with some research into  the subject of gift giving, for example Dan Ariely suggests that &lt;a href=&quot;http://danariely.com/2008/07/04/gifts-ridiculous-or-useful/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;giving cash is less effective than buying somebody something&lt;/a&gt;. Other studies show that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.people.hbs.edu/mnorton/dunn%20aknin%20norton.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;money spent on others makes you more happy than money spent on yourself&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anybody know of a study regarding the problem of whether its best to give one single large gift or split the gift into several smaller ones?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7427" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-01-09T15:59:21.977" LastActivityDate="2015-01-09T15:59:21.977" Title="Research on gift structure and satisfaction: one large gift or two small ones?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9026" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9023" CreationDate="2015-01-09T14:21:19.703" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8989/can-the-mind-affect-the-physical-brain-a-simple-thought-experiment&quot;&gt;question that you are referring to&lt;/a&gt; is worded in a way that I think is leading to the confusion. The question in the title is &quot;Can the mind affect the brain?&quot; but in the question body the final question posed is &quot;Does [a thought producing a tear] not contradict the (physical) law of cause and effect?&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer is &lt;em&gt;yes&lt;/em&gt; to the title question: the mind can affect the brain. The answer is &lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt; to the question posed in the body: it is not a contradiction of the law of cause and effect because the mind is a physical entity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you are exactly right, that the two are mutually interactive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-01-09T14:21:19.703" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9028" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-09T16:30:57.513" Score="3" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can long-term (~3-4 years) antidepressant use reduce memory and emotion?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7431" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-01-09T16:33:03.127" LastActivityDate="2015-01-09T16:33:03.127" Title="Can long-term antidepressant use reduce memory and emotion?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-30T19:59:17.987" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9029" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9033" CreationDate="2015-01-09T18:00:37.247" Score="2" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not sure if this question is better suited for the computational science SE. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I learned a bit of Shannon's information theory in a course I took last year. In the class it was defined as the quantitative relaying of information between a signal and a receiver across a medium that introduces noise. In all the examples we explored it was typically defined in terms bits of information that can be quantified and conveyed across the communication channel. Some examples we discussed were data compression, the transfer of DNA from parent cells to daughter cells, and aspects of speech/written words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say two individuals are in conversation. One speaks a phrase communicating his current state of mind. He then speaks the phrase out loud. The second individual hears this phrase. She then processes it based on her own brain and the way it functions and produces a response. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here the signal would be the person speaking the phrase and the receiver would be the person interpreting the phrase. Could we argue that the &quot;noise&quot; in this communication is the subjectivity of the two people? The first person is attempting to convey information that is derived from his particular subjective state and whatever patterns were generated by his brain from his experiences. The second person would have to weight this information against her subjective state and past experiences with the first person. This might introduce &quot;noise&quot; that would affect the intended interpretation of the phrase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, my question is with regards to social communication - sometimes you must know the appropriate way to phrase something so that the correct information is conveyed and is not subject to misinterpretation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question: Would this be a proper application of information theory?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note here that I am not talking about the actual information content of the sentences themselves (which may be noisy if imprecise language is used) but the interpretation on the part of the two people in communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7432" LastActivityDate="2015-01-10T13:02:14.553" Title="Can information theory be applied to human interactions and communication?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9030" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9005" CreationDate="2015-01-09T19:38:47.167" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question has mostly been asked in reverse in the research literature--not whether the eyes can show emotion (which is often called affect by psych researchers), but whether humans can accurately judge affective state based only on the eyes.  That ability varies somewhat depending on demographic parameters (age, gender, and socioeconomic class, as well as autism spectrum disorder status).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01599.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Reading the Mind in the Eyes&quot; test&lt;/a&gt;, developed by Simon Baron-Cohen, tests exactly that, using stimuli like these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VwnwS.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants are asked to choose the most applicable emotion word for a picture restricted to the eye area.  Neurotypical controls are more successful at this task than autism spectrum participants; since most of the research has focused on showing differences between populations on this task and not on quantifying normal performance, the reported data on controls alone is difficult to interpret by itself. The test has fairly good &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.molecularautism.com/content/4/1/33&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;test-retest reliability&lt;/a&gt;, but it has been criticized for gender bias since there are considerably &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.creativitypost.com/psychology/gender_bias_in_the_reading_the_mind_in_the_eyes_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more male eyes in the stimuli set than female eyes&lt;/a&gt;.  This is particularly problematic in light of Baron-Cohen's &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12039606&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;extreme male brain&lt;/a&gt;&quot; theory of autism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-01-13T12:53:35.043" LastActivityDate="2015-01-13T12:53:35.043" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9032" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9005" CreationDate="2015-01-10T03:33:50.120" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans do commonly use the eyes, area around the eyes, and other eye-related information such as movement and orientation to deduce the emotional states of others.  What isn't as clear from research examining this capability however, putting aside subjects' confidence in their own skills, is how accurate / valid such assessments actually are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it turns out that the eyes alone &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; be used objectively to determine a wide variety of information about a person's mental state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A fairly large research sub-field in this area is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupillometry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pupillometry&lt;/a&gt;, the measurement of pupil diameter.  Just copying from a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/eye-opener-why-do-pupils-dialate/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scientific American article&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Scientists have ... used pupillometry to assess everything from&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15003376&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sleepiness&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1975.tb00042.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;introversion&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17870074&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sexual interest&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21787246&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;race&#xA;  bias&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876003002691&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/05/26/cercor.bhr111.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;moral judgment&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22958650&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;autism&lt;/a&gt; and&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2561953/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;depression&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other research also shows a connection between mental states and eye-related information, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_contact#Eye_aversion_and_mental_processing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;eye contact and cognitive load&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blink#Central_nervous_system_control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;blinking and certain mental disorders related to dopamine&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/publication/2827544&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;eye movement and memory recall&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21910557&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;eye movement and beliefs&lt;/a&gt;, and of course, there's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crying#Function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;crying&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though humans may not usually use those particular cues, we presumably evolved certain skills to discern emotional states from eyes as a survival mechanism, suggesting that the cues we use are generally valid.  For example, fear causes widening of the eyes / increase in exposure of the sclera (white of the eye), that has the &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.utoronto.ca/why-wide-eyed-expression-fear-can-be-good-thing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;evolutionary advantage&lt;/a&gt; of increasing peripheral vision, and the side-effect of alerting others around us to danger, and even to where the danger is.  Even infants are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/111/45/16208.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;found to be quite skilled&lt;/a&gt; at discerning emotional state from the sclera, suggesting a genetic origin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However in general, physical or physiological cues are &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#Cognitive_theories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;only part of the picture&lt;/a&gt;, as other context information is also crucial for correct attribution of emotional states.  So in practice, eyes do not generally provide sufficient information for determining emotional state - humans use a lot of additional context information for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T19:41:26.757" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T19:41:26.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9029" CreationDate="2015-01-10T13:02:14.553" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Information and signal detection theory are commonly applied to cognitive situations. Examples include TSA agents searching for weapons among carry-on bags and sonar operators attempting to discern ships from fish. In addition, information theory itself is highly general, and has been proven to apply across disciplines. So I do think the premise is valid. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the example does not list an application, per se- it simply describes a situation where one might think about coming up with an information-theoric approach. Such an approach would certainly involve a lot of research because there are many confounding factors in communication between humans (not the least of which is the cognitive framework of the receiving individual). You would need to carefully define what is signal, what is noise, and where the boundaries lie. I contend that this would be particularly difficult in the general case.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2015-01-10T13:02:14.553" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9037" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9040" CreationDate="2015-01-10T18:32:17.680" Score="3" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I read about cognitive models that use the Semantic Pointer Architecture (SPA), such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/rasmussen2011.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a model for general intelligence&lt;/a&gt;, I often see a component called the &quot;clean-up memory&quot;? What's the function of this component and how does it function vary from SPA model to SPA model?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-01-11T13:43:16.013" LastActivityDate="2015-01-11T13:43:16.013" Title="What's the function of the clean-up memory in SPA?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;nef&gt;&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9040" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9037" CreationDate="2015-01-11T01:00:35.860" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;SPA is used (among other things) for combining (binding) and extracting (unbinding) knowledge representations for processing. This is a (purposely) lossy compression. In the &quot;Learning Rule Generation for Induction&quot; case, the clean-up memory is used to convert a general transformation that is being learned (lots of different transformations convolved together) into a transformation that is already known. So basically it's associating the in-progress transformation to a known transformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is why the &quot;clean-up memory&quot; is also called the &quot;associative memory&quot; in other SPA models and in Nengo 2.0.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-01-11T01:00:35.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9041" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8975" CreationDate="2015-01-11T01:54:59.677" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/089892900562174&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Amos (2000)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0893608000000587&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Monchi et al. (2000)&lt;/a&gt; use the similar approach of assigning each card attribute to a node and using mutual inhibition to choose the right one. Although their models are biologically plausible and make many neuroanatomical predictions, they are functionally implausible. Their networks are created for the unique purpose of of completing the WCST. This type of specialization isn't found in the brain as far as I know. I'm also having a really hard time understanding on Monchi is using Leaky-Integrate-Fire neurons to compute functions, but that might be a topic for another question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/102/20/7338.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rougier et al. (2005)&lt;/a&gt; use &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leabra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Leabra&lt;/a&gt;, which has been criticized for it's lack of biological plausibility. For further elaboration on these criticism, which is mostly centered around the biologically-implausible use of a Winner-Takes-All computational block being used, check out How to Build a Brain by Chris Eliasmith.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2872109/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bishra et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; only define symbolic rules. There's no neuroanatomical mapping. Consequently, although they claim tuned parameters could predict performance, there doesn't seem to any definition of where these parameters come from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, although none of the approaches are perfectly biologically plausible, Amos and Monchi seem to definitely come out on top. Although hard-coded concepts such as the possible parameters for matching are totally acceptable, a model that integrates with a larger more general system while remaining biologically plausible would be ideal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-06-12T15:35:24.273" LastActivityDate="2015-06-12T15:35:24.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9043" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6266" CreationDate="2015-01-11T03:32:22.647" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Within the context of the tutorial referenced, this graph is showing the first principle of the NEF, which is that neurons approximate functions by encoding them with their firing rates. Here the input being represented it the range 1 to -1. What the graph shows is the firing rates of all the neurons given the value being represented. So say you have the value 0.5. The firing rates of all the neurons can be found by looking at their Y values at x=0.5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information on encoding and decoding (how to get the information back out from a population of neurons), check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/research/nef.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this NEF tutorial&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-01-11T13:35:32.007" LastActivityDate="2015-01-11T13:35:32.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9044" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9618" CreationDate="2015-01-11T09:04:23.270" Score="2" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in knowing if there are state-of-the-art, non-invasive techniques that could be put on, and taken off from the user's body several times without compromising positioning accuracies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example an array of electrodes that is meant to repeatedly stimulate some exact spots on the skin. For example, putting such actuators on a T-shirt or on the sole of a shoe wouldn't be very accurate and deterministic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7447" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-01-11T12:50:41.690" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T11:03:57.507" Title="Methods for stimulating exact positions in the body" Tags="&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9045" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8386" CreationDate="2015-01-11T09:06:19.563" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to bring up that there is also an opposite study about sleep duration than described in the previous answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Daniel Erlacher at the University of Bern conducted an &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.01013/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;experiment&lt;/a&gt; to analyze brain activity during a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucid_dream&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;lucid sleep&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When he asked subjects to complete an activity, it took 50% longer to perform it in lucid sleep than in real life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/80FIp.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could explain why many people see dreams of running in slow motion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.01013/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Front. Psychol., 16 January 2014 | doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.01013&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastActivityDate="2015-01-11T09:06:19.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9046" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9015" CreationDate="2015-01-11T10:09:47.287" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Hey, Alexandro. Nice to see you over here :-)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, there are only single-case studies showing the &lt;em&gt;application&lt;/em&gt; of art therapy, but its &lt;em&gt;efficacy&lt;/em&gt; for psychotherapy has not yet been the subject of an empirical study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One reason for this is that creativity and creative processes are as yet not well understood by psychology, and that measuring them is therefore impossible (and measurement is a prerequisite for empirical studies). It is not enough to let the treatment group paint some paintings and let the control group not paint paintings, because we do not understand what the difference is. A person not painting a painting could be creative in some other way (e.g. daydreaming), or if the painting affects the disorder it could be caused not by the painting but by having something to do. And so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In institutionalised contexts such as psychiatric institutions or clinical psychological research instiutes, art therapy is not percieved and applied as an alternative to, for example, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy or Psychoanalysis. Art theray is not seen as a form of psychotherapy, but either as a module or method to be used within psychotherapy (similar to other modules such as psychoeducation, skills acquisition, or the interpretation of dreams), or one of the psycho-social recreational activities offered in the institutional context, on a par with sports or excursions. For example, in the psychatric ward in my university, patients can go rock climbing, (learn to) play instruments – or draw, paint, and sculpt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2015-01-11T10:09:47.287" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9047" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6266" CreationDate="2015-01-11T10:19:09.023" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;My answer is that you have the beginnings of a grasp of neuronal tuning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the point is not that neurons can represent functions. The point is generally that neurons contain information about certain experimental conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather, neurons can represent functions, but in most cases they tend to represent something closer to propositions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The seminal work of Georgopoulos et al. was about population encoding. Sure the neurons were cosine tuned, but certain neurons clearly represent certain movement positions more precisely than others. I prefer to think of the neuron as representing a belief that the animal is reaching in a particular direction. Here your &quot;x&quot; would be the angle of reaching.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Kmhyq.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This same intuition can be applied to V1 orientation tuning as discovered by Hubel and Wiesel. Here your &quot;x&quot; would be the orientation of light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BffLn.gif&quot; alt=&quot;http://michaeldmann.net/pix_7/complex2.gif&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not to say that firing rate can't be used to represent a function. It's just more accurate, in my experience, to say that the neuron usually represents something more akin to its belief in the proposition that &quot;I am reaching to the left&quot; or &quot;I am seeing a horizontal bar of light in the center of my field of vision.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3727" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-01-12T00:01:09.497" LastActivityDate="2015-01-12T00:01:09.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9049" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-01-11T13:55:06.167" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Semantic Pointer Architecture is a cognitive architecture created with the Neural Engineering Framework. In the most general sense, it defines how low level sensory information (for example, vision) can be mapped to higher order symbols (for example, an object) and then back down again (for example, motor actions). In reality, it also helps define how this information is routed in the brain using the thalamus and basal ganglia, as well as how symbols can be combined together for knowledge representation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's name comes from the fact that it's functionality is similar to the &quot;pointer&quot; of computer science and that this pointer points to the senses. Thus, we get the term &quot;semantic pointer&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a high level view of the philosophical and functional motivation behind this architecture, please see &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith or more briefly &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/research/spa/semantic-pointer-architecture.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this overview&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This tag should be used for questions about the use of the Semantic Pointer Architecture in cognitive models, including Spaun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-01-13T16:03:16.127" LastActivityDate="2015-01-13T16:03:16.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9050" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-01-11T13:55:06.167" Score="0" Body="Semantic Pointer Architecture. Cognitive architecture created with the Neural Engineering Framework to map low level information (i.e. vision) to high level symbols (i.e. objects)." OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-01-13T16:03:19.050" LastActivityDate="2015-01-13T16:03:19.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9051" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8635" CreationDate="2015-01-11T15:24:57.240" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure this is what you asked for but the guy in this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4YH1Eh6aALE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt; will tell about the study conducted on how &lt;strong&gt;behaviour can affect the testosterone production&lt;/strong&gt;. He'll say that by doing the &lt;em&gt;power pose&lt;/em&gt; (acting like you're the boss) for &lt;em&gt;2 mins will increase the testosterone by 20%&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;reduce cortisol levels&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7449" LastActivityDate="2015-01-11T15:24:57.240" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9053" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9220" CreationDate="2015-01-11T16:34:26.413" Score="6" ViewCount="406" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many persons who have been beaten by their partner, no matter how violently, claims that they do not want to leave their abusive partner because they still love them. A common phrase is: &quot;I love him/her more than anything.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there research into why these abused partners do not &quot;fall out of love&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am specifically interested in the feeling of love, not in other reasons to stay with an abusive partner, such as the fear of further escalation of violence, common children, or material dependence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-01-12T01:25:46.447" LastActivityDate="2017-04-06T03:43:32.250" Title="Why do battered persons love their partners?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;love&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9054" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9015" CreationDate="2015-01-11T19:17:51.477" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.arttherapy.org/upload/outcomes.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Slayton, D'Archer, and Kaplan (2010)&lt;/a&gt; review 35 studies conducted from 1999-2007 about the efficacy of Art Therapy. Their review covers a variety of quantitative designs, as well as a few qualitative approaches. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some serious limitations to the research that they reviewed. There is little consensus about appropriate control groups, some studies rely heavily on anecdotal data (taking the form of a case-study more than an empirical investigation), and different studies use very different ways of measuring outcomes. The authors acknowledge these limitations in their discussion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They do, however, find that &quot;a small body of studies now exists in which art therapy as a treatment modality has been isolated, measured, and shown to be statistically significant in improving a variety of symptoms for a variety of&#xA;people with different ages. The range of participants represented in our survey of studies was broad; it included young children, elders, and all ages in between. A range of treatment settings also was represented, including schools,&#xA;outpatient clinics, day treatment centers, residential homes and treatment centers, hospitals, correctional facilities, and nonclinical settings.&quot; (pg. 115). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These studies typically focus on a very narrow set of behaviors or symptoms, and thus it's not clear if there is a general pattern indicating in what situations art therapy is effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-01-11T19:17:51.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9055" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9073" CreationDate="2015-01-11T23:41:27.587" Score="2" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before Christmas, NZ Police announced they would be enforcing a zero tolerance on exceeding the speed limit in December/January. Previously there was a 10kph grace unless a driver was obviously driving dangerously. The rationale would be that it would reduce the holiday road toll (deaths through motor vehicle accidents).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately the road toll doubled over the previous year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware that this could be an anomaly and is subject to many factors, however, is there a related psychological principal (perhaps something around 'suggestion') that states that if a person or population is made aware of a probability of an event, that the probability of that event happening is increased?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7452" LastActivityDate="2015-01-13T23:00:38.607" Title="Name for awareness of the probability of an event increasing the probability of it happening" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9056" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-12T02:04:56.920" Score="6" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;The limited resource model of self control suggests that the exertion of self control can impair performance in subsequent cognitive control tasks (for details on the model, check &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8920/what-are-other-methods-to-induce-ego-depletion-besides-using-emotional-videos-an&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;. Most research has examined behavioral outcome, e.g., performance on task, physiological change. So far, I only know two papers using neural data to test the theory. Wang (2014) and Inzlinct (2007) reported reduced Errror-Related Negativity (ERN) after practicing self control, however both of them used emotion regulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: is it sufficient to claim the reduced ERN is related to self control? since self control is not limited to regulating emotions (Muraven et. al., 1998), but also thought, attention and impulsivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Muraven, M., Tice, D. M., &amp;amp; Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Self-control as a limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of personality and social psychology, 74(3), 774. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.774&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.774&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Inzlicht, M., &amp;amp; Gutsell, J. N. (2007). Running on empty neural signals for self-control failure. Psychological Science, 18(11), 933-937. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02004.x&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wang, Y., &amp;amp; Yang, L. (2014). Suppression (but Not Reappraisal) Impairs Subsequent Error Detection: An ERP Study of Emotion Regulation's Resource-Depleting Effect. PloS one, 9(4), e96339.DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096339&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-01-12T18:14:00.863" Title="Is it sufficient to say self control eliciting the reduced ERN (error-related negativity) in cognitive control tasks?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;error-related-negativity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9058" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9018" CreationDate="2015-01-12T06:07:07.237" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are a few ways of thinking about this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Regression modelling - Main effects:&lt;/strong&gt; When we predict an outcome of interest from multiple traits (e.g., the Big 5), we often get multiple significant parameters. For example, when predicting life satisfaction, low neuroticism and high extraversion tend to provide the strongest predictors, but there are also typically positive coefficients for the other factors. Thus, the coefficients imply a way of forming a personality composite to maximise prediction of an outcome.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Regression modelling - Interaction effects:&lt;/strong&gt; You can examine &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_%28statistics%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interaction effects&lt;/a&gt; of multiple traits (e.g., is there a neuroticism by extraversion interaction in predicting life satisfaction). This is typically examined by including both the raw variables and the product of the two interacting variables. The significance of the product is used test for an interaction effect. That said, my general sense is that these kinds of interactions tend to be very small in comparison to the size of the main effects.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Type-based research&lt;/strong&gt;: There are various conceptions of personality such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_A_and_Type_B_personality_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Type A&lt;/a&gt; and Type D personality. They often define a categorically distinct personality in terms of status on a number of traits. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_D_personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Type D&lt;/a&gt; is defined as high negative affect and high social inhibition. Such type based approaches implicitly assume that it is useful and ideally meaningful to talk about such clusters of traits. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Higher level traits&lt;/strong&gt;: Another way of thinking about correlated traits is in terms of an underlying higher level trait. This is proposed explicitly in hierarchical measures of personality such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEO-PI&lt;/a&gt; where there are 6 facets for each of the Big 5. Thus, the six conscientiousness facets are in some sense combined to form the overall conscientiousness factor (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3394/facet-versus-scale-prediction-of-big-5-personality&quot;&gt;facet versus factor prediction&lt;/a&gt;). In a less explicit, we can also see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/2015/what-is-the-support-for-a-global-personality-factor&quot;&gt;discussion of the Big 1&lt;/a&gt; (a proposed higher level factor explaining some shared variance in the Big 5) as an implicit way of combining the Big 5.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-01-12T06:07:07.237" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9059" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9055" CreationDate="2015-01-12T12:04:56.263" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;By definition, if the probability of an event increases, the probability of the event &quot;happening&quot; increases. Is not an event something that happens?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I think I know what you're trying to get at. Here's my analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, let E be the event in question. I think you are trying to express something to the tune of: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;P(E) &amp;lt; P(E|P(E))&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taken at face value, P(E) is the probability of the event. P(E|P(E)) is the probability of the event given that we know the probability of the event. This is a situation that is somewhat analogous to stock market dynamics - the more certain the market is that a stock will reach a low price before a certain time, the more they will sell, thus increasing the probability that the low price will be reached before the specified time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with this formalism is that P(E) is not a random variable. It is a number. E is a random variable. It is therefore associated with some distribution. Perhaps the event has a 30% chance of happening and a 70% chance of not happening. Then drawing values from E will take on one value 70% of the time and another value 30% of the time (however you want to represent happening and not happening - 0 and 1 are always nice). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now let's suppose P(E) was a random variable. Then the above equation is not expressable. P(E) is not subject to the &amp;lt; operator because it does not represent a single value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore what I think you are looking for is a bit more &lt;a href=&quot;https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?cid=5A88F16A1CF1A482&amp;amp;resid=5A88F16A1CF1A482%216895&amp;amp;app=WordPdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Baysian&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose there is a concept Ev(E) which is the evidence that E will occur. This is a proposition, not a random variable. As Ev(E) goes to infinity, P(E) goes to 1. Let P(E) = 1/2 represents the proposition that the &lt;em&gt;you have equal evidence for and against the event happening&lt;/em&gt;. You have a certain amount of evidence for it, as represented by Ev(E), and your evidence determines the state of your belief. What you are suggesting is that knowing the value of Ev(E) increases it. Let's make that another proposition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;K = 'I know the value of Ev(E)'&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now consider the statement &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Ev(E) &amp;lt; Ev(E|K)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;P(E) &amp;lt; P(E|K). &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I think you are asking about is really a statement about the change in the amount of evidence you have and its effect on your belief. In the Baysian framework, probabilities are equivalent to beliefs, which is why concepts like this can be addressed a bit more... naturally. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question, the name for &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&quot;awareness of the probability of an event increasing the probability of it   &#xA; happening&quot; &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is equivalent to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&quot;awareness of your belief of an event (happening) increasing your belief of that it &#xA; will happen&quot;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This phenomenon is called: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; Second guessing your beliefs. &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or more accurately in this case, as you explicity use the word increasing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; Becoming more confident in your beliefs.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the take away here is that probabilies are not real. They require infinite data to construct and would only be &quot;true: if you could roll back time to collect the exact same data again an again. And if you believe in a deterministic world, then you wouldn't need a probability in the first place. You'd just know. If you believe in a random world and you have the power to roll it back over and over again, and then relive the situation, you get to choose the probability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That silliness is one of the reasons why probabilities are best understood as represent a state of belief. And if your awareness of your own belief changes it, well that's just questioning yourself and thus reassessing your beliefs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you believe in a true probability of an event happening, then your awareness of that probability could not change it, as your awareness is already factored into the true probability of that event happening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're feeling mathy, give this a try:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?cid=5A88F16A1CF1A482&amp;amp;resid=5A88F16A1CF1A482%216895&amp;amp;app=WordPdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Evidence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3727" LastEditorUserId="3727" LastEditDate="2015-01-12T12:14:58.900" LastActivityDate="2015-01-12T12:14:58.900" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9060" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10064" CreationDate="2015-01-12T16:19:54.227" Score="5" ViewCount="485" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm studying psychology and I have the assignment to write an experimental study I'm still collecting the scientific information on the topic so I would really appreciate some help. &#xA;I'm interested to know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the relationship between psychological entitlement and locus of control?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What scientific studies have been conducted on the relation between psychological entitlement and locus of control or some other personal characteristic?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7458" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-13T09:23:58.237" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T18:21:08.063" Title="What is the relationship between psychological entitlement and locus of control or other personal characteristics?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9061" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5697" CreationDate="2015-01-12T23:28:46.860" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the claims that is somewhat easy to validate empirically is that &quot;432 Hz sounds better than 440 Hz.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://acousticengineering.wordpress.com/2013/12/13/pitch-shifting-to-432-hz-doesnt-improve-music/&quot;&gt;This informal experiment&lt;/a&gt; tests this in a straightforward way. People listen to pitch-shifted versions of songs at a variety of different frequencies and rate their preference for the song. Importantly, they don't know which frequency the song has been shifted to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results pretty clearly debunk the claim that 432 &quot;sounds better&quot; than 440:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://acousticengineering.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/preference_graph1.png?w=500&amp;amp;h=366&quot; alt=&quot;results&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The preference ratings were highest at 440, and there was no statistical difference between 432 and 440.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-01-12T23:28:46.860" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9062" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9060" CreationDate="2015-01-13T03:54:02.547" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Very interesting! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;on a very basic level, you'd want to start in exploring reward mechanisms- according to the stimuli, there would be a planned reaction associated to the stimuli conditioned over time. i don't see locus of control as a perrsonal characteristic inherent to the inner-workings of one's thought on selfhood, but rather as a trained pattern which becomes structurally hard-wired. a google scholar search on this looks at locus of control and attribution in relation to access to academia here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11218-012-9184-4#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11218-012-9184-4#page-1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the article seems to look at an ok sample-size - all from 1 u.s. southern university :/ &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i wonder if by entitlement you are referring to class??&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6817" LastActivityDate="2015-01-13T03:54:02.547" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9063" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6506" CreationDate="2015-01-13T04:06:04.157" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a great question on a highly fascinating topic for which evidence seemingly abounds among many species. From the standpoint of an evolutionary approach, the fight or flight stress response would be informed based on eye contact and movement - gauging the level of activity present in a potential predator's facial attributes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a cool link on the evolutionary aspect: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938403001562&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938403001562&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is one on social signal processing as per the specific structure in the brain: &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/15/9/598.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/15/9/598.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6817" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-07-13T22:03:17.550" LastActivityDate="2018-07-13T22:03:17.550" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9065" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-13T08:27:11.547" Score="2" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt; : I was recently reminded of an abandoned project of mine that is related to railways and &quot;green energy,&quot; so I started doing some Internet searches to see if there are any similar projects in the world. To my surprise, the project was already carried out by another institution. Even more surprising was that the project was done almost at the same time that I had the idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does having the same education/environment for a population make the same invention inevitable and predictable at some moment among that population?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If yes, no wonder why there is so much claims for the same invention at the same time that may come from different places across the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3700" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-06-09T17:35:38.203" LastActivityDate="2015-06-09T17:35:38.203" Title="How strongly are creative ideas influenced by our environment?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;ideation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" ClosedDate="2015-05-18T02:47:59.227" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9066" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6266" CreationDate="2015-01-13T10:04:26.763" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The model does not care what &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You first create a population of 100 neurons to represent an input that will vary from -1 to 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That input, which varies from -1 to 1, is &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;. For sensory neurons, the variable &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; would likely represent a transformation of some aspect of the sensory stimulus (e.g., the visual angle, sound level, or temperature), but it can be whatever you want it to be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2015-01-13T10:04:26.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9068" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-13T16:00:40.103" Score="5" ViewCount="813" Body="&lt;p&gt;This Youtube video shows what a &quot;true mirror&quot; is: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZSxCZCy5Wsk&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZSxCZCy5Wsk&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, when you look into a true mirror you look at yourself (among other things) as you really are, instead of as a mirror image. That is what looking at real time video recording feels like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But as anyone ever tried shaving or doing their makeup using a live video can tell, a true mirror makes you clumsy, to say the least. From my own experience, I find myself constantly confuse both left-right and front-back in such a case, which is interesting because a true image is just a mirror image that reverses left-right and front-back. So it seems to me some part of my brain in some sense recognizes my true image as a mirror image, and summons whatever pertinent mirror image circuits to automatically take on from there. Any other thoughts on how to explain this difficulty?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Think about this: suppose a person grows up never seeing a mirror reflection, will he be able to use a mirror for the first time? will he not be better off with a &quot;true mirror&quot; than with a mirror? If he grows up using true mirrors, will he be as clumsy with mirrors as we are with true mirrors? We feel natural and at ease dealing with mirror images. Is this just the result of practice and experience? I'm curious if a true mirror will become as natural as a mirror if one uses it for long enough.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6186" LastActivityDate="2020-07-17T16:59:34.623" Title="Why is it so difficult to use a &quot;true mirror&quot; as a mirror" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9069" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8869" CreationDate="2015-01-13T16:50:54.937" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Oddly enough, the place where you find the most information about this topic is where there's a lot of money to be made from it.   Facebook games or games in general.   If you focus on &quot;why do people like to play some games and not others&quot;, then you're asking more of an economical question, and there will be a lot more information on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example:&#xA;Funology: From Usability to Enjoyment (Human-Computer Interaction Series)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's plenty of other works of this kind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want things that are not related to games, I recommend Bruce C. Daniels's Puritans At Play: Leisure and Recreation in Early New England.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe both of these are available on Open Library.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7398" LastActivityDate="2015-01-13T16:50:54.937" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9071" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-13T18:54:25.980" Score="10" ViewCount="260" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/01/business/01marissa.html?pagewanted=all&quot;&gt;Source:&lt;/a&gt; 'Putting a Bolder Face on Google' By LAURA M. HOLSON&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;At a recent personnel meeting, she homes in on grade-point averages and SAT scores to narrow a list of candidates, many having graduated from Ivy League schools, whom she wanted to meet as part of a program to foster in-house talent. In essence, math is used to solve a human problem: How do you predict whether an employee has the potential for success?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A scrum of executives sit around a table, laptops in front of them, as&#xA;  they sort through résumés, college transcripts and quarterly reviews.&#xA;  The conversation is unemotional, at times a little brutal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One candidate got a C in macroeconomics. “That’s troubling to me,” Ms.&#xA;  [Marissa] Mayer says. &lt;strong&gt;“Good students are good at all things.”&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another candidate looked promising with a quarterly rating from a&#xA;  supervisor of 3.5, out of 4, which meant she had exceeded her&#xA;  manager’s expectations. Ms. Mayer is suspicious, however, because her&#xA;  rating hasn’t changed in several quarters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does research indicate about this claim? For example, can a preeminent literature or law student truly struggle in math, and vice versa, or is this just a common excuse/pretext? What branch of psychology does my question here concern? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-01-14T06:19:52.580" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T19:40:00.460" Title="Are good students truly good at all things?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9072" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9068" CreationDate="2015-01-13T22:48:16.047" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am struggling to recall the scientific term for what you are describing, but it is a simple cognitive phenomenon that guides and informs the design of physical, real-world interfaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's look at a mouse on a computer. The motion of the mouse in the real world corresponds to the motion of the cursor on the screen.  As an experiment, try to use the mouse sideways. (not upside-down). Notice how clumsy it is?  It is because the motion does not at all correspond to what is happening in the real world. You are engaging another layer of your brain, a layer that is 100 times slower than the automatic layer engaged in movement of the mouse along its normal axis. This is irrespective of practice - it would still be more difficult if you had used the mouse in this manner for many years (unless you had a brain disorder).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same problems confront folks who design computer interfaces for aircraft, spacecraft, and other complex physical systems. We have to design to decrease the cognitive load required to operate the device, and that involves, among other things, designing so that motion corresponds to the natural direction it does in your head.  A mirror already complies with this principle (at least in the side-to-side plane), but a &quot;true mirror&quot; does not. That is the reason for the difficulty. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2015-01-13T22:48:16.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9073" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9055" CreationDate="2015-01-13T23:00:38.607" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe what you are describing is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-fulfilling prophecy&lt;/a&gt; and has been well-studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-fulfilling prophecy are effects in behavioral confirmation effect, in which behavior, influenced by expectations, causes those expectations to come true. It is complementary to the self-defeating prophecy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is due to an uncontrolled, positive feedback loop between the expectations of a group of people and their behavior.  It applies to a wide variety of situations, such as market panics and bank runs, to expectations of an individual's position in society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, your example describes a &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-defeating_prophecy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-defeating prophecy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A self-defeating prophecy can be the result of rebellion to the prediction. If the audience of a prediction has an interest in seeing it falsified, and its fulfillment depends on their actions or inaction, their actions upon hearing it will make the prediction less plausible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In essence, the people in your example didn't want the speed limit buffer to go away (in effect, making the speed limit lower) so the theory states that they purposely (if subconsciously) increased the rate at which they crashed to disprove the government's theory that lower speed would prevent crashes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2015-01-13T23:00:38.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9074" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9005" CreationDate="2015-01-13T23:06:28.003" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;First we need to define emotional state. If we define it as basic emotions then eyeballs are connected to those and we can see effects of PNS (Adrenal gland, fight or flight (or freeze)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More interesting is if we can find effects of higher order emotions (care, love, guilt) There are not much research about it. According to ie. Ledoux theory of emotion we could even guess about effect of higher emotions on state but it will not be precise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dericbownds.net/bom99/Ch10/Ch10-4.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dericbownds.net/bom99/Ch10/Ch10-4.gif&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third very important thing is eye movement, eyemovement can tell us a lot about cognition especialy perception and memory formantion (and rehearsal) and it could be one more puzze for educated gues of higher order emotions: &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064937&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064937&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2015-01-13T23:06:28.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9075" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3486" CreationDate="2015-01-14T01:26:33.600" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may want to take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.surveycomet.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;SurveyComet.com&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.TurkPrime.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TurkPrime.com&lt;/a&gt;. Both offer a pretty nice set of tools to run externally hosted surveys (like on Qualtrics and SurveyMonkey) and allow you to create follow up surveys, exclude previous workers, have specific demographic Panels and much more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A long survey can be broken into two parts. Launch part 1 and later part2 as a follow up which will only be open to those who took part 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer: I am part of the software development team and am currently working on those sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7471" LastEditorUserId="7471" LastEditDate="2015-01-14T01:38:49.647" LastActivityDate="2015-01-14T01:38:49.647" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9076" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-14T02:06:07.770" Score="2" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;See this question in &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/71990/how-to-integrate-word-prediction-keyboard-into-p300-based-bci-brain-computer-in&quot;&gt;User Experience&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;Farwell and Donchin (1988) described a P300 based BCI selecting letters by detecting P300 responding to the flashing letters. According to this system, only one target can be detected each time, thus only one flashing group. If we use word prediction keyboard in this system, once a letter is selected, the predicted words will appear on the screen. If next letter and the predicted words flash at the same time, the system is not able to tell which to select. What's the best way to integrate word prediction keyboard into this system? two ideas below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;to have the keyboard disappeared after a letter is selected, only leave predicted words appear on the screen. If nothing is selected in a limited time, remove the words and the keyboard comes back, subject continues to spell.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;same idea as above, instead of removing  the keyboard, just to stop the keyboard from flashing when the predicted words are flashing after a letter is selected. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, both might slow down the spelling process if subjects only need words with 3 or fewer letters. Any other ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vuPhC.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fig. 1. An example from the Brain-Computer Interface Laboratory at East Tennessee State University &#xA;[To spell the word &quot;DOG&quot;, as rows and columns flash successively, the user has to count how many times the letter 'D' (the target) flashes. This results in a P300 response being generated each time the row or column containing the target flashes. The twelve-flash series is repeated a predetermined number of times. The responses for each row and column are averaged, and a classifier is applied to determine how closely each averaged response resembles the P300. The intersection of the row and column with the highest classification values is selected. In this case, the row and column containing the target letter 'D' would be selected, and a &quot;D&quot; would be presented as feedback to the user on the line below the presented word &quot;DOG&quot; at the top of the matrix.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Farwell, L. A., &amp;amp; Donchin, E. (1988). Talking off the top of your head: toward a mental prosthesis utilizing event-related brain potentials. Electroencephalography and clinical Neurophysiology, 70(6), 510-523. doi:10.1016/0013-4694(88)90149-6&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:32:22.230" LastActivityDate="2015-01-15T01:55:05.823" Title="How to integrate word prediction keyboard into P300-based BCI (brain computer interface) system?" Tags="&lt;hci&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;&lt;p300&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9053" CreationDate="2015-01-14T02:25:59.380" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The word &quot;love&quot; in this sense represents an addiction to strong emotional stimulation. As the provider of that stimulation the abuser is &quot;loved&quot;. Continued abuse brings with it familiarity with the feelings and intensity generated, which may be interpreted as love.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Love is not necessarily a healthy thing as evidenced by cases of abuse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7472" LastActivityDate="2015-01-14T02:25:59.380" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9078" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9071" CreationDate="2015-01-14T09:41:51.750" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say that the reasoning behind a statement such as &quot;good students are good in all things&quot; is not one concerning the possibly wide variety of interests and abilities but one of emotional stability and general life competency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No one in their right mind would doubt that different people are interested in different things and therefore not equally motivated to learn all skills and all knowledge. Most people would probably also agree that not everyone is equally talented at everything. Even the best students can be divided into those that excel at one topic and those that excel at another. There are rare individuals who excel in a lot of areas, but usually the best violinist is not also the best physicist, etc. So while &quot;good&quot; students are probably &quot;good&quot; in most areas, they are not &lt;em&gt;the best&lt;/em&gt; everywhere. This makes the statement in question less severe, allowing us to rephrase it as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;In most individuals, there appears to be a correlation between performance in different areas. Only very rarely is one person a top achiever in one field and a total looser in another.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason for this is that performance is, as we view &quot;intelligence&quot; today, not the result of an area-specific talent for, say, language versus maths, but that people differ in such characteristics as memory capaciy or processing speed, and that all skills depend on all of these physiological capacities. You need good memory for both language &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; math, you need processing speed for music as well as for physics. Therefore, someone who is good at maths is &lt;em&gt;potentially&lt;/em&gt; also good at most everything else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But more important than that all performance in all areas is based on the same physiological requirements is that the statement in question is, as I see it, not about ability at all, but about &lt;strong&gt;mental health&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What that woman is saying is that a person successful at life knows that good marks in school or college are important and has the will to get those good marks. Consistent good marks show not superior ability alone, but that a person has the emotional stability, familial support, &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; the physiological requirements to be successful in their lives in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone does not have straight As, with maybe a rare B, then you can almost always assume that they (a) are not good, or (b) have personal problems, or (c) are not interested. You want neither in an applicant. In that sense, a &quot;good&quot; (as in &quot;good for our company&quot;) employee is (at least) &quot;good&quot; (that is, B) everywhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2015-01-14T09:52:32.473" LastActivityDate="2015-01-14T09:52:32.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9079" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9068" CreationDate="2015-01-14T10:14:26.033" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This answer supports the comment by Krysta that we are simply used to the mirrors we have and could just as easily learn to use a &quot;true mirror&quot;.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 1950, Theodor Erismann and &lt;a href=&quot;http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivo_Kohler&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ivo Kohler&lt;/a&gt; performed a famous self-experiment in Innsbruck, Austria. Kohler wore a pair of glasses that turned his view of the world upside down continually for 124 days (sic). After about 8 days his perception had adapted and he was able to ride a bike or paint just like before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The image below shows Kohler wearing the glasses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WkeJg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the original documentary movie created by the two researchers (in German) on the website of the Center for the History of Psychology at the University of Würzburg, Germany: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.awz.uni-wuerzburg.de/archiv/film_foto_tonarchiv/filmdokumente/th_erismann_ikohler/die_umkehrbrille_und_das_aufrechte_sehen/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.awz.uni-wuerzburg.de/archiv/film_foto_tonarchiv/filmdokumente/th_erismann_ikohler/die_umkehrbrille_und_das_aufrechte_sehen/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an article from the German Wikipedia describing the glasses and showing an image of a current (self-built) model: &lt;a href=&quot;http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umkehrbrille&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umkehrbrille&lt;/a&gt; I don't know what this &quot;Umkehrbrille&quot; (&quot;turn around glasses&quot;) are called in English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2015-01-14T10:14:26.033" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9080" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7646" CreationDate="2015-01-14T11:37:53.180" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Frustration discomfort scale developed by Harrington 2005 with the items and work motivation scale&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7474" LastActivityDate="2015-01-14T11:37:53.180" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9083" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9018" CreationDate="2015-01-14T18:29:28.700" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can answer my own paper to some extent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, there exists research that finds specific combinations of factor scores predictive. For example: &#xA;&quot;High Extraversion and Openness and low Neuroticism and Agreeableness predicted fearless dominance, whereas high Neuroticism and low Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predicted impulsive antisociality&quot;. [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hoewever, it is unclear if 'personality theorists' a priori propose that such combinations of traits exist. &#xA;In addition, personality research is a very productive field [2], with personality measurement (like the Big Five) being used to predict anything from educational success, to leadership, to health behaviour etc. &#xA;It therefore seems unlikely there will be a review titled:  &quot;Combinations of Personality Dimension Scores and what they predict: a review of 40 years of research&quot; (a book i would definately like to leaf through)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Ross, Scott R., et al. &quot;Factors of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory: Criterion-related validity and relationship to the BIS/BAS and Five-Factor models of personality.&quot; Assessment (2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Allik, Jüri. &quot;Personality psychology in the first decade of the new millennium: a bibliometric portrait.&quot; European Journal of Personality 27.1 (2013): 5-14&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6973" LastActivityDate="2015-01-14T18:29:28.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9084" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8951" CreationDate="2015-01-14T20:35:43.840" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a temporary answer, and based on the comments, I will say that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Motivation is related to the long term cost and revenue (in the broadest sense) for an activity, i.e. more extrinsic. If the long term revenue is higher than the cost, you might be motivated to undertake the activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fun is related to the short term cost/revenue for an activity, i.e. intrinsic. If the short term revenue is high enough than a certain treshold you will say the activity is fun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Improvements welcome :-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3685" LastActivityDate="2015-01-14T20:35:43.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9085" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9118" CreationDate="2015-01-14T23:27:53.047" Score="9" ViewCount="1375" Body="&lt;p&gt;Its folk psychology wisdom that its easier to reward positive behavior than punish negative behavior (e.g. any book on parenting or dog training), but is there any evidence in the cognitive science literature that this is indeed the case? And if so, then have possible mechanisms for this phenomena been proposed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some context, I'm asking this because coming from a computational perspective this doesn't really make sense. The typical reinforcement learning algorithm tries to maximize the expected discounted cumulative reward of behavior, and it makes no difference if that entails avoiding negative rewards or seeking out positive rewards. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastActivityDate="2015-02-01T04:45:54.403" Title="Evidence that positive rewards are learnt faster than negative rewards?" Tags="&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9086" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-15T07:23:38.480" Score="6" ViewCount="315" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is inspired by &lt;a href=&quot;https://academia.stackexchange.com/questions/36824/should-i-give-the-interviewers-surprise&quot;&gt;Should I give the interviewers surprise?&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;on Academia.SE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The strategy of &quot;save the best for last&quot; seems to be affected in conflicting ways by two cognitive biases:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;the tendency to search for, interpret, or recall information in a way that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses.&quot; This suggests that one should try to optimize for a good &lt;em&gt;first&lt;/em&gt; impression.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak%E2%80%93end_rule&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Peak-end rule&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;a psychological heuristic in which people judge experiences largely based on how they were at their peak (i.e., their most intense point) and at their end.&quot; This suggests optimizing for a good &lt;em&gt;last&lt;/em&gt; impression.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that offers guidance on how these biases interact in different situations? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(For example, research on how these biases are affected by the nature of an experience, or its duration, might indicate which effect is more likely to prevail in a given situation.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7266" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:49:49.363" LastActivityDate="2015-01-15T07:23:38.480" Title="Confirmation vs peak-end bias - when does it make sense to &quot;save the best for last&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9087" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-15T14:02:05.880" Score="3" ViewCount="308" Body="&lt;p&gt;A patient with Cotard's Syndrome (also called &quot;&lt;em&gt;Cotard delusion&lt;/em&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;em&gt;Walking Corpse Syndrome&lt;/em&gt;&quot;) has the delusion that he or she is dead (and sometimes immortal), either figuratively or literally, yet continues interacting with their environment and communicating with others.  This seems like a contradiction in it's fundamental diagnosis.  Even in this delusional state, how do they rationalize such interactions?  To converse with people, they would need to believe such people are alive or at least in a state similar to themselves.  Prior knowledge of environmental interactions and social behavior should cause some patients to reflect over their perceived delusional reality at the vary least.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do patients with Cotard's Syndrome rationalize interactions in active environments and in social settings?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7478" LastActivityDate="2015-01-15T14:02:05.880" Title="How do patients with Cotard's Syndrome rationalize environmental interactions?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9091" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8899" CreationDate="2015-01-15T17:49:37.827" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Comparing the two gets into metaphysics. There have been theories of a 'light octave', since IR to UV is not terribly far from a single octave. Basically, in the standard sense, no, our vision does not perceive harmony in just the same way as our audition does with much lower-frequency sound waves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Newton directly compared the two when he associated the Dorian scale (which is symmetric in pitch) to the Newton colors (ROYGBIV) as he was developing the theory of optics, where certain colors represented a 'whole step' and others a 'half step'. I think he later stated the idea didn't really have foundation. (My notions on such things are also odd, so I'm not really going to go into them here.) Musicians also tried (most famously Scriabin, who was synesthetic). In a way it mirrors the split from tonalism in music, to pitch sequences on one side, and to harmonic sequences on the other ('serialism' versus 'just intonation').&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not to say there are no associations to be made, but they are notably different systems as understood by the perceiver. (There are also vibrational theories associated with olfaction and haptics at other frequency ranges, but I think that would just make the issue more messy, not less.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7428" LastEditorUserId="7428" LastEditDate="2015-01-15T17:56:16.597" LastActivityDate="2015-01-15T17:56:16.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9092" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4166" CreationDate="2015-01-15T20:24:09.793" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Brain training has to do with targeting the building blocks of inteligence/reasoning, in fact all the brain skills we need in our culture/education, and which are measured on IQ tests. This includes abstract logical reasoning, verbal and mathematical ability. Brain trining has also to do with helping the brain in understanding relations, such as more than, less than, opposite, same, before, after, here-there, amongst others as this is crucial for  intellectual development in just about every sphere. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6245" LastActivityDate="2015-01-15T20:24:09.793" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8899" CreationDate="2015-01-15T23:55:17.293" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;First I have to say that the wavelengths of light are on a totally different order of magnitude than sound. So the parallel drawn in your question &quot;do light waves, for example one with the same wave length as a mid-C and another with a mid-F wave, look nicely together?&quot; may seem logical, but is on closer inspection not easily maintained. Instead, one way to address this question more appropriately would be to talk about wavelength differences; i.e., light with wavelengths differing X octaves compared to acoustic tones differing X octaves.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that I think it is worthwhile to sidestep the theoretical approach and take a closer look at how auditory and visual sensory information is actually processed at a neurophysiological level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sound is processed in the inner ear (the cochlea), which basically works as a Fourier transformer, and specifically a frequency-to-place converter. The spatial distribution of the characteristic frequencies (the &lt;em&gt;tonotopy&lt;/em&gt;) on the basilar membrane of the cochlea follows a pattern where one octave spans about 2.5 mm (&lt;a href=&quot;http://148.204.64.201/paginas%20anexas/voz/articulos%20interesantes/coclea/con_reconocimiento_voz/GreJ87-2592-2605.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Greenwood, 1990&lt;/a&gt;). For the approximately 10 octaves the human ear can hear (~20 Hz - 20 kHz) we have 16,000 inner hair cells. See the following picture for a rolled-out cochlea with the tonotopy illustrated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/p0ILo.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;rolled out cochlea&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;source: what-when-how.com&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The eye, on the other hand, analyzes light frequencies using just 3 colors (red, green, blue) by means of three cone classes (as opposed to 16,000 hair cells each sensitive to a slightly different acoustic frequency). Although the visual system does a great job in combining this sparse frequency information into a spectrum of colors, it is not a frequency analyzer as such. In fact, it is more of a frequency &quot;combiner&quot;, as it combines the ratios of activation of the cone classes and runs it through a system of color opponency. By weighing the relative contributions of the three colors (RGB) using the opponent system (R-G, Y-B) the visual system estimates the color of the object you are looking at. Below on the left is illustrated the spectral frequency sensitivity of the three cone classes (note the unequal, non-octave distribution of the three across the dynamic spectrum range), and on the right the color-opponent (Hering) model.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8PqX8.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt; &lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DF1wr.png&quot; alt=&quot;giantitp.com&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;source:huevaluechroma.com and giantitp.com&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The opponent nature of human vision (blue-yellow and red-green axis) results in a 2-dimensional color space which is very different from the 1-dimensional frequency space of the cochlea&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psypress.com/cw/mather-9781841696997/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mather, 2006&lt;/a&gt;). Note that the third visual dimension is brightness, comparable to the second dimension of loudness in the ear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, based on a neurophysiological signal-processing point-of-view, &lt;strong&gt;hearing and seeing frequencies are two completely different things&lt;/strong&gt;. Comparing octaves between the two is worse than comparing apples and oranges, as apples and oranges share at least the same dimensionality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It probably doesn't answer the question, but it may answer the question why it cannot be answered in any logical, comprehensive and straightforward way without loosing oneself in subjective monologues about &quot;&lt;em&gt;I like this and this combination of timbres but I don't like this color combination so much&lt;/em&gt;&quot; kind-of-thing. Admittedly, it can be experimentally addressed by inquiring about the subjective 'pleasantness' of a set of combinations of colors and pitches in a study population. But from a physical and pysiological perspective, comparing the two entities of light and sound through equal-octave comparisons doesn't make sense since: (1) the two entities are processed through completely different neurophysiological principles as described above, ('1D acoustic frequency Fourier analyzer' versus '2D spectral combiner'), and (2) they represent entirely different physical entities altogether (photons/EM waves versus air pressure differences). Their only commonality is that they have an oscillatory nature, but that's where the parallel starts, and ends. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://148.204.64.201/paginas%20anexas/voz/articulos%20interesantes/coclea/con_reconocimiento_voz/GreJ87-2592-2605.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Greenwood et al. &lt;em&gt;JASA&lt;/em&gt; 1990; &lt;strong&gt;87&lt;/strong&gt;:2592-605&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psypress.com/cw/mather-9781841696997/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mather. Foundations of Perception 2006&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-24T10:42:48.287" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T10:42:48.287" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9094" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-16T19:30:56.730" Score="10" ViewCount="826" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people use noise generators as &lt;a href=&quot;http://playnoise.com/&quot;&gt;http://playnoise.com/&lt;/a&gt; to reduce distraction by background noise. Is there any research on the long term effects of this? Does this affect the neuronal connections in a known way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[I don't know, but I suspect that longer exposure to senseless information (noise) should have an effect on some part of the brain. I am also suspecting that if &quot;low-level senseless information&quot; (i.e. static noise) has an effect, &quot;high-level senseless information&quot; (i.e. random combinations of patterns) could have a similar effect on a deeper cognitive level, but that is wild guessing.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7486" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-03-06T13:27:55.427" LastActivityDate="2015-03-07T22:50:58.360" Title="Long term effect of using noise generators" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9096" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-17T17:02:09.233" Score="8" ViewCount="543" Body="&lt;p&gt;In 2000 film &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_Away&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cast Away&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Tom Hanks's hero is stranded on an uninhabited island, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe&quot;&gt;Robinson Crusoe&lt;/a&gt; style, and after a while starts talking to a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wilson_The_Volleyball.jpg&quot;&gt;volleyball&lt;/a&gt;. And I thought: what would actually happen to a person with total social isolation (not necessarily stranded on an island)? How would their cognitive functions, behavior, mental health, skills change? There are many variables that might influence the changes happening to a person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Time: when each psychological change starts to appear?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Age: how would children, teenagers, adults and elderly differ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Socialization: what if the person simply has less social interactions? (e.g. prison, remote living)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pre-existing mental issues: how would depression, schizophrenia, personality disorders or any other disorder influence the change during isolation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Any other variable?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="961" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T03:30:51.510" Title="What happens psychologically to a Robinson Crusoe?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9097" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-17T17:09:11.163" Score="0" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given the following hypothetical situation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An individual discovers that his girlfriend has cheated on him, but decides to continue to date her after she assures him that she will not do it again. Upon reading messages on her phone he becomes suspicious and begins to believe that she will cheat on him again. He simultaneously believes he should break up with his girlfriend but also doesn't want to break up with her despite having absolutely no support for anything but monogamy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that a good example of Cognitive Dissonance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7487" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2015-01-25T04:58:16.910" LastActivityDate="2015-01-25T05:02:39.753" Title="Cognitive Dissonance" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-01-21T01:03:41.017" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9099" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9097" CreationDate="2015-01-17T20:02:23.593" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia: cognitive dissonance is the mental stress or discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time, or is confronted by new information that conflicts with existing beliefs, ideas, or values. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes it is an example of Cognitive Dissonance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Belief number 1. &quot;I trust my girlfriend.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Belief number 2. &quot;My girlfriend is not trustworthy&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Belief number 1. &quot;I like my girlfriend and I don't want to break up with her.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Belief number 2. &quot;My girlfriend cheated on me, THEREFORE I should break up with her.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first set is based on the individual's comfort with his girlfriend being monogamous. His girlfriend has displayed capability and desire to not be monogamous. Loving relationships are usually based on openness and trust-  e.g. that both know the conditions and stick to them and discuss any changes. It looks like this initial understanding is missing and the preconceptions of monogamy have now be called into question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second set is based on a cognitive framework of how relationships should work that logically says that cheating means breaking up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7488" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2015-01-25T05:02:39.753" LastActivityDate="2015-01-25T05:02:39.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9100" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-17T20:08:03.700" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;From researching conventional understandings of fear, it can be a response to a perceived dangerous situation. But this definition seems very limited because fear seems to depend very much on context. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone is in a place where there is a natural disaster and there may be in clear present danger then that fear seems pretty sensible and obvious for the person to do what they can to become safe&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A sportsman doing a risky activity are scared for their own safety and deal with that feeling in order to perform.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even as I write this trying to give easy examples, these two seem very different. The first being an act of god creating fear and the second, a deliberate confrontation of fear. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is fear? What is the effect of fear on a human? Why sometimes to humans do things that create feelings of fear? Where does it live in the mind? How /where does it persist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7488" LastActivityDate="2015-01-17T20:08:03.700" Title="What is fear in humans and what does it do?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T21:55:39.453" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9101" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-17T23:33:57.633" Score="4" ViewCount="248" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am searching for a subject pool management system for human subject research. Almost all institutions appear to use Sona-systems. Do any alternatives exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7491" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-01-19T00:05:01.743" LastActivityDate="2015-01-19T12:49:43.157" Title="Participant / Subject Pool Management Solutions" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;teaching-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9102" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8009" CreationDate="2015-01-18T14:30:48.520" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;yes, here is a nice paper which shows evidence : &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/srep/2013/131017/srep02972/full/srep02972.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/srep/2013/131017/srep02972/full/srep02972.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;from the paper :&#xA;&quot; a report commissioned by the National Football League (NFL), showed that retired players between the ages of 30–49 were 20 times more likely, at a rate of 1.9%, to receive a diagnosis of dementia, Alzheimer's disease (AD), or other memory-related impairments11. Over the age of 50, the proportion diagnosed with one of the above rose to 6.1%, compared with only 1.2% In the general population11. Overall, neurodegenerative mortality of NFL alumni is 3 times greater than that of the general population, with AD and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) estimated at 4 times as high '&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7497" LastActivityDate="2015-01-18T14:30:48.520" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9103" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-18T15:38:35.113" Score="3" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;What exactly is pleasure? &#xA;Is pleasure in some sense 'thoughts'? If you are given opiates, you will feel some sort of pleasure, even if you don't think about anything, but perhaps you are having some sort of more primitive 'thoughts' that can't be detected. &#xA;Is pleasure just some sort of indicator of your neurotransmitters? Just as you might feel hot/cold, you might feel pleasure/pain. If it's not this way, and instead perhaps the previous (pleasure are some type of thoughts), then perhaps favorable levels of neurotrasmitters make pleasurable thoughts more likely to occur, explaining the correlation with neurotransmitters and various feelings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By what way does a person decide to be pragmatic, in something like the marshmallow test? Is there some sort of pleasure that occurs, if you follow a pragmatic decision? &#xA;Or could it be that we naturally have a strong tendency to have almost obsessive thoughts of the future, and being rational about it? Meaning, we might not even get any sort of pleasure from being pragmatic - it's just something that we do, because we get repetitive thoughts of &quot;that's reasonable&quot; ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6801" LastActivityDate="2015-01-18T15:38:35.113" Title="Pleasure and reward" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-01-25T14:21:31.093" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9104" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9094" CreationDate="2015-01-18T18:58:42.770" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some cool evidence (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0378595588901074#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Canlon et al. 1988&lt;/a&gt;) that low level noise exposure can actually protect you against high level noise exposure. That said, I am not sure that one should constantly expose themselves to low level sounds in the hope that it will protect them from high level sounds. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp-3.13.1a/ovidweb.cgi?QS2=434f4e1a73d37e8c676ec2d6238753f218aae501b1fa8acb6cea859e9297126a3cdb3d08d3bff77537e5bcf9fa85c7f071f9bd13dd5d01a198bd6cd489ce3acc2d2db83d27de52ba29efb0e1a3ee39c5e009c99680eb3d0a9c301e72a687bc657a02915a51fe71e818c5e145b627b3050137eaf1b4089ad6d0eee5f27d5a1d057cbaf8b8f9595842860fb6373e8e93bdd8ed3acbbe99e0e0cbfaa7aaca5ecb3862d9217dff155f073d1b82d86527c7aab5e88d24eaab30951b951f093ff9991ec3335006f2727a89046acfac741798c7be1e173b6d86fa475f2914658fb37919efe8bab5f8518e3aff59404d9e3c03382c722aa60412fc261f983bf7907095b6a9f8df6abe06050097da4bcd2d819b8eceeaf9ee3cab278a93b27709bd7fc9104b800aa6edb6eb4add78be66a709fee1bb7294ab88c95a64b0e11788e5dac1f2ce4f03707e8201e7c4d2c358251e026e3b13d9ab8a9a0d381954b62f5c29cc07ea5edc704dcd9b6b2ba88a55d31481a3dba7fff3040c564948003e4e622951c1e9efd4cbbe1a39f39eb73433fe90faf2ce6f17723e8f7eb2c5e4c59bb74443c6f7d4abaec0b36d651b98c3a95ee4ff4a4e05000922a2f1825739bf4b6f458bbf95ed6e8e0fa63eb875d4b79dc9b8d17a3b639df398a12f349d4824b7cc56a7c6940cf182f9c533260282acbd6f554d57510ee62575ccfd9dc232278ded79ddb5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Melamed et al. (1996)&lt;/a&gt; found that long term exposure to moderate sound levels (85 dB) can increase cortisol levels, fatigue and irritability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2015-01-18T18:58:42.770" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9105" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-19T01:51:36.190" Score="1" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;While doing research on various existing psychotherapeutic methods and perspectives, I came to wonder whether there were any existing relationship between gender and the responsiveness to given therapies. The relationship can be arbitrary or with some theoretical weight. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not sure if this question is clear enough... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for reading&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7499" LastActivityDate="2015-04-20T01:32:33.323" Title="Is there a relationship between gender and the effectiveness of various psychotherapeutic methods?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-04-20T02:34:21.343" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9107" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-19T08:28:05.707" Score="3" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been trying to understand the psychology of liking, for example a particular object(human or non-human). But I am unable to proceed with my experiments(I am just an amateur) because I myself discover that I like things at one moment and show no interest in them some other moment in time. Most of the things I see depend also on my mood. So it is this aspect called &quot;mood&quot; upon which I request the community members to throw some light upon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychology of mood? Are there any books or mature/good reference materials to understand this phenomenon of mood better?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6833" LastEditorUserId="6833" LastEditDate="2015-01-19T14:07:34.583" LastActivityDate="2015-02-18T19:09:47.093" Title="How can I understand the phenomenon of mood better?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9108" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-19T10:44:12.377" Score="2" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am from Computer Sciences background. The problem which I want to target is to be able to successfully predict (to a degree) that a person is going to smoke in near future. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a brainwave sensor which gives me EEG. I am interested in using this data to predict the urge of smoking. My questions are as follows: &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is is possible to do such kind of analysis? If yes, what are the key terms I should explore to understand the relation between EEG values and urge of smoking. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If no, what should be the data which I should try to get to solve this problem?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not seek complete answer, I only seek pointers to helpful literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7504" LastEditorUserId="7504" LastEditDate="2015-01-19T12:54:54.520" LastActivityDate="2015-01-23T10:36:19.170" Title="How can we use EEG data to predict urge of smoking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9110" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9101" CreationDate="2015-01-19T12:49:43.157" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;here is an open source project: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goeritz.net/panelware/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.goeritz.net/panelware/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With a paper: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goeritz.net/panelware/BRM4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.goeritz.net/panelware/BRM4.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Might be a little outdated but still work ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="477" LastActivityDate="2015-01-19T12:49:43.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9111" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-19T13:02:26.953" Score="2" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem which I want to target is to be able to successfully predict (to a degree) that a person is going to smoke in near future. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to look at the relationship between chemical reactions in the body, user behavior and urge for smoking. My questions are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What happens inside the body which makes the user feel an urge to smoke. By this, I mean are there specific 'chemicals' which are released in the body? Can we measure it? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a relation between user behavior and urge of smoking? If yes, please help me understand it or point me towards literature which supports the same.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please point me towards (even remotely relevant) literature which can help me in finding answers to some of these questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7504" LastActivityDate="2015-01-19T13:02:26.953" Title="How can we analyse user behavior to predict urge of smoking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9113" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-19T19:40:41.760" Score="5" ViewCount="554" Body="&lt;p&gt;Altmann's memory-for-goals model models goal-directed cognition in terms of the general memory constructs of activation and associative priming (Altmann 2002). From reading the paper I understand the model predicts response times during very low-level subgoal switching, like intermediate steps when solving a tower of Hanoi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen this paper being referenced by many multitasking and interruption studies within the field of Human-Computer Interaction (e.g., Adler, 2012). These types of studies are generally interested in more real-world knowledge work, such as interrupted office work by telephone calls where one's attention needs to be directed to the incoming call.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm skeptical as to whether this model and implementations of it using ACT-R (Anderson et al. 2004) is applicable to such higher-level knowledge work. Some of its implications seem relevant, like the problem state bottleneck. &lt;strong&gt;Are there any grounds for assuming the two are related?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Altmann, E. M., &amp;amp; Trafton, J. G. (2002). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0364-0213(01)00058-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Memory for goals: An activation-based model.&lt;/a&gt; Cognitive science, 26(1), 39-83.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Adler, R. F., &amp;amp; Benbunan-Fich, R. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2011.10.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Juggling on a high wire: Multitasking effects on performance.&lt;/a&gt; International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 70(2), 156-168.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Anderson, J. R., Bothell, D., Byrne, M. D., Douglass, S., Lebiere, C., &amp;amp; Qin, Y. (2004). &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-295X.111.4.1036&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An integrated theory of the mind.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological review, 111(4), 1036.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-19T08:29:34.930" Title="Is Altmann's memory-for-goals model valid for higher-level multitasking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9114" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-19T20:41:15.363" Score="4" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;If brain activity is measured using EEG, is the brain more active when asleep and dreaming of doing something or doing the same thing when awake?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, if you do exercise (eg. running) when awake, it probably activates the brain much more, but what about low intensity activity, eg. dreaming of painting, etc?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-06-17T18:46:43.780" LastActivityDate="2018-06-17T18:46:43.780" Title="Is the brain more active when you do something in a dream or when awake?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9115" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-19T21:06:24.290" Score="5" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;You see a dream and wake up during or after it and you remember the dream. Why is it so difficult to remember the dream in the morning, unless you write it down directly when woke up in the night?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="6750" LastEditDate="2015-01-19T21:20:02.140" LastActivityDate="2015-01-19T21:20:02.140" Title="Why is it so difficult to recall dreams?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-09-22T06:05:48.757" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9116" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-20T05:21:14.853" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;We, as human beings, formulate our own thoughts and notions about everything that we perceive. As we grow up, we acquire knowledge through different means (like parents, teachers, books, movies etc.) which shape our thinking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is that as an adult, if we experience something for the first time - is it possible for us to formulate thoughts about it which originate entirely from our own thinking? If yes, how can we realize it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: While growing up I have seen death in many movies, read about it in many books. But in real life I experienced the death of someone close to me quite recently. I am interested in knowing that is it possible for me to understand it without getting influenced by the knowledge which I already have? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will be thankful if it is possible to get some pointers regarding the same - how to unlearn everything we know and start afresh. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7504" LastActivityDate="2015-01-20T05:21:14.853" Title="As adults, is it possible for thoughts to originate from our own thinking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-01-24T20:38:59.827" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9117" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-20T05:23:20.987" Score="3" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this task, there are 4 trial types : congruent (HHHHHHH, SSSSSSS), incongruent (SSSHSSS, HHHSHHH). In order to collect enough ERN (error-related negativity), a component elicited after an error, subjects have to make enough error in the trials. I have seen ERP studies using this task, but the trial numbers vary from 300 to 700 (Lorist, 2011; Steinhauser, 2011), some with 1/3 congruent, others with 1/2, so I wonder is there a criteria in regard to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.the percentage of congruent and incongruent trials &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2.at least how many trials in order to have an error rate of 20% (if 100 trials takes 10 minutes to complete)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How about in a stroop task?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Steinhauser, M., &amp;amp; Kiesel, A. (2011). Performance monitoring and the causal attribution of errors. Cognitive, Affective, &amp;amp; Behavioral Neuroscience, 11(3), 309-320.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lorist, M. M., Boksem, M. A., &amp;amp; Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2005). Impaired cognitive control and reduced cingulate activity during mental fatigue. Cognitive Brain Research, 24(2), 199-205.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastActivityDate="2015-01-20T05:23:20.987" Title="Is there a criteria in the design of a cognitive control task (Flanker task with letters H and S)?" Tags="&lt;error-related-negativity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9118" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9085" CreationDate="2015-01-20T07:25:04.077" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a great question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; No, the evidence does not suggest that positive reinforcement is universally more effective than negative reinforcement or punishment.  However, there are still good reasons to focus on rewards over punishment in real-life training/learning situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The trouble for folk psychology began with Skinner's somewhat unfortunate &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning#Tools_and_procedures&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;choice of terminology&lt;/a&gt;...  While Skinner advocated positive reinforcement over negative reinforcement or punishment, it seems to have remained an industry secret that what he meant by those terms is not what the general public thinks he meant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2755378/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The modern view&lt;/a&gt; of positive and negative reinforcement is that they are essentially synonyms.  They are different ways of looking at the same thing, like describing a glass of water based on how full or how empty it is.  Computationally, as you say, learning algorithms that assign positive values to targets or negative values to non-targets are mathematically equivalent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although they are often confused with positive and negative reinforcement, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;rewards&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aversives&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;aversives&lt;/a&gt; are different terms with different meanings.  Testing whether one is more effective than the other is tricky, as in practice they are usually &lt;em&gt;qualitatively&lt;/em&gt; different.  For example, is ice cream or spanking more effective for getting your kid to do their homework?  The answer is: It depends - how much ice cream, how much spanking...?  Surely we can find a ratio of ice cream to spanking at which they are equally effective.  The type of research that examines this question is interested in determining where that boundary is (here is an &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1901/jaba.2007.151-05/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;).  Thought experiment: How can qualitatively different feedback mechanisms be applied in machine learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research more likely to answer your question compares positive and negative feedback that is arguably qualitatively equivalent.  For example, compare gaining money to avoiding loss of money, reducing risk to avoiding increase in risk, and it's even possible to compare the effects on animals that are trained in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_economy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;token economy&lt;/a&gt;.  In recent years, the folk psychology idea that positive feedback is universally superior to negative feedback has been called into question by such research.  A few examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Michael Perone reviews research demonstrating &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2731445/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;undesirable effects of positive reinforcement&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Comparing &quot;well done!&quot; to &quot;got it wrong this time&quot;, Eveline Crone et al found that before the age of twelve, children perform better with positive feedback, but older children and adults &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/28/38/9495.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;do better with negative feedback&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A study comparing &quot;keep the word Good on the screen&quot; to &quot;keep the word Bad off the screen&quot; found that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12543481&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;negative reinforcement may be more effective&lt;/a&gt; for some types of learning.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ayelet Fishbach and Stacey Finkelstein review research that suggests that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.1086/661934?uid=2129&amp;amp;uid=2&amp;amp;uid=70&amp;amp;uid=4&amp;amp;sid=21105110770501&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;negative feedback is more effective&lt;/a&gt; for experts, and motivates goal pursuit when it &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00285.x/abstract?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&amp;amp;userIsAuthenticated=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;signals insufficient progress&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lots of research into &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Loss Aversion&lt;/a&gt; suggests that avoiding the loss of money is a more powerful motivator than gaining an equivalent amount of money.  However, this phenomenon &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1901/jeab.2008.90-1/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;may not translate&lt;/a&gt; to an effect on learning.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Despite all this, note that the evidence in favour of positive reinforcement is much greater - these are just some notable exceptions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning#Biological_correlates_of_operant_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neurological reasons&lt;/a&gt; for the difference in effectiveness between positive and negative feedback have been proposed - for example by Eveline Crone in the study cited above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Training using rewards is preferred for animal trainers, parents, and teachers in most practical situations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is usually a much wider range of undesirable behaviour to punish than desirable behaviour to reward.  Animals and young children have difficulty determining what the desirable behaviour is with only clues about what behaviours are undesirable.  Adults are easier to work with because you can explain the desirable behaviour in words.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Punishment must be applied to all undesirable behaviour to be effective, while reward need only be applied to desirable behaviour, and even then only intermittently, to be effective.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Due to classical conditioning, subjects may attribute punishment to factors unrelated to their behaviour, such as the trainer or the classroom.  They may learn to avoid the trainer, or avoid getting caught, rather than the desirable behaviour.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Notice how none of these points apply to machine learning, where the process is structured, constrained, and automated.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John Maag summarizes reasons to &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.ca/citations?view_op=view_citation&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;user=KPfeI_oAAAAJ&amp;amp;citation_for_view=KPfeI_oAAAAJ:u5HHmVD_uO8C&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;promote positive reinforcement&lt;/a&gt; in schools: Namely that teachers often find it convenient and effective (in the short-term) to administer punishment and are overly reliant on it in many situations where positive reinforcement would be more effective and desirable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nice &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1tSqSMOyNFE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt; on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-02-01T04:45:54.403" LastActivityDate="2015-02-01T04:45:54.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9120" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-20T11:58:43.497" Score="7" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do we sympathize in general when we see something or someone dying even if we personally don't know it/them?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any species other than humans which sympathize with the death of its own species?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any species other than humans which sympathize with the death of other species?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7509" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-01-20T23:27:06.440" LastActivityDate="2015-02-19T19:05:24.230" Title="Psychology of Sympathizing with Death" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9121" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-20T16:11:51.140" Score="3" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for places to recruit participants for online experiments, and in particular, for experiments using Inquisit Web. My lab used to recruit participants through M-Turk but that's no longer an option for us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I saw similar questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3486/how-to-use-mechanical-turk-for-longer-studies-i-e-30-minutes?rq=1&quot;&gt;How to use Mechanical Turk for longer studies (i.e., 30 minutes+)?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3982/where-to-post-online-psychology-studies-for-participant-recruitment&quot;&gt;Where to post online psychology studies for participant recruitment?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5326/where-to-recruit-paid-participants-for-online-inquisit-experiments&quot;&gt;Where to recruit paid participants for online Inquisit experiments?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While searching for a suitable platform to recruit and compensate participants online, I came across several resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;www.findparticipants.com&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;www.socialsci.com&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;www.cognilab.com  (Might not be relevant for Inquisit, as they offer their own platform for experiment construction and presentation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How effective are these resources, or alternatives in recruiting paid participants for online psychology studies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7510" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-01-20T23:39:01.183" Title="How effective are online providers of paid participants for psychological experiments?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9122" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-20T18:19:43.873" Score="4" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading a book called &quot;The power of now&quot; by Ekhart Tolle, and in that book he suggests that internal dialogue/monologue/planning/judging can be first observed, then disidentified with and eventually stopped consciously. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me ask - &lt;strong&gt;Does modern cognitive science know what exactly causes the mind to switch into a rational, linear and verbal thought pattern?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of such thought would be: &quot;I'm thinking right now about asking a question on stack overflow, I should word this question in such a way that it is easily understood.&quot; Another example would be repeating a shopping list: &quot;Milk, bread, eggs, ice cream, etc, etc etc......&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for an answer on which parts of the brain and which neurotransmitter systems are involved in initiation and sustained focus on rational, linear, verbal thought. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-01-20T18:19:43.873" Title="How does conscious rational internal thought gets initiated - what gives rise to it on any given day?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9123" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4382" CreationDate="2015-01-21T10:48:47.240" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Please consider the work of Dr. Patricia Crittenden; &quot;Dynamic-Maturational Model (DMM) of Attachment &amp;amp; Adaptation&quot;. Based on the theoretical work of Bowlby, as a doctoral student, Dr. Crittenden, in concert with Dr. Ainsworth, began the foundational work of the DMM. The classification system appears to address the problem of &quot;D&quot; (e.g. &quot;cannot classify&quot;, disorganized) by building out on the &quot;A&quot; and &quot;C&quot; classifications with an &quot;AC&quot; classification indicative of psychopathology. There are several papers and books which are accessible through the various internet booksellers, her papers are available in scholarly journals but some of her papers can be accessed through the Family Relations Institute website and the International Association for the Study of Attachment. Her work appears to have been neglected in the United States until recently. Consider her text, co-authored with Dr. Landini, &quot;Assessing Adult Attachment&quot; (2011, Norton Press). The DMM builds on the work of Bowlby and Ainsworth by incorporating the scientific developments in the cognitive neurosciences and proposes the &quot;maturation&quot;, variation and change, of attachment over the lifespan. Drs. Ainsworth and Crittenden, early on (Crittenden and Ainsworth, 1989) in Crittenden's work stated, the classification of &quot;D&quot; (e.g. disorganized or cannot classify) &quot;...if it occurred, would be transient and replaced by a context-adaptive strategies ...&quot; (Crittenden and Landini, 2011). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7519" LastActivityDate="2015-01-21T10:48:47.240" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9124" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-22T04:25:06.623" Score="3" ViewCount="6697" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was recently reading through a textbook and was unable to clearly identify the differences between the two  due to a vague definition of both. Can someone provide an in-depth explanation of the two and perhaps provide examples?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7521" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-01-22T05:00:55.140" LastActivityDate="2015-01-22T05:00:55.140" Title="What is the difference between a biological and behaviorist perspective in psychology?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9125" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9124" CreationDate="2015-01-22T04:59:26.333" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Behaviorism&lt;/strong&gt; is the idea that psychology should be limited to what it can directly observe: behavior and the stimuli that drive behavior. A behaviorist approach to studying a psychological phenomenon would be based on studying observable behaviors and the observable things that cause those behaviors. Behaviorist explanations of the phenomenon would not rely on descriptions of internal processes, like thinking, since those are not directly observable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Biological psychology&lt;/strong&gt; takes the perspective that pyschological processes (e.g. thinking) are rooted in biology, and focuses on how biological processes cause and interact with psychological processes. Techniques like measuring neural activity through EEG or fMRI are common, as are (non-human animal) studies that involve more invasive manipulation of neural tissues. A biological psychology approach to studying a psychological phenomenon might identify particular patterns of brain activity that are related to the phenomenon, genetic correlates, or neural mechanisms that give rise to the phenomenon. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-01-22T04:59:26.333" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9128" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9131" CreationDate="2015-01-22T19:49:10.437" Score="2" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;The NEF allows you to use almost any neuron model as long as it has an equation for it's activity and it's spikes in some way. Usually, a simple leaky-integrate-fire (LIF) neuron model is used, but even in the software Nengo there are various neurons available for modelling, such as adaptive LIF neurons and Poisson neurons. What are the benefits of using these more complex neurons and how have these benefits been leveraged in the past?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T02:57:51.220" Title="Benefits of using more complicated neuron models in NEF models" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9129" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9130" CreationDate="2015-01-22T19:51:51.543" Score="4" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;The basic function of the NEF is to map the outside world onto neurons, using the firing rates of the neurons. It also supports various neuron models. Have these firing rates been used to create EEG and fMRI signals to replicate experimental data before? If so, how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-06-27T04:48:13.980" Title="Can fMRI and EEG signals be generated from NEF models?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9130" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9129" CreationDate="2015-01-22T20:08:33.570" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Replicating fMRI signal was first used in the Tower of Hanoi task as seen in section 5.8 of &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is strong evidence that dendritic processing, driven by&#xA;  neurotransmitter usage, underwrites the BOLD signal (Logothetis &amp;amp;&#xA;  Wandell, 2004). It is that BOLD signal that is actually measured by&#xA;  MRI machines. Consequently, MRI measures&#xA;  neurotransmitter usage, not neural activity (i.e., spiking of neurons) in&#xA;  a brain area. Neurotransmitter usage is actually determined by neurons&#xA;  that project into the measured area, not the neurons in the area&#xA;  itself. Here we predict fMRI data by filtering neurotransmitter usage in&#xA;  the model. This filter is determined by a fixed model of how&#xA;  neurotransmitter fluctuations demand energy and give rise to the&#xA;  blood-usage-based BOLD signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Replicating EEG signals would be possible as well. You would just have to figure out the potential contained in each neuron as a result of it's activities and then pass the resulting signal through a scalp filter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-06-27T04:48:13.980" LastActivityDate="2016-06-27T04:48:13.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9131" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9128" CreationDate="2015-01-22T20:33:39.707" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As seen in &quot;Neural Engineering&quot; by Eliasmith et al. Chapter 4, complicated neuron models have greater computational abilities and match neural data more realistically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Computational Capabilities&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As seen in the following table (taken from Neural Engineering) Adaptive LIF neurons, by virtue of their temporally varying firing patterns (i.e. a constant input will cause different spike patterns over time) encode more information per spike:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vSe5I.png&quot; alt=&quot;Neural Engineering Table&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As seen in this table, there's a trade-off between the complexity of the information represented by the neuron and it's computational cost. However, this cost is calculated on traditional Von-Neumann CPUs. It is possible to create neuromorphic hardware to minimize this cost while maximizing computational ability. For more information, see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/stoeckel2018.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nonlinear synaptic interaction as a computational resource in the Neural Engineering Framework&lt;/a&gt;&quot; which shows how non-linear dendrites can allow for powerful forms of computation with minimal additional neuromorphic hardware cost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Matching Biological Data&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The aforementioned temporal variance of the Adaptive LIF is also used to matching neural data as seen in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/26/14/3667.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this model of working memory&lt;/a&gt;, which would have not been possible with regular LIF neurons. Using even more complicated models can allow for matching the effects of drugs, as shown in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/duggins2017b.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Effects of Guanfacine and Phenylephrine on a Spiking Neuron Model of Working Memory&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-06T02:57:51.220" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T02:57:51.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9133" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-22T22:06:59.647" Score="3" ViewCount="616" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently read a statement that goes like this: heritability is a population construct. Isn't heritability dependent on genetic differences? &lt;strong&gt;Can someone provide an example of what it means to be a population construct?&lt;/strong&gt; Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7521" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-14T12:03:29.357" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T13:43:46.917" Title="Does heritability define the person in terms of the population?" Tags="&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9135" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9136" CreationDate="2015-01-23T02:11:10.753" Score="9" ViewCount="1389" Body="&lt;p&gt;By successful, I mean made it out to the large world market or being massively funded. After looking online it seems that the most relevant research is the one done by Bach-y-Rita about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OKd56D2mvN0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;seeing with tongue&lt;/a&gt; in the 70's. Since then there were no significant breakthroughs. Is there a reason for that? Did someone prove that brain plasticity is limited?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7447" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-10-06T20:20:03.427" LastActivityDate="2018-10-06T20:20:03.427" Title="Why is sensory substitution not that successful?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9136" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9135" CreationDate="2015-01-23T03:19:56.210" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bach-y-Rita's Tactile Vision Substitution System (TVSS) project was initiated in 1963 and he has since been regarded as the founding father of &lt;strong&gt;sensory substitution&lt;/strong&gt;. The concept of sensory substitution refers to the process of obtaining information about the world from a functional sensory system (e.g. touch) that would normally be obtained from a lost sensory system (e.g, vision in the blind). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bach-y-Rita developed various devices, but his most cited one consisted of 400 vibrotactile solenoids mounted in the back of a dental chair. Camera images were converted into binary (&quot;black and white&quot;) tactile representations onto the back of a subject ('seeing with the 'skin') (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v221/n5184/abs/221963a0.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bach-y-Rita 1969&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fnJ33.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;TVSS&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results obtained with the TVSS were very promising: after sufficient practice (20 – 150 hours), blind subjects were able to perceive movement, recognize shapes and objects, and even identify faces. It also enabled the appreciation of more abstract concepts quite unfamiliar to the blind, such as shadow, depth, looming, zooming and parallax (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15327590IJHC1502_6?journalCode=hihc20&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bach-y-Rita, 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. A face projected onto the skin would have felt like something like this (photo of an oscilloscope image representing the voltage stimuli sent from the camera to the vibrotactile display).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/K7PqL.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;TVSS binary&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as the first figure shows, the TVSS was large and bulky. Moreover, it was noisy and power hungry and simply not very useful outside the laboratory. Although various portable variants were constructed, they too suffered these limitations in various degrees:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7PCzr.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;PortableTVSS&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bach-y-Rita's work has been extended into &lt;em&gt;electrotactile&lt;/em&gt; approaches and the company Wicab is currently marketing the BrainPort V100 device in Europe. It features a head-worn camera to scan the environment and translates these images onto a grid of electrodes that stimulate the tongue to elicit electrotactile sensations (much like a sip of champagne or a soda would do):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KxxDu.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;BrainPort&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It uses electrodes instead of bulky vibrotactors which greatly reduces power consumption and this approach has made a portable application feasible. Electrodes, however, need a moist surface or very high voltages are necessary. A straightforward approach was to apply the electrode grid onto the tongue. The tongue is moist and has excellent resolution. The BrainPort currently features 400 electrodes and is able to provide graded voltages to present gray scale images onto the tongue. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The BrainPort has been marketed fairly recently in Europe (2013) and an FDA study in the US has just been finished. As far as I know they are busy with commercializing there as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding your &lt;strong&gt;brain plasticity&lt;/strong&gt; question: There is a wealth of information available on neuroplastic changes in the brain due to the use of the BrainPort or other sensory substitution approaches (VoiCE, EyeMusic etc etc). Basically it has been shown that the deafferented visual cortices are recruited for tactile information processing (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12030824&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sadato, 2002&lt;/a&gt;), and hence, the brain actively adapts to the new source of information. So &lt;strong&gt;no&lt;/strong&gt;, plastic changes are &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; the limiting factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, the BrainPort (and other sensory substitution approaches like the SonicGuide etc.) is useful, portable, and not less importantly, the brain &lt;em&gt;actively adapts&lt;/em&gt; in using the alternative visuo-tactile input by recruiting the visual cortex for processing visuotactile information. &lt;strong&gt;Why then haven't sensory substitution approaches conquered the world of visual rehabilitation of the blind&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;? There are a number of important downsides to sensory substitution devices (SSDs):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;SSDs &lt;strong&gt;substitute&lt;/strong&gt; vision (by tactile or acoustic information), they do not &lt;strong&gt;restore&lt;/strong&gt; it;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;limited resolution&lt;/strong&gt; of SSDs does not allow for detailed target analysis, i.e., discerning the difference between a fork and a knife will be very difficult;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Instead, &lt;strong&gt;relying on well-established coping mechanisms&lt;/strong&gt; and sticking to their usual routines may be far more effective in everyday life. For example, simply touching the fork or spoon will immediately tell them the difference, while scanning them with a SSD takes them ages (i.e., SSDs are not very practical);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The restricted resolution of state-of-the-art SSDs also aids little in orientation and mobility (O&amp;amp;M). In other words, it does not help blind folks to go about. Instead, &lt;strong&gt;established methods such as the guide cane and guide dog are far more effective for O&amp;amp;M&lt;/strong&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learning to use a SSD effectively takes &lt;em&gt;a lot of time&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Not many people are willing to undergo an arduous rehabilitation program&lt;/strong&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In case of the BrainPort - it is very visible to the outside world and &lt;strong&gt;not very discreet&lt;/strong&gt; when a blind person is using it. It is known that 29% of consumers with disabilities abandon the use of assistive devices for reasons unrelated to device performance (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CCIQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fcs.brynmawr.edu%2FCourses%2Fcs380%2Ffall2010%2Freadings%2FPhillips1993.pdf&amp;amp;ei=a73BVNysIM7n8AWqmoKACQ&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNEeto4iQFmsrJQl_Gsz6XouCUuAAA&amp;amp;sig2=5qx3mDY7gEuhr20TvpnW0w&amp;amp;bvm=bv.84349003,d.dGc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phillips and Zhao, 1993&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v221/n5184/abs/221963a0.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bach-y-Rita 1969. &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; 221:963-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fnJ33.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bach-y-Rita 2003. &lt;em&gt;JHCI&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;15&lt;/strong&gt;:285-95&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CCIQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fcs.brynmawr.edu%2FCourses%2Fcs380%2Ffall2010%2Freadings%2FPhillips1993.pdf&amp;amp;ei=a73BVNysIM7n8AWqmoKACQ&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNEeto4iQFmsrJQl_Gsz6XouCUuAAA&amp;amp;sig2=5qx3mDY7gEuhr20TvpnW0w&amp;amp;bvm=bv.84349003,d.dGc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Philips &amp;amp; Zhao 1993. &lt;em&gt;Assistive technology&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;:36-45&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12030824&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sadato 2002. &lt;em&gt;Neuroimage&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;16&lt;/strong&gt;:389-400&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-07T20:30:37.660" LastActivityDate="2018-09-07T20:30:37.660" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9138" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-23T11:51:30.973" Score="7" ViewCount="1066" Body="&lt;p&gt;I come from a computer science background and am a big time AI enthusiast. I am trying to think about how can we map 'intuition' to a process in artificial intelligence. As I understand, 'intuition' means generating (correct) knowledge (for ourselves) about something without knowing 'how' we did it. This leads to the following questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is 'intuition' related to 'extrasensory perception' (ESP)? As far as I know, ESP is not accepted by the scientific community but I could not conclude the same about 'intuition'. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If they are related, how does scientific community explain 'intuition'? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I seek pointers to relevant literature which would help me understand intuition from the perspective of cognitive sciences. My thought process has inclined me towards believing that there is nothing like 'intuition' and everything is deterministic which is why an AI can never be intuitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7504" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-10T01:49:34.270" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T07:30:23.220" Title="Is 'intuition' related to 'extrasensory perception'?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9139" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-23T14:31:24.923" Score="1" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the good psychology studies about this hypothesis ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From an evolutionary standpoint, it would makes sense on a group level. When a few people starts doing a new thing, if one a them sees that he is better at it than the other directly around him, he would have a greater probability to like doing this new thing. The group would be composed of more specialized people each good at what they do, and therefore with better surviving chances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where is it possible to find resources about this subject ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7530" LastActivityDate="2015-01-26T19:42:44.660" Title="Success cause passion more than passion cause success" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-08-07T02:06:38.247" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9140" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-23T18:42:08.337" Score="6" ViewCount="1088" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am seeking for a general explanation within the context of evolutionary psychology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) What is the purpose of envy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Is it safe to assume that experiences with envy should reach a maximum during  peak reproductive years? Is it a causal relationship, or just correlation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(To add to the above: At least in modern societies, where basic survival has been for the most part dealt with, how often can envy be ultimately traced back and attributed to primordial instincts?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also have a more specific question, which is the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) In the context of a romantic relationship, assuming there are no other potential mates as external threats, and the two partners are not competing for resources in the same domain, are there any reasons for which romantic partners could be envious of each other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not a psychologist, so please feel free to edit the question if you think it lacks specificity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7531" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-01-23T18:47:37.293" LastActivityDate="2015-02-28T06:29:44.023" Title="What is the evolutionary purpose of envy?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9141" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9135" CreationDate="2015-01-23T22:34:26.603" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Chris gave an excellent answer for visual-to-tactile sensory substitution devices. I will not argue about the extent to which sensory substitution is successful, but the most widespread sensory substitution system for the blind is nowadays &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.seeingwithsound.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The vOICe&lt;/a&gt;, a class of visual-to-auditory sensory substitution devices that is available globally. Its Android version has been installed over a quarter million times in the last few years, and there are a number of recent peer-reviewed &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.seeingwithsound.com/literature.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;scientific publications&lt;/a&gt; based on use of its Microsoft Windows version, covering various aspects of brain plasticity. Upcoming augmented reality glasses are likely to improve convenience of use. But yes, like Chris stated, learning to use a SSD effectively takes a lot of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7533" LastActivityDate="2015-01-23T22:34:26.603" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9142" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9135" CreationDate="2015-01-23T22:47:01.300" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadoma&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tadoma&lt;/a&gt; is a method of communicating used by some deaf blind individuals. The system was developed prior to 1967 and predates TVSS, although there is no hardware involved. I think this &lt;a href=&quot;https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=U_QMS-hzRMs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt; demonstrates the extent to which the approach is successful, and hence not limited by brain plasticity. Tadoma has fallen out of favor because it is difficult to learn and teach. There has been some research into vibrotactile hearing aids and there are some &lt;a href=&quot;http://deafness.about.com/cs/vibrotactile/f/vibrotactile.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;commercially available&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2015-01-23T22:47:01.300" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9143" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21734" CreationDate="2015-01-23T23:23:18.757" Score="2" ViewCount="128" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question is whether the feeling of stress goes away progressively in the absence of reflective thought. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: you notice someone looking at you and think &quot;maybe I have something on my face&quot;. Let us assume that this produces stress. If you do not use your internal dialog or any kind of visualization etc., is there any way that the stress can continue/grow or will it inevitably subside?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any research on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7535" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2015-01-26T09:24:26.603" LastActivityDate="2019-02-26T19:03:25.573" Title="Can stress be sustained without reflective thought processes" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9144" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9145" CreationDate="2015-01-24T05:46:25.650" Score="11" ViewCount="7189" Body="&lt;p&gt;I find countless places stating that neurons have tens of thousands of &quot;connections&quot; or &quot;synapses&quot; and &lt;strong&gt;one axon&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do neurons have tens of thousands of dendrite connections, and a few axon &lt;strong&gt;terminals&lt;/strong&gt;; or a few dendrite connections and tens of thousands of axon terminals; or tens of thousands of each?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a neuron's action potential is triggered, how many other neurons does it affect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7537" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-05T09:41:47.223" LastActivityDate="2018-03-05T09:41:47.223" Title="How many dendrite connections vs axon terminals does a multipolar cerebral neuron have?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9145" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9144" CreationDate="2015-01-24T07:16:52.980" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipolar_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multipolar neurons&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; have multiple inputs (dendritic connections), and one output (the axon).There are also &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bipolar cells&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in the retina, these have one dendrite (input) and one axon (output) &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-v-phototransduction-in-rods-and-cones/bipolar-cell-pathways-in-the-vertebrate-retina/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Nelson &amp;amp; Connaughton, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrite&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dendrites&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;A striking example are the Purkinje cells in the cortex. These cells have elaborate dendritic trees making 100,000 to 200,000 connections, but still there is just one axon. Hence they integrate massive amounts of (sensory) information and funnel it into one output signal &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10865/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2002)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, dependent on the cell type, neurons can have &lt;strong&gt;one or as many as 200k&lt;/strong&gt; dendritic connections. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;axon terminals&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;As far as I am aware, &lt;strong&gt;all neurons have just one axon&lt;/strong&gt;. The axon can target neurons along the way (&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;en passant&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;) and the axon can terminate in multiple terminals contacting various cells. Some neurons contain one terminal (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bipolar cells&lt;/a&gt;), others as many as &lt;strong&gt;thousands of terminals&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/axon-hillock&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Brady &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only situation where multiple axons arise from one cell is when the axon bifurcates along the way, sending one or more &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.getbodysmart.com/nerve-cells/axon&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;collaterals&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; from the axon off back to the cell. Basically, the neuron has still just one axonal output, but collateral regulatory info is sent off back to the cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are situations where multiple axons arise, but that occurs only in neurons that have been tinkered around with genetically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/axon-hillock&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brady &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Basic Neurochemistry&lt;/em&gt;. 8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ed (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-v-phototransduction-in-rods-and-cones/bipolar-cell-pathways-in-the-vertebrate-retina/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nelson &amp;amp; Connaughton, Bipolar Cell Pathways in the Vertebrate Retina. In: &lt;em&gt;Webvision&lt;/em&gt; (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10865/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds), &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;. 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-05T08:51:01.223" LastActivityDate="2018-03-05T08:51:01.223" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9146" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-24T07:18:27.780" Score="4" ViewCount="637" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am computer science student and I have a limited knowledge about cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What books would give me a good introduction to the area?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7538" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-01-24T22:11:05.030" LastActivityDate="2015-01-24T22:11:05.030" Title="best book for cognitive science" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-01-25T04:53:15.707" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9147" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-24T08:49:56.547" Score="1" ViewCount="1004" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently took part in a study that asked me to read 50 words that were spelled differently than they were pronouced, some more commonly used than others. Does anyone know where I could find this list? &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Test_of_Adult_Reading&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Test_of_Adult_Reading&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7539" LastActivityDate="2015-01-24T08:49:56.547" Title="What are the 50 words on the Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (WTAR)?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-04-25T21:41:09.640" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9148" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9146" CreationDate="2015-01-24T18:55:40.263" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a neuroscience focused overview I enjoyed: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/581365.Making_Up_the_Mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Making up the Mind&quot; by Chris Frith&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a psychology textbook ( I think this is used in undergraduate level):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1429237198&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Psychology 2nd Edition&quot; by  Daniel L. Schacter, Daniel T. Gilbert, Daniel M. Wegner  &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7535" LastActivityDate="2015-01-24T18:55:40.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9149" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9152" CreationDate="2015-01-25T11:02:48.817" Score="13" ViewCount="3757" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently trying to find interesting Cognitive Science related &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podcast&quot;&gt;podcasts&lt;/a&gt; to follow. Only one I've found is &lt;a href=&quot;https://soundcloud.com/youarenotsosmart&quot;&gt;You are not so smart&lt;/a&gt;. Does anyone know anything else? Preferably in English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the question is off-topic, not constructive or opinion based, please let me know and I will delete it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="6750" LastEditDate="2015-01-25T11:17:13.397" LastActivityDate="2016-10-04T13:32:49.840" Title="Cognitive Science podcasts to follow" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9150" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9143" CreationDate="2015-01-25T20:15:57.997" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not certain on research regarding this issue. However, if I were to propose a hypothesis...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Given: Stress is the immediate reaction to a perceived potential or immediate threat.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Given: The initial recognition of the stressor triggers the fight(address), flight(avoid), freeze response.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Given: Success of the fight response requires resolution or conversion of the stressor into a non or less stressing condition.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Given: Success of the flight response requires removal of one's self from the effect of the stressor, usually by means of escape or devaluation of the stressor itself.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Given: The freeze response leaves one trapped in the conflict state, unable to take action.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Given: Both the fight and freeze responses keeps one actively reflecting on the stressor until the stressor has been resolved, converted, removed, or devalued.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Therefore: only the flight response offers the opportunity to not reflect on the stressor in the presence of the stressor by diminishing its value as a stressor.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conclusion - Since the only way to eliminate reflective thought in the presence of a stressor is to devalue the stressor, It's more accurate to say that the feeling of stress goes away &lt;strong&gt;because&lt;/strong&gt; of reflective thought rather than in the absence of it. In fact, any presence of a stressor necessarily precludes the possibility of an absence of reflective thought. Put another way, the human mind literally spends all day processing fight/flight/freeze responses over its entire list of impending stressors in order of priority. Everything we do is a matter of processing the importance of resolving a particular stress immediately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So a better question would be: Is it possible to be absent of reflective thought in the presence of a stressor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7444" LastActivityDate="2015-01-25T20:15:57.997" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9151" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9143" CreationDate="2015-01-26T13:25:51.017" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Stress is the release of an adrenaline. The release of an adrenaline could make stress grow in the absence of cognitive mental processing. People who are vulnerable to stress may experience stress for longer and greater extent than people who are less vulnerable to stress (People who genetically vulnerable to stress could develop a psychotic disorder. People who drink a lot of caffeine or lack in sleep could be more susceptible to subtle stress triggers).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress may go as far as a panic attack. The human brain and physiology will act to subside it (I don't know enough physiology to tell you about the mechanisms of adrenaline in the body, but I do know that the brain will block some of the visual cues perceived to prevent psychological trauma and by doing so avoid extra stress).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Classical conditioning could lead to more stress than usual if the person who experienced the event associated it with something more stressful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7308" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-26T19:40:34.210" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T19:40:34.210" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9152" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9149" CreationDate="2015-01-26T13:35:20.650" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are the ones I know about; there's much more about neuroscience than, say, theoretical or computational cognitive science, but a lot of the neuroscience podcasts cover cognitive science indirectly or partially.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/allinthemind/&quot;&gt;All in the Mind&lt;/a&gt;--it's also neuroscience and mental health stuff (a lot of mental health stuff)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://brainsciencepodcast.com/&quot;&gt;Brain Science Podcast&lt;/a&gt;--books about and interviews with researchers in neuroscience&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neurosci/neuropod/index.html&quot;&gt;Neuropod&lt;/a&gt;--Nature's neuroscience podcast&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscene.com/&quot;&gt;Neuroscene&lt;/a&gt;--&quot;the future of neuroscience&quot;, mostly interviews or topical explorations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thenakedscientists.com/HTML/podcasts/neuroscience/nocache/1/&quot;&gt;Naked Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;--the neuroscience offshoot of Cambridge University's Naked Scientists&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-01-26T14:00:01.697" LastActivityDate="2015-01-26T14:00:01.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9156" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9968" CreationDate="2015-01-26T20:04:28.997" Score="6" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read many papers and books about ontologies, and I am trying to figure out that how they are used in a real project. For example, how can the ontology for a soccer player robot can be defined and used with a cognitive architecture in order to make it intelligent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are ontologies relations between terms in that domain of knowledge (for example relation between the ball and foot word, and physical rules definition and their relation with the foot and ball movement) or relations between tactics, strategies and different mixture of tactics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any clear examples of ontology usage in real projects and their combining usage with the cognitive architectures like ACT-R for augmenting the cognitive architecture?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7257" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-05T11:27:04.297" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T11:27:52.753" Title="What are the practical uses of ontologies?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9157" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9159" CreationDate="2015-01-26T20:26:22.980" Score="7" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may have heard of Evelyn Glennie, an acclaimed solo virtuoso percussionist. She has been profoundly deaf from the age of 12, but learned to differentiate pitch tactilely. She had absolute pitch, which obviously helped. She plays bare feet in order &quot;to hear&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She can also help accoustical engineers, as she can sense the air pressure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In her &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IU3V6zNER4g&quot;&gt;TED talk&lt;/a&gt;, she describes that she hears music like everybody. There seem to be no doubts that she has the same perception of music than any other great musician when the sound information, in the form of vibration, can be treated by her musical brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to show that musical information can be accurately transmitted through tactile vibration.&#xA;My question : is it conceivable to transmit all sound information in the tactile modality ?  Are tactile detectors sufficiently sensitive to let through all/most of the sound information ?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess language is very particular and it would be impossible to differentiate words directly from sound vibrations, but maybe the sound signal could be modified in a way to make speech sounds more distinguishable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If possible, I guess it could have great applications, helping deaf people, and maybe enabling communication in noisy environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6771" LastActivityDate="2015-08-04T00:43:28.350" Title="Is it conceivable to transmit all sound information in the tactile modality?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9159" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9157" CreationDate="2015-01-27T06:16:53.437" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, interesting question, and thanks for sharing the video! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, you write: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There seem to be no doubts that she has the same perception of music than any other great musician...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have to disagree. She may be able to sense vibrations, but it can never match normal hearing. This, because the human ear is better equipped to analyze acoustic sounds than the tactile system. Acoustic frequencies can be heard between 20 Hz and 20 kHz and maximum sensitivity is at 4 kHz. The tactile sense has a lower minimum, but its optimum lies at 250 Hz, and the maximum at approximately 500 Hz. Hence, the  human ear exceeds the tactile system by 5 octaves. More importantly, however, is the exquisite sensitivity of the human ear that outperforms the tactile system in orders of magnitude.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In effect, the musician can acoustically feel only tones of low frequency of high loudness. What she can pick up is the tactile sensation from playing the instrument, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that Beethoven was deaf, and composed master pieces. Importantly, both Beethoven and Glennie were not congenitally deaf, but lost their hearing later in life. Hence, their sense of acoustics was already shaped, and my guess is both relied heavily on their memory of hearing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To translate the acoustic dynamic range into a vibrotactile one, one would have to &lt;em&gt;compress&lt;/em&gt; the acoustic dynamic range onto the vibrotactile dynamic range. Frequency compression is exactly what has been done in vibrotactile devices that substituted hearing  for touch. One example of such an approach is the TickleTalker. This device was designed as a vibrotactile hearing aid to increase speech recognition in the profoundly deaf. Although the idea worked, it never became a success &lt;a href=&quot;https://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/handle/11343/27291&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Cowan &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1990)&lt;/a&gt;. In general, sensory substitution approaches suffer important drawbacks (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9135/why-is-sensory-substitution-not-that-successful&quot;&gt;why-is-sensory-substitution-not-that-successful&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important factor with the TickleTalker is that the frequency range as well as the frequency resolution of the ear is much better in the ear than in touch. In turn, the quality of vibrotactile hearing is inferior to acoustic hearing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the biggest factor in the case of vibrotactile hearing substitution not being successful is the fact that cochlear implants are very effective in &lt;strong&gt;restoring&lt;/strong&gt; sensorineural hearing loss. Cochlear implants directly stimulate the auditory nerve, thereby bypassing the defective hair cells, the most common cause of deafness. Note, however, that brain stem implants and cortical implants are used as well, that together cover nearly all causes of deafness. Hence, these devices actually &lt;strong&gt;restore hearing in deaf patients&lt;/strong&gt;. The resolution is not too great (7 effective frequency channels, give or take), but speech understanding scores in cochlear implants users is overall remarkably good. Some are even able to talk over the phone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/handle/11343/27291&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cowan &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;.,  Australian Journal of Audiology (1990)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Further Reading&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9135/why-is-sensory-substitution-not-that-successful&quot;&gt;why-is-sensory-substitution-not-that-successful&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-08-04T00:43:28.350" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9161" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7678" CreationDate="2015-01-27T13:33:37.747" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In NLP (Neuro-Linguistic-Programming), these are called &quot;modal operators&quot; of necessity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7553" LastActivityDate="2015-01-27T13:33:37.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9163" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-27T22:08:30.047" Score="7" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working in my master thesis on a method of detecting user deception or lying when answering online questionnaires using his implicit feedback like sweating, eye focus, EEG etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like if you could recommend me some related works or books or give me some tips on which implicit feedback should I focus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2714" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-01-28T02:57:37.037" LastActivityDate="2017-11-27T18:28:20.817" Title="Effectiveness of implicit measures of deception (e.g., sweating, eye focus, EEG) when filling out online questionnaire" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;deception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9165" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-28T15:36:22.370" Score="3" ViewCount="594" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unproven statement: Human cultures depend on the concept of leadership/hierarchy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the cultures I've seen until now depend on this concept. But I may be mistaked: It might be possible that my intuitive understanding of leadership/hierarchy is wrong. This addendum has the sole purpose of pointing the poorness in my idea (which might be important somehow).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Question: Are there cultures in which leadership/hierarchy does not exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastActivityDate="2015-01-28T23:16:02.157" Title="Are there cultures in which leadership/hierarchy does not exist?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9167" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9165" CreationDate="2015-01-28T20:15:42.667" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may look for an answer in some anthropological works about hunter-gatherers, e.g. Christopher Boehm's &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0674006917&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hierachy in the Forest&lt;/a&gt;. Basically, he describes what he calls a &quot;reverse dominance pyramid&quot;, which can be observed in many hunter-gatherer tribes. Individuals who are aggressive, bossy, try to behave like alpha-males are mocked, then warned, shunned, and finally killed or left alone when the tribe moves forward (which also ends with death). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;James Woodburn (Egalitarian Societies, James Woodburn, Man, New Series, Vol. 17, No. 3. (Sep., 1982), pp. 431-451. &lt;a href=&quot;https://libcom.org/files/EGALITARIAN%20SOCIETIES%20-%20James%20Woodburn.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here it is&lt;/a&gt;) concludes that all of such societies/tribes are profoundly egalitarian and relationships between people are based on sharing, without any long-term dependencies.  All distinctions – of wealth, power and status – are systematically eliminated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could lead to the following answer: there are non-hierarchical cultures, but they are limited to hunter-gatherers. All known human sedentary cultures are hierarchical and there is some leadership in them, as far as I know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question is also problematic, for two reasons. First, leadership and hierarchy are necessarily the same - we can easily imagine human groups in which we can have a voluntary leadership, but which is only ad-hoc and does not depend on any permanent hierarchy. Second, the phrase &quot;culture depending on the concept of x&quot; can also be read in many ways. Your question does not contain it, but the unproven statement that you propose at the beginning does. So be careful in proceeding from an answer to the question to the validation of this statement. You must add something to the mere observation that all cultures have an element of hierarchy in order to establish a fact that they depend on it - we might just observe such correlation in the world. Maybe they were some selection pressures at work at some moment during the last 10k years (warfare?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7227" LastEditorUserId="7227" LastEditDate="2015-01-28T23:16:02.157" LastActivityDate="2015-01-28T23:16:02.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9169" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-28T20:57:20.313" Score="3" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Much brain research has proposed that the brain (the neocortex, esp.) is set up in areas - an area for faces, an area for language, etc..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experiments typically go 1) damage an area 2) observe what function is lost. And this has produced a good deal of evidence that behavior ends up being localized. But for me, this information is incomplete, especially in the light of studies that show that every part of the cortex does essentially the same thing! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anybody ever done a study where, looking at tiny areas of neocortex, scientists can identify a) what information it contains b) what it does, or c) from what part it came?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7564" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-20T09:24:41.460" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T17:29:00.630" Title="Do studies exist that can map specimens of neocortex to the functions they perform(ed) in vivo?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9172" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9175" CreationDate="2015-01-29T03:51:25.753" Score="2" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;When an action potential is propagating through a neuron, it seems to me that the time for &quot;potential of action&quot; is over, and that we are now just in a state of &quot;action&quot;. Why don't we just call action potentials &quot;action&quot;? Where is the potential for action when the neuron itself is undergoing action? In fact, when a neuron is at rest, it is said to have a &quot;resting potential&quot;. To me this seems more like a &quot;resting state&quot; and an &quot;action state&quot;. So what is so potential about &quot;action potentials&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-21T11:08:52.830" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T11:08:52.830" Title="What is so &quot;potential&quot; about action potentials?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9173" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9176" CreationDate="2015-01-29T04:06:39.710" Score="2" ViewCount="1667" Body="&lt;p&gt;To my understanding, the steps of an action potential are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The neuron is at rest--there is a negative charge (K ions) inside the cell, and a positive charge (Na ions) outside the cell. Pumps work hard, pumping in K and pumping out Na to maintain this polarization.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Excitatory NTs bind with the dendrites. As soon as it's over a certain threshold it triggers an action potential.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The inside of the cell depolarizes, and the depolarized &quot;chunk&quot; propagates through the axon.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now here's my confusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A. How do neurotransmitters manage to depolarize the inside of the cell? Do they force the cell to give up pumping out Na ions? Do the neurotransmitters themselves contain positively charged ions that the ion pumps are not sensitive to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;B. When the cell depolarizes, the electrical impulse travels down the axon. When this happens, Na+ and K+ ions rapidly pass through the membrane as the signal fires. (Like this picture) &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential#mediaviewer/File:Action_Potential.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential#mediaviewer/File:Action_Potential.gif&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are ions being pumped in and out of the axon in such a way to propagate an action potential? Why isn't it just a positively charged signal running through the axon, without regard to the outside environment? (please let me know if this is unclear!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-21T11:10:16.873" LastActivityDate="2015-07-18T17:28:40.830" Title="Explanatory gaps in the formation and propagation of action potentials" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9174" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-29T07:17:32.147" Score="2" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;As in, how does my body know that a stove is not hot enough to warrant a reflex? Is it because there isn't a sudden electrical surge going through the nervous system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7571" LastActivityDate="2015-02-11T18:03:43.430" Title="How does my spinal cord know to take reflexive action?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9175" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9172" CreationDate="2015-01-29T10:27:53.970" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are other meanings of &quot;potential&quot; than the regular meaning &quot;&lt;em&gt;having or showing the capacity to become or develop into something in the future&lt;/em&gt;&quot; (source: Google Translate).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case of &quot;&lt;em&gt;resting potential&lt;/em&gt;&quot; it refers to the &lt;strong&gt;voltage difference&lt;/strong&gt; across the cellular membrane. Every cell maintains a voltage difference across the membrane (see a related question here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/17840/resting-and-action-membrane-potential&quot;&gt;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/17840/resting-and-action-membrane-potential&lt;/a&gt;). The voltage difference is used for various purposes, including the transport of nutrients and ions, and it is crucial for action potentials to occur.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case of &quot;&lt;em&gt;action potential&lt;/em&gt;&quot; it refers to a series of &lt;strong&gt;successive changes in the voltage difference&lt;/strong&gt; across the membrane, which occurs when an excitable cell is triggered (see a related question here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/91/how-do-the-brain-and-nerves-create-electrical-pulses/110#110&quot;&gt;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/91/how-do-the-brain-and-nerves-create-electrical-pulses/110#110&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2015-01-30T09:55:30.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9176" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9173" CreationDate="2015-01-29T12:30:33.483" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will try to answer all of your main and sub questions structurally below:&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;How do neurotransmitters manage to depolarize the inside of the cell?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Do they force the cell to give up pumping out Na ions?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;No, the Na,K-ATPase (the sodium potassium pump) keeps active, also during the action potential (AP).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Do the neurotransmitters themselves contain positively charged ions that the ion pumps are not sensitive to?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;They can, but neurotransmitter charge is irrelevant&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Answer&lt;/strong&gt;: Neurotransmitters bind to their corresponding receptors. An example excitatory neurotransmitter is glutamate (Glu). Glu has many receptors and one of them is the NMDA receptor. The NMDA receptor is coupled to a cation channel that opens when Glu binds (and other conditions pertain). In turn Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and other depolarizing cations can enter the cell through the open channel. Other neurotransmitters and receptor mechanisms exist, but the coupling to a cation channel is a commonly encountered theme.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;When the cell depolarizes, the electrical impulse travels down the axon. When this happens, Na+ and K+ ions rapidly pass through the membrane as the signal fires. [...]&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Why are ions being pumped in and out of the axon in such a way to propagate an action potential?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;During an action potential, the voltage changes are &lt;strong&gt;not the result of ions being pumped in or out of the cell&lt;/strong&gt;. Instead, ions flow along their concentration and charge gradients out or in the cell during an action potential. For example, Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, a key ion in any action potential, flows &lt;strong&gt;passively into the cell during an action potential.&lt;/strong&gt; Passive influx occurs, because Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; is continuously and actively pumped out of the cell into the extracellular fluid by the Na,K-ATPase. Moreover, the inside of the cell is highly negatively charged. Both the &lt;em&gt;concentration gradient&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;charge gradient (i.e., the potential difference)&lt;/em&gt; will cause Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; to surge into the cell once Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; channels open. How then does it move across the axon? The trick is that Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;em&gt;depolarizes&lt;/em&gt; the cell membrane. When for example Glu binds to its NMDA receptor, Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; enters the cell into the dendrite. Then, &lt;em&gt;voltage-gated ion channels&lt;/em&gt; take over. Voltage-gated ion channels open or close depending on the local membrane potential. Most notably, voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) open when the cell membrane depolarizes. Hence, after NMDA receptors are activated in the dendrite, Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; enters. This in turn depolarizes the dendrite and VGSCs open. This causes further depolarization and &lt;em&gt;adjacent&lt;/em&gt; VGSCs open etc. etc. Voltage-gated potassium channels open after the VGSCs and re-polarize the membrane. An overview is provided in the following image from Antranik.org :&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ggmOj.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;action potential&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Why isn't it just a positively charged signal running through the axon, without regard to the outside environment?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Charges only move to an opposite charge. A neuron is not differentially charged from dendrite to axon terminal. Hence another way of action potential transduction is needed. Step-wise opening of VGSCs is a clever trick to use a constant cell membrane potential to generate a directional action potential.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-12T21:32:35.683" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9177" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-29T13:45:49.443" Score="2" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6721446&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6721446&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above study from 1984 at Stanford found that oral administration of baclofen somewhat improved sleep in patients with PLM-associated arousals. The results seem fairly positive, with the finding essentially that although baclofen increased the &lt;em&gt;number&lt;/em&gt; of PLMs, it decreased their amplitude, and decreased the length of the arousals associated with PLMs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question then is why does there seem to be no follow-up research on the treatment of PLMD (i.e. arousals caused by PLMs) with baclofen? I understand that RLS (Restless Leg Syndrome) is accompanied by PLMS in about 80% of RLS cases, and since dopaminergics and anti-convulsants are generally more effective treatment for RLS than are muscle relaxants (like baclofen) the research on RLS and baclofen is not extensive. But in cases of PLM-associated arousals unaccompanied by sensations of restlessness (RLS), why is there no further research on the seemingly promising treatment of baclofen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7574" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-01-29T14:08:33.123" LastActivityDate="2015-01-29T14:08:33.123" Title="Dearth of research on treating Periodic Limb Movement Disorder (PLMD) with Baclofen" Tags="&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9178" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9192" CreationDate="2015-01-29T18:13:43.437" Score="3" ViewCount="282" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a dichotic listening task where participants listen to different (frequency-wise) musical tones through headphones, is cross talk to the contralateral cochlea of each ear through bone conduction a source of noise to be taken into consideration, or is it insignificant? If it is a source of noise, are there any ways to eliminate physically or computationally any such effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6610" LastEditorUserId="6610" LastEditDate="2015-01-29T18:55:07.587" LastActivityDate="2015-02-02T10:24:16.477" Title="Dichotic listening tasks and crosstalk" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9179" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9971" CreationDate="2015-01-29T19:00:03.657" Score="3" ViewCount="212" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has a nice summary of the various models of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_functions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;executive function&lt;/a&gt;, but what is the most comprehensive one? That is, the one that accounts for the most cognitive variations among subjects and can be applied to the most tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-05T13:37:23.600" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T13:37:23.600" Title="What is the most comprehensive model of executive control?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9180" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-29T19:19:06.213" Score="4" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_functions#Assessment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;handy list&lt;/a&gt; of assessments of executive functions. I recognize a few of them (Tower of Hanoi, Wisconsin Card Sorting), however, what is the most modeled task and what reasons do researchers give for focusing on this task?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-01-29T19:19:06.213" Title="Which executive function assessment has the most cognitive models?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9181" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10068" CreationDate="2015-01-29T23:52:19.377" Score="7" ViewCount="1347" Body="&lt;p&gt;I saw a video on how interrogators used manipulation on the victim/criminal which lead to innocent people being arrested and one way of doing that was using false memories in which the person was giving altered facts about what happened to the point where the person really thinks they did the crime. Even people with hsam(highly superior autobiographical memory) were more susceptible to false memories. Is there any way to avoid having false memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3862" LastActivityDate="2018-06-08T09:00:28.030" Title="Is there a way to avoid false memories?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9183" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9190" CreationDate="2015-01-30T09:37:20.733" Score="3" ViewCount="543" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's said that men who are molested as children often become molestors when they get older. Is the same true of women who are raped? Is a female victim of rape more likely to become sexually warped in some way, e.g. initiating incest, pursuing children, dressing &quot;slutty&quot;, protecting someone who molests children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I figure if it's true that male victims of sexual assault often become predators, then it's likely true of female victims of sexual assault as well. The victims become the victimizers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7592" OwnerDisplayName="user8547" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-01-31T04:15:02.350" LastActivityDate="2015-02-01T00:36:17.080" Title="Do female victims of rape have an increased risk of becoming a sex offender?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9184" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4425" CreationDate="2015-01-30T15:23:55.877" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.turkprime.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TurkPrime.com&lt;/a&gt; offers many features for using MTurk through a web interface. You can exclude and include workers, email them, restart survey and more. You can also create an account with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.surveycomet.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;SurveyComet.com&lt;/a&gt; if you do not reside in the US to find workers for surveys that you want to run. You can limit the workers by demographic which I have found to be extremely useful and cost effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I and my colleagues have used both sites for a while and just love them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7587" LastActivityDate="2015-01-30T15:23:55.877" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9186" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2015" CreationDate="2015-01-30T23:35:05.180" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;For anyone still interested in this question, I would refer you to the following article: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gnambs, T. (2013). The elusive general factor of personality: The acquaintance effect. &lt;em&gt;European Journal of Personality, 27&lt;/em&gt;(5), 507-520.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the potential social desirability bias involved, it is important to examine whether the GFP is present when both self-ratings and observer-ratings of the Big Five are acquired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author finds that the GFP (indexed by the correlation between the two higher order factors) gradually diminishes as the length of acquaintance between the informant and the person being rated increases. In other words, we find the GFP when we obtain informant ratings from people who have been acquainted with the person rated for a short time but not from those who have known them for a long time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NziHH.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3077" LastActivityDate="2015-01-30T23:35:05.180" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9187" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-31T05:26:38.007" Score="4" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on a project that uses EEG signals of the brain to identify emotional states. While surveying the literature, I came across several references where &quot;derived features of bispectrum&quot; are used as features for the purpose of classifying motor and emotional signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I have a list of these &quot;derived features&quot; at my disposal, I would like to have some intuition as to which of these features I should use and why consider a bispectrum in the first place. I would highly appreciate it if the physical significance of the bispectrum could be explained in relation to EEG signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is EEG bispectrum?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7589" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-24T19:49:34.163" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T19:49:34.163" Title="What is bispectrum?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9188" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-01-31T06:42:48.423" Score="2" ViewCount="178" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do people with ADHD have reasoning abilities and mathematical abilities just like neurotypical people ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7035" LastEditorUserId="7035" LastEditDate="2015-01-31T17:02:18.757" LastActivityDate="2015-01-31T21:03:48.240" Title="Do people with ADHD have reasoning abilities and mathematical abilities just like normal people?" Tags="&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-02-11T13:20:39.820" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9189" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9188" CreationDate="2015-01-31T16:55:44.013" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alright- neurodiversity vs neurotypical label aside, here is the definition of ADHD&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/diagnosis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/diagnosis.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the best example I could find which demonstrates effect of ADHD on mathematical reasoning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ldq.sagepub.com/content/16/1/6.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ldq.sagepub.com/content/16/1/6.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a comparison between learners who are nonverbal, who have aspergers, and then those who have ADHD&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/87565641.2010.494747#.VM1Cynvwo-g&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/87565641.2010.494747#.VM1Cynvwo-g&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6817" LastEditorUserId="6817" LastEditDate="2015-01-31T21:03:48.240" LastActivityDate="2015-01-31T21:03:48.240" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9190" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9183" CreationDate="2015-01-31T17:14:02.380" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our social constructs play a big role in influencing how we respond. As with most common cognitive mechanisms - confluence of environmental triggers meet a biological predisposition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding belief systems: in many traditions, femininity is guarded due to its relationship to motherhood. Women are thought not to be sexual. Masculinity is sexualized in a different manner, which perpetuates violence against women as well as the association of masculinity to aggression. Women who have been abused may not become aggressors- but instead are re-victimized. The idea that they will protect a perpetrator like a boyfriend or husband is a coping mechanism of sorts. On a cognitive level it is a fear-based response.The response is different for men and women due to evolutionary traits as well as learned behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many people experience sexual trauma and are not warped or broken or damaged, in part because their learned behavior is based on a positive role model who has taught proper coping mechanisms which increase protective factors.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do believe, as a survivor of sexual violence myself, that there is a tendency to want to re-appropriate one's own sexuality and also to engage in a process of externalization through sexual experience and behavior in a way that might be labeled as deviant by others. Sometimes people respond by presenting as less feminine or less masculine as a way to distance oneself from the sexualization of their gender in order to feel safe. Sometimes people may respond by presenting self as hyper-sexual as a way to re-appropriate their own body. Of course - it's contextual. What one person chooses to present at one point and time can easily change as a reflection of the social construct. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an interesting article examining the question of gender and sexual trauma. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://tva.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/01/22/1524838014566721.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Turchik, Hebenstreit, &amp;amp; Judson (2015)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might need an academic login&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This one focuses on the differences between the two genders: &lt;a href=&quot;http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2487639&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cashmore &amp;amp; Shackel (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6817" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2015-02-01T00:36:17.080" LastActivityDate="2015-02-01T00:36:17.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9192" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9178" CreationDate="2015-02-01T07:35:24.353" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Crosstalk needs to be taken into consideration, but with reasonable controls it can be made insignificant. Interaural attenuation can vary between less than 40 dB to over 60 dB depending on frequency, the type of headphone, and how well it is coupled to the head. If you have 40 dB of interaural attenuation and present the sounds at less than 40 dB SL (sensation level) the cross talk will be inaudible. The further below threshold, the better off you are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you need to present the sounds at a level greater than the amount of interaural attenuation, crosstalk will still not matter if the other sound provides sufficient masking or you introduce sufficient masking noise. For dichotic speech tasks, the speech masks the crosstalk. For musical tones, you might need to introduce a masking noise depending on the frequency content of the tones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be easier to simply spatially separate the stimuli by either presenting them over loudspeakers or using head-related transfer functions (HRTFs) and presenting them over headphones. In the original work of &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xge/47/3/191/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Broadbent (1954)&lt;/a&gt; he used a number of different configurations while &lt;a href=&quot;http://scitation.aip.org/content/asa/journal/jasa/25/5/10.1121/1.1907229&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cherry (1953)&lt;/a&gt; only used headphones and presented each stimulus monaurally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2015-02-02T10:24:16.477" LastActivityDate="2015-02-02T10:24:16.477" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9193" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-01T18:00:06.680" Score="5" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;I feel like I may have read or heard a finding that depressed people may get the delusion that they always used to think in such a negative way as has begun since getting depression. Is it so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3577" LastActivityDate="2015-02-03T14:09:39.930" Title="Do depressed people think that they always thought in such a negative way?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9195" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-02T06:06:26.803" Score="2" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've hear both claims&#xA;1) people (in general) talk faster than listeners can process the meaning of the words being said&#xA;2) people can process what's being said faster than a person can talk&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think 2) comes from the fact that sometimes you can predict the end of a sentence before it is spoken. Have there been any studies that verify that people speak faster than can be understood or vice-versa? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastActivityDate="2015-02-02T06:06:26.803" Title="Do people talk faster than they process?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-04-10T16:23:26.207" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9196" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9798" CreationDate="2015-02-02T11:37:29.110" Score="8" ViewCount="399" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came to think of how working out requires a will to &quot;get things done&quot;. Some people are successful in their career while working regularly out at the same time, and some people are procrastinating both exercise and career related actions. To &quot;get things done&quot; often takes some physical effort as well, which may make a difference in body fat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there be an association between overweight and general procrastination/lack of motivation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-20T13:46:55.000" LastActivityDate="2015-04-20T13:46:55.000" Title="Is procrastination associated with overweight?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;&lt;procrastination&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9197" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-02T12:52:42.170" Score="5" ViewCount="212" Body="&lt;p&gt;Google searches have suggested to me that some sort of spaced repetition should work best, keeping in mind &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetting_curve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ebbinghaus's &quot;Forgetting Curve&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. However, it is not clear to me exactly when I should schedule my learning/revision sessions, or the format the learning/revision sessions should take.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are programs such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://apps.ankiweb.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anki&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.memrise.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Memrise&lt;/a&gt; that purport to present revision material at an appropriate spacing, but I don't know how I can assess whether the spacing those programs suggest is truly appropriate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-10T20:19:44.263" LastActivityDate="2018-02-10T20:19:44.263" Title="What's the most effective way to learn and revise foreign language vocabulary?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9198" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9224" CreationDate="2015-02-02T14:41:41.823" Score="6" ViewCount="1597" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I can tell the two terms are used interchangeably.  Do these two separate terms exist for historical reasons, or is there a distinction I'm missing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-02-09T03:27:24.430" LastActivityDate="2015-02-09T03:27:24.430" Title="Is there a difference between visual short term memory and visual working memory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;vstm&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9200" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9210" CreationDate="2015-02-02T21:06:21.260" Score="18" ViewCount="2929" Body="&lt;p&gt;Over 10 times more people die in circulatory diseases than accidents (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2012/nov/06/deaths-mortality-rates-cause-death-2011&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;). Nevertheless people (in general) fear accidents more than circulatory disease.  There are statistically even more unlikely things that people fear, such as lightning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the reason for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing that came to my mind is that these unlikely things are reported more in the media, but there must also be something else behind this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-03-10T04:56:18.273" LastActivityDate="2017-03-10T04:56:18.273" Title="Why do people fear statistically unlikely things?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9202" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9206" CreationDate="2015-02-03T04:16:55.697" Score="4" ViewCount="839" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brainwave - frequency breakdown is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Delta wave – (0.1 – 3 Hz)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theta wave – (4 – 7 Hz)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alpha wave – (8 – 15 Hz)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mu wave – (7.5 – 12.5 Hz)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;SMR wave – (12.5 – 15.5 Hz)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beta wave – (16 – 31 Hz)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gamma wave – (32 – 100 Hz)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just looking at the greek names, we're going: delta, theta, alpha, mu, beta, gamma (in order of ascending Hz).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why don't we just relabel them as: mu(0.1-3Hz), theta, delta, gamma, beta, alpha(32-100Hz)? This seems to make more sense to me because the names are now ordinal, like the greek alphabet. Is there a reason that neuroscientists don't care about the order of the greek alphabet?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-02-03T12:08:15.617" LastActivityDate="2015-02-03T18:23:48.127" Title="Why is the order of brainwaves not labelled &quot;alphabetically&quot;?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9204" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-03T13:29:51.067" Score="5" ViewCount="1927" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know why males prefer blonde women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7416" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-02-05T21:29:56.883" LastActivityDate="2015-02-05T21:29:56.883" Title="Why do males prefer females with blonde hair?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9205" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9193" CreationDate="2015-02-03T14:09:39.930" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not always.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If depression sets in because of repeated failure at a task (i.e. exams) or a sudden life-changing incident, it is possible to perceive the past (before the dark times) as being a lot more flowery and beautiful than it may have been in reality. This has the effect of reinforcing the feeling of having 'fallen' from a happy place in life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This also happens when someone tries to make their way out of depression and uses the 'happy past' as reference to recreate habits and thoughts as they remember, in a bid to feel better again. Whether or not it works is another story.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7098" LastActivityDate="2015-02-03T14:09:39.930" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9206" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9202" CreationDate="2015-02-03T18:23:48.127" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;They are ordered based on when they were discovered/named (as pointed about by Ana's comment). Alpha and beta waves were among the first signals observed in EEG data. From Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Alpha waves were discovered by German neurologist Hans Berger, most famous for his invention of the EEG. Alpha waves were among the first waves documented by Berger, along with beta waves, and he displayed an interest in &quot;alpha blockage&quot;, the process by which alpha waves decrease and beta waves increase upon a subject opening their eyes. This distinction earned the alpha wave the alternate title of &quot;Berger's Wave&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hans Berger documented alpha and beta waves in a series of articles from 1929-1933.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gamma waves took a few more decades to identify, because the higher frequency necessitates faster sampling. The earliest EEG systems were unable to measure oscillations at such fast frequencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-02-03T18:23:48.127" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9207" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-04T09:56:05.650" Score="2" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;Software Development is an intense activity which requires using most of one's cognitive capacity. When programmers develop a software, they usually make an abstract understanding of the task which most of the time the tasks are composed of multi-layered structure --  considering the server-side to the user-interface aspects of the software. The process of making the software continues for weeks or months until the software is done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, does daily software development enhance the cognitive capacity of a person? Let's say compared to a typical office clerk doing paper works most of the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7607" LastEditorUserId="7607" LastEditDate="2015-04-02T16:27:06.687" LastActivityDate="2015-04-02T16:27:06.687" Title="Does daily software development enhance the cognitive capacity of a person?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-04-02T15:58:47.520" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9208" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9204" CreationDate="2015-02-04T10:39:24.740" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ellis (1974) thought that men prefer rotund features in women and that blonde hair creates such a roundish upper body shape because the blonde hair, which is close in color to (a white woman's) skin, would blend with the skin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In his famous book, &lt;em&gt;The naked ape&lt;/em&gt;, Desmond Morris (1967) documented that men prefer adolescent features. In his opinion blonde hair serves as a secondary sexual characteristic, because skin and hair tends to be lighter in infants than in adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One recent study supports this view: Studying Polish men, Sorokowski (2008) found that those men rated blonde women as younger. Since the men also rated younger women as more attractive, Sorokowski concluded that blonde hair may serve as an age cue for men. Consequently, in a second study, Sorokowski found that middle aged women are more likely to die their hair blonde. Younger women already &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; young, so they don't need that cue to appear attractive. Only middle aged blonde women were rated more attractive than their non-blonde same-age peers. Young women of all hair colors appear equally attractive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Youth is associated with fertility and health. Ramachandran (1997) proposes a theory that explains how blonde hair can signal health: blonde hair is usually found in women with light skin, and light skin better allows the detection of skin color changes that are symptoms of illness and infestation with parasites. According to Ramachandran, blonde hair simply signals that the man can more easily check if the woman is healthy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rowell and Servedio (2009) propose that male preferences help avoid competitive pressure from other males. According to this view it does not matter so much that maybe men prefer blonde women &lt;em&gt;on average&lt;/em&gt;. The important finding is that most men fall into groups liking &lt;em&gt;different kinds&lt;/em&gt; of women – differentiated not only by hair color but by complex combinations of traits – and therefore do not compete with each other. (Many men here will probably be able to testify that they found women unattractive that a male friend found attractive. In effect they could remain friends, because they liked different women and did not have to compete with each other.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is lots more. These are just the first hits from a quick search. An interesting article in the Guardian summarizes some more research: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/jun/04/men-blonde-women-attractive&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/jun/04/men-blonde-women-attractive&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ellis, H. (1974). &lt;em&gt;Man and woman: A study of secondary sexual characteristics.&lt;/em&gt; New York: Amo Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Morris, D. (1967). &lt;em&gt;The naked ape.&lt;/em&gt; New York: Dell.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ramachandran, V. S. (1997). Why do gentlemen prefer blondes? &lt;em&gt;Medical hypotheses, 48&lt;/em&gt;(1), 19-20.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rowell, J. T., &amp;amp; Servedio, M. R. (2009). Gentlemen prefer blondes: the evolution of mate preference among strategically allocated males. &lt;em&gt;The American Naturalist, 173&lt;/em&gt;(1), 12-25. Available online at www.jstor.org/discover/10.1086/593356&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sorokowski, P. (2008). Attractiveness of blonde women in evolutionary perspective: Studies with two Polish samples. &lt;em&gt;Perceptual and motor skills, 106&lt;/em&gt;(3), 737-744. Available online at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.106.3.737-744&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.106.3.737-744&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2015-02-05T20:32:24.007" LastActivityDate="2015-02-05T20:32:24.007" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9209" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9200" CreationDate="2015-02-04T22:19:44.407" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are various reasons of why people behave like that but to answer the statement:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... people fear (in general) more accidents than circulatory disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is probably because accidents are generally more violent and vulgar than circulatory diseases. Additionally, diseases in general are most likely to be preventable than accidents. Also, diseases are much likely to be treatable while accidents came with high chances of instant death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is probably &lt;strong&gt;the fear of getting an instant death&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7607" LastActivityDate="2015-02-04T22:19:44.407" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9210" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9200" CreationDate="2015-02-05T01:23:46.310" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a great question.  There isn't a single reason for this phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preparedness_%28learning%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;genetic predisposition&lt;/a&gt; to certain fears.  Though humans are bad at statistics, evolution is quite good at it.  So if there is a benefit to having a fear response to something, whereby it increases the chances of survival to reproduction, then it is more likely to propagate.  The trouble with evolution however, is that it's slow, and depends on survival to reproduction to work, which is not as relevant as it used to be.  So humans are predisposed to fear snakes, heights, and lightning, because this fear increased the chance of survival in our evolutionary past.  A fear of circulatory disease was not an evolutionary advantage at the time, and arguably still isn't, but in any case, evolution has not had sufficient time to catch up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Genetics are not the only cause of fears, as learning also plays an important role.  This was clearly demonstrated by the seminal &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Albert_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Little Albert Experiment&lt;/a&gt; in which a fear of rabbits (very uncommon in practice) was induced in a baby through classical conditioning.  This experiment is no longer ethical to replicate, but it showed that humans can be taught to fear just about anything.  This results in individual differences in fears and phobias that depend on personal experience rather than objective statistical likelihood.  Thus, a fear of something with immediate effects, such as failure or embarrassment, is more likely to develop through learning than a fear of something with long-term effects, such as smoking or junk food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Classical conditioning is also important in understanding the impact of presentation - as mentioned, the way a fear is presented can influence it as well.  Fears that more closely resemble or are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;otherwise associated&lt;/a&gt; with other things we already fear are more likely to take hold than abstract ones that we can't relate to.  So the key to fears such as radiation, asteroid impact, or aliens, really has to do with framing them in a manner that we can understand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The role of learning is evident in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear#Fears_in_culture&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cultural differences&lt;/a&gt; in common fears as well.  As you rightly pointed out, media plays a role in this, but importantly, media emphasizes different fears in different cultures, so it is presumably influenced by what each culture is attuned to.  Additionally, fear is often used in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_to_fear&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;politics and marketing&lt;/a&gt;, so cultural differences may be partially driven by needs and goals of government and corporations for example.  This may be why - at least in developed countries - a fear of terrorism is more likely than a fear of ecological disaster for example.  Similarly, an issue with market-driven news is that it tends to focus on particularly rare events, such as child abductions, shark bites, and plane crashes, making them &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic#Media&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;seem more common&lt;/a&gt; than they are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many other factors, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;memory&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive&lt;/a&gt; biases, influence the likelihood of developing a particular fear, but hopefully this gives you the sense that objective statistical likelihood is not the only factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-03-10T04:52:35.760" LastActivityDate="2017-03-10T04:52:35.760" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9212" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-05T07:58:01.890" Score="3" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our local council are changing the school day to 9:30 - 15:00 for my youngest son, my eldest in a different school starts at 8:20 and finishes at 15:20.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that children are more productive in the morning but do not have any specific research to confirm this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7615" LastActivityDate="2015-02-05T13:36:41.167" Title="Performance of children at school in the morning" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9213" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9212" CreationDate="2015-02-05T13:03:19.283" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;A caveat: &quot;productivity&quot; is not a term used much by cognitive science, so I'll talk about cognition instead.  It's not necessarily the same thing, but it's more of an answered question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And as a general issue: any time a question has &quot;more&quot; in it, the real question is &quot;more than what?&quot;  More productive early in the morning than later in the morning?  More productive in the morning than the afternoon?  More productive in the morning than adults?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is little work comparing children's cognition across the daily cycle; a good review of mostly adult work can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.stfx.ca/jmckenna/P430%20Student%20Docs/History/Term1/Nov.%2010%20papers/CircadianRhythms1.pdf&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; (Chronobiology International (2000), 17(6), 719–732, doi/abs/10.1081/CBI-100102108).  Non-experimentally, there is some research supporting the idea that starting school later in the morning--particularly for adolescents--improves performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://educationnext.org/do-schools-begin-too-early/&quot;&gt;This blog post&lt;/a&gt; details an analysis of test scores from Wake County North Carolina (where start times vary), and shows &quot;delaying school start times by one hour, from roughly 7:30 to 8:30, increases standardized test scores by at least 2 percentile points in math and 1 percentile point in reading. The effect is largest for students with below-average test scores, suggesting that later start times would narrow gaps in student achievement.&quot;  Obviously, there could be major confounds here: we don't know if start times correlate with performance-relevant but unmeasured characteristics--although the author seems to have done a reasonable job of controlling for measured characteristics, and compares students that are similar at similar schools with different start times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/14/opinion/14kalish.html&quot;&gt;This New York Times article&lt;/a&gt; cites several cases where attendance and performance rose after pushing back start times from 7.30 to 8.40, but again, the lack of a controlled comparison means that there's no particular reason to think that generalizations from this case are valid.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are problems with this approach, of course--for starters, there's no way to control for the effect sleep duration or quality, which might be expected to covary with start time, on performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-02-05T13:36:41.167" LastActivityDate="2015-02-05T13:36:41.167" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9214" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-05T13:53:31.937" Score="5" ViewCount="493" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that emotions increase motivation. The stronger feelings, the more motivated we get to do something about it. We know that humans differ a lot in how emotional we are.&#xA;In theory that should imply that less emotional people have less motivation in general.&#xA;Are there any research studies on how much emotions affect our motivation, or how much motivation differs from different people? Or possibly research studies on personality types that are more/less eager to get things done than the average?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For those who need sources to believe that emotions and motivation are linked:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the study &amp;quot;EMOTION AND MOTIVATION IN LEARNING: CURRENT RESEARCH, FUTURE DIRECTIONS, AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(...) Without emotion and motivation there would be no learning. &lt;strong&gt;Emotional&#xA;states are integral parts of the adaptive process of learning, which&#xA;includes attaching value to objects and events&lt;/strong&gt; (both outside and&#xA;inside oneself), based on a set of needs. (...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, &lt;strong&gt;emotion and motivation relate to internal states that are&#xA;relevant in the management of goals&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, motivation has been&#xA;defined as modulating and coordinating influence on the direction,&#xA;vigor, and composition of behavior (Shizgal, 2003). In line with this&#xA;reasoning, &lt;strong&gt;emotion is seen as an evaluating response of an event as&#xA;relevant to a goal; it is positive when the goal is advanced, negative&#xA;when the goal is impeded&lt;/strong&gt; (Oatley, 2003). Thus, it has been argued that&#xA;the key function of emotions in a learning perspective is to decouple&#xA;the individual from the necessity to respond unconditionally (Scherer,&#xA;2001). As will be discussed below, emotions also embody a crucial part&#xA;of the learning process by influencing the associations that are&#xA;formed between stimuli, their combinations and behavioral responses. (...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies also show that the &lt;strong&gt;emotional intensity, measured as arousal, of a stimuli or a situation increases the allocated attention&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g. Armory et al., 2002). (...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evaluative conditioning (EC) illustrates an active research paradigm within this tradition.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;EC combines emotional evaluations and higher order cognitive constructs.&lt;/strong&gt; (...)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lucs.lu.se/LUCS/112/LUCS.112.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.lucs.lu.se/LUCS/112/LUCS.112.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the study &amp;quot;The impact of emotion on perception, attention, memory, and decision-making&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(...) neuropsychological studies have shown that &lt;strong&gt;patients with emotional dysfunctions due to brain lesions can be highly impaired in everyday decision-making&lt;/strong&gt; and social interactions.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated how brain regions previously thought to be purely “emotional” (e.g., amygdala) or “cognitive” (e.g., frontal cortex) closely interact to make complex behaviour possible&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Psychology experiments have illustrated how emotion can change our perception, attention, and memory by focusing them on important aspects of the environment.&lt;/strong&gt; This research has revealed to what extent emotion and cognition are related, or even inseparable. (...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;We define emotion as an event-focused process consisting of (a) specific elicitation mechanisms based on the relevance of a stimulus that (b) shape an emotional response instantaneously across several organismic subsystems, including motivational changes&lt;/strong&gt; (changes in action tendency, such as approach versus withdrawal), physiological changes (e.g., heart rate, skin conductance), changes in motor expression (in face, voice, and body), and changes in subjective feeling [3, 4]. E&lt;strong&gt;motions are elicited as the individual continuously evaluates objects, events and situations with respect to their relevance for his/her needs, goals, values, and general well-being&lt;/strong&gt; (appraisal). The detection of a relevant event elicits an adaptive &lt;strong&gt;emotional response that mobilises resources that allow the individual to cope with the situation&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When faced with a choice, we evaluate the options, weigh the possible consequences and their probabilities, and choose an option, and are confronted with the consequences. &lt;strong&gt;Expected emotions may influence our evaluation of behavioural options&lt;/strong&gt; (for example, I may expect to be very happy once I buy the new luxury car, or I may have a gut feeling that it’s better to avoid a certain car dealer) and thus inform the choice at hand. Once a decision has been taken, t&lt;strong&gt;he immediate consequences will also elicit emotions such as joy, relief, regret or disappointment, which may inform future choices or lead us to modify our current choice&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;strong&gt;recent research has shown that emotion is central to the decision-making process&lt;/strong&gt;, both as an input and an output [43]. Decisions and their consequences result in emotions (such as joy, relief, regret, or disappointment), and &lt;strong&gt;many of our choices are guided by the experience of these emotions or the anticipation of the emotions that may be elicited&lt;/strong&gt; [interestingly, however, we are not very good at predicting which emotions we will feel in the future, see 44].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;According to the somatic marker hypothesis [48], our choices and decisions are informed by bodily reactions that are triggered by emotion&lt;/strong&gt;. These so-called somatic markers are body states that have been elicited by rewards or punishments in the past and been associated with certain situations or choices. When a person is deliberating several behavioural options, the physiological reactions associated to previous choices are re-enacted or anticipated in ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and may inform the current decision, e.g., by helping us reject less advantageous options.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Our review of recent research from the Affective Sciences shows that the duality of reason versus emotion that has been propagated for a long time is not reflected in the architecture of the brain and the functioning of the mind. &lt;strong&gt;Emotion and cognition are closely intertwined, complex human behaviour emerges from dynamic interactions between multiple processes and brain networks. Emotion determines how we perceive our world, how we remember it, and which decisions we take.&lt;/strong&gt; Like any other complex system, emotion may go awry, as illustrated for example by exaggerated attentional bias to threat in anxiety [23] or preferential memory for negative events in depression [56]. However, when functioning normally, emotion should be considered as useful guide, far from being irrational, that helps us navigate our complex environment.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.smw.ch/content/smw-2013-13786/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.smw.ch/content/smw-2013-13786/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T19:02:18.500" Title="Is being less emotional a bad thing for motivation?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9215" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9253" CreationDate="2015-02-05T18:21:29.343" Score="3" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for recommendations for speech synthesis software that can be used to generate audio stimuli. The audio stimuli that I'm trying to generate will be long sequences of isolated syllables. Thus, the best case would be something that can easily read a text file like: pa/da/ba/ki/tu. I realize that programs like TextEdit on OSX can do this, but they don't offer much control over the output. I would like to be able to control the duration of each syllable, the spacing between syllables, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally, the software would be free and have a history of use for generating research-quality stimuli. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also prefer software that can run on an Intel-based Mac, but suggestions for other operating systems are welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-02-07T21:11:25.697" LastActivityDate="2015-02-10T15:24:06.337" Title="What speech synthesis software is suitable for research?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9216" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9140" CreationDate="2015-02-05T18:48:20.413" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of sources might be of use here, but one thing in your question is not clear to me - when you write &quot;envy&quot;, do you mean a kind of resentment towards someone with material possessions that you don't have, or a jealousy in a romantic context? Everything that I would write is about the first meaning, and I have no idea about anything connected with the second. I don't really understand it, or questions number 2 and 3. Whence the data about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, a negative feeling towards someone with a larger lot of things (like food) is quite easily understandable in an evolutionary context - someone with more goods has a larger chance to survive and produce an offspring, thus feeling bad about it motivates us to reduce the difference. As fitness is not absolute, but relative, reducing someone's fitness enlarges ours. More nuanced view would be that it rather motivates us and enhances cognitive abilities, and it is indeed what some have found - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21639650&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a link&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somewhat different story comes from modern behavioral economics. It claims that humans have something that they call social preferences, or &quot;other-regarding preferences&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0691160848&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gintis 2009&lt;/a&gt;). An few examples - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/keith.chen/negot.%20papers/FehrSchmidt_TheoryOfFairness99.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fehr and Schmidt&lt;/a&gt; show that agents have a concern for the welfare of others and income distribution, with equality being preferred. Further studies has shown  that in experimental games, such as Ultimatum Game, Dictator’s Game or Prisoners’ Dilemma,  participants observing the interactions of others were punishing those who did not cooperate or share, although their interest was not involved and punishing itself was costly for them – they punished altruistically (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v415/n6868/abs/415137a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fehr and Gachter 2002&lt;/a&gt;). This also allowed for cooperation to flourish, while if such third-party punishment was not allowed, cooperation broke down. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fehr and Gachter’s data were then explained by postulating an evolutionary mechanism that brought about these patterns of behaviour - specifically group selection, which was deemed possible precisely because of altruistic punishment, in which individuals were acting in the interest of their groups at some cost for themselves. A bit different conclusions were reached by Charness and Rabin (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cheeptalk.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/charness_rabin.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2002&lt;/a&gt;), who claimed that participants were more concerned with increasing social welfare, especially that of the worst-off, rather than with equity, as was in previous models. Later, the Fehr and Gachter model of inequity aversion was challenged and the same data were said to better explained by egalitarian motives, which tend to lead to punishment of the highest earner (&lt;a href=&quot;http://fowler.ucsd.edu/egalitarian_motive_and_altruistic_punishment.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fowler et.al. 2005&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, envy could be interpreted as really an urge to restore fairness. This urge might of course be a mistake, since some inequality could be fair, but for our hunter-gatherer minds it is still a bad thing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some involve envy in their more general theories. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0199791481&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Binmore&lt;/a&gt; has a whole, somewhat complicated, game-theoretical explanation of fairness as an equilibrium-selection device. If you were to buy his theory, it would answer your first question - the purpose of envy in this theory is to maintain stable social system in hunter-gatherer bands, as large inequalities would lead to hierarchy and a possible dissolution of their social contract. Envy construed in such a way is also a criterion of fairness, not just for Binmore, but for quite many modern welfare economists: assignment of goods is deemed fair only if nobody envies the bundle of commodities assigned to someone else (while envying here means not only to compare just material goods, but also what comes with them - few would envy in this way a millionaire with a terminal cancer). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7227" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-02-27T12:44:06.140" LastActivityDate="2015-02-27T12:44:06.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9219" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4859" CreationDate="2015-02-06T02:57:03.727" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Qrrlf.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the beginning, if one's intellect was above the &quot; G1&quot; level, and one believed that the world was not  flat but that the world was round, then clearly this person is INSANE according to the masses, because he has surpassed the fine line at the Genius level. However, for some bizarre reason he is considered to be sane at a later period, after his claims were proven to be correct. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later on, several men who are INSANE according to the masses, men who's intellect was above the &quot; G2&quot; level, claimed that man could create machines that can move at speeds that surpass the speed of sound. However, for some bizarre reason they were considered to be sane at a later period, after this claim became true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later on, several men who are INSANE according to the masses, men who's intellect was above the &quot; G3&quot; level, claimed that man could create machines that could put man on the moon. However, for some bizarre reason they were considered to be sane at a later period, after this claim became true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is today's &quot; G4&quot; level ?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Are those above the current definition of a GENIUS to be classified as being INSANE?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point being made here, is that currently there is no difference being noticed between those whom are well advanced beyond the norm, and those whom are detached from reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7372" LastActivityDate="2015-02-06T02:57:03.727" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9220" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9053" CreationDate="2015-02-06T10:41:39.773" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I long pondered the answer to this question myself.  The short answer is: Cognitive Dissonance*&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&quot;Cognitive Dissonance&quot; is a hypothesized mental process in which two conflicting ideas are resolved through rationalization / attitude change, instead of addressing the underlying source of the conflict that the person may not be consciously aware of.  So here, we see two conflicting ideas - &quot;I am being abused&quot; and &quot;I am not leaving&quot; - resolved through a rationalization - &quot;I love him&quot;, instead of addressing the underlying source of the conflict that the woman is not aware of - eg, &quot;an addiction to the good times in the relationship.&quot;  More detail and references below.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research approaches to answering such a question are limited by ethical concerns, so most data on abusive relationships comes from self-reports, and most studies are conducted after the fact, though a few studies do examine self-reports during such relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reports of &quot;love&quot;, &quot;romantic narrative&quot;, or &quot;emotional attachment&quot; are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23805924&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;common in such interviews&lt;/a&gt;, and often cited as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://jiv.sagepub.com/content/17/3/306.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;primary reason for staying&lt;/a&gt;.  However, like many other reasons for staying, victims often &lt;a href=&quot;http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ431001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;change their mind&lt;/a&gt; (&quot;what was I thinking?&quot;) after break-up and recovery.  This suggests the possibility that emotional attachment may be a rationalization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Real reasons for staying:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The likelihood of remaining in or returning to an abusive relationship is well predicted by other factors, such as economic dependency, social support, cultural factors, and characteristics of the abuse and the abuser.  This further supports the possibility that emotional attachment is a rationalization of an underlying reason that the victim is either unaware of or suppresses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider another factor: In behavioural experiments, an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement#Intermittent_reinforcement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;intermittent reinforcement&lt;/a&gt; schedule is considered the most powerful schedule for addiction.  Abusive relationships typically involve a &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_of_abuse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cycle of abuse&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (ie, intermittent) pattern.  Thus, &quot;addiction&quot; to the &quot;good&quot; periods of an abusive relationship may constitute the real reason for staying in some cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rationalized reason for staying:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8193053&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dutton and Painter (1993)&lt;/a&gt; report that in their sample base, emotional attachment was highly correlated with intermittent abuse.  As is typical of addiction however, victims do not usually recognize the real reason behind it (eg, an intermittent schedule of abuse), and rationalize other reasons instead (eg, emotional attachment).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinesocialinfluence.net/.pubs/DareGuadagnoMuscanell_2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dare, Guadagno, and Muscanell (2013)&lt;/a&gt; review the role of Cognitive Dissonance in abusive relationships:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Women in abusive relationships may experience high levels of&#xA;  dissonance resulting from their negative attitude towards the abuse in&#xA;  the relationship and their inability to leave the relationship. If&#xA;  they feel &quot;trapped&quot; in the relationship, they may be inclined to&#xA;  change their negative attitude pertaining to the relationship or the&#xA;  abuse, whether they know it or not. ... Once the woman commits to an&#xA;  attitude change that results in her adopting positive feelings towards&#xA;  the abusive relationship, she will continue to have those positive&#xA;  emotions due to the human nature of wanting to remain consistent with&#xA;  our thoughts and actions; therefore, reducing dissonance. ...&#xA;  Eventually, her experienced dissonance will be at a minimum because&#xA;  her actions and attitudes have become consistent – she remains in the&#xA;  abusive relationship while developing a progressively more positive&#xA;  outlook on the relationship. This does not mean she thinks abuse is&#xA;  acceptable and wishes to be in a violent relationship, rather she&#xA;  feels most comfortable within the relationship whenever her cognitive&#xA;  dissonance is at a minimum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Victims effectively &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/258189801_The_Normalization_of_Violence_in_Heterosexual_Romantic_Relationships_Women%27s_Narratives_of_Love_and_Violence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;convince themselves&lt;/a&gt; that they &quot;love&quot; their partner as a rationalization of their real reasons for staying in order to reduce their Cognitive Dissonance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*-Note that &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-perception_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Self-Perception Theory&lt;/a&gt; is an alternative to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive Dissonance Theory&lt;/a&gt; that makes essentially the same prediction in this context, so there is no particular reason to prefer one interpretation over the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-05-08T22:04:45.287" LastActivityDate="2015-05-08T22:04:45.287" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9198" CreationDate="2015-02-06T19:57:11.940" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The distinction between these terms is a matter of ongoing empirical research.  They form part of a set of potential taxonomical categorizations of visual memory (VM).  So far &lt;a href=&quot;https://postlab.psych.wisc.edu/symposia/psychonomics-2012/&quot;&gt;proposed sub-parts&lt;/a&gt; of VM include: Iconic (or sensory) memory, short-term (VSTM), fragile short-term (fVSTM), working memory (VWM), and long-term (VLTM) memory.  The distinction between short-term and long-term visual memory is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_memory#Short_term_visual_memory&quot;&gt;generally accepted&lt;/a&gt;, as is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconic_memory&quot;&gt;iconic memory&lt;/a&gt;; the others are still actively debated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the neurological validity of these terms is still controversial, it is not unusual for them to be used interchangeably.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/269931239_Selection_of_multiple_cued_items_is_possible_during_visual_short-term_memory_maintenance&quot;&gt;For example&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We consider VSTM and visual working memory (VWM) as the same set of&#xA;  processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The additional sub-part distinctions are proposed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21236273&quot;&gt;Sligte and Lamme (2011)&lt;/a&gt; (who refer to VSTM as an umbrella term for all the non-long-term memory sub-parts):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Traditionally, VSTM is thought to operate on either a short time-scale&#xA;  with high capacity - iconic memory - or a long time scale with small&#xA;  capacity - visual working memory. Recent research suggests that in&#xA;  addition, an intermediate stage of memory in between iconic memory and&#xA;  visual working memory exists. This intermediate stage has a large&#xA;  capacity and a lifetime of several seconds, but is easily overwritten&#xA;  by new stimulation. We therefore termed it fragile VSTM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-02-06T19:57:11.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9225" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-06T22:49:21.683" Score="3" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I thank all the commenters for the valuable feedback. I'm trying to improve this question (which I had long ago -- omg I'm getting old).&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a way to simply derive the generalization bounds for the classical perceptron model? More specifically, how to derive the maximum number of patterns that a N-large perceptron can store? And in the case of an NxN network of neurons, how to derive the number of patterns (or memories) and their basins of attractions? Are there simple methods, other than the ones invoking replica theory, as it's done in Gardner's works?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More details:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm basically referring to the great work of Elizabeth Gardner in this matter. I find that her work is often overlooked in the field of neuroscience, arguably because it is too difficult to understand its mathematical derivation. Yet, her results are so fundamental that many in the field are aware of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find anywhere a simple explanation of her derivation and the implications of her results, in a terminology that also undergrads could also understand. Of course, I couldn't come up with one myself either. I suppose &quot;Field Theory for Dummies&quot; applied to theoretical neuroscience is what I'm really asking for...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See: &lt;a href=&quot;http://iopscience.iop.org/0305-4470/21/1/030&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gardner, E. &quot;The space of interactions in neural network models.&quot; Journal of physics A: Mathematical and general 21.1 (1988): 257.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7622" LastEditorUserId="7622" LastEditDate="2017-09-22T17:58:59.143" LastActivityDate="2017-09-22T17:58:59.143" Title="How to derive the generalization bounds for the classical perceptron model?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-09-21T14:45:09.337" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9228" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8989" CreationDate="2015-02-07T05:13:11.653" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The thing is, being in deep thought about something is a physical action on a far smaller scale. If all your neuronal and glial cells died you wouldn't be thinking. These very cells are physical, and thought is caused by physical changes within these cells (ionic movement, neurotransmitter release, etc. ) Without these physical changes on the micro scale of the brain your thoughts would cease to exist, and therefor no tear as a consequence of the thoughts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7217" LastActivityDate="2015-02-07T05:13:11.653" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9229" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-07T10:33:26.553" Score="4" ViewCount="3481" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that the meaning of dreams is a controversial topic and I do not think that they have a specific meaning, although I am certain, by experience, that dreams are deeply connected with what happens to us in everyday life. That is, most dreams are personal and thus an objective study of dreams would seem a bit of a paradox to me. In any case, I might already have shown my ignorance in the cognitive sciences by giving my misinformed opinion, but I am writing here to ask you how it is possible to prove a relatively simple mathematical theorem in a dream, which happened to me this early morning shortly before waking up. Proving a mathematical theorem is extremely complex, on a cognitive base, how is it possible to prove it while sleeping? My idea was that I registered the theorem and I had it embedded somewhere in my memory and this night it just bubbled up, with no rational implication. What do &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; think?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7624" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T09:41:29.567" Title="The mathematics of dreams, or better, the dreaming of mathematics" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9230" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-07T11:57:44.993" Score="4" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;May I know causal dependence of the blood flow in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How it is determined by the brain that particular brain region requires additional blood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4054" LastEditorUserId="4054" LastEditDate="2015-02-07T12:03:25.607" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T12:25:38.337" Title="Activity in a brain region and additional blood requirement: What is the causal relation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9231" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9229" CreationDate="2015-02-07T15:08:58.063" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Did you remember the mathematical proof after you woke up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You did not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We often dream that we achieve something without actually achieving it. For example, we often dream that we meet a specific person, but in out dream that person does not have any specific characteristics but rather a blurry face and only a general shape. We just attach the label of a certain name (&quot;Bob&quot;) or characteristic (&quot;beautiful&quot;) to that general shape and thus feel that we have dreamed of Bob or a beautiful stranger. This makes it possible for us to dream of persons that are both our mother and our daughter at the same time, by simply attaching multiple labels to the same indistinct shape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, we see a blurry page with vague but indiscernible mathematical symbols on it and the label &quot;mathematical proof&quot;, so we feel that we had the proof in our dreams, while in fact there was nothing but a blurry page with the feeling of &quot;solution&quot; attached to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does this work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We know what a mathematical proof feels like. We know what meeting Bob feels like. And in a dream we can attach these feelings to anything. For example, a female shape might somehow feel like Bob to us; or dreaming of a field of flowers might feel like the solution to a mathematical problem to us. The attachment of the lable to this image might mean something (e.g. you think that Bob's wife is ruling him, or mathematical solutions have the same beauty to you as flowers), but they certainly don't mean that whatever the label is attached to is what the label says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Think of a dream of flying. You feel as if you fly, because you remember or extrapolate that feeling from similar feelings (falling, being carried as a child, riding a car, etc.), but you certainly don't fly, because of course you are lying in bed. You just attach the feeling to some imagery (that you remember from tv) and then the label that you &quot;fly&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You did.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your conscious mind is very limited and weak, compared to your unconscious mind. Many problems are so complex that you cannot solve them consciously. In the case of difficult decisions, it usually helps to &quot;sleep over them&quot;. Einstein famously found the solution to a theoretical problem while he slept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you sleep, what you do is you let the problem be, consciously. You stop considering it. And by doing that, you allow your unconscious to work it out (if it can). You don't have to sleep to do that. Often it is enought to stop thinking about the problem once you have accumulated all the fact, and allow your mind to wander. Mediation helps, daydreaming helps, whatever you can do to let the problem go and not focus on something else will allow your unconscious to solve the problem for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of decisions, this is called intuition. You just know, but you cannot explain.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2015-02-08T09:41:29.567" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T09:41:29.567" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9232" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9215" CreationDate="2015-02-07T20:53:54.887" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Praat&lt;/a&gt; is free and has been cited in many publications.  It's the &lt;em&gt;de facto&lt;/em&gt; standard for creating phonetic stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="2926" LastEditDate="2015-02-10T15:24:06.337" LastActivityDate="2015-02-10T15:24:06.337" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9230" CreationDate="2015-02-07T21:27:16.540" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The ion gradient that neurons use to transmit electrical signals is not free and costs energy to maintain, therefore needs oxygen and blood. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A brain region is considered &quot;Active&quot; if the neurons in said region are firing (or at least some subset of them). If a neuron fires then it releases chemicals known as neurotransmitters that stimulate (or suppress) activity in the down stream neuron it is connected to. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cool thing is that the entire process of creating and sending neurotransmitters produces Nitric Oxide (NO) and in fact released as co-transmitters along with the main neurotransmitter. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nitric Oxide is a small gas and as such diffuses through the brain relatively fast and causes the nearby blood vessels to relax( know as vasodilatation). This causes the blood cells to open and increase blood flow to the brain region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However their are a few caveats as the relationship is not perfect one to one. What I mean by this is a group of neurons could be releasing a inhibitory neurotransmitter (and thus Nitric Oxide) onto a brain region and thus producing less activation, but still increases blood flow. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s1/chapter14.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt; on the internet if your interested in more. Sections 14.8 and 14.13 are of particular interest for NO and vasodilation in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7610" LastEditorUserId="7610" LastEditDate="2015-02-08T01:19:13.873" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T01:19:13.873" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9234" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8973" CreationDate="2015-02-07T22:12:49.340" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rebecca_Jones13/publication/233252268_Parentification_and_the_Impostor_Phenomenon_An_Empirical_Investigation/links/02e7e52137c0d7881f000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Castro, Jones, and Mirsalimi (2004)&lt;/a&gt; examine the relation between parentification and impostor syndrome, but they also give a good overview of other literature on the subject. They enumerate a number of traits (low global self-esteem, introversion, neuroticism, perfectionism, and attributing success to external factors) and psychological problems (anxiety, depression, psychological distress, and generally poor mental health) that are associated with impostor syndrome, but when you refer to &quot;causes&quot;, I assume you are most interested in childhood issues associated with the syndrome.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned, parentification (the child taking on emotional or other responsibilities that normally rest on the parent) has been researched as a risk factor for developing impostor syndrome; they were found found to be moderately correlated. In addition to this, &lt;a href=&quot;http://jamiesmithportfolio.com/EDTE800/wp-content/Imposter%20Syndrome/King.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;King &amp;amp; Cooley (1995)&lt;/a&gt; found that a family culture that places a high value on achievement is associated with impostor syndrome. Sonnak and Towell (2001) found that having overprotective and/or controlling parents, and having low self esteem are the two best predictors for impostor syndrome, accounting for half the variation in feelings of being an impostor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Castro, D. M., Jones, R. A., Mirsalimi, H. (2004). Parentification and the Impostor Phenomenon: An Empirical Investigation. &lt;em&gt;The American Journal of Family Therapy, 32&lt;/em&gt;, 205-216.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;King, J. E., Cooley, E. L. (1995). Achievement Orientation and the Impostor Phenomenon among College Students. &lt;em&gt;Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20&lt;/em&gt;(3), 304-312.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sonnak, C., Towell, T. (2001). The impostor phenomenon in British university students: Relationships between self-esteem, mental health, parental rearing style and socioeconomic status. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences, 31&lt;/em&gt;(6), 863-874.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7626" LastEditorUserId="7626" LastEditDate="2015-02-08T22:33:59.033" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T22:33:59.033" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9235" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8396" CreationDate="2015-02-08T01:11:29.913" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is generally not possible to measure where a single calcium ion is in three dimensional space. However, it is possible to measure &lt;em&gt;relative&lt;/em&gt; calcium ion concentration across a population of neurons using Two-Photon-Microscopy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I stress relative because it does not give you an exact concentration of Calcium in terms of micro-molar concentration. However it is good enough to extract relative spike times of a individual neurons within the population. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way &quot;Calcium Imaging&quot; works is the experimenter loads a neuron or population of neurons with a fluorescing dye that &quot;lights up&quot;  in the presence of calcium. There are many such chemicals which are listed in this article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627312001729&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. The one I personally see being used in articles a lot is FURA-2. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for frequency it depends on the experiment typically range from 60Hz to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627312001729&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;490 Hz&lt;/a&gt;.Be aware however the faster the sample rate is the more noise in the measurements. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do note that these methods are highly invasive, and require brain slices &lt;em&gt;in vitro&lt;/em&gt; or opening the skull &lt;em&gt;in vivo&lt;/em&gt;. As far as I am aware no study has been done on live humans. Typically rats are used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7610" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T01:11:29.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9236" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-08T03:20:38.550" Score="3" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading &lt;em&gt;Dreams&lt;/em&gt; by Carl Jung, and I couldn't understand a specific paragraph. Maybe I'm missing something so obvious that he didn't bother to write. It is the entry numbered 542:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SouD6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What did the patient find out about his fiancee, i.e. what suspicion was &quot;well founded&quot; ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Edit&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the plain text :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On the basis of these conclusions and for the purpose of ascertaining&#xA;  the meaning of the dream. I have developed a procedure which I call&#xA;  “taking up the context.” This consists in making sure that every shade&#xA;  of meaning which each salient feature of the dream has for the dreamer&#xA;  is determined by the associations of the dreamer himself. I therefore&#xA;  proceed in the same way as I would in deciphering a difficult text.&#xA;  This method does not always produce an immediately understandable&#xA;  result; often the only thing that emerges, at first, is a hint that&#xA;  looks significant. To give an example: I was working once with a young&#xA;  man who mentioned in his anamnesis that he was happily engaged, and to&#xA;  a girl of &quot;good&quot; family. In his dreams she frequently appeared in very&#xA;  unflattering guise. The context showed that the dreamer’s unconscious&#xA;  connected the figure of his bride with all kinds of scandalous stories&#xA;  from quite another source-which was incomprehensible to him and&#xA;  naturally also to me. But, from the constant repetition of such&#xA;  combinations, I had to conclude that, despite his conscious&#xA;  resistance, there existed in him an unconscious tendency to show his&#xA;  bride in this ambiguous light. He told me that if such a thing were&#xA;  true it would be a catastrophe. His acute neurosis had set in a short&#xA;  time after his engagement. Although it was something he could not bear&#xA;  to think about, this suspicion of his bride seemed to me a point of&#xA;  such capital importance that I advised him to instigate some&#xA;  inquiries. These showed the suspicion to be well founded. and the&#xA;  shock of the unpleasant discovery did not kill the patient but, on the&#xA;  contrary, cured him of his neurosis and also of his bride. Thus,&#xA;  although the taking up of the context resulted in an “unthinkable&quot;&#xA;  meaning and hence in an apparently nonsensical interpretation. it&#xA;  proved correct in the light of facts which were subsequently&#xA;  disclosed. This case is of exemplary simplicity, and it is superfluous&#xA;  to point out that only rarely do dreams have so simple a solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7627" LastEditorUserId="7627" LastEditDate="2015-10-12T19:58:46.263" LastActivityDate="2015-10-12T19:58:46.263" Title="What did Jung's patient find out?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9237" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-08T04:24:05.917" Score="4" ViewCount="439" Body="&lt;p&gt;Capgras Syndrome is a rare disorder in which a person believes his or her loved ones have been replaced by identical-looking impostors (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capgras_delusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capgras_delusion&lt;/a&gt;). What causes this condition? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T04:24:05.917" Title="What causes Capgras (&quot;imposter&quot;) Syndrome?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9238" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9237" CreationDate="2015-02-08T04:24:05.917" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been many proposed explanations for the condition. The explanation which seems to have gained traction states that an individual with Capgras syndrome experiences a &quot;disconnect&quot; between the part of the brain that recognizes faces and the part of the brain that processes emotion. Thus, the person may see someone who looks like his brother, but does not experience the feelings of familiarity, love, etc. associated with the brother (Ramachandran, 1998). In an effort to make sense of this, the person constructs a delusion that the brother has been replaced by a duplicate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been studies which have found Capgras patients have reduced physiological responses associated with emotional reactions when looking at all faces, even for people they do not believe to be duplicants (Ellis, Young, Quayle, &amp;amp; De Pauw, 1997); the authors proposed that the delusion is only constructed for loved ones because of the intensity of the emotional reaction expected during those encounters. Interestingly, individuals with Capgras syndrome often retain appropriate emotional responses to hearing the voice of the loved one (Ellis et al., 1997; Ramachandran, 1998) and can experience a range of emotions, indicating the issues is specific to visual-emotional processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason for this proposed disconnect is not clear (Brighetti, Bonifacci, Borlimi, &amp;amp; Ottaviani, 2007; Edelstyn &amp;amp; Oyebode, 1999). Some have suggested it is a disconnected between &quot;processing streams&quot; in the brain (Ellis &amp;amp; Lewis, 2001). This theory proposes that normal face processing occurs when information from the visual cortex is filtered through two different paths in the brain. One path allows for recognition of faces, while the other path allows for recognition of emotional responses. When the input from both paths is accurate, the person correctly identifies the person they see and has the appropriate reaction to that person. If the emotional path is damaged, the person does not experience the expected emotion and so attributes this reaction to the person being replaced. (This model also proposes that if the emotional component is intact but the &quot;face recognition component&quot; is damaged, the person will experience prosopagnosia, also called &quot;face blindness.&quot;) Ellis &amp;amp; Lewis (2001) provide a nice overview of the research that led to this model. A slightly different model proposes a disconnect between the visual areas in the temporal lobes of the brain and how emotion is processed in the amygdala, but does not propose a two-path approach (Ramachandran, 1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While most studies focus on a unidirectional explanation for the delusion (e.g., the neurological issue leads the person to create the delusion as an explanation), Young (2008) proposed that the two processes actually interact with a feedback loop. In this model, first the person doesn't experience the expected emotion and constructs the delusion to cope; however, their strong belief feeds back to their perceptual experience so they actually begin to see the person as an impostor. That perception then feeds back into the delusion, strengthening it. Young argues this is why the delusion is so difficult to challenge (2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;•   Brighetti, G., Bonifacci, P., Borlimi, R., &amp;amp; Ottaviani, C. (2007). “Far from the heart far from the eye”: evidence from the Capgras delusion. &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 12&lt;/em&gt;(3), 189-197.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;•   Edelstyn, N. M. J., &amp;amp; Oyebode, F. (1999). A review of the phenomenology and cognitive neuropsychological origins of the Capgras syndrome. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, (14)&lt;/em&gt;, 48-59.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;•   Ellis, H. D., &amp;amp; Lewis, M. B. (2001). &lt;em&gt;Capgras delusion: a window on face recognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5&lt;/em&gt;(4), 149-156.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;•   Ellis, H. D., Young, A. W., Quayle, A. H., &amp;amp; De Pauw, K. W. (1997). Reduced autonomic responses to faces in Capgras delusion. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 264&lt;/em&gt;(1384), 1085-1092.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;•   Ramachandran, V. S. (1998). Consciousness and body image: lessons from phantom limbs, Capgras syndrome and pain asymbolia. &lt;em&gt;Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 353&lt;/em&gt;(1377), 1851-1859.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;•   Young, G. (2008). Capgras delusion: an interactionist model. &lt;em&gt;Consciousness and Cognition, 17&lt;/em&gt;(3), 863-876.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additional Reading&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;•   Young, G. (2007). Clarifying&quot; familiarity&quot;: Examining differences in the phenomenal experiences of patients suffering from prosopagnosia and capgras delusion. &lt;em&gt;Philosophy, Psychiatry, &amp;amp; Psychology, 14&lt;/em&gt;(1), 29-37.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;•   Young, A. W., Leafhead, K. M., &amp;amp; Szulecka, T. K. (1994). The&#xA;Capgras and Cotard delusions. &lt;em&gt;Psychopathology, 27&lt;/em&gt;(3-5), 226-231.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T04:24:05.917" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9239" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9257" CreationDate="2015-02-08T05:05:10.870" Score="2" ViewCount="626" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are all psychological problems only biochemical in nature or do some 'mental' components ( that is some form of conceptual 'conditioning' caused directly or indirectly or 'subconsciously' by the person involved), does this effect the development of an 'abnormal' behavioral pattern. If the 'mind-brain' is really just a 'biochemical' behavioral algorithm management mechanism then this would imply all 'mental' disorders are just biochemical mismanagement problems. So are all psychological problems only biochemical problems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7340" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-02-10T02:38:36.687" LastActivityDate="2015-02-10T02:38:36.687" Title="Are all psychological problems only biochemical in nature?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9240" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9236" CreationDate="2015-02-08T09:34:18.937" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Jung does not tell us what his patient found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He circumscribes the woman as appearing &quot;in very unflattering guise&quot; and &quot;connected [...] with all kinds of scandalous stories&quot;. What kind of unfavourable scandal she was finally discovered to be involved in, Jung does not disclose. We can imagine anything from premarital sex to secretly working as a prostitute. What Jung's patient at the time of Jung's writing might have considered &quot;scandalous&quot; could well be seen as completely innocent and commonplace nowadays (e.g. premarital sex). Times change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the important aspect of this section is not what the woman did, but that the patient unconsciously had come to an insight that his conscious mind had not yet made, and that his unconscious informed him of this insight in his dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T09:34:18.937" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9243" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-08T10:23:59.887" Score="3" ViewCount="352" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the smallest neurons ever measured? I'm happy with any superlatives, such as the thinnest axons or dendrites, smallest somata etc. Thank you :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6489" LastActivityDate="2015-03-11T23:29:34.303" Title="What are the smallest neurons ever identified?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-04-10T16:22:36.107" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9244" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9230" CreationDate="2015-02-08T12:25:38.337" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The haemodynamic response, through which neurons are supplied with oxygen, occurs as a result of incoming input and local processing in a brain region (Logothetis et al., 2001). Thus, the causal link is that (incoming or originating, but not outgoing) acticity in an area increases the oxygen requirements for that area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words: local changes in oxygen consumption drive blood supply.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Logothetis, N. K., Pauls, J., Augath, M., Trinath, T., &amp;amp; Oeltermann, A. (2001). Neurophysiological investigation of the basis of the fMRI signal. &lt;em&gt;Nature, 412,&lt;/em&gt; 150-157. doi: 10.1038/35084005&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v412/n6843/abs/412150a0.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v412/n6843/abs/412150a0.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T12:25:38.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9245" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9198" CreationDate="2015-02-08T22:31:00.997" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Working memory is a term introduced &lt;a href=&quot;https://archive.org/details/plansstructureof00mill&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;in 1960&lt;/a&gt; in the context of cognitive planning. It is in one sense a short-term memory, a temporary storage for short-lived information. The distinction lies in &quot;working&quot;, which implies that the contents in memory are being worked upon. (A physicist would define &lt;em&gt;work&lt;/em&gt; as the act of a force that leads to displacement.) Thus, when we design experiments to measure working memory performance an additional requirement is that the memory is updated. For example, the participant has to keep an item in memory, discard it, and replace it with a different item. The participants often have to evaluate when to update their working memory contents, depending on the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maintenance and recall of visual stimuli is implied in both terms. However, &quot;working&quot; memory further implies that the item or items being maintained change over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the case in human cognitive neuroscience. However, in the animal literature &quot;working memory&quot; can mean something else entirely. In the end, it is probably more important for memory researchers to ask whether these are different concepts than for researchers in visual perception and psychophysics, so I would avoid drawing conclusions based on the view of the visual research community alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2015-02-08T22:31:00.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9246" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-09T05:56:39.107" Score="4" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand, the loss of dopaminergic neurons should hinder movement in the contralateral side of the body, resulting in contralateral rotations when the animal tries to move forward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7630" LastActivityDate="2015-02-11T17:35:38.057" Title="Why does the unilateral 6-OHDA lesion Parkinson's model cause ipsilateral rotations?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9248" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-09T07:02:59.997" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a doubt reg. sleep deprivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did not sleep for past 24 hours(Because I did not feel sleepy),but slept the next day for full 8 hours. I do not feel the difference So my questions are,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Should I compensate this 8 hours(which I did not sleep)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Will this damage my brain(If it happens once) ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7035" LastActivityDate="2015-02-09T07:02:59.997" Title="Sleep deprivation effect on brain" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-02-09T08:24:05.703" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9249" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-09T09:40:37.307" Score="1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found these methods mentioned in bioengineering and other papers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fractal Dimension Measure, Probability Density Function of the Zero-crossing Intervals, Approximate Entropy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I think every of that method has multiple variants and I have no idea if that methods really work, and if they work with artefacts in EEG or not (sometimes it is not clear from papers proposing these methods).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some papers (with impact) are mentioned the specificity and sensitivity of some of these methods, but it is validated just on small amount of patient (10-20), is it relevant validation in this case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you please answer me:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what is the good methods? (either immune to artefacts or not)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what is the specificity and sensitivity of these methods?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what other papers are relevant to my questions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: What I have seen so far:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]   HENDERSON, G. - IFEACHOR, E. - HUDSON, N. - GOH, C. - OUTRAM, N. - WIMALARATNA, S. - PERCIO, C. DEL - VECCHIO, F.: Development and assessment of methods for detecting dementia using the human electroencephalogram. 2006. Vol. 53, no. 8, s. 1557–1568. [cit. 2015-01-20]. . .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2]   JEONG, Jaeseung: EEG dynamics in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. 2004. Vol. 115, no. 7, s. 1490–1505. [cit. 2015-01-20]. . .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3]   ABÁSOLO, Daniel - HORNERO, Roberto - ESPINO, Pedro - POZA, Jesús - SÁNCHEZ, Clara I. - ROSA, Ramón DE LA: Analysis of regularity in the EEG background activity of Alzheimer’s disease patients with Approximate Entropy. 2005. Vol. 116, no. 8, s. 1826–1834. [cit. 2015-01-20]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] F. Letemendia and G. Pampiglione, “CLINICAL AND ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS IN ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE,” J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 167–172, Aug. 1958.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[5] E. B. Gordon and M. Sim, “The E.E.G. in presenile dementia.,” J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 285–291, Jun. 1967.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[6] Y. a. L. Pijnenburg, Y. v d Made, A. M. van Cappellen van Walsum, D. L. Knol, P. Scheltens, and C. J. Stam, “EEG synchronization likelihood in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease during a working memory task,” Clin. Neurophysiol. Off. J. Int. Fed. Clin. Neurophysiol., vol. 115, no. 6, pp. 1332–1339, Jun. 2004.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[7] R. P. Brenner, C. F. Reynolds, and R. F. Ulrich, “Diagnostic efficacy of computerized spectral versus visual EEG analysis in elderly normal, demented and depressed subjects,” Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., vol. 69, no. 2, pp. 110–117, Feb. 1988.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[8] D. W. Liddell, “Investigations of E.E.G. findings in presenile dementia,” J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 173–176, Aug. 1958.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6988" LastEditorUserId="6988" LastEditDate="2015-02-09T13:44:45.667" LastActivityDate="2015-02-09T13:44:45.667" Title="Accuracy of methods for detection of dementia in EEG" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-08-06T09:06:07.160" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9250" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9261" CreationDate="2015-02-09T17:08:33.753" Score="2" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;When most people view their email inboxes, they'll see several different types of messages; for example, emails which have been auto-generated by services we use, communications with real humans which are time sensitive, communications which aren't time sensitive, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which parts of the brain are used when viewing, identifying, and categorizing these messages? Does this activity fall into a specific category of mental activity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3751" LastEditorUserId="3751" LastEditDate="2015-02-09T18:08:08.443" LastActivityDate="2015-02-10T20:22:36.407" Title="Which parts of the brain are used when identifying and sorting email messages?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9252" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-09T19:33:14.073" Score="4" ViewCount="197" Body="&lt;p&gt;While it is agreed that neurotransmitters aren't the primary &quot;cause&quot; of depression, what other factors are a part of this mental illness that focus on the neurobiological aspects of it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7634" LastActivityDate="2015-04-12T05:38:34.490" Title="What are the neurobiological factors related to depression?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9215" CreationDate="2015-02-09T20:15:24.840" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are looking for &lt;a href=&quot;http://tcts.fpms.ac.be/synthesis/mbrola.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mbrola&lt;/a&gt;! It's an open-source, text-based diphone synthesizer. While it doesn't allow you to control subtle information like formant frequency, it's perfect for controlling pitch and duration. The one caveat is that I have yet to get it to work on an Intel-based Mac, but that is primarily because the Windows GUI works so well that I could never be bothered to try to get the OS X version working.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each line is a sound, composed of four or more text commands separated by blank spaces. The first part is the segment, composed in &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-SAMPA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;X-SAMPA&quot;&gt;X-SAMPA&lt;/a&gt;. The second element is the duration of the segment. In the above example, all the consonants are 100 ms long, and all the vowels are 200 ms. The fourth element is the pitch in Hertz. The third element is the percentage of the duration at which this pitch is supposed to start. An Mbrola file for what you want would look like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; _ 100 10 200&#xA; p 100 10 200&#xA; A 200 10 200 99 160&#xA; _ 100 10 200&#xA; d 100 10 200&#xA; A 200 10 200 99 160&#xA; _ 100 10 200&#xA; b 100 10 200&#xA; A 200 10 200 99 160&#xA; _ 100 10 200&#xA; k 100 10 200&#xA; i 200 10 200 99 160&#xA; _ 100 10 200&#xA; t 100 10 200&#xA; u 200 10 200 99 160&#xA; _ 100 10 200&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The underscore is a silence, and we set the baseline pitch to 200 Hz. Each syllable starts at 200 Hz. At 10% of vowel duration (20ms), the pitch is 200Hz, then this is linearly interpolated down to 160 Hz at 99% of the duration, giving it a nice falling contour. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6556" LastActivityDate="2015-02-09T20:15:24.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9254" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-09T23:10:53.130" Score="16" ViewCount="3397" Body="&lt;p&gt;Memory is not just static snapshots or video on a harddrive, but an active process. As such, it is possible to construct &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;false memories&lt;/a&gt; (Brainerd &amp;amp; Reyna, 2005). Some of these false memories can be very traumatic (Loftus, 1996).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of research of false memories and PTSD, but most of it is concerned around the accidental implantation of false memories during therapy (for example, see discussion in Hyman et al., 1995), or asking if PTSD-patients are more prone to forming false memories (for example, Jelinek et al., 2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any case studies of patients who did not initially have PTSD (and were neuro-typical or 'healthy' in other regards, too) nor experienced any events usually associated with PTSD, but developed PTSD based on a false memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brainerd, C.J., &amp;amp; Reyna, V.F. (2005). The science of false memory. &lt;em&gt;Oxford University Press&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hyman, I. E., Husband, T. H., &amp;amp; Billings, F. J. (1995). False memories of childhood experiences. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 9(3), 181-197.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jelinek, L., Hottenrott, B., Randjbar, S., Peters, M. J., &amp;amp; Moritz, S. (2009). Visual false memories in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). &lt;em&gt;Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 40(2): 374-383.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Loftus, E. (1996). The myth of repressed memory: False memories and allegations of sexual abuse. Macmillan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-05-11T22:40:35.410" Title="PTSD based on false memories" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9255" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-10T00:00:54.393" Score="8" ViewCount="525" Body="&lt;p&gt;I presume that deafness is the inability of hearing any sounds. And I presume that it may also be possible to be less able to decode sounds. In other words, an inability to translate or understand the spoken word into a meaningful message. The inability to understand speech happens a lot to me when people tell me one message and I &lt;em&gt;decode&lt;/em&gt; it wrongly, understanding a completely different message. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a discrepancy between &lt;em&gt;hearing&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;understanding&lt;/em&gt; sound?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-12T13:35:14.397" LastActivityDate="2015-08-12T13:36:05.257" Title="Is there a difference between hearing and decoding the sound?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9257" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9239" CreationDate="2015-02-10T02:38:11.920" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;At some level, it's true that psychology reduces to biology and chemistry. If it didn't, then the widely-accepted view of physicialism/materialism would be wrong. But just because psychology can (in theory) be reduced to biochemistry, reductionism may not be the most productive way to approach the problem, for a couple of reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The causes of psychological phenomena are likely to require such complex interactions at the level of biochemistry, that by the time you get around to explaining these interactions you're basically back at the level of describing the problem in terms of psychological constructs. Imagine trying to describe something like earthquakes using only concepts from quantum physics. It's theoretically possible, but not productive.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Psychological phenomena may have multiple ways of being instantiated. This is called multiple realizability. The key insight here is that two people may have thought processes that are very similar at a psychological level, but might be instantiated in different ways at a neural level. In such a case, the most productive way to describe the phenomena would probably be at the psychological level, since this is where the commonalities exist. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-02-10T02:38:11.920" CommentCount="18" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9259" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9255" CreationDate="2015-02-10T15:12:50.630" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is well documented that people are able to selectively attend to different speakers. The ability to tune-in to a particular speaker and filter out others was dubbed the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocktail_party_effect&quot;&gt;cocktail party effect&lt;/a&gt;, since it is the kind of skill that is required in when trying to have a conversation with another person in a crowded party.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common way of studying this phenomenon in a laboratory setting is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotic_listening_test&quot;&gt;dichotic listening task&lt;/a&gt;. The subject is presented with two auditory stimuli simultaneously, and must respond in some way (such as repeating what was heard) to only one of the stimuli. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, people are good at filtering out a particular auditory stimulus, there is some evidence that filtered out information is still being processed. When people hear taboo words in the unattended stimulus, they tend to notice &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0021-843X.88.4.346&quot;&gt;(Straube &amp;amp; Germer, 1979)&lt;/a&gt;. The same applies for hearing your own name &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F17470215908416289&quot;&gt;(Moray, 1959)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-02-10T15:12:50.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9261" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9250" CreationDate="2015-02-10T20:22:36.407" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The insular cortex seems to play a role in sorting based on salience - how important something is to us (Uddin, 2015). In addition, the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), commonly associated with error detection, is relevant. Some parts of the insular cortex have also been linked to a sense of self, so this seems reasonable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mental activities involved include: detection (What?), attention (Where?), categorical learning (How?), and planning (Which - when?). There are thousands of studies on visual search, visual attention, stimulus detection, salience processing, and categorical learning. Categorical learning implies that one can improve in the process of categorization, but attention is a prerequisite for learning to occur, so multiple brain areas are involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Uddin, L. Q. (2015). Salience processing and insular cortical function and dysfunction. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16, 55–61. doi:10.1038/nrn3857&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v16/n1/abs/nrn3857.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v16/n1/abs/nrn3857.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2015-02-10T20:22:36.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9263" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9252" CreationDate="2015-02-11T04:27:23.147" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can look into the research being done with ketamine as an amazingly fast antidepressant, even for those with severe treatment resistant depression. Other than that, they now think decreased neurogenesis and synaptogenesis are the more direct and important links to depression. There is also some early research into the links between depression and the immune system, as well as people's microbiomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7643" LastActivityDate="2015-02-11T04:27:23.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9265" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9200" CreationDate="2015-02-11T08:56:57.220" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is because human beings assess the probabilty of an event in a roughly proportional dependence of the emotions its imagination triggers or the emotion its experience triggered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read of a study - sorry can't find the source but anyway it serves as a good illustration of my point - that people when asked will attach a higher probabilty to the event of a plane crash caused by terrorists than to a plane crash in general without specifying why. The first event will cause vivid pictures to pop into your mind, the latter is comparatively abstract.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do people tend to think that they systematically always arrive at the bus stop just when the bus leaves? (Or similar misconceptions of the kind &quot;always when &lt;strong&gt;I&lt;/strong&gt; ...&quot; or &quot;never when &lt;strong&gt;I&lt;/strong&gt; ...&quot;) It's b/c when you get the bus that is normal and won't trigger much emotion. If you don't get the bus it will trigger negative feelings. Those feelings get associated with the event of missing the bus and make it seem more likely - in terms of neural activity, it is stronger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Same goes of course for accidents vs some boring illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4319" LastEditorUserId="4319" LastEditDate="2015-02-11T10:18:15.903" LastActivityDate="2015-02-11T10:18:15.903" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9266" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3175" CreationDate="2015-02-11T10:36:56.900" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The key method to induce lucid dreams (and I speak of personal experience here) is to train yourself to regularly doubt the &quot;realness&quot; of your environment. F.x. by occasionally just stopping what you are doing and wondering about what makes you so sure that this is not a dream actually ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This new habit also becomes part of your dream self (personally I think that there is no psychological difference between awake and dream personality - which is why this trick works in the first place). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the reason why you accept a dream as real is pretty much the same reason why you accept reality as real. It's just a human tendency to accept the perceived environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the book &quot;The Man Who Mistook his Wife for a Hat&quot; a stroke patient is described who tried to throw his leg out of his bed b/c due to the stroke the perception of his body was impaired in such a way that his leg no longer seemed to belong to him. Even though logical reasoning makes it highly implausible that somebody would put a leg into his bed - he accepted his perception as real - &lt;strong&gt;period&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are plenty of examples and experiments of this kind - essentially the human tendency to simply accept perception is very strong. That's why &lt;strong&gt;you&lt;/strong&gt; also accept the dream as real - until you get used to doubting realness and lift yourself into a metaposition from which you can judge logically and infer from the fact that you just shaked hand with Santa Claus that something weird is happening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4319" LastActivityDate="2015-02-11T10:36:56.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9268" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-11T15:01:54.493" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;For one who is interested in computational neuroscience and brain computer interface, in university curriculum (e.g. BCCN Berlin), it requires a course in statistical signal processing / signal detection theory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to study these, is it strongly necessary to firstly read signals and systems (e.g. Oppenheim Signals and Systems, and, Discrete-Time Digital Signal Processing, in total 2000 pages though..), or it is just ok to directly start with &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;e.g. Kay, Fundamentals of Statistical Signal Processing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;since in some university course pages, it seems the prerequisite does not include signals and systems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5052" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-06T22:08:36.343" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T22:08:36.343" Title="Is it necessary to read signals and systems before statistical signal processing/ detection theory" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-06T22:08:45.280" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9270" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-11T17:52:05.247" Score="5" ViewCount="2222" Body="&lt;p&gt;Similar to knee-jerk or withdrawal, are there any innate reflexes in cognition? Are they based on personality, or are there any that are universal?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1048" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-12-05T15:38:04.597" LastActivityDate="2016-12-05T15:38:04.597" Title="Are there mental reflexes?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9271" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9174" CreationDate="2015-02-11T18:03:43.430" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's not that your body &lt;em&gt;knows,&lt;/em&gt; exactly, but that one's body is wired in such a way to support reflexes. There is a sudden electrical surge (electrochemical, actually) but it's more compartmentalized than &quot;the nervous system.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Divide the nervous system in two: we've got one section containing our brain and spinal cord. That's called the central nervous system, or CNS. Everything else is our peripheral nervous system, called the PNS. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll use the stretch reflex because it's the one I'm more familiar with, but the same goes for all &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-a-spinal-reflex.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;spinal reflexes&lt;/a&gt;. Our muscles actively contract, and we need a mechanism to make sure they don't extend past a certain point. The stretch reflex is such a mechanism: when that rubber hammer hits the tendon below the kneecap, the thigh muscle gets stretched. In turn, this causes the knee-jerk reflex as that muscle gets a sudden jolt of &quot;oh my god we don't want that to stretch or else we might not be able to run if we need to or it might damage the muscle or...&quot; (you get the idea, surely).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The reflex takes precedence above conscious thought.&lt;/strong&gt; Usually. How it does this is through bypassing the brain. Think of how it might work otherwise: hm that stove is hot, I need to get away from it? There'd likely be far fewer humans in the world if that were the case. Instead, the surge (called an action potential) travels straight from sensing to action--preserve the organism, then it can think about whatever just happened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as when to jump or not to jump, neurons either fire or they do not, as per the all-or-nothing principle. If there's enough stimulus (if it's hot enough), then that'll happen. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1048" LastActivityDate="2015-02-11T18:03:43.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9272" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9275" CreationDate="2015-02-11T19:53:25.063" Score="3" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard recently that a scientist has developed a retina prosthesis. So I think this is a question that has an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the retina encode information like a Bitmap image or an SVG image?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(A Bitmap is a grid of pixels. An SVG image is vector based, so that it defines a shape and says 'in this region, it's green, in that it's red', so to speak.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7647" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-21T11:25:16.797" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T11:25:16.797" Title="Does the retina encode visual information like a Bitmap or an SVG?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9273" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-11T20:02:19.173" Score="5" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have this question from wandering how a person, who does not have speech capability or is isolated from people who speaks, could learn how to read? Will a language (A) like English or (B) like Chinese makes difference? How important it is for a normal person to connect the sound to the written word?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess the question has been asked. Please let me know. Thanks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7648" LastActivityDate="2015-02-11T20:02:19.173" Title="Learning Reading without Speech?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9274" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9272" CreationDate="2015-02-11T20:52:47.883" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Caveat: I know very little about the structure of digital images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming you mean the biological retina and not the prosthetic one, the Wikipedia page on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opponent_process&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;color opponent process&lt;/a&gt; is quite good; basically, the four receptor types respond maximally to different wavelengths, and the ranges overlap slightly, so the visual cortex does the differences between the activation levels to get a complex representation of color.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tmKEk.png&quot; alt=&quot;Opponent processing&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of where in the visual field (pixels vs &quot;shapes&quot;), again, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptive_field#Retinal_ganglion_cells&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retinal ganglion cells&lt;/a&gt; have what is called a receptive field--they respond maximally to stuff in the middle and less so to stuff on the periphery (whether &quot;stuff&quot; is light or shadow depends on their exact type).  So although the spatial definition of a &quot;pixel&quot; is a bit more complicated in the retina than in a bitmap, and simplifying grossly. . . &lt;strong&gt;it's more like a bitmap&lt;/strong&gt;, I think.  There's no edge processing or shape definition at the retinal level--there's no &quot;processing&quot; at all in the retina, just transmission--so vector-type processing doesn't happen until visual cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2015-02-11T20:52:47.883" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9275" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9272" CreationDate="2015-02-12T03:33:27.033" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The retinal image corresponds more to a bitmap, than a vector-based image&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The retina contains a layer of about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/458127/photoreception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;100 million photoreceptors&lt;/a&gt; that are &lt;strong&gt;topographically&lt;/strong&gt; organized. In other words, each &lt;strong&gt;photoreceptor&lt;/strong&gt; codes &lt;strong&gt;one specific pixel in the field of view&lt;/strong&gt;. In turn, the nerve fibers running from the eye to the brain are also topographically organized in the same way the retina is (&lt;em&gt;retinotopy&lt;/em&gt; is maintained up until the higher brain centers and is lost only in the inferotemporal cortex). Hence, yes, basically, but grossly oversimplified I agree with @Krysta that the &lt;strong&gt;retinal image more closely corresponds to a bitmap&lt;/strong&gt; than a vector-based image. Nonetheless, colors, contrasts and edges are coded in the retina. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a picture on retinotopy. Basically a 1:1 topographic representation of the retina can be found in the primary visual visual cortex:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cxoTu.png&quot; alt=&quot;retinotopy&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/458127/photoreception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;University of Leeds and Sydney&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Retinal implants&lt;/strong&gt; are devices that &lt;strong&gt;replace the lost photoreceptors&lt;/strong&gt; in the retina in patients with &lt;em&gt;retinitis pigmentosa&lt;/em&gt; or other retinal degenerative diseases. Retinal implants typically consist of a &lt;strong&gt;grid of electrodes&lt;/strong&gt; (60 - about 1500 in commercially available systems) that are placed on (Argus II) or below the retina (alpha-IMS). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a fundus photo of an Argus II implant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/I5DB0.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Argus II&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The electrodes directly &lt;strong&gt;stimulate the surviving neruonal cells in the retina&lt;/strong&gt;. Retinal implants make use of the retinotopy. An electrode in the center of the retina will elicit a spot of light (a &lt;em&gt;phosphene&lt;/em&gt;) in the central fielfd of view, whereas a more peripherally situated electrode will generate phosphenes more eccentrically. Hence, camera images (in the Argus II device) are simply &lt;strong&gt;downsampled&lt;/strong&gt; and projected onto the electrode grid as &lt;strong&gt;intensity-coded stimuli&lt;/strong&gt;. In the alpha-IMS system the intra-ocular part consists of a grid of photosensitive diodes coupled to small amplifiers. Hence, in this device it is, quite literally, a photosensitive chip thrown on the retina. In both approaches, brighter areas in the image receive higher electric currents and result in brighter and/or larger percepts.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1586/17434440.2014.862494?journalCode=erd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks et al. &lt;em&gt;Exp Rev Med Dev&lt;/em&gt;;&lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;:23-30&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-02-12T23:27:06.293" LastActivityDate="2015-02-12T23:27:06.293" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9276" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9270" CreationDate="2015-02-12T06:04:42.203" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are 2 common definitions of &quot;reflex&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The technical definition of &quot;reflex&quot; is an action that is not voluntary - ie, not mediated by cognition.  From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflex_arc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... sensory neurons do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse&#xA;  in the spinal cord. This characteristic allows reflex actions to occur&#xA;  relatively quickly by activating spinal motor neurons without the&#xA;  delay of routing signals through the brain ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So asking if there are any mental or cognitive reflexes is like asking if there are any behaviours that go through the brain that don't go through the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The colloquial definition of &quot;reflex&quot; is an automatic or involuntary action, like the way an experienced tennis player reacts to the ball without thinking.  In cognitive psychology, this is typically referred to as &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;unconscious&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (rather than reflex) action.  Some authors have compared conscious to unconscious using the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudian_iceberg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;iceberg metaphor&lt;/a&gt;, so if you prefer the lay definition, then the number of mental reflexes far outweighs voluntary actions.  The entire field of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;perception&lt;/a&gt; (just as a simple example) would be included.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-11-29T00:09:33.527" LastActivityDate="2016-11-29T00:09:33.527" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9277" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-12T07:11:44.520" Score="1" ViewCount="1064" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I received this question via email and thought the answer might be sufficiently general to be worth posting here.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I have used the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu/ryff-scales/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ryff&#xA;  scale&lt;/a&gt;  in my research&#xA;  . Actually I am confused about the scoring. The&#xA;  minimum possible  score  is 54 and the maximum score 324. I calculated&#xA;  this after reversing the negatively worded items. The author of the&#xA;  scale mailed me saying the scale has no cut-off points score you have&#xA;  to consider the upper 25% as higher level of psychological well-being&#xA;  and the scores in the lower 25% as poor psychological well-being. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How would I find the upper and lower  25% (I guess called as Quartile)&#xA;  from just the minimum and maximum score on the scale?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-02-12T07:11:44.520" Title="How to find the upper and lower quartiles of the Ryff scale?" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9278" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9277" CreationDate="2015-02-12T07:11:44.520" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Obtaining the quartiles:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Typically you obtain quartiles from the data. Thus, you would have sample data (either your dataset or another dataset), and you can use software to give you .25 and .75 percentiles (or alternatively, you can get such values fairly straightforwardly by rank ordering the data).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, you might be referring to a slightly different notion to quartiles. You might be thinking about low and high scores relative to the scale range. So for example, the mid point of 1 to 5 scale is 3. Therefore, you could say that a mean below 3 suggests that people are below the midpoint on a  scale.&#xA;This idea can readily be extended to other percentiles of the scale range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic equation could be expressed as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;min + percentile * (max - min) &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where &lt;code&gt;min&lt;/code&gt; is the scale minimum and &lt;code&gt;max&lt;/code&gt; is the scale maximum and &lt;code&gt;percentile&lt;/code&gt; is the percentile of interest (e.g., .25 and .75 in your case or say .5 for the midpoint).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Applying this you get&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;54 + .25 * (324 - 54) = 121.5&#xA;54 + .75 * (324-54) = 256.5&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;for your low and high cutoffs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there's all sorts of discussion you could have about whether this whole process is reasonable, and in general you should try to use the continuous scale for your analyses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-02-12T07:11:44.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9279" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-12T08:38:09.267" Score="1" ViewCount="1005" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not really clear on what the implications are for inductive vs deductive research methodology and analysis. Any examples or input would be great!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6493" LastActivityDate="2015-02-18T17:09:22.440" Title="What's the difference between inductive and deductive research in cog sci?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9280" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-12T11:39:46.753" Score="3" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally, we think of humans as having a (relatively) advanced level of consciousness, but we don't think of simple molecules as having any sort of mental capacity at all. So where in between does the phenomenon of consciousness arise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update: I have chosen &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biolbull.org/content/215/3/216.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;G.Tononi's definition&lt;/a&gt;: the quantity of consciousness corresponds to the amount of integrated information generated by a complex of elements&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorDisplayName="user3503" LastEditDate="2015-04-05T23:45:34.067" LastActivityDate="2015-04-05T23:45:34.067" Title="What is the simplest entity that would be considered &quot;conscious&quot;?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="15" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-03-25T12:17:21.960" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9281" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-12T11:54:30.020" Score="3" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;In visual attention and decision making, how do experiments teach participants the value of specific objects (high vs low vs none)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of studies that done this which go into reproducible levels of detail about their procedure/paradigm?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7650" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-02-12T13:06:13.267" LastActivityDate="2015-03-19T08:40:34.373" Title="Conditioning/training value of objects in experiment" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;cueing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9282" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-12T13:50:13.897" Score="9" ViewCount="7206" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently working on a research that has to use and calculate D Prime values for a task where subjects are presented an image at different speeds and they have to report if they saw the image or not. I've read different basic articles on D Prime and it's formulas but I still don't quite get it and I'm not sure of which values use for it's formula. For example: sometimes the formula says to use the mean and I'm not sure if I should use the mean of the subject's score or the mean of the entire sample. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7651" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-02-12T15:53:09.327" LastActivityDate="2017-04-06T14:06:19.060" Title="Calculating d-prime" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9283" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9282" CreationDate="2015-02-12T14:55:43.220" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;To calculate $d'$ you need to know two things: the hit rate and the false alarm rate. The hit rate is the proportion of trials where the stimulus was present and the subject responded that the stimulus was present. The false alarm rate is the proportion of trials where the stimulus was not present, and the subject responded that the stimulus was present. Sometimes it will be shown like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hit rate is the probability of a yes response given the target is present: $H = P( yes | present)$&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;False alarm rate is the probability of a yes response given the target is absent: $FA = P( yes | absent)$&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once you have those two numbers the calculation is $d' = z(H) - z(FA)$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The z-transform is based on the standard normal distribution, and you can look up the z-value for a given probability in a table, or use a function like &lt;code&gt;NORMSINV&lt;/code&gt; in Excel or &lt;code&gt;qnorm&lt;/code&gt; in R.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For most applications, you will want to calculate $d'$ for each individual subject, i.e., $H$ and $FA$ are based only on the data from a single subject. Then you can look at how experimental manipulations affect the distribution of $d'$ values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2017-04-06T14:06:19.060" LastActivityDate="2017-04-06T14:06:19.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9284" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-12T21:31:49.237" Score="4" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why so many people have a &lt;strong&gt;dream in which they are just about to take a mandatory school exam&lt;/strong&gt; and they're totally unprepared, or they've missed it because show up in the wrong day, or the exam is on the very next morning, etc.; and get extremely nervous and anxious, up to the point of waking up panting and taking several minutes to figure out it was all just a dream?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0g7VoRQPswg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;maybe they're only being whipped&lt;/a&gt;... that's so reassuring!&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a technical term denoting this kind of dreams? What's their nature? Is it specific to the Western world/culture? Are there other examples of it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7652" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-02-23T00:27:11.133" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T02:06:21.483" Title="Why are dreams about failing exams so common?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9285" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5239" CreationDate="2015-02-13T00:16:14.647" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I answered a similar question some time ago on Programmers SE: &lt;a href=&quot;https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/q/108133/15464&quot;&gt;Are developers more productive at night?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One interesting paper I ran into with a different perspective than the one &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5246/21&quot;&gt;provided in Justas's answer&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/986710.986720&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;The Programmer Life-Cycle&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Russell Ovans (2004). It discusses the productivity of a programmer over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The sequence of phases is: euphoric, productive, irreplaceable,&#xA;  resentful, bored, and unproductive. Overall productivity is&#xA;  characterized by &lt;strong&gt;an initial six month period of intense interest&lt;/strong&gt;, at&#xA;  which time productivity rates are often an order of magnitude higher&#xA;  than the oft-quoted 500 LOC/month average. After a short period of&#xA;  volatility, the programmer then enters a prolonged phase of steadily&#xA;  dwindling interest, resulting in productivity rates that mimic the&#xA;  average.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important disclaimer to add: his perspective is based on his own observations and experiences over the course of six years while working as a senior software engineer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although perhaps not as relevant to you since you state you mainly work at night due to critical phases of a project, &lt;a href=&quot;https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/q/108133/15464&quot;&gt;other programmers generally prefer working late at night&lt;/a&gt;. Taking Ovan's report into account, and considering that programmers usually work on individual projects at night, a simple reason could be that it's this 'euphoric' drive for short-term individual projects that makes them productive, causing the desire to stay awake and continue work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Ovans, Russell. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/986710.986720&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The programmer life-cycle.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes 29.3 (2004): 25-26.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-02-13T00:16:14.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9286" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-13T05:22:34.910" Score="10" ViewCount="298" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I was working on a basic chess application for Android, I loaded some chess clip art into my imageviews. Then this happened. Look closely at the top two rows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oCkQp.png&quot; alt=&quot;The Illusion&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At first I was startled. My imageviews had reformatted themselves! But no. All the squares are still identically sized. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question is this: How does this image fool our minds? What can illusions like this tell us about how the brain is wired?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7653" LastActivityDate="2015-03-29T15:16:54.183" Title="How does this illusion - that I just inadvertently created - work?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9287" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9941" CreationDate="2015-02-13T07:18:04.790" Score="5" ViewCount="4964" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just finished watching a &lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/iFee0f1L5TI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Abagnale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Frank Abagnale Jr&lt;/a&gt; discuss his life history. Who knows if its true, but it is an amazing story. For those who don't know, Frank Abagnale is one of the most infamous con artists in history according to Wikipedia. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What really strikes me about his story is the following: he seems to have an extraordinary memory and storytelling ability. Couple this with good looks, height, and a face that looks older than he is and you can see how he would have the tools to be con artist. But those are also skills that can be used for many many many other disciplines and could have been put to good uses. He could have been a salesman or any number of things. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some criminals seem really messed up psychologically. He doesn't come across as that. He seems to have an intact psyche that isn't riddled with some abused past. But he is missing some basic emotions like guilt. For instance, he decided to work in a hospital without even considering the safety of patients around him and, according to Wikipedia nearly killed an infant. Another instance is that he took control of a plane when he didn't know how to fly one, obviously putting all the passengers and his own life at risk.  That seems insane! Only until he actually gets in a situation where lives are at stake did he really realize what could happen. Thus, he also seems to have no imagination for the consequences of his actions. He would tell strings of lies basically continuously and never think twice about it, never considering the consequences for businesses of the money they lost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What part of the brain fails such that a person would act that way? What goes wrong? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-02T13:53:02.163" LastActivityDate="2020-02-29T15:38:09.210" Title="Why do con artists like Frank Abagnale Jr. not feel guilt?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9288" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9270" CreationDate="2015-02-13T12:15:33.487" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bearing in mind the point raised by @AaronWeinberg, there are certainly cognitive processes that are automatically elicited for a given stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In no particular order, the following can be considered automatic responses to certain stimuli:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Motion transients&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Edge detection in V1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Auditory irregularity detection (for instance that which elicits mismatch negativity)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reading (it's essentially impossible to stare at a word and not read it)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2015-02-13T12:15:33.487" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9289" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9282" CreationDate="2015-02-13T15:31:43.353" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The index of sensitivity $d'$ is typically defined in terms of two equal variance normally distributed random variables with means $\mu_s$ and $\mu_n$ and standard deviation $\sigma$:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$d'=\frac{\mu_s-\mu_n}{\sigma}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In behavioural experiments, the probability that the subjects responded correctly (either saying 'yes' when the signal was present or saying 'no' when the signal was absent) is often reported. The problem is that probability of responding correctly depends on the bias of the subjects (how often they respond 'yes'). The advantage of using $d'$ is that it is a bias free measure of performance. While we cannot measure $\mu_s$, $\mu_n$, and $\sigma$ directly in typical behavioural experiments, $d'$ can be estimated from the hit rate $H$ (the probability of responding 'yes' given the signal was present) and the false alarm rate $FA$ (the probability of responding 'yes' given the signal was absent):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$d'=z(H)-z(FA)$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where $z(\cdot)$ is the z-transform.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2015-02-13T15:31:43.353" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9291" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9071" CreationDate="2015-02-14T09:16:53.363" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my studies, I didn't come across any link between moral development and intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I saw some research that shows people with high IQ are 20% more prone to suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more rational society could have lower crime/offenses rates. But violence and wrong doing would still exist because more people would derive their morality from the evolutionary theory or some hedonist ethical philosophy (instead of utilitarian philosophy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7308" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-26T19:40:00.460" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T19:40:00.460" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9292" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9293" CreationDate="2015-02-14T14:22:06.113" Score="10" ViewCount="211402" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in knowing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does masturbation (once daily) affect the brain negatively in terms of: Memory and concentration skills during the long term ?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does it affect it in the short term?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;After masturbation I feel some change in my brain, although hard to describe but something like a dopamine rush. Any negative impacts of this on brain?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7657" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2015-09-13T00:10:48.973" LastActivityDate="2015-09-13T00:10:48.973" Title="Does masturbation affect brain in long term?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9293" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9292" CreationDate="2015-02-14T15:07:10.233" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the Wikipedia article on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masturbation#Health_and_psychological_effects&quot;&gt;Masturbation&lt;/a&gt; summarizes, the current consensus among scientists is that masturbation has no negative effects whatsoever, and that all known positive effects are physiological (e.g. reduction of the probability to have prostrate cancer in men over 50) or on the level of general well-being (e.g. it relieves depression and leads to higher self-esteem).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quick &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; search turned up no results for studies into the relation between masturbation and cognitive functions such as memory, attention etc. This does not mean that masturbation does not affect these functions, positively or negatively, only that apparently this has not been studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sexual stimulation and orgasm activate the parasympathetic nervous system, leading to a production of sex specific &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Sex_hormones&quot;&gt;sex hormones&lt;/a&gt; as well as neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin, which in turn affect the relevant &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter#Brain_neurotransmitter_systems&quot;&gt;neurotransmitter systems&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Too much masturbation may lead to loss of libido (psychological) and loss of sensitivity (physiological), though what is too much will differ between idividuals. Certainly during adolescence most teenagers indulge in extensive sexual self-exploration with no apparent negative consequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Archimedix pointed out, one study found that frequent masturbation in male teenagers correlated with higher probability of prostrate cancer. But the researchers surmised that it is not the masturbation that causes the hormones that cause the cancer, but rather the hormones cause both the higher sex drive and the cancer. So again masturbation appears not to have a negative effect, and not masturbating would not have prevented cancer, but the causation is all speculation either way. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/prostate-cancer/news/20090127/masturbation-and-prostate-cancer-risk&quot;&gt;http://www.webmd.com/prostate-cancer/news/20090127/masturbation-and-prostate-cancer-risk&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather, the common consensus among sexologists is to encourage teens and even children to actively exlore this area. For example, the European Regional Bureau of the WHO suggests that masturbation can help an individual better understand their sexual needs and boundaries, communicate more clearly in a sexual situation, and avoid being abused (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bzga.de/infomaterialien/einzelpublikationen/?idx=2042&quot;&gt;http://www.bzga.de/infomaterialien/einzelpublikationen/?idx=2042&lt;/a&gt;, in German).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like any activity, for example excessive working, masturbation can become problematic. But like work, masturbation is not problematic in and of itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2015-02-19T07:33:17.897" LastActivityDate="2015-02-19T07:33:17.897" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9294" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9280" CreationDate="2015-02-14T20:04:53.407" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As strange as it may seem the answer to the question is that when two braincells or neurons work together a small conciousness is created. We have billions of neurons so that conciousness would be rather small. Of course, this depends on the definition of counciousness and neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7660" LastActivityDate="2015-02-14T20:04:53.407" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9299" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3600" CreationDate="2015-02-14T23:45:20.947" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have a look at the different High IQ societies here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/High_IQ_society&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/High_IQ_society&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best societies to look at for 160+ are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;eximia high IQ society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mega Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;GenerIQ Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Giga Society (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gigasociety.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.gigasociety.com/&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;All of them have references to test&lt;/strong&gt; (some of it is online).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For ease of access, here are the societies from top 5% onwards&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 5% (95th percentile; 1/20; IQ 124 sd15, IQ 126 sd16): International High IQ Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 2% (98th percentile; 1/50; IQ 130 sd15, IQ 132 sd16): Encefálica Society, High Potentials Society, Mensa International, Mysterium Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 1% (99th percentile; 1/100; IQ 135 sd15, IQ 137 sd16): Intertel, Top One Percent Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 0.7% (99.3rd percentile; 1/147; IQ 137 sd15): Sunesis Society(Defunct)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 0.5% (99.5th percentile; 1/200; IQ 139 sd15, IQ 141 sd16): Colloquy (Society), Poetic Genius Society[2]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 0.37% (99.63rd percentile; 1/270; IQ 140 sd15): Infinity International Society, HispanIQ International Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 0.3% (99.7th percentile; 3/1000; IQ 141 sd15, IQ 144 sd16): Cerebrals Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 0.2% (99.8th percentile; 1/500; IQ 143 sd15, IQ 146 sd16): exactiq high IQ society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 0.13% (99.87th percentile; 13/10000; IQ 145 sd15, IQ 148 sd16): CIVIQ Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 0.1% (99.9th percentile; 1/1000; IQ 146 sd15, IQ 149 sd16): Glia Society, International High IQ Society Milenija, International Society for Philosophical Enquiry, Iquadrivium Society[2], One-in-a-Thousand Society[2], Triple Nine Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 0.003% (99.997th percentile; 3/100000; IQ 160 sd15, IQ 164 sd16): Prometheus Society, Tetra Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 0.001% (99.999th percentile, 1/100000; IQ 164 sd 15, IQ 168 sd 16): eximia high IQ society, The Ultranet[3]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 0.0001% (99.9999th percentile; 1/1000000; IQ 172 sd15, IQ 176 sd16): Mega Society, GenerIQ Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Top 0.0000001% (99.9999999th percentile; 1/1,000,000,000; IQ 190 sd15, IQ 196 sd16): Giga Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7662" LastEditorUserId="7662" LastEditDate="2021-01-29T20:00:10.263" LastActivityDate="2021-01-29T20:00:10.263" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9300" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9323" CreationDate="2015-02-14T23:54:26.373" Score="15" ViewCount="3905" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read Josh Pellicer's book titled &quot;Tao of Badass.&quot; He discusses the sexual behavior of men and women and how they interact during the dating process. However, I have been unable to find any information if his research is legitimate, tested, and proven by other researchers, or even peer reviewed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone formally tested Josh Pellicer's theory on human sexual behavior? I think there are at least 6 theories stated in his book, that I enumerate in the summary provide below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read his book a year ago. I will do my best to summarize what I remember. &#xA;I would like to apologize in advance that this material will appear sexist. These are not my words, but my best recollection of Josh Pellicer’s words in his book. Pellicer classifies sexual interactions of men and women in specific roles, which makes his theory very controversial and sexist. I believe that what he meant was to say that women and men are capable of taking on any role they choose. I personally enjoy watching the success of women and watching them take on a dominant role. I believe what he meant was that these roles are only specific to sexual interactions, and not to anything else outside of these interactions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Summary of Tao of Badass&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) Pellicer writes that a woman does not have strong attraction to a man with money, cars, jobs, and so forth, but rather why and how they obtained those things. A woman is interested in a man who displays social leadership, social activity, social confidence, which indirectly leads to success of other things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) Body language makes up at least 90% of mutual communication during dating. Pellicer even claims that a man can seduce a woman across a language barrier, just from body language alone. A man and a woman can communicate body language through either positive body language or negative body language. Positive body language is when one faces his/her chest directly towards the other. Negative body language is when the chest faces in another direction and not directly toward the other. The general rule of thumb for a man communicating to a woman is to spend most of the time not facing the chest toward the woman, but during key points in the conversation to rotate the chest toward the woman and then away again. This attracts the woman to acquire the man's attention. A woman becomes happy when the man's chest faces her. If a man continuously points his chest toward a woman, then the woman will want to break the conversation and leave, because the man displays neediness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3) A woman has a subconscious mental process of classifying a man when they first look at a man. If a man looks directly at a woman, and then the woman looks directly at the man, then the woman's subconscious will filter the man as undesirable. However, if a woman sees a man, but the man does not look at the woman, then the woman classifies the man as desirable. This desire is heightened when the man is seen engaged in social activities with others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3) A woman displays attraction to a man who is socially engaged with other women. This is Pellicer's infamous gold fish theory, where if a woman's subconscious is unable to determine the worth of a man, if other women are attractive to him, then she will be also me attracted to him. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(4) A woman will qualify a man during conversation. For example, a woman in the middle of a conversation will ask a man to pick up a dropped napkin that is placed in between them. This is a test of dominance and self-confidence. If the man picks the napkin up, then the woman filters him as undesirable and weak. If the man politely tells her to pick it up, then the woman sees the man as dominant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(4) This is Pellicer’s infamous emotional security theory. A woman seeks a man who is capable of providing her with emotional security. Emotional security is allowing one partner to act emotional, while the other provides an over arching logical decision making, such that the emotional decision making does not dominate the decision making of the two together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(5) A man who displays dominant body posture is seen as dominant and desirable by a woman. Dominant posture is any posture that takes up the most space, spreading the arms and legs out for example. A woman displays submissive body language, especially if they are sexually heightened. Submissive body language includes crouching forward, arms around chest, legs crossed, anything that makes the person appear smaller.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(5) This is Pellicer’s dominant/submissive theory. He writes in general, two people who are engaged in a mutual relationship will take on opposing social roles. One will play the dominant role, and the other will play the submissive role. This not specific to a man being dominant and a woman being submissive. A woman can play the dominant role, while the man plays the submissive role. This also works in homosexual roles as well. Pellicer claims, what cannot happen during a relationship is that both have the same role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(6) The act of seduction is complicated to discuss. If a man and a woman are engaged during isolated conversation, then the conversation will be successful if it passes several stages. First is the playful stage. Second is the serious stage. Third is the emotional stage. Fourth is the seduction stage. The playful stage is when the man and the woman discuss something childish and silly to spark mutual happiness and humor. The Serious stage is when they discuss something a little more serious and pressing. The emotional stage is when they discuss something emotional, either happy or sad. The seduction stage is when the man becomes turned on, which signals the woman to become turned on as well. If the man's eyes circle around her eyes and lips, tracing a triangle, then the woman will become seduced, and she subconsciously waits for the man to kiss her. Eye contact is crucial in all of these stages. Proper use of negative body/positive body language is crucial. Dominant/submissive body language is crucial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(6) This is Pellicer's infamous stages of seduction theory. He claims that under certain conditions, if a man is able to read a woman's body language accurately, then the man can skip these steps and go straight into seduction if she is currently sexually heightened. If a man breaks any of these stages of development, then the woman will either end the conversation or filter the man in the friend zone. If a man rushes through the stages too quickly, then the woman experiences an overwhelming sexual/emotional response, of which she immediately kills the conversation, because she has received an incomplete evaluation of the man to trust him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7664" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-02-17T06:18:27.247" LastActivityDate="2017-03-02T20:17:01.057" Title="Has anyone formally tested Josh Pellicer's theory on human sexual behavior?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9301" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9335" CreationDate="2015-02-15T16:41:33.377" Score="3" ViewCount="326" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any side effects i.e. any hormonal changes , dopamine release when we get anger or while we shout or outburst in anger?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because we feel satisfied getting anger in a situation than keeping our emotions shut!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7449" LastActivityDate="2015-02-19T03:53:32.423" Title="What are the side effects of Anger?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9303" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-15T17:05:30.220" Score="2" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ronda Rousey (UFC Women's Bantamweight Champion) once said on a talk show (Conan) that she can take a punch and not feel pain, she added that she knows what pain is and she can just simply neglect them without feeling it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone without Analgesia, Hypoalgesia or any other syndrome can neglect the feeling of pain with any training?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7449" LastActivityDate="2015-02-17T04:20:42.443" Title="Can someone not feel i.e. neglect pain sensation?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9306" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9712" CreationDate="2015-02-16T01:24:42.643" Score="8" ViewCount="214" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin_Card_Sorting_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wisconsin Card Sorting Test&lt;/a&gt; and although I understand the concept, I'm not clear on what rules are usually tested. Does it always vary between associations between shape, colour and number? For example, let's say I have a card with two red circles. Are the only possible matches to this card something with two shapes on it, red shapes on it or circles on it? Are more complex rules, such as the number of shapes + 1 or circles associate to green also tested?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-04-13T16:24:23.607" LastActivityDate="2015-04-26T20:51:54.820" Title="What rules are tested during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9307" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3600" CreationDate="2015-02-16T06:06:44.730" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The oldest and largest high IQ society in the world is Mensa.  They offer membership only to those who have an IQ in the top 2%.  They administer their own test to qualify those who seek membership.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also online IQ tests that claim to be Mensa IQ tests, but I am unsure of their validity.  However, Mensa only recognize the results of tests that they personally supervise, so any online IQ test proclaiming you a genius is just a novelty really, as online IQ tests are not recognized as having any special significance by any 3rd party.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are really serious about knowing how your IQ compares, I would suggest getting in contact with Mensa since they are the experts about that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7671" LastActivityDate="2015-02-16T06:06:44.730" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9308" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-16T07:19:14.647" Score="4" ViewCount="228" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm relating to this study: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/35/4/1505.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/35/4/1505.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The researchers found no differences in subcortical brain structures for daily Cannabis users vs. controls. However the controls were only abstinent for 60 (adults) or 90 (adolescents) days. IF Cannabis use was associated with changes in brain structures which take more than 60-90 days to normalize, these (presumably) insufficient abstinence periods could be the reason why no differences between user and controls could be found. Why did they not use a control group which had not used Cannabis at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastEditorUserId="7672" LastEditDate="2015-02-16T16:37:20.447" LastActivityDate="2015-02-16T16:37:20.447" Title="Colorado Boulder study about brain morphometric measures of Cannabis users methodologically weak?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9310" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9308" CreationDate="2015-02-16T10:28:56.013" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The researchers used a questionnaire to identify &lt;strong&gt;daily users&lt;/strong&gt;, that is, the experimental group contained persons who had used marijuana every day during the past 60 days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The control group, on the other hand, consisted of persons who had not used marijuana at all during the past 60 days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The researchers probably felt that 60 days (that is, three months or a quarter year) is a long enough period to establish habitual use and habitual non-use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course it is possible that the 60-day-non-users did use marijuana once or twice every year, just as it is possible that the 60-day-daily-users did &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; use marijuana once or twice each year. But this should have no massive long term effects either way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course it is possible that the non-users just stopped using 60 days ago, or that the users just started 60 days ago. But it is unlikely that this would be true for a significant proportion of participants, and for most participants it is very probable that &lt;strong&gt;the usage pattern over 3 months reflects long time usage&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But basically you are of course right. The worst case could be that the last-60-day-users had &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; just started 60 days ago, and that the last-60-day-non-users had &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; just stopped. The researchers might have asked this, but they do not report such a question, which, in my eyes, is a problem. But probability is in their favor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2015-02-16T10:28:56.013" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9311" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9308" CreationDate="2015-02-16T10:34:17.190" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The control subjects were abstinent for &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;at least&lt;/strong&gt; 60 and 90 days&lt;/em&gt;, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The article you cite mentions the following in the Materials and Methods, and I quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From the remaining subjects, age, gender, and AUDIT scores were used to create a matched control group reporting no marijuana use in the past 60 d.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar procedure was used for the 90-day control group. I agree with you that this method, i.e., &lt;em&gt;at least&lt;/em&gt; 60-90 days of abstinence, leaves plenty of room open for variance. Probably a large part of the identified controls have not smoked marijuana &lt;em&gt;ever&lt;/em&gt;, others maybe once or twice, but who knows? I think you have identified a very good point of critique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article mentions two citations (p.1506, Materials and Methods, first paragraph: Filbey 2008, Claus 2011) with respect to this protocol, and I followed these as I was curious if they actually controlled for this shaky part of their method to generate a control group. The first reference is actually not in the reference list(!) and after a thorough search I dug it up. I couldn't find any details on the questionnaire, however, and the same holds for the other article. If it is important to you you may want to read these articles in full (I just scanned the section on the questionnaire) to search for clues.  And contacting the authors is never a bad thing either. For now, I conclude you are right and the methods are shaky.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;strong&gt;flawed&lt;/strong&gt; as mentioned in your question title is a big word. As long as you take the methods used into account, you can place the results in perspective against other studies that, perhaps, used study participants that have never touched any THC-containing product in their lives.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-02-16T10:59:12.500" LastActivityDate="2015-02-16T10:59:12.500" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9312" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9303" CreationDate="2015-02-16T15:29:07.273" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Totally neglect pain? Probably not, but mediate pain sensation? Definetly!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0304395989902303&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0304395989902303&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results revealed that, in general, cognitive coping strategies are more effective in alleviating pain as compared to either no-treatment or expectancy controls. Each individual class of strategies significantly attenuates pain although the imagery methods are the most effective whereas pain acknowledging is the least effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further reading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661308001575&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661308001575&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304395903002975&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304395903002975&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2015-02-17T04:20:42.443" LastActivityDate="2015-02-17T04:20:42.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9313" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-16T15:31:57.627" Score="3" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we suppose that a segment X of the population is at high-risk for disorder Y, don't we assume that anyone carries the same psychophenotype, yet not in a statistically-significant degree?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6471" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-02-19T15:16:30.903" LastActivityDate="2015-03-16T11:32:46.163" Title="Are psychiatric disorders merely statistical deviations?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9314" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3799" CreationDate="2015-02-16T15:47:26.287" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Broadband cortical desynchronization &quot;begins at the cellular level with&#xA;excitation of layer 5 pyramidal neurons, and extends to the macroscopic&#xA;level with cortical desynchronization and decreased&#xA;brain network integrity.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Stimulation of the 5-HT2A receptor has been shown to&#xA;enhance spontaneous EPSPs/EPSCs (excitatory postsynaptic potential / &#xA;excitatory postsynaptic current) in neocortical layer 5 pyramidal&#xA;cells by reducing outward potassium currents (Aghajanian and Marek, 1997; Lambe et al., 2000) and to cause increased glutamatergic recurrent activity in layer 5 of the cortex.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Speculatively, if deep-layer pyramidal cells were to become hyperexcitable during the psychedelic state, information processing would be biased in the direction of inference—such that implicit models of the&#xA;world become spontaneously manifest—intruding into consciousness without prior invitation from sensory data. This could explain many of the subjective effects of psychedelics.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/38/15171.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/38/15171.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastEditorUserId="7672" LastEditDate="2015-04-05T20:03:00.350" LastActivityDate="2015-04-05T20:03:00.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9315" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8615" CreationDate="2015-02-16T16:04:31.587" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Focused attention meditation practices improve focus in the long term. So the improvement is difficult to asses and could probably only be found in a standardized test setting. Physical exercise however has been demonstrated to improve mental abilities in the short term (after recovery of physical exercise) levels of circulating neurotransmitter stay elevated for approx. 48h.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/acm.2007.7022&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/acm.2007.7022&lt;/a&gt; (Meditation and focused attention)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001691802001348&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001691802001348&lt;/a&gt; (Physical exercise and cognition)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastActivityDate="2015-02-16T16:04:31.587" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9316" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2073" CreationDate="2015-02-16T16:34:34.537" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some truth to this. I don't have the time to go into details but I've found an interesting link..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ch/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=5lMP9ivOoxcC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA11&amp;amp;dq=environmental+toxins+violence+rate&amp;amp;ots=SKB0rFeBnA&amp;amp;sig=w4g2Ne5JfwT0v36m5gFwPbqJCRw#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=environmental%20toxins%20violence%20rate&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://books.google.ch/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=5lMP9ivOoxcC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA11&amp;amp;dq=environmental+toxins+violence+rate&amp;amp;ots=SKB0rFeBnA&amp;amp;sig=w4g2Ne5JfwT0v36m5gFwPbqJCRw#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=environmental%20toxins%20violence%20rate&amp;amp;f=false&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastActivityDate="2015-02-16T16:34:34.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9317" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-16T19:30:45.617" Score="7" ViewCount="1098" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the original &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofling_hospital_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hofling hospital experiment&lt;/a&gt; (1966):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A person would telephone a nurse, saying that he was a doctor and&#xA;  giving a fictitious name, asking the nurse to administer 20 mg of a&#xA;  fictitious drug named &quot;Astroten&quot; to a patient, and that he/she would&#xA;  provide the required signature for the medication later. A bottle&#xA;  labelled &quot;Astroten&quot; had been placed in the drug cabinet, but there was&#xA;  no drug of that name on the approved list. The label clearly stated&#xA;  that 10 mg was the maximum daily dose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several reasons why the nurse should refuse the request:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They don't know the doctor&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They don't know the drug&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The requested dose is greater than the labelled maximum dose&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Paperwork was not provided&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, 21 of 22 nurses complied.  One of the (many) disturbing aspects of the experiment, is that even with so many reasons to refuse, the nurses tended to obey.  The implication is that with fewer reasons to refuse, they would be even more likely to obey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This turned out not to be quite true, as per a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2955382?sid=21105876242913&amp;amp;uid=4&amp;amp;uid=2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;partial replication by Rank and Jacobson&lt;/a&gt; (1977), in which they eliminated one of the reasons: They used a drug known to the nurses (Valium) instead of a fictitious drug, and somewhat counterintuitively got much lower compliance rates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if you wanted to have a particular hospital patient &quot;eliminated&quot;, it seems to me that Hofling provides a simple plan: Make a phone call from a payphone somewhere to the nurse's station at the hospital, pretending to be a doctor, and ask them to administer a lethal dose of some poison - the only caveat is that as Rank and Jacobson showed, you don't want to refer to a drug they are familiar with, so ideally a lethal toxin placed in the drug cabinet ahead of time (or equivalently, a mislabelled toxin).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rank and Jacobson suggest that perhaps reduction in obedience may be partially due to cultural changes: Changes in the relationship between doctors and nurses, the self-esteem of nurses, changes in the legal landscape and fear of lawsuits, etc.  &lt;strong&gt;Have there been any recent replications of the experiment that suggest how easy / hard it is today to have a patient anonymously murdered by a nurse?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-02-16T19:30:45.617" Title="Have there been any recent replications of the Hofling hospital experiment?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;obedience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9318" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9254" CreationDate="2015-02-16T20:15:09.803" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;NPR had a report on the abuse and dangers of suggestive hypnosis by psychologists trying to find abuse in their patient's past.  Suggesting abuse to their patience in a hypersensitive and vulnerable state inadvertently ended up &quot;suggesting&quot; events that fostered creating false memories into their patients.  The piece on the radio also discussed the consequences of how these false memories had destroyed familial relationships: The subjects who had undergone suggestive hypnosis now swore abuses had occurred and could &quot;never forgive&quot; (as was quoted by the journalist) their parents or family members who had been suggested in their state of hypnosis as a potential perpetrator of a suggested crime.  According to the piece, what really got the professional world's attention to examine the practice as abusive by psychologists, dealt with a psychologist suggesting ritual sacrifice and murders that never occurred. The super sensitive state of suggestion in hypnosis allowed the psychologists to create false memories. The damages in those cases far outweighed the benefits, and apparently that case in Philadelphia changed the practice of how psychology dealt with the practice of hypnosis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7676" LastEditorUserId="7676" LastEditDate="2015-02-16T20:26:34.943" LastActivityDate="2015-02-16T20:26:34.943" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9319" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6538" CreationDate="2015-02-16T20:17:51.140" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am studying hypnotherapy at University and this is what I have learnt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During the induction stages of hypnosis, the body becomes more and more relaxed and the brain enters changing levels of brain wave pattern.  There are five brainwave frequencies, however there are four main different brainwave patterns when looking at hypnosis.  These are Beta wave pattern, Alpha wave pattern, Theta wave pattern and Delta wave pattern as measured by an EEG (Electroencephalograph).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the fully engaged and focused state, the brain will show a Beta wave pattern which is  from 15 to 40 cycles per second&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a restful state, the brain will show an Alpha wave pattern which is from 9 to 14 cycles per second&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a deeper state of hypnosis, similar to dreaming and some meditative states, the brain shows a Theta wave pattern which is from 4 to 8 cycles per second&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in the deepest state of hypnosis, the brain shows a Delta wave pattern which is from 1 to 4 cycles per second and it is associated with deep dreamless sleep. The deeper the sleep, the higher the amount of delta waves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other brainwave frequency is Gamma (40Hz - 70Hz) associated with Processing of various attended stimuli (visual, auditory, touch) and the grouping of the various features of a given stimulus, particularly visual, into a coherent whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important point is that there is no such thing as a “gamma state” of mind. Gamma waves largely play a supporting – though integral- role in the brain. From an EEG point of view, they will be present mostly while a subject is awake, but they will always be supported by other waves in the beta, alpha, theta, or delta ranges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brainwave patterns change in a gradual way.  That is to say that it will not switch immediately from say 27Hz (27 cycles per second - Beta Waves) to 2Hz (2 cycles per second - Delta Waves).  The frequency of brainwaves gradually decreases and increases as required.  The speed of gradual change in brainwave frequency however can be fast or slow depending on the individual and the ability of the hypnotherapist.  During reorientation, the brainwave patterns will gradually increase towards the Beta waves bringing the client back to full state of awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the above mentioned brainwave frequencies are normally present together in the brain. However, the dominant frequency in the EEG pattern determines what shall be called the current state of the brain. If the amplitude of the alpha range frequencies is highest, then the brain is said to be in the alpha stage. Note, that other frequencies still exist and it is impossible to give any &quot;exact frequency your brain is operating on.&quot; However, for simplification purpose, it is often assumed that such a single frequency exists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, we are accustomed to using the beta brain rhythm. When we diminish the brain rhythm to alpha, we put ourselves in the ideal condition to learn new information, keep facts, perform elaborate tasks, learn languages and analyse complex situations etc. Meditation, relaxation exercises, and activities that enable the sense of calm, also enable this alpha state.  Considered as an integral part of the relaxation process before sleep. The alpha frequency band has been studied extensively in meditations of various kinds (like Zen, TM etc) and in almost all cases an increase in the alpha waves has been noted during meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the Theta state associated with dreams, deep meditation, sleep, and hypnosis, this is seemed to be involved with short-term memory. It is a state of somnolence with reduced consciousness. The theta-state is described by sleep researchers as stage 1 sleep or the twilight state. In this state, subjects pass out of the alert alpha-state into a theta-state in which they lose their sense of lying in bed, though still being awake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subjects can be easily awoken from this stage of sleep, and it has many interesting properties. For a brief time as we lie in bed at night, neither fully awake nor yet asleep, we pass through a twilight mental zone like a state of reverie. Many people associate this drowsy stage with hallucinatory images, more fleeting and disjointed than dreams, and compare it to the viewing of a speeded-up, jerky series of photographic slides. A host of artists and scientists have credited the imagery of this twilight state with creative solutions and inspiration for their work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meditative states associated with the increased presence of delta waves seem to occur mostly in very experienced practitioners, possibly because entering a delta state and maintaining consciousness at the same time is tremendously difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.chrysaliscourses.co.uk/our-courses&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chrysalis Courses&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.meditationiseasy.com/instant_meditation/brain_waves_frequencies.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brain Wave Frequencies&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2015-02-16T20:17:51.140" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9320" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7829" CreationDate="2015-02-16T20:40:09.133" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am studying hypnotherapy myself and from what I am led to believe, there is no &quot;spectrum of how able people are to be hypnotised&quot;.  Everyone who wants to be hypnotised can be.  How quickly they are hypnotised depends on the experience of the hypnotherapist and their methods used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take a look at Elman and Ericksonian Inductions in Google.  There are good videos on YouTube showing you the different methods.  Milton H. Erickson developed a permissive style of induction which is considered slower than Dave Elman's authoritarian style.  The thing you would need to consider is what style is suited to your client.  You would need to develop your own induction routine based on these 2 styles and you may then have to tailor the induction to their modality (Kinaesthetic, Visual, Auditory, Olfactory, or Gustatory).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2015-02-16T20:40:09.133" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9322" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9329" CreationDate="2015-02-17T02:59:29.440" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a little confused about what cards are included in the Wisconsin card sorting task. According to PEBL there are two sets of cards available for the task, one set of 64 cards and one set of 128 cards. I think I've figured out what the 64 card deck is given that there are four different number, four different colours and four different shapes. Consequently, 4*4*4=64. However, what is contained in the 128 card deck?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-02-17T22:11:50.117" Title="What is the set of cards used in the Wisconsin/Berg Card Sorting task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9323" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9300" CreationDate="2015-02-17T06:06:00.897" Score="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bottom line: No, Josh Pellicer's work is not based on science, not tested, nor peer-reviewed.  However, I will qualify this statement slightly below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many years ago, I listened to a few episodes of the The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Leykis&quot;&gt;Tom Leykis&lt;/a&gt; Show, yet another highly sexist advice columnnist for men.  Josh Pellicer is not the first, and certainly not the last, in a long line of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dating_coach&quot;&gt;dating coaches&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickup_artist&quot;&gt;pick-up artists&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seduction_community&quot;&gt;seduction scientists&lt;/a&gt;, romance advisers, and other non-scientists claiming to know secrets of human sexual behaviour.  If you are not very familiar with scientific literature in general, then here are a few tips for spotting &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience&quot;&gt;pseudoscience&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No citations / bibliography of peer-reviewed research&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heavy reliance on anecdotal evidence (personal experiences)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Broad statements / lack of rigour, especially failing to quantify assertions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use of non-scientific terms such as &quot;proven&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Appeal to authority rather than evidence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although Pellicer's &quot;theories&quot; (note that they don't qualify as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory&quot;&gt;scientific theories&lt;/a&gt; as they stand, so the term is in quotes) haven't been tested specifically, there have been several reviews of the industry in general.  Scientific research does occasionally slowly trickle down to public media and becomes part of general knowledge, so inevitably, some of Pellicer's assertions are bound to be based on science, while others are opinions or conjectures with no basis, and yet others contradict available evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23253794&quot;&gt;more favourable reviews&lt;/a&gt; of the industry is by Nathan Oesch of the Department of Experimental Psychology at the University of Oxford (from 2012).  If you are truly interested in the scientific basis for claims about dating and relationships, then I would recommend reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.epjournal.net/wp-content/uploads/EP10899909.pdf&quot;&gt;that paper&lt;/a&gt;.  Personally I think Oesch is too kind - much of the research supporting dating preferences comes from self-reports, that &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~efi614/documents/EastwickFinkel2008_JPSP.pdf&quot;&gt;other research&lt;/a&gt; demonstrates to be practically useless, so any claims made on this basis are speculative at best.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reality is that human sexual behaviour is still largely a mystery.  So anyone claiming to know its secrets is not basing that on available evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For completeness, I'll include a few quotes from the Oesch paper to directly address some of the claims listed in the question (I haven't read the Tao of Badass, nor have any intention to read it, so just going by what's provided).  Notice that even though Oesch doesn't review Pellicer specifically, many of the same themes are found in other works reviewed.  And while evidence does seem to support some of Pellicer's claims (as you have reported them), there is a clear difference in the rigour, detail, and language used in a scientific paper, which is typically much less confident than what someone like Pellicer would write.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... in a study of 37 cultures around the world, Buss (1989) and his&#xA;  collaborators found qualities such as having an exciting personality,&#xA;  intelligence, adaptability, and creativity as among the top ten most&#xA;  desirable traits for both men and women. Bale, Morrison, and Caryl&#xA;  (2006) has further shown that “pick up” lines that demonstrate&#xA;  qualities such as helpfulness, generosity, cosmopolitanism and wealth&#xA;  are significantly more attractive than straightforward propositions&#xA;  for sexual activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... from a study of courtship behavior in singles’ bars, Moore (1985)&#xA;  found that incidental touching, prolonged eye contact, swaying the&#xA;  upper body towards a prospective romantic interest while talking, and&#xA;  a number of other tactical devices designed to attract attention were&#xA;  frequently implemented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... Place et al. (2010) found an increase in male attractiveness among&#xA;  women who observed mutually interested romantic couples, while Jones,&#xA;  DeBruine, Little, Burriss, and Feinberg (2007) found a similar effect&#xA;  if other women were observed smiling at male faces; a reverse effect&#xA;  was found for unsmiling faces (Jones et al. 2007) or uninterested&#xA;  romantic couples (Place et al., 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... psychological research has shown that many particular moral&#xA;  virtues are not only sexually attractive, but also&#xA;  relationship-stabilizing (see Miller 2007, for a review). For example,&#xA;  many studies have demonstrated the importance of honesty, niceness,&#xA;  agreeableness and nonviolence (Boon and McLeod, 2001; Haselton, Buss,&#xA;  Oubaid, and Angleitner, 2005; Botwin et al., 1997; Urbaniak and&#xA;  Kilman, 2003), both in the early stages of a romantic encounter for&#xA;  soliciting Attraction, as well as later in the sequence of courtship&#xA;  for establishing Comfort and Trust. Still further, as an&#xA;  acquaintanceship develops, empathy, fondness, forgivingness, trust,&#xA;  perspective-taking, and kindness (Kilpatrick, Bissonnette, and&#xA;  Rusbult, 2002; Fincham, Beach, and Davila, 2004), , defined as&#xA;  emotional responsiveness to the needs of others (Jensen-Campbell,&#xA;  Graziano, and West, 1995; Li, Kenrick, Bailey, and Linsenmeier, 2002),&#xA;  have been shown to be critical for both establishing and maintaining&#xA;  an intimate relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... research has shown that expressions of social dominance (Sadalla&#xA;  et al. 1987), social risk-taking (Wilke, Hutchinson, Todd, and Kruger,&#xA;  2006), and courageousness (Farthing, 2005; Kelly and Dunbar, 2001) are&#xA;  often attractive to women ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;6)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... women typically require more time and intimacy to develop the same&#xA;  amount of passion as men (Baumeister and Bratslavsky, 1999).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2015-02-17T07:58:53.447" LastActivityDate="2015-02-17T07:58:53.447" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9324" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9284" CreationDate="2015-02-17T09:48:20.173" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes this kind of dreams are commonly called nightmares. The reason we experience nightmares is to prepare us for threats in the real life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;A dream-production mechanism that tends to select threatening waking events and simulate them over and over again in various combinations would have been valuable&#xA;for the development and maintenance of threat-avoidance skills.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unil.ch/files/live//sites/ln/files/shared/Revonsuo_1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.unil.ch/files/live//sites/ln/files/shared/Revonsuo_1.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastActivityDate="2015-02-17T09:48:20.173" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9325" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9096" CreationDate="2015-02-17T10:16:59.907" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have skimmed this paper about solitary confinement and the consequences seem disastrous&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The paradigmatic psychiatric disturbance was an agitated&#xA;confusional state which, in more severe cases, had the characteristics&#xA;of a florid delirium, characterized by severe confusional, paranoid,&#xA;and hallucinatory features, and also by intense agitation and random,&#xA;impulsive, often self-directed violence. Such disturbances were often observed in individuals who had no prior history of any mental&#xA;illness. In addition, solitary confinement often resulted in severe&#xA;exacerbation of a previously existing mental condition. Even among&#xA;inmates who did not develop overt psychiatric illness as a result of&#xA;solitary confinement, such confinement almost inevitably imposed&#xA;significant psychological pain during the period of isolated&#xA;confinement and often significantly impaired the inmate’s capacity to&#xA;adapt successfully to the broader prison environment. &quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A statement from the US supreme court regarding the matter (in the same paper)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;[E]xperience [with the penitentiary system of solitary&#xA;confinement] demonstrated that there were serious objections&#xA;to it. A considerable number of the prisoners fell, after even a&#xA;short confinement, into a semi-fatuous condition, from which it&#xA;was next to impossible to arouse them, and others became&#xA;violently insane; others, still, committed suicide; while those&#xA;who stood the ordeal better were not generally reformed, and&#xA;in most cases did not recover sufficient mental activity to be of&#xA;any subsequent service to the community.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1362&amp;amp;context=law_journal_law_policy&amp;amp;sei-redir=1&amp;amp;referer=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.ch%2Fscholar%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3Dsolitary%2Bconfinement%26btnG%3D%26as_sdt%3D1%252C5%26as_sdtp%3D#search=%22solitary%20confinement%22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1362&amp;amp;context=law_journal_law_policy&amp;amp;sei-redir=1&amp;amp;referer=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.ch%2Fscholar%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3Dsolitary%2Bconfinement%26btnG%3D%26as_sdt%3D1%252C5%26as_sdtp%3D#search=%22solitary%20confinement%22&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastActivityDate="2015-02-17T10:16:59.907" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9326" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8991" CreationDate="2015-02-17T15:40:10.383" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say it is impossible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being unhappy is a necessary experience to make the feeling of happiness arise. Maybe there is some joyful state that can persist over time without unhappiness but I doubt it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I see it, unhappiness at times comes with the deal of living.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7660" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-09-30T04:44:34.160" LastActivityDate="2015-09-30T04:44:34.160" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9327" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8991" CreationDate="2015-02-17T20:31:17.107" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could try meditation. Meditation practices have been shown to have an effect size similar or higher to antidepressants. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;During the course of 2to 6 months, the mindfulness meditation program ES estimates ranged from 0.22 to 0.38 for anxiety symptoms and&#xA;0.23 to 0.30 for depressive symptoms. These small effects&#xA;are comparable with what would be expected from the use&#xA;of an antidepressant in a primary care population but without&#xA;the associated toxicities. In a study using patient-level&#xA;meta-analysis, Fournier et al81 found that for patients with&#xA;mild to moderate depressive symptoms, antidepressants&#xA;had an ES of 0.11 (95% CI, −0.18 to 0.41), whereas for those&#xA;with severe depression, antidepressants had an ES of 0.17&#xA;(−0.08 to 0.43) compared with placebo.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleID=1809754&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleID=1809754&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The richness of present-moment experience is the richness of life itself.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/3/1/1/htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/3/1/1/htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastActivityDate="2015-02-17T20:31:17.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9328" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9603" CreationDate="2015-02-17T21:48:21.423" Score="4" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I was watching &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YHCounW3VO0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this youtube video&lt;/a&gt; &lt;sup&gt;(Only check 1:05 - 1:25)&lt;/sup&gt; where it suggested we sleep because the brain needs rest to save/process all information we perceived throughout the day. I directly made the connection to my own body with the following thought:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I can stay up for extended periods without the need of sleep. However, I easily and very quickly forget anything, almost like dementia, but if I try hard, I can remember it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If the necessity of sleeping is related to the amount of information received, does forgetting information reduces that necessity?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;And does forgetting result in longer days without being tired?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Keep the jargon and technical details to a human level, please.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7684" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-03-23T20:09:40.733" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T20:09:40.733" Title="If sleeping is related to 'saving information' you've experience, is forgetting related to more energy?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9329" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9322" CreationDate="2015-02-17T22:11:50.117" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The 64 card version is just a shorter version, according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1076/clin.15.2.228.1901&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Greve, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;. Instead of running 128 total trials, there are only 64. The original test was developed and, crucially, normed for 128 trials. However, this version takes a long time to administer, and clinicians were interested in a shorter version. It was found that cutting the number of trials in half worked reasonably well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the short answer seems to be that the decks are the same.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-02-17T22:11:50.117" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9331" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-17T22:49:08.630" Score="1" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to do a study on the effect of physical exercise on working memory. Can you suggest measures for working memory assessment that differentiate levels of memory functioning amongst &quot;normal&quot; adults?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7685" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-02-17T22:58:56.720" LastActivityDate="2015-02-17T22:58:56.720" Title="Measures to study working memory level related to physical activity" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9332" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9331" CreationDate="2015-02-17T22:57:55.613" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A very common test of working memory is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-back&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;N-back&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the N-back, the subject needs to remember what happened some number (N) of steps earlier. For example, imagine seeing the following numbers one at a time on a computer screen. Your task is to press a key whenever the number on the screen is the same as the number that was there 3 steps earlier:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1 4 5 2 6 3 4 5 6 &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt; 2 5 3 &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The numbers in bold are when the subject should respond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many variations of the n-back, and it is easy to adjust the difficulty of the test by changing how many steps back subjects need to remember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-02-17T22:57:55.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9333" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9713" CreationDate="2015-02-18T00:33:07.517" Score="4" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task is used to diagnose various mental disfunctions such as schizophrenia and drug addiction. However, has it been specified what brain regions or structures are being evaluated and how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-04-29T20:35:06.877" LastActivityDate="2015-06-12T17:44:42.343" Title="What are there neuroanatomical mappings of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9334" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8991" CreationDate="2015-02-18T06:44:05.097" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a big question, but here are a few thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While we could argue about the details, concepts around set points and the hedonic treadmill have reasonable empirical support. The general finding is that life satisfaction ratings are fairly stable from year to year (Lucas &amp;amp; Donnellan, 2007) which suggests that there are relatively stable individual differences in the tendency to be happy or sad and such individual differences are only weakly related to factors in the external environment (see this discussion of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;subjective well-being&lt;/a&gt;. There have also been studies that have looked at the effect of particularly negative (e.g., divorce, unemployment, disability) and particularly positive (e.g., winning the lottery) events (e.g., Lucas, 2007). Longitudinal research looking at these events tends to show a short term effect of the event on well-being followed by a fairly substantial recovery of well-being levels over time. That said, research is conflict about whether such recovery (or return to base line in the case of positive events) is complete, there are individual differences in the recovery, and the recovery may take several years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also worth noting that when surveyed, most people tend to report being satisfied with their life and generally happy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, emotional experience and well-being can be viewed as a functional &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199828340/obo-9780199828340-0167.xml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;homeostatic process&lt;/a&gt;. This is related to the idea that emotions serve functional purposes (e.g., Keltner &amp;amp; Gross, 1999). Such theories and the empirical evidence suggest that sustained experience of extreme happiness would be very unusual and possibly maladaptive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there is evidence for the effectiveness of drugs and psychotherapy in treating depression and related disorders, where arguably the capacity to adaptively use emotions has broken down. But this is more about restoring people to normal levels of emotional functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I can't deny the possibility that such mood enhancement training could exist, I would be highly sceptical of any programs that promised to offer you long term ecstasy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lucas, R. E. (2007). Long-term disability is associated with lasting changes in subjective well-being: evidence from two nationally representative longitudinal studies. Journal of personality and social psychology, 92(4), 717. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lucas, R. E., &amp;amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2007). How stable is happiness? Using the STARTS model to estimate the stability of life satisfaction. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(5), 1091-1098. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Keltner, D., &amp;amp; Gross, J. J. (1999). Functional accounts of emotions. Cognition &amp;amp; Emotion, 13(5), 467-480. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personal.kent.edu/~dfresco/CBT_Readings/keltner_&amp;amp;_gross.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.personal.kent.edu/~dfresco/CBT_Readings/keltner_&amp;amp;_gross.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-02-18T06:50:02.090" LastActivityDate="2015-02-18T06:50:02.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9335" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9301" CreationDate="2015-02-18T09:24:17.967" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is actually a pretty complicated question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, there isn't a lot of consistent evidence that would suggest that discrete emotions like anger have stereotyped response patterns. Anger is a fairly heterogeneous emotion category, meaning that it may not look the same (and have the same outcomes) in any given situation. Consequently, there may not be a good (or at least simple) answer to your question. This is the &quot;psychological constructionist&quot; argument (for a comprehensive overview, see Barrett &amp;amp; Russell, 2014).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand &quot;basic emotion&quot; proponents (Ekman, Izard, Panksepp) would suggest that activation of an &quot;anger circuit&quot; in the brain reliably produces a particular response pattern (e.g., feelings of unpleasantness, high arousal, approach motivation, certain facial expressions, hormonal changes, etc.).  However, attempts to match these responses with specific emotions like anger have never quite worked out.  Also, recent meta-analyses looking at emotion in the brain don't seem to support this perspective (e.g., Lindquist et al., 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: I don't find Wikipedia's explanation (linked by Mike) to be particularly convincing since it cites an article published 15 years ago.  Emotion research has come a long way since then.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit2: Sources&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For general psychological constructionist arguments about the nature of emotion, see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://pps.sagepub.com/content/1/1/28.short&quot;&gt;Barrett 2006&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/6/4/292.short&quot;&gt;Barrett 2014&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For basic emotion arguments, see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/3/4/364.short&quot;&gt;Ekman &amp;amp; Cordaro 2011&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For reviews on mapping physiological changes to emotions, see: &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=mxDzOSvivIkC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA173&amp;amp;dq=cacioppo%202000%20physiology&amp;amp;ots=o-owuuXE7q&amp;amp;sig=hwXl0yAwvzMMMD2eJOkt3xU3-YA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=cacioppo%202000%20physiology&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;Cacioppo et al. 2000&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=czJ5AgAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA35&amp;amp;dq=stemmler%202004%20physiology&amp;amp;ots=w8ITpWEvbd&amp;amp;sig=DnEMmy7u7u4hXMlmymZX8T2dF6E#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;Stemmler 2004&lt;/a&gt;, and for a theory-driven review of reviews/meta-analyses see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-science.org/pubs/2014/quigley-barrett-biological-physiology-2014.pdf&quot;&gt;Quigley &amp;amp; Barrett 2014&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-02-19T03:53:32.423" LastActivityDate="2015-02-19T03:53:32.423" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9336" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9301" CreationDate="2015-02-18T09:30:36.223" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can glance at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger#Physiology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; to get a first impression:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to Novaco, &quot;Autonomic arousal is primarily engaged through&#xA;  adrenomedullary and adrenocortical hormonal activity. The secretion by&#xA;  the adrenal medulla of the catecholamines, epinephrine, and&#xA;  norepinephrine, and by the adrenal cortex of glucocorticoids provides&#xA;  a sympathetic system effect that mobilizes the body for immediate&#xA;  action (e.g. the release of glucose, stored in the liver and muscles&#xA;  as glycogen). In anger, the catecholamine activation is more strongly&#xA;  norepinephrine than epinephrine (the reverse being the case for fear).&#xA;  The adrenocortical effects, which have longer duration than the&#xA;  adrenomedullary ones, are mediated by secretions of the pituitary&#xA;  gland, which also influences testosterone levels. The&#xA;  pituitary-adrenocortical and pituitary-gonadal systems are thought to&#xA;  affect readiness or potentiation for anger responding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by multiple&#xA;  structures in the brain. The rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing&#xA;  of the emotional significance of the sensory data is done when the&#xA;  data passes through the amygdala in its travel from the sensory organs&#xA;  along certain neural pathways towards the limbic forebrain. Emotion&#xA;  caused by discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories&#xA;  however occurs when its information is relayed from the thalamus to&#xA;  the neocortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyhow I can't access the reference papers but this should be a good starting point..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-02-19T02:28:51.557" LastActivityDate="2015-02-19T02:28:51.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9337" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-18T12:27:48.920" Score="4" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;Listening to really good music right now, I was wondering why it raises goosebumps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any physiological reason for this reaction to specific wavelengths or something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due sometimes strong vibration, roadwork for example, raise goosebumps too I reckon it's about the wavelengths but if someone could explain what is happening and why, that would be great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/29661/why-can-good-music-raise-goosebumps?noredirect=1#comment48350_29661&quot;&gt;CROSS-POSTED&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6819" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2015-02-18T12:27:48.920" Title="Why can good music raise goosebumps?" Tags="&lt;music&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9338" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9149" CreationDate="2015-02-18T14:27:18.307" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I actually think this is a bit tougher than it sounds because of how broad cogsci is as a field. Not too long ago, I asked a similar question on twitter; to this end, here are the podcasts that I now regularly follow:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://99percentinvisible.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;99% Invisible&lt;/a&gt; - A show about design, and the factors influencing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slate.com/articles/podcasts/lexicon_valley.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lexicon Valley&lt;/a&gt; - Covers language from &quot;pet peeves, syntax and etymology to neurolinguistics and the death of languages&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://brainsciencepodcast.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain Science Podcast&lt;/a&gt; - Mentioned in another answer. The host's in medicine, but the show discusses neuroscience and ow our brain makes us who we are. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://verybadwizards.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Very Bad Wizards&lt;/a&gt; - One of my favourites. The product of a psychologist and a philosopher, sharing a marked inability to distinguish sacred from profane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7689" LastEditorUserId="7689" LastEditDate="2015-02-18T15:48:19.903" LastActivityDate="2015-02-18T15:48:19.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9339" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-18T15:14:34.287" Score="4" ViewCount="415" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading the &quot;The Power of Now&quot; book by Ekhart Tolle, in which he describes a spiritual practice by which attention/awareness is focused on the currently experienced mental state. For example, anger, frustration or jealousy are observed without letting them take over. Tolle describes the outcome of this practice as something along the lines of &quot;these emotions are transmuted into awareness&quot;. &lt;strong&gt;I'm interested if there's any evidence in cognitive science to support his claim.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The description reminds me of mirror neurons - observing an emotion in others &quot;infects&quot; the observer with the same emotion. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;There's a small number of deeply connected mirror neurons that permeate the human brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me ask the question - &lt;strong&gt;are there &quot;awareness&quot; related mirror neurons or similar structures that get activated by one's own awareness?&lt;/strong&gt; By which process could the experience of observing emotion increase awareness of the observer? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron#Human_self_awareness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this wikipedia article has a very brief section on mirror neurons and self awareness&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;V.S. Ramachandran has speculated that mirror neurons &lt;strong&gt;may provide the&#xA;  neurological basis of human self-awareness&lt;/strong&gt;.[70] In an essay written&#xA;  for the Edge Foundation in 2009 Ramachandran gave the following&#xA;  explanation of his theory: &quot;... I also speculated that these neurons&#xA;  can not only help simulate other people's behavior but can be turned&#xA;  'inward'—as it were—to create second-order representations or&#xA;  meta-representations of your own earlier brain processes. This could&#xA;  be the neural basis of introspection, and of the reciprocity of self&#xA;  awareness and other awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-02-18T16:23:12.450" LastActivityDate="2015-08-03T18:12:24.447" Title="Are there &quot;awareness&quot; related mirror neurons or processes in the brain that get activated by awareness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;mirror-neurons&gt;&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9279" CreationDate="2015-02-18T17:09:22.440" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as my knowledge goes, I don't think these two types of reasoning in cogsci are any different to other forms of inductive or deductive reasoning: one is a bottom-up approach and the other a top-down process. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deductive reasoning starts at the general and moves towards the specific, going from theory to hypothesis, observation to a confirmation. This is good science: a priori we form specific predictions and test them in very restrictive lab settings. An example could be examining modular and embodied approaches to cognition, forming a specific hypothesis about a specific circumstance, and then testing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inductive reasoning on the other hand works visa-versa, going from an observation to a pattern, a tentative hypothesis to a theory. This is not always a good way to work, especially for quantitative methods, as it relies upon post hoc interpretations of observed effects. Work of this form could be interested in understanding stress in the workplace, may interview people about it and then finally form a conclusion based upon these conversations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter is more useful to &lt;em&gt;qualitative&lt;/em&gt; research, the former is practically necessary for &lt;em&gt;quantitative&lt;/em&gt; work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7689" LastActivityDate="2015-02-18T17:09:22.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9341" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3600" CreationDate="2015-02-18T17:48:42.767" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;To add to the existing answers (of which @what's gets special mention), an issue I don't think has really been addressed is the statistical reason for it being so difficult to measure extremely high IQs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By design, IQ is scaled so that it's &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;normally distributed&lt;/a&gt;, with a mean of 100, and a standard deviation (SD) of 15.&#xA;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/68%E2%80%9395%E2%80%9399.7_rule&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;well known feature&lt;/a&gt; of the normal distribution is that 68% of values are within one SD of the mean, 95% within 2, and 99.75 within 3. This means that only .03% of IQ scores are more than 3 SDs from the mean: above &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$100 + 15*3 = 145$&lt;/span&gt;, or below &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$100 - 15*3 = 55$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's even more unusual to find values over 160 (4 SDs) or under 40, with 99.993% of IQs being within this range. This means that only .0035% of people are likely to have IQs over 160. If you normed your IQ test on a sample of 1 million people (which is obviously totally unrealistic), you would only find ~30 with a 160+ IQ, rendering it impossible to accurately estimate a single individuals IQ in that range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8Qne9.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simulated distribution of IQ for a population of 7 million (1/1000 the global population). Vertical lines indicate standard deviations (15 points). In this simulation, 238 people have IQs &amp;gt; 160.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-02-18T17:48:42.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9342" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9107" CreationDate="2015-02-18T19:09:47.093" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are you interested in mood, emotion, or affect? Or all three?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mood is considered a &quot;diffuse&quot; affective state, whereas emotions are &quot;object specific.&quot;  If you're interested in this distinction, look up Mathias Siemer's work.  Gerald Clore also does work on mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're interested in emotions, then this is a bit harder to tell you who to look up.  There's a vast body of literature on many different things relating to emotions.  If you're interested in pure theory, look up Paul Ekman, Klaus Scherer, and Lisa Feldman Barrett.  If you're interested in emotion regulation, look up James Gross.  If you're interested in positive emotions, look up Barbara Frederickson.  The list goes on!  If you want a not particularly comprehensive overview, you can look at the &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Emotions&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're interested in affect (arousal and valence), look up James Russell. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-02-18T19:09:47.093" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9343" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9339" CreationDate="2015-02-18T21:44:59.330" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mirror neurons are actually quite a contentious area in cogsci. The debate is most certainly not settled as to what role they play, and whether they even exist, in humans. In short though, my argument would be that there are no &lt;em&gt;specific&lt;/em&gt; awareness related mirror neurons in the brain because mirror neurons themselves &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; awareness. Again, this is an extremely contentious issue in cogsci, and there is no one answer widely accepted at the moment -- I'll just try to explain and justify my thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's important in anything that's being discussed to have a working definition of the matter at hand. Personally, I would disagree with your definition of naming them &quot;emotion infectors&quot;, instead opting to assume that mirror neurons are very specialised cells allowing for the reenactment of sensory-motor information (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kuleuven.be/mirrorneuronsystem/readinglist/Rizzolatti%20&amp;amp;%20Craighero%202004%20-%20The%20MNS%20-%20ARN.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rizzolatti et al.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=b9WWAwAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA56&amp;amp;dq=gibson+affordance&amp;amp;ots=KUYuxKqrxa&amp;amp;sig=NiUYSetKeXriV6RnBTBY9gLNdFw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gibson&lt;/a&gt; gave us a pretty neat applied example of this in the form of affordances. These are action possibilities possessed by items, but perceived by an agent (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=fDpmpub088AC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA417&amp;amp;dq=norman+2002+the+design+of+every+day+things&amp;amp;ots=dj8pfohJSd&amp;amp;sig=rI8LdEbGHnsBGbZvV6AI7PeOq5I#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Norman's&lt;/a&gt; review for a neat explanation as to why this changed) -- in short, a rock doesn't want us to throw it, but a human might want to throw a rock. Additionally, a mouse might see the same rock and, being unable to lift it and throw it, decide instead to hide behind it from predators. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.macs-eu.org/images/affordance-animals.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;At the same time, a savvy cat may suss out what's actually going on&lt;/a&gt;... What does this mean for mirror neurons? Specifically that this network of cells allow us to understand actions, and create new ones, by parasitizing upon motoric and sensory systems. Essentially, &lt;em&gt;our experience of the world is bound by our bodily constraints&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what does this mean for our experience of abstract concepts? Domains like love, time, depression, and even awareness aren't physical entities, but metaphysical ones. These are conceptually understood (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2025464?sid=21105389470381&amp;amp;uid=3738032&amp;amp;uid=4&amp;amp;uid=2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lakoff&lt;/a&gt;). Time &lt;em&gt;flies&lt;/em&gt;, we are &lt;em&gt;down in the dumps&lt;/em&gt; when depressed and -- the most cheesy of all -- love &lt;em&gt;hurts&lt;/em&gt;. Time doesn't actually fly, we don't shrink when we're depressed and love doesn't actually physically hurt, but we scaffold what is concrete (i.e. sensory-motor information) to the abstract in order to understand it (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8640.1992.tb00377.x/abstract;jsessionid=98B5EBF673A6799B5BA3C93D1F534BBD.f01t04&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Veale &amp;amp; Keane&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, &lt;strong&gt;I don't believe that a mirror neuron network would exist for a process like awareness, because the mirror neuron network itself &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; awareness.&lt;/strong&gt; It's what provides us with a specific ability to understand the environment, to understand actions and, perhaps most importantly, understand ourselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7689" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-02-20T15:09:00.883" LastActivityDate="2015-02-20T15:09:00.883" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9344" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-18T22:48:17.437" Score="6" ViewCount="5098" Body="&lt;p&gt;This &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; be a thought from false information but even from some teachers I've heard quotes of how &lt;code&gt;Sigmund Freud&lt;/code&gt; had a theory about how &lt;em&gt;children are attracted to their parent of the opposite gender.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was just thinking, &lt;em&gt;is that the real theory?&lt;/em&gt; Or did &lt;code&gt;Freud&lt;/code&gt; mean that we are attracted to the person that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;reminds&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; us of our parent of the opposite gender either physically and/or emotionally?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7691" LastEditorUserId="7691" LastEditDate="2015-02-19T00:55:50.763" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T15:12:27.373" Title="Freud's theory regarding child to parent attraction" Tags="&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9345" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9363" CreationDate="2015-02-19T04:16:38.837" Score="-1" ViewCount="2184" Body="&lt;p&gt;What can be some of the causes/reasons that a child (in the 7-year-old range) to speak in a silly voice and in a silly way, more than an average child? I don't know how to be more specific by silly voice and in a silly way, but I mean that the child speaks with a different voice, usually mimicking a spoiled 2-year old in a way that is not the natural way that he usually speaks and It is pretty annoying and not very likable. It happens very often when the child communicates with grown ups. I am guessing it can be an attempt to draw attention or be liked more but I'm not a psychologist so I thought I'd ask. What are some of the causes of this type of behavior in children, and what are some of the cures for it? Is there a difference between causes in girls and boys?&#xA;If you think I need to ask this question in Parenting SE, please let me know.&#xA;thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7692" LastEditorUserId="7692" LastEditDate="2015-02-19T16:21:49.240" LastActivityDate="2019-09-08T05:56:20.103" Title="Cause and cure of silly behavior in children" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-09-09T09:22:00.653" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9346" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9339" CreationDate="2015-02-19T04:38:50.670" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;With regard to emotions, it may be more useful to think about things in terms of interoception and attention.  Interoception involves awareness of one's inner bodily sensations (e.g., pleasantness/unpleasantness, high/low arousal; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v3/n8/full/nrn894.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Craig, 2002&lt;/a&gt;), and we can (rapidly) direct our attention to shifts in these sensations.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Changes in our inner physiological sensations are occurring constantly, but only when we foreground these changes in our attentional field (and make meaning of them) do we consciously experience an emotion (&lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/6/4/292.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Barrett, 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, interoception and attention as involved in emotion recruit the &quot;salience network&quot; (e.g., parts of the insula, parts of the cingulate cortex, etc.), which is involved in body-directed attention (&quot;The Neuroscience of Construction,&quot; Oosterwijk, Touroutoglou, &amp;amp; Lindquist, 2014).  We also make use of the frontoparietal network (e.g., dlPFC, mCC, etc.), involved in executive attention, which might mediate our ability to foreground mental states into awareness.  In this sense, &lt;strong&gt;it seems unlikely that mirror neurons alone are responsible for awareness of one's emotions; instead, broadly distributed neural networks might be involved.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://people.cs.umass.edu/~lfriedl/linked-files/Niedenthal2007EmbodyingEmotion.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Paula Niedenthal&lt;/a&gt; has mentioned a potential role for mirror neurons in the simulation of sensorimotor experiences of emotions in the body.  However, I don't think this corresponds to your hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm otherwise not quite sure if I answered your question, but hopefully this clarifies something for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-02-20T15:06:08.050" LastActivityDate="2015-02-20T15:06:08.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9349" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9313" CreationDate="2015-02-19T09:54:22.443" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Are psychiatric disorders merely statistical deviations?&quot;&#xA;No. Psychiatric disorders are mostly defined by the client's subjective challenges in everyday situations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a client does not report to have any challenges in everyday situations, and reports to not feel that a condition is an issue, then no disorder will be diagnosed.&#xA;If a client reports to have regular challenges in everyday situations, directly linked to a condition, then a disorder is likely to be diagnosed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;As such, disorders are indirectly diagnosed based on the norm&lt;/em&gt;.&#xA;This means that if a society grows stricter expectations to individuals, then a growing proportion of the population will fail to accommodate these expectations, and this will theoretically result in more and more individuals being diagnosed with various disorders.&#xA;This may very well be an explanation to why disorders are seemingly more common in wealthy cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-02-19T09:54:22.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9350" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4302" CreationDate="2015-02-19T13:01:06.280" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A paper I've read (&lt;a href=&quot;http://philpapers.org/archive/ROCSSO.doc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Roche, 2010&lt;/a&gt;) gives a rather pessimistic view about the revelatory powers of hallucinogenics and suggests that they are rather detrimental to a rational worldview if used in the long-term. However the author also acknowledges that there is a correlation between intuitive thinking and the hallucinogenic experience. The paper draws on many sources and is very interesting to read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quote from Terrence McKenna who used LSD exuberantly..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So I did it and...there was a something, like a flower, like a chrysanthemum in orange and yellow that was sort of spinning, spinning, and then it was like I was pushed from behind and I fell through the chrysanthemum into another place that didn't seem like a state of mind, it seemed like another place. And what was going on in this place aside from the tastefully soffited indirect lighting, and the crawling geometric hallucinations along the domed walls, what was happening was that there were a lot of beings in there, what I call self-transforming machine elves. Sort of like jeweled basketballs all dribbling their way toward me. And if they'd had faces they would have been grinning, but they didn't have faces. And they assured me that they loved me and they told me not to be amazed; not to give way to astonishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;— (McKenna, 1993)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psilocybin has been studied to alleviate depression in cancer patients in a well-designed study (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116675513&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Griffiths et al. 2016&lt;/a&gt;). Excerpt from the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The effects of psilocybin were studied in 51 cancer patients with life-threatening diagnoses and symptoms of depression and/or anxiety. This randomized, double-blind, cross-over trial investigated the effects of a very low (placebo-like) dose (1 or 3 mg/70 kg) vs. a high dose (22 or 30 mg/70 kg) of psilocybin administered in counterbalanced sequence with 5 weeks between sessions and a 6-month follow-up. Instructions to participants and staff minimized expectancy effects. Participants, staff, and community observers rated participant moods, attitudes, and  behaviors  throughout  the  study.  High-dose  psilocybin  produced  large  decreases  in  clinician-  and  self-rated  measures  of  depressed  mood  and  anxiety, along with increases in quality of life, life meaning, and optimism, and decreases in death anxiety. At 6-month follow-up, these changes were sustained, with about 80% of participants continuing to show clinically significant decreases in depressed mood and anxiety. Participants attributed improvements  in  attitudes  about  life/self,  mood,  relationships,  and  spirituality  to  the  high-dose  experience,  with  &gt;80%  endorsing  moderately  or  greater  increased  well-being/life  satisfaction.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Carducci, M. A., Umbricht, A., Richards, W. A., Richards, B. D., ... &amp;amp; Klinedinst, M. A. (2016). Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial. &lt;em&gt;Journal of psychopharmacology, 30&lt;/em&gt;(12), 1181-1197. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116675513&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/0269881116675513&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McKenna, T. (1993). &lt;em&gt;Alien Dreamtime&lt;/em&gt; [video].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roche, G. T. (2010). Seeing Snakes: On Delusion, Knowledge, and the Drug Experience. In Dale Jacquette, ed. &lt;em&gt;Cannabis Philosophy for Everyone: What Were We Just Talking About? Chapter 2&lt;/em&gt;, 35-49. Oxford: Blackwell. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444324440.ch2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/9781444324440.ch2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-03-02T11:22:11.383" LastActivityDate="2020-03-02T11:22:11.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9351" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9120" CreationDate="2015-02-19T18:54:11.620" Score="1" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Empathy (exists because cooperation can lead to better survival chances)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Elephants, apes (chimpanzee), donkeys. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dolphins at least see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy#Evolution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy#Evolution&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ch/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=tNaTfIlMh8wC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=empathy+death+animal&amp;amp;ots=2J8RPQfOy3&amp;amp;sig=BJuNrb4k7JtiVAFqmWEbeZjiFB8#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=dolphin&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://books.google.ch/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=tNaTfIlMh8wC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=empathy+death+animal&amp;amp;ots=2J8RPQfOy3&amp;amp;sig=BJuNrb4k7JtiVAFqmWEbeZjiFB8#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=dolphin&amp;amp;f=false&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastEditorUserId="7672" LastEditDate="2015-02-19T19:05:24.230" LastActivityDate="2015-02-19T19:05:24.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9354" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-20T17:51:00.490" Score="3" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing a simple iPhone relaxation app and am thinking of &lt;strong&gt;a very quick test I can do to learn something about the user's level of stress, anxiety, etc.&lt;/strong&gt; The objective is to measure how effective the app is or to adjust the length of the session. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought of using the following measurement process:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ask the user to trace a line with their finger, prior to relaxation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Repeat the tracing process following relaxation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Analyze and compare results to the user's previous entry or historic entries for the same user&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does this approach have any merit or validity? What other simple and quick ways are there to gauge how relaxed or stressed the user is?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A mobile device, like iPhone has 3 axis accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetometer, and a capacitive touchscreen that does not measure the pressure of a touch. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cbGw1.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-02-21T02:16:52.317" LastActivityDate="2015-03-11T11:57:29.130" Title="How to quickly estimate the person's level of stress with a mobile based relaxation app?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9355" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-20T19:21:08.123" Score="3" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/healthy_aging/healthy_connections/forgiveness-your-health-depends-on-it&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Given the mental and physical health benefits of forgiveness&lt;/a&gt;, how is it usually approached in psychological treatment? Despite hours of reading, I still don't understand, and can't even pinpoint why not. Please remark the following assumptions which restrict my definition of 'malefactor' to forgive:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1. The malefactor fails to repent or rue in any way, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutsuhiro_Watanabe&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mutsuhiro Watanabe&lt;/a&gt; (who tortured Captain Louis Zamperini about whom I write below) or the Holocaust perpetrators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2. I ask about genuine forgiveness of the malefactor, and not merely forgetfulness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3. The malefactor recognised his/her actions' turpitude but still wilfully executed them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question was motivated by such virtuous paragons as  &lt;a href=&quot;http://qr.ae/ErK9d&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ms Eva Kor&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/11/world-war-ii-isnt-over-talking-to-unbroken-veteran-louis-zamperini/382616/#disqus_thread&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Capt Louis Zamperini&lt;/a&gt;, the latter of whom advised someone else by citing Mark Twain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Forgiveness is the fragrance that the violet sheds on the heel that has crushed it.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recognise the futility in simply remaining enraged about past injustices, so I'd argue that one should act to resolve this resentment, such as by apprehending and punishing their captors. This is exactly the argument that has bewitched me but that I'd like to surmount; I want to appreciate: How and why could (even) tortured war veterans and concentration camp survivors decide against any revenge?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-09-10T20:36:59.347" Title="How can you forgive (and not only forget) evildoers without any remorse?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9356" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-20T20:18:50.990" Score="4" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am in class for Research Methods and I am having troubles with a conceptualizations process. The question is to describe the conceptualization process you would employ to measure femininity. How exactly do you do that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7710" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-02-21T02:19:16.980" LastActivityDate="2015-02-21T02:19:16.980" Title="How to engage in the conceptualization process to measure a psychological construct such as femininity?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9357" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9356" CreationDate="2015-02-20T20:39:53.733" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Conceptualization in a research methods context basically means generating a precise definition. You and I might have different ideas of what it means to be feminine, which would make it difficult to measure. In order to conduct research that measures femininity, a precise definition is needed so that everyone has a common understanding of what exactly it is that is being measured. You might start this process by identifying different aspects of femininity and generating a list. Then you could try to summarize your list with a few sentences that describes your conceptualization or definition of femininity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-02-20T20:39:53.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9358" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3238" CreationDate="2015-02-20T21:04:57.127" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;One way to understand why people think this way is to replace the word &quot;scientist&quot; with &quot;industry scientist&quot;.  I think most of us would not trust a scientific study about smoking funded by the Tobocco Institute, or study on global warming funded by Exxon.  The view, as I understand it, of many of the anti-vaxxers is that the studies done showing vaccines are safe were done by the drug companies selling those drugs, and therefore aren't to be trusted.  While I disagree with them, I am quite concerned by how much of the testing that is done to determine drug safety and efficacy is carried out by the industry itself, and is therefore prone to conflicts of interest, so I don't consider it a totally crazy point of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7711" LastActivityDate="2015-02-20T21:04:57.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9359" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-20T22:37:38.913" Score="3" ViewCount="277" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm preparing a survey right now and one of the questions I'm looking to answer is: How much does availability bias effect the decision making process for &lt;em&gt;[given behaviour]&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: What's the best way to structure a survey question, or set of questions to test for this heuristic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My current thinking is that I shouldn't mention specific options a respondent may select, because doing so will prime the respondents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i.e. I can't mention specific detergent brands and then ask &quot;Which detergent brand are you most likely to buy this month?&quot;, as that data won't be valid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the possible options a respondent might give if the question is completely open are endless. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anybody have any experience in this type of survey and can lend some insight?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6183" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-02-21T02:15:38.120" LastActivityDate="2015-02-21T02:15:38.120" Title="How can I structure this question to check for availability bias?" Tags="&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9360" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9359" CreationDate="2015-02-21T01:05:12.873" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;it seems that you can use randomization of options to decrease bias. That is, present every respondent with multiple choices but in completely random order.&#xA;Also, bias might be directly tested on two groups, say A&amp;amp;B.&#xA;Only difference will be the order of available answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This manual seems to be very helpful: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pprg.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2010-Handbook-of-Survey-Research.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Handbook of Survey Research, Ch.9 Question and Questionnaire Design&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is shorter insight: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.surveymonkey.com/blog/en/blog/2011/03/02/question-order-matters/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;SurveyMonkey Blog: Question Order Matters&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7712" LastActivityDate="2015-02-21T01:05:12.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9361" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9359" CreationDate="2015-02-21T02:15:17.117" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few options.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You could start with an open ended question and then move to closed ended questions for leading brands and perhaps any other options listed in the previously open ended process.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You could use an input box that takes text and shows partial matches which people then select (e.g., a bit like in Facebook when selecting a friend)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-02-21T02:15:17.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9362" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9354" CreationDate="2015-02-21T09:07:48.013" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What do you think about quick short-memory tests? It will measure distraction level and anxiety. Problem though is that first one must measure baseline rate of correct responses.&#xA;For example, play game &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.web-games-online.com/memory/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;memory&lt;/a&gt; on 5x5 tile set.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7712" LastActivityDate="2015-02-21T09:07:48.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9363" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9345" CreationDate="2015-02-21T09:35:02.030" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Without knowing the child &lt;em&gt;and the adults&lt;/em&gt; in question it is impossible to give more than some very general advice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The current psychological view on parenting is that a child's behavior can be shaped by conditioning, both in wanted and unwanted ways. E.g. if you withdraw adult attention from the unwanted behavior (this includes not punishing it) and reinforce wanted behavior by rewarding it with attention and smiles, the child's behavior should change, if it is not pathological (which the current case does not sound like). Very likely this child behaves as he does because he cannot get what he wants any other way. His &quot;silly&quot; behahavior &quot;works&quot; in that it gets on your nerves and causes you to react. Through your reaction you have taught this child to act &quot;silly&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you think there is more to this child's behavior you might want to talk to a child psychologist in person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2015-02-21T09:35:02.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9364" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9306" CreationDate="2015-02-21T10:39:02.080" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a good explanation &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cognitiveatlas.org/task/Wisconsin_card_sorting_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not a test of IQ or something similar. It is more complex test of ability to find rules and follow from very limited feedback, rules that are changing in time and might be counter-intuitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;WCST is about sequential learning, adaptivity, and memory. Rules usually are as simple as &quot;same color&quot; or &quot;same shapes&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7712" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-04-09T01:21:23.967" LastActivityDate="2015-04-09T01:21:23.967" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9365" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9355" CreationDate="2015-02-22T11:57:26.260" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The prerequisite for forgiveness is actually completely straightforward and easy to comprehend:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Understand and accept the humanity of the perpetrator.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most people are convinced that there is a fundamental difference between themselves and those that commit heineous crimes. Once you understand that the difference is at best gradual; once you face your own propensity for cruelty and violence; once you understand how an unfortunate combination of hereditary and environmental factors have lead to the deed -- you have laid the foundation upon which you may forgive the individual guilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is really a broad topic, but think how the Milgram experiments showed how almost anyone could be talked into torturing another even without any valid reason. Now add to that everything that can go wrong in a person's life and it becomes quite understandable how someone can break and turn into a &amp;quot;monster&amp;quot;. I am often surprised there is actually &lt;em&gt;so little&lt;/em&gt; major crime!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some victims it is helpful to learn what made the person that abused them who they are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second part is the &lt;em&gt;wish to forgive&lt;/em&gt;. For that you need to understand the futility and destructiveness of revenge. Revenge does not bring back a killed loved one; it does not undo the experience of torture; all it does is turn &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; into the kind of person you despise: a person that tortures and kills. Successful revenge does not lead to happiness. Where forgiveness can cause a feeling of enlightenment and release, revenge fixes the state of loss and trauma and adds to it your own guilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapy will grant you a space and time for sorrow and rage and then attempt to help you let go and realize that a good and happy life are still possible if you turn towards it and allow it to happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is usually not something that can be achieved by reading books. If you suffer from trauma you will profit from seeing a qualified therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-09-10T20:36:59.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9367" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-22T12:37:19.397" Score="7" ViewCount="149" Body="&lt;p&gt;I mean, by cognitive psychologists. I skimmed over a few articles from &lt;em&gt;Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Science&lt;/em&gt; and concluded that ANOVAs and t-tests are mostly used (without effect sizes). I'm sure that there are more scientific journals of cognitive psychology than these two, and I guess, that there are also more advanced statistical tools than comparing groups. For example, in social psychology, structural equations modelling and mediation analysis are in fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When asking this question, I had &lt;strong&gt;working memory&lt;/strong&gt; in mind. &#xA;Common methods to measure working memory empirically are, among others: dual task paradigms, n-back tasks and composites of simple memory measures. The main statistical tools that are applied to these measures seem to be mainly ANOVAs, t-tests, and other variations on traditional linear modeling, but what are the alternatives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the most used statistical methods in WM research besides (generalized) linear modeling?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4874" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-01T12:08:44.427" LastActivityDate="2015-05-03T12:28:43.917" Title="What are the most used statistical methods in WM research besides (generalized) linear modeling?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9368" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8268" CreationDate="2015-02-22T19:50:11.357" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A meta-analysis of 397 neuroimaging studies was just published looking at this very question (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unc.edu/~kal29/docs/Lindquist_Satpute_etal_CC_inpress.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;see here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They tested three hypotheses: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bipolarity&lt;/strong&gt; - negative and positive are on the same continuum&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bivalence&lt;/strong&gt; - negative and positive are independent&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Affective workspace&lt;/strong&gt; - valence is supported by a &quot;flexible set of valence-general regions&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their analyses are rather complicated, but they didn't find much support for the bipolarity or bivalence hypotheses.  Instead, in support of the affective workspace hypothesis, they conclude (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These findings suggest that, &lt;strong&gt;at the level of regional brain activity, there is no single region or even voxel that uniquely represents positivity or negativity&lt;/strong&gt;. Limbic tissue, including the anterior insula, rostral ACC/ventromedial prefrontal cortex, dorsal ACC, amygdala, ventral striatum, as well as several other regions including the thalamus and occipitotemporal cortex, appears to contain cells that are part of the brain’s valence-general affective workspace or “affective neural reference space&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But they note that some brain regions have &lt;em&gt;preferences&lt;/em&gt; for negativity or positivity, meaning that these brain regions may &lt;em&gt;tend to&lt;/em&gt; represent negativity or positivity over the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This meta-analysis isn't definitive, but it's the best we have right now. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-02-22T21:18:30.070" LastActivityDate="2015-02-22T21:18:30.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9370" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9371" CreationDate="2015-02-23T02:26:28.527" Score="5" ViewCount="992" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that men and women are different mentally (but nonetheless equals), however this way of thinking is very hard for me to explain philosophically, so I'd like to learn about what roots this concept might have in science. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems logical that per our different roles throughout history, especially in more primitive times, men and women would have evolved different strengths in areas our brains to excel in different ways. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Have different mental strengths evolved in men and women?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; By &quot;mental strengths&quot;, more specifically I mean specific types of cognitive thought processing. Behavioral capacities, for example. Areas of our brains that function at different strengths.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9361" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-02-24T15:08:39.600" LastActivityDate="2015-02-24T15:08:39.600" Title="Have different mental strengths evolved in men and women?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9371" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9370" CreationDate="2015-02-23T02:36:03.307" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is little neurological evidence that finds a difference between men and women. However there are psychological studies that do find a &lt;em&gt;small difference in mental strengths&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/ben_ambridge_10_myths_about_psychology_debunked&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This interesting TED talk debunking psychological myths&lt;/a&gt; by a lecturer from the University of Liverpool discusses the psychological differences between men and women. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Males and females are &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;slightly different&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; when it comes to &lt;strong&gt;spacial awareness&lt;/strong&gt; (the top 1/3 of females perform as well as the top 1/2 of men) and &lt;strong&gt;language&lt;/strong&gt; (the top 1/3 of men perform as well as the top 1/2 of women), but the difference is so slight that its not worth taking into consideration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I moved this answer over from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/29829/do-men-and-women-have-parts-of-the-brain-that-show-different-level-of-activities&quot;&gt;biology question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7726" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2015-02-23T18:04:08.247" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9374" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-23T15:22:37.150" Score="6" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://harpers.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/HarpersMagazine-1996-01-0007859.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; published in Harper's magazine back in 1996, journalist David Foster Wallace described his experience with hypnotist Nigel Ellery (see the last section of the article, titled &quot;THE HEADLINE ENTERTAINMENT&quot;). Mr Ellery was providing part of the entertainment on the cruise ship that David was on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to hypnotism, David writes that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;First off, we learn that not everyone is susceptible to serious hypnosis: Nigel Ellery puts the Celebrity Show Lounge's whole 300-plus crowd through some simple in-your-seat tests to determine who is suggestibly &quot;gifted&quot; enough to &quot;participate&quot; in the &quot;fun&quot; to come.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the footnote to that paragraph just quoted, David writes that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I, who know from hard experience that I am hypnotizable, think about sports statistics and deliberately flunk a couple of the tests to avoid getting up there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question I wanted to ask is, are there any studies looking into why some people would be more susceptible to hypnotism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am particularly interested in is whether this has something to do with a habitual activation or inactivation of parts of the brain, or perhaps the levels of some neuromodulators?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7724" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-24T18:53:34.850" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T18:53:34.850" Title="Are there any studies (fMRI scans, etc) showing why some people (supposedly) are more open to hypnotism?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9375" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9376" CreationDate="2015-02-23T17:29:42.337" Score="2" ViewCount="162" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is my first time askin on Cog Sci board, not sure this is a right place to ask but I think it's something relates to Psychology and Cognitive Science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yesterday I bought a shirt that looked very nice on my with its grayish color. I brought it back home and tried it again but I was surprised that the color was not as grayish as I had seen in the store, but rather bluish. Thought I picked up the wrong one so I asked my roommate but he said that it had happened to him once before that the color didn't turn out to be exactly the same as he had seen in store.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in that phenomena but don't really have enough knowledge in that field to search for a right term or word. So can you please explain that phenomena in short and which field/term should I dig into in order to explore it more?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7731" LastActivityDate="2015-02-25T02:55:59.430" Title="Why clothes' color is different than it appeared in stores?" Tags="&lt;color&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9376" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9375" CreationDate="2015-02-24T03:01:02.037" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's difficult to say why this happened in your particular situation, but one contributing factor may be that color perception is relative. How a particular color is perceived depends on the surrounding colors. The best way to demonstrate this is through an optical illusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FNmZ1.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;green/blue heart illusion&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It looks like there are two different color hearts, but all of the hearts &lt;em&gt;are exactly the same color&lt;/em&gt;. The illusion is created because the &quot;green&quot; hearts are striped with orange lines, and the &quot;blue&quot; hearts are striped with purple lines. Since color processing is relative, the different stripes cause us to perceive the underlying color very differently.This illusion comes from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.ritsumei.ac.jp/~akitaoka/color12e.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Akiyoshi Kitaoka's website&lt;/a&gt;, where there are several more examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-02-24T03:01:02.037" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9377" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-24T09:26:58.097" Score="1" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a terminology or specific topic that explains the behaviour or phenomenon expressed in the following quote?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The greatest anomaly of belief is that it is so powerful it takes over&#xA;  the identity of a man. People of belief  believe so strongly that they&#xA;  become the belief. They are the belief. So  anything or anyone that&#xA;  questions their belief is taken as a personal  attack on themselves&#xA;  and their person. Belief is so powerful and deeply set in delusion&#xA;  that even if presented with verifiable proof and facts to the&#xA;  contrary; the believer reacts with emotional outburst ranging from&#xA;  anger to rage to violence even murder. In the case of phylogenetic&#xA;  group or culture insanity it leads to war and genocide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4695" LastActivityDate="2015-02-25T15:22:34.097" Title="The belief becoming the self" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T19:08:08.727" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9380" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9382" CreationDate="2015-02-24T16:02:04.090" Score="4" ViewCount="329" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a set of images that evoke a disgust reaction. In particular, I'm looking for disgusting &lt;em&gt;objects&lt;/em&gt; (e.g. feces, maggots). Is there a database of images like this? It would be especially useful if there were norming or rating data on how disgusting people found the images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-02-25T08:06:05.010" LastActivityDate="2018-05-20T10:24:32.907" Title="Is there a database of disgusting images for stimuli for experimental study of disgust?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9382" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9380" CreationDate="2015-02-24T16:28:06.930" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Try the IAPS--International Affective Picture System; they have disgusting images as well as norming procedures and data.  You can read about it &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.unifesp.br/dpsicobio/Nova_versao_pagina_psicobio/adap/instructions.pdf&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and request it (as long as you have a faculty advisor) &lt;a href=&quot;http://csea.phhp.ufl.edu/media.html#topmedia&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2015-02-24T16:28:06.930" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9383" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9375" CreationDate="2015-02-24T18:28:03.570" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The issue is probably the same as with fruits. Different lights produce different appearance. LED light has been shown to produce daylight appearance. I however can't find a high quality source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://news.discovery.com/human/led-lights-grocery-shopping-110308.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://news.discovery.com/human/led-lights-grocery-shopping-110308.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastEditorUserId="7672" LastEditDate="2015-02-24T20:33:17.657" LastActivityDate="2015-02-24T20:33:17.657" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9385" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9375" CreationDate="2015-02-25T02:55:59.430" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lighting in the store makes a lot of difference. Though there isn't much incandescent any more, florescent bulbs vary. The reflective properties of the area matter, too. My biggest problem is matching socks having a brown component with my clothes. Under one light they're brown. Under another light they're green. When I get to work I'm dismayed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, stores place items together in an ideal situation to sell, which often does not exist outside the store.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7472" LastActivityDate="2015-02-25T02:55:59.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9386" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9355" CreationDate="2015-02-25T03:07:57.560" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think forgiving is a reasoned view. If we do not forgive people we lock ourselves into bigotry, viewing everyone's intentions reactively and with confirmation bias as to who we think they are. People who do evil by accepted definitions of same, might instead be viewed as representing one extreme of a spectrum. If overcoming confirmation bias is a learned skill, the ability to forgive might also be a learned skill and something we can choose to do better at.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7472" LastActivityDate="2015-02-25T03:07:57.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9387" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-25T04:31:38.317" Score="4" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most resources mention using 20 'practice' trials categorizing both targets and attributes, followed by 40 'real' trials categorizing both targets and attributes. Note that this is after practicing with targets and attributes alone. Is there a downside to using more than 20/40 trials? (I know some recommend using extra practice trials when learning the new target/button assignment.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7743" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-03-21T23:11:32.553" LastActivityDate="2015-03-21T23:11:32.553" Title="Is there a downside to using more than the typical 20/40 trials in an IAT?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9388" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-25T07:20:08.290" Score="4" ViewCount="219" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the Long term effects of using stimulant like modafinil on cognition abilty? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4997" LastEditorUserId="4997" LastEditDate="2015-02-25T14:37:15.517" LastActivityDate="2017-07-27T01:14:50.390" Title="Long term effects of using modafinil on cognition" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-27T20:38:02.853" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9389" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-25T09:04:37.427" Score="11" ViewCount="606" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dropbox.com/s/1i7u20kw1115bzz/Sex%20Differences%20in%20Mental%20Test%20Scores.pdf?dl=0&quot;&gt;Hedges and Nowell&lt;/a&gt; (1995) write that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sex differences in central tendency, variability, and numbers of high&#xA;  scores on mental tests have been extensively studied. Research has not&#xA;  always seemed to yield consistent results, partly because most studies&#xA;  have not used representative samples of national populations. An&#xA;  analysis of mental test scores from six studies that used national&#xA;  probability samples provided evidence that although average sex&#xA;  differences have been generally small and stable over time, the test&#xA;  scores of males consistently have larger variance. Except in tests of&#xA;  reading comprehension, perceptual speed, and associative memory, males&#xA;  typically outnumber females substantially among high-scoring&#xA;  individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, they don't really say anything about the reason for this aside from that &quot;Our results shed little light on the origins of sex differences in [...] variability&quot; (p45).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What theories are there of the reasons for this sex difference in variability on mental tests, and how strong is the evidence to support these theories?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="8310" LastEditDate="2015-02-25T09:58:24.770" LastActivityDate="2018-07-23T12:32:00.480" Title="Why do men have greater variance than women in mental test scores?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9390" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-25T09:58:03.293" Score="2" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like some estimates of how many hours of English speech kids typically are exposed to before reaching various levels of mastery. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize this is a very fuzzy question, but I'm sure ballpark numbers must exist. The motivation for this question is trying to get a lower bound for the required size of a training corpus for automatic speech recognition (ASR) systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="BuschnicK" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-02-25T12:07:22.357" LastActivityDate="2015-02-26T11:45:27.330" Title="How many hours of speech do kids hear before learning a language?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9390" CreationDate="2015-02-25T11:00:26.560" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Children, when they learn their first language, do not learn this language, rather they &quot;learn the world&quot;. An adult spends some time of his day on learning a (second) language, and much time on other tasks. For an adult, the two (or more) activities are mostly separate. For a child learning a first language, learning this language is inseparably entwined with learning about what his perceptions mean and what his actions effect. It takes a normal child about 12 to 16 years to fully grasp the depths of his mother tongue, because a basic understanding of the world takes that long. And with &quot;the depths&quot; I do not mean all the words and perfect grammar, but a basic average ability to understand and express yourself in your mother tongue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a teenage or adult native English speaker learning a &lt;em&gt;second&lt;/em&gt; language, an average of 575 (for &quot;easy&quot; languages) and 2200 class hours (for &quot;difficult&quot; languages) was estimated to reach a high level of proficiency (sources at &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-language_acquisition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;). To this you have to add homework and self-directed learning for and after classes, so your overall learning hours will multiply. Numbers will differ for native speakers of other languages (because learning a language that is similar or even related to your own is easier).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Do not forget that humans need time for knowledge to &quot;settle&quot;. If you try to learn to much in too little time, the new knowledge pushes out what has not yet been &quot;fixed&quot; in your long term memory. So you need to spread these actual learning hours over several months or years, allowing for rest and active practise.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2015-02-25T11:00:26.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9392" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9377" CreationDate="2015-02-25T14:39:52.333" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I have understood things right, I think it is some form of 'Cognitive dissonance'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to wikipedia,&quot;cognitive dissonance is the mental stress or discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time, or is confronted by new information that conflicts with existing beliefs, ideas, or values&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember experiencing the feel in one of the Ayn Rand books. As kids, our basic belief would be that our parents love us the most. Their love is the purest form of unconditional love. No matter what you do, they will always love and be for you for what you are. Suddenly , one day you wake up to the fact that the belief you have is entirely foolish. Your parents love you not for 'what you are' but just because 'who you are - their child'. You question yourself if your parents(as persons) would love you the same way if you had not been their kid. Because the answer to the question is a simple no. I cried at the very thought. Our mind tries to defend the previous comforting belief and disprove the new bitter realization and then helplessly experience outbursts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is more seen in case of religious beliefs as said in the quote. Your deep rooted beliefs are shattered and the mind can't smoothly accept the new version - Cognitive Dissonance, as they term it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7745" LastEditorUserId="7745" LastEditDate="2015-02-25T15:22:34.097" LastActivityDate="2015-02-25T15:22:34.097" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9394" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-25T16:42:11.220" Score="11" ViewCount="1494" Body="&lt;p&gt;Particularly, the amphetamine &quot;vyvanse&quot;. If one was to take a 30mg dose once a day for 50+ years, would it damage brain function at all? Would the brain simply get used to the drug and become 100% tolerant to it? Would the brain damage be permanent? Would the brain's performance be improved for the whole time taking the medication? These are some of the questions I have regarding ADHD amphetamines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7746" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-29T11:09:39.080" LastActivityDate="2018-06-29T11:09:39.080" Title="Do ADHD drugs harm the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9397" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9398" CreationDate="2015-02-26T00:27:59.657" Score="5" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you refer to yourself in the third person for a day how does your understanding of self change? For example are you more inclined to consider your actions and motivations from and external perspective and perhaps question them more deeply? Or perhaps, does an exercise like this lead to detachment from self and perhaps some form of depersonalization? And is there any research in this area?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="68" LastActivityDate="2015-02-28T22:45:05.357" Title="Does 3rd person reference to self change perception of self?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9398" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9397" CreationDate="2015-02-26T03:05:12.107" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;One way to think about this is called &quot;self-distancing&quot; (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/20/3/187.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kross &amp;amp; Ayduk, 2011&lt;/a&gt;), which has primarily been studied in terms of emotion regulation.  Self-distancing is when you view your experiences from a third-person perspective.  This is generally considered to be an adaptive form of self-reflection (as opposed to rumination, which is generally considered to be maladaptive). However, as a rule, most things are neither purely adaptive or maladaptive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-distancing is a relatively potent strategy for dampening negative emotions (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycarticles/2012-12790-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Webb, Miles &amp;amp; Sheeran, 2012&lt;/a&gt;) and is associated with reduced cardiovascular reactivity to negative experiences (&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/19/3/229.full?ijkey=42b292dfbf6826ac5bcb39768b7f1613deb525a2&amp;amp;keytype2=tf_ipsecsha&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ayduk &amp;amp; Kross, 2008&lt;/a&gt;). It's also associated with a reduction in intrusive thoughts and more problem-solving behavior (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/98/5/809/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ayduk &amp;amp; Kross, 2010&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're interested in learning more about this, look up Ozlem Ayduk and Ethan Kross.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-02-28T22:45:05.357" LastActivityDate="2015-02-28T22:45:05.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9399" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9390" CreationDate="2015-02-26T11:45:27.330" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Learning a language is a fuzzy concept and I am not sure how it relates to ASR. Individuals who are born deaf can often learn and master written and spoken language. To an extent many are exposed to hundreds (thousands) of hours of speech while observing mouth shapes and feeling the face and throat, but they have never heard the speech. I am not sure how this relates to ASR.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think pre-lingually deaf individuals who receive a cochlear implant later in life are a good comparison for ASR. They have the advantage of having a fully developed brain and motor system and a grasp (possibly mastery) of the language prior to the implant unlike infants. They tend to reach asymptotic speech recognition performance within a few months. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2015-02-26T11:45:27.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9400" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23535" CreationDate="2015-02-26T13:10:19.433" Score="6" ViewCount="2027" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possibly to become addicted to learning?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What drives this addiction and how can it be controlled?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note:&#xA;I'm not sure this is the right exchange for this question... Its the best fit as far as I can see though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7753" LastActivityDate="2019-07-03T17:34:49.143" Title="Can one become addicted to learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9401" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-26T15:15:22.830" Score="1" ViewCount="590" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's the psychology behind grafittit?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What mentality do graffiti vandals have?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5064" LastActivityDate="2015-04-02T10:44:38.690" Title="Psychology: Grafitti/Grafitti Vandal(s)" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-04-02T15:58:07.810" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9402" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-26T17:59:00.657" Score="9" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have just started to work on problems in neuroscience on my own.  I sought to analyze the P300 response from EEG data because I was trying to understand a Kaggle.com challenge that used it.  I found a few available datasets online, a couple of which were from BCI competitions, but have not been able to successfully separate the signals with the P300 response from those without the response.  So far, I have subtracted the average of a channel from the channel and run a bandpass filter on the data. This seems to produce good looking data, but looking for the associated event related potential (ERP) leads to inclusive results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears that the data from the BCI competition may not be easy to analyze, but it is the most documented P300 response with available data that I can find.  That said, some of the techniques used involve mathematical functions such as principal component analysis (PCA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA), and T-weights to find the signal and classify and analyze it.  I am aware of references available for these mathematical techniques but not in the context of neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, I am aware that there are some EEG analysis toolboxes for Python, but it is more important for me to understand the data than to feed it through a black box.  Also, I have found these toolboxes rather undocumented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7754" LastEditorUserId="7754" LastEditDate="2015-02-26T18:05:44.380" LastActivityDate="2016-06-13T21:52:02.497" Title="What are some good references for preprocessing and analysis of the P300 response from EEG data in Python?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;&lt;p300&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9403" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-26T19:50:49.900" Score="4" ViewCount="541" Body="&lt;p&gt;What methods or approaches exist or might be developed to measure precision of measurement in a classical test theory framework? &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/science/programs/testing/standards.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (American Psychological Association, 2014) talks about precision of measurement in several places, but does not seem to provide any references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, to what extent is precision of measurement in IRT theory similar to or different from absolute agreement in score (as opposed to inter-rater reliability or test reliability as measured by alpha) in CTT?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7755" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-06T20:39:35.240" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T20:39:35.240" Title="How to measure precision in classical test theory framework?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;reliability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9404" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9580" CreationDate="2015-02-27T01:44:34.860" Score="6" ViewCount="1888" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neural repetition suppression seems to be describing behavioral habituation on a neuronal level. What's the difference between these two terms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-03-22T15:03:27.430" LastActivityDate="2015-03-22T17:00:43.270" Title="What's the difference between repetition suppression and habituation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9405" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9406" CreationDate="2015-02-27T04:23:36.550" Score="30" ViewCount="2849" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's the dress (and keep reading, this is actually a serious question):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OjCDA.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question about this image has apparently become &lt;a href=&quot;http://knowyourmeme.com/memes/what-color-is-this-dress&quot;&gt;quite a rapidly spreading meme on the internet.&lt;/a&gt; And after conducting my own little home experiment I can see why! My brother an law looked at this image on the same screen as I did and said matter-of-factly that the dress is black and blue. I, on the other hand can't see this as anything but gold and white. I tried this question with a few others with similar results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question is... what is going on here? What is causing this to either appear strongly as black and blue or gold and white?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="68" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-02-27T09:54:50.037" LastActivityDate="2020-02-08T14:14:32.410" Title="What color is this dress? -- And why do some see it as white and gold and others see it as black and blue?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9406" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9405" CreationDate="2015-02-27T04:34:20.863" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;My hypothesis: The world accidentally stumbled upon the first (to my knowledge) bi-stable color illusion&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an example of bistable illusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/YBsKWjo.gif&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This bistable illusion involves the perception of motion. Is the dancer spinning clockwise or counterclockwise? The deal is that the image is actually ambiguous. But you can't possible perceive both clockwise or counterclockwise motion at once, so you are automatically drawn to one and it's hard to switch off to the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And here is an example of a color illusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bUS39.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Amazingly the &quot;blue&quot; in the left cube and the &quot;yellow&quot; squares in the right cube are both the same color - grey! (Go ahead and take out your RGB color meter and see for yourself.) And the effect here is caused by the &quot;context&quot; of the color placed over the images of the cubes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking that somehow an ambiguous background to that dress image and the possibility for a fabric that has a sheen, is leading us quickly come to the subconscious conclusion that this is either a black/blue dress under bright yellow-tinted light or a gold/white dress that is in a bluish shadow. And whatever conclusion we start with is so strong that we can't break from it or see it any other way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="68" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-01-06T07:27:18.180" LastActivityDate="2019-01-06T07:27:18.180" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9408" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12586" CreationDate="2015-02-27T09:50:15.780" Score="9" ViewCount="1043" Body="&lt;p&gt;Regardless of whether people are extraverts or introverts, if they are asked to act in an extraverted way, this improves their mood (for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2011-18181-001/&quot;&gt;Zelenski and others 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. My question is concerns the reasons for why introverts don't engage in extraverted behavior. According to dual process models of behavior (for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://public.psych.iastate.edu/caa/classes/Readings/Strack%202004.pdf&quot;&gt;Strack, Deutsch, 2014&lt;/a&gt;), human behavior is a combination of impulses and more reflective behavior (for example self-control). It strikes me that extraverted behavior is often quite impulsive (e.g. posting a funny picture of oneself on facebook). So, do introverts lack these impulses, or are they too inclined to keep them under control? Is there any research that has tried to disentangle the two processes? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-06T08:43:51.237" LastActivityDate="2015-11-12T04:46:26.897" Title="Do introverts engage in too much self-control or do they lack impulsivity?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;introversion&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9409" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3750" CreationDate="2015-02-27T11:47:12.797" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;More recent research suggests that when people talk about envy, they may actually refer to two different kinds of emotions. One is the classic &quot;evil&quot; form of envy and the other is a benign kind of envy, which is also painful but not hostile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quoting the abstract from Van de Ven et al. (2009):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Envy is the painful emotion caused by the good fortune of others. This&#xA;  research empirically supports the distinction between two&#xA;  qualitatively different types of envy, namely benign and malicious&#xA;  envy. It reveals that the experience of benign envy leads to a&#xA;  moving-up motivation aimed at improving one's own position, whereas&#xA;  the experience of malicious envy leads to a pulling-down motivation&#xA;  aimed at damaging the position of the superior other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same thing can also be found with regard to &lt;a href=&quot;http://soco.uni-koeln.de/docs/Lange_Crusius_2015_PSPB.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;trait envy&lt;/a&gt;. Because of their personality, some people lean more towards the benign kind of envy whereas others react more with malicious envy when they encounter other people who are better than them in something. The two forms of envy can be distinguished with a more recent &lt;a href=&quot;http://soco.uni-koeln.de/docs/BeMaS_English.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dispositional envy scale&lt;/a&gt; (BeMaS) by Lange and Crusius (2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common denominator of this research seems to be that envy as an emotion has its functional sides (at least for the person experiencing envy). Because, either way, it pushes people to level differences to others who outperform them (there may be collateral damage though). Interestingly, benign envy seems to motivate people to push harder to reach ones goal more strongly than other related emotions, such as admiration (Van de Ven et al., 2011), which feels good but doesn't motivate. No pain, no gain. In other words, what I am trying to say is that, maybe, it is not so desirable to be completely envy free, even if that would be possible. Maybe the more important question is how can we stop feeling the evil kind of envy, but instead use the motivating qualities of benign envy to push us a little further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lange, J., &amp;amp; Crusius, J. (2015). Dispositional envy revisited: Unraveling the motivational dynamics of benign and malicious envy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 284-294.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., &amp;amp; Pieters, R. (2009). Leveling up and down: The experience of benign and malicious envy. Emotion, 3, 419–429.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., &amp;amp; Pieters, R. (2011). Why envy outperforms admiration. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(6), 784–795.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-08T10:48:56.077" LastActivityDate="2015-05-08T10:48:56.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9410" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9380" CreationDate="2015-02-27T12:18:00.557" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may also have a look at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uam.es/gruposinv/ceaco/EmoMadrid.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EmoMadrid&lt;/a&gt;-database, which can also be accessed for free and the author's do not mention any restrictions of whom they give it to. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uam.es/gruposinv/ceaco/sup/permisoYclave.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; are the instructions on how to get access.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-02-27T12:45:19.030" LastActivityDate="2015-02-27T12:45:19.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9412" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10026" CreationDate="2015-02-27T13:26:13.453" Score="10" ViewCount="397" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read on this &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_10/d_10_cr/d_10_cr_lan/d_10_cr_lan.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;website&lt;/a&gt; that Broca's area was the first area of the brain to be associated correctly with a specific function, in that case language. But I couldn't find any other source for the statement, so I wonder if this statement is true. Any idea?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7760" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-09T15:50:20.000" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T06:44:49.163" Title="Which area of the brain was first correctly associated with a specific function?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9414" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10044" CreationDate="2015-02-27T19:05:04.837" Score="6" ViewCount="4688" Body="&lt;p&gt;The hot sauce paradigm is a way to measure aggressive behavior in the lab. Participants are asked to give a portion of hot sauce to another person (who they know hates hot sauce) and who will have to eat it all, ostensibly as part of a taste test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the pros and cons of the hot sauce paradigm?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-11T22:17:17.073" LastActivityDate="2019-08-19T03:41:11.150" Title="What are the pros and cons of the hot sauce paradigm to measure aggression?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9416" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9140" CreationDate="2015-02-28T06:29:44.023" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Distinguish and separate envy and jealousy. Jealousy is one of many facets of fear within the community whilst envy is fear within self. Yet both stem from inner insecurities and are therefore difficult to separate in a logical sense. &#xA;I suppose one can break it like this: Jealousy usually involves only one other person whilst envy may involve a number of people and a number of issues. Yet both feelings - however 'real' they are - come from one place only.. the person/patient themselves. The core within that person has to be found and they have to define the meaning of the two words themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7775" LastActivityDate="2015-02-28T06:29:44.023" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9417" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2025" CreationDate="2015-02-28T07:45:01.940" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Einstein might have a fair point of view in this manner. He presumably is pointing out the balance between reading and creative thinking. too much reading causes people to not question critically and refrain from interpreting ideas in their own unique way, whereas reading and learning at your own rate and time can lead to more promising ways of understanding the critical view of the world. Take the time to process and think about what you want to know, but even more important is to look at something through your own perspective and to not take the view that a book might give you. you are an individual and we all think differently :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7776" LastActivityDate="2015-02-28T07:45:01.940" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9418" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9428" CreationDate="2015-02-28T09:06:50.073" Score="8" ViewCount="647" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you believe the stereotype, women are much more talkative then men. Is there a kernel of truth to this stereotype? I have seen media reports of studies trying to debunk this as a myth. However, some people seem to doubt whether these studies are based on representative samples. What is the current state of the science on this question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-03-01T00:03:16.493" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T12:20:25.407" Title="Do women talk more than men?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9419" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-28T11:32:19.370" Score="6" ViewCount="408" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some foods are delicious. People love eating them, and the experience has a positive reinforcement. Thus, people will eat the food again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some foods are instead &quot;challenging&quot;, at least initially. For example, spicy or unfamiliar food. There are some foods which are considered particularly challenging like &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durian&quot;&gt;Durian fruit&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_egg&quot;&gt;Century eggs&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why don't people simply stop eating this food, and instead acquire a taste for it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3468" LastActivityDate="2015-03-22T16:13:19.053" Title="What is an acquired taste?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9420" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-28T12:41:53.897" Score="3" ViewCount="340" Body="&lt;p&gt;Over the past few years when I randomly choose to look at a clock I typically see particular patterns of times. The main pattern is repeating digits (e.g., 04:04; 11:11; 16:16). This occurs on multiple clock-based devices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What can explain the tendency to frequently see particular patterns of time when checking the time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7778" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-01T05:34:09.647" LastActivityDate="2015-03-02T09:19:01.003" Title="What causes someone to frequently see particular patterns of digits when they look at a clock?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9421" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="753" CreationDate="2015-02-28T14:20:35.667" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;That' a very difficult question because research on negotiations is so varied and multidisciplinary. There is prescriptive research stemming from a decision analysis approach and game theory, descriptive research from behavioral economics, and more process-oriented, social-cognitive research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an excellent starting point into psychological research on negotiation I would recommend Leigh Thompson's book:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thompson, Leigh. 2013. The Mind and the Heart of the Negotiator. Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 6th ed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-02-28T14:20:35.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9422" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8182" CreationDate="2015-02-28T16:33:15.010" Score="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is interesting about this phenomenon is that it runs counter to the &lt;strong&gt;scarcity principle&lt;/strong&gt;. Countless research has shown that the more scarce a commodity is, the more desirable it becomes. This is often capitalized on in marketing (&quot;limited edition&quot; and so on). Thus, the last donut should actually be even more attractive than one of many donuts. So something additional must be happening here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Daniel Effron and Dale Miller did a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002210311000226X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;series of experiments&lt;/a&gt; on this question. Their data is very nice because it shows that both things happen at the same time. The less supply or the more demand for a commodity (they used stuff like chocolate or the opportunity to watch a funny video), the more people wanted to have it. At the same time, they were slower or less likely to take it. The latter tendency increased with the number of group members. Effron and Miller show that this is related to a reduced feeling of entitlement--they call it &lt;strong&gt;&quot;diffusion of entitlement&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;. So we want the last piece of chocolate more, but don't think we are entitled to it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what's the difference to the effects of scarcity in consumer situations (&quot;black friday&quot;)? Effron and Miller discuss that it might be equality norms that are more important when we are in small groups. In contrast, in consumer contexts it might be more a norm of first come first served. It might be a matter of anonymity as well I guess. Whatever it may be, this data adds to research showing that often we are less selfish and care more for the outcome of others than a standard economics approach (homo oeconomicus) would suggest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Effron, Daniel and Dale T. Miller. 2011. Diffusion of entitlement: An inhibitory effect of scarcity on consumption. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 47: 378-383.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-09-03T06:39:39.480" LastActivityDate="2015-09-03T06:39:39.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9423" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-28T19:09:26.097" Score="7" ViewCount="251" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most people get &quot;depressed&quot; every now and then - nothing serious, but people sometimes feel down. I am wondering if positive self-affirmation can make you happier by physically increasing the serotonin levels in your brain, or by some other mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can positive self-affirmation improve mood?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7783" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-11-17T00:28:41.663" LastActivityDate="2016-01-25T12:51:34.780" Title="Can positive self-affirmation improve mood?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9424" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5379" CreationDate="2015-02-28T20:30:54.320" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Karen Pryor's book &lt;em&gt;Don't Shoot the Dog&lt;/em&gt; is an ideal introduction to Behaviorism for the layman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7786" LastActivityDate="2015-02-28T20:30:54.320" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9425" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-02-28T21:50:33.390" Score="3" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently reading this paper: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Savic &amp;amp; Lindström (2008). &lt;em&gt;PET and MRI show differences in cerebral asymmetry and functional connectivity between homo- and heterosexual subjects&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It certainly is an interesting study but I just can't understand what the benefit is of mapping PET data on MRI scan images instead of doing fMRI scans. Any ideas what the benefits are?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I found out that reference 64 is referenced in the text but missing in the reference list. I was thinking that PNAS is peer reviewed...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All right then, any feedback is much appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7788" LastActivityDate="2015-02-28T22:32:39.633" Title="Why superimposing PET data on MRI scan images instead of doing fMRI scans?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9425" CreationDate="2015-02-28T22:32:39.633" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;They used MRI to compare asymmetry in hemispheric &lt;em&gt;volumes&lt;/em&gt; across the groups. Hemispheric volume is not something that is changing over time, and so it doesn't require the use of functional neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, if we want to be accurate when measuring volume and making comparisons across groups, we need to have high spatial resolution of the cerebral hemispheres. fMRI does not have the same degree of spatial resolution as MRI. Consequently, MRI is much better for studying anatomy, whereas fMRI is good for studying function (due to its relatively high temporal resolution).  So when imaging hemispheric volumes, MRI is better suited for the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-02-28T22:32:39.633" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9428" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9418" CreationDate="2015-03-01T03:00:39.533" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Funnily enough, there was a &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; article published on this (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psicol.unam.mx/profesionales/PsiClinica/iem/MehlScience2007.pdf&quot;&gt;see here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their sample of university students, Mehl et al. had participants wear a specialized device that recorded audio samples from daily life (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dingo.sbs.arizona.edu/~mehl/EAR.htm&quot;&gt;The EAR&lt;/a&gt;). They report that (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The data suggest that women spoke on average 16,215 (SD = 7301) words and men 15,669 (SD = 8633) words over an assumed period of, on average, 17 waking hours. Expressed in a common effect-size metric (Cohen’s d = 0.07), this sex difference in daily word use (546 words) is equal to only 7% of the standardized variability among women and men. Further, the difference does not meet conventional thresholds for statistical significance (P = 0.248, one-sided test). &lt;strong&gt;Thus, the data fail to reveal a reliable sex difference in daily word use. Women and men both use on average about 16,000 words per day, with very large individual differences around this mean.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although, it's possible that we might see systematic differences depending on factors other than sex (e.g., SES, age).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mehl, M. R., Vazire, S., Ramírez-Esparza, N., Slatcher, R. B., &amp;amp; Pennebaker, J. W. (2007). Are women really more talkative than men?. Science, 317(5834), 82-82.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-01T05:13:35.560" LastActivityDate="2015-03-01T05:13:35.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9429" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9420" CreationDate="2015-03-01T05:32:42.327" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general humans are excellent at seeing patterns in randomness. &#xA;It seems like you have attached special meaning to certain patterns. It seems similar to the way people form superstitions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Checking the time may also be something that we do so regularly and automatically that we do not know how often we do it. And it may be that the pattern confirming cases rise up and appear to be of significance, whereas the many other non-conforming patterns go unnoticed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also have a fairly reasonable internal clock. And people also form habits. So it may also be that you have habituated to checking the time more frequently around these times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-01T23:44:16.830" LastActivityDate="2015-03-01T23:44:16.830" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9430" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-01T07:58:49.450" Score="3" ViewCount="607" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to run an SPR experiment where participants will read sentences at their own pace. My problem lies in the fact of using  2 different languages English and Arabic at the same time. I tried it with Linger, but I failed to upload the files. &#xA;Could any one of you suggest another software by which I can run SPR tasks in Arabic and English?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7734" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-03-02T14:30:45.383" LastActivityDate="2016-05-03T22:42:47.753" Title="Can I use other softwares than Linger to run a self-paced reading task" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9431" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9435" CreationDate="2015-03-01T15:16:00.693" Score="4" ViewCount="279" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that when something goes wrong, people have a tendency or a bias to associate its cause with a recent event.  The following may not be a great example but here goes.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine a game of Jenga where players remove blocks from a tower.  Early in the game I remove two blocks from near the bottom of the stack, destabilizing the foundation of the tower.  We have some skilled players so we manage to make it four or five more moves before the tower falls.  Although I destabilized the tower from the beginning, there will be those who perceive that the move prior to the last one was the main contributing factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask because this is a pattern that I see in my job and I'm trying to communicate it to someone.  We see projects fail because the foundation work done months prior was not of good quality.  Nevertheless, the blame seems to go to the last person who touched it.  I can't help but think there is an established term that describes this psychology and would love to be able to reference it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7795" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-02T00:12:25.910" LastActivityDate="2015-09-20T17:58:18.360" Title="Is there a term to describe the tendency to attribute the cause of a bad outcome to a recent event?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9433" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-01T16:54:17.413" Score="4" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2015/03/science-doubters/achenbach-text&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Source:&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Why Do Many Reasonable People Doubt Science?&lt;/em&gt;, 2015 March, by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_Achenbach&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Joel Achenbach&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Andrew] Shtulman [of Occidental College] ’s research indicates that as we become scientifically literate, we repress our naive beliefs but never eliminate them entirely. They lurk in our brains, chirping at us as we try to make sense of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This staggered and overwhelmed me: How else can we correct, improve, and refine our lurking, substratal intuitions or instincts that are wrong? I ask NOT about simply  accepting or tolerating facts or science superficially (as insinuated by this excerpt), and remain traumatised.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Footnote: The author has a BA in Politics, and not in science, if this implies anything? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastActivityDate="2018-08-18T17:06:58.437" Title="How else can we eliminate wrong underlying beliefs, when even science fails?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9434" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9420" CreationDate="2015-03-01T17:02:38.420" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often I listen that this phenomenon has to do with the reticular activating system of the brain.&#xA;For more details:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.innovateus.net/health/what-function-reticular-activating-system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.innovateus.net/health/what-function-reticular-activating-system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also these type of event are labeled as synchronicity, a concept tagged by Carl Jung (psychic phenomenon).&#xA;For more details:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BX_nMwYa-nw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BX_nMwYa-nw&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depends on the observer how to interpret this signs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7789" LastEditorUserId="7789" LastEditDate="2015-03-02T09:19:01.003" LastActivityDate="2015-03-02T09:19:01.003" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9435" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9431" CreationDate="2015-03-01T22:04:52.257" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of a single term for it, but what you're describing is, in essence, causal inference driven by &quot;statistics&quot;, &quot;co-variation&quot;, &quot;co-occurrence&quot;, or &quot;contiguity&quot; (the terms are largely interchangeable).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're interested, there's a quite in-depth discussion review of theories of different theories of causal inference, including statistical models, &lt;a href=&quot;http://ir.nmu.org.ua/bitstream/handle/123456789/120902/9defe3ebbdaa48ace52d37b793129338.pdf?sequence=1&amp;amp;isAllowed=y#page=150&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think your example can be tied in quite nicely with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629?journalCode=psych&quot;&gt;&quot;dual process&quot;&lt;/a&gt; theories too, which propose two kinds of thinking: automatic, &lt;em&gt;intuitive&lt;/em&gt; processes, which are sensitive to things like co-variation, and more effortful &lt;em&gt;reflective&lt;/em&gt; processes, needed for more abstract relational reasoning. In your case, intuitive thinking easily makes a causal inference based on co-occurance: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Mark touched the tower, and then the tower fell, so the tower must have &#xA;  fallen because Mark touched it&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;while more effortful reflection is needed to construct a causal model involving foundational work done months ago. I don't know of any specific application of this intuitive/reflective distinction to causal reasoning, but I'm sure it's been done somewhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; I've just remembered &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/media/Media,345301,en.pdf&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, which discusses a similar idea, but in &quot;multiple&#xA;cue probability learning&quot;, a specific kind of causal learning. I feel a little obliged to plug this, because one of the authors is my PhD supervisor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="4124" LastEditDate="2015-03-01T22:13:54.950" LastActivityDate="2015-03-01T22:13:54.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9437" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9451" CreationDate="2015-03-02T09:14:10.863" Score="1" ViewCount="2536" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I hope this is the correct forum to ask; if not, please migrate to a better place.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How did humans came to agree on a distinction between the directions &quot;right&quot; and &quot;left&quot;? I could think of two alternative ways:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Biology: the right hand is usually stronger, so humans can agree that the direction of the stronger hand is &quot;right&quot; and the other direction is &quot;left&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Astronomy: in the northern hemisphere, when people look to the direction of the rising sun (= east), they see it turning slightly to the right of them (= south). So they could agree that the direction the sun turns to is &quot;right&quot; and the other direction is &quot;left&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence to one or the other or to another explanation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7803" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-03T23:23:32.113" LastActivityDate="2015-03-03T23:23:32.113" Title="How did the concepts of left and right direction develop in the human mind?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9438" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8182" CreationDate="2015-03-02T14:55:09.007" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a cultural/situational phenomenon.&#xA;I know that in my parents' generation (which grew up with poverty), it is common courtesy to never take the last piece of cake/whatever. The host always has to make sure there's plenty, because 1 piece left means that people are still hungry.&#xA;Nowadays most people (in my culture and generation) are not so hesitant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My mother has told me about this, and said that is was some kind of social taboo to take the last piece. &#xA;I believe it's about not being perceived as greedy or desperate, and rather show altruism through sacrifice and sharing. &#xA;The more sought-after an object is, the more valuable it will be. The poorer people are, the more valuable all kinds of food, cake etc will be. &#xA;The higher the value of an object, the more egocentric you have to be to claim it for yourself without sharing.&#xA;Thus people leave the last bit to avoid being seen as greedy or desperate, as greedy people will be seen as a burden in a poor society. Looking desperate makes you look like you can't take care of yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my own culture and generation, food is plenty everywhere, the perceived value is low, and you usually won't be seen as greedy if you take the last piece. &#xA;If you are eating with friends and family, you might still chose to stay off the last piece, because &quot;maybe someone wants it more than me&quot;. &#xA;It's about sharing with those that you care for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In evolutionary pscyhology, this makes good sense. Science has already shown that people with altruistic genes and behavior are perceived as more attractive (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081014134027.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081014134027.htm&lt;/a&gt;), and our ancestors had a better chance surviving if they cooperated instead of competing for resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-03-02T14:55:09.007" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9439" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9430" CreationDate="2015-03-02T15:51:08.310" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a program called Paradigm that has built-in support for Self-Paced Reading,&#xA;it also handles Arabic characters. You'll just type in your sentences and then use back-slashes to specify each segment. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The actress\shot\the officer\who\was standing\on the balcony&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paradigm will log a timestamp for the onset of each segment (in Excel) so&#xA;it's pretty easy to analyze. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's their website:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.paradigmexperiments.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.paradigmexperiments.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4180" LastActivityDate="2015-03-02T15:51:08.310" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9440" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9579" CreationDate="2015-03-02T21:25:24.520" Score="4" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to learn the anatomy of the brain and am getting rather confused. When it comes to the brain stem, I have seen some sources say that it consists of the midbrain (mesencephalon) and hindbrain (rhombencephalon). However from what I understand, the hindbrain consists of the metencephlon, which is comprised of the pons and cerebellum, and the myencephalon (medulla oblongata). So these sources seem to say that the brain stem contains the cerebellum. However I have also seen sources say that the brain stem consisists of the medulla oblongata (myencephalon), midrbrain (mesencephalon) and pons, so it excludes the cerebellum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6523" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-03-21T23:12:29.793" LastActivityDate="2015-03-21T23:12:29.793" Title="Which areas of the brain make up the brain stem?" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9441" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9443" CreationDate="2015-03-02T21:33:26.953" Score="5" ViewCount="333" Body="&lt;p&gt;Keeping religious sentiments aside, &lt;a href=&quot;https://buddhism.stackexchange.com/questions/7780/if-anatta-is-a-reality-then-how-do-you-explain-volition-or-will&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is a question raised on the Buddhism SE that attempts to answer a similar question from the Buddhist point of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You see, Buddhism has a concept of &lt;em&gt;anatman&lt;/em&gt; or no-self that attempts to explain the conditioned-self as a cause-and-effect phenomena arising through the interaction of the five aggregates (sensations, mental-formations, thoughts, feelings, etc.) and doesn't have a permanent or essential existence of its own. However, I would like to know what does the science or &lt;em&gt;psychology&lt;/em&gt; has to say about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does something called &lt;code&gt;I&lt;/code&gt; exists as a soul/essence separate from the physical body? &lt;strong&gt;More importantly&lt;/strong&gt;, does &lt;code&gt;volition&lt;/code&gt;, or more commonly called &lt;code&gt;will-power&lt;/code&gt; exists or it is just an illusion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;A practical Experiment:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose &lt;code&gt;I&lt;/code&gt; (as soul/mind/any-other-hypothetical) &lt;em&gt;decide&lt;/em&gt; to lift my arm right now, and the very next instant my arm lifted in the air. I would like to know &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; exactly triggered the decision to lift? If it were &lt;code&gt;I&lt;/code&gt; (soul/mind/etc..) that made the decision, then why would  electrodes attached to my brain show that the impulse to move the hand came before I was aware of it? The electrodes reading seem to imply that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Either the arm has a mind of its own apart from the primary mind (sort of a separate CPU core in a multi-core processor) that took the decision (seems less likely to me). OR&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some external force (in nature) triggered the decision (seems more likely to me).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know what is Psychology's take on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; The conventional explanation to this in terms of the &lt;code&gt;subconscious&lt;/code&gt; being the causal factor seems incomplete at best. As mentioned in a comment on @ArnonWeinberg's answer, all it means is that we don't know. Subconscious seems like a hypothetical chaos that we ascribe all phenomena that we are unable to explain scientifically. In the above experiment for instance, what caused the subconscious mind to make that decision at that exact moment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7310" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:51:07.033" LastActivityDate="2015-03-04T06:34:50.393" Title="Is volition a reality or an illusion?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9442" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-03T00:33:02.877" Score="1" ViewCount="495" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible for an individual to block out all reality and see objects, colors and hear voices and sounds that are non-existent non-stop? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7806" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T15:37:07.210" Title="Is it possible to block out reality completely?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-11-10T01:38:47.607" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9443" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9441" CreationDate="2015-03-03T03:37:20.647" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is very similar to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8989/can-the-mind-affect-the-physical-brain-a-simple-thought-experiment&quot;&gt;others&lt;/a&gt; on this forum, and I think almost everything in the question is answered there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does something exist separate from the physical body?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think you will find the answer to that question in cognitive science, but rather in philosophy.  Taken from one of the answers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Your thought experiment hinges on the debate of materialism (the mind&#xA;  is a physical thing) versus dualism (the mind is a different kind of&#xA;  thing than other physical things). Most cognitive scientists believe&#xA;  that materialism is the correct view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is unclear whether or not science will ever definitively settle this question, but it may place some constraints on the role (if any) of non-physical entities.  As I mentioned in my reply:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The large body of research that was spurred on by Libet's experiment&#xA;  has significantly changed our understanding of the role of &quot;thought&quot;&#xA;  or &quot;will&quot; or &quot;volition&quot; in the causal chain, such that they now appear&#xA;  to be a side-effect rather than cause of physical action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why would electrodes show that the impulse to move the hand came earlier than I was aware of it?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think you are missing a 3rd option: Much of what happens in the brain is outside of our awareness.  This is called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;unconscious mind&lt;/a&gt;.  The brain is a very complicated system, so exact causes for behaviours are still elusive, but the implication behind the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Libet#Volitional_acts_and_readiness_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Libet experiment&lt;/a&gt; is that the decision to move is made unconsciously - still inside the brain, but outside awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT (re updated question):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what you mean by &quot;Subconscious seems like a hypothetical chaos that we ascribe all phenomena that we are unable to explain scientifically&quot;...  Non-scientific terms such as &quot;soul&quot; or &quot;mind&quot; or &quot;will&quot; certainly fall under that category, as they don't add any information, and there are no tools available to study them, thus we know nothing about them.  The &quot;unconscious mind&quot; on the other hand, refers to physical, measurable processes in the brain, just ones outside our conscious awareness.  Cognitive scientists learn about unconscious processes through &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive research&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fMRI scans&lt;/a&gt;, and other &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience#Branches_of_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;tools of neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; for example.  Thus we have a great deal of knowledge about how the unconscious mind works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What causes the unconscious mind to make decisions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, this question comes down to the choice between materialism and dualism - the choice is yours to make.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider a simpler question: Say a computer makes a beeping sound a few seconds after someone presses a key - what caused it to do that?  (1) The computer needs a speaker with which to make the sound (hardware); (2) the computer needs a program that uses the speaker (software); and (3) it needs a user to press a key to run the program (input).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now consider a much more complex machine: Say a human lifts their arm a few seconds after someone says &quot;atten-hut!&quot; - what caused them to do that?  (1) The human needs an arm to lift (biology); (2) the human needs to know when to salute (learning); and (3) they need someone to call them to attention (stimulus).  Like any machine, all actions are a result of its internal mechanisms, current state, and external environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what if the computer makes a beeping sound with no one around to press a key?  Maybe at some point in the past someone ran a program that makes beeping sounds randomly every once in a while.  Or maybe it did it of its own &quot;free will&quot;?  What do you think?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what if a human lifts their arm with no one around to salute?  Maybe at some point in their past, the person learned to salute for fun when they are bored and alone.  Or maybe it was their &quot;free will&quot;?  What do you think?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-03-04T06:34:50.393" LastActivityDate="2015-03-04T06:34:50.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9444" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9955" CreationDate="2015-03-03T07:34:26.540" Score="6" ViewCount="247" Body="&lt;p&gt;Case: In case of an adult, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.helpguide.org/articles/sleep/how-much-sleep-do-you-need.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;average adult sleep time required is 7.5 to 8 hours&lt;/a&gt;. Suppose the person (aged between 23-29) has slept only 6 hours, or less than the average time (7.5 to 8 hours).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does sleep deprivation lasting for a day cause mood swings in that&#xA;particular day?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do we loose grasping abilities due to sleep deprivation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does sleep deprivation affect our reasoning abilities?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7657" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-04T14:15:50.320" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T14:16:20.497" Title="Sleep deprivation and task performance" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9445" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9401" CreationDate="2015-03-03T10:17:45.263" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Teens who get involved in graffiti &lt;strong&gt;'tagging' may be showing early&#xA;symptoms of a personality disorder&lt;/strong&gt;, an Australian psychiatrist says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He says the study, presented at an international child and adolescent mental health conference in Melbourne this week, found that &lt;strong&gt;teens who graffiti &amp;quot;are significantly different to those who do not graffiti&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;These young people ... were &lt;strong&gt;very antisocial&lt;/strong&gt; on a range of other factors. They weren't just mildly conduct disordered, they were s&lt;strong&gt;coring to the extreme range of antisocial behaviour.&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He says the study found adolescent graffitists had done around six to eight other acts, such as setting fires, beating people up and stealing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;You can pick many of these young people somewhere around the age of three,&amp;quot; he says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The average kindergarten teacher will tell you, I don't like that child, I can't work with them, they spit at me, they spit at the other kids, they hit people, they won't learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;You can certainly predict which ones will go on to antisocial behaviour, and within that graffiti is going to be one of the things that stands out.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Martin says &lt;strong&gt;tagging conveys a number of messages&lt;/strong&gt;, from saying &amp;quot;hello, I'm here&amp;quot; to being a territorial marker and an expression of rage against authority.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2006/09/13/1737822.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2006/09/13/1737822.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-03T10:17:45.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9450" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6362" CreationDate="2015-03-03T20:39:17.413" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I spent over 5 weeks hanging out with homeless people in Kalamazoo, MI by a nearby homeless shelter. I engaged with them nearly every minute of free time I had after work and on weekends. What I observed regarding food was actually an abundance. When someone releases a study indicating that someone doesn't get &quot;enough&quot; to eat, that is extremely subjective. I used to eat once a day myself out of pure choice and habit. The homeless may eat only once or twice a day, but they likely have many options throughout the day if they are in the right location such as in Kalamazoo. No one went hungry near the shelter, yet many chose not to eat. They also chose where to eat since there were often many locations offering food. In fact, some of them declined when I offered to take them out to eat. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They do not hoard food for lack of anywhere to put it. Thus, they are often willing to share this food but usually do not even need to share since they can grab their own. From my experiences, I do not recall anyone giving out of their own loss given their full knowledge that more food would come tomorrow. I've seen more sharing with cigarettes and dimes, but this is clearly not a need and is, in general, a means of befriending people. Theft was very common as I was regularly told stories of how their clothes or shoes were stolen. Thus, befriending people was a rather good idea and made it less likely to have your things stolen or to get into fights. Perhaps other homeless communities are not as well-off as the one in Kalamazoo, but my own experience leads me to believe that it's not the same as watching people band together in a mutual experience of hardship. Most of the people I saw seemed deficient in the mental arena. They seemed to be stuck in high school relationship mentality with elementary school cognitive prowess. Only a handful of people seemed more capable and simply mooched the system. Perhaps you need someone's input who has been with competent yet unfortunate homeless people, but I thought I'd share my own experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7816" LastActivityDate="2015-03-03T20:39:17.413" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9451" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9437" CreationDate="2015-03-03T22:04:18.333" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a perspective called the &quot;sociological imagination&quot; that can be used to &quot;frame,&quot; or interpret, perceptions. In part, this perspective involves an awareness toward the linkages between history and biography, between social structure and consciousness, and between &quot;knowledge&quot; and its socio-cultural contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The words you question are simply tools or descriptive labels applied to some &quot;sense&quot; and useful for both individual and communal understanding of space-time.  There is a class of words (called &quot;closed&quot; class words) -- called so because, unlike nouns and verbs, it is tremendously difficult to invent new words (icons or symbols) for the associated concepts.  These words fall into a class of words that have their foundation in protolanguage -- with associated, generally-accepted, emerging concepts from early hunting and gathering societies 100,000BC-80,000BC.  At this early stage, knowledge transfer (education) was through socialization of the young (largely an informal process where children learned both through their play and through observing and imitating their elders).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically to your question, some close class words indicate relative direction (to, from, through, left, right, up, down) in the manner of vectors.  Other words such as above, below, in, on, at, next to, and by serve to orient relative to other objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose one had to explain the meaning of the words “left” and “right” to someone who had never heard those words before. Further suppose, that you had to explain such in a purely verbal manner -- without drawing pictures or pointing at things or otherwise making gestures.  One would perhaps start by appealing to a shared experience, communal concept, or draw upon mathematics (geometry).  But what if one were constrained to make no assumptions about where the person is coming from or how much geography he or she knows? You then might hope that they knew something about the stars or the sky.  One could begin with up and down and move on to the motions of objects in the sky.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way the concept of &quot;left&quot; and &quot;right&quot; could have emerged to common understanding is through anatomy (human or otherwise).  Socializing methods of butchering flesh, combat training, and burial rites all would include relative orientation, placement, and direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cognitive origin of the notions of &quot;left&quot; and &quot;right&quot; emerge from common experience and/or how experience relates to tangible objects or phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This rabbit hole goes a lot deeper; however, for the sake of being cogent and succinct, I am observing some self-imposed boundaries.  There are egocentric coordinate acculturation conventions and spatiality (geo-centric, stellar-centric, (sub)atomic-centric) traditions that can shake things up a bit but I believe such begin to tangent off point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Calvin, W. (2004). A brief history of the mind: From apes to intellect and beyond. New York: Oxford University Press.&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The New Ambidextrous Universe: Symmetry and Asymmetry from Mirror Reflections to Superstrings: Third Revised Edition. By Martin Gardner​. 2005.&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Handedness of the Universe. Roger A. Hegstrom and Dilip K. Kondepudi in Scientific American, Vol. 262, pages 108-115; January 1990.&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alien Pizza, Anyone? On other worlds, biochemistry could have taken a different turn. Davide Castelvecchi in Science News, Vol. 172, No. 7, pages 107-; August 18, 2007&#xA;&lt;li&gt;THEORIES. (n.d.). Retrieved March 3, 2015, from  http://www.trinity.edu/mkearl/theory.html#imag&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7817" LastActivityDate="2015-03-03T22:04:18.333" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9452" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9442" CreationDate="2015-03-04T13:04:12.603" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, it is. Seeing objects, colors, hearing voices and sounds are electrical impulses translated by our sensorial organs and sent to the brain. There are cases of blind people which can &quot;see&quot; (feel?) a whole load of abstract images, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thebeaconreview.com/entertainment/do-blind-men-and-women-actually-knowledge-full-darkness-h6647.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;are actually bothered by it&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person could have no sensing organs and still have electrical impulses by means of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3786182/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;artificial brain stimulus&lt;/a&gt;, or due to a neurological damage; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/pages/tinnitus.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;tinnitus&lt;/a&gt; comes to mind (no pun intended).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When TMS [transcranial magnetic stimulation] is applied with a single pulse to motor or sensory cortex, it is possible to evoke a motor or sensory response. When the sensory cortex is visual cortex, the response is a phosphene.4 Phosphenes are the sensation of light in the absence of visual stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-04T13:04:12.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9453" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9433" CreationDate="2015-03-04T14:51:12.630" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our memory act as a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jce/papers/Vol15-issue2/G01525053.pdf?id=8449&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;very powerful database&lt;/a&gt;, being able to store a huge load of data. Thing is, that &quot;instinctive data&quot; you learned someday is still there. It might get erased eventually, but as it is &quot;fetched&quot; and used, it gets stronger. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory retrieval act akin to a computational weighted-graph navigation, where once you need to remember something, you start navigating in your memories. Memories with greater &quot;weight&quot; or &quot;importance&quot; may be fetched earlier and given a stronger &quot;stamp&quot;, i.e., they are more relevant in a given context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/002209657390009X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CONSTANTINI&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negativity_bias#Learning_and_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WIKIPEDIA&lt;/a&gt; &lt;sup&gt;*sigh*&lt;/sup&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Learning and memory are direct consequences of attentional processing: the more attention is directed or devoted toward something, the more likely it is that it will be later learned and remembered. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jce/papers/Vol15-issue2/G01525053.pdf?id=8449&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;SURESH, PAVAN KUMAR, AISHWARYA&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[page 2, §2] Another example which everyone can associate or relate to is remembering an almost forgotten event after a very long time. It so happens that, when we come across a bite of a cookie after decades or smell of a perfume after a long time, we take time to recall what it is about and our association with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[page 3, §3] [In a face querying context] In the &lt;strong&gt;Memory Repeat&lt;/strong&gt;, the brain repeats the same querying activity until it deduces a relationship between the second image and the fifth image. Once a relationship is establishes, corresponding activities that are chained/outlined to form a bountiful array of events. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Based upon the data present at the back of the brain, relevant output can be expected. The output might be an association of that image with certain events. It can either be the first time they met or the assignment that any&#xA;  had done together or a project/ paper that they had worked upon or classes they had attended, etc.&#xA;  It should, however be noted that not all images can yield a positive result. &lt;strong&gt;Some associativity (read: data) may have gotten erased as the passage of time&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A positive result is named as Hit Rate and False Alarm Rate. Hit rate is the positive outcome of a query while False Alarm Rate is the irrelevant or negative outcome of the querying. False alarm rate is the output when an image (or a face) is identical to another image. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the data is fetched, but never used, it will eventually wear off from the results, but it will only disappear from your brain upon physical memory removal, which takes time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7633" LastEditorUserId="7633" LastEditDate="2015-03-04T15:22:18.280" LastActivityDate="2015-03-04T15:22:18.280" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9454" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9430" CreationDate="2015-03-04T15:08:12.290" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can use Ibex, if you want to run it online: &lt;a href=&quot;http://spellout.net/ibexfarm/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://spellout.net/ibexfarm/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But in any case you should be able to upload the files in Linger, you'll need to do it centered since Linger doesn't support right-to-left languages. And you should check the encoding of the files. It should be ISO 8859-15 and &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; UTF-8.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4485" LastActivityDate="2015-03-04T15:08:12.290" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9456" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-04T16:26:58.093" Score="3" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most uses of SPA I've seen seem to be representing static systems, such as recognizing digits, categorizing images, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q_LRvnwnYp8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;rapid variable creation&lt;/a&gt; (also called &quot;completing a pattern&quot;) and planning a path for writing those digits back out. Can it be used to represent dynamics as well, such as the general movement from a series of images?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-05-24T18:23:30.917" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T18:23:30.917" Title="How can Semantic Pointer Architecture be used to capture dynamical systems?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9457" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9585" CreationDate="2015-03-04T16:42:01.690" Score="6" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's standard practice to get a checkup from your primary care doctor once a year. Why is this not so for a mental health professional? Is your primary supposed to catch possible mental and emotional problems and refer you to a specialist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7820" LastActivityDate="2015-03-22T14:31:12.927" Title="Why don't we get regular checkups for mental health, as in physical health?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9459" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9463" CreationDate="2015-03-04T20:12:36.247" Score="12" ViewCount="253" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although a lot of research (Muraven, 1998) has indicated the ego depletion of self-control, a recent paper (Xu, 2014) claims that they fail to replicate the depletion effect: impaired performance in subsequent tasks. &#xA;So, is the depletion effect of self-control reliable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Muraven, M., Tice, D. M., &amp;amp; Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Self-control as a limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of personality and social psychology, 74(3), 774. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.774&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.774&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Xu, X., Demos, K. E., Leahey, T. M., Hart, C. N., Trautvetter, J., Coward, P., ... &amp;amp; Wing, R. R. (2014). Failure to Replicate Depletion of Self-Control. PloS one, 9(10), e109950. &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0109950&quot;&gt;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0109950&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-03-05T15:15:57.197" LastActivityDate="2015-03-07T08:04:06.473" Title="Is the depletion effect of self-control reliable?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9461" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-05T07:10:18.123" Score="3" ViewCount="188" Body="&lt;p&gt;A group of students is given playing cards to put on their head. They do not know the value of their card but can see the value of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The goal of each student is to partner with the highest value card they can find.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Experiment results indicated that students were able to infer their value from the number of approaches they received, and tended to partner with  values similar to their own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study was cited in a popular science book published a few years ago - can anyone remember the book title or name the experiment?&#xA;Many thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7823" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-20T07:04:09.420" LastActivityDate="2015-04-20T07:04:09.420" Title="Name this partner selection experiment where participants can see the value of others but not themselves and seek to pair with high value others?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;social-desirability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9462" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9966" CreationDate="2015-03-05T12:26:07.787" Score="6" ViewCount="450" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you have an ambitious goal, does it help to publicly commit to that goal? For example, if someone is training for a long distance triathlon but doesn't know whether he/she will be able to pull it off or not. This person could tell his/her friends about my goal or post it on Facebook. What consequences does it have for people, if they do that? On the one hand, it might push them more, because they don't want to be embarrassed in front of others if they fail. On the other hand, this is a pretty negative focus and might be distractive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-05T09:58:57.753" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T15:41:46.827" Title="Are you more successful if you publicly commit to pursuing a difficult goal?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;goals&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9463" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9459" CreationDate="2015-03-05T14:09:20.113" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: We don't really know yet, but we should know soon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been much research about the ego-depletion effect. The effect has been found in many published studies. As cited in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/obsonline/aps-announces-third-replication-project.html&quot;&gt;APS Observer (2014)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A recent meta-analysis revealed a medium effect size (d = 0.62) across 198 tests of the ego-depletion effect (Hagger, Wood, Stiff, &amp;amp; Chatzisarantis, 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there have been some doubts whether these results reflect publication bias (only studies that found the effect may have been published, those that have found no effect or the reverse effect may have landed in the &quot;file drawer&quot;) or weak methods (small samples).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/obsonline/aps-announces-third-replication-project.html&quot;&gt;APS Observer (2014)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Despite these findings, some researchers have questioned the strength&#xA;  of the ego-depletion effect. A recent analysis conducted by Carter and&#xA;  McCullough (2013, 2014) suggested that the effect may be quite small&#xA;  or entirely an artifact of publication bias. The researchers cite&#xA;  evidence that many tests of the effect were substantially underpowered&#xA;  suggesting that the likelihood of finding such a large number of&#xA;  significant effects in the literature is improbable. Although the&#xA;  interpretation of these analyses have been questioned (Hagger &amp;amp;&#xA;  Chatzisarantis, 2014), it is possible that publication bias may have&#xA;  inflated the size of the effect evident from the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is why the APS journal Perspectives on Psychological Science has accepted the proposal for a large scale replication project led by Alex O. Holcombe and Martin S. Hagger. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/obsonline/aps-announces-third-replication-project.html&quot;&gt;APS Observer (2014)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By using preregistered replications across multiple laboratories, this [project] will allow for a precise, objective estimate of the size of the ego depletion effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More details about the project can be accessed at its &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/jymhe/&quot;&gt;website on the Open Science Framework&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carter, E. C., &amp;amp; McCullough, M. E. (2013). Is ego depletion too incredible? Evidence for the overestimation of the depletion effect. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36, 683-684. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X13000952&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carter, E. C., &amp;amp; McCullough, M. E. (2014). Publication bias and the limited strength model of self-control: Has the evidence for ego depletion been overestimated? Frontiers in Psychology, 5. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00823&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hagger, M. S., &amp;amp; Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2014). It is premature to regard the ego-depletion effect as ‘too incredible’. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 298. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00298&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hagger, M. S., Wood, C., Stiff, C., &amp;amp; Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2010). Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: A meta-analysis, Psychological Bulletin, 136, 495-525.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-03-07T08:04:06.473" LastActivityDate="2015-03-07T08:04:06.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9465" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-05T15:19:23.817" Score="3" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;The semantic pointer architecture is a vector symbolic architecture where high-dimensional sparse vectors represent concepts. These concepts can be mathematical, linguistic or sensory. In all of the experiments I've seen these vectors are assigned randomly&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of mathematical and linguistic, are there any theories or experiments investigating how these vectors may be formed? Is this a relevant topic for investigation? If not, why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T07:07:19.093" Title="Are there theories on how vocabularies for the Semantic Pointer Architecture are created?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9466" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-06T01:13:46.113" Score="5" ViewCount="592" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Emotional Intelligence 2.0&lt;/em&gt; said that breathing deeply and slowly increases mental performance, but I couldn't find any studies that really study the claim, and the book is a self-help book, which tend to be extremely unrigorous. So, does it increase mental performance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7329" LastEditorUserId="7329" LastEditDate="2015-03-06T22:50:13.647" LastActivityDate="2019-10-21T06:05:27.943" Title="Does deep, slow breathing increase mental performance?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9467" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3651" CreationDate="2015-03-06T02:27:11.963" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Slow EEG waves reflect a slow oscillation in cortical neurons, between a depolarized state (UP-State) and hyper polarized state (DOWN-state; Steriade et al., 1993a, 1993b). During the down-state, neurons are disfacilitated (they can't really be activated by external stimuli or depolarized; Contreras et al., 1996). As the brain progress into deep sleep (lots of large-amplitude slow waves), not only cortical but also thalamic neurons becomes more and more hyper polarized (Amzica &amp;amp; Steriade, 2001). Steriade (2006) proposed that this progressive hyper polarization that is occurring during deep sleep might protect the brain from interference from the external world and facilitate memory consolidation, because the brain becomes &quot;non-responsive&quot; to the external environment. Indeed, this thalamo-cortical hyper polarization occuring during the down-state might &quot;gate&quot; the brain from external influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent neuroimaging studies in humans (Schabus et al., 2012) indeed showed that during the DOWN state, there was no cortical response to auditory stimuli in fMRI.  Thus we think that those waves, either in N2 (K-Complex) or N3 (SW), protect the sleep brain from external influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Steriade M, Nuñez A, Amzica F. A novel slow (&amp;lt; 1 Hz) oscillation of neocortical neurons in vivo: depolarizing and hyperpolarizing components. Journal of Neuroscience. 1993;13(8):3252–3265.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Steriade M, Contreras D, Curró Dossi R, Nuñez A. The slow (&amp;lt; 1 Hz) oscillation in reticular thalamic and thalamocortical neurons: scenario of sleep rhythm generation in interacting thalamic and neocortical networks. J Neurosci. 1993;13(8):3284–3299.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Contreras D, Timofeev I, Steriade M. Mechanisms of long-lasting hyperpolarizations underlying slow sleep oscillations in cat corticothalamic networks. J Physiol (Lond). 1996;494 ( Pt 1):251–264.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Amzica F, Steriade M. Electrophysiological correlates of sleep delta waves. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. 1998;107(2):69–83. doi:10.1016/S0013-4694(98)00051-0.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Steriade M. Grouping of brain rhythms in corticothalamic systems. Neuroscience. 2006;137(4):1087–1106. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.10.029.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Schabus M, Dang Vu TT, Heib DPJ, et al. The Fate of Incoming Stimuli during NREM Sleep is Determined by Spindles and the Phase of the Slow Oscillation. Front Neurol. 2012;3:40. doi:10.3389/fneur.2012.00040.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7829" LastEditorUserId="7829" LastEditDate="2015-03-06T16:01:14.297" LastActivityDate="2015-03-06T16:01:14.297" CommentCount="3" CommunityOwnedDate="2015-03-06T16:01:14.297" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9468" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9255" CreationDate="2015-03-06T10:40:43.593" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yes&lt;/strong&gt;, there is a difference between hearing and understanding sound.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Acoustic information is processed in different neural centers along the auditory pathway. The auditory system runs from the peripheral end organ in the inner ear (the &lt;em&gt;cochlea&lt;/em&gt;) to the cortex. Along the way various processing steps are carried out. For example, basic reflex behaviors in response to acoustic stimuli (e.g., startle responses) are processed in subcortical structures &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lary.5540680307/abstract?systemMessage=Wiley%20Online%20Library%20will%20be%20disrupted%20on%207th%20March%20from%2010%3A00-13%3A00%20GMT%20%2805%3A00-08%3A00%20EST%29%20for%20essential%20maintenance.%20%20Apologies%20for%20the%20inconvenience.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bocca, 1985)&lt;/a&gt;, while complex sound perception, such as listening to music, is mediated in the cortex &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016643289090001U&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Philips &amp;amp; Farmer, 1982)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gM5FH.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;AuditorySystem&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/localization/localization.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;New York University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not until the &lt;strong&gt;cortex&lt;/strong&gt; that complex sounds such as &lt;strong&gt;speech&lt;/strong&gt; are &lt;strong&gt;processed into meaningful information&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;The difference between hearing and understanding&lt;/strong&gt; sound is strikingly evident in people with &lt;strong&gt;lesions in the auditory cortex&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Damage to the auditory cortex can result in an inability to recognize complex sounds and in a loss of speech understanding. These symptoms are referred to as &lt;em&gt;agnosia&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;cortical deafness&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00313543#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Rosati, 1982)&lt;/a&gt;. The loss of speech understanding (&lt;strong&gt;word deafness&lt;/strong&gt;) is the most debilitating and therefore most investigated aspect of agnosia &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016643289090001U&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Philips &amp;amp; Farmer, 1982)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, tone audiograms (i.e., tonal hearing sensitivity) of people with cortical deafness are largely unaffected (i.e., their auditory thresholds are fine) and they may have normal sound-intensity and sound-frequency discriminating abilities as well &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00313543#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Rosati, 1982)&lt;/a&gt;. Hence, the auditory cortex is thought to fulfill a &lt;strong&gt;synthetic function&lt;/strong&gt;, in that it &lt;strong&gt;integrates&lt;/strong&gt; complex sounds such as speech in time &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lary.5540680307/abstract?systemMessage=Wiley%20Online%20Library%20will%20be%20disrupted%20on%207th%20March%20from%2010%3A00-13%3A00%20GMT%20%2805%3A00-08%3A00%20EST%29%20for%20essential%20maintenance.%20%20Apologies%20for%20the%20inconvenience.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bocca, 1985)&lt;/a&gt;. Word deafness may therefore be comparable to hearing a strange language, or hearing reversed words being spoken; one can hear it, but not comprehend it &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00313543#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Rosati, 1982)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that the &lt;strong&gt;auditory cortex&lt;/strong&gt; is crucial in &lt;strong&gt;storing information&lt;/strong&gt; as well as processing of sound stimuli with &lt;strong&gt;rapidly changing content&lt;/strong&gt; (in the order of milliseconds to tens of milliseconds). A loss of storage capacity and the loss of the ability to analyze rapidly changing acoustic signals are thought to at least partly explain the detrimental effects of auditory cortex lesions on speech understanding and other auditory abilities &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016643289090001U&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Philips &amp;amp; Farmer, 1982)&lt;/a&gt;.      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lary.5540680307/abstract?systemMessage=Wiley%20Online%20Library%20will%20be%20disrupted%20on%207th%20March%20from%2010%3A00-13%3A00%20GMT%20%2805%3A00-08%3A00%20EST%29%20for%20essential%20maintenance.%20%20Apologies%20for%20the%20inconvenience.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bocca, &lt;em&gt;The Laryngoscope&lt;/em&gt; 1985;&lt;strong&gt;68&lt;/strong&gt;:301-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016643289090001U&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Philips &amp;amp; Farmer, &lt;em&gt;Behav Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; 1990;&lt;strong&gt;40&lt;/strong&gt;:85-94&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00313543#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rosati et al., &lt;em&gt;J Neurol&lt;/em&gt; 1982;&lt;strong&gt;227&lt;/strong&gt;:21-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-12T13:36:05.257" LastActivityDate="2015-08-12T13:36:05.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9469" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9094" CreationDate="2015-03-06T14:15:24.093" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, continuous exposure to white noise affects neural responses in the auditory system. First, it can &lt;strong&gt;alter the tonotopic map&lt;/strong&gt; in the auditory cortex. Second, it can lead to &lt;strong&gt;reduced responsiveness&lt;/strong&gt; of the auditory thalamus.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note: this answer is based on animal experiments using extreme conditions, namely a &lt;strong&gt;continuous noise exposure&lt;/strong&gt; for at least a month.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most striking effect of continuous low-level white noise exposure (30 days) is a dramatic &lt;strong&gt;reorganization of the tonotopic map&lt;/strong&gt; in the auditory cortex &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnsys.2012.00065/abstract&quot;&gt;(Zheng, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. Basically, the normally regular distribution of low-to-high frequency representation in auditory cortex was &lt;strong&gt;grossly disorganized&lt;/strong&gt; in noise-treated rats. The noise-treated rats performed better on a pitch-discrimination task in noise than non-treated rats. They performed worse in a quiet environment, though. Hence, their auditory system had adapted to the noise and was optimized for noisy environments.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another study it was shown that &lt;strong&gt;adult rats&lt;/strong&gt; exposed to noise (50 days) showed &lt;strong&gt;increased long-term-depression (LTD)&lt;/strong&gt; in A1 neurons of the medial-geniculate nucleus (MGN) &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05857.x/abstract;jsessionid=CE578A2330C89D0A1431EA713CC61088.f02t04?systemMessage=Wiley%20Online%20Library%20will%20be%20disrupted%20on%207th%20March%20from%2010%3A00-13%3A00%20GMT%20%2805%3A00-08%3A00%20EST%29%20for%20essential%20maintenance.%20%20Apologies%20for%20the%20inconvenience.&quot;&gt;(Speechley et al., 2007)&lt;/a&gt;. The MGN is the thalamic processing centre of the auditory pathway &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-540-29678-2_3364&quot;&gt;(Rees, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. Speechley et al. mention the following, and I quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The facilitation of depression observed here [..] suggests that in the developed A1 continuous white noise produces general over-excitation of thalamocortical networks,&#xA;  resulting in greater LTD induced by low-frequency inputs to the network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LTD can be interpreted as a long-term decrease in responsiveness of the auditory system to stimulation. Basically it reacts to the white noise by decreasing its activity. They explain these effects by the fact that white noise can act as a mild stressor, with accompanying changes in neuroendocrine activation and immune function. Stress and related hormonal changes may increase corticosteroid levels that facilitating LTD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, in &lt;strong&gt;newborn rats&lt;/strong&gt;, the same treatment resulted in &lt;strong&gt;enhanced long-term potentiation (LTP)&lt;/strong&gt; of the MGN. The authors raise the following explanation, and I quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;White noise reared animals showed greater levels of LTP relative to rats raised in&#xA;  unaltered auditory environments. Also, stimulation parameters (single 1-Hz pulses) that induced depression in control animals resulted in robust potentiation in white noise-reared rats, indicating that lack of patterned auditory stimulation during early post-natal life results in a preferential readiness of the auditory thalamocortical system for&#xA;  synaptic potentiation over depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-540-29678-2_3364&quot;&gt;Rees, &lt;em&gt;Encyclopedia of Neurocience&lt;/em&gt; 2009:2275-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05857.x/abstract;jsessionid=CE578A2330C89D0A1431EA713CC61088.f02t04?systemMessage=Wiley%20Online%20Library%20will%20be%20disrupted%20on%207th%20March%20from%2010%3A00-13%3A00%20GMT%20%2805%3A00-08%3A00%20EST%29%20for%20essential%20maintenance.%20%20Apologies%20for%20the%20inconvenience.&quot;&gt;Speechley et al. &lt;em&gt;Eur J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; 2007;&lt;strong&gt;26&lt;/strong&gt;:2576–84&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnsys.2012.00065/abstract&quot;&gt;Zheng, &lt;em&gt;Front Syst Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; 2012;&lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;:1-14&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-03-07T22:50:58.360" LastActivityDate="2015-03-07T22:50:58.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9471" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7736" CreationDate="2015-03-06T16:06:59.387" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may have a look at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uam.es/gruposinv/ceaco/EmoMadrid.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EmoMadrid&lt;/a&gt;-database. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uam.es/gruposinv/ceaco/sup/permisoYclave.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; are the instructions on how to get access.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-03-06T16:06:59.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9472" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6193" CreationDate="2015-03-06T16:59:56.790" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The distinction stems from research on the &quot;Focus Theory of Normative Conduct&quot; (e.g., Cialdini et al. 1990)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Injunctive norms&lt;/strong&gt; refer to the perception of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;what ought to be&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, or as you state, perceptions of what is approved or disapproved by others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: If you think that other people would consider tax fraud as something that is morally wrong, you would perceive an injunctive norm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Descriptive norms&lt;/strong&gt; refer to the perception of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;what is&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Or, in other words, perceptions about how people do in fact behave. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: If you think that most people engage in tax fraud, that would be a descriptive norm. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, injunctive and descriptive norms are distinct concepts. Sometimes they may overlap (tax fraud is wrong, and nobody does it). However they may also conflict (tax fraud is perceived to be wrong, but everyone does it). Of course they can also be about positive things (it's a good thing to eat 5 portions of veggies each day vs. nobody does that).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cialdini, R. B., Reno, R. R., &amp;amp; Kallgren, C. A. (1990). A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1015–1026. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-03-25T12:45:30.757" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T12:45:30.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9473" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-06T20:17:00.660" Score="5" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wanted to test a persons expectation Vs. memory. To put it simply, I want to see whether or not a person will remember more information when told they have a larger/smaller amount of information to consume and reiterate. I haven't been able to find any studies done on the topic so far. Does anyone know how I could rephrase this to get a more narrow search result? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I've been searching for Expectation vs. Memory, and have been getting studies that focus on a persons expectation in a different sense...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7744" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-23T03:56:43.767" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T03:56:43.767" Title="How to describe research on the effect of expectations on memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9475" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3225" CreationDate="2015-03-07T22:51:09.640" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;p&gt;In alignment with the question author's commentary refinement, &lt;i&gt;&quot;It would already be a nice and useful answer if there was -any- clue on -any- type of happiness.&quot;&lt;/i&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;h1&gt;I submit:&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2013/04/subjective%20well%20being%20income/subjective%20well%20being%20income.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stevenson, Betsey, and Justin Wolfers. &quot;Subjective Well-Being and Income: Is There Any Evidence of Satiation?&quot; American Economic Review 103.3 (2013): 598-604. Web.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;Abstract&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;Many scholars have argued that once “basic needs” have been met, higher income is no longer associated with higher in subjective well-being. We assess the validity of this claim in comparisons of both rich and poor countries, and also of rich and poor people within a country. Analyzing multiple datasets, multiple definitions of “basic needs” and multiple questions about well-being, we find no support for this claim. The relationship between well-being and income is roughly linear-log and does not diminish as incomes rise. If there is a satiation point, we are yet to reach it.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Summary of findings:&lt;blockquote&gt;To preview, we find no evidence of a satiation point. The income–well-being link that one finds when examining only the poor, is similar to that found when examining only the rich. We show that this finding is robust across a variety of datasets, for various measures of subjective well-being, at various thresholds, and that it holds in roughly equal measure when making cross-national comparisons between rich and poor countries as when making comparisons between rich and poor people within a country.&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Clark, Andrew E., Paul Frijters, and Michael A. Shields. &quot;Relative Income, Happiness and&#xA;Utility: An Explanation for the Easterlin Paradox and Other Puzzles.&quot; Journal of Economic&#xA;Literature 46, no. 1 (2008): 95-144.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Deaton, Angus &quot;Income, Health, and Well-Being around the World: Evidence from the Gallup&#xA;World Poll.&quot; Journal of Economic Perspectives, 2008 22(2), pp. 53-72.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Di Tella, Rafael, and Robert MacCulloch. Happiness Adaptation to Income beyond &quot;Basic&#xA;Needs&quot;. NBER Working Paper, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2008.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Diener, Ed, and Martin E.P. Seligman. &quot;Beyond money: Toward an economy of well-being.&quot; &#xA;Psychological Science in the Public Interest 5 (2004): 1-31.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Easterlin, Richard A. &quot;Does economic growth improve the human lot? Some empirical evidence.&quot; In &#xA;Nations and Households in Economic Growth: Essays in Honor of Moses Abramowitz, by Paul A David and &#xA;Melvin W. Reder. New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1974.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Easterlin, Richard A., and Onnicha Sawangfa. Happiness and Economic Growth: Does the Cross Section &#xA;Predict Time Trends? Evidence from Developing Countries. mimeo, University of Southern California, &#xA;2009.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Frey, Bruno S., and Alois Stutzer. &quot;What Can Economists Learn from Happiness Research?&quot; Journal of &#xA;Economic Literature 40 (2002): 402-435.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kahneman, Daniel and Angus Deaton. “High Income Improves Evaluation of Life But Not&#xA;Emotional Well-Being” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, September 7 2010,&#xA;107(38) 16489-16493.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Layard, Richard. &quot;Happiness: Has Social Science a Clue.&quot; Lionel Robbins Memorial Lectures&#xA;2002/3. London School of Economics, 2003.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;—. Happiness: Lessons from a New Science. London: Penguin, 2005.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oswald, Andrew J. &quot;On the Curvature of the Reporting Function from Objective Reality to&#xA;Subjective Feelings.&quot; Economics Letters, 2008.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sacks, Daniel, Betsey Stevenson, and Justin Wolfers “The New Stylized Facts About Income and &#xA;Subjective Well-being”, Emotion, Dec 2012, 12 (6): 1181-1187&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sacks, Daniel, Betsey Stevenson, and Justin Wolfers “Growth in Subjective Well-being and&#xA;Income over Time”, 2013 mimeo.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stevenson, Betsey, and Justin Wolfers. &quot;Economic Growth and Happiness: Reassessing the&#xA;Easterlin Paradox.&quot; Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Spring 2008: 1-87&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;In contrast...&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1014411319119&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Diener, Ed, and Biswas-Diener, Robert. &quot;Will Money Increase Subjective Well-Being?&quot; Social Indicators Research 57.2 (2002): 119-169. Web.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;Abstract (reformatted for ease of reading)&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;Four replicable findings have emerged regarding the relation between income and subjective well-being (SWB):&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li&gt;There are large correlations between the wealth of nations and the mean reports of SWB in them,&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;There are mostly small correlations between income and SWB within nations, although these correlations appear to be larger in poor nations, and the risk of unhappiness is much higher for poor people,&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Economic growth in the last decades in most economically developed societies has been accompanied by little rise in SWB, and increases in individual income lead to variable outcomes, and&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;People who prize material goals more than other values tend to be substantially less happy, unless they are rich.&lt;/ol&gt;Thus, more money may enhance SWB when it means avoiding poverty and living in a developed nation, but income appears to increase SWB little over the long-term when more of it is gained by well-off individuals whose material desires rise with their incomes. Several major theories are compatible with most existing findings:&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;The idea that income enhances SWB only insofar as it helps people meet their basic needs, and&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;The idea that the relation between income and SWB depends on the amount of material desires that people's income allows them to fulfil[].&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;We argue that the first explanation is a special case of the second one. A third explanation is relatively unresearched, the idea that societal norms for production and consumption are essential to understanding the SWB-income interface. In addition, it appears high SWB might increase people's chances for high income. We review the open issues relating income to SWB, and describe the research methods needed to provide improved data that will better illuminate the psychological processes relating money to SWB.&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Adelmann, P.K.: 1987, 'Occupational complexity, control, and personal income: Their relation to psychological well-being in men and women', Journal of Applied Psychology 72, pp. 529-537. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Ahuvia, A.C. and N. Wong: in press, 'The development of personality and values based materialisms', Journal of Consumer Psychology. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Ahuvia, A.C. and N. Wong: 2001, Cognitive and affective antecedents of materialism: Implications for the development of materialism as a political orientation. Manuscript submitted for publication. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aldwin, C.M. and T.A. Revenson: 1986, 'Vulnerability to economic stress', American Journal of Community Psychology 14, pp. 161-175. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Alesina, A., R. DiTella and R. MacCulloch: 2001, Inequality and happiness: Are Europeans and Americans different? Manuscript submitted for publication, Harvard University. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Andrews, F.M. and S.B. Withey: 1976, Social Indicators of Well-being: America's Perception of Life Quality (Plenum Press, New York). &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Aristotle: 1969, The Nichomachean Ethics, translated by Robert Williams (Longmans, Green, London). &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Biswas-Diener, R. and E. Diener: 2001, 'Making the best of a bad situation: Satisfaction in the slums of Calcutta', Social Indicators Research 55, pp. 329-352. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Black, D.: 1976, The Behavior of Law (Academic Press, New York). &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Blanchflower, D.G. and A.J. Oswald: 1999, Well-being over Time in Britain and the U.S.A. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Blanchflower, D.G., A.J. Oswald and P.B. Warr: 1993, Well-being over time in Britain and the USA. Paper presented at the CEP Conference on the Economics and Psychology of Happiness and Fairness. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Bowen, W.G. and D.C. Bok: 1998, The Shape of the River: Long-term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ). &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Bradburn, N.M.: 1969, The Structure of Psychological Well-being (Aldine, Chicago). &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Brant, M., B. Stone, N. Joseph, T.T. Gegax A. Underwood, A. Arora and A. Davis: 1999, 'They're rich and you're not', Newsweek, July 5, vol. 134, pp. 36-43. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Brinkerhoff, M.B., K.A. Fredell and J.S. Frideres: 1997, 'Basic minimum needs, quality of life and selected correlates: Exploration in villages in northern India', Social Indicators Research 42, pp. 245-281. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Brickman, P., D. Coates and R. Janoff-Bulman: 1978, 'Lottery winners and accident victims: Is happiness relative?' Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36, pp. 917-927. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Campbell, A.: 1981, The Sense of Well-being in America (McGraw-Hill, New York). &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Campbell, A., P.E. Converse and W.L. Rodgers: 1976, The Quality of American Life (Russell Sage, New York). &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Clark, A.: 1999, 'Are wages habit forming? Evidence from micro data', Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 39, pp. 179-200. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Clark, A., E. Diener and Y. Georgellis: 2000, July, Lags and leads in life satisfaction: A test of the baseline hypothesis. 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Gotlib (eds.), Stress and Mental Health (Plenum Press, New York, pp. 77-114). &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Wilkinson, R.G.: 1996, Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (Routledge, London). &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Wilson, J.B., D.T. Ellwood and J. Brooks-Gunn: 1995, 'Welfare-to-work through the eyes of children', in P.L. Chase-Lansdale and J. Brooks-Gunn (eds.), Escape from Poverty (Cambridge University Press, New York). &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Wirtz, D., C. Scollon, J. Kruger and E. Diener: 2001, Selecting a spring break: On-line versus recalled mood of the last one. Manuscript submitted for publication, University of Illinois. &#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;World Value Survey Group: 1994, World Values Survey, 1981–1984 and 1990–1993 (Institute for Social Research, ICPSR, Ann Arbor, MI).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;In spite of the substance in my answer (above), I maintain that the premise and question are poorly framed. Not unlike Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), I firmly believe that a post-modernist philosophical approach is being employed by this line of research that flirts dangerously close to pseudo-science. While there is little doubting the potential for the sensational, I stand with those who venture that applying immature definitions, as well as, recursive and undeclared assumptions create an illusion of scientific maturity that simply does not exist. Further, the current approach (unintentionally?) advocates unsound scientific short-cuts that, at best, run the risk of gross misinterpretation by lay persons -- while at worst, subject the entire body of knowledge to endless premise challenges. There is very little in this thread of research that is meaningful or actionable outside a very narrow community -- and still, for them, most appropriately, only to conclude that more focus is needed. It can, after all, be considered an advance to get off the blank page and begin scratching away at the &quot;we don't know what we don't know&quot; knowledge boundary. I suppose through Dr. Steven Wright (Visiting scientist, Brain and Language Lab, Georgetown University), I can be more cogent (and diplomatic) on this point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Dr. Steve Wright, it is important for researchers to level set their understanding of the meaning happiness before measuring happiness or interpreting statistics for actionable conclusions. He suggests that, currently, two high-level meanings of happiness have emerged. One is happiness as a transitory emotion, a feeling. He further suggests, there are researchers who seem to think this is all there is, and would define a happy life as nothing more than a tally of emotionally “up” or &quot;down&quot; snapshots. While the completely, separate and distinct alternative meaning has a stronger cognitive component (bias), involving memory and judgment (which introduces entirely different, if not equally subjective challenges to &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2011/10/16/scientific-measures-reliability-and-validity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;scientific measurement&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/encyclopedia/2009/replicability/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;replicability&lt;/a&gt;. Finally, Dr. Wright also suggests the integrity of subjects answers can (should?) be viewed through a lens of disbelief -- that is, &lt;I&gt;'is a respondent's answer true and accurate or skewed selectively and/or unintentionally?&lt;/I&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;Researchers have not yet come to an agreement about this dichotomy. They’re still quite a ways from being able to shed much light on most of the big questions. What’s really known scientifically advances slowly.&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer:  With the exception of the final blockquote, I am not purporting to channel Dr. Wright. My representation of him is applied interpretation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7817" LastActivityDate="2015-03-07T22:51:09.640" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9476" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9515" CreationDate="2015-03-07T23:52:05.023" Score="5" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have no hard data, but from my personal experience in people specifying right or left directions (similarly east or west) and up or down (north or south, top or bottom), people frequently make mistakes with specifying left or right much more often.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Is there some hard data on such a difference in frequencies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) If so, does cognitive-neuroscience address this difference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Certainly, there are physical properties of our world that enforce the distinction between up and down (gravity) but not between left and right although people do generally have a right-hand motor bias.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7835" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T12:22:25.863" Title="Difference in frequencies of mistakes between use of left-right vs. up-down" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9477" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10762" CreationDate="2015-03-08T06:01:46.157" Score="8" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;In traditional emotional face perception paradigms, participants are shown circle cut-outs of emotional faces.  All context has been removed.  Participants only see the face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it's well established that how we perceive emotional faces depends largely on context.  For example, Barrett, Mesquita, &amp;amp; Gendron (2011) point out that Serena William's face in the first picture looks to be in pain, but in the second picture she's clearly ecstatic from victory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uAFMy.png&quot; alt=&quot;Taken from Barrett, Mesquita, &amp;amp; Gendron, 2011&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To the best of our knowledge, how does our brain differentially process (e.g., which brain regions are recruited for) the emotional faces in these two pictures? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: To be clear, I'm familiar with psychological theories of emotion face processing (and why we perceive these faces differently).  I'm more interested in the brain level of analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-07-29T06:23:03.047" LastActivityDate="2015-07-30T04:39:45.197" Title="How is brain processing different for situation-less vs. situated emotional faces?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9479" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-08T13:55:23.883" Score="3" ViewCount="355" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's well known today that the susceptibility to optical illusions are influenced by the environment: multiple studies with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion#History&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Müller-Lyer illusion&lt;/a&gt; conducted in Zambia proved this environmental influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By I wonder if there are some optical illusions that are universal among human. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The fact that animals (in particular birds and mammals) are subjects to optical illusions means that at least part of the illusions should be genetically influences. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1080/03640210802035191/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;perceive the present&quot; hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;, should also mean that every human should be subject to at least some illusions. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is: which visual illusions are universal among humans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To focus the question I would only consider as illusions the one that are related an increase/decrease of the size of an object/subject, or the distance (perspective) or the luminance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7760" LastEditorUserId="7760" LastEditDate="2015-09-30T09:30:27.287" LastActivityDate="2015-09-30T09:30:27.287" Title="Optical illusions : human universal vs environmental influences" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-18T02:46:26.037" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9480" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7970" CreationDate="2015-03-08T14:08:15.757" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mark Changizi proposed another level of understanding this illusion based on the &quot;Perceiving the Present&quot; hypothesis. Here is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.discovery.com/human/evolution/optical-illusions-you-brain-way-ahead-130823.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;explanation&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Optical illusions are actually a result of our brains trying to&#xA;  predict the future.   When light hits our retina, it takes about&#xA;  one-tenth of a second for our brain to translate that signal into&#xA;  perception. This neural delay makes our brains generate images of what&#xA;  it thinks the world will look like in one-tenth of a second. It's not&#xA;  always right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Your brain is slow, so you need to basically create perceptions that&#xA;  correct for that delay,” said Changizi, director of human cognition at&#xA;  2AI Labs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Creating an image of the very near future probably kept early humans&#xA;  alive because it kept them from bumping into dangerous objects or&#xA;  being attacked by a fast-moving predator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To learn more about the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1080/03640210802035191/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Perceiving the Present&quot; hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7760" LastEditorUserId="7760" LastEditDate="2015-03-08T14:19:11.920" LastActivityDate="2015-03-08T14:19:11.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9481" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-08T15:40:28.523" Score="5" ViewCount="417" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in learning about the neural mechanisms behind tinnitus, and was wondering if someone could help me to name the parts of the brain on this image that show increased activity in tinnitus sufferers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gloP0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I understand, the large area showing increased activity is the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe, although my knowledge of brain anatomy is not good enough to identify the others (though I have tried!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the names of the areas showing increased activity for the tinnitus group in the above image?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6523" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-23T04:55:21.800" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T04:55:21.800" Title="What are the brain regions related to tinnitus shown in this figure?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9482" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-08T16:49:54.270" Score="5" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I understand, only the oligodendrocytes are affected in multiple sclerosis, and they are attacked by T cells which cross the blood-brain barrier. This leads me to two questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How is the blood-brain barrier affected in MS that allows T lymphocytes to cross the barrier?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do the T lymphocytes attack the oligodendrocytes? And when they do, what is the mechanism for de-myelination?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6523" LastActivityDate="2015-03-08T16:49:54.270" Title="How does de-myelination occur in multiple sclerosis?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-03-26T16:51:27.053" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9485" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8858" CreationDate="2015-03-09T10:42:45.283" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The terms stem from Petty and Cacioppo's Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion (e.g., 1984, 1986). They posit that persuasion can go via two different routes, depending on whether people have the motivation and the ability to give the persuasive arguments much thought. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Petty and Cacioppo (1984, p. 70) on the &lt;strong&gt;central route&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One, called the &lt;em&gt;central route&lt;/em&gt;, says that attitude change results from a person's careful consideration of information that reflects what that person feels are the true merits of a particular attitudinal position. According to this view, if under scrutiny the message arguments are found to be cogent and compelling, favorable thoughts will be elicited that will result in attitude change in the direction of the advocacy. If the arguments are found to be weak and specious, they will be counterargued and the message will be resisted—or boomerang (change opposite to that intended) may even occur. To the extent that increasing the number of arguments in a message affects persuasion by enhancing issue-relevant cognitive activity, the central route to persuasion has been followed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Petty and Cacioppo (1984, p. 70) on the &lt;strong&gt;peripheral route&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Attitude changes that occur via the second or &lt;em&gt;peripheral route&lt;/em&gt; do not occur because the person has diligently considered the pros and cons of the issue; they occur because the person associates the attitude issue or object with positive or negative cues or makes a simple inference about the merits of the advocated position based on various simple cues in the persuasion context. For example, rather than carefully evaluating the issue-relevant arguments, a person may accept an advocacy simply because it is presented during a pleasant lunch or because the message source is an expert. Similarly, a person may reject an advocacy simply because the position presented appears to be too extreme or because the source is unattractive. These cues (e.g., good food, expert and attractive sources, extreme positions) may shape attitudes or allow a person to decide what attitudinal position to adopt without the need for engaging in any extensive thought about the arguments presented. To the extent that a person agrees with a recommendation because of the simple perception that there are a lot of arguments to support it, the peripheral route to persuasion has been followed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All attributes given in your example (credibility, attractiveness, eloquence) refer to cues that should be especially relevant if the peripheral route is followed, because they are not arguments about the product itself but refer to the context of the persuasion (&quot;This guy looks legit, sure I'll buy the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rUbWjIKxrrs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Slap Chop&lt;/a&gt;!&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Petty, R. E., &amp;amp; Cacioppo, J. T. (1984). The effects of involvement on responses to argument quantity and quality: Central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 69–81. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.1.69&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Petty, R. E., &amp;amp; Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123–205). Academic Press. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-03-09T10:42:45.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9486" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3537" CreationDate="2015-03-09T11:14:52.250" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;When serotonin (5HT) uptake is inhibited, 5HT diffuses away from the synaptic cleft. It is believed that eventually 5HT disperses in the extracellular space and reaches the dendritic regions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The delayed action (say, 2 weeks) can be explained by 5HT's action on 5HT1A receptors in the dendritic region. After continuous activation of 5HT1A receptors, they start to downregulate, which in turn changes the firing pattern of the serotonergic neuron into a more fluttering mode over time. This mode of firing tends to release a lot more 5HT &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S089662730700623X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Lucas et al., 2007)&lt;/a&gt;. Downregulation takes time, explaining the few weeks delayed onset. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S089662730700623X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Duman, &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt; 2007;&lt;strong&gt;55&lt;/strong&gt;:679-81&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-03-09T13:36:16.140" LastActivityDate="2015-03-09T13:36:16.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9487" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2015-03-09T11:19:21.160" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another option is &lt;a href=&quot;https://reactiontimes.wordpress.com/scriptingrt/&quot;&gt;ScriptingRT&lt;/a&gt;. It's open source and fairly easy to use. The experiments are designed via a script language and then compiled into Flash apps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ScriptingRT is designed to measure reaction time differences in the millisecond range. Schubert et al. (2013) report comparisons with other response time programs (e.g., DMDX, e-prime, Inquisit, see Studies 1 and 2). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The data suggest that measuring reaction times with ScriptingRT is associated with a little bit more noise than on lab computers. However it is sufficiently precise for the type of questions typically addressed in psychological experiments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Study 1:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the SDs of these responses stayed below 7 ms in all three browsers. That value is comparable to many regular keyboards and standard reaction time software. In addition, the constant added by measuring in ScriptingRT was about 60 ms. This result suggests that researchers using ScriptingRT should thus focus primarily on differences between RTs and be cautious when interpreting absolute latencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Study 2:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;ScriptingRT resulted in both longer response latencies and a larger standard deviation than all other packages except SuperLab and E-Prime in one configuration. Nevertheless, in absolute terms, the SD of 4.21 is comparable to what was standard for keyboards for a long time [16]. It is thus clear that any test with ScriptingRT should be well powered and used to assess primarily paradigms with a large effect size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schubert, T.W., Murteira, C., Collins, E.C., Lopes, D. (2013). ScriptingRT: A software library for collecting response latencies in online studies of cognition. PLoS ONE 8: e67769. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067769&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-03-09T13:03:55.517" LastActivityDate="2015-03-09T13:03:55.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9490" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-09T18:12:53.783" Score="3" ViewCount="413" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I understand, Parkinson's disease is caused by the death of dopamine producing cells in the substantia nigra, however I don't understand how that causses the symptoms of Parkinson's. I am particularly interested in the tremor aspect of the disease, although it would be great if someone could also explain how the other psychiatric problems arise (dementia, emotional problems and sleep issues).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason for this question is that I am trying to understand how deep brain stimulation (DBS) is able to stop the tremours in Parkinson's, or at least reduce their severity, and whether DBS could also help in the other symptoms of Parkinson's.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What causes the tremors in Parkinson's disease?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Why do Parkinson's patients develop dementia, emotional problems and sleep issues?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why does Deep Brain Stimulation alleviate tremors in Parkinson's disease? Can DBS help other Parkinson's symptoms?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6523" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-03-23T17:35:54.900" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T17:55:19.807" Title="How does Parkinson's disease result in tremors?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9494" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-10T17:46:59.537" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Clustering algorithms group unlabelled data, such as in the following example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/sRxy2at.png&quot; alt=&quot;http://i.imgur.com/sRxy2at.png&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which clustering algorithms are similar to how humans do clustering? (e.g. Connectivity based clustering (hierarchical clustering), Centroid-based clustering, Distribution-based clustering, Density-based clustering, and so on).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4922" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-03-10T18:41:45.390" LastActivityDate="2015-03-10T18:41:45.390" Title="What clustering algorithms are most similar to how humans cluster data?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-04-25T21:44:40.570" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9495" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9354" CreationDate="2015-03-10T18:46:44.983" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just found out that the &lt;a href=&quot;https://developer.apple.com/researchkit/researchkit-technical-overview.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;upcoming Apple Research Kit for iPhone&lt;/a&gt; allows for some kinds of motor and touch activity monitoring. Maybe some of these can be re-purposed to collect data relevant to the original question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EwxSs.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-03-10T18:46:44.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9498" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9500" CreationDate="2015-03-10T21:09:59.900" Score="2" ViewCount="253" Body="&lt;p&gt;Obviously not sociopathy - or anything like that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just wondered if there was a term for enjoying the sensations of guilt  :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT can you go on - and say something about the differences between fear and guilt :) ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2015-03-10T22:49:26.413" LastActivityDate="2015-03-19T00:21:59.883" Title="Is there a term for enjoying or liking the feeling of guilt" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9499" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9545" CreationDate="2015-03-10T22:27:18.997" Score="3" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to track down a source for an idea I saw in a documentary a while ago (sorry, no idea where!) It demonstrated how children learn differently at different ages, through showing them balancing an unevenly weighted bar (in other words, a bar that looks the same along its length, but is in fact heavier at one end).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Loosely, the programme suggested that: young children (toddlers?) can get such a bar to balance intuitively, through &quot;trial-and-error&quot;; slightly older children (5?) try to balance the bar half way, and so say &quot;it won't balance&quot;; older children again, understand that the bar is not evenly weighted and so once &lt;em&gt;again&lt;/em&gt; realise that experimentation is needed to find the balancing point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I completely imagining that I saw some research of this kind? Or does anybody know where I can find a link to such a piece of research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7854" LastActivityDate="2015-03-18T09:41:26.877" Title="Study showing how different ages of children learn about balancing objects" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9500" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9498" CreationDate="2015-03-10T22:40:55.380" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think there's a term specifically for pleasurable guilt. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, depending on whom you ask, there's a couple ways we can talk about this feeling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If we assume that guilt can only be experienced as negative, then we might describe pleasurable guilt as pleasure &lt;em&gt;about&lt;/em&gt; guilt (i.e., a positive meta-emotional experience of guilt; for a review on meta-emotions, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/5/4/390.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mendonca, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).  In other words, you experience a sense of pleasure in response to, and perhaps alongside, your emotion of negative guilt.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If we take a psychological constructivist view of emotions (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pccondon.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/ch4_condon_et_al_2014_hps.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Condon, Wilson-Mendenhall, &amp;amp; Barrett, 2014&lt;/a&gt;), then we can hypothesize that even prototypically negative emotions can be experienced as positive (e.g., positive fear, or conversely, negative happiness; see also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-science.org/pubs/2014/wilson-mendenhall-soc-cog-aff-neuro-2014.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wilson-Mendenhall, Barrett, &amp;amp; Barsalou, 2014&lt;/a&gt;). So guilt isn't &lt;em&gt;necessarily&lt;/em&gt; negative, even though our prototypical conceptualization of guilt is that it's negative.  That is to say that guilt is not made up of a specific and consistent set of experiences, behaviors, and cognitions. Instead, it's a heterogeneous category that can include negative or positive experiences--depending on how the individual constructs his or her affective experience.  The photo below (taken from &lt;a href=&quot;https://pccondon.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/ch4_condon_et_al_2014_hps.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Condon et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;) shows how fear might be conceptualized as either negative or positive--and perhaps you can extrapolate from there how guilt might be similar. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/36ilF.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, the fruit category is meant to show a continuum of typical-atypical fruit examples (orange-olive), which perhaps helps to clarify the idea of typical-atypical fear (and guilt).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: To be clear, fear tends to be conceptualized as a negative emotion involving anticipation of a negative event in the future (e.g., a snake will bite me).  Guilt tends to be conceptualized as a negative emotion about a negative past event for which you feel personally responsible.  In this case, I'm using fear to describe the continuum of typical vs. atypical emotions, but note that guilt will have a different continuum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-03-10T22:59:46.803" LastActivityDate="2015-03-10T22:59:46.803" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9502" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18674" CreationDate="2015-03-11T03:37:29.417" Score="3" ViewCount="430" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both of these terms describe the inability to perceive more than one object at a time. I'm not too sure what the big difference is between them. Note that I'm referring to 'extinction' as used in &lt;em&gt;neurology&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_%28neurology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wiki article&lt;/a&gt;), and not as used in &lt;em&gt;psychology&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T16:55:53.863" Title="What's the difference between simultanagnosia and neurological extinction?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9503" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7736" CreationDate="2015-03-11T06:22:28.560" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;NAPS&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marchewka A, Żurawski L, Jednoróg K, Grabowska A. The Nencki Affective Picture System (NAPS). Introduction to a novel standardized wide range high quality realistic pictures database.Behavior Research Methods, 46: 596-610, 2014 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Selecting appropriate stimuli to induce emotional states is essential in affective research. Only a few standardized affective stimulus databases have been created for auditory, language, and visual materials. Numerous studies have extensively employed these databases using both behavioral and neuroimaging methods. However, some limitations of the existing databases have recently been reported, including limited numbers of stimuli in specific categories or poor picture quality of the visual stimuli. In the present article, we introduce the Nencki Affective Picture System (NAPS), which consists of 1,356 realistic, high-quality photographs that are divided into five categories (people, faces, animals, objects, and landscapes). Affective ratings were collected from 204 mostly European participants. The pictures were rated according to the valence, arousal, and approach-avoidance dimensions using computerized bipolar semantic slider scales. Normative ratings for the categories are presented for each dimension. Validation of the ratings was obtained by comparing them to ratings generated using the Self-Assessment Manikin and the International Affective Picture System. In addition, the physical properties of the photographs are reported, including luminance, contrast, and entropy. The new database, with accompanying ratings and image parameters, allows researchers to select a variety of visual stimulus materials specific to their experimental questions of interest. The NAPS system is freely accessible to the scientific community for noncommercial use by request at &lt;a href=&quot;http://naps.nencki.gov.pl&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://naps.nencki.gov.pl&lt;/a&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7856" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-03-11T13:19:04.640" LastActivityDate="2015-03-11T13:19:04.640" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9504" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-11T10:47:33.483" Score="5" ViewCount="717" Body="&lt;p&gt;Online IQ tests often yield wildly varying results (say 60 - 150). These are actual values obtained by repeated measures. It is puzzling, because it's such a wide range. How can the same person be mentally retarded and a genius at the same time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7857" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-12T02:44:50.333" LastActivityDate="2015-03-12T02:44:50.333" Title="Why might a person get widely varying scores on different online IQ tests?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9506" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9354" CreationDate="2015-03-11T11:57:29.130" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anxiety and stress are very available states, and since you want to know how people currently &lt;em&gt;feel&lt;/em&gt; (rather than some more implicit construct), you probably can't do much better than just asking them. A single-item anxiety measure as suggested by mlt should work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7859" LastActivityDate="2015-03-11T11:57:29.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1612" CreationDate="2015-03-11T14:03:15.070" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our university has a public grade distribution database, so I did a really quick analysis on some historical data to see if there was any support for this idea. To my surprise, it appears that there might be. But, my analysis is very limited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I downloaded the grade distributions for all intro psychology and intro computer science classes from 2010-2014. This gave me the grades of about 15,000 psychology students and about 1,500 computer science students. I summed up the count for each letter grade, and then normalized to a percentage of students. Apologies for the somewhat ugly chart, but here's what I found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pKOVu.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The distribution for letter grades seems pretty consistent across both disciplines, but what jumps out to me is the assignment of &quot;W&quot; grades, which is the grade received when a student withdraws from the course after being enrolled for at least the first week of classes. About 20% of all intro CS students withdraw from the class, while less than 5% of intro psych students do. This might indicate that a larger number of CS students find the course to be too challenging for them, and withdraw rather than get a low grade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-03-11T17:21:07.407" LastActivityDate="2015-03-11T17:21:07.407" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9511" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9504" CreationDate="2015-03-11T20:58:11.683" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&amp;amp;context=psychology_publications&amp;amp;sei-redir=1&amp;amp;referer=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar%3Fion%3D1%26espv%3D2%26bav%3Don.2%2Cor.r_cp.%26bvm%3Dbv.87920726%2Cd.aWw%26biw%3D1423%26bih%3D701%26dpr%3D1%26um%3D1%26ie%3DUTF-8%26lr%26q%3Drelated%3A1mCrasWnQQb4qM%3Ascholar.google.com%2F#search=%22related%3A1mCrasWnQQb4qM%3Ascholar.google.com%2F%22&quot;&gt;Firmin et al. (2008)&lt;/a&gt; tested the validity of a handful of online IQ tests by having college students complete IQ tests at three different websites and also complete a validated lab measure, the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS). They found that there were moderate correlations ($r$ values were around 0.4 to 0.5) between some of the online tests and the RIAS, though other tests did not have a significant correlation with the RIAS. Thus, there was some evidence that online IQ tests are measuring the same kinds of things as lab-based IQ tests, but the correlations were weak and some tests were better than others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short: online IQ tests are widely variable in their validity, and even the good ones are probably not all that accurate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firmin, M., Hwang, C., Burger, A., Sammons, J., &amp;amp; Lowrie, R. (2008). Evaluating the concurrent validity of three web-based IQ tests&#xA;and the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS). &lt;em&gt;Eastern Education Journal, 37&lt;/em&gt;, 20-28.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-03-11T20:58:11.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9512" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9513" CreationDate="2015-03-12T08:04:16.490" Score="5" ViewCount="589" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://jneurosci.org/content/33/12/5301.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, the authors use the term 'affective control' or the slightly longer form 'affective cognitive control capacity' to mean 'the ability to regulate emotions or manipulate emotional material in the service of task goals'. However wherever I Google 'affective control' I get results that seem to pertain to either &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_control_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Affective Control Theory&lt;/a&gt; (which is a much broader theory and seems to be unrelated) or the study in question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there another expression for the ability to manipulate or regulate emotions and emotional material? Are there any domains I can research to learn more? I've heard Emotional Intelligence before (full disclosure though, I haven't read the Daniel Goleman book), but that seems to relate more to learned knowledge - whereas it seems affective control is more related to working memory and capacity to process and manipulate material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7865" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T11:06:18.460" Title="Is there another word for 'affective control'?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9513" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9512" CreationDate="2015-03-12T08:17:06.650" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a huge body of literature on &lt;strong&gt;emotion regulation&lt;/strong&gt;.  The main person to look up is &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=MlMKkPUAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot;&gt;James Gross&lt;/a&gt;.  He's recently published a second edition of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1462503500&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Handbook of Emotion Regulation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; if you'd like a comprehensive review of the field.  He also just published a &lt;a href=&quot;http://spl.stanford.edu/pdfs/2015/Gross%20PI.PDF&quot;&gt;target article in &lt;em&gt;Psychological Inquiry&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; about the present status of emotion regulation research and theory (a good starting place, in my opinion).  His name will be on the majority of papers published in this area (he collaborates with &lt;em&gt;a lot&lt;/em&gt; of people).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-03-12T08:17:06.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9514" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9133" CreationDate="2015-03-12T09:35:25.050" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Heritability&lt;/strong&gt; is the proportion of differences in some observable trait (the phenotype; e.g., intelligence, height, love for pizza) in a population that corresponds to differences in the genotype. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heritability is estimated by comparing people who differ in terms of their genetic similarity and the non-genetic influences they are exposed to. For example, we know that monozygotic twins share 100% of their genes, whereas dizygotic twins share only 50% of their genes on average. If we compare twins that were raised in different homes (adopted twins) and monozygotic twins are more similar to each other than dizygotic twins we conclude that this difference overlaps with genetic differences, as expressed in a high heritability index.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, heritability does not describe the extent to which a person's individual characteristics were formed by genes or the environment, which is a frequent misconception. &lt;strong&gt;Heritability only describes the variance of a trait within a given population that corresponds to genetic differences in that population&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As described in Griffiths et al. (2000): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It must be stressed that this measure of “genetic influence” tells us what part of the population’s variation in phenotype can be assigned to variation in genotype. It does not tell us what parts of an individual’s phenotype can be ascribed to its heredity and to its environment. This latter distinction is not a reasonable one. An individual’s phenotype is a consequence of the interaction between its genes and its sequence of environments. It clearly would be silly to say that you owe 60 inches of your height to genes and 10 inches to environment. All measures of the “importance” of genes are framed in terms of the proportion of variance ascribable to their variation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How this restricts the interpretation of heritability becomes clearer if we imagine cases in which there is no genetic variation (everybody has the same gene) or there is no variation in the environment (everybody is raised in the same way). In the first case, every variation would correspond to environmental differences, in the second case every variation would correspond to genetic differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A nice example is described &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/herit.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One example is hair color among Eskimos (N. Carlson &amp;amp; W Buskirt, 1997). The whole Eskimo population appears to have the same alleles for hair color, so for Eskimos, the heritability for hair color is 0.00, even though the color is under strong genetic control! It's 0.00 because there is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;no genetic variation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; for hair color.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, it is important to point out that there can be considerable overlap between genes and environment. People with certain genes can search specific environments that others with different genes would not. These environments can then have a high impact on them. Nevertheless, because of the way in which heritability is defined, these environmental differences are ascribed to genetic differences. Furthermore, they depend on the possibility of seeking certain environments in a society. An example is described by Neisser and colleagues (1996):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A high heritability does not mean that the environment has no impact on the development of a trait, or that learning is not involved. Vocabulary size, for example, is very substantially heritable (and highly correlated with&#xA;  general psychometric intelligence) although every word in an individual’s vocabulary is learned. In a society in which plenty of words are available in everyone’s environment-especially for individuals who are motivated&#xA;  to seek them out-the number of words that individuals actually learn depends to a considerable extent on their genetic predispositions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For these reasons, &lt;strong&gt;heritability is a population construct, it hinges on the genetic and environmental variability within the population it describes.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Griffiths, A. J., et al. (2000). An Introduction to Genetic Analysis (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21766/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21766/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard Jr., T. J., Wade, A., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, 77–101. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-14T13:43:46.917" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T13:43:46.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9515" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9476" CreationDate="2015-03-12T11:27:13.520" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is data on this question generated by research on the embodiment of spatial cognition. The idea here is that we mentally represent and construct space in relation to our bodies. From this perspective, the differences that you describe (left vs. right more complicated than up vs down) stem from the properties of how we perceive the world in our bodies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tversky (2008) describing research of Franklin and Tversky (1990):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We proposed that people keep track of the relative positions of the objects around them as they move by constructing a spatial-mental framework out of the three axes of the body and appending objects to it, updating it as the situation changes. We reasoned that accessibility of objects should reflect characteristics of the body axes and the world  relevant to perception and action. The head-feet axis has salient asymmetries both perceptually and behaviorally; moreover, for the canonically upright observer, it correlates with the only asymmetric axis in the world, the up-down axis of gravity. The  front-back axis separates the world that can be easily perceived and acted on from the world that cannot be easily perceived or acted on, but the left-right axis has few salient perceptual or behavioral asymmetries. This analysis predicts that, for the upright observer, things located along the head-feet axis should be fastest to retrieve, followed by things located on the front-back axis, followed by things located on the left-right axis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their data supports this reasoning. Furthermore in their experiments they also disentangled gravity from body orientation by having some participants recline:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For the reclining observer, no body axis correlates with gravity, so accessibility depends entirely on the body axes. In this case, things located along the front-back axis should be fastest because of the forward bias of perception and action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was the case as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that accessibility was operationalized as the speed in which participants could name the position of an object. Participants made very few errors in this task. So strictly speaking it does not answer your question about left-right errors. On the whole, this has nevertheless much overlap with your question. They could have increased the number of errors by imposing a short reaction time window, for example. In this case they would have expected these effects on the error rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Franklin, N., &amp;amp; Tversky, B. (1990). Searching imagined environments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 119, 63–76. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.119.1.63&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tversky, B. (2008). Spatial cognition: Situated and embodied. In P. Robbins and M. Aydede (Eds). Cambridge handbook of situated cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-03-25T12:22:25.863" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T12:22:25.863" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9517" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-13T18:25:48.013" Score="3" ViewCount="187" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why do disengaged people feel tired, fatigued or unfocused after long, &quot;boring&quot; corporate style meetings?&lt;/strong&gt; (there is an agenda, but not everyone participates?) Over the years I've observed dozens of meetings where a 6-8 of &quot;optional&quot; people get invited, but only 1-2 people really talk, while the rest are disengaged and are checking email, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it related to long period of inactivity, lack of engagement or mirror neurons reading each other's emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to put it : &lt;strong&gt;Why do periods of cognitive inactivity or lack of engagement result in people feeling tired?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-05-04T15:12:49.507" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T15:12:49.507" Title="What makes disengaged participants tired / exhausted after corporate meetings?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;collaboration&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9518" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9544" CreationDate="2015-03-14T10:45:05.350" Score="4" ViewCount="128" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been thinking about this topic quite a lot recently. What exactly is obsession ? Is it a good trait indicating perseverance for a goal ? Or is it a sign of a psychological disorder ? Is it a sort of fixation ? Is isolation its main cause ? Also, is there a reason why geniuses are often obsessed with their fields and thus, driven to insanity ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the most famous kinds of obsessions are obsessions with computers, chess, books and maths. However, is there a general theory to define obsession ? Giving examples of obsessions with different fields would clear doubts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7875" LastActivityDate="2017-06-14T08:12:15.543" Title="Obsessions: Synopsis and Effects" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9520" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-15T00:08:20.457" Score="9" ViewCount="721" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/lesson-of-a-lifetime-72754306/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;blue eyes/brown eyes&quot; exercise&lt;/a&gt; created by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Elliott&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jane Elliott&lt;/a&gt; in the 1960s, she divided a group of schoolchildren by eye color and characterized one of them (e.g., the blue eyed group) as an inferior group. The aim of the exercise is to show how racism works and how it feels to be discriminated against.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the exercise effective? What are the psychological consequences of it? Does the exercise still &quot;work&quot; today? What are the ethics when this exercise is done with adults or children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7879" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2018-08-25T05:41:48.323" LastActivityDate="2018-11-18T08:57:11.807" Title="What are the effects of the &quot;blue eyes/brown eyes&quot; racism exercise?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;&lt;racism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9521" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9522" CreationDate="2015-03-15T01:53:04.137" Score="1" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a software developer.  Many of us get our news from &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.ycombinator.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://news.ycombinator.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where do cogsci people get their news from?  I'd like to read the latest trends and discoveries in cogsci research.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3942" LastActivityDate="2015-03-15T04:34:23.983" Title="Where do you get your news?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-03-17T10:15:31.033" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9522" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9521" CreationDate="2015-03-15T04:15:52.833" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure how helpful my answer will be, but I get my &quot;news&quot; from scanning journals related to my interests.  I look through 1) broad review journals, 2) broad empirical journals and 3) more specific empirical journals.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I find that popular media outlets do a poor job of reporting on research in psychology/neuroscience (but hopefully someone else has some idea of reliable/quality news outlets).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Broad review journals that I tend to look at include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/home&quot;&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cdp.sagepub.com&quot;&gt;Current Directions in Psychological Science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pps.sagepub.com&quot;&gt;Perspectives on Psychological Science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com&quot;&gt;Emotion Review&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=BBS&quot;&gt;Behavioral and Brain Sciences&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/rev/&quot;&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/bul/&quot;&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/hpli20/current&quot;&gt;Psychological Inquiry&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psr.sagepub.com&quot;&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Review&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then there are the broad empirical journals:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com&quot;&gt;Psychological Science&lt;/a&gt;   (studies from this journal appear very often in the news)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/journals/clinical&quot;&gt;Clinical Psychological Science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com&quot;&gt;Nature&lt;/a&gt; (usually hardcore neuroscience or behavioral economics)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org&quot;&gt;Science&lt;/a&gt; (occasionally get a fun psych study here, which will be heavily advertised on the news)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org&quot;&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences&lt;/a&gt; (PNAS has a good psychological and cognitive sciences section)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journals.elsevier.com/neuroimage/&quot;&gt;Neuroimage&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/psp/&quot;&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the more specific empirical journals (for me, mostly related to emotion):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/emo/&quot;&gt;Emotion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/pcem20/current&quot;&gt;Cognition and Emotion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org&quot;&gt;Social, Cognitive, and Affective Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at journals like these may not be too appealing if you want something quick and easy to read.  But I hope that this is useful to you in some way. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-03-15T04:34:23.983" LastActivityDate="2015-03-15T04:34:23.983" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9524" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9533" CreationDate="2015-03-15T16:53:24.640" Score="5" ViewCount="873" Body="&lt;p&gt;One might think that optimists would be obviously happier.&#xA;However being a pessimist means that your expectations will  usually be worse than the reality. Presumably when reality exceeds your expectations, you will be happier. On the other hand if you always expect something good to occur you will be disappointed when reality does not live up to your expectations.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary:&#xA;Does pessimism lead to greater happiness because low expectations lead to less disappointment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7874" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-16T23:38:39.353" LastActivityDate="2015-03-18T20:44:32.107" Title="Does pessimism lead to greater happiness because low expectations lead to less disappointment?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9527" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9538" CreationDate="2015-03-16T01:31:31.083" Score="3" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm having a hard time phrasing my question into words, so I'll provide an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine you ask someone how much it'll take to eat a worm. The person says they would eat a worm for \$20. Instead of offering \$20, you offer 1 dollar less. Reluctantly, they say yes to \$19. You proceed to offer 1 dollar less so on and so forth. Eventually the reward money draws close to \$0 and we're left with a bizarre situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this phenomenon or am I totally bananas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7883" LastActivityDate="2015-03-17T04:44:15.273" Title="Is there a name for the psychology behind lowering your bets?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9529" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9597" CreationDate="2015-03-16T11:02:05.470" Score="4" ViewCount="394" Body="&lt;p&gt;The author &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.katiealbee.com/blog/2015/3/2/the-importance-of-utilizing-extroverts-and-introverts-in-team-meetings&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here claims&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A great leader knows that making room for both extroverts and introverts to share their thoughts could be the key to whether or not their next project succeeds or fails. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;document purports&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Carl Jung and the authors of the Myers–Briggs provide a different perspective and suggest that everyone has both an extraverted side and an introverted side, with one being more dominant than the other. Rather than focusing on interpersonal behavior, however, Jung defined introversion as an &quot;attitude-type characterised by orientation in life through subjective psychic contents&quot; (focus on one's inner psychic activity); and extraversion as &quot;an attitude type characterised by concentration of interest on the external object&quot; (the outside world)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=9206257&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;commentator writes&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The distinction between introvert and extrovert is shallow psychology. They are sometimes used condescendingly by angsty individuals at either side of the imaginary spectrum. The truth isn't even that most people fall somewhere in between. There is no gray area, because these matters are not black and white. Their use leads to generalization and over-simplification of delicate subject matter. Introvert vs. extrovert is &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; a sledgehammer where a scalpel is required.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;What is the evidence to suggest that the introvert/extrovert distinction is a shallow distinction?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-04-24T06:59:56.727" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T06:59:56.727" Title="What is the evidence to suggest that the introvert/extrovert distinction is a shallow distinction?" Tags="&lt;introversion&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9530" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9313" CreationDate="2015-03-16T11:32:46.163" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;When diagnosing Psychological/Psychiatric Disorders, psychologists would consider the extent of the patient's:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Deviation from the norm;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Distress;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Danger to themselves and others;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dsyfunction, i.e. ability for the person to carry out tasks important for everyday functioning in an independent fashion.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The current paradigm uses a continuum model for disorders; how severe a psychologist would judge your disorder to be depends on the extent of the 4 D's. However, they're aren't weighted equally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deviation from the norm is, in fact, the factor with the least weight given when considering if someone has a mental disorder. What is abnormal for one society may be completely acceptable for another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, what is given more attention to is the extent of the distress and dsyfunction a person exhibits. The greater the distress or dsyfunction, the more serious your disorder will be placed within the continuum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Danger is the iffy component, since usually the person with the mental disorder who will become the victim of exploitation, violence, and general hostility and fear. Because of this, it's usually only brought up when there is a clear and present danger to themselves or others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7886" LastActivityDate="2015-03-16T11:32:46.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9532" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9546" CreationDate="2015-03-16T18:15:32.493" Score="6" ViewCount="2404" Body="&lt;p&gt;Though I'm unversed in science, I accept and understand that bacteria differ from viruses; so antibiotics don't help in viral infections. Regardless, because older family members still allege that antibiotics have mitigated their colds, can psychology explain their misbelief? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They claim that within a day of taking antibiotics, their ability to speak returns and  their sore throats are soothed. I can attest to this improvement; they do feel better. I'm also unversed in psychology, but can some placebo effect (again, NOT the antibiotics themselves) truly contrive such genuine relief?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastActivityDate="2017-01-26T20:34:23.610" Title="Why do those with viral infections feel better after wrongly taking antibiotics?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9533" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9524" CreationDate="2015-03-16T18:55:18.283" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do believe these concepts should not be applied as in boolean logic, with either &lt;code&gt;ALL PESSIMISTIC&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;ALL OPTIMISTIC&lt;/code&gt;, but in a rather spectral fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ambigamy/201408/the-secret-happiness-and-compassion-low-expectations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Happiness is closely linked to having lower expectations&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(...) Robb Rutledge says, “Happiness depends not on how well things are going but whether things are going better or worse than expected.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2013/02/pessimism-future.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pessimism also leads to being more careful&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Our findings revealed that being overly optimistic in predicting a better future was associated with a greater risk of disability and death within the following decade,&amp;quot; said lead author Frieder R. Lang, PhD, of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg in Germany. &amp;quot;Pessimism about the future may encourage people to live more carefully, taking health and safety precautions.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(...) &amp;quot;Unexpectedly, we also found that stable and good health and income were associated with expecting a greater decline compared with those in poor health or with low incomes,&amp;quot; Lang said. &amp;quot;Moreover, we found that higher income was related to a greater risk of disability.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2011/03/17/pessimism-vs-optimism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;There are pros and cons in each of them&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being optimistic allows people to pursue their goals in a positive way: to dream a bigger and better dream, which they can work their way towards. Optimists also seem to respond better to positive feedback, and part of being optimistic may be generating this feedback for themselves, i.e. thinking positive thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand being pessimistic may help people reduce their natural anxiety and to perform better. Also, pessimists seem to respond better to negative feedback. They like to hear what the problems were, so they can correct them. Again, part of why pessimists generate these sorts of negative thoughts is that it helps them perform better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keeping up a mood tending to pessimistic while giving your best in the tasks might be a recipe for greater happiness due to lower expectancies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7633" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-16T18:55:18.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8397" CreationDate="2015-03-16T19:59:48.863" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;@what has a great point in wanting to know the the social context. Sounds to me simply like &lt;em&gt;fear&lt;/em&gt;, but to know the &lt;em&gt;origin of the fear&lt;/em&gt; we need more context. A lot more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My hypothesis is that something is giving the perception of danger to &lt;em&gt;some people&lt;/em&gt;, either real or perceived, and they spread the mentality; some are more susceptible to it than others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can also be an effort to try to &lt;em&gt;keep people away&lt;/em&gt;, like not wanting new people moving in. In a &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/xindex/g/xenophobia.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;xenophobia&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;em&gt;also a flavor of fear&lt;/em&gt;) fashion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An excessive and irrational fear of anything foreign. This fear is most often of foreign people, places or objects. People who are xenophobic may display fear or even anger toward others who are foreign.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Knowing how these people got this perception of fear is the blurry part. In a very safe neighborhood, these claims sound slightly paranoid. People can mix some story told from family or friends, plus some media, add a bit of cultural backing, mix up with a particularly fearful personality and bang, chaos ensured. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given an incomplete scenario, like the tales above, our cognitive bias will fill out some details which we are missing, or we have trouble understanding, and we might have bad tendencies in what to fill. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negativity_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Negativity bias&lt;/a&gt; is a good example: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The negativity bias refers to the notion that, even when of equal intensity, things of a more negative nature (e.g. unpleasant thoughts, emotions, or social interactions; harmful/traumatic events) have a greater effect on one's psychological state and processes than do neutral or positive things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose a crime happened in our very peaceful neighborhood some time ago. Not everyone is used to it. It is new, dangerous and provides a feeling of unsafeness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm vulnerable at home&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It represents danger to my possessions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It represents danger to my family&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There will be invasions to the safeness of my property.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200305/why-we-fear-the-unknown&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;I don't know what it will bring, but it won't be good&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/21534/1/A_psychological_perspective_on_vulnerability_in_the_fear_of_crime_%28LSERO_version%29.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This is an article from UK&lt;/a&gt;, but features some context-agnostic points when it comes to the fear of crimes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many crimes have emotional effects on&#xA;  victims that include upset, fear and anger. They can also result in psychological&#xA;  problems where the crime involves the victim coming face to face with the&#xA;  offender, particularly when violence or the threat of violence occurs&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Robbery and its effects on victims may also&#xA;  affect the feelings and behaviour of non-victims, some of whom may be able to&#xA;  appreciate its effects at first hand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Street robbery is predominantly an urban phenomenon, with most robberies&#xA;  taking place in streets near the victims' home and close to transport access points&#xA;  (Barker et al., 1993; Mirlees-Black et al., 1996). Though not a seasonal crime,&#xA;  more attacks occur when it is dark, with violence used in approximately 44% of&#xA;  incidents (Barker et al., 1993) and weapons involved in about a third (Mayhew&#xA;  et al., 1992). Young people represent a substantial proportion of the victims of&#xA;  street robbery (e.g. Barker et al., 1993) and, though only slightly, males are more&#xA;  at risk (Mayhew et al., 1992)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/21534/1/A_psychological_perspective_on_vulnerability_in_the_fear_of_crime_%28LSERO_version%29.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This article&lt;/a&gt;, also from the UK, presents studies on risk perception in the fear of crime:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Instead perhaps&#xA;  the strongest evidence relates to&#xA;  the importance of public concerns about neighbourhood disorder,&#xA;  social cohesion and collective efficacy (Ferra&#xA;  ro, 1995; Perkins &amp;amp; Taylor, 1996; Jackson, 2004;&#xA;  Wyant, 2008). The idea here is that the incidenc&#xA;  e and risk of crime has become coupled in the&#xA;  public mind with issues of social stability, mo&#xA;  ral consensus and the colle&#xA;  ctive informal control&#xA;  processes which underpin neighbourhood order (Ba&#xA;  nnister, 1993; Walklate, 1998; Girling, Loader,&#xA;  &amp;amp; Sparks, 2000; Jackson, 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forgive the below-average english.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-16T19:59:48.863" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9536" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-16T20:05:10.430" Score="7" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say that we have a set of shapes. They can be grouped according to the different Gestalt laws of grouping. However, different Gestalt principles will divide the set into different groups, e.g. grouping by proximity will give us A,B,C | D,E,F, and grouping by similarity will give us A,B,D,F | C, E.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to predict which laws would gain precedence over the others? What's the &quot;order of processing&quot; of the different visual properties?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7890" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-03-16T22:23:33.620" LastActivityDate="2015-03-16T22:23:33.620" Title="Is there a hierarchy of gestalt visual stimuli processing?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9537" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9532" CreationDate="2015-03-17T01:31:23.980" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;They might also just be getting better. The immune system could fight off the cold shortly after the antibiotics are taken, and they are misattributing the causality of getting better to the drugs instead of the immune system. People are prone to make errors in causal judgment of this kind. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-03-17T01:31:23.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9538" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9527" CreationDate="2015-03-17T04:44:15.273" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer I was searching for is Creeping Normality. It fits better examples and has a clearer definition for what I was attempting to express.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Creeping normality&lt;/strong&gt; refers to the way a major change can be accepted as&#xA;  the normal situation if it happens slowly, in unnoticed increments,&#xA;  when it would be regarded as objectionable if it took place in a&#xA;  single step or short period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7883" LastActivityDate="2015-03-17T04:44:15.273" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9542" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9543" CreationDate="2015-03-18T08:07:45.637" Score="10" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there scientific evidence to correlate selfie pictures and Narcissism? I am curious when and after what threshold does self love move into the Narcissistic phase? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7400" LastActivityDate="2015-03-18T09:16:04.810" Title="Correlation between selfie and Narcissism" Tags="&lt;love&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9543" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9542" CreationDate="2015-03-18T09:16:04.810" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Self-reported number of selfies has been  found to correlate positively with some measures of narcissism in US men (Fox and Rooney, 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fox, J., &amp;amp; Rooney, M. C. (2015). The Dark Triad and trait self-objectification as predictors of men’s use and self-presentation behaviors on social networking sites. Personality &amp;amp; Individual Differences, 76, 161-165. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.017&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-03-18T09:16:04.810" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9544" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9518" CreationDate="2015-03-18T09:24:00.973" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Obsessions are defined as &lt;em&gt;intrusive and recurring thoughts that an individual finds disturbing or uncontrollable&lt;/em&gt;, and are not a good thing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lay use of the word which means something like &quot;a very strong interest,&quot; but it is just that: a perfectly normal if very intense interest, usually with no basis in abnormal psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that 'fixation' is an outdated Freudian concept, unless, of course, you're talking about physically fixating your eyes on an object or area of visual space. Obsessions can be in almost any form, but common ones include recurring and distressing curse words, or a desire to perform dangerous or inappropriate acts (such as a spontaneous desire to jump out of a moving car, or to touch a nearby person in an intimate place.) Importantly, these are distressing and uncontrollable--the obsessive person does not desire these thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-14T08:12:15.543" LastActivityDate="2017-06-14T08:12:15.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9545" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9499" CreationDate="2015-03-18T09:41:26.877" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect you are thinking of Karmiloff-Smith's work. Here's an excerpt from an '88 article almost exactly matching the description. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;Children were asked to balance a series of blocks on a narrow metal support. Some of the blocks had their weight evenly distributed and balanced at their geometric centre. Others had been drilled with lead in one end and, although they looked identical to the first type, they actually balanced way off centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;Very briefly, it was shown that 4 and 5 year olds could do this task very easily. They simply picked up each block, moved it along the support until they felt the direction of imbalance, and corrected that by using proprioceptive feedback until the block balanced. By contrast, 6 to 7 year olds placed every block at its geometric centre and were thus incapable of balancing anything but the blocks where the weight was evenly distributed. Finally, 8 to 9 year olds were able to balance all the types of block, as had the youngest subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not super familiar with the author, but given the publication time and terminology, this seems like a theoretical predecessor to the more recent work on embodied cognition, dynamic systems and ecological psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Karmiloff‐Smith, A. (1988). The Child is a Theoretician, Not an Inductivist*. Mind &amp;amp; Language, 3(3), 183-196.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-03-18T09:41:26.877" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9546" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9532" CreationDate="2015-03-18T10:20:34.443" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Placebo effect is not the only explanation, although it can be a large component. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be clear: Neither of the explanations below are reasons to use antibiotics for infections not due to bacteria. They do illustrate anchoring. Just because we call a drug an antibiotic and first note its effects to be killing bacteria does not forbid that drug from having other effects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Antibiotics are anti-inflammatory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bacterial and viral infections both induce an innate immune response, which includes the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Antibiotics can provide symptomatic relief by inhibiting the release of those cytokines, decreasing inflammation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bacterial super infections&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The risk of a bacterial infection jumps during and shorty after a viral infection. Children, for example, are more likely to get strep throat after the flu. If the patient is unaware of two infections, taking an antibiotic will appear to treat the viral infection. It is, in reality, treating the bacterial rider.       &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1102" LastEditorUserId="6479" LastEditDate="2015-03-18T20:29:47.030" LastActivityDate="2015-03-18T20:29:47.030" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9551" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9524" CreationDate="2015-03-18T20:01:08.473" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the two can be mediated with being Realistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, and in conclusion, this is pessimistic in nature - especially if one tends to dwell on things or generally 'suffer' from dampened, over-extensive neuronal networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pessimism can lead to certain insights that can be a downward spiral of despair, but often lead to recognition of a situation that can be the light at the end of a tunnel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the average stable persons' mindset flickers between the two, regardless of one's perceived outlook on life.  It's about moderation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't believe anything, pessimism or optimism, can lead to happiness - but anything can surely lead to some sort of contentment - which 'realistically' is the best we ought to hope for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...and painlessness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7901" LastActivityDate="2015-03-18T20:01:08.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9552" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9524" CreationDate="2015-03-18T20:44:32.107" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;While this is not a credible answer, I'd like to share these personal anecdotes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;My greatest disappointment when buying a game was when the game was &lt;strong&gt;over hyped&lt;/strong&gt;, and the reality did not live up to exaggerated expectations. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;My greatest satisfaction with games came from discovering &quot;hidden gems&quot; - games which have &lt;strong&gt;no expectations&lt;/strong&gt; attached to them. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We live in the world dominated by marketing, where it takes exaggerated promises and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promotion_(marketing)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;hype&quot; style marketing&lt;/a&gt; to sell anything or be noticed. This creates unrealistic expectations which are almost impossible to meet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is especially visible in the video game industry - there's a category of games called &quot;early access games&quot;. These are unfinished games that are sold based on promises and &quot;hype&quot;. Few of these games have ever lived up to the expectations.&#xA;In general, there's backlash against &quot;early access&quot; products on game delivery platforms like Steam, particularly due to the feeling of disappointment that such titles create when they fail to deliver or fail to release.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-03-18T20:44:32.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9553" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9588" CreationDate="2015-03-18T20:58:26.657" Score="9" ViewCount="1801" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alpha brain waves show up in your &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot;&gt;EEG&lt;/a&gt; when you close your eyes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do they vanish when I open my eyes in a dark room?&#xA;To put it in a different way: Is it necessary to have your eyes shut or that you don't see anthing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastActivityDate="2015-08-23T23:30:36.797" Title="Do alpha waves vanish when I open my eyes in a dark room?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9554" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9281" CreationDate="2015-03-19T08:40:34.373" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Subjective value is most often manipulated using some sort of incentive structure in attentional studies. Most commonly, the reward is in the form of time or money earned either directly or through 'points.' This is a very simple and common thing to do, so I don't know what you mean by &quot;reproducible details&quot; -- most studies will report little more than having creating experimental conditions along these lines, because that is sufficient. I will try to give a more detailed example, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an unpublished study of eye movements and attentional capacity during a visual memory task, we would manipulate the weights of certain shapes by rewarding the participants with different amounts of points for different shapes. Thus, in one condition, circles would award 90 points, while triangles would award 10 points. Participants were taught this through audio feedback, and were aware that they had to accumulate a certain amount of points to complete the experiment. (The study was not published because a subtle critical error in the experiment code was discovered near the end of data collection.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-03-19T08:40:34.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9557" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20118" CreationDate="2015-03-19T17:24:39.943" Score="12" ViewCount="2455" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently became aware of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subvocalization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;concept of subvocalization&lt;/a&gt;, where people make tiny motions with their vocal cords when reading. I'm looking for a clarification on the subject:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does subvocalization only take place when reading, or does it take place during thinking too?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a some &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-subvocalization.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;articles on the subject of detection of subvocalization&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Modern technology can detect the small movements made during&#xA;  subvocalization by monitoring electrical impulses. As of 2011, the&#xA;  National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is working on&#xA;  technology to detect these forms of silent speech. By reading these&#xA;  faint electrical impulses that occur during the process of&#xA;  subvocalization, machines could appear to read a person's mind and&#xA;  respond seemingly without the person saying anything. &lt;strong&gt;All the person&#xA;  would need to do is clearly think the command he wants the machine to&#xA;  carry out.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last statement makes it seem as if subvocalization can be detected during thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-03T14:29:32.330" LastActivityDate="2020-07-04T13:54:59.830" Title="Do people &quot;subvocalize&quot; during thinking or &quot;internal monologue&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9558" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-19T17:44:12.633" Score="5" ViewCount="162" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been scanning through the web, looking for some ideas and theories about computational modules of human behavior and personality, but so far all I could find regards to procedural programs and cognitive modules (which are tending towards learning and decision making, and not personality modeling).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I mean by computational frameworks for human behavior is not some Java implementation of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;categorization of a given person&lt;/a&gt;, which are limited to the model constraints and specific domains, but high-level object oriented abstraction of the whole human personality. As &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.erasmatazz.com/library/the-journal-of-computer/jcgd-volume-7/personality-modeling.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chris Crawford describes the difference&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;A character is to a real human being as a story is to life, ...  story&#xA;  is a simplification and a clarification of life. It has a beginning, a&#xA;  middle, and an end, where life just bounces along endlessly.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a system called &quot;The AntiBigData&quot; takes some set of personality traits (which must adhere to predefined interfaces), and access the class package of &quot;Humor&quot;, which associates to some repository of let say 100 MB of anecdotes, and sorts the repository by likeliness of the given personality traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this system would have infinite potential of complexity and domain, and maybe developed in an Agile fashion, but I am surprised I couldn't find information about academic formalization of relevant topics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7909" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-03-23T12:24:36.717" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T12:24:36.717" Title="Are there working computational frameworks for human behavior and personality?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9560" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-19T20:36:34.520" Score="1" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does one's ability to present (systemize) information into a clear and understandable format (e.g. through tables/ diagrams/ interactive interfaces/ multimedia/ etc) usually show? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(In other words, how can you spot &quot;a born information architect&quot;?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess some psychometric tests measure that, but is there anything more immediate? E.g. my own suspicion is that a trait of such gift would have something to do with pursuit of efficiency in life and aversion to unnecessary complication in all its forms - visual ones, as well as social ones (e.g. bureaucracy, wordiness, hypocrisy, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="2574" LastEditDate="2015-03-29T15:37:27.440" LastActivityDate="2015-03-29T15:37:27.440" Title="Tell-tale signs of ability to present information in clear and elegant visual form" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T21:28:12.120" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9561" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-19T20:38:59.870" Score="8" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any research or theoretical reasoning on a strong inclination of human mind to associate curved forms with femininity and angled ones with masculinity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar concept of association is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.perceptionweb.com/abstract.cgi?id=v010131&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maluma/ takete or Bouba/kiki effect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example is font perception. Articles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ambilogo.com/15-fonts-designers-hate-and-why&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;15 Fonts Designers Hate And Why | Ambilogo&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18459353&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional and persuasive perception of fonts&lt;/a&gt; by Samuel Juni, Julie S Gross, &lt;em&gt;Perceptual Motor Skills&lt;/em&gt;, February 2008,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;del&gt;http://typophile.com/node/58433&lt;/del&gt; (dead link, verified on 26.12.2020),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;del&gt;http://ojad.emu.edu.tr/articles/13/134.pdf&lt;/del&gt; (dead link, verified on 26.12.2020).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="13937" LastEditDate="2020-12-26T20:42:35.627" LastActivityDate="2020-12-26T20:42:35.627" Title="Curved/angled geometrical forms and association with femininity/ masculinity" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9562" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-19T20:43:37.853" Score="3" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the type of data format used to represent questions in empirical research affect the depth and quality of that research? For example, most questionnaires use written text as a data format. Would results differ if the same questions, under the same rules, were asked in person for example? I have memories of some platform presenting survey questions in a game-like interface, e.g. instead of asking you in text if you would rather purchase a cup of coffee over a cup of tea with five dollars, it displayed dollar banknotes as images and you had to move them with the mouse cursor towards either the image of a cup of tea or the image of a cup of coffee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(My own speculation is that questions should be in a data format as close as possible to the data format used in the actual event we are researching about, but yet I am not certain that this would necessarily bring the highest possible fidelity to what's in the mind of the respondent.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastActivityDate="2015-03-19T20:43:37.853" Title="Does the type of informational representation of a question in a research survey affect answers?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9563" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3803" CreationDate="2015-03-19T23:28:40.747" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jocasta_complex&quot;&gt;Jocasta complex&lt;/a&gt; syndrome is what you are referring to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychoanalytic analysis, the Jocasta complex is the incestuous&#xA;  sexual desire of a mother towards her son. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jocasta_complex&quot;&gt;SOURCE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7911" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-20T00:17:27.927" LastActivityDate="2015-03-20T00:17:27.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9564" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-20T06:14:53.400" Score="2" ViewCount="325" Body="&lt;p&gt;When learning a new subject or a skill, is it more effective to break practice into small sub-skills and focus on them for months until they have been fully mastered, or to practice each small sub-skill together? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if someone wants to learn a new programming language, should they take one basic topic and practice it over and over before diving into other topic? How did leading experts acquire their expertise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there effective general strategies for learning and acquiring expertise?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7912" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-03-21T16:29:54.250" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T08:32:19.870" Title="Efficient learning strategies?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9569" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6119" CreationDate="2015-03-20T10:02:48.840" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance (CHEEP) was the state of the art in expertise research at the time of publication, and it remains a resource that I recommend and refer to frequently. Editor K. A. Ericsson, in my view, authored some of or simply the most important expertise acquisition research in the last century, overturning age-old beliefs about talent and innate ability, and he did a very admirable job of it, all things considered. Other contributors, such as B. J. Zimmerman, are authorities in their own right within their fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;What the book is&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, CHEEP is an academic resource on expertise acquisition for domains that have been researched, not a guide to becoming an expert. If your questions revolve around appropriate theoretical frameworks for expertise, how to measure expertise, domains of expertise and the mechanisms which underpin expertise, then this book is an invaluable introduction and reference. If you are looking for a resource on becoming an expert yourself, then your mileage may vary much more, depending on your level of education in academic psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Limitations&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With that said, cognitive science moves quickly, and I would say that while the book's contents remain relevant, some/many of its topics are already understood in greater detail than they were in 2006. There are a number of developments I would like to see included in a hypothetical update, such as retrieval-induced forgetting/facilitation, the growing embodied cognition literature and, perhaps more regrettably, a lot of recent skills acquisition research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Concluding remarks&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite the increasingly worn pages of my copy, occasional missing recent development, and other signs of aging, the Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance nevertheless earns itself a 9/10 and a prominent spot on my shelf. It is an unrivaled introductory text to the field of expertise research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-03-20T10:02:48.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9558" CreationDate="2015-03-20T12:55:38.133" Score="5" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Cognitive Architectures&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The description most closely matches the concept of a cognitive architecture. Whereas I would say most empirical cognitive science focuses on isolating cognitive functions or behavioral substrates, cognitive architectures are relatively unique because they attempt to run bottom-up simulations of interdependent sets of cognitive functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Example: ACT-R framework&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An influential example of a cognitive architecture is Carnegie Mellon's &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adaptive Control of Thought—Rational (ACT-R)&lt;/a&gt;, which is a hybrid cognitive architecture--meaning it comprises both symbolic pattern recognition and underlying processes such as utility functions. The ACT-R framework distinguishes between modules (perceptual-motor and memory), buffers for accessing memory, and pattern recognition between buffer states and perceptual-motor production.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;ACT-R model&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XySyt.gif&quot; alt=&quot;ACT-R model diagram&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;ACT-R usage&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ACT-R allows researchers to obtain standard quantities like response times and accuracy on a very large amount of tasks. (Apparently it now also affords obtaining fMRI data, but I am not at all familiar with this.) It has been used to model virtually every kind of behavior and cognitive function, and there is little point in giving specific examples. The ACT-R website's &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/publication/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;publications&lt;/a&gt; section features a staggering amount of well-categorized articles, if you want to know more, but since you wanted to know about personality in particular, it merits pointing out that it does include individual differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GE8S3.gif&quot; alt=&quot;ACT-R methodology&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive architectures are an exciting development that promise to solve the dirty little secret of most cognitive science: while we are developing increasingly powerful explanations for isolated cognitive functions and behaviors, there was no way to bridge most of these models, or to combine them into a model of a coherent &quot;mind&quot; (i.e., &lt;em&gt;a cause of behavior&lt;/em&gt;). While they are not the only player in that game (e.g., embodied cognition and dynamical systems), the concept of cognitive architecture, unlike competing concepts, has the advantage of being immediately compatible with the cognitive literature, and very amenable to digital simulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-03-20T15:02:41.003" LastActivityDate="2015-03-20T15:02:41.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9572" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7658" CreationDate="2015-03-21T09:56:35.583" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question of whether &amp;quot;nice guys finish last&amp;quot;, also known as the &lt;em&gt;nice guy stereotype&lt;/em&gt;, is often studied in an economic or resource-allocation context as a more general case. According to the Competitive Altruism Hypothesis (e.g., Hardy and Van Vugt, 2006) altruistic or prosocial behavior helps the actor to accumulate social status, which in turn confers material benefits such as increased access to resources. In their words,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Individuals may behave altruistically for reputation reasons because selective benefits (associated with status) accrue to the generous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Prosocial behavior and attraction&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the general case of resource allocation, reputation and status are plausible mechanisms for deriving benefits from prosocial and altruistic behavior, and covering this literature at length is probably beyond the scope of the question. Luckily, the question has also been tested specifically with respect to attraction, which is related but not identical to sexual behavior. In a 1995 study, Jensen-Campbell, Graziano and West reported the following results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Study 1, &lt;strong&gt;prosocial men were rated as more physically and sexually attractive, socially desirable, and desirable&lt;/strong&gt; as dates than were nonprosocial men. Dominant men were no more attractive than low-dominance men, and &lt;strong&gt;male dominance did not interact with male prosocial orientation in eliciting attraction from women&lt;/strong&gt;. In Study 2, prosocial orientation was manipulated to avoid &amp;quot;personalism,&amp;quot; but still affected attraction. Across all measures attraction was an interactive function of dominance and prosocial tendencies. &lt;strong&gt;Dominance alone did not increase any form of attraction measured.&lt;/strong&gt; In Study 3, male prosocial tendencies and dominance interacted to affect women's attraction to men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their study has a number of limitations which are worth noting before accepting this at face value, notably that it used attraction rating rather than some form of measure of actual sexual behavior. It therefore remains conceivable that nice guys finish last in real settings because more dominant men can, well, dominate less dominant men out of the 'competition' (attraction vs. sexual behavior problem). The study was also relatively statistically underpowered, which increases the chance of false positives. It is also worth considering that human sexual behavior is almost certainly more complex than can be captured by a single continuum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A later study found that perceived niceness was a significant factor in women's expressed desire for long-term relationships, whereas physical attractiveness was a significant factor in expressed desire for more casual sex (Urbaniak and Kilmann, 2003). While these findings broadly concur with the Jensen-Campbell study and with the more general Competitive Altruism Hypothesis (nice guys finish first given enough time to accrue status), the study ultimately suffers from the same limitations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Concluding remarks&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It does not seem reasonable to make the unqualified claim that &amp;quot;nice guys finish last,&amp;quot; but nor does it seem sound to claim that &amp;quot;nice guys finish first.&amp;quot; What we can say is that nice guys do not &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; finish last, and not-nice guys do not &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; finish first, but rather, male niceness has different effects over time and contexts. Perceived niceness and prosocial behavior does appear to make a man more attractive on average, but it remains an empirical question whether this increased &lt;em&gt;attractiveness&lt;/em&gt; really translates into successfully &lt;em&gt;attracting&lt;/em&gt; women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hardy, C. L., &amp;amp; Van Vugt, M. (2006). Nice guys finish first: The competitive altruism hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(10), 1402-1413.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jensen-Campbell, L. A., Graziano, W. G., &amp;amp; West, S. G. (1995). Dominance, prosocial orientation, and female preferences: Do nice guys really finish last?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(3), 427.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Urbaniak, G. C., &amp;amp; Kilmann, P. R. (2003). Physical attractiveness and the “nice guy paradox”: Do nice guys really finish last?. Sex Roles, 49(9-10), 413-426.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-21T09:56:35.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9573" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-21T17:56:37.420" Score="1" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;We agree that human beings have intuition - &quot;the ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning.&quot; And the &lt;em&gt;level&lt;/em&gt; of intuition varies from people to people. &#xA;Can animals think intuitively?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7917" LastActivityDate="2015-03-21T17:56:37.420" Title="Can animals think intuitively?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T19:36:38.000" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9574" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-21T18:04:48.967" Score="1" ViewCount="179" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) model of personality provides a list of 16 personality types with accompanying descriptions, like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/the-16-mbti-types.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Are there analogous types for the Big Five model of personality?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7917" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-03-23T18:52:53.427" LastActivityDate="2015-04-23T03:01:50.290" Title="Are there any reliable type descriptions for Big Five personality traits?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9575" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-21T18:10:05.270" Score="1" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;Big Five or Five-Factor model has 32 traits while Myers-Briggs Type Indicator has only 16. But inspite of this, there are still people who use MBTI over Big Five.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7917" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-25T02:28:00.603" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T02:28:00.603" Title="Why do some researcher still prefer Myers-Briggs Type Indicator over Five-Factor model?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2015-03-31T13:08:28.707" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9576" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-21T18:18:07.677" Score="1" ViewCount="165" Body="&lt;p&gt;I knew a kid who, when they was little, they would have attacks when a relative removed their glasses. She would sometimes do it on purpose in front of them and they would have emotional outbursts just by the fact that she removed her glasses (eyeglasses). As far as anyone knows, no family member explained why the child would have this issue and had no idea why the kid would behave this way but never took him to get help I don't think.. I remember because it was a girl I was dating's brother, about fifteen or so years ago. What was strange was that, when anyone else wore glasses, the child would not care when they removed them; just that one girl; their cousin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The relationship between them and the cousin was normal with every other respect, but the kid had some kind of psychological/panic attacks when she removed her glasses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They never claimed to traumatize the kid or anything but they went berserk when she removed her glasses and would cry, scream and have some sort of psychological problems. And from what I remember, the kid would always wear a hat around her as well or would have attacks as well if seen without a hat around her, but nothing was wrong with his head and would show it to anyone  else beside this cousin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any possible way to know why something like this would happen in a kid around 6-9 years old? I am just curious and don't know if this question is fit for this site, but I thought I'd ask it here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some other info I can remember about the kid can be answerer if necessary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7918" LastActivityDate="2015-03-21T18:18:07.677" Title="Psychological problem with glasses and hats on head?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-03-21T19:45:26.227" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9578" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9387" CreationDate="2015-03-21T20:48:43.380" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The main threat to a design's validity from increasing the amount of trials in any experiment comes from participant motivation and attention. After sitting in front of a monitor for a while, participants get tired, as anyone would. As a personal rule of thumb, a session should therefore not go beyond 40 minutes without breaks if possible. Rather than going with my anecdotal advice, though, I suggest you run planned analyses to check and/or control for any decline in performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given recent developments, it would seem there is generally more of a downside to &lt;strong&gt;using&lt;/strong&gt; the typical rather than to &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; doing so. The methodological skeletons have come tumbling out of the field's closet one after the other the last few years, and as we are seeing in recent open access efforts such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/ct89g/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Many Labs&lt;/a&gt;, power matters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of going with the tried and (maybe, possibly) true, run a power analysis to determine your ability to detect an effect size of the magnitude you expect to find and set your sample size and trial length appropriately. If you don't find an effect or a different sized effect with a well-powered study, well, that's basically publishable these days. Especially if you pre-registered it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides that, there is rarely a downside to gathering more data, provided your statistical methodology is appropriate to your research question and you know how to interpret it correctly. The more observations you make, the more confident in your increasingly narrow inference you can be. If performance declines substantially, it will show up in the data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-03-21T20:48:43.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9579" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9440" CreationDate="2015-03-21T21:11:01.740" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain stem comprises the medulla, the pons and the midbrain, according to Kandel's extremely authoritative Principles of Neural Science. This is equivalent to the midbrain and the hindbrain minus the cerebellum, which is probably where the confusion stems from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., &amp;amp; Jessell, T. M. (Eds.). (2000). Principles of neural science (Vol. 4, pp. 1227-1246). New York: McGraw-Hill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-03-21T21:11:01.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9580" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9404" CreationDate="2015-03-22T01:17:09.340" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The two concepts are analogous and mutually illustrative, but empirically refer to different levels of analysis: behavioral and neural.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Habituation&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Habituation&lt;/strong&gt; is a form of non-associative learning, specifically, learning that a stimulus is behaviorally unimportant. If I loudly and repeatedly bang on a metal pot immediately behind your head, you will probably be shocked, then uncomfortable, then annoyed, until you eventually learn to mostly ignore the unimportant sound. It is an effect detected in behavioral measures, rather than neural measures, and which, as any Google search will confirm, is well-established across many species. An example of the term's general usage from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; (which I hope is sufficient for illustration), noting the emphasis on the behavioral rather than neural scale:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The habituation process is a form of adaptive behavior (or neuroplasticity) that is classified as nonassociative learning. Nonassociative learning is a change in a response to a stimulus that does not involve associating the presented stimulus with another stimulus or event such as reward or punishment.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Repetition Suppression&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Repetition suppression&lt;/strong&gt; is a neural mechanism which attenuates (i.e., gradually decreases the intensity of) signals in the brain when a stimulus is detected repeatedly. Presenting the same visual stimulus repeatedly will therefore cause decreased response in some of the involved groups of visual neurons, which is also a useful effect in a number of behavioral research fields like memory and attention research. Two illustrative examples of the term's usage follow:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Furthermore, single-cell recordings show experience-based changes in perirhinal neuronal firing patterns broadly consistent with item recognition, wherein firing rates decrease in response to previously encountered relative to novel stimuli (Xiang and Brown, 1998). Such firing rate decreases, termed “repetition suppression” ...&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gonsalves, B. D., Kahn, I., Curran, T., Norman, K. A., &amp;amp; Wagner, A. D. (2005). Memory strength and repetition suppression: multimodal imaging of medial temporal cortical contributions to recognition. Neuron, 47(5), 751-761.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Face recognition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Repetition suppression, as manifested by the difference in response amplitude between the first and third repetitions of a target, was stronger for fearful than neutral faces.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ishai, A., Pessoa, L., Bikle, P. C., &amp;amp; Ungerleider, L. G. (2004). Repetition suppression of faces is modulated by emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101(26), 9827-9832.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly, habituation and repetition suppression share a lot of conceptual similarities, but it's important to remember that they are ultimately models of entirely different, if closely related physical phenomena which occur at completely different scales. Behavioral habituation relies to some extent on neural repetition suppression, but it does so through memory, attention and other cognitive systems. Repetition suppression alone is therefore not sufficient to explain behavioral habituation, or vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-22T17:00:43.270" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9583" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9473" CreationDate="2015-03-22T11:48:05.737" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The relevant concepts are &lt;strong&gt;set size&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;span&lt;/strong&gt;. The set size is usually the amount of items to be remembered in a memory task, but technically only refers to the amount of information that must be held in (working) memory to complete the memory task at hand, while the span is the amount actually remembered. With this in mind, your topic can be stated as being about whether expectations for set size affect memory span.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not aware of any studies directly investigating this. Look into the &lt;em&gt;executive function/control&lt;/em&gt; literature, because any effect from expectations for set size on memory span will almost by definition involve some form of executive control. I can think of a number of theoretical possibilities, so I would be very interested to read a follow-up question that you answered yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-03-22T11:48:05.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9584" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9596" CreationDate="2015-03-22T12:12:14.623" Score="13" ViewCount="3743" Body="&lt;p&gt;Online studies promise the possibility of greatly increased numbers of and variability in populations to study, but there are many potential concerns and need for validation, and diving in head first seems imprudent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, I am interested in the ability to collect &lt;strong&gt;response time&lt;/strong&gt; data online compared to a standard computer setup (e.g., a PsychToolbox or E-Prime based study with keyboard input, not a response box) in an on-site experiment booth. While these studies have their own limitations, such as being insuitable for experiments where very high fidelity RT data is critical to the study, I am merely interested in whether online studies differ significantly from them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are online RTs different from on-site RTs within tasks?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is the theoretical floor on online RTs in general different from that of on-site RTs?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-03-23T13:13:38.123" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T13:51:21.340" Title="How valid are reaction times collected from online studies?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9585" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9457" CreationDate="2015-03-22T14:31:12.927" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short version is that in Europe and North America, at least, the answer is predominantly yes: your GP is supposed to refer you to a relevant mental practitioner on a case by case basis. This can be prompted either by voluntary disclosure (i.e., the patient brings up mental health issues themselves) or suggested based on comments made by the patients. GPs do not generally have a responsibility to 'catch' mental health problems unless they are potentially life threatening (e.g., suicidal ideation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the most that can be said without knowing which country or countries you are interested in. There are vastly different models of mental health care at work in various countries, and the practice of mental health care varies accordingly. For example, the United States' health care model is primarily based on private insurance, while Britain's is an integrated public-private model, which affects how real practice is conducted. Besides the different incentive structures, countries also have different philosophies of mental health service. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can often find information about a particular country's mental health care model and philosophy on the website of their public health institution (e.g., department/ministry of health).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-03-22T14:31:12.927" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9586" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9419" CreationDate="2015-03-22T15:55:21.707" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One explanation for the development of 'acquired tastes' is a form of reinforcement learning called &lt;strong&gt;flavor-flavor learning&lt;/strong&gt;. The name sounds a bit odd on its own, but should best be seen in relation to the concept of flavor-nutrient learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;What flavor-flavor learning is&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a previously unexperienced flavor is encountered with familiar flavors, the eater may learn to associate these tastes. This is called flavor-flavor learning. There is some experimental evidence to suggest that flavor-flavor learning is automatic when eaters are hungry (Brunstrom and Fletcher, 2008). The study is not as well powered as might have been preferred, however, so the chance of false positives should be kept in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;How flavor-flavor learning explains taste acquisition&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Supposing the Brunstrom and Fletcher result is not a false positive, we then have a plausible idea of how acquired tastes might develop from a flavor-flavor theoretic viewpoint: people are exposed to novel flavors in combination with liked flavors at meal times, either through parents or friends or just eating out. Since we tend to eat when we are hungry, in the long run this induces flavor-flavor learning and hence taste acquisition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to know more, a &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=1510705824171828061&amp;amp;as_sdt=5,33&amp;amp;sciodt=0,33&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;forward Scholar search&lt;/a&gt; on the Brunstrom and Fletcher paper lists some subsequent studies that deal with acquired tastes in additional detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brunstrom, J. M., &amp;amp; Fletcher, H. Z. (2008). Flavour–flavour learning occurs automatically and only in hungry participants. Physiology &amp;amp; behavior, 93(1), 13-19.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-22T16:13:19.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9587" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9584" CreationDate="2015-03-22T16:38:43.870" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depending on how you collect the data, reaction times collected &quot;online&quot; will likely be different from those collected &quot;on-site&quot;. When considering reaction times, it is important to decide if the reaction time is being used as a trigger, as the time to a response, or the difference in the time to response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider an experiment which displays a random series of images for a 1/2 second each and the analysis consists of averaging the images that resulted in key presses. If your online system introduces a 1 s delay, you will not be averaging the images that led to the keypress, but the random image after it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider an experiment which displays a random series of images for a 1/2 second each and every once in a while a target image is displayed and the analysis focuses on average amount of time it takes to react to the target image. In this case your reaction time will be 1 second longer than it should be and your data will be effectively meaningless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider an experiment which displays a random series of images for a 1/2 second each and every once in a while one of two target images is displayed and the analysis focuses on difference in the average amount of time it takes to react to the target image. In this case the reaction time to each target will be 1 second longer than it should be, but the difference in reaction will be accurate. If in this experiment, in addition to the 1 s delay, there is also a variable delay (e.g., a Gaussian jitter with mean 0 and variance 1 s). This jitter will add noise to the data and make seeing small difference difficult. This noise, however, will average out across the trials and participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As with most psychological measures, the experimenter can trade fidelity of the measurement, number of measurements on each participant, and number of participants against each other. Online studies give up fidelity, and to an extent number of measurements on each participant, for large numbers of participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a lab with a dedicated button box on fast dedicated hardware response latencies of under 1 ms are possible with tiny jitters. This of course ignores the human subject making the response. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022249605000106&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wagenmakers et al (2005)&lt;/a&gt; suggest jitter of about 100 ms in the best case. Adding keyboard and network jitter of 100 ms (which would be pretty bad) means the online experiment would need 2x increase in the number of subjects to have the same statistical power; if the variance is twice as big (which happens when you add two independent sources of noise with equal variance), you need an N 2 times bigger to have the same standard error of the mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2015-03-22T19:39:33.660" LastActivityDate="2015-03-22T19:39:33.660" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9553" CreationDate="2015-03-22T17:22:28.833" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes they do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is to say, light conditions do not generally affect &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_wave&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;alpha waves&lt;/a&gt;, only the eyelids do (and other factors).  This has led to alpha waves being interpreted as reflecting an active inhibitory process in the visual cortex (relaxation) rather than a reduction of stimulus (resting).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following image is from an Israeli study published in 2013 called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23216771&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The dark side of the alpha rhythm&lt;/a&gt;&quot;:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/42uxf.png&quot; alt=&quot;Alpha Waves&quot;&gt;&#xA;Notice how all the graphs show no significant difference between light and dark conditions in both eyes open and eyes closed cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20972777&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mounting evidence&lt;/a&gt; from studying blinking, saccades, and stimulating the retina from behind the eyelids (through the oral cavity) suggests that closing the eyes initiates an inhibitory process that actively blocks visual processing (rather than passively relying on darkness), so darkness is not necessary, only shutting the eyes is sufficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-03-22T17:49:59.643" LastActivityDate="2015-03-22T17:49:59.643" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9589" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9584" CreationDate="2015-03-22T19:29:55.750" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a few factors that could contribute to differences between online versus in-lab reaction time measurement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hardware variation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants in an online experiment will use their own computers to complete the task, which will result in lots of variation in hardware. Many studies have looked at how hardware variations affect response time measurement, and generally find that hardware variations can cause differences in the range of 10-100ms for a single response (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19587169&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Plant &amp;amp; Turner, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Software variation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Online studies and lab studies tend to be conducted with different software, since most of the standard lab-based software can't be used to make an online experiment. A popular option for online experiments is JavaScript &amp;amp; HTML. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24903687&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reimers &amp;amp; Stewart (2014)&lt;/a&gt; measured the error in JavaScript response time measurements, and generally found it to be around 25ms, with some variation across different hardware and software. &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13428-015-0567-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;de Leeuw &amp;amp; Motz (2015)&lt;/a&gt; ran an experiment in which subjects completed a visual search task in the lab using both a JavaScript and MATLAB (Psychophysics Toolbox) version of the experiment, and found that JavaScript measured response times that were about 25ms slower. However, both JavaScript and MATLAB had equivalent variance in the measurements and both software systems were equally sensitive to experimental manipulations of the visual search task at the sample sizes used for the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Online versus in the lab&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0678-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hilbig (in press)&lt;/a&gt; randomly assigned participants to complete an experiment in the lab using standard lab software (E-prime), in the lab using a web browser, or online at a location of the participant's choice. They measured response times in a standard lexical decision task, and found that there were no significant differences among the three groups. The effect was on the order of 120-220ms. The effect is relatively large (d' ~ 1.5), but given the current literature there is no reason to doubt that it would.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does it matter?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last part of the answer is: does it really matter if response times collected online are noisier than those collected in the lab? It turns out that even for pretty noisy measurements, moderate sample sizes will counteract the additional noise of the measurement. Reimers &amp;amp; Stewart (2014) simulated the sample size necessary to find an effect of 50ms with and without the additional noise in response times caused by using online methods. They found that only about 10% more subjects were needed in their model to have an equivalent likelihood of detecting the effect. &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8317.1989.tb01111.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ulrich &amp;amp; Giray (1989)&lt;/a&gt; came to a similar conclusion in a different modeling context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;de Leeuw, J. R., &amp;amp; Motz, B. A. (2015). Psychophysics in a Web browser? Comparing response times collected with JavaScript and Psychophysics Toolbox in a visual search task. &lt;em&gt;Behavior Research Methods&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0567-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0567-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hilbig, B. E. (in press). Reaction time effects in lab- versus web-based research: Experimental evidence. &lt;em&gt;Behavior Research Methods&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0678-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0678-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Plant, R., &amp;amp; Turner, G. (2009). Millisecond precision psychological research in a world of commodity computers: new hardware, new problems? &lt;em&gt;Behavior Research Methods&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;41&lt;/em&gt;(3), 598-614.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reimers, S., &amp;amp; Stewart, N. (2014). Presentation and response timing accuracy in Adobe Flash and HTML5/JavaScript Web experiments. &lt;em&gt;Behavior Research Methods&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ulrich, R., &amp;amp; Giray, M. (1989). Time resolution of clocks: Effects on reaction time measurement - Good news for bad clocks. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;42&lt;/em&gt;, 1-12.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2016-06-22T13:51:21.340" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T13:51:21.340" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9592" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="44" CreationDate="2015-03-23T02:15:13.133" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You commented &quot;Yet, it is apparent (to many people) that whales and elephants don't have drastically higher intelligence than humans. So their extra brain regions have to go somewhere. Where do they go to?&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like add a few perspectives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1)  The notion that intelligence can be measured on a one dimensional scale is not really credible from any scientific perspective.  See &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2)  It seems human to feel that we are the intelligence ones and those who are most like us are the most intelligent.  We are very casual in the way that we handle this and often don't notice that we are thinking this way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am trying to get at is that we (collectively) are not very good about thinking about intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the question you ask translates to me to be &quot;What are Whales and Dolphins doing with their brains?&quot;.  That is a huge question and it must surely depend in part on the species you pick.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the Atlantic Spotted Dolphin species you should check out Denise Herzing who is spending her life trying to answer this question;  See&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/denise_herzing_could_we_speak_the_language_of_dolphins?language=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.ted.com/talks/denise_herzing_could_we_speak_the_language_of_dolphins?language=en&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dolphins, with a brain size similar to ours and Killer Whales with a larger brain seem to spend a lot of their time in tight social groups with a lot of social interaction.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But overal, it seems we are not yet intelligent enough to figure out what Dolphins are communicating about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7922" LastEditorUserId="7922" LastEditDate="2015-03-23T02:55:06.387" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T02:55:06.387" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9593" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20545" CreationDate="2015-03-23T04:11:10.763" Score="3" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a layman when it comes to the cognitive sciences. I've read some number of popular self-help books, but not any academic journals. I've noticed that many times a book suggests some techniques for willpower, anxiety management etc., but will never list them out in a prioritized fashion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there might be some variation based on the circumstances and the individuals involved, I feel like a one or a few techniques should always dominate the list. The effectiveness of techniques that deal with different cognitive issues is most likely somwhat geometrically distributed (all else being equal), i.e., most of the time they obey the power law (most techniques are moderately effective, but a few are &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt; effective).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular I'm currently interested in effective techniques for willpower. I'm aware of which techniques are recommended (split a task into subtasks, positive self-talk and many more), but what are their relative effectiveness? Are there some well-executed studies out there that determined which techniques work comparatively better?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are effective and generalizable self-regulatory skills and strategies?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do their relative efficacy compare?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-26T08:48:22.977" LastActivityDate="2018-08-26T10:49:49.243" Title="Are Pareto charts identified in the cognitive sciences (and for willpower in particular)?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9594" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12706" CreationDate="2015-03-23T09:00:18.127" Score="9" ViewCount="565" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am thinking of the combination of an EEG-like device and software to monitor and analyze (very) deliberate thoughts of letters/words. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The input would be in the form of raw electrical brain activity from the EEG and the output from the software analysis would be in the form of text (the pattern-matched words/letters). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The software would be trained to recognize specific patterns of electrical impulses and form conclusions on what letter/word matches the best. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been interested in the idea of an input-less and effort-less HID such as this for a while now, mainly for personal enjoyment--I've entertained thoughts of working on documents with vim on the bed with a projector aimed at the ceiling--but realize that something like this would be of immense help to the disabled too. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm confident that teams are working right now on such problems, but my searches have yielded no results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Here are some of my questions.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone direct me to some relevant articles and papers? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What is the current state of progress regarding the formulation of useful information from neural firing patterns and raw brain activity? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are current EEG and other-brain scanning devices available right now capable enough to detect and form distinctions between impulses such as the internalization of, say, letters &quot;K&quot; vs &quot;F&quot;?. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can something like the OpenBCI do this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can something like the Emotiv system do this? They have two models, the &quot;EPOC / EPOC+&quot; and &quot;Insight&quot;. The former offers 14 EEG channels while the latter offers only 5. Is 5 sufficient for such purposes?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is it a problem of insufficient hardware sensing resolution or the inability to pattern match such noisy data? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I looked at this post too but it did not answer my questions: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3316/can-we-draw-conclusions-about-content-of-thoughts-from-neural-firing-patterns&quot;&gt;Can we draw conclusions about content of thoughts from neural firing patterns?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Found some interesting links&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;OpenEEG, but it looks dead now&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Very promising and exactly what I was looking for: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/openbci/openbci-an-open-source-brain-computer-interface-fo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;OpenBCI, An Open Source Brain-Computer Interface For Makers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;More EEG info: &lt;a href=&quot;http://scienceforthemasses.org/2014/04/11/selecting-an-eeg-device/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Selecting an EEG Device&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotiv EEGs, also looks promising: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8419/are-recent-affordable-eeg-devices-any-good?rq=1&quot;&gt;Are recent affordable EEG devices any good?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;More discussion in a reddit thread &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/Futurology/comments/3xl4xs/subvocalization_telepathy_and_brain_computer/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7925" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-12-21T05:48:43.723" Title="Are there any EEG procedures currently available/in development that can formulate letters/words from deliberate, internal monologue?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9595" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9772" CreationDate="2015-03-23T09:45:20.067" Score="9" ViewCount="473" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Retrieval-induced effects&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is well known that practicing retrieval of remembered items increases the probability of correctly recalling that item in future tests: the &lt;em&gt;testing effect&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Retrieval-induced forgetting&lt;/strong&gt; (RIFo) and &lt;strong&gt;retrieval-induced facilitation&lt;/strong&gt; (RIFa) are less known, but related phenomena with, in my view, large theoretical and practical implications for cognitive memory research and educational theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In RIFo, learned items associated with a remembered item subjected to retrieval practice appear to suffer from increased forgetting in future tests (Anderson, Bjork and Bjork, 1994). Some papers report that the inverse also appears to occur: in RIFa, the probability of recalling associated remembered items also increases (Chan, 2009). RIFo appears to be a reasonably robust phenomenon with many replications, while RIFa is not as well established an effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The cognitive neuroscience of RIF&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where the classical view might have attributed the effect to relative strengthening of associations and decay, modern theories revolve around variations on an automatic inhibition process associated with recall attempts (Anderson, Bjork and Bjork, 2000). This might suggest that the PFC and frontal cortex more generally should be doing most of the legwork here, but is that empirically the case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the known neural substrates of RIFo (and RIFa) effects?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anderson, M. C., Bjork, E. L., &amp;amp; Bjork, R. A. (2000). Retrieval-induced forgetting: Evidence for a recall-specific mechanism. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 7(3), 522-530.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anderson, M. C., Bjork, R. A., &amp;amp; Bjork, E. L. (1994). Remembering can cause forgetting: retrieval dynamics in long-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(5), 1063.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chan, J. C. (2009). When does retrieval induce forgetting and when does it induce facilitation? Implications for retrieval inhibition, testing effect, and text processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 61(2), 153-170.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T11:07:42.390" Title="What are the neural substrates of retrieval induced forgetting?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9596" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9584" CreationDate="2015-03-23T10:24:11.490" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: The data is likely to be noisier, the absolute reaction time can't be trusted, but given enough power (which is easy to obtain on the Internet) relative reaction time differences should be similar to those in the lab. However, web-based reaction time studies might pose other problems, because you have less control over stimulus presentation and about how participants behave. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long answer: There is some research that has looked at Internet-based collection of reaction time data using different software approaches. The number of papers is small, but they converge in the conclusion that there will be more noise, but that it can be quite useful depending on the specific research question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The effect of additional noise&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some noise stems from the fact that hardware and software is widely different &quot;in the wild&quot;. For example, using a JAVA - applet Eichstaedt (2001) has shown much variation in reaction times depending on different PCs. Some of this variation between computers is based on factors that add some constant to the reaction time on a specific machine. These constants don't matter if you do within-subjects reaction time comparisons as they are common in cognitive paradigms. Other factors will add random noise. For example, some keyboards only transmit responses with some frequency (e.g. every 20 ms.). Thus, the timing resolution will be bound to this limit. Also, other software running in the background may result in random noise. Nevertheless, given enough trials and enough participants this random noise may be a manageable nuisance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, using simulations, Brand and Bradley (2012) have found that adding a random 10 to 100 ms delay to response times reduced statistical power only by 1-4% across a range of different effect sizes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research that has compared response times collected with online and lab-technologies suggests similar conclusions. For example, using the Flash-based ScriptingRT Schubert et al. (2013, Study 1) have shown that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the SDs of [reaction times] stayed below 7 ms in all three browsers. That value is comparable to many regular keyboards and standard reaction time software. In addition, the constant added by measuring in ScriptingRT was about 60 ms. This result suggests that researchers using ScriptingRT should thus focus primarily on differences between RTs and be cautious when interpreting absolute latencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Study 2:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;ScriptingRT resulted in both longer response latencies and a larger standard deviation than all other packages except SuperLab and E-Prime in one configuration. Nevertheless, in absolute terms, the SD of 4.21 is comparable to what was standard for keyboards for a long time [16]. It is thus clear that any test with ScriptingRT should be well powered and used to assess primarily paradigms with a large effect size. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, comparing JavaScript and Flash-based data collection Reimers and Stewart (2014) concluded that, in general,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;within-system reliability was very good for both Flash and HTML5—standard deviations in measured response times and stimulus presentation durations were generally less than 10 ms. External validity was less impressive, with overestimations of response times of between 30 and 100 ms, depending on system. The effect of browser was generally small and nonsystematic, although presentation durations with HTML5 and Internet Explorer tended to be longer than in other conditions. Similarly, stimulus duration and actual response time were relatively unimportant—actual response times of 150-, 300-, and 600-ms response times gave similar overestimations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Replications of cognitive paradigms with online samples&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several papers have used online data-collection to replicate well known effects stemming from lab-based research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Schubert et al. (2013) replicated the Stroop-Effect with online-vs. lab technology and found that the size of the effect was independent from the Software used. Using JAVA, Keller et al. (2009) replicate a the results of a self-paced reading paradigm from the psycho-linguistic literature. The most comprehensive replication project has been published by Crump et al. (2013) who replicate  Stroop, Switching, Flanker, Simon, Posner Cuing, attentional blink, subliminal priming, and category learning tasks on Amazon's Mechanical Turk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Other challenges and limitations&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several other challenges and limitations associated with online response time collection&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A different question is the accuracy with which stimuli can presented online. There will be limits to time resolution (see, e.g., Garaizar et al. 2014, Reimers &amp;amp; Stewart, 2014, Schubert et al., 2013)  and visual differences (color and resolution) depending on hardware and environmental light&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Often online samples will be more diverse with regards to age and education, some may have difficulties understanding difficult instructions. Also, in an online study it is easier to abandon boring RT-tasks than in the lab (Crump et al., 2013) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Participants' hardware may be confounded with other variables, thus that there might be confounds in the absolute reaction times because a systematic RT constant may added to certain demographic groups. This is not a problem for reaction time differences within participants. However, correlations of absolute reaction times with personality variables may be spurious (as warned by Reimers and Stewart (2014)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brand and Bradley (2012). Assessing the Effects of Technical Variance on the Statistical Outcomes of Web Experiments Measuring Response Times. Social Science Computer Review, 30, 350–357. doi:10.1177/0894439311415604&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crump, M. J. C., McDonnell, J. V., &amp;amp; Gureckis, T. M. (2013). Evaluating Amazon’s Mechanical Turk as a Tool for Experimental Behavioral Research. PLoS ONE, 8, e57410. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0057410&quot;&gt;10.1371/journal.pone.0057410&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eichstaedt, J. (2001). An inaccurate-timing filter for reaction time measurement by JAVA applets implementing Internet-based experiments. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, &amp;amp; Computers, 33, 179–186. doi:10.3758/BF03195364&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Garaizar, P., Vadillo, M. A., &amp;amp; López-de-Ipiña, D. (2014). Presentation Accuracy of the Web Revisited: Animation Methods in the HTML5 Era. PLoS ONE, 9, e109812. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109812&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keller, F., Gunasekharan, S., Mayo, N., &amp;amp; Corley, M. (2009). Timing accuracy of Web experiments: A case study using the WebExp software package. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1–12. doi:10.3758/BRM.41.1.12&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reimers, S., &amp;amp; Stewart, N. (2014). Presentation and response timing accuracy in Adobe Flash and HTML5/JavaScript Web experiments. Behavior Research Methods, 1–19. doi:10.3758/s13428-014-0471-1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schubert, T.W., Murteira, C., Collins, E.C., Lopes, D. (2013). ScriptingRT: A software library for collecting response latencies in online studies of cognition. PLoS ONE 8: e67769. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067769&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T10:24:11.490" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9597" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9529" CreationDate="2015-03-23T11:21:11.880" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it is safe to say that in psychological research on personality differences, extraversion (vs. introversion) is one of the most important personality dimensions. In fact, extraversion (along with neuroticism) has been included in &quot;virtually all major dispositional models&quot; (see Watson,&#xA;Clark, &amp;amp; Harkness, 1994; Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joireman, &amp;amp; Teta, 1993; as cited in Watson et al. 1999). Extraversion can be reliably measured with personality questionnaires (e.g. Costa &amp;amp; MaCrae, 1992), it is a heritable trait (e.g., Jang et al. 1996) and it meaningfully predicts other important variables such as trait positive affectivity (Watson et al. 2009) or job satisfaction (Judge et al., 2002) to pick two arbitrary examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, neither does this mean that it is useful to categorize people into introverts and extraverts (personality research has long moved away from &quot;type&quot; approaches to investigate gradual differences) nor does this mean that extraversion is the only personality difference that matters (it is an important one, but there are others).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, extraversion-introversion is a robust and widely replicated personality dimension that features in almost all models of personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Costa, P.T.,Jr. &amp;amp; McCrae, R.R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jang, K.; Livesley, W. J.; Vemon, P. A. (1996). Heritability of the Big Five Personality Dimensions and Their Facets: A Twin Study. Journal of Personality 64 (3): 577–591.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Judge, T. A., Heller, D., &amp;amp; Mount, M. K. (2002). Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 530–541. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.3.530&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watson, D., Wiese, D., Vaidya, J., &amp;amp; Tellegen, A. (1999). The two general&#xA;activation systems of affect: Structural findings, evolutionary consider-&#xA;ations, and psychobiological evidence. Journal of Personality and Social&#xA;Psychology, 76, 820–838.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-03-24T23:21:10.350" LastActivityDate="2015-03-24T23:21:10.350" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9599" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9490" CreationDate="2015-03-23T17:27:24.903" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Parkinson's Disease, as you note, is believed to occur due to damage or degeneration to the basal ganglia, especially the substantia nigra. Cells in the basal ganglia and substantia nigra produce dopamine, and in fact, the majority of the brain's dopaminergic cells have their bodies here, but that isn't the whole story. From Kandel's &lt;em&gt;Principles of Neural Science&lt;/em&gt; (the first rule of neuroscience is always to look in your PoNS):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Primarily on the basis of studies in MPTP-treated primates, a working model of the pathophysiology of Parkinson disease has been&#xA;developed. According to this model, &lt;strong&gt;loss of dopaminergic input from the substantia nigra pars compacta to the striatum leads to increased&#xA;activity in the indirect pathway and decreased activity in the direct pathway&lt;/strong&gt; (see Figure 43-6) because of the different actions of dopamine on&#xA;the two pathways (via D1 and D2 receptors, respectively). &lt;strong&gt;Both of these changes lead to increased activity in the internal pallidal segment, which&#xA;results in increased inhibition of thalamocortical and midbrain tegmental neurons and thus the hypokinetic features of the disease.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Tremors and DBS&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Three of the central nervous system's four major dopaminergic pathways originate in the substantia nigra, but it is the nigrostriatal pathway which is believed to be involved in Parkinson's tremors. The nigrostriatal pathway innervates the striatum, which is involved in planning movements. Broadly speaking, because the basal ganglia are involved in action selection and routing information, impaired communication along this pathway can explain tremors as a function of failing to inhibit undesirable actions and facilitating desirable actions (Stocco, Lebiere and Anderson, 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Deep Brain Stimulation&lt;/strong&gt; (DBS) has been shown to be effective in alleviating the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease in a number of studies (e.g., Deep-Brain Stimulation for Parkinson's Disease Study Group, 2001; Weaver et al., 2009). However, comparative studies frequently do not explain the theoretical grounding for the method. Kandel provides the answer (first rule of neuroscience):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Selective inactivation of the sensorimotorportion of either the subthalamic nucleus or the internal pallidal segment is sufficient to ameliorate the cardinal parkinsonian motor signs (akinesia, tremor, and rigidity)&lt;/strong&gt; in MPTP-treated animals (Figure 43-7). Surgical lesions of the posterior (sensorimotor) portion of the internal pallidal segment (pallidotomy) in patients with advanced, medically intractable cases of Parkinson disease is also highly effective in reversing parkinsonian signs. [...] Thus &lt;strong&gt;the hypokinetic features of Parkinson disease appear to result from increased (inhibitory) output from the internal pallidal segment as a result of increased (excitatory) drive from the subthalamic nucleus&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DBS treatments for Parkinson's take advantage of this finding to achieve their effect by directly stimulating the subthamamic nucleus and/or globus pallidus. This implies that the treatment is &lt;em&gt;extremely&lt;/em&gt; specific to the mechanism, and though there is no reason to rule out effectiveness in other areas, there is no reason to rule it in, either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Emotional problems&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parkinson's Disease patients are, perhaps intuitively enough, prone to depression, and as many as 25-40% of sufferers experience depression (Leentjens, 2004). Less intuitive is the finding that future patients are at increased risk of depression in the three years preceding their Parkinson's diagnosis (Leentjens, van den Akker, Metsemakers, Lousberg et al., 2003). One explanation for this finding, however, may lie with the other two dopaminergic pathways in the substantia nigra (mesolimbic and mesocortical), which are involved in affect and emotion, and that the emotional problems arise from the dopaminergic impairment in a manner similar to the tremor symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, I do not know a mechanism for dementia or sleep issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Deep-Brain Stimulation for Parkinson's Disease Study Group (2001). Deep-brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus or the pars interna of the globus pallidus in Parkinson's disease. The New England journal of medicine, 345(13), 956.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., &amp;amp; Jessell, T. M. (Eds.). (2000). Principles of neural science (Vol. 4, pp. 863). New York: McGraw-Hill.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Leentjens, A. F. G. (2004). Depression in Parkinson's disease: conceptual issues and clinical challenges. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 17, 120-126.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Leentjens, A. F. G., van den Akker, M., Metsemakers, J. F. M., Lousberg, R. &amp;amp; Verhey, F. R. J. (2003). Higher incidence of depression preceding the onset of Parkinson's disease: A register study. Movement Disorders, 18(4), 414-418.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stocco, A., Lebiere, C., &amp;amp; Anderson, J. R. (2010). Conditional routing of information to the cortex: A model of the basal ganglia’s role in cognitive coordination. Psychological review, 117(2), 541.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Weaver, F. M., Follett, K., Stern, M., Hur, K., Harris, C., Marks, W. J., ... &amp;amp; CSP 468 Study Group. (2009). Bilateral deep brain stimulation vs best medical therapy for patients with advanced Parkinson disease: a randomized controlled trial. Jama, 301(1), 63-73.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T17:55:19.807" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9602" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5559" CreationDate="2015-03-23T19:58:14.050" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To think that men and women would &lt;em&gt;differ&lt;/em&gt; should be obvious (specialization to differing tasks). To think that one group would be &lt;em&gt;better or worse overall&lt;/em&gt; would be counter-intuitive (survival would be worsened). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I was in college, the Engineering school with the highest proportion of women (46%) was Computer Science. I don't know why. I think it is also the Engineering field with the most women actually employed. When I worked as a programmer in a company with about 100 employees, about 40% were programmers, and most of those were women. Some of them were among the most intelligent people I have ever known. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that no general statements about intelligence relative to male vs female will hold up overall. I do know that females have much greater touch sensitivity, as proven by research. But that would make sense in terms of evolution. Computer programming has not been around very long for male-female differences to arise in the brain. (Check back in a million years.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T19:58:14.050" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9603" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9328" CreationDate="2015-03-23T20:03:04.473" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: No.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long answer: The need for sleep is not a function of information received in any meaningful sense. &lt;strong&gt;Memory consolidation and forgetting processes&lt;/strong&gt; are not thought of in terms of energy expense and conservation by any current cognitive science models, and lack of sleep will not necessarily cause you to go mad or die &lt;em&gt;as such&lt;/em&gt;. Both are active processes; there's nothing inherently more energy-conserving about forgetting a memory than consolidating one, or vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory consolidation and forgetting processes in the brain are both, ultimately, &lt;strong&gt;physical changes&lt;/strong&gt; like any other, which implies that energy must be spent in some sense. This energy is simply a thermodynamic quantity that has virtually nothing to do with how tired we feel or mental energy, however. &lt;em&gt;Cognitively&lt;/em&gt; speaking, energy isn't a well-defined or scientifically meaningful term, so it's not particularly surprising that it ended up on a list of &quot;five simple questions that science can't answer.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an example of an active inhibitory forgetting mechanism with references, see my question about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9595/what-are-the-neural-substrates-of-retrieval-induced-forgetting&quot;&gt;retrieval-induced forgetting&lt;/a&gt;. If you want to know about memory and the study of memory, I recommend reading Baddeley, Eysenck and Anderson's comprehensive &lt;em&gt;Memory (2009)&lt;/em&gt;. While it does not directly deal with sleep in depth, it will equip you to ask the right questions about how sleep relates to memory and learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T20:03:04.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9605" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4967" CreationDate="2015-03-23T21:21:00.220" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;An old question, but there has been some recent developments by third-parties and now cheaper and hopefully just-as-accurate EEGs exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8419/are-recent-affordable-eeg-devices-any-good?lq=1&quot;&gt;Are recent affordable EEG devices any good?&lt;/a&gt; we see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://emotiv.com/store/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotiv System&lt;/a&gt; and a &lt;a href=&quot;https://peerj.com/articles/38/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper that can attest to its accuracy&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also have &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.openbci.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;OpenBCI&lt;/a&gt;, an open-source EEG catered to makers, which has recently been funded successfully on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/openbci/openbci-an-open-source-brain-computer-interface-fo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kickstarter&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both EEGs can be had for &amp;lt; $500, but both are relatively new in the scene so it would be interesting to see how they compare to traditional methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7925" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-03-23T21:21:00.220" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9606" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9574" CreationDate="2015-03-24T02:03:28.633" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few thoughts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;MBTI has four dimensions, whereas the Big Five has five dimensions. Thus, when you set a high-low split on MBTI you get $2^4=16$ types. If you were to apply the same idea to the Big 5, you could get $2^5=32$.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;However, the Big 5 framework tends to take the underlying continuum of personality traits more seriously. At the very least this should yield a more precise description of standing on a dimension.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The dimensions of the Big 5 are generally understood independently. Thus, it might be sufficient and more parsimonious to have a verbal description to describe a person's standing on each of the five traits. I think this is how most Big 5 test manuals work. They will provide descriptions of what it means to be high or low on each trait and this can be used to provide an overall description to the test taker. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-03-24T02:03:28.633" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9608" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-24T07:55:57.547" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;My Mind is always filled with useless some many thoughts at a single moment, that i feel hard to focus , concentrate my attention on one task at a time. My attention span is very low. I get distracted very easily and that's the reason i feel for my average life with a mediocre results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;please suggest me some techniques/methods which will surely increase focus power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7938" LastActivityDate="2015-03-24T07:55:57.547" Title="How to Focus on One thing at a time?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-03-25T04:57:19.567" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9610" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-24T10:39:34.037" Score="14" ViewCount="3619" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is uncontroversial to say that the cognitive sciences do not exclusively deal with directly observable phenomena, but nonetheless aim to study the physical causes of behavior and cognition scientifically. &amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;Grasping&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;quot;, for instance, is directly observable, but cognitive science also studies &amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;intelligence&lt;/strong&gt;,&amp;quot; which is not directly observable, at least not for all conceptualizations of intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When cognitive science studies such an unobserved quantity, the difference between the &lt;strong&gt;general concept&lt;/strong&gt;, the &lt;strong&gt;unobserved construct&lt;/strong&gt;, and the &lt;strong&gt;direct measure&lt;/strong&gt; is sometimes rendered implicit. More colloquially: go far enough down the methodological rabbit hole for an unobserved construct, and you will likely eventually find a &lt;em&gt;patient zero paper&lt;/em&gt; that defines a broad folk concept, then makes a spherical-cow or just-so statement that a construct maps on to the concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Example: Working memory&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an illustration of a just-so definition, take Baddeley and Hitch's definition of &lt;strong&gt;working memory&lt;/strong&gt; in their seminal 1974 work as a replacement for the classical short-term/long-term memory model:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;a system that provides temporary storage and manipulation of information&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(The relationship rendered implicit here is [&amp;quot;memory&amp;quot; -&amp;gt; STM/LTM -&amp;gt; WM/LTM].)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be fair to Baddeley &amp;amp; Hitch, and so as not to single them out, Baddeley has later defended this problem with their model on productivity and guide to discovery grounds (Baddeley, 2007). I find this quite reasonable, and I do not mean to impugn their excellent research or the model's productivity in any way, only to use the example as an illustration for the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Problem of implicit relations&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Implicit relations are antithetical to the practice of science because they engender &lt;strong&gt;unstated assumptions&lt;/strong&gt; and hidden theoretical incompatibilities. It is also antithetical to science communication and scientific literacy, because important words like &amp;quot;intelligence&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;memory&amp;quot; become effectively polyvalent, with subtly different meanings that are not apparent without considerable study. The relationship between IQ and intelligence is the prototypical example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the relation between measures, constructs and concepts as actually used in the cognitive sciences?&lt;/strong&gt; (Contrast intelligence or memory with grasping or walking, if concrete examples are helpful.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please read my comments to the question and current answer before asking for additional information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Related questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/922/what-is-the-correlation-between-objective-indexes-and-aggregated-self-report-mea&quot;&gt;What is the correlation between objective indexes and aggregated&#xA;self-report measures of life satisfaction?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/7880/what-is-the-difference-between-biological-and-artificial-neural-networks&quot;&gt;What is the&#xA;difference between biological and artificial neural networks?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8038/what-is-the-difference-between-social-anxiety-disorder-and-shyness&quot;&gt;What is the difference between social anxiety disorder and&#xA;shyness?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baddeley, A. (2007). Working memory, thought, and action. Oxford University Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baddeley, A. D., &amp;amp; Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. Psychology of learning and motivation, 8, 47-89.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-01T05:34:58.360" Title="What is the relation between measures, constructs and concepts?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9612" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9615" CreationDate="2015-03-23T20:34:33.437" Score="7" ViewCount="743" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am very interested in a survey employing a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Likert&lt;/a&gt; type scale in my research. I have come across the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenberg_self-esteem_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale&lt;/a&gt;. I would like to use this scale to get a sense of how subjects feel about their self-esteem during their trial in my research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The questions will stay consistent with Rosenberg’s test model keeping five of the items positively worded and keeping five negatively worded using the four-point scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can the scale questions be &quot;changed&quot;/presented without losing validity in the self-esteem measurement?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If not, then how do I let participants answer questions in the context of&#xA;my experiment and what I am trying to improve? For example, I would like to know how they feel about learning a new language (e.g., Japanese) using a traditional method. Then I present a new method and ask again how they feel about learning the same new language? I would like to capture feedback from participants that would let me know if they feel better/more confident about learning a new language by utilizing a new method/approach?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Rosenberg questions are extremely general (I believe this is the beauty of it) which means it can yield stronger more general results. However, from my limited knowledge, I believe a generally confident person would answer those questions positively most of the time which means filling-out this scale before and after an experiment wouldn't conclude drastic result/change. However, if those questions were directed towards an issue that the subjects in the experiment all find difficult, then I believe their subjective answer to the questions would show considerable change if a *new method promises to improve their perceived intuition over a traditional method?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following are the questions from Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I feel that I have a number of good qualities. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am able to do things as well as most other people.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I feel I do not have much to be proud of. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I take a positive attitude toward myself. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I wish I could have more respect for myself.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I certainly feel useless at times.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;At times I think I am no good at all.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;If a Rosenberg scale shouldn't be used in this case, then what would be an appropriate scale?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was originally looking at &lt;a href=&quot;http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~health/engscal.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)&lt;/a&gt;. However, I would still ask the same qustions of GSE that I have of Rosenberg's Scale. How can I &quot;retro-fit&quot; GSE to make it in the context of say learning a language &amp;amp; self-efficacy? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following are the questions from the GSE scale:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If someone opposes me, I can find the means and ways to get what I want.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a solution.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I can usually handle whatever comes my way.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7613" OwnerDisplayName="Susu Metric" LastEditorUserId="7613" LastEditDate="2015-03-26T15:55:24.040" LastActivityDate="2015-03-26T15:55:24.040" Title="How can items from a general self-esteem/efficacy measure be changed to measure context specific self-esteem/efficacy?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9613" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5334" CreationDate="2015-03-24T22:32:16.547" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are (at least) two approaches to tackle this question (which haven't been mentioned in the other answers). One is an personality approach, another is a more situational approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Personality: Emotional Clarity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A part of the question is the idea that some people have more difficulties in knowing why they are sad. This is indeed relevant in research on emotional intelligence. One concept that has been investigated in the area of emotional intelligence is &amp;quot;emotional clarity&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Boden and Berenbaum (2011) explain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional clarity represents the extent to which people can identify, discriminate between, and understand their feelings. Research using factor analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling (MDS) of self-report scales has identified emotional clarity as one of two dimensions, along with attention to emotions, underlying constructs such as emotional awareness, alexithymia, and emotional intelligence (Coffey et al., 2003 and Gohm and Clore, 2000). Attention to emotions and emotional clarity are relatively distinct from dimensions representing emotional expression and intensity (Coffey et al., 2003 and Gohm and Clore, 2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, people differ in emotional clarity. Boden and Berenbaum suggest that, furthermore, some people specifically differ in their ability to identify the reasons for emotions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast to previous theory and research, we propose that there are at least two distinguishable, albeit strongly associated, facets of emotional clarity. The first facet, which we refer to as source awareness, is the extent to which people typically know the causes of their emotions. The second facet, which we refer to as type awareness, is the extent to which people can typically identify and distinguish the types of emotion (e.g., anger versus fear) they experience. The existence of two facets of emotional clarity has been suggested by at least one other study (Baker, Thomas, Thomas, &amp;amp; Owens, 2007)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their results &amp;quot;provide initial evidence that one can measure source and type awareness separately.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far, there is little research on this specific aspect of emotional intelligence but some data suggests that it may be connected to interesting outcomes. For example, the results Boden and Berenbaum (2012) suggest that in people &amp;quot;with low source and type awareness, suspicious beliefs are formed to make sense of and explain emotional arousal.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Situational Approach: Mystery Moods&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of looking at personality differences, one may also look at why people may in general have positive or negative moods without knowing why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One research program that has addressed this question is the one on &amp;quot;mystery moods&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leander, Moore, and Chartrand (2009) explain that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;although we can often point directly at the sources of our moods and identify what brought us into our current affective state, other times we cannot. Sometimes we might be in a particularly good or bad mood without any explanation for why we feel that way; other times we are so unaware of our feelings that it takes another person to remark on our behavior before we recognize our current mood. Indeed, we are often unaware of our own mental states and processes (Nisbett &amp;amp; Wilson, 1977; Wilson &amp;amp; Brekke, 1994), and moods are no exception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They define &lt;strong&gt;mystery moods&lt;/strong&gt; as &amp;quot;Moods that emerge without awareness, or for reasons beyond our knowledge.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, they discuss three possible reasons for mystery moods:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, success or failure at &lt;em&gt;nonconscious goals&lt;/em&gt; has consequences for mood. Unlike the affect that results from conscious goal pursuit, however, mystery moods arising from nonconscious goal pursuit may not always be experienced consciously, and even when they are experienced consciously, their sources are typically unknown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, &lt;em&gt;automatic evaluation&lt;/em&gt; systems may generate mood states that reflect the overall positive or negative valence of the environment and result in a corresponding mood. Given that automatic evaluations occur outside conscious awareness, moods stemming from them are not necessarily tied to a singular, specific source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third, &lt;em&gt;interpersonal motives&lt;/em&gt; might render individuals susceptible to social contagion effects, such that we might spontaneously and nonconsciously &amp;quot;catch&amp;quot; the moods of others. Social interaction may also lead us to be sensitive to nonconscious social acceptance or rejection cues, which can lead to mystery moods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Boden, M. T., &amp;amp; Berenbaum, H. (2011). What you are feeling and why: Two distinct types of emotional clarity. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 652–656. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.009&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Boden, M. T., &amp;amp; Berenbaum, H. (2012). Facets of emotional clarity and suspiciousness. Personality and Individual Differences, Special Issue on Behavioral genetic contributions to research on individual differences, 53, 426–430. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.04.010&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leander, N. P., Moore, S. G., &amp;amp; Chartrand, T. L. (2009). Mystery moods: Their origins and consequences. In G. B. Moskowitz, H. Grant, G. B. (Ed) Moskowitz, &amp;amp; H. (Ed) Grant (Eds.), The psychology of goals. (pp. 480–504). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T09:46:41.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9614" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3676" CreationDate="2015-03-24T23:07:15.877" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Meier et al (2006). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7308830_Turning_the_other_cheek._Agreeableness_and_the_regulation_of_aggression-related_primes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FULL TEXT&lt;/a&gt; has some discussion of aggression primes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meier, B. P., Robinson, M. D., &amp;amp; Wilkowski, B. M. (2006). Turning the Other Cheek Agreeableness and the Regulation of Aggression-Related Primes. Psychological Science, 17(2), 136-142. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7308830_Turning_the_other_cheek._Agreeableness_and_the_regulation_of_aggression-related_primes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FULL TEXT&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-25T02:14:36.053" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T02:14:36.053" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9615" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9612" CreationDate="2015-03-25T04:15:17.553" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends on the types of changes you are looking to make. In general, my experience has been that changes to a response scale can be done with minimal threats to validity (e.g. looking to change the 4 item Likert type scale to a 6 item Likert type scale). On the other hand, changing question wording itself usually can't be done &quot;without losing validity&quot; (Goodman, Iervolino, Collishaw, Pickles, &amp;amp; Maughan, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer the &quot;what now&quot; question, you can either use the survey as is, or modify it to better fit your needs (and &quot;revalidate&quot; as needed). This decision is ultimately up to you and should be based on what you think would give you the best information about what you are trying to measure. Based purely off of your brief description and the questions provided, you may prefer to modify the survey. It doesn't seem like the survey, as is, would give you the information you are looking to measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goodman, R., Iervolino, A. C., Collishaw, S., Pickles, A., &amp;amp; Maughan, B. (2007). Seemingly minor changes to a questionnaire can make a big difference to mean scores: a cautionary tale. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42(4), 322–327. doi:10.1007/s00127-007-0169-0&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T04:15:17.553" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9616" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9418" CreationDate="2015-03-25T10:35:06.563" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on the previous answer, I digged a little deeper myself and found some other interesting data. The Mehl et al. paper is indeed great because it sampled naturally occurring speech occurring over several days. Previous research seems to rely mainly on speech sampled in specific situations. Nevertheless, the evidence seems to converge. I found two meta-analyses. One looks at gender-differences in talkativeness in kids and the other is about adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;adults&lt;/strong&gt; (Leaper &amp;amp; Ayres, 2007), men were actually slightly &lt;em&gt;more&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;talkative (d=-.14)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the talkativeness of men was higher in mixed-gender interactions (d=-.28) than in same-gender interactions (d=-.09), reflecting mens' attempts to dominate conversations with women?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;men were more also more talkative when discussing impersonal topics (d=-.79), whereas women were more talkative involving self-disclosure (d=.39), in line with gender norms&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;kids&lt;/strong&gt; (Leaper &amp;amp; Smith, 2004) there was no overall difference in talkativeness (d=.07, n.s.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;for younger children (&amp;lt;3years), girls were more talkative (d=.32), while there was no difference for kids aged 3-16 (d=.08), likely reflecting different language development speeds for boys and girls&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All in all, the idea that there is a kernel of truth to the stereotype of woman being more talkative than men seems to be refuted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leaper, C., &amp;amp; Ayres, M. M. (2007). A meta-analytic review of gender variations in adults’ language use: Talkativeness, affiliative speech, and assertive speech. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 328–363. doi:10.1177/1088868307302221&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leaper, C., &amp;amp; Smith, T. E. (2004). A Meta-Analytic Review of Gender Variations in Children’s Language Use: Talkativeness, Affiliative Speech, and Assertive Speech. Developmental Psychology, 40, 993–1027. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.993&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-03-25T12:20:25.407" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T12:20:25.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9617" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8914" CreationDate="2015-03-25T10:36:34.297" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Consciousness is different between individuals and can change over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Nelkin (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/188083?sid=21106244547153&amp;amp;uid=2&amp;amp;uid=2134&amp;amp;uid=381715651&amp;amp;uid=60&amp;amp;uid=3&amp;amp;uid=381715661&amp;amp;uid=70&amp;amp;uid=3737536&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1997&lt;/a&gt;) provides the following definition of consciousness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When philosophers and psychologists think about consciousness, they generally focus on one or more of three features: phenomenality (how experiences feel), intentionality (that experiences are &quot;of&quot; something, that experiences mean something), and introspectibility (our awareness of phenomenality and intentionality of experiences). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I am not an expert on the matter I think this definition answers your question. You say &lt;code&gt;People seem to believe that one's consciousness is a &quot;different&quot; consciousness than that of others, but the &quot;same&quot; consciousness as the one that has been in one's body in the past and the one that will be in one's body in the future.&lt;/code&gt; Because the phenomenality changes over time, because &lt;strong&gt;past experience change the way sensations feel&lt;/strong&gt; (new versus familiar sensations are very different) your statement that consciousness is constant is invalid. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The intentionality and most notably the introspectibility makes consciousness a very personal thing, meaning that your statement &lt;code&gt;...one's consciousness is a &quot;different&quot; consciousness than that of other&lt;/code&gt; is valid.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a neuroscientist I can tackle the two statements posed on more familiar ground to me. I dare to say that consciousness is not a stable entity, because in the end, sensations, perceptions and awareness of the world are all in your head and generated by neurons. Because psychoneuropharmaca or brain damage can lead to temporary and permanent altered states of consciousness, respectively, the statement that &lt;code&gt;...the &quot;same&quot; consciousness as the one that has been in one's body in the past and the one that will be in one's body in the future&lt;/code&gt; is simply invalid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a similar neuroscientific vantage point one's brain is obviously different and physically separate from another person's brain, so we quite frankly are not sharing a consciousness. Consciousness is therefore a personal thing, the more since one can suffer brain damage without another even noticing it, hence &lt;code&gt;one's consciousness is a &quot;different&quot; consciousness than that of others&lt;/code&gt; must be true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/188083?sid=21106244547153&amp;amp;uid=2&amp;amp;uid=2134&amp;amp;uid=381715651&amp;amp;uid=60&amp;amp;uid=3&amp;amp;uid=381715661&amp;amp;uid=70&amp;amp;uid=3737536&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nelkin N, &lt;em&gt;Philosophy of Science&lt;/em&gt; 1993&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-03-26T01:03:04.413" LastActivityDate="2015-03-26T01:03:04.413" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9618" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9044" CreationDate="2015-03-25T11:03:57.507" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;For experimental purposes, an electrode array or comparable 2D device can be mounted and re-mounted on the same spot by using &lt;strong&gt;visual markers&lt;/strong&gt;, e.g. with water resistant ink. By using a matrix of actuators with a back and front, and a clearly defined &quot;up and down&quot; (and/or left and right) one could suffice by just two little spots on the skin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, stable &lt;strong&gt;bodily features&lt;/strong&gt; can be used when applicable. For example ribs and vertebrae are stable positions that can serve as markers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more sophisticated means is a &lt;strong&gt;stereotactic procedure&lt;/strong&gt;. For example the head can be easily fixated using a chin rest and head support on the forehead. This pretty much fixates the head. This is for example used with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, as shown in the figure below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ki78R.png&quot; alt=&quot;stereotactic frame&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=i&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=images&amp;amp;cd=&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CAUQjhw&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hospimedicaintl.com%2Findex.php%3FcPath%3D9_54%26crdID%3D133b9d822eea155e9a3b457aa2c2e89b&amp;amp;ei=JpMSVdmVIsqD8gWDn4DgAQ&amp;amp;bvm=bv.89217033,d.dGc&amp;amp;psig=AFQjCNHwgqUaGHFVsvRD9BFLleESiGThuQ&amp;amp;ust=1427367020161719&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hospimedica&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although this list is not exhaustive, it gives an idea of possibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T11:03:57.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9619" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9623" CreationDate="2015-03-25T11:45:28.963" Score="7" ViewCount="354" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am doing an EEG experiment about imagined speech recognition. Which frequencies will have the most relevant information? I chose the frequency band [4-40] Hz as a start, mainly because of signal processing considerations. Filtering out the remaining frequencies basically removes the DC voltage and most of the EOC artifacts. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Which frequencies should I select?&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Also which channels will contain the signal (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the most relevant data)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-29T20:05:46.620" LastActivityDate="2016-08-29T20:05:46.620" Title="What are proper EEG frequency bands and electrode placements for imagined speech?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9620" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2048" CreationDate="2015-03-25T11:47:36.303" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question has been unanswered for a long time and I will attempt to address the issues posed not one by one, as there are a great many questions, but with an overall working of the sensory nervous system with respect to topographic mapping. Moreover, the question uses a great many &quot;suppose ifs&quot; that have never, and most likely will never or cannot be tested. Therefore a basic overview of topographical mapping may shed light on the matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The somatosensory cortex is a highly &lt;strong&gt;topographically organized&lt;/strong&gt; structure. Although warped in size, it basically contains an exact topographical map of the body, referred to as a &lt;em&gt;homunculus&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dZYVx.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;homunculus&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://guardianlv.com/2013/09/sixth-sense-discovered-for-numerosity-using-fmri-scans/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Guardian&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, perceptions in the upper arm are represented very near to the lower arm representation in the somatosensory cortex. The motor cortex contains a very similar map.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, the visual cortices contain many maps representing the visual field, referred to as the &lt;strong&gt;retinotopic&lt;/strong&gt; map. Likewise, the auditory system maps frequency space in a highly topographical manner (the &lt;strong&gt;tonotopic map&lt;/strong&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Removing a part of the somatosensory cortex out of its context may wreck havoc on this ordered structure. For example, it has been shown by groundbreaking work from Michael Merzenich and colleagues that when the fingers of a monkey are sewn together, the finger representations in the sensory cortex also fuse, i.e., the &lt;strong&gt;border between the coupled fingers degrades&lt;/strong&gt; and vanishes eventually. This experiment shows that when two separate bodily structures are repeatedly and structurally stimulated simultaneously, they fuse in the cortex. Upon separation, original mapping is restored (&lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/66/3/1048.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Allard et al., 1991&lt;/a&gt;). I consider this proof that &lt;strong&gt;adjacent structures influence each other's representations in the cortex&lt;/strong&gt; because they often receive parallel stimulation. Coherent stimuli typically result in increased synaptic strength. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Phantom limbs&lt;/strong&gt; are interesting indeed. For example, the groundbreaking work by Ramachandran focused on upper arm amputees. These folks would feel sensations in their (amputated) hand when their cheek was stimulated. In the homunculus it can be readily seen that facial representations are close to the hand representation. Upon deafferentation of the arm region in the cortex, surrounding bodily representations take over the 'silenced' regions, and the cheek region 'steals' the hand (which is relatively huge). However, interestingly, the &lt;strong&gt;cheek not only serves its own original representation&lt;/strong&gt;, but &lt;strong&gt;refers now to the amputated hand as well&lt;/strong&gt;. Hence, the memory of the hand lingers, showing once again that the bodily map is strongly imprinted in the brain and that it is not simply isolated from its context.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How then are visual and tactile stimuli fused as being correlated? This happens in the higher multi-sensory areas in the brain, the so-called &lt;em&gt;association cortices&lt;/em&gt; such as found in the temporal lobe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L43k6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ib.cnea.gov.ar/~redneu/2013/BOOKS/Principles%20of%20Neural%20Science%20-%20Kandel/gateway.ut.ovid.com/gw2/ovidweb.cgisidnjhkoalgmeho00dbookimagebookdb_7c_2fc~24.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Insituto Balseiro&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These higher areas will link various perceptions and merge them into coherent perceptions. Limbic association areas may couple the butterflies to love. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In all, qualia are localized in the brain by mapping sensory information onto highly organized topographic maps in the cortex. Changes in the periphery (e.g. amputations) will affect this cortical mapping due to plasticity and hence these cortical maps are plastic (subject to change). The reverse can never be easily tested (taking a piece of brain away will have gross consequences) as said, but I think that the quote &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rightmindprograms.wordpress.com/2010/03/22/neurons-that-wire-together-fire-together/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurons that wire together fire together&lt;/a&gt;&quot; is important here. As said, synaptic strength increases when adjacent neurons fire in coherency and when taken apart their mapping will become distorted. Lastly, emotional feelings are combined with the physical sensation of butterflies in your stomach and synthesized into a holistic feeling of love, probably by the limbic association cortices and perhaps other association areas. in general, the association areas synthesize the various sensory systems by linking them, most likely due to experience.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/66/3/1048.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Allard et al., &lt;em&gt;J Neurophysiol&lt;/em&gt; 1991;&lt;strong&gt;66&lt;/strong&gt;:1048-58&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-14T09:32:08.877" LastActivityDate="2018-11-14T09:32:08.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9621" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9564" CreationDate="2015-03-25T14:59:10.773" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Of course, if you try to learn a new  language, you should start to learn the basics. &#xA;Maybe it's good to buy a book for the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Structure the knowledge&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's important to have an overview because you must know what you should learn. Maybe you can create a mindmap which is very effective.&#xA;Look here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_map#Research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_map#Research&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Use the knowledge&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like in Math you should use the techniques like division, multiplying...&#xA;It's the same with languages. Read books in the language you want to learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7946" LastEditorUserId="7946" LastEditDate="2015-03-25T16:52:14.173" LastActivityDate="2015-03-25T16:52:14.173" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9622" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9564" CreationDate="2015-03-26T08:31:56.467" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There has been a lot of research into this topic in the recent years. My understanding is influenced by the following : &lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;  1. The Talent Code by Daniel Coyle.&lt;br/&gt; 2. Mastery by Robert Greene. &lt;br/&gt;3. The Mundanity of Excellence.&lt;br/&gt;4. Why Skills trump Passion by Cal Newport. &lt;br/&gt; &lt;br/&gt; &#xA;The best thing for you to do would be to read these for yourself. &lt;br/&gt; &lt;br/&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;CHOOSE THE CHALLENGE :&lt;/strong&gt; This is something really important. You need to choose a challenging problem you want solve or a skill you want to master, which lies just outside your comfort zone. If it is easy, you'll feel bored. If it is too difficult, you'll feel overwhelmed. Choose something which lies just outside your comfort zone. This leads to what is usually called as the flow experience. &#xA;&lt;br/&gt; &lt;br/&gt;&lt;strong&gt;THE PROCESS :&lt;/strong&gt; To simply put it, mastering a skill is a process with approximately the following steps. &lt;br/&gt; &lt;br/&gt;&#xA;1. Watch someone perform it and visualize yourself doing it. &lt;br/&gt; &#xA;2. Break the skill into its fundamental building blocks(fbb).  &lt;br/&gt;&#xA;3. Choose one of the small fbb's and try to perform it.&lt;br/&gt; &#xA;4. At this point, you will not be able to get it right. So, slow down the performance drastically . Go step by step, making each step perfect. &lt;br/&gt;&#xA;5. Then, make it faster again. Play around with the pace of performance till you are fluent.&lt;br/&gt; &#xA;6. Repeat the performance everyday. &lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt; &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;THE MOTIVATION :&lt;/strong&gt; As you can see, the process is painful. You need to understand how to replenish the motivation fuel. Talent Code gives a good approach. But I prefer the one given in &quot;The Mundanity of Excellence&quot;. Basically, motivation comes from three things : Fun, Reward and Challenge. Everyday you must try to experience these things to remain motivated.  Have fun at the workplace. Attack a small challenge which lies just outside your comfort zone everyday. Achieve small targets everyday and reward yourself for doing so.&lt;br/&gt; &lt;br/&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;THE ATTITUDE :&lt;/strong&gt; You need to get the attitude of a craftsman. The goal is to achieve mastery over your craft. So, when choosing jobs, prefer areas where you can achieve mastery instead of fame or money. Cal Newport explains this really well.&lt;br/&gt; &lt;br/&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;THE TOOLKIT - BECOMING A CRAFTSMAN :&lt;/strong&gt; This is something out of my experience. So, how exactly can you be a good craftsman ? It's all about your tools. Imagine an empty toolkit in your hand. Now, all you got to do is fill it up with all sorts of tricks of the trade. If you can master tools that are valuable and rare, you will stand out from your peers. Enjoy collecting different tools and mastring how to use them. While learning programming, just imagine this toolkit. Everyday learn some new trick or technique and put it into your toolkit.After a few years , you will have a big toolkit and you will have the capacity to solve the big problems in your field of expertise.&lt;br/&gt; &lt;br/&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7947" LastActivityDate="2015-03-26T08:31:56.467" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9623" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9619" CreationDate="2015-03-26T12:37:21.503" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;A study by D’Zmura et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CCMQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnslab.ss.uci.edu%2Fspeechattention%2Fcontent%2FDZmuraHCIInternational2009.pdf&amp;amp;ei=nfoTVbS-CpCC8gXOy4LgCA&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNEMv02n223j2Gy0U740F1WclKrY1A&amp;amp;sig2=vJimVjXvZn1XY-zXdCf2yA&amp;amp;bvm=bv.89217033,d.dGc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2009&lt;/a&gt;) in which two syllables were spoken in imagination showed that imagined speech information was present in EEG alpha, beta and theta bands. The &lt;strong&gt;beta band&lt;/strong&gt; (13-18 Hz) proved most informative. The most informative electrodes were located mainly near the top of the head (&lt;strong&gt;vertex&lt;/strong&gt;) where electromyographic artifacts had least influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They used various signal processing steps (standard low-pass filtering to remove 60 Hz line artifact, DC filtering, signal enveloping etc.) to clean up their signal. Please refer to the reference list for specific signal processing details.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CCMQFjAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnslab.ss.uci.edu%2Fspeechattention%2Fcontent%2FDZmuraHCIInternational2009.pdf&amp;amp;ei=nfoTVbS-CpCC8gXOy4LgCA&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNEMv02n223j2Gy0U740F1WclKrY1A&amp;amp;sig2=vJimVjXvZn1XY-zXdCf2yA&amp;amp;bvm=bv.89217033,d.dGc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;D’Zmura et al. Lecture notes in computer science 2009;40-8. HCI International&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; - &lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&amp;amp;arnumber=5515807&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D5515807&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brigham &amp;amp; Kumar, iCBBE 2010&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-29T20:04:39.963" LastActivityDate="2016-08-29T20:04:39.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9626" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9610" CreationDate="2015-03-27T00:50:57.987" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;In speaking to constructs vs. measures, I believe that the difference is clear and implied in your background: constructs are that which cannot be directly measured (but we assume exists), where measures are directly measurable attributes that we assume relate to the construct. The process you seem to be questioning is that of the &lt;strong&gt;operational definition&lt;/strong&gt;, or the process of defining that which cannot be measured (the construct) as that which can (the measurement). Your concern that these are not equivalent is quite right, and many papers are written for the sole purpose of explaining why a certain measure matches a theoretical construct (the process of measurement validation and establishing construct validity).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to why operational definitions are necessary, the straightforward answer is simple: communication. As constructs are not measurable (in many cases), some type of operationalization must be used. If multiple claims are made on a construct, each using different operational definitions, the results may be contradictory purely due to the differences in the operational definitions assigned by separate researchers! (Education Letter, 2013)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using operational definitions instead of simply listing the construct can help researchers better determine which results should be comparable. Remember, each of these definitions may have been validated, yet differences in the measurement will naturally yield differences in the data that may not be relevant to the construct. This is the heart of construct invalidity (Groves et al., 2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've always enjoyed seminal papers, and one that you may be interested in is the seminal work defining construct validity (and distinguishing it from other types) by Lee Cronbach and Paul Meehl.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Construct validity is ordinarily studied when the tester has no definite criterion measure of the quality with which he is concerned, and must use indirect measures. Here the trait or quality underlying the test is of central importance, rather than either the test behavior or the scores on the criteria&quot; (Cronbach &amp;amp; Meehl, 1955, p. 282). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you may take issue with failure to apply correct validity checks, and the application of the correct types of validity to the correct situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this help to clarify the nuances of a very involved question! Perhaps the heart of the question/solution is this: though constructs and operational definitions of constructs get used interchangeably, they shouldn't be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cronbach, L. J., &amp;amp; Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52(4), 281–302.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Groves, R. M., Fowler, F. J., Jr., Couper, M. P., Lepkowski, J. M., Singer, E., &amp;amp; Tourangeau, R. (2009). Survey Methodology (Vol. 2). John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;General science; new findings reported from Carnegie Mellon University describe advances in general science. (2013). Education Letter, 90.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2015-03-30T12:36:07.657" LastActivityDate="2015-03-30T12:36:07.657" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9627" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-27T07:29:52.693" Score="4" ViewCount="313" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to measure the short-term memory, long-term memory and sensory memory of children between 10 and 15. If possible, I would prefer a single test or battery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What tests are used to measure adolescents' short-term, long-term and sensory memory?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7801" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-03-27T07:51:20.627" LastActivityDate="2015-03-27T07:51:20.627" Title="Measuring short-term, long-term and sensory memory in adolescents?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9628" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9632" CreationDate="2015-03-27T08:18:16.077" Score="9" ViewCount="491" Body="&lt;p&gt;With his book &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outliers_%28book%29&quot;&gt;Outliers&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Malcolm Gladwell has widely popularized the idea that the requirement to become an expert in any field is largely to invest at least 10.000 hours of deliberate practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the scientific basis of this conclusion?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It seems to have originated from this &lt;a href=&quot;http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/blogs/freakonomics/pdf/DeliberatePractice%28PsychologicalReview%29.pdf&quot;&gt;research&lt;/a&gt; by Ericsson et al. (1993). In what way does this paper support the conclusion of a 10.000 hour rule?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the current state of the research on this question?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., &amp;amp; Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363–406. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-03-27T10:28:57.363" LastActivityDate="2016-02-23T13:41:00.190" Title="Do 10.000 hours of practice make you an expert?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9629" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19074" CreationDate="2015-03-27T09:23:25.520" Score="2" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the latest research and explanations concerning this auditory effect? I haven't managed to turn up much on the net, so just to check that I've named it correctly, my experience of it was being exposed to two alternately repeated beeps differing distinctly in pitch and finding that after a while I just heard a single repeated beep of constant pitch as if my brain had merged the two. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Context&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jansson (1994) writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Music may also be intercepted successively by noise bursts and still&#xA;  be perceived as continuous, even if the music signals are deleted&#xA;  within the noise bursts (van Norden, 1975)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jansson, E. V. (1994). Violin timbre and the picket fence. Quarterly Progress and Status Report, KTH, Stockholm, 35, 79-84.&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.speech.kth.se/prod/publications/files/qpsr/1990/1990_31_2-3_089-095.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;van Norden, L.P.A.S. (1975): Temporal Coherence in the Perception of Tone Sequences, Thesis, Technical University, Eindhoven.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4536" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-31T02:01:16.797" LastActivityDate="2018-02-11T00:12:32.637" Title="Research on the van Norden percept" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9630" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-27T09:44:51.533" Score="1" ViewCount="614" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for publish an image of the rat brain for an article with a specific places selected on 3D. Just like this picture:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WFu7N.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I heard about the Elsevier program BrainNavigator 3.2, but the webpage is down. Anyone know a dataset, program, webpage or any source where to find information about this?.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6591" LastActivityDate="2015-03-27T09:44:51.533" Title="rat 3D Brain Atlases" Tags="&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2015-03-27T16:41:19.497" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9631" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8371" CreationDate="2015-03-27T13:28:16.313" Score="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since I was asked in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://chat.stackexchange.com/rooms/2250/the-axon-terminal&quot;&gt;chat&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; about binaural beats, and have been posed this question a number of times before besides, I looked into the most recent literature using Google Scholar for the single term &amp;quot;binaural beats&amp;quot; and restricted my search to papers published between 2010-2015. For convenience, this is the definition of a binaural beat I will use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;When two coherent sounds with nearly similar frequencies are presented to each ear respectively with stereo headphones, the brain integrates the two signals and produces a sensation of a third sound called &lt;strong&gt;binaural beat&lt;/strong&gt; (BB).&lt;/em&gt; — Gao et al., 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;State of the evidence&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Broadly speaking, some research on binaural beats does exist, but the evidence presented in the studies I examined is by and large negative, inconclusive or statistically underpowered with respect to the efficacy of binaural beats' ability to improve cognition, and to whether it is even processed differently from acoustic beats at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Much of the research that does exist seems to be published in journals whose credibility I cannot vouch for, and this answer should therefore be taken for what it is: a cursory review of the best literature I could find, not as scientific fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are binaural beats processed differently?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;The perceptions of binaural beats involve cortical activity that is not different than acoustic beats in distribution and in the effects of beat- and base frequency, indicating similar cortical processing.&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;  — Pratt et al., 2010.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do binaural beats entrain brain waves?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;We observed RP increase in theta and alpha bands and decrease in beta band during delta and alpha BB stimulations. RP decreased in beta band during theta BB, while RP decreased in theta band during beta BB. However, no clear brainwave entrainment effect was identified. Connectivity changes were detected following the variation of RP during BB stimulations. Our observation supports the hypothesis that BBs could affect functional brain connectivity, suggesting that the mechanism of BB–brain interaction is worth further study.&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt; — Gao et al., 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do binaural beats induce a frequency following effect?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;Analysis of changes in broad-band and narrow-band amplitudes, and frequency showed no effect of binaural beat frequency eliciting a frequency following effect in the EEG.&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt; — Vernon et al., 2011.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Concluding remarks&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What evidence exists is mixed and, at best, inconclusive.&lt;/strong&gt; Based on this, I will tentatively say that it appears the claims put forward by many commercial binaural beats companies, while theoretically plausible in some sense, &lt;strong&gt;are not empirically supported in the literature.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, the most prudent position for a &lt;strong&gt;consumer&lt;/strong&gt; to adopt seems to be that &lt;strong&gt;binaural beat music is as preferable, but no more preferable than acoustic beat music&lt;/strong&gt;. For researchers, of course, binaural beats remains theoretically interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gao, X., Cao, H., Ming, D., Qi, H., Wang, X., Wang, X., ... &amp;amp; Zhou, P. (2014). Analysis of EEG activity in response to binaural beats with different frequencies. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 94(3), 399-406.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pratt, H., Starr, A., Michalewski, H. J., Dimitrijevic, A., Bleich, N., &amp;amp; Mittelman, N. (2010). A comparison of auditory evoked potentials to acoustic beats and to binaural beats. Hearing research, 262(1), 34-44.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vernon, D., Peryer, G., Louch, J., &amp;amp; Shaw, M. (2014). Tracking EEG changes in response to alpha and beta binaural beats. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 93(1), 134-139.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-27T13:45:19.067" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9632" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9628" CreationDate="2015-03-27T15:17:39.670" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is more involved than it seems. Expertise research programmes, including Ericsson's line, has tended to blend quantitative and qualitative research methods (e.g., case studies, talk-aloud protocol, etc.), and there is a veritable host of critiques and qualifications that apply. For the scope of this answer, I will therefore try to err on the side of too restrictive than too broad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;10,000 hours?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;10,000 hours&lt;/strong&gt; figure, supposing that you are right to pin Malcolm's work on this article, appears to derive from an analysis of retrospective practice accounts of violinists. In any case, from the article, page 379.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The number of hours of practice accumulated by a violinist at a given age can be easily calculated by adding the yearly estimates at and below that age. The average number of hours of accumulated practice for each of the four groups is shown in Figure 9 as a function of age.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9Uu7d.png&quot; alt=&quot;figure9&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience, rather than giving the &lt;strong&gt;10,000 hours&lt;/strong&gt; figure, Ericsson himself instead often proffers &lt;strong&gt;10 years&lt;/strong&gt;, as he does in the abstract of this article. This is more consistent with recent research on effects like spaced repetition and the generation effect, since using hours seems to imply that hours of deliberate practice are interchangeable and independent, which they are evidently not. I don't know if it's meaningful to give a year value, but I subjectively doubt it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Is deliberate practice effective?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will interpret the second question as, &quot;&lt;strong&gt;What is the state of research on the training efficacy of deliberate practice?&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; instead of the alternative meaning about 10,000 hours, which I have argued is flashy, but not meaningful or central to expertise acquisition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deliberate practice has been studied and compared with traditional training and educational methods fairly extensively across a number of domains. Here, I will restrict myself to studies dated 2011-2015 which were not published by K. A. Ericsson himself. I found a convenient meta-review of 14 studies, which found deliberate practice combined with simulations to be effective for clinical training (McGaghie et al., 2011), the area in which deliberate practice sees the most use by far.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Multiple recent studies have taken a critical view of Ericsson's strong theory of deliberate practice (i.e., &lt;em&gt;performance is a monotonic function of deliberate practice&lt;/em&gt;), but no one appears to seriously dispute that it is a substantial factor in expertise acquisition for some domains. A critical meta-analysis of deliberate practice by Macnamara, Hambrick and Oswald (2014) reported:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We found that deliberate practice explained 26% of the variance in performance for games, 21% for music, 18% for sports, 4% for education, and less than 1% for professions.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Concluding remarks&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the purpose of this question, I would say this: on the one hand, the number of hours is meaningless and more likely than not to vary substantially between domains, persons and situations. &lt;strong&gt;The 10,000 hours figure is therefore only illustrative, not practically meaningful.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, &lt;strong&gt;there is evidence to support the efficacy of deliberate practice&lt;/strong&gt; as a learning strategy. Finally, though it remains influential, recent research suggests that &lt;strong&gt;deliberate practice alone is not sufficient to explain expertise acquisition&lt;/strong&gt;, and that interacting factors need to be considered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite the waning star of strong-form deliberate practice theory, I thoroughly recommend Ericsson et al.'s &lt;em&gt;Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance&lt;/em&gt; (2006) for an introduction to this increasingly relevant area of psychology. Personally, I think the recent studies finding that deliberate practice doesn't seem to predict anything in some domains are absolutely fascinating, but I can only speculate as to why. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P. J., &amp;amp; Hoffman, R. R. (Eds.). (2006). The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance. Cambridge University Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Macnamara, B. N., Hambrick, D. Z., &amp;amp; Oswald, F. L. (2014). Deliberate Practice and Performance in Music, Games, Sports, Education, and Professions A Meta-Analysis. Psychological science, 25(8), 1608-1618.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McGaghie, W. C., Issenberg, S. B., Cohen, M. E. R., Barsuk, J. H., &amp;amp; Wayne, D. B. (2011). Does simulation-based medical education with deliberate practice yield better results than traditional clinical education? A meta-analytic comparative review of the evidence. Academic medicine: journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 86(6), 706.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-03-27T15:38:37.273" LastActivityDate="2015-03-27T15:38:37.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9634" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8143" CreationDate="2015-03-27T23:45:24.537" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;After a little bit of googling, it seems that the original developer of SPAD-T, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cisia.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CISIA&lt;/a&gt; (dead link), is no longer in business, and the software appears to have become unavailable. I found the company off &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unige.ch/ses/sococ/aqual/links/qualsoft.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this list&lt;/a&gt;, so maybe it will be of some help in finding an alternative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'm mostly answering this because I suspected that it otherwise never would be.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-03-27T23:45:24.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9635" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9889" CreationDate="2015-03-28T00:49:57.870" Score="6" ViewCount="275" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, I'm learning geography using the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;spaced repetition&lt;/a&gt; method. I have some program which asks me questions like, &lt;em&gt;&quot;In which country Melbourne is located?&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, and I have to recall the country (assuming I've studied the material and at least once seen Melbourne on the map). This program also gives me two possible hints when I can't recall the answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If I choose &quot;&lt;strong&gt;obvious hint&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; it says &quot;kangaroo&quot;, which for me is a straight giveaway for &quot;Australia&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If I choose &quot;&lt;strong&gt;vague hint&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; it says &quot;hell&quot;. After thinking a while, I may come up with this: &lt;em&gt;&quot;There's the Devil in Hell. There's an animal called Tasmanian Devil, which lives on the island Tasmania, which is near the Australia.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea in both cases is to not show the answer right away when I can't recall it, but rather force me (more or less) to try recalling it once again, but now with some additional information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do obvious hints help memorization at all?&lt;/strong&gt; As you saw, the hint &quot;Australia&quot; is as good as just showing me the answer, but maybe it helps building association in my memory which helps recalling the answer later.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do vague hints help more?&lt;/strong&gt; I assume yes, since they trigger some associations in my memory, but I have no proofs.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, the &quot;obviousness&quot; of a hint is very subjective, but the idea behind it should be clear: &quot;obvious&quot; hints are just one or two associations away from answers, while &quot;vague&quot; ones form longer association chains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;: There is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/6167/7869&quot;&gt;related question&lt;/a&gt; with an &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/6168/7869&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; which mentions elaborative rehearsal and depth of processing, but I'm not sure if those processes are involved here, since hints are mostly related to an answer (&quot;Kangaroos live in Australia&quot;), not a question (&quot;kangaroos&quot; and &quot;Melbourne&quot; are not associated in my memories, neither do &quot;hell&quot; and &quot;Melbourne&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7869" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T13:44:48.097" Title="Do hints improve memorization when using spaced repetition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9636" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9635" CreationDate="2015-03-28T03:20:45.307" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't yet comment, unfortunately, but for the answers to your questions I have to refer you back to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;your link.&lt;/a&gt; and to the references listed in the article.&#xA;Along with this do a little exercise with a family member or a friend, but preferably someone who is not aware of your studying of Geography.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both of you do the following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; Write down 5 cities from around the world that &#xA; are really obscure and not commonly known&#xA; Write one vague hint and one direct hint for each&#xA; Then give each other the questions and the hints&#xA; Repeat this the next day, then again in two days, then again in three...&#xA; if you really want you can repeat this for up to a &#xA; total of 15 days which will have then given you 5 total tries, &#xA; but more importantly you will now have actual proof of whether &#xA; this works for your and in general.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Granted, with 5 cities you will probably remember them simply because of repetition, spaced or otherwise, and because they are too few.&#xA;This is a technique that will work particularly if the hints are images, and so looking on a map can be a good way to store the information in memory in such a way as to make recall easier later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Either way I think the answer is yes and it seems that it worked for you already since you did actually affirmatively answer your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S.: Just found &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6167/effectiveness-of-spaced-learning-when-the-data-have-personal-meaning?rq=1&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5138" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-03-28T03:20:45.307" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9639" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9344" CreationDate="2015-03-28T12:13:18.043" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both are true, to my knowledge (in the sense that Freud did believe this). They relate to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oedipus_complex&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oedipus and Electra complexes&lt;/a&gt;, which are are core parts of classical Freudian theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Children, through the Oedipus and Electra complexes during the phallic developmental stage, where they sexually desire their same-sex parent, eventually come to identify with their same-sex parent by resolving these desires through different mechanisms. These mechanisms are castration anxiety, in boys, and penis envy, in girls. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He believed that these mechanisms would lead to partner preferences matching the same-sex parent. Freud also believed that failing to successfully resolve the Oedipus or Electra complex could lead to a host of &quot;problems&quot; in adulthood, like neurosis, pedophilia and homosexuality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't need to say that this classical view is outdated and not supported by evidence or modern theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-03-28T12:13:18.043" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9640" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5934" CreationDate="2015-03-28T13:26:36.177" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since this question has been unanswered for quite some time I will try to provide an acceptable approximation to an answer. Excuses beforehand for the many block quotes but it is not my area of expertise. The quotes are from a revealing article by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/29775596&quot;&gt;Provine (1996)&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As commented on by others, laughter can be specified better by their actual sound then by the written word (for a nice link on the bewildering variety of written laughter: &lt;a href=&quot;http://forum.wordreference.com/showthread.php?t=419591&quot;&gt;http://forum.wordreference.com/showthread.php?t=419591&lt;/a&gt;). Spectral analysis of laughter in the lab showed that it is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] characterized by a series of short vowel like notes (syllables), each about 75 milliseconds long, that are repeated at regular intervals about 210 milliseconds apart. A specific vowel sound does not define laughter, but similar vowel sounds are typically used for the notes of a given laugh. For example, laughs have the structure of &quot;ha-ha-ha&quot; or &quot;ho ho-ho,&quot; but not &quot;ha-ho-ha-ho.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Stereotypic structure of a laugh is, at least in part, a result of the limitations of our vocal apparatus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fake laughters may indeed be different, for example fake crying is also very challenging. Emotionless laughing is also characterized by different facial expressions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to where laughter comes from it is important to note &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] that chimpanzees and other great apes perform a laugh-like vocalization when tickled or during play. [...] Breathy, panting laughter is probably the primal form that dates back to the common ancestor of all great apes and people. Human beings evolved their characteristic laughter after branching from an ancestor in common with chimpanzees (estimated to be around six million years ago, according to DNA hybridization data).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Laughter will, however, undoubtedly be affected by your surroundings, since &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Laughter is a decidedly social signal, not an egocentric expression of emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, laughter is born out of an interplay of nature (evolution and restricions imposed by the vocal apparatus) and nurture (social setting). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/29775596&quot;&gt;Provine. Laughter. &lt;em&gt;Am Sci&lt;/em&gt; 1996;&lt;strong&gt;84&lt;/strong&gt;:38-45&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-03-28T13:39:02.650" LastActivityDate="2015-03-28T13:39:02.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9643" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9644" CreationDate="2015-03-29T03:24:44.490" Score="4" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am hoping to carry out a pedagogical analysis of some peer reviewed papers, preferably on topics in cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would be easier with the raw data its self, in additional to the results section of the paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7961" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-03-31T04:18:51.130" LastActivityDate="2015-03-31T04:18:51.130" Title="Are there peer-reviewed psychology or neuroscience journal articles that include the raw data (data set)?" Tags="&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9644" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9643" CreationDate="2015-03-29T03:33:17.877" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/journals/psychological_science&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Psychological Science&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; articles with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/journals/psychological_science/badges&quot;&gt;&quot;Open Data Badge&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.  There's also the &lt;a href=&quot;http://openpsychologydata.metajnl.com&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Journal of Open Psychology Data&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-03-29T03:33:17.877" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9645" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-29T05:09:34.850" Score="2" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading this intriguing book titled &lt;em&gt;Consciousness and the Brain: Deciphering How the Brain Codes Our Thoughts&lt;/em&gt; (2014) by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanislas_Dehaene&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanislas Dehaene&lt;/a&gt;. In one of the chapters he talks about how the brain has natural division of labor, by which he meant that the unconscious brain would be doing the math, or the hard work and generating probabilities, and then the conscious brain would collapse the probabilities and choose the most elegant or beneficial one to the specific situation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is regarding the vocabulistics of the unconscious brain, or the tools employed by it. Does the unconscious brain have very &quot;set in stone&quot; tools or do these tools for information processing increase and evolve as we learn more. However, wouldn't that mean that the conscious processing was inturn leading to the evolution of the unconscious, and for the lack of a better word, &lt;em&gt;a trickle down effect&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7836" LastEditorUserId="13937" LastEditDate="2017-01-02T03:45:56.440" LastActivityDate="2017-01-02T03:45:56.440" Title="Can the knowledge and the tools we acquire in conscious brain become tools for the unconscious brain?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-02-20T05:03:41.250" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9646" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8714" CreationDate="2015-03-29T11:02:55.500" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this question may be better asked at biology.SE.&#xA;I have to cite popular science press here, but nevertheless, clearly the answer seems to be: &lt;strong&gt;no.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scientific American:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Peter Pressman of the Cedars Sinai Medical Center in Beverly Hills, Calif. and Roger Clemens of the University of Southern California School of Pharmacy &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-food-cravings-the-bod/&quot;&gt;explain&lt;/a&gt;. Food craving, defined as an intense desire to eat a specific foodstuff, is a common occurrence across all cultures and societies. These yearnings (...) are not linked to any obvious nutrient insufficiency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a more comprehensive take on this from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390443995604578002253859884598&quot;&gt;WSJ&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For decades, researchers surmised that food cravings were the body's subconscious effort to correct nutritional deficiencies. Longing for steak could indicate a need for protein or iron, according to this theory. Chocoholics might be low on magnesium or other mood-altering chemicals that chocolate contains, including phenylethylamine, a compound humans produce when they're in love.&#xA;  But a growing body of research casts doubt on the nutritional-deficiency notion. After all, few people crave vitamin-rich green leafy vegetables and many other foods contain more phenylalanine than chocolate—including salami and cheddar cheese. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the more cogsci.SE related questions might be about the complex cultural, affective, cognitive and neuropsychological factors (such as stress and social norms) that foster cravings for certain foods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-03-29T11:02:55.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9647" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9654" CreationDate="2015-03-29T11:48:33.173" Score="11" ViewCount="6962" Body="&lt;p&gt;If the emotions' only purpose is to stimulate certain behavior, why can't this task just as effectively, or even more effectively be done by the reasoning part of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are emotions really necessary for survival?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7717" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-03-29T22:12:24.360" LastActivityDate="2015-06-07T17:51:14.750" Title="Why do humans need emotions?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9648" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9647" CreationDate="2015-03-29T12:50:22.227" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Emotions are not necessary for survival, but they may provide evolutionary advantages. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Although crocodiles cry, they do not feel any remorse in killing their prey when shedding tears doing so (they empty their lachrymals when snapping their jaws shut). Given their relative brain size we can expect (but never know) that they do not experience a comparable range of complex emotional states as we humans do. Just as fishes and amphibians crocodiles are though to be pretty much instinct-driven creatures. However, admittedly, when one sees a mother croc carrying her hatchlings to the waterside you start wondering...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DdDFM.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Brain sizes&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.accordinstitute.org/2010_6_1_gross_conception_of_anatomical_structure.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ye-Tao et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, assuming they are driven by instinct and are emotionless (or at least relatively so), fishes and reptiles have been around for ages and are still thriving to date. In the end, we evolved from a fishy ancestor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question then becomes a more subtle one, as emotions may have given us &lt;em&gt;evolutionary advantage&lt;/em&gt; over other speciesm but it is not obligatory for survival. Disregarding the fact whether we are better or worse than other species of animal, we do dominate the world, for the better or for the worse. I think emotions have aided us in this domination and have given us an advantage. We tend to care for others even if we don't see them anymore (emigrated working class folks that keep on sending money back home), or even when we don't know them (we donate money to other people in foreign countries out of empathy). Emotions makes us protect our kids (don't make mummy angry or it will spawn the lioness) which makes the parents more evolutionary &quot;fit&quot;. Hence, emotions are not obligatory for survival, but they do give an evolutionary advantage.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.accordinstitute.org/2010_6_1_gross_conception_of_anatomical_structure.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ye-Tao et al. &lt;em&gt;J Accord Int Med&lt;/em&gt;;&lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;:43-58&lt;/a&gt; (only for the image).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-03-29T23:45:57.717" LastActivityDate="2015-03-29T23:45:57.717" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9649" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9286" CreationDate="2015-03-29T14:01:49.847" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't tell you the exact underlying mechanism unfortunately. I can analyze the illusion so as to approximate an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can see that the effect is virtually absent when the white squares on the two rows are nearly similarly sized (rook - pawn). The effect is biggest when the white surfaces are most unequal (king - pawn). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, to me, the white fields seem to be bigger than the black ones, not so much the reverse. I think it is the illusion of the remainder of the black fields looking like they are offset and widening, which is most evident in pawn - bishop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in all, the white squares are central to the illusion, and the black fields are seemingly bordering the white fields. It now looks as if the black outlines are widened around the white squares. This may be related the fact that the white squares seem to be interpreted as squares and the black field (-remainders) as the borders of the white squares. In other words, the white fields are interpreted as squares, the black fields as borders.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, I think this illusion is to be sought higher up in the cortex, where visual images are interpreted as opposed to 'simple' retinal illusions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2015-03-29T14:01:49.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9286" CreationDate="2015-03-29T15:16:54.183" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is likely related to other illusions of relative size, such as the  Ebbinghaus (A) and Delboeuf (B) illusions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/35M4T.gif&quot; alt=&quot; Ebbinghaus (A) and Delboeuf (B) illusions (Mrucek et al. 2014)&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These illusions show that perception is not a 1:1 representation of retinal input. Instead it is a mental (re-)construction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As reviewed by Mrucek et al:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;an object's size is not inherently represented in the size of its projected retinal image. Rather, the perceived size of an object is constructed by integrating multiple sources of information including, but not limited to, retinal image size, physical and perceived distance (Berryhill, Fendrich, &amp;amp; Olson, 2009; Boring, 1940; Emmert, 1881; Ponzo, 1911), an object's geometrical and textural properties (Giora &amp;amp; Gori, 2010; Kundt, 1863; Lotze, 1852; Oppel, 1855; Helmholtz, 1867; Westheimer, 2008), knowledge of an object's typical size (Konkle &amp;amp; Oliva, 2012), and the &lt;strong&gt;relative size of different objects in a scene&lt;/strong&gt; (Coren &amp;amp; Girgus, 1978; Roberts, Harris, &amp;amp; Yates, 2005; Robinson, 1972).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A number of factors produce assimilation and contrast effects in size (as in your example), central variables seem to be the distance and the similarity of target and inducing stimuli (Roberts et al. 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is getting a little bit off topic, but Mruczek et al. (2014) show that dynamic visual aspects can feed into this illusion too. Also check out the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/nstv/2012/03/friday-illusion-star-trek-effect-beams-triple-trick.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;StarTrek illusion&lt;/a&gt; which also has a relative size component. Isn't that cool? The name alone...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These illusions may seem to be cute effects. However, they have important real world consequences. For example, Wansink and van Ittersum (2012; Ittersum &amp;amp; Wansink, 2013) investigated the effect of plate size on consumption. Imagine that the white circle in picture B is the plate and that the black cirle is your dessert. If you have a big plate you eat more, which is (also) related to the Delboeuf illusion. These illusions seem difficult to counteract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Even a 60-min, interactive, multimedia warning on the dangers of using&#xA;  large plates had seemingly no impact on 209 health conference attendees, who subsequently served nearly twice as much food when given a large buffet plate 2 hr later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could go on..., sorry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ittersum, K. V., &amp;amp; Wansink, B. (2012). Plate Size and Color Suggestibility: The Delboeuf Illusion’s Bias on Serving and Eating Behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(2), 215–228. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1086/662615&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1086/662615&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mruczek, R. E. B., Blair, C. D., &amp;amp; Caplovitz, G. P. (2014). Dynamic illusory size contrast: A relative-size illusion modulated by stimulus motion and eye movements. Journal of Vision, 14(3), 2. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1167/14.3.2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1167/14.3.2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roberts, B., Harris, M. G., &amp;amp; Yates, T. A. (2005). The roles of inducer size and distance in the Ebbinghaus illusion (Titchener circles). Perception, 34(7), 847–856.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wansink, B., &amp;amp; van Ittersum, K. (2013). Portion size me: Plate-size induced consumption norms and win-win solutions for reducing food intake and waste. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 19(4), 320–332. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1037/a0035053&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1037/a0035053&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-03-29T15:16:54.183" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9651" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9647" CreationDate="2015-03-29T18:59:31.077" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question becomes more complicated if we think in terms of &quot;emotions&quot; (e.g., angry, happy, sad, afraid, etc.) than in terms of &quot;affect&quot; (positive and negative feelings, high and low arousal).  I'll start with affect and move on to emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An affective state tags an object with a certain value--and it does so very quickly (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://riskoriented.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/emotion-rationality.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pham, 2007&lt;/a&gt;). For example, if a snake makes you feel bad, then it must be undesirable. This motivates a plan of action that could involve elimination of the snake (fight) or withdrawal from it (flight). You do not have to spend time considering the value of the snake (i.e., that it's bad and dangerous) and developing a plan of action to deal with it. Instead, your negative affect facilitates automatic evaluation and action, which might increase your evolutionary fitness. &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/1/1/39.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gerald Clore&lt;/a&gt; has suggested that negative affect serves a STOP function whereas positive affect serves a GO function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotions are a bit more complicated, in part because we don't have a consensual definition of them.  If emotions are merely socially shared concepts (happy, sad, angry) that we use to describe and organize our situated affective experiences (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/6/4/292.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Barrett, 2014&lt;/a&gt;), then we can say that &lt;em&gt;emotion concepts&lt;/em&gt; serve self-regulatory and social-communicative functions.  For example, by labeling as &lt;em&gt;anger&lt;/em&gt; my high arousal and negative affect in the context of having my autonomy violated, I've organized this multifaceted affective experience into a single concept (of anger). This enhances my capacity to develop ways to regulate my affective experience (&lt;a href=&quot;http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/24/1/10.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kashdan, Barrett, &amp;amp; McKnight, 2015&lt;/a&gt;) and it facilitates communication of it.  If I tell you that I am angry, then you'll have a general idea of what I'm feeling.  Self-regulation and social communication are certainly important for survival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotions are involved in lots of other things, e.g., facilitating cooperation (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/emo/10/2/289/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;DeSteno et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;), motivating the pursuit of new goals (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mdpi.com/2076-328X/3/3/459/htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bench &amp;amp; Lench, 2013&lt;/a&gt;), social bonding, deceptive behavior, cheating, and so on.  All of these can be adaptive in certain contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also important to note that emotions are flexible. For example, we don't have a &quot;fear module&quot; in the brain that motivates a rigid pattern of action (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://wagerlab.colorado.edu/files/papers/Lindquist_2012_BBS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lindquist et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;).  Instead, emotions (on one view) emerge from the interactions of more domain-general processes (including exteroceptive perception, language, interoception, conceptualization, executive attention, and core affect; Oosterwijk, Touroutoglou, &amp;amp; Lindquist, 2015).  These domain-general processes interact to produce emotional episodes with patterns of cognition, behavior, physiology, and experience that are flexible to the situation at hand (Barrett, 2015). The kind of flexibility and efficiency that you might expect from the &quot;reasoning part of the brain&quot; probably does not match up to the kind of flexibility that I just described.  Also, it's important to note that emotion and cognition are not separable constructs.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT:  As far as reason vs. emotion is concerned, emotion is a much more potent motivator.  If you consider seizure patients with lesions to the majority of their amygdalae (from lobectomies), they don't show fear.  If you put them in a dangerous situation, they won't run away--despite having their prefrontal areas intact. (Although an alternative non-emotional interpretation is that these patients have lost the ability to discern what is salient, e.g., threatening, in their environment.)  If you have a hobby that you &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt; enjoy, your motivation to continue doing it is largely emotional (&quot;It makes me happy&quot;).  As onigame implied in his/her answer, emotions motivate these kinds of decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, I think I've provided you a very incomplete view on the adaptiveness of emotions, but hopefully this clarifies some things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-03-30T17:59:42.377" LastActivityDate="2015-03-30T17:59:42.377" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9652" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9647" CreationDate="2015-03-29T20:04:38.720" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are emotions really necessary for survival?&lt;/strong&gt;  No, not for survival; lots of living things around us without even a brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Did emotions provide an evolutionary advantage in the past?&lt;/strong&gt;  The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system#Evolution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;areas of the brain&lt;/a&gt; we associate with emotion were around far back in our evolutionary past - long before conscious reasoning appeared.  Emotions are still an important part of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reasoned decision-making&lt;/a&gt; in humans, but for our early ancestors, they would have been crucial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are emotions now &quot;vestigial&quot; (relics of the past) holding us back from making decisions more effectively with reasoning alone?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory#Dual-process_accounts_of_reasoning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Unconscious decision-making&lt;/a&gt; is far faster, works in parallel, high capacity, and is remarkably effective, while rational decision-making is slow, sequential, low capacity, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_rationality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bounded in effectiveness&lt;/a&gt;.  So as it stands, removing emotion from decision-making would cripple us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;But given that we now have the capacity for rational thought, don't the disadvantages outweigh the advantages?&lt;/strong&gt;  Disadvantages of the emotional system include failing to use reasoning effectively at times when it is practical and better to do so, the effect of emotional (mood) disorders, and loss of self-control in emotionally intense situations.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evolutionary psychologists&lt;/a&gt; have long argued that systems that provided an evolutionary advantage in our past (such as 'stress') may no longer be as advantageous in modern society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related questions: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/546/is-decision-making-emotionally-based-with-rationalization-as-the-only-conscious&quot;&gt;Is Decision-Making Emotionally Based, with Rationalization as the only Conscious Component?&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/2047/do-feelings-have-a-purpose&quot;&gt;Do feelings have a purpose?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For completeness, I should mention that for a lay-person, the term 'emotion' may refer to a number of distinct terms in cognitive science.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#Cognitive_theories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Modern theories of emotion&lt;/a&gt; suggest that like many aspects of self-knowledge, emotion is &quot;inferred&quot; - rather than &quot;introspected&quot; - from a combination of physiological cues and other context information.  That is, emotion is a person's interpretation of their cognitive state, so the idea of 'removing' it is not well defined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;'&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feeling&lt;/a&gt;' is the phenomenological aspect of emotion - the actual conscious experience of it.  One might sometimes wish that we could make decisions based on emotional state without the experience of it...  For example, sometimes pain causes me to stop doing something that might injure me, but other times, I stop doing it but the pain persists, and it sure would be nice if that (apparently useless) pain stopped.  Hence the popularity of pain killers, anti-depressants, anti-anxiety, and other emotion-suppressing medication.  As cognitive scientists don't really understand conscious experience, it is not clear whether or not 'feeling' could ever be removed from 'emotion', allowing us to make effective decisions without unpleasant experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;'&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_expression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional expression&lt;/a&gt;' is the externally observable aspect of emotional state.  Emotions may play a significant role in all decision-making, but this isn't always apparent externally due to individual differences in expression.  The evolutionary advantage of emotional expression (or lack thereof / self-control) is largely social.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-06-07T17:51:14.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9653" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8714" CreationDate="2015-03-30T01:17:10.187" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer is YES, at least for rats, who do have chemosensors in their brain and alter their liking of salty foods and foods containing certain amino acids. See this question and question on Biology.SE:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/5328/do-humans-have-chemosensors-for-nutrients-or-chemicals&quot;&gt;Do humans have chemosensors for nutrients or chemicals?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/5090/do-omnivore-mammals-vary-food-preferences-based-on-dietary-needs&quot;&gt;Do omnivore mammals vary food preferences based on dietary needs?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2015-03-30T01:17:10.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9654" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9647" CreationDate="2015-03-30T01:57:56.217" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;It appears that there's been a lot of research done by USC professor Antonio Damasio on the importance of emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's some fascinating &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.smh.com.au/national/feeling-our-way-to-decision-20090227-8k8v.html&quot;&gt;case studies&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1wup_K2WN0I&quot;&gt;interviews&lt;/a&gt; that are worth reading and listening to, but the short summary, as I understand it, is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotions are important because they end up directing reason.  Without emotion, there are simply too many parts of any situation or decision for reason to know when to stop thinking and actually make a decision.  Have you even been in a position where you need to choose between two alternatives that seem equally good to you (for example, deciding which of two equally-qualified candidates to hire), and you spend what seems like an eternity weighing the pros and cons of each, coming up with new reasons and rationales, before reluctantly making a decision?  That's because you didn't have emotions pushing you one way or the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might think, wait, why wouldn't we be able to make decisions quickly without emotions?  You'd be able to -- people with impaired emotions have no problem making quick decisions &lt;em&gt;when directed to do so&lt;/em&gt;.  Without such direction, they have no reason to make decisions quickly because there's no emotion telling them that making decisions quickly is &quot;good&quot; -- in fact, there's nothing telling them that &lt;em&gt;anything&lt;/em&gt; is &quot;good&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's a highly-simplified summary of Dr. Damasio's findings.  I suggest reading more about his work if you are really interested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7969" LastActivityDate="2015-03-30T01:57:56.217" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9658" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9643" CreationDate="2015-03-31T00:21:04.797" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;See this &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3933/psychological-journal-that-focuses-on-publishing-interesting-psychological-datas&quot;&gt;previous question about journals that specialise in publishing psychological datasets&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/reproducible-research&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;reproducible-research&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;reproducible-research&lt;/a&gt; tag for some more specific examples. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.plosone.org/browse/psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PlosOne Psychology&lt;/a&gt; has recently increased its requirements to supply raw data. So recent psychological research in the journal is more likely to have data attached to the manuscript. I did a quick look and found a small but meaningful proportion had raw data attached.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, there are a range of journal policies around the requirement to make raw data available. There is a move towards greater access to raw data. So a good place to look is journals that have a greater requirement for data access. But even then, you typically still have to hunt around.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-03-31T00:21:04.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9659" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-31T01:13:59.550" Score="6" ViewCount="8480" Body="&lt;p&gt;(Aromantic means lacking romantic attraction to others.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What percent of people are aromantic? While the percentage of people who are asexual seems to be 1%, I couldn't find anything on what percent of people were aromantic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a follow-up question: Is there a correlation between aromanticism and sexual orientation. E.g., are asexual people more likely to be aromantic than heterosexual people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6191" LastActivityDate="2020-01-16T23:58:58.980" Title="How common are aromantics?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9660" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-31T06:50:59.637" Score="0" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it necessary to have a teacher (or mentor/coach) to master every skill? What if I am taking an online tutorial with pre-recorded videos? Can I count that teacher training?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read the concept of deliberate practice and 10,000 hours of practice being needed to become an expert. But my question is whether these 10,000 hours need to be (partially) guided to receive personal feedback and/or coaching, or whether self-learning is sufficient?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7985" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-03-31T12:39:00.570" LastActivityDate="2015-04-01T00:31:50.927" Title="Is teacher guidance always necessary to become an expert?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2015-04-04T20:36:53.950" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9661" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9666" CreationDate="2015-03-31T10:13:36.480" Score="2" ViewCount="513" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Disclaimer - My terminology might be wrong.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do some memorable experiences that are traumatic or tough, make the brain form some values. Is there a way to establish core values so strongly ourselves through any manual methods? (without needing to go through traumatic experiences)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7986" LastEditorUserId="7986" LastEditDate="2015-04-01T07:05:48.347" LastActivityDate="2015-04-01T07:05:48.347" Title="How do some traumatic experiences establish deep beliefs and ideas?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9662" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-31T11:30:18.810" Score="1" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to design an oddball paradigm to record event-related potential. Is it possible to design a visual and auditory oddball paradigm in &quot;Android&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7987" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-03-31T12:26:54.640" LastActivityDate="2015-03-31T12:26:54.640" Title="Is it possible to design a visual and auditory oddball paradigm in Android?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9663" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9660" CreationDate="2015-03-31T15:58:00.653" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll give you an example of a famous mathematician who developed his mathematical research in isolation. Arguably If someone manages to achieve a high level of skill in solitude for such an extraordinary difficult discipline as mathematics I would deny the need to have a teacher (in any case) to master a skill which is less difficult than be an expert in math. (Which is arguably any discipline). However as mentioned in the comments having some kind of feedback might be useful in mastering a skill faster. Additionally not every person is as gifted as was S. Ramanujan. Therefore I suggest it depends on your inborn intellectual abilities with regard to the skill you want to become an expert of. Therefore this question cannot be answered in general but only with respect to person X inborn intellectual qualities with regard to the skill person X wants to become an expert of.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srinivasa_Ramanujan&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srinivasa_Ramanujan&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastActivityDate="2015-03-31T15:58:00.653" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9664" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-03-31T16:29:10.973" Score="7" ViewCount="2512" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of anecdotes on frustration and anger inhibiting judgement and problem solving. Examples include &quot;anger clouding the mind&quot; in pop culture, or in programming, where a rule of thumb is to walk away from your computer when you're stuck on a problem for more than 20 minutes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know the physiological reason why the more frustrated or angry a person gets while trying to solve a problem, the less likely the problem gets solved? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7194" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-24T11:05:18.717" LastActivityDate="2016-06-24T11:05:18.717" Title="Why does anger &quot;cloud the mind&quot;?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9665" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9664" CreationDate="2015-03-31T20:20:08.510" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is a biological/chemical response. Once in a stressful situation, you're not supposed to act smart or able to solve a rubik cube, but punch whatever is getting you angry and/or getting the hell out of the place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The adrenaline, and other stuff, discharge are responsible for&#xA;increased blood pressure, heart rate and what-not &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/162035.php#what_is_anger&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Nordqvist, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anger is not just a mental state of mind. It triggers an increase in heart rate, blood pressure and levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline. Anger has survival benefits, and forms part of our fight or flight brain response to a perceived threat or harm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a human or animal decides to take action to stop or confront a threat, anger usually becomes the predominant feeling and takes over our behavior, cognition and physiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually, we do get more acute cognitive abilities... though &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Anger_how_it_affects_people&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;at the expense of others&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain shunts blood away from the gut and towards the muscles, in preparation for physical exertion. Heart rate, blood pressure and respiration increase, the body temperature rises and the skin perspires. The mind is sharpened and focused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Blood is shifted AWAY from the frontal cortex, responsible for nice thoughts &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drdavidhanscom.com/2014/11/anxiety-anger-and-adrenaline-3/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hanscom, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the real or perceived threat persists we feel or are trapped. This, of course, leads to frustration and anger, which causes adrenaline levels to really skyrocket. The result is that your blood supply is shifted largely to the skeletal muscles, which enables you to flee danger. Other effects include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Decreased blood flow to your brain – especially to the frontal cortex where most thinking occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/apl/96/5/1065.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spektor, Treister, et al (2011)&lt;/a&gt; states in their study that observing anger in others increases analytical problem solving whilst hindering creative problem solving (not really related):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies 1 and 2 supported two of our predictions: Observing&#xA;another person’s anger influenced observers’ thinking processes,&#xA;and the way anger is expressed shaped this effect. Observing anger&#xA;hindered the solving of creative problems and enhanced the solv-&#xA;ing of analytic problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7633" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-31T20:20:08.510" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9666" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9661" CreationDate="2015-03-31T20:53:55.573" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Childhood experiences have a greater impact than events later on. It is cognitive structure forming time, with a still strong biological background. Also, the child might see itself as vulnerable, thus willing to form bonds with any protective thing that might appear &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sidran.org/resources/for-survivors-and-loved-ones/what-is-psychological-trauma/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Giller, 1999)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chronic early trauma — starting when the individual’s personality is forming — shapes a child’s (and later adult’s) perceptions and beliefs about everything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Severe trauma can have a major impact on the course of life. Childhood trauma can cause the disruption of basic developmental tasks. The developmental tasks being learned at the time the trauma happens can help determine what the impact will be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Children can recover to leading normal lives after traumatic events, but not all of them. It gets worst if there are continuous traumatic events (Giller, 1999):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although most return to baseline functioning, a substantial minority of children develop severe acute or ongoing psychological symptoms (including PTSD symptoms) that bother them, interfere with their daily functioning, and warrant clinical attention. Some of these reactions can be quite severe and chronic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We go with defense mechanisms to protect ourselves. They might get repressed in our memories but never really fade-out. It is not consensual that it is OK to break down these defenses and make people revive those traumatic experiences. Thus, i do believe you are in a psychodynamic therapy or others. And no, it is not the only way to &amp;quot;reprogram&amp;quot; the brain. There is also cognitive , behavioral, and cognitive-behavioral therapy, which are problem focused, making you relearn the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/children-trauma-update.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;correct way to think/behave&lt;/a&gt; in problematic contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CBT for trauma includes: learning how to cope with anxiety and negative thoughts, managing anger, preparing for stress reactions, handling future trauma symptoms, addressing urges to 'self-soothe' with alcohol or drugs and communicating and relating effectively with people (National Centre for PTSD, 2008).&#xA;The CBT model when used with survivors of child abuse usually focuses on the 'here and now' rather than revisiting the trauma itself &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.asca.org.au/Health-Professionals/Practice/Trauma-Based-Approach.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Henderson, 2006)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) techniques have been shown to be effective in treating children and adolescents who have persistent trauma reactions. CBT has been demonstrated to reduce serious trauma reactions, such as PTSD, other anxiety and depressive symptoms, and behavioral problems. Most evidence-based, trauma-focused treatments include opportunities for the child to review the trauma in a safe, secure environment under the guidance of a specially trained mental health professional. CBT and other trauma-focused techniques can help children with cognitive distortions related to the trauma, such as self-blame, develop more adaptive understanding and perceptions of the trauma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd hint that in a context which triggers some childhood trauma (even if it is in a deep layered reasoning), it still keeps that memory being fed, forbidding its physical memory-disposal. Learning the correct reasoning will make these memories fade away eventually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7633" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-03-31T20:53:55.573" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9668" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10408" CreationDate="2015-03-31T23:31:56.690" Score="10" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that neurons higher in visual pathways can learn their receptive fields after birth, but what about the connections between bipolar cells and Amacarine cells which form center/surround on/off receptive fields? Are they learnt or genetic coded?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2648" LastActivityDate="2015-06-16T00:01:24.387" Title="Are the center surround receptive fields learnt or inherited?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9670" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9610" CreationDate="2015-04-01T05:34:58.360" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apologies in advance for the long answer.  I tried to narrow down the scope by focusing on only a single construct, and only a single aspect of validity, and it still turned out like an essay...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's take intelligence research as an example.  This work started with an intelligence concept – a fairly &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence&quot;&gt;vague and ambiguous&lt;/a&gt; idea about a personality trait that describes a person's cognitive abilities.  From this, a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_factor_%28psychometrics%29&quot;&gt;construct was hypothesized&lt;/a&gt;: A physical – but unobserved – mechanism that implements intelligence, called faculties (or g-factor).  The next step was to figure out how such faculties might be measured.  There was a desire to find simple tools to do this, and so a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient#History&quot;&gt;variety of IQ tests&lt;/a&gt; – mostly written, and some not – were developed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not clear in any sense that intelligence as a (folk) concept has any ontological basis.  Presumably the construct of cognitive faculties should have a physical basis, but in practice &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_and_intelligence#Specific_regions&quot;&gt;it doesn't appear to&lt;/a&gt;. And IQ tests do not have as their primary objective the measurement of such faculties anyway (although they may be useful indicators).  IQ tests were originally developed to predict academic performance, and test validity &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford%E2%80%93Binet_Intelligence_Scales#Stanford.E2.80.93Binet_Intelligence_Scale:_Fifth_Edition&quot;&gt;continues to be measured against that&lt;/a&gt;, which is &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1996-93318-001&quot;&gt;typical of psychometrics&lt;/a&gt; in general.  So in what sense (if any) are these terms related to one another?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a question of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_%28statistics%29&quot;&gt;validity&lt;/a&gt;, or more specifically, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construct_validity&quot;&gt;construct validity&lt;/a&gt;.  The relationship between concept, construct, and measurement, is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Item_response_theory#Analysis_of_model_fit&quot;&gt;dynamic and bi-directional&lt;/a&gt; one.  An often cited example for intelligence research is the case of the Brazilian street vendors.  In a classic &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1130503?sid=21105842513741&amp;amp;uid=70&amp;amp;uid=2&amp;amp;uid=3737720&amp;amp;uid=3739448&amp;amp;uid=2129&amp;amp;uid=4&quot;&gt;1988 study by Geoffrey Saxe&lt;/a&gt;, Brazilian street children who often work as candy vendors were compared with rural non-seller counterparts for mathematical abilities.  Though typically measuring lower in IQ, the street vendors matched and in some cases outperformed their rural counterparts on a variety of practical applications involving arithmetic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why the discrepancy?  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1175948?sid=21105842513741&amp;amp;uid=4&amp;amp;uid=2&amp;amp;uid=3739448&amp;amp;uid=70&amp;amp;uid=2129&amp;amp;uid=3737720&quot;&gt;It turns out&lt;/a&gt; that children with a formal education in math are good at solving mathematical problems framed in a formal manner.  Lacking a school education, street kids do not acquire these skills, and so do poorly on tests requiring them to identify and work with symbols such as numbers and operators.  However, working as street vendors, these children are very proficient at arithmetic involving currency, such as calculating costs and making change – without any aids.  So when presented with math problems framed as currency operations – such as: how much does it cost to buy 3 of this and 2 of that; or how much change do I get back from this bill – they perform better than educated children of the same age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar results were found by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nrdc.org.uk/anr_details.asp?ID=275&quot;&gt;Jean Lave (1988)&lt;/a&gt;: In her study, Berkeley housewives performed significantly better in mathematics framed as grocery shopping tasks - calculating discounts and coupons for example - than framed as typical classroom math problems.  In another study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1986-29074-001&quot;&gt;Ceci and Liker (1986)&lt;/a&gt; gambling experts were capable of complex mathematics in calculating handicaps in horse-racing, but yet had no difference in IQ than non-experts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What can we learn from this?  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence#Definitions&quot;&gt;Many different definitions&lt;/a&gt; of intelligence have been considered.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences&quot;&gt;One interpretation of these results&lt;/a&gt; is that intelligence is not just a general trait as implied by the single IQ number result, but is composed of a number of independent domain-specific intelligences, some of which are missed by the test.  A different interpretation is that an unbiased measure of general intelligence requires framing questions in a context familiar to each subject.  One thing that seems certain is that a general factor of intelligence that carries over to any domain appears less ontologically tenable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most evaluations of construct validity are domain-specific – they depend on what the theory being validated purports to describe, and as indicated, that too may change based on empirical findings.  Of course, changes may not be quick to materialize – the concept of intelligence, and intelligence testing, have both certainly co-evolved over the years, but the rate of change has not been commensurate with findings such as the above, and is often &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient#.22Intelligence:_Knowns_and_Unknowns.22&quot;&gt;skewed by political agenda&lt;/a&gt;.  So in the mean time, it is not unusual for researchers to pursue red herrings – cognitive concepts that eventually &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud#Psychosexual_development&quot;&gt;turn out to be ontologically untenable&lt;/a&gt;.  But this is hardly unique to cognitive science, and is a natural part of the scientific process of learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-04-01T05:34:58.360" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9671" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-01T15:59:46.933" Score="7" ViewCount="18068" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many people online seem to claim that: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When a group of people laugh, people will instinctively look at the person they feel closest to in that group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find the &lt;a href=&quot;http://thoughtcatalog.com/hok-leahcim/2014/04/31-psychological-life-hacks-that-you-can-exploit-to-give-yourself-an-advantage-in-social-settings/&quot;&gt;claim&lt;/a&gt; in &lt;strong&gt;31 Psychological Life Hacks That You Can Exploit To Give Yourself An Advantage In Social Settings&lt;/strong&gt; by thoughtcatalog.com.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thoughtcatalog.com wrote under the claim:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Read: &lt;strong&gt;wanna know who wants to bone who? Look at who they look at when everyone laughs.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems they were referring to a book, but I couldn't find it online.&#xA;The claim is also found by &lt;a href=&quot;http://distractify.com/people/psychological-life-hacks/&quot;&gt;distracity&lt;/a&gt; in a post showing psychological life hacks that'll make you more successful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The claim is widely and internationaly believed, a simple google query will show &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=When+a+group+of+people+laugh%2C+people+will+instinctively+look+at+the+person+they+feel+closest+to+in+that+group.&amp;amp;oq=When+a+group+of+people+laugh%2C+people+will+instinctively+look+at+the+person+they+feel+closest+to+in+that+group.&amp;amp;aqs=chrome..69i57.496j0j7&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;es_sm=119&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&quot;&gt;you&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it true? If so, I'm looking for a reference or some explanation for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7995" LastEditorUserId="7995" LastEditDate="2015-04-01T16:15:26.137" LastActivityDate="2018-12-04T05:25:20.933" Title="When a group of people laugh, people will instinctively look at the person they feel closest to in that group" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9672" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9686" CreationDate="2015-04-01T20:02:07.400" Score="3" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;A good friend of mine is a clinical psychologist. She has been in practice for more then 25 years and has provided psychological help to people for a variety of issues. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of her specialities is ADHD. She has created what cognitive psychologists call a &quot;process model&quot;  (ie flow chart model; see &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Psychology&lt;/em&gt; by Goldstein for definition) for how ADHD could work as well as solutions for how to correct it based on her expect experience with her patients. She thus helps people successfully adapt to having the disorder by training them using her model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All she has at the moment is a model, but she feels very confident publishing this model could help other since it has been successful in her clinical work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She is capable of organizing these ideas into arguments suitable for academic discourse and likely could also find peers to help edit her work. But she must find a journal that would be interested in publishing her model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I myself do not know much about publishing in psychology and am more familiar with biology and physics. However, from talking to my physicist friends, I have learned there are a lot of changes going on in how articles are published and correspondingly what opportunities are available. She has not considered publishing until recently (last few years) and is trying to get a better sense of what avenues would be appropriate / sensible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kind of journal might be suitable for my friend to attempt to submit to? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main purpose of this question is to (1) get more information about trends in how publishing works in psychology journals and (2) to get information specifically about what cognitive psychology journals (specifically those who accept process models) look for in accepting papers. Obviously, it will vary a lot but I just want some starting food for thought.  &lt;strong&gt;I am not primarily looking for advice but for general information.&lt;/strong&gt; Any advice is welcome however. I just provided this note in an attempt to ensure it is on topic and not too broad so its useful for others too. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastEditorUserId="7654" LastEditDate="2015-04-01T20:11:14.087" LastActivityDate="2015-04-03T16:04:32.980" Title="What kind of cognitive psych journals are receptive to clinicians without any publications?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5945" CreationDate="2015-04-02T12:01:02.720" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps you are looking for &lt;strong&gt;blunted affect&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reduced_affect_display&amp;amp;oldid=681843717&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's definition goes like this&lt;/a&gt; (article has been updated since):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Blunted affect&lt;/strong&gt; is a clinical term to define a lack of emotional reactivity&#xA;  (affect display) in an individual. It manifests as a failure to&#xA;  express feelings either verbally or non-verbally, especially when&#xA;  talking about issues that would normally be expected to engage the&#xA;  emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8002" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-04-07T16:35:06.133" LastActivityDate="2016-04-07T16:35:06.133" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9679" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-02T14:56:20.393" Score="2" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was consulting a friend of mine while building a cognitive model for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task and he mentioned that it's important to note that people respond differently to to positive feedback and negative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What evidence is there that cognitively people take negative feedback into account differently than positive feedback in cognitive tasks? The only paper I've found so far is &lt;a href=&quot;https://labs.psych.ucsb.edu/ashby/gregory/Ashby_OBrien_P%26P.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this one on categorization&lt;/a&gt; and when I try searching for it, I only see business and organisation scale investigations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-04-02T14:56:20.393" Title="Evidence for different learning applied to negative and positive feedback" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-06T22:45:09.383" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9680" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3982" CreationDate="2015-04-02T15:50:01.970" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A relatively new site for subject recruitment online is &lt;a href=&quot;https://prolificacademic.co.uk/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Prolific Academic&lt;/a&gt;. It is a Mechanical Turk competitor targeted at the academic market. It offers some features that mturk doesn't that may be useful for researchers, such as more in depth pre-screening and demographics information. A potential negative of the site is that they currently require a minimum payment rate of $7.50/hour, which is more expensive than the typical Turk rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-04-02T15:50:01.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9682" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-02T22:08:01.973" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the study of performance...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One approach to standardizing sales data across different regions of the country may be to adjust for the relative wealth/purchasing power of the clientele in a given region. For example selling 50k USD merch in Lubbock, TX is more impressive performance than selling 50k USD merch in Beverly Hills, CA. Although it is possible to use the cases in your sample to build your region-standardized variables, these sample-based estimates can be incredibly biased and in fact could penalize truly high-performing regions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of a resource? data table? method? that could provide estimates of how dollars equate across major regions of the country... Maybe by zipcode?&#xA;Maybe this is related to cost of living or median income of region? any ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more valid, transparent and defensible the estimates (e.g., govt resource), the better. -Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8006" LastActivityDate="2015-04-02T22:08:01.973" Title="Standardizing sales data with dollar market data within USA" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2015-04-08T07:49:17.643" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9683" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5151" CreationDate="2015-04-02T22:27:44.553" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You have seen that one answer is to the question what do they measure (personality traits). The second answer to the question why (because empirical research repeatedly demonstrates that various personality traits can predict various types of job behaviors: mainly performance, deviance, helping, and innovativeness).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the burning question...how can I fake out these questions to get the job?&#xA;A: it is unlikely that you can. Some people may tell you to try and guess the correct answer and then to maximize that response (in a forced-choice just guess the right answer). In some old school selection models, this actually makes sense. However, this assumes you know what personality-type the employer is looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The challenge is that modern assessment vendors have a variety of response pattern detectors that are triggered when it looks like someone is trying to guess correctly and max out.  These may be actual items that only fakers will pick, like &quot;Everyone likes me&quot; (these are what Christian was talking about), or other more sophisticated detection methods; I work for companies like this, so can't disclose the cooler detection methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hardest thing for the faker is that ultimately you need to know which personality traits are most important and at which level (high,med,low). There is a movement called &quot;evidence-based management&quot; that relies heavily on data and statistical inference in order to justify certain business practices. One such practice is how to weight the personality traits in your assessment battery for employee selection. These weightings are based on statistical models that are proprietary (both the data sources and modeling techniques), may or may not be sample-dependent, and are guaranteed to need revision over the course of a couple of years. This is because employment tests have at best a couple of years of predictive shelf-life. Trying to guess this is like trying to guess the elements of your credit score; well, probably harder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8006" LastActivityDate="2015-04-02T22:27:44.553" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9684" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6312" CreationDate="2015-04-02T23:03:07.870" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Theoretical integration is unknown to me, and i suspect that many I/Os have not yet heard of scrum and agile. These are relatively new even in their native industry(software).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If i had to write my comprehensive exam paper on it, I'd pitch you two models. First, an oldie but a goldie, the Job Characteristics model (Hackman and Oldham). This model has identified reliable job environment features that tend to drive engagement. You could map these features onto some of the features of an agile environment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Skill variety (agile can offer that);&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Task identity (if they let you see through your project, and the execs don't override creative control, this may be available in&#xA;agile)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Task significance (this is probably independent of agile; may or may not get this)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Autonomy (agile can really offer this for the development team; this is probably the number one reason agile may be effective because it&#xA;separates the development team from the command and control of&#xA;management that is typical of waterfall methodologies)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Feedback (i think this is one of the goals of agile is more quick and dirty feedback on your prototypes; anyway feedback motivates people)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second pitch I would make is a social psychological/sociological theory referred to as social exchange theory (e.g., Blau). The core of this theory is that people develop certain quality relationships with others they exchange with. The way this exchange occurs and how frequently can affect relationship quality. There may be two really general types of relationships: economic and social. Economic exchanges are highly equal, visible, short-term and focused on the thing being exchanged (this characterizes a lot of employee-employer relationships). Social exchanges are less concerned with the urgency and equality of transactions, and are more concerned with longevity, empathy and belonging in the relationship (many organizations try to create this with culture; people want this because it can cause employees to give effort selflessly).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Agile may in some cases appeal to this social exchange type of relationship. A lot of effort, creativity, and risk is exchanged and tolerated among teammates without any immediate monetary reward or sometimes without much awareness from management. Due to the frequency of exchanges with team members in agile methodology, perhaps the relationship development process is accelerated. This would yield more committed and engaged team members, at least when they're working within those teams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oh, and the goal setting theorists will insist that it boils down to frequently setting challenging, specific and committed to goals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8006" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-02T23:03:07.870" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9686" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9672" CreationDate="2015-04-03T03:31:54.330" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;(note: quotes are from useful comments on the question)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;I think clinical psychology journals would be her best option either way. Without new data, comments from others about reviewing existing models and data are even more critical. Unfairly, scientists often don't like new theories or models being proposed by people without a scientific track record, so I would recommend a journal with double-blind review, so her ideas can be evaluated on their merits and not on her name recognition.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9672/what-kind-of-cognitive-psych-journals-are-receptive-to-clinicians-without-any-pu?noredirect=1#comment18663_9672&quot;&gt;-- DanM&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to a paper on ADHD in particular, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;One can generally advance a new model based on a review of the literature. In her manuscript, she might (1) review the relevant ADHD literature, (2) review relevant ADHD models, and (3) propose a new model that is based on (1) and overcomes limitations of the models in (2). She can also suggest how the model might be employed in clinical practice, and use anecdotal evidence mixed with scientific evidence from the literature to back this up. Without some kind of clinical trial(s) (as an evidence base), it's difficult to talk about the efficacy/effectiveness of her therapy.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9672/what-kind-of-cognitive-psych-journals-are-receptive-to-clinicians-without-any-pu?noredirect=1#comment18646_9672&quot;&gt;-- mrt&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If she writes the kind of article requiring evidence, then her evidence should be something along the lines of this: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Regarding evidence base: a key issue is whether she will be reporting the results of systematic data collection or anectodal observations. If she has consistent clinical notes, she could do a systematic retroactive data analysis (as in systematic chart reviews in medical research). More generally, clinical psychology journals (esp. those focusing on pediatric or developmental psychopathology or neuropsychology) will probably be more receptive to this kind of work than cognitive psychology journals.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9672/what-kind-of-cognitive-psych-journals-are-receptive-to-clinicians-without-any-pu?noredirect=1#comment18655_9672&quot;&gt;-- DanM&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-04-03T16:04:32.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9688" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9699" CreationDate="2015-04-03T16:41:51.707" Score="3" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are plenty of people who feel sad, sometimes even depressed when it rains or storms. This effect is often featured in writing and song, where the weather is often a sign of something sinister (&quot;It was a dark and stormy night&quot; is a very cliche beginning for darker stories). I'm curious as to why that is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do understand that there are certain activities that can't be done when it rains, but there are &quot;rainy day activities&quot; that take their place. What is it about the weather that makes people feel &quot;down&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7156" LastActivityDate="2015-04-05T19:59:41.557" Title="Why does weather often affect mood?" Tags="&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9689" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9693" CreationDate="2015-04-03T22:30:23.910" Score="1" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;Through this question: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9672/what-kind-of-cognitive-psych-journals-are-receptive-to-clinicians-without-any-pu&quot;&gt;What kind of cognitive psych journals are receptive to clinicians without any publications?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found out that a colleague of mine should submit a paper she is writing to a clinical psychology journal that uses a double-blind review process. For those who don't know, that means the reviewers don't know who wrote the article and vice versa. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I failed to find any such journal through googling. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My Question:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone happen to know of such a journal? I am looking for one that might accept an article (of a colleague of mine) written on ADHD, a learning disability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If no such journal exists, what is the closest substitute that still uses a double-blind review process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I mentioned in the previous question, my colleague has developed a process model of the disorder based on 25+ years of clinical practice. She has used her model for several years now and is looking to publish her it to help others better understand the disease. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-04-06T03:26:20.133" Title="Does anyone know of any clinical psychology journals that use a double-blind review process?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9690" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9691" CreationDate="2015-04-03T23:24:55.843" Score="3" ViewCount="12977" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to my textbook &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Psychology&lt;/em&gt; by E. Bruce Goldstein,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a &lt;em&gt;double dissociation&lt;/em&gt; occurs if damage to one area of the brain causes a function A to be absent while function B is present, and damage to another area causes function B to be absent while function A is present. To demonstrate a double dissociation, it is necessary to find two people with brain damage that satisfy the above conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't understand how this is any different from merely having a control group and experimental group. Suppose I take a group of people who destroyed hippocampuses and observe they cannot store episodic memories. I then take a group of people who have hippocampus and observe they can store episodic memories. This tells me the function of the hippocampus must be in part to store episodic memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does a double dissociation yield information any different from this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastActivityDate="2015-07-03T15:17:35.680" Title="What is the difference between &quot;double dissociation&quot; and simply having control and experimental groups?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9691" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9690" CreationDate="2015-04-04T01:50:03.247" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In brain damage/lesion studies, a double dissociation gives evidence that function A and B are, to some degree, implemented in different regions of the brain. In general, a double dissociation shows evidence that A and B are independent of each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a different kind of claim than saying that function A is implemented in brain region X. For this kind of claim, performing an experiment that lesioned (removed) a brain region in some subjects but not others (obviously not an ethical experiment, but let's ignore that) would be a reasonable way to test the claim. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this kind of experiment wouldn't be able to provide evidence that functions A and B are implemented in independent regions. To illustrate why, let's consider the possible outcomes of the experiment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Functions A and B both remain in tact&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;Functions A and B are both disrupted&lt;/strong&gt;. Clearly this outcome doesn't provide any evidence that A and B are implemented in different regions, since both functions are affected equally by the lesion.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Only function A is disrupted, function B remains in tact&lt;/strong&gt;. The most that this outcome shows is that region X (the lesioned area) is crucial for function A but not B. However, what is doesn't show is that function A is independent of function B. It could be the case that function A can be disrupted without disrupting function B, but that any disruption of function B will disrupt function A. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-04-04T01:50:03.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9692" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-04T06:07:19.130" Score="3" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apologies for not knowing the nomenclature; I'll try to describe what I mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The optimal strategies for some imperfect information games involve purposefully doing badly in some cases, so that bluffs are more effective in other cases. You purposefully lose more in some lower margin subtrees, to create confusion in some higher margin subtrees and win more there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if poker has this counterfactual property or not. We're talking about something a bit more twisted than just bluffing or hussling. I wrote &lt;a href=&quot;http://strilanc.com/game-theory/2014/06/17/Counterintuitive-Counterfactual-Strategies.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a blog post&lt;/a&gt; describing an example game with this counterfactual property, if that helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I find this counterfactual property counter-intuitive. Intuitively I would have guessed that you should always try to do your best in every case. This intuition gets stronger (and wronger) when I think of it in terms of things that matter a lot (imagine trying to explain to someone that you're purposefully losing a war so that you could counterfactually win it more often in alternate histories! They'd arrest you on the spot!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has this particular possible disconnect between intuition and optimal play been investigated? Have there been studies checking if humans have difficulty following optimal strategies that involve losing for counterfactual gain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8018" LastActivityDate="2015-04-04T06:07:19.130" Title="Studies on games where optimal play involves losing for counterfactual gain" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9693" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9689" CreationDate="2015-04-04T10:02:46.283" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;My impression is that many (perhaps most) psychology journals do double-blind review (or at least give you the option). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology is one example.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/ccp/?tab=4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/ccp/?tab=4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This journal uses a masked reviewing system for all submissions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It sounds like that (a) you are not aware of what clinical psychology journals exist in your area; and (b) how to determine whether they require or allow for masked review. I'll discuss each of these points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Finding a relevant clinical psychology journal:&lt;/strong&gt; If you are writing a journal article, you will need to perform a review of the literature. Identify journals from those that you cite in your references. There are also various lists of journals organised by topic (e.g., Science Citation Index) that often give an indication of journal prestige. If you are interested in clinical psychology, then you may also want to check out &quot;psychiatry&quot; journals as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Determining review policy.&lt;/strong&gt; Every journal has a website, and a section of the website will include instructions to authors. Here you will typically find information about the reviewing process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-06T03:26:20.133" LastActivityDate="2015-04-06T03:26:20.133" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9694" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8601" CreationDate="2015-04-04T17:50:23.897" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) is a unique skills training that consists of four modules: core mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotion regulation, and interpersonal effectiveness.  Originally, this set of therapeutic skills were developed as treatment for the extremely unmanageable Borderline Personality Disorder.  However, after immense success, the treatment group expanded vastly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The modules were carefully and specifically designed to help individuals manage their behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. Each module includes a number of 'little things' intended to assist the afflicted in their area of need. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the core mindfulness module teaches individuals to (with practice) slow their thoughts, bring themselves into the present moment, how to regain control of their thoughts by training the mind to focus on only one thing--on the one moment.  This particular training is typically introduced in the form of deep breathing exercises where the focus of the exercise is to think of only the breath entering and leaving the lungs/body.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other modules offer similar skillful training techniques specific to both the individual as well as the given module.  I imagine that you will find the answers you seek by delving into the curriculum, techniques, and purposes that lay just beneath the surface of the DBT modules.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8020" LastActivityDate="2015-04-04T17:50:23.897" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9695" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-04T22:28:49.797" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there differences between psychological and physical attributes that could justify the lack of these periodic tests in psychology? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8024" LastEditorUserId="8024" LastEditDate="2015-04-05T00:55:03.927" LastActivityDate="2015-04-05T03:01:24.247" Title="Should psychological checks be as frequent as physical checks to evaluate a patient's condition?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-04-05T13:08:18.897" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9696" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-05T02:14:35.530" Score="6" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’ve taken this exam as a requirement for a job.  Unfortunately, I forgot what the exam was called. All I can remember is that the exam has 100 items grouped into five or four. Each group of five or four questions contains numerical, logical, and vocabulary questions. The questions look something like this: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Something that you use when raining&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;U&lt;/strong&gt;,  S,  G,  C,  M   (Umbrella)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A small explosive thrown by hand&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;G&lt;/strong&gt;,  C,  W,  J,  Z    (Grenade)     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An apple costs $2.50.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;If you have 10,how many can you buy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;,  5,  6,  4.5,  5.5  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Complete the series: 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, ?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;22&lt;/strong&gt;,  21,  20,  23,  24&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8025" LastActivityDate="2015-04-08T07:58:51.313" Title="What kind of Psychometric test is this" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9697" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9695" CreationDate="2015-04-05T03:01:24.247" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;ABSOLUTELY! The physical and mental are often connected. Take, for instance, the Thyriod. If the thyroid is physically unhealthy then it can cause mental disturbances. It can cause a slew of psychological manifestations for someone. When preceived by a psychological professional, they treat the symtoms they interpret and preceive from their paradigm they treat their patient with psychological techniques and medications. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen this first hand where someone can exhibit pyschological disturbances and are incorrectly diagnosed because the psychological professional does not test their physical state. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8026" LastActivityDate="2015-04-05T03:01:24.247" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9699" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9688" CreationDate="2015-04-05T19:59:41.557" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is that we don't really know (for non-clinical populations). The relationship between weather and mood isn't straightforward, and the impact of weather on mood may be very small (on average). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been some great experience-sampling studies that have looked at this. For example, in a sample of 1233, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/emo/8/5/662/&quot;&gt;Denissen, Butalid, Penke, and van Aken (2008)&lt;/a&gt; found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Daily weather had no significant effects on positive affect&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Higher temperature was associated with higher negative affect&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lower wind power and lower sunlight were associated with higher negative affect&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lower sunlight was associated with greater tiredness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Being outdoors moderated the impact of some weather variables on affect&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The impact of weather on mood varied significantly across individuals&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The overall effect of weather on mood was very small&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.ut.ee/~jyri/en/K%F6%F6ts-Realo-Allik_JIndDiff2011.pdf&quot;&gt;Kööts, Realo, and Allik (2011)&lt;/a&gt; found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Higher temperature was associated with increased positive and negative affect&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;More sunlight was associated with increased positive affect (but not with negative affect)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Temperature and luminance were inversely related to feelings of fatigue&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Being outdoors interacted with weather variables to predict negative and positive affect&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuroticism may account for some individuals' greater reactivity to weather&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/16/9/724.full&quot;&gt;Keller et al. (2005)&lt;/a&gt; found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The interaction between more time spent outdoors and higher temperature and barometric pressure predicted greater positive affect. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interestingly: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Among participants who spent more than 30 min outside, higher temperature and pressure were associated with higher moods, but among those who spent 30 min or less outside, this relationship was reversed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Conclusion&lt;/strong&gt;: As stated, the effects of weather on mood aren't linear. Sunlight can boost serotonin levels, which may explain why &lt;em&gt;spending time outdoors&lt;/em&gt; improves mood (even when controlling for physical activity). This is corroborated by studies using light therapy for SAD or other forms of depression. And more obviously, we feel fatigued/tired as sunlight lessens. But overall, these effects aren't very big, and they vary quite a bit across individuals (indicating the effects of moderating variables like neuroticism).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-04-05T19:59:41.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9702" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9707" CreationDate="2015-04-06T10:02:57.963" Score="2" ViewCount="142" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in the  situation where two parties (people or organisations) differ in their commitment to exert power where party has more commitment to exert power than the other. The two parties have a dispute on some matter. The strong party builds an argument upon an erroneous point and with great rigour proceeds with some logical conclusions. The strong party is gladly involved in philosophical dispute concerning the validity of all links, but first. The initial point is sold as an axiom. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is twofold:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;does this situation have name?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the best strategy to deal with this situation for a weak party?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8036" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-07T01:33:52.480" LastActivityDate="2015-04-07T19:26:30.773" Title="What is the situation called where a strong party uses logical reasoning based on a flawed foundation?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9703" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1773" CreationDate="2015-04-06T14:58:29.293" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The R package diffIRT (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dylanmolenaar.nl/jss1265.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.dylanmolenaar.nl/jss1265.pdf&lt;/a&gt;) estimates both the Q and the D diffusion models (see his website for the van der Maas et al. paper discussing the differences between these models). R code for the EZ2 approach, which is much faster if that is important for your applications, is &lt;a href=&quot;http://raoul.socsci.uva.nl/EZ2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://raoul.socsci.uva.nl/EZ2/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8038" LastActivityDate="2015-04-06T14:58:29.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9705" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15679" CreationDate="2015-04-07T16:36:11.230" Score="4" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;After doing a bit of research, I'm somewhat convinced that Hamming networks are networks that classify, but only put out a single result, as opposed to other networks which output multiple results. In this case, is the equivalent in terms of the NEF a classifier (measuring similarity with a dot product between two vectors) followed by an associative memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-08-12T14:29:48.300" LastActivityDate="2016-08-12T15:27:15.270" Title="What is the equivalent of a Hamming network in the NEF?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9706" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4808" CreationDate="2015-04-07T18:27:32.540" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Haha, I don't think you realized how many topics you touched with this question. Let me see if I can answer the most important of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Love is a bad word to use when describing behaviour, because it means different things for pretty much every person. So let's talk affection. Al mammals have the capacity for affection, and it drives them to want to be close to the object of affection, and to care for it, through several emotional mechanisms. Affection is not linked to sexual attraction. Before your sexual desire kicks in, you can develop strong affection for a person. You may rationalize that affection and love, and believe you need to establish a couple relationship with said person, but before sexual desire kicks in, this doesn't involve sexual desire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can of course develop sexual desire for a person that is object of your affection. And since people tend to be around their objects of affection a lot, it would be very common for people to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, while people certainly learn how to behave when children, including the social norms for social interactions and what is expected of them, you do learn how to behave around and towards the objects of your affection and towards the objects of your sexual desire as a child, and the main influence is the main object of your affection. For your average child that will be their parents. Childhood friends may influence you, but never nearly as much as the child's parents. How you &quot;love&quot; then is mostly determined by how the child saw the parents treat each other and how the parents treated the child, and secondarily by how the parents told the child to &quot;love&quot; or relate to others. Anything else is a minor influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, how should you behave towards an object of affection (the childhood person for example) is contextual, and depending on how you learn this the relationship should be, you'll adapt to feel so it fulfils your expectations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: If a boy has a girl-best-friend, but in his family only people of the same gender can be friends, and when people of different gender are friends it is always implied that they are a couple or are becoming a couple, it is likely the boy will develop romantic feelings for his girl-friend. But if the boy understands that friendship with girls is as valid as friendship with another boy, it isn't so likely that will happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This all contingent, of course. It may or may not be. But the environment and development makes it very much likely for it to go one way or another. When you take into account affection + sexual desire pretty much define what a couple relationship is, chances are childhood friends of different genders (or same genders if they are gay) are likely to, at one point, be in love with each other, and how likely this is depends on what the children learn, how often they interact with each other under what contexts, etc. (let's not forget that proposed physiological mechanism that makes us not develop sexual attraction for people we've interacted a lot with since childhood, like our parents or siblings. This also factors in.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, this defines how you see your relationship with this object of affection throughout your life, and can also increase attachment. Attachment creates possessiveness, and this is further modified by what the child learned within his family (Possessive parents teach children to be possessive with their partners or want-to-be-partners, and children are likely to accept this teaching). The more attachment, the more it will hurt when the person is not &quot;yours&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's yet another factor though: Idealization. Remember always that the brain has a hard time making a difference between what really happens and what we are just imagining. Interaction, samples of affection, etc. increase attachment and also keep it alive. So if you fall in love with X during your teen years, but continue having fantasies about being in a relationship with X for several years, even if you don't see X during that time, the attachment will remain and may even increase. This is, again, modified by what you learned as a child and pretty much all other life experiences related to affection (How much you need affection at the moment, how much you think you are worthy of affection, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Isn't such a heart-breaking experience, that can prevent our mind from trying to build new relationships?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depends on a lot of things. If the attachment to said person is very high and you've not generated attachment to anyone else, it might. If you don't believe you are worthy of love/affection, and thus don't feel it from anyone else but that person, and your mind decides that once loosing this person the most cost-effective course of action is to &quot;give up&quot;, it probably will. There are many specific scenarios like this, it's all very contingent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But not always. You can form attachments to different people, and if you don't re-live the interactions that generated the affection with X, then it will become weaker over time. In the meantime you can, through interaction, form attachment with Y, effectively replacing the object-of-affection. The affection to X might remain, but not as strongly, or not in the same context as before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now- when the person loses X, does it look for something similar to X? I don't think so, but I can see how it might look like it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You chose X for a reason, his/her psychological characteristics &quot;fit&quot; with yours in a way that it allows you to satisfy your needs for affection through X. The mind will look for another entity that can satisfy the same needs, and it identifies it through certain traits, X had this traits originally, since that's why your mind selected him/her as a &quot;viable candidate&quot;, so the next person, Y, must have similar traits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But you don't choose Y because it resembles X. You chose Y for the same reason you chose X- because they both fit the traits that you need to satisfy your needs, according to your mental structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whew. Hope that does it :D&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8043" LastActivityDate="2015-04-07T18:27:32.540" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9707" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9702" CreationDate="2015-04-07T19:26:30.773" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A partial solution:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the logical fallacy (unrelated to &quot;strong&quot; and &quot;weak&quot; parties), you seem to be describing a &quot;Fallacy of Presumption,&quot; where one makes an argument based off of a false/questionable/undefended presumption. There are several more specific cases of this type of fallacy. A website that describes a few is listed below (found via a Google search).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e06b.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e06b.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastActivityDate="2015-04-07T19:26:30.773" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9708" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9696" CreationDate="2015-04-08T07:58:51.313" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Intelligence&lt;/a&gt; test which was not well designed based off Spearmen's work. Performance evaluations like this can lead to promotion if you score well. If you find a correlation exists in the organization I suggest you take multiple intelligence tests multiple times to learn the testing methods of questions to score better. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3832" LastActivityDate="2015-04-08T07:58:51.313" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9711" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-08T22:09:09.323" Score="2" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;My background is Computing Science and I want to research how people use concept maps? By doing some google search I found the following link&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.msu.edu/~luckie/ctools/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.msu.edu/~luckie/ctools/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I want to research is along the following lines of thought:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do people use concept maps?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What benefits (cognitive or other) do concept maps offer?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do concept maps help in making sense of data?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for existing research and theory around use of concept maps that is close to what I am thinking -- basically what research has already been done in the context of concept maps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I say &quot;concept map&quot;, I am also open to other diagramming techniques like mind map, argument map etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you suggest some publications that I can read to understand what has been researched in the field on concept maps?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6706" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-04-08T22:13:00.367" LastActivityDate="2015-04-08T22:13:00.367" Title="Theory about use of concept maps?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9712" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9306" CreationDate="2015-04-09T01:23:03.720" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you read between the lines of &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0063885&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Evaluation of a Short-Form of the Berg Card Sorting Test&lt;/a&gt;, you can find that indeed the only rules tested are the simple colour, number and shape matching. This can be identified by either looking at the source code attached to the paper or looking at the sample result table.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;http://mcst.es/pdfs/barcelo01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-04-26T20:51:54.820" LastActivityDate="2015-04-26T20:51:54.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9713" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9333" CreationDate="2015-04-09T01:31:54.910" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin_Card_Sorting_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;According to Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As predicted by the acquired brain injury literature, early PET&#xA;  studies have shown the task involves significant activation of the&#xA;  dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. However, more recent fMRI studies have&#xA;  shown that the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex together with the&#xA;  caudate nucleus may be the regions most important for the set-shifting&#xA;  process required in the WCST. These regions are also associated with&#xA;  working memory functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/089892900562174&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Andrew Amos&lt;/a&gt; preservative errors are due to frontal lobe dysfunction, while random errors are due to basal ganglia dysfunction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a glance, this does seem to make sense since the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has been associated previously with working memory and the caudate nucleus (as part of the basal ganglia) is known to be associated with switching between rewarding tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recently a series of lesion studies have been conducted with an analogous task with monkeys providing further insights into brain areas, with a summary of the most important summaries &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19574382&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-06-12T17:44:42.343" LastActivityDate="2015-06-12T17:44:42.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9714" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9718" CreationDate="2015-04-09T03:18:03.950" Score="3" ViewCount="990" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do you classify NASA TLX, ANOVA, Matched Pair T-Test, Self-Efficacy Scale, and System Usability Scale?&#xA;Are these types of data analysis considered quantitative or qualitative?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please answer whether each is quantitative or qualitative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below are a few webpages about these forms of data analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA-TLX&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NASA TLX&lt;/a&gt; (Wikipedia),&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_variance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ANOVA&lt;/a&gt; (Wikipedia),&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student%27s_t-test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Matched Pair t-Test&lt;/a&gt;  (Wikipedia),&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/%7Ehealth/engscal.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.usability.gov/how-to-and-tools/methods/system-usability-scale.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;System Usability Scale&lt;/a&gt; (Usability.gov).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that the NASA TLX, Self-Efficacy Scale, and System Usability Scale are &lt;strong&gt;qualitative&lt;/strong&gt;. While ANOVA and the Matched Pair T-Test are both &lt;strong&gt;quantitative&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I am wrong, please let me know what the correct answer is and why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7613" LastEditorUserId="13937" LastEditDate="2020-12-26T09:29:06.357" LastActivityDate="2020-12-26T09:29:06.357" Title="How to know whether a methodological technique is quantitative or qualitative?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9715" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10675" CreationDate="2015-04-09T08:44:13.943" Score="5" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading the Wikipedia pages on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;IO Psychology&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbeitspsychologie&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Arbeitspsychologie&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie_du_travail_et_des_organisations&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychologie du travail et des organisations&lt;/a&gt; you can see many differences on the topics and authors of the fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a first sight, this is strongly opinion-based, it looks like in France it is given more importance to suicides at work, while Germany studies a lot of workplace health promotion, while US is more focused on productivity. Is that correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the common and different things between theories in US, German and French, IO Psychologies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a textbook or an article that draws the comparison?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4909" LastEditorUserId="4909" LastEditDate="2015-04-09T14:51:30.557" LastActivityDate="2015-07-26T03:35:52.873" Title="Comparison between IO psychology, Arbeitspsychologie and Psychologie du travail et des organisations" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9716" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9714" CreationDate="2015-04-09T14:06:28.360" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;ANOVA and t-tests are statistical tests for significance and therefore quantitative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other mentioned items are scales (adding numbers to a certain choice) and therefore they can be considered as ordinal scales, and hence as quantitative as they are based on numbers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The NASA one can be administered by using a sliding scale which can be considered to be a continuous scale, allowing for parametric statistical testing. However, if divided in say 10 choices, it becomes an ordinal scale and non-parametric tests have to be used. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2015-04-09T14:06:28.360" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9717" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-09T14:37:13.277" Score="2" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been trawling through the literature and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task and I've yet to find any information regarding the timing of neuro-typical subjects vs. those who suffer from either brain damage or schizophrenia. Is this because the timing data across subject is irrelevant or nearly constant across subject? Alternatively, is this because the computerized version of the test has only recently been popularized?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-04-10T23:28:23.840" Title="Wisconsin Card Sorting task timing information" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9718" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9714" CreationDate="2015-04-10T09:15:59.550" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's important to distinguish between measures and analyses, because only analyses can be quantitative or qualitative, not measures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Measures are, essentially, systematic processes by which we acquire our data, and analyses are processes we use to look at the data. As a rule of thumb, the difference is not hard to find and is given in the name: quantitative analysis deals with numbers, and qualitative analysis doesn't. It looks more complex than it is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ANOVA and t-tests are both forms of statistical linear regression, for example. They 'concentrate' many standardized observations down to a manageable model we can easily deal with, like an extremely effective form of memory chunking. They're quantitative because they have to do with numbers. Analyses can be quantitative or qualitative, and you can easily tell them apart by whether the technique relies on numbers or judgment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You didn't actually give any examples of qualitative analysis in the question, but the prototypical example of qualitative analysis is the case study. For various reasons, it's sometimes necessary or just useful to conduct a study based on a single case (e.g., the memory patient HM). These studies can draw meaningful and very useful conclusions based on qualitative analyses like comparative studies, double dichotomy, etc., when we would never be able to reach a meaningful level of statistical power (e.g., because only one or very few patients is/are known to exist in the world).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Measures are neither quantitative or qualitative. Analytic techniques are quantitative or qualitative based on whether or not they work through numbers or human judgment. (Sorry about the formatting, I'm posting from a tablet and will clean it up later.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-10T09:15:59.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9721" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-11T01:10:14.613" Score="4" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see contradicting claims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=l9C0UMPBuNUC&amp;amp;lpg=PA177&amp;amp;ots=W0DnloxWfA&amp;amp;dq=robert%20epstein%20intelligence%20children&amp;amp;pg=PA184#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=robert%20epstein%20intelligence%20children&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This book&lt;/a&gt; shows working memory peaking in 20s, short term memory peaking out later (not doing badly until one's 40s), but this &lt;a href=&quot;http://joshuakhartshorne.org/papers/HartshorneGermine_inpress.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; shows STM peaking out earlier than working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="42" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-04-11T14:30:30.423" LastActivityDate="2015-04-11T14:30:30.423" Title="Does short-term memory decrease after working memory, or does it decrease before working memory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9722" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9721" CreationDate="2015-04-11T06:58:27.507" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It doesn't really make sense to talk about whether &quot;short-term memory&quot; or &quot;working memory&quot; decline first, so I think there is some confusion of terminology. It seems the reference comes from the second linked article, which colloquially suggests that 'short-term' face memory declines before working memory. In modern working memory research, the relationship between short-working-long term memory generally is as follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short-term memory:&lt;/strong&gt; A few seconds.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Working memory:&lt;/strong&gt; As long as consciously maintained.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long-term memory:&lt;/strong&gt; Permanent.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This ontology goes back to Baddeley and Hitch's work on the modal model of working memory from the 1970's, and has largely been maintained in subsequent item-based models (how most people think of human memory today).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short-term memory isn't used as a formal construct very often in memory research anymore because it's a rather vague term, though I think perception researchers still use the term when they don't want to tread too far into memory theory. Instead, it's simply used colloquially as any means of remembering something over short time scales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-11T06:58:27.507" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9723" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8661" CreationDate="2015-04-11T08:36:10.943" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know very little about fmri, but as @strongbad points out, surely it is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/statistics/staff/academic-research/nichols&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Professor Thomas Nichols at Warwick&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what the authoritative reference is, but Luo and Nichols (2003) might be worth a look. They state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We construct a histogram based on all non-tail data (10th to 90th percentile) and use the location of the minimum bin as the antimode estimate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luo, W. L., &amp;amp; Nichols, T. E. (2003). Diagnosis and exploration of massively univariate neuroimaging models. NeuroImage, 19(3), 1014-1032. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-personal.umich.edu/~nichols/Docs/fMRIvis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www-personal.umich.edu/~nichols/Docs/fMRIvis.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-04-11T08:36:10.943" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9724" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-11T14:47:28.550" Score="4" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;Xuan Choo recentely created a &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/choo.2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;model of serial working memory&lt;/a&gt; for &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/eliasmith.2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spaun&lt;/a&gt;. Does this model of working memory exhibit the effects of proactive interference (as well as changing data types yielding freedom from proactive interference)? Additionally, does this model show signs of exhaustive serial search (the time for answering questions increases as the list gets longer)? If not, what future areas of investigation might yield this result or is it impossible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Choo, F. X. (2010). The ordinal serial encoding model: serial memory in spiking neurons. &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/choo.2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/choo.2010.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eliasmith, C., Stewart, T. C., Choo, X., Bekolay, T., DeWolf, T., Tang, Y., &amp;amp; Rasmussen, D. (2012). A large-scale model of the functioning brain. science, 338(6111), 1202-1205. &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/eliasmith.2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/eliasmith.2012.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-13T13:20:13.090" LastActivityDate="2015-04-17T07:41:05.140" Title="Does Spaun's serial memory exhibit proactive interference and serial searching" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9725" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-11T15:00:29.927" Score="4" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;From various amnesia cases it has been shown that semantic and episodic memories reside in different parts of the brain. Are there any cognitive models that distinguish these two types of memories? If so, how do they go about doing it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-04-11T15:00:29.927" Title="Are there cognitive models that distinguish semantic and episodic memory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9726" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-11T15:12:39.070" Score="0" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;If the eyes image is upside down before brain processes it, then do that mean an alzeiheimers patient in end stage see images upside down at all time because of a deteriorating brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8067" LastActivityDate="2015-04-11T15:12:39.070" Title="image of eyes to brain" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-04-11T22:58:12.777" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9727" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5772" CreationDate="2015-04-11T15:51:15.533" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;My lab uses the Semantic Pointer Architecture (where vectors are used as pointers between different dimensions, for more information check out &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith) which is a Vector Symbolic Architecture (where sparse vectors represent symbols) to model working memory in a biologically plausible manner. So far this has been used in &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/eliasmith.2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spaun&lt;/a&gt; in it's model of serial memorization, as well as various other cognitive tasks such as the n-back task (soon to be published).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-04-11T15:51:15.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9728" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-11T16:53:23.983" Score="8" ViewCount="960" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been numerous studies that compare the moral judgment/sensitivity of adults and children (a good example is &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/05/26/cercor.bhr111.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; by Decety, Michalska and Kinzler, showing significant differences between the moral judgments of each group). However, I am curious if there exist any similar studies for older adults. For example, is there any significant difference between the moral sensitivity of adults over 60-70 and younger adults?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8069" LastEditorUserId="8069" LastEditDate="2015-04-13T14:54:03.840" LastActivityDate="2015-04-15T10:58:39.160" Title="How do moral judgments change for older adults?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9729" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9730" CreationDate="2015-04-12T06:26:52.963" Score="6" ViewCount="5827" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have looked at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;big 5 personality traits&lt;/a&gt;, and they include 5 basic factors: openness, extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and agreeableness. Why is empathy not on the list?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8072" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-02T17:08:41.877" LastActivityDate="2015-07-02T17:08:41.877" Title="Why is empathy not a part of the Big 5 personality traits?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9730" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9729" CreationDate="2015-04-12T08:23:16.563" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;The basic goal of research on the big 5 is to identify those dimensions of personality that can account for the &lt;strong&gt;most important&lt;/strong&gt; differences between people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do you determine what is important and &quot;makes the list&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt; The research from which the Big Five have been derived relies on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;lexical hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;. In a nutshell, the idea is that if a trait is important, it should be part of our language. So personality researchers such as Allport and Cattell have devised long lists of words existing in our lexicon used to describe the traits of people. Then they asked people to judge themselves with regard to these traits. Finally, they tried to identify underlying (common) dimensions in these trait descriptions by using statistical analyses (e.g. factor analyses). For example, if someone agrees to being a &quot;friendly&quot; person, he or she will probably also agree to being a person who &quot;cares about people&quot;. These analyses resulted in the 5 very broad dimensions of personality.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What about empathy?&lt;/strong&gt; Empathy is highly related to &lt;strong&gt;agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt;. In fact, if you look at personality questionnaires, the agreeableness scales are likely to tap into empathy: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For example, the NEO agreeableness subscale of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newNEOKey.htm#Agreeableness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Personality Item Pool&lt;/a&gt; includes items such as:&#xA;&quot;[I] Am concerned about others.&quot; or &quot;[I] Sympathize with others' feelings.&quot; which are essentially items measuring empathic concern.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unifr.ch/ztd/HTS/inftest/WEB-Informationssystem/en/4en001/d590668ef5a34f17908121d3edf2d1dc/hb.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEO-PI-R&lt;/a&gt; (Costa &amp;amp; Macrae, 1992) is one of the most widely used Big Five questionnaires (with 240 items it's a pretty large and comprehensive one). It describes agreeableness as &quot;the kinds of interactions an individual prefers from compassion to tough mindedness.&quot; It has two sub-scales that are related to empathy: &lt;em&gt;Altruism&lt;/em&gt; (&quot;active concern for the welfare of others&quot;) and &lt;em&gt;Tender-Mindedness&lt;/em&gt; (&quot;attitude of sympathy for others.&quot;). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes clear that from the perspective of the Big Five, empathy may be regarded as an element of agreeableness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In line with this, agreeableness predicts specific measures of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/3561&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;empathic concern&lt;/a&gt; and prosocial behavior such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17892333&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;helping&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of the above should not imply that it has no value to think about and measure empathy as a specific trait (rather than the general agreeableness factor). This is just about different research goals. The goal of the Big 5 is to be maximally parsimonious. Some detail will be lost by this strategy. However, if you are specifically interested in empathy, it may make more sense to focus on it at the cost of &lt;strong&gt;parsimony&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-04-13T12:40:09.320" LastActivityDate="2015-04-13T12:40:09.320" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9731" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9769" CreationDate="2015-04-11T22:27:41.480" Score="3" ViewCount="416" Body="&lt;p&gt;When engaging in physical work-outs, people often &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.extension.iastate.edu/humansciences/node/1225#high_carb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;research&lt;/a&gt; how regular muscles store energy, how to eat and exercise cleverly so that the exercises actually make them stronger and more healthy instead of making them constantly tired or even sick.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where can I find similar explanations, but for brain, that would explain and describe how brain, as an organ, gets exhausted and what is the proper/recommended discipline for using brain as an organ the most effectively? (e.g. how should study sessions get scheduled, what should be included into the diet, what activities should be possibly avoided,etc)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8073" OwnerDisplayName="Imfego" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-18T00:14:45.577" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T00:14:45.577" Title="How does the brain physically get tired?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9732" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-12T17:41:35.490" Score="9" ViewCount="2038" Body="&lt;p&gt;In his paper, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cas.uio.no/Publications/Seminar/Synergies_Magnussen.pdf&quot;&gt;'What do People believe about Memory?'&lt;/a&gt;, Professor Svein Magnussen of University of Oslo claims:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... memory science is not aware of any limitation on the amount of information the brain is able to store and retrieve. Most classical papers on the memory for large amounts of information suggest that human long-term memory is virtually limitless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please can you provide evidence that well-supports this claim?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8076" LastActivityDate="2015-04-16T11:56:36.963" Title="Evidence of 'virtually limitless' long-term memory" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9734" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-12T21:32:14.503" Score="6" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;If my understanding of expected utility theory is correct, &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it is rational for a decision maker to have subjective utilities for objective consequences.  For example, it can be rational for a decision maker to value 5 dollars twice as much as 4 dollars&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;however, it is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; rational for a decision maker to value a 100% chance of 5 dollars twice as much as an 80% chance of 5 dollars&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, probabilities must be &quot;outside&quot; of- not taken into account by- subjective utilities.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this understanding correct, and if so, why is the theory structured this way?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: My understanding is based on Hastie &amp;amp; Dawes (2010), &lt;em&gt;Rational Choice in an Uncertain World&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8079" LastActivityDate="2017-01-25T04:35:48.797" Title="Why can't subjective utilities take probabilities into account?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9736" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-13T04:46:01.503" Score="3" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4199269/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this short piece&lt;/a&gt;, physicist Dmitri Krioukov makes the case that we must expect complex systems (such as brains) to &lt;strong&gt;reduce to simple physical systems&lt;/strong&gt;. Furthermore, he cautions that the pure collection of increasingly-large quantities of data on the anatomy and physiology of brains can not be productive in itself; success can only proceed through forward inference from the &lt;strong&gt;appropriate theoretical models&lt;/strong&gt;. In fact, data-collection is only useful at this point insofar as it prompts the formulation of correct theory and the abandonment of the current paradigm, which he compares to the &lt;strong&gt;Ptolemaic model of the universe&lt;/strong&gt; prior to Copernican thinking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question then, is this: Assuming scientific brain theory must ultimately be continuous with philosophy of mind, is &lt;strong&gt;eliminativism&lt;/strong&gt; of &quot;mental&quot; states and content sufficient and/or necessary in order to instate the paradigm that will create the basis for &quot;reverse-engineering&quot; the brain? If not, why not? If so, then what must be eliminated and how would you go about it? What, if anything, must replace the old concepts in order to (begin to) give a thorough account of human behavior and biology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8083" LastActivityDate="2015-04-13T04:46:01.503" Title="Brain Theory and Paradigm" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9737" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9831" CreationDate="2015-04-13T13:10:37.240" Score="9" ViewCount="448" Body="&lt;p&gt;What conscious experiences lead a transgender person to identify with the opposite sex?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Physiology&lt;/em&gt; is clearly not determining.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sexual orientation&lt;/em&gt; is not determining (homosexuality).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Clothing&lt;/em&gt; preference is not determining (cross-dressing).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To put it more simply: how does someone know that they were born as the wrong gender?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8084" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-10-31T19:38:43.777" LastActivityDate="2020-07-13T15:37:33.170" Title="Conscious basis for gender identification" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9739" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9741" CreationDate="2015-04-13T15:16:50.583" Score="6" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am aware that the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) has been used multiple times to demonstrate &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1407748/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;differences in executive function control in schizophrenics&lt;/a&gt;, but what other mental illness sufferers have been demonstrated to have significant performance differences on the WCST?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-04-27T16:26:16.803" LastActivityDate="2015-04-29T18:19:24.570" Title="What mental illnesses cause different performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9741" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9739" CreationDate="2015-04-13T17:07:40.543" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The diseases and mental dysfunctions that have been studied are Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15260171&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ADHD&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2872109/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Substance Dependence&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/228108070_Cognitive_flexibility_in_autism_spectrum_disorder_Explaining_the_inconsistencies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autism&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://openi.nlm.nih.gov/detailedresult.php?img=2996259_fnhum-04-00219-a001&amp;amp;req=4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multiple Sclerosis&lt;/a&gt; and Schizophrenia (with and without tardive dyskenisia). I'll add more specific statistics (such as trials required to acquire first rule) and better references later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the meantime, during my search I found this really quick table:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kriuN.png&quot; alt=&quot;table_of_disorders&quot;&gt; from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/089892900562174&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; showing the amount of completed categories and preservative errors (when a person is ignoring that the rule has changed).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-04-29T18:19:24.570" LastActivityDate="2015-04-29T18:19:24.570" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9743" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-13T21:06:24.297" Score="6" ViewCount="202" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for references related to how researchers and laypeople understand concepts of statistical inference. In particular, I'm looking for articles in which subjects could demonstrate statistical competence by evaluating statistical claims. Does anyone have a relevant reference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-14T02:54:36.677" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T10:05:12.357" Title="Do researchers and laypeople understand statistics differently?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9744" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9743" CreationDate="2015-04-14T13:22:03.707" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Even among researchers there is widespread misunderstanding of core statistics ideas. Look at the work by Geoff Cumming. Example paper title: &lt;a href=&quot;http://irt.com.ne.kr/data/researchers%20misunderstand%20ci%20and%20error%20bars.pdf&quot;&gt;'Researchers misunderstand confidence intervals and standard error bars.'&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8076" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-04-14T13:24:03.883" LastActivityDate="2015-04-14T13:24:03.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9745" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9728" CreationDate="2015-04-15T10:58:39.160" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Moral Judgement:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_reasoning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... moral judgment ... is &quot;the ability to reason correctly about what&#xA;  'ought' to be done in a specific situation.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research on moral judgement was pioneered by &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget#Education:_Morality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jean Piaget&lt;/a&gt;, summarized in his book &quot;The Moral Judgment of the Child&quot; (1932), in which he implies that moral development levels off in adolescence.  Piaget introduced the standard &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;moral judgement task&lt;/a&gt; paradigm that is still often used today to assess moral development by asking subjects to make moral judgements on particular &lt;a href=&quot;http://alevelpsychology.co.uk/?q=piagets-theory-moral-development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stories or dilemmas&lt;/a&gt;.  In his research, peak performance on these tests was achieved around mid-adolescence, and he never bothered to test older subjects.  Interestingly, performance of older adults was only finally &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8921148&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;put to the test&lt;/a&gt; in 1996.  This study showed that (a) moral development does not peak in adolescence, as adults perform slightly better, and (b) older adults do not differ much in overall performance than younger adults, but the details are mixed - in some areas of morality they perform better and in others worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beginning in the 1960's, Piaget's work was extended by other researchers such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kohlberg&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Gilligan&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gilligan&lt;/a&gt; to include moral development throughout people's entire life-span.  This spurred much research on moral development in adulthood.  For example, a &lt;a href=&quot;http://philpapers.org/rec/ARMDTI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;study published in 1997&lt;/a&gt; summarizes the dubious state of the research at the time as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In sum, findings to date suggest three possible developmental paths of&#xA;  moral reasoning development in adulthood: (1) a plateau effect in&#xA;  adulthood; (2) ongoing development throughout adulthood; or (3)&#xA;  on-going development in earlier adult-hood with decline in later&#xA;  adulthood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results of that particular study are depicted in the image below:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aklct.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, it's not really that clear what happens in later adulthood, but it doesn't seem to be much different from early adulthood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Moral Sensitivity:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_reasoning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... moral sensitivity ... is &quot;the ability to see an ethical dilemma,&#xA;  including how our actions will affect others.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research on moral sensitivity is much more recent.  Even in his early works, Piaget was aware of this effect on moral judgement task performance.  In the original paradigm, very young children were asked questions like &quot;should a child who accidentally broke 15 cups while washing the dishes be punished more than a child who accidentally broke 1 cup while stealing a cookie&quot;.  Although the children were often aware that stealing a cookie is wrong and washing dishes is not, the large amount of damage caused would outweigh that due to its emotional impact on the child.  By around age 8 or 9 however, children understand that the amount of harm is not a relevant factor - only the intention is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, later research suggested that moral sensitivity is still correlated with emotion much later in life.  By adolescence, this emotional reaction no longer affects moral judgements, but it continues to impact other aspects of moral reasoning such as deserved punishment.  An early &lt;a href=&quot;http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/45370&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attempt to measure sensitivity&lt;/a&gt; (2001) used the speed of word associations as an indirect indicator, and found no significant difference between the performance of younger and older adults once the age-related decrease in overall performance was taken into account.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Modern research on moral sensitivity uses fMRI to detect changes in activity in areas of the brain associated with emotion (limbic system) and moral reasoning (prefrontal cortex).  This approach is relatively new, and still fairly expensive, so sample sizes tend to be small.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/05/26/cercor.bhr111.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The study cited in the question&lt;/a&gt; also concludes, as is well established, that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... judgments about how wrong an action was did not differ significantly&#xA;  by age&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but as for moral sensitivity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... with increasing age, subjects reported feeling less upset when viewing&#xA;  objects being damaged ... With age, agents were rated as even more&#xA;  mean if they had harmed a person intentionally than if they had harmed&#xA;  a person accidentally ... with increasing age, participants were less&#xA;  willing to punish agents who intentionally damaged objects than those&#xA;  who intentionally harmed people ... Comparison across the three groups&#xA;  showed a significant difference ... between the early childhood group&#xA;  and the adult group in the connectivity between the vmPFC and amygdala&#xA;  reflecting increased functional integration between these 2 regions in&#xA;  adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would certainly be interesting to see how these results extend to later adulthood - ie, if they continue in a linear fashion, or taper off as in moral judgement scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most modern research on older adults focuses on the effects of brain damage (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/~bradd/ftd/social/lough_neuropsychologia_2006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2006&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627310001728&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2010&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3234136/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2010&lt;/a&gt;), which is naturally more common with age.  When compared with same-age controls, patients with damage to the prefrontal cortex perform worse on a variety of moral judgement tasks.  Degradation in brain function may be responsible for a decline in moral sensitivity with age in some cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-04-15T10:58:39.160" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9746" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9807" CreationDate="2015-04-15T13:46:16.490" Score="14" ViewCount="10028" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are people with a high IQ more likely to have good social abilities? Are they more likely to be popular?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient#Social_correlations&quot;&gt;lists&lt;/a&gt; that IQ helps with school performance, job performance and income. It's possible to be good at those things without interacting much with other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social skills being the ability to achieve goals such as winning friends, doing well in negotiations, being successful at romance and being good at networking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastEditorUserId="625" LastEditDate="2015-04-26T20:30:18.960" LastActivityDate="2015-08-07T09:12:10.477" Title="Does high IQ correlate with good social skills?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9748" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-15T20:08:17.613" Score="4" ViewCount="695" Body="&lt;p&gt;Two questions, (im trying to get my head around this area of study, my assignment is on neurophysiological differences of t/f memory not theories, but reading up on the topic has had me thinking and I can't seem to find answers...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between the implicit associative response account (Underwood 1965) and the Spreading Activation Theory (Collins &amp;amp; Loftus)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Evidence by (McDermott &amp;amp; Watson 2001 and others) shows that repeated presentation improves both true and false memory, but once exposure to the list words is excessive it only boosts true memory. Which seems to me to not be consistent with the spreading activation theory which posits that the more associative activation is accrued, the stronger the false memory should be. Can anyone think of how to explain the data under the Spreading Activation Theory? I found another theory (spreading activation/monitoring that would explain it but was just hoping to see if anyone could preserve the spreading activation theory alone)   &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8102" LastActivityDate="2015-04-15T20:08:17.613" Title="Spreading Activation Theory" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9749" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-15T21:35:13.023" Score="4" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is self evident, from the various studies of Skinner and Pavlov, that a traumatic - or one of a similar nature - experience possesses the tendency to reside within certain schemas through the processes of classical conditioning; exmpli gratia, one may experience unpleasant stings from a wasp ,and thusly bestow fear ( based on that of the pain derived from stings) upon all creatures with similar characteristics through generalisation. And, hence these conditions based upon the creatures may last for prolonged durations, depending upon the frequency and &quot;intensity&quot; of the exposure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, my question is: could there possibly be a way to bridge implicit memory with declarative in such a process similar to conditioning? So that, as one, for instance, endeavours to memorise a speech, a certain experience associated , despite the fact that the speech may have never encountered the memoriser, could massively boost one's ability to do so. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I acknowledge the fact this question may not only seem far-fetched and implausible but perhaps spawned from ignorance, yet, I am invariably pondering upon ways to increase one's memory a part from the traditional mnemonics and other strategies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to 'bridge' implicit and explicit memory?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8103" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-16T08:03:29.547" LastActivityDate="2015-04-16T08:03:29.547" Title="Is it possible to bridge implicit and explicit memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9752" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9754" CreationDate="2015-04-16T03:59:58.090" Score="5" ViewCount="5559" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect that the difference between these terms may vary from researcher to researcher, since the wikipedia page treats them as synonymous. What's the difference between executive functioning and cognitive control? Is cognitive control a type of executive function?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastActivityDate="2018-12-28T11:06:23.437" Title="What's the difference between executive functions and cognitive control?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9753" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9749" CreationDate="2015-04-16T07:56:15.667" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; It does not make sense to talk about 'bridging' implicit and explicit memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Longer answer:&lt;/strong&gt; Explicitness and implicitness of memory is most appropriately considered a property of the &lt;em&gt;memory test&lt;/em&gt;, not the &lt;em&gt;memory being tested&lt;/em&gt;. Memories, physically speaking, have both explicit and implicit properties. They are 'bridged' by default.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference between explicit (and more specifically declarative) memory and implicit memory is more definitional and epistemic, i.e., related to our ability to measure and analyze, than anything empirical. Memory is declarative, by definition, when it can be tested by way of an articulated participant response. Memory is implicit, by definition, when it can be tested by way of behavioral performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, consider something basic like transporting yourself from point A (say, your house) to point B (say, the train station). You have implicit memory of this route, which we can see by observing you move from A to B. You also have explicit memory of this route, which we can see by having you describe the path from A to B. It is fundamentally no more complex than that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-16T07:56:15.667" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9754" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9752" CreationDate="2015-04-16T08:38:25.637" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are right to suspect that cognitive control and executive function are essentially interchangeable, at least for most purposes. Among researchers in the area, I would say there is a slight difference, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cognitive control&lt;/strong&gt; refers to the more abstract concept and affords researchers more degrees of freedom in defining what that means operationally speaking. Here is a fairly representative example of its use, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://ccpweb.wustl.edu/pdfs/BraverandBarch2001EvaluatingtheDemandforControl.pdf&quot;&gt;Botvinick et al. (2001)&lt;/a&gt;, found on a quick Scholar search:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A remarkable feature of the human cognitive system is its ability to configure itself for the performance of specific tasks through appropriate adjustments in perceptual selection, response biasing and the on-line maintenance of contextual information. The processes behind such adaptability, referred to collectively as cognitive control ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Executive function&lt;/strong&gt;, meanwhile, tends to either depend directly or conceptually on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/tor/Papers/Unity_Diversity_Exec_Functions.pdf&quot;&gt;seminal paper by Miyake et al. (2000)&lt;/a&gt;, which more explicitly models this sort of control in terms of &lt;em&gt;shifting&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;updating&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;inhibition&lt;/em&gt; functions. This is an extremely influential and productive model, and at least within the context of working memory research, I would say it sees more use than the more conceptual 'cognitive control'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., &amp;amp; Cohen, J. D. (2001). Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychological review, 108(3), 624.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp;amp; Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology, 41(1), 49-100.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-16T08:38:25.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9755" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9732" CreationDate="2015-04-16T11:01:19.240" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have tried to put your question in the context of modern memory research, but without involving specific models (which would make your question far too broad to answer). Hopefully, this will clarify what purpose the construct of long-term memory serves in modern memory theory, and what exactly is meant by it being &amp;quot;unlimited,&amp;quot; without giving a chapter-length answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;What is long-term memory to memory researchers?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Operationally speaking, long-term memory is memory that fails to exhibit the primary effects that characterize, and which we use to define and study, shorter term and working memory, especially capacity limitations and interference. In a sentence, long term memory is memory that has survived the forgetting process for sufficiently long that the expected chance of forgetting asymptotically approaches zero under a particular model. From the article in the question, some very useful context precedes the given quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Closely linked with the idea of memory exercising, is the question of&#xA;whether long-term memory has a limited storage capacity or is limitless.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;This question is illustrated by the textbook anecdote of the professor of&#xA;ornithology who stopped learning the names of his students because each&#xA;time he learned the name of a student he forgot the name of a bird.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bolded quote lies at the heart of what memory researchers mean when they say that there are no known limits on long-term memory. Within the context of current storage-based memory models, we may say that &lt;strong&gt;long-term memory is limited if and only if cross-domain interference is known to occur at arbitrarily long time scales&lt;/strong&gt; (i.e., if new memories can &amp;quot;push out&amp;quot; old memories.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Memory interference&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The existence of cross-domain interference is an oft held anecdotal belief, but there is no empirical evidence to support the idea of any such limit on memories that have 'survived' the consolidation process for sufficiently long. It is particularly helpful to understand the effect known as &lt;strong&gt;proactive interference&lt;/strong&gt; here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Proactive interference&lt;/strong&gt; (PI)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose I present you with a list of food items (apple, steak, ham), then test your recall. Then, I present you with another list of food items (orange, carrot, chicken soup) and test your recall again. Your performance will be worse than on the first list, because the first list is &lt;strong&gt;proactively interfering&lt;/strong&gt; with your recall of the second list.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if I present yet another food item list, I can increase the PI effect&#xA;until your retention approaches zero. If I instead present you with a&#xA;list of car parts, your performance goes back to 'normal'. This is&#xA;known as &lt;strong&gt;release from proactive interference&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The existence of release from proactive interference effects implies that no or very little cross-domain interference occurs at all, even over relatively short scales, and therefore that no &lt;em&gt;long-term&lt;/em&gt; cross-domain interference occurs. Based on this alone, it is fair to say that modern memory science is not aware of any limitation on the amount of information the brain is able to store and retrieve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Concluding remarks&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope my answer has been informative regarding how memory researchers define memory, and what they mean when they say that long-term memory is &amp;quot;unlimited.&amp;quot; As I think your question is getting at, long-term memory is certainly not a well defined construct. It isn't something we can observe directly or even indirectly, but tends to be used as a definitional convenience, at least within a research context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long-term memory is simply memory that no longer exhibits the characteristic effects that memory researchers operationally define memory by in the first place; a decidedly &lt;em&gt;negative&lt;/em&gt; construct. It isn't wrong to say that long-term memory is unlimited, but it isn't particularly useful knowledge unto itself, either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note also that, although the distinction between short- and long-term has remained extremely popular since its introduction in the 60's, it is not universally accepted. Erikssonian long-term working memory theory, process memory theory and ecological psychology are all examples of models or schools of thought that either reject or are entirely incommensurate with the idea of a short vs. long-term distinction, or even that memories are &amp;quot;stored.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-16T11:01:19.240" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9761" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-16T19:08:34.147" Score="1" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.reddit.com/r/thebutton&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;amazing social experiment going on Reddit - the Button&lt;/a&gt; as of April 1 2015. Here's an example of a website that tracks statistics of the experiment: &lt;a href=&quot;http://button.mtsanderson.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://button.mtsanderson.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reddit users can press the button once and get a badge to indicate time at which they pressed it. As the timer counts down, the competition gets stiffer - someone is bound to press the button before you. There's speculation that once the timer runs out the game is over.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems like a great social experiment. Have there been similar experiments in the past? &lt;strong&gt;What drives people to press the button at the time they do?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z6FF4.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-04-16T22:39:06.853" LastActivityDate="2015-04-16T22:39:06.853" Title="What drives users to play Reddit's &quot;The Button&quot; game?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9762" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-17T04:03:59.430" Score="4" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed over the years supervising student projects that it is actually surprisingly difficult to write good demographic items. Specifically, I'm thinking about questions related to gender, age, relationship status, employment status, educational attainment, country of birth/citizenship/residence, area of employment, English language experience, language spoken, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any good sources that provide a wide range of well-written demographic items?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-05-05T20:21:38.530" Title="How to obtain well-written demographic items?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9763" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9724" CreationDate="2015-04-17T07:41:05.140" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Choo's OSE model paper does not present evidence that would allow us to say whether or not the model exhibits proactive interference or set size effects. Presumably, this is because it is specifically a model of &lt;strong&gt;primacy&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;recency&lt;/strong&gt; effects, not a general model of working memory. The thesis scope is given on page two:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two major behavioural effects are often observed when analyzing recall performance data. The first is known as the primacy effect, which is generally seen in most serial recall tasks. The primacy effect describes the tendency for items near the start of a sequence to be more accurately recalled than other items in the sequence. The second effects is the recency effect, which describes the opposite of the primacy effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Identifying the mechanisms in serial memory that are responsible for this behaviour [primacy and recency effects in serial memory] and developing a model that is able to capture this behaviour while maintaining biological plausibility is the primary motivation of the research behind this thesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All results are reported with respect to serial position, because the scope of the thesis is relatively narrow. Without also modeling response time and semantic categories, I'm not sure how or why the particular model would be adapted to investigate either of these effects. That's just not what it does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Developing a model of proactive interference with Spaun seems improbable, because the framework doesn't appear to have any way to model semantic or declarative memory, and you need that to show proactive interference effects. There is no reason the Spaun framework/NEF could not be used as a basis for memory models which exhibit set-size effects, however. Spaun's input is visual and image-based, so that should be no problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For proactive interference, something like &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ACT-R&lt;/a&gt;, or another biologically plausible cognitive architecture which already features declarative memory, would be more apt. There are a number of papers on modeling proactive interference with ACT-R on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/publication/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;publications page&lt;/a&gt; (click on &amp;quot;Interference&amp;quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-17T07:41:05.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9764" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-17T07:47:30.577" Score="7" ViewCount="1126" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some time ago I remember reading about how the human brain breaks down visual information into a number of individual &quot;channels&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, one channel might focus on edges and lines, another might focus on being a contrast map, while another provide a color information overlay. Each &quot;channel&quot; being a much more simplified part of the entire visual input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I understood, modern research into the visual cortex has provided some insight into what the channels might be and how they're broken down. &lt;em&gt;If&lt;/em&gt; my understanding of current research is correct I was hoping to find some more detailed information explaining how the visual information is broken down and processed (articles at the technical level of Scientific American are fine, so long as they detail the types of &quot;channels&quot; present).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My desired take-away from this is to brainstorm ideas for how I might better pre-process an image into feature data for a standard neural network learning algorithm, based on the human experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8113" LastEditorUserId="8113" LastEditDate="2015-05-02T11:10:36.020" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T03:36:14.477" Title="How does the brain break down visual information for processing? What &quot;channels&quot; is visual input broken into?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9765" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10096" CreationDate="2015-04-17T08:43:23.003" Score="11" ViewCount="21947" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any official APA guidelines for reporting linear mixed model results?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can I take an approach similar to what would be done with an ANOVA (i.e., report the p-value, standard error and .95-CI for each main effect and interaction)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about the intercept?  Any additional recommendations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-15T08:47:33.980" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T18:08:56.230" Title="How should results from linear mixed models (LMMs) be reported?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;linear-mixed-model&gt;&lt;regression&gt;&lt;publication&gt;&lt;apa-style&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9766" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9746" CreationDate="2015-04-17T14:11:34.320" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. There is no correlation between IQ and social skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that some people have a high IQ and have 'good' social skills while other people have a high IQ but 'bad' social skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, some people have a low IQ and have 'good' social skills while others have a low IQ and 'bad' social skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ, or intelligence quotient, is calculated by completing a number of tasks (in areas such as mathematics, language, etc.) in a test-like situation and comparing the results with results obtained by 'everyone else.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social skills are usually measured by asking questions about the individual. &quot;Does the person cooperate or conflict with others?&quot; &quot;Does the person tend to offend or please others?&quot; &quot;Does the person have many or few friends?&quot; etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can measure a person's 'emotional intelligence' but this is not covered in a standard IQ test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These measurements, IQ and social skills, are not the same, and the information that psychometrists have collected over the years show that there is no link between IQ scores and social skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, try not to see an IQ score and actual intelligence as the same thing. Many psychologists and psychiatrists believe that an IQ score is not an accurate portrayal of person's actual intelligence, for a large number of reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information and research about these topics, search for the following names:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Howard Gardener - first man to propose the inaccuracy of IQ scores&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Robert Sternberg - a prominent researcher in intelligence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;David Wechsler - developed the most wisely-used IQ tests&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(I have a bachelor's degree in psychology, and I also passed this information by my supervisor, who has a Master's Degree in Educational Psychology. We perform psychological assessments every day.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8115" LastActivityDate="2015-04-17T14:11:34.320" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9767" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-17T17:41:44.337" Score="1" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;Traditionally, employee selection tests focus on cognitive abilities such as reading, reasoning, and math.  These have large Black-White (B-W) effect sizes (standardized mean score differences).  The range of other abilities that have been tried may be too narrow.  This note is part of an effort to identify abilities that might plausibly be related to job performance and might have small B-W effect sizes but that linkage is not the topic of this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As pointed out in a comment, this topic is quite broad.  I do not expect a direct answer. Rather I am hoping to get citations to recent published literature with information to answer this question:  What abilities (or ability sub-areas) show little or no B-W mean score differences?  For example, are there effect size estimates (and available measures) for: creativity, facial recognition (as in choosing a face out of a crowd), memory for faces, voice quality (as in &quot;command presence&quot; for a police officer), cooperativeness, fairness, calmness under pressure, warmth, etc.  (The jobs I have in mind right now are Police Officer and Firefighter.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: This question has a different focus than this related question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1488/reducing-adverse-impact-discrimination-and-unfairness-when-using-psychological/1489#1489&quot;&gt;Reducing adverse impact, discrimination and unfairness when using psychological assessments for selection purposes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Addendum:&#xA;In response to comments, let me clarify the reason for this broad question.  Industrial psychologists tend to use a narrow range of cognitive ability areas when developing employee selection procedures, and the abilities considered typically are those that were known to the field in the mid 1900's, or before.  Perhaps that is part of the reason that the best employee selection tests explain, at most, 25% of the variance in job performance.  Beyond that, most employee selection procedures are supported by content validation evidence, not criterion related.  Subject matter experts (SMEs) may be incapable of articulating entry-level cognitive abilities (i.e., not job knowledge) in other than the broadest ways.  Typically, SMEs rate the ability areas provided to them in a questionnaire.  If an ability is not included in the questionnaire, it is not rated and not considered for inclusion in the selection procedure.  I am wondering if there are other cognitive ability areas that I might review to see if they are related to job performance, particularly abilities that show little or no B-W differences in mean scores.  I am reaching out beyond my area of specialty.  I hope to find review articles that summarize the information I seek.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7755" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T14:28:31.960" Title="What cognitive abilities show the smallest B-W differences in mean scores?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2015-04-20T17:54:46.207" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9769" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9731" CreationDate="2015-04-17T18:27:11.323" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first rule of Neuroscience Club is to check your Kandel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second rule of Neuroscience Club is to check your Kandel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Joking aside, the gold standard of neuroscience is Kandel et al.'s &lt;strong&gt;Principles of Neural Science&lt;/strong&gt;, currently in its fifth edition. It's an extremely (and in the cognitive sciences, I would say uniquely) comprehensive and authoritative work, and you can certainly use it to find an explanation for your questions about how the brain stores and uses energy, or virtually anything else. It's that rare kind of book which successfully distills a massive subject down to something as simple as possible, and no simpler than that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., &amp;amp; Jessell, T. M., Siegelbaum, S. A., Hudspeth, A. J. (Eds.). (2013). Principles of neural science (Vol. 5). New York: McGraw-Hill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It does not really make sense to talk about &quot;how to use the brain as an organ most effectively.&quot; The brain is only metaphorically similar to muscles, and only in certain respects. One of the relevant differences is that neurons do many things and often exhibit nonlinear behavior, whereas muscles more or less only stretch and contract. This currently makes it very difficult to scientifically define what optimizing brain function &lt;em&gt;means&lt;/em&gt;, exactly, compared to defining what optimizing muscle function means. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will not deconstruct the question further since it is primarily a reference request, and this will all be more than clear from Principles of Neural Science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-17T18:27:11.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9771" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6538" CreationDate="2015-04-18T08:06:44.037" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hypnotic states are associated with increased theta wave activity. Hypnotically susceptible participants also exhibit hemispheric beta wave asymmetry, but non-susceptible participants do not (Sabourin, Cutcomb, Crawford and Pribram, 1990).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sabourin, M. E., Cutcomb, S. D., Crawford, H. J., &amp;amp; Pribram, K. (1990). EEG correlates of hypnotic susceptibility and hypnotic trance: Spectral analysis and coherence. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 10(2), 125-142.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T08:06:44.037" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9772" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9595" CreationDate="2015-04-18T11:07:42.390" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The neural substrates most involved in retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) appear to be the &lt;strong&gt;anterior cingulate cortex&lt;/strong&gt; (ACC), the &lt;strong&gt;dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt; (DLPFC) and the &lt;strong&gt;ventrolateral pre-frontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt; (VLPFC) (Bäuml, Pastötter and Hanslmayr, 2010). I will not pretend to one-up their concise summation of the evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results are consistent with the view that the ACC detects interference from unpracticed material and the DLPFC and VLPFC resolve the conflict by strengthening the practiced memories and inhibiting the unpracticed memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Evidence for ACC-DLPFC-VLPFC involvement in RIF&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bäuml, Pastötter and Hanslmayr draw on a number of fMRI and EEG studies in order to support their narrative. Generally speaking, a study of electrophysiological correlates of RIF found that frontal activity was predictive of RIF effects (Johansson et al, 2007); this broadly concurs with my original intuition that the frontal regions are of primary importance in RIF.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically, Wimber et al. (2009) reported fMRI evidence for ACC and DLPFC involvement during RIF, while fMRI evidence for VLPFC involvement was reported in Kuhl et al. (2007). These are only highlights of the main supports; a more complete basis is presented in the Bäuml, Pastötter and Hanslmayr (2010) paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bäuml, K. H., Pastötter, B., &amp;amp; Hanslmayr, S. (2010). Binding and inhibition in episodic memory—Cognitive, emotional, and neural processes. Neuroscience &amp;amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(7), 1047-1054.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Johansson, M., Aslan, A., Bäuml, K. H., Gäbel, A., &amp;amp; Mecklinger, A. (2007). When remembering causes forgetting: Electrophysiological correlates of retrieval-induced forgetting. Cerebral Cortex, 17(6), 1335-1341.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kuhl, B. A., Dudukovic, N. M., Kahn, I., &amp;amp; Wagner, A. D. (2007). Decreased demands on cognitive control reveal the neural processing benefits of forgetting. Nature neuroscience, 10(7), 908-914.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wimber, M., Rutschmann, R. M., Greenlee, M. W., &amp;amp; Bäuml, K. H. (2009). Retrieval from episodic memory: Neural mechanisms of interference resolution. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(3), 538-549.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T11:07:42.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9774" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1554" CreationDate="2015-04-18T12:27:04.890" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is the theory of Information Metabolism a reasonable scientific theory?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; No.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A literature search of Google Scholar and Web of Science for &quot;information metabolism&quot; finds no empirical evidence to support the theory. Furthermore, it appears that the theory of information metabolism is virtually only embraced directly by the author, Kępiński, himself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;However:&lt;/strong&gt; It is &lt;em&gt;based on&lt;/em&gt; scientifically sound principles of dissipative systems, thermodynamics and negentropy, as proposed by Nobel prize-winning physicist Ilya Prigogene. In some sense, though, it is based on science in the same sense a movie may be based on a true story. It's not a &lt;em&gt;trivially&lt;/em&gt; wrong theory, but there does not appear to be any concrete support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;CREATES and theories resembling information metabolism theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CREATES does not appear to have any scientific basis or relation to information metabolism theory whatsoever. However, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikisocion.org/en/index.php?title=Information_Metabolism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt; you provided cites Carnot’s principle as a basis for the theory of information metabolism:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“the organism is an open system and its negentropy rises or falls as results of processes described by the laws of life conservation and species conservation, respectively”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is very similar to the principles of more modern embodied dynamical systems approaches to explaining behavior, such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ione.psy.uconn.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ecological psychology&lt;/a&gt; of Mace, Turvey and Shaw. Both ecological and information metabolic approaches appear to be epistemologically dynamicist, and therefore share an epistemological stance. They appear to differ strongly on the content theory of the cause of behavior (i.e., on what constitutes a meaningful scale for behavioral analysis): information metabolism theory draws more heavily on Freud and Jung, while ecological psychology draws on the work of James J. Gibson.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Concluding remarks&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Information metabolism theory is not a reasonable scientific theory in 2015, but neither was it scientifically stillborn in 1970. It appears to have been a theory invented before its time; in this, it is also like Gibson, who similarly lacked both the theoretical and mathematical tools to specify and formalize ideas. The popularization of those tools in behavioral science would eventually lead to the development of ecological psychology as a full fledged school of thought in the decades after Gibson's death. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of information metabolism theory, however, it appears that either the theory was entirely subsumed into socionics and therefore no longer exists as an independent theory, or simply that no one took up the mantle as the scientific star of psychoanalytic approaches rapidly waned around the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; There seems to have been some limited attempts to update the theory for modern dynamical systems tools around the turn of the millenium (Kokoszka, 1999; Kokoszka, Bielecki and Holas, 2001), but still nothing empirical to validate it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kokoszka, A. (1999). Information metabolism as a model of human experiences. International journal of neuroscience, 97(3-4), 169-178.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kokoszka, A., Bielecki, A., &amp;amp; Holas, P. (2001). Mental organization according to the metabolism of information model and its mathematical description. International Journal of Neuroscience, 107(3-4), 173-184.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-18T12:46:43.713" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T12:46:43.713" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9775" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-18T13:04:37.320" Score="5" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;Very often, I observe that a toddler &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; who currently focuses their attention on a specific toy or activity becomes distracted if another toddler &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt; begins playing with an object &lt;code&gt;O&lt;/code&gt; that &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; played with previously. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subsequently, &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; shifts their attention to &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;O&lt;/code&gt; and aborts their current activity, even though it often appears that &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; was fully engaged in the previous activity and no resources for attention shift were free. Most times, &lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt; approaches &lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt; and a dispute about &lt;code&gt;O&lt;/code&gt; arises.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me, it seems to be a basic need of a toddler, although I can't find a specific theory that provides a coherent description of my observation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does any cognitive science theory explain the tendency for toddlers to desire objects held by other toddlers?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8085" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-18T13:49:14.183" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T15:56:10.517" Title="Does any theory explain the tendency for toddlers to desire objects held by other toddlers?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9776" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16616" CreationDate="2015-04-18T15:15:22.460" Score="7" ViewCount="166" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is a quotation from the paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877050911006806&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Markram et al., Introducing the Human Brain Project&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;New informatics and modeling approaches are making it possible to&#xA;  reverse engineer the detailed structure of the human brain without&#xA;  resort to invasive methods of data collection. By analyzing very large&#xA;  volumes of data, from different –omics levels, we can identify&#xA;  principles of design that cannot emerge from smaller studies and that&#xA;  make it possible to extrapolate data collected in one species to&#xA;  others, including humans. This &lt;strong&gt;Predictive Reverse Engineering&lt;/strong&gt; will&#xA;  allow us to predict how different patterns of gene expression produce&#xA;  neurons with different morphologies expressing different molecules,&#xA;  and different synaptic connection&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Brain_Project&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Human Brain Project&lt;/a&gt; is a research project, established recently, which costs around €1 billion and is mostly funded by the European Union. The project's aim is to create a detailed computer simulation of the human brain for medical and neuroscientific research)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there is no reference as to what this &quot;Predictive Reverse Engineering&quot; method actually is. I couldn't find any reference to it myself either. Can you please tell me about this or attach relevant links?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8123" LastEditorUserId="8123" LastEditDate="2016-04-16T07:47:04.767" LastActivityDate="2017-01-24T14:56:37.127" Title="What is &quot;Predictive Reverse Engineering&quot; and how can it be used for understanding brain structure?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9778" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-18T16:53:48.343" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the spiritual interpretation of dreams and the scientific interpretation of dreams? How are they different? Please give evidence.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8124" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T23:51:53.810" Title="Spiritual interpretation of dreams vs. scientific interpretation of dreams" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;scientific-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-04-19T07:08:25.363" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9780" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8854" CreationDate="2015-04-18T18:12:54.177" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This effect was identified in a report by the New Zealand Ministry of Social Development (Jensen et al., 2006). It specifically indicated that individuals experiencing eight or more &quot;life shocks&quot; (negative life events) experienced significantly more negative socioeconomic outcomes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This effect is referenced on Wikipedia's Cycle of Poverty page (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_of_poverty&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_of_poverty&lt;/a&gt;), which links to a news story on the report (Berry, 2006) and the report itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A summary of the report's findings were later published in an academic journal (Jensen et al., 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Berry, R. (2006, July 12). &quot;Life shocks&quot; tip people into hardship.&#xA;&lt;em&gt;The New Zealand Herald.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&amp;amp;objectid=10390891&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&amp;amp;objectid=10390891&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Jensen, J., Krishnan, V., Hodgson, R., Sathiyandra, S., Templeton,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;R., Jones, D., ... &amp;amp; Beynon, P. (2006). New Zealand Living Standards &#xA;2004 Ngā Āhuatanga Noho o Aotearoa. Wellington: Ministry of Social      Development. Retrieved from:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://media.nzherald.co.nz/webcontent/document/pdf/living-standards-2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://media.nzherald.co.nz/webcontent/document/pdf/living-standards-2004.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Jensen, J., Sathiyandra, S., &amp;amp; Matangi-Want, M. (2007). The 2004 New &#xA;Zealand Living Standards Survey: What does it signal about the importance of multiple disadvantage?. &lt;em&gt;Social Policy Journal of New  Zealand, 30&lt;/em&gt;, 110-144.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T18:12:54.177" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9781" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9461" CreationDate="2015-04-18T18:26:19.157" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did not find a textbook that mentioned this activity, but I found several articles that describe this Pairing Game. Ellis &amp;amp; Kelly (1999) describe two variations on the game and its use in the classroom. Lewis &amp;amp; Gurung (2003) describe expanding the original game in order to teach additional relationship and social psychology theories. Elias &amp;amp; Pratkanis (2006) review a range of in-class psychology exercises, including the Lewis and Gurung paper. Eastwick &amp;amp; Buck (2014) describe making the game more complicated (but also more realistic) by incorporating a social relations model. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eastwick, P. W., &amp;amp; Buck, A. A. (2014). Too Much Matching A Social&#xA;Relations Model Enhancement of the Pairing Game. &lt;em&gt;Teaching of&#xA;Psychology, 41&lt;/em&gt;(3), 246-250.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Elias, S. M., &amp;amp; Pratkanis, A. R. (2006). Teaching social influence:&#xA;Demonstrations and exercises from the discipline of social&#xA;psychology. &lt;em&gt;Social Influence, 1&lt;/em&gt;(2), 147-162.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ellis, B. J., &amp;amp; Kelley, H. H. (1999). The pairing game: A classroom&#xA;demonstration of the matching phenomenon. &lt;em&gt;Teaching of Psychology,&#xA;26&lt;/em&gt;(2), 118-121.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lewis, B. P., &amp;amp; Gurung, R. A. (2003). Mixing, matching, and mating:&#xA;Demonstrating the effect of contrast on relationship satisfaction.&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Teaching of Psychology, 30&lt;/em&gt;(4), 303-306.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T18:26:19.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9783" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-18T18:43:47.577" Score="4" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does a &lt;em&gt;validated&lt;/em&gt; scale to asses a person's &lt;strong&gt;attitude&lt;/strong&gt; towards learning a new language exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I have only found the following questionnaires:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www-01.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/prepareforlanguagelearning/attitude.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Language Learning Attitudes Questionnaire&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://paul-timothy.net/pages/language/Currah%20language%20learning%20attitude%20survey.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Readiness for Language Learning Questionnaire&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.publicacions.ub.edu/revistes/bells12/pdf/art11.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://publish.uwo.ca/~gardner/docs/englishamtb.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.leeds.ac.uk/arts/download/1320/kazamia1999&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Second Language Tolerance of Ambiguity Scale (SLTAS)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7613" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-29T18:11:14.663" LastActivityDate="2017-07-29T18:11:14.663" Title="Measuring attitude towards learning another language?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9784" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4241" CreationDate="2015-04-18T19:29:29.720" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's no theoretical reason to believe that depression is characterized by an increase in &quot;double implications.&quot;  If anything, the double implication you've posed (depression ⟺ no friends) is a pretty accurate understanding of the reciprocal relationship between the causes and consequences of depression (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/abn/113/1/155/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stice, Ragan, &amp;amp; Patrick, 2004&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0146640283900139&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Teasdale, 1983&lt;/a&gt;). So if depressed individuals have such an insight, then we might actually expect this to facilitate mood repair and regulation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise, to my knowledge, no studies have examined the logical structure of depressive thoughts. Perhaps you might be aware that depression is characterized by cognitive distortions, but I'm guessing that this isn't the kind of &quot;logic&quot; that you're referring to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T19:29:29.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9785" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4846" CreationDate="2015-04-18T20:14:44.700" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was unable to find this in a scientific paper, and it is not clear from the sources I did locate that this work was ever actually published. However, I found other sources that reference this work and several similar studies comparing humans to rats. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study you mention is also referenced briefly in Tetlock's (2005) book on political judgment; a discussion of Tetlock's interpretation of the results can be seen on University of Pennsylvania's Language Log (2005). That blog post also indicates the experiments are discussed to some extent in a textbook by Gallistel (1993); finding that book may provide more information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A paper by Spragg (1934) describes exploring anticipatory responses in both rats and human (student) subjects. Overall and Brown (1959) examined decision making behavior in rats and humans (students) using a maze task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gallistel, Charles R. (1993). &lt;em&gt;The organization of learning (Learning,&#xA;development, and conceptual change).&lt;/em&gt; A Bradford Book: 662 pages.&#xA;ISBN-13: 978-0262570985&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Language Log. (December 11,2005). Rats beat Yalies? Doing better by&#xA;getting less information? Retrieved from&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002700.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002700.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Overall, J. E., &amp;amp; Brown, W. L. (1959). A comparison of the&#xA;decision-behavior of rats and of human subjects. &lt;em&gt;The American Journal&#xA;of Psychology, 72&lt;/em&gt;(2) 258-261.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spragg, S. S. (1934). Anticipatory responses in the maze. &lt;em&gt;Journal of&#xA;Comparative Psychology, 18&lt;/em&gt;(1), 51-73.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tetlock, P. (2005). Expert political judgment: How good is it? How&#xA;can we know?. Princeton University Press. ISBN-13: 978-0691128719&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T20:14:44.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9786" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-18T21:12:53.427" Score="5" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in the case where the arbitrator has been unilaterally appointed by one of the parties in a conflict. Assume that economic rewards are not involved. I am only interested in knowing if being appointed by one of the parties to the dispute tends to make arbitrators side with the party who selected them, or at least be more favourable to their cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8126" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-18T22:16:14.903" LastActivityDate="2015-04-18T22:16:14.903" Title="Has anyone ever conducted a psychological experiment to test whether an arbitrator appointed by one party tends to judge in favour of that party?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9791" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7873" CreationDate="2015-04-19T09:05:33.310" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;S-shaped learning curves&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As per A Umar Mukthar's comment, the phenomenon is known as an &lt;strong&gt;S-shaped learning curve&lt;/strong&gt;. They have been a known phenomenon in psychology for many decades, and were originally attributed to trial-and-error learning sets (Harlow, 1949). Harlow defined a &lt;strong&gt;learning set&lt;/strong&gt; in the following manner:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The monkeys &lt;em&gt;learn how to learn&lt;/em&gt; individual problems with a minimum of errors. It is this &lt;em&gt;learning how to learn a kind of problem&lt;/em&gt; that we designate by the term &lt;em&gt;learning set&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Meta-cognition and intra-individual performance variability&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harlow's explanation has fundamentally not been changed too much, except perhaps that in modern cognitive research, we now call these &lt;strong&gt;meta-cognitive strategies&lt;/strong&gt; rather than learning sets. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When first encountering a novel problem, participants will adopt one strategy and work to improve their performance on that, but eventually they will discover other strategies. When participants &lt;em&gt;shift&lt;/em&gt; strategy thus to an unpracticed strategy, their performance declines, then improves again. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because all strategies for the same problem tend to share at least some overlap, as participants explore an increasing proportion of the space of possible meta-cognitive strategies, shifting to a novel strategy requires decreasing amounts of new practice. The magnitude of the performance decline associated with strategy shifts is therefore gradually eliminated with prolonged practice (Murre, 2014).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harlow, H. F. (1949). The formation of learning sets. Psychological review, 56(1), 51.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Murre, J. M. (2014). S-shaped learning curves. Psychonomic bulletin &amp;amp; review, 21(2), 344-356.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-19T09:05:33.310" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9793" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9797" CreationDate="2015-04-19T17:44:46.247" Score="5" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say you have a REALLY good manager, and he leaves. So you tend to underestimate/judge the next manager's competencies because the previous one was really good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How you call the cognitive bias related to that ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8133" LastActivityDate="2015-04-20T12:37:00.533" Title="Name of cognitive bias when you diminish one's competency based on someone else's for the same function?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9797" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9793" CreationDate="2015-04-20T12:37:00.533" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The broad topic is norm theory. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bm.ust.hk/~mark551/readings/T4bR5_kahneman1986.pdf&quot;&gt;Kahnemann &amp;amp; Miller (1986) give a nice overview of the topic.&lt;/a&gt; The specific effect is a &lt;em&gt;contrast effect&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(83)90018-X&quot;&gt;Higgins &amp;amp; Lurie (1983)&lt;/a&gt; have an experiment which matches the situation nicely. In their experiment, subjects read a series of short stories describing the sentences handed out by various judges for similar crimes. Some judges were harsher or more lenient than others. As you might expect, a specific sentence (e.g. Judge Wilson sentenced the guilty person to 3 years of prison) was judged as being more harsh if the other judges tended to give shorter sentences, and more lenient if the other judges tended to give harsher sentences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their result also suggests that your memory of the first manager's competency (the really good manager) will be affected by the exposure to the new manager. They brought the subjects back to the lab a few days after reading the original stories. When subjects came back, they were given a new set of sentencing decisions to read. Then they were asked to recall how long the sentence was of a specific judge (e.g. Judge Wilson) from the first session. The memory for the original sentence was skewed by the new stories that they read. If the new stories all tended to be lenient, then subjects underestimated Judge Wilson's original sentence. If the new stories were all harsh, then subjects overestimated Judge Wilson's original sentence. They call this a change-of-standard effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-04-20T12:37:00.533" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9798" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9196" CreationDate="2015-04-20T13:39:37.950" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. An association between overweight and procrastination appears to have no direct empirical support to speak of. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most direct evidence I can find on the matter was a study into industrial workplace productivity's association with overweight, which found &lt;strong&gt;a very small (approximately 1%) loss in productivity over other workers associated with moderate or extreme obesity&lt;/strong&gt;, but this was explained in terms of decreased ability and increased time to perform physical tasks (Gates et al., 2009) rather than self-regulation, motivation or time management. In particular,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Moderately or extremely obese workers (BMI 35) experienced the greatest health-related work limitations, specifically regarding time needed to complete tasks and ability to perform physical job demands. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It does appear there have been some &lt;em&gt;conceptually&lt;/em&gt; similar economics investigations into whether overweight is associated with engaging in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_discounting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hyperbolic discounting&lt;/a&gt; more generally (Scharff, 2009), but overall, &lt;strong&gt;there does not seem to be any empirical reason for believing that overweight is associated with procrastination in any practically meaningful sense&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gates, D. M., Succop, P., Brehm, B. J., Gillespie, G. L., &amp;amp; Sommers, B. D. (2008). Obesity and presenteeism: the impact of body mass index on workplace productivity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 50(1), 39-45.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scharff, R. L. (2009). Obesity and hyperbolic discounting: Evidence and implications. Journal of Consumer Policy, 32(1), 3-21.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-20T13:39:37.950" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9800" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4856" CreationDate="2015-04-20T14:55:03.587" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;One factor that should be considered is the culture surrounding casual sex and the social judgments that men and women may experience as a result of casual sex. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361684312467169&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Conley, Ziegler, and Moors (2012)&lt;/a&gt; report a series of experiments conducted on an American university campus that show that women who accept offers of casual sex are perceived more negatively on a variety of dimensions than men. In their experiments:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Subjects judged women who accepted offers of casual sex as being &quot;less intelligent, less mentally healthy, more promiscuous, less competent, and more risky&quot; than men who accepted offers of casual sex.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When subjects imagined a hypothetical offer of casual sex, men were more likely to accept than women. Subjects were given a series of questionnaires to examine their attitudes towards offers of casual sex. A mediation analysis indicated that &quot;part of the reason that women are less likely to accept casual offers than men is that women perceive that they will be evaluated more negatively for accepting the offer (or more positively for rejecting the offer) than men do.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Similar results were found when subjects recalled a recent offer of casual sex, and imagined the reactions of people had they accepted the offer.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, social stigma seems to play a significant role in how men and women perceive casual sex, which may explain the relative willingness of men and women to engage in casual sex. This particular set of social stigmas will certainly not be universal across cultures, and the point of this answer is not to suggest that the experiences of American college students are universal. What is likely to be universal is the idea that the culture surrounding casual sex will have a direct impact on how men and women choose to engage in casual sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-04-21T01:33:35.257" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T01:33:35.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9803" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10233" CreationDate="2015-04-21T05:18:12.237" Score="4" ViewCount="1850" Body="&lt;p&gt;For those unfamiliar, interoceptive awareness/accuracy involves awareness of, and sensitivity to, internal physiological sensations (&quot;My heart is beating fast&quot;).  Interoceptive information is fundamental to how we conceptualize our affective experiences. For instance, people with high interoceptive sensitivity may be more likely to emphasize information about high/low arousal in their emotional self-reports (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1224728&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Barrett, Quigley, Bliss-Moreau, &amp;amp; Aronson, 2004&lt;/a&gt;).  Sensitivity and awareness of interoceptive information is fundamental to many other forms of cognition as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question is whether we can improve people's interceptive awareness/accuracy with some sort of intervention (e.g., biofeedback) and whether this improvement might predict other adaptive outcomes.&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T22:26:53.270" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T22:56:06.867" Title="Is it possible to improve interoceptive awareness/accuracy? If so, how?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;interoception&gt;&lt;biofeedback&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9804" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-21T07:40:59.900" Score="7" ViewCount="253" Body="&lt;p&gt;In rats, the application of a painful stimulus has shown an increase in overall arousal and the ability to learn certain behaviours (The study is neatly summed up in this video: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L-DgV2vixSo&quot;&gt;Motivation and Reward in Learning&lt;/a&gt;). The experiment with electric shocks is shown on the second half.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is common sense that human beings would naturally avoid painful consequences, but the deliberate application of a noxious stimulus may also elicit a unconscious response, or conditioning, to avoid those behaviours, which would mean a faster learning rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning could also be improved because pain is an intrinsically meaningful response, while perceived failure is somewhat weaker and less imediate as a motivating agent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could small electric shocks, applied by another individual, or a computer program (maybe even self-administered), have any use in learning? At what specific tasks would this technique be more effective?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8140" LastEditorUserId="8140" LastEditDate="2015-04-21T08:05:27.393" LastActivityDate="2016-03-26T04:52:42.930" Title="Could a painful stimulus be effectively used as a learning aid?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9805" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-04-21T11:09:45.053" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2015-04-21T11:09:45.053" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T11:09:45.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9806" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-04-21T11:09:45.053" Score="0" Body="The study of the physiology of the nervous system, with emphasis on transcellular communication, and cellular and molecular processes involved in neural communication." OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-21T12:36:45.237" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T12:36:45.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9746" CreationDate="2015-04-21T11:35:42.797" Score="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is more complicated than it seems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though it is easy to agree to that some people are more competent in their social behavior than others, it has proven to be &lt;strong&gt;very difficult to define&lt;/strong&gt; what we mean when we talk about social skills (or &quot;social intelligence&quot;, &quot;social competence&quot;). Is it the ability to manage social relationships, does it contain empathy, is it the knowledge about how social relationships work, the number of friends, or being good in negotiations, as you define it? Over the years, researchers have used partly overlapping and partly distinct definitions. For the difficulties associated with conceptualizing social intelligence refer to this &lt;a href=&quot;http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/social_intelligence.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;review&lt;/a&gt; by Kihlstrom and Cantor (2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consequently, this difficulty is also reflected in the &lt;strong&gt;difficulty of  measuring social skills&lt;/strong&gt;. A wide variety of measures have been developed. Based on the multitude of conceptual approaches it is clear that the results of these measures will often diverge. For example, Riggio et al. (1989) conducted a study in which participants completed a large number of standardized measures of social intelligence. The measures included tests that measured the ability to perceive the feelings and intentions of others, the ability to assess interpersonal relationships, various measures aimed at testing the ability to predict social behavior of others and the ability to perceive feelings of others. The correlations of these measures &quot;ranged from  -0.20 to 0.44, with a mean r of 0.20&quot;. Thus, they had some overlap among each other, but this overlap was pretty low. Riggio et al. also measured academic intelligence (with a variety of measures) and found that &quot;the measures of academic and social intelligence ranged from -0.10 to 0.52, with a mean r of 0.15&quot;. Some have used results like these to question the usefulness of social intelligence as a construct. Others have questioned whether it is possible to distinguish social from other forms of intelligence at all. The methodological problem becomes even clearer if you keep in mind that most social intelligence tests are based on paper-and-pencil (self-report) questionnaires that do not necessarily overlap with peer reports or actual tests of social skills (in an assessment center, for example). In light of these difficulties, it may not be surprising that a prominent review of the literature regards the search for &quot;social skills&quot; as a concept as &quot;long, frustrating, and fruitless&quot; (Landy, 2005). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though the field does not seem to have found consensus in the mean time, more recent research shares the idea that it is necessary to take the &lt;strong&gt;multidimensionality of social intelligence&lt;/strong&gt; into account when conceptualizing and measuring them. From this perspective, there will be elements of social intelligence that have a stronger overlap with &quot;pure reasoning&quot; measures of IQ than others. For example, Jones and Day (1997) found in research with sample of high school students that indicators of &quot;crystallized social knowledge&quot; (declarative and  procedural knowledge about social events) were highly correlated (r=.79) with academic problem solving (which is closely to related to what is measured with classic IQ tests). However they were not so strongly related (r=.29) to &quot;social-cognitive flexibility&quot; (the ability to apply social knowledge flexibly to solve novel problems). A strong point of this research is that the researchers combined self-ratings and tests with teacher ratings to assess all of these constructs. These findings suggest that some parts of social intelligence (social knowledge) are virtually indistinguishable from general intelligence. However, other elements of social intelligence (applying social knowledge) are somewhat positively related to intelligence (more intelligent = somewhat better in social problem solving on average). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jones, K., &amp;amp; Day, J. D. (1997). Discrimination of two aspects of cognitive-social intelligence from academic intelligence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 486–497. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.3.486&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kihlstrom, J.F, &amp;amp; Cantor, N. (2000). in R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence, 2nd ed. (pp. 359-379). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Landy, F. J. (2005) The Long, Frustrating, and Fruitless Search for Social Intelligence. In K. R. Murphy (Ed.) The Emotional Intelligence Bandwagon: The Struggle Between Science and Marketing for the Soul of EI. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates, 2005&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Riggio, R. E., Messamer, J., &amp;amp; Throckmorton, B. (1991). Social and academic intelligence: Conceptually distinct but overlapping constructs. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 695–702. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(91)90225-Z&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-07T09:12:10.477" LastActivityDate="2015-08-07T09:12:10.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9809" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-21T13:49:42.100" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a student working on a project which deals with Steady State Visually-Evoked Potentials (SSVEP) Stimuator. Does anybody know where can I find stimuli (checkerboard or single graphic) as a video file? It's very difficult to find these files on the Internet. I am not allowed to use videos from youtube.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8145" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-22T10:32:38.877" LastActivityDate="2015-04-23T01:15:58.300" Title="Where can I find stimuli for steady-state visually-evoked potentials?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;evoked-potentials&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9810" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-21T13:53:54.660" Score="4" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is age of children strongly related to ability to learn various mathematical topics (e.g., percentages, common fractions)?  I ask because many students in the elementary grades struggle with math concepts and have repeated failure experiences.  If these same children were given a rest and the topics introduced when they are a year or two or three older, would they learn the concepts more easily?  (This is a small facet of a larger question, not specifically asked, is the idea of filling young heads with as much knowledge as possible a good idea for the children who struggle with acquiring such knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7755" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T13:53:54.660" Title="Ability to learn math and age of children" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-06-12T11:11:52.680" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9811" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9809" CreationDate="2015-04-21T15:40:04.330" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Researchers are often willing to share their stimuli. If you know of a paper that uses the same kind of stimuli that you want to use, you could try emailing the authors. A friendly request with a brief explanation of why you want the stimuli usually works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-04-23T01:15:58.300" LastActivityDate="2015-04-23T01:15:58.300" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9812" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9814" CreationDate="2015-04-21T16:23:16.297" Score="6" ViewCount="387" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my language there is a famous common sense statement which tells the populations are swinging back and forth from one extreme to the other. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea behind is that, at a sociological level, the influence of many psychological factors (such as the dichotomous thinking and similar cognitive distortions) are leading the  populations to tend to big breaks and changements. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would it be possible to investigate it from a sociological point of view? &lt;strong&gt;How can we realize when a sociological question is impossible to answer?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-21T18:10:41.493" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T19:28:48.153" Title="How can we realize when a sociological question is impossible to answer?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9813" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-21T19:24:16.317" Score="5" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of this research article that explores the relationship between motion and serotonin systems: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/~sswang/awake_cerebellar_ms_refs/jacobs_fornal93_TINS.pdf&quot;&gt;5-HT and motor control: a hypothesis.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on the article above, it seems to me that a &quot;very active&quot; individual would have serotonergic system firing rapidly throughout the day. Each step or motion would cause activity - Serotonin release in synaptic cleft, then reuptake. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in what happens when such &quot;very active&quot; individual suddenly cannot perform as much activity every day due to a life change (sedentary job, bed bound in hospital, etc). &lt;strong&gt;What happens to the serotonin reuptake when the activity level is dramatically reduced for an extended period of time?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, I'm interested if &quot;very active&quot; people have a &quot;very active&quot; serotonin reuptake system that clears Serotonin rapidly. Can this be a cause of depression or reduced mood when an activity level is reduced? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T19:24:16.317" Title="Is movement/activity level related to serotonin availability or reuptake rates in the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;mood&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9814" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9812" CreationDate="2015-04-21T19:28:48.153" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short version:&lt;/strong&gt; A question is possible to answer sociologically if and only if its &lt;strong&gt;scale&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;region&lt;/strong&gt; (informally speaking, its context) are completely defined and its variables of interest are &lt;strong&gt;operationalized&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long (really long) version:&lt;/strong&gt; The following answer may be colored by my quantitative background, but if you give me the benefit of the doubt here and there, this should generalize fairly well. My apologies for any untoward implications in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Is my question amenable to empirical inquiry?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is more than a question unto itself, but I will try to keep it as brief and general as possible while still answering the sociology-specific question. Sociological questions must be amenable to empirical inquiry. A question is amenable to empirical inquiry &lt;em&gt;if and only if&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The variables of interest have been &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/9626/2868&quot;&gt;operationalized&lt;/a&gt;. If we are interested in &amp;quot;society,&amp;quot; &lt;strong&gt;how&lt;/strong&gt; exactly do you measure change in society? (I strongly recommend reading mfloren's excellent answer in the link.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The region of interest has been completely defined. If we are interested in &amp;quot;society,&amp;quot; &lt;strong&gt;where&lt;/strong&gt; exactly should we start measuring our variables of interest?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are (&lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt;) different views on how to interpret the evidence so collected, a fair covering of which is beyond the scope of this answer. In the cognitive sciences, I would say the dominant views tend to be in line with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiability&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;falsificationism&lt;/a&gt; and/or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentalism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;instrumentalism&lt;/a&gt;. Broadly speaking, this area is covered by the study of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;epistemology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;What is the scale of my question?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A question's &lt;strong&gt;scale&lt;/strong&gt; refers to the level of detail involved. How &amp;quot;big&amp;quot; is the question? Informally speaking, the scale of an empirical question conveys information about the characteristics of the spacetime region we are investigating, and what level of precision/detail we are investigating it at.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Example: Cosmological or Quantum?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A prototypical example here that I think most people are familiar with from basic physics would be the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cosmological&lt;/a&gt; scale—the largest known scale—and its opposite, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;quantum&lt;/a&gt; scale, which is the smallest known scale. Informally speaking, the &amp;quot;physics scale&amp;quot; runs from least energy involved to most energy involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the simplest to understand because most of physics can be captured by how much energy is involved. In the biological sciences, it becomes more complicated. We might talk about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_levels&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;trophic levels&lt;/a&gt; in a conceptually similar way when asking questions about ecologies, but we might also talk about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryo&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;embryonic&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;neural&lt;/a&gt; scales for other questions. In other words, they are, in a very direct sense, different &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facet&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;facets&lt;/a&gt; of the same &amp;quot;object.&amp;quot; In general, the closer we get to a first-person human level of analysis, the more difficult it becomes to sufficiently define questions, and the further away we get, the easier it becomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Sociobehavioral science: Within or between individuals or groups?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the social and behavioral sciences, we tend to look at the amount of people involved, the qualitative relationship between those people, and whether we are interested in the question at the &lt;strong&gt;intra-individual&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;between-individual&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;intra-group&lt;/strong&gt; and/or &lt;strong&gt;inter-group&lt;/strong&gt; level. As with the cosmological and quantum scale, or embryonic and neural scales, these are not ontologically distinct—scales are a strictly epistemological concept. Informally speaking, a question is &lt;strong&gt;sociological&lt;/strong&gt; if it is a question about the collective behavior of relatively large groups of people (i.e., if regions and variables are defined relative to other 'groups' rather than in terms of their constituents' individual behavior or minds).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;What field is appropriate for my question?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once we have defined the &lt;strong&gt;scale&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;region&lt;/strong&gt; (or area) of our question, and we have &lt;strong&gt;operationalized&lt;/strong&gt; our variables of interest, we can say whether a particular  &lt;strong&gt;field&lt;/strong&gt; is an appropriate context for situating our question in. If our question is, &amp;quot;How do modern bridges hold up so much weight?&amp;quot;, then we &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; situate this in terms of quantum physics, but doing so would be a grossly excessive level of detail, so we'd probably want to use engineering instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So it is for the study of behavior and the human condition: it is important to use the right tool for the job.&lt;/strong&gt; (Actually, I prefer to liken fields to painting styles, but the tool metaphor tends to get the job done faster, and I feel like this has already gotten long enough.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T19:28:48.153" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9815" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5233" CreationDate="2015-04-21T20:28:04.273" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1807/abstract-idealized-mental-visualization-improves-motor-task-performance/1808#1808&quot;&gt;Based on the article in my answer here&lt;/a&gt;, shifting attention and voluntary movement cause changes in the brain. In the example below, the cat's Raphe nucleus firing is subdued as the cat is orienting to look. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would hypothesize that  shifting focus between the fun activity (ex:playing with a pen) and conversational partner can help with the thinking process. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xooKG.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-04-21T20:28:04.273" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9820" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-04-22T04:32:03.130" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Evoked potentials are electrophysiological responses to physical stimuli. Evoked potentials are typically recorded from the scalp. The important difference with EEG is that evoked potentials are typically repeatedly registered and mathematically converted into an average response. Evoked potentials are often analyzed in terms of amplitude and latency, as opposed tom EEG which is more often analyzed in the frequency domain.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:31:53.197" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:31:53.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9821" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-04-22T04:32:03.130" Score="0" Body="For questions about evoked potentials. Differs from EEG in that evoked potentials are often analyzed in terms of amplitude and latency, while EEG is analyzed in the frequency domain.     " OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:31:53.197" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:31:53.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9822" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-04-22T07:00:07.113" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2015-04-22T07:00:07.113" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T07:00:07.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9823" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-04-22T07:00:07.113" Score="0" Body="The event-related potential technique non-invasively records neural responses to specific events. The event-related potential, or ERP, is extracted from the electro-encephalogram. ERPs are typically obtained in humans." OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-22T11:52:08.263" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T11:52:08.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9824" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7722" CreationDate="2015-04-22T08:41:35.757" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a large body of research on &lt;strong&gt;complex problem solving&lt;/strong&gt; that is highly relevant to your question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The starting point of this research was a critique of classic reasoning and problem solving research which seemed to focus on very small problems (such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_Hanoi&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tower of Hanoi&lt;/a&gt;), which may not capture the complexity of many real world problems that people face. The initial goal of this research was to conceptualize the characteristics of such problems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an attempt to find the common denominators of various definitions, Frensch and Funke (1995) define complex problem solving in the following way: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Complex problem solving] occurs to overcome barriers between a given state and a desired goal state by means of behavioral and/or cognitive, multistep activities. The given state, goal state, and barriers between given state and goal state are complex, change dynamically during problem solving, and are intransparent. The exact properties of the given state, goal state, and barriers are unknown to the solver at the outset. CPS implies the efficient interaction between a solver and the situational requirements of the task, and involves a solver’s cognitive, emotional, personal, and social abilities and knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;method&lt;/strong&gt; of choice to investigate complex problem solving has been to use &lt;strong&gt;computer-simulated microworlds&lt;/strong&gt; to pose complex problems, such as trying to improve the success of a simulated city as its mayor, fighting a wildfire, or running a factory  (Brehmer &amp;amp; Dörner, 1993, Dörner, 1997). In line with the definition, the performance in these simulations is determined in a complex way in that it is based on many decision variables, who are highly interconnected, and affect each other in a dynamic way. Furthermore, at the outset of the simulation, these variables and their relationships are intransparent and the simulation may be characterized by conflicting goals that have to be achieved by setting priorities and reaching compromises.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From this description, it may be clear that this research has focused more strongly on the &quot;problem side&quot;. However, it has also explicitly incorporated &lt;strong&gt;personality and characteristics of the decision maker&lt;/strong&gt;, such as motivation, certain (strategic) knowledge, and emotion regulation (see for example, Wenke et al. 2005). For example, much research has been devoted to the question whether the ability to solve complex problems can be distinguished from general intelligence. Some studies (e.g. Wüstenberg et al. 2012) suggest that even though performance assessed with in complex computer-simulated problems is highly related to intelligence, it can indeed predict behavior above and beyond IQ (incremental validity). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brehmer, B., &amp;amp; Dörner, D. (1993). Experiments with computer-simulated microworlds: Escaping both the narrow straits of the laboratory and the deep blue sea of the field study. Computers in Human Behavior, 9, 171–184.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dörner, D. (1997). The logic of failure. Recognizing and avoiding error&#xA;in complex situations. New York: Basic Books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frensch, P. and Funke, J. (1995) Definitions, Traditions and a General &#xA;Framework for Understanding Complex Problem Solving. In P. A. Frensch and&lt;br&gt;&#xA;J. Funke (Eds.), Complex Problem Solving: The European Perspective.(Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum). 3-25. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wenke, D., Frensch, P. A., &amp;amp; Funke, J. (2005). Complex problem&#xA;solving and intelligence: Empirical relation and causal direction.&#xA;In R. J. Sternberg &amp;amp; J. E. Pretz (Eds.),Cognition and intelligence:&#xA;Identifying the mechanisms of the mind (pp. 160–187). New York:&#xA;Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wüstenberg, S., Greiff, S., &amp;amp; Funke, J. (2012). Complex problem solving — More than reasoning? Intelligence, 40, 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2011.11.003&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-04-22T08:49:55.930" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T08:49:55.930" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9825" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1313" CreationDate="2015-04-22T12:52:00.237" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, it appears &lt;strong&gt;there is currently no research investigating how synaesthetes experience the binaural beats effect&lt;/strong&gt;. If any such research does exist, it does not appear to be available (in English) via Google Scholar, Web of Science or Scopus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, there is &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/8391/2868&quot;&gt;little research on binaural beats generally&lt;/a&gt;. I covered some of the scarce research that does exist on binaural beats in my answer to the question, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/9631/2868&quot;&gt;&quot;Is there scientific evidence on the benefits of binaural beats?&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which may be of some interest to you. However, the findings are generally inconclusive and do not allow us to theorize on how a synaesthete might experience the binaural beats effect. On the evidence, therefore, &lt;strong&gt;it is currently equally conceivable that synaesthetes do or do not experience binaural beats differently from healthy participants at all.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T12:52:00.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9826" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6247" CreationDate="2015-04-22T13:51:38.783" Score="3" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Some things omitted&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Although the criteria addresses learning new tasks in Adaptibility, it doesn't address the ability to switch between tasks easily.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Although Triangulation does address matching data, it doesn't discuss grounding the data in the real world vs. data fed from a dataset. In other words, it doesn't address the quality of the data matched.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Compactness doesn't address how easy anything is to explain or grasp. This might actually be wise, as understanding is highly dependent on tools available to the person grasping at comprehension.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Are there more complete criterion?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The criterion provided above provide a high-level view of the goals that should be sought after by any cognitive system, however this does not address &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; a system should pursue this goal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a more complete evaluation of the methods and tools that should be used, please see Terry Stewart's PHD thesis &lt;a href=&quot;https://curve.carleton.ca/system/files/theses/27919.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Methodology for Computational Cognitive Modelling&lt;/a&gt; which outlines a set of statistical methods and &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/tcstewar/ccmsuite&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tools&lt;/a&gt; for cognitive scientists (even without a significant statistical background) to use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2019-03-08T01:31:21.177" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T01:31:21.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="9827" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9828" CreationDate="2015-04-22T14:53:05.913" Score="6" ViewCount="614" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know a questionnaire regarding the motivation to be physically active? That is, the motivation to move more (i.e. walk, cycle, run) and sit less on a daily basis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8156" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-25T14:07:25.353" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T14:07:25.353" Title="Questionnaire regarding the motivation to be physically active" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9828" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9827" CreationDate="2015-04-22T15:09:04.293" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/%7Epes004/exercise_motivation/scales.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;David Markland's website&lt;/a&gt; has several related questionnaires and scales that are available for research use. The &lt;em&gt;Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire&lt;/em&gt; seems like a good fit:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire&lt;/em&gt; (BREQ) measures different forms of motivation for exercise based on Deci and Ryan's (1985, 1991) continuum conception of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several other related instruments also available on the same website:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Exercise Motivations Inventory-2&lt;/em&gt; (EMI-2) is a measure of participation motives or reasons for exercising. &lt;em&gt;The Exercise Motives and Gains Inventory&lt;/em&gt; (EMGI) is a recent development that complements the EMI-2 to provide scales assessing perceived gains from exercise that correspond to the EMI-2 scales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Perceived Environmental Supportiveness Scale&lt;/em&gt; measures perceptions of the extent to which exercise professionals provide individuals with support for their psychological needs (i.e., autonomy support, structure and involvement).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Exercise Causality Orientations Scale&lt;/em&gt; (ECOS) measures individual differences in the tendency to be autonomous, controlled or amotivated in exercise contexts and is derived from Deci and Ryan's Causality Orientations Theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale&lt;/em&gt; is a short measure of the degree to which individuals feel self-determined with respect to exercise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T15:14:18.987" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9829" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-22T16:12:48.430" Score="5" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hastie &amp;amp; Dawes (2009) claims that humans judge whether an instance belongs to a class using the contrast model, where &quot;we perceive similarity by making (very rapid) comparisons of the attributes of two or more entities whose similarity is being evaluated.&quot;  (Hastie &amp;amp; Dawes (2009).  &lt;em&gt;Rational Choice in an Uncertain World&lt;/em&gt;, p. 106)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book also claims that we often judge using an anchor-and-adjust strategy, considering one factor at a time because of &quot;our limited attention 'channels' and the selective strategies we have developed to deal with that cognitive limit.&quot;  (p. 72)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we employ an anchor-and-adjust strategy when employing the contrast model, i.e., are we contrasting one feature at a time, most salient feature first?  Alternatively, are there situations in which we are forced to work with one variable at a time, but other situations in which we can simultaneously compare multiple variables?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8079" LastEditorUserId="8079" LastEditDate="2016-06-14T22:28:07.310" LastActivityDate="2016-06-14T22:28:07.310" Title="How to reconcile contrast model (of similarity judgment) with anchor-and-adjust?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;anchoring&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9831" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9737" CreationDate="2015-04-22T20:06:32.703" Score="17" Body="&lt;h1&gt;A conscious basis for gender identification?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;There is currently no evidence to suggest that conscious experiences are a factor in leading a transgender person to identify with the opposite sex.&lt;/strong&gt; Additionally, there is mounting evidence that transgender children are statistically indistinguishable from children of the gender with which they identify, meaning the process is set as early as five years old in humans (Olson, Key and Eaton, 2015). This suggests a predominantly biological basis. Because we cannot, for good reasons, conduct the appropriate experiments on humans, it is difficult to collect direct experimental evidence for any biological hypothesis, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Mammalian gender and sexual behavior&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather than resulting from experience, &lt;strong&gt;the direction in which any mammal's sexual behavior will develop generally appears to be set sometime during the prenatal period&lt;/strong&gt;, long before humans start having or remembering conscious experiences. In some sense, it appears that gender may be more biological and less psychological than traditionally believed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subject was covered in a recent &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nn.3988.html&quot;&gt;Nature&lt;/a&gt; article, where researchers concluded that &lt;a href=&quot;http://epigenie.com/sex-on-the-brain-dna-methylation-defines-gender/&quot;&gt;DNA methylation plays a primary role in the determination of gender and sexual behavior&lt;/a&gt; (Nugent et al., 2015). In their experiment, the researchers manipulated developing rats' exposure to gonadal steroids by gene manipulation and pharmacological means, and thereby &lt;strong&gt;induced or inhibited masculinized sexual behavior&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pharmacological inhibition of Dnmts mimicked gonadal steroids, &lt;strong&gt;resulting in masculinized neuronal markers and male sexual behavior in female rats. Conditional knockout of the de novo Dnmt isoform, Dnmt3a, also masculinized sexual behavior in female mice.&lt;/strong&gt; RNA sequencing revealed gene and isoform variants modulated by methylation that may underlie the divergent reproductive behaviors of males versus females. &lt;strong&gt;Our data show that brain feminization is maintained by the active suppression of masculinization via DNA methylation.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One should be careful to generalize from rats to humans, but the proposed developmental dynamic of gender is highly consistent with the way mammalian &lt;em&gt;sex&lt;/em&gt; is believed to be determined, and &lt;strong&gt;the ability to induce and inhibit masculinized sexual behavior at will provides substantial evidence for the DNA methylation dynamics&lt;/strong&gt; hypothesis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Concluding remarks&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We ultimately do not yet fully understand the basis for human sexual behavior. What we can say is that &lt;strong&gt;we have no evidence for the idea that conscious experiences are in any way a factor in the development of gender or sexual behavior&lt;/strong&gt;, and that already by five years old, &lt;strong&gt;the direction of sexual behavior development has been set for long enough to render the transgender child statistically indistinguishable from a cisgender child of the gender they identify with&lt;/strong&gt;. A possible candidate theory for an underlying biological mechanism is prenatal DNA methylation dynamics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nugent, B. M., Wright, C. L., Shetty, A. C., Hodes, G. E., Lenz, K. M., Mahurkar, A., ... &amp;amp; McCarthy, M. M. (2015). Brain feminization requires active repression of masculinization via DNA methylation. Nature neuroscience.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Olson, K. R., Key, A. C., &amp;amp; Eaton, N. R. (2015). Gender Cognition in Transgender Children. Psychological science, 0956797614568156.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T20:06:32.703" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9832" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1081" CreationDate="2015-04-22T21:14:34.790" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The lateral amygdala appears to be involved in representing &lt;strong&gt;fear memories after extinction&lt;/strong&gt; (Hobin, Goosens and Maren, 2003). The extent of the lateral amygdala's involvement in representing these appears to revolve around the &lt;strong&gt;context&lt;/strong&gt; of the {CS, UCS} pair. The authors state the following in their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Similarly, the majority of LA neurons exhibited context-dependent spike firing; &lt;strong&gt;short-latency spike firing was greater to both CSs when they were presented outside of their own extinction context. In contrast, behavioral and neuronal responses to either non-extinguished CSs or habituated auditory stimuli were not contextually modulated.&lt;/strong&gt; Context-dependent neuronal activity in the LA may be an important mechanism for disambiguating the meaning of fear signals, thereby enabling appropriate behavioral responses to such stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You appear to be right to suspect the hippocampus' involvement.  In a subsequent study by Maren and Hobin (2007) using a similar Pavlovian methodology to the previous study, the authors reported that hippocampal activity was associated with regulation of context-dependent lateral amygdaloid activity and concluded the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;After saline infusion, rats froze more to the CS when it was presented outside of its extinction context, but froze equally in both contexts after muscimol infusion. In parallel with the behavior, &lt;strong&gt;lateral nucleus neurons exhibited context-dependent firing to extinguished CSs&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;strong&gt;hippocampal inactivation disrupted this activity pattern&lt;/strong&gt;. These data reveal a novel role for the hippocampus in regulating the context-specific firing of lateral amygdala neurons after fear memory extinction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, a context-related function of the lateral amygdala seems to provide a simple and plausible explanation for why fear extinction is far more difficult in human patients than laboratory rats: humans encounter a virtually infinite and certainly unpredictable space of possible contexts, whereas lab rats, by the nature of their unfortunate lot in life, tend to encounter relatively few and predictable contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I found it somewhat difficult to cover all the bases for your question and subquestions, so please comment if I need to expand on something.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hobin, J. A., Goosens, K. A., &amp;amp; Maren, S. (2003). Context-dependent neuronal activity in the lateral amygdala represents fear memories after extinction. The Journal of neuroscience, 23(23), 8410-8416.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Maren, S., &amp;amp; Hobin, J. A. (2007). Hippocampal regulation of context-dependent neuronal activity in the lateral amygdala. Learning &amp;amp; Memory, 14(4), 318-324.&#xA;Chicago &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T21:14:34.790" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9833" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1704" CreationDate="2015-04-22T21:56:07.567" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;As per the comments to the question, human research observing this distinction does exist. CHCH possibly alludes to an article by Gläscher, Daw, Dayan and O'Doherty (2010) which concisely defines the difference between model-free learning and model-based learning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reinforcement learning (RL) uses sequential experience with situations (“states”) and outcomes to assess actions. Whereas model-free RL uses this experience directly, in the form of a reward prediction error (RPE), model-based RL uses it indirectly, building a model of the state transition and outcome structure of the environment, and evaluating actions by searching this model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gläscher et al. (2010) report fMRI evidence for neural activity consistent with model-based learning in the human intraparietal sulcus and lateral prefrontal cortex, and for model-free learning in the ventral striatum. They conclude:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This finding supports the existence of two unique forms of learning signal in humans, which may form the basis of distinct computational strategies for guiding behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gläscher, J., Daw, N., Dayan, P., &amp;amp; O'Doherty, J. P. (2010). States versus rewards: dissociable neural prediction error signals underlying model-based and model-free reinforcement learning. Neuron, 66(4), 585-595.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-22T21:56:07.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9834" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1801" CreationDate="2015-04-23T08:37:28.400" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question seems to arise out of a slight terminological confusion. Empirical studies of human &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision-making&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;decision-making&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in particular are not covered by decision theory. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Decision theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is the mathematical study of strategies for optimal decision-making between options involving different risks or expectations of gain or loss depending on the outcome. These sometimes overlap, such as in economics, but one need not use decision &lt;em&gt;theory&lt;/em&gt; to study decision &lt;em&gt;making&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Decision theory could conceivably have some uses in game design, such as identifying dominant strategies (strategies that are always optimal, regardless of what any other player does), but &lt;strong&gt;decision theory takes the game rules as a given&lt;/strong&gt;. Hence, while it can help formalize the mechanics of a set of rules once they are designed, it doesn't have a way to actually generate rules. Decision theory is not so much helpful in designing game rules as in evaluating them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may be interested in what's called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanism_design&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mechanism design theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, or reverse game theory. In contrast to decision theory, mechanism design theory is designed to work 'forwards' rather than 'backwards.' Instead of taking the rules of the game (or mechanism) as a given, &lt;strong&gt;mechanism design theory takes the goal as a given and finds a suitable mechanism&lt;/strong&gt;. This seems to more closely fit what the question is looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-23T08:37:28.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9835" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="843" CreationDate="2015-04-23T09:01:48.850" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The state of the art in computer-scored Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT) as of 2015 appears to be that &lt;strong&gt;computer-scored TATs do not exist&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There does not appear to be any relevant results on Google Scholar, Web of Science or Scopus for any search I can think of including the term &quot;thematic apperception&quot; which yield any example or mention of computer-scored TATs, and all recent studies utilizing TATs have reported using standard versions (e.g., Turk et al., 2010). A 2013 book dedicated to the TAT, &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=MkCw8sTjTj0C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=%22thematic%20apperception%22&amp;amp;ots=IKQrMcHOxJ&amp;amp;sig=vDziIJmDy9AU19lYqzNeYlYTj2A#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22thematic%20apperception%22&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A practical guide to the Thematic Apperception Test: The TAT in clinical practice&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; also fails to make any mention of computer-scored or otherwise computerized implementations of the TAT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Aronow, E., Weiss, K. A., &amp;amp; Reznikoff, M. (2013). A practical guide to the Thematic Apperception Test: The TAT in clinical practice. Routledge.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Turk, A. A., Brown, W. S., Symington, M., &amp;amp; Paul, L. K. (2010). Social narratives in agenesis of the corpus callosum: linguistic analysis of the Thematic Apperception Test. Neuropsychologia, 48(1), 43-50.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-23T09:12:16.123" LastActivityDate="2015-04-23T09:12:16.123" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9837" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1778" CreationDate="2015-04-23T09:35:01.360" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;A 2006 study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christopher_Wickens/publication/6981582_Modeling_drivers&amp;#39;_visual_attention_allocation_while_interacting_with_in-vehicle_technologies/links/00b49518150af39a95000000.pdf&quot;&gt;Horrey, Wickens and Consalus&lt;/a&gt; implemented a computational SEEV (Salience, Effort, Effort, Value) model for driving behavior that predicted scanning behavior, which I surmise is what was meant. The authors conclude:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The most important practical implication of the current results is&#xA;  that a simple expected value version of the SEEV model provides&#xA;  a plausible and effective predictive model of scanning in driving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to fit your request.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Horrey, W. J., Wickens, C. D., &amp;amp; Consalus, K. P. (2006). Modeling drivers' visual attention allocation while interacting with in-vehicle technologies. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 12(2), 67.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-23T09:35:01.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9839" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-24T09:49:35.403" Score="9" ViewCount="394" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What examples of attempts to formalize a &lt;em&gt;principled&lt;/em&gt; physical basis for consciousness and/or a general theory of the mind exist?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read a fascinating ArXiV preprint last year called &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/abs/1401.1219&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Consciousness as a State of Matter&lt;/a&gt;. In this paper, physicist Max Tegmark proposed a formalization of consciousness in terms of a distinctive state of matter he termed &lt;strong&gt;perceptronium&lt;/strong&gt;. Tegmark concludes that we may identify conscious systems by use of six principles, which he bases on Tononi's &lt;strong&gt;integrated information framework&lt;/strong&gt; (Tononi, 2008), which I provide primarily for illustration:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Information:&lt;/strong&gt; A conscious system has substantial information storage capacity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dynamics:&lt;/strong&gt; A conscious system has substantial information processing capacity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Independence:&lt;/strong&gt; A conscious system has substantial independence from the rest of the world.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Integration:&lt;/strong&gt; A conscious system cannot consist of nearly independent parts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Autonomy:&lt;/strong&gt; A conscious system has substantial dynamics and independence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Utility:&lt;/strong&gt; An evolved conscious system records mainly information that is useful for it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(More accessible introductions may be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/physics/physicists-say-consciousness-might-be-a-state-of-matter/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/the-physics-arxiv-blog/why-physicists-are-saying-consciousness-is-a-state-of-matter-like-a-solid-a-liquid-or-a-gas-5e7ed624986d&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Formalizing consciousness and the mind?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tegmark's theory is prototypical of a number of recent jabs at a viable, &lt;strong&gt;general theory of the mind&lt;/strong&gt; defined as what we might call &lt;em&gt;the physical system which causes behavior&lt;/em&gt; that I am very excited about. I am also familiar with the somewhat related &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B008SM38VU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How Can the Human Mind Occur in the Physical Universe?&lt;/a&gt; (Anderson, 2007) as well as the general field of &lt;a href=&quot;http://ione.psy.uconn.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ecological psychology&lt;/a&gt; and radical embodied cognitive psychology, e.g. Chemero (2009). Because the content theory behind all of these are so qualitatively different, I would say the common denominator is more methodological and scope-related than strictly empirical, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, these jabs appear to represent &lt;strong&gt;a move away from the near-universal dependence on linear models and non-overlapping research scopes&lt;/strong&gt;, and towards more unifying theories of mind, cognition and behavior. I have some limited awareness of strictly methodological articles such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.comp-si.org/workshop-14-files/Butner_Psych%20Methods%202014.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this recent Psych Methods article&lt;/a&gt; which proposes topology as a general tool for the purpose (Butner et al., 2014). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find that these theories and methodologies, while often flawed in obvious ways (though not necessarily more-so than any others are), raise difficult questions that traditional theories and methodologies do not seem to allow for (Butner et al., 2014 discusses this in some detail). I would be very interested to know more about both general theories and methodologies similar to what I have referenced here, which I hope is sufficient to clarify this complex question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Formal generalizations allow us to see our fields' otherwise isolated findings in a wider perspective, and allow us to identify the forest we may otherwise miss for the trees. For example, an extremely interesting question raised by Tegmark's formalization is the following quote from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/the-physics-arxiv-blog/why-physicists-are-saying-consciousness-is-a-state-of-matter-like-a-solid-a-liquid-or-a-gas-5e7ed624986d&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Medium article&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tegmark points out that any information stored in a special network known as a Hopfield neural net [a type of neural network which Tegmark deems to satisfy his principles] automatically has this error-correcting facility. &lt;strong&gt;However, he calculates that a Hopfield net about the size of the human brain with 10^11 neurons, can only store 37 bits of integrated information&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is a difficult problem for Tononi's content theory to solve in other ways than by claiming Tegmark is somehow not fairly representing the theory, and this line of reasoning potentially has serious implications for all information-based theories. It is often asserted that the brain has incredible computational power ... but we rarely formalize our understanding of what this means. What if we have it all wrong, and it's simply physically and/or mathematically impossible for such a computational system to exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What examples of attempts to formalize a &lt;em&gt;principled&lt;/em&gt; physical basis for consciousness and/or a general theory of the mind exist?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Please don't feel discouraged from giving answers based on anything I have referenced. I would not say the information I have provided for anything besides Tegmark's theory constitutes a remotely sufficient answer, so they are fair game.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Related questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6247/criteria-for-evaluating-cognitive-systems&quot;&gt;Criteria for evaluating cognitive systems&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/288/what-are-good-examples-of-applying-dynamical-systems-in-cognitive-science&quot;&gt;What are good examples of applying dynamical systems in cognitive science?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anderson, J. R. (2007). How can the mind exist in a physical universe.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Butner, J. E., Gagnon, K. T., Geuss, M. N., Lessard, D. A., &amp;amp; Story, T. N. (2014). Utilizing Topology to Generate and Test Theories of Change.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chemero, A. (2009). Radical embodied cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tegmark, M. (2014). Consciousness as a State of Matter. arXiv preprint arXiv:1401.1219.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tononi, G. (2008). Consciousness as integrated information: a provisional manifesto. The Biological Bulletin, 215(3), 216-242.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2020-02-08T14:52:53.043" Title="The mind as a state of matter or physical system?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;dynamic-systems&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9840" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5756" CreationDate="2015-04-24T15:21:12.650" Score="6" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Has dom-ter loops theory been expressed formally in any kind of Jungian function theory study?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on a reasonably diverse search of Google Scholar, Web of Science and Scopus, I am concluding that &lt;strong&gt;dominant-tertiary loop theory seems to be an original proposal&lt;/strong&gt; by the author of the forum post cited by the question author. It appears to be a theory which has &lt;strong&gt;not been peer reviewed&lt;/strong&gt;, and which has &lt;strong&gt;not been validated&lt;/strong&gt; within the theoretical Jungian or empirical psychology literature. Hence, it appears that the answer to your question A is &lt;strong&gt;no, dominant-tertiary loop theory has not been expressed formally in any kind of Jungian function theory study.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Can dom-ter loops explain personality disorders?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the theory is an original proposal which has not undergone peer review or scientific testing, &lt;strong&gt;we cannot say whether or to what extent it might help to explain the development or maintenance of personality disorders&lt;/strong&gt; based on the available evidence (because there is none).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say it is not &lt;em&gt;trivially&lt;/em&gt; wrong, in the sense that it doesn't appear to be internally inconsistent or inconsistent with Jungian theory in any egregious way, but at the same time, the lack of empirical evidence implies that we have no credible reason to believe that it explains anything at all. &lt;strong&gt;It is conceivable, but not probable, that dom-ter loops can explain personality disorders.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Does the idea exist in other personality theories?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; No.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer:&lt;/strong&gt; The more popular modern personality theories differ in fundamental ways from Jungian theory's ontology of the mind, and one of these differences in particular makes the existence of such a theoretical explanation of personality disorders unlikely to work out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason is that psychodynamic theories assume personalities are a driving force underpinning behavior in a fundamentally &lt;strong&gt;dynamic&lt;/strong&gt; (intrinsically time-dependent) way, while theories like the Big Five tend to be more static (time-independent) and descriptive than explanatory. That's why it's meaningful to talk about discrete types in Jungian theory, because &lt;strong&gt;it is conceivable that stable classes of patterns of behavior can emerge from interaction over time between these driving forces based on their relative contribution to determining behavior&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Static theories such as the Big Five or Cattell's 16PF do not have the same notion of intrinsic dynamics and interaction over time, so &lt;strong&gt;they can't lead to the same notion of discrete types&lt;/strong&gt;. Instead of discrete types, the development of personality disorders is today mostly based on a statistical &lt;strong&gt;diathesis-stress model&lt;/strong&gt;, which, for example, might hold that people who are high on &lt;strong&gt;neuroticism&lt;/strong&gt; in the Big Five are statistically more likely to develop &lt;strong&gt;anxiety disorders&lt;/strong&gt; given the right &lt;strong&gt;stressor&lt;/strong&gt;. The statistical basis allows for more fine-grained analysis of interactions, but also makes them more difficult to understand and identify with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Closing remarks&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Satisfying negative answers are always difficult to write in the cognitive sciences, so I hope I have covered all the bases. Please let me know if I need to elaborate or explain on anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T15:23:43.687" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9841" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7608" CreationDate="2015-04-24T16:53:57.723" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; This question does not have a sociological or other scientific answer because it cannot be studied empirically as currently conceived, but it is a valid question all the same. It may still be possible for a humanistic field of study, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://history.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;History&lt;/a&gt;, to provide a satisfying answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer:&lt;/strong&gt; There is currently no way to define what or how any observable variables might map on to &quot;society,&quot; &quot;oppression&quot; or &quot;exploitation&quot; in a sufficiently specific sense. Because we cannot &lt;strong&gt;operationalize&lt;/strong&gt; what exactly change in society over time means, or whether society's current state is an &quot;extreme&quot; in a way we can systematically observe and record, we cannot give &lt;strong&gt;scientific evidence&lt;/strong&gt; (sociological or otherwise) one way or the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, depending on &lt;strong&gt;which&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;how many&lt;/strong&gt; variables we choose as our measure of society's change over time, and &lt;strong&gt;how long&lt;/strong&gt; we choose to study them for, we may find that society does oscillate between extremes, or that it doesn't, or that it goes through periods of oscillating and not oscillating, or that some parts of society do oscillate while other don't, or a virtually infinite set of other conceivable models. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With no way to distinguish the relative &lt;strong&gt;likelihood&lt;/strong&gt; of different models using empirical evidence, we have no credible scientific reason to believe any of them are more likely than any other, and hence no ground on which to base potential scientific theories on. &lt;strong&gt;Colloquially speaking, we cannot theorize about evidence we don't know how to collect.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Concluding remarks&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am providing a negative answer to this question because it is the top result on Google for its title, because it has survived my close vote, because I answered the author's directly related question, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9812/how-can-we-realize-when-a-sociological-question-is-impossible-to-answer&quot;&gt;&quot;How can we realize when a sociological question is impossible to answer?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; and, last but not least, because I like bounties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T16:53:57.723" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5158" CreationDate="2015-04-24T17:20:23.277" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A study reported, in the 80's, that &lt;strong&gt;unmarried cohabitation prior to marriage was associated with &amp;quot;significantly&amp;quot; lower marital satisfaction&lt;/strong&gt;, but did not report an effect size. They also reported that &lt;strong&gt;the duration of unmarried cohabitation was unrelated to marital satisfaction&lt;/strong&gt;(DeMaris and Leslie, 1984). A later study by the same lead author from the 90's reported that &lt;strong&gt;unmarried cohabitation predicted later divorce after controlling for time in union&lt;/strong&gt; (DeMaris and Rao, 1992), which I include because time in union could be a confounding factor and I could not find direct evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wydick (2007) gave a game theoretic account of why unmarried cohabitation may lead to relatively decreased marital satisfaction which I am not qualified to evaluate, but the paper cites a number of empirical studies that support DeMaris' older thesis, so this paper may also be of some interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not to speculate, but this is subjectively surprising to me. When I began the literature search, I was confident the idea was nonsense, and yet here we are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;DeMaris, A., &amp;amp; Leslie, G. R. (1984). Cohabitation with the future spouse: Its influence upon marital satisfaction and communication. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 77-84.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;DeMaris, A., &amp;amp; Rao, K. V. (1992). Premarital cohabitation and subsequent marital stability in the United States: A reassessment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 178-190.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wydick, B. (2007). Grandma was right: Why cohabitation undermines relational satisfaction, but is increasing anyway. Kyklos, 60(4), 617-645.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T19:15:12.897" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9843" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8785" CreationDate="2015-04-24T18:02:32.193" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot;&gt;Big Five model&lt;/a&gt; (OCEAN) of personality is based on statistical analysis of a person's tendency to agree or disagree with short descriptive statements, and consists of the following component dimensions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Openness to experience (O):&lt;/strong&gt; general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conscientiousness (C):&lt;/strong&gt; tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement against measures or outside expectations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extraversion (E):&lt;/strong&gt; breadth of activities (as opposed to depth), surgency from external activity/situations, and energy creation from external means.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Agreeableness (A):&lt;/strong&gt; general concern for social harmony and importance placed on getting along with others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuroticism (N):&lt;/strong&gt; tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of these, I would argue that &lt;strong&gt;the trait which most directly maps on to the concept of a &quot;need for validation&quot; by itself would be Agreeableness.&lt;/strong&gt; This is the short answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can, however, imagine a person who is high on Agreeableness, but for personal/cultural/religious reasons does not directly value others' approval; we can similarly imagine a person who is high on Neuroticism and experiences social anxiety, seeking others' approval to alleviate that anxiety. This can be extended to any combination of traits. These more indirect means of obtaining &quot;need for validation&quot; behaviors means that &lt;strong&gt;it is difficult to speak confidently of any one set of Big Five traits, and only that set of traits, mapping on to &quot;need for validation.&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T18:02:32.193" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9844" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9374" CreationDate="2015-04-24T18:52:33.740" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Overall, while there are developing cognitive neuroscience theories of how hypnotic states are produced, &lt;strong&gt;there does not appear to be any known cognitive neuroscience basis for individual differences in hypnotic susceptibility&lt;/strong&gt; based on a reasonable Google Scholar, Web of Science and Scopus search on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is at least &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt; evidence to suggest that &lt;strong&gt;highly hypnotic participants exhibit different EEG activity patterns&lt;/strong&gt; (Sabourin et al., 1990). A later review of the hypnosis literature proposed an attentional explanation for the difference in hypnotic behavior for highs and lows (Crawford, 1994). They specifically propose that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;highly hypnotizable persons (highs) possess stronger attentional filtering abilities than do low hypnotizable persons, and that these differences are reflected in underlying brain dynamics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, a still later study more specifically implicated the &lt;strong&gt;anterior cingulate cortex&lt;/strong&gt;, the &lt;strong&gt;thalamus&lt;/strong&gt;, and the &lt;strong&gt;ponto-mesencephalic brainstem&lt;/strong&gt; in the production of hypnotic states (Rainville et al., 2002), but they make no mention of differences of highly and less hypnotically susceptible individuals. This seems to be a trend in the literature I reviewed, suggesting the concept may have been abandoned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Crawford, H. J. (1994). Brain dynamics and hypnosis: Attentional and disattentional processes. International journal of clinical and experimental hypnosis, 42(3), 204-232.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rainville, P., Hofbauer, R. K., Bushnell, M. C., Duncan, G. H., &amp;amp; Price, D. D. (2002). Hypnosis modulates activity in brain structures involved in the regulation of consciousness. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 14(6), 887-901.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sabourin, M. E., Cutcomb, S. D., Crawford, H. J., &amp;amp; Pribram, K. (1990). EEG correlates of hypnotic susceptibility and hypnotic trance: Spectral analysis and coherence. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 10(2), 125-142.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-24T18:52:33.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9847" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9848" CreationDate="2015-04-25T02:36:44.820" Score="5" ViewCount="897" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unless I am mistaken, I recall hearing an English teacher say that social interaction can increase IQ, but I found no sources discussing this when I searched on Google and Google Scholar for it. So, can social interaction increase IQ or intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7329" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T05:04:26.993" Title="Does social interaction increase intelligence?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9847" CreationDate="2015-04-25T04:49:07.520" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;NB: my apologies, not enough rep points to post additional links.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;this is far too nebulous a statement, and if it were true, would most likely be based on non-experimental data. one example that immediately comes to mind is case studies looking at the effects of social deprivation amongst children in romanian orphanages. there are also a lot of different ways to interpret this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;for example, is it possible that your teacher was actually referring to vygotsky's  &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.au/books?id=GUTyDVORhHkC&amp;amp;lpg=PA155&amp;amp;dq=vygotsky%20zone%20of%20proximal%20development&amp;amp;pg=PA155#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=vygotsky%20zone%20of%20proximal%20development&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;zone of proximal development&lt;/a&gt; -- a theory of childhood learning, wherein learning is thought to occur best when interacting with an older, slightly more competent peer? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in animal behavioural models involving rodents and the like, there is robust empirical evidence that &lt;em&gt;social deprivation&lt;/em&gt; is associated with cognitive deficits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.05207.x/full&quot;&gt;Social isolation rearing-induced impairment of the hippocampal neurogenesis is associated with deficits in spatial memory and emotion-related behaviors in juvenile mice.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Long-term social isolation exacerbates the impairment of spatial working memory in APP/PS1 transgenic mice. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;when looking at animal models one caveat, amongst many, however, is obviously the presumption that we are modelling the same phenomenon in animals as we are in humans. in this case, it certainly &lt;em&gt;looks&lt;/em&gt; like social deprivation studies might give us a clue about the effect of social interaction in humans. but could this be modelling something else, say, environmental deprivation? in other words, is there something intrinsically important about social interaction, or is it a form of environmental enrichment, one whose contribution could be supplanted if one were to be exposed to alternative stimuli. but i digress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;but I found no sources discussing this when I searched on Google and Google Scholar for it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;rather than social interaction and intelligence, searching for the keywords &lt;em&gt;social deprivation&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;social isolation&lt;/em&gt; may prove more fruitful. instead of IQ, you should use some of the purported factors of IQ, such as &lt;em&gt;working memory&lt;/em&gt;. but generally, you will likely find more data on animal behavioural studies than humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;one exception to this may be the effect of social interaction and acquisition upon language ability, particularly foreign languages. in these domains, you will likely find more robust evidence to support the importance of social interaction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Foreign-language experience in infancy: Effects of short-term exposure and social interaction on phonetic learning.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So, can social interaction increase IQ or intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the cliff's notes of it: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;i think you could confidently say that social deprivation has deleterious effects on cognitive ability.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;social interaction is significant in the development of language development, perhaps also verbal ability.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;social deprivation notwithstanding, its contribution in a normative population is unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2015-04-25T05:04:26.993" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T05:04:26.993" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9849" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1464" CreationDate="2015-04-25T10:32:05.563" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;There are no known domain-general ways of formulating good questions and problems&lt;/strong&gt;—what constitutes a good question or problem formulation depends on the field or domain. A good psychology question is different from a good literary question, which in turn is different from a good business question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because there are no known domain-independent ways of formulating good questions and problems, but I believe this is a valuable question, I will focus my answer on the limited literature covering &lt;strong&gt;the formulation of good behavioral and social science questions&lt;/strong&gt;. In general, while formulating good questions is specific to the domain or related set of domains of interest, research on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideation_(idea_generation)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ideation&lt;/a&gt; or idea generation is covered by the field of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;creativity&lt;/a&gt; research (but this does not cover &lt;em&gt;good&lt;/em&gt; questions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Research heuristics and hypothesis generation&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Theory&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many scientific methodology courses focus almost entirely on &lt;strong&gt;study design&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;hypothesis testing&lt;/strong&gt; appropriate for the field, while neglecting the critical aspects of &lt;strong&gt;hypothesis generation&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;research heuristics&lt;/strong&gt;. Research is somewhat scarce, but some frameworks &lt;em&gt;have&lt;/em&gt; been proposed, of which I am most familiar with &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://sing.stanford.edu/cs303-sp11/papers/mcguire_hypothesis_gen.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McGuire's 49 research heuristics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (McGuire, 1997). These heuristics are grouped into five categories, which I will try to briefly summarize.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sensitivity to provocative natural occurrences:&lt;/strong&gt; Systematically paying attention, making systematic observations, looking for anomalies (unexpected, nonobvious relations) and attempting to explain these.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Simple conceptual analysis:&lt;/strong&gt; Thought and experiments conceptual analysis such as counterexamples, imagining counterfactuals, reversing causal direction and so forth on a defined set of phenomena.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Complex conceptual analysis:&lt;/strong&gt; Deductive reasoning and generalization, convergent-divergent ideation processes and metatheorical techniques.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reinterpretations of past research:&lt;/strong&gt; Expert knowledge, reevaluating the scope of evidence accounted for and meta-analysis or review.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Collecting new or reanalyzing old data:&lt;/strong&gt; Quantitative and qualitative analysis of new evidence, or novel analysis of existing evidence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McGuire's theoretical framework is not the only one. Lubart and Getz (1998), for example, proposed three different research heuristics within the domain of psychology based on a historical analysis of psychological research. They named these the &lt;strong&gt;trilogy-of-mind&lt;/strong&gt; heuristic (&amp;quot;the mind comprises cognition, conation and affection&amp;quot;), the &lt;strong&gt;emotions-as-moods&lt;/strong&gt; (&amp;quot;complex human emotion reduces to simple moods&amp;quot;) heuristic, and the &lt;strong&gt;analysis-of-variance&lt;/strong&gt; (&amp;quot;the map is the territory&amp;quot;) heuristic. Both frameworks are ultimately based on analysis of heuristics researchers have used, rather than directly investigating these heuristics' efficacy, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Others have questioned whether the search for such heuristics is a good idea in the first place. For example, a critique of research heuristics in a related field leveled by Anderson, De Dreu and Nijstad (2004) is the dilemma that &lt;strong&gt;research heuristics may &amp;quot;routizine&amp;quot; research&lt;/strong&gt;. This is a possible problem, and they also report evidence for &amp;quot;a heavy focus on replication–extension, cross-sectional designs, and a single level of analysis in innovation research.&amp;quot; However, &lt;strong&gt;it is not clear that this routinization caused by research heuristics&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Evidence&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, the neglect of hypothesis generation in scientific training is reflected in the empirical literature, if not the theoretical literature. &lt;strong&gt;There are no or very limited empirical research programmes or frameworks directly investigating the relative or absolute efficacy of different research heuristics or approaches&lt;/strong&gt;, even in terms of relatively obtainable measures like impact factor or publication rate. Therefore, although I subjectively find them helpful, &lt;strong&gt;we ultimately cannot say with confidence whether or which of any of McGuire's (or others') heuristics are effective for formulating good questions and problems or not&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anderson, N., De Dreu, C. K. W. and Nijstad, B. A. (2004), The routinization of innovation research: a constructively critical review of the state-of-the-science. J. Organiz. Behav., 25: 147–173. doi: 10.1002/job.236&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lubart, T. I. and Getz, I. (1998), The Influence of Heuristics on Psychological Science: A Case Study of Research on Creativity. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 28: 435–457. doi: 10.1111/1468-5914.00083&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McGuire, W. J. (1997). Creative hypothesis generating in psychology: Some useful heuristics. Annual review of psychology, 48(1), 1-30.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T10:37:39.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9850" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9855" CreationDate="2015-04-25T10:52:29.843" Score="4" ViewCount="561" Body="&lt;p&gt;How much sleep is needed for peak cognitive performance? If some were to, for example, wake up one morning at 12:30PM, would a sleeping pill help obtain better sleep required for that performance the next morning at 08:00AM? And when would the optimal time be for the consumption of that sleeping pill? Is the amount of drawbacks in cognitive performance perceptible for 4.5 hours of sleep vs. 7 hours of sleep? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8174" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-25T13:34:52.390" LastActivityDate="2016-12-30T03:33:02.820" Title="How much sleep is needed for peak cognitive performance?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9851" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-25T11:16:40.023" Score="5" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;In one of his books (cannot recall title now) Konrad Lorentz (ethology study) describes the phenomenon of the appearance of a friendly smile as a spontaneous inversion of a warning grin. He does not make mention about laughter, though. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am curious whether there is any work done on the evolution of laughter? Is there a connection with social organization? For example, crocodiles do not laugh.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there indicators on connections with a similar inversion mechanism as described above for the warning grin, e.g. a &quot;warning roar&quot; turning into laughter, for example?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7881" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-04-25T11:51:52.170" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T11:51:52.170" Title="Evolution of laughter" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9852" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1555" CreationDate="2015-04-25T11:52:05.007" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Enneagram model of personality (Riso and Hudson, 1999) has limited and mixed scientific evidence supporting it.&lt;/strong&gt; One of the few studies reporting on the model's validity (Newgent et al., 2004) concluded the following in their abstract.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results of 287 participants were analyzed. Alpha suggests an adequate degree of internal consistency. &lt;strong&gt;Evidence provides mixed support for construct validity using correlational and canonical analyses but strong support for heuristic value.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Newgent et al. (2004)'s interpretation is consistent with my own reading of the limited Enneagram validation literature that exists. However, other validation studies &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; report their results in more unequivocally positive terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One such study claimed that they distinguished Enneagram types using a unique pattern of traits, values and implicit motives, thereby demonstrating that the Enneagram typology provides a way of describing the &quot;whole person&quot; (Sutton, Allinson and Williams, 2013). Another claimed that the enneagram typology appears to have diagnostic, prognostic, and heuristic value for the study of personality structure and dynamics (Wagner and Walker, 1983). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These claims are based on simple statistically significant relationships, however, which is frankly speaking more consistent with the interpretation of Newgent et al. (2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Newgent, R.A., Parr, P.E., Newman, I. &amp;amp; Higgins, K.K. (2004). The Riso-Hudson Enneagram type indicator: Estimates of reliability and validity. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 36, pp. 226–237.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Riso, D. R., &amp;amp; Hudson, R. (1999). The Riso-Hudson Enneagram type indicator. New York: The Enneagram Institute.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sutton, A., Allinson, C., Williams, H. (2013). Personality type and work-related outcomes: An exploratory application of the Enneagram model, European Management Journal, Volume 31, Issue 3, June 2013, pp. 234-249, ISSN 0263-2373. doi: 10.1016/j.emj.2012.12.004.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wagner, J. P. and Walker, R. E. (1983), Reliability and validity study of a Sufi personality typology: The enneagram. J. Clin. Psychol., 39: 712–717.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T11:52:05.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9853" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6087" CreationDate="2015-04-25T12:51:18.693" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Cognitive therapy&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The driving principle behind &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is that mental problems are caused not by any 'objective' qualities of the events that we experience, but our perception and interpretation of those events. By changing these perceptions and interpretations, we can alleviate or solve those problems (Beck, 1970).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this sense, &lt;strong&gt;Carr's method can be seen as consistent with cognitive therapy&lt;/strong&gt;, but I would not go so far as to call it a &lt;em&gt;form&lt;/em&gt; of cognitive therapy without peer review and validation that does not seem to exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Cognitive behavioral therapy&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference between Burns' and Carr's methods can be explained by the fact that Burns is a &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive behavioral therapist&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (CBT). This is a form of therapy which incorporates and expands on the principles of cognitive therapy, by acknowledging that not all of our perceptions and interpretations are under rational or conscious control. It therefore incorporates both cognitive and behavioral elements. An introduction to and meta-review of CBT's efficacy compared to therapy forms like cognitive therapy can be found in Butler et al. (2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Validity of Carr's method&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carr's work does not appear to have been directly referenced, at least not in any readily discoverable form, in the psychological literature. This may be because his method is actually not new, but seems to have been loosely based on a mix of Beck's ideas and Albert Ellis' stoicism-inspired &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_Emotive_Therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rational therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, so it should not necessarily be taken to mean that the method is nonsense; Carr may simply be popularizing established methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beck, A. T. (1970). Cognitive therapy: Nature and relation to behavior therapy. Behavior therapy, 1(2), 184-200.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Butler, A. C., Chapman, J. E., Forman, E. M., &amp;amp; Beck, A. T. (2006). The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: a review of meta-analyses. Clinical psychology review, 26(1), 17-31.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T12:51:18.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9854" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6082" CreationDate="2015-04-25T13:14:44.933" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;No, people who have experienced some psychopathology, went into cognitive therapy and resolved their problems would most likely not benefit strongly from continuing cognitive therapy.&lt;/strong&gt; However, they may still benefit from additional therapy in case of relapsing or future problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Cognitive therapy&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive therapy&lt;/a&gt; is a short-term therapy that was designed to &amp;quot;modify an individual's idiosyncratic, maladaptive ideation&amp;quot; (Beck, 1970).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic cognitive technique consists of delineating the individual's specific misconceptions, distortions, and maladaptive assumptions, and of testing their validity and reasonableness. By loosening the grip of his perseverative, distorted ideation, the patient is enabled to formulate his experiences more realistically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Strictly speaking, therefore, &lt;strong&gt;once maladaptive ideation can no longer be detected in the individual, the individual's problem is solved to the extent it can be solved&lt;/strong&gt;, at least insofar as cognitive therapy's notion of psychopathology is concerned. This does not necessarily mean the patient is problem-free, only free of detectable problems that cognitive therapy applies to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beck, A. T. (1970). Cognitive therapy: Nature and relation to behavior therapy. Behavior therapy, 1(2), 184-200.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T13:24:09.810" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9855" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9850" CreationDate="2015-04-25T13:16:15.413" Score="7" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How much sleep is needed for peak cognitive performance. If some were for &gt;example wake up one morning at 12:30 pm would a sleeping pill help obtain &gt;better sleep required for that performance the next morning at 08:00 am ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It depends on what pharmacotherapies - per the clinical judgement of their treating physician - one may have consumed. Conceptually, we might consider the two most psychopharmacologically relevant agents to be psychostimulants (coll. &quot;uppers&quot;) and sedatives (coll. &quot;downers&quot; aka &quot;goofballs&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding sedatives, one's biggest concern would be a residual hangover effect. This is influenced by the agent's half-life (t½). For future reference, some 8 drug half-lives are needed for complete elimination. A short-acting benzodiazepine such as midazolam (t½ = several hours) is less likely to have residual effects than a long-acting barbiturate such as phenobarbital (t½ = 100+ hours). Non-benzodiazepine sedatives such as zolpidem appear so-so with regards to hangover, zaleplon seems to fair considerably better [1]. sedating antihistamines are horrendous [2]. If one had an enterically-coated &quot;XR&quot; tablet, one might do well to crush it up before swallowing, to ensure a more amenable pharmacokinetic profile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is it perceptable the amount of drawbacks in cognitive performance in&#xA;  a situation of 4.5 hrs of sleep vs 7 hrs of sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, a caveat: individual differences apply here [3]. You know the answer for your own cognitive faculties better than anyone else. Interestingly, here is one paper that shows relatively modest drops in performance after acute sleep deprivation; chronic sleep deprivation, however, appears to have a deleterious dose-dependent effect [4]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of direct relevance to your actual question, the above study notes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Based on these findings, it appears that the inflection point (i.e. the minimum amount of nightly sleep required to achieve a state of equilibrium in which daytime alertness and performance can be maintained at a stable, albeit reduced, level) is approximately 4 h per night.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; [4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Who'd've thunk, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The issue boils down to this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Will the time you spend attempting to encode new memories into your LTM be more beneficial than the loss in attentional and executive function, as well as loss of potential REM-related memory consolidation and subsequent recall at the time of your examination?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to one's own therapeutic needs, it is always prudent that one consult with their treating physician. Here are my own reckless thoughts on the matter:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ideal situation: if one's healthcare practitioner has prescribed them the sedative sodium oxybate (better known as GHB), then per oral administration of 4-5 grams GHB, followed by rapid onset of 4 hours of deep, refreshing sleep, might be indicated [5]. It would appear very unfortunate that GHB developed a reputation as a date rape drug, as anecdotally, some individuals consider it the &quot;perfect sleep aid&quot;, particularly during exam periods.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If one's healthcare practitioner has prescribed them any of the following psychostimulants: d-amphetamine [6], modafinil [6] or perhaps methylphenidate they may wish to consider - per the recommendation of their physician, of course - skipping sleep entirely. Obviously, this is contingent upon their ability to recover following completion  of their work, study or family-related responsibilities, but may result in greater performance relative to brief, fragmented sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If one's healthcare practitioner has prescribed them a short-acting benzodiazepine, one may still find that their sleep disorder is refractory and follows this particular clinical course: sleep from 10 pm  to 2-4 am, awakening, titration of caffeine as indicated. They may find that 4-6 hours post-awakening, their cognitive abilities are better than had they slept the same amount of time and awoken closer to 8 am.[7]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remain valiant, soldier. Some people's best exam performances have come from around 3-4 hours of broken sleep care of a third of a bottle of Jack Daniels.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] A comparison of the residual effects of zaleplon and zolpidem following administration 5 to 2 h before awakening &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2125.1999.00024.x/epdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2125.1999.00024.x/epdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Next-Day Residual Sedative Effect After Nighttime Administration of an Over-the-Counter Antihistamine Sleep Aid, Diphenhydramine, Measured by Positron Emission Tomography &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/psychopharmacology/Abstract/2010/12000/Next_Day_Residual_Sedative_Effect_After_Nighttime.9.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journals.lww.com/psychopharmacology/Abstract/2010/12000/Next_Day_Residual_Sedative_Effect_After_Nighttime.9.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Inter- and intra-individual variability in performance near the circadian nadir during sleep deprivation. &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2004.00429.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2004.00429.x/full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Patterns of performance degradation and restoration during sleep restriction and subsequent recovery: a sleep dose-response study.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2869.2003.00337.x/epdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2869.2003.00337.x/epdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[5] Enhancing Slow Wave Sleep with Sodium Oxybate Reduces the Behavioral and &#xA;Physiological Impact of Sleep Loss.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2938863/pdf/aasm.33.9.1217.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2938863/pdf/aasm.33.9.1217.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[6] Modafinil, d-amphetamine and placebo during 64 hours of sustained mental work. I. Effects on mood, fatigue, cognitive performance and body temperature. &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2869.1995.tb00172.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2869.1995.tb00172.x/abstract&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[7] Personal communications with myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2016-12-30T03:33:02.820" LastActivityDate="2016-12-30T03:33:02.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9856" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9860" CreationDate="2015-04-25T16:41:01.997" Score="5" ViewCount="172" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am taking a psychology class. The professor wants us to use APA format for citations. I have read that if I am not quoting material directly, then the page numbers are not required. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I think its bad practice not to cite page numbers. For example, when I cite my textbook, if I don't give a page number, the person would have to go through the entire book to find the passages I am talking about. And that just seems stupid when I could simple add the page number. But I am not quoting directly, so I'm not sure if it customary to incorporate page numbers like that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any suggestions for what to do? I'm sure my professor is trying to get us to practice using APA style correctly, so I'm really just trying to find out if I incorporate page numbers for everything would that be outside the norm. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastActivityDate="2015-04-27T04:59:04.333" Title="When using APA style citations, is it acceptable to have page numbers for everything?" Tags="&lt;apa-style&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9857" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9856" CreationDate="2015-04-25T17:20:37.333" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Page numbers aren't required in APA style because in a typical journal article a citation doesn't refer to a specific part of the work being cited. For example, if I make the claim that &lt;em&gt;dogs are better than cats&lt;/em&gt; then I might reference an experiment that tested this claim. I'm not referring to any specific passage in the journal article, I'm referring to the whole article and what they found. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T17:20:37.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9856" CreationDate="2015-04-25T17:24:52.690" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yes, page numbers should generally be included.&lt;/strong&gt; (As Josh notes in his answer, periodical articles need only cite the pages of the article as a whole, rather than the specific claim.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The spirit of a citation is to allow the reader to quickly and conveniently locate what you're citing, and especially citations of extensive books can be difficult to pin down without knowing the pages that include the relevant information. (However, when making a reference to a book or its themes more generally, I think it is not strictly necessary.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find more information in the APA style manual, but a great online resource is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/1/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab's&lt;/a&gt; APA formatting guide. All citations need to follow some &lt;a href=&quot;https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/05/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;basic guidelines&lt;/a&gt;, but the APA style manual has explicit standards for how to cite different sources―&lt;a href=&quot;https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/07/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;periodical articles&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/08/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;books&lt;/a&gt;, and so forth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How to cite periodical articles and books&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Periodicals&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Author, A. A., Author, B. B., &amp;amp; Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number(issue number), pages. ttp://dx.doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyyy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Article or Chapter in an Edited Book&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Author, A. A., &amp;amp; Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. A. Editor &amp;amp; B. B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Google Scholar, most reference managers (such as Mendeley) and some periodical websites will also allow you to automatically export an APA-style citation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-25T17:24:52.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9859" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9947" CreationDate="2015-04-25T19:24:59.270" Score="8" ViewCount="243" Body="&lt;p&gt;I use quizzes in teaching, but have started to worry that they do more harm than good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's why: We have all learned from &quot;the testing effect&quot; that the act of taking a test is part of the practice that leads to learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Say I give my students a multiple choice quiz, immediately after a lecture, to practice. And let's say question looks like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Who wrote The Blank Slate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[] Steven Pinker&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[] Jessie Pinkman&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[] Mr Pink&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A student that did not pay much attention at class, may vaguely recognise the second name, so he checks the middle box and moves on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Has the student now reinforced the incorrect option, and thus created a net negative learning?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then, as a part two of the same question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it make a difference if the test is done on the same day as the lecture, when the new knowledge is still fluent, or after sleep, when the new knowledge is consolidated (and weak memories culled)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part three: Does it make a difference if the quiz is on paper, and thus gives no direct feedback, or online, and can indicate the correct answer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched Google Scholar extensively, but not found anything on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8176" LastEditorUserId="8176" LastEditDate="2015-04-26T07:12:45.617" LastActivityDate="2015-05-03T20:11:02.397" Title="Do distractors create false learning in multiple choice questions?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9860" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9856" CreationDate="2015-04-26T03:47:57.280" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In APA style, when you cite a work, you add an in-text citation in the body of the work and you add the full reference to the reference list at the end of the work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;End of text references for book chapters, journal articles, and similar works include the page range of the work in the reference. This  refers to the start and end page of the cited work (and not to the particular pages that contain the content most relevant to your citation).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In-text citations need to include page numbers when you are quoting a passage of text.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;APA stye encourages but does not require the use of page numbers in in-text citations where you are paraphrasing a specific passage of text (i.e., putting a passage of text in your own words). That said, I rarely see this practice in journals, and don't be surprised if someone marking your paper is unaware of this rule.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The more common rule is that if it is not a quote, then you don't use page numbers in in-text citations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Rationale&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @Josh points out, most citations in psychology refer to overall works. For example, a journal article may present the results of an experiment, and these results and communicated and discussed in multiple points in the article. Thus, you are citing the work as a whole, and it does not make sense to refer to specific page numbers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I think there are times where authors cite an entire book written by one author for a reference, and some form of page reference would make the citation more useful for the reader (e.g., a particular chapter might be most relevant).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Tutorials&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Purdue OWL APA Format&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-27T04:59:04.333" LastActivityDate="2015-04-27T04:59:04.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9861" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-04-26T03:49:59.983" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;APA style is a format for academic documents such as journal articles and books. It is codified in the style guide of the American Psychological Association (APA), titled the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_style&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_style&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://apastyle.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://apastyle.org/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-26T03:49:59.983" LastActivityDate="2015-04-26T03:49:59.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9862" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-04-26T03:49:59.983" Score="0" Body="APA style is a format for academic documents such as journal articles and books. It is codified in the style guide of the American Psychological Association (APA), titled the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. " OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-26T03:49:59.983" LastActivityDate="2015-04-26T03:49:59.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9863" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4912" CreationDate="2015-04-26T05:03:04.277" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I feel that there is a misnomer here... a reward is a reward.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There are Intrinsic and Extrinsic &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Motivators&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intrinsic&lt;/strong&gt; - The feel good motivation you get from within for accomplishing of completing a task. Because it felt good, you want to do more. This could be classified as a &lt;em&gt;reward&lt;/em&gt;, but generally speaking an emotional response isn't necessarily a reward. Generally in Gamification a reward is a tangible or virtual gift given to the user for completing a task - an extrinsic component.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extrinsic&lt;/strong&gt; - An enticing benefit will be earned/granted if you complete the challenge/task so you follow through to completion to earn the gift. Extrinsic motivators &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; rewards. One is coaxed into finishing the task because of the reward, not the good feeling of accomplishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the risk of pulling users away from this site, and plopping them down at the newly launched &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://gamification.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Gamification site&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, I thought I may post these questions here that directly relate to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://gamification.stackexchange.com/questions/27/how-do-you-balance-intrinsic-and-extrinsic-motivators&quot;&gt;How do you balance Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivators&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://gamification.stackexchange.com/questions/141/are-imaginary-internet-points-enough/&quot;&gt;Are Imaginary Internet Points enough?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://gamification.stackexchange.com/questions/75/how-do-you-reward-a-mentoring-activity&quot;&gt;How do you reward a mentoring activity?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will reuse what I posted on the Gamification site for this answer as it applies here as well. There is a great Ted talk on the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://gamification.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Puzzle of Motivation&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Dan Pink is available. It is a short talk, but it discusses this exact topic. I think you will find it enlightening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Career analyst &lt;strong&gt;Dan Pink&lt;/strong&gt; examines the puzzle of motivation, starting with a fact that social scientists know but most managers don't: Traditional rewards aren't always as effective as we think. Listen for illuminating stories — and maybe, a way forward. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8181" LastActivityDate="2015-04-26T05:03:04.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9864" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9005" CreationDate="2015-04-26T05:40:42.097" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to add some nuance here.  While not isolated to reading emotion in the eyes, consider these images from Hillel Aviezer's work (&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/19/7/724.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6111/1225.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/U5D7G.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all four images above, the face is the same. What changes is the body language and objects in the scene.  What also changes is the emotions you perceive in each image (in alphabetical order: disgust, anger, sadness, fear).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VKvCr.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you tell above which tennis players have just won or just lost?  It's hard, isn't it? They all look like they're in pain, but 1,4,6 have just lost and 2,3,5 have just won.  If you stick the faces back onto the bodies, you'll have better luck at telling who just won or lost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point is that we don't interpret the features of the face independently of its context.  When we lose context (like in the images Krysta linked), we will rely on concept knowledge about emotions (e.g., the prototypical Ekmanian fear emotion involves wide eyes, as Arnon pointed out).  But if you situate those wide eyes in several different contexts, then how you judge the emotion will change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-04-26T05:40:42.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9865" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1408" CreationDate="2015-04-26T07:22:51.190" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ethics of Feedback:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx&quot;&gt;APA's code of ethics&lt;/a&gt; (2010) as well as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/science/leadership/bsa/internet/&quot;&gt;Advisory Group on Conducting Research on the Internet&lt;/a&gt; (AGCRI) report (2004) summarize ethical issues related to conducting offline and online psychological research.  Feedback is normal in psychological experiments, and researchers are encouraged to debrief participants, before, immediately after, or as soon as the research conducted reasonably allows without risking an effect on results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research proposals should undergo an Institutional Review Board (IRB) review prior to initiation.  A consideration with respect to feedback is if it might reasonably be construed by participants as being on a positive-negative dimension (ie , the feedback could be considered negative), then you may want to reconsider providing it, whereas if the feedback is on a neutral dimension (an example would be a personality trait such as placement on an introvert-extrovert dimension), then there is unlikely to be any concern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Effect of Motivation:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, feedback provided after task completion cannot affect task performance.  Presumably however, the promise or expectation of feedback at the end of a task may have an effect.  Without knowing the nature of the research, the general findings on the effect of incentives on results are that they are negligible if any.  For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1809422&quot;&gt;Mason and Watts (2009)&lt;/a&gt; find that &quot;Accuracy ... is not reliably different for&#xA;different wages,&quot; and similarly, a &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13428-011-0124-6&quot;&gt;review of online studies conducted on Mechanical Turk (2011)&lt;/a&gt; reports that &quot;most workers are not motivated primarily by the financial returns and genuinely care about the quality of their work,&quot; and result validity is quite high after some basic spam filtering is applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, I would recommend testing the effect of your chosen incentive if at all possible.  This can be done either by comparing results from unincentivized participants to those of incentivized participants, or through validity checks - for example in surveys common practice is to include multiple questions with similar meanings but different wordings to check that they all get similar responses as a way of confirming that answers are legitimate and not just trying to get through the survey as fast as possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Completion Rates:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effect of incentives on task completion in general is very mixed.  Online studies do consistently see greater participation for higher paid experiments, but for non-monetary incentives the results are more complex.  The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overjustification_effect&quot;&gt;overjustification effect&lt;/a&gt; is an example where incentives may actually reduce task completion rates or performance quality, though this effect is not very robust in practice.      &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232861692_Effects_of_Feedback_on_Task_Completion_Time_Distribution_and_Time_Allocation_of_Graduate_Students&quot;&gt;Houmanfar and Hayes (1998)&lt;/a&gt; report that &quot;the results indicated no effects of either private feedback or public feedback on task completion,&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2910434/&quot;&gt;Conrad et al (2010)&lt;/a&gt; find that &quot;feedback can improve their experience though not necessarily their completion rates.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference between a simple score at the end of the experiment, and more typical notions of gamification may be considerable however.  Gamification in general does have an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/256743509_Does_Gamification_Work__A_Literature_Review_of_Empirical_Studies_on_Gamification&quot;&gt;overall positive impact&lt;/a&gt;.    Gamification typically involves a variety of interactive features that come into play throughout the task.  So if at all possible, I would recommend incorporating say, a progress indicator, badge system, storyline, or any other gamification feature that can reasonably be added.  Note that gamification features are not uniformly successful, so some experimentation may be necessary to determine what works best in your particular situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Non-contingent Incentives:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One final note: You didn't mention if the feedback would be contingent on completion of the experiment.  While the idea of providing incentives only on task completion may seem intuitively sound, there is substantial evidence that non-contingent incentives are generally more effective.  For example, if you promise to provide a score only on task completion, then fewer people might attempt the task than if you promise to provide a score regardless, and even if completion rates are much lower you might get higher participation overall.  Say only 10 people attempt the task for a contingent incentive, and have a 50% completion rate, then you get 5 results.  On the other hand if 100 people attempt the task for a non-contingent incentive, and have a much lower 10% completion rate, then you get 10 results - twice as many.  Worth considering I'd say.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-04-26T07:22:51.190" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9868" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9886" CreationDate="2015-04-26T18:25:14.880" Score="8" ViewCount="6275" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;: I read that black is usually favored by people who are dominant. I read that the black color projects dominance, and also hides the person's feelings. Police, for example, adopt black as a color.  However, I also read that black can demonstrate submissiveness. Priests wear black clothes to show submissiveness to God. In addition, sales people and business people who work with clients often wear black suits. Are they trying to appear dominant or submissive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the psychology of wearing black?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does wearing black communicate dominance or submissiveness?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7308" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-28T13:47:55.720" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T13:47:55.720" Title="What is the psychological effect of wearing black clothes?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9872" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8633" CreationDate="2015-04-27T11:05:52.910" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently reading a book called &quot;Snoop&quot;, written by researcher Sam Gosling (I recommend this very interesting book!). He's doing just the kind of research I am looking for, and thus I've found tons of research documents on these things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our research focuses on the following issues:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Everyday manifestations of personality – Which cues are reliably&#xA;  linked to what individuals are like?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Everyday person perception – Which cues do individuals use to form&#xA;  their impressions of others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Consensus – Do observers agree with one another in their impressions&#xA;  of others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Accuracy – Are observers impressions of others accurate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stereotype use – how do stereotypes hinder or promote consensus and&#xA;  accuracy?&#xA;  - &lt;a href=&quot;http://gosling.psy.utexas.edu/current-research/everyday-manifestations-of-personality/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://gosling.psy.utexas.edu/current-research/everyday-manifestations-of-personality/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://gosling.psy.utexas.edu/publications/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://gosling.psy.utexas.edu/publications/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The expression and perception of personality in everyday life&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Back, M. D., Stopfer, J. M., Vazire, S., Gaddis, S., Schmukle, S. C., Egloff, B., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2010). &lt;strong&gt;Facebook profiles reflect actual personality not self-idealization&lt;/strong&gt;. Psychological Science, 21, 372-374.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carney, D. R., Jost, J. T., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Potter, J. (2008). The secret lives of liberals and conservatives: Personality profiles, interaction styles, and the things they leave behind. Political Psychology, 29, 807-840.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gebauer, J. E., Bleidorn, W., Gosling, S. D., Rentfrow, P. J., Lamb, M. E., &amp;amp; Potter, J. (in press). &lt;strong&gt;Cross-Cultural Variations in Big Five Relations with Religiosity: A Socio-Cultural Motives Perspective.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gosling, S. D., Augustine, A. A., Vazire, S., Holtzman, N., &amp;amp; Gaddis, S. (2011). &lt;strong&gt;Manifestations of personality in Online Social Networks: Self-reported Facebook-related behaviors and observable profile information.&lt;/strong&gt; Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14, 483-488. [DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2010.0087]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gosling, S. D., Gaddis, S., &amp;amp; Vazire, S. (2008). F&lt;strong&gt;irst impressions based on the environments we create and inhabit.&lt;/strong&gt; In N. Ambady, &amp;amp; J. J. Skowronski (Eds.), First Impressions (pp. 334-356). New York: Guilford.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gosling, S. D., Gifford, R., &amp;amp; McCunn, L. (2013). &lt;strong&gt;The selection, creation, and perception of interior spaces: An environmental psychology approach.&lt;/strong&gt; In G. Brooker &amp;amp; L. Weinthal (Eds.), The Handbook of Interior Design (pp. 278-290). Oxford, UK: Berg.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gosling, S. D., Ko, S. J., Mannarelli, T., &amp;amp; Morris, M. E. (2002). &lt;strong&gt;A Room with a cue: Judgments of personality based on offices and bedrooms.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 379-398. [Available in pdf]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gosling, S. D., Sandy, C. J., &amp;amp; Potter, J. (2010). &lt;strong&gt;Personalities of self-identified “dog people” and “cat people.”&lt;/strong&gt; Anthrozoös, 23, 213-222.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Graham, L. T., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2012). &lt;strong&gt;Impressions of World of Warcraft players’ personalities based on their usernames: Interobserver consensus but no accuracy.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Research in Personality, 46, 599-603.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Graham, L. T., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2013). &lt;strong&gt;Personality profiles associated with different motivations for playing World of Warcraft. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking,&lt;/strong&gt; 16, 189-193.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Graham, L. T., &amp;amp; Sandy, C. J., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2011). &lt;strong&gt;Manifestations of individual differences in physical and virtual environments.&lt;/strong&gt; In T. Chamorro-Premuzic, S. von Stumm, &amp;amp; A. Furnham (Eds.), Handbook of Individual Differences (pp. 773-800). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mehl, M. R., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Pennebaker, J. W. (2006). &lt;strong&gt;Personality in its natural habitat: Manifestations and implicit folk theories of personality in daily life.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 862-877.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Naumann, L. P., Vazire, S., Rentfrow, P. J., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2009). &lt;strong&gt;Personality judgments based on physical appearance.&lt;/strong&gt; Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 1661-1671&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obschonka, M., Schmitt-Rodermund, E., Silbereisen, R. K., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Potter, J. (2013). &lt;strong&gt;The regional distribution and correlates of an entrepreneurship-prone personality profile in the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom: A socioecological perspective.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 104-122. [DOI: 10.1037/a0032275]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rentfrow, P. J., Goldberg, L. R., Stillwell, D. J., Kosinski, M., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Levitin, D. J. (2012). &lt;strong&gt;The song remains the same: A replication and extension of the MUSIC model.&lt;/strong&gt; Music Perception, 30,161-185. [DOI: 10.1525/MP.2012.30.2.161]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rentfrow, P. J., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2003). &lt;strong&gt;The do re mi’s of everyday life: The structure and personality correlates of music preferences.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1236-1256. [Available in pdf]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rentfrow, P. J., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2006). &lt;strong&gt;Message in a Ballad: The role of music preferences in interpersonal perception.&lt;/strong&gt; Psychological Science, 17, 236-242. [Available in pdf]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rentfrow, P. J., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2007). &lt;strong&gt;The content and validity of music-genre stereotypes among college students.&lt;/strong&gt; Psychology of Music, 35, 306-326.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rentfrow, P. J., Gosling, S. D., Jokela, M., Stillwell, D. J., Kosinski, M., &amp;amp; Potter, J. (2013). &lt;strong&gt;Divided We Stand: Three Psychological Regions of the United States and their Political, Economic, Social, and Health Correlates.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 996-1012. [DOI: 10.1037/a0034434]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rentfrow, P. J., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Potter, J. (2008). &lt;strong&gt;A theory of the emergence, persistence, and expression of geographic variation in psychological characteristics.&lt;/strong&gt; Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 339-369.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sandy, C. J., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Durant, J. (2013). &lt;strong&gt;Predicting Consumer Behavior and Media Preferences: The Comparative Validity of Personality Traits and Demographic Variables.&lt;/strong&gt; Psychology and Marketing, 30, 937-949. [DOI: 10.1002/mar.20657]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Swann, W. B., Jr., Rentfrow, P. J., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2003). &lt;strong&gt;The precarious couple effect: Verbally inhibited men + critical, disinhibited women = bad chemistry.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 1095-1106. [Available in pdf]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vazire, S., Naumann, L. P., Rentfrow, P. J., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2009). &lt;strong&gt;Smiling reflects different emotions in men and women.&lt;/strong&gt; Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32, 403-405.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vazire, S., Naumann, L. P., Rentfrow, P. J., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2008). &lt;strong&gt;Portrait of a narcissist: Manifestations of narcissism in physical appearance.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1439-1447.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vazire, S. &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2004). &lt;strong&gt;e-perceptions: Personality impressions based on personal websites.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 123-132. [Available in pdf]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wilson, R. E., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Graham, L. T. (2012). &lt;strong&gt;A review of Facebook research in the social sciences.&lt;/strong&gt; Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 203-220. [DOI 10.1177/1745691612442904]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson, C. P., Ames, D. R., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2008) &lt;strong&gt;Punishing hubris: The perils of status self-enhancement in teams and organizations.&lt;/strong&gt; Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 90-101.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Erdle, S., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Potter, J. (2009). &lt;strong&gt;Does self-esteem account for the higher-order factors of the Big Five?&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 921-922.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gosling, S. D., Sandy, C. J., &amp;amp; Potter, J. (2010). &lt;strong&gt;Personalities of self-identified “dog people” and “cat people.”&lt;/strong&gt; Anthrozoös, 23, 213-222.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Srivastava, S. (2011). &lt;strong&gt;Changes in perceptions of George W. Bush’s personality in the wake of the September 11 2001 World Trade Center attacks.&lt;/strong&gt; Acta de Investigación Psicológica, 3, 486-490.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jost, J. T., Hawkins, C. B., Nosek, B. A., Hennes, E. P., Stern, C., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Graham, J. (2014). &lt;strong&gt;Belief in a Just God (and a Just Society): A System Justification Perspective on Religious Ideology.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 34, 56-81. [Translated to: Jost, J. T., Hawkins, C. B., Nosek, B. A., Hennes, E. P., Stern, C., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Graham, J. (in press). Creencia en un dios justo: La Religión como una forma de Justificación del Sistema. Psicologia Politica, 47, 55-89.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mathieu, M. T., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2012). &lt;strong&gt;The accuracy or inaccuracy of affective forecasts depends on how the question is framed: A meta-analysis of past studies.&lt;/strong&gt; Psychological Science, 23, 161-162. [DOI: 10.1177/0956797611427044]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pennebaker, J. W., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Ferrell, J. (2013). &lt;strong&gt;Daily online testing in large classes: Boosting college performance while reducing achievement gaps.&lt;/strong&gt; PLOS ONE, 9, e79774. [doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079774]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ramírez-Esparza, N., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Pennebaker, J. W. (2008). &lt;strong&gt;Paradox lost: Unraveling the puzzle of Simpatia.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 39, 685-702.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Robins, R. W., Tracy, J. L., Trzesniewski, K. H., Potter, J., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2001). &lt;strong&gt;Personality correlates of self-esteem.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Research in Personality, 35, 463-482. [Available in pdf]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vazire, S., Naumann, L. P., Rentfrow, P. J., &amp;amp; Gosling, S. D. (2009). &lt;strong&gt;Smiling reflects different emotions in men and women.&lt;/strong&gt; Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32, 403-405.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wood, D., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Potter, J. (2007). &lt;strong&gt;Normality evaluations and their relation to personality traits and well-being.&lt;/strong&gt; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 861-879.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-04-27T11:05:52.910" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9873" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-27T11:18:11.963" Score="9" ViewCount="50262" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people find it difficult to express their thoughts verbally. They may often feel that their words don't give their thoughts enough justice, and that their thoughts could've been verbalized better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What can the causes for this be?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can it be &quot;cured&quot; or alleviated, maybe by reading, and participating in conversations?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user8189" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-27T13:26:59.833" LastActivityDate="2020-12-09T07:14:22.727" Title="Difficulty of expressing thoughts verbally" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9874" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="618" CreationDate="2015-04-27T11:41:48.563" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/9824/2868&quot;&gt;MariaAnt&lt;/a&gt; provided a relevant definition of complex problem solving in the answer to the question, &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/7722/2868&quot;&gt;Research operationalizing so-called strategic thinking?&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; based on Frensch and Funke (1995).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Complex problem solving] occurs to overcome barriers between a given state and a desired goal state by means of behavioral and/or cognitive, multistep activities. &lt;strong&gt;The given state, goal state, and barriers between given state and goal state are complex, change dynamically during problem solving, and are intransparent. The exact properties of the given state, goal state, and barriers are unknown to the solver at the outset.&lt;/strong&gt; CPS implies the efficient interaction between a solver and the situational requirements of the task, and involves a solver’s cognitive, emotional, personal, and social abilities and knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Background&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Complexity in science&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In modern scientific jargon, complexity and the quality of being complex can have a number of different meanings, depending on the field and subject of interest. These can be traced back to a historical distinction between &lt;strong&gt;organized and disorganized complexity&lt;/strong&gt; (Weaver, 1948). In the cognitive sciences, a problem is complex (sometimes called &lt;em&gt;ill-defined&lt;/em&gt;) if the relations between initial state, goal state and space of intermediate states are interdependent, nonlinear and/or the state properties are unknown for the solver. Generally, something (such as a problem) is &amp;quot;complex&amp;quot; when it has a moderate number of time- and inter-dependent variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Organized or disorganized?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Problems of disorganized complexity, Weaver argued, were characterized by large numbers of variables and erratic behavior, with the analysis of telephone exchanges being a prototypical example of such problems. Meanwhile, problems of organized complexity were argued to be characterized by “dealing simultaneously with a sizable number of factors which are interrelated into an organic whole” and were exemplified by biological and social systems. Modern use of &amp;quot;complex&amp;quot; refers to (problems of) organized complexity, and this is also true in the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Levels of complexity&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Complexity types and classes are studied within the context of many fields, but there is not much agreement on a universal framework we can use to objectively define levels of complexity. Neither is there agreement on how to measure complexity, though many measures have been proposed and used (Lloyd, 2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest thing to a universal framework is the mathematical study of complexity classes, which defines &lt;a href=&quot;https://complexityzoo.uwaterloo.ca/Complexity_Zoo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a large set of possible complexity classes&lt;/a&gt; in terms of how long time it would take a particular computational solver to solve the problem for a given input. The most famous of these classes are probably Polynomial-Time (P) and Nondeterministic Polynomial-Time (NP), as in &amp;quot;Does P = NP?&amp;quot; This is probably better covered by &lt;a href=&quot;https://cstheory.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;CSTheory&lt;/a&gt; than CogSci, but hopefully provides a place to start looking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may also be helpful to study the work of Herbert Simon, though covering his extensive contributions to complexity and problem solving are beyond the scope of this answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Frensch, P. and Funke, J. (1995) Definitions, Traditions and a General Framework for Understanding Complex Problem Solving. In P. A. Frensch and&#xA;J. Funke (Eds.), Complex Problem Solving: The European Perspective.(Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum). 3-25.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lloyd, S. (2001). Measures of complexity: a nonexhaustive list. IEEE Control Systems Magazine, 21(4), 7-8.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Weaver, W. (1948). Science and complexity. American Scientist, 36(4), 536-544.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-27T11:41:48.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9875" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-27T12:50:39.487" Score="17" ViewCount="2656" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been wondering how dual-process theory, which is described in Daniel Kahneman's book &quot;Thinking, Fast and Slow&quot;, relates to mindfulness and the state of being in the present moment and the flow experiences coined by Mihály Csíkszentmihályi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dual-process theory describes two different ways the brain forms thoughts, as described on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory#Dual-process_accounts_of_reasoning&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;System 1: Fast, automatic, frequent, emotional, stereotypic,    subconscious &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;System 2: Slow, effortful, infrequent, logical,    calculating, conscious&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness&quot;&gt;Mindfulness&lt;/a&gt; is defined on Wikipedia as follows:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mindfulness is &quot;the intentional, accepting and non-judgmental focus of&#xA;  one's attention on the emotions, thoughts and sensations occurring in&#xA;  the present moment&quot;, which can be trained by meditational practices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;flow or zone experiences&lt;/a&gt;, on the other hand, are defined as follows:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In positive psychology, flow, also known as zone, is the mental state&#xA;  of operation in which a person performing an activity is fully&#xA;  immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and&#xA;  enjoyment in the process of the activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do these relate? Do they overlap, mutually exclude each other or are the same thing or can exist at the same time independently?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any brain studies that would compare the brain's response under each of those states?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8191" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-28T16:51:17.480" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T21:12:20.560" Title="Thinking, Fast and Slow vs. Mindfulness vs. Flow" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9876" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9873" CreationDate="2015-04-27T13:18:26.873" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not a direct answer to the question, but a related construct that may be useful is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexithymia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;alexithymia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alexithymia is a personality construct describing relatively decreased ability to identify and express emotions. Psychometrically, the alexithymia construct has seen extensive use and undergone testing that by and large supported its validity (Bagby, Parker and Taylor, 1994a; Bagby, Parker and Taylor, 1994b). In clinical populations, the causes have been theorized to include anterior cingulate cortex and right hemispheric dysfunction, but the cognitive neuroscientific evidence is currently mixed (Zaidel, 2005). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, I am not aware of any direct parallel for the inability to adequately express thoughts, nor of any direct treatments, and I was not able to find anything in the literature. Hopefully, the alexithymia construct may still be of some use in finding an answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bagby, R. M., Parker, J. D., &amp;amp; Taylor, G. J. (1994). The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale—I. Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure. Journal of psychosomatic research, 38(1), 23-32.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bagby, R. M., Taylor, G. J., &amp;amp; Parker, J. D. (1994). The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale—II. Convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity. Journal of psychosomatic research, 38(1), 33-40.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Zaidel, G. T. E. (2005). Alexithymia, interhemispheric transfer, and right hemispheric specialization: a critical review. Psychother Psychosom, 74, 81-92.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-27T13:18:26.873" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9877" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9885" CreationDate="2015-04-27T14:06:07.900" Score="1" ViewCount="896" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/6190/4425&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; data there is a small bias related to the gender and some traits of MBTI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xETHv.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it scientifically possible to provide an explanation for these differences? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My intuitive definition of the judging trait could be: &quot;A judging subject spends time trying to classify the reality into categories (i.e. ethical or not). A high percent of his automatic thought go in this direction. Thinking how the world should be instead of changing himself to get the maximum from the world he could be less adaptive.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T09:12:57.237" Title="Intuitive explanation of MBTI test and it's gender bias" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9879" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-04-27T15:38:50.173" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2015-04-27T15:38:50.173" LastActivityDate="2015-04-27T15:38:50.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9880" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-04-27T15:38:50.173" Score="0" Body="For questions about intelligence quotient (IQ) scores, methods of assessment of IQ, and correlates of IQ." OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-04-27T17:36:49.297" LastActivityDate="2015-04-27T17:36:49.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9881" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9911" CreationDate="2015-04-27T18:17:20.017" Score="9" ViewCount="448" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of people are afraid of people with mental illnesses because they think they're more violent but is that true? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it's wrong even though I don't really understand the pages I found on google. I found this &lt;a href=&quot;https://depts.washington.edu/mhreport/facts_violence.php&quot;&gt;article from University of Washington&lt;/a&gt; which states among other things that &quot;the vast majority of people with mental illness are not violent&quot;. I understand this article but it is really short.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8195" LastEditorUserId="8195" LastEditDate="2015-04-28T15:31:09.300" LastActivityDate="2016-06-09T09:10:51.667" Title="Are mentally ill people more violent?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9883" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9873" CreationDate="2015-04-28T08:45:05.227" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is my opinion. I have no sources for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The common concept of thought in Western culture, going back to philosophers of the Enlightenment such as Leibniz, Locke, Hume and Descartes in the 17th and 18th century, is that of rational and, especially &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;verbal&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; thought. Philosophy and psychology (which grew from philosophy at the end of the 18th and during the 19th century) have maintained this focus on verbal thought and for the most part ignored other forms of thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an effect, both the general public and scholars think of thought as being in the form of words and, therefore, capable of being expressed in words without any loss of content. Conversely, if you find yourself unable to express your thoughts, you think of yourself and may be perceived as lacking clear thinking or verbal competence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That, in my opinion, is a misconception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because, while there may be people who are very verbal and rational, there are certainly many people who have other things going on in their minds besides words. I, for example, think in images, emotions, body perceptions and other sensory registers. When I consider a problem and its solution, I don't always use words in my mind, and certainly not logic, and if I do, these verbal thoughts are always supplemented by those other kinds of thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But since Western communication largely relies on verbal expression, and since it is difficult to translate many of these non-verbal thoughts into words, the result is that I find it hard to say what I think, and that others find it hard to understand what I mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This need not be a problem in face-to-face interaction, though. There is non-verbal communication. You can hug someone, cook them a great meal, or create art. All of which are communication and an expression of thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once you stop thinking of thought and communication as merely verbal, you can begin to find ways of ordering your thinking without translating it into words, and ways of expression that don't rely on words alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The statement that &quot;a picture says more than a thousand words&quot; is true, you know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T08:45:05.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9884" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6189" CreationDate="2015-04-28T08:57:22.147" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The MBTI is widely used in applied contexts, such as for personnel selection. Nevertheless, it is hardly used in scientific research on personality because its theoretical basis questionable, because its validity is limited, and because its reliability is inferior to other established measures of personality (for a starting point to criticisms of the MBTI see McCrea &amp;amp; Costa, 1989 and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1402/&quot;&gt;this earlier post&lt;/a&gt;). For these reasons it is unlikely that you will find reliable data on gender differences in the MBTI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it has been shown that the MBTI traits overlap with those of the Big Five (the most widely adopted model of personality) and gender differences with regard to the Big Five have been studied extensively. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The MBTI &lt;strong&gt;Judging&lt;/strong&gt; dimension and its Perceiving counterpart &lt;strong&gt;overlap to a large extent with the Big Five trait &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conscientiousness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g., Furnham, 1996, McCrea &amp;amp; Costa, 1989). This is not surprising if you look at how Judging vs. Perceiving and conscientiousness are measured:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Judging vs. Perceiving&lt;/strong&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/judging-or-perceiving.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;measured&lt;/a&gt; by having people choose between sentence pairs such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I like to have things decided.&quot; vs. &quot;I like to stay open to respond to whatever happens.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I like to make lists of things to do.&quot; vs. &quot;I appear to be loose and casual. I like to keep plans to a minimum.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I like to get my work done before playing.&quot; vs. &quot;I like to approach work as play or mix work and play.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I plan work to avoid rushing just before a deadline.&quot; vs. &quot;I am stimulated by an approaching deadline.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conscientiousness is &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newNEOKey.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;measured&lt;/a&gt; by items such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I get chores done right away.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I carry out my plans.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I stick to my chosen path.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, there appears to be a clear semantic overlap between the two constructs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there gender differences with regard to conscientiousness? According to a large scale meta analysis (with data from more than 23.000 participants from 26 nations, Costa et al. 2001), 1. there are far more personality differences within the genders than between genders 2. &lt;strong&gt;for conscientiousness there doesn't seem to be a detectable gender difference&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Costa Jr., P., Terracciano, A., &amp;amp; McCrae, R. R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 322–331. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.322&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furnham, A. (1996). The big five versus the big four: the relationship between the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and NEO-PI five factor model of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 303–307. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(96)00033-5&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McCrae, R. R., &amp;amp; Costa, P. T. (1989). Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator From the Perspective of the Five-Factor Model of Personality. Journal of Personality, 57, 17–40. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb00759.x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T11:49:52.433" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9885" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9877" CreationDate="2015-04-28T09:05:23.067" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the data in the table, it is not possible to tell whether there is a meaningful difference between men and women with regard to the Judging trait, because it does not state the size of the sample, the effect size, and whether the difference is statistically significant. All differences could be just random noise. In fact, the data may just as well be more supportive of the idea that gender does not make a difference here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the MBTI does not hold up to scientific scrutiny (and is hardly used by academic personality researchers), it should be difficult to find reliable data on gender differences. However, because the Judging dimension overlaps with the Conscientiousness factor in the Big Five, one can look at gender comparisons there. There do not seem to be strong gender differences with regard to Conscientiousness (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6189/are-woman-more-judging-than-men-in-the-mbti/9884#9884&quot;&gt;this earlier answer&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T09:11:11.270" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9886" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9868" CreationDate="2015-04-28T09:54:43.313" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is studied within the fields of color psychology and enclothed cognition (e.g., Adam and Galinsky, 2012), currently a hot/controversial topic in cognitive science. Without addressing the &lt;em&gt;substantial&lt;/em&gt; questions surrounding the premises of these interpretations for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situated_cognition&quot;&gt;situated/embodied cognition&lt;/a&gt; in my answer, it seems that &lt;strong&gt;wearing black is &lt;em&gt;associated&lt;/em&gt; with aggressive behavior and the tendency to be perceived as more aggressive&lt;/strong&gt; (Frank and Gilovich, 1988).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An analysis of the penalty records of the [U.S.] National Football League and the [U.S.] National Hockey League indicate that teams with black uniforms in both sports ranked near the top of their leagues in penalties throughout the period of study. &lt;strong&gt;On those occasions when a team switched from nonblack to black uniforms, the switch was accompanied by an immediate increase in penalties.&lt;/strong&gt; The results of two laboratory experiments indicate that this finding can be attributed to both social perception and self-perception processes—that is, to the biased judgments of referees and &lt;strong&gt;to the&#xA;  increased aggressiveness of the players themselves&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As per Artem's comment to the question, we need to be skeptical of inferring a causal relation when so many confounding factors, such as culture, could potentially be in play. A 2014 review of color psychology in the Annual Review of Psychology journal concluded that while there is mounting evidence for the influence of color on behavior, it is ultimately too early to theorize strongly on specific color psychological questions such as this (Elliot and Maier, 2014). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The review clearly shows that &lt;strong&gt;color can carry important meaning&lt;/strong&gt; and can have an important impact on people's affect, cognition, and behavior. &lt;strong&gt;The literature remains at a nascent stage of development&lt;/strong&gt;, however, and we note that considerable work on boundary conditions, moderators, and real-world generalizability is needed before strong conceptual statements and recommendations for application are warranted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Adam, H., &amp;amp; Galinsky, A. D. (2012). Enclothed cognition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 918-925.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Elliot, A. J., &amp;amp; Maier, M. A. (2014). Color psychology: Effects of perceiving color on psychological functioning in humans. Annual review of psychology, 65, 95-120.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Frank, M. G., &amp;amp; Gilovich, T. (1988). The Dark Side of Self-and Social Perception: Black Uniforms and Aggression in Professional Sports. Journal of Pereonality and Social Psychology, 54(1), 74-85.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-28T11:15:56.443" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T11:15:56.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9888" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9875" CreationDate="2015-04-28T11:02:48.003" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; Dual-process, mindfulness and flow theory are related by way of attention theory. Two previous posts that may be of interest are &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9610/what-is-the-relation-between-measures-constructs-and-concepts&quot;&gt;What is the relation between concepts, constructs and measures?&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/9814/2868&quot;&gt;How can we realize when a sociological question is impossible to answer?&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Commensurability&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an apt example of what Thomas Kuhn would have called a question of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;commensurability&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.  In normal terms, commensurability means the extent to which we can or cannot talk about two or more theories within a common framework, while &lt;em&gt;in&lt;/em&gt;commensurability is a fancy way of saying we're comparing apples to farming equipment or dress shirts. In order for two theories in the cognitive sciences to be commensurable, they generally need to satisfy two criteria:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A common conceptual denominator.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;At least one common construct.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If they satisfy these, then can look for comparable ways of operationalizing and measuring these comparable constructs that can be related to the common concept. In other words, two theories are comparable if they are conceptually related AND conceive of this concept in some at least partially related way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Dual-process, mindfulness and flow theory: commensurable?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case, there is a clear common conceptual denominator, and that is &lt;strong&gt;attention&lt;/strong&gt;, although they differ in how they express that denominator. For Kahneman and Tversky, there is a generalized resource allocation mechanism which produces qualitatively different modes of thinking; for mindfulness, there exists a discrete mental state partly characterized by a particular attentional pattern; for flow theory, there exists another discrete mental state partly characterized by another attentional pattern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can therefore talk about these theories &lt;em&gt;in principle&lt;/em&gt;, although how effective our ability to do so turns out to be will depend on the merits of the underlying theory of attention. For example, it is meaningful to ask whether meditational practice involves fast or slow thinking, or whether flow states may be considered a form of meditation, and so forth, but only insofar as we can state those questions in terms of a third (attentional) theory. If one of the theories had assumed that attention was infinite, for example, it would be incommensurable with the other two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Concluding remarks&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A direct three-way comparison of these theories does not exist in the literature. It is possible that someone has directly related one theory to the other for each combination of theories, but it would take three fairly extensive literature searches (dual-process/mindfulness, dual-process/flow, mindfulness/flow). Even if these comparisons actually exist, summarizing them all would almost certainly be beyond the scope of a single SE answer, so I will leave it at this generalized answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think your question about whether these theories are related by neuroimaging evidence is a good intuition, but establishing that similar brain areas are involved in the same behavior does not provide evidence that these are the same, because brain function is dynamic and areas therefore 'have' many functions. It's not just about what areas are active, but also when they are active, in what order they are active, the exact quality of the activity and where the areas are getting input from and sending output to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T11:02:48.003" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9889" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9635" CreationDate="2015-04-28T12:09:08.307" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; Based on my assessment of the literature, I would say that a vague hint leaves room for retrieval practice, and will therefore likely elicit a testing effect. An obvious hint does not, and will therefore likely help recognition, but not recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Background&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spaced repetition refers to the practice of combining two well-known memory effects, namely the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;spacing effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;testing effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, typically implemented in some form of flash cards. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Testing effect&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;testing effect&lt;/strong&gt; aspect of spaced repetition is highly relevant. It refers to the finding that &lt;em&gt;retrieval practice&lt;/em&gt; leads to improved long-term &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_(memory)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recall&lt;/a&gt; (cf. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recognition&lt;/a&gt;) ability for a practiced item compared to non-practiced items. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Modern theories on the testing effect tend to take the view that the testing effect represents a complex, active process in the brain rather than simple association formation or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hebbian learning&lt;/a&gt;. A critical meta-analysis of the recent testing effect literature unsurprisingly found support for the testing effect's existence, as well as some support for effortful processing as a contributing factor (Eisenkraemer, Jaeger and Stein, 2013). They did not find support for semantic elaboration theories (i.e., new/re-weighted brain associations).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additional support for the testing effect as an active process comes from the fact that &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/9595/2868&quot;&gt;associated non-practiced items may be actively inhibited by retrieval practice&lt;/a&gt;, a phenomenon known as retrieval-induced forgetting (Anderson, Bjork and Bjork, 1994). We currently do not know much more than &lt;em&gt;that&lt;/em&gt; the testing effect happens when we engage in retrieval practice. I know researchers who are studying exactly this, but at this point, I'm unfortunately not comfortable with discussing their thoughts or unpublished work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Spacing effect&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm mostly including this for completeness' sake. The &lt;strong&gt;spacing effect&lt;/strong&gt; was discovered by Herman Ebbinghaus in the 1880's and is one of the oldest phenomena studied in psychology. It refers to the tendency for animals to retain items presented over a longer period relatively better than when presentation of the same items is massed over a single brief period. It doesn't have any relation to the use of hints in spaced repetition learning, at least not one that I can think of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anderson, M. C., Bjork, R. A., &amp;amp; Bjork, E. L. (1994). Remembering can cause forgetting: retrieval dynamics in long-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(5), 1063.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eisenkraemer, R. E., Jaeger, A., &amp;amp; Stein, L. M. (2013). A Systematic Review of the Testing Effect in Learning. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 23(56), 397-406.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T12:34:59.973" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9891" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9892" CreationDate="2015-04-28T15:54:21.423" Score="15" ViewCount="30140" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to understand the psychology of love, and I found the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular_theory_of_love&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Triangular Theory of Love&lt;/a&gt; on Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4702/how-has-psychology-categorised-different-types-of-love&quot;&gt;from this question&lt;/a&gt;, which I think is very believable. However, there is a big section on mixed support where it only says a little bit about THAT love was measured, not HOW:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Sternberg measured his theory on couples who were roughly the same age (mean age of 28) and whose relationship duration was roughly the same (4 to 5 years).&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The two other most obvious problems with Sternberg's theory of love are as follows. The first is a question of the separate nature of the levels of love. The second is a question of the measures that have previously been used to assess the three levels of love.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we scientifically measure love (without just asking the lovers)? How?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8195" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2021-05-04T16:55:14.593" Title="How can we scientifically measure love?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9892" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9891" CreationDate="2015-04-28T17:06:45.647" Score="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;One way to measure love is to look at behaviors that people engage in to express love. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chapman (1995) theorized that there were five broad classes of behaviors that people would engage in to express love: (1) words of affirmation, (2) spending quality time, (3) giving gifts, (4) acts of service, and (5) physical touch. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2466/pr0.101.2.357-360&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goff, Goddard, Pointer, and Jackson (2007)&lt;/a&gt; developed a survey instrument to measure &lt;em&gt;expressions of love&lt;/em&gt;. They created a series of questions that were designed to measure one (and only one) of the different behaviors that Chapman laid out. These involved asking questions about how a lover does things like: &quot;giving presents,&quot; &quot;offers encouragement,&quot; &quot;spends time with me,&quot; &quot;holds my hand,&quot; and &quot;does yard work.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The goal of this work was mainly to see if the Chapman classes of expressions of love matched the kinds of behaviors that people wanted in a lover. The researchers administered the survey to a few hundred people, and in general found that the Chapman classes were a good set of high-level descriptions. People who tended to want one kind of behavior in a lover, e.g., receiving words of affirmation, also wanted other kinds of behavior from that class, e.g., receiving compliments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chapman, G.D. (1995). &lt;em&gt;The five love languages: how to express heartfelt commitment to your mate&lt;/em&gt;. Chicago, IL: Northfield Publ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goff, B. G., Goddard, H. W., Pointer, L., &amp;amp; Jackson, G. B. (2007). Measures of expressions of love. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Reports&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;101&lt;/em&gt;, 357-360.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2017-03-08T14:50:40.463" LastActivityDate="2017-03-08T14:50:40.463" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9893" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9804" CreationDate="2015-04-28T18:36:04.343" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Claparede's Pinprick Experiment&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fearexhibit.org/brain/memory/claparedes_pinprick_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.fearexhibit.org/brain/memory/claparedes_pinprick_experiment&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 1911, a French doctor named Edouard Claparede published his&#xA;  observations of an amnesiac patient. Despite repeated interactions&#xA;  with the woman, sometimes only minutes apart, Claparede had to&#xA;  reintroduce himself every time he reentered the room; the patient&#xA;  never recognized him as someone she'd met.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;During one of their &quot;introductions,&quot; Claparede hid a tack in his palm&#xA;  and pricked the patient when they shook hands. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edouard_Claparede#Trauma_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The next time they&#xA;  &quot;met,&quot; the patient refused to shake Claparede's hand&lt;/a&gt; though she&#xA;  couldn't explain why since she did not recall ever having met the&#xA;  doctor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Today, scientists interpret the patient's reaction as proof that&#xA;  multiple memory systems are at work within the normal human brain. A&#xA;  subconscious memory system in the woman's brain had formed an&#xA;  association between shaking Claparede's hand and a painful experience.&#xA;  Therefore, despite the dysfunctional state of the memory system that&#xA;  would have normally enabled the patient to consciously remember the&#xA;  event, another memory system was still working, trying to keep her&#xA;  safe from harm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A century ago, Claparede's observations were not readily understood as&#xA;  such evidence for multiple memory systems. We owe much of our&#xA;  knowledge about the brain and memory to studies of animals. Without&#xA;  these examinations, scientists might never have properly interpreted&#xA;  such observations of human subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user8197" LastEditorUserId="13" LastEditDate="2015-04-30T05:28:46.323" LastActivityDate="2015-04-30T05:28:46.323" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9894" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5194" CreationDate="2015-04-28T20:48:59.500" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Step one would be to define what you mean by &quot;soul&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The common Judeo/Christian/Muslim theory is that there is something that (a) is the essential core of a person's personality that is related to the brain but is not synonymous with the electrochemical processes of the brain; and (b) that continues to exist when the body is dead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you could prove that all aspects of a person's personality could be completely explained in terms of electrochemical actions in the brain, this would be strong evidence against the existence of a soul.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I often hear or read people boldly assert that the personality can indeed be completely explained in terms of brain chemistry: thought, emotions, memory, etc, it's all chemical. If you press them, the person will generally concede that we can't fully explain it now, but he is confidant that as science progresses, someday we will. Therefore, the idea of a soul is disproved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a very weak argument. It essentially says, &quot;I don't have the evidence to prove my theory now, but I just know that my theory is true so I'm confidant that eventually I will have the proof. Therefore, my theory is as good as proved.&quot; Of course you could say that about any crazy theory. I don't have any solid evidence that aliens are kidnapping people, but I just know they are, so I'm sure that someday we'll catch them in the act and then we'll have the proof. Therefore my theory must be true, because someday we'll have the proof. Umm, no.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some say that ancient people believed in a soul because they didn't understand the chemistry of the brain, but now we have so much more knowledge so we know it's all chemistry. But again, that begs the question. Sure, ancient people didn't know about neurotransmitters and synapses and all that, but they were well aware that external physical and chemical stimuli could affect the mind. People have understood, for example, that consuming alcohol affects the brain for thousands of years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course the fact that one theory cannot be proven true does not prove that a competing theory must therefore be true. I don't claim to have any scientific evidence for the existence of the soul. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the soul exists, what exactly is it? Is it, say, a form of energy that we don't presently understand? That leads to the amusing speculation that maybe someday we will be able to study a soul scientifically. A few hundred years ago electricity was not understood except in the vaguest terms. Electricity then seemed as magical and mysterious as the soul does now. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually there is one scientific experiment that supported the existence of the soul: In 1907 a Doctor Duncan McDougall performed a series of experiments in which he put terminally ill patients on a scale as they were dying. He then observed the weight before and after they died. He found that patients routinely lost between 1/2 and 1 1/4 ounces at the moment of death. He theorized that this might result from the soul leaving the body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was a fascinating experiment. It was much ridiculed, then and now, by people who consider themselves &quot;scientific&quot;, but almost always on philosophical rather than scientific grounds. i.e. I think the idea that you could weigh a soul is ridiculous because ... just because it sounds silly. Therefore the experiment proves nothing. Need I point out that &quot;Your theory sounds silly to me&quot; is not a scientific argument?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr McDougall addressed most of the serious scientific objections. Like: 1. When a person dies, their bowels often release. The weight difference is just the weight of some urine or feces. McDougall replied that any urine and feces expelled remained on the scale, and so would still be included in his measurements. 2. The dying person might release air from his lungs, which would then not be measured. McDougall accounted for this with a simple control: He had a number of people lie on the scale, take a deep breath, and then expel as much of the air from their lungs as they could. He then observed the change in weight. He found it was consistently less than 1/4 ounces. I did some calculations based on average lung capacity and the density of air and estimated the air in a person's lungs would weight 0.24 ounces, consistent with McDougall's results. 3. His sample size was too small to give meaningful results: only 6 subjects. McDougall acknowledged this himself and said that further research was called for. Etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I certainly wouldn't say that McDougall proved the existence of the soul. But it's an interesting experiment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8199" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T20:48:59.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9895" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9891" CreationDate="2015-04-28T20:55:06.277" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EYqljioP1VI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BBC documentary&lt;/a&gt; reviews a number of methods for measuring love that have enjoyed some success.  To summarize:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bristol.ac.uk/expsych/people/angela-c-rowe/overview.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. Angela Rowe&lt;/a&gt; of the University of Bristol presents subjects with unfavourably distorted, unindistorted, and favourably distorted photographs of their love partners, and asks them to identify the undistorted one.  Subjects in love tend to select photographs distorted in favour of their partner, while others select undistorted or unfavourably distorted photos.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.ca/citations?view_op=view_citation&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;user=xHA9heEAAAAJ&amp;amp;citation_for_view=xHA9heEAAAAJ:u-x6o8ySG0sC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bartels &amp;amp; Zeki (2000)&lt;/a&gt; identify differences in fMRI images of the brain while showing subjects in the early stages of their relationships photos of their love partners as compared to photos of controls.  When viewing their love partners, areas of the brain associated with pleasure light up while areas associated with critical thinking are inhibited.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/80/1/112/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harker &amp;amp; Keltner (2001)&lt;/a&gt; claim they can predict romantic love and relationship success from college yearbook photos.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some others of interest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biopsychiatry.com/lovesero.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marazziti et al (1999)&lt;/a&gt; found that there are neurochemical markers (density of the platelet 5-HT transporter) for romantic love that are indistinguishable from severe OCD (they won an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.improbable.com/news/2002/feb/romantic.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ig Nobel&lt;/a&gt; prize for this).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-5884.00030/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Masuda (2003)&lt;/a&gt; does a meta-analysis of several love scales, from Zick Rubin's original &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/16/2/265/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Love Scale&lt;/a&gt; (1970), to the popular &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3805440&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Passionate Love Scale (PLS)&lt;/a&gt; (1986), to  John Alan Lee's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_wheel_theory_of_love#Measurement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Color Theory&lt;/a&gt; of love (1973).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-01-16T22:43:08.143" LastActivityDate="2017-01-16T22:43:08.143" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9896" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9891" CreationDate="2015-04-28T22:11:37.003" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;To add some general theoretical background...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Answering this is very complicated&lt;/strong&gt; because the answer depends on how you define emotions, whether you see emotions as latent or emergent, whether you recognize high heterogeneity (behavior, cognition, physiology) within emotion categories, whether you view emotions as circumscribed in the brain or emerging from distributed neural networks, whether you view love as basic (like fear, disgust) or complex/higher order, and so on…&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotion measurement is tricky business, and while our means of emotion measurement (e.g., facial coding [FACS], behavioral coding [SPAFF], psychophysiology [impedance cardiography, EKG, etc.]),  have served us well in a lot of ways, they are also very limited. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a &lt;em&gt;constructivist perspective&lt;/em&gt; (a la Lisa Feldman Barrett or James Russell), self-report is the gold standard.  On this view, emotions are just the labels that we use to organize and communicate our situated affective experiences.  There is not a one-to-one mapping of behavior, cognition, and physiology to emotion categories like love.  That is, love is a heterogeneous construct.  It is highly variable in how it presents itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a &lt;em&gt;basic emotions perspective&lt;/em&gt; (a la Ekman, Izard, Panksepp, Keltner, etc.), we can use the methods suggested by Josh and Arnon without much concern.  We can infer from patterns of behavior, cognition, facial expression, and physiology that the person is experiencing love.  We should also be able to do this reliably.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So while we can certainly measure love &quot;scientifically,&quot; how we do it depends on your theoretical orientation.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-04-28T22:11:37.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9897" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-29T02:58:43.910" Score="5" ViewCount="13834" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’ve taken a course on counselling psychology and have attended a counselling sessions myself. All the literature I’ve read has said counsellors should not give advice. My question is why is this possible? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know when talking to a counsellor they think they’re being self-empowering by not “giving advice” or asking leading questions, but I don’t believe it’s possible to have a neutral conversation with someone where they have no effect over you. In a sense, is the way councillors/psychologists speaking to people actually underhanded as they try to dress-up advice as non-advice? I know at advance stages of counselling the counsellor is supposed to challenge the client’s incongruent views. Which views the councillor challenges are up to him, so that’s exerting change on the client. Wouldn't it be better for a councillor to clearly say what he thinks instead of trying to trick a client into thinking they came up with the idea?&#xA;For example if a counsellor says “you’ve listed many bad qualities about your girlfriend” while this may be a fact, the councillor is trying to steer you in a certain direction. Wouldn’t it be more honest to say “you’ve listed many bad qualities about your girlfriend, maybe you should breakup with her?” even though the breaking up bit is considered advice?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE: I think I've finally found the words to express what I'm thinking. I know councilors are not supposed to give advice and act in a very &quot;neutral way&quot; as to allow the client to sort things out for them self, as this is seen as self empowering. It's been my observation that councilors (inadvertently) just find ways to mask what they are asserting as a question or a seemingly neutral statement. For example, client &quot;my neighbor was parked in my drive way and it made me late for work&quot;, councilor &quot;I could see how that would make a person mad&quot; (this implies the correct response would be mad). client: &quot;my date cancelled on me&quot;, councilor &quot;do you feel let down?&quot; (this is planting the idea in his head). Now wouldn't it be better if the councilor gave advice like &quot;there are plenty of fish in the sea&quot;. I know councilors are not trained to ask leading questions or make leading comments, but as humans, I believe it is inevitable to do this, and it's much better just to say something directly than to (subconsciously) think up a way to hint at it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-10-11T12:58:47.823" LastActivityDate="2020-10-11T12:58:47.823" Title="Why are counsellors not supposed to give advice or lead the client? Is it possible for a counsellor not to be leading?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9898" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9839" CreationDate="2015-04-29T12:41:17.807" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; This is not intended to set a verbosity standard for answers, but to give a comprehensive example of what kind of information I am looking in order to further clarify the question. An answer including only a parallel of the &lt;em&gt;principles of ecological psychology&lt;/em&gt; subsection would be sufficient, for example.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Ecological psychology&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ione.psy.uconn.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ecological Psychology&lt;/a&gt; (EP) is an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extended_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;extended cognition&lt;/a&gt; theory of the mind which draws on and massively extends &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_J._Gibson#Gibson.27s_Approach_to_Visual_Perception&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gibsonian&lt;/a&gt; ideas of direct perception into a full theory of behavior. EP rejects both representationalism and the idea that behavior is organized because some other entity (such as the brain) is organized, in favor of the idea that &lt;strong&gt;the cause of behavior is an organized physical system unto itself&lt;/strong&gt;, called the mind. It therefore rejects that an organism can be described meaningfully in isolation from its environment. Instead, behavior, intelligence and consciousness are theorized to emerge from observable physical dynamics and interactions (Turvey and Carello, 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The rules that govern behavior are not like laws enforced by an authority or decisions made by a commander: behavior is regular without being regulated. The question is how this can be.&#xA;  — James J. Gibson, &lt;em&gt;The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (1979/1986)&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;An ecological ontology&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ecological psychology proposes that the meaningful scale of analysis for behavior is not the organism, but the organism-environment system. These systems comprise &lt;strong&gt;agents&lt;/strong&gt; (goal-directed &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopoiesis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;autopoietic systems&lt;/a&gt;), &lt;strong&gt;affordances&lt;/strong&gt; (opportunities for action), &lt;strong&gt;effectivities&lt;/strong&gt; (action capabilities) and a &lt;strong&gt;niche&lt;/strong&gt; (the set of affordances). Behavior emerges from dynamical organism-environment interactions, which are called perception-action cycles. An illustrative example from the literature is the matter of explaining the outfielder problem, i.e., of catching a ball in the air (Fink, Foo and Warren, 2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Principles of ecological psychology&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=jxnhqHuo3gQC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP2&amp;amp;dq=Six%20principles%20for%20an%20embodied-embedded%20approach%20to%20behavior.%20&amp;amp;ots=v8NoBx1bsJ&amp;amp;sig=pLmndlNhUs8klsvorbzCdlUotic#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Six%20principles%20for%20an%20embodied-embedded%20approach%20to%20behavior.&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Richardson, Shockley, Fajen, Riley and Turvey (2008, see chapter 9)&lt;/a&gt; proposed six influential principles of ecological psychology, which I will cover here, but two special issues of the journal Ecological Psychology also dealt with the search for physical intelligence from first principles in depth (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/heco20/24/1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;first&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/heco20/24/3&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;second&lt;/a&gt; special issue) if you want more information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Organism–environment systems are the proper units of behavioral analysis.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Organisms cannot exist without an environment or vice versa; one term implies the other. Attempts to understand an organism or an environment as separate from the other are therefore meaningless.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Environmental realities should be defined at the ecological scale.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A theory of behavior entails a theory of environments. Substances, surfaces,&#xA;places, objects, and events define the environment for ecological psychology, and therefore define opportunities for action.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Behavior is emergent and self-organized.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The mind is a lawfully nonlinear system which exhibits macroscopic emergent properties that do not reduce to local interactions between components. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Perception and action are continuous and cyclic.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perception entails action and action entails perception. The perception-action cycle is understood as a continuous relation between the flow of an information array and the forces an organism produces as it acts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Information is specificational.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perception is direct rather than approximated or mediated by inferential processes. Understanding behavior will require going O-E system by O-E system, task by task, and empirically identifying the relevant specificational information—unique 1:1 correspondences in those O-E systems.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Perception is of affordances.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The distinction between conception and perception is false. Knowing is a relation between organism and environment, and affordances are perceived by identifying lawful information that invariantly specifies capabilities of a particular agent in relation to features of a particular environment state.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Concluding remarks&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ecological psychology is a unique way to conceive of the mind, or perhaps it just seems that way to me subjectively because my background is predominantly cognitive. It fascinates me that their principles have drawn ecological psychologists in a completely different direction compared to cognitive psychologists, tending to focus on movement and locomotion rather than starting with memory and reasoning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EP is a theory that I urge every cognitive scientist should familiarize themselves with, not so much because I think it's going to replace cognitive theory any time soon, but because it's truly a &lt;em&gt;fundamentally&lt;/em&gt; different way to conceptualize behavior. It raises many important questions that are not often considered in the study of behavior, and gave me cause to critically consider some of my assumptions about the mind I did not realize I held.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fink, P. W., Foo, P. S., &amp;amp; Warren, W. H. (2009). Catching fly balls in virtual reality: A critical test of the outfielder problem. Journal of Vision, 9(13), 14.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gibson, J. J. (1986). The ecological approach to visual perception. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. (Original work published 1979)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Richardson, M. J., Shockley, K., Fajen, B. R., Riley, M. A., &amp;amp; Turvey, M. T. (2008). Ecological psychology: Six principles for an embodied–embedded approach to behavior. Handbook of cognitive science: An embodied approach, 161-187.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Turvey, M. T., &amp;amp; Carello, C. (2012). On intelligence from first principles: Guidelines for inquiry into the hypothesis of physical intelligence (PI). Ecological Psychology, 24(1), 3-32.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-29T12:50:37.443" LastActivityDate="2015-04-29T12:50:37.443" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9899" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1732" CreationDate="2015-04-29T13:47:55.833" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Unfortunately, the links appear to be broken, so I will reply to the title and bolded question.)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being forced to use a language you are unfamiliar with as a language technique is known as &lt;strong&gt;immersion learning.&lt;/strong&gt; I could not find direct comparisons of adults and children, but based on evidence from educational systems, it appears that early immersion does not change the helpfulness of immersion learning outcomes compared to late immersion, but interestingly, it does appear to change the &lt;em&gt;way&lt;/em&gt; we obtain those learning outcomes (Harley and Hart, 1997).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Evidence is found to support the main hypothesis that in late immersion starting in adolescence there will be a positive relationship between L2 [second language] outcomes and an analytical dimension of language aptitude, whereas in early immersion beginning in grade 1 a positive relationship will hold between L2 outcomes and memory ability. &lt;strong&gt;A further hypothesis that early immersion students will have higher language aptitude as a result of their early L2 exposure is not supported by the findings&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would appear to at least partially satisfy the question. Since the question is about a fictional movie, I'll go out on a limb here and say that speculatively, an unrelated earlier study might be helpful in explaining why this could be the case. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Newport (1990) reported support for the hypothesis that language learning abilities decline because of the expansion of nonlinguistic cognitive abilities. It's conceivable this allows individuals increasing freedom to avoid using second language, but these nonlinguistic abilities may be unhelpful in cases of extended immersion learning as depicted in The Terminal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harley, B., &amp;amp; Hart, D. (1997). Language aptitude and second language proficiency in classroom learners of different starting ages. Studies in second language acquisition, 19(03), 379-400.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Newport, E. L. (1990), Maturational Constraints on Language Learning. Cognitive Science, 14: 11–28. doi: 10.1207/s15516709cog1401_2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-04-29T13:47:55.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9900" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3881" CreationDate="2015-04-29T15:24:09.397" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Do the Big Five traits interact?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have given a general overview of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/9843/2868&quot;&gt;Big Five&lt;/a&gt; model in a previous answer. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big Five model of personality&lt;/a&gt; is based on a statistical analysis of a person's tendency to agree or disagree with short descriptive statements. The principal object of this analysis is to identify independent factors that can explain variation in participants' responses to these statements. In some sense, they are designed not to interact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of the descriptive nature of, and the methodology employed in, the construction of the Big Five, the factors do not have notion of interaction in the sense that Jungian types might, and do not &quot;drive&quot; behavior in the same sense. It's theoretically meaningful to talk about interactions between Jungian types, because types are associated with not only particular behavioral patterns, but particular manifestations of behavior. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Factor analytic theories such as the Big Five or 16PF, on the other hand, are not associated with particular manifestations of behavior. It isn't meaningful to talk about how a person A who is high on neuroticism might interact with a person B who is high on Agreeableness, because we can readily imagine an almost infinite number of ways in which those traits might manifest over persons, situations and time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There may still be &lt;strong&gt;statistical interaction&lt;/strong&gt; between Big Five traits with respect to some outcome variable (e.g., high conscientiousness &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; extraversion may predict higher income than the sum of both in isolation), but these notions of interaction should not be confused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Are interactions between Jungian types scientifically supported?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question has effectively been covered a number of posts here on Cognitive Sciences. The short version is that Jungian type theories such as the MBTI are not well supported by the empirical research literature, but we don't know if it is an example of the Forer effect. You may find the following questions interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1546/2868&quot;&gt;Are there any personality theories that use the scientific method?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/9884/2868&quot;&gt;Are woman more Judging than men in the MBTI?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/1404/2868&quot;&gt;Is the Myer Briggs Type indicator (MBTI) a reasonable scientific theory?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/9885/2868&quot;&gt;Intuitive explanation of MBTI test and it's gender bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/3879/2868&quot;&gt;What is the consequence for the MBTI in not having a neuroticism factor?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-04-29T15:24:09.397" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9901" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9897" CreationDate="2015-04-29T16:27:31.170" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Counselors can be taught to &quot;not give advice&quot; and there are good reasons for this school of thought. But in professional practice such passivity is only one style among many counselors may choose. If you find yourself unhappy with your counselor's style, do both of you a favor and keep looking for greater compatibility. Better results will follow from greater comfort in sessions. The burden of finding the best match is on the client - the counselor will try to help the client as well as possible with the style the counselor believes is best for the client, but if you don't like such passivity, look for another counselor and say what you want during the first meeting (on the phone, even better.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to &quot;why&quot; some counselors believe it is helpful to not give advice: much work in psychotherapy requires the client to make every step, every decision following the client's own insight; this is a process of internal awareness and growth which places the counselor in the role of facilitator. A facilitator will make it easier for the client to make progress, but will not tell the client answers even if the counselor has opinions or preferences. As you put it, the goal is for the client to become more &quot;self-empowering.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I hope this helps.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;I have a Counseling M.A. and years' practice in a variety of healing arts.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/clinical-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;clinical-psychology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;clinical-psychology&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/conversation&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;conversation&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;conversation&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/style&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;style&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;style&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/counseling&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;counseling&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;counseling&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8206" LastEditorUserId="8206" LastEditDate="2015-05-08T21:22:23.710" LastActivityDate="2015-05-08T21:22:23.710" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9902" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1120" CreationDate="2015-04-29T17:25:24.060" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the confusion arises because the hierarchy of &quot;activity&quot; as described in that figure exist in the context of an ontology that is closer to dynamical &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_cognition#Perception-action_coupling&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;perception-action cycles&lt;/a&gt; than to the evolutionary information processing ontology typically used in cognitivist approaches. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The world is structured; it comprises discrete objectively existing entities, that is, objects. Subjects’ interaction with the world is also structured; it is organized around the objects. Objects have their “objective” meanings, determined by their relationship with other entities existing in the world (including the subject). In order to meet their needs, the subject has to reveal the objective meaning of the objects, at least partly, and act accordingly. — &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/activity_theory.html#heading_Object-orientedness_page_12438&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;interaction-design.org, section 16.3.2.1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Activities&lt;/strong&gt; are relations between &lt;strong&gt;subjects&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;objects&lt;/strong&gt; (as in interests), so &lt;strong&gt;motives&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; objects. They exist in the sense that the grammar of a language exists, and are independent of any one person. &lt;strong&gt;Goals&lt;/strong&gt; relate individual conscious processes (e.g., decision-making and planning) to these motives in order for the subject to concretely attain their object, and &lt;strong&gt;actions&lt;/strong&gt; relate individual behavior to the goals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, these are only facets of the same continuously evolving system. There is therefore no way to describe an action without reference to an object and motive in an activity theoretical sense. In activity theory, all behavior is directed towards some motive as a matter of definition, and it is the motive which defines the activity. Motives entail goals, goals entail conditions, and reciprocally the other way around in a continuous dynamically evolving cycle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The motive is the object that the subject ultimately needs to attain.&lt;/strong&gt; For instance, in some cultural contexts people reaching a certain age need to learn how to drive a car (and get a driver’s license); it is a general prerequisite of being a fully functional member of society. Learning how to drive a car is an activity which is organized as a multi-layer system of sub-units directed at getting a driver’s license. &lt;strong&gt;Actions are conscious processes directed at goals which must be undertaken to fulfil the object.&lt;/strong&gt; Goals can be decomposed into sub-goals, sub-sub-goals, and so forth. For instance, one may decide to enroll in a driving school, purchase instructional materials, make a schedule of theoretical lessons and practice sessions, etc. &lt;strong&gt;Actions are implemented through lower-level units of activity, called operations. Operations are routine processes providing an adjustment of an action to the ongoing situation.&lt;/strong&gt; — &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/activity_theory.html#heading_Hierarchical_structure_of_activity_page_12438&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;interaction-design.org, section 16.3.2.2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A potentially helpful tool in understanding this ontology may be to notice the remarkable similarity with the Gibsonian concept of affordances as objectively existing perceptual entities (e.g., Chemero, 2003), only seen from a socio-cultural point of view. The relation between affordance and organism seems closely parallel to the relation between subject and object in activity theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Much like ecological psychologists need to define an ontology of objective affordances that define behavior for specific organisms within a specific environment before anything they say makes any sense, activity theorists need to define an ontology of objective motives for specific subjects within a specific socio-cultural context. Unlike EP, &lt;strong&gt;activity theory does not appear to provide a concrete way to identify objectively existing motives, nor exactly define the subjects or the socio-cultural context, so AT is ambiguous with respect to any individual case (e.g., a 'survival' motive or goal)&lt;/strong&gt;. See also what's comments about AT being implicitly situated within a Marxist context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chemero, A. (2003). An outline of a theory of affordances. Ecological psychology, 15(2), 181-195.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-04T11:29:30.863" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T11:29:30.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9903" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1713" CreationDate="2015-04-29T21:36:50.177" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;Open Extended Jungian Type Scales&lt;/strong&gt; is a open source alternative to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Open Extended Jungian Type Scales was developed to be an open source alternative to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. The OEJTS was developed by empirically selecting items that differentiated among persons who identified as one of the Myers-Briggs personality types along one of the four dichotomies. After a detailed review of psychological type, including a survey of 2230 persons about what differences the dichotomies entailed a pool of 278 items was generated. Using 25,568 participants who were experienced with psychological type and knew their personality type, this pool was reduced down to 48 items, twelve for each scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://personality-testing.info/tests/OEJTS/development/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Information about test development&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://personality-testing.info/tests/OEJTS/development/OEJTS1.2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Copy of version 1.2 of the test&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5089" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-04-30T23:34:30.790" LastActivityDate="2015-04-30T23:34:30.790" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9904" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-29T23:26:21.370" Score="4" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, I have continuous EEG data from a control group and a test group. The recording was done while the participants were at rest, so no task was performed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to start with some basic analysis, but I am not really sure how to give the first step. The recordings are ~5hours long. I believe it is best to segment the data. Should I perform the analysis on each segment? How do I combine the data of the whole group and then compare it with the other group?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just started to work with EEG and none of the papers show a clear &quot;tutorial&quot; on how to do these basic steps. Any papers or books you could recommend would be of great help! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8208" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-04-30T00:05:01.377" LastActivityDate="2015-04-30T00:05:01.377" Title="Continuous Basic EEG analysis" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2015-05-10T05:23:23.393" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9905" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-29T17:58:39.330" Score="7" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have an experiment with 500 students who where asked to solve a general problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each student had the assignment to find as many solutions as possible to the problem in 15 minutes. Solutions where submitted in the form of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_map&quot;&gt;mind maps&lt;/a&gt; (where each node represents a possible solution and connections between nodes are also possible). 500 maps are available for evaluation. All the students were previously trained about the use of mind maps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The objective would be to get a reliable proxy of each student creativity from their outputs. I'm not sure if this is possible or if the approach is just wrong and one should use a more accepted test to measure creativity. No other test scores are available for this sample. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are thinking about different approaches such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;counting the number of generated ideas;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;using experts to evaluate the characteristics of the creative outputs.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any paper related to the issue? Or any accepted method that could be used to evaluate creativty of the students?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8212" OwnerDisplayName="Forinstance" LastActivityDate="2015-04-30T13:04:00.437" Title="A measure of creativity from mind maps" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9906" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-30T11:23:24.180" Score="4" ViewCount="5479" Body="&lt;p&gt;I consider myself a person with reasonable intelligence. In my job, I require a lot of critical thinking. I am good at think laterally, but sometimes I feel I missed important critical evaluations of a simple problem. Then, I start to doubt my own intellect and rationality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is critical thinking associated with IQ?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8211" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-01T09:03:44.853" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T09:03:44.853" Title="Is critical thinking associated with IQ?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9907" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9909" CreationDate="2015-04-30T11:54:53.063" Score="4" ViewCount="2688" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need a task which can measure verbal also visual working memory. I am not going to run the test, this is just for theoretical interest. Which tests can be used in this research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8213" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-04-30T13:28:13.377" LastActivityDate="2015-04-30T13:28:13.377" Title="How to measure verbal and visual working memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9908" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9905" CreationDate="2015-04-30T13:04:00.437" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are not far off from one of the classic tests of creativity!  The Torrance Test of Creative Thinking scores for &lt;strong&gt;fluency&lt;/strong&gt; (number of responses) as well as &lt;strong&gt;originality&lt;/strong&gt; (statistical rarity of responses) and &lt;strong&gt;elaboration&lt;/strong&gt; (level of detail) on a variety of different tasks--some of which are similar to your mind-mapping task.  The validity of the TTCT has been examined with several long-term studies, so there is a fair amount of data on its measurements as well as the form of the test itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Torrance, E. P. (1981b). Empirical validation of criterion-referenced indicators of creative ability through a longitudinal study. Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 6, 136-140.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2015-04-30T13:04:00.437" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9909" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9907" CreationDate="2015-04-30T13:27:20.710" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16523997&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conway et al. (2005)&lt;/a&gt; gives a really nice overview of tasks to measure working memory capacity (WMC). I would refer to that publication for details about the tasks. I'll summarize two tasks below that are related to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Verbal Working Memory&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;A classic way to measure verbal working memory is a reading span task. The task involves presenting sentences to a subject who makes a judgment about whether the sentence is coherent or not. The subject must also remember some key word (e.g. the last word) in the sentence. The subject reads several such sentences, and then has to recall all of the key words in order. The more sentences that the subject can read, the higher their verbal working memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Visual Working Memory&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Visual/spatial working memory can be tested in a similar way, but with spatial stimuli instead of sentences. One such task is a rotation-span task. In this task, you see a rotated letter, like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jqlJP.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;rotated F&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have to make a judgment about whether the letter is in the correct orientation (if it were upright, would it be normal or flipped?). After you do that, you then see something like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CW6YG.png&quot; alt=&quot;arrow&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have to remember what direction the arrow was pointing. You then repeat the process several times, alternating between letters and arrows, until you are asked to recall the order of orientations for all the arrows you saw.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-04-30T13:27:20.710" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9910" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-30T13:32:53.680" Score="7" ViewCount="489" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFzDaBzBlL0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here's a video of a guy learning to ride a &quot;backwards bike&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, if you turn the handles left, then the wheel goes right. It took the guy forever to learn to ride a backward bike. He kept remarking that &quot;any disturbance would make is brain switch back to the old 'normal' bike control system&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later in the video, he did something amazing. He tried to ride a normal bike and apparently no longer could. Then after about 20 minutes worth of trying and failing utterly, suddenly the understanding of a normal bike snapped back into his mind, and in the span of about 30 seconds he could ride the bike easily. How did that sudden change happen? What state was his mind in that he couldn't reach back to the old system? And then what suddenly happened so that he was able to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, is there any research in this area? I think it would be awesome to hook up an EEG to someone and watch as they make this mental leap from one control system to another. Has this ever been done?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note here (because there appears to be some confusion) that I'm not so much interested in brain plasticity or negative transfer. Those are interesting in their own right, but for this question I'm most interested in the &quot;switch back&quot; phenomenon. Why was the individual somehow blocked from reaching the normal bike control system, and how did this barrier so suddenly and so drastically disappear? Apparently there are now two systems in his brain, and they are somehow quarantined from one another. What mechanism makes this possible? And why would such a mechanism be beneficial?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize now that I have experienced the same phenomenon with language. I studied Spanish in high school and was pretty good at it. But after learning Japanese it's difficult to &quot;jump&quot; back into Spanish speaking mode. And if I'm in Spanish speaking mode it's hard to jump back to Spanish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="68" LastEditorUserId="68" LastEditDate="2015-05-02T12:56:35.880" LastActivityDate="2015-05-02T12:56:35.880" Title="The &quot;Backwards Bike&quot; and implications for how we think" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9911" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9881" CreationDate="2015-04-30T15:40:44.300" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;'Mental Illness' covers such a broad range of illnesses that it would be very difficult to answer your question. However, general consensus is  that: people who are receiving an effective treatment for a mental illness are no more violent or dangerous than neurotypical/ 'healthy' people. People with a mental illness are more likely to harm themselves or to be harmed. There is a weak association between violence and mental illness, especially when alcohol or drug misuse is involved. Early treatment of mental illness is the key to preventing violence. This article covers the topic fairly thoroughly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/1/172.full.pdf&quot;&gt;Link, B. G., &amp;amp; Stueve, A. (1995). Evidence bearing on mental illness as a possible cause of violent behavior. Epidemiologic Reviews, 17(1), 172-181&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is from their conclusion on mental illness and public safety: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People with mental illness pose no greater threat to public safety than do such other &quot;high risk&quot; groups as men or young adults or people with less than a high school education. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-04-30T15:58:45.670" LastActivityDate="2015-04-30T15:58:45.670" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9912" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-04-30T21:07:00.410" Score="3" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of a few concepts, primarily from dream research, which indicate that dreams feature or integrate observed objects from the past several days into dream content. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, seeing a bike commercial can make a person dream of riding a bike; finding a molten piece of chocolate in one's pocket can make one dream of something brown and sticky. The colloquial term for this phenomenon is &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_interpretation#Freud&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;day residue&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, invented by Freud. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anecdotal evidence from my own life makes me question if something similar happens in the waking state. &lt;strong&gt;Do events from the past few days &quot;prime&quot; the brain to create new ideas based on those events?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been studies that demonstrated that exposing a person to emotionally neutral objects causes them to come up with ideas related to those objects in the next few days? For example, is seeing art supplies more likely people to start an art project?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-01T08:12:05.187" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T08:14:10.240" Title="Can observing neutral objects prime the brain to integrate them into new ideas in the waking state?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;ideation&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9913" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-01T04:32:28.283" Score="1" ViewCount="199" Body="&lt;p&gt;I looked around and it doesn't seem to match the definition of guilt NOR shame. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I made up a lie that works this way:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.Tell people someone I made up is &quot;special,&quot; &quot;unique,&quot; and a variety of other things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2.Lock myself in a paradigm where I both know and don't know I am this person in some way to gain approval or represent my true feelings under the guise of this person expressing them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3.When people speak of this person, I can somewhat &quot;feel&quot; what that person would. So if I feel like a massive loser, I lie and tell people that &quot;X&quot; person did something amazing so that when they talk good about them, I can somehow know it links back to me even though I won't admit it to myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been lying to myself for years and doing it so much that I sometimes hardly realize that it's untrue, or have trained myself so much that it's like it was true and I am conditioned to not admit it's false to myself. Whatever &quot;X&quot; person does, I can take credit, so it gives my life some meaning, even if it's not real and I won't consciously admit it or have deluded myself into accepting this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I've been doing this with my mother lately and I fear I can't tell her the truth about all of the lies and fake stuff I've told her about this person, and it's making me feel bad but I have no idea how to categorize this emotion. Is it just simply &quot;bad emotional feeling?&quot; Is it guilt and shame? I have no idea. My emotions have always been a mystery to me since I never know what I'm feeling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8218" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T14:01:08.877" Title="Is there a specific name for the emotion I'm feeling?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-01T17:14:34.697" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9914" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9912" CreationDate="2015-05-01T08:08:56.093" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some support for a short-term &lt;strong&gt;day residue effect&lt;/strong&gt; in the literature, but no support for a more extended &lt;strong&gt;dream-lag effect&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nielsen and Powell (1992) published a test of the day residue effect (incorporation of material from the immediately preceding day) and the dream-lag effect (incorporation of material from 6–8 days prior). Based on dream journals and self-reports of daily events, &lt;strong&gt;they found evidence to support the day residue effect, but not the dream-lag effect&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A short &lt;a href=&quot;http://wwwpsy.uni-muenster.de/imperia/md/content/psychologie_institut_2/ae_lappe/freie_dokumente/nielsen2005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2005 Nature article&lt;/a&gt; by the same first author provides a review of the literature for memory's general relationship to dreaming, and includes a very nice summary of the different theories that are in play right now (Nielsen and Stenstrom, 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nielsen, T. A., &amp;amp; Powell, R. A. (1992). The day-residue and dream-lag effects: A literature review and limited replication of two temporal effects in dream formation. Dreaming, 2(2), 67.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nielsen, T. A., &amp;amp; Stenstrom, P. (2005). What are the memory sources of dreaming?. Nature, 437(7063), 1286-1289.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-01T08:14:10.240" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T08:14:10.240" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9906" CreationDate="2015-05-01T09:01:58.160" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Critical thinking is an ill-defined concept in the cognitive sciences, so this question most likely has as many answers as there are measures of IQ and critical thinking. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/Crit_Thinking.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;An accessible introduction to the literature is available here&lt;/a&gt;, with the general cognitive conception of critical thinking given as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the mental activities that are typically called critical thinking are actually a subset of three types of thinking: reasoning, making judgments and decisions, and problem solving. I say that critical thinking is a subset of these because we think in these ways all the time, but only sometimes in a critical way. Deciding to read this article, for example, is not critical thinking. But carefully weighing the evidence it presents in order to decide whether or not to believe what it says is. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With that said, there appears to be some empirical support for a relation between cognitive ability/IQ and critical thinking ability, at least within a dual-process theoretic framework. Sá, West and Stanovich (1999) reported:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Participants high in cognitive ability were able to flexibly use prior knowledge, depending upon its efficacy in a particular environment. They were more likely to project a relationship when it reflected a useful cue, but they were also less likely to project a prior belief when the belief was inefficacious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;I've provided a link to the PDF my references, since they refer directly to cognitive ability rather than IQ, and the equivalence is only made clear in their Method section.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Keith_Stanovich/publication/232472337_The_domain_specificity_and_generality_of_belief_bias_Searching_for_a_generalizable_critical_thinking_skill/links/0deec5268138dde610000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sá, W. C., West, R. F., &amp;amp; Stanovich, K. E. (1999). The domain specificity and generality of belief bias: Searching for a generalizable critical thinking skill. Journal of educational psychology, 91(3), 497.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T09:01:58.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8570" CreationDate="2015-05-01T09:37:35.517" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;There is no known specific process or part of the human brain which, when activated, causes the person to daydream, engage in fantasy or come up with ideas that are far from common reality&lt;/strong&gt;. Instead, imagination is a broad-based activity which involves and overlaps with many brain regions and cognitive processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cognitive neuroscientific basis of imagination is believed to comprise a core network of brain regions, which seems to utilize parts of a vast and broad-based set of other regions for different purposes. There are too many of these to list, but &lt;strong&gt;the main activity seems to revolve around the frontal lobes, parietal lobes and the hippocampus&lt;/strong&gt;. Interestingly, and consistent with the idea of memory as a generative process, the brain regions involved in imaginary events appear to be highly related to the regions involved in episodic memory retrieval for real events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/27/52/14365.full&quot;&gt;Hassabis, Kumaran and Maguire (2007)&lt;/a&gt; report relevant fMRI evidence on imaginary scene construction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our results show that when subjects construct new fictitious scenes an extended brain network involving the &lt;strong&gt;hippocampus&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;parahippocampal gyrus&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;retrosplenial cortices&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;posterior parietal cortices&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;strong&gt;ventromedial prefrontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt; is active. Critically, we show using a conjunction analysis that this network is not specific to the construction of new fictitious experiences, but &lt;strong&gt;is also engaged when subjects remember both previously imagined experiences as well as their own real personal experiences&lt;/strong&gt;. The implication is, therefore, that this distributed network supports cognitive operations engaged in common during the three main conditions in our experiment, most likely the (re)construction, maintenance and visualization of complex scenes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are &lt;em&gt;associations&lt;/em&gt;, however. The results should not be taken to support the idea that there exists any process/brain region or set of brain regions which, if stimulated, will &lt;strong&gt;cause&lt;/strong&gt; a person to daydream or engage in fantasy, only that &lt;strong&gt;these regions are active when people do so.&lt;/strong&gt; This is always true for neuroimaging studies, but this is doubly true when the results involve a dozen or more areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/27/52/14365.full&quot;&gt;Hassabis, D., Kumaran, D., &amp;amp; Maguire, E. A. (2007). Using imagination to understand the neural basis of episodic memory. The Journal of neuroscience, 27(52), 14365-14374.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-01T09:44:15.107" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T09:44:15.107" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9918" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9910" CreationDate="2015-05-01T09:57:18.130" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pending Josh's better prism-adaptation-based answer, I believe the general cognitive term for this is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_Transfer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;negative transfer&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Most&lt;/strong&gt; of the time, when people learn something new or improve their skills in one domain, we observe related improvement in related skills and domains. &lt;strong&gt;Sometimes&lt;/strong&gt;, however, it's the other way around―typically motor activities. A relevant previous question here on CogSci was based on negative transfer in writing, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/238/2868&quot;&gt;By learning to read and write upside down, what did I do to myself?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, where Jeromy's answer should be of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T09:57:18.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9919" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5894" CreationDate="2015-05-01T10:19:14.150" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that despite the idea's intuitive appeal, &lt;strong&gt;the evidence is currently mixed with respect to whether loss aversion can explain dollar cost averaging strategies.&lt;/strong&gt; Most research I can find seems to be financial and normative, pertaining to whether the strategy performs well more than behavioral and descriptive concerns for why people engage in the strategy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An uncommonly direct study of this exact question reported, in no uncertain terms, that we cannot explain the tendency of investors dollar cost averaging in terms of loss aversion (Leggio and Lien, 1995).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using prospect theory to create an alternative utility function that does not require investors to be strictly risk averse, we empirically test Statman’s conjecture for four investment strategies and for alternative stock investments. &lt;strong&gt;We find loss aversion still does not explain the existence of the dollar-cost averaging investment strategy.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, at least for our sense of certainty, this claim was challenged in a later study by Dicht and Drobetz (2011), which suggested the exact opposite: according to them, prospect theoretic &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; explain dollar cost averaging strategies with loss aversion within short time scales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Overall, our results indicate that the popularity of &lt;strong&gt;dollar cost averaging can be explained within the framework of the Tversky and Kahneman’s cumulative prospect theory&lt;/strong&gt;, at least for short time horizons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seems to be a complex, time-dependent relationship between dollar cost averaging and loss aversion. It's plausible that loss aversion drives the tendency to engage in dollar cost averaging over particular time scales or for particular classes of investors, but ultimately, we don't have the evidence to say.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Leggio, K. B., &amp;amp; Lien, D. (2001). Does loss aversion explain dollar-cost averaging?. Financial Services Review, 10(1), 117-127.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dichtl, H., &amp;amp; Drobetz, W. (2011). Dollar-cost averaging and prospect theory investors: An explanation for a popular investment strategy. Journal of Behavioral Finance, 12(1), 41-52.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T10:19:14.150" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9920" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9910" CreationDate="2015-05-01T11:58:22.607" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;While both prism adaptation and negative transfer are pointers to the right direction, I'd see this as a question concerning &lt;strong&gt;brain plasticity&lt;/strong&gt; (you may want to tag the question with that, I don't have the required points to create a new tag).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The guy &lt;em&gt;could indeed&lt;/em&gt; learn to ride the reverse bike, but he would have to work hard on it, and would have a hard time reversing to normal bikes later on, as you report.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take a look at wikipedia's Perceptual adaptation page:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Experimental support[edit]&#xA;  In the 1890s, psychologist George M. Stratton conducted experiments in which he tested the theory of perceptual adaptation. In one experiment, he wore a reversing glasses for 21½ hours over three days, with no change in his vision. After removing the glasses, &quot;normal vision was restored instantaneously and without any disturbance in the natural appearance or position of objects.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Modern version of inverting mirrors with harness.&#xA;  On a later experiment, Stratton wore the glasses for eight whole days. By day four, the images seen through the instrument were still upside down. &lt;strong&gt;However, on day five, images appeared upright until he concentrated on them; then they became inverted again.&lt;/strong&gt; By having to concentrate on his vision to turn it upside down again, especially when he knew images were hitting his retinas in the opposite orientation as normal, Stratton deduced his brain had reprocessed his vision and adapted to the changes in vision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So people look at the world &lt;em&gt;literally&lt;/em&gt; upside-down, but then adjust abruptly.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good read about this is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Intelligence&quot;&gt;On Intelligence&lt;/a&gt;, and in my research with chess experts I have argued for a cognitive model of &quot;experience recognition&quot; in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0732118X12000360&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0732118X09000403&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An amazing video of the beginning of the learning process is here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpi1xKD20dw&quot;&gt;Amy hears sound for the first time&lt;/a&gt;.  At about 1m45s you can clearly see that she is confused about about her sensations---she doesn't have the experience of hearing, and her brain is just now trying to make sense of what this new influx of surprising information means and how it should be processed.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or look at this small girl, who has had &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VaDlLD97CLM&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;her entire left hemisphere taken out of her brain&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, with few behavioral problems.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a thought experiment, imagine you could suddenly &quot;feel&quot; the radio waves flowing all around us.  At first you'd be extremely confused.  Yet, after some time, you'd be able to discern people turning off their phones on a plane, turning on their gps, or the &quot;silence&quot; in rural areas.  &lt;strong&gt;If you had the experience for a long enough time,&lt;/strong&gt; you would be able to ground it to meaningful events surrounding you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6351" LastEditorUserId="6351" LastEditDate="2015-05-01T12:03:41.957" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T12:03:41.957" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9921" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9367" CreationDate="2015-05-01T12:05:49.450" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is difficult to overstate the extent to which analysis of variance-based linear modeling based for different groups dominates the cognitive sciences. A recent methodological review of the psychology literature suggesting that these analyses are used to test hypotheses in as much as 95% of studies (citation pending me recovering it). There &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; alternatives in working memory, but they often have more limited empirical support due to the dominance of the aforementioned analyses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Hierarchical models&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One alternative that doesn't veer &lt;em&gt;too&lt;/em&gt; far from established practices is to use a hierarchical modeling approach, as you suggest. For example, Lee and Webb (2005) proposed a Bayesian hierarchical modeling of working memory which accounted for both individual differences and aggregated group data. The main benefit here is to take advantage of both individual- and group-level variability, but we ultimately end up with a linear model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Many evaluations of cognitive models rely on data that have been averaged or aggregated across all experimental subjects&lt;/strong&gt;, and so fail to consider the possibility of important individual differences between subjects. &lt;strong&gt;Other evaluations are done at the single-subject level&lt;/strong&gt;, and so fail to benefit from the reduction of noise that data averaging or aggregation potentially provides. To overcome these weaknesses, &lt;strong&gt;we have developed a general approach to modeling individual differences using families of cognitive models in which different groups of subjects are identified as having different psychological behavior.&lt;/strong&gt; Separate models with separate parameterizations are applied to each group of subjects, and Bayesian model selection is used to determine the appropriate number of groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Topology&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An emerging, but currently more niche approach is to use topology. &lt;strong&gt;Topology is making some exciting inroads in the psychological methodology literature&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g., Butner et al., 2014), but so far has not managed to see substantial use in the empirical WM literature. However, there are a few early birds who've made some attempts to capture WM within a topological context, namely &lt;strong&gt;Glassman's work on a &quot;theory of relativity&quot; for working memory&lt;/strong&gt; (Glassman, 1999; Glassman, 2003). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the succeeding excerpt, he explains why human verbal memory capacity is 3-4 items from a topological perspective:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Thus,&#xA;  a moment’s WM is hypothesized here to reside in myriad activated cortical planar “patches,” each subdivided into up to four amoeboid “subpatches.” Two different lines of topological reasoning suggest orderly associations of such representations. &lt;strong&gt;(1)&lt;/strong&gt; The four-color principle of map topology, and the related K4 is planar theorem of graph theory, imply that if a small cortical area is dynamically subdivided into no more than four, discretely bounded planar subareas, then each such segment has ample free access to each of the others. &lt;strong&gt;(2)&lt;/strong&gt; A hypothetical alternative to such associative adjacency of simultaneously active cortical representations of chunk-attributes is associative overlap, whereby, in dense cortical neuropil, activated subpatches behave like Venn diagrams of intersecting sets. As the number of Venn-like coactive subpatches&#xA;  within a patch increases, maintaining ad hoc associativity among all combinations requires exponentially proliferating intersections. &lt;strong&gt;Beyond four, serpentine subpatch shapes are required, which could easily lead to pathologies of omission or commission.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Others&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am tangentially aware of related attempts to develop a theory of (working) memory as a form of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/memory-foraging/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;foraging behavior&lt;/a&gt;, but not sufficiently to give a summary of it. Hopefully, the link is instructive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.utah.edu/research/upforreview/butner/article3_butner.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Butner, J. E., Gagnon, K. T., Geuss, M. N., Lessard, D. A., &amp;amp; Story, T. N. (2014). Utilizing Topology to Generate and Test Theories of Change. Psychological methods.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.128.1309&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lee, M. D., &amp;amp; Webb, M. R. (2005). Modeling individual differences in cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 12(4), 605–621. doi:10.3758/BF03196751&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Glassman, R. B. (1999). A working memory “theory of relativity”: elasticity in temporal, spatial, and modality dimensions conserves item capacity in radial maze, verbal tasks, and other cognition. Brain Research Bulletin, 48(5), 475–489. doi:10.1016/S0361-9230(99)00026-X&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Glassman, R. B. (2003). Topology and graph theory applied to cortical anatomy may help explain working memory capacity for three or four simultaneous items. Brain Research Bulletin, 60(1-2), 25–42. doi:10.1016/S0361-9230(03)00030-3&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-03T12:28:43.917" LastActivityDate="2015-05-03T12:28:43.917" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9923" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9913" CreationDate="2015-05-01T14:01:08.877" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This sounds a little bit like a mild form of Depersonalization.  From Wikipedia: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The core symptom of depersonalization disorder is the subjective experience of &quot;unreality in one's sense of self&quot;, and as such there are no clinical signs. People who are diagnosed with depersonalization also experience an almost uncontrollable urge to question and think about the nature of reality and existence as well as other deeply philosophical questions.&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Individuals who experience depersonalization can feel divorced from their own personal physicality by sensing their body sensations, feelings, emotions and behaviors as not belonging to the same person or identity.&lt;/strong&gt; Also, a recognition of self breaks down (hence the name). Depersonalization can result in very high anxiety levels, which can intensify these perceptions even further.&#xA;  Common descriptions: Feeling disconnected from one's physicality; feeling like one is not completely occupying the body; not feeling in control of one's speech or physical movements; and feeling detached from one's own thoughts or emotions; experiencing one's self and life from a distance; a sense of just going through the motions; feeling as though one is in a dream or movie; feeling &quot;weird&quot; being alive; and even out-of-body experiences.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the above describe your feelings?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, you may want to talk to a professional, play sports, and lower your overall anxiety levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6351" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T14:01:08.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9924" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-01T14:15:54.243" Score="3" ViewCount="3324" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;: I had a (rental) property  that I was planning to put up for sale. Then I &quot;changed my mind&quot; and said that I wanted to wait for the current year's appreciation, and sell in &quot;six months&quot; (from the time our conversation took place in early March). The realtor promised to get back to me in six months. That would have been September.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I called back the realtor almost two months later. He was surprised to hear from me so soon. He said,&quot; I thought you wanted to sell in &quot;six months.&quot; I said, yes, but we need three months' lead time. Two months to give the tenant 60 days' notice (May and June), under Oregon law, and one month to clean up the place (July). That would give us a target sale date of August (instead of September, originally). OK, I had moved up the sale date one month, but the real issue was three months' lead time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had a similar conversation with the property manager, who notified the tenant in March when I first intended to sell, then assured her that this would not happen for a &quot;long time.&quot; Now we have to tell the tenant that the notice is &quot;imminent.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the cognitive processes of how people measure time, and form a view as to whether or not six months is a &quot;long time? Could the above be an application of e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vierordt%27s_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vierordt's Law&lt;/a&gt;, where short intervals are overestimated and longer intervals are underestimated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2017-08-19T09:18:31.640" LastActivityDate="2017-08-19T09:18:31.640" Title="Why does &quot;six months&quot; seem like a &quot;long time&quot; even when it isn't?" Tags="&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2017-08-15T09:48:12.677" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9925" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1466" CreationDate="2015-05-01T14:16:07.687" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;His very first use of heuristic beyond computer science (he won the Turing award in Comp. Science) is from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/973030?&amp;amp;seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot;&gt;1946&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Proverbs of Administration&#xA;Herbert A. Simon, &lt;em&gt;Public Administration Review&lt;/em&gt;, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Winter, 1946), pp. 53-67&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If so, the evidence that it is an&#xA;  error has never been marshalled or published-apart&#xA;  from loose heuristic arguments&#xA;  like that quoted above&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6351" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T14:16:07.687" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9926" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9927" CreationDate="2015-05-01T14:25:32.927" Score="8" ViewCount="747" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alas, advertisements or commercials for &quot;hypnotherapy&quot; to stop any number of bad habits from smoking to weight gain are almost unavoidable now days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any actual unbiased studies or hard statistics on whether or not hypnosis is effective at curing an addiction to nicotine, or breaking the habit of cigarette smoking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4626" LastEditorUserId="8222" LastEditDate="2015-05-01T17:59:48.213" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T23:09:08.537" Title="Can hypnosis stop cigarette smoking?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9927" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9926" CreationDate="2015-05-01T16:11:52.267" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Green and Lynn (2000)&lt;/strong&gt; conducted a meta analysis of 59 experiments investigating the efficacy of hypnosis on smoking cessation. Their conclusions were:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is mixed, inconclusive evidence for whether hypnosis is any better than placebos.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hypnosis treatments were generally confounded with educational interventions and cognitive/behavioral interventions, making it impossible to isolate hypnosis as the causal source of positive results.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, their conclusion is: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hypnosis cannot, as yet, be regarded as a well-established treatment for smoking cessation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Barnes et al. (2010)&lt;/strong&gt; ran a meta analysis ten years later, and came to the same general conclusion. There is no evidence that hypnotherapy for smoking cessation works better than no treatment at all. They found that claims of success in the literature are generally uncontrolled studies, and that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The effects of hypnotherapy on smoking cessation claimed by uncontrolled studies were not confirmed by analysis of randomized controlled trials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barnes, J., Dong, C. Y., McRobbie, H., Walter, N., Mehta, M., &amp;amp; Stead, L. F. (2010). Hypnotherapy for smoking cessation. &lt;em&gt;Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001008.pub2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001008.pub2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Green, J., &amp;amp; Lynn, S. J. (2000). Hypnosis and suggestion-based approaches to smoking cessation: An examination of the evidence. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;48&lt;/em&gt;(2), 195-224.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-05-01T20:07:23.403" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T20:07:23.403" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9929" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9962" CreationDate="2015-05-01T22:45:27.647" Score="17" ViewCount="1294" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a problem in all therapies that if the client doesn't have faith or trust in the therapist then it is unlikely that anything can be achieved.  Therefore effective therapy for an extreme skeptic relies on convincing them that the therapist does indeed have some talent and ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider a profile that has something akin to the following views on common therapies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When looking at psychotherapy and therapists the list of different &quot;types&quot; seems endless.  On the one end, &quot;Freudian&quot; or &quot;Psychoanalysis&quot; is widely discredited quakery.  Carl Jung believed in &quot;synchronicity&quot;, which puts him firmly in the quack bin.  Plenty of other therapist start talking &quot;spirituality&quot; and so again, sadly are filed under &quot;not proper scientific medicine&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone has the above attitude to therapy and psychotherapy, what sort of therapist is going to be most credible?  We are talking about finding a credible therapy for someone who would self describe as a skeptic, atheist, scientist, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8232" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-10T01:12:30.740" LastActivityDate="2015-07-29T16:13:18.300" Title="Which schools of psychotherapy are most credible to a hard scientist?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9930" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9926" CreationDate="2015-05-01T23:09:08.537" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hypnosis is a state of human consciousness involving focused attention and reduced peripheral awareness characterized by an enhanced capacity for response to suggestion. It is however a non-permanent state so even if when you are hypnotised you don't have the impulse to smoke, once the hypnosis is over you'll be back to normal life. Freud was the first who studied this by studying a woman who could not move her arm in any way and when she was hypnotised she could, when the effect was over, she couldn't move it again. So, theoretically it's possible, but you should be in a permanent state of hypnosis, which obviously isn't the best think a person could experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8234" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T23:09:08.537" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9931" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9881" CreationDate="2015-05-01T23:46:04.420" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are certain illnesses which are associated with violence, or have aggression as a symptom (which will not always result in physical violence). Especially the Cluster B personality disorders come to mind, with narcissistic rage and crimes perpetrated by people with antisocial personality disorder. Oppositional defiant disorder in children also includes aggression, as well as some addictions like alcoholism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But these are only a few of the existing mental conditions. Basically, any single system in a human's brain can be messed up, including the ones responsible for aggression. The handful of conditions in which this happens is only a small percentage of all possible conditions. It is not that different from non-mental illness: there are hundreds of diagnoses, but only a small part of them are connected to a specific organ, say, the liver. Most people who suffer from a physical condition do not have a messed up liver; similarly, most people who suffer from a mental condition don't have a messed up aggression control. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are concerned with public safety, then it is quite possible that better methods for diagnosing and treating the aggression related mental conditions will result in a society with less violent crime. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.antoniocasella.eu/archipsy/Black_aspd_2010.pdf&quot;&gt;this study&lt;/a&gt; found that 35% of a random sample of prison inmates has antisocial personality disorder, and goes on to mention that it is especially common in violent offenders, while I've seen numbers for the general population estimated at between 1 and 5% (sorry, no citation on that currently present, maybe somebody has better data). So if we knew how to heal people with APD, we could expect less violence in society, as they contribute so much to it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if you are concerned with your own personal safety, I would not recommend avoiding people who appear to have a mental illness. The conditions which have the most visible symptoms - the Down child with a creepy smile, the autistic boy who repeatedly jerks his head - are not the ones which are usually connected to aggression. The (potentially aggressive) people with cluster B disorders I mentioned above are hard to diagnose even for specialists, and appear outwardly normal at first. If you are dealing with somebody who has them, you are likely to notice a proneness to aggression which strikes you as unusually high long before you have even thought that this person could have a mental illness. And with some of them, you might not be aware of their condition even after spending years in a close familial relationship with them. So, you cannot use their condition as a heuristic to avoid them, because you are not aware of it at all. If you are on the street and see somebody who reminds you of a caricatural media portrayal of &quot;mentally ill&quot;, the risk that he is prone to aggression is not that much higher than that of the normally looking passerbys. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If an acquaintance shares with you that they have a mental illness diagnosis, there is no reason to panic either. Research the specific illness they have so you can better understand it and support them in living with it, for most mental conditions you are not taking any risk for yourself in doing so. And if it is one of the few conditions where they can be violent, the research should easily uncover that, so you can make an informed decision. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="723" LastActivityDate="2015-05-01T23:46:04.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9932" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3908" CreationDate="2015-05-02T03:10:49.920" Score="6" Body="&lt;h2&gt;A Love Circuit?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea that there is a &quot;love circuit&quot; has little evidence (for or against it). But in general studies that look at &quot;love&quot; (however defined) reveal broad activation across multiple intrinsic neural networks that are involved in many different cognitive processes (in favor of a constructivist view of emotions). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider the image from a meta-analysis (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02651.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cacioppo et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;) of functional imaging studies on sexual desire and love:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yG3Rv.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Both sexual desire and love are associated with greater activation of the insula, hypothalamus, ventral striatum, VTA, amygdala, thalamus, hippocampus, anterior cingulate, and other limbic/cortical areas.&lt;/strong&gt;  These regions are involved in interoception, memory, conceptualization, core affect, somatosensory integration, motivation, salience detection, and more.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note, however, that these areas are not specific to love; instead, they are involved in emotional experience more broadly (fear, disgust, anger, happiness, etc.; &lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2015/02/12/scan.nsv013.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Touroutoglou, Lindquist, Dickerson, &amp;amp; Barrett, 2015&lt;/a&gt;). It's still possible that the above pattern of activation is unique to love; however, this has not been tested (to my knowledge)--nor does it seem plausible in light of other evidence (i.e., Touroutoglou et al., 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because these brain areas are involved in many cognitive processes, we might imagine that dysfunction in at least some of them is associated with bipolar disorder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Bipolar Disorder&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider the image below from a meta-analysis (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2011.00893.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chen, Suckling, Lennox, Ooi, &amp;amp; Bullmore, 2011&lt;/a&gt;) of functional imaging in bipolar patients:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/B2sax.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Compared to healthy controls, bipolar disorder seems to be associated with decreased inferior frontal gyrus activation in response to cognitive or emotional tasks and increased limbic activity (amygdala, hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, basal ganglia) in response to emotional tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, there is some overlap with the areas activated for love/sexual desire and bipolar disorder (e.g., limbic structures).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this is not compelling evidence that BD somehow involves dysfunction in a &quot;love circuit,&quot; as the limbic system is involved in all emotions, not just love. If anything, this suggests that BD is associated with dysfunction in emotion regulation/processing/reactivity (and executive function more broadly; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165032706000930&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robinson et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-05-02T03:41:22.580" LastActivityDate="2015-05-02T03:41:22.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9933" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-02T05:22:19.727" Score="7" ViewCount="1389" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-monitoring&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-monitoring&lt;/a&gt; as a trait refers to a tendency &quot;to closely monitor an audience in order to ensure appropriate or desired public appearances&quot;. It is commonly measured using the Revised Self-Monitoring Scale (e.g., Snyder and Gangestad, 1986)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the correlation between self-monitoring and the Big 5 factors of personality? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent is there overlap? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which Big 5 factor is most related to self-monitoring?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Snyder, M., &amp;amp; Gangestad, S. (1986). On the nature of self-monitoring: matters of assessment, matters of validity. Journal of personality and social psychology, 51(1), 125.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-05-02T08:23:40.937" Title="What is the correlation between self-monitoring and the Big 5 factors of personality?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9934" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9933" CreationDate="2015-05-02T05:31:03.053" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did a quick search and found the following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Barrick et al (2005)&lt;/strong&gt; (see Table 1). In a sample with a little over a hundred MBA students they obtained the following correlations with self-monitoring:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conscientiousness r = -.24&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Extraversion r = .31&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Agreeableness r = -.08&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotional Stability  r = -.10&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Openness r = .23&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Kring, Smith, and Neale (1994)&lt;/strong&gt; (see Table 3): Correlations with self-monitoring were (I think in a sample of 300+ undergraduates):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Surgency (somewhat similar to extraversion): .51&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Agreeableness: r = .06&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conscientiousness: r = -.15&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotional Stability: r = .37&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would suggest that self-monitoring has only a weak relationship with the Big 5. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The positive relationship with extraversion makes sense given that self-monitoring is related to an aptitude and an interest in adaptive social interactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Barrick, M. R., Parks, L., &amp;amp; Mount, M. K. (2005). Self‐monitoring as a moderator of the relationships between personality traits and performance. Personnel Psychology, 58(3), 745-767.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kring, A. M., Smith, D. A., &amp;amp; Neale, J. M. (1994). Individual differences in dispositional expressiveness: development and validation of the Emotional Expressivity Scale. Journal of personality and social psychology, 66(5), 934.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-05-02T08:23:40.937" LastActivityDate="2015-05-02T08:23:40.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9935" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-02T05:57:50.513" Score="3" ViewCount="172" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;theory of planned behaviour&lt;/a&gt; is a model of behaviour that in simple terms assumes that attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioural control influence intention, and intention and actual control influence behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm writing a paper that includes a measures of personality and a measure of the theory of planned behaviour. I sometimes need to refer to the variables attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioural control as a set. In particular, I often need to distinguish these variables from the personality variables. However, it typically seems a bit verbose to have to say &quot;attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioural control&quot; all the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is a general word or short phrase to capture attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioural control?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt; Even if it is better to generally refer to the three variables individually, what term describes this set of variables or what makes them distinct from other kinds of psychological variables like personality, intention, etc.?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-05-04T00:38:05.737" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T05:53:48.940" Title="In the theory of planned behaviour, what is the general term that captures attitudes, norms and perceived behavioural control?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9936" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9935" CreationDate="2015-05-02T07:04:41.397" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand the sentiment, but keep it verbose―it's not a good idea to literally mince words when it comes to key variables without a more concrete reason than aesthetics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Making up a novel term to group the variables just for this paper will put distance between your paper and the rest of the literature, make it harder to search (for/in) digitally, and effectively makes it more difficult to read. It makes the paper &lt;em&gt;shorter&lt;/em&gt;, but not &lt;em&gt;conciser&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-05-02T07:04:41.397" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9937" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9935" CreationDate="2015-05-02T08:00:33.930" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;McFarland and Ryan (2006)&lt;/strong&gt; have an article applying the theory of planned behaviour to job applicant faking behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They use phrases:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;components of beliefs that influence intention&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC&quot;; i.e., they abbreviate perceived behavioural control (PBC) to make the phrase shorter&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;the TPB predicts the intention to fake&quot;; i.e., they use the &quot;theory of planned behaviour&quot; as a proxy for &quot;attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC&quot;. Technically, the TPB is a theory that describes relationships between a set of variables. So this may work, but it is not using TPB as a proxy for attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;beliefs&quot;: as in &quot;relationship between beliefs and the intention to fake&quot;. This is a slightly simplification of the TPB. Attitudes are not just beliefs, but when presented in context, this seems clear.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;antecedents of intention&quot;: as in &quot;relationship between antecedents of intentions and intention to fake&quot;. Presumably this works in contexts where the only predictors of intentions are attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC, but doesn't work if you have other types of antecedents.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Courneya et al (1999)&lt;/strong&gt; have an article on personality, theory of planned behaviour and exercise behaviour. They refer to the TPB variables as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;social-cognitive constructs&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Courneya, K. S., Bobick, T. M., &amp;amp; Schinke, R. J. (1999). Does the theory of planned behavior mediate the relation between personality and exercise behavior?. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21(4), 317-324.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-05-04T05:53:48.940" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T05:53:48.940" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9938" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-02T08:01:59.900" Score="7" ViewCount="595" Body="&lt;p&gt;While communicating, people tend to direct their gazes to the face (particularly eyes) of people. Why don't rather we look at their neck or just their chest or even their hair while communicating with people? What are we looking for? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A sign, a hint about that person's thoughts. Obviously that is the case ,but on the other hand, I think there is something more about that. Take those movie scenes in which people's head cut off their shoulder and they are still alive. I think the whole body doesn't seem human to me, whereas the head seems definitely so. Is it just a stable reference point that we've picked after centuries, or is it a native property specialized for a certain purpose of human kind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8027" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-03T11:59:56.673" LastActivityDate="2015-05-03T19:08:30.080" Title="Why do people look in the face or eyes while communicating?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9939" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9929" CreationDate="2015-05-02T08:57:36.697" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive Behavioral Therapy.  It started as a pure-conditioning school, but it later on took on evidence from studies in cognition.  It's the school that holds the most science behind it. Some of its history can be found at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy#History&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;its wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt;:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although the early behavioral approaches were successful in many of the neurotic disorders, they had little success in treating depression.[109][110][118] Behaviorism was also losing in popularity due to the so-called &quot;cognitive revolution&quot;. The therapeutic approaches of Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck gained popularity among behavior therapists, despite the earlier behaviorist rejection of &quot;mentalistic&quot; concepts like thoughts and cognitions.[109] Both of these systems included behavioral elements and interventions and primarily concentrated on problems in the present.&#xA;  In initial studies, cognitive therapy was often contrasted with behavioral treatments to see which was most effective. During the 1980s and 1990s, cognitive and behavioral techniques were merged into cognitive behavioral therapy. Pivotal to this merging was the successful development of treatments for panic disorder by David M. Clark in the UK and David H. Barlow in the US.[110]&#xA;  Over time, cognitive behavior therapy became to be known not only as a therapy, but as an umbrella term for all cognitive-based psychotherapies.[109] These therapies include, but are not limited to, rational emotive therapy, cognitive therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, dialectical behavior therapy, reality therapy/choice theory, cognitive processing therapy, EMDR, and multimodal therapy.[109] All of these therapies are a blending of cognitive- and behavior-based elements.&#xA;  This blending of theoretical and technical foundations from both behavior and cognitive therapies constitute the &quot;third wave&quot; of CBT,[114] which is the current wave.[114] The most prominent therapies of this third wave are dialectical behavior therapy and acceptance and commitment therapy.[114]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6351" LastActivityDate="2015-05-02T08:57:36.697" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9940" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10043" CreationDate="2015-05-02T12:33:34.930" Score="11" ViewCount="1184" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've watched these two videos recently&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4zMHDNiW0ng&quot;&gt;How to Get things done&lt;/a&gt; which contains some tips from David Allen's book, &quot;Getting Things Done&quot;, and the other video&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Xduzwk04l2E&quot;&gt;How to hack your todo list&lt;/a&gt; which also contains some parts from the above mentioned book.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What this author suggests is writing down your tasks instead of keeping it in your prefrontal cortex, therefore you'll be more free to think about task at hand. I think I've read the book long time ago and there is some research mentioned (as in most books alike). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Except for complex tasks that need to be broken down, I almost never had the benefit of writing task to a to do list. I actually found it terrible that my brain seemed to partially forget things while relying on the list [ which I didn't bring with me or I was in the hurry and forgot to look into my phone app]. I don't know if I was biased by the content of the book or if there is some science behind forgetting tasks that you jot down on the piece of paper. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that some people have a more complex day than me and need todo list for not-so-related things, but I find it somewhat scary that so many people so easily rely on something else remembering things for them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried using lists because I was afraid I'll forget what I need to do. When it started bothering me, I decided not to write anything but longer grocery lists. And it's interesting how my brain started remembering things and recalling them exactly when I need them. I didn't feel my brain was cluttered, because I remembered tasks at the right time and right place[ I never thought about grocery list during working hours and vice versa].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I don't know it there is any well known research behind this &quot;write things down to unclutter your brain&quot;-thing, or it all boils down to poor memory or lack of commitment to remember something important ?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Side question, but related :  is it even possible to quickly forget the task and leave it written on the piece of paper ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just want to know if this thing really works or it just sells similar books for time management. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastEditorUserId="4431" LastEditDate="2015-05-04T12:12:26.493" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T20:25:04.340" Title="Is it actually helpful to write todo lists?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9941" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9287" CreationDate="2015-05-02T13:38:26.007" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Cognitive science generally does not try to explain individual behavior, but rather the behavior of all people. We can meaningfully speak about what may cause a deficient ability to feel guilt and remorse, or other features that &lt;em&gt;characterize&lt;/em&gt; an individual, but we cannot speak directly about the individual's behavior outside an applied or clinical context. Therefore, and &lt;strong&gt;I cannot stress this enough: please do not read this answer and then start looking for signs of APD in individuals.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Antisocial Personality Disorder&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deficient ability to feel guilt and remorse is a cardinal trait of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/disorders/antisocial-personality-disorder-symptoms/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;antisocial personality disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, or APD (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), which may offer a tentative framework. APD is a complex personality disorder with many different facets and characteristics that, at least at face value, seems to describe a behavioral pattern matching the popular image of a con man, such as Frank Abagnale Jr. surely represents in the popular mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Diagnosing APD&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under the DSM-IV-TR definition, satisfying the APD diagnostic criteria requires an individual to A) be over 18 years old, B) exhibit evidence of conduct disorder before age 15, C) not exhibit antisocial behavior exclusively during manic or schizophrenic episodes, and D) exhibit &lt;strong&gt;at least three of the following seven symptoms&lt;/strong&gt; suggesting a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others occurring since 15 years old:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors as indicated by &lt;strong&gt;repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Deceitfulness, as indicated by &lt;strong&gt;repeated lying, use of aliases or conning others for personal profit or pleasure&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by &lt;strong&gt;repeated physical fights or assaults&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reckless disregard for the safety of self and/or others&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by &lt;strong&gt;repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lack of remorse, as indicated by &lt;strong&gt;being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated or stolen from another&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;It's worth noting that the DSM-IV-TR and DSM-V definitions of APD differ somewhat. Because the DSM-V is still so recent, most empirical research at time of writing has used the DSM-IV-TR definition. How well the new definitions correspond with the old ones is ultimately an empirical question, so I will focus on the DSM-IV-TR literature here to avoid speculating. &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Cognitive neuroscience of APD&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A number of neurocognitive deficits have been identified in patients with DSM-IV-TR antisocial personality disorder. As with most mental disorders and cognitive functions, it's difficult to pin down any one region or set of regions and say &amp;quot;here is where X is.&amp;quot; However, Blair and Frith (2000) reviewed three common trends, &lt;strong&gt;reporting support for the latter two&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... [1] an impairment in executive functioning implicating &lt;strong&gt;prefrontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt;, [2] an impairment in executive emotion's processing implicating &lt;strong&gt;orbito-frontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt;, and [3] an impairment in emotion processing implicating the &lt;strong&gt;amygdala&lt;/strong&gt; ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Amygdala&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Is4o8.png&quot; alt=&quot;amygdala&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amyg.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CG illustration of the amygdala's location&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the main regions commonly associated with APD and antisocial behavior, and in particular with its remorselessness criterion, are &lt;strong&gt;the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;amygdala&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (Blair and Frith, 2000). However, while the amygdala's heavy involvement in emotional processing is well established (Kandel, 2013), and a veritable sea of studies support an emotional processing deficits and abnormalities in the amygdala for general antisocial behavior (e.g., Coccaro et al., 2006; Narayan et al., 2007; Veit et al., 2002) over different antisocial disorders, I couldn't find any direct investigations of amygdaloid activity in APD patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Orbitofrontal Cortex&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/d9UzC.gif&quot; alt=&quot;orbitofrontal gyrus&quot; /&gt; &lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gy8Dd.png&quot; alt=&quot;orbitofrontal cortex&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Model and sagittal MRI of the orbitofrontal cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other region commonly implicated in association with APD and antisocial behavior is &lt;strong&gt;the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;orbitofrontal cortex&lt;/a&gt; (OFC)&lt;/strong&gt; (Blair and Frith, 2000). For example, Völlm et al. (2004) reported fMRI evidence for a go-no-go task suggesting that APD patients exhibited reduced OFC activity for response inhibition as compared with controls. Dinn and Harris (2000) reported that &amp;quot;APD subjects showed greater neuropsychological deficits on measures sensitive to orbitofrontal dysfunction in comparison to control participants.&amp;quot; &lt;strong&gt;The OFC seems to be associated with increased impulsivity and risk-taking via deficient response inhibition&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Did Frank Abagnale Jr. have APD?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At this point, one may be tempted to answer, &amp;quot;Clearly, he did!&amp;quot; and start looking for APD in oneself, or others. This would be a mistake. Identifying APD in a person requires a considerable amount of well-structured information about that person. Nothing could illustrate that we lack such information here better than Abagnale's own words:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2002, Abagnale himself addressed the issue of his story's truthfulness with a statement posted on his company's website which said in part: &amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;I was interviewed by the co-writer only about four times. I believe he did a great job of telling the story, but he also over-dramatized and exaggerated some of the story.&lt;/strong&gt; That was his style and what the editor wanted. He always reminded me that he was just telling a story and not writing my biography.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With respect to Abagnale himself, therefore, cognitive science does not have anything to say about his story, because we don't have any way to independently verify most of it. We can probably surmise that some of it is accurate, some of it is not, but we can't empirically say which is which. &lt;strong&gt;People don't necessarily need to be pathological in order to be jerks.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Text Revision). Washington, DC: Author.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Blair, J., &amp;amp; Frith, U. (2000). Neurocognitive explanations of the antisocial personality disorders. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Coccaro, E. F., McCloskey, M. S., Fitzgerald, D. A., &amp;amp; Phan, K. L. (2007). Amygdala and orbitofrontal reactivity to social threat in individuals with impulsive aggression. Biological psychiatry, 62(2), 168-178.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dinn, W. M., &amp;amp; Harris, C. L. (2000). Neurocognitive function in antisocial personality disorder. Psychiatry research, 97(2), 173-190.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., &amp;amp; Jessell, T. M., Siegelbaum, S. A., Hudspeth, A. J. (Eds.). (2013). Principles of neural science (Vol. 5). New York: McGraw-Hill.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Narayan, V. M., Narr, K. L., Kumari, V., Woods, R. P., Thompson, P. M., Toga, A. W., &amp;amp; Sharma, T. (2007). Regional cortical thinning in subjects with violent antisocial personality disorder or schizophrenia.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Veit, R., Flor, H., Erb, M., Hermann, C., Lotze, M., Grodd, W., &amp;amp; Birbaumer, N. (2002). Brain circuits involved in emotional learning in antisocial behavior and social phobia in humans. Neuroscience letters, 328(3), 233-236.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Völlm, B., Richardson, P., Stirling, J., Elliott, R., Dolan, M., Chaudhry, I., ... &amp;amp; Deakin, B. (2004). Neurobiological substrates of antisocial and borderline personality disorder: preliminary results of a functional fMRI study. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 14(1), 39-54.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-02T13:54:23.790" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9942" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9945" CreationDate="2015-05-02T15:13:24.183" Score="6" ViewCount="848" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is Viktor Frankl's logotherapy still a live option in modern psychology, or is it considered outdated? I've heard it referred to as the &quot;third Viennese school of psychotherapy&quot;, but my wife's introductory psychology textbook (Psychology, 10th ed., David Myers) does not mention Frankl at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this omission &quot;incidental,&quot; or does it accurately reflect a mainstream view that Frankl's work is no longer relevant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8240" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-03T13:46:26.990" LastActivityDate="2015-05-03T13:47:08.377" Title="How respected is Viktor Frankl's logotherapy among modern psychologists?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9943" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5621" CreationDate="2015-05-03T11:15:23.017" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yes, they do, but not all of these are different methods for testing memory.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of the way you've set up the stimulus presentation here, these are effectively all serial verbal working memory tests where the neurocognitive basis may differ or not depending on a number of unstated factors such as stimulus modality or type (e.g., Polyn et al., 2005), that I suspect you are uninterested in. Not all of these tasks would traditionally be considered memory tasks, either--everything involves memory to some extent, and in some cases it is more your choice of a complex stimulus, rather than the test as such, that adds the memory dimension. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to focus this answer on the test format (i.e., the retrieval aspect) where possible, and clarify where not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;1. Serial recognition&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A multiple choice format that presents several control sequences along with the stimulus sequence corresponds to a serial matching recognition memory test. Habeck et al. (2005) reported fMRI evidence for increased activity in the cerebellum, thalamus and part of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) regions, plus decreased activity in a broad set of other regions, on a relevant delayed match-to-sample task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Areas of increasing activation across set size were found in the bilateral cerebellum, left lateral PFC (BA 9,46,47), and thalamus. Areas decreasing in activation were more widely distributed and located in parietal, frontal, temporal, and limbic lobes as well as basal ganglia (see detailed listing in Table 3).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;2. Parallel recognition&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A control sequence where you should point out differences from the stimulus sequence, assuming I am reading that correctly, corresponds to what I'm going to call a parallel recognition memory test, except I don't believe there have been any studies along these lines for serial memory. Usually, this is studied in the context of visual rather than verbal recognition memory, but even here, the neurocognitive evidence is sparse (probably because visual memory gets very little attention compared to verbal memory). Mazumder et al. (2015) reported the following from a &quot;spot-the-difference&quot; task in a recent chapter, which was primarily about novel EEG feature extraction methods:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results also suggests that the brain activation is dominant at the frontal, parietal and temporal region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;3. Go/no-go&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A control sequence, displayed character by character, and the opportunity to push a button as soon as you spot a difference, corresponds to a complex go/no-go task. This is traditionally an attentional task, which of course involves memory, but does not in itself differentiate between retrieval processes. For posterity's sake, a large meta-analysis of go/no-go fMRI studies reported that neural activity for this task is largely task-dependent, but also finding support for an association with a small set of regions (Simmonds, Pekar and Mostofsky, 2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The simple and complex tasks demonstrated distinct patterns of concurrence, with right dorsolateral prefrontal and inferior parietal circuits recruited under conditions of increased working memory demand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;4. Free recall&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just writing down what you've memorized corresponds to a free recall test (cf. cued recall). Free recall of serial items has often been studied within the context of the primacy and recency effects, referring to the dual tendencies for items at the beginning and end of a sequence to have markedly higher retention and/or faster response times than items in the middle of that sequence. Depending on the item's serial position, different brain regions may show increased activity (Zhang et al., 2003).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recalling the middle item was associated with more extensive activation in the left parietal and visual cortex, basal ganglia, and dorsal cerebellum. Recalling items from different serial positions also resulted in different activation time courses in the bilateral primary auditory cortex, left prefrontal cortex and left premotor cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Habeck, C., Rakitin, B. C., Moeller, J., Scarmeas, N., Zarahn, E., Brown, T., &amp;amp; Stern, Y. (2005). An event-related fMRI study of the neural networks underlying the encoding, maintenance, and retrieval phase in a delayed-match-to-sample task. Cognitive Brain Research, 23(2), 207-220.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mazumder, A., Ghosh, P., Khasnobish, A., Bhattacharyya, S., &amp;amp; Tibarewala, D. N. (2015). Selection of Relevant Features from Cognitive EEG Signals Using ReliefF and MRMR Algorithm. In Advancements of Medical Electronics (pp. 125-136). Springer India.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Polyn, S. M., Natu, V. S., Cohen, J. D., &amp;amp; Norman, K. A. (2005). Category-specific cortical activity precedes retrieval during memory search. Science, 310(5756), 1963-1966.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Simmonds, D. J., Pekar, J. J., &amp;amp; Mostofsky, S. H. (2008). Meta-analysis of Go/No-go tasks demonstrating that fMRI activation associated with response inhibition is task-dependent. Neuropsychologia, 46(1), 224-232.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zhang, D. R., Li, Z. H., Chen, X. C., Wang, Z. X., Zhang, X. C., Meng, X. M., et al. (2003). Functional comparison of primacy, middle and recency retrieval in human auditory short-term memory: An event-related fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 16, 91–98. 10.1016/S0926-6410(02)00223-9&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-03T11:23:17.007" LastActivityDate="2015-05-03T11:23:17.007" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9944" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9938" CreationDate="2015-05-03T11:58:40.713" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_contact&quot;&gt;Eye contact&lt;/a&gt; is one of the principal cues humans use to evaluate where other people direct their attention. A &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/hifc20/6/2&quot;&gt;special issue&lt;/a&gt; on the use of eye tracking in the Infancy journal and other studies reported that infants' eyes are useful measures of attention over a range of task domains including object perception (Johnson, Slemmer, &amp;amp; Amso, 2004), faces (Hunnis &amp;amp; Geuze, 2004), and categorization (McMurray &amp;amp; Aslin, 2004). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This relationship between eyes and attention begins developing as early as within the first couple of neonatal weeks (Lohaus, Keller and Voelker, 2001). For the same reason, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_tracking&quot;&gt;eye- and gaze tracking&lt;/a&gt; are central measures in many areas of the cognitive sciences, including developmental (neuro)psychology, perception and working memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Because gaze is such a good general indicator of attention, mutual eye contact between myself and someone indicates that we are both attending to one another&lt;/strong&gt;, if not always, then at least often enough to depend on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lohaus, A., Keller, H., &amp;amp; Voelker, S. (2001). Relationships between eye contact, maternal sensitivity, and infant crying. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25(6), 542-548.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hunnis , S. and Geuze , R. H. 2004. Developmental changes in visual scanning of dynamic faces and abstract stimuli in infants: A longitudinal study. Infancy, 6(2): 231–255. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Johnson, S. P., Slemmer, J. A., &amp;amp; Amso, D. (2004). Where Infants Look Determines How They See: Eye Movements and Object Perception Performance in 3‐Month‐Olds. Infancy, 6(2), 185-201.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McMurray , B. and Aslin , R. N. 2004. Anticipatory eye movements reveal infants' auditory and visual categories. Infancy, 6(2): 203–229.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-03T12:19:54.447" LastActivityDate="2015-05-03T12:19:54.447" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9945" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9942" CreationDate="2015-05-03T13:41:22.510" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't say whether Viktor Frankl is respected by modern psychologists on average, or how respected he is. Anecdotally, I have heard of both Frankl and logotherapy, but not enough to know much more than that they exist. The real question, though, is whether there is any empirical support for logotherapy, and overall, &lt;strong&gt;the evidence (for or against logotherapy) I could find is very limited&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Empirical support for logotherapy&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the very least, there has been a limited amount of recent research. Psychometrically, a 2004 review of logotherapeutic measures reported that the Purpose-in-Life test (PIL), the Life Purpose Questionnaire (LPQ), the Seeking of Noetic Goals test (SONG), and the Meaning in Suffering Test (MIST) were internally consistent (Schulenberg, 2004). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Logotherapy also appears to have some empirical support as a treatment for a few specific issues, such as reducing self-reported suffering in adolescents with terminal cancer (Kang et al., 2009), reducing self-reported sense of meaninglessness in people with paralysis (Julom and de Guzmán, 2013), and assisting with the treatment of PTSD (Southwick, Gilmartin, Mcdonough and Morrissey, 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Julom, A. M., &amp;amp; de Guzmán, R. (2013). The effectiveness of logotherapy program in alleviating the sense of meaninglessness of paralyzed in-patients. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 13(3), 357-371.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kang, K. A., Im, J. I., Kim, H. S., Kim, S. J., Song, M. K., &amp;amp; Sim, S. (2009). The effect of logotherapy on the suffering, finding meaning, and spiritual well-being of adolescents with terminal cancer. Journal of Korean Academy of Child Health Nursing, 15(2), 136-144.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schulenberg, S. E. (2004). A Psychometric Investigation of Logotherapy Measures and the Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45.2). North American Journal of Psychology.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Southwick, S. M., Gilmartin, R., Mcdonough, P., &amp;amp; Morrissey, P. (2006). Logotherapy as an adjunctive treatment for chronic combat-related PTSD: A meaning-based intervention. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 60(2), 161.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-03T13:47:08.377" LastActivityDate="2015-05-03T13:47:08.377" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9946" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-03T18:08:24.410" Score="1" ViewCount="380" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nice to find this resource on the internet, I’m in need of advice from knowledgeable people in the field regarding the choice of CogSci Master’s program.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My situation is that I have an undergraduate degree (like a B.A.) in psychology, a major which I never really enjoyed because: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychology as a &quot;survey science&quot; is not interesting to me.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theoretically, psychology is a mess, too much &quot;pop science&quot;, not enough clarification of the issues. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I’m not enough adequate/motivated enough to perform in the kind of work psychologists do in clinical, educational or organizational settings.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, now that i'm done with undergrad, and I found out about CogSci as a parallel-associated-updated field which deals with psychology from a computational basis. I would like to get in a masters where the training in analytical methods, be it computational modeling, statistical analysis or other kinds, is good enough, to have new professional horizons closer to what a computer scientist does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My current interests are cognitive robotics, behavioral operations management and cognitive economics through as I said mathematical and other analytical methods, which end up having to with Applied Cognitive Science&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that during my BA I didn't train myself in mathematics enough, would CogSci help develop the relevant skills and change my career perspectives? What programs would you recommend which are strong in this sense?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8246" LastEditorUserId="8246" LastEditDate="2015-05-04T06:54:42.800" LastActivityDate="2015-05-25T02:49:57.407" Title="How technical can cognitive science get during a Master's?" Tags="&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9947" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9859" CreationDate="2015-05-03T19:00:01.213" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer your initial statement: no, I don't think they do more harm than good. The testing effect has been shown &lt;em&gt;overall&lt;/em&gt; to improve scores compared to traditional studying (though only for long term memory, see (Roediger &amp;amp; Karpicke, 2006) for an interesting discussion), implying that it is doing more good than harm. This study assumes an overall positive effect without feedback to learners on whether they were right or wrong, and where students who incorrectly retrieved do not &quot;learn&quot; or maintain memory (Kornell, Bjork, &amp;amp; Garcia, 2011). Providing feedback to learners on correct and incorrect responses, however, will increase retention even for students who did not correctly retrieve, and may be one of the best ways for these students to learn (Kornell, Hays, &amp;amp; Bjork, 2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Part 1:&lt;/strong&gt; So far as negative learning from selecting an answer, this directly relates to your third question (as mentioned above). Students who got answers correct (successful retrieval) are hypothesized to better maintain memory, while students who didn't will not better maintain (Kornell et al., 2011). Though this seems obvious, remember that retrieval rates naturally decrease over time (the goal is to maintain a high retrieval rate).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Part 2:&lt;/strong&gt; In a word, yes. Given this, they each measure different things (and should be used for different purposes). Personally, I use a &quot;post-lecture&quot; quiz as an &quot;exit-ticket&quot; (sorry, background with high school freshman) to quickly check where misconceptions lie. These quizzes are reviewed prior to students leaving the class in order to &lt;em&gt;identify and address misconceptions&lt;/em&gt; (formative assessment). I've found that waiting can allow more connections to be made (and thus, higher level responses), but if the material is not encoded correctly &lt;em&gt;false&lt;/em&gt; connections can be made (reinforcing incorrect information).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Part 3:&lt;/strong&gt; Not reviewing the quiz is hypothesized to create a &quot;bifurcation&quot; where those who got answers right better remember, and those who did not get the answers right steadily decrease (again, a natural pattern in retrieval over time). The &quot;testing effect&quot; exists because &lt;em&gt;overall&lt;/em&gt; students are theorized to do better, but again, there will be a split in student growth between those who remembered and those who didn't (Kornell et al., 2011). Reviewing the quiz immediately (if paper, go over the answers right after the quiz!) is hypothesized to help &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; students, regardless of whether they initially got the correct answer or not, and thus would be the recommended method to improve students' knowledge retention (Kornell et al., 2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize: review after taking quizzes acts much like a &quot;studying&quot; effect (where those who got right &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; wrong answers can learn), while quizzes without review are hypothesized to split learning (those who correctly recall retain, and those who fail to correctly recall don't retain). &lt;em&gt;Both&lt;/em&gt; groups are able to be helped through quizzing and reviewing answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kornell, N., Bjork, R. A., &amp;amp; Garcia, M. A. (2011). Why tests appear to prevent forgetting: A distribution-based bifurcation model. Journal of Memory and Language, 65(2), 85–97. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2011.04.002&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kornell, N., Hays, M. J., &amp;amp; Bjork, R. A. (2009). Unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35(4), 989–998. doi:10.1037/a0015729&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roediger, H. L., &amp;amp; Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science, 17(3), 249–255. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2015-05-03T20:11:02.397" LastActivityDate="2015-05-03T20:11:02.397" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9948" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9938" CreationDate="2015-05-03T19:08:30.080" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have a complete answer, but I'll add on to Christian's comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not really familiar with an evolutionary account of facial expressions, but folks like Adam K. Anderson have implied that the original use of facial features for sensory sampling have been co-opted for social use (e.g., to indicate attention, which Christian pointed out, or affect, etc.; this is a common argument for the evolution of basic emotions like disgust and fear, e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=TtrWAgAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=disgust+evolution+facial&amp;amp;ots=41PL8J9Q7F&amp;amp;sig=-XfL8dtw5_4h29pll2hpgYZXjE0#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=disgust%20evolution%20facial&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;Fridlund, 2004&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I think Christian is spot on about why we make eye contact during conversations. However, I will note that we don't &lt;em&gt;just&lt;/em&gt; look at the face while communicating (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/20/5/286.short&quot;&gt;Barrett, Mesquita &amp;amp; Gendron, 2011&lt;/a&gt;).  After all, the face is situated in a &lt;strong&gt;context&lt;/strong&gt; and is attached to a &lt;strong&gt;body&lt;/strong&gt;.  That is, social and emotional cues are not interpreted based on the face alone.  For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749596X07000174&quot;&gt;Hanna and Brennan (2007)&lt;/a&gt; point out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An interlocutor’s eye gaze is a signal with its own dynamic characteristics that must be integrated with speech or action in order to be useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, social rules about eye contact during conversation may be dependent on the culture (e.g, &lt;a href=&quot;http://jbd.sagepub.com/content/37/2/131.short&quot;&gt;Senju et al., 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-05-03T19:08:30.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9949" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9764" CreationDate="2015-05-03T20:41:25.983" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human visual processing system receives input from the eyes, and then passes it through a number of areas of the brain that break it down, process it in various different ways, recombine it, and break it down again several times.  I'm assuming this question is only about the visual cortex, general theories about how information might be broken down for processing there, and only concerning parallel-processing (channels), as opposed to sequential specialization (layers), otherwise the answer should fill up a textbook.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Main pathways through visual cortex:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex#Introduction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;traditional understanding&lt;/a&gt; of the visual cortex divides it into &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-streams_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2 main pathways&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Each V1 transmits information to two primary pathways, called the&#xA;  ventral stream and the dorsal stream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The ventral stream begins with V1, goes through visual area V2, then through visual area V4, and to the inferior temporal cortex (IP&#xA;  cortex). The ventral stream, sometimes called the &quot;What Pathway&quot;, is&#xA;  associated with form recognition and object representation. It is also&#xA;  associated with storage of long-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The dorsal stream begins with V1, goes through Visual area V2, then to the dorsomedial area (DM/ V6) and Visual area MT (middle&#xA;  temporal/ V5) and to the posterior parietal cortex. The dorsal stream,&#xA;  sometimes called the &quot;Where Pathway&quot; or &quot;How Pathway&quot;, is associated&#xA;  with motion, representation of object locations, and control of the&#xA;  eyes and arms, especially when visual information is used to guide&#xA;  saccades or reaching.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;what&quot; and &quot;where&quot; pathways are also sometimes referred to as the &quot;perception&quot; and &quot;action&quot; pathways, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bBCa2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_modularity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;common theory&lt;/a&gt; about the visual cortex identifies at least 3 modules: Motion, colour, and form.  Evidence for these proposed modules comes largely from lesion studies and related disorders of the visual system.  In general, an impairment in one module doesn't seem to affect the others, suggesting that these specializations are processed independently and in parallel.  However, it is not clear if they form distinct pathways through the visual cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also evidence for a &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hipo.20320/abstract;jsessionid=60AB8D41D856EA7A87DBEBEAEB81F9C9.f03t03&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;long-term memory pathway&lt;/a&gt; (visual-perirhinal-hippocampal stream) that feeds memory information from and to the visual cortex.  Many other pathways have been postulated; this field of research is very active, consensus on further detail remains elusive for now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Complications to such models:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such &quot;pathway&quot; models of the visual cortex are limited by a number of factors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is evidence of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959438898800421&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;significant interaction&lt;/a&gt; between the streams&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is evidence of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20007766&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;feedback cycles&lt;/a&gt; within the streams&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Evidence that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/21/24/9844.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;different pathways&lt;/a&gt; are used in different situations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is some evidence of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8787209&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;asymmetric processing&lt;/a&gt; in the brain&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is also some evidence of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17338604&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inter-person differences&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, as mentioned, the visual cortex is only part of the visual system.  Significant processing happens earlier - you mentioned about edge detection, some of that appears to already be happening by the time signals reach the visual cortex.  And more processing happens later as well, in the parietal and temporal cortices for example, such as facial recognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Implications for artificial neural networks:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The visual cortex may not be ideal inspiration for ANNs, especially since it only handles a not-very-early part of the process, such that the signals it receives have already undergone significant modification from the raw stimuli.  Additionally, its pathway structure is fairly complex, and not fully understood.  There have nonetheless been &lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=4018419&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attempts to simulate&lt;/a&gt; parts of the visual cortex and compare to non-biologically inspired networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LGN&lt;/a&gt; - an area of the brain involved earlier in the process - may be more amenable to some inspiration and simulation, as it is a simpler structure with clearer functions and pathways.  It handles some of the functions you described at a more basic level, including some edge detection, colour processing, contrast, and various other aspects of perception such as depth, brightness, and movement, albeit with many of the same caveats as mentioned for the visual cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-05-04T03:36:14.477" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T03:36:14.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9950" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-03T22:20:16.433" Score="2" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lately, I have been pondering whether the idea of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_determinism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;linguistic determinism&lt;/a&gt; has empirical support. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I know a couple languages, and I am proficient in &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt; of them. So sometimes if I need to think through a problem, I use one of them to do one thing and another to do another thing.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I personally feel like I can accomplish more by using these two different languages. So, can this be true, do we just think the same way in, no matter that the language. Does language actually play a part in thinking? Or is it just me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, say I did not know any language, how would I think? This is a rather ambiguous question here, but would that person think through their own concepts and schemas that they developed, in their 'own language'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8247" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-04T04:39:06.047" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T04:39:06.047" Title="What is the evidence for linguistic determinism?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9951" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-04T00:04:40.833" Score="10" ViewCount="185" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there an existing research area focusing on brain to brain interfaces?  If so, what are some papers that have been published in this area?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5052" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-05-05T12:42:15.307" LastActivityDate="2015-08-22T13:06:16.833" Title="What research has been done on brain-to-brain interfaces?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9952" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9946" CreationDate="2015-05-04T00:54:36.773" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive science graduate programs are quite diverse, reflecting the diverse interdisciplinary nature of the field. There will be some mix of psychology, computer science, neuroscience, and possibly philosophy, linguistics, and education. Individual programs differ in the relative proportions of those components, which then determines how much technical/computational background is needed and how much is taught. That said, because many people come to cognitive science from psychology, it is fairly common for first year students to be inclined to computational/quantitative approaches but not necessarily trained in those techniques -- in many cases, that's the point of the graduate program. If you haven't already, I recommend checking out the Cognitive Science Society's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/study_overview.html&quot;&gt;Study page&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding career paths, CogSci programs tend to be academically-oriented PhD programs. That is, training students to do basic research and to be professors. Of course, many students choose other paths, but few programs specifically prepare them for those other paths. One exception is the Drexel University &lt;a href=&quot;http://drexel.edu/psychology/academics/graduate/acbs/&quot;&gt;Applied Cognitive and Brain Sciences program&lt;/a&gt; (full disclosure: I'm faculty in that program). We emphasize quantitative training with classes on computational cognitive modeling (Bayesian and PDP models) and statistical tools beyond the core behavioral science statistical methods (multilevel regression, Bayesian statistics, analysis of neuroimaging data, data mining). Our goal is to prepare students for careers in both academia and industry. The Masters program is based on essentially the same coursework as our PhD program.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="299" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T00:54:36.773" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9953" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-04T01:46:18.290" Score="3" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some skills that take a lot of time to learn because feedback is delayed. Examples I have in mind are weightlifting, healthy eating, and mindfulness. The promised effects of practicing these skills are realized after only much time has been spent. This makes the efficiency of one's effort very difficult to see. It is difficult to learn what are the best ways to practice these skills to the best effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What general research is there on how to optimally learn in a delayed feedback environment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, I guess I am asking how people respond to &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorites_paradox&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sorites paradox&lt;/a&gt;, also called the sand pile paradox, and how they might psychologically get past it. The sand pile paradox is occurs when you think about removing a grain of sand from a sand pile one at a time. If you have a pile of sand, removing a grain from it will not change it from being a pile a sand. Yet we know the number of grains of sand is finite so eventually all the grains will be removed. In other words, how to large changes from small changes over long periods of time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for studies that speak to this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8249" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-05-04T05:56:09.490" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T05:56:09.490" Title="What is the best way to learn in an environment that only has delayed feedback?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9955" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9444" CreationDate="2015-05-04T14:09:48.840" Score="2" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Does sleep deprivation cause mood swings?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Few studies have focused on mood changes in healthy subjects following sleep deprivation. It seems that &lt;strong&gt;there is evidence for sleep deprivation causing mood changes on the subsequent day, but there is no evidence for or against it causing mood swings.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hart et al. (1987) found significantly higher self-reported hostility for sleep-deprived medical residents compared with controls, but did not report an effect size. A later study compared college students' self-reported moods between &amp;quot;morning/evening person&amp;quot; and total/partial sleep deprivation, and reported general support for mood changes in morning persons, but not in evening persons (Selvi, Gulec, Agargun and Besiroglu, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Does sleep deprivation impair grasping?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A reasonable search of Google Scholar, Web of Science and Scopus did not reveal any research on the association between sleep deprivation and grasping behaviors as such. One study of surgical residents reported that &lt;strong&gt;sleep-deprived residents made more errors and took more time to complete a surgical simulation&lt;/strong&gt;, the &amp;quot;Minimally Invasive Surgery Trainer VR&amp;quot;, mostly involving grasping behavior (Eastridge et al., 2003).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Does sleep deprivation affect reasoning?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reasoning is by far the most well-studied domain with respect to sleep deprivation. &lt;strong&gt;Sleep deprivation seems to have a substantial negative effect on many aspects of reasoning.&lt;/strong&gt; Pilcher and Walters (1997) reported that sleep-deprived college students not only performed worse on Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, but also rated their concentration and effort as higher than controls following total sleep deprivation. Herscovitch, Stuss and Broughton (1980) found that partial sleep deprivation was associated with decreased strategic flexibility on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task. Hart et al. (1997) reported that partially sleep-deprived medical residents retained less information and exhibited slower responses on a set of cognitive tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eastridge, B. J., Hamilton, E. C., O’Keefe, G. E., Rege, R. V., Valentine, R. J., Jones, D. J., ... &amp;amp; Thal, E. R. (2003). Effect of sleep deprivation on the performance of simulated laparoscopic surgical skill. The American Journal of Surgery, 186(2), 169-174.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hart, R. P., Buchsbaum, D. G., Wade, J. B., Hamer, R. M., &amp;amp; Kwentus, J. A. (1987). Effect of sleep deprivation on first-year residents' response times, memory, and mood. Academic Medicine, 62(11), 940-2.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Herscovitch, J., Stuss, D., &amp;amp; Broughton, R. (1980). Changes in cognitive processing following short-term cumulative partial sleep deprivation and recovery oversleeping. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 2(4), 301-319.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pilcher, J. J., &amp;amp; Walters, A. S. (1997). How sleep deprivation affects psychological variables related to college students' cognitive performance. Journal of American College Health, 46(3), 121-126.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Selvi, Y., Gulec, M., Agargun, M. Y., &amp;amp; Besiroglu, L. (2007). Mood changes after sleep deprivation in morningness–eveningness chronotypes in healthy individuals. Journal of sleep research, 16(3), 241-244.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T14:16:20.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9956" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-04T19:50:08.350" Score="5" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/search?q=%5Bnlp%5D%20sentiment%20analysis&quot;&gt;a number of questions about implementing  text sentiment analysis algorithms&lt;/a&gt; on StackOverflow, and am interested - &lt;strong&gt;how effective are sentiment analysis algorithms at identifying the mood/emotion/affect of the writer?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, I'm interested in analysis of a diary entries, where an algorithm is required to identify the affect of the writer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-05-23T12:41:53.730" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T19:50:08.350" Title="How successful are modern (2015) sentiment analysis algorithms for identifying emotion?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;sentiment-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9957" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9989" CreationDate="2015-05-04T21:48:31.580" Score="5" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are known studies, experiments, thoughts and literature on spontaneity? I am looking for anything relating to questions like &quot;What does it mean for someone to be spontaneous?&quot; or &quot;What factors are involved in being spontaneous?&quot; or anything else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: aspects of creativity, improvisation in the arts are not meant, but spontaneity in the way of life or in daily behavior. Excuse being unprecise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I appreciate any hints.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8254" LastEditorUserId="8254" LastEditDate="2015-05-05T22:39:49.077" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T14:30:22.907" Title="Spontaneity as object of investigation in the cognitive sciences" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9958" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4355" CreationDate="2015-05-04T22:28:46.847" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A.I.R. == Attention. Interest. Repetition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A.I.R. is a mnemonic for a technique. If the subject is dryasdust but you need to get over the 'getting-started-hump' or you have a busy schedule using A.I.R. in 5 to 20 minute bursts adds up quickly. The 'trick' is for those 5 minutes you force yourself to be interested in the subject at hand. Like an actor you just pretend. The mind soon follows the behavior. Once you start to unlock the 'secrets' of the subject with enforced interest, motivation usually takes care of itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Attention is similar in that it is much easier to concentrate if you know in advance you only have to expend the effort for a short period of time. No dread, no crushing burdens on limited time and resources. Of course, attention benefits from practice and controlling disruptions, but again, the short bursts really help overcome many of the mental roadblocks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Repetition is the key to building strong memories and linking the learned concepts in useful ways in thought to your expanding knowledge base. A.I.R. pretty much made sure I always at least muddled through coursework I had little aptitude for and that really reduced my stress. As a student, when it got really busy I would just keep a short list of A.I.R. subjects on a post-it note. That way I was less likely to miss the opportunities that occur frequently throughout everyday for quick A.I.R sessions. A.I.R. is about being efficient. Stuck in traffic? waiting in line? empty time slot between obligations? waiting for service? on the can? ...? The brain, speaking from my experience only of course, burns copious amounts of glucose in a day and it seems to get better MPG (Miles Per Glucose) in short bursts with frequent short pitstops. The difference on the outcome for exams was always noticeable if A.I.R. was used for the days or weeks beforehand.  For me the A.I.R. technique has been useful over the years for rapidly evaluating new areas of potential interest. An occasional A.I.R. session on old subjects never hurts. Just remember A.I.R. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8256" LastActivityDate="2015-05-04T22:28:46.847" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9961" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-05T08:27:53.050" Score="4" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have experiences that while I was walking around the street, I saw a scene on a TV for a fraction of second, and I instantly recognized the correspondent movie. This is very interesting since at the time I didn't fully comprehend what I saw, but the name of movie came up anyway. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is this very fast recollection phenomenon called? What is the type of memory involved? Where can I learn more about this cognitive function?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8258" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T13:42:42.817" Title="What is the phenomenon that one can recognize a movie after seeing a scene for a fraction of second called?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9962" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9929" CreationDate="2015-05-05T08:47:33.070" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;For several reasons, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) should have a good fit for someone who has a skeptic and scientific outlook on life. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a large body of research showing that &lt;strong&gt;CBT is effective&lt;/strong&gt; (see e.g., Hofmann et al. 2012). Obviously, this also depends on the kind of disorder. And of course, other forms of therapy can be effective too. However, for some disorders, CBT may be more effective than other therapies. For example, in a recent randomized trial, CBT was more effective in treating Bulimia Nervosa (Poulson et al., 2014) than psychoanalytic therapy (the other main form of psychotherapy). By and large, most empirical evidence we have about psychotherapy regards CBT. Despite your premise that the question is not about effectiveness, I believe that &lt;strong&gt;a skeptic would love that.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;CBT is informed by and has inspired much &lt;strong&gt;basic research about the cognitive processes&lt;/strong&gt; that may underlie different disorders. For example, there is much research about attentional processes in affective disorders (e.g., MacLeod et al., 2002). &lt;strong&gt;A skeptic should value this.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Another way to frame this is to say that CBT is scientific in the sense that it is based on &lt;strong&gt;testable theories and disorder models&lt;/strong&gt;. In contrast many concepts in psychoanalysis, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_resistance&quot;&gt;resistance&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_repression&quot;&gt;repression&lt;/a&gt; may be criticized as unfalsifiable (Popper, 1963). Again, &lt;strong&gt;a skeptic should prefer a more scientific therapy form&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;core technique in CBT is to question wrong beliefs and assumptions&lt;/strong&gt;. CBT has a very rational, thought-focused way of explaining an dealing with problems (some say overly). A central tenet of CBT is that people often hold wrong (self-defeating) beliefs about the world and that they engage in schematic thought processes (e.g. someone who has social phobia may have &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/lib/what-is-catastrophizing/0001276&quot;&gt;catastrophizing&lt;/a&gt;&quot; thoughts about how others might react to him in public and therefore avoid such situations). &lt;strong&gt;Questioning such beliefs should be right up a skeptic's alley.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conducting &lt;strong&gt;behavioral experiments&lt;/strong&gt; to collect evidence about oneself is an &lt;strong&gt;important therapeutic tool in CBT&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g., Brennet-Levy et al. 2004). Whereas psychoanalytical approaches strongly rely on the interpretation of clients' (unconscious) conflicts, CBT encourages people to collect data about their thoughts and behaviors and to conduct experiments that clarify important questions about themselves. &lt;strong&gt;Skeptics should love this facts-driven approach.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whereas psychoanalytic therapies are focused on trying to solve core, unconscious intrapersonal conflicts (brought from the past) in (mostly) long therapies, &lt;strong&gt;CBT is problem- and behavior-focused and short. A skeptic should like this pragmatism of CBT&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Even though your question highlights the &lt;strong&gt;role of the therapist&lt;/strong&gt;, this is actually &lt;strong&gt;not an important feature of CBT&lt;/strong&gt;. CBT relies on structured therapeutic manuals, and not so much on talent or personality of the therapist. In fact, CBT may be effective if conducted via the internet (Andersson et al., 2009), or even in the form of self-help books (Anderson et al., 2005). &lt;strong&gt;A skeptic should value that CBT is focused on technique and not on the therapist.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Andersson, G. (2009). Using the Internet to provide cognitive behaviour therapy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 175–180. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.01.010&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson, L., Lewis, G., Araya, R., Elgie, R., Harrison, G., Proudfoot, J., et al. (2005). Self-help books for depression: how can practitioners and patients make the right choice. British Journal of General Practice, 55, 387-392.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bennett-Levy, J., Butler, G., Fennell, M., Hackmann, A., Mueller, M., Westbrook, D., &amp;amp; Rouf, K. (2004). Oxford Guide to Behavioural Experiments in Cognitive Therapy. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy: Science and Practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., Vonk, I. J. J., Sawyer, A. T., &amp;amp; Fang, A. (2012). The Efficacy of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Review of Meta-analyses. Cognitive therapy and research, 36, 427–440. doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9476-1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E., Campbell, L., Ebsworthy, G., &amp;amp; Holker, L. (2002). Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 107–123.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Popper, K.R. (1963). Conjectures and Refutations. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Poulsen, S., Lunn, S., Daniel, S. I. F., Folke, S., Mathiesen, B. B., Katznelson, H., &amp;amp; Fairburn, C. G. (2014). A Randomized Controlled Trial of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy or Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Bulimia Nervosa. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 109–116. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12121511&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-29T16:13:18.300" LastActivityDate="2015-07-29T16:13:18.300" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9966" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9462" CreationDate="2015-05-05T10:14:26.623" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ok, I found something. Gollwitzer and colleagues (2009) have published an interesting paper on this question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, they say that, yes, publically stated intentions should lead to commitment, because the person wants to act in way that is consistent with the communicated intentions (e.g., Cialdini, Wosinka, Barrett, Butner, &amp;amp; Gornik-Durose, 1999). Second, public intentions should increase accountability (Lerner &amp;amp; Tetlock, 1999), which should also lead to an commitment effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, they show that sometimes this can go wrong. Such public commitments may often be made in domains that are highly identity relevant and may thus be a means to reach some overarching goal. For example, committing to a triathlon may serve the goal of being a successful athlete. Now, &lt;strong&gt;symbolically&lt;/strong&gt;, publicly committing to triathlon training may already help reaching this identity goal (because other people take notice of this effort). And thus ironically, it may be less necessary to &lt;strong&gt;actually&lt;/strong&gt; reach the goal and diminish goal striving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In line with these ideas they found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Identity-related behavioral intentions that had been noticed by other people were translated into action less intensively than those that&#xA;  had been ignored (Studies 1–3). This effect was evident in&#xA;  the field (persistent striving over 1 week’s time; Study 1)&#xA;  and in the laboratory (jumping on opportunities to act;&#xA;  Studies 2 and 3), and it held among participants with&#xA;  strong but not weak commitment to the identity goal (Study&#xA;  3). Study 4 showed, in addition, that when other people&#xA;  take notice of an individual’s identity-related behavioral&#xA;  intention, this gives the individual a premature sense of&#xA;  possessing the aspired-to identity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I should boast with the finished triathlon on Facebook only afterwards, I guess. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cialdini, R.B., Wosinka, W., Barrett, D.W., Butner, J., &amp;amp; GornikDurose, M. (1999). Compliance with a request in two cultures:&#xA;The differential influence of social proof and commitment/consistency on collectivists and individualists. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1242–1253.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gollwitzer, P. M., Sheeran, P., Michalski, V., &amp;amp; Seifert, A. E. (2009). When intentions go public: Does social reality widen the intention-behavior gap? Psychological Science, 20, 612–618. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02336.x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lerner, J.S., &amp;amp; Tetlock, P.E. (1999). Accounting for the effects of accountability. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 255–275.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-05T15:41:46.827" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T15:41:46.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9584" CreationDate="2015-05-05T10:32:17.953" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;We cover a discussion on this in an article we've submitted for peer-review. Here is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://peerj.com/preprints/921/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;preprint&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will cite this stackExchange question/answers in the manuscript (post peer review now) as there are some lovely discussions going on, and doubtless, more to follow. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tangentially relevant to this discussion is a simulation we did in the paper exploring how not knowing screen refresh impacts on stimulus timing (consider that if RT &lt;em&gt;starts&lt;/em&gt; being recorded from a stimulus presentation, error in stimulus timing mucks around with RT):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We tested this appearance issue in a simulation where we varied the&#xA;  duration of visual stimulus, starting at a random time during the&#xA;  refresh cycle (10,000 virtual presentations per stimulus duration).&#xA;  Figure 5 shows the likelihood of short duration stimuli being shown at&#xA;  all, or being shown for the wrong duration, or starting / stopping at&#xA;  the wrong time (&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/andytwoods/refreshSimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://github.com/andytwoods/refreshSimulation&lt;/a&gt;;&#xA;  available to run / tweak online here&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://jsfiddle.net/andytwoods/0f56hmaf/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://jsfiddle.net/andytwoods/0f56hmaf/&lt;/a&gt;).&#xA;  &lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2RctD.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below is the abstract: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This article provides an overview of the literature on the use of&#xA;  internet-based testing to address questions in perception research.&#xA;  Internet-based testing has several advantages over in-lab research,&#xA;  including the ability to reach a relatively broad set of participants&#xA;  and to quickly and inexpensively collect large amounts of empirical&#xA;  data. In many cases, the quality of online data appears to match that&#xA;  collected in laboratory research. Generally speaking, online&#xA;  participants tend to be more representative of the population at large&#xA;  than laboratory based participants. There are, though, some important&#xA;  caveats, when it comes to collecting data online. It is obviously much&#xA;  more difficult to control the exact parameters of stimulus&#xA;  presentation (such as display characteristics) in online research.&#xA;  There are also some thorny ethical considerations that need to be&#xA;  considered by experimenters. Strengths and weaknesses of the online&#xA;  approach, relative to others, are highlighted, and recommendations&#xA;  made for those researchers who might be thinking about conducting&#xA;  their own studies using this increasingly-popular approach to research&#xA;  in the psychological sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8259" LastEditorUserId="8259" LastEditDate="2015-05-05T16:49:55.920" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T16:49:55.920" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9968" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9156" CreationDate="2015-05-05T11:21:30.153" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting question. &quot;Ontology&quot; is often used in confusing and polyvalent ways, so let's start by clearing up the terminology very quickly for those who aren't intimate with the various different meanings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;What does &quot;ontology&quot; mean?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Broadly, &lt;em&gt;ontology the field&lt;/em&gt; is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;philosophical study of being&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;An ontology&lt;/em&gt; is a method for establishing what beings or entities &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; exist (cf. epistemology's whether we should believe they exist), how they may be grouped, and the relations they may have. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In information and computer science, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology_(information_science)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;ontology&quot;&lt;/a&gt; is used in a related, but not identical sense to refer to formally defined sets of types, properties and the relationships between them. To answer your question, then, relations compose &lt;em&gt;part&lt;/em&gt; of an ontology, but ontologies do not comprise sets of relations and nothing but sets of relations. From the Wikipedia page:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;An ontology is a description (like a formal specification of a program) of the concepts and relationships that can formally exist for an agent or a community of agents.&lt;/strong&gt; This definition is consistent with the usage of ontology as set of concept definitions, but more general. And it is a different sense of the word than its use in philosophy. -- Tom Gruber, &lt;a href=&quot;http://tomgruber.org/writing/onto-design.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Toward Principles for the Design of Ontologies Used for Knowledge Sharing&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://tomgruber.org/writing/ontology-definition-2007.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gruber updated the definition in 2007&lt;/a&gt;, but it is not so much different as an extension.)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Ontologies and ACT-R&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/about/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ACT-R&lt;/a&gt; defines a basic ontology with the entities &lt;strong&gt;modules, buffers and pattern-matchers&lt;/strong&gt;, ways to group entities within their type (e.g., &lt;strong&gt;perceptual-motor vs. memory modules&lt;/strong&gt;), and the relations between them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Zkm1V.gif&quot; alt=&quot;ACT-R&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We use ontologies to abstract away from particular data structures. The &lt;strong&gt;ACT-R cognitive architecture both implies and specifies an ontology, and we can use that ontology to extend ACT-R, or make ACT-R talk to other architectures&lt;/strong&gt; which may not have any data structure overlap with ACT-R. Oltramari et al. (2014) provides an apt concrete (&quot;real&quot;?) example. They coupled ACT-R to the SCOPE knowledge management system, where they use concrete information science ontologies in order to extend ACT-R to use abstract philosophical ontologies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In general, ACT-R models only employ as much knowledge as required to perform well-defined cognitive tasks. By and large, they can be seen as “monadic” agents, whose knowledge bases are limited, partially reusable and sporadically portable across experimental conditions. On the contrary, in order to replicate high-level contextual reasoning and pattern recognition in humans, large amount of common-sense knowledge should be available to ACTR: &lt;strong&gt;to overcome these limitations, we propose to equip ACT-R with a specific module for processing ontologies [philosophical sense], i.e. semantic specifications of a given domain or application (Guarino, 1998) [information science sense]&lt;/strong&gt;, which are generally used in combination with inference engines for deductive reasoning. Since the ACT-R declarative module supports a relatively coarse-grained semantics based on slot-value pairs, and the procedural system is not optimal to effectively manage complex logical constructs, a specific extension is needed to make ACT-R suitable to fulfill knowledge-intensive cognitive tasks like context-driven spatial reasoning. Accordingly, &lt;strong&gt;we engineered an extra module as a bridging component between the cognitive architecture and an external knowledge-base system KBS, SCONE&lt;/strong&gt; (Fahlman, 2006). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oltramari, A., Vinokurov, Y., Lebiere, C., Oh, J., &amp;amp; Stentz, A. (2014, March). Ontology-Based Cognitive System for Contextual Reasoning in Robot Architectures. In 2014 AAAI Spring Symposium Series.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-05T11:27:52.753" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T11:27:52.753" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9969" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9951" CreationDate="2015-05-05T12:39:54.620" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0111332&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rao et al. 2014&lt;/a&gt; claims to be the first demonstration of a brain-brain interface in humans, using EEG and TMS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We describe the first direct brain-to-brain interface in humans and present results from experiments involving six different subjects. Our non-invasive interface, demonstrated originally in August 2013, combines electroencephalography (EEG) for recording brain signals with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) for delivering information to the brain. We illustrate our method using a visuomotor task in which two humans must cooperate through direct brain-to-brain communication to achieve a desired goal in a computer game. The brain-to-brain interface detects motor imagery in EEG signals recorded from one subject (the “sender”) and transmits this information over the internet to the motor cortex region of a second subject (the “receiver”). This allows the sender to cause a desired motor response in the receiver (a press on a touchpad) via TMS. We quantify the performance of the brain-to-brain interface in terms of the amount of information transmitted as well as the accuracies attained in (1) decoding the sender’s signals, (2) generating a motor response from the receiver upon stimulation, and (3) achieving the overall goal in the cooperative visuomotor task. Our results provide evidence for a rudimentary form of direct information transmission from one human brain to another using non-invasive means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-08-22T13:06:16.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9970" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9972" CreationDate="2015-05-05T12:42:03.933" Score="3" ViewCount="142" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've often heard that people affected by narcissism cannot recover. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can understand that it's a long path and that a narcissist may lack the motivation and so on, but I wonder why cognitive therapy (for example) should be ineffective towards this kind of pathology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there statistics on the treatment of narcissists?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-05T14:05:27.533" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T14:13:32.823" Title="Is there scientific evidence that narcissists cannot be treated?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9971" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9179" CreationDate="2015-05-05T13:35:37.823" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Currently, &lt;strong&gt;the most comprehensive cognitive model of executive functions would have to be the model proposed by Miyake et al. (2000)&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(It is probably best not to confuse being &lt;em&gt;the most comprehensive cognitive model&lt;/em&gt; with being a &lt;em&gt;strong explanation&lt;/em&gt;, because the executive functions remain one of the most poorly understood areas of cognition, but it's a very &lt;em&gt;useful&lt;/em&gt; model.)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Miyake-Friedman Model&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This individual differences study examined the separability of three often postulated executive functions—&lt;strong&gt;mental set shifting (“Shifting”), information updating and monitoring (“Updating”), and inhibition of prepotent responses (“Inhibition”)&lt;/strong&gt;—and their roles in complex “frontal lobe” or “executive” tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This influential model has engendered thousands of papers applying it to explain many different findings and domains. Psychometric research using confirmatory factor analysis (Duan, Wei, Wang and Shi, 2010) found support for three shifting, updating and inhibition factors, and Friedman et al. (2006) reported evidence for the factors' discriminant validity by comparing it with the Wechsler IQ scale. Practical support for the model has also come from research on ADHD, as reviewed in Wilcutt et al. (2005), and attentional problems in school settings (Friedman et al., 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nihtoolbox.org/WhatAndWhy/Cognition/ExecutiveFunction/Pages/default.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery&lt;/a&gt; also includes an executive functions test informed by the Miyake and Friedman model, which recently received strong support in a review by Zelazo et al. (2013):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the current study, &lt;strong&gt;we sought to assess the reliability and validity of new measures of EF and attention that are part of the NIH Toolbox CB&lt;/strong&gt;. New versions of the DCCS and the flanker task were designed to provide assessments of two aspects of EF, cognitive flexibility (Toolbox DCCS) and inhibitory control in the context of visual selective attention (Toolbox Flanker). Together with a separate measure of working memory (see Tulsky et al., Chapter 5, this volume), &lt;strong&gt;these measures capture the three aspects of EF identified by Miyake et al. (2000)&lt;/strong&gt; in their work with adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, &lt;strong&gt;results reveal excellent developmental sensitivity across childhood, excellent test–retest reliability, and excellent convergent validity (except for the Toolbox Flanker, which showed adequate convergent validity among 8–15 year olds).&lt;/strong&gt; Correlations between the new NIH Toolbox measures and corresponding convergent measures were generally quite high, although for younger children, they were higher for the DCCS than for the flanker measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Overall, the tripartite Miyake and Friedman model is extremely well-supported by both the literature and praxis.&lt;/strong&gt; If a more comprehensive cognitive model of executive function exists, I am not aware of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Duan, X., Wei, S., Wang, G., &amp;amp; Shi, J. (2010). The relationship between executive functions and intelligence on 11-to 12-year-old children. Psychological Test and Assessment Modeling, 52(4), 419-431.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Friedman, N. P., Haberstick, B. C., Willcutt, E. G., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., Corley, R. P., &amp;amp; Hewitt, J. K. (2007). Greater attention problems during childhood predict poorer executive functioning in late adolescence. Psychological Science, 18(10), 893-900.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp;amp; Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology, 41(1), 49-100.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., &amp;amp; Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biological psychiatry, 57(11), 1336-1346.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zelazo, P. D., Anderson, J. E., Richler, J., Wallner‐Allen, K., Beaumont, J. L., &amp;amp; Weintraub, S. (2013). II. NIH toolbox cognition battery (CB): measuring executive function and attention. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(4), 16-33.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T13:35:37.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9972" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9970" CreationDate="2015-05-05T14:04:24.823" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It appears you have heard correctly, at least in a sense: &lt;strong&gt;there are no peer reviewed treatments for narcissistic personality disorder&lt;/strong&gt; (NPD) itself. On the other hand, &lt;strong&gt;this does not constitute evidence that narcissists cannot be treated&lt;/strong&gt;, either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A review of the NPD literature by Dhawan, Kunik, Oldham and Coverdale (2010) reported an absence of evidence one way or another in no uncertain terms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To determine the most efficacious treatments for NPD without other comorbidities, we performed searches using Narcissis*, pharmacology, clinical pharmacology, therapeutics, and psychotherapy for reports of controlled trials from January 1980 to August 2008. [...] We identified 7 prevalence studies that had used a structured or semistructured interview, 5 of which scored 5/6 using the epidemiologic quality tool. Mean prevalence was 1.06%, and the range was 0% to 6.2%. &lt;strong&gt;We found no studies of treatment meeting our inclusion criteria.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The prevalence numbers refer to how many people satisfied the DSM-IV-TR NPD criteria. The epidemiological quality tool referred to is defined as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Articles received 1 point for each of the following: surveying a national population (because personality disorders are more prevalent closer to city centers, this disparity could influence locally obtained samples), obtaining a sample that was representative of the population being surveyed, accounting for nonrespondents, using a valid diagnostic instrument, having adequate training of interviewers, and assessing reliability. Assessment of the above criteria was determined after each question for each study was independently rated by each author. Then the authors met twice and came to a consensus regarding the scoring of each question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My own review of the 2009-2015 literature did not find any new developments. There simply does not appear to be any treatment studies for NPD, efficacious or otherwise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dhawan, N., Kunik, M. E., Oldham, J., &amp;amp; Coverdale, J. (2010). Prevalence and treatment of narcissistic personality disorder in the community: a systematic review. Comprehensive psychiatry, 51(4), 333-339.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-05T14:13:32.823" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T14:13:32.823" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9973" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1685" CreationDate="2015-05-05T15:09:01.503" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The underlying question here is: &lt;strong&gt;Does the context of a questionnaire affect the answer?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think you already answered the question yourself. &lt;strong&gt;Yes it does&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's make the comparison even more extreme:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Please rate on a scale of 1 (not at all) to 7 (very) how happy you would be if you won 1 million dollars because you were the 1 millionth customer of a super market. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Please rate on a scale of 1 (not at all) to 7 (very) how happy you would be to win 100 dollars because you were the 1 millionth customer of a super market. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now imagine you would have been asked only the second question. Will the answer on the second question be affected by the fact that there was question 1? Very likely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an excellent introduction to research about such context effects and other survey-related phenomena check out &quot;Self-reports: How the questions shape the answers.&quot; by Norbert Schwarz (1999). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwarz summarizes several ways in which &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;pragmatic&lt;/em&gt; aspects&lt;/strong&gt; of questions affect answers in questionnaires. There is an important distinction with regard to how people construct the meaning of such questions. On the one hand, there is the literal meaning of the question, its semantic content. On the other hand, there is also the pragmatic meaning of a question, which involves an assessment about the intention of the person (the researcher) who has asked the question. (What is implied? Also called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicature&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;implicature&lt;/a&gt;). To infer this pragmatic meaning, people rely on several communication norms or &quot;maxims&quot; (Grice, 1975). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The maxim that is most relevant here is the &lt;strong&gt;maxim of relation&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a maxim of relation enjoins speakers to make their contribution&#xA;  relevant to the aims of the ongoing conversation. In research&#xA;  situations, this maxim licenses the use of contextual information in&#xA;  question interpretation and invites respondents to relate the question&#xA;  to the context of the ongoing exchange. (Schwarz, 1999, p. 94)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in the context of question 1 (1 million dollars/presence in environment 1/2 liters of free beer), the pragmatic meaning of question 2 (100 dollars/presence in environment 2/1 liters of free beer) may be interpreted as comparative (compared to the first option, who much do you like it?) and the answer may be different that than when it is asked in isolation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way in which the context may affect the answer is that the implied meaning of the scale anchors change (What means &quot;very happy&quot; vs. &quot;not at all happy&quot;?). An example of research that has investigated such issues is the research on &lt;strong&gt;shifting standards&lt;/strong&gt; in stereotyping (e.g. Biernat &amp;amp; Manis, 1994). For example, if you judge woman X with regard to aggressiveness, she may be rated as &quot;highly aggressive&quot; in the context of other women (because the stereotype is that women are low in aggressiveness). However, if the question is asked in the context of men, she might be rated lower in terms of aggressiveness (also because of the stereotype that women are less aggressive). The point is that the inferred meaning of the scale anchor &quot;very aggressive&quot; changes based on the context the question is asked in.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biernat, M., &amp;amp; Manis, M. (1994). Shifting standards and stereotype-based judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 5–20. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.5&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Grice, H. P. ( 1975). Logic and conversation. In P.Cole &amp;amp; J. L.Morgan ( Eds.), Syntax and semantics: Vol. 3. Speech acts (pp. 41– 58). New York: Academic Press. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwarz, N. (1999). Self-reports: How the questions shape the answers. American Psychologist, 54, 93–105. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.2.93&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T12:34:37.847" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T12:34:37.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8318" CreationDate="2015-05-05T16:18:37.213" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The English Analytical Psychologist H. G. Baynes first described the provisional life in a chapter of his book &quot;Analytical Psychology and the English Mind&quot;. For a good comprehensive description see &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.archive.org/web/20150403145822/http://jungiancenter.org/essay/jung-provisional-life&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://web.archive.org/web/20150403145822/http://jungiancenter.org/essay/jung-provisional-life&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Provisional Life.&lt;/strong&gt; The dictionary defines “provisional” as “for the time being; temporary; conditional.” Something&#xA;  “provisional” is not lasting. It depends—on conditions, situations,&#xA;  people doing specific things. It is uncertain, more or less up in the&#xA;  air. Given a particular set of circumstances, a committee makes a&#xA;  “provisional” recommendation, in the understanding that things could&#xA;  change. A man undertakes a course of action, provided certain&#xA;  conditions are met. The essence of the word is transience.&#xA;              In Jungian psychology the concept of “provisional life” embodies the transient nature of “provisional.” The English Jungian&#xA;  analyst H.G. Baynes coined the term “provisional life,” and regarded&#xA;  it as a form of neurosis, for its resistance to living responsibly in&#xA;  temporal reality. The Jungian analyst, James Hollis, described the&#xA;  “provisional life” as an “…assemblage of behaviors, attitudes and&#xA;  reflexive strategies [that] constitutes our ‘false self,’…” Jung&#xA;  himself described the provisional life as “… the modern European&#xA;  disease of the merely imaginary life,…” Daryl Sharp provides a&#xA;  succinct definition in his C.G. Jung Lexicon: “A term used to describe&#xA;  an attitude toward life that is more or less imaginary, not rooted in&#xA;  the here and now, commonly associated with puer psychology.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8261" LastEditorUserId="6827" LastEditDate="2017-01-08T01:48:17.497" LastActivityDate="2017-01-08T01:48:17.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7939" CreationDate="2015-05-05T18:10:45.867" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like &lt;em&gt;lea&lt;/em&gt;'s comment indicated, FA is called &quot;fractional&quot; anisotropy simply because it's the degree of anisotropic diffusion, i.e., a ratio (Soares, Marques, Alves and Sousa, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fractional Anisotropy is &lt;strong&gt;a normalized measure of the fraction of the tensor's magnitude due to anisotropic diffusion&lt;/strong&gt;, corresponding to the degree of anisotropic diffusion or directionality and ranges from 0 (isotropic diffusion) to 1 (anisotropic diffusion).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3594764/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Soares, J. M., Marques, P., Alves, V., &amp;amp; Sousa, N. (2013). A hitchhiker’s guide to diffusion tensor imaging. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 7, 31. doi:10.3389/fnins.2013.00031&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-05-05T18:10:45.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9976" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-05T23:50:27.343" Score="6" ViewCount="346" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is the major problem of all cognitive sciences to deal with subjectivity. On the other hand, in order to figure out what is cognition or psychology, one must ultimately deal with this problem. As a starter, I wonder if there is any study about identicalness of perceptions among subjects. Are the perceptions of two different subjects on an object identical? In other words, can the perceptions of two subjects about a tomato differ from each other? One may experience the redness of tomato as what the other call blue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8027" LastEditorUserId="8027" LastEditDate="2016-01-12T19:22:52.320" LastActivityDate="2016-01-12T19:22:52.320" Title="Is there a way to compare the subjective experiences of two different subjects upon an object?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9977" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1705" CreationDate="2015-05-06T00:07:50.777" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because it has been a few years since Jeromy's original answer, and because I just read a very apt article, I will venture an update on the state of the field with respect to the BPI's validity. Overall, despite more research into brain training and Lumosity, there is little to no peer-reviewed evidence supporting the Lumosity BPI's validity, nor evidence that an average consumer should expect practical cognitive improvements from Lumosity games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Testing the BPI&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A very recent test of the BPI's validity was published by Shute, Ventura and Fe (2015), who compared participants practicing &lt;em&gt;Portal 2&lt;/em&gt; with participants practicing &lt;em&gt;Lumosity&lt;/em&gt; games; the Lumosity players served as active controls. Portal 2 measures included (1) total number of levels completed, (2) average number of portals shot, and (3) average time to complete levels; Lumosity was measured by BPI. They reported no evidence of transfer effects for measures of either problem solving or spatial abilities in the Lumosity condition, and partial support for transfer in the Portal 2 condition only on spatial abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hypotheses 2 and 3 test pretest to posttest gains on specific problem solving and spatial test scores within each condition. We computed paired t-tests for each measure in each condition. For hypothesis 2 (problem solving gains), we found no significant gains for the Portal 2 condition, from pretest to posttest, for any specific problem solving measure. &lt;strong&gt;We also did not find any significant pretest-to-posttest gains for the Lumosity condition across any of the problem solving measures.&lt;/strong&gt; Results provide partial support for hypothesis 3 (spatial gains). Participants in the Portal 2 condition showed pretest to posttest improvement on the MRT, t(1, 39) = −1.80, p &amp;lt; .05; Cohen's d = .30 under a one-tailed test. Additionally, Portal 2 players' VSNA scores significantly differed from pretest to posttest, t(1, 40) = 2.42, p &amp;lt; .05; Cohen's d = .44. There was no significant improvement for Portal 2 players on the SOT test. &lt;strong&gt;For participants in the Lumosity condition, there were no significant pretest-to-posttest improvements on any of the three spatial tests.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Brain training&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A rigorous study by Redick et al. (2013) suggested that the initial research on brain training generally, and thus the basis for Lumosity (mentioned by name in the paper), may have been compromised by design limitations and lack of theoretical grounding, and criticizes those studies for struggling to adequately explain often mixed results. They reported three relevant findings from their own validation study of dual &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;-back working memory training:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our study yielded three main findings. First, subjects improved with practice on both the dual n-back and visual search tasks. Second, training group subjects showed no transfer to any of the ability measures, in keeping with the prediction outlined in Figure 4D. Third, dual n-back trained subjects reported subjective improvements in various aspects of cognition in the absence of any objective evidence for change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Concluding remarks&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The jury is still out on brain training more generally and on when, where and whether it may be useful (e.g., Deveau et al., 2014; Mayas, Parmentier, Andrés and Ballesteros, 2014). However, the Lumosity BPI appears to have little to no scientific validity as a cognitive training method for average consumers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.proxy-ub.rug.nl/pmc/articles/PMC4288240/&quot;&gt;Deveau, J., Jaeggi, S. M., Zordan, V., Phung, C., &amp;amp; Seitz, A. R. (2014). How to build better memory training games. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0092269&quot;&gt;Mayas, J., Parmentier, F. B., Andrés, P., &amp;amp; Ballesteros, S. (2014). Plasticity of attentional functions in older adults after non-action video game training: a randomized controlled trial. PloS one, 9(3), e92269.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael_Kane4/publication/227340699_No_Evidence_of_Intelligence_Improvement_After_Working_Memory_Training_A_Randomized_Placebo-Controlled_Study/links/00b49517ff2ebbc77c000000.pdf&quot;&gt;Redick, T. S., Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Fried, D. E., Hambrick, D. Z., ... &amp;amp; Engle, R. W. (2013). No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142(2), 359.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.boogames.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/241485048-Portal-vs-Lumosity.pdf&quot;&gt;Shute, V. J., Ventura, M., &amp;amp; Ke, F. (2015). The power of play: The effects of Portal 2 and Lumosity on cognitive and noncognitive skills. Computers &amp;amp; Education, 80, 58-67.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-06T15:32:29.507" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T15:32:29.507" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9978" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="9987" CreationDate="2015-05-06T02:10:20.937" Score="3" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;As an example of an artificial neural net (ANN), a neural processing unit (NPU) is able to encode previous (learned) information by storing a weighted resistance for each input. Since ANN's are biologically inspired, I was wondering whether the neurons in the human brain also have a mechanism to set the resistance for electrical current that flows through the neuron. If not, how is information (long term storage) encoded in the brain (for example, a familiar word like &quot;house&quot;)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-05-06T12:40:08.477" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T12:40:08.477" Title="Is the weight of neural inputs in the human brain as central as it is for neurons in an artifical neural network?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9982" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-06T07:20:34.507" Score="1" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like to write and am a frequent user on writers.stackexchange.com. Many questions there and in other writing or art related communities ask a variation of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to use the setting / characters / names / story of this or that work of fiction to create my own. May I legally do so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While books and movies inspire the want to be creative in me, I have never felt inclined to use the world or characters or plot of another for my own narratives or create fan fiction. When I read a question like the one quoted above, I always think: &amp;quot;Why don't you just invent your own world, characters, and story? Don't you have a story &lt;em&gt;inside you&lt;/em&gt; that needs to be told ?!?&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading those kind of questions makes me wonder what the difference is between creators of derivative works and creators of orginal art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sure, everyone is inspired by what they read in books or see in movies, and no one comes up with a tale to tell from a vacuum. Wanting to tell a story you have made up is not per se superior to wanting to tell a (variation of a) story you have read, and many derivative works are better written and more entertaining than their originals. Nevertheless I somehow feel that there is a difference – in motivation, goals, maybe personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could, for example, conceive of creativity as a continuum from the purely derivative to the purely original, with different creators having more or less original ideas. This is a common concept, and we generally admire original creators more, because we feel they have more creative &amp;quot;genius&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or you could take another common perspective and understand artists as being more or less mentally disordered, and originality being a result of the intensity of the artist's depression, schizophrenia or borderline personality, and art being an &amp;quot;outlet&amp;quot; or a method of self-reflection or some other way for them to deal with their dysfunction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other ways to interpret the difference. Looking at myself, for example, no matter if my inspiration was life or art, what made me want to write (or make movies or draw) was always a feeling of &lt;em&gt;lack:&lt;/em&gt; that something was missing from the story I read, that something about how the story was told left me unsatisfied, because, no matter how touching, that story was never truly about &lt;em&gt;me&lt;/em&gt;, never completely told of what concerned &lt;em&gt;me&lt;/em&gt;. I don't know how you would characterize this type of motivation to create. Maybe I'm so self-absorbed and egocentric that I cannot care about the creations of others, while those wanting to &lt;em&gt;contribute&lt;/em&gt; to another's invention are more socially competent, more collaboratively inclined, even more warm and caring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;What is the difference – in ability or personality – between creators of derivative works and those inventing their own new worlds and characters and stories?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there anything in the research on creativity that could explain this difference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T07:20:34.507" Title="What is the difference between creators of derivative works of art and original creators?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-10T05:24:55.553" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9983" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9976" CreationDate="2015-05-06T07:32:59.807" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;These are some of the common ways that psychologists use to test subjective experience:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introspection.&lt;/strong&gt; Introspection &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introspection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;has fallen a bit out of fashion&lt;/a&gt; after the hype surrounding mathematical psychology, but in some areas introspection still is a valid method, especially if other approaches are impossible or unethical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A famous psychological self-experiment whose result rely solely on introspection is that of Niels Bierbaumer, who let himself be injected with a deadly dosis of &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curare&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;curare&lt;/a&gt;, which he survived because he was &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_ventilation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mechanically ventilated&lt;/a&gt; by a respiration therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Interviews.&lt;/strong&gt; Just ask what a person feels or thinks. Quite often they simply tell you the truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questionnaires.&lt;/strong&gt; Some are straightforward, some try (some even succeed at) hiding what information they are after. Compared to interviews they have the advantage of allowing only standardized (questions and) answers, which can then by evaluated mathematically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Implicit tests.&lt;/strong&gt; An example is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit-association_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;implicit association test&lt;/a&gt;, in which different reaction times to different stimuli (e.g. words or images) are interpreted as a person's bias towards those stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking your example, you might present a person with the word &amp;quot;Tomato&amp;quot;, an image of a tomato, or the actual object, and measure how quickly they click on the word &amp;quot;tasty&amp;quot;, and compare that to how quickly they click on the same word when they are presented with, for example, a banana.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Observation of behavior.&lt;/strong&gt; Either in an experimental setting or a field study. I don't know what the correct term is for observing normally occurring everyday behavior (in contrast to artificial behavior like clicking buttons when you see words on a screen), but I will give an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You invite people for a study that you say is about emotions in movies. That study is only a &amp;quot;cover story&amp;quot; to the real test you are doing. Participants have to watch a movie and (that is the fake study) fill in a questionnaire about it. What people don't know is that some of them get to see a happy movie, others see a sad movie. The movie is long, and the questionnaire is even longer (and you set the experiment to fall into people's lunch time, so they arrive hungry), so you give them something to eat between the movie and the &amp;quot;test&amp;quot;: there is a bowl of tomato salad, a fruit salad, some bread, and so on. What you are interested in and what you actually observe and measure is, wether people are more inclined to eat tomato salad after a happy or sad movie. (The number of participants and their random distribution to the two movies will average out the fact that certain individuals like or dislike tomatoes.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many other ways to indirectly study human (and animal) emotion and thought, and it is part of the ingenuity and creativity of scholars to invent ever new study designs. There are too many of them for me to list them here (and I certainly don't know half of them), but if you are interested, there are many books in every scientific library that teach about designing studies, and many articles (some freely available online) that show how research is actually done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T08:30:17.877" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9985" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10007" CreationDate="2015-05-06T11:33:14.160" Score="5" ViewCount="493" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to build up a timeline of the development of operant conditioning. So far I have the following&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$1898$ - Thorndike performs experiments using his puzzle box of which Skinner based his work on.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$1930$ - Skinner invents a similiar box called the &quot;Skinner box&quot; while studying as a graduate student.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$1938$ - Skinner coins the term &quot;operant conditioning&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$1947$ - Skinner performs experiments on &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pigeons&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$1948$ - Skinner performs experiments on rats. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this timeline leaves me skeptical for two reasons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first is that the timeline is very stretched out. Skinner invented the box and then it took him 17-18 years to publish his famous studies. What experiments was he performing with his box that weren't as groundbreaking in all those years when his groundbreaking results features a very basic setup?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second is that Skinner &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/mar04/skinner.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;apparently&lt;/a&gt; swapped from rats to pigeons in his experiments because they lived longer, learnt faster and were easier to handle yet the according to my timeline the rats experiment took place after the pigeon one (or perhaps not and he just published them in that order).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect my timeline is not quite right (afterall my references are random internet links). My question is what are the (correct) key dates of the development of operant conditioning? Key dates being the events I have highlighted above and any others you think I have missed. I had more references but unfortunately I can only post 2 links due to my reputation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8268" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-07T16:57:10.413" LastActivityDate="2015-05-07T16:57:10.413" Title="What are the key dates for the development of operant conditioning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9987" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9978" CreationDate="2015-05-06T12:39:31.083" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The general biological term for this kind of mechanism is synaptic plasticity. Synapses are the biological structure that allow neurons to communicate via the exchange of neurotransmitters. The strength of the synapse (the effectiveness of the link between the neurons) can be modified over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One important kind of modification is long-term potentiation, first &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1350458/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reported by Bliss and Lømo in 1973&lt;/a&gt;. They demonstrated that short term bursts of activity in a neural pathway can cause long term augmentation of the post-synaptic response. In artificial neural network terms, they were able to demonstrate something akin to an increase in the connection strength between two neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T12:39:31.083" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9988" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9961" CreationDate="2015-05-06T12:57:09.467" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The subliminal recollection is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_%28memory%29#Involuntary_memory_retrieval&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;involuntary memory retrieval&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This triggers an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;implicit memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further reading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli#Images&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli#Images&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli#Auditory_stimuli&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli#Auditory_stimuli&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreading_activation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreading_activation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8270" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-05-06T13:42:42.817" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T13:42:42.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9957" CreationDate="2015-05-06T14:30:22.907" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;These should get you started, relating to spontaneous behaviour of humans in society, in contrast to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normality_%28behavior%29#Definitions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;normality behaviour&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nzwBBQAAQBAJ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spontaneous Alternation Behavior&lt;/a&gt; by W.N. Dember, C.L. Richman&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://phys.org/news/2013-08-complex-behavior-spontaneously-emerge-brain.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How does complex behavior spontaneously emerge in the brain?&lt;/a&gt; - Lisa Zyga&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/srep/2014/140313/srep04312/full/srep04312.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brain modularity controls the critical behavior of spontaneous activity&lt;/a&gt; - R. Russo, H. J. Herrmann  &amp;amp; L. de Arcangelis&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolution-the-self/200903/the-wisdom-spontaneity-part-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Wisdom of Spontaneity (Part 1)&lt;/a&gt; - Leon F Seltzer Ph.D&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00987461&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Identification of spontaneous and deliberate behavior&lt;/a&gt; - Vernon L. Allen, Michael L. Atkinson&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/com/35/3/237/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Some factors influencing spontaneous alternation in human subjects&lt;/a&gt; - Wingfield, R. C.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8270" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T14:30:22.907" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9991" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3766" CreationDate="2015-05-06T15:05:21.077" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the older theories suggested that a person literally runs out of brain-fuel when they hit the wall (Baumeister et al, 1998). They called this state &quot;ego depletion&quot; and it refers to the kind of mental burnout you are talking about. There is currently a lot of research activity on this topic because we (psychologists) assumed for over a decade that some resource was depleted in the brain but have found no evidence for any such resource. Newer theories suggest that people go through a kind of motivational cycle in which people tend to approach longer-term goals with delayed rewards (e.g., doing homework) for some period of time, followed by pursuit of shorter-term goals with immediate rewards (e.g., eating, leisure, etc.; see Kurzban et al, 2013 for a great discussion).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, people with high self-control are people who spend relatively more time engaging in &quot;labor&quot; and impulsive people spend relatively more time pursuing leisure. The cyclical nature of motivation has clear adaptive qualities and the burnout that you feel after working for long periods is thought to be your brain doing exactly what it is designed to do: keep you from neglecting short term goals which are/were just as essential for survival as long-term goals. This is in direct contrast with the brain-fuel idea, which models burnout as self-control failure. See the Inzlicht article for a critique of brain-fuel models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One interesting area of work that is related to all of this comes from the ADHD literature. The drugs developed to treat ADHD have demonstrated a clear connection between dopamine activity in the frontal lobes and the ability to persist in pursuing labor goals. It might be tempting to think that dopamine is the phantom brain-fuel we've been looking for, but note that the brain has no problem producing dopamine (i.e., it doesn't &quot;run out&quot;). Nobody has really pursued this, but it will be interesting to see how psychologists integrate the role of dopamine and frontal lobe functioning into self-control models. The Barkley reference below is an old one, but it is a good review of ADHD research that is relevant to this topic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological bulletin, 121(1), 65.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., &amp;amp; Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: is the active self a limited resource?. Journal of personality and social psychology, 74(5), 1252.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inzlicht, M., Schmeichel, B. J., &amp;amp; Macrae, C. N. (2014). Why self-control seems (but may not be) limited. Trends in cognitive sciences, 18(3), 127-133.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kurzban, R., Duckworth, A., Kable, J. W., &amp;amp; Myers, J. (2013). An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36(06), 661-679.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8273" LastEditorUserId="8273" LastEditDate="2015-05-06T15:10:38.253" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T15:10:38.253" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9992" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10004" CreationDate="2015-05-06T16:13:52.860" Score="9" ViewCount="981" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was really surprised how fast I was able to read and comprehend following text:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I cnduo't bvleiee taht I culod aulaclty uesdtannrd waht I was rdnaieg.&#xA;  Unisg the icndeblire pweor of the hmuan mnid, aocdcrnig to rseecrah at&#xA;  Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it dseno't mttaer in waht oderr the lterets in a&#xA;  wrod are, the olny irpoamtnt tihng is taht the frsit and lsat ltteer be in&#xA;  the rhgit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it&#xA;  whoutit a pboerlm. Tihs is bucseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey&#xA;  ltteer by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. Aaznmig, huh? Yaeh and I awlyas&#xA;  tghhuot slelinpg was ipmorantt! See if yuor fdreins can raed tihs too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this phenomenon relate to the language structure, i.e. is specific to English?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would trick works for languages with longer words, like German?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the same phenomenon exist for Asian, non-Latin alphabet based type languages like Mandarin?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have tried to scramble longer words as suggested in answer below and it becomes more difficult to read: &quot;Ceefrconne of iantrintaeonl enatldocatiiuss&quot; (Conference of international educationalists). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, if letters just pair-wise permuted - it easier to read than random permutation. My initial feeling is that it should be certain metric that define closeness(distance) of the words to its right spelling. Then &quot;easiness&quot; and speed of comprehension will be proportional to that distance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7881" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T03:00:33.553" LastActivityDate="2015-05-16T13:13:42.447" Title="Is it easy in languages other than English to read a paragraph where all but the first and last letters of every word have been rearranged?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9995" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5745" CreationDate="2015-05-06T17:56:35.813" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It all depends on what you are looking for. We have this awesome tool wich is the Internet, where we can find lots on information about anything, but if you are trying to be a doctor or a surgeon you are not going to make it as an autodidact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe, autodidactism is a feauture that can only be possesed by a special kind of individuals because there are so many things that you have to work on, we're living in a difficult generation an education is overvalued, because literally you are &quot;no one&quot; if you dont have a professional degree, even though education is poor as you mentioned before, I am from México by the way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It think it all depends in yourself, in your confidence, and on your goals, you need to think big, and also be realistic. All i wanna say is... you might be that special individual, if you are already thinking about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8275" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T17:56:35.813" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9996" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10008" CreationDate="2015-05-06T18:47:38.350" Score="6" ViewCount="764" Body="&lt;p&gt;What role does working memory play in creativity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Creativity in this context being easily measurable creativity, so performance on things like the uses task etc. Divergent thinking is the ability to consciously generate new ideas that branch out to many possible solutions for a given problem. It can be tested using the S-A creativity test (Society For Creative Minds, 1969).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My assumption is that creativity is a form of divergent thinking and working memory is required for divergent thinking.  I was wondering if anyone could expand on or dispel this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-07T17:56:44.657" LastActivityDate="2015-10-01T23:16:39.933" Title="Does working memory have a role in creativity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9997" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9992" CreationDate="2015-05-06T19:36:28.900" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The neologism used to describe this phenomenon is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typoglycemia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Typoglycemia&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It relates to the cognitive processes behind reading written text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Randomising letters in the middle of words have little or no effect on the ability of skilled readers to understand the text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the human mind does not read every letter by itself but as a whole, it would work for any given language where we can apply the same randomisation and keep the words separated in the same order.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's take the notorious &lt;strong&gt;German&lt;/strong&gt; example &lt;em&gt;Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaftskapitän&lt;/em&gt;, meaning &lt;em&gt;Danube steamship company captain&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Our noun &lt;em&gt;Donau&lt;/em&gt; remains the same&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is possible for our noun &lt;em&gt;dampfschiffahrts&lt;/em&gt; to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://german.about.com/library/blreform_inhalt.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reformed&lt;/a&gt; into &lt;em&gt;dampfschiff&lt;strong&gt;f&lt;/strong&gt;ahrts&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Our noun &lt;em&gt;gesellschaft&lt;/em&gt; becomes the adjective &lt;em&gt;gesellschaft&lt;strong&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Then our noun &lt;em&gt;kapitän&lt;/em&gt; remains the same&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's see what happens when we scramble the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_%28linguistics%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;compound lexeme&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unscrambled German: &lt;em&gt;Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaftskapitän&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scrambled German: &lt;em&gt;Dsnegapcfssamspfkaihdoftctflhreulasihatän&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unscrambled English: &lt;em&gt;Danubesteamshipcompanycaptain&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scrambled English: &lt;em&gt;Dbipiutpaccmmaapeansytoeshann&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Virtually impossible! Now let's see when we scramble each lexeme, then compound it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Original German per lexeme: &lt;em&gt;Donau-dampfshiffahrts-gesellschafts-kapitän&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scrambled German per lexeme: &lt;em&gt;Doanu-dhsffhmftpiacras-glhcselefasts-kipatän&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Scrambled German composition: &lt;em&gt;Daonudhiahscfmffatrpsglhcselefastskipatän&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Original English per lexeme: &lt;em&gt;Danube-steamship-company-captain&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scrambled English per lexeme: &lt;em&gt;Dnbaue-stahmseip-camonpy-citapan&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scrambled English composition: &lt;em&gt;Dnbauestahmseipcamonpycitapan&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The composition being nearly just as readable as per lexeme!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feel free to try &lt;a href=&quot;https://theweek.com/articles/463500/8-favorite-ridiculously-long-german-words&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;another&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.douglastwitchell.com/scrambled_words.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now let's take an example in &lt;strong&gt;Mandarin&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Script:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;研究表明&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;漢字的順序並不一定能影響閱讀&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;比如當你看完這句話後&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;才發現這裡的字全都是亂的&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pinyin:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yánjiū biǎomíng&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hànzì de shùnxù bìng bù yīdìng néng yǐngxiǎng yuèdú.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bǐrú dāng nǐ kàn wán zhè jù huà hòu&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;cái fāxiàn zhèlǐ de zì quándōu shì luàn de.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now let's invert 6 disyllabic characters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Script:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;研表究明&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;漢字的序順並不定一能影閱響讀&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;比如當你看完這句話後&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;才發這現裡的字全是都亂的&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pinyin:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yán biǎo jiū míng&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hànzì de xù shùn bìng bù dìng yī néng yǐng yuè xiǎng dú.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bǐrú dāng nǐ kàn wán zhè jù huà hòu&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;cái fā zhè xiàn lǐ de zì quán shì dōu luàn de.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This rather tame example now makes little sense, but does not quite appear completely disordered (with the exception of the preserved third line).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further materials:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk/people/matt.davis/cmabridge/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psycholinguistic evidence on scrambled letters in reading&lt;/a&gt; - Matt Davis&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16221887.600&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reibadailty&lt;/a&gt; - Graham Rawlinson&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=4126417&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Significance of Letter Position in Word Recognition&lt;/a&gt; - Graham Rawlinson&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=4567&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jumbled Chinese&lt;/a&gt; - Victor Mair&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8270" LastEditorUserId="8270" LastEditDate="2015-05-16T13:13:42.447" LastActivityDate="2015-05-16T13:13:42.447" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="9998" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9403" CreationDate="2015-05-06T20:29:59.150" Score="3" Body="&lt;h1&gt;'Precision' in classical test theory&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most accounts of classical test theory do not have a notion of precision as such, but occasionally, &lt;em&gt;reliability&lt;/em&gt; may be called precision instead. The relationship is probably most concisely illustrated with the standard dartboards. This is also explained on the Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Item_response_theory#Information&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Item Response Theory&lt;/a&gt; page, but as you can see, in CTT, precision is to reliability what accuracy is to validity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/54faT.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt; &lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hIBe9.png&quot; alt=&quot;Tuft U&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Reliability_and_validity.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia Reliability article&lt;/a&gt; juxtaposed with &lt;a href=&quot;https://wikis.uit.tufts.edu/confluence/display/MCM582/2012S01&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a Tufts University guide&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Origin of 'precision' in classical test theory&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cronbach (1951) suggested Coombs (1950) as the origin of the reliability/precision confusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coombs (6) offers the somewhat more satisfactory name &amp;quot;coefficient of precision&amp;quot; for this index which reports the absolute minimum error to be found if the same instrument is applied twice independently to the same subject. A coefficient of stability can be obtained by making the two observations with any desired interval between. A rigorous definition of the coefficient of precision, then, is that it is the limit of the coefficient of stability, as the time between testings becomes infinitesimal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not entirely sure if I'm interpreting the secondary question right, but IRT precision is a measure of precision under IRT, and ICC is a measure of reliability under CTT. The main difference is that CTT expresses reliability as a single value, while IRT expresses precision for different values of the underlying trait. This isn't specific to absolute agreement, though, so maybe I'm misunderstanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/67956/10.1177_001316445001000103.pdf?sequence=2&amp;amp;isAllowed=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coombs, C. H. (1950). The Concepts of Reliability and Homogeneity. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 10(1), 43-56.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.colorado.edu/%7Ecarey/courses/psyc5112/readings/alpha_cronbach.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. psychometrika, 16(3), 297-334.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-06T20:29:59.150" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10000" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-06T21:00:54.057" Score="7" ViewCount="2062" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fear is something we all feel, and we typically experience it as negative.  It seems difficult to treat it as a positive emotion or find any satisfaction in overcoming it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is: Can people learn how to have positive experiences with being afraid?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-05-08T18:38:58.090" LastActivityDate="2019-10-08T13:08:40.437" Title="How can fear be a positive emotion?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10001" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10002" CreationDate="2015-05-06T21:22:12.630" Score="1" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been trying to practice speed reading, and found the removal of subvocalization technique, but it seems almost impossible to understand words without pronouncing them in my head. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think our brain is wired in a way that words are first converted in speech, and then we really understand them. Is it possible to rewire the brain to skip the speech process and start understanding words without experiencing a voice in head?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far, I have come across the following exercises:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Keep your speech centre busy while reading (e.g., keep repeating &quot;1,2,3,4&quot; or &quot;a,e,i,o,u&quot; in head while trying to understand what words mean).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Think by visualizing words in your head without sound.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Visualize the name of the object or action seen, without pronouncing it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far, I have made no progress, but this might be more difficult than learning a new language. Maybe I need to be patient and keep practicing these, but are there other better methods, exercises?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8276" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-07T12:02:28.753" LastActivityDate="2015-05-07T12:02:28.753" Title="Reading words without pronunciation" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10002" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10001" CreationDate="2015-05-07T11:59:20.813" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your initial intuition, that eliminating subvocalization makes understanding more difficult, seems to be consistent with empirical evidence. Slowiaczek and Clifton (1980) investigated the effect of eliminating subvocalization on reading comprehension, and concluded the following.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In these experiments, reading for meaning was severely impaired when subvocalization was suppressed. Listening comprehension was also reduced by suppressing subvocalization, but the effect was much smaller. We conclude that there was a general interference effect from the secondary task, but that the significantly greater interference effect for reading was due to the specific function of subvocalization in reading. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, all of the methods listed for suppressing subvocalization could also be understood as forms of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articulatory_suppression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;articulatory suppression&lt;/a&gt;. Under the influential &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Working_memory#The_multicomponent_model_of_working_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Baddeley and Hitch model of working memory&lt;/a&gt;, the phonological loop subsystem is believed to facilitate long-term learning in part via articulatory rehearsal, and articulatory suppression corresponds to tasks which interfere with this function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Slowiaczek, M. L., &amp;amp; Clifton, C. (1980). Subvocalization and reading for meaning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19(5), 573-582.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-05-07T11:59:20.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10003" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-07T13:54:42.080" Score="3" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does being fat or thin have any significant effect on cognition? For example, I have observed some very fat people who are extremely intelligent and some very thin people that are not and vice versa. John von Neumann was fat and very smart. Are there any studies on this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8280" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-07T16:08:18.393" LastActivityDate="2015-05-07T16:13:03.220" Title="Is there a relationship between body composition and intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10004" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9992" CreationDate="2015-05-07T13:59:35.377" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The scrambled words game is very useful in persuading the less sophisticated to take a passing interest in their own cognitive processes! it is intriguing and also rewarding as it shows we can do something apparently rather difficult more easily than expected. However, the difficulty will be greater for second language learners at earlier stages of study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thinking about the unscrambling process is also a useful illustration of certain established principles of cognitive psychology, many of which have a close relation to information-theoretic measures like message redundancy and channel noise. Such matters may well be further detailed in the references given by Leo, so here I will just mention a few obvious ones without going into subtleties.  Those setting cryptology-based puzzles, like anagrams or crosswords, have probably given considerable thought to many of the same themes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most examples of word-scrambled texts I have seen conform to the case where individual words have the usual separators (spaces, commas etc.). It is a reasonable hypothesis that primary word-segregation is a (pre-conscious) analysis, fairly well automated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Topical familiarity, general word-frequency&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another fairly automated effect, though quite dependent on individual experience&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Letter-order&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The edge-effect enhances perception of letters at the beginning and end of a word. Scrambled words with the first and last letters intact also greatly benefit because these strongly-perceived letters are precisely the ones often generating superior cues to the associative thesaurus, perhaps including a subvocal phonetic component.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Word length&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst short words are objectively easier, word-length itself provides significant information, and in longer words this may partially compensate for increased complexity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Rarity&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Less familiar (or &lt;i&gt;exotic&lt;/i&gt;) letters are more readily noticed in scrambled text due to an analogue in selective attention to effects of feature-contrast long known of in studies of short-term memory. Such letters assist also because they restrict search, due to their presence in a much smaller subset of lexical items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Semantic expectation&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is dependent on the ongoing robustness of the perception of meaning. A text which would be challenging even unscrambled will offer much greater difficulty if scrambled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Elimination via syntactic constraint&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;English, whose case-endings and verb conjugations have largely been smoothed away is particularly dependent on word-order in phrases as a cue to the function of a particular word (as verb, noun, adjective, adverb &amp;amp;c)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Internal morphemic articulation of words&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Various issues partly encapsulated in the German example cited by Leo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Orthographic articulation&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In longer words characteristic high-frequency constituents (things like &quot;-ness&quot;, &quot;-tion&quot;, &quot;-ily&quot;, &quot;pre-&quot; &amp;amp;C) may be cued simply by the presence of the letters in the word. This is similar to, but distinct from, word-frequency effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;Distraction&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certain combinations of letters may increase the perceptual effort required because they have strong internal coherence, but happen to be misleading in the particular case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before pronouncing on the likely differences between languages, I think it would be more worthwhile to obtain a clear and thorough understanding of the roles of the above factors, and similar ones, in the process of sentential scrambled word-perception. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4047" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-11T22:24:11.493" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T22:24:11.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10005" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1120" CreationDate="2015-05-07T14:15:32.737" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do you arbitrarily decide on what to define the activity, and what to&#xA;  define as the underlying actions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/9902/21&quot;&gt;Christian stated in his answer&lt;/a&gt;, there seem to be no concrete (unambiguous) steps to follow. This most likely has to do with Activity Theory being a '&lt;strong&gt;framework for analysis&lt;/strong&gt;' rather than a theory in the traditional scientific sense. It thus highly depends on what you choose as the point of analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, some guidelines exist, as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/activity_theory.html#heading_Hierarchical_structure_of_activity_page_12438&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stated on interaction-design.org&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Revealing the ultimate motives of a person or the fine-grain structure&#xA;  of automatic operations may prove to be difficult, if not impossible.&#xA;  This limitation of Leontiev’s three-layer model as an analytical tool&#xA;  can be overcome &lt;strong&gt;by employing an expansive “actions first” strategy&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;  This strategy involves starting analysis from the actions layer which&#xA;  relatively easily yields itself to qualitative research methods. In&#xA;  particular, people are usually aware of their goals and can report or&#xA;  express them in a certain way. Then the analysis can be expanded both&#xA;  “up”, to progressively higher level goals and, ultimately, motives,&#xA;  and “down”, to sub-goals and operations. The expanding scope of&#xA;  analysis may not cover the entire structure of the activity in&#xA;  question but be sufficient for the purposes of the task at hand (see&#xA;  also Kaptelinin and Nardi, 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the second question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How does e.g. a potential underlying motive for all actions as&#xA;  'survival' fit into this picture?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question seems to imply that any given action can only be part of one activity system. This is not the case. &lt;strong&gt;Actions can be &lt;em&gt;polymotivated&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, that is, subordinated to several motives and/or higher-level goals at the same time. (Leont'ev A. N., 1978)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Kaptelinin, V., &amp;amp; Nardi, B. A. (2006). Acting with technology: Activity theory and interaction design. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press&#xA;Leont’ev, A. N. (1978). Activity, Consciousness, and Personality. Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, Nj.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-05-07T14:20:45.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10006" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10003" CreationDate="2015-05-07T16:07:12.577" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;A systematic meta-analysis of the relationship between IQ and obesity (Yu, Han, Cao and Guo, 2010) suggested that lower IQ in childhood was associated with later adult obesity via educational level. No evidence of a relationship between IQ and obesity was found for adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our study and review of the literature overall suggests that there are inverse FIQ/obesity associations, except in pre-school children. &lt;strong&gt;However, after adjusting for educational attainment, this FIQ/obesity association became null&lt;/strong&gt;. In the present study, a lower IQ score in childhood is associated with obesity in later adulthood; this relationship is perhaps mediated via educational attainment in later life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yu, Z. B., Han, S. P., Cao, X. G., &amp;amp; Guo, X. R. (2010). Intelligence in relation to obesity: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Obesity reviews, 11(9), 656-670.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-07T16:13:03.220" LastActivityDate="2015-05-07T16:13:03.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10007" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9985" CreationDate="2015-05-07T16:52:25.110" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It would have been pretty strange for there to be multi-year gaps in Skinner's publication record, and in fact, Skinner continued to publish every year in both of those periods and beyond (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychology.gatech.edu/psyc3031/Behaviorism%20Behavior%20and%20Philosophy/1977%20-%20Vol%205%20No%201/11%20A%20Listing%20of%20the%20Published%20Works%20of%20B.F.%20Skinner,%20with%20Notes%20and%20Comments.PDF&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Epstein, 1977&lt;/a&gt;). I've provided a link to a list of his publications which includes both periods, but there is no real way to say which of these publications were the 'key' studies for operant conditioning. Hopefully, this will still be of some help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychology.gatech.edu/psyc3031/Behaviorism%20Behavior%20and%20Philosophy/1977%20-%20Vol%205%20No%201/11%20A%20Listing%20of%20the%20Published%20Works%20of%20B.F.%20Skinner,%20with%20Notes%20and%20Comments.PDF&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Epstein, R. (1977). A listing of the published works of BF Skinner, with notes and comments. Behaviorism, 99-110.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-05-07T16:52:25.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9996" CreationDate="2015-05-07T17:54:31.427" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Takeuchi et al. (2011) had participants in an fMRI perform three tasks in order to measure creativity, working memory and intelligence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;S-A creativity test as a measure of creativity (Society For Creative Minds, 1969).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Verbal &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;-back as a measure of working memory (Calicott et al., 1999).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrix as a measure of intelligence (Raven, 1998).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They reported no association between creativity and WM performance after controlling for IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the association between individual creativity and functional activity during WM. &lt;strong&gt;Creativity and WM performances did not correlate in this study of young healthy and cognitively intact subjects.&lt;/strong&gt; However, congruent with our hypothesis, our findings showed that reduced TID during the WM task in the precuneus (one of the key nodes of the DMN) is associated with creativity measured by the divergent thinking test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was no apparent evidence to suggest that performance on a WM task is associated with performance on a divergent thinking task, but the authors proposed a complex argument for the idea of creativity as &quot;diffuse attention,&quot; which they argue may share a neural basis with WM (such that they are opponent processes). The evidence for this is indirect and seems difficult to reconcile with the concretely reported independence of WM and creativity performance, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Callicott, J. H., Mattay, V. S., Bertolino, A., Finn, K., Coppola, R., Frank, J. A., ... &amp;amp; Weinberger, D. R. (1999). Physiological characteristics of capacity constraints in working memory as revealed by functional MRI. Cerebral Cortex, 9(1), 20-26.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Raven, J. Court (1998). Manual for Raven’s progressive matrices and vocabulary scales. Oxford: Oxford Psychologists.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Society For Creative Minds (1969). Manual of S-A Creativity Test.&#xA;Tokyo Schinri Corporation. Tokyo.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Hashizume, H., Sassa, Y., Nagase, T., Nouchi, R., &amp;amp; Kawashima, R. (2011). Failing to deactivate: the association between brain activity during a working memory task and creativity. Neuroimage, 55(2), 681-687.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-05-07T17:54:31.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10009" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3722" CreationDate="2015-05-07T19:10:27.837" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since you mentioned the Stroop specifically, several versions of the Stroop task are available for Inquisit &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/stroop/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Randall Engle's lab also maintains a set of validated &lt;a href=&quot;http://englelab.gatech.edu/tasks.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;working memory tasks&lt;/a&gt;, which are available on request to researchers. They include full and shortened versions of operation-, symmetry-, reading- and rotation-span for E-Prime 2.0.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming I read the question correctly, any of these should satisfy the requirements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-05-07T19:10:27.837" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10011" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-08T07:15:22.403" Score="3" ViewCount="10102" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is cognitive science a part of behavioral science or vice versa? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8286" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-11T03:39:35.667" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T10:47:41.840" Title="What is the difference between behavioral science and cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10012" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10011" CreationDate="2015-05-08T08:11:11.460" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The field of cognitive science is sort of a response to behavioral science. Behavioral science focuses on the behavior, or the &quot;output&quot;, of an organism. It is based more on observation as a general rule, and attempts to make formulations based on what can be observed. Its methods can be found most often in certain types of therapies and treatments for certain disorders, such as PTSD or phobias. In any case, its primary emphasis is on behavior and behavior change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive science, on the other hand, focuses on cognitive processes -- namely, mental states, or the study of the mind. Thus, while behavioral science as a field focuses on animals as well as humans, cognitive science is mostly oriented towards humans. Within cognitive science, we have a bunch of different yet related technological sub-fields: artificial intelligence, computer vision, and robotics, to name a few. To formally study cognitive science, it is helpful to draw from experience in a variety of other subjects (namely formal logic, linear algebra, statistics, computer science, linguistics) that may seem unrelated at first, but actually lend insight into how the mind works as both a biological and computational system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the end, behavioral science (for the most part) focuses on the &quot;output&quot; of the organism, and cognitive science (for the most part) focuses on both the &quot;input&quot; and the &quot;output&quot;, but it is a bit more curious about the input and what happens in between. If behavioral science emphasizes &lt;em&gt;behavior&lt;/em&gt;, then cognitive science emphasizes &lt;em&gt;perception&lt;/em&gt;. Cognitive science is also a bit more theoretical than behavioral science, though there are practical applications, and such applications are made apparent in breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, natural language processing, and even psychological counseling. I think that behavioral science lost traction after the &quot;cognitive revolution&quot; in the 1950s...presumably because people realized that cognitive science indeed had practical applications in science and technology, and wasn't all empirical hogwash. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-05-08T08:11:11.460" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10014" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8174" CreationDate="2015-05-08T08:29:41.087" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Stevens' &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_measurement&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;levels of measurement framework&lt;/a&gt;, the NASA-TLX is an ordinal scale, not an interval scale, because there is no way to know a priori how much &quot;workload&quot; each point corresponds to. In other words, we can only know how much workload a point corresponds to after observing the data from our sample. Indeed, Hart's own review of the NASA-TLX suggests that workload is &quot;ill-defined&quot; (Hart, 2006). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While levels of measurement often seems to be taught in behavioral and social science as accepted fact, however, the levels of measurement framework is quite controversial among methodologists. It is a useful enough heuristic taxonomy for didactic purposes, but it is not known to be &lt;em&gt;inferentially&lt;/em&gt; meaningful. Analytic relatives of the t-test (i.e., least-squares/maximum likelihood regression) exist for all four types, so the type of scale should not necessarily concern you too much here. I have not encountered it outside the behavioral sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Statistical inference is essentially a mathematical pathfinder that formally relates a specific question to a specific answer by way of the evidence. It is therefore impossible to say what a suitable test would be without knowing the specific question(s)―&lt;strong&gt;different analyses test different questions&lt;/strong&gt;. For the same data set, one analysis may be meaningful (i.e., discriminates between conceivable answers) for one question, but not another; for another analysis, this may be reversed. The consequence of using a wrong test is that you effectively answer a question you did not ask, while not answering the question you did ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hart SG. NASA-Task Load Index (NASA-TLX): 20 years later. Paper presented at the HFES; San Francisco, CA. 2006.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-08T08:35:42.393" LastActivityDate="2015-05-08T08:35:42.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10016" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10011" CreationDate="2015-05-08T10:24:11.667" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The cognitive sciences are &lt;em&gt;largely&lt;/em&gt; an element of the behavioral sciences.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subject matter of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioural_sciences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;behavioral sciences&lt;/a&gt; is animal or human behavior. It is an interdisciplinary endeavor that involves a diverse set of fields such as psychology, ethology, behavioral genetics, criminology, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive sciences&lt;/a&gt; study how the mind determines behavior via mental processes such as perception, reasoning, emotion, and volition. This also is a multidisciplinary endeavor involving neuroscience, psychology, artificial intelligence, and so on and so forth (see for example Harré, 2002). In the sense that the &lt;em&gt;ultimate&lt;/em&gt; goal of (most) of the cognitive sciences is to explain behavior, they can be regarded as behavioral sciences. At the same time, it is clear that not all behavioral sciences focus on the mind as their explaining variable. Therefore it is the broader term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to note, however, that the cognitive sciences may investigate the mind without observing actual behavior in a given study. For example, there may be brain imaging studies without any behavioral measures. As another example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;artificial intelligence&lt;/a&gt; research may simulate thought processes as a means to understand human reasoning, but conceptualize and measure behavior only in a very abstract sense. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, the term &quot;behavioral science&quot; is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/58677/behavioral-science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;used&lt;/a&gt; more strictly to connote a focus on behavioral experimentation and observation. This usage would exclude some research within the realm of the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, there is research that may be regarded as cognitive science that is not a behavioral science in any sense of the term. A case in point is artificial intelligence research that does not aim at simulating or understanding animal or human thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harré, R. (2002). Cognitive science: A philosophical introduction. London: SAGE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-11T10:47:41.840" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T10:47:41.840" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10017" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10040" CreationDate="2015-05-08T14:40:43.560" Score="1" ViewCount="1654" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a professional programmer, and I also practice math. During both, I constantly talk out loud, even for simple problems. However, when I'm around other people I suppress the talking and I feel like I lose a significant amount of clarity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My assumption is that speaking out loud provides additional clarity because:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You're actually speaking, so you have to utilize more parts of your brain, including to physically move your mouth, which would decrease distraction/increase focus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You're hearing it, again utilizing more parts of your brain since you have to process external auditory signals&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whereas, the auditory simulation (essentially virtual stimulus) that the brain provides during silent thought is... not as intense as the real stimulus (speaking and hearing), thus utilizing less of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; about whether thinking out loud helps you figure out a problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question is can long-term frequent thinking out loud have negative effects over one's ability to think internally/silently?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if there are negative long term effects can they be corrected in a short time by shifting your thinking back to a silent process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8288" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T16:00:58.187" LastActivityDate="2018-04-20T09:27:01.230" Title="Does thinking out loud negatively affect one's ability to think internally?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10018" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10022" CreationDate="2015-05-08T15:02:08.183" Score="3" ViewCount="382" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently studying Philosophy and am planning to focus on the Philosophy of Mind/Perception + Philosophy of Language in the forthcoming years. However, I'd really wish to get into Cognitive Science for my further postgraduate career, but I'm not sure where to start given the vastness of the field. I believe that I still can incorporate some Psychology or Computer Science modules into my current curriculum in the next semester. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question is, if I want to get into the Cognitive Science, which pre-requisites are essential to master beforehand?&lt;/strong&gt; By pre-requisites I mean the range of subjects that would facilitate my transition into the field. I've found several 'Introduction to Cognitive Science' textbooks, but none of them happen to elaborate upon the pre-requisites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8184" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-09T11:59:26.830" LastActivityDate="2015-05-09T12:03:38.483" Title="How to get started in Cognitive Science?" Tags="&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-11T03:53:01.770" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10019" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8174" CreationDate="2015-05-08T16:11:44.213" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am particularly concerned with whether or not the task load index could be &#xA;  considered an interval variable, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a fundamental assumption people make when constructing, administering and analyzing any measure under the classical test theory (CTT) paradigm i.e. count items and add 'em up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is to say, your variable is certainly treated as though it is linear, but are the &lt;em&gt;scores&lt;/em&gt; actually linear? is it valid to combine scores on each factor to derive another score? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even further, conceptually, let us presume that two individuals have the &lt;em&gt;same task load index&lt;/em&gt;. Do they possess, quantitatively, the same amount of the latent variable? Not necessarily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a fundamental assumption and inherent flaw in classical test theory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can a difference between two means (e.g., 50 and 60) be interpreted as equal to a difference between two other means (e.g., 10 and 20)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They could be, but this is an assumption you are making by applying classical test theory. As noted above, you are also assuming that two individuals with the same score are equal. This is also an assumption that may or may not be correct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If not, what are the consequences of using a wrong test? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a no-brainer and I’m sure you know the answer to this: the wrong inferences will be made regarding results, and how they are applied in a meaningful way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose perceived workload is non-linear and instead, say, exponential, and it is tightly correlated with the &quot;likelihood of totally spazzing out.&quot; NOTE: despite earnest lobbying on my behalf, I was unsuccessful in convincing the APA to consider &lt;em&gt;Low Spaz Threshold Disorder&lt;/em&gt; for inclusion in the DSM-V. Oh well, there is always DSM-VI. notwithstanding, incorrectly assuming workload is linear might lead you to erroneously think that someone with a score of 70 has only a slightly higher likelihood of spazzing out relative to someone with a score of 60. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is a suitable test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this actually concerns you - and it should if you care about validly measuring the construct, look into item-response theory (IRT) which departs from the CTT that is commonly applied. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Briefly, IRT is a statistical model that specifies the probability of each response option to an item as a function of the target trait thought to be measured. Respondents are no longer scored by the number of items they answer correctly. Instead, they are assigned an estimate of their location on the underlying distribution of ability (ϴ). Although it's commonly applied for exams, where the term ability is meaningful, ability can also be taken to mean level of depression, stress, happiness, procrastination or any other latent trait of interest. In your case, perceived workload.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;IRT can take into account the non-linear relationship between an individual's score and their level of ϴ. When estimating a person's ϴ, parameters such as item difficulty and discrimination can be taken into account.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For each item, one can derive an item characteristic curve (ICC), which maps the probability of endorsing an item according to an individual's ability. Think of ϴ as being scored in standard deviations. This figure shows the ICC for a dichotomous variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5dUel.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of greater relevance to your problem, this can also be done for items that are polytomous. Note how the estimated ϴ shifts in a non-linear fashion as we go from endorsing 0, 1 ... 3 in step-wise manner. That is, within a single item, the level of ϴ can differ substantially between likelihood of endorsing &quot;agree&quot; versus &quot;strongly agree.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ie9ci.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A test characteristic curve can also be derived as shown below. The true score is the essentially the raw score. As you can see, about 15 points separate people with ϴ = -1 vs. 0, while about 10 points separates ϴ = 1 vs. 2. Once ability estimates are determined, appropriate statistical tests can be applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/o71MG.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In theory, I think you &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; apply IRT to the NASA-TLX. You would probably need to treat each subscale as though it was actually an item, with the workload index as the summed score. There are also several assumptions that need to be considered when applying IRT. One important one in your context is that it assumes that single latent trait is being measured. As I know little about the NASA-TLX, it's unclear to me if this is the case. And you will need a large dataset to calibrate the curve functions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A simple but informative primer can be found here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A Simple Guide to the Item Response Theory (IRT) and Rasch Modeling&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.creative-wisdom.com/computer/sas/IRT.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.creative-wisdom.com/computer/sas/IRT.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: the Rasch model is the most common model of IRT, but it deals with dichotomous data. What you're after is a polytomous model, but you would do well to first understand how the Rasch model is applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2015-05-10T06:42:57.957" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T06:42:57.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10020" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10000" CreationDate="2015-05-08T19:58:01.040" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;So this may be long-winded, but I gotta get through some theoretical background first!&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conceptual Act Theory&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we take from the Conceptual Act Theory (CAT) of emotions (&lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/6/4/292.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barrett, 2014&lt;/a&gt;), then we can consider emotions like fear to be what are called &quot;situated conceptualizations.&quot; This means that we feel an emotion when we make meaning out of our situated affective experiences (what CAT calls a &quot;conceptual act&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I'm making a conceptual act when I interpret (conceptualize) as &lt;em&gt;fear&lt;/em&gt; my high arousal and negative affect in the context of anticipating a snake bite.  What this means is that I'm automatically categorizing my experience using an emotion concept (i.e. fear) that I've learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://pccondon.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/ch4_condon_et_al_2014_hps.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Condon, Wilson-Mendenhall, &amp;amp; Barrett (2014)&lt;/a&gt; point out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Emotion concepts make affective changes in the body meaningful, guide action, allow communication about one’s state to another, and influence another’s mental state and actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So categorizing my experience as &quot;fear&quot; is just like categorizing a big gray moving thing with a trunk as an &quot;elephant.&quot;  The elephant categorization makes meaning of the moving gray mass, allows me to compare it to other objects, communicate what I saw, guides my actions, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Emotion Variability and Pleasant Fear&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's interesting about CAT is that it predicts tremendous variability in emotional experience. The ways in which we can &lt;em&gt;conceptualize&lt;/em&gt; our situated affective experiences are vast.  In this sense, CAT might predict something like &lt;strong&gt;pleasant fear&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9498/is-there-a-term-for-enjoying-or-liking-the-feeling-of-guilt&quot;&gt;I've shown you this image before&lt;/a&gt; (from &lt;a href=&quot;https://pccondon.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/ch4_condon_et_al_2014_hps.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Condon et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;), but it's even more relevant here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tXNG4.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, our prototypical fear concept involves negative feelings.  We are very familiar with this negative fear concept, and so we can easily and automatically apply it to our affective experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, we never really talk about what it might mean to experience &lt;em&gt;pleasant fear&lt;/em&gt;.  The pleasant fear concept is not in our folk taxonomy of emotions. We're unfamiliar with it. Thus, we'll have greater difficulties activating that concept and applying it to our experiences.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conceptual Learning&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, can we &lt;em&gt;learn&lt;/em&gt; to experience pleasant fear&lt;/strong&gt;?  Yes!  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But at the moment there's little empirical research on learning emotion concepts (in adulthood).  We can probably draw from the literature on emotion socialization in children (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1348/026151009X457550d/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Widen &amp;amp; Russell, 2010&lt;/a&gt;), but I'm not personally convinced that we can make an easy parallel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is potentially some indirect evidence that there is rapid conceptual learning when exposing remote tribes to Western emotion concepts (&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/26/3/354.full?ijkey=3cf713a895e4c9fb0a5553f1aabb1e456f1dea41&amp;amp;keytype2=tf_ipsecsha&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sauter, Eisner, Ekman &amp;amp; Scott, 2015&lt;/a&gt;, and a response by &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/26/3/357.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gendron, Roberson, &amp;amp; Barrett, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, there's some emerging evidence (&lt;a href=&quot;http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/24/1/10.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kashdan, Barrett, &amp;amp; McKnight, 2015&lt;/a&gt;) that we can improve people's levels of &quot;emotion granularity.&quot;  High emotion granularity means you label your affective experiences using many different emotion words (happy, sad, surprised, angry, remorseful, contemptuous, etc.).  Low granularity means less diverse labeling (happy, sad, good, bad). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if we can teach people to make more fine-grained conceptualizations of their affective experiences (i.e., improve granularity), you can probably learn to experience pleasant fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a new and growing area of research, so you'll have to stay tuned for more direct evidence.  But overall, you &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; learn new emotion concepts like pleasant fear, and you can get better at using them with practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Emotion Utility (Edit)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also possible to treat negative fear as having positive utility (see Maya Tamir's work, e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/18/2/101.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).  That is, even though fear might feel unpleasant, you might learn to view it as serving some adaptive function within certain contexts, e.g., facilitating quick withdrawal from danger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-05-09T03:58:16.287" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10021" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1766" CreationDate="2015-05-08T21:53:31.350" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alcohol consumption causes deficits in motor coordination by affecting the cerebellum, which is the main area involved in regulating finer adjustments in movement and motor learning. From &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/100/6/3167&quot;&gt;Belmeguenai et. al (2008)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It has previously been shown that ethanol modulates inhibitory transmission in the cerebellum and affects synaptic transmission and plasticity at excitatory climbing fiber (CF) to Purkinje cell synapses. However, it has not been examined thus far how acute ethanol application affects long-term depression (LTD) and long-term potentiation (LTP) at excitatory parallel fiber (PF) to Purkinje cell synapses, which are assumed to mediate forms of cerebellar motor learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The tasks you have outlined above are all considered 'fine motor skills', and are thus mediated in part by the cerebellum. It is certainly the case that alcohol consumption affects finer muscle coordination. It is also the case that &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00007256-200029050-00001&quot;&gt;hangover effect reduces athletic performance by up to 11.4%&lt;/a&gt; in trained athletes (who would fit the 'expert' level you have described above).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There aren't many studies on alcohol's effects on muscle memory specifically, though there are studies on how sleep affects motor learning. There is also evidence that alcohol consumption mimics the effects of sleep deprivation, and affects sleep quality directly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-05-08T21:53:31.350" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10022" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10018" CreationDate="2015-05-09T11:56:35.227" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cognitive sciences&lt;/em&gt; is an extremely broad term, and really more of an interdisciplinary term for fields related by a focus on explaining behavior in terms of mental processes, with varying ways of operationalizing what that means exactly. (See MaríaAnt's excellent &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/10016/2868&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; to a previous question, &amp;quot;What is the difference between behavioral science and cognitive science?&amp;quot;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Mathematics&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mastering some types of math is extremely helpful for postgraduate work. You will need to be &lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt; comfortable with doing algebra at least to a high school precalculus level, for starters. Understanding and expressing a hypothesis in the form of a statistical model is almost entirely algebraic, and unless you're comfortable manipulating differences and interactions between variables, you'll be limited to relatively simple questions. You'll also have a considerable head start if you have at least a passing familiarity with inferential logic, standard probability theory, matrix algebra and basic calculus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Theoretical content&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no theoretical content which should be learned &lt;em&gt;universally&lt;/em&gt; before going into cognitive science, really. If you want to work in a particular field of cognitive science, then it is of course necessary to familiarize yourself with that particular field's literature. If you want to work with perception, you should be intimately familiar with the perception literature and relevant models, but need not necessarily know much about the clinical literature; if you want to work with AI, computer science is essential, where it's not at all critical in educational psychology. Different (sub)fields tend to be their own little fiefdoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-09T12:03:38.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10023" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9412" CreationDate="2015-05-09T16:09:45.937" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Phineas Gage had his famous spike through the head in 1848, which lead to some discoveries about the function of that area, but these were quite general.&#xA;See: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harlow, J. M. (1869). &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=WgE2AQAAMAAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA3&amp;amp;dq=Recovery%20from%20the%20passage%20of%20an%20iron%20bar%20through%20the%20head&amp;amp;ots=8s0FdfnWR2&amp;amp;sig=ElkwPAcqWNBycfAMxeJakOC4xY8&quot;&gt;Recovery from the passage of an iron bar&#xA;through the head&lt;/a&gt;. Clapp.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, Broca appears to be the first to identify a specific area:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 1861, the French surgeon, Pierre Paul Broca, described two patients who had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dronkers, N. F., Plaisant, O., Iba-Zizen, M. T., &amp;amp; Cabanis, E. A.&#xA;(2007). Paul Broca's historic cases: high resolution MR imaging of&#xA;the brains of Leborgne and Lelong. Brain, 130(5), 1432-1441.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2015-05-09T16:09:45.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10024" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9138" CreationDate="2015-05-09T16:18:56.227" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, intuition is not related to ESP in modern cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;A modern view on intuitive thinking&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While ESP certainly retains its pseudoscience status (e.g., Rouder and Morey, 2011), intuition and intuitive thinking has been used in the psychological literature in evolving ways over the years. Outside the heydays of Skinnerian radical behaviorism, the notion of intuition has been consistently present in the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An influential modern model of intuitive thinking is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory#Dual-process_accounts_of_reasoning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dual process theory&lt;/a&gt; (e.g., Evans and Stanovich, 2013). The dual process theory model, which entered the public consciousness with Daniel Kahneman's popular &lt;em&gt;Thinking, Fast and Slow&lt;/em&gt;, proposes that reasoning happens by two discrete &amp;quot;paths&amp;quot;: the deliberate and reasoned System 2, and the fast and intuitive System 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This account explains intuition and intuitive thinking in terms of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristics#Theorized_psychological_heuristics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;different heuristics&lt;/a&gt;, which should be familiar. Heuristics can have multiple subtly different meanings depending on field and context, but broadly speaking, a heuristic is a decision process which is usually right. You can find a number of references about heuristics in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/1466/2868&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While ESP is non-deterministic almost by definition, dual process theory does not take a position on determinism. We are simply not consciously aware of the underlying heuristic machinery's workings. (As Artem notes in his comment.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.keithstanovich.com/Site/Research_on_Reasoning_files/Evans_Stanovich_PoPS13.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evans, J. St. B. T. &amp;amp; Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8, 223-241, 263-271.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://drsmorey.org/bibtex/upload/Rouder:Morey:2011a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rouder, J. N., &amp;amp; Morey, R. D. (2011). A Bayes factor meta-analysis of Bem’s ESP claim. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 18(4), 682-689.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T07:30:23.220" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10025" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1401" CreationDate="2015-05-09T17:06:25.077" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Tough question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to assume that the question pertains to measures which lack all the information you've outlined: test manual, validity studies, website and key articles, item content and normative comparisons. If these assumptions are correct, then what you are a describing is an insufficiently explained measure. I will argue that we necessarily cannot know what such a scale means in any scientific sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A scale is a measure. A &lt;em&gt;scientific&lt;/em&gt; measure is a process which generates evidence, i.e., observations that discriminate between different possible answers to a specific question. (Data may constitute evidence with respect to one question and not another.) The outcome of this discrimination, or analysis, is what the scale &quot;means&quot;, i.e., the logically sound interpretation we may make on the basis of analyzing the evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To determine whether a method does, in fact, generate evidence, we need to be able to replicate it independently. But the premises imply that we don't have enough information to do so. Because we cannot independently verify which hypotheses the evidence generated by the method discriminates between, if any, there is no way to know what it means. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-09T17:14:40.183" LastActivityDate="2015-05-09T17:14:40.183" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10026" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9412" CreationDate="2015-05-09T17:23:20.990" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Broca is generally considered the first person to localise structure to function, however, there are some earlier individuals to consider:&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT: i recommend the chapter &lt;a href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B5NOf3UykgVENFRNbm5sRXhFb00/view?usp=sharing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Neurolinguistics from the Middle Ages to the Pre-Modern Era: Historical Vignettes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; in: Stemmer, B. &amp;amp; Whittaker, H.A. (1998). Handbook of Neurolinguistics. Academic Press: London.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it has a very thorough look at this topic as it relates to language localisation and cites a number of case studies published well before broca. there are some departures from what i have written below and whittaker seems to give more significance to bouillaud's work. of note, bouillaud identified the significance of the double-dissociation paradigm in demonstrating the localisation of function:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bouillaud  claims  first  to  be  able  to  demonstrate that  speech  movements  may  be  compromised  separately  from  limb  movements  and&#xA;second  to  demonstrate  which  part  of  the  hemispheres  is  involved  in  the  control  of  speech  movements.  &lt;strong&gt;To  prove  his  first  claim  he  states  that  two  actions  are  functionally  separate  if  they  can  be  disrupted  in  isolation  from  each  other&lt;/strong&gt;,  which  is  evident  for three  cases  in  which  a  severe  speech  disorder  was  not  accompanied  by  any  impairment  of  limb  movement  or  by  any  defect  of  nonspeech  tongue  movements.  Thus,  speech has  its  own  motor  control  center.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;wittaker notes that broca wasn't the first to localise language to the frontal lobe, but the political and scientific climate was such that he was essentially credited for this. in 1859, for example, he had founded the French Anthropological Society, which by the early 1860s had already commenced debating the cerebral localisation of mental functions.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Known as the father of phrenology. Most will generally mock gall for this theory, but you need to appreciate his ideas in context: he was the first to propose that the brain is the organ of an individual's faculties, tendencies and feelings. Of relevance to relating structure to function:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gall did not study patients with acquired loss of speech but instead, studied the bumps and protrusions on the skill of highly musical persons... Gall localised the music faculty (Tonsinn) in a specific location of the brain, which was in close proximity to the area for language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kennaway, J. Music and the Nerves, 1700-1900.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Jean-Baptiste bouillaud (1796-1881)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another alternative. In 1825 he wrote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/X0zyC.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finger, S. (2001). Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But perhaps the most compelling of the three is flourens:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... in 1825 Flourens carried out localised lesions of the brain in living pigeons and rabbits, observing the effects on motricity, sensility and behaviour. These experiences demonstrated convincingly for the first time that the main division of the brain were indeed responsible for largely different functions. When the cerebral hemispheres were removed, for example, all perceptions, motricity, and judgement ended. &lt;strong&gt;When the cerebellum was removed, the animal's equilibrium and motor coordination suffered.&lt;/strong&gt; When the brainsteam was removed, the result was death. Thus [he] concluded that the cerebral hemispheres are responsible for higher cognitive functions, the cerebellum for regulating and integrating movements, and the medulla for vital functions, such as circulation, respiration and general bodily stability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eiss, H. (2014). Insanity and Genius: Masks of Madness and the Mapping of Meaning and Value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T06:44:49.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10027" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9412" CreationDate="2015-05-09T18:24:59.257" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;for the record, and as confirmation of what the above answers affirm regarding ancient times here is the abstract from a fairly recent historical review of the subject:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;i&gt;&#xA;Fragments of neurology can be found in the oldest medical writings in antiquity. Recognizable cerebral localization is seen in Egyptian medical papyri. Most notably, the Edwin Smith papyrus describes hemiplegia after a head injury. Similar echoes can be seen in Homer, the Bible, and the pre-Hippocratic writer Alcmaeon of Croton. While Biblical writers thought that the heart was the seat of the soul, Hippocratic writers located it in the head. Alexandrian anatomists described the nerves, and Galen developed the ventricular theory of cognition whereby mental functions are classified and localized in one of the cerebral ventricles. Medieval scholars, including the early Church Fathers, modified Galenic ventricular theory so as to make it a dynamic model of cognition. Physicians in antiquity subdivided the brain into separate areas and attributed to them different functions, a phenomenon that connects them with modern neurologists.&#xA;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09647040802025052?journalCode=njhn20&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt; F.Clifford Rose - &#xA;Journal of the History of the Neurosciences: Basic and Clinical Perspectives&#xA;Volume 18, Issue 3, 2009 &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4047" LastEditorUserId="4047" LastEditDate="2015-05-09T18:35:20.043" LastActivityDate="2015-05-09T18:35:20.043" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10028" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4724" CreationDate="2015-05-09T19:34:00.217" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;as others have mentioned, Colin Cherry's &lt;i&gt;cocktail party problem&lt;/i&gt; highlighted a crucial bottleneck in information flow at the highest levels of sensory-motor neural integration. by giving this phenomenon a sexy title Cherry showed an intuitive gift for public relations! however the ground for his thinking was prepared by prior theoretical developments - from the point of view of psychology one should mention Kenneth Craik's work during WW2. undoubtedly the seminal event was the publication at the end of the 1940's of Shannon and Weaver's &lt;i&gt;Mathematical Theory of Communication&lt;/i&gt;. this book codified a set of ideas which had been arising naturally in many different areas of study due to the rapidly increasing impact of automatic computation, control systems and electronic communications. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;as a footnote, it may merit attention that Donald Broadbent's early use of the term &lt;i&gt;filter&lt;/i&gt; in 1958 occurred at pretty much the same epoch as the mathematically sophisticated work of Rudolf Kalman (cf &lt;i&gt;Kalman Filter&lt;/i&gt;) and co-workers was finding its way into the literature. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the rather close semantic association between the new &quot;sciences&quot; of &lt;i&gt;cybernetics&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;ergonomics&lt;/i&gt;, as also the intimate connection of both with what engineers were coming to know as &lt;i&gt;automatic control theory&lt;/i&gt; should alert us to the fact that it would be naive to view this paradigm within psychology as a form of pure research. in fact it has always been very task-oriented, and relates to the increasing role of human beings &lt;i&gt;as components of complex systems&lt;/i&gt; in the context of large-scale engineering, industrial and military applications. Kalman's team was funded by the US Navy, whilst the MRC Psychology Unit at Cambridge  was always a government research department run on civil service lines rather than an academic institution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;this background may explain the otherwise curious fact that in the 1950's a huge research effort was directed towards questions relating to &lt;i&gt;vigilance&lt;/i&gt;. interesting as it may be, the experimental vigilance paradigm would seem an unlikely choice of topic if we wished to interpret human information processing research in terms of the task of developing a unifying model of mammalian behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;an event-filled decade or so of detailed empirical research and conceptual development in the sphere of &lt;i&gt;human information processing&lt;/i&gt; is neatly epitomized by looking at Broadbent's groundbreaking &lt;i&gt;Perception and Communication (1958)&lt;/i&gt; and comparing it with his comprehensive review of the field in &lt;i&gt;Decision and Stress (1971)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4047" LastEditorUserId="4047" LastEditDate="2015-05-10T09:42:52.877" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T09:42:52.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10029" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9138" CreationDate="2015-05-10T04:49:57.697" Score="2" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is 'intuition' related to 'extrasensory perception' (ESP)? As far as I know, ESP is not accepted by the scientific community but I could not conclude the same about 'intuition'&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You're correct, ESP is not accepted by the community, and presuming, for the sake of argument, it could be true, the scientific experiments should be trivial to be done and replicated.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If they are related, how does scientific community explain 'intuition'?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intuition is deeply embedded knowledge you have acquired.  As a simple example, when you hear a foreign speaker, you &quot;just know&quot; that some words &quot;sound&quot; wrong.  And so would they, if you try to speak their language without having acquired it over many years (and most specially, the younger years).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are at least three schools of thought here, not at all incompatible, in my opinion:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;System 1 versus System 2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first school/set of studies one calls intuition as &quot;System 1&quot;, and research tends to focus on deviations from &quot;rationality&quot;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Reflection_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a bat and a ball cost 1.10, the bat costs 1.00 more than the ball. How much is the ball?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subjects respond .10.  But that is the wrong answer.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is the wikipedia page on &quot;Thinking, fast and slow&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, from Daniel Kahneman, and here is the one on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;its major school of thought&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A second school, mostly headed by Gary Klein and colleagues, concerns &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_primed_decision&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;recognition-primed decision&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here we have the ongoing action of jet pilots or firefighters as they rush to solve rapidly changing situations.  The books by Klein and the references on the wikipedia page will give you some pointers.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a presentation of his work &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slideshare.net/linhares/class-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here (never mind slide 10)&lt;/a&gt;, and I have proposed that this model is reconcilable with the amazing results of Benjamin Libet, and the slides are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slideshare.net/linhares/eurocogsci-2007-presentation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Computer models of fluid concepts.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another set of researchers, following Douglas Hofstadter, have built computer models that are, in a very simple way, &quot;intuitive&quot;.  You may want to check &quot;Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies&quot; and the later thesis (Called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.foundalis.com/res/interf.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Phaeaco&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://ericpnichols.com/musicat/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Musicat&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.slc.edu/~jmarshall/metacat/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Metacat&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/pub/Seqsee%20--%20double%20sided.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;SeqSee&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/farg/mcgrawg/lspirit.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Letter Spirit&lt;/a&gt;, or my own project Capyblanca on an intuitive chess machine, published &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alexandre_Linhares/publication/226612269_An_Active_Symbols_Theory_of_Chess_Intuition/links/0deec53bc98941939f000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0020025513005665&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, with source code available &lt;a href=&quot;https://code.google.com/p/capyblanca/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These models have some deeply embedded knowledge that can reflect the properties of human intuition.  A simple example is the project Numbo (on Hofstadter's book), that &quot;knows&quot; that 19x21 is &quot;close&quot; to 400, but still has to do some &quot;thinking&quot; to get to the correct answer.  Here we get in-between System 1 and System 2: System 1 &quot;points&quot; to a number close to 400, and System 2 kicks in and does the final computing.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If your interest is on computers &amp;amp; intuition, you should definitely read Hofstadter's Fluid Concepts &amp;amp; Creative Analogies and the above thesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also did a quick interview to &quot;Psychology Today&quot; some years back about &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200704/gut-almighty&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;intuition&lt;/a&gt;, but that's more about pop journalism than actual science.  In my opinion, this is one of the most promising areas of research in cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6351" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T04:49:57.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10030" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9743" CreationDate="2015-05-10T09:21:20.427" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;To add to Tom's answer and expand on my comment that lay people and researchers both generally have an inadequate understanding of basic statistics, another study by Hoekstra, Morey, Rouder and Wagenmakers (2014) asked 120 researchers and grad students plus 442 first-year students in psychology to indicate whether the following six different interpretations of a 95% confidence interval were correct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questionnaire content&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.okstate.edu/faculty/jgrice/psyc5314/CI_Interpretation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hoekstra, Morey, Rouder and Wagenmakers, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The probability that the true mean is greater than 0 is at least 95 %.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The probability that the true mean equals 0 is smaller than 5 %.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The “null hypothesis” that the true mean equals 0 is likely to be incorrect.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a 95 % probability that the true mean lies between 0.1 and 0.4.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We can be 95 % confident that the true mean lies between 0.1 and 0.4.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If we were to repeat the experiment over and over, then 95 % of the time the true mean falls between 0.1 and 0.4.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(I highly recommend looking up the quite humorous questionnaire, featuring Professor Bumbledorf, in Appendix 2.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On average, participants endorsed more than three of these statements, and all three subgroups gave substantial endorsement for individual statements. &lt;strong&gt;All of the statements are wrong, however.&lt;/strong&gt;  Only eight first-year students and three researchers gave a flawless response, i.e., all false, despite the questionnaire explicitly raising this possibility!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote class=&quot;spoiler&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt; The correct interpretation is, “If we were to repeat the experiment over and over, then the confidence intervals contain the true mean 95% of the time.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(Mouse-over for the correct interpretation.)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.okstate.edu/faculty/jgrice/psyc5314/CI_Interpretation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hoekstra, R., Morey, R. D., Rouder, J. N., &amp;amp; Wagenmakers, E. J. (2014). Robust misinterpretation of confidence intervals. Psychonomic bulletin &amp;amp; review, 21(5), 1157-1164.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T10:05:12.357" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10031" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10046" CreationDate="2015-05-10T12:00:53.350" Score="7" ViewCount="867" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I'm doing a research on developing a new text-based CAPTCHA system. I've devised a scheme where characters in a text are broken/split individually and randomly, making it difficult for OCR machines to decode it. (See figure for example) This CAPTCHA is still under development, but it gives a rough idea of what I'm talking here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/o2Ds3.png&quot; alt=&quot;CAPTCHA Example which reads &amp;quot;NaAwKgkP&amp;quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My main aim here is to understand how the brain reads scrambled characters, as shown in the figure. I was looking up and a term called &quot;filling-in&quot; phenomena of vision came up. I'm not sure if that term is right in this context. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I want to know the terminology and basic understanding of how humans are able to read scrambled text/characters easily.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8609" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-10T12:07:42.990" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T23:23:16.983" Title="How are humans able to read scrambled text/characters (e.g., CAPTCHA)?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10032" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4532" CreationDate="2015-05-10T17:13:46.363" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I completely agree with you that psychology could be taught in much better ways. However, teaching just about any science in the way that you are wanting is a lot harder than you might think. It can't be compared to the humanities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are correct that all science is a practice and that you learn to be a practitioner through solving problems and receiving feedback. However, in science there is a massive overhead cost before one can actually work with the material. I got my undergraduate education in psychology by spending 10-20 hours/week in a lab for four years... THEN I was ready for graduate school. The courses were great to get my imagination going, but the lab was an absolute necessity. Learning any science means learning a lot of boring (and I mean REALLY boring) skills, most of which are entirely useless outside the field. Many times we learn a particular skill just to run a single study, then never use it again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To do a single study in psychology takes a really long time. Participants have to be recruited, computer apps need to be programmed, teams of RAs need to be coordinated and trained, procedures need to be planned and tested and revised and tested..., etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be clear, I'm not saying that the way we teach psychology at the undergraduate level is adequate. What I'm saying is that the optimal way to teach psychology would require a massive (read: expensive) overhaul to the system and ratios of students to professors that are not feasible. I think psychology is taught the way it is because it exposes people to the different topics with the hope that some of the useful information will be retained. For students who really like psychology, the assumption is that they will seek out their own education in psychology by finding a professor to work with. If your concern is just at the conceptual level, then I agree with you and I wish we could do more. However, if your concern is practical and you want an education in psychology, your only real option is to start devoting 40-80 hours per month working on 1-on-1 with a professor (or grad student) on a project.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8273" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T17:13:46.363" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10031" CreationDate="2015-05-10T19:03:20.207" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The cumulative number of versions of a single character that the human brain can recognize is nearly infinite, whereas computers have to be programmed to recognize every single variation. Humans also recognize 'context' in a word, whereas a computer does not recognize context because it does not have an intuitive understanding of language. From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAPTCHA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, when an individual understands that the first letter of a CAPTCHA is an “a”, that individual also understands where the contours of that “a” are, and also where it melds with the contours of the next letter. Additionally, the human brain is capable of dynamic thinking based upon context. It is able to keep multiple explanations alive and then pick the one that is the best explanation for the whole input based upon contextual clues. This also means it will not be fooled by variations in letters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially it boils down to two factors: one, humans are preprogrammed with 'object recognition' abilities. Two, humans are able to parse a string of symbols in a way that conforms to the rules of a formal grammar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Object recognition is the ability to find and recognize and identify human objects in a sequence. Humans naturally have this ability, whereas computers do not. It appears to be a genetic quality, and can be replicated in computers by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_algorithm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;genetic algorithms&lt;/a&gt; that mimic the process of natural selection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humans also build up sentences incrementally, and as they do so, they make constant unconscious predictions about what the word or sentence is going to say. This is the explanation behind &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_path_sentence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;garden path sentences&lt;/a&gt;. We can use event-related potentials to study this phenomenon in the human brain. Certain potentials are activated during specific situations when parsing. From the wikipedia page on garden-path sentences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within ERPs, P600 is the most important component. Its activation occurs when the parser comes across a syntactic violation such as The broker persuaded to sell the stock or when parses synthesizes an unsatisfactory disambiguation on an ambiguous string of words such as The Doctor Charged the patient was lying. Hence the activation of P600 marks the parser's attempt to revise the sentence's structural mis-match or ambiguity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also appears that the presence of a disfluency in a sentence—caused by filled and long silent parses—does not elicit the P600. Instead, it elicits another ERP component, N400, which gets activated when people try to integrate a new word into the preceding sentence's context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on the above, it appears that the brain has specific event-related potentials that intuitively activate during specific situations while parsing. In other words, a human can recognize familiar sentences and words intuitively, and when it comes across an unrecognized word, it attempts to integrate it based on context. Since computers do not currently have a similar intuitive ability, CAPTCHAs are harder for them to decode.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T19:03:20.207" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10034" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9976" CreationDate="2015-05-10T21:22:31.070" Score="7" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Can We Compare Subjective Experience?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider this pain scale, variations of which are commonly used in medical settings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0PZ3x.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If two people answer &amp;quot;6 - distressing, miserable pain,&amp;quot; can we reliably compare the subjective pain intensities between the two individuals? How would we know that one person's experience of &amp;quot;distressing, miserable pain&amp;quot; is the same intensity as the other's?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Supertasters and Taste Perception&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's helped us to answer a question like this comes from Linda Bartoshuk's work on taste perception in so-called supertasters vs. normal tasters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bartoshuk famously uses blue dye to reveal the number of tastebuds on participants' tongues. As you can see below, supertasters have a lot more tastebuds than normal folks (and what Bartoshuk calls &amp;quot;non-tasters&amp;quot;). As a consequence of this, we see variation in taste perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/c3o3Y.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's important is that the number of taste buds provides a reliable physical/genetic basis by which to predict taste perception (e.g., bitterness intensity). So we would expect reports of bitterness intensity like so: supertasters &amp;gt; normal tasters &amp;gt; non-tasters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider this 9-point scale assessing bitterness intensity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2Ho3k.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a supertaster and taster both rated a 5 on this scale, we'd wonder why there wasn't a difference.  In fact, how could we know that a 5 for a supertaster is the same intensity as a 5 for a normal taster?  Perhaps a 5 is twice as bitter for a supertaster than a normal taster, but this scale is not suitable for determining that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Cross-modality Matching&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without getting into too much detail, the solution to between-group comparison is cross-modality matching.  Basically, we ask participants to compare their experiences of bitterness to, for example, the brightness of a light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, perceptions of brightness are presumed to be independent of perceptions of taste (i.e., having more/less taste buds isn't related to perceptions of brightness).  So variation in brightness between the two groups will be the same on average.  Thus, it can serve as a potential means by which to compare subjective intensity of taste perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bartoshuk uses this example with sound that I find easy to understand:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We put earphones on everyone and ask both groups to adjust the loudness of a tone to the sweetness of the soda. If hearing and taste are really independent, then the average perception of loudness should be the same in the two groups, but subjects with the high density of taste buds set the tone to 90 decibels (about the loudness of a train whistle), and those with the low density set the tone to 80 decibels (about the loudness of a dial tone). As we know that a tone of 90 decibels sounds twice as loud as a tone of 80 decibels, we can conclude that the soda tastes twice as sweet to those with the high density of taste buds. We have identified a systematic difference in taste intensity between these two groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also use imagined sensations. For example, Fast (2004) has found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;supertasters matched the bitterness of dark chocolate to the brightness of low beam headlights at night, while nontasters matched it to the brightness of the moon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider this scale, which uses cross-modality matching to assess perception of candy sweetness intensity between supertasters (ST) and non-tasters (NT):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JS2nP.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When using these matched modalities, you get systematic differences in sweetness perception that you otherwise wouldn't see using the standard 9-point sensory scale above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further Reading&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I didn't give a particularly comprehensive outline of cross-modality matching, so for more information, consult the sources below.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bartoshuk, L. (2014). &lt;a href=&quot;http://pps.sagepub.com/content/9/1/91.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The measurement of pleasure and pain.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9&lt;/em&gt;(1), 91-93.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bartoshuk, L. M., Fast, K., &amp;amp; Snyder, D. J. (2005). &lt;a href=&quot;http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/14/3/122.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Differences in our sensory worlds: Invalid comparisons With labeled scales.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14&lt;/em&gt;(3), 122-125.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kalva, J. J., Sims, C. A., Puentes, L. A., Snyder, D. J., &amp;amp; Bartoshuk, L. M. (2014). &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1750-3841.12342/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Comparison of the Hedonic General Labeled Magnitude Scale with the Hedonic 9-Point Scale.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Food Science, 79&lt;/em&gt;(2), S238-S245.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-10T21:22:31.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10036" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4532" CreationDate="2015-05-11T11:41:02.903" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a large amount of research of research that compares the effectiveness of problem based learning (PBL) with more traditional approaches such as lectures. Most of it stems from medical science education, and attests to the positive consequences of PBL (see the meta-analysis by Walker &amp;amp; Leary, 2009). However, some researchers have questioned how rigorous this research is and others have doubts whether the benefits of PBL are worth its costs - as it can be quite resource demanding (for a starting point into this discussion and literature, see e.g., Pease &amp;amp; Kuhn, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, there seems to be much heterogeneity in the effectiveness of PBL (e.g., Walker &amp;amp; Leary, 2009). Several meta-analyses have been conducted in an effort to explain these differences. A good starting point into the subject may be Strobel and van Barneveld's (2009) meta-review of PBL-meta analyses. Quoting from their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Problem-based learning (PBL) has been utilized for over 40 years in a&#xA;  variety of different disciplines. Although extensively researched,&#xA;  there is heated debate about the effectiveness of PBL. Several&#xA;  meta-analyses were conducted that provided a synthesis of the effects&#xA;  of PBL in comparison to traditional forms of instruction. This study&#xA;  used a qualitative meta-synthesis approach to compare and contrast the&#xA;  assumptions and findings of the meta-analytical research on the&#xA;  effectiveness of PBL. Findings indicated that &lt;strong&gt;PBL was superior when it&#xA;  comes to long-term retention, skill development and satisfaction of&#xA;  students and teachers, while traditional approaches were more&#xA;  effective for short-term retention as measured by standardized board&#xA;  exams&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[emphasis added]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are looking for research on PBL in psychology, the journal &lt;a href=&quot;http://top.sagepub.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Teaching in Psychology&lt;/a&gt; may be worth a look. The journal is more of an outlet for publications on specific exercises and teaching-related resources (&quot;hands-on-approach&quot;). However, the proposed teaching methods and exercises (which could be often regarded as PBL) are usually compared to traditional approaches in small evaluation studies. Other than that there doesn't seem to be much research that looks into the effectiveness of PBL in psychology on a broader level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pease, M. A., &amp;amp; Kuhn, D. (2011). Experimental analysis of the effective components of problem-based learning. Science Education, 95, 57–86. doi:10.1002/sce.20412&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Strobel, J. , &amp;amp; van Barneveld, A. (2009). When is PBL More Effective? A Meta-synthesis of Meta-analyses Comparing PBL to Conventional Classrooms. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 3(1). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Walker, A. &amp;amp; Leary, H. (2009). A Problem Based Learning Meta Analysis: Differences Across Problem Types, Implementation Types, Disciplines, and Assessment Levels. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 3(1), 6-28.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T11:41:02.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10037" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8528" CreationDate="2015-05-11T12:31:39.367" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the Myers Briggs is not particularly valued among personality researchers (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1402/is-the-myer-briggs-type-indicator-mbti-a-reasonable-scientific-theory&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, for example), it is unlikely that you will find research explicitly focusing on this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the MBTI types &lt;strong&gt;Judging&lt;/strong&gt; (and its counterpart &lt;strong&gt;Perceiving&lt;/strong&gt;) have been shown to &lt;strong&gt;overlap with&lt;/strong&gt; the Big Five personality dimension &lt;strong&gt;conscientiousness&lt;/strong&gt; (Judging = more conscientious, Perceiving = less conscientious, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6189/are-woman-more-judging-than-men-in-the-mbti/9884#9884&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; earlier answer). Therefore, you can look for research on the relationship of conscientiousness and brain structures. A limited amount of research as explicitly investigated this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quoting from a review by DeYoung (2010, p. 1173-1174):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Conscientiousness appears to reflect variation in the capacity for self-discipline and organization that is necessary for this form of top-down&#xA;  control. Conscientiousness predicts academic and occupational success, as well as behavior that promote health and longevity (Ozer &amp;amp; Benet-Martinez, 2006). It is likely to be associated with functions of the prefrontal cortex, the brain region responsible for much of the human ability to plan and follow complex rules (Bunge &amp;amp; Zelazo, 2006; Miller &amp;amp; Cohen, 2001). A structural MRI study found that &lt;strong&gt;Conscientiousness was associated with&#xA;  greater volume of the middle frontal gyrus in lateral prefrontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt; (DeYoung et al., 2010), a region involved in maintaining goal-relevant information in working memory and in the execution of planned action based on abstract rules (Bunge &amp;amp; Zelazo, 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some other studies on related constructs that may be interpreted as reflecting reflecting low conscientiousness (e.g., impulsivity, novelty seeking, and sensation seeking) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again from DeYoung (2010, p. 1174):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Functional neuroimaging studies have found that individual differences in self-reported impulsivity are associated with neural activity in both dorsal and ventral regions of lateral prefrontal cortex (Asahi, Okamato, Akado, Yamawaki, &amp;amp; Yokota, 2004; Brown, Manuck, Flory, &amp;amp; Hariri, 2006).&#xA;  Caution is required in interpreting studies of impulsivity, novelty seeking, and sensation seeking because these traits are heterogeneous in their associations with the Big Five, usually associated with Extraversion and sometimes with Neuroticism, as well as with Conscientiousness (Depue &amp;amp; Collins, 1999; Markon et al., 2005; Whiteside &amp;amp; Lynam, 2001). They seem to be compound traits, influenced by multiple more basic traits. Their&#xA;  compound nature appears to reflect the fact that problems of impulse control may be exacerbated both by weakness of the top-down control systems that override impulses (the presumed substrate of Conscientiousness) or by potentiation of the impulses themselves, which may be responses to cues of reward (Extraversion) or punishment (Neuroticism). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this is correlational research that can't answer your &lt;em&gt;causal&lt;/em&gt; question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a critique of this line of research (&quot;oversimplification&quot;) see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/after-phrenology/201202/how-not-do-personality-neuroscience-brain-structure-and-the-big-five&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that the review I cited (DeYoung, 2010) is quite old considering how fast paced the neuroscience literature is. The review should get you started for digging deeper. I couldn't find a more recent review, but there are some additional studies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Forbes et al. (2014) compared people with brain lesions and found that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;focal damage to the left [dorsolateral prefrontal cortex] (Brodmann’s area 9) was associated with high neuroticism and low conscientious factor and facet scores (anxiety and self-discipline, respectively). Compared with lesioned and normal controls, veterans with damage in left DLPFC also reported higher neuroticism and lower conscientiousness facet scores, slower reaction times on the California Computerized Assessment Package assessment, and lower scores on the Delis–Kaplan executive function battery. Findings suggest that while neuroticism and conscientiousness remain psychometrically independent personality dimensions, their component facets may rely on a common neurocognitive infrastructure and executive function resources in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DeYoung, C. G. (2010). Personality Neuroscience and the Biology of Traits: Personality Neuroscience. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4, 1165–1180. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00327.x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forbes, C. E., Poore, J. C., Krueger, F., Barbey, A. K., Solomon, J., &amp;amp; Grafman, J. (2014). The role of executive function and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the expression of neuroticism and conscientiousness. Social Neuroscience, 9, 139–151. doi:10.1080/17470919.2013.871333&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-05-13T07:51:23.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10039" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3094" CreationDate="2015-05-11T17:34:14.230" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no agreed-upon definition of &lt;strong&gt;affective cueing&lt;/strong&gt; because it's not a proper name. If you google for &quot;affective cueing&quot; you only find a handful of hits and in them the term is used differently, mostly to indicate that some cue (a stimulus that carries information) is of positive versus negative valence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, &lt;strong&gt;affective priming&lt;/strong&gt; refers to a specific, experimental research paradigm: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Affective priming investigates whether the evaluation of a first stimulus, the prime, that is to be ignored, affects the processing of subsequent stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(as described in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14792779643000083&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; you found)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T11:01:35.667" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T11:01:35.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10040" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10017" CreationDate="2015-05-11T18:17:30.647" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, anti-correlation between extrinsic and intrinsic brain networks may be altered by different practice. I give an example of how meditation affects anti-correlation between extrinsic and intrinsic brain networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Human experiences can be broadly divided into those that are external&#xA;  and related to interaction with the environment, and experiences that&#xA;  are internal and self-related.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Anti-correlation between extrinsic vs. intrinsic systems was stronger&#xA;  during FA (focused attention) meditation and weaker during NDA (non&#xA;  dual awareness) meditation in comparison to fixation (without&#xA;  mediation). However, correlation between areas within each system did&#xA;  not change across conditions. These results suggest that the&#xA;  anti-correlation found between extrinsic and intrinsic systems is not&#xA;  an immutable property of brain organization and that practicing&#xA;  different forms of meditation can modulate this gross functional&#xA;  organization in profoundly different ways.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given these findings, your practice of speaking out loud may favor extrinsic brain network paths which could explain your loss of clarity when you suppress &quot;thinking out loud&quot; while among other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3250078/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3250078/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2015-05-11T19:13:47.227" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T19:13:47.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10041" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5938" CreationDate="2015-05-11T18:42:17.307" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a bit amazed, but there is, at least for scent as a memory retrieval cue:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aggleton and Waskett (1999):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study determined the extent to which re-exposure to the unique combination of odours present in a museum (the Jorvik Viking Centre in York) aids the recall of a previous visit to the museum, which had typically taken place several years earlier. To test this, three groups of participants completed questionnaires about the contents of the museum, but in different conditions. One group completed the questionnaire in the presence of exactly the same distinctive odours as those present in the museum at the time of their original visit. Those in two other groups were given either a different (control) set of odours or no odours at all. After a brief delay, the same questionnaire was presented again to participants in all three groups. Those who had initially been given a novel (control) set of odours were now tested in the presence of the genuine Jorvik museum odours, while the group that had received the Jorvik odours were now tested with the control odours. The third group received no odours on either test. Only the novel odour-Jorvik odours condition led to a highly significant improvement in performance. This interaction showed that the museum odours could act as effective retrieval cues for this incidentally acquired, real-world episode. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wow 1: The average time since the last museum visit was 6.7 years!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wow 2: At the time of writing, the paper has been cited more than 120&#xA;times according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;amp;cites=665796867532536805&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;! &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wow 3: Vikings!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aggleton, J. P., &amp;amp; Waskett, L. (1999). The ability of odours to serve as state-dependent cues for real-world memories: Can Viking smells aid the recall of Viking experiences? British Journal of Psychology, 90, 1–7.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-11T18:54:18.313" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T18:54:18.313" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10042" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4617" CreationDate="2015-05-11T20:06:59.157" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting methodological problem. On the one hand, it seems that any method which would present the halves to the correct eye, and only that eye, would entail a visible boundary, and any method with an invisible boundary would be unable to present the halves as desired. Virtual reality systems present stimuli to each eye separately (e.g., the commercial Oculus Rift), and may therefore present a solution here. It is, however, conceivable that the brain will not correctly integrate two separately presented halves of a face into a percept, and I am not aware of any direct studies, nor can I find any. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One related and interesting example of using virtual reality to study complex visuo-motor behavior, the outfielder problem, was provided by Fink, Foo and Warren (2009). They equipped participants catching baseballs in the air with a Cybermind Visette-Pro HMD virtual reality helmet in order to manipulate the perceived motion of the baseballs. Their ability to successfully execute such a complex visual manipulation suggests that virtual reality systems should be a viable solution for presenting halves of faces independently to each eye.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3816735/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fink, P. W., Foo, P. S., &amp;amp; Warren, W. H. (2009). Catching fly balls in virtual reality: A critical test of the outfielder problem. Journal of Vision, 9(13), 14.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T14:32:44.270" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T14:32:44.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10043" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9940" CreationDate="2015-05-11T20:14:26.660" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some research that suggests writing a to-do list will help &quot;unclutter your brain.&quot; The research is related to the phenomenon known as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychwiki.com/wiki/Zeigarnik_Effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Zeigarnik effect&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic observation behind the Zeigarnik effect is that we tend to think more about tasks and goals that are incomplete. This leads to, among other things, increased priming for concepts related to a unfinished goal relative to a finished one (Förster, Liberman, &amp;amp; Higgins, 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Masicampo &amp;amp; Baumeister (2011) investigated whether making a plan to finish a goal, as opposed to actually finishing the goal, could lead to a similar reduction in intrusive thoughts about the goal. They report:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In several studies, we activated unfulfilled goals&#xA;  and demonstrated persistent goal activation over time. Unfinished goals caused intrusive thoughts during&#xA;  an unrelated reading task (Studies 1 and 5B), high mental accessibility of goal-related words (Studies 2&#xA;  and 3), and poor performance on an unrelated anagram task (Study 4). Allowing participants to formulate&#xA;  specific plans for their unfulfilled goals eliminated the various activation and interference effects.&#xA;  Reduction of the effects was mediated by the earnestness of participants’ plans: Those who ultimately&#xA;  executed their plans were those who also exhibited no more intrusions (Study 4). Moreover, changes in&#xA;  goal-related emotions did not appear to be a necessary component of the observed cognitive effects&#xA;  (Studies 5A and 5B). Committing to a specific plan for a goal may therefore not only facilitate attainment&#xA;  of the goal but may also free cognitive resources for other pursuits. Once a plan is made, the drive to&#xA;  attain a goal is suspended—allowing goal-related cognitive activity to cease—and is resumed at the&#xA;  specified later time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In sum, there seems to be some evidence that uncompleted tasks do lead to intrusive thoughts, and that finishing the tasks reduces intrusive thoughts. Alternatively, making and committing to a plan to finish the tasks can reduce the instrusive thoughts even in the absence of finishing the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Förster, J., Liberman, N., &amp;amp; Higgins, E. T. (2005). Accessibility from active and fulfilled goals. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;41&lt;/em&gt;(3), 220-239.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Masicampo, E. J., &amp;amp; Baumeister, R. F. (2011). Consider it done! Plan making can eliminate the cognitive effects of unfulfilled goals. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;101&lt;/em&gt;(4), 667.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-05-11T20:25:04.340" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T20:25:04.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10044" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9414" CreationDate="2015-05-11T22:11:05.687" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The hot sauce paradigm was reviewed as part of a paper discussing laboratory measures of aggression. They argued that the hot sauce paradigm's main advantages are that it is very economical, easily quantifiable, less likely than other methods to be interpreted competitively, and that it has ecological validity (Ritter and Eslea, 2005). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the prevalence of its use, there appears to be a surprisingly limited amount of validation studies for the hot sauce paradigm. Adachi and Willoughby (2011) reported the following in a more tangential discussion of aggression measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lieberman et al. [1999] found that scores on [the hot sauce] paradigm were positively related to both trait and physical aggression scores on the Buss and Perry (1992) Aggression Questionnaire, supporting the convergent validity of the Hot Sauce Paradigm, although to date no study has measured its association with aggressive behavior outside the lab.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ayduk, Gyurak and Luerssen (2008) suggested that one threat to the hot sauce paradigm's validity comes from &lt;em&gt;rejection sensitivity&lt;/em&gt; (RS): &quot;a processing disposition to anxiously expect, readily perceive and overreact to rejection.&quot; They reported that failing to control for RS could influence the results in a hot-sauce paradigm, but that statistical control was sufficient to guard against it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Ritter and Eslea (2005) review also provides an extensive and general critique of the hot sauce paradigm and other classic aggression measures, but this is not readily summarized. The potential problems raised by the review relate to mediating variables, social cognition, affect, questions of overt/covert aggression, among others. Overall, the biggest weakness of the method appears to be the apparent inability to conclusively rule out the influence of mediators and moderators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Adachi, P. J., &amp;amp; Willoughby, T. (2011). The effect of video game competition and violence on aggressive behavior: Which characteristic has the greatest influence?. Psychology of Violence, 1(4), 259.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ayduk, Ö., Gyurak, A., &amp;amp; Luerssen, A. (2008). Individual differences in the rejection–aggression link in the hot sauce paradigm: The case of rejection sensitivity. Journal of experimental social psychology, 44(3), 775-782.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Buss, A. H., &amp;amp; Perry, M. (1992). The aggression questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452– 459.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lieberman, J. D., Soloman, S., Greenberg, J., &amp;amp; McGregor, H. A. (1999). A hot new way to measure aggression: Hot sauce allocation. Aggressive Behavior, 25, 331–348.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ritter, D., &amp;amp; Eslea, M. (2005). Hot sauce, toy guns, and graffiti: A critical account of current laboratory aggression paradigms. Aggressive Behavior, 31(5), 407-419.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-11T22:17:43.597" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T22:17:43.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10045" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9992" CreationDate="2015-05-11T22:19:22.497" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The ‘&lt;strong&gt;jumbled word effect&lt;/strong&gt;’ is due to the special way in which the &lt;strong&gt;human brain encodes the positions of letters in printed words&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psycholinguists investigate this effect with a procedure called masked-priming where a target word is primed with a briefly presented stimulus (usually a mix of target's letters). This lead to a model of word recognition that includes several consecutive steps from letter feature extraction by the occipital cortex to the word activation in the visual word form area. Within this model, all letters are individually recognised in their actual printed positions (position-dependant phenomenon) and are further combined in groups of letters. These groups of letters are not encoded with their absolute positions but their relative positions to each other. It is formalised in a model as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;letters of &lt;em&gt;other&lt;/em&gt; are coded as 'o', 't', 'h', 'e', 'r' in this particular order, &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;but groups of letters are coded as 'er', 'he', 'ot', 'th' where the order of the groups is not important.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we read, we automatically switch from an absolute-position code to a relative-position code, and this is where the jumbled word effect arises. &lt;strong&gt;The scrambled word activates the same groups of letters&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yCPZW.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does this phenomenon relate to the language structure, i.e. is&#xA;  specific to English?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This phenomenon has been observed in languages that use an alphabetic script, English included. There is an on-going debate on the locus of such effect (purely visual attention or related to literacy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Would trick works for languages with longer words, like German?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, to some extent as discussed by @David Holden&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does the same phenomenon exist for Asian, non-Latin alphabet based type languages &gt;like Mandarin?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been observed in Thai. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ref:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;On the Flexibility of Letter Position Coding During Lexical Processing: The Case of Thai. Perea et al. (2012)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Modeling letter position coding in printed word perception. Grainger &amp;amp; van Heuven (2003).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T22:19:22.497" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10046" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10031" CreationDate="2015-05-11T23:23:16.983" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A human brain recognises letters by their constituent features&lt;/strong&gt; (sub-letter parts). It is modelized by a pandemonium model where printed information is extracted locally then globally. In the letter recognition literature, this type of feature-based hierarchical model competes with template matching theories (with an advantage to the pandemonium-like models such as deep-learning networks).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WvPvJ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scrambled characters are recognised the same way, with the difference that only part of the visual information is available. It relates to the theory of geons developed by Biedermann (Recognition by components, 1987). He wrote &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;if an arrangement of two or three sub-components can be recovered from&#xA;  the input, objects can be quickly recognized even when they are&#xA;  occluded or extensively degraded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you identify the following object? Left is the unrecoverable version. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WlQIL.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;REF:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grainger et al (2008). Letter perception: from pixels to pandemonium. Trends in Cognitive Science.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Biederman, Psychological Review (1987) &amp;amp; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition-by-components_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition-by-components_theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2015-05-11T23:23:16.983" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10049" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10587" CreationDate="2015-05-12T08:51:04.473" Score="10" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of a comparatively recent paper reviewing the literature on psychological applications of recurrent neural networks?&#xA;I'm looking for a paper which provides a general overview of the use of this class of models (Elman networks, Hopfield networks, Boltzmann machines, localist attractor networks, etc.) in modelling psychological processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More practically, I have a line in a draft paper which currently says &quot;A full discussion of this class of models is beyond the scope of the current review (see XXXX), but [...]&quot; and I want to fill in the Xs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have Rogers and McClelland's (2004) Semantic Cognition, which is a nice review, but focuses on feed-forward models. Suggestions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-19T22:23:46.800" LastActivityDate="2015-07-09T16:10:44.350" Title="Does a recent general review of recurrent neural networks exist?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10057" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-12T11:15:15.260" Score="5" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;As well as facilitating parturition, the hormone oxytocin is thought to mediate &quot;prosocial behaviour&quot; in mammals. It’s been a while since I have read the literature, but I am aware there is robust evidence that oxytocin mediates social bonding and pair bond formation. Acute administration of oxytocin can also increase social cognition such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-010-1780-4&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;facial recognition&lt;/a&gt; and trustfulness in games of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7042/abs/nature03701.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cooperation between strangers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Games of deception could be an interesting paradigm under which to study the effects of oxytocin. in poker, one's ability to bluff is a core skill. I am always amused by the percentage of pro-poker players i see on late night TV wearing sunglasses-- either photophobia is greatly over-represented in this cohort, or more likely, facial expressions and in particular, the eyes, are important cues for the detection of deception. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has got me wondering: &lt;strong&gt;Would acute administration of intranasal oxytocin have beneficial or deleterious effects upon performance in games of deception such as poker?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, might one expect differential effects of oxytocin among poker players with Asperger’s syndrome, such as the irreverent &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/gW1YOluDM3M&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tony G&lt;/a&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On one hand, oxytocin could improve one's ability to recognise facial expressions, particularly &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322306009395&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;eye expressions&lt;/a&gt; indicative of deception. Conversely, oxytocin might evoke some sort of &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/25/1/293.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;miscalibration of social meta-cognition&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, leading a misplaced sense of trust in the intentions of opponents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, I think that oxytocin's role in social cognition is far more nuanced than how I understand it to be. &lt;em&gt;actually, I have no doubt about that.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, aside from inconsistencies in the literature, the papers I’ve read tend to highlight a &quot;pro-affiliative&quot; skew towards oxytocin maintaining cohesion amongst those with whom we're already familiar, the in-group. With regards to the out-group, I have this impression that it's geared towards &quot;not throwing the first punch.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any thoughts on the possible effect of oxytocin upon poker and other games of deception, or more broadly, how to more accurately frame my understanding of the social milieu within which oxytocin functions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;REFERENCES&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Oxytocin improves specific recognition of positive facial expressions&lt;br&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-010-1780-4&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-010-1780-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Oxytocin increases trust in humans&lt;br&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7042/abs/nature03701.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7042/abs/nature03701.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Oxytocin Improves “Mind-Reading” in Humans&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322306009395&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322306009395&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Oxytocin Decreases Accuracy in the Perception of Social Deception&lt;br&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/25/1/293.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/25/1/293.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-12T12:57:37.057" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T13:52:57.110" Title="Would administering oxytocin in games of deception improve performance?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;social-neuroscience&gt;&lt;oxytocin&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10058" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10057" CreationDate="2015-05-12T13:52:57.110" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the very recently published studies linked to in the question, on the relationship between exogenous oxytocin administration and ability to accurately detect deception, instructed participants to self-administer oxytocin by nasal injection before evaluating contestants' decisions in videos of the &lt;em&gt;Friend or Foe&lt;/em&gt; game show (Israel, Hart and Winter 2014). They reported that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rather than improving subjects’ inferences about others’ mental states, oxytocin impeded accurate assessments of trustworthiness in risky social exchanges. Oxytocin decreased prediction accuracy but did not increase predictions of cooperative behavior in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The evidence reported in Israel, Hart and Winter (2014) clearly implies that exogenous oxytocin would have deleterious effects in games of deception such as poker. However, it may not be as simple as that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another study proposed that oxytocin may exert its apparent effects by increasing the attentional salience of social information, and that the effect may thus be mediated by interpersonal factors like perceived group membership (Ten Velden et al., 2014). They reported a complex set of results broadly consistent with this hypothesis based on a simplified poker game task:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results permit three conclusions. First, intranasal oxytocin does not increase indiscriminate benevolence in humans. This conclusion follows from the observation that in competitive interactions, humans given oxytocin reduce competitive approach only when their protagonist is an in-group member, and do not show an increased preference for settlement when protagonists are from a rivaling out-group. Second, and relatedly, intranasal oxytocin promotes cooperative conflict resolution in within but not between group competitions. This conclusion follows from the observation that, compared to placebo, oxytocin increased a preference for settlement with in-group protagonists, but not with out-group protagonists. Third, and finally, in competitive interactions, intranasal oxytocin does not influence preferences for withdrawal. This conclusion follows from the observation that regardless of competitive strength, and regardless of the protagonist's group membership, oxytocin exerted no influence whatsoever on the tendency to “fold” in the competitive poker-game studied here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that while the Ten Velden (2014) study used a poker-like task, it did not report on differences in ability to detect deception. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Israel, S., Hart, E., &amp;amp; Winter, E. (2014). Oxytocin Decreases Accuracy in the Perception of Social Deception. Psychological science, 25(1), 293-295.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ten Velden, F. S., Baas, M., Shalvi, S., Kret, M. E., &amp;amp; De Dreu, C. K. (2014). Oxytocin differentially modulates compromise and competitive approach but not withdrawal to antagonists from own vs. rivaling other groups. Brain research, 1580, 172-179.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-05-12T13:52:57.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10059" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7999" CreationDate="2015-05-12T15:58:50.770" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's probably more accurate to say that &lt;strong&gt;it's more difficult to fall asleep in the light&lt;/strong&gt; because the circadian rhythm is &lt;em&gt;directly&lt;/em&gt; regulated by ambient light. Our retinas contain a small amount of cells specialized for detecting ambient light levels, and these are directly connected to the brain center which controls the circadian rhythm. As our eyelids don't completely block out ambient light, and the light which passes through and hits these specialized cells begins tampering with our circadian rhythm, it becomes more difficult to fall asleep.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Background&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason is a small nucleus above the optic chiasm in the hypothalamus called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;suprachiasmatic nucleus&lt;/a&gt; (SCN), found across many different species. Comprising only approximately 20,000 neurons, the human SCN is nonetheless responsible for regulating a vast number of circadian functions over the entire body. The SCN is, for all intents and purposes, the pacemaker of the brain, and it runs on light: if ambient light is detected, then it must be because it is time to be awake, and the circadian rhythm is slowly adjusted accordingly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hxINQ.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Suprachiasmatic Nucleus&quot; /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;(Suprachiasmatic nucleus. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Suprachiasmatic_Nucleus.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikimedia Commons&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The Retinohypothalamic Tract&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In mammals, the SCN receives input through the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinohypothalamic_tract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retinohypothalamic tract&lt;/a&gt;, which originates at a set of special &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsically_photosensitive_retinal_ganglion_cells&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;photosensitive ganglion cells&lt;/a&gt; on the retina. They contribute to regulating the circadian rhythm by expressing &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanopsin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;melanopsin&lt;/a&gt; (Berson, Dunn and Takao, 2002). These highly specialized, sensitive and non-image-forming retinal neurons evolved to detect an environment's ambient light levels. They are most sensitive to blue light wavelengths of 488 nanometers (al Enazi et al., 2011), which may in part explain why users of electronic monitors sometimes report difficulties falling asleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wZOEW.png&quot; alt=&quot;Effects of light on the retinohypothalamic tract&quot; /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;(Effects of light exposure on the mammalian retinohypothalamic tract. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Summary_of_pervasive_effects_of_light.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikimedia Commons&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;A critical note&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These fairly recent discoveries, while published in top-tier journals and widely hailed, have generated some controversy. Due to the ethical difficulties in deploying a methodology consisting mostly of disabling cones and rods in human samples, most of the evidence has come from animal models. At least one study, however, managed to discover patients naturally lacking cones and rods due to a rare illness, and they &lt;strong&gt;did&lt;/strong&gt; report support for the SCN account in humans (Zaidi et al., 2007):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We examined the spectral sensitivity of non-image-forming responses in two profoundly blind subjects lacking functional rods and cones (one male, 56 yr old; one female, 87 yr old). In the male subject, we found that short-wavelength light preferentially suppressed melatonin, reset the circadian pacemaker, and directly enhanced alertness compared to 555 nm exposure, which is the peak sensitivity of the photopic visual system. In an action spectrum for pupillary constriction, the female subject exhibited a peak spectral sensitivity (λmax) of 480 nm, matching that of the pRGCs but not that of the rods and cones. This subject was also able to correctly report a threshold short-wavelength stimulus (∼480 nm) but not other wavelengths. Collectively these data show that pRGCs contribute to both circadian physiology and rudimentary visual awareness in humans and challenge the assumption that rod- and cone-based photoreception mediate all “visual” responses to light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/robert.lucas/al%20enezi%20et%20al%2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;al Enezi, J., Revell, V., Brown, T., Wynne, J., Schlangen, L., &amp;amp; Lucas, R. (2011). A “melanopic” spectral efficiency function predicts the sensitivity of melanopsin photoreceptors to polychromatic lights. Journal of biological rhythms, 26(4), 314-323.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tamu.edu/faculty/bortfeld/320H/320H_fall%2707_web/readings/Berson_et_al_2002_reprint.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Berson, D. M., Dunn, F. A., &amp;amp; Takao, M. (2002). Phototransduction by retinal ganglion cells that set the circadian clock. Science, 295(5557), 1070-1073.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982207022737&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zaidi, F. H., Hull, J. T., Peirson, S. N., Wulff, K., Aeschbach, D., Gooley, J. J., ... &amp;amp; Lockley, S. W. (2007). Short-wavelength light sensitivity of circadian, pupillary, and visual awareness in humans lacking an outer retina. Current Biology, 17(24), 2122-2128.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T22:01:22.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10061" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-13T02:10:56.517" Score="2" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schwabe and Wolf (2010) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rodent studies suggest that memory reconsolidating is impaired by stress. Here we examined in healthy humans the effect of stress on the reconsolidation of autobiographical memories. Participants recalled positive, negative and neutral episodes from their recent past and afterward exposed to a stressor (socially evaluated cold pressor test) or a non-arousing control condition. Additional groups of participants were exposed to the stressor without prior memory reactivation or were neither stressed nor asked to recall episodes from their past. Stress after memory reactivation impaired the memory for the neutral episodes 1 week later....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is the group that is not stressed and not reactivated (control) act as a control for time?  Or rather what does &quot;control for time&quot; mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The researchers wrote &quot;To control for the effect of time on memory, we had another control group that was not stressed and did not reactivate experiences from their past.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that the group makes a good baseline for comparing other results to, but where does time come into it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schwabe, L., &amp;amp; Wolf, O. T. (2010). Learning under stress impairs memory formation. Neurobiology of learning and memory, 93(2), 183-188. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psy.uni-hamburg.de/arbeitsbereiche/kognitionspsychologie/publications/schwabe2010b-nlm.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.psy.uni-hamburg.de/arbeitsbereiche/kognitionspsychologie/publications/schwabe2010b-nlm.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8119" LastEditorUserId="8119" LastEditDate="2015-05-13T08:04:42.167" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T22:50:59.563" Title="How does the group that is not stressed and not reactivated act as a control for time in Schwabe &amp; Wolf 2010?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10062" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-13T10:34:31.077" Score="6" ViewCount="273" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently reading about executive control, a lot of papers (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03196323.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kane and Engle 2002&lt;/a&gt;) discuss general fluid intelligence but don't explain it. &lt;strong&gt;What is general fluid intelligence?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2015-05-13T12:03:22.077" Title="What is general fluid intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10063" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-13T11:30:47.187" Score="5" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in tests like the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_gambling_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Iowa gambling test&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin_Card_Sorting_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wisconsin card-sorting test&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;If a patient understands how such a test works and the goals of the test, does this bias the measure obtained? What test-taker can fake via higher cognitive function that might be intact, and what will be impossible to fake?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine that the speed of taking a test might be a limiting factor. So  if the rate of card picking is high, a patient may perform in a default way and be unable to apply higher cognitive control. Or if the patient tries to beat the test using knowledge about it, this will be evident in that the patient will take more time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7712" LastEditorUserId="7712" LastEditDate="2020-02-23T05:20:58.930" LastActivityDate="2020-02-23T05:20:58.930" Title="Does knowledge of tests like Iowa Gambling and Wisconsin Card-Sorting task enable a person to fake the test?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10064" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9060" CreationDate="2015-05-13T11:45:50.857" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychological entitlement (the belief that one should get preferential treatment) is positively related to an external locus of control (the belief that personal outcomes are due to chance or powerful others).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Anderson et al. (2013), report that the Personal Entitlement Scale (Campbell et al., 2004) is correlated with r=.43 to more external answers on the Locus of Control Scale by Rotter (1954). Similarly, for entitlement beliefs in the academic realm, Kopp et al. report positive correlations of entitlement beliefs with the Locus of Control - Chance and Locus of Control - Powerful Others subscales of the Levenson (1973) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hannalevenson.com/ipcscales.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;scale&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last part of the question (what are other correlates of entitlement?) is very broad. Campbell et al.'s (2004) scale is frequently &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=490866267960059457&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cited&lt;/a&gt; in research on entitlement, this should be a good starting point into this research field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson, D., Halberstadt, J., &amp;amp; Aitken, R. (2013). Entitlement Attitudes Predict Students’ Poor Performance in Challenging Academic Conditions. International Journal of Higher Education, 2. doi:10.5430/ijhe.v2n2p151&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Campbell, W. K., Bonacci, A. M., Shelton, J., Exline, J. J., &amp;amp; Bushman, B. J. (2004). Psychological Entitlement: Interpersonal Consequences and Validation of a Self-Report Measure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 83, 29–45. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa8301_04&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kopp, J. P., Zinn, T. E., Finney, S. J., &amp;amp; Jurich, D. P. (2011). The Development and Evaluation of the Academic Entitlement Questionnaire. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 44, 105–129. doi:10.1177/0748175611400292&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Levenson, H. (1973). Multidimensional locus of control in psychiatric patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41, 397–404&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. New York, NY: Prentice Hall. doi:10.1037/10788-000&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-14T18:21:08.063" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T18:21:08.063" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10065" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-13T11:48:40.843" Score="-4" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has a name. I thought it was called 'collective' memory. .. But I cant find any articles or information about it.. So I guess it has a different name. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There were a few cases where children were successful in recalling the memories of their past ancestors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is that type of memory called? and are there articles about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the skeptics, watch the few first minutes of this doc..(or all of it)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uBkJLTTea34&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did learn in my first psychology lessons about that memory. I cant remember wellthe case study that I studied.. but it involved a non-speaking German woman who after being hypnotized was able to talk German and recall her past life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7308" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-13T18:31:43.950" LastActivityDate="2015-07-26T02:16:57.323" Title="How is the type of memory that is passed through generations called?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10066" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10062" CreationDate="2015-05-13T12:03:22.077" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just did some more reading, going to answer my own question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fluid intelligence (Gf) refers to mental operations that an individual uses when faced with a relatively novel task that cannot be performed automatically. Inductive and deductive reasoning are generally thought to be the hallmark narrow-ability indicators of Gf. Examples of Gf abilities are: Induction, Pigatian Reasoning, Quantitative Reasoning and Speed of Reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By comparison Crystallized Intelligence (Gc):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gc refers to the breadth and depth of a persons acquired knowledge, and the application of this knowledge. Examples of Gc abilities are: Language Development, Lexical Knowledge, General Information, Information about Culture, General Science Information, Communication Abilities etc..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&#xA;Reynolds, C. R., &amp;amp; Fletcher-Janzen, E. (2007). Encyclopedia of Special Education (Vol. 1). Wiley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anyone has anything better or more to add, please do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2015-05-13T12:03:22.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10067" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10065" CreationDate="2015-05-13T12:20:20.043" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure about children recalling memories of their ancestors, but there is such a thing as &lt;strong&gt;Genetic Memory&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one study mice who were trained to fear a specific smell passed on their trained aversion to their descendant. Who were then extremely sensitive to, and fearful of the same smell, even though they had never encountered it, nor been trained to fear it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We found that the behavior and structural alterations were inherited and were not socially transmitted from the older generation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dias, B. G., &amp;amp; Ressler, K. J. (2014). Parental olfactory experience influences behavior and neural structure in subsequent generations. Nature neuroscience, 17(1), 89-96.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I can't really find any evidence of this existing in humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2015-05-13T12:20:20.043" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10068" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9181" CreationDate="2015-05-13T13:08:45.223" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several studies using word lists have tried to see if informing participants of false recall would make them less likely to form false memories, results are a little mixed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;1) Although subjects were not able to perform accurately under these&#xA;  conditions, the warning instruction did attenuate the false&#xA;  recognition effect. This&#xA;  illusion of memory appears to be remarkably robust and little affected&#xA;  by the instructional manipulations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;2) forewarning did not eliminate the false recognition effect, as&#xA;  these subjects and those in the other groups made numerous false&#xA;  recognitions in this task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;3) When a warning about false recall was provided, young adults virtually eliminated false recall by the second trial. Even though old adults also used warnings to reduce false recall on Trial 1, they were unable to decrease false memories across the remaining four study–test trials. Old adults&#xA;  also reduced false recall more with slower presentation rates. These findings suggest that old adults have a breakdown in spontaneous, self-initiated source monitoring as reflected by little change in false recall across study–test trials but a preserved ability to use warnings and slow presentation rates to reduce false memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) McDermott, K. B., &amp;amp; Roediger, H. L. (1998). Attempting to avoid illusory memories: Robust false recognition of associates persists under conditions of explicit warnings and immediate testing. Journal of Memory and Language, 39(3), 508-520.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Gallo, D. A., Roberts, M. J., &amp;amp; Seamon, J. G. (1997). Remembering words not presented in lists: Can we avoid creating false memories?. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 4(2), 271-276.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) Watson, J. M., Mcdermott, K. B., &amp;amp; Balota, D. A. (2004). Attempting to avoid false memories in the Deese/Roediger—McDermott paradigm: Assessing the combined influence of practice and warnings in young and old adults. Memory &amp;amp; Cognition, 32(1), 135-141.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2015-05-13T13:36:20.010" LastActivityDate="2015-05-13T13:36:20.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10069" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-13T14:01:44.553" Score="3" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently conducted a user study as part of my research in computer science. Respondents were asked to rate articles from the web on a five-point Likert scale from &quot;Very Poor&quot; to &quot;Very Good&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Only 15 percent of ratings were on the negative side. My first conclusion was that most articles must be good. But then I discovered that there was considerably less agreement between users (each article was rated by a couple users) within negatively rated articles than within positively rated ones. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;So it seems to be harder for the users to accurately rate a bad article.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a psychological effect that could (in part) explain this?&lt;/strong&gt; References to papers are appreciated. Note that I don't mean bias issues regarding the Likert scale; it is carefully designed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm a layman in psychology, but I was thinking that maybe there was a subconcious fear of rating too low so user rated too high... or something like that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8322" LastActivityDate="2015-05-13T14:01:44.553" Title="Psychological effects on quality assessments" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10070" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10294" CreationDate="2015-05-13T14:42:19.943" Score="9" ViewCount="287" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently reading undergraduate essays on biological dysfunction and schizophrenia. The students put a lot of weight in the fact that studies of monozygotic twins show only a 50% rate of concordance. How similar, in terms of anatomical structure and connectivity, are the brains of monozygotic twins?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-13T18:18:46.040" LastActivityDate="2015-05-27T17:17:26.603" Title="How similar are the brains of twins?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;&lt;twin-study&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10071" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-13T14:43:19.237" Score="10" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;From some sources, I've read that excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) decay over time, which would imply that they aren't abolished by action potentials. However, other sources seem to indicate the opposite (although I may be misunderstanding them). Plus, the classical leaky-integrate-and-fire neuron model implies that EPSPs are abolished by action potentials (although this could well be a simplification). Does the refractory period of an action potential affect its originating EPSP? Or is it a separate phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2526" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-13T15:28:21.560" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T07:07:47.727" Title="Does an action potential abolish an excitatory postsynaptic potential?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10072" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10080" CreationDate="2015-05-14T02:17:07.590" Score="4" ViewCount="286" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand what consciousness is, based on my basic knowledge of our senses, artificial intelligence (computer vision, specifically) and some philosophy. Here's my reasoning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand it from my Neural Network class, each eye captures the light and transmits it through electric signals to the brain. Each action potential can be seen as a binary 1, no activity as a 0.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This stimulates some of the neurons in the visual cortex, which allows our brain to interpret and understand what the eyes have captured.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In computer vision, this is where &quot;sight&quot; ends: the computer detects what's in the image, based on its knowledge base - its training set - and that's it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why does the human brain take the extra steps of combining both signals into an image - i.e translating the different waves of the electromagnetic spectrum into shapes, colors, etc -, turning it upright and displaying it to ourselves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same could be said, as far as I know it, about the other senses: hearing would be detecting vibrations in the air, but the brain also translate these into sounds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this hint that Descartes' dualistic definition could be true, that our consciousness is separate from the brain? Or could consciousness be a sub product of the brain, a consolidation of what each one of its areas are processing, in order to better understand the world (as in Stanislas Dehaene's workspace neurons cognitive model)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;edit&lt;/strong&gt;: I've been thinking a bit more about the subject. If there are workspace neurons responsible for consciousness, then there should be a region of the brain that is constantly active, at all times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After a bit of - &lt;em&gt;online&lt;/em&gt; - research, I've stumbled upon the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Default_mode_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;it&amp;#39;s a wikipedia article...&quot;&gt;Default mode network&lt;/a&gt; (DMN), which is anti-correlated to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task-positive_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;another wikipedia article, sorry&quot;&gt;Task-positive network&lt;/a&gt; (TPN). Interestingly, the DMN is active when the individual is not focused on an activity - at rest. Furthermore, there is a possible increase in connectivity between DMN's nodes during REM sleep - when we dream. On the other hand, TPM is most active during attention-demanding tasks. It has therefore been theorized that both are elements of a single default network with anti-correlated components (in an scientific paper behind a pay-wall, so I'm quoting Wikipedia).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plus, both networks involve the fronto-parietal attention network, where it is believed the workspace neurons are located.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't help correlating the DMN and TPN to Carl Jung's theories of the Conscious and the Unconscious - which I am particularly fond about. If these wild conjectures I am forming are correct, then we could have the following (oversimplified) neural correlate of consciousness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/U15gQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;NCC&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this idea, exchanges between TPM and DMN occur through neurotransmitters, while exchanges between the conscious and unconscious happen using psychic energy (as in the energy from the psyche, &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; supernatural powers). Furthermore, the collective unconscious would then be inherited from human to human - embedded in our DNA. If true, then there would be discernible patterns in a newborn's brain...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, going back to A.I, a conscious agent would not, theoretically, be a single agent, but instead a multi-agent collaborative system...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, I have very basic knowledge and lack scientific research on these topics, but I am interested in learning a LOT more. Is this theory absurd and blatantly wrong, or is it worth pursuing as a hypothesis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8327" LastEditorUserId="8327" LastEditDate="2015-05-16T03:28:34.087" LastActivityDate="2015-05-16T03:28:34.087" Title="Is consciousness a sub product of the brain or is there a duality?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-05-14T20:46:30.233" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10073" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3691" CreationDate="2015-05-14T04:40:47.187" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;All three answers on this page take the stance that masturbation cannot be an addiction.  Since this is a controversial topic, I'll play devils advocate:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurobiologically addiction is marked by&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stress surfeit&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reward deficit&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stimulus-response perseveration&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-regulation disorder&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I got this from Dr. George Koob.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if masturbation starts losing its appeal, and is just done because it's stressful not to do it, then yes, I'd say that's evidence for the underlying neurological changes of addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the comment that an &quot;urge for a behavior does not make that behavior an addiction,&quot; I agree but I think urges are tightly coupled with addiction formation.  An urge is evidence of a mesocorticolimbic association between a stimuli and response.  When this connection is recognized by society as an &quot;addiction&quot; is just a matter of degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps, if you could measure your subjective experience of masturbation over time, you'd have a better idea of when you became addicted: specifically when masturbation only gets you to your former baseline levels of satisfaction.  So yes, maybe the urge isn't enough to call it addiction.  But it's at least evidence that your brain is busy forming one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3942" LastEditorUserId="3942" LastEditDate="2015-05-14T20:00:27.807" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T20:00:27.807" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10074" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-14T04:47:28.470" Score="2" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;While addiction is one of the most studied topics in neurobiology, I don't see very much info on recovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The information I have found is confusing.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10208452?dopt=Abstract&amp;amp;holding=npg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This one says&lt;/a&gt; striatal DAT bindings return to normal within 4-weeks of alcohol abstinence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9763484?dopt=Abstract&amp;amp;holding=npg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This one says&lt;/a&gt; DAT density is around 20% lower in meth abstainers than the control.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.2.242&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This one suggests&lt;/a&gt; that for meth users, the DA changes are permanent and recovered performance is a result of a compensating thalamus.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/21/23/9414.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This one says&lt;/a&gt; prolonged abstinence from meth users leads to an increase of 16% and 19% &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627311001140&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This one&lt;/a&gt; is the only report I could find on straital changes from overeating. But nothing on recovery. Just an interesting note that A1 Allele carriers have 30-40% lower DAT density (which sounds hugely unfair).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is anyone familiar with this topic?  Why are the effects of ethanol so easily reversed (apparently) but not meth, if they both have an effect on DAT/R?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where are all the other studies, especially for eating, or the internet?  Is their neurological evidence that a glutton can enjoy plain foods, that someone can lose their &quot;sweet tooth,&quot; that the D2 receptors come back after prolonged internet use (or that they're reduced at all)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seems like a big topic with so little information. Perhaps I'm not looking correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3942" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-12T12:18:55.480" LastActivityDate="2015-08-12T12:18:55.480" Title="Neurobiology of addiction recovery" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-08-13T20:52:14.850" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10075" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10063" CreationDate="2015-05-14T05:07:13.620" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, knowing they are under an Iowa (or Wisconsin) test will change their behavior---and most likely create all sorts of biases in the results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And you're probably right; time constraints will most likely place subjects into system1 thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subjects' having knowledge about an experiment may generally ruin it, for it can make testability collapse (how will others reproduce the results?).  There are, moreover, all sorts of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confounding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;confounding factors&lt;/a&gt; that may directly influence subjects' behavior. Also, one cannot argue that 'they were concentrated on the task at hand', as they &lt;em&gt;knew&lt;/em&gt; what was expected.  One of the basis of empiricism is to not intervene (as in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Milgram Authority experiment&lt;/a&gt;, for instance). In most experiments, subjects will either hear a fairytale story of what they are being asked to do, or are simply told no background story.  For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FVoVJFW5lBA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;experiments on priming with money&lt;/a&gt; generally hide the goals from subjects  (See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vI0fFEffDd8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bargh and colleagues experiments on priming&lt;/a&gt;, which follow the same route, and were considered extremely controversial by psychologists until the last years).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; a straightjacket rule.  One can do psychological experiments in which the subjects know what they must do and they should only &quot;respond truthfully&quot;.  Perhaps the most famous example of those was &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.duke.edu/~dandan/Papers/PI/Heat_of_Moment.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ariely's &quot;adult&quot; experiment&lt;/a&gt; (It's quite a read).  I have also &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1080/03640210701703725/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conducted&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2009.01043.x/abstract;jsessionid=539F6B84284E2A3F72B50413E4894788.f03t02&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;experiments&lt;/a&gt; in which &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1389041710000847&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;subjects knew the goals&lt;/a&gt; completely, but one (control) group could not achieve it (low-skill group versus high-skill group, such as chess grandmasters). Ideally, however, subjects should be blind to the &lt;em&gt;actual&lt;/em&gt; objective of the test conducted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6351" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T05:07:13.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10076" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-14T07:09:30.500" Score="6" ViewCount="1130" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I have been trying mindfulness/meditation but I don't understand how to do it. For example, I tried sitting thinking and focusing on my breath, but thoughts kept intruding, so I just observed them, without trying to suppress them. Soon, one thought led to another, I felt myself getting angrier and more depressed. By the end of my meditating session, i felt terrible, anxious and agitated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does meditation and mindfulness cause many people to get anxious and angry?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why might meditation and mindfulness lead to anxiety and anger?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is a positive response to meditation related more to the method or the person?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8328" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-05-14T09:34:03.013" LastActivityDate="2018-08-02T22:03:04.053" Title="Why might mindfulness and meditation lead to anger and anxiety?" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10076" CreationDate="2015-05-14T11:14:20.863" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found several studies which support the general consensus that mediation helps to ease anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bahrke, M. S., &amp;amp; Morgan, W. P. (1978). Anxiety reduction following exercise and meditation. Cognitive therapy and research, 2(4), 323-333.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Krisanaprakornkit, T., Sriraj, W., Piyavhatkul, N., &amp;amp; Laopaiboon, M. (2006). Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders. The Cochrane Library.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tacón, A. M., McComb, J., Caldera, Y., &amp;amp; Randolph, P. (2003). Mindfulness meditation, anxiety reduction, and heart disease: a pilot study. Family &amp;amp; community health, 26(1), 25-33.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lee, S. H., Ahn, S. C., Lee, Y. J., Choi, T. K., Yook, K. H., &amp;amp; Suh, S. Y. (2007). Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress management program as an adjunct to pharmacotherapy in patients with anxiety disorder. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 62(2), 189-195.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, one study by Heide and Borkovec describes the phenomena of relaxation induced anxiety (RIA):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While procedures such as progressive relaxation, biofeedback and meditation can often be effective in reducing subjective anxiety and physiological hyperactivity, recent evidence indicates that these same procedures apparently&#xA;  can initiate or exacerbate anxiety in certain individuals (Heide and Borkovec, 1983). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They suggest that this may be because &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Somatic, affective and cognitive states arising during relaxation are perceived as threatening, perhaps due to the loss of control which they represent. Loss of control, in turn is avoided as either a perceived threat to coping and survival or perhaps more commonly as a threat to social acceptance (e.g. the fear of emerging inner conflicts and emotions, and the expression of which may be linked to anticipated social rejection). To guard against such loss of control, individuals may adopt strategies to cope with the&#xA;  environment and control anxiety; such strategies frequently maintain tension and may be antithetical to relaxation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on this study, one would assume the effect of meditation is based on the individuals response to it, rather than the efficacy of the meditation techniques&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/0005796784900275/1-s2.0-0005796784900275-main.pdf?_tid=29cc163a-fa29-11e4-9930-00000aacb35e&amp;amp;acdnat=1431601723_e73fa4ec2004a8af6b4180e05855c75c&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Heide, F. J., &amp;amp; Borkovec, T. D. (1984). Relaxation-induced anxiety: Mechanisms and theoretical implications. Behaviour research and therapy, 22(1), 1-12.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T11:14:20.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10078" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10076" CreationDate="2015-05-14T11:44:18.257" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL; DR&lt;/strong&gt; One way to see mindfulness meditation as a high-intensity exercise session of experiencing failure and not &quot;freaking out&quot; about it (e.g. being apprehensive of failing, or criticizing yourself for having failed, or being angry at yourself for not being able to simply achieve something which seems easy on the surface, or being anxious of never being able to do it right, or being frustrated about it not being as easy as you'd like it to be). If you are experiencing frustration, anger and anxiety, it can be two things: you are not yet good enough at it (it's very tough to learn if freaking out is your usual reaction to failure - and it probably is, if you think you need mindfulness meditation), or you are not even aware of the above and therefore not doing it right - that is, you are not doing anything about changing the way you relate to your goals and the way you react to failing to achieve them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the major effects of meditation when used for relieving stress and anxiety is to get you out of a kind of a frustration treadmill. Frustration is the emotion which arises when a person is prevented from achieving a goal he deems important, and can be similar to/occur together with anger and anxiety. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way mindfulness meditation tries to counteract this is to put you in a frame of mind where you have no expectations. When you are not pursuing a particular goal, you cannot be frustrated by not achieving it, and so frustration does not arise. This reduces negative emotions, and you can start evaluating the thoughts that occur during meditation in a more rational way. Once you learn that, you will have a tool to defuse emotional outbursts which occur in your daily life, outside of meditation, by slipping into that mode. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there are a few important points which some of the briefer meditation tutorials out there don't explain. First of all, you really have to stop having expectations during the meditation. Not of yourself, not of the meditation, not of anything. In a successful meditation, you observe what is happening, without getting into a &quot;this is what is happening, and it is different from what I want to be happening, dang this isn't working&quot; chain of thoughts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second thing the short manuals don't tell you, is that meditation is hard. It is very, very difficult to achieve the ideal situation described in the manuals: perfect focus on one thing (or even nothing) without any distraction. As a beginner, you will not be able to achieve it for more than a few seconds of being in the &quot;right&quot; mode before you slip into the &quot;wrong&quot; mode again. This is completely normal. At one level, meditation appears to be paradoxical: your goal is to have no goals. Don't expect it to happen easily. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A usual session of mindfulness meditation looks like &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You focus on your subject and keep that focus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your thought process smoothly transitions to thinking about something else, you are busy thinking these thoughts without realizing that you are not at step 1 anymore&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You notice that you have drifted off. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Your mind reacts to you noticing the drift. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4.a The intended reaction is to acknowledge the distraction, keeping an attitude of mild curiosity and amusement. &quot;I am enumerating the items to get from the supermarket again. But I am meditating now, so let's leave that for later. I could go back to the breathing focus now. In. Pause. Out. Pause. In...&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4.b Any other reaction is not the intended one. For example, &quot;Wait! I should be meditating, not composing a shopping list! That's wrong! It shouldn't have happened! I'm failing at that damn meditating stuff again! Will I never get it right?&quot; But also &quot;OK, I have drifted away. I have to go back to the focusing part. Did I just react right? Oh yeah, I did! I'm getting good at it, baby! I might get the hang of it after all.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If 4.a happens, you are already back at 1. If 4.b happens, you are already back at 2: you are not focused on your subject. So the whole cycle runs again, this time not about the original drifting away, but about your reaction to the drifting away. This time, 4.a looks something like &quot;Oh, it seems I am judging myself. That's not what meditation is about, so let's go back to the breath again. In...&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will go through the cycle hundreds and thousands times during a single meditation session. And that's OK. While your long-term purpose is to spend more time in 1 and else get to a 4.a as soon as possible, during a meditation, it should not matter to you whether this happened or not. It's like the difference between being the lotto player who is fervently awaiting the drawing of the exact numbers he crossed on the form, reacting with joy or sadness depending on whether the state of the world matched his expectations and wishes, and being the person who pushes the button to get the balls rolling and then records the numbers - part of the process, and focused on it, but not giving a damn about which number comes out. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I cannot be 100% sure from your short description that this was what happened to you, it fits with a common side effect of not realizing the above. Instead of seeing each drift-off during meditation as a fresh opportunity to exercise being equanimous and unperturbed by whatever they observe happening, beginners frequently experience it as a frustrating failure. And because it happens so quickly in so such a short, intense time period, the frustration mounts, leading to the feelings you described. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are serious about doing therapeutic meditation, I would suggest learning more about how it works, how it doesn't work, and to use sources intended for this purpose, not sources intended for religious meditation. The one which helped me most was &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1593851286&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The mindful way through depression&quot; by Mark Williams&lt;/a&gt;. While it is obviously geared towards depression, you don't have to have a depression diagnosis to benefit from it. Its focus is on good techniques of mindful meditation. You can simply read on these techniques while leaving out the depression specific material. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also try to learn more about human emotional reactions, which is very helpful for understanding yourself while meditating and reducing unrealisitc expectations you might have about your control over your own thought process (which result in frustration during meditation). A very accessible source is &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0805083391&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Paul Ekman's &quot;Emotions revealed&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Note that his categorizing of emotions is only one of many suggested in research, so don't take that part as gospel, although it's fun to read. But his explanation of how an emotion plays out in the mind is valuable, and the detailed descriptions of several emotions can help you deal better with them when they arise in you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="723" LastEditorUserId="723" LastEditDate="2015-05-14T12:18:01.280" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T12:18:01.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10079" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-14T11:57:33.600" Score="7" ViewCount="268" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is inspired by &lt;a href=&quot;https://health.stackexchange.com/questions/922&quot;&gt;a question&lt;/a&gt; I answered on Health. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can we erase problematic memories to aid recovery from depression?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A depressed person asked how to erase specific unpleasant memories in order to manage his depression. My answer was basically &quot;that's impossible, here is how you deal with these memories instead&quot;. And then somebody asked in the comments why it is impossible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought of tackling this question and realized I can't do it well. My best attempt was something like, &quot;First, you have to find out which millions of neurons (out of the billions the person has) light up together to represent 'a memory', and we don't have a method for brain imaging with that resolution. Second, you have to stop them from activating in exactly that combination, while preserving their ability to activate in any other combination, and we have no idea how to achieve that&quot;. But this level of explanation does not satisfy me. It is very vague, and I'm not even certain it's correct. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To our best knowledge, what would we have to do if we wanted to erase a specific memory of an event happening to a person? And how far is our technology from achieving each of the steps needed? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="723" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:53:20.107" LastActivityDate="2015-05-20T00:04:02.187" Title="Is it possible to erase problematic memories?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10080" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10072" CreationDate="2015-05-14T14:05:30.817" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is about &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the hard problem of consciousness&lt;/a&gt;, which is basically the question of how &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;qualia&lt;/a&gt; can be explained in a mechanistic way. As alluded to by the name of the problem, it's hard to give a satisfactory answer. The answer right now is: we don't know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some theories about how qualia and consciousness could have a neural basis (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/987/what-are-current-neuronal-explanations-and-models-of-consciousness?rq=1&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_correlates_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt;). But none of these theories are widely accepted by cognitive scientists and there is still considerable debate over the issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question also illustrates another philosophical issue in the philosophy of mind. You asked:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why does the human brain take the extra steps of combining both signals into an image - i.e translating the different waves of the electromagnetic spectrum into shapes, colors, etc -, turning it upright and &lt;em&gt;displaying it to ourselves&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea that conscioussness and qualia reconstruct the world and then we act and perceive on that world creates a problem: how do we act an perceive on that world? Do we reconstruct it? If so, then we are back to the original problem. This is called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homunculus_argument&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;homunculus argument&lt;/a&gt;, and it illustrates the fact that we haven't explained anything if we posit that the purpose of qualia is to reconstruct what's already out there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T14:05:30.817" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10082" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-14T18:54:36.160" Score="11" ViewCount="248" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the middle of the last century (roughly from the 20s-70s) the passive voice dominated scientific writing; or should it be said that scientific writing was dominated by the passive voice? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nowadays, there is pushback against the passive voice with (noted scientists like) Robert May &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tsn.org.uk/TSNnewsite/news/writing%20styles2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;saying&lt;/a&gt; that &quot;these days, use of the passive voice in a research paper is, more often than not, the hallmark of second rate work.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://csermelyblog.tehetsegpont.hu/sites/default/files/Watson-Crick-Avery.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moore (2000)&lt;/a&gt; even argues (from anecdotal evidence) that your scientific work might have less impact if you rely on the passive voice (among other factors of poor rhetoric).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the passive voice is still preferred (or at least used) by many scientists. This is occasionally explained by the assertion that the passive voice is more objective or seems more authoritative. Is there any empirical literature on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does a text appear more objective or authoritative if it is written in the passive voice?&lt;/strong&gt; Does it appear more 'scientific'? Does it affect the impact of the work (or proxies like citation count)? Is this effect context (say, science vs. law vs. politics, etc) dependent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-03T09:36:03.100" LastActivityDate="2018-09-01T15:01:37.157" Title="Do readers consider the passive voice as more authoritative?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;trust&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10083" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9010" CreationDate="2015-05-14T20:47:47.233" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alien hand syndrome (AHS) is an extremely rare disorder. It is so rare, there appears to be no available prevalence studies. In the AHS literature, case studies are therefore nearly universal. For all intents and purposes, it is reasonable to say that AHS appears to be a disease so rare that the empirical prevalence rates are in every listed case statistically indistinguishable from zero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One recent paper by Sarva, Deik and Severt (2014) reviewed 109 studies on AHS patients. Their first and foremost result was the finding that there appears to be three overlapping types: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Frontal:&lt;/strong&gt; Associated with involuntary groping, grasping and tool use.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Callosal:&lt;/strong&gt; Associated with intentional opposing movements.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Posterior:&lt;/strong&gt; Associated with avoidance responses and uncoordinated movements.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Interestingly, they also briefly report an even rarer &lt;strong&gt;alien limb phenomena&lt;/strong&gt; involving the leg!&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on their review, Sarva, Deik and Severt (2014) suggested that different types of AHS may be caused by different kinds of disruptions to an executive system which is partly responsible for resolving between-task conflicts and prioritizing actions, causing disconnects and impaired coordination between hemispheres. They conclude:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our understanding of underlying mechanisms remains incomplete, but &lt;strong&gt;evidence from pathological and functional neuroimaging studies suggests a role for network disruption causing bihemispheric disinhibition and/or interhemispheric disconnection.&lt;/strong&gt; Depending on the variant and the underlying pathology, apraxia, neglect, cortical sensory deficits, and other neurologic abnormalities may also be present in varying degrees, likely explaining the considerable phenotypic variability among patients. Functional imaging studies likely will continue to expand our knowledge of the pathophysiology of AHS, but &lt;strong&gt;the limited number of patients in these studies and the diverse underlying pathologies should raise caution when attempting to generalize their results.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4261226/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sarva, H., Deik, A., &amp;amp; Severt, W. L. (2014). Pathophysiology and treatment of alien hand syndrome. Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements, 4.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T20:47:47.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10084" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10079" CreationDate="2015-05-14T21:32:26.243" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The notion of &quot;selective memory loss&quot; as erasing problematic memories presumes the existence of &lt;strong&gt;engrams&lt;/strong&gt;, which is a theoretical localized, biological basis for memory. Despite exhaustive searching, we have not found any evidence of engrams in any animal with a nervous system, however. To the best of our knowledge, it's therefore impossible to erase memories, because there is nothing to erase―we have more or less concluded that engrams do not exist. Bruce (2001) aptly summarized Karl Lashley's seminal findings on the matter:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In his well-known article “In Search of the Engram” published in 1950, Karl Spencer Lashley summarized his 33 years of research and theory on memory and the brain. &lt;strong&gt;He concluded that (1) memories are not localized but are instead distributed within functional areas of the cortex and (2) memory traces are not isolated cortical connections between inputs and outputs.&lt;/strong&gt; Though not the first time he had expressed such convictions, their reiteration in this article was backed by Lashley's estimable reputation and expressive power and they have taken firm root in the collective knowledge of today's memory and neuropsychological research community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We cannot have &quot;selective memory loss&quot;, at least not in the sense of erasing individual memories, because there is no such thing as &quot;a memory&quot; in any tangible sense. In modern cognitive science, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Working_memory&quot;&gt;Baddeley's multi-modal model&lt;/a&gt;, memory is not so much considered a neural warehouse of remembrances as it is a distributed and generative process. It's not a question of technology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bruce, D. (2001). Fifty years since Lashley's In search of the Engram: refutations and conjectures. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 10(3), 308-318.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-14T21:39:25.857" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T21:39:25.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10085" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10061" CreationDate="2015-05-14T22:50:59.563" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It appears that they tested all of the participants (control &amp;amp; stress) at the same time:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Memory was assessed 24 h after learning. According to the model&#xA;  by Joels and colleagues (2006), it can be predicted that learning under&#xA;  stress enhances memory, in particular for stress context-related&#xA;  information&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Twenty-four hours after learning, participants returned to the&#xA;  laboratory and completed a free recall test&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Immediately after the free recall test, participants were given a&#xA;  recognition test.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;All testing took place in the morning between 8 am and 1 pm to&#xA;  control for the diurnal variation of the stress hormone cortisol. On&#xA;  day 1, participants heard a list of eight neutral words that were related&#xA;  to the stressor as well as eight negative, eight positive and eight&#xA;  neutral, stressor-unrelated words while they were exposed to stress&#xA;  or a control condition (for details see below). On the following day,&#xA;  participants returned to the laboratory and completed a free recall&#xA;  and a recognition test for the words they heard the day before.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find anywhere within the text that says &quot;To control for the effect of time on memory, we had another control group that was not stressed and did not reactivate experiences from their past.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They found that: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Learning under stress reduced both free recall and recognition&#xA;  performance 24 h after learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All taken from your reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schwabe, L., &amp;amp; Wolf, O. T. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psy.uni-hamburg.de/arbeitsbereiche/kognitionspsychologie/publications/schwabe2010b-nlm.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Learning under stress impairs memory formation. Neurobiology of learning and memory&lt;/a&gt;, 93(2), 183-188. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2015-05-14T22:50:59.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10086" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10071" CreationDate="2015-05-15T06:04:31.023" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;While model neurons like the leaky integrate and fire may use a simplification in which the neuron forgets all previous information when it emits a spike, in a biological neuron, the synapse and the soma are relatively electrically isolated from each other, so the voltage activity of the action potential does not make the synapse &quot;forget&quot; the EPSP.  Although see back propagating action potentials for a mechanism for somatic action potentials to affect dendritic processing.  (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8107777&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8107777&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T06:04:31.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10087" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8206" CreationDate="2015-05-15T06:28:52.863" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is very very important to note that in the brain, most neurons are receiving input from way more excitatory synapses than necessary to bring the neuron to threshold.  The thing is that they are also receiving input from a huge number of inhibitory synapses as well.  This means that it is not how many inputs that are active at a given time that determines whether a neuron fires or not, it is the &lt;em&gt;balance&lt;/em&gt; between excitation and inhibition.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;see:&#xA;attalah and scanziani 2009 (experiment) &lt;a href=&quot;http://labs.biology.ucsd.edu/scanziani/documents/AtallahNeuron09.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://labs.biology.ucsd.edu/scanziani/documents/AtallahNeuron09.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;okun and lampl 2008 (experiment)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v11/n5/full/nn.2105.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v11/n5/full/nn.2105.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;van vreeswijk and sompolinsky (theory)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/274/5293/1724.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/274/5293/1724.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-05-27T19:47:47.283" LastActivityDate="2015-05-27T19:47:47.283" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10089" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9465" CreationDate="2015-05-15T07:07:19.093" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not know for sure, but I believe that the vectors would be created in a domain-specific manner.  Vectors in the visual system would be created in a way that is particular to the needs of visual processing, etc.  The reason why the vectors are represented as random in the semantic pointer architecture, is because from the point of view of the architecture itself, the information encoded in the vector is irrelevant.  What is relevant is how to manipulate those concepts once they are already formed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T07:07:19.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10091" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8202" CreationDate="2015-05-15T07:08:25.053" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The weights and bias for a given neuron depend on the task you are trying to solve.  Each computation will have a different set of weights that will implement it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T07:08:25.053" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8975" CreationDate="2015-05-15T07:15:03.850" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rigotti et al. have a model of the wisconsin card sorting task using a neural network and compare it with data from prefrontal cortex&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2967380/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2967380/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T07:15:03.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10094" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8350" CreationDate="2015-05-15T07:27:20.373" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Optimism bias&lt;/strong&gt; refers to a general human tendency to underestimate the likelihood of negative events, and conversely, to overestimate the likelihood of positive events, when making predictions about which events will occur to oneself in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a cognitively interesting and widely studied phenomenon, because the human brain and human behavior are broadly believed to be highly adaptive, but optimism bias demonstrates that in many cases, we maintain beliefs &lt;em&gt;in spite of&lt;/em&gt; the available evidence. This is a somewhat less surprising finding nowadays, since modern psychology has largely abandoned the idea of humans as rational actors. There was a time, though―a time, in Skinner's heyday, when optimism bias was considered baffling and proper paradoxical. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sharot (2011) suggested that optimism bias is cognitively maintained by a bias towards updating our beliefs in response to positive prospective information than to negative prospective information. She attributed this to decreased encoding of negative-update information in the right inferior frontal gyrus. In another paper, Sharot, Riccardi, Raio and Phelps (2007) had reported this decreased encoding may be mediated by activity in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) and amygdala:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Here we report that [optimism bias] was related specifically to enhanced activation in the amygdala and in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex when imagining positive future events relative to negative ones, suggesting a key role for areas involved in monitoring emotional salience in mediating the optimism bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, the amygdala appears to evaluate the emotion valence of the information, evoking a regulatory response in the rACC, which is implemented as an inhibited update to negative-update evidence, or optimism bias, by the right inferior frontal gyrus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982211011912&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sharot, T. (2011). The optimism bias. Current Biology, 21(23), R941-R945.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7166/full/nature06280.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sharot, T., Riccardi, A. M., Raio, C. M., &amp;amp; Phelps, E. A. (2007). Neural mechanisms mediating optimism bias. Nature, 450(7166), 102-105.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-15T07:32:57.090" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T07:32:57.090" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10096" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9765" CreationDate="2015-05-15T08:47:03.353" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The APA style manual does not provide specific guidelines for linear mixed models. Additionally, a review of studies using linear mixed models reported that the psychological papers surveyed differed 'substantially' in how they reported on these models (Barr, Levy, Scheepers and Tily, 2013). It depends greatly on your study, in other words. Normatively speaking, I find &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.infoagepub.com/products/content/files/serlinfiles_multilevel/Chapter%2011/checklist.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this checklist&lt;/a&gt; (Ferron et al., 2008) extremely helpful in such cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides the more general checklist, Barr, Levy, Scheepers and Tily (2013) also provide some guidelines for reporting on LMMs. The whole paper is well worth a read, but excerpts of their &amp;quot;Reporting results&amp;quot; section are provided below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One needs to provide sufficient information for the reader to be able to recreate the analyses. One way of satisfying this requirement is to &lt;strong&gt;report the variance–covariance matrix&lt;/strong&gt;, which includes all the information about the random effects, including their estimates. ... A simpler option is to mention that one attempted to use a maximal LMEM and, as an added check, also state which factors had random slopes associated with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it is seen as necessary or desirable in a confirmatory analysis to determine the random effects structure using a data-driven approach, certain minimal guidelines should be followed. First, it is critical to &lt;strong&gt;report the criteria that have been used, including the a-level for exclusion/inclusion of&#xA;random slopes and the order in which random slopes were tested.&lt;/strong&gt; Furthermore, authors should explicitly report the changed assumptions about the generative process underlying the data that result from excluding the random slope (rather than just stating that the slopes did not ‘‘improve model fit’’), and should do so in non-technical language that non-experts can understand. Readers with only background in ANOVA will not understand that removing the random slope corresponds to pooling error across strata in a mixed-model ANOVA analysis. It is therefore preferable to &lt;strong&gt;clearly state the underlying assumption of a constant effect&lt;/strong&gt;, e.g., ‘‘by excluding the random slope for the priming manipulation, we assume that the priming effect is invariant across subjects (or items) in the population.’’&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Searching the Barr article, I also found a highly relevant &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/26855/23654&quot;&gt;CrossVal.SE&lt;/a&gt; question which asks for examples rather than guidelines. Since no guidelines appear to exist, I would suggest that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://idiom.ucsd.edu/%7Erlevy/papers/barr-etal-2013-jml.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., &amp;amp; Tily, H. J. (2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, 68(3), 255–278. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.infoagepub.com/products/content/files/serlinfiles_multilevel/Chapter%2011/checklist.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ferron, J. M., Hogarty, K. Y., Dedrick, R. F., Hess, M. R., Niles, J. D., &amp;amp; Kromrey, J. D. (2008). Reporting results from multilevel analyses. Multilevel modeling of educational data, 391-426.&lt;/a&gt; (Statistical checklist only.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T08:47:03.353" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10098" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-15T10:53:00.910" Score="5" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been reading about recent articles relating to treatment resistant schizophrenia, and apparently there are a lack of studies using multimodal imaging. Initially I just thought that would be suggesting carrying out different techniques on the same sample, however some other papers I have read talk about actually recording the data simultaneously (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2900394/&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2900394/&lt;/a&gt;). This has been a bit tricky to read into further as a lot of the papers I've read are a bit unclear as to whether they're actually recording the data simultaneously or just on the same subject across the span of a study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cobre.mrn.org/phase1/projects/project4.html&quot;&gt;http://cobre.mrn.org/phase1/projects/project4.html&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;This is the thing that particularly interested me, the possibility of carrying out a structural MRI, DTI and 1H-MRS simultaneously. However they don't really elucidate how they'll go about this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not very knowledgeable about imaging techniques (this is probably obvious), but I'm really intrigued by this and wondered if anyone could elaborate on how they record MRI, DTI and 1H-MRS data in one session and if it would be a lot harder to interpret. Is a particular standard of machine required as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8341" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T10:53:00.910" Title="Simultaneous DTI, structural MRI and 1H-MRS - Are there any examples of this?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10100" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-15T17:26:50.973" Score="9" ViewCount="811" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a number of themes that are controversial (provoke debate, are unsettled, polarize opinion, or are reflected by a range of positions) in psychology. One example involves nature vs. nurture: some people think that much of our language ability is innate, while others think that very little is innate. I've fleshed this example out a little bit as an answer below. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will eventually gathering data on just how controversial certain themes are, as a step towards investigating what the various factors are in such differences of opinion. Until then, or a starting point, I'm happy with opinions about what you think might be controversial.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suggestions from various subfields of psychology are welcome, but I'm looking more for issues that most people with a psychology degree might be able to form an opinion on, rather than something that is highly controversial for a small group of specialists, which the broader community won't have much interest in. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Currently I have a list of themes that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;I&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; think are controversial, but I was wondering what people in &lt;strong&gt;the field in general&lt;/strong&gt; think. In other words, there might be something obvious that I've missed, and this seems to be a reasonable way to reduce the probability that there is.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8345" LastEditorUserId="8345" LastEditDate="2015-05-16T00:40:55.727" LastActivityDate="2019-02-01T08:22:56.587" Title="What are some examples of controversial themes in psychology?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10102" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-15T17:48:14.747" Score="2" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do people struggle to empathise as much with people that are especially different to them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For bonus points: does that include learnt qualities, like being very knowledgeable about something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T17:48:14.747" Title="Do people struggle to empathise with people who are very different to them?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2020-05-06T14:22:28.020" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10103" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9765" CreationDate="2015-05-15T17:48:33.683" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some informative examples in Baayen, Davidson and Bates (2008), though some of their advice is outdated, having been supplanted by Barr et al. (2013) cited in the answer above. I found it useful to read these two papers together, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to add my voice to @Christian in stressing that one common gap in reporting such models is which random effects included just an intercept, and which (if any) included an intercept and a slope, along with a justification of of these decisions. Baayen et al. provide some examples of such justifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baayen, R. H, Davidson, D. J., Bates, D. M. (2008). Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language, 59, 390-412.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8345" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T18:08:56.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10104" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8043" CreationDate="2015-05-15T17:55:42.363" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alpha oscillations vary in frequency within a single subject from brain area to brain area (&lt;a href=&quot;http://braindynamics.iku.edu.tr/Pdf/A%20review%20of%20alpha%20activity%20in%20integrative%20brain%20function-%20Fundamental%20physiology,%20sensory%20coding,%20cognition%20and%20pathology.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Başar, 2012&lt;/a&gt;),  likely because there is not a single phenomenon underlying all examples of alpha oscillations.  At this point in time, an answer to this question would be very difficult because we don't even know what alpha oscillations are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Başar, E. (2012). A review of alpha activity in integrative brain function: fundamental physiology, sensory coding, cognition and pathology. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Psychophysiology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;86&lt;/em&gt;(1), 1-24.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-05-15T18:10:03.267" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T18:10:03.267" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10105" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-15T18:34:24.060" Score="7" ViewCount="163" Body="&lt;p&gt;In computer programming, spaces are often forbidden in the declaration of variable names, so programmers have created alternate methods of identifying word boundaries in variable names: camel case and underscores being two of the most popular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;variablesInCamelCaseLookLikeThis&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;variables_in_underscore_case_look_like_this&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's no shortage of debate about the superiority of one or the other on the internet, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/questions/27264/naming-conventions-camelcase-versus-underscore-case-what-are-your-thoughts-ab&quot;&gt;within Stack Exchange&lt;/a&gt;, and on &lt;a href=&quot;https://whathecode.wordpress.com/2011/02/10/camelcase-vs-underscores-scientific-showdown/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;blogs approaching the question from a variety of perspectives&lt;/a&gt;, but like many questions in psychology there's probably no clear winner here. Instead, there are likely to be advantages and disadvantages of each approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does the cognitive science literature say about the relative advantages and disadvantages of camel case and underscore case programming conventions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-12T07:31:54.790" LastActivityDate="2016-04-28T19:05:15.797" Title="What are the psychological differences in camelCase and underscore_case programming conventions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10107" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10100" CreationDate="2015-05-15T20:21:54.223" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just to help, here's an illustration of the sort of answer I'm looking for, though personally I'd be happy with any suggestions, even if less detailed than the first below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long answer: On one hand, Pinker and Bloom (1990) argue that our language faculty is similar to our physical organs, in that they evolved as adaptations to evolutionary pressures. On the other hand, Tomasello (variously, see e.g. 2005) argues that the innateness of language is overestimated and shows that social learning plays a much larger role than previously thought. Further, Saffran et al. (1996) show that statistical learning aids in language acquisition. Neither of these require an innate language-learning organ of the sort described by Pinker and Bloom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short answer: one controversy in psychology is the extent to which complex cognition (such as language) is innate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately, I'll be working with statements like the short answer, but StackExchange prefers answers like the long answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pinker, S., &amp;amp; Bloom, P. (1990). Natural language and natural selection. Behavioral and brain sciences, 13(04), 707-727.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saffran, J. R., Aslin, R. N., &amp;amp; Newport, E. L. (1996). Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants. Science, 274(5294), 1926-1928.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tomasello, M. (2005). Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8345" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-15T22:04:34.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10109" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-16T01:37:26.880" Score="4" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Question&lt;/em&gt;: Do males or females have a greater fear of deception?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The motivation for the question comes from a transgender context: I more frequently see reports of men being afraid of finding themselves attracted to a transgender woman than women being afraid of finding themselves attracted to a transgender men.  It is sometimes argued that not revealing one's transgender status is a form of deceit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This leads me to believe that, in this context, men have a greater fear of deception than women, and I would like to know if the same is true for deceit in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Putting &lt;code&gt;&quot;fear of deception&quot; gender&lt;/code&gt; into &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com.au/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PubMed&lt;/a&gt; didn't help me find anything useful.  I'm not sure where else I should look.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3234" LastActivityDate="2015-05-16T01:37:26.880" Title="Do males or females have a greater fear of deception?" Tags="&lt;deception&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-30T19:58:32.683" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10111" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9951" CreationDate="2015-05-16T08:40:48.217" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There were 2 pioneering papers published in 2014, both claiming to be the first in humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0105225&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Grau et al (2014)&lt;/a&gt; was published first (August), but the actual experiment was conducted later (March 2014):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Here we show how to link two human minds directly by integrating two&#xA;  neurotechnologies – BCI and CBI –, fulfilling three important&#xA;  conditions, namely a) being non-invasive, b) cortically based, and c)&#xA;  consciously driven (Fig. 1). In this framework we provide the first&#xA;  demonstration of non-invasive direct communication between human&#xA;  minds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EoEBc.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MVHne.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0111332&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rao et al (2014)&lt;/a&gt; (mentioned by @Josh) was published later (November), but the experiment itself was conducted earlier (August 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We describe the first direct brain-to-brain interface in humans and&#xA;  present results from experiments involving six different subjects. Our&#xA;  non-invasive interface, demonstrated originally in August 2013,&#xA;  combines electroencephalography (EEG) for recording brain signals with&#xA;  transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) for delivering information to&#xA;  the brain. ... Our results provide evidence for a rudimentary form of&#xA;  direct information transmission from one human brain to another using&#xA;  non-invasive means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uJESX.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uJESX.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dmUI8.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dmUI8.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both experiments used an &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EEG&lt;/a&gt; to detect activity in the brain of the sender, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TMS&lt;/a&gt; to stimulate activity in the brain of the receiver.  The 2 experiments had slightly different approaches however.  In the Rao et al study, the motor cortex was used, whereby the sender clicking a mouse caused the receiver's hand to twitch.  This was used to play a simple video game where one player had access to information that the other player did not.  In the Grau et al study, the sender's motor cortex was also used, but on the receiver side, the TMS was directed to the occipital lobe - the visual cortex - causing flashes of light to appear to the receiver.  This set up was used to deliver a message, rather like a telegraph, using encoded &quot;bits&quot; (1s and 0s represented by the light flashes).  This is more like telepathy, albeit a very primitive version of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/miguel_nicolelis_brain_to_brain_communication_has_arrived_how_we_did_it&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TED talk by Miguel Nicolelis&lt;/a&gt; on Brain-to-Brain interfaces, mostly focusing on rats and monkeys, but he mentions about humans at the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-08-21T23:37:55.670" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T23:37:55.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10112" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10100" CreationDate="2015-05-16T09:11:15.113" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; Representations are a noteworthy controversy in embodied or situated psychological theories. Can we explain behavior without reference to representations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer:&lt;/strong&gt; Most modern theories presume that information is represented &lt;em&gt;somewhere&lt;/em&gt;, such as the brain, and that behavior is organized because that &lt;em&gt;somewhere&lt;/em&gt; is organized. Anti-representational theories, such as ecological psychology (e.g., Richardson et al., 2008) or radical embodied cognitive psychology (Chemero 2009; Chemero, 2013 for a brief review) explicitly reject this assumption and say there are no representations. Fink, Foo and Warren (2009) provided an apt, and ingenious, demonstration of how we may explain a behavior, namely catching flyballs, without reference to representations. Embodied cognitive theories, such as enclothed cognition (Adam and Galinsky, 2012), are examples of hybrid approaches incorporating both representational and nonrepresentational features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Adam, H., &amp;amp; Galinsky, A. D. (2012). Enclothed cognition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 918-925.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chemero, A. (2009). Radical embodied cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chemero, A. (2013). Radical embodied cognitive science. Review of General Psychology, 17(2), 145.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fink, P. W., Foo, P. S., &amp;amp; Warren, W. H. (2009). Catching fly balls in virtual reality: A critical test of the outfielder problem. Journal of Vision, 9(13), 14.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Richardson, M. J., Shockley, K., Fajen, B. R., Riley, M. A., &amp;amp; Turvey, M. T. (2008). Ecological psychology: Six principles for an embodied–embedded approach to behavior. Handbook of cognitive science: An embodied approach, 161-187.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-05-16T09:11:15.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10114" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10115" CreationDate="2015-05-16T10:30:22.060" Score="3" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is a slice obtained with functional MRI (fMRI) always 3-dimensional, i.e., x-y-z? I thought that a typical fMRI scan's total imaged volume would be 4D, i.e., made up of 3D slices plus time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8353" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-05-16T11:51:23.337" LastActivityDate="2015-05-16T11:51:23.337" Title="Slices and aquisition of fMRI" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10115" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10114" CreationDate="2015-05-16T10:55:02.360" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will focus on question #1:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Analysis of MRI scans is typically done using &lt;strong&gt;voxels&lt;/strong&gt; (Fig. 1). Voxels have a volume defined by three dimensions (length, width and depth).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xbRwv.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;voxel&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Voxel analysis. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=4&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CDUQFjAD&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fincenter.medical.philips.com%2Fdoclib%2Fgetdoc.aspx%3Ffunc%3Dll%26objid%3D5529294%26objaction%3Dopen&amp;amp;ei=xR5XVf-MCojp8gWF4oPwAg&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNHEL418AlYm9zC7BEnj2n-BJr-5Cw&amp;amp;sig2=MyJ5dI2-HpEsb8HsJzalVw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Philips&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The slice thickness plus the 2D in-plane resolution (pixel size) yields the voxel size. The time to scan a slice can be regarded to be negligible. Making a scan consisting of multiple slices takes time. Hence, the time dimension is not directly relevant for voxel size. Practically, voxel size depends mostly on slice size, as well as the capacity of the scanner. More Tesla's makes smaller voxels possible.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-05-16T11:30:33.107" LastActivityDate="2015-05-16T11:30:33.107" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10116" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10121" CreationDate="2015-05-16T11:14:59.783" Score="11" ViewCount="739" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have had this experience that I fell with my bike on an icy street. During the fall, time seemed to slow down and I had an apparent age-long time window to stretch my hand and safely catch my fall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A less anecdotal example is the following. Among jugglers I think it is a common phenomenon that once you get the hang of a trick, that at that point one comes to realize '&lt;em&gt;how much time one actually has to catch a ball and throw it back into the air&lt;/em&gt;'. (I looked for references, but it at least applies to me, and I remember to have read it in juggling instruction material as well. I can try to find more evidence of this perceived time when needed).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both examples show that the perceived lengthening of time appear to allow the body to make more coordinated movements within a given amount of physical time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now my question is, assuming physical time is constant (barred Einstein's relativity of time when travelling at great speeds):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is it true that &lt;strong&gt;perceived time can change&lt;/strong&gt; under the influence of &lt;strong&gt;stress&lt;/strong&gt; or due to &lt;strong&gt;training&lt;/strong&gt;?    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-01-11T22:47:00.390" LastActivityDate="2017-01-11T22:47:00.390" Title="Can stress or training influence the perception of time?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10117" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3223" CreationDate="2015-05-16T14:32:43.217" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Karl Ericsson, on whose work Malcolm Gladwell based much of his popular &lt;em&gt;Outliers&lt;/em&gt;, has expressed on a number of occasions that the optimal amount of practice time a day is around 3-5 hours, depending on domain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a great deal of research in the expertise literature, but Ericsson, Krampe, Tesch-Römer (1993) is a seminal (if not uncontroversial) paper in the field which provides a very solid introduction. They reported evidence for the idea that practicing more than four to five hours a day was not associated with higher achievement within a domain. To support this claim, among others, they drew on a number of sources, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Literature review&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A number of training studies in real life have compared the efficiency of practice durations ranging from 1-8 hr per day.These studie sshow essentially no benefit from durations exceeding 4 hr per day and reduced benefits from practice&#xA;  exceeding 2 hr (Welford, 1968; Woodworth &amp;amp; Schlosberg, 1954). Many studies of the acquisition of typing skill (Baddeley &amp;amp; Longman, 1978; Dvorak et al., 1936) and other perceptual-motor skills (Henshaw &amp;amp; Holman, 1930) indicate that the effective duration of deliberate practice may be closer to 1hr per day. Pirolli and J. R. Anderson (1985) found no increased learning from doubling the number of training trials per session in their extended training study. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Retrospective estimates from expert violin players&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When the duration of all music-related activities was summed across the diary week, the average number of hours per week was 50.6, and no reliable differences between the groups were found. Of the eight activities judged to be highly relevant to improvement of violin performance, only two had an average duration across all three groups exceeding 5 hr per week. These two activities were practice alone (19.3 hr per week) and sleep (58.2 hr per week).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Biographies of accomplished scientists and intellectuals&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Biographies report that famous scientists such as C. Darwin, (E Darwin, 1888), Pavlov (Babkin, 1949), Hans Selye (Selye, 1964), and Skinner (Skinner, 1983) adhered to a rigid daily schedule where the first major activity of each morning&#xA;  involved writing for a couple of hours. In a large questionnaire study of science and engineering faculty, Kellogg (1986) found that writing on articles occurred most frequently before lunch and that limiting writing sessions to a duration of 1-2 hr was related to higher reported productivity. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this regard, it is particularly interesting to examine the way in which famous authors allocate their time. [...] Almost without exception, they tend to schedule 3-4 hr of writing every morning and to spend the rest of the day on walking, correspondence, napping, and other less demanding activities (Cowley, 1959; Plimpton, 1977).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, many questions remain regarding the generalizability of deliberate practice. More recent research has suggested that Ericsson's theory may not be equally adequate for all domains, and nearly irrelevant to some. For a more critical review of Ericsson's work, please see my related answer on, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/9628/2868&quot;&gt;Do 10.000 hours of practice make you an expert?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mockingbirdeducation.net/uploads/5/4/0/7/5407628/ericsson_1993.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., &amp;amp; Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363–406. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-05-16T14:32:43.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10119" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6318" CreationDate="2015-05-16T15:04:45.363" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Grønbæk and Nielsen (2007) conducted a randomized, controlled study of the Minnesota model for treating alcohol dependence in Denmark. 148 alcohol dependent individuals participated. The study reported a significant difference in alcohol abstinence between control and treatment groups when data was aggregated over the one-year period. However, by the end of the one-year followup period, this difference had disappeared. They concluded:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Twelve months after onset of treatment, the Minnesota day clinic treatment does not differ in effect from the much cheaper ‘standard’ public treatment. However, patients in Minnesota treatment were total abstainers throughout a longer period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grønbæk, M., &amp;amp; Nielsen, B. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of Minnesota day clinic treatment of alcoholics. Addiction, 102(3), 381-388.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-16T15:12:19.787" LastActivityDate="2015-05-16T15:12:19.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10121" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10116" CreationDate="2015-05-16T21:25:36.897" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Part of the difficulty in studying &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception&quot;&gt;time perception&lt;/a&gt; is that memory is known to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_memory_biases&quot;&gt;biased by numerous factors&lt;/a&gt; including arousal and salience.  So while people commonly report time slowing down during specific events, it is difficult to differentiate the effects of retroactive memory bias in encoding and recall from actual increased resolution in the perception of time and accelerated physical abilities or mental processes.  For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrine&quot;&gt;adrenaline&lt;/a&gt; is known to affect both physical response and memory consolidation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One hint regarding the plasticity of the brain's actual perception of time comes from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrent_thalamo-cortical_resonance#Temporal_binding&quot;&gt;temporal binding&lt;/a&gt; effect (nice review &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BTOODPf-iuc&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).  A variety of experiments show that the brain automatically recalibrates simultaneity amongst different neural processes through learning: That is, the brain processes different stimuli at different rates, but it learns to calibrate those processes so as to create &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4336553/&quot;&gt;the illusion&lt;/a&gt; that they occur at the same time:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;At least over a short time frame, our temporal perception of events is&#xA;  far from veridical, and multiple timelines are capable of dynamic&#xA;  recalibration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, there is no single perception of time, time is perceived at different rates by different parts of the brain, and then retroactively synchronized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more direct attempt to differentiate memory from perception was done by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2110887/&quot;&gt;Stetson et al (2007)&lt;/a&gt;.  In this experiment, subjects were dropped 150 feet with no ropes or parachute - into a safety net.  During the free-fall, they were asked to read numbers flashed on a wrist-watch.  The numbers were flashed at different rates to test whether perception resolution was actually enhanced during the fall.  Despite estimating their fall to take much longer than control subjects not performing this task (corroborating the effect of salience on memory), there was no evidence of increased time resolution:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our findings suggest that time-slowing is a function of recollection,&#xA;  not perception: a richer encoding of memory may cause a salient event&#xA;  to appear, retrospectively, as though it lasted longer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this conclusion has been criticized by other authors as the failure to produce an effect on time perception may be due to the experiment not being frightening enough, for only testing visual perception, and that free-fall may actually distract from the reading task.  Evidence from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3384265/&quot;&gt;life-threatening events such as accidents&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3950412/&quot;&gt;performance of skilled individuals&lt;/a&gt; in extreme sports for example, suggests that increased time resolution, physical performance, and cognitive abilities during extremely stressful events may be possible:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This evidence supports the suggestion by Arstila (2012) that humans&#xA;  possess a specialized hormonal or neurophysiological mechanism for&#xA;  high-speed cognition; and that this is activated inadvertently by real&#xA;  fear of imminent violent death in accidents, emergencies, and certain&#xA;  extreme sports; and may on some occasions be activated intentionally&#xA;  by individuals who have trained themselves to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt; (re updated question):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter paper - Buckley (2014) - summarizes research on the performance of experienced / trained / skilled individuals.  Accelerated performance (physical and mental) is found in accidents in extreme sports, such as climbers in accidental falls; and in the performance of many physical activities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Less skilled participants perceive only confusion, and are likely to&#xA;  freeze, panic, or act in ways which increase danger (Buckley, 2012).&#xA;  It is also experience and training which allow skilled exponents of&#xA;  many physical arts to achieve feats which appear impossibly fast and&#xA;  precise. There are many examples in ball and boardsports, gymnastics,&#xA;  acrobatics, dance, martial arts, archery, shooting, swordsmanship, and&#xA;  in aircraft, car and motorbike racing and stunt driving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-05-17T01:17:44.960" LastActivityDate="2015-05-17T01:17:44.960" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10123" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10304" CreationDate="2015-05-16T22:31:44.113" Score="0" ViewCount="1012" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was searching Google for a name given to a person who disagrees with the majority decision regardless whether he/she truly believe in the opposing idea. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example, if everyone in group A agrees that John is showing attraction to Julie, Jim [Contrarian] will disagree and will say is something else. Now the same scenario, but group B, if everyone agrees that John is NOT showing attraction to Julie, Jim [Contrarian] will disagree and will say something else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If Contrarian is the right word for Jim's behavior, is it a psychological problem? If yes, what is the closest term used in psychology to describe such behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8361" LastActivityDate="2015-05-28T19:05:22.620" Title="Is Contrarian a Psychology Problem?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10129" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-17T14:44:20.240" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a general question about registration and coregistration in the preprocessing pipeline of fMRI images. For me it is not clear what this is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, motion correction, slice time correction, spatial filtering, intensity normalization and temporal filtering are applied for each subject independently (i.e. for each session) and coregistration is applied between subjects. Is this correct? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between registration and coregistration and normalization?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8353" LastActivityDate="2015-05-17T14:44:20.240" Title="(Co)Registration in the preprocessing pipeline" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10130" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10228" CreationDate="2015-05-17T15:49:59.860" Score="1" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I have recently noticed that in class, that after I finished a unit, it seems less difficult than I expected it to be. It has happened in math, physics and electronics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible that maybe those units were not even difficult in the first place? That it was just  a matter of perception and first judgement, where you think to yourself &quot;Oh lord, this unit is gonna be hell,&quot; and the mind plays along with that all through?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do difficult-to-learn subjects seem easier in retrospect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8373" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T14:36:33.227" LastActivityDate="2016-02-18T08:55:03.417" Title="Why do difficult-to-learn subjects seem easier in retrospect?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10131" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-17T17:44:05.623" Score="3" ViewCount="1949" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I came into contact with my aunt, and it seems she has been doing very well. She has been developing a therapy technique that, she claims, helps resolves psychological problems from trauma, child abuse, domestic abuse, et cetera. She calls it &lt;a href=&quot;http://acceleratedresolutiontherapy.com/web/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Accelerated Resolution Therapy&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The essential thesis of her technique is that the problems caused trauma are being dealt with incorrectly. Therapists often try to help a patient deal with the facts of the situation. They help them understand what happened, why it happened, and why what happened should not impair their life. Unfortunately, therapy can often be slow in progress and some people never fully recover from a traumatic event. My aunt's therapy technique essentially discards the old method of dealing with facts and, instead, deals with memories and pictures. Coming to terms with facts, from a rational and conscious perspective, is usually achievable. But, for my aunt, the problem aren't the facts but the images revolving around those facts. Even when a person comes to understand their trauma, they still will suffer from depression, anxiety, and other psychological problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What she essentially does is encourage the patient to change the images to more positive, or, at the very least, into neutral memories. She does encourage them to change their knowledge on the matter; but, rather, she simply changes the physical memory into something less traumatic. The patient will still understand that they were wronged and hurt, but the image of the pain will be removed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually I'm very skeptical with new therapy techniques and any practice that claims to solve problems within 2 or 3 sessions, but it honestly makes a lot of sense. It reminds me of ghost limbs and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YL_6OMPywnQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mirror therapy&lt;/a&gt;, and how placing a mirror next to a limb, in tact, will help a patient be relieved of his pain. He understands, clear as day, that he is missing a limb, but the physical image of having two limbs and seeing the limbs move removes many of the psychological problems associated with ghost limbs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She has had peer reviewed studies and is encouraging training. So, what do you all think? Does it sound like it has potential, or is it just snakeskin oil? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://publications.amsus.org/doi/abs/10.7205/MILMED-D-13-00298?journalCode=milmed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is one study showing that patients experience relief from their symptoms within 1-5 sessions.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3591743/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;And another study.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ejpt.net/index.php/ejpt/article/view/24066/html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Another study.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mdpi.com/2076-328X/2/2/115&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;And another.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8374" LastEditorUserId="8374" LastEditDate="2015-05-17T18:08:45.323" LastActivityDate="2018-10-27T19:43:27.047" Title="What are your thoughts on Accelerated Resolution Therapy?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10132" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10133" CreationDate="2015-05-17T20:48:17.963" Score="4" ViewCount="166" Body="&lt;p&gt;As stated here on Wikipedia: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber%E2%80%93Fechner_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Weber's law states that the-just-noticeable-difference (JND) of an intensity of a stimuli divided by the intensity of that stimuli is always constant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mathematically: $\Delta(I)/I=Constant$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... where $I$ here means the physical intensity of sound, light and so on.  $\Delta(I)$ is the-just-noticeable-difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then came Fechner and assumed that the-just-noticeable-difference &quot;in sensation&quot; of a stimuli is constant as well, hence: $\Delta(I)/I = Constant = \Delta(S)$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$\Delta(S)$ stands for the-just-noticeable-difference &quot;in sensation.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On what basis was Fechner justified in assuming that the-just-noticeable-difference in sensation is constant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8376" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:03:49.903" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:03:49.903" Title="How did Fechner justify the assumption that the just-noticeable-difference in sensation is constant?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10133" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10132" CreationDate="2015-05-17T21:52:39.593" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It was not an assumption; it was a decision. It allowed for better quantification, it gave an operational definition in increase in sensation, which allowed for more common ground in research between different labs. In a way, it's a definition by pure counting: when the subject feels a change in sensation, add one. Then this absolute scale is plotted against the ratio scale of increase in stimulation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2015-05-17T21:52:39.593" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10135" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10229" CreationDate="2015-05-18T02:34:17.393" Score="4" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am doing some work with students on happiness and thought it would be useful for us to have a look at their subjective well-being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The EdX Science of Happiness course made use of weekly checkins like this one:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ucbpsych.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_aVt9kWutzGlImwJ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://ucbpsych.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_aVt9kWutzGlImwJ&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The test is 6 questions, each one you are shown a drawing of a face with an emotion (3 positive, 3 negative) and you are asked to rate &quot;To what extent does the character above match how you've been feeling lately?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to learn more about this instrument. Like what research has been done to determine the validity of the measure, the origins of it, considerations when applying it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find any information on it, there doesn't seem to be a reference on the course page as to where it came from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone have any ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8380" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T18:00:54.220" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T18:00:54.220" Title="What is the subjective wellbeing instrument that is used by Science of Happiness for check-ins?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10138" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:26:04.767" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the effect of oxytocin administration on, and oxytocin's associations with changes in behavioral and psychological functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:26:04.767" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:26:04.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10139" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:26:04.767" Score="0" Body="For questions about the effect of oxytocin administration on, and oxytocin's associations with changes in behavioral and psychological functioning." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:26:04.767" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:26:04.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10140" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:27:14.853" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about peer reviewed publications, formatting and results reporting in the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:27:14.853" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:27:14.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10141" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:27:14.853" Score="0" Body="For questions about peer reviewed publications, formatting and results reporting in the cognitive sciences." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:27:14.853" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:27:14.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10142" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:27:38.287" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about sentiment analysis methods and techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:27:38.287" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:27:38.287" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10143" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:27:38.287" Score="0" Body="For questions about sentiment analysis methods and techniques." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:27:38.287" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:27:38.287" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10144" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:28:08.573" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about visual short-term memory (VSTM).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:28:08.573" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:28:08.573" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10145" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:28:08.573" Score="0" Body="For questions about visual short-term memory (VSTM)." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:28:08.573" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:28:08.573" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10146" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:28:47.630" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about comparing human cognition to animal cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:28:47.630" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:28:47.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10147" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:28:47.630" Score="0" Body="For questions about comparing human cognition to non-human animal cognition." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:28:47.630" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:28:47.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10148" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:30:12.537" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about body language and other empirically grounded forms of nonverbal communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:30:12.537" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:30:12.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10149" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:30:12.537" Score="0" Body="For questions about body language and other empirically grounded forms of nonverbal communication." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:30:12.537" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:30:12.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10150" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:38:04.207" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the empirically measurable effects of racism, and the neural and psychological processes underlying racism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:38:04.207" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:38:04.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10151" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:38:04.207" Score="0" Body="For questions about the empirically measurable effects of racism, and the neural and psychological processes underlying racism." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:38:04.207" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:38:04.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10152" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:38:48.527" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about signal processing theory and its applications in psychology and cognitive neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:38:48.527" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:38:48.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10153" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:38:48.527" Score="0" Body="For questions about signal processing theory and its applications in psychology and cognitive neuroscience." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:38:48.527" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:38:48.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10154" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:43:59.990" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about neural oscillation patterns, such as the delta (1–4 Hz), theta (4–8 Hz), alpha (8–13Hz), beta (13–30 Hz) or gamma (30–70 Hz) waves, and their associations with behavior. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_oscillation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neural oscillations on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:43:59.990" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:43:59.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10155" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:43:59.990" Score="0" Body="For questions about neural oscillation patterns, such as the delta (1–4 Hz), theta (4–8 Hz), alpha (8–13Hz), beta (13–30 Hz) or gamma (30–70 Hz) waves, and their associations with behavior." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:43:59.990" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:43:59.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10156" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:44:23.077" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the ego depletion phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:44:23.077" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:44:23.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10157" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:44:23.077" Score="0" Body="For questions about the ego depletion phenomenon." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:44:23.077" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:44:23.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10158" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:45:04.077" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the qualities of linear mixed models, as well as their use and proper reporting in the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:45:04.077" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:45:04.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10159" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:45:04.077" Score="0" Body="For questions about the qualities of linear mixed models, as well as their use and proper reporting in the cognitive sciences." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:45:04.077" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:45:04.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10160" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:50:11.303" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about reasoning with, estimating, navigating or otherwise using spatial information, and the effect of spatial information on behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:50:11.303" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:50:11.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10161" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:50:11.303" Score="0" Body="For questions about reasoning with, estimating, navigating or otherwise using spatial information, and the effect of spatial information on behavior." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:50:11.303" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:50:11.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10162" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:50:43.397" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about statistical regression as it relates to the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:50:43.397" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:50:43.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10163" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T07:50:43.397" Score="0" Body="For questions about statistical regression as it relates to the cognitive sciences." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T07:50:43.397" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T07:50:43.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10164" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:06:03.900" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the neural and psychological processes underpinning language processing, and algorithmic implementations of language processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:06:03.900" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:06:03.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10165" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:06:03.900" Score="0" Body="For questions about the neural and psychological processes underpinning language processing, and algorithmic implementations of language processing." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:06:03.900" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:06:03.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10166" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:07:20.363" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the processes underlying decisions to follow orders and commands without understanding them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:07:20.363" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:07:20.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10167" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:07:20.363" Score="0" Body="For questions about the processes underlying decisions to follow orders and commands without understanding them." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:07:20.363" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:07:20.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10168" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:08:12.007" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about statistical parameter mapping (SPM).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:08:12.007" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:08:12.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10169" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:08:12.007" Score="0" Body="For questions about statistical parameter mapping (SPM)." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:08:12.007" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:08:12.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10170" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:09:15.987" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the effects of facilitating monitoring of physiological functioning, and the processes that underpin this monitoring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:09:15.987" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:09:15.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10171" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:09:15.987" Score="0" Body="For questions about the effects of facilitating monitoring of physiological functioning, and the processes that underpin this monitoring." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:09:15.987" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:09:15.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10172" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:10:32.040" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For question about internal sensation (interoception), as opposed to external sensation (exteroception).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:10:32.040" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:10:32.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10173" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:10:32.040" Score="0" Body="For question about internal sensation (interoception), as opposed to external sensation (exteroception)." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:10:32.040" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:10:32.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10174" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:10:58.260" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the neurotransmitter serotonin's role in behavior and cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:10:58.260" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:10:58.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10175" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:10:58.260" Score="0" Body="For questions about the neurotransmitter serotonin's role in behavior and cognition." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:10:58.260" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:10:58.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10176" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:17:02.433" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the processes underpinning our ability to update information, inhibit behavior and changing strategy adaptively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:17:02.433" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:17:02.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10177" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:17:02.433" Score="0" Body="For questions about the processes underpinning our ability to update information, inhibit behavior and changing strategy adaptively." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:17:02.433" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:17:02.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10178" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:17:50.353" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the P300 event-related potential. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P300_(neuroscience)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;P300 on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:17:50.353" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:17:50.353" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10179" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:17:50.353" Score="0" Body="For questions about the P300 event-related potential." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:17:50.353" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:17:50.353" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10180" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:18:36.463" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about mirror neurons, and their theoretical and empirical effects on behavior and thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:18:36.463" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:18:36.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10181" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:18:36.463" Score="0" Body="For questions about mirror neurons, and their theoretical and empirical effects on behavior and thought." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:18:36.463" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:18:36.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10182" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:27:42.193" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For practical or methodological questions about implementing specific stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:27:42.193" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:27:42.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10183" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:27:42.193" Score="0" Body="For practical or methodological questions about implementing specific stimuli." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:27:42.193" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:27:42.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10184" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:29:07.423" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about inhibition and self-control phenomena, and the processes underlying them. If your question relates to executive/cognitive control more generally, please use the &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/executive-function&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;executive-function&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;executive-function&lt;/a&gt; tag.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:29:07.423" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:29:07.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10185" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:29:07.423" Score="0" Body="For questions about inhibition and self-control phenomena, and the processes underlying them. If your question relates to executive/cognitive control more generally, please use the executive-function tag." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:29:07.423" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:29:07.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10186" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:29:44.150" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about twin study methodology, and research relying on such methodology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:29:44.150" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:29:44.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10187" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:29:44.150" Score="0" Body="For questions about twin study methodology, and research relying on such methodology." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:29:44.150" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:29:44.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10188" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:31:57.847" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about altruistic behavior, its underlying processes and its implications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:31:57.847" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:31:57.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10189" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:31:57.847" Score="0" Body="For questions about altruistic behavior, its underlying processes and its implications." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:31:57.847" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:31:57.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10190" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:32:17.120" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the placebo effect at large.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:32:17.120" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:32:17.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10191" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:32:17.120" Score="0" Body="For questions about the placebo effect at large." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:32:17.120" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:32:17.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10192" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:33:28.690" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about brain-computer interfacing (BCI), such as methods allowing disabled people to control a computer via an EEG.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:33:28.690" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:33:28.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10193" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:33:28.690" Score="0" Body="For questions about direct brain-computer interfacing (BCI), such as methods allowing disabled people to control a computer via an EEG." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:33:28.690" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:33:28.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10194" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:38:23.250" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the electrophysiological changes as a result of errors made in motor responses measured by ERP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:38:23.250" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:38:23.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10195" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:38:23.250" Score="0" Body="For questions about the electrophysiological changes as a result of errors made in motor responses measured by ERP." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:38:23.250" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:38:23.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10196" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:40:17.817" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about perceiving, feeling or otherwise being conscious of observations without necessarily understanding them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:40:17.817" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:40:17.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10197" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:40:17.817" Score="0" Body="For questions about perceiving, feeling or otherwise being conscious of observations without necessarily understanding them. " OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:40:17.817" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:40:17.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10198" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:41:28.513" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the effect of testosterone administration on, and testosterone's associations with changes in behavioral and psychological functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:41:28.513" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:41:28.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10199" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:41:28.513" Score="0" Body="For questions about the effect of testosterone administration on, and testosterone's associations with changes in behavioral and psychological functioning." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:41:28.513" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:41:28.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10200" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:42:27.290" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a controversial instrument developed based on Jungian theory that has been largely debunked by science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;General questions about the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) may be off topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator#Criticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scientific criticism&lt;/a&gt; for more information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-08-08T22:13:43.310" LastActivityDate="2017-08-08T22:13:43.310" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10201" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:42:27.290" Score="0" Body="The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a controversial instrument developed based on Jungian theory that has been largely debunked by science." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-08-08T22:13:43.310" LastActivityDate="2017-08-08T22:13:43.310" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10202" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:43:19.690" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about how to effectively learn, study and teach about the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:43:19.690" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:43:19.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10203" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:43:19.690" Score="0" Body="For questions about how to effectively learn, study and teach about the cognitive sciences." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:43:19.690" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:43:19.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10204" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:43:52.533" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about sound perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:43:52.533" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:43:52.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10205" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:43:52.533" Score="0" Body="For questions about sound perception." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:43:52.533" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:43:52.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10206" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:44:54.747" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the empirical study of the sense of self and identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:44:54.747" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:44:54.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10207" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:44:54.747" Score="0" Body="For questions about the empirical study of the sense of self and identity." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:44:54.747" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:44:54.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10208" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:47:56.363" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For macroscale questions about the study of humanity through anthropological methods such as ethnography and comparative linguistics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:47:56.363" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:47:56.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10209" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:47:56.363" Score="0" Body="For macroscale questions about the study of humanity through anthropological methods such as ethnography and comparative linguistics." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:47:56.363" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:47:56.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10211" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:53:08.117" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about applying dynamical systems and complex systems theory to explaining perception, thought and behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:53:08.117" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:53:08.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10212" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:53:08.117" Score="0" Body="For questions about applying dynamical systems and complex systems theory to explaining perception, thought and behavior." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:53:08.117" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:53:08.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10213" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:55:10.707" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the collective behavior of relatively large groups of people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:55:10.707" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:55:10.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10214" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T08:55:10.707" Score="0" Body="For questions about the collective behavior of relatively large groups of people." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T08:55:10.707" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T08:55:10.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10215" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T09:05:44.947" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions relating to behaviors which intentionally harm or cause discomfort for other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T09:05:44.947" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T09:05:44.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10216" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T09:05:44.947" Score="0" Body="For questions relating to behaviors which intentionally harm or cause discomfort for other people." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T09:05:44.947" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T09:05:44.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10217" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T09:06:44.847" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the empirical evidence for explaining behavior as a function of ancient evolutionary pressures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T09:06:44.847" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T09:06:44.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10218" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T09:06:44.847" Score="0" Body="For questions about the empirical evidence for explaining behavior as a function of ancient evolutionary pressures." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T09:06:44.847" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T09:06:44.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10219" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T09:07:38.950" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions regarding the influence of physical exercise on thought and behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T09:07:38.950" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T09:07:38.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10220" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T09:07:38.950" Score="0" Body="For questions regarding the influence of physical exercise on thought and behavior." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T09:07:38.950" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T09:07:38.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10221" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-05-18T09:08:49.980" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about willingly ceding control over a valued outcome to another person or group of people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T09:08:49.980" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T09:08:49.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10222" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-05-18T09:08:49.980" Score="0" Body="For questions about willingly ceding control over a valued outcome to another person or group of people." OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T09:08:49.980" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T09:08:49.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10225" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-18T10:44:54.613" Score="4" ViewCount="414" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the thought process in our mind for solving a problem or bringing out a solution to a problem depend on culture or language?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, how can these skills be represented and addressed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8194" LastEditorUserId="2868" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T10:53:36.030" LastActivityDate="2017-02-14T11:21:16.350" Title="Is there evidence for cross-cultural differences in problem solving skills?" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10226" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10227" CreationDate="2015-05-18T12:27:49.693" Score="8" ViewCount="500" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of the research on depression seems quite human focused. Can cats also get depressed in the same way there's depression for humans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastActivityDate="2016-05-12T07:17:45.103" Title="Can cats get depressed in a way similar to humans?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10227" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10226" CreationDate="2015-05-18T12:44:10.860" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Human depression has been modeled in a variety of animal models, including cats (&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00427414&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wilner, 1984&lt;/a&gt;). Cats show comparable signs of distress when subject to maternal separation, including separation phenomena of protest, followed by despair. Although it is hard to project the DSM-V criteria onto cats, they can show comparable behaviors when subject to anxiety and stress. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00427414&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wilner, &lt;em&gt;Psychoneuropharmacol&lt;/em&gt; (1984); &lt;strong&gt;83&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 1-16&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-12T07:17:45.103" LastActivityDate="2016-05-12T07:17:45.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10228" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10130" CreationDate="2015-05-18T14:28:00.067" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are at least two different lines of research that are relevant here. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Forecasting errors&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One large line of research has shown that are pretty bad in forecasting future events. This can be seen, for example, in the stable tendency to overestimate the affective impact of negative as well as positive events in terms of intensity and duration. In other words, if people are facing a situation that will likely be negative (such as an &quot;it will be hell&quot; class or exam), the prediction of their negative affective reaction (How long intense will it be? How long will I suffer?) is stronger than their actual reaction. This tendency has been called the &lt;strong&gt;impact bias&lt;/strong&gt;. Numerous sources of the impact bias have been identified, a good starting point into this research are the (somewhat older) reviews by Wilson and Gilbert (2003, 2005). As an example, one reason for the impact bias in response to negative events is the so-called &lt;strong&gt;immune neglect&lt;/strong&gt;, which refers to people's tendency to underestimate their skill in coping with such events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Below-average effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also possible to frame the situation in a way that implies a comparison to others: Maybe you expected a difficult class in that you expected to fare worse than your fellow students (and were surprised that you were not).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A line of research has shown that people can be pretty bad in ranking their own skill in comparison to others. Mostly, this surfaces in an above-average effect: Most people think that they are better drivers than others, for example, which is logically impossible. However, research by Justin Kruger (1999), for example, has shown that this holds only for relatively easy tasks. For difficult tasks, this actually turns into a &lt;strong&gt;below-average effect&lt;/strong&gt;. That is, when people think that a task requires much skill (such as a difficult class or exam) most actually think that they are worse than other people. One explanation for this tendency is that people &quot;anchor&quot; their judgment of their own skill only on their introspected self-assessment and fail to consider that it will be difficult for others too (information about ourself comes more easily to the mind, after all).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wilson, T. D., &amp;amp; Gilbert, D. T. (2003). Affective Forecasting. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 35, pp. 345–411). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kruger, J. (1999). Lake Wobegon be gone! The “below-average effect” and the egocentric nature of comparative ability judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 221–232. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.2.221&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wilson, T. D., &amp;amp; Gilbert, D. T. (2005). Affective forecasting knowing what to want. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 131–134. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00355.x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-05-18T20:00:02.863" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T20:00:02.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10229" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10135" CreationDate="2015-05-18T15:46:28.300" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The background of the measure can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/can_an_online_course_boost_happiness#When:10:24:00Z&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article implies that it is an ad-hoc measure of emotions created for this study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Every week, we checked in with our students to see how they were feeling. We showed them a sequence of six cartoon faces created by Pixar artist Matt Jones to convey fear, enthusiasm, anger, affection, sadness, and amusement (below). Under each, we asked them to rate, on a scale of 1 to 10, how much each face matched how they’d been feeling lately.  Then we transformed their collective weekly ratings into a single score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GpMmX.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The result? For students who responded at least 8 out of 10 times—suggesting that they were fully participating in the course—positive feelings went up, and up, and up. They felt progressively less sadness, anger, and fear, while at the same time experiencing more and more amusement, enthusiasm, and affection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also invited students to fill out a brief battery of research-validated questionnaires that are regularly used to assess feelings like happiness, stress, flourishing, or satisfaction with life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last sentence suggests the ad-hoc nature of the measure (as compared to validated scales). Also, I couldn't track down any published research with this measure. The icons themselves stem from a collaboration of Dacher Keltner with Facebook, as described &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spspblog.org/expressing-anger-and-altruism-on-facebook/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T15:46:28.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10231" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10226" CreationDate="2015-05-18T20:13:18.270" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of research on depression in animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_models_of_depression#Modeling_depression_in_animals&quot;&gt;good summary&lt;/a&gt; of the comparison of depression between animals and humans:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is difficult to develop an animal model that perfectly reproduces&#xA;  the symptoms of depression in patients. Many animals lack&#xA;  self-consciousness, self-reflection, and consideration; moreover,&#xA;  hallmarks of the disorder such as depressed mood, low self-esteem or&#xA;  suicidality are hardly accessible in non-humans. However, depression,&#xA;  as other mental disorders, consists of endophenotypes[5] that can be&#xA;  reproduced independently and evaluated in animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The following endophenotypes have been described:[5]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Anhedonia: The loss of interest is a core symptom of depression.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Anhedonia in rodents can be assessed by sucrose preference or by&#xA;  intracranial self-stimulation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Behavioral despair: Behavioral despair might be assessed with tests such as the forced-swimming test or the tail suspension test.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Changes in appetite or weight gain: Depression is often associated with changes in appetite or weight gain, which is easily measured in&#xA;  rodents.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Neuroanatomy: Depressed subjects display decreased hippocampal volume and rodents exposed to chronic stress or excess glucocorticoids&#xA;  exhibit similar signs of hippocampal loss of neurons and dendritic&#xA;  atrophy.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Neuroendocrine disturbances: Disturbances of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA) are one of the most&#xA;  consistent symptoms in major depression. The functionality of the HPA&#xA;  can be assessed by dexamethasone suppression test .&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Alterations in sleep architecture: Disturbances in the circadian rhythm and especially in the sleep architecture are often observed in&#xA;  depressed. In rodents, it is accessible via&#xA;  electroencephalography(EEG).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Anxiety-related behavior: Anxiety is a symptom with high prevalence in depression. Therefore, animal models of depression often display&#xA;  altered anxiety-related behavior.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the early popular models of depression based on animal behaviour is &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness&quot;&gt;learned helplessness&lt;/a&gt; theory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Learned helplessness theory is the view that clinical depression and&#xA;  related mental illnesses may result from a perceived absence of&#xA;  control over the outcome of a situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has been replicated in many animals, including cats. (A nice review of learned helplessness in humans &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YMPzDiraNnA&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder#Causes&quot;&gt;Modern theories of depression&lt;/a&gt; include many other causes besides learning, not all of which are applicable to animals.  So ultimately, cats do get depressed, in a way similar in some respects to humans, but in other aspects, not the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T20:13:18.270" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9803" CreationDate="2015-05-18T22:24:21.403" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Interoceptive awareness and accuracy&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interoceptive awareness and accuracy are sometimes used interchangeably, but can also refer to two different things: awareness to the tendency to attend to interoception measured by self-report, and accuracy to the actual accuracy with which one does so (Chentsova-Dutton and Dzokoto, 2014). For example, a cross-cultural study involving West African and European-American found that &amp;quot;West Africans showed higher levels of interoceptive awareness, but lower levels of interoceptive accuracy than European Americans&amp;quot; (Ceunen, Van Diest and Vlaeyen, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Heartbeat perception training&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been some recent attempts to produce improvements in interoceptive awareness and accuracy. Schaefer, Egloff, Gerlach and Witthöft (2014) gave 29 patients with somatoform disorders heartbeat perception training, and reported that the training selectively improved interoceptive accuracy in patients with low health anxiety, as well as improvements in symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Mindfulness&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Silverstein, Brown, Roth and Britton (2011) also found that mindfulness training produced a statistically significant benefit in speed of interoceptive awareness, and that this improvement was associated with improvements in attentional, self-judgmental, and clinical factors of female sexual dysfunction. They reported the following about increased interoceptive awareness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Women who participated in the meditation training became significantly faster at registering their physiological responses (interoceptive awareness) to sexual stimuli compared with active controls (F(1,28) = 5.45, &lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt; = .03, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$η_{p}^2$&lt;/span&gt; = 0.15).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another recent study of experienced meditation practitioners did not report a benefit of meditation on either interoceptive awareness or accuracy, however (Khalsa et al., 2008). Additionally, I am generally skeptical of the benefits of mindfulness on cognitive ability. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/3358/2868&quot;&gt;Jeromy's answer about the general effect of mindfulness on cognition&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://publications.uni.lu/bitstream/10993/18715/2/BIOPSY_6627_(uncorrected).pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ceunen, E., Van Diest, I., &amp;amp; Vlaeyen, J. (2013). Accuracy and awareness of perception: related, yet distinct (commentary on Herbert et al., 2012). Biological psychology, 92(2), 423-427.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chentsova-Dutton, Y. E., &amp;amp; Dzokoto, V. (2014). Listen to your heart: The cultural shaping of interoceptive awareness and accuracy. Emotion, 14(4), 666.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2637372/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Khalsa, S. S., Rudrauf, D., Damasio, A. R., Davidson, R. J., Lutz, A., &amp;amp; Tranel, D. (2008). Interoceptive awareness in experienced meditators. Psychophysiology, 45(4), 671-677.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schaefer, M., Egloff, B., Gerlach, A. L., &amp;amp; Witthöft, M. (2014). Improving heartbeat perception in patients with medically unexplained symptoms reduces symptom distress. Biological psychology, 101, 69-76.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3711258/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Silverstein, R. G., Brown, A. C. H., Roth, H. D., &amp;amp; Britton, W. B. (2011). Effects of mindfulness training on body awareness to sexual stimuli: implications for female sexual dysfunction. Psychosomatic medicine, 73(9), 817.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-05-18T22:56:06.867" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10234" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10251" CreationDate="2015-05-19T02:14:34.697" Score="5" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;When one attempts to learn a new skill (e.g., play a guitar), it is often heard that the first hour of practice is more effective than the second. I have heard some people say that even 10 minutes of practice may be effective when you do so everyday.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On many (non-scientific) websites I have read that taking a little nap of 15-30 minutes during prolonged practice is enough to maintain effective learning. Is this true, or is more sleep required? Or is sleep irrelevant altogether? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8312" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-05-19T02:21:01.690" LastActivityDate="2015-05-20T16:13:52.973" Title="Does a short nap improve learning efficiency?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10235" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-19T06:05:29.193" Score="8" ViewCount="241" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's generally accepted that males tend to have a more negative attitude toward homosexuality than females:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Three studies conducted with students at six different universities revealed a consistent tendency for heterosexual males to express more hostile attitudes than heterosexual females, especially toward gay men. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/3812894&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Herek 1998&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Men were more negative than women toward homosexual persons and homosexual behavior, but the sexes viewed gay civil rights similarly. Men's attitudes toward homosexual persons were particularly negative when the person being rated was a gay man or of unspecified sex. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19317610902922537&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kite, Whitley Jr. 2009&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's research into finding explanations as to why there is this distinction (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1015640318045&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Whitley Jr. 2001&lt;/a&gt;), but it does not seem to cover my specific question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q&lt;/strong&gt;: Are heterosexual males more likely to view homosexuality as a mental illness (or  as some kind of a &amp;quot;sickness&amp;quot;) than heterosexual females?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The homophobia scales I've looked at (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J082v41n02_03&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Szymanski and Chung 2008&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1022172816258&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wright Jr., Adams, Bernat 1999&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1023244427281&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Raja, Stokes 1998&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5104_13&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bouton et al. 1987&lt;/a&gt;) don't ask questions about whether or not homosexuality is considered a mental illness, but do ask if it's considered a &amp;quot;sin&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;disgusting&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3234" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-04-21T20:48:10.430" Title="Are males more likely to view homosexuals as mentally ill than females?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10237" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9113" CreationDate="2015-05-19T08:27:29.230" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;Altmann's model is hierarchical and allows for &quot;higher-level&quot; goals and &quot;lower-level&quot; goals, but a goal is ultimately a goal―higher level goals are just sets of lower level goals, at least as far as I understand it. Given its ability to predict performance on solid laboratory tasks like the Tower of Hanoi, there is no reason to think that goal-activation/memory-for-goals theory &lt;em&gt;wouldn't&lt;/em&gt; apply to &quot;higher-level&quot; multitasking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Altmann's theory does not appear to be &lt;em&gt;implemented&lt;/em&gt; in ACT-R. The relationship between the two instead appears to be that Altmann borrowed ACT-R's forgetting function for his model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Longer answer:&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;Goal-activation theory relates to real-world work in the sense that real-world work often requires juggling multiple goals. Such higher-level multitasking often requires the worker to temporarily stop working towards a goal in order to pursue another. Goal-activation theory helps explain this by accounting for this inhibition of the ongoing task and shifting to the new task. In order to do so, the worker must encode, store and retrieve different goals from memory depending on contextual salience and retrieval history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper Jeff quotes in his comment, by Trafton, Altmann, Brock &amp;amp; Mintz (2002), proposed two mechanisms for how different goals reach the top of the goal pile and actually become &lt;em&gt;activated&lt;/em&gt;: prospective goal encoding and retrospective rehearsal. Both rely on the effect of retrieval practice, and possibly (but not explicitly stated) &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9595/what-are-the-neural-substrates-of-retrieval-induced-forgetting&quot;&gt;retrieval-induced forgetting&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants were either interrupted during a task with no warning or an 8-second warning prior to interruption. They found that participants in the warning condition were able to improve their responses to interruption. This suggests that the goal-activation model's ability to explain inhibitory performance on Tower of Hanoi can be generalized to real world tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(As an aside: Methodologically speaking, the Tower of Hanoi in particular is a generally well validated task for measuring executive inhibition across task domains. It has an impressive clinical/practical empirical pedigree that is readily available by, for instance, forward searching Miyake et al. (2000). I don't see why performance on a Tower of Hanoi task would be considered &quot;low-level&quot; or meaningfully different from &quot;real-world knowledge work,&quot; at least in terms of aspects that might relate to goal-activation.)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/tor/Papers/Unity_Diversity_Exec_Functions.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp;amp; Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology, 41(1), 49-100. Chicago.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://interruptions.net/literature/Trafton-IJHCS03.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trafton, J. G., Altmann, E. M., Brock, D. P., &amp;amp; Mintz, F. E. (2003). Preparing to resume an interrupted task: Effects of prospective goal encoding and retrospective rehearsal. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 58(5), 583-603.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-05-19T08:27:29.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10238" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-19T10:59:52.497" Score="3" ViewCount="142" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing my Bachelor on MBCT, and while there are a ton of studies on the positive effects of mindfulness and MBCT, I'm wondering if there are any cases where MBCT shouldn't be applied. I've found some litterature on certain possible negative effects of mediation, but nothing on MBCT specifically.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, do anyone know of studies or research papers that mentions cases where MBCT is not useful or should be avoided?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8388" LastEditorUserId="8388" LastEditDate="2015-05-19T14:42:21.887" LastActivityDate="2018-04-15T01:10:30.850" Title="When is Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy not useful, or bad?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10239" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-19T13:24:25.037" Score="2" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any accurate tools that can tell the changes in mental acuity/sharpness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8390" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-05-20T13:23:01.413" LastActivityDate="2015-05-20T13:23:01.413" Title="How to measure improvement in Mental Acuity/Sharpness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10240" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8749" CreationDate="2015-05-19T14:42:35.010" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intuitively, I would also see disgust or fear of contamination as a plausible pathway. However, the explanation that has been discussed in the literature is that trypophobia-eliciting stimuli have basic visual characteristics that are also found in highly poisonous animals (Cole &amp;amp; Wilkins, 2013). Quoting their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Phobias are usually described as irrational and persistent fears of certain objects or situations, and causes of such fears are difficult to identify. We describe an unusual but common phobia (trypophobia), hitherto unreported in the scientific literature, in which sufferers are averse to images of holes. We performed a spectral analysis on a variety of images that induce trypophobia and found that the stimuli had a spectral composition typically associated with uncomfortable visual images, namely, &lt;strong&gt;high-contrast energy at midrange spatial frequencies&lt;/strong&gt;. Critically, we found that &lt;strong&gt;a range of potentially dangerous animals also possess this spectral characteristic&lt;/strong&gt;. We argue that although sufferers are not conscious of the association, the phobia arises in part because the inducing stimuli share basic visual characteristics with dangerous organisms, characteristics that are low level and easily computed, and therefore facilitate a rapid nonconscious response. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(emphasis added)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is not much research on this phobia though, so it may still be that contamination fears are also a contributing factor. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cole, G. G., &amp;amp; Wilkins, A. J. (2013). Fear of holes. Psychological Science, 24, 1980–1985. doi:10.1177/0956797613484937&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-30T10:01:28.953" LastActivityDate="2015-10-30T10:01:28.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10242" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9405" CreationDate="2015-05-19T18:29:26.893" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an interesting demonstration in this &lt;a href=&quot;https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=ZFB-DXzpsco&quot;&gt;YouTube video&lt;/a&gt; (4:10 minutes) by Jean-Francoir Gariépy which shows a difference in the color perception depending on whether the dress is scanned from the top to the bottom of the image or vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/e2tC1fM.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A conclusion from this could be that people scan pictures of dresses in different ways, although an individually calibrated color perception might of course still play a subordinate role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2570" LastEditorUserId="2570" LastEditDate="2015-05-20T02:08:20.940" LastActivityDate="2015-05-20T02:08:20.940" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10243" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8583" CreationDate="2015-05-19T20:09:38.430" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;One meta-analysis of gender differences in cognitive abilities (verbal ability, quantitative ability, and visual–spatial ability):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results indicate that gender differences in all of these abilities&#xA;  were small: For verbal ability, the median ω–2 was .01 and the median&#xA;  d was .24; for quantitative ability, the median values of ω–2 and d&#xA;  were .01 and .43; for visual–spatial ability, they were .043 and .45;&#xA;  and for field articulation, ω–2 was .025 and d was .51&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hyde, J. S. (1981). How large are cognitive gender differences? A meta-analysis using! w² and d.. American Psychologist, 36(8), 892.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One study completed using Israeli military IQ tests over 8 years found no gender differences in IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The 1976 to 1984 data allow a comparison of male gains with female&#xA;  gains on both tests of IQ. They are virtually identical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Flynn, J. R. (1998). Israeli military IQ tests: Gender differences small; IQ gains large. Journal of Biosocial Science, 30(04), 541-553.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can find no evidence to suggest that men have a higher IQ and that is why they pursue psychology to a higher level. I can't seem to find any research specifically on male IQ in a female-dominated undergraduate subject such as psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, In regards to men making up more phd students: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study is about studying a male-dominated subject at undergraduate level, however could be applied to furthering study from a female dominated (undergrad psychology) into a male dominated (phd psychology) subject:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;First-year and final year female undergraduates in a male-dominated academic area (ie, math, science, or engineering) reported higher levels of discrimination and stereotype threat than those in a female-dominated academic area.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Steele, J., James, J. B., &amp;amp; Barnett, R. C. (2002). Learning in a Man’S World: Examining the Perceptions of Undergraduate Women in Male‐Dominated Academic Areas. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26(1), 46-50.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another study found that women don't choose not to pursue a PhD because their IQ isn't high enough, but rather they may have concerns about flexibility:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Findings suggest that desire for a flexible job, high time demands of&#xA;  an occupation, and low intrinsic value of physical science were the&#xA;  best predictors of women changing their occupational aspirations out&#xA;  of male dominated fields. These results suggest that despite the&#xA;  women’s movement and more efforts in society to open occupational&#xA;  doors to traditional male-jobs for women, concerns about balancing&#xA;  career and family, together with lower value for science-related&#xA;  domains, continue to steer young women away from occupations in&#xA;  traditionally male-dominated fields, where their abilities and&#xA;  ambitions may lie.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Frome, P. M., Alfeld, C. J., Eccles, J. S., &amp;amp; Barber, B. L. (2006). Why don't they want a male-dominated job? An investigation of young women who changed their occupational aspirations. Educational Research and Evaluation, 12(4), 359-372.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you said your assumptions are broad and anecdotal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2015-05-19T20:09:38.430" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10244" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="60" CreationDate="2015-05-19T21:48:11.930" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an update regarding the debate on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity#Creativity_and_Intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Threshold Theory&lt;/a&gt;.  From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3682183/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jauk et al (2013)&lt;/a&gt; &quot;The relationship between intelligence and creativity: New support for the threshold hypothesis by means of empirical breakpoint detection&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of the most prominent notions concerning the interplay between&#xA;  intelligence and creativity is the threshold hypothesis, which assumes&#xA;  that above-average intelligence represents a necessary condition for&#xA;  high-level creativity. ... The threshold hypothesis is commonly&#xA;  investigated by splitting a sample at a given threshold (e.g., at 120&#xA;  IQ points) and estimating separate correlations for lower and upper IQ&#xA;  ranges. However, there is no compelling reason why the threshold&#xA;  should be fixed at an IQ of 120, and to date, no attempts have been&#xA;  made to detect the threshold empirically. ... Segmented regression&#xA;  allows for the detection of a threshold in continuous data by means of&#xA;  iterative computational algorithms. We found thresholds only for&#xA;  measures of creative potential but not for creative achievement. For&#xA;  the former the thresholds varied as a function of criteria: When&#xA;  investigating a liberal criterion of ideational originality (i.e., two&#xA;  original ideas), a threshold was detected at around 100 IQ points. In&#xA;  contrast, a threshold of 120 IQ points emerged when the criterion was&#xA;  more demanding (i.e., many original ideas). Moreover, an IQ of around&#xA;  85 IQ points was found to form the threshold for a purely quantitative&#xA;  measure of creative potential (i.e., ideational fluency). These&#xA;  results confirm the threshold hypothesis for qualitative indicators of&#xA;  creative potential and may explain some of the observed discrepancies&#xA;  in previous research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-05-19T21:48:11.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10245" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10079" CreationDate="2015-05-19T23:18:18.103" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;A phenomenon called &quot;memory reconsolidation&quot; has received considerable attention over the last 15 years. This is about activation (retrieval) causing memories to temporarily enter a labile state in which they can be manipulated, even erased. Most of the research has been with animals, especially rodents, but there are a number of studies on humans and there has been great interest in the possibility of developing therapies for anxiety-related disorders like PTSD and for self-destructive behaviors like drug addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memories are believed to be encoded by the strengthening of synapses between the members of a population of neurons. According to reconsolidation theory, when a memory is recalled, the corresponding synapses enter a labile state in which they can be manipulated by different kinds of intervention, including certain drugs and also exposure to new information that may update or contradict the original memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To the extent that this line of research leads to practical therapies, it is interesting to note that the experimenter/therapist doesn't need to know which neurons are being manipulated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a few entry points into the reconsolidation literature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A good overview of the field:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Hardt, O., Einarsson, E. Ö., &amp;amp; Nader, K. (2010). A bridge over troubled water: reconsolidation as a link between cognitive and neuroscientific memory research traditions. Annual review of psychology, 61, 141–167.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In Humans:&lt;/strong&gt; Schiller, D., &amp;amp; Phelps, E. A. (2011). Does Reconsolidation Occur in Humans? Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 5. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00024&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The study that ignited the recent wave of interest in reconsolidation:&lt;/strong&gt; Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., &amp;amp; Le Doux, J. E. (2000). Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature, 406(6797), 722–726. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1038/35021052&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1038/35021052&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="404" LastEditorUserId="404" LastEditDate="2015-05-20T00:04:02.187" LastActivityDate="2015-05-20T00:04:02.187" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10247" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8583" CreationDate="2015-05-20T09:19:30.217" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think what happens is that researchers often don't report on - or at least don't highlight - uninteresting results, partly because of the difficulty getting uninteresting results published.  So given that gender differences in IQ in general are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient#Sex&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;eliminated for validity&lt;/a&gt;, a lack of gender differences in IQ amongst a seemingly arbitrary sub-population such as undergraduate psychology students doesn't seem to merit attention.  I similarly wouldn't expect to find a study published about the lack of gender differences in IQ amongst say, red-haired truck drivers with carpal tunnel syndrome.  In fact, researchers often highlight the usefulness of psychology students as research subjects for being representative of the general population in many respects, in addition to being convenient to recruit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, as undergraduate psychology students are so often used as subjects in many areas of research, it shouldn't be too difficult to find data that records both IQ and gender, and confirm that it is indeed uninteresting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Starting in the 1990's, there was a flurry of research based on some &lt;em&gt;interesting&lt;/em&gt; results - that there are gender differences in estimates of IQ (presumably due to some stereotypes).  Although these studies don't specifically focus on gender differences in IQ amongst undergraduate psychology students, some of them do measure and report gender and IQ, and in some cases, the subjects are in fact undergraduate psychology students.  Here are some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1996-10282-001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Furham &amp;amp; Rawles (1995)&lt;/a&gt; &quot;Sex differences in the estimation of intelligence&quot;:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... despite the fact that psychology attaches no significant gender&#xA;  differences to general intelligence, psychology students appeared to&#xA;  believe in the superiority of males.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092656602005056&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paulhus &amp;amp; Williams (2002)&lt;/a&gt; &quot;The Dark Triad of personality: Narcissism,&#xA;Machiavellianism, and psychopathy&quot;:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Two hundred and forty-five undergraduate psychology students (65%&#xA;  female) participated in the present study for extra course credit. ...&#xA;  The only association with cognitive ability was the small positive&#xA;  correlation between IQ and narcissism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886904002910&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chamorro-Premuzic et al (2005)&lt;/a&gt; &quot;The relationship between personality traits, subjectively-assessed and fluid intelligence&quot;:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A total of 182 undergraduate students from British and American&#xA;  universities participated in this study. ... 49 males and 132 females&#xA;  were included in the statistical analysis ... Students participated in&#xA;  this study as part of two lectures on personality and intelligence&#xA;  assessment ... Correlations between Raven's test scores (Gf), SAI, ...&#xA;  gender and age are presented in Table 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Sex is listed in Table 1 as having a correlation with Gf of -.00.)  There are many other similar examples from all over the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some ways, the premise of the question seems odd: In as much as IQ is correlated with academic achievement (and it is, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_%28statistics%29#Criterion_validity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;again for validity&lt;/a&gt;), it should correlate as much with acceptance to the program as it does with graduation results.  Thus, other reasons, such as discrimination or life choices might seem like better explanations.  Another possibility to consider is that psychology students are not always enrolled in the psychology program, and might include a disproportionate number of female students early on, who are actually from other programs that list psychology as a requirement, and have a female dominated enrolment throughout (eg, nursing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the question is not entirely baseless.  More recent research has started to use alternative measures of intelligence that are not gender-corrected as standard IQ tests are.  This research does show gender bias in different sub-types of intelligence, and to some degree, overall intelligence.  From a &lt;a href=&quot;http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1331910/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2011 thesis&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;No uniform agreement exists about male advantage in general&#xA;  intelligence (‘g’) (e.g. Colom &amp;amp; Garcia-Lopez, 2002; Deary et al.,&#xA;  2003; Halpern et al., 2007; Jackson &amp;amp; Rushton, 2006; Lynn, 1999;&#xA;  Spelke, 2005), with historically no sex differences presumed, as&#xA;  evidenced by the development of standardised intelligence tests (e.g.&#xA;  Ackerman, 2006; Wechsler, 1944). Recent investigations have supplied&#xA;  contradicting data, with male advantage reported on various measures&#xA;  of Gf and Gc, such as General Knowledge Test (GKT), Raven’s Standard&#xA;  and Progressive Matrices (SPM) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale&#xA;  (WAIS) (cf. Lynn, Allik, &amp;amp; Irwing, 2004; Lynn, Irwing, &amp;amp; Cammock,&#xA;  2001; Lynn, Wilberg, &amp;amp; Margraf-Stiksrud, 2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper goes on to describe such a study, conducted on 85 undergraduate psychology students, that confirms the gender bias in &quot;g&quot; in that population as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-05-20T09:19:30.217" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10248" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11038" CreationDate="2015-05-20T14:06:02.943" Score="5" ViewCount="559" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering if the loss of vision or hearing early in life (say, before the age of 14 years) affects cognitive abilities later in life? I would imagine that as a group, early-blind or early-deaf people may tend to receive less education than the average healthy individual with normal sight and hearing skills? Given that most IQ tests rely on education-related subjects, would it be fair to conclude that sensory-deprived people, on average, may have lesser IQ, not because of their cognitive abilities &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;, but because they tend to receive less education?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-05-20T14:48:52.823" LastActivityDate="2016-12-15T05:09:57.207" Title="Does sensory deprivation affect cognitive abilities?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10249" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8853" CreationDate="2015-05-20T14:51:26.750" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could start with Hochner's papers, like this one:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hochner, B., Shomrat, T., &amp;amp; Fiorito, G. (2006). The octopus: a model for a comparative analysis of the evolution of learning and memory mechanisms. &lt;em&gt;The Biological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, 210(3), 308-317. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biolbull.org/content/210/3/308.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.biolbull.org/content/210/3/308.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, he is a world expert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6849" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-21T02:22:35.153" LastActivityDate="2015-05-21T02:22:35.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10251" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10234" CreationDate="2015-05-20T16:13:52.973" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Naps may help if you are so sleepy that you can't focus in learning/training anymore. More importantly however, even a short sleep gives start for the memory consolidation process. So all the things you learned before the nap, get better shielded against the new conflicting or overlapping information in future. Especially in procedural learning (e.g. fingers on guitar chords), which is slow, gets important boost by a training -&gt; consolidation -&gt; training -&gt; consolidation loop. Deep sleep (slow wave sleep at night) is more important, but already nap with light sleep phases (state II with k-complexes) will help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can search research papers for &quot;memory consolidation&quot; and &quot;sleep&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8396" LastActivityDate="2015-05-20T16:13:52.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10252" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10253" CreationDate="2015-05-20T18:30:53.660" Score="4" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would have liked to know what thoughts people get from various images, so that I could trigger targeted thought patterns with images.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An easy way to do this would be if I could find an online service that lets strangers &quot;tag&quot; my images with their own keywords. Especially if I could somehow count votes for each keyword/tag.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does there exist any kind of service like this?&#xA;Or does anyone know of a similar approach I could use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-20T23:30:49.583" LastActivityDate="2015-05-20T23:30:49.583" Title="Is there a way to have strangers tag my images?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10252" CreationDate="2015-05-20T22:04:15.167" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mturk.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Amazon Mechanical Turk&lt;/a&gt; is perfect for something like this.  In fact, &lt;a href=&quot;https://requester.mturk.com/tour/tagging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;tagging content&lt;/a&gt; is one of their default project types, so you should be able to just load in your images and use their template for tagging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you haven't seen it before, MTurk is basically a labor marketplace for very small tasks. It works best for paying people a few cents to complete very short tasks, but it is frequently used to recruit subjects for longer behavioral studies as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-05-20T22:04:15.167" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10254" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-21T02:50:12.030" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;While I admit that pet/frmri scanning is possibly reliable when measuring physical aspects of the body, I would like to know how reliable it is when measuring cognitive aspects e.g. emotion. How reliable and reproducible is it between different subjects and control subjects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: Just to clarify, I am asking if false positives are possible when dealing with detecting non-physical elements. To be very specific, I believe that research shows that the limbic lobe is the source of happiness in the brain. As far as I know, this was determined through neuroimaging of the brain not actual physical loss of a brain part and thus loss of happiness. So I want to know what the scientific consensus is on how reliable neuroimaging can be for detecting non-physical phenomena in the brain and how certain science is that the limbic lobe is the physical source of happiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8401" LastEditorUserId="8401" LastEditDate="2015-05-21T15:16:48.327" LastActivityDate="2015-05-21T15:16:48.327" Title="reliability of fmri and pet" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-05-21T16:41:36.480" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10255" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-21T03:41:44.603" Score="2" ViewCount="508" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has anyone every truly lost their sense of happiness or maybe love? I realize a negative condition like depression can make it seem like it is only possible for one to be sad.  &lt;strong&gt;Is it possible for depressed people to evoke the emotion of happiness within themselves?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, can depressed people recall the feeling of happiness by remembering a time when they were happy or thinking of something they enjoy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that if happiness can be evoked even once then they haven't lost the sense of it and maybe they can be trained to evoke it whenever by focusing on what is positive instead of what is negative. Much harder than it sounds I realize, you have to first believe you CAN be happy but I guess I am just asking if anyone lost happiness permanently, maybe through brain damage, or was born without it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8401" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-05-22T15:53:17.320" LastActivityDate="2015-06-23T06:13:20.653" Title="Can a depressed person experience the sense of happiness?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10258" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-21T14:31:21.273" Score="3" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does texture of paper (e.g.matt or glossy) of printed advertising materials affect the perception of brand image? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I've researched so far (&lt;a href=&quot;http://entermotion.com/blog/2014/01/this-evolutionary-theory-explains-why-we-prefer-glossy-things/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://entermotion.com/blog/2014/01/this-evolutionary-theory-explains-why-we-prefer-glossy-things/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psprint.com/resources/brochures-glossy-or-matte/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.psprint.com/resources/brochures-glossy-or-matte/&lt;/a&gt;), I found  research materials correlating paper weight and brand image but I did not find enough information on the topic of paper texture specifically. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastActivityDate="2015-05-21T14:31:21.273" Title="Tactile perception of printed advertising materials and brand image" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10259" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10264" CreationDate="2015-05-21T14:36:05.180" Score="2" ViewCount="247" Body="&lt;p&gt;Over the centuries, western cultures have developed dozens of swear words, insults and curse words that are intended to trigger acute negative affect in the recipient. If one particular word does not work, the insulter would typically cycle through the words until he/she finds the one that &quot;strikes a chord&quot; and causes the intended level of emotional distress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What interests me is that the right insult quickly triggers emotional pain. Unless a person knows how to mitigate the effect, the negative emotion is likely to stay with the person for minutes to hours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me ask - &lt;strong&gt;What are there opposite of insults for the purposes of triggering positive emotion that lingers on afterwards?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there some kind of word or action that instantly triggers positive emotions of equal magnitude? Terms like praise come to mind, but I'm not sure praise is as powerful as insults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2021-04-20T12:03:52.670" Title="What is the opposite of an insult for the purposes of triggering lasting positive affect?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10260" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-21T18:18:52.997" Score="5" ViewCount="281" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can find countless quotes like this&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In many countries chess is incorporated into the scholastic&#xA;  curriculum. Countless researchers and studies have shown over the&#xA;  years that chess does indeed strengthen a child's mental clarity,&#xA;  fortitude, stability, and overall health. In this technologically&#xA;  driven world, chess helps aid in the synthesis and growth of certain&#xA;  areas in the brain and mind where many children can benefit as they&#xA;  grow older from the game. &quot;It's all condensed in a playful manner in a&#xA;  game format and it's extremely fascinating because first of all I'm in&#xA;  control of my own destiny, I'm in charge. You have to be responsible&#xA;  for your actions, you make a move, you had better think ahead about&#xA;  what's going to happen, not after it happens, because then it's too&#xA;  late. Chess teaches discipline from a very early age. It teaches you&#xA;  to have a plan and to plan ahead. If you do that, you'll be rewarded&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These beilefs are so strong that even got &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_as_mental_training&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a recognition in Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/strategies/topics/thinking-skills/chess/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is another quote&lt;/a&gt; to highlight the gist of my question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Chess has a unique and strong brand attribute, in that it is generally&#xA;  perceived that playing chess and being smart are connected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not ask if chess really improve the mental performance. I am asking &lt;code&gt;Why are they considered unique/unmatched&lt;/code&gt; in this respect? Almost any game demands strengthening your intellect for careful planning of your moves. Why other games are less useful?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3177" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-08-25T23:00:14.270" LastActivityDate="2016-08-25T23:00:14.270" Title="Why is chess considered special for educating a mindful person?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;&lt;transfer&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10263" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-21T19:29:35.830" Score="5" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;Patients usually develop tolerance to their psychiatric medications when used over a long period of time. This is because of how the brain gets used to the dosage in order to reach equilibrium again. Are there any that have an anti-tolerance effect? Which means over time you would need less and less of the medication to get the same effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastActivityDate="2016-07-24T19:29:55.000" Title="Are there psychiatric medications that have an anti-tolerance effect?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10264" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10259" CreationDate="2015-05-21T23:19:43.833" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The words we use have no inherent capacity to evoke negative or positive affect.  Instead, how we appraise, reappraise, attend to, and reflect on those words determines our affective response (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.apa.org/psycinfo/1998-10496-003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gross, 1998&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/emo/7/3/592/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Siemer, Mauss, &amp;amp; Gross, 2007&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, you could tell one person &quot;You are stupid&quot; and he/she might become extremely upset.  You could tell another person the same thing, and he/she would have no affective response.  Similarly, telling someone &quot;You are nice&quot; could make someone very happy or not change his/her mood at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So how can we predict who will respond most intensely?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=gqi5hA8AAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Philippe Verduyn&lt;/a&gt;  and colleagues (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/emo/9/1/83/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/emo/11/1/20/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2011&lt;/a&gt;) have looked at predictors of greater emotion response duration, which include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salience_%28neuroscience%29#Salience_in_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;salience&lt;/a&gt; of the emotion-eliciting event&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How you conceptualize your positive/negative affect (joy lasts longer than anger, which lasts longer than fear)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Intensity of the emotion at onset &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Physical reappearances of the emotion-eliciting stimulus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stimulus-related cognitions with the same valence as the emotion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social sharing (consistent with &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=qE0UjjsAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bernard Rimé's&lt;/a&gt; work)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How one chooses to regulate their emotions in response to an insult or compliment would also influence emotion reactivity and duration, including tendency to distract oneself from the stimulus (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycarticles/2012-30627-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sheppes et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;) or skill in reappraising the situation (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092656611001437&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;McRae et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We would also expect depressive rumination (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=susan+nolen-hoeksema&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;as_sdt=1%2C44&amp;amp;as_sdtp=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Susan Nolen-Hoeksema's work&lt;/a&gt;) and positive rumination or savoring (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10608-006-9083-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Feldman, Joormann, &amp;amp; Johnson, 2008&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886910001820&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Quoidbach, Berry, Hansenne, &amp;amp; Mikolajczak, 2010&lt;/a&gt;) to predict intensity of responses to insults and compliments, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the point is that &lt;strong&gt;there are no special words or phrases that will reliably evoke some level of positive affect&lt;/strong&gt;.  Instead, the emotional intensity evoked by a stimulus depends on the salience of the stimulus, proximity to the stimulus, and individual differences in emotional responding (i.e., reactivity and regulation; see &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/3/1/8.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gross &amp;amp; Barrett, 2011&lt;/a&gt;).  If you take these into account, you can devise more powerful insults and compliments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-05-22T15:32:23.130" LastActivityDate="2015-05-22T15:32:23.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10265" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-22T10:34:42.703" Score="8" ViewCount="1602" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my own little study I am trying to describe the personalities of different persons I know personally, by adding traits to them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Among other traits, I am looking for those who have a high need for cognition (&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_cognition&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_cognition&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My challenge is: Those 3 people that I know have high NFC are all introverts, who don't tell others much of their thoughts. This means you need to know them very well or for a long time in order to recognize their NFC. This again implies that I don't really know for sure if anyone else I know have high NFC....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me question 2 things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any correlation between NFC and extraversion?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any way to recognize or measure people on NFC, without asking them questions? Maybe some kind of typical behavior or attitude for these people?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2016-09-18T21:00:47.153" Title="How to recognize people with high need for cognition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10266" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-22T12:45:26.253" Score="10" ViewCount="209" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can emotional IQ be learned? This question concerns both the general population and those with lower than average emotional quotients such as individuals with Asperger's, or Autism spectrum disorder for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastActivityDate="2019-07-02T13:49:43.257" Title="Can emotional IQ be learned?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10267" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-22T13:58:33.113" Score="5" ViewCount="381" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a set of fMRI images (.nii.gz). Now I want to infer the in-plane resolution and the slice thickness. Can this information and perhaps additional information be retrieved with FSL or Matlab? And yes, how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or can I calculate it somehow?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8353" LastEditorUserId="8353" LastEditDate="2015-05-22T14:32:45.430" LastActivityDate="2016-04-14T23:51:26.610" Title="fMRI images: In-plane resolution, slice thickness" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10268" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10255" CreationDate="2015-05-22T15:59:00.250" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For &quot;permanent&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhedonia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;loss of experience of happiness or pleasure, check out the term Anhedonia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my own understanding, a brain can shift between different states of mind. Depression is just one such state. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8601/how-other-than-pharmacotherapy-can-those-diagnosed-with-thought-disorders-be-t/8630#8630&quot;&gt;I have a more detailed answer about states of mind here&lt;/a&gt;, but the important point is that states of mind color perception of past, present and future. Your life situation, relationships, bank account and job all stay the same, happiness just provides a different outlook on them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thinking happy thoughts in a depressed state would not be enough to change the state and experience happiness. &lt;strong&gt;There are two ways I know of that can bring back the experience of joy, content or happiness&lt;/strong&gt; while feeling depressed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Having a prolonged (30 min) conversation about topics that are meaningful to you with a receptive audience (friend, therapist, or writing in a diary). The focus is on explaining the concepts to another person.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pharmacologically disrupting the state through the use of medications (long term) or drugs (short term)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-05-22T15:59:00.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10269" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-23T16:44:51.240" Score="7" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wanted to know what a suitable classical conditioning experiment would be to analyze learning and memory capabilities in rodent models with respect to hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I want to subject the animal to conditioning and test the behavioral readout at a certain time point after conditioning. Many , like fear conditioning experiments, are mostly attributed to amygdala processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wish to know some classical conditioning task where I can understand primarily hippocampal processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also is there a way to monitor hippocampal CA1-CA3 firing pattern after the training period or during the training ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, I want to check if LTP will sustain after the training period or is there is any increased sustenance of LTP post training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if I am to do this electrophysiological experiment in hippocampal brain slices, how will I incorporate the conditioned and unconditioned aspect to this ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8417" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-06-02T09:59:43.787" LastActivityDate="2015-06-02T09:59:43.787" Title="Classical conditioning paradigm for hippocampal learning" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10270" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20172" CreationDate="2015-05-24T04:01:25.993" Score="7" ViewCount="760" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read recently in the book &quot;meet your happy chemicals&quot; that the hormones of puberty are neurochemicals that cause your neurons to connect and myelinate more easily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is true have any studies been done to see if injecting those same hormones into the body of an adult enables a similar rate of accelerated learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-25T00:06:22.380" LastActivityDate="2018-07-11T06:45:57.960" Title="Have any drugs been shown to increase the neuroplasticity of adult brains?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10271" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10793" CreationDate="2015-05-24T09:12:20.813" Score="2" ViewCount="1049" Body="&lt;p&gt;As we say when we feel happy there are some biological explanation of some feelings like happiness and sadness as they explain &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201211/the-neurochemicals-happiness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I say whatever we feel can be explained in biological way, so what about when one feel lazy? In the way that he/she is having no motivation (not due to lack of energy). Is there any biological explanation of someone being lazy like no motivation to do anything and that remain for long time say months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: this website &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2006/12/06/chronic-fatigue-or-chronic-laziness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;describes&lt;/a&gt; the kind of laziness I am too talking about, and I quote from this website: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am really tired [...] my entire life. Every morning when I wake up my first thought is “I wonder when I can take a nap”. Even while I’m thinking it I realize the futility in this thought; I haven’t actually taken a “nap” in&#xA;  months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8425" LastEditorUserId="8425" LastEditDate="2015-05-24T11:20:20.340" LastActivityDate="2016-02-26T22:29:11.663" Title="Is there explanation of persistent laziness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10272" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8727" CreationDate="2015-05-24T09:30:17.190" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schizophrenia has no cure, which means you cannot &quot;force&quot; it to stop. However, not every case is lifelong by nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Information on schizophrenia prognosis: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prognosis_of_schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prognosis_of_schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;A clinical study using strict recovery criteria (concurrent remission&#xA;  of positive and negative symptoms and adequate social and vocational&#xA;  functioning continuously for two years) found a recovery rate of 14%&#xA;  within the first five years.[17] A 5-year community study found that&#xA;  62% showed overall improvement on a composite measure of clinical and&#xA;  functional outcomes.[18]&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some tellings from people who have come through: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.topix.com/forum/health/schizophrenia/TL09TM53OI68I1IVI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.topix.com/forum/health/schizophrenia/TL09TM53OI68I1IVI&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-05-24T09:30:17.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10275" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-24T21:20:46.793" Score="3" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;While working on my amateur studies on personality differences, I use both Big 5 and MBTI to map traits. Using the MBTI theories I can fairly easy recognize the &quot;Sensing&quot; personalities, those who prefer experience and physical activities above philosophy and creativity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trying to map MBTI to Big 5 I suddenly realised I have no idea how the Sensing trait correlates with Big 5 traits.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;So my question is: Do these preferences show in Big 5? If so, where?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a quick description on Sensing personalities, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gradschools.com/get-informed/before-you-apply/choosing-what-study/sensing-and-intuition-meyers-briggs-type-indicator-mbti&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.gradschools.com/get-informed/before-you-apply/choosing-what-study/sensing-and-intuition-meyers-briggs-type-indicator-mbti&lt;/a&gt; )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-08-09T06:54:56.687" Title="Does Big 5 measure preferences for physical activity?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10276" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9946" CreationDate="2015-05-25T02:49:57.407" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, after doing some more research, I've found some more examples of Cognitive Science being presented from a sort of technical perspective or with a technical emphasis (instead of a &quot;pure science&quot;, social science or medical science perspective). They are the following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dtu.dk/english/Education/msc/Programmes/mathematical_modelling_and_computation/Focus-areas/Cognitive-Science-and-Technology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.dtu.dk/english/Education/msc/Programmes/mathematical_modelling_and_computation/Focus-areas/Cognitive-Science-and-Technology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The others are the Rensselaer Cognitive Science Dept. in the USA and the Cognitive Science Masters in the Applied Informatics Dept. in Bratislava, Slovakia (can't post more links).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides these there are broadly conceived Cognitive Science Depts. which have at least 2 or 3 areas devoted to more technical research or projects like for example Cognitive Science in Osnabrück, Germany or the &quot;Cogmaster&quot; in Paris, France.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think these are examples of programs that provide professional and technical projection after their studies besides that of an academic career. This for me helps clarify the association between Cognitive Science and Computer Science and its potential, given that this is how this field started and how it differentiates itself from Psychology as the study of the mind and behavior. Cheers!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8246" LastActivityDate="2015-05-25T02:49:57.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="619" CreationDate="2015-05-25T21:29:55.887" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, you need to keep in mind that what one would consider &quot;random&quot; might not be &quot;random&quot; for another person. On one extreme, some scientists believe the brain is operating essentially deterministically (thermal/quantum noise is too small), that is, if you know the &quot;precise&quot; state of the brain and its environment, you can predict its future states for a very long time. Regardless of the truth of that statement, neural signals are effectively random due to our lack of knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, you specifically asked if a neuron can make random responses regardless of synaptic input. Yes, it can.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There have been many controlled current injections to neurons. For example, in the figure below, &lt;strong&gt;repeated trials with exactly same current step show slight differences in the spike trains&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ixnrz.png&quot; alt=&quot;From Mainen and Sejnowski, Science 1995&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Thermal fluctuations of channels can cause spontaneous fluctuations in the membrane potential.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There are spontaneously firing neurons (no synaptic input necessary). (See &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/a/15259/460&quot;&gt;https://biology.stackexchange.com/a/15259/460&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Figure from: Mainen, Z. F. and Sejnowski, T. J. (1995). &lt;strong&gt;Reliability of spike timing in neocortical neurons&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 268(5216):1503-1506.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2015-05-25T22:49:35.073" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10278" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10284" CreationDate="2015-05-25T22:31:16.570" Score="4" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are the terms for brain divisions based off of embryonic development (e.g. prosencephalon, diencephalon) used for mature brain divisions? (e.g. forebrain, interbrain). For example, would it be wrong to say that the cortex of an adult human a part of their &quot;prosencephalon&quot;/&quot;telencephalon&quot;? I've seen texts refer to the &quot;telencephalon&quot; of an adult brain, though it has mostly been in a developmental context--and from my experience I haven't seen it explicitly stated when to use either term so I'm not fully sure if they're synonymous. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastActivityDate="2019-09-11T07:43:11.800" Title="Are brain sub-divisions based off embryonic development used when describing mature brains?" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10279" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10283" CreationDate="2015-05-25T23:15:16.293" Score="8" ViewCount="39867" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the brain proper, grey matter forms the outer layer of the brain, and white matter forms the inner layer. In the spine, this is reversed: white matter forms the outer layer of the spine, and grey matter the inner layer. Is there a developmental or functional reason for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastActivityDate="2016-07-21T12:33:10.717" Title="Why is the order of white/grey matter different in the brain and spinal cord?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10281" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-26T05:49:07.523" Score="2" ViewCount="371" Body="&lt;p&gt;So my girlfriend is not what you would call a fast reader. She understands completely what she reads, but she reads rather slowly. I'm trying to be a good boyfriend and help her out with this, but the only two things I can think of that would help are getting her to read a lot and maybe being read to. I know in my personal experience that being read to helped to improve my reading speed but I may just be an outlier.&#xA;I guess what I'm trying to say is this: &quot;is being read to actually something that improves reading speed?&quot; and &quot;other than the aforementioned methods, are there other ways to improve reading speed?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Cyberson" LastActivityDate="2015-06-03T10:37:16.053" Title="Does being read to improve reading speed?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10282" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10281" CreationDate="2015-05-26T09:09:57.580" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't see why simply being read to would improve your girlfriend's reading speed; after all, except for the possibility that she might thereby be exposed to more literary language than she usually encounters in speech, it would be little different from hearing someone narrating a documentary or describing something on the radio. (Here, I am disregarding the benefits from potentially  strengthening the bond between you in the course of reading to her.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without knowing exactly why your girlfriend's reading speed is low, I can only make the preliminary suggestion that if you do decide to read to her, you do so from your copy of the text in question, and have her simultaneously follow it in her own copy. That would at least give her the experience of (I assume) reading faster than normal without the pressure of struggling to decipher the words by herself at a rate that she would find uncomfortable or onerous, and perhaps begin to give her the sense that she could read faster if she wanted to, or if she actively decided to try to speed up her reading. It will, of course, help quite a bit if you are able to read aloud without stumbling, and can make your delivery expressive and engaging. It is also  highly desirable that the text you are reading is entertaining to her, and/or that it corresponds to what she finds interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are really some other questions that should be answered before you draw any conclusions about the best method for increasing her reading speed. For instance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) How does your girlfriend's reading speed &lt;em&gt;actually&lt;/em&gt; compare with the average? Is it in the normal range, or is it exceptionally slow?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Does she noticeably struggle to read, or does she just read at a speed that is comfortable for her?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) Does your girlfriend subjectively consider her reading speed to be a problem? Objectively speaking, is it an obstacle in some necessary aspect of everyday life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) If she struggles to read, what is the underlying reason? Is it merely lack of practice, or does she have dyslexia or some other cognitive obstacle?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there seems to be some reason to suspect the latter, then some kind of professional input may be required.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this is helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8438" LastEditorUserId="8438" LastEditDate="2015-05-26T09:54:53.877" LastActivityDate="2015-05-26T09:54:53.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10283" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10279" CreationDate="2015-05-26T12:43:45.740" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll tackle this question from a &lt;strong&gt;functional&lt;/strong&gt; point of view. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gray matter are cell bodies, white matter are myelinated fiber tracts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the brain, the gray matter is basically the cortex, the white matter lies mainly underneath it. The Cortex is the place where all the higher mental &lt;strong&gt;processing&lt;/strong&gt; takes place (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YrwUI.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;cortex&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Cortical functions. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pennmedicine.org/health_info/body_guide/reftext/html/nerv_sys_fin.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Penn Medicine&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The white matter in the brain connects the various parts of the cortex so that information can be transported for further processing and integrated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wjtYo.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;white matter&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Central white matter. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002344.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIH Medline&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the cortex is the 'processor', it makes sense to connect the parts subcortically (more efficient as it leads to shorter connections). However, the cortex has been expanding very late in evolution, so this 'endpoint reasoning' can be contested, because from an evolutionary perspective, more cortex was needed and hence it was expanded right where it happened to be, namely in the outer part of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the spinal chord things are pretty much reversed; grey matter within, white matter around it (Fig. 3). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XESUZ.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;gray white matter spinal chord&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 3. Section through spinal chord with central grey matter and surrounding white matter. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.med.umich.edu/lrc/coursepages/m1/anatomy2010/html/modules/NS_overview_module/NS_Overview_07.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;University of Michigan&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The white matter, again, is formed by various tracts (Fig. 4) and the grey matter with parts that are processing information (fig. 5). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mkYNf.png&quot; alt=&quot;spinal tracts&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 4. Section through spinal chord showing the spinal tracts forming the white matter. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/2864/spinal-cord-do-the-axons-from-white-matter-synapse-with-the-cell-bodies-in-grey&quot;&gt;Biology.SE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/E24eh.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Spinal reflex archs&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; &lt;sup&gt;Fig. 5. Section through spinal chord showing the spinal reflex arches forming the gray matter. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apsubiology.org/anatomy/2010/2010_Exam_Reviews/Exam_4_Review/CH_12_Internal_Anatomy_of_the_Spinal_Cord.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APSU Biology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The white matter in the spinal chord constitutes the various sensory and motor pathways to and from the brain, respectively. The gray matter constitutes basic processing nuclei that form the reflex arches in the spinal chord. These reflex arches process incoming sensory information (e.g. pain) and govern motor output (e.g., pulling the hand away from the fire). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, the structure makes sense in terms of efficiency, as the reflex arches combine the sensory and motor tracts to govern reflexes, and therefore processing them from within saves space.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2015-05-26T12:52:05.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10284" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10278" CreationDate="2015-05-26T13:13:33.777" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my point of view, the terminology regarding the early three vesicles &lt;a href=&quot;http://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s2/chapter01.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;prosencephalon&lt;/em&gt;,  (forebrain), &lt;em&gt;mesencephalon&lt;/em&gt; (midbrain), and &lt;em&gt;rhombencephalon&lt;/em&gt; (hindbrain) as well as the later developmental structures arising from these structures, namely &lt;em&gt;telencephalon&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;diencephalon&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;mesencephalon&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;metencephalon&lt;/em&gt;, and the &lt;em&gt;myelencephalon&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; are mainly of use when discussing &lt;strong&gt;embryonic development&lt;/strong&gt;. Alternatively it can be sensible to group various brain structures according to embryonic origin when discussing, e.g., infants with &lt;strong&gt;developmental brain disorders&lt;/strong&gt;, with the origin very early in development. In this case the congregate of brain structures arising from an early embryonic vesicle may be affected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen authors swinging around these anatomical terms outside the context of development and quite frankly, it often doesn't make sense and only complicates matters as one has to trace back the structures arising from it later in life. Not being an anatomist, my humble opinion would be, wherever possible, to avoid these terms.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-09-11T07:43:11.800" LastActivityDate="2019-09-11T07:43:11.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10286" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8727" CreationDate="2015-05-26T14:18:55.433" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to this systemic review (:the most objective kind of evidence come from reviews of studies not primary sources:) 1 in 7 schizophrenia patients met criteria for recovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/814844&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/814844&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Recovery in Schizophrenia:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions:&lt;/strong&gt; Based on the best available data, approximately, 1 in 7 individuals with schizophrenia met our criteria for recovery. Despite major changes in treatment options in recent decades, the proportion of recovered cases has not increased. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/814844&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/814844&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8439" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-02-07T15:56:30.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10287" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10281" CreationDate="2015-05-26T14:33:09.967" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would recommend two solutions. One is that you learn to read for understanding not speed unless it is a fluffy novel. You can read fluff at light speed because there is nothing there to challenge understanding. You have to read differently for different subjects and types of material. A book that is an incredible help for learning to read different subjects and materials is &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0671212095&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.com/How-Read-Book-Intelligent-Touchstone/dp/0671212095&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&quot;How to read a book: a guide to intelligent reading&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is one solution the other is, figure out what substance might fix some sort of deficit of substances in the brain. For me having had schizoaffective I had a deficit of pregnenolone in my hippocampus. I learned about this substance by researching my illness and reading from others with similar experiences on the forums at forum.schizophrenia.com &#xA;So: If you think pregnenolone is in short supply then you could get it real cheap at great quality at pipingrock.com I only take half of a 50 mg dose. Do your research on this and other nootropics, that is what cognition enhancing substances are called, then experiment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was a slow reader, it could take me an hour to read a page in my academic text for social problems and solutions course and I would fall asleep and not read anything, now I can read anything without getting tired for hours because I found what my brain needed. Preg helps others with out the deficit too so it might be worth a try. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8439" LastActivityDate="2015-05-26T14:33:09.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10288" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1263" CreationDate="2015-05-26T15:36:44.523" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge, with respect to the context of the question, the &lt;strong&gt;first neural-like model of computations capable of learning&lt;/strong&gt; – or, for that matter, computational model of neural processing and learning – has been put forward in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aemea.org/math/McCulloch_Pitts_1943.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;McCulloch/Pitts (1943)&lt;/a&gt;, as is also acknowledged in some of the texts about Turing's unorganized machines (&lt;em&gt;›A-/B-type neural networks‹&lt;/em&gt;). Turing does not refer to this paper in his 1948 report, however, constituting a central reference for Rosenblatt's perceptrons, the McCulloch/Pitts paper is also regularly ignored in historic accounts of connectionism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Turing's original unorganized machines are generally recognized as having some limitations with regard to certain logical operations such as XOR (cf. e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.teuscher.ch/christof/download/papers/teuscher00_ncpw6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Teuscher/Sanchez 2001&lt;/a&gt;). In this respect (which for brevity may just be called one of historical narrative) they are similar to the perceptron. Thus, it seems safe to assume that at least &lt;strong&gt;connectionism surpassed B-type unorganized machines&lt;/strong&gt; when it was shown how to implement such functions (e.g. in the infamous Minsky/Papert 1969 – mind that this does not necessarily imply a general logical shortcoming of the original models).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The relatively few &lt;strong&gt;papers that have addressed the topic over the last 20 years&lt;/strong&gt; have indeed expressed the observation that Turings unorganized machines have been largely neglected and thus constitute an interesting topic for more detailed analysis – but see Teuscher (2002) for a monograph on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Boccato, L., Soares, E. S., Fernandes, M. M. L. P., Soriano, D. C., &amp;amp; Attux, R. (2011). Unorganized Machines: From Turing’s Ideas to Modern Connectionist Approaches. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Natural Computing Research&lt;/em&gt;, 2(4).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Copeland, B. J., &amp;amp; Proudfoot, D. (1996). On Alan Turing's anticipation of connectionism. &lt;em&gt;Synthese&lt;/em&gt;, 108(3), 361–377. doi: 10.1007/BF00413694&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Copeland, B. J., &amp;amp; Proudfoot, D. (1999). Alan Turing's Forgotten Ideas in Computer Science. &lt;em&gt;Scientific American&lt;/em&gt;(280), 99–103.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• McCulloch, W. S., &amp;amp; Pitts, W. (1943). A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity. &lt;em&gt;Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics&lt;/em&gt;, 5, 115–133.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Minsky, M., &amp;amp; Papert, S. (1969). &lt;em&gt;Perceptrons. An Introduction to Computational Geometry&lt;/em&gt;. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Teuscher, C. (2002). &lt;em&gt;Turing’s Connectionism. An Investigation of Neural Network Architectures&lt;/em&gt;. London: Springer-Verlag.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Teuscher, C., &amp;amp; Sanchez, E. (2001). A Revival of Turing’s Forgotten Connectionist Ideas: Exploring Unorganized Machines. In R. M. French &amp;amp; J. P. Sougné (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Connectionist Models of Learning, Development and Evolution&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 153–162): Springer London.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Webster, C. S. (2012). Alan Turing’s unorganized machines and artificial neural networks: his remarkable early work and future possibilities. &lt;em&gt;Evolutionary Intelligence&lt;/em&gt;, 5(1), 35-43. doi: 10.1007/s12065-011-0060-5&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8427" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2015-05-26T17:39:10.697" LastActivityDate="2015-05-26T17:39:10.697" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10289" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10281" CreationDate="2015-05-26T17:04:29.480" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The way to improve your (or your girlfriend's) reading speed, is to, well, read faster. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are courses available do this by forcing your eyes along a passage by either highlighting or displaying a word or groups of words for a set amount of time. As you progress through the course, the time between word groups gets shorter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many resources online for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/?gws_rd=ssl#q=speed+reading+online+course&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;speed reading courses&lt;/a&gt;. You should be able to find free courses pretty easily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another tool is http: // www . spritzlet . com (I don't have the rep for this link), which will display single words for a user-set amount of time. This tool is very useful, since it also highlights the middle of the word, increasing shape recognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These tools can also help her get a baseline for what other answerers have mentioned: How is her average speed in general? Google says 300 words per minute is average. That's just a little bit more than a full page of double-spaced, 12-point text on a letter-sized page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will tell you that reading quickly has less to do with comprehension in general and more to do with word recognition. How many times have you read a page in a book, but not absorbed it? Have her read &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ecenglish.com/learnenglish/lessons/can-you-read&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paragraph&lt;/a&gt;. If she can do it (even slowly), then she probably doesn't have a problem with word recognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8441" LastActivityDate="2015-05-26T17:04:29.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10290" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-26T17:42:37.293" Score="0" ViewCount="230" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many animals do 'brave' things to protect their children or family, and some male spiders sacrifice themselves so that they can impregnate the females. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, humans commit suicide without necessarily any intention to help their kin. Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8442" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-27T17:02:00.540" LastActivityDate="2015-05-27T17:02:00.540" Title="Why is it that only humans commit suicide?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10291" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10290" CreationDate="2015-05-26T19:27:28.520" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Such behavior does exist in the wider animal world, not just in humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See the Wikipedia page on &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_suicide&quot;&gt;Animal Suicide&lt;/a&gt;, particularly the section titled &quot;Suicidal behavior&quot;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(if you have done any preliminary research on this, be aware that your question doesn't reflect it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a number of linked studies in that section, some of which may give you good or relevant information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What it comes down to is twofold:    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We can't reasonably say that animals are pursuing suicidal behavior for similar reasons that humans do, as we don't have a good enough view into the cognitions of other animals, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We still don't fully understand the etiology of suicide (much less depression!) in humans, either, which confounds the entire issue.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="46" LastActivityDate="2015-05-26T19:27:28.520" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10292" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8635" CreationDate="2015-05-26T20:55:33.043" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;There was a significantly &lt;strong&gt;higher level of plasma testosterone in the&#xA;  aggressive group&lt;/strong&gt; as compared with the nonaggressive group or with the&#xA;  other two groups combined. &lt;strong&gt;The socially dominant group also had a&#xA;  significantly higher level of testosterone&lt;/strong&gt; than the nonaggressive&#xA;  group.&quot;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/psychosomaticmedicine/Abstract/1974/11000/Plasma_Testosterone__Correlation_with_Aggressive.2.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journals.lww.com/psychosomaticmedicine/Abstract/1974/11000/Plasma_Testosterone__Correlation_with_Aggressive.2.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Analysis of archival data from 4,462 U.S. military veterans supported&#xA;  the first hypothesis: &lt;strong&gt;Testosterone was correlated with a variety of&#xA;  antisocial behaviors&lt;/strong&gt; among all individuals.&quot;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/1/3/209.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/1/3/209.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Plasma testosterone levels did not differ in fighting and nonfighting&#xA;  individuals. Although there were significant correlations between&#xA;  psychologic tests, the test scales did not correlate either with&#xA;  plasma testosterone or with fighting behavior. The 10 prisoners with&#xA;  histories of more violent and aggressive crimes in adolescence had a&#xA;  significantly higher level of testosterone than the 11 prisoners&#xA;  without such a history. An hypothesis is presented that &lt;strong&gt;within a&#xA;  population that is predisposed by virtue of social factors to develop&#xA;  antisocial behaviors, levels of testosterone may be an important&#xA;  additional factor in placing individuals at risk to commit more&#xA;  aggressive crimes in adolescence&lt;/strong&gt;.&quot;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/psychosomaticmedicine/Abstract/1972/07000/Assessment_of_Aggressive_Behavior_and_Plasma.6.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journals.lww.com/psychosomaticmedicine/Abstract/1972/07000/Assessment_of_Aggressive_Behavior_and_Plasma.6.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Statistically &lt;strong&gt;significant changes in MMPI–2 scale scores were found&#xA;  at 3-month follow-up after initiating testosterone treatment relative&#xA;  to baseline for transgender men&lt;/strong&gt; compared with female controls (female&#xA;  template): reductions in Hypochondria (p &amp;lt; .05), Depression (p &amp;lt; .05),&#xA;  Hysteria (p &amp;lt; .05), and Paranoia (p &amp;lt; .01); and increases in&#xA;  Masculinity–Femininity scores (p &amp;lt; .01).&quot;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2014-32641-001/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2014-32641-001/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Baron-Cohen and his colleagues recently found that &lt;strong&gt;giving testosterone&#xA;  to women decreases their ability to empathize&lt;/strong&gt;, particularly among&#xA;  women whose bodies show evidence that they were exposed to higher&#xA;  levels of testosterone in utero. And &lt;strong&gt;previous research has linked high&#xA;  levels of testosterone in the womb to autistic traits&lt;/strong&gt;. (Interestingly,&#xA;  in-utero exposure to testosterone can be estimated by looking at the&#xA;  ratio between the length of the ring finger and index finger.)&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://healthland.time.com/2011/05/18/study-why-some-transgendered-people-have-higher-levels-of-autistic-traits/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://healthland.time.com/2011/05/18/study-why-some-transgendered-people-have-higher-levels-of-autistic-traits/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;- &#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Contrary to what many believe:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;No direct associations were found between testosterone and solitary or&#xA;  dyadic sexual desire.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eje-online.org/content/165/2/331.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.eje-online.org/content/165/2/331.full.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Some transgender people say they have changes parts of their personality, but I've found no studies to prove this.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Chris Edwards, a trans advertising executive, says that&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;post-transition, he was given greater levels of responsibility&lt;/strong&gt;—but he&#xA;  thinks it’s because the testosterone he took changed his behavior. &lt;strong&gt;He&#xA;  became less timid and more outspoken—and was seen, at work, as more of&#xA;  a leader&lt;/strong&gt;. Indeed, &lt;em&gt;some suggest that transmen might experience these&#xA;  workplace benefits partly because, post-transition, they are happier&#xA;  and more comfortable, and that this confidence leads to greater&#xA;  workplace success. But if that’s the case, one would expect that&#xA;  transwomen, armed with this same newfound confidence, would see&#xA;  benefits. The opposite seems to be true&lt;/em&gt;. &quot;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newrepublic.com/article/119239/transgender-people-can-explain-why-women-dont-advance-work&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.newrepublic.com/article/119239/transgender-people-can-explain-why-women-dont-advance-work&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Now that we’re roughly &lt;strong&gt;two years into the process there has been a&#xA;  dramatic change in personality&lt;/strong&gt;. This was expected, I knew there would&#xA;  be highs and lows because the process takes a huge toll. However now&#xA;  she just treats everyone like garbage. The whole world absolutely has&#xA;  to revolve around her. No one can be right unless it happens to be&#xA;  from her prospective. She exemplifies all of the negative stereotypes&#xA;  of both transgender people and women. &lt;strong&gt;The personality change went from&#xA;  laid back punk rocker to being what I can only sum up as a stuck up&#xA;  diva&lt;/strong&gt;.&quot;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100430043917AAYcyD8&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100430043917AAYcyD8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that stories like the one above may have several possible causes, including identity changes (suddenly seeing oneself as a different gender), depression (generally bad mood) or placebo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-05-27T10:44:15.300" LastActivityDate="2015-05-27T10:44:15.300" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10293" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-27T05:13:36.487" Score="1" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;Being a bugging AI and CogSci researcher, I have so far found J.Andersons Act-R based ITS (Intelligent tutoring system) model, it seems very laborious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any good current day Cognitive Architecture to design an intelligent system such as interactive tutoring systems which can be used to assist students in solving exercises and in improving problem solving skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8194" LastEditorUserId="15161" LastEditDate="2017-03-06T07:22:51.967" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T07:22:51.967" Title="Is there any good Cognitive Architecture to model intelligent tutoring system?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10294" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10070" CreationDate="2015-05-27T17:17:26.603" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ajnr.org/content/19/7/1361.long&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biondi et al. (1998)&lt;/a&gt; compared MR images of monozygotic twins and found that while the brains of monozygotic twins are not identical, they are similar. Relevant for understanding the concordance rate of schizophrenia in  monozygotic twins, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199003223221201&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Suddath et al. (1990)&lt;/a&gt; examined MR images of monozygotic twins who where discordant for schizophrenia. They found that the schizophrenic twin had enlarge cerebral ventricles and subtle anatomical abnormalities although the study seems to lack a control group of either both schizophrenic, both normal, or discordant on some other disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2015-05-27T17:17:26.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10295" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10281" CreationDate="2015-05-27T21:38:57.060" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no scientific proof that being read at an adult age enhances reading speed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;strong&gt;slow readers read faster when the format of a document is enhanced&lt;/strong&gt;. Is your partner more responsive to a specific background color, a particular contrast or a particular font? Such &lt;strong&gt;visu-attentional factors&lt;/strong&gt; play a fundamental role in our ability to read. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may want to investigate the &lt;strong&gt;letter spacing&lt;/strong&gt; effect for example. It has been shown that children with dyslexia read faster and with less errors when a paragraph is less crowded. Here are two paragraphs written with the exact same font (spacing between lines and spacing between letters are wider in the second paragraph, with an extra space between words). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the image:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pYwHs.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a ton of other possibilities that can be tested using a word processor such as Microsoft Word (spacing is sometimes called kerning), or activating the Accessibility option in Mac's preferences. What you have to keep in mind is that, once you find a combination that feels OK, &lt;strong&gt;reading a lot makes you read faster&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;REF: Zorzi et al. (PNAS, 2012). Extra-large letter spacing improves reading in dyslexia.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/28/11455.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/28/11455.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastEditorUserId="3167" LastEditDate="2015-06-03T10:37:16.053" LastActivityDate="2015-06-03T10:37:16.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10296" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-28T01:54:11.880" Score="3" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &quot;metaphor&quot; seems to be just the discourse-level result of a conceptual blend. If you're more of a Lakoff-guy, I could see you claiming &quot;metaphor&quot;, especially a &quot;conceptual metaphor&quot; to be the same as a conceptual blend. However, I'm not sure if this claim is wrong. Is there a large difference between these two concepts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastActivityDate="2015-05-28T01:54:11.880" Title="What's the difference between metaphor and conceptual blending?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;anthropology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-07-18T16:29:35.143" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10297" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-28T07:29:43.240" Score="14" ViewCount="15374" Body="&lt;p&gt;IQ tests have been around since Binet invented them in the early 20th century roughly 100 years ago. The point of the test was to measure your mental against your chronological age (hence the quotient) and then multiplied by 100, so that the average person's IQ was supposedly 100.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen several claims (including &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390444032404578006612858486012&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt;) that IQs have risen steadily at about 3 points per decade since the early 1900s. So roughly 10 decades at 3 points each makes for what today ought to be a 130 point IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most tests today though, still score you on percentiles based on an average score of 100 points. How can these facts be consistent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7507" LastActivityDate="2020-06-29T03:10:43.253" Title="Is the average IQ still 100?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10298" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10297" CreationDate="2015-05-28T08:01:57.363" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intelligence Quotient is a relative score, comparing you to the current average. It is not a fixed, raw intelligence score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When current IQ tests are developed, the median raw score of the&#xA;  norming sample is defined as IQ 100 and scores each standard deviation&#xA;  (SD) up or down are defined as 15 IQ points greater or less,[2]&#xA;  although this was not always so historically. By this definition,&#xA;  approximately two-thirds of the population scores between IQ 85 and IQ&#xA;  115, and about 5 percent of the population scores above 125.[3][4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Raw scores on IQ tests for many populations have been rising at an average rate that scales to three IQ points per decade since the early 20th&#xA;  century, a phenomenon called the Flynn effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Since the early 20th century, raw scores on IQ tests have&#xA;  increased in most parts of the world.[45][46][47] When a new version&#xA;  of an IQ test is normed, the standard scoring is set so performance at&#xA;  the population median results in a score of IQ 100. The phenomenon of&#xA;  rising raw score performance means if test-takers are scored by a&#xA;  constant standard scoring rule, IQ test scores have been rising at an&#xA;  average rate of around three IQ points per decade. This phenomenon was&#xA;  named the Flynn effect in the book The Bell Curve after James R.&#xA;  Flynn, the author who did the most to bring this phenomenon to the&#xA;  attention of psychologists.[48][49]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to various IQ tests giving varying scores, each of them is also standardized to the current average intelligence score. So every test can give you a different score.&#xA;Put in other words: An old IQ-test will compare you to what was average IQ at the time the test was standardized - which may be lower than todays average.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-05-28T08:01:57.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10299" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-28T08:08:23.893" Score="4" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need some decent explanations/descriptions for each of the 30 Big5 facets, like a1, a2, a3 etc etc.&#xA;I have been googling around for it, but all I have found are very short descriptions that vary too much.&#xA;There must be some kind of official, scientific definition of the facets somewhere, but where can I find it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-05-29T17:32:23.763" Title="Where can I find decent descriptions for each Big5 facet?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10300" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8939" CreationDate="2015-05-28T08:26:09.093" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is measured with the Big5 Neuroticism#6 facet: Vulnerability.&#xA;This trait measures how an individual reacts to stress, including emergency situations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;High scorers on Vulnerability experience panic, confusion, and&#xA;  helplessness when under pressure or stress&lt;/strong&gt;. Low scorers feel more&#xA;  poised, confident, and clear-thinking when stressed. - See more at:&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychometric-success.com/personality-tests/personality-tests-big-5-aspects.htm#sthash.PmuKOUm0.dpuf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychometric-success.com/personality-tests/personality-tests-big-5-aspects.htm#sthash.PmuKOUm0.dpuf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychometric-success.com/personality-tests/personality-tests-big-5-aspects.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychometric-success.com/personality-tests/personality-tests-big-5-aspects.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This facet has shown to be the one more important for being able to make decisions and depending on others (page 153):&#xA;\&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Watson14/publication/257044687_Procrastination_and_the_five-factor_model_a_facet_level_analysis/links/0a85e52fd0aa495d2f000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Watson14/publication/257044687_Procrastination_and_the_five-factor_model_a_facet_level_analysis/links/0a85e52fd0aa495d2f000000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This suggests that the panic, confusion and helplessness experienced may be due to being unable to make a decision on how to act and react.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-05-28T08:31:53.313" LastActivityDate="2015-05-28T08:31:53.313" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10301" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-28T11:06:39.543" Score="1" ViewCount="238" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any scientifically proven exercises which can improve mental alertness and awareness naturally? please share!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8456" LastActivityDate="2015-05-29T20:17:14.177" Title="Practical ways to increase Mental alertness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-06-01T09:24:44.320" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10302" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10338" CreationDate="2015-05-28T13:57:03.750" Score="3" ViewCount="1625" Body="&lt;p&gt;I quite enjoy playing games which requires many repetitions of the level in order to get right. These games are often constant-speed scrolling obstacle-course type games where the player must navigate obstacles correctly to finish the level. Often many of repetitions of the level are necessary. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cIaXQwHUJQ4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;geometry dash&lt;/a&gt; (not affiliated with them at all, I promise!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I often wonder if there are any benefits to playing these games. I know that the repetitive nature creates neural pathways in the brain, but I don't think this newly developed ability is going to be used outside of one game in particular. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A friend of mine mentioned that perhaps these games would improve neuroplasticity, and some research indicates that certain types of games do have cognitive health benefits, (for example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4196565/#!po=7.00000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;in older adults&lt;/a&gt;). However, I haven't been able to find any information about this type of game in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do these types of repetitive games have any neurological benefit outside of an improved ability to play a particular game?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6653" LastEditorDisplayName="user6653" LastEditDate="2015-05-28T19:58:54.780" LastActivityDate="2015-06-03T11:00:26.933" Title="What benefit is there to playing highly repetitive games?" Tags="&lt;video-games&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1886" CreationDate="2015-05-28T15:40:49.677" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why the symptoms were picked out and given a name&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Professionals used to believe ADHD was something children grew out of, but not anymore.&#xA;ADHD has always been strongly related to school performance. If a child is not focused on school, and seems unwilling or unable to concentrate, everyone tends to think of ADHD as the cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me think that ADHD was &quot;discovered&quot; as an explanation to why some kids are not so good at school.&#xA;If you look at the symptoms for ADHD, you'll notice that each of them is completely normal behavior, but every one of them reduces performance at school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do the symptoms for ADHD cluster?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes and no. They cluster in more than 1 cluster.&#xA;Studying personality psychology, I have noticed a growing number of completely normal personality traits that remind me alot of ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A stereotypical boy with ADHD (restless, fidgety, takative, forgetful, unorganized) would easily remind you of the MBTI personality type ESxP.&#xA;(ESFP: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.16personalities.com/esfp-personality&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.16personalities.com/esfp-personality&lt;/a&gt; ESTP: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.16personalities.com/estp-personality&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.16personalities.com/estp-personality&lt;/a&gt; )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A stereotypical girl with ADHD (silent, daydreaming, inattentive) would remind you of the MBTI personality trait INxP. (INTP: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.16personalities.com/intp-personality&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.16personalities.com/intp-personality&lt;/a&gt; INFP: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.16personalities.com/infp-personality&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.16personalities.com/infp-personality&lt;/a&gt; )&#xA;Girl's ADHD: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.addvance.com/help/women/daydreamer.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.addvance.com/help/women/daydreamer.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note how the &quot;boy's ADHD&quot; and &quot;girl's ADHD&quot; are pretty different. The only common traits are poor attention and organization at school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The typical ADHD behavior also matches well with several parts of the Big 5:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Substantial effects emerged that were replicated across samples.&#xA;  First, the ADHD symptom cluster of inattention-disorganization was&#xA;  substantially related to &lt;strong&gt;low Conscientiousness&lt;/strong&gt; and, to a lesser&#xA;  extent, &lt;strong&gt;Neuroticism&lt;/strong&gt;. Second, ADHD symptom clusters of&#xA;  hyperactivity-impulsivity and oppositional childhood and adult&#xA;  behaviors were associated with &lt;strong&gt;low Agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.colorado.edu/~willcutt/pdfs/nigg_2002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psych.colorado.edu/~willcutt/pdfs/nigg_2002.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although previous research on personality and ADHD has focused&#xA;  primarily on extraversion and neuroticism, the present study found&#xA;  that &lt;strong&gt;agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;conscientiousness&lt;/strong&gt; were stronger predictors.&#xA;  This pattern of results is consistent with the clinical literature on&#xA;  adults with ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/James_Parker3/publication/222409991_ADHD_symptoms_and_personality_relationships_with_the_five-factor_model/links/02e7e52cad95c0fcfc000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/James_Parker3/publication/222409991_ADHD_symptoms_and_personality_relationships_with_the_five-factor_model/links/02e7e52cad95c0fcfc000000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conscientiousness is what measures your ability to stay focused (and more), and neuroticism measures your patience (and more). And those are exactly what primarily defines the J/P factor in MBTI - and ADHD.&#xA;You're a P? Congratulations, you may have ADHD. You're a J? Nope, no ADHD there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, several of the required symptoms for ADHD do not have any fixed requirement for frequency - they are relative.&#xA;When each of these symptoms are completely normal at the same time, the whole diagnose becomes relative - Are you too unfocused to function at school, or do you manage to get your homework done despite of poor attention?&#xA;Because nobody will diagnose you with ADHD as long as you are able to cope and function with school and everyday life.&#xA;A bit of the problem with the ADHD diagnosis is how there are no exact measurements that can tell whether or not an individual is &quot;suffering&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having a hard time in everyday life is also one of the requirements to have a diagnosis, but this is more relative than all the other symptoms.&#xA;Considering how modern societies are increasingly demanding for the individual, and Conscientiousness is -the- strongest predictor for academic success, there is bound to be a growing gap between the most and least successful individuals.&#xA;The least successful individuals are those who struggle to stay focused, and some of these seek psychological help for it. &quot;You struggle at school because you have trouble staying focused? Here, take this test. Yes, I can see that you have poor attention. You have ADHD&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To put it short: ADHD symptoms are all about academic capability&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-05-28T15:40:49.677" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10304" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10123" CreationDate="2015-05-28T19:05:22.620" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some time ago a contrarian (a concept more usually found in literary or journalistic circles), in psychology would be called 'contra suggestive' or 'contra suggestible'. The two are, however, subtly different.  A contra suggestible person simply believes or does the opposite of something suggested by someone else. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being a contrarian on the other hand usually involves going against cherished societal beliefs, or against prevailing group norms, and can be related to iconoclasm. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Contra-suggestibility (sometimes hyphenated) came out of the psychoanalitic literature, with all the fun and games that entails. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8461" LastActivityDate="2015-05-28T19:05:22.620" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10306" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10299" CreationDate="2015-05-29T17:32:23.763" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This might help:&#xA;Costa, P. T., Jr., &amp;amp; McCrae, R. R. (1995). Domains and facets: Hierarchical personality assessment using the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 21–50.&#xA;It is available on the web at:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Costa3/publication/7402610_Domains_and_facets_hierarchical_personality_assessment_using_the_revised_NEO_personality_inventory/links/00b49515b9ad9348b8000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Costa3/publication/7402610_Domains_and_facets_hierarchical_personality_assessment_using_the_revised_NEO_personality_inventory/links/00b49515b9ad9348b8000000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the test manual:&#xA;Costa, P. T., Jr., &amp;amp; McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7755" LastActivityDate="2015-05-29T17:32:23.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10307" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10301" CreationDate="2015-05-29T20:17:14.177" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard many times all the benefits to Meditaion and Hypnosis, to which I can immediately propose those as methods in this scenario towards improving mental focus. You can check out this article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/you-illuminated/201204/brain-scans-show-how-meditation-improves-mental-focus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/you-illuminated/201204/brain-scans-show-how-meditation-improves-mental-focus&lt;/a&gt; which talks about that very thing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8467" LastActivityDate="2015-05-29T20:17:14.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10310" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-31T09:16:32.737" Score="0" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question was inspired by the most creative thing ever to come up in a movie, namely the transfer of a consciousness from one body to another (may it be biological, or via non-biological methods). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have always thought of consciousness as the result of a neural network communicating with the various parts of the brain, which in turn stores all of our experiences, thereby giving meaning to the sensations we perceive through our sensory organs that may aid in self-sustainability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8477" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-05-31T13:49:25.837" LastActivityDate="2015-08-01T00:11:14.003" Title="How close is it to reality in future of consciousness to be transferable as shown in the movie Chappie?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10313" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-05-31T17:06:58.643" Score="3" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;In terms of impact factor (for a lack of a better proxy), what are the highest ranked neuroscience journals that use double-blind review process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be submitting a paper that combines neuroscience, psychology and machine learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8478" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-06-01T02:21:52.033" LastActivityDate="2015-06-01T02:21:52.033" Title="What are the highest ranked neuroscience journals that use double-blind review process?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;publication-process&gt;&lt;publication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10314" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10313" CreationDate="2015-05-31T19:44:11.630" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nature Neuroscience&lt;/strong&gt; offers such a possibility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/nature-journals-offer-double-blind-review-1.16931&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/news/nature-journals-offer-double-blind-review-1.16931&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9689/does-anyone-know-of-any-clinical-psychology-journals-that-use-a-double-blind-rev&quot;&gt;Does anyone know of any clinical psychology journals that use a double-blind review process?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-05-31T19:44:11.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10315" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10316" CreationDate="2015-05-31T20:24:51.443" Score="11" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think I've read somewhere that our brain acts as if we were physically hurt (as if we feel pain) when we catch someone lying to us. I couldn't find anything about it on google, and my memory is not reliable enough for me to be anywhere near sure of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone confirm this &amp;amp; give a reference to something scientific?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5006" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-06-03T12:42:32.723" LastActivityDate="2015-06-03T12:42:32.723" Title="Does our brain react as if we were physically hurt when we are lied to?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10316" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10315" CreationDate="2015-06-01T01:27:22.477" Score="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps you're referring to Naomi Eisenberger's work on the neural basis of social pain. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dtserv2.compsy.uni-jena.de/ss2010/sozpsy_uj/17512154/content.nsf/Pages/4ECAB2CDBFA73BDDC1257706003665A8/$FILE/Eisenberger%20Lieberman%20Williams%202002.pdf&quot;&gt;Her seminal paper&lt;/a&gt; found that the neural correlates of distress from social rejection overlapped with those of physical pain, i.e., dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She's recently published a literature review on social pain in the brain (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115146&quot;&gt;Eisenberger, 2015&lt;/a&gt;), summarizing her work and addressing its various controversies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4285151/&quot;&gt;Woo et al. (2014)&lt;/a&gt; recently challenged the notion of overlapping neural bases for social and physical pain. They used fancy multivariate methods to analyze the shared vs. distinct neural representations of social vs. physical pain.  They conclude:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These findings demonstrate that separate representations underlie pain and rejection despite common [shared] fMRI activity at the gross anatomical level. Rather than co-opting pain circuitry, rejection involves distinct affective representations in humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-06-01T01:34:04.173" LastActivityDate="2015-06-01T01:34:04.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10318" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-01T07:36:11.223" Score="-1" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;We may be able to control our temper most of the times, but there are times when on the spur of the moment we react the way we don't want to. Yet we do so. Why are we not able to carry our conditioned behavior to the situations where we get pushed too far? Is it possible to have 100% control?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3548" LastActivityDate="2015-06-02T14:02:59.513" Title="Why do we lose control momentarily?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-11-13T03:09:21.553" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10319" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-01T14:38:00.007" Score="6" ViewCount="2449" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's often useful and fun for students to experience well-known psychology experiments. Where can demo versions of famous psychology experiments be found online? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some example paradigms that might be useful include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stroop&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit-association_test&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;IAT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-back&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;N-back&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_search&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual search, particularly pop-out effects&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-06-02T01:24:33.850" LastActivityDate="2015-06-16T05:42:58.723" Title="Where can I find online interactive versions of classic experiments in psychology for the purposes of teaching?" Tags="&lt;internet&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;teaching-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10320" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10269" CreationDate="2015-06-01T18:27:17.407" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Read this paper&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Storage of Spatial Information by the Maintenance Mechanism of LTP&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eva Pastalkova*, Peter Serrano*, Deana Pinkhasova, Emma Wallace, André Antonio Fenton†, Todd Charlton Sacktor†&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/313/5790/1141.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/313/5790/1141.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It uses a conditioning task that is primarily hippocampal as it is a spatial navigation task.  They monitor the strength of CA3-CA1 connections during and after training using the fEPSP (field excitatory post-synaptic potential) slope.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, for a review of hippocampal dependent tasks, see&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The role of hippocampal subregions in memory for stimulus associations&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rosamund F. Langston, Cassie H. Stevenson, Claire L. Wilson, Ian Saunder, Emma R. Wood&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166432810004857&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166432810004857&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-06-01T18:53:41.587" LastActivityDate="2015-06-01T18:53:41.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10322" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10310" CreationDate="2015-06-01T22:47:29.273" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen - and enjoyed! - the movie last week-end and asked myself the same question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's face it, we are so far from being able to transfer knowledge from one human being to a machine with the help of a &quot;mind-reader&quot;. The main point is that we don't have a useful brain signal to read from (the ones we know have structural limits).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No good brain signal, no associated technology and no reading device. On the contrary, we probably have the technology at the end of the human-to-machine process (a way to transfer and store a mind).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastActivityDate="2015-06-01T22:47:29.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10324" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10319" CreationDate="2015-06-02T04:43:56.570" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been developing &lt;a href=&quot;http://stato.de&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;stato.de&lt;/a&gt;, an online platform to run HTML5/Javascript experiments, recruit participants via email, Facebook, or Twitter, and collect and evaluate results in real time on any web browser.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please see &lt;a href=&quot;http://statode-demo.herokuapp.com/mental-rotation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mental Rotation&lt;/a&gt; for a demo that works on phones, tablets, and desktops; it does not require signup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4876" LastActivityDate="2015-06-02T04:43:56.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10325" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-02T08:05:23.720" Score="7" ViewCount="736" Body="&lt;p&gt;While reading Daniel Kahneman's &quot;Thinking, Fast and Slow&quot; I've been stuck on the claim that Linda case and Dinnerware case have the same structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Linda problem:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Linda is thirty-one years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She&#xA;  majored  in  philosophy.  As  a  student,  she  was  deeply concerned&#xA;  with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also&#xA;  participated in antinuclear demonstrations.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Which alternative is more probable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Linda is a bank teller.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is well-known that the majority of respondents chooses the second options (as most plausible, though the original question is about probability).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Dinnerware case:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Being presented two sets of dinnerware:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Set A: 40 pieces / Set B: 24 pieces&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dinner plates: 8, all in good condition / 8, all in good condition&#xA;  &lt;br/&gt; Soup/salad bowls: 8, all in good condition / 8, all in good&#xA;  condition &lt;br/&gt; Dessert plates: 8, all in good condition / 8, all in&#xA;  good condition &lt;br/&gt; Cups: 8, 2 of them broken / NONE &lt;br/&gt; Saucers:&#xA;  8, 7 of them broken / NONE&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is known that respondents tend to select Set B, though it is more beneficial to select set A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Here is the question:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The dinnerware case is explained via the notion of 'averaging'. That is, person's System 1 (Kahneman's terminology) performs some kind of averaging and goes to conclusion, that as Set B items are not broken and in average cost more, then the whole Set B shall be preferred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From the perspective of economic theory, this result is troubling: the&#xA;  economic value of a dinnerware set [...] is a sum-like variable.&quot; I.e.&#xA;  pure summation shall be performed where averaging and subsequent&#xA;  assessment is carried out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Linda problem and the dinnerware problem &lt;strong&gt;have exactly the same&#xA;  structure&lt;/strong&gt; (??).  Probability,  like  economic  value,  is  a &#xA;  sum-like  variable,  as illustrated by this example: probability&#xA;  (Linda is a teller) = probability (Linda is feminist teller)&#xA;  + probability (Linda is non-feminist teller)&quot; &quot;System 1 averages instead of adding, so when the non-feminist bank tellers are removed&#xA;  from the set, subjective  probability  increases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is my difficulty: I do not see how the 'averaging' notion applies to the Linda problem. When I myself think about Linda question, I do not realize that try to average something, I just want to construct something that fits my stereotypes. Otherwise, when I think about dinnerware, I agree that subconsciously try to maximize the average price of item.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8493" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-29T17:37:35.963" LastActivityDate="2017-08-08T23:13:42.937" Title="Thinking Fast and Slow: Similarity of Linda problem and Dinnerware case" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10326" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10318" CreationDate="2015-06-02T08:37:06.717" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Everyone has a personal threshold of self-control. This threshold is unique for each one of us and is dependant on personality, experience and context. When this threshold is surpassed, we react viscerally without thinking too much. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zillman's excitation transfer theory can explain, at some extent, why we surpass our self-control threshold. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Excitation-transfer theory purports that residual excitation from one stimulus will amplify the excitatory response to another stimulus, though the hedonic valences of the stimuli may differ[1] (Bryant &amp;amp; Miron, 2003). The excitation-transfer process is not limited to a single emotion [2](cf. Zillmann, 1983, 1996, 1998). For example, when watching a movie, a viewer may be angered by seeing the hero wronged by the villain, but this initial excitation may intensify the viewer's pleasure in witnessing the villain's punishment later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitation-transfer_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitation-transfer_theory&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Zillman, the residual excitation produced by a stimulus may be transfered and amplify the excitatory response to another stimulus. The best example we can know about this is sports. When practicing a sport (i.e.: hockey) your excitation levels rise because of the physical activation consequence of the excersice. Part of this activation may be transfered to the excitatory response to another stimulus, for instance, an argument in the pitch. This could explains why arguments during a match (whatever the sport is) may sometimes end in physical aggression. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my humble opinion one of the keys to self-control  is to be aware of your excitement levels and specially to know what stimulus generates your activation. This will help you to control your activation levels so it doesn't transfer to another unrelated situations. For instance, if you had a bad day at work and you are feeling upset, you are more likely to feel angry about things that normally wouldn't bother you that much. However, if you are able to be conscious of your activation state and it's cause, you may be able to avoid this to transfer to other situations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8489" LastEditorUserId="8489" LastEditDate="2015-06-02T14:02:59.513" LastActivityDate="2015-06-02T14:02:59.513" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10327" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7642" CreationDate="2015-06-02T10:33:20.660" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Building rapport&quot; is not actually A technique, but a general phrase that may cover a whole lot of specific techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Rapport&quot; does not normally occur in scientific contexts, it mostly occurs within anecdotal subjects like sales and NLP.&#xA;Individual sales techniques and NLP is usually not based on science at all, so they do not care for what is scientifically correct or what can be scientifically studied.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&quot;Rapport&quot; consists of several smaller subjects, like trust, various psychological phenomenons, various unconscious processes, emotions, etc etc etc&lt;/strong&gt; - which are the common phenomenons to refer to in science.&#xA;So &quot;rapport&quot; is nothing more than an umbrella term including several phenomenons that are far from restricted to &quot;rapport&quot;.&#xA;Thus it would not even make sense to study &quot;rapport&quot; specifically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that sales techniques and NLP tutors like to give their own names on phenomenons and processes that already have a scientific name for them.&#xA;I noticed this as I read a book on NLP by Richard Bandler, and this may be another reason why &quot;rapport&quot; has not made its way into science. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The field of &quot;rapport&quot; was never meant to be based on science, and you are not meant to look those things up in science.&#xA;This means two things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Don't expect what you learn about &quot;rapport&quot; to make any sense scientifically, because it's not based on science at all.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If you want to better understand that which is actually supported by science, then you need to search for a more specific phenomenon.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-06-02T10:33:20.660" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10330" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-02T16:29:00.497" Score="3" ViewCount="389" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've learned, that spatiotemporal neighborhood among the conditioned and the unconditioned stimuli is a presupposition of conditioning (classical or operant). A second presupposition is called &quot;contingency&quot; in my notes. The explanation is, that the CS has to predict the US with certainty. But in my opinion the meaning of the word &quot;contingency&quot; is quite the opposite of predictability with certainty (necessity). Why is the second presupposition called &quot;contingency&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8497" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-06-02T22:10:11.073" LastActivityDate="2018-03-31T04:25:04.023" Title="Conditioning and Contingency" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10332" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-02T20:50:33.153" Score="9" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any open magnetic resonance imaging datasets of normal and healthy adults (as controls) and psychotic subjects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such as ADNI for Alzheimer's or OASIS for aging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8499" LastActivityDate="2016-04-13T12:29:29.567" Title="Open magnetic resonance imaging datasets on psychosis?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10330" CreationDate="2015-06-02T20:52:09.757" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Contingent&quot; means &quot;dependent upon&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See the first definition of&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/contingent?s=t&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/contingent?s=t&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason the second definition there (which is the one you are thinking of) has the same word is because if B is contingent on A, then B is not for sure going to happen.  B will only happen if A does.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2015-06-02T20:52:09.757" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10335" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10350" CreationDate="2015-06-03T04:38:22.683" Score="3" ViewCount="314" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR: What are the necessary and sufficient conditions for deliberate practice?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Longer version:&#xA;I've read a number of books/articles on deliberate practice and its role in acquiring expertise.  The texts make a compelling case for the argument that a minimum of 10,000 hours of deliberate practice is required to develop expertise in a particular field.  The implication of the research is undoubtedly optimistic (as it largely dispels the notion of being born talented - with certain semi-exceptions, notably, athletes).  However, I struggle when it comes to translating the research into practical takeaways for myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As someone who'd like to apply the concept of deliberate practice to his profession/hobbies, it would be useful to have a rigorous/comprehensive definition of deliberate practice that I could effectively use as a check-list.  But in the material I've read, it seems that &quot;deliberate practice&quot; is effectively defined as (and I'm paraphrasing): &quot;the type of practice of which 10,000 hours are needed in order to develop expertise&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;So, to put it differently (from the TL;DR above):&lt;br&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;How do I know if I'm practicing effectively?  (Aside from practicing a certain way for 10,000 hours and seeing if I become an expert)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Disclaimers: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's probably evident from my post that I'm not a professional&#xA;researcher / academic.  My exposure to the topic is largely from pop&#xA;science books that cater to the mass-market (i.e., I'm trusting the&#xA;authors re: the quality of underlying research).   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Also, the answer to my question may well be addressed in formal research papers found&#xA;on PUBMED/etc., but I unfortunately don't have access to that.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8501" LastActivityDate="2015-06-04T07:18:08.637" Title="What are the conditions of deliberate practice?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10336" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-03T06:51:29.297" Score="5" ViewCount="542" Body="&lt;p&gt;Using the NEO-FFI to measure Big Five personality traits among students from our faculty, we found that students of psychology are more neurotic (&lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = -2.34, &lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt; = .02) and less open (&lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = 5.98, &lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; .001) than the general population. Are there published studies that verify these results?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-06-03T08:03:02.993" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T10:14:43.283" Title="Are psychology students more neurotic than the general population?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10338" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10302" CreationDate="2015-06-03T08:27:12.067" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lumosity has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lumosity.com/hcp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;research section&lt;/a&gt; that explains how their repetitive games help in day-to-day activities. They claim it's peer reviewed, although all of the papers are published to their site. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/brain-training-products-useless-in-study/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Science based medicine&lt;/a&gt; had this to say about a study with games similar to Lumosity...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This one study, of course, is not definitive. It is possible that more training is needed before significant benefits are seen. Perhaps&#xA;  video games are more effective because they are more engaging and&#xA;  players will spend more time playing.What this study shows, however,&#xA;  is that products sold as brain training games had no documented&#xA;  benefits after six weeks of use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Putting this study into the context of the overall research, it does&#xA;  make us more cautious about concluding that there are general&#xA;  cognitive benefits to brain training games or entertainment video&#xA;  games. Benefits are likely to be closely related to the specific tasks&#xA;  involved in training, and not transfer to unrelated tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But there is already enough published evidence showing visual&#xA;  tracking, multitasking, and executive function benefits from action&#xA;  and strategic video games respectively that this study will not be the&#xA;  final word. When there is conflicting research, more study is needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study is most applicable to brain training products, and shows&#xA;  that the marketing claims for these products are not justified. There&#xA;  is very unlikely to be any benefit, or any specific advantage, to&#xA;  “scientifically designed” brain training applications. For now, you&#xA;  are better off just playing a video game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, more or less, there isn't any information suggesting that these repetitive &quot;brain games&quot; actually help develop skills outside of learning to play the game better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8502" LastEditorUserId="8502" LastEditDate="2015-06-03T11:00:26.933" LastActivityDate="2015-06-03T11:00:26.933" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10319" CreationDate="2015-06-03T14:23:01.690" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;List presented alphabetically&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Cambridge Brain Sciences (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cambridgebrainsciences.com&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several &quot;brain-training&quot; type experiments including span tasks, mental rotation, and paired associate memory. Some tests require free registration on the site to complete. Data from the tests may be used for research purposes. Created by Adam Hampshire and Adrian Owen at University of Western Ontario.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Cognitive fun! (&lt;a href=&quot;http://cognitivefun.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitivefun.net&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several n-back variants, basic response time tests (e.g. go/no-go), subitizing demo, flanker task, working memory span. Creator/source unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Dual-Task (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dualtask.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dualtask.org&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Demonstrations of multi-tasking limitations. Experiments are Java applets. Site created by Hal Pashler at UCSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Go Cognitive (&lt;a href=&quot;http://gocognitive.net/demos&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;gocognitive.net&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several cognitive experiments, including change blindness, visual search, implicit memory test, working memory capactiy, and selective attention. Experiments are Flash based. Site created by team at the University of Idaho.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Project Implicit (&lt;a href=&quot;https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/takeatest.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/takeatest.html&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many variations on the implicit association test. Data is collected for research purposes. Created by team at Harvard University.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Simons Lab (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simonslab.com/videos.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;simonslab.com&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several videos of classic selective attention / inattentional blindness studies, including the famous gorilla study. Students can do the gorilla study by watching a YouTube video. Videos of other experiments are more descriptive and less interactive. Site created by Daniel Simons at the University of Illinois.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Stroop demos&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ezyang.com/stroop/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ezyang.com/stroop/&lt;/a&gt; - sequential presentation of words, press key to respond.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/ready.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/ready.html&lt;/a&gt; - simultaneous presentation of whole list. read aloud and hit button to indicate that reading is complete.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.math.unt.edu/~tam/selftests/stroopeffects.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.math.unt.edu/~tam/selftests/stroopeffects.html&lt;/a&gt; - simultaneous presentation of whole list. read aloud and hit button to indicate that reading is complete.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Swarthmore Cognitive Psychology Demos (&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogscidemos.swarthmore.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://cogscidemos.swarthmore.edu/&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Three experiments: Visual search, Sternberg working memory task, &amp;amp; reverse Stroop. Implemented in JavaScript. Some parameters of trials can be adjusted. Data is nicely summarized at the end of the experiment, e.g. search functions are fit for the visual search task. Created at Swarthmore under the direction of Frank Durgin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-06-15T14:22:50.087" LastActivityDate="2015-06-15T14:22:50.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10342" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10374" CreationDate="2015-06-03T15:20:45.130" Score="5" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;STDP (spike timing dependent plasticity) is a learning rule for changing the synaptic weights between neurons.  It is Hebbian-like in that the weight changes depend on the coincidence of pre- and post-synaptic spikes, but it includes a notion of causation in that the synapse is strengthened if a presynaptic spike precedes a postsynaptic spike, but the synapse is weakened if a postsynaptic spike precedes a presynaptic spike.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rate neurons are often used in simulations because they are computationally cheap compared to simulating spiking neurons.  In order to implement STDP, spikes are generated using an inhomogeneous Poisson process with the rate parameter defined by the current rate of the rate neuron.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I would like to know is whether a shortcut has been developed to calculate the weight changes due to STDP directly from the temporal dynamics of the pre- and post-synaptic weights without having to explicitly generate spike times through a poisson process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2015-06-08T19:45:10.883" Title="Is there a way to use a STDP learning rule on rate-based neurons?" Tags="&lt;model&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10343" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10691" CreationDate="2015-06-03T16:01:55.863" Score="5" ViewCount="5939" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can a person be very intelligent, able to solve difficult problems if given enough time, yet really a slow thinker? Especially if nervous. Could such a slow thinking brilliant person get all the questions on an IQ test correct even though they were 20 minutes beyond the required end of the test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way of putting this question is regarding the validity of time limits on IQ tests.  How have these been arrived at?  Have other (extended) time limits been tested?  Have such time limits yielded different (higher) scores?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7340" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-06-26T15:48:45.253" LastActivityDate="2017-01-16T18:56:28.243" Title="Can a person be brilliant even though slow at resolving problems?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="16" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10344" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13870" CreationDate="2015-06-03T19:56:35.987" Score="3" ViewCount="2213" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Aristotle approached the question of story and meaning in this way: Why is it, he asked, when we see a dead body in the street we have one reaction, but when we read of death in Homer, or see it in the theatre, we have another? ~ Robert McKee, &lt;em&gt;Story&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a fictional character is killed, no one dies – and the readers and viewers know this, no matter how much they identify with the story. So what does this narrative device actually mean? Aristotle thought that the death of a character evokes emotions in the viewers that then allow the author to convince them of his narrative argument. He calls this &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathos&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pathos&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Following Aristoteles, the death of a character &quot;means&quot; that the audience becomes more susceptible to what the author wants them to believe (the moral of the story). But that is the author's perspective on what he can do with the death of a character, and does not explain how the audience experience and understand it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer this question, we may have to first understand how the audience perceives the character.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A character is no more a human being than the Venus of Milo is a real woman. A character is ... a metaphor for human nature. ~ Robert McKee, &lt;em&gt;Story&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A character is a symbol that stands in for something that affects the reader or viewer: their deams and aspirations; or their fears. And thus the death of a symbol may symbolize that a dream will remain unfulfilled or a fear is overcome. Death in the media, I believe, is not final but transformative, and not real but symbolic, and this becomes most apparent in the journey to the underworld (read &quot;death&quot;) of many mystical heroes. But that is only my opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there research that tries to answer this question from the perspective of psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, in the absence of such research, how would &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; study it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In his comment, Steven Jeuris remarks, that a fictional character's death means that he dies in the fictional world. Let me elaborate on that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Readers of fiction don't read like news readers. A newspaper reader reads to learn what has happened in the world he lives in, and (maybe) to understand why. Because these events (and their reasons) affect his own life and the decisions he has to make.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Readers of fiction, on the other hand, do not read to be informed. They read to experience emotions, to escape their own lives, to be inspired, and so on. The facts of the fictional world are irrelevant to their own lives, but the emotions they elicit, the ideas they generate, and the time spent away from the demands of their own lives are important to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a neighbor, politician or artist dies in the real world, and I read about it, this affects my own life. My life has been changed (because a person is missing from it) or it will be changed (because politics will change). If a fictional character dies, nothing changes in my life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is changed, is the &lt;em&gt;story&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And story logic is not like the chains of cause and effect (or chance) that govern the events in real life. In the real world, many (if not most) people die through forces that lie outside of their influence. They die of old age or are run over by drunk drivers. In the fictional world, everything happens by design, and that design is based on the story's premise and the characters actions. In a fictional world, no one dies by chance, and even old age has a meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Very simplified, in a (classic type of) story a character achieves his goals, if he overcomes his deficits. If he refuses to grow, he fails. Death is the reward for moral failure. Think of the hero killing his antagonist or the first two knights being eaten by the dragon: these characters don't just die and then they are dead, but their death means that their way of life was wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But of course stories are usually more complicated than that today. Characters aren't simply good or bad, they are &quot;realistic&quot;, like real people. And the world they inhabit isn't as simply structured as that of a fairy tale, it is &quot;realistic&quot;, like the real world. In Game of Thrones, characters die apparently like in the real world: despite being the good guys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But still, it is not the real world. If the good guy dies in Game of Thrones, it is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; because Game of Thrones is realistic and characters in its world die just like people in real life, but because it is not what we are used to from narrative conventions and it surprises us. The death of the good guy in Game of Thrones means that we cannot trust what we have learned about how stories work. It does not mean that someone died. It is sad and frustrating, because we wanted Ned Stark to succeed, but at the same time it is thrilling and satisfying, because it is novel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are just examples, and there will be disagreement over the &lt;em&gt;interpretation&lt;/em&gt; of these stories, but I hope they serve to illustrate that the death of a fictional character does &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; mean (&lt;strong&gt;to the reader !&lt;/strong&gt;) that this &quot;person&quot; has died in the fictional world. It means something different or on top of that to the reader (who knows, which is important, that no one has died !).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, every death in fiction might be interpreted differently – depending on the specific story. But I think that it must be possible to generalize and find an underlying similarity or several &quot;types of fictional deaths&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I think that this question does not belong on another site, because the study of the psychology of reading books or viewing movies (that is, the psychology of the audience) is the task of the psychologist just like advertising psychology (which also deals with how stories work on their audience).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if you want, think of my question of belonging in advertising psychology: Does the clean shirt the housewife pulls from the washing mashine mean that the shirt has been cleaned? No. It means that the washing powder is better than other washing powders (or, if you are a cynic, that that is what the advertiser wants us to believe). The meaning of the clean shirt depends on the intent of the narrator and the circumstances of the narration (in an ad).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, the meaning of a fictional death will depend on the (reader perceived) intent of the narrator (who, by the way, is not the author) and the circumstances of the narration (a book, a tv show). But I don't want to do a (subjective) literary interpretation (like I did here), but learn how this has been studied or, if no such studies have been undertaken, study it with psychological methodology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this now makes a bit more sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2016-09-15T08:53:58.890" LastActivityDate="2017-03-05T14:58:25.743" Title="What does the death of a fictional character mean?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10345" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10343" CreationDate="2015-06-03T20:07:29.947" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many definitions of intelligence. I find the one given by David Wechsler (1944) useful in the context of this question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The ... capacity of the individual ... to deal effectively with his environment&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finding a solution quickly is sometimes necessary if you want to deal with your environment effectively. Not all problems will wait for you to solve them slowly. Which is why the concept of intelligence usually includes a time component and a person solving the same problem slower is considered less intelligent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Brilliance&quot; is not a psychological concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wechsler, D (1944). &lt;em&gt;The measurement of adult intelligence&lt;/em&gt;. Baltimore: Williams &amp;amp; Wilkins.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2015-07-15T06:24:21.997" LastActivityDate="2015-07-15T06:24:21.997" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10348" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-04T00:38:45.653" Score="4" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the ability to answer a given question correctly quicker a measure of that individual being more intelligent than the person who answered correctly, but slower (This based on both individuals having no physical handicaps)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8510" LastActivityDate="2015-06-05T12:47:40.390" Title="Quick responses/Time &amp; lintelligence" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10350" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10335" CreationDate="2015-06-04T07:18:08.637" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;My causal impression is that the literature on deliberate practice is a little vague about how deliberate practice differs from other forms of practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it was Ericcson who distinguished between work, play, and deliberate practice. Work is to get something done, play is for enjoyment, and deliberate practice is activity completed with the goal of improving skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few general features of deliberate practice include: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It should be effortful and is likely to involve a degree of focus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The intensity and focus of deliberate practice may limit the amount of time that can be dedicated to it per day, and it is important to get appropriate rest either side.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deliberate practice is generally designed to be at the optimal level of challenge given your current ability. It should also include feedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general it is going to help a lot to have a tutor. Tutors go by many names: coaches, supervisors, mentors, trainers, teachers, and so on. The tutor can assist in providing you with appropriate exercises and giving you the right feedback. So for example, music instructor may push you to master specific exercises or get you to master a particular musical piece because they can see that it will challenge you. Similarly, a tennis coach may get you repeating particular strokes with feedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, if you don't have a tutor, you can still attempt to apply the principles of deliberate practice to your own learning. It's harder and probably less efficient, but it is possible to teach yourself a lot of things. A few general suggestions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Be clear on the skill you're actually trying to master. What is the goal state? What would be evidence of you achieving that state? For example, in academia, evidence of achievement might be seen in getting some top-tier publications. In golf, it might be achieving a certain handicap.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Try to create learning environments where you get feedback on your performance. For example, when doing mathematics exercises you get feedback. When you submit journal articles you get feedback through peer review.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reflect on whether the activities you are doing are actually improving your skill. Be mindful of when you are getting stuck in a rut. Explore learning materials that might be useful.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also make a final point about the importance of actual work in acquiring a skill. The deliberate practice literature does have a tendency to emphasise the importance of drills and background study (e.g., practicing your serve; studying famous chess masters, etc.). However, in many cases, actually doing the activity (i.e., that which is called work) can be an incredibly valuable learning experience. I vaguely recall a study that looked at soccer referees that showed that number of matches refereed was an independent predictor of referee performance over and above deliberate practice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-06-04T07:18:08.637" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10351" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-04T11:04:42.137" Score="2" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(Please do not downvote me. if you think this is wrong place to ask such question here then suggest me where I can ask and I will move question there.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;About me:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I am a software engineer in Pakistan and a victim of depression for the last 6 years, and I am 22 now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How my depression started:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;This thing started when I was 16-17 and I used to like a girl. She got married. This thing has stuck in my mind and I cannot get out of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I got very skinny after 16 and so I am now, people call me skinny before they say HI to me, and I feel so bad(but I don't express it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My parents and relatives always said &lt;code&gt;You cannot do this&lt;/code&gt; whatever I said or tried to do, &lt;em&gt;this is how i grew up&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What I have become:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had thought of committing suicide several times but did not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My family, friends(I have very few friends as I don't make much) and relatives love me but I do not like to talk anyone, even I don't like my parents and family. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just want to stay alone or want to sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it does not matter if I get to bed at 10 or 02:00 AM, I end up sleep by 03:00 AM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have much money than the friends but I don't have any hobby or interest to spend on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I told my mom twice, I thought she would understand my mental condition but, she laughed at me :(&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4763" LastEditorUserId="4763" LastEditDate="2015-06-04T11:36:37.207" LastActivityDate="2015-06-04T11:36:37.207" Title="How do I get out of depression" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2015-06-04T22:33:38.197" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10352" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10354" CreationDate="2015-06-04T12:56:49.907" Score="3" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;For research on changing lifestyle behaviours to prevent future disease, I am looking for literature on what the influence is of having a &lt;strong&gt;short-term versus a long-term oriented mindset&lt;/strong&gt;. However, I cannot come up with the correct term for this and therefore do not manage to find useful scientific literature. &#xA;Any suggestions? Perhaps even recommendations of literature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8518" LastActivityDate="2015-07-07T11:10:22.503" Title="What is the correct scientific term of having a short-term or long-term mindset (in the field of health and healthy lifestyle)?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10353" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10355" CreationDate="2015-06-04T15:06:00.820" Score="5" ViewCount="861" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone please explain this to me because it's driving me bonkers. In cognitive research when one group of participants are exposed to a number of crossed factors manipulated by the researcher, is it a quasi-experimental design or a true experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the sources I read always mention random assignment and random sampling when talking about true experiments. So do cognitive science experiments such as the repeated measures factorial design a lot of studies use have the right to claim that they establish causal links between the outcome and the manipulations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6415" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-06-06T08:22:21.500" LastActivityDate="2018-04-21T18:14:06.013" Title="Do repeated measures designs in cognitive research permit causal inference?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10354" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10352" CreationDate="2015-06-04T15:21:02.027" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;One search term that might be useful is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_discounting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;temporal discounting&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a relevant &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych-it.com.au/Psychlopedia/article.asp?id=427&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychlopedia article&lt;/a&gt;, and a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24799134&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;relatively recent paper&lt;/a&gt; that may have some useful references for navigating the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-06-04T15:21:02.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10355" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10353" CreationDate="2015-06-04T15:52:20.823" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;If the researcher randomly samples individuals from the population of interest and randomly assigns them to different experimental treatments, then it is a true experiment. Quasi-experimental design occurs when there is no random assignment to treatments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, true experiments can make claims about causality. Since all subjects in the experiment are randomly assigned to a particular treatment, any systematic differences between the groups after the experiment are likely to be due to the treatment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this is all a game of probabilities. There's always a chance that any systematic difference between groups is from the random assignment. This is why inferential statistics are such an important aspect of evaluating the outcomes of experiments. We can estimate the probability of a particular difference between groups occurring due to random variation. If that probability is low (the typical convention is below 5%), then we can make a causal claim about the treatment.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-06-04T16:50:35.837" LastActivityDate="2015-06-04T16:50:35.837" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10358" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-05T10:11:30.450" Score="12" ViewCount="4715" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bright lights are often used to attract human attention. For example, brightly lit signs, despite often being too bright to look at directly are often used for information and/or advertisement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does this attraction to light occur? I don't see a good reason like how our eyes are attracted to movement, so what's the benefit of it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8526" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-08-26T13:10:39.793" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T11:58:10.800" Title="Is our attention attracted by bright lights?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10359" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10348" CreationDate="2015-06-05T12:47:40.390" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some evidence of a moderate correlation between response times (on very simple tasks) and intelligence constructs like IQ. Here are two relevant papers and their abstracts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00062-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Deary, Der, &amp;amp; Ford (2001)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The association between reaction times and psychometric intelligence test scores is a major plank of the information-processing approach to mental ability differences. An important but unavailable datum is the effect size of the correlation in the normal population. Here we describe the associations between scores on a test of general mental ability (Alice Heim 4, AH4) and reaction times using a ‘Hick’-style device. The sample is 900 people aged 56 years who are broadly representative of the Scottish population. AH4 Part I total scores correlated −.31 with simple reaction time, −.49 with four-choice reaction time, and −.26 with intraindividual variability in both reaction time procedures. The correlation between AH4 scores and the difference between simple and four-choice reaction time was −.15. Separate analyses were conducted after partitioning the total group according to sex, educational level, social class grouping, and number of errors on the four-choice reaction time task. None of these factors significantly altered the effect sizes. This is the first report of reaction time and psychometric intelligence in a large, normal sample of the population. It provides a benchmark for other studies and suggests larger effect sizes than the majority of present studies, which are dominated by young student samples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.02.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;van Ravenzwaaij, Brown, &amp;amp; Wagenmakers (2011)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research in the field of mental chronometry and individual differences has revealed several robust regularities (Jensen, 2006). These include right-skewed response time (RT) distributions, the worst performance rule, correlations with general intelligence (g) that are more pronounced for RT standard deviations (RTSD) than they are for RT means (RTm), an almost perfect linear relation between individual differences in RTSD and RTm, linear Brinley plots, and stronger correlations between g and inspection time (IT) than between g and RTm. Here we show how all these regularities are manifestations of a single underlying relationship, when viewed through the lens of Ratcliff’s diffusion model ( Ratcliff, 1978 and Ratcliff et al., 2008). The single underlying relationship is between individual differences in general intelligence and individual differences in “drift rate”, which is just the speed of information processing in Ratcliff’s model. We also test and confirm a strong prediction of the diffusion model, namely that the worst performance rule generalizes to phenomena outside of the field of intelligence. Our approach provides an integrative perspective on intelligence findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To summarize&lt;/strong&gt;: the first paper demonstrates a moderate correlation between faster reaction times and the AH4 test, which measures &amp;quot;general mental ability.&amp;quot; The second paper shows that these differences, and many others reported in the literature, and predicted by increasing the drift rate in a drift-diffusion model. The drift rate is generally associated with faster information processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-06-05T12:47:40.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10361" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-05T19:30:02.417" Score="4" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have a look at the following static pictures:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/d2MgN.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Rollers&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QCzPt.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Rotating snakes&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are more of them &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/~akitaoka/index-e.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;On the same website &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.ritsumei.ac.jp/~akitaoka/PDrift.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this PDF&lt;/a&gt; describes findings.However I could not find any explanation &lt;strong&gt;why&lt;/strong&gt; this phenomenon happening. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it caused by eye structure itself? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can phenomenon be explained, for example, by combination of uneven density of visual receptors from center to peripherals of the eye together with saccadic eye movement and slight delays in visual nerve signal propagation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or it is creation of visual cortex due to some processes in image interpretation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will appreciate any references to the research papers.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7881" LastEditorUserId="7881" LastEditDate="2015-06-05T20:16:47.730" LastActivityDate="2015-06-05T20:16:47.730" Title="Why do I see those static pictures as they are moving" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-06-08T16:27:35.487" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10362" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-06T16:06:57.983" Score="6" ViewCount="330" Body="&lt;p&gt;Marijuana is getting increasingly used in medical settings. However, one of its disadvantages is anxiety. Does anyone know the reason behind the anxiety? Is it from the marijuana itself, or does it result secondarily due the effects of the marijuana, because, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; the user is not comfortable with the effects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-07T09:19:13.213" LastActivityDate="2016-06-07T11:57:10.797" Title="Why does marijuana cause anxiety?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10363" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-06T16:44:31.133" Score="6" ViewCount="315" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is well-known that the majority of humans have left-right preferences when using their hands or feet. But it is perhaps less well-known that the same can be true for our eyes and ears.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I once heard of a simple test to check whether I was left-eyed or right-eyed. In a room, quickly turn your head to look up to a corner where the ceiling meets the two walls. Then close each eye in turn, and you should find that only one eye is aimed straight at the corner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no idea how reliable this test is, or how strongly people tend to prefer one eye to the other. But assuming there's something in it, I wonder whether anyone knows of (or can devise) a similarly simple test for the ears?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8534" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-06-08T07:26:32.140" LastActivityDate="2015-06-11T19:02:52.323" Title="How to test whether a person is Left-Eared or Right-Eared?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10364" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10483" CreationDate="2015-06-07T07:00:22.060" Score="3" ViewCount="319" Body="&lt;p&gt;Qualia are phenomenological (the subjective experience of the physical activity of the brain).  But how does phenomenology feed back into the activity of the brain?  That is, how can the physical brain detect that qualia are occurring inside of it and be able to report on it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clear up confusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Suppose that all things are physical and all behaviors can be explained physically through neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Suppose that qualia exist and are phenomenological.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is, how do physical neurons &quot;know&quot; about qualia. This is similar to a mind-affecting-brain question, but subtly different:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There is no assumption about a &quot;mind&quot; existing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The causal relationship between qualia and physical brain is restricted to the physical brain's detection of qualia.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8538" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-06-07T22:17:52.077" LastActivityDate="2015-06-27T20:53:44.777" Title="How does the physical brain know about qualia?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;qualia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10366" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10369" CreationDate="2015-06-07T13:50:05.950" Score="8" ViewCount="339" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recall a time when you were driving your car and suddenly&#xA;  another car appeared, going very fast, seeming as if it were about to&#xA;  hit you. Your conscious mind was focused on an interesting conversation with a friend in the passenger's seat or the program on the&#xA;  radio. In an instant, before you had time to think, before the conscious, self-aware part of your mind could consider the matter, danger was sensed and fear began.&#xA;  As an emotion begins, it takes us over in those first milliseconds,&#xA;  directing what we do and say and think. Without consciously choosing to do it, you automatically turned the steering wheel to avoid the&#xA;  other motorist, hitting the brake with your foot. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paul Ekman writes in &quot;Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to Improve Communication and Emotional Life&quot; that in near-accidents people hit the brakes because they feel fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the fear response fast enough to do that or do people first hit the brakes and then switch to an emotional state of fear?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastEditorUserId="625" LastEditDate="2015-06-09T08:14:49.810" LastActivityDate="2016-05-11T23:07:16.063" Title="Paul Ekman suggests that in near-accidents, fear motivates people to hit their car brakes. Is the fear response fast enough to do this?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10367" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-07T17:57:57.630" Score="2" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;My name is Dan and as part of my bachelor degree in cognitive sciences I'm taking a course called &lt;code&gt;Human Altruism&lt;/code&gt;. It's a very interesting one, that asks what are the reasons people will incur loss on themselves in order to increase the gain of others, where the other is usually a stranger and that the altruistic act does not give an (immediate) gain to the altruistic person (as in reputation, etc..).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For my final paper I chose to study the roots of online altruism - mainly stating that it is much more prevalent to notice people taking time and effort to help a total stranger on the web, and that StackExchange sites (like StackOverflow) and the open source movement is a very clear case of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering what are the reasons such altruistic acts that don't seem to expand to many fields outside the web (you don't usually about an  accountant coming back from work to help other people from around the world to do their taxes for free [no offence to accountants :]).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In kind of meta way, I thought it would be cool to put this question here and ask you guys - for instance, I've heard that the gamification of StackExchange sites (the uproots and points we get for answering questions) is a big motivator, or that in many cases (like sub-reddits) the feeling of community can drive you to extend help to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would greatly appreciate your thoughts,&#xA;Dan&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8542" LastActivityDate="2015-06-07T17:57:57.630" Title="The roots of Online Altruism" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;altruism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-06-10T00:43:40.647" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10369" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10366" CreationDate="2015-06-07T23:53:58.043" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This was much longer than I expected! There's quite a bit of ground to cover, but I try to go over it quickly.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, there are two implicit theoretical assumptions in your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;We have an &quot;affect program&quot; for fear in our brain (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/3/4/364.short&quot;&gt;Ekman &amp;amp; Cordaro, 2011&lt;/a&gt;).  When the fear program is activated, a specific pattern of changes in experience, behavior, physiology, and cognition occur (i.e., the fear response).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Present emotions are the primary causes of future behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll briefly examine these assumptions, and then I'll draw a conclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Assumption #1:  Affect programs&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &quot;affect program&quot; I mean a discrete module or circuit in the brain that, when activated, automatically produces a fear response.  So if I see a car about to hit me, it might activate my fear program, which will produce my fear response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Your question uses this assumption by asking about the speed of the fear response.&lt;/strong&gt;  How fast can my fear program activate my fear response (which would motivate me to hit the brakes)? Does my fear program trigger a response too slowly, such that my fear response will occur after I hit the brakes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In recent years, the &quot;affect program&quot; idea has been called into question (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://affective-science.org/pubs/2006/Barrett2006kinds.pdf&quot;&gt;Barrett, 2006&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://wagerlab.colorado.edu/files/papers/Lindquist_2012_BBS.pdf&quot;&gt;Lindquist et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;).  As it stands, it's a fairly controversial assumption that I would argue has iffy empirical support and explanatory power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there isn't a &quot;fear program,&quot; then what is there? Well…that's tricky. I could get into a whole lot of theory, but that would take up a lot of space (although if you're interested, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-science.org/pubs/2015/satpute-et-al-brain-mapping-2015.pdf&quot;&gt;Satpute, Wilson-Mendenhall, &amp;amp; Barrett, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;strong&gt;I think the point that I want to make is that it's difficult to talk about the speed of the fear response.&lt;/strong&gt;  Without having a consensual definition of &quot;emotion,&quot; we can't talk very easily about the nature of fear (i.e., what it is, what it looks like, when it begins, when it ends, its function, its neural basis, its evolution, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Assumption #2: Present emotions cause future behavior&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea that fear causes me to run away, that anger causes me to approach, or that sadness causes me to withdraw seems very intuitive.  In fact, despite its mixed empirical support, many researchers seem to accept this idea without reservation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, Roy Baumeister and colleagues have argued that present emotions affect future behaviors indirectly (&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.129.5830&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot;&gt;Baumeister, Vohs, DeWall, &amp;amp; Zhang, 2007&lt;/a&gt;). In fact, they argue that behavior tends to follow emotions, not the other way around.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make a long story short, &lt;strong&gt;Baumeister argues that &lt;em&gt;anticipated emotions&lt;/em&gt; are the more direct causes of present behavior.&lt;/strong&gt;  So If I anticipate feeling relieved as a consequence of hitting the brakes, then I will hit the brakes.  That is, I will hit the brakes because this will lead to future relief. My fear is not motivating this behavior; instead, my expectation of relief is. Indeed, a recent small-scope meta-analysis supports this theory (&lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/03/16/1754073915572690.full&quot;&gt;DeWall, Baumeister, Chester, &amp;amp; Bushman, 2015&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I made things pretty complicated! I posed two questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can we meaningfully talk about the speed of the fear response without a consensual definition of emotion?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do present emotions cause future behavior (e.g., fear causing me to hit the brakes)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My answers to both questions were &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.  However, I think if we ignore the yuckiness of the first question, we can say that &lt;strong&gt;fear probably doesn't cause us to hit the brakes&lt;/strong&gt;, but rather the expectation of relief does (or some other anticipated feeling).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When and how quickly the fear response occurs during this situation is hard to answer (but can be resolved somewhat depending on your theoretical perspective). If we assume that emotions are multi-componential, then we might imagine that the &lt;em&gt;experience&lt;/em&gt; component need not occur at the same moment as the &lt;em&gt;behavioral&lt;/em&gt; component (mirroring studies of emotion coherence, e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://spl.stanford.edu/pdfs/2005/Mauss.pdf&quot;&gt;Mauss et al., 2005&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;strong&gt;Thus, the experience of fear could (hypothetically) occur before or after the braking behavior.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-06-08T00:00:12.993" LastActivityDate="2015-06-08T00:00:12.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10372" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10363" CreationDate="2015-06-08T05:37:21.033" Score="9" Body="&lt;h3&gt;The Lateral Preference Inventory&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coren (1993) developed an inventory  for lateral preference (The Lateral Preference Inventory). Several items concerned ear preference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found the choice of items to be quite interesting. See below for the items concerned with ear preference. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hEdim.png&quot; alt=&quot;earedness items&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on a large adult normative sample, a total score was created for the four items above (+1 for right; -1 for left; 0 for either)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AREhI.png&quot; alt=&quot;ear preference norms&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Ear preference tasks&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not my area, but I did a quick search on Google Scholar and found an article by Noonan and Axelrod (1981) where they discuss behavioural measures of ear preference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A total of 373 normal young adult subjects were distributed among 5&#xA;  experiments measuring earedness. Handedness, eyedness and familial&#xA;  L-handedness were also indexed. Special care was taken to remove&#xA;  environmental asymmetries when &lt;strong&gt;determining ear preference when&#xA;  listening to sound from a suspended earphone, and from a stopwatch on&#xA;  a table, and for using a telephone symmetrically constructed and&#xA;  displayed.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Ear preference&lt;/strong&gt; was strongly influenced by seemingly minor&#xA;  environmental asymmetries and did not influence telephone habits, and&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;must be considered a very weak lateral preference&lt;/strong&gt;. Earedness was as&#xA;  concordant with handedness as eyedness was found to be; earedness was&#xA;  concordant with handedness in 74% of dextrals and 65% of sinistrals,&#xA;  but earedness was not related to eyedness. Earedness did not vary with&#xA;  putatively hemisphere-specific stimulus types (music, speech).&#xA;  Laterality of telephone use was jointly determined by handedness and&#xA;  the expectation of writing, not by earedness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Coren, S. (1993). The lateral preference inventory for measurement of handedness, footedness, eyedness, and earedness: Norms for young adults. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 31(1), 1-3.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Noonan, M., &amp;amp; Axelrod, S. (1981). Earedness (ear choice in monaural tasks): its measurement and relationship to other lateral preferences. The Journal of auditory research, 21(4), 263-277.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-06-09T01:52:26.530" LastActivityDate="2015-06-09T01:52:26.530" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10373" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-08T05:57:36.817" Score="1" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are observing the behaviors (either through behavioral experiments or observing brain activation through neuroscience experiments) based on the GIVEN TASK to the participants and trying to understand the observed behavior characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder &#xA;(i) if there is any limitation in our ability to speculate through hypothesis and theory to understand whats happening in the brain,&#xA;(ii) if there is any limitation in manipulate the third person to test the hypothesis&#xA;(iii) Is there a pattern in our 'ability' to coming up with a hypothesis or theory in understand the brain. Like we tend to make analogies, extrapolations etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4054" LastEditorUserId="4054" LastEditDate="2015-06-10T06:46:30.517" LastActivityDate="2015-06-10T06:46:30.517" Title="Is there any limitation in our ability to come up with a theory or hypothesis to understand brain?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-06-09T00:30:27.917" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10374" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10342" CreationDate="2015-06-08T15:16:36.543" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The appropriate way to do this is to find the cross-correlation of the time series of rates of the two neurons.  Then take the dot product of the cross correlation with the STDP kernel (i.e., the integral of the correspondence at each point in the STDP window between how much STDP &quot;likes&quot; cross correlation at that lag and how much cross correlation there actually was at that lag).  This gives a value that, when properly scaled, tells you the amount of weight change that synapse should receive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4rT9b.png&quot; alt=&quot;Example&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first panel, the rates of two neurons in a simulation are shown in blue and red respectively.  A zoomed in view is shown (top middle) to emphasize that the blue neuron increases in firing rate slightly before red neuron.  The cross-correlation is plotted on bottom left.  A zoomed in view (bottom middle) emphasizes that the peak of the cross-correlation is slightly negative, corresponding to the fact that the blue neuron leads the red neuron.  We look at the cross-correlation just at lags where STDP is relevant (in this case +/- 100 ms, top right) and there is more correlation at slight negative lags, corresponding to the tendency of the blue neuron to lead.  We then multiply each lag in the cross-correlogram (top right) with the STDP kernel (bottom right) and sum over all relevant lags (between +/-100 ms) to get the value of the synaptic weight change. We can do this because we assume that the likelihood of having a spike lag of a certain amount is proportional to the cross-correlation of the rates at that lag (as probability of spiking is proportional to spike rate).  In this particular case, the weight change will be positive because there is cross-correlation during the positive part of the STDP kernel (lags &amp;lt;0) is greater than the cross-correlation during the negative part of the STDP kernel (lags &gt;0).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-06-08T19:45:10.883" LastActivityDate="2015-06-08T19:45:10.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10377" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-09T03:39:35.167" Score="7" ViewCount="1613" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing a research experiment where I'm trying to measure the time it takes for participants to answer certain questions in an online questionnaire/survey. More specifically, I will be asking participants to examine a graphic image and answer a question about it. An important part of this research is recording how long it takes participants to respond. Any suggestions are welcome, thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8553" LastActivityDate="2017-05-11T04:47:45.737" Title="Are there any free online questionnaire/survey sites that also measure the time it takes for participants to answer each question?" Tags="&lt;reaction-time&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10378" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10377" CreationDate="2015-06-09T04:43:20.690" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are a couple of suggestions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Inquisit&lt;/a&gt; records the timing of each response and can be run online.&#xA;If you care about timing a lot and you need to run the study online, then this is quite a good option.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.qualtrics.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Qualtrics&lt;/a&gt; can record various features of survey delivery time. In particular, you can record time spent on each survey page. If you have one question per page, this can approximate time to respond to the item. This can be useful if you want to identify participants who are not reading items. However, I wouldn't use Qualtrics for cognitive reaction time based experiments. Note also that in order to record item response times you need to manually set this for each survey page.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-05-11T04:47:45.737" LastActivityDate="2017-05-11T04:47:45.737" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10379" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-06-09T17:36:15.240" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2015-06-09T17:36:15.240" LastActivityDate="2015-06-09T17:36:15.240" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10380" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-06-09T17:36:15.240" Score="0" Body="Questions about the psychology and neuroscience of creativity." OwnerUserId="2946" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-06-09T21:07:55.347" LastActivityDate="2015-06-09T21:07:55.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10381" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10389" CreationDate="2015-06-10T09:59:49.940" Score="4" ViewCount="919" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any literature that has addressed electrode pooling? In particular, are there any standards concerning what pools (e.g. frontal, central, posterior vs. electrode pairs) could be used or any particular applications and limitations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;EDIT&lt;/em&gt;:&#xA;By &quot;pooling&quot; I am refering to the procedure in which new channels are created based on pooling the raw data from the original data electrodes. This is a preprocessing step not to be confused with variance pooling for statistical testing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastEditorUserId="3258" LastEditDate="2015-06-10T15:50:07.247" LastActivityDate="2015-07-07T05:51:25.150" Title="Applications and Limitations of EEG Electrode Pooling - Averaging across time series" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10382" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-10T14:32:49.037" Score="4" ViewCount="1435" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just stumbled upon something contradicting:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some sources claim that shyness is a trait of extroversion(introvert)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some sources claim that shyness is a trait of neuroticism #4, self-consciousness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is correct? Can an extrovert be shy or not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-06-14T03:09:18.540" Title="Where in the Big5 does shyness belong?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;&lt;neuroticism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10383" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1736" CreationDate="2015-06-10T17:51:15.500" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://twittermood.s3.amazonaws.com/images/poster.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this twitter study of mood in the US (U.S. Mood Throughout the Day, as inferred from Twitter)&lt;/a&gt; and it clearly shows circadian variation of mood - happier in the morning and evening. I'm surprised to see such a dip towards lunch time though. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z6WoB.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-06-10T17:51:15.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10384" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10385" CreationDate="2015-06-10T22:18:22.900" Score="4" ViewCount="330" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm beginning to write a neural network simulator in Java and thinking of Hebbian Learning but I'm stuck at one thing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What causes two neurons to fire at the same interval while only one of them is input and the other is not? Does it fire itself? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hebbian Learning rule says &quot;those fire together will wire together&quot; but since I'm activating only input neuron, what makes the other interior neuron fire? Do I need to make them fire randomly at times instead of just using weights matrix &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$W_{ij}$&lt;/span&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm a fan of unsupervised learning and need to start with a simple case such as I give one of 3-5 neurons a &quot;1&quot; and expect from another one a &quot;0&quot; as a &quot;NOT&quot; operator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1120" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-26T20:31:09.523" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T20:31:09.523" Title="Hebbian Learning - Understanding Simultaneous Firing" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10385" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10384" CreationDate="2015-06-11T00:14:26.920" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You basically have 2 options:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Manually fire both neurons together that you want to pair - do this as many&#xA;times as needed to pair them.  After learning, it should be&#xA;sufficient to fire only one neuron for the second neuron to fire as&#xA;desired.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Assign a starting weight to the connection between the&#xA;neurons such that firing one will trigger the other.  This is&#xA;basically shortcutting the above learning process.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Normally, the learning process in neural networks is based on multiple simultaneous inputs - not just one.  The network learns the statistical probability of input neurons firing together, and is eventually able to predict them without them firing.  So a test case of a single neuron firing can be used after learning is complete (the first option) or when you restore a previously saved matrix of a trained network (the second option).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-06-11T00:14:26.920" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10386" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10382" CreationDate="2015-06-11T03:00:28.110" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on my experience looking at factor analyses of personality facet structures like the NEO-PI and NEO-IPIP, I think that shyness is mostly captured by low levels of extraversion. Enjoying, getting energy from, and actively engaging in social interaction is a central component of extraversion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, as with many general personality constructs, the Big 5 provides a general framework for understanding them. It is common for there to be a profile of meaningful correlations with the Big 5 where some are larger and some are smaller. Given the elements of anxiety and negative emotions that may be associated with shyness, especially extreme shyness, correlations with neuroticism are also likely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From an empirical perspective, I've often found that the self-consciousness facet on the NEO-IPIP loads most strongly on a factor with other extraversion facets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also note that there are a range of ways of conceptualising introversion. Some  emphasise shyness and social anxiety. Others frame introversion more positively such as enjoying doing work and personal activities by yourself, or preferring one-on-one interactions as opposed to large group interactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Empirical example&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an empirical example, we did a study (Horwood et al, 2015) looking at factor and facet correlates of Type D personality. One of the subscales of Type D is called social inhibition, and it is related to shyness (e.g., items like &quot;I often feel inhibited in social interactions&quot;, &quot;I find it hard to start a conversation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Table 1 shows how the largest correlation with the Big 5 (measured using the NEO-PI-R) for social inhibition was the negative correlation with extraversion (r = -.73), but that the correlation with neuroticism was still substantial (r = .59).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/O8jzd.png&quot; alt=&quot;big 5 type d&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This next table shows the correlations (both zero-order and semi-partials controlling for the Big 5) with Social Inhibition. The largest correlations are for warmth and gregarisiousness (negative correlations), but the correlation with self-consciousness is almost as high.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Fg1xr.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Horwood, S., Anglim, J., &amp;amp; Tooley, G. (2015). Type D personality and the Five-Factor Model: A facet-level analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 83, 50-54. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jeromy_Anglim/publication/275059620_Type_D_personality_and_the_Five-Factor_Model_A_facet-level_analysis/links/553df76a0cf29b5ee4bcee89.pdf?origin=publication_detail&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;full-text&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-06-14T03:09:18.540" LastActivityDate="2015-06-14T03:09:18.540" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10387" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-11T11:17:11.353" Score="1" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;Clarification: I am specifically looking at lifestyle behaviour change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suppose that stress can influence the process of behaviour change in many different ways. One would be just the changing of behaviour itself that will cause stress. However, stress may also cause behaviour change (say, one may initiate behaviour change because of the diagnosis of diabetes). In the end, the aim is to feel better with your new healthy lifestyle, which should result in lower stress levels.&#xA;This is my thinking based on a (non-literature-supported book) that I read, and now I am looking for scientific evidence for any of the influence stress may have in the process of behaviour change.&#xA;Also, any other theories as to how stress may play a role in the process of behaviour change?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8518" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T18:27:57.917" Title="What is the role of stress in the process of behaviour change (lifestyle)?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10388" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-11T14:36:39.453" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;There appear to be &lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/251531/does-describing-someone-as-sensitive-conflate-two-different-ideas&quot;&gt;two different meanings of the word 'sensitive'&lt;/a&gt; when describing people's behaviour:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;that the person being described lacks the emotional resilience to cope with an everyday situation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;one who is very observant of people's behaviour, and able to display empathy in a way that connects with people. One who treats people with care, with great sensitivity to their situation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I wonder if the English language is giving us some insights here. It seems reasonable that people in the first bucket have less maturity than the second. But they share a common ability to sense the subtleties of the situation. It is almost as if they are the same thing on a spectrum of maturity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;Is there evidence to suggest that the different and contrasting behaviours we collectively call 'sensitive' have a common root cause?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2015-06-11T14:36:39.453" Title="Is there evidence to suggest that the different and contrasting behaviours we collectively call 'sensitive' have a common root cause?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10389" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10381" CreationDate="2015-06-11T14:49:12.690" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This seems to be a rather painful terminology issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Pooling&quot; is used in statistics to describe combining data / different sources of information in a single model. It's of particular interest in hierarchical modelling approaches (e.g. mixed-effects modelling), and &lt;em&gt;partial pooling&lt;/em&gt; -- broadly, the sharing of information between groups in a model without discarding the structure of the groups -- is perhaps one of the great innovations of 20th Century regression techniques. For more on this topic, see e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/arm/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gelman and Hill (2007)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this sense, the use of regions of interest (ROIs) instead of individual electrodes as a categorical variable can be seen as a form of pooling -- you're combining data sources to gain more information, but losing some structure along the way. Because of the limited spatial resolution of EEG and the high correlation between adjacent electrodes, averaging across a ROI (and this is implicitly what's happening when we use ROI as a factor in ANOVA or regression models -- this is where the term &quot;regression to the mean&quot; comes from), may enhance our ability to see and detect the signal in the noise (i.e. increase statistical power). The coarsening of spatial (more specifically topographic) resolution is perhaps not tragic, because we are currently not able to make precise spatial predictions. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2003.00139.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maris (2004)&lt;/a&gt; suggests an alternative way of dealing with topography. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This appears to be the sense that BrainVision Analyser uses the word &quot;pooling&quot;. You're combining multiple data channels (electrodes) into a single one (ROI) via averaging. This is one of those places where you see that &quot;channel&quot; and &quot;electrode&quot; are not completely synonymous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Incidentally, there are other ways you can combine information from electrodes. EEG measures voltage, which is per definition &lt;em&gt;potential difference&lt;/em&gt;. The question, of course, is &quot;difference to what?&quot; In traditional recording setups, you have a single reference electrode (or perhaps a few linked electrodes as in linked mastoids) and you measure the difference in the electric field between the measurement electrode and the reference -- this is called &quot;common reference&quot;. Sometimes, a pair of electrodes is measured relative to each other as &quot;bipolar electrodes&quot;. This seems to be more common with the electrooculogram and has the advantage there that it makes eye movements more apparent. It has the disadvantage that you have effectively made one channel from two and &lt;em&gt;cannot distinguish between the two original electrodes!&lt;/em&gt; A further disadvantage is that techniques like independent component analysis (ICA) depend on a common reference to do their magic, and as such, bipolar electrodes are problematic for ICA. A more advanced variant of common reference is &quot;average reference&quot;, where the voltage is measured to the average voltage of all common reference electrodes. This seems weird at first, but it has its uses and emphasizes how the electrodes differ from each other (topography). Any common reference can be computed from any other via a relatively straight forward linear transformation. For more on this, see Luck (&lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/introduction-event-related-potential-technique&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2005&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/introduction-event-related-potential-technique-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of this stuff with referencing is important because it is possible to compute bipolar channels offline -- they are simply the difference of two common-reference electrodes. (Depending on which electrode you substract from which, you will get a different sign.) ERPLAB allows you to combine channels in fairly arbitrary ways to get new ones. If you're doing linear combinations of channels, it's fairly straightforward to compute what the statistics of the combined channel will look like compared to the statistics of the originals, but for arbitrary combinations, this can get confusing quite fast. Incidentally, the construction of ROIs or &quot;pooling&quot; in the BrainVision Analyser sense can be viewed as a special case of this -- you're adding a number of channels together and dividing by a constant (i.e. calculating the mean), which is a linear transformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, you could also use existing channels to simulate missing or bad channels -- this is called interpolation. Good interpolation takes things like the curvature of the scalp and the electric field into account and is thus computationally more complex, often using techniques like splines. A simpler interpolation method is simply taking the average of adjacent electrodes (in some sense constructing a mini-ROI!), but this is not just less accurate numerically but &lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/pipermail/eeglablist/2006/001228.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;also fails to take into account issues with the way electric fields sum together&lt;/a&gt; (see also: equivalent dipoles). Despite Scott Makeig's protests, I suspect that linear interpolation for a single electrode would work quite well in a high density setup. But then again, in a high density setup, you can generally afford to leave one electrode out of your analysis!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In each of the cases above -- construction of ROIs, arbitrary combination of channels, interpolation -- you are in some sense &quot;pooling&quot; the data you have. You are not gaining any information that was not there (e.g. an interpolated electrode does not really add much if any statistical power to your analysis), but you may be using the information that you had more efficiently. And that's what pooling is all about in statistics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT (2015-07-07 05:51 UTC):&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;ICA and common vs. bipolar reference&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As stated in the comments, ICA is actually based on relatively general assumptions that are generally indifferent to the choice of reference. In signal terms, the key assumption is that each measured channel is the linear combination (sums and constant multiples) of a number of components, which are typically taken to represent different (neueral) generators or (EEG) sources. In other words, ICA is a type of Blind Source Separation (BSS), which can be used to decompose a set of (directly) measured signals into a set of contributing sources, based on some additional assumptions. There are many different BSS techniques, each with different assumptions / goals, and thus each answering slightly different questions. For example, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) requires that components are &lt;em&gt;orthogonal&lt;/em&gt;, while ICA require that components are &lt;em&gt;independent&lt;/em&gt;. Somewhat simplified, PCA tries to separate the signal in terms of successive, &quot;maximal&quot; trends, which ICA tries to separate the signal into a series of distinct contributions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This can be best seen in the following figure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ySEOY.png&quot; alt=&quot;PCA and ICA decompositions of an X shaped collection of points&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Image reproduced from &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/5.939827&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jung et al (2001)&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first component produced by PCA is a larger diagonal one explaining the general trend of increasing $y$ for increasing $x$, while the second component is a measure of &quot;drift&quot; or a correction to the general trend. Importantly, the components are at right angles (&lt;em&gt;orthogonal&lt;/em&gt;) to each other. Combining each component in different proportions (i.e. &lt;em&gt;weights&lt;/em&gt;), you arrive at the original two measurement series. In ICA, the components are  not required to be at right angles to each other, and the result in this example is a component for each of the visually obvious  groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Applying this to EEG data, we can view the choice of reference as some sort of builtin &quot;offset&quot; for measurement channel. This will change the weights in the recovered components, but ultimately not the components themselves. It's fairly trivial to transform the data from one common reference to another, and it's also fairly trivial to change transform the component weights from one common reference to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, when the channels have a mix of references, things get a little more interesting. Bipolar (measurement) channels are still linear combinations of EEG sources, but they have unknown offsets.[&lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/pipermail/eeglablist/2013/007361.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/wiki/Chapter_04:_Preprocessing_Tools&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;] This is not a problem for ICA in and of itself -- as @mmh pointed out in the comments -- and thus the decomposition into sources / components works. The bigger issue is that the offset messes with the weights a bit and thus the back-projection; i.e. the generation of scalp maps becomes somewhat more difficult and the resulting scalp maps may be not be interpretable and cannot be source localized.[&lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/pipermail/eeglablist/2013/007361.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;] (Moreover, bipolar channels effectively pack the signal change from two discrete spacial locations into one and thus lose some of the topography information, which is also important for things like scalp maps.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is ultimately why the official advice from the EEGLAB Wiki is to use common reference for &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; channels, including the eye channels, because you can always create bipolar channels from unipolar channels, but not vice vera:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We advise recording eye channels (conventionally four channels, two for vertical eye movement detection and two for horizontal eye movement detection) using the same reference  as other channels, instead of using bipolar montages. One can always recover the bipolar montage activity by subtracting the activities of the electrode pairs.[&lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/wiki/Chapter_04:_Preprocessing_Tools&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the work I do, ICA is really only interesting if you can generate scalp maps or perform source localization. It is still possible to identify (some types of) problematic components and remove them (e.g. a single noisy electrode, but then again, you can often identify that without ICA), but if the scalp maps are not interpretable, then I would have serious doubts about removing components that depend on electrodes from multiple references -- removing components is effectively substracting the component-associated scalp map from the measurement-associated scalp maps and my intuition is that the resultant difference would not necessarily be the correction you're looking for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or more succinctly, Arnaud Delorme, one of the key figures in the development and application of ICA to EEG data, states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;ICA on bipolar montage will not be informative. ICA will attempt to model each channel reference so that common sources may be projected to all channels in a linear fashion. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/pipermail/eeglablist/2013/007342.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ICA will work with a mixture of bipolar and common references, but it will be answering a a different question than the one we would like answered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3670" LastEditorUserId="3670" LastEditDate="2015-07-07T05:51:25.150" LastActivityDate="2015-07-07T05:51:25.150" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10390" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-11T18:33:21.473" Score="7" ViewCount="1209" Body="&lt;p&gt;A rather basic question, but I don't know the answer to that - &lt;strong&gt;What is human &quot;attention&quot; that can be focused on different parts of the body or outside objects?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I can focus my attention on my hand. What happens in the brain when I do so? Is attention localized to some specific brain area or neurotransmitter system (ex: reward seeking is mediated by the limbic system)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-10-05T14:53:12.780" Title="What is &quot;Attention&quot; in terms of brain activity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10363" CreationDate="2015-06-11T19:02:52.323" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dichotic listening task can be helpful to identify if someone has right ear advantage (REA) or LEA. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8572" LastActivityDate="2015-06-11T19:02:52.323" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10392" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-11T20:01:26.187" Score="2" ViewCount="197" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know if there has been an study, or different studies for each activity with which the ranking could be done, that determines a ranking like that with mind intensive activities, I refer to things like playing chess, performing advanced maths, programming, writing a book with care of all its details, performing IQ tests and whatever activity that would produce &quot;brain fatigue&quot; in a typical person within some hours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess the more brain activity it supposes the more tiring the activity would be, although not sure about that. It would also be a good point to determine how hard some activities are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-06-12T13:12:33.437" LastActivityDate="2015-06-12T13:12:33.437" Title="Ranking of produced &quot;brain fatigue&quot; from different mind intensive activities" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2016-12-01T17:41:32.207" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10393" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10390" CreationDate="2015-06-11T20:40:19.973" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I am reading this correctly you are essentially asking where is the consciousness  located in the brain. The system would be the RAS (Reticular Activating System) and you can read up it on the good ol' wakapedia.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticular_activating_system#Attention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticular_activating_system#Attention&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also like to note that it is not specific to humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8574" LastEditorUserId="8574" LastEditDate="2015-06-11T20:53:49.243" LastActivityDate="2015-06-11T20:53:49.243" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10394" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10377" CreationDate="2015-06-11T22:26:59.060" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are specific metrics that test latency of response, e.g., the Stroop Test. The basic idea behind this test is to expose subject to a colored square, e.g., a red patch, and then measure how long it takes them to associate the word &quot;red&quot; with the stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Stroop effect is one of the most widely replicated findings in cog sci.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check out this Wiki description of it...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8539" LastActivityDate="2015-06-11T22:26:59.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10395" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14127" CreationDate="2015-06-12T07:00:05.377" Score="4" ViewCount="282" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on Brain-Computer interfaces. In my project we try to control the movement of a robot in three directions, namely forward, right and left.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have done an EEG experiment where we have asked subjects to &lt;em&gt;imagine&lt;/em&gt; the movement of this robot to the wanted direction. For example, if the subject wanted to move the robot forward, he needed to imagine the robot was moving forward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this type a &lt;strong&gt;motor imagery&lt;/strong&gt; experiment? If not, what would the scientific word be that describes this type of experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6428" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-01T20:18:10.203" LastActivityDate="2016-07-06T10:38:27.500" Title="Brain-computer interface with EEG: how to name imaginary movement of a non-self object?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10396" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-12T14:17:47.460" Score="10" ViewCount="2079" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose a person is considered intelligent based on his IQ score. For example, suppose Bob has a high IQ score and is very interested in pure mathematics. He would most probably excel in this field. Now suppose Bob hated biology. He can't bring himself to learn anything about this field. Does this mean that Bob is &quot;not intelligent&quot; in the field of biology and only intelligent in the field of pure mathematics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, does motivation and interest correlate highly with IQ? Somebody can be &quot;smart&quot; but still perform poorly in various fields?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8280" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-01-22T07:32:27.277" LastActivityDate="2016-01-22T07:32:27.277" Title="Does motivation and interest correlate highly with IQ and can someone be smart but perform poorly in a particular field?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10397" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10425" CreationDate="2015-06-12T14:54:41.337" Score="2" ViewCount="2776" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Assumption:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Animals can't talk 'human' because of their small(er) brain.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps a strange thought, but I was really wondering: If we could place a human brain inside that of an animal: Would we be able to speak 'human', instead of 'animal'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7684" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-06-18T01:25:30.547" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T21:44:19.720" Title="If a human brain would be placed inside that of an animal: Could it talk?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10398" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-12T15:24:42.530" Score="1" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the much documented problems of Bayesian approaches to cognitive modeling is that there isn't much of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/600/4397&quot;&gt;neural grounding&lt;/a&gt;. The NEF can be used to compute probabilistic computations with ease (see Chapter 9 of &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/eliasmith2003a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural Engineering&lt;/a&gt;), however have this been used in a published model before? Are there drawbacks that make merging the NEF with Bayesian modelling methods unfeasible in terms of resources required?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-06-12T15:32:38.840" Title="How are Bayesian models implemented in the NEF?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;nef&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10399" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10511" CreationDate="2015-06-12T16:31:52.153" Score="4" ViewCount="815" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am analysing data on an emotion perception task, where participants must decide if a given face is happy, sad, angry or fearful (essentially a forced choice between 4 options).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am confident that I want to calculate an unbiased hit rate for each emotion (as in Wagner 1993). This takes a confusion matrix (toy example below):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;        Happy    Sad    Angry   Fearful&#xA;Happy     4       1       0        1&#xA;Sad       0       3       2        1 &#xA;Angry     0       0       6        0&#xA;Fearful   2       0       0        4&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the unbiased hit rate is then the correct answers squared, divided by the number of times that answer is used multiplied by the number of trials where that answer was correct. So in the above example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Hu(Happy) = 4^2 / ((4+0+0+2)*6) = 16/36 = 0.444&#xA;Hu(Sad) = 9/24 = 0.375&#xA;Hu(Angry) = 36/48 = 0.75&#xA;Hu(Fearful) = 16/36 = 0.444&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are then converted with an arcsine tranformation on the square root for use as the dependent variable in regression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I want to use this data to assess general ability at emotion recognition in faces - what is the correct way to combine the unbiased hit rates? That is, can I generate a single value that accounts for all off these, or should I run four separate analyses and examine the overlap in the results?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wagner, H. L. (1993). On measuring performance in category judgment studies of nonverbal behavior. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 17(1), 3-28.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8579" LastEditorUserId="8579" LastEditDate="2015-06-13T10:45:52.653" LastActivityDate="2015-06-30T11:41:37.610" Title="Combining unbiased hit rates" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10400" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10396" CreationDate="2015-06-12T17:18:30.037" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Intelligence&lt;/a&gt; refers to a general cognitive capacity, it does not refer to knowledge in specific fields of study.  This means that yes, it is possible to have high intelligence but have low knowledge / performance in a specific academic area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, IQ tests are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_%28statistics%29#Criterion_validity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;validated against academic performance&lt;/a&gt; - that is to say, they are adjusted so as to have a high correlation with grades.  Thus, on average, high IQ scores do mean success in school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a variety of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;theories of multiple independent intelligences&lt;/a&gt;, where one can be high performing in one area of intelligence but not another.  However, intelligence is never broken down by academic field of study such as &quot;biology&quot; or &quot;calculus&quot;, only by general cognitive capacity, such as &quot;social&quot; or &quot;musical&quot;, so we might say someone is &quot;not knowledgeable&quot; in biology, but never &quot;not intelligent&quot; in it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-06-12T17:18:30.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10401" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10397" CreationDate="2015-06-12T17:32:39.433" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Part of what makes speech possible is a complex set of interactions between a number of different muscles that control aspects of producing speech sounds like airflow and mouth shape. Humans are unique in the complexity of the sounds that we can produce. Even if we granted the science-fiction that would be necessary to put a human brain into a chimpanzee and somehow managed to reconnect the analogous neural pathways to sensory organs and effectors, human speech wouldn't be possible because it requires a human body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_speech&quot;&gt;This Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; gives an overview of the biological developments that support speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-06-12T17:32:39.433" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10402" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10397" CreationDate="2015-06-12T22:42:33.033" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a complicated question if you stop for a moment to think about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evolution is a complicated process. Brains and other part of the bodies actually do not evolve distinctly from each other. We can say they co-evolved if you will...  So how did humans get language? How did humans get speech? Did they acquire it together if not which first. There are theories, but as far as I am concerned there is not a widely accepted certain truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But brains are fairly plastic right? I mean if we don't go to too extreme and try to put a human brain in a cockroach like body put it in a reasonably similar body like a chimpanzee perhaps the plasticity may provide the required sensory motor functions for living. But can this chimp talk?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It fairly depends on what we understand by &quot;talking&quot;. If we consider speech (as humans do) the answer may be NO. Because it took a lot of work for evolution to make us able to produce that many different sounds. (They even say even with the risk of chocking themselves, most of the other primates don't have the same problems) So failing to produce phonemes what body may not be able to use human languages vocally.At least common human languages... There are pople that use language by wistling you may want to check this out:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PgEmSb0cKBg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PgEmSb0cKBg&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But we have fairly good evidence that language is not about speech. It isn't even about just communicating. If given enough time and environment even with the limited vocal ability I suspect that ability may be turned into a different kind of language (possibly with lesser number of phonemes and longer words) And also to look the things from another angle: Are we talking to each other when we communicate via instant messaging or texting. If it's a yes then yes the chimp could talk. If no, then, possibly no.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I said earlier we can use language in fairly different ways. Even people lacking complete auditory input or vocal motor control can use language. For example chimp would not have any problems with using a sign language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To sum up if we talk about language it is a more general concept then just speech and can be performed in various ways. And it is fairly independent from the properties of sensory or motor organs. A brain that has functioning language areas would find a way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8581" LastActivityDate="2015-06-12T22:42:33.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10403" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10384" CreationDate="2015-06-12T23:19:15.163" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably you already know most of the stuff i will talk about. But I want to make it clear any way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;First from the nonscientific perspective of hebian learning&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think when there are just 2 neurons and you want to &amp;quot;wire them together&amp;quot; i suspect it wouldn't be learning anything. In the and you may have a post-synaptic neuron fires whenever the pre-synaptic fires.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But when there are at least 2 pre-synaptic neurons it begins to make sense. (And you may avoid giving random numbers)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long Term Potantiation (LTP) is usually discussed when hebian learning in process. To make a clear example lets assume 3 pre-synaptic neurons one of then (S1) has a stronger connection (weight) to post synaptic neuron while other two (W1 and W2) has a weak connection(weight).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make it more concrete i will give (neuroscientifically non-valid) meanings to these neurons. Lets say post-synaptic neuron is a neuron that recognized motorbikes. S1 fires when you see a bike, W1 fires when there is a motor sound and W2 (lets make it arbitrary) fires when it smells cherries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the begining you don't have the idea how a motorbike sounds like. But when you see it S1 fires, and because you hear it W1 also fires. However W1's contribution is very weak S1 may produce enough inout for post-synaptic neuron to fire. Since W1 was firing when post-synaptic neuron is firing the connection is strengthened. Anf if you have enouh inputs after some points even without the presence of S1 post-synaptic neuron can fire. Since it didn't smell cheries when you say the motorbike W2 remained still the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the message to take home is it is meaningful when there are multiple pre-synaptic inputs and the effect is to one side only.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am quoting from &amp;quot;Cognitive Neuroscience&amp;quot; book of Gazzangia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;three rules for associative LTP have bee n drawn:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cooperativity . More than one input must be active at the same time.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Associativity . Weak inputs are potentiated when co-occurring with stronger inputs.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Specificity . Only the stimulated synapse shows potentiation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;From the perspective of machine learning:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For unsupervised learning in  neural networks you may want to look at:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Boltzmann Machines&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stochastic Maximum Likehood Learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8581" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-06-12T23:19:15.163" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10404" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-13T03:15:59.917" Score="4" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to create a visualization for some numbers, each ranging from 0 to 1. I was thinking of representing each number by a color (say red) of a certain opacity corresponding to its value. For example, $x_1=0.3$ would be red with an opacity of 30%, $x_2=0.6$ would be red with an opacity of 60%, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: Is this linear mapping the most accurate in terms of how people sense opacity? That is, does $x_1$ look like its &quot;half&quot; as much as $x_2$? Or do people perceive opacity like they perceive sound -- I know that sound is perceived logarithmically (see the decibel scale).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8583" LastEditorUserId="8583" LastEditDate="2015-06-13T03:39:44.827" LastActivityDate="2015-06-13T03:39:44.827" Title="Do people perceive opacity of a color linearly?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10405" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-13T14:13:49.193" Score="2" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both segmented sleep and afternoon naps are recommended over a monophasic eight-hour block of sleep, but I don't see how they fit in with each other. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segmented_sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Segmented sleep&lt;/a&gt; is the theory/hypothesis that people naturally sleep for four hours, stay awake for two, and then sleep for another four hours. There are references to &quot;first sleep&quot; and &quot;second sleep&quot; in many pieces of literature. But articles about segmented sleep don't really mention afternoon naps, even though &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/12/science/feeling-sleepy-an-urge-to-nap-is-built-in.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;they're supposed to be natural too&lt;/a&gt;. People feel more tired in the afternoon regardless of when they had lunch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are segmented sleep and afternoon naps mutually exclusive (e.g., if you sleep in segments you don't feel like taking an afternoon nap, and vice versa)? Is there evidence that people took siestas historically (before street lighting)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6191" LastActivityDate="2015-06-13T14:13:49.193" Title="How do afternoon naps fit in with segmented sleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10406" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10813" CreationDate="2015-06-13T17:01:38.940" Score="6" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many research articles, a vague description of a inhibitory circuitry in the brain is mentioned. This is presented as an inhibitory mechanism that prevents input from one sensory modality to excite another region (for example touch exciting visual cortex) or in general prevents any signal not coming from the visual nerve to excite the visual cortex. And that preventing test subjects from their sight (blindfolding for a longer period) interferes with those inhibitory circuits and deactivates them. The results are presented &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15179062&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; where subjects started having hallucinations and perceiving things even though totally blindfolded. I am interested to know if there is some active research about those inhibitory circuits in the brain and if they are well understood. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find out if normally sighted or normally hearing people could get visual/auditory information from both the original sense and through the skin via an electrotactile pattern through a sensory substitution device, to see if passive learning can be achieved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7447" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-04T02:01:18.677" LastActivityDate="2015-08-17T14:35:27.680" Title="Is inhibitory brain circuitry involved in cross-modal sensory perception?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10407" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-13T21:49:09.003" Score="5" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say that after a period of sleeping perfectly, I sleep for the following amount of hours on some consecutive days. (Let's say the optimal hours I sleep is 8 hours. For the sake of simplicity, all the hours of sleep have equal quality.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How tired would I be at the end compared to the other option? How much sleep deprivation would I need to get in one night to get a similar level of sleep deprivation as the several consecutive nights?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;6 hours one night, and 6 hours the next&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;versus 7, 7, 7, 7&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;6, 7&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;versus 7, 6&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;9, 7&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;versus 8, 8&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm fairly sure it's not just a simple sum of debt. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/magazine/mag-17Sleep-t.html?_r=0&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;There was an experiment&lt;/a&gt; that showed that two weeks of sleeping six hours a night was equivalent to staying up all night. Is there some formula or some general principles to go by then?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6191" LastActivityDate="2015-06-13T21:49:09.003" Title="How to compare cumulative sleep debts?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-10-05T09:24:27.017" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10408" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9668" CreationDate="2015-06-14T12:36:49.497" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very interesting question! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I cannot give a definite answer, however. What I can provide is supportive, but indirect evidence for my &lt;em&gt;personal view&lt;/em&gt; that peripheral sensory organs are genetically hardwired, and that the brain is the plastic center of the nervous system during development. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 1985 review paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.ne.08.030185.002431&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Boothe &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; mentions that at that time, little information was available about the development of the receptive field properties of single neurons in primates, and that no studies were then available regarding the development of receptive fields of primate retinal ganglion cells. I could not find later works dealing with the development of center-surround structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I did find was an interesting and relatively recent review by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psych.mcmaster.ca/maurerlab/publications/maurer_acuity.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Maurer &amp;amp; Lewis (2001)&lt;/a&gt;. They describe that the retinas of monkeys that were &lt;strong&gt;visually deprived&lt;/strong&gt; by lid suture or dark-rearing had permanent deficits in visual acuity. However, &lt;strong&gt;the retina appeared normal&lt;/strong&gt;, with no changes in the gross electrophysiological response (electroretinogram), the topography of photoreceptors, or the morphology of retinal ganglion cells.* These data &lt;strong&gt;strongly hint towards a genetically-based development of the retina&lt;/strong&gt;, because visual deficits due to visual deprivation are mainly of a cortical nature, and hence plasticity is cortical and not retinal. However, the data only &lt;strong&gt;indirectly address your question&lt;/strong&gt; and until &lt;em&gt;electrophysiological studies are undertaken&lt;/em&gt; that specifically characterize center-surround fields in the visually-deprived retina, I cannot answer this question definitively. Unfortunately, much of the recent work has focused on cortical V1 and beyond after visual deprivation. Retinal re-structuring has been investigated mainly after photoreceptor degenerations.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.ne.08.030185.002431&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Boothe &lt;em&gt;et al., Ann Rev Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (1985); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;: 495-545&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psych.mcmaster.ca/maurerlab/publications/maurer_acuity.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Maurer &amp;amp; Lewis, Clin Neurosci Res (2001); &lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;: 239-47&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*When visually deprived for more than 2 years retinal re-structuring was seen. This can, however, easily be explained by degenerative processes (at least, as far as I know, this was not mentioned in the paper).&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-06-16T00:01:24.387" LastActivityDate="2015-06-16T00:01:24.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10409" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-14T17:09:55.437" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to generate a 2D grid environment with rewards distributed (1s are rewards, 0s are no rewards) based on an alternation probability as defined in this paper by Falk and Konald (&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.412.7679&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.412.7679&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&lt;/a&gt;). The basic idea is that once a random square is seeded (top left, say) as 1 or 0, then the probability of the adjacent square staying the same as the previous, or switching - is given by the probability of alternation. The paper describes the generation process as going from 'left to right' and 'top to bottom'. I am not clear on how the authors intended to implement it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8586" LastActivityDate="2015-06-14T17:09:55.437" Title="Generate 2D grid with alternation probability" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-02T15:19:37.347" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10410" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-15T06:35:32.820" Score="6" ViewCount="220" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, how does psychology account for why some people like peanuts and others hate them? This is a serious question, although perhaps naive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sure, there can be some physiological explanations relating to tastebud distribution, etc. There are also some more cognitive ones relating to memory, cultural values, etc. Nonetheless, the &quot;input&quot; (here: peanut) is the same, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So any theory that accounts for this must take into consideration physical and psychological parameters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6493" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-07-31T01:54:04.020" LastActivityDate="2018-07-31T01:54:04.020" Title="What are the main theories that account for why some people like X and others not?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10411" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-15T11:40:11.453" Score="7" ViewCount="463" Body="&lt;p&gt;A patient with sensorineural hearing loss can have the symptom of hearing &quot;double&quot; in the damaged ear. Not having a time-delayed echo, but hearing as if he (or other people) speak with &quot;two voices&quot; at once. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a theory about the mechanism behind this? Does it happen on the level of the malfunctioning hair cells, or because the brain has trouble remapping an incomplete input of frequencies, or something else? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="723" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-06-15T12:36:06.563" LastActivityDate="2015-06-18T02:40:38.603" Title="What is the neurophysiological mechanism behind double hearing?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10413" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10415" CreationDate="2015-06-15T18:05:31.997" Score="3" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;What happens when we stimulate a brain in local regions? Some possibilities: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We may trigger an action without the subject's awareness of the action;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We can trigger an action in a subject, but we cannot trigger a subject's will to perform this action;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We can't trigger an action without awareness of subject;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We cannot trigger an action without awareness of subject to his own action;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the results??&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I felt is 2, 4 are correct options because when some BMI devices are used subject is forcefully made to make a move. Here we are not changing his will to move but he is aware that he is moving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8132" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-06-26T13:20:19.137" LastActivityDate="2020-12-30T12:42:30.373" Title="Result of local stimulation in brain" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10414" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10410" CreationDate="2015-06-15T18:26:25.870" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In psychology, we call people's attitudes towards things &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preference#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;preferences&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, and the emotional experience associated with preference is referred to as &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;affect&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, or more specifically, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;valence&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, which is positive or negative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As alluded to in the question, there is a genetic predisposition for certain preferences, such as sugar (sweetness), and some aversions, such as quinine (bitterness).  Biology sets probabilities, but since people can come to like bitterness and dislike sweetness, we know that as with any statistical probability, there can be some exceptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning also plays an important role.  This was clearly demonstrated by the seminal &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pavlov's Dog&lt;/a&gt; experiment.  Dogs are genetically predispositioned to salivate when they smell food, but have no particular predisposition to the sound of a bell.  However, by pairing the sound of a bell with the smell of food, dogs learned to salivate from the sound of a bell alone.  This process of pairing something that does not elicit a response to something that does is called &quot;classical conditioning&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A well known example of classical conditioning in humans is the sound of a pop-can opening followed by the sound of fizz, which is used by companies such as Coca-Cola in their advertising to elicit a conditioned (positive) response to television ads that only have sound and no smell or taste to them.  Through classical conditioning, people can learn to enjoy something that they have no predisposition to enjoy or even something that they have a predisposition to avoid, or come to dislike something by a similar process.  Restaurants often use ambiance, presentation, and other classically conditioned methods to improve the dining experience independently of the taste of the food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The role of learning is also evident in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuisine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cultural differences&lt;/a&gt; in common preferences.  For example, different cultures show a general preference for spicy food, sour food, or subtle flavours.  And as alluded to above, media (such as advertising) can have a profound influence at the cultural level as well - eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robusta_coffee&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;robusta coffee&lt;/a&gt; is low grade and bitter, but Americans have been exposed to much advertising suggesting that it is of high quality, and it is very popular there.  This can also happen through the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mere-exposure effect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many other factors come into play, including cognitive biases and memory, and these combine together to influence individual preferences.  For example, members of the same family may have similar genetic predispositions and similar cultural influences, but differences in the expression of specific genes, degrees of cultural assimilation, and personal experiences can account for their different preferences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-07-31T01:52:09.900" LastActivityDate="2018-07-31T01:52:09.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10415" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10413" CreationDate="2015-06-15T22:24:24.840" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You should check out the article on Wikipedia: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_free_will#Other_related_phenomena&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_free_will#Other_related_phenomena&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though there is still some controversy surrounding some of the experiments, the overall evidence suggests that it's possible to trigger action without awareness, it's possible to manipulate the perception of intention (will) to action, and it's also possible to do both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In one study, directly stimulating the pre-SMA caused volunteers to&#xA;  report a feeling of intention, and sufficient stimulation of that same&#xA;  area caused physical movement.[35] In a similar study, it was found&#xA;  that people with no visual awareness of their body can have their&#xA;  limbs be made to move without having any awareness of this movement,&#xA;  by stimulating premotor brain regions.[60] When their parietal&#xA;  cortices were stimulated, they reported an urge (intention) to move a&#xA;  specific limb (that they wanted to do so). Furthermore, stronger&#xA;  stimulation of the parietal cortex resulted in the illusion of having&#xA;  moved without having done so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-06-15T22:24:24.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10416" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10418" CreationDate="2015-06-16T00:13:47.350" Score="3" ViewCount="719" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find a test of semantic memory for students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We're working on a programme to explore the impacts of exposure to nature on a student's academic abilities (hoping to pique teachers interest by showing the interconnection).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The starting point for this was &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/19/12/1207.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; in which students that are taken for a walk in the park experience a boost in working memory. The test used there was a reverse digit sequence recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking to use a different test that is more closely related to semantic memory, and if possible, is a little less dull (I know ideally this would not be a factor, but I suspect some will think the digit sequence test too simplistic and dismiss the results as not representative of aptitude on more complex challenges of school subjects).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding of the different types of memory is that semantic is the one that makes up a big component of what is tested on traditional academic standard tests, so this would be a more relevant fit to showing the relationship between nature and the cognitive abilities commonly valued and assessed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In looking for tests, I found the NIH toolbox, but it only has tests on episodic and working memory.&#xA;I've also looked here on StackExchange, but again, can't find answers specific to semantic memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where might I look for an appropriate tool for semantic memory?&#xA;If the test is one that can be administered to the same student more than once, that would be helpful too (to show comparative difference in memory after exposure to different environments)&#xA;(and if you have suggestions of other cognitive skills that we should be examining, I'm open to it)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8380" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-06-16T12:43:29.597" LastActivityDate="2015-06-16T12:43:29.597" Title="Tests of Semantic Memory suitable for 10 to 18 year old" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10417" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10319" CreationDate="2015-06-16T05:42:58.723" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Inquisit&lt;/a&gt; is a tool for running online psychological experiments.&#xA;It has &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a huge task library&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quick look says that they have:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;6 different stroop tasks. E.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/Stroop/FoodStroop/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/Stroop/FoodStroop/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;N-back  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/NBack/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/NBack/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heaps of IAT examples: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/IAT/AgeIAT/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/IAT/AgeIAT/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Becker's 2009 Visual search task: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/VisualSearch/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.millisecond.com/download/library/VisualSearch/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The plug-in to run experiments is free and you can run the experiments online with just the plug-in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have a desktop licence you can download and customise the scripts.&#xA;If you have a web licence you can post your modified scripts online and collect data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-06-16T05:42:58.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10418" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10416" CreationDate="2015-06-16T12:18:52.013" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This seems difficult for a number of reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, &lt;strong&gt;are you interested in testing the retrieval of pre-existing semantic memories or the ability to form new semantic memories?&lt;/strong&gt;  It is entirely possible that exposure to nature increases one without the other, so be sure you're testing the one you're interested in (or both, carefully).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, &lt;strong&gt;semantic memory is highly dependent on environmental exposure&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g., I know that trains in the Netherlands are blue and yellow, but if you haven't been there, you probably don't), and thus creating an appropriate semantic memory task will vary by demographic (much more finely cut than &quot;10-18yo&quot;), location, etc.  This means that a general test of semantic knowledge is unlikely to be valid over a large set of the population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third, &lt;strong&gt;semantic memory is &lt;em&gt;extremely&lt;/em&gt; susceptible to practice effects&lt;/strong&gt; (otherwise studying wouldn't work), so figuring out something that can be administered more than once without major order effects is unlikely.  You will probably have to find a task and split it into subsets which can be administered at different times, which will compound your demographic problem above by requiring more items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If you want to test ability to encode semantic memory&lt;/strong&gt;, the task in a paper like McKoon &amp;amp; Ratcliff (1986) may be helpful.  &lt;strong&gt;If you want to test the ability to retrieve pre-existing semantic memories&lt;/strong&gt;, something like that used in Patterson et al. (2014) would be more useful.  You may want to repurpose either procedure by substituting scholastically relevant facts for their category recognition and/or new encoding tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Automatic activation of episodic information in a semantic memory task.&#xA;McKoon, G., &amp;amp; Ratcliff, R.&#xA;Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Vol 12(1), Jan 1986, 108-115. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.12.1.108&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.12.1.108&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Semantic memory: Which side are you on?&#xA;Patterson, K., Kopelman, M., Woollams, A., Brownsett, S., Geranmayeh, F., et al. Neuropsychologia (Nov 22, 2014). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.11.024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.11.024&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2015-06-16T12:18:52.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10419" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-16T18:47:33.497" Score="3" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm having a hard time determining if synchrony (I'm talking about the type described in reference to the visual cortex as seen &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19668703&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and less about synaptic plasticity which also involves synchrony) based explanations are opposed or integrate-able with the NEF.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I seem to be only able to find evidence that the NEF is opposed to this type of explanation. The visual system of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6111/1202&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Spaun&lt;/a&gt; (which is kind of the flagship model for the NEF) doesn't seem to use or exhibit synchrony. Additionally, &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/crawford2013.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Eric Crawford's research on knowledge representation&lt;/a&gt; also seems to only criticize the synchronous approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it does seem that synchrony has a lot of empirical evidence, according to &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19668703&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural Synchrony in Cortical Networks&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the NEF and synchrony work together somehow?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-06-16T18:47:33.497" Title="Relation between NEF and synchronous explanation of cognition" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;nef&gt;&lt;synchronization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10420" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-17T01:39:38.210" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a psychology experiment - subject has to learn that the 2D grid is a checkerboard, and collect all the 1s (rewards). How do I test if subjects are actually doing it in the most optimal way -- making least effort for moving from one square to the next by taking smaller steps (or selecting closest reward neighbour). My guess is that if I could simulate a learning algorithm and approximate how long it takes to learn the reward distribution, and then explore it optimally (optimality is defined as a unit of time and exploring closest squares first), I could compare the behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(i've cross-posted in the game development forum as well, as inputs from both psychologists and game developers would be very useful!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8586" LastActivityDate="2015-06-17T01:39:38.210" Title="Analyzing movement data for a checkerboard" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-06-02T15:19:06.767" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10421" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-17T09:06:00.357" Score="5" ViewCount="599" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is known that exercise has a positive effect on BDNF (brain derived neurotrophic factor). BDNF has a positive effect on mood and cognitive abilities. What's the optimal way of exercising (frequency, duration, intensity level) when the goal is to maximize BDNF production?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8313" LastActivityDate="2015-06-17T11:20:08.057" Title="What's the optimal type of exercise to increase BDNF" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10422" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10421" CreationDate="2015-06-17T11:20:08.057" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Vigorous intensity (80% heart rate reserve) with long duration (40 min) offers the greatest probability of a significant BDNF elevation according to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3772595/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Effects of Aerobic Exercise Intensity and Duration on Levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Healthy Men&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; study published in 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study does not give an answer to the optimal frequency of exercises. It is probably based on individuals' personal fitness level, because recovery should be taken into account as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XjBqP.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastActivityDate="2015-06-17T11:20:08.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10423" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10411" CreationDate="2015-06-17T13:10:17.500" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Damage to the inner ear can result in an asymmetric distortion in pitch perception between the two ears. This phenomenon can result in the same tone being perceived as a different pitch by the two ears.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Damage to the inner ear (the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Cochlea&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cochlea&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;) can lead to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_loss&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hearing loss&lt;/a&gt;. Hearing loss can sometimes lead to changes in perceived pitch. For people with unilateral cochlear damage, or asymmetrical hearing losses, the same tone presented alternately to the two ears may be perceived as having different pitches in the two ears (&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;diplacusis&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;). Sometimes different pitches are perceived even when the hearing loss is the same in the two ears &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CCMQFjAAahUKEwjl1Lfq3ZbGAhWIsLwKHV19AAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phon.ucl.ac.uk%2Fcourses%2Fspsci%2FAUDL4007%2FMoore%25201996%2520Ear%2520%26%2520Hearing.pdf&amp;amp;ei=iGiBVeXwIojh8gXd-gE&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNHhYgO35s8Un7D-xDEtN9TsSHygTw&amp;amp;sig2=tQVz-BSeOVbfhiUuP0SngQ&amp;amp;bvm=bv.96041959,d.dGc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Moore, 1996)&lt;/a&gt;. Diplacusis is associated with a higher perceived pitch in the relatively more impaired ear &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3711452&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Burns &amp;amp; Turner, 1986)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The precise origin of these pitch shifts is unclear, but are related to hearing loss &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CCMQFjAAahUKEwjl1Lfq3ZbGAhWIsLwKHV19AAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phon.ucl.ac.uk%2Fcourses%2Fspsci%2FAUDL4007%2FMoore%25201996%2520Ear%2520%26%2520Hearing.pdf&amp;amp;ei=iGiBVeXwIojh8gXd-gE&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNHhYgO35s8Un7D-xDEtN9TsSHygTw&amp;amp;sig2=tQVz-BSeOVbfhiUuP0SngQ&amp;amp;bvm=bv.96041959,d.dGc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Moore, 1996)&lt;/a&gt;. What is known, however, is that damage to the cochlea can lead to &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/0-387-28958-5_7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Moore &amp;amp; Carlyon, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reduced frequency selectivity&lt;/strong&gt; in the ear, i.e., a reduced pitch discrimination. This may alter the perception of pitch in complex tones; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Altered velocity of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilar_membrane&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;travelling wave on the basilar membrane&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. When the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_cell#Outer_hair_cells_.E2.80.93_acoustical_pre-amplifiers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;outer hair cells&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (the acoustic amplifiers in the cochlea) are damaged, the speed in which the acoustic wave travels through the cochlea may be altered, possibly leading to an altered perceived pitch;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dead regions&lt;/strong&gt; in the cochlea, where the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_cell#Inner_hair_cells_.E2.80.93_from_sound_to_nerve_signal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;inner hair cells&lt;/a&gt; (the mechanoreceptors of the inner ear) are absent. In this case a tone is perceived by adjacent regions in the cochlea. Because the cochlea is a frequency-to-place converter (basically a Fourier transformer), it may result in altered pitch perception; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reduced phase locking&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/17/9/3312.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Koppl, 1997)&lt;/a&gt; in the auditory nerve. Phase locking refers to auditory nerve fibers following the waveform of the tonal stimulus, which may provide pitch information (in humans this process is mainly confined to low frequencies, ~1 kHz and below). Reduction of this property may alter pitch perception.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3711452&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Burns &amp;amp; Turner, &lt;em&gt;JASA&lt;/em&gt; (1986), &lt;strong&gt;79&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 1530-40&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/17/9/3312.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Koppl, &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (1997), &lt;strong&gt;17&lt;/strong&gt;(9): 3312–21&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CCMQFjAAahUKEwjl1Lfq3ZbGAhWIsLwKHV19AAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phon.ucl.ac.uk%2Fcourses%2Fspsci%2FAUDL4007%2FMoore%25201996%2520Ear%2520%26%2520Hearing.pdf&amp;amp;ei=iGiBVeXwIojh8gXd-gE&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNHhYgO35s8Un7D-xDEtN9TsSHygTw&amp;amp;sig2=tQVz-BSeOVbfhiUuP0SngQ&amp;amp;bvm=bv.96041959,d.dGc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Moore, &lt;em&gt;Ear Hear&lt;/em&gt; (1996); &lt;strong&gt;17&lt;/strong&gt;: 133-60&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/0-387-28958-5_7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Moore &amp;amp; Carlyon, &lt;em&gt;Springer Handbook of Auditory Research&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;24&lt;/strong&gt;: 234-77&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-06-18T02:40:38.603" LastActivityDate="2015-06-18T02:40:38.603" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10424" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10426" CreationDate="2015-06-17T14:41:10.703" Score="3" ViewCount="723" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before I can ask my questions, I have to give a little background information.  I'm involved in a study using a measure of design fluency.  Subjects are shown a page full of squares, like the one shown below.  Each square contains 5 dots.  Subjects are given 60 seconds to generate as many different designs as fast as they can by connecting dots in each square.  The criteria for correct designs are that the designs must contain 4 lines and that all the lines in the design must be continuous.  There are 2 trials in the test: one with 5 black dots and one with 5 black dots and 5 white dots.  In the second trial, the extra dots are included as form of interference. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WCJts.png&quot; alt=&quot;two dots boxes&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are examples of correct designs produced in the first trial of the design fluency task.  Similar designs would be likely produced under the second trial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oM0dk.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;three correct designs&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way this measure is usually quantified is by counting the &lt;em&gt;number&lt;/em&gt; of correct designs produced.  However, I'm interested in looking at this task a little differently.  I want to know if members of a clinical group, say Alzheimer's disease (AD), will produce a &lt;em&gt;quality&lt;/em&gt; of designs that is different than normal controls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One way I thought about doing this was by looking at the frequency of designs produced.  This has been observed for tasks of verbal fluency, with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13803399508406584&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;patients with AD producing words of a greater frequency than controls&lt;/a&gt;.  The problem is that while counts of word frequency are readily available, there is no equivalent source for production on the design fluency task that I know of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's how I thought about approaching this.  I'd start by taking the responses produced by a large number of controls and coming up with a way of classifying them, say 4 or 5 &lt;em&gt;types&lt;/em&gt; of designs.  Then I'd count the number of times each of these design types occurred in the control sample and apply a weight to them so that design types with lesser frequency would have a greater weight (think &lt;a href=&quot;http://nlp.stanford.edu/IR-book/html/htmledition/inverse-document-frequency-1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inverse document frequency&lt;/a&gt;).  I'd then look at a smaller AD sample and a equivalent control sample matched on demographic variables.  I'd count the number of each design types produced by each subject in both groups, and multiply the number of each design type by the weight assigned to it.  The average frequency would be calculated for each subject for each trial type (the 5 dot trial and the 10 dot interference trial).  Group performance would then be compared in a repeated measures ANOVA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are the two questions that I have. The control sample that I have to determine the frequency of the design types is small: less than 70 subjects.  Is this too small for determining the frequency and weights of the design types?  Secondly, when comparing the clinical sample to a control sample, would it be possible to draw the small control sample from this larger control sample used to derive the frequency and the weights, or is there some reason that I should not do this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance for your attention and response.  Any input would be greatly  appreciated.  I realize this question may be off topic for this site.  If you feel that's the case, would you mind suggesting a more appropriate forum.  I've previously &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/157221/use-of-a-sample-to-define-a-criterion-and-to-examine-difference-with-clinical-sa&quot;&gt;posted this question on Cross Validated&lt;/a&gt;, with no replies, so I'm hopeful for better reception here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8599" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2015-06-20T09:21:24.230" Title="Qualitative scoring for responses to design fluency task" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10425" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10397" CreationDate="2015-06-17T16:29:46.193" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can dumb human beings speak? No. But can they communicate using &lt;em&gt;human language&lt;/em&gt;? Of course!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe this question can be answered if we stop thinking about &amp;quot;talking&amp;quot; as speaking our own native tongue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;If a human level intelligence existed in a non-human body, it would certainly develop a language to communicate with other members of its species.&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact that this language would very probably be unlike any human language we know is irrelevant. Morse code or just simple writing is totally unlike any spoken language we know, yet it is still language, only encoded in a different register.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if we actually transplanted a human brain into a dolphin or bird or money, whould it speak? Sure. Many birds can mimic the sounds of human languages. And if the specific animal lacked the organs to voice human words, it would either develop a system of speech that fit its larynx or press the keys on a keyboard with its beak like Stephen Hawkings (who, while he cannot speak, is certainly capable of language and communication).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, it is not the body that enables a being to speak, but the linguistic faculty of its mind. A language that fits the body is easily created.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-06-18T03:51:51.643" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10424" CreationDate="2015-06-17T17:17:18.207" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To measure the frequencies of different patterns (do some patterns occur more frequently that others based on group) I see this as a chi-squared test of independence. If you are unfamiliar with the test, a quick example is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biostathandbook.com/chiind.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. For your situation, all participants would get the same placements of dots, and you would count how often each possible pattern is drawn. In this design you would have two variables: 1 being control/AD, and the other being &quot;design&quot; with levels of every design drawn (if there are low frequencies on the designs, check out &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher&amp;#39;s_exact_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fisher's Exact Test&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you mention, the only way you could get enough data for RM ANOVA is to add up all of the frequencies for all of the graphs. Not knowing the theoretical backing for this measure, are all of them designed to be equivalent? At the very least it seems that the 5 dot and the 10 dot should be separated...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All my 2 cents, but on to &lt;strong&gt;your real questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Your &quot;control sample&quot; would be, in essence, a normative group (you would be determining what the &quot;normal&quot; person's frequencies were). These samples tend to be quite large and drawn with very rigorous designs. Check out your standard errors of your measures and see if they are acceptable (if they are, then the representativeness of your population may be your large concern with a small normative sample).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Double dipping is almost always a big &quot;no-no.&quot; Idiosyncrasies in your initial &quot;control sample&quot; would drop down to your &quot;clinical sample,&quot; casting doubt on the internal validity of the study. If the classifications are &lt;em&gt;made&lt;/em&gt; for/from one group it usually follows that, in comparing to a second group, the second group with &lt;em&gt;almost always&lt;/em&gt; not meet perfectly with the classification. In regression, this concept is that of &quot;overfitting the model.&quot; One way you can get around this is create your classifications with, say, half of the control group, and use the other half as the clinical group. This has two problems, though: you further reduce your sample size; and I'd cast questions on the validity of &quot;making classifications&quot; (especially with so small a sample). Perhaps look at making all possible connections their own level of a categorical variable (combining only reflections and rotations).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastActivityDate="2015-06-17T17:17:18.207" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10427" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-17T20:44:11.900" Score="3" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently came across an idea, expressed by a spiritual author Ekhart Tolle, that for adults, the internal experience of negativity or resistance to life situations can be far more harmful than the situation itself. Typically a person cannot take immediate action to resolve such situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a loud car alarm outside interrupts some activity. A person may become focused on how inconvenient it is to hear this alarm, and start thinking negative thoughts, like &lt;code&gt;&quot;I can't believe that jerk has such a loud alarm on that a piece of junk car. Who would steal such a thing? I wish someone would put a brick though his windshield&quot;.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This got me thinking - &lt;strong&gt;What is the process by which negativity or resentment to situations arise in a person?&lt;/strong&gt; The scenario of a crying infant came to mind - a baby cries to express some discomfort and frustration at a situation that the baby cannot fix himself. &lt;strong&gt;Are adult resentment and infant crying using the same pathways in the brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-06-17T20:44:11.900" Title="Are adult negativity or resentment related to an infant crying for attention?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10428" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10424" CreationDate="2015-06-17T20:49:00.527" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This idea of score is interesting, but it's painful to assess if the two problems you raised are important or not. For the re-use of the &quot;meaure group&quot; I think it would be careful to not do it. I took much thinking over it and I still don't know what to think. Unfortunately, I have no solution, but if I share my different thoughts process here maybe it would help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1]&lt;/strong&gt; I first thought that you should better build a rank of your different categories than to build a measure to avoid the problems you raised. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would need not much subjects to get a reliable result. If you build a rank, you can defend the idea of using the same group for the two phases because it would have been extremely unlucky to get a different rank using a different sample for the same population. It can be assessed statistically how unlucky it would have been.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I must point out a problem that you have to deal with.&#xA;Let's imagine two different populations one has this rank $A&amp;gt;B&amp;gt;C&amp;gt;D$ the other this one $A&amp;lt;B&amp;lt;C&amp;lt;D$. Unless you have some a priori to the population, you can't judge than one is more &quot;creative&quot; than another. I known that &quot;creative&quot; is my words not yours but one must be careful about the interpretation of the different distribution you will have. If you wan't to avoid this, no need to build a rank for this reason, and just go for an independance test as mfloren suggested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say that you still conserve this rank.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To test your hypothesis, I think the simplest way is to compare distributions of creations between your two groups. &lt;strong&gt;ordered&lt;/strong&gt; categories with a &lt;strong&gt;1-tailed kolmogorov-smirnov test&lt;/strong&gt; because it's directly related to the hypothesis of you want to test. It is based on the biggest difference in the cumulative distribution of your two groups across you ordered category.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there is a big problem (even for the case of independance test) : One could object that the i.i.d assumption is not met because subjects give many answers and some might be more creative than others. I don't know any between+within subjects alternative to kolmogorov smirnov. The simplest way to avoid this problem is to get back to 1 subject=1 data point...and this is where I am stuck because I don't see a nice way to pick one category. I must say that with your measure, this problem do not occur.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;2]&lt;/strong&gt; I am not sure that avoiding the scoring solution was a good idea because of this pesty i.i.d problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4772" LastEditorUserId="4772" LastEditDate="2015-06-17T21:06:06.967" LastActivityDate="2015-06-17T21:06:06.967" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10429" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="987" CreationDate="2015-06-18T00:29:39.083" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Paul Thagard has been working with the Neural Engineering Framework (NEF) and the Semantic Pointer Architecture (SPA) to create a biologically unified theory of consciousness. This is presented in the paper &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/Articles/thagard.two-theories.consc&amp;amp;cog.2014.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Two theories of consciousness: Semantic pointer competition&#xA;vs. information integration&lt;/a&gt;&quot; where Thagard's theory is contrasted directly with Tonini's Information Integration Theory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, competition between Semantic Pointers which &quot;unpack into neural representations of sensory, motor, emotional, and verbal activity&quot;. Several computer simulations are run and reported in the paper to demonstrate the applicability of this to various aspects of consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-06-18T00:29:39.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10431" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10436" CreationDate="2015-06-18T11:59:45.410" Score="3" ViewCount="177" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that it is not desirable for behavioural data to show a (within-subjects) speed-accuracy trade-off, as it can lead to e.g. the wrong interpretation of a single subject's decreased RTs as meaning improved performance, when in fact if one looks at error rates, one can see the increased speed came at the cost of increased error rates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, what I don't understand is why, assuming that subjects are instructed to respond slowly enough so that their error rates approach zero (so not the usual speeded responses paradigm), why would it not be correct to then analyse the group RTs, which will probably show wide between-subjects variations and can thus offer meaningful interpretations? This way, it would not matter that all subjects will have traded speed for accuracy, as it is precisely the amount of &quot;slowing&quot; that becomes the dependent variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope the question makes sense, thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastActivityDate="2015-06-18T15:59:13.850" Title="Analysis of RTs when speed-accuracy trade-off leading to ceiling accuracy has occurred" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10432" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-18T12:46:52.267" Score="1" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to build a cognitive model that is able to learn how to solve a complex puzzle such as the tower of Hanoi based off of limited feed-back (set of valid moves, closer to goal, farther from goal). I have found some references for learning the Tower of Hanoi and the performance of schizophrenics, but I was wondering if there was a particular name for the type of learning I'm looking for (advanced reinforcement learning?) and if there are further studies on how people learn these types of puzzles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-06-18T17:48:40.660" LastActivityDate="2015-06-18T17:48:40.660" Title="Studies of how people learn to solve puzzles" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10433" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10432" CreationDate="2015-06-18T13:26:00.987" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if this is what you are looking for, but the big umbrella term in the literature for puzzles like the Tower of Hanoi is &lt;code&gt;problem solving&lt;/code&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Google Scholar search for &quot;tower of hanoi&quot; and &quot;problem solving&quot; generates &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22tower+of+hanoi%22+%22problem+solving%22&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C15&amp;amp;as_vis=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;~5000 hits&lt;/a&gt;. Another related puzzle is the Tower of London, and that Scholar search generates an additional &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22tower+of+london%22+%22problem+solving%22&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C15&amp;amp;as_vis=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;~5000&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-06-18T13:26:00.987" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10434" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-18T14:17:33.180" Score="1" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question was referred from Cross-Validated Stack Exchange:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need to give a talk on statistic / machine learning as applied to determining an individual's traits and attributes from online behaviour and its use in targeted advertising.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this I am looking to papers that showcase what is possible today. I am looking on the one hand for papers with a &quot;wow factor&quot; as well as for papers that show the limitations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately this aspect of statistics / machine learning is not really my speciality and I am hoping somebody could give me a few hints / references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My current starting point is the much publicised facebook-likes study by Kosinskia, Stillwella and Graepelb.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8607" LastActivityDate="2015-06-18T14:17:33.180" Title="Talk for lay audience: determining private traits and attributes from online behaviour" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10435" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10449" CreationDate="2015-06-18T15:53:05.220" Score="7" ViewCount="219" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Working_memory#The_multicomponent_model_of_working_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multi-component model of working memory&lt;/a&gt; posits different processes for phonological and visual working memory storage. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Working memory capacity can be measured in a variety of ways (see: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1670/how-to-reliably-measure-working-memory-capacity&quot;&gt;How to reliably measure working memory capacity?&lt;/a&gt;), and we know that there is reliable individual variation on working memory capacity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a strong correlation of working memory capacity in different modalities within an individual? Put another way: If I have measured working memory capacity for an individual using a visual working memory task (like a Matrix span task), how reliably can I predict performance on a verbal working memory task for that individual?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-06-25T09:32:46.313" Title="Is modality-specific working memory capacity correlated within individuals?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10436" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10431" CreationDate="2015-06-18T15:59:13.850" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may be able to reduce errors by telling participants to react slowly. However, by adding this instruction, you may also dilute the response time differences that your are trying to find (whether between or within subjects). If you are lucky, you are just adding random noise, however it is more likely that you will add confounds or tap into different mental processes (occuring at a later time). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another option to tackle this problem is to hold the speed more or less constant, by giving participants a very narrow time window to respond (which can also be tailored to their speed). As a result, they will produce more errors, which now become the dependent variable (see Draine &amp;amp; Greenwald, 1998, who have introduced this technique).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Draine, S. C., &amp;amp; Greenwald, A. G. (1998). Replicable unconscious semantic priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 127, 286–303.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-06-18T15:59:13.850" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10438" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10396" CreationDate="2015-06-19T06:45:37.197" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I have to disagree with Arnon a bit and want to expand on some of his points. The following is not meant as an answer to the question but just an extended comment to Arnon's answer.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General intelligence vs multiple intelligences&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are theories of intelligence that posit a general intelligence which determins performance in all areas. According to these theories performance in different areas must be correlated. And there are theories which assume different &quot;intelligences&quot; (verbal, spatial etc.) and a possibly different performance in different areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RY79Q.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intelligence vs talent&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are psychologists that use the term &quot;intelligence&quot; for an equally high performance in all areas, and the term &quot;talent&quot; for high performance in only one area and relatively lower performance in all other areas. Example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;IQ profile of a highly intelligent individual&#xA;---------------------------------------------&#xA;&#xA; IQ   verbal   mathematical   spatial      etc.&#xA;&#xA;130     x           x            x          x      &amp;lt;- high intelligence&#xA;&#xA;120&#xA;&#xA;110&#xA;&#xA;100&#xA;&#xA; 90&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;versus:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;IQ profile of a talented individual&#xA;-----------------------------------&#xA;&#xA; IQ   verbal   mathematical   spatial      etc.&#xA;&#xA;130                 x                              &amp;lt;- mathematical talent&#xA;&#xA;120&#xA;&#xA;110&#xA;&#xA;100     x                        x          x      &amp;lt;- average intelligence&#xA;&#xA; 90&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Fluid vs crystallized intelligence&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many theories assume two different aspects of intelligence: fluid intelligence, that is the potential or capacity for cognitive performance, and crystallized intelligence, that is the knowledge and learning an individual has acquired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GQtoL.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on which theory you follow – general versus multiple intelligences, intelligence versus talent, fluid and/or crystallized intelligence –, your concept of what intelligence is will differ. Since the scholars creating IQ tests also have different opinions on this matter, their tests are (often extremely) differently constructed and test results from different tests often correlate only to a certain degree. That is, an individual scoring a high IQ in one test can have an average IQ according to another. Which is why, when reporting an IQ, you must also report the test with which it was measured, because otherwise the result is meaningless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Measurement error and confidence interval&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ tests don't measure very exactly. There is always a certain measurement error involved. Beacause of this, psychologists always calculate a range of values (a confidence interval) in which the true value of the individual probably lies. The exact true intelligence is always unknown and can in fact differ widely from a given test result. Therefore serious psychologists do not put much faith in the IQ score (that is considered unprofessional and ignorant) but rather report wether the individual's intelligence is average, above average or below average. No current IQ test allows for a more accurate assessment. Repeating measurements (with different tests to avoid learning and on different days) can increase exactness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2016-01-22T07:11:08.440" LastActivityDate="2016-01-22T07:11:08.440" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10439" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="998" CreationDate="2015-06-19T18:34:29.953" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are looking for is called Hierarchical, Multi-level or Random-effects model. In your particular case the solution is a hierarchical logistic regression. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume $y_{st} \in \{0,1\}$ is the response of subject $s$ on trial $t$ and $x$ is the dependent variable then a simple hierarchical model that solves your problem is: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$y_{st}\sim \mathrm{Bernoulli}(\mathrm{logit}(\alpha_s+\beta_s x))$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$\beta_s \sim \mathcal{N}(\mu,\sigma)$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where $\mu$ is the population value of the slope and $\beta_s$ is the subject level estimate. Roughly, $\mu$ is a weighted average of all $\beta_s$ where the weight of each $\beta_s$ is inversely proportional to the variance of the estimate of $\beta_s$. For more details on hierarchical logistic regression and for extensions of the simple model, that I have suggested above, refer to Chapter 14 in Gelman &amp;amp; Hill (2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fitting a function to this data, the slope should be nearly flat, right? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No. The slope should be &lt;em&gt;uncertain&lt;/em&gt;. Flat slope looks differently, say $(10,0.61), (20,0.59),(30,0.6),(40,0.58),(50,0.6)$. The corresponding estimate of $\beta$ should show wide interval such that you can't conclude that $\beta&amp;gt;0$ or $\beta&amp;lt;0$ or  $\beta=0$ (as you suggested).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How will a hierarchical model handle such uncertain $\beta_s$? This $\beta_s$ will contribute little to the estimate of $\mu$. Instead $\beta_s$ for this particular subject will be pulled towards $\mu$. The hierarchical model will effectively tell you that if your data is inconclusive, it will just assume that the subject is a typical member of the population (that is if $\mu$ had been estimated reliably) and discard the erratic data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Literature: &#xA;Gelman, A., &amp;amp; Hill, J. (2006). &lt;em&gt;Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models&lt;/em&gt;. Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8618" LastActivityDate="2015-06-19T18:34:29.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10440" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10424" CreationDate="2015-06-20T09:21:24.230" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a follow-up after my first answer, this is based on the suggestion of @mfloren in the comments part of his answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can't really use an independence test or a kolmogorov smirnov test because your data are not i.i.d. (your subjects give more than one answer). Your scoring idea would fix this, because you reestablish 1data=1subject but this has two problems :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Subject-consuming (one group to establish the measure, and 2 groups to compare). The idea to use the same subjects for the measure and for the control group is generally a thing to avoid even if I am not 100% sure that it causes big trouble here.    &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If your design, under certain conditions (reverted rank for example) AD could be shown as &quot;more creative&quot; than healthy subject, but the contrary could also be true if you use AD patients to build your scoring system. Using healthy people has a reference point is maybe not a big deal, but this is an argument which deserves to be dealt with.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A simpler measure which would avoid these problems would be to consider the number of different design produced. From 0 to 6 if you have 6 different designs then. This is the proposal of @mfloren in the comments. I think it deserves a proper answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you have two conditions, you can use a Friedman test which is a sort of non parametric ANOVA and you may use wilcoxon tests to study each condition with a multiple test correction like Bonferroni-Holmes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4772" LastActivityDate="2015-06-20T09:21:24.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10441" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10444" CreationDate="2015-06-20T09:26:36.933" Score="10" ViewCount="4611" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a good typist with qwerty keyboard, I came across other keyboard layouts (eg: Dvorak keyboard). I believe I will never be able to master these two typing layouts &lt;em&gt;simultaneously&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I right? or is it possible to learn both and become a good typist (i.e type with decent speed without looking the keyboard).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The example in itself is trivial to me (I am happy with qwerty keyboards) but I wanted to understand what will happen when there is a serious overlap and contradiction with two methods and can human mind handle it or is it once set it's really set in situations like this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If my mind can learn only one method when two contradicting and interfering methods are present, then I believe it's implications are very interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are real life examples which are similar to the keyboard example.&#xA;They all have the following attributes.&#xA;a) Two are more conflicting solutions for same problem&#xA;b) Decisions must be automatic or made under tight time constraint (no time to think).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8620" LastEditorUserId="8620" LastEditDate="2015-06-20T15:26:39.260" LastActivityDate="2015-06-23T10:29:47.327" Title="Is it possible to master two different typing keyboard layouts?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10442" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-20T17:39:31.087" Score="5" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading about on personality psychology, I have met several vague claims that different personality types prefer different clothing styles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Apparently, people who are more keen to their senses will prefer softer clothes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People who highly value order and efficiency have been said to prefer a more formal clothing style.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any research studies to support such claims? (I'm looking for links to scientific reports)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-07-03T21:18:28.330" LastActivityDate="2015-07-03T21:18:28.330" Title="Are there any studies on links between clothing style and personality?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10443" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10441" CreationDate="2015-06-20T21:37:10.490" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is yes, you can only use one at a time though since there is a transition time for your brain to recognize and switch between layouts internally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this because I use two different keyboard layouts regularly, they're not as different as QWERTY and DVORAK, the biggest differences are on which buttons symbols are placed (e.g. where the ? and * and + and - and so on) are placed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everytime I use a keyboard, my brain defaults to what I have been using the most over the past days, but I can switch over to a different layout rather easily once I decide to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However it's worth noting that this is actually as hard to learn as it sounds since there is as you said an overlap between keyboard layouts. But in my experience there is always a dominant layout, since a keyboard is a keyboard regardless of it's layout, you will sometimes instinctively press the wrong button in the less dominant layout(s).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it is entirely possible, and you can definitely do it without any noticable changes in your typing speed, although you may type a little bit slower in a less known layout at first, as the muscle memory for it builds up your typing speed will probably end up relatively similar to the speed you can type in the layout that you already know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, if you see the need to do this, just do it. We are capable of it, and with training we can do it just as effectively as we can be fluent in two languages at the same time. The element our mind uses for this is pattern recognition, you're just changing the patterns, nothing more, the easiest comparison I can think of is inverted mouse/stick controls in video games, or if you flip your monitor upside down so that you have to invert your vertical mouse movements. It's gonna be really uncomfortable and hard at first, but you will eventually get it right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8222" LastActivityDate="2015-06-20T21:37:10.490" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10444" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10441" CreationDate="2015-06-21T06:03:40.977" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Observational points:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;It would be straightforward to point to a person who has mastered more than one keyboard layout (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/questions/29596/if-i-immerse-myself-in-dvorak-will-i-forget-qwerty&quot;&gt;some of the people here&lt;/a&gt;). So, yes, it is possible. From my own personal experience, I can point to my use of both Vim keyboard shortcuts for editing and regular OSX/Windows keyboard shortcuts. This is certainly possible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I'd prefer to focus on the scientific principles that underly such a capacity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scientific principles:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a number of scientific principles operating in this context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Negative and positive transfer&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Principles of task consistency and complexity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general transfer of skill from one domain to another depends on the degree of consistency between the two skills. This is a broad concept. Certainly the mapping between inputs and outputs is a big part of this (i.e., key press and letter). But it could also include a range of broader conceptual and psychomotor routines.&#xA;Thus, positive transfer occurs when you can take the skill on one task to improve your performance in another. Negative transfer occurs when your performance on one task suffers as a result of learning a different task. In general positive transfer is much more powerful than negative transfer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Applying these principles to converting from QWERTY to DVORAK&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say that you have a person who has learnt the QWERTY keyboard layout and can type 80 words per minute. They decide that they want to learn DVORAK. What would we expect from a skill acquisition perspective?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The new keyboard layout (DVORAK) shares many consistent cognitive and psychomotor elements with the original layout (QWERTY). The basic motor actions of pressing individual keys are identical. Many other cognitive skills around the concept of typing are also the same. However, the actual specific key-to-letter mappings will be new. Furthermore, learning to type involves building up specific motor patterns around common sequences of letters and some of these will also be new. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The net result will be that learning to efficiently use DVORAK should take a fair bit of time. However, the learning curve should be massively faster than learning how to touch type the first time. Thus, in a basic sense, the main limitation to learning to type using two keyboard layouts is that it just takes more time than to learn one layout. And generally, you will be better at one layout than the other, so why bother learning two layouts unless perhaps you are transitioning to a new layout for the long term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on general principles of cognitive transfer, generally knowing QWERTY will make DVORAK easier to learn. So most of the transfer will be positive. It is likely that there will be some accidental applications of QWERTY when you are in DVORAK and vice versa. Such errors can be minimised if you can create stimuli in your task environment that clearly communicates the appropriate mapping (e.g., use it on particular computers). The general concept in skill acquisition is that a single stimulus-response pairing is easier to manage, but over time you will learn to apply contextual cues to choose the correct stimulus-response options.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another general principle for psychomotor skills is that forgetting is slower and relearning is quicker than for a lot of cognitive skills (Rosenbaum et al, 2001). Thus, people are likely to be able to retain and get back up to speed on a previously learnt keyboard layout after a period of using a newer layout.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're interested in reading more, you might want to check out some of Philip Ackerman's early work on skill acquisition where he talks about consistency and complexity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a large literature that has studied the cognitive psychology of learning to touch type.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Within-task intercorrelations of skilled performance: Implications for predicting individual differences? A comment on Henry &amp;amp; Hulin, 1987.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ackerman, P. L. (1988). Determinants of individual differences during skill acquisition: cognitive abilities and information processing. Journal of experimental psychology: General, 117(3), 288.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rosenbaum, D. A., Carlson, R. A., &amp;amp; Gilmore, R. O. (2001). Acquisition of intellectual and perceptual-motor skills. Annual review of psychology, 52(1), 453-470.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yechiam, E., Erev, I., Yehene, V., and Gopher, D. (2004). Melioration and the transition from touch-typing training to everyday use. Human Factors, 45, 671-684.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-12T07:31:54.790" LastActivityDate="2015-06-21T13:09:06.970" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10445" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-22T08:44:23.030" Score="1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;The basis game: A number between 1 and 100 (presumably an integer) is randomly generated. You, along with other people, choose a number between 1 and 100, without knowledge of the other numbers chosen. The person who chose the number closest to the randomly generated number wins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume for the questions that the other people are humans and not perfectly playing machines. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Q1.: What is the optimal number to choose? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Q2.: What is the optimal number to choose if we are also fine with getting second place ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part 2: We iterate this 5 times, without any knowledge of prior rounds (as in, we don't know who won in the prior rounds, and we don't know what others have chosen in the prior rounds. We can consider these rounds to be done simultaneously).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Q3: What is the optimal number to choose if we want to maximize our chances of winning at least one round?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Q4: What is the optimal number to choose if want to maximize our chance of either getting first or getting second in at least one round?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8629" LastEditorUserId="8629" LastEditDate="2015-06-22T19:52:47.783" LastActivityDate="2015-06-22T19:52:47.783" Title="Optimal way to choose a number to be close to a randomly generated number" Tags="&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2016-06-02T19:46:18.453" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10447" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8371" CreationDate="2015-06-22T21:12:37.793" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938497004368&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Binaural Auditory Beats Affect Vigilance Performance and Mood&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Participants (n = 29) performed a 30-min visual vigilance task on three different days while listening to pink noise containing simple tones or binaural beats either in the beta range (16 and 24 Hz) or the theta/delta range (1.5 and 4 Hz). However, participants were kept blind to the presence of binaural beats to control expectation effects. Presentation of &lt;strong&gt;beta-frequency binaural beats yielded more correct target detections&lt;/strong&gt; and fewer false alarms than presentation of theta/delta frequency binaural beats. In addition, the &lt;strong&gt;beta-frequency beats were associated with less negative mood&lt;/strong&gt;. Results suggest that the presentation of binaural auditory beats can affect psychomotor performance and mood. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I also found this: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876012006241&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Tracking EEG changes in response to alpha and beta binaural beats&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, saying &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Analysis of changes in broad-band and narrow-band amplitudes, and frequency showed no effect of binaural beat frequency eliciting a frequency following effect in the EEG.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And finally &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876014016353&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Analysis of EEG activity in response to binaural beats with different frequencies&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We observed Realtive Power (RP) increase in theta and alpha bands and decrease in beta band during delta and alpha Binraul Beats (BB) stimulations. RP decreased in beta band during theta BB, while RP decreased in theta band during beta BB. However, &lt;strong&gt;no clear brainwave entrainment&lt;/strong&gt; effect was identified. &lt;strong&gt;Connectivity changes were detected following the variation of RP during BB stimulations&lt;/strong&gt;. Our observation supports the hypothesis that &lt;strong&gt;BBs could affect functional brain connectivity&lt;/strong&gt;, suggesting that the mechanism of BB–brain interaction is worth further study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another proof for effect of binaural beats is shown here&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.actapress.com/Abstract.aspx?paperId=16352&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Induced Rhythmic Oscillations of Neural Activity in the Human Brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The effects of different induced extremely low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic field, audio (binaural-beat), visual (light flashes) and combination of audio and visual rhythms at the various electroencephalographic (EEG) rhythms were investigated. These experimental findings suggest that EEG activity under exposure to EMF 0.174mT (8.33Hz) sinusoidal low intensity EMF exhibited &lt;strong&gt;a substantial decrease in delta and theta bands&lt;/strong&gt; and prove that there is a slight transition from beta to alpha band from beta-alpha ratio calculations of the Energy Spectral Density. &lt;strong&gt;During the visual and audio visual stimulation at alpha rhythms (i.e. 13-7.5Hz) a possible entrainment on overall EEG activity was elicited by substantial increase and decrease in spectral energy levels.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to add a reference about the scientific effects of binaural beats in the brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amadeux.net/sublimen/documenti/G.OsterAuditoryBeatsintheBrain.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Auditory Beats in the Brain&lt;/strong&gt;;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a transcript of the orginal paper by Gerald Oster, Scientific American, October 1973 (scanned original attached): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Slow modulations called binaural beats are perceived when tones of different frequency are presented separately to each ear.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The sensation may show how certain sounds are processed in the brain.&#xA;If two tuning forks of slightly different pitch are struck simultaneously, the resulting sound waxes and wanes periodically. The modulations are referred to as beats; their frequency is equal to the difference between the frequencies of the two original tones.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Binaural beats have been widely regarded as a mere curiosity. A recent textbook on hearing does not mention them at all. Yet the measurement of binaural beats can explain the processes by which sounds are located -- a crucial aspect of perception. It is possible that hormonally induced physiological behavior changes may be made apparent by measuring the binaural-beat spectrum.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the last sentence, Oster proposes an real application of binaural beats!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, the transcripter mentions the main points at the beginning of the pdf:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few interesting things from the article to note: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oster’s idea was to use the perception of binaural beats &#xA;as a diagnostic tool because some people are unable to &#xA;perceive and respond to them. Oster never mentions brainwaves or entrainment as a function of binaural beats. This &#xA;is interesting since nearly every company advertising bina&#xA;ural beats claims Oster invented binaural beat brainwave &#xA;entrainment. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People with certain neurological conditions, or at certain times of the month (women), vary in their ability to perceive &#xA;and respond to binaural beats. There is also a ge&#xA;nder difference in the abilit&#xA;y to process the beats. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Binaural beats only form if the two tones are separated by less than 26 Hz, 30 at most. This maximum declines as the &#xA;carrier moves away from 440 Hz. Also, binaural &#xA;beats wane completely past a carrier 1000 Hz. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;According to Oster, the depth of binaural beats is very small (3dB). In a test comparison, monaural beats produced a &#xA;much larger neural response. This seems to follow in line with the research done by David Seiver (Comptronic &#xA;devices), Transparent Corp and others in regards to monaural and isochronic tones producing stronger entrainment. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2016-02-26T11:45:37.063" LastActivityDate="2016-02-26T11:45:37.063" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10449" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10435" CreationDate="2015-06-22T23:56:09.080" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;How working memory breaks down, or even whether it is a valid construct at all, is still somewhat controversial.  The evidence for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley%27s_model_of_working_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;domain-specific modalities&lt;/a&gt; is largely based on the (lack of otherwise expected) interference between them.  Another line of evidence that could be used to validate this model is checking the correlations between them: A high correlation would argue for a domain-general working memory, while a low correlation would support domain-specific modalities.  In practice, however, the value of examining correlations between working memory measures is confounded by a general capacity factor (eg, executive control), interaction with short-term memory, the possibility of any number of additional modalities (for example, visual vs. spatial), and the result of many years of assuming a unitary working memory construct resulting in a variety of measures that are validated against each other (ie, expected to correlate highly).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, just such a test was done by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17107455&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alloway, Gathercole &amp;amp; Pickering (2006)&lt;/a&gt;, who subjected over 700 primary school children to a battery of different working memory capacity measures.  As expected, correlations between many of the measures were statistically significant, but importantly, not commensurate with either a simple domain-specific model, or a simple general model with WM/STM split.  To answer your question, here is a table from the paper that summarizes some of the results (more detail &lt;a href=&quot;https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/792/1/Alloway_CD06.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;):&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/r4Mwf.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, the correlations, while nearly all significant at p&gt;.001, vary considerably.  These results are consistent with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3721021/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;similar studies&lt;/a&gt; that review several independent measures of working memory that nonetheless all tend to correlate well with cognitive factors such as general intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-06-23T05:49:02.287" LastActivityDate="2015-06-23T05:49:02.287" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10450" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10397" CreationDate="2015-06-23T06:09:41.430" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd expect that if you put a human brain into some other animal, and it was able to learn how to operate that body well enough to live, then it would eventually start to try to speak. It would have to re-learn how to produce the sounds like an infant would. However, it probably would never be able to speak as well as a human due to physical limitations of the vocal system. They might be able to squeak out some words, but they'd probably mostly rely on other means of communication, just like people with speech difficulties do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course the subject wouldn't suddenly lose their ability to use and understand whatever human languages they knew before. They'd just have physical difficulty producing actual speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer based on the assumption: the reason animals can't speak human languages is a combination of both lacking the mental capability to understand spoken language and the physical capability to produce speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8637" LastActivityDate="2015-06-23T06:09:41.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10451" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10255" CreationDate="2015-06-23T06:13:20.653" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depression is characterized by emotion dysregulation (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://sites.oxy.edu/clint/physio/article/EmotionRegulationinDepressionTheRoleofBiasedCognitionandReducedCognitiveControlClinicalPsychologicalScience-2014-Joormann.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Joormann &amp;amp; Vanderlind, 2014&lt;/a&gt;).  This means that depressed patients have difficulties decreasing (downregulating) their negative affect and increasing (upregulating) their positive affect.  This may be a consequence of cognitive distortions and deficits (Joormann &amp;amp; Vanderlind, 2014) as well as maladaptive emotion goals (e.g., the goal to increase/maintain negative affect; &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/06/19/0956797615583295.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Millgram, Joormann, Huppert, &amp;amp; Tamir, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many kinds of therapies seek to improve (directly or indirectly) the ways depressed patients regulate their emotions, including cognitive-behavioral therapy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=J_iAUcHc60cC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PR1&amp;amp;dq=js+beck+basics+and+beyond&amp;amp;ots=0C1WP5YQuz&amp;amp;sig=kpRLzByUTbPFWprcTXONkeuqoM8#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=js%20beck%20basics%20and%20beyond&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Beck, 2011&lt;/a&gt;) and cognitive bias modification (&lt;a href=&quot;http://sites.sas.upenn.edu/ruscio-lab/files/2011_-_hallion__ruscio.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hallion &amp;amp; Ruscio, 2011&lt;/a&gt;), which includes &lt;em&gt;memory therapeutics&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., aiding recall of positive autobiographical memories or reducing the impact of negative memories; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661314001569&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dalgleish &amp;amp; Werner-Seidler, 2014&lt;/a&gt;) and &lt;em&gt;attention training&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1077722900800516&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Papageorgiou &amp;amp; Wells, 2000&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These therapies are effective/efficacious at reducing the cognitive deficits associated with depression and thus facilitate more adaptive emotion regulation (i.e., less rumination, more positive reappraisal, more self-distancing). This leads to improved mood (decreased negative affect, increased positive affect;  e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://gruberpeplab.com/teaching/psych131_summer2013/documents/Lecture17_Aldao2010_Emotionregulationstrategies.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, &amp;amp; Schweizer, 2010&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, yes, depressed patients can experience happiness via establishment of more adaptive emotion regulation skills.&lt;/strong&gt; Moreover, positive affect is associated with activation of many different brain regions (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unc.edu/~kal29/docs/Lindquistetal_CC_inpress.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lindquist et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;), which makes it unlikely that depressed patients have a total inability to experience happiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, positive memory recall may not be effective for depressed patients as a short-term mood repair strategy.  In fact, it may make them feel even worse (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.self-definingmemories.com/Joorman_et_al__2007_Mood_Repair_with_Happy_Memories_in_Depression_2007.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Joormann, Siemer, &amp;amp; Gotlib, 2007&lt;/a&gt;). Depressed patients may not find positive memories to be intrinsically rewarding, perhaps due to processing disfluency and/or dysfunctional reward circuitry (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4347421/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chen, Takahashi, &amp;amp; Yang, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-06-23T06:13:20.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10453" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-23T09:44:57.923" Score="3" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe someone can point me out on the computer-based set of tests to assess the cognitive abilities of the adults? I am looking for something like ETS cognitive tests KIT that can be used online for the research purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8640" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-06-23T14:02:45.733" LastActivityDate="2018-03-03T14:43:19.380" Title="Computer-based cognitive tests" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10454" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10441" CreationDate="2015-06-23T10:04:21.307" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In different &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar_tunings&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;guitar tunings&lt;/a&gt; the different strings have different tonal values, so to play the same tone, a guitarist has to press different strings at different frets. This is equivalent to pressing different keys on a computer keyboard to create the same letter. Playing a song well means that you don't have time to think and search for the appropriate string and fret to press, but have to play automatically. Yet guitarists can master and switch between different tunings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a guitarist can do this, a typist can do this as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other activities where different &quot;codes&quot; are &quot;uttered&quot; by the same anatomy, e.g. dancing different dances with the same legs, or speaking different languages with the same larynx, lips and tongue. Once you have internalized one system (one dance, one tuning, one language, one keyboard layout) and performing it has become automatic, you no longer &quot;stumble&quot; or &quot;speak pidgin&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2015-06-23T10:29:47.327" LastActivityDate="2015-06-23T10:29:47.327" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10455" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10586" CreationDate="2015-06-23T17:58:33.947" Score="8" ViewCount="7107" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disorganized thinking is a cognitive deficit symptomatic of thought disorders such as schizophrenia. This affects your ability to process and connect thoughts and ideas, rendering them disorganized, and fragmented. In extreme cases, disorganized speech results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any activities that have a therapeutic effect and remedy this somewhat? For example, puzzles, computer programming, writing a novel etc. Or employing certain new habits. For example, composing mind maps, writing lists of tasks on your arm etc. Finally, there's cognitive remedial therapy (CRT), and other forms etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-06-23T18:35:02.307" LastActivityDate="2019-10-28T21:56:52.517" Title="Ways to treat disorganized thinking, other than pharmacotherapy" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10456" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10460" CreationDate="2015-06-23T19:01:00.317" Score="4" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been diagnosed since I was younger (2nd grade) with a hearing impairment. Basically the nerve hairs on my cochlea are burned and I don't pick up 70% of the frequencies around me in my right ear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is &lt;strong&gt;whether people can be born with a higher level of hearing&lt;/strong&gt;? Or does it stop at 100% hearing, like 20/20 vision?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8646" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-06-24T03:55:17.420" LastActivityDate="2015-06-25T12:03:22.690" Title="Hearing Loss and Potentially hearing more" Tags="&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10458" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-24T03:13:25.690" Score="9" ViewCount="357" Body="&lt;p&gt;Einstein said once something like creativity is more important than intelligence. Intelligence as it is measured is really one's speed and efficiency at processing information. How one processes the information is the 'province' of creativity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any effective, psychologically-approved tests that measure creativity and ones capacity for interesting or clever creative associations between sets of ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7340" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-06-24T13:35:45.793" LastActivityDate="2015-07-03T19:24:49.283" Title="How do cognitive scientists measure creativity?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10456" CreationDate="2015-06-24T11:53:21.163" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;People with above-normal hearing exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Normal hearing was defined as the average of a group of young healthy individuals. These normal hearing levels are currently used to express acoustic sensitivities. One commonly used way is to use decibels relative to this normal hearing level (dB NH). This scale is used in audiograms &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/index.php?q=books/auditory-neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Schnupp &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. When hearing senstivities are reduced by 20 dB or more it is regarded as diagnostic for hearing impairment (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xzie2.gif&quot; alt=&quot;audiogram&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Audiogram. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/index.php?q=books/auditory-neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Schnupp &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Statistical outliers always exist. In Fig. 2 is an audiogram showing above-normal hearing sensitivities in the low frequencies in the left ear and in the high frequencies in the right ear (Fig. 2). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MMCM8.gif&quot; alt=&quot;audiogram&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Audiograms showing normal hearing (solid lines) and noise-induced hearing loss (dotted lines) Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sfu.ca/sonic-studio/handbook/Audiogram.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fraser University, CA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/index.php?q=books/auditory-neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schnupp &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Auditory Neuroscience, MIT Press 2012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-06-25T12:03:22.690" LastActivityDate="2015-06-25T12:03:22.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10461" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10458" CreationDate="2015-06-24T15:27:35.910" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;Torrance Test of Creative Thinking&lt;/strong&gt; is a good place to start.  It scores for fluency (number of responses) as well as originality (statistical rarity of responses) and elaboration (level of detail) on a variety of different tasks. The validity of the TTCT has been examined with several long-term studies, so there is a fair amount of data on its measurements as well as the form of the test itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Torrance, E. P. (1981b). Empirical validation of criterion-referenced indicators of creative ability through a longitudinal study. Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 6, 136-140.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2015-06-24T15:27:35.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10462" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-24T16:23:14.593" Score="3" ViewCount="2902" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am considering the role of whiskers in the development of the mouse brain, and came across the following: 'we found that the signals sent to the brain by the whiskers during active touch differ from those transmitted during passive touch'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I can't seem to find what the difference between active and passive touch is...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for any help :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6523" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T14:26:09.920" Title="Difference between active and passive touch?" Tags="&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10463" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10462" CreationDate="2015-06-24T19:36:17.840" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The difference is in whether the animal has voluntary control over the touch. If the animal touches another object by moving its body to initiate the touch, then the it is active touch. If the animal is touched without control over the movement (for example, a human experimenter grazing the whiskers with a finger), then the touch is passive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-06-24T19:36:17.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10464" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-24T20:14:20.990" Score="1" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the book, while in prison, he lives his days by his memories, thinking of his room, his furniture, the beach, each time recalling more details, imagining walking past it and this recalling took a big enough part of the day to keep him busy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;And the more I thought about it, the more I dug out my memory things&#xA;  I had overlooked or forgotten. I realized then that a man who had&#xA;  lived only one day could easily live for a hundred years in prison. He&#xA;  would have enough memories to keep him from being bored.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also read something saying that a person in a state of sensory deprivation, for example locked in dark, quite room, can remember a lot of things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how much truth is in the Camus's description and how much detail can a person generally remember about something he has seen a couple of times not really paying attention? If Camus was correct, if you do remember more than you can usually recall, then how do I recall at least half as much without being put in prison? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8653" LastEditorUserId="8653" LastEditDate="2015-06-24T21:16:07.233" LastActivityDate="2015-07-25T14:42:56.570" Title="Can a person remember so much details as the guy in the Camus' Stranger?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10465" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-24T20:45:58.167" Score="8" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are quite a few conflicting reports as to what stimulates them, how they propagate, &lt;em&gt;whether&lt;/em&gt; they communicate intercellularly, and what they look like. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only consistent information I can find on them is that they propagate through the astrocyte at about 20 microns/sec.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are they solitons? do they propagate intercellularly? Are they independent of neuronal input? Can the astroglial mesh be viewed as an astroglial field (obviously more speculative)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8654" LastActivityDate="2016-11-07T09:07:32.803" Title="What exactly is an astroglial calcium wave?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10466" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-24T20:53:58.367" Score="8" ViewCount="192" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_spectrum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;inverted spectrum&lt;/a&gt; thought experiment posits that you (the subject) wake up one morning to find that your colour spectrum (or some part of it anyway) has inverted.  This experiment has important implications for the idea of &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;qualia&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  While we may not have a way to manipulate qualia directly, this experiment still seems like it would be valuable to conduct.  In Daniel Dennett's version of the experiment - &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia#Daniel_Dennett&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;alternative neurosurgery&lt;/a&gt;&quot; - he points out that you wouldn't know if your optic nerve was messed with, or your memories, and I would extend this to any apparatus that inverts spectrum at any point along the sensory pathway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine that the technology to develop goggles (similar to the prism glasses, colour filters, distortion lenses, etc, used in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_adaptation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;perceptual adaptation&lt;/a&gt; experiments) that invert colour is available.  However, I have not seen any reference to such an experiment being conducted.  Has it?  And if not, why not?  Are there practical limitations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that the construct of qualia hinges on there being some property of experience that is independent of behaviour/function/physical state, and the subjective experience of colour is often touted as a perfect example of this, via the inverted spectrum experiment.  So then the practicality of this experiment - whether or not an inversion of some kind is possible without a functional impact - is crucial.  If the experiment cannot be conducted because no inversion exists that can be done without functional impact, then it would constitute a severe blow to qualia as independent of function, and conversely, if it can be done, and the effect shown to be independent of behaviour, then it would surely be a problem for functionalism...  So why not try it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-06-30T05:54:57.657" LastActivityDate="2015-06-30T05:54:57.657" Title="Has the inverted spectrum thought experiment ever been conducted (and if not, why)?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10467" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10435" CreationDate="2015-06-25T09:32:46.313" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;To add to Arnon's answer, modality-specific working memory capacity (WMC) does correlate within individuals, so in some cases, you could certainly predict one from the other. As long as dumb prediction is all you're interested in, why not? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with making that prediction is that it's very difficult to interpret what it means in causal or practical terms. Recent findings suggest we can't just assume that the domain general contribution is equal across domains, as we've been doing, because the interference effects used to establish WMC subscales in the first place appear to actually be asymmetrical. A verbal WM load does decrease visual WM performance, but not vice versa (Morey et al., 2013). Predicting verbal WMC from visual WMC thus means something completely different from predicting visual WMC from verbal WMC! How to resolve this, or whether it can be resolved, to my knowledge remains an open question for multi-component WM research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summation, the relationship between modalities in the multi-component model is currently on shaky theoretical footing. If one measured working memory capacity for an individual using a visual working memory task (like a Matrix span task), one &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; semi-reliably predict performance on a verbal working memory task for that individual. Good luck figuring out what the result means, though, so maybe one &lt;em&gt;shouldn't&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749596X1300034X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Morey, C. C., Morey, R. D., van der Reijden, M., &amp;amp; Holweg, M. (2013). Asymmetric cross-domain interference between two working memory tasks: Implications for models of working memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 69(3), 324-348.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-06-25T09:32:46.313" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10468" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10464" CreationDate="2015-06-25T14:08:45.507" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes it is possible, it is possible in theory at least, but almost no one can do it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we see some things, we might not notice everything in front of us, but our subconsciousness usually does withtake these things which is how you can remember a scene and notice things you didn't notice before. However there is another version of this which is that our brains are master tools for filling in the gaps, so it's very easy to remember things wrongly, and see things in your memories that were never actually there, sort of like dreaming. You think it and it shows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know there are two things required for this to be feasible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Super efficient memory for remembering visuals, auditory experiences, and text/numbers/symbols. These can all be trained to an extent in individuals that aren't born with it as a natural talent. (look up memory competition champions, some of them have written books on effective memorization, like Dominic O'Brien for one, these things really work.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vivid visual imagination, you need your daydreams to be as real as your sleeping dreams, the only way I've even heard of to train this kind of skill is meditation, but even then there's no guarantee you will ever be able to do this if you can't already. There is a phenomena known as lucid dreaming, and to be able to vividly remember scenery on-demand, you need to be in that sort of state, it can be achieved through meditation, but not even every meditation master can do it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But notice how I said vivid visual imagination and lucid dreaming state (or alternatively, hypnagogia). Becuase you are in such a state when you are vividly remembering things, it is highly likely that your brain will accidentally put things in your memories that weren't there before, and you can also do this at will just like in a lucid dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is it possible? Yes, it technically is, but our memories, even the most efficient ones aren't 100%, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.themarysue.com/memory-distortion-in-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;every time we remember something, we're only remembering the last time we remembered it&lt;/a&gt; which is how information is lost over time, information which your brain can, and will replace with falsehoods to &quot;fill in the gaps&quot;. Which is why two people who saw the same thing at the same time can remember it differently a few months or years after the event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But as a sort of ironic twist, the more vivid your imagination is (and by vivid I don't just mean in the form of visual information, but also auditory, touch, smell, even taste) the more likely you are to have or be able to easily develop extremely good memory, so the two things I described are necessary for the kind of memory you described are interconnected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But well, if you want such a great memory (which is completely off topic for this site, it's a personal productivity question) then like I said earlier, look up books written by memory champions like Dominic O'Brien, and you will find what you seek.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8222" LastActivityDate="2015-06-25T14:08:45.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10469" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-25T14:12:35.243" Score="2" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can psychosis result from anti-psychotic medication withdrawal for a non-psychotic patient? That is, a patient that takes anti-psychotic medication for off label reasons, such as treatment-resistant depression, or insomnia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastActivityDate="2015-06-25T19:58:21.597" Title="Anti-psychotic medication withdrawal-induced psychosis" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10470" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-25T14:22:42.937" Score="1" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand having Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is not good thing but what about a mild dosage of DID under control, can it help? I am not referring to different roles that &lt;em&gt;same&lt;/em&gt; person can play, am talking about different personalities with different emotional temperaments in same person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Developing boss and worker personalities within a person, can it help overcoming chronic procrastination ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having a written contract with one self as if the person is two different person help recovering alcoholics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are lots of well known cognitive biases in decision making such as loss avoidance, endowment effect etc., greed &amp;amp; fear interfering with objective decision making. Instead of training hard to discipline oneself to think objectively can we simply pretend we are detached third party and make those emotionally demanding decisions objectively?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine a fearful situation, instead of trying to solve the phobia how about just inventing a macho personality and switching to it !? Is the solution lot simpler and require less emotional effort when dealing with phobia?&#xA;How about solving the fear of public speaking by switching to Mr. Friendly and cool.. will these kind of inner segregation work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One more example from poker, when the situation becomes emotionally demanding, is it possible to simply switch to third person whose monthly rent money is not at risk and escape all those sweating and heart pounding and make objective decisions!?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sure all the problems I mentioned procrastination, phobias, addiction, blinding emotions, fear of public speaking all are complex issues requiring more work but I wanted to know how much 'creating and personality switching' can help!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8620" LastEditorUserId="8620" LastEditDate="2015-06-26T02:22:30.270" LastActivityDate="2015-06-26T02:22:30.270" Title="Can having multiple personalities help productivity and decision making under pressure?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-07-23T13:13:12.993" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10471" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-25T16:45:21.670" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand the role of whisker twitches during sleep in the development of the mouse brain, and in general the role of spontaneous muscle activity in brain development. Thing is, I am not sure how the muscle activity is initiated. Does the muscle twitch on its own without an electrical input (is this possible?), or does it receive an impulse from the brain to cause it to twitch? I think I read somewhere that the spontaneous activity is generated in the &#xA;brainstem, but I seem to be getting mixed messages...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6523" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-06-25T22:16:21.203" LastActivityDate="2015-06-25T22:16:21.203" Title="Spontaneous muscle twitching?" Tags="&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10472" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10466" CreationDate="2015-06-25T17:10:38.777" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think inverted prism goggles would be a satisfactory way to empirically test the thought experiment. A key axiom of the argument is that there are no physical changes to our brains or bodies; only the qualia have changed. In a goggles design, there would be a clear physical locus of the change (and we might reasonably call this part of your body for the duration of the experiment), so the shift in qualia would have a clear physical basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-06-25T17:10:38.777" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10473" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10896" CreationDate="2015-06-25T19:46:29.863" Score="6" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some synesthetes report seeing bright flashes when hearing a loud noise.  However, in the same person, bright flashes of light are not reported as being loud.  I've read of other examples like this; for instance, the number 1 may always be yellow, but yellow is not the number 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any research as to the neurological reasons why synesthesia is asymmetric?  Alternately, is my anecdotal assumption that it is asymmetric incorrect and there are actually frequent symmetric presentations of the condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8658" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-12T14:31:44.077" LastActivityDate="2015-08-12T14:31:44.077" Title="Does synesthesia lack symmetry?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10474" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10469" CreationDate="2015-06-25T19:58:21.597" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends on what you mean by psychosis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anti-psychotic medications effectively reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia (hallucinations, paranoia) at the expense of worsening the negative symptoms (rigidity, bradykinesia, cognitive slowing). Long-term use of antipsychotics, especially the older ones, can induce a Parkinson's-like syndrome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These effects are not withdrawal so much as side effect of the medication. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second generation antipsychotics are used as mood stabilizers in bipolar II and major depression. Post-marketing surveys of aripiperazole and the like have not bred rebound psychosis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Use of dopamine agonists &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; associated with psychosis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1102" LastActivityDate="2015-06-25T19:58:21.597" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10476" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10479" CreationDate="2015-06-25T23:29:10.057" Score="2" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;Self-compassion is often compared with self-esteem and it seems that self-compassion is more effective and positive than self-esteem. A lot of studies have shown that excessive levels of self-esteem might lead to narcissism or to believe that we are above average. However, I haven't heard negative aspects about self-compassion? Self-compassion is related to happiness, satisfaction and motivation but does it have any negative consequence?&#xA;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8660" LastActivityDate="2015-06-28T12:12:38.627" Title="Does self-compassion have negative consequences?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-06-29T01:51:52.580" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10477" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-26T01:19:05.050" Score="7" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is increasingly common for someone to regain a heartbeat after a cardiac arrest. During the time that the person is without a heartbeat, and so without circulation, the brain is deprived of oxygen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why are there long-term consequences to temporary deprivation of oxygen?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that the short-term effect of loss of oxygen to the brain is to make it impossible for the cell to maintain the gradients of ions needed to initiate action potentials. As long as the cells don't die, or not too many die, why is there often long-term neurologic damage after a heart attack.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question differs to the question of what happens during a stroke. During a stroke the deprivation is longer and more focussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1102" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T16:09:45.617" Title="How does oxygen deprivation affect neural activity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;pathology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10478" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13661" CreationDate="2015-06-26T03:08:02.753" Score="9" ViewCount="3166" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to make a list of the main accepted branches of psychoanalysis to quiz a friend of mine. I don't know much about it and to learn more I need to know the main areas. So far I have &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Freudian Psychology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Object Relations Theory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Relations Theory &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-psychology &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of a basic list of the main branches? My friend said these were the main ones, but I couldn't find a source to substantiate that and I want to verify these are indeed considered the main branches. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: &#xA;By a &quot;branch&quot; or &quot;school&quot;, I mean a general umbrella term people use to aggregate related trains of thought. In physics, this might be &quot;general relativity&quot; or &quot;quantum mechanics&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastEditorUserId="31" LastEditDate="2015-06-26T22:11:49.503" LastActivityDate="2016-04-01T07:32:18.927" Title="What are the different branches of Psychoanalysis?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10479" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10476" CreationDate="2015-06-26T05:20:48.260" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is only my own experience, but for many years I had no self-esteem and did things that were harmful to myself.  It wasn't until I started thinking objectively about myself as a child that I could be compassionate towards her that I began to feel better. She still lives within me, but the memories no longer rule me. I went on from there to myself at different ages, forgiving myself as I went along.  Finally I started asking myself, &quot;If you could, what would you want to do.&quot; After the answer to that I was able to realize some of the dreams that I'd thought were impossible for me.  I'm not saying that I'm the perfect picture of mental health now, but am I certainly finding it easier to live with myself, and I am generally happier.  I still need to take antidepressants to keep me on a level, but everything is better&#xA;than I ever imagined it could be, even with medication.  I never could afford the specialist, so I had to do my own. However, I don't think they could have done it better.  I'm still working on it and I'm 71, but happy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8663" LastActivityDate="2015-06-26T05:20:48.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10481" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10413" CreationDate="2015-06-26T13:32:01.017" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;It depends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Because the answer to this question depends heavily on &lt;em&gt;which brain region&lt;/em&gt; is stimulated, I will focus on the visual cortex. Electrodes implanted in the primary visual cortex (V1) can generate visual percepts (flashes of light, or &lt;em&gt;phosphenes&lt;/em&gt;) in the blind. Specifically, cortical prosthetics placed on V1 can generate phosphenes in the blind, and have been successfully used to restore partial vision in the blind &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/asaiojournal/Abstract/2000/01000/Artificial_Vision_for_the_Blind_by_Connecting_a.2.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Dobelle, 2000)&lt;/a&gt;. The generation of phosphenes is then the 'action' you are referring to in your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it all depends on stimulation conditions whether phosphenes are actually generated; most notably the stimulus level (but also stimulus shape (waveform), stimulus duration etc.). Assuming there is above-threshold stimulation in the cortex, a noticeable phosphene will be evoked. So this would probably be categorized as &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;option 2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. The triggering of a subject's &amp;quot;will&amp;quot; is probably very difficult, as triggering a voluntary choice by external stimulation has not been done at this time, as far as I know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case of a just-above threshold V1 activation, a subject may see a phosphene on one stimulation, but not the next. Blind folks often have spontaneous activity in their visual system, which makes them see spontaneous random patterns of light, or even complex scenes &lt;a href=&quot;http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0161-6420(15)00188-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ayton &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. In this case, a phosphene may be generated, but go unnoticed by the subject, which boils down to &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;option 1&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; and proves &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;option 3 and 4&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; to be untrue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So on the basis of the example scenario of a visual prosthetic for the blind, &lt;strong&gt;options 1 and 2 are correct&lt;/strong&gt;, dependent on whether the stimulus is far above threshold, or just above it. &lt;strong&gt;Options 3 and 4 are incorrect&lt;/strong&gt; as they are &lt;strong&gt;incompatible&lt;/strong&gt; with the first two options.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My answer can be translated to a (hypothetical) cortical implant on the motor cortex in, e.g., people suffering from paralysis or motor dysfunction due to, e.g., stroke or trauma. Also, transcranial stimulation of the motor cortex is a good example, where intense stimuli generate limb movements that are seen and felt by the subject, but near-threshold stimuli may evoke movements that may go unnoticed due to spontaneous muscle movements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0161-6420(15)00188-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ayton &lt;em&gt;et al. Ophthalmology&lt;/em&gt; (in press)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/asaiojournal/Abstract/2000/01000/Artificial_Vision_for_the_Blind_by_Connecting_a.2.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dobelle &lt;em&gt;et al. ASAIO&lt;/em&gt; (2000), &lt;strong&gt;46&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 3-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-12-30T12:42:30.373" LastActivityDate="2020-12-30T12:42:30.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10482" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10499" CreationDate="2015-06-26T13:56:38.507" Score="5" ViewCount="10849" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm using likelihood ratio testing to assess whether a behavioral model is a better description of my data than a simpler (so called &lt;em&gt;restricted&lt;/em&gt;) model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How should results of such statistical tests be reported?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2015-06-29T19:35:52.957" Title="How should I report results of a likelihood ratio test?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;publication-process&gt;&lt;publication&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10483" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10364" CreationDate="2015-06-27T20:53:44.777" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind that &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;qualia&lt;/a&gt;&quot; is a philosophical construct whose purpose is largely to stimulate thought and discussion about subjective experience, definitions, and potential empirical implications.  The construct may well turn out to be untenable, but either way, it ought to be useful for elucidating issues relating to &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the hard problem&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question is a very good one, and has spurred much debate over the nature and meaning of qualia.  Qualia are often regarded as somehow independent of physical properties, but yet as you point out, they clearly affect behaviour somehow.  Here are some points to consider:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One way out of the conundrum is to deny qualia as a useful construct.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia#Critics_of_qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Critics of qualia&lt;/a&gt; address the issue of subjective experience without qualia in a variety of atlernative ways.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism_%28philosophy_of_mind%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Duality&lt;/a&gt; is another approach to qualia, but is not a commonly held view in science.  A more subtle approach is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphenomenalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;epiphenomenalism&lt;/a&gt;, which is a type of dualism that denies qualia any causal role.  However, as you've rightly pointed out, the mere fact that we are discussing qualia suggests that it does have a causal role.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia#J._B._Maund&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;has been suggested&lt;/a&gt; that qualia actually have 2 distinct aspects: An experience that is &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineffability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ineffable&lt;/a&gt;&quot; - cannot be described and does not have a causal role - and a knowledge of the experience that does have a causal role.  While this approach minimizes (or at least constrains) the causal role of qualia, it does not entirely deny it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_%28philosophy_of_mind%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Functionalism&lt;/a&gt; is a common alternative to dualism that comes in many varieties, and several related approaches with similar postulates (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;behaviorism&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;physicalism&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;computationalism&lt;/a&gt;), suggest that qualia (if they are meaningful at all) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervenience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;supervene&lt;/a&gt; on physical systems - that is, they are a natural and direct property of them.  In some interpretations, this makes qualia &quot;independent&quot; of phsyical systems only in the sense that they describe different properties than the cause and effect that we normally focus on, but not in the sense that they can possibly be separated from them as some other interpretations of qualia suggest.  However, many &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia#Arguments_for_the_existence_of_qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;thought experiments about qualia&lt;/a&gt; suggest a stronger independence, so therefore, not all varieties of functionalism are compatible with all interpretations of qualia.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Another approach worth mentioning is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;representationalism&lt;/a&gt;, a view that sort of side-steps the cause-and-effect issue by defining qualia as indirect internal representations of external stimulus (objects).  As there are so many varieties of representationalism, it is difficult to pin down what exactly this means for qualia's effect on the brain, but the general gist of it is that qualia are viewed as constructs of the mind that are representational (meaningful) rather than real (causal).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Of course, another common response is that we just don't know, and may never know, as we simply don't have the intellectual capacity to understand - formally, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_closure_%28philosophy%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive closure&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are lots of other approaches that attempt to address the question in yet other ways, but hopefully that's a good summary of the major categories anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-06-27T20:53:44.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10484" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10851" CreationDate="2015-06-27T23:10:20.457" Score="1" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my cognitive psychology class, we discussed heuristics. An example of a heuristic is loss aversion. Thus, in this context, a heuristic seems to be a general rule of thumb for how people &lt;em&gt;behave&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I was under the impression a heuristic was &quot;any approach to problem solving, learning, or discovery that employs a practical methodology not guaranteed to be optimal or perfect, but sufficient for the immediate goals&quot; (source: Wikipedia). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, let us consider a coat rack. One might suppose that putting my coat on a coat rack is a type of problem solving strategy because it allows me to always find my coat at that location. Thus, the problem being solved would be &quot;How can I always know where my coat is.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone clarify whether the term &quot;heuristic&quot; as used in psychology can be used to refer to an intentionally chosen strategy (as opposed to loss aversion which is just &quot;instinctive&quot;)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastActivityDate="2015-08-07T20:50:26.230" Title="Can someone clarify whether the term &quot;heuristic&quot; as used in psychology can be used to refer to an intentionally chosen strategy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10485" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-27T23:59:46.420" Score="6" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;What I mean by meaningless is whether or not they lose their predictive power outside of the specific test employed to evaluate some facet of cognition.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't study the cognitive sciences, but the most credible online source (in my shoddy estimation) of such tests that I found online was this site:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to clarify, if a test subject were to take the various tests on this website, which of them would still yield meaningful results if the subject took them multiple times. That is, would subjects likely only get better at that specific task, or would they also improve their general ability in the domain of intelligence that that test is supposed to evaluate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The one I'm most sceptical (in terms of its utility for training) is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/browse/reasoning/test/oddoneout&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Odd One Out&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The site says that it's suitable for training due to problems being generated instead of taken from a small set which could be memorized. I have my doubts on this because, though the actual problems don't repeat, the types of differences do. So I would guess you would soon just be training yourself to spot the specific differences within this test and would not be getting any better in spotting general discrepancies and patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, am I right in assuming that the least trainable facet of cognition is reasoning, whereas planning, concentration and memory are less fixed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8674" LastEditorUserId="8674" LastEditDate="2015-06-28T02:11:18.103" LastActivityDate="2015-06-28T02:11:18.103" Title="Are results of various cognitive tests meaningless if the subject has achieved them through training?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10486" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-28T08:21:48.560" Score="4" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any examples of those with antisocial personality disorder, or people in general, faring relatively well in solitary confinement?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general consensus seams that solitary confinement is very destructive, but I was wondering if there were any exemptions to this rule?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8676" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-06-28T22:19:17.920" LastActivityDate="2015-06-28T22:19:17.920" Title="How Do Those With Antisocial Personality Disorder Fair In Solitary Confinement?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10488" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10476" CreationDate="2015-06-28T12:12:38.627" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know this is not a very scientific answer but as for most of the Social and mental properties the normal is determined by the Common properties of individuals are determined by the Common properties of individuals in society. There is, I suspect, a different level of self esteem acceptable in different social groups. The unusually high ones may possibly be punished by society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My personal opinion is very high and very low levels of self esteem May hurt objectivity. But again, can this be considered a harm? I don't know that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We may see examples of penalties of high self esteem in highly successful people. Even in our daily lives are can see examples of people of higher autority to claim to know things that they actually don't. Perhaps Adolf Hitler is a historical example of that.to know things that they actually don't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can see examples off his eeen in the scientfic world. The phenomenon known as Nobel disease shows brilliant scientists may also talk about things outside of their fields.&#xA;More information at this link &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.skepdic.com/nobeldisease.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nobel disease&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8581" LastActivityDate="2015-06-28T12:12:38.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10489" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4236" CreationDate="2015-06-28T21:58:38.563" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mine is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://amasci.com/amateur/screet.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;evolutionarily ancient tooth-damage avoidance-response&lt;/a&gt; 2003 speculation article, but if I have it right, then toothed animals in general should experience it, not just primates.  Maybe it goes all the way down the entire chain to octopi, snails, clams, any organism which needs to avoid radular-destruction when carefully trying to eat algae from silicate surfaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/32/41/14184.short%20rel=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2012 research&lt;/a&gt; showed human fMRI to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2215270/Scientists-identify-sound-nails-scraping-blackboard-unpleasant.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;horrid glass-scraping noises&lt;/a&gt;, response located in amygdala and mediated by auditory cortex.   With fMRI we need not rely on subjective reports.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heh, be first to test non-humans, we can crack the mystery and share the igNobel!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8683" LastEditorUserId="8683" LastEditDate="2015-07-01T02:43:59.980" LastActivityDate="2015-07-01T02:43:59.980" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10490" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-28T22:01:54.597" Score="1" ViewCount="1404" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't find one on Google Images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8684" LastActivityDate="2015-06-28T23:38:13.017" Title="Is there a graph with extroversion-introversion score on one axis and IQ on the other?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;&lt;introversion&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10491" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10490" CreationDate="2015-06-28T22:47:24.933" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Extraversion and IQ typically have zero correlation. In Bates and Rock (2004),we suggested that if the arousal value of the testing environment varies, this might induce a modest correlation with IQ (introverts doing best in silences, ambiverts with some noicse, and extraverts performing best under fairly loud white noise background. More basic measures like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspection_time&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inspection time&lt;/a&gt; were unaffected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bNTym.png&quot; alt=&quot;Extraversion*Arousal interaction effect on IQ scores&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on some followup queries, here's a graph of Extraversion against IQ-score in 597 adults from a normative sample in the United States: The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.midus.wisc.edu&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MIDUS&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The plot shows the raw data points, and also a loess best fit curve: no relationship, even at the extremes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qpIe4.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="511" LastEditorUserId="511" LastEditDate="2015-06-28T23:38:13.017" LastActivityDate="2015-06-28T23:38:13.017" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10492" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10396" CreationDate="2015-06-28T23:00:23.270" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question combines concepts of motivation, IQ, and effects of study over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a modest (r=.3) correlation between IQ and openness to experience, which makes brighter people also more interested in a range of topics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, higher IQ leads to learning about areas that an individual is not much motivated towards: This is why general vocabulary is the single best indicator of IQ: A bright person very interested in pure mathematics will become skilled in matrix algebra. But even if they dislike biology, they will be able to define many biological terms, explain the basics of ideas like the cell, know what DNA stands for etc. Even with little interest in, say, cars, they will be able to tell you what a &quot;header&quot; is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, Ray Cattell focussed on the topic you are most interested in, with his investment model of IQ. This distinguished fluid ability from the end result of study over a lifetime, which leads to crystallized knowledge (this also maintains value over time, while fluid ability declines with age).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob, in your example &quot;invests&quot; his time in studying math, and will develop a strong crystallized store of information compared to their knowledge and skill in biology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Timothy_Bates/publication/223883528_Crystallized_Intelligence_as_a_product_of_Speed_and_Drive_for_Experience/links/54f05f150cf2495330e630ae.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bates and Shieles 2003&lt;/a&gt; paper covers some of these things in a bit more detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="511" LastActivityDate="2015-06-28T23:00:23.270" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10493" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-28T23:55:04.803" Score="5" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is well known that we get better at the things we practice, but  is it possible to stimulate the brain with activites in such a way that general or spesific intelligence is weakened? Also, are there skills that can be practiced that has been proven to weaken other skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8685" LastEditorUserId="8685" LastEditDate="2015-06-29T08:41:30.780" LastActivityDate="2017-06-22T20:27:18.043" Title="Are there any mental activites that can be detrimental for intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10494" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-29T01:20:38.443" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone does not believe in ghosts, for example, why do they experience feelings of fear at the thought of such things? Is such thinking paradoxical?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8686" LastActivityDate="2015-06-29T01:20:38.443" Title="Paradox or contradiction?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-06-02T19:46:32.533" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10496" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10517" CreationDate="2015-06-29T08:59:27.290" Score="3" ViewCount="811" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that introverts have a higher sensitivity to dopamine, for example. Are there are other chemical and neuronal differences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-06-29T13:44:00.967" LastActivityDate="2015-07-01T20:15:19.143" Title="Brain's differences in introverts vs. extroverts" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;introversion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10497" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-29T10:37:50.737" Score="4" ViewCount="178" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for psychological traits that are proved to correlate with estrogen levels. Anything of specific behavior, attitudes, life styles, emotions, preferences, you name it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'm looking for links to scientific reports)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-07-03T21:18:21.477" LastActivityDate="2015-07-03T21:18:21.477" Title="What personality traits correlate with estrogen?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-07-05T18:47:42.180" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10498" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-29T10:45:33.270" Score="5" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do people bite their nails? People seem to be doing it primarily while contemplating something, or during problem-solving tasks. They seem to understand it is a bad habit, and sometimes they seem to try to active avoid it, but keep on doing it nonetheless so it seems. Why does this happen? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8692" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-06-29T11:16:43.223" LastActivityDate="2015-08-22T20:39:25.347" Title="Why do people bite their nails even when they do not want to?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10482" CreationDate="2015-06-29T12:58:28.937" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;General reporting recommendations such as that of APA Manual apply. One should report exact p-value and an effect size along with its confidence interval. In the case of likelihood ratio test one should report the test's p-value and how much more likely the data is under model A than under model B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: The data is 7.3, 95% CI [6.8,8.1] times more likely under Model A than under Model B. The hypothesis that the data is equally likely under the two models was rejected with p=0.006. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above statements already indicate that likelihood ratio test does not tell you which&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;model is a better description of my data&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;as the likelihood is $p(\mathrm{Data}|\mathrm{Model})$ and to learn which model is a better description of the data you need to compute $p(\mathrm{Model}|\mathrm{Data})$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8618" LastActivityDate="2015-06-29T12:58:28.937" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10500" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-29T16:58:22.433" Score="3" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;We've all seen it in film and hour-long format TV dramas, a brilliant criminal profiler, seen as the best in his field by their peers, delves 'too deeply' into the mind of the killer/rapist/undesirable he or she is looking for and disastrous consequences ensue. This often turns out in one of a few ways (the profiler committed the last N crimes unaware, he/she is led into a trap, he/she becomes the new killer, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is could this realistically happen? Would spending enough time trying to make yourself think like a serial murderer/crazed sex offender/phantom peanut butter thief really cause someone to 'slip in' to their behaviour patterns, unbeknownst to the profiler?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On one hand it seems like if you were trying to force yourself to &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; like a killer, eventually with enough dedication and time it might become second nature. But it still seems a little far-fetched that a perfectly normal (aka. non-murdering) person would be capable of it. Is this really even a technique used in this field?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8696" LastActivityDate="2015-06-29T16:58:22.433" Title="Is it really possible to &quot;go too deep inside the killer's mind&quot;?" Tags="&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10501" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10496" CreationDate="2015-06-29T17:04:14.557" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Introverts have higher cortical arousal than extroverts: &lt;a href=&quot;http://io9.com/the-science-behind-extroversion-and-introversion-1282059791&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://io9.com/the-science-behind-extroversion-and-introversion-1282059791&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several decades ago, German psychologist Hans Eysenck came up with a&#xA;  more biologically based model for E/I. According to Eysenck's theory,&#xA;  the behaviors of introverts and extroverts are due to differences in&#xA;  cortical arousal (the speed and amount of the brain's activity).&#xA;  Compared with extroverts, &lt;strong&gt;introverts have naturally high cortical&#xA;  arousal&lt;/strong&gt;, and may process more information per second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8697" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-07-01T20:15:19.143" LastActivityDate="2015-07-01T20:15:19.143" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10502" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-06-29T19:26:05.380" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2015-06-29T19:26:05.380" LastActivityDate="2015-06-29T19:26:05.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10503" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-06-29T19:26:05.380" Score="0" Body="The big-five is a model of personality which posits that people's traits vary on five broad dimensions. The five factors are neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience." OwnerUserId="511" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-19T15:54:27.810" LastActivityDate="2015-07-19T15:54:27.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10504" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-29T19:32:34.943" Score="3" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a number of spiritual practices that practice self-awareness and continuous awareness of one's thoughts and actions (for example the teachings of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eckhart_Tolle#Teachings&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ekhart Tolle&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tolle writes that &quot;the most significant thing that can happen to a&#xA;  human being [is] the &lt;strong&gt;separation process of thinking and awareness&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; and&#xA;  that awareness is &quot;the space in which thoughts exist&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also a number of techniques employed by people who practice lucid dreaming - namely reality checks and being aware of one's thoughts and surroundings. Lucid dreamers expect that this kind of awareness would carry over into the dream experience and help achieve lucid dreaming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both have a common goal - to create some kind of a meta-awareness, or a watchdog awareness, similar to a background process on a computer. A watchdog task on a computer can wake the computer up if some other process has hanged, or some other task is taking up too much resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is - &lt;strong&gt;Does modern science (2015) have evidence to support that human brain is capable of running the &quot;background process&quot; kind of meta awareness of one's thoughts and actions for extended period of time&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question about ordinary daily activities - can this kind of background awareness process be running all the time, regardless of activity performed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-06-29T19:32:34.943" Title="Is continuous split or meta - awareness a scientifically supported concept?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10482" CreationDate="2015-06-29T19:35:52.957" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The likelihood ratio test is distributed as χ²with degrees of freedom = the change in degrees of freedom between the two models. So, to give an example dropping one parameter from a model, you would report it like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;χ² (1) = 3.4, p = 0.065&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="511" LastActivityDate="2015-06-29T19:35:52.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10506" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10509" CreationDate="2015-06-29T20:16:02.310" Score="4" ViewCount="1054" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Specific context:&lt;/strong&gt; A test subject took the same Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices IQ test three times and first scored 115, then 107, and finally 143. The same test was taken three times within 3 and a half hours. Since all three scores are different and appear random, how can one  asses these results? i.e. Assuming the individual did not cheat, what can be said about the intelligence of  test subject?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How should one interpret intelligence test scores for an individual who has taken the same form of the same test multiple times in quick succession?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8700" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2015-06-30T10:39:43.653" LastActivityDate="2015-06-30T10:39:43.653" Title="How to interpret intelligence test scores for an individual who has taken a test multiple times in quick succession?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10507" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="60" CreationDate="2015-06-29T20:37:49.530" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although the idea that IQ only enables creativity &quot;up to IQ 120&quot; is widespread (and repeated in pop-psych books such as those of Gladwell etc.), large scale studies of giftedness reliably find that the IQ and creativity are associated even at the very highest-extremes of ability. IQ is linearly related to creative achievement across the range (Wai et al., 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A reanalysis by Silvia (2008) of the Wallach and Kogan (1965) paper which originated the idea of a 120 IQ &quot;threshold&quot; found that the original data do not sustain the idea of a critical level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The suggestion above by @BenBrocka that creativity and IQ are not linked (or only weakly associated) is not supported by the weight of evidence. Nusbaum &amp;amp; Silvia (2011), for instance show that IQ accounts for around 40% of creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vvXPH.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Refs&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nusbaum, E. C., &amp;amp; Silvia, P. J. (2011). Are intelligence and creativity really so different?: Fluid intelligence, executive processes, and strategy use in divergent thinking. Intelligence, 39(1), 36-45. &lt;a href=&quot;http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/p_silvia_creativity_2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Silvia, Paul J. (2008) Creativity and intelligence revisited: A latent variable analysis of Wallach and Kogan (1965). &lt;em&gt;Creativity Research Journal&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;20&lt;/strong&gt;. 34-39. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Silvia/publication/229316489_Are_intelligence_and_creativity_really_so_different_Fluid_intelligence_executive_processes_and_strategy_use_in_divergent_thinking/links/0c9605342fa644e43f000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wai, J., Lubinski, D., &amp;amp; Benbow, C. P. (2005). Creativity and occupational accomplishments among intellectually precocious youths: an age 13 to age 33 longitudinal study. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Educational Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;97&lt;/strong&gt;, 484. &lt;a href=&quot;https://my.vanderbilt.edu/smpy/files/2013/02/WaiJEP2005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="511" LastEditorUserId="511" LastEditDate="2015-07-02T06:58:51.910" LastActivityDate="2015-07-02T06:58:51.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10506" CreationDate="2015-06-30T05:21:03.813" Score="4" Body="&lt;h3&gt;General points about practice effects&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence tests differ in how much they are subject to practice effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Practice effects can also be distinguished:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Time between taking the test&lt;/strong&gt;: The shorter the timeframe the more likely you will see practice related improvement.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General practice on similar tests and similar items versus practice on the same set of items.&lt;/strong&gt; In general, practice effects will be greater where the items are identical between test sessions. Adaptive testing where items change each time should show fewer practice effects. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Whether feedback is present&lt;/strong&gt;. In general participants do not get feedback on what was or was not the right answer, but if they do receive such feedback, then practice effects will be much greater, especially for item specific transfer.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Test-retest variation&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another general point is that intelligence tests have a level of reliability such that a score on a test is only an estimate of an individual's true standing on the latent trait being measured. So obviously, some variation between administrations would be expected purely based on the standard error of measurement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, the general model of test-retest reliability assumes reasonably controlled testing conditions and a participant that is applying reasonable effort.&#xA;When these conditions are not met, you could see much more variation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If a test taker applies minimal effort or is distracted, they may get a much lower score than their true level.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If a test taker cheats in some way they may get a much higher score than their true level.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Issues of administration are more likely in an online environment particularly where there is either (a) no consequences for not applying full effort, or (b) an incentive to cheat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Interpreting scores of someone who has taken a test multiple times&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, if you are trying to measure intelligence, you should administer the test once and that first measure would be the measure of their intelligence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Test administrations that follow immediately afterwards would be contaminated by practice effects. Unless you have a very good understanding of how practice effects operate and how they can be controlled for, then it would be difficult to incorporate information from these subsequent administrations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, if you had additional information that said that on the first administration the participant was not concentrating or fundamentally failed to understand the test, then you may wish to tentatively rely on the score from a different administration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, a pattern of scores that differ by three standard deviations (e.g., 100, 115, 145) may suggest either that the test has reliability issues or that something strange is happening for that particular individual that you want to look into.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-06-30T05:47:28.150" LastActivityDate="2015-06-30T05:47:28.150" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10510" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-06-30T07:04:06.507" Score="3" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect there is a connection because visual processing ability is necessary in noticing important subtle social cues. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8701" LastActivityDate="2015-07-31T17:16:39.693" Title="Is there any connection between visual processing ability and social skills?" Tags="&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10511" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10399" CreationDate="2015-06-30T11:41:37.610" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The purpose of unbiased hit rate is to avoid invalid conclusions in cases where subjects indiscriminately use one (or only few) response options. To give an example (responses in rows, stimuli in columns):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;        Happy    Sad    Angry   Fearful&#xA;Happy     1       0       0        1&#xA;Sad       7       8       6        5&#xA;Angry     0       0       0        0&#xA;Fearful   2       0       0        1&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider sad faces. The uncorrected and biased hit rate for sad faces is $h_b(\mathrm{Sad})=8/8=1$. The unbiased hit rate is $h_b(\mathrm{Sad})=8^2/(8 \cdot24)=1/3$. The latter estimate better corresponds to our intuition. The subject responds almost always $\mathrm{Sad}$ and should be assigned a score slightly better than a random performance ($=1/4$).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are looking for a total score. By definition a total score will account for this kind of bias as it uses all elements of the confusion matrix. Hence, there is no point in looking for a unbiased total hit rate and there is no point in trying to combine the unbiased hit rates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wagner (1993) makes it clear on page 4 that the question regarding a total score is distinct and different from the one he is trying to answer with his unbiased hit rate. In a footnote 1 on pages 27-28 he mentions methods for computing the total score:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are numerous ways of examining overall performance in judgment&#xA;  studies. In psychophysics, the confusion matrix resulting from the&#xA;  method of absolute identification (as the type of&#xA;  judgment study discussed here is known) has been examined with the tools&#xA;  of information theory (see Baird &amp;amp; Noma, 1978, for a clear exposition&#xA;  of this). [...] Other examples of measures of accuracy for  the whole&#xA;  matrix are Cohen's $\kappa$ (Cohen, 1960), and Rosenthal and Rubin's $\pi$&#xA;  (Rosenthal &amp;amp; Rubin, 1989).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Literature&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baird, J. C., &amp;amp; Noma, E. J. (1978). Fundamentals of scaling and psychophysics. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and psychological measurement, 20(1), 37-46.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rosenthal, R., &amp;amp; Rubin, D. B. (1989). Effect size estimation for one-sample multiple-choice-type data: Design, analysis, and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 106(2), 332.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8618" LastActivityDate="2015-06-30T11:41:37.610" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10514" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10510" CreationDate="2015-06-30T17:39:58.630" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes there is relation, but currently there is no research evidences. its theoretical. &#xA;As you can observe we at according to situation and its demands. with passage of time our social skills improved and we also learn new skills in such way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8705" LastActivityDate="2015-06-30T17:39:58.630" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10515" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4670" CreationDate="2015-06-30T20:27:54.960" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;An attitude can actually exist at two different levels. Explicit attitudes are attitudes that are at the conscious level, are deliberately formed and are easy to self-report. On the other hand, implicit attitudes are attitudes that are at the unconscious level, are involuntarily formed and are typically unknown to us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8706" LastActivityDate="2015-06-30T20:27:54.960" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10516" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10520" CreationDate="2015-07-01T06:32:41.797" Score="11" ViewCount="1085" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading Danny K's recent book for fun (&lt;em&gt;Thinking Fast and Slow&lt;/em&gt;, 2011), and he suggests briefly that some people's reliance on their intuitions (i.e., &quot;System 1&quot;) might sometimes indicate a sort of aversion to cognitive effort (i.e., &quot;System 2&quot;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if you give a participant &quot;Joe&quot; a tricky problem that has an intuitive but false answer, Joe might not think too hard about the question, so he'll just give his (false) intuition.  In this case, Joe does not attempt elaborative processing or sustained cognitive effort (i.e., engaging System 2) because he has learned that this can be unpleasant and/or tiring.  Thus he relies on his intuition and gets the question wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there are probably many alternative explanations for Joe's behavior, it seems that aversion to mental effort could be one.  Is there any research exploring this idea? Or any research that frames it in another way (e.g., something to do with affective forecasting, learning, self-regulation)? Or am I totally making this up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-07-01T07:30:16.307" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T13:01:55.953" Title="Research on aversion to cognitive effort?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10517" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10496" CreationDate="2015-07-01T12:37:09.773" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in a subfacet of extraversion, i.e. agentic extraversion, a trait covering positive incentive motivation, positive emotionality, and social dominance (among others), I recommend Depue &amp;amp; Collins' paper &lt;em&gt;Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion&lt;/em&gt;, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1999, as a starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, I'd point to papers such as Wacker, Chavanon, and Stemmler (2006): &lt;em&gt;Investigating the dopaminergic basis of extraversion in humans: a multilevel approach&lt;/em&gt;, Journal of personality and social psychology, and related papers, which provide evidence concerning behavioral and electrophysiological indices of agentic extraversion sensitive to pharmacological interventions (DRD2 antagonist sulpiride).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These papers will, however, challenge your statement that introverts are more sensitive to dopamine. Just so you know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a more general level and as argued convincingly by Depue &amp;amp; Collins (1999) it is a more fruitful approach to study subfacets of personality traits, rather than broad traits such as broad extraversion. This is imaginable when considering that broad extraversion covers not only positive incentive motivation (likely related to dopaminergic neurotransmission) but also affiliative extraversion (feeling close to others etc., likely mediated by oxytocin). Thus, there is not necessarily an 'extravert' that shows high activity/levels/etc. of this or that specific neurobiological variable such as dopaminergic neurotransmission, because a person might also be considered an extravert (and score high on, let's say the Big Five Inventory Extraversion scale when experiencing tight bonds and affection for others, while he or she is not very agentically extraverted. However, it is more likely that you will measure certain levels of a specific neurobiological variable (such as dopamine-related measures) when studying a more specific and less &quot;fuzzy&quot; trait (such as agentic extraversion). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8710" LastEditorUserId="8710" LastEditDate="2015-07-01T12:58:21.150" LastActivityDate="2015-07-01T12:58:21.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10520" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10516" CreationDate="2015-07-01T15:18:43.567" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, if I understood your question correctly, there is a great deal of research in Social Psychology about humans being &quot;cognitive misers&quot;. In layman's terms, it means that humans find mental effort aversive and hence tend to rely on heuristics, categories or mental shortcuts while making judgements or while making decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theory comes within the domain of Social Cognition, and it was first introduced by social psychologists Susan Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor. It challenges the assumption in traditional economics that holds consumers as rational decision makers, and as a consequence this theory has been &lt;a href=&quot;http://soco.uni-koeln.de/docs/Crusius_van_Horen_Mussweiler_2012_JEP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;influential in behavioral economics&lt;/a&gt;. Kahneman and Tversky's work on documenting human biases can be understood simply as an extension of human's inherent limitations in cognitive processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This theory is very useful in political science, where voter decisions are studied. Furthermore, it also explains social phenomenon such as stereotyping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fiske, S.T., &amp;amp; Taylor, S.E. (1991). Social Cognition (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070211914.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tversky, A.; Kahneman, D. (1974). &quot;Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases&quot;. Science 185 (4157): 1124–1131. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. PMID 17835457.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B., &amp;amp; Bodenhausen, G. V. (1994). Stereotypes as energy-saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 37–47. doi:10.1037/0022-&#xA;3514.66.1.37&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-07-02T19:27:32.817" LastActivityDate="2015-07-02T19:27:32.817" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10521" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-01T18:02:15.453" Score="3" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often dream long extended dreams. Sometimes I wonder if the timeline of the story of my dream occurs compressed, in a moment, or other times extended slowly over a long duration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is there any way to scientifically detect this, and how would it be accomplished?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are there any prior examples of this study being performed?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8716" LastActivityDate="2015-07-01T18:02:15.453" Title="Is perceived time compressed or expanded while dreaming? (or does it match reality)" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-07-01T18:31:46.430" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10522" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-01T20:18:54.733" Score="3" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;What test is better in terms of its usability and informativeness - WISC-IV (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) or BAS (British Ability Scales)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8714" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-07-02T18:31:55.557" LastActivityDate="2015-07-02T18:31:55.557" Title="Comparison of assessments of cognitive skills in children" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10523" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10516" CreationDate="2015-07-01T20:19:03.457" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to @UmerVakil's great answer that general preference for system 1 thinking is often associated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_miser&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mental effort minimization&lt;/a&gt;, I'd like to add that the more modern view is that people switch back and forth (sometimes called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivated_tactician&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;motivated tactician&lt;/a&gt;&quot;) for a variety of possible reasons, so the idea that people might learn to be cognitively &quot;lazy&quot; is not really the prevailing view.  Additionally, I think that Kahneman's comment may be more focused on reasons for individual differences in thinking styles rather than general preference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;System 1 and 2 are part of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dual process theory&lt;/a&gt;, which is actually a conglomerate of subtly different theories with some commonalities (a great review &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).  As each individual theory has its own approach and measurement tools, this question is probably far too broad to adequately cover here, but a couple of interesting examples might suffice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory (CEST) is one example of a dual-process theory where significant research has been done on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive-Experiential_Self-Theory#Individual_Difference_in_Thinking_Styles&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;individual differences in thinking styles&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Indeed, reliable individual differences in preference for thinking&#xA;  styles consistently emerge from studies that use these assessments.&#xA;  What's more, individual differences in preference for a particular&#xA;  thinking style, as assessed by the REI, has been associated with a&#xA;  number of meaningful life outcomes. A preference for rational thought&#xA;  shows a number of beneficial associations. Increased academic&#xA;  achievement (GRE scores and grade-point average), self-esteem,&#xA;  openness to experience, and conscientiousness and decreased levels of&#xA;  depression and state-trait anxiety have all been associated with Need&#xA;  for Cognition. Higher levels of Faith in Intuition have more&#xA;  mixed results. Creativity, spontaneity, emotional expression,&#xA;  agreeableness, extroversion, and positive interpersonal relationships&#xA;  have all been associated with a preference for experiential&#xA;  processing. However, it has also been linked with authoritarianism,&#xA;  superstitious beliefs, and stereotypical thinking. Sex and age&#xA;  differences in thinking styles have also been found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you asked about a learning component to such preferences, I should mention that studies that compare these particular thinking styles typically prompt subjects to switch back and forth as needed by the experiment by ... asking them.  The simplicity of this method belies a learning component.  A few years ago, a couple of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-critical-thinkers-lose-faith-god/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;highly publicized studies&lt;/a&gt; demonstrated how even more subtle prompting (using words, imagery,and even different fonts!) can have an effect on system 1 and 2 thinking preferences - the researchers were able to temporarily affect religious belief by prompting analytical thinking.  It is theorized that perhaps culture plays an important role in thinking style preference: Religious people may prefer a heuristic thinking style that is more socially acceptable (less likely to result in conflict), while disbelievers have a preference for critical thinking and are less concerned with social acceptance.  Establishing cause-and-effect is a challenge, so these types of studies are important in demonstrating the role of prompting in the environment in affecting thinking preference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-07-01T20:19:03.457" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10524" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-01T20:34:30.637" Score="8" ViewCount="254" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’m thinking about introducing to my practice some new tests for family relationship evaluation. There are not so many projective tests in this matter. I'm particularly interested in Family Relation Test: Children’s Version (FRTC), however, I couldn’t found any information about a real experience of this test usage by specialists, only its general description on the website of a publisher. What are the strengths and the weaknesses of FRTC? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, what projective tests for a child and family assessment are there on the market today, except of classic drawing tests or TAT?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8714" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-06-02T06:13:08.173" LastActivityDate="2017-06-02T06:13:22.397" Title="What projective tests are available for a child and family assessment?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10525" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-02T00:58:23.167" Score="3" ViewCount="2412" Body="&lt;p&gt;Creators create, consumers consume what has been created. Consumers watch TV, creators write the script. Consumers play the game, creators design and make the game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are all kinds of creators and consumers I guess, from chefs and gourmets to artists and art collectors. Architects and people who like buying cool houses, mechanics/engineers and car enthusiasts, graphic designers and whoever uses their designed software.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the end though the situation is always the same, on one hand we have a person or a group of people who created something, and on the other hand we have a person or a group of people that bought and &quot;consumed&quot; it. (There is a fine line between creator and someone doing what he's paid to do though)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering on which side the grass is greener on the psychological level. Given that the creator likes to create what he's creating, and the consumer likes to consume what he's consuming, which is going to be happier? The artist while he paints, or the person while he admires the painting, the chef while he creates the recipe and cooks, or the person enjoying the food afterwards, the game developer or the person playing the game?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is the creator or the consumer more likely to be happy in the short&lt;/strong&gt; (while it is being created vs while it is being consumed) &lt;strong&gt;and long term?&lt;/strong&gt; (after it has been created vs after it has been consumed)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;And what are the long term effects on our brains by spending most of our days creating&lt;/strong&gt; (be it writing, painting, welding or programming or whatever) &lt;strong&gt;versus the long term effects on our brains by spending most of our days consuming ?&lt;/strong&gt; (watching tv, playing video games, eating fast food or mindlessly browsing the internet)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or in just one question: how will it affect a persons mind to go from being mostly a consumer to being mostly a creator or vice versa?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8222" LastActivityDate="2015-07-02T00:58:23.167" Title="Consumer vs creator, what are the differences?" Tags="&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10526" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10516" CreationDate="2015-07-02T10:33:14.440" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I remember from this field, there's a long-standing debate on whether heuristics are &amp;quot;irrational&amp;quot;/&amp;quot;suboptimal&amp;quot; between D. Kahneman and G. Gigerenzer. The Gigerenzer's point of view has been well put in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerd_Gigerenzer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gigerenzer argues that heuristics are not irrational or always second-best to optimization, as the accuracy-effort trade-off view assumes, in which heuristics are seen as short-cuts that trade less effort for less accuracy. In contrast, his and associated researchers' studies have identified situations in which &amp;quot;less is more&amp;quot;, that is, where heuristics make more accurate decisions with less effort. This contradicts the traditional view that more information is always better or at least can never hurt if it is free. Less-is-more effects have been shown experimentally, analytically, and by computer simulations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to this view, people are not &amp;quot;cognitive misers&amp;quot; - they are just smart.&#xA;See this chapter, for some introduction (you can find it online through &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.ru/scholar?cluster=12839413198512892145&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,5&amp;amp;as_vis=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gigerenzer, G. (2004). Fast and Frugal Heuristics: The Tools of Bounded Rationality. In Blackwell Handbook of Judgment and Decision Making (pp. 62–88). doi:10.1002/9780470752937.ch4&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS. I haven't followed the debate for some time, so maybe now Kahneman and Gigerenzer have changed their view or came to some agreement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="448" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-02T13:55:01.510" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10527" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-02T11:53:27.630" Score="5" ViewCount="215" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a part of my lab experiment, participants had to answer questions for BIS and BAS (BAS reward, drive and fun) scales. The correlation matrix shows that BIS is significantly positively correlated with BAS reward, BAS fun and BAS drive. Has anyone experienced similar issues? Is this an issue? If yes, is it possible (and how) to correct for that?&#xA;BIS (Behavioral Inhibition System) and BAS (Behavioral Activation System) - I administered the scale developed by Carver and White (1994), as presented on pg. 323 in their work &quot;Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales&quot; (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 319-333). I would assume that BIS should not be positively correlated with any of the BAS scales as BIS is related to avoidance motivation and BAS is related to approach motivation.I.e. a person scoring high on BIS should not be scoring high on BAS measures and vice versa. &#xA;The variables are intended as predictors. I want to examine if BAS (approach motivation) sensitivity predicts a rightward bias in product choice, and if BIS (avoidance motivation) sensitivity predicts a leftward bias. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8723" LastEditorUserId="8723" LastEditDate="2015-07-02T18:37:19.883" LastActivityDate="2015-07-04T17:16:42.837" Title="Correlation between BIS and BAS responses" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10528" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10516" CreationDate="2015-07-02T13:34:32.100" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many answers to this question, because this is an essential research topic of any dual process model (of which there are quit a lot). Most of them posit in some way that whether people rely on &quot;System 1&quot; or &quot;System 2&quot; (or whatever they are called in the respective flavor of the model) is some combination of &lt;strong&gt;motivation&lt;/strong&gt; (Is person X motivated to think hard in situation Y?) and &lt;strong&gt;ability&lt;/strong&gt; (Can Person X think hard in situation Y?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To add to the other great answers, a few more examples: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From an interindividual differences perspective, there is the concept of &lt;strong&gt;Need for Cognition&lt;/strong&gt; and an accompanying scale that measures &quot;the tendency for an individual to engage in and enjoy thinking&quot; (Cacioppo &amp;amp; Petty, 1982, p. 116). People who are low in need for cognition are, for example, more likely to process persuasive messages in a heuristic way, also are more likely to fall prey to (at least some) cognitive biases such as halo effects or anchoring, and they stereotype more strongly (Petty et al., 2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also stemming from persuasion research, there is the concept of &lt;strong&gt;involvement&lt;/strong&gt;. In a nutshell, if people don't care so much about a topic (low motivation to think hard), they will be swayed more easily by heuristic cues (Petty &amp;amp; Cacioppo, 1984).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the concept of &lt;strong&gt;Ego Depletion&lt;/strong&gt;, which holds self-regulatory capacity (&quot;willpower&quot;) is a limited resource (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, &amp;amp; Tice, 1998). According to this model, hard thinking requires self-control. If your self-regulatory capacity has been depleted (because of other difficult tasks, such as suppressing emotions or resisting temptations), you will be less likely to perform well in such tasks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recent research suggests that people have different &lt;strong&gt;beliefs about willpower&lt;/strong&gt; and whether the latter phenomenon will occur: Some people more strongly belief that willpower can be drained. It's those people who will suffer more from taxing tasks (Job, Dweck, &amp;amp; Walton, 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally (for this answer), there is a host of situational and dispositional variables that will affect whether people are able to engage in hard thinking. For example, people with &lt;strong&gt;low working memory capacity&lt;/strong&gt; may be more susceptible to impulsive influences on their behavior. The same occurs for people who are put under &lt;strong&gt;cognitive load&lt;/strong&gt;, are &lt;strong&gt;intoxicated&lt;/strong&gt;, or under &lt;strong&gt;time pressure&lt;/strong&gt; (for a review, see Hofmann &amp;amp; Strack, 2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., &amp;amp; Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252–1265. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1252&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cacioppo, J. T., &amp;amp; Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 116–131.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hofmann, W., Friese, M., &amp;amp; Strack, F. (2009). Impulse and self-control from a dual-systems perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 162–176. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01116.x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Job, V., Dweck, C. S., &amp;amp; Walton, G. M. (2010). Ego depletion-Is it all in your head? Implicit theories about willpower affect self-regulation. Psychological Science. doi:10.1177/0956797610384745&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Petty, R.E., Briñol, P., Loersch, C.; McCaslin, M.J. (2009). &quot;Chapter 21. The Need for Cognition&quot;. In Leary, Mark R. &amp;amp; Hoyle, Rick H. Handbook of Individual Differences in Social behavior (pp. 318–329). New York: Guildford.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Petty, R. E., &amp;amp; Cacioppo, J. T. (1984). The effects of involvement on responses to argument quantity and quality: Central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 69–81. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.1.69&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-19T08:53:29.723" LastActivityDate="2015-07-19T08:53:29.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10533" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-03T06:57:01.510" Score="2" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for scientific evidence for or against a notion that eye movements can be used as a cue to personality(traits).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This may include notions like high extroversion individuals look more at other people, than do low extroversion individuals(?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Possible notions that high and low agreeablesness individuals prefer looking at different things.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Big 5 correlations are preferred.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Results should be valid for western cultures (cross cultural studies or studies on western culture populations)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is that eye movements would tell you the person's preferences and thus something about the person's cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'm looking for links to scientific reports here)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-07-03T21:18:08.550" LastActivityDate="2015-07-03T21:18:08.550" Title="Are there any studies on correlations between eye movements and personality?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-06-07T09:45:44.600" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10534" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4772" CreationDate="2015-07-03T14:13:02.400" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Having one or more fetishes is very widespread, and thus rather normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The prevalence of fetishism is not known with certainty.[21] The&#xA;  majority of fetishists are male.[21] &lt;strong&gt;In a 2011 study, 30% of men&#xA;  reported fetishistic fantasies&lt;/strong&gt;, and 24.5% had engaged in fetishistic&#xA;  acts. Of those reporting fantasies, 45% said the fetish was intensely&#xA;  sexually arousing.[23] &lt;strong&gt;In a 2014 study, 26.3% of women and 27.8% of&#xA;  men acknowledged any fantasies about &quot;having sex with a fetish or&#xA;  non-sexual object&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_fetishism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_fetishism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A disorder is per definiton something &lt;strong&gt;abnormal&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;disorder [dis-or´der] a derangement or abnormality of function;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the answer to your question would per definition be: &lt;strong&gt;No. Having fetishes is normal and not a disorder.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-07-03T14:13:02.400" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10535" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10678" CreationDate="2015-07-03T14:37:29.570" Score="5" ViewCount="556" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many rating scales used in psychiatry to rate the severity of disorders. Thus, the extensive depression scales. What about the opposite, happiness scales? If 0 denotes excessive depressive symptoms and 100 denotes absence of these symptoms, does a scale exist that say goes from 100 (absence of depressive symptoms) to 200 (hyperthymia, euphoria)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-19T15:00:18.020" LastActivityDate="2015-07-20T18:28:49.510" Title="Is there a rating scale in psychology that is related to happiness?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10536" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9690" CreationDate="2015-07-03T15:17:35.680" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It actually has nothing to do with having an experimental and control group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A double dissociation refers to documenting two distinct patterns of impairment in two different groups or individuals, proving that two functions are neurologically distinct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, someone with hippocampal damage will have trouble forming declarative memories (memories you are consciously aware of). If you repeatedly present them with a tone followed by an electric shock, and then play the tone and ask them what's about to happen, they won't be able to answer correctly. However, they are still capable of forming a conditioned aversion, which means that the tone will induce a feeling of fear in them even though they have no conscious memory of getting shocked. In fact, it will elicit just as much fear in a patient with hippocampal damage as in a normal control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, someone with amygdala damage will have no trouble learning the tone-shock association - they'll figure it out as quickly as a normal control would, in fact. However, they won't be afraid of the tone. Even though they know full well that tone=shock (declaratively), and the shock is just as painful to them as it would be for a normal control, they can't form the unconscious association that the tone should be feared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A control group is important to determine which functions are intact (as opposed to just 'less impaired'). But for a double dissociation, you need two kinds of patients with opposite impairments - not just one patient group with one function impaired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To illustrate why one patient group wouldn't be enough, imagine you have a patient who fails second-order theory of mind tests ('I know you don't know that I know where you hid the candy') but passes first-order theory of mind ('I know you don't know where I hid the candy'). Does that mean that first-order and second-order theory of mind are distinct skills? No, because we have yet to find anyone who fails first-order theory of mind tests &lt;em&gt;who doesn't also&lt;/em&gt; fail second-order theory of mind. Instead, it makes more sense to think of the two tests as measuring the same thing, with the first-order tests just being &lt;em&gt;easier&lt;/em&gt; than the second-order tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you were to damage the hippocampus in one group and leave the other group undamaged, you'd know the hippocampal damage caused their memory problems. But when they successfully develop a phobia of a tone paired with a shock, you wouldn't know if that's just an &lt;em&gt;easier&lt;/em&gt; kind of memory to form, or if it's truly a separate memory system. You need the patient with the opposite pattern of deficits to prove that you really do have two separate systems in play.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8730" LastActivityDate="2015-07-03T15:17:35.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10538" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10458" CreationDate="2015-07-03T19:24:49.283" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concept of creativity &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt; makes it hard to measure it in a standardized way, since creativity by definition opposes standardization. Even tests such as the one suggested by Krysta run into the problem that  in order to rate answers with regard to their rarity will have to rely on some kind of standardization according to which one can rate the answers given. Certainly, there are tests aiming at measuring creativity. I doubt, however, that these tests truly capture the construct at which they aim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This standpoint obviously prohibits any scientific investigation of creativity, at least using quantitative measures widely used in psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8710" LastActivityDate="2015-07-03T19:24:49.283" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10544" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-03T21:27:59.720" Score="3" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that prove other personality traits being correlated with the Big5 facet C5 - Self-discipline? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'm looking for links to scientific reports)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-07-03T21:27:59.720" Title="What other personality traits are proved to correlate with Self-discipline?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10547" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-03T21:37:53.137" Score="2" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which scientific reports can tell me about Big5 scores correlating with a practical, physical preference? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Examples&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Traits&lt;/strong&gt;: Practical, Realistic, Down-to-earth, Athletic, Handy, Prefers hands-on work, Problem solver, Focused on the real world&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Interests&lt;/strong&gt;:  Animals, Construction, Driving, Electricity, Hearing, Manual labor, Mechanics, Outdoors, Physical activities, Problem solving, Safety, Seeing, Sensing, Sports, Tangible things, Tasting, Tools, Transportation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-07-16T12:01:35.840" LastActivityDate="2015-07-16T12:01:35.840" Title="What Big5 facets correlate with practical sense?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10548" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-03T21:40:08.207" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;The big5 facet O3 is called &quot;Feelings&quot;. What does this facet tell about a person's feelings exactly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where can I find more information on correlations to Big5 facet O3 - &quot;Feelings&quot;? (Im looking for links to scientific studies)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-07-04T15:07:48.320" LastActivityDate="2015-07-04T15:07:48.320" Title="What studies can tell me more about Big5 facet O3?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-07-06T11:42:39.887" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10550" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-03T21:52:18.023" Score="3" ViewCount="142" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the title says. What is the cognitive reason for procrastination? I feel there is a component of uncertainty about the path to be taken. I feel like if I know exactly how to reach my goal and I want to reach it, I take the path and follow through until the end. On the other hand, if I have the feeling I don't know how to solve my problem, I get uninterested, lose track and never deliver.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our brain is somehow always curious but also very lazy: if knowledge is at hand, it works. If not, it watches TV ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7622" LastActivityDate="2015-07-04T06:58:37.190" Title="Why do we procrastinate?" Tags="&lt;procrastination&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10551" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10557" CreationDate="2015-07-04T06:38:36.373" Score="7" ViewCount="283" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have already witnessed complex computing systems winning chess games and IBM Watson beat his human counterparts at a game of 'Jeopardy!'. However, so far we have not seen signs of consciousness amongst these machines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it theoretically possible to create conscious machines? Are there any philosophical bottlenecks that will never allow the development of consciousness in any nonliving carbon-based organism? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, can scientists ever agree on a definition of &quot;consciousness&quot; if a machine claims that it is conscious?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8620" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-07-05T14:45:17.710" LastActivityDate="2021-03-17T03:07:05.643" Title="When can we say that machines are conscious?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10552" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10550" CreationDate="2015-07-04T06:58:37.190" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Procrastination is deep and complex subject and its not &quot;Hey you are just lazy man&quot; thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People procrastinate for wide variety of reasons here are few ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Procrastination can be a symptom of deeper inner meaning problems or mindset problems.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Procrastination can be due to fear of failure, fear of success (!)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Procrastination can be due to be overwhelmed by size and nature of task.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Procrastination can be due to uncertainty and analysis paralysis.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ADD (Attention Deficit Disorder) creates brain that is myopic to time perception, which in turn creates procrastination behavior.&#xA;People with ADD/ADHD often heavily discount the importance of an event if it's sufficiently far away from the current time. Only thing that gets done is events screaming &quot;Your house is on fire, do it NOW&quot;. They live in perpetual now discounting the future, everything far away in time is simply a blur until it comes too close within their range of time perception which is 'now'.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Procrastination can be due to inability to focus and distraction issues.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The list is only partial, you can google out following terms to learn more:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Growth verses fixed mindset,&#xA;Distraction and Continuous Partial Attention,&#xA;ADHD Russell Barkley &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8620" LastActivityDate="2015-07-04T06:58:37.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10553" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-04T07:22:14.437" Score="1" ViewCount="1381" Body="&lt;p&gt;What would explain an intense feeling of being &lt;strong&gt;extremely&lt;/strong&gt; present, randomly and for no reason ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The feeling is not tied to any behavior, thought or action. It comes out of nowhere, when doing a usual remedial task, like driving or walking somewhere. Also, it is not periodic (could happen once or twice in a life time).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;..and is there a name for this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(It shares some similarities with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_experience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;peak experience&lt;/a&gt; but seems different than &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;flow&lt;/a&gt;, in that flow it is based on an activity and incorporates polarized emotions, enjoyment, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit -&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;To clarify as asked in the comments:&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This feeling of intense present can be &lt;em&gt;analogous&lt;/em&gt; to the moment of having a dream full of action and chaos, then all of a sudden awaking to a dead silent and still bedroom. Or another example; one is sitting in a library and a large air conditioning system is running but not consciously noticed. Then, all of a sudden it switches off and there is a feeling if intense quietness and stillness and awareness of its absence. (These are &lt;em&gt;analogous moments&lt;/em&gt;, where there is that dramatic switch in state... that is the subject in question but in this case not tied to any external event or dream.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or perhaps just feeling really awake or effortlessly alert more than usual. It also is ABSENCE of any conflict, tiredness, negativity and/or tension. In addition, it is of a neutral disposition- not happy and not sad, just extreme sense of being. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="849" LastEditDate="2015-08-01T06:54:49.103" LastActivityDate="2020-08-03T11:37:55.683" Title="What would explain an intense feeling of being extremely present, for no reason?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10554" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-04T11:04:41.050" Score="5" ViewCount="2647" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a Artificial Intelligence researcher with a interest in neuroscience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if flow diagrams exist of the way information flows from sensory inputs through the parts of the brain (and their function) to form output actuation signals for moving the body? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This kind of flow diagram might be used as a kind of blue print for constructing intelligent systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such diagrams of information flow of other animals besides humans (less complex systems) would also be very welcome and useful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8733" LastActivityDate="2019-01-07T14:16:11.287" Title="Flow diagram of how information flows through the brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10555" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10551" CreationDate="2015-07-04T13:32:52.140" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question has perplexed me for quite a while now. The problem with declaring an artificially intelligent machine 'conscious' is the very definition of consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quick google search for the definition for 'consciousness' returns 'the state of being awake and aware of one's surroundings'. This definition in my opinion is too vague to be extendable to an artificially intelligent machine for several reasons. The state of being 'awake' to a machine is also too vague. My laptop right now is technically awake (i.e. not sleeping). It doesn't mean it's conscious. This definition is bogus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking up the definition in the old-school Oxford dictionary, I get 'the fact of awareness by the mind of itself and the world'. This is indeed a much better definition of consciousness, but is still too vague. Let me propose my argument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Theory of Mind&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Theory of Mind is the ability to believe that your mind is separate from the individuals around you, to know the fact that others' have their own perceptions of the world around them, separated from their own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From research, specifically the &lt;strong&gt;'Sally-Anne Test'&lt;/strong&gt;, we have realised the fact that children do not develop the understanding of the Theory of Mind up until the age of 3. In the Sally-Anne test, children are told or shown a story involving two characters - Sally and Anne. Sally has a cookie, which she places in one of two closed boxes before leaving the room. While Sally is away, Anne takes the cookie and puts in the other box. The children are asked the question - &quot;Which box will Sally look in for the cookie?&quot; The answer is easy, i.e., Sally will look for the cookie in the box she left it in, because there is no reason to believe otherwise.&quot; Most children under the age of three disagree, and insist that Sally will look inside box two, because they do not understand the fact that Sally and Anne are two separate entities with separate minds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;That is, children under the age of three are not aware of the fact that they are separate from the rest of the people, but this does not mean that they are conscious. They indeed are.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Awareness of the External World&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other part of the definition says &lt;strong&gt;that conscious beings are aware of their surroundings&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Most advanced robots in this day and age are arguably more aware of their surroundings than humans are&lt;/strong&gt;, utilising complicated Computer Vision techniques and mapping to always be fully aware.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the definition of consciousness were this, then we already have conscious machines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;The Bottom Line&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Google's new artificially intelligent chatbot has had some very interesting conversations with humans. When asked the meaning of life, it replied 'To serve the greater good'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can program my dumb computer to say 'I am conscious', although this serves very little purpose (and I sure wouldn't believe it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bottom line is, we don't quite know what it really means to be 'conscious', and it has deep philosophical roots. It's all about when scientists decide to say, &quot;Heck, this one's conscious!&quot;, and hence define the borderline for what's conscious and what isn't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: Perhaps one way to define artificially intelligent consciousness is to see whether the machine realise for itself, that it is conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8665" LastEditorUserId="8665" LastEditDate="2015-07-04T13:38:31.360" LastActivityDate="2015-07-04T13:38:31.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10556" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10527" CreationDate="2015-07-04T17:16:42.837" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't used BIS and BAS scales in my research, so I will only point out some general considerations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Correctness of your correlation analyses.&lt;/strong&gt;: Double-check your data analysis. Maybe you missed a sign somewhere or you didn't encode some scale correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Interpretation of your correlation analyses.&lt;/strong&gt; Significant correlation isn't that interesting. You should consider its magnitude. Note that the correlation between two measures is bound by the reliability of those measures. You should compare your correlation estimate with the upper bound and ask how much of the potentially available correlation it explains. In theory, the correlation can't exceed $\sqrt{r_a r_b}$, where $r_i$ is the reliability of measure $i$. (Carver and White provide the reliability estimates on page 323.) In practice this can happen due to measurement error and you should consider the confidence interval of your correlation estimate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Measurement error or Systematic bias?&lt;/strong&gt; On page 323 Carver and White (1994) write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In theory, the sensitivity of the BIS and BAS physiological systems&#xA;  should be independent. Consistent with this assumption, the BIS scale&#xA;  was relatively independent of the BAS subscales in this sample,&#xA;  although the degree of independence varied across subscales. The BIS&#xA;  scale correlated -.12 with Drive, .28 with Reward Responsiveness, and&#xA;  -.08 with Fun Seeking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You should compare these values with your correlation estimates and ask whether your estimates are consistent with those of Carver and White. Again, confidence intervals may be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Regression with correlated predictors.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regression#Assumptions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; explains why linear regression requires independent predictors and has (under Lack of multicolinearity) some suggestions for situations when independence can't be assumed. In addation you may want to look at this &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/38093/30080&quot;&gt;question on cross validated SE&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8618" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2015-07-04T17:16:42.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10557" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10551" CreationDate="2015-07-04T21:11:03.257" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: We don't know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long answer: There are a few major lines of thinking on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;subject&lt;/a&gt; currently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_closure_%28philosophy%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive closure&lt;/a&gt;: One common argument is that this question is simply not answerable - at least not by humans.  By this view, it is possible that the creation of an artificial intelligence that even resembles humans sufficiently to suggest consciousness is an intractable engineering problem, or it is possible that understanding consciousness well enough to determine whether or not such an artificially intelligent system might be conscious is beyond us, or it is possible that we will never understand the question well enough to have a meaningful response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_%28philosophy_of_mind%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Functionalism&lt;/a&gt;: Several interpretations of the implications of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;monism&lt;/a&gt; on consciousness suggest that consciousness is an intrinsic property of whatever it is that our brain does, and therefore, any machine that performs an equivalent function should be equally conscious.  This view potentially allows for a variety of machines to be conscious, as well as having different kinds of consciousness.  In this framework, it may be more meaningful to ask not whether a machine is conscious, but rather, in what way, or how does it compare to our consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Physicalism&lt;/a&gt;: Another interpretation of monism suggests that the function of a machine is not sufficient to determine its consciousness - its physical properties are important as well.  This possibility makes it difficult to ascertain whether a silicon-based computer program of a conscious entity could ever do more than simulate consciousness, or how many other kinds of physical systems like our brain can potentially become conscious.  A theoretical framework under this umbrella that is currently fairly popular and has some &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3006294&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;empirical support&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_information_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IIT&lt;/a&gt; that suggests that consciousness can be measured in humans using available tools of neuroscience.  How this might be applied to non-human candidates is still unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many other possibilities, but hopefully I've captured the most prominent ones.  Currently, there is nothing within our knowledge of physical systems that makes it obvious why (or whether) certain systems might be conscious (and not others).  Put another way: If a race of non-conscious alien robots visited Earth, they might assume that we are non-conscious machines like them - they may have no reason to believe that there is anything more going on.  Similarly, under the assumption of monism, where consciousness appears to somehow &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervenience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;supervene&lt;/a&gt; on physical systems, if there were other properties aside from consciousness (or different types of consciousness) that supervened on physical systems, then we would have no reason to suspect that they exist either.  So for the moment, we just don't know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-03-15T03:35:43.430" LastActivityDate="2021-03-15T03:35:43.430" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10558" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10848" CreationDate="2015-07-05T00:02:33.710" Score="9" ViewCount="1885" Body="&lt;p&gt;Almost everyone likes a good story, the way in which it is delivered matters, but most people love a good story in one form or another, whether it's delivered through conversation, a book, a video game, a movie, or even if it's just them trying to make sense of how a shoe got into a swimming pool (That's right, it's ok if the story is created in your own mind, it's still a story, so we seem to like telling stories as much if not more than we like hearing or reading them).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why do we like stories at all? Why do some of us like stories to the point of obsessing over them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does this happen? And is this something that can be controlled (i.e. could you make someone who prefers violent stories prefer switch over to preferring romance stories? Can someone be conditioned to not be interested in any stories at all no matter what they may be about?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is it also that once we start with a story, it can be hard to stop because you want to know what happens next or want to know how it ends? Why do some of us care if people &quot;spoil&quot; the ending for us by telling us what happens before we see or read or hear it, while some of us seem not to care?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has any real research been done on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8222" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-08-07T14:15:39.087" LastActivityDate="2015-08-07T14:15:39.087" Title="Why do we like stories?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10559" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15445" CreationDate="2015-07-05T02:53:49.933" Score="5" ViewCount="1573" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is if I could teach my brain to understand binary codes (for example, ASCII) just like I teach it to understand English, French or any other language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That includes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;not to translate it each time I read some binaries, like 01100001 01100010 automatically reads 'ab'.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;understand both written, pronounced and somehow sound-coded form (like Morse)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;write and say it naturally&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is not to teach computer speak to people, but to teach people speak to a computer in his language. In general, human brain can be taught anything. It is a programmable computer. However, you can only program it very slow. If you can teach your subconscious to multiply numbers, why can't you teach it to encode MD5? Or decoding HTTPS data given a key? Even bruteforce? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question is if there are any researches on the topic, or the people who tried such learning? Are there any techniques? Also, what if we teach a 2-year old child this language, will it be natural for him just like the English is natural for English-grown child?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. Some upgrade of this idea is to place some radiowaves-to-soundwaves direct converters and &quot;listen&quot; to the radiosignals around you. Somehow &quot;spy&quot; on neighbours Wi-Fi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.P.S. I've asked this questions on datascience stackexchange, and the community suggested moving it here. However, it is also moved to lifehacks, where I received a few answers: &lt;a href=&quot;https://lifehacks.stackexchange.com/questions/7575/can-i-teach-my-brain-to-undersrand-binary/&quot;&gt;https://lifehacks.stackexchange.com/questions/7575/can-i-teach-my-brain-to-undersrand-binary/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8735" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-07-06T19:30:07.477" LastActivityDate="2016-07-12T13:08:12.067" Title="Can I teach my brain to understand binary?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10561" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-05T06:28:06.290" Score="4" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;With long term memory, there is loss of information. For example, we don't seem to retain all the details of every image we see. What is the physical process those details undergo which cause them to be retained over the ones that are not, and what is the mechanism that &quot;chooses&quot; which information undergoes that process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8737" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-07-06T00:17:30.123" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T14:14:27.040" Title="What physical process governs which details are retained in memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10551" CreationDate="2015-07-05T08:49:41.167" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I feel that the label of consciousness is merely a semantic distinction that belongs to the realm of philosophy, not neuropsychology. Like Noam Chomsky mentioned in one of his talks hosted by Lawrence Krauss - we could also ask ourselves whether animals (e.g. dogs) are conscious. I'm not exactly sure, he mentioned that birds are said to &quot;fly&quot; in Enlgish but in Hebrew, the world &quot;glide&quot; is used - we may ask what it means to &quot;fly&quot;, but it would be mindless pondering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, we may build a list of criteria that determine what we could classify as &quot;consciousness&quot;, but these are not definitive. The abilities of possessing a theory of mind, self-reflecting or making long-term plans could be said to define consciousness, but we may debate that many other criteria such as complex cognitive task performance should be involved. I feel that this question is misleading since we are getting &quot;bewitched by language&quot; like the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein said. Consciousness is merely a word, we should focus on the science, not language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good thought experiment would be to search for the radical idea by Julian Jaynes in &quot;The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind&quot;. By his measure, human beings were themselves not conscious till a thousand years ago. We might reflexively think that this is absurd, but we don't have any solid definition to rebuke his thesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jaynes, Julian (2000) [1976]. &lt;a href=&quot;http://s-f-walker.org.uk/pubsebooks/pdfs/Julian_Jaynes_The_Origin_of_Consciousness.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The origin of consciousness in the breakdown of the bicameral mind&lt;/a&gt; (PDF). Houghton Mifflin. p. 99. ISBN 0-618-05707-2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Ml1G919Bts0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chomsky and Krauss: An Origins Project Dialogue&#xA;Sunday, March 22, 2015 - 7:00pm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-07-05T08:57:47.923" LastActivityDate="2015-07-05T08:57:47.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10563" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12354" CreationDate="2015-07-05T10:00:45.353" Score="9" ViewCount="4345" Body="&lt;p&gt;There appears to be a prevalent stereotype that girls seem to have &quot;heightened&quot; color perception. By this term, I mean that they can identify the salient features of different shades of color. However, many ideas that are widespread in public consciousness do not seem to be based on empirical evidence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that has investigated gender differences in color perception? In particular, are there any well-performed experiments in the study of perception or cognitive neuroscience that may shed light on this perceived phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many &lt;a href=&quot;http://scienceblogs.com/cognitivedaily/2005/09/27/do-women-perceive-color-differ/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;'sources'&lt;/a&gt; on the internet that seem to have commented on this, but I can't find any compelling evidence personally. There is some literature on cross-cultural variation and cross-language perceptual differences, is there any literature on cross-gender variation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jameson, K. A., Highnote, S. M., &amp;amp; Wasserman, L. M. (2001). Richer color experience in observers with multiple opsin genes. Psychonomic bulletin and review, 8, 244-261.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gilbert, A. L., Regier, T., Kay, P., &amp;amp; Ivry, R. B. (2006). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/103/2/489.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Whorf hypothesis is supported in the right visual field but not the left.&lt;/a&gt; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(2), 489–494.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/E7zy7.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;A stereotype prevalent in public consciousness&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-11T01:19:40.283" LastActivityDate="2015-10-11T01:25:52.283" Title="Are there gender differences in color discrimination ability?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10564" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10565" CreationDate="2015-07-05T17:15:08.140" Score="3" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the scientific terms to use when researching the difference between the brain abilities demonstrated in recognizing an answer (e.g. multiple choice) versus creating an answer (e.g. fill in the blank)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just blew through a new Lumosity recognition game and yet struggled with a familiar fill-in game. I'm curious which cognitive abilities are involved. Naive Google searches brought me back a lot of &quot;recognizing creativity in the workplace&quot; type answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8739" LastEditorUserId="8739" LastEditDate="2015-07-05T17:29:37.987" LastActivityDate="2015-07-06T07:15:20.710" Title="How does recognizing an answer differ from creating an answer to a question?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10565" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10564" CreationDate="2015-07-05T18:53:03.633" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I understand you correctly, then the terms you are looking for are &quot;recognition&quot; and &quot;recall&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ehow.com/info_7754397_recall-vs-recognition.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ehow.com/info_7754397_recall-vs-recognition.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In depth:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_(memory)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_(memory)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8740" LastEditorUserId="8739" LastEditDate="2015-07-06T07:15:20.710" LastActivityDate="2015-07-06T07:15:20.710" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10566" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-06T17:42:37.207" Score="3" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I expect that state-funded kindergarten and pre-kindergarten would be most effective in areas where there is no state-funded day-care. Additionally, I would expect it to be most beneficial to the demographics that cannot afford alternative child-care. However, I can't find any literature reviews that compare across various systems and countries, although I did find &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749379702006554&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this review that focuses on the US&lt;/a&gt;. Are there more modern international studies available?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-07-07T13:01:01.357" LastActivityDate="2015-07-07T13:01:01.357" Title="In what areas is kindergarten most effective developmentally?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10569" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4859" CreationDate="2015-07-06T20:23:55.070" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question you have asked is not a new one. In fact, from the times of classical antiquity, Plato considered artistic creativity as a &lt;a href=&quot;http://katjavogt.com/pdf/katja_vogt_madness.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;result of god-given madness&lt;/a&gt;. When it comes to popular figures in the arts and sciences, however, it is important to note that the illness is not restricted to them by any means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lord Byron and Beethoven are said to be manic-depressive, Dostoyevsky had epilepsy. In terms of madness and its impact on creativity and genius, we can merely speculate. In fact, some critics of psychiatry feel that mental illness has been given a pathological status as an 'illness' and that we tend to reverse-label these figures and diagnose them with labels that have only recently been defined. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I meant earlier when I said that illness is not restricted to genius was to clarify a very important point, that majority of people that suffer from mental illnesses are not creative geniuses, or even accomplished in the traditional sense. Since mental illness has a strong genetic component, it is not surprising that Albert Einstein and Bertrand Russel's son were diagnosed with schizohprenia and James Joyce's daughter was also diagnosed with it. It is important to note that sensationalized examples can distort the statistical importance of certain correlations, so it is important not to focus too extensively on them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your hunch is correct though, take this from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity_and_mental_illness#cite_note-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; on the relation between mental illness and creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A study looking at 300,000 persons with schizophrenia, bipolar&#xA;  disorder or unipolar depression, and their relatives, found&#xA;  overrepresentation in creative professions for those with bipolar&#xA;  disorder as well as for undiagnosed siblings of those with&#xA;  schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. There was no overall&#xA;  overrepresentation, but overrepresentation for artistic occupations,&#xA;  among those diagnosed with schizophrenia. There was no association for&#xA;  those with unipolar depression or their relatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another study involving more than one million people, conducted by&#xA;  Swedish researchers at the Karolinska Institute, reported a number of&#xA;  correlations between creative occupations and mental illnesses.&#xA;  Writers had a higher risk of anxiety and bipolar disorders,&#xA;  schizophrenia, unipolar depression, and substance abuse, and were&#xA;  almost twice as likely as the general population to kill themselves.&#xA;  Dancers and photographers were also more likely to have bipolar&#xA;  disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, let me deal with the some of the evidence that psychology and neuroscience provide us. This evidence may come from different sources but they are attempts at determining a connection between the two phenomenon, and by no means is there any rock-solid connection that has been documented by any one study. Furthermore, I must warn you that some experiments are 'reductive' in the sense that they will ascribe the entire connection between mental illness and genius to a single factor, whereas many factors (or a very complex system) are actually the reason behind the apparent correlation. Here are some theories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dopermergic Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since medical treatments that block dopamine receptors have show to reduce symptoms of schizophrenia, there is a consensus in the psychiatric community that schizophrenia is caused by an overactive dopamine system. The particular receptor I will discuss is the D2 receptor. For instance, a lower thalamic (from the Thalamus brain region) D2 binding potential is observed in those patients who do not take antipsychotic medications. Furthermore, a significantly larger number of D2 receptors are present in the striatum of schizophrenic patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I am trying to answer your question, I will try avoiding getting trapped within semantic arguments about the definition of genius. Lets assume that they are individuals with great creative abilities and divergent thinking patterns that allow them to come up with novel solutions to difficult problems, or create original pieces of art. The study quoted found a negative correlation between divergent thinking and D2 receptor binding potential not in the thalamus, but present in the striatum. Similar to patients with schizophrenia, creative people had lower D2 receptor density in their thalamus. This phenomenon may relate to creativity because it might be because when compared to normal subjects, schizophrenics 'block out' less information from the external world. These abnormal thoughts might occasionally present themselves as novel ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Brain Hemispheric Ambidexterity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like mentioned below, divergent thinking can be associated with creativity. Studies have shown that bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex is observed in people with divergent thinking patterns, and similar results were found for schizophrenic patients - however, they had greater activation in their &lt;em&gt;right&lt;/em&gt; prefrontal cortex, showing that they can access both hemispheres. Simultaneous access to both hemispheres allows for greater ability to create associations. This greater ability to associate ideas may result in many of the multidisciplinary or revolutionary ideas advocated by exceptional figures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Overrepresentation of Siblings in Creative Professions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Siblings of schizophrenic patients were found in a study to be overrepresented in creative processions. It has been hypothesized that these siblings have higher levels of schizotypal personality traits when compared to normal subjects. It is important to note the difference between Schizotypy and Schizophrenia, the second is a clinical case, the first is a personality category. It is highly probable, however, that both have a similar genetic basis. Schizotypal traits include weak mental boundaries between the self and external world, strange experiences, impulsive nonconformity and magical beliefs. As mentioned in this excerpt from &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/the-real-link-between-creativity-and-mental-illness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this blog piece&lt;/a&gt; from Scientific American, this has implications for creativity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This has important implications for creativity. Mark Batey and Adrian&#xA;  Furnham found that the unusual experiences and impulsive nonconformity&#xA;  dimensions of schizotypy, but not the cognitive disorganization&#xA;  dimension, were significantly related to self-ratings of creativity, a&#xA;  creative personality (measured by a checklist of adjectives such as&#xA;  “confident,” “individualistic,” “insightful,” “wide interests,”&#xA;  “original,” “reflective,” “resourceful,” “unconventional,” and&#xA;  “sexy”), and everyday creative achievement among thirty-four&#xA;  activities (“written a short story,” “produced your own website,”&#xA;  “composed a piece of music,” and so forth).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it explores both sides of the camps and makes some important observations that question the validity of the hypothesis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 2014, [Albert] Rothernberg [Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard] published a book, “Flight of Wonder: an&#xA;  investigation of scientific creativity”, in which he interviewed 45&#xA;  science Nobel laureates about their creative strategies. He found no&#xA;  evidence of mental illness in any of them. He suspects that studies&#xA;  which find links between creativity and mental illness might be&#xA;  picking up on something rather different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“The problem is that the criteria for being creative is never anything&#xA;  very creative. Belonging to an artistic society, or working in art or&#xA;  literature, does not prove a person is creative. But the fact is that&#xA;  many people who have mental illness do try to work in jobs that have&#xA;  to do with art and literature, not because they are good at it, but&#xA;  because they’re attracted to it. And that can skew the data,” he said.&#xA;  “Nearly all mental hospitals use art therapy, and so when patients&#xA;  come out, many are attracted to artistic positions and artistic&#xA;  pursuits.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Important Note:&lt;/strong&gt; Since the question you asked was very broad. I tried to focus on the particular mental condition you stated, schizophrenia. I have not discussed other conditions such as manic-depression, unipolar depression and so forth, and there is extensive literature on the connection between those conditions and genius. For example, this book: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/068483183X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kay Redfield Jamison (1996). Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2871784/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Thinking Outside a Less Intact Box: Thalamic Dopamine D2 Receptor Densities Are Negatively Related To Psychometric Creativity in Healthy Individuals.&lt;/a&gt;” &lt;br&gt; Örjan de Manzano, Simon Cervenka, Anke Karabanov, Lars Farde, Fredrik Ullén. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;PLoS One&lt;/em&gt;. 2010; 5(5).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1321255/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The relationship between creativity, schizotypy and intelligence.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt; &#xA;Batey, M. Furnham, A. (2009). &lt;br&gt; &#xA;&lt;em&gt;Individual Differences Research&lt;/em&gt;, 7: 272-284.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21653945&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Creativity and mental disorders: Family study of 300 000 people with severe mental disorders&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kyaga, S.; Lichtenstein, P.; Boman, M.; Hultman, C.; Långström, N.; Landén, M. (2011)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;The British Journal of Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; 2011, 199(5): 373–379.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19733608&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive training for divergent thinking in schizophrenia: A pilot study&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Takahiro Nemotoa, Ryoko Yamazawaa, Hiroyuki Kobayashia, Nobuharu Fujitaa, Bun Chinoa, Chiyo Fujiid, Haruo Kashimaa, Yuri Rassovskye, Michael F. Greenc and Masafumi Mizunof (2009). &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; 33 (8): 1533–1536.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15326934CRJ1301_3#.VZrq3GDldSV&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Creativity in Offspring of Schizophrenic and Control Parents: An Adoption Study&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dennis K. Kinney, Ruth Richards, Patricia A. Lowing, Deborah LeBlanc, Morris E. Zimbalist, Patricia Harlan. (2001) &lt;br&gt; &#xA;&lt;em&gt;Creativity Research Journal&lt;/em&gt;, Vol. 13, Issue 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-13T10:02:13.203" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T10:02:13.203" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10570" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-07T02:12:27.783" Score="6" ViewCount="844" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard about neurotransmitters like dopamin and serotonin that are supposed to play a role in our feeling of happiness. I don't know how these chemicals works in our brain, but I am thinking that if happiness is dependent on chemical reactions in our brains there must be some physical limit to how happy we can be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I own a 10 million dollar yacht, and upgrade to a 100 million dollar yacht could it be that my happiness is already at its maximum and I am throwing away 90 million dollars?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the chemistry of the brain impose a limit on how happy it is possible to feel?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8750" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-07-07T09:06:29.980" LastActivityDate="2015-07-08T07:28:28.447" Title="Is there a biological limit for &quot;amount&quot; of happiness?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10571" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10576" CreationDate="2015-07-07T04:38:57.197" Score="1" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does sitting idle for one month without work leads to depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Following case is an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a human do 8 hours job before Computer. Because of no work or a few work; generally sitting idle for one month. and when work came after a month; then that human do not want to do it because:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Symptoms which generally such human is facing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) that humans head remain heavy; always feel like outing. Even if that human go to outing and come back to office feel like go out again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) It is like nothing is in that human head. Just sounds &quot;shaaan shaaaan&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) Sometimes it is like that human need to get my ear clean from ENT; may be due to that head is heavy. but nothing is there in that human's ear , because that human use to clean my ears during bathing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) Life becoming dull. Now work came after 1 month; that human being lazy not to attempt that work. that human do not want work now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5) Not agreeing to any external Motivation and self motivation is becoming zero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;6) Just looking at Facebook, Amazon and doing nothing. Not a like on facebook; but looking just. It is like NOTHING NEW.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;7) if reading news forget the story after 15 minutes. Forget the work that human's family member says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;8) that human feel like that human is blunder; that human do mistakes; you all leave that human; throw that human out of computer company.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could anyone please figure out situation of that human's mind!!! is that human getting mad or depressed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8722" LastEditorUserId="8722" LastEditDate="2015-07-08T03:38:27.677" LastActivityDate="2015-07-08T09:36:32.417" Title="Does sitting idle for one month without work leads to depression?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-07-08T00:23:53.543" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10572" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10570" CreationDate="2015-07-07T08:58:13.107" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;My knowledge of the neurobiology of pleasure (aka, hedonia, hedonic happiness, happiness, &quot;liking&quot;, reward, etc.) is admittedly lacking, but I'd contend that this is mostly true because we actually know very little about how pleasure is instantiated in the brain.  So the answer to your question is that we don't know!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, mesolimbic dopamine seems to be more involved in the motivational component of reward (what Berridge and Kringelbach would call &quot;wanting&quot;; e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661309001727&quot;&gt;Kringelbach &amp;amp; Berridge, 2009&lt;/a&gt;; see also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627312009415&quot;&gt;Salamone &amp;amp; Correa, 2012&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, opioid and cannabinoid neurotransmitter signals (and others) seem to mediate the hedonic component (i.e., the &quot;liking&quot;). Even then, stimulation only to certain parts of the brain (i.e., &quot;hotspots&quot;) produce hedonia (e.g., in parts of the nucleus accumbens; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.smith-lab.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Pecina-Smith-Berridge-Hedonic-hotspots-Neuroscientist-2006.pdf&quot;&gt;Pecina, Smith, &amp;amp; Berridge, 2006&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;em&gt;And even then&lt;/em&gt;, as the context changes, these hotspots will stop producing the expected output or will change valence.  &lt;em&gt;And even then&lt;/em&gt;, these findings from non-human animals may not be comparable to the more complex experiences of pleasure that humans have!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And only very recently have we been able to map out which brain regions correspond to positive or negative affect (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unc.edu/~kal29/docs/Lindquistetal_CC_inpress.pdf&quot;&gt;Lindquist et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;).  And it seems that no brain region or voxel uniquely represents positive or negative affect (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/~karl/Degeneracy%20and%20redundancy%20in%20cognitive%20anatomy.pdf&quot;&gt;degeneracy&lt;/a&gt;). (But there are preferences. And there may be confusion between which regions &lt;em&gt;cause&lt;/em&gt; pleasure and which &lt;em&gt;code&lt;/em&gt; pleasure; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661309001727&quot;&gt;Kringelbach &amp;amp; Berridge, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not to mention, happiness encompasses a broad range of potentially heterogeneous experiences and feelings.  Happiness evoked by one experience might feel very different and look very different in the brain compared to some other happy experience (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=REKcZeQAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot;&gt;C. Wilson-Mendenhall's work&lt;/a&gt;).  So how do we compare?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And this is just the broader view.  How the biochemistry of the brain produces the subjective experience of pleasure is completely unknown, so it's more or less impossible to know (at present) whether there's a biological limit to the intensity of happiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-07-08T07:28:28.447" LastActivityDate="2015-07-08T07:28:28.447" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10573" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10352" CreationDate="2015-07-07T11:10:22.503" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on Josh' answer, I eventually ended up with 'delay gratification' and planning to use the Delay Gratification Inventory to measure this in participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hoerger M, Quirk SW, Weed NC. Development and validation of the Delaying Gratification Inventory. Psychological assessment. 2011;23(3):725-738. doi:10.1037/a0023286.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8518" LastActivityDate="2015-07-07T11:10:22.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10574" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10553" CreationDate="2015-07-07T17:36:46.967" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my experience with Lucid Dreaming, a practice where people seek to be consciously aware in their dreams, searching for the &lt;strong&gt;term &quot;lucid&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; or &quot;lucidity&quot; would be a good place to start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lucid dreams vary wildly in their quality, content and level of control. Some very highly sought after lucid dreams, which are colloquially known as &quot;epic&quot; feature those feelings of presence and awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A number of people attempted to draw parallels between dreaming and waking and are trying to bring those experiences of being aware in the waking world. I'm not aware of any stunning successes in that area, but the term they use is &quot;lucid living&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-07-07T17:36:46.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10575" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10578" CreationDate="2015-07-07T18:17:48.933" Score="10" ViewCount="285" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is based on a previous question I have written on Parenting SE: &lt;a href=&quot;https://parenting.stackexchange.com/q/21080/17089&quot;&gt;Does playing classical music for infants and young children make them smarter?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Are these claims actually saying classical music is more intelligence enhancing than other forms of music? If so, is that true?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a composer, I would find this interesting because I think certainly there are many different kinds of music and it seems very surprising to single out one genre as requiring more intelligence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, suppose you say Mozart is more sophisticated then the Boss (Bruce Springsteen) and therefore more intelligence promoting.  By that logic then, Schoenberg's music should be better for children than Mozart since Schoenberg is certainly more complex than Mozart (e.g. chromatic vs diatonic scales; polymeter vs single meter). But I would never play Schoenberg for my child instead of Mozart because I find Schoenberg unnatural to listen to because it is so weird and complex. The point is I think simply saying classical music is more sophisticated or superior isn't a very meaningful distinction and greater clarification should be given about why classical music in particular enhances learning (if in fact that has any basis). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way of saying this is, why doesn't music in general enhance it then?  Why classical music in particular?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" OwnerDisplayName="Stan Shunpike" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-04-17T09:11:38.140" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T09:11:38.140" Title="Does classical music enhance intelligence in children more than other genres?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10576" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10571" CreationDate="2015-07-07T23:05:50.803" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Two answers:&#xA;The first, and most important one: do not ask any online forum whether you are getting depressed, since usually there will be many opinions about your situation from people who are not qualified in the field, be it psychiatry or psychotherapy. Please: if you do not feel well, and if your current situation is worrying you, seek help from your general physician or better if accessible to you a psychotherapist/ a psychiatrist with whom you can talk personally. There is no shame in seeking help from these persons, and in case you find out together with them that you truly need some kind of help, they will know ways of help that are based on evidence from empirical research and likely better and better fitting to your individual situation than suggestions on the internet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second: Your question's title implicitly asks whether sitting one month without work in front of a computer &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; leads to depression. It might and it might not depending on many factors (such as coping strategies with gratification crises, previous episodes of depressive disorders, social support, and many more, which differ from person to person). The danger of answers to a question stated like this is that yes-answers might lead you to think you are depressed, even though you are not, or no-answers lead you to think you aren't depressed even though you might need help. This is to say, the danger is to mistake such an answer for a diagnosis, which are two &lt;em&gt;completely different&lt;/em&gt; things. A diagnosis needs to be done by a person qualified to do this, such as psychotherapists or psyhiatrists. They, too, will know further steps in case a diagnosis is given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8710" LastEditorUserId="8710" LastEditDate="2015-07-08T09:36:32.417" LastActivityDate="2015-07-08T09:36:32.417" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10578" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10575" CreationDate="2015-07-08T12:48:02.293" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;A great overview of this topic is available in Chapter 6 of the book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0307459667&quot;&gt;The Invisible Gorilla&lt;/a&gt; by Chabris &amp;amp; Simons. My answer is based, in large part, on their summary of the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;Mozart Effect&quot; was originally reported by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/365611a0&quot;&gt;Rauscher, Shaw, &amp;amp; Ky (1993)&lt;/a&gt;. In the experiment, college students completed a set of typical IQ tests. Before taking the tests, the participants were randomly assigned to either (1) listen to 10 minutes of Mozart, (2) listen to 10 minutes of relaxation instructions, or (3) sit in silence for 10 minutes. They reported that participants who listened to Mozart scored an average of 8-9 IQ points higher on the tests than the other groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effect turns out to be difficult to replicate. This is nicely summarized in the introduction of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www1.appstate.edu/~kms/documents/Mozart_PS.pdf&quot;&gt;Steele, Bass, &amp;amp; Crook (1999)&lt;/a&gt;, who also conducted a replication of the original design and found no evidence of a Mozart effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question is specifically about classical versus other kinds of music, and this is indeed a topic that has been researched as a follow-up to the Mozart Effect. One theory that arose to explain the Mozart Effect (even though the effect itself may not be all that reliable!) is that it has nothing to do with classical music in particular. Rather, the effect is simply about arousal and mood. Listening to music may not increase your intelligence, but it might make you more alert and engaged than sitting in silence or listening to a relaxation script. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1196/annals.1360.013&quot;&gt;Schellenberg &amp;amp; Hallam (2006)&lt;/a&gt; reported a study in which participants (8,000 British school children!) listened to either (1) a Mozart string quintet, (2) three pop songs, or (3) a discussion about a science experiment. The children who listened to the pop songs performed significantly better than the others, and there was no benefit of Mozart over the science discussion. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00170&quot;&gt;Nantais &amp;amp; Schellenberg (1999)&lt;/a&gt; demonstrated that there was no overall difference between listening to Mozart or an excerpt from a Stephen King story, but participants did tend to do better if they got to listen to the thing they preferred! One explanation, then, is that listening to something you like before taking an IQ test increases your performance (or, conversely, listening to something you don't like decreases performance). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-07-08T12:48:02.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10579" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10629" CreationDate="2015-07-08T13:25:22.127" Score="11" ViewCount="773" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let us say a person is deprived of language (of any form, including verbal and non-verbal) since birth to an age where normal adult brain functioning would be expected. Then how would they think?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additional information&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read accounts of this happening to feral children, but I can't find any description of how they thought before they acquired language. I also know that deaf who know sign language usually think in sign. Any sources would be great.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8759" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T23:09:12.517" Title="How does a language deprived person think?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10583" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10559" CreationDate="2015-07-08T19:43:28.597" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ancient form of writing called cuneiform&lt;/a&gt;, that is as close to binary code as you can get. People did learn to read/write it in ancient times, but from my understanding it was so hard that it required years of training. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FTExz.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of teaching people to &quot;speak computer&quot; - this is very far off mark, computer programs are extremely long and complicated sequences of characters. For example something like &quot;print the word loop 10 times&quot;, expressed as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; for(int i = 0; i&amp;lt; 10; i++)&#xA;    {&#xA;        printf(&quot;loop&quot;);&#xA;    }&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;gets translated into assembly language, where the program will move different numbers to different registers, and then those instructions are translated into binary. The number of intermediate steps is very large, and the resulting sequence of binary would be meaningless, unless you know assembly language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/alKAq.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-07-08T19:43:28.597" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10584" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10559" CreationDate="2015-07-09T05:49:45.163" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quite a bit of foundational research on skill acquisition is on how people learn to send and receive &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;morse code&lt;/a&gt;. I'm no expert at morse code but it seems like it shares quite a bit with binary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, here is a graph of letters per minute that an operator could receive as a function of weeks of practice (Bryan &amp;amp; Harter, 1897).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A general principle is that gradually people move from identifying letters to seeing larger patterns like words and phrases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9XKIB.png&quot; alt=&quot;morse code learning&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading is a little different to receiving information aurally. But I imagine some similar principles would apply. If anything, I imagine that ability to recognise patterns visually would make the task of reading binary easier. That said, binary does seem far from optimal as a system for encoding letters in terms of efficient visual processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bryan, W. L., &amp;amp; Harter, N. (1899). Studies on the telegraphic language: The acquisition of a hierarchy of habits. Psychological Review, 6(4), 345.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-09T05:49:45.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10586" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10455" CreationDate="2015-07-09T15:38:04.393" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Metacognitive therapy&lt;/strong&gt; has been proposed to improve disorganized thinking. Metacognition can be thought of as our ability to &quot;think about thinking.&quot; Essentially, it's a person's ability to organize their thoughts into a coherent narrative, reflect on their thoughts and experiences, take the perspective of others, and make sense of the world. Individuals with schizophrenia and other forms of psychosis may experience disorganized thoughts, which can hamper their metacognitive ability. They may even have difficulty recognizing that other people would have thoughts or emotions about other peoples' lives or behavior. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Metacognitive therapy can take different forms, but in many cases it involves helping people organize their thoughts by eliciting narratives about their lives. For example, a therapist may ask a client to tell them about a recent trip to the store, or an event that was meaningful to them. If the client responds in a disorganized manner, the therapist can drill down to details, focusing on helping the client organize the story. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, imagine a client is telling a story about attending a basketball game, but has left large chunks of the story out, or has skipped around chronologically. This type of exchange might occur:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapist: &quot;It sounds like you had fun, but I'm confused. When did you arrive at the game?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Client: &quot;Oh, about 7.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapist: &quot;And did you go to the game with your friends, or meet them there?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Client: &quot;Sam and I met Bob there.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapist: &quot;Oh, so you and Sam drove over to the game at 7pm, and met Bob.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Client: &quot;No, Sam and I came separately, but we met up first at the game. Then later we saw Bob.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this exchange the therapist keeps pulling for additional details, helping the client recall and organize the experience by re-telling it. The therapist also &quot;inserts her mind&quot; into the discussion by admitting &quot;I'm confused.&quot; This tells the client that a) their story was not clear and b) the therapist is having thoughts and reactions to hearing the story. Over many sessions, metacognitive therapy may help clients organize their thoughts, and become more aware of other people's internal experiences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was a very brief explanation, and I've listed a series of papers and books about this type of intervention that can provide additional information. There may be other therapies that address disorganized thinking, but this is one I am most familiar with. I will expand this answer in the future, if time permits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brune, M., Dimaggio, G., &amp;amp; H Lysaker, P. (2011). Metacognition and&#xA;social functioning in schizophrenia: evidence, mechanisms of&#xA;influence and treatment implications. Current Psychiatry Reviews,&#xA;7(3), 239-247.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dimaggio, G., &amp;amp; Lysaker, P. H. (Eds.). (2010). Metacognition and&#xA;severe adult mental disorders: From research to treatment. Routledge.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hasson-Ohayon, I., Kravetz, S., Levy, I., &amp;amp; Roe, D. (2008).&#xA;Metacognitive and interpersonal interventions for persons with severe&#xA;mental illness: theory and practice. The Israel journal of psychiatry&#xA;and related sciences, 46(2), 141-148.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lysaker, P. H., Gumley, A., &amp;amp; Dimaggio, G. (2011). Metacognitive&#xA;disturbances in persons with severe mental illness: Theory,&#xA;correlates with psychopathology and models of psychotherapy.&#xA;Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 84(1),&#xA;1-8.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Salvatore, G., Conti, L., Fiore, D., Carcione, A., Dimaggio, G., &amp;amp;&#xA;Semerari, A. (2006). Disorganized narratives: Problems in treatment&#xA;and therapist intervention hierarchy. Journal of Constructivist&#xA;Psychology, 19(2), 191-207.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Salvatore, G., Lysaker, P. H., Gumley, A., Popolo, R., Mari, J., &amp;amp;&#xA;Dimaggio, G. (2012). Out of illness experience:&#xA;metacognition-oriented therapy for promoting self-awareness in&#xA;individuals with psychosis. American journal of psychotherapy, 66(1),&#xA;85-106.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2015-07-09T15:38:04.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10587" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10049" CreationDate="2015-07-09T16:10:44.350" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There may not be a single paper that reviews all models, but I have listed some articles and books below that may meet your needs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Asakawa, Shinichi. (2003). Psychological applicability of simple recurrent neural networks. &lt;em&gt;Japanese Psychological Review, 46&lt;/em&gt;(2), 274-287. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;De Mulder, W., Bethard, S., &amp;amp; Moens, M. F. (2015). A survey on the application of recurrent neural networks to statistical language modeling. &lt;em&gt;Computer Speech &amp;amp; Language, 30&lt;/em&gt;(1), 61-98.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jacobsson, H. (2005). Rule extraction from recurrent neural networks: A taxonomy and review. &lt;em&gt;Neural Computation, 17&lt;/em&gt;(6), 1223-1263.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rojas, R. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Neural networks: a systematic introduction.&lt;/em&gt; Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subathra, B., &amp;amp; Radhakrishnan, T. K. (2012). Recurrent neuro fuzzy and fuzzy neural hybrid networks: a review. &lt;em&gt;Instrumentation Science &amp;amp; Technology, 40&lt;/em&gt;(1), 29-50.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suykens, J. A., Vandewalle, J. P., &amp;amp; de Moor, B. L. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Artificial neural networks for modelling and control of non-linear systems.&lt;/em&gt; Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zhang, H., Wang, Z., &amp;amp; Liu, D. (2014). A comprehensive review of stability analysis of continuous-time recurrent neural networks. &lt;em&gt;Neural Networks and Learning Systems, IEEE Transactions on, 25&lt;/em&gt;(7), 1229-1262.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5041" LastActivityDate="2015-07-09T16:10:44.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10559" CreationDate="2015-07-09T16:37:06.973" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is absolutely possible but it would be a step backwards. In the early days of computing, punched cards and punched tape were used for input and output. They contained binary in the form of punched holes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was well known that many individuals could read directly from the tape. Here is an old picture of just that. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnnnext/dam/assets/121121034453-witch-computer-restoration-uk-story-top.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnnnext/dam/assets/121121034453-witch-computer-restoration-uk-story-top.jpg&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case the link fails, you can find it yourself by Googling &quot;61-year-old computer springs back to life&quot; By John D. Sutter, CNN&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that programs written directly in machine code have to be documented by hand and are very difficult to maintain. This is the whole reason that high-level computer programming languages were developed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can say from personal experience that I can look at many binary numbers and instantly recognise them both as numbers and as ASCII but I would have no desire to improve this skill any further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Incidentally it is also possible to 'read' binary by listening to it. In the days of the ZX-Spectrum, programs were stored on audio-tape and certain patterns were very recognisable when played back as sound. It would certainly be possible to acquire this skill to a very high degree if it was taught early enough to a child but again, I don't think it would be very useful. Machines can do it so much better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastEditorUserId="8773" LastEditDate="2015-07-09T17:06:09.197" LastActivityDate="2015-07-09T17:06:09.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10590" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10593" CreationDate="2015-07-09T17:31:02.430" Score="6" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a layperson, I am interested about the scientific method but whenever I search it online I get endless results about how to formulate and test hypotheses for the purpose of writing a scientific paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find the term of the process by which people make and test informal theories and hypotheses during their daily lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example&#xA;A young child touches an unfamiliar object and, purely by coincidence, there is a distant clap of thunder.  The child 'hypothesized' that the touch caused the clap of thunder. This is now testable because the child can repeat the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I want to read more about this in psychology, what do I put in my search engine to avoid getting thousands of results about null hypotheses and t-tests?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastEditorUserId="2946" LastEditDate="2015-07-20T17:50:04.940" LastActivityDate="2015-07-20T17:50:04.940" Title="What is the name of the scientific study of hypothesis formation?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10591" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-09T18:38:20.580" Score="2" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;The arts provide a medium for creativity, and while some ideas might be easily expressed in various forms of art, some might not be (for example, a sculptor might be able to express the same idea in painting, or perhaps in a short story, but a piano would probably not be as suitable).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is: Does creativity have a noteworthy underlying neurological basis which is independent of the art form one uses to express it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5006" LastEditorUserId="5006" LastEditDate="2015-07-17T20:05:37.493" LastActivityDate="2015-07-17T20:05:37.493" Title="Does creativity have a neurological basis independent of the art form used to express it?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2016-06-17T21:22:09.783" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10592" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12585" CreationDate="2015-07-09T18:42:34.203" Score="7" ViewCount="1657" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming that a person is born deaf and has never heard spoken language, as they learn to read, do they on average read faster than people with healthy hearing who learn to read the usual way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I'm wondering this is that the first step most speed reading teachers mention is eliminating &quot;sub-vocalization&quot; that is not to imagine the sound of the word as you read since it will limit your reading speed to the speed at which you can comprehend spoken language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deaf people presumably never have to deal with this subvocalization issue as they are taught to read in different ways (most likely through associating words to images and/or sign language which in a way is also an image) so I'm wondering if there is a major difference between the reading speed of deaf people and people who are not deaf, or if they are relatively similar, and of course I am wondering how this is without either the deaf or the not deaf having been trained for speedreading beforehand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8222" LastActivityDate="2015-11-12T09:20:11.670" Title="Do the deaf read faster?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10593" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10590" CreationDate="2015-07-09T18:59:43.820" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;One umbrella term is &lt;strong&gt;causal reasoning&lt;/strong&gt;, though this is a bit broader since there are theories of causal reasoning that are not about hypothesis testing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Google Scholar search for &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=causal+reasoning+psychology&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C15&quot;&gt;&quot;causal reasoning psychology&quot;&lt;/a&gt; generates several hundred thousand hits, and the first page is full of relevant papers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Getting more specific, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-295X.94.2.211&quot;&gt;Klayman &amp;amp; Ha (1987)&lt;/a&gt; wrote an influential article about the kinds of hypothesis testing you describe. Looking at &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=1954141597807453515&amp;amp;as_sdt=800005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,15&amp;amp;hl=en&quot;&gt;the papers that cite that article&lt;/a&gt; might give you some additional leads into the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-07-09T18:59:43.820" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10595" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10455" CreationDate="2015-07-09T23:53:31.343" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Meditation&lt;/strong&gt; has been proposed as being useful but there are warnings against it as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Search for &quot;meditation and schizophrenia&quot; and you will find scholarly (and not so scholarly) articles on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are two that turned up - I make no comments on their validity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Precipitation of acute psychotic episodes by intensive meditation in individuals with a history of schizophrenia. R Walsh, L Roche - The American journal of psychiatry, 1979 - psycnet.apa.org&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Loving-kindness meditation to enhance recovery from negative symptoms of schizophrenia. DP Johnson, DL Penn, BL Fredrickson&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, on the face of it they seem to make conflicting claims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not an expert and I don't know what works or what might be harmful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastEditorUserId="8773" LastEditDate="2015-07-09T23:58:34.947" LastActivityDate="2015-07-09T23:58:34.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10596" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="506" CreationDate="2015-07-10T08:01:44.443" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have developed an iPad cognitive test battery (CABPad) for use at bedside with stroke patients: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cognisoft.info&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;www.cognisoft.info&lt;/a&gt;. It is used for research at two university hospitals in Copenhagen and a publication on validation is currently being prepared for publication (see this abstract from The International Stroke Conference, Feb 2015: L Willer, PM Pedersen, A Gullach, HB Forchhammer, HK Christensen: Assessment Of Cognitive Symptoms In Sub-acute Stroke With An iPad Test-battery. Stroke 2015; 46: ATP415.). The test battery is currently available in Danish and English, with translations to Norwegian, German, Italinan, Spanish, Portuguese an Brazilian Portuguese ongoing and expected finished early autumn 2015.&#xA;CABPad is available on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/cabpad-neuropsychological/id972674707?mt=8&amp;amp;uo=4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;AppStore&quot;&gt;AppStore&lt;/a&gt;. Please mail any questions to: mail@cognisoft.dk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8779" LastActivityDate="2015-07-10T08:01:44.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10597" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10553" CreationDate="2015-07-10T09:48:33.750" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most would call this an 'awakening'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was a fad some years ago for going on courses to promote this state of awareness. I know because I went on some (and they worked!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The techniques vary but typically involved a repeated questioning of the 'goldfish bowl' and state of semi-hypnosis that we all tend to inhabit day-to-day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some, such as &quot;The Forum&quot; and &quot;Insight&quot; were developed from EST (Erhard Seminars Training) - This was a rather dramatic breaking down and rebuilding and the offshoot versions were gentler.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some were based on Japanese meditation retreats, e.g. Enlightenment Intensives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was/is a book by an author called Hardy (I'll try to remember the details). This also worked for me. This involved a conscious effort to see the world more clearly via very specific techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From personal experience I can say that all of these worked for me and I experienced what you describe and more - for example a 'knowing' of myself and the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of these courses still exist (look them up) and out of all of them I liked the Hardy book and the Enlightenment Intensive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I enlightened now? No, I'm not. For me the experiences lasted from a few minutes to a couple of weeks. However I do know that I could recapture the state again given the need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These experiences certainly changed my life. I neither recommend them nor discourage anyone from attending them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastActivityDate="2015-07-10T09:48:33.750" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10598" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10663" CreationDate="2015-07-10T20:19:08.307" Score="5" ViewCount="1126" Body="&lt;p&gt;A while ago I heard the following anecdote: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;On some tropical island, explorers infested the island with rats that&#xA;  wrecked the native ecosystem. To get rid of rats, people introduced&#xA;  cats that instead of hunting rats killed off the entire island's bird&#xA;  population&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The explanation given is that birds could not recognize cats as predators and/or did not have natural predators in the environment. This made me think - is there any part of a bird that on a genetic level knows that some other organism is a predator and is to be avoided?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For animals that live surrounded by predators, for example a house sparrow - &lt;strong&gt;how does a bird learn that cats are predators, but squirrels are not?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example might help illustrate my question: Let's say someone takes house sparrows from America and breeds them for 3 generations on the same tropical island with no predators - would such 3rd generation sparrow still recognize cats as predators?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-07-20T19:58:33.193" LastActivityDate="2015-07-26T01:29:11.800" Title="How does an animal learn what a predator is?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10599" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-11T13:12:06.190" Score="7" ViewCount="192" Body="&lt;p&gt;I got this picture I generated myself and I don't understand how come we can see two diagonal lines when, I think, there is no actual lines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/B8Bw6.png&quot; alt=&quot;Squarish rainbow&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Zooming in:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fVJ6k.png&quot; alt=&quot;Zooming in&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Center:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Just another 2px wide square…&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4uyOy.png&quot; alt=&quot;Center&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After thinking about it, I think it might come from the fact that, if you zoom really closely, it is only a succession of square, each time 2px smaller and of a different color.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although there is no actual line directly built, we can see the corners of each square clearly and, together, our brain understand this as two diagonal lines. … I might just have answered my own question but I would appreciate your opinion/confirmation on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Related:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/q/260474/210483&quot;&gt;My question on meta-SE about where to ask this question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8788" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-20T10:29:51.560" LastActivityDate="2015-07-12T17:00:13.440" Title="How come we see a line when there isn't one in this picture?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10600" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10601" CreationDate="2015-07-11T15:46:48.920" Score="1" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212683X14000206&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; by Neil Taatgen on primitive information processing elements (PRIMs), as a type of machine-language for ACT-R. In the paper he claims:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The absence of variables means that the binding problem is no longer&#xA;  an issue&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I understand, the binding problem is about how variables are represented neurologically. Namely how they can be combined and retrieved, which has typically been a problem for most Connectionist architectures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does the lack of variables in PRIMs (they seem to be just operations) mean that the binding problem is no longer an issue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-07-11T20:26:42.277" LastActivityDate="2015-07-11T20:26:42.277" Title="How does PRIMs solve the binding problem?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;act-r&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10601" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10600" CreationDate="2015-07-11T16:16:26.913" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;PRIMs doesn't claim to solve to binding problem. It just passes on the responsibility of representing the symbols and combining them accordingly. In this way the binding problem &quot;is no longer an issue&quot; of PRIMs, however it is a problem of whatever representational system it's working on top of. Whether it be symbolic like ACT-R or more neural, such as the NEF.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-07-11T16:16:26.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10602" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10599" CreationDate="2015-07-11T19:54:13.153" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't zoom in on the picture, but what I &lt;em&gt;see&lt;/em&gt; is bleeding from one color into the next along the diagonals (most evident in the green to blue and purple to red transitions). Are you saying that they are not there when you zoom in? I would think that because there is a gradient in the color transition, the gradient has to be emphasized in an angled meeting, more pronounced the sharper the angle (e.g.if it were a triangle, the angle would be 120° as opposed to 90°). It's not an optical illusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, you see two transecting lines on the diagonal because they are strongly suggested. The mind sees this accurately and reads the suggestion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is kind of like asking, why, in the following picture, do I read all the dotted lines as lines, where only two of them are actually solid lines?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5q3c0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, if you will, why do I see curves here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/D6pUVm.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the color differences in the offset squares are really there, suggesting a familiar curve, though in this question, it would be fair to ask &lt;em&gt;Why do the curves appear smooth?&lt;/em&gt; In fact, the curves are not smooth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you do want to see interesting optical phenomenons, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;stare at the center of your image for 30 seconds, then scroll down to the blank area next to my diagrams. You will see squares of reciprocal colors not in your original (like a bright yellow.) Also interesting is that as the image fades, blinking will &quot;refresh&quot; it.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;after staring directly at the center for a minute or two, switch the focus &lt;em&gt;very slightly&lt;/em&gt; to one side then back; you'll be pleasantly surprised by bursts of vibrant color parallel to each other each time you change.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edited to add: This may be an optical illusion, but if it is, I'm unsure of what type it is. Looking at the zoomed image, clearly the impression is that there is some bleeding, but that's not the reality. Sorry I can't help more on this one. But it does get much more intriguing!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastEditorUserId="5104" LastEditDate="2015-07-12T03:05:51.610" LastActivityDate="2015-07-12T03:05:51.610" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10603" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-11T22:10:08.993" Score="3" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://iccm-conference.org/2012/proceedings/pdfs/section0005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neil Taatgen's paper&lt;/a&gt; on primitive information processing elements (PRIMs) he notes that as a result of saving the used PRIMs in declarative memory (which is fast) as opposed to procedural memory (which is slow), the declarative memory can serve as a scaffold for to build skills by combining the aforementioned PRIMs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to be making two assumptions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Procedural memory is slower than declarative memory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Declarative memory is important to building skills&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are either of these assumptions true based on empirical evidence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T10:31:01.360" Title="Role of declarative memory in learning skill" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10604" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10642" CreationDate="2015-07-11T23:28:43.767" Score="8" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading Bio Inspired Artificial Intelligence which cites this passage about neuron plasticity: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Spike time-dependent plasticity. The percentage of synaptic modification depends on the difference between presynaptic and postsynaptic spikes (tpre −tpost). The temporal difference in the figure ranges between -100 ms and +100 ms. When the postsynaptic neuron fires after arrival of the presynaptic pulse (positive difference, also known as causal relation), the synaptic weight is increased; instead, when the postsynaptic neuron fires before the arrival of the presynaptic pulse (negative differ- ence, also known as anticausal difference), the synaptic weight is depressed.&quot; From Gerstner and Kistler (2002) plotted on data from Bi and Poo (2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do inhibitory neurons, which have successfully inhibited an activation spike of a neuron, strengthen their connections with such neurons, as the neurons they stop don't spike?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8791" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T14:24:26.593" Title="Strengthened Inhibitory Connections Between Neurons" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10605" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20310" CreationDate="2015-07-11T00:40:24.787" Score="5" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me preface this with I am a Software Engineer, NOT a neuro-scientist. Please forgive me if my terminology isn't spot on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am obsessed with using my skills as a computer scientist to help veterans with PTSD and Depression. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Currently I am attempting to do research on the effects that depression takes on brainwaves. From my, all be it limited, understanding, depression causes a drop in Alpha brainwaves. I want to continue doing research on this topic and nail down as many brainwave signals as possible before I go into the development phase but for the life of me, I have no idea where to begin my research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am looking for is someone to provide me with a resource[s] that will teach me about the effects depression has on brainwaves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8793" OwnerDisplayName="Anthony Russell" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-07-12T12:26:19.180" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T15:26:23.400" Title="Brain Wave Research PTSD, Depression" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10606" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-12T06:49:06.047" Score="-1" ViewCount="2008" Body="&lt;p&gt;A bit similar to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/10553/8788&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; question, I did experience, twice, something, that I would qualify of, &lt;em&gt;pretty weird&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A feeling of being gigantic, it was very very disconcerting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like, you look around you and you feel like everything around is you is way way way large, like if yourself you were being a tiny ant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then again, you may experience that your body is a mere gigantic vessel in which you, tiny entity, would be trapped in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did also experience fear at that time, of moving, of things. Because they were so gigantic and could &lt;em&gt;&quot;hurt&quot;&lt;/em&gt; me if they'd fall on me for instance, etc. It also induced me dizziness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately it wear off after a while. I do not do drugs, nor consumed anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question is:&lt;/strong&gt; Does anyone else has experienced similar and what is it called like? (Finally, could someone explain it to me?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few searches online yielded poorly results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do suspect that fatigue was at play but I can't link both together for sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8788" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-07-12T20:47:29.180" Title="How to explain/name the &quot;Feeling gigantic&quot; sensation?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-07-13T13:03:39.453" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10608" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10623" CreationDate="2015-07-12T14:19:39.540" Score="1" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are traditional methods of spiritual enlightenment such as Zen, Buddist, etc accepted by psychologists as valid ways of further understanding the workings of consciousness, Or is it considered too subjective, and different from the scientific method to be of use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many scientists have argued that ancient introspection like Zen is too unscientific to be used in psychology, while others argue it is important, as its the only way to further our understanding of consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is spiritual enlightenment accepted by psychologists universally at this time(2015) to be a valid, scientific way of understanding consciousness &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8796" LastEditorUserId="8796" LastEditDate="2015-07-16T14:02:42.507" LastActivityDate="2015-07-16T14:02:42.507" Title="Is spiritual enlightenment a valid way attempting to understand the universe and consciousness" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;qualia&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-07-13T12:52:59.317" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10609" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10606" CreationDate="2015-07-12T20:47:29.180" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The unusual feeling you've described here could be the variation of so called dissociative experiences, when a person's perception of the surrounding world and himself is distorted and therefore could evoke intense fear (and visa-versa). Quite often it could be the result of traumatic events in the past, which are not dangerous for a person in the present, but can still trigger the state of derealisaton and dissociative sensations, including the feeling that the body has expanded. These &quot;weird&quot; sensations ones were chosen by the person's body and mind as the most effective defence mechanism in traumatic situation; however they subconsciously may occur in the present life even when there is no any obvious reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress only could also provoke the feeling of dissociation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not necessary the answer to your case, because there is not enough information about your personal history and current events in your life; however if we take the description of the &quot;feeling gigantic&quot; separately, to my mind, it could be considered as the body dissociation experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8714" LastActivityDate="2015-07-12T20:47:29.180" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10610" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-12T22:01:52.410" Score="2" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes other windows obscure the UI, and I would like to type in the command from the NEURON console.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastEditorUserId="4055" LastEditDate="2015-07-12T22:54:26.610" LastActivityDate="2015-07-12T22:54:26.610" Title="In NEURON simulator, what is the command for &quot;Init &amp; Run&quot; button?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10611" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10610" CreationDate="2015-07-12T22:02:52.953" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Typing the following into the NEURON console will reset and run the simulation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;run()&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2015-07-12T22:02:52.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10612" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="793" CreationDate="2015-07-12T22:28:55.577" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have all been in this 'state' if it can be called that. It existed before we were conceived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However it is impossible to &lt;em&gt;imagine&lt;/em&gt; being something we are not. I cannot imagine being a dolphin and perceiving the world through echolocation. A person blind from birth cannot imagine the colour green.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the same reason, a living person cannot imagine being dead because a dead body is not a living person and has no imagination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cave's statement seems trivial to me. How can anyone believe otherwise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastEditorUserId="8773" LastEditDate="2015-07-12T22:37:17.883" LastActivityDate="2015-07-12T22:37:17.883" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10613" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10614" CreationDate="2015-07-12T23:06:06.267" Score="1" ViewCount="268" Body="&lt;p&gt;In NEURON simulator, suppose I graph the value of a variable (i.e. soma.v(0.5)) over time. How do I save the values in the graph to a file?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2015-07-19T00:08:36.127" Title="In NEURON simulator, how can I save the values of a graph to a file?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10614" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10613" CreationDate="2015-07-12T23:06:06.267" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not intuitive, but to save the value of a curve plotted in a graph:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Right click the graph window, and choose &quot;Pick Vector&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Click on the desired curve (it should change color i.e. to red)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In the NEURON Main Menu &gt; Vector &gt; Save to File&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Type in the file name &gt; Save&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;File will have two columns, first one for X-axis values (i.e. time) and second for the Y-axis (i.e. voltage)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2015-07-12T23:06:06.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10615" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10608" CreationDate="2015-07-12T23:18:47.330" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can speak from personal experience. I have been on an &lt;em&gt;enlightenment intensive&lt;/em&gt;. I could give a very detailed description of the progression I went through. However it is quite impossible to explain the state of 'knowing' that one achieves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In normal life we experience the world through sensation and we have beliefs about what we haven't sensed. The sense of knowing is quite different. It is not a strong belief, it is not faith, it is absolute knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may ask what does someone know in this state. In my case I knew my oneness with the  universe. What does that mean? It is not an intellectual understanding, it is an experience of &lt;em&gt;being&lt;/em&gt; the universe rather than being part of it. There is no way to explain it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, although I remember what it was like, as I write I am not in that state. I do however know that is attainable again if I so wish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The state is as far from being delusional as it is possible to be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think that psychology could even remotely deal with it because psychology is an intellectual discipline dealing with evidence. The state of enlightenment (or whatever you want to call it) is neither intellectual nor does it require evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me the state lasted for a few minutes at a time. I was scared to allow myself to go deeper and I pulled back. One day I may go on another such retreat and allow myself to experience it fully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this experience is available to pretty much anyone. I can't remember who ran the course I went on, it was a long time ago, however you can find enlightenment intensives online.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way I have a science and maths background. I am pragmatic by nature and very down-to-earth. I do not subscribe to airy-fairy new age type beliefs. I am also an agnostic. An enlightenment experience is not dreamlike or wishy-washy, it gave me the most clarity that I have experienced in my life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend it to anyone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Please feel free to ask me any questions)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S.&#xA;I guess that the nearest that science could come to this would be to brain scan someone who was experiencing the state. I'm sure it would be entirely possible and, I think, very interesting. I would be fascinated to know which brain areas were doing what.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastEditorUserId="8773" LastEditDate="2015-07-13T00:31:55.097" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T00:31:55.097" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10618" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10547" CreationDate="2015-07-13T05:37:35.410" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a starting point, you might be interested in studies that have related vocational preferences with personality. In particular, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.careerkey.org/choose-a-career/holland-personality-types.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Holland's model&lt;/a&gt; of job preferences has been highly studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Practical sense sounds a little like the &quot;realistic&quot; dimension in Holland's framework.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Larson et al (2002) report a meta-analysis of the Big 5 and Holland's types.&#xA;Based on this meta-analysis, while there were correlations between the Big 5 and other types, there did not appear to be any strong (or even moderate) correlations between the realistic preference and the Big 5:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IG1iw.png&quot; alt=&quot;big5 holland realistic correlations&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note. based on n &gt; 5,000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Larson, L. M., Rottinghaus, P. J., &amp;amp; Borgen, F. H. (2002). Meta-analyses of Big Six interests and Big Five personality factors. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61(2), 217-239.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T05:37:35.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10619" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-13T07:00:56.890" Score="1" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a way to analyze human subconscious/unconscious scientifically in some way? I mean for example to help me better understand my fears, insomnia etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many people out there who offer courses for $$$ that claim things to &quot;reprogram your unconscious&quot; to help achieve (personal) goals etc. Usually these courses only involve talking to a coach and let him guide you/let you realize what is right/wrong for you. I am suspicious that if clients of those courses claim the got some benefit it may have only been that they shelled out big $s which helped them to realize they actually do not need to spend $s and only maybe talk to a friend to achieve easy things like eating too much etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if there may be a real scientific theory or procedure that would say - hey, there is this or that activity on your EEG (or &quot;you say you had/are having these/those dreams&quot;), you seem to have suffered by -whatever- in your childhood and you should/should not do this and that to straight it out (or minimize) in your adolescence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3708" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T17:34:24.683" Title="Analyze subconscious/unconscious scientifically" Tags="&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-07-15T12:26:05.987" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10620" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10553" CreationDate="2015-07-13T09:09:54.717" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apparently I have a proclivity for long answers, but I thought I'd respond given the viewership on this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can whittle your question down to a more general form: &lt;strong&gt;Can my subjective experience be categorized?&lt;/strong&gt;  The answer to that basic question is of course! You made a categorization of how you felt in that moment, and you concluded that you had a feeling of &quot;being extremely present.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;But why did you make this categorization? And would others agree with you on it?  Would others understand what you mean when you talk about the feeling of being present?  Would they make the same categorization?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conceptualization&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In brief, you categorized your internal state on the basis of (1) conceptual knowledge that you had accumulated from past experience combined with (2) your perception of the present situation (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/royptb/364/1521/1281.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barsalou, 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.emory.edu/cognition/barsalou/papers/Barsalou_chap_in_press_SC_theory_application.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;also here&lt;/a&gt;). With this information, you cohered all of those disparate and ambiguous elements of your subjective experience into a single concept of &quot;feeling present.&quot; And now you're able to reflect on it more easily, act on it more easily, and talk to us about it more easily. Pretty cool!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The Anger Concept&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To understand this a bit better, consider a prominent emotion theory (&lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/6/4/292.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barrett, 2014&lt;/a&gt;), which holds that the sociocultural knowledge we accumulate about emotion categories (e.g., anger, fear) allows us to categorize our own experiences, categorize others' experiences, and communicate those experiences.  So as you learn about the concept of &quot;anger,&quot; for example, you develop the capacity to categorize your angry experiences (&quot;I'm angry&quot;), others' angry experiences (&quot;She's angry&quot;), and communicate those angry experiences (see, e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1130474?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Caron, Caron, &amp;amp; Myers, 1985&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://testwww2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/cog_dev2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Widen &amp;amp; Russell, 2008&lt;/a&gt;).   Over time, you learn to make this anger categorization automatically and often unconsciously (cf. &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/royptb/364/1521/1281.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barsalou, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We know that in many countries, anger is a concept that most people would understand (although even then, there may be differences in definition and understanding; e.g., for the word &quot;happiness&quot;: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com/content/39/5/559.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oishi et al., 2013&lt;/a&gt;).  However, it's not clear whether most would understand your concept of &quot;feeling extremely present.&quot;  After all, it's not a traditional Western idea, nor does it fit into a traditional taxonomy of feeling states.  Moreover, it's not entirely clear that you can communicate its contents effectively (which is true for many feelings we have).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Other Definitions?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can look at research that has operationalized feelings of presence and compare them to yours.  For example, one well-known study defined feeling present as a focus on momentary experience (&lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/2/4/313.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Farb et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;), which they validated in an fMRI study.  Would the experience they defined match up with yours?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Streams not Boxes&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't really speak to whether the feeling you described has a name or is well-known. However, the important thing to note is that subjective experience isn't carved up neatly into boxes.  It only seems that way because humans have a natural tendency to constantly categorize things (see again, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/royptb/364/1521/1281.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barsalou, 2009&lt;/a&gt;), which, as you can imagine, is very useful.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, we might describe subjective experience as a &quot;continuous stream.&quot; Anywhere along that stream, we can make some arbitrary division. &quot;This part of my subjective experience, and all related instances, will be called &lt;em&gt;anger&lt;/em&gt;.&quot; &quot;I'll categorize this part as &lt;em&gt;feeling present&lt;/em&gt;.&quot; And so on. There are virtually infinite ways of categorizing your subjective experience, and so we can't possibly come up with names for all of them.  But as you've done, we can try our hardest to communicate our feelings, and most of the time, it won't be in vain!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-07-13T09:23:00.393" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T09:23:00.393" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10622" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10608" CreationDate="2015-07-13T10:47:53.123" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I do have a question though, once you have an awakening, and realize as others have said, that you are in the matrix, aren't you aware of this fact forever? So how can you be not enlightened anymore, but you once were.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question by tristo in a comment to my previous answer&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure about the matrix analogy because in the movie they simply replace 'reality' with 'real reality'. This new reality differs in &lt;em&gt;detail&lt;/em&gt; from the first but not in &lt;em&gt;nature&lt;/em&gt;. It is just one level of illusion down. Illusion hasn't been stripped away altogether.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How can you be enlightened only for a short while? Here's an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I stub my toe on a rock. I know intense pain; it's real; it's right now.  A month later I can remember what happened but I am no longer experiencing pain, I'm just remembering it. It's precisely the same with a short-term enlightenment experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This highlights the impossibility of communicating the experience. There are some scientifically documented individuals who are born without a sense of pain. How could we tell such a person what pain is like? We couldn't. On the other hand two people who have experienced pain can communicate with each other about it because they have it in common. Two people who have experienced an awakening can similarly discuss it because they both know what they are talking about &lt;em&gt;from their own experience&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this goes some way towards providing an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S.&#xA;I can accept that some people could be permanently in that state. As I mentioned, I chickened out of staying in it or going even deeper - it was both joyful and scary. Nevertheless what I experienced was immensely powerful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T11:18:21.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10623" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10608" CreationDate="2015-07-13T11:11:44.190" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I was just wondering how realistic this video was: youtube.com/watch?v=Bsyplaii9p4 –  tristo &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find the presenter's style very long-winded but I understand precisely what he is talking about. The phrase that struck me most was when he said &quot;... when the psyche dissolves ... what is left is the truth itself&quot;. This mirrors my own experience precisely. My own metaphor at the time was that I was vacuuming away all the surface layers until what was left was ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually it's difficult to finish that sentence because I want to write &quot;All that was left was nothing and everything.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it is worth mentioning that during the process, I went through a stage when I understood exactly what a Japanese haiku is. It is in a way an expression of the true self - an awareness that what is inside is really outside.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One statement that he made was complete bullshit in my opinion: He came up with a number. He said it takes 1,000 hours or more to achieve enlightenment. My reply is that maybe it took him that long but that a realisation happens in an instant. You just need the right trigger. In rare cases it just takes someone to say the right thing at the right moment. I don't want to appear to advertise enlightenment intensives, however they are designed to achieve the result in just a few days of intense self-questioning. It worked for me. If I remember correctly, my retreat lasted four days and I had half a dozen experiences of varying lengths from a couple of seconds to about twenty minutes. The two-second one was the most powerful and that was the one I backed out of sharpish because it felt like I'd never be able to get out of it again. It was the start of a journey into the unknown that I was scared to continue with. Nevertheless, immediately afterwards, I  rolled on the floor laughing for several minutes just from the limited amount that I had seen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastEditorUserId="8773" LastEditDate="2015-07-13T11:16:50.043" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T11:16:50.043" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10626" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9442" CreationDate="2015-07-13T15:17:14.323" Score="0" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;We do this with dreams. Lucid dreaming allows us to modify what we experience.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;This is the stock in trade of stage hypnotists. They induce a false or partially false reality in which the subject experiences non-real people, objects and sensations. Self-hypnosis is possible.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;This happens with hallucinogens, e.g. peyote.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastEditorUserId="8773" LastEditDate="2015-07-13T15:37:07.210" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T15:37:07.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10627" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5927" CreationDate="2015-07-13T15:24:28.113" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Speaking as a musician and one-time music teacher, this is not just true of the voice. When an instrumentalist records and plays back a performance, it can be very disconcerting. This is especially true of beginners who often imagine they sound much better than they really do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect that the action of performing somehow suppresses the ability to listen. Musicians are often exhorted by their teachers to &quot;Listen to what you are playing!&quot;, for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Listen to what you are playing. 2. Many times, we play through our music and couldn't even begin to say anything about it when we have finished!&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Let's Practise: Be a Better Musician  By Susan Whykes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://goo.gl/mEDQhu&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://goo.gl/mEDQhu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason could be as simple as the brain being too occupied with producing a sound to attend to it properly. Only the most accomplished musicians can 'stand aside' from their performance to simultaneously monitor it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastEditorUserId="8773" LastEditDate="2015-07-13T15:34:03.140" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T15:34:03.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10628" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10619" CreationDate="2015-07-13T17:34:24.683" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Those courses you mention are a part of a much larger &amp;quot;personal development&amp;quot; market that really boomed in the 90s, and keeps going on ever since.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a book called &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scribd.com/doc/204431248/Letting-Go-The-Pathway-of-Surrender#scribd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Letting go: a pathway of surrender&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; and the part that really jumped at me is that the author lists dozens of different flavors of that &amp;quot;personal development&amp;quot; offerings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Well,” you say, “there have to be some experts who have the answers.” When upset, you go to a doctor or psychiatrist, an analyst, a social worker, or an astrologer. You take up religion, get philosophy, take the Erhard Seminars Training (est), tap yourself with EFT. You get your chakras balanced, try some reflexology, go for ear acupuncture, do iridology, get healed with lights and crystals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You meditate, chant a mantra, drink green tea, try the Pentecostals, breathe in fire, andspeak in tongues. You get centered, learn NLP, try actualizations, work on visualizations,study psychology, join a Jungian group. You get Rolfed, try psychedelics, get a psychicreading, jog, jazzercise, have colonics, get into nutrition and aerobics, hang upside down, wearpsychic jewelry. Get more insight, bio-feedback, Gestalt therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You see your homeopath, chiropractor, naturopath. You try kinesiology, discover yourEnneagram type, get your meridians balanced, join a consciousness-raising group, take tranquilizers. You get some hormone shots, try cell salts, have yourminerals balanced, pray, implore, and beseech. You learn astral projection. Become a vegetarian. Eat only cabbage. Try macrobiotics, go organic, eat no GMO. Meet up withNative American medicine men, do a sweat lodge. Try Chinese herbs, moxicombustion,shiatsu, acupressure, feng shui. You go to India. Find a new guru. Take off your clothes. Swiin the Ganges. Stare at the sun. Shave your head. Eat with your fingers, get really messy,shower in cold water ........&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point is that &lt;strong&gt;there are thousands of people out there who would be happy to take your money to tell you about your problems and subconscious&lt;/strong&gt;. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I understand, EEG is very difficult to analyze, and does not have the accuracy that you are seeking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my personal experiments, observing the intensity and content of dreams may offer some insight into one's subconscious, however it is extremely subjective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T17:34:24.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10629" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10579" CreationDate="2015-07-13T22:47:28.013" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably in &quot;visuospatial thinking&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Thinking modalities:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume here that you are asking about the modality of thinking.  This is not a well studied area in cognitive science.  I believe the question stems from an underlying assumption that most people think in their primary language (or possibly switch if they are fully bilingual).  This was certainly the view early on in the history of psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, the earliest theories about the development of &quot;inner speech&quot; suggested that it develops around age 8 when self-talk or &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_speech&quot;&gt;private speech&lt;/a&gt;&quot; - basically young children talk to themselves a lot - is gradually replaced by inner speech (children are often encouraged to use their &quot;inside voice&quot;).  This seems to imply that prior to this age, children don't have the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_monologue&quot;&gt;internal monologue&lt;/a&gt;&quot; that adults are familiar with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later on, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_thinking&quot;&gt;visual thinking&lt;/a&gt;&quot; was examined, primarily in the context of determining and catering to &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_styles#Learning_Modalities&quot;&gt;learning styles&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  In this context, several different kinds of visuospatial thinking styles have been considered, including picture thinking, shapes and transformation, and spatio-temporal thinking.  The possibility of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesthetic_learning&quot;&gt;kinesthetic or tactile learning&lt;/a&gt; was also identified. The concept of learning styles is largely discredited now, though it did call attention to the special needs of children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia and autism, where visual thinking &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-1263307/Do-hear-voice-head-read-If--dyslexic.html&quot;&gt;may be more common&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more modern view is that while people may have a dominant mode of thinking, they switch between modalities &lt;a href=&quot;http://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/3153314&quot;&gt;depending on context&lt;/a&gt; - such as the nature of a problem that they are trying to solve.  In general, we can only really learn about thinking modalities from self-reports of introspection, which is not considered to be very reliable.  To improve reliability and validity, a formalized scale should be developed - this &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_thinking#Research_and_theoretical_background&quot;&gt;has been attempted&lt;/a&gt; in the past, but is not in common use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Empirical evidence:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To learn more about what pre-verbal thinking might be like, we could try asking children how they thought prior to developing inner speech, but this requires a skill called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacognition&quot;&gt;metacognition&lt;/a&gt;&quot; - the ability to think about thinking - that is not well developed in children.  It also seems that adults no longer remember what their pre-verbal thinking was like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_child&quot;&gt;Feral children&lt;/a&gt; do seem like a possible opportunity to get around this.  However, in practice, feral children are (thankfully) extremely uncommon, and are either discovered and taught language early enough, or in the very rare cases (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genie_%28feral_child%29&quot;&gt;case?&lt;/a&gt;) where it may be too late, we don't have a way to communicate to even ask the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A possibly better opportunity is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_period_hypothesis#Deaf_and_feral_children&quot;&gt;deaf children&lt;/a&gt;.  Most deaf children are not born to deaf parents, and hence are not exposed to language (sign language) as early as hearing children.  In a few rare cases, deaf children learn sign language as their first language as late as adolescence.  However, even in these cases, it is unlikely that these children did not have prior exposure to at least some language concepts, as they communicate with their family and friends, and may learn to read, lip-read, and gesture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deaf people often report thinking visually - in sign, print, or lip-reading for example.  Blind people to some degree, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deafblindness&quot;&gt;deafblind&lt;/a&gt; people to a greater degree report some tactile thinking - presumably if they use braille or a tactile sign language.  Thinking modality appears to match sensory modality and perhaps have a preference for language modality, but may still switch modalities depending on context.  Apart from these indirect hints however, we don't have much insight into the thinking of adults without language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Language and thought:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Confounding matters further, there are also a variety of different theories about the relationship between &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language#Language_and_thought&quot;&gt;language and thought&lt;/a&gt; that may have some relevance to the question.  For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity&quot;&gt;one influential theory&lt;/a&gt; suggests that language is essential for thought, that language shapes thought, and that thought without language is limited in that certain cognitive faculties cannot exist.  Empirical evidence supports some interpretations of this theory and not others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another approach suggests that thought has its own &quot;language&quot; - ie, that people think in a private language that is independent of their language acquisition - variously called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis&quot;&gt;mentalese&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformational_grammar#.22I-Language.22_and_.22E-Language.22&quot;&gt;i-language&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, or the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_grammar&quot;&gt;universal grammar&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  Although this view has much support in linguistics, it has also met &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_language_argument&quot;&gt;some criticism&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet another view (tied to the private speech theory mentioned above) suggests that thought is language - a form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrapersonal_communication&quot;&gt;intrapersonal communication&lt;/a&gt; that is used for deliberation, speech rehearsal, and possibly stress relief for example.  Other scholars emphasize the relationship between thought and perception, suggesting that thought modality should reflect sensory modality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bottom line is that even the definitions of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language#Definitions&quot;&gt;language&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought#Etymology_and_usage&quot;&gt;thought&lt;/a&gt; are under question, so it's difficult to say whether people without language think in any way comparable to verbal thought, or whether they think the same way that we do without the accompanying narrative, or whether they think in a way that matches their (visuospatial) perceptual experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T22:47:28.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10631" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-14T00:20:17.833" Score="1" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the concerns about ADHD diagnosis is how is it not just inattentiveness due to the modern hazard of instant gratification via social media/the internet. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://eyesofablacksheep.wordpress.com/2015/06/24/initial-thoughts-about-an-adhd-diagnosis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here's a post of a wrote on the subject.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had a quick look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_controversies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia article on ADHD controversies&lt;/a&gt;, but this arguement doesn't actually appear. Instead it's more about methods of diagnosis, and whether ADHD like symptoms are simply personality traits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the possible issue of inattention due to ADHD and inattention due to social media addiction an issue in pyschiatric/medical circles?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How are they distingushed? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-07-14T01:11:17.013" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T01:11:17.013" Title="How is ADHD different to internet/social media/information addiction?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-30T19:58:44.643" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10632" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-14T00:27:41.143" Score="2" ViewCount="2251" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/255316/mental-illness-or-mental-disorder-or-mental-condition&quot;&gt;I posted this at English.SE,&lt;/a&gt; but I'm wondering if you guys can also shine some light here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there perhaps a distinction between mental conditions that are disruptive and mental conditions that just are (and require managing)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eg. Someone might argue 'I have depression and this requires curing' (much like cancer requires curing). Someone else might argue 'I have ADHD, and this is just a part of my personality'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone help shine some light on the distinction between these terms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T06:42:34.360" Title="Mental illness vs mental condition vs mental disorder" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10633" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-14T00:52:07.910" Score="7" ViewCount="713" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard around that our comprehension of audiobooks versus read books is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.forbes.com/sites/olgakhazan/2011/09/12/is-listening-to-audio-books-really-the-same-as-reading/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;roughly on the same level&lt;/a&gt; (the processes aren't really all that different, usually when we read we vocalize the words in our imagination, and when we are listening with attention we recap all the words we hear after we hear them to make them &quot;stick&quot; in a similar kind of way; when we lose our focus on either the words don't stick and it's like we never heard/read them.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The major difference I see is that when reading we can double back and re-read a word several times until it sticks (which according to some arguments may actually impair comprehension rather than increase it), but when listening we can not do this, which also makes listening a slightly faster process unless you're an avid &quot;speedreader&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So with that out of the way, I'm wondering about the effects (if any) of doing other tasks while we listen to audiobooks on our comprehension and memory of the contents are, especially if the contents are educational or historical material (not novels, where comprehension isn't as important, and our attention is kept more easily (since novels tend to be more exciting/engaging than history or sociology books))&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tasks can include &lt;strong&gt;low attention tasks&lt;/strong&gt; that don't engage the brain that much (like chores, exercise (from swimming to weightlifting), doodling or mini-games (angry-birds or farmwille or flappy bird or tetris even), essentially things that anyone can just space out and do on &quot;auto-pilot&quot; without giving it any thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;strong&gt;high attention tasks&lt;/strong&gt; (like reflex video games such as world of tanks, league of legends/dota2, call of duty or dark souls. Wiring/fixing electronics,  creative drawing/design, sudoku or chess/go, or even programming or math), tasks which require us to stay relatively or completely engaged in order to succeed at them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming with all the possible low and high attention tasks that there is nothing that can distract your auditory senses (video games for example would be muted, and you wouldn't be playing music), what kind of effect would these kinds of tasks have on a persons memory and comprehension of an audiobook they'd be listening to while doing it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've heard some experts claim that some people can focus better on the teacher's voice in class while they're doing something with their hands (most commonly doodling) and that doing something with your ears (essentially instrumental music) can help them focus on written material (i.e. read better with music, hear better while using your hands &amp;amp; eyes for something) I do not know how true that may be, but if it is there is a chance that doing another task while listening to an audiobook could increase your comprehension instead of degrade it as one would normally suspect (meaning I can't rule that out either until I would see some data on this whole thing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8222" LastEditorUserId="8222" LastEditDate="2015-07-14T01:07:03.473" LastActivityDate="2019-10-06T11:08:33.080" Title="What effects does multitasking have on comprehension and memory of audiobooks/speech?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;multi-tasking&gt;&lt;speech-comprehension&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10634" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10632" CreationDate="2015-07-14T06:02:16.960" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer those questions, first, we need to define the above-mentioned terms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/rethinking-psychology/201307/the-new-definition-mental-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mental disorder&lt;/a&gt; is a syndrome characterized by clinically&#xA;  significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion&#xA;  regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the&#xA;  psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying&#xA;  mental functioning (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Mental illness&lt;/em&gt; is  characterized as “maladaptive responses to&#xA;  stressors from the internal or external environment, evidenced by&#xA;  thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are incongruent with the local&#xA;  and cultural norms, and that interfere with the individual’s social,&#xA;  occupational, and/or physical functioning (Townsend, 2015). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, no books or reliable sources differently defined &lt;em&gt;medical condition and medical disorder&lt;/em&gt;  so, let's assume that these terms are synonymous. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By definition, &lt;em&gt;medical disorder&lt;/em&gt; is any disturbance in a person's mental functioning that can affect his daily routine. Yes, there are medical conditions that are disruptive like patients with psychotic disorders, depressive disorders, substance-related disorders. The latter are considered disruptive in terms that they can harm themselves or others. They require therapies like psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy, etc.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Moreover, there are also medical conditions like personality disorders, human sexuality and gender dysphoria, somatic disorders, etc. that are less likely disruptive but can also affect the person's mental functioning. They can either function well in the society or unable to perform activities of daily living.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But still, all mental disorders need treatment whether disruptive or not. It is not about how harmful or peaceful the condition is; it is all about the person's mental capacity and functioning without any maladaptive adaptations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Book Source:&lt;br&gt;&#xA; 1. Townsend, M. (2015). Psychiatric mental health nursing: concepts of care in evidence-based practice (8th ed.). FA Davis Company: Philadelphia, PA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8811" LastEditorUserId="8811" LastEditDate="2015-07-14T06:42:34.360" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T06:42:34.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10636" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10603" CreationDate="2015-07-14T10:31:01.360" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding of the difference between the two is that you cannot declare what is procedural. For example, you can't tell a person how to balance on a bicycle or how to ice skate backward. You can show them different movements, and that is declarative in nature, but ultimately is not the same thing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether or not declarative memory is &quot;faster&quot; has probably not been tested (and if it has, I would question the results). I'm not even sure it would make sense to evaluate given there are fundamentally different learning processes taking place. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Declarative knowledge can definitely be important in building skills. In almost every manual procedure exists a set of instructions which can be written and transmitted. These procedures can function as a scaffold and help the learner figure out how to do the tasks whose performance can only be demonstrated. An example of this could be a work instruction for how to ride a surfboard. They can tell you how far out from the shore to go, where to place your feet, how to get on the board, etc. but cannot actually tell you how to ride the wave. That is something you'll have to figure out on your own after doing everything you can to follow the instructions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T10:31:01.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10638" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10561" CreationDate="2015-07-14T14:14:27.040" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this question is not getting answered because it suggests a misunderstanding or lack of understanding about all the forces leading up to your specific question about long term memory. For instance, you imply that we see images in detail to begin with—or that we are able to 'store' a detailed image in short term memory... and that detail simply does not get transferred to long-term memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, humans are still far off from fully understanding how memory functions. We can make some statements about your question now, though. To begin, when we see images, we are not seeing everything—we are only seeing precisely what we are looking at (or focusing on), then our brain is filling in the rest of the information. We think that we see the world pretty clearly; however, this is a combination of our brains ability to fill in missing information with what it expects, and our eyes' ability to rapidly scan its environment—quickly changing focus in order to paint your world (see: saccadic eye movements).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These images, that are intimately connected with the other senses and emotions which are firing at the same time in the brain, are dull from the start. The vividity with which we can recall these images can be considered a function of how impactful the event was on our lives. Like all functions in our bodies, long-term memory is a product of evolution. This implies a likelihood the moments which are most important to remember for our survival and procreation are the ones we can recall most vividly. Did you almost die? Was it your first kiss? Additionally, especially novel moments are remembered well. Were you at the beach for the first time, never having smelled the salt air before?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moving beyond the question of the vividness of long term memory, we may consider the notion that are long-term memories are actually mutable. Each moment of recall is a moment of re-storing that memory; it is like copying a copy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8813" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T14:14:27.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10640" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10554" CreationDate="2015-07-14T15:11:51.540" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found the human information processing model (Wickens) to be a good starting point at understanding the high-level processing functions that take place.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3B00P.png&quot; alt=&quot;Human Information Processing Model&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T15:11:51.540" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10641" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8459" CreationDate="2015-07-14T21:42:23.403" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lenses, both in glasses and in the eye, refract light of different wavelengths by different amounts. This is the well known prism effect. Opticians do their best to correct for it but it is inevitable to some degree. The technical term for this phenomenon is &lt;strong&gt;chromatic aberration&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;In optics, chromatic aberration (CA, also called achromatism, chromatic distortion, and spherochromatism) is a type of distortion in which there is a failure of a lens to focus all colors to the same convergence point.[1] It occurs because lenses have different refractive indices for different wavelengths of light (the dispersion of the lens). The refractive index of transparent materials decreases with increasing wavelength in degrees unique to each.&#xA;Chromatic aberration manifests itself as &amp;quot;fringes&amp;quot; of color along boundaries that separate dark and bright parts of the image, because each color in the optical spectrum cannot be focused at a single common point. Since the focal length f of a lens is dependent on the refractive index n, different wavelengths of light will be focused on different positions.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This effect alone can, I believe, give rise to depth perception anomalies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: The above explanation refers primarily to a single lens.  I'll hazard a guess that our binocular vision combined with chromatic aberration makes even more of a difference in depth perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T22:47:41.373" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10642" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10604" CreationDate="2015-07-14T21:44:34.517" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The learning rule you describe (i.e. the change of synaptic weights from source neuron to target neuron depending on the temporal difference between source and target activity) is often referred to as 'classical' or 'standard' STDP (spike-timing dependent plasticity) and is focused on connections between excitatory cells. However, this simple form of plasticity is not enough to explain all experimental observations and has also computational problems with respect to stability i.e. there is in fact no 'standard' STDP, because the weight change is not only dependent on the temporal difference, but also on the voltage, location of the synapse, firing rate, the cell-type and probably other factors, see e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3059684/&quot;&gt;this article from 2010 dealing with questions surrounding STDP by Lisman and Spruston.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, the form of the learning rule depends on several factors and synaptic plasticity works differently for inhibitory cells. &#xA;As the question as to how plasticity works involving inhibitory cells is not an easy topic, I will refer to this review paper which deals with different induction protocols and potential functional implications (e.g. stability, homeostasis): &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fncir.2013.00119/abstract&quot;&gt;Review paper on inhibitory synaptic plasticity by Vogels et al.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Very recently, there also has been a research topic in Frontiers of Cellular Neuroscience on this topic: &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fncel.2015.00262/full&quot;&gt;The editorial article briefly summarizes the different contributions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7220" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T21:44:34.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10643" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-11T14:16:31.737" Score="6" ViewCount="4284" Body="&lt;p&gt;Today I observed three children at a birthday party become involved in an extremely serious altercation including the use of (toy) weapons.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tears were dropping, threats issued, punches and kicks thrown and yet in the space of a few minutes the children had formed a new bond of friendship and were playing contendedly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It made me consider the wider social impact; what is it that causes teenage/adult human beings to hold personal grievances and grudges for longer periods of time when children seem so willing to forget past transgressions? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am sure there must be a biological mechanism at work from both the child and adult perspective so if any sociologists, child psychologists or behavioural researchers read this forum it would be great to get a detailed answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect similar patterns of behaviour exist in other cub/child/young mammals in social groupings.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8826" OwnerDisplayName="Venture2099" LastActivityDate="2020-08-19T06:44:59.707" Title="What is different between children and adults that cause children to forgive so quickly?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10644" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10643" CreationDate="2015-07-11T20:43:12.870" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am neither a child psychologists nor a behavioral researcher, but a C++ programmer. Nevertheless I happen to have what I think is not a totally uninformed opinion on the matter, so here's my €0.02: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the biological mechanism at work here is intelligence. What children do is what you see among most of the social animals you can watch: dogs, crows, monkeys. They have a conflict (either over some resource or over their standing in the group), fight it out, and once it is solved, they will get along as if nothing ever happened. Only the members of very few, and rather intelligent, species will hold grudges against their peers. The big apes do, elephants do (although not as it is described in the old stories), crows do, dolphins might do. This is because holding grudges require a long-term strategy, long-term goals, and/or a system of morale and ethics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone damaged your standing in the social hierarchy by taking away something from you, then this someone is threatening you climbing up one rung on the social ladder. Improving your place on the social ladder, however, is a long-term project. This is something apes work on for years, and humans work on for decades. You know that this person might forever be in your way if you let it get away with it, so you do need to fight this out. IMO, this is, if you cut it down to the bare bone, what holding grudges is about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, our societies are very complex even compared to those of the apes (you could switch your job and never run into that person again), and even the great apes have rather complex societies: &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans_de_Waal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Frans de Waal&lt;/a&gt;, in his book &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674659216&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Peacemaking among Primates&lt;/a&gt;, describes how males chimpanzees pick their friends according to their political agenda (&quot;If I manage to make Luke my mate, we could dethrone Harold, and while I might not be strong enough to be king myself, if Luke becomes king, he will have to give me a lot of freedom, or I'd side with Luke and dethrone him in turn.&quot;), while females stick to their preferences. (&quot;I just don't like Lara. I never liked Lara. I will never like Lara. Lara is a bitch.&quot;) So it is not as simple as that. But I believe a lot of this is still in us, and this makes a big difference. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Morale and ethics, too, require intellect. De Waal argues that, to a certain extend, the great apes do have morale principles. He describes a scene where a new chimp was added to the group, and because he didn't know the rules yet (they &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; have to be indoors before &lt;em&gt;anyone&lt;/em&gt; gets their evening meal), he caused everybody having to wait for their dinner. Knowing their chimps, once he was inside, in order to protect him, the humans overseeing the colony separated the one who caused the delay. However, they were very surprised that this didn't spare the poor chap a severe beating by the whole group when they met outside the next morning – because they remembered that the one individual did them wrong. IMO this is a perfect example of a scene that children up to a certain age will mostly have forgotten about in the morning, so they never act on what happened last night, let alone longer ago. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IIRC, human children only begin to overtake chimps intellectually when they are three or four. And, as I said before, our societies are much more complex than those of the other apes. So children have a lot to learn until they are able to have their own web of morale believes that resembles the one adult members of their society have. Until then, they just do not have enough knowledge to understand that someone did them wrong by their society's standards, or even to act upon that knowledge. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this is just one angle to look at the problem from, but it's the one that came to my mind immediately when I read your question. I am, however, very interested in what others will have to say about the issue. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;P.S.: For a very interesting different angle on apes vs. other social animals I suggest Mark Rowlands' &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://openlibrary.org/books/OL23392887M/The_philosopher_and_the_wolf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Philosopher and the Wolf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. (You do not have to be a dog lover to find this interesting.)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8824" OwnerDisplayName="sbi" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T08:23:46.923" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10645" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10643" CreationDate="2015-07-13T17:13:54.857" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;My personal theory about this is that this is about the seriousness of the conflict, and how you emotionally handle it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sharing and taking turns is hard, it is one of the key skills we want pre-schoolers to learn. It involves and understanding of not only other kids desire and right to have that fulfilled, but also an understanding of something that may happen in the future - it will be my turn next. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As adults, these things are easy to understand, we have mastered this along time ago. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine in an office, you have a pinball machine to use on breaks. Well, one day, I really want to use it, but so does Paul and Sally. Do I push them out of the way, or start crying? No, I simply say tell them to let me know when they are done, since I would like to play. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, if I am in a meeting and people do not agree with my solution, but likes Paul's better, I might feel some annoyance or anger. However, I might point out how if we incorporate ideas from my solution, it will end up better overall. This is conflict resolution.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no need for tears and drama and pushing people away - but I might feel a brief disappointment in having to wait for the pinball machine, but a moment later it is gone. I might be upset that people don't agree with my solution, but in the end I understand why the solution picked was the best. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think these are simply the same emotions and reactions that kids feel when sharing toys, they just don't have the capability handle them yet. The result is still to move on, and they kids have learned how to resolve a conflict. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if Paul and Sally ALWAYS used the pinball machine on every break, I might end up bearing a grudge. If one of the kids playing always wanted the 'best' toy, I bet you would see a grudge too. I have had my 4 year old tell me:' 'A' hit me today', while laughing, since he and 'A' usually play well together, it was a one time thing. Then he has also said: 'I don't like playing with 'B', he hits and doesn't listen when I tell him to stop. '&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I think the key here is not the expression and scale of the emotions and reactions, which the kids are in process of learning, but the seriousness of the actual issue. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Ida" LastActivityDate="2015-07-13T17:13:54.857" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10646" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10643" CreationDate="2015-07-13T22:10:40.307" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer, kids live in the now.  They tend to forget everything quickly.  A child can be crying about their milk being spilled one moment, and playing the next.  They don't think as much about past or future, just what is happening now, and NOW is a big deal.  This can cause problems in some ways, but the plus side is they are quickly side tracked from whatever was bothering them before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They don't hold grudges for the same reason you can make them forget how fun banging on the trashcan or drawing on the wall was.  The moment something is out of sight it's quickly forgotten.  The offense of 30 seconds ago don't matter, because that was back an eternity ago, and is not NOW.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That 'eternity ago' thing was only half a joke also.  It's been argued that children actually experience time different, because of their length of life and perspective.  A 2 year old has been alive for a tiny fraction as long as it's parent's have, it has less then a tenth the life experience.  However, since they measure time relative to the length of time they have been alive that means that 30 minutes feels like it's 10 times longer to them, because that 30 minutes actually makes up more then 10 times the amount of their life that it does for an adult.  If this is true it explains why a 15 minute wait is an eternity to a young child.  However, it also means that something that happened a day ago feels like it was weeks ago to a young child.  It's easier to forget pass offenses if it feels like they happened in some distant past of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26068" OwnerDisplayName="dsollen" LastActivityDate="2015-07-14T13:27:17.807" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10643" CreationDate="2015-07-14T01:10:28.160" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Children have short memories. They can't remember that their &quot;friend&quot; of this moment was someone who hit them a few minutes ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also have limited understanding of cause and effect. Most adults will &quot;attack&quot; each other (verbally or otherwise) for a reason. Young children don't understand that, and even if and when they hit each other, there's usually no reason or motivating force behind it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has a biological basis in children and adolescence, &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.psychcentral.com/balanced-life/2014/07/ever-wonder-why-adolescents-make-such-bad-decisions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the underdevelopment of the pre-frontal cortex&lt;/a&gt; specifically, and an imblance in the development of thinking processes, generally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" OwnerDisplayName="Tom Au" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2017-08-13T03:44:30.350" LastActivityDate="2017-08-13T03:44:30.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10649" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-15T04:58:25.233" Score="6" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recall seeing references to studies about the spreading of true/false beliefs through social networks. I think this research tends to be grounded in game theory or evolutionary theory (like gene transmission), but I could be wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone direct me to the research on this or point to seminal papers? I took a quick look at Google Scholar, but it's not clear where to start.  I'm interested in theory papers, but I'm especially interested in empirical work.  Any help would be great. Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-07-17T03:42:40.980" Title="Transmission of beliefs through networks" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10547" CreationDate="2015-07-15T19:10:08.260" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Some claims on personality correlations to physical activity:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Extraversion is a trait that keeps showing up here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Previous studies examining correlates of &lt;strong&gt;leisure time physical activity&lt;/strong&gt; (LTPA) (...)&#xA;  Higher standing on &lt;strong&gt;Activity&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;Discipline&lt;/strong&gt; and lower standing on&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Assertiveness&lt;/strong&gt; predicted greater odds of engaging in LTPA and longer&#xA;  duration of LTPA, and higher standing on &lt;strong&gt;Aesthetics&lt;/strong&gt; predicted shorter&#xA;  duration of LTPA. &quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23025299&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23025299&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;strong&gt;Extraversion&lt;/strong&gt; (r = 0.23), &lt;strong&gt;neuroticism&lt;/strong&gt; (r = −0.11) and &lt;strong&gt;conscientiousness&lt;/strong&gt; (r = 0.20) were identified as correlates of &lt;strong&gt;physical activity&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2577457/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2577457/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Evidence shows that aspects of personality are associated with participation in physical activity. We hypothesized that, among adolescents, &lt;strong&gt;behavioral activation (BAS)&lt;/strong&gt; and behavioral inhibition (BIS) would be associated with physical fitness (cardiovascular fitness and percent body fat), &lt;strong&gt;enjoyment of exercise&lt;/strong&gt;, tolerance of and persistence in high-intensity exercise, and affective response to an acute exercise bout.&#xA;  The BAS(reward) subscale was positively related to &lt;strong&gt;Enjoyment&lt;/strong&gt; (r = .44, p &amp;lt; .05).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2761825/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2761825/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Exercisers&lt;/strong&gt; were on average less &lt;strong&gt;anxious&lt;/strong&gt; (-0.18 SD), &lt;strong&gt;depressed&lt;/strong&gt; (-0.29 SD) and &lt;strong&gt;neurotic&lt;/strong&gt; (-0.14 SD), more &lt;strong&gt;extraverted&lt;/strong&gt; (+0.32 SD) and were higher in dimensions of &lt;strong&gt;sensation seeking&lt;/strong&gt; (from+0.25 SD to+0.47 SD) than non-exercisers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16439008/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16439008/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results indicated &lt;strong&gt;emotional instability&lt;/strong&gt; had direct effects on overall and &lt;strong&gt;strenuous leisure time exercise&lt;/strong&gt; while also having significant (p &amp;lt; 0.05) indirect mediation paths through the &lt;strong&gt;performance-approach&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;avoidance goals&lt;/strong&gt;. The &lt;strong&gt;extraversion&lt;/strong&gt; and emotional instability models accounted from 15.89% to 29.82% of variance in the various &lt;strong&gt;self-reported exercise&lt;/strong&gt; measures.&#xA;  &lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/k8bIQ.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095254612000713&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095254612000713&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-07-15T19:32:35.610" LastActivityDate="2015-07-15T19:32:35.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10651" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12882" CreationDate="2015-07-15T22:05:55.600" Score="7" ViewCount="949" Body="&lt;p&gt;While there is no question about the validity of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wim_Hof&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Wim Hof&amp;#39;s&quot;&gt;Wim Hof's&lt;/a&gt; abilities, I question some of the claims made about his ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He is claimed to be able to consciously control certain aspects of his autonomic nervous system with his mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But while his feats are undoubtedly impressive, and his training program was proven effective, I find it hard to believe he's reached a point where all he needs is his mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As much as I'd like to believe one can do the things he did without the special breathing techniques he uses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any reason to believe there is something to it beyond conditioning the body and breathing in a specific manner (which, from what I understand, causes the body to react in a certain way leading to the desired effects)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5006" LastEditorUserId="5006" LastEditDate="2015-11-15T22:16:47.010" LastActivityDate="2015-12-23T01:46:19.070" Title="Does Wim Hof really consciously control his autonomic nervous system?" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10652" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-16T01:29:47.493" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do I zoom in and move around a chart after it has been plotted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2015-07-16T01:29:47.493" Title="In NEURON simulator, how do you pan and zoom a plotted graph?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10653" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10652" CreationDate="2015-07-16T01:29:47.493" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unintuitive, but it's in the right click &gt; View sub-menu:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pan/translate&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Right click the chart&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;View &gt; Translate&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Left click drag will pan around the chart&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Zoom&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Right click the chart&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;View &gt; Zoom In/Out&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Left click drag horizontally or vertically to zoom the x or y axis&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Zoom in on a region&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Right click the chart&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;View &gt; NewView&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Left click on the chart to draw a box&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A new window will open, drag the lower-right corner to expand the window&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2015-07-16T01:29:47.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10654" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-16T04:51:03.387" Score="3" ViewCount="274" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've always heard about an effect that is entitled: &lt;em&gt;The first image is the image that stays&lt;/em&gt;. It comes from a translation from a portuguese phrase, I don't know if it's properly translated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that this is some kind of effect in which the way you present yourself to other person in the first meeting is the one that works as an anchor. It's a very popular saying where I live. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My curiosity is: Does this effect really exists? I mean, has someone studied this effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorUserId="614" LastEditDate="2015-12-01T14:27:21.110" LastActivityDate="2015-12-01T14:27:21.110" Title="Scientific name for the phrase: &quot;The first image is the image that stays&quot;" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10656" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10654" CreationDate="2015-07-16T07:40:42.100" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you describe has some similarities with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_position_effect#Primacy_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;primacy effect&lt;/a&gt; (but I take Arnon's point that the phrase as you describe seems to relate specifically to first impressions in person perception). There is a lot of memory research which relates the order of presentation of a set of stimuli to the degree of recall. The primacy effect is the name given for the tendency for people to recall initially presented items better than subsequent items. However, there is also the recency effect which captures probably the stronger effect whereby items processed more recently tend to be recalled better. Thus, you often get a kind of u-shaped relationship between order of stimulus presentation and recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are range of explanations for the primacy effect. For example, people may have greater opportunity to rehearse initial stimuli and thereby consolidate memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within broader contexts of life, I imagine the primacy effect would map on to a wide range of processes. For example, first impressions have been studied in the context of how we perceive other people. This is presumably related to the concept that we spend time initially forming impressions and then tend to fall back on these impressions rather than update them based on subsequent experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly in the skill acquisition context, we often spend an initial period learning a task and then gradually settle into a strategy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-07-17T00:25:10.510" LastActivityDate="2015-07-17T00:25:10.510" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10657" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10654" CreationDate="2015-07-16T21:45:44.420" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is another common expression: &quot;You never get a second chance to make a first impression.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The stability of first impressions is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_impression_%28psychology%29#Stability_of_first_impressions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;empirically sound&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Once formed, first impressions tend to be stable. A review of the&#xA;  literature on the accuracy and impact of first impressions on&#xA;  rater-based assessments found that raters' first impressions are&#xA;  highly correlated with later scores, but it is unclear exactly&#xA;  why. One study tested stability by asking participants to form&#xA;  impressions of people based purely on photographs. Participants' opinions&#xA;  of the people in the photographs did not significantly differ after&#xA;  interacting with that person a month later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One possible explanation is a well-known and empirically supported cognitive bias called the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring#Anchoring_and_adjustment_heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anchoring and adjustment heuristic&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  It seems that people form initial impressions (anchoring), then on subsequent evaluations only make adjustments to the initial impressions, and these adjustments tend to be insufficient.  The cause of anchoring is also not well understood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more general explanation is &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (anchoring, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-fulfilling prophesy&lt;/a&gt;, and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;halo effect&lt;/a&gt; are all subtypes of this bias), where people form initial impressions, and then confirm their impressions on subsequent evaluations by focusing on information that supports them, and avoiding, ignoring, forgetting, and distorting any information that does not.  This is a very empirically robust bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-07-17T14:14:39.110" LastActivityDate="2015-07-17T14:14:39.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10659" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4460" CreationDate="2015-07-17T02:41:02.787" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe it has to do with two main factors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;strong&gt;Emotional response to one of the topics&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider the case where a webpage or paragraph of text contains multiple topics. Each one with different emotional response from the reader:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Topic 1: X____|&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Topic 2: XX___|&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Topic 3: X____|&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Topic 4: XXXXXXXXX&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Topic 5: XX___|&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where the number of X's is how strong the response is. Suppose 5X's are needed to bother responding. Assuming the topics are encountered sequentially, Topic 4 will activate the strongest emotional response. Since it's also above 5X, the person may start responding, leaving topic 5 unread and un-responded to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;strong&gt;Social/technical norms of the online communication system&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In many web platforms, the main means of commenting/replying is via typed text boxes, usually with minimum and maximum length limits. That's the technical norm. The lower the limit (i.e. a tweet), the less likely more than one topic will be responded to. Expectation of interruptions could also play a role. For example, in an online chat, many other emotional topics may be mentioned while typing out a long, nuanced response, potentially stopping it from being finished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The social norms come into play when a reader observes how others have responded to the item and in what format. If others responded with short one-liners, the reader may be inclined to respond with a one-liner. If others wrote up elaborate essays as responses, perhaps the reader may do so as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2015-07-17T02:41:02.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10660" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10649" CreationDate="2015-07-17T03:42:40.980" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.cornell.edu/home/kleinber/networks-book/networks-book.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Networks, Crowds, and Markets&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (David Easley and Jon Kleinberg, 2010), esp. chapters 16 and 19.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8835" LastActivityDate="2015-07-17T03:42:40.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10661" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10654" CreationDate="2015-07-17T05:02:25.370" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you're referring to &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.joshuakennon.com/mental-model-horns-effect-and-halo-effect/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Halo and Horns Effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; by Edward Thorndike.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a cognitive bias that causes you to allow one trait, either good (halo) or bad (horns), to overshadow other traits, behaviors, actions, or beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you perceive a celebrity, for example, as kind, approachable, and talented you might think that he has no flaws and be free from any criminal liability - that is &lt;strong&gt;Halo Effect&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, we find Michael Jackson as very talented and one of a kind performer. However, some people cannot believe and won't accept the fact that he sexually abused a child in 1993. Those people won't accept this fact because they were drawn on the good image of MJ before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, if you find a person ugly and lazy you perceive them as pest in the society and have no dreams for their lives - that is &lt;strong&gt;Horns Effect&lt;/strong&gt;. One big example of this is the perception of everybody about Floyd Mayweather, Jr. We find him arrogant and cheater especially in the field of Boxing and always thinks of his money. But that doesn't mean he is not nice to his friends and don't attend to any religious activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There goes a saying, &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;First impression last&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot;. Some people, including me, believe that first impressions do not last, but some cannot get over with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8811" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-17T06:18:16.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10662" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10665" CreationDate="2015-07-17T11:43:48.050" Score="3" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question was posted in &lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/93344/word-for-the-opposite-of-hypochondria&quot;&gt;English.stackexchange.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there a word for the opposite condition of &lt;strong&gt;hypochondriasis&lt;/strong&gt;? For&#xA;  example, someone who denies being sick when they clearly are? I would&#xA;  just say that they are &quot;&lt;em&gt;in denial&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. Is there any other adequate&#xA;  word?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some answered &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;egosyntonic&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Is it correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. Credits to &lt;em&gt;Renan&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8811" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2015-07-18T20:41:01.263" Title="Word for the opposite of “hypochondriasis”" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10663" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10598" CreationDate="2015-07-17T15:09:19.533" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer your question, you really have to specify what animal your talking about, some animals simply won't live long enough for learning to be an effective mechanism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there are few predators, evolution will favour animals who are less vigilant about checking for potential predators generally, since this costs time (Google search vigilance behavioral ecology).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do address JeromeJ theory in that comment, teaching is fairly rare in the animal kingdom, even amongst Apes. I don't know any examples of teaching about predator detection, although it is believed that Meerkats teach their young how to kill poisonous scorpions and ants teach each other the location of new sources of food (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Social_learning_in_animals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Social_learning_in_animals&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather than explicit teaching, it might be likely that birds socially learn infomation about predators simply from observation, although i'm not sure how often this occurs. A nice little example shows that wild crows learnt to avoid and &quot;mob&quot; specific humans using facial identification &lt;a href=&quot;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/06/20/rspb.2011.0957&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/06/20/rspb.2011.0957&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know enough to give a more detailed response though!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8837" LastActivityDate="2015-07-17T15:09:19.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10665" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10662" CreationDate="2015-07-18T06:46:16.820" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to depend on the reason for denying their illness...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egosyntonic_and_egodystonic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Egosyntonic&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a term referring to behaviors, values, feelings that are in&#xA;  harmony with or acceptable to the needs and goals of the ego, or&#xA;  consistent with one's ideal self-image. ... Many personality disorders&#xA;  are considered to be egosyntonic ... Anorexia ... is also considered&#xA;  egosyntonic because many of its sufferers deny that they have a&#xA;  problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People with personality disorders for example, may be fully aware and accepting of their behaviour, they simply don't see it as a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Denial / abnegation&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... is used for a psychological defense mechanism ..., in which a&#xA;  person is faced with a fact that is too uncomfortable to accept and&#xA;  rejects it instead, insisting that it is not true despite what may be&#xA;  overwhelming evidence. ... In denial, an individual does not see or is&#xA;  mostly unconscious of existence of the truth or fact. The choice to&#xA;  refuse reality, then, is unconscious as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone may deny their illness because it makes them uncomfortable in some way - eg, they are embarrassed about it or concerned about negative perceptions by others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anosognosia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Anosognosia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a deficit of self-awareness, a condition in which a person who&#xA;  suffers a certain disability seems unaware of the existence of his or&#xA;  her disability. ... Anosognosia is relatively common following&#xA;  different etiologies of brain injury ..., but can appear to occur in&#xA;  conjunction with virtually any neurological impairment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Anton–Babinski syndrome (visual anosognosia) for example, a person is blind, but nonetheless claims to be able see, and this is due to brain damage in the visual cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypochondriasis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hypochondria&lt;/a&gt; is undue alarm about any physical or psychological symptoms, no matter how minor they may be.  So I would argue that the best counterpart is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimisation_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;minimisation&lt;/a&gt; - a cognitive distortion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... is the opposite of exaggeration. ... downplaying the significance&#xA;  of an event or emotion ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A medical condition that fits this description is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anosodiaphoria&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anosodiaphoria&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a condition in which a person who suffers disability due to brain&#xA;  injury seems indifferent to the existence of their handicap. ... a&#xA;  disorder of the body schema in which patients verbally acknowledge a&#xA;  clinical problem ... but fail to be concerned about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So while a hypochondriac makes a big deal out of a small problem, anosodiaphoria is making a small deal out of a big problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=hyperchondria&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hyperchondria&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-07-18T20:41:01.263" LastActivityDate="2015-07-18T20:41:01.263" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10666" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-18T17:19:04.187" Score="4" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that, for example, during brain surgery, electrical stimulation in certain parts of the cortex is sufficient for experience, and result in reportable experiences in human subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also know that action potentials are not sufficient to cause experience when they occur in other parts of the body. For example, as far as I know, humans are not aware of action-potential-caused insulin release in the pancreatic cells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further we know that mechanical stimulation of the fingers is converted to action potential trains, then relayed via interneurons, and is subsequently reported as touch. The situation is similar with other senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, are there any examples of reportable experience without preceding action potentials? In other words, &lt;strong&gt;are there any cases of experience that is not correlated with electrical activity?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested because my deeper question is &quot;Does all qualia result from action potentials?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2015-08-03T22:33:08.937" Title="Are action potentials necessary for experience?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10667" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9173" CreationDate="2015-07-18T17:28:40.830" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer your question #5: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Why are ions being pumped in and out of the axon in such a way to&#xA;  propagate an action potential? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As AliceD's answer provided, the ions during an action potential are not being pumped, and don't even &lt;em&gt;need&lt;/em&gt; to be pumped, but just passively flow into or out of the axon due to the forces of electricity and diffusion. As an example, imagine a water balloon filled with dye, and you prick it with a pin underwater: the balloon need not pump the dye out, it will just diffuse out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why isn't it just a positively charged&#xA;  signal running through the axon, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; a passive spread of charge down the length of the axon, at least for some short distance. However, axons are generally too long for that spread to get all the way to the end of the axon. Therefore, the signal must be amplified over and over down the length of the axon in order to (attempt to) insure it gets to the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;without regard to the outside environment?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just a point of language here: When speaking of voltage (AKA potential), you need to refer to two positions, and when discussing the action potential we use the inside of the axon relative to the outside. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastActivityDate="2015-07-18T17:28:40.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10668" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10666" CreationDate="2015-07-18T17:50:09.813" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it is safe to say that we simply don't understand nearly enough (anything?) about the neural basis of qualia / experience to be able to give a satisfying answer to this question. That said, at least in the case of human experience, most neuroscientists would agree that if there is any centralized locus of experience it is the brain, and although the brain does have some non-action-potential &quot;commerce&quot;, a great deal of it is through action potential mediated communication; I would find it hard to believe that it wasn't involved in conscious experience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More importantly, being able to test whether one could be consciously experiencing while silencing 100% of action potentials seems like a rather tough experiment to do, given that doing that would probably kill the subject (such as with tetrodotoxin poisoning).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastEditorUserId="6642" LastEditDate="2015-07-19T00:09:55.527" LastActivityDate="2015-07-19T00:09:55.527" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10670" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10679" CreationDate="2015-07-19T02:34:26.837" Score="3" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard recently from Demis Hassabis that if the hippocampus is damaged that new memories cannot be formed.&#xA;I also heard recently that it has been discovered that new neurons continue to be produced in the brains of adults in the hippocampus region.&#xA;Does this mean that new memories are stored in the new neurons generated in the hippocampus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastActivityDate="2015-07-19T14:51:55.520" Title="Are new memories stored in new neurons generated in the hippocampus?" Tags="&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4632" CreationDate="2015-07-19T10:35:53.210" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is related to a large area of research showing that people are egocentrically biased when they think about the thoughts and feelings of others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The classic study is Ross, Green and House's (1977) paper on the &lt;strong&gt;false consensus effect&lt;/strong&gt;, according to which people overestimate the extent to which their own beliefs, opinions, behavioral choices, and traits are shared by others. For example, when Ross et al. asked participants whether they would allow a supermarket to use their endorsement of the store in an ad, 66% said that they would agree and they believed that 75% of the people would do the same. In contrast, the 34% who said they would decline the request believed that 43% of the people would do the same. In other words, people overestimated the extent to which others would decide in the same way as themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This effect is highly robust and similar phenomena have been studied in various domains, sometimes using different terms, such as &lt;strong&gt;social projection&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;egocentric bias&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;hot-cold empathy gap&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;&quot;curse of knowledge&quot;-effect&lt;/strong&gt;, or &lt;strong&gt;hindsight bias&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good primer to the literature is the chapter by Van Boven and Loewenstein (2005) which lays out several ways in which people can be inaccurate in thinking about the minds of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ross, L., Greene, D., &amp;amp; House, P. (1977). The “false consensus effect”: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13(3), 279–301. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(77)90049-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(77)90049-X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Van Boven, L., &amp;amp; Loewenstein, G. (2005). Cross-situational projection. In M. . Alicke, D. A. Dunning, &amp;amp; J. I. Krueger (Eds.), The Self in Social Judgment  (pp. 43– 64). New York, NY: Taylor &amp;amp; Francis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-18T07:18:26.097" LastActivityDate="2015-08-18T07:18:26.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10675" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9715" CreationDate="2015-07-19T11:33:43.023" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this case, wikipedia is not such a good starting point, because at least the German and the French articles do not seem very well developed and are unlikely to be representative of the research in the respective countries. This is in part my subjective opinion, but can also be seen in their length, which is very short compared to the English article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless, there are differences between research traditions in these countries. A good introduction is Peter Warr's chapter “Some Historical Developments in I-O Psychology Outside USA&amp;quot; in Koppes (2007) which compares US and European approaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example with regard to differences between research in the US and Germany, Warr observes that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, German psychologists have been more sympathetic to broad conceptual frameworks (...) This German preference is illustrated by the development of broad &amp;quot;action theories&amp;quot;. Those (...)[view] the concept of action as integrating otherwise unrelated issues of job performance, stress, errors, skill development, and other processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whereas American I-O psychology has focused more on abilities, motivation, and similar precursors, action theory examines knowledge, cognitive understanding, mental strategies, and processes of self-regulation. (...) This traditional focus on regulatory processes between an environmental input and behavior has been different in both style and content from most American theorizing. (p. 85).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Laura L. Koppes (Ed.). Historical Perspectives in Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-26T03:35:52.873" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10676" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8634" CreationDate="2015-07-19T13:24:03.533" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Are extraverts more talkative than introverts in oral communication?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes they are. The (probably) best evidence can be found in research by Mehl et al. (2006) who &quot;tracked 96 participants over 2 days using the Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR), which samples snippets of ambient sounds in&#xA;participants’ immediate environments&quot;. The correlation of extraversion with word count was .29, indicating that extraversion was related to more talkativeness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. Are introverts more talkative in written communication?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It does not seem so. A study that addresses your question has been done by Gill and Oberlander  (2002). They asked participants to compose two emails to a good friend. The more extraverted they were, the longer were the emails (beta = .20). Thus, this study was not in line with your intuition that introverts are more talkative in written form. Of course, you may argue that under some circumstances (maybe when writing a diary or a book) your hypothesis may still hold. However, judging from this study, if it exists at all, this does not seem to be a general effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some differences in writing style and content, however. For example, introverts seem to use a more concrete and focused language (Gill &amp;amp; Oberlander, 2002). Furthermore, introverts tend to use longer words (Mehl et al., 2006) which may be in line with Alex Stone's comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gill, A., &amp;amp; Oberlander, J. (2002, August). Taking care of the linguistic features of extraversion. In Proceedings of the 24th Annual Conference&#xA;of the Cognitive Science Society. Fairfax, VA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mehl, M. R., Gosling, S. D., &amp;amp; Pennebaker, J. W. (2006). Personality in its natural habitat: Manifestations and implicit folk theories of personality in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 862–877. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.862&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.862&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-05T21:33:36.253" LastActivityDate="2015-08-05T21:33:36.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9466" CreationDate="2015-07-19T13:52:24.353" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I spent some time searching various databases with a variety of different keywords related to breathing techniques and mental outcomes. I only found a couple of studies that have looked at certain Yoga deep breathing techniques and their effects on cognitive tests measuring attention/concentration (Shirley Telles et al. 2007, 2013). Some of these specific techniques (such as selective or alternate nostril breathing) seemed to lead to better performance as compared to control groups (e.g., only breathing awareness). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have to admit that I am a bit skeptical because the studies have small samples and placebo effects may have played a role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In conclusion, there does not seem to be much research that would allow the strong and general claim the self-help book is making.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shirley Telles, P. Raghuraj, Satyapriya Maharana, and H. R. Nagendra (2007) immediate effect of three yoga breathing techniques on performance on a letter-cancellation task. Perceptual and motor skills: volume 104, issue , pp. 1289-1296. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shirley Telles, Arti Yadav, Ram Kumar Gupta, and Acharya Balkrishna (2013) Reaction Time Following Yoga Bellows-Type Breathing and Breath Awareness. Perceptual and Motor Skills: Volume 117, Issue , pp. 89-98.&#xA;doi: 10.2466/22.25.PMS.117x10z4 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-29T11:55:30.253" LastActivityDate="2015-07-29T11:55:30.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10678" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10535" CreationDate="2015-07-19T14:30:56.630" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a number of scales that are used to measure happiness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One widely used measure is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780123745170/Chapter%203/Chapter_3_Worksheet_3.1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PANAS&lt;/a&gt;, the &quot;Positive and Negative Affect Schedule&quot; (Watson, Clark, &amp;amp; Tellegen, 1988). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lyubomirsky and Lepper (1999) have developed the &lt;a href=&quot;http://sonjalyubomirsky.com/subjective-happiness-scale-shs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Subjective Happiness Scale&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;there is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/~ediener/SWLS.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;satisfaction with life scale&lt;/a&gt; (Diener et al. 1985),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://happiness-survey.com/survey/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Oxford Happiness Scale&lt;/a&gt; (Hills and Argyle, 2002)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think these scales measure a kind of excessive euphoria or other maladaptive states that you may or may not have in mind, given that you allude to depression. If yes, you may want to look into the diagnosis of bipolar disorder, or questionnaires about drug consumption. This would not be about happiness per se though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., &amp;amp; Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hills, P., &amp;amp; Argyle, M. (2002). The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 33(7), 1073–1082. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00213-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00213-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lyubomirsky, S., &amp;amp; Lepper, H. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137-155 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watson, D., Clark, L. A. &amp;amp; Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-20T18:28:49.510" LastActivityDate="2015-07-20T18:28:49.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10679" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10670" CreationDate="2015-07-19T14:44:30.470" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Memories are generally understood to be encoded within networks of neurons, and not within neurons themselves. New neurons are certainly useful, but they are not necessary to store new memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, the hippocampus is extremely &lt;em&gt;plastic&lt;/em&gt;, meaning that the connection strength between different neurons can change rapidly, and sometimes, new connections are also formed via the growth of new synapses (this is different than the addition of new neurons). However, &quot;new&quot; memories are often stored using different, overlapping subsets of neurons, which is commonly referred to as &lt;em&gt;global remapping&lt;/em&gt; in the hippocampus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remapping comes from the notion that many pyramidal cells in the hippocampus show place-selectivity (so-called place cells) and many of the same neurons that encode one particular environment (e.g., your bedroom), would be recruited to encode an entirely different environment (e.g, your kitchen) with no apparent relationship between the two. That is, the subset of neurons recruited to encode a particular environment seems to be random, and the topology is not preserved: neurons that encoded adjacent regions in your bedroom might encode very distant regions in your kitchen, or no regions at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now to answer your question more clearly: the hippocampus is indeed critical for new memory formation; however, memories are not stored within individual neurons, but rather within collections of neurons (which could include both new and old neurons) and in the connection strengths of those neurons in particular. The same (new or old) neuron can be used and re-used in many memories, without disrupting the other memories that it forms part of. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further information&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A relatively accessible read (if you're so inclined) is &lt;strong&gt;Diekelmann, S., &amp;amp; Born, J. (2010). The memory function of sleep. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 11(2), 114–26. doi:10.1038/nrn2762&lt;/strong&gt;, but it requires a paid subscription or institutional access. Alternatively, Scholarpedia has many good articles, including &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Hippocampus#Consolidation_and_transfer_of_hippocampal_memories&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt; on the hippocampus, which goes a little further to explain part of our current understanding of how new memories are transferred (consolidated) to long-term storage in the neocortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8803" LastEditorUserId="8803" LastEditDate="2015-07-19T14:51:55.520" LastActivityDate="2015-07-19T14:51:55.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10680" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10718" CreationDate="2015-07-19T21:47:09.747" Score="12" ViewCount="942" Body="&lt;p&gt;People cry when they experience intense emotions. Crying seems to occur most frequently in intense episodes of sadness and fear, but sometimes also happens when people are very happy or angry. What is the purpose of crying and which role has it played during human evolution? Which theories explain how crying may have given humans an evolutionary advantage?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8848" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-20T18:23:47.277" LastActivityDate="2015-07-24T08:35:10.617" Title="Why do humans cry?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10681" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10683" CreationDate="2015-07-19T23:36:15.823" Score="7" ViewCount="28758" Body="&lt;p&gt;If, say, you sleep 2-3 hours during the day (in the afternoon) - Do you need less sleep at night?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After all, subjects feel less tired in the evening after sleeping during day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can sleep hours be accumulated in a linear fashion? For example: Will sleeping 3 hours during the day justify sleeping just 4-5 hours during the night?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user914" LastActivityDate="2020-03-11T12:09:24.473" Title="If you sleep during the day, do you need less sleep at night?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10682" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10590" CreationDate="2015-07-20T00:22:10.263" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is actually called &lt;em&gt;abductive&lt;/em&gt; reasoning. As for how it the hypotheses are generated, one way is through analogical matching and inference (search google scholar for Analogico-deductive reasoning, for example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8850" LastActivityDate="2015-07-20T00:22:10.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10683" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10681" CreationDate="2015-07-20T06:14:11.900" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; Yes, if you sleep 2--3 hours during the day, you generally need less sleep at night.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Important considerations:&lt;/strong&gt; However, the short answer is not the full story. In particular, in answer to your question about whether or not sleep hours can be accumulated in a linear fashion, the answer is strictly no, but approximately yes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To understand the problem with assuming linearity of sleep, consider the extreme example of &quot;sleeping&quot; for one minute, and then being awake the next, and keep doing this for the entire day. In theory, you would have spent 12 hours awake, and 12 hours asleep. But of course, you'll feel exhausted, and would be in desperate need of some good sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's important to keep in mind, is the different &lt;em&gt;stages&lt;/em&gt; of sleep. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.helpguide.org/articles/sleep/how-much-sleep-do-you-need.htm&quot;&gt;http://www.helpguide.org/articles/sleep/how-much-sleep-do-you-need.htm&lt;/a&gt; for a good overview.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Stages of Sleep&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Non-REM sleep&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Stage N1&lt;/em&gt; (Transition to sleep) – This stage lasts about five minutes.&#xA;  Your eyes move slowly under the eyelids, muscle activity slows down,&#xA;  and you are easily awakened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Stage N2&lt;/em&gt; (Light sleep) – This is the first stage of true sleep,&#xA;  lasting from 10 to 25 minutes. Your eye movement stops, heart rate&#xA;  slows, and body temperature decreases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Stage N3&lt;/em&gt; (Deep sleep) – You’re difficult to awaken, and if you are&#xA;  awakened, you do not adjust immediately and often feel groggy and&#xA;  disoriented for several minutes. In this deepest stage of sleep, your&#xA;  brain waves are extremely slow. Blood flow is directed away from your&#xA;  brain and towards your muscles, restoring physical energy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;REM sleep&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;REM sleep&lt;/em&gt; (Dream sleep) – About 70 to 90 minutes after falling asleep,&#xA;  you enter REM sleep, where dreaming occurs. Your eyes move rapidly,&#xA;  your breathing shallows, and your heart rate and blood pressure&#xA;  increase. Also during this stage, your arm and leg muscles are&#xA;  paralyzed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In Conclusion:&lt;/strong&gt; Sleep hours can be thought of as accumulating linearly &lt;em&gt;in blocks of sleep cycles&lt;/em&gt;. That is, as long as you hit the right sleep stages during your nap, it counts! Generally, a complete sleep cycle lasts about 90 minutes, so sleep in multiples of 90 minutes would be ideal...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8803" LastActivityDate="2015-07-20T06:14:11.900" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10684" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-20T09:43:57.167" Score="6" ViewCount="249" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading through a scientific report on Big 5 characteristics in everyday life, I found a -.28 correlation for Agreaableness and swearing.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dingo.sbs.arizona.edu/~mehl/eReprints/EARlensmodelJPSP.pdf&quot;&gt;http://dingo.sbs.arizona.edu/~mehl/eReprints/EARlensmodelJPSP.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do other studies usually support this? &#xA;Is swearing (in combination with other cues) a useful indication of low agreeableness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-07-29T11:43:08.930" Title="Do people low on agreeableness swear more?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10685" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-20T14:26:29.887" Score="-1" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have you used Inquisit, E-Prime, DirectRT, or Qualtrics to make psychology experiments? I worked in a psychology lab as a programmer and I thought these programs felt very outdated and not user friendly. I started making a software that lets you make experiments without having to code. But posts like this(&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/508/how-can-i-create-computer-based-psychology-experiments-using-os-x&quot;&gt;How can I create computer based psychology experiments using OS X?&lt;/a&gt;) seem to suggest researchers or professors don't mind learning a little bit of coding to make experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question: if you have used such softwares to make experiments, what did you think about the process? Also, do you think there are many people who would want a new software that does everything but without coding?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you so much!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8853" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-07-20T17:21:35.557" Title="How do you make psychology experiments?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-07-21T11:50:52.540" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10686" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10684" CreationDate="2015-07-20T14:27:14.480" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a number of findings showing that people who are low in agreeableness swear more often. Apologies for the long full quote, but the relevant literature has just recently been nicely reviewed in a chapter about &quot;Natural language use as a marker of personality&quot; by &lt;a href=&quot;http://mollyireland.nfshost.com/Ireland&amp;amp;Mehl_Holtgraves-chapter.docx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ireland and Mehl (2014)&lt;/a&gt;. They cite the study you based your question on (Mehl, Gosling, &amp;amp; Pennebaker, 2006), which is very nice because it uses a relatively unobtrusive recording device (the Electronically Activated Recorder, EAR) to collect data about naturally occurring conversation. However, they also cite additional evidence that is in line with this finding: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another face valid linguistic correlate of agreeableness is swearing. Unsurprisingly, people swear less to the degree that they report being more agreeable (Holtgraves, 2010; Mehl et al., 2006; Yarkoni, 2010; see Jay, 2009). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is swearing a reliable indicator of low agreeableness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Indeed, the five words that best discriminate between individuals ranking high and low in agreeableness in Facebook status updates are all swear words (Schwartz et al., 2013). The negative correlation between agreeableness and swearing fits with lay theories of personality as well and is correctly interpreted by outside observers of students’ EAR recordings (Mehl et al., 2006). Given the low overall incidence of swearing – making up about 1/3 of a percent of spoken conversation and 1/10 of a percent of emotional writing – these results essentially mean that highly agreeable people are unlikely to swear even once in a given sample, whereas a highly disagreeable person might swear only a few times. Nevertheless, swearing, like negative emotion words, another low-frequency category, is a potent and reliable indicator of agreeableness and other key psychological variables (e.g., Robbins, Focella, Kasle, Weihs, Lopez, &amp;amp; Mehl, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ireland, M. E., &amp;amp; Mehl, M. R. (2014). Natural language use as a marker of personality. In T. M. Holtgraves &amp;amp; T. M. (Ed) Holtgraves (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of language and social psychology., Oxford library of psychology (pp. 201–218). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-29T11:43:08.930" LastActivityDate="2015-07-29T11:43:08.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10688" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10685" CreationDate="2015-07-20T17:21:35.557" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Question: if you have used such softwares to make experiments, what&#xA;  did you think about the process? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We use Paradigm (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.paradigmexperiments.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;www.paradigmexperiments.com&lt;/a&gt;) in our lab and like it quite a bit. You can build most experiments just with the drag and drop builder interface. It also supports Python scripting just to give you more flexibility (and piece of mind in case you're trying to do something the builder doesn't support). In general it's pretty easy, the company that makes it has been great with support when we have run into difficulty but by and large our students are able to figure it out. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...seem to suggest researchers or professors don't mind learning a little&#xA;  bit of coding to make experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Right now almost all of the experiment presentation programs that work on OS X are scripting-based (e.g. Python) so I think that's why you're getting that impression. From my own experience it's not true. Most new RAs and grad students are pretty unhappy when they are told they have to learn Python before they can even start doing any research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Also, do you think there are many people who would want a new software &#xA;  that does everything but without coding?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it would be very difficult to build new software that did not use scripting at all. The nature of research is that everyone is trying to do something no one has done before, so you really need to have a way for people to extend the software's functionality without waiting for the next version otherwise no one is going to use it. Having said that, Superlab (www.cedrus.com) has attempted to do it but with, what I feel, are mixed results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8855" LastActivityDate="2015-07-20T17:21:35.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10691" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10343" CreationDate="2015-07-21T01:27:55.687" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;An otherwise 'brilliant' person can be slow at solving certain problems, yes. And no, cognitive performance is not the same thing as running a marathon. A marathon measures your ability to reach a certain point in a certain amount of time. An intelligence test (or any academic test, for that matter) assesses to make sure that you have learned the material well enough that you can correctly answer a subset of questions pertaining to the material within a certain time constraint. The motivations here are completely different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, I would argue that the ability to answer questions rapidly has less to do with intelligence and more to do with executive functioning. For the sake of argument, I am going to use the word 'genius' to describe what you may otherwise be describing as a 'brilliant' person:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A genius is a person who displays exceptionally superior intellectual ability, creativity, or originality, typically to a degree that is associated with the achievement of new advances in a domain of knowledge...There is no scientifically precise definition of genius, and the question of whether the notion itself has any real meaning has long been a subject of debate, although psychologists are converging on a definition that emphasizes creativity and eminent achievement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice how this definition capitalizes on creativity, originality, and an understanding of a domain of knowledge to the point where he or she can advance the field forward. Notice how there is no mention of cognitive speed or processing speed outlined here. However, take a look at the definition of executive functioning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Executive functions (also known as cognitive control and supervisory attentional system) is an umbrella term for the management (regulation, control) of cognitive processes, including working memory, reasoning, task flexibility, and problem solving as well as planning and execution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sounds like executive functioning plays a large role in one's ability to rapidly solve problems. And this makes sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider &quot;wonder drugs&quot; (amphetamines, Modafinil, even caffeine) that typically boost cognitive performance and processing speed. One can take a drug to become more focused, and to increase their executive functioning. Amphetamines in particular (such as Vyvanse, Adderall, Ritalin) are drugs that are commonly administered to children and adults who struggle with ADHD -- a disorder caused by &quot;significant problems with executive functions.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt; 1 &lt;/a&gt; These drugs work by increasing norepinephrine and dopamine in the brain, thus temporarily boosting cognitive performance. Would you call a medicated adult with (ordinarily) poor executive functioning 'brilliant', as opposed to the unmedicated adult? To do so wouldn't make sense, unless we are to assume that one's intelligence is malleable based on the drugs that they take -- in which case, perhaps IQ tests (and achievement tests in general) are worthless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would reject the definition for 'intelligence' given earlier&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The ... capacity of the individual ... to deal effectively with his environment&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;because it can be used to refer to a multitude of things. The 'capacity of the individual to deal effectively with his environment' would more easily fit the stereotype of the salesman than that of the absentminded college professor. Take this description of Albert Einstein:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Einstein] was forgetful, could never find his keys and often seemed oblivious to his surroundings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And take this description of Isaac Newton, taken from the Oxford Press:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Quarrelsome and quirky, a disheveled recluse who ate little, slept less, and yet had an iron constitution, Isaac Newton rose from a virtually illiterate family to become one of the towering intellects of science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;None of these descriptions leave me with the impression that these otherwise-intelligent men had a knack for 'deal[ing] effectively with his environment'. Is the environment not external -- the antithesis of mental?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-07-21T01:27:55.687" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10693" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-21T17:59:30.617" Score="4" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there research about psychological interventions to help the average person remember names? If so, which intervention or interventions have the best evidence base to support them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there good academic books about the subject of how humans manage to remember names?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2015-12-08T16:54:00.643" LastActivityDate="2015-12-08T16:54:00.643" Title="Which intervention improves the ability to remember names the most?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10694" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-21T19:23:14.427" Score="5" ViewCount="689" Body="&lt;p&gt;With long-term plasticity one refers to the phenomen by which synapses are modified by neural activity and these modifications last for long times, a day perhaps of the order of days. This phenomenon is often described in contrast to short-term plasticity, where the response of a synapse has a non-linear component that depend on the history of the presynaptic activity in a short time in the past of the order of hundreds of ms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plasticity is in fact a much more complicated subject and involves processes at different levels, at the synapse, neuron, network and whole brain (e.g., homeostasis) level. Given our current knowledge of memory systems in the brain, how long are we able to trace even small bits of the memory of a stimulus we were exposed in the past?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously one can answer the question at the cognitive level, i.e., we can rephrase the question and ask instead: What's the oldest memory I can recall? It is well known that our behavior as adults is a reflection of even the oldest memories of our lives. However, I would argue that this is an inderect effect, namely those events that happened in our childhood had an influence on how and what we experience say in the adolescence, and then what we experience as adults is a reflection of what we experienced in adolescence. One known phenomenon that seems to &quot;elongate&quot; memories in the future is the one of replay, i.e., the fact that our brain spontaneously recalls memories of the past like in dreaming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In computational neuroscience, we can trace bits of patterns stored in a neural network with plastic synapses by probing the network, e.g., by presenting a noisy version of a training pattern and testing if the network is able to recall that pattern, something like an associative memory paradigm. A statistical tool used to test the scaling properties of synapse models is the signal-to-noise ratio analysis. Using this analysis, one is able to address the question of a memory lifetime by assessing whether the synapses maintained some information of a pattern in the past (the signal) with statistical arguments (i.e., with respect to the &quot;noise&quot; of all the other memories interfering with the old one).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is anybody aware of any experiment where people tried to trace single bits of memories at a single synapse level? In models, the weight of single synapses is maintained for ever unless other memories interfere with that. In reality, it would be interesting to see whether single biological synapses can maintain information on long time-scales (days? months? years?), even considering protein turn-over, or if its the network dynamics that plays a crucial role in maintaining those memories or refreshing them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that answers that go beyond the synapse level are also welcome, that's why the main title doesn't specify to much details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7622" LastEditorUserId="7622" LastEditDate="2015-07-22T22:42:34.600" LastActivityDate="2016-02-19T06:53:59.153" Title="How long does the trace of a memory last in the brain?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10695" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10707" CreationDate="2015-07-21T20:18:28.517" Score="0" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any website or journal that publishes most significant recent studies and articles in psychology? I have access to EBSCO database, but there are thousands of articles and most of them of almost no importancy and I have no idea how to find those good and important ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6990" LastEditorUserId="6990" LastEditDate="2015-07-22T14:23:03.883" LastActivityDate="2015-07-22T21:21:11.103" Title="Where to find recent most important studies and researches?" Tags="&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-08-06T09:06:53.063" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10696" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-22T05:15:12.017" Score="2" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard the following argument on German talk radio:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Modern cognitive science indicates that our conscious arguments&#xA;  are only rationalizations of emotional processes that preceded them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where could I find a recent, mainstream representative of this view (e.g. textbook author)? (It reminds me somewhat of the Libet experiment from the 1970s.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5093" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-07-22T11:50:01.120" LastActivityDate="2015-07-22T11:50:01.120" Title="Cognitive arguments as rationalizations of emotional processes that preceded them?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-07-22T15:50:00.790" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10697" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1474" CreationDate="2015-07-22T05:38:55.517" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This isn't my area of expertise, but it's an interesting question so I did some poking around and ran across a couple of relevant papers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Human active learning&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://papers.nips.cc/paper/3456-human-active-learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://papers.nips.cc/paper/3456-human-active-learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Castro, R. M., Kalish, C., Nowak, R., Qian, R., Rogers, T., &amp;amp; Zhu, X. (2009). Human active learning. In Advances in neural information processing systems (pp. 241-248).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this paper, the authors compare human performance on a classification task using (a) randomly selected samples, (b) human-selected examples (i.e., &quot;active learning&quot;), and (c) machine-selected samples (&quot;machine-assisted active learning&quot;). Participants in all three conditions were tested regularly on the classification task as they accumulated examples. Somewhat surprisingly (for me -- I would have expected the human-selected condition to learn the fastest), participants in the machine-selected example case were the fastest learners, particularly when label noise was large.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Category learning through active sampling&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://palm.mindmodeling.org/cogsci2010/papers/0041/paper0041.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://palm.mindmodeling.org/cogsci2010/papers/0041/paper0041.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Markant, D., &amp;amp; Gureckis, T. M. (2010). Category learning through active sampling. In Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 248-253).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The task in this paper is a linear separation-boundary location task like the example you provide. It might be worth a look just to see whether it is similar to what you were describing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Also here's a more recent journal-length paper from the same authors: Markant, D. B., &amp;amp; Gureckis, T. M. (2014). Is it better to select or to receive? Learning via active and passive hypothesis testing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 94.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3388" LastActivityDate="2015-07-22T05:38:55.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10698" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3538" CreationDate="2015-07-22T05:53:53.330" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer: This answer is a bit self-serving because it only describes research work from the lab where I am a student. However, I think it's relevant for the question!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Coordination of eye, head, and hand&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cis.rit.edu/research/vpl/publications/ExpBrainRes2001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.cis.rit.edu/research/vpl/publications/ExpBrainRes2001.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pelz, J., Hayhoe, M., &amp;amp; Loeber, R. (2001). The coordination of eye, head, and hand movements in a natural task. Experimental Brain Research, 139(3), 266-277.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper analyzes eye, head, and hand movements in subjects while they copy a block pattern. It doesn't incorporate any of the neck movements as such, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Predictive saccades in virtual reality&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journalofvision.org/content/13/1/20.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.journalofvision.org/content/13/1/20.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diaz, G., Cooper, J., Rothkopf, C., &amp;amp; Hayhoe, M. (2013). Saccades to future ball location reveal memory-based prediction in a virtual-reality interception task. Journal of vision, 13(1), 20.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this work, a virtual racquetball task is used to elicit predictive eye movements in freely-moving subjects while wearing a head-mounted virtual reality display (including an eye tracker). The VR display and racquet are tracked using a motion-capture tool. The results are mostly focused on eye-in-head but incorporate some neat methods for extracting gaze points using the virtual world, and for showing the data on a graph.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3388" LastActivityDate="2015-07-22T05:53:53.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10701" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20263" CreationDate="2015-07-22T10:51:10.020" Score="6" ViewCount="1275" Body="&lt;p&gt;Herrnstein (1973) wrote&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My theory hinges on an argument in the form of a syllogism:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;1) If differences in mental abilities are inherited, and&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  2) If success requires those abilities, and&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  3) If earnings and prestige depend on success,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  4) Then social standing (which reflects earnings and prestige) will be based &#xA;  to some extent on inherited differences among people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Herrnstein, R. J., Deutsch, K. W., &amp;amp; Edsall, T. B. (1973). Controversy. &lt;em&gt;Society&lt;/em&gt;, 10(4), 5-6.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="8310" LastEditDate="2015-07-23T09:41:18.570" LastActivityDate="2018-10-20T23:45:27.543" Title="Is the logic of &quot;Herrnstein's syllogism&quot; sound, and are its premises true?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10703" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10693" CreationDate="2015-07-22T14:34:18.993" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Too long for a comment, so given as answer.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know of no studies, but what teachers do is connect each name to a face (that is &quot;elaborate&quot;) and repeat this elaboration each time they enter class and check attendance (sort of like learning vocabulary or a poem). Personally, I write down the names in the sitting order of the pupils or students, because I remember where which &quot;face&quot; sat. Another option is to find the person on Facebook, download a photo from their profile, and add that to a list of the names. Then I repeatedly look at that list. What also helps is actually addressing the person by name each time you speak to them, especially after they gave their name to you the first time, but also when you meet them again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps in case you want practical proven advice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2015-07-22T14:34:18.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10705" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-22T16:54:11.647" Score="4" ViewCount="321" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Homer: But every time I learn something new, it pushes out something old. Remember that time I took a home wine-making course and forgot how to drive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marge: That's because you were drunk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yeah, but all jokes aside, when all other conditions are equal, does  memorising a new thing increase the chance of losing existing memories that are not directly related to the new memory (different subjects)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is no OS that keeps track of data (i.e.,file system), and each program writes small data anywhere on a large hard disk it wants, as the data grows, the chance of overwriting existing data will increase. And even if OS keeps track of data, when there is no more space it must delete some existing files.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8866" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-05-05T23:50:32.327" Title="Can memorising a new thing erase existing memories?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10706" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10705" CreationDate="2015-07-22T19:37:24.827" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is true if you do have a hard disk of 20GB, but the human memory is large enough. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You might have only a few gigabytes of storage space, similar to the space in an iPod or a USB flash drive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Yet neurons combine so that each one helps with many memories at a time, exponentially increasing the brain's memory storage capacity to something closer to around 2.5 petabytes (or a million gigabytes) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-the-memory-capacity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-the-memory-capacity/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8867" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-05-05T23:50:32.327" LastActivityDate="2017-05-05T23:50:32.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10707" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10695" CreationDate="2015-07-22T21:21:11.103" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;By definition all journals publish &quot;recent studies&quot; because they are publishing all the time (either on a monthly/qaurterly basis). Sometimes, journals publish articles online months before in print. However i think your question is about finding the best articles, rather than journals, and there are a few tricks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have access to any good search engine (google scholar, web of science, scopus), you can perform searches in there, and then rank articles by number of citations. This will give you the most important and talked about studies, although by nature they will be quite old studies, since in order to be the most cited they have to be out for a while. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another good trick is to use webofscience / webofknowledge feature which lets you look at articles that have cited a specific paper. Say you find a classic study that you want to find more recent research on, webofknowledge will let you find recent studies that have cited that paper. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively a good place to start is looking through review articles or textbooks first. You can find these by adding &quot;review&quot; to your search terms, e.g. (&quot;Social learning&quot; AND &quot;animals&quot; AND &quot;review&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, looking at the web pages of important researchers in a given field would be a good place to find recent research, usually they will have fairly up to date lists of their recent research If you've done a bit of reading then you should be able to identify key researchers in a given field. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8837" LastActivityDate="2015-07-22T21:21:11.103" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10708" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10680" CreationDate="2015-07-22T23:15:33.400" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recall a study from maybe 30 years ago that got people to cry by chopping onions and others cry because of watching a sad movie. The content of the tears were tested, and the sad tears had a mood-elevating chemical element. I recall the study because I had seen the movie they used: All Mine To Give, about orphaned children, where the eldest had to parcel out the younger children. If you ever need a good cry . . . . Maybe tears of joy are connected with relief and also tied to mood-elevating hormones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8856" LastActivityDate="2015-07-22T23:15:33.400" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10710" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-23T03:00:01.963" Score="1" ViewCount="164" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose someone has been using avoidance coping style for most of his or her life. The avoidance tendency is present in a broad range of situations, relatively constant through his or her life, not preceded by a major event or trauma, and not associated with any cognition or emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;b&gt;According to current models, what are the likely causes of the coping style?&lt;br&gt;How changeable is the coping style through various therapies?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;b&gt;P.S.&lt;/b&gt; For the purpose of this question, I only ask about the coping style itself (that is, his or her tendency to avoid as opposed to counterattack or surrender) not the consequences of the coping style (the disorders and pathologies and so on).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8870" LastEditorUserId="8870" LastEditDate="2015-07-24T00:00:17.100" LastActivityDate="2015-07-24T00:00:17.100" Title="Lifelong avoidance coping style" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2015-08-06T09:06:46.860" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10715" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-23T13:55:13.320" Score="4" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've results of two tests administered to university students: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the 18-item true-false version of the Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder &amp;amp; Gangestad, 1986);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the Raven Progressive Matrices Test (John &amp;amp; Raven, 2003).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the past I've been assessing personality profiles of students, referring to the five factor model of personality and using a test based on the International Personality Item Pool (Goldberg et al., 2006). In this case I was measuring reliability by Alpha coefficients. However, these coefficient seems not to make sense in a test like Raven's where there are only correct and wrong answers. Same doubts apply to the other test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Should I measure the reliability of these two tests (Raven and Self-monitoring) on my sample? If so, which measure should I use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8212" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-07-23T16:09:58.660" LastActivityDate="2015-07-23T21:41:10.963" Title="Taking into account reliability of Raven's Matrices and Self Monitoring tests" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10716" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10715" CreationDate="2015-07-23T21:41:10.963" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Regarding Cronbach's $\alpha$, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronbach%27s_alpha&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia writes&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It has been proposed that $\alpha$ can be viewed as the expected correlation of two tests that measure the same construct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that correlation is a nonparametric concept. Its definition is independent on the functional form and functional relationship of the two variables. There are numerous ways to measure correlation that take the functional form into account. Pearson correlation and point-biserial correlation are probably the most well known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of two binary variables some notable measures are: Matthews correlation coefficient, Cohen's $\kappa$ or Pearson's $\phi$. One may also consider measures from Signal detection theory. Cronbach's $\alpha$ is also applicable to binary variables. In fact, the Wikipedia page lists a simplified formula (due to Cronbach, 1970) for the case where both variables are binary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To conclude, there is nothing wrong with application of Cronbach's $\alpha$ to binary items. Still, other measures of relationship between two binary variables exist and may be worth considering.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt; Cronbach LJ (1970). Essentials of Psychological Testing. Harper &amp;amp; Row. p. 161.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8618" LastActivityDate="2015-07-23T21:41:10.963" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10717" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10680" CreationDate="2015-07-24T02:44:27.437" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;@Cemre,@MariaAnt-Humans' crying is very natural,because of the following fact:&#xA;These are tears produced in response to that strong emotion that they experience from stress,pleasure,anger,sadness and suffering to indeed,physical pain (and often due to jealousy felt at others' success),Psychic tears even have a natural painkiller,called leucine enkephalin-perhaps the part of the reason why they might feel better after a good cry,These tears also play an useful role in preventing the eyes from drying out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8879" LastActivityDate="2015-07-24T02:44:27.437" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10718" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10680" CreationDate="2015-07-24T03:50:10.420" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;The two main folks in crying research (of whom I'm aware) are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tilburguniversity.edu/webwijs/show/vingerhoets-1/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ad Vingerhoets&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=FmEtI9kAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jonathan Rottenberg&lt;/a&gt;. They've (together and separately) published reviews of adult crying and crying across the lifespan, as well as empirical articles.  The general impression they give is that we know very little about the neuropsychobiology of crying, given that crying has been the focus of very little scientific investigation (despite its prominence in our understanding of emotions like sadness and grief).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a bunch of interpersonal, intrapersonal, and evolutionary theories about crying, but none have been particularly well tested (to my knowledge). &lt;a href=&quot;https://pure.uvt.nl/portal/files/1109829/KlinPsy_Vingerhoets_Crying_2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vingerhoets, Bylsma, and Rottenberg (2009)&lt;/a&gt; have put forth a model of adult crying that may help to explain some things about why we cry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gv936.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gv936.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, this model suggests that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Crying can attract support from other people, and those people can help reduce the distress that elicited the crying. (For a more general theory of interpersonal emotion regulation, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/emo/13/5/803/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zaki &amp;amp; Williams, 2013&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Crying might lead to reduction of distress via some (poorly defined) psychobiological mechanisms.  These mechanisms might include activation of the parasympathetic nervous system, opioid release, oxytocin release, beliefs about the functions of crying, the calming effects of rhythmic behavior, and more (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4035568/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gracanin, Bylsma, Vingerhoets, 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If crying attracts social support and can reduce distress, then this may improve overall evolutionary fitness.  This is especially true in vulnerable infants, who use crying as a means to attract the attention of their parents in distressing situations (&lt;a href=&quot;http://uweb.cas.usf.edu/mood/docs/lifespan_crying.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rottenberg &amp;amp; Vingerhoets, 2012&lt;/a&gt;).  Crying may be less important in adulthood, but may have persisted either due to (1) general intra- and interpersonal emotion regulation benefits and/or (2) neoteny (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://uweb.cas.usf.edu/mood/docs/lifespan_crying.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rottenberg &amp;amp; Vingerhoets, 2012, p. 225&lt;/a&gt; for an explanation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it's not true that crying is always cathartic. This is very much context- and person-dependent (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cristinamilani.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/research.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bylsma, Vingerhoets, &amp;amp; Rottenberg, 2008&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://uweb.cas.usf.edu/mood/docs/YJRPE3106.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bylsma et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt;). Nonetheless, crying may have stuck around due to its importance in infancy as a loud vocal signal to the parents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding why we cry during positive experiences--well, there's not a lot of good evidence here.  However, it's quite possible that positive experiences do not elicit crying (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pure.uvt.nl/portal/files/1109829/KlinPsy_Vingerhoets_Crying_2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vingerhoets &amp;amp; Rottenberg, 2012&lt;/a&gt;).  Instead, it might be our tendency to reflect on negative experiences during positive moments that elicits crying (e.g., the positive experience of college graduation might elicit reflection on the many college struggles we had or the fact that we're not going to see our friends as often).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, there's a lot more research to be done on crying, so stick around. The hypotheses/theories presented above are probably pretty sound, but there's still a lot we don't understand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-07-24T03:50:10.420" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10719" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-24T03:56:10.110" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rather than shock as a physiological reaction to bodily trauma, does anyone know of research on the validity of psychological shock? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not referring to shell shock, or the original name for PTSD. A shock I'm referring to would occur after a trauma but as an immediate response and not a syndrome that follows the trauma indefinitely. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8880" LastActivityDate="2015-07-24T03:56:10.110" Title="Is psychological shock a valid construct?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10720" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10680" CreationDate="2015-07-24T08:07:30.587" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to @mrt's great answer. I feel that the following excerpt from the 'crying' section from the &amp;quot;The Newborn Infant&amp;quot; chapter in my Developmental Psychology classes'  textbook would shed light on your question. This is quoted directly from &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/1429217901&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How Children Develop, Third Edition&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; by Robert Siegler, Judy DeLoache and Nancy Eisenberg&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do you feel when you hear a baby cry? We imagine that, like most people, you find the sound of a crying infant extremely unpleasant. Why is an infant's crying so aversive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From an evolutionary point of view, adults' aversion to infant's crying could have have adaptive value. Infants cry for many reasons - including illness, pain, and hunger - that require the attention of caregivers. Adults' high level of motivation to stop an infant's crying prompts them to take care of the infant's needs and hence promotes the infant's survival. This fact has led some researchers to suggest that in times of hardship, such as famine, cranky babies are more likely to survive than are placed ones, possibly because their distress elicits adult attention and they consequently get more than their share of scarce food resources (DeVries, 1984).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parents, especially first-timers, are often puzzled and anxious about why their baby is crying. Indeed, one of the most frequent complaints pediatricians hear concerns what parents think is excessive crying (Barr, 1998; Harkness et al.,1996). With experience, parents become better at interpreting their infant's crying, identifying characteristics of the cry itself (a sharp, piercing cry usually signals pain, for example) and considering the context (such as when the infant's last feeding was) (Green, Jones, &amp;amp; Gustafson, 1987).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crying increases from around 2 weeks of age to a peak at 6 weeks, but then declines to about an hour a day for the rest of the first year (St. James-Roberts &amp;amp; Halil, 1991). On a daily basis, the peak time for crying is late afternoon or evening. The phenomenon of &amp;quot;evening crying&amp;quot;, which can be quite disappointing to parents looking forward to interacting with their baby at the end of the workday, may be due to an accumulation of excess stimulation over the course of the day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The nature of crying and the reason for it change with development. Early on, crying reflects discomfort from pain,hunger, cold or overstimulation, although, from the beginning, infants also cry from frustration (Lewis, Alessandri, &amp;amp; Sullivan, 1990; Sternberg, Campos, &amp;amp; Emde, 1983). Crying gradually becomes more of a communicative act; the crying of older babies often seems geared to &amp;quot;tell&amp;quot; caregivers something to get them to respond (Gustafson &amp;amp; Green, 1988).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ISBN-13: 978-1429217903&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ISBN-10: 1429217901&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources cited by textbook:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;DeVries, M.W.&lt;/strong&gt; (1984). Temperament and infant mortality among the Masai of East Africa. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 141, 1189-1194.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Barr, R. G.&lt;/strong&gt; (1998). Colic and crying syndromes in infants. In J. G. Warhol and S. P. Shelov (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;New Perspectives in Early Emotional Development&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 147-157) Calverton, New York; Johnson &amp;amp; Johnson Pediatric Institute, LLC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Harkness, S., Super, C., Keefer, C. H., Raghavan, C. S., &amp;amp; Campbell, E. K.&lt;/strong&gt; (1996). Ask the doctor: The negotiation of cultural models in American parent-pediatrician discourse. In S. Harkness &amp;amp; C.M. Super (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Parent's cultural belief systems: Their origins, expressions and consequences&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Guildford.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Green, J.A., Jones, L.E., &amp;amp; Gustafson,G.E.&lt;/strong&gt; (1987) Perception of cries by parents and non parents: Relation to cry acoustics. &lt;em&gt;Developmental Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 23, 370-382.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;St. James-Roberts, I., &amp;amp; Halil, T.&lt;/strong&gt; (1991). Infant crying patterns in the first year: Normal community and clinical findings. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 32, 951-968.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Lewis, M. Alessandri, S. M., &amp;amp; Sullivan, M.W.&lt;/strong&gt; (1990). Violation of expectancy, loss of control, and anger expressions in young infants. &lt;em&gt;Developmental Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 26, 745-751.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sternberg, C., Campos, J., &amp;amp; Emde, R.&lt;/strong&gt; (1983). The facial expression of anger in seven-month-old infants. &lt;em&gt;Child Development&lt;/em&gt;, 54, 178-184&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Gustafson, G. E., &amp;amp; Green, J. A.&lt;/strong&gt; (1988, April). &lt;em&gt;A role of crying in the development of prelinguistic communicative competence&lt;/em&gt;. Paper presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies, Washington, DC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-24T08:35:10.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10721" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10765" CreationDate="2015-07-24T09:07:36.453" Score="7" ViewCount="1160" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose an entrepreneur or borrower with little credit or business history goes to a bank or some financial institution to borrow money.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Banks can use, as an alternative to a credit or business history, 'psychometric' or 'behavioural' tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are some 'psychometric' or 'behavioural' tests used to gauge creditworthiness of a potential borrower with limited credit history? Where can I read more about these (eg some articles, what kind of articles or journals, keywords to google)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8868" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-07-24T14:10:14.363" LastActivityDate="2015-07-31T03:43:47.877" Title="How can psychometric or behavioural tests be used in banking to evaluate creditworthiness?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10722" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-24T12:04:41.397" Score="1" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been wondering about this for a while... I've known people that struggle against depression and are medicated with SSRIs but there was a case that I found quite intriguing. There was a nineteen-year-old boy that didn't show any revealing symptoms of depression, other than unexplained stomach pains and nausea and the meds did fix that up for him. The thing is, he started to become quite detached, almost obsessed with studying others and started to present symptoms of detachment from other humans and some other weird behaviours. &#xA;Could this be related to SSRIs less studied side-effects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8883" LastActivityDate="2015-07-24T12:04:41.397" Title="Madness from Depression" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2015-07-27T17:45:51.460" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10724" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-25T13:38:53.833" Score="2" ViewCount="274" Body="&lt;p&gt;Usually when we think of people who are very aware of their surroundings or very sensitive to the subtleties in all situations, we assume that it is because their brains are more advanced so they can see and understand things that the average person cannot. An example of such a person is Oscar Wilde. From his books, it is clear that he has a very different view of the world around him. He was way ahead of his time and understood things that we are only beginning to understand. He was very aware of how the world works, and so was advanced philosophically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could it be that such people are that way because parts of the brain that should function unconsciously did not develop fully or properly? And so they are forced to do things consciously,which makes them think differently and consider a wider spectrum of things than the average person. So it is actually a defect and not an enhancement of the brain that had resulted in this effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastActivityDate="2015-07-25T13:38:53.833" Title="Are people who are very &quot;aware&quot; of the world that way because their brains are more advanced or les advanced?" Tags="&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-07-27T17:43:53.287" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10725" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-25T13:59:31.283" Score="8" ViewCount="2512" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a complete neuroscience novice so please bear with me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the more interesting theories of the etiology of ADHD that I've read posits that the disorder may be one of neuroenergetics - the result of insufficient and variable neuronal energy production due to insufficient &quot;formation and supply of lactate&quot; in astrocytes. As the theory goes, this impairs immediate response to cognitive demands due to a lack of sufficient ATP for &quot;rapidly firing neurons,&quot; and also affects development of the brain by impairing myelination on longer time scales. Abstract here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/16925830/&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/16925830/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm quite interested in how ketosis can be therapeutic for neurological/cognitive issues in general, and how it might ameliorate ADHD symptoms in particular - there appears to be some experimental evidence (at least in rat models) that it might do the latter. There also appears to be experimental evidence that ketosis increases levels of lactate in the brain: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/11043913/&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/11043913/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: if the theory proposed in the first link above is correct, would it be reasonable to think that a ketogenic diet might eliminate ADHD symptoms by addressing the lactate supply issue? Obviously the effects of years of impaired myelination would still be present, but could ketosis resolve the more immediate energy-supply issue and also possibly improve myelination going forward?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8893" LastEditorUserId="8893" LastEditDate="2015-07-25T14:05:45.743" LastActivityDate="2017-11-19T22:31:21.770" Title="Could ketosis be therapeutic for ADHD based on the neuro-energetic theory of attention?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10727" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-26T01:03:22.917" Score="2" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been wondering how a person would be affected if brain activity that is normally done automatically and unconsciously in a normal human being has to be done consciously by him, or vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I have seen videos of mathematical savants where they describe their mental mathematical calculation process to be unconscious rather than conscious. They would say things like, &quot;I see many colorful shapes and colors, then suddenly I know the answer to the equation.&quot; Whereas for the average person, calculating math mentally is a conscious activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What difference does it make if a thought is processed consciously or unconsciously? Would the brain scan look different?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I'd like to read more on this topic, but don't know how to go about searching on the internet because I don't know what the topic is called. Would be very helpful if you could suggest readings or topics I can search for. Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastEditorUserId="8894" LastEditDate="2015-08-19T01:48:04.433" LastActivityDate="2015-08-19T01:48:04.433" Title="Thinking consciously or unconsciously - Any difference in brain scan?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T23:24:16.367" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10730" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10598" CreationDate="2015-07-26T01:29:11.800" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have cats. Whenever I let them out into the garden, the birds in the trees start chattering like crazy. Probably they are warning each other of these predators. When they're back in the house, the birds stop. Interestingly, they have no reaction to my dog. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case, I guess the birds pass on the knowledge by warning each other whenever they see a cat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastActivityDate="2015-07-26T01:29:11.800" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10736" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10904" CreationDate="2015-07-26T05:59:59.853" Score="4" ViewCount="1158" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently conducting an experiment where a subject is shown a series of photographs of various objects. Each photo contains a single object. Before showing the photograph, a screen with a text indicating the name of the object is shown briefly. The objective is to analyze the eye-fixations that occur as subjects view the objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a free-viewing task, i.e. the subjects are asked to gaze at the pictures without explicitly searching for any attribute in particular. Typically, a bottom-up mechanism is thought to be active for such situations. Since I show the name of the object before showing its picture, most likely, I am priming the subject's visual system. Does this manner of priming make the task a top-down one even though there is no explicit &quot;search&quot; traditionally associated with top-down mechanisms ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, what is the relationship between top-down mechanisms and priming the visual system ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8681" LastActivityDate="2015-08-13T22:31:40.523" Title="What is the relationship between top-down mechanism and priming the visual system in the following experiment?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10737" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4084" CreationDate="2015-07-27T00:50:50.043" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imitating others behavior patterns while speaking was found to relate more to a cognitive perspective taking than empathy.&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.yale.edu/acmelab/articles/chartrand_bargh_1999.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chartrand and Bargh 1999&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who do adopt language patterns and accents are actually aware that this makes them fit it and more likable. However, this becomes more difficult to do with age. People who do not imitate accents/speech patterns easily may have a strong sense of identity with the region where they initially learned to speak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a personal note I have noticed a few young adults who have a diagnosed difficultly perceiving phonemes and have learned to lip-read to compensate for this are able to pick up accents more easily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8902" LastActivityDate="2015-07-27T00:50:50.043" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10738" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-27T05:25:10.420" Score="4" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do we train the threshold as a weight? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand the process of how to do it (the bias and augmented weight vector) but do not get the importance or practical applications of doing so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6411" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-07-28T09:59:59.817" LastActivityDate="2015-07-28T11:43:37.120" Title="Why do we train the threshold as a weight in neural networks?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;training&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10743" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-27T13:25:22.147" Score="0" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any means by which an observed entity (e.g.: an AI) can be tested for self-awareness using/applying/affecting mainly its visual-oral-auditory-senses and observed responses of same? Failing that, are there any such tests for organic life-forms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8906" LastActivityDate="2015-07-27T19:37:06.290" Title="Objective test for self-awareness?" Tags="&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10744" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-27T13:46:25.187" Score="1" ViewCount="386" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for some journal that publishes neuroscience research with focus on computational and/or methodological aspects. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-neuroscience-methods/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Journal of Neuroscience Methods&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; appears on a Google search but it has relatively low impact factor among the journals I have checked this far. What kind of reputation the journal has? Are there other good alternatives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8907" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-07-28T02:13:04.880" LastActivityDate="2015-07-28T02:22:25.433" Title="What kind of journal 'The Journal of Neuroscience Methods' is?" Tags="&lt;publication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-08-06T09:09:47.233" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10745" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10761" CreationDate="2015-07-27T15:14:25.660" Score="0" ViewCount="285" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for any empirical research about the correlation between the perceived difficulty level of humans and the mistake / errors they make while performing a task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would prefer studies with longer/more realistic tasks compared to simple task performed in the lab. I would also prefer studies in the field of software engineering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I could only find one study in this direction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0167876012005594/1-s2.0-S0167876012005594-main.pdf?_tid=40abcb00-3478-11e5-86f4-00000aab0f27&amp;amp;acdnat=1438012859_5fbb71c97292bc0be1fdc18bc4ea9c80&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Varying task difficulty in the Go/Nogo task: The effects of inhibitory control, arousal, and perceived effort on ERP components&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there others with longer/more realistic tasks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8908" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-07-28T09:59:00.557" LastActivityDate="2015-07-29T04:12:33.623" Title="What is the relationship between perceived difficulty and mistakes/errors?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10746" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-27T16:47:38.370" Score="5" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering whether even basic human behavior (beyond what appears to be directly wired into our nervous systems, like swallowing and face-related mirror neurons) are indeed facilitated by genetically determined features of the body (and by features of the environment), but only acquired through either operand conditioning (i.e. through exploration) or observational learning (i.e. through culture).  Cats, for example, have an innate urge to catch things, but they only really learn to hunt from &lt;a href=&quot;http://labs.libhub.org/denverpl/portal/Understanding%20cats%20:%20their%20history,%20natu/CFEaoc87/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;copying other cats&lt;/a&gt;. To some extent, the art of hunting can be thus seen as cat culture (it might just be very easily re-discoverable).  In this interpretation, the genetic predispositions for a fit phenotype are partly outsourced from a genetic to a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memetics&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;memetic&lt;/a&gt; encoding, and even basic behaviors require a fairly universal learning apparatus to be acquired. Given that a basic behavior such as hunting is not fully genetically encoded in cats, can we assume that no behavior roughly more complex than &lt;em&gt;chasing things&lt;/em&gt; is directly genetically encoded in humans, and that more complex behaviors are at most genetically facilitated in the body to be acquired by exploration and observation? Could, for example, the mother instinct be broken down to heuristic rewards a mother receives from seeing a small human, from empathic rewards from caring, from a heuristic attachment of the baby to a food source and warmth, and the rest is a matter of operand conditioning, exploration and culture?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any explanatory approaches along these lines in the literature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2570" LastEditorUserId="2570" LastEditDate="2015-07-27T18:15:28.967" LastActivityDate="2020-07-12T22:58:39.483" Title="Is it conceivable that even basic human behavior is genetically determinined only to a very limited extent?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10747" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-27T18:05:45.183" Score="1" ViewCount="2629" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading a lot about emotional responses lately, and the following points seem to surface in different writings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Amygdala&lt;/a&gt; is a very ancient system, intended to quickly alert a&#xA;  person of danger&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time, we have a part of our consciousness, where thoughts of danger, lack or negativity towards others may arise. I've seen spiritual/personal development writers attribute these thoughts to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego#Ego&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;function of the ego&lt;/a&gt;. I'm not sure if they are using the term correctly, as they have a mostly negative perception of the ego, as something that strives to dominate cognition and act out of fearful/selfish desires.  Here's a description from wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The ego is the organized part of the personality structure that&#xA;  includes defensive, perceptual, intellectual-cognitive, and executive&#xA;  functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand - &lt;strong&gt;Is person's ego a projection of the responses of their amygdala onto the conscious experience?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've looked around and see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.yaoconsulting.com/leggo-of-my-ego-moving-beyond-your-emotional-triggers-part-3-of-a-3-part-series/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;some bloggers like this one make a claim that the amygdala and the ego are one and the same&lt;/a&gt;. Is this true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clarify my question - I'm seeking to understand if there's a structure/process in cognition that integrates input from various &quot;lower mammal brain&quot; structures and translates them into thoughts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-13T00:57:09.680" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T00:34:41.083" Title="What is the relationship between the ego, amygdala and consciousness?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-08-14T13:21:57.073" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10749" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10743" CreationDate="2015-07-27T19:37:06.290" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;To test self-awareness in &lt;strong&gt;animals there is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mirror test&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. It involves painting something on the animal's head/face without their knowledge and observing what they do when they notice the paint in their own reflection in a mirror.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnet.com/news/cute-robot-politely-shows-self-awareness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;robots have been tested for simple self-awareness by researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2015-07-27T19:37:06.290" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10750" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-27T20:55:08.120" Score="3" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;In information security a shared secret is often used to authenticate users. (so-called sth-you-know authentication factor; examples include passwords, passphrases, numeric pin-s, graphical passwords (&lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.msdn.com/b/b8/archive/2011/12/16/signing-in-with-a-picture-password.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://blogs.msdn.com/b/b8/archive/2011/12/16/signing-in-with-a-picture-password.aspx&lt;/a&gt; , &lt;a href=&quot;http://passtouch.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://passtouch.com/&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common form of secret, 8-character password over all 95 ASCII chars, would contain ~53 bits of entropy ($95^8$ possibilities).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A password in top 1000 most common passwords would contain only ~10 bits of entropy (1000 possibilities) but would be easier to remember.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A 4-word passphrase over 10'000 most common words would also contain ~53 bits of entropy ($10'000^4$ possibilities), but would maybe(?) be easier to remember that 8 random characters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is based on the assumption that same amount of information represented in different formats (sound, image, text, song, movement, etc.) are not equally easy to remember. Maybe passwords (or text based methods in general) are not the best option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In which form can humans memorize the largest amount of information and present it to a computer device? I'd be glad if you could link some relevant research too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8914" LastActivityDate="2015-07-27T20:55:08.120" Title="Which format of secret would be the most efficient for human memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-02-12T08:56:02.747" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10751" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10756" CreationDate="2015-07-28T01:47:13.153" Score="3" ViewCount="1212" Body="&lt;p&gt;I guess the word &quot;gender&quot; needs to be defined, but that is part of the problem I suppose, since it can mean many different things to many different people. By gender, I do not mean anatomical physical sexual structures( like breasts, or a penis). Maybe the best definition I could conceive is: whether one identifies as man or women or w/e gender intermediate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is in the title, and I am aware that it could be due to both effects, and was curious about this question due to the existence of transgender people, which in my mind means gender is more of a social concept. But then some transpeople claim they have &quot;felt&quot; that they were a women or man at birth, which implies a biological origin. And even though both are &quot;story-based&quot; evidence, I was hoping for something more conclusive from this stackexchange. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8916" LastActivityDate="2018-05-24T04:16:18.570" Title="Is gender biologically or socially determined?" Tags="&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10752" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10744" CreationDate="2015-07-28T02:22:25.433" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not a complete answer, but more based on surface observations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;At time of posting, Journal of Neuroscience Methods has an impact factor of 2.0. This is quite a respectable impact factor.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The scimagojr puts in the second quartile of &quot;neuroscience (miscellaneous)&quot; journals &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=16765&amp;amp;tip=sid&amp;amp;clean=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=16765&amp;amp;tip=sid&amp;amp;clean=0&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is published by Elsevier. While Elsevier has its detractors, particularly around its open access policy, it is a respectable academic publisher.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-07-28T02:22:25.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10754" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10751" CreationDate="2015-07-28T06:21:25.457" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There has been a lot of debate amongst scientist, and they are not in agreement on any one argument. In general, there is a trend towards thinking that gender identity is based on biology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Argument that gender identity is based on biology:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/02/150213112317.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/02/150213112317.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/transgender-kids-show-consistent-gender-identity-across-measures.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/transgender-kids-show-consistent-gender-identity-across-measures.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scienceworldreport.com/articles/21032/20150109/gender-identity-determined-brain-region-cross-links.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.scienceworldreport.com/articles/21032/20150109/gender-identity-determined-brain-region-cross-links.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The arguments here are that the brain patterns of transgendered people are more similar to the brain patterns of people of the gender that they identify with, which seems to indicate that gender identity is based in biology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Argument that there is a lot more to be understood:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/opus/issues/2011/spring/gender_identity_development&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/opus/issues/2011/spring/gender_identity_development&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Neither the affects of prenatal and puberty hormones nor socialization alone are enough to explain gender identity development, the process must lie in a brain structure.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastEditorUserId="2584" LastEditDate="2015-12-23T21:36:03.087" LastActivityDate="2015-12-23T21:36:03.087" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10751" CreationDate="2015-07-28T13:38:39.250" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gender identity, or the gender that a person feels they are (regardless of physical makeup) is usually imprinted in the neural circuits in early childhood. This could be genetic, environmental, or a combination of both. Gender identity can also change at various points in life, and can change from moment to moment within the course of a day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are no nice, neat holes to fit things into (no pun intended.) There are as many possibilities and configurations as there are people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, the following link discusses these concepts in great detail and draws from multiple studies. References are provided on the 4th page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;...one's gender is on a continuum, a blending, analogous to a &quot;gray scale.&quot; But, our distribution of gender is bimodal, that is, most people are lumped at the two ends with only a minority in the middle. The great majority will see themselves as either male or female with all that implies. Probably more upsetting to our conventional view of gender than this fuzziness of gender roles is that we can be a MIX of male and female identities within the same individual.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.healthyplace.com/gender/inside-intersexuality/multi-dimensionality-of-gender/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.healthyplace.com/gender/inside-intersexuality/multi-dimensionality-of-gender/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2838" LastEditorUserId="2838" LastEditDate="2015-07-29T13:35:24.100" LastActivityDate="2015-07-29T13:35:24.100" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10759" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10725" CreationDate="2015-07-29T02:59:46.397" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whether or not there is truth to this theory, a ketogenic diet cannot 'eliminate ADHD symptoms'. ADHD is an impairment of executive functioning. Executive dysfunction is thought to be linked to a deficit in dopamine, as well as functional frontal lobe pathology. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_dysfunction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(1)&lt;/a&gt; There are certainly other theories as to what causes the disorder, and they are likely a byproduct of how broad a net the traditional ADHD 'symptoms list' seems to cast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no doubt that lactate is important. Recent evidence may suggest that lactate is preferentially metabolized over glucose by neurons in the brain. &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/glia.20528/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(2)&lt;/a&gt; However, while low lactate levels might produce behavioral effects that imitate those of ADHD, there is no evidence to suggest that the disorder itself can be traced to lactate levels in the brain. One way that we can observe this is by measuring executive functioning ability and lactate levels in humans as the result of acute exercise, since exercise is observed to raise lactate levels. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095254614001252&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This study&lt;/a&gt; shows that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...While acute exercise improved all aspects of executive functions in those without ADHD, acute exercise only improved inhibitory performance for those with ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, it does not look like the cure you are looking for is found in ketosis, assuming that it is the lactate you are monitoring (and also assuming that a ketogenoc diet does not raise lactate levels by a hyperincreased amount relative to that generated through rigorous exercise). Furthermore, the Wikipedia page for ketosis cites several sources that suggest that a ketogenic diet may be unhealthy, and even fatal if done improperly &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketosis#Controversy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(4)&lt;/a&gt;. But that last bit exceeds the scope of your question, so I'll leave you to look into that if you so desire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: Forgot to tackle the myelination issue, which seems to be a big part of your question, as well. Decreased myelination appears to lend itself toward addictive behaviors, and may worsen existing disorders through psychopathological means, but does not seem to cause the disorders themselves. An increase in myelination may help regulate symptoms, but cannot cure the sufferer of the disorder or eliminate the symptoms entirely, which seems to be what you are asking about. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.futurepundit.com/archives/003141.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(5)&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278584615000901&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(6)&lt;/a&gt; A well-balanced diet that supports the strengthening of myelin (i.e. Omega 3) is often a method of regulation for ADHD sufferers, but is not the rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="8248" LastEditDate="2015-07-29T03:11:43.577" LastActivityDate="2015-07-29T03:11:43.577" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10760" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10751" CreationDate="2015-07-29T03:11:56.827" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although most people only have two sex chromosomes (XX or XY) genetic defects seem to occur in this pair of chromosomes more frequently than others even though these are still rare. Some of these are:&#xA;- Extra X or Y chromosomes&#xA;- Phenotype one gender with genotype of another (i.e. male who has XX genes)&#xA;- Intersex individuals with that have characteristics of both genders&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Very few of the growing number of people who say they have been born with the body of the wrong gender show signs of chromosomal defects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most children are aware of their gender by age three. This becomes one of the first &quot;groups&quot; that they attempt to fit into. There are studies that show many boys and girls within Western society prefer different types of activities. However, the external characteristics that young children show to be like other males or females are not identical through out the world. So these characteristics are evidently learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8902" LastActivityDate="2015-07-29T03:11:56.827" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10761" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10745" CreationDate="2015-07-29T03:38:08.943" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/249535?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is an article&lt;/a&gt; that seems to describe what you are looking for. The researchers sought to test factors that influence the performance of software engineers. To quote from the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Goal difficulty has a negative relationship to performance but a positive relationship to effort. Because of this off-setting effect, the degree of goal difficulty has a relatively small overall effect on performance. Goal clarity also has a relatively small effect on performance. Individual ability has the strongest direct effect on perceived performance, more than twice as strong as the effects of work effort, personality dimensions, and perceived characteristics of the task. High achievement needs were directly related to both effort and perceived performance, whereas self-esteem and locus of control have a direct relationship to perceived performance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, it looks like an increase in perceived task difficulty lends itself to an increase in effort, but not overall task performance. Perceived performance is strongly tied to the individual's self-esteem and locus of control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: I forgot to mention this in my original post, but you might find it useful to know that there is also research on effort level relative to task difficulty. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1998.86.3.787&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This study&lt;/a&gt; assigned computer tasks that ranged in difficulty, and then gave participants high or low levels of reinforcement for performance on the task. The participants then were given an anagram task to measure performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...individuals who were highly reinforced for performance on the low-difficulty computer task spent less time persisting on the subsequent anagram task, demonstrating that the low level of effort generalized to another activity. Additionally, individuals who were given low levels of reinforcement for performance on the moderately high-difficulty computer task spent more time persisting on the anagram task. This demonstrated that the effort exerted on the first task, paired with low levels of reinforcement, generalized to the following task. However, participants who were given the highest-difficulty computer tasks did not generalize this effort. According to the researchers, this version of the task was so difficult that the participants could not succeed and thus demonstrated a pattern of behaviors similar to learned helplessness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_industriousness#Reinforcing_high_effort&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="8248" LastEditDate="2015-07-29T04:12:33.623" LastActivityDate="2015-07-29T04:12:33.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10762" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9477" CreationDate="2015-07-29T06:16:51.090" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alright, it's high time I actually answer this question.  Beatrice de Gelder and crew published two papers that examined this with fMRI (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.beatricedegelder.com/documents/VandenStock_SCAN_2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) and EEG (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24214921&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;fMRI study&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the fMRI study, they presented participants with emotional faces against threatening and neutral backgrounds, with various controls (a triangle, a scrambled background). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kahHM.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kahHM.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results are kind of complex and lengthy, so I'll quote the authors' summary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[W]e found no evidence of brain areas responding more to faces in a threatening background than to faces in a neutral background […]. On the other hand, the &lt;strong&gt;sgACC&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;right anterior PPA&lt;/strong&gt; responded more to neutral than to threatening backgrounds surrounding faces […]. Additionally, the results show that while similar background effects also obtain on bodies in the right anterior PPA, &lt;strong&gt;the effect in sgACC is face-specific and furthermore correlates with empathic ability&lt;/strong&gt;: higher empathy scores are related to smaller background effects on faces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They suggest that activation of the &lt;strong&gt;sgACC&lt;/strong&gt; represents mentalizing processes. Faces in a neutral background might make participants attribute certain thoughts to the figures (&quot;What is he thinking?&quot;).  On the other hand, faces against a threatening background might elicit &quot;orienting responses&quot; (e.g., &quot;What is going on?&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;right anterior PPA&lt;/strong&gt; is involved in topographic processing, which may be inhibited by the presence of a face. Inhibition may be greater for threatening vs. neutral scenes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;left FG&lt;/strong&gt; was also active, which may be involved in &quot;processing the affective face-context congruency.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;EEG study&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The goal of the EEG study was to examine the temporal dynamics of perceiving discrete emotions against complex, affective scenes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, the results are relatively complex, so I'll quote the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fear perception elicited significant activity at the earliest time segments, followed by disgust, happiness, and sadness.  Moreover, fear, disgust, and happiness were characterized by two time segments of significant activity, whereas sadness showed only one long-latency time segment of activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7UkfL.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7UkfL.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Above (the yellow part) you can see how emotions are not represented continuously in the brain across time and how the type of emotion being processed may be differentiable.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also attempted to localize the temporal activity in the brain, and they found widely distributed activity for fear (mostly RH), disgust (mostly RH), and happiness (mostly LH), and more limited activation for sadness. For example, see the results for fear&gt;neutral localization below: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BX0Ez.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BX0Ez.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, no brain area was unique to the perception of a specific emotion. Instead, there was lots of overlapping brain activity (which supports a constructionist approach to emotions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, I'm not sure either of these studies satisfactorily elucidate how we perceive emotional faces in different scenes, but they're a great start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-07-30T04:39:45.197" LastActivityDate="2015-07-30T04:39:45.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10763" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-29T23:47:30.527" Score="9" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why does one crave facebook likes or a pat on the back. Our actions are always governed by this phenomenon, and I don't understand why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8928" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T15:49:07.877" Title="Why does appreciation make us happy?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10721" CreationDate="2015-07-30T12:33:26.683" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not really my area of expertise, but I find that a very interesting question and googled a bit for answers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eflglobal.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EFL&lt;/a&gt; (Entrepreneurial Finance Lab) is a for-profit company claiming to be the market leader in psychometric loan scoring. The company has been spun out of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hks.harvard.edu/centers/cid/programs/entrepreneurial-finance-lab-research-initiative&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;research project&lt;/a&gt; of the Center of International Development at Harvard University. EFL's method has been covered in a number of media reports (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/magazine/content/10_30/b4188020389751.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.ft.com/beyond-brics/2014/06/25/psychometrics-help-ease-the-huge-em-funding-gap/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic idea is to apply psychometric data as the basis for determining whether to give micro-finance loans to would-be entrepreneurs in developing countries. In such emerging markets, traditional credit scoring used in industrialized nations are either not available or less reliable. If it works psychometrics might help to give loans to entrepreneurs who are less likely to default and thereby fight poverty in a more efficient way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that this is a proprietary test, it is difficult to get detailed information about the kind of data that is used. According to the news reports and the company website, they assess &lt;strong&gt;fluid intelligence&lt;/strong&gt;, certain &lt;strong&gt;attitudes and beliefs&lt;/strong&gt; that are predictive of entrepreneurial success (e.g., locus of control), concrete &lt;strong&gt;business skills&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;strong&gt;ethics and honesty&lt;/strong&gt;. Part of these data rely on self-report questions, others seem use more behavioral data (e.g., performance in intelligence tasks or risk games).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To predict creditworthiness, they use Bayesian hierarchical modeling. From what I gather, initially, they used data from meta-analyses of predictors of entrepreneurial success as input (e.g., Rauch &amp;amp; Frese, 2007). Now, they seem to use their own data for model-building.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A source for more information on how this works may be a book that has been published by the founders of EFL (Klinger, Khwaja, &amp;amp; del Carpio, 2013). Citing from an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/akhwaja/papers/Enterprising%20Psychometrics%20and%20Poverty%20Reduction%20Abstract.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;abstract of chapter 2&lt;/a&gt; of the book: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Regarding the &lt;strong&gt;Big 5 personality traits&lt;/strong&gt;, extroversion is found to be strongly related to higher profit levels, with weaker relationships for &#xA;  agreeableness (positive) and conscientiousness (negative). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Interestingly, &lt;strong&gt;integrity&lt;/strong&gt; is found to have a weak negative relationship with profits: the most honest entrepreneurs aren't the most honest (sic). Conversely, when considering default risk, the lowest risk entrepreneurs also tend to score higher on the integrity assessment, as well as register higher levels of conscientiousness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Digit span&lt;/strong&gt; (fluid intelligence), controlling for level of education, is negatively related to profit levels, but is not related to default risk. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;When combined&lt;/strong&gt;, these relationships with conscientiousness, honesty, and level of education have an AUC (a common metric of credit score predictive power) of 0.57 – 0.66, which is not extraordinarily strong when compared to credit scoring models in high - information countries and market segments, but it is &lt;strong&gt;sufficient to add significant value to the risk analysis&lt;/strong&gt; task facing banks lending to SMEs in emerging markets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We show that for one of the sample banks, risk of default for low-scoring clients is 50% higher than it is for high-scoring clients. Furthermore, we show that these &lt;strong&gt;results can be improved by customizing models to each country and financial institution&lt;/strong&gt;, which isn't surprising given the cultural differences between Peru, Colombia, Kenya and South Africa. While traditional methods of model building suffer challenges of doing this customization without large amounts of data, new methodologies such as Bayesian methods are shown to offer promise to improve results even further, making customization without over-fitting possible and further strengthening the case for using psychometric tools for credit risk analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An obvious question is whether this type of assessment can be &lt;strong&gt;gamed&lt;/strong&gt; by malicious borrowers and loan officers (who tell their customers how they think they should answer to get the loan). EFL &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eflglobal.com/about/faq/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;says&lt;/a&gt; they take various measures to prevent that (e.g., checking whether certain loan officers cause unlikely patterns of responses for their clients, randomization of responses, analyzing questions that have no obvious &quot;right&quot; answer, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The company claims to by highly successful in improving the quality of loan decisions by presenting a series of case studies. Nevertheless, given that this is a for-profit company and all analyses take place behind closed doors, it might be prudent to take this information with a &lt;strong&gt;grain of salt&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Klinger, B., Khwaja, A. I., &amp;amp; del Carpio, C. (2013). Enterprising Psychometrics and Poverty Reduction. SpringerBriefs in Psychology. New York, NY: Springer New York. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4614-7227-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4614-7227-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rauch, A., &amp;amp; Frese, M. (2007). Let’s put the person back into entrepreneurship research: A meta-analysis on the relationship between business owners’ personality traits, business creation, and success. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 16, 353–385. doi:10.1080/13594320701595438&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-30T16:34:45.767" LastActivityDate="2015-07-30T16:34:45.767" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10766" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10778" CreationDate="2015-07-30T15:02:28.243" Score="0" ViewCount="4137" Body="&lt;p&gt;People who had near death experience often found that they were able to see everything in slow motion and capture every details in their surrounding at that particular period. Because the brain process a lot of information at that time due to adrenaline in the blood to aid our chances of survival. So is there a way to train the brain to increase its processing capacity so we can perceive things like mentioned above all the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7449" LastActivityDate="2015-07-31T07:51:33.220" Title="How to train our brain to see everything in slow motion?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-08-06T09:09:41.990" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10767" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10776" CreationDate="2015-07-30T15:19:50.720" Score="2" ViewCount="1226" Body="&lt;p&gt;In an article i saw that &quot;Thinking about an activity can actually activate the parts linking to that activity&quot;. So i thought of giving it a try and i started to focus on the digits of my feet (they are the reflex points to head and neck), and strangely my head felt light and the stress in my neck was gone. I tried the same with other reflex points too and the results are the same as if i'm applying pressure with my fingers. So what is actually happening in this process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7449" LastActivityDate="2015-07-31T06:08:03.667" Title="What is happening when i focus my attention on a particular body part?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10768" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10792" CreationDate="2015-07-30T15:43:05.093" Score="3" ViewCount="8257" Body="&lt;p&gt;On an initial mental health consultation with a psychiatric nurse practitioner, I was asked, among many other odd questions, to count backwards by three. 100, 97, 94...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was quite a number of years ago and I've often wondered what the purpose behind this question was, and what some of the the other curious questions accomplish. I have my suspicions, but I'm not certain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's a baker's dozen?&#xA;What do you think &quot;people in glass houses shouldn't throw stones&quot; means?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8934" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-07-30T16:40:04.727" LastActivityDate="2015-08-02T04:08:11.330" Title="Why would I be asked to count backwards by 3, from 100 in a psychological test?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10769" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-30T15:49:44.430" Score="1" ViewCount="250" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to be a quality parents want to instill in their children, as well as i.e.- teenagers bragging about having music playing, texting, video chatting, all while doing homework, they claim is the best possible atmosphere; for getting their school work done....  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8904" LastActivityDate="2015-08-01T22:33:02.343" Title="Can humans really successfully multitask?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-08-06T09:08:04.460" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10770" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-30T22:16:27.723" Score="6" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hear a lot in the media about people sentenced to go to jail for a number of years divisible by 10.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does our numeral system affect it? Would courts sentence the same if we counted - for example - in base 7 (when &quot;10 years&quot; means 7 years, &quot;20 years&quot; means 14 years and so on)?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Which other important issues can be affected by this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8937" LastActivityDate="2015-07-30T22:16:27.723" Title="Would courts sentence differently if we used a different numeral system?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10771" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10787" CreationDate="2015-07-31T02:02:02.447" Score="4" ViewCount="34867" Body="&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversal_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Membrane Potential article&lt;/a&gt; mentions only that Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; ion is used to model inhibitory GABA synapses. Does it have another role besides hyper-polarizing the cell due to inhibitory neurotransmitter binding?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; ions are not taken into consideration in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.caam.rice.edu/~cox/neuro/pinskyrinzel.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pinsky &amp;amp; Rinzel 1994 Model&lt;/a&gt; or in &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00422-008-0263-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pospischil et. al. 2008 Models&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastEditorUserId="4055" LastEditDate="2015-08-03T03:49:49.137" LastActivityDate="2015-08-03T05:10:12.763" Title="What is the role of Chloride (Cl- ions) in membrane potential?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10776" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10767" CreationDate="2015-07-31T06:08:03.667" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer: You are discovering your bodymind.&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might want to look into trigger point therapy and myofascial release as Western complements to the Eastern reflex points that you mention.  I seem to recall &quot;tensegrity&quot; as a bodywork term describing the human tendency to form an identity/integrity from the structure of interconnected tension in various parts of the body.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trigger point therapy, myofascial release, and other forms of bodywork deconstruct a person's tensegrity. So do solo exercise modalities like yoga and meditation. &lt;strong&gt;Your mental exercise may have been discovering tensegrity between your toes and your head and neck.&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reflexes you describe will probably go away if you continue to do the exercise regularly. Think of the analogy of opening a window to let cool air inside so that you stop sweating.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to simply thinking about a body part, you can also tense it and then release it in what yoga people call bandhas. And you can imagine sending breath to a body part. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All these methods redirect blood flow and neural activity to the targeted body part, which triggers whatever reflexes are connected to the body part.  Some of the reflexes are autonomic.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Papers have been written documenting the ability of advanced yoga practitioners to consciously control the behavior of their autonomic nervous system, including slowing down their heart, etc.  Yogi Coudoux introduced a lot of westerners to this with his television demonstrations during the 1970s. You can Google Yogi Coudoux.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reflexes that you may have triggered may simply be the first step in a progressively greater ability to control your body if you continue bodymind exercise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8944" LastActivityDate="2015-07-31T06:08:03.667" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10777" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10769" CreationDate="2015-07-31T07:44:48.367" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Trying to do two things at once is usually a recipe for doing both badly, according to a long line of research. We’re slower and less accurate when we try to juggle two things.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, it is thought that multi-tasking is just the brain rapidly shifting its focus from one matter to another instead of doing both (or several) things simultaneously. This is very straining and distracting for the brain, and so it ends up doing less well on both tasks than it would if the tasks were done separately.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/research/action/multitask.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/research/action/multitask.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is an interesting article that says there might be more going on that that. The article explains 2 studies done that seem to indicate that our ability to perform a task might depend on the context in which we learnt to perform the task. E.g. &quot; If you’re typing while listening to a conference call, maybe you’re less likely to make mistakes if you were equally distracted when you originally learned to type.&quot; &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2015/01/the-curious-science-of-when-multitasking-works&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://hbr.org/2015/01/the-curious-science-of-when-multitasking-works&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastActivityDate="2015-07-31T07:44:48.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10778" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10766" CreationDate="2015-07-31T07:51:33.220" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is an article that explains that the time warp during near death experiences is an illusion. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/2117-time-slow-emergencies.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.livescience.com/2117-time-slow-emergencies.html&lt;/a&gt; In such situations, the mind captures more memories of the event. &quot;And the more memory you have of an event, the longer you believe it took.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastActivityDate="2015-07-31T07:51:33.220" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10779" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10780" CreationDate="2015-07-31T10:27:48.470" Score="3" ViewCount="410" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am curious to know if there is any existing literature that suggests that an increase in dopamine lends itself to an increased interest in solving problems of a mathematical nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-07-31T13:21:21.130" Title="What is the relationship between dopamine and mathematical ability (if any)?" Tags="&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10780" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10779" CreationDate="2015-07-31T13:21:21.130" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A study &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15229048&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Evidence that methylphenidate enhances the saliency of a mathematical task by increasing dopamine in the human brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; suggests that using of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylphenidate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Methylphenidate&lt;/a&gt; that is prescribed for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) increases the performance in mathematical tasks in healthy subjects. Methylphenidate primarily acts as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine-dopamine_reuptake_inhibitor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dopamine-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Methylphenidate, when coupled with the mathematical task,&#xA;  significantly increased extracellular dopamine, but this did not occur&#xA;  when coupled with the neutral task. The mathematical task did not&#xA;  increase dopamine when coupled with placebo. Subjective reports about&#xA;  interest and motivation in the mathematical task were greater with&#xA;  methylphenidate than with placebo and were associated with dopamine&#xA;  increases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastActivityDate="2015-07-31T13:21:21.130" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10781" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10510" CreationDate="2015-07-31T17:16:39.693" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading facial expressions is very important to understand others' intentions &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/%7Esocpsy/papers/FaceEmotionSocialization.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Heise, 1985)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent research indicates that (1) the human face is a highly sophisticated signaling system for communicating affect, and (2) affect plays a key role in the experience of social organization and in the day-by-day production of culture. This essay suggests that emotional displays—on the face especially—are a primary means of socialization, allowing a neophyte to attain knowledge of the sociocultural system rapidly and efficiently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having a visual impairment may yield difficulties in socializing (at least in child in the Autism Spectrum Disorder) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24361810&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hellendoorn, et al, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study suggests that visual perception may be a mechanism in the development of interpersonal relationships in ASD, which is in accordance with an embodied approach to social cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...and in schizophrenia cases, as per @what comment &lt;a href=&quot;http://greenlab.npih.ucla.edu/Publications/Sergi%20et%20al_SocCog_AJP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sergi et al, 2006)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social cognition appears to be a key determinant of functional status in schizophrenia. Using a very basic measure of visual perception, the present study found that social perception mediates the influence of early visual processing on functional status in schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other indirect consequences may happen due to behavior related to some visual disorder. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.visuallearningcenter.com/tag/vision-problems-and-social-skills/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vision problems and social skills&lt;/a&gt; (note: not a peer-reviewed article):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vision problems also affect social interaction. Your child might appear awkward, clumsy, or other children may complain that he is invading their personal space, because he has trouble with spatial and body awareness and depth perception. The other children might treat him differently because he has developed coping habits, such as constantly rubbing his eyes, squinting, or tilting his head, or because he often complains of headaches or nausea. He may become distracted while talking or ignore the rhythm of a conversation and other social cues. Children or other parents might unfairly judge this behavior as unmannerly or inconsiderate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dealing with difficulty in school, awkwardness in social settings, poor performance in physical activities, and strained relationships with parents is a lot for a child to handle. While children with other learning disabilities may excel in sports or sociability, vision problems interfere more often beyond the classroom. Falling behind academically and being treated differently by peers and adults can lead to low self-esteem and withdrawal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7633" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-07-31T17:16:39.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10782" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10785" CreationDate="2015-07-31T17:42:35.803" Score="7" ViewCount="539" Body="&lt;p&gt;My friend was diagnosed with ADHD as a kid, but her parents disagreed with such a diagnosis on the grounds that she had a high IQ which was discovered when her psychologists and psychiatrists were investigating what mental illnesses she may have had.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: There was medicine prescribed, but she and her mother can't remember the name of her prescribed medicine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought back to that when reading this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Myth #10: Kids with ADHD won't amount to anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many famous artists, scientists, and politicians had ADHD as children.&#xA;  Here's a list of some well-known celebrities with ADHD:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me based on that and the things I've heard that people think ADHD in children causes poor academic performance, but the myth is that such poor academic performance is suggesting that said children &quot;won't amount to anything&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, people don't think that children with ADHD can be geniuses?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Expansion: &lt;strong&gt;Is it, however, also a misconception (whether as prevalent as a myth or not) that people who &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/KifVG4I3AZw?t=117&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;are thought to have mental illnesses&lt;/a&gt; instead are geniuses or something like that?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By genius I mean someone with a high IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8950" LastEditorUserId="8950" LastEditDate="2015-08-04T19:51:10.270" LastActivityDate="2019-01-07T11:41:28.303" Title="Does high IQ give cause to doubt an ADHD diagnosis?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10783" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-07-31T20:11:16.500" Score="6" ViewCount="560" Body="&lt;p&gt;In computer science, neural networks are trained using backpropagation and other methods. Backpropagation heavily relies on mathematical formulas to describe how the weights should be changed throughout the network to effect the final output of the system. Biological neurons need to be able to adjust as well, if I'm not mistaken. What happens within a neuron to cause it to adjust its output? In other words, are biological neurons &quot;trained&quot; and if so, what is the process behind it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8953" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-02T13:41:48.330" LastActivityDate="2015-08-02T22:28:19.870" Title="How do neurons decide how to alter their output signals?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10784" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10783" CreationDate="2015-07-31T22:59:12.487" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;This will be a long post. FYI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge, there is no evidence for back propagation in the brain. If you're interested specifically in that topic, Geoffrey Hinton (Dept. of CS @ UofT) has written about it. I'll try to focus on the biology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some basic neurophysiology first. Neurons have a slightly negative electrical resting potential (prototypically ~-70 mV). When they fire (following &lt;em&gt;depolarization&lt;/em&gt;) this increases. As you may guess, they can also &lt;em&gt;hyperpolarize&lt;/em&gt; (less potential to fire an impulse). As you may also be able to guess, other neurons in the network can influence one another to make them more or less likely to fire. This, and indeed most, neuron-neuron communication occurs at synapses. A synapse is a small gap between the presynaptic neuron and postsynaptic neuron, as you're likely already aware. Respectively, these correspond to an axon (sending a signal) and a dendrite (receiving a signal). Long story short, when depolarized the presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters (NT) which are received by the post synaptic neuron. This results in changes in concentration of ions in the postsynaptic neuron (inside vs. outside of the neuron). This can result in the postsynaptic neuron firing itself. The  ions primarily implicated in this are Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+), transduced though ion specific Na+ and K+ ion channels in neuronal membranes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the most critical ions related to your question, however, is Calcium (specifically, Ca2+). This ion often acts as an intracellular messenger, that is when it is 'let into' the cell after that neuron receives an impulse, it activates biochemical processes inside the neuron, e.g., to produce more of a protein.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How neurons actually learn has been a difficult problem to model. We know that neurons can potentate, that is a neuron can come to exert more control over the firing of another neuron. Indeed, it has been known for a long time that firing neurons strengthen connections. The famous aphorism for this is &quot;neurons that fire together, wire together&quot; (coined by the brilliant scientist Carla Shatz, now at Stanford). The problem is that if neurons just kept getting stronger, it leaves no room for information to be 'unlearned', which it is obvious it can be, for new information to be added to the system, or, indeed, information to ever be really learned at all. You'll see why in a moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One attempt to model the problem of neuronal learning is &lt;strong&gt;Beinenstock Cooper and Munro (BCM) Theory&lt;/strong&gt;. Its basic proposition is that a connection that was once weak can become strong (and &lt;em&gt;vica versa&lt;/em&gt;).&#xA;Specifically, what it attempts to model can be thought of as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine we have three stimuli (e.g., red, green, blue) and three cells. Before much exposure, all of these neurons respond ~equally to each of the stimuli (colors). After exposure the neurons respond differentially, that is neuron 1 might respond strongest to red; neuron 2 to green; and neuron 3 to blue. We might call this 'learning' because we wittness an increase in responding to a stimuli but also -- and this is critical -- a &lt;em&gt;decrease&lt;/em&gt; in responding to other stimuli. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biologically, one heavily implicated mechanism in this process is the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). Following binding of glutamate (a NT), this receptor allows Ca2+ into the postsynaptic cell. This animates intracellular events that result in either potentiation (typically in the form of Long Term Potnetation [LTP]) or depression (typically in the form of Long Term Depression [LTD]). In short, an increase or decrease a presynaptic neurons' ability to exert control over the postsynaptic neuron.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In simple terms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt; When low amounts of Ca2+ are conducted through the NMDAR --&amp;gt; LTD&#xA;&amp;gt; When hight amounts of Ca2+ are conducted through the NMDAR --&amp;gt; LTP&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Critically, there is a modification threshold. This is the point at which LTD turns into LTP. This is represented by the greek letter theta (θ). BCM theory proposes a shifting threshold. If a synapse gets very strong, then θ shifts such that it becomes difficult to strengthen the connection further and &lt;em&gt;easier&lt;/em&gt; to weaken it. Likewise, if a synapse becomes very depressed, θ will shift to allow it to more easily become potentiated and harder to weaken it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://images.scholarpedia.org/w/images/b/bb/BCM_Main_figure.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;graphically&lt;/a&gt; you can visualize potentiation as the threshold shifting to the right. That is, the amount of Ca2+ that would have produced potentiation, now produces depression. The reverse, obviously, can also happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, what we've arrived at is something that looks rather computational. While I am not aware of a &lt;em&gt;truly&lt;/em&gt; precise mathematical description of this process, it is obvious that such a description is, in principle, possible. You can see the math. proposed currently &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/BCM_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; (it seems implausible it could be that simple to me...and the assumptions made seem daft, but that's just my own commentary). &#xA;There are precise models of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuronal potentials&lt;/a&gt; and people are trying to put BCM (or something like it) into very precise terms. As you can image, this is extremely difficult because of the complexity of the biology, especially what Ca2+ is actually doing in the cell. In many ways, that is still a black box although we're learning about it at a very rapid rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In closing, biology seems to have solved the problem of learning very differently than computer scientists. As someone with both a mathematics and neuroscience background, I find the fact that this is possible to be simply incredible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7961" LastEditorUserId="7961" LastEditDate="2015-08-01T14:58:01.103" LastActivityDate="2015-08-01T14:58:01.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10785" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10782" CreationDate="2015-08-01T07:01:59.973" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sounds to me like someone is making a logical fallacy here, though the origin of this fallacy isn't clear to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We cannot go from 'poor academic performance', to 'not amounting to anything', to 'having a low IQ'. These are not relationships of cause and effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The motivation to do something ('amount to something', if you will) is driven primarily by the reward-center. The neurotransmitter 'dopamine' is considered to be a large player in this game. Dopamine tends to project to the areas associated with reward (and these areas are clustered into the abstraction known as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure_center&quot;&gt;pleasure center&lt;/a&gt;). Incidentally, ADHD has shown to be a dysfunction of executive reasoning as a result of low dopamine levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ is not determined by executive functioning. IQ is almost independent of executive functioning. If they were interchangeable, then Albert Einstein would have a very low IQ compared to, say, Donald Trump. I say that it is 'almost' independent because it is not clear that there is no relationship between the two at all. Studies have shown that ADHD sufferers show an average increase of 4.5 IQ points after long-term use of dopamine-reuptake inhibitors. [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also be interested in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.grcne.com/misperceptions-about-giftedness.html&quot;&gt;this page&lt;/a&gt; to answer the second part(?) of your question. It is well-written and extremely insightful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Millichap JG (2010). &quot;Chapter 3: Medications for ADHD&quot;. In Millichap JG. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 121–123.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-01T07:01:59.973" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10786" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-01T11:38:55.097" Score="5" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is well known and frquently quoted that &quot;correlation does not imply causation&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, I've scoured the wikipedia article &quot;Correlation does not imply causation&quot; and the relevant keywords in google scholar, and could not find any research that clearly shows that people use correlation to infer causation. There are some examples from popular newspapers and mentions of &quot;cum hoc ergo propter hoc&quot; as a long known fallacy, but no empirical research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that shows that people have a &quot;correlation implies causation&quot; fallacy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8957" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-08T07:05:09.007" LastActivityDate="2015-08-08T07:05:09.007" Title="Research that shows that people infer causation from correlation" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10787" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10771" CreationDate="2015-08-01T13:32:20.810" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In normal neurons, Chloride's reversal potential is near the resting potential for the neuron and also happens to be near the leak conductance reversal potential for the neuron. While not exactly the same these three are sometimes confused. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference between these three reversal potentials is subtle. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Chloride Reversal Potential: is the potential carried only by the chloride ion. Therefore it given by the Nernst Equilibrium Potential.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Leak Reversal Potential: The conductance that remains (relatively) constant. As useful metaphor the leak conductance is the passive conductance of ions through the membrane. This current can be carried by any Ion.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Resting Potential: The voltage where the neuron is at rest, usually when it is at a steady state. It is defined by all ion's that permeate the membrane at rest. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldman_equation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;see GHK&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because these three reversal potentials are approximately the same that means many computational neuroscience papers will consider only consider the leak current like the two paper's you linked. However, if there is reason to consider Chloride conducting channels specifically (like GABA receptors) then there will be a specific term for the Chloride Ion's Reversal potential. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a computational perspective, the fact that the Chloride reversal potential is close to the rest potential is actually important. It is capable of shunting inhibition. In short this means that the neurons membrane potential is moved closer to rest, rather than more negative as is the case with regular hyperpolarizing current carried by Potassium Ions. Thus if the membrane potential is below the driving potential for chlorine the shunting inhibition will actually slightly depolarize the cell. Note that this small depolarization  will not pass the chlorine reversal potential, thus keeping the cell at rest and preventing firing, despite &quot;depolarizing the cell&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While it is generally true that hyperpolarizing current suppresses firing, there are exceptions to this rule. For example, if a neuron is a resonator (fires in response to certain frequency of input) then hyperpolarizing inputs at the right frequency will cause the neuron to fire. Note, However this is only true for the current carried by Potassium Ions, and shunting inhibition will prevent this type of hyperpolarize-induced firing. The reasoning for this is quite complex, but a good (albeit math-heavy) explanation see &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/dynamical-systems-neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dr. Izhikevich's book Chp 7.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7610" LastActivityDate="2015-08-01T13:32:20.810" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10788" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10890" CreationDate="2015-08-01T13:53:37.770" Score="5" ViewCount="900" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvin_D._Yalom&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Irwin D. Yalom&lt;/a&gt; is a famous &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;existential psychotherapist&lt;/a&gt; who's sporting his own theory about human psychology. Based on psychdynamics, he's stating that questions and thoughts pertaining to &lt;em&gt;death&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;freedom&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;meaninglessness&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;existential isolation&lt;/em&gt; lead to anxiety. Further, when it comes to psychopathology, he states (page 110 of his book &lt;em&gt;Existential psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;) that his theory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;as do most paradigms of psychopathology, on the assumption that&#xA;  psychopathology is a graceless, inefficient mode of coping with&#xA;  anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, I'm trying to figure out whether he views &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; kind of psychopathology this way, and indeed what he thinks counts as psychopathology in the first place. I recon he's not talking about things like for example autism or psychopathy (even though I haven't found any passages where he explicitly excludes these), but what about diagnoses such as schizophrenia? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For Yalom, where does one draw the line between mental illness caused by inefficient coping strategies for anxiety, and brain disorders that simply are due to other reasons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="86" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-08-01T19:11:26.847" LastActivityDate="2015-08-11T23:41:45.640" Title="According to Yalom, what mental disorders are caused by inefficient anxiety coping strategies?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10789" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10786" CreationDate="2015-08-01T14:53:53.207" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A much-cited reference on the statistical backgrounds is this one: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01621459.1954.10483515&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Simon (1954), Spurious Correlation: A Causal Interpretation, &lt;em&gt;J Am Stat Assoc&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;49&lt;/strong&gt;(267)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more recent, open access but applied research paper on the topic is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982211013212&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Parise &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2013), When Correlation Implies Causation in Multisensory Integration, &lt;em&gt;Curr Biol&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;22&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 46–9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-02T04:11:29.930" LastActivityDate="2015-08-02T04:11:29.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10790" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-01T22:25:59.453" Score="1" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am testing an idea for a book. The backbone of the story is that there exists a parasite that can enter the brain of a creature and take over its cognitive functions. I imagine that it could wire itself in some central part of the brain or neural system, but I am not an educated physician. Let us assume that the being infested is a human. I would like some input:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Is this at all possible? I know it is possible with parasites that infest insects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) What area of the brain/neural system would it have to take over, or how at all could this happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) The parasite just hijacks the brain, does not destroy it. If it decided to retreat, how much of the information/memories acquired during the infestation period could it carry with it? How much of the events happened during this period would be accessible to the subject after retreat?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) If we assume a parasite that itself has some cognitive ability, and does not act just out of infestation instinct, how large would it have to be in order to be able to have its own (even basic) thoughts, and retain memories of the subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would appreciate any input on these questions, and any related thoughts you might have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question has been put on hold because &lt;em&gt;answers to this question will tend to be almost entirely based on opinions, rather than facts, references, or specific expertise&lt;/em&gt;. With all due respect to the hard work of the moderators, I have to disagree. To begin with, all answers to all questions and even the questions themselves are exclusively opinion-based. Otherwise we would have to assume that there really is any truth that can be objectively be known and agreed upon. No one has ever been able to prove that anything besides our consciousness exits. But if even we have to tone down our agnostic perspective (why do we have to do that?) if you mean that there is not (in the world that you believe you perceive) enough evidence and research to support informed answers, then again this is not right. A user replied with an example of something like this occurring (evidence) and another with a very elaborate answer with examples and cited references to how something like this could happen. I strongly believe that more informed answers can come through.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8962" LastEditorUserId="8962" LastEditDate="2015-08-07T16:24:20.733" LastActivityDate="2015-08-07T16:24:20.733" Title="Parasite that takes over cognitive functions" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-08-06T09:06:34.900" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10791" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10769" CreationDate="2015-08-01T22:33:02.343" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;People have a tendency to get distracted during mundane tasks that are not immediately rewarding. They counteract this by doing things that are immediately rewarding, such as answering a text, listening to music, or checking Facebook notifications. We tend to repeat behaviors that feed the pleasure center of our brain, and thus we learn associate certain behaviors with pleasure (and feel encouraged to continue repeating them once they are determined as 'pleasurable' behaviors). For this reason, we may keep coming back to things that have been pleasurable in the past, and all the more better if that thing can retrieve the pleasure in a relatively quick period of time (i.e. music, Facebook, versus exercise or reading a good novel). There is evidence for this in the phenomenon known as 'conditioned place preference', which is a person's conditioned preference for places that they associate with high reward, and an aversion to places that remind them of negative or traumatizing events. In those who take stimulant medication (medications that tackle the 'reward' center of the brain), there appears to be a developed conditioned place preference for the area(s) where the medication is taken. [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, it may be that children need these distractions in order to increase their &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;intrinsic motivation&lt;/a&gt; to focus on tasks that are not immediately rewarding. In that sense, this form of multitasking can be seen as helpful. The problem steps in when you have people who are intolerant to unpleasant stimuli (i.e. people who naturally have low activity in their pleasure centers). These people may find it difficult to multitask because they may struggle to focus on one thing long enough to understand it. They may also demonstrate impulsive behaviors due to lack of control over their reward center (and, by proxy, their motivation). [2] &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The optimal learning state is considered to be that of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;flow&lt;/a&gt;, colloquially known as being 'in the zone'. This occurs when&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a person performing an activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment in the process of the activity. In essence, flow is characterized by complete absorption in what one does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The suggestion behind such a mental state is that the person is singularly focused on the task at hand. Therefore, it may be less that multi-tasking increases one's ability to perform well in school; rather, it may be that the ability to achieve a sense of singular-minded focus on one task at a time may put you in a better position to accomplish more in a shorter amount of time. In this sense, it isn't how much the student can do at once, but how much the student can accomplish in a set time period that may determine their success in school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Tzschentke, T.(2007). Measuring reward with the conditioned place preference(CPP) paradigm: update of the last decade. Addiction Biology. 12, 227-462.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Grant JE, Potenza MN (2004). &quot;Impulse Control Disorders: Clinical Characteristics and Pharmacological Management&quot;. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 16 (1): 27–34.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-01T22:33:02.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10792" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10768" CreationDate="2015-08-02T04:08:11.330" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why would I be asked to count backwards by 3, from 100 in a psychological test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is to test your cognitive reasoning abilities, particularly your ability to concentrate and recall serial information. Similar tests are administered to injured sports players to ensure that they do not have a concussion. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_sevens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What's a baker's dozen? What do you think &quot;people in glass houses shouldn't throw stones&quot; means?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is used to test your ability to handle abstraction in language. One symptom of autism is an inability to understand metaphorical significance of language in non-literal terms. While the average adult would understand that the second sentence is a proverb (and can infer its meaning even without context), an autistic adult might interpret the sentence literally, i.e. 'people in glass houses shouldn't throw stones because their parents might get mad at them.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-02T04:08:11.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10793" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10271" CreationDate="2015-08-02T04:54:42.823" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Low motivation can stem from a variety of different things. A lot of it boils down to low neurotransmitter activity in areas traditionally associated with motivation. The neurotransmitter 'dopamine' plays a significant role in the regulation of pleasure, reward, and motivation. The neurotransmitter 'serotonin' is thought to regulate emotional well-being and happiness. 'Norepinephrine' is considered to be responsible for vigilance in concentration, and the locus coeruleus (the principal site for norepinephrine synthesis) is said to receive input from the orbitofrontal cortex, which is an area of the brain also involved with reward, motivation, and impulse control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With low neurotransmitter activity comes certain behaviors and mental states that are commonly associated with specific mental disorders. Low levels of serotonin (and, henceforth, dopamine and norepinephrine, insofar as they are mediated by serotonin) can result in clinical depression. Low levels of dopamine and norepinephrine are thought to be associated with disordered attention, executive functioning, and motivation disorders, such as attention deficit disorder and sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Persistent laziness can also be a learned trait. Norepinephrine also seems to be closely involved with the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which plays a role in the control of certain autonomic functions such as heart rate. Norepinephrine also seems to be somewhat involved with urgency (fight-or-flight), and is thought to be activated in times of physiological stress. From a social standpoint, if there is no social pressure to work, then the activation of norepinephrine needn't happen. It is also worth noting that stimulation of the ACC is thought to provide relief for those suffering from major depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long-term laziness implies that any some combination of the above has been occurring for a long period of time. The best way to counteract long-term laziness would be to find a happy medium between behavioral adjustment and (in more extreme cases) medical treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-02T04:54:42.823" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10794" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10895" CreationDate="2015-08-02T05:01:25.423" Score="7" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;During the development of the human brain, specific areas come to perform specific functions. How (and when) does this differentiation come about?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably, some areas of the brain naturally take on a function that is based on their physical proximity - for example, the visual cortex is the brain area directly connected to the optic pathway. Hence from a developmental perspective, it is natural for it to take on the role of processing visual information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the production of language, for example, could potentially take place in any area of the brain adjacent to the auditory cortex. So how does it come about that it typically always gets processed in Wernicke's area?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it predetermined genetically? And if so, how? (pre-mapped synapses?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or is it determined later through some kind of learning process?  And if so, what is the explanation for the similarity of brain maps between individuals?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-12T12:05:23.667" LastActivityDate="2015-08-12T23:52:09.773" Title="How does it come about that specific areas of the brain are associated with specific functions?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10795" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-02T09:25:03.027" Score="1" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If a person X has gratitude towards person Y, will that cause bias of affection for X towards Y ?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Can there be a case that X tend to be more affectionate to a person Z to whom X has less gratitude comparatively to that of Y ?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is it common that gratitude perceived to be affection ?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6945" LastActivityDate="2015-08-02T09:25:03.027" Title="Gratitude and Affection" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;social-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10796" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-02T13:35:24.293" Score="10" ViewCount="2691" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading an interesting book  which makes mostly founded claims. However, there is no reference to any studies in regards to one of the following claims: according to the author, visualizing something that never happened every day for 3 weeks results in a memory which seems as real as any memory of something that did happen&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's not focus on the 3 weeks statement. The interesting part is the claim that we can actually create memories which are as good as real. I am well aware that our memory is terrible. I've read around about various ways in which our memories can be changed: phrasing questions in a certain way, basing some false information on real information, priming etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But can we &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt; make something that behaves just like a real memory, even if we are well aware that in reality, it's just a scenario that we imagined and repeated in our minds multiple times?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5006" LastEditorUserId="5006" LastEditDate="2015-08-02T19:24:19.207" LastActivityDate="2016-04-13T11:08:36.883" Title="Intentionally making ourselves remember things that never happened" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10797" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10783" CreationDate="2015-08-02T13:36:07.293" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Neurons can increase or decrease the amplitude of their response. A neuron's response strength can be regulated by adjustment of the cell-surface expression of excitatory receptors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;First off, this question is very broad. To narrow it down I will focus on learning processes in the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycheducation.org/brain-tours/memory-learning-and-emotion-the-hippocampus/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hippocampus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; involving &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;long-term potentiation&lt;/a&gt; (LTP). LTP in the hippocampus is thought to be an essential feature of learning. Much of the work on LTP has focused on the synaptic connections between the Schaffer collaterals and CA1 pyramidal cells (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/l4iep.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/l4iep.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;LTP in hippocampus&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. LTP in hippocampus. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10878/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2001)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Electrical stimulation of Schaffer collaterals generates &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;excitatory postsynaptic potentials&lt;/a&gt; (EPSPs) in the postsynaptic CA1 cells (Figure 1). If the Schaffer collaterals are stimulated only two or three times per minute, the size of the evoked EPSP in the CA1 neurons remains constant. However, a brief, high-frequency train of stimuli (a &lt;strong&gt;tetanic stimulation&lt;/strong&gt;) to the same axons causes &lt;strong&gt;LTP&lt;/strong&gt;, which is evident as a long-lasting &lt;strong&gt;increase in EPSP amplitude&lt;/strong&gt; (Fig. 2). LTP also occurs at many other synapses, both within the hippocampus and in a variety of other brain regions, including the cortex, amygdala, and cerebellum &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10878/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2001)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/u6U0l.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/u6U0l.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;LTP&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. LTP. Long-term potentiation of Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses. (A) Recording of synaptic transmission. Two stimulating electrodes (1 and 2) activate Schaffer collaterals. (B) Left: Synaptic responses recorded in a CA1 neuron in response to single stimuli of synaptic pathway 1, minutes before and one hour after a high-frequency train of stimuli. The high- frequency stimulus train increases the size of the EPSP evoked by a single stimulus. Right: Responses produced by stimulating synaptic pathway 2, which did not receive high-frequency stimulation, is unchanged. (C) The time course of changes in the amplitude of EPSPs evoked by stimulation of pathways 1 and 2. High-frequency stimulation of pathway 1 causes a prolonged enhancement of the EPSPs in this pathway (purple). This potentiation of synaptic transmission in pathway 1 persists for several hours, while the amplitude of EPSPs produced by pathway 2 (orange) remains constant. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10878/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2001)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For LTP to occur, both pre- and postsynaptic neurons need to be active at the same time, because the postsynaptic neuron must be depolarized when glutamate is released presynaptically. This has to with the need to overcome the Mg&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; block of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK5274/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NMDAR receptors&lt;/a&gt;. NMDA receptors are regulatory receptors that allow Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; to enter the cell. Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;, in turn, can affect important regulatory processes in neurons, such as receptor expression. As a consequence of coincident depolarization and glutamate binding, calcium influx (through NMDARs) is maximal, which activates intracellular signaling cascades that ultimately are responsible for the altered synaptic efficacy. NMDAR-dependent LTP is therefore an associative form of plasticity and fulfills the criteria for correlated activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversely, long-term depression can be induced by repeated activation of the presynaptic neuron at low frequencies without postsynaptic activity. Because the driving force for Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; is very large for a neuron at rest and the block of NMDARs by Mg&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; is incomplete even at resting potentials, significant Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; enters the cell in response to synaptic stimulation during low-frequency synaptic stimulation. Presumably it is repeated occurrence of this smaller NMDAR-dependent Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; influx that triggers LTD induction &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3367554/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Lüscher &amp;amp; Malenka, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While NMDA receptors are key to learning, it is the workhorse of glutamatergic signalling that ultimately mediates LTP, namely the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10802/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;AMPA receptor&lt;/a&gt;. LTP is generally thought to be mediated by an &lt;strong&gt;increase of AMPA receptors&lt;/strong&gt; in the postsynaptic neuron, conversely, LTD uis believed to be mediated by a decrease in expressed AMPA receptors. The process of AMPA receptor shuttling between intracellular vesicles and the cell membrane takes only minutes &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693162/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Malinow, 2003)&lt;/a&gt;.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3367554/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lüscher &amp;amp; Malenka, &lt;em&gt;Perspect Biol&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;(6): a005710&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693162/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Malinow, &lt;em&gt;Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2003); &lt;strong&gt;358&lt;/strong&gt;(1432): 707–14&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10878/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. eds. &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;. 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-02T22:28:19.870" LastActivityDate="2015-08-02T22:28:19.870" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10800" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="60" CreationDate="2015-08-02T14:39:50.000" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally, there is poor support for the threshold theory.  Though the last poster referenced a newer study which applied 'empirical break-point detection', such results are unsurprising, because of their tautological nature. The results depend on a specific definition of what creativity is, and only then could the authors obtain a relationship. Furthermore, any relationship between creativity and IQ, is likely better explained by the mediation of specific sub-factors, for example long term memory fluency, complex fluency, and associative memory.  Creativity is left best as being defined as, the ability to produce novel relationships.  The threshold theory, is just a means for intelligentsia (analytical proponents) to inflate the value of IQ, and maintain their elitist and grandiose sense of worth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8967" LastActivityDate="2015-08-02T14:39:50.000" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10802" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10796" CreationDate="2015-08-02T17:40:50.320" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I understood correctly, you are talking about &quot;false memories&quot; in the context of the following definition in &lt;a href=&quot;http://memlab.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/2001_Johnson_FalseMemories.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Johnson, M. K., 2001)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;A false memory is a mental experience that is mistakenly taken to be&#xA;  a veridical representation of an event from one's personal past.&#xA;  Memories can be false in relatively minor ways (e.g., believing one&#xA;  last saw the keys in the kitchen when they were in the living room)&#xA;  and in major ways that have profound implications for oneself and&#xA;  others (e.g., mistakenly believing one is the originator of an idea or&#xA;  that one was sexually abused as a child).&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://webfiles.uci.edu/eloftus/Loftus_ScientificAmerican_Good97.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt; Scientific American,&#xA;September 1997, Vol. 277 # 3,&#xA;pages 70-75&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a an article from 1997 by Elizabeth Loftus that may shed light on your question.&#xA;Yes, the information may be outdated and recent research might have expanded on it. &lt;strong&gt;In that case, I might edit my answer soon to reflect those updates after completing further readings relating to the topic&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If recent developments interest you, in a study published in the journal &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/341/6144/387&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tonegawa et. al&lt;/a&gt; [associated with RIKEN-MIT Center for Neural Circuit Genetics] manipulated individual neurons to manipulate encoded memories in the brains of mice. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jul/25/false-memory-implanted-mouse-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Read here.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Misinformation Effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My own research into memory distortion goes back to the early 1970s,&#xA;  when I began studies of the &quot;misinformation effect.&quot; These studies&#xA;  show that when people who witness an event are later exposed to new&#xA;  and misleading information about it, their recollections often become&#xA;  distorted. In one example, participants viewed a simulated automobile&#xA;  accident at an intersection with a stop sign. After the viewing, half&#xA;  the participants received a suggestion that the traffic sign was a&#xA;  yield sign. When asked later what traffic sign they remembered seeing&#xA;  at the intersection, those who had been given the suggestion tended to&#xA;  claim that they had seen a yield sign. Those who had not received the&#xA;  phony information were much more accurate in their recollection of the&#xA;  traffic sign.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My students and I have now conducted more than 200 experiments&#xA;  involving over 20,000 individuals that document how exposure to&#xA;  misinformation induces memory distortion. In these studies, people&#xA;  &quot;recalled&quot; a conspicuous barn in a bucolic scene that contained no&#xA;  buildings at all, broken glass and tape recorders that were not in the&#xA;  scenes they viewed, a white instead of a blue vehicle in a crime&#xA;  scene, and Minnie Mouse when they actually saw Mickey Mouse. Taken&#xA;  together, these studies show that misinformation can change an&#xA;  individual's recollection in predictable and sometimes very powerful&#xA;  ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;False Childhood Memories&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My research associate, Jacqueline E. Pickrell, and I settled on trying&#xA;  to plant a specific memory of being lost in a shopping mall or large&#xA;  department store at about the age of five. Here's how we did it. We&#xA;  asked our subjects, 24 individuals ranging in age from 18 to 53, to&#xA;  try to remember childhood events that had been recounted to us by a&#xA;  parent, an older sibling or another close relative. We prepared a&#xA;  booklet for each participant containing one-paragraph stories about&#xA;  three events that had actually happened to him or her and one that had&#xA;  not. We constructed the false event using information about a&#xA;  plausible shopping trip provided by a relative, who also verified that&#xA;  the participant had not in fact been lost at about the age of five.&#xA;  The lost-in-the-mall scenario included the following elements: lost&#xA;  for an extended period, crying, aid and comfort by an elderly woman&#xA;  and, finally, reunion with the family. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7cLun.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7cLun.gif&quot; alt=&quot;False Childhood Memories&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;After reading each story in the booklet, the participants wrote what&#xA;  they remembered about the event. If they did not remember it, they&#xA;  were instructed to write, &quot;I do not remember this.&quot; In two follow-up&#xA;  interviews, we told the participants that we were interested in&#xA;  examining how much detail they could remember and how their memories&#xA;  compared with those of their relative. The event paragraphs were not&#xA;  read to them verbatim, but rather parts were provided as retrieval&#xA;  cues. The participants recalled something about 49 of the 72 true&#xA;  events (68 percent) immediately after the initial reading of the&#xA;  booklet and also in each of the two follow-up interviews. After&#xA;  reading the booklet, seven of the 24 participants (29 percent)&#xA;  remembered either partially or fully the false event constructed for&#xA;  them, and in the two follow-up interviews six participants (25&#xA;  percent) continued to claim that they remembered the fictitious event.&#xA;  Statistically, there were some differences between the true memories&#xA;  and the false ones: participants used more words to describe the true&#xA;  memories, and they rated the true memories as being somewhat more&#xA;  clear. But if an onlooker were to observe many of our participants&#xA;  describe an event, it would be difficult indeed to tell whether the&#xA;  account was of a true or a false memory. Of course, being lost,&#xA;  however frightening, is not the same as being abused. But the&#xA;  lost-in-the-mall study is not about real experiences of being lost; it&#xA;  is about planting false memories of being lost. The paradigm shows a&#xA;  way of instilling false memories and takes a step toward allowing us&#xA;  to understand how this might happen in real-world settings. Moreover,&#xA;  the study provides evidence that people can be led to remember their&#xA;  past in different ways, and they can even be coaxed into &quot;remembering&quot;&#xA;  entire events that never happened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Imagination Inflation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What happens when people imagine childhood experiences that did not&#xA;  happen to them? Does imagining a childhood event increase confidence&#xA;  that it occurred? To explore this, we designed a three-stage&#xA;  procedure. We first asked individuals to indicate the likelihood that&#xA;  certain events happened to them during their childhood. The list&#xA;  contains 40 events, each rated on a scale ranging from &quot;definitely did&#xA;  not happen&quot; to &quot;definitely did happen.&quot; Two weeks later we asked the&#xA;  participants to imagine that they had experienced some of these&#xA;  events. Different subjects were asked to imagine different events.&#xA;  Sometime later the participants again were asked to respond to the&#xA;  original list of 40 childhood events, indicating how likely it was&#xA;  that these events actually happened to them. Consider one of the&#xA;  imagination exercises. Participants are told to imagine playing inside&#xA;  at home after school, hearing a strange noise outside, running toward&#xA;  the window, tripping, falling, reaching out and breaking the window&#xA;  with their hand. In addition, we asked participants questions such as&#xA;  &quot;What did you trip on? How did you feel?&quot; In one study 24 percent of&#xA;  the participants who imagined the broken-window scenario later&#xA;  reported an increase in confidence that the event had occurred,&#xA;  whereas only 12 percent of those who were not asked to imagine the&#xA;  incident reported an increase in the likelihood that it had taken&#xA;  place. We found this &quot;imagination inflation&quot; effect in each of the&#xA;  eight events that participants were asked to imagine. A number of&#xA;  possible explanations come to mind. An obvious one is that an act of&#xA;  imagination simply makes the event seem more familiar and that&#xA;  familiarity is mistakenly related to childhood memories rather than to&#xA;  the act of imagination. Such source confusion when a person does not&#xA;  remember the source of information can be especially acute for the&#xA;  distant experiences of childhood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Impossible Memories&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A procedure for planting &quot;impossible&quot; memories about experiences that&#xA;  occur shortly after birth has been developed by the late Nicholas&#xA;  Spanos and his collaborators at Carleton University. Individuals are&#xA;  led to believe that they have well-coordinated eye movements and&#xA;  visual exploration skills probably because they were born in hospitals&#xA;  that hung swinging, colored mobiles over infant cribs. To confirm&#xA;  whether they had such an experience, half the participants are&#xA;  hypnotized, age-regressed to the day after birth and asked what they&#xA;  remembered. The other half of the group participates in a &quot;guided&#xA;  mnemonic restructuring&quot; procedure that uses age regression as well as&#xA;  active encouragement to re-create the infant experiences by imagining&#xA;  them.. Spanos and his co-workers found that the vast majority of their&#xA;  subjects were susceptible to these memory-planting procedures. Both&#xA;  the hypnotic and guided participants reported infant memories.&#xA;  Surprisingly, the guided group did so somewhat more (95 versus 70&#xA;  percent). Both groups remembered the colored mobile at a relatively&#xA;  high rate (56 percent of the guided group and 46 percent of the&#xA;  hypnotic subjects). Many participants who did not remember the mobile&#xA;  did recall other things, such as doctors, nurses, bright lights, cribs&#xA;  and masks. Also, in both groups, of those who reported memories of&#xA;  infancy, 49 percent felt that they were real memories, as opposed to&#xA;  16 percent who claimed that they were merely fantasies. These findings&#xA;  confirm earlier studies that many individuals can be led to construct&#xA;  complex, vivid and detailed false memories via a rather simple&#xA;  procedure. Hypnosis clearly is not necessary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://webfiles.uci.edu/eloftus/Loftus_Pickrell_PA_95.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The formation of false memories.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Loftus, E. F. &amp;amp; Pickrell, J. E. (1995). &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Psychiatric Annals&lt;/em&gt;, 25, 720-725.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24213869&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Imagination Inflation: Imagining A Childhood Event Inflates Confidence That It Occurred&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Maryanne Carry, Charles G. Manning, Elizabeth F. Loftus and Steven J. Sherman &lt;br&gt; &lt;em&gt;Psychonomic Bulletin and Review&lt;/em&gt;, Vol. 3, No. 2, pages 208-214; June 1996.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=jwxVKrn6u9cC&amp;amp;dq=remembering%20our%20past%20rubin&amp;amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Remembering Our Past: Studies In Autobiographical Memory.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Edited by David C. Rubin. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Cambridge University Press&lt;/em&gt;, 1996.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additional Reading:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.leadershipcouncil.org/1/res/dallam/6.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Crisis or Creation: A systematic examination of false memory claims&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;br&gt; Dallam, S. (2002). &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Journal of Child Sexual Abuse&lt;/em&gt; 9 (3/4): 9–36. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/08/080819160245.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;False Memories Affect Behavior.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Association for Psychological Science&lt;/em&gt;  (2008, August 20).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-13T09:38:38.963" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T09:38:38.963" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10803" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10804" CreationDate="2015-08-02T18:28:38.453" Score="2" ViewCount="6049" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do I forget things that I want to remember? And when I forget them, I seem to remember small details that aren't so important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I might forget what the main topic of a YouTube video is, but I can remember what the guy who was talking in the video looked like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I might forget where I left off when I'm working on the computer, but I can remember a time when Microsoft Word auto-corrected my spelling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has happened many times. I recall unimportant details and forget the important things. Everyone will recognize this for sure, for example when studying topography, you know which number accompanied the city, but you can't recall its place on the map during the exam.or you can remember which chapter and section number the question is explained in, but you dont't know the answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is &lt;strong&gt;why is memory selective in storing sometimes irrelevant details and discarding important things&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8970" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-08-31T05:47:07.280" LastActivityDate="2019-09-25T22:30:29.030" Title="Why do I forget important things and remember things that I don't care about?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10804" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10803" CreationDate="2015-08-02T22:10:39.487" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There could be several reasons, I'm sure. One particular explanation that sticks out to me is a concept called 'feature integration theory'. I mention this because the things you say you remember -- what the guy in a video looked like, a time when your spelling was auto-corrected, general mundane details or 'features' -- are in line with this theory. You might find &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.296.3400&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; document helpful, but as it is rather long, I'll provide a shorter explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feature integration theory is a theory of attention developed in 1980 by Anne Treisman and Garry Gelade that suggests that when perceiving a stimulus, features are &amp;quot;registered early, automatically, and in parallel, while objects are identified separately&amp;quot; and at a later stage in processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, our perception of features are quicker and more automatic, registered early on. The object itself is recognized later, and thus we do not always fully integrate it into our attention. We must provide ourselves enough time to integrate the features that we have perceived into one main object or idea, and if we shift our attention away during this mandatory time of attention, we will not recognize the object as one larger entity or idea, but rather a collection of the features that we noticed automatically. This also might explain why you retain less information while multi-tasking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Treisman distinguishes between two kinds of visual search tasks, &amp;quot;feature search&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;conjunction search&amp;quot;. Feature searches can be performed fast and pre-attentively for targets defined by only one feature, such as color, shape, perceived direction of lighting, movement, or orientation. Features should &amp;quot;pop out&amp;quot; during search and should be able to form illusory conjunctions. Conversely, conjunction searches occur with the combination of two or more features and are identified serially. Conjunction search is much slower than feature search and requires conscious attention and effort. In multiple experiments, some referenced in this article, Treisman concluded that color, orientation, and intensity are features for which feature searches may be performed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, this theory is supported by the existence of Balint's syndrome [1], a not-quite-understood condition in which damage to the parietal lobe renders the patient with a variety of symptoms, including simultanagnosia, or the 'inability to perceive simultaneous events or objects in one's visual field.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This spatial disorder of visual attention—the ability to identify local elements of a scene, but not the global whole—has been referred to as a constriction of the individual's global gestalt window—their visual &amp;quot;window&amp;quot; of attention. People fixate their eyes to specific images in social scenes because they are informative to the meaning of the scene. Any forthcoming recovery in simultanagnosia may be related to somehow expanding the restricted attentional window that characterizes this disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simultanagnosia is a profound visual deficit. It impairs the ability to perceive multiple items in a visual display, while preserving the ability to recognize single objects. One study suggests that simultanagnosia may result from an extreme form of competition between objects which makes it difficult for attention to be disengaged from an object once it has been selected. Patients with simultanagnosia have a restricted spatial window of visual attention and cannot see more than one object at a time. They see their world in a patchy, spotty manner. Therefore, they pick out a single object, or even components of an individual object, without being able to see the global &amp;quot;big picture.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Udesen H, Madsen AL (May 1992). &amp;quot;[Balint's syndrome--visual disorientation]&amp;quot;. Ugeskr. Laeg. (in Danish) 154 (21): 1492–4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-08-02T22:10:39.487" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10805" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-02T04:04:49.277" Score="6" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen articles saying that teen drivers have the most accidents out of every age group. Those articles also claim that teen drivers are less capable of driving as their brains are less developed than someone 25 years of age or older.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are these claims that younger people are less capable drivers true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Bob" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-08-03T04:41:29.110" LastActivityDate="2015-08-11T03:32:13.293" Title="Are younger people less capable of driving?" Tags="&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10806" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10805" CreationDate="2015-08-03T02:56:13.120" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research shows that teenagers are not any less capable at driving, per se, but that the adolescent brain undergoes a period of neural changes that often lends itself to risk-seeking behavior. From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2814936/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Somerville et. al (2010)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In adolescence, there is a heightened propensity to engage in risky behaviors that can lead to negative outcomes, including substance abuse, unprotected sex, inflicting harm on others, injuries, and death.&lt;/strong&gt; According to the 2007 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS, Eaton, et al., 2008) the four leading causes of death that account for 72% of adolescent mortality – motor vehicle accidents, unintentional injuries, homicide, and suicide - are preventable. Such statistics suggest that these fatalities may be attributed, in part, to poor choices or risky actions (e.g., accidents, injuries) and/or heightened emotionality (e.g., suicide) underscoring the importance of understanding the biological basis of emotional and incentive-seeking behavior of adolescents, the focus of the present review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper goes on to discuss how the intensity of young adults' emotional states relative to those of adults, as well as a heightened sensitivity toward reward (as well as an immature 'self-regulatory competence') are all underlying factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that this is what your article is referring to when it mentions that teenagers have 'less-developed brains'. On the other hand, one could argue the opposite. With puberty and adolescent development comes an influx of hormonal changes. With these changes come developments and mental states that are novel, new, and (at first) difficult to control. From this perspective, it is less a question of the brain being 'less-developed' -- on the contrary, there is 'too much' new development in puberty and adolescence, which can be overwhelming. As we learn to cope with these new developments with time and experience, they become easier to manage and control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="8248" LastEditDate="2015-08-09T05:26:58.860" LastActivityDate="2015-08-09T05:26:58.860" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10771" CreationDate="2015-08-03T03:13:43.787" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Mostly Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; is disregarded in calculations of the resting membrane potential and action potential voltage changes, because it is less important for the neural membrane characteristics than Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In some neurons Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; is not actively transported. In terms of the resting membrane potential, Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; hence settles its gradient passively across the membrane according to its Nernst potential, as it has a relatively large permeability in most neurons. The Nernst potential of Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; is hence governed by the concentration and voltage gradients of Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;. Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; are actively transported out and into the cell, respectively, by the action of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/nakpump.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,-K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;-ATPase&lt;/a&gt; (the sodium potassium pump). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Nernst potential of Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; can be calculated with the Nernst equation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/paAcS.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/paAcS.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Nernst&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, many neurons have a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jbc.org/content/271/27/16245.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;/Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; co-transporter&lt;/a&gt; that uses the K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; gradient to push Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; against its concentration gradient out of the cell. In this case there is more Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; outside the cell than there would be without the active transport. Hence, opening of Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; channels as in your GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; example, will hyperpolarize the cell because Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; will enter upon Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; channel opening. Secondary active transport of Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; may also affect the resting membrane potential of these neurons as it will actively participate in the overall membrane potential when actively transported. When taking into account the relative permeabilities of K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;, i.e., 1 : 0.04 : 0.5, the Goldman equation can be used to calculate the membrane potential:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0byzC.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0byzC.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Goldman&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.principlesofneuralscience.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kandel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. eds. &lt;em&gt;Principles of Neural Science&lt;/em&gt;, 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ed. McGraw-Hill, 2000&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-03T05:10:12.763" LastActivityDate="2015-08-03T05:10:12.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10666" CreationDate="2015-08-03T04:24:14.150" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is generally accepted that &lt;em&gt;all activity having to do with conscious experience is mediated by spiking&lt;/em&gt; in the cortex. Sub-threshold activity, such as excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) are not carried forward in the nervous system and will 'fade' before having an effect. It all revolves around action potentials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quoting from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.principlesofneuralscience.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kandel &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt; (2000)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Action potentials constitute the signals by which the brain receives, analyzes and conveys information. These signals are &lt;strong&gt;highly stereotyped&lt;/strong&gt; throughout the nervous system [...]. The information conveyed by the action potentials is determined not by the form of the signal but by the pathway the signal travels. The brain analyzes &lt;em&gt;patterns&lt;/em&gt; of incoming electrical signals and in this way &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;creates our everyday sensations&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of sight, touch, taste, smell, and sound. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.principlesofneuralscience.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kandel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. eds. &lt;em&gt;Principles of Neural Science&lt;/em&gt;, 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ed. McGraw-Hill, 2000&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-03T22:33:08.937" LastActivityDate="2015-08-03T22:33:08.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10809" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10604" CreationDate="2015-08-03T11:40:46.383" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The question is kind of broad, and I decided to give four notable examples from credible sources of long-term potentiation of inhibitory responses (iLTP) below. Upregulation of postsynaptic GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; and GABA&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; currents are the predominant effectors responsible for iLTP. The mechanism through which these effects are initiated are, however, variable between the various systems described. As far as I can see, non of the examples are Hebbian (i.e., non of the examples below are dependent on spike-timing). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Repetitive firing of interneurons has been shown to enhance the spike-mediated inhibitory postsynaptic currents in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus_anatomy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CA1 pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. this enhancement was mediated by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK28090/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;GABA&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; receptors&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. The hippocampus is a brain structure where most of the research in long-term potentiation has been done in the past decades. It is a hot spot of learning and synaptic plasticiy where long-term potentiation is &lt;em&gt;also induced by repetitive &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8098919&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(tetanic) stimulation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. The enhanced inhibitory responses were mediated by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.networkglia.eu/en/astrocytes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;astrocytes&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; that in turn affected the inhibitory responses in the pyramidal neurons. Astrocytes may therefore be a necessary intermediary in activity-dependent modulation of inhibitory synapses in the hippocampus. The mechanism through which the glial cells did this was not described in the paper. It was &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; mediated via Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; or K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10196584&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kang &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1998)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hippocampal neurons&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; it has been shown that prolonged depolarization of cultured cells leads to &lt;em&gt;increased expression of inhibitory &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK28090/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; receptors&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; that ultimately decrease the artificially-induced high spike rate activity to normal levels (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3396123/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rannals &amp;amp; Kapur, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. This increase in GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; activity was accompanied by a larger activity of GABA syntheszing enzyme &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate_decarboxylase&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;GAD&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, likely showing increased GABA release. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;thalamus&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, postsynaptic &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamocortical_radiations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;thalamocortical (TC) cells&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; show inhibitory long-term potentiation (iLTP). This iLTP was explicitly shown to be &lt;strong&gt;non-&lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_07/i_07_cl/i_07_cl_tra/i_07_cl_tra.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hebbian&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, because it did not depend on the timing between presynaptic and postsynaptic activity. Instead, it was shown to be induced by postsynaptic burst activity alone. iLTP required postsynaptic dendritic Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; influx that triggered the synthesis of nitric oxide that retrogradely activated presynaptic guanylyl cyclase, in turn resulting in the presynaptic expression of iLTP &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/40/15675.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sieber &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2013)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A last example of iLTP was described in the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-ix-psychophysics-of-vision/the-primary-visual-cortex/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. When blocking excitatory postsynaptoc potentials, &lt;em&gt;tetanic stimulation of layer IV neurons&lt;/em&gt; resulted in &lt;em&gt;iLTP of layer V neurons&lt;/em&gt; postsynaptically mediated by increased &lt;em&gt;GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; receptor currents&lt;/em&gt;. Interestingly, the tetanic stimuli used were much like the stimuli used to evoked excitatory LTP (eLTP) in hippocampus as described above, and conditions favoring iLTP were much the same as the conditions needed to establish eLTP in the hippocampus &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/14/11/6488.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Komatsu, 1994)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10196584&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kang &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Nature Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (1998); &lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;(8):683-92&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/14/11/6488.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Komatsu, &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (1994); &lt;strong&gt;14&lt;/strong&gt;(11): 6489-99&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3396123/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rannals &amp;amp; Kapur, &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;31&lt;/strong&gt;(48): 17701–12&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/40/15675.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sieber &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;33&lt;/strong&gt;(40): 15675-85&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Further Reading&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/10783/how-do-neurons-decide-how-to-alter-their-output-signals&quot;&gt;How do neurons decide how to alter their output signals?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T14:24:26.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10810" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-03T16:44:37.190" Score="8" ViewCount="14477" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that situations that induce &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt; cause a variety of interesting behaviors in humans. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But do we know why relieving cognitive dissonance is such a powerful motivator? What happens if that dissonance is not relieved?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any known cases from history or animal experiments where humans or animals were subjected to prolonged cognitive dissonance? If so, what happened in those cases?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastEditorUserId="4055" LastEditDate="2015-08-03T17:51:36.617" LastActivityDate="2016-01-03T10:08:45.480" Title="What are the consequences of prolonged cognitive dissonance?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10811" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9339" CreationDate="2015-08-03T18:12:24.447" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is an excellent &lt;a href=&quot;https://edge.org/conversation/self-awareness-the-last-frontier&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article on self awareness and associated phenomena&lt;/a&gt;. The author (his quote is linked in the original question) describes various forms of brain damage and psychiatric conditions and their impact on (self)awareness and perception of the world. He mentions mirror neurons on multiple occasions.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-08-03T18:12:24.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10813" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10406" CreationDate="2015-08-04T00:27:11.360" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, there is just one article that explicitly mentions the generation of cross-modal qualia, i.e., &lt;strong&gt;visual qualia in response to tactile stimulation&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0023264&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Ortiz &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. Before continuing about this article I do wish to emphasize it is a single, &lt;strong&gt;isolated study&lt;/strong&gt; that hasn't been supported by other studies at the time of this writing. Moreover, the journal PlosONE is not my favorite and a bit of a strange journal to throw such an important observation in. I would have trusted this work more if published into a more appropriate journal for such strong claims, such as &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt;. Having said that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors trained 18 blind subjects and 10 sighted, blindfolded controls for 3 months, on a daily basis using a tactile vision-substitution device; a vibrotactile display equipped with a camera. They deployed a grating acuity task and &lt;strong&gt;7 out of 18 subjects reported 'seeing' visual qualia&lt;/strong&gt; after 3 months, i.e., these subjects started seeing the gratings instead of feeling them. It was &lt;strong&gt;only blind folks&lt;/strong&gt; that reported this, not any of the sighted controls. Those blind folks reporting qualia showed &lt;strong&gt;increased activation of the primary &lt;em&gt;visual&lt;/em&gt; cortex&lt;/strong&gt; upon using the &lt;em&gt;tactile&lt;/em&gt; device. The authors conclude that recruitment of the deafferented V1 in blind people led them to 'see' the tactile stimuli after sufficient training &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0023264&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Ortiz &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2011)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are right that it is believed that a &lt;strong&gt;disintegration of inhibitory circuits&lt;/strong&gt; in the cortex is believed to underlie crossmodal cortical recruitment of (e.g.) the visual cortex to tactile stimulation &lt;a href=&quot;http://authors.elsevier.com/a/1RWYA1aPVE5Ra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. Chronic visual deprivation is believed to reduce the inhibitory circuits, while visual stimulation is believed to enhance them. For example, tetanic stimulation of inhibitory neurons (presumably through GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;) resulted in more long-term potentiation of inhibitory responses in young rats than in adult rats &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/14/11/6488.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Komatsu, 1994)&lt;/a&gt;. This is in line with the theory that &lt;strong&gt;shaping of the brain is critically dependent on sensory input in early life&lt;/strong&gt;, i.e., inhibitory circuits are thought to be actively developed through experience, resulting in containment of visual processing in the visual cortices and tactile processing in the somatosensory cortex etc. Note, however, that even V1 has shown to be multimodal even in normally sighted folks, i.e., while V1 is dedicated to visual processing, it is not exclusively devoted to it. One theory about &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://synesthesia.com.au/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;synesthesia&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is that the development of inhibitory circuits is compromised, leading to crossmodal activation in folks without any sensory disability. This theory has made people conclude that babies are all synesthetes (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2136146&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wagner &amp;amp; Dobkins, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).         &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/14/11/6488.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Komatsu, &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (1994); &lt;strong&gt;14&lt;/strong&gt;(11): 6489-99&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0023264&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ortiz &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;PlosONE&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;(8): e23264&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://authors.elsevier.com/a/1RWYA1aPVE5Ra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;1624&lt;/strong&gt;: 140–52)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2136146&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wagner &amp;amp; Dobkins, &lt;em&gt;JOV&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;9&lt;/strong&gt;: 699&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-17T14:35:27.680" LastActivityDate="2015-08-17T14:35:27.680" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10814" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14074" CreationDate="2015-08-04T03:41:52.580" Score="6" ViewCount="201" Body="&lt;p&gt;How long does it take the average person (either sighted or blind) to learn to use the guide cane successfully for mobility purposes? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UiBYI.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UiBYI.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;cane&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://district4c1lions.org/about/white-cane-safety-day/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lions.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because required training times will depend on many individual specific factors, such as willingness of the subject to undergo an arduous training program, age, possible additional disabilities, IQ/education etc., the best answer would be an &lt;strong&gt;average training time&lt;/strong&gt; in a group of subjects that learned to use the cane &lt;strong&gt;from scratch&lt;/strong&gt; (i.e., &lt;strong&gt;naive&lt;/strong&gt; subjects at the start of the study). Ideally, it would be an answer expressed in &lt;strong&gt;hours of training time&lt;/strong&gt;, because some measure expressed in weeks or months cannot easily be translated in how much time was actually spent on cane training. For example, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://nfb.org/images/nfb/publications/fr/fr15/issue1/f150122.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Federation of the Blind&lt;/a&gt; (NFB) of extreme cases (very swift learners and non-learners), but anecdotal sample cases telling me that person &lt;em&gt;A&lt;/em&gt; mastered it in a few weeks and person &lt;em&gt;B&lt;/em&gt; not at all, isn't too helpful, unfortunately (I would like to refer to numbers in a manuscript I am preparing). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally, the source should be a scientific publication, or obtained from a credible source, such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://nfb.org//&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NFB&lt;/a&gt;. I have been searching quite a bit, but without success.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-27T08:13:56.027" LastActivityDate="2016-05-27T17:08:35.767" Title="How long does it take to learn to cane travel?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10816" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12521" CreationDate="2015-08-04T04:50:24.610" Score="17" ViewCount="646" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bouchard and McGue (1981) wrote a review article (linked &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas_Bouchard2/publication/16004169_Familial_studies_of_intelligence_a_review/links/00b4953a73b719bf4b000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) that summarized the correlations between relatives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McGue asserted in a recent talk (that I'm not able to link) that he's not aware of any more recent work that has updated these figures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I suspect that during the last 25 years something must have been done. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am most interested in the figures for genetically related reared-together relatives, although data on genetically unrelated people reared-together and genetically related reared-apart relatives would also be welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the 1981 correlations for genetically related reared-together relatives.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/f7jU8.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/f7jU8.png&quot; alt=&quot;Correlations for genetically related reared-together relatives&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bouchard, T. J., &amp;amp; McGue, M. (1981). Familial studies of intelligence: A review. Science, 212(4498), 1055-1059.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastActivityDate="2015-11-03T11:47:31.137" Title="What are the IQ correlations between relatives?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10817" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-04T08:20:17.260" Score="7" ViewCount="1294" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are the human cerebral hemispheres only connected via the &lt;em&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/em&gt;? Or is there any other structure for interaction between the left and right hemispheres?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8974" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-04T14:58:26.883" LastActivityDate="2015-08-05T13:14:05.500" Title="Are the human cerebral hemispheres only connected via the corpus callosum?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10818" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-04T14:37:10.373" Score="2" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the term for the personality trait in which a person's style is evident in all they do? The person's particular behavior patterns expresses the attitudes and inner characteristics of the person, regardless of the situation. A person with this trait puts a little bit (or a lot) of themselves in all they do. In contrast, other people may blend in more and adapt their behavior more strongly to what is expected by others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I once read about this term in a personality model article online and have never seen it since.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8978" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-28T13:26:49.717" LastActivityDate="2015-08-28T13:26:49.717" Title="Personality trait in which the person's style is evident regardless of the situation?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-08-07T02:00:25.030" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10819" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10817" CreationDate="2015-08-04T14:57:47.963" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/em&gt; is a massive horizontal white matter tract (commissure) that connects the two hemispheres and it is considered the most important route of communication between the hemispheres. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://radiopaedia.org/articles/commissures-of-the-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;five additional commissures&lt;/a&gt; that cross the midline, namely:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anatomyatlases.org/MicroscopicAnatomy/Section17/Plate17344.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anterior commissure&lt;/a&gt;, connecting the two olfactory bulbs and the temporal cortices;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.msu.edu/user/brains/brains/sheep/glossary/hippocampalcommissure.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hippocampal commissure&lt;/a&gt; (psalterium), connecting the two hippocampal formations;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habenular_commissure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Habenular commissure&lt;/a&gt;, connecting the habenular nuclei; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_commissure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Posterior commissure&lt;/a&gt;, connecting the pretectal nuclei, mediating the consensual pupillary light reflex;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Supraoptic commissures (a. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventral_supraoptic_decussation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gudden's commissure, or ventral supraoptic decussation connecting the medial geniculate bodies&lt;/a&gt; and b. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006899375903224&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meynert's commissure&lt;/a&gt;, connecting the two suprachiasmatic nuclei&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Below figure shows the corpus callosum and the anterios commissure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2hEy8.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2hEy8.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;anterior commissure&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Saggital section through the human brain showing the &lt;em&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;anterior commissure&lt;/em&gt;. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anatomyatlases.org/MicroscopicAnatomy/Section17/Plate17344.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain Atlas&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*The exact connection of Meynert's commissure I am unsure of. This is the best I could do.&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-05T13:14:05.500" LastActivityDate="2015-08-05T13:14:05.500" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10823" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10827" CreationDate="2015-08-04T21:40:05.713" Score="1" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is ADHD even a thing? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This kind of question can be offensive to some. The same kind of thing&#xA;  can be applied to other conditions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is depression even a thing? Or are they just lazy? Is gender disphoria&#xA;  even a thing? Or have they just sexually confused? Is homosexuality&#xA;  even a thing? Or are they just a deviant? Is otherkin even a thing? Or&#xA;  are the just a teenager looking for a unique identity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apparently, there is much controversy over ADHD, according to Wiki (not enough reputation)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part 1:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is a diagnosed person to do? How does one evaluate methods used by a doctor? How does one evaluate if prescribed medicine and dosage is right or at least not severely wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing initial prescription, if any, is going to be experimental. From there we see if dosage needs to increase or decrease or if medicine needs to be changed or stopped. How then should one evaluate a doctor's decision?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part 2:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why not controversy over depression? Bipolar? Schizophrenia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://spark.org.sg/tips/50%20Strategies.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Some&lt;/a&gt; psychologists seem to believe &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.institute4learning.com/articles/add_myth.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ADD/ADHD is a myth&lt;/a&gt;. Is there any truth to such?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The blog also points out how homosexuality was wrongly considered a disorder. How do we know ADD/ADHD won't turn out like that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8950" LastEditorUserId="8950" LastEditDate="2015-08-04T21:49:24.003" LastActivityDate="2015-08-05T10:15:29.540" Title="How does one respond to an ADD/ADHD diagnosis of one's self or one's child?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-08-05T13:13:10.660" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10825" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10818" CreationDate="2015-08-05T09:43:50.910" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may be referring to people who are low in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-monitoring&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-monitoring&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has a good summary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-monitoring is defined as a personality trait that refers to an ability to regulate behavior to accommodate social situations. People who closely monitor themselves are categorized as &lt;strong&gt;high self-monitors&lt;/strong&gt; and often behave in a manner that is highly responsive to social cues and their situational context. High self-monitors can be thought of as social pragmatists who project images in an attempt to impress others and receive positive feedback. Conversely, &lt;strong&gt;low self-monitors&lt;/strong&gt; do not participate, to the same degree, in expressive control and do not share similar concern for situational appropriateness. Low self-monitors tend to exhibit expressive controls congruent with their own internal states; i.e. beliefs, attitudes, and dispositions regardless of social circumstance. Low self-monitors are often less observant of social context and consider expressing a self-presentation dissimilar from their internal states as a falsehood and undesirable. People who are unwilling to self-monitor and adjust their behavior accordingly are often aggressive, uncompromising, and insistent with others. This may make them more prone to condemnation, rejection, and the possible consequent feelings of anger, anxiety, guilt, low self-concept, isolation, and depression. Even the occasional indiscretion can make social situations very awkward, and could result in the loss of a friend, co-worker, client, or even job. Those who are willing to adjust their behavior will often find that others are more receptive, pleasant, and benevolent towards them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-monitoring is usually measured with Snyder's (1974) &lt;a href=&quot;http://personality-testing.info/tests/SMS/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-Monitoring Scale&lt;/a&gt; or variants thereof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The scale measures agreement to items such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can only argue for ideas which I already believe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Snyder, M. (1974). Self-monitoring of expressive behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 30(4), 526.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-08-06T06:16:39.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10826" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8634" CreationDate="2015-08-05T10:13:03.383" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found a study that says introverts and extroverts are about equally talkative in written form:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;There is little empirical information about differences in computer-mediated communication related to personality. However, it has been widely speculated that introvertive personality traits are especially appropriate for CMC. The results of the present study are consistent with these predictions. Introverted participants sent as many messages as did extraverted participants, and their messages contained more information. As regards gender, males sent longer messages than did females, but their messages did not contain more information.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study also supports that introverts are more precise in their communication (Gill &amp;amp; Oberlander, 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One might say that introverts are less interested in talking for the sake of it, but they may communicate larger amounts of information. This would further imply that communication, for an extrovert, is more about the social interaction and not as much about giving information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-08-05T10:13:03.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10827" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10823" CreationDate="2015-08-05T10:15:29.540" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There actually is the same kind of controversy over depression. The French documentary &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.arte.tv/guide/fr/048262-000/depression-une-epidemie-mondiale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dépression, une épidémie mondiale&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; nicely summarizes how a well-meant change in diagnostic criteria (from DSM-IV to DSM-5) backfired and the pharmacoceutical industry now use this to diagnose every sadness or exhaustion as depression with the intention to sell drugs and make money.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has also been controversy over schizophrenia for at least two hundred years. Other mental disorders are equally highly controversial. It is just that ADHD is a &amp;quot;fashion disorder&amp;quot; today and therefore covered by the media, which gives laypeople the impression that only this disorder is controversial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for ADHD, we live in a society that favours certain personality traits and disfavours others, and those kids that don't sit still very well, need a higher input speed, or are simply socially maladjusted, are often diagnosed with ADHD, although they are perfectly healthy and normal and would only need a different kind of learning environment or better familial support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, this does not mean that ADHD does not exist. If the diagnosis was given by an expert after careful investigation, then the patient will certainly profit from therapy. But the therapy cannot be deduced from the diagnosis alone. It must take into consideration the etiology (what caused the disorder?) and the circumstances (how does the patient live?), as well as the personality of the patient. Because the same symptoms of the same disorder can have widely varying causes, and you want your therapy to address those causes and not just ease the symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore a meaningful diagnosis will include an analysis of the cause. ADHD can be genetic, caused by harmful substances, or psycho-social. Therapy will differ in each case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to evaluate a diagnosis and recommended therapy, I would recommend you go see another expert. Evaluating them yourself would require you study medicine and psychology to an extent probably not feasible. Be extremely careful of reading stuff on the net! Much of what you find there is published by companies who are in search of patients to sell medication to, or by laypeople.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know where you live, and probably don't know how you can find trusted experts in your country. In Germany, where I live, the best path to take would be to approach therapeutic organizations or even your health insurance and ask them for whom you should turn to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, psychiatrists appear to be more likely to prescribe medication, while psychologists seem to prefer non-medical therapy. The best therapy for many mental disorders is a combination of both, with medication used to alleviate the current symptoms, and psychotherapy working mid- to long-term on changing behavior (and personality) so that medication is no longer necessary or can at least be reduced. I know people with ADHD who live well without medication, simply by creating for themselves the environment that they can flourish in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the best.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;tl;dr&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Find a doctor you can trust, and trust them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-08-05T10:15:29.540" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10828" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-05T10:42:18.147" Score="4" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is often said that only a small part of our daily communication is through words, sometimes accompanied with claims that X% is through words, Y% through body language, Z% facial expressions, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, several studies show that introverts and extroverts communicate differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Several studies show that introverts are more precise and effective at giving information with their communication.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;At least 1 study shows that extroverts use more body language than introverts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;At least 1 study shows that extroverts use more eye-contact than introverts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on this I am certain that communication style can be used as a cue to personality traits.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;So I'm looking for studies that could tell me several correlations on this at the same time. A study that can tell me correlations like these:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The correlation between Big 5 traits and communication through body language?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The correlation between Big 5 traits and communication through eye contact?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The correlation between Big 5 traits and verbal communication?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The correlation between Big 5 traits and tone of voice/vocal pitch?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taking care of the linguistic features of extraversion, Gill &amp;amp; Oberlander, 2002&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personality, sex and computer-mediated communication through the internet,  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ub.edu/personal/jgutierrez/cmc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ub.edu/personal/jgutierrez/cmc.pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jls.sagepub.com/content/32/2/191&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://jls.sagepub.com/content/32/2/191&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Language of Extraversion: Extraverted People Talk More Abstractly, Introverts Are More Concrete, &lt;a href=&quot;http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_nbn_fi_uef-20140646/urn_nbn_fi_uef-20140646.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_nbn_fi_uef-20140646/urn_nbn_fi_uef-20140646.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yuichi Iizuka (1992) Eextraversion, introversion, and visual interaction. Perceptual and Motor Skills: Volume 74, Issue , pp. 43-50.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-08-10T13:23:57.960" LastActivityDate="2015-08-10T13:23:57.960" Title="How much communication is -really- verbal?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-08-07T02:07:58.027" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10829" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10837" CreationDate="2015-08-05T13:18:49.353" Score="3" ViewCount="22152" Body="&lt;p&gt;How is doing a so-called manipulation check (i.e. checking to see whether the different groups actually differ for different levels of the independent variable) different from doing - as a main analysis - e.g., an ANOVA to see if the independent variable has had an effect on the dependent variable? From reading papers, it seems people just do manipulation checks &lt;em&gt;prior to&lt;/em&gt; the main analyses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-06T16:57:05.240" LastActivityDate="2017-01-09T20:08:19.230" Title="How is doing a manipulation check different from doing the analysis on the main dependent variable?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10830" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10834" CreationDate="2015-08-05T13:26:11.863" Score="3" ViewCount="877" Body="&lt;p&gt;Speaking from the point of view of evolutionary psychology, is there any research that demonstrates why a 'sense of humor' may be a part of our mental mechanisms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does research show that it is a way to quickly decrease stress levels?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8987" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-08-07T13:58:07.647" LastActivityDate="2015-09-09T21:51:37.303" Title="Why did humans develop the &quot;sense of humour&quot;?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;humour&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-08-07T02:02:22.563" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10832" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10839" CreationDate="2015-08-05T14:38:02.460" Score="10" ViewCount="708" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I have read, stutterers tend to have much less trouble singing than speaking.  Do we know why this is the case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8988" LastActivityDate="2019-12-11T09:44:45.910" Title="Why do people who stutter have less difficulty singing than speaking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10834" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10830" CreationDate="2015-08-05T16:00:48.027" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, the same question you asked has been asked since quite some time:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Act of Creation&lt;/em&gt;, 1964 - Arthur Koestler&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is the survival value of the involuntary, simultaneous contraction of fifteen facial muscles associated with certain noises&#xA;  which are often irrepressible? Laughter is a reflex, but unique in&#xA;  that it serves no apparent biological purpose; one might call it a&#xA;  luxury reflex. Its only utilitarian function, as far as one can see,&#xA;  is to provide temporary relief from utilitarian pressures. On the&#xA;  evolutionary level where laughter arises, an element of frivolity&#xA;  seems to creep into a humorless universe governed by the laws of&#xA;  thermodynamics and the survival of the fittest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, like all other narratives built by evolutionary psychologists, it is difficult to back up speculations with empirical evidence. Since we are going back far back into the evolutionary history of &lt;em&gt;homo sapiens&lt;/em&gt;, we will be dealing with what I would call &quot;well-informed speculation&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Quoted from &lt;em&gt;The Mating Mind&lt;/em&gt; (2001) by Geoffrey Miller.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To traditional evolutionary psychologists, human abilities like music,&#xA;  humor, and creativity do not look like adaptations because they look&#xA;  too variable, too heritable, too wasteful, and not very modular. But&#xA;  these are precisely the features we should expect of fitness&#xA;  indicators. If a human mental trait shows large individual&#xA;  differences, high heritability, high condition-dependence, high costs,&#xA;  and high correlations with other mental and physical abilities, then&#xA;  it may have evolved through sexual selection as a fitness indicator.&#xA;  (pg. 132-133)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sexual Selection&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice that he also mentioned your speculation about decreased stress levels:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some theories of humor have proposed that laughter evolved to promote&#xA;  group bonding, discharge nervous tension, or keep us healthy. The&#xA;  more laughter the better. Such theories predict that we should laugh&#xA;  at any joke, however stupid, however many times we have heard it&#xA;  before, yet we do not. A good sense of humor means a discriminating&#xA;  sense of humor, not a hyena-like shriek at every repetitive pratfall.&#xA;  Such discrimination is easy to understand if our sense of humor&#xA;  evolved in the service of sexual choice, to assess the joke-telling&#xA;  ability of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, I recommend that you read &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.epjournal.net/wp-content/uploads/EP10443456.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this review&lt;/a&gt; of Robert Mankoff of “Inside Jokes”: The Hidden Side of Humor. (2011) and of course the book itself. It sheds a strong light onto your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Matthew M. Hurley, Daniel C. Dennett, and Reginald B. Adams Jr., &lt;em&gt;Inside Jokes: Using Humor to Reverse-Engineer the Mind&lt;/em&gt;. MIT Press, 2011, 376 pp., ISBN-13: 978-0262015820&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Koestler, Arthur. 1964. &lt;em&gt;The Act of Creation&lt;/em&gt;, Penguin Books, New York&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, G. (2000), &lt;em&gt;The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature&lt;/em&gt;, London: Heineman, ISBN 0-434-00741-2 (also Doubleday; ISBN 0-385-49516-1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-09-09T21:51:37.303" LastActivityDate="2015-09-09T21:51:37.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10837" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10829" CreationDate="2015-08-06T01:28:50.753" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends on what you mean by manipulation check.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Manipulation check to filter participants:&lt;/strong&gt; A manipulation check is usually done to verify that some experimental manipulation has had some preliminary effect. For example, in one of my studies I asked people to answer a personality test (a) honestly, (b) as an ideal worker, and (c) as the worst possible worker. I asked each participant how they intended to answer the personality test. The &lt;strong&gt;manipulation check&lt;/strong&gt; was there to verify that they had understood the instructions. In this case, the manipulation check was used to potentially exclude participants who failed to pass the manipulation check.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Manipulation check to verify group-level effect:&lt;/strong&gt; Of course, you could perform such manipulation checks on an entire group using group comparison tools such as ANOVA for a numeric variable or chi-square for a categorical outcome. For example, in some psychological studies, the experimenter may attempt to manipulate mood as baseline manipulation. Thus, they may want to get check whether the group that has been made to experience negative affect does on average experience more negative affect. In that case an ANOVA makes sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Checking approximate group equivalence::&lt;/strong&gt; A third case is where you are merely checking whether the groups are the same at baseline and that has more to do with how participants were allocated to groups. It doesn't sound like you are talking about this case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Using manipulation check outcome as covariate:&lt;/strong&gt; In general, manipulation checks are typically reported prior to conducting main analyses. In this sense, they are a bit like assumption tests. They verify that some experimental manipulation has worked and that you can now proceed to examine the effects of substantive interest. That said, you could do a range of other analyses where the outcome measure in the manipulation check is included in your analysis of the substantive outcome. For example, if you were studying task performance in two groups, one with a positive mood induction and one with a negative mood induction, you could run an ANCOVA where condition was your independent variable, measured mood (i.e., the manipulation check variable) was your covariate, and task performance was your dependent variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-08-06T01:28:50.753" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10839" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10832" CreationDate="2015-08-06T01:52:19.943" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Singing increases the duration of voiced intervals in stutterers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Singing is an example of one of the most effective methods to decrease stuttering&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sloan.ucsf.edu/~houde/speech/stutter/SVStager03a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Stager, 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. It is a so-called &lt;em&gt;fluency-increasing (FI) condition&lt;/em&gt; in stutterers and reduces stuttering by more than 90%. Some of the few, subtle acoustic differences between song and speech are the more isochronous rhythm and greater fundamental frequency stability within each syllable in songs &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/02/07/cercor.bhs003.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Tierney &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. Other effective fluency-evoking conditions are speech pacing (e.g., with a metronome), chorus speaking, speech slowing, and whispering &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7120960&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Andrews &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1982)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main effects of FI conditions (including singing) are an increase in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/phonation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;phonation&lt;/a&gt; duration&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;speech slowing&lt;/strong&gt;. The reduction of stuttering seems most directly related to phonation. Phonation is the production of vocal sounds, i.e., vowels. Specifically, the frequency of very short (in the range of 30–150 ms) phonated intervals is decreased, and the longer duration phonated intervals are increased when stutterers are singing. Indeed, it has been suggested that the most effective FI conditions, and perhaps therefore the most effective treatments for stuttering, might share the common property of reducing the number or proportion of short intervals of phonation, or of quick transitions between phonated and nonphonated speech production, and/or might be associated with an increased number or proportion of longer, slower, or more consistent phonation. Among the best supported treatment approaches for stuttering are those that emphasize increased, prolonged, or continuous phonation and/or slower initiation of speech (referred to as prolonged speech treatment programs) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021992412000056&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ingham, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most fluency-evoking conditions, however, have only temporary effects. Moreover, normal fluency has been defined for stuttering in terms of four variables or characteristics: the absence of stuttering events, speech rate within a normal&#xA;range, normal overall naturalness of speech, and normal levels of physical and cognitive effort on the part of the speaker. Of the various methods used, only chorus speaking meets these four demands &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021992412000056&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ingham, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7120960&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Andrews &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Speech Hear Res&lt;/em&gt; (1982); &lt;strong&gt;25&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 208-16&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021992412000056&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ingham &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Comm Disorders&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;45&lt;/strong&gt;: 198–211&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sloan.ucsf.edu/~houde/speech/stutter/SVStager03a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stager &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Fluency Disorders&lt;/em&gt; (2003); &lt;strong&gt;28&lt;/strong&gt;: 319–36&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/02/07/cercor.bhs003.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tierney &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Cereb Cortex&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;23&lt;/strong&gt;(2):249-54&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; Being a stotterer myself, I wish to emphasize that when the speech therapist at primary school instructed me to &lt;em&gt;sing&lt;/em&gt; my presentation to my class mates to reduce my stuttering I chose the less embarrassing alternative, namely stammering unintelligibly for half an hour about the planets in the solar system instead of singing about them. One can quickly envision the utter &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;non-practicality&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of the singing approach in everyday life. The effect of FI conditions is scientifically interesting, and they are useful tools for speech therapists, but they are not practical treatments, unfortunately.&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-06T13:32:13.260" LastActivityDate="2015-08-06T13:32:13.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10840" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10810" CreationDate="2015-08-06T02:31:44.430" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summary&lt;/strong&gt; (copied from last paragraph)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears that extended exposure to cognitive dissonance ignites an initial emotional reaction that is then mediated by the rationalization process. If no rationalization can be made, or if the emotion cannot be effectively controlled by the individual, then &lt;strong&gt;the initial emotional reaction may grow more powerful, resulting in mood-regulation disorders such as depression, anxiety, or post-traumatic stress disorder.&lt;/strong&gt; [5]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Details&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive dissonance is thought to reveal a human's internal desire for consistency. Those who experience cognitive dissonance become psychologically uncomfortable, and thus may take measure to reduce situations that may induce cognitive dissonance. [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humans have a tendency to want to explain how the world works. There is a discomfort in not 'knowing'. In cognitive dissonance theory, there are several underlying themes, most notably that of religion in cognitive dissonance. Insofar as the theory goes, religion is one helpful mechanism for avoiding cognitive dissonance, as religion often provides an explanation for the nature and generation of the world, as well  as a set of guidelines to follow. This provides humans with internal consistency. Skepticism/loyalty to the 'objective' nature of the scientific method can be another form of avoiding cognitive dissonance. [2] Rejection of any sort of method of navigation (or purpose) in the world often lends itself to a feeling of nihilism, though this is not always related to cognitive dissonance as it is defined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sigmund Freud himself observed several instances of what he coined as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~amtower/uncanny.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Das Unheimliche&quot;&lt;/a&gt; -- German for 'the opposite of what is familiar', and translated into English as 'the uncanny'. He describes it as the experience of that which is strangely familiar, not just mysterious. Though the term is not an adequate synonym for 'cognitive dissonance', it is nonetheless relevant in the reaction it produces:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because the uncanny is familiar, yet incongruous, it has been seen as creating cognitive dissonance within the experiencing subject, due to the paradoxical nature of being simultaneously attracted to yet repulsed by an object. This cognitive dissonance often leads to an outright rejection of the object, as one would rather reject than rationalize, as in the uncanny valley effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This initial emotional response is supported by neuroscientific literature when we consider cognitive dissonance as an observable phenomenon. College students who were told to write an argumentative essay in support of a stance that they did not agree with showed increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex. Next, the left frontal cortex was activated, which is known to activate the 'approach motivational system'. [3] The motivational directions model asserts that this system regulates one's response to their own anger. If the situation cannot be controlled or changed by the person, they may have less motivation to reduce or regulate their anger, and other emotions may arise. [4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, it appears that &lt;strong&gt;extended exposure to cognitive dissonance ignites an initial emotional reaction that is then mediated by the rationalization process. If no rationalization can be made, or if the emotion cannot be effectively controlled by the individual, then the initial emotional reaction may grow more powerful, resulting in mood-regulation disorders such as depression, anxiety, or post-traumatic stress disorder.&lt;/strong&gt; [5]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. California: Stanford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] R. A. Wicklund, J. W. Brehm. (1976). Perspectives on Cognitive Dissonance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Beauvois, J. L., Joule, R. V., 1996. A radical dissonance theory. London: Taylor and Francis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Harmon-Jones, E., Mills, J., Cognitive Dissonance: Perspectives on a Pivotal Theory in Social Psychology. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 71–99.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[5] Hull, A.M. (2002). Neuroimaging findings in post-traumatic stress disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry 181: 102-10.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="4055" LastEditDate="2015-08-06T07:31:59.147" LastActivityDate="2015-08-06T07:31:59.147" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10841" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-06T02:36:28.303" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;The hyperactivity symptom of ADHD includes a compulsion to move or fidget. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a workplace environment, this can become a distraction to the person with ADHD, as well as the people around him. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can affect the person's productivity, if they're constantly moving away from their desk to talk to people, make cups of tea, or take breaks for example. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if there's research into techniques for managing the hyperactive symptoms in workplaces, including the usage of stand up desks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastActivityDate="2015-08-07T08:45:05.630" Title="Is there any research into the effect of stand up desks on hyperactive symptoms?" Tags="&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10790" CreationDate="2015-08-06T06:30:39.227" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't give you an informed response to questions 1 and 2 though I do know that parasitic wasps inject toxin into a spider, lay an egg on the back of the spider and cause it to spin a web that will protect the egg.  So some form of behavioural  control of spiders is possible.  Spider brains are much simpler than human brains but there was a paper by Strausfeld and Herth in &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; April 2013 that argued that there are &quot;deep similarities in how the brain regulates behavior&quot; in both insects and humans.  There are similarities of function and structure between the 'central complex' of insects and the basal ganglia of humans. So I am guessing your parasite would need to target the basal ganglia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the idea that the parasite might acquire memories and information is a totally different scenario and extremely unlikely.  Memory is a complex phenomenon but it appears to be largely based on the re-activation of particular neuronal pathways. Most memory is largely inactive most of the time, it has to be re-created each time (and hence is inherently slightly different each time).  I suggest the meaning of such activation patterns is intrinsically linked to a)  the other neural activation patterns occurring in the brain at the same time and b) the human body and its experiences. In any case, for a parasite to 'capture' memories it would need to be able to emulate those neuronal pathways; and even if it did, it would probably 'mean' something entirely different.  Even if it could 'copy' memories, it would not somehow take the memories away from someone.  Memories can be destroyed, or made inaccessible but only by disrupting the activation patterns (destroying neurons, blocking or destroying triggering mechanisms etc.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also should be aware that even when neuronal pathways are activated,it does not mean that we are aware of them.  In fact we are unaware of most activated 'memory' (see Kahneman 2011).   There is a difference between implicit memory (and automatic behaviors)  and explicit memory.  Part of the brain, the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, is activated when we are consciously thinking or ruminating  about something, solving difficult problems, etc.  It appears to tap into memories and make them explicit so we can think about them or use them for computations etc.   As an aside, the LVLPFC is a long way anatomically from the basal ganglia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another important distinction for your thesis is the difference between procedural memory (memory of motor and cognitive skills etc.) that, for example,  allows one to type without looking at the keys: and declarative memory or memory about things.  The parasite I mentioned earlier presumably is able to trigger some part of procedural memory: but it seems highly unlikely that it might also trigger declarative memory, or even access declarative memory, which largely occurs in a different part of the brain.    However, declarative memory is severely affected by damage to the hippocampus so it is perfectly possible that a parasite might be able to induce amnesia.  However, if my very weak memory serves me, the hippocampus is not adjacent to the basal ganglia so it is unlikely that the same parasite could control behaviours and take memories.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8985" LastActivityDate="2015-08-06T06:30:39.227" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10843" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10829" CreationDate="2015-08-06T06:40:15.733" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Primarily, a manipulation check is an indicator of the &lt;strong&gt;internal validity&lt;/strong&gt; of an experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the manipulation of your independent variable makes a statistically significant difference on the dependent variable, you have evidence for a causal effect of the manipulation. The manipulation check can give you more certainty that this effect is due to changes in the construct you are interested in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, imagine you manipulated mood by showing a happy versus a sad movie clip. Subsequently, this affects the extent to which people are persuaded by weak versus strong arguments (argument strength doesn't matter in the happy movie condition). Showing that your manipulation has affected mood in the intended way with a manipulation check (better mood in the happy than in the sad movie) allows you to be more certain that this has something to do with mood. If your manipulation check would not show a mood difference, the difference on the dependent variable might be caused by some other aspect of the manipulation (for example differences in arousal).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The manipulation check also allows to do &lt;strong&gt;correlational analyses&lt;/strong&gt; to strengthen this conclusion: Are changes in the dependent variable mediated by changes in the manipulation check? (Does persuasion change to the extent that mood has been altered?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More pragmatically, if you have no effect on the dependent variable, the manipulation check may give you some insight. Is it because the manipulation failed? (No/to small effect on the manipulation check?) Or is it because is the problem on the side of the dependent variable? (Your measure doesn't work or, heaven forbid, your hypothesis is wrong). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-08-06T06:40:15.733" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10844" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10894" CreationDate="2015-08-06T15:34:14.810" Score="1" ViewCount="911" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to wikipedia, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TMS&lt;/a&gt; is a bunch of magnetic fields directed to the brain which stimulates and activates neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If I wear a cap full of magnets, will it stimulate my neurons? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If yes, will a cap of magnets make me &quot;smarter&quot;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3157" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-06-06T01:23:50.840" LastActivityDate="2018-06-06T01:23:50.840" Title="Can Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS), or a magnets cap make you smarter?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;cognitive-enhancement&gt;&lt;tms&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10558" CreationDate="2015-08-07T12:11:01.543" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll try to roughly answer your question. It's not an easy one, and by no means does it have a narrow answer. Scientists &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-secrets-of-storytelling/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;have suggested&lt;/a&gt;, like you mentioned that stories show a lot about the basis of human thought &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So why do we like stories at all?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &quot;The Storytelling Animal&quot; (Jonathan Gottschall)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Some thinkers, following Darwin, argue that the evolutionary source&#xA;  of story is sexual selection, not natural selection. Maybe stories,&#xA;  and other art forms, aren’t just &lt;em&gt;obsessed with sex&lt;/em&gt;; maybe they are&#xA;  ways of &lt;em&gt;getting sex&lt;/em&gt; by making gaudy, peacocklike displays of our&#xA;  skill, intelligence, and creativity—the quality of our minds. Thumb&#xA;  back a few pages to that image of the Kung San storyteller on page&#xA;  19. Look at the young woman sitting to the storyteller’s left—very pretty, very rapt. That’s the idea. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SOmEA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SOmEA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Or maybe stories are a form of cognitive play. For the evolutionary literary scholar Brian Boyd, “a&#xA;  work of art acts like a playground for the mind.” Boyd suggests that&#xA;  the free play of art, in all its forms, does the same sort of work for&#xA;  our mental muscles that rough-and-tumble play does for our physical&#xA;  muscles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Or maybe stories are low-cost sources of information and vicarious experience; maybe, to modify Horace, stories delight &lt;em&gt;in order&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;   to instruct. Through stories we learn about human culture and&#xA;  psychology, without the potentially staggering costs of having to gain&#xA;  this experience firsthand. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Or maybe story is a form of social glue&#xA;  that brings people together around common values. The novelist John Hardner  expresses this idea nicely: &quot;Real art creates myths a society can live by instead of die by.&quot;&#xA;  Go back again to the Kung San storyteller. Look how he has brought his people together skin against skin, mind against mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why do some of us like stories to the point of obsessing over them?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Fiction, like cocaine, is a drug. People may invent high-minded&#xA;  aesthetic (or evolutionary) justifications for their fiction habits,&#xA;  but story is just a drug we use to escape from the boredom and&#xA;  brutality of real life. Why do we go to see a Shakespeare play, or&#xA;  watch a film, or read a novel? Ultimately, from Kessel’s point of&#xA;  view, it is not to expand our minds, explore the human condition, or&#xA;  do anything else so noble. We do it for kicks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many evolutionary thinkers would agree with Kessel’s position. What&#xA;  are stories for? Nothing. The brain is not designed for story; there&#xA;  are glitches in its design that make it vulnerable to story. Stories,&#xA;  in all their variety and splendor, are just lucky accidents of the&#xA;  mind’s jury-rigged construction. Story may educate us, deepen us, and&#xA;  give us joy. Story may be one of the “things that makes it most worthwhile to be human. But that doesn’t mean story has a biological purpose.&#xA;  Storytelling, in this view, is nothing like the opposable thumb—a structure that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce. In this view, story is more akin to the lines on your palm. No matter what your fortuneteller claims, the lines are not maps of your future. They are side effects of the flexion of the hand.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How does this happen? And is this something that can be controlled?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find any experiment that, like you mentioned, discussed whether you can &lt;em&gt;change&lt;/em&gt; someone's preference of what kind of stories they like. If someone finds any study, please mention it in the comments!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why is it also that once we start with a story, it can be hard to stop because you want to know what happens next or want to know how it ends? Why do some of us care if people &quot;spoil&quot; the ending for us by telling us what happens before we see or read or hear it, while some of us seem not to care?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sparringmind.com/story-psychology/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this source&lt;/a&gt;, an excellent article on storytelling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suspense works just as well as you’d expect&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The “cliffhanger” just may be the oldest trick in the writing book,&#xA;  especially writing for television, but there is a reason why it’s used&#xA;  so often…&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It works!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Despite our numerous exposure to this method, our brain just can’t&#xA;  “get over” suspenseful moments: it’s a relationship that just won’t&#xA;  die, we will always want to know what happens next.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In fact, suspense works so well that the hotly debated &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1982.tb00745.x/abstract;jsessionid=2FF06B19CE6207970A9596395B82C0AE.f03t03?systemMessage=Wiley%20Online%20Library%20will%20have%20intermittent%20access%20on%208th%20August%202015%20from%2010%3A00-16%3A00%20BST%20%2F%2005%3A00-11%3A00%20EDT%20%2F%2017%3A00-23%3A00%20SGT%20for%20essential%20maintenance.%20%20Apologies%20for%20the%20inconvenience.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zeigarnik Effect&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;  would have you believe that it’s the best way to kill&#xA;  procrastination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/?&amp;amp;fa=main.doiLanding&amp;amp;doi=10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.701&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Research in that area&lt;/a&gt; seems to point to humans being much more&#xA;  inclined to finish something that has already been started&#xA;  (researchers interrupted people doing “brain buster” tasks before they&#xA;  could complete them… nearly 90% of people went on to finish the task&#xA;  anyway, despite being told they could stop).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suspense in stories really allows you to create an addictive&#xA;  narrative, as long as the suspense appears early enough to capture&#xA;  interest, and doesn’t keep people hanging on forever&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Has any real research been done on this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I might elaborate on this further. I don't want to comment without first exploring the research I have quoted to see whether they are good studies. If anyone else knows of any experiments related to this field, please mention it in the comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0547391404&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Co-creating stories: Collaborative experiments in storytelling&#xA;Management Learning November 2010 41: 507-523, first published on June 28, 2010&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0547391404&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make Us Human&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Jonathan Gottschall &#xA;(ISBN-13: 978-0547391403    ISBN-10: 0547391404)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-08-07T12:23:00.037" LastActivityDate="2015-08-07T12:23:00.037" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10849" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-07T14:22:33.533" Score="4" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering, given that a number represents a concept, unlike a letter that represents sound (that changes with context) - Do &lt;strong&gt;pictographic language users have similar rates of &lt;em&gt;dyslexia&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;dysgraphia&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9007" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-07T14:30:21.410" LastActivityDate="2015-08-09T06:20:07.883" Title="Do users of pictographically represented languages users have the same rates of dyslexia and dysgraphia?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10851" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10484" CreationDate="2015-08-07T20:50:26.230" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short Answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes it can. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long Answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Wikipedia, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A &lt;em&gt;heuristic&lt;/em&gt; is “any approach to problem solving, learning, or discovery that employs a practical methodology not guaranteed to be optimal or perfect, but sufficient for the immediate goals.” Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a good general definition that seems to adequately capture the meaning behind &quot;heuristic&quot; as used in different fields. However, one must be careful to understand the specific use in a given context. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to psychology, there seems to be some confusion because there are both intentional and unintentional heuristics.   Examples of unintentional ones are the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;availability heuristic&lt;/a&gt;. Some of the unintentional ones are more prominent and have received more attention and, as a result, I am not sure this distinction that there are &quot;intentional&quot; heuristics is always made. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, according to Tversky and Kahneman (Nobel laureate in Economics), &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The term &lt;em&gt;judgmental heuristic&lt;/em&gt; refers to a strategy ― whether deliberate or not ― that relies on a natural assessment to produce estimation or a prediction. One of the manifestations of a heuristic is the relative neglect of other considerations (Tversky and Kahneman, 294). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Source: &quot;Extensional Versus Intuitive Reasoning: The Conjunction Fallacy in Probability Judgment&quot; by Tversky and Kahneman in &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt; Vol. 90 No. 4, 1983. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: the notion of a &quot;judgmental heuristic&quot; means simply a heuristic used in the mental faculty of &quot;judgement,&quot; which I will not attempt to define. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastActivityDate="2015-08-07T20:50:26.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10855" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10866" CreationDate="2015-08-08T17:39:46.797" Score="8" ViewCount="37654" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few of my friends have Asperger's Syndrome, and some fit the pattern but have not been formally diagnosed. Many of these friends are also highly intelligent, and  because of the high intelligence and odd social behavior were stereotyped in school as being &quot;odd geniuses&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my anecdotal experience, there seems to be a lot of correlation between people with Asperger's and people with high IQ. I'm curious if this is just correlation, or if there is some causation here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are some traits of Asperger's actually traits of high intelligence, or perhaps the other way around?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9016" LastEditorUserId="9016" LastEditDate="2017-10-16T17:30:37.660" LastActivityDate="2018-05-10T15:32:37.077" Title="Why does Asperger's Syndrome seem to overlap with high IQ?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10857" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11066" CreationDate="2015-08-09T00:34:42.850" Score="7" ViewCount="2253" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are any number of movies and television shows based on some variation of the same premise:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A character suffers some sort of mishap (the most frequent mishap being a bump on the head), which renders them incapable of remembering who they are.  They assume a new life, often as someone totally different from their former self, hilarity ensues, and eventually, they are cured of their affliction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/EasyAmnesia&quot;&gt;premise&lt;/a&gt; is so common that it has become a &lt;a href=&quot;http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/IdentityAmnesia&quot;&gt;trope&lt;/a&gt;.  Examples include the Goldie Hawn/Kurt Russell vehicle &lt;em&gt;Overboard&lt;/em&gt;, the movie &lt;em&gt;Muppets Take Manhattan&lt;/em&gt;, and too many episodes of television shows to count.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How common is this form of identity amnesia in the real world?  How often does someone forget everything about who they are?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8988" LastActivityDate="2015-08-31T06:10:53.367" Title="How common is the form of amnesia depicted in fictional works?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10859" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-09T03:12:29.480" Score="2" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salience_(neuroscience)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;saliency&lt;/a&gt; and wondering about its relationship to human interests, particularly hobbies or fields of study. I am thinking that there are typically patterns in what kinds of things humans enjoy spending their cognitive resources on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My first question: What is the mechanism behind one's fascination in a topic? Are 'personal interests' related to the incentive saliency in reward-prediction? If so, how?&lt;/strong&gt; For example, might we choose to explore topics that we are naturally good at, under the (perhaps unconscious) assumption that we might be rewarded for what we can produce from our efforts, thus increasing incentive and interest in the topic? Or, if there is an incentive, would it mostly be a cultural one?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My second question: is there scientific evidence to support that females are more 'naturally' interested in human endeavors / abstracting within the real of human nature, whereas men are more 'naturally' interested in objects / abstracting outside the realm of humanity?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I'm primarily interested in what facilitates interest in concrete topics, and less interested in the mechanisms behind human attraction, unless they are relevant to how interest in concrete topics is formed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="8248" LastEditDate="2015-08-09T19:18:58.073" LastActivityDate="2015-08-09T19:18:58.073" Title="What is the mechanism behind one's fascination in a topic or subject?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-09-17T14:23:18.600" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10860" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10849" CreationDate="2015-08-09T06:13:57.257" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;: Perhaps, but it is difficult to measure because the functional accounts of dyslexia and dysgraphia differ between alphabetic and non-alphabetic languages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Longer answer&lt;/strong&gt;: It has been argued that oral reading in Chinese can proceed via (at least) two pathways: the lexical semantic pathway (which supports reading for meaning), and the nonsemantic pathway (which connects representations of strokes, radicals, and characters to their phonological representations). [1][2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Yin et. al. [2]:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;...The patterns of acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia observed in Chinese cannot be identical to the patterns observed in alphabetic languages. This is because certain properties of the Chinese script do not allow direct comparisons between the disorders. For example, nonlexical stimuli in alphabetic scripts...cannot be constructed in Chinese. Thus, it will not be possible to replicate the pattern of preserved nonword processing in surface dyslexia and dysgraphia observed in English and Spanish.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article stresses that the patterns of dyslexia and dysgraphia in Chinese are determined by the language 'environment', or the spatial characteristics of the script, and not the language itself. Since the language is spatial in nature, it is hypothesized that speakers use orthographic information from the character in order to determine the character's meaning. This means that if access to the semantics of a word is partially damaged, then surface level dyslexia can be observed in Chinese -- though, again, since the nature of the languages is different, it is not an exact 'replica' of lexographic dyslexia in alphabetic languages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, it is more common in non-alphabet languages for dyslexia and dysgraphia to be associated with oral or phonological deficits. Some studies have shown that Chinese may demonstrate 'tonal dyslexia' by providing the wrong tonal stress on a syllable, or by providing the wrong monosyllable for the word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;One view of phonological representations of Chinese words is that they have a non-linear structure containing separate syllabic, segmental (onset and rime) and supra-segmental layers...Tonal reading and writing errors result from impairment to the tonal tier or association between tonal and segmental tiers which leads to a dissociation between segmental and suprasegmental units, thus revealing the structure of the phonological lexicon.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, given that there is no &quot;universal&quot; model of reading and writing, there is evidence that these dysfunctions in language processing arise &lt;em&gt;within&lt;/em&gt; languages, not in spite of them, and thus take on different characteristics within each language. [3]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For individual characteristics among other non-alphabetic languages, feel free to look at the source material below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source used: &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=pyoeTTl_-mwC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA51&amp;amp;dq=Acquired+Dyslexia+and+Dysgraphia+Across+Scripts&amp;amp;ots=l2QXWj4cdu&amp;amp;sig=qQQjngrQ3qwMUOwaDN_mPpGD6jI#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Acquired%20Dyslexia%20and%20Dysgraphia%20Across%20Scripts&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Acquired Dyslexia and Dysgraphia Across Scripts&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] To understand this within the context of alphetic languages, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-route_hypothesis_to_reading_aloud#Reading_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dual-route theory of reading aloud&lt;/a&gt; describes observable potential deficits in lexical understanding and in phonological understanding when reading words aloud. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] W. Yin et al. / Acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia in Chinese (p. 163-165)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] B.S. Weekes / Acquired disorders of reading and writing: Cross-script comparisons (p. 53)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="8248" LastEditDate="2015-08-09T06:20:07.883" LastActivityDate="2015-08-09T06:20:07.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10861" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10275" CreationDate="2015-08-09T06:54:56.687" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2577457/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;One study&lt;/a&gt; found a slight correlation between physical activity and extraversion (r = 0.23), neuroticism (r = −0.11) and conscientiousness (r = 0.20), though the results were relatively inconclusive. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.midus.wisc.edu/findings/pdfs/1345.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Another study&lt;/a&gt; found that physically active individuals ranked slightly higher on all scales except for neuroticism. A third study found correlations between all traits except agreeableness, with neuroticism being the only negatively correlated trait. [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though not every study showed replicable and statistically significant result, they do seem to agree that neuroticism is negatively correlated with physical activity. Among the Big 5, the trait with the highest positive correlation tended to be extroversion, though by a marginal amount at best.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be fair, I'm not sure if there is a trait that explains 'those who prefer experience and physical activities above philosophy and creativity'. A facility for philosophy and creativity is highly correlated with openness to experience on the Big 5 model. The contrast to this (according to the model) is not an inclination towards the sensate; rather, people with low scores on openness tend to have more conventional, traditional interests, and thus tend to prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. [2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I think that you are describing is a trait that can be used to describe those who prefer to engage in external activities (sports, physical recreation, external experiences) over internal ones (philosophy, creative abstraction). Based on the evidence above, it would be reasonable to assume that there is no one 'trait' to describe this phenomenon, but rather the contrast is made more evident the higher in extroversion and the lower in openness that a person may be, compared to someone of the opposite temperament.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Kathryn E. Wilson, Rodney K. Dishman. (2014) Personality and physical activity: A systematic review and meta-analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] McCrae, R.R.; Costa, P.T.; Jr (1987). &quot;Validation of the five-factor model of personality across instruments and observers&quot;. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (1): 81–90.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-09T06:54:56.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10862" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6416" CreationDate="2015-08-09T07:22:59.243" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not all medications administer dopamine in the same way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For treating Parkinson's specifically, dopamine-boosting medications such as L-DOPA (which are notable for their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, which dopamine itself cannot do) are often administered with a DOPA decarboxylase inhibitor (DDCI) or with a benserazide to prevent peripheral synthesis of dopamine from L-DOPA. This prevents the negative side effects that may result from excess dopamine in the peripheral nervous system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other medications (such as stimulant medications, used to treat disorders such as ADHD) convert tyrosine hydroxylase into L-Dopa, which in turn becomes dopamine. Long-term amphetamine use has shown to have positive effects on the brain when administered in therapeutic doses. By contrast, however, certain psychotoxic amphetamines such as methamphetamine have shown to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2731235/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cause long-term brain damage&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When taken in higher doses, these medications can negatively effect heart rate, sleep patterns, appetite, mood, anxiety, aggression levels, and (in cases of abuse and overuse) can lead to psychosis or paranoia. They can also lead to trouble with urination and muscle coordination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-09T07:22:59.243" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10866" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10855" CreationDate="2015-08-10T04:04:00.863" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;: Some traits of Asperger's are found in those with high intelligence, and vice versa. In the grander scheme of things, however, it appears that correlation does not imply causation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Longer answer&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;AS was first described in 1944 by Austrian physician Hans Asperger. He considered it to be a personality disorder characterized by pedantic speech content, impairment of two-way interactions, excellent logical abstract thinking, isolated areas of interest, repetitive and stereotyped play, and ignorance of environmental demands. AS individuals were thought to be capable of originality and creativity in selective fields (Tsai, 1992). Asperger (1979) suggested that his syndrome was more likely to be observed in children of high intelligence and special abilities. However, to date, the clinical literature on AS has focused on children with average or low-average intelligence. There has been surprisingly little examination of AS among gifted children (Barber, 1996; Cash, 1999a; 1999b).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seem to be at least &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.davidsongifted.org/db/Articles_id_10167.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;seven characteristics&lt;/a&gt; that are common to both gifted children and children with Aspberger's syndrome. Those are: verbal fluency, a fascination for letters or numbers and/or memorizing information, an intensive interest in a specialized topic, hypersensitivity to sensory stimuli, a large range of abilities due to their specialized interest(s), and uneven social or affective development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due to this overlap (and not necessarily in spite of it), Asperger's syndrome is often mistaken for giftedness in children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are differences between gifted children without AS and non-gifted children with AS. Unlike gifted children, children with AS often demonstrate motor clumsiness, low tolerance for change or agitation, inability to understand social humor and proper affect, and appear to lack a &quot;theory of mind&quot; (in other words, they may act abnormally and not have any clue that others perceive them to be abnormal).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Perhaps the most pronounced feature to distinguish a gifted AS student is his or her remarkable lack of insight and awareness regarding the feelings, needs, and interests of other people. An AS child will talk interminably in a monotonous or pedantic tone about a favorite topic, unaware that the listener might not be interested, needs to leave, is bored, or wants to say something. AS children will also interrupt private conversations and enter or leave abruptly without concern for the wishes or needs of others. They seem oblivious to the simplest rules of social conduct, and repeated efforts to instruct them or remind them do not change these behaviors. A pronounced lack of social awareness is not a common characteristic of ordinary gifted children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on this, it does not seem that AS foreshadows high IQ. It seems likely that AS is often misdiagnosed as giftedness/high intelligence, or vice versa, considering the overlap in external behaviors among both groups. In addition, if 100% of your mental energy was spent on one or two very specific interests, and if you set about in such a way that you /only/ talked about those interests whenever possible, you would indeed seem very intelligent and competent. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-10T04:04:00.863" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10868" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10805" CreationDate="2015-08-10T13:42:20.190" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most important reason for this is the risk behavior described by Sydney Maples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, young adolescents simply do not have as much experience as older people - they just recently got their license.&#xA;They have less practical exercise and less experience about dealing with any specific challenge. They also might be curious and try out behavior that older people have already tried out - and stopped doing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These two points mean that even a future world champion race driver might have higher than average risk of accidents while in adolescent age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-08-10T13:42:20.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10869" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-10T14:17:13.727" Score="5" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, &lt;a href=&quot;http://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.jproteome.5b00434&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; [1] claiming to be able to distinguish bipolar disorder from major depressive disorder via a urine sample has come to my attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite reading the paper, I'm unable to understand how they discovered this bio-marker in the first place. What is the general procedure for identifying and verifying bio-markers in the domain of clinical psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &quot;Divergent Urinary Metabolic Phenotypes between Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorder Identified by a Combined GC–MS and NMR Spectroscopic Metabonomic Approach&quot; by Chen et. al&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-02-23T17:29:41.233" LastActivityDate="2018-02-23T17:29:41.233" Title="How are psychological bio-markers discovered?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10870" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-10T17:07:37.347" Score="1" ViewCount="1394" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am studying the concept of multi-tasking. The premise upon which I am asking this question is my belief that multi-tasking is a myth(as discussed in a few books on the same topic) and that the brain processes its tasks/brain requests sequentially, one by one. The moment we try doing two tasks, that interfere with each other in terms of the areas of brain that are activated while doing those tasks, we hit an efficiency bottleneck; our efficiency of brain resource usage goes down. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same belief now led me to think that an efficient way of performing any task is to schedule the task in the brain in such a way that its adjacent tasks have no chance to interfere with the current task in terms of their usage of brain's resources. So, what are those different brain resources that together accomplish an activity? Can anybody give me a full list of the abilities of the brain as per the latest scientific results available?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the process I tried to list down the various activities that we enjoy doing while we are able to give our full attention/concentration to them and then tried to see what are the varieties of things that a brain can actually do, so that we can quickly identify the activity and classify it in terms of its effect on brain's usage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few significant things brains beautifully do are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;calculations(math) = counting&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Literature = imagination + verbal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;music skills = counting + aesthetic&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;learning new language = memory + verbal usage + pattern detection&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;falling in love = reproductive + courting&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;imagery and sexual fantasy = reproductive + visual imagination + aesthetics&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;poetry = verbal + counting(metre) etc&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;traveling = recall + curiosity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;adventure = same as above&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;sports = strategy + motor skills etc&#xA;etc etc&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above list includes the types of creative activities that brain does, but does not list the basic, elementary set of abilities that together accomplish these activities. So my question here is, what are those various distinct faculties that a brain uses to accomplish a task? You may provide a list of all the faculties(RHS of the above &quot;so called&quot; equations :)), or map the different parts of brain with unique abilities, or provide a totally different way of looking at the brain altogether...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more clarity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an analogy with a computer system which has processing units and related resources like ALUs, Memory, etc what are the different processing unit and resources in the brain which together accomplish a task. I am looking for that list basically&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6833" LastEditorUserId="6833" LastEditDate="2015-08-13T04:56:04.557" LastActivityDate="2015-08-13T04:56:04.557" Title="Full list of the capabilities of human brain" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2015-08-10T19:17:11.030" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10871" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10870" CreationDate="2015-08-10T18:16:38.213" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The length of your question and it's tags make it quite confusing, however what you mentioned about the brain processing tasks sequentially and then hitting an efficiency bottle-neck when using conflicting resources reminds me of the research of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ai.rug.nl/~niels/multitasking.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neils Taatgen&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He uses a cognitive model called ACT-R to do computer simulations to predict what efficiency bottle-necks a person might experience. His research might help clarify some theories you have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-08-10T18:16:38.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10873" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10875" CreationDate="2015-08-10T20:11:15.887" Score="2" ViewCount="52120" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, if one is using multiple pens to write something and has not used one of them in awhile, one may think it is &quot;feeling&quot; &quot;left out&quot; and so will switch to use that one. A logical mind KNOWS that inanimate objects cannot feel but one may have such empathy for all things - living or not - that one may attribute human feelings and emotions to them and an emotional brain does this automatically. It is not a conscious action, it is automatic and it dictates how one interacts with things. One can use a logical mind to recognize it but stills feel compelled to make sure everything is taken care of and included. Is this a specific disorder or just a piece of one of another disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9034" LastEditorUserId="9034" LastEditDate="2015-08-10T23:47:54.407" LastActivityDate="2015-08-10T23:47:54.407" Title="Is there a disorder that causes one to give inanimate objects human emotions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-08-12T12:25:21.697" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10874" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10876" CreationDate="2015-08-10T21:20:49.863" Score="7" ViewCount="297" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that people with ADHD have different brain structure to people without. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is the case, why isn't the difference of brain structure used to diagnose ADHD, rather than a series of questions relating to behavioral symptoms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastEditorUserId="8810" LastEditDate="2015-08-20T22:51:49.887" LastActivityDate="2017-03-07T19:48:35.157" Title="If ADHD is caused by brain structure, why isn't analysis of brain structure used to diagnose it?" Tags="&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10875" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10873" CreationDate="2015-08-10T22:08:24.650" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting question. I have thought about this a lot, and while I cannot offer a conclusive answer, I can offer some ideas that stem from scientific literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I should note that this question may technically be considered off-topic, as it seems to be looking for a diagnosis (and self-help questions are prohibited on this website). However, for the sake of my own curiosity and the curiosity of others, I'll provide my answer nonetheless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To answer your specific question&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;em&gt;No, there is no officially-recognized disorder that causes one to assume human emotions in objects.&lt;/em&gt; To be fair, the condition you have described does not constitute the definition of '[mental] disorder' because, by definition, a mental disorder is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mental or behavioral pattern that causes suffering or poor ability to function in life&lt;/a&gt;. On the contrary, it seems that this behavioral pattern of yours is helpful to you, for reasons that I will explain below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a theory that the brain forms an image of the body's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostatic_emotion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;homeostatic sensations&lt;/a&gt; in the &quot;primary interoceptive cortex&quot; of the brain. This area is located in the insula, which is linked to emotion (the body's homeostasis), as well as empathy. [1] This theory is supported by fMRI imaging, which shows activity in the insular cortex when one is asked to feel one's own heartbeat, or empathize with the pain or emotional state of others. [2] Coincidentally, the insula is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;also involved in psychopathology&lt;/a&gt;, or the study of mental disorders. Specifically, it is linked to anxiety disorders [3] and emotional dysregulation. [4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The spindle neurons found at a higher density in the right frontal insular cortex are also found in the anterior cingulate cortex, and it has been speculated that these neurons are involved in cognitive-emotional processes that are specific to primates, such as empathy and self-aware emotional feelings. While the mechanisms behind the insular cortex are not well known, it is thought that these functions arise as a consequence of the insula's ability to relay its internal 'homeostasis' (or its overall well-being) to the conscious observer. [2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the evidence that empathy is associated with insular activity, and given the evidence that the insula regulates the body's internal sense of 'homeostasis', it can be inferred that those who are highly sensitive (i.e. highly attuned to their internal level of homeostasis) are automatically highly attuned to the others in their environment, as well. Thus, there may be a tendency to expect similar levels of sensitivity in other things, and (by proxy) there may be a tendency to 'tread lightly' around others due to an automatic assumption that they are similarly sensitive. This may extend to inanimate objects, if one recognizes that the 'environment' that the object is in is not maintained in the body's subjective view of homeostasis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing to consider is that young children often show attachment or subjective association of feelings to objects, and that this is considered normal in young age because of the positive effects it seems to have on children. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4033092/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;One study&lt;/a&gt; found that children who attended day-care full-time were significantly more likely to develop attachments to inanimate objects than children who only attended day-care part-time. It is not certain why this is the case, though it can be speculated that increased exposure to the real world (and time away from the parent or guardian) increases the child's anxiety as they learn to become independent. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7083951&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A prior study&lt;/a&gt; found that there was no link between behavioral disturbances and object attachment; on the contrary, another study found that children used object attachment as a mechanism for arousal reduction (and, thus, anxiety-reduction) in the face of adversity or discomfort in the environment. [5] As I mentioned before, it is thought that children use these objects to transition from dependence to independence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is different from treating objects as if they were people, because this is essentially using the object as a token of security to replace the mother as the child advances in age, thus allowing the child to become independent. However, it may reveal insight into those who naturally associate objects with emotions, because it may represent an underlying anxiety in the individual. The attachment to the object may be a way for the individual to circumvent that -- though it could also be unrelated, as this is still in a speculative stage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, however, I would say that this behavior does not implicate disorder in an individual. To the contrary, it appears to be a soothing mechanism. If I had to make an informed guess based on the information above, I would theorize that those who continue to associate emotions with inanimate objects outside of childhood may simply have stronger natural insular activity, and thus a stronger tendency towards one's internal 'homeostasis', or emotional activity. Because the individual is naturally more sensitive to the environment / emotional affect of others due to heightened activity in the insular cortex, they naturally attempt to regulate the environment's 'homeostasis' based on the individual's own bodily concept of homeostasis. Thus, if you were to feel left out if you were a pen that was not being used, then you may very well treat every pen the way you wanted to be treated. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources used:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]  Emeran A. Mayer (August 2011). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v12/n8/box/nrn3071_BX2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Gut feelings: the emerging biology of gut–brain communication&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 12: 453–466.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Benedetto De Martino, Dharshan Kumaran, Ben Seymour, and Raymond J. Dolan (August 2006). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2631940/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Frames, Biases, and Rational Decision-Making in the Human Brain&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Science 313 (6): 684–687.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Paulus MP, Stein MB (August 2006). &quot;An insular view of anxiety&quot;. Biol. Psychiatry 60 (4): 383–7.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Thayer JF, Lane RD (December 2000). &quot;A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation&quot;. J Affect Disord 61 (3): 201–16&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[5] Passman R. H. (1976). Arousal reducing properties of attachment objects: testing the functional limits of the security blanket relative to the mother. Dev. Psychol. 12 468–469 10.1037/0012-1649.12.5.468&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-10T22:08:24.650" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10876" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10874" CreationDate="2015-08-10T22:25:34.600" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;ADHD is not 'caused' by a brain structure. However, there are observable differences in the brains of ADHD sufferers compared to non-ADHD sufferers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, ADHD sufferers have a disproportionately greater decrease in volume in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735806000079&quot;&gt;left side of the prefrontal cortex&lt;/a&gt;, as well as the posterior parietal cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, there is typically a reduction in the number of dopamine receptors, as well as a sensitivity to neurotransmitter activity. Thus, stimulants and cognitive enhancements are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3353150/&quot;&gt;often used to treat ADHD&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3272832/&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; does a good, in-depth job of mapping networks and brain connectivity to ADHD. If you were to read it, you might notice a problem -- it isn't the case that there is one 'brain structure' that ADHD sufferers have that non-sufferers do not have, nor is it just one brain structure that is affected. The way that ADHD seems to 'work' in the brain is very complex, and there is still much to be learned about the brain before we can go about diagnosing people based on MRI data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, the line between ADHD and other mental disorders is not clearly drawn. Inattentiveness could stem from depression, trauma, or insomnia, for example. Mania and/or hyperactivity could stem from bipolar disorder or histrionic personality disorder. We are so far from figuring the brain out that we can only rely on context at this point in time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-10T22:25:34.600" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10877" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10886" CreationDate="2015-08-10T22:44:35.313" Score="8" ViewCount="5155" Body="&lt;p&gt;In artificial neural networks the connections between neurons are a assigned numbers called &quot;weights&quot; or &quot;parameters&quot;. As new data is fed into the neural net, these weights change. This is how the neural net &quot;learns&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand what these weights might correspond to in a real  brain. The idea occurred to me that it might represent the strength of the myelination on the connections between real neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a correct understanding?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the degree of myelineation along an axon vary over time as the neural net processes more experiences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastEditorUserId="4055" LastEditDate="2015-08-11T20:44:46.690" LastActivityDate="2015-08-11T20:52:16.227" Title="What do the weights of an artificial neural network represent in biological neurons?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10879" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10877" CreationDate="2015-08-11T00:09:50.563" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The weight matrix is typically considered to be a strength of connectivity metric between nodes in the parallel computronium model that neural networks are based on. That fact is fairly evident when you investigate ANN learning algorithms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, the backpropagation algorithm for feedforward networks is designed to strengthen a string of associations between layers, thus forming a state vector to represent the optimal solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The association seems even more evident in Hopfield networks. A training algorithm in a Hopfield net is designed to adjust the weight matrix until the network state converges to a stability point. Certain stabilities represent certain associative memories; similar to the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I think forming too strong of a connection between the current neural network models and the functions of the biological brain might actually be detrimental to your understanding of the former. Neural networks are not designed to work like the brain, they're designed to be a parallel architecture. It just so happens that the brain is also a parallel architecture, but learning in the brain is so different from any ANN model that it makes very little sense to compare the two on such a fundamental level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8687" LastActivityDate="2015-08-11T00:09:50.563" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10881" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10805" CreationDate="2015-08-11T03:32:13.293" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I mentioned in my comment, I would be less likely to blame this on brain chemistry and more likely to blame it on lack of experience. While I have not reviewed the research, it would be very difficult to isolate a mental development pattern from all the other confounding variables of young drivers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, driving is inherently a procedural task. It takes time to develop those skills to the point of automaticity, so there is a somewhat higher level of attention and resources being devoted to the mere mechanics of driving. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, our ability to respond to dynamic situations is dependent upon our brain recognizing those situations and responding in a  preprogrammed fashion. This is also something that cannot be learned other than through time on the road. For example, I learned that it is not a good idea to drive next to someone on the freeway, matching their speed, because they could suddenly decide to switch lanes. I learned that from experience, and it has helped me avoid numerous accidents. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third, we have to consider the propensity of younger folks to want to engage in stupid things, like texting and driving. While people of all ages do this, there are plenty of reasons to point to younger generations being more active with their texting and other apps that can create major distractions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Young drivers simply don't have the motor skills, coordination, and mental preparation that older drivers do. They also have more distractions. This doesn't mean that there are some young drivers who couldn't outdrive older drivers, nor does it mean that all older drivers are reasonable drivers. There is a lot of variation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2937" LastActivityDate="2015-08-11T03:32:13.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10883" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-11T08:00:51.647" Score="6" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology and logic, rationalization or rationalisation (also known as making excuses[1]) is a defense mechanism in which controversial behaviors or feelings are justified and explained in a seemingly rational or logical manner to avoid the true explanation, and are made consciously tolerable – or even admirable and superior – by plausible means.[2] It is also an informal fallacy of reasoning.[3] - &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_%28psychology%29&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to objectively recognize that someone is rationalizing?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to make an individual realize that s\he is rationalizing when it happens?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to assess an individual's tendency to rationalize?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2021-05-07T04:57:01.113" Title="Can rationalization be objectively recognized?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10884" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10888" CreationDate="2015-08-11T13:30:45.510" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since the function of the cerebellum in patients with cerebellar hypoplasia needs to be taken over by other brain components such as the motor cortex, and since the cortex is the source of language, is it easier for these patients to verbalize their movements, i.e. are all their movements voluntary? Or does the brain stem rather replace the cerebellum's function?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2570" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-12T12:24:20.123" LastActivityDate="2015-08-12T12:24:20.123" Title="Do subjects with a missing cerebellum have a superior ability to verbalize motion sequences?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10885" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10877" CreationDate="2015-08-11T17:43:08.147" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Historically, neuroscientists have not thought of myelination to be the biological analogue of weights in an artificial neural network (but see below!). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, &lt;strong&gt;the strength of synaptic connections&lt;/strong&gt; seems to be the most likely analogue. Here, strength refers mostly to the size and of the voltage response in the receiving neuron due to the release of neurotransmitter in the sending neuron. So, for example, Neuron A is connected to Neuron B, and then A releases the neurotransmitter glutamate and causes a 1 millivolt response in B. But then another neuron, Neuron C may be connected to Neuron D and when it releases glutamate it might only cause a 0.5 millivolt response--not as strong as the A-&gt;B connection. &lt;em&gt;Importantly, the strengths of synaptic connections change due to experience, and this is thought to (in part) underlie learning, similarly to how changes in weights in an artificial neural network are the mechanism of artificial learning.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All this said, your point about myelination is interesting in light of recent work: an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/346/6207/318&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;October 2014 paper&lt;/a&gt;, published in &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; showed that production of myelin (in the form of oligodendrocytes) was necessary for motor learning in mice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastEditorUserId="6642" LastEditDate="2015-08-11T20:52:16.227" LastActivityDate="2015-08-11T20:52:16.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10886" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10877" CreationDate="2015-08-11T17:54:40.440" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The weights in an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;artificial neural network&lt;/a&gt; are an &lt;em&gt;approximation&lt;/em&gt; of multiple processes combined that take place in biological neurons. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Myelination&lt;/a&gt; plays a role, but not a major one. Weights in artificial neural networks can be positive or negative numbers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Weight magnitude&lt;/strong&gt;. The magnitude of a weight is analogous to a combination of increased &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrite&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dendritic&lt;/a&gt; connections between neurons, number of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;synapses&lt;/a&gt; between their dendrites, density of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neurotransmitter&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;receptors&lt;/a&gt; on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_synapse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;post-synaptic terminals&lt;/a&gt;, as well as increased &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neurotransmitter vesicle&lt;/a&gt; formation and fusion on the pre-synaptic terminals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Positive weights&lt;/strong&gt;. Positive weights are analogous to the pre-synaptic terminals of the synapses releasing excitatory neurotransmitters (i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;glutamate&lt;/a&gt;). They make it &lt;em&gt;more&lt;/em&gt; likely the receiving cell will fire an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;action potential&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Negative weights&lt;/strong&gt;. Negative weights are analogous to inhibitory neurotransmitters (i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;GABA&lt;/a&gt;) being released at the synapse. They make it &lt;em&gt;less&lt;/em&gt; likely the receiving cell will fire an action potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myelination&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myelination increases the distance that action potentials can travel down the axon. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;membrane voltage potential&lt;/a&gt; decays much closer to the cell body if the axon is not myelinated. One analogy is that of a garden hose. If the axon is not myelinated, then the garden hose is leaky with holes, and less water pressure (that caries water pressure waves, the action potentials) makes it to the end of the hose. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, increased myelination is not necessarily analogous to an increased weight. For example, if there are few dendrites between two neurons, with few synaptic connections, then myelination would have little effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also mentioned learning. During learning, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backpropagation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;weights in an artificial neuron increase or decrease&lt;/a&gt;. In biological neurons, learning takes place at multiple scales and areas (i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonsynaptic_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;non-synaptic&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;synaptic&lt;/a&gt;). At first, during increasing connection strength, you may see increased vesicle fusion, then increased neurotransmitter receptors, then new synaptic boutons, and new &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendritic_spine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dendrites&lt;/a&gt;. When &quot;unlearning&quot;, or forgetting, these processes happen in reverse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, a weight in artificial neurons clump a lot of biological complexity into one number that only crudely approximates the degree of connection strength between two biological neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2015-08-11T17:54:40.440" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10888" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10884" CreationDate="2015-08-11T23:10:09.897" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that this question is hard to answer because there is little known about the cerebellum, and few instances of people who have been born without one. There are only &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1468-1331.1998.550503.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;10 known cases of complete cerebellar agenesis&lt;/a&gt;, which can hardly be considered a sample size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Broadly speaking, the cerebellum can be seen a 'fine tuning' device in the brain. It does not initiate movement, but rather allows movement to be fine-tuned and coordinated by receiving input from sensory systems in the spinal cord. This 'fine tuning' can apply to other areas, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/jnp.2009.21.3.245&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;behavior, affect, and social expectations&lt;/a&gt;, as well as speech difficulty (often in the form of slurred speech). However, it is not well known how the cerebellum affects &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter05.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive functions&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 'output source' for the cerebellum is its Purkinje cells. But since Purkinje cells are found in high quantities within the cerebellum itself, they are unlikely to be of much use if the patient has no cerebellum to begin with. Therefore, it is not clear how the brain could 'replace' cerebellar function. I think that muscle memory and conscious developmental strategies are the only methods to overcome setbacks from cerebellar agenesis, and after reading a few case studies, common anecdote seemed to confirm this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given this information, and given the lack of evidence in any of the observed ten cases, I would conclude that it is likely that patients with a missing cerebellum do not have any sort of extraordinary ability elsewhere in the brain -- much less related to their own deficit. However, this cannot be confirmed without more case studies of cerebellar agenesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-11T23:10:09.897" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10889" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-11T23:11:58.390" Score="4" ViewCount="207" Body="&lt;p&gt;Moral foundations theory splits morality into &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.moralfoundations.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;six categories&lt;/a&gt;. In his book, &lt;em&gt;The Righteous Mind&lt;/em&gt;, Haidt mentioned that looking at church sermons of southern baptist vs less conservative christian Church sermons showed strong moral splits into &quot;Conservative&quot; and &quot;Liberal&quot; mindsets, defined by subsets of the six foundations, in particular those that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~jessegra/papers/GrahamHaidtNosek.2009.Moral%20foundations%20of%20liberals%20and%20conservatives.JPSP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;triggered more often in the texts&lt;/a&gt;. Specifically, this was done using a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.moralfoundations.org/sites/default/files/files/downloads/moral%20foundations%20dictionary.dic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;predefined list such as this one&lt;/a&gt; and then doing a word count for each category, thereby binning the sermon into one of the two mindsets. Lets call such words &quot;trigger words.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is the following: has there been any work done on looking at combinations of these trigger words from different categories? Let me be more specific. Lets take the sentence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Hurting a dog is one of the worst things a person can do.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One such trigger word here is &quot;hurting&quot; which is a vice of the Care foundation. This is something that appeals to the Care foundation and will, statistically speaking, be highly agreed with by the Liberal mindset. Also there will generally be less agreement with this from the Conservative mindset. Now, what if we write the sentence as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;We must respect dogs.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, &quot;respect&quot; is a trigger word for the Conservative mindset. Moreover, consider the sentence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Hurting dogs is one of the worst things a person can do. We must respect all animals and those who harm them are evil, wicked and sick.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've purposely overloaded the last sentence with Sanctity and Respect trigger words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question 1&lt;/strong&gt;: If one overloads sentences as done above, will it trigger more positive reactions from the Conservative mindset?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question 2&lt;/strong&gt;: When asked to explain the above overloaded sentences, will both Liberal and Conservative mindsets agree on a similar meaning (&quot;don't hurt dogs&quot;)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question 3&lt;/strong&gt;: In other words, is there evidence for the ability to trigger low-priority foundations by invoking high-priority ones for a given mindset? I'm am relying here on the notion that words are generally &lt;em&gt;ambiguous&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;context-dependent&lt;/em&gt;. As well, I am assuming reactions and parsing of meaning is instantaneous and the subject is not given time to reflect and analyze, i.e. intuition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm grossly oversimplifying things here but I hope the general theme of these questions will lead to a nice discussion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9052" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2015-11-26T22:38:13.553" LastActivityDate="2018-09-23T15:00:43.467" Title="Moral Foundations Theory and trigger word combinations" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10890" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10788" CreationDate="2015-08-11T23:41:45.640" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The scope of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_Psychotherapy_%28book%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Yalom's mainstream branch&lt;/a&gt; is pretty much the same as that of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;existential psychotherapy&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodynamic_psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychodynamic therapy&lt;/a&gt; in general.  According to Yalom (p. 9-10):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The dynamic existential approach retains the basic dynamic structure&#xA;  outlined by Freud, but radically alters the content.  The old formula&#xA;  of DRIVE -&gt; ANXIETY -&gt; DEFENSE MECHANISM is replaced by AWARENESS OF&#xA;  ULTIMATE CONCERN -&gt; ANXIETY -&gt; DEFENSE MECHANISM. Both formulas assume&#xA;  that anxiety is the fuel of psychopathology;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychoanalysis&lt;/a&gt; is focused on psychological symptoms, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neurosis&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are many different neuroses: obsessive–compulsive disorder,&#xA;  obsessive–compulsive personality disorder, impulse control disorder,&#xA;  anxiety disorder, hysteria, and a great variety of phobias. ...&#xA;  anxiety, sadness or depression, anger, irritability, mental confusion,&#xA;  low sense of self-worth, etc., behavioral symptoms such as phobic&#xA;  avoidance, vigilance, impulsive and compulsive acts, lethargy, etc.,&#xA;  cognitive problems such as unpleasant or disturbing thoughts,&#xA;  repetition of thoughts and obsession, habitual fantasizing, negativity&#xA;  and cynicism, etc. Interpersonally, neurosis involves dependency,&#xA;  aggressiveness, perfectionism, schizoid isolation, socio-culturally&#xA;  inappropriate behaviors, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychosis&lt;/a&gt;, but exclusive of known biological causes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Medical and biological laboratory tests should exclude central nervous&#xA;  system diseases and injuries, diseases and injuries of other organs,&#xA;  psychoactive substances, toxins, and prescribed medications as causes&#xA;  of symptoms of psychosis before any psychiatric illness can be&#xA;  diagnosed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As per Yalom (p. 12):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;*In this discussion, as elsewhere in this text, I refer to&#xA;  psychologically based disturbance, not to the major psychoses with a&#xA;  fundamental biochemical origin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is similar in scope to all forms of psychotherapy, except that where the underlying cause is not known to be physiological or medical in nature, it is assumed to be subconscious (rather than say, behavioural, cognitive, or functional).  For &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodynamics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychodynamics&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychodynamic therapies depend upon a theory of inner conflict,&#xA;  wherein repressed behaviours and emotions surface into the patient’s&#xA;  consciousness; generally, one's conflict is subconscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and specifically, for existential psychotherapy (in Yalom's words p. 8):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a conflict that flows from the individual's confrontation with the&#xA;  givens of existence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This also means that the scope of therapy may change over time, as knowledge is gained regarding the root causes of mental disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pretty much all other mental disorders are fair game, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mood disorders&lt;/a&gt; such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anxiety&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;personality disorders&lt;/a&gt; such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychopathy (ASPD)&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;thought disorders&lt;/a&gt; such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt;.  For example, in chapter 4 (p. 147) of his book - under the &quot;Death&quot; concern - Yalom discusses schizophrenia patients who:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;clings to his or her denial of death with a fierce desperation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: In cases where some biological factor is assumed, it is common practice to treat disorders with both medication and psychotherapy, as the overall efficacy is improved.  In such cases, psychotherapy focuses on the psychological components of the disorder.  Even in cases where the role of psychology may seem secondary, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dementia&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_disability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;learning disability&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;autism&lt;/a&gt;, psychotherapy may be used to augment treatment.  However, psychodynamic therapy is not popular for such disorders, because of the reliance on talk-therapy, that is highly constrained in these cases, so they are unlikely to be discussed much in existential therapy circles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-08-11T23:41:45.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10891" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-12T00:36:19.437" Score="2" ViewCount="402" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have EEG data that comes in the form of a 3D numpy array (epoch * channel * timepoint). timepoint is a 256 element array containing each sampled timepoint (1s total, at 256Hz). epoch is an experimental trial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to import the numpy array into a form Python-MNE (&lt;a href=&quot;http://martinos.org/mne/stable/mne-python.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://martinos.org/mne/stable/mne-python.html&lt;/a&gt;) understands, but I'm having some trouble&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, I'm not sure if I should be importing this raw data as a RawArray or an EpochsArray. I tried the latter with this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;ch_names = list containing my 64 eeg channel names&#xA;allData = 3d numpy array as described above&#xA;&#xA;info = mne.create_info(ch_names, 256, ch_types='eeg')&#xA;&#xA;event_id = 1&#xA;&#xA;#I got this from a tutorial but really unsure what it does and I think this may be the problem&#xA;events = np.array([200, event_id])  #I got this from a tutorial but really unsure what it does and I think this may be the problem&#xA;&#xA;raw = mne.EpochsArray(allData, info, events=events)&#xA;&#xA;picks = mne.pick_types(info, meg=False, eeg=True, misc=False)&#xA;&#xA;raw.plot(picks=picks, show=True, block=True)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I run this I get an index error: &quot;too many indices for array&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately I want to do some STFT and CSP analysis on the data, but right now I'm in need of some help with the initial restructuring and importing into MNE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whats the correct way to import this numpy data that would make it easiest to complete my intended analyses?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9054" LastActivityDate="2015-08-12T00:36:19.437" Title="Python MNE - reading EEG data from array" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-08-14T13:24:00.497" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10894" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10844" CreationDate="2015-08-12T11:27:18.733" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A cap of magnets, or state-of-the-art TMS protocols, will not make you smarter. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;First off, TMS uses bursts of magnetic stimulation in the order of milliseconds &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20444645&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Rothkegel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2010)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/65335/how-do-moving-charges-produce-magnetic-fields&quot;&gt;Pulses of magnetic stimulation&lt;/a&gt; are used, because &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;permanent magnetic fields&lt;/a&gt; will not induce current flow. Hence, wearing a cap of permanent magnets will not do the job.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TMS can be used using single pulses to evoke motoric muscle twitches when applied to the motor cortex, or to evoke phosphenes when applied over the visual cortex &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1388245703002050&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Thut &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. In the clinic, typically &lt;a href=&quot;http://depressionet.org.au/treatments/rtms/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;repetitive TMS (rTMS)&lt;/a&gt; is used, where the subject is exposed to trains of TMS pulses &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3159591/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Horvath &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2010)&lt;/a&gt;. rTMS is nowadays approved to treat depression. A popular description says it 'activates neurons' in the prefrontal cortex (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-11-30/rtms-gaining-traction-as-treatment-for-depression/5922082&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ABC News&lt;/a&gt;), but a more realistic view is to say that nobody knows why it works, and whether it works (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/brain-stimulation-therapies/brain-stimulation-therapies.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Institute of Health&lt;/a&gt;). It's also been investigated to treat psychoses or to decrease ear ringing (tinnitus). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, TMS is generally applied to disrupt ongoing neural activity, i.e. to remove something. Indeed, TMS is typically associated with a disruption of function. For example, visual task performance is decreased when folks are subjected to TMS pulses &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1388245703002050&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Thut &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. Hence TMS is not applied to add or enhance brain functions, let alone higher cognitive functions that govern intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3159591/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Horvath &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Vis Exp&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;45&lt;/strong&gt;: 2345&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20444645&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rothkegel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Clin Neurophysiol&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;121&lt;/strong&gt;(11):1915-21&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1388245703002050&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thut &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Clin Neurophysiol&lt;/em&gt; (2003); &lt;strong&gt;114&lt;/strong&gt;(11): 2071–80&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:40:17.460" LastActivityDate="2015-08-12T12:02:32.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10895" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10794" CreationDate="2015-08-12T11:59:44.343" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Neural wiring is governed by nature and nurture. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I'm not a language person, but I will try to address the question on more familiar grounds to me, namely sensory systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A bunch of most intriguing studies have addressed your question directly. Among these is the study from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4033796&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Frost &amp;amp; Metin (1985)&lt;/a&gt;, who severed the optic tracts of newborn hamsters and found that optic axons would project to the somatosensory thalamic (ventrobasal) nucleus instead. The experimentally induced retinal projection to the somatosensory nucleus occurred through the stabilization of an early, normally transient projection. Moreover, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;visual stimulation&lt;/strong&gt; reliably evoked &lt;strong&gt;neural responses&lt;/strong&gt; in the primary and secondary &lt;strong&gt;somatosensory cortices&lt;/strong&gt; (SI and SII)&lt;/em&gt; in treated hamsters. Not only that - the representations of the visual field in SI and SII showed a partially &lt;strong&gt;retinotopic organization&lt;/strong&gt;. In other words, the animals had effectively &lt;strong&gt;converted&lt;/strong&gt; (part of) their &lt;strong&gt;somatosensory cortex&lt;/strong&gt; into &lt;strong&gt;visual cortex&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2462279&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sur &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (1988)&lt;/a&gt; showed with a similar procedure that retinal cells could be induced to project to the medial geniculate nucleus (MGN), the principal auditory thalamic nucleus, in newborn ferrets. They showed that many MGN cells were then visually driven and that the &lt;strong&gt;auditory cortex became visually responsive&lt;/strong&gt;. Some visual cells in auditory cortex were direction-selective or orientation-sensitive, resembling the complex cells in primary visual cortex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, &lt;strong&gt;functional visual projections can be routed into nonvisual structures&lt;/strong&gt; in higher mammals, suggesting that the modality of a sensory thalamic nucleus or cortical area may be specified by its inputs during development. However, there is a &lt;strong&gt;short time window&lt;/strong&gt; where the extent of neural plasticity will allow such gross abnormalities to develop - both studies used newborn animals therefore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4033796&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Frost &amp;amp; Metin, &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; (1985); &lt;strong&gt;317&lt;/strong&gt;(6033): 162-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2462279&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sur &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; (1988); &lt;strong&gt;242&lt;/strong&gt;(4884): 1437-41&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-12T23:52:09.773" LastActivityDate="2015-08-12T23:52:09.773" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10896" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10473" CreationDate="2015-08-12T13:02:59.570" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally spoken, &lt;em&gt;synesthesia is &lt;strong&gt;unidirectional&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, grapheme–color synesthesia (i.e., letter–color and digit–color synesthesia) is the most prevalent type of synesthesia. The presentation of a&#xA;grapheme leads to an additional synesthetic color percept. Although&#xA;grapheme–color synesthetes are strongly influenced by the synesthetic color perception triggered by a specific grapheme, they usually do not report that a color triggers the perception of a specific grapheme.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, while explicit synesthesia is unidirectional, there is evidence that it can be &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;implicitly&lt;/strong&gt; bidirectional&lt;/em&gt;. To show this phenomenon, clever experiments need to be devised. For example, the left-hand responses of digit-color synesthetes were faster for colors representing a small number,&#xA;whereas their right-hand responses were faster to colors representing large numbers. Hence, apparently there was an implicit association of the color with numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://sites.oxy.edu/clint/physio/article/PrimingLettersbyColorsEvidencefortheBidirectionalityofGraphemeColorSynesthesia.pdf&quot;&gt;Weiss &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Cognitive Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;(10): 2019–26&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-12T14:16:27.073" LastActivityDate="2015-08-12T14:16:27.073" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10898" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10747" CreationDate="2015-08-13T00:16:51.180" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming your question is &lt;em&gt;&quot;Is person's ego a projection of the responses of their amygdala onto the conscious experience?&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, I think it would translate to &quot;&lt;em&gt;Does the amygdala determines or houses the ego&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. In that light, the question hinges on the meaning of &lt;em&gt;ego&lt;/em&gt;. Given the question is asked at Cognitive Sciences SE, I assume the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ego&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ego&lt;/a&gt; is &quot;&lt;em&gt;The part of the mind that mediates between the conscious and the unconscious and is responsible for reality testing and a sense of personal identity&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. In that case I would say &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;no&lt;/strong&gt;, the amygdala is not involved in the ego&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, the amygdala is considered to be an essential part of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/limbic-system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;limbic system&lt;/a&gt;. The limbic system controls the core emotions (fear, pleasure, anger) and drives behaviors essential to life (hunger, sex, and the care of offspring). The functions of the amygdala are indeed mainly associated with emotions, but also with learning and memory &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3939663&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Martin &amp;amp; Hans, 1985)&lt;/a&gt;. A notable example is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;post-traumatic stress disorder&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Shin &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2006)&lt;/a&gt;, where it mediates imprinting of memories through fear. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the amygdala definitely shapes &quot;the self&quot;. Given the Latin meaning of &quot;ego&quot; (literally, &quot;I&quot;) one could definitely argue for an essential role of the amygdala in the ego. In that context, though, arguably every single part of the brain at the macroscopic level is an essential part of the ego. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;em&gt;PS: the 'blog' you linked is an advertisement for the services of Sara Harvey, a personal coach for folks with executive functions. Not the most reliable source of information.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3939663&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Martin &amp;amp; Hans, &lt;em&gt;Behav Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (1985); &lt;strong&gt;99&lt;/strong&gt;(2):342-80&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Shin &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Ann NY Acad Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;1071&lt;/strong&gt;: 67–7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-13T09:00:05.487" LastActivityDate="2015-08-13T09:00:05.487" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10900" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10903" CreationDate="2015-08-13T09:52:42.610" Score="11" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on an educational product, and we're thinking of introducing some gamified aspects to motivate students to use the product. One of these will be the concept of 'levels' - when a student does enough lessons in a particular topic, their 'level' in that topic will increase. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any kind of research on how to best space these 'levels' out in order to maximise motivation? If students can progress through levels too quickly then leveling up will be devalued, but if it takes too long to get through levels then they may be less motivated because the end won't be in sight. How long should we aim for students to take to get through a level? 1 week? 1 month? 1 year? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any advice on how to approach this problem would be greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9064" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-08-13T12:54:11.600" LastActivityDate="2015-08-13T19:07:31.723" Title="What's the optimal way to space out rewards in order to maximise motivation?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10903" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10900" CreationDate="2015-08-13T19:07:31.723" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;To add gaming element to education, you have two options:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Look at currently successful examples of products that gamify learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Check most successful mobile games (short engagement times)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a couple examples of &lt;strong&gt;language learning products that gamify learning&lt;/strong&gt; (Duolingo and ChineseSkill) They use:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Very short lessons&lt;/strong&gt; which produce instant sense of gratification (3-5 minutes each)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Diverse&lt;/strong&gt; word sets, so each lesson feels fresh&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Score and timing&lt;/strong&gt; concepts (for example Chinese Skill app lets you peek at a word meaning, but subtracts points from the final score for doing so)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Competition&lt;/strong&gt; against &quot;general public&quot; - apps tell you how you are doing compared to other people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use of pretty &lt;strong&gt;graphics&lt;/strong&gt; and friendly imagery&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example chinese skill app starts with just a couple lessons per module, each focusing on a few words. Later on the app expands and starts to add more lessons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Duolingo has similar approach, although they have a lot more reward systems - you can win points by doing good during lessons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To specifically address your timing question&lt;/strong&gt;, I can bring up personal experience - I tried both products, and hit a slump when the number of lessons per module exceeded 5. There was less motivation to progress. I quit duolingo completely once I hit a module with 13 courses. To avoid this, I've seen some apps break large word sets into stuff like &quot;Clothing 1&quot;, &quot;Clothing 2&quot;, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ChineseSkill app&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8wWmG.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8wWmG.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Duolingo App:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GVoQ3.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GVoQ3.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-08-13T19:07:31.723" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10904" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10736" CreationDate="2015-08-13T22:31:40.523" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is potentially an example of a top-down influence on the visual system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, if the experiment demonstrates as expected, that priming the visual system with a word influences the pattern of eye movements (compared to not priming) when free-viewing the following object, then that would support the conclusion of a top-down mechanism at work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biased_Competition_Theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Biased Competition Theory&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Top-down processing is based on pre-existing knowledge when&#xA;  interpreting sensory information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Top-down processes are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up_design#Neuroscience_and_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;contrasted with&lt;/a&gt; bottom-up processing that is based on sensory input alone - that is, it can be modelled using only features of the stimulus.  When attention (eg, eye movement) is directed in ways that are not accounted for by sensory input, this provides evidence for a top-down (higher level cognitive) mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although much research on top-down effects on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_movement_in_scene_viewing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;eye movement in scene viewing&lt;/a&gt; is done using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_search&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;visual search&lt;/a&gt; tasks, search targets are not necessary for demonstrating top-down effects, and many experiments use free-viewing (non-directed) tasks to test such effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the earlier studies showing evidence of top-down influence in free-viewing conditions is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698901002504&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Parkhurst et al (2002)&lt;/a&gt;, who tracked eye movements in free-viewing of various scenes.  Although bottom-up predictions correlated well with the data, some top-down influence was found as well.  Since then, most theories of visual attention incorporate both bottom-up and top-down mechanisms in visual processing, whether task-directed or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, even conscious awareness is not necessary for top-down influence: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3303109/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kiefer et al (2012)&lt;/a&gt; review the significant literature on top-down influence of masked (unconscious) priming of the visual system.  Per this review, priming the visual system in a variety of ways influences attention in a top-down manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-08-13T22:31:40.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10905" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10554" CreationDate="2015-08-13T23:56:09.193" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most flow diagrams with the detail your require are for rudimentary sensory functions (such as seeing, eye tracking and other simple functions) can be found in any neuroanatomy textbook. The one I have experience with is &quot;Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas&quot; by John H. Martin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, if you're looking for a more functional interpretation of how information flows through the brain in terms of behaviour, the most detailed model that I know is Spaun. A diagram of the brain model taken from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6111/1202.full?ijkey=y5vph.jw5AgRQ&amp;amp;keytype=ref&amp;amp;siteid=sci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Science paper&lt;/a&gt; can be seen below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oCZtn.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oCZtn.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other models using the Neural Engineering Framework and the Semantic Pointer Architecture used in Spaun may also have the types of diagrams you are looking for. For example, consider this motor control diagram from &lt;a href=&quot;https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/9089&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Travis DeWolf's PhD thesis on Adaptive Control&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Zg4af.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Zg4af.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-08-13T23:56:09.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10906" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10747" CreationDate="2015-08-14T00:32:33.703" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe an overactive amygdala certainly plays a pivitol role defines ones ego. As the amygdala is part of the limbic system. An overactive limbic system has been linked to depression, obsessive compulsive disorder and depression. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I do believe the amygdala does play a small part in defining the ego, I believe other parts of the limbic system, play a significant role in the overall definition of the ego. Having a strong active frontal cortex also helps the person logically define their &quot;ego&quot; or who they are as a person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the correct answer is No, the ego should not be defined as conscious experiences projected simply by the amygdala. Other parts of the brain play a significant part in defining ones &quot;ego.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;David Lopez Blass&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9073" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T00:32:33.703" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10908" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10874" CreationDate="2015-08-14T00:40:04.063" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The latest research in ADHD scan studies show a lack on activity in the left side of the pre-frontal cortex. As far as your question goes not everyone can afford these scans to come up with an accurate diagnosis. Also a SPECT scan could show two different patterns in activity if the scan was done more than once. It would have to take numerous scans over time to come up with an accurate diagnosis. That is why it is much easier to be honest about symptoms with a psychiatrist you trust.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;David Lopez Blass&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9075" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2016-08-01T19:00:09.027" LastActivityDate="2016-08-01T19:00:09.027" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10909" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10554" CreationDate="2015-08-14T03:49:05.597" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's also Hickok and Poeppel's Dual Stream Model of Speech/Language Processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.talkingbrains.org/2008/12/dual-stream-model-of-speechlanguage.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.talkingbrains.org/2008/12/dual-stream-model-of-speechlanguage.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/540Y0.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Hickok and Poeppel&amp;#39;s Dual Stream Model of Speech/Language Processing&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4991" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-01-07T14:16:11.287" LastActivityDate="2019-01-07T14:16:11.287" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10910" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10914" CreationDate="2015-08-14T04:08:32.787" Score="8" ViewCount="1018" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studies comparing identical and fraternal twins, or occasionally identical twins reared apart have mostly concluded that there is a pretty &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;high heritability of IQ.&lt;/a&gt; These studies, in particular the identical twins reared apart studies, imply that &lt;em&gt;someone with the same genes but different environment would have a highly similar IQ.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Flynn effect, though, shows that people's average IQ is increasing, around 15 points every 50 years. All the explanations I have encountered (like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/james_flynn_why_our_iq_levels_are_higher_than_our_grandparents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt;, from James Flynn himself) focus on environmental reasons for this, for example culture, education, perhaps better health. They seem to imply that &lt;em&gt;someone with the same genes in a different environment might have a very different IQ.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are these two in direct contradiction with each other, or is there some way of reconciling them?&#xA;If they are mutually exclusive, with which does the scientific consensus lie?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9078" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-14T12:01:41.663" LastActivityDate="2021-03-15T21:54:11.253" Title="Is the Flynn effect in conflict with other studies of intelligence heritablity?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10911" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-14T07:09:32.820" Score="8" ViewCount="489" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been having free psychology therapy in my school for almost one year. Now the therapeutic relationship is coming to end. I want to give a small gift to my therapist to show my gratitude when my therapy is over. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are psychologists forbidden from  receiving gift from clients by their ethical code?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alternatively, under what circumstances would it be appropriate? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9080" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-08-14T08:07:31.263" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T13:05:57.733" Title="Is it ethically appropriate for a client to buy their psychologist a gift?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10912" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-08-14T08:19:14.380" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-08-14T08:19:14.380" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T08:19:14.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10913" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-08-14T08:19:14.380" Score="0" Body="For questions about ethical issues in clinical practice and the conduct of research. For questions about the psychology of moral reasoning use moral-psychology tag" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-08-14T08:19:14.380" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T08:19:14.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10914" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10910" CreationDate="2015-08-14T11:57:29.130" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several ways in which this apparent paradox can be resolved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a starting point, it is important to consider how &lt;strong&gt;heritability&lt;/strong&gt; is defined and assessed (also see this earlier &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/9514/7759&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt;). As you point out, heritability estimates originate from comparisons between people who differ in their genetic similarity (e.g., monozygotic vs. dizygotic twins). The high heritability for IQ means that genetic similarities correspond to a high similarity in IQ. It's crucial to note, however, that heritability only describes the extent to which &lt;strong&gt;differences in the phenotype (in this case IQ) overlap with differences in the genotype in a given population&lt;/strong&gt;. In other words, heritability describes how much of the variance in a trait statistically corresponds to genetic variance (see e.g., Griffith et al. 2000). Heritability does not describe the extent to which genes actually &lt;em&gt;cause&lt;/em&gt; IQ differences, only the &lt;em&gt;correspondence&lt;/em&gt; of genetic similarity and IQ similarity. In this vein, high heritability does not exclude the possibility of environmental influences on IQ:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For example, one reason for the rise in IQ may be better nutrition. If everybody in a society gains access to better nutrition to the same extent, this may increase IQ for all. Nevertheless, heritability does not necessarily change as the genetic differences between people still translate into IQ differences between people. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Environmental changes may actually increase heritability estimates. For example, consider a country in which people in one geographical region have access to good education (another potential reason for the Flynn effect), and people in another region don't. If missing opportunities for education depresses IQ points, the population's variation in IQ should be affected by this environmental difference. Once good education becomes available for everybody, genetic differences should matter more, leading to a higher heritability estimate.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A detailed model of how high heritability estimates and large environmental influences on IQ can coexist has been proposed by &lt;strong&gt;Dickens and Flynn (2001)&lt;/strong&gt;. In their analysis they focus on the possibility that environmental influences can be underestimated because genes and environment shape IQ interactively, in a way that is not captured by heritability estimates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They assume that small genetic advantages can translate into strongly favorable environments. For example, if a child is somewhat smarter than others, she will have a higher chance to end up in a better school, where she can thrive, and then go to a better college and so on (an &lt;em&gt;individiual multiplier&lt;/em&gt;). Nevertheless, this environmental influence would be ascribed to genes, because of the way heritability is defined.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There may also be a &lt;em&gt;social multiplier&lt;/em&gt; effect caused by the social environment one lives in. If average IQ in the society is rising for some external reason, everybody should profit from this rise. For example, if more people go to college because this now offers lucrative jobs, this may set examples, encourage others to do the same, make college education itself more widely available, and thus create a social dynamic that leads to IQ gains for all. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another possibility to resolve the paradox may be to investigate &lt;strong&gt;whether the Flynn-effect is actually due to genetic causes&lt;/strong&gt;. Mingroni (2007) posits that higher social mobility has reduced inbreeding of people who live in high social isolation, which is detrimental to IQ. However, reviewing empirical evidence, Nisbett et al. (2012) conclude that this hypothesis seems &lt;strong&gt;implausible&lt;/strong&gt;, for example, because the Flynn effect is also observed in societies which have been characterized by high social mobility for a long time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In conclusion&lt;/strong&gt;, even though there is no consensus on the exact reasons for the Flynn effect (Nisbett et al., 2012), &lt;strong&gt;there are several ways in which high heritability estimates for IQ and the large gains in IQ (due to environmental reasons) can be reconciled.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dickens, W. T., &amp;amp; Flynn, J. R. (2001). Heritability estimates versus large environmental effects: the IQ paradox resolved. Psychological Review, 108, 346–369.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Griffiths, A. J., et al. (2000). An Introduction to Genetic Analysis (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21766/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21766/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mingroni, M. A. (2007). Resolving the IQ paradox: Heterosis as a cause of the Flynn effect and other trends. Psychological Review, 114, 806–829. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.3.806&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., &amp;amp; Turkheimer, E. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159. doi:10.1037/a0026699&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T13:38:14.847" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10911" CreationDate="2015-08-14T13:05:57.733" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.zurinstitute.com/giftsintherapy.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; you can find an essay that discusses role of gifts in psychotherapy in great detail and from many different angles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Focusing on US, Canadian, and Australian ethics codes of professional societies, the author concludes that  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Despite the prevalent belief to the contrary, there are no code of ethics or guidelines of major organizations that specifically ban gifts in therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A synopsis of all the reviewed ethics codes can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.zurinstitute.com/ethics_of_gifts_in_therapy.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.zurinstitute.com/giftsintherapycourse.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;summary&lt;/a&gt; of the ethical and therapeutical implications of gift giving during therapy he emphasizes that (small and appropriate) gifts may actually have a place in therapy and that therapists who rigidly decline them may endanger therapeutic success:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Giving gifts is an ancient and common way to express gratitude, appreciation and love. Gifts in psychotherapy and counseling are very common and often take place around the holidays, in termination, at an important junction of therapy and with children-clients. Therapists have not only received gifts but have also been regularly engaged in gift giving to clients. Usually this involves symbolic gifts, greeting cards, transitional objects, souvenirs from vacations or educational material, such as books, audiotapes or CDs. While traditional psychoanalysis has frowned upon gift giving in therapy and many therapists are reluctant or afraid to talk about it, the fact is that most therapists practice it regularly and find it acceptable and helpful as long as the gifts are symbolic, nor too expensive and appropriate. Unlike commonly held beliefs, appropriate gift giving in therapy is neither unethical nor constitutes dual relationships. Uncritical and rigid across-the-board rejection of all gifts or putting in place &quot;No gift policies&quot; are likely to make clients feel rejected and humiliated, harm the therapeutic alliance and interfere with the therapeutic progress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T13:05:57.733" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10917" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-14T13:08:00.287" Score="3" ViewCount="1385" Body="&lt;p&gt;Social support has several times been linked to psychological well-being and even physical health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some studies have also shown that shyness correlates stronger with introversion than with neuroticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This implies that less social people should score lower on physical health and mental well-being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I am &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; asking if introversion causes emotional stress, but rather if extroverts are better at coping with emotional stress because their extraversion give better odds for social support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any research on correlations between extraversion, physical and mental health?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_support&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_support&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/10382/where-in-the-big5-does-shyness-belong&quot;&gt;Where in the Big5 does shyness belong?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-08-17T10:33:23.980" Title="Do introverted people have more emotional stress?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10918" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3957" CreationDate="2015-08-14T13:45:53.080" Score="1" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When it comes to serious situations, one may react with feeling the events as surreal. One may have trouble believing that what is happening is actually real.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What happens next is that one may be confused and dissociate with the event:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In philosophy, &quot;the Absurd&quot; refers to the conflict between (1) the human tendency to seek inherent value and meaning in life and (2) the human inability to find any. In this context absurd does not mean &quot;logically impossible&quot;, but rather &quot;humanly impossible&quot;.[1] The universe and the human mind do not each separately cause the Absurd, but rather, the Absurd arises by the contradictory nature of the two existing simultaneously&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Now the incongruity theory for humour say we may respond with laughing:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The incongruity theory states that humor is perceived at the moment of realization of incongruity between a concept involved in a certain situation and the real objects thought to be in some relation to the concept.[10]&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_humor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_humor&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This in addition to what others have answered, that laughter may be a form of defense mechanism. One starts to laugh as a way to reduce emotional stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;First of all we have the relief theory that postulates that laughter serves a homeostatic mechanism by which psychological tension is reduced. According to this theory humor relieves tension caused by fears. You have probably observed how you tend to become more creative and make funny remarks when confronted with situations that are packed with tension and discomfort, such as right before you are about to give a public presentation, or right before an exam. We also use dark humor to distance ourselves from horrifying images and stories of war and human atrocities.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.popularsocialscience.com/2012/10/25/why-we-laugh-at-things-that-are-not-funny/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.popularsocialscience.com/2012/10/25/why-we-laugh-at-things-that-are-not-funny/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-08-14T13:45:53.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10919" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10910" CreationDate="2015-08-15T18:08:03.833" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to MariaAnt's good contribution, let me take another angle. You wrote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies comparing identical and fraternal twins, or occasionally identical twins reared apart have mostly concluded that there is a pretty &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;high heritability of IQ&lt;/a&gt;. These studies, in particular the identical twins reared apart studies, imply that someone with the same genes but different environment would have a highly similar IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a good example of why it is always good to be as quantified as possible in one's statements. What is &quot;high&quot; in this case? What is &quot;highly similar&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you follow that Wikipedia link you provided, it actually does make an attempt to quantify the heritability:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Estimates in the academic research of the heritability of IQ have varied from below 0.5 to a high of 0.8 ... &lt;strong&gt;The general figure for heritability of IQ is about 0.5 across multiple studies in varying populations&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we can take 0.5 as a reasonable value, that is a healthy correlation, but it is not 1.0. Even if the actual value should be more like 0.8, that is still not a perfect correlation. That is consistent with the model that genetics is not the only factor that might go into the observed differences in IQ--which, given what we know about training, nutrition, and the brain, essentially &lt;em&gt;has&lt;/em&gt; to be true. The Flynn Effect's finding and interpretations of it that refer to an environmental component to IQ is consistent with this view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastEditorUserId="6642" LastEditDate="2015-08-15T18:13:53.243" LastActivityDate="2015-08-15T18:13:53.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10923" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4455" CreationDate="2015-08-16T13:10:35.310" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can asking a leading question in a poll change the opinion of the&#xA;  respondent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yes, apparantly everyone is susceptible to leading questions.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Conside rable attention has been devoted to &lt;strong&gt;suggestive questions&lt;/strong&gt; and its&#xA;  effects. Experimental research by Elizabeth F. Loftus, an American&#xA;  psychologist and an expert on human memory, has established that&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;trying to answer such questions can create confabulation in&#xA;  eyewitnesses&lt;/strong&gt;.[8] Loftus conducted and experiment where participants&#xA;  all viewed the same video clip of a car crash. Participants were then&#xA;  assigned at random in one of two groups. Group one was asked, &quot;How&#xA;  fast was the car moving when it passed by the stop sign?&quot; The&#xA;  participants in the other group are asked a similar question that does&#xA;  not refer to a stop sign. The results showed &lt;strong&gt;participants from the&#xA;  first group are more likely to remember seeing a stop sign in the&#xA;  video clip, even though there was in fact no such sign&lt;/strong&gt;.[9] Elizabeth&#xA;  Loftus stated that &lt;strong&gt;everyone is affected by suggestive questioning&lt;/strong&gt;, and&#xA;  it comes from environmental factors instead of innate factors, meaning&#xA;  that everyone is affected by suggestive questioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suggestive_question&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suggestive_question&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Less educated people are more affected:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of the most common formats used in survey questions is &lt;strong&gt;the&#xA;  “agree-disagree” format&lt;/strong&gt;. In this type of question, &lt;strong&gt;respondents are&#xA;  asked whether they agree or disagree with a particular statement.&#xA;  Research has shown that, compared with the better educated and better&#xA;  informed, less educated and less informed respondents have a greater&#xA;  tendency to agree with such statements.&lt;/strong&gt; This is sometimes called an&#xA;  “&lt;strong&gt;acquiescence bias&lt;/strong&gt;” (since some kinds of respondents are more likely&#xA;  to acquiesce to the assertion than are others). &lt;strong&gt;A better practice is&#xA;  to offer respondents a choice between alternative statements&lt;/strong&gt;. A Pew&#xA;  Research Center experiment with one of its routinely asked values&#xA;  questions illustrates the difference that question format can make.&#xA;  Not only does the forced choice format yield a very different result&#xA;  overall from the agree-disagree format, but the pattern of answers&#xA;  among better- and lesser-educated respondents also tends to be very&#xA;  different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pewresearch.org/methodology/u-s-survey-research/questionnaire-design/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.pewresearch.org/methodology/u-s-survey-research/questionnaire-design/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Children are the most susceptible:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Children are particularly susceptible to leading questions and are&#xA;  more likely to take the lead for an answer from an adult&lt;/strong&gt;.  Something&#xA;  simple like, ‘Did you have a good day at school?’ points the child&#xA;  towards thinking about good things that happened at school.  By&#xA;  asking, ‘How was school today?’ you are not asking for any judgement&#xA;  about how good or bad the day has been and you are more likely to get&#xA;  a more balanced, accurate answer.   This can shape the rest of the&#xA;  conversation, the next question may be, ‘What did you do at school?’ &#xA;  - the answer to this may vary based on the first question you asked – good things or just things.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/question-types.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/question-types.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Examples of leading questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;With an assumption: &quot;How late do you think that the project will deliver?&quot;. This assumes that the project will certainly not be&#xA;  completed on time.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;By adding a personal appeal to agree at the end: &quot;Lori's very efficient, don't you think?&quot; or &quot;Option 2 is better, isn't it?&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Phrasing the question so that the &quot;easiest&quot; response is &quot;yes&quot; (our natural tendency to prefer to say &quot;yes&quot; than &quot;no&quot; plays an important&#xA;  part in the phrasing of referendum questions): &quot;Shall we all approve&#xA;  Option 2?&quot; is more likely to get a positive response than &quot;Do you want&#xA;  to approve option 2 or not?&quot;. A good way of doing this is to make it&#xA;  personal. For example, &quot;Would you like me to go ahead with Option 2?&quot;&#xA;  rather than &quot;Shall I choose Option 2?&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Giving people a choice between two options, both of which you would be happy with, rather than the choice of one option or not doing&#xA;  anything at all. Strictly speaking, the choice of &quot;neither&quot; is still&#xA;  available when you ask &quot;Which would you prefer of A or B&quot;, but most&#xA;  people will be caught up in deciding between your two preferences.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_88.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_88.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A humourous example&lt;/strong&gt; of the phenomenon can be found in the British sitcom Yes Prime Minister:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mktresearch.org/wiki/Ordering_the_Questions_in_the_Questionnaire&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://mktresearch.org/wiki/Ordering_the_Questions_in_the_Questionnaire&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-08-16T13:10:35.310" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8698" CreationDate="2015-08-16T14:40:42.487" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Too much dopamine release in the striatum may lead to &lt;strong&gt;psychosis&lt;/strong&gt;, and especially to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia/index.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;positive symptoms&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; associated with this disease (e.g., &lt;strong&gt;delusions&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;hallucinations&lt;/strong&gt;, as opposed to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia/index.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;negative symptoms&lt;/a&gt; such as a flattened affect) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lawrence_Kegeles/publication/12903744_Increased_dopamine_transmission_in_schizophrenia_Relationship_to_illness_phases/links/0f31753c96c7489af8000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Laruelle &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1999)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;etiology of psychosis&lt;/em&gt; is complex. Many direct and indirect &lt;strong&gt;environmental factors&lt;/strong&gt; are implicated, as well as &lt;strong&gt;genetic factors&lt;/strong&gt;. Environmental factors include obstetric complications and frequent cannabis or amphetamine use. The environmental factors are all implicated stronger in psychosis than genetic causes. Genetic predisposition and environmental factors may also interact in complex ways in the development of psychosis &lt;a href=&quot;http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/35/3/549.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Howes &amp;amp; Kapur, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/35/3/549.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Howes &amp;amp; Kapur, &lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;35&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 549–62&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lawrence_Kegeles/publication/12903744_Increased_dopamine_transmission_in_schizophrenia_Relationship_to_illness_phases/links/0f31753c96c7489af8000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Laruelle &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Biol Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (1999); &lt;strong&gt;46&lt;/strong&gt;:56–72&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-17T14:39:32.427" LastActivityDate="2015-08-17T14:39:32.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10925" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10917" CreationDate="2015-08-16T22:39:28.307" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neuroticism is more strongly associated with emotional stressors in the form of depression and anxiety than is extraversion. That being said, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16688731&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;extraversion is negatively correlated&lt;/a&gt; with symptoms of depression, anxiety, and self-reported lifetime mental disorder, even after adjusting for gender, age, and education. It appears that depression is moderately linked to introversion in those who suffer from depression, whereas anxiety is not linked to introversion nor extroversion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Costa3/publication/15816781_Influence_of_extraversion_and_neuroticism_on_subjective_well-being_happy_and_unhappy_people/links/54ea09130cf2f7aa4d56643a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this study&lt;/a&gt; indicate that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is argued that (a) one set of traits influences&#xA;  positive affect or satisfaction, whereas a different set of traits influences&#xA;  negative affect or dissatisfaction; (b) the former set of traits can be viewed as&#xA;  components of extraversion, and the latter as components of neuroticism; and&#xA;  (c) personality differences antedate and predict differences in happiness over&#xA;  a period of 10 years, thus ruling out the rival hypothesis that temporary moods&#xA;  or states account for the observed relations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper further argues that one's happiness is relative to one's ability to adapt to new situations in healthy ways, which may be augmented in unhealthy ways by one's level of neuroticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, to answer your question, &lt;strong&gt;it does appear that extraversion is linked to positive mental affect&lt;/strong&gt;. However, it is worth noting that this does not necessarily imply that introversion is correlated to negative affect. It appears that neuroticism is a greater predictor of negative affect, which (hypothetically) could have a harsher impact on someone whose social support system is weaker or consists of fewer people, regardless of internal / external orientation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-16T22:39:28.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10926" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10265" CreationDate="2015-08-16T23:09:43.810" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like IQ, one's NFC is primarily judged by psychometric self-evaluation rather than behavior. The way in which we recognize NFC from a behavioral standpoint is to recognize the ways in which they seem to produce behaviors that a NFC psychometric test would evaluate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, if you want to recognize high NFC in others, you might want to familiarize yourself with the questions and traits that psychometric tests associate with high NFC. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu/ncs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this test&lt;/a&gt; asks questions that are representative of high NFC. So if you were to recognize someone who might answer 'yes' to &amp;quot;I usually end up deliberating about issues even when they do not affect me personally&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;I find satisfaction in deliberating hard and for long hours&amp;quot;, then you could most likely recognize someone with high NFC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other behaviors may be less subtle. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych-it.com.au/Psychlopedia/article.asp?id=207&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;For example&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Those with high need for cognition] like to engage in complex, inquisitive, and analytical thoughts. They feel intrinsically motivated to devote effort to cognitive endeavors, striving to understand objects, events, and individuals. These individuals are less inclined to be biased by superficial factors, such as the appearance of speakers or social comparisons. In addition, they are more inclined to enjoy some experience if their expectations were low.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, both need for cognition, as well as need for affect--the motivation to experience strong emotions--increase the likelihood that people will become transported into these narratives (Thompson &amp;amp; Haddock, 2012). If need for cognition is elevated, people contemplate the tales more extensively, and appreciate the complexity of narratives, both of which facilitate transportation. If need for affect is elevated, people enjoy the emotions that transportation can evoke. The implication of this possibility is that need for cognition can, in some instances, increase the susceptibility of people to messages. For example, if an advertisement presents a narrative, need for cognition can facilitate transportation and thus diminish the likelihood of counterarguments. In contrast, if an advertisement presents a series of facts, instead of a narrative, transportation is precluded, and need for cognition could increase the likelihood of counterarguments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Insofar as NFC and extraversion is concerned, there appears to be a positive correlation between need for cognition, openness, and conscientiousness. Thus, it is represented by openness to new and novel ideas and a willingness to engage in effortful thought (Verplanken, Hazenberg, &amp;amp; Palenewen, 1992). It does not appear to be linked to extroversion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-08-16T23:09:43.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10927" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10917" CreationDate="2015-08-17T09:32:56.897" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research has shown that introverts tend to be more sensitive to stimulus. So, in a highly stimulating environment, the introvert is much more likely to be overwhelmed than the extrovert. In this situation, the introvert is likely to be more emotionally stressed than the extrovert. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The situation is reversed in a low stimulation environment. The extrovert feels underwhelmed, as the activity is below his level of sensitivity. This can also be emotionally stressful. So in this case, the extrovert may be more emotionally stressed than the introvert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we could all choose every situation that we are in, we would choose the situations that suit our levels of stimulation. Then, there would be no difference in the levels of emotional stress between introverts and extroverts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem comes about when society is bias towards one or the other. In Western society, extroversion is prized over introversion. So an introverted person is constantly being forced out of his comfort zone. But if this introverted person was brought up in an Asian society where there is much less emphasis on being extroverted, then he might be much more comfortable. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.examiner.com/article/asian-culture-more-introverted-researchers-suggest&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.examiner.com/article/asian-culture-more-introverted-researchers-suggest&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To sum up, I don't think that introversion is the cause of emotional stress. It is the mismatch between the person's level of stimulation requirement and with society's expectations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastActivityDate="2015-08-17T09:32:56.897" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10928" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10929" CreationDate="2015-08-17T09:34:27.827" Score="11" ViewCount="1336" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, I watched a discussion program on TV and one of the participants shrugged. I found that, not only did I do the same, but I seemed to do it in synchrony the speaker. I didn't &lt;em&gt;want&lt;/em&gt; to do this, why would I?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's easy to find popular discussions online about contagious yawning but I haven't found any about shrugs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It occurs to me that there may be other such involuntary imitative movements - raising eyebrows for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a technical name for this type of involuntary imitation? I have tried searching online but either I haven't found the right search terms or there is nothing to find.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What explanation can we give? In what way might this be adaptive behaviour?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8773" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-17T14:28:35.610" LastActivityDate="2018-11-03T23:42:19.610" Title="What explains involuntary imitation of behavior such as shrugging?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10929" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10928" CreationDate="2015-08-17T12:30:53.353" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;The kind of involuntary, imitative behavior you are describing is usually called &lt;strong&gt;behavioral mimicry&lt;/strong&gt; - &quot;the automatic imitation of gestures, postures, mannerisms, and other motor movements&quot; (Chartrand &amp;amp; Lakin, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chartrand and Lakin's (2013) review is a good starting point into the research that has been done on this phenomenon. They provide references to research that has looked at a wide variety of motor movements [references deleted for readability]: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;including body posture, face touching, foot shaking, food consumption, pen playing, coloring, handshake, angle and speed, cospeech gestures, and a variety of health-related behaviors (e.g., smoking, taking the stairs rather&#xA;  than an escalator). Other research has looked at micro movements, such as finger tapping (...) People mimic facial expressions, and emotional reactions of interaction partners (...) In addition, people mimic verbal characteristics of interaction partners, including accents, linguistic style, speech rate, and syntax. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Shrugging&lt;/em&gt; is not part of this list, but there is also research that has used shrugging as one example of a behavior that can be imitated (Kurzius &amp;amp; Borkenau, 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chartrand and Lakin (2013) note that even though people can imitate others intentionally, &lt;strong&gt;behavioral mimicry is indeed often automatic:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the mimicry of gross and fine motor movements (e.g.,gestures, mannerisms, finger movements), facial expressions, and vocalizations is often nonconscious, unintentional, and effortless. In fact, people often feel it is uncontrollable and are embarrassed when it is pointed out to them&#xA;  (Chartrand et al. 2005, White &amp;amp; Argo 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several &lt;strong&gt;explanations&lt;/strong&gt; for behavioral mimicry, and some posit that mimicry is (or has been) adaptive (as summarized by in Chartrand &amp;amp; Dalton, 2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Shared mental representations of perception and behavior&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to this explanation, perceiving a motor movement increases the likelihood of engaging in the same movement, because perception and action have a shared mental representation. According to this argument mimicry is an automatic and passive response, because the regions of the brain that are activated when we perceive action and the ones that are activated when we engage in an action are partly the same (see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron&quot;&gt;mirror neurons&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_coding_theory&quot;&gt;common coding theory&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. Basic survival benefits of mimicry throughout our evolutionary past&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to this explanation, we have inherited the tendency to imitate others from our prehuman ancestors, because it may have carried important physical benefits for survival. For example, if you notice others of your group running, it may be functional to start running along instead of first scanning the environment for the dangerous predator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3. Mimicry as social glue&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to this explanation, mimicry fulfills important communicative functions, by communicating togetherness, understanding, and therefore fosters empathy, social bonds and other positive social outcomes. In line with this view is research showing that mimicry increases liking and rapport and that people who have the goal to affiliate with others have a stronger tendency to mimic (e.g., Lakin &amp;amp; Chartrand, 2003). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chartrand, T. L., &amp;amp; Dalton, A. N. (2009). Mimicry: Its ubiquity, importance, and functionality. In E. Morsella, J. A. Bargh, &amp;amp; P. M. Gollwitzer (Eds.), Oxford handbook of human action, Social cognition and social neuroscience. (pp. 458–483). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chartrand, T. L., &amp;amp; Lakin, J. L. (2013). The antecedents and consequences of human behavioral mimicry. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 285–308. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143754&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kurzius, E., &amp;amp; Borkenau, P. (2015). Antecedents and Consequences of Mimicry: A Naturalistic Interaction Approach. European Journal of Personality, 29, 107–124. doi:10.1002/per.1990&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lakin, J. L., &amp;amp; Chartrand, T. L. (2003). Using nonconscious behavioral mimicry to create affiliation and rapport. Psychological Science, 14, 334–339. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.14481&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-17T12:43:17.813" LastActivityDate="2015-08-17T12:43:17.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10930" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-17T13:09:20.823" Score="6" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any peer-reviewed evidence which suggests whether it is faster and/or easier for a native English speaker to recognise digits (1, 2, 3, 4) vs. full written English word equivalents (one, two, three, four)? In this particular instance I'm not dealing with numbers greater than four.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9105" LastActivityDate="2015-08-17T13:09:20.823" Title="Is it easier/faster to recognise digits or written words?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10931" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10932" CreationDate="2015-08-17T13:17:47.277" Score="2" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have concluded that posting selfies is correlated with narcissism, but &lt;strong&gt;how strong is the correlation?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9542/correlation-between-selfie-and-narcissism&quot;&gt;Correlation between selfie and Narcissism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T10:37:57.317" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T10:37:57.317" Title="How strong is the correlation between selfies and narcissism?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10932" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10931" CreationDate="2015-08-17T14:11:01.013" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Table 1  of Fox and Rooney (2015) report this correlation between selfies posted on social networks and narcissim to be r = .19 in a sample of 800 U.S. men, (mean age = 29, SD = 6.5). I.e., the observed correlation was small in a general sense. But in the broader domain of personality-behaviour correlations, .19 is fairly moderate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Participants’ selfie posting behavior was assessed with one item&#xA;  inquiring how many pictures they had taken of themselves and posted on&#xA;  SNSs in the past week (M = 0.56, SD = 2.33; min = 0, max = 30).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QY6i6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QY6i6.png&quot; alt=&quot;table of correlations photos taken, selfies and narcissism&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fox, J., &amp;amp; Rooney, M. C. (2015). The Dark Triad and trait self-objectification as predictors of men’s use and self-presentation behaviors on social networking sites. Personality &amp;amp; Individual Differences, 76, 161-165. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.017&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-08-17T14:11:01.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10933" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10935" CreationDate="2015-08-17T14:57:33.307" Score="2" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for the name of the cognitive bias that describes the following phenomenon: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person A asks person B to evaluate and give feedback on a certain topic (a student, a manuscript etc), casually warning person B that the student/manuscript is not very good and so the task will not be particularly pleasant. &#xA;Person B then tries to objectively do the evaluation, however inadvertently and unavoidably gravitates towards person A's premise, and subsequently has a hard time deciding whether the fact that he too now thinks the student/manuscript is poor is in fact his own opinion or just a regurgitation/confirmation of what person A told him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First it seemed to me that this is an instance of the hindsight (knew it all along) bias, but I don't think it is, as there the extra (bias inducing) information comes &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; person A's appraisal, rather than before as is the case in the scenario I describe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any other cognitive biases this could be an instance of?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-18T07:48:48.157" LastActivityDate="2015-08-18T07:48:48.157" Title="What cognitive bias is it when an (ideally objective) evaluation is influenced by the prior opinion of another person?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10934" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-17T15:16:04.873" Score="8" ViewCount="184" Body="&lt;p&gt;Children of very small age have less knowledge. They have very limited knowledge about harm, fear, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can children feel fear with such little knowledge?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let us assume a child is playing in the house and suddenly a lion comes into the house. Does the child feel fear upon seeing it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The child does not know that the lion is harmful at all. Does the child's brain indicate that something bad is going to happen just by seeing the lion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the child feels fear in situations like that, does the brain have inbuilt knowledge related to such issues?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: The lion does not make any noise. It is just approaching the child slowly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is fear in response to the sight of predators innate or acquired?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6715" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-07-03T02:49:02.977" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T09:22:20.210" Title="Is fear in response to the sight of predators innate or acquired?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10933" CreationDate="2015-08-17T16:06:12.930" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's an example of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias (...) is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research has shown that people have a strong tendency to engage in a &lt;strong&gt;positive test strategy&lt;/strong&gt; when investigating a hypothesis (see e.g., Klayman &amp;amp; Ha, 1978). That is, when testing an expectation (such as in your example) they tend to search for confirming, rather than disconfirming evidence. This tendency then results in the kind of confirmation bias you are describing in your example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Klayman, J., &amp;amp; Ha, Y. (1987). Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing. Psychological Review, 94, 211–228. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.94.2.211&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-08-17T16:06:12.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10937" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-17T18:06:15.693" Score="1" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to see a specific type of answer to the question, namely, one that answers the following more specific questions: do hormones influence what people terminally value, that is, the things people as an end-in-itself? Or do hormones change people's emotional reactions to events, and since people are influenced by their emotions, this in turn influences their personality? Or do hormones bias people's world views, for example by making them think that being aggressive will be more or less successful at, say, getting someone to do what they want? Or do hormones affect a combination of these? Or do hormones affect something else entirely?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The material I have come across, for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.darionardi.com/BulletinArt9.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;, describe what personality traits hormones influence, but not how they do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7329" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-19T12:12:35.983" LastActivityDate="2015-08-19T12:12:35.983" Title="How do hormones influence personality?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-08-20T12:50:58.597" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10939" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8698" CreationDate="2015-08-17T19:48:37.153" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came across this list of effects of dopamine on cognition (from the book &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.heal-yourself.com.au/Cupids_Poisoned_Arrow.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cupid's poisoned arrow&lt;/a&gt;&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7IcKU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7IcKU.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-18T00:07:29.233" LastActivityDate="2015-08-18T00:07:29.233" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10940" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10942" CreationDate="2015-08-18T02:12:01.160" Score="6" ViewCount="386" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example I might make the argument that 'Women don't face discrimination in the workplace' or that 'There isn't actually any racism anymore'* because I myself don't think in an explicitly racist or sexist manner. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Caveat: Of course I might qualify the statement with something like 'Everyone is a little unintentionally racist' or something like that. There's also the second problem that &lt;em&gt;my workplace&lt;/em&gt; might be particularly progressive, and I'm not witnessing sexism that occurs in other workplaces. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would be failure to recognize that while &lt;em&gt;I&lt;/em&gt; think that way, not everyone else does and it may exist as a problem elsewhere. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a term for this bias, and more importantly, is there some kind of experiment that demonstrates it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-18T07:59:06.097" LastActivityDate="2016-01-22T16:11:43.097" Title="Is there a term for not recognizing that other people think differently, or projecting your thought patterns on others?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10941" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8545" CreationDate="2015-08-18T02:23:01.993" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How do the rationality and logical thought processes those with and without ADHD compare? Please explain the source of this difference. Is the difference thought to be caused by dopamine, serotonin or norepinephrine or some other neurological explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADHD is typically associated with a reduction in dopamine and/or norepinephrine. Though the two neurotransmitters are similar on a structural level, norepinephrine is associated with vigilant attentiveness, whereas dopamine is associated with cognitive alertness. ADHD is commonly associated with a reduction in dopamine activity, and since norepinephrine is synthesized by dopamine, there are typically deficiencies in both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the brain, cortical norepinephrine (NE) is released during attentional patterns so that learning can commence and be enhanced. When we receive information that goes against sensory information (or what we had previously thought true), &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(05)00362-4?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0896627305003624%3Fshowall%3Dtrue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NE levels 'spike'&lt;/a&gt; and then subside once the information is sufficiently integrated. With lower levels of NE, it is harder to pick up on information, and thus the information may not be consolidated and 'learned'. NE also affects memory for facts and specific details in those with ADHD, and thus it can be harder to recall factual information when necessary. You can guess what happens next, as factual information is crucial for building a 'bank' of information in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rationality (by definition) factors in how much information is available, and uses it to maximize expected utility. Those who suffer from ADHD have less information available to them, as they do not pick up on information in the way that the average person might. It is not that they are less capable of rational thought -- they simply have less information to make informed, rational decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADHD is occasionally associated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_thinking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;lateral thinking&lt;/a&gt;, which is a method of problem-solving that relies on creative thinking moreso than step-by-step logic. However, I have found no evidence in scientific literature that suggests a link between the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How do the math skills of those with ADHD compare to others? As above please explain in detail from a biochemical perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It depends on how salient math is to the individual. Albert Einstein and Paul Erdős were both considered to have ADHD, and nobody would doubt their math skills. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning disabilities do tend to work in conjunction. Of those with arithmetic learning disabilities, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.edst.purdue.edu/zentall/resume/articles/07Zmath.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a quarter of them have ADHD, and up to 31% of those with ADHD are reported to have math learning disabilities&lt;/a&gt;. Inattention is typically associated with mathematical learning, as failure to learn to automize computational skills leads to calculation error and slower internalization rate. Children with ADHD typically have problems with fluency of calculation. In other words, it takes longer for them to make calculations internally, and this does not appear to normalize with age. This is because holding information in your head is an essential component of making mental calculations, and this is something that those with ADHD struggle with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly enough, math performance in ADHD sufferers has shown to improve with a) more computational practice (so that mental math becomes more 'intuitive'), and b) music playing in the background while attempting to solve math problems. You can read more about this in the article I linked to above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-08-18T11:46:03.490" LastActivityDate="2015-08-18T11:46:03.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10942" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10940" CreationDate="2015-08-18T02:43:32.747" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting question!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind&quot;&gt;Theory of mind&lt;/a&gt; is the ability to attribute mental states, motivations, etc. to others and recognize that others have separate intentions, states, and motivations from his or her own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The specific phenomenon that you are describing may stem from this concept called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism_(psychology)&quot;&gt;naive realism&lt;/a&gt;, or the idea that we see the world as it truly is, and that others share the same perceptions as we do. There are several other social biases that stem from the notion of naive realism. You might be particularly interested in&#xA;the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False-consensus_effect&quot;&gt;false-consensus effect&lt;/a&gt;, or the tendency to overestimate how many people share our beliefs. There is also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_bias&quot;&gt;attribution bias&lt;/a&gt;, or the tendency to interpret events in light of our own social world when trying to find reasons for the behavior of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kafaak.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Ross-et-al-The-false-consensus-effect-an-egocentric-bias-in-social-perception-and-attribution-processes.pdf&quot;&gt;Here are four studies&lt;/a&gt; that might be of interest to you, from a paper on the false-consensus effect and self-serving bias. As these are biases primarily from the realm of social psychology, most studies you find will be of groups and in-group biases. It might be more helpful to look for specific personality traits that may describe the phenomenon, i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-awareness#Disorders_affecting_self_awareness&quot;&gt;lack of self-awareness&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also be interested in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-perception_theory&quot;&gt;self-perception theory&lt;/a&gt; and, by extension, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-perception_theory#Reviving_self-perception_theory:_the_truce_experiment&quot;&gt;the truce experiment&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-18T02:43:32.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10943" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10883" CreationDate="2015-08-18T06:50:35.557" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Research:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rationalization&lt;/a&gt; is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_mechanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defence mechanism&lt;/a&gt; - a Freudian (read: outdated) construct that is still in common use in clinical psychology, but no longer used much in research, so current studies about such mechanisms are hard to come by.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To some degree, rationalization has been superseded by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt;, and related &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-perception_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-perception theory&lt;/a&gt;.  This is a more general theory about rationalizing that includes normal, healthy ways of dealing with internal conflict, as well as pathological forms.  However, this line of research has focused mostly on theorized unconscious rationalizing, rather than verbal explanations provided by subjects.  There are many other lines of research into verbalized non-pathological rationalizing, which is very common.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Therapy:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In modern cognitive therapies, the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_distortion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive distortions&lt;/a&gt; generally supersedes rationalization.  Clinicians are specially trained to detect many varieties of cognitive distortion in patients, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimisation_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;minimisation&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectualization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intellectualization&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sour_grapes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sour grapes&lt;/a&gt;.  In general, the idea is to look for inconsistencies or contradictions in the patient's descriptions of their thinking.  For example, a patient might say: &amp;quot;Cheating on my spouse was a desperate call for attention.&amp;quot;  That might sound logical at first blush, but then why hide it?  Or why not choose a healthier way to get attention?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Confronting patients with inconsistencies in their thinking is a common part of several traditions of therapy.  One of the hallmarks of many &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;personality disorders&lt;/a&gt; is patients' inability to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_disorder#Attribution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recognize&lt;/a&gt; or failure to admit to the inconsistencies in their thinking.  For most patients without symptoms of a personality disorder however, it is expected that they should confront, recognize, accept, and ultimately find &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_restructuring&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;healthier alternatives&lt;/a&gt; to their maladaptive distortions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-05-07T04:57:01.113" LastActivityDate="2021-05-07T04:57:01.113" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10944" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10946" CreationDate="2015-08-18T13:20:49.873" Score="4" ViewCount="406" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, I might ask participants to complete a visual analogue scale for pain. They would be given a line that is 100mm long, and one end says 0 (No pain) and the other end says 100 (worst possible pain). The participant is asked to make a mark on the line with a pencil or pen to rate their level of pain. I would then use a ruler to measure the distance from the origin. E.g. how many millimeters away it is from the start of the line (i.e. zero).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The problem is that many times, people do not place a mark such as an x on the line, but they might circle a part of the line, or put a tick (check mark) there instead. I attach a picture of the standard response (participant 1) followed by 5 possible scenarios where the answer is ambiguous (participants 2 to 7), so I have left it as missing data/blank. Should these be excluded from the dataset (coded as missing data) or are some of them salvageable?&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MJhmd.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MJhmd.png&quot; alt=&quot;Possible responses to visual analogue scales&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QkS8y.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QkS8y.png&quot; alt=&quot;number 7&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By way of explanation: In number 2) the line is very large so there isn’t one place that it intersects the horizontal line (usually it has to be accurate to the nearest mm).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Participant 3) has placed a circle on the line so it is difficult to say where on the line they meant. &#xA;Participant number 4) has circled one of the numbers at the end. Can I be sure that they meant 0? Participant 7 is a variation on this.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Participant 5) has placed a tick (check) mark underneath the line (or sometimes they place a tick on the line itself). Which part of the tick do I measure from?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Participant 6) has placed a tick (check) mark on one of the numbers at the end of the scale. Can I be sure that they meant 100?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What is the best way to minimize bias while maximizing the use of the available data? Any thoughts would be appreciated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9112" LastEditorUserId="9112" LastEditDate="2015-08-19T13:13:12.543" LastActivityDate="2015-08-19T13:24:07.157" Title="How do you analyse visual analogue scales with an ambiguous response?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10945" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10944" CreationDate="2015-08-18T13:38:36.253" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not an expert on these scales, but my 2-cents worth would be the following, which are simple work-arounds to include all the data:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fine as is;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Take the middle of the thick line (the 'average');&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Take the center of the circle (draw a cross in it, the intersection is the middle);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Apparently &quot;0&quot; - no pain;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Take the tip as the marker;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Apparently &quot;100&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As in 4. (&quot;0&quot; - no pain);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Points #4 and #6 are obviously the most risky, especially in a small population. In a large population (say &lt;em&gt;N&lt;/em&gt;=100) a few outliers don't matter too much. So in case the study sample is small, you may want to consider excluding uncertain cases (#4 and #6 as examples), or try to contact the subjects and re-assess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-19T13:24:07.157" LastActivityDate="2015-08-19T13:24:07.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10946" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10944" CreationDate="2015-08-18T14:14:33.213" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I fully agree to AliceD's thoughts. If you have a large sample, these problems might add a little noise, but won't make much of a difference (certainly not the cases 2, 3, and 5, because the psychological resolution of the scale is unlikely to be as precise as the millimeter measure suggests anyway).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition: If you want to be sure not to introduce any systematic bias yourself, the most prudent procedure would be to code this blind to conditions (if you have any) or other measures of the study. This way you can avoid that you unwittingly help you own hypotheses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-08-18T14:14:33.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10947" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-18T16:31:10.423" Score="1" ViewCount="2165" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been a loner all my life. I've found that I'm scared of &quot;hanging out&quot; with people I don't know or making new friends. I don't want this question to be personalised as such, but I didn't know how else to ask it. I've been hurt as a very small child from other kids my age, bullied and never saw other resembling the teens close to my then age the same ever again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could a person that has had no friends ever hope to be a person worth being around? I really do not care if your answers do not apply to my situation, or if it is answers I interpret wrongly or apply incorrectly - I understand I've asked this on the internet and not seeked a professional for this. I just want opinions on this, as I do not have anyone to talk to and paying for it is financially overwhelming for my family at this stage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel that people that has had no friends and have been sheltered in other ways as well has little chance of getting to know other people or becoming someone that other people would perceive as interesting. If ever someone would approach them to ask if they wouldn't want to hang out, they would not be sure whether it is pity or whether they would have ANYTHING in common - thus uncertainty and avoidance are what are usually chosen. I find it hard to believe that people that has had friends all their lives, have fit in all their lives, would ever be able to enjoy the same conversations they are used to having-( with other popular people, kids with money and hobbies, over mutual interests and bold, vibrant personalities) with someone that's never had friends, for whom that is like another planet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We all know friends influence the person you are, and shape you into who you are. But what of the person that has never had that? Without any input from anyone near their age? Sheltered among the sheltered...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could a person that has never had friends, make one? Or hope to overcome this psychological barrier that causes them to believe other people are other people, and they are them? Even if they did, that wouldn't erase the lack of social development, thus people wouldn't want them to be friends with themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also- what is the psychological impact of having no friends? I probably experienced it, but cannot see what it really is because I've never known what &quot;socially psychologically healthy&quot; to compare it to. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thankyou very much!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9114" LastActivityDate="2015-08-18T16:31:10.423" Title="How big is the psychological impact of having no friends?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-08-20T13:19:43.143" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10948" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-18T17:03:41.133" Score="1" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's the difference between short term memory and working memory? and how does the process work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9115" LastActivityDate="2015-08-18T17:03:41.133" Title="What's the difference between short term memory and working memory?" Tags="&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-06-02T19:47:35.443" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10949" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10934" CreationDate="2015-08-18T22:02:46.997" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alright, so my familiarity with this area primarily comes from Vanessa LoBue's work.  And what I get from her research is that we don't &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt; know if certain fears are innate or acquired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LoBue seems to favor a &lt;strong&gt;prepared learning model&lt;/strong&gt;, which is just as it sounds.  Infants are not born fearful of things like spiders, snakes, and heights (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4175923/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adolph, Kretch, &amp;amp; LoBue, 2014&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Vanessa_LoBue/publication/234695305_Young_children%27s_interest_in_live_animals/links/59d793850f7e9b42a6b0aa40/Young-childrens-interest-in-live-animals.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LoBue et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;), but they are biased (prepared) to learn to fear them.  She has supported this theory by showing that children are more rapid at attending to snakes than other stimuli (e.g., flowers, frogs, caterpillars), independent of snake knowledge/exposure (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/childstudycenter/Detecting%20Snakes%20in%20the%20grass%20(2008).pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LoBue &amp;amp; DeLoache, 2008&lt;/a&gt;).  Infants are also biased to associate undulating snakes, but not other stimuli, with negatively valenced sounds (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/deloache/The%20narrow%20fellow%20in%20the%20grass%20(2009).pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;DeLoache &amp;amp; LoBue, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).  However, this wasn't true for static images of snakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, these stimuli are (ostensibly) evolutionarily significant (snakes, spiders, but not lions, tigers).  However, the evidence for their threatening presence in human evolution, at least for spiders, is lacking (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/%7Erakison/Infant_Cognition_Lab/publications/LoBue%20&amp;amp;%20Rakison%20(2013).pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LoBue &amp;amp; Rakison, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).  This has been a major criticism of the prepared learning model: which stimuli are 'prepared'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LoBue suggests that the bias toward snakes might be mediated by low-level perceptual characteristics that pop out (i.e., curvilinear features) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Vanessa_LoBue/publication/261441895_Deconstructing_the_Snake_The_Relative_Roles_of_Perception_Cognition_and_Emotion_on_Threat_Detection/links/0f31753aac7abc90cf000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LoBue, 2014&lt;/a&gt;).  However, it's not clear if this visual saliency leads to actual fear learning of snakes (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/%7Erakison/Infant_Cognition_Lab/publications/LoBue%20&amp;amp;%20Rakison%20(2013).pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LoBue &amp;amp; Rakison, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).  Moreover, this suggests that any predominantly curvilinear stimulus might bias attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aside from her work, there are loads of mixed findings in this area that don't point to a clear answer. For example, there are studies that report a general attention bias for animals in general, threatening or non-threatening (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ottmar_Lipp/publication/7014138_Of_snakes_and_flowers_Does_preferential_detection_of_pictures_of_fear-relevant_animals_in_visual_search_reflect_on_fear-relevance/links/58c62e8faca272e36ddaa6df/Of-snakes-and-flowers-Does-preferential-detection-of-pictures-of-fear-relevant-animals-in-visual-search-reflect-on-fear-relevance.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lipp, 2006&lt;/a&gt;). Plus there are several outstanding methodological problems in much of the past research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Frankly, there just needs to be a lot more research in order to figure this out. Although I would argue that the &amp;quot;non-associative model&amp;quot; (that infants don't need to learn, in some way, to fear snakes, spiders, etc.) is out of fashion and not well supported.&lt;/strong&gt; But for the most recent reviews, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.cmu.edu/%7Erakison/Infant_Cognition_Lab/publications/LoBue%20&amp;amp;%20Rakison%20(2013).pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LoBue &amp;amp; Rakison (2013)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12012&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LoBue (2013)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adolph, K. E., Kretch, K. S., &amp;amp; LoBue, V. (2014). Fear of heights in infants?. &lt;em&gt;Current directions in psychological science&lt;/em&gt;, 23(1), 60-66. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413498895&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/0963721413498895&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4175923/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC4175923&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4175923/pdf/nihms574402.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4175923/pdf/nihms574402.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DeLoache, J. S., &amp;amp; LoBue, V. (2009). The narrow fellow in the grass: Human infants associate snakes and fear. &lt;em&gt;Developmental science&lt;/em&gt;, 12(1), 201-207. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00753.x&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00753.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lipp, O. V. (2006). Of snakes and flowers: Does preferential detection of pictures of fear-relevant animals in visual search reflect on fear-relevance? &lt;em&gt;Emotion&lt;/em&gt;, 6(2), 296-308. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.6.2.296&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/1528-3542.6.2.296&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LoBue, V., &amp;amp; DeLoache, J. S. (2008). Detecting the snake in the grass: Attention to fear-relevant stimuli by adults and young children. &lt;em&gt;Psychological science&lt;/em&gt;, 19(3), 284-289. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02081.x&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02081.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LoBue, V. (2013). What are we so afraid of? How early attention shapes our most common fears. &lt;em&gt;Child Development Perspectives&lt;/em&gt;, 7(1), 38-42. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12012&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/cdep.12012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LoBue, V., Bloom Pickard, M., Sherman, K., Axford, C., &amp;amp; DeLoache, J. S. (2013). Young children's interest in live animals. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Developmental Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 31(1), 57-69. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.2012.02078.x&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.2044-835X.2012.02078.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LoBue, V., &amp;amp; Rakison, D. H. (2013). What we fear most: A developmental advantage for threat-relevant stimuli. &lt;em&gt;Developmental Review&lt;/em&gt;, 33(4), 285-303. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2013.07.005&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.dr.2013.07.005&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LoBue, V. (2014). Deconstructing the snake: The relative roles of perception, cognition, and emotion on threat detection. &lt;em&gt;Emotion&lt;/em&gt;, 14(4), 701. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035898&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/a0035898&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T09:22:20.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10950" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-19T07:31:15.470" Score="1" ViewCount="164" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we read the theories of consciousness, they usually state that a thing either has consciousness or does not have consciousness. Is there a reason why consciousness cannot be thought to be a spectrum? For example, I have more consciousness than a computer. (Implying that a computer has consciousness, just that it has less than I do.) Rather than I have consciousness, a computer does not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastActivityDate="2015-08-23T16:45:04.663" Title="Consciousness - on/off switch or spectrum?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-08-23T17:30:10.183" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10951" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-17T11:25:42.203" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of any evidence to indicate whether it is faster and/or easier for a native English speaker to recognise digits (1, 2, 3, 4) vs. full written English word equivalents (one, two, three, four)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9105" OwnerDisplayName="HaydnW" LastActivityDate="2015-08-19T11:11:53.693" Title="Is it easier/faster to recognise digits or written words?" Tags="&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="16" ClosedDate="2015-08-20T12:50:37.763" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10954" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10955" CreationDate="2015-08-19T18:18:40.280" Score="2" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I am watching a YouTube video with normal speed I can understand everything with no problem. When I speed up the video to 1.25x my understanding of what someone is saying is a bit worse, but after 1-2 minutes it is very clear again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have made an experiment in which I was increasing the video speed gradually to 2x (in ~5 minutes) and I was understanding everything very good. After some time I started the same video again, but then I switched it directly from 1x to 2x and I still could understand what someone is saying in the video, but it was worse than in gradual speed increase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this happening?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9121" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-20T01:38:08.667" LastActivityDate="2015-08-20T02:22:01.747" Title="What is the effect of gradual increase of speech speed on speech comprehension?" Tags="&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;speech-comprehension&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10955" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10954" CreationDate="2015-08-20T00:46:23.377" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The ability to understand speech at increased voice rates is all about &lt;strong&gt;learning&lt;/strong&gt;. A notable example in this regard is the use of text-to-speech software like &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.freedomscientific.com/Products/Blindness/JAWS&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jaws&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; used by blind folks unable to read the written word. Jaws is able to convert text on screen into the spoken word using a speech generator. After people get used to read on-screen content through speech, they are often able (and happy) to increase the voice rate settings to scan over the (often cluttered) computer screens more quickly. A recommended &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nomensa.com/blog/2003/configuring-jaws-voice-settings&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;incremental step for Jaws&lt;/a&gt; in speech rate is 5%. I have experienced the speech rates deployed by some blind folks and the resulting speech was totally unintelligible to me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to the learning curve you describe: I bet that after repeated exposure to higher speech rate settings you wouldn't feel the necessity to start at a slower pace. Assuming you have normal vision, you are probably not too inclined to practice this for hours, though. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-20T02:22:01.747" LastActivityDate="2015-08-20T02:22:01.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10957" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-20T09:50:42.393" Score="10" ViewCount="918" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Adult_neurogenesis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;scholarpedia article&lt;/a&gt; on this subject says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Adult neurogenesis is the process of generating new neurons which&#xA;  integrate into existing circuits after fetal and early postnatal&#xA;  development has ceased. In most mammalian species, adult neurogenesis&#xA;  only appears to occur in the olfactory bulb and the hippocampus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Scholarpedia entry is dated 2007. Has there any more recent evidence been uncovered showing adult neurogenesis in other parts of the brain? If it is linked to brain plasticity, surely it would be useful to many more areas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4424" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-21T14:02:22.057" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T14:02:22.057" Title="Does adult neurogenesis occur only in the olfactory bulb and the hippocampus?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10958" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-20T12:12:08.853" Score="2" ViewCount="361" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading about mental illnesses and then thought one day that the uninformed regard mental illnesses the same way leprosy was regarded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I looked up about leprosy and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20364520&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some papers&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://ncronline.org/blogs/my-table-spread/mentally-ill-are-our-lepers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;articles&lt;/a&gt; about how mental illness is a modern-day leprosy, but I can't seem to find as to what exactly is the relation, if they are even thinking the same thing I am.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I know, it is observed that the uninformed are not giving them the treatment they need. Specifically, why are the uninformed not giving them the treatment they need?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it accurate and precise to say that mental illness is regarded as modern-day leprosy since:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/42947/what-evidence-is-there-that-the-jews-thought-leprosy-was-due-to-sin&quot;&gt;In ancient times (or Jesus's time), uninformed people believed people who had leprosy had leprosy because they committed a grave sin or sins&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In modern times, uninformed people believe people who have mental illnesses have mental illnesses because they committed gravely immoral actions (see how I avoid the non-secular word &quot;sin&quot;) ?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example a drug or gambling addict. Drug and gambling addictions are mental illnesses, but an uninformed person would look at a drug or gambling addict and say that the reason that they have these sicknesses is that they started taking drugs or gambling, the immoral action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However maybe an informed person would say that the reverse is the case: the immoral actions of starting to take drugs or gamble is caused in part by the illness that the person had or the biological, psychological or environmental predispositions that the person had.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other examples would include procrastination, overeating or hyperactivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bottom line, is it accurate and precise to say that the term &quot;modern leprosy&quot; is in reference to thinking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You're crazy because you did evil things&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;rather than&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You did evil things because you're mentally ill ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question may not be very clear so please recommend how I can improve this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8950" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:54.423" LastActivityDate="2016-10-14T10:14:04.297" Title="What does it mean to say that mental illness is a modern-day leprosy?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10959" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10957" CreationDate="2015-08-20T13:25:38.153" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are right that active adult neurogenesis is generally considered to be restricted to the dentate gyrus of the &lt;strong&gt;hippocampus&lt;/strong&gt;, and the subventricular zone of the &lt;strong&gt;lateral ventricles&lt;/strong&gt;. The latter generates neurons that subsequently migrate through the rostral migratory stream to the olfactory bulb to become interneurons &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3106107/#R51&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ming &amp;amp; Song, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the hippocampus is critical for the formation of memory, hippocampal neurogenesis does not simply 'add memory' &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/22/3/635.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kemperman, 2002)&lt;/a&gt;. Instead,  hippocampal neurogenesis is believed to mediate the continuing modulation of cortical functions in response to exposure to novelty &lt;a href=&quot;http://physrev.physiology.org/content/94/4/991.full-text.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Aimone &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2014)&lt;/a&gt;. Specific examples are spatial-navigation learning and long-term spatial memory retention, spatial pattern discrimination and contextual fear conditioning. Adult olfactory bulb neurogenesis is associated with maintaining long-term structural integrity of the olfactory bulb, short-term olfactory memory, olfactory fear conditioning, and long-term associative olfactory memory involving active learning &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3106107/#R51&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ming &amp;amp; Song, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurogenesis in other regions in the adult brain are generally believed to be limited under normal physiological conditions, but can be reproducibly induced after inflicting injury to the grain &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/~goulde/pubs/How%20widespread%20is%20adult%20neurogenesis%20in%20mammals.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Gould, 2007)&lt;/a&gt;. These regions include the neocortex, amygdala, hypothalamus, substantia nigra and the brainstem, among other regions (see Fig. 1).&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/n5XTS.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/n5XTS.png&quot; alt=&quot;Regions of neurogenesis&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Regions of neurogenesis in mammals, shown in a rat's brain. The red regions (hippocampus &amp;amp; subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles) are considered to be neurogenic. The other regions may also be neurogenic, but only reproducibly so in experiments after damage to these regions. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/~goulde/pubs/How%20widespread%20is%20adult%20neurogenesis%20in%20mammals.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gould (2007)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://physrev.physiology.org/content/94/4/991.full-text.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aimone &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Physiol Rev&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;94&lt;/strong&gt;: 991–1026&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/~goulde/pubs/How%20widespread%20is%20adult%20neurogenesis%20in%20mammals.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gould, &lt;em&gt;Nature Rev Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt; 481-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/22/3/635.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kemperman, &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2002); &lt;strong&gt;22&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 635-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3106107/#R51&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ming &amp;amp; Song, &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;70&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 687–702&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Related question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4092/what-evidence-is-there-that-the-adult-brain-can-produce-new-neurons?rq=1&quot;&gt;What evidence is there that the adult brain can produce new neurons?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T12:16:21.903" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10960" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11025" CreationDate="2015-08-20T15:18:48.290" Score="4" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am conducting a case study on the topic of refugees and asylum seekers. My particular interest is: How aware is my test subject of the reasons (political persecution, famine, war, ...) why these people are leaving their home country?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to avoid asking explicit questions like &quot;How often do you think about the political situation in Syria?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is there any standardized or way of investigating awareness (not knowledge) of a certain topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3945" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-26T14:55:02.470" LastActivityDate="2015-08-27T07:45:13.787" Title="How to examine person's awareness of a certain topic?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10961" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-20T15:31:23.507" Score="8" ViewCount="244" Body="&lt;p&gt;Symptoms of anxiety and anger are often described as some sort of energetic sensation in my chest and sometimes face or arms.  Are these sensations an 'illusion' from neural activity strictly in the brain which projects sensations on their body or is there also neural activity in my chest, face or arms that they're 'actually' sensing?  If so what is the nature of that activity. If not and the sensations are just an 'illusion' how is the brain creating that illusion.  Also why does stretching seem to calm or make this sensation more pleasant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9103" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-08-24T13:09:52.600" LastActivityDate="2015-08-25T01:30:31.427" Title="Are the physical sensations of an emotion due to neural activity strictly in the brain or also in the body?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10962" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="643" CreationDate="2015-08-20T21:41:01.843" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There can't be an objective, scientific answer to 'the meaning of dreams' because the effects are purely subjective.  I've found by experience, however, that a dream is something like a 'meaning' without a stimulus event to cause it, like a semantic without a word.  Usually or very often next day a waking event does occur and the dream meaning then becomes very clear by that event's occurrance.  Neurologically, as the scientists suggest, the past days' events are incorporated into memory and in a relatively stable social environment will be recalled with the appropriate stimulus as might be expected.  Subjectively, I think it is otherwise known as deju vu or very like it.  In this sense a dream is predictive but, to avoid misunderstanding, only in this sense.  For a 'scientific' enquiry into dream interpretation I recommend the theories of the psychologist C G Jung but it is no way a simple subject.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9133" LastEditorUserId="9133" LastEditDate="2015-08-22T10:45:46.463" LastActivityDate="2015-08-22T10:45:46.463" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10963" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10969" CreationDate="2015-08-20T21:52:56.913" Score="2" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, I would like to say that I know nothing about cognitive sciences. I am just posting this question because it interested me and I stumbled across this group in stack exchange.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was recently speaking to a cognitive scientist who had just finished modelling a certain function of the brain for his thesis (using a simulation program).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He soon told me that this can be done because the neurons are an analogue system and this analogue system can be modeled using math (like any analogue system that I know of). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My first question was:&#xA;Does his task in &quot;modelling the neurons&quot; have a fixed set of rules or steps logical that he follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He said that there are clearly defined rules even though many rules are still undefined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then my second question was:&#xA;Could it be possible to automate the task of &quot;modelling the neurons&quot; (using IT) in order to make larger systems more quickly and to test the disputable arguments more quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Now my question to the forum is&lt;/strong&gt;: &#xA;Is this a realistic approach and has anyone here already tried to do this? Before waving it aside please consider the fact that IT has been used to develop software that can solve complex problems. Ie. Mathematica, Sage, Matlab etc..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am aware that it is much more complicated than math, but if it is possible to define rules it should also be possible to apply those rules automatically...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm sorry if I used bad or confusing terminology. I have no clue about this field and I am just asking out of curiosity.. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9134" LastActivityDate="2019-07-27T20:02:12.757" Title="Using IT to quickly make a simulated brain" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10964" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-20T22:49:09.307" Score="8" ViewCount="207" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we look at physical illnesses we could put them on a spectrum of 'Happened spontaneously/no choice in the matter' to 'Was clearly created by something that happened in their life'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From less causal, to more causal I'd suggest a list like this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Genetic disorders.   (Entirely genetic, from birth)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Down syndrome. (Genetic, but age of parents plays a part)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cancers that happen 'randomly' (eg. breast cancer).  (Random, but some people have genetic disposition)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Common cold. (Not sure where to put this on the spectrum, but caused by a cold, but some people are more susceptible than others). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Obesity. (Some people have a higher disposition to obesity)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Smoking related illnesses. (Caused by smoking, but some people more susceptible than others). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;HIV.  (Caused by a virus transferred by contaminated blood/unprotected sex)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A broken leg. (Caused by physical trauma)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is - the illnesses at the top of the spectrum have some kind of genetic cause, or we don't know enough about them to say how/why they occur, whereas the illnesses at the bottom of the spectrum are clearly caused by some life event. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With a mental illness like schizophrenia - it seems clear that this would fit at the top end of the spectrum - the schizophrenic was schizophrenic from birth, and there was nothing that 'caused it'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it seems that depression is often the result of life events - stress, addiction, pregnancy, grief etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a valid way of looking at depression? What terminology and research is there about it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T01:11:30.230" Title="Is depression caused by life events?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10965" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-21T00:12:07.300" Score="1" ViewCount="190" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the past I've always thought deja vu was a feeling of having done something before because you actually had done something quite like it before and the current environment is bringing that to mind but in the past few years, maybe longer, I've had a different deja vu-like case: It's a feeling at one point in time, that feels like deja vu, except that I particularly feel/know it &lt;em&gt;hasn't&lt;/em&gt; happened before, which then, at a later time, actually comes about happening in the same place as I had thought about it earlier. In both the first and second events I am particularly aware of what I'm feeling as it has happened a few times. It doesn't feel like a trick of the mind like my explanation for regular deja vu would have me believe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a known or common deja vu-like phenomenon? Is there anything that would explain it like my explanation of regular deja vu?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9135" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-08-21T14:36:58.973" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T14:36:58.973" Title="What is this forward-looking Déjà Vu-like phenomenon?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-08-21T17:26:10.600" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10964" CreationDate="2015-08-21T01:11:30.230" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both schizofrenia and depression are linked to a genetic predisposition and life events. Individuals with no genetic predisposition may become depressed when the trigger is sufficiently intense, while individuals with genetic predisposition may become depressed in the absence of clear life events triggering the depression &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vipbg.vcu.edu/vipbg/Articles/amjpsychiatry-stressful-1995.pdf&quot;&gt;(Kendler &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 1995)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vipbg.vcu.edu/vipbg/Articles/amjpsychiatry-stressful-1995.pdf&quot;&gt;Kendler &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Am J Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (1995); &lt;strong&gt;152&lt;/strong&gt;(6): 833-42&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T01:11:30.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10968" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-21T05:44:59.200" Score="4" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for scientific literature that suggests a link between verbal intelligence (i.e. one's capacity for reading comprehension and use of language) and one's aptitude for working with or producing novel thought in STEM fields such as the hard sciences (chemistry, physics), mathematics, and/or computer science. If there does not appear to be a link, I'd like scientific literature that expresses why this would be the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="8248" LastEditDate="2015-08-21T19:55:08.543" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T19:55:08.543" Title="What role (if any) does verbal intelligence play in one's aptitude for science or mathematics?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10969" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10963" CreationDate="2015-08-21T13:16:53.433" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an incredibly broad question, but I admire your spark of curiosity so I'm going to give you a quick answer anyways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, there is no defined steps for modelling parts of the brain. The laboratory I was a member of created &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6111/1202&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spaun&lt;/a&gt;. Spaun is the world's largest functioning brain model and uses biologically plausible neurons as the foundation for it's computation. The methodology for creating the most recent iteration of this model varies wildly from part-to-part. The vision system was &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/hunsberger2018.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adapted from Deep Learning Convolutional Neural Networks&lt;/a&gt;, the basal-ganglia and thalamus came from &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/stewart2010.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an anatomical model&lt;/a&gt; and the working-memory model came from &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/singh2006.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;engineering analysis of dynamical systems&lt;/a&gt;. None of these could have come from evolutionary algorithms or any other sort of algorithm known to humanity at this point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way of modelling the brain (mostly the human behaviour part of it) is ACT-R, which doesn't use neurons at all. Once again, there's no algorithm for evolving this system and interestingly it's the foundation behind a lot of the intelligent systems you mentioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The search for evolution and learning methods for groups to gain intelligence is generally called Artificial Life (ALife).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll notice that there's a bunch of different levels to approach the problem of modelling the brain. Your friend was at the biological bottom-up level, ACT-R is at the behavioural top-down level and Spaun is the weird hybrid. Although all of these systems use IT in some way (Spaun was built with a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nengo.ai/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Python library called Nengo&lt;/a&gt;, ACT-R is written in LISP), the processes for creating these systems cannot be automated and would require the creation of a general artificial intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2019-07-27T20:02:12.757" LastActivityDate="2019-07-27T20:02:12.757" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10970" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-21T16:45:57.783" Score="0" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am in a situation where I can't exactly get help for my mental health issues. There are plenty, don't get me wrong, but there was one particular part of my mental health struggle that I could never...connect with anything else. I know I have trust issues and abandonment issues and so forth, but there was this one set of symptoms that kept bothering me. I like to have a name for something, even if it's not very specific, so I searched and searched to find something that fit me. Finally I stumbled upon DID, and the more research I did about the disorder the more sense everything made. Is it wrong that I did this? I just wanted answers, and I really wish that I could go to a doctor but I can't. I've heard both sides on self diagnosis and I want to see what a group of professionals would think.&#xA;By the way, I haven't told anyone but my two closest friends, so no I'm not doing it for attention. I just wanted my symptoms to...make sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9139" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T17:18:52.297" Title="Do you ever think self diagnosis is called for?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-08-24T13:52:28.847" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10971" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10970" CreationDate="2015-08-21T17:18:52.297" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this is a borderline question. As a rule of thumb, we do not answer questions about individual health problems in favor of asking the author to see a professional, for both ethical and practical reasons. And let me be absolutely unequivocal here: you should see a professional. But this is fundamentally a general question about self-diagnosis, so I'm going to answer that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's always good to educate yourself. &lt;strong&gt;Accurate self diagnosis is necessarily impossible, however&lt;/strong&gt;―what you can see depends on what you know, and what you know depends on what you have seen, etc. This is uncontroversial. Being educated is therefore very &lt;em&gt;helpful&lt;/em&gt; when seeing a professional, which I again strongly encourage you to do, but it is &lt;em&gt;never&lt;/em&gt; a substitute for seeing a professional when you have problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T17:18:52.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10972" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10974" CreationDate="2015-08-21T10:13:05.013" Score="5" ViewCount="217" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any scientific study on handwriting by profession? In the whole world, the people with the most control of their muscles are athletes. Or pianists, who have extremely good control of their fingers. So perhaps their handwriting will be different from the average person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" OwnerDisplayName="Yvonne Liew" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-08-21T20:23:45.747" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T22:33:42.827" Title="Handwriting analysis by profession (muscular control) - Athletes, musicians, etc" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10973" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-21T20:28:45.077" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;[Apologies if this is too general.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm doing research on language production during the computer keyboard typing process. There are some great classic articles like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0364021382800049&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rumelhart &amp;amp; Norman, 1982&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/99/3/303/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Salthouse, 1986&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was curious where more contemporary research is on this phenomena, both from a language and motor perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In response to the comments, here is some clarification:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am researching lexical retrieval during typing, as well as the effects of a task's overall cognitive complexity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;While I am focusing on these aspects, I would like to situate it within the broader context of the typing process. Therefore, any contemporary research of typing, in general, will also be of use.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9086" LastEditorUserId="9086" LastEditDate="2015-08-21T22:01:35.147" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T22:01:35.147" Title="Contemporary Resources on Cognitive Science of Typing" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10972" CreationDate="2015-08-21T22:33:42.827" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;: Not really, because a) handwriting &lt;em&gt;style&lt;/em&gt; is generally individual-dependent and not occupation-dependent, and b) the fine-motor skills responsible for handwriting &lt;em&gt;legibility&lt;/em&gt; are specific enough to be near-independent of the muscle control that mandates one's success in athletics and/or music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Detailed answer&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is probably difficult to say anything definite about the variance in style of handwriting among profession, as handwriting &lt;em&gt;style&lt;/em&gt; is something subjective. Furthermore, one's handwriting style is typically well-formed before the time of their occupation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of the objective nature of handwriting -- i.e. its legibility and general readability -- there tends to be a greater relationship with fine motor coordination. However, even then, the motor coordination is fairly specific to handwriting or letter generation. The ability to generate written text is largely dependent on orthographic-motor integration [1] and finger sequencing. [2] The latter variable may be practiced by musicians or certain athletes in specific sports, but these variables are by-and-large specific to handwriting and letter generation. In general, a greater indicator in how legible one's handwriting will be is how 'automatic' one's handwriting is. Thus, interventions that promote higher orthographic-motor integration tend to improve the 'automaticity' of one's handwriting, thus leading to better legibility and readability in their handwriting. [1] Again, these interventions are specific to handwriting, and general fine-motor skills typically do not affect this area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also be interested to know that there is a field of study called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;graphology&lt;/a&gt; that attempts to analyze handwriting based on personality or personal characteristics, such as profession. However, it is largely regarded as a 'pseudoscientific' field due to its lack of reproducible research thus far. I mention this because a lot of the resources I found when looking up more information on this question came from books on graphology, and so I could not use them as scientific resources. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources used:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Jones, Dian; Christensen, Carol A. (1999). Relationship between automaticity in handwriting and students' ability to generate written text. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol 91(1), 44-49.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Berninger, V.W.; B.J. Wolf (2009). Teaching students with dyslexia and dysgraphia: Lessons from teaching and science. Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co. pp. 1–240.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-21T22:33:42.827" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10975" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10979" CreationDate="2015-08-22T15:24:34.020" Score="4" ViewCount="332" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_pitch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Absolute pitch&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; can be defined as &lt;strong&gt;the ability to identify or re-create a given musical note without the benefit of a reference tone&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When people claim to have absolute pitch, does this mean they have the capacity to detect the exact frequency of a note, or merely the pitch class (i.e. C,C#,D, etc)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-24T01:55:53.550" LastActivityDate="2015-08-24T10:32:11.983" Title="Can people with absolute pitch identify the exact frequency, or simply the pitch class?" Tags="&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10976" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10975" CreationDate="2015-08-22T20:18:22.337" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It can be either, and is typically both, considering that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Absolute pitch is an act of cognition, needing memory of the frequency, a label for the frequency (such as &quot;B-flat&quot;), and exposure to the range of sound encompassed by that categorical label.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to look at it is that pitch class came from the necessary assessment and organization of pitch frequency, similar to how symbols such as letters came from our assessment of different phonemes. So the ability to detect one usually implicates the detection of the other, and we call this ability 'absolute pitch'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-22T20:18:22.337" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10977" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10498" CreationDate="2015-08-22T20:39:25.347" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nail-biting is considered a &lt;strong&gt;parafunctional habit&lt;/strong&gt;. A parafunctional habit is the habitual exercise of a body part in a way that isn't the way that that part was intended to be used. Other common parafunctional habits include bruxism (grinding of teeth), hair-pulling, and picking at skin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nobody knows what causes these habits. Possible physical or psychological causes may include emotions (aggression, anxiety, stress, tension), hyperactivity, complications from other disorders (such as obsessive-compulsive disorder), or as a coping or focus mechanism, similar to how babies and young children find it soothing to suck on their thumbs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-22T20:39:25.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10979" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10975" CreationDate="2015-08-23T15:11:52.603" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In practice, absolute pitch is generally tested for by using musical pitch classes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify the pitch of a musical tone, or to produce a musical tone at a given pitch without the use of an external reference pitch. Most humans process musical pitch relatively rather than absolutely, and in fact most sensory systems operate relatively and not absolutely. AP is indeed a rare ability, occurring in less than 0.01% of the general population &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lifesci.susx.ac.uk/home/Chris_Darwin/PerMuSo/pdfs/TakeuchiHulse.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Tekuechi &amp;amp; Hulse, 1993)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way in which AP is tested is mostly using &lt;strong&gt;pitch classes&lt;/strong&gt;. Pitch classes are likely preferably used experimentally, because people with AP are often musicians. Musicians are already familiar with pitch classes because of their training. In turn, AP typically manifests itself in trained musicians &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v6/n7/full/nn1085.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Zatorre, 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. Therefore, testing AP using frequencies expressed in Herz may simply be too abstract for most people with AP, since they are more accustomed to the use of pitch classes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that, because the pitch A4 used to tune orchestras, corresponds to 440.0 Hz by modern convention, AP as tested with pitch classes can be, indirectly, considered to represent frequencies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some subjects with AP may consistently identify pitches a semitone low or a semitone high. This can occur because a subject may be accustomed to a different tuning standard for A4 than 440.0 Hz &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lifesci.susx.ac.uk/home/Chris_Darwin/PerMuSo/pdfs/TakeuchiHulse.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Tekuechi &amp;amp; Hulse, 1993)&lt;/a&gt;. Hence, AP has a strong correlate to training.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lifesci.susx.ac.uk/home/Chris_Darwin/PerMuSo/pdfs/TakeuchiHulse.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tekuechi &amp;amp; Hulse, &lt;em&gt;Psychol Bull&lt;/em&gt; (1993); &lt;strong&gt;113&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 345-61&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v6/n7/full/nn1085.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Zatorre, &lt;em&gt;Nature Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2003); &lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;(7): 692-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-24T10:32:11.983" LastActivityDate="2015-08-24T10:32:11.983" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10950" CreationDate="2015-08-23T16:45:04.663" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;On/off is indeed not the commonest view of consciousness. In Hindu philosophical circles, consciousness is thought of as continuous across living systems.  Humans have 'budding'consciousness, (plus free will), animals 'shuttered' and plants 'covered'consciousness, and these are points along a continuum.  (Reference example:  Hinduism and Science, by T D Singh; a paper in “Science and Religion: Global Perspectives”, June 4-8, 2005, in Philadelphia, PA, USA, a program of the Metanexus Institute).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8461" LastActivityDate="2015-08-23T16:45:04.663" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10982" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10983" CreationDate="2015-08-23T18:09:35.407" Score="9" ViewCount="294" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to be very interesting that we can use modern neuroscience and cognitive science research to inform us about the ages-old question of free-will vs. determinism. The standard experiment was done by Benjamin Libet in 1983 that demonstrated that electrode activity showed that in terms of using our left or right hands - electric signals showed a significant change in activity before the reported decision to make the movement was made. This is one of the founding experiments of the neuroscience of free-will.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it seems that this experiment informs us in a very limited temporal duration. Since I could not find any conclusive results myself, I wanted to ask if they were any neuroscience experiments that demonstrated long-term predictive behavior. An example would be if a person with a particular imaged localized area could be said pre-hand to have a certain behavioral reactions in response to stimuli. This would defend give a strong defense to the determinist philosophical position. Of course, I'm talking about conscious reactions (such as decision-making in social situations, since the idea is that people consciously think they make their own decisions). An experiment involving unconscious processes such as memory would not be very informative. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Which experiment(s) comments on this?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the degree of validity of the experiment?&lt;/strong&gt; (Summary of Methods and Results)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are the results controversial? Does it truly make a comment on the philosophy of free will?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If not, is it that Neuroscience is still not mature enough have predictive power like hard sciences such as biology, chemistry and physics. After all, the brain is a incredibly complex organ, and responding to complex multimodal stimuli (e.g. social situations) it would further complicate the possibility of any such study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6640273&quot;&gt;TIME OF CONSCIOUS INTENTION TO ACT IN RELATION TO ONSET OF CEREBRAL ACTIVITY&lt;/a&gt; (READINESS-POTENTIAL)&#xA;BENJAMIN LIBET, CURTIS A. GLEASON, ELWOOD W. WRIGHT, DENNIS K. PEARL&#xA;Brain Sep 1983, 106 (3) 623-642; DOI: 10.1093/brain/106.3.623&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-08-23T18:25:11.820" LastActivityDate="2019-03-28T21:41:24.960" Title="Predictive Experiments on Neuroscience of Free Will" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;free-will&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10983" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10982" CreationDate="2015-08-23T20:36:29.930" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a good article on Wikipedia on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_free_will&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuroscience of Free Will&lt;/a&gt;, with far too much content to adequately summarize here.  Since your question is focused on long-term prediction of behaviour, I'll just mention about that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using newer &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;fMRI&lt;/a&gt; technology, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v11/n5/full/nn.2112.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Soon et al (2008)&lt;/a&gt; used a learning algorithm to predict &quot;free will&quot; decisions from brain activity about 7 seconds (and up to 10 seconds) prior to the subject reporting awareness of having made the decision.  This experiment has been replicated in other labs: Presenter Marcus du Satoy undergoes it for the BBC documentary &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00nhv56&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Secret You (2009/2010)&lt;/a&gt;, and remarks that there is something creepy about the radiologist being aware of his decision several seconds before even he is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qfQuq.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qfQuq.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important question remains regarding all long-term prediction experiments: Human behaviour is very predictable, as countless experiments in every area of psychology commonly demonstrate by manipulating causal factors - the ability to predict it well in advance with significant accuracy is hardly limited to neuroscience.  So experiments have to be very carefully designed if they are to eliminate the effects of predisposing factors such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;priming&lt;/a&gt; in decision-making, such that decisions are not influenced by uncontrolled unconscious factors (hence truly &quot;free will&quot;).  However, if &quot;free will&quot; doesn't exist, then eliminating all predisposing factors will ultimately prove futile, so until researchers can control for &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; variables, some doubt will always remain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, research in this field has significantly changed our understanding of the role of &quot;thought&quot; or &quot;will&quot; or &quot;volition&quot; in the causal chain, such that they now appear to be a side-effect rather than cause of physical action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-08-23T20:36:29.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10984" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-23T22:19:50.183" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;Love is a common topic in literature, drama and music. People talk about loving people, being 'in love', falling out of love etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think often in common usage people aren't necessarily referring to the same thing, and often people say 'You have to have been in love to know what it is'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is - is the topic of 'love' studied in cognitive sciences - and if so, what is it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-23T22:28:08.027" LastActivityDate="2015-08-23T22:28:08.027" Title="What is commonly known as 'love'?" Tags="&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-08-24T07:46:15.243" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10985" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10989" CreationDate="2015-08-23T22:53:21.297" Score="7" ViewCount="273" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wondered, whether it is efficient to &lt;strong&gt;think&lt;/strong&gt; with language (of course it's efficient for communication). When I'm thinking with long words, it takes longer than thinking with short words. Maybe thinking without words would be even faster?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, do babies, who didn't learn think faster because they don't immediately try to find words for their thoughts to tell someone about them? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, when we see &lt;code&gt;1 + 1 = 2&lt;/code&gt;, we think of every symbol as a&#xA;  word &lt;code&gt;one plus one equals two&lt;/code&gt;. I assume, someone, who lacks language(Babies for example), would think of this without these words, but instead with emotions(maybe). See the note at the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In our everyday life, we almost always need to talk to others about our thoughts. This leads to us thinking with these words instead of just thinking and then finding words for it. It's like writing a manuscript just from front to end instead of first brainstorming and collecting ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Main question:&lt;/strong&gt; Is it possible to think in a two-step process(and would it be more efficient)? First, thinking with &lt;code&gt;emotions&lt;/code&gt;(or whatever you want to call it) and then finding &lt;code&gt;words&lt;/code&gt; for that to spread your idea?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Note: I think the &quot;Problem&quot; here, is that, when we think of something, we simulate saying its name in our brain, to be prepared for a real conversation. Right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9154" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-22T19:45:08.130" LastActivityDate="2019-01-22T19:45:08.130" Title="Is thinking with language efficient?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10987" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-23T23:33:49.707" Score="7" ViewCount="302" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently conducted an experiment recording EEG during an eyes open mindfulness meditation. I saw a substantial amount of alpha bursts throughout the meditation both in the occipital and frontal regions of the brain. Is anyone aware of any research that demonstrates high alpha waves during eyes open relaxation, focus or mindfulness training?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9155" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-02T02:40:19.827" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T02:40:19.827" Title="EEG Alpha waves during eyes open mindfulness training - any research on this subject" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10988" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-24T03:42:10.867" Score="3" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I've come across on the web, most models of single neurons seem to focus on the &quot;fast timescale&quot;, where electrical signals are transmitted from one neuron to another. However, neurons are also cells, with all the associated complexity that cells bring: from gene expression to biochemical reactions happening in response to these electrical signals, albeit on a slower timescale. Are there any single neuron models that attempt to integrate these various timescales?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm mainly interested in knowing about more realistic abstractions of neurons than those used in Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and so on. A key assumption I'm making is that neurons, being a type of cell, would have biochemical processes going on on a slower timescale that would modulate their 'spiking' behavior over time. Please correct me if this assumption is wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4424" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-08-24T13:25:36.210" LastActivityDate="2015-08-24T13:25:36.210" Title="Are there models of single neurons on slow timescales?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10985" CreationDate="2015-08-24T03:58:31.240" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt; We do think with 'both', and there is evidence to suggest that we need some sort of conscious representation of our thoughts in order to reason about our surroundings. Emotion itself is not enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Longer answer&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We do think with our emotional reactions, and we also think with words. When we think with emotions, these are our 'instincts' kicking in. We rely on our emotional ('gut') reactions to tell us when something or someone is dangerous, for example. The instinctual drive is certainly a very valuable thing, and it would be awfully hard to survive without it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is thinking 'with words' inefficient? Maybe if an emotional reaction was all you needed in that moment. There are situations -- certain social interactions, for example -- that don't necessitate thinking 'with words'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, you can't throw out language entirely. The field of artificial intelligence relies on the fact that the brain can think with words (and, thus, consciously reason its way through situations). The idea of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism&quot;&gt;Connectionism&lt;/a&gt; in artificial intelligence research relies on the idea that mental states are representational, and thus can be used computationally. In fact, 'neural networks' can be viewed as thinking machines, and most (if not all) research done with neural networks relies on the property that they can &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; with some sort of representation, language or otherwise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why would this be important? One idea is that you need language to make 'connections' (or associations) in your brain between abstract objects. This idea is obviously pretty central to connectionism, given its name. With a storehouse of existing connections, you can modify the 'weight' of these connections upon receiving new input (i.e. new information). In non-technical terms, this means that you can learn more advanced topics, change existing beliefs, and use existing definitions to create newer, more complex ones -- all through human reasoning with conscious representations in the form of language. &lt;strong&gt;Thus, language allows us to track the progression of a thought long enough to make a conclusion.&lt;/strong&gt; If you rely on simply the feeling you get when you see, hear, or remember something, it doesn't do much to increase your ability to &lt;em&gt;reason&lt;/em&gt; about that thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, since artificial intelligence focuses almost exclusively on cognition and human reasoning, we could probably look at its shortcomings in order to see where non-representational (i.e. unconscious, perhaps 'emotional') reasoning is a more efficient approach. One obvious problem is that machines can't recognize facial expressions or social context. While you and I could probably recognize a crying face without putting much thought into it, a machine would have to reason through a storehouse of representations (in this case, images of faces instead of words) in order to find the one that represents 'crying'. It would then have to compare this face to the face before it to determine how to comfort it. Even then, it would have to reason through a storehouse of 'comforting' sentences...and you get the idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You mention that babies learn faster. This is largely due to the fact that babies are more sensitive to novelty in the environment (see: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_period&quot;&gt;critical period&lt;/a&gt;). This has been demonstrated through studies that show that infants will look longer at a novel stimulus than a familiar stimulus [1]. Given that there is less 'familiarity' in the world of a baby, their attention is more easily captured. There is certainly more to it than that, but there isn't a lot of consensus. We do know, however, that a 'critical period' seems to exist. You might be interested in &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1973.tb00097.x/abstract&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, which spends some time discussing the progress of a young girl who had lived in isolation and thus had not developed a first language until age eleven. Though she made steady progress, the pace at which she acquired language was much, much slower than that of an infant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, you mention that word length may put a damper on the efficiency of your thought processes. Bear in mind that every language is different. If you were reasoning in Chinese, for instance, your words would be much shorter, and you could arguably think more 'thoughts' in less time (the Chinese language lacks inflection, for instance). However, longer words can also provide more room for specificity. Many modern day concepts (the concept of 'intuition', for example) came directly from German, a language notorious for its long words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources used:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Turk-Browne, Nicholas B., Brian J. Scholl, and Marvin M. Chun. “Babies and Brains: Habituation in Infant Cognition and Functional Neuroimaging.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2 (2008): 16. PMC. Web. 24 Aug. 2015.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-24T03:58:31.240" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10990" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10988" CreationDate="2015-08-24T04:54:22.933" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given that neurons operate by means of signal transmission and not on distinctive 'slow' or 'fast' timescales, I'm assuming that you are looking for abstract models of neurons that are more 'realistic' than the time-independent artificial representations most often used in neural networks, but correct me if I'm wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are neuron models that attempt to mimic the biological processes of the neuron, and there are also abstract models of neurons that attempt to work in imperfect or specific conditions (i.e. in response to individual neurotransmitters, as demonstrated during synaptic transmission). These models usually take into account the action potentials (spikes) and refractory periods of real neurons, and thus these models are also known as 'spiking neuron models'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dis.uniroma1.it/~gori/Sito_GG/Modellistica_files/2003%20Net.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is one model&lt;/a&gt; of a spiking neuron, which attempts to imitate authentic spiking as observed in cortical neurons. This model incorporates &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hodgkin-Huxley-type-dynamics&lt;/a&gt; with integrate-and-fire-type properties. Integrate-and-fire is another popular model of neuron (probably the earliest model -- it was invented back in the early 1900s). It is represented as 'the membrane potential of a neuron in terms of the synaptic inputs and the injected current that it receives' (read more &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/7157048_A_Review_of_the_Integrate-and-fire_Neuron_Model_I._Homogeneous_Synaptic_Input&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By extension, you might find &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiking_neural_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;spiking neural networks&lt;/a&gt; interesting. Unlike artificial neural networks, SNNs incorporate time, and neuronal and synaptic states into their model, thus increasing biological accuracy. You might also be interested in &lt;a href=&quot;http://homepages.cwi.nl/~sbohte/publication/paugam_moisy_bohte_SNNChapter.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, which focuses exclusively on computing with spiking neural networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-24T04:54:22.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10992" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-24T05:27:11.560" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;Main Question:&#xA;Does mastering a foreign language strengthen the pre-frontal cortex?&#xA;I remember taking a Cognition class, that claimed mastering a foreign language improves the brains higher functioning ability, and stimulates the pre-frontal cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for your time,&#xA;David L Blass.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9075" LastEditorUserId="9075" LastEditDate="2016-03-04T18:51:42.513" LastActivityDate="2016-03-04T18:51:42.513" Title="Does mastering a foreign language strengthen the pre-frontal cortex?" Tags="&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-08-24T16:10:32.813" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10993" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="10996" CreationDate="2015-08-24T12:50:52.963" Score="7" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think my question is a little tricky to express, but I have observed this kind of behaviour pattern many times, and would like to know if it is coined in cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, consider an employer who has problems with time management - he is often late and even misses appointments.  None of his employees have this kind of problem - his team is well functioning.  However, the employer forces his team to use time tracking systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example: A person with a drinking problem tries to manipulate her friends and family to completely avoid bars, parties, and clubs, because these are the places where people tend to abuse alcohol.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The pattern I see is that a person is unable to deal with a particular personal problem, and instead obsessively tries to make sure that others don't get anywhere near that same problem.  The measures to achieve this protection are often not rational and exaggerated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that at a healthy level, the described behaviour can be beneficial.  For example if I experience a very painful situation and have an opportunity to teach others how they could avoid that experience, then I would vigorously do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I wonder if there is a term that describes when this behaviour is irrationally applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9157" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-04-12T05:25:35.193" LastActivityDate="2021-04-12T05:25:35.193" Title="Term for behaviour of transfering personal problems to other people and trying to solve them there?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10994" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10988" CreationDate="2015-08-24T13:24:47.090" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The search for a biologically realistic neural network is never ending. As Sydney mentioned there are many newer models of neurons that take into account activity over larger time-scales, such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/Ch6.S1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Adaptive Leaky-Intergrate-Fire neuron&lt;/a&gt;. The bleeding edge of this search is &lt;a href=&quot;http://bluebrain.epfl.ch/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the Blue Brain Project&lt;/a&gt;, which is trying to create the most biologically detailed model of the brain possible. The project should be a good resource if you're interested in the more advanced models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since you're interested in Artificial Neural Networks (which implies you're also interested in computation power), I would like to point out that the Neural Engineering Framework allows you to use &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9128/benefits-of-using-more-complicated-neuron-models-in-nef-models/9131#9131&quot;&gt;as detailed of a model of neuron as desired&lt;/a&gt; on a realistic time-scale, while still allowing you to compute and learn arbitrary functions as a typical ANN allows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-08-24T13:24:47.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10995" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11033" CreationDate="2015-08-24T14:43:16.393" Score="2" ViewCount="635" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for correlations for any Big 5 traits with obedience.&#xA;Are there any research reports on this, &lt;strong&gt;available for me to read&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2015-08-31T07:43:08.807" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T04:48:56.227" Title="How does obedience correlate with the Big 5 factors of personality?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;&lt;obedience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10996" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10993" CreationDate="2015-08-24T16:17:46.387" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a couple of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defence mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; that may fit the bill.  Keep in mind that these defence mechanisms typically involve an unconscious denial of the problem - ie, they apply to people who don't admit to the problem in themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Projection&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... a theory in psychology in which humans defend themselves against&#xA;unpleasant impulses by denying their existence in themselves, while&#xA;attributing them to others. For example, a person who is rude may&#xA;constantly accuse other people of being rude.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone with a time management problem may constantly focus on and accuse others of being late, while someone with a drinking problem may imply that others around them have this problem rather than themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_formation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reaction formation&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... a defensive process (defense mechanism) in which emotions and&#xA;impulses which are anxiety-producing or perceived to be unacceptable&#xA;are mastered by exaggeration (hypertrophy) of the directly opposing&#xA;tendency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone with a time management problem may actively promote the importance of punctuality and time tracking, while someone with a drinking problem may act as a spokesperson for the virtues of abstinence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the construct of defence mechanisms in general is outdated and has largely been superseded by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-04-12T05:13:11.930" LastActivityDate="2021-04-12T05:13:11.930" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="10997" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10993" CreationDate="2015-08-24T16:36:04.030" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might be looking at cases of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychological projection&lt;/a&gt;, which is a method of denial in which people defend themselves from their own negative impulses by attributing them to others. In accordance with the theory, it is less a problem of 'defending' others from getting anywhere near the problem, and more an act of projecting the problem onto others, or assuming that they have the problem, too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False-consensus_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;false-consensus effect&lt;/a&gt;, in which people overestimate the degree to which others share their beliefs. This is usually accompanied by the &quot;projection&quot; of personality traits (including negative traits) onto others. Adding on to this theory is the idea that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_suppression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;thought suppression&lt;/a&gt; leads to an increased saliency of the particular thought, thus making it more readily accessible when viewing others. In other words, one who tries to suppress a perceived negative trait or impulse might unconsciously seek it in others, considering that thoughts of the impulse are made more accessible by repeated attempts to repress them. (see Newman, Duff, and Baumeister (1997)).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-24T16:36:04.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10998" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11001" CreationDate="2015-08-24T17:09:09.140" Score="3" ViewCount="792" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does music affect walking speed and attitude? What will be the effects of different pitch and tempo of music on a person's walking behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9159" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-25T00:29:30.973" LastActivityDate="2015-08-25T00:29:30.973" Title="What is the effect of listening to music on walking?" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="10999" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8089" CreationDate="2015-08-24T17:15:06.560" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Might &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;apophenia&lt;/a&gt; be the term you are looking for?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The term is attributed to Klaus Conrad by Peter Brugger, who defined it as the &quot;unmotivated seeing of connections&quot; accompanied by a &quot;specific experience of an abnormal meaningfulness&quot;. Apophenia has come to imply a universal human tendency to seek patterns in random information, such as gambling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, as mentioned somewhere above, it is commonly found in patients with schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-24T17:15:06.560" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11000" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-24T18:00:47.567" Score="4" ViewCount="903" Body="&lt;p&gt;A rather basic question, but I don't see answer in Google, so here it goes: Humans have thoughts, sometimes these thoughts carry with them motivations to act, urges, cravings, etc. All these can make a person start moving to accomplish something. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example: &quot;I'm rather bored, I think I will go get a snack&quot;. What&#xA;  happens the moment I cross the threshold from thinking to actually&#xA;  getting up to get a snack?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens the moment the person starts to act based on a thought? &lt;strong&gt;Where in the human brain does a thought trigger action?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt; In response to an answer suggesting that in many cases action comes first and rationalization for action comes second:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The kind of action that I'm talking about comes after a longer period deliberation, where the current state is being weighted against the benefit of the action to take.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example in the situations below, a person can deliberate for minutes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A person is in bed and is very close to sleep, being comfortable and relaxed. Loud noises from the outside disturb the person's attempt to fall asleep. In this case the person can experience conflict between staying in bed (comfortable but disturbed) or going to find earplugs / shut the windows (uncomfortable, but potentially lessening the disturbance)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A person is trying to meditate, thus relaxing the body and unfocusing the mind. An itch on the foot is disturbing the meditation. Such person can either continue the current state while ignoring the discomfort or scratch the itch and potentially lose the meditative state.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the examples above, two conflicting courses of action are evaluated by the brain. Due to the ongoing discomfort, it is possible to stay in this state of &quot;almost making a decision&quot; for quite some time.  At a certain point the scale can tip into taking action to resolve the discomfort. &lt;strong&gt;What is it that causes the person to take action as opposed to inaction?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-08-26T17:47:16.777" LastActivityDate="2019-08-29T07:40:15.147" Title="Where does action based on thought originate within the human brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10998" CreationDate="2015-08-24T18:16:00.613" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research suggests that endurance is improved when movements are synchronized with a musical beat. [1] This research also supports the idea that music has 'motivational' qualities that may enhance performance. One study measured the pace and attitudes of participants running on a treadmill. The control conditions included: 1) no music ('acoustic stimuli'), 2) a metronome condition (a sequence of beeps matching the tempo of the participant, but nothing else), and 3) synchronous motivational music matched to participants' running tempo. From the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The beat of the stimuli -which was most salient during the metronome condition- helped runners to maintain a consistent pace by coupling cadence to the prescribed tempo. Thus, acoustic stimuli may have enhanced running performance because runners worked harder as a result of motivational aspects (most pronounced with motivational music) and more efficiently as a result of auditory-motor synchronization (most notable with metronome beeps). These findings imply that running to motivational music with a very prominent and consistent beat matched to the runner's cadence will likely yield optimal effects because it helps to elevate physiological effort at a high perceived exertion, whereas the consistent and correct cadence induced by auditory-motor synchronization helps to optimize running economy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another study [2] measured oxygen consumption with synchronous, fast-tempo asynchronous, and slow-tempo asynchronous music. They found that the physiological effects of exercising with synchronous music was the most effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You mention walking in your question, and while walking is less an exercise than running or more rigorous physical activity, the results from both studies would suggest that people tend to respond 'best' to synchronicity between their movements and the music that they are listening to. Thus, humans have a natural tendency to match their steps to the tempo of this music. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unsurprisingly, people also tend to move more energetically in response to louder, more aggressive music, and move less energetically to gentler, softer music. This is true regardless of the tempo of the music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources used:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Bood, Robert Jan et al. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23951000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;“The Power of Auditory-Motor Synchronization in Sports: Enhancing Running Performance by Coupling Cadence with the Right Beats.”&lt;/a&gt; Ed. Ramesh Balasubramaniam. PLoS ONE 8.8 (2013): e70758. PMC. Web. 24 Aug. 2015.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22828457&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Effect of music-movement synchrony on exercise oxygen consumption.&lt;/a&gt; C. J. Bacon, T. R. Myers, C. I. Karageorghis. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2012 August; 52(4): 359–365.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-24T18:16:00.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11002" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11000" CreationDate="2015-08-24T19:25:53.017" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many areas of the brain that are associated with planning complex behavior. This is because planning and executing are mediated by the brain's capacity for executive functioning, and EF is further associated with many areas of the brain -- in this case, the the frontal lobes, the prefrontal cortex, the caudate nucleus, and the putamen all seem to play a role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What typically happens is that a thought is formed ('I'm hungry, I want a cookie', etc.), and then potential actions are envisioned and evaluated for their predicted effect, in line with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_coding_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;common coding theory&lt;/a&gt; of the relationship between perception and action. &lt;strong&gt;From a functional standpoint, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudate_nucleus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;caudate nucleus&lt;/a&gt; selects the appropriate action based on an evaluation of the outcome of the action.&lt;/strong&gt; [1] [2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more complex the task, the more cognitive strategies you may need to use, and these are mediated by your executive functioning ability. Cognitive shifting or task switching, information updating and monitoring (&quot;updating&quot;), and inhibition (or the 'tuning out' of irrelevant stimuli) all play a role in planning and executing complex tasks, or sequences of behavior. [3] For example, the ability to act in momentarily unpleasant yet beneficial ways (i.e. going to the gym) requires cognitive inhibition of more immediately gratifying, yet irrelevant stimuli (i.e. sitting on the couch, eating pleasurable food). For tasks of this nature, the frontal lobe plays a greater role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certain neurotransmitters also play a role in your ability to stay focused and dedicated to a task. Dopamine in particular is responsible for motivation (including the motivation to act), and norepinephrine is responsible for vigilance of attention, thus increasing the likelihood that an action will be performed and completed successfully. With a reduction in these neurotransmitters, you may demonstrate &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentional_shift&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;attentional shifts&lt;/a&gt;. Long-term, uncontrollable shifts in attention are often representative of an underlying disorder, such as attention-deficit disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources used:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Grahn, Jessica; John A. Parkinson; Adrian M. Owen (12 April 2009). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016643280800630X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The role of the basal ganglia in learning and memory: Neuropsychological studies&quot;.&lt;/a&gt; Behavioral Brain Research 199 (1): 53–60.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Oury Monchi, Michael Petrides, Antonio P. Strafella, Keith J. Worsley, Julien Doyon (Feb. 2006). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16437582&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Functional role of the basal ganglia in the planning and execution of actions.&lt;/a&gt; Ann Neurol. 59(2): 257–264.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3]  Miyake A1, Friedman NP, Emerson MJ, Witzki AH, Howerter A, Wager TD. (Aug. 2000) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10945922&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: a latent variable analysis.&lt;/a&gt; Cogn Psychol. 41(1):49-100.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-08-26T17:20:02.497" LastActivityDate="2015-08-26T17:20:02.497" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11003" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11000" CreationDate="2015-08-24T23:42:41.707" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;All actions a person might take are ultimately a matter of using one's &lt;em&gt;muscles&lt;/em&gt;. So in that sense, your question --&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What happens the moment the person starts to act based on a thought? &lt;strong&gt;Where in the human brain does a thought trigger action?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--probably ought to point us most to the &lt;strong&gt;motor cortex&lt;/strong&gt;, since this area in the brain is most directly responsible for planning and &quot;commanding&quot; the patterns of activity of the muscles of the body as part of thought-driven (that, is conscious and willed) actions, though by use of neurons in subordinate areas of the nervous system, like the brain stem or the spinal cord, which then &lt;em&gt;directly&lt;/em&gt; stimulate the target muscles to contract so as to produce the action. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, just prior to actually moving as part of the conscious action (speaking, moving one's arm, etc.), there will be a change of activity of the neurons of the motor cortex that is ultimately responsible for those movements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-27T01:35:50.490" LastActivityDate="2015-08-27T01:35:50.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11004" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10961" CreationDate="2015-08-25T01:30:31.427" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychophysiology is totally outside of my wheelhouse, but here it goes…&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those feelings in your chest, face, arms, etc. aren't an illusion.  Indeed, it's long been argued that physiological arousal (in your body) is a core component of emotional experience (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://vm-prod-moodle.paris-sorbonne.fr/pluginfile.php/284911/mod_resource/content/1/james.pdf&quot;&gt;James, 1884&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/Russell1980.pdf&quot;&gt;Russell, 1980&lt;/a&gt;)--alongside feelings of pleasure and displeasure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, that you have interoceptive awareness (i.e., awareness of your internal physiological sensations; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v3/n8/full/nrn894.html&quot;&gt;Craig, 2002&lt;/a&gt;) is absolutely critical for your experience of emotions (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.411.3877&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot;&gt;Craig, 2004&lt;/a&gt;).  For example, damage to the anterior insula (thought to underlie interoception) impairs the experience, recognition, and regulation of disgust (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n11/full/nn1100_1077.html&quot;&gt;Calder et al., 2000&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biologicalpsychiatryjournal.com/article/S0006-3223(15)00090-6/abstract&quot;&gt;Woolley et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, disgust experience is consistently associated with increased activation of the anterior insula (&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0140525X11000446&quot;&gt;Lindquist et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;). This highly consistent relationship reflects the nature of disgust:  It often involves some potent internal sensation, e.g., a pain in your stomach, a bad odor up your nose, a bad taste in your mouth, and so on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can go through the list of emotions and potentially find some consistent and specific psychophysiological profiles (e.g., fear/anxiety involving an increased heart rate, sadness involving a lower temperature), but this has never been successful (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301051113002603&quot;&gt;Quigley &amp;amp; Barrett, 2014&lt;/a&gt;). There seems to be a lot of variability in physiological activity across individuals, contexts, and time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How activity in the body and the central nervous system interact is pretty complicated (intimidatingly so). But there are lots of psychophysiology guides out there (notably by &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=xmzAolEAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot;&gt;Cacioppo&lt;/a&gt;), and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301051113002603&quot;&gt;Quigley and Barrett (2014)&lt;/a&gt; do a good job of summarizing some things. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-08-25T01:30:31.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11006" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-25T08:39:44.760" Score="4" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering about the origin of statistics' usage in psychology. Psychology was rooted in philosophy. At that time there were no experiments and analysing the data, but I guess that there must be the very first time when someone came up with the idea to use statistics in the analysis. (and that's my question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4874" LastActivityDate="2015-08-26T15:33:57.793" Title="When was statistics used in psychology research first?" Tags="&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11008" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11017" CreationDate="2015-08-25T11:25:36.373" Score="4" ViewCount="2012" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20101116162319AAWfFhX&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Yahoo Answers&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, I know that psychiatrists can prescribe medicine and&#xA;  psychologists CAN'T, but are there any things that clinical&#xA;  psychologists are specialised in that psychiatrists aren't? If not,&#xA;  then &lt;strong&gt;why do we have psychologists and not just psychiatrists&lt;/strong&gt;? Sorry if&#xA;  it sounds like a stupid question, I'm just a little confused lol.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it correct to say that people who don't or might not need drugs for their problems would go to psychologists instead psychiatrists because it is significantly cheaper?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's an answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;they are also able to provide meditation and breathing techniques for&#xA;  things such as panic attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So psychiatrists can't do that? The only thing I can see psychologists doing outside the academia is being a cheaper alternative to a psychiatrist. If clinical psychologists (is that the same as non-academic psychologists?) charged the same as psychiatrists, why doesn't everyone go to psychiatrists?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastActivityDate="2017-09-19T00:07:53.163" Title="What can clinical psychologists do that psychiatrists can't do?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11009" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="29" CreationDate="2015-08-25T11:49:04.317" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would also add this paper, which includes a critical discussion of the concept and proposes a working-definition for gamification in educational settings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;R. Rughinis, 2013, Gamification for productive interaction: Reading and working with the gamification debate in education&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.academia.edu/5758624/Gamification_for_Productive_Interaction._Reading_and_Working_with_the_Gamification_Debate_in_Education&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.academia.edu/5758624/Gamification_for_Productive_Interaction._Reading_and_Working_with_the_Gamification_Debate_in_Education&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9164" LastActivityDate="2015-08-25T11:49:04.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11011" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10940" CreationDate="2015-08-25T13:28:13.877" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is sometimes called the &quot;mirror imaging&quot; bias -- imagining or assuming that other people mirror your own thoughts / beliefs / desires / intentions.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The classic reference is Heuer's &lt;em&gt;Psychology of Intelligence Analysis&lt;/em&gt;,now available from the CIA website. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/psychology-of-intelligence-analysis/art9.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chapter 6&lt;/a&gt;. Scroll down to &quot;Be wary of mirror images&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is mentioned on the stub Wikipedia page &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_traps_for_intelligence_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive Traps for Intelligence Analysts&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Curiously it is absent from the extensive Wikipedia &quot;List of Cognitive Biases&quot; (but I lack sufficient karma to post a third link).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="483" LastEditorUserId="483" LastEditDate="2016-01-22T16:11:43.097" LastActivityDate="2016-01-22T16:11:43.097" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11012" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-25T13:43:47.150" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I noticed this whilst lying on the floor to stretch my back and the TV happened to be on. People look like they're walking in a very unnatural way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1209" LastActivityDate="2015-08-25T13:43:47.150" Title="Why does video footage of walking look unnatural when viewed upside down?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-08-30T10:41:30.667" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11013" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-25T14:33:44.443" Score="9" ViewCount="188" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studies with rats have shown that how much a pup is licked during their early childhood predicts their adult personality &lt;a href=&quot;http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/rats/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/a&gt;. Also, many psychologists say that early childhood is the part of our lives where our personality is formed &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/a&gt;. However, recent evidence suggests that childhood memories are actively removed, to be replaced with new ones &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/344/6184/598&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/a&gt;. So how can childhood affect us so much?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-03-26T16:48:04.253" LastActivityDate="2017-03-26T16:48:04.253" Title="How can we be formed by our childhood's environment if we don't remember much of it?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;neurogenesis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11014" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-25T15:34:45.200" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an episode in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_(House)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dr. House series&lt;/a&gt; in which there is a passager on board of an airplane and he starts to contract some symptoms and Cuddy tells him that it's meningococcal disease. Later in the plot, it's discovered that the passenger's disease is not meningitis and it's noticed that the crew is suffeting &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_hysteria&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mass hysteria&lt;/a&gt;. The reaction of this Hysteria on Cuddy develops with her having exactly the symptoms of meningococcal disease. I got curious with this: Is it possible to have people to develop &quot;true&quot; symptoms on some occasion of mass hysteria?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also an episode in another series in which people start to feel sick and the psychologist says that perhaps people is not sick and that this could be only the power of suggestion. That it, people could be feeling sick because they think they are (in the context of the series).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastActivityDate="2015-08-25T15:34:45.200" Title="Could hysteria make people develop true symptoms of some disease without actually being sick of that disease?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-02T19:46:41.657" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11015" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-25T16:15:50.323" Score="2" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are humans biologically wired to lie? It seems that people create morals and decree that lying is bad. Yet everyone has lied before. Why is this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9166" LastEditorUserId="8248" LastEditDate="2015-08-25T17:36:48.970" LastActivityDate="2015-10-24T19:18:19.260" Title="Are humans biologically wired to lie?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11016" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-25T16:22:36.523" Score="4" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have been running an experiment trying to collect ABR data using the Brainvision EP-PreAmp and Actichamp system. We ran several successful tests with short versions of our experiment, about 10-15 minutes of recording. We were able to process the data in eeglab and saw the components we were expecting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have recently been running our full experiment, recording for about 45-50 minutes. The files are necessarily much bigger. The test .eeg files were ~150mb and the full .eeg files are ~550mb. All of our Brainvision equipment seems to working (amps, batteries, electrodes), and we are able to get our impedances low before recording. However, when we import the vhdr files into eeglab, it looks like there's no data there. We are thinking this might be an eeglab problem - perhaps the file is too large and something's getting lost in the import?  Any advice would be greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9167" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-08-25T23:58:14.207" LastActivityDate="2015-08-25T23:58:14.207" Title="EEG data processing: large data file seems empty" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11017" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11008" CreationDate="2015-08-25T17:00:58.840" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt; is that psychiatrists are medical doctors and (more often than not) medical researchers, and thus psychiatrists themselves often do not practice psychotherapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychiatrists&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychiatrists are &lt;em&gt;physicians&lt;/em&gt;, which means they have received a medical degree (M.D.) and have completed medical training, along with an additional four-year residency in psychiatry. Some psychiatrists pursue additional fellowship training after their residency. Thus, it takes at least twelve years of practice to become a psychiatrist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychiatrists are legally allowed to prescribe psychotropic medications to patients. This is because they are medically trained to do so, having completed a medical degree and medical training. A large portion of this medical training is dedicated to learning how psychotropic medications work in the brain and in the body, particularly in those of patients with mental illnesses. For this reason, psychiatrists are generally more aware of the physical symptoms of illness (much like a doctor would be) as well as the mental symptoms, and thus must make an informed evaluation to determine whether the patients' symptoms are due to physical or mental factors (or both).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though psychiatrists can perform psychotherapy, the vast majority are purely medical researchers. A psychiatrist may thus refer a patient to a clinical psychologist or a specifically-trained therapist for their individual psychotherapy needs. A physician or psychiatrist (both trained in psychopharmacology by definition) who both practices psychotherapy and prescribes psychoactive medication may refer to themselves as a &quot;psychopharmacologist&quot;, though this is more of a distinction than a formal occupation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Clinical psychologists&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clinical psychologists are PhDs who have received several years of graduate training in the science and theory of psychology-based dysfunction and mental illness. They do not receive medical training, but they do undergo 2-4 years of supervised clinical practice before they are licensed as clinical psychologists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A clinical psychologist's job description is a bit more broad than that of a psychiatrist. While many provide psychotherapy to patients suffering from mental illness, other clinical psychologists may opt to teach, administer psychological testing, conduct research, work with administrators, develop treatment and prevention programs, or work as psychological consultants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though there is very little that a clinical psychologist can do that a psychiatrist simply &lt;em&gt;can't&lt;/em&gt; do, a clinical psychologist is trained in mental health and well-being first and foremost, and thus is typically called on to perform tasks related to mental health (such as psychotherapy or psychometric testing). The difference may be comparable to that of a professor versus a teacher. Though the professor typically undergoes more training, they split their focus between their research and their students (and may prioritize research first), whereas high school teachers are often teachers through-and-through, and thus their primary focus is on the students. Thus the teacher role is a bit more interpersonal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-25T17:00:58.840" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11018" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11015" CreationDate="2015-08-25T17:35:12.203" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Young children often learn how to lie before they have truly developed a sense for what it is, or why it may be unethical. This is demonstrated by the propensity for children to tell exaggerated and implausible lies, as young children may not yet have a sense of social cognition (or 'theory of mind'), and thus do not yet understand what others may find believable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A child who examines another adult lying will understand that the adult is not telling the truth, but will see that the achieved effect is often in favor of the liar. Thus they will learn that disguising the truth can achieve a certain (often favorable) result. Like all negative behavior, if the child learns that lying has more negative consequences than positive ones, they will be less quick to demonstrate the behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite recognizing it as an unethical behavior, people may still choose to lie out of fear, or to defend from the consequences of truth telling. Lying can also be a pro-social attitude to spare the feelings of another, thus avoiding conflict and preserving civility in human relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a neurobiological standpoint, there may be parts of the brain that influence the decision to lie. One study showed that pathological liars had increased white matter volumes in certain regions (namely the orbitofrontal, inferior frontal, and middle frontal cortices). [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources used&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Yang, Y., Raine, A., Narr, K., Lencz, T., LaCasse, L. Colleti, P., Toga, A. (February 2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2376803/pdf/nihms46904.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Localisation of increased prefrontal white matter in pathological liars.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 174–175.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-25T17:35:12.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11019" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4632" CreationDate="2015-08-25T21:47:50.430" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the most commonly used term for this is &lt;strong&gt;the curse of knowledge&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On p1233 of Camerer et al (1989) it's defined as the phenomenon whereby&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;In predicting the judgments of others, agents are unable to ignore&#xA;  the additional information they possess.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to be the first time this term was used in print, although the authors state that the term was suggested to them by Robin Hogarth. Since 1989 the term seems to be increasingly used in contexts beyond &quot;predicting the judgments of others&quot;, as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge&lt;/a&gt; indicates. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Camerer, C., Loewenstein, G., &amp;amp; Weber, M. (1989). The curse of knowledge in economic settings: An experimental analysis. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Political Economy&lt;/em&gt;, 1232-1254.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastActivityDate="2015-08-25T21:47:50.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11020" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8944" CreationDate="2015-08-26T04:35:26.600" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;: Processing speed is linked to executive functioning (EF) ability as well as specific, individual abilities (verbal, spatial, etc.), whereas generalized inspection time (IT) and reaction time (RT) to simple stimuli is more representative of general intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Detailed answer&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;There are several factors that go into intelligence. Three specific, measurable paradigms are &lt;strong&gt;reaction time (RT)&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;inspection time (IT)&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;strong&gt;speed of processing&lt;/strong&gt;. Reaction time refers to the ability to respond to simple, familiar stimuli, and inspection time refers to the ability to identify a familiar stimulus. For example, if you are asked to press the space bar when you see a letter on the screen, your IT is being measured (time it takes to recognize the letter) as well as your RT (time it takes to press the space bar). Speed of processing is related to your ability to quickly perform familiarized or over-learned tasks, particularly when high mental efficiency is required. &lt;strong&gt;The difference&lt;/strong&gt;: With RT and IT, you are asked to perform simple tasks that require little 'effort', yet they are (presumably) not tasks that are familiar to you. Speed of processing comes into play when you are asked to perform over-learned tasks that require more mental effort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though speed of processing has always been linked to intelligence in some form, it is now believed that RT and IT are related to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;general intelligence&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, whereas &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;specific abilities&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g. verbal abilities, spatial abilities) are moreso related to processing speed than to general intelligence. [1].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Speed of processing is often linked to &lt;strong&gt;working memory capacity&lt;/strong&gt;. [2] This is demonstrated in those with certain learning disorders (such as ADHD), who often have working memory deficits and thus often process information slowly, regardless of IQ. Studies have also found that removing a time limit on testing removes the problems associated with dysfunctional working memory (such as lapses in attention). Thus it can be said that speed of processing is greater linked to &lt;strong&gt;executive functioning ability&lt;/strong&gt; (which is a higher set of cognitive processes that working memory is a part of). [3]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the answer to your question is that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;speed of processing&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is representative of &lt;em&gt;specific abilities&lt;/em&gt; insofar as one's working memory capacity (and, by proxy, general executive functioning ability) is not dysfunctional, whereas the time it takes to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;identify and respond&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; to a simple situation is linked to general intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your particular instance, you were asked to answer an unfamiliar question with a non-trivial answer. Thus, it was &lt;em&gt;speed of processing&lt;/em&gt; that was at play here, more closely linked to ability or knowledge of the topic at hand than general intelligence. The method in which the knowledge was acquired may have to do with intelligence, but there is too little context (and evidence) to support this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources used&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289611000869&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Placing inspection time, reaction time, and perceptual speed in the broader context of cognitive ability&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW (December 2003). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/abstract/S1364-6613(03)00283-3?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1364661303002833%3Fshowall%3Dtrue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7 (12): 547–52.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1348/026151001166128/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 19 (3): 325–337.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-26T04:35:26.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11021" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11013" CreationDate="2015-08-26T09:56:28.040" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;It all comes down to the type of memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_amnesia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Infantile amnesia&lt;/a&gt; is largely associated with the loss of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;episodic memory&lt;/a&gt;, a type of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;explicit memory&lt;/a&gt; that can be consciously recalled (eg, remembering a past event).  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Implicit memory&lt;/a&gt;, such as learned skills (eg, remembering how to tie your shoes), the learned part of personality, and priming associations, are largely unaffected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though the reasons for infantile amnesia are not well understood, it has some similarity to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrograde_amnesia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;retrograde amnesia&lt;/a&gt;, that also affects mostly episodic memory, but not implicit memory (so again, you lose memories of past events, but not your personality).  The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;hippocampus&lt;/a&gt;, an area of the brain associated with memory consolidation, is an important factor in both types of amnesia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: The first article you link to is about genetics, or specifically &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;epigenetics&lt;/a&gt;, that is to do with gene expression.  This is a completely different factor that is also immune to amnesia since it is not related to memory, and so far it is only implicated in a very few traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-08-26T09:56:28.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11024" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8940" CreationDate="2015-08-26T14:29:53.547" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A good primer on the psychological effects of mimicry is the review by Chartrand and Lakin (2013), who define mimicry as &quot;the automatic imitation of gestures, postures, mannerisms, and other motor movements&quot; (also see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/10928&quot;&gt;this earlier question&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They cite several findings suggesting that &lt;strong&gt;mimicry indeed contributes to positive relationships between people&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, people being mimicked become more prosocial to the mimicker, as expressed in increased liking, empathy, helping behavior, and felt closeness. Chartrand and Lakin describe mimicry as a kind of &quot;social glue&quot; bringing people together. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically with regard to your question, several studies are in line with the idea that &lt;strong&gt;mimicry increases trust&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, as per Chartrand and Lakin (2013):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Van Swol (2003) had a confederate, while trying to change the participant’s opinion on a topic, imitate his or her behaviors (or&#xA;  not). Later, participants reported that they perceived the mimicking confederate as more knowledgeable and persuasive, even though&#xA;  they did not ultimately change their opinion on the topics. In a twist on this, Bailenson &amp;amp; Yee (2005) found that participants liked a computer avatar that mimicked their head movements more than one that didn’t, and&#xA;  were more persuaded by its arguments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also cite studies that measured trust specifically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Trusting behaviors tend to increase after a person has been mimicked. For example, mimicked participants seem more willing than those who were not mimicked to divulge personal information to strangers, even when that&#xA;  information could be embarrassing (Gueguen et al. 2012). According to Maddux et al. (2008), mimicry also smoothes the progress of negotiations. They instructed negotiators to either mimic or not mimic partners’ behavior and later assessed mimicry’s impact on negotiation outcomes. Mimickers experienced higher individual and dyadic gains and were more willing to come to an agreement with others regarding a difficult decision, and the&#xA;  relationship was mediated by interpersonal trust (see also Swaab et al. 2011)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does mimicry always work?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NLP holds that Mirroring is a powerful technique. Note, however, that the cited findings only document modest mean differences, showing that mimicry can have an effect. Nevertheless, the size and importance of this effect may still be questioned. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, under some circumstances &lt;strong&gt;mimicry may not work or even backfire&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lakin and Chartrand (2013):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It turns out that one does need to mimic the “right” people to enjoy the positive consequences of mimicry. Recent research has found that mimicking may backfire (in terms of public opinion about one’s social competence) if&#xA;  someone mimics an unfriendly person. After watching someone mimicking unfriendly behaviors, people thought the mimicker was less socially competent than someone who mimicked a friendly partner or someone who mimicked no one (Kavanagh et al. 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition mimicry may work less well if people mimic outgroup members, if one has to mimic nonaffiliative expressions (e.g., anger), or when people have a proself mindset or have high levels of social anxiety (Chartrand &amp;amp; Lakin, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, in some situations, complementary (doing the opposite) rather than imitative behavior may increase liking. For example, Tiedens and Fragale (2003) asked confederates to mimic or complement bodily postures of dominance or submission (using an expanded or constricted posture). Participants whose behavior was complemented (the confederate showed a submissive posture when the participant was behaving in a dominant way, or vice versa) liked the confederate more. Thus, in power or status relationships mimicry may have different effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chartrand, T. L., &amp;amp; Lakin, J. L. (2013). The antecedents and consequences of human behavioral mimicry. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 285–308. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143754&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-08-27T07:40:19.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11025" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10960" CreationDate="2015-08-26T14:54:46.203" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think what you may be after is the &lt;strong&gt;accessibility&lt;/strong&gt; of people's attitudes. The idea is that people not only have different attitudes, but that they also differ whether these attitudes are on top of their minds (or how easy it is for them to retrieve them, when they are prompted to indicate an attitude). If an attitude is subjectively important or often thought about, it should be highly accessible. On the other hand, for other things, people may have a very negative or positive attitude, that is, nevertheless, relatively inaccessible to them. Accessible attitudes have been shown to guide behavior more strongly (there is a higher correspondence between attitudes and behavior). The classic paper is by Fazio and colleagues (1989).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attitude accessibility can be measured by measuring the reaction time to attitudes questions&lt;/strong&gt;. If people are faster in answering an attitude question, this is taken as an indicator of a highly accessible attitude. This would also be the kind of indirect measure that you might have in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in your example, you could ask participants to agree or disagree whether certain reasons for seeking asylum are important, and measure the reaction time of their answers. Quicker answers would indicate that these reasons are more accessible to them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fazio, R. H., Powell, M. C., &amp;amp; Williams, C. J. (1989). The role of attitude accessibility in the attitude-to-behavior process. Journal of consumer research, 280–288.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-27T07:45:13.787" LastActivityDate="2015-08-27T07:45:13.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11026" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11006" CreationDate="2015-08-26T15:33:57.793" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://140.116.183.121/~sheu/xpDesign/Articles/aHistoricalViewOfStatisticalConcepts.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; suggests it was a psychophysics experiment by Fencher in 1860.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3604" LastActivityDate="2015-08-26T15:33:57.793" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11027" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5208" CreationDate="2015-08-26T15:55:15.927" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The definition of aggression and violence is a thorny issue, and there is considerable disagreement about the terms between disciplines, but also within disciplines. Sometimes authors use the terms interchangeably. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology, the term &lt;strong&gt;aggression&lt;/strong&gt; is often used as the &lt;strong&gt;broader term that encompasses all forms of harmful behavior&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, according to the widely cited definition by Baron and Richardson (1994), &lt;strong&gt;&quot;aggression is any form of behavior directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment&quot;.&lt;/strong&gt; This would include verbal aggression, or indirect forms of aggression such as gossiping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, the term &lt;strong&gt;violence&lt;/strong&gt; is often limited to extreme forms of physical aggression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Anderson (2000) defines violence in the Encyclopedia of Psychology as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a &lt;strong&gt;subtype of aggression, generally used to denote extreme forms of aggression&lt;/strong&gt; such as murder, rape, and assault. All violence is aggression, but many forms of aggression are not violent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baron, R. A., &amp;amp; Richardson, D. (1994). Human aggression. New York: Plenum Press. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson (2000). Aggression and violence. In A.E. Kazdin (Ed.) Encyclopedia of psychology, 8, 162-169. New York &amp;amp; Washington D.C.: Oxford University Press and the American Psychological Association.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-27T07:36:44.470" LastActivityDate="2015-08-27T07:36:44.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11029" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-26T21:28:18.677" Score="5" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;At my university, many students have to go through a form of hazing for a period of a one month in the second years of their undergraduate studies. A part of it consists of a session where the students get shouted at by their seniors. According to them, this exposure to pressure &quot;opens&quot; them up and increases their emotional stability in the long run. They back up their claims by a lot of anecdotal evidence. I have a hunch that this is not true. What does research in psychology say about the long-term implications of such methods? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9175" LastActivityDate="2015-08-26T21:28:18.677" Title="Does exposure to verbal abuse increases emotional stability?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11030" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-27T09:11:07.360" Score="5" ViewCount="3369" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are 10 digits and 26 letters. In computer science you'd need 4 bits to store a digit value and 5 bits do store a letter value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the same apply to human brain? Is a statistical person able to remember more digits than letters, or is there no difference? Or maybe it varies from person to person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9177" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-16T18:09:43.517" LastActivityDate="2017-04-10T17:24:40.500" Title="Human memory - remembering sequences of letters vs numbers" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11032" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12543" CreationDate="2015-08-27T09:44:19.060" Score="4" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;Take a 2AFC task, where people also give a measure of confidence. &#xA;In the framework of signal detection theory, the criterion values for each confidence level are simply additional criteria, placed on the same internal response axis as the (first order task) decision criterion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can I estimate the values of these additional confidence criteria from the data of a subject? If so, how? Would I simply take all trials with (say) confidence = 3, and calculate the criterion based on those trials alone?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9178" LastActivityDate="2015-11-06T10:09:31.660" Title="Calculate criterion values for each confidence level (within SDT)" Tags="&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10995" CreationDate="2015-08-27T12:15:01.103" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://archivesic.ccsd.cnrs.fr/sic_01158395/document&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bègue et al. (2015)&lt;/a&gt; have recently investigated how the Big 5 traits predict obedience in a variant of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milgram paradigm&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants believed they were participants in the pilot screening of a TV show. The talk show host (as the authority figure of the experiment) asked them to deliver electric shocks of increasing intensity to another participant (presumably a quiz contestant) whenever he or she gave an incorrect answer. As the intensity of the shocks increased, the contestant (in reality a confederate of the study) could be heard screaming and protesting, asking to stop the shocks. Nevertheless, the host insisted that the shocks should continue for the sake of the game show. The central measure of obedience was the highest intensity of the shock (when the participant refused to continue). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Result: &lt;strong&gt;Conscientiousness and Agreeableness predicted obedience as expressed in the willingness to administer electric shocks of higher intensity as demanded by the authority figure&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the detailed results: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tl9Zj.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tl9Zj.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Correlation table Bègue et al., 2015&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bègue, L., Beauvois, J.-L., Courbet, D., Oberlé, D., Lepage, J., &amp;amp; Duke, A. A. (2015). Personality predicts obedience in a milgram paradigm. Journal of Personality, 83, 299–306. doi:10.1111/jopy.12104 (&lt;a href=&quot;http://archivesic.ccsd.cnrs.fr/sic_01158395/document&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-11-01T04:48:56.227" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T04:48:56.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11034" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11037" CreationDate="2015-08-27T15:11:14.253" Score="6" ViewCount="23255" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since I will soon have a bit of free time, I thought I'd use it to enhance my knowledge pool. I chose four subjects that always interested me (but that are not related) and thought I'd dive in a bit more seriously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, now I have a question - Assuming I wish to make the most of my time (one month, four hours each day) and learn the most in the small time-frame I have, I can think of two approaches:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One: Study one subject intensely, say four hours a day, for a full week, before completely switching to another subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two: Study all subjects simultaneously, say one hour each per day, for the full month.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: Are there studies which show which of these two paths will lead to greater retention of the material studied in the given time-frame? In other words, which is better if you wish to study diverse subjects: Focus on one at a time or spread out equally?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9044" LastActivityDate="2019-08-01T11:02:20.540" Title="Is it better to study multiple subjects simultaneously or focus on one subject intensely at a time?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11035" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3569" CreationDate="2015-08-27T15:38:48.110" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a topic of research currently. The short answer is no (there's quite a clear distinction between e.g. visual and memory metacognition), the long answer is that in some cases, some metacognitive mechanisms might be shared. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples for the short 'no' answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Patients with frontal lesions have lower visual (but not memory) metacognition than healthy controls. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25100039&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25100039&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Different areas within prefrontal cortex seem to underly visual and memory metacognition see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/42/16657.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/42/16657.full.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are also quite a few (older and more recent) papers within the metamemory literature, argueing that even within metamemory (i.e., in different subtypes of judgements or in semantic vs episodic memory) different mechanisms are recruited. One example here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393211000182&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393211000182&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples showing that there actually is some degree of domain-generality:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Participants in have similar metacognitive ability in two similar visual tasks, despite different first order performance. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3203218/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3203218/&lt;/a&gt; and  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/108/11/4506.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/108/11/4506.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Memory (but not visual) metacognition improved after meditation training -also another form of metacognition, perhaps of the focus of attention. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24820248&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24820248&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9178" LastEditorUserId="9178" LastEditDate="2015-08-28T09:43:51.620" LastActivityDate="2015-08-28T09:43:51.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11036" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-27T16:09:33.170" Score="1" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently doing a research about computer games and in my experiment set up I need to asses each players gaming experience via &lt;strong&gt;Gaming Experience Questionnaire (GEQ)&lt;/strong&gt;. Is there any place I can obtain a sample GEQ and the scoring criteria ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9181" LastActivityDate="2015-08-27T16:09:33.170" Title="Where can I find Gaming Experience Questionnaire (GEQ) ?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-31T16:51:20.757" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11037" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11034" CreationDate="2015-08-27T17:22:18.443" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that this is one of those cases where &lt;strong&gt;it depends on personal preference and learning style&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I say this is because the ability to &lt;strong&gt;shift from one task to another&lt;/strong&gt; (also known as 'set-shifting') is a type of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_flexibility&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive flexibility&lt;/a&gt; that is linked to one's individual executive functioning ability. In turn, this is usually mandated by one's &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;frontal inhibitory activity&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, those who often fall prey to a phenomenon called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseveration&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;task perseveration&lt;/a&gt; (also known as 'hyperfocus') may have a &lt;strong&gt;reduced or impaired ability&lt;/strong&gt; to switch between tasks. This seems to occur at above-average rates in twice-exceptional children. [1] For those predisposed to task perseveration, switching between several topics a day may be marginally more difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing to consider would be &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive load&lt;/a&gt;, which is the &lt;strong&gt;amount of mental effort being used in one's working memory&lt;/strong&gt;. As cognitive load increases, it becomes difficult to manage and learn new material. It is known that cognitive load increases in the face of difficult material (with 'difficulty' as perceived by the learner). For this reason, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogtech.usc.edu/publications/kirschner_Sweller_Clark.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;one common method&lt;/a&gt; of reducing cognitive load in teaching and learning is to divide subjects up into subtopics and teach these subtopics in isolation, and then later integrate them into the subject as a whole. Furthermore, it is known that there are &lt;strong&gt;individual differences in cognitive load capacity&lt;/strong&gt;, particularly among experts and novices. [2] Experts have more knowledge associated with a topic or skill, which reduces the cognitive load necessary to learn more material within that topic. This lends itself to the idea that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;the more familiar you are with the material, the easier it becomes to learn more of said material&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. [3]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, there is &lt;strong&gt;no clear-cut answer&lt;/strong&gt;; there are simply &lt;em&gt;factors&lt;/em&gt; that may go into a &lt;em&gt;contextualized&lt;/em&gt; answer. In the case of studying four unrelated subjects, it might be worth asking the following: &lt;strong&gt;How well do you know the subjects?&lt;/strong&gt; Are you studying all four from the ground up? If so, it might be more effective to study one at a time in order to allow the fundamentals to sink in, thus decreasing cognitive load. The other factor to consider would be your overall discipline level. &lt;strong&gt;Do you fall prey to task perseveration, or is your ability to shift from one task to another generally uninhibited?&lt;/strong&gt; These are all factors to consider in determining &lt;em&gt;your own&lt;/em&gt; study plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources used&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NQrtt-peg5AC&amp;amp;pg=PA50&amp;amp;lpg=PA50&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=SgPrxTreVn&amp;amp;sig=sgz-SD-J9BGaK6NFyq4ZTkmMNUw&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=J-xRUIOtDrLI0AXIpYHQCA&amp;amp;ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Misdiagnosis And Dual Diagnoses Of Gifted Children And Adults&lt;/a&gt; p.50-51&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Murphy, Gregory L.; Wright, Jack C. (1984). &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xlm/10/1/144/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Changes in conceptual structure with expertise: Differences between real-world experts and novices.&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 10 (1): 144–155.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3]  Voorhies, D. &amp;amp; Scandura, J.M. (1977). &quot;7&quot;. Determination of memory load in information processing. Problem Solving, NY: Academic Press. pp. 299–316.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-27T17:22:18.443" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11038" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10248" CreationDate="2015-08-27T17:52:34.083" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a really neat question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A strong predictor of cognitive ability is one's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_enrichment_(neural)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;environmental enrichment&lt;/a&gt;, or the stimulation of the brain in its physical and social surroundings. Those with sensory deprivation often have &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/9361464&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;less success with social situations and self-esteem&lt;/a&gt;, as well as (presumably) less sensory input coming in. The implication is that &lt;strong&gt;lack of sensory stimulation during neurodevelopment can impair cognitive development&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;linked to education&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in the sense that the educational environment typically provides a cognitively stimulating environment for children to grow in. In that sense, the quality of the educational environment -- and its associated opportunities for engagement in higher-level cognitive activities -- is another factor that predicts cognitive development. [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly enough, studies have shown that environmental enrichment can &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;correct and rehabilitate&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; the effects of sensory deprivation. One study [2] showed that physical exercise and an enriched environment actually helped to offset the effects of &quot;dark-rearing&quot; in rats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Independently of environmental enrichment, the relationship between education and cognitive ability is not well-known. There are studies that suggest that cognitive ability early in life can predict one's success in school, and there is a strong correlation(r~.6-.8) between early childhood IQ and the level of education that the child will end up pursuing. And education certainly contributes to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;crystallized intelligence&lt;/a&gt;, which is the product of education and culture. Both fluid and crystallized intelligence are correlated with each other, thus factoring into one's general intelligence. Regardless, it is fairly well established that &lt;em&gt;cognitive ability&lt;/em&gt; predicts success in school, but it is not clear how &lt;em&gt;level of education&lt;/em&gt; affects overall cognitive ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But perhaps moreso than education is the weight of &lt;strong&gt;individual differences&lt;/strong&gt; in the face of sensory deprivation. For example, certain personality traits are moderately correlated with cognitive ability. Self-efficacy, which is the general feeling that one can succeed in any circumstance, is correlated at around .22. On the Big 5, Openness to Experience is correlated at around .20. But it is important to note that these traits surely predict one's &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;response&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;ability to cope and adapt&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; to a traumatic event such as total deprivation of the senses (blindness, deafness, etc.) in early development. After all, it is clear that sensory deprivation can be a traumatic life event for individuals, particularly those who are seeing-impaired. To quote from the abstract of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10402881&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this study&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Blindness and sight restoration have been reported to induce both temporary and longer term psychopathology, usually followed by psychosocial readjustment. However, in some cases, readjustment may not occur and suicide may result...When compared with a hearing-impaired control group, impaired sight alone can acutely affect otherwise psychologically healthy individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that certain traits that are linked to &lt;em&gt;readjustment&lt;/em&gt; are also linked to &lt;em&gt;intelligence&lt;/em&gt;, it may be the case that sensory deprivation has a higher impact of long-term cognitive ability in those who have a reduced capacity to begin with, relative to those with higher intelligence and natural ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my informed conclusion would be that &lt;strong&gt;yes&lt;/strong&gt;, sensory deprivation &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; affect cognitive abilities -- from an educational standpoint, a social standpoint, and a reduction in early stimulation (particularly during the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_period&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;critical period&lt;/a&gt;). The overall detrimental impact on these abilities may be relative to the existing intelligence of the person (or the even the existence of traits that are linked to intelligence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources used:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Wilson R, Barnes L, Bennett D (August 2003). &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1076/jcen.25.5.634.14572#.Vd9KONNViko&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Assessment of lifetime participation in cognitively stimulating activities&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 25 (5): 634–42.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Argandoña, Enrike G, Harkaitz Bengoetxea, and José V Lafuente. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2740960/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;“Physical Exercise Is Required for Environmental Enrichment to Offset the Quantitative Effects of Dark-Rearing on the S-100β Astrocytic Density in the Rat Visual Cortex.”&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Anatomy 215.2 (2009): 132–140. PMC. Web. 25 Aug. 2015.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-27T17:52:34.083" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11039" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4623" CreationDate="2015-08-27T18:54:33.500" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several different, well-received theories of education would say &lt;strong&gt;yes&lt;/strong&gt;. However, it depends on the quality of 'correct' information that is received after the answer is deemed 'incorrect'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Jean Piaget's &lt;strong&gt;constructivist theory&lt;/strong&gt; of education, it is theorized that individuals construct new knowledge through methods of &lt;em&gt;assimilation&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;accommodation&lt;/em&gt;. Assimilation requires taking new information and modifying it to fit into an existing framework (without changing the framework itself), and accommodation requires taking new information and updating an existing framework in line with the newly-learned information. Self-correcting responses allow the individual to consciously &lt;em&gt;accommodate&lt;/em&gt; new information in accordance with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/dissonance.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt; that may result from conflicting perspectives on information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the theory of &lt;strong&gt;cognitive apprenticeship&lt;/strong&gt;, it is speculated that there are &lt;em&gt;six teaching methods&lt;/em&gt; that are integral to advancing a student's knowledge in a domain. Among those are &lt;em&gt;reflection&lt;/em&gt;, which allows students to &quot;compare their own problem-solving processes with those of an expert, another student, and ultimately, an internal cognitive model of expertise.&quot; In more complex tasks, correcting ones' mistakes in accordance with the techniques and heuristics used by a knowledgable other would be considered a method of reflection. However, it is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;not clear&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; that this would further apply to a multiple-choice test, as ones' methods for reaching a conclusion are less observable for tests of that nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, there is evidence to show that, while multiple-choice tests may be &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.business.mcmaster.ca/mktg/nbontis//ic/publications/IJTCSBontis2-2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;good predictors of academic performance&lt;/a&gt;, multiple-choice questions aren't accurate assessments of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;actual knowledge&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_choice#Disadvantages&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;For example&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Multiple choice tests are best adapted for testing well-defined or lower-order skills. Problem-solving and higher-order reasoning skills are better assessed through short-answer and essay tests. Another disadvantage of multiple choice tests is possible ambiguity in the examinee's interpretation of the item. Failing to interpret information as the test maker intended can result in an &quot;incorrect&quot; response, even if the taker's response is potentially valid. The term &quot;multiple guess&quot; has been used to describe this scenario because test-takers may attempt to guess rather than determine the correct answer. A free response test allows the test taker to make an argument for their viewpoint and potentially receive credit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, it may be the case that self-correcting in the instance of an incorrect answer (accommodated by an explanation for the 'correct' answer) can actually improve knowledge, and aid in the accommodation of new knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this reason (and for accommodation to effectively occur), in the instance of a multiple-choice test, it may be better practice to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;consciously reason through&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; the answer in the face of feedback, instead of simply &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;selecting&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; the correct answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-27T18:54:33.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11040" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11074" CreationDate="2015-08-27T20:55:38.807" Score="2" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read theoretical papers on why constraints are a necessary part of any learning system. The papers were aimed at human learning. I'm having trouble finding relevant references now. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What papers deal with the theoretical issue of whether or not learning must be constrained?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-09-04T14:20:21.187" Title="Reference request: the necessity of constraints in learning" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11041" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-28T04:00:53.620" Score="7" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's do an experiment. With your left hand start tapping out a regular (evenly-spaced) beat - say, 2 beats per second. With your right hand attempt to tap our a different regular beat, but tap at a rate that is &quot;as unrelated as possible&quot; to the first beat - something like 3.14159 beats per second. (Here &quot;as unrelated as possible&quot; is weakly defined. Basically, I mean to keep two rhythms that are both regular but will never be in sync.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is this: &lt;strong&gt;Is it possible for a human to actually keep accurate track of both rhythms? Or will they interfere with one another so that the rhythm of one or both hands is lost?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My own (admittedly unjustified) model of neuronal behavior is that rhythmic action of the left hand must correspond to rhythmic patterns of neural activity in the brain with the same frequency. And similarly, rhythmic action of the right hand must correspond to rhythmic patterns with that frequency. Since, I suspect, the task of tapping out a rhythm requires coordination across several areas of the brain, then it seems that the a-periodic neuronal firing would likely interefere and cause one rhythm or the other to become dominant - or both rhythms to be lost entirely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Oh... and for the sake of this question, assume the corpus callosum is intact. Missing CC is cheating here.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="68" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-06-02T15:22:39.380" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T15:22:39.380" Title="Can humans keep track of two unrelated rhythms?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;synchronization&gt;&lt;coordination&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11042" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11044" CreationDate="2015-08-28T06:10:22.287" Score="5" ViewCount="739" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://lcn.epfl.ch/~gerstner/SPNM/node3.html#SECTION01113000000000000000&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; and I found the following sentences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Apart from chemical synapses neurons can also be coupled by electrical synapses, so-called gap junctions. Specialized membrane proteins make a direct electrical connection between the two neurons. Not very much is known about the functional aspects of gap junctions, but they are thought to be involved in the synchronization of neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we really know very little about the functional aspects of gap junctions? And how are they involved the 'synchronization' of neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-28T23:53:41.053" Title="What are 'gap junctions' (electrical synapses) for?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11043" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-28T01:46:47.243" Score="4" ViewCount="259" Body="&lt;p&gt;We're implementing comment cards on our site that contain a simple Likert-type scale that uses colored buttons (red, orange, yellow, light green, green), to denote the range of negative to positive ratings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are you aware of any research on the effect of color on user responses to Likert-type survey questions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="vdelsign" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2018-05-03T13:34:54.833" LastActivityDate="2018-05-03T13:34:54.833" Title="What's the effect of color on responses to a Likert scale?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11044" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11042" CreationDate="2015-08-28T10:37:24.973" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gap junctions can couple cells directly electrically. Cell types electrically coupled via gap junctions include neurons, the pancreatic islets of Langerhans &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/jphysiol.1997.sp021899/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Andreu &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 1997)&lt;/a&gt; and cardiac cells (Fig. 1.). In contrast to chemical synapses, information transfer via electrical &quot;synapses&quot; (gap junctions) is nearly instantaneous. In chemical information flow, the synapse is the rate limiting step, because it depends on the passive diffusion of neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QoRes.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QoRes.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;![![enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. The pacemaker potential in cardiac muscle cells spreads rapidly across the surface of the heart to generate synchronous muscle contraction. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.austincc.edu/apreview/PhysText/Cardiac.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Austin Community College&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, in a structure such as a brain nucleus many cells can be coupled. In other words, if all cells in a tissue contain gap junctions, all these cells are directly electrically coupled, not just those cells directly touching each other. In a way, all cells in such a tissue are in open connection with each other. This means that when one cell fires, it can theoretically activate &lt;em&gt;all the connected cells&lt;/em&gt; to fire an action potential in near-synchrony.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, gap junctions allow for &lt;strong&gt;synchronous activation of inter-connected neurons&lt;/strong&gt;, both  in the spatial and temporal domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While this can be the preferred mode of operation of firing in some neuronal structures such as the olivary nucleus &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/94/4/2447&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Leznik &amp;amp; Llinás, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;, it can theoretically lead to trouble in case pathological synchronization is established, leading to epileptic activity &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC321041/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Dudek, 2002)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether we know little, or much of gap junctions is subjective. However, it is certainly true that way more research is available on chemical neurotransmission than on electrical transmission. Likewise, many more medications target chemical transmission than electrical neurotransmission.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/jphysiol.1997.sp021899/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Andreu &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;J Physiol&lt;/em&gt; (1997), &lt;strong&gt;498&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 753-61&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC321041/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dudek, &lt;em&gt;Epilepsy Curr&lt;/em&gt; (2002); &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 133–6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/94/4/2447&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Leznik &amp;amp; Llinás, &lt;em&gt;J Neurophysiol&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;94&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 2447-56&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-28T23:53:41.053" LastActivityDate="2015-08-28T23:53:41.053" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11046" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-28T15:19:06.593" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to create a system that learns the Tower of Hanoi puzzle. &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/stewart.2011a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The system I'm working off of&lt;/a&gt; uses a production system (similar to ACT-R), but uses hard-coded production rules. I know that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ai.rug.nl/~niels/publications/TaatgenICCM2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neil Taatgen's Primitive Information Processing Elements&lt;/a&gt; can be used to combine memory buffers/slots to run a task more efficiently, but is there some method of reinforcement learning that would guide the construction of sets of production rules in a cognitive system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I've asked a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/45651/combining-production-rules-using-reinforcement-learning&quot;&gt;similar question on the Computer Science StackExchange&lt;/a&gt;, but with more of a reinforcement learning perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:38.617" LastActivityDate="2015-08-28T15:19:06.593" Title="Reinforcement learning for combining production rules" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11048" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-28T16:14:28.920" Score="6" ViewCount="7269" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that there are two kinds of intrusive thoughts. The first consists of those thoughts that didn't actually occur in real life, but are nonetheless intrusive and embarrassing and disturbing to the individual (i.e. thoughts of harming someone else, or unwanted sexual thoughts directed towards individuals). The seconds consists of past memories of embarrassing moments, particularly from childhood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that many people will respond to these thoughts in some way. I've had many friends tell me that if I hear them 'talking gibberish' or 'making strange noises', it is because they are having a bad thought. I myself have noticed now that I will talk out loud when I remember an embarrassing thought -- but I won't speak &lt;em&gt;of&lt;/em&gt; the thought, I will say random things, like &quot;Okay, okay, okay&quot; or &quot;I love you&quot;. Usually, I will repeat a phrase over and over under my breath, until I catch myself doing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've also noticed certain individuals will use verbal gestures to show that they are thinking of something negative. My father will scratch his head and blow out of his mouth for several minutes at a time when he is having intrusive thoughts, or 'conversations'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an explanation for this phenomena? Why is it that externalizing our thoughts seems to 'rid' our head of them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2016-05-06T04:56:53.880" Title="Why do some people react verbally to intrusive thoughts and/or embarrassing memories?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11049" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6108" CreationDate="2015-08-28T18:35:46.887" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your memory of a dream would be an &lt;strong&gt;autobiographical memory&lt;/strong&gt;, which is a memory system that is based on a combination of episodic memories and semantic memories. Autobiographical memories are memories of events that have happened to you, and thus are often retrieved from a first-person perspective. These are not the same thing as episodic memories, however, as episodic memories are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749596X05000987&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;contained in a separate memory system&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your autobiographical memory knowledge base is distributed through neural networks in the frontal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The frontal lobes and anterior temporal lobes represent the more abstract or conceptual parts of the memory, and the occipital lobes/posterior temporal lobes represent the more sensory and perceptual details of specific events. These are predominantly represented in the right cortex. [1] Initially, a memory is formed in the left prefrontal region. Over time, this memory is 'moved' and held at a higher level in the posterior region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are more widespread activation patterns throughout the brain, and almost every region of the brain has been represented in at least one instance of autobiographic memory retrieval. [2] This lends itself to the belief that certain regions are used for certain types of retrieval, such as re-living experiences associated with the memory versus retrieving factual information from the memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dreams themselves are not episodic memories. During REM sleep, there are specific brain regions that appear to be affected; in particular, there is increased activity in the formation of the hippocampus and decreased activity in prefrontal regions. There appears to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v437/n7063/box/nature04288_BX1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;no temporal lobe activity&lt;/a&gt;, which implies that 'dream memories' are &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; true episodic memories, but instead representative of episodic fragments (at best). One study [3] even found that the majority of dreams (&gt;80%) were comprised of primarily &lt;em&gt;autobiographical memories&lt;/em&gt;. This suggests that dreams themselves are comprised of fragmented and selective personal experiences, perhaps to aid in the assimilation of memories into the autobiographical memory schema.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources used:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Conway, M.A., Pleydell-Pearce, C.W., &amp;amp; Whitecross, S.E. (2001). &lt;a href=&quot;http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/HomePage/class/psy394U/Bower/11%20Soc%20Cog%20Personality/XX%20Constr%20Life%20Stories/Autobio%20Mem-Conway.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The neuroanatomy of autobiographical memory: a slow cortical potential study of autobiographical memory retrieval&lt;/a&gt;, Journal of Memory and Language. 45, 493-524.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Svoboda, E.; McKinnon, M.C.; Levine, B. (2006). &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393206002090&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The functional neuroanatomy of autobiographical memory: a meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Neuropsychologia 44 (12): 2189–2208.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Malinowski, J. E. and Horton, C. L. (2014), &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jsr.12134/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Memory sources of dreams: the incorporation of autobiographical rather than episodic experiences&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of Sleep Research, 23: 441–447.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-28T18:35:46.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11050" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-28T22:13:10.160" Score="1" ViewCount="1863" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if it is possible for someone to have a clinical obsession with higher education. For example, the person who has this disorder constantly talks to others about things such as college to the point where something seems very wrong. Does a disorder like this exist? Or can it be a form of another disorder? I'm asking because I'm writing a research paper on various obsessions and would like to gain some insight on the matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9191" LastActivityDate="2017-07-04T18:07:28.267" Title="Is it possible to be clinically obsessed with school?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-06T14:28:45.933" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11051" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11050" CreationDate="2015-08-29T18:17:22.913" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge there are no such diagnosable disorders. Remember, disorders are only disorders when they significantly and negatively impact social and/or occupational functioning. So if a person only talks about special interests, this might impact social functioning but how significant is it? Does the participant have friends which support his interests? Does it matter to him? Does it negatively affect self-esteem, worth? Does it affect his occupational functioning? Probably not significant enough to be a full blown disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think something which might be of interest to you is Autism Spectrum Disorder. Many individuals who are high-functioning may become obsessed about a specific topic of interest. They might investigate the ins and outs of the given interest. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might be able to relate what you mentioned to media addiction but that is not a DSM-V disorder. There is nevertheless research about it, especially along the internet media addiction lines. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps give you some direction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7453" LastActivityDate="2015-08-29T18:17:22.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11052" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8006" CreationDate="2015-08-29T21:31:34.993" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, it is worth addressing what &lt;em&gt;kind&lt;/em&gt; of tournament this is. If this is something like the Super Bowl, where the teams are generally widely-known year after year, then the answer will surely vary depending on the context. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most long-time sports fans have a subjective preference for the other teams, ranging from 'second-favorite' to 'most hated', and these preferences are built up over time and are determined by the individual as well as the team. After having lost the Super Bowl XLV, a Seahawks fan may hold resentment towards the Steelers for years to come, and thus may root against them on all accounts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a more individual basis, fans may view another team favorably for a variety of personal reasons (e.g. a parent or close friend rooting for that team), and thus choose to root for them even if it came down to them beating their team. One writer even &lt;a href=&quot;http://fivethirtyeight.com/datalab/who-do-you-root-for-when-your-team-gets-knocked-out-of-the-world-cup/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;analyzed&lt;/a&gt; this idea in a FiveThirtyEight blog post.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if we were to &lt;strong&gt;remove&lt;/strong&gt; these factors entirely -- say, we have a tournament where there is no prior opinion towards the teams that had advanced -- then the answer may shed light on both individual differences and group dynamics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies have shown that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.humankinetics.com/AcuCustom/Sitename/Dam/067/233_Fink_Off_field_behavior.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the more a fan identifies with their team, the more loyalty they show to their team&lt;/a&gt; in the face of a loss:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When presented with any sort of negative information regarding the group,&#xA;  highly identified group members react differently than those with lower levels of&#xA;  identification (Cohen &amp;amp; Garcia, 2005; Ellemers, Spears, &amp;amp; Doosje, 2002). Highly&#xA;  identified members typically reaffirm their group membership, while those with&#xA;  lower levels of identification tend to distance themselves (Cohen &amp;amp; Garcia, 2005).&#xA;  Such behaviors are apparent in sport fans. Wann and Branscombe (1990) found&#xA;  that highly identified fans are less likely to distance themselves from the team&#xA;  when the team lost than those who were less identified. Further, highly identified&#xA;  fans exhibit biased attribution processing favoring their team (Wann &amp;amp; Dolan,&#xA;  1994). That is, facing a win, highly identified fans ascribe the victory to internal&#xA;  factors such as the skill of the team, or the coaching, and sometimes even fan support.&#xA;  However, upon a loss, rather than conceding another team’s superiority, they&#xA;  blame the loss on more external factors such as fate or poor refereeing. Thus,&#xA;  highly identified sports fans seem to undergo some sort of biased attributional&#xA;  processes when dealing with a loss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/63/5/724/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;another study&lt;/a&gt; showed that the stronger the allegiance to the team, the more likely the fan was to perceive the win as a &lt;em&gt;personal victory&lt;/em&gt;, thereby influencing their &lt;em&gt;own&lt;/em&gt; self-efficacy. By contrast, the likelihood increased that a loss would be perceived as a &lt;em&gt;personal offense&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ss watched a live basketball game; then, in the context of a 2nd, unrelated experiment, Ss estimated their own performance at several tasks. Results indicated that fans' mood and self-esteem were affected by game outcome. More important, fans' estimates of both the team's and their own future performance were significantly better in the win than in the loss condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whereas on the other hand, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224540209603906#.VeIbMtNViko&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fans who identify less with their team tend to distance themselves from the team&lt;/a&gt; in the face of a loss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it could be the case that &lt;strong&gt;personal allegiance&lt;/strong&gt; to a team determines how a fan responds to a loss. If the fan identifies strongly with the losing team, they may be less likely to view the winning team (opponent) positively, and thus they may demonstrate a greater tendency to root against that team in the next round. On the other hand, less team allegiance may implicate a desire to identify with the winning team, in which case the &quot;we lost to the best&quot; mindset may occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-29T21:31:34.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11053" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5401" CreationDate="2015-08-30T00:56:05.633" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studies have shown that some people can &lt;strong&gt;mentally isolate stressors&lt;/strong&gt; so that they do not affect performance in other areas. This is sometimes referred to as &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;isolating&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;repressing&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; the memory of the stressor so that it does not influence secondary reactions. The recollection of the memory is just as painful as it would be for anyone else, but the memory itself remains isolated, and thus there is no opportunity for the memory to form associative links with other memories, where it could thereby affect self-esteem, sense of achievement, or productivity. [1][2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been numerous studies that support this idea of isolation. First is the notion that this effect is not observed in those who demonstrate high neuroticism, or difficulty controlling affective discipline. Studies have shown that people suffering from depression will respond to damaging thoughts by &lt;em&gt;thinking about other negative thoughts&lt;/em&gt;, thus reinforcing the depression. [3] In contrast, those who demonstrate low neuroticism and high defensiveness were more likely to process negative feedback in a minimal fashion [4], thus &lt;em&gt;&quot;isolating&quot; the negative feedback&lt;/em&gt; from the self. In addition, they were more likely to &lt;em&gt;minimize relative impact&lt;/em&gt; by spontaneously generating positive thoughts afterwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an important notion, as the role of emotional regulation and achievement is readily apparent. Studies have shown that emotional regulation in school children can predict &lt;em&gt;teacher-student relationships, academic achievement, and productivity&lt;/em&gt; [5]. Furthermore, positive emotions, moreso than negative emotions, appear to be associated with &lt;em&gt;heightened attention&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;thought-action repertoires&lt;/em&gt;. [6]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, it may be the case that with increased self-discipline comes an increased ability to &lt;em&gt;inhibit&lt;/em&gt; (or 'isolate') negative emotions and stressors. This can be mediated by executive functioning tactics such as &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inhibition&quot;&gt;inhibition&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, or by &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_shifting&quot;&gt;shifting cognitive focus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (particularly onto the task at hand). [7] Executive functioning abilities are largely mediated by the frontal lobes and by the prefrontal cortex. However, the ability to 'isolate' stressors in order to maximize productivity and motivation may be more closely related to neuroticism, which is in turn related to reduced connectivity between the left amygdala and anterior cingulate cortex, as well as reduced cardiovascular activity. [8]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources used&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Hansen, R. D.; Hansen, C. H. (1988). &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/?&amp;amp;fa=main.doiLanding&amp;amp;doi=10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.811&quot;&gt;Repression of emotionally tagged memories: The architecture of less complex emotions.&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55: 811–818.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Schul, Y; Schiff, M. (1995). &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com/content/21/5/491&quot;&gt;On the costs and benefits of ignorance: How performance satisfaction is affected by knowing the standard prior to performance&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 21: 491–501.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Edwards, J. A.; Weary, G. (1993). &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/?&amp;amp;fa=main.doiLanding&amp;amp;doi=10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.636&quot;&gt;Depression and the impression-forming continuum: Piecemeal processing despite the availability of category information.&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64: 636–645.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Bonanno, G. A.; Davis, P. J.; Singer, J. L.; Schwartz, G. E. (1991). &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/009265669190029P&quot;&gt;The repressor personality and avoidant information processing: A dichotic listening study.&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Journal of Research in Personality 62: 386–401.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[5] Graziano, P. A., Reavis, R. D., Keane, S. P., &amp;amp; Calkins, S. D. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022440506000859&quot;&gt;The role of emotion regulation in children's early academic success&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of school psychology, 45(1), 3-19.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[6] Fredrickson, B. L., &amp;amp; Branigan, C. (2005). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699930441000238#.VeI5edNViko&quot;&gt;Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires&lt;/a&gt;. Cognition &amp;amp; emotion, 19(3), 313-332.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[7] Wegner, Daniel M.; Schneider, David J.; Carter, Samuel R. &amp;amp; White, Teri L. (1987). &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/?&amp;amp;fa=main.doiLanding&amp;amp;doi=10.1037/0022-3514.53.1.5&quot;&gt;Paradoxical effects of thought suppression&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53 (1): 5–13.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[8] J. Ormel, A. Bastiaansen, H. Riese, E.H. Bos, M. Servaas, M. Ellenbogen, J.G. Rosmalen, A. Aleman. (2013) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23068306&quot;&gt;The biological and psychological basis of neuroticism: Current status and future directions&lt;/a&gt;. Neurosci. Biobehav. pp. 59–72&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-30T00:56:05.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11054" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6251" CreationDate="2015-08-30T01:43:30.557" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Parkinson's disease is similar to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the sense that both are thought to stem from &lt;strong&gt;dopamine deficiency&lt;/strong&gt;, though the affected areas may differ. Executive functioning is typically associated with the frontal lobes, the prefrontal cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex, and parts of the basal ganglia (including the caudate nucleus). Indeed, those suffering from Parkinson's have critically low levels of dopamine in the caudate nucleus, and thus patients have shown to &lt;strong&gt;improve specific cognitive functioning abilities with dopaminergic medication&lt;/strong&gt;, such as those used to treat ADHD. This is likely due to the rewiring of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the posterior parietal cortex to the dorsal caudate nucleus after medication was administered. [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, most medications used to treat Parkinson's typically try to &lt;strong&gt;target motor symptoms&lt;/strong&gt;. This is because PD is most associated with dopamine depletion in the substania nigra, as well as progressive effects on the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway. [2] On the other hand, ADHD medications (such as Adderall, Vyvanse, and Ritalin) target the mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways, allowing them to &lt;strong&gt;influence cognition and affect&lt;/strong&gt;. [3] Thus, there is evidence the cognitive deficits observed in PD may be treatable with psychostimulant medications commonly used to treat ADHD. Overall, there have been comparatively few attempts to treat cognitive deficits in those with PD [2], though there have been modest effects with treatment of &lt;strong&gt;Modafinil&lt;/strong&gt; for PD-related daytime sleepiness. [4] Though Modafinil is a wakefulness agent, it is also used recreationally as a mild cognitive enhancer (or '&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropic#Stimulants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nootropic&lt;/a&gt;'), and is said to boost alertness and cognitive function in otherwise high-functioning adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As every person is different, 15 years of Parkinson's will manifest itself differently in every individual. Tremor is usually the first symptom of early-stage PD. In the next stage, it spreads and causes the person to have slow movement, stiff muscles, and poor motor coordination. Poor posture, difficulties with writing, and trouble balancing may develop. After a certain number of years (relative to the individual), the person may be confined to a wheelchair or a bed. Dementia may occur in up to one-third of these individuals. (See: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/parkinsons-disease/tc/parkinsons-disease-what-happens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt;) As it stands, there is no medical 'cure', but the medications can delay the end result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources used&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Cools, R., Barker, R. A., Sahakian, B. J., &amp;amp; Robbins, T. W. (2001). &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/12/1136.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Enhanced or impaired cognitive function in Parkinson's disease as a function of dopaminergic medication and task demands&lt;/a&gt;. Cerebral Cortex, 11(12), 1136-1143.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Brennan, L. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://idea.library.drexel.edu/islandora/object/idea%3A4164/datastream/OBJ/view&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dopaminergic Therapy in Parkinson's Disease: Psychiatric Symptoms, Cognition, and Everyday Functioning&lt;/a&gt; (Doctoral dissertation, Drexel University).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Oades, R. D., Sadile, A. G., Sagvolden, T., Viggiano, D., Zuddas, A., Devoto, P., ... &amp;amp; Russell, V. A. (2005). &lt;a href=&quot;http://duepublico.uni-duisburg-essen.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate-27824/2005_Oades_Responsiveness.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The control of responsiveness in ADHD by catecholamines: evidence for dopaminergic, noradrenergic and interactive roles&lt;/a&gt;. Developmental science, 8(2), 122-131.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Adler, C. H., Caviness, J. N., Hentz, J. G., Lind, M., &amp;amp; Tiede, J. (2003). &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mds.10390/abstract?userIsAuthenticated=false&amp;amp;deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Randomized trial of modafinil for treating subjective daytime sleepiness in patients with Parkinson's disease&lt;/a&gt;. Movement Disorders, 18(3), 287-293.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-08-30T01:43:30.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11055" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-30T06:56:20.043" Score="3" ViewCount="901" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have no idea what &lt;strong&gt;perceptual competence&lt;/strong&gt; is? Does anyone know about it? I found no information about it on the web.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9197" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-08-30T12:38:32.943" LastActivityDate="2015-08-30T13:09:51.813" Title="What is &quot;perceptual competence&quot;?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11056" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11055" CreationDate="2015-08-30T11:08:25.920" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&quot;Perceptual competence&quot; is &quot;the ability to perceive&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I Googled &quot;perceptual competence&quot; and the first hit was an open source article &lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=207276&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Lencz &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. They define perceptual competence as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[The] initial representation of to-be-remembered material [in the context of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;working memory]&lt;/a&gt;. Perceptual competency itself can include multiple subprocesses, including sensory representation, attention, executive processes, and possibly verbal memory processes, if the stimuli are easily recognized or verbalized. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading their use and interpretation, I think &quot;perceptual competence&quot; can be simply literally semantically translated, namely: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/perceptual&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PERCEPTUAL&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; - &lt;code&gt;of, relating to, or involving perception especially in relation to immediate sensory experience&lt;/code&gt; and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/competence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;COMPETENCE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; - &lt;code&gt;the ability to do something well : the quality or state of being competent&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=207276&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lencz &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Arch Gen Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2003); &lt;strong&gt;60&lt;/strong&gt;(3):238-43&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-08-30T13:09:51.813" LastActivityDate="2015-08-30T13:09:51.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11060" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23895" CreationDate="2015-08-31T03:13:27.517" Score="9" ViewCount="765" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are people with supermemories, called &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/group-with-exceptional-memory-remembers-what-was-for-lunch-20-years-ago/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;highly superior autobiographical memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (HSAM), i.e., the detailed recollection of events that occurred in the distant past. Although the recollection of, say the weather on this day 15 years ago may not be entirely accurate (errors occur) and may contain gaps (maybe an hour of sunshine on a predominantly rainy day is not recollected), their memories are clearly superior nonetheless. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard these statements that all memories are stored in the brain and that the reason why we forget is because those memories are simply not accessible anymore. This would metaphorically be like the workings of a hard drive, where deletion of a file removes the flag, but the information is physically still stored, it is just invisible to the user and difficult to access. Following this reasoning, everyone would have HSAM in a way, barred that normally the memories can't readily be accessed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hypnosis-the-power-trance/200909/does-hypnosis-improve-memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypnosis&lt;/a&gt; seems to be capable of enhancing the &lt;em&gt;recollection of memories&lt;/em&gt; in people without HSAM, and hence hypnosis is said to improve memory, indirectly indicating that memory storage indeed may generally be higher than apparent in everyday life, but that the brain needs a hand in retrieving those memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are all conscious&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; memories stored, but access is permitted only when its regularly accessed, or enhanced through hypnosis or other means? In other words, does everyone have super memory like HSAM, but do people without HSAM simply lack an efficient way to access those distant memories? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; With all conscious memories I mean memories of life events that were experienced while being awake and vigilant. For the sake of question focus, I suggest disregarding life events occurring during sleep, coma, anesthesia or other periods of reduced consciousness.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorDisplayName="user3503" LastEditDate="2019-08-25T18:58:13.573" LastActivityDate="2019-08-25T18:58:13.573" Title="Are all conscious experiences stored as memories?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="11062" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-31T03:39:50.050" Score="3" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most dog owners would insist that their dogs have a strong theory of mind, and I have read abstracts that support this idea - for instance, a dog who knows better than to snatch a piece of forbidden food from a plate on the floor while his or her master is looking becomes more likely to do so when the lights are turned off, which suggests that the dog understands that the owner can't see what he or she is doing in a dark room.  I've also noticed that a dog will react differently when he or she is intentionally hurt by a mischievous child than he or she does when someone accidentally steps on his or her tail or paw.  These phenomena suggest that dogs might understand that our perception is different from theirs, and that there is a difference between intentional harm and accidental harm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of us would probably assume that higher primates are almost as skilled as we are in the use of the theory of mind, and again, I have seen research that seems to back this up.  A chimp is placed in a room with plexiglass walls.  The room faces a hallway.  A hole in the wall allows the chimp to grab fruit from a tray in the hallway.  A researcher walks into the hallway, picks up the tray, and throws it down the hall.  The chimp goes ballistic.  However, when the same process is repeated, but this time, the researcher pretends to accidentally &lt;strong&gt;trip&lt;/strong&gt; over the tray, the chimp is less agitated, and instead of throwing a tantrum, he or she merely gestures towards the tray and waits to see if it will be returned to its original position.  This suggests that chimps know the difference between accidents and intentions, which is not particularly surprising, considering how complex (and dangerous) chimpanzee society is.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Add to this anecdotal reports of whales and dolphins apparently showing gratitude when humans assist them (removing nets in which they've become tangled, for instance), and many similar accounts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we have any idea which nonhuman animals possess a theory of mind, at least to some degree?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8988" LastActivityDate="2015-09-10T07:35:36.783" Title="Which animals are thought to possess some degree of a theory of mind?" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11063" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-31T03:47:38.253" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am familiar with studies in which children are tested for theory of mind.  In one such experiment, a story is told:  Betty is playing with her doll in the bedroom.  Then she has to go to school, so she leaves the doll on her bed.  While she is at school, her mom takes the doll and puts it on the kitchen counter.  When Betty gets home, where will she look for the doll?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The correct answer is obviously &quot;On the bed&quot;, because that's where she last saw the doll.  But if the child says &quot;On the kitchen counter&quot;, he or she does not yet possess a theory of mind - he or she doesn't understand that Betty doesn't know everything that her mother knows, and has no way of knowing that the doll was moved while Betty was at school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I'm not mistaken, children normally develop theory of mind around the age of 4 or 5.  But are there any conditions or disorders unrelated to intelligence that might prevent an adult from possessing a &quot;normal&quot; theory of mind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8988" LastActivityDate="2015-08-31T03:47:38.253" Title="Are there any conditions or disorders not related to intelligence that might prevent an adult human from possessing a theory of mind?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11064" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-31T04:10:51.337" Score="5" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've always been interested in the possibility of a pair of conjoined twins, joined at the head, being able to read each other's thoughts, react to stimuli that one of them can't see/hear/feel, and being unable to keep secrets from one another.  Until recently, every pair of conjoined twins I learned about said that they are very much two different people with different personalities and emotions.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then I read a wikipedia article about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krista_and_Tatiana_Hogan&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Krista and Tatiana Hogan&lt;/a&gt;.  It was a newspaper article, unfortunately, rather than a piece in a scientific journal, but the description of the girls is exactly what I had been thinking of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one girl is blindfolded, she can see what her sister sees.  They share thoughts.  They can't keep secrets from one another.  If one of the girls hurts a limb that she controls, the other girl feels the pain as well as the girl who actually hurt herself.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious as to whether this phenomenon has been observed before.  How common is it for conjoined twins to share thoughts, see through each other's eyes, hear through each other's ears, and be incapable of keeping secrets from one another?  Has it ever been observed before this pair of twins?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8988" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-01T20:21:25.587" LastActivityDate="2016-09-01T20:54:11.570" Title="How common is it for twins conjoined at the head to share thoughts and visual stimuli?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11065" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-31T04:31:19.623" Score="5" ViewCount="374" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an unpleasant phenomenon, colloquially known as &quot;brain zaps&quot;.  It is generally associated with withdrawal from antidepressants, but this isn't always the trigger - I sometimes have it even though I've taken my mess that day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't like referring to something so unpleasant and uncomfortable by such a silly name.  Is there a proper medical term for this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8988" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-09T21:54:36.307" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T08:51:24.173" Title="Is there a less colloquial term for the phenomenon known as &quot;brain zaps&quot;?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11066" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10857" CreationDate="2015-08-31T06:10:53.367" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are referring to is something called &lt;strong&gt;dissociative fugue&lt;/strong&gt;. It is characterized as an official psychiatric disorder and dissociative disorder in the DSM-5, and its prevalence has been estimated at &lt;strong&gt;0.2%&lt;/strong&gt;, though it is much more common in connection with wars, accidents, and natural disasters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The disorder is characterized by reversible amnesia for all aspects of the self: identity, personality, memories, personal history, etc. These episodes of 'fugue' can be caused by stress (in those with the characterized disorder), but similar episodes are not considered to be 'fugue' if they were induced by other factors, such as drug ingestion, head trauma, or other conditions such as dementia. The fugue itself typically lasts anywhere between a few hours and a few days, but can occasionally last a lot longer (up to several months). It usually involves unplanned travel or wandering, and in some cases can lead someone to form a new identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After recovery, the person typically has no recollection of what happened during their amnesiac state. However, they typically remember everything that they had previously forgotten about their identity. If the episode was caused by a specific stressor (e.g. an abusive figure), the stressor may remain forgotten upon recovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the cases in which the amnesia was caused by a traumatic event, drug use, or physical trauma, then it is usually referred to as &lt;strong&gt;retrograde amnesia&lt;/strong&gt;. Similar to dissociative fugue, those who undergo retroactive amnesia typically make a spontaneous recovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Retrograde amnesia usually follows damage to areas of the brain other than the hippocampus (the part of the brain involved in encoding new memories), because already exisiting long-term memories are stored in the neurons and synapses of various different brain regions...It usually results from damage to the brain regions most closely associated with declarative (and particularly episodic) memory, such as the temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex. The damage may result from a cranial trauma (a blow to the head), a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (a burst artery in the brain), a tumour (if it presses against part of the brain), hypoxia (lack of oxygen in the brain), certain kinds of encephalitis, chronic alcoholism, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Retrograde amnesia is often temporally graded, meaning that remote memories are more easily accessible than events occurring just prior to the trauma (sometimes known as Ribot's Law after the 19th Century psychologist Théodule-Armand Ribot), and the events nearest in time to the event that caused the memory loss may never be recovered. This is because the neural pathways of newer memories are not as strong as older ones that have been strengthened by years of retrieval and re-consolidation. While there is no actual cure for retrograde amnesia, “jogging” the victim’s memory by exposing them to significant articles from their past will often speed the rate of recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.human-memory.net/disorders_retrograde.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-08-31T06:10:53.367" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11069" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11060" CreationDate="2015-08-31T09:22:01.000" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may seem far fetched at first. Give the concepts given below some time. Do your research and experiments first before disregarding the information below. In other words: You might need to put in a little effort/work for the information below to mean anything to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thomas Campbell his Theory Of Everything (TOE) has a view on this. He says you can focus your intent to get any information you desire. He compares a clear focussed intent with a proper database query. You then need to &lt;code&gt;be open&lt;/code&gt; to receive the outcome, and not distort it with your analytical mind, at first.&#xA;He has several video's where he guides you through remote viewing what is inside boxes. I was stunned to experience accuracies in my perception, over multiple times, which has proven this mechanism to work (for me) without a doubt. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are slides of one of his presentations. You can view the presentations on youtube. Search for &quot;Remote Viewing by intent&quot;.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.my-big-toe.com/uploads/HawaiiSlides.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.my-big-toe.com/uploads/HawaiiSlides.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What he mentions in his book (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intradimensions.net/mybigtoe.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.intradimensions.net/mybigtoe.pdf&lt;/a&gt;) is that your brain is the interface, but not the storage location. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see a relation here with recollecting past memories. They might well be those intent based queries. You can get better with practise on the mechanism to query, retreive and interpret the information. Whether it are 'your' memories or other information from a past event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9207" LastActivityDate="2015-08-31T09:22:01.000" CommentCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11070" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-31T12:44:50.317" Score="7" ViewCount="5353" Body="&lt;p&gt;Spiral dynamics is a developmental psychology based theory that postulates these main ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Organisms in the universe go through a predictable set of stages of psychological development. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;These stages each exhibit a set of values that the organism tries to obtain. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Their pursuit for these values are clearly observable, i.e. it is possible to identify that the organism is trying to obtain these values. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This image illustrates the different stages postulated by the theory, the characteristics of organism's behavior that are within each level, and also their overall world view.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1wYAP.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1wYAP.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a table (Dr. Clare Grave's model) that breaks down these characteristics into categories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/M6TUN.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/M6TUN.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard that this theory is credible and that there is evidence for it, though I have struggled to find any.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence that strongly suggests all living organisms/creatures/life forms, in terms of mentality, consistently travel through a set of stages, where their values (and overall objectives) are respectively: gaining assurance, obtaining survival, obtaining security, obtaining independence, and then obtaining affiliation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While Dr. Graves himself did studies to produce this theory, his methods have been criticized heavily. At this point of time, are there any other studies that suggest that the postulate mentioned is consistent with various empirical observations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8796" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-09-10T12:49:21.410" LastActivityDate="2019-03-15T23:00:37.030" Title="Is there any credible evidence for the theory of Spiral Dynamics?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11072" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-31T15:11:29.933" Score="4" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand what happens within a person's brain when a focus on an object of desire is temporarily disrupted by an outside event. In particular, what happens when the person focuses on the object of desire for the second time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is best illustrated by an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A person has a delicious cake and is ready to eat it in a common cafeteria&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A coworker interrupts the person with some work related talk&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A coworker leaves, and a person resumes focus on the cake.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens the moment the outside distraction is gone and the reward circuitry focuses on the object of desire again? &lt;strong&gt;Does the reward circuitry resume from a temporary suspension of activity, or does it reboot and start from scratch?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &lt;strong&gt;restart&lt;/strong&gt; I mean that if activity is measured, it would be very similar to the first time the cake is encountered, as if the brain is restarting the activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &lt;strong&gt;resumption&lt;/strong&gt; I mean that the activity is temporarily suspended and does not go through the same initial priming process as before. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2015-08-31T22:07:37.380" LastActivityDate="2015-08-31T22:07:37.380" Title="What happens in the brain upon a subsequent exposure to a desired stimulus within a short time?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11073" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-08-31T15:46:45.697" Score="2" ViewCount="2740" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came across the term while browsing forums, google didn't offer a direct response. It would be much appreciated if you could explain the general idea and post external links&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9211" LastActivityDate="2015-08-31T20:56:21.717" Title="What is Psychoanalysis" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11074" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11040" CreationDate="2015-08-31T16:01:48.203" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If that suffices, I can give you the classical article from the domain of language learning: &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mit.edu/6.863/www/spring2010/readings/gold67limit.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gold 1967&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic intuition is that an infinite number of grammars could explain any given set of strings. Analogously, you can probably consider fitting a polynomial to a set of points, or instances of the inverse problem (reconstructing a source from observations). In language acquisition, without some prior constraint on the to be acquired grammar, therefore, no unique convergence will happen. This has led to the Poverty of the Stimulus class of arguments, and the wide range of responses to it. There is a wide range of responses to the Gold paper - if you want more, it really depends on what specifically you're looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In practice, I don't think anyone can imagine a learner in the real world that is without constraints, first and foremost those of storage and computational power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2015-08-31T16:01:48.203" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11075" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1670" CreationDate="2015-08-31T16:05:40.010" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wilhelm 2013 What is working memory capacity, and how can we measure it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Complex span tasks (Cspan)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;reading span task (Kane et al. 2004)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;operation span task&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The rotation span task (Shah &amp;amp; Miyake 1996, adapted from Kane et al. 2004)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Updating tasks (Updating) (e.g., Miyake et al., 2000)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The verbal updating task&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the numerical updating task&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the spatial-figural updating task&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Recall 1-back (RNb) (Dobbs and Rule, 1989)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Binding tasks (Binding)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the letter-color binding task&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the word-number binding task&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Secondary memory tasks (SM)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the word-word SM task&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the letter-position SM task&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reasoning tasks (Gf)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the fluid intelligence section of the Berlin Test of Fluid and Crystallized&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence (BEFKI; Wilhelm et al., 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Tasks measuring response inhibition (Inhibition)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the Eriksen Flanker (E) task&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the Simon (S) task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9212" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-08-31T16:05:40.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11076" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11073" CreationDate="2015-08-31T20:39:53.217" Score="7" Body="&lt;h1&gt;About Psychoanalysis:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;From the American Psychoanalytic Association:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;About Psychoanalysis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychoanalysis is a method of treatment that helps people understand themselves, their relationships, and how they behave in the world. Psychoanalytic treatment is based on the idea that we are frequently motivated to act by impulses that we don’t recognize because they originate in our unconscious. These unconscious conflicts can create negative feelings – emotions such as unhappiness, anxiety, or depression – which can be expressed in many ways, including self-destructive behavior, or difficulties with personal relationships or work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychoanalysis is sometimes called the “talking cure” because during treatment the patient is encouraged to talk about everything that comes to mind: their childhood, the present, fears, thoughts and dreams. Nothing is off limits. Talking like this, with a psychoanalyst helping to identify patterns and recurring themes, helps people learn how they came to be who they are and why they do and feel the things they do. It is this understanding of oneself that paves the way toward the emotional freedom necessary to make substantive, lasting changes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The key to psychoanalytic treatment is in the relationship the patient develops with the analyst. Typically, psychoanalysis involves the patient coming several times a week, lying on a couch, and communicating as openly and freely as possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The frequency of psychoanalytic sessions is something that can be worked out between patient and analyst, but the APsaA standard is four to five sessions per week. This frequency deepens and intensifies treatment and is one of the hallmarks of psychoanalysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The couch has become so intertwined with psychoanalysis in the mind of the public that it is often used as shorthand to convey the idea of therapy. Stereotype or not, psychoanalysts still recommend its use.  Patients recline on the couch and the analyst sits right behind them, just out of view. This arrangement, which may seem unusual at first, promotes “free association,” an essential element to psychoanalysis in which patients allow their thoughts to wander freely and talk about whatever comes to mind. Being on the couch, facing away from the analyst, can also make it easier to talk about embarrassing or difficult topics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychoanalysis is a collaboration in which the patient and analyst work together to explore unconscious feelings, thoughts and conflicts through talk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;About Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sometimes also called psychodynamic psychotherapy, this treatment method is based on the theory and technique of psychoanalysis. The primary difference is that the patient and analyst meet less frequently, sometimes only once a week. As with psychoanalysis, the frequency of sessions can be customized to the needs of the patient. Another difference is that the patient usually sits upright and opposite the therapist, rather than reclining on a couch with the therapist out of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Other than these differences, psychoanalytic psychotherapy is very much like analysis in its use of free association, the importance placed on the unconscious, and the centrality of the patient-therapist relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;About Applied Psychoanalysis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Applied psychoanalysis describes the practice of using psychoanalytic theories and methods to explain social, cultural and political phenomena and has been going on since psychoanalysis first began.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Applied psychoanalysis takes the search for meaning and motivations outside of the doctor’s office, using psychoanalytic principles to make sense of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychoanalysts have been known to work as consultants in community settings, such as schools, businesses and corporations.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apsa.org/content/about-psychoanalysis&quot;&gt;American Psychoanalytic Association&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WiLtQATY_1s&quot;&gt;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WiLtQATY_1s&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;From About.com Education:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What Is Psychoanalysis?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;The Psychoanalytic Approach to Psychology&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;By Kendra Cherry&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;  &lt;em&gt;Psychology Expert&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to psychology. This school of thought emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the ego, and the superego.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Freud's theories of psychosexual stages, the unconscious, and dream symbolism remain a popular topic among both psychologists and laypersons, despite the fact that his work is viewed with skepticism by many today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many of Freud's observations and theories were based on clinical cases and case studies, making his findings difficult to generalize to a larger population. Regardless, Freud's theories changed how we think about the human mind and behavior and left a lasting mark on psychology and culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another theorist associated with psychoanalysis is Erik Erikson. Erikson expanded upon Freud's theories and stressed the importance of growth throughout the lifespan. Erikson's psychosocial stage theory of personality remains influential today in our understanding of human development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Major Thinkers Associated With Psychoanalysis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Sigmund Freud&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Anna Freud&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Erik Erikson&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Erich Fromm&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Carl Jung&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Karl Abraham&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Otto Rank&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Sabina Spielrein&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Key Psychoanalysis Terms&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Case Study&lt;/strong&gt; - An in-depth study of one person. Much of Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior. The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conscious&lt;/strong&gt; - In Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, the conscious mind includes everything that is inside of our awareness.  This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about in a rational way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Defense Mechanism&lt;/strong&gt; - A tactic developed by the ego to protect against anxiety. Defense mechanisms are thought to safeguard the mind against feelings and thoughts that are too difficult for the conscious mind to cope with. In some instances, defense mechanisms are thought to keep inappropriate or unwanted thoughts and impulses from entering the conscious mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ego&lt;/strong&gt; - The ego is the part of personality that mediates the demands of the id, the superego and reality. The ego prevents us from acting on our basic urges (created by the id), but also works to achieve a balance with our moral and idealistic standards (created by the superego).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Id&lt;/strong&gt; - The personality component made up of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs and desires.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Superego&lt;/strong&gt; - The component of personality composed of our internalized ideals that we have acquired from our parents and from society. The superego works to suppress the urges of the id and tries to make the ego behave morally rather than realistically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Unconscious&lt;/strong&gt; - A reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges and memories that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experiences even though we are unaware of these underlying influences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Criticisms of Psychoanalysis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Freud's theories overemphasized the unconscious mind, sex, aggression and childhood experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Many of the concepts proposed by psychoanalytic theorists are difficult to measure and quantify.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Most of Freud's ideas were based on case studies and clinical observations rather than empirical, scientific research.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Strengths of Psychoanalysis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;While most psychodynamic theories did not rely on experimental research, the methods and theories of psychoanalytic thinking contributed to experimental psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Many of the theories of personality developed by psychodynamic thinkers are still influential today, including Erikson's theory of psychosocial stages and Freud's psychosexual stage theory..&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Psychoanalysis opened up a new view on mental illness, suggesting that talking about problems with a professional could help relieve symptoms of psychological distress.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/a/psychodynamic.htm&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;From Psychology Today:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What Is Psychoanalysis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It began, of course, with Freud. Psychoanalysis refers both to a theory of how the mind works and a treatment modality. In recent years, both have yielded to more mainstream, research-driven approaches, but psychoanalysis is still a thriving field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Belief in the primacy of the unconscious fantasy, sexual desires (libido, penis envy, Oedipal complex), and dreams has wavered. But Freud also identified such basic mental maneuvers as transference, projection, and defensiveness, and demonstrated how they distort our functioning. As a treatment based on extended self-exploration, psychoanalysis has evolved beyond the silent-shrink stereotype.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neuropsychoanalysis is an up-and-coming subfield that aims to wed the insights of Freudian psychology and its emphasis on subjective experience with neuroscientific findings about brain processes.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/psychoanalysis&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further Reading:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wawhite.org/index.php?page=contemporary-psychoanalysis&quot;&gt;Contemporary Psychoanalysis:  William Alanson White Institute&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/psychoanalysis/&quot;&gt;Introduction to Psychoanalysis:  Purdue University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychoanalysis.org.uk/about_psa.htm&quot;&gt;Institute of Psychoanalysis:  British Psychoanalytical Society&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis&quot;&gt;Psychoanalysis:  Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personalityresearch.org/psychoanalysis.html&quot;&gt;Great Ideas in Personality:  Psychoanalysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1745-8315&quot;&gt;International Journal of Psychoanalysis:  Wiley Online Library&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ucl.ac.uk/psychoanalysis&quot;&gt;Psychoanalysis:  University College London&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/journal/psychology/section/psychoanalysis-and-neuropsychoanalysis&quot;&gt;Frontiers in Psychology:  Psychoanalysis and Neuropsychoanalysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ipa.org.uk/en/Psychoanalytic_Treatment/About__Psychoanalysis.aspx&quot;&gt;About Psychoanalysis:  International Psychoanalytical Association&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Psychoanalysis Articles From Psychology Today:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/meaningful-you/201209/resistance-and-resilience-the-couch&quot;&gt;Resistance and Resilience on the Couch&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The path through anger to need in a client-therapist relationship&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  By Kristi Pikiewicz PhD&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-imprinted-brain/201209/freud-fraud-or-folk-psychologist&quot;&gt;Freud: Fraud or Folk-psychologist?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Research reveals Freudian folk-psychology before Freud.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  By Christopher Badcock Ph.D.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/headshrinkers-guide-the-galaxy/201207/just-do-it&quot;&gt;Just Do It!&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The freedom to act as a goal of psychoanalysis&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  By Jennifer Kunst Ph.D.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201105/the-idea-wouldnt-die&quot;&gt;The Idea That Wouldn't Die&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Forget penis envy.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  By Molly Knight Raskin&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201006/therapy-watch-total-treatment&quot;&gt;Therapy Watch: Total Treatment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The benefits of psychoanalysis endure.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  By Avigail Gordon&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/what-is-he-thinking/201304/are-people-getting-more-primitive-or-is-psychoanalysis&quot;&gt;Are People Getting More Primitive, or Is Psychoanalysis?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Speculations from the sociology of knowledge&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  By Michael Bader D.M.H.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-me-in-we/201307/will-psychoanalysis-survive&quot;&gt;Will Psychoanalysis Survive?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  A dialogue on the future of Freud's science&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  By Molly S. Castelloe Ph.D.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-me-in-we/201407/pink-freud&quot;&gt;Pink Freud&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  What does psychoanalysis have to say to someone queer or trans?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  By Molly S. Castelloe Ph.D.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/psychoanalysis&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8988" LastEditorUserId="8988" LastEditDate="2015-08-31T20:56:21.717" LastActivityDate="2015-08-31T20:56:21.717" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11077" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12476" CreationDate="2015-09-01T00:16:06.863" Score="6" ViewCount="3117" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a name denoting the psychological bias where a person prefers obscure methods, things, opinions, etc. over a more popular alternative?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9213" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-11-02T14:27:22.647" LastActivityDate="2015-11-02T14:27:22.647" Title="What is the opposite of the Bandwagon Effect?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11078" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-01T00:58:02.083" Score="5" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;Those who study fiction often make certain claims, such as fiction allowing us to &quot;gain depth into the human experience&quot; and such. Psychology is the academic field which studies human behavior, and by proxy, the human mind and experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, has a fictional work or the study fiction (literary analysis) ever made a meaningful contribution to the field of psychology? Like, has a literary analyzer written a paper on friendship of fictional characters, which ended up making a contribution to some psychological theory of friendship. Or are the claims that fiction gives insight into human experience empty?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7015" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-09-01T08:36:59.490" LastActivityDate="2015-09-01T17:38:50.120" Title="Has fiction or the study of fiction ever made meaningful contributions to Psychology?" Tags="&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11079" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-01T03:02:37.367" Score="2" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to think of ways to 'measure' creativity from an objective standpoint. One way that I can think of is to show multiple different 'creations' to observers and to ask them to rate the creativity level of each creation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I am wondering if this would be an unreliable way to do it. For one thing, I am sure that creativity depends on how &lt;em&gt;novel&lt;/em&gt; the thing is &lt;em&gt;to the perceiver&lt;/em&gt;. For example, suppose I took a Harry Potter book and changed all instances of the name 'Harry Potter' to 'Jim Jones'. Someone who has never read Harry Potter before might read this book and think it extraordinarily creative, whereas a Harry Potter fan would immediately recognize it as a knock-off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I am also wondering if there is a certain talent for understanding what is creative and what isn't. There are people who 'get' art and can produce creative works of art, and there are people who find this to be difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, I was wondering if any such objective measures of creativity perception exist, and how reliable they might be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-09-01T03:02:37.367" Title="Have there been tests used to measure one's perception of how creative something is?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-03-17T20:58:13.940" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11081" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11078" CreationDate="2015-09-01T09:27:23.383" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychological scientists often cite works of fiction as sources of inspiration. In some cases, literary examples are used as illustrations of the phenomenon of interest. In others, researchers set out to test the hypotheses that are proposed or implied in fictional works. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Golding's Lord of the Flies and Zimbardo's research on deindividuation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Zimbardo &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/1201/domination.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;notes&lt;/a&gt; that his research on the effects of deindividuation in the late 1960s (Zimbardo, 1969) was inspired by literature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Ideas for my first experiments in human aggression came from discussions we had in a research seminar about Golding's Lord of the Flies.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Macbeth effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shakespeare is frequently cited as a source of inspiration. As one example, Zhong and Lilienquist (2006) have investigated whether sinful behavior prompts the need for physical cleansing - the &quot;Macbeth effect&quot;, named after Shakespeare's Lady Macbeth who is compelled to wash her hands because of the crimes she and her husband have committed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Proust phenomenon&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the famous Madeleine Episode of Marcel Proust's &quot;À la recherche du temps perdu&quot;, the narrator describes that the sensory perception of a tea-soaked madeleine has the power to elicit detailed and affectively-laden memories of a distant past. This hypothesis, which some call &quot;the Proust phenomenon&quot; has prompted a variety of empirical investigations. For example, in two experiments conducted by Chu and Downs (2002) &quot;odor-cued autobiographical memories were reliably different in terms of qualitative ratings and reliably superior in the amount of detail yielded&quot;. (Also see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5938/is-there-any-research-showing-success-of-teaching-with-smell/&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; earlier question.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chu, S., &amp;amp; Downes, J. J. (2002). Proust nose best: Odors are better cues of autobiographical memory. Memory &amp;amp; Cognition, 30, 511–518. doi:10.3758/BF03194952&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zhong, C.-B., &amp;amp; Liljenquist, K. (2006). Washing away your sins: Threatened morality and physical cleansing. Science, 313, 1451–1452. doi:10.1126/science.1130726&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zimbardo, P. (1969). The human choice: Individuation, reason, and order vs. deindividuation, impulse, and chaos. In: Arnold, W.J. and Levine, D. (eds). Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, 237-307.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-09-01T17:38:50.120" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11083" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-01T12:42:25.453" Score="6" ViewCount="424" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any papers which justify converting into log luminance? For example papers showing humans being sensitive to changes in log luminance rather than luminance &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9210" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-10-06T14:04:44.980" LastActivityDate="2015-10-06T20:52:38.763" Title="In psychophysics, why are log luminance rather than absolute luminance values reported?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11084" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-01T21:05:04.457" Score="2" ViewCount="269" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a very basic understanding of how hormones affect  behavior. Especially for Ex: when it comes to sexuality and motivation, I learnt from some sources(friends ans interesting conversations) that things like the male sexuality is dominated by hormones which have a feeling similar to fighting and conquering. Similarly, the sex hormone of females motivates women to develop feelings similar to settling, and creating a nest for their young ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if my understanding is correct, and if so, whether the sense of purpose in life, which we depend upon to make our life seem meaningful, is also related to the same hormone. I would also like to know whether the addiction to smoking, or for that matter porn is also related to human drive to find purpose in life by secreting a similar hormone and keeping us motivated. Thus, my question is to know more about the hormones and their effect on the way we feel about our life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For people who want a one line question, What is the effect of hormones on the way we sense life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be also good if someone could point me to some books or resources where I can explore this topic better and deeper&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6833" LastActivityDate="2015-09-01T21:05:04.457" Title="Role of hormones in behaviour" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-06-06T08:11:52.070" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11085" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-02T01:45:38.077" Score="2" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been looking at Diana Deutsch's &quot;speech-to-song&quot; illusion and I don't understand what she means by song. I have written a lot of music and I don't hear anything that sounds like a song in her samples. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://deutsch.ucsd.edu/psychology/pages.php?i=212&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://deutsch.ucsd.edu/psychology/pages.php?i=212&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone clarify what exactly she means by &quot;song&quot;? I read through a related &lt;a href=&quot;http://deutsch.ucsd.edu/pdf/JASA-2011_129_2245-2252.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; by here that seemed like it would have such a definition but didn't find one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastActivityDate="2015-09-02T01:45:38.077" Title="What is the definition of song in the speech to song illusion?" Tags="&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11086" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-02T03:23:09.817" Score="2" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/ADHD/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reddit&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder#cite_ref-Ramsay25_34-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wiki&lt;/a&gt; that the types of ADHD are ADHD-PI (predominantly inattentive), ADHD-C (combined) and ADHD-PH (predominantly hyperactive or impulsive).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a psychological test intended to test attention maybe like a continuous performance task or a TOVA, if a test taker scores above average overall, does that say there &quot;no evidence to ADHD&quot; or merely &quot;no evidence of ADHD-PI&quot; ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="8982" LastEditDate="2015-09-12T12:29:55.253" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T20:47:59.440" Title="Do ADHD exams necessarily test ADHD or merely ADHD-PI?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11087" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="11093" CreationDate="2015-09-02T03:33:34.187" Score="3" ViewCount="2075" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e1IEv9CA2vA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dr. Russell Barkley&lt;/a&gt; says hyperfocus goes with autism while perseveration goes with ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseveration&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;perseveration is the same as hyperfocus&lt;/a&gt; or that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hyperfocus goes with ADHD&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what's the difference? Is Dr. Russell Barkley right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastActivityDate="2015-09-10T14:23:09.710" Title="What's the difference between perseveration and hyperfocus?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11088" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-02T13:03:09.063" Score="2" ViewCount="541" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have in the back in my mind the idea that psychopaths don't like to be touched physically. However a quick google search doesn't tell me whether the idea is founded in good research or I picked it up incorrectly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do psychopaths shun physical touch and close contact?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastActivityDate="2015-09-09T09:18:53.023" Title="Do psychopaths shun physical touch?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11089" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12221" CreationDate="2015-09-02T17:38:45.043" Score="9" ViewCount="395" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in what is the mechanism that explains the recurrence or looping of thoughts within a person's mind. Unless very strongly distracted, such thoughts can creep up back or mutate slightly while maintaining the same overall theme - action is required. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my understanding both positive and negative thoughts can loop, although thoughts with the themes of fear, anxiety, compulsion or desire can be more disturbing when looping. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the mechanism behind looping or recurring thoughts?&lt;/strong&gt; In particular I'm interested if such thoughts are chemically induced through a release of some kind of neuromodulator (like fight or flight response is based on Adrenaline).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few examples, where rational thought is used to counter irrational fear or anxiety thought:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Did I forget to do X? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I really have to go to Y, but what if I did not do X?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[Imagination a horrible scenario when X is not done]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I better go check on X.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Check on X reassures the person, resulting in no new thoughts creeping in.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What interests me is what happens when the person either cannot go and check or will incur significant cost for doing so (ex: being late to work) or will try to resist the urge to check. In this case recurring thoughts can eventually reemerge and start to invade one's awareness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Did I forget to turn the stove off?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I really have to go to work.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;But the house can burn down &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I believe that nothing bad will come out of it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can't know that&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The stove has a pilot light - gas will just keep burning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;But the cat can jump on a stove and get burnt&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cat is smarter than that&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;But the house can burn down&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can become homeless&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do you have fire insurance?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[Repeat/mutate]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-09-20T15:24:27.647" Title="What is the mechanism behind recurring or looping thoughts?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11090" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12254" CreationDate="2015-09-02T22:43:39.047" Score="2" ViewCount="7075" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was playing pinball the other day, and I wasn't doing very well - my reactions were far too slow it seemed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is - Firstly - how can someone's reactivity measured/determined? I imagine there are some quite conclusive tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly - what affects people's reaction times? I imagine alcohol impairment and sleep deprivation affects them - are there other common factors? Is there anything that increases reactivity? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastActivityDate="2020-01-30T12:29:38.760" Title="How can reaction times be measured, and what affects it?" Tags="&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11091" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11050" CreationDate="2015-09-03T02:31:34.773" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In reference to your question,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A diagnosis Is not something that should be generally thrown out if someone has a mild obsession for school. If you were to go into the DSM-V and look for an actual diagnosis because the obsession seems unreasonable and interacts with daily functioning, three diagnosis would come to mind. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A spectrum disorder, such as Autism or Asperger's could be diagnosed if the obsession reaches a certain level that clearly interacts with daily functioning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obsessive Compulsive Disorder is another disorder that could be used if no other symptoms of the spectrum disorder are present. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Mild Anxiety Disorder could be diagnosed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope This Helps,&#xA;David Lopez Blass&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9075" LastActivityDate="2015-09-03T02:31:34.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11087" CreationDate="2015-09-03T03:46:04.960" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I myself have never found evidence to suggest a difference between perseveration and hyperfocus &lt;em&gt;when referring to ADHD&lt;/em&gt;. However, while 'hyperfocus' can be a psychiatric or non-psychiatric condition, perseveration is typically considered a psychiatric condition in all instances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The wikipedia page for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocus#Confusion_with_perseveration.2C_as_a_clinical_symptom&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hyperfocus&lt;/a&gt; has an entire section dedicated to the confusion between hyperfocus and perseveration, particularly as it pertains to ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hyperfocus may in some cases also be symptomatic of a psychiatric condition. In these cases it is more commonly and accurately referred to as perseveration (or perseverance) - the inability to, or impairment in, switching tasks or activities (&amp;quot;set shifting&amp;quot;), or desisting from mental or physical response repetition (gestures, words, thoughts) despite absence or cessation of a stimulus, and which is not excessive in terms of quantity but are apparently both functionless and involve a narrow range of behaviours, and are not better described as stereotypy (a highly repetitive idiosyncratic behaviour).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is typical for individuals with ADHD to say they 1), can not focus on boring things and 2), can only focus on stimulating things, and that focus is often extreme. Thus it is both a concentration deficit and over-concentration, or generically: &amp;quot;hyperfocus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-09-03T03:46:04.960" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11094" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-03T04:32:59.337" Score="0" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in how listening to different types of music (such as jazz, classical, etc.) can help some people calm down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically, how does the brain form a link between music heard and processed to the stress system? Is it some cortical association area or a direct circuit?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9227" LastActivityDate="2016-03-01T20:32:25.790" Title="How does listening to music decrease stress?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11095" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-03T07:18:34.067" Score="1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;Asking this because I participated in an MRI study today at my local University, and the compensation will be an emailed 'picture of my brain'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note that I intend this question to be catered towards the general public, and not me specifically. Replace 'I' with any arbitrary person's name. :)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-09-03T07:18:34.067" Title="Let's say I have an MRI scan of my brain. What exactly can I learn from it?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-09-17T14:24:18.917" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11097" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-03T09:47:20.407" Score="7" ViewCount="9107" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are such things as xenophobia, nationalism, etc. In other words, various forms of hating and diminishing the foreign and the foreigners. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, is there a term meaning hatred and disparagement towards your own people or culture? Some kind of your-own-nation-phobia? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't mean xenophilia, because that's affection towards foreign, it doesn't mean hatred towards your own. I mean exactly hatred towards your own people/nation/culture/etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT1: Just one of the examples of how this phenomena may work. An international conference. A person from, say, Russia, talks to a group people from various countries. Suddenly, another Russian joins the group. Our hero realizes that (either he knew that that person was a Russian beforehand or reads that on their badge) and an anger and disgust start boiling within him. He starts to be prejudiced and a bit aggressive towards his compatriot because that person is his compatriot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9228" LastEditorUserId="9228" LastEditDate="2015-09-06T06:43:40.570" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T14:29:23.703" Title="A definition of hatred towards your own nation" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11098" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-03T14:57:59.453" Score="5" ViewCount="242" Body="&lt;p&gt;Illusionist Derren Brown's video &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://youtu.be/dy75GtKsOAw&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paying with Paper&lt;/a&gt;&quot; supposedly demonstrates real-world instances whereby Brown pays for several items in cash: the rub being, the &quot;cash&quot; is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;blank&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's quite obvious that the gesture of paying is done so as to coincide with verbal assurances such as (paraphrased) &lt;em&gt;&quot;it's fine...take it...you'll feel better&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. I'm curious whether this is the primary means Brown utilises, especially given the failure with the hotdog vendor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the aforementioned questions in mind, is it all a moot point, given this quote from Brown?: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;‘(I use) magic, suggestion, psychology, misdirection and showmanship&#xA;  ...I happily admit cheating, as it’s all part of the game.  I hope&#xA;  some of the fun for the viewer comes from not knowing what’s real and&#xA;  what isn’t. I am an entertainer first and foremost’.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6915" LastActivityDate="2015-09-03T14:57:59.453" Title="Derren Brown: &quot;Paying with paper&quot;. Assuming legitimacy, is this simply ideomotor suggestion?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11099" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-03T19:46:05.563" Score="1" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does Dissociation fir with a Hierarchical Organisational model Like Luria's or Distributed model of Fellman &amp;amp; Van Essen? Also, how may patients do you think should be the minimal amount in Dissociation studies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9231" LastActivityDate="2015-09-03T19:46:05.563" Title="What is the importance of Dissociation (Both Double/Single) in a Distributed Hierarchical Organisational model of brain function?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11100" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-03T19:51:34.873" Score="9" ViewCount="4345" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does having schizophrenia cause a loss of intelligence (as measured by IQ tests)? How does present research comment on this connection, if it exists?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, is it possible to recover from this decline in IQ? If so, under what conditions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-09T19:28:39.223" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T02:19:02.370" Title="Does schizophrenia cause a loss of intelligence?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11101" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12102" CreationDate="2015-09-04T00:01:49.487" Score="3" ViewCount="874" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it really possible for someone to have both ADHD and OCD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was thinking that ADHD is the opposite of OCD: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/ADHD/comments/1eeid9/how_do_adhd_and_ocd_coexist/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/lib/ocd-and-adhd-is-there-a-connection/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;from 1:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;alexThePotato:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With ADHD you may be forgetful, distracted, make careless mistakes,&#xA;daydream, etc. With OCD, my impression is that you'd be very focused&#xA;on details, a bit perfectionist, and generally meticulous. So how do&#xA;they coexist, and what kind of behaviors do you attribute to each?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;kukienboks:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seems to me that OCD is about putting a lot of focus and energy into&#xA;unimportant things, something which Adhd-ers also can tend to do. The&#xA;main difference is probably that OCD-ers are driven by anxiety rather&#xA;than suffering from inability to prioritize tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;from 2:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also those who believe that OCD and ADHD often occur&#xA;together. This site on ADHD states, “It is not uncommon for someone to&#xA;have both ADHD and OCD.” I find this statement baffling, as the basic&#xA;symptoms of ADHD (listed below), in my opinion, seem to be in direct&#xA;contrast to those of OCD:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inattention: Having a short attention span and easily distracted.&#xA;(Most people with OCD would love to be able to not pay attention to&#xA;their thoughts.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Impulsivity: Causes a person to do dangerous or&#xA;unwise things without thinking about the consequences. (Those with OCD&#xA;do the exact opposite. They play it safe and obsess about the&#xA;consequences.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hyperactivity: Inappropriate or excessive activity.&#xA;(Those with OCD often go out of their way to do what they feel is&#xA;appropriate. Also, in Dan’s case, he often had very low energy as he&#xA;was “wiped out” from struggling with his OCD.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I read &lt;a href=&quot;https://iocdf.org/expert-opinions/expert-opinion-ocd-and-adhd-dual-diagnosis-misdiagnosis-and-the-cognitive-cost-of-obsessions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some research has suggested that OCD and Obsessive Compulsive Spectrum&#xA;Disorders fall upon a compulsive-impulsive continuum. In other words&#xA;there exists a gradient of disorders ranging from behavioral&#xA;impulsivity to compulsivity. OCD appears to lie at one end of this&#xA;spectrum, while ADHD exists at the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That reminds of this picture (&lt;a href=&quot;http://autism.wikia.com/wiki/Bipolar_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;taken from here&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xmX4w.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xmX4w.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this then mean that ADHD and OCD together is like mania and depression together? Is there a term for the former just like the latter has bipolar disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's someone in 1 who says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;ADHD makes my mind wander but then my OCD latches onto things I get so focused that nothing else exists.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and someone else who says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The OCD part of is killing me on the inside on how messy my room is. I hate messy rooms.&amp;quot;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but there seem to be contesting comments such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Actual clinical OCD is so very far from the perfectionism you're describing.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;You are confusing Obsessive Compulsive Disorder with Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder...I don't know if OCPD and be comorbid with ADHD, but I agree that intuitively they don't seem compatible. OCD on the other hand is sometimes misdiagnosed as ADHD (and vice versa) as they both involve problems with impulse control.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's another comment which might explain how ADHD and OCD are not opposites, but I'm not quite sure I understand (assuming it is right):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;they aren't opposites. OCD is when you have strong anxious compulsions&#xA;that you can't resist. ADHD is when you are unable to resist even weak&#xA;impulses. They harm the patient in a devilishly sinergistic manner -&#xA;let's take someone who already has difficulty resisting impulses, and&#xA;give her compulsions to do useless things!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it right? What exactly does that mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-09-04T03:34:04.087" Title="Can adhd and ocd coexist? Is it in the same way mania and depression can coexist (in bipolar disorder)?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;mood&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="11102" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-04T00:09:57.713" Score="1" ViewCount="387" Body="&lt;p&gt;Related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/11101/can-adhd-and-ocd-coexist-is-it-in-the-same-way-mania-and-depression-can-coexist&quot;&gt;question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mania, hypomania, depression and bipolar are &lt;a href=&quot;http://triadmentalhealth.org/the-five-5-major-categories-of-mental-illness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mood disorders&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://vignette2.wikia.nocookie.net/autism/images/d/da/Mania-Depression_Scale.gif/revision/latest?cb=20070625164835&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;from what&lt;/a&gt; I &lt;a href=&quot;http://autism.wikia.com/wiki/Bipolar_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;understand&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are ADHD and OCD under some category as well? From what I understand, the are opposite ends of some &lt;a href=&quot;https://iocdf.org/expert-opinions/expert-opinion-ocd-and-adhd-dual-diagnosis-misdiagnosis-and-the-cognitive-cost-of-obsessions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;impulsive-compulsive spectrum&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OCD is an &lt;a href=&quot;http://triadmentalhealth.org/the-five-5-major-categories-of-mental-illness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anxiety disorder&lt;/a&gt; (same link as earlier), from what I understand, but what about ADHD? Is there another description of OCD that also applies to ADHD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-05-19T13:39:23.547" Title="Are ADHD and OCD under some type of mental illness?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;mood&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12102" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11101" CreationDate="2015-09-04T03:34:04.087" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yes, they can coexist. No, they aren't opposites.&lt;/strong&gt; How could they be? Both ADHD and OCD affect a variety of different brain regions, and its effects are not consistent in every person. Maybe if OCD and all its symptoms were &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; caused by an excess of dopamine in one specific pathway in the reward system, whereas ADHD and all its symptoms was &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; caused by an decrease of dopamine in that same system, &lt;em&gt;then&lt;/em&gt; they wouldn't be compatible. But this isn't the case, and it could never be the case, because &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;the brain is more complex than that&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If mental disorders were diagnosed strictly on oppositional behaviors, then we could easily make the assertion that the &lt;em&gt;opposite&lt;/em&gt; of being inattentive would be being hyperfocused. Therefore, nobody who has an attention deficit disorder could achieve hyperfocus, right? But we know to attribute both of these behaviors to ADHD. How can this be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to remember that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;mental disorders are not behaviors&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. OCD is marked by obsessions and compulsions, and any behaviors that may arise do so in the context of &lt;em&gt;mental symptoms&lt;/em&gt;. It certainly follows that someone with OCD who has an obsessional focus on staying clean and organized will stay clean and organized -- in general, it is hard to &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; act on things that you are constantly thinking about and uncomfortable by. This is different from the child with ADHD, who &lt;em&gt;may or may not&lt;/em&gt; have trouble staying clean and organized, because to someone who doesn't have some sort of incentive (or 'motivation'), staying clean and organized is &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt; hard to force yourself to do on your own terms. And with ADHD, it can be all the more difficult to achieve that motivation, given the lack of dopamine and/or norepinephrine activity in certain parts of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, ADHD is not a 'messiness' disorder. The behavior of an ADHD sufferer arises from a complex set of symptoms, usually related to executive dysfunction. As the name may reveal, executive functioning is an abstract yet measurable concept that encompasses a variety of higher-level processes, including regulation of focus, self-management (including keeping oneself organized), and one's capacity for paying attention to detail. Any messiness that arises from this is just an effect from the cause-and-effect relationship that is ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, OCD is not a 'neatness' disorder. OCD is marked by obsessions and compulsions. A child with ADHD may have OCD and never feel any compulsion to clean a messy room. There are many different ways that obsessions and compulsions can be demonstrated. A person with OCD may perform rituals, engage in lengthy routines, avoid certain foods, or pick at their skin. They may fear or avoid strange things for no reason at all. Many people with OCD have phobias, and these phobias may interfere with normal life, such as a fear of blood leading someone to never step foot in a doctor's office. &lt;strong&gt;Perfectionism and OCD are not the same thing,&lt;/strong&gt; though perfectionism can be a quality in &lt;em&gt;both&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-09-04T03:34:04.087" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12103" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11102" CreationDate="2015-09-04T03:44:32.423" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;ADHD is considered a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurodevelopmental disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neurodevelopmental disorders are impairments of the growth and development of the brain or central nervous system. A narrower use of the term refers to a disorder of brain function that affects emotion, learning ability, self-control and memory and that unfolds as the individual grows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are correct in that OCD is generally considered an anxiety disorder. They are not the same because ADHD is characterized by cognitive impairment, and OCD is characterized by anxiety (in the form of obsessions and compulsions). However, you can find both disorders in one person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-09-04T03:44:32.423" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12104" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11097" CreationDate="2015-09-04T05:56:49.477" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The word &quot;Oikophobia&quot; has several different definitions.  In psychology, it usually means an aversion to home surroundings, or to objects in the home.  However, the British philosopher Roger Scruton coined a new meaning, which is exactly what you are looking for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The disposition, in any conflict, to side with 'them' against 'us', and the felt need to denigrate the customs, culture and institutions that are identifiably 'ours'.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  -  Roger Scruton, quoted on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=oikophobia&quot;&gt;Urban Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has a more detailed description of the term:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Scruton uses the term as the antithesis of xenophobia. In his book, Roger Scruton: Philosopher on Dover Beach, Mark Dooley describes oikophobia as centered within the Western academic establishment on &quot;both the common culture of the West, and the old educational curriculum that sought to transmit its humane values.&quot; This disposition has grown out of, for example, the writings of Jacques Derrida and of Michel Foucault's &quot;assault on 'bourgeois' society result[ing] in an 'anti-culture' that took direct aim at holy and sacred things, condemning and repudiating them as oppressive and power-ridden.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Derrida is a classic oikophobe in so far as he repudiates the longing for home that the Western theological, legal, and literary traditions satisfy. . . . Derrida's deconstruction seeks to block the path to this 'core experience' of membership, preferring instead a rootless existence founded 'upon nothing.'&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An extreme aversion to the sacred and the thwarting of the connection of the sacred to the culture of the West is described as the underlying motif of oikophobia; and not the substitution of Judeo-Christianity by another coherent system of belief. The paradox of the oikophobe seems to be that any opposition directed at the theological and cultural tradition of the West is to be encouraged even if it is &quot;significantly more parochial, exclusivist, patriarchal, and ethnocentric.&quot;  Scruton described &quot;a chronic form of oikophobia [which] has spread through the American universities, in the guise of political correctness.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Scruton's usage has been taken up by some American political commentators to refer to what they see as a rejection of traditional American culture by the liberal elite. In August 2010 James Taranto wrote a column in the Wall Street Journal entitled Oikophobia, Why the liberal elite finds Americans revolting in which he criticized supporters of the proposed Islamic center in New York as oikophobes who were defending Muslims who aimed to &quot;exploit the 9/11 atrocity&quot;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  -  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oikophobia#Scruton.27s_usage&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8988" LastActivityDate="2015-09-04T05:56:49.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12105" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-04T11:17:46.330" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to calculate likelihood ratios of test scores in clinical psychological assessment setting. In my country, validation studies for many common used tests are missing or information about sensitivity and specificity of test values are missing for certain populations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: Is it valid for me (in Czech Republic) to use information about sensitivity and specificity of the test for example from Germany or UK validation studies? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6295" LastActivityDate="2015-09-04T11:17:46.330" Title="Is it ok to use test's sensitivity and specificity from other countries?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-02T19:46:50.253" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12106" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11040" CreationDate="2015-09-04T14:20:21.187" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a related saying in statistics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;you cannot do inference without making assumptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms&lt;/a&gt; (page 26) by David J. C. Mackay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inference about the world is learning, and if you don't assume anything about the world, you can't learn to generalize. Assumptions limit your hypothesis space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2015-09-04T14:20:21.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12107" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12108" CreationDate="2015-09-04T16:04:06.227" Score="2" ViewCount="205" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many people tend to automate many mundane daily tasks by adhering to a proven routine that works and that can be equivalent to a computer script with the person implementing it being equivalent to a computer.  There are many benefits for that in that, just like there are benefits to computing automation, most notably it allows us to live efficiently and spare our mental energies for tasks that cannot be or have not yet been automated yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I am curious if there are cognitive studies that associate adherence to routine to cognitive decline.  I can imaging that, if you were doing a lot of daily tasks in the same way over and over again, you may lose your cognitive processing edge.  This is just an unconfirmed observation so I am reaching out to the community of experts (of whom I am not one) to see if there are studies about it.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, I can also see how personal routines and daily automation are an earmark of highly intelligent people who are capable of seeing patterns between two separate instances of a similar task.  But can a side effect (automation) of that initial favorable cognitive state (IQ) lead to lowered cognition as a matter of lessened daily mental workout?  In other words, can you become dull if you do things more routinely?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2453" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-09-04T17:16:08.337" LastActivityDate="2015-09-04T20:19:06.957" Title="Does adopting personal routines accelerate cognitive decline?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;automaticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12108" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12107" CreationDate="2015-09-04T20:19:06.957" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;SHORT ANSWER&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no evidence that adopting personal routines leads to cognitive decline in the way that you have described in your post. There is some evidence that a propensity against personal routine can be representative of underlying creative potential. Given that creativity is &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/52/6/1258/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;highly linked to openness to experience&lt;/a&gt; on the Big 5 measure of personality, this could be representative of higher intelligence &lt;em&gt;in certain contexts&lt;/em&gt;. However, this does not implicate that personal routines &lt;em&gt;decrease&lt;/em&gt; one's existing cognitive capacity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;LONG, DETAILED ANSWER&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your first paragraph, you refer to these daily routine tasks as 'automated', in the sense that they 'spare... mental energies for [other] tasks'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your second paragraph, you wonder if said tasks could contribute to a decline in cognitive processing, given that you are (presumably) doing many of them over a long period of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this reason, I think that a computer is not a perfect analogy. A computer may do things 'automatically' (as in, they are pre-programmed to do so). However, the computer still 'runs' this program as it would any higher-level algorithm. The automatic routine may take up less 'space', but I believe it still requires its own subroutine or threaded code (pardon me if my terminology is incorrect, I haven't quite learned how computer systems work yet), thus 'wearing down' the computer over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A human performing a daily routine is not the same as a computer performing a recursively-called subroutine. A human performing a routine is engaging in an &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;unconscious&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and regularly-repeating habit. Because these habits are unconscious, they do not contribute to cognitive decline in the way that you are referring to. Certain routines may be harmful for other reasons (e.g. routine shopping trips without knowledge of money management, routines that aid procrastination, etc.), but in many ways, routines can actually &lt;em&gt;reduce cognitive load&lt;/em&gt;, thus freeing up the mind to focus on other things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The downside is that they take longer to implement, unlike an algorithm. &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejsp.674/abstract;jsessionid=169ACF6D3561118FDBBF22235A85F4CD.f01t03&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lally et. al (2009)&lt;/a&gt; found that habits take anywhere from 18-254 days to become asymptotically 'automatic', with an average of 66 days. They are also harder to eliminate if they turn out to be harmful. This is augmented by the fact that the basal ganglia remembers the 'triggers' that helped initialize the routine in the first place, and thus routines can be revived if the triggers reappear. (As this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnet.com/news/mit-explains-why-bad-habits-are-hard-to-break/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article from MIT points out&lt;/a&gt;, &quot;Old habits don't die. They hibernate.&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the third paragraph in your question: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On the other hand, I can also see how personal routines and daily automation are an earmark of highly intelligent people who are capable of seeing patterns between two separate instances of a similar task. But can a side effect (automation) of that initial favorable cognitive state (IQ) lead to lowered cognition as a matter of lessened daily mental workout? In other words, can you become dull if you do things more routinely?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think that daily automation and personal routines are necessarily the 'earmark of highly intelligent people...' in the way you are describing. Given that automatic routines are unconscious activities, they are marked by a &lt;em&gt;lack&lt;/em&gt; of cognitive processing, no?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the ability to develop and stick to a pre-planned routine to the point that it becomes automatic does depend, to some extent, on specific areas of the brain that help regulate executive functioning. I already mentioned the basal ganglia, but the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;prefrontal cortex&lt;/a&gt; (and other areas of the frontal lobe) have been implicated in planning complex cognitive behavior, as well as decision making. These areas are further responsible for task switching, as well as cognitive inhibition of unnecessary impulses and short-term gratification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ itself is not necessarily a matter of activity in the prefrontal cortical regions. You can have a high IQ and have decreased dopamenigernic activity in the mesolimbic reward pathway, thus making it more difficult to automate &lt;em&gt;desired&lt;/em&gt; behaviors. You may also find yourself struggling with complex cognitive planning if you have decreased network connections in your prefrontal cortex. However, your intelligence quotient &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.larspenke.eu/pdfs/Deary_Penke_Johnson_2010_-_Neuroscience_of_intelligence_review.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;depends on a variety of other neuroanatomical factors&lt;/a&gt; besides chemical activity in these regions. The size and shape of the frontal lobes, the amount of blood in the frontal lobes, the total amount of gray matter in the brain, the overall thickness of the cortex, and the glucose metabolic rate all seem to affect IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of making oneself cognitively 'dull' by use of routine, I wouldn't necessarily go that far; however, it is worth mentioning a phenomenon called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_inhibition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;latent inhibition&lt;/a&gt;, which is a personality trait in humans (some more or less than others) in which routine or familiar events become hardly noticeable. Those with low latent inhibition may perceive stimuli as if it were brand new (like a child seeing the world for the first time). From the section on low latent inhibition (courtesy of Wikipedia):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Most people are able to ignore the constant stream of incoming stimuli, but this capability is reduced in those with low latent inhibition. Low latent inhibition (that may resemble hyper-activity or ADHD in early decades of the individual life) seems to often not correlate with distracted behaviors. This distractedness can manifest itself as general inattentiveness, a tendency to switch subjects without warning in conversation, and other absentminded habits. This is not to say that all distractedness can be explained by low latent inhibition, nor does it necessarily follow that people with low LI will have a hard time paying attention. It does mean, however, that the higher quantity of incoming information requires a mind capable of handling it. Those of above average intelligence are thought to be capable of processing this stream effectively, enabling their creativity and increasing their awareness of their surroundings. Those with average and, less than average intelligence, on the other hand, are less able to cope and as a result are more likely to suffer from mental illness and sensory overload. It is hypothesized that a low level of latent inhibition can cause either psychosis or a high level of creative achievement or both, which is usually dependent on the individual's intelligence. When they cannot develop the creative ideas, they become frustrated and/or depressive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in short, a natural propensity against personal routine may (or may not) be a sign of underlying creative potential, as low latent inhibition may make it naturally difficult to develop and stick with routines to the point of automaticity. However, like many things, this requires context and is not a blanket statement that can generalize people at large.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-09-04T20:19:06.957" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12109" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11087" CreationDate="2015-09-05T03:56:30.897" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually,if you saw a few of Dr. Barkley's presentations. He referred to people with autism spectrum disorder as hyperfocus because they focused immensely on fine details of their sensations and their environments. While this hyperfocus, lacks the big picture perception. For instance, the child with autism might focus on the car wheel, while not attending to the car itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While perseveration was well defined by the &quot;upstairs&quot; author.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: &#xA;Scientists would agree that they have what the ADHD community defines hyperfocus, but some (not all) psychologist/psychiatrist would not appreciate the use of this term based on the definition alone. They would disagree on the word used to define it. They would agree that people with ADHD have perseveration, but not hyperfocus (based on the definition alone). There is science to backup issues related to perseveration. While positive aspects of perseveration is probably lacking in the literature (since that's harder to look for). Hyperfocus would be kept for the autistic symptoms of focusing far too much on one element or detail and not perceiving the remaining of the item for instance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make things more complicated, I know there is one psychiatrist who uses the term hyperfocus (although probably not in thescientific literature). His name is Edward Hallowell. He's more of a clinicians and a book writer than a scientist from what I remember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7453" LastEditorUserId="7453" LastEditDate="2015-09-10T14:23:09.710" LastActivityDate="2015-09-10T14:23:09.710" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12111" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-05T14:22:37.000" Score="14" ViewCount="3165" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read some books from behavioral economy to emotional intelligence, and it kind of makes sense, but when it comes to psychology it feels to me a bit like astrology, where there are some things that can work, but mostly because of auto-suggestion, or any other kind of suggestions, and things like the placebo (or even the nocebo) effect. So, I wonder if psychology is a science and why so many people rely on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2516" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-09-05T19:56:12.303" LastActivityDate="2017-08-01T15:04:56.543" Title="Is psychology a science?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12112" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-05T15:20:26.597" Score="1" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can people CBT themselves, if so are there any simple techniques and strategies that could be used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9238" LastActivityDate="2015-09-07T20:58:23.443" Title="Self CBT techniques and strategy" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12113" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12111" CreationDate="2015-09-05T18:39:36.037" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Science&lt;/a&gt;&quot; refers to a methodology for obtaining knowledge, and often to the knowledge itself as well.  Science is often confused with another term &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;technology&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, that refers to the application of such knowledge for practical uses.  Some people might incorrectly refer to &quot;computers&quot; and &quot;cars&quot; as examples of &quot;science&quot;, when in fact they are examples of &quot;technology&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology is similarly divided.  The science part is called &quot;research psychology&quot;, or just &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychology&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  The technology part is called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;applied psychology&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, that includes psychotherapy, and I think that's what this question is really about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clinical psychology is not technically a science, but an applied science, or in other words, a technology.  If you are wondering how science-based different schools of psychotherapy are, then check out this related question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9929/which-schools-of-psychotherapy-are-most-credible-to-a-hard-scientist&quot;&gt;Which schools of psychotherapy are most credible to a hard scientist?&lt;/a&gt;.  If you've seen a psychoanalyst recently for example, and you think it's kinda hoaky, well then, you're probably right - &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychoanalysis&lt;/a&gt; is not generally considered to be science-based, and is comparable to astrology (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psuedoscience&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pseudoscience&lt;/a&gt;) in that sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, other schools of psychotherapy have a more scientific basis: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive-behavioural therapy&lt;/a&gt; has been shown to be efficacious (above placebo) for a wide variety of common disorders, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviour_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;behavioural therapy&lt;/a&gt; bases all its techniques directly on scientific findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-04-23T17:41:34.260" LastActivityDate="2017-04-23T17:41:34.260" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12114" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-05T23:28:35.280" Score="1" ViewCount="235" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this episode: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sMgTIAUt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sMgTIAUt&lt;/a&gt;... Derren Brown used multiple methods to induce a dream. The method I wanted to understand was when he puts his subject into a trance and then plays the video of flashing images with a song behind it. When the subject is sent off to bed and he enters REM sleep Derren Brown plays the music that was played during the video the subject watched when he was in a trance. I am a self taught hypnotist and was wondering why this worked. Did the song become like an anchor (a method used to associate a suggestion with a sound, object ext.) or something entirely different. is it possible to create a similar video put a friend in trance and induce a different dream? any ideas how to recreate this act would be extremely helpful. thank you for your help!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9244" LastActivityDate="2015-09-05T23:28:35.280" Title="How did Derren Brown (a hypnotist) do the &quot;how to influence dreams&quot; act?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-11-13T04:40:49.420" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12115" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12180" CreationDate="2015-09-06T08:37:47.947" Score="7" ViewCount="1026" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intuitively, I imagine that men are strongly subject to optimism bias when dating, and in particular facing rejection. (ie. not believing that she's really not attracted to him). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How well studied is this? What methods of study do they use?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How prevalent is it amongst men? (Are all men subject it it?)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How strong is the bias? By how much do men overvalue their attractiveness? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How does this compare with women? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastActivityDate="2016-07-31T09:36:24.467" Title="Are men subject to optimism bias when it comes to assessing their sexual/romantic appeal?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12116" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-06T10:01:49.217" Score="10" ViewCount="165" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm primarily interested in learning about current computational models that explain &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=5&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CDgQFjAEahUKEwixzoOok-LHAhXTcY4KHZiwCbA&amp;amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FCortical_magnification&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNGFwTHaoHyEBn3IazMfnEsg1yZ6uA&quot;&gt;cortical magnification&lt;/a&gt; in the visual system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this in mind, my specific questions are: (1) Is this phenomenon a result of the synaptic pruning that takes place in the early years of development?&#xA;(2) If not, is it a separate &quot;learning&quot; process along the lines of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=4&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CDcQFjADahUKEwiI_6i4kuLHAhVBI44KHQoeDcQ&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2F677048.stm&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNFmMRiFWjhbVgLW3ioPzL_Y-Vv0iw&quot;&gt;hippocampus enlargement in London cab drivers&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would personally like it if the answers were (1) NO (2) YES, but I'd like to know what the latest science says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4424" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-09-06T22:16:51.907" LastActivityDate="2017-06-01T17:52:04.940" Title="Is cortical magnification in the visual system related to synaptic pruning, or is it a separate developmental or learning process?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12118" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12184" CreationDate="2015-09-06T20:00:36.677" Score="5" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a set of 20 participants for a study who were given a 7-point Likert scale that was made incorrectly by a graduate student. The student accidentally did not add the 6th answer level. The scale for these 20 participants arguably has no validity now. However, I am hoping there is a way to use it for a pilot or preliminary poster. The study will continue for a couple years and is proposed to have 300 participants. But I would like to use these 20 participants for a small pilot or preliminary poster. Is there a way for me to still use that scale (missing the 6th answer option) and the 20 participants? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if I can impute it because the data is not MCAR, the answer level was not added to the scale as it should have been. But can I weight the low and high-ends of it or something still? I would like to see if the measured construct from that scale relates to either another variable (such as Engagement) or the outcome variable. It is a longitudinal study, they come in once a week for three weeks. Each time they come in to the lab and use the online intervention they take the scale three times (i.e., Baseline, after first half of website, and then after second half of website), which means we have each participants using the scale 9 times. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9250" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-09-15T09:59:18.067" LastActivityDate="2015-09-15T15:07:35.067" Title="Can we use a scale even if one of the answer levels was not added?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12119" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-06T20:10:02.527" Score="3" ViewCount="313" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is the American Psychiatric Association's standard reference for psychiatry &lt;strong&gt;which includes over 450 different definitions&lt;/strong&gt; of mental disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I haven't been able to find this information on any credible (government or academic) websites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a more credible source for determining the number of diagnosable mental disorders in the DSM?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9251" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-06-23T03:49:26.123" LastActivityDate="2018-05-16T06:37:15.580" Title="How many diagnosable mental disorders are included in the DSM?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12124" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-07T07:33:11.093" Score="4" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know next to nothing about intervention methods designed for dyscalculia, or 'dyslexia with numbers', as I have heard it colloquially referred to (considering how obscure the term seems to be compared to its language-related twin). I have also read that dyslexia and dyscalculia often occur in conjunction, and both seem to affect the population at equal rates. Yet I can find far more literature and neurological research on dyslexia than on dyscalculia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a reason for this?&lt;/strong&gt; And what do we know about dyscalculia from a neurological standpoint, as well as a treatment standpoint? (By 'neurological standpoint', I mean what do we know about neurological causes and/or areas of the brain that appear to be affected in those with dyscalculia)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2016-07-23T03:49:02.293" Title="Why do we have so much neurological research on and treatment designed for dyslexia, yet less so for dyscalculia?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12125" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12134" CreationDate="2015-09-07T08:08:26.193" Score="1" ViewCount="17986" Body="&lt;p&gt;Aside from How I Met Your Mother, The Simpsons (or Finding Nemo, if that counts, which i don't think it does), are there any movies or series involving someone explicitly stated or highly believed to have ADHD? I can't seem to find any on Google.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are movies or series about schizophrenia such as A Beautiful Mind, bipolar such as Silver Linings Playbook and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_mental_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;then there's this&lt;/a&gt;, but I can't seem to find any for ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course there are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/ADHD/comments/1wjsfu/movies_with_adhd_characters/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;endless speculations&lt;/a&gt; on forums everywhere, but these are speculations likely from not properly educated people (e.g. not psychologists).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example if this question was asking about OCD or Asperger's would be Sheldon Cooper from The Big Bang Theory. The show or creators have never stated any diagnosis, but people highly believe such. Sheldon even has his own &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/aspergers-diary/200904/sheldony-or-aspergery-the-big-bang-theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article on psychologytoday&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="8982" LastEditDate="2021-03-27T07:03:22.487" LastActivityDate="2021-04-11T05:49:18.307" Title="Are there any movies or series involving someone with ADHD?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12126" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-07T08:21:53.313" Score="2" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;In order to estimate probability of default, banks and other financial institutions have often used logistic regression based on data involving credit history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose an entrepreneur or borrower with little credit or business history goes to a bank or some financial institution to borrow money.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Banks can use, as an alternative to a credit or business history, 'psychometric' or 'behavioural' tests. Hence, the bank will use some psychometric data, instead or with credit history data when using logistic regression to estimate probability of default.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can Bayesian inference improve upon such logistic regression wherein psychometric data is used?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I previously asked about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/163034/bayesian-logit-model-intuitive-explanation&quot;&gt;Bayesian logit model&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/10721/how-can-psychometric-or-behavioural-tests-be-used-in-banking-to-evaluate-creditw&quot;&gt;psychometrics&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far, all I found are these EFL papers: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/akhwaja/papers/EFLpaper2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eflglobal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/EFL-Technical-Note-July-2012_s.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone know any other literature out there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8868" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-09-12T09:12:16.897" Title="How can Bayesian inference improve upon logistic regression in incorporating psychometric data?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12127" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-07T08:40:05.010" Score="2" ViewCount="1971" Body="&lt;p&gt;What kind of processes are &quot;top-down&quot; and &quot;bottom-up&quot; processes in the context of processing visual information in brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Context:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...There are discrete areas in the visual cortex dedicated to identifying specific aspects of vision – vertical or horizontal lines, colour or movement, for example. These elements are brought together to ensure that the total image arrives consistently in space and time. And even while our brains are swiftly adjusting to focus on the scene before us, images established in memory form feedback loops to confirm that we recognise what we have seen before, mediating prior knowledge into perception. As we acquire this personal knowledge then, &lt;strong&gt;we impose ‘top-down’ concepts on to ‘bottom-up’ perceptions&lt;/strong&gt;. When we look at a cluttered scene in front of our eyes we may receive only partial information but our brains automatically fill in the gaps to make sense of things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9258" LastActivityDate="2015-09-07T21:17:38.740" Title="&quot;top-down&quot; and &quot;bottom-up&quot; processes" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12129" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-07T16:41:06.463" Score="2" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a Computer Science Student and recently studied neural networks, but theory only. How can this be implemented in real time programming language. What should I search for or what content should I read so that I can do programs using neural network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5127" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-10-06T00:13:45.697" LastActivityDate="2015-10-06T07:18:05.233" Title="How to begin neural network Programming" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-10-09T17:58:03.327" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12130" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12129" CreationDate="2015-09-07T17:22:33.600" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;A google search for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&amp;amp;ion=1&amp;amp;espv=2&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8#q=neural%20network%20library&quot;&gt;neural network library&lt;/a&gt; will return many relevant pages, with neural network libraries written in several programming languages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also look for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&amp;amp;ion=1&amp;amp;espv=2&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8#q=programming%20a%20perceptron%20tutorial&quot;&gt;tutorials on programming perceptrons&lt;/a&gt; which are among the most basic neural networks. This would teach you how to actually program the network from scratch, instead of using a pre-made library.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.codeproject.com/Articles/14342/Designing-And-Implementing-A-Neural-Network-Librar&quot;&gt;This walkthrough&lt;/a&gt; covers the development of a more complex neural network library if you are looking to jump right into building multilayer networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-09-07T17:22:33.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12131" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12112" CreationDate="2015-09-07T20:58:23.443" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the above poster mentioned, CBT is a recognition of unhelpful or destructive patterns of thinking. And thus, though it may be aided by a professional, it is largely 'performed' by means of the self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, the utilization of CBT techniques without guidance from a trained professional may or may not be beneficial, depending on the person. Without professional guidance, it is difficult to know where to look for information, and to know what sort of information is reliable. Furthermore, it can be difficult to stick to a behavioral routine, or to learn for oneself what to believe and what not to believe. In fact, evidence has occasionally shown that professionally-guided self-help is the only significant means of self-help, in terms of beneficial effect. [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, other studies have shown that self-help CBT is more effective than TAU (treatment as usual) in the long run. [2] Though I think it is worth mentioning that participants in these trials were given clinically approved CBT manuals, as well as a regime to follow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, it may be best to view CBT like one may view taking medication. If you are relying on anecdotal evidence or advice from non-professionals, you may be setting yourself up for failure in the long run (or even damaging yourself further). On the other hand, if you were to consult a trained professional for advice and then follow that advice, then you may have better luck. However, I am not sure if this constitutes as 'self-CBT' in the way that you are describing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources used&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Gellatly, Judith; Bower, Peter; Hennessy, SUE; Richards, David; Gilbody, Simon; Lovell, Karina (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=1285276&amp;amp;fileId=S0033291707000062&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;What makes self-help interventions effective in the management of depressive symptoms? Meta-analysis and meta-regression&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Psychological Medicine 37 (9): 1217–28.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Williams, Christopher; Wilson, Philip; Morrison, Jill; McMahon, Alex; Andrew, Walker; Allan, Lesley; McConnachie, Alex; McNeill, Yvonne et al. (2013). Andersson, Gerhard, ed. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3543408/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Guided Self-Help Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Depression in Primary Care: A Randomised Controlled Trial&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-09-07T20:58:23.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12127" CreationDate="2015-09-07T21:17:38.740" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Top-down knowledge&lt;/strong&gt; is knowing what a target &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt;. When detecting an object, the rate at which you can detect it (measured via reaction time, or 'RT') is partially dependent on how fast you can identify it based on its sensory features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bottom-up knowledge&lt;/strong&gt; is integrating recognition of the &lt;em&gt;features&lt;/em&gt;, or the &lt;em&gt;dimensions&lt;/em&gt; of an object, such as its color, orientation, and visibility. Neighbouring locations containing items with similar features tend to&#xA;inhibit each other, whereas neighbouring locations containing different features tend to activate each other, thus lending to the saliency of an object. Think of how salient a bright red stop sign is in the dark, and consider why that may be important to ensure the safety of nighttime drivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once top-down and bottom-up systems have calculated their outputs, they are summed together in a spatially-guided 'activation map', thus lending itself to perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both are important for object recognition and reaction time. For example, you must use top-down processing while driving to recognize that a streetlight is a streetlight. You then use bottom-up processing to recognize if the light is red, green, or yellow. Both are important mechanisms of perceptions to use, so that you can act appropriately and avoid an accident on the road.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are curious and want to read more, &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.umass.edu/~psyc241/Department%20research/cognitive/KyleCavechildrensearch.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; examines both top-down and bottom-up mechanisms in visual search, and may prove useful to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-09-07T21:17:38.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12133" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11100" CreationDate="2015-09-07T22:28:19.440" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Regarding schizophrenia and loss of IQ&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know how much we can say about the 'loss' of IQ in schizophrenia patients. If anything, it appears to me that a decrease in overall IQ is augmented by the cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia. This isn't to say that you can't increase your IQ with certain interventions, which I will touch on briefly in a second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But first, understand that IQ depends on a number of neuroanatomical factors. Among them is volume of grey and white matter in the brain, which is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC58784/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;notably decreased at an accelerated pace in early-onset schizophrenic patients&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;General intelligence (g) is also highly correlated with fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence generally correlates with measures of abstract reasoning and puzzle solving, whereas crystallized intelligence correlates with abilities that depend on knowledge and experience, such as vocabulary, general information, and analogies (see: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence#Factor_structure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Factor structure&lt;/a&gt;). Administered IQ tests, such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) are particularly concerned with measuring fluid intelligence. For this reason, a deficit in one usually mandates a deficit in overall IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fluid intelligence is more susceptible to brain injury, and in particular appears to be affected by both &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar_url?url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Burgess/publication/15407200_Fluid_intelligence_after_frontal_lobe_lesions/links/545a965b0cf2c46f664384cc.pdf&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;scisig=AAGBfm08t4nCfH-YvRX_nA8ak7dwQmEgrw&amp;amp;nossl=1&amp;amp;oi=scholarr&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frontal lobe damage&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1999-11137-004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;deficits in working memory&lt;/a&gt;. There is evidence that suggests that patients with schizophrenia have &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1995-13661-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dysregulated prefrontal cortices&lt;/a&gt; among other frontal lobe abnormalities. Furthermore, schizophrenia patients often have &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/22/9/3708.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;abnormal deficits in working memory&lt;/a&gt;. For these reasons, schizophrenia may be associated with impairments in cognitive / executive functioning and fluid intelligence, thus lending towards a lower overall IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, there are studies that have not found conclusive evidence that suggests a direct link between &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schres-journal.com/article/S0920-9964(98)00010-3/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;schizophrenia and low IQ&lt;/a&gt; in adulthood (though there may be some link in childhood).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Regarding the recovery of lost IQ&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Medications used to treat cognitive deficits (such as those used to treat ADHD) have &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15965546&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;repeatedly shown an increase in overall IQ score&lt;/a&gt; after long-term use, so I am thinking that medication would be the best route for IQ recovery. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note that this effect does not apply to otherwise high-functioning individuals. In other words, those without cognitive impairment tend to react to psychostimulant medication in ways that are wholly negative and harmful.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also mentioned above that there is no clear link between adulthood schizophrenia and low IQ, though there is a 7-8 average point decrease found in children. This is similarly consistent with other neurodevelopmental disorders, and may be related to the malleability in the brain. In other words, time and dedication (possibly including brain training, though there is controversy surrounding its benefits) can help restore cognitive abilities that may be reduced or damaged due to schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a related note, it is worth mentioning that there is a modern-day theory going around surrounding the topic of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_inhibition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;latent inhibition&lt;/a&gt; and schizophrenia. The assumption is that schizophrenia is linked to low latent inhibition (with LI referring to the ability to ignorant irrelevant sensory stimuli), and this persistent cognitive overload leads to psychosis, difficulty in focusing on cognitively-intensive tasks, and occasional creative genius. This effect appears to be reduced in patients who seek medical treatment for their schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;With human subjects, there is evidence that acute, non-medicated schizophrenics show reduced LI compared to chronic, medicated schizophrenics and to healthy subjects, while there is no difference in the amount of LI in the latter two groups. [....] In summary, the basic LI phenomenon represents some output of a selective attention process that results in learning to ignore irrelevant stimuli. It has become an important tool for understanding information processing in general, as well as attentional dysfunctions in schizophrenia, and it has implications for a variety of practical problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-09-07T22:28:19.440" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12134" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12125" CreationDate="2015-09-08T00:29:22.507" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem with ADHD is that it doesn't really have its own trademark indicator, the way that schizophrenia or Asperger's might. There are several different subtypes of ADHD, and they tend to look different from each other, particularly in the instance of ADHD with hyperactivity and ADHD-PI (primarily inattentive). Even then, there are plenty of disorders that mimic the characteristics of ADHD (such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histrionic_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;histrionic personality disorder&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_cognitive_tempo&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;sluggish cognitive tempo&lt;/a&gt;), and so it is really difficult to tell whether or not a character has ADHD, a mood disorder, an anxiety disorder, or something else entirely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, movies like A Beautiful Mind are autobiographical in nature and tend to focus primarily on the disorder and its deleterious effects on an otherwise prominent individual. This is difficult to do with ADHD, because the symptoms of ADHD are often mistaken for laziness, naïveté, sluggishness, rashness, and a variety of other negative personality traits. On the other hand, disorders like schizophrenia are rarely mistaken for personality traits. It is very clear (in the case of John Nash) that there was something going on almost unrelated to the man himself. Take the description of the movie for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The story begins in the early years of a young prodigy named John Nash. Early in the film, Nash begins to develop paranoid schizophrenia and endures delusional episodes while painfully watching the loss and burden his condition brings on wife Alicia and friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You would rarely hear such a description of an individual with ADHD, because ADHD is often early-onset, and so the difference between one's natural personality and a neurodevelopmental disorder is not always clear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On top of that, characters are often portrayed as having symptoms of ADHD, but it is considered to be a part of their personality used for comedic effect. Other times, their ADHD-like characteristics may be attributed to other disorders, such as the case of Cat Valentine in the Disney Channel show 'Victorious', who suffers from bipolar disorder (as per the show's storyline) yet her characteristics are speculatively more along the lines of ADHD, or even dependent personality disorder. This opens up a can of worms to debate against, however, as characteristics can only serve as &lt;strong&gt;implications&lt;/strong&gt; of a disorder, and are not enough to diagnose a person in general. Furthermore, even a professional cannot &lt;em&gt;diagnose&lt;/em&gt; a character and call it a day, as characters are under the artistic license of the producers and thus there is nothing definitive a professional can say about them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of characters, it is speculated that Tigger from Winnie the Pooh has classic ADHD (as seen &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bouldertherapist.com/html/humor/MentalHealthHumor/childhoodcharacters.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, though this is largely meant to be humorous). It is also thought that Winnie the Pooh himself has primarily inattentive ADHD. The character Tony Stark of Iron Man is so highly speculated to have ADHD that I have heard him being used as an 'example' of a superhero with ADHD, so that children who struggle with the disorder can feel more confident about their abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of confirmed characters, I know of very little. After further research, I know that the character Lucy Knight of the show 'E.R.' was on Ritalin (a medication used to treat ADHD). I have also repeatedly read that Luna Lovegood of Harry Potter has ADHD-PI, but I think that her character is too broad for any diagnosis. I don't know if Bradley Cooper's character in Limitless has ADHD or not, as the whole plot seems to be akin to the effects of someone unintentionally taking Adderall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that this isn't a movie or show, but Calvin from the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes series is confirmed to have ADHD, as per the creator of the strip and as demonstrated &lt;a href=&quot;http://images.elephantjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/PNzfq.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;in this comic&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;: Forgot to mention this, but the character Michael Scofield of Prison Break is diagnosed with low latent inhibition, which is often used interchangeably with ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="13054" LastEditDate="2016-11-21T07:25:36.677" LastActivityDate="2016-11-21T07:25:36.677" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12135" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10987" CreationDate="2015-09-08T03:00:58.233" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many studies suggesting an increased alpha activity during mindfulness/meditation (Delmonte, 1984). Below is a table from Cahn &amp;amp; Polich (2006) summarizing the recent studies of meditation using EEG methods, not all of them mentioned it's eyes open or not, but the effect of increased alpha power can be long lasting(Davidson &amp;amp; Lutz, 2008), thus higher alpha activity should be observed during eyes open as well. The article also points out that the increased alpha power is related to increased relaxation induced by mindfulness/meditation practice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;May not relevant to your question, but it might be interesting to look at theta power as well, since it's mentioned together with alpha in quite a few studies(Dunn et al., 1999;Lagopoulos et al., 2009; Ivanovski &amp;amp; Malhi, 2007) . &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/egLGN.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/egLGN.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Delmonte, M. M. (1984). Electrocortical activity and related phenomena associated with meditation practice: A literature review. International Journal of Neuroscience, 24(3-4), 217-231.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cahn BR, Polich J (2006) Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies. Psychological Bulletin 132: 180–211. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Davidson RJ, Lutz A (2008) Buddha's Brain: Neuroplasticity and Meditation. IEEE Signal Process Mag 25: 176–174. doi: 10.1109/msp.2008.4431873&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dunn, B. R., Hartigan, J. A., &amp;amp; Mikulas, W. L. (1999). Concentration and mindfulness meditations: unique forms of consciousness?. Applied psychophysiology and biofeedback, 24(3), 147-165.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lagopoulos, J., Xu, J., Rasmussen, I., Vik, A., Malhi, G. S., Eliassen, C. F., ... &amp;amp; Ellingsen, Ø. (2009). Increased theta and alpha EEG activity during nondirective meditation. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 15(11), 1187-1192.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ivanovski, B., &amp;amp; Malhi, G. S. (2007). The psychological and neurophysiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of meditation. Acta neuropsychiatrica, 19(2), 76-91.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastActivityDate="2015-09-08T03:00:58.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12140" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11048" CreationDate="2015-09-09T01:10:21.430" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It might be a way of distracting ourselves, to change the subject and deviate the focus from thoughts we don't like to anything our mind makes up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When anxiety becomes overwhelming, it is the ego's place to protect the person by employing defence mechanisms. Guilt, embarrassment and shame often accompany anxiety.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanisms&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also possible that some of us use this as a way to acknowledge their feelings of shame. we can see this when laughing (when its a honest laughter), as it effectively relax the athmosphere. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But in any case, we can't &quot;get rid&quot; of a thought. It is only discarded from the present moment and may be intrusive again at another inopportune moment; until we address the issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4173" LastActivityDate="2015-09-09T01:10:21.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12141" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-09T03:39:32.850" Score="2" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question concerns only written sentences, and presumes that longer sentences are more difficult to understand, a presumption which consists with the formula behind &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flesch%E2%80%93Kincaid_readability_tests&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Flesch–Kincaid readability tests&lt;/a&gt; (which I discovered from the first paragraph &lt;a href=&quot;https://quidditycirce.wordpress.com/2008/09/06/on-the-necessity-of-long-sentences/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hereof&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What specific  capabilities, knowledge, or skills are needed to ameliorate understanding of longer sentences (&lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/a/4954/50720&quot;&gt;which were more common in the past&lt;/a&gt;  in English and the Romance languages)? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What empowered olden people to communicate  comfortably with longer sentences? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why do we today find them more difficult? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, despite not having studied linguistics separately, did learning Latin and Greek impart the olden people with some linguistics that cultivated their fluency with longer sentences? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2015-09-09T03:39:32.850" Title="What skills or mental proceses improve understanding of longer written sentences?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-10T14:07:58.313" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12144" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="699" CreationDate="2015-09-09T15:50:23.187" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;You should have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.otree.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;otree&lt;/a&gt;, &quot;a Django-based framework for implementing multiplayer decision strategy games&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is manly designed for experimental economics, but it is a very neat and versatile piece of software, and I am sure you could actually run most psychological experiment with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once the experiment is coded, it only requires internet access and a browser on the part of the participant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Big plus&lt;/strong&gt; : otree comprises functionalities to connect with Amazon Mechanical Turk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4008" LastActivityDate="2015-09-09T15:50:23.187" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12145" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2015-09-09T16:00:05.240" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You should have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.otree.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;otree&lt;/a&gt;, &quot;a Django-based framework for implementing multiplayer decision strategy games&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is manly designed for experimental economics, but it is a very neat and versatile piece of software, and I am sure you could actually run most psychological experiment with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once the experiment is coded, it only requires internet access and a browser on the part of the participant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Big plus&lt;/strong&gt; : otree comprises functionalities to connect with Amazon Mechanical Turk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Caveat&lt;/strong&gt; : I don't know if collecting reaction time data is a baseline option, but it should not be too hard to code into the framework.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4008" LastEditorUserId="4008" LastEditDate="2016-05-21T22:06:17.987" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T22:06:17.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12146" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-09T02:22:04.647" Score="7" ViewCount="287" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I was reading a marketing textbook, I came across a paragraph that stated research has shown children as young as two can show brand preference (although I haven't yet searched for the source in the back of the book to check what research it's referring to.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research shows that children evidence brand preferences at age two, and these preferences often last a lifetime. This knowledge prompted the licensing of the well-known Craftsman brand name to MGA Entertainment for its children's line of My First Craftsman toys and power tools and Time Inc.'s &lt;em&gt;Sports Illustrated Kids&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Marketing 12th Edition - Kerin Hartley Rudelius&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it really the case that children are showing brand preference, preferring one brand over others when presented options, because of a specific affinity for that brand?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd be more inclined to believe that such children aren't showing a brand preference, but are simply not familiar with the other products. For instance, if I ask my son if he wants a Pop Tart or a Toaster Pastry, he's going to say Pop Tart because that's the term he knows. In such a case, it has more to do with how we've taught him about brands/foods, and not always distinguishing between them, then him showing a preference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources cited by textbook:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deborah Roedder John, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/209559#pdf_only_tab_contents&quot;&gt;Consumer Socialization of Children: A Retrospective Look at Twenty-Five Years of Research&lt;/a&gt;,&quot; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consumer Research&lt;/em&gt;, December 1999, pp. 183-213.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gwen Bachmann Achenreinver and Deborah Roudder John, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/238070366_The_Meaning_of_Brand_Names_to_Children_A_Developmental_Investigation&quot;&gt;The Meaning of Brand Names to Children: A Developmental Investigation&lt;/a&gt;,&quot; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consumer Psychology&lt;/em&gt; 13, no. 3 (2003), pp. 205-19.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Elizabeth S. Moore, William L. Wilkie, and Richard J. Lutz, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://business.nd.edu/Faculty/pdf/6548619.pdf&quot;&gt;Passing the Torch: Intergenerational Influences as a  Source of Brand Equity&lt;/a&gt;,&quot; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Marketing&lt;/em&gt;, April 2002, pp. 17-37.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user19605" LastEditorUserId="25157" LastEditDate="2020-08-13T21:37:50.420" LastActivityDate="2020-08-13T21:37:50.420" Title="Do children really show brand preference at age 2?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;neuromarketing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12147" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-09T11:09:31.827" Score="14" ViewCount="7581" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that it probably has something to do with the fact that our dreams didn't really end at the same time our alarm clock rang, our brains just make us think so for some reason. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15986" OwnerDisplayName="rodrigochousal" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-09-10T13:01:50.820" LastActivityDate="2017-05-23T20:50:51.853" Title="Why do we always wake up at the climax of our dreams, even when it is an alarm that wakes us?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12148" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-09T20:55:14.723" Score="2" ViewCount="230" Body="&lt;p&gt;News last day have brought some thoughts in my mind, if a religion is a good choice for peace and when yes which one. My conclusion was at this step, that maybe polytheistic religions are more peaceful and therefore better for a society. But, is this true? Is there a relation between the peacefulness of a society and if its believe is mono- or polytheistic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Answers and sources are highly appreciated, looking forward for your answers,&#xA;greetings&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9284" LastActivityDate="2015-09-09T20:55:14.723" Title="Are polytheistic society more peaceful than monotheistic ones?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;religion&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2015-10-09T17:57:46.120" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12150" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11062" CreationDate="2015-09-10T07:35:36.783" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, the areas most responsible for social cognition (or theory of mind) appear to be the right and left temporoparietal junctions, the right anterior superior temporal sulcus, the posterior cingulate, and the medial prefrontal cortex. [1][2] Of those, the right TPJ is perhaps the most important; for example, the response in the rTPJ shows a peak just at the time when someone’s thoughts are described. [3]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the perceived importance of the temporal lobe to theory of mind, it is probably a safe bet that you wouldn't find many non-mammals that experience ToM the way a human does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, among the many hypothesized 'signs' of ToM possession is the ability to recognize oneself in the mirror. This ability implies a level of self-awareness and identity awareness in the individual, and it appears that primates (chimpanzees and orangutans) are the only non-human animals that have successfully recognized themselves in the mirror. [4] Monkeys are also the only other animals to have confirmed rudimentary &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mirror neurons&lt;/a&gt;, which are hypothesized to play an important role in empathy and social cognition. However, there are pieces of evidence that suggest that mirror neuron networks &lt;em&gt;may possibly&lt;/em&gt; exist in elephants, dogs, dolphins, and whales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, the evidence isn't wholly clear on this one, and is further augmented by the fact that we don't necessarily have a working cognitive model for ToM (outside of our verbal conceptual models, which are not exactly scientifically rigorous). Some researchers even believe that ToM &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16546372/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;is a uniquely human experience&lt;/a&gt;. However, until we can lock down what exactly it is we are looking for, this remains a tricky question to make any sort of scientifically rigorous assertion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources used&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Dodell-Feder, D., Koster-Hale, J., Bedny, M., Saxe, R. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://saxelab.mit.edu/resources/papers/in_press/federetal.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fMRI item analysis in a theory of mind task&lt;/a&gt;. NeuroImage. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Deen, B., Koldewyn, K., Kanwisher, N., Saxe, R., (2015) &lt;a href=&quot;http://saxelab.mit.edu/resources/papers/DeenKoldewynKanwisherSaxe2015.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Functional Organization of Social Perception and Cognition in the Superior Temporal Sulcus&lt;/a&gt;. Cerebral Cortex&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Young, L., Cushman, R., Hauser, M., &amp;amp; Saxe, R. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://saxelab.mit.edu/resources/papers/current_pubs/Young,%20L.,%20Cushman,%20F.,%20Hauser,%20M.,%20&amp;amp;%20Saxe,%20R.%20(2007)%20The%20neural%20basis%20of%20the%20interaction%20between%20theory%20of%20mind%20and%20moral%20judgment%20(PNAS).pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The neural basis of the interaction between theory of mind and moral judgment&lt;/a&gt;. PNAS, 104(20), 8235-8240&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] G.G. Gallup (1982). &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajp.1350020302/abstract?systemMessage=Wiley+Online+Library+and+related+systems+will+have+3+hours+of+downtime+on+Saturday+12th+September+2015+from+10%3A00-13%3A00+BST+%2F+05%3A00-08%3A00+EDT+%2F+17%3A00-20%3A00+SGT+for+essential+maintenance.++Apologies+for+the+inconvenience.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in primates&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;Am. J. Primatol., pp. 237–248&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-09-10T07:35:36.783" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12152" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-10T09:09:03.057" Score="7" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been studying musical &quot;tension.&quot; Musical tension essentially refers to the &quot;expectations&quot; one builds up in a melody that are then &quot;released&quot; when a stimulus matching the expectation occurs. For example, if you play the white notes on a piano in order CDEFGAB, you have a &quot;tension&quot; that motivates you to finish the scale and play C to complete the pattern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am aware pattern completion occurs in the brain and have seen a few biological models of this. For example, with attractor network models of human memory. So I am not surprised obviously that pattern completion occurs. But this example with musical tension highlights how there is an &lt;em&gt;emotion (aka drive or motivation)&lt;/em&gt; that compels me to complete the pattern. When I hear the sequence CDEFGAB, I am &lt;em&gt;compelled&lt;/em&gt; to finish the sequence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My Question&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone provide me of examples of canonical models of emotions influence on pattern completion? I would like to learn example mechanisms as to how, on a circuit level, emotion would influence pattern completion.  I am particularly interested in examples relating to common forms of human creativity like visual art, problem-solving, etc., but any examples will do. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-09-10T17:05:13.830" LastActivityDate="2017-08-06T17:04:29.343" Title="Are there emotions that motivate pattern completion?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12153" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12169" CreationDate="2015-09-10T11:57:33.733" Score="4" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested to know if the concept of a decreasing appreciation of a work of art through increased exposure to it exists, specifically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does this idea exist and is there a term for it ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have any studies been performed around similar ideas ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if one hears a Beethoven symphony for the &lt;code&gt;1st&lt;/code&gt; time, the listeners reaction may be much more positive as opposed the &lt;code&gt;100th&lt;/code&gt; time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many thanks in advance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9285" LastActivityDate="2015-09-12T19:10:56.083" Title="Studies on the appreciation of works of art" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12154" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12147" CreationDate="2015-09-10T13:00:55.853" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two possibilities. One is that we do tend to wake up more at the climax of dreams, and that somehow our dreams can sync up with external input like an alarm clock so that the climax of the dream occurs at the same time as the alarm going off. The second is that this doesn't actually happen; the alarm is just as likely to go off at the climax of the dream as it is at any other point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the second situation is true, then why do you end up feeling like you always wake up at the climax of the dream? One explanation is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. This is an established bias of human memory, in which we selectively remember events that confirm our ideas, and neglect the events that disconfirm them. In this situation, you have the idea that you always wake up at the climax of dreams, so your memory is biased towards times where you actually did wake up at the climax of dreams. However, there are likely many times where you woke up not during the climax of the dream, but these are less memorable because they don't fit your expected pattern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-09-10T14:11:21.747" LastActivityDate="2015-09-10T14:11:21.747" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12155" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12147" CreationDate="2015-09-10T13:33:02.267" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd reckon this can be due to the chance of you remembering the dream when you wake up. When your dream was mundane (i.e. emotionless), you probably have no reason to remember it - when awake. (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=489116&amp;amp;resultclick=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The neuropsychology of REM sleep dreaming&lt;/a&gt; for more on the noradrenergic and serotonergic influences on sleeping)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While sleeping, only small time-periods (&lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=489116&amp;amp;resultclick=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;usually 90 minutes&lt;/a&gt;) you're actually dreaming, which can result in short of (speculating) time-gaps between periods of the dream. When you were dreaming of something climatically, you can (just as well) leave your dream state, without you noticing it (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2004.00398.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Waking up properly: is there a role of thermoregulation in sleep inertia&lt;/a&gt;. So when the alarm bells ring, you think you were just in a climaxical (word?) dream, while in real life the clock went on.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I must say, this sounds like an interesting research question, although it might be hard to test, because you need the right kinds of dreams (perhaps TMS can provoke them during sleep). Since dreaming happens during REM sleep, we should are able to tell whether you dreaming (regardless of whether or not you will remember later), based on your brain waves (or &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mst.edu/~psyworld/sleep_stages.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;using EOG&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, since dreams are pretty familiar to us, they are just as mysterious, so one might think of loads of reasons for it (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2814941/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dreaming and the brain: from phenomenology to neurophysiology&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763405801654&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;or&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763400000373&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;or&lt;/a&gt;)... Worth while thinking of it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8672" LastEditorUserId="8672" LastEditDate="2015-09-11T08:36:03.747" LastActivityDate="2015-09-11T08:36:03.747" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12156" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-10T16:30:26.743" Score="2" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any research into school children who routinely perform say two standard deviations worse on iq testing, than at school or even other intelligence tests?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not interested in explaining it in terms of hard work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2015-09-10T16:30:26.743" Title="Any research into &quot;intelligence&quot; really out of sync with iq?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-11-16T18:46:33.583" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12158" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12159" CreationDate="2015-09-11T05:14:57.660" Score="5" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;What biologically plausible models are there of empathy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know there has been a significant amount of work in defining emotion on a neurophysiological basis using models (I'm currently reading &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/Articles/thagard-schroeder.emotions-pointers.2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotions as semantic pointers: Constructive neural mechanisms&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Thaghard et al. about using the Semantic Pointer Architecture as a basis for emotions). However, I'm having a hard time finding models that define emotions on a neurophysiological basis in relation to other social agents. Do they exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I'm discussing empathy, I'm referring to the phenomena's of affective empathy, cognitive empathy and emotional contagion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-08-03T23:26:33.520" LastActivityDate="2018-08-03T23:27:47.053" Title="Neurophysiological mappings of empathy" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12159" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12158" CreationDate="2015-09-11T05:14:57.660" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this answer, I'm going to use &quot;self&quot; to describe the person who is empathizing and &quot;other&quot; as the person who is the target of that empathy (the person who's trying to be related to).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most advance model of empathy (in terms of affective empathy and emotional contagion) that I know of is featured in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12369-014-0262-y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Recipe for Empathy&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Lim et al. which is based on the idea that mirror neurons provide the body of the &quot;other&quot;, the insula which associates the action to the emotional state and the somato-sensory cortex which represents that emotional state in the robot's own state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She demonstrates the effectiveness of this model by first having a robot learn associations between it's own state and emotions (via motherese-like training), and then seeing if when the robot was exposed to other data, if it had the appropriate response, in terms of classification and internal-mapping. Results showed an adult-like empathy level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the paper, Angelica notes that one of the limitations of her model is that it does not address cognitive empathy as &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10015-004-0293-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hideki Kozima&lt;/a&gt;'s model does. I will update this answer with how Hideki does this once I finish reading his paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although both of these models use purely statistical models (Angelica uses Gaussian Mixture Models and Hideki uses) with only vague references to the functionality of various neural areas, they are somewhat biologically plausible, since the computations they are doing are not unfeasible for something like the Neural Engineering Fraemwork to perform.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information, I would recommend reading the &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ca/books?id=bWbCCAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Handbook of Research on Synthesizing Human Emotion in Intelligent Systems&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.igi-global.com/journal/international-journal-synthetic-emotions-ijse/1144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Journal on Synthetic Emotion&lt;/a&gt;, both which seems to contain further resources for this path of investigation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-08-03T23:27:47.053" LastActivityDate="2018-08-03T23:27:47.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12160" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-11T05:44:05.953" Score="2" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been many applications of robots for treatment of autism, for example ASK Aldeberan therapy. However, how do the results from these therapies compare to traditional therapies such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.icdl.com/DIR&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Floortime DIR&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hanen.org/Programs/For-Parents/More-Than-Words.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hanen - More Than Words&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-02-27T23:55:31.313" Title="How does robot-assisted autism therapy compare to traditional autism therapy?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12161" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11097" CreationDate="2015-09-11T08:52:41.860" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like the word misanthropy...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Misanthropy is the general hatred, distrust or disdain of the human species or human nature. A misanthrope or misanthropist is someone who holds such views or feelings. The word's origin is from the Greek words μῖσος (misos, &quot;hatred&quot;) and ἄνθρωπος (anthrōpos, &quot;man, human&quot;). The condition is often confused with asociality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9292" LastActivityDate="2015-09-11T08:52:41.860" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12163" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13248" CreationDate="2015-09-12T01:17:17.030" Score="4" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a layman, it seems to me that humans have &lt;strong&gt;2 primary strategies for controlling stress&lt;/strong&gt; (cortisol). I tend to use the words “connection” and “aggression” to refer to these strategies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The “&lt;strong&gt;connection strategy&lt;/strong&gt;” involves &lt;em&gt;deepening an empathetic connection with others&lt;/em&gt;.&#xA;This deeper connection enables us to be aware of their current emotional state and thus to set them at ease which opens them up to be influenced.&#xA;Because we can now feel their emotional state in real time, we can calibrate our interactions with them to influence their thoughts, feelings and actions more skillfully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I like to think of this as the Non Violent Communication strategy used by Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Nelson Mandela, etc. to remain calm even when threatened with danger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that oxytocin is involved in this connection strategy.&#xA;When our response to stress involves shifting our focus and intention to connection, oxytocin increases and cortisol decreases. (I think)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The “&lt;strong&gt;aggression strategy&lt;/strong&gt;”, on the other hand, seems to involve involves taking determined action to conquer something that we believe to be causing the stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am guessing that hormones like adrenaline and maybe testosterone are involved in this process but I’m not sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is actually happening neurochemically when we get aggressive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that serotonin is involved in both strategies.&#xA;Serotonin being the neurochemical that is released when we have confidence that our needs can be met.&#xA;I believe that both the connection and aggression strategies seek to reduce cortisol and increase serotonin, but I would really like to understand exactly how this works.&#xA;Especially for the case of aggression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2016-02-03T22:09:29.457" LastActivityDate="2016-02-05T03:37:11.780" Title="What is happening neurochemically when we seek to reduce stress by taking aggressive action?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12164" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12111" CreationDate="2015-09-12T02:17:27.380" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;when it comes to psychology it feels to me a bit like astrology, where there are some things that can work, but mostly because of auto-suggestion, or any other kind of suggestions, and things like the placebo (or even the nocebo) effect. So, I wonder if psychology is a science and why so many people rely on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A key point is that your question seems to be leaving out is that psychology is not only about treating mental problems--it is also about &lt;strong&gt;understanding the mind&lt;/strong&gt;. It addresses scientific questions like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do children acquire language?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the effect of others' actions on our own actions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is intelligence one &quot;thing&quot;, or are there multiple intelligences?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the most common traits of personality?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do we develop our morals and/or ethics?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do most people make decisions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the effect of viewed violence on episodic memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and so many more...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Modern psychology, in addressing these sorts of questions, is a science.&lt;/strong&gt; It uses research methods like random assignment; experimental and control groups; establishing baselines; manipulating independent variables and measuring dependent variables; eliminating confounds; testing hypotheses, using statistics (&lt;em&gt;heavily!&lt;/em&gt;); interacting with other disciplines, like neuroscience, anthropology, ethology, or sociology; publishing peer-reviewed papers, revising faulty models; etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then, even when, in applied psychology, the intention &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; to treat mental disorders, scientific approaches are used. Treatment groups are compared with control groups, case studies are published, patients can be followed for years, behavior is measured and quantified, statistics are run, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking a good Psychology 101/General Psychology course should make this point a thousand times over. Modern psychology should not feel anything like astrology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastActivityDate="2015-09-12T02:17:27.380" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12165" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12115" CreationDate="2015-09-12T04:00:16.193" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Respectfully, I believe there might be a flaw in the thinking behind the question insofar as you are assuming that &quot;attractiveness&quot; is a relatively static property in an individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This might be a male perspective because the way that males are programmed to feel attraction for females is based on female attributes which are relatively slow to change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Females, however, are programmed very differently than males. The amount of attraction or repulsion that she feels can change significantly very quickly because it is largely based on the behavior of the male. This is a concept that most males find hard to grasp because it is not the way that they are programmed so it is not a part of their experience of reality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An explanation ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The field of evolutionary psychology suggests that much of animal behavior - including and especially our attraction and repulsion systems is hardwired into our genes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, when a cat hears the squeaking of a mouse, the behavior of the the cat will be somewhat predictable. How is this possible? The belief is that cat has been genetically programmed by evolution to feel an emotional compulsion to behave in a very specific way when it receives a very specific auditory signal. This behavior gives it an evolutionary advantage over those cats which did not have it because it will eat the mouse and the nourishment will give it a better chance of surviving to pass on its genes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evolutionary psychology suggests that much of animal behavior - including and especially mate selection choice - is similarly hard-wired. Those who make good choices for selection of mates are more likely to have their genes survive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the programmed mating strategy of males and females is very different for the simple reason that the optimal strategy for the survival of the genes of the male is different than the optimal strategy for the survival of the genes of the female.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular the male mating strategy might be described as seeking high “replication value” whereas the female strategy is to seek high “survival value”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Men have the advantage of being able to make quick and relatively permanent assessments of female attractiveness because all they need is a visual signal to assess her “replication value” and that assessment - before the advent of plastic surgery - is relatively permanent.&#xA;Females, however, cannot assess the “survival value” of a prospective mate so quickly. She has to get to know you in order to make an accurate assessment. The level of attraction that she feels for you will be based nearly entirely on how you behave during that “getting to know you” time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A popular book on the evolutionary psychology of attraction is &quot;The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating&quot; by David M. Buss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evidence to support the belief that the attraction mechanism of females is rooted in male behavior is given by the (admittedly non-scientific) experience of “pick-up artists”. For example “Eric Von Markovic” aka “Mystery” wrote a famous book called “The Mystery Method” in which he describes how a male can alter his behavior to “create attraction” in women by behaving in ways that exude the desirable traits and not behaving in ways that exhibit the undesirable traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize this is not a rigorous scientific source. Someone should do a study to validate the claims. But I personally have a great deal of certainty that the method works because I was a dating coach in a former life, taught it to dozens of men, and saw it work with my own eyes over and over again in the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This brings me to my second point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the most important behavioral traits that women seem to be programmed to seek out in men might be described as “self confidence”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if you, as a male, have a genuine “optimism bias”, females will actually feel more attracted to you because you are more self-confident. Women are attracted to men who have this trait and feel aversion to those who don't have it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not have a scientific reference to support this. However, all that I have experienced tells me that it is true. You might consider doing a simple survey of women to verify. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In his book, von Markovic suggests that women seem to be programmed to run a “testing” algorithm to ascertain if you really are the attractive mate who can fulfill her needs that you seem to be. If a male “behaves” correctly, her attraction will increase. If he behaves incorrectly, the female’s attraction will decrease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So all men are punished and rewarded by their life experiences to develop the attractive behavioral traits - including and especially “self-confidence”. It would seem, therefore, that men are &lt;em&gt;rewarded&lt;/em&gt; for having the trait of “optimism bias” and &lt;em&gt;punished&lt;/em&gt; for not having this trait.&#xA;Therefore a male who fails to find a way to generate self confidence with respect to his desirability is putting the survival of his genes in jeopardy by severely limiting his mating opportunities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are all men subject to it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All men are compelled by their life experiences to develop it. Though many give unskillful meaning to and draw the wrong lessons from their painful experience and are thus much slower to develop the correct behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is it different for women?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Men are not biologically programmed to punish women for lacking self confidence because we are not looking for her to be our &quot;protector and provider&quot;. Women are therefore not compelled to develop this trait by their life experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastEditorUserId="8423" LastEditDate="2015-09-13T02:33:00.237" LastActivityDate="2015-09-13T02:33:00.237" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12166" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-12T09:27:10.067" Score="4" ViewCount="128" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in &lt;strong&gt;how significant events from daily life get encoded or translated into dream content&lt;/strong&gt;. A personal observation can help clarify my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I've observed that for me, &quot;significant, futile mental effort&quot;&#xA;  translates into dreams of me being in a classroom in my old middle&#xA;  school. The kind of mental effort dictated which classroom I will see&#xA;  - history, language or math.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It took me years to make the connection, as the frequency of the dream was rather high while attending school and college. It is only after I started working that I noticed dreams of classrooms were gone and only reappeared following intense, but perceived as pointless mental effort to learn or grasp or produce something. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm familiar with the Freud's theories on how wish fulfillment and repressed sexual desires show up in dreams. On the other hand I'm aware of the much discredited concept of &quot;dream interpretation&quot; with dictionaries of dream symbols.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been studies that lay in between the two extremes listed above and &lt;strong&gt;attempted to elicit connections between daily events and how they appear in dreams?&lt;/strong&gt; Maybe attempts to create personal dream dictionaries, like the one I described in the example?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T02:42:28.567" Title="How are real life events translated into dream symbolism?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12168" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12111" CreationDate="2015-09-12T17:49:43.940" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;As an Industrial/Organizational Psychologist practicing Human Factors in a large organization, I use scientific method to inform product and service design. Our dependent variables (effectiveness, efficiency, satisfaction, enjoyment, coolness) are measured across controlled experimental conditions. We practice stronger science than most physical scientists due to the amount of covariates in human behavior. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In answering this question as stated, one should consider the 56 different types of psychology defined by the divisions of the American Psychological Association (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/about/division/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/about/division/&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, Wikipedia (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology&lt;/a&gt;) states that &quot;Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables.&quot; This is a scientific method.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9307" LastActivityDate="2015-09-12T17:49:43.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12169" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12153" CreationDate="2015-09-12T19:10:56.083" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was a target article published in &lt;em&gt;Brain and Behavioral Sciences&lt;/em&gt; on a theory of art appreciation (&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=8862959&amp;amp;fileId=S0140525X12000489&quot;&gt;Bullott &amp;amp; Reber, 2013&lt;/a&gt;) that I read for some reason…but it looks like it will finally be relevant!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to this theory, one of the ways that you might come to appreciate art is through &lt;strong&gt;basic exposure&lt;/strong&gt;, which involves perceptual exploration of the artwork independent of your knowledge about its art-historical context. Exposure alone is not responsible for art appreciation; rather, it triggers a set of cognitive processes, whose nature determines your experience of aesthetic pleasure or displeasure.  This includes the ease with which you can process the artwork (i.e., processing fluency; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psr.sagepub.com/content/8/4/364.short&quot;&gt;Reber, Schwarz, &amp;amp; Winkielman, 2004&lt;/a&gt;) and the artwork's (un)predictability (&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=8862959&amp;amp;fileId=S0140525X12000489&quot;&gt;Hogan, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With more exposure to the artwork, processing fluency increases, and so does your appreciation of it. However, over time, you also become more &lt;strong&gt;habituated&lt;/strong&gt; to the artwork, view it as less salient, and appreciate it less.  This is akin to liking a song at first, then hating it after it's blasted on the radio 1,000 times. Indeed, repeated auditory exposure is associated with reduced emotional reactivity and reduced activation in a network involving the amygdala and certain cortical areas, thought to represent affective habituation (&lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2010/01/29/cercor.bhq001.short&quot;&gt;Mutschler et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=8862959&amp;amp;fileId=S0140525X12000489&quot;&gt;Hogan (2013)&lt;/a&gt; thus suggests that the longevity of your appreciation for artwork depends on a mixture of predictability (fluency) and unpredictability. There are other variables like art-historical knowledge that influence liking over time, as well (&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=8862959&amp;amp;fileId=S0140525X12000489&quot;&gt;Bullott &amp;amp; Reber, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-09-12T19:10:56.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12170" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-12T23:10:24.943" Score="4" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand, there is a compelling sense of reality to sensory hallucinations. Do hallucinations (as, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; in the DSM) substitute for the &lt;em&gt;sense&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;experience&lt;/strong&gt; of a real reality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if a &quot;hallucination&quot; involves someone's face to be covered in maggots, would that entail a completely life-like, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opacity_(optics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;'opaque'&lt;/a&gt;, and entirely believable experience of that perception?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-07T06:01:26.493" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T23:07:05.817" Title="Is there a standard definition of a &quot;hallucination&quot;?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12172" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12588" CreationDate="2015-09-13T08:51:46.140" Score="7" ViewCount="349" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on my previous question about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/11101/can-adhd-and-ocd-coexist-is-it-in-the-same-way-mania-and-depression-can-coexist&quot;&gt;ADHD and OCD&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, ADHD and OCD are kind of opposites in the sense that ADHD people (always? sometimes?) have dopamine deficiency and OCD people (always? sometimes?) have excess dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this may be a stupid question or based on incorrect understanding of bipolar, but how do psychologists know that bipolar is one disorder rather than a comorbidity of mania and depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-11-12T07:27:22.057" Title="How do we know bipolar is one illness rather than two comorbid illnesses?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;mood&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12173" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-13T09:09:41.367" Score="3" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;After watching The Princess Bride, I discovered this word: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridatism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mithridatism&lt;/a&gt;, &quot;the practice of protecting oneself against a poison by gradually self-administering non-lethal amounts.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible for people to become immune to mental health drugs after sometime of taking them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-28T16:25:27.147" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T16:25:27.147" Title="Is it possible to develop immunity to mental health drugs?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12176" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-14T01:33:14.500" Score="3" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to do a quick, informal literature survey of current language pertaining to gender variant/trans* people.  Do any important texts still use Gender Identity Disorder, or other language that indicates some kind of impairment or &quot;red flag&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not currently familiar enough with the literature to know what other places I should be looking--I've seen references to Kaplan and Sadock here and there, and an American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychiatry, but haven't seen the texts.  I also have absolutely no idea if there's corresponding Psychology literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9316" LastEditorUserId="9316" LastEditDate="2015-09-14T01:36:34.327" LastActivityDate="2015-09-14T01:36:34.327" Title="How is gender variance classified in the cognitive sciences?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12177" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12176" CreationDate="2015-09-14T01:35:22.547" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;So far, I've found that the American Psychiatric Association's DSM 5 has made it abundantly clear they no longer consider gender variance itself a disorder, to the point of a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Learn/Archives/Position-2012-Transgender-Gender-Variant-Access-Care.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2012 position statement on access to care&lt;/a&gt;, a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Learn/Archives/Position-2012-Transgender-Gender-Variant-Discrimination.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2012 &quot;Position Statement on Discrimination Against Transgender and Gender Variant Individuals&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, and updated language in the DSM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also looks like ICD-11's beta now uses &quot;Gender Incongruence&quot;, versus the various &quot;gender identity disorders&quot; under the F64 code in ICD-10.  Link when I have the reputation to post it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9316" LastActivityDate="2015-09-14T01:35:22.547" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12178" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-14T02:27:20.860" Score="3" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been working on Auditory data (from FIL) to read the .img files as numeric numbers of intensity of each voxels over time in array/matrix format using &lt;strong&gt;AnalyzeFMRI&lt;/strong&gt; package in &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt;. It gives me 64X64X64 number of rows of data in 96 time points. However, the images includes the eyes and other stuff than brain only. I was wondering if there is a way to extract the brain only and save it as .img file for later use. I just come to know that one software called FSL do this (I have to learned it yet), but I was looking some package in &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9317" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-29T18:10:34.530" LastActivityDate="2017-07-29T18:10:34.530" Title="Brain extraction and save images as .img file" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-02-24T21:21:26.140" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12179" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-14T13:39:48.780" Score="3" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have the data for a monkey's eye position in a cartesian plane synced to the time. I can convert the numbers into polar form however I'm not too sure how to find the angular velocity at that point. My main struggle is implementing the math formulas into Matlab.&#xA;Thankyou&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9319" LastActivityDate="2015-09-14T13:39:48.780" Title="SaccadeAngular velocity Matlab" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-06-07T17:04:05.063" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12180" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12115" CreationDate="2015-09-14T23:22:22.187" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: Yes, but not really...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-enhancement:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-enhancement&quot;&gt;Self-enhancement&lt;/a&gt; (sometimes referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_illusions&quot;&gt;positive illusions&lt;/a&gt;) refers to a general preference for positive self-views (in men and women alike).  It includes several common strategies, such as: The &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority&quot;&gt;above average effect&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (aka illusory superiority), &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-serving_bias&quot;&gt;self-serving bias&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism_bias&quot;&gt;optimism bias&lt;/a&gt;.  Optimism bias however refers to perceived risk, whereas this question is about illusory superiority:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a cognitive bias whereby individuals overestimate their own&#xA;  qualities and abilities, relative to others. This is evident in a&#xA;  variety of areas including intelligence, performance on tasks or&#xA;  tests, and the possession of desirable characteristics or personality&#xA;  traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-esteem&quot;&gt;Self-esteem&lt;/a&gt; is a particularly dicey subject matter - it seems to refer to a conglomerate of fairly independent / mildly correlated factors.  So when we examine say, self-perceived &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_attraction&quot;&gt;sexual attractiveness&lt;/a&gt; (sex appeal), the results are different from a variety of other similar sounding - but independent - constructs such as self-perceived physical attractiveness, sexual self-schema, self-valuation, sexual self-esteem, sexual satisfaction, sexual performance, body image, self-image, etc...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, to keep the scope of this question manageable, I'll focus on gender differences in illusory superiority with respect to sexual attractiveness, though as will be discussed, physical attractiveness will come into play as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Research methodology:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-esteem factors such as perceived sexual attractiveness are measured using surveys / self-reporting.  For sexual attractiveness in particular, there doesn't appear to be a well-established scale in common use, so researchers tend to develop questionnaires as needed for their particular studies.  Furthermore, there is evidence that many confounding factors exist that cannot be easily controlled for, such as societal changes.  So unfortunately, some questions of validity and reproducibility of the results exist, as is common in many facets of social psychology and personality research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another issue is the extricability of sexual attractiveness from physical attractiveness.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26132883&quot;&gt;Studies have shown&lt;/a&gt; that these are in fact &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1080/002075900399501/abstract&quot;&gt;two different constructs&lt;/a&gt;.  However, different scales used by different researchers emphasize physical attractiveness in sexual attractiveness measures to different degrees, making the separation difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As suggested in the question, self-enhancement is known in general to increase when under threat - &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-enhancement&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This motive becomes especially prominent in situations of threat,&#xA;  failure or blows to one's self-esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_illusions&quot;&gt;and&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Positive illusions are a form of self-deception or self-enhancement&#xA;  that feel good, maintain self-esteem or stave off discomfort at least&#xA;  in the short term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To manipulate self-esteem in the lab, subjects can be presented with a comparison point (contrast), such as a photo or video of someone else that may be highly attractive, or unattractive.  An ego-threatening contrast may affect self-enhancement differently from an unthreatening scenario.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summary of results:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As expected, both men and women report a &quot;better-than-average&quot; bias for sexual attractiveness - ie, the average rating compared to others is higher than average.  The bias is slightly greater for men than women on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pr0.1994.74.3.920?journalCode=pr0&quot;&gt;some scales&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092656699922675&quot;&gt;not significantly different&lt;/a&gt; on others, eg:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... on the dimensions of Sexual Attractiveness, Sexual Restraint, and&#xA;  Sexual Orientation ... no significant sex differences [were] found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an example where women actually &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J056v10n02_04&quot;&gt;rated themselves higher than men&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... we found that males rate themselves higher on explicitly sexual&#xA;  dimensions (e.g., sexually responsive, experienced) and females&#xA;  perceive themselves to be more romantic and sexually attractive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be good to see a meta-analysis of such studies to get a better idea of the overall effect, but the bottom line is that it's not clear - it may depend on the particular scale used, or any number of other confounding factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples of such factors: Black men &lt;a href=&quot;http://jbp.sagepub.com/content/22/3/358.abstract&quot;&gt;rate themselves higher&lt;/a&gt; than white men, but women do not; men and women base their ratings on &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1080/002075900399501/abstract&quot;&gt;physical traits&lt;/a&gt; to different degrees; self-esteem affects females differently from males; and effects &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/3813700?seq=1&quot;&gt;vary in cultures&lt;/a&gt; where physical attractiveness is more or less emphasized.  That is, it appears that gender differences vary based on societal changes, such as before and after the feminist movement, differences in idealized representations in the media, cultural changes in messages such as &quot;black is beautiful&quot;, etc.  And gender differences also vary depending on the incorporation of physical attractiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Physical attractiveness:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the 1980's and 90's, there was a flurry of research on self-perceived body image and physical attractiveness related to increased diagnosis of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa&quot;&gt;anorexia/bulemia&lt;/a&gt;, so much more is known about these measures.  In line with suggested epidemiology for anorexia, that is most associated with young women, body image is typically lower in females than males, and females are more often subject to a &quot;lower-than-average&quot; effect, while males more often rate their physical attractiveness as better than average.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As before, there are many confounding factors, including some of the same ones to do with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/019188699190207R&quot;&gt;skin colour&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2008-04614-005&quot;&gt;cultural context&lt;/a&gt;, different &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327752jpa4802_12&quot;&gt;physical traits&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00223980.1975.9923921&quot;&gt;self-esteem&lt;/a&gt;.  Nonetheless, the effect suggested in the question is perhaps more pronounced for physical attractiveness than sexual attractiveness / romantic appeal.  And since self-perceived physical attractiveness often constitutes an important component of sexual attractiveness, then some of the differences in results may depend on how heavily a particular study incorporates physical attractiveness into their own measure of sexual attractiveness, and how important physical attractiveness is as a component of sexual attractiveness for the particular group studied.  With this factor removed, and limiting findings to modern Western culture, it may turn out that men and women do not differ in self-enhancement of sex appeal, or even that women do so to a greater degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-09-14T23:22:22.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12182" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11097" CreationDate="2015-09-15T09:43:40.527" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some research in social psychology that has investigated when people dislike a group they belong to. Thus, this research is more general in that it is not limited to nationality, but about any kind of social group. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually, people have a tendency for ingroup bias, that is, they prefer their own group over other groups (outgroups). One important theoretical perspective that has guided much research on this phenomenon is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_identity_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Social Identity Theory&lt;/a&gt;, which posits that people derive their self-concept from the groups they belong to, and strive for positive distinctiveness from other groups. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, however, people have a strong dislike for their own group, e.g., because these groups are stigmatized, because a larger ingroup discriminates a smaller subgroup they belong to, because an ingroup violates important personal moral standards, or when people move to high status positions in disadvantaged groups (for a review, see Becker &amp;amp; Tausch, 2014). This phenomenon has been labeled with different terms such as &quot;&lt;strong&gt;ingroup hate&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;, &quot;&lt;strong&gt;outgroup favoritism&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;, or &quot;&lt;strong&gt;disidentification&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge, the most comprehensive account of explicit dislike of ingroups has been proposed by Becker and Tausch (2014), who have developed a scale to capture this phenomenon. They distinguish between different components of &lt;strong&gt;disidentification&lt;/strong&gt; and show that their scale can predict negative emotional and behavioral reactions toward the ingroup. Citing from their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This research introduces a multi-component model of ingroup disidentification that distinguishes three disidentification components (detachment, dissatisfaction, and dissimilarity). In Studies 1a (N = 168) and 1b (N = 215), the authors developed a measurement scale that assesses these components, and examined alternative factorial structures. Study 2 (N = 115) provides evidence that the disidentification scale performs better at distinguishing between disidentification and nonidentification than an established identification scale. Using additional data from Studies 1b and 2, Studies 3a and 3b examined emotions and behavioral intentions as correlates of disidentification and revealed that the disidentification components predict negative ingroup-directed behavioral intentions (active harm, passive harm, and passive facilitation) and identity concealment over and above measures of identification. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Becker, J. C., &amp;amp; Tausch, N. (2014). When group memberships are negative: The concept, measurement, and behavioral implications of psychological disidentification. Self and Identity, 13(3), 294–321. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2013.819991&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2013.819991&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-09-16T14:29:23.703" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T14:29:23.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12183" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-15T11:49:08.897" Score="1" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;I code websites and I believe the way I think is totally different from most of the others. Not that I think in a better way(a possibility though) but I'm only saying &quot;differently&quot;. Do you think it's true? if yes, why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9324" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T02:30:30.080" Title="is it true that people who code think differently?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-09-17T10:27:04.703" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12184" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12118" CreationDate="2015-09-15T15:07:35.067" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you'll come unstuck if you don't have a balanced scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you consider a typical five-point scale:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Strongly disagree&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Disagree&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neither agree nor disagree&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Agree&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Strongly agree&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we forget to put &lt;code&gt;Strongly disagree&lt;/code&gt; on the scale, it is positively biased, because it is heavier on the &lt;code&gt;Agree&lt;/code&gt; side of the scale. If we forget to add &lt;code&gt;Strongly agree&lt;/code&gt; we have a negatively biased scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you intend the questionnaire to be used for research purposes, you'll need to ensure the scale is correct - otherwise it may affect your findings, and it will definitely cause people to question whether the outcome would have been the same as if the correct scale was used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9326" LastActivityDate="2015-09-15T15:07:35.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12185" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12172" CreationDate="2015-09-15T15:16:50.170" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term &quot;bipolar&quot; is used to describe someone who has both manic and depressive episodes - so it is really a name for the combination of the two conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before bipolar became the popular name for this, it was described as mixed affective state and was characterised as being dysphoric mania or agitated depression depending on whether it was mostly manic or mostly depressive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe it is widely-accepted now that mania and depression are not the opposite ends of a long scale, but are independent measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;One Illness or Two Comorbid Illnesses?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, I don't believe you can answer this in general - I believe it should be considered on a case by case basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want closure / a &quot;correct&quot; answer, the APA (V) lists bipolar as an Axis I disorder, which suggests their view is a single illness, rather than comorbidity, using the psychological definition of comorbidity. In psychology, comorbidity would be more than one diagnosis. If you can diagnose someone as &quot;bipolar&quot; there would be no comorbidity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It isn't possible to apply the medical definition of comorbidity in psychology (as of 2015) because you can't detect individual diseases in a lab at this time, so bear in mind that the use of the term is highly interpretive in terms of psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would question whether for an individual it is more beneficial to treat the two aspects of their condition separately or as a whole. For example, you may decide to only treat the depression and not attempt to suppress the elevated moods - so are you treating the individual for bipolar here, or just for depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9326" LastEditorUserId="9326" LastEditDate="2015-10-07T18:02:35.887" LastActivityDate="2015-10-07T18:02:35.887" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12186" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-15T17:43:02.350" Score="2" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am writing an article about a computational method, which is relatively widely used in a small subfield of neuroscience (it is easy to identify ~20 recent articles that used it in 2013-2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results I have are a set of small improvements but interesting anyway (at least in my opinion), so the paper will be a short one, perhaps around 2000 words (+ 1 or 2 figures and about 30 references). The results are purely mathematical; no data was collected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where could I publish my findings? I feel the upper-tier journals (with impact factors &gt; 5 or so) might not be interested since the paper is so short (their typical paper lengths are 10+ pages). The top journals (e.g Nat Neurosci) of course publish brief reports but my findings are probably not that important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any suggestions where to submit?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9327" LastActivityDate="2015-09-15T17:43:02.350" Title="Where to publish a short (mathematical) neuroscience article?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12187" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-15T21:23:55.583" Score="4" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently read a paper called &lt;code&gt;&quot;An automated labeling system for subdividing the human cerebral cortex on MRI scans into gyral based regions&quot;.&lt;/code&gt; I want to use the method of this paper to apply to my dataset in order to get anatomical masks. I already installed fsl on my Linux system. But I still cannot fully understand this paper. Specifically, I want to get &lt;code&gt;Temporal Occipital Fusiform gyrus (TOFC)&lt;/code&gt; and the &lt;code&gt;lateral occipital Cortex (LOC)&lt;/code&gt; region of interest. Anyone can help me?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9329" LastActivityDate="2015-09-22T11:08:05.707" Title="How to get anatomical masks?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12188" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8925" CreationDate="2015-09-15T21:24:45.597" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Focus and motives are very different cognitive processes. Essentially focus would be attention, while motivation is a complex neurocognitive process, such as hunger or thirst, which drives attentional orientation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to have to break this down a bit further because motivation is largely considered two processes &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2756052/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;'wanting' and 'liking'&lt;/a&gt;. 'Wanting' is the drive to obtain a motivational object, such as food. While 'Liking' is the assessment of the motivational object. So if a digestive tract is empty of food it will typically send chemical signals telling the brain its empty, amongst a whole host of other factors but lets not get into that. As a result we will 'want' food, and this alters the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666306005915&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hedonic value&lt;/a&gt; of food, which ultimately influences its &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23899903&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;salience&lt;/a&gt; (how much it grabs your attention). And its representation in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/237205980_BRIEF_COMMUNICATION_Hunger_Selectively_Modulates_Corticolimbic_Activation_to_Food_Stimuli_in_Humans&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;brain&lt;/a&gt;, all of this is done to draw your attention towards the motivational target, or make us seek it out. Once the target i.e. food, is obtained it is consumed, this is the point at which it is assessed for how much we 'like' it. All of this is done by a neural system, often referred to as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959438899800312&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reward circuit&lt;/a&gt;. The reward circuit is made up of a number of brain areas (nuclei), so many it would take an dissertation to write about them all however the main constituents are: &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-008-1099-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nucleus Accumbens, Ventral Tegmented area and the parabracial nucleus&lt;/a&gt;. Changes in these structures appear to influence activity in the cingulate cortex (likely to do affective assessment and memory) and orbitofrontal cortex (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301008208000981&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;attention, inhibition, hedonic value,&lt;/a&gt; etc). As you can see this is just gross anatomy, these structures are involved in a variety of cognitive processes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Going by your question I imagine you are interested in the drive to behaviour or determination. The nucleus Accumbent shell is considered responsible for this, although I think thats like saying wembley is responsible for one of two teams winning a football match. The resolution in functional signals has a long way to go. Anyhow &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1038/sj.bjp.0704767/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;endocannabinoids&lt;/a&gt; are thought to be responsible for modulating the &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1038/sj.bjp.0707313/asset/sj.bjp.0707313.pdf?v=1&amp;amp;t=iemm2yl7&amp;amp;s=44cee72b5ff2299886238516d0bdd745825be521&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;increase in eating&lt;/a&gt; or rather 'wanting' to eat, they do this by increasing the hedonic-value of the motivational target. Hence cannabis give people the 'munchies' and can make them feel sexually aroused. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer your question can we measure this? Yes and no. fMRI can detect motivation-related activity in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811912002017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NA shell&lt;/a&gt;, but there is alot going on in that area so there is bond to be noise that must be controlled for in any design. But essentially you can show someone images of food before and after eating and measure their neural responses. However I must stress that the NA is not the only area involved in this motivational process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for EEG, research is a bit inconsistent and I would feel uneasy recommending anything from this area. This is mostly because motivational processing is largely conducted in subcortical structures, which EEG isn't really the best method of investigation for. However it can be used for detecting arousal, but cognitive arousal can occur as a result of merely interesting or treating stimuli. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another method are implicit cognitive measures and eye tracking, this is a growing field. Measures include, &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0019215&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;visual-search tasks&lt;/a&gt;, dot-probe, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~abcwest/pmwiki/CAFE/_Mogg%20et%20al%201998%20Selective%20attention%20to%20food-related%20stimuli%20in%20hunger.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;stroop&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24909971&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;go/n-go&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19914320&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;attentional blink tasks&lt;/a&gt; etc. What this area tends to show is that people are more attentive to motivationally-relevant stimuli i.e. more attentive to food when they are hungry. Although some research shows that people attend to such stimuli regardless of motivational state, the methods here are constantly being updated as they are still relatively new methods. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally and importantly do any measures discriminate between levels of motivation? No, not any of the neural or cognitive measures I know of anyway, most are lucky to detect differences between fasted and fed states. There is work going on in this area, but so far differences in levels of motivational state are only collected on explicit measures such as VAS scales asking someone what there level of motivation is.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry for lack of references SE only allows you two references on the first post in a new area of SE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2015-09-16T10:05:14.967" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T10:05:14.967" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12189" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12183" CreationDate="2015-09-16T02:30:30.080" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, let's considering what you're asking here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You're asking if people who code think differently. Well, let's consider those who know how to program. Some people plan what they are going to do, while others take a more dynamic approach. Some people create a 'skeleton' of what they are about to build before they fill in the missing pieces (and will debug each piece as they go), and yet others will create one new method at a time until they have one giant bug-filled product to deal with at the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now pick two arbitrary coders. Do they think differently from each other? Probably. They probably have different approaches, interests, strengths, and weaknesses. But sure, they probably think differently than, say, someone who works in a grocery store.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then again, take the person who works in a grocery store. They probably have different methods for dealing with shoppers, they probably use different greetings, they may have different strengths and weaknesses, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, I would argue that &lt;strong&gt;in instances where you are given a choice, it isn't what you do that teaches you to think; rather, the way you think determines what you do&lt;/strong&gt;. You may pick up on certain methods out of habit (maybe you see people as variables, or maybe you're quick to decompose your thoughts like you would a program), but on top of learning new skills, those habits you pick up are probably further emphasizing the ways in which you &lt;strong&gt;currently&lt;/strong&gt; think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T02:30:30.080" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12190" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12166" CreationDate="2015-09-16T02:42:28.567" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;We do not know a lot about how dreams work yet. However, there are some theories out there. One theory of particular interest is that are dreams are a means of &lt;a href=&quot;http://hs.elmwoodparkschools.org/UserFiles/Servers/Server_79607/File/Memorial%20HS/WinsonDreams.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reverse learning&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 1983&#xA;  Francis Crick of the Salk Institute in La&#xA;  Jolla, Calif., and Graeme Mitchison of&#xA;  the University of Cambridge in England&#xA;  proposed the idea of reverse learning.&#xA;  Working from the Hobson-McCarley&#xA;  assumption of random neocortical bombardment&#xA;  by PGO waves and their own&#xA;  knowledge of the behavior of stimulated&#xA;  neural networks, they postulated that a&#xA;  complex associational neural network&#xA;  such as the neocortex might become&#xA;  overloaded by vast amounts of incoming&#xA;  information. The neocortex could then&#xA;  develop false, or “parasitic,” thoughts&#xA;  that would jeopardize the true and orderly&#xA;  storage of memory.&#xA;  According to Crick and Mitchison’s&#xA;  hypothesis, REM sleep served to erase&#xA;  these spurious associations on a regular&#xA;  basis. Random PGO waves impinged on&#xA;  the neocortex, resulting in erasure, or unlearning,&#xA;  of the false information. This&#xA;  process served an essential function: it&#xA;  allowed the orderly processing of memory.&#xA;  In humans, dreams were a running&#xA;  record of these parasitic thoughts—material&#xA;  to be purged from memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At any rate, it seems that dreams are less a representation of an event and more a byproduct of random impulses coming from the brain stem. These may be made less 'random' (seemingly) only because the things we think about most and spend most our energy on are probably more likely to be 'happened upon' in the dream state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any further tendency to recognize a certain dream pattern after a certain event may be an occurrence of this, as well as an instance of selective remembering, or remembering the instances that support your case and neglecting the instances that don't. Having dreams of a classroom in college is normal because you are in classrooms (and you are unconsciously forced to remember the topics you have picked up on in your own middle school classrooms, which may be later 'dream material'), and associating these dreams with futile mental effort is a broad case, considering that college is essentially a four-year cycle of seemingly-futile mental effort. ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T02:42:28.567" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12191" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20193" CreationDate="2015-09-16T06:14:06.550" Score="5" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the course of explain dual systems theory, Kahneman (2011) discusses the Heider study, in which: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;you see a large triangle, a small triangle, and a circle moving around&#xA;  a shape that looks like a schematic view of a house with an open door.&#xA;  Viewers see an aggressive large triangle bullying a smaller triangle,&#xA;  a terrified circle, the circle and the small triangle joining forces&#xA;  to defeat the bully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Viewers perceive the movements of the shapes in causal terms. Kahneman then goes on to say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The psychology of causality was the basis of my decision to describe&#xA;  psychological processes by metaphors of agency, with little concern&#xA;  for consistency. I sometimes refer to System 1 as an agent with&#xA;  certain traits and preferences, and sometimes as an associative&#xA;  machine that represents reality by a complex pattern of links. The&#xA;  system and the machine are fictions; my reason for using them is that&#xA;  they fit the way we think about causes. Heider’s triangles and circles&#xA;  are not really agents—it is just very easy and natural to think of&#xA;  them that way. It is a matter of mental economy. I assume that you&#xA;  (like me) find it easier to think about the mind if we describe what&#xA;  happens in terms of traits and intentions (the two systems) and&#xA;  sometimes in terms of mechanical regularities (the associative&#xA;  machine). I do not intend to convince you that the systems are real,&#xA;  any more than Heider intended you to believe that the large triangle&#xA;  is really a bully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've never been able to understand the distinction he is trying to draw there. In what sense are the two systems 'unreal'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Macmillan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-12T11:51:35.467" LastActivityDate="2018-08-14T16:00:10.023" Title="Dual systems theory: in what sense are the systems 'unreal'?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12193" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8920" CreationDate="2015-09-16T07:10:00.870" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the supplemental materials (&lt;a href=&quot;http://supp.apa.org/psycarticles/supplemental/bul_136_4_495/BUL-Hagger20090180-RRR-F2.doc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Appendix A&lt;/a&gt;) of the meta-analysis by Hagger et al. (2010), you can find a comprehensive &lt;strong&gt;taxonomy of different methods that have been used to induce ego depletion&lt;/strong&gt;. As the table summarizes a great variety of different paradigms, I will only list a few examples of methods and papers here. The references can be found in &lt;a href=&quot;http://supp.apa.org/psycarticles/supplemental/bul_136_4_495/BUL-Hagger20090180-RRR-F1.doc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this document&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hagger et al. sort the methods into 3 &quot;task spheres&quot; depending on whether they focus more on affective or cognitive processes: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Affective&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;controlling emotions&lt;/strong&gt; - for example &lt;em&gt;reading book passage aloud in emotionally expressive fashion&lt;/em&gt; (Gailliot, Schmeichel, &amp;amp; Maner, 2007, Study 1), &lt;em&gt;regulating negative affect when describing a situation&lt;/em&gt; (Bruyneel et al., 2009, Studies 3 &amp;amp; 4)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;controlling impulses&lt;/strong&gt; - for example &lt;em&gt;crossing-out-letters task&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1998, Study 4), &lt;em&gt;modified Stroop task performance&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., Bray, Ginis, Hicks, &amp;amp; Woodgate, 2008), &lt;em&gt;Appetizing/unappetizing food taste perception task&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1998, Study 1)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cognitive&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;controlling attention&lt;/strong&gt; - for example &lt;em&gt;focusing attention on subject and not displayed words while watching a video&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., DeWall et al., 2008, Study 2), &lt;em&gt;arithmetic task with/without auditory interference&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., Alberts, Martijn, Greb, Merckelbach, &amp;amp; de Vries, 2007, Study 2)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;cognitive performance&lt;/strong&gt; - for example &lt;em&gt;paced forward (low fatigue)/backward (high fatigue) counting task&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., Wright et al., 2007), &lt;em&gt;easy/difficult labyrinths task&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., Alberts et al., 2007)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;controlling thoughts&lt;/strong&gt; - for example &lt;em&gt;suppressing thoughts of death&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., Gailliot, Baumeister et al., 2007, Study 8), &lt;em&gt;suppressing thoughts of previously-viewed emotive video&lt;/em&gt; (Ostafin et al., 2008)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;choice and volition&lt;/strong&gt; - for example &lt;em&gt;making product choices&lt;/em&gt; (Bruyneel, Dewitte, Vohs, &amp;amp; Warlop, 2006), &lt;em&gt;forced-choice essay task&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1998, Study 2)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Affective and cognitive&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;social processing&lt;/strong&gt; - for example, &lt;em&gt;high-maintenance social interaction tasks&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., Finkel et al., 2006), &lt;em&gt;other-race/same-race social interaction task&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., Richeson &amp;amp; Shelton, 2003)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hagger, M. S., Wood, C., Stiff, C., &amp;amp; Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2010). Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 495–525. doi:10.1037/a0019486&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T07:10:00.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12195" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1751" CreationDate="2015-09-16T17:10:37.610" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Those responding make some very good points about being specific about operational definitions and such. However, I've argued -- in an evolutionary psych textbook -- that there is a probably a reason why discomfort from cold and electric shock have power laws with exponents greater than perceived brightness (at low stimulus intensities), for example. It's adaptive to be highly sensitive to intense levels of things that can kill or harm you -- to avoid frostbite or death from electrocution, for example. This would also suggest that the psychophysical exponents for normally harmless dimensions such as brightness and loudness would go up for very bright lights or very loud noises (that could damage your eyes or ears, respectively).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologist Martie Haselton has made very similar arguments in her research on &quot;error management theory.&quot; Roy Baumeister has made similar points in his Psychological Bulletin paper entitled something like 'Bad is stronger than good.&quot;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brett Pelham    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9337" LastActivityDate="2015-09-16T17:10:37.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12201" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12147" CreationDate="2015-09-17T16:23:15.213" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my personal interest and research into dreaming over 12 years, I ask you to consider that &lt;strong&gt;the climax of a dream may actually be caused by the alarm ringing.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been long standing hypothesis that real life content gets incorporated into one's dreams. This phenomenon is rather unpredictable, and an example would be seeing lightning strikes in a dream in response to real life light flashes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From personal experiences - I've frequently been puzzled by waking up  a second or so ahead of perceived alarm going off. I hypothesize that this perception is false, and the alarm has been going off for some time before I awoke. &lt;strong&gt;Due to the high intensity of an alarm, I hypothesize that the awakening process somehow influences the intensity of dream imagery.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the confirmation bias - it can also play a part in your question. Once again, from anecdotal evidence, there are many occasions where the dream just fades into blackness and a person slowly gains the sensation of laying in bed (no alarm). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-09-17T16:23:15.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12204" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-18T02:02:56.150" Score="4" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I answered the question &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/q/260495/129806&quot;&gt;Why aren't optical illusions called visual illusions?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and would like to get more information to improve my answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In doing a search on Ngram for occurrences of the expressions &quot;optical illusion&quot; and &quot;visual illusion&quot; I saw that &quot;visual illusion&quot; appeared in 1900.  It might have existed earlier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When did &quot;optical illusions&quot; start being seen as &quot;visual illusions?&quot;  By visual illusions, I mean phenomena of the brain and visual system.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In your field (cognitive/neuro sciences) is the expression &quot;visual illusion&quot; now preferred over &quot;optical illusion?&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Also, sources say that interest in optical illusions goes back to Aristotle and the ancients.  What were these optical illusions they were interested in?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9351" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2016-06-17T13:53:16.373" Title="What is the proper term: optical Illusions or visual illusions?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12205" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12211" CreationDate="2015-09-18T02:21:59.730" Score="3" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm an English teacher and participate in the English Language forum.  The question of word synonyms is very frequent.  People ask if words can be substituted in sentences and still retain meaning, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel that there is no such thing as &quot;synonyms&quot; because the pictures created in the mind of listeners and speakers  are different for different words, and to complicate matters putting the words in sentences will produce different mental pictures / movies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if I ask 100 native English speakers what they imagine when they hear these two sentences, I feel that very different mental pictures / movies will be produced:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a) Please wash your hands.&#xA;b) Please clean your hands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some would argue that &quot;wash&quot; and &quot;clean&quot; are synonyms, and that the meaning of both sentences are the same; remove dirt from you hands in whatever way you choose.  I feel that they are not the same.  I'm sure there are better examples to help my point.  The words garbage, waste, pollution, trash, and rubbish, were discussed in another post.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read Benjamin Bergen's book.  I am an ESL teacher, and a big problem I have found is that students don't have the same mental pictures as native speakers for words.  If I ask them what a word means they can say, but if I ask them what they imagine, the results don't always match or coincide with what native speakers would likely imagine, and I know that they will end up using the word incorrectly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Does it really make sense to talk about &quot;synonyms&quot; in light of what we now know about how people process language?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Are there books besides Bergen's that explore the topic of language processing in the way his book did, i.e. language as a mental movie produced in the listener and speaker's mind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9351" LastActivityDate="2020-04-04T17:26:01.810" Title="Is there such a thing as word synonyms?" Tags="&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12206" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-18T04:35:35.190" Score="1" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen a TV program talking about an interesting 'mind control' magic/experiment. I cannot find this video clip online so I have to describe what I saw in words. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The video (some sort of documentary?) begins with two persons walking on the street. One person is the host and another is the subject of this experiment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both person walking down the street and do some casual talking. While they walk, the host introduces the area and so on, points to some interesting scenes around (for example graffiti and people on the street etc...). Also, an one instance, there was a boy skating and the boy almost hit the subject. Anyway, everything looks perfectly normal and natural.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, they reached an art gallery. They walk into the gallery and then in a room, there is a covered painting there. The host asked the subject to tell, what would be on the paint. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subject mentioned a couple of things, some thing like the color of the paint, the object on the paint etc, etc... Guess what? As you certainly can predict, when the host reveal the paint, it looks exactly like the one described by the subject. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The host then explain to the subject that everything and everybody he had seen during this experiment are controlled and are carefully selected. For example the boy skating, the people on the street, the graffiti etc. The host then suggested that its what he (the subject) saw lead him to think (about the paint) the way the host would like him to think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my question here is that assume this video is not just a fake camera trick, then what psychology theory is behind it? Could anybody offer some links to academic papers in this area? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9352" LastEditorUserId="7654" LastEditDate="2015-09-19T00:34:09.057" LastActivityDate="2015-09-19T00:34:09.057" Title="What Cognitive/Psychology Theories Are Behind The &quot;Mind Control&quot; Magics?" Tags="&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2017-07-30T19:59:07.533" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12207" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12205" CreationDate="2015-09-18T05:49:56.090" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you asked a couple of very interesting questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is my thought to the first question you mentioned. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People have different levels of knowledge/capability on things. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, for a toddler who is showing off his/her color recognition skills, it is probably all right to use 'red' for a range of colors from pink to magenta. However, for a professional graphic designer, it is not OK. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This applies to language skills too. 'Synonyms' to ESL students (for example: myself) may not necessarily be 'synonyms' to native English speakers. Similarly, 'synonyms' to native English speakers may not 'synonyms' to Shakespeare. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you quantify the similarity among words, say, you give a score to a pair of words to indicate their similarity, then you certainly can define that all pairs of words with degree of similarity more than 128.57 (just a mock up number) are 'synonyms' and all pairs of words with degree of similarity less than 13.78 are antonyms. Of course, different people may assign different scores between two words. An ESL student may assign 250.12 between 'wash' and 'clean': that makes them become 'synonyms'. Whereas you, an export in English language,may assign 110.01 or less between the same two words, which make them not 'synonyms' to each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I guess, my comment to your first question is that: yes, it does make sense to talk about 'synonyms' but at the same time, people also need to keep in mind that the degree of similarity is different for different people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Best regards,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chris&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9353" LastActivityDate="2015-09-18T05:49:56.090" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12209" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16026" CreationDate="2015-09-15T02:23:51.530" Score="6" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect that only licensed psychiatrists get to see the contents of the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM (SCID). I am drafting a proposal currently and need to know if the data I am applying for access to use has the data structures I need for my experiment. I need to know that the SCID generates evaluation measures of symptom clusters from disorder types in the DSM AND a measure of &lt;em&gt;Global Functioning&lt;/em&gt;. Is this the case? What does phenotypic SCID data look like?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9366" OwnerDisplayName="areyoujokingme" LastActivityDate="2016-10-07T08:48:39.600" Title="Does the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM contain a Global Assessment of Functioning measure?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12211" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12205" CreationDate="2015-09-18T07:57:56.593" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Technically no two words are identical, especially between speakers, but the term is still useful. Here's my answer borrowing from a few disciplines:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Semantics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be useful to think of words in terms of their &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/frege/#FreTheSenDen&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;sense&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;reference&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. You can think of reference as the thing that the word/phrase 'points to' in the world, and sense as additional meaning conveyed by a word/phrase. If for example, you were to refer to your friend's dog as &quot;Lassie&quot;, the reference of Lassie in this context is simply your friend's dog. If you referred to your friend's dog as a &quot;mutt&quot;, then the reference of &quot;mutt&quot; is still your friend's dog. Both &quot;Lassie&quot; and &quot;mutt&quot; share elements of the same meaning--in that they have the same reference, but they differ in their sense. You could make the same argument for &quot;wash&quot; and &quot;clean&quot;, though they may have the same &lt;em&gt;reference&lt;/em&gt; they have different &lt;em&gt;senses&lt;/em&gt;, therefore, they are not the exact same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive Science:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do we define words and phrases? It cannot be just a dictionary definition, because we know much more about what constitutes a word than what a dictionary attempts to do. One could extend the idea of a dictionary definition and compose a set of necessary and sufficient conditions that encapsulate a word's meaning (for example a dog could be something that is furry, four-legged...etc.) But this is problematic--for one it does not account for &lt;em&gt;gradation&lt;/em&gt; across categories. Secondly, it is almost impossible to fully define categories such as &quot;dog&quot; and &quot;chair&quot; using necessary and sufficient conditions. (You could fill a book with conditions that could satisfy &quot;chair&quot; but can never work out a contingent system), finally, it leads to infinite regress. (For example, if we define a &quot;dog&quot; as something that is &quot;furry&quot;, what then is are the necessary and sufficient conditions of &quot;furry&quot;?)--thus necessary and sufficient conditions don't have much use in natural language. An alternative is &lt;em&gt;prototype theory&lt;/em&gt; (see: Eleanor Rosch), which asserts that a concept's meaning is graded around an idealized core. For example, you may have an idealized concept of &quot;dog&quot; (say, a golden retriever), and all other examples of dogs you see in the world lay on a spectrum in relation to your idealized representation of a dog. The farther away, or more different, the object is from the idealized core, the less &quot;dog-like&quot; it is. The interesting thing about prototype theory is that the idealized core is arbitrary--it varies from person to person. So one person's idea of a &quot;dog&quot; is not the same as another person. That means that the word does not mean the exact same from speaker to speaker, despite having very similar senses and references. From this we could conclude that no two speaker's englishes are the same. So even when comparing the same word, their meanings are not truly the same. The processes that involve how prototypes form in the first place are as much dependent on individual variation, as they are culture and language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Phonology:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouba/kiki_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bouba-Kiki effect&lt;/a&gt; shows that speech sounds themselves may come to have meaning (see: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_symbolism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sound symbolism&lt;/a&gt;). So the fact that your synonyms &quot;wash&quot; /waʃ/ and &quot;clean&quot; /klin/ have different phonological realizations means that they also have differing semantic implications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bringing it together:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an ESL teacher you may be working with children who may have learned english explicitly--this is in stark contrast to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_period_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;native english speakers who learned english passively&lt;/a&gt;. ESL speakers may be comparing their native language (and prototypes) to english, thereby producing different conceptualizations of the semantic space english expressions explore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So cognitively no two words are identical. From this you could claim that there are no &quot;true&quot; synonyms--but that &lt;em&gt;doesn't&lt;/em&gt; mean that the term &quot;synonym&quot; is useless. Even though all words have multiple complex layers of meaning, some words have more semantic similarities than others, and that still bears pointing out as an interesting feature in language. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastEditorUserId="7569" LastEditDate="2015-09-18T08:05:22.150" LastActivityDate="2015-09-18T08:05:22.150" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12212" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12230" CreationDate="2015-09-18T18:26:59.690" Score="16" ViewCount="2497" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally speaking, I feel like there are two things everyone can agree on when it comes to intellectuals:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They don't know everything.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They know more than me (at least about a particular topic).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's #2 that's tripping me up. The words of a Know-It-All are usually very poorly received (at least in Western culture). We don't consider intelligence as a meaningful criteria for political office, we bully them in schools, and even tell them to their faces that they're wrong about scientific/mathematical concepts that we admit to not understanding! When a problem arises in our lives, they are the last people we want to hear from. We instead run to the counsel of our family, friends, and other people who many times know &lt;em&gt;even less&lt;/em&gt; about the problem than we do!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But why? Everything we have as a species is owed to our brains. If they really do know more than us, it would be in our best interest to revere them, no?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any studies done that would explain why people generally don't listen to smart people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9357" LastActivityDate="2020-03-28T15:03:52.857" Title="Why don't people listen to smart people?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12217" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-19T15:50:34.953" Score="3" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;Claim: I initially thought of posting this to Biology SE, but the fact that the question finds its resting formation in the area of cognition/mood/personality, I decided to post it here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is stated that in respect to monogamic relationships in mammals, D2 receptors activation effect is important for initial male-female pair formation and D1 receptors activation effect is important for prolonging the relationship in time (up to death).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since potentiation of D1 receptors and decrease in D2 receptors effect cannot limit itself to the context of these relationships, I wonder about how this change in the organism first changes the perception of its chosen mate and, later, affects its overal behavior, mood and cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would appreciate an answer along one or several of these lines, in the order of increasing interest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What behavioral traits can be attributed to each of these receptors actions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What changes in mood and mate perception/estimation/assesment can be spotted by a person affected by this process on various stages?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What overall changes in perception of reality can be expected to manifest? I.e. how does this change translate to outside of the context of relationships and overall understanding/perception of reality?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dana.org/News/Details.aspx?id=43517&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Last sentences of the last paragraph&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.genetics.ucla.edu/courses/hg19/monogamy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Middle of the first page&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2822034/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Somewhere near middle of the text&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="261" LastEditorUserId="261" LastEditDate="2015-09-21T11:27:07.237" LastActivityDate="2015-09-21T11:27:07.237" Title="Behavioral and mood differences between D1 and D2 dophamine receptors action in context of monogamy and out of it" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9431" CreationDate="2015-09-19T19:30:27.143" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can also research Aaron Beck and his principles of thinking distortions. In evidence based cognitive thinking models for thought and behavior changes it describes what you are referring to as a common thinking distortion called lack of time perspective. It defines it by explaining that when this thinking distortion is being used by an individual they are confusing cause and effect. In terms of criminal and addictive behavior the distortion allows a person to continually find justifications. Everyone has thinking distortions, the separation is between those who act on them and those who don't.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9360" LastActivityDate="2015-09-19T19:30:27.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12219" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12253" CreationDate="2015-09-19T22:30:36.510" Score="2" ViewCount="2146" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just out of curiosity, regardingly highly unlikely situations of ever needing to disarm someone - using neuroscience to make informed self defence decisions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How fast can the brain recieve a visual or reflexive (seeing me beginning to move my hand, or feeling my hand hit the wrist -- I suspect the two impulses might have differing response times) signals from the body, to the moment of signaling the finger muscles? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9361" LastEditorUserId="9361" LastEditDate="2015-09-22T18:53:46.587" LastActivityDate="2015-09-26T11:50:53.770" Title="How fast can the brain react in order for someone to pull a trigger?" Tags="&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12221" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11089" CreationDate="2015-09-20T15:24:27.647" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think what you're talking about is &lt;strong&gt;worry&lt;/strong&gt; and/or &lt;strong&gt;rumination&lt;/strong&gt;, both of which describe a perseverative and repetitive thinking style (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2672052/&quot;&gt;Watkins, 2008&lt;/a&gt;).  Worry is future-oriented whereas rumination is past-oriented. We don't understand the mechanisms all that well at the level of analysis you're interested in, but I'll present some brain-level theories/data about these processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Rumination&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rumination is associated with functional hyperconnectivity between the default mode network (DMN) and subgenual prefrontal cortex (sgPFC), which may be mediated by connections with the medial dorsal thalamus (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322315001432&quot;&gt;Hamilton, Farmer, Fogelman, &amp;amp; Gotlib, 2015&lt;/a&gt;). The DMN is involved with affective self-referential thought and the sgPFC supports affective behavioral withdrawal.  Together, the DMN and sgPFC might produce a ruminative state that is &quot;self-focused, valenced, and withdrawn&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322315001432&quot;&gt;Hamilton et al., 2015, p. 227&lt;/a&gt;).  Other analyses also reveal structural and resting state abnormalities associated with rumination, involving areas related to cognitive control (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165032712002200&quot;&gt;Kuhn, Vanderhasselt, de Raedt, &amp;amp; Gallinat, 2012&lt;/a&gt;).  Rumination and cognitive control deficits (e.g., in working memory; &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.stanford.edu/group/mood/cgi-bin/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/joormann_levens_gotlib_2011.pdf&quot;&gt;Joormann, Levens, &amp;amp; Gotlib, 2011&lt;/a&gt;) are strongly related, explaining why trait ruminators have difficulties with disengaging from their repetitive, intrusive thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Worry&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Worry seems to be associated with increased activation of anterior cingulate and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, involved with mentalizing and self-reflection.  And pathological worry (in GAD) may be associated with prolonged activation of these areas, possibly representing difficulties inhibiting worrying thoughts (&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=6778228&amp;amp;fileId=S0033291709005649&quot;&gt;Paulesu et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;).  Hyperanxious individuals also tend to show greater amygdala and insula activity to emotional stimuli (&lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504&quot;&gt;Etkin &amp;amp; Wager, 2007&lt;/a&gt;).  This may indicate that pathological worry arises from dysfunctional salience processing (&quot;Is this stimulus biologically relevant to me?&quot;) and emotional processing/reactivity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-09-20T15:24:27.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12222" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9431" CreationDate="2015-09-20T17:58:18.360" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think Daniel Kahneman calls this the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Availability heuristic&quot;&gt;Availability heuristic&lt;/a&gt;, a cognitive bias explaining the tendency to weigh more recent (more available) information as more pertinent when making beliefs, reasoning or drawing causal relations.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9364" LastActivityDate="2015-09-20T17:58:18.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12223" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-20T18:39:33.677" Score="2" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;The dextrorotary form of cycloserine has been suggested to be helpful in fear extinction by some studies. Is the drug available on the market for psychiatric use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9350" LastActivityDate="2015-09-20T18:39:33.677" Title="Is D-Cycloserine available on the market" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-06-18T13:12:39.960" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12224" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16019" CreationDate="2015-09-20T19:14:31.010" Score="3" ViewCount="1415" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been trying my best to understand what &lt;em&gt;Quinian bootstrapping&lt;/em&gt; is, by reading scientific articles on this topic, but I come across more and more philosophical concepts like &quot;sortals&quot; or similar. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to just grasp the idea behind Quinian bootstrapping - what does a child &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; when understanding some abstract concepts, like &quot;weight&quot;. Does anyone know how to explain how it works in a less complicated, but maybe more simplistic way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can add that I know what is bootstrapping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Carey, S. The Origin of Concepts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Carey, S. “Precis of The Origin of Concepts”, in Behavioral and Brain Sciences&#xA;34 (2011), 113-167&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4874" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-10T04:36:32.797" LastActivityDate="2016-10-10T04:36:32.797" Title="Does anyone know how to explain Quinian bootstrapping process by Carey to a layperson (like me)?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12226" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-21T03:12:50.597" Score="1" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have the challenge of finding a way to model, develop, validate and implement an artificial cognitive architecture for mobile robots for industrial environment. In my present scope of the questions is to establish a method for evaluating the level of &quot;intelligence&quot; of these robots, or generations of virtual or physical robots, from a comparison with the &quot;intelligence&quot; of human and other animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9368" LastEditorUserId="9368" LastEditDate="2015-09-21T03:17:53.610" LastActivityDate="2015-09-21T03:17:53.610" Title="How to make a comparative analysis between the decision-making robots and human?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-09-21T14:17:46.787" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12227" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-21T02:16:10.973" Score="3" ViewCount="681" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why are children afraid of the dark, in particular more afraid than adults? Is it an evolutionary mechanism? What causes this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9375" OwnerDisplayName="TanMath" LastEditorUserId="9375" LastEditDate="2015-09-21T20:21:40.007" LastActivityDate="2015-11-29T05:35:27.867" Title="Why are children afraid of the dark?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12228" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3749" CreationDate="2015-09-21T11:16:20.737" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In economic terms this can also be defined in terms of marginal utility of a thing, experience etc (von Neumann and Morgenstern, 1944).&#xA;As soon as you have (enough of) something and/or got used to having it, something novel and/or relativelively scarce that might be useful will seem attractive. Maybe because it's evolutionary fit to strive for the optimal combination to increase pleasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;von Neumann J, Morgenstern O. Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton University Press; 1944.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9371" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-04T17:45:02.700" LastActivityDate="2020-06-04T17:45:02.700" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12229" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3749" CreationDate="2015-09-21T13:43:39.233" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do we want what we don't have? There are &lt;strong&gt;many different answers stemming from diverse theoretical approaches&lt;/strong&gt;. I will list a couple, drawing heavily on a older review by Lynn (1992) who has collected different ideas about why desirability can sometimes be increased when something is unavailable to us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;We perceive things that few people have as important &lt;strong&gt;resources that signal social status&lt;/strong&gt;. This can be seen in people's tendency for &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspicuous_consumption&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;conspicuous consumption&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (Veblen, 1899), in other words the tendency to buy &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positional_good&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;positional goods&lt;/a&gt;, which promise being superior to others (e.g. Solnick &amp;amp; Hemenway, 1998)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Researchers such as Snyder and Fromkin (1977) posit that people can perceive similarity to others as a threatening. Therefore, scarce and unavailable things are desirable because they promise to fulfill a &lt;strong&gt;need for uniqueness&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Unavailable resources often imply that having them means to have &lt;strong&gt;power&lt;/strong&gt; over others (Emerson, 1962)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Social comparisons can give rise to &lt;strong&gt;specific emotions&lt;/strong&gt; that motivate us to seek things that are unavailable. People deliberately engage in downward comparisons (Wills, 1981) to enhance their self-esteem. Having something that not everybody has may thus give rise to &lt;strong&gt;pride&lt;/strong&gt;. Upward comparisons with others (who have something we want) may cause &lt;strong&gt;envy&lt;/strong&gt;, which can increase desire (Crusius &amp;amp; Mussweiler, 2012, Van de Ven et al. 2011)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scarcity&lt;/strong&gt; has been portrayed as a &lt;strong&gt;heuristic cue that signals desirability&lt;/strong&gt; (Cialdini, 1993), for example, because rare things are perceived to have a higher quality (Ditto &amp;amp; Jemmott, 1989)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, we don't have things because we are denied to have them. Such threats to our freedom cause &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;reactance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; which &lt;strong&gt;increases our desire&lt;/strong&gt; to have what we can't have (e.g., Brehm, Stires, Sensenig, &amp;amp; Shaban, 1966)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Trying to attain something which is difficult to get increases &lt;strong&gt;arousal which fuels desirability&lt;/strong&gt; (Brehm et al, 1983)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It stands to reason, however, that we are often quite good in rationalizing why we don't want the things that we don't have (e.g., Kay, Jimenez, &amp;amp; Jost, 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brehm, J. W., Stires, L. K., Sensenig, J., &amp;amp; Shaban, J. (1966). The attractiveness of an eliminated choice alternative. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2, 301–313. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(66)90086-2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brehm, J. W., Wright, R. A., Solomon, S., Silka, L., &amp;amp; Greenberg, J. (1983). Perceived difficulty, energization, and the magnitude of goal valence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 21–48. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(83)90003-3&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brock, T. C. (1968). Implications of commodity theory for value change. In A. G. Greenwald, T. C. Brock, &amp;amp; T. M. Ostrom (Eds.), Psychological foundations of attitudes (pp. 243–275). New York: Academic Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cialdini, R. B. (1993). Influence: Science and practice (3rd ed.). New York: HarperCollins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crusius, J., &amp;amp; Mussweiler, T. (2012). When people want what others have: The impulsive side of envious desire. Emotion, 12, 142–153. doi:10.1037/a0023523&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ditto, P. H., &amp;amp; Jemmott, J. B. (1989). From rarity to evaluative extremity: Effects of prevalence information on evaluations of positive and negative characteristics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 16–26. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.1.16&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emerson, R. M. (1962). Power-dependence relations. American Sociological Review, 27, 31-41.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kay, A. C., Jimenez, M. C., &amp;amp; Jost, J. T. (2002). Sour grapes, sweet lemons, and the anticipatory rationalization of the status quo. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1300–1312. doi:10.1177/01461672022812014&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lynn, M. (1992). The psychology of unavailability: Explaining scarcity and cost effects on value. Basic &amp;amp; Applied Social Psychology, 13, 3–7. doi:Article&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Snyder R., C., &amp;amp; Fromkin, H. L. (1977). Abnormality as a positive characteristic: The development and validation of a scale measuring need for uniqueness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 518–527. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.86.5.518&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Solnick, S. J., &amp;amp; Hemenway, D. (1998). Is more always better? A survey on positional concerns. Journal of Economic Behavior &amp;amp; Organization, 37, 373–383. doi:10.1016/S0167-2681(98)00089-4&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., &amp;amp; Pieters, R. (2011). The envy premium in product evaluation. The Journal of Consumer Research, 37, 984–998. doi:10.1086/657239&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Veblen, T. (1899). The theory of the leisure class. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 245–271. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.90.2.245&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-09-25T03:57:57.787" LastActivityDate="2015-09-25T03:57:57.787" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12230" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12212" CreationDate="2015-09-21T15:04:28.663" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;David Dunning and Justin Kruger have observed that, related to skill competency, individuals which are incompetent in a certain skill can exhibit a cognitive bias, called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect&quot;&gt;Dunning-Kruger effect&lt;/a&gt;, which leads them to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;fail to recognize their own lack of skill&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;fail to recognize genuine skill in others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;fail to recognize the extremity of their inadequacy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;recognize and acknowledge their own lack of skill, but only after they are exposed to training for that skill&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the study focuses exclusively on why people can or cannot measure their strenghts and weaknesses correctly, there was an interesting &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2702783/&quot;&gt;subsequent study&lt;/a&gt; where the authors were lead by the fascination that certain incompetent poor performers fail to ever improve. They have concluded that such individuals have an apparent lack of self-insight, which leads to exhibit incorrect logic and defensive mechanisms which fixate their views even against continuous feedback and encouragement to improve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This certainly remains a complex phenomena which we could, from experience,  observe in different forms. Based on the suggestions from the last study, it seems that this becomes an issue with individuals that have not conceived intelligence as being malleable. Apparently, they may not have been instilled to value intelligence and encouraged to approach learning and the refinement of it's processes for the betterment of one's own intelligence as an endeavor which is to be considered as rewarding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Effectively, being that they consider intelligence as something that is fixated, failing to generate excitement when they engage others that attempt to challenge and broaden it seems to lead to the difficulties at hand, such as: I do not understand you and I am certain I never will, so I choose to continuously ignore you because I do not want to feel this discomfort that arises from knowing that I am invariably incompetent, which you and I both know is not a good thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9374" LastEditorUserId="9374" LastEditDate="2015-09-21T15:28:24.187" LastActivityDate="2015-09-21T15:28:24.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12231" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-21T17:49:08.153" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have files: &lt;code&gt;left_fg+tlrc.BRIK&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;left_fg+tlrc.HEAD&lt;/code&gt;. I want to know &#xA;how to convert the files to &lt;code&gt;left_fg+orig.BRIK&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;left_fg+orig.HEAD&lt;/code&gt;. &#xA;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9329" LastEditorUserId="55" LastEditDate="2015-09-23T01:39:53.793" LastActivityDate="2015-09-23T01:39:53.793" Title="How to convert .tlrc file to .orig file?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-10-01T13:39:52.440" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12232" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8010" CreationDate="2015-09-21T19:13:52.527" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Wiki page on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vitamin B6&lt;/a&gt; gives a reference on a paper that states that it increases the ability for dream recall. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ebben M, Lequerica A, Spielman A.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11883552#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Effects of pyridoxine on dreaming: a preliminary study.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abstract&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The effect of pyridoxine (Vitamin B-6) on dreaming was investigated in a placebo, double-blind study to examine various claims that Vitamin B-6 increases dream vividness or the ability to recall dreams. 12 college students participated in all three treatment conditions, each of which involved ingesting either 100 mg B-6, 250 mg B-6, or a placebo prior to bedtime for a period of five consecutive days. The treatment conditions were completely counterbalanced and a two-day wash-out period occurred between the three five-day treatment blocks. Morning self-reports indicated a significant difference in dream-salience scores (this is a composite score containing measures on vividness, bizarreness, emotionality, and color) between the 250-mg condition and placebo over the first three days of each treatment. The data for dream salience suggests that Vitamin B-6 may act by increasing cortical arousal during periods of rapid eve movement (REM) sleep. An hypothesis is presented involving the role of B-6 in the conversion of tryptophan to serotonin. However, this first study needs to be replicated using the same procedures and also demonstrated in a sleep laboratory before the results can be considered certain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But beware: B6 might be toxic in a certain way. At LED gave some hints &lt;a href=&quot;https://health.stackexchange.com/questions/3149/time-needed-for-vitamin-b6-to-reach-the-brain#comment5162_3166&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:53:20.107" LastActivityDate="2015-09-21T19:13:52.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7948" CreationDate="2015-09-21T19:32:46.367" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State-dependent_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;State dependent memory&lt;/a&gt; could play a role in quickly forgetting dreams after awakening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See my question here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/2034/what-is-the-scientific-term-for-unexpected-spontaneous-dream-recall&quot;&gt;What is the scientific term for unexpected, spontaneous dream recall?&lt;/a&gt; I ask about a phenomenon where dream recall happens much later potentially weeks or months after awakening. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would venture to hypothesize that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melatonin#Dreaming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Melatonin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; might play a role as a state dependent cue that alters the state of memory for recall. Melatonin supplementation can produce extraordinarily vivid dreams that rapidly lose their grandeur upon awakening and subsequent recall. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally I take a melatonin supplement at night and can drift off to sleep while recalling dozens of dreams (seems to correlate with melatonin levels rising). My understanding is that Melatonin is suppressed by blue light, so bright lights in the morning may rapidly reduce melatonin concentration and hamper recall. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-09-21T19:32:46.367" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12234" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12235" CreationDate="2015-09-21T20:44:44.023" Score="3" ViewCount="23738" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've met people who say they did very well in algebra but were terrible at geometry in high school and some people who say they did very well in geometry but were terrible at algebra in high school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious if people who do well in geometry are right-brained thinkers while people who do well in algebra are left-brained thinkers? Why is there a difference in ability, when algebra and geometry are just branches of the same subject, mathematics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9286" LastActivityDate="2017-05-07T19:03:13.723" Title="Why are some people good at algebra and bad at geometry and vice versa?" Tags="&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12235" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12234" CreationDate="2015-09-22T06:55:30.250" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short, algebra and geometry are different type of cognitive abilities. Geometry is more spatial and algebra more verbal-logic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kestenbaum, C., Williams, T. D., Handbook of Clinical Assessment of Children and Adolescents, NYU Press, 1988.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2015-09-22T06:55:30.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12236" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12187" CreationDate="2015-09-22T11:08:05.707" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a TMS, but not an fMRI, researcher but I have experience using anatomical masks. I can guide you through the steps to make an anatomical mask, but unfortunately I don't have any code to offer you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all you need a set of x, y and z co-ordinates that specify where TOFC or LOC are. One way to find these is to find a paper that reports the x,y,z values corresponding to a voxel that contains the peak BOLD signal change co-ordinates within the LOC or TOFC. An alternatively way, might be to find some anatomical studies that provide these co-ordinates for you. I cannot recommend one or the other to you; this is a decision for you to make based on the analyses you are doing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once you have found some LOC or TOFC co-ordinates you are happy with, you can create a mask based on them using FSLView (type in fslview in the Linux terminal to open it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, open FSLView and open one of the standardized brain images. You can enter your TOFC or LOC co-ordinates (in MNI or Talairach space - I'd recommend MNI) in FSL using the x, y and z boxes in the bottom left corner. This will move a crosshair on top of the peak voxel. Then click file - create mask. This will enable you to use the toolbar, on this toolbar you will see an icon shaped like a pencil. Use it to mark voxel the crosshair is pointing at, making it sure it corresponds to the voxels you entered earlier. Do this separately for both site&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can then save this you will have an image containing an anatomical mask indicating where LOC and TOFC are. If this is unclear, try this blog - an fMRI researcher in my lab found it really useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://andysbrainblog.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/creating-masks-in-fsl.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://andysbrainblog.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/creating-masks-in-fsl.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good luck!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9380" LastActivityDate="2015-09-22T11:08:05.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12238" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-22T14:36:28.130" Score="5" ViewCount="337" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am an English major currently taking a Psycholinguistics module. One of the things we learned is that speech perception is handled differently from non-speech sound perception. Our brain is trained to break down speech signals more intricately than non-speech information, which is why we are able to distinguish syllable and word boundaries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since speech sounds are perceived differently than general sounds, my question is this: &lt;strong&gt;do different areas of the brain light up when speech is perceived as opposed to a general sound?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've spent a few hours Googling this, but I found no answers. The only thing I found is that a particular section of the temporal lobe is responsible for auditory perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would expect that a general sound activates mainly the temporal lobe while hearing speech would activate the temporal lobe and areas of the brain associated with the words currently in the content of the speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9383" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-06T08:38:11.033" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T13:23:56.870" Title="Are the language and sound centres of the brain in the same area?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12239" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12234" CreationDate="2015-09-22T18:29:09.380" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm one of those people who was good at Geometry, but bad at Algebra. Eventually I caught up and was good at both. The question why did bother me for a long time, and it's good to see that I'm not alone. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that middle and high school algebra is mostly about memorization. Typical questions have &lt;strong&gt;only one solution&lt;/strong&gt;. You have to remember how to expand polynominals, and if you are faced with an equation and don't a specific rule, you are going to fail:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is the remainder when f(x) = (x - 2)54 is divided by x - 1?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of Geometry, not only is it more visual, but &lt;strong&gt;there are multiple ways to arrive at a solution&lt;/strong&gt;. Multiple rules can be applied in different order to arrive at a solution. It can take longer, be less effective, but a solution can be found. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qP1Kx.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qP1Kx.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-09-22T18:29:09.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12240" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12219" CreationDate="2015-09-22T21:33:04.367" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that if response is trained enough long that it happens unconsciously.&#xA;Also if you want to be precise in forms of neuroscience, if you have longer arms, but less myellinated  neuro fibers then your reflexes will be slower then unconscious visual reaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kibele, A., Non-consciously controlled decision making for fast motor reactions in sports—A priming approach for motor responses to non-consciously perceived movement features; Psychology of Sport and Exercise; November 2006, Pages 591–610&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1469029206000537&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1469029206000537&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastActivityDate="2015-09-22T21:33:04.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12241" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9423" CreationDate="2015-09-22T21:53:09.953" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Self affirmations is a kind of meditation, that is a specific state of mind, guided consciously. This kind of activity itself amends the person into a more direct and ordered state, actively improving the balance between the functioning of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This brings in the feeling of improvement and serves as a reward which helps to repeat self affirmation again. The more calm and ordered state of body lends even more control to the intellect which starts solving things, which also improves mood. This is widely used in medicine, for example, during child birth where the women are instructed to breathe calm and control the breath, which brings improvements of vital importance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, it is impossible to say, if self affirmation is primal. Maybe the fact itself of the sympathetic system function subsiding, gives birth to the feeling of improvement which is verbally perceived as a positive self affirmation. However, if free will is real then positive self affirmation is a good way to manifest it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In any way the mechanism is complex and involves changing brain EM rhythms, probably with many other processes coming into play.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="261" LastEditorUserId="261" LastEditDate="2016-01-25T12:51:34.780" LastActivityDate="2016-01-25T12:51:34.780" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12242" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-22T23:18:32.140" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/774/2516&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; they talk about how animals can develop rituals that they thing have some influence in a particular outcome, when in reality there isn't a real connection whatsoever between the performed ritual and the reward they expect as an outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I'm curious about whether there are similar studies involving religion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say we have the soccer players that make the sign of the cross over them before the match begins, and the pigeon that make a circled counter-clockwise before the food is dropped, I'm not sure if I can draw a line separating superstition from religion in that case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2516" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-09-23T11:50:12.313" Title="Are there studies about religious belief similar to the ones about superstition among animals?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-07-12T21:34:05.747" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12243" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-23T04:13:40.513" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to get your ideas or any suggestions of references (books, articles..) that I can read to help me answer this question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We all know that westerners are more open while Asian people are more shy and close this is a real characteristic but not saying which one is better. But  beside many aspects westerners are learning from Asian, I also observed that westerners have some characteristics that not very popular to Asian, the things they often do that end up making their social develops faster and more modern:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;From very long time before, they make ships and risk their lifes to cross oceans find out new lands. (that's why now US is born, and many asian countries is dominated in the history).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They find new places in the wilds, build good infrastructures, social and laws.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Where they go, they can easily determine where is a good place to stay, as good or sometimes better than the local people.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They quite dare to try new things, get risk of old stuffs and thinkings. Try out new things.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But we also know that westerns social also go through the dark period (when there are kings and not very develop social system), similar as Asian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is this because of the genes (DNA) or the type of monkeys they are develop from (so the brain structure different?) or the climate, food, environment differences or the social system, different way of education... ? What are key elements that drive the differences in these two culture, people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Please ignore any racist or comparison on who is superior, I know everybody has their own goods) but I just want to find out the reason for these facts. I live in Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9388" LastEditorUserId="9388" LastEditDate="2015-09-28T03:21:52.553" LastActivityDate="2015-09-28T03:21:52.553" Title="What is the key elements that make westerners have some better characteristics over asian" Tags="&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;&lt;social-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2015-09-24T02:51:35.800" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12244" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-23T05:16:04.207" Score="1" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;I got to know about a theory called as &quot;lovemap&quot; concept. It was propounded by John Money to explain the underlying concepts of amorous bonding (Although , broadly it covers the origin of sexual behavior of humans ). However, I couldn't conclude how accurate this theory is and is it scientifically acclaimed. I would like to have views about this from experts here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8552" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-09-24T01:44:11.297" LastActivityDate="2015-09-24T01:44:11.297" Title="lovemap concept" Tags="&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12245" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3749" CreationDate="2015-09-23T14:56:51.793" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most frequently people want a different version of what they already have or have liked in the past. That's why there are countless &quot;clones&quot; of video games, movies and books. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coolidge_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coolidge Effect&lt;/a&gt; explains why people devalue past sexual partners over time (as in your girlfriend example) and seek novel partners instead. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another explanation is that people want whatever spikes their serotonin and dopamine reward systems the most. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GhPGO.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GhPGO.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="26075" LastEditDate="2020-05-26T17:58:11.063" LastActivityDate="2020-05-26T17:58:11.063" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12246" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15856" CreationDate="2015-09-24T07:49:27.820" Score="6" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both groups of input fibers of cerebellum (mossy, climbing) start 2 pathways:&#xA;1)  project  directly to the deep nuclei&#xA;2)  project to cerebellar cortex, which then (after some processing) sends projection back to deep nuclei through Purkinje cells. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the purpose of such an architecture? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And closely related question: is the input information to DCN (the first pathway)  and to cerebellar cortex (the second pathway)  the same? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9394" LastEditorUserId="9394" LastEditDate="2015-09-24T08:10:47.170" LastActivityDate="2016-11-05T20:27:23.520" Title="Why cerebellar input fibers use 2 ways to send a siganl to DCN?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12247" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-25T05:42:43.123" Score="6" ViewCount="709" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do people who experience a fully blown psychotic episode ever go back to their pre-psychosis self?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9404" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-09-25T21:33:56.460" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T12:56:12.300" Title="Do people who experience a psychotic episode ever go back to normal?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12248" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12341" CreationDate="2015-09-25T15:35:01.223" Score="8" ViewCount="753" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently read an article about Generation Z, early 20 year olds born after 1995 in the workforce (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.knoll.com/knollnewsdetail/what-comes-after-y-generation-z-arriving-to-the-office-soon&quot;&gt;similar to this one&lt;/a&gt;). The article suggests that unlike previous generation, where ambigious goals may inspire 30 somethings to do their best work, the 20 year olds from generation Z prefer to have things broken down into a very clear chunks. An example may be in order:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Compare the sales figures report&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Versus: We need a sales report for investor meeting by Friday morning, get sales figures from Angela, have Bill help with graphics and verify figures with Jeff. If you are late, we will penalize you. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article continues to state that if faced with the first scenario, a 20 something would get frustrated and will start seeking another job, while more detailed information would help them rise up to the task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why some people are uncomfortable and unproductive when faced with ambiguous or uncertain goals/challenges?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-10-08T08:11:50.410" Title="Why some people do not perform well with ambiguity and uncertainty?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12249" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12277" CreationDate="2015-09-25T16:11:30.113" Score="5" ViewCount="1851" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of the ambivalence of cogsci.stacexchange with regards to asking questions about code, but this question really is about SPM, specifically, so I think that the domain-specific nature of my inquiry makes it suitable for this forum.  I do apologize if this is in poor form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to run a custom batch script on some fMRI data.  The relevant code is presented below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;cfg = config();  % a struct that holds a few parameters, namely paths and regexps&#xA;&#xA;for isub = 1:length(cfg.subdir)&#xA;    subdir = cfg.subdir(isub);&#xA;    rundirs = fullfile(subdir, regexpdir(subdir, cfg.regex.rundir));&#xA;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.data = regexpdir(fullfile(subdir), cfg.regex.funcscan);&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.quality = 1.0;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.sep = 4;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.fwhm = 5;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.rtm = 2;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.interp = 2;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.wrap = [0 0 0];&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.weight = '';&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.roptions.which = [0 1];  % [0 1] = create mean images only; [1 1] crt all imgs + mean&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.roptions.interp = 4;  % 4th degree bspline interp&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.roptions.wrap = [0 0 0];&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.roptions.mask = 1;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.roptions.prefix = 'r';&#xA;end&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This loop, which performs slice realignment for all subjects, is called via &lt;code&gt;spm_jobman('serial', 'myscript.m')&lt;/code&gt; where &lt;code&gt;myscript.m&lt;/code&gt; is the script shown above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;regexpdir&lt;/code&gt; is available on the matlab file exchange for those who wish to examine it, but it returns an Nx1 cell array of strings, which correspond to paths matched by the regex parameter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Running this code doesn't seem to produce any errors, per se, but rather prints the following several thousand times:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Item 'Session', field 'val': Value must be either empty, a cellstr or a cfg_dep object.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The variable name &lt;code&gt;cfg_dep&lt;/code&gt; makes me think of SPM's &quot;dependency&quot; construct, often used in the visual batch tool.  The code above is taken from said visual batch tool's code exportation feature, so it's possible that I'm referencing a dependency that somehow got omitted when I refactored the exported code... but damned if I can find where...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any thoughts or advice would be greatly appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2015-09-30T15:09:18.980" Title="Why is my SPM batch job printing a warning repeatedly?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;spm&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12250" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-25T23:23:57.627" Score="3" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;I look in my rearview and see someone feet from me still speeding up and my heart rate feels like it doubles.  It stayed like that for an hour.  Had troubles concentrating and working well into the afternoon.  Is this normal to have trouble concentrating after a fight response?  Is the fight or flight response considered voluntarily or involuntarily?  What is a appropriate time to recover from a scare like this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9410" LastActivityDate="2020-07-14T17:20:44.053" Title="Is the fight or flight response considered voluntarily or involuntarily?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12251" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12247" CreationDate="2015-09-25T23:32:48.870" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lengthy and thorough definition of &quot;psychotic episode&quot; would be needed here, but by definition, if it isn't what is termed chronic or life-long, it is this, From WebMD: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] brief psychotic disorder is a short-term illness with psychotic&#xA;  symptoms. The symptoms often come on suddenly, but last for less than&#xA;  one month, after which the person usually recovers completely. There&#xA;  are three basic forms of brief psychotic disorder:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brief psychotic disorder with obvious stressor (also called brief &gt;    reactive psychosis): This type occurs shortly after and often in&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  response to a trauma or major stress, such as the death of a loved&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  one, an accident, assault, or a natural disaster. Most cases of brief &#xA;  psychotic disorder occur as a reaction to a very disturbing event.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brief psychotic disorder without obvious stressor: With this type,    there is no apparent trauma or stress that triggers the illness.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brief psychotic disorder with postpartum onset: This type occurs in women, usually within 4 weeks of having a baby.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9412" LastActivityDate="2015-09-25T23:32:48.870" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12252" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12272" CreationDate="2015-09-26T05:34:21.687" Score="6" ViewCount="418" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here, what I mean by DATA are text documents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am going to do a research on text clustering algorithms by the help of artificial neural networks (ANNs). But first of all I need to know how our brain (neural system) cluster (or classify) text data while we are reading a document.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine we are reading some uncategorized and scattered news articles around the internet (For example on a weblog). Here, when we read an article, we'll easily find out that what it is about or what group it goes under: Politics, Sports, Economic, etc. We'll know it by the help of words inside the article, I know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does our brain cluster these data inside itself. How do we make clusters/categories inside our brain, and then assign data to them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9391" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-18T15:53:38.930" LastActivityDate="2018-06-18T15:53:38.930" Title="How does a human classify or cluster data?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12219" CreationDate="2015-09-26T11:50:53.770" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The motor response latency to a visual stimulus is approximately 210 ms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;You are basically asking for the &lt;strong&gt;visually induced reaction time of a motor response&lt;/strong&gt;. Reaction times have been assessed many times in various studies. In a very recent study with an impressive subject population of more than 1400 (aged 18 - 65), the motor response latency to a visual stimulus was estimated at an average of 213 ms. Reaction times increased with age, but were unaffected by sex or educational level. Old age mainly affected the motor latency, and not so much the visual processing speed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00131/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Woods &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Frontiers Human Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;9&lt;/strong&gt;:131-12p&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2015-09-26T11:50:53.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12254" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11090" CreationDate="2015-09-26T12:13:32.090" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reaction times can be measured by a variety of techniques in the lab. The simplest test is to present a stimulus to a test subject and instruct the subject to press a button as fast as possible after the stimulus is perceived. Responses can be measured by using a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pstnet.com/hardware.cfm?ID=102&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;response box&lt;/a&gt;. Often-used stimuli are either visual (e.g., a colored dot that pops up at random times on a computer screen), auditory (e.g., an acoustic beep), or tactile (e.g., a vibratory buzz or tap on the finger). These tests measure the reaction time from stimulus presentation up to the moment the subject presses the button. Hence, obtained response latencies include peripheral sensory processes, central sensorimotor processing in the brain, and motor output.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Age&lt;/strong&gt; increases reaction time, mainly due to a slowed motor output &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pstnet.com/hardware.cfm?ID=102&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Woods &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. The &lt;strong&gt;stimulus modality&lt;/strong&gt; also affects response latency. Visual stimuli result in long reaction times, tactile stimuli in shorter latencies, and auditory stimuli induce the shortest reaction time &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iaeng.org/publication/IMECS2012/IMECS2012_pp1449-1454.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Ng &amp;amp; Chan, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. These differences reflect the slow sensory processing in the visual system and the fast response of the auditory system. &lt;strong&gt;Neuro-supressants&lt;/strong&gt;, such as alcohol, tranquilizers, antiepileptics- and anesthetics all increase reaction times (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8416471&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mitchell &lt;em&gt;et al.,&lt;/em&gt;, 1993&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8416471&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mitchell &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Pediatrics&lt;/em&gt; (1993);&lt;strong&gt;91&lt;/strong&gt;(1):101-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iaeng.org/publication/IMECS2012/IMECS2012_pp1449-1454.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ng &amp;amp; Chan, &lt;em&gt;Proc IMECS&lt;/em&gt; II (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pstnet.com/hardware.cfm?ID=102&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Woods &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Frontiers Human Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;9&lt;/strong&gt;:131-12p&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-09-26T21:05:16.727" LastActivityDate="2015-09-26T21:05:16.727" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12255" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12247" CreationDate="2015-09-26T16:16:39.747" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A little response from my current courses in psychopathology (please don't hit me, I study in France and our courses are not as good as in anglo-saxon countries) :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schizophrenic patients tend to have some cognitives consequences, consecutive of a previous psychotic episode, even between two psychotics crisis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some case of isolated psychotics episodes when the subject doesn't suffer from any consequences after that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Bipolar disorder, in type I where the subject can experiment delusion and sometime hallucination during both maniac and depressive period, he can recover completly (?!) during the period called euthymia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I omitted the fact that having a first psychotic experience improve the &quot;chance&quot; of having another one, which is a kind of consequence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone has some cognitive test references in order to improve my poor intervention it would be welcome !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6667" LastActivityDate="2015-09-26T16:16:39.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12257" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7948" CreationDate="2015-09-26T22:19:06.603" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: Because areas of the brain needed for remembering are turned off during dreaming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dream Amnesia:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The process of converting perception into a memory construct that can be stored is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_%28memory%29&quot;&gt;encoding&lt;/a&gt;, and is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166432811007492&quot;&gt;essentially the same&lt;/a&gt; during both wakefulness and sleep: That is, the same factors can hamper or promote successful encoding when awake or dreaming.  During sleep, the brain undergoes &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep#Stages&quot;&gt;cyclical changes&lt;/a&gt; in which &lt;a href=&quot;http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&amp;amp;cpsidt=17518007&quot;&gt;activity in some parts&lt;/a&gt; of the brain increases (hyperactive), while other areas decrease in activity (hypoactive).  Some areas of the brain associated with memory encoding are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16186026&quot;&gt;hypoactive during dreaming&lt;/a&gt;, resulting in most dreams being forgotten.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8fcea.jpg&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8fcea.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Red = hyperactive; Blue = hypoactive; F = prefrontal cortex&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most prominent area implicated in memory encoding of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memory#Cognitive_neuroscience&quot;&gt;episodic memories&lt;/a&gt; is the prefrontal cortex (PFC).  Activity in this region is correlated with memory in studies conducted in awake subjects, and is similarly correlated with dream amnesia: During dreaming, this area is typically hypoactive (turned off), and its level of activity is &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ca/books/about/The_Neuropsychology_of_Dreams.html?id=XebaAAAAMAAJ&quot;&gt;predictive of dream recall&lt;/a&gt;.  Activity in the PFC during sleep may be modulated by levels of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661302019927&quot;&gt;acetylcholine&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17275369&quot;&gt;dopamine&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jnr.20602/abstract?userIsAuthenticated=false&amp;amp;deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&quot;&gt;other neurotransmitters&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Vanishing Memory:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2814941/&quot;&gt;Nir &amp;amp; Tononi (2010)&lt;/a&gt; review the issue:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unless the dreamer wakes up, most dreams are forever lost. Upon&#xA;  awakening, memory for the dream often vanishes rapidly unless written&#xA;  down or recorded, even for intense emotional dreams. It is not clear&#xA;  why this is the case since from a neuroimaging perspective, limbic&#xA;  circuits in the medial temporal lobe that are implicated in memory&#xA;  processes, are highly active during REM sleep. Perhaps the&#xA;  hypoactivity of prefrontal cortex, also implicated in mnemonic&#xA;  processes, plays an important role in dream amnesia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Theoretically, waking up reactivates the areas of the brain that are turned off during sleep, allowing for memories to be encoded.  This process is unreliable, as memory encoding in both awake and sleeping subjects is modulated by attention - also a function of the PFC - so how much and how well dream content is remembered also depends on how much attention is given to it during waking.  Without attention, the memory trace fades quickly.  This interpretation is consistent with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2007-09896-004&quot;&gt;reduced dream recall&lt;/a&gt; in awakenings from deep (slow-wave) sleep, that are characterized by disorientation and lower PFC activity, and with &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/drm/16/1/22/&quot;&gt;higher dream recall&lt;/a&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucid_dream#Awareness_and_reasoning&quot;&gt;lucid dreaming&lt;/a&gt;, characterized by awareness, control, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810013001098&quot;&gt;higher PFC activity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: The above is certainly an over-simplification of a complex and poorly understood system, but it does suggest that any factor affecting the processes involved in memory encoding and attention (such as certain neurotransmitters, psychoactive drugs, lesions, mood disorders, training, experience, etc) may impact dream recall.  On the other hand, NMDA, a neurotransmitter involved in long-term memory consolidation (LTP) - a different &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidation#Sleep_consolidation&quot;&gt;activity that is increased&lt;/a&gt; (hyperactive) during dreaming - is less likely to be implicated in dream amnesia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2015-09-27T20:59:52.987" LastActivityDate="2015-09-27T20:59:52.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12258" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12825" CreationDate="2015-09-26T22:35:15.580" Score="10" ViewCount="834" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is much information regarding learning styles and ways to leverage them, along with boosting focus, alertness and concentration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm looking for accompanying information that would be useful in addition to those answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Witnessed countless times:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;When one is either learning or working with a new concept that is - complex, untangle, counter-intuitive, tedious, multi-dimensional, boring and difficult, it appears mood is altered to a lower state, very similar to that of a depressive state, however is temporary, until another concepts comes along (still new) that is simple, clear and straight forward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that show correlation to dopamine and serotonin in such a case - and more importantly, are there any studies or know methods that reverse this, causing instead increased dopamine and serotonin during such events?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-09-28T01:30:47.803" LastActivityDate="2015-12-15T23:00:36.480" Title="Are there any ways to increase dopamine and serotonin levels when working or learning something complex?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12259" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12261" CreationDate="2015-09-27T01:32:49.100" Score="7" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a means of tracking and exerting control over my life and emotions, I've considered doing a daily log to measure various life metrics, like what time I got up, how much coffee I've drunk, and various emotions etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the metrics I've considered measuring the prevalence of suicidal thoughts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what's put me off this idea is thought that actively considering this question would lead to further ideation, and would be counterproductive over all. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question - does intentionally taking note of a particular thought, cause you to think that kind of thought more often? Are there any studies or related studies into this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastActivityDate="2015-10-01T18:36:33.513" Title="Does intentionally being aware of an emotion or thought pattern increase the incidence of that thought pattern?" Tags="&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12260" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-27T05:09:00.140" Score="1" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know how strong is the pain of going through cognitive dissonance. Is it really so that changes in humans can be brought about by severity of cognitive dissonance struggle/pain ? Can I have a neurological perspective about it that might throw some light on the parts of the brain that are involved and the neurochemicals that might be playing a role in it ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8552" LastActivityDate="2015-09-28T13:12:46.487" Title="Avoiding Cognitive dissonance,is it a necessity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-10-01T18:33:06.893" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12261" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12259" CreationDate="2015-09-27T17:32:39.653" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, theories of self-regulation, emotion regulation, psychoeducation, and many forms of therapy posit that, in one way or another, awareness of your emotions or thought patterns is largely adaptive.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is true because self-awareness facilitates self-regulation (broadly speaking). For example, being able to identify the emotion you're experiencing allows you to plan a course of action to regulate it (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://toddkashdan.com/articles/emotiondiff%20CDPS.pdf&quot;&gt;Kashdan, Barrett, &amp;amp; McKnight, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).  If I become aware that I'm experiencing anger, then I know that I can modify my anger (up or down) by confronting the source of it (e.g., my friend who owes me money).  If I become aware of my sadness, then I know that I can down-regulate it by seeking social support.  And so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, promoting meta-cognitive awareness of thought patterns can reduce depressive and anxious symptoms (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1077722901800213&quot;&gt;Papageorgiou &amp;amp; Wells, 2001&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=sWJgx5-1y4AC&amp;amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;amp;source=gbs_ge_summary_r&amp;amp;cad=0#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;Wells, 2009&lt;/a&gt;). This is true because it allows you to examine your beliefs about how you think (e.g., &quot;Is the way I think positive or negative? Does it make me feel good or bad?&quot;).  And once you've determined how adaptive your thought patterns are, then you'll be able to determine whether you should promote, maintain, or prevent their recurrence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;However, it's important to note that while self-awareness is &lt;em&gt;necessary&lt;/em&gt; for better self-regulation, it is not &lt;em&gt;sufficient&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/strong&gt;  Effective self-regulation also relies on your knowledge of, and ability to carry out, adaptive courses of action. For example, you've just identified your thought patterns as maladaptive, and now you want to downregulate those thoughts.  Toward this goal, you try to suppress them.  However, ironically, this strategy ends up spurring more of those thoughts (as predicted by ironic processes theory; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/101/1/34/&quot;&gt;Wegner, 1994&lt;/a&gt;).  So despite your awareness of your maladaptive thought patterns and your subsequent desire to decrease them, you've actually increased their incidence and made yourself feel worse.  Alternatively, you might have used more adaptive strategies like psychologically distancing yourself from your thoughts (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/20/3/187.short&quot;&gt;Kross &amp;amp; Ayduk, 2011&lt;/a&gt;), engaging in mindfulness (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550830709002109&quot;&gt;Deyo, Wilson, Ong, &amp;amp; Koopman, 2009&lt;/a&gt;), reappraising the content of your thoughts (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=J_iAUcHc60cC&amp;amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;amp;source=gbs_ge_summary_r&amp;amp;cad=0#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;Beck, 2011&lt;/a&gt;), questioning your meta-cognitive beliefs (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=sWJgx5-1y4AC&amp;amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;amp;source=gbs_ge_summary_r&amp;amp;cad=0#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;Wells, 2009&lt;/a&gt;), and other standard therapeutic and emotion-regulatory practices that would have more effectively modified your thought patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, overall, whether self-awareness increases or decreases the incidence of your thought patterns depends on your subsequent self-regulatory actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-09-27T17:32:39.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12262" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12260" CreationDate="2015-09-27T22:17:55.330" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will try to answer even if I'm not an expert, I hope who is willing to downvote will instead write his own better answer or improve this one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've experienced cognitive dissonance many times. It's something very annoying and easy to understand. Imagine a guy which has a wife. He loves her but he has a strong neurotic need to change her. He intuits he could change himself but he feels this task as really hard. She doesn't change of course. And she suffer from this guy trying to change her. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The guy feels guilty, he feel responsible of a bad action, but he doesn't like this feeling. This is the moment in which cognitive dissonance acts.. She should change. the guy will focus on the reasons why SHE is guilty to feel less guilty. It's not a real pain, it's an intense emotion..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The dissonance itself is a functional mechanism. The best action is to reduce the neurotic needs of him and her. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2015-09-27T22:17:55.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12263" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12398" CreationDate="2015-09-28T00:54:31.823" Score="9" ViewCount="1521" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a common cultural meme that men think about/are driven by sex more than women. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any objective truth to this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do you define and measure 'sex drive'? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How different are men and women in this respect? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastActivityDate="2015-10-20T05:49:21.640" Title="Do men have a higher sex drive than women?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12264" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-28T02:56:05.563" Score="1" ViewCount="177" Body="&lt;p&gt;Take, for example, a person with average reflexes/a normal reflex arc. The person touches an extremely hot stove and immediately pulls away. Slowing this event down, upon touching the stove, it takes 10 milliseconds to register the pain and then 10 milliseconds to pull away (made up numbers here &amp;mdash; not realistic).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this person's reflex arc was then altered to make the neural message take longer, would the timing be different between (1) afferent neurons and interneurons (e.g., 20ms to feel pain), (2) interneurons and efferent neurons (e.g., 20ms to pull away), or (3) both?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To add on to this: are both paths mentioned above linked together or can they be lengthened/shortened independently?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9415" LastEditorUserId="9415" LastEditDate="2015-09-29T04:04:15.233" LastActivityDate="2016-07-04T19:23:40.187" Title="How would slowed message over the reflex arc work?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2016-07-05T18:50:23.583" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12265" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-28T04:58:33.623" Score="9" ViewCount="438" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been reading about the problem of possible dual consciousness in split brain patients and  I came across this &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_consciousness_%28neuroscience%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the &quot;other experiments&quot; section, the two last paragraphs about Joseph's experiments seemed extremely simplistic, too obvious to be true. The way they are described and how groundbreaking it would be if true: two consciousness living in one brain and fighting with each other. &#xA;So I decided to google the name of this Jospeh Rhawn. You should judge by yourself:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Rhawn_Joseph&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Rhawn_Joseph&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;is the first link showing up. It is clearly a crackpot. Although he managed to get published how can you trust this guy about the split brain experiments? After reading a lot about the subject I thought they were extremely weird. &#xA;Any expert who could give an advice about the experiments and the guy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-23T11:16:05.387" LastActivityDate="2016-05-25T08:02:24.970" Title="Is the split-brain, dual consciousness experiment from Rhawn Joseph valid?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12266" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12260" CreationDate="2015-09-28T13:12:46.487" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you're confusing science with politics.  The APA and other such professional organizations have not, to my knowledge, concluded that cognitive dissonance should be avoided or even minimized.  I'm unaware of any evidence that suggests that cognitive dissonance directly causes distress or suffering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The position of psychology, as a science, is that cognitive dissonance is a phenomenon that exists and has certain properties.  There is no normative stance from the field as a whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens in these cases is that political groups engage in activism and argue that such things should be minimized; the same is true of stereotyping, for instance.  You may agree with the dominant political opinion, but it's not a scientific question, &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2015-09-28T13:12:46.487" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12267" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-28T16:14:07.427" Score="9" ViewCount="470" Body="&lt;h3&gt;To read before (following some answers or comments)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;My background: As a mathematician, probability theory is my field of research; please do not answer/comment just to refer to a course on probability theory.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I expose below an erroneous application of probability theory. It is summarized at the end, in the &lt;strong&gt;Summary&lt;/strong&gt; section. The two probabilities $\Pr$ and ${\Pr}^\ast$ are explained just before. If you are not a bit specialist in probability theory, please do not downvote if you disagree with this point, unless you show an error in my reasoning at a precise point (after numerous edits, I believe I have enough detailed my explanation so that one can point a precise point).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The previous comments helped me to write a short summary on &lt;a href=&quot;http://stla.github.io/stlapblog/posts/PrisonerDilemma.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;my blog&lt;/a&gt; (rather oriented in general towards a mathematical audience), about the prisoner dilemma.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have just come across some papers and slides about quantum cognition, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ppw.kuleuven.be/okp/_pdf/Lee2013QMOCA.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cold and hot cognition: Quantum probability theory and realistic psychological modeling&lt;/a&gt;, by P. J. Corr&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://community.apan.org/afosr/m/cognition_decision__computational_intelligence_program/121111/download.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Applications of quantum probability theory to dynamic decision making&lt;/a&gt;, by Busemeyer, Balakrishnan and Wang&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quoting the first one about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;prisoner dilemma&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The literature shows: (1) knowing that one’s partner has defected&#xA;  leads to a higher probability of defection; (2) knowing that one’s&#xA;  partner has cooperated also leads to a higher probability of&#xA;  defection; and, most troubling for Classical Probability theory, (3)&#xA;  not knowing one’s partner’s decision leads to a higher probability of&#xA;  cooperation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second one provides some empirical data supporting this claim. The data are some relative frequencies: one deals with the frequentist interpretation of probability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I disagree with the claim that the law of total probability is violated here. &lt;strong&gt;The conditional probabilities are misinterpreted&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let $A$ and $B$ be the two prisoners. Consider the experiment consisting in asking them to choose between defecting or cooperating, without knowing the choice of the other prisoner. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, the conditional probability $P(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})$ is the long-term &lt;em&gt;relative frequency of the event &quot;$A$ defects&quot; among all those experiments for which the event &quot;$B$ defects&quot; occurs&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has &lt;em&gt;nothing to do&lt;/em&gt; with the probability that $A$ defects when $A$ &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;knows&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; that $B$ defects, hereafter denoted by $\Pr^\ast(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The law of total probability says that &#xA;$$&#xA;\Pr(A \textrm{ defects}) =  \Pr(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})\Pr(B \textrm{ defects}) +  \Pr(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ cooperates})\Pr(B \textrm{ cooperates}),&#xA;$$&#xA;thereby implying that $\Pr(A \textrm{ defects})$, as a weighted average of the two conditional probabilities $\Pr(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})$ and $\Pr(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ cooperates})$, lies between these two conditional probabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above mentioned papers claim that the law of total probability is violated because  $\Pr(A \textrm{ defects})$ does &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; lie between $\Pr^\ast(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})$ and $\Pr^\ast (A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ cooperates})$, where $\Pr^\ast (A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})$ is the probability that $A$ defects when $A$ &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;knows&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; that $B$ defects, and, as said before, &#xA;$$&#xA;{\Pr}^\ast (A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects}) \neq \Pr(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is it an error, or do I misunderstand the purpose behind the modeling based on quantum probability ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;EDIT: details on the difference between $\Pr$ and ${\Pr}^\ast$&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To explain the difference, I give the way to get an empirical estimate of these probabilites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Experiment 1 ($\Pr$)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Ask $A$ and $B$ to perform the prisoner dilemma, without giving any information.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Repeat this experiment a large number of times, independently (with others $A$ and $B$). The estimate of  $\Pr(A \textrm{ defects})$  is the relative frequency of the experiments for which $A$ defects. The estimate of $\Pr (A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})$ is the relative frequency of the experiments for which &quot;$A$ defects&quot; among all those experiments for which the event &quot;$B$ defects&quot; occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Experiment 2 ($\Pr^*$)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Ask $A$ and $B$ to perform the prisoner dilemma with $B$ first, and giving the choice of $B$ to $A$.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then ${\Pr}^\ast (A \textrm{ defects})$ and ${\Pr}^\ast (A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})$ are estimated in the same way as before. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;experiment&lt;/em&gt; is not the same, in other words this is another probability (${\Pr}^*$) on the probability space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see in Experiment 1, the conditional probability has nothing to do with the probability that $A$ defects &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;when $A$ knows that $B$ defects&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. In this experiment, $A$ &lt;em&gt;never&lt;/em&gt; knows whether $B$ defects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, if you follow the above procedure to estimate the empirical probabilities, the law of total probability cannot be violated.  This law is not really a principle, this is rather a definition (up to an elementary calculation, this is just the definition of the conditional probability). That makes no sense to say a definition is violated. If it is violated, that's because it has not been correctly used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Summary&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The law of total probability implies that  $\Pr(A \textrm{ defects})$ is a weighted average of the two conditional probabilities $\Pr(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})$ and $\Pr(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ cooperates})$:&#xA;$$&#xA;\Pr(A \textrm{ defects}) = wavg\Bigl(\Pr(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects}), \Pr(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ coop.})\Bigr)&#xA;$$&#xA;and therefore, it lies between these two conditional probabilities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similalry, for the other probability ${\Pr}^\ast$, &#xA;$$&#xA;{\Pr}^\ast(A \textrm{ defects}) = wavg\Bigl({\Pr}^\ast(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects}), {\Pr}^\ast(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ coop.})\Bigr)&#xA;$$&#xA;The so-called &lt;em&gt;violation of the law of total probability&lt;/em&gt; is a consequence of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;erroneous formula&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;$$&#xA;\Pr(A \textrm{ defects}) = wavg\Bigl({\Pr}^\ast(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects}), {\Pr}^\ast(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ coop.})\Bigr),&#xA;$$&#xA;&quot;mixing&quot; the two probabilities. Based on this formula, $\Pr(A \textrm{ defects})$ shoud lie between ${\Pr}^\ast(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})$ and ${\Pr}^\ast(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ coop.})$. This is intuitively wrong, and this has been observed to be wrong on empirical data. But this formula is wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a side note, I think that the misunderstanding could have been caused by the name &lt;em&gt;probability of $X$ knowing $Y$&lt;/em&gt; to call the conditional probability of $X$ given $Y$. This has nothing to do with $X$ knowing something about $Y$:&#xA;$$&#xA;\text{Probability of $X$ given $Y$}&#xA;$$&#xA;does not mean&#xA;$$&#xA;\text{Probability of $X$ when $X$ knows $Y$}.&#xA;$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9428" LastEditorUserId="9428" LastEditDate="2015-10-05T10:33:28.670" LastActivityDate="2016-07-01T17:30:21.247" Title="The prisoner dilemma does not violate classical probability laws" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12268" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-29T01:53:29.497" Score="1" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I might have to start working on a research abstract for college soon, and I am looking for basic tips on beginning one. I don't mean information about the research specifically; I simply mean information in regard to how to do the writing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9425" LastActivityDate="2015-09-29T13:44:35.483" Title="How to write a neuroscience research abstract?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-02T19:47:58.853" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12272" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12252" CreationDate="2015-09-30T03:03:14.727" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/143816-scientists-discover-how-our-brains-categorize-map&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is an article written on a &lt;a href=&quot;http://gallantlab.org/publications/2012.Huth.etal.SMALL.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; on the measured effects of blood flow in the brain from &quot;two hours of movie trailers that contained over 1,700 categories of actions and objects&quot;. A video (attached in the article) describes the methods used and the results of the study. They found that the brain tended to categorize things that shared similar functions or is-a relationships. This can be seen in the resulting chart, where the nodes representing &quot;mammals&quot;, &quot;people&quot; and &quot;communication verbs&quot; are closely related. The brain also seemed to separate things that moved or were considered to be alive and inanimate objects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study was done using only 5 participants so it's fair to say that more research needs to be done before we can uncover more of the truth concerning this topic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your second question, regarding how information is stored in the brain, we need to understand a process called &quot;encoding&quot;. I don't fully understand how this process works on a biological level, but as a gross explanation the brain stores sensory information it deems important and then goes through a secondary process called &quot;consolidation&quot;. This process aims to stabilize the trace of a memory after it is initially encoded. The final process, &quot;retrieval&quot; is the act of remembering the information. During this stage the brain reconstructs the memory or information and thereby strengthens the neural pathway that makes up that memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in short, the brain stores information through complex neural connections. These neural connections are tied to the sensory information that was initially perceived, which is reconstructed when you remember it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope I was able to clear up some of your questions :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9435" LastActivityDate="2015-09-30T03:03:14.727" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12273" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12129" CreationDate="2015-09-30T08:04:33.960" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Take &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.udacity.com/course/progress#!/c-ud675&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; course at Udacity. From my experience the course quality there is high and will save you a great deal of research time. You can also try &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.coursera.org/course/neuralnets&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.coursera.org/course/neuralnets&lt;/a&gt;. Usually courses are coursera are of a great quality. The bottom line is take a MOOC first. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9441" LastEditorUserId="9441" LastEditDate="2015-10-06T07:18:05.233" LastActivityDate="2015-10-06T07:18:05.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12274" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12276" CreationDate="2015-09-30T08:12:11.470" Score="4" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I was reading an article, I found that it describes the EEG signal as a  &lt;em&gt;high-density signal&lt;/em&gt;. So what is that mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;EMG is high temporal resolution  and moderate spatial resolution&#xA;  (comparable  to high-density EEG)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9440" LastEditorUserId="9440" LastEditDate="2015-09-30T09:28:33.757" LastActivityDate="2015-09-30T11:19:46.730" Title="High Density Signal Meaning" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12276" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12274" CreationDate="2015-09-30T11:19:46.730" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;High-density EEG&quot; refers to the number of electrodes in the array.  Typically, any EEG rig with more than 64 electrodes is considered to be high-density electroencephalography.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2015-09-30T11:19:46.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12249" CreationDate="2015-09-30T15:09:18.980" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Below is a corrected version of the script.  SPM seems to be quite finicky about the structure of the data passed to &lt;code&gt;matlabbatch{...}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.daat{...}&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;%%job_realign.m  SPM batch module.&#xA;% SPM's spm_jobman function will eval this file, and automatically launch a&#xA;% batch job if the parameters are valid.  Cryptic errors out of spm_jobman&#xA;% are usually an indication of a runtime error in batch modules.&#xA;&#xA;%% Get configuration&#xA;&#xA;cfg = config();&#xA;&#xA;%% Get data&#xA;include = cfg.subdir(find(cfg.submask));&#xA;&#xA;for isub = 1:length(include)&#xA;    subdir = include{isub};&#xA;    fprintf('In directory %s:\n', fileparts(subdir));&#xA;&#xA;    runs = regexpdir(subdir, cfg.regex.rundir, false)';&#xA;    runs = [runs regexpdir(subdir, cfg.regex.locdir, false)'];&#xA;    runs = [runs regexpdir(subdir, cfg.regex.retdir, false)'];&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;    for irun=1:length(runs)&#xA;        rundir = runs{irun};&#xA;        scans = regexpdir(rundir, cfg.regex.funcscan, false);&#xA;        fprintf('Scans:  %d\n', size(scans, 1));&#xA;&#xA;        matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.data{irun} = scans;&#xA;    end&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.quality = 0.9;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.sep = 4;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.fwhm = 5;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.rtm = 1;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.interp = 2;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.wrap = [0 0 0];&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.eoptions.weight = {''};&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.roptions.which = [0 1];    % [0 1] creates mean image only; [1 1] creates all images + mean&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.roptions.interp = 4;       % 4th degree B-Spline interpolation&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.roptions.wrap = [0 0 0];&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.roptions.mask = 1;&#xA;    matlabbatch{isub}.spm.spatial.realign.estwrite.roptions.prefix = 'r';&#xA;end&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2015-09-30T15:09:18.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12278" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-30T15:20:22.240" Score="0" ViewCount="201" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand Thymology to not merely be a synonym, but to be a branch or area of Psychology, however I am at a loss of how to properly distinguish the two. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What distinguishes Thymology from Psychology in general?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9443" LastActivityDate="2018-11-07T05:54:08.967" Title="What is the difference between Psychology, and Thymology?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12280" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12129" CreationDate="2015-09-30T15:48:36.670" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neuralnetworksanddeeplearning.com/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a free, entry-level e-book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastActivityDate="2015-09-30T15:48:36.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12281" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-30T17:45:43.237" Score="6" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is well known that the common myth that an individual  only ever uses 10% of their brain is.. well, a myth. I had a question about a possible interpretation of this idea, and a follow-up question about the result of that interpretation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After spending a small amount of time with computational neural networks, it seems that at any given time, a small percentage of neurons are actually firing. All neurons have the potential to be firing, and at some point in execution likely will fire, but due to efficiency, only very few are needed for a particular function. This is my interpretation of what I have seen so far.. is this interpretation valid for the activity of neurons in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is valid, what would happen if 90-100% of neurons were firing at all times? I'm assuming this would be a huge disadvantage to whoever this happened to. Epilepsy? Overheating? Would the body be overworked and go into shock?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9446" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-09-04T02:56:30.950" LastActivityDate="2017-09-04T02:56:30.950" Title="Interpretation &amp; Actual Result of &quot;10% of your brain&quot; Myth" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-09-04T16:03:30.503" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12282" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-09-30T18:03:24.367" Score="4" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally, are there and how long do lingering affects of polar sleep patterns affect someone? For example, assume someone slept for 2 hours one day and then slept for 14 hours the next. Their 2 day average would be 8, an unofficial heuristic for optimal sleep length. However, intuitively, I feel that their cognition would notably be different for a while because of these polarized events. Is this true? And if so, what are the basis for this, and how long do these effects last assuming someone got 8 hours a sleep religiously over the next few weeks? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By changes in their cognition (the ones I feel &quot;intuitively&quot;), I mean like a lower fidelity of memory, slower reaction times, but still the ability to function normally in a group setting. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9408" LastActivityDate="2015-09-30T18:03:24.367" Title="Adaptation to Discrete Perturbation in Sleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12284" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12285" CreationDate="2015-09-30T18:27:58.227" Score="11" ViewCount="939" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might have come across stereographic Images like the one shown below (found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aolej.com/stereox/img//stereo/dino.JPG&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dfCXK.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dfCXK.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What happens in your brain when you observe the dinosaur? (as you put your face on the image by touching your nose and then slowly withdrawing from the image.)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is this perception a particular trick that my eye performs or is it processing the visual data in an alternative way?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is the effect of this percept measurable by an EEG?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-01T04:33:34.560" LastActivityDate="2015-10-01T04:33:34.560" Title="What happens in your brain when you see a dinosaur in this stenographic image?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12285" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12284" CreationDate="2015-10-01T01:05:22.033" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;The source I have quoted below gives an example of the following stenographic image:-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mnXCm.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mnXCm.png&quot; alt=&quot;Stenographic image quoted in source article&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is this perception a particular trick that my eye performs or is it processing the visual data in an alternative way?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stereograms can be viewed as three-dimensional images by providing two&#xA;  side-by-side views of a three-dimensional scene, rendered from&#xA;  slightly different viewpoints. Stereoscopes facilitate focusing of the&#xA;  eyes depths other than the surface of a two-dimensional stereogram&#xA;  image, allowing the two separate images to overlap in the center of&#xA;  the field of vision (Kimmel, 2002). Once the correct depth is&#xA;  achieved, it may seem to the viewer as if the two images are different&#xA;  due to the horizontal retinal disparities. Then the two images can&#xA;  fuse into a coherent three- dimensional percept where horizontal&#xA;  disparities in the images provide important depth cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/J31nn.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/J31nn.png&quot; alt=&quot;Perception of Stenographic Images&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is the effect of this percept measurable by an EEG?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Autostereograms have been used in recent research to investigate&#xA;  three-dimensional depth perception. These efforts have improved&#xA;  understanding of the various visual cues involved in forming&#xA;  three-dimensional percepts, perceiving motion in depth, attention-&#xA;  switching in the depth of field, and the neural correlates of forming&#xA;  and maintaining a unified three-dimensional structure in awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Revonsuo and colleagues (Revonsuo, et al., 1997) used neural&#xA;  synchronization to investigate the neural correlates of&#xA;  three-dimensional percept formations. They confirmed that&#xA;  autostereoscopic perception is primarily mediated by right&#xA;  parieto-temporal activity. Their research indicated a region of&#xA;  synchrony spanning portions of the right temporal, parietal and&#xA;  occipital lobes, with maximum power in the gamma (36-44Hz) frequency&#xA;  range. Also employing electroencephalogram (EEG) recording, Burgess,&#xA;  Rehman, and Williams (2003) located particular brain regions,&#xA;  including the left frontal (F7) and the right and midline occipital&#xA;  (Oz, O2) clusters, exhibiting functional clustering during&#xA;  autostereoscopic perception. Overall, neural complexity was highest&#xA;  with the most functional clustering of responses during observer&#xA;  awareness of the three-dimensional object. Additional clustering&#xA;  analyses revealed functional clusters of scalp recordings in the&#xA;  aforementioned areas that correlated with both phases of&#xA;  three-dimensional perception (search to three-dimensional and&#xA;  three-dimensional maintenance).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cognitrn.psych.indiana.edu/busey/q551/Phenomenology/Neural%20Correlates%20of%20Autostereopsis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autostereograms and Autostereoscopic Perception&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Authors:&lt;/strong&gt; Leslie Blaha, Christopher Honey, and Eric Nichols &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Date:&lt;/strong&gt; October 31, 2005&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Burgess, A.P., Rehman, J., &amp;amp; Williams, J.D. (2003). &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876003000023?np=y&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Changes in neural complexity during the perception of three-dimensional images using random dot stereograms&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 48, 35-42.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kimmel, R. (2002). &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~ron/PAPERS/autostereograms2002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Three-dimensional shape reconstruction from autostereograms and stereo&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. Journal of Visual Communication and Image Representation, 13, 324-333.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-01T01:23:47.530" LastActivityDate="2015-10-01T01:23:47.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12286" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-01T11:56:06.220" Score="1" ViewCount="1357" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have recently read that most of the thoughts in our head are automatically produced by our subconscious mind and that the conscious mind is there to focus on those thoughts or not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wanted to perform a task but then my mind started to make excuses which eventually led to anxiety and avoiding the task even though I knew I should've done the task. I think this was a subconscious reaction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also read that to avoid bad thoughts you can &quot;rise above them&quot; by meditation and so on. That however looks to me like treating the effects and not the symptoms of the problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why do I get negative thoughts at all in the first place that trick me into avoiding/not doing what I want and is it possible to get rid of them altogether ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Philosophically It seems that my mind has life of it's own and sometimes it works with me but other times against me, it's like I've got no control over the thoughts that appear in my head. Furthermore I've read somewhere that the whole consciousness might be just a clever trick and that we're actually on an autopilot the whole time. Any thoughts about that ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9450" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2015-10-01T14:33:47.963" LastActivityDate="2015-10-01T14:33:47.963" Title="Why is my mind working against me?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;free-will&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-10-01T15:27:56.337" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12287" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-01T14:15:40.830" Score="2" ViewCount="323" Body="&lt;p&gt;One often sees researchers attributing a change in the dependent variable to their experimental manipulation, semingly without considering whether this change in DV occurs between or within groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, in the classical Bargh et al. (1996) paper on behavioural priming, subjects in an experimental group were shown word primes recalling stereotypes of old age (e.g. &quot;forgetful&quot;), while subjects in a controlg group were shown neutral words. Everyone's walking speed as they left the experiment was measured, and because the first group's was slower, it was concluded that priming people with words relating to a certain concept (in this case: old age) makes them unconsciously take on characteristics of that concept (in this case: walking more slowly).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question that comes to my mind is, however: how do we know that the mean difference in walking speed is not just due to pre-existing (baseline) differences between the groups? How can we be sure it is due to the IV manipulation (different word primes)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me, believable evidence for this claim would be if they had measured everyone's speed pre&amp;amp;post-experiment, and then found an interaction showing that, while controls' speed stayed the same pre-to-post, that of the old-age-primed group had decreased. Without such an interaction (involving the use of a mixed between-within model), is the authors' between-groups-only inference statistically correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastActivityDate="2015-10-01T14:33:07.047" Title="Attributing change in DV to IV manipulation: between-groups (control group) vs mixed-model (pre&amp;post measure)" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12288" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12287" CreationDate="2015-10-01T14:30:37.467" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Excuse my english, I'll try my best to explain. The key concept here is &quot;randomization&quot;, which involves randomly allocating the subjects across the different groups. If randomization is well done, this ensure that your groups are &quot;equivalent&quot; on all other factors that have not been explicitly accounted for in the experimental design. Thus, in theory, there should not be any difference in your pre-test betweens groups, and the difference between groups in the post-test should only be accounted by the manipulation of your VI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9433" LastActivityDate="2015-10-01T14:30:37.467" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12289" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12287" CreationDate="2015-10-01T14:33:07.047" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a short straightforward answer, and a more nuanced answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;short answer&lt;/strong&gt; is that people were &lt;em&gt;randomly assigned&lt;/em&gt; to the two groups. Any baseline differences between people will be equally likely to affect both groups. Will there still be differences? Absolutely. This is why researchers use statistical inference to rule out the possibility that baseline differences are responsible for the observed difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;more nuanced answer&lt;/strong&gt; is that we can't be certain that the observed differences aren't due to these random baseline differences. In any experiment, there will always be noise that causes differences in the groups. When researchers use statistical inference, they aren't able to say with certainty that the effect was due to the manipulation. They are merely assessing the probability that random noise could account for the data. If the probability that random noise can explain the data is very low, then researchers claim that the manipulation had an effect. However, this is a probabilistic inference and sometimes the researchers will be wrong and the difference really is due to noise. Within-subject designs help remove some of this noise, but not all of it, because people change over time, even over the short timescale of a social priming experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-10-01T14:33:07.047" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12290" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12259" CreationDate="2015-10-01T18:36:33.513" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;While not a formal scientific research, I built an app to track just the kinds of things you are talking about. You can see my notes here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://luciddreamingapp.com/better-mood-tracker/tracking-bad-stuff-part-5/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://luciddreamingapp.com/better-mood-tracker/tracking-bad-stuff-part-5/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an example (horizontal scale is 24 hour time, icons have personal significance, for example sleep, games, walk, negative thoughts):&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4qaJK.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4qaJK.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've kept this kind of log for close to 6 months, before I found the health condition that is responsible for some of my issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Individual events are not that significant.&lt;/strong&gt; The important thing about this kind of tracking is that your suicidal thoughts today may be a result of your actions in the 4-5 days before, and the human brain seems to forget this kind of stuff very easily, unless you track it. For example, sleep disturbandes caused by late night &quot;screen time&quot; can push my bedtime later and later. My awakening time fluctuates, sleep quality is poor and as a result, 4-5 days later I can feel really bad. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To address your specific question - from personal experience, such &lt;strong&gt;negative thoughts are highly looping/oscillating/spiraling&lt;/strong&gt;. As a folk saying goes: &quot;Misery loves company&quot;. Giving in to this kind of thinking creates a negative downward spiral, and this colors your entire perception of past, present and future. Once in the spiral, there's really no motivation to do anything productive, just a desire to escape, typically through some addictive behaviors or substances. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-10-01T18:36:33.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12291" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-01T19:20:22.457" Score="4" ViewCount="213" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of numerous experiments, like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford prison experiment&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milgram experiment&lt;/a&gt; which indicate that humans can act in ways opposite to their best intentions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the purposes of this question, let's define &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free Will&lt;/a&gt; as ability to act and strive without external coercion. Ability to accomplish my goals and ambitions. In this context Free Will suddenly seems a lot like motivation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Found these quotes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Likewise, compatibilists define free will as freedom to act according&#xA;  to one's determined motives without hindrance from other individuals&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me ask - &lt;strong&gt;Is Free Will related or is just another word for a more modern concept of &quot;motivation&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2017-05-19T13:51:59.950" Title="Are Free Will and Motivation related?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;free-will&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12293" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-01T23:54:46.243" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does the brain assess cognitive effort? Is there a chemical that is being created or consumed at a rate that is proportionate to the amount of effort felt?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm mostly interested in short term effort, such as in short-term-memory tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-10-02T00:12:20.980" LastActivityDate="2015-10-02T00:12:20.980" Title="Source of sensory data related to cognitive effort" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12295" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12267" CreationDate="2015-10-02T16:07:22.970" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider two random variables $E$ and $F$ with the following states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$E$: $c$ - A cooperates, $\neg c$ - A defects&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$F$: $kc$ - A knows that B cooperated, $k\neg c$ - A knows that B defected&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PJ Corr claims that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$p(E=\neg c|F=k\neg c)&amp;gt;0.5$&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$p(E=\neg c|F=kc)&amp;gt;0.5$&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$p(E=\neg c)&amp;lt;0.5$&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then the application of the law of the total probability results in a contradiction:&#xA;$p(E=\neg c|F=k\neg c)\cdot p(F=k\neg c)+p(E=\neg c|F=kc)\cdot p(F=kc)&amp;lt;0.5$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Note that a weighted average of two variables both greater than $0.5$ must be also greater than $0.5$.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To defend the probability theory one can extend the state space of $F$ with $\neg k$ - &quot;not knowing one’s partner’s decision&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or one may add context variables as Corr suggests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Everyday equivalents of this situation do not, typically, resemble the decision-making dynamics assumed by CP theory: people have psychological processes that it fails to model, or to even consider to be relevant. For example, in this situation, outcome (1) could simply be (self-serving) retaliation; and in the case of (2) taking the easier route, but, we should wonder, what would happen if the partner was a loved one (e.g., your child)? Scenario (3) is a situation of uncertainty and psychological conflict (at least as perceived by many participants).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is trivial to model these contexts with CP:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$p(E=\neg c|F=k\neg c,\mathrm{A\ wants\ a\ selfserving\ retaliation})$&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$p(E=\neg c|F=kc,\mathrm{A\ loves\ B},\mathrm{B\ loves\ A})$&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$p(E=\neg c|\mathrm{the\ situation\ is\ uncertain})$&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Purpose behind the modeling based on quantum probability&lt;/strong&gt;: I'm not acquainted with the discussion of quantum probability in cognitive science. However, as with any formalism there is a trade-off between simplicity and explanatory power. One can always devise a cognitive model with high explanatory power by adding contexts and rules for exception handling. Indeed, as evidenced by the recent rise of bayesian cognitive modeling and its critics, probability theory is well suited for such endeavor. As a disadvantage one gets ridiculously complex models and the whole modeling endeavor is difficult to falsify. I can imagine that it is in terms of simplicity that the quantum probability offers a better option than the classical probability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8618" LastActivityDate="2015-10-02T16:07:22.970" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12297" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-02T21:02:41.267" Score="6" ViewCount="834" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are considering setting up a few testing computers using Raspberry Pi 2. There was an interest in this a few years ago, but due to limitations of OpenGL in Raspberry Pi it did not go far. I was wondering if anybody made progress with possibility of running PTB, or PsychoPy, or other experimental software.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Old reference links:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3099/is-the-raspberry-pi-capable-of-operating-as-a-stimulus-presentation-system-for-e&quot;&gt;Is the Raspberry Pi capable of operating as a stimulus presentation system for experiments?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://akiraoconnor.org/2013/02/01/using-the-raspberry-pi-to-run-cognitive-psychology-experiments/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://akiraoconnor.org/2013/02/01/using-the-raspberry-pi-to-run-cognitive-psychology-experiments/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9444" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-12-15T17:40:32.973" Title="Is it possible to run Psychtoolbox or PsychoPy on Raspberry Pi 2 for simple perceptual experiments?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12299" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13488" CreationDate="2015-10-02T23:27:12.987" Score="7" ViewCount="323" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both SPA (Eliasmith et al.) and predictive coding (Friston, Clark, Rao, et al.) seem to have a lot of explanatory power.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding of SPA is probably rudimentary, but Eliasmith and others seem to be able to explain and simulate higher-order psychological constructs (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~pthagard/Articles/thagard-schroeder.emotions-pointers.2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;emotions&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cogs.12265/abstract;jsessionid=B024D877C6BBBA16FA23622C40478B77.f02t02?userIsAuthenticated=false&amp;amp;deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;concepts&lt;/a&gt;) impressively well.  Similarly, predictive coding (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://users.monash.edu/~naotsugt/Tsuchiya_Labs_Homepage/Bryan_Paton_files/Commentary%20.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Clark, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)--if correct--is a very convincing account of the fundamental computations of the brain.  And there's a lot of emerging evidence to support it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So I'm curious whether these frameworks can be integrated.&lt;/strong&gt;  Would Spaun perform better by implementing some sort of predictive coding algorithm(s)? Or does SPA make this unnecessary?  These questions may be poor due to my ignorance about the complexities of SPA and NEF, but any insight would be great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-02-27T20:00:19.997" LastActivityDate="2016-11-28T02:54:56.400" Title="Is semantic pointer architecture compatible with a predictive coding account of the brain?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;nef&gt;&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12301" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-03T09:21:17.603" Score="0" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;What makes a person to be ever smiling to an extent that they just can't be angry or actually show they are angry even if they are?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9459" LastActivityDate="2015-10-03T16:28:08.060" Title="Is psychology a science or magic?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-10-04T06:59:05.103" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12301" CreationDate="2015-10-03T16:28:08.060" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From David Myer's Psychology, 10th edition, Page 6,&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychology is the &lt;strong&gt;science&lt;/strong&gt; of behavior and mental processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your actual question, here is what David has said in general that there are 3 levels on which Psychology can be viewed at differently. Following image lists them.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XUUPg.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XUUPg.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each level forms an independent yet dependent abstraction with other two. So, to answer your question, the person's current external environment(Socio-Cultural environment which could include his friends, family, lover, stranger, native or foreign society, etc.), internal environment (current biological state which includes hormones,health, other physiological processes, maybe some disease) and Psychological influences(Learned behavior and knowledge shapes the understanding and interpretation of context ) might have created a triad to give the resultant situation.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the person might have scored a perfect score in SATs but might have had a emotional breakup the same time which might lead to the situation mentioned by you. Of course, there are infinite possibilities.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I just listed one of the possible Socio-cultural factor. Use your imagination to figure out the rest of the infinite possibilities.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good Luck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;P.S:&lt;/strong&gt; It is not magic BTW!&lt;br&gt;&#xA;From Wikipedia,&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Magic or sorcery is the use of rituals, symbols, actions, gestures and&#xA;  language that are believed to exploit supernatural forces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9454" LastActivityDate="2015-10-03T16:28:08.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12307" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12331" CreationDate="2015-10-05T01:31:02.683" Score="2" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was sitting in a restaurant when I realized that it was relatively easy to read this list of a few locations in inverted English script. It made me curious about how it is possible to read this with such ease. It also seems that since these names may be familiar, I might just be engaging in &quot;inverted image&quot; recognition since the normal 'whole image' (e.g. Boston) seems so familiar. Perhaps if these locations were not familiar, it would be slightly harder to process the text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was conflicted between posting this in this or in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://linguistics.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;Linguistics StackExchange&lt;/a&gt; but felt that this would be more relevant since there will be multiple perspectives from those interested in neuroscience, psycholinguistics, machine learning and natural-language processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A search on the internet seemed to give a lot of instances of the freak-phenomenon of '&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2117809/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mirror writing&lt;/a&gt;' and the well-known phenomenon of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk/people/matt.davis/cmabridge/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;irrelevance of spelling in comprehension&lt;/a&gt;. Furthermore, it is important to notice that this is different from writing of those who are diagnosed with Dyslexia &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC21181/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;who process language differently&lt;/a&gt; (the writing is whole-wise flipped as opposed to individually). However, there seemed to be a dearth of information on this topic in particular. Of course, I am not interested in one-word instances, another example would be like &lt;a href=&quot;http://digitalgoonies.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/flipped.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are :-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any good experiments on the phenomenon of processing inverted text ?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Although very little is understood about the neuroscience of language, are there any neurolinguistic perspectives on this phenomenon?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the underlying mechanisms hypothesized by the quoted papers in processing such text?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does there seem to be any evidence of rule-based processing&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;(e.g. flipping each letter individually)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hi3JN.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hi3JN.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Instance of Inverted English Script&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-05T02:24:58.507" LastActivityDate="2015-10-06T22:37:57.607" Title="Processing Inverted English Script" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12308" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12324" CreationDate="2015-10-05T01:53:43.297" Score="8" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't been able to find any decent articles on this specific topic. So I have three (hopefully quick) questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What part of the brain is actively controlling saccadic movement?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If this part were to be removed, does saccadic movement cease to exist and cause the person to go blind from not being able to look around?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Additionally, is there a disorder which eliminates saccadic movement in some way?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9415" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-10-06T13:44:07.990" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T13:37:25.817" Title="How is saccadic movement managed in the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12309" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-05T02:56:01.737" Score="5" ViewCount="616" Body="&lt;p&gt;Scenario 1) Now we all know gravity is real. Yet when we dream that we are flying we forget/or are oblivious to the entire concept of gravity as if you have never experienced gravity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scenario 2) When dreaming of a deceased relative long or recent sometimes the dream is in their lifetimes and during the dream the brain has no recollection of the event of their death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In both these scenarios you can control the dream for example if you are flying you can change directions or set the scenery and are aware you are dreaming but the things you are unaware of are &lt;strong&gt;GRAVITY AND DEATH&lt;/strong&gt;. And as soon as you wake up or figure out the reality you become awake. So my question is why does a brain forget reality/logic in a dream?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9473" LastActivityDate="2015-10-07T18:47:13.537" Title="Why does even the most rational brain forget logic in a dream?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12310" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12267" CreationDate="2015-10-05T10:29:59.850" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;After having thought more carefully about my own question, I give my own answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that in the quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The literature shows: (1) knowing that one’s partner has defected&#xA;  leads to a higher probability of defection; (2) knowing that one’s&#xA;  partner has cooperated also leads to a higher probability of&#xA;  defection; and, most troubling for Classical Probability theory, (3)&#xA;  not knowing one’s partner’s decision leads to a higher probability of&#xA;  cooperation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the word &lt;em&gt;troubling&lt;/em&gt; is not the appropriate one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As explained, the CP translation of this quote is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;${\Pr}^\ast(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects}) &amp;gt; 0.5$&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;${\Pr}^\ast(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ coop.}) &amp;gt; 0.5$&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;$\Pr(A \textrm{ defects}) &amp;lt; 0.5$&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And this is not troubling for CP, because $\Pr \neq {\Pr}^\ast$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of saying this is &lt;em&gt;troubling&lt;/em&gt;, I would simply say that &lt;em&gt;providing a relation between (1)-(2) and (3)  is not the purpose of CP&lt;/em&gt;.  And roughly speaking, this is the purpose of quantum cognition, using quantum probability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the context of QC, a &quot;conditional probability&quot; such as $P(A \textrm{ defects} \mid B \textrm{ defects})$ should be read as &lt;em&gt;&quot;probability that $A$ defects when $A$ knows that $B$ defects&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. The &quot;event&quot; at right of the conditional bar &quot;$|$&quot; is something about the cognitive state of $A$. In &lt;a href=&quot;https://ppw.kuleuven.be/okp/_pdf/Lee2013QMOCA.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pothos &amp;amp; Busemeyer's paper&lt;/a&gt;, such a notation is used :&#xA;$$&#xA;Prob(happy|employed) = \Vert P_{happy} \psi_{employed} \Vert^2&#xA;$$&#xA;The notation at left is a symbolic one, miming the notation for conditional probability. The notation at right is more rigorous. In quantum probability, $P_{happy}$ is a projection, and $\psi_{employed}$ is a quantum state. Here it would be something like $P_{defects}$ and $\psi_{B \text{ defects}}$, representing the state of $A$ when he knows that $B$ defects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I claimed before that &lt;em&gt;providing a relation between (1)-(2) and (3)  is not the purpose of CP&lt;/em&gt;. I should rather say: not in this way. The quantum approach is close to, but not the same as, the idea of a family of probabilities $P_\psi(A \text{ defects})$ indexed by the state $\psi$ of $A$. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is another way to interpret the quote in CP, with only one probability $\Pr$. Assume that one firstly selects at random one of the two experiments (&lt;em&gt;&quot;true&quot; prisoner dilemma&quot;&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;&quot;faked&quot; prisoner dilemma&quot;&lt;/em&gt;) and then one performs it. Globally, there's only one experiment (a two-stage experiment). The three points in the quote are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;$\Pr(A \textrm{ defects} \mid \textrm{$A$ knows that $B$ defects}) &amp;gt; 0.5$&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;$\Pr(A \textrm{ defects} \mid \textrm{$A$ knows that $B$ coop.}) &amp;gt; 0.5$&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;$\Pr(A \textrm{ defects}\mid \textrm{$A$ knows nothing about $B$}) &amp;lt; 0.5$&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and they are not inconsistent with any CP law. Because here one does not know anything about the marginal probability $\Pr(A \textrm{ defects})$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9428" LastEditorUserId="9428" LastEditDate="2015-10-05T12:22:15.253" LastActivityDate="2015-10-05T12:22:15.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12311" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12350" CreationDate="2015-10-05T17:37:53.557" Score="5" ViewCount="254" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/news/2013/08/19/5-major-mental-illnesses-traced-to-same-genetic-variations/58642.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychcentral&lt;/a&gt; depression, bipolar disorder, ADHD, schizophrenia and autism are traceable to the same inherited genetic variations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/GOK1tKFFIQI?t=98&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;AsapSCIENCE&lt;/a&gt;, depression could be genetic due to a variation in the serotonin transporter gene. Having at least one short seems to give some kind of genetic predisposition to depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what's the analogue of the serotonin transporter gene in ADHD? Is there a dopamine transporter gene?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/38716/in-what-way-is-adhd-genetic&quot;&gt;double posted&lt;/a&gt; this question on the Biology StackExchange.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2015-10-09T20:41:24.350" Title="What is the underlying genetic basis for ADHD?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12312" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-05T18:32:47.427" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/adhd-anger-management-directory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt; , difficulties in managing anger are more prevalent in children with ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are antidepressants used in treating symptoms of ADHD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this due to a relationship between aggression (specifically, the display of &quot;angry&quot; affect) and the administration of antidepressant drugs? Is this relationship well-studied?&lt;br&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="8982" LastEditDate="2018-04-02T06:40:19.033" LastActivityDate="2018-04-02T06:40:19.033" Title="Do antidepressants reduce displays of anger prevalent in those diagnosed with ADHD?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12313" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-05T18:32:55.527" Score="3" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Wikipedia, &quot;Difficulties managing anger are more common in children with ADHD&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it that the anger is due to ADHD specifically? Is the anger suggestive of a comorbid disorder? Could it be either?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastActivityDate="2019-01-07T09:49:40.403" Title="What is the relationship between anger management difficulties and ADHD?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12314" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-05T18:43:01.233" Score="7" ViewCount="549" Body="&lt;p&gt;The types of Attention deficit &lt;strong&gt;hyperactivity&lt;/strong&gt; disorder are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;predominantly inattentive&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;predominantly &lt;strong&gt;hyperactive&lt;/strong&gt;-impulsive&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;combined&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not sure I understand. People with ADHD are hyperactive because of the H in ADHD. So what's the point of the word &quot;hyperactive&quot; being in both &quot;predominantly hyperactive-impulsive&quot; and &quot;Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder&quot; ? Why not just say predominantly impulsive or attention deficit disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit to justify this question not being a duplicate:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think one of the terms unnecessarily uses the word &quot;hyperactive&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;AD&lt;strong&gt;H&lt;/strong&gt;D&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;predominantly &lt;strong&gt;hyperactive&lt;/strong&gt;-impulsive&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we use &lt;strong&gt;hyperactive&lt;/strong&gt; twice? Why not&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ADD has 3 types: predominantly inattentive, predominantly &lt;strong&gt;hyperactive&lt;/strong&gt;-impulsive, combined&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;AD&lt;strong&gt;H&lt;/strong&gt;D has 3 types: predominantly inattentive, predominantly impulsive, combined?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="8982" LastEditDate="2015-11-11T21:03:11.560" LastActivityDate="2017-11-19T17:40:23.227" Title="Why ADHD instead of ADD? / Why predominantly hyperactive-impulsive instead of predominantly-impulsive?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12316" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12314" CreationDate="2015-10-05T20:02:12.523" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are partly right. In older patients, there is usually just attention deficit without hyperactivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hyperactivity is term which describe behavior, and attention is the word which describes cognitive processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These processes are not the same although they depend on each other because neurotransmitter dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/documents/adhd%20fact%20sheet.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.dsm5.org/documents/adhd%20fact%20sheet.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT:&#xA;Control of impulses and hyper-activity are in behavioral domain. hyper means &quot;a lot of&quot; activity&quot;. Because of this reasons hyperactivity is diagnosed:&#xA;    - appears to be always on the go&#xA;    - excessively talks&#xA;    - has severe difficulty waiting for their turn&#xA;    - squirms in their seat, taps their hands or feet, or fidgets&#xA;    - gets up from a seat when remaining seated is expected&#xA;    - runs around or climbs in inappropriate situations&#xA;    - is unable to quietly play or take part in leisure activities&#xA;    - blurts out an answer before a question has been finished&#xA;    - intrudes on and interrupts others constantly&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3001" LastEditorUserId="3001" LastEditDate="2015-10-05T20:44:16.460" LastActivityDate="2015-10-05T20:44:16.460" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12129" CreationDate="2015-10-05T20:07:54.903" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many advanced tutorials which would suit someone with a computer science background, but if you are interested in the connection between neural networks and psychology/cognitive science then these two volumes are very accessible and give enough details to start coding your own networks:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parallel Distributed Processing, Volume 1&#xA;Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition: Foundations&#xA;By David E. Rumelhart, James L. McClelland and PDP Research Group (1986)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/parallel-distributed-processing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/parallel-distributed-processing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another book with practical details and a good connection to psychology is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An Introduction to Neural Networks by Kevin Gurney (1997)&#xA;[no link, I don't have the reputation]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both are severely out of date with respect to the cutting edge of modern neural networks, but the fundamentals don't go out of date so I figure they are a good place to start&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9476" LastActivityDate="2015-10-05T20:07:54.903" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12320" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-06T09:15:14.707" Score="2" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lay psychology holds different opinions on whether having similar or different personalities promotes friendships between people. A case in point may be the conflicting idioms of &quot;birds of a feather flock together&quot; versus &quot;opposites attract&quot;. Which one of them is true? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does similarity in personality affect becoming friends? Are there certain personality traits that correlate positively or negatively between friends? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5089" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-06T13:07:55.723" LastActivityDate="2015-10-06T13:07:55.723" Title="How are friend pairs similar in terms of personality and individual differences?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-06T12:45:34.130" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8729" CreationDate="2015-10-06T10:10:54.863" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting question because it relates to different &lt;strong&gt;mechanisms that may be responsible for incubation effects&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does incubation occur because creative insight is helped by &lt;strong&gt;unconscious processes&lt;/strong&gt;? (Processes that are best left undisturbed by not consciously thinking about the problem?) In this case, the most important thing would be to focus on something else.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or does taking a break simply reduce &lt;strong&gt;mental fatigue&lt;/strong&gt; as some have claimed (e.g., Posner, 1973, as cited in Sio &amp;amp; Ormond, 2009)? In this case, just taking a break from thinking might be best.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or is it because of &lt;strong&gt;certain patterns of conscious thought&lt;/strong&gt; during incubation? In this case, the kind of problem one thinks about consciously during the incubation phase would matter.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sio and Ormond (2009) have looked at this question as part of their &lt;strong&gt;meta-analysis of incubation studies&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They found that performing &lt;strong&gt;low cognitive demand tasks&lt;/strong&gt; were associated with stronger incubation effects than just taking a break and doing nothing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;However, &lt;strong&gt;high cognitive demand tasks&lt;/strong&gt; were associated with smaller incubation effects&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These results are not in line with a simple mental fatigue account of incubation. Instead, they suggest that creative insight profits more from distracting tasks that are low in cognitive demand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One explanation for these findings is that low demanding tasks allow and promote &lt;strong&gt;mind-wandering&lt;/strong&gt; (Baird et al., 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusion&lt;/strong&gt;: So based on this research, when trying to generate some creative insight, it might be good to take a break after an intense preparation period. However, instead of occupying your mind with another hard nut to crack, it might be better to do so with something that is not very demanding. Try cleaning up your desk and water those sad-looking plants in your office!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baird, B., Smallwood, J., Mrazek, M. D., Kam, J. W. Y., Franklin, M. S., &amp;amp; Schooler, J. W. (2012). Inspired by distraction: Mind wandering facilitates creative incubation. Psychological Science, 23, 1117–1122. doi:10.1177/0956797612446024&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sio, U. N., &amp;amp; Ormerod, T. C. (2009). Does incubation enhance problem solving? A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 94–120. doi:10.1037/a0014212&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-11-01T05:00:48.640" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T05:00:48.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12323" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-06T10:53:28.440" Score="3" ViewCount="716" Body="&lt;p&gt;A stereotypical man is aggressive and competing.&#xA;A stereotypical woman isn't aggressive and tends to cooperate rather than compete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A stereotypical boy have toys like cars and plastic soldiers. &#xA;A stereotypical girl have toys like barbie dolls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I believed this is merely the result of the social conditioning, where boys taught to behave like a men, and girls are taught to behave like a women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it seems I need to think it again. I recently read &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/11874711/The-astonishing-village-where-little-girls-turn-into-boys-aged-12.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; about the girls in Salinas. They have a weird genetic disorder that makes boys born like a girl and they won't grow a penis until the age of 12.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interesting thing is that it seems not only their penis grows but also there is a change in behavior (quote from the article above):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A little girl named Carla is currently going through the same&#xA;  transformation, aged nine. Despite being brought up as a girl, his&#xA;  mother noticed that from the age of five he was more inclined towards&#xA;  the rough and tumble play of little boys. He has recently had his hair&#xA;  cut shirt after wearing plaits for years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also there are examples of transgender people who have gender dysphoria often describing themselves as a &quot;woman who is lost in a man's body&quot; or vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any serious scientific research that proves / disprove these perceived differences in behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9479" LastActivityDate="2015-10-07T18:49:42.853" Title="Are there innate differences between men's and women's behavior?" Tags="&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12324" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12308" CreationDate="2015-10-06T13:43:30.867" Score="5" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior_colliculus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;superior colliculus&lt;/a&gt; can be regarded as the center of saccadic eye movement. It contains a topographically organized representation of the visual space in its upper layers, and saccade-related activity in its deeper layers &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mbfys.ru.nl/staff/j.vangisbergen/endnote/endnotepdfs/artikelen_groep/van%20Gisbergen%201987.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Van Gisbergen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1987)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ablation of the superior colliculus unilaterally eliminates saccades contralateral to the lesion, and hence bilateral ablation will likely eliminate all saccades &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;amp;pmid=3585453&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Schiller &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1987)&lt;/a&gt;. However, the superior colliculi &lt;strong&gt;do not mediate conscious vision&lt;/strong&gt;, but mediate &lt;strong&gt;eye movements&lt;/strong&gt;. Blindness results after ablation of the primary visual cortex, and obviously after removal of the retinae, or the optic nerves. Also note that &quot;&lt;em&gt;not being able to look around&lt;/em&gt;&quot; is not dependent only on saccadic eye movement, because head-scanning is still possible. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A number of conditions may affect saccades. For example, &lt;strong&gt;stroke&lt;/strong&gt; in the brain stem affecting the superior colliculi or cranial nerves may slow saccades and &lt;strong&gt;lesions&lt;/strong&gt; in the brain stem may abolish them completely &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/brain/130/1/10.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Ramat &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2007)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/brain/130/1/10.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ramat &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Brain&lt;/em&gt; (2007; &lt;strong&gt;130&lt;/strong&gt;: 10–35&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;amp;pmid=3585453&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schiller &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurophysiol&lt;/em&gt; (1987); &lt;strong&gt;57&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 1033-49&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mbfys.ru.nl/staff/j.vangisbergen/endnote/endnotepdfs/artikelen_groep/van%20Gisbergen%201987.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Van Gisbergen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (1987),  &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 541-55&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-10-06T14:17:11.517" LastActivityDate="2015-10-06T14:17:11.517" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12325" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11083" CreationDate="2015-10-06T14:01:42.860" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, subjective sensation increases linearly with the the log of physical intensity, which is described by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber%E2%80%93Fechner_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fechner's law&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are sensitive to small variations when light is dim, but we need large differences in intensity under conditions of high luminance (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber%E2%80%93Fechner_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Weber's law&lt;/a&gt;). This is a linear relation, but taken together with Fechner these findings are described as the widely-known &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber%E2%80%93Fechner_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Weber-Fechner's law&lt;/a&gt;, justifying the log scales used. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another well-known example is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/dB.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;decibel scale&lt;/a&gt; in hearing, which is also a log scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any basic textbook on perception or psychophysics will explain this and a reference is added below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.unipd.it/~masin/Masin-2009d.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Masin &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;J History Behav Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;45&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 56–65&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-10-06T20:52:38.763" LastActivityDate="2015-10-06T20:52:38.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12326" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5928" CreationDate="2015-10-06T16:07:20.713" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Apparently the resting potential of -65mV is reached when the two forces, diffusion and electrical gradient are in equilibrium.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is not true. You are confusing a neuron's &lt;strong&gt;resting potential&lt;/strong&gt; with what is actually a type of ion's &lt;strong&gt;equilibrium potential&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An &lt;strong&gt;equilibrium potential&lt;/strong&gt; for a particular type of ion--such as Na+ or K+--is the exact voltage across the membrane that exactly opposes the diffusional force for that ion, and thereby prevents a net flow of that ion across the membrane. So, for example, in the case of Na+ (sodium ion), in mammalian neurons, a typical value given in textbooks is something like +55 mV. In other words, the interior of the neuron needs to be 55 mV (relative to the outside of the neuron) in order to prevent all the Na+ ions from rushing into the neuron. There are equilibrium potentials for all the ions that are used in neurons to influence the voltage across the membrane: Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca++. If a fictional neuron were to be at the equilibrium potential for Na+, and there were no other ions at play, &lt;em&gt;there would be no need for pumps to maintain any concentration gradient of Na+.&lt;/em&gt;, because, by definition, there would be no net flow of charge, and so the situation would be stable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the &lt;strong&gt;resting potential&lt;/strong&gt; refers to the voltage of the neuron when it is at rest--not having an action potential--but that voltage is going to be some &quot;weighted average&quot; of the equilibrium potentials of all of the types of ions: Na+, K+, Cl-, and Ca++. Of these, K+ (potassium ion) dominates, and so we find that typical values for the resting potential of neurons is around -65mV, which is closer to the equilibrium potential for K+ (-90mV), than for Na+ (+55mV) or Ca++ (+155mV!). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But since the typical resting potential of the neuron actually &lt;em&gt;is not equal to any of the equilibrium potentials for any type of ion&lt;/em&gt;, that means by definition all of the ions &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; going to have net movement across the membrane. If ion channels are left open and ions are therefore allowed to flow across the membrane, Na+ is going to flow in, K+ is going to flow out, Ca++ is going to flow in, etc. (I'm leaving Cl- out for simplicity).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since these ions are flowing with a net direction (either into or out of the neuron), that means concentrations are changing; e.g., K+'s large concentration gradient is getting smaller as it flows out of the neuron. Over time, these ion flows move the concentrations of ions towards equality on both sides of the membrane, and therefore move the neuron's resting membrane potential toward 0 mV. In some sense, the &quot;battery is running down&quot;. This would render the neuron incapable of having an action potential, and thus acting as a signaling machine, and therefore must be prevented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to prevent that rundown of concentration gradients, ion pumps &lt;strong&gt;actively maintain&lt;/strong&gt; the concentration gradients of the ions. One of the relevant ones here is the &lt;strong&gt;Na+/K+ exchanger&lt;/strong&gt;, which uses ATP to power its action of pumping &lt;em&gt;in&lt;/em&gt; two Na+ ions for every three K+ ions it pumps &lt;em&gt;out&lt;/em&gt;. Using ATP requires producing ATP, which requires glucose, and so just maintaining &quot;ready to go neurons&quot; is metabolically demanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastEditorUserId="6642" LastEditDate="2015-10-10T00:04:37.300" LastActivityDate="2015-10-10T00:04:37.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12328" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12309" CreationDate="2015-10-06T20:41:55.667" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think there's a real answer to the question, but I find it fascinating. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have a look at this really nice &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/IJoDR/article/view/9079/2926&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt;, too. They asked lucid dreamers to approach other dream characters and ask them to do simple maths. (Not because they were interested in lucid dreaming per se, they just needed somebody to be able to decide what they would dream). The study was done with a low number of participants who were also lucid dreamers, so who knows how valid this is for the general population. But they found that people reported that their dream characters got all mysterious and were seemingly unable to answer the question. In one case, one character covered their face, started crying and ran away. In the other case, they answered cryptically 'gray zone'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So while maths is not logic, this exploratory study does show that in dreams we can't do the simply things we have no problem in doing in real life. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this doesn't answer your original question of &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; this is the case, but I thought you might find it interesting. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Warning: the paragraph below is pure handwaving and speculation, NOT to be taken as evidence-based&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As pure speculation/brainstorming (so please don't take this seriously, it's just a thought), I like to think that logic might depend on our brain chemistry. While we tend to think that logic is the one thing that we can trust on (Descartes and Bertrand Russell certainly did), it might be the case that logic as we know it depends on our brains. So when we are in a dofferent cognitive state, our logic is different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9178" LastActivityDate="2015-10-06T20:41:55.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12329" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12309" CreationDate="2015-10-06T21:22:28.297" Score="3" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Neither rational nor logical&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;...there is overwhelming evidence that Humans cannot be [rational]&amp;quot; - Daniel Kahneman (Thinking Fast and Slow).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To begin with, the brain is &lt;strong&gt;neither rational nor logical&lt;/strong&gt; as you may think (to a large extent it is little rational and its logic is &lt;em&gt;completely&lt;/em&gt; fuzzy). A perfectly rational and logical organ would not be able to keep us alive (such an organ could take 4 hours to choose between two bottles of wine).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I assume that your question is more like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How comes dreams often involve augmented reality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;On augmented realities&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Try this: shut your eyes and try to imagine your lower body replaced with that of a horse. Can you do this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/p6tsd.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/p6tsd.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;A man with a lower horse body&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have not done this whilst dreaming, but whilst awake and conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you bring memories of a deceased relative whilst awake? Sure you can.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the ability to experience augmented reality is not reserved for dreams - we can incite such reality by conscious means, certain drugs or brain damage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Whilst you were dreaming&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are various theories on why we dream and what happens whilst we dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A key to many theories is random brain activity. You actually experience this whilst awake when you leave the &lt;strong&gt;central executive&lt;/strong&gt; mode (stay-on-task) and enter &lt;strong&gt;daydreaming&lt;/strong&gt; one - where short thoughts are following in what often seems as random.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such random activity is fully capable of triggering augmented reality, like a half-man half-horse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a higher likelihood for such augmented reality to appear in dreams, since random activity is not tamed by the stay on task mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-10-06T22:17:10.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12330" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12323" CreationDate="2015-10-06T22:14:28.953" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is still a matter of fierce debate between the &lt;em&gt;essentialist&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;cultural&lt;/em&gt; camps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is little argument that gender differences are shaped by culture, but there is now a growing evidence supporting the hypothesis that gender differences are also partly the outcome of biological disposition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Much of such biological disposition is the outcome of hormonal influence.&lt;/strong&gt; Given that such influence was demonstrated even if prenatal, and that the instructions to the postnatal generation of hormones is coded in our DNA, you can argue that such influence falls into the definition of &lt;em&gt;innate&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may wish to start with these papers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alexander, Gerianne M., and Melissa Hines. &quot;Sex differences in response to children's toys in nonhuman primates (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus).&quot; Evolution and Human Behavior 23.6 (2002): 467-479.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hassett, Janice M., Erin R. Siebert, and Kim Wallen. &quot;Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences parallel those of children.&quot; Hormones and behavior 54.3 (2008): 359-364.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Maestripieri, Dario, and Suzanne Pelka. &quot;Sex differences in interest in infants across the lifespan.&quot; Human Nature 13.3 (2002): 327-344.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-10-07T18:49:42.853" LastActivityDate="2015-10-07T18:49:42.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12331" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12307" CreationDate="2015-10-06T22:37:57.607" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there any good experiments on the phenomenon of processing inverted text?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is probably &lt;em&gt;the&lt;/em&gt; place to start:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Poldrack, Russell A., et al. &quot;The neural basis of visual skill learning: an fMRI study of mirror reading.&quot; Cerebral Cortex 8.1 (1998): 1-10.&#xA;APA &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What are the underlying mechanisms hypothesized by the quoted papers in processing such text?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Multiple regions in the occipital&#xA;lobe, inferior temporal cortex, superior parietal cortex and&#xA;cerebellum were involved in the reading of mirror-reversed&#xA;compared to normally oriented text. For novel stimuli, skilled&#xA;mirror-reading was associated with decreased activation in the right&#xA;superior parietal cortex and posterior occipital regions and&#xA;increased activation in the left inferior temporal lobe. These results&#xA;suggest that learning to read mirror-reversed text involves a&#xA;progression from visuospatial transformation to direct recognition of&#xA;transformed letters. Reading practiced, relative to unpracticed,&#xA;stimuli was associated with decreased activation in occipital visual&#xA;cortices, inferior temporal cortex and superior parietal cortex and&#xA;increased activation in occipito-parietal and lateral temporal&#xA;regions. By examining skill learning and item-specific repetition&#xA;priming in the same task, this study demonstrates that both of these&#xA;forms of learning exhibit shifts in the set of neural structures that&#xA;contribute to performance.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does there seem to be any evidence of rule-based processing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Mirror-reading skill is letter-specific rather than being a&#xA;general visual transformation skill&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2015-10-06T22:37:57.607" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12332" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-07T05:24:02.937" Score="3" ViewCount="198" Body="&lt;p&gt;Typically when I listen to a song, the song will have different sections (e.g. chorus, verses, etc). As a composer, I have found that many songs use this structure to create a sense of repetition and help make the song more familiar to the listener. It tends to give the song a cohesiveness that simply introducing new material over and over doesn't yield. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, when I listen to a song, what brain area helps me  remember parts of the song so when I hear them again, they sound familiar? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We Wish You A Merry Christmas &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7654" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-07T16:33:59.693" LastActivityDate="2015-10-07T16:33:59.693" Title="What brain areas are involved in memorizing sections of a song?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12332" CreationDate="2015-10-07T09:32:56.220" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would read &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stefan-koelsch.de/papers/TICS2005_towards-a-neural-basis-of-music-perception.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, its mighty interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Books&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/music-and-memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Snyder, B.(2000) Music and memory: An introduction. The MIT Press. Cambridge 291.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hemispheric Coordination and Conflict&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;...while listening to the melody of the popular carol &quot;Silent Night&quot;, the&#xA;  right hemisphere thinks, &quot;Ah, yes, Silent Night&quot;, while the left&#xA;  hemisphere thinks, &quot;two sequences: the first a literal repetition, the&#xA;  second a repetition at different pitch levels—ah, yes, Silent Night by&#xA;  Franz Gruber, typical pastorate folk style.&quot; The brain for the most&#xA;  part works well when each hemisphere performs its own function while&#xA;  solving a task or problem; the two hemispheres are quite&#xA;  complementary. However, situations arise when the two modes are in&#xA;  conflict, resulting in one hemisphere interfering with the operation&#xA;  of the other hemisphere.&quot; (Regalski 1977)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Melodic Memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Performance was greatest for the musicians, particularly for the&#xA;  nontonal melody pairs. These differences were not primarily&#xA;  attributable to pitch discrimination or pitch working memory&#xA;  impairments. The findings point to differential contributions of the&#xA;  left and right mesial temporal lobes to melodic memory, with&#xA;  specificity of the right mesial temporal lobe emerging for melodic&#xA;  learning within a tonal musical context.&quot; (Wilson, Saling 2008)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Tonal Memory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In general, tonal memory is supported by a wide network including&#xA;  primary and secondary auditory areas more right lateralized, the&#xA;  supramarginal gyrus particularly on the left, and dorsolateral&#xA;  inferior frontal areas, more clearly seen under heavy memory load&#xA;  conditions (Zatorre et al., 1994; Griffith et al., 1999; Gaab et al.,&#xA;  2003). Premotor areas, the cerebellum, basal ganglia and the thalamus&#xA;  are activated when subvocal tonal rehearsal is explicitly required&#xA;  (Hickok et al., 2003; Koelsch et al., 2009). Importantly a direct&#xA;  comparison of memory for verbal syllables and sung pitches under&#xA;  rehearsal and under suppression elicited largely overlapping brain&#xA;  areas consistent with this network (Schulze et al., 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quoted from &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00712/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mej.sagepub.com/content/63/9/31.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Who Knows Where Music Lurks in the Mind of Man? New Brain Research Has The Answer.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Journal of Music Educators&lt;/em&gt; (May 1977, Vol.63, pages 31-38)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mp.ucpress.edu/content/25/4/33.full-text.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Contribution of the left and right Mesial Temporal Lobes to Musical Memory: Evidence from melodic learning difficulties&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Sarah J. Wilson, Michael M. Saling &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal&lt;/em&gt;, Vol. 25 No. 4, April 2008; (pp. 303-314) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stefan-koelsch.de/papers/TICS2005_towards-a-neural-basis-of-music-perception.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;￼Towards A Neural Basis Of Music Perception.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Stefan Koelsch and Walter A. Siebel &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences&lt;/em&gt; Vol.9 No.12 December 2005&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811903002246&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Functional anatomy of pitch memory—an fMRI study with sparse temporal sampling.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gaab, N., Gaser, C., Zaehle, T., Jancke, L., and Schlaug, G. (2003). &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Neuroimage&lt;/em&gt; 19, 1417–1426. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/14/4/1908.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neural mechanisms underlying melodic perception and memory for pitch.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Zatorre, R. J., Evans, A. C., and Meyer, E. (1994).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;J. Neurosci.&lt;/em&gt; 14, 1908–1919.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?Db=pubmed&amp;amp;Cmd=ShowDetailView&amp;amp;TermToSearch=12965041&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Auditory-motorinteraction revealed by fMRI: speech, music, and working memory in area&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hickok, G., Buchsbaum, B., Humphries, C., and Muftuler, T. (2003).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Spt. J. Cogn. Neurosci.&lt;/em&gt; 15, 673–682.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?Db=pubmed&amp;amp;Cmd=ShowDetailView&amp;amp;TermToSearch=18330870&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Functional architecture of verbal and tonal working memory: an FMRI study.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Koelsch, S., Schulze, K., Sammler, D., Fritz, T., Müller, K., and Gruber, O. (2009). &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Hum. Brain Mapp.&lt;/em&gt; 30, 859–873.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hbm.21060/abstract;jsessionid=FEC430A5D259F49F25442A0C23BABE77.f02t01&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuroarchitecture of verbal and tonal working memory in nonmusicians and musicians.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Schulze, K., Zysset, S., Mueller, K., Friederici, A. D., and Koelsch, S. (2011).&lt;br&gt; &lt;em&gt;Hum. Brain Mapp.&lt;/em&gt; 32, 771–783.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-07T10:07:06.360" LastActivityDate="2015-10-07T10:07:06.360" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12335" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12278" CreationDate="2015-10-07T18:25:50.480" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thymology is an historical conjecture on why someone thought the way they did. For example, why did Herbert Henry Asquith take his country to war in 1914. What thought processes went into that decision. The decision is often made to seem inevitable given preceding experiences. There is a school of thought that would lump this study alongside other accounts of history and journalism, in that they fall into the trap of searching for causes for things that are just as likely to be caused by randomness (i.e. perhaps he went to war because the decision was made shortly before lunch and he was hungry and irritable, rather than because of a neat causal explanation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology is the general study of mind and behaviour in general, largely in the present, and tested scientifically with controlled experiments, simulations, statistical inference, and qualitative research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9326" LastActivityDate="2015-10-07T18:25:50.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12336" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12309" CreationDate="2015-10-07T18:47:13.537" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Not everyone forgets gravity in dreams.&lt;/strong&gt; I'm speaking out of my experience with lucid dreaming, which allows thousands of people to act consciously in their dreams. This allows them to examine dream concepts in more details, as well as perform experiments.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a lucid dreaming &lt;strong&gt;flying technique, which is all about manipulating the gravity&lt;/strong&gt; within a dream. Multiple people have independently discovered over the years, which I refer to as &quot;Attraction flying&quot;. I saw a mention of the attraction flying in the 1993 book &quot;The art of dreaming&quot; by Carlos Castaneda. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The technique manipulates gravity in the following ways - first, a person levitates over the surface, then uses willpower and intent to &quot;fall&quot; towards a distant object. Once the person is close to that object, another object is selected to fall towards. This creates a zig-zagging flight pattern, somewhat similar to how &quot;Spider man&quot; uses webs to move between skyscrapers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The existence of this technique, and the fact that &lt;strong&gt;multiple people have independently discovered it&lt;/strong&gt; makes me think that the brain is capable of imagining gravity in a dream. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-10-07T18:47:13.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12337" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-08T02:23:53.690" Score="3" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, many in cognitive science and machine learning circles are very interested in the '&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kaggle.com/c/the-allen-ai-science-challenge&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Allen AI Science Challenge&lt;/a&gt;' that was recently announced. Here is a brief description:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://allenai.org/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence&lt;/a&gt; (AI2) is working to&#xA;  improve humanity through fundamental advances in artificial&#xA;  intelligence. One critical but challenging problem in AI is to&#xA;  demonstrate the ability to consistently understand and correctly&#xA;  answer general questions about the world. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://aristo-demo.allenai.org/#/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Aristo project&lt;/a&gt; at AI2 is focused on building such a system. One&#xA;  way Aristo &quot;learns&quot; is by extracting facts from various sources and&#xA;  processing them into a structured knowledge base. When taking an exam,&#xA;  questions are parsed and processed along with any accompanying&#xA;  diagrams to determine a strategy for answering. Aristo then uses&#xA;  entailment, statistical analysis, and inference methods to select a&#xA;  final answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While Aristo's abilities have improved significantly in the last two&#xA;  years, it still doesn't have perfect, reliable methods of gathering&#xA;  knowledge, understanding questions, or reasoning through answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using a dataset of multiple choice question and answers from a&#xA;  standardized 8th grade science exam, AI2 is challenging you to create&#xA;  a model that gets to the head of the class.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What problem solving and reasoning skills do you feel a computer will need to get past a 8th grade MCQ standardized science test?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are, or what do you think are the obstacles present in present in training computers to master these cognitive abilities?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;And to throw in a subjective question, do you think that someone will be able match this task given the present state of Artificial Intelligence?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;[Note that most Jeopardy! questions asked to IBM Watson were wikipedia searchable entries]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-10-08T12:03:04.257" LastActivityDate="2015-10-08T12:03:04.257" Title="What problem-solving skills are essential for the Allen AI Science Challenge?" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12341" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12248" CreationDate="2015-10-08T08:11:50.410" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not 100% sure if this is what you were intending to ask, because your initial opening was about generation Z (which is at the large cultural level) while on the other hand your question written in bold seemed to be geared towards the individual. I have tried incorporating both parts into this answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In essence I could not tell between which of the two concepts in psychology you were interested in: &lt;strong&gt;Uncertainty Avoidance&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;Proactive Personality&lt;/strong&gt; (the lack of which is what you describe).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is an intersection between the two concepts. You may start &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16834515&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; in case  you want to look deeper into the latter. &lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background to Answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of particular interest in this study is the macro dimension of&#xA;  uncertainty avoidance measured at an individual level. Cultures high&#xA;  on uncertainty avoidance are risk adverse. Individuals in these&#xA;  cultures prefer stability in their lives and careers. They want their&#xA;  environment to be predictable. To foster compliance among their&#xA;  members, cultures high in uncertainty avoidance structure behavior&#xA;  through such mechanisms as laws, religion or customs. Vague situations&#xA;  are avoided in high uncertainty avoidance cultures, and group norms&#xA;  and rules reduce ambiguity. Individuals tend to attach themselves to&#xA;  the dominant cultural group and comply with its expectations&#xA;  (Hofstede, 1980). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, there has been a suggestion in organizational research that rather than the more passive attachment&#xA;  to the dominant group, some cultures actively try to reduce&#xA;  uncertainty by controlling their future environment. For example,&#xA;  Schneider and DeMeyer (1991) suggested that managers in high&#xA;  uncertainty avoidance cultures are likely to engage in proactive&#xA;  behaviors in an attempt to adapt to a dynamic environment. Geletkanycz&#xA;  (1997) also found that executives who are high on uncertainty&#xA;  avoidance in their cultural background seek strategic solutions that&#xA;  respond to dynamic environments. That is, they engage in adaptation as a way of &#xA;  reduce risk. Because of this alternative way of adapting to&#xA;  uncertainty, Geletkanycz (1997) called for further research to examine&#xA;  the issue that not all individuals react to risk by adhering to the&#xA;  norm but rather adjust to position themselves in a safer position in&#xA;  the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research has also identified that individuals high on uncertainty&#xA;  avoidance make choices for uncertain outcomes that involve gains&#xA;  (Ladbury &amp;amp; Hinz, 2009). For example, individuals can be induced to&#xA;  volunteer for treatment in a randomly assigned process if they are&#xA;  offered monetary compensation for showing up (Harrison, Lau &amp;amp;&#xA;  Rutstrom, 2009). An individual’s income can also have an influence on&#xA;  uncertainty avoidance and outcomes. For example, Yang-Ming (2008)&#xA;  found that as income increases, individuals high on uncertainty&#xA;  avoidance were more willing to take risks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Relation between Uncertainty Avoidance and Productivity (Individual Level)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In her research with business executives, Geletkanycz (1997)&#xA;  hypothesized that top managers whose background cultures were high on&#xA;  uncertainty avoidance would be uncomfortable with uncertainty. Because&#xA;  of their need for structure, she predicted that they would be&#xA;  resistant to change. They would avoid taking action to alter their&#xA;  situation. However, what she found in her research was that managers&#xA;  whose background cultures were high in uncertainty avoidance reduced&#xA;  their feeling of uncertainty by adapting to the environment. She&#xA;  surmised that in the dramatic changes related to technology and&#xA;  globalization, it was safer and less risky for these executives to&#xA;  adjust to the changing environment rather that inflexibly hanging on&#xA;  to what is known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Relation between Uncertainty Avoidance and Productivity (Macro Level)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The cultural value of uncertainty avoidance influenced whether Irish&#xA;  firms were successful as compared to German firms (Rauch, Frese, &amp;amp;&#xA;  Sonnentag, 2000). Ireland scores low on uncertainty avoidance in&#xA;  contrast to Germany which is high on the value. It was found that&#xA;  successful small business owners in Ireland did not plan. Rather,&#xA;  customers in that culture valued flexibility and quick solutions to&#xA;  problems. In contrast, German business owners were more successful&#xA;  when they did plan. It was proposed by these researchers that in such&#xA;  high uncertainty avoidance cultures, it was expected that individuals&#xA;  engage in careful planning to reduce risk by attempting to control&#xA;  future events. However, the results were more consistent with the&#xA;  interpretation made by Schneider and DeMeyer (1991) in that they found&#xA;  that planning is culturally appropriate, and this detailed planning&#xA;  resulted in a successful relationship with customers who also valued&#xA;  planning (Rauch, Frese, &amp;amp; Sonnentag, 2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Primary Source:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ibam.com/pubs/jbam/articles/vol12/no2/3%20-%20Baker%20and%20Carson.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Two Faces of Uncertainty Avoidance: Attachment and Adaptation&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;David S. Baker and Kerry D. Carson University of Louisiana at Lafayette&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Citations within Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hofstede, G. (1980). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interpreting and responding to strategic issues: The impact of national culture. &lt;br&gt; Schneider, S. C., &amp;amp; DeMeyer, A. (1991). &lt;em&gt;Strategic Management Journal&lt;/em&gt;, 12(4), 307-320.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Uncertainty avoidance influences choices for potential gains but not losses. &lt;br&gt; Ladbury, J., &amp;amp; Hinsz, V. B. (2009). &lt;em&gt;Current Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 28(3), 187-193.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Corporate cash holdings, uncertainty avoidance, and the multinationality of firms. &lt;br&gt; Ramirez, A., &amp;amp; Tadesse, S. (2009).&lt;em&gt;International Business Review&lt;/em&gt;, 18(4), 387-403.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastActivityDate="2015-10-08T08:11:50.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12342" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-08T15:31:43.740" Score="3" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, say if I have really dry elbows. They become cracked and begin to flay, yet I continue to rub them against various kinds of surfaces for the different sensations of pain. It hurts alot, and I've found myself experimenting with my pain threshold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have other small things like these which I do constantly in order to feel pain, and I &lt;em&gt;enjoy&lt;/em&gt; it. What is the reason behind this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9211" LastActivityDate="2015-10-08T15:31:43.740" Title="Why do I enjoy low-mid level pain?" Tags="&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-10-09T13:28:05.037" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12343" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15285" CreationDate="2015-10-08T17:13:25.453" Score="5" ViewCount="187" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading some articles about animals and speech, and it just brushes a bit of the neurology of it, but that got me curious:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any link between a person's (or an animal's) mimicry skill and/or their ability to create complex noises just by manipulating their body to their overall intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note&lt;/strong&gt;, I'm not referring to &quot;speech&quot;, ie. the actual comprehension and assignment of value to those noises; I'm just curious if the &lt;em&gt;ability&lt;/em&gt; and/or the creativity of making and/or mimicking those noises has any correlation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6378" LastEditorUserId="6378" LastEditDate="2015-10-08T17:19:07.953" LastActivityDate="2016-06-21T14:29:04.950" Title="Any link between IQ and a person's ability to create or mimic sounds?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12345" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-08T23:35:07.060" Score="1" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;My teacher told us that this area of the brain helps with the comprehension of language and it is located in the temporal lobe of the cortex, but she never told us why is was called Wernike's area and she told us it might be on the AP Exam. So why is it called that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9496" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2015-10-09T17:32:59.893" LastActivityDate="2015-10-09T17:32:59.893" Title="Why is Wernike's area of the brain called Wernike's area?" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12346" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-09T05:56:28.927" Score="3" ViewCount="304" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some disadvantages about being intelligent are supposedly: 1. You make conclusions too fast 2. If you insist on logic, you must work as an engineer because nobody else cares about logic. 3. You have difficulties to forget things that you might be better off forgetting. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any more disadvantages known?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2846" LastEditorUserId="2846" LastEditDate="2015-10-09T11:41:34.860" LastActivityDate="2015-10-09T11:41:34.860" Title="The disadvantages of high IQ" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-10-14T17:04:13.573" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12347" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12345" CreationDate="2015-10-09T09:28:09.437" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;As often the case, named after the person who first described it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://global.britannica.com/science/Wernicke-area&quot;&gt;From Encyclopedia Britannica&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Wernicke area, region of the brain that contains motor neurons involved in the&#xA;  comprehension of speech. &#xA;  This area was first described in 1874 by German neurologist Carl&#xA;  Wernicke.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2015-10-09T09:28:09.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12348" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-09T11:05:52.860" Score="11" ViewCount="460" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somniloquy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Somniloquy&lt;/a&gt; is very fascinating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is unclear what are the causes, but most of the time it is not seen as a medical condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Sleep talking usually occurs by itself and is most often harmless.&#xA;However, in some cases, it might be a sign of a more serious sleep&#xA;disorder or health condition.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/excessive-sleepiness-10/talking-in-your-sleep&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/excessive-sleepiness-10/talking-in-your-sleep&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a brief descriptive testimony of someone having this condition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what happened to me for about one year: almost every night, I talk unconsciously while sleeping (of course I don't know, but my room mate told me that). I dream almost every night and I consciously perceive that I'm dreaming, that I'm talking to someone, that what is happening in my dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does this happen? Is it a kind of mental disorder? Is it because my brain is too active and I keep thinking too much about one thing, so that it keeps obsessing me, even in my dream?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, I understand that &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/6432/bringing-dreams-to-conscious-awareness&quot;&gt;Bringing dreams to conscious awareness&lt;/a&gt; is possible, but why are facial muscles sometimes activated when talking in dreams? Are there correlations with other types of sleep disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6697" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-24T21:35:55.640" Title="Why do we talk unconsciously while sleeping" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12349" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12353" CreationDate="2015-10-09T15:05:38.103" Score="4" ViewCount="184" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've long been interested in the concept of &quot;states of mind&quot;, which influence the perception of the outside world and outlook on past, present and future. They can be thought of as &quot;colored lenses&quot; through which the world is perceived. Each state has a certain trigger. Some example states are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anxiety - world is a terrible place full of danger&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sexual arousal  - brain notices sexual stimuli more and reduces inhibitions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Creative inspiration - ideas fly and there's a drive to create&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today I've read about an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thestandarddaily.com/scientists-claim-that-they-have-successfully-recreated-a-portion-of-a-rat-brain-in-a-supercomputer/6211/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;experiment to replicate a part of a rat brain in supercomputer&lt;/a&gt;. The following quote jumped at me as rather significant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The researchers wrote, that the slow synchronous waves of neuronal&#xA;  activity, which have been found in the brain during sleep, were&#xA;  ‘triggered’ during the simulations, &lt;strong&gt;suggesting that neural circuits&#xA;  may have the unique ability to able to switch into different ‘modes’&#xA;  that could explain critical behaviours.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“An analogy would be a computer processer that can reconfigure to&#xA;  focus on certain tasks. The experiments suggest the existence of a&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;spectrum of states&lt;/strong&gt;, so this raises new types of questions, such as&#xA;  ‘what if you’re stuck in the wrong state?” said Markram.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read that the project is criticized due to it's complexity, seems like they are working from the bottom up, which makes me ask:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there projects out there that attempt to model the brain from the higher levels of abstraction (discrete states and their triggers) down to more detail?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To use a computer analogy - instead of writing very low level binary code, I can take a high level programming library and work with that. Is there research in this direction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This image is an example of a state machine - a system is modelled in terms of discrete states and their interactions. The author does not concern themselves with interaction of individual neurons, instead with higher level states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hR3qy.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hR3qy.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2015-10-28T16:39:29.480" LastActivityDate="2020-07-06T17:15:14.707" Title="Can a brain be modeled as a simplified interaction of different states and their triggers?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12350" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12311" CreationDate="2015-10-09T19:48:03.543" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hope the few sources below answer your question. &lt;strong&gt;I strongly recommend you read actual sources as opposed to the parts I have quoted.&lt;/strong&gt; I don't know much about this topic so I did not attempt to translate anything in laymen terms, since I might have distorted or misinterpreted information in the process. However, the three sources below are one of the best-known studies on the genetic basis of ADHD. I have quoted the two sources in direct response to your question about the proposed role of dopamine and serotonin transporter genes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Percentage due to variation attributed to heritability&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Twin, family and adoption studies have suggested that there is a strong genetic contribution to ADHD, with a mean heritability estimate of 76 % However, it has been difficult to implicate any specific gene in ADHD beyond reasonable doubt. The difficulties encountered in identifying genetic variants increasing the risk for ADHD could be at least in part owing to the heterogeneity and complexity of this clinical syndrome.Consequently, it has been proposed that the use of intermediate phenotypes (or endophenotypes) relevant to ADHD are likely to be more informative than the DSM-IV1 diagnoses, allowing for increased detection of genetic effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Genome-wide linkage scans&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To date, seven genome-wide ADHD linkage scans have been published and&#xA;  some chromosome regions such as 5p13, 14q12, and 17p11 have been&#xA;  indicated in multiple studies [Fisher et al., 2002; Bakker et al.,&#xA;  2003; Arcos-Burgos et al., 2004; Hebebrand et al., 2006; Ogdie et al.,&#xA;  2006; Faraone et al., 2007; Asherson et al., 2008; Romanos et al.,&#xA;  2008]. However, no chromosome region has been consistently identified&#xA;  across the scans and the majority of the findings were unique to each&#xA;  study. This is not unexpected because the power of individual scans is&#xA;  likely to be low for a complex trait such as ADHD which may only have&#xA;  genes of small to moderate effects [Risch and Merikangas, 1996;&#xA;  Waldman and Gizer, 2006].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dopamine transporter (DAT1)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The DA transporter (DAT1) gene harbours a 40-bp repeat sequence&#xA;  variable number tandem repeat polymorphism located in the&#xA;  3′-untranslated region. The most common alleles are the 10- (480-bp,&#xA;  71.9%) and 9-repeat (440-bp, 23.4%) alleles, although these frequencies are variable from one population to the next.&#xA;  Homozygosity for the 10-repeat allele was reported to be associated&#xA;  with higher DA transporter protein in the striatum, a region&#xA;  where it is heavily expressed56 and where it serves as the primary&#xA;  means of DA reuptake. Several studies have suggested a relation&#xA;  between ADHD and the DAT1 variable number tandem repeat, the 10-repeat&#xA;  allele being the risk allele; however, a roughly equal number of&#xA;  studies have failed to detect such a relation. In a review by Faraone&#xA;  and colleagues, the pooled OR associated with the 10-repeat allele in&#xA;  family-based association studies was estimated to be 1.13 (95% CI&#xA;  1.03–1.24).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Loo and colleagues40 reported that children carrying 2 copies of the&#xA;  10-repeat allele exhibit higher commission errors, impulsive responses&#xA;  (β score) and reaction time variability compared with carriers of the&#xA;  9-repeat allele. Bellgrove and colleagues, who used a CPT–like task&#xA;  (the sustained attention to response task), found higher reaction time&#xA;  variability in children who were homozygous for the 10-repeat allele.&#xA;  However, in this study, the 2 groups did not differ in omission and&#xA;  commission errors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Trypotphan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The TPH2 gene encodes the rate-limiting enzyme in the synthesis of&#xA;  serotonin in humans and was shown to be associated with completed&#xA;  suicide and major depression. Four studies have shown an&#xA;  association between multiple SNPs in this gene and ADHD.&#xA;  Recently, a significant association was observed between total errors&#xA;  of omission in the test of variables of attention and 2 SNPs&#xA;  (rs1386488, rs6582072). Similarly, a significant association was&#xA;  observed between rs1386488 and another SNP (rs1386497) and total&#xA;  reaction time scores as well as total reaction time variability&#xA;  scores. These intronic SNPs are part of 8 markers found to have strong&#xA;  linkage disequilibrium with each other and that compose a single&#xA;  haplotype block associated with ADHD in the tested sample. A second&#xA;  study tested IQ level and 4 SNPs previously reported to be associated&#xA;  with ADHD, but analyses were negative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2647566/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Candidate genes and neuropsychological phenotypes in children with ADHD: review of association studies.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Oussama Kebir, Karim Tabbane, Sarojini Sengupta, Ridha Joober &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;J Psychiatry Neurosci.&lt;/em&gt; March 2009; 34(2): 88–101.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2847260/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Molecular Genetics of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Stephen V. Faraone, Eric Mick &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Psychiatr Clin North Am.&lt;/em&gt; 2010 March; 33(1): 159–180.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2890047/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Meta-Analysis of Genome-Wide Linkage Scans of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Karin Zhou et. al. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet.&lt;/em&gt; 5th December 2008; 147B(8): 1392–1398.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastActivityDate="2015-10-09T19:48:03.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12352" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-09T23:25:46.930" Score="1" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;A quick background on me. I am a mid level software engineer at a mid sized and growing software company (200+ engineers)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to help our company's development department by encouraging the idea of craftsmanship and pride amongst the other engineers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My plan to do this is through behavior manipulation by applying a new external attribution. I am currently writing a paper on this for my company but I can only find negative examples of external attribution. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, is there any research that anyone can point me toward that validates changing behavior through external attribution. (I've already gone through the stanford experiment) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8793" LastActivityDate="2015-10-09T23:25:46.930" Title="Manipulating behavior with External Attribution" Tags="&lt;attribution&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-10-23T19:25:46.663" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12353" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12349" CreationDate="2015-10-10T04:38:10.920" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;My answer is probably a weird hodgepodge of sometimes poorly explained stuff, but hopefully it's coherent enough :P&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For many decades in psychology, we've had a mechanistic stimulus-organism-response understanding of the brain.  That is, a stimulus triggers an internal psychological process, which produces some behavioral response.  One of the major limitations of this kind of thinking is that it assumes that the mind is at rest until it's stimulated by something in the environment (even if we add a recursive component to it). However, this is fundamentally untrue. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, the brain is a predictive organ (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://users.monash.edu/~naotsugt/Tsuchiya_Labs_Homepage/Bryan_Paton_files/Commentary%20.pdf&quot;&gt;Clark, 2013&lt;/a&gt;). It's loaded with prior knowledge about past experiences, which is constantly used to predict incoming sensory information. If there is a discrepancy between incoming information and past experience (i.e., prediction error), then our knowledge is updated. This is most clearly seen in the literature on vision, which shows how top-down expectations and prior knowledge robustly bias early visual activity, even in the absence of a visual stimulus (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v15/n11/full/nrn3838.html&quot;&gt;Summerfield &amp;amp; de Lange, 2014&lt;/a&gt;). The trigger-state model could not easily account for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, dividing up the brain into mental states may not actually represent how the brain functions.  The brain isn't really faithful to the kinds of distinctions we make between cognition and emotion, for example (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://pps.sagepub.com/content/4/4/326.short&quot;&gt;Barrett, 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v9/n2/abs/nrn2317.html&quot;&gt;Pessoa, 2008&lt;/a&gt;).  And not only that, those higher order states like anxiety and sexual arousal can be represented in the brain in many different ways. Indeed, there is no dedicated mechanism in the brain or body for producing states like anxiety or creative inspiration (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004066&quot;&gt;Wager et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;).  They're merely concepts for organizing and communicating our experience.  And even then, our brain may not really &quot;have&quot; concepts (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&amp;amp;user=F5RjqvQAAAAJ&amp;amp;view_op=list_works&amp;amp;sortby=pubdate&quot;&gt;Laurence Barsalou's&lt;/a&gt; work; but see also &lt;a href=&quot;http://peterblouw.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/blouw_cogsci.pdf&quot;&gt;Blouw, Solodkin, Thagard, &amp;amp; Eliasmith, 2015&lt;/a&gt;), although it may have a conceptual system that allows us to conceptualize (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychology.emory.edu/cognition/barsalou/papers/Barsalou_TICS_2005_continuity_across_species.pdf&quot;&gt;Barsalou, 2005&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I guess what I'm getting at is that brain function is nonlinear, spatiotemporally dynamic, and doesn't adhere to folk psychological categories. Thus, it would probably be difficult to understand the brain by attempting to reduce linear trigger-state relationships to the level of networks, regions, and cells. However, maybe (probably) someone has a better informed, more balanced answer than me! :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-10-10T05:10:39.470" LastActivityDate="2015-10-10T05:10:39.470" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12354" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10563" CreationDate="2015-10-10T17:41:08.333" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; A recent study suggests that, if you rigorously restrict the sample to normal vision participants, &lt;strong&gt;women do not outperform men in color discrimination&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @what has pointed out with the link to Google Scholar, there are a number of studies that have investigated sex differences with regard to color vision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if one accounts for the fact that there are &lt;strong&gt;more men who have a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_blindness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;deficiency in color vision&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (because they have only one X chromosome which is involved in color vision), the differences appear to be small and may even contradict the stereotype.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found one study (Rodríguez-Carmona, Sharpe, Harlow, &amp;amp; Barbur, 2008) that seems particularly close to your specific question. Citing from the abstract (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Generally women are believed to be more discriminating than men in the use of color names and this is often taken to imply superior color vision. However, if both X-chromosome linked color deficient males (8%) and females (&amp;lt;1%) as well as heterozygote female carriers (15%) are excluded from comparisons, then differences between men and women in red-green (RG) color discrimination have been reported as not being significant (e.g., Pickford, 1944; Hood et al., 2006). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Study Goal,  Method, and Sample&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We re-examined this question by assessing the performance of 150 males and 150 females on the color assessment and diagnosis (CAD) test (Rodriguez-Carmona et al., 2005). This is a sensitive test that yields small color detection thresholds. The test employs direction-specific, moving, chromatic stimuli embedded in a background of random, dynamic, luminance contrast noise. A four-alternative, forced-choice procedure is employed to measure the subject's thresholds for detection of color signals in 16 directions in color space, while ensuring that the subject cannot make use of any residual luminance contrast signals. In addition, we measured the Rayleigh anomaloscope matches in a subgroup of 111 males and 114 females. &#xA;  All the age-matched males (30.8 ± 9.7) and females (26.7 ± 8.8) had normal color vision as diagnosed by a battery of conventional color vision tests. Females with known color deficient relatives were excluded from the study. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Results&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Comparisons between the male and female groups revealed no significant differences in anomaloscope midpoints (p = 0.709), but a significant difference in matching ranges (p = 0.040); females on average tended to have a larger mean range (4.11) than males (3.75). Females also had significantly higher CAD thresholds than males along the RG (p = 0.0004), but not along the yellow-blue (YB) discrimination axis. The differences between males and females in RG discrimination may be related to the heterozygosity in X-linked cone photo pigment expression common among females.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What does this mean?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Citing from the conclusion of the paper&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Chromatic sensitivity was measured in a large population of normal trichromat males and females (...). On average, females were revealed to have significantly higher RG chromatic thresholds compared with men on &#xA;  the CAD test and larger red-green matching ranges on the Nagel anomaloscope. A correction was applied to exclude the possible effect of female heterozygotes that were undetected by our screening procedures upon our gender comparisons. &lt;strong&gt;On the basis of our results, we can confidently conclude that women do not have superior red-green colour discrimination than men. However, the possibility arises that they may on average have poorer discrimination.&lt;/strong&gt; Genetic and physiological explanations related to a sexual dimorphism in X-linked cone photopigment expression are offered as to why this may be the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rodríguez-Carmona, M., Sharpe, L. t., Harlow, J. a., &amp;amp; Barbur, J. l. (2008). Sex-related differences in chromatic sensitivity. Visual Neuroscience, 25, 433–440. doi:10.1017/S095252380808019X&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-11T01:25:52.283" LastActivityDate="2015-10-11T01:25:52.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12355" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12356" CreationDate="2015-10-10T17:47:49.200" Score="4" ViewCount="157" Body="&lt;p&gt;Appraisal is how an individual interprets a stressful event or a problem. For recurring problems, I understand that there are neuroanatomical structures that play a role in the appraisal of recurrent problems, problems of a certain type that are encountered frequently. For example, the hippocampus is important in the development of episodic memories, and the amygdala plays a role in fear processing. If we exclude individuals with significant lesions to these areas, we have a population of individuals with these same neuroanatomical structures. However, you can find that some individuals have different appraisals of problems. While these structures are biological intermediaries to cognition, the results are different. How, and why? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, this can have implications in sports. Two players of a professional basketball team could both be the most skilled players on their respective teams with a terrible supporting cast of teammates. One player who views this lack of talent as a challenge could take it upon himself to galvanize his teammates and &quot;carry his team on his back&quot;, leading to a successful team performance. However, the other player could view his lack of surrounding talent as a detriment, a crutch, and let frustration contribute to his anxiety, leading to a team's downfall. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, appraisal could lead to nonchalant perspectives of certain problems, which leads to stress reduction in some scenarios. Back to the sports analogies. In sports, it is said that an optimal trait of a quality defender is &quot;short term memory&quot; in the sense that if opponents have scored on them, the defender does not let this event contribute to future encounters defending opponents. That is, the defender does not think to him/herself, &quot;I got scored on last time, oh no&quot;, which leads to a compounding lack of confidence and eventually, performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A natural psychological explanation could be upbringing or priming, but I can find individuals who grew in stressful environments who can handle stress well, and can't handle stress well. Moreover, I can find individuals who grew in environments where stress was not a significant factor, and again, you can find people who handle stress well and those who don't handle stress well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9408" LastActivityDate="2015-10-11T04:21:59.803" Title="How do some humans seemingly naturally have positive or mitigated appraisal of stressful events?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12356" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12355" CreationDate="2015-10-11T04:21:59.803" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The interactions among several factors probably account for variability in reactivity to stressful events, including genetics, epigenetics, early life experience, and culture (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psyneuen-journal.com/article/S0306-4530(09)00114-0/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alexander et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=303780&amp;amp;fileId=S0954579405050145&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boyce &amp;amp; Ellis, 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08106.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Francis, Frances, Liu, &amp;amp; Meaney, 2006&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/psychosomaticmedicine/Abstract/2007/10000/Serotonin_Transporter_Gene_Polymorphism__5_HTTLPR_.9.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gunthert et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.1161&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meaney, 2001&lt;/a&gt;).  And individual differences are observable at multiple levels of analysis, including behavior, physiology, and brain structure and function.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the one hand, there is a huge literature on the development of emotion regulation in children (e.g., positive appraisal of stressful events).  For example, there are models charting the complex influence of the family on emotion regulation development, where parenting practices interact with child characteristics to influence emotion regulation success and strategy use (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Morris et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FHewI.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FHewI.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Positive (re)appraisal requires good cognitive control and working memory (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092656611001437&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McRae et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;), which is associated with functional and structural integrity of cortical areas, most notably prefrontal cortex (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2008.00055.x/abstract?userIsAuthenticated=false&amp;amp;deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goldsmith, Pollack, &amp;amp; Davidson, 2008&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452204006104&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Levesque et al., 2004&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00680.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lewis &amp;amp; Stieben, 2004&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/1/11.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McRae et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;).  And the ability of PFC to dampen negative affect seems to be mediated by functional connectivity with subcortical areas, notably bilateral amygdala (&lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/2/4/303.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Banks et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/11/2981.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Buhle et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627308007538&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wager et al., 2008&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RTgHb.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RTgHb.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Positive reappraisal also benefits from practice, which forms part of the basis of cognitive-behavioral therapy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=J_iAUcHc60cC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PR1&amp;amp;dq=j+beck+cbt&amp;amp;ots=0C2VU5WRwx&amp;amp;sig=VtKgPU72-O8z-NkEYFYeNzf6OP8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beck, 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/ccp/80/6/1034/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goldin et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleID=1727438&amp;amp;utm_source=dlvr.it&amp;amp;utm_medium=twitter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goldin et al., 2013&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, there is emerging evidence that genes (and gene-environment interactions) are related to emotion regulation strategy use and effectiveness (e.g., &lt;em&gt;5-HTT&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;OXTR&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v10/n9/abs/nn1964.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Canli &amp;amp; Lesch, 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661306000568&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hariri &amp;amp; Holmes, 2006&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://spp.sagepub.com/content/2/6/665.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kim et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt;).  So genetic factors may promote resilience even in stressful environments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So as you can see, there is a large host of factors that contribute to one's tendency to appraise (negatively or positively) a stressful situation. And indeed, you may see large within-person variability in the tendency to make positive appraisals, especially as the context changes (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005796712000733&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aldao &amp;amp; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012&lt;/a&gt;). Not to mention, positive appraisal may not always be a beneficial way to mitigate stress, and may instead sometimes be harmful or ineffective (&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/24/12/2505.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Troy, Shallcross, &amp;amp; Mauss, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-10-11T04:21:59.803" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12357" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-11T11:40:25.310" Score="2" ViewCount="1161" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you google for 'mental age calculator', you can find several tests that claim being able to assess your &lt;strong&gt;mental age&lt;/strong&gt;, as opposed to your chronological age. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is 'mental age' a valid scientific concept?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Do online mental age tests have any scientific validity?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9521" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-11T18:17:31.387" LastActivityDate="2015-10-12T03:49:19.423" Title="Do online mental age tests have any scientific validity?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12358" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12380" CreationDate="2015-10-11T13:37:25.300" Score="5" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;Acetylcholine plays an important role during REM Sleep. I cite an &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/12257/370&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; to the question &quot;Why do dreams lose clarity quickly over time after we awaken?&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Activity in the PFC during sleep may be modulated by levels of acetylcholine, dopamine, and other neurotransmitters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See references and links there. Nicotine also binds to ACh receptors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there studies on the effect of nicotine patches worn while sleeping on dream vividness and dream recall? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-10-26T16:40:55.887" Title="Are there studies on the effect of nicotine patches on dream vividness and dream recall?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12359" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="328" CreationDate="2015-10-11T17:45:44.467" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've done a few experiments during lucid dreams, and i have found 2 different kinds of dream characters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) (The Automata)&#xA;These guys are basically programs. They are there only to further the plot of the dream. If you make any attempt to break them out of the plot they've been put into, they will stop giving sensical answers. They are not conscious. They only know how to answer a few questions and do a few things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) (The &quot;People&quot;)&#xA;These are, as far as i can tell, conscious. They act and behave like people, and can do things completely unrelated to the original plot of the dream. They exhibit creativity, since i have heard genuinely funny jokes from them that i never thought of before and that other people find funny. They exhibit a sense of agency, in the since that i am never able to truly &quot;erase&quot; them. Whatever's left after an attempt to erase them will quickly reestablish itself. They have memories independent to my own, ones that i confirm are real after reading older entries in my dream journal. They also exhibit free will, in the since that they are able to say things that are completely at odds to my expectations. I have only seen very few of them, but the ones that i do see will recur in my dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in my opinion, based on the experiments i've done, there are definitely some dream characters that exhibit consciousness. How this happens, i believe that they are incredibly detailed replicas of the same processes that makes our consciousness. But then how are they separate? How do they have independent thoughts and memories? I think that their thoughts and memories form part of the subconscious, in the sense that they escape our conscious awareness. However, cognitive science is still in its infancy, and we are trying to explore the one most complicated piece of software known to man that's running on a piece of hardware that we still don't fully understand. In the end, time will tell what the right answer is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9524" LastActivityDate="2015-10-11T17:45:44.467" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12360" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-11T20:49:12.347" Score="3" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recognition is the ability to retrieve information given a set of stimulus, be it a cue, a hint, a reference to a term then asking one to elaborate. Recall is the ability to produce content without such stimulus. Assume one is taking a critical thinking examination, where there is a discrete list of prerequisite content recommended for success on an examination. However, the examination is not a fill in the blank of this definition with 4 answer choices examination. The examination is of the format where one would read a passage. The passage's content is arbitrary and transcends the discrete list of prerequisite content. That is, it is related to the prerequisite content, but it is more complex and cannot be studied for. To achieve a high score, a test taker must apply relevant prerequisite knowledge to the passage's details and answer scenario questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the test taker at a disadvantage if the test taker is very fluent in the content, but only from a recognition perspective as opposed to a recall perspective? That is, the test taker cannot spontaneously lecture or write a chapter on the content, but given a cue, can retrieve information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an example. Pretend there is a neuroscience test. The requisite knowledge the professor assigns include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Know the physiology of action potentials&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Know common neurotransmitters and roles&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Know neuroanatomy&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Know common psychological disorders such as schizophrenia, ADHD, and symptoms/treatments&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A student reads upon these chapters, understands the content well, but cannot simply draw up a chart and list 20 neurotransmitters, with their common effectors, ec. Nor can the student spontaneously reference literature on schizophrenia and genetics for 30 minutes, despite spending hours reading such literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then the student walks into an examination, and the first passage is about a drug that the student has never heard (again, this is a critical thinking examination) of and its mechanism of action in dopamine receptors. The student is asked scenario questions about how this drug would affect schizophrenics. Given the cues &quot;dopamine&quot; and &quot;schizophrenia&quot;, can a student realistically succeed on a test assuming normal reading comprehension if he can only remember pertinent information about &quot;dopamine&quot; and &quot;schizophrenia&quot; when triggered by a test taking atmosphere, a passage, reading those words, etc.? Or is innate recall outside of these cues more likely to end up in academic success on this test?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9408" LastActivityDate="2015-10-11T20:49:12.347" Title="For comprehension and critical thinking examinations, is recognition sufficient, or is recall more imperative for success?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12361" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-11T20:58:53.997" Score="4" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that the treatment of ADHD symptoms with stimulant medication is a balancing act between alleviating ADHD symptoms, and not producing unwanted side effects like insomnia or anxiety. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding also is that the drugs effect different people differently, and so finding the right dose of the right specific drug is an exercise of 'finding what works'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is - how should a medical practitioner determine when and by how much to change a patient's medication schedule? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastActivityDate="2018-06-03T13:17:26.783" Title="How should medication for the treatment of ADHD symptoms be calibrated?" Tags="&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12362" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12357" CreationDate="2015-10-11T21:53:23.353" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;No, these tests shouldn't be taken seriously.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;scientific term 'mental age'&lt;/strong&gt; has a different meaning than the one implied by those tests. In its scientific sense, it's a &lt;strong&gt;historic concept&lt;/strong&gt; dating back to the early days of IQ testing. It was &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_age&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defined&lt;/a&gt; by Binet, the inventor of the IQ test, &lt;strong&gt;as a means to compare the intelligence of children&lt;/strong&gt;. The mental age corresponded to the age group which had, on average, the same test value as the child that was assessed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Historically, the ratio of mental and chronological age formed the basis of the IQ score. However, today, the IQ scores is determined by assessing the norm of test results within age groups (see this &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/10297/is-the-average-iq-still-100&quot;&gt;earlier answer&lt;/a&gt;) and the concept of 'mental age' has lost its relevance. In addition, the definition makes clear that comparing the 'mental age' of adults does not make much sense, because at some point, the test scores are not so much related to chronological age anymore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;online 'mental age tests'&lt;/strong&gt; do not try to measure IQ (for the validity of online IQ tests see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9504/why-might-a-person-get-widely-varying-scores-on-different-online-iq-tests&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; earlier question). Instead they ask trivia and attitude questions that are supposed to reflect your age more in a cultural sense. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;None of the ones I looked at reported any scientific backing. However several noted they were &lt;strong&gt;for entertainment, only&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-10-12T03:49:19.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12364" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-12T20:42:22.760" Score="4" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;It appears as if there are communicating arteries between the right and left hemispheres of the brain, but it is difficult to grasp the larger picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To what extent is the blood supply to each hemisphere independent from one another?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9534" LastEditorUserId="5041" LastEditDate="2015-10-13T00:12:39.653" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T00:12:39.653" Title="How separate are the left and right hemisphere vasculature?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12366" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-10-13T00:35:09.727" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, masculinity and femininity. Depending on the context, these characteristics may include biological sex (i.e. the state of being male, female or intersex), sex-based social structures (including gender roles and other social roles), or gender identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-13T17:33:02.360" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T17:33:02.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12367" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-10-13T00:35:09.727" Score="0" Body="For questions relating to biological and social characterizations of gender and attributable differences in behavior and psychological processes based on these constructs." OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-13T20:37:14.020" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T20:37:14.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12368" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-10-13T00:44:40.397" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Correlation refers to any of a broad class of statistical relationships involving two random variables or sets of data. A correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply that there exists a causal relationship amongst the two. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-13T04:40:26.167" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T04:40:26.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12369" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-10-13T00:44:40.397" Score="0" Body="For questions relating to correlational studies involving the exploration of statistical relationships." OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-10-15T00:21:54.357" LastActivityDate="2015-10-15T00:21:54.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12370" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-10-13T06:56:19.337" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within the other person's frame of reference. (i.e. the capacity to place oneself in another's position.) &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empathy has different definitions that encompass a broad range of emotional states, including caring for other people and having a desire to help them; experiencing emotions that match another person's emotions; discerning what another person is thinking or feeling; and making less distinct the differences between the self and the other and the ability to feel; and share another person’s emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-14T05:06:08.633" LastActivityDate="2015-10-14T05:06:08.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12371" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-10-13T06:56:19.337" Score="0" Body="For questions relating to affect and its relation to cognition and behavior, the neurological basis of empathy, atypical empathetic responses due to psychopathology, and the role of empathy in psychotherapy and organizational settings." OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-10-15T00:23:33.543" LastActivityDate="2015-10-15T00:23:33.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12372" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-10-13T07:00:50.837" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;An optical illusion (also called a visual illusion) is characterized by visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a perception that does not tally with a physical measurement of the stimulus source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-14T05:07:03.660" LastActivityDate="2015-10-14T05:07:03.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12373" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-10-13T07:00:50.837" Score="0" Body="For questions relating to optical illusions, how our perceptual and cognitive mechanisms give rise to them, the neurological basis of perceiving optical illusions and general queries relating to optical illusion research." OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-14T05:06:19.980" LastActivityDate="2015-10-14T05:06:19.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12374" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-10-13T07:04:57.730" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development and cognitive psychology compared to an adult's point of view. In other words, cognitive development is the emergence of the ability to think and understand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-15T00:22:02.083" LastActivityDate="2015-10-15T00:22:02.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12375" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-10-13T07:04:57.730" Score="0" Body="For questions relating to cognitive development; the study of acquiring information processing abilities, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language, and other aspects of brain development and cognitive psychology that develop during the course of a lifespan." OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-14T05:05:37.277" LastActivityDate="2015-10-14T05:05:37.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12376" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2015-10-13T07:09:56.537" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Social cognition is the encoding, storage, retrieval, and processing, of information about social contexts. In social psychology, social cognition refers to a specific approach in which these processes are studied according to the methods of cognitive psychology and information processing theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-14T05:05:20.140" LastActivityDate="2015-10-14T05:05:20.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12377" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2015-10-13T07:09:56.537" Score="0" Body="For questions relating to the study of social cognition; the encoding, storage, retrieval, and processing, of information relating to social situations; the neurological basis of social cognition and the disruption of social cognitive processes due to mental disorders." OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-16T21:43:33.533" LastActivityDate="2015-10-16T21:43:33.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12378" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12349" CreationDate="2015-10-13T11:32:39.770" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I agree with the previous answer/comments that seeking a simplified abstract model of the brain when it is so complex is probably asking too much. We would need to know a lot more about the &quot;states&quot; you are talking about in order to model them, and in reality the set of &quot;triggers&quot; etc is going to be far too long.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, given your interest and analogy from computing, you may be interested in reading about cognitive modelling architectures, which try to model some tasks/behaviours/processes at an abstract but tractable level. One of the most well known is &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/about/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ACT-R&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9538" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T11:32:39.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12379" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10358" CreationDate="2015-10-13T11:58:10.800" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, evidence suggests that we are attracted to &lt;em&gt;contrast&lt;/em&gt; rather than &lt;em&gt;brightness&lt;/em&gt; (luminance). For example, the onset of a bright light on a dark background is often used as an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention#Exogenous_and_endogenous_orienting&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;exogenous&lt;/em&gt; cue for visual attention&lt;/a&gt;, but a dark cue on a bright background works just as well. So, signs generally aim to be high contrast against their background. Contrast shows where things change, and hence it is picked up by the visual system for determining edges and objects of importance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more specific answer to your question is provided by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13506280902916691&quot;&gt;Vincent et al., 2008&lt;/a&gt;. This paper, &quot;Do we look at lights?...&quot; includes discussion of the debate about whether &lt;em&gt;visual saliency&lt;/em&gt; attracts attention and eye movements. The short answer is that, while saliency does correlate with where we look, on average and in specific circumstances, it depends a lot on our current task demands and the context. You won't look up at the sun if you are looking for your friend in a crowd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9538" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T11:58:10.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12380" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12358" CreationDate="2015-10-13T12:18:52.637" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's the only one that's easy to find in google scholar, but there might be more:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Page, F., Coleman, G., &amp;amp; Conduit, R. (2006). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938406001697&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The effect of transdermal nicotine patches on sleep and dreams&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Physiology &amp;amp; Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;88&lt;/em&gt;(4), 425-432.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9178" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2015-10-26T16:40:55.887" LastActivityDate="2015-10-26T16:40:55.887" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12381" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12308" CreationDate="2015-10-13T13:37:25.817" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I agree with much of AliceD's well-cited answer, but here are a few extras.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;What part of the brain is actively controlling saccadic movement?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not clear how you would choose just one area of the brain, given that a whole network of cortical and sub-cortical areas are involved, and what you mean by &quot;actively controlling&quot;. The superior colliculus is certainly a good candidate, but signals pass through the reticular formation of the brainstem to the eye muscles. In the cortex, the superior colliculus receives projections from the frontal eye fields and the parietal cortex, thought to involve guided attention. Munoz (2002, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ece.uvic.ca/~bctill/papers/mocap/Munoz_2002.pdf&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;) is a short review of this network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;If this part were to be removed, does saccadic movement cease to exist and cause the person to go blind from not being able to look&#xA;  around?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Additionally, is there a disorder which eliminates saccadic movement in some way?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It follows from the above that there are many lesions which would affect/remove saccades. As noted by AliceD, this does not mean the person will go blind. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v390/n6656/abs/390130a0.html&quot;&gt;One interesting case&lt;/a&gt; reported a patient with eye paralyis (due to fibrosis of the ocular muscles) who made &quot;head saccades&quot; in order to scan the world in a similar way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gilchrist, I. D., Brown, V., &amp;amp; Findlay, J. M. (1997). Saccades without eye movements. Nature, 390(6656), 130-131.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Munoz, D. P. (2002). Commentary: saccadic eye movements: overview of neural circuitry. Progress in brain research, 140, 89-96.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2015-10-13T13:37:25.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12383" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-14T18:06:16.410" Score="2" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;How reliable is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/2515150/National_Adult_Reading_Test_NART_test_manual_Part_1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;National Adult Reading Test&lt;/a&gt; in estimating premorbid IQ in schizophrenia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it compromised if the difference between current IQ and the NART is a standard deviation or more?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-10-16T02:39:02.710" LastActivityDate="2015-10-16T02:39:02.710" Title="The NART as a measure of premorbid IQ in serious mental illness" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12385" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-16T16:27:51.967" Score="15" ViewCount="6904" Body="&lt;p&gt;When  IBM's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watson_%28computer%29&quot;&gt;Watson&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.techrepublic.com/article/ibm-watson-the-inside-story-of-how-the-jeopardy-winning-supercomputer-was-born-and-what-it-wants-to-do-next/&quot;&gt;won on Jeopardy&lt;/a&gt; a few years ago, it did so using a room full of servers with a cooling system and a fat power feed, competing against a couple of humans powered by the equivalent of a tuna fish sandwich every several hours.  How much power does the human brain actually use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notes: If other assumptions are necessary, just state what you're answering for (e.g. healthy adults). If you know of differences between groups (e.g. people who are awake vs. asleep), please mention both.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References to scientific papers, especially reviews, are helpful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&amp;amp;arnumber=6797884&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt;, which might be the one discussed &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/185984-the-human-brains-remarkably-low-power-consumption-and-how-computers-might-mimic-its-efficiency&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, discusses power usage of individual neurons but not the whole brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8958" LastEditorUserId="8958" LastEditDate="2015-10-16T16:43:57.677" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T10:20:42.750" Title="How much power, in watts, does the brain use?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12386" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12385" CreationDate="2015-10-16T16:27:51.967" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;20 Watts.&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.facebook.com/ibmwatson/posts/175703352467370&quot;&gt;Watson mentioned this&lt;/a&gt; in 2011: &quot;The human brain only requires 20&#xA;watts of power to operate ... Watson? About 20,000 watts.&quot;  An &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/will-ibms-watson-usher-in-cognitive-computing/&quot;&gt;interview with John Kelly&lt;/a&gt; (an IBM senior vice president and director of IBM Research) also puts the brain at &quot;about 20 watts&quot; (but puts the machine at 85 kW; the inconsistency doesn't matter for this question).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2009-11/neuron-computer-chips-could-overcome-power-limitations-digital&quot;&gt;Popular Science&lt;/a&gt; also says 20 watts in an article explaining how simulating it in 2009 technology would take tens of megawatts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Glenn Elert's high school students cite a &lt;a href=&quot;http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/JacquelineLing.shtml&quot;&gt;collection of resources&lt;/a&gt; concluding 20W, as 20% of a 100W full-body power consumption.  That's the source cited on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_%28power%29&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The 20W figure is cited like common knowledge from &quot;several different sources&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://listosaur.com/science-a-technology/5-surprising-facts-about-the-human-brain/&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, but those sources aren't named.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8958" LastActivityDate="2015-10-16T16:27:51.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12390" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-17T14:11:49.397" Score="1" ViewCount="163" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general psychology, there are 3 types of thinking according to the way solving a problem: practical thinking, specifically visual thinking and theoretical thinking. Can you explain and give me some examples on these 3 types?&#xA;(I may have translated the terms not exactly)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9571" LastActivityDate="2015-10-17T14:11:49.397" Title="Types of thinking" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-10-20T22:37:43.913" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12391" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-17T20:24:39.497" Score="8" ViewCount="330" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is simple- whether our mental ability i.e. ability to acquire and store knowledge and comprehend and analyse the stored bits, an inherited trait (i.e. genetically transmitted from the parent to the offspring) or is it an acquired trait (depends on environmental, social factors)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. - Please attach the link of any reference/research (if any) with your answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9573" LastActivityDate="2016-09-16T05:57:45.787" Title="Is intelligence (or mental ability) genetically transferred (inherited characteristic) from the parent to the offspring or is it an acquired trait?" Tags="&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12392" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12172" CreationDate="2015-10-18T09:40:36.557" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am bipolar and I see my mental difference as one unit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing to remember is that the term &amp;quot;bipolar&amp;quot; is just a label for people that exhibit the mood symptoms that are observable. As most bipolar people know, there are a lot of other symptoms such as fatigue/excess energy, dizziness, confusion, short term memory issues, pain, numbness, migraines... And the fact that a lot of us experience these same symptoms leads me to believe that they are all related to a singular cause in some way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you think about people with MS, they all experience similar symptoms that many docs attribute to lesions in the brain and such. Since these can often be seen with an MRI, docs have now named the disease based on the cause not the symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, we can't see the chemicals moving around the brain or the synapses at work. So until we can, we only label the condition based on the two symptoms that cause the most disruption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As such, these mental differences have been treated for a long time using the spaghetti-to-wall technique. Throw meds at the patient to see which ones stick. And that's how it had to be since it wasn't until recently that they've been able to use better MRI imaging techniques and such to see more of the structure of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was how most &amp;quot;research&amp;quot; was done in the field. &amp;quot;We think this drug targets dopamine, so therefore if a patient responds to this drug then they must have a dopamine problem which means that bipolar in general must involve dopamine.&amp;quot; Not the most accurate way to do research, but it was the only way possible for a very long time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So with all this said, I believe that the symptoms originate from a singular cause. However, we are talking about the brain which is the most complex organ known to man so anything is possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-adults/index.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-adults/index.shtml&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, people with bipolar disorder are at higher risk for thyroid disease, migraine headaches, heart disease, diabetes, obesity, and other physical illnesses.12,13 These illnesses may cause symptoms of mania or depression, or they may be caused by some medications used to treat bipolar disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2011/08/04/doctor-is-my-mood-disorder-due-to-a-chemical-imbalance/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2011/08/04/doctor-is-my-mood-disorder-due-to-a-chemical-imbalance/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most we can say is that, in general, certain psychiatric illnesses probably involve abnormalities in specific brain chemicals; and that by using medications that affect these chemicals, we often find that patients are significantly improved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9577" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-10-27T00:52:00.150" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12393" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12407" CreationDate="2015-10-18T19:49:29.453" Score="4" ViewCount="611" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the ways one can use to measure the kind of adaptations done by the brain to provide colour constancy? Has this been done before?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9581" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-21T05:46:56.570" LastActivityDate="2015-10-21T05:46:56.570" Title="Quantifying chromatic adaptations made by the brain" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12395" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12470" CreationDate="2015-10-18T20:48:31.440" Score="9" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently encountered the domain of social network modelling while reading the papers on models of strategic voting (unpublished), &lt;a href=&quot;https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~klarson/papers/TsangAAMAS2014.pdf&quot;&gt;opinion dynamics&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.bris.ac.uk/~flach/ECMLPKDD2012papers/1125789.pdf&quot;&gt;influence spread&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these papers create complex computational models, usually modelling social networks as graphs and inferring that their behaviour match actual social behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I don't understand how these models can be empirically rigorous. It seems to me that the ways to validate a model is to match with empirical data, either via data matching or prediction. This doesn't seem to be done in any of those papers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consequently, how are these models validated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T19:00:30.237" Title="Empirical proof for social network models" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12396" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3529" CreationDate="2015-10-19T13:56:19.050" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an old question, but the following paper might be useful. The authors describe an algorithm of real-time prediction of saccadic landing point. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The algorithm they use is based on a compressed exponential function. Basically, you collect the position samples from an eye-tracker, check if the speed is more than some threshold (e.g., 20 deg/s), then mark this position as a saccade start. Then you continue to collect the samples and as soon as you get enough (at least three) you try to predict the position via non-linear curve fitting.  If the fit is good, you use it. If not, you just use the latest available position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Han, P., Saunders, D. R., Woods, R. L., &amp;amp; Luo, G. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1167%2F13.8.27&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Trajectory prediction of saccadic eye movements using a compressed exponential model.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of vision, 13(8), 27.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="448" LastEditorUserId="448" LastEditDate="2015-10-21T09:35:48.647" LastActivityDate="2015-10-21T09:35:48.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12398" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12263" CreationDate="2015-10-20T05:49:21.640" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most straight forward ways to quantify people's sex drive, and hence determine if there's any empirical /objective truth to this disparity, are to measure their self-reported interest in sex (usually by asking &quot;how much do you think about sex?&quot;) and also the behavior element (e.g. asking about pursuing sex). Though both of these rely on participants self report, the results are very clear: on average, men think about sex more frequently than women and pursue sex more actively than women. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a WebMD article that summarizes some of these findings and links to various sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.m.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/features/sex-drive-how-do-men-women-compare&quot;&gt;http://www.m.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/features/sex-drive-how-do-men-women-compare&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sex Drive: How Do Men and Women Compare?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Study after study shows that men's sex drives are not only stronger than women's, but much more straightforward. The sources of women's libidos, by contrast, are much harder to pin down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's common wisdom that women place more value on emotional connection as a spark of sexual desire. But women also appear to be heavily influenced by social and cultural factors as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Sexual desire in women is extremely sensitive to environment and context,&quot; says Edward O. Laumann, PhD. He is a professor of sociology at the University of Chicago and lead author of a major survey of sexual practices, The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Men think more about sex.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;The majority of adult men under 60 think about sex at least once a day, reports Laumann. Only about one-quarter of women say they think about it that frequently. As men and women age, each fantasize less, but men still fantasize about twice as often.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a survey of studies comparing male and female sex drives, Roy Baumeister, a social psychologist at Florida State University, found that men reported more spontaneous sexual arousal and had more frequent and varied fantasies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Men seek sex more avidly.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&quot;Men want sex more often than women at the start of a relationship, in the middle of it, and after many years of it,&quot; Baumeister concludes after reviewing several surveys of men and women. This isn't just true of heterosexuals, he says; gay men also have sex more often than lesbians at all stages of the relationship. Men also say they want more sex partners in their lifetime, and are more interested in casual sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Men are more likely to seek sex even when it's frowned upon or even outlawed:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About two-thirds say they masturbate, even though about half also say they feel guilty about it, Laumann says. By contrast, about 40% of women say they masturbate, and the frequency of masturbation is smaller among women.&#xA;Prostitution is still mostly a phenomenon of men seeking sex with women, rather than the other way around.&#xA;Nuns do a better job of fulfilling their vows of chastity than priests. Baumeister cites a survey of several hundred clergy in which 62% of priests admitted to sexual activity, compared to 49% of nuns. The men reported more partners on average than the women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7146" LastActivityDate="2015-10-20T05:49:21.640" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12400" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-20T07:28:07.457" Score="2" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given that mental training/workout releases acetylcholine (something I read in a popular-scientific book and on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_improvement#Psychopharmacology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wiki&lt;/a&gt;, see also below) , and that acetylcholine and nicotine bind to the same receptors. Is it possible to reduce the craving for nicotine by doing a brain-training task such as mathematics or memorising poetry?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2015-10-28T14:41:15.553" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T23:13:15.820" Title="Quit smoking supported by mental training" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;nicotine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12402" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1796" CreationDate="2015-10-20T16:24:46.427" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are planning on comparing the parameters, then you should apply the same model. However with only 80 observations per session per subjects you might need to use hierarchical bayesian framework, because sequential sampling models are pretty unstbale with so few observations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a nice paper on combing RT models with neural data using hierarchical bayesian framework:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newcl.org/publications/TurForWagBroSedSte13.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.newcl.org/publications/TurForWagBroSedSte13.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9444" LastActivityDate="2015-10-20T16:24:46.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12403" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12412" CreationDate="2015-10-20T18:45:56.517" Score="3" ViewCount="516" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider the maximal distance between two separated areas in the human brain. How fast can information via neuronal excitement travel between these two locations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-21T11:00:41.207" LastActivityDate="2015-10-21T17:42:18.233" Title="How long does it take for electrical impulses from neurons to travel in the human brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12404" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12409" CreationDate="2015-10-20T20:40:13.307" Score="4" ViewCount="1276" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently taking AP Psychology and we recently learned about sensory adaptation and selective attention. I was just wondering if there is any actual difference between the two? They seem pretty similar to me. Any clarification is appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9595" LastActivityDate="2019-03-18T09:55:41.800" Title="Selective Attention v. Sensory Adaptation" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12405" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-20T22:15:00.407" Score="2" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there models that attempt to chart how lay people develop psychological theories about themselves and their interactions with the world?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For what it's worth, every time I read a post about emotions (or something psychological) on places like reddit, I often see so much strange logic and conceptual confusion. Their lay theories are incoherent and skew so far from scientific data/theory.  So how exactly do naive humans go about developing these theories? Do they perform some sort of hypothesis testing? Bayesian inference? How do they derive (and update) theory from the data? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-10-20T22:15:00.407" Title="How do lay people develop psychological theories about themselves and the world?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12406" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-20T22:43:04.057" Score="3" ViewCount="1628" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose I have a box, inside of which is a light which can be either on or off: it has exactly two states.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Suppose I wanted to take some &quot;snapshot&quot; of the state of this device, and store all the information about it, so that if I at some point had another device with sufficiently identical hardware + environment and a way of writing all the state to that device, I could recreate the state of that box.  There are n=&lt;strong&gt;two&lt;/strong&gt; possible states (so it would require log2(n) = 1 bits to store the state).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now suppose my box is a brain.  &lt;strong&gt;To the nearest order of magnitude, how many possible states does the brain have?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming it's an adult human brain might make for the most useful answer to this question, but if you have more solid answers for brains of other animals while we wait on an answer for humans, feel free to post an answer stating that assumption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8958" LastActivityDate="2016-07-13T19:48:36.047" Title="How many possible states does a brain have?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12407" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12393" CreationDate="2015-10-20T23:47:56.470" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You have specifically asked about the &amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;adaptations done by the brain&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;quot; in your initial question and an interest in &amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;what has been done towards finding the formula and what it was replaced with for the time being?&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;quot; By formula, I'm assuming that you meant a perceptual algorithm that can be useful in machine learning and the attempt to reverse-engineer human's perceptual systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, there has been extensive work done on this. I cannot give you an extensive answer on this platform, but hopefully point you towards the right direction. I have mentioned two papers and their abstracts, the former is more accessible, and the later in case you want a sneak-peak of the mathematical methods involved in making a computational model of color constancy and chromatic adaptations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, if you're new to this or you want to simply refresh your memory - I have attached my ex-Professor's notes from a Perception class I took a few years ago to give a clearer idea. &lt;strong&gt;It might just be best to first read through those first, in which case you should skip the first two papers I have mentioned.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1609194/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sensory, computational and cognitive components of human colour constancy.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Smithson H. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biological Sciences. 2005; 360(1458): 1329-1346.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;When the illumination on a scene changes, so do the visual signals&#xA;elicited by that scene. In spite of these changes, the objects within&#xA;a scene tend to remain constant in their apparent colour. We start&#xA;this review by discussing the psychophysical procedures that have been&#xA;used to quantify colour constancy. &lt;strong&gt;The transformation imposed on the&#xA;visual signals by a change in illumination dictates what the visual&#xA;system must ‘undo’ to achieve constancy. The problem is mathematically&#xA;underdetermined, and can be solved only by exploiting regularities of&#xA;the visual world. The last decade has seen a substantial increase in&#xA;our knowledge of such regularities as technical advances have made it&#xA;possible to make empirical measurements of large numbers of&#xA;environmental scenes and illuminants.&lt;/strong&gt; This review provides a taxonomy&#xA;of models of human colour constancy based first on the assumptions&#xA;they make about how the inverse transformation might be simplified,&#xA;and second, on how the parameters of the inverse transformation might&#xA;be set by elements of a complex scene. Candidate algorithms for human&#xA;colour constancy are represented graphically and pictorially, and the&#xA;availability and utility of an accurate estimate of the illuminant is&#xA;discussed. Throughout this review, we consider both the information&#xA;that is, in principle, available and empirical assessments of what&#xA;information the visual system actually uses. In the final section we&#xA;discuss where in our visual systems these computations might be&#xA;implemented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.computer.org/csdl/trans/tp/2011/04/ttp2011040687-abs.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Color constancy using natural image statistics and scene semantics.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;A. Gijsenij and T.Gevers. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;IEEE PAMI&lt;/em&gt;, 33(4):687–698, 2011.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;To achieve selection and combining of color constancy algorithms, in&#xA;this paper natural image statistics are used to identify the most&#xA;important characteristics of color images. Then, based on these image&#xA;characteristics, the proper color constancy algorithm (or best&#xA;combination of algorithms) is selected for a specific image. To&#xA;capture the image characteristics, the Weibull parameterization (e.g.,&#xA;grain size and contrast) is used. It is shown that the Weibull&#xA;parameterization is related to the image attributes to which the used&#xA;color constancy methods are sensitive. An MoG-classifier is used to&#xA;learn the correlation and weighting between the Weibull-parameters and&#xA;the image attributes (number of edges, amount of texture, and SNR).&#xA;The output of the classifier is the selection of the best performing&#xA;color constancy method for a certain image. Experimental results show&#xA;a large improvement over state-of-the-art single algorithms. On a data&#xA;set consisting of more than 11,000 images, an increase in color&#xA;constancy performance up to 20 percent (median angular error) can be&#xA;obtained compared to the best-performing single algorithm. Further, it&#xA;is shown that for certain scene categories, one specific color&#xA;constancy algorithm can be used instead of the classifier considering&#xA;several algorithms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below are examples of a few experiments that can be played out from behind your computer screen:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.nyu.edu/winawer/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jonathon Winawer&lt;/a&gt;'s notes on Perception:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Color Constancy and Chromatic Adaption&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Take a photograph under fluorescent light, and compare it to the same picture under daylight. The colors come out totally differently - greenish under the fluorescent light and reddish under daylight - unless you do some &amp;quot;color correction&amp;quot; while developing the film.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RoqyV.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RoqyV.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Camera Color Constancy&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But  you wouldn't  see  it  that  way if  you were  in the  room.  To  you the  colors  would  look  pretty much the  same  under both  illuminants.  This  phenomenon  is  called  color  constancy,  analogous  to  brightness  constancy that  we  discussed earlier.  The  eye  does  not  act  like  a  camera,  simply recording  the  image.  Rather,  the  eye  adapts  to  compensate  for the  color  (SPD)  of  the  light  source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mLKoI.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mLKoI.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Daylight Illumination Examples&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Above  is  another  example  of  a  pair  of  photographs  taken under  different  lighting  conditions  without  color  correction. The  physical  characteristics  of  the  light  reaching  the  camera  is  very different  depending  on  the  color  of  the  illuminant. This  results  in  dramatically  different  photographs.  But  if  you  were  there  when  the  pictures  were  taken,  this  object would  look  pretty  much the  same  to  you under  both illuminants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ej6CA.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ej6CA.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Chromatic Adaptation&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Glance  at  the  penguin and  dragon pictures  above  by fixated  on the  dot  between them.  The  penguin picture  looks very  blueish  and  the  dragon looks  very yellowish.  Next,  you will  hold  your  gaze  on the  dot  between the  blue  and  yellow fields.  Continue  staring  at  that  dot  for  30  secs  or  so.  Then look  back  at  the  penguin and  dragon by fixating  the  dot between them.  What  do  you see?  Why? The  change  in percept  following  adaptation is  due  to  chromatic  adaptation.  Chromatic  adaptation is  like  light  and dark  adaptation  but  instead  of  adapting  just  to  light  and  dark,  it  adapts  to  whatever  the  color  is  of  the  ambient illumination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/X60nY.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/X60nY.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Neural Computation&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each cone  type  adapts  independently.  For  example,  a  given L  cone  adapts  according  to  local  average  L  cone excitation.  Likewise  for  the  M  cones.  Thus,  the  retinal  image  adjusts  to  compensate  not  only for  the  overall  intensity of  the  light  source,  but  also  to  compensate  for  the  color  of  the  light  source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jdmQi.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jdmQi.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Colour Adaptation Misperception&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chromatic  adaptation,  like  light  adaptation,  can  give  rise  to  dramatic  aftereffects.  For  example,  adapt  to  this  green, black,  and  yellow  flag  for  60  secs,  then look  at  a  white  field  and  you will  see  an afterimage  of  a  red,  white,  and  blue flag.  Red/green,  blue/yellow,  black/white  are  complementary colors.  Normally,  when  you look  at  a  white  field,  L  and  M cones  give  about  the  same  response  so  the  red/green opponnent  colors  mechanism  does  not  respond  at  all.  If  you adapt  to  green,  the  M  cone  sensitivity is  reduced.  Then,  when you look  at  a  white  field,  the  L:M  cones  are  out  of balance;  the  L  cones  are  now  more  sensitive  than the  M  cones  so  the  red/green mechanism  gives  a  positive response  and  you see  red  instead  of  white.  This  only lasts  for  a  couple  of  seconds  because  the  M  cone  sensitivity starts  to  readjust  right  away. The  visual  system  is  designed  to  try to  achieve  a  perceptual  constancy.  But,  as  with the  various  brightness  illusions  I showed  earlier,  color  adaptation  also  results  in  some  misperceptions.  The  colored  afterimage  is  an undesirable consequence  of  chromatic  adaptation coupled  with color  opponency.  Usually chromatic  adaptation does  the  right thing,  it  compensates  for  the  color  of  the  illuminant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-10-21T00:12:27.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12408" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12406" CreationDate="2015-10-21T01:11:06.280" Score="3" Body="&lt;h1&gt;2&lt;sup&gt; 2,752,000,000,000,000,000,000&lt;/sup&gt; states&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Disclaimer: This is obviously a very crude and imprecise estimation (in fact, it is ignoring some obvious parameters for the sake of simplicity). As Scott E. Page puts it: Even models that are far from accurate can teach us something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one considers the design of future artificial brain, you can make these rough assumptions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A 32 bit floating point representation should suffice to capture synapse elasticity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are about &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/suzana_herculano_houzel_what_is_so_special_about_the_human_brain/transcript?language=en#t-338065&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;86 billion neurons&lt;/a&gt; in the brain. The connectivity of which can be represented by a square matrix of size 86 * 10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt; (86 * 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; to the power of 2). Each connection is weighted, 32-bit float.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Resulting in 86 * 10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt; * 32 bits =&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2752000000000000000000 bits (2.75 sextillion).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These many bits result in these many states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2&lt;sup&gt; 2752000000000000000000&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/W87ac.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/W87ac.png&quot; alt=&quot;A screenshot of Wolfarm Alpa not able to show a whole number&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This obviously a very rough estimation - you don't account, for example, to membrane potential, although you can argue that discarding membrane potential while maintaining neural connectivity and synaptic strength should suffice to 'reignite' a frozen brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps more importantly, a network structure can be represented by a matrix, but more often is represented by a sparse matrix - no neuron is connected to all other neurons, I believe 1000 is the average and some sources state that there are about 1,000 trillion synaptic connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2016-07-13T19:48:36.047" LastActivityDate="2016-07-13T19:48:36.047" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12409" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12404" CreationDate="2015-10-21T01:18:53.257" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sensory adaptation is very low level and completely subconscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Selective attention is pretty much as high level you can get before hitting consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two mechanisms work on a polar ends of the stick. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2019-03-18T09:55:41.800" LastActivityDate="2019-03-18T09:55:41.800" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12410" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-21T10:15:45.767" Score="4" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am searching through internet for the asked question. I read different articles and blogs, some says its is good for physical health and keep your BMI low and some say it is good activity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But here my real concern is what a psychologist think about &lt;code&gt;Fidgeting&lt;/code&gt;. Please give reference if possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9599" LastActivityDate="2015-10-21T10:15:45.767" Title="Is Fidgeting good or not according to cognitive sciences?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;body-language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12411" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12403" CreationDate="2015-10-21T10:41:43.127" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Axons are responsible for conducting electrical impulses from the neurons's cell body. The longest axons in the human body are those found in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.britannica.com/science/sciatic-nerve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sciatic nerve&lt;/a&gt;. These axons run from the base of the spine to the big toe of each foot, and can extend up to a meter in length.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper attempts to get a measurement of the conduction velocity of the sciatic nerve:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC496174/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sciatic nerve motor conduction velocity study&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;C B Yap, T Harota &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;. 1967 June; 30(3): 233–239.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ba9LI.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ba9LI.png&quot; alt=&quot;Sciatic nerve motor conduction velocity study&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I don't think you should necessarily be equating conduction velocity with &lt;strong&gt;distance&lt;/strong&gt;. In actuality, &lt;strong&gt;conduction velocity is proportional to the diameter of an axon&lt;/strong&gt;. As a result, sciatic nerve neurons conduction velocity varies widely, from $0.2$ to $150$ $m /sec^{-1}$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding axons &lt;strong&gt;within the brain&lt;/strong&gt;, I'll be honest by saying that I don't know - you could wait for someone with knowledge about that to help answer your question. The nervous system is usually looked at as a whole. As far as the longest neurons in the brain are concerned, they are - as far as I have read - the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betz_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Betz Cells&lt;/a&gt; in the primary motor cortex. However, that shouldn't be too useful as we are interested in inter-neuronal travel of electric impulses (or too useful even otherwise), done primarily through axons / nerve fibers. Furthermore, since I have mentioned nerve fibers (myelinated axons), you should also pay attention to insulation of the axonal membrane via myelination. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10921/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Under- or over-myelination is also proportional to conduction velocity.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastActivityDate="2015-10-21T10:41:43.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12412" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12403" CreationDate="2015-10-21T17:42:18.233" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is hard to say because not as many studies measuring this in humans have been done as have been done in other primates, like macaque monkeys, and when it is done, it is usually done in patients who have some brain issue like epilepsy and have recording electrodes implanted for preparation for a procedure, and so may not have a typical response. Also it is hard to know how best to satisfy your requirement &quot;the maximal distance between two separated areas in the human brain&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, here's my attempt: &lt;strong&gt;about 25 to 30 ms.&lt;/strong&gt; I get this from two sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) a &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/106/2/473.abstract?ijkey=19563e48110b122c7eb9ec6c058afc2506da41c1&amp;amp;keytype2=tf_ipsecsha&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1983 paper&lt;/a&gt; using epileptic patients with microwire electrodes in their brain at various regions. I pick the data of measurements of the visual response arriving in the occipital lobe because--thinking simply--it is at the back of the head on the other side of the head from the eyes, and so the &quot;maximal distance&quot; is the entire front-to-back length of the brain (the pathway being retina -&gt; thalamus -&gt; V1 of visual cortex). From the paper (page 490, bottom):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Occipital Lobe Units: Using diffuse flash stimuli...the shortest&#xA;  latency of the 11 responsive occipital cortex cells was &lt;strong&gt;31 ms&lt;/strong&gt;; the&#xA;  mean latency was 63.6 ms (range, 31 to 110 ms, SD, 25.1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) A &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/29/23/7599.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2009 paper&lt;/a&gt;, also using epileptic patients which found, among other things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the evoked potential started ~20 ms earlier in V1 (&lt;strong&gt;25&#xA;  ms&lt;/strong&gt; after stimulus onset;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastActivityDate="2015-10-21T17:42:18.233" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12416" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12465" CreationDate="2015-10-22T18:26:38.290" Score="8" ViewCount="458" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes people seem to be very resistant to information that is in conflict with prior beliefs, even when this new information is very plausible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a patient might change a doctor, because he/she does not get the diagnosis he/she expected even if the diagnosis is correct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is the psychological term for this tendency?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-29T15:55:39.137" LastActivityDate="2021-03-10T10:07:46.723" Title="What is the psychological term for disregarding correct but unwanted information?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12417" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-22T20:09:41.353" Score="3" ViewCount="295" Body="&lt;p&gt;After having a conversation with a couple of the more popular &quot;consumer&quot; level EEG makers such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://getversus.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;Versus&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, I have found that their monitoring abilities are either limited or altogether absent.  The devices utility, while cool from a 3rd party controlled training standpoint, is neutered when it comes to just getting raw data and plotting it out in a manner that allows one to make their own interpretations and calls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to build my own device that can monitor from the very low &amp;lt; 0.5 hz all the way up to at least 200 hz.  My goal is to feed that into my own software in order to keep a running graph for analysis, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How would one go about building an EEG that has this level of sensitivity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9605" LastActivityDate="2016-01-01T06:06:15.923" Title="How to build a high sensitivity EEG headset for continual monitoring?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12419" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12433" CreationDate="2015-10-22T22:49:52.143" Score="9" ViewCount="2168" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure &quot;false justifications&quot; is the right term, but it's the closest I can think of. I'm referring to a situation in which a person has already made up his mind for reasons he won't publicly disclose, then tries to justify using specious excuses that don't hold up under scrutiny.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, let's suppose a new manager wants to fire an employee for reasons that would be illegal. Instead, he comes up with a laundry list of legal reasons (tardiness, improper dress, poor attitude, lack of productivity). Taken as a whole and unexamined, the list seems overwhelming and thus the dismissal justifiable. But if given the opportunity, the employee could refute each reason individually (has never actually been late, dresses the same as others in the office, is meeting all quotas and agreements, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, in political conversations a person's argument may be based on a conclusion driven by passions and beliefs, but not data. Then data is cherrypicked to prove the argument rather than forming an argument based on the data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for ways to describe this sort of pre-determination. Is there a language for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9617" LastActivityDate="2021-03-04T15:05:58.613" Title="Is there a specific term for false justifications?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12421" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12419" CreationDate="2015-10-23T08:25:52.660" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe (from wiki)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loophole&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Loopholes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A loophole is an ambiguity or inadequacy in a system, such as a law or security, which can be used to circumvent or otherwise avoid the intent, implied or explicitly stated, of the system. Loopholes are searched for and used strategically in a variety of circumstances, including taxes, elections, politics, the criminal justice system, or in breaches of security, or a response to one's civil liberties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: In 2005 Wal-Mart planned a store in Calvert County, Maryland. While a law in the county restricted the size of a retail store to 75,000 square feet (7,000 m2), Wal-Mart considered a plan that would dodge this restriction by building two separate smaller stores. Though Wal-Mart later withdrew this controversial plan, the plan highlighted a legal loophole.[2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rationalisation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology and logic, rationalization or rationalisation (also known as making excuses&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loophole&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;) is a defense mechanism in which controversial behaviors or feelings are justified and explained in a seemingly rational or logical manner to avoid the true explanation, and are made consciously tolerable – or even admirable and superior – by plausible means.[2] It is also an informal fallacy of reasoning.[3]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8868" LastEditorUserId="8868" LastEditDate="2015-10-24T03:59:09.440" LastActivityDate="2015-10-24T03:59:09.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12422" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-23T09:28:27.920" Score="3" ViewCount="1755" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there studies that demonstrate that gaming is more addictive than watching movies or tv shows?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.forbes.com/sites/christophercorrea/2013/04/11/why-video-games-are-addictive-and-bigger-than-movies-will-ever-be/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; that talks about dopamine and rewards. It makes sense, but are there similar studies? Any involving tv shows instead of movies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T19:11:55.457" Title="Is gaming more addictive than watching movies or tv shows?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12423" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-23T09:38:26.023" Score="4" ViewCount="869" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/adhd-anger-management-directory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ADHD are known to have difficulties in controlling anger&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whenever a person with ADHD has difficulties in controlling anger, how does one determine whether or not that person really has &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BPD&lt;/a&gt;? By which I mean to ask, how do we know that the anger is symptomatic of BPD rather than ADHD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="8982" LastEditDate="2015-11-07T09:00:32.420" LastActivityDate="2019-01-07T11:50:49.263" Title="How does one distinguish BPD anger from ADHD anger?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12425" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-23T12:31:12.060" Score="0" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a way of measuring/estimating the amount of controlled vs. automatic processes that takes place during a text editing task?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that asking participants to verbalise their actions and regard non-verbalised processes as automatic is a flawed approach. I came across the process-dissociation procedure, but this seems to refer to automatic/unconscious recollection after a learning task has taken place, and not automatic processes during the task itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any suggestions of references or ideas on how to go about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9621" LastActivityDate="2015-10-23T16:39:58.470" Title="How can automatic processing be estimated in an editing task?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;automaticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12425" CreationDate="2015-10-23T16:26:03.480" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What do you mean exactly with 'processes'? If you're thinking about actual movements made during editing (i.e. tiping), this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencemag.org/content/330/6004/683.abstract?related-urls=yes&amp;amp;legid=sci;330/6004/683&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;science paper&lt;/a&gt; might help. Very simply put, they showed skilled typist have two kinds of control processes, one conscious and one unconscious.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Science 29 October 2010: &#xA;Vol. 330 no. 6004 pp. 683-686 &#xA;DOI: 10.1126/science.1190483)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9178" LastEditorUserId="9178" LastEditDate="2015-10-23T16:39:58.470" LastActivityDate="2015-10-23T16:39:58.470" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12427" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12467" CreationDate="2015-10-23T17:18:05.313" Score="3" ViewCount="3864" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am thinking really deep about this topic with no answer. For example while learning &lt;code&gt;set theory&lt;/code&gt; first time you find it very difficult to get your head around concepts like &lt;code&gt;Union, Intersection etc&lt;/code&gt; but after some practice it becomes quite obvious, but as we go further there comes concepts like &lt;code&gt;Group theory, Abstract algebra etc&lt;/code&gt; which even after reading 100 times doesn't makes any sense. On the other side you see some people playing with those concepts very easily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone any idea on this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9622" LastActivityDate="2015-10-28T13:07:39.857" Title="What makes some things difficult or easy to understand?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12429" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-23T18:45:03.833" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hope this is a valid question for this forum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any learning disability related to a person being intelligent but having great difficulty expressing themselves especially on written exams or writing a homework piece multiples times still with errors despite having a solid understanding of the material?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've heard people say things like &quot;you must not really understand it if you didn't get it correctly&quot; or similar. I feel that is a reduction of a much bigger issue. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience, I am a mathematics major, and mathematics is a  field of study that takes some serious dedication. I spend a lot of time working on understanding the concepts. I'm a very dedicated student and I am close to finishing my undergrad. I understand the concepts quite well, I don't get stumped by a new idea very often. I can honestly say I understand the material I cover very well. However, I have difficulty often getting my ideas down on paper. When I have homework to do I end up writing the homework 5 or 6 times and there's still errors present--I don't rush through either, I spend a lot of time working on the problems. When it comes to an exam, it gets worse because now I have the pressure of a time constraint. It's incredibly frustrating knowing the concepts and seeing the connections, ideas and required methods to prove some mathematical statement and not being able to express it properly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9624" LastActivityDate="2015-10-24T21:35:20.890" Title="Intelligence and Poor Performance" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-10-27T12:34:20.773" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12430" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12436" CreationDate="2015-10-23T19:52:29.770" Score="1" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is obvious that single ant is a being but what if swarm of ants is another kind of being?&#xA;Do you have ideas how we could communicate with it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9625" LastActivityDate="2015-10-24T12:08:15.903" Title="What if swarm of ants is a metamind?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-10-27T12:33:59.670" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12431" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12791" CreationDate="2015-10-23T21:30:50.877" Score="5" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atropine&quot;&gt;Atropine&lt;/a&gt;, the main ingredient of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atropa_belladonna&quot;&gt;Belladona&lt;/a&gt;, is the stuff that makes you dump, by blocking the action of acetylcholine at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor&quot;&gt;muscarinic receptors&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would smoking or applying a nicotine patch, by introducing additional nicotine, which also binds to the acetylcholine receptors to some extend counterbalance the effect of atropine?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="370" LastEditDate="2015-10-26T05:33:47.680" LastActivityDate="2015-12-11T13:40:41.293" Title="Does smoking counterbalance the effect of Belladonna?" Tags="&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;nicotine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12432" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-23T22:28:31.080" Score="1" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for references where people were able to collect 128-256 channel EEG data during face perception task and the map it onto FFA or OFA using source localization algorithms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9444" LastActivityDate="2015-10-24T16:48:00.277" Title="Are there any studies that were able to localize Fusiform Face Area (FFA) for face processing using EEG source localization algorithms?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12433" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12419" CreationDate="2015-10-24T03:44:45.940" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the examples refer to a variety of possible terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In cognitive science, there is much interest in cases where justification is triggered unconsciously.  The general tendency to justify one's decisions - especially the bad ones - is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-justification&quot;&gt;self-justification&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-justification describes how, when a person encounters cognitive&#xA;  dissonance, or a situation in which a person's behavior is&#xA;  inconsistent with their beliefs, that person tends to justify the&#xA;  behavior and deny any negative feedback associated with the behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When someone makes a decision they know is bad, and uses rational-sounding excuses to obfuscate this, it is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;rationalization&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology and logic, rationalization or rationalisation (also&#xA;  known as making excuses) is a defense mechanism in which&#xA;  controversial behaviors or feelings are justified and explained in a&#xA;  seemingly rational or logical manner to avoid the true explanation,&#xA;  and are made consciously tolerable – or even admirable and superior –&#xA;  by plausible means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If scientific-sounding data is added to make a decision seem more objective than it is, then it is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectualization&quot;&gt;intellectualization&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Intellectualization is a defense mechanism where reasoning is used to&#xA;  block confrontation with an unconscious conflict and its associated&#xA;  emotional stress where thinking is used to avoid feeling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cherry-picking data to support an argument is an example of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias, also called myside bias, is the tendency to search&#xA;  for, interpret, prefer, and recall information in a way that confirms&#xA;  one's beliefs or hypotheses while giving disproportionately less&#xA;  attention to information that contradicts it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common view in psychology is that most explanations of decisions made are actually &quot;post-hoc rationalization&quot;, or &quot;post-rationalization&quot; (see for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-perception_theory&quot;&gt;self-perception theory&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes justification is done consciously / intentionally.  The term you used, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_picking_%28fallacy%29&quot;&gt;cherry picking&lt;/a&gt;, is perfectly valid in this case.  Another example is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_%28public_relations%29&quot;&gt;spin&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-10-24T03:44:45.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12434" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-24T11:22:07.423" Score="1" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;The founding figures of various religions are usually believed to have superhuman qualities, such as omniscience, ability to predict the future, impeccable control over their own emotions, invulnerability, miraculous healing powers, and so forth. An absolute conviction about the unquestionability of such beliefs form the bedrock of many religious faiths. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychology behind such compelling collective beliefs? How does one analyse them in terms of various psychological parameters?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9620" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-11-02T20:08:31.847" LastActivityDate="2015-11-02T20:08:31.847" Title="Why are the founding figures of major religious faiths credited with superhuman qualities?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sentiment-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12435" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-24T11:42:04.530" Score="7" ViewCount="166" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Swedish Psychologist &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._Anders_Ericsson&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;K. Anders Ericsson&lt;/a&gt; has published many reports stating that talent is &quot;made and not born&quot;. In his book 'The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance', he has stated that &quot;Consistently and overwhelmingly, the evidence showed that experts are always made, not born.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v47/n7/full/ng.3285.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent twin study&lt;/a&gt; has stated that on average, a human's ability is 50% influenced by genetic factors, and 50% influenced by environmental factors. This seems to contradict Ericsson's experiment, as he has asserted that genetic factors influence a person's abilities by less than 1%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the twin study contradict Ericsson's assertions, and if so, why would there be such a large contradiction? What factors could have caused these large differences in findings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8796" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-09-22T11:41:50.787" LastActivityDate="2021-02-13T14:02:05.193" Title="Does this recent twin study contradict Anders Erricson's view on the hereditary basis of talent?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;validation&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;&lt;twin-study&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12436" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12430" CreationDate="2015-10-24T12:08:15.903" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Good question, and no one really has a definitive answer, but it is generally considered that a system, as you described, is not a metamind as you call it, or a singular being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First lets define what a being is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A being is a system that works together to collectively maintain all characteristics of life. These are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;being made up of cells&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the ability to reproduce&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the ability to react to a stimulus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Organization &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Metabolism &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Growth&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;adaptation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A swarm of ants contains all of these characteristics, so it could be classified as a 'being'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though the problem is that the reactions and actions taken by a swarm of ants is not considered as adaptable or as self sufficient as a single being. For example colonies of ants are able to effectively create short paths, though this is due to the physiological structure of the ant colony itself, and not its intelligence. Artificial ant networks are based off this structure, is this simulation a metamind too?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another scenario to consider is if you placed an ant colony in a particular unknown situation. Would the ant colony be able to fight off predators, look for food and other life related characteristics? Ant colonies do not particularly work in this fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This problem casts doubts as to whether an ant colony is a metamind. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other side of the coin though, the mind body problem has not been resolved and therefore there is no definitive answer to your question. For example monism states that consciousness is singular.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall though a swarm of ants is not considered a 'being' or a metamind in contemporary psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8796" LastActivityDate="2015-10-24T12:08:15.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12439" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1796" CreationDate="2015-10-24T16:37:51.670" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ski.clps.brown.edu/hddm_docs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;HDDM&lt;/a&gt; allows to fit a &lt;em&gt;hierarchical&lt;/em&gt; drift diffusion model and gives you the posterior of the group effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That means, the model is fit for all subjects simultaneously. Subjects are allowed to vary, but an underlying shared effect is assumed (and the same model is fit for all subjects, although of course a parameter may end up as 0 for a subject). The model is Bayesian and the results are directly interpretable as Bayesian inference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's in Python.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2015-10-24T16:37:51.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12440" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12432" CreationDate="2015-10-24T16:48:00.277" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The N170 (the face selective component of the brain) is commonly mapped indeed to OFA or FFA. It's trivial to find examples for this, e.g.: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24185024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199559053.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199559053-e-017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2138698&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2137096&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://cerco.ups-tlse.fr/pdf0609/itier_rj_04_1261.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;. Many more studies can be found by searching the relevant data bases, e.g. like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=n170+source&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;Some of these include co-registered EEG/fMRI or MEG. There is some uncertainty of where exactly it originates from - OFA, FFA, both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that dipole fits can be seen as leading to oversparse solutions - they might locate the N170 to one out of OFA or FFA, when it is actually projected by a larger are including OFA, FFA, and possibly even more of the cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2015-10-24T16:48:00.277" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12443" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12483" CreationDate="2015-10-25T05:51:32.360" Score="4" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not sure if this is the right place to ask this but I've been attempting to implement the Pinsky-Rinzel model in the Brian2 simulator. I'm basing my implementation off the original article here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.caam.rice.edu/~cox/neuro/pinskyrinzel.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.caam.rice.edu/~cox/neuro/pinskyrinzel.pdf&lt;/a&gt; and I've borrowed some of the formalism from the XPP version of the model here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://senselab.med.yale.edu/ModelDB/showmodel.cshtml?model=35358&amp;amp;file=/b04feb12/booth_bose.ode&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://senselab.med.yale.edu/ModelDB/showmodel.cshtml?model=35358&amp;amp;file=/b04feb12/booth_bose.ode&lt;/a&gt; (Though they are shifted 60mV from where I'm working)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've got it to replicate the somatic firing (as you can see if you set gc to zero), but I can't figure out how to get the complex dendritc and somatic interplay  I'm supposed to see as seen in figure 2 and figure 3 of the model and my q and Ca values don't replicate the model at all. I think there is something wrong in how I'm handling the calcium currents, or the units I'm using there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone have any ideas of where I'm going wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My code:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-&#xA;&quot;&quot;&quot;&#xA;Created on Sat Oct 24 11:21:30 2015&#xA;&#xA;@author: Conor&#xA;&quot;&quot;&quot;&#xA;&#xA;from __future__ import division&#xA;import numpy as np&#xA;from brian2 import *&#xA;defaultclock.dt = 0.05*ms&#xA;&#xA;gbarl=0.1*msiemens&#xA;gbarna=30.0*msiemens&#xA;gbarkDr=15.0*msiemens&#xA;gbarCa=10.0*msiemens&#xA;gbarkc=15.0*msiemens&#xA;&#xA;gkahp=0.8*msiemens&#xA;gNMDA=0*msiemens&#xA;gampa=0*msiemens&#xA;&#xA;Vna=120.0*mV&#xA;Vca=140.0*mV&#xA;Vk=-15.0*mV&#xA;Vl=0*mV&#xA;Vsyn=60*mV&#xA;Id=0*uamp&#xA;Is=.15*uamp&#xA;gc=2.1*msiemens&#xA;p=0.5&#xA;Cm=3*uF&#xA;eqs='''&#xA;alpham=0.32*(13.1-Vs/mV)/(exp((13.1-Vs/mV)/4)-1)/ms : Hz&#xA;betam=0.28*(Vs/mV-40.1)/(exp((Vs/mV-40.1)/5)-1)/ms : Hz&#xA;alphan=0.016*(35.1-Vs/mV)/(exp((35.1-Vs/mV)/5)-1)/ms : Hz&#xA;betan=0.25*exp(0.5-0.025*Vs/mV)/ms : Hz&#xA;alphah=0.128*exp((17-Vs/mV)/18)/ms : Hz&#xA;betah=4/(1+exp((40-Vs/mV)/5))/ms : Hz&#xA;alphas=1.6/(1+exp(-0.072*(Vd/mV-65)))/ms : Hz&#xA;betas=.02*(Vd/mV-51.1)/(exp((Vd/mV-51.1)/5)-1)/ms : Hz&#xA;alphac=(exp((Vd/mV-10)/11)-exp((Vd/mV-6.5)/27))/(18.975)* (Vd&amp;lt;=50*mV)/ms+2*exp((6.5-Vd/mV)/27)*(Vd&amp;gt;50*mV)/ms : Hz&#xA;betac=((2*exp((6.5-Vd/mV)/27))/ms-alphac)*(Vd&amp;lt;(50*mV)) +0/ms : Hz&#xA;alphaq=clip(.00002*Ca,0,0.01)/ms :Hz&#xA;betaq=0.001/ms : Hz&#xA;Xca=clip(Ca/250,0,1) : 1&#xA;dh/dt= (alphah*(1-h)-betah*h) : 1&#xA;dn/dt = (alphan*(1-n)-betan*n) : 1&#xA;ds/dt = alphas*(1-s)-betas*s : 1&#xA;dc/dt = alphac*(1-c)-betac*c : 1&#xA;dq/dt= (alphaq*(1-q)-betaq*q) : 1&#xA;dCa/dt=-0.13*Ica/uamp/ms-0.075*Ca/ms : 1&#xA;Minfs=alpham/(alpham+betam) : 1&#xA;ILeakVs=gbarl*(Vs-Vl) : amp&#xA;ILeakVd=gbarl*(Vd-Vl) : amp&#xA;INa=gbarna*(Minfs**2)*h*(Vs-Vna) : amp&#xA;Ik_dr=gbarkDr*n*(Vs-Vk) : amp&#xA;Ica=gbarCa*s*s*(Vd-Vca) : amp&#xA;IK_c=gbarkc*Xca*c*(Vd-Vk) : amp&#xA;IK_AHP=gkahp*q*(Vd-Vk) : amp&#xA;dVs/dt=(-ILeakVs-INa-Ik_dr+gc/p*(Vd-Vs)+Is/p)/Cm : volt&#xA;dVd/dt=(-ILeakVd-Ica-IK_AHP-IK_c+gc/(1-p)*(Vs-Vd)+INMDA/(1-p))/Cm : volt&#xA;INMDA=gNMDA*Si*(1+0.28*exp(-0.062*(Vs/mV-60)))**(-1)*(Vd-Vsyn) : amp&#xA;Hxs=0&amp;lt;=((Vs/mV-10)*1) : 1&#xA;Hxw=0&amp;lt;=((Vs/mV-20)*1) : 1&#xA;dSi/dt=(Hxs-Si/150)/ms : 1&#xA;'''&#xA;neurons = NeuronGroup(1, eqs)&#xA;neurons.Vs=-4.6*mV&#xA;neurons.Vd=-4.7*mV&#xA;neurons.h=.999&#xA;neurons.n=.0001&#xA;neurons.s=.009&#xA;neurons.c=.007&#xA;neurons.q=.01&#xA;neurons.Ca=0&#xA;neurons.Si=.3                            &#xA;M = StateMonitor(neurons, True ,record=True,dt=.1*ms)&#xA;&#xA;run(500*ms, report='text') &#xA;plt.cla()&#xA;plt.clf()&#xA;plot(M.t/ms, M[0].Vs/mV)&#xA;plot(M.t/ms, M[0].Vd/mV)&#xA;show()&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9638" LastActivityDate="2015-10-29T23:00:17.110" Title="Can anyone see what is wrong with this implementation of the Pinsky-Rinzel model in Brian2?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12444" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8021" CreationDate="2015-10-25T10:12:03.420" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Far from being one single organ performing a single homogeneous function, the brain is actually several lobes, and each lobe is like a &lt;a href=&quot;http://easyscienceforkids.com/all-about-your-amazing-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;separate organ performing a dozen functions&lt;/a&gt;. Putting it in another way, the brain is not like a &quot;thinking machine&quot;, it is more like a collection of computers, instrument panels of an aircraft, radars and sonars of a submarine, the memory banks and backup systems of the New York Stock Exchange and all the banks on Wall Street, and the automatic self-balancing sensors that make a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gizmag.com/go/6006/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Segway&lt;/a&gt; look feeble, and then some. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if all the neurons of the all the separate lobes of the brain fire at the same time (which is what 100% brain usage is all about), it means that something is going very, very wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides, the brain is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;engineered for redundancy&lt;/a&gt;. It is NOT built for firing all at the same time, because some aspects of the brain are like Plan A, Plan B and Plan C; If Plan A fails, it fires Plan B, and if that fails, Plan C. Firing them all at once defeats the purpose of redundancy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, some other aspects of the brain may be compared to a multi-stage rocket, where Stage A, B and C fires up sequentially, and not simultaneously. &lt;a href=&quot;http://claritaslux.com/blog/sequential-processing-language-learning-ability/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sequential processing&lt;/a&gt; is vital for various brain functions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9620" LastEditorUserId="9620" LastEditDate="2015-10-26T09:25:02.923" LastActivityDate="2015-10-26T09:25:02.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12448" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15648" CreationDate="2015-10-25T19:04:58.903" Score="1" ViewCount="570" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/2015/09/22/434597124/trying-to-change-or-changing-the-subject-how-feedback-gets-derailed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;one recent episode of Hidden Brain podcast&lt;/a&gt;, they talk about a pattern in conversation called &quot;Switchtracking&quot;. It references to the the &quot;Thanks for the Feedback&quot; book by Douglas Stone and Sheila Heen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general it happens when you get a feedback unrelated to the topic you are concerned in a conversation. Here is how it is defined at respective NPR post:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Switchtracking, as defined by author Sheila Heen, is when &quot;someone&#xA;  gives you feedback, and your reaction to that feedback changes the&#xA;  subject.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if there is any academic background supporting this phenomenon (There is neither references section in the book nor podcast page). Is it called something else in academia? I could not find any references to some academic publications in the fields of CogSci, management, or behavioral economics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="646" LastActivityDate="2016-08-08T08:17:39.423" Title="Academic Background for Switchtracking Phenomenon" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12449" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12419" CreationDate="2015-10-25T19:12:38.630" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fait_accompli&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fait accompli&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, also &lt;em&gt;done deal&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;fait accompli ‎(plural faits accomplis)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An accomplished fact, something that has already occurred; a (colloquial American) &quot;&lt;em&gt;done deal&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Usage:&#xA;  Often said of something irreversible and/or performed without going through standard procedure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it fit here? I'm also looking up for the same word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="646" LastActivityDate="2015-10-25T19:12:38.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12451" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12474" CreationDate="2015-10-25T22:09:42.813" Score="15" ViewCount="10314" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why didn't  Karl Popper accept Freud's psychological theories and believed that they are not scientific in essence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9643" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2015-10-28T20:38:53.530" LastActivityDate="2020-09-27T07:18:13.323" Title="Why did Karl Popper criticize Freud's theories?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12452" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12111" CreationDate="2015-10-25T22:25:28.177" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just to pick up on the following comment: &lt;strong&gt;&quot;where there are some things that can work, but mostly because of auto-suggestion, or any other kind of suggestions, and things like the placebo (or even the nocebo) effect.&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The examples you have (auto-suggestion and emotional intelligence) suggest that you've been reading &quot;pop-psychology&quot; books which aim to sell ideas rather than promote good science. From reading into your question, i'm guessing that its about whether psychology is actually any better at describing, explaining and predicting behaviour, when compared to a field which does this by questionable means (e.g. astrology).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The examples you picked represent fairly niche, small areas of psychology (auto-suggestion really just seems to be a pseudo-psychology buzz word not really coming from academics but business/self-help moguls).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly, you can pick areas of psychology where we have been unable to correctly predict behaviour. A recent example comes from a big project on seeing how well psychology studies can be replicated (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencemag.org/content/349/6251/aac4716.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencemag.org/content/349/6251/aac4716.abstract&lt;/a&gt;) showing that the majority of published studies could not be replicated by a different research team (however, this issue isn't unique to psychology, and is often even worse in other &quot;scientific&quot; fields &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the whole though, lots of psychological theories that are more based on the scientific literature have been replicated and are able to predict behaviour in a variety of different contexts. Clearly using psychological theory doesn't mean you can have complete control of other people's behaviour, and often changing behaviour can be difficult. I would agree that many people rely on pseudo-scientific &quot;psychological&quot; theories that have been over-sold by people who want to make money, whether its through being a consultant or to just sell books. If you want a good example of how social psychology has been applied to benefit society, then i'd pick up a new book from the government's psychology unit (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eburypublishing.co.uk/editions/insightful-thinking/9780753551387&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.eburypublishing.co.uk/editions/insightful-thinking/9780753551387&lt;/a&gt;). There are also countless exmaples of how psychology has been better able to make us understand and treat a variety of different disorders too! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8837" LastActivityDate="2015-10-25T22:25:28.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12453" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12458" CreationDate="2015-10-25T22:34:59.927" Score="3" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can the use of memory, in it's various forms (working memory, procedural, semantic), be detected and distinguished from one another via fMRI?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-10-26T13:41:31.900" Title="Can memory access be detected via fMRI?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12454" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16475" CreationDate="2015-10-25T22:42:41.637" Score="2" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;In elementary school, it is typical for a student to learn &quot;times tables&quot; to increase their speed of mental multiplication. What is the mechanism for the increased speed of calculation resulting from the repetition of &quot;times tables&quot;? Is it memory based? That is, the pattern is recognized and the result is retrieved from memory. Is it optimisation based? Does the brain actually just become faster at multiplication? The same question could apply to the progression of addition as a result of memorised counting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is assuming a naive, limited approach without mental imagery optimisation, such &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chisanbop&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chisanbop&lt;/a&gt;, where a mental abacus is used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-10-26T21:22:07.423" LastActivityDate="2017-02-26T07:18:08.797" Title="Is speed up of arithmetic calculations as a result of memorisation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12455" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12457" CreationDate="2015-10-26T12:10:15.130" Score="2" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some long term diseases where the severity of your symptoms tend towards a 'normal'. So imagine plotting out the severity of the symptoms say, every day or every week, then drawing a line of best fit through them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So over the long term, severity may change slowly. However in the short term, statistically speaking, it'll tend to be that if symptoms have been super bad for a short while, it'll tend to get better. And if symptoms have been very good for a short while, it'll tend to get worse. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a name for this trend. I'm not sure if it's actually a cognitive bias, it could be more of a statistical fallacy type thing. I can't remember the name... and I've searched for it in every way I can think of in google but no luck. I originally read about it in the context of pseudoscience treatments. So someone has a long term condition, they have a very 'bad year', they go see say... a homeopath, and then they get a bit better and they ascribe their improvement to the homeopathy where as in fact, statistically speaking they were likely to have gotten a bit better on their own. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9650" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-26T13:39:05.207" LastActivityDate="2015-10-27T11:19:12.680" Title="What is the name for the cognitive bias that ignores that extreme symptoms always tend to get less extreme?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;regression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12456" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12404" CreationDate="2015-10-26T13:22:08.127" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is rather difficult to answer this question without knowing what you mean by these two terms (both are used in a variety of contexts, and there is still debate about their precise definitions). The &quot;low&quot;/&quot;high&quot; level distinction identified by Izhaki is not universally accepted. It might be better if you were to explain why you think they are &quot;pretty similar&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most common understanding of &quot;selective attention&quot; is as a &quot;filter&quot;, which prioritises the processing of some stimuli (e.g., a particular voice at a party, or a particular spatial location in a visual task). The wikipedia pages on attention have a reasonable summary of this. Importantly, we can selectively attend to something voluntarily (i.e., it is partly under conscious control), although in some circumstances our attention is also &quot;captured&quot; by distraction even when we don't want it to be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Sensory adaptation&quot; can mean several things (for example the adaptation might refer to adaptation thanks to evolution, or to the way that our eyes grow accustomed to darkness). In current experimental psychology, the most common meaning of sensory (also neural or perceptual) adaptation is when the same, repeated stimulus evokes a different response. This may be because sensory neurons habituate, but it may also happen at the level of the cortex, and so in psychophysics it is a useful tool for learning about more complex representations. There is also a wiki article on this &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_adaptation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One way in which adaptation and attention are similar is that both can modulate the response to particular stimuli (sometimes called changing the &quot;gain&quot; when talking about neurons). One way in which they are different is that selective attention is normally beneficial (it boosts processing), and requires conscious instructions or manipulations rather than simple repetition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2015-10-26T13:22:08.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12457" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12455" CreationDate="2015-10-26T13:30:47.667" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The statistical phenomenon you are referring to is called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_toward_the_mean&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;regression to the mean&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. It describes the fact that extreme measurements which are affected by random fluctuation will tend to be closer to the average in subsequent measurements. This phenomenon is not limited to clinical symptoms but occurs for any measurement that is selected for its extremity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, you let students take two tests that are designed to assess the same underlying aptitude. Then you look at the 5% best and the 5% worst performers in the first test. In the second test, the score of the high performing students will likely drop to some extent and the score of the low performing students will likely rise to some extent, even though the aptitude has not changed. This is because the test results are affected by random variation (they are not perfectly correlated) that is independent from the aptitude.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The failure to take statistical regression into account gives rise to the so-called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_fallacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;regression fallacy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The regression fallacy refers to the tendency to attribute the change of extreme scores to spurious causal reasons. As a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-skeptical-psychologist/201401/beware-the-regression-fallacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;frequent example&lt;/a&gt;, if a football team loses some games and fires the coach, subsequent increases in performance may be explained with this fact even though it was just due to chance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-27T11:19:12.680" LastActivityDate="2015-10-27T11:19:12.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12458" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12453" CreationDate="2015-10-26T13:41:31.900" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In theory, yes, because there are now many theories, supported by evidence, which map different memory processes onto different regions and patterns of activity in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In practice, there are many difficulties with doing this. First, it would depend on what stage or process you are thinking of (are you considering encoding? or retrieval?). Second, many subtypes of memory are defined according to the stimulus (for example whether you are remembering facts or actions), and so differences in brain activity might be due to the stimulus and not the process per se. Thirdly, fMRI has limitations which might make it difficult to isolate the relevant differences, especially if you were trying to do this on a trial-by-trial basis or if you were looking at subcortical structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are plenty of papers which try and address this. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393207001066&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is one looking at dissociations within recognition, &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/128/4/773.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is one in Alzheimers and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1074742704000735&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is an influential review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2015-10-26T13:41:31.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12459" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5697" CreationDate="2015-10-26T20:59:45.003" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a pro musician .... yes i agree that similarity and 'content' in any alleged 'blind' study sample will manifest a relevant INACCURATE difference in results. This has to be done with PET or other diagnostics to arrive at the correct conclusion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as far as 'sacred' or metaphysical......the shape of the cochlea in the ear (natural biologic resonation chamber) and the mathematical science behind the theory of A-432 seems highly plausible &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdJinKf-lnw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdJinKf-lnw&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The human experience detects and reacts to the subtle events...such as 8 cycles per second....IMO.....especially in prolonged exposure..such as normal modern audiophilic activities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experiment with the metal and the sand showing the perfectly formed patterns  with A-432 I feel is conclusive to prove a dissonance exists in the tactile and biological architectural realm. Plus the body is 70% 'water' which has been shown to give the same pattern generated results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a Professional musician there is NO DOUBT that music effects activity and the  'pace' of human activity.....MUZAK proved that with elevators.....internal thought and healing are natural not psychic human activities so my conclusion is 'YES' A-432 is probably a better vibrational experience which most likely has deeper results in the physical body. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9655" LastActivityDate="2015-10-26T20:59:45.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12461" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12464" CreationDate="2015-10-26T23:31:06.667" Score="2" ViewCount="840" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe I'm having so much trouble figuring this out because I'm not sure what question to ask. As a few examples, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A child of an extremely religious family engaging heavily in behaviors considered unacceptable under their family's beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone who hates their career in an extremely analytical field switching to an extremely creative one (e.g. a software developer becoming a fashion photographer).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reaction formation seemed to fit the bill, but that involves an extreme reaction to an unacceptable impulse rather than chronic exposure to a stressor. Compensation also doesn't seem to apply because that's a reaction to a self-identified weakness or deficiency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9658" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-27T10:40:13.163" LastActivityDate="2015-10-28T07:10:21.927" Title="Is there a term for behaving to the opposite extreme of a way one has been forced to behave?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12464" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12461" CreationDate="2015-10-27T10:39:13.197" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The pattern of behavior you are describing is called psychological &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reactance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reactance as a concept has been formalized in Jack Brehm's work in the 1960s, who has proposed a &lt;strong&gt;Theory of Psychological Reactance&lt;/strong&gt; (1966). The theory posits that &lt;strong&gt;threats to personal freedom cause motivational arousal directed at reestablishing freedom&lt;/strong&gt;. Consequently, the attractiveness of those behavioral choices that are eliminated or threatened can be increased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A textbook example is a study (Brehm, Stires, Sensenig, &amp;amp; Shaban, 1966) in which students were promised to choose one of several music recordings. When one of the alternatives was taken away, it was perceived to be more attractive (but only when the students had the expectation that they could decide freely).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since then, the concept has been applied to a wide variety of settings such as the role of eliminated freedom in consumer behavior (e.g., Clee &amp;amp; Wicklund, 1980), the persuasive effects of promotional health messages (e.g., Dillard &amp;amp; Shen, 2005), or patient noncompliance in therapeutic settings (e.g., Fogarty, 1997).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Academic Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brehm, J. W., Stires, L. K., Sensenig, J., &amp;amp; Shaban, J. (1966). The attractiveness of an eliminated choice alternative. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2, 301–313. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(66)90086-2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clee, M. A., &amp;amp; Wicklund, R. A. (1980). Consumer behavior and psychological reactance. Journal of Consumer Research, 6, 389–405.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dillard, J. P., &amp;amp; Shen, L. (2005). On the nature of reactance and its role in persuasive health communication. Communication Monographs, 72, 144–168. doi:10.1080/03637750500111815&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fogarty, J. S. (1997). Reactance theory and patient noncompliance. Social Science &amp;amp; Medicine, 45, 1277–1288. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(97)00055-5&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-28T07:10:21.927" LastActivityDate="2015-10-28T07:10:21.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12465" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12416" CreationDate="2015-10-27T12:05:19.783" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Belief perseverance&lt;/strong&gt; is &quot;the tendency to cling to one's initial belief even after receiving  new  information that  contradicts or dis-confirms  the basis of that belief&quot; (Anderson, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Belief perseverance is usually regarded as a special case of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;. (Also see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8053/is-there-a-name-for-a-scientists-resistance-to-disconfirmation-of-his-or-her-th&quot;&gt;these&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5825/how-to-refer-to-the-phenomenon-of-people-only-absorbing-evidence-which-confirms/5826#5826&quot;&gt;earlier&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8614/what-is-the-name-of-a-cognitive-bias-by-which-existing-facts-are-tailored-to-fit/8616#8616&quot;&gt;questions&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson, C.A. (2007). Belief perseverance (pp. 109-110). In R. F. Baumeister &amp;amp; K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Social Psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-05-24T08:03:28.143" LastActivityDate="2017-05-24T08:03:28.143" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12466" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12427" CreationDate="2015-10-27T13:37:14.060" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Part of it has to do with the ability to construct a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;model of reality&lt;/a&gt;. Every developer can relate to that. Visible, concrete things are easy to deconstruct in pragmatic terms. But once you get into abstract concepts, it gets harder and harder to bind it with your existing view of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some concepts are also very difficult to grasp if you can't connect parts of the concept with things you already understand. This process is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;chunking&lt;/a&gt;, and it can be understood as dividing the problem until each part already makes sense to you, or is small enough to tackle the question on your own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On top of this, you have to know what you're really looking for in order to ask the right questions. Some students just ask &quot;How does this work? I don't understand&quot;, but the teacher can't answer something so vague. Richard Feynman make a very good statement about this problem &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMFPe-DwULM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;in this interview&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4173" LastEditorUserId="4173" LastEditDate="2015-10-28T13:07:39.857" LastActivityDate="2015-10-28T13:07:39.857" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12467" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12427" CreationDate="2015-10-27T14:07:36.070" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly lets define criteria for what difficult learning material is. My interpretation of the matter states that the task of developing mastery or competency in understanding and applying difficult content:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Takes an increased amount of time &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;or Demands increased cognitive effort&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's relevant to keep in mind &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The 2 systems that occur in the brain&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain is known to have a limited amount of cognitive capacity on the amount of calculations or work able to be performed, at once. This capacity is constant, unless brain development due to certain hard activities occur, in which, overtime the capacity of the brain will increase, but this happens over a long period of time(weeks months etc). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/11468377-thinking-fast-and-slow&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Thinking Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman&lt;/a&gt; references an experiment where demand was found to correlate to pupil dilation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We recorded strings of digits on beats of the metronome and instructed the subject to repeat or transform the digits one by one, maintaining the same rhythm. We soon discovered that the size of the pupil varied second by second, reflecting the changing demands of the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a certain point though, the capacity of the brain is met:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;reaches an almost intolerable peak as you rush to produce a transformed string during and immediately after the pause, and relaxes gradually as you “unload” your short-term memory. The pupil data corresponded precisely to subjective experience: longer strings reliably caused larger dilations, the transformation task compounded the effort, and the peak of pupil size coincided with maximum effort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The evidence provided strongly suggests that the theory put forward has some accuracy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/11468377-thinking-fast-and-slow&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Thinking Fast and Slow&lt;/a&gt; there are several factors which use up this cognitive capacity/energy, but the most important ones to consider are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Multitasking&lt;/strong&gt; Mentally computing a series of tasks, while keeping the state of other tasks in memory. For example when multiplying 15 * 34 without a calculator, you must keep the value of 5 * 34 in your head while doing 10* 34&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Resisting subconscious processes&lt;/strong&gt; For example unlearning habits, or the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stroop effect&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Memory&lt;/strong&gt; how much memory you are actively storing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These factors, which tax cognitive capacity, are ultimately the root cause of what determines the difficulty of concept, the more the learning material provokes any of these tasks, the more difficult the content is to learn. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These factors are mainly affected by two elements of knowledge: &lt;em&gt;the complexity of the knowledge&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;how well it relates to information currently in your head&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many theories on what knowledge is, and how it is interpreted by humans, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_taxonomy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bloom's taxonomy&lt;/a&gt; but the most relevant one for this question is &lt;a href=&quot;http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Concept_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Concept Learning&lt;/a&gt; which I will briefly state the 3 levels of concepts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Not a concept&lt;/strong&gt; simple recall or discrimination of knowledge&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Concrete or Perceptual Concepts&lt;/strong&gt; knowledge that bears physical similarity to one another from the learner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Defined, or relational and associated concepts&lt;/strong&gt; where the stimuli bears no obvious physical similarities, but cohere due to functional properties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;from not a concept -&gt; concrete or perceptual concepts, concepts basically grow in amount of similar or distinct properties, and abstractions; distinct physical properties, but similar functional properties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more properties equates to more demand for memory. The more distinct and similar properties present, the more demand for multitasking, which therefore makes complex concepts harder to understand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674729018&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Make it Stick, a book on learning strategies&lt;/a&gt; suggests that humans learn content through understanding it in short term memory, but after practice, the information goes through a process of: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;consolidation, in which memory traces (the brain’s representations of the new learning) are strengthened, given meaning, and connected to prior knowledge&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This point relates to &lt;strong&gt;Resisting Subconscious Processes&lt;/strong&gt; which is described in &quot;thinking fast and slow&quot; tax cognitive capacity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also the more foreign the information is to you;the information already stored in your head, the harder consolidation will be, taking up more mental capacity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another consideration is &lt;em&gt;elaboration&lt;/em&gt;. Knowledge is suggested to trigger the thought of other knowledge when the brain understands the relationship between knowledge. If concepts are not understood completely, and instead its information is just memorized, then this process will not occur and competency and mastery in understanding and applying the concept will be reduced. This is discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/18693655-a-mind-for-numbers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A Mind Of Numbers&lt;/a&gt;. This process not triggering will then require the logical part of the mind to figure out the connection, where the subconscious mind does not supply it, and demand more mental capacity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So basically, the more complex information is, and the more foreign the information is, the more taxing the information will be in learning it, which makes it harder to understand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8796" LastEditorUserId="8796" LastEditDate="2015-10-27T22:06:57.530" LastActivityDate="2015-10-27T22:06:57.530" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12469" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-27T17:55:19.243" Score="4" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;Abraham Maslow posited a whole lot of things in the theory that is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs&lt;/a&gt;. Among the things that he posited was the progression from more &quot;basic needs&quot; like physiological needs and safety to more subtle needs such as self-esteem. Last but not least, he posited that there is a need for Buddha-like enlightenment, which he termed as Self Actualization, which transcended any actual need existing in the human being, and may actually cause him to jeopardize the attainment of his physical, psychological and social needs in quest of an undefinable something that holds greater meaning for him/her.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While all this agrees with out intuitive understanding of the seemingly universal human desire for greatness and causes that are &quot;greater than oneself&quot;,   it all smells suspiciously spiritualistic.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology arguably being a science and not a part of &quot;humanities&quot; like, say, Economics, it may be expected to demand more rigorous proof in the form of truly independent peer-reviewed scientific studies to determine whether Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is actually true of Homo Sapiens as a species, and not just a figment of our fond (and somewhat religiously inspired) imaginings that we are beings who have &quot;fallen from grace&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, what is the actual scientific proof of various aspects of Maslow's Hierarchy?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9620" LastActivityDate="2015-10-27T17:55:19.243" Title="Is there any objective proof of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-10-30T09:43:08.207" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12470" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12395" CreationDate="2015-10-27T22:10:22.200" Score="5" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Existing Papers&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found three papers in the same vein with considerably more empirical evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;1. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/3118226?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Modeling the Size of Wars&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the paper, provinces and conflicts are modeled to justify Richardson's observation that the proportion of conflict severity in relation to their frequency is described by a power law. In other words, the more space there is between each conflict, the more casualties will result. The models uses a lot of detail. A geographical map is created and conflicts (down to technological advancement, political structural change and resource allocation) are simulated in models with dozens of parameters. More importantly, the level of detail in the paper allows parameters to be set to test historical scenarios to disprove or give further evidence to the model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;2. &lt;a href=&quot;http://asr.sagepub.com/content/72/5/784.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Dynamics of Polarisation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The focus of the paper is modeling the change of public opinion in the United States as a way to provide explanation for two phenomenon:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Polarization of opinion is rare despite being perceived otherwise&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Opinion homogeneity is rare, despite being perceive otherwise.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To model these phenomenon, a network similar to that of the Opinion Dynamics paper from the question is built, with imposed homophily. However, the paper grounds it's parameters in reality (for example, take-off issues that stimulate much discussion are considered rare). In contrast, the Opinion Dynamics paper creates parameters for skepticism and empathy, without giving much consideration for the mechanisms behind these attributes and how they might change over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;3. &lt;a href=&quot;http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/20/1/13.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Psychologically-Motivated Model of Opinion Change with Applications to American Politics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper justifies modeling 2D distributed agents using the psychological parameters Influence, Susceptibility and Conformity and their interaction. The model is then validated on American political opinions as they shift over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are papers with empirical basis in the domain of social network models. Typically, this realism is achieved by basing parameters on empirical evidence, rather than simplification of cognitive phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Reply from author of Social Network papers&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author of two of the papers I cited in the question, Alan Tsang, was kind enough to provide a rebuttal to my scepticism via personal correspondence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The premise behind both the papers was to examine the effects of a&#xA;particular psychological phenomenon by examining it in isolation.  We&#xA;base our work on more conventional agent models from economics, which&#xA;assume completely rational actors.  We want to see what happens when&#xA;the rational behavior is tweaked to incorporate a behavioral&#xA;component.  In particular, we are interested in the qualitative&#xA;effects that are produced, and the mechanisms by which these are&#xA;achieved.  An agent based simulation is the ideal way of studying&#xA;this, because it allows us to drill down and take measurements that&#xA;would be impossible or very difficult to do in an actual community.&#xA;So what we are doing is more mathematics and less science.  The&#xA;results of the papers provide qualitative insights on what are&#xA;plausible effects of these behaviors on a larger system.  The next&#xA;step could certainly be to validate the model against real data, but&#xA;the goal of the paper is not to perform &amp;quot;full stack&amp;quot; science.  Rather,&#xA;we hope it would prove useful component in a more detailed model to be&#xA;used on data collect in the wild.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, we are also interested in validating our model against real&#xA;data as well, but they are difficult to come by.  For instance,&#xA;Facebook almost certainly has access to data that can be used to&#xA;detect homophily in networks, and how they might affect opinions over&#xA;time.  But the data is very proprietary and, even if we were to get&#xA;it, ethical concerns might limit how it can be used.  As you've&#xA;pointed out in the follow-up post, there are a few papers that examine&#xA;political affiliation, and those could potentially be useful ground&#xA;truth.  But I don't have the background to properly assemble such a&#xA;data set from scratch (as it would need both a time series of&#xA;opinions, and the underlying network structure).  Moreover, there are&#xA;sure to be other effects at work as well, which may confound the&#xA;analysis.  We're giving some thought to gathering data for the last&#xA;Canadian election, since strategic voting was so widespread and&#xA;successful, but any data we collect will likely be disconnected from&#xA;social network structure.  Maybe some aggregate network properties&#xA;could be inferred (ex: based on region), but it would be a&#xA;multi-layered problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T19:00:30.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12471" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12473" CreationDate="2015-10-28T00:47:31.887" Score="4" ViewCount="395" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the most effective psychological techniques for unlearning information?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me given you a simple example for clarity's sake:&#xA;In high school, you learn that electrons orbit around a nucleus, whereas in reality electrons are actually at every point of the orbit at the same time. How would you go about unlearning the initial fact learnt in high school? It seems that the earlier fact is retrieved subconsciously since it has become a habit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of this simple example, it seems to be easier to replace the earlier fact. However, this appears to be problematic when dealing with more advanced concepts such as unlearning a simplified version of how fMRI functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8796" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-10-29T02:06:45.597" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T18:23:14.047" Title="What are the most effective psychological techniques for unlearning information" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12472" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-28T04:55:54.950" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am using AFNI to display Talairach image, that is &lt;code&gt;anat+tlrc.BRIK &amp;amp; anat+tlrc.HEAD&lt;/code&gt; . But the AFNI only shows part of the image. It looks like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/60IMI.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/60IMI.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;AFNI is one of the softwares to display and analyze fMRI images. I am sure that the Talairach image I want to display is in correct format.  I do not how to fix this problem? Anyone can give me a help?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9329" LastActivityDate="2015-10-28T04:55:54.950" Title="How to display Talairach Image in AFNI correctly?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12473" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12471" CreationDate="2015-10-28T08:30:58.440" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.cy/books?isbn=1317610431&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;memory&lt;/a&gt; the following extract might be helpful:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;…, the association between a stimulus and a trace will be weakened&#xA;  whenever that trace is retrieved inappropriately. In effect, the bond&#xA;  between the cue and the target gets “punished”. For example, suppose&#xA;  that you try to retrieve the new password to your e-mail account.&#xA;  According to the unlearning view, if you recall your old password and&#xA;  realize the mistake, the association between the cue password and the&#xA;  original password will get weakened, decreasing the chances that it&#xA;  will pop up again in the future. If the old password is punished often&#xA;  enough, the association might grow so weak that it will no longer&#xA;  activate that trace; stimulus will be decoupled from the response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if the old information is punished many times it will start to loose its strength, and if at the same time the new information is rewarded, the new information will replace the old.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Melton, A., &amp;amp; Irwin, J. (1940). The influence of degree of interpolated learning on retroactive inhibition and the overt transfer of specific responses. American Journal of Psychology , 53, 173-203.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2015-10-29T16:37:15.563" LastActivityDate="2015-10-29T16:37:15.563" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12474" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12451" CreationDate="2015-10-28T15:13:25.420" Score="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will go about this by answering two questions. First, what is Popper's general approach when attempting to distinguish science from pseudo-science? Second, what specifically did he dislike about Freudian psychoanalysis? (Historically, Popper actually developed his general theory in response to his particular dislike of contemporary marxism and Adlerian and Freudian Psychoanalysis.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Falsificationism&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Popper proposes that in the empirical domain, nothing can ever be proved true. No swans are black because you've never seen a black swan, and you've seen thousands of swans? Well, maybe the next swan you'll see is black. This may be unlikely, but not impossible, and thus, there is no proof. (The general problem is the problem of induction, as discussed by Hume, which leads into an infinite regress.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, science is not what is proved true. Science is also not what can explain a lot of observed phenomena, because telling stories about the past is easy and always open. Instead, Popper proposes science is that which contains the means of its own refutation. Everything may be wrong, and a quality of the good ways of exploring the world is that they make clear how to see if they could be wrong. Thus, good science&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;makes &lt;em&gt;bold conjectures&lt;/em&gt; about how the world is like, that is, claims the world is in a state which would be surprising unless the theory were true&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;derives from this &lt;em&gt;predictions&lt;/em&gt; of what should never be the outcome of &lt;em&gt;experiments&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;would appears as false - &lt;em&gt;falsified&lt;/em&gt; - if those outcomes were in fact to turn up&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, something that is never false is unscientific, and if it claims to be science, it is pseudo-science. That which could easily be shown false, but has so far withstood many genuine attempts at falsifying it can be scientific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few notes: Popper did not claim that anything that is not falsifiable is bad, or false. Something may be true and unfalsifiable, and it may be good and unfalsifiable. But to claim the status of being scientific, it needs to be falsifiable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Psychoanalysis&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Popper used to be a fan of psychoanalysis, especially of the Adlerian brand influential in Vienna in that time. His friends, he observed, were especially impressed by the ability of Adlerians to explain any and all phenomena. A man is honest? It's this kind of early-childhood event that caused this. A man is dishonest? It's that kind of early-childhood event. The Adlerians were never wrong. And it was not clear how they could ever be wrong, as they could post-hoc tell a story about how any given phenomenon fit their theories perfectly. Everything in the world was to them evidence for their theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This eventually came to appear to Popper as deeply misguided. Adler himself, with whom Popper worked, was exclusively telling stories about how the past proved or confirmed his theory, never claiming how a possible future state of events could disprove it. He had no predictions, and thus, no truly scientific experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This made Popper not only give up on psychoanalysis, but led him to use it as one primary example of what he considered pseudo-science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same story also applies to Freudian psychoanalysis; between all the different complexes and drives, every possible human action or mindset could be explained as originating from childhood experiences and conflicting unconscious mental agents. But Freudians did not make bold conjectures, and did not attempt to falsify their theory with truly scientific experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Sources&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Popper lays this out in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415043182&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;SCIENCE: CONJECTURES AND REFUTATIONS&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, in the 1st chapter. It is a great read and accessibly written.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although Popper's own words are probably the best explanation on this (as they are so clear here), it probably won't hurt to skim by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford Encyclopedia&lt;/a&gt; for a secondary source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2020-09-27T07:18:13.323" LastActivityDate="2020-09-27T07:18:13.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12476" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11077" CreationDate="2015-10-28T17:17:02.197" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwagon_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;bandwagon effect&lt;/a&gt;&quot; was originally used to explain voting behavior. In 1950, Leibenstein introduced it as a concept in economics to describe changes in consumer demand: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By &lt;strong&gt;bandwagon effect&lt;/strong&gt; we refer to the extent to which the demand for a commodity is &lt;em&gt;increased&lt;/em&gt; due to the fact that others are also consuming the &#xA;  same commodity. It represents the desire of people to purchase a commodity in order to get into &quot;the swim of things&quot;; in order to conform with the people they wish to be associated with; in order to be fashionable or stylish; or, in order to appear to be &quot;one of the boys.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He also defined a term that describes the opposite pattern of behavior, the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snob_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;snob effect&lt;/a&gt;&quot;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By the &lt;strong&gt;snob effect&lt;/strong&gt; we refer to the extent to which the demand for a consumers' good is &lt;em&gt;decreased&lt;/em&gt; owing to the fact that others are also consuming the same commodity (or that others are increasing their consumption of that commodity). This represents the desire of people to be exclusive; to be different; to dissociate themselves from the &quot;common herd.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These definitions have coined the usage of the terms &quot;bandwagon effect&quot; and &quot;snob effect&quot; in micro-economics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology, the terms have been less relevant. Social, personality and consumer psychology have used other labels investigating people's diverging responses to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_influence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social influence&lt;/a&gt;, such as their tendency for &lt;strong&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conformity&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;, or their motives for seeking &lt;strong&gt;&quot;uniqueness&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g., Berger &amp;amp; Heath, 2007; Snyder &amp;amp; Fromkin, 1977) and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimal_distinctiveness_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;optimal distinctiveness&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berger, J., &amp;amp; Heath, C. (2007). Where consumers diverge from others: Identity signaling and product domains. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 121–134.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leibenstein, Harvey (1950). &quot;Bandwagon, Snob, and Veblen Effects in the Theory of Consumers' Demand&quot;. Quarterly Journal of Economics 64 (2): 183–207. doi:10.2307/1882692.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Snyder, C. R., &amp;amp; Fromkin, H. L. (1977). Abnormality as a positive characteristic: The development and validation of a scale measuring need for uniqueness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 518–527. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.86.5.518&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-10-28T17:17:02.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12477" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12482" CreationDate="2015-10-29T00:22:34.847" Score="5" ViewCount="342" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently studying PRIMs within the context of ACT-R by reading these &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212683X14000206&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;two&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23750831&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;papers&lt;/a&gt;. In the papers, there are references to both declarative and working memory modules of ACT-R. What is the difference between these memory modules? Is the only difference the allowed operations on this memory and thus their use? Are there also decay effects in working memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-10-29T17:33:23.870" Title="In ACT-R difference between declarative and working memory" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;act-r&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12478" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12111" CreationDate="2015-10-29T07:18:32.163" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me first rewrite &quot;the argument&quot; you may find attractive/puzzling:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$Premise$ 1: behavioral economy to emotional intelligence makes sense (implying that they are &quot;science&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$Premise$ 2: if there are auto-suggestion, or any other kind of suggestions, e.g.,placebo effect (for some thing in psychology), then some thing can work in psychology (implying some other things may not work).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$Conclusion$: Psychology does not seem to be &quot;science&quot;, and people who rely on it seems less than sensible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to point out,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From $Premise$ 1, it seems that the way you define &quot;science&quot; is what &quot;makes sense,&quot; or the way I interpret your expressed opinion is that &quot;science&quot; is what is intuitively convincing for (intelligible) people (e.g., yourself).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From $Premise$ 2, your expressed opinions seem to be puzzling, I am not sure what you meant by &quot;suggestion&quot; and &quot;auto-suggestion.&quot; But from the example you provided, i.e., placebo effect, I conjecture that you are trying to say that psychology of some sort has pragmatic value because &quot;suggestion&quot; influences people. And what you may have meant but may have not expressed may be that &quot;suggestion&quot; seems to possess pragmatic values solely because &quot;suggestion&quot; $just$  influences people, and for a person as intelligible as yourself find this brute fact (that is, things like &quot;suggestion&quot;) rather unsatisfying to study since it does not seem to lead to any pragmatic normative or empirical investigations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, you reached your puzzle, since psychology is of less pragmatic values, and less intuitively convincing, how can it be science?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to note that, the term &quot;science&quot; can refer to different things, the meaning of this term changes throughout the history. I have not carefully read the whole page, but wikipedia seems to have some information that may help illustrate my point: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to note that, &quot;science&quot; originates from the noun of the latin verb, $scire$ $(know)$. Thus, I derive that science is simply knowledge. To add on that, since that you seem to expect &quot;knowledge&quot; to be somewhat &quot;empirically true,&quot; that is, to some extent, this knowledge must refer to or shed lights on how nature (including human mind) works, or how nature seems to and will be expected to work from our (future) experiences. I arrived at this notion because you credit &quot;astrology,&quot; which seems accidental and does not conform to our experiences, as non-science. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You must have found my answer tedious and unsatisfying so far since I have only provided some clarification on possible interpretations of your question, but not an answer of why psychology is science or is psychology science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Modern psychology seems to be empirical in nature, that is, modern psychology, to my knowledge, seems to either derived based on experiences (e.g., experiments to data to psychology theories) or developed to serve empirical investigations (e.g., theoretical psychology construed to serve as the foundation or hypothesis in empirical experiments). I would encourage you to take some look at APA approved journals or psychology articles on PubMed. I would not like you to make up your mind about psychology solely based on pop psychology books or articles for general public that are less than rigorous. Those empirical articles are quite convincing intuitively to intelligible readers like yourself. The theoretical ones, though not immediately intuitive, may make sense if you are willing to read the works this or that theory is based on and empirical articles associated with those theories. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few things to point out based on the answer provided by the answer @Arnon Weinberg:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hi, Arnon&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;your note on &quot;science&quot; and &quot;technology&quot; seems a bit puzzling (because your explanation on &quot;science&quot; though seems to be correct to some extent, your explanation on &quot;technology&quot; seems less than convincing) and does not seem to be necessary. Your example with &quot;computer&quot; for example, I would call it neither &quot;technology&quot; nor &quot;knowledge.&quot; At best, maybe &quot;theoretical computer science&quot; is &quot;science&quot; and &quot;computer science technique&quot; is &quot;technology&quot; based on your definition. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Your way of dividing psychology based on your &quot;technology&quot; and &quot;science&quot; division seems puzzling. &quot;clinical psychology&quot; can be &quot;science&quot; even from your point of view, e.g., studies pertaining to catastrophizing influences chronic pain patient's quality of life are simply using scientific method to derive knowledge that may be of applicable value but they are not applications of knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;your answer suddenly sabotages your own question by suggesting that what you were interested was on psychotherapy, by which, I conjecture, you mean that you real question is &quot;is psychotherapy scientific?&quot; This question is fine and your latter part captures this question well except that you confuse applied science with technology. &#xA;By your own word, technology is the application of the science. Applied science, to my knowledge, is science that concerns application, or science of applicable value, which is $technically$ science. For example, applied math may study the normal equation to solve for the best least square solution, normal equation here is applied science. The technology, by your definition, can be a software built on normal equation, which is an application of the normal equation.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Another note on psychoanalysis: psychoanalytic theories nowadays are often studied by philosophy and/or history and are less received in psychology since it does not seem to be evident-based. However, there are some psychologists of psychoanalytic inclination actively conducting empirical experiments to either modify or validate $modern$ psychoanalytic theories (which is way more developed and refined than Fraud's). Also, CBT or the cognitivism and behaviorism behind other traditions of psychotherapy approach often utilizes psychoanalytic's ideas. For example, a psychotherapist of any theoretical orientation may borrow some modern psychoanalytic theories for case conception. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One final point, I think this question, though pertaining to cognitive science, may be better received in the philosophy forum since it seems to be relevant to philosophy of science and philosophy of psychology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9676" LastEditorUserId="9676" LastEditDate="2015-10-29T07:25:17.980" LastActivityDate="2015-10-29T07:25:17.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12479" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13974" CreationDate="2015-10-29T10:01:10.483" Score="9" ViewCount="179" Body="&lt;p&gt;The title pretty much says it all.  I'm looking for any studies or experiments into language development in those &lt;strong&gt;born&lt;/strong&gt; blind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested as part of my investigations into AI on how language is developed without visual cues and if language is impaired in anyway because of this and I've yet to come across any.  Has anyone heard of such an endeavor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4400" LastEditorUserId="4400" LastEditDate="2015-11-03T09:09:41.897" LastActivityDate="2016-05-19T13:12:49.347" Title="Have there been any studies into language development in the blind?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12480" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-10-29T13:23:35.697" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to determine the similarity of a set of RGB colors that are displayed on a monitor using CIECAM02 (or CIEDE2000). I have access to a photometer. How do I go about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The goal is uniform lightness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastEditorUserId="3258" LastEditDate="2015-10-29T14:50:56.560" LastActivityDate="2015-10-29T14:50:56.560" Title="How do I convert RGB indexes under luminance condition L (from photometry) to a perceptually scaled equivalent (e.g. CIECAM02)?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-06-11T12:49:08.987" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12482" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12477" CreationDate="2015-10-29T17:27:33.980" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/act.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; explains the difference :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declarative memory&lt;/strong&gt; takes the form of a semantic net linking&#xA;  propositions, images, and sequences by associations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The nodes of long-term memory all have some degree of activation and&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;working memory&lt;/strong&gt; is that part of long-term memory that is most highly&#xA;  activated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Hyfko.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Hyfko.png&quot; alt=&quot;ACT-R Model&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The declarative memory is all knowledge that can be retrieved in consciousness. Working memory activates only the declarative memory needed for the current task.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a different task is given, the activation changes to match the needs of the new task. The non-relevant active knowledge is deactivated, and new relevant knowledge is retrieved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2015-10-29T17:33:23.870" LastActivityDate="2015-10-29T17:33:23.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12483" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12443" CreationDate="2015-10-29T23:00:17.110" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If anyone ever finds this and has the same problem: The original paper has a flaw in the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;alphac=(exp((Vd/mV-10)/11)-exp((Vd/mV-6.5)/27))/(18.975)* (Vd&amp;lt;=50*mV)/ms+2*exp((6.5-Vd/mV)/27)*(Vd&amp;gt;50*mV)/ms : Hz&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An errata published later changes this to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;alphac=(exp((Vd/mV-10)/11-(Vd/mV-6.5)/27)/18.975)*(Vd&amp;lt;=50*mV)/ms+2*exp((6.5-Vd/mV)/27)*(Vd&amp;gt;50*mV)/ms : Hz&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After making this change it acts exactly how it should.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9638" LastActivityDate="2015-10-29T23:00:17.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12485" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12486" CreationDate="2015-10-30T07:17:33.393" Score="6" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;These terms are often used interchangeably. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a difference? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastActivityDate="2019-01-07T13:11:34.257" Title="Is there a difference between ADD and ADHD?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12486" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12485" CreationDate="2015-10-30T08:55:51.857" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;They are interchangeable.  ADD was a term used throughout most of the 80s and ADHD aftewards.  In the &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 1980&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=2&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0CC8QFjABahUKEwjGsfG59unIAhVMPhQKHVi6DuI&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.terapiacognitiva.eu%2Fdwl%2Fdsm5%2FDSM-III.pdf&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNGl2-d5gUSDY9zl5eZ7T_6KG5dSpg&amp;amp;bvm=bv.106379543,d.d24&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-III&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;) published by the &lt;em&gt;American Psychiatric Association&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatry.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;) it was named ADD and the name changed to ADHD in the 1987 edition, &lt;em&gt;DSM-III-R&lt;/em&gt; (which I can find no &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0890420181&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;online&lt;/a&gt; sources of).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADD has been used to describe a sufferer without the observable hyperactivity but it is still essentially the same thing.  Which leads to the confusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Terms used to describe the condition include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Before 1980, &lt;em&gt;hyperkinetic reaction of childhood&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1980-1987, &lt;em&gt;Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1987, &lt;em&gt;Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder ADHD&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1994, &lt;em&gt;ADHD&lt;/em&gt; was disected into subtypes, &lt;em&gt;predominantly inattentive (ADHD-PI or ADHD-I)&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;predominantly hyperactive-impulsive (ADHD-PH or ADHD-HI)&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;combined type (ADHD-C)&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4400" LastEditorUserId="4400" LastEditDate="2018-06-04T08:43:21.117" LastActivityDate="2018-06-04T08:43:21.117" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12487" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3795" CreationDate="2015-10-30T09:15:06.363" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Up until recently, no empirical research has directly addressed this question. However now, there is &lt;strong&gt;first, initial evidence that people may indeed be able to change their personalities intentionally&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hudson and Fraley (2015) have investigated this possibility with two longitudinal studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How did they study this question?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In the beginning, they asked participants to indicate their goals to change with regard to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;big-five personality traits&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They tracked personality changes of undergraduate students over the course of 16 weeks&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Half of the students were randomly assigned to an intervention intended to help them to make small changes in their daily lives that would translate into crystallized personality changes. To do so, they asked them to indicate and plan ways to achieve their goals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What did they find out?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;People had, on average, goals to change their personality traits&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;People's initial goals predicted changes in the desired direction. For example, people who wanted to become more extraverted, did indeed become somewhat more extraverted as the study progressed&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In the first study, the intervention had no effect. However, the authors observed that participants had described very vague plans to change their behavior. Therefore, they instructed them to form very concrete behavioral plans (so-called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementation_intention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;implementation intentions&lt;/a&gt;) in the second study. This time, the intervention led to more personality change in the desired direction.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Caveats&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The changes were modest (.05 standard deviations per month)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The research is based on self-report measures. Thus, participants self-reported their personality with a questionnaire measure. Therefore, the observed changes may, to some extent, be biased (because of the desire to change, or the desire to conform to the implied expectations of the researchers).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hudson, N. W., &amp;amp; Fraley, R. C. (2015). Volitional personality trait change: Can people choose to change their personality traits? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 490–507. doi:10.1037/pspp0000021&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-10-31T05:59:36.037" LastActivityDate="2015-10-31T05:59:36.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12490" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12422" CreationDate="2015-10-30T19:58:35.497" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer your question directly, there are so much different factors involved in addiction to games and movies, that I don't believe any study could cover the whole thing. We can, though, try to identify the factors that are different and study them individually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fundamental difference between movies/series and games, the one thing that separates more these types of entertainment than anything else, is the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Mechanics in games imply the need for the player as an active part of the whole system, instead of a mere spectator&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://lakitusdevcartridge.wordpress.com/2012/07/05/the-elements-of-game-design/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://lakitusdevcartridge.wordpress.com/2012/07/05/the-elements-of-game-design/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Engagement&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some factors involve personalizing your character, items and environment. Since people value more to the things they themselves made, they attach to the part of the game that has been designed for them (their characters, their items, etc). It makes them a whole lot more engaged in the process. Providing some personalization to the customer has been used a lot in marketing in order, for example, to sell cake mixes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;When we talk to people who bake with mixes, they consider themselves every bit the scratch baker as someone who doesn’t use a mix,&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/11/business/media/11adco.html?_r=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/11/business/media/11adco.html?_r=0&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;This decorating obsession sold the idea that, this way, you’re making this cake yours.&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bonappetit.com/entertaining-style/pop-culture/article/cake-mix-history&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.bonappetit.com/entertaining-style/pop-culture/article/cake-mix-history&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This type of incentive cannot be applied to movies or series, since the spectator cannot have an effect on the outcome of the scenario. He's a passive observator, probably less attached to the outcome as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Comparison&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For MMO's or games where you can share your scores online, Envy and pride are also big motivators. These are feelings you rarely have while watching a movie, since your experience is the same as everyone else watching the movie. You can have a leader-board that shows you who's best, you can have multiple stats on which people can compare, you can even have purchasable cosmetic items to put on your character and show other people!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In-game or in-app purchases for cosmetic items and customization options rake in a lot of money, and developers go to great lengths to make sure that players see all the cool stuff that their teammates and opponents have acquired.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologyofgames.com/2015/10/podcast-8-envy-and-microtransactions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologyofgames.com/2015/10/podcast-8-envy-and-microtransactions/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Other factors&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I only mentioned a few, there are a lot of other factors that influence addiction and that are distinct from the ones seen in movies or TV series. I don't think there is &lt;em&gt;one&lt;/em&gt; answer, but you can develop form there and add to this discussion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, the main difference between the two types of media mentioned in this question is &lt;em&gt;the role of the consumer&lt;/em&gt;. In games, it is an active part of the experience, an actor bound to the media by causality. In Movies, it is a passive spectator and does not hold any power to influence the outcome. This is a good starting point in order to study addiction to both forms of entertainment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4173" LastActivityDate="2015-10-30T19:58:35.497" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12492" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12502" CreationDate="2015-10-31T08:40:36.707" Score="8" ViewCount="584" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've once watched a movie in which CIA agent went into a room just for a few seconds and on the next day he could recall every detail of that room, including what was on the monitors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I am wondering is there a way to improve my memory to this level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would also like to know if there are studied ways of accomplishing this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There also is something that I remember reading few years ago about training visual memory: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;You go into a dark room with a page of text and a flash light, and every ~30 seconds you turn on and off the flash light very quickly and try to recall as much as you can. And you do this for ~20 minutes. After ~30 days of practice you should have much better visual memory.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do you think about this method. Could it really work? And if so, could this ability disappear after some time without practice?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9121" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T17:57:03.013" Title="Best ways to improve memory" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12493" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12494" CreationDate="2015-10-31T23:26:54.713" Score="7" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been established that our brains control many processes that your body carries out autonomously and involuntarily. However, other actions are controlled by &lt;strong&gt;you&lt;/strong&gt;. (e.g. &lt;strong&gt;you&lt;/strong&gt; lift an arm, &lt;strong&gt;you&lt;/strong&gt; walk). Those are not things that the brain manages without you being aware of it. How does a person communicate with their brain to give commands to rest of the body? Essentially, if I'm wording it correctly: what is the difference between the brain's involuntary motor tasks and consciously managed motor tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9693" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-11-01T01:02:33.837" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T01:10:43.030" Title="How exactly do &quot;you&quot; think and interact with your body?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12494" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12493" CreationDate="2015-11-01T00:56:45.187" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You have asked an excellent question. However, this innocently short question involves many dimensions: the philosophical discussion of consciousness, the neurobiological basis of motor movements, reflexive actions, relationship between sensory and motor areas in the brain etc. I'll try my best to elaborate on my answer: meanwhile, your best bet would be to search the term &quot;&lt;strong&gt;Control Consciousness&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; online.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://petemandik.com/philosophy/papers/cc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here is an extract&lt;/a&gt; that may (if you can navigate through jargon) help guide you in the right direction. Note that the author is trying to argue for the position that the difference between conscious and unconscious motor tasks depends on the hierarchy of the motor cortex: &lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Terms:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Allocentric-Egocentric: Allocentric refers to being linked to a reference frame based on the external environment and independent of one's current location in it. For example, giving the direction as &quot;north,&quot; as opposed to &quot;right&quot; (which would be egocentric).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The main idea of ‘‘directness’’ here means something like ‘‘not&#xA;  mediated by sensory inputs or imagery thereof.’’ To illustrate, even&#xA;  on the sensory theory, motor commands have an indirect influence: I&#xA;  turn my head and thus see something other than what I was looking at.&#xA;  But here the changes exerted on the conscious state by the motor&#xA;  command are mediated by changes in sensory input. &lt;strong&gt;If motor commands&#xA;  themselves or copies of motor commands - so-called efference&#xA;  copies — can make a difference on conscious states without the&#xA;  difference being mediated by changes caused to sensory inputs, then&#xA;  this would be an instance of the influence of motor commands being&#xA;  direct&lt;/strong&gt;. As stated, the most basic form of the theory is inadequate for&#xA;  distinguishing conscious from unconscious control states. Not just any&#xA;  contribution from motor commands will make a contribution to&#xA;  consciousness. This is especially evident in the case of unconscious&#xA;  control states. What is needed, then, is a means for distinguishing&#xA;  conscious control states from unconscious control states. And here an&#xA;  extension of AEI can do the trick. The applicability of AEI to motor&#xA;  systems looks to be a straightforward affair. First, &lt;strong&gt;motor systems are&#xA;  arranged hierarchically in much the same manner as sensory systems,&#xA;  with the highest levels being most remote (in terms of intervening&#xA;  connections) from the periphery of the nervous system. Focusing here&#xA;  just on cortex, the highest level is in the prefrontal cortex, the&#xA;  lowest level is in the primary motor cortex, and intermediate is in&#xA;  the premotor cortex. Further, there exist both forward projections and&#xA;  back projections between successive levels of the motor hierarchy&#xA;  (Churchland, 2002, p. 72)&lt;/strong&gt;. We may further characterize levels in the&#xA;  motor hierarchy as differing along an allocentric-egocentric&#xA;  dimension. To illustrate, a high-level motor representation may have&#xA;  an abstract content such as 'Grab a coffee mug' - a content that abstracts&#xA;  away from low-level egocentric details about the precise sets of&#xA;  muscular contractions required to get the job done. The most specific&#xA;  details will be the task of motor representations at the lowest levels&#xA;  of the motor hierarchy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SWWPY.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SWWPY.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.petemandik.com/philosophy/papers/cc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Control Consciousness&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Pete Mandik &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Topics in Cognitive Science 2 (2010) 643–657&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://amzn.com/026253200X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain-wise: Studies in neurophilosophy.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Churchland, P. S. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;(2002). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additional Reading:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1405160004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Consciousness of action., The Blackwell companion to consciousness&lt;/a&gt; (pp. 540–550). &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Jeannerod, M. (2007). M. Velmans &amp;amp; S. Schneider (Eds.) &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Oxford, England: Blackwell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-11-01T01:10:43.030" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T01:10:43.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12495" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12492" CreationDate="2015-11-01T04:38:16.807" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your best bet is to start looking on YouTube and the Internet for various memory methods used by card memorizers, magicians, and other stunt people.  I have used them extensively, and they work.  You can also look on Amazon for books.  Tony Buzan, Harry Lorraine, Dominc O'Brien. Also the book Moonwalking with Einstein.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Don't believe all the nonsense out there about your limited memory, or it takes years of practice, or you need special supplements.  I've met SEALs who used the simple techniques taught in the books to help them.  It worked for them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9351" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T04:38:16.807" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12497" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12513" CreationDate="2015-11-01T10:20:22.580" Score="3" ViewCount="212" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, there has been a lot of research into the positive effects of video games on cognition, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.businessinsider.com.au/video-game-health-benefits-2014-9#kids-who-spend-moderate-amounts-of-time-playing-video-games-are-more-well-adjusted-10&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;As business insider reports&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious as to whether somebody should play video games purely to increase career performance based on the evidence given:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.menshealth.com/health/game-your-way-into-mensa&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A study&lt;/a&gt; states that attention is increased by 14% when playing world of warcraft and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/publication/260270884_Video_game_play_attention_and_learning_How_to_shape_the_development_of_attention_and_influence_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;another&lt;/a&gt; supports this hypothesis of attention and gaming. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/111/47/16961.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Another study in particular&lt;/a&gt; states that learning agility is increased after playing action based video games such as call of duty. This is possibly explained by video games improving the performance of perceptual templates. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though studies in this area usually contradict each other. In that case, I ask how valid are these studies in predicting effects of video games on cognitive performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many high end careers require workers with high concentration and learning agility abilities, especially a computer programmer at google. In this case do video games increase performance of individuals in a career? A study linking career performance and video game play would be valuable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/freedom-learn/201502/cognitive-benefits-playing-video-games&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This article writes the following:&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;video gamers were better than non-gamers in ability to fly and land aerial drones and were essentially as good as trained pilots on this skill (MKinley et al., 2011).  Another correlational study revealed that young, inexperienced surgeons who were also avid video gamers outperformed the most experienced surgeons in their field (Rosser et al., 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the evidence is there, it feels very uncomfortable to make the conscious decision to play video games, in order to boost career performance, rather than entertainment reasons. How valid are these studies, and is the decision to play video games purely to boost cognition, and career performance reasonable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8796" LastActivityDate="2015-11-02T09:19:46.723" Title="Does playing video games increase attention and learning agility, therefore career performance" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12416" CreationDate="2015-11-01T15:53:05.683" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term I would use is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;cognitive dissonance.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; That is, there is &quot;dissonance&quot; between the result of one's cognitive processes, and the actual truth. According to psychologist Leon Festinger, people strive for internal consistency even at the expense of truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2017-05-03T10:02:08.790" LastActivityDate="2017-05-03T10:02:08.790" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12502" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12492" CreationDate="2015-11-01T17:57:03.013" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can read book: Trick of the mind - Derren Brown. Derren Brown is a mentalist and in his book you have very powerfull methods to improve your memory based on natural mental processes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The easiest way for me is to create short story about something, that i want to recall, in the fantasy way - for exemple - i want to remember my list of products to buy when i go to shopping center - i must buy: milk, book, bread, aspiryna, food for my dog and new computer game so...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I create fantasy story - Imagine sea of milk and books as ships, one of the ships must go to port and in this port all buildings are from bread, all people in this small city eat aspiryna and dogs too! Further more these dogs like to playing computer games ... as you create that funny story you will be remember everything better - you can learn this in few minutes!!! And ofcourse - use it :) Try this and tell me if it works ;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9700" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T17:57:03.013" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12503" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12471" CreationDate="2015-11-01T18:23:14.047" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can use another methods to do this - &lt;strong&gt;for exemple hipnosis and trance&lt;/strong&gt; - if you will get suggestion that you for exemple: &quot;You can learn new things in new way&quot; you can think about new things without old habits. However this method is not for everyone, however many people to that when they go to hipnotherapists. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also read about hipnosis and many other diffrent methods in the books writen by &lt;strong&gt;Philip Zimbardo&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way - todays early education is very poor and don't understand many of things so we should know and look for many methods to unlearning some information - good question!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9700" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T18:23:14.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12505" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-01T18:43:30.397" Score="6" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking to use the IAPS for my research, but I specifically need to use images of/or containing weapons. Does anyone know if IAPS has any such stimuli, and, if so, roughly how many? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9702" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-11-02T07:44:54.977" LastActivityDate="2017-02-15T16:06:01.833" Title="Does the International Affective Picture System (IAPS) contain weapon stimuli?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12506" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12422" CreationDate="2015-11-01T19:11:55.457" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably YES and here is why - if you playing games you have your hero which is more connected with you because you do some things in the game by him as YOU (your EGO).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also read newest book of Philip Zimbardo - where are these mans? In his book he talk about it. It's interesting that boys can be more addicted from the games and girls can more addicted from the movies and TV series. It's interesting question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some companies make experiments when they create game because they want to addicted players - their clients because more clients means more money for their company.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9700" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T19:11:55.457" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12507" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12400" CreationDate="2015-11-01T19:51:15.047" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is many methods to change craving for nicotine. You can train your brain by the suggesting to yourself (or by hipnotherapeutists) something as: I don't need nicothine. When you are in the trance state for exemple or when you have highly good responses for hipnosis suggestions it will be usefull. In trance people have diffrent reality and their body tell them that i can do that and people can change even chemical responses of their bodies. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotherapy&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing is that you can focus on mathematic or poetry so much that you forget about your bad habit and when you do it again and again its Pavlov's Dog effect that it will be automatic response for your psyche. For example - your mathematics will be the cure for the craving for nicotine. However if you stop doing your mathematic, you probably will be smoking again (old habits activate again without mathematics or poetry cure).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9700" LastEditorUserId="9700" LastEditDate="2015-11-01T23:13:15.820" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T23:13:15.820" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12508" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8010" CreationDate="2015-11-01T20:40:20.727" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suggest you try another thing - as you know there is some stages when we sleep:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zui2a.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zui2a.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can change your morning-alarm time when you wake up in the time when there is end of your stages of your dream after those few hours of sleep. In that case you must try on yourself how many hours you sleep and when the lucid dream appear (time when you wake up and write your dream). After that you will be know which hour is good for you and there is better way to remember your dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also train your brain to remember your dreams as a Pavlov's dog effect. If you will be do that many times, your brain learn how to do it automaticaly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;WARNING: There are more variables! For exemple - time of the moon. Some people with night-walker disease (somnambulic disease) can feel changes when the moon is full. Evan without this illness it's evidence that this situation can change our brains stages when we sleep. People in epilepsy have more attacks when the moon is full than in time when the moon isn't full (you can ask every doctor who help people with epilepsy) and what is curious about that, many people after attack must sleep quickly to regenerate organism after attack and their brain EEG waves are much more diffrent than normal when the moon is full. There are some ideas that hormones in our body changes when the moon is full (like in the forests when some herbs (herbalism) have some chemical concetration of their substances much more higher than in the other days. Every person who farm herbs know  that and there is many books about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another idea is that you can sleep, wake up, sleep again, wake up again ... in some sleep stages. However it's hard process and you can be very sleepy when the sun for your windows will be up. This is also very dangerous technic for long time to practice!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third method is to train meditation to improve your control of your unconsciousness mind. Check this: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.world-of-lucid-dreaming.com/meditation.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.world-of-lucid-dreaming.com/meditation.html&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9700" LastEditorUserId="9700" LastEditDate="2015-11-01T22:39:56.773" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T22:39:56.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12434" CreationDate="2015-11-01T21:37:43.250" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the most compelling explanation of the origins of religions using purely psychological explanations is the theory of religious figures having a high incidence of frontal lobe epilepsy. Of course, this doesn't explain their rise in influence and  - which I think should be left to historians since it goes beyond the realm of science that could prove to be reductive and merely speculative in this case. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is a tremendous amount of literature of the psychology of religion, which would be difficult to summarize in one answer. The reason behind this is that this is a multidisciplinary subject involving social psychology, linguistics, evolutionary psychology, cognitive psychology and so forth - none that can alone provide a compelling answer. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; on this topic can be very helpful. I have tried to quote some sources regardless: &lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This quoted paragraph &lt;strong&gt;gives a flavor&lt;/strong&gt; of the different ways to answer this problem. In this case, the author mentions the semantic memory theory of religious transmission:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Where religious ideas are expressed in words (e.g. transmitted through&#xA;  oratory), it is likely that the orators themselves will rise above the&#xA;  common herd. Most religious traditions of this sort have cel- ebrated&#xA;  leaders, who may take the form of gurus, messiahs, prophets, divine&#xA;  kings, high priests, mediums, visionaries, disciples, or simply great&#xA;  evangelists or missionaries. The very fact that there are so many&#xA;  different types of, and terms for, religious leadership is an index of&#xA;  how widespread and important the phenomenon is. Partly through their&#xA;  skills as orators, these leaders become marked out as special. But, at&#xA;  the same time, their pronouncements (real or attributed) pro- vide the&#xA;  central tenets of a belief system, and their deeds become the basis&#xA;  for widely-recounted religious narratives, transmitted orally. Both&#xA;  forms of knowledge are stored primarily in semantic memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9eZXA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9eZXA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Primary Source:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.isca.ox.ac.uk/fileadmin/ICEA/ICEA_publication_pdfs/HW_2002_Modes_of_Rel__cognitive_explanation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Modes of Religiosity: a cognitive theory of religious transmission.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Whitehouse, H. (2004). &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Secondary Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12639693&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Religious Thought and Behavior as By-Products of Brain Functions&lt;/a&gt;&quot; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Boyer, Pascal. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences&lt;/em&gt; 7, pp 119–24&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0198279817&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Inside the Cult: Religious innovation and transmission in Papua New Guinea.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Whitehouse, H. (1995). &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Oxford: Clarendon Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To get a picture of the TLE theory of the &lt;strong&gt;origins of religious figures&lt;/strong&gt;, you should try understanding the behavioral changes caused by Temporal Lobe Epilepsy that involve intense religious experiences and hypergraphia, the intense desire to write - which could account for the cross-cultural production of religious scriptures:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Revered in some cultures but persecuted by most others, epilepsy&#xA;  patients have, throughout history, been linked with the divine,&#xA;  demonic, and supernatural. Clinical observations during the past 150&#xA;  years support an association between religious experiences during&#xA;  (ictal), after (postictal), and in between (interictal) seizures. In&#xA;  addition, epileptic seizures may increase, alter, or decrease&#xA;  religious experience especially in a small group of patients with&#xA;  temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Literature surveys have revealed that&#xA;  between .4% and 3.1% of partial epilepsy patients had ictal religious&#xA;  experiences; higher frequencies are found in systematic questionnaires&#xA;  versus spontaneous patient reports. Religious premonitory symptoms or&#xA;  auras were reported by 3.9% of epilepsy patients. Among patients with&#xA;  ictal religious experiences, there is a predominance of patients with&#xA;  right TLE. Postictal and interictal religious experiences occur most&#xA;  often in TLE patients with bilateral seizure foci. Postictal religious&#xA;  experiences occurred in 1.3% of all epilepsy patients and 2.2% of TLE&#xA;  patients. Many of the epilepsy-related religious conversion&#xA;  experiences occurred postictally. Interictal religiosity is more&#xA;  controversial with less consensus among studies. Patients with&#xA;  postictal psychosis may also experience interictal hyper-religiosity,&#xA;  supporting a &quot;pathological&quot; increase in interictal religiosity in some&#xA;  patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Primary Source:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18171635&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spirituality and religion in epilepsy.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Devinsky O1, Lai G. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Epilepsy Behav.&lt;/em&gt; May 2008 ; 12(4):636-43. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Secondary Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19640791&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Norman Geschwind's contribution to the understanding of behavioral changes in temporal lobe epilepsy&lt;/a&gt;: the February 1974 lecture&quot;. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Devinsky J, Schachter S (August 2009) &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Epilepsy Behav&lt;/em&gt; (Biography, History article) 15 (4): 417–24.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2824940/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypergraphia in temporal lobe epilepsy. 1974&lt;/a&gt;.&quot; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Waxman, SG; Geschwind, N (March 2005). &lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Epilepsy &amp;amp; behavior&lt;/em&gt; : E&amp;amp;B 6 (2): 282–91. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8698" LastEditorUserId="8698" LastEditDate="2015-11-01T21:59:13.657" LastActivityDate="2015-11-01T21:59:13.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12510" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-02T04:26:47.013" Score="2" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;Through past experiences, I am convinced that &quot;unschooled communities&quot; such as tribals, nomads, cattle-herders, etc. (and persons belonging to such communities) have very different ways of thinking through and negotiating everyday issues. We schooled people construct our thoughts in &quot;a different language&quot;, and face great difficulties in communicating and negotiating with them (aside from simple tasks such as buying their produce).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do the schooled have thinking systems that are substantially different from the unschooled?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, what are the prominent differences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9620" LastEditorUserId="9620" LastEditDate="2015-11-03T04:59:42.757" LastActivityDate="2015-11-03T22:16:17.463" Title="Do unschooled persons think differently from us (schooled persons)? How?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;anthropology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12512" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12505" CreationDate="2015-11-02T07:43:20.877" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I happen to have access to the IAPS and had a quick look. There are about 20 pictures that include guns, most of them are held in the hand by someone, sometimes pointed at someone. Only two are photos of just the guns. Then there are about 8 pictures involving knives, and a couple of other pictures of weapons (a rocket, a tank, two jet fighters). Finally, there are a number of mundane objects that could be used as weapons (e.g., hammers). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-11-02T07:43:20.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12513" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12497" CreationDate="2015-11-02T09:19:46.723" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think your references are good examples of the way that some of this research is covered in the media (World of Warcraft is good for you! Yay!) as opposed to the academic research which is much more cautious and limited. You seem to be familiar with the 10+ years of research by Bavelier, Green and colleagues showing improvements in attention. The first part of your title/question (&quot;Does playing video games increase attention and learning agility?&quot;) is well discussed by those papers, and also by &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/20/any-work-being-done-on-perception-action-and-or-cognition-in-video-games?rq=1&quot;&gt;this SE answer&lt;/a&gt;. My take on it is that there remains some controversy, particularly about whether games (and it is normally action video games they are talking about) actually CAUSE improvements, and the degree to which that transfers to more general tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second part of your question (does playing games enhance your career performance) is always going to depend a lot on what careers you are talking about. I wouldn't read too much into the McKinley and Rosser papers which you cite, as they both seem to look at highly specific &quot;simulation-like&quot; careers (drone pilot and endoscopic surgery), and I don't find it hugely surprising that skills from gaming transfer there. I'm also not sure of the definition of &quot;learning agility&quot; which seems a bit vague, and would want to see the evidence that &quot;computer programmer at google&quot; requires particular skill X. Why does it &quot;feel very uncomfortable to make the conscious decision to play video games, in order to boost career performance&quot;? Perhaps it is because such gaming takes time (indeed the amount that some spend is astounding), and that is time that could instead be spent on other sorts of more conventional education and training. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my short answer to your last question is that those studies are not valid for endorsing gaming to boost general career performance, and that you should seek specific training for whatever career you want (be it something game-like or not).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-11-02T09:19:46.723" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12516" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-02T12:03:30.843" Score="2" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing a PhD in archaeology and assyriology (cuneiform writing; Sumerian language), exploring the process of gendering that deities underwent during the 3rd millennium BC. I'm looking into using cognitive science to underpin part of my research into the (re)organization of memory, tradition and ideology that (I think) took place alongside the development of centralised state formation and external memory (writing). I focus in particular on the gender of deities (what exactly is it and how do we understand it?) as opposed to human gender, both from a modern academic standpoint (bias; how to overcome it?) and trying to understand the past. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any books/research/researchers that would be of use to me? Especially on questions of enactive cognition, materiality, gender.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9706" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-11-02T16:26:21.930" LastActivityDate="2015-11-02T16:26:21.930" Title="Effect of enactive cognition on gender" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;gender&gt;&lt;religion&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12517" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12631" CreationDate="2015-11-02T15:34:53.793" Score="0" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know if the &lt;a href=&quot;https://backyardbrains.com/products/hhi&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;human to human interface&lt;/a&gt; carry the same information from the brain or it is just a signal that switch on or off electrical impulses that causes the limb to contract?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it even possible to take someone else signal coming from the brain and redirect to somebody else where the other person can use it for the same result or is it always going to be digital type On or OFF and not analog?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7005" LastActivityDate="2015-11-16T21:28:09.097" Title="Does human to human interface carry the same information from the brain" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2015-11-16T19:01:17.880" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12518" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-02T22:52:27.833" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I apologize for my english and I would really appreciate an help at improving the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's very frequent that the guy who is in charge &lt;strong&gt;pretends&lt;/strong&gt; that he would be &quot;right&quot; (and the other would be wrong). This happens between parents and their children, in couples, in web forums, between teachers and scolar, in the HR, in the job, on social network groups, when speaking to police officers, judges and so on. The first one tries to explain to the others why he is right and the other is wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually the idea itself of &quot;beliefs&quot;, &quot;dicotomic&quot; helps to show why it's pretty hard to speak of being &quot;right&quot;. &#xA;It's enough to compare the formulation of any Evidence Based Paper to understand how subjective we are as human being. The law itself has often dicotomic formulation, the language used by lawyer is very approximative and far away from being objective. A math theorem is objective. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why authority charged people act in this way? In social science, pretending to be right has been proved to be effective for dealing with most of people? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2015-11-02T22:52:27.833" Title="Why who is aministering the power pretends to be right?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2015-11-10T01:42:24.007" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12521" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10816" CreationDate="2015-11-03T11:47:31.137" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recent studies on this topic deal with more detailed questions, that are analysed using structural equation models (Deary et al., 2006). A main goal has been the identification of specific genes. No single genes have been found until today and Sternberg (2012) also points out that the concept of heritability itself is indirect and maybe inappropriate if measured as ratio of genetic variation, because of neglection of cultural factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But yes, there has been a meta-analysis since Bouchard and McGue: Daniels et al. (1997) argue for maternal womb effects, that explain &quot;20% of covariance between twins and 5% between siblings&quot;. E. g. the IQ correlation for monozygotic twins being raised together is reported as r=.85. Correlations for dizygotic twins raised together are reported as from r=.46 to .60, siblings IQ values correlate from .44 to .46, depending on the statistical model used. In regard to correlations, the findings seem very comparable to Bouchard and McGue's. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And of course, occasionally there have been studies on this fundamental topic, e.g Van Leeuwen (2008), Pujol et al. (2007). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Literature&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Daniels, M., Devlin, B., &amp;amp; Roeder, K. (1997). The heritability of IQ. In Nature (Bd. 388, S. 468–471). LONDON: MACMILLAN MAGAZINES LTD. doi:10.1038/41319&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nichols, R. C. (1965). The national merit twin study. Methods and goals in human behavior genetic, 231-244.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Van Leeuwen, M., van den Berg, S. M., &amp;amp; Boomsma, D. I. (2008). A twin-family study of general IQ. In Learning and Individual Differences (Bd. 18, S. 76–88). AMSTERDAM: Elsevier Inc. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.04.006&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;David Gallardo Pujol, Uwe Kramp, Carlos García-Forero, Albert Maydeu-Olivares, und Antonio Andrés-Pueyo. (2007). IQ heritability estimation: Analyzing genetically-informative datawith structural equation models. In Psicothema. Universidad de Oviedo.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wahlsten, D. (1994). The intelligence of heritability. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 35(3), 244.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sternberg, R. J. (2012). Intelligence. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 3(5), 501-511.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9712" LastActivityDate="2015-11-03T11:47:31.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12522" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13401" CreationDate="2015-11-03T21:00:26.953" Score="5" ViewCount="241" Body="&lt;p&gt;I collected references, supporting the hypothesis that binaural beats have an influence in our brain (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/10447/370&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I currently see two possibilities to possibly increase the (measurable) effect of binaural beats:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What-ever brain wave doesn't have a fixed frequency but a range. Sweeping across the frequency band could be an improvement.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sweeping the volume from left to right.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this already researched?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT 2&lt;/strong&gt;: Sometimes (white, pink, brown) noise is mentioned to increase the effect. There might be a optimal signal-to-noise ratio...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;: The frequency of the sweep shall be low. My focus lies on hitting your personal resonance frequency to increase the effect of binaural beats. As written in the linked post: &lt;em&gt;This maximum declines as the &#xA;carrier moves away from 440 Hz.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-03-14T20:34:36.520" Title="Two possibilites to increase the effect of binaural beats" Tags="&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;binaural-beats&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12523" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12510" CreationDate="2015-11-03T22:16:17.463" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given that 1) schooling intentionally exposes individuals to conventionally prescribed concepts they would otherwise not be exposed to, entailing formation of neurally encoded cognitive representations thereof at different levels of context-specificity (concreteness) and context-generality (abstractedness) and that 2) metacognitive activity (i.e. thinking and thought-processes) is concerned with the accessing and structuring of concepts seemingly relevant to one another, and can entail the emergence both of new levels of awareness and of thinking-related skills, it is logically predictable that wide differences in the nature of schooled and unschooled individuals' thinking would occur. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6689" LastActivityDate="2015-11-03T22:16:17.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12525" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-04T13:37:15.597" Score="4" ViewCount="1374" Body="&lt;p&gt;By requirement I mean there are so many &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/emotions/isolation-effects.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ill side effects of isolation&lt;/a&gt;, and everyone feels &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/psychotherapy/a/loneliness.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;loneliness&lt;/a&gt; after too much time spent alone (although that threshold is different for different people, e.g. some people can't make it a day without talking to someone, others can spend weeks or months in complete isolation, but everyone eventually will feel loneliness, and it's side effects) whereas there are so many &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83766/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mental health benefits of proper social engagement&lt;/a&gt; that it might as well be a necessity of life as much as food and drink.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Isolation is a lot more common than we might realize, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-squeaky-wheel/201306/together-still-lonely&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;just because you are not physically alone does not mean that you are not isolated&lt;/a&gt; many of us even fail to realize they are living in isolation (mostly because of the notion that isolation only comes in the physical form of being a shut-in). After isolation when the loneliness starts to kick in, Introverts turn to online communities (often gaming, facebook, or some forums) and extroverts have a tendency to turn to partying (MORE PEOPLE!) and often as a side-effect, alcohol and drugs, both confusing these activites with fulfilling social engagement; while they're really just turning into addicts of their own escape mechanisms which are only momentary reliefs from their feeling of loneliness, always feeling deep down inside like something is missing. The introverts that are isolated are usually physically isolated (shut-ins). While the extroverts that are isolated tend to be isolated mentally (closing themselves off; often without even realizing it) building superficial relationships that do not fulfill them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We all have an instinct that tells us to interact with other people, an instinct that disregards whether that interaction is positive or negative (as we see for example in &quot;attention seekers&quot; that attract as much attention as they can without any regard for what kind of attention it is)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some need every human being has to express themselves to other humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we so actively seek social interactions? &lt;strong&gt;What exactly are we seeking from these social interactions&lt;/strong&gt;? Acceptance? Acknowledgement? Approval? Understanding? All of these? None of these?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need to know the full answer to this because I am wondering what kind of social interaction will most fully satisfy our needs. What kind of environment to look for to truly overcome the isolation element, and the long term loneliness that follows and plagues so many of us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8222" LastActivityDate="2016-11-06T21:01:59.547" Title="Why do we require social interaction/engagement?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;social-desirability&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12527" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12584" CreationDate="2015-11-04T15:19:53.600" Score="4" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do children progress from counting to addition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that an grasp of counting is achieved before an understanding of cardinality (size of a set of objects). Thus, there does seem to be some division between procedural understanding and conceptual understanding of counting. However, how does this carry on to addition? Is addition also typically learned procedurally rather than conceptually?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-11-12T02:04:31.030" Title="Children's progression from counting to addition" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12529" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12537" CreationDate="2015-11-04T16:25:36.607" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, I work at a library and one of my responsibilities is to man a self-service print desk (filling paper, answering questions, clearing jams, etc.).  Now, I've noticed some interesting behaviors manifest themselves.  We have two printers that are exactly alike.  When someone has released a print job and is standing there waiting for it to finish it seems that people are more likely to stand in line rather than walk two yards to the other printer.  Is there any reasoning behind this?  I'd be interested to read research dealing with a similar question.  Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9723" LastActivityDate="2015-11-05T10:11:34.717" Title="Research on time-saving/ preferences?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12530" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12527" CreationDate="2015-11-04T17:18:31.650" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, addition becomes procedural knowledge. Below is an extract from the book &quot;Smart Thinking by Art Markman&quot;, that clearly explains the process :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When you are learning to do addition, the two procedures you have for&#xA;  adding compete with each other. One of those procedures requires some&#xA;  effort. You start with the bigger number and then count up. Adding two&#xA;  and four means starting with four and then counting to five and six.&#xA;  The other procedure is effortless. You try to remember the answer. If&#xA;  you finish counting before you pull up an answer from memory, then the&#xA;  counting procedure wins. If you are confident you have pulled up the&#xA;  right answer from memory before you finish counting, then the habit&#xA;  wins. After you solve the problem (by either method), you store&#xA;  another memory that 2 + 4 = 6. So, each attempt at an addition problem&#xA;  provides memories that will make it faster for you to remember the&#xA;  correct answer in the future. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The difficulty with math is there are lots of similar facts. You are&#xA;  learning 2 + 4 = 6, but at the same time, you are also encountering&#xA;  problems like 2 + 7 = 9 and 2 + 5 = 7. Sometimes, when you see 2 + 4,&#xA;  you will also recall some of those similar problems. When you retrieve&#xA;  these conflicting answers, you are going to be uncertain about which&#xA;  answer is correct. So you will finish carrying out your counting&#xA;  procedure before you have an answer from memory. Once you have a lot&#xA;  of examples of addition problems in your memory, most of what you pull&#xA;  out of memory when you see 2 + 4 will be other situations in which you&#xA;  also saw 2 + 4. At that point, you retrieve information from memory&#xA;  faster than you can count, and so you have a habit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Chapter references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Logan, G. D. (1988). Toward an Instance Theory of Automaticity.&#xA;  Psychological Review 95: 492–527. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Schneider, W., and Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and Automatic&#xA;  Human Information Processing: 1. Detection, Search, and Attention.&#xA;  Psychological Review 84 (1): 1–66. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Shiffrin, R. M., and Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and Automatic&#xA;  Human Information Processing: 2. Perceptual Learning, Automatic&#xA;  Attending, and a General Theory. Psychological Review 84: 127–190.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two competing systems mentioned above, are actually &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory#Systems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;system 1 and system 2&lt;/a&gt; that are explained in detail by Daniel Kahneman, in his book Thinking, fast and slow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2015-11-04T17:34:50.950" LastActivityDate="2015-11-04T17:34:50.950" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12531" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12533" CreationDate="2015-11-04T17:18:53.883" Score="1" ViewCount="457" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to teach myself about the structure of the brain and am slightly confused as to whether the hippocampus and amygdala are parts of the temporal lobe or whether they are just parts of the cerebrum which are close to the temporal lobe. Any help would be much appreciated. Thank you :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6523" LastActivityDate="2015-11-04T18:21:07.157" Title="Brain anatomy- hippocampus and amygdala positions" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12532" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-04T18:13:41.393" Score="4" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does dream lucidity come with understanding the mechanisms of the world, age, or something else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9725" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2015-11-11T22:59:54.590" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T22:59:54.590" Title="Does individual understanding or perception, determine dream lucidity?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12533" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12531" CreationDate="2015-11-04T18:21:07.157" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The hippocampus and the amygdala is neither part of the temporal lobe or the cerebrum, it part of the limbic system located at the top of the brain stem and is cover by the cerebral cortex that the temporal lobe is a part of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9726" LastActivityDate="2015-11-04T18:21:07.157" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12534" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12562" CreationDate="2015-11-04T20:10:52.773" Score="4" ViewCount="1681" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a dream why do we wake up when we figure out that its not real. I mean even in a lucid dream we are lost to some extent and as soon as we stop accepting the situation we tend to awaken?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9473" LastActivityDate="2015-11-09T22:57:14.287" Title="Why do we wake up from sleep (from a dream) as soon as we figure out reality?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12534" CreationDate="2015-11-05T00:54:34.700" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;No dream is real, yet we dream without waking up, mostly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, you can argue the opposite - we wake up because we have the illusion our dream is real. Like when you wake up from a dream too distressful to take.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our brain has two distinct modes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stay on task (central executive).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dreaming (day or night).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While awake, we often in the stay on task mode, one of the key mechanism of which is the constant comparison of external stimuli to our mental beliefs (a constant &quot;everything is as I expect it to be&quot; check). Even while awake we drift into day-dreaming mode, and recent research has shown this happens much more frequently than we are conscious of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While asleep, the dream mode is much stronger - we process little to no external stimuli (depending on the level of the sleep); the brain replays the day events; and there is strong random element to our cognitive processes. Yet, for the most part, we aren't in a vegetative state - the brain still needs waking up in case of true emergency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such emergency can be external (smoke alarm) or internal (truly dissonant dream).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So even whilst dreaming, it isn't quite &quot;everything goes&quot; - depending on the sleep stage, some backup mechanism is still in place. Approaching certain death, or having sex with your mother are two example of dreams that may cross the threshold and wake you up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2015-11-05T00:54:34.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12536" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12525" CreationDate="2015-11-05T09:48:53.523" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you phrased this well, but you are correct that it is a hard question which could be answered in many different ways which, perhaps, may not satisfy you. It is a &quot;why&quot; question so let me give some speculative answers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-an evolutionary psychologist might say that we have evolved to seek social interactions because humans in groups are more successful (e.g., they can mate, raise offspring together, defend each other from predators etc). It is hard to refute this kind of explanation, and indeed many/most species show a desire to interact, although some niches may have encouraged more solitary behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-a behavioural neuroscientist might say that we seek social interactions because they are rewarding on a biological level, for example because they release &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453098000560&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;oxytocin&lt;/a&gt; which has a range of positive effects on physiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-a social or developmental psychologist might focus more on the way that social interactions change &lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com/content/early/2014/04/25/0146167214529799.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self-reported well-being&lt;/a&gt;, or on the qualities of the interaction which are most important (perhaps in line with your bolded question). While it is true that particular types of (positive) interaction are best, even minimal contact increases a feeling of belonging. The developmental literature on social enrichment might be a good place to look if you want to find out how to make satisfying interactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, like most &quot;why&quot; questions, it depends what level of analysis you are interested in, but all of these are probably true to some extent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2015-11-05T09:48:53.523" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12537" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12529" CreationDate="2015-11-05T10:11:34.717" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your title suggests that you might be interested in individual preferences/differences in who chooses which printer, but the rest of the question made me think of research into &quot;queue joining&quot;. There are some classic social psychology papers on this subject. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/35/6/437/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; confirmed that people are more likely to join the (wrong) queue if there are more people waiting, presumably because they conform and assume that other people know something that they don't. There is also &lt;a href=&quot;http://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/msom.1080.0239&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;interesting related research&lt;/a&gt; in an applied setting about the balance between preferring a restaurant because it is busy (therefore must be good) and preferring one because it is less busy (therefore you might get served quicker). I'm sure there is recent research along these lines too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So maybe people stand in line because at least they can be sure that that printer is working!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2015-11-05T10:11:34.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12538" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12539" CreationDate="2015-11-05T17:31:48.297" Score="2" ViewCount="766" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe the hypothalamus is involved in control of appetite and defensive and reproductive behaviours, which are functions of the limbic system, and according to this website &lt;a href=&quot;http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/limbicsystem.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/limbicsystem.html&lt;/a&gt; it would seem that it is part of the limbic system, however Wikipedia and other sites seem to disagree... Any help would be much appreciated :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6523" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2015-11-06T05:03:15.083" LastActivityDate="2015-11-06T05:03:15.083" Title="Is the hypothalamus part of the limbic system?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12538" CreationDate="2015-11-06T05:03:00.460" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Yes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There is no universal agreement on the total list of structures comprising the limbic system. The brain regions constituting the limbic system according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2917081/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rajmohan &amp;amp; Mohandas (2007)&lt;/a&gt; are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Limbic cortex&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cingulate gyrus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parahippocampal gyrus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hippocampal formation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The dentate gyrus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hippocampus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Subicular Complex&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amygdala&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Septal area&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hypothalamus&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; agrees on the inclusion of the hypothalamus. I dare say that in general the hypothalamus is included as an essential component of the limbic system, as it is involved in the expression of emotional responses, such as rage and fear &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10814/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10814/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2917081/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rajmohan &amp;amp; Mohandas &lt;em&gt;Indian J Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;49&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 132–9)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2015-11-06T05:03:00.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12542" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15368" CreationDate="2015-11-06T09:47:24.797" Score="2" ViewCount="1143" Body="&lt;p&gt;How come some twice exceptional children (i.e., intellectually gifted children who have some form of disability) have high iq, but low processing speed? Isn't processing speed a factor of intelligence? If not, why do iq tests have a time limit?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9735" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-07-08T01:13:14.710" LastActivityDate="2016-08-01T01:05:33.500" Title="Relationship between processing speed and IQ in twice exceptional children" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12543" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11032" CreationDate="2015-11-06T10:09:31.660" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's actually a very simple answer to this question: calculate criterion of confidence level = 3 by counting as hits only those trials where the answer was correct (and the target was there), and confidence was equal or higher than 3. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is also what Rahnev et al did in the following paper:&#xA;Rahnev, D., Koizumi, A., McCurdy, L. Y., D’Esposito, M., &amp;amp; Lau, H. (2015). Confidence Leak in Perceptual Decision Making. Psychological Science, 0956797615595037. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615595037&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615595037&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9178" LastActivityDate="2015-11-06T10:09:31.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12544" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-06T15:37:47.563" Score="1" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;How many electrical sparks occur in the brain, on average, per minute and at what structures do they occur?  For the &quot;how many&quot; figure, I would be happy to have ranges here from relaxed to excited states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard estimations in the thousands to billions.  Further I have heard some postulation that sparks actually occur at the synaptic cleft by way of the ionization that is created in this space - eg the ionization creates a directed channel for electrical spark channeling.  I realize that it is believed that the electrical impulses travel down the axons, but it appears that there indeed is a point of true spark when the gaps are encountered and I would like to see some clarification and research on this if possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9605" LastEditorUserId="9605" LastEditDate="2015-11-06T15:45:16.627" LastActivityDate="2015-11-06T15:45:16.627" Title="What is the general frequency (or range of frequencies) of &quot;sparks&quot; in the human brain per minute and at what locations?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-11-13T01:38:36.003" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12545" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12573" CreationDate="2015-11-06T16:38:33.917" Score="3" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that in the visual cortex there are separate visual pathways for both color and shape. Do these separate pathways imply that human beings become consciously aware of these features separately or are they bound unconsciously?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T02:10:42.777" Title="Color and shape arriving together in visual system" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12546" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12574" CreationDate="2015-11-06T20:38:45.227" Score="1" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible that sometimes when monkeys stand up on their two legs they are just imitating humans in order to communicate or have fun?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastActivityDate="2015-11-10T16:24:08.273" Title="do monkeys imitate humans sometimes just for fun?" Tags="&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12548" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-07T02:24:18.383" Score="3" ViewCount="456" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard that it is impossible to both laugh and be angry. I tried and wasn't able to do it, even with simulated laughter and anger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to laugh and be angry?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7015" LastActivityDate="2015-11-07T04:34:42.027" Title="Is it physically possible to laugh while being angry?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12549" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12548" CreationDate="2015-11-07T04:27:38.590" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As with all questions about emotion, the answer depends on how you define &quot;emotion.&quot; Long post ahead… :P&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Anger as basic&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the one hand, we have basic emotion theories, most famously advanced by Ekman, Tomkins, and Friesen and rooted in the work of Darwin. Basically, these theories suggest that emotions correspond to circumscribed regions of the brain (e.g., the amygdala for fear) and respectively involve specific and consistent patterns of facial, behavioral, physiological, neural, and experiential responses.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to this view, anger is a basic, universal emotion that is constituted by a specific set of facial movements, with which laughter would be incompatible.  &lt;strong&gt;So this theory would not predict that you could laugh while angry.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Anger as constructed&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most recent theories of emotion are called &quot;constructionist&quot;--although their ideas date back to William James (late 19th century).  Constructionist theories have been most famously advanced by Lisa Feldman Barrett and James Russell.  This view deeply challenges the basic-theory assumptions that emotions are discrete, universal, and modular.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, according to one constructionist account (Conceptual Act Theory), emotions emerge when we make meaning out of our situated affective experiences (to put it very simply).  In this sense, emotions are just concepts that can be applied to a heterogeneous population of experiences/contexts that share some statistical regularity (e.g., instances of fear often share the presence of threat/danger).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, one instance of anger need not look like another (e.g., many different facial expressions, CNS/PNS patterns, etc.), but in general I'll know what you mean when you say you're angry. Not to mention, your concept of anger may even be different than mine.  This means that you might conceptualize some instances as &quot;anger&quot; that I would not. So you would experience anger in situations that I would not.  One such situation might be where you're laughing. If you thought laughter signaled anger, then you might infer from your laughter that you are angry. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So this theory would predict that it is definitely possible to laugh when angry.  Although, the more precise prediction would be: it is possible to be angry when you laugh.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize these theories are slightly confusing/complex (especially the second one)! I've read at least 600 pages about constructionism, and I still have to remind myself what it says exactly (it gets much more abstract).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll be frank and say that I completely reject the &quot;Anger as basic&quot; account.  Basic emotion theories are hanging on by a thread at this point, in my opinion--there's a huge and still growing body of evidence against them.  &lt;strong&gt;So my inclination is with the latter prediction: you can certainly be angry when you laugh.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-11-07T04:34:42.027" LastActivityDate="2015-11-07T04:34:42.027" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12550" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12423" CreationDate="2015-11-07T13:12:56.607" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The difference is in consistency.  Bipolar disorder there is usually &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychcongress.com/blogs/chris-bojrab-md/distinguishing-bipolar-disorder-adhd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;episodic&lt;/a&gt;; quick, drastic changes between normality, mania, depression and anger.  ADHD on the other hand is chronic and affects attention and behavior rather than &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/bipolar-disorder/guide/bipolar_disorder_or_adhd?page=2#2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mood&lt;/a&gt;.  Anger is of course a symptom but usually only situational.  Over a period of time, bursts of anger and other moods can be documented and the pattern matched with ADHD, Bipolor, Autism or whatever similarly presenting issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BPD (Borderline Personality Disorder)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was sure your question was asking about bipolar.  Maybe I read it wrong.  Distinguishing between BPD and ADHD is another matter because it's not about distinguishing per-se, more about deciding if you have one or both as there is symptom overlap.  Again the answer is a complete medical and behavioral history however.&#xA;The idea (as with above) is to gather all presenting symptoms then if you have the non overlapping symptoms of either or both ADHD (e.g.&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bpded.com/content/pdf/2051-6673-1-3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hyperactivity, disorganisation, attention&lt;/a&gt;) and BPD (e.g.&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bpded.com/content/pdf/2051-6673-1-3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;emptiness, suicidal thoughts, self harming&lt;/a&gt;), they are diagnosed.  It's very unlikely a person will present with only the overlapping symptoms but in that case...I'm not sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4400" LastEditorUserId="4400" LastEditDate="2015-11-18T13:38:08.113" LastActivityDate="2015-11-18T13:38:08.113" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12552" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12555" CreationDate="2015-11-08T01:46:57.673" Score="6" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read a number of times that &quot;successful&quot; people limit the number of trivial decisions they make on a day-to-day basis in order to have more energy for bigger decisions. A common example cited (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.businessinsider.com.au/mark-zuckerberg-same-t-shirt-2014-11&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) is Mark Zuckerberg wearing the same shirt every day, which saves some creative energy for the business decisions he needs to make. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any scientific evidence for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7865" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-11-11T20:46:58.187" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T20:46:58.187" Title="Does limiting one's trivial decisions free more energy for bigger decisions?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;ego-depletion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12553" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-08T04:43:13.313" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;This can be useful for getting a better grip on understanding the link between actual stimuli, brain processing, and EEG data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9444" LastActivityDate="2015-11-09T14:59:45.630" Title="Have EEG signals in auditory speech perception task have ever been analyzed for correlation with auditory stimuli itself?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12554" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-08T13:40:23.283" Score="3" ViewCount="1333" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to psychoanalytic theory, people sometimes defend against their own unwanted motives, conflicts, and behavioral tendencies by identifying them and decrying them in other people. This has been called projection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't understand the reasoning behind  &lt;strong&gt;Projection&lt;/strong&gt; as a &lt;strong&gt;Defense Mechanism&lt;/strong&gt;. I mean, why tell someone they lie when you are the one prone to lying? Why accuse other people of something they haven't done but what you most likely would do if you were in their position? In what way does this tendency help to deal with inner conflicts according to psychoanalytic theory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9747" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-11-11T20:50:21.113" LastActivityDate="2016-02-13T18:00:01.703" Title="How does psychoanalytic theory explain the way in which projection works?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12555" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12552" CreationDate="2015-11-08T16:16:19.683" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Evidence on this question stems from research on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_depletion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego depletion&lt;/a&gt; and the &quot;Strength Model of Self Control&quot; (Baumeister, Vohs, &amp;amp; Tice, 2007). The theory posits that successful self-control relies on a limited resource that is depleted by tasks requiring self control. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In series of experiments, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/psp945883.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vohs and colleagues (2008)&lt;/a&gt; have investigated the hypothesis that, because making choices is mentally taxing, subsequent attempts to engage in self-regulation are more likely to fail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Citing from their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The current research tested the hypothesis that making many choices impairs subsequent self-control. Drawing from a limited-resource model of self-regulation and executive function, the authors hypothesized that decision making depletes the same resource used for self-control and active responding. In 4 laboratory studies, some participants made choices among consumer goods or college course options, whereas others thought about the same options without making choices. &lt;strong&gt;Making choices led to reduced self-control (i.e., less physical stamina, reduced persistence in the face of failure, more procrastination, and less quality and quantity of arithmetic calculations).&lt;/strong&gt; A field study then found that reduced self-control was predicted by shoppers’ self-reported degree of previous active decision making. Further studies suggested that choosing is more depleting than merely deliberating and forming preferences about options and more depleting than implementing choices made by someone else and that anticipating the choice task as enjoyable can reduce the depleting effect for the first choices but not for many choices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So judging from this research, if you stand in front of your wardrobe every morning and experience the decision between the black and the grey t-shirt as an arduous and mentally taxing choice exercise, it might indeed be better to always wear grey, as Mark Zuckerberg does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has to be said, however, that some people have doubted whether self-control can really be understood as a finite resource that can be depleted and favor a motivational account of the effects (e.g., Inzlicht, Schmeichel, &amp;amp; Macrae, 2014; Job, Dweck, &amp;amp; Walton, 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, the specific data about making decisions is only the result of one paper (I am not aware of independent replications, but they might exist) and, more generally, there are some doubts about how strong and reliable ego depletion effects are (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9459/is-the-depletion-effect-of-self-control-reliable&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; earlier question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, it doesn't hurt to avoid complicated but trivial choices. Nevertheless, I would still hold on to those black shirts (my heuristic is to take the one that lies on top, by the way).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., &amp;amp; Tice, D. M. (2007). The strength model of self-control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(6), 351–355. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00534.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00534.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inzlicht, M., Schmeichel, B. J., &amp;amp; Macrae, C. N. (2014). Why self-control seems (but may not be) limited. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(3), 127–133. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.009&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Job, V., Dweck, C. S., &amp;amp; Walton, G. M. (2010). Ego depletion--Is it all in your head?: implicit theories about willpower affect self-regulation. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1686–1693. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610384745&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610384745&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vohs, K. D., Baumeister, R. F., Schmeichel, B. J., Twenge, J. M., Nelson, N. M., &amp;amp; Tice, D. M. (2008). Making choices impairs subsequent self-control: A limited-resource account of decision making, self-regulation, and active initiative. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(5), 883–898. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.5.883&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.5.883&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T10:07:33.817" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12556" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-09T01:53:56.770" Score="1" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say we buy stocks. Then stocks either go up or down. Neither is deliberate. No body deliberately buy the wrong stocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But free market assign full responsibility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if someone accidentally committed manslaughter against a kid, he'll get lower sentence than if someone deliberately murdered a child.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we feel that way (and yes most of us do feel that way).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we take into account that deliberate mistake are often repeated? Those who deliberately rob us must have rob so many people so many times? Do we recognize that giving huge incentive do not reduce &quot;undeliberate&quot; mistake?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happened?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a math model or evolutionary model for that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2016-05-16T21:56:27.477" LastActivityDate="2016-05-17T13:01:23.753" Title="Why people assign blame to deliberate act?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12557" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12589" CreationDate="2015-11-09T11:57:47.370" Score="1" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;You all probably know the thought experiment, 'If a tree falls in the forest and no one is their to hear it, does it make a sound?'. But if we take that one step further and ask 'If we are not consciously aware of a sound do we hear it?'. This question as it stands is very broad so let me specify what I mean. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By consciously aware I mean that we are actively thinking about that sound when it occurs and by hear I mean at some later time, (perhaps with prompting) are you able to recall that there was a sound? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Of course the question can be phrased not just concerning hearing but also things like pain, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8759" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2015-11-10T02:29:14.867" LastActivityDate="2015-11-12T10:19:40.617" Title="If we do not consciously perceive a sound at a time, can we sometimes still later consciously recall it?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12558" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12572" CreationDate="2015-11-09T12:17:32.483" Score="2" ViewCount="1275" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose, hypothetically, that I wanted to do a blind taste test into preference for Coke or Pepsi. I organize hundreds of volunteers and find that a certain group prefers one and another group the other. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I work for some marketing company, they ask me to account for this. After all, they reason, preference for Coke vs Pepsi is not random. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps there's a socioeconomic explanation, perhaps it relates to gender, hormones, age or ethnicity. Who knows! There are hundreds of variables commonly studied in the academic community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if I find a couple of variables that correlate, say hypothetically, BMI and employment status, I have no way to determine if those are &quot;good&quot; variables or if this is just a coincidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How are researchers in psych experiments trained to deal with this sort of scenario? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6493" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T12:35:11.033" Title="How does one identify relevant variables when performing research on perception?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12559" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12553" CreationDate="2015-11-09T14:59:45.630" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Extensively. Most prominently, recently, by David Poeppel, Oded Ghitza and Anne-Lise Giraud, in a series of papers. They've, to be precise, mostly focused on MEG  correlations with the filtered speech amplitude envelope. Areas around the auditory cortex track it fairly well it seems. There is still much debate about what this means and where it comes from, but it's been discussed. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.nyu.edu/clash/dp_papers/PLoSONE2013Kubanek.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Example here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the spectrotemporal response function, which is a somewhat generalized concept and mostly employed in an sEEG context. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.isr.umd.edu/Labs/CSSL/simonlab/pubs/Ding+SimonJNeurophysiol2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Example here&lt;/a&gt;. It looks like this:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0KQ4k.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0KQ4k.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2015-11-09T14:59:45.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12561" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12570" CreationDate="2015-11-09T21:57:05.220" Score="3" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question starts out with some finance theory to set the scene:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's consider the stock price of Google (the value of holding a share in Google). The volatility in Google's stock price is the degree of variation in that price. An implied volatility can be derived from the market price of an option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An option is an instrument which gives the buyer a right to buy or sell a particular stock in the future at a particular price, if they want to. Volatility is one of the inputs required to price (determine the correct value) of an option. It is the range in which a a stock price is expected to fluctuate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Organisations are often considered as organisms. Organic metaphors are often used to describe how organisations work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I was to use psychology to create a metaphor for volatility, what theory could I use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If stock price is an individuals self worth or self esteem and an option price is their outlook on what their self worth might be at a point in the future. Finance theory would suggest that a correct view of future self worth would require something comparable to volatility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it sound reasonable to consider volatility as emotional modulation? Emotional dysregulation at one end of the scale, a level head at the other? Is there a psychological term for level head?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any good reading you would suggest to help me continue this comparison/analysis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9758" LastEditorUserId="9758" LastEditDate="2015-11-10T15:26:56.517" LastActivityDate="2015-11-10T15:26:56.517" Title="Drawing Parallels Between Finance and Psychology: A Psychology Metaphor" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12534" CreationDate="2015-11-09T22:57:14.287" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you are dreaming, and you realize that it is a dream, the initial surprise can wake you up. However, you can build a skill for staying in the dream by anchoring yourself to simple actions in the dream. For example, as soon as you realize that you are dreaming, look at your hands and start shaking them in the dream. Generally, you will start to wake up, but then will feel yourself moving back into the dream. Once in this state of being fully aware of the dream and fully in the dream, you can start taking control of the dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several other techniques to help spot your dreams and help you remain in them to facilitate lucid dreaming. Here is a pretty decent &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikihow.com/Lucid-Dream&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2015-11-09T22:57:14.287" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12564" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12558" CreationDate="2015-11-09T23:57:45.610" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you do research you do not do it on a blank slate. Research is based on previous theory. You usually know very well your subject and have an idea or a guess of what variables could be important. Finding a correlation that has never been found before can in itself lead to an article (at least in vision research). Proving that the correlation is causal can be very difficult if you are unable to manipulate your stimuli, or beyond the reach of psychophysical experiments at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9761" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2015-11-11T12:35:11.033" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T12:35:11.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12565" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12558" CreationDate="2015-11-10T00:06:27.110" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Researchers are trained to address this problem by using literature reviews to isolate the specific variables that should be of most interest. At the start of research you generally examine the knowns and unknowns in the particular area of interest, so as to determine the state of the art in that area. Once you know the state of the art you have a better idea of how to proceed with the research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if you found that something was known about your research area then you could use this literature to justify looking at a specific set of variables when examining the problem. This relevant prior literature need not have examined the exact same area as the problem you are looking at. For example, if you were looking at factors that influence preferences for coke and pepsi you could look at research that examined brand preferences, or even something more fundamental such as the factors that lead to positive beliefs and attitudes. This research would give you an idea as to which particular variables were most deserving of consideration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on the extent that you could argue that little was known about the particular problem,  you could also consider doing exploratory or descriptive research to attempt to identify or categorize the different variables involved. In this case you might use an interview to get some factors that set up your experiment and then use experiment to assess their relative impacts on the behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2015-11-10T02:36:05.023" LastActivityDate="2015-11-10T02:36:05.023" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12566" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12545" CreationDate="2015-11-10T00:12:33.013" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;They are bound unconsciously, and this is known as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;binding problem&lt;/a&gt;. You can make experiments (using very short durations and/or &quot;masks&quot;) however, to interfere with this process. The result is that sometimes you consciously bind the wrong color and shape. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9761" LastActivityDate="2015-11-10T00:12:33.013" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12567" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12281" CreationDate="2015-11-10T00:21:46.513" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is correct that only a small percentage of neurons increase their activities  relative to their baseline level in response to   new stimuli or to more abstract thoughts. There are many computational advantages to this. For instance, in deep learning, sparse coding is a class of unsupervised methods for learning sets of over-complete bases to represent data efficiently. Basically you have more combinations to store patterns if you activate a few cells than if you either activate too few or too many. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9761" LastActivityDate="2015-11-10T00:21:46.513" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12569" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12532" CreationDate="2015-11-10T01:36:03.693" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am unsure if you mean, if the ability to lucid dream comes with age? or if the type or degree of lucidity within the dream is different depending on the individual? So I will aim for a ballpark answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lucid dreaming defined by a dream in which the dreamer is – while dreaming – aware that she/he is dreaming (Schredl &amp;amp; Erlacher, 2004).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A variety of different factors have been found to influence lucid dreaming. Though most people report having had a lucid dream at least once in their lives, only about 20% of the population reports having lucid dreams once amonth or more (Snyder &amp;amp; Gackenbach, 1988; in LaBerge, 1990). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Contrary to your suggestion, lucid dreaming has not been found to come with age, but rather is more common before the age of 16 (Voss &amp;amp; Frenzel, 2012). Additionally, much research has shown evidence supporting the idea that one can train oneself to lucid dream, hence suggesting that lucid dreaming does is not necessarily influenced by ones understanding of the world but rather is an acquired skill (see: Price &amp;amp; Cohen, 1988; LaBerge, 1980). However, it can perhaps be influenced by an individuals experience for example one study found a positive correlation between lucid dream instances and time spent playing video games (Gackenbach, 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gackenbach, J. (2006). Video game play and lucid dreams: Implications for the development of consciousness. Dreaming, 16(2), 96.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1980.51.3f.1039?journalCode=pms&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LaBerge, S. P. (1980). Lucid dreaming as a learnable skill: A case study. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 51(3f), 1039-1042.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://diyhpl.us/~bryan/papers2/dreaming/Lucidity%20Institute%20Research%20Papers.pdf#page=163&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LaBerge, S., &amp;amp; Verified, L. D. P. (1990). Lucid dreaming: Psychophysiological studies of consciousness during REM sleep.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4757-0423-5_6&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Price, R. F., &amp;amp; Cohen, D. B. (1988). Lucid dream induction. In Conscious mind, sleeping brain (pp. 105-134). Springer New York&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://archive.is/KTrwE#selection-259.1-261.1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schredl, M. &amp;amp; Erlacher, D. (2004). Lucid dreaming frequency and personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(7), 1463-1473.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2012.01022.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Voss, U., Frenzel, C., KOPPEHELE‐GOSSEL, J. U. D. I. T. H., &amp;amp; Hobson, A. (2012). Lucid dreaming: an age‐dependent brain dissociation. Journal of sleep research, 21(6), 634-642.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2015-11-10T01:36:03.693" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12561" CreationDate="2015-11-10T03:21:56.547" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Classically, we might call emotional volatility &lt;strong&gt;neuroticism.&lt;/strong&gt;  We could also refer to a continuum of &lt;strong&gt;affective reactivity&lt;/strong&gt; (high vs. low reactivity; e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.nmsu.edu/~ketelaar/papers_and_abstracts/affectandpersonality.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gross, Sutton, &amp;amp; Ketelaar, 1998&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Emotion dysregulation&lt;/strong&gt; need not imply emotional volatility. For example, depressed patients show stable depressed mood or &lt;strong&gt;emotional inertia&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699931.2014.916252&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brose et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;), which is related to impaired &lt;strong&gt;affective updating&lt;/strong&gt; under stress (&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.stanford.edu/group/mood/cgi-bin/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Pe-Gotlib-Emotion-2015.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pe et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;) and perseverative thinking (&lt;a href=&quot;http://gerontology.wp.uncg.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/63/2014/08/Nolen-Hoeksema-Wisco-Lyubomirsky-2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco, &amp;amp; Lyubomirsky, 2008&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of these ideas can be pushed under the umbrella of &lt;strong&gt;affective dynamics&lt;/strong&gt;, or how affect/emotions change over time (for recent theory, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/7/4.toc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this special issue of &lt;em&gt;Emotion Review&lt;/em&gt;, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can also say that fluctuations in affect represent deviations from &lt;strong&gt;allostasis&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938411003076&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sterling, 2013&lt;/a&gt;), which motivate us to engage in self-regulatory behaviors that bring us back to allostasis (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661315000054&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Inzlicht, Bartholow, &amp;amp; Hirsch, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As part of a predictive regulation framework, emotional instability may result from feedback dynamics between positive and negative predictions about the world (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/pdf/S1364-6613(15)00174-6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eldar et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;; see the image below).  Relatedly, maladaptive priors and associated attentional biases (i.e., inappropriately weighted prediction errors) may also account for volatility (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.princeton.edu/~ndaw/hdd15.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Huys, Daw, &amp;amp; Dayan, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jnLKc.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jnLKc.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-11-10T03:27:00.087" LastActivityDate="2015-11-10T03:27:00.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12572" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12558" CreationDate="2015-11-10T10:38:23.643" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You use the words &quot;experiment&quot; and &quot;correlate&quot; somewhat loosely in your question, but there are various ways that we can address the general idea in a more rigourous way. Let's consider two possible situations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) You randomly put people into two groups and found that group A likes pepsi much more often than group B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) You had an idea that people with, say, higher employment status would be more likely to like pepsi. So you deliberately split people into A (managers) and B (subordinates) and found that group A likes pepsi more often.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the situation is (1), and the difference in preferences is a large one, then you might want to look at the groups and see in what ways they are different. It would be perfectly fine to observe that the groups were different on, say, BMI, and you could speculate that that is why one group prefers pepsi more often. But it wouldn't be very convincing because there could be many other ways that A and B differ, some of which you probably haven't even thought of or can't measure, and there is no way of being sure which factors align with preferences, let alone what causes them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The situation (2) is much closer to a &quot;true&quot; experiment. Based on previous research or results you could isolate a particular factor and make sure that the groups differ only in that way. In more refined experiments you could try to exclude potential confounding variables (e.g., by making sure your managers and subordinates were all the same sex, and had equal BMI). Ideally, you could even try to manipulate the factor within the same participants and see if preferences changed (e.g., if a subordinate gets promoted, do they change their preferences when you test them a year later).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2015-11-10T10:38:23.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12573" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12545" CreationDate="2015-11-10T10:51:15.807" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is something of an oversimplification to say that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;there are separate visual pathways for both color and shape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many cells, even in V1, which are selective for both colour and shape (or at least orientation). While there are regions more sensitive to some features than others, there are plenty of neurons which combine features. It is also not clear what you mean by becoming conscious of these features separately. Clearly, we can know both that there is something red in front of us and that it is a square. You may have also experienced a flash of a colour without knowing the form, so in that sense, they are separable in consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The combination of these things is indeed a difficult problem akin to the binding problem. Bruce's answer gives some good background and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698905005997&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is a paper about binding in vision. More generally, binding in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0010028582900068&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;feature integration theory&lt;/a&gt; requires features to be linked to locations (plausible given topographical organisation in cortex).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-11-11T02:10:42.777" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T02:10:42.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12574" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12546" CreationDate="2015-11-10T11:05:56.630" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can break this down into three questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(1) Do monkeys imitate? Do they ever imitate humans?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to these questions is yes, though I don't know if that includes standing on two legs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(2) Do they do it to communicate?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, it is difficult to define what communication and with whom we are interested in here, but monkeys (and humans) do seem to be able to recognise when they are are being imitated. So at least the potential for communication is there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(3) Do they do it to have fun?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is plenty of evidence that monkeys &quot;play&quot;, and depending on one's definition we can infer that they are having fun. Some play involves imitation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982205006664&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this study&lt;/a&gt; by Byrne (2005) is an interesting source for some of the above answers, and in particular the &quot;social mirroring&quot; type of imitation implies some communication and theory of mind. We should also be careful here to distinguish between monkeys and apes, some of these behaviours are disputed in different species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2015-11-10T16:24:08.273" LastActivityDate="2015-11-10T16:24:08.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12575" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12212" CreationDate="2015-11-10T11:31:25.627" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would add that there's a series of recent studies of what the authors called the 'equality bias'. I don't think they provide a mechanism, jut point to a rather suboptimal way of social decision making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I copy here their own summary (better description than any I could give):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;When making decisions together, we tend to give everyone an equal chance to voice their opinion. To make the best decisions, however, each opinion must be scaled according to its reliability. Using behavioral experiments and computational modelling, we tested (in Denmark, Iran, and China) the extent to which people follow this latter, normative strategy. We found that people show a strong equality bias: they weight each other’s opinion equally regardless of differences in their reliability, even when this strategy was at odds with explicit feedback or monetary incentives.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mahmoodi et al, 2015. PNAS 112(12),  3835–3840, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1421692112&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/112/12/3835.abstract&quot;&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/112/12/3835.abstract&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9178" LastActivityDate="2015-11-10T11:31:25.627" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12576" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-10T11:54:02.070" Score="4" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reviewing the literature there are several inventories to measure gender stereotype values. For example, to name but a few:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the Adjective Check List (ACL; Williams &amp;amp; Bennett, 1975)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the Sex-Role Stereotype Questionnaire (Rosenkrantz et al., 1968)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ, Spence, Helmreich &amp;amp; Stapp, 1974; Runge et al., 1981)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974; Schneider-Düker &amp;amp; Kohler, 1988)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the Modern Sexism Scale (Swim et al., 1995)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (Glick &amp;amp; Fiske, 1996)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the Skala zur Messung der normativen Geschlechtsrollen-Orientierung (GRO-Skala; Krampen, 1979, 1983)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as can be clearly seen, these instruments are outdated, and they are often based on the Anglo-American culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can anyone help me out with a hint on a more contemporary gender stereotype questionnaire which refers to Germany or central Europe respectively?&lt;/strong&gt; An inventory already edited for computer administration would be ideal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9763" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2015-11-15T23:16:15.223" LastActivityDate="2015-11-15T23:16:15.223" Title="Searching for gender stereotype questionnaire specific to central europe" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12577" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13797" CreationDate="2015-11-10T19:50:29.600" Score="3" ViewCount="768" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bipolar disorder, BD, involves manic episodes and depressive episodes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone has a depressive episode, that person may have major depressive disorder, MDD or BD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone has a manic episode, that person may have ___________ or BD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what is the opposite of MDD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mania&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mania&lt;/a&gt;&quot; is a term that describes an episode. So &quot;mania&quot; is the opposite of &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(mood)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;depression&lt;/a&gt;&quot; rather than &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;MDD&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a major mania disorder? I have heard of kleptomania and pyromania which appear to be classified as impulse control disorders but nothing that appears to be analogous to major depressive disorder&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="8982" LastEditDate="2016-01-09T07:25:44.420" LastActivityDate="2020-04-18T01:16:03.307" Title="What's the opposite of major depressive disorder?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12578" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12602" CreationDate="2015-11-10T20:50:06.160" Score="3" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose someone were to see a psychiatrist, explain their life problems and such and then their psychiatrist concludes they are currently in a depressive episode. Their psychiatrist doesn't yet know if they have major depressive disorder - MDD - bipolar disorder or no disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there situations where someone in such scenario might be able to be prescribed antidepressants or any kind of medication?&lt;/strong&gt; I can tell such situations are rare since doctors would probably want more information before prescribing medication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The context of this question is what we can conclude from those who are prescribed antidepressants. &lt;em&gt;Does the fact that they have been prescribed such medications imply that they have been diagnosed with or highly thought by a doctor to have a mental illness instead of simply having an &quot;episode&quot; or a temporary mental health problem?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry if the assumptions of my questions are wrong. I'm assuming that there are cases where mental health problems are temporary much like having a fever and some are permanent much like being farsighted. To my knowledge, people can experience a depressive episode without having MDD or bipolar&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="8982" LastEditDate="2015-11-10T22:33:38.007" LastActivityDate="2015-11-14T23:57:32.423" Title="Can one depressive episode be enough to prescribe antidepressants?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12579" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12554" CreationDate="2015-11-11T09:39:06.663" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, even though the notion of projection has been intuitively appealing and plausible to many, the psychoanalytic explanation of how projection works has always been vague.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sigmund Freud (1915) defined the &quot;mechanism of projection&quot; by explaining that engaging in it, the &quot;ego&quot; of a person &quot;expels whatever within itself becomes a cause of unpleasure&quot; (p. 136). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a similar way, Anna Freud, who later worked on clarifying various defense mechanisms further, thought that projection allows people to get rid of painful thoughts: &quot;The effect of the mechanism of projection is to break the connection between the ideational representatives of dangerous instinctual impulses and the ego&quot; (p. 122).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Critics have noted that psychoanalytic writings have never explicated how exactly (by which process) projecting negative thoughts to others helps them in disconnecting these thoughts from the self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pointing to these criticisms and noting that empirical evidence in support of defensive projection has been scarce, Baumeister, Dale, and Sommer (1998, p. 1091), summarize &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In retrospect, it was never clear how seeing another person as dishonest (for example) would enable the individual to avoid recognizing his or her own dishonesty. The notion that projection would effectively mask one’s own bad traits was perhaps incoherent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Newman, Duff, and Baumeister (1997) propose and test an alternative, social-cognitive account of defensive projection. They posit that people often try hard to suppress unwanted thoughts. However, ironically, doing so makes such tthoughts all the more accessible (because when you try not to think about something, you constantly think about it). These accessible thoughts can then also color people's impression of others. This would then just be a by-product of trying to suppress unwanted thoughts about the self and not the core of a defense mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, it is important to note that the term projection is also used in a more general sense, to describe people's tendency to overestimate the presence of their own characteristics, beliefs, and attitudes in others. This tendency results, for example, in the false consensus effect (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/10674/7759&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; earlier question), for which there is ample evidence. This general notion of projection is different from the Freudian one in that it is not limited to negative attributes but happens also for positive attributes the self. Various cognitive and motivational mechanisms have been proposed for this more general phenomenon (see Baumeister, et al., 1998, for example, for some pointers).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumeister, R. F., Dale, K., &amp;amp; Sommer, K. L. (1998). Freudian defense mechanisms and empirical findings in modern social psychology: Reaction formation, projection, displacement, undoing, isolation, sublimation, and denial. Journal of Personality, Defense mechanisms in contemporary personality research, 66, 1081–1124. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00043&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud, A. (1936/1992). The ego and the mechanisms of defence. London: Karnac Books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud, S. (1915). Instincts and their Vicissitudes. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XIV (1914-1916): On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement, Papers on Metapsychology and Other Works, 109-140&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Newman, L. S., Duff, K. J., &amp;amp; Baumeister, R. F. (1997). A new look at defensive projection: Thought suppression, accessibility, and biased person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 980–1001. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.980&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T20:54:14.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12580" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-11T13:01:34.223" Score="3" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;How are the effects of drugs in the brain, in terms of neurotransmitters measured? For example, Selective Seretonin Reuptake Inhibitors are a class of anti-depressants. How was and is this type of information about hor neurotransmitters act obtained?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9768" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-11-11T20:43:54.413" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T20:43:54.413" Title="Neurotransmitter detection in the brain" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12581" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12582" CreationDate="2015-11-11T18:22:17.153" Score="3" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for examples of studies where the result is highly significant but the effect is so tiny that it is meaningless in a practical sense. These will be shared with undergraduate psychology students to illustrate that statistically significant doesn't always mean important or consequential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T19:21:28.457" Title="What are some examples of psychology studies with tiny effect sizes and tiny p-values that are good for teaching?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;teaching-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12582" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12581" CreationDate="2015-11-11T19:21:28.457" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One example might be the effect of birth order on intelligence. Given a large enough sample there highly significant effects (p&amp;lt;.00001). However, these effects are very very small.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a recent example, see Rohrer, Egloff, and Schmukle (2015): the effect of one birth order position was only one tenth of a standard deviation (1.5 IQ points)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To illustrate this small effect, in our between-family sample of sibships of two, a randomly picked firstborn had a 52% chance of having a higher IQ than a randomly picked secondborn; conversely, a secondborn had a 48% chance of having a higher IQ than a firstborn. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rohrer, J. M., Egloff, B., &amp;amp; Schmukle, S. C. (2015). Examining the effects of birth order on personality. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 201506451. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1506451112&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1506451112&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastActivityDate="2015-11-11T19:21:28.457" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12583" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12878" CreationDate="2015-11-11T21:25:25.050" Score="11" ViewCount="17116" Body="&lt;p&gt;I discovered something called Rejection Sensitive Dysphoria (RSD). If you google it, the first page will show pages that talk about it in relation to ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is it about ADHD that causes &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.additudemag.com/adhd/article/10121.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;nearly everyone with&lt;/a&gt;&quot; it to have RSD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone might say that ADHD people would not be sensitive to rejection because they have too many thoughts unless they're hyperfocused on such rejection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;RSD sounds like something related to anxiety rather than attention deficiency or hyperactivity. So someone may suspect that RSD belongs to people with anxiety, depression, bipolar or people with a personality disorder like borderline or narcissistic rather than to people with ADHD. I really can't think of a connection between RSD and ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastEditorUserId="8982" LastEditDate="2018-04-02T02:45:36.017" LastActivityDate="2018-06-02T13:02:07.350" Title="What is the relationship between rejection sensitive dysphoria and ADHD?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12584" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12527" CreationDate="2015-11-12T02:04:31.030" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The work of Siegler in &quot;The Perils of Averaging Data Over Strategies: An Example from Children's Addition&quot;, examines 5 different strategies associated with addition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Retrieval&lt;/strong&gt; Where the answer was retrieved from memory &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Min&lt;/strong&gt; Where the smallest addend was used for counting from the starting point of the largest addend&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Decomposition&lt;/strong&gt; Where the complicated problem was reduced into simpler known problems&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Count All&lt;/strong&gt; Where both the addends were counted&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Guess&lt;/strong&gt; Where the answer was guessed&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the table below, which I've copied from the paper, you can see the progression of strategies from grade to grade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aoF6f.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aoF6f.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There does seem to be a progression towards retrieval, decomposition and min-count, away from count-all and guessing. However, it is not a completely straight-forward progression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-11-12T02:04:31.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12585" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10592" CreationDate="2015-11-12T02:36:36.150" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;There doesn't seem to be much research on this, but based on my review of the research it appears that deaf people are generally slower readers than non-deaf readers - but that this may be affected by age. Essentially they may start as slower readers but become faster readers when they are older. See the evidence I found below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Conrad, Richard. &quot;The reading ability of deaf school‐leavers.&quot; British Journal of Educational Psychology 47.2 (1977): 138-148.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“4.5% of young deaf people were able to read at the level commensurate with their age”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Shroyer, Edgar H., and Jack Birch. &quot;Captions and reading rates of hearing-impaired students.&quot; American Annals of the Deaf 125.7 (1980): 916-922.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mean of the median scores for Hams and Sipay(s (1975) fourth, fifth, and sixth-grade students (intermediate) is 145 words per minute compared with a mean of 142 for the intermediate deaf students. For the hearing students on a junior high school level, the mean of the median reading rates was 188 words per minute and the mean for the deaf students 181 words per minute. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hearing high school students had a mean of 216 words per minute compared with a mean of 275 words per minute for deaf students&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Kelly L, Barac-Cikoja D. The comprehension of skilled deaf readers: The roles of word recognition and other potentially critical aspects of competence. In: Cain K, Oakhill J, editors. Children’s comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective. Guilford Press; 2007. pp. 244–279.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The median reading level of young deaf adults graduating from high school is 8 years below the average of their hearing peers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Bélanger, N. N., Slattery, T. J., Mayberry, R. I., &amp;amp; Rayner, K. (2012). Skilled deaf readers have an enhanced perceptual span in reading. Psychological Science, 23(7), 816-823.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading rate (words per minute) as a function of window size for skilled hearing readers (SKH), skilled deaf readers (SKD) and less skilled deaf readers (LSKD)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lvm51.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lvm51.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2015-11-12T09:20:11.670" LastActivityDate="2015-11-12T09:20:11.670" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12586" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9408" CreationDate="2015-11-12T03:46:19.707" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may not be a perfect answer to your question but it should be of help. Essentially, I think that research on personality suggests that self control (and thus a lack of impulsivity) may be part of the reason why introverts don't engage in extraverted behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to personality research on arousal [1], levels of extroversion and introversion are linked to peoples' arousal levels. Extroverts are argued to be under-aroused (in terms of brain arousal) therefore they seek out new stimuli, while the opposite is the case for introverts. Hence as introverts already over-aroused, they are more likely to avoid new stimuli. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the research you have cited suggests that introverts would actually benefit from seeking more social interaction, the fact that they do not is not particularly surprising as humans frequently fail to act in ways that benefit themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Arousal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Arousal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2015-11-12T04:46:26.897" LastActivityDate="2015-11-12T04:46:26.897" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12587" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4986" CreationDate="2015-11-12T04:00:15.643" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there are several  studies which found links between the amount of training and the effect of it on cognitive abilities. See the below for references and summaries of some of these:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Jaeggi, Susanne M., et al. &quot;Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory.&quot; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105.19 (2008): 6829-6833.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jaeggi et al. found that dual n-back could improve fluid intelligence. This approach has been developed into a game, and this game which can be freely played online. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, more recent research has failed to support its effectiveness for normal individuals, although I have read anecdotal evidence for effectiveness in increasing mental ability in older adults or individuals with ADHD. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, it appears that the literature suggests that brain training does not work, that &quot;the scientific literature does not support claims that the use of software-based “brain games” alters neural functioning in ways that improve general cognitive performance in everyday life, or prevent cognitive slowing and brain disease.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brain-training-doesn-t-make-you-smarter/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brain-training-doesn-t-make-you-smarter/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, working your brain hard through education has been linked to increases in IQ so maybe that is the best approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Winship, Christopher, and Sanders Korenman. &quot;Does staying in school make you smarter? The effect of education on IQ in The Bell Curve.&quot; Intelligence, Genes, and Success. Springer New York, 1997. 215-234.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastActivityDate="2015-11-12T04:00:15.643" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12172" CreationDate="2015-11-12T07:27:22.057" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; Bipolar disorder is probably not composed of two comorbid illnesses, but it may be on a continuum that includes some depressive disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a good question, though it does convey some confusion associated with this diagnosis that should be cleared up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bipolar symptoms:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first confusion I think is the idea that &quot;depression&quot;, &quot;mania&quot;, and &quot;bipolar&quot; are disorders.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29&quot;&gt;Depression&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mania&quot;&gt;mania&lt;/a&gt; are not disorders - they are symptoms.  And &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder#Bipolar_spectrum&quot;&gt;bipolar&lt;/a&gt; is a &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_disorder&quot;&gt;spectrum&lt;/a&gt;&quot; disorder - a collection or continuum of similar diagnoses, that all feature at least one &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mania#Signs_and_symptoms&quot;&gt;manic&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypomania&quot;&gt;hypomanic&lt;/a&gt; episode, and in most cases at least one &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_episode&quot;&gt;depressive episode&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is true that depression without mania is one of the key symptoms of a variety of depressive mood disorders (such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder&quot;&gt;major depressive disorder&lt;/a&gt;, sometimes referred to as &quot;unipolar&quot; because of the lack of manic episodes), so it may be confused with a disorder.  However, this is not the case for mania, so diagnostically &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder&quot;&gt;bipolar disorder&lt;/a&gt; would not be confused with a comorbidity of 2 disorders - depression and mania - because mania is not a disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mania&quot;&gt;Mania&lt;/a&gt; rarely presents without other symptoms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although bipolar disorder is by far the most common cause of mania, it&#xA;  is a key component of other psychiatric conditions (e.g.,&#xA;  schizoaffective disorder, bipolar type; cyclothymia) and may occur&#xA;  secondary to neurologic or general medical conditions, or as a result&#xA;  of substance abuse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably, a standalone manic episode may be sufficient for a diagnosis of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_I_disorder&quot;&gt;bipolar I disorder&lt;/a&gt; or a &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder_not_otherwise_specified&quot;&gt;not otherwise specified&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (NOS) diagnosis, depending on the severity and other symptoms involved.  So diagnostically, &quot;mania&quot; as a standalone disorder is actually a sub-type of bipolar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bipolar unitarity:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second confusion I think is the idea that a bipolar diagnosis in some way precludes the symptoms of depression and mania from having separate causes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_bipolar_disorder&quot;&gt;Historically&lt;/a&gt;, bipolar disorder was not seen as 2 separate illnesses because (1) it was believed that mania and depression were mutually exclusive in time - as 2 extremes (poles) of a single mood continuum, and (2) mania rarely presents without depression.  The assumption of mutual exclusivity of mania and depression was called into question by the occurrence of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_state_%28psychiatry%29&quot;&gt;mixed-state&lt;/a&gt; episodes - a condition that features symptoms of both mania and depression simultaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately, many psychiatric diagnostic criteria are encumbered by some historical precedence, common clinical presentations, how patients perceive their symptoms, and also some political influence, as diagnoses are associated with healthcare subsidization, stigma and prejudice, and explanatory power for the patient.  So diagnostic criteria should not generally be confused with an understanding of common cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cause of bipolar spectrum disorders is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder#Causes&quot;&gt;not well understood&lt;/a&gt;, and the question of whether unipolar and bipolar disorders are distinct, or part of a single continuum, remains a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2850601/&quot;&gt;hotly debated topic&lt;/a&gt;.  The very common co-occurrence of depressive episodes whenever manic episodes are present suggests that they may be related in some way.  On the other hand, depression disorders and bipolar disorders are treated with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2575757/&quot;&gt;different medications&lt;/a&gt;, suggesting that they may be distinct disorders - depression is typically treated with anti-depressants, while bipolar depression may be more effectively treated with mood stabilizers.  The disorders have some predictors (genetic, environmental, comorbidities) in common, and some different.  It's also entirely possible that both disorders incorrectly encompass several unrelated sub-types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2015-11-12T07:27:22.057" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12589" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12557" CreationDate="2015-11-12T10:19:40.617" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is related to subliminal perception, often studied in vision but sometimes also in hearing. This remains a bit controversial, and that is mostly because of arguments about how ones measures whether something has been perceived or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My answer to your main question would be &quot;no&quot;, but that is speculation. You use the word &quot;recall&quot;, which in memory research generally suggests an explicit, conscious recollection and you would normally only get this if you had consciously perceived something and encoded it the first time round. There are, however, examples of subliminal sounds which are not identified at the first presentation but which nevertheless affect later behaviour (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lscp.net/persons/sidk/publi/Kouider-Dupoux_PsychScience2005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2015-11-12T10:19:40.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12591" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-12T18:15:44.873" Score="2" ViewCount="13749" Body="&lt;p&gt;What exactly changes in your brain the moment after you've finished masturbating? Could there be any effect neuro-psychologically on dreams or lucid dreaming?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9776" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-11-14T09:34:53.167" LastActivityDate="2018-11-08T02:00:07.170" Title="How does masturbation influence your brain and dreams?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12592" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-12T19:17:48.870" Score="3" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;In sequential sampling models - for instance &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1440925/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ratcliff and Smith, (2006)&lt;/a&gt; - participants' responses in a binary choice experiment are modelled by a particle, which moves up or down towards the boundaries for selecting each response over time according to the evidence in favour of each, or, analogously, their expected utility &lt;a href=&quot;http://mypage.iu.edu/~jbusemey/psy_rev_1993.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Busemeyer &amp;amp; Townsend, 1993)&lt;/a&gt;, in a way that looks something like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WXoPS.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WXoPS.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is if anyone knows, and preferably can provide a reference for, whether in such a model responses are best predicted by&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the difference in the evidence for/expected utility of each response (i.e. $P(Response\ A) = Evidence\ for\ A - Evidence\ for\ B$) or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the ratio of evidence/expected utility (i.e. $P(Response\ A) = \frac{Evidence\ for\ A}{Evidence\ for\ B}$)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My intuition is that it's the ratio between the two responses, rather than the absolute difference, which should best predict responses, but I can't find a reference for this, and I'm sure this question has been answered somewhere before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone any ideas here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2015-11-16T02:14:19.710" Title="Difference vs. Ratio of evidence in sequential sampling models" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12593" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-13T00:15:59.737" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;Today I finished the book &quot;Crucial Conversations&quot;, great book, would recommend to anyone. In it there were numerous explicit or implicit theories about psychology and one of them in particular caught my attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theory proposes that when we see &amp;amp; experience something we tell ourselves a story and that story changes how we feel about the situation and then we act upon those emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question is how does it work, does what we tell ourselves in our head affect the chemicals in our bloodstream, is everyone's outer behavior a representation of their thought's(WELL DURR)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would love any references or perhaps a more in depth explanation, love ya guys and gals :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9777" LastActivityDate="2015-11-13T00:15:59.737" Title="What happens to our emotions when we tell ourselves stories(rationalization + analyzing)?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12595" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12604" CreationDate="2015-11-13T13:45:40.240" Score="6" ViewCount="54692" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm especially interested in the difference between the first two. Some people have said prejudice is when a stereotype about a group is applied to an individual, but a lot of places (even within psychology) talk about prejudice as though it can also apply to a group. Allport described prejudice as an &quot;antipathy&quot; towards another group, but that doesn't seem to describe implicit prejudice. How exactly are these terms defined?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="103" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-11-14T05:30:12.630" LastActivityDate="2018-11-17T20:07:37.380" Title="What's the difference between stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12597" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-13T21:00:33.657" Score="1" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say that I'm completely green about psychology and CBT (like I really know nothing, apart from that CBT exists). Is there a good introduction/ seminal work, but with relatively low barrier of entry and not too massive (something that could be learned/ studied in several evenings)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3768/comprehensive-list-of-cognitive-techniques-in-cbt&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;, but what I'm looking for specifically is a book or a more involved/ in-depth resource.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9785" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2015-11-14T00:58:33.080" Title="Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 101" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12598" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12591" CreationDate="2015-11-13T22:47:45.547" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt; We don't really know yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This excellent question exposes an enormous gap in humanity's knowledge about the postpubescent psyche. I dare say that not only post-masturbatory dreaming in general but also post-masturbatory lucid dreaming in particular have been gravely neglected by the interdisciplinary research community for decades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though early psychoanalytic approaches have already made great advances in pushing the boundaries of our knowledge at the nexus of autoerotic behavior patterns, dream content, and dream lucidity (see, e.g., the seminal work of Ellis, 1910; Bernstein, 1962; Meltzer, 1966) via meticulous arm-chair reasoning, self-observation, and clinical case studies, these theoretical advances have not been subjected to sufficient quantitative let alone neuroscientific scrutiny yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A comprehensive search for &quot;dreams&quot; &amp;amp; &quot;masturbation&quot; in the PsychInfo database yields a meager number of 8 hits indicating that the topic is under-researched.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the most relevant and influential (2 citations according to Google Scholar) empirical paper seems to be by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2012-28969-001/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Yu (2012)&lt;/a&gt; who asked 52 young male Chinese adults to complete a questionnaire on masturbation, pornography, and dream content. The key results of the study highlight the extent to which masturbatory research has progressed over the years. However, they also open up interesting avenues for future scientific endeavors. Yu's (2012) findings suggest the startling conclusion that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...the more often men watch pornography, the more frequently they masturbate to ejaculation...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and, even more relevant for the present purposes...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the less likely they are to experience nocturnal emissions [wet dreams].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though this trailblazing research included a wide variety of additional pornographic and dreaming-related variables (whose meaning should not be googled at the workplace), it remains silent on the question of how masturbatory processes affect quantity and quality of dream lucidity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Making matters more complicated, a similar research project, in which 70 German students were surveyed about sexual activity and dream content (Schredl, Desch, Röming, &amp;amp; Spachmann, 2009) came to different conclusions: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The findings indicate that the frequency of erotic dreams is related to the amount of time spent with sexual fantasies in waking life but not to intercourse or masturbation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can only speculate that cultural differences may be involved deserving further empirical attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, because this research is limited by the fact that it is only based on retrospective, self-report measures, it seems fruitful and of utmost importance to investigate these questions employing a modern neuroscience approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bernstein, I. (1962). Dreams and masturbation in an adolescent boy. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 10(2), 289-302.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ellis, H. (1910). Autoerotism: A Study of the Spontaneous Manifestations of the Sexual Impuse. In Studies in the psychology of sex Vol 1: The evolution of modesty, the phenomena of sexual periodicity, auto-erotism (3rd ed. rev. and enlarged) (pp. 161–325). Philadelphia, PA, US: F A Davis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meltzer, D. (1966) ‘The relation of anal masturbation to projective identification’, International Journal of Psychoanalysis 47: 335-342.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schredl, M., Desch, S., Röming, F., &amp;amp; Spachmann, A. (2009). Erotic dreams and their relationship to waking-life sexuality. Sexologies, 18(1), 38–43. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sexol.2008.05.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sexol.2008.05.001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yu, C. K. C. (2012). Pornography consumption and sexual behaviors as correlates of erotic dreams and nocturnal emissions. Dreaming, 22(4), 230.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-11-14T10:59:25.983" LastActivityDate="2015-11-14T10:59:25.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12599" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3768" CreationDate="2015-11-14T00:19:13.427" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_cognitive%E2%80%93behavioral_therapies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; has a long list. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Acceptance and Commitment Therapy is a &quot;third wave&quot; behavior therapy, developed by Stephen Hayes based on relational frame theory.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anxiety Management Training was developed by Suinn and Richardson (1971) for helping clients control their anxiety by the use of relaxation and other skills.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_cognitive%E2%80%93behavioral_therapies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Applied Behavioral Analysis, described by Baer, Wolf and Risley in 1968,&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0399169253&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt; is the science of applying experimentally derived principles of behavior to improve socially significant behavior.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Behavioral activation is a behavioral approach to treating depression, developed by Neil Jacobson and others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Behavior modification is a term originally used by Edward Thorndike in 1911.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Behavior therapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive therapy was developed by Aaron Beck[3][4] and has become of the most studied psychosocial treatments.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive analytic therapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive behavior modification&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive Emotional Behaviour Therapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive processing therapy for Post traumatic stress disorder&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Computerised Cognitive Behavioral Therapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Contingency Management&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dialectical Behavior Therapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Demartini Method&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Direct therapeutic exposure&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Exposure and response prevention&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Functional Analytic Psychotherapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interactive Cognitive Subsystems&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Multimodal Therapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Problem-Solving Therapy&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_cognitive%E2%80%93behavioral_therapies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Prolonged Exposure Therapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, formerly called Rational Therapy and Rational Emotive Therapy,[5] was founded byAlbert Ellis and is &quot;regarded by many as one of the premiere examples of the cognitive-behavioral approach&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_cognitive%E2%80%93behavioral_therapies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reality Therapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Relapse Prevention&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self Control Training.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self Instructional Training was developed by Donald Meichenbaum, influenced by the developmental psychology ofAlexander Luria and Lev Vygotsky, designed to treat the mediational deficiencies of impulsive children&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_cognitive%E2%80%93behavioral_therapies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-talk Identification, Questioning &amp;amp; Revision (SIQR)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stress Inoculation Training&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_cognitive%E2%80%93behavioral_therapies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Systematic desensitization is an anxiety reduction technique, developed by Joseph Wolpe.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Systematic Rational Restructuring was an attempt by Marvin Goldfried to reanalyze systematic desensitization in terms of cognitive mediation and coping skills.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_cognitive%E2%80%93behavioral_therapies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0399169253&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;book&lt;/a&gt; also seems like a good resource for learning more about techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastActivityDate="2015-11-14T00:19:13.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12600" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12597" CreationDate="2015-11-14T00:26:37.617" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that you should look at one of the more well rated books on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_ss_sc_1_9?url=search-alias%3Dstripbooks&amp;amp;field-keywords=cognitive%20behavior%20therapy&amp;amp;sprefix=cognitive%2Cstripbooks%2C347&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CBT&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aaron beck is the father of CBT so maybe start with his &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1609185048&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;book&lt;/a&gt; if you can't make a decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastActivityDate="2015-11-14T00:26:37.617" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12601" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12595" CreationDate="2015-11-14T00:56:02.423" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How exactly are these terms defined?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not exactly. Many terms are not used consistently in science therefore different scholars will use them in different ways. Furthermore, as there is little merit in doing so, few scholars will generally attempt to differentiate complex and contested terms. With this considered there will probably not be a clear objective way to differentiate stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination - you may need to make an argument based on assembling relevant discussions of each individual concept. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is how I understand it. A stereotype is rule of thumb about how to think about/act toward a specific type of entity. You can have a stereotype about anything - not just about people. Prejudice is generally considered to be a (negative) prejudgment of something/someone. In some sense a prejudice is therefore just a negative stereotype about a person (or group of people). Discrimination is generally considered to involve treating someone less well (in terms of behaviour rather than just attitude) due to some characteristic(s) of theirs. Discrimination is therefore essentially a behavioural manifestion of prejudice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To give an example, a bouncer associates people of one race with being violent (a stereotype). He is therefore more likely to prevent people of that race from entry to his night club (prejudice). He prevents two member of that race from entry on a specific night (discrimination).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That isn't a perfect example but I hope it makes things a little clearer. Let me know if you want more details or clarification. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2015-11-14T01:01:49.083" LastActivityDate="2015-11-14T01:01:49.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12602" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12578" CreationDate="2015-11-14T01:15:06.777" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suppose someone were to see a psychiatrist, explain their life&#xA;  problems and such and then their psychiatrist concludes they are&#xA;  currently in a depressive episode. Their psychiatrist doesn't yet know&#xA;  if they have major depressive disorder - MDD - bipolar disorder or no&#xA;  disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there situations where someone in such scenario might be able to&#xA;  be prescribed antidepressants or any kind of medication?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, absolutely. I do not think that they are necessarily rare either. As this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/depression/news/20110804/antidepressants-prescribed-without-psychiatric-diagnosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt; attests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The proportion of non-psychiatrist doctor visits where antidepressants were prescribed without a documented psychiatric diagnosis increased from 59.5% to 72.7% between 1996 and 2007, according to a new study in Health Affairs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does the fact that they have been prescribed such medications imply&#xA;  that they have been diagnosed with or highly thought by a doctor to&#xA;  have a mental illness instead of simply having an &quot;episode&quot; or a&#xA;  temporary mental health problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being prescribed the medicine implies that the doctor believed that they were suffering from depression, a form of mental illness. Other factors (e.g., the symptoms or their history) would dictate whether the doctor though it was/would be a long term mental illness/mental health problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2015-11-14T23:57:32.423" LastActivityDate="2015-11-14T23:57:32.423" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12603" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-14T04:13:03.513" Score="3" ViewCount="640" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I understand it, acquired dysarthria of speech is caused due to problems with motor neurons or other neurological, cerebral and peripheral, conditions in the CNS affecting those. And schizophrenia is primarily a problem in mesolimbic and mesocortical dopaminergic pathways, amongst possibly other problems. Can a purely schizophrenic or psychiatric condition without neurological diagnoses cause dysarthria as a symptom by itself? Or is acquired dysarthria always a sign of a comorbid neurological diagnosis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9787" LastActivityDate="2017-12-25T13:46:25.787" Title="Can speech dysarthria occur in schizophrenia without other neurological or medication-induced disruptions?" Tags="&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12604" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12595" CreationDate="2015-11-14T05:23:21.310" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The terms are sometimes used a little differently. Nevertheless, in psychological research, there is quite some consensus about their use. For example, reflecting the most prevalent view, the Resolution on Prejudice, Stereotypes, and, Discrimination of the American Psychological Association (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/about/policy/prejudice.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2006&lt;/a&gt;), defines them in the following way:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;prejudices&lt;/strong&gt; are unfavorable affective reactions to or evaluations of groups and their members, &lt;strong&gt;stereotypes&lt;/strong&gt; are generalized beliefs about groups and their members, interpersonal &lt;strong&gt;discrimination&lt;/strong&gt; is differential treatment by individuals toward some groups and their members relative to other groups and their members, and institutional discrimination involves policies and contexts that create, enact, reify, and maintain inequality (Dovidio, Brigham, Johnson, &amp;amp; Gaertner, 1996; Eagly &amp;amp; Diekman, 2005; Fiske, 1998; Lott &amp;amp; Maluso, 1995; Mio, Barker-Hackett, &amp;amp; Tumambing, 2006; Myers, 2005; Nelson, 2005; Shih, Pittinsky, &amp;amp; Ambady,1999)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, if Person A does not like (has a negative emotional reaction toward) the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let_That_Be_Your_Last_Battlefield&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lokai&lt;/a&gt; in general, or Person B (whether explicitly or implicitly) in particular because this person is a Lokai, that's &lt;strong&gt;prejudice&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If Person A believes that being a Lokai makes Person B a treacherous, lazy, and dumb guy, but a great cook and guitar player (you have to grant them that!) that's a &lt;strong&gt;stereotype&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If Person A doesn't invite Person B to his/her party because he/she is a Lokai, that's &lt;strong&gt;discrimination&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-11-14T10:23:58.273" LastActivityDate="2015-11-14T10:23:58.273" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12605" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-14T06:42:23.410" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the best techniques to recall dreams? I am especially interested in scientific research that would prove their effectiveness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9121" LastActivityDate="2015-11-14T06:42:23.410" Title="Best ways to remember dreams" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-11-15T01:47:56.183" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12606" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12659" CreationDate="2015-11-14T07:11:37.803" Score="3" ViewCount="190" Body="&lt;p&gt;Meditation has many benefits.For example it helps to relax, reduce stress, etc. But how it is working? What exactly happens to our brains during meditation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9121" LastActivityDate="2015-11-20T02:13:47.607" Title="What happens to brain during meditation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12608" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4401" CreationDate="2015-11-14T10:11:32.233" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Could it be that men are more strongly aroused by porn actors with large penises?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would be implied by &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_competition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sperm competition&lt;/a&gt; theory&lt;/strong&gt;. The basic idea is that if females have more than one mating partner, there is an evolutionary pressure on men. According to the theory, over time, this results in adaptations in response to this &quot;sperm competition&quot; that increase the chance that own sperm is successful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is the case, then &lt;strong&gt;seeing sexually aroused rivals should be a strong stimulus indicating sperm competition&lt;/strong&gt;. This idea has been investigated in various studies that have looked at the kind of pornography that men consume, and the consequences of doing so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Pound (2002) found that in pornography, depictions of sexual activity of several men with one woman are more frequent than depictions with several females and one male, and that men select the first category of pornography more frequently. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As another example, Kilgallon and Simmons (2005) showed men pornographic images of either two males and a female (sperm competition images) or pictures of three females (without males). Their results indicated that the semen quality (sperm motility) was better when the men saw pornography involving other men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find any research that has look at penis size directly. Nevertheless it is a straightforward conjecture that, as aroused penises are a sperm competition stimulus, larger penises should evoke more arousal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pound, N. (2002). Male interest in visual cues of sperm competition risk. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23(6), 443–466. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(02)00103-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(02)00103-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kilgallon, S. J., &amp;amp; Simmons, L. W. (2005). Image content influences men’s semen quality. Biology Letters, 1, 253-255. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7759" LastEditorDisplayName="user7759" LastEditDate="2015-11-15T06:54:22.147" LastActivityDate="2015-11-15T06:54:22.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12609" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13145" CreationDate="2015-11-14T19:20:48.407" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;ACT-R and Spaun map their production rule system onto the the basal ganglia and thalamus. However, I haven't been able to find how ACT-R maps production rule compilation onto the basal ganglia or thalamus. Does a mapping exist in ACT-R or in other cognitive architectures?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-02-21T20:40:53.813" Title="Neuroanatomical mapping of production compilation" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;spa&gt;&lt;act-r&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12610" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-14T19:28:47.077" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that neurogenesis is an integral part of hippocampus, however are there parts of the brain where neurogenesis never or rarely happens? I'm assuming that any part of the brain stem does not have neurogenesis, since injuries in that area are rarely recouperated from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-11-16T02:03:46.600" Title="Where is neurogenesis absent/uncommon in the human brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2015-11-16T04:38:17.607" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12611" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13953" CreationDate="2015-11-14T19:34:42.973" Score="8" ViewCount="266" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this question, I am defining neuroplasticity as being the creation of new connections between neurons. I'm aware that there is a high degree of neuroplasticity in the cortex and that new connections are created frequently in that brain area. However, in what areas of the brain are the connections constant or change rarely? I'm assuming that any brain area that controls muscles (such as the superior colliculus in the midbrain) are statically connected. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-18T07:50:51.817" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T12:28:48.537" Title="Is neuroplasticity limited to the cerebral cortex in the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12612" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-14T19:54:49.533" Score="2" ViewCount="231" Body="&lt;p&gt;Linehan's biosocial theory takes into consideration of the accumulation effect of a stress on individuals, which the Diathesis-stress model could not explain. A predisposition (diathesis) with stress may cause a person to be suicidal but the accumulation effect makes the Biosocial model even more persuasive and sound. However, there is always something that a model or theory leaves out. What is it that the Biosocial theory does not explain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9792" LastActivityDate="2015-11-14T19:54:49.533" Title="What is the limitation of Biosocial Theory developed by Linehan?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12613" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3432" CreationDate="2015-11-15T02:14:02.753" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The trick is that the word &quot;meditation&quot; can be used for many various things. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/Meditation/comments/2zuy11/after_two_years_of_meditating_daily_i_think_it/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;are you sure you understand&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; is a meditation? Are you sure you're meditating?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or put it another way, why do you think that &quot;implementation intentions combined with mental contrasting&quot; is not a meditation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, please notice that in the traditions from where we have the notion of meditation, people can spend years before they really get it. I mean, not how to meditate, but what meditation is about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Effectively, considering your question: either &quot;implementation intentions combined with mental contrasting&quot; is a meditation technique too, or meditation is not about techniques at all. Depends on how you use the word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="261" LastActivityDate="2015-11-15T02:14:02.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12614" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-15T02:16:31.990" Score="6" ViewCount="696" Body="&lt;p&gt;The recent Paris terrorist attack highlights the discrepancy in the levels of empathy that Western people feel toward other Western people, compared to the empathy they feel toward Middle-Eastern people for example, who suffer such attacks regularly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can a person or group of people's empathy be measured?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What factors influence this level of empathy? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have any studies been done on this subject? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastEditorUserId="8810" LastEditDate="2015-11-15T04:46:11.810" LastActivityDate="2016-04-14T20:02:04.663" Title="What factors influence a person or group of people's empathy toward another group?" Tags="&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12617" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-15T13:01:43.267" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have sociological researches been made on the levels of literacy, culture, shared ethical values among the users of the many existing social networks compared to the larger national societies the users belong to? What about researches on the proportion of people with racist, homophobic or religiously intolerant attitudes on social media compared to the society as a whole?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have begun wondering about this issue because I used to have an account on Facebook for a short time and I discovered a reflection of the society of my country, Italy, that I wish I had never discovered: although I am interested to socially interact with the opposite typology of people , I found an overwhelming majority of users, among my co-citizens, plagued by an alarming level of illiteracy and the incapability to understand anything not down to earth, full of racial hatred (which is being sed in my country by some politicians and television channels owned by people politically allied to the far right) and lacking empathy and ethical values that I thought to be shared by almost all mankind, such as respect for the life of drowned refugee children. I hope that the average of my co-citizens having an account on Facebook is worse that the average of my co-citizens as a whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9802" LastEditorUserId="9802" LastEditDate="2016-02-23T09:57:59.830" LastActivityDate="2016-02-23T09:57:59.830" Title="Literacy and other traits of social network users vs. the larger society" Tags="&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12619" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15837" CreationDate="2015-11-15T20:03:45.847" Score="5" ViewCount="245" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concept of the &quot;social brain&quot; is thrown around a lot, but it's not entirely clear to me what it means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me, it could mean a few different things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Modularity&lt;/strong&gt;: We have some sort of modular, hardwired network that supports social behavior and cognition &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Domain-General Processes&lt;/strong&gt;: The benefits of human sociality through evolution have promoted certain psychological processes that are useful for human interaction, but these processes are not specific to sociality (i.e., they're domain-general)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Domain-General and Specific&lt;/strong&gt;:  Somewhere in the middle of (1) and (2).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Prepared Learning&lt;/strong&gt;: Akin to (2), we are not born &quot;social,&quot; but we are born with a set of more basic tools that prepare us to learn to be social&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have superficial familiarity with the area of social cognition and the brain structures (TPJ, DMN, mirror neurons) and chemicals that support it (oxytocin).  Based on these literatures, my assumption is that social cognition is supported by domain-general processes that have been co-opted for social use--but we don't have &quot;social&quot; modules or chemicals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any thoughts? :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2016-09-03T23:20:25.670" Title="Is the brain inherently social?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12620" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-15T21:34:24.900" Score="7" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do children understand that one number is larger than the other? For example, given the numbers &quot;8&quot; and &quot;9&quot;, how do they learn that &quot;9&quot; is the larger one? This apparently develops &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/12527/childrens-progression-from-counting-to-addition&quot;&gt;as a precursor to addition&lt;/a&gt;. Is it memorized like the result of simple addition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-04T12:09:38.490" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T19:22:18.040" Title="How do children understand the concept of number size?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12623" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12592" CreationDate="2015-11-16T02:08:52.060" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unless I'm misunderstanding what you mean, ratio of evidence is actually a terrible method because that would end up with an immediate decision as soon as any evidence is encountered for either side, giving a ratio of infinity for that side (something/0 is greater than any finite decision threshold).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Try Gold and Shadlen 2007 for a review &lt;a href=&quot;http://synapse.princeton.edu/~sam/gold_shadlen07_annu_rev_neurosci.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://synapse.princeton.edu/~sam/gold_shadlen07_annu_rev_neurosci.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-11-16T02:14:19.710" LastActivityDate="2015-11-16T02:14:19.710" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12624" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12614" CreationDate="2015-11-16T02:30:10.883" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Empathy can be measured in many different ways. As this &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/empathy/measuring.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt; outlines:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychologists distinguish between measurements of situational&#xA;  empathy—that is, empathic reactions in a specific situation—and&#xA;  measurements of dispositional empathy, where empathy is understood as&#xA;  a person's stable character trait. Situational empathy is measured&#xA;  either by asking subjects about their experiences immediately after&#xA;  they were exposed to a particular situation, by studying the “facial,&#xA;  gestural, and vocal indices of empathy-related responding” (Zhou,&#xA;  Valiente, and Eisenberg 2003, 275), or by various physiological&#xA;  measures such as the measurement of heart rate or skin conductance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empathy is influenced by a very wide range of factors. Some are innate (e.g., one's capacity for empathy), some are due to upbringing and some are related to the characteristics of the individual or group involved (e.g, their familiarity, or appearance). I couldn't find a comprehensive list of these different factors (probably as there are too many), but [1,2,3,4] should give you a sense of the range of factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please let me know if you require any further clarification such as a more specific question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/empathy/measuring.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; McDonald, Nicole M., and Daniel S. Messinger. &quot;The development of empathy: How, when, and why.&quot; Moral Behavior and Free Will: A Neurobiological and Philosophical Aprroach (2011): 341-368.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] JACKSON, P. L., MELTZOFF, A. N. &amp;amp; DECETY, J. 2005. How do we perceive the pain of others? A window into the neural processes involved in empathy. NeuroImage, 24, 771-779.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] GALLESE, V. 2003. The roots of empathy: The shared manifold hypothesis and the neural basis of intersubjectivity. Psychopathology, 36, 171-180.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] CHAPMAN, E., BARON-COHEN, S., AUYEUNG, B., KNICKMEYER, R., TAYLOR, K. &amp;amp; HACKETT, G. 2006. Fetal testosterone and empathy: Evidence from the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test. Social Neuroscience, 1, 135-148.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2015-12-16T05:21:18.713" LastActivityDate="2015-12-16T05:21:18.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12626" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-16T05:14:23.580" Score="2" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was playing Flappy Bird trying to beat my highest score. While on one run (or fly, hehe) my friend got me engaged in a conversation. When the short conversation ended I found myself thinking about something for probably 10-15 seconds, where in this time my eyes were looking at the game on my iPad, and yet my actual attention was not on the game. I was deep in thought on the topic my friend had brought up. The moment I got back to reality, I tried to re-engage myself with the game, but within a few seconds I crashed the poor bird. I had broken my record, however. It was as if another side of me took over while i was busy thinking of something else on the side. I voluntarily tried to reproduce this situation but I failed at the multitasking (as I know some will call it). This has happened while doing other things too. How is this explained, and why can it not be reproduced voluntarily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9809" LastActivityDate="2015-11-16T09:14:42.753" Title="Progressed smoothly in a game while not paying attention" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;multi-tasking&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12627" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-16T05:30:36.903" Score="3" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reviewing the literature there are certainly several inventories to measure gender stereotype values as, for example, the Adjective Check List (ACL; Williams &amp;amp; Bennett, 1975), the Sex-Role Stereotype Questionnaire (Rosenkrantz et al., 1968), the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ, Spence, Helmreich &amp;amp; Stapp, 1974; Runge et al., 1981), the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974; Schneider-Düker &amp;amp; Kohler, 1988), the Modern Sexism Scale (Swim et al., 1995), the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (Glick &amp;amp; Fiske, 1996), the Skala zur Messung der normativen Geschlechtsrollen-Orientierung (GRO-Skala; Krampen, 1979, 1983) to name but a few. However, as equally clearly can be seen, these instruments appear a bit outdated to employ, besides they often are based on the Anglo-American culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone help me out with a hint on a more contemporary gender stereotype questionnaire which refers to Germany or central Europe respectively? An inventory already edited for computer administration would be ideal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I apologise to Seanny123 as he had kindly revised this question once but it got lost then owing to an accidental log out.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hannes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9800" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-11-17T00:28:35.560" LastActivityDate="2015-11-17T00:28:35.560" Title="Searching for a gender stereotype questionnaire" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12628" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12626" CreationDate="2015-11-16T09:14:42.753" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;My interpretation of this question is that you are asking about divided attention. Some (normally easy) tasks can continue to be accomplished in conditions of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention#Multitasking_and_divided_attention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;divided attention&lt;/a&gt;, and with practice you should be able to control this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know of any research confirming your suggestion that you actually got better in such conditions. You could also look at recent studies on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind-wandering&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mind-wandering&lt;/a&gt; (which tend to show interruptions in the main task when you are thinking about something else) or the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13506280500193487&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;passive/active mode&lt;/a&gt; in visual tasks (in which, some argue, people actually get better when they don't concentrate as hard).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2015-11-16T09:14:42.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12629" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-16T14:59:55.637" Score="2" ViewCount="390" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has anyone used cleanIAT (function in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/IAT/IAT.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;IAT package&lt;/a&gt;) to compute D-scores for their IAT data? Have you noticed any discrepancies between your D-scores and those of colleagues that used another program (e.g., SPSS) to clean the same data? Can anyone describe each column in cleanIAT s output?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the manual says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Outputs a dataframe that must be saved to an object. The variable IAT is the &#xA;  calculated D-Score for each individual. SUBEXCL notes any exclusion&#xA;  criteria, with 0 being inclusion data, 1 for exclusion due to fast&#xA;  response, and 2 for exclusion due to missing blocks. C indicates&#xA;  standard deviation for combined blocks (correct trial only), while A&#xA;  indicates standard deviations for combined blocks (all trials). M&#xA;  (mean), E (percent error), N (number of trials used), and F (percent&#xA;  fast responses), are reported for each block included in the original&#xA;  dataframe.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a number of columns that are in the output that aren't explained in the documentation. For example, there are three IAT scores (3 D-scores?). And there are 2 S scores and 2 C scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to start an ongoing discussion about this because the package isn't mentioned at all in forums and &quot;cleanIAT&quot; gives zero results in Google Scholar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9812" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-11-25T04:03:51.847" LastActivityDate="2015-12-02T21:22:58.250" Title="cleanIAT function in R IAT package" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12631" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12517" CreationDate="2015-11-16T18:51:47.100" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer for the particular interface that you linked to is that a single scalar variable is being passed.  The EMG activity in one person controls an electrical signal that is connected to a nerve in the second person, which when activated causes the muscle to contract.  The EMG activity is thresholded and then the binary information of whether or not it passes that threshold is passed to a &quot;TENS unit&quot; whose output can be controlled in an analog way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the actual information being passed in this demonstration is binary, there is no reason why it must be so.  It is simply a result of the design decisions the creators made.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-11-16T21:28:09.097" LastActivityDate="2015-11-16T21:28:09.097" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12633" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7805" CreationDate="2015-11-16T20:06:18.133" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As mentioned in the definitions section on page 2 of the paper, $D(q||p) = &amp;lt;ln(q/p)&amp;gt;_q$ is the Kullback-Leibler divergence or cross-entropy between two densities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason for the negative logs is that is the convention when discussing entropy in the context of information theory.  This allows information to be combined additively. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_(information_theory)#Rationale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_(information_theory)#Rationale&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2015-11-16T20:06:18.133" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12634" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-17T02:04:43.313" Score="1" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming an individual is physically fit and does not experience abnormalities related to lack of circulation, obesity, or immune disease...what on a neurological level is the basis for feeling like life is on &quot;auto-pilot&quot; for most of the time.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A case study who is well known, is an intelligent individual. He is a male, Caucasian computer scientist under no duress such as financial problems, lack of romance or friendships, lack of nutrition, etc. This individual has the ability to learn things quickly, solve problems robustly, and can pick up spoken languages quickly. However, from experience, any small perturbations in his sleep cycle will cause him to be very, very agitated, very impulsive, have anxiety, and crash/melt down if sustained without sleep for long. By slight perturbation, I mean not an all nighter, but something many people around the world go through from time to time, like two back to back 5 hour nights. In detailed interviews, the person has admitted to feeling like life is on &quot;auto-pilot&quot; most of the time. They cannot explain their actions for every day tasks, and although self admittedly pious (but not overly extremist), wonders if their life is just a multivariable system, one in which everything around them from their coffee cop to their car are just &quot;elements&quot; in a set they call reality, with in their own words, &quot;have properties that detail information relative to to other elements&quot;. This person communicates very, very well with others, to the point that they are seen as one of the most social people in mutual inner circles. This person is non violent and does not have any habits or crimes. This person has a high libido. In times of stress, or at random times, this person randomly will text a few close loved ones, &quot;Do you love me?&quot; or &quot;Are you mad?&quot;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: This is &lt;strong&gt;NOT&lt;/strong&gt; a real case study nor a request for a medical diagnosis of an individual, as I know both are highly unethical to post here on online. This is part of an educational journal club at a neurophysiology and psychiatry institution. I have submitted my response as it was due last night at midnight. I understand asking others to help me with work is also highly unethical.  However, I was just curious if I could sample the waters and see what others think. I am genuinely curious as I thought it was interesting, and I thought it was an interesting case and I had to spend quite a bit researching and explaining my views. Answers are welcome from psychology, neuroscience, psychiatry, biochemistry,, and other offshoots relatable to the cognitive sciences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9815" LastActivityDate="2015-11-17T02:04:43.313" Title="What are some things that may explain feeling on &quot;auto-pilot&quot; the majority of the time in life?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-06-17T21:26:12.017" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12635" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-17T06:14:15.973" Score="1" ViewCount="180" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can anyone give a list of all the books one should read in order to have a fairly general understanding of psychology, and with somewhat of an emphasis cognitive and evolutionary psychology. I realize that the discipline diversifies and it is a difficult thing to do, but perhaps it can something like the books a typical psychology major would have to read in undergrad? And I welcome reading the technical works so please feel to mention them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*What I am interested in is the difference between the attempts of existential philosophy and psychology and their results of human understanding, and how the two compliment and relate to each other. If anyone has any recommendations on this question specifically, other than the works of Maslow, that will really help. Thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9818" LastActivityDate="2015-11-20T16:29:31.927" Title="A list of books on the big ideas of psychology" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-11-21T18:12:41.403" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12636" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-17T06:28:08.870" Score="2" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many studies done on how the brains of psychopaths and criminals are different from the brains of normal people. e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2273857/Neurologist-discovers-dark-patch-inside-brains-killers-rapists.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2273857/Neurologist-discovers-dark-patch-inside-brains-killers-rapists.html&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://bigthink.com/going-mental/the-neurobiology-of-evil&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://bigthink.com/going-mental/the-neurobiology-of-evil&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been a study done on the brains of &quot;good&quot; people? For example all the Mother Theresa's in the world. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I'm wondering this, is that if we can figure out what makes people &quot;good&quot; then we can make &quot;good&quot; GM babies in the future. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastEditorUserId="8894" LastEditDate="2015-11-17T09:27:02.257" LastActivityDate="2020-07-09T21:33:38.190" Title="Moral neuroscience" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12636" CreationDate="2015-11-17T08:39:51.777" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To some extent, I agree with you that there is probably more done on the extreme negative end of morality, partly because that (debatably) is seen as more abnormal and society is more interested in fixing it. There has been considerable work on psychopathy and sociopathy, which means that cognitive neuroscience is more willing to treat such people as special cases. I suspect people would be much more reluctant to label people as &quot;good&quot;. There is, however, work on how things like generosity (which presumably Mother Theresa and co are very high on) reflect/influence &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982214014298&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;brain activity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2015-11-17T08:39:51.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12638" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12636" CreationDate="2015-11-17T19:23:35.297" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was a recent paper in &lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/111/42/15036.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Marsh et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;) that examined &quot;extraordinary altruists&quot; who volunteered to donate a kidney to a stranger. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As opposed to psychopaths, who tend to show diminished sensitivity to threatening faces, altruists (vs. healthy controls) showed heightened sensitivity to these faces, which was associated with greater activity and volume in the right amygdala.  By contrast, amygdala volume and activity tends to be reduced in psychopathy.  So, in a crude way, altruism and psychopathy represent different ends of a spectrum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-11-17T19:23:35.297" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12639" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7936" CreationDate="2015-11-17T21:42:14.543" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do you mean &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/hantek/NeuroBricks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://github.com/hantek/NeuroBricks&lt;/a&gt; ? This is a python framework you may need if you are dealing with a deep learning related source code.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9822" LastActivityDate="2015-11-17T21:42:14.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12640" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-18T02:18:35.303" Score="2" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have little background in the life sciences. I was told by a more informed person that the human brain can store an infinite amount of information. Doesn't this violate the laws of physics. If the amount of information is infinite, the entropy is also infinite. Wouldn't that violate Einstein's Theory of General Relativity. How much information can actually be stored in a human brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9823" LastActivityDate="2015-11-18T02:18:35.303" Title="The amount of information in a human brain" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2018-12-05T20:48:23.577" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12642" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12646" CreationDate="2015-11-18T03:23:02.890" Score="3" ViewCount="349" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe information in computer is physically stored as a lattice of &quot;boxes&quot;. Each box is either magnetized or de-magnetized. The computer reads this to retrieve and consolidate useful information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is at the cellular level, how is information stored. I have tried looking the topic up and read about the strengthening of synapses. However, what is the low level mechanism for storing information? There has to be some &quot;state&quot; of the cell that can be processed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, so what is the physical mechanism behind each type of memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9823" LastActivityDate="2015-11-18T18:04:56.247" Title="How is information stored in the brain" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;&lt;procedural-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12643" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-18T06:16:34.910" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading up on Kurt Cobain's life story and his achievements, and these observations/questions came to mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are plenty of examples of people with unhappy childhoods or life in general that have experienced exceptional professional success later in their life. But is the reverse true as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can a happy childhood/life make for similar (or even greater) professional success?&lt;/strong&gt; Has there been studies whether there's a correlation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9827" LastActivityDate="2015-11-18T06:16:34.910" Title="Can good life experiences make for great life achievements?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12644" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-18T08:21:42.993" Score="3" ViewCount="322" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the relations between top-down and bottom-up processings and the flows of information in the brain? For example, does top-down processing start from some layers and go to lower layers? &#xA;If so does the information remain in the same area of the brain or can it travel from a layer of one area down to lower layers of an others areas? &#xA;Also how are feedforward (feedback) pathways related to bottom-up (top-down)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastEditorUserId="9424" LastEditDate="2015-11-18T09:37:41.407" LastActivityDate="2015-11-18T19:16:59.340" Title="link between top-down (bottom-up) processing and cortex layers" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12645" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12644" CreationDate="2015-11-18T14:45:07.563" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is generally thought that thalamic input comes in layer 4, feed back from higher areas come through layer 1 to layer 2/3 and feed forward is sent from the deeper layers.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;see Canonical Microcircuits for Predictive Coding&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Andre Bastos, W. Martin Usrey, Rick Adams, George Mangun, Pascal Fries, and Karl Friston&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.nyu.edu/clash/poeppellab/JournalClubPapers/BastosFristonNeuron12.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://psych.nyu.edu/clash/poeppellab/JournalClubPapers/BastosFristonNeuron12.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;who cite Douglas, R.J., and Martin, K.A. (1991). A functional microcircuit for cat visual cortex. J. Physiol. 440, 735–769.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-11-18T19:16:59.340" LastActivityDate="2015-11-18T19:16:59.340" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12646" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12642" CreationDate="2015-11-18T15:04:23.887" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;One hypothesis about the molecular basis of memory is CaMKII&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Nature Reviews Neuroscience 13, 169-182 (March 2012) | doi:10.1038/nrn3192&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Mechanisms of CaMKII action in long-term potentiation&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.silvalab.com/LMcourse/Lisman2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.silvalab.com/LMcourse/Lisman2012.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-11-18T18:04:56.247" LastActivityDate="2015-11-18T18:04:56.247" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10694" CreationDate="2015-11-18T15:26:08.937" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very difficult question that we don't know the answer to yet.  Here are some references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Impermanence of dendritic spines in live adult CA1 hippocampus&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Alessio Attardo, James E. Fitzgerald &amp;amp; Mark J. Schnitzer&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v523/n7562/full/nature14467.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v523/n7562/full/nature14467.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Strikingly, CA1 spine turnover dynamics differed sharply from those seen previously in the neocortex7, 8, 9. Mathematical modelling revealed that the data best matched kinetic models with a single population of spines with a mean lifetime of approximately 1–2 weeks. This implies ~100% turnover in ~2–3 times this interval, a near full erasure of the synaptic connectivity pattern. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long-Term In Vivo Imaging of Dendritic Spines in the Hippocampus Reveals Structural Plasticity&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ligang Gu, Stefanie Kleiber, Lena Schmid, Felix Nebeling, Miriam Chamoun, Julia Steffen, Jens Wagner, and Martin Fuhrmann&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/34/42/13948.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/34/42/13948.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Transient and Persistent Dendritic Spines in the Neocortex In Vivo&#xA;Anthony J.G.D. Holtmaat, Joshua T. Trachtenberg3, Linda Wilbrecht, Gordon M. Shepherd, Xiaoqun Zhang, Graham W. Knott, Karel Svoboda&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(05)00004-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(05)00004-8&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dendritic spines were imaged over days to months in the apical tufts of neocortical pyramidal neurons (layers 5 and 2/3) in vivo. A fraction of thin spines appeared and disappeared over a few days, while most thick spines persisted for months. In the somatosensory cortex, from postnatal day (PND) 16 to PND 25 spine retractions exceeded additions, resulting in a net loss of spines. The fraction of persistent spines (lifetime ≥ 8 days) grew gradually during development and into adulthood (PND 16–25, 35%; PND 35–80, 54%; PND 80–120, 66%; PND 175–225, 73%), providing evidence that synaptic circuits continue to stabilize even in the adult brain, long after the closure of known critical periods. In 6-month-old mice, spines turn over more slowly in visual compared to somatosensory cortex, possibly reflecting differences in the capacity for experience-dependent plasticity in these brain regions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stably maintained dendritic spines are associated with lifelong memories&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Guang Yang1, Feng Pan1 &amp;amp; Wen-Biao Gan1&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v462/n7275/full/nature08577.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v462/n7275/full/nature08577.html&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Importantly, a small fraction of new spines induced by novel experience, together with most spines formed early during development and surviving experience-dependent elimination, are preserved and provide a structural basis for memory retention throughout the entire life of an animal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-11-18T15:32:54.443" LastActivityDate="2015-11-18T15:32:54.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12648" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-18T15:29:41.883" Score="5" ViewCount="235" Body="&lt;p&gt;A visual stimulus must last longer than some threshold duration to be perceived consciously. For example, a light dot flashed for a duration of 10ms can't be consciously perceived. Why? What prevents a sub-threshold flash to be consciously perceived? Does this mean the relevant neurocircuits have to keep on firing for some threshold time in order to reach consciousness? If so, why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6186" LastEditorUserId="6186" LastEditDate="2015-11-18T16:26:15.433" LastActivityDate="2017-02-21T04:33:28.960" Title="Threshold time for stimulus to be consciously perceived. Why?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12648" CreationDate="2015-11-18T16:09:34.860" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If by consciously perceived, you mean recognizing a feature (and possible reactions accordingly), there are several tasks to be considered that seem to cause delays:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Saccades and eye movements: During saccades we are blind, so we must wait a little to bypass a saccade so participants are able to see. It is called saccade masking.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Transmission: neurons are not that fast (around 100m/s for myelinated ones), so transmitting action potential from retina to the primary visual cortex takes time, of around hundreds of milliseconds.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;From visual cortex to other area of the brain (for verbal responses, reasoning, matching, or further recognitions that are not simply visual features),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Transmitting reaction signals from motor cortex to the hand so participants can respond.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are just neurological pathways. Considering some other cognitive shortcuts (e.g. schemas and categories), participants need to bypass their default reasoning modes (unconscious?) that are learned by training, stereotypes, or being stimulated so long that it's been moved from foreground to the context (speaking of perception without awareness).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="646" LastActivityDate="2015-11-18T16:09:34.860" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12653" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-19T04:33:20.723" Score="2" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was unable to frame a search query for my question, hence decided to post it out here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am normally able to type passwords, numbers and other tiny bits of text very fast. However if I have to spell/say this to some other person, let's say a Customer Service Rep, my mind doubts whether the information is correct or incorrect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope you can follow my question, could anyone explain any scientific term that defines this condition of mind, where recalling a text via motor skills (hands) is faster than recalling and speaking it out?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9837" LastActivityDate="2015-11-22T06:24:30.540" Title="Able to type promptly, but doubt validity when spelling it out?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12655" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-19T15:15:49.287" Score="3" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes when people talk in public about cockroaches, for example, it happens for some people to feel the skin itching and yet, no cockroaches were there. Is there a name for this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-02-19T00:09:24.340" LastActivityDate="2017-02-19T00:09:24.340" Title="Why some people feel their skin itching when they're told about insects and no insects happen to be nearby?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12658" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-19T22:53:05.253" Score="5" ViewCount="177" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on a paper describing the current state of EEG headsets used as computer interfaces. One of the things that is key for building a system using an EEG headset as a controller is having some known EEG response to detect. Examples I've been learning about are the P300, the SSVEP, motor-image-related changes in mu &amp;amp; beta rhythm amplitudes, and slow cortical potentials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone created a common database or textbook of known phenomenon like these? I'm not talking about implementations that detect and use the signal changes, but rather a comprehensive list of everything currently known about EEG data. Everything that can be reliably reproduced, regardless of whether the underlying brain function is understood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9848" LastActivityDate="2015-11-24T19:02:06.757" Title="Database of EEG signal phenomenon" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12659" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12606" CreationDate="2015-11-20T02:13:47.607" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure about what happens in the brain while someone is actually meditating (i.e., the state effect of meditation), but a meta-analysis from last year (Fox et al., 2014) looked carefully at what long term brain changes result from meditation. This is from the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Anatomical likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis found eight brain regions consistently altered in meditators, including areas key to meta-awareness (frontopolar cortex/BA 10), exteroceptive and interoceptive body awareness (sensory cortices and insula), memory consolidation and reconsolidation (hippocampus), self and emotion regulation (anterior and mid cingulate; orbitofrontal cortex), and intra- and interhemispheric communication (superior longitudinal fasciculus; corpus callosum).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper is available online here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.christofflab.ca/pdfs/Fox2014-MeditationMorphometry.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.christofflab.ca/pdfs/Fox2014-MeditationMorphometry.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="406" LastActivityDate="2015-11-20T02:13:47.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12660" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-20T05:40:18.650" Score="-1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that people talk for planning immediate benefits or planning future benefits. For example if someone wants to eat a fruit on a tree but he doesn't know how to get it so he asks someone to get it for him so he talks. So do you think that these are the correct reasons why people talk?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9698" LastActivityDate="2015-11-24T01:54:07.440" Title="Why do people talk (or communicate)?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;speech-comprehension&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2015-12-09T13:12:10.837" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12661" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-20T06:04:04.953" Score="1" ViewCount="298" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do these software work? Is there a clear algorithm I can follow to make one by myself? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can make software for Mac, Web and Mobile. I also have two EEG headsets: Emotiv Epoc and Neurosky MindWave Mobile. I can connect with these, record EEG and so on using Python and Objective C. But I cannot find out how a Neurofeedback software decides when and what to modify in an audio or video play back to train the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9849" LastActivityDate="2015-11-20T06:04:04.953" Title="Is there any publicly available algorithms for Neurofeedback using EEG?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;biofeedback&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2016-06-08T13:50:40.717" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12662" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9594" CreationDate="2015-11-20T06:19:48.900" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are looking for is Imagined / Silent Speech Classification (my best guess). I'm interested in this for a few years (exactly to work with Vim) now and  worked with some of the cheap EEG headsets like Emotiv EPOC and Neurosky MindWave Mobile. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A paper on it:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scipublish.com/journals/ABSE/papers/1021&quot;&gt;http://www.scipublish.com/journals/ABSE/papers/1021&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patent applications:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.freepatentsonline.com/&quot;&gt;http://www.freepatentsonline.com/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;To the above link, add these at the end:&#xA;&lt;br&gt;WO2014066855A1.html&#xA;&lt;br&gt;WO2014130571A1.html&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Due to a lack of reputation, I cannot post more than 2 links.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The commercial and inexpensive headsets are good enough to detect what their APIs support:&#xA;Neurosky: Attention, Meditation and Eye blink.&#xA;EPOC: Please refer to their Cognitive Suit documentation. You can get 1-2 sets of detections done quickly. Good luck with detecting 4 states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Search around for Silent Speech Classification. You should be able to find more details. There was a Japanese demo somewhere that uses classification on EEG or EMG to speak. I will post it if I can find it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9849" LastActivityDate="2015-11-20T06:19:48.900" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12663" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-20T07:17:34.597" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a correlation in certain aspects of human traits,whether it is gene related.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People from dominating countries during the early 1800s invading into other nations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For e.g:Portuguese,British people have a higher degree of self respect and sense of command as compared to the invaded country population.These 'invaded country, people collectively develop a sense of inferiority.And it is passed through the years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus is it likely for people in the present age to show similar traits due to genes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9618" LastActivityDate="2015-11-20T16:34:42.760" Title="Link between certain aspects of basic behavioural traits" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-12-10T04:02:32.890" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12665" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-20T14:30:08.407" Score="2" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen a lot of textbooks and papers explain how lateral inhibition can account for simultaneous lightness contrast, but what is the original theory/papers that I could cite? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9853" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-11-21T03:29:05.007" LastActivityDate="2015-11-21T03:29:05.007" Title="What are the original paper(s)/reference(s) using lateral inhibition to explain simultaneous contrast?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="12" ClosedDate="2016-06-11T13:39:34.237" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12666" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12635" CreationDate="2015-11-20T16:29:31.927" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yeah, it's too difficult to say ALL the books, because there are thousands.  Some good ones I've come across lately are &quot;Thinking Fast and Slow&quot; by Kahneman.  His ideas have been enormously influential, especially since he won the Nobel Prize, and it's easy to read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another book I've been reading lately is &quot;The Evolution of Childhood&quot; by Melvin Konner.  It's not really psychology, more behavioral biology and evolution, but it's relevant to psychology and interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll come back and post more as I think of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9854" LastActivityDate="2015-11-20T16:29:31.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12667" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12663" CreationDate="2015-11-20T16:34:42.760" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not really.  It's possible that behavioural traits are genetic to some extent, but it's impossible to separate that from the environmental influences enough to link to specific events such as invading other countries.  Also, usually invaders stayed to colonize the country they invaded so that there was a mixing of the genes of invaded and invaders.  So even if there were links between genetics and likelihood to invade, you couldn't make the connection now between historical events and the behavioural traits of the current generation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9855" LastActivityDate="2015-11-20T16:34:42.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12669" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9594" CreationDate="2015-11-22T06:10:43.450" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can respond a little to your second question, in particular as it related to EEG: &lt;em&gt;What is the current state of progress regarding the formulation of useful information from neural firing patterns and raw brain activity?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, although there are groups working on this general idea (decoding from brain activity) using a number of neuroscientific techniques. In terms of EEG, the data has a very low signal-to-noise rate on single trials (this is far worse in commercial systems), although a search of &quot;single-trial EEG/ERP analysis&quot; would yield some papers, especially recently, largely on binomial classification problems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the level of individual words/phrases, it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to use EEG to decode accurately. It is likely the case that there some evidence for a few broad classifications (car vs face) using EEG data, but as far as I know the best use of EEG for decoding &quot;language&quot; is using the decision-related P300 component in clinical settings (search &quot;P300 speller&quot;, as well as the work by Emanuel Donchin, for more info).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Outside of EEG, I know of a number of labs who are using Magnetencephalography (MEG) to try to decode characters of conceptual and linguistic thought. For example, Tom Mitchell's lab is doing some work using individuals' reading entire passages of Harry Potter in an MEG machine, and then looking at ability to decode characters, characters' personality states and action, settings, etc. I know there are some interesting findings, but even with a $2MM machine it is pretty limited. (And, even if you were a research billionaire, you couldn't exactly walk around with a MEG on your head.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mitchell's work builds on work done using functional magnetic imaging (fMRI) with Marcel Just. This ended up on 60 minutes with Lezley Stahl and is on youtube. They were able to predict the category of items individuals were thinking of to a relatively high level after training the decoder. The coolest working in this area (IMHO) is in Jack Gallant's lab in Stanford?. Gallant et al have some ridiculous whole brain semantic mapping generated by having individuals watch movies that poor doctoral students coded scene by scene for &lt;em&gt;everything&lt;/em&gt;. These maps show how the brain changes its receptivity/tuning/representational nature/who knows dynamically as we watch natural videos (e.g., people in a scene radically changes the brain's conceptual state, if that makes any sense). My point with Gallant's work is that we may first be better able decode concepts and categories at a fine level before we drop down to sentences and words, at least in any non-strongly-constrained system (one with 5 words). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, I don't know anything, maybe next year they will pop a chip in the ventral pathways and start reading words like a typewriter...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5123" LastEditorUserId="5123" LastEditDate="2015-11-25T20:05:45.163" LastActivityDate="2015-11-25T20:05:45.163" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12670" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12653" CreationDate="2015-11-22T06:24:30.540" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure I know a name for the phenomenon, but the general idea is that for patterns of info you retrieve consistently in certain ways (e.g., typing into a standard phone key pad), you have formed consist mappings between your cognitions and your motor responses. The original work on this was done by Richard Shiffrin and Walt Schneider (1976, 1977?). Their works is real low-level, but what you have done is automatized a certain retrieval-execution circuit that &quot;fires off&quot; less-optimally when someone asks for that info in a different circumstance (e.g., on the phone with someone you have never talked to before like a tech rep), and you have to generate it without other tactile and visual cues (like a keyboard). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope that helps. If you google scholar &quot;skill automization&quot; there will be a rabbit-hole of information 40 years deep. I think there is a chapter by Reason in 1990? that has come cool, easy to digest implications of automization for errors in behavior and thought (e.g. &quot;Freudian slips&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5123" LastActivityDate="2015-11-22T06:24:30.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12671" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12660" CreationDate="2015-11-22T11:31:19.667" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;From psycholinguistic point of view, communication helps to understand others behaviour better even in a non-verbal way, economic basis of communication is the fact that humans are wanting beings who need things from food to luxuries and therefore need to communicate, evolutionarily, I would suppose communication help to adapt more to our environment. Consider your own self when you are sick and need to talk to those around or a doctor, without communication, would that be possible? You may want more about the usefulness of communication, see a brief summary here &lt;a href=&quot;http://geniuslight.blogspot.com.ng/2015/11/psycholinguistics.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://geniuslight.blogspot.com.ng/2015/11/psycholinguistics.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9866" LastActivityDate="2015-11-22T11:31:19.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12672" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12673" CreationDate="2015-11-22T15:49:22.073" Score="3" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is anyone familiar with &lt;a href=&quot;ftp://ftp.cnl.salk.edu/pub/emilio/papers/cricket.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; article?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am reading it, and it is basically very clear.&#xA;But still, some points are not clear to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, how is equation (7.1) in page 12:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;$Q_{i,j}^{-1} = F(\overline C_i \overline C_j)$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It it said there that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;em&gt;By rotational invariance, the correlation matrix element $Q_{i,j}$ and the corresponding inverse element $Q_{i,j}^{-1}$ can only depend on $\overline C_i \cdot \overline C_j$&lt;/em&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone here, by any chance, know what is &quot;rotational invariance&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9867" LastActivityDate="2015-11-22T18:16:04.690" Title="The article &quot;Vector reconstruction from Firing Rates&quot; of Abbott and Salinas" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12673" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12672" CreationDate="2015-11-22T18:16:04.690" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What they mean is that as long as you rotate $C_i$ and $C_j$ by the same amount, the dot product will be the same.  This is rotational invariance because the dot product is invariant to coherent rotation of the relevant vectors.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In neural terms, the correlation between the activity of two neurons (in a population representing a one dimensional circular variable) is a function of the difference in their preferred orientations and does not depend on the absolute direction of their orientations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2015-11-22T18:16:04.690" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12674" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-22T19:15:03.383" Score="6" ViewCount="216" Body="&lt;p&gt;During lucid dreaming, we sometimes feel that it is a repetition of (or in someway related to) a previous dream, but when we wake up, we can't recollect the first instance of such a dream. Why is this so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9868" LastActivityDate="2015-11-24T01:32:19.960" Title="Do dreams repeat/continue? Or is it just a perception that a dream repeated?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12676" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-23T11:10:51.877" Score="2" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a method for measuring peer relationships in university students (e.g., a questionnaire)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a questionnaire that can be used to asses the level of peer relationship among students. In other words, how students are able to relate to their peers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9819" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-11-23T20:31:46.720" LastActivityDate="2016-04-24T02:51:11.343" Title="Peer relationships measurement" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12674" CreationDate="2015-11-24T00:03:43.153" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Disclaimer: My answer is about recurrent dreams. I don't have any immediate sources to consult on the continuation part (and there are less references to it in literature), but I'd be very surprised if it is any different.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Theories&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, there are many of theories that support the notion of recurring dreams. I know not of a single one that (explicitly or even reasonably implicitly) rejects such thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;On cognitive perception&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, you talk about &lt;em&gt;perception&lt;/em&gt;, which in cognitive terms equates &lt;em&gt;conscious access&lt;/em&gt; (rather than &lt;em&gt;sensing&lt;/em&gt; in everyday language). So if you can (consciously) perceive it, it must be a genuine mental process that made it available (with the sole exception below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Subjective reports = objective measurements&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thirdly, recurring dreams have been reported and studied for decades (in your case I'd probably start with [1]). Most of dream science is natively based on subjective reports. But recently, scientists have shown that monitored &lt;strong&gt;brain activity&lt;/strong&gt; is &lt;strong&gt;in agreement&lt;/strong&gt; with, and can &lt;strong&gt;even predict&lt;/strong&gt;, those subjective reports [2].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So we really have all reasons to believe that what we perceive as a dream is what we actually dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Possible exception?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The one exception for this, and it is &lt;strong&gt;my own informed suspicion&lt;/strong&gt;, is that we &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; still have a Déjà vu (déjâ rêvé, in the question context) while dreaming - so it may be a false sensation after all. It is &lt;strong&gt;the same informed suspicion&lt;/strong&gt; that tells me that if this happens at all, it should be &lt;strong&gt;extremely rare&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Sleep's low retention&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the latter part of your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;we can't recollect the first instance of such a dream. Why is this so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one is to make &lt;strong&gt;gross simplification&lt;/strong&gt;, during sleep:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your &lt;strong&gt;long-term&lt;/strong&gt; memory is &lt;strong&gt;'not available'&lt;/strong&gt; to remember stuff.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your &lt;strong&gt;short-term&lt;/strong&gt; memory is even &lt;strong&gt;more volatile&lt;/strong&gt; than it is while you're awake (there isn't central-executive process to exercise retention).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the same reason, we often remember a dream just after waking up, but unless salient we fail to recall it shortly after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Zadra, Antonio, and D. C. Donderi. &lt;em&gt;Nightmares and bad dreams: their prevalence and relationship to well-being.&lt;/em&gt; Journal of abnormal psychology 109.2 (2000): 273.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Horikawa, Tomoyasu, et al. &lt;em&gt;Neural decoding of visual imagery during sleep.&lt;/em&gt; Science 340.6132 (2013): 639-642.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2015-11-24T01:32:19.960" LastActivityDate="2015-11-24T01:32:19.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12679" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12660" CreationDate="2015-11-24T01:54:07.440" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;We evolved from animals which live in groups. Social animals such as chimpanzees (our closest relatives) communicate to one another to warn of danger, call for help, express emotions, etc. In a broader sense, there are advantages to living in groups: Mutual defense, stronger attacks on prey, ability to share resources...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence#Social_brain_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence#Social_brain_hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9875" LastActivityDate="2015-11-24T01:54:07.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12680" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12728" CreationDate="2015-11-24T04:09:20.163" Score="2" ViewCount="3019" Body="&lt;p&gt;We  all get into relationship. We at times move out of them when the needs (emotional,physical,mental,monetary,etc.) are not met. &#xA;We keep searching for that one life partner. &#xA;Why do we(human beings) need that one &quot;Life partner&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9859" LastEditorUserId="9859" LastEditDate="2015-11-25T05:20:18.937" LastActivityDate="2017-01-26T22:18:35.523" Title="Why do we need Life Partner?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12681" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12658" CreationDate="2015-11-24T19:02:06.757" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you have learned about the P300, Steven Luck's An introduction to the event-related potential technique (2014) will be of interest; &#xA;the SSVEP and motor-image-related changes are used in BCI, so this book &quot;Brain-Computer Interfaces: Principles and Practice&quot; by John and Elizabeth Wolpaw will be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastActivityDate="2015-11-24T19:02:06.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12682" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9594" CreationDate="2015-11-25T01:37:47.350" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your thought has been first tested by Larry Pinneo (1975), he got absolutely nowhere in the DARPA Biocybernetics program. In 1981, Russian scientists have found specific waves for specific meanings, &quot;for example, that waves for concepts such as chair, desk, and table are all overlapped by another wave that corresponds to the word furniture.” Check out this article, &quot;Mind reading computer&quot; by Staff Writer. &lt;a href=&quot;https://sites.google.com/site/mcrais1/pinneo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://sites.google.com/site/mcrais1/pinneo&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pinneo, L. R. (1975). Persistent EEG Patterns Associated with Overt and Covert Speech. Bulletin of the Human Factors Society, 18(2), 1-2.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastActivityDate="2015-11-25T01:37:47.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12683" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12691" CreationDate="2015-11-25T08:16:30.310" Score="-1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have speculated for a long time that brain waves could be the &quot;location&quot; of human consciousness or indeed the &quot;soul&quot;. My argument for this is the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They vary with different states of consciousness, like dreaming.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They cover the brain as a whole and have provides coherence like the perception of time&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I heard about an experiment with a man with severe secures that had his brain cut of in two with no neural connections. He didn't get a split personality and could perform functions that involved both halves of the brain. That told me that there couldn't be a completely neural explanation to consciousness. So which other mechanism do we know that could bridge that gap and provide a coherent self awareness combining the two brain halves: brain waves.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They may appear simple on the outside of the scull but on the inside they could display very rich characteristics.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neural nets does not have brain waves and doesn't exhibit any signs of consciousness even though they have some kind of intelligence. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kind of experiment could validate this hypothesis? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does research say on this matter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do you think about this idea in general?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9880" LastEditorUserId="9880" LastEditDate="2015-11-25T08:27:19.950" LastActivityDate="2015-11-26T00:57:15.387" Title="Could brainwaves be the fenomena gives rise to consciousness" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2015-12-18T03:57:23.593" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12684" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-25T13:35:52.633" Score="1" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;We learn facts in life from books or from experience, and we remember them. If later we ascertain a new fact about the same subject or phenomenon that contradicts the first impression, we can't erase that first fact, but we keep both facts with the ability to distinguish between them clearly, in consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example Pluto used to be the 9&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; planet however is no longer.&#xA;But if in a dream one tells someone tha Pluto is in fact the 9&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; planet, does this mean that there is inconsistency between the id, ego and superego?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we link this to slips of the tongue/mind or silly mistakes to which we later feel &quot;oh I still knew it, I did that mistake&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9882" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2016-01-07T12:32:20.687" LastActivityDate="2016-01-07T12:32:20.687" Title="Interpretation of facts in dream" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;episodic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2021-05-26T20:41:52.580" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12685" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12720" CreationDate="2015-11-25T16:33:08.380" Score="2" ViewCount="223" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's seems very likely to me that it does, but I haven't found any research that tested this assumption directly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9884" LastActivityDate="2015-11-30T22:30:43.213" Title="Does inhibiting automatic processing requires attention?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;automaticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12686" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-25T17:39:12.750" Score="5" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;If vision can instantly &quot;see&quot; 30x30 grid, why does the brain often need to count rows and columns for understand there is 30 rows and 30 columns? Why does the brain fail to instantly count?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9885" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-11-25T19:01:01.913" LastActivityDate="2015-12-05T06:42:44.147" Title="Why vision cannot count things instantly?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12688" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12707" CreationDate="2015-11-25T19:34:15.973" Score="1" ViewCount="173" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could you recommend me some books that cover trust and how it is developed, what helps us build trust and why we might or might not need it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not interested in the relationship self-help books but a more philosophical and psychological approach to the whole issue, discussions about the development of trust in the recent years and how it is affecting the society, how trust emerges and what factors influence it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your help is very much appreciated,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;GreenJack&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9887" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T10:18:01.713" Title="Books about trust" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12689" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12686" CreationDate="2015-11-25T21:53:17.163" Score="4" Body="&lt;h1&gt;You probably mean instant quantity recognition&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Counting requires a rather complex high-level process. For an animal to count you'd need:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Memory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consciousness (to access and manipulate that memory)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Basic algebra skills&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some basic semantic abstraction mechanism (ie, language) which will probably have to be recursive as well.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some symbolic mechanism&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Honestly, even capable adult struggle counting in binary although on paper it should be far easier than counting in the decimal system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyhow, counting will always be effortful and slow as it is a conscious process (ie, &lt;strong&gt;system 2&lt;/strong&gt;, for which you can perform very roughly 5 calculation per second).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess what your really mean is &lt;strong&gt;instant quantity recognition&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Useless for survival, useless in modern culture&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One simple answer would be that such ability will add &lt;strong&gt;little to none to your survival chances&lt;/strong&gt;. Furthermore, within modern cultural, such ability would give little advantage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain is capable of many great things, for instance, the ability to comprehend this text is nothing short of a 'miracle' - despite decades of research, no computer is capable of such feat. But enter mirror reading (where the text is mirrored on the horizontal plane) and now the brain enters a slow, effortful manual mode. With enough practice, mirror reading should become an automatic process, but what benefit such skill give?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Most animals can't count at all&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All animals seem to have survived having no or extremely limited counting ability. For us humans, counting is a fairly &lt;strong&gt;recent skill&lt;/strong&gt; (I'm pretty sure it is dated back to the beginning of the &lt;strong&gt;trade era&lt;/strong&gt;) - us humans have survived without it for most of our past. Visits to uncivilised tribes revealed that some can only count to around 3 (then it's &quot;more than 3&quot; or &quot;many&quot;) - odd to us as it may sound to us, &lt;em&gt;they&lt;/em&gt; are baffled by why would anyone need to count more than 3 things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the fascinating findings about &lt;strong&gt;counting&lt;/strong&gt; is that it seems to be a &lt;strong&gt;completely cultural&lt;/strong&gt; thing - experiments done with both young children and uncivilised populations suggest an innate &lt;strong&gt;exponential&lt;/strong&gt;, rather than linear, sense of quantity. The explanation for this is that for &lt;strong&gt;survival&lt;/strong&gt; it is much more important to know the &lt;strong&gt;ratio&lt;/strong&gt; than the &lt;strong&gt;precise count&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This tree has twice as many apples than this one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is more important than&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This one has 204 apple, this one has 408.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarise, there's no reason for our primal brain to be able to recognise precise quantities instantly, nor there is modern cultural advantage in having such skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2015-11-25T22:12:59.887" LastActivityDate="2015-11-25T22:12:59.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12690" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12684" CreationDate="2015-11-25T23:28:34.033" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Freud's psychic apparatus is pure theoretical psychology, which isn't cognition's best friend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's really hard to think how one could map the 3 construct to cognition (perhaps id is the easiest - primal brain, instinct). But even if you could, suggesting an inconsistency between 3 brain mega-systems to explain dreams is a bit of a stretch (albeit not completely unfounded - consider phantom limbs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So as far as cognition goes, dreams have a few key characteristics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Recency&lt;/strong&gt; - they involve things that you have experienced since you've last slept.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Saliency&lt;/strong&gt; - they involve things that are of subjective importance.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Randomness&lt;/strong&gt; - random combinations and often incoherent flow.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you try to infer anything from dreams, your best shot is that whatever you dreamt of was either recent, salient or random.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know it may not be exciting like Freud's theories, but it is by far more founded on empirical evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2015-11-25T23:28:34.033" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12691" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12683" CreationDate="2015-11-26T00:49:16.270" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a famous experiment Luigi Galvani conducted in 1780, he observed that a dead frog leg was twitching when electricity was applied to its nerves. Following your line of argument, electricity would be the meta-physical phenomena that gives rise to life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brainwaves are the signature of neural activity; we capture them through electrical measurements. We couldn't have observed them had it not been for neurons communicating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most established and empirically-supported theory we have on consciousness demonstrates that consciousness is the result of a &lt;strong&gt;cortex-wide neural discharges on a highly connected 'master' network&lt;/strong&gt; that has access to, and can 'extract' control of all lower-level networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this sounds overly complicated, think of an octopus that sees all the lights and can press all the buttons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to learn (a lot) more on consciousness and brainwaves, I recommend you read &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.co.uk/Consciousness-Brain-Deciphering-Codes-Thoughts/dp/0670025437&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Consciousness and the Brain: Deciphering How the Brain Codes Our Thoughts&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Stanislas Dehaene, which is a highly accessible text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2015-11-26T00:57:15.387" LastActivityDate="2015-11-26T00:57:15.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12692" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12676" CreationDate="2015-11-26T01:07:41.577" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. This field of research is known as &lt;strong&gt;social network analysis&lt;/strong&gt;, or &lt;em&gt;SNA&lt;/em&gt;. It existed well before Facebook et al. hijacked the term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Various resources will include sample questionnaires and the mathematical analysis applied (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.co.uk/Networks-Introduction-Mark-Newman/dp/0199206651/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Networks: An Introduction&lt;/a&gt; was for me by far the clearest text on the mathematics of networks; a lot of books on SNA are off-putting once you get to the maths part).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may also want to google for graph databases (eg, neo4j). I'm pretty sure I've seen a few examples of such analysis floating about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2015-11-26T01:07:41.577" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12699" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-27T10:23:51.830" Score="6" ViewCount="366" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in the mechanism behind a personality that can outburst anger rapidly and consistently for a long period. I've done some research and stumbled upon this issue described by &lt;em&gt;multiple different people&lt;/em&gt;, typically about a female rejecting her partner, which makes me think it has some biological basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within a certain time after a relationship starts, 6 months to 4 years an otherwise very desirable woman starts to have explosive anger outbursts over trivial issues and big issues alike. The words spoken and faults given during these temper outbursts does not matter, yet they follow a remarkably similar pattern:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;very rapid onset (15 seconds or less from baseline to angry) and long duration (up to 3 hours to flare up again)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;near total suppression of logical ability (will not see logic or reason)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;total shut down of empathy (makes very hurtful comments, emotionally abusive)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;significant drop in self awareness (can't see that acting like this is not appropriate and feels self justified)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;perception changes (you ALWAYS do that, you NEVER do this)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;does not want to be touched and actively rejects attempts at physical comforting&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;pushes the man out or continues the episode till the man can't take it any more and leaves&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;poor recollection of what happened during the episode later&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;likely to occur after 1 month of cohabitation, and can occur within days of having sex&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've additionally gathered that men in these relationship assume more &quot;feminine&quot; role, while women are more &quot;masculine&quot;. I've seen reports of a man bending over backwards to please such woman for years, yet this does not help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise the couple say they still love each other and can function normally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The almost universally given advice is: run, flee, end it. So it appears that behavior is aimed at and quite successful at forcing separation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;: Is this some kind of personality disorder? Is there a more scientific term I can use to look up this behavior? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE: since the question is closed&lt;/strong&gt;, I will add answer here, as it took me a long time to find relevant info. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mechanism described here is a clearly observable, biological, cyclical in nature, but it is only a tip of the iceberg of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_B_personality_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cluster B personality disordered&lt;/a&gt; woman.  This pattern of violent outbursts and push/pull dynamics is consistent with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;borderline personality disorder&lt;/a&gt; About 75% cases of BPD are female. I'm amazed at how many books are written on the subject by people who survived relationships with these women. (the male opposite is narcissistic personality disordered men, who deal just as much damage to women)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BPD/NPD has also been described as extremely low agreeableness and emotional stability on big 5 personality traits. During the courtship period, the undesirable traits are obfuscated from the potential partner (so woman who's more disagreeable than 95% of people may look like only 75% disagreeable). That's a major difference which is the cause of much unhappiness in such relationships. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BPD women are quite numerous are prone to emotionally violent anger outbursts, &quot;Projecting&quot; undesirable qualities onto the partner as a mechanism of self defense and avoiding any attempts to point out the pattern. Anecdotal evidence from countless sources suggests it is impossible to argue with a borderline disordered woman, or convince her to get help, as it results in the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Projection or blame shifting onto the partner&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Threats of separation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotional abuse&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Circular arguments&quot; that solve nothing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes these women experience moments of clarity, which only confuse the partner. These moments do not last long. Anecdotal evidence suggests BPD women are very resistant to therapy, and I've read accounts of up to 15 years of seeing psychiatrists/psychologists pass without any change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is common for the partner to somehow start accepting blame/fault for these violent outbursts, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sharischreiber.com/anycost.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;resulting in a lot of frustrated, depressed and beat up partners and husbands.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2018-04-02T07:14:42.853" LastActivityDate="2018-04-02T07:14:42.853" Title="What psychological disorders have frequent and rapid anger outbursts?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;mood&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2015-12-09T13:10:29.480" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12700" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12699" CreationDate="2015-11-27T14:17:41.917" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of your list fits for symptoms of lack of will to cooperate. Lack of will to cooperate is likely triggered by lack of sympathy, which again may be triggered by lack of trust. I say 'may' because there are several possible reasons that such situations may occur.&#xA;Lack of will to cooperate may also be due to personality traits, especially due to low score in the Big 5 personaliy trait &lt;strong&gt;Agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;Agreeableness scores the tendency for which a person prefers to cooperate and be altruistic, rather than antisocial and egosentric.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also mention several signs of being very emotional. This will highly depend on the personality of the woman, more than the sitution itself. Some people naturally respond more emotionally and prefer to use their feelings when making judgments, as opposed to using logic.&#xA;Emotional instability is especially typical for those with a high score in the Big 5 &lt;strong&gt;Neuroticism&lt;/strong&gt; personality trait.&#xA;Neuroticism scores the tendency for a person to be 'moody', change mood frequently, respond negatively, get anxious, suspicious and 'overreact'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Your 'kind of rejection&quot; is not a 'biological defence mechanism by which a woman pushes an unsuitable mate out'. It is the response pattern of a personality type when discontent with another person, regardless of relation status or gender.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2015-11-27T14:17:41.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12701" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-27T17:44:34.800" Score="3" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are neurons in the brain that exhibit bursting behaviour. In some cases, this is due to interactions with the surrounding neural network. In other cases, it is due to intrinsic biological properties of the neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case where it is intrinsic, where are these neurons found in the brain and what function to do they serve? How is their intrinsic bursting behaviour identified?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2015-11-29T08:01:52.880" Title="Where are intrinsically bursting neurons found in the mammalian brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12703" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-28T00:47:19.583" Score="2" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading through an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2912019/#b1-0530278&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; about research design. The authors gave an example on the relation between internal and external validity which I thought might be an important area of consideration when designing research proposals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;A restricted study population (and exclusion criteria) may limit bias&#xA;  and increase the internal validity of the study; however, this&#xA;  approach will limit external validity of the study and, thus, the&#xA;  generalizability of the findings to the practical clinical setting.&#xA;  Conversely, a broadly defined study population and inclusion criteria&#xA;  may be representative of practical clinical practice but may increase&#xA;  bias and reduce the internal validity of the study.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Broadly speaking, what questions can be asked to help decide one should strike a balance between the internal and external validity in our research proposal designs? Is it necessary then to carry out a pilot study first to establish some level of internal validity before moving on to establish external validity in a much bigger and formal follow-up study?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crosspost: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Validity/What-tradeoffs-are-there-between-internal-and-external-validity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quora&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update: This post has been shifted to &lt;a href=&quot;https://academia.stackexchange.com/questions/59212/what-tradeoffs-are-there-between-internal-and-external-validity&quot;&gt;academia.stackexchange&lt;/a&gt;. All changes and edits will be made via the posting there henceforth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9910" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:49:49.363" LastActivityDate="2015-12-02T02:29:33.860" Title="What tradeoffs are there between internal and external validity?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12706" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9594" CreationDate="2015-11-28T17:42:48.170" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a really fascinating possibility, but to be honest right now we are not even close to having consumer-based technology like this. The challenge comes down to a few things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The signal-to-noise of EEG is really, really bad&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's unclear how to map features of brain activity into linguistic features like phonemes/words/etc&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Time is a crucial aspect of brain activity, and a crucial aspect of speech, however we're not sure how to map the &quot;timescale&quot; of the brain onto the &quot;timescale&quot; of a person speaking. (e.g., think of the sentence &quot;all dogs go to heaven&quot; and then say it out loud. It probably took you a different amount of time in each case).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best example of state-of-the-art for EEG decoding is probably the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wKDimrzvwYA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;P300 speller&lt;/a&gt;. Basically, this takes advantage of a signal that pops up in your EEG only when you see something that you were already attending to. They give you a block of letters, tell you attend to one of them, and then start flashing letters in succession. When the letter you were attending to gets flashed, your brain has a special signal that the P300 speller picks up on. However, this types at the rate of only a few characters per minute, so it is far from the lucid stream of words/thoughts that we'd like to have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The work from Gallant's lab is really cool, but far from a feasible decoder of brain activity. If I remember correctly, their movie decoder was actually selecting from a bunch of movies they had in a database. They'd take the top 10/20/whatever movies that the decoder selected, and then average them together. This is a really clever idea, but isn't the full-fledged decoder that would let them decode arbitrary thoughts etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some work in electrocorticography (a version of EEG where the electrodes are placed right on the person's brain instead of on their scalp) that has interesting results, but they are still far, far, far from a consumer product. E.g. see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4034498/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper from the Stephanie Martin / Brian Pasley&lt;/a&gt; for an attempt to decode acoustic features from imagined speech. The ECoG signal is a much higher-quality signal than EEG, and they definitely show an improved ability to decode, but it still leaves much to be desired. (full disclosure, I'm a co-author on that paper)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;so tl;dr - these ideas are really fascinating, and hopefully they'll be a part of our society in the future. However, before we get to that point, we have major problems to solve such as finding a brain signal with a better SNR, creating more clever language models, and figuring out how time-scales are represented differently in the brain vs. during speech. Lots of progress yet to be made, but such is the nature of science :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ps: I didn't mention any commercial brain decoding systems because these are all almost laughably bad right now. I don't know of any researchers that really believe that a system like Emotive actually records abstract states like &quot;attention&quot; &quot;arousal&quot; etc. Be wary of companies that are trying to make money by capitalizing on people's inherent enthusiasm for neuroscience. Sorry if that makes me sound like a crotchety scientist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9919" LastActivityDate="2015-11-28T17:42:48.170" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12707" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12688" CreationDate="2015-11-28T18:30:56.917" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The only book I know of in that field is Francis Fukuyama's &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.co.uk/Trust-Social-Virtues-Creation-Prosperity/dp/0684825252&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;'Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity'&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't read it yet, but &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;if it is anywhere near the quality of the Fukuyama books I have read, it will be excellent, perhaps even amazing, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;given what he says about trust in the book I'm reading right now (&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amazon.co.uk/Political-Order-Decay-Industrial-Globalisation/dp/1846684374&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;'Political Order and Political Decay'&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;), I would bet on amazing. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8079" LastEditorUserId="10175" LastEditDate="2015-12-29T04:23:02.930" LastActivityDate="2015-12-29T04:23:02.930" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12708" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9594" CreationDate="2015-11-28T18:58:51.260" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, EEG just isn't that high-quality of a signal.  But electrocorticography, or basically EEG collected on the surface of the brain, is much better.  Robert Knight's lab came out with a paper in (or around) 2012 that had single-trial generation of speech from brain activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Citation:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001251&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Reconstructing Speech from Human Auditory Cortex&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Brian N. Pasley , Stephen V. David, Nima Mesgarani, Adeen Flinker, Shihab A. Shamma, Nathan E. Crone, Robert T. Knight, Edward F. Chang&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9922" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2015-11-29T19:18:45.857" LastActivityDate="2015-11-29T19:18:45.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12709" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4986" CreationDate="2015-11-28T22:12:44.567" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there is an interaction between physical fitness and the effect of physical exercise on cognitive improvement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The few available studies (Gutin, 1966; Weingarten, 1973; Zervas, &#xA;Danis and Klissouras, 1991) suggest, on the whole, that an interaction between acute  and chronic exercise effects exists. The interaction seems to consist of larger benefits of acute exercise on cognitive performance for highly fit individuals than for their less fit counterparts.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Zervas, Danis and Klissouras (1991) examined the effects of acute physical exertion on performance on a visual discrimination task in pre-adolescent twins, who were randomly assigned to a six months training or nontraining period. At the end of this period, they performed the cognitive task twice, before and after an acute bout of 25 min treadmill running. A third group of age-matched controls performed the cognitive task twice, but resting between the two test sessions. Acute exercise led to better performances in the case of both trained and untrained groups and, more interestingly, the average improvement was largest for the trained group, suggesting the existence of interactive effects of acute and chronic exercise.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Caterina Pesce: An integrated approach to the effect of acute and chronic exercise on cognition: the linked role of individual and task constraints&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470740668.ch11/summary&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470740668.ch11/summary&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastActivityDate="2015-11-28T22:12:44.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12710" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12227" CreationDate="2015-11-29T05:35:27.867" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Human's fear of the dark comes from our evolutionary past. Scientists believe it is genetically encoded in our DNA to be afraid of the dark due to the attacks of predators on our ancestors mostly occurring at night. Our ancestors who were afraid of the dark survived predator attacks and thus lived, transferring that trait to us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear is normal and usually occurs when we try something new, something unknown. Children, more than adults, are always experiencing new things so they have more fears which can get to them especially at night.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear of the dark is highest among children between 4 and 6 years old, and begins to decline at around 9 years old. Sigmund Freud believed that the fear of darkness is linked to separation anxiety from the absence of our mothers. But psychologists believe it comes from children's highly active imagination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear of the dark forms at the age when children are able to use imagination but not distinguish fantasy from reality. Their heightened imagination allows young children to make a monster out of a shadow. Plus there are not many distractions in a child's mind compared to adults. Most of this fear in children comes from watching TV and reading books. The sounds and images on TV are too stimulating to their young brains and the images in a book might be misinterpreted and provoke an already active imagination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the general fear of the dark is natural and evolutionarily derived from our ancestors. But children are more afraid of the dark than adults because they have a more active imagination, they're at an age where they can't distinguish fantasy from reality, and they don't have as many distractions in their head to occupy themselves with so their imagination runs wild.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, see the following links:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lifehack.org/articles/lifestyle/why-are-we-afraid-of-the-dark.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.lifehack.org/articles/lifestyle/why-are-we-afraid-of-the-dark.html&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/parenting/features/fear-of-the-dark&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.webmd.com/parenting/features/fear-of-the-dark&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9928" LastActivityDate="2015-11-29T05:35:27.867" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12701" CreationDate="2015-11-29T08:01:52.880" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;One very notable example of intrinsically bursting neurons are the thalamocortical relay cells.  They have a hyperpolarization-activated calcium channel which leads to periodic bursting at delta frequency.  The hyperpolarization activation allows these neurons to switch from tonic firing (esp. during wakefulness) to burst firing (esp. during sleep).  The bursting of these neurons has been associated with schizophrenia (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2802545/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2802545/&lt;/a&gt;) and have even been fingered as the root of consciousness (see the work of Rodolfo Llinas).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2015-11-29T08:01:52.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12712" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-29T12:57:22.487" Score="3" ViewCount="564" Body="&lt;p&gt;We remove children from anything that is sex related, including talks and photos. When I think about it, it seems deeply and morally wrong to not do it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I first thought about that, I thought that it might be because we don't want to encourage them to become sexual. But we also don't want them to be violent, and no one thinks it's wrong to send a 5 year old to a martial arts class. For any other aspect of life, we let them, to some degree, experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That made me think that it might be something more than cultural.  Of course the definition of &quot;child&quot; may vary depending on the society,  but not the moral code of that ruling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9917" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-01-08T03:37:34.077" LastActivityDate="2018-06-12T04:18:09.470" Title="Why do many parents prevent children from being exposed to anything sex-related?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12713" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-29T15:06:43.220" Score="2" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do we need to learn to 'think' or is it an ability that we are born with? By 'think' I mean neurons firing in a certain way to provide useful information (although since I am not strong in this subject, this may make no sense). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8759" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-30T11:43:26.177" LastActivityDate="2016-04-30T11:43:26.177" Title="Learning to think?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12714" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-29T21:00:08.117" Score="1" ViewCount="660" Body="&lt;p&gt;My thesis looks at depression and social support. My design involves participants answering taking a survey every other day for a total of 10 times. Is is the same set of questions that they will answer each time, but I need to see how the responses change over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Is it possible to set up such a 10 part study on Mechanical Turk, where they will have to return every other day to take the next part?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) If yes, will have to pay them as they finish each part, or can I pay them when they finish the whole study? I was also wondering if it might be possible to pay a bonus amount to those who finish the whole study - as an incentive to keep coming back each day. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2a) How much should I pay them each time? The survey consists of 23 rating questions on a 5 point Likert scale. I tried it and it took me a little less than 4 minutes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) Also, is it possible to accept their answers but only pay the ones who finish the whole study? Because I will be discarding the participants with missing data from my study anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) The survey results will be anonymous but it is a diary study of sorts. So, I need to be able to connect participants' responses from one day to the next. Will Mechanical Turk allow me to generate a specific code for each participant? Or does each worker already have a code?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5) What survey platform do you suggest I use for setting up my study? Will google docs work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;6) I read somewhere that Mturk workers don't like giving out their emails. But I need to be able to send them emails everytime the responses are due. Will Mechanical Turk allow for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9927" LastActivityDate="2015-12-31T03:05:39.250" Title="Can I use Mechanical Turk for a longitudinal study?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;mechanical-turk&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12718" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-11-30T14:37:54.297" Score="3" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v17/n9/full/nn.3778.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; it states that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Increased promoter methylation of the serotonin transporter gene&#xA;  predicted increased threat related amygdala activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm finding this somewhat difficult to understand. Increased promoter methylation would imply that the serotonin transporter gene is less expressed, so less serotonin is taken up by the presynaptic neuron, leading to increased serotonin levels in the synaptic cleft. Surely the increased serotonin levels would lead to decreased amygdala response to threat? After all, selective serotonin reputable inhibitors (SSRIs) are used to treat anxiety disorders and depression by reducing uptake of serotonin and increasing serotonin levels as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like these two are suggesting two contrasting effects for the same cause? Have I misunderstood something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6523" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-11-30T21:47:19.517" LastActivityDate="2015-12-05T04:07:46.220" Title="Epigenetics and serotonin (amygdala threat response)?" Tags="&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12720" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12685" CreationDate="2015-11-30T22:19:32.087" Score="0" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Terms - attention vs consciousness&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess that by attention you mean:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The focus of our conscious process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Until recently, neither &lt;em&gt;attention&lt;/em&gt; nor &lt;em&gt;consciousness&lt;/em&gt; were rigorously defined. But now you may find the following definitions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Selective attention&lt;/strong&gt; - a subconscious process that selects from a multitude of candidates the most salient one.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Consciousness&lt;/strong&gt; - a cortex-global top-down process that has access to ,and controls lower-level processes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter is actually termed &lt;em&gt;conscious access&lt;/em&gt; and the whole definition is over-simplified, but will suffice for now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;On man, chicken and ANN&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with using the term &lt;em&gt;attention&lt;/em&gt; is that while it's valid to say that a human attend to something (meaning that that something is the focus of consciousness), saying the same for a chicken is problematic - a chicken may attend to something yet we doubt it is conscious. We are pretty certain that worms aren't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, it is fairly easy to build an artificial neural network that has a preference to this or that stimuli (by that given an impression of attentive selection), yet isn't capable of consciousness (ie, acyclic network).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Inhibiting automatic processes&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's really a fancy name to a change in behaviour. You may argue that not all behaviour is automatic - some is conscious-controlled, so let's stick to automatic behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether with humans, more so with chickens, and definitely with ANNs, a change in automatic behaviour is possible with neither attention nor consciousness (well... we wouldn't be here otherwise).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With humans, for example, you may have never paid attention (consciously processed) to the lips size of your co-worker, but you will notice a botox procedure. Other examples include people with slow and gradual deterioration of a particular brain function - where these people may be oblivious to the compensation processes their brain develops.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you can inhibit automatic processes without attention or consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;But consciousness is far more effective&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, our current understanding of consciousness also demonstrates that in its core is an &lt;strong&gt;amplified process far stronger and global&lt;/strong&gt; than any automatic process. What's more, consciousness often involves many feedback iterations - so the process is not only stronger, &lt;strong&gt;but also longer&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that anything that have triumphed the selective attention competition and thus have entered our consciousness has a far greater potential to alter behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Levels of processing is probably a good demonstration of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2015-11-30T22:30:43.213" LastActivityDate="2015-11-30T22:30:43.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12714" CreationDate="2015-11-30T22:38:46.470" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The best way to set up a Mechanical Turk longitudinal study is with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.turkprime.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TurkPrime.com&lt;/a&gt;. You can follow-up with users and invite them to take a new survey. As long as they are properly incentivized they will come.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend that you inform them at the start that you are running a 10 part study and that those who perform well on each of the 4 minute studies will also receive a significant bonus, say $5-$10.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.turkprime.com/2015/05/longitudinal-and-follow-up-surveys-on.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; for some more instructions on setting this up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7471" LastActivityDate="2015-11-30T22:38:46.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12722" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12713" CreationDate="2015-12-01T00:15:31.883" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;That is obviously depends on how one defines &lt;em&gt;learning&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;thinking&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We need to learn how to walk, but do you know of any non-handicap 6 year old who didn't manage to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, newborns' nervous system in neither fully 'formed' nor in full swing (for a very good reason), so they aren't exactly thinking like an adult and they need, at least, some stimuli to develop such ability - but again, show me a non-handicap adult who doesn't think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thinking in itself can be defined in different ways, involve levels and abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess you can say that learning (a change in behaviour or beliefs) is a necessity for thinking, but it isn't voluntary - we are pretty much biologically destined to think, and in normal circumstances &lt;strong&gt;can't help it&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if I understand you question alright, it is an innate ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2015-12-01T00:15:31.883" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12723" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12718" CreationDate="2015-12-01T04:25:02.500" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my limited understanding...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off, you're definitely interpreting this correctly.  The authors note:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[…] methylation of the proximal promoter of human SLC6A4 predicts threat-related amygdala reactivity, possibly reflecting decreased serotonin transporter gene expression and, consequently, reduced regional serotonin reuptake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it's definitely true that increased serotonin signaling is associated with increased amygdala reactivity (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=482936&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fakra et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, SSRI administration in neurotic (&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=9115000&amp;amp;fileId=S0033291713000731&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Simplicio et al., 2013&lt;/a&gt;) and healthy (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v33/n13/full/npp200852a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bigos et al., 2008&lt;/a&gt;) adults seems to initially increase amydgala reactivity to threatening faces.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=9115000&amp;amp;fileId=S0033291713000731&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Simplicio et al.&lt;/a&gt; interpret this as facilitating &quot;a process of decreasing emotional avoidance,&quot; which would be adaptive in the long-term through greater exposure (and habituation to) &quot;benign 'threat' cues&quot; like faces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both &lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=482936&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fakra et al. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v33/n13/full/npp200852a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bigos et al. (2008)&lt;/a&gt; suggest that acute effects of increased 5HT on amygdala reactivity may have to do with delayed effects on prefrontal cortex, which would otherwise exhibit control over amygdala reactivity. More specifically, Bigos et al. argue:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While acute 5-HT reuptake blockade may potentiate stimulus-dependent amygdala reactivity, likely through stimulation of excitatory postsynaptic 5-HT receptors located on apical dendrites of glutamatergic neurons (McDonald and Mascagni, 2007), chronic blockade may lead to a more general increase in 5-HT neurotransmission via downregulation of negative feedback 5-HT autoreceptors (Blier and de Montigny, 1999). &lt;strong&gt;This shift toward generally increased neurotransmission after chronic reuptake blockade may allow 5-HT to potentiate the response of pyramidal neurons in prefrontal circuits, via volume transmission at excitatory 5-HT receptors localized extrasynaptically (Jansson et al, 2001; Sharp et al, 2007), thereby mediating top-down regulation of the amygdala (Hariri and Holmes, 2006)&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So SSRIs might have long-term adaptive consequences via effects on prefrontal cortex, otherwise not seen acutely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2015-12-05T04:07:46.220" LastActivityDate="2015-12-05T04:07:46.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12724" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12729" CreationDate="2015-12-01T14:51:15.923" Score="3" ViewCount="214" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand what is visual masking (or more specificaly forward masking). I have read the explanation &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Visual_masking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, but still..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that a background can interfere with a frontal visual stimulus. Anyone knows that. If I use whithe letters on white page I will see nothing. But, I assume the definition has more then that.. for example, in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Visual_masking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, in figure 1b, are they describing an experiment? If yes' then what is the experiment? I mean, what is the stimulus, what is the masking, what is the experiment question, and what is the result (I assume that there are known results to what the figure is describing...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you!!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9947" LastActivityDate="2015-12-01T23:47:04.817" Title="What is forward masking" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12726" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12629" CreationDate="2015-12-01T16:23:19.570" Score="0" Body="&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;library(IAT)&#xA;library(psych)&#xA;cleaned_IAT &amp;lt;- cleanIAT(myData = IATData,&#xA;         blockName = &quot;BLOCK_NAME_S&quot;,&#xA;         trialBlocks = c(&quot;BLOCK2&quot;, &quot;BLOCK3&quot;, &quot;BLOCK5&quot;, &quot;BLOCK6&quot;),&#xA;         sessionID = &quot;SESSION_ID&quot;,&#xA;         trialLatency = &quot;TRIAL_LATENCY&quot;,&#xA;         trialError = &quot;TRIAL_ERROR&quot;,&#xA;         vError = 1, vExtreme = 2, vStd = 1)&#xA;head(cleaned_IAT[,c(&quot;IAT1&quot;,&quot;IAT2&quot;,&quot;IAT&quot;)])&#xA;        IAT1        IAT2        IAT&#xA;1  0.8555243  0.95158711  0.9035557&#xA;2  0.7539783  0.69624171  0.7251100&#xA;3  0.7563726  0.97124441  0.8638085&#xA;4  0.4719366 -0.01613619  0.2279002&#xA;5  0.3891048  0.88868891  0.6388969&#xA;6 -1.0321507 -0.59671619 -0.8144334&#xA;describeBy(cleaned_IAT[,c(&quot;IAT1&quot;,&quot;IAT2&quot;,&quot;IAT&quot;)])&#xA;     vars  n mean   sd median trimmed  mad   min  max range  skew kurtosis   se&#xA;IAT1    1 88 0.26 0.57   0.32    0.28 0.64 -1.03 1.28  2.31 -0.39    -0.63 0.06&#xA;IAT2    2 88 0.28 0.62   0.29    0.29 0.73 -1.09 1.41  2.50 -0.19    -1.04 0.07&#xA;IAT     3 88 0.27 0.54   0.27    0.29 0.67 -0.82 1.22  2.04 -0.19    -0.96 0.06&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9812" LastActivityDate="2015-12-01T16:23:19.570" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12727" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12713" CreationDate="2015-12-01T22:14:54.307" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Allow us to include within the term &quot;learning&quot; the absorption of information, which contributes to creation of neural pathways within the brain. Admittedly, this is a rather liberal use of the term, &quot;learning&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human thought is an emergent behavior of the brain, which begins once sufficient neural pathways have formed. Therefore, we &quot;learn&quot; before we think, and such learning allows the brain to follow its natural course in creating the emergent behavior of thinking. This is very subtly different from saying that we &quot;learn to think&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2015-12-01T22:14:54.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12728" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12680" CreationDate="2015-12-01T22:43:08.200" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The root cause is almost certainly procreation. Our relationship tendencies developed along with our biology. Humans tend to have one child at a time, and human children mature very slowly. This suggests that during most of human history, it would be advantageous for a female to keep a male with her, helping to provide food and protection for herself and her children. The strategy for the male is either to play along, or to breed so quickly as to outweigh the devastating effect of a long maturation without sufficient protection. Others species, many of which breed in greater numbers, have different mating habits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2015-12-01T22:43:08.200" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12724" CreationDate="2015-12-01T23:27:59.437" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Visual masking has quite a few variations, and the source you've linked is by far the worst explanation I've seen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In forward masking an early stimuli takes hold over consciousness (resulting in top-down activation) that prevents a later stimuli from overshooting the selective attention threshold, thus the latter remains subliminal (&lt;em&gt;limen&lt;/em&gt; is threshold in Latin, so sub-liminal is literally &lt;em&gt;below threshold&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in the following frame sequence you'd be asked to find the letters in a sequence of numbers. Given there's less than 100ms between the two targets, your conscious attention to the first target will almost always prevent the second target from being perceived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CcUED.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CcUED.png&quot; alt=&quot;A sequence of frames with the first target as the third frame and the second one as the sixth&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a nice demo of this have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/X6GA2EvkTSU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this attentional blink test video&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another variation is to expose a frame for less than 30ms between various pre or post masks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The principle, however, is always the same - paying attention to one stimuli 'saturates' our consciousness and prevents another from entering it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2015-12-01T23:47:04.817" LastActivityDate="2015-12-01T23:47:04.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12730" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12774" CreationDate="2015-12-02T07:58:17.720" Score="5" ViewCount="184" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can any arbitrary [able bodied] human become a genius across &lt;strong&gt;multiple disciplines&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;at least one discipline&lt;/strong&gt; assuming that they have some Secondary Eduction in  these disciplines?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the Graduate Management Admission Test assess (1)analytical, (2)writing, (3) quantitative(maths), (4) verbal, and reading skills of candidates. In order to get admission to Major B-Schools around the world, candidates have to excel in all the above mentioned 4 sections. The average GMAT scores of Harvard, Yale, Chicago and NYU’s is very high at 720 or more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly for admission to engineering colleges like MIT or Caltech a candidate has to secure a minimum of A grade in Physics, Mathematics and Chemistry at the undergrad level so that the average GPA is at least 4.13&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore,is it possible for any individual to develop &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;exceptional cognitive talent and genius across all these subjects/topics&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (like Maths, Physics, Analytical etc) or at least one of these subjects/topics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9952" LastEditorUserId="9952" LastEditDate="2015-12-04T15:57:06.760" LastActivityDate="2015-12-12T22:52:22.497" Title="Is it possible for any arbitrary able bodied human to develop exceptional cognitive talent &amp; genius across multiple disciplines?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12731" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-02T10:01:59.640" Score="3" ViewCount="132" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently got into Neural networks. As much as I have understood, the learning process is based on the change in weights according to stimulus and algorithm used in learning. Does this in any way represent the real learning process of our brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9954" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-02T19:04:13.440" LastActivityDate="2015-12-02T19:10:18.457" Title="Neural nets for cognition" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12732" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12297" CreationDate="2015-12-02T10:37:36.977" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Speaking for the PsychoPy team, I would expect it to be possible but performance won't be great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both PsychoPy and OpenSesame use Python under the hood and this is an interpreted language. That means it isn't super-fast to execute code but we can get away with that by having fast computers (and hardware-accelerated graphics makes a huge difference).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another option to consider might be a barebones PC like the Intel NUC computers. You can get one of those for £100 (but you have to add memory and hard disk so maybe £180 all in?). It still won't be as fast as a high-spec computer but should outperform a Raspberry Pi&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jon (for full disclosure, I'm the creator of PsychoPy)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9955" LastActivityDate="2015-12-02T10:37:36.977" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12733" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12731" CreationDate="2015-12-02T16:23:48.450" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes and no.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neural networks that use edge weights simulate synaptic plasticity - a key mechanism in the brain operation. But it isn't the only one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In practice, cognition is the combination of various mechanisms, some we are still unsure of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the most obvious missing ingredient of weighted networks is the lack of &lt;strong&gt;frequency/time&lt;/strong&gt; domains similar to that affecting the brain. Neurons involve time-dependent operation - for instance, both the &lt;strong&gt;action potential&lt;/strong&gt; and the following &lt;strong&gt;refractory period&lt;/strong&gt; are time-bound. The brain also involves &lt;strong&gt;synchrony&lt;/strong&gt;, e.g. the phase-locked discharges of a neuron set.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There're also issues like different axon lengths that play a part. And many more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, and possibly above all, the actual &lt;strong&gt;topography&lt;/strong&gt; matters a great deal - how everything is connected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More advance brain simulations involve many of these extra components - mimicking more accurately a real biological brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2015-12-02T16:23:48.450" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12735" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12731" CreationDate="2015-12-02T19:03:46.253" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The approach of the artificial neural networks that you describe and their application is called Connectionism. There are a number of cognitive architectures that have used this approach to explain cognition, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leabra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Leabra&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question about whether this is really what the brain is doing is another question entirely. Does the brain do back-propagation? &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/pdf/1502.04156.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This is currently up for debate&lt;/a&gt;. Does it contain structures such as LSTMs and other Recurrent Neural Networks? Probably not, as these aren't very efficient uses of memory and neurons. For a further discussion of biological plausibility, I would recommend reading &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-02T19:10:18.457" LastActivityDate="2015-12-02T19:10:18.457" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12736" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11094" CreationDate="2015-12-02T19:07:55.173" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may be happening due to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrainment_%28biomusicology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;beat entrainment&lt;/a&gt;. Different music genres have different beat and rhythm patterns. The ones that are calming will generally have a lower beat and rhythm frequencies. The lower beat and rhythm frequencies are similar to the frequency of heartbeat and breathing when a person is feeling calm and/or relaxed. Through the process of entrainment, the person's breathing and heartbeat may synchronize with the music, thus calming the person. The mechanism could be working by counter-acting the effects of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shallow_breathing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;shallow breathing&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2015-12-02T19:07:55.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12737" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-02T20:01:34.293" Score="1" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently taking an AP Psychology course which just discussed biofeedback and neurofeedback very briefly. All I can say is that I'm entirely skeptical that either one works by any mechanism other than the Placebo Effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is it possible for someone to consciously control one's own physiological processes just by being aware of the processes? Isn't this highly subjective and prone to the Placebo Effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9595" LastActivityDate="2015-12-03T15:51:12.753" Title="Biofeedback and Neurofeedback: Scams or Real?" Tags="&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;biofeedback&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2016-06-18T13:09:34.473" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12739" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12629" CreationDate="2015-12-02T21:22:58.250" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I'm the author of the IAT package in R. It's based on the original scoring algorithm outlined in &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.washington.edu/agg/pdf/GB&amp;amp;N.JPSP.2003.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this publication&lt;/a&gt;. Because the scoring algorithm is based on a standard 7-block IAT, the score IAT1 corresponds to the D score relative to the difference between blocks 6 and 3, while IAT2 corresponds to the D score relative to blocks 7 and 4. IAT is then simply the mean of IAT1 and IAT2, and represents the overall D-score of the test. In a simple applied example, you might use this variable as the outcome in a simple t-test to see if there is an effect of some treatment group versus a control group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing to keep in mind when using the IATData loaded with the package is that there are order effects due to randomization of whether participants received stereotype congruent sorting first or stereotype incongruent sorting first. Thus, the D score needs to be calculated separately between these two groups, otherwise the D score would be flipped for half of the participants (see the example in ?cleanIAT to see what I mean).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for discrepancies, I never tested against SPSS code, but it was designed to replicate the SAS macro used by the Nosek lab exactly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, a faster version using dplyr is available for download off of my github if you're interested:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;library(devtools)&#xA;install_github(&quot;dpmartin42/IAT&quot;)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9964" LastActivityDate="2015-12-02T21:22:58.250" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12741" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-03T02:30:03.270" Score="3" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;Every one likes different things, places, people, colors, flowers etc. &#xA;I am interested to know how this mechanism is developed in individuals. If we suppose that it is started from home. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Then why siblings have different interests.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it is from society then living in same society still siblings have different interests. Like if two brothers are class fellows too and live in same people. still they will have different interests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9599" LastEditorUserId="9599" LastEditDate="2015-12-09T06:47:34.780" LastActivityDate="2015-12-09T06:47:34.780" Title="How liking and disliking mechanism is developed?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-12-09T13:10:45.910" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12744" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-03T16:11:25.383" Score="1" ViewCount="415" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wanted to try to put a fixation cross on top of images presented to avoid subject eye movements as much as possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am using Python's Expyriment package and thought that after &lt;code&gt;present&lt;/code&gt; with a &lt;code&gt;expyriment.stimuli.Picture&lt;/code&gt; I could do a &lt;code&gt;present&lt;/code&gt; with an &lt;code&gt;expyriment.stimuli.FixCross&lt;/code&gt; object using the &lt;code&gt;clear&lt;/code&gt;or &lt;code&gt;update&lt;/code&gt; input arguments. But this does not seem to work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9333" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T16:31:09.810" Title="Put a fixation cross on top of a image in Expyriment?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12745" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-03T18:33:24.913" Score="2" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;In science fiction stories, we often see the use of virtual reality, a 3d world that allows you to actually 'be' there. The writers often use a pod or helmet to signify the use of some sort of computer that reads and sends information to the brain. What many, if not all, of them have in common is that time is sped up. If it isn't double then it's triple or much more. Now, while this is science fiction and far removed from any real basis, I'm curious. Is it possible to speed up brain in such cases? I.e. Would we be able to make time move faster in a virtual space?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My gut, deduction, and the meagre amount of information I found online, says it's impossible. I know very little about the brain, but processing information at a much faster speed would force a much bigger strain on the organ, thus overtaxing it. Not to mention, if the brain could actually run faster, wouldn't it have it's own mechanisms for running faster, considering it would be quite the advantage when you want to survive as a cavemen against a lion that's in need of some breakfast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9973" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-04T17:09:04.123" LastActivityDate="2015-12-05T05:36:01.080" Title="Possibility of increasing brain speed" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12746" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12745" CreationDate="2015-12-03T20:14:10.310" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are just too many ways to answer this question. But I suspect all of them will be proxies to the ultimate answer - &lt;strong&gt;the goldilocks principle&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To give an example, for the human brain to be faster, it would either have to be smaller, or would consume more energy. There is an optimal balance between the size of the brain and its energy ratio (to the rest of the body). Like many factors, these were heavily shaped by evolution (which in turn is heavily affected by our environment).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also argue that a faster brain will accumulate processing residues faster, thus we'll have to sleep more frequently, which may have adverse effect on survival chances. I know it sounds far-fetched, but you can actually argue that the size of the brain is correlated to the distance of earth from the sun. That's the goldilocks principle for you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would strongly recommend:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/suzana_herculano_houzel_what_is_so_special_about_the_human_brain?language=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;What is so special about the human brain? (TED Talk)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the first chapter in:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gibb, B., 2012. &lt;em&gt;The Rough Guide to the Brain&lt;/em&gt;, 2 edition. ed. Rough Guides, London.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2015-12-03T20:20:22.020" LastActivityDate="2015-12-03T20:20:22.020" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12747" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-03T22:46:30.423" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What provisions exist that can be applied to provide assurance to a client or patient that they can talk, &quot;off the record&quot;, &quot;without repercussions&quot;, and that nothing will be documented?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Context&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A client is experiencing considerable difficulties navigating the distinctions between ideation and intent, (thoughts regarding suicide, retaliation, harming others, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, they feel they cannot be open about these issues, because of the extremity of the reactions that are possible, (hospitalization, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9977" LastActivityDate="2017-07-19T00:29:14.177" Title="What Ethical and Legal Provisions Release One from &quot;Mandatory Reporting&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;ideation&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-19T21:22:49.817" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12748" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6369" CreationDate="2015-12-04T11:08:12.690" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no a single answer for this, but I will tell from what I have read of Milton Erickson's ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everyone is suceptible to hypnosis. The difficult in being hypnoized depends on the person's experience more than a specific part of the brain, and this implies that the most important thing is how the hipnotist is capable of capturing the person's unconscious attention, which is purely determined by the person's experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, the person's suggestability is completely alterable. In my experience (not too much), if you fail hypnotizing someone and you do not handle ir properly, the next time that person will be less suggestable. This is only an example, there are many other factors that influence this process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9978" LastActivityDate="2015-12-04T11:08:12.690" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12750" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13986" CreationDate="2015-12-04T18:30:21.383" Score="6" ViewCount="196" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/12385/how-much-power-in-watts-does-the-brain-use&quot;&gt;As previously answered on this site, the brain uses 20W of power&lt;/a&gt;. However, how much of this power consumption is for information processing and how much of it is for maintenance of biological conditions for information processing, such as temperature regulation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-05-20T14:16:53.623" Title="How much of brain power consumption is for information" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12754" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12745" CreationDate="2015-12-05T05:36:01.080" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally speaking, stimulants make the brain process information more quickly, just as depressants tend to slow the processing down. In reality, things are more complicated since (a) many drugs increase activity of one part of the brain while decreasing activity in another and (b) the brain builds tolerance via various mechanisms, which often negates the net stimulatory effects of stimulants over time. Sympathetic hormones such as epinephrine also speed up parts of the brain responsible for processing of external stimuli. As you probably know, you cannot stay too healthy under prolonged stress. The more stress, the more quickly health will deteriorate. Presumably, the faster (beyond normal speed) that your brain is running, the faster it will age and or develop mental problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are, on the other hand, ways of increasing the brain's potential to maintain itself and hence presumably its potential to handle being more stimulated for longer periods. One way is having proper nutrition for your body's specific needs -- just the right amount, not too much since build-up of certain substances can impair cellular function. Exercise is another essential since it keeps the blood flowing more smoothly and may help to provide more oxygen to the brain. Sleeping well is very important since memory consolidation happens mostly at night. Moreover, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencealert.com/sleeping-on-your-side-could-reduce-alzheimer-s-and-parkinson-s-risk-study-finds&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sleeping on your side&lt;/a&gt; has been found to improve waste removal within the brain, which would in theory allow it to process more information the next day without becoming overloaded with metabolic waste. Finally, avoid wasting your reserves stressing out about things that are not in your control or that do not really matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2015-12-05T05:36:01.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12755" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12741" CreationDate="2015-12-05T05:56:25.720" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Considering the classical discussion of &lt;em&gt;nature versus nurture&lt;/em&gt;, we can assume here that part of the causality is nature (genes, epigenetics) and part is nurture (environment, upbringing). We are all born with a whole bunch of instincts, probably hundreds. Not all these instincts are in effect at a given time, and a baby of course is not going to be displaying those instincts which are not important to its current circumstances, needs, and capabilities. As a child grows, he or she will learn how the world functions and what causes what. This person will slowly build associations between various desires (and urges) and those objects, actions, and places that satisfy said desires and urges. Because each person has different biological needs (different genes means slightly different nutritional needs, ideal temperature, physical needs, et cetera), each person, even if brought up in exactly the same environment, will build different associations with different stimuli and ideas over time. Through a long chain of trial and error with satisfying one's inner needs, each person will further differentiate in preferences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I have no proof on the matter, I suspect that of the various specific (non-general) instincts a person can have, different people have different ones enabled and disabled. This would make perfect sense from an evolutionary perspective since you would not want everyone to react the same way to the world around them -- they might all go extinct at the same time if they all reacted disadvantageously to an occurrence that became common. Not everyone (probably nobody) is good at avoiding all kinds of danger and solving all kinds of problems. Plus, a society is far more productive if different people are good at different things, so there is strong selective pressure for a &quot;rolling of the dice&quot; on specific personality characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2015-12-05T05:56:25.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12712" CreationDate="2015-12-05T06:26:52.670" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I were to guess, the reason is probably something to the effect of: because children would not understand since they lack the same (or same level of) sexual urges that adults have. Another thought that comes to mind is maybe parents are afraid (or even ashamed) of their children seeing them (the parents) acting essentially like non-human animals. Sexual intercourse activities are usually very animalistic compared to most of the things we do in everyday life of modern society. For a similar reason, many parents probably would not want their kids seeing the parents drunk or otherwise acting uncivilised. In a way, it is like the parents are trying to hide from the kids the fact that adults are in many ways just big babies who are good at hiding it. The idea that humans are supposed to be civilised and clean is somewhat unnatural, yet common culture seems to view this idea as highly important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the topic of war and violence, my guess as to why these are often considered okay for children to see is because awareness of danger and the threat of violence are necessary even for a child, while knowledge of sex and sexuality really is not that essential at a young age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2015-12-05T06:26:52.670" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12757" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12686" CreationDate="2015-12-05T06:42:44.147" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the visual cortex &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; &quot;counting&quot; them, but since this region is not responsible for language, it has no way of expressing this count in words. Numbers are handled more by the regions of the brain that handle language. For us all to have even had a chance of evolving this highly uncommon ability, we would have needed to have had words for high numbers in common tongue for perhaps millions of years, which was most definitely not the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2015-12-05T06:42:44.147" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12759" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-05T17:47:33.163" Score="2" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that cogsci can help me to study a problem in philosophy of math. Consider this case (adapted from M. Detlefsen, &lt;em&gt;Brouwerian intuitionism&lt;/em&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lucy has the kind of understanding of a given math subject S that we typically associate with the master mathematician. John has a superb ability to manipulate the axioms for S according to logical means. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Problem: is there a significant difference between Lucy's  knowledge of S and John's knowledge of S? Is it true that the second kind of knowledge does not imply the first? Is it true that Lucy &lt;em&gt;understands&lt;/em&gt; S to a certain significant degree), John does not understand S to a certain significant degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there works in cogsci that can help me to study this problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found a relatively old article (Arbib, &lt;em&gt;A piagetian perspective on mathematical constructions&lt;/em&gt;), but nothing else. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks very much. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9986" LastActivityDate="2018-08-20T21:14:05.150" Title="Math understanding: intuitions and proofs" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12761" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-06T21:25:09.900" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a reference showing that asian languages such as Chinese and Japanese allow for easier understanding of numbers than English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's &lt;a href=&quot;http://gladwell.com/outliers/rice-paddies-and-math-tests/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;an excerpt&lt;/a&gt; from Malcolm Gladwell's &quot;Outliers&quot; that makes the claim:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The regularity of their number systems also means that Asian children&#xA;  can perform basic functions—like addition—far more easily. Ask an&#xA;  English seven-year-old to add thirty-seven plus twenty two, in her&#xA;  head, and she has to convert the words to numbers (37 + 22). Only then&#xA;  can she do the math: 2 plus 7 is nine and 30 and 20 is 50, which makes&#xA;  59. Ask an Asian child to add three-tens-seven and two tens-two, and then the necessary equation is right there, embedded in the sentence.&#xA;  No number translation is necessary: It’s five-tens nine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“The Asian system is transparent,” says Karen Fuson, a Northwestern&#xA;  University psychologist, who has done much of the research on&#xA;  Asian-Western differences. “I think that it makes the whole attitude&#xA;  toward math different. Instead of being a rote learning thing, there’s&#xA;  a pattern I can figure out. There is an expectation that I can do&#xA;  this. There is an expectation that it’s sensible. For fractions, we&#xA;  say three fifths. The Chinese is literally, ‘out of five parts, take&#xA;  three.’ That’s telling you conceptually what a fraction is. It’s&#xA;  differentiating the denominator and the numerator.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any references on how the effect of these language differences have been studied are appreciated. I've tried searching through Karen Fuson's research, but haven't had any luck yet. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-07T02:17:38.773" LastActivityDate="2015-12-07T02:17:38.773" Title="Asian Languages Math Advantage" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12762" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5973" CreationDate="2015-12-07T05:56:22.293" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There cannot be a single answer to this question which would be entirely correct. Different theoretical approaches to psychology will yield different explanations. This is evident from the other answers in this question (some which you provided) which all stem from different theoretical accounts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Evolutionary Psychology: Species evolving around water&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Developmental Psychology: Prenatal development in womb&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sensory and Perception Psychology&lt;/a&gt;: White noise account&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Behaviorism, specifically Classical Conditioning: We develop a learnt association between the sound of water and relaxation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A prediction based on a cognitive science approach is less clear in my opinion. It would likely stem from a combination of sensory arguments (white noise) and from neural networks of association.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we see so many different accounts for the same phenomena? Firstly, it is difficult to produce a falsifiable explanation for why such a perverse qualitative effect exists. In order for any given explanation to be scientifically valid, it has to be able to be tested. The explanations provided so far do not generate meaningful hypotheses which we can test using experimental studies. Therefore, it is difficult to form a single model accounting for why we find water sounds relaxing. Consequently, we see a range of explanations with little evidence for any of them (they are all just untested just-so stories). Note, even some of the better responses, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4167/why-does-being-in-a-natural-environment-induce-some-kind-of-peace-state-while&quot;&gt;this one (linked above)&lt;/a&gt;, do not provide falsifiable or testable answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A second reason we see such variation could be that there is no simple answer. The &quot;true&quot; answer probably will draw upon a wide range of reasons for this phenomena. In this way, perhaps the best explanation at this point is that there are a variety of reasons why &lt;em&gt;certain&lt;/em&gt; individuals find water sounds relaxing (those aforementioned). Although perhaps not the most satisfying conclusion - it is likely the most accurate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6947" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-11T09:00:57.063" LastActivityDate="2017-12-11T09:00:57.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12763" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-07T06:08:53.193" Score="4" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://openworm.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;openworm.org&lt;/a&gt; project. I've downloaded the code and run some simulations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The people at OpenWorm have made an experiment where they setup a robot with the neural network of the worm, obtaining very interesting results: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_i1NKPzbjM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_i1NKPzbjM&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears this could prove intelligent behavior, at least for rather simple organisms, is &quot;coded&quot; withing the structure of the neurons and the connections between them, ie. the connectome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first part of my question is: do we know why this particular connectomes work like they do, meaning we know how to design a connectome from scratch for a particular purpose? Or are we still in the phase of cloning/copying existing connectomes and study their emergent properties?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on the first part, the second would be: are there any connectomes design principles regarding the construction of an artificial connectome/neural network for a given purpose?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9993" LastEditorUserId="9993" LastEditDate="2015-12-07T15:58:45.740" LastActivityDate="2015-12-07T15:58:45.740" Title="Are there any precise design principles for artificial connectomes or neural networks?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12764" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12765" CreationDate="2015-12-07T11:03:39.560" Score="1" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any environmental factors which can predict atheism or theism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9995" LastEditorUserId="6947" LastEditDate="2015-12-08T00:49:39.950" LastActivityDate="2015-12-09T08:36:49.380" Title="Environmental factors that predict theism" Tags="&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12764" CreationDate="2015-12-07T12:07:30.460" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question specifically asks environmental factors which predict theism/atheism. Although your question is quite simple, it actually raises quite a few complexities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, are we referring to religiosity, or specifically a belief in god? Many studies examining the psychology of the religion fail to make this distinction clear. Most probably because belief in a god is implied by active participation in religion - though I would say not an exclusive rule. It would be interesting to consider the multitude of pathways in which people get drawn into religion (a cultural institution) compared to a belief in god.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, your question specifies only the predictors of religious belief that are environmental. From my limited experience, this really closes off several of the most important predictors of religiosity (e.g. personality, attitudes). This makes it difficult to answer the question effectively. Most probably, religious belief can be predicted by a range of both individual level variables (e.g. personality) and environmental (e.g. parents religiosity) - and these variables likely interact with each other (i.e. some personality traits increase likelihood of being influenced by parents religious views).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, the question is complicated as the predictors for belief in god may not be related to predictors of atheism. For instance, if low-socioeconomic status predicts theism, high-socioeconomic status may not be a good predictor of atheism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I conducted a google scholar review using terms such as: &quot;predictors of religiosity&quot; &quot;predictors of religious&quot;. From this, I focused on longitudinal studies and those which focused not simply on personality/cognitive traits. Examples of studies which I found were &lt;em&gt;Predictors of Religiosity Among Youth Aged 17–22: A Longitudinal Study of the National Survey of Children&lt;/em&gt; which found &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The best predictors of youth religiosity were ethnicity and peers'&#xA;  church attendance during high school. Other predictors were, in order&#xA;  of decreasing magnitude: residence in the south, gender, religious&#xA;  schooling during childhood, maternal religiosity, church attendance&#xA;  during childhood, the importance mothers placed on childhood religious&#xA;  training, and an interaction variable identifying religious mothers&#xA;  who were very supportive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unil.ch/files/live//sites/issrc/files/shared/bjos_1234.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Explaining religiosity: towards a unified theoretical model&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Individuals had a much&#xA;  higher probability of showing Christian religiosity if they had been strongly&#xA;  socialized by their parents, if they came from a mono-religious household and&#xA;  if they had Christian peer-socialization. Deprivation, social control, religious&#xA;  tradition of the canton as well as gender and age also played a certain role.&#xA;  Individuals with less education and income, living in smaller and rural communities&#xA;  and in traditionally Catholic (or mixed) cantons had a higher likelihood&#xA;  of showing Christian religiosity. The latter finding is very similar to that&#xA;  by Norris and Inglehart (2004) who were also able to show that religious&#xA;  culture was important on a collective (national) level. Furthermore, the study&#xA;  shows that especially older women had a much higher probability than&#xA;  younger women to be religious, while age was much less important for men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A major criticism of the literature (as it currently stands) is that a large proportion of the quantitative work focuses on western, predominately Christian samples (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ulouvain.be/cps/ucl/doc/psyreli/documents/2004.ValuesReliMA.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Vassilis and colleagues for more information&lt;/a&gt;). I would argue the book is open on this one. Clearly, thought has been placed into this field and there are some logical environmental predictors (i.e. parents religious views); however, few of these have been replicated in representative samples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6947" LastEditorUserId="6947" LastEditDate="2015-12-09T08:36:49.380" LastActivityDate="2015-12-09T08:36:49.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12766" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="508" CreationDate="2015-12-07T18:22:11.383" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been a while since the question was asked, but I am going to give my answer anyway. &#xA;PsychoPy is really good and easy to use and is what I typically recommend people to use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I recently found the Python library &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.expyriment.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Expyriment&lt;/a&gt; and it seems promising. Although you will have to write your own code there are available methods for creating the window, presenting a fixation cross, and so on. A plus with this library is that you can also code experiments for Android devices (and, of course, Windows, Linux, and OS-X).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9997" LastActivityDate="2015-12-07T18:22:11.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12769" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-08T00:10:29.337" Score="2" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there is a phenomenon behind the way which our eyes judge between lines of contrast, like black lines on a white page, by just recognizing the contrast areas at the level of the rods and cones. I don't understand how this phenomenon works in the retina. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10005" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-06T16:18:28.580" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T16:18:28.580" Title="Does the retina contribute in distinguishing lines and borders?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12770" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-08T08:25:15.580" Score="3" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do living beings having different sizes e.g. an ant and an elephant perceive time at different rates? Is the physical time same for all sizes or different for different sizes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose There is a being existing in the intergalactic space and I am able to observe the movement of the galaxies. Relative to me 1 sec of time is the time in which I may observe the galaxies to travel with a noticeable speed,but relative to a human on Earth 1 sec is infinitesimally small time for the galaxies to travel at the same speed as observed by the giant being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10007" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-09T21:36:59.020" LastActivityDate="2015-12-09T21:36:59.020" Title="Do living beings of different sizes perceive time differently?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12771" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-08T09:22:03.630" Score="5" ViewCount="411" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;Method of Adjustment&lt;/strong&gt;, devised by G.T. Fechner, is one of the three classical psychophysical procedures used to examine perceptual performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It came to fame through early studies of visual illusions. But, unfortunately, it is rather difficult to find &lt;em&gt;recent&lt;/em&gt; publications in which it was used. Other methods, such as forced-choice procedures, are much more popular nowadays.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Is there a research field in which the Method of Adjustment is still frequently used, or is even the prevalent psychophysical procedure?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Where can I find recent publications about this method?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that &quot;recent&quot; is imprecise, but I would say that fifty-year old publications do not count as recent, anymore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Update (Description of the Method of Adjustment)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Method of Adjustment, also called Method of Average Error (Guilford, 1954), is used to psychophysically measure a subject's &lt;em&gt;accuracy&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;precision&lt;/em&gt; in matching (subjectively equalizing) stimulus magnitudes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typically, subjects are asked to adjust the magnitude of a variable &lt;em&gt;comparison stimulus&lt;/em&gt; (Co) until it subjectively equals the magnitude of a fixed &lt;em&gt;standard stimulus&lt;/em&gt; (St). This is repeated several times$-$per St as well as for different St's. As a result, one obtains for each St a distribution of Co's. Descriptive statistics of these distributions, such as the mean and the standard deviation, are used to compute the &lt;em&gt;point of subjective equality&lt;/em&gt; (PSE) and the &lt;em&gt;difference limen&lt;/em&gt; (DL).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A measure of accuracy is the &lt;em&gt;constant error&lt;/em&gt; (CE), i.e. the difference between the PSE and the St. A meaure of (relative) precision is the &lt;em&gt;Weber fraction&lt;/em&gt; (W), i.e. the ratio of the DL and the St.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9902" LastEditorUserId="9902" LastEditDate="2015-12-09T06:03:11.077" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T17:09:40.583" Title="Recent psychophysical studies using the &quot;Method of Adjustment&quot;?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12772" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12771" CreationDate="2015-12-08T13:56:38.463" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;when I was planning a pilot study in which we planned to use cross-modality matching I came across some studies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Human Factors and Ergonomics researchers seem to still use the Method of Adjustment. At least, I found a couple of conference papers in which they examined warning signals for cars. Unfortunately, I don't remember the titles but I think one of the authors was named Baldwin.  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Try to use Google Scholar or target specific Human Factors and Ergonomic journals (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://hfs.sagepub.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Human Factor and Ergonomics&lt;/a&gt;). You could also have a look at this chapter to follow the references; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-642-15841-4_1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-642-15841-4_1&lt;/a&gt;. They used cross-modality matching and the method of adjustment. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope that gives you a little hint on where and how to find out more about your questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9997" LastActivityDate="2015-12-08T13:56:38.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12773" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12775" CreationDate="2015-12-08T16:45:49.117" Score="0" ViewCount="1169" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.nmsu.edu/~ketelaar/papers_and_abstracts/affectandpersonality.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; paper on relations between affect and personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems the personality domain has been characterized in terms of two dimensions: neuroticism and extraversion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does introversion fit into this? There is a clear association between extraversion and measures of positive affect; there is a clear association between neuroticism and measures of negative affect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does neuroticism therefore go hand in hand with introversion? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9758" LastActivityDate="2015-12-09T08:20:00.057" Title="Does neuroticism go hand in hand with introversion?" Tags="&lt;introversion&gt;&lt;neuroticism&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12774" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12730" CreationDate="2015-12-09T08:06:17.800" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can any arbitrary [able bodied] human become a genius across multiple&#xA;  disciplines or at least one discipline assuming that they have some&#xA;  Secondary Eduction in these disciplines?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, not all able bodied humans will be able to be become a genius across one or more disciplines. Assuming genius in this context means someone achieving international acclaim for their accomplishments in a specific discipline, only a very small number of able bodied humans will be able to achieve this. This kind of rare accomplishment requires an uncommon interaction of intellect, work rate and opportunity amongst other factors, which is why most people do not achieve it. I am happy to expand on this answer if you want further clarification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit 1:&#xA;Ok, let me reiterate what I said, but maybe make it clearer. Before I do that, I would just like to also add that one of the challenges with answering this question is the subjectivity involved. For instance, what are exceptional problem solving skills? For now, I will assume that you mean good enough for meeting the admission standards for one of these top level business schools. Assuming this is what you mean, I would still argue that not all able bodied humans will be able to develop exceptional problem solving skills across one or more disciplines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Getting accepted to one of the business schools (i.e., demonstrating exceptional problem solving skills) is something that only the top x% of applicants will achieve. In developing these exceptional skills applicants will have benefited from the positive contribution of several different factors (what I referred to before as &quot;the uncommon interaction&quot;) such as their intelligence,  physical and mental health, network, discipline, confidence. For instance, probably few or none of the applicants will be of average intelligence (e.g., having an IQ of 100), have got severely, or regualarly sick, had severe depression, had to work extensively to support their family, had bad role models, had below average discipline or self-belief etc. While some may have been disadvantaged in some ways (i.e., maybe they did have to work to support their family), these applicant will likely have been able to counteract this through advntages in other factors (i.e., being exceptionally smart). In summary, as this example hopefully serves to show, those who are able to get exceptional scores are those who have had exceptional combinations of the different factors. By definition exceptional means not normal,  therefore it would not be expected that such achievement would be within the reach of any able bodied human.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said all of this, what I will add is that most/many average individual ( interms of IQ/available time/movtivation etc) probably could probably become exceptional in one or more areas if given enough time - it is just that it would take a very long time for them to learn enough to be exceptional. Additionally, it would be most/many, but not certainly not all as some people (i.e., the unmotivated, the sick, the homeless etc) would have disadvantages that would prevent them from succeeding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2015-12-12T22:52:22.497" LastActivityDate="2015-12-12T22:52:22.497" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12775" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12773" CreationDate="2015-12-09T08:20:00.057" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does neuroticism therefore go hand in hand with introversion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, these are different dimensions of personality. One can be therefore be introverted and neurotic, or extroverted and neurotic [1].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With that said, there appears to be a relationship between introversion and neuroticism - a positive correlation of .3 [2]. Rather than one causing the other, it may be because both have a common cause [3].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1961.tb02931.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1961.tb02931.x/abstract&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[2]&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tc.umn.edu/~cdeyoung/Pubs/DeYoung_2007_BFAS_JPSP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.tc.umn.edu/~cdeyoung/Pubs/DeYoung_2007_BFAS_JPSP.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[3]&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19263467&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19263467&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastActivityDate="2015-12-09T08:20:00.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12779" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-09T19:53:36.367" Score="1" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is currently a hot political topic, but what does the science say?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was thinking that a good experiment would take groups of people, and match them for alternate explanations: Age, gender, socio-economic status, level of education, nationality, occupation, cultural factors, political affiliation, immigration status, etc.  (These are factors that many experiments control for when dividing subjects into groups, so is not unusual to do.)  Then look for correlations, and see if particular religious affiliations (or non-believers), are more strongly correlated with participation in acts of political violence than are other factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have not found such a study yet.  There is a fair amount of research regarding attitudes towards violence, with mixed results (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thelocal.de/20100606/27673&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/12/07/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_attitudes_towards_terrorism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/22058/have-multiple-intelligence-services-estimated-that-15-25-of-the-muslim-populati&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;), but these are generally not controlled for very many factors, and do not address any actual violence rates.  There is also some research on actual violence rates (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.globalresearch.ca/is-islam-violent-i-would-say-absolutely-not-berkeley-political-scientist/5450475&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://cps.sagepub.com/content/43/11/1327&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;), but again, few variables are controlled for, and the focus is on countries rather than people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is religious affiliation really a predisposing factor for people to actually commit acts of terrorism and politically-motivated violence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:46:43.487" LastActivityDate="2016-01-14T10:30:04.103" Title="Islam and participation in acts of political violence" Tags="&lt;religion&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12780" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-09T21:23:02.380" Score="3" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm about to send out surveys that I need for a project and these will be sent out every season - winter, spring, summer, fall - each supposedly having the same questions.&#xA;It's quite likely some people partaking in these surveys will be those same people who partook in them before( previous seasons)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;So I'm wondering whether a changed order of words, though not the meaning - in the questions, would result in it being harder( or not?) to remember having been asked this question before.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To put it in another way - &lt;em&gt;how does word order in a question influence the ability of the person( who is being asked) to remember the question, provided it has been asked before?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wasn't able to find StackExchange for Neuroscience, so I thought I'd ask here.&#xA;Thanks in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10032" OwnerDisplayName="user61223" LastActivityDate="2015-12-11T16:52:33.373" Title="How does the order of words influence our ability to remember a question once it's asked again?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12781" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-09T22:12:13.963" Score="4" ViewCount="302" Body="&lt;p&gt;Once in a while I remember the whole &quot;use mental imagery to remember things&quot; thing and start looking for information about it (never actually tried to turn it into a habit...).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It doesn't take long for me to find some &quot;article&quot; or another stating that improving our attention to detail, the vividness of our mental imagery and our observation skills will make these techniques working even better (makes sense, I guess).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... And then comes the training. Games such as Kim's game are offered, but I can't find a shred of evidence that any of these things (skills?) can improve (nothing that shows evidence that they can't be improved either).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kim's game, for example, is used in the U.S. army  training (at least according to Wikipedia), but  I can't find any research done into that...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is there any basis to Kim's game, or any other game claiming to improve observation skills, attention to detail and the vividness of our imagination?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Putting meditation (which is well known for being very good for many things) aside, I can't find anything (maybe I'm not even looking for the right things. I wouldn't know much in the way of scientific in this field)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5006" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-10T14:12:42.410" LastActivityDate="2015-12-10T14:12:42.410" Title="Improving observation, attention to detail in mental imagery" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12782" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12780" CreationDate="2015-12-09T22:58:23.793" Score="2" Body="&lt;h1&gt;No influence&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There should be no influence given two text forms are semantically identical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Our memory isn't a tape recorder&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L9hQWs.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L9hQWs.png&quot; alt=&quot;A tape recorder&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Had our brain worked like tape-recorder, storing and retrieving information would be far less efficient - both in terms of resources (amount of neurons) and time (to store or retrieve). Remembering a full sentence gives us little - its meaning is what important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;It is associative&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jU54Es.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jU54Es.png&quot; alt=&quot;A network&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So our brain and memory, being a network, is associative: Everything we remember is represented by a complex sub-network of links and neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The exact words in a sentence quickly turn (as they move bottom up) into higher level verbal models which represent the actual semantics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Try it yourself, 40 seconds later&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You don't remember every word in this answer (doubt you remember the starting word in the previous sentence - 'So'), but you do remember its overall meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, any changes to the text form, particularly if the exposure time between them does not allow them to stay in our working memory, should have no influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2015-12-11T16:52:33.373" LastActivityDate="2015-12-11T16:52:33.373" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12783" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-10T03:04:29.840" Score="5" ViewCount="315" Body="&lt;p&gt;The debate over whether spanking is an appropriate punishment largely revolves around proponents saying that it creates a more &quot;disciplined&quot; person and opponents saying that it traumatizes the child or makes them grow up violent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing that, as far as I know, has been overlooked is the issue of how it affects a person's sense of personal physical sovereignty. Can a child really compartmentalize spanking such that they can believe &quot;It is acceptable for my parent to spank me as long as a child, but nobody else, and not when I am an adult.&quot;? It doesn't seem likely to me. It seems that, if a child is conditioned to believe that spanking is a normal and acceptable thing, it isn't a stretch to believe that other entities, such as the government, have potential suzerainty over the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that any rational person should want their children to believe that nobody but nobody has the right to touch them against their will, for any reason, would it not make sense that spanking is detrimental to an individual's psyche?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10022" LastActivityDate="2017-06-22T20:14:27.847" Title="Does spanking a child teach them that it's ok for another person to touch them against their will?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12784" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12795" CreationDate="2015-12-10T03:41:12.807" Score="2" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently read the following folk parable and am interested if there is any truth to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is originally in russian(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.adme.ru/svoboda-psihologiya/pritcha-ob-unynii-737260/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;full version here)&lt;/a&gt;, so I will translate the gist of it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The devil displays his Arsenal of tools used to corrupt mortals - anger,&#xA;  jealousy, greed, etc. Then he shows the &quot;special&quot; tool which can work&#xA;  when all else fails- depression (dismay or broken spirit). He suggests that once depression takes hold, the mind is open to all other tools (jealousy, greed, etc)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This got me thinking - &lt;strong&gt;is there some equivalent of a mental &quot;immune system&quot; which keeps the mind healthy and keeps negative, unwanted, maladaptive emotions at bay?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there conditions that make the mind more open to other disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-12-12T01:57:52.943" Title="Are there mental states that make the mind more susceptible to other negative mental states?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12785" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-10T19:36:00.967" Score="4" ViewCount="3053" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyl_sulfoxide&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page for DMSO&lt;/a&gt; says: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The perceived garlic taste upon skin contact with DMSO may be due to&#xA;  nonolfactory activation of TRPA1 receptors in trigeminal ganglia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...and references a &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0077998&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PLOS1 paper&lt;/a&gt;. That paper doesn't seem to address the topic of DMSO taste directly. My understanding is that taste is conveyed mainly through the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves, and the trigeminal nerve conveys sensation/temperature. The paper doesn't seem to explain how a nerve whose activity normally registers as sensation/temperature becomes interpreted instead as taste.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7242" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-18T23:07:59.763" LastActivityDate="2017-02-19T19:39:47.163" Title="What causes the sensation of taste when Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO) is absorbed through the skin?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12786" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-11T00:01:27.647" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I use Quest procedure to find threshold for stereo disparity changes of a stimuli. I use a C++ implementation derived from the one in Psychotoolbox and I wonder whether the behaviour I observe is expected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As my experiment is 2AFC I have set the probability to 0.75. If I answer honestly the thresholds goes down, then oscilate and get stable.&#xA;However, if I answer completely randomly the threshold quickly gets to maximum value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both those things are maybe expected but what puzzles me is the standard deviation that the method returns along with the mean.&#xA;For normal run this goes down slowly and at some point reaches my limit where I consider the procedure to be converged and I terminate the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;However for random answers the standard deviation goes down very quickly and after 5 answers the Quest terminates.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I use standard deviation to decide about convergence/success of the procedure I would get false very high thresholds this way.&#xA;Is this an error in implementation or is the error in the way how I interpret the standard deviation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10035" LastActivityDate="2015-12-11T00:01:27.647" Title="Quest procedure convergence after random answers" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12787" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-11T03:23:50.373" Score="2" ViewCount="775" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that some people find it difficult to retain information that is not naturally salient to them. This isn't the case for all people, however. There exist people that will put in the effort to retain and use information related to material that is inherently uninteresting to them, particularly in a school setting. Is it the case that the latter group has more of a conscious control over what is salient to them at the time? Is this phenomena 'traceable' in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2016-02-10T22:44:13.713" Title="Why is it that some (yet not all) people may struggle to retain information unrelated to what they are interested in?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12788" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-11T04:14:42.960" Score="3" ViewCount="1069" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people love watching people get hurt, they may find it humorous. Some people don't really like it but can watch it. Some, however, find it unbearable to watch. Why is this? Are the latter of the three categories of people listed have more mirror neurons than the average, or are they more dynamic, perhaps? Do the first type of people listed have less mirror neurons than most, similar to those with SM, who don't perceive fear, or are their mirror neurons less active? If we all have these mirror neurons hard-wired into us, as humans, why are the impacts of our mirror neurons so variant among differing individuals of the human race?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10036" LastActivityDate="2015-12-14T01:19:54.803" Title="Do some people possess more or more active mirror neurons than others?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;mirror-neurons&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12789" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12808" CreationDate="2015-12-11T04:53:53.950" Score="0" ViewCount="1160" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a limited amount of time to analyse strucutural neuroimaging from a sample of patients. My objective is to simply extract volumes from selected fronto-parietal areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no previous knowledge on using SPM nor FreeSurfer. Which should I learn? Which has the fastest learning curve?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I usually prefer working with free and open source software in research, so if any of these two is able to plug into R, for example, it would be a plus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10038" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-11T15:45:31.007" LastActivityDate="2015-12-14T04:17:28.783" Title="Structural neuroimaging processing with FreeSurfer or SPM?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12791" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12431" CreationDate="2015-12-11T13:40:41.293" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer: I do not work with receptor bindings very often.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First point binding sites...&#xA;Both Atropine and Nicotine bind to Cholinergic receptors. However receptor binding is not competitive as the rector sites for each neurotransmitter is different (NT): Atropine is a direct-antagonist of Muscarine binding with AChRm (muscarinic receptors) while nicotine is a direct agonist of AchRn &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2005_11/Page2.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(nicotinic receptors)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Atropine however does inhibit the action of nicotine in mediating ion currents on cholinergic receptors in the Central Nervous System (CNS). However this depends on the concentration of each NT in the neural system, low does of Atropine are enough to block high concentrations &lt;a href=&quot;http://molpharm.aspetjournals.org/content/52/5/886.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;nicotine&lt;/a&gt;. So while a high concentration nicotine, say from an e-lite might be enough to save your life from Belladonna poisoning, I wouldn't personally go out of my way to test the theory! However the Nicotine from a cigarette probably wouldn't be a high enough dose to counter 1um of atropine. However say you did drink some belladonna because you have evil 'friends', but then you smoked a cigarette with enough nicotine to save your life. You then encounter another problem...half-life. The half-life of atropine is 2 hours, the half-life of nicotine is 1-2 hours! Do you want to risk that last hour if it takes two hours to see a medic or if you are transported back in time to medieval england!? Incidentally if you were poisoned with belladonna being transported back to medieval England would make sense. Your only option at this point, after the first hour, is to keep smoking (nicotine metabolites have 20 hour half-life, but there action is reduced), this is one of only a few situations that smoking may prolong your life! Although you will need some pretty potent tobacco to achieve this, better make sure you land in Tudor England instead. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moral of the story...don't time travel! I'm looking at you 'doctor' with the blue box. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you do believe you are in medieval England or the Roman empire please ask someone to call a Neurologist or a psychiatrist! If they say &quot;what's a neurologist/psychiatrist?&quot; you are completely sane, congratulations you have achieved time-travel.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically information about competition between atropine and nicotine concentrations...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;At the holding potential of 80 mV, 1 mM atropine inhibits 1 mM acetylcholine- induced inward currents mediated by rat a2b2, a2b4, a3b2, a3b4, a4b2, a4b4, and a7 nicotinic receptors by 12–56%. Inward currents induced with a low agonist concentration are equally inhibited (a3b2, a3b4), less inhibited (a2b4, a7), or potentiated (a4b2, a4b4) by 1 mM atropine. Effects on the more sensitive 44 nicotinic receptors were investigated in detail by systematic variation of acetylcholine and atropine concentra- tions and of membrane potential. At high agonist concentration, atropine inhibits 44 nicotinic receptor-mediated ion current in a noncompetitive, voltage-dependent way with IC50 values of 655nM at80mVandof4.5M at 40mV. At low agonist concentration, 1 M atropine potentiates 44 nicotinic recep- tor-mediated ion current. This potentiating effect is surmounted by high concentrations of acetylcholine, indicating a competitive interaction of atropine with the nicotinic receptor, and potentiation is also reversed at high atropine concentrations...The apparent affinity of atropine for the agonist recognition sites of the a4b4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is estimated to be 29.9 mM.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://molpharm.aspetjournals.org/content/52/5/886.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Zwart and Vijverberg (1997)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastActivityDate="2015-12-11T13:40:41.293" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12792" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12780" CreationDate="2015-12-11T15:17:04.930" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;our brain maps out a series of keywords in any statement, and it is usually these keywords that we remember for a longer period of time. Given the parameters like, length of the sentence, audibility etc, the results may vary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10040" LastActivityDate="2015-12-11T15:17:04.930" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12794" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12807" CreationDate="2015-12-11T18:03:47.843" Score="12" ViewCount="9642" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently saw &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/esther_duflo_social_experiments_to_fight_poverty?language=en&quot;&gt;this Ted talk by Esther Duflo&lt;/a&gt;, and in it Duflo tells of how she tackled the question in the title head on, in the context of health and disease prevention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know what other research has been done to answer the question: how do people value commodities, if given for free?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question might have different answers to different kinds of commodities, which makes it all the more interesting, but not more ambiguous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that in Duflo's research, for example, the question of how to define value is clear and totally unambiguous: did people use the bed nets that they got for free, a year after getting them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9641" LastActivityDate="2020-08-05T22:14:12.437" Title="Do people (under)value free stuff?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12795" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12784" CreationDate="2015-12-12T01:57:52.943" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Daniel Gilbert actually coined a term called &lt;strong&gt;immune neglect&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mit.edu/curhan/www/docs/Articles/biases/75_J_Personality_Social_Psychology_617_(Gilbert).pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gilbert et al., 1998&lt;/a&gt;), which describes a common bias in affective forecasting.  The idea is that when we try to predict how we'll feel following a negative situation, we fail to take into account (i.e., we neglect) that our psychological &quot;immune system&quot; will kick in and return us to some neutral baseline.  So we overestimate how bad we'll feel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, the idea that we have some &lt;strong&gt;homeostatic&lt;/strong&gt; mechanism(s) (or really, &lt;strong&gt;allostatic&lt;/strong&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1895570&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sterling, 2014&lt;/a&gt;) that brings us back to some baseline has been thrown around in psychology for a while (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com/content/28/3/336.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Forgas &amp;amp; Ciarrochi, 2002&lt;/a&gt;), but emerging theory is starting to take this idea seriously (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v16/n7/full/nrn3950.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Barrett &amp;amp; Simmons, 2015&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12798599&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Craig, 2003&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1895570&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sterling, 2014&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=Tq6rCQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PR7&amp;amp;dq=principles+of+neural+design&amp;amp;ots=-n1ay3Iery&amp;amp;sig=Aa6SlqfPC4STDrnft-h4sFUUtO8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sterling &amp;amp; Laughlin, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to your main question: what kinds of states make us susceptible to other negative mental states? One answer is a &lt;strong&gt;negative prior&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=L09cRS0xWj0C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP15&amp;amp;dq=aaron+beck&amp;amp;ots=FWOmjQ7jbl&amp;amp;sig=6WEjYZ2m1_JbwfwCQ5-Hjd1mWV8#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=aaron%20beck&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Beck, 1979&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~daw/hdd15.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Huys, Daw, &amp;amp; Dayan, 2015&lt;/a&gt;), which shapes your &lt;strong&gt;predictions&lt;/strong&gt; about the world.  For example, if you grew up in a threatening environment, you might develop a prior that yields predictions that the world will be threatening.  Indeed, you might even discount evidence against your predictions (i.e., that the world is not threatening). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;This is actually considered adaptive--you're using your prior knowledge (&quot;the world is/was threatening&quot;) to make predictions about the world (&quot;the world will be threatening&quot;) and to guide how much you weight the errors in your predictions (&quot;the world is not threatening&quot;).&lt;/strong&gt;  After all, if you've only been exposed to threat, then it's good to be hypervigilant to more potential threat and hypovigilant to potential indications otherwise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So--that's what happens in depression, for example.  You get &quot;stuck&quot; in a negative state because your negative prior leads you to weight negative information more heavily (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4147849/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Garrett et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;) and ignore &quot;the full range of signals from many sources&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1895570&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sterling, 2014&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;strong&gt;If you fail to change your prior in accordance with new evidence, then you'll behave maladaptively and remain depressed.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think my answer is &lt;em&gt;slightly&lt;/em&gt; incoherent and not complete, and I think there's probably a whole lot more to explain…but I hope it gives you some idea of what's going on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-12-12T01:57:52.943" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12798" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12787" CreationDate="2015-12-12T21:59:52.660" Score="1" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Preface&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question can be phrased as: &lt;em&gt;what controls storage of information in Long-Term Memory? And more specifically, declarative memory?&lt;/em&gt; And one answer to this is one of my favourite stories in neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the following, I'm ignoring a lot of important aspects about memory - especially the difference between encoding, consolidation and retrieval. But I hope it still answers the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Psychology of memory&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We generally distinguish between two forms of memory. Procedural memory is about sequential, a-then-b type of stuff - for example, movement patterns, like dancing, or calligraphy. There's basically only one way to get stuff into procedural memory: grind it in there. Do it a lot. Do it so much, it stops being under conscious control, and submerges into cerebellum and motor cortex. This is so for everyone; even the people who're absolutely the best at some sport or instrument will practice day after day after day to really get it down, to effortless perfection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other kind is declarative memory. This is a-is-b memory; the three branches of government are judiciary, legislative and executive, and the dorsal stream is where and the ventral stream is what, and your wedding anniversary is on 11.9. and so on. In contrast to procedural memory, declarative memory is conscious and controlled, it's largely subserved by different brain areas, and it is acquired in a much different way.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;If you want to learn to rumba, you got to learn to rumba a lot. But when you're at the [book store/nightclub/sports venue] and the most attractive [boy/girl] you've ever seen walks by, and up to their friends, and is greeted with &quot;Hi Alex!&quot;, you'll &lt;em&gt;immediately&lt;/em&gt; store that name. You won't have to listen to the friends say &quot;AlexAlexAlexAlexAlex&quot; again and again. You'll hear it once, and remember it immediately, and possibly forever. &#xA;This is because you're aroused.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Roughly the same thing happens if you eat something and get extremely sick afterwards, or if you get a shock after pushing one lever, and a treat after pushing the other. Why? Your arousal - be it positive, or negative - is high. Metaphorically speaking, your brain thinks &quot;whatever is going on right now seems to be important, I better store what's going on&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One cool experiment in that regard I can't find the citation for right now goes like this: students saw either a neutral video, or a disgusting surgery video after the lecture. A few weeks later, those students who had seen the surgery video did significantly better on those questions of the exam relating to the lecture after which they'd been shown the video. Another example is how so many people know what exactly they were doing on 9/11, when they heard the news. Do you remember what you did two days before? 7? But 9/11 was uniquely arousing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reverse is, of course, that we don't remember boring stuff. You remember Alex' name, but not their 7 homely friends' names. You remember every detail of Star Wars: Empire Strikes Back, but not your math classes - or a boring movie (what &lt;em&gt;was&lt;/em&gt; the plot of Star Wars Episode 2?). And why would they? Evolutionary speaking, there is very little point to storing memory about low-arousal situations; if they had been important, they would have been arousing, right? Memory formation is costly, so we only do it when we (think we) have to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Individual differences&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And that's the gist of it, really: low-arousal situations are not conductive to declarative LTM formation. And the stuff we study is very often low arousal.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Now to get it right, there are two options. The first is: be aroused! If you truly care about math, you &lt;em&gt;will&lt;/em&gt; remember this stuff. It will be much easier to memorize information you actually care about. And this is one way by which people differ: some are more, some less bored by abstract, complicated information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The next one is that our ability to focus obviously differs. Some people have short attention spans, some longer attention spans. A bit simpler than your question about salience, simply paying attention vs. not paying attention makes a huge difference, and some people are much better at paying attention to boring stuff than others. These people are often much better at reading something boring again and again. Because the situation is low-arousal, chances of encoding are still bad, but better than when you don't look at it, and eventually, it'll get there via mere exposure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, then, my answer: two main factors concerning inter-individual differences in declarative LTM formation are 1. different propensity to find abstract, complex information interesting/boring, 2. different ability to study even though something is boring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Neurological substrate&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Surprisingly, the neurophysiology of this is relatively well understood. &quot;[E]ntry of information into long-term memory&quot;, as the title of Lisman &amp;amp; Grace's paper goes, is mostly controlled by two sets of brain structures: an interaction between the medial temporal structures, especially the hippocampus, that controls the encoding of memories, and the mostly subcortical systems signaling salience and valence of events. The neighboring amygdala as the coder of valence, and, most importantly, the subcortical VTA (dopamine source) and the Locus Coeruleus (norepinephrine source) tell the hippocampus to &quot;open its gates&quot; for declarative memory formation in arousing contexts, to arousing stimuli. These systems are of course also generally relevant for setting the &quot;tone&quot; of the brain - from aroused to lethargic; this is under the control of the Locus Coeruleus. So, what's out there - arousing, novel, salient stuff? Dopamine/Norepinephrine up, hippocampus &quot;gate&quot; open, declarative memory in. Boring situation? Dopamine/Norepinephrine down, hippocampus shut.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can still learn to rumba though. Just do it a lot. You don't need the hippocampus for that (as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/trouble-in-mind/201201/hm-the-man-no-memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;HM's ability to acquire new motor patterns&lt;/a&gt; shows).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Some references&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Neurophysiology&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15924857&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lisman &amp;amp; Grace, Hippocampus-VTA Loop/Dopamine&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19696353&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;One specific experiment showing Dopamine is crucial for LTM persistence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(12)00819-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sara &amp;amp; Bouret, Locus Coeruleus/Norepinephrine&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Psychology&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/103/5/1599.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Arousal and memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8007835&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Single-exposure rich memory formation for arousing events&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.usc.edu/projects/matherlab/pdfs/Hirstetal2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;And another one, for 9/11&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2015-12-12T21:59:52.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12799" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12258" CreationDate="2015-12-13T04:11:58.170" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing you don't want to generally increase the level of those chemicals in the brain, just in the reward-motivation area.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In order to do so, you need to be rewarded and motivated, obviously. The learning need to be exciting,  with feedback and reinforcement. Socializing it will help, too.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There is a relatively new topic, called gameificatin, that try to do exactly that. It's the process of making the learning a game, so we can learn better,based on the reward-motivation effects.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In my opinion, there is no &quot;hacking&quot; the brain. Doing so is using drugs, and there is a price tag for that. If you want to use the normal brain pathways, there are no shortcuts.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9917" LastEditorUserId="9917" LastEditDate="2015-12-13T05:38:50.157" LastActivityDate="2015-12-13T05:38:50.157" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12800" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-13T08:50:10.840" Score="9" ViewCount="2139" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_syndrome&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, Stockholm syndrome is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a psychological phenomenon in which hostages express empathy and sympathy and have positive feelings toward their captors, sometimes to the point of defending and identifying with the captors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an equivalent &quot;psychological phenomenon&quot; in which a victim of stalking gives in, for want of a better phrase, and develops positive feelings towards their stalker, potentially to the point of entering into a romantic relationship with them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8528" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-06T14:41:55.480" LastActivityDate="2017-11-05T16:37:12.217" Title="Does Stockholm syndrome have an equivalent for victims of stalking?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12804" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-13T18:42:06.003" Score="2" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;A recent project has brought an interesting thought to mind. Hopefully this is the correct format to ask this question, as I'm unsure where else I'd receive an educated response. (possibly &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;philosopy&lt;/a&gt;? Thanks &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/21/steven-jeuris&quot;&gt;Steven&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People are passionately opinionated, the subject matter carries little importance in what opinions those are. We perceive information on a cognitive bias based on more factors then I can comprehend. Information can be used to persuade, divert, reverse, or bolster the stance behind said opinions; great lengths are gone to achieve this. But, is there an example or method of presenting information that will be perceived as completely unbiased, objective, and exclusively informative in nature? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if I were to erect a website that displays presidential candidate information (seems to be a hot topic right now), in a purely statistical nature (although, this would bore most), one may find some form of bias in what stats were being presented or which data group was given higher emphasis, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which leads me to my question: Is it realistically possible to display information in a completely objective manner? Even still, if displayed in this fashion, are we capable of seeing it as such?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10052" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2015-12-13T19:29:07.903" Title="Is it possible to present/perceive information objectively?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-06-06T12:01:25.693" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12806" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-14T00:06:10.173" Score="2" ViewCount="319" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can depression be faked, and for what reason would someone do this? Is there a more accurate way of diagnosing it to tell when someone is just putting it on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10055" LastEditorUserId="10095" LastEditDate="2015-12-20T18:47:02.640" LastActivityDate="2015-12-20T18:47:02.640" Title="Can depression be faked?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12794" CreationDate="2015-12-14T00:54:46.733" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do people (under)value free stuff?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you have mentioned, value can be conceptualized to mean different things. For the purposes of this answer lets just assume that value is measured by whether individuals are equally likely to use/chose free stuff as paid stuff - in line with the Ted talk by Esther Duflo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on this assumption, I reviewed the literature and some competing narratives emerged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, research suggests that people actually value (i.e., choose/use) free things more than they should given the products utility - the so called zero price effect. As {1} state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People appear to act as if zero pricing of a good not only decreases&#xA;  its cost but also adds to its benefits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They give this example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When Ben and Jerry’s offer free ice-cream cones, or Starbucks offers&#xA;  free coffee, many people spend hours in line waiting to get the free&#xA;  item, which they could buy on a different day for two to three&#xA;  dollars. At ﬁrst glance, it might not be surprising that the demand&#xA;  for a good is very high when the price is very low (zero), but the&#xA;  extent of the effect is intuitively too large to be explained by this&#xA;  simple economic argument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of additional research on this &quot;zero price effect&quot; which you can check out if you want (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?q=%22zero%20price%20effect%22&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, research also suggests people use prices as a signals for value, and therefore will value things more highly if they are (i) more expensive or costly to procure, or (ii) more scarce. For instance in {2} Cialdini talks about how you can sometimes get people to buy more of a product by increasing the price. Additionally, some research suggests that people value things more as they invest more effort/money {3,4}. Additionally, in {2} Cialdini discusses how people generally value scarce things more highly, and things that are free, are less scarce, it appears to follow that they are not likely to be as highly valued as items one must pay for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third, research in developmental economics suggests that people will value products equally much when they are free/paid for. This research {e.g., 5} suggests that peoples usages of mosquito nets is not significantly, influenced by the amount of money they have to pay for them - that people are approximately as likely to use nets they got for free, and those they paid for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope, that this is helpful, even if this isn't a definitive, or comprehensive answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{1} Shampanier, K., et al. (2007). &quot;Zero as a special price: The true value of free products.&quot; Marketing Science 26(6): 742-757.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2]  Cialdini, R. B. (2009) Influence: science and practice , 5 ed., Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Norton, M. I., Mochon, D. and Ariely, D. (2012) 'The IKEA effect: When labor leads to love', Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22, 453-460.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Thomas, M., et al. (2004). When Do Higher Prices Increase Demand? The Dual Role of Price in Consumers’ Value Judgments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[5] Hoffmann, V., et al. (2009). &quot;Do Free Goods Stick to Poor Households? Experimental Evidence on Insecticide Treated Bednets.&quot; World Development 37(3): 607-617.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2015-12-16T01:15:13.880" LastActivityDate="2015-12-16T01:15:13.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12789" CreationDate="2015-12-14T01:19:30.537" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;SPM and FreeSurfer are similar in the sense that both are morphometry tools.&#xA;However, they belong to different kinds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SPM implements voxel-based morphometry while FreeSurfer represents surface-based morphometry. It is really difficult to do an objective choice here. I don't know a truly impartial comparison of both methods. As a disclaimer, I should say that I prefer surface-based morphometry, and I would suggest as a comparison for you the PDF &lt;a href=&quot;http://cds.ismrm.org/protected/11MProceedings/files/ISMRM2011-8410.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;An Absolute Beginner’s Guide to Surface- and Voxel-based Morphometric Analysis&lt;/a&gt; and, as it is written by researchers at the home of FreeSurfer, it is somewhat inclined to FreeSurfer's approach. But its references are good for both SPM and FreeSurfer if you want to know them better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Putting morphometric technicalities aside, other aspect setting them apart is that SPM is a MATLAB toolbox, so despite being free, it relies on a non-free software.  SPM project, under request, are able to provide a standalone version, but this precludes contributed SPM toolboxes. This can be an option when core SPM is enough for your needs. Regarding FreeSurfer, it can be used on a mostly free platform (not free as in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fsf.org/resources/resources/what-is-fs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Free Software Foundation's sense&lt;/a&gt; but more like what you would find in Ubuntu's based software). FreeSurfer runs natively on POSIX-like operating systems (Linux and MacOS) and the project has virtual machine images for VirtualBox, so Windows users can run a virtualized XUbuntu with FreeSurfer installed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, in terms of integration with R, FreeSurfer project lacks an official integration as it tries to be self contained and includes some statistical analysis capabilities on its own. I have used R to analyze data from FreeSurfer and it wasn't particularly difficult as it is stored in textual form. I heard about an R package, freesurfR — I don't know if it is still maintained — that could do some things in a two-way fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SPM, being aimed at MATLAB, makes an integration with R a somewhat challenging manual task. I heard about an attempt to implement it in R, by means of a package called spmR. When I have used SPM, I had access to a licensed MATLAB and R integration was not that important so I have not insisted. Perhaps it can be done on a more natural way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the context of my Master's, FreeSurfer was our choice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="60" LastEditorUserId="60" LastEditDate="2015-12-14T04:17:28.783" LastActivityDate="2015-12-14T04:17:28.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12809" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12788" CreationDate="2015-12-14T01:19:54.803" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;An inability to watch others in pain can be described as an empathetic reaction, which mirror neurons aren't necessarily responsible for. Mirror neurons are hypothesized to facilitate 'action understanding'. In other words, they are able to recognize the intentions of others' actions, thereby allowing them to anticipate their future actions. What may be happening is that stronger activation in the mirror system for emotions may be a contributing factor to empathy and moral thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The VMPFC (ventromedial prefrontal cortex) is sometimes considered the 'moral network' of the brain, and mediates the automatic reactions which occur when one must face moral decisions [1]. Patients with emotion-related damage in the VMPFC have been shown to express more utilitarian judgments than average, which judges not based on the perceived harm of the individual but rather the negative objective impact on the world at large, and thus may be less readily affected emotionally by suffering, particularly at the individual level. [2] Other studies have shown that rational processes mediated by the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) can override the moral network [1] and lead to utilitarian judgments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Sources:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Marazziti, Donatella, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1744-859X-12-6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The neurobiology of moral sense: facts or hypotheses?.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; Annals of general psychiatry 12.6 (2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Moll J, de Oliveira-Souza R: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&amp;amp;cmd=prlinks&amp;amp;retmode=ref&amp;amp;id=17602852&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Moral judgments, emotions and the utilitarian brain.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; Trends Cogn Sci 2007, 11(8):319-321&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2015-12-14T01:19:54.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12810" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12258" CreationDate="2015-12-14T01:49:44.133" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is more of a subjective opinion, (though there are some real world examples) but I feel that the concept of &quot;gamification&quot; (adding game-like qualities to non-gaming tasks) is quite relevant to this topic. Sites like khan academy or codecademy use this pretty effectively, and make the process of learning math or code more enjoyable because you are making small incremental achievements that would otherwise be invisible or ignored while learning through another medium. On another note, working with a friend or a group of friends to learn something complex  seems to increase my level of enjoyment while studying the topic because the task is now cooperative and competitive simultaneously. You learn from the mistakes of others while getting different interpretations of complex ideas. The task becomes more of an adventure as you motivate each other to see just how much you can learn and aspire to show off what you know with new ideas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of this is purely anecdotal, so I'll look for studies to confirm or deny these ideas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9435" LastActivityDate="2015-12-14T01:49:44.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12811" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12794" CreationDate="2015-12-14T03:37:29.987" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on my limited perspectives on this problem, let me try to answer this one. I think, valuing free stuff has got something to do with one's evaluation of self-worth while dealing with free stuff&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) People value free stuff, Ex: when it comes along with another commodity, like a 1 + 1 free trouser. They feel like they have earned it smartly&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) People value free stuff, when it comes as a recognition of their self-worth, like a gift from someone who admires you&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) People value free stuff, when it comes as part of an extra bonus reward for your effort in a project&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People do not value free stuff if:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) It comes as a manipulative gift: Ex A bribe to expect undue favors from you&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) It comes as a way to suppress your will and wish, Ex  force you to do something against your will, going to a restaurant you don't like, while your friend pays the bills&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) things which underestimate your creativity and self expression. Ex: Someone paying for your music lessons when you are totally not interested in music&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My ideas on this problem are based on my readings about Intrinsic Motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would love to see a more holistic treatment of the problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference Books:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us by Daniel H. Pink&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The art of thinking clearly by Rolf Dobeli&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6833" LastActivityDate="2015-12-14T03:37:29.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12812" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4364" CreationDate="2015-12-14T03:52:01.837" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ok, so since it has been two years and no-one has answered, and this is indeed a very interesting question, here is my attempt to shed some light on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there any difference in brain activity while doing something you love or doing something similar you don't like?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, without getting too deep into specifics - there certainly difference. Primarily these are that doing something that you love will produce more dopamine than doing something you dislike [e.g., 1]. Dopamine is linked to motivation to act and energy hence why it is easy to do more of the things that you enjoy [1].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If our emotions do affect our brain activity significantly, would it&#xA;  be possible to psychologically train ourselves to like/dislike a&#xA;  certain activity we want to do more/less?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, I think this can be done by managing the rewards involved. Think about the dopamine production - how do you maximise this, while minimising other detrimental factors (e.g., stress/cortisol).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some ways to do this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Break down the task so that you get a dopamine boost everytime you get one part done [e.g., 1]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Manage your expectations - much of reward is about expectations. If you want to be better than before when doing something, as opposed to be the best, then you are much more likely to find something.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Listen to music - in some cases this can raise dopamine levels to ensure that you have sufficient motivation to work [2]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consume substances that will increase dopamine, like st johns wort, or its precursors, like Tyrosine.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This article [3] provides a set of potentially useful approaches that may be of use. However, before adopting them I would investigate the literature cited.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Hoebel, B. G., Rada, P. V., Mark, G. P. and Pothos, E. N. (1999) 'Neural systems for reinforcement and inhibition of behavior: Relevance to eating, addiction, and depression'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Salimpoor, V. N., Benovoy, M., Larcher, K., Dagher, A. and Zatorre, R. J. (2011) 'Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music', Nat Neurosci, 14(2), 257-262.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201112/the-neuroscience-perseverance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201112/the-neuroscience-perseverance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am happy to clarify or expand on any part of this answer if you want, so just let me know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastActivityDate="2015-12-14T03:52:01.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12813" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-14T05:23:57.417" Score="8" ViewCount="733" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading a book on information theory and one line in the book states that &quot;Brains are the ultimate compression and communication systems.&quot; However, there is no further elaboration on the matter. I am curious to know what specifically this sentence may be referring to. In particular, how does the brain demonstrate compression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T01:04:27.393" Title="In what ways do our brains use compression?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12815" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12822" CreationDate="2015-12-14T10:11:40.587" Score="5" ViewCount="305" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am confused about how the signal propagates from the dendrite spines toward the soma. I believe it is commonly taught that the signal diffuses &quot;passively&quot;, i.e. electrostatically with no amplification during its path towards the soma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But can an action potential be generated sometimes with opening of voltage-gated channels to help it propagate if the dendrite is very long for example?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we have zones along the dendrite with more or less voltage-gated channels so the signal would be a combination of both passive and active propagation? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2015-12-14T12:28:49.877" LastActivityDate="2015-12-15T03:13:01.773" Title="Can dendrite spines fire action potential toward the soma?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12816" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12813" CreationDate="2015-12-14T12:49:56.280" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say for example, you know what a particular type of flower looks like. You know it has purple petals and a white center. Now, unbeknownst to you, this flower has been slowly changing (evolving) to have a different shape, size, and even shade over the years since you first had seen one of these flowers. All the while, you have been around this flower your whole life. I mean, it grows in your current backyard, and it also grew in the backyard of the house you grew up in. In this scenario, you may have dreams about when you were a kid playing in the backyard. Instead of seeing what the flowers used to look like (when you actually &lt;em&gt;were&lt;/em&gt; a kid), you will most likely see them as they appear to you today. Although your brain has memories of the &lt;em&gt;presence&lt;/em&gt; of these flowers in the yard when you were a kid, their actual defining details have been rewritten over time with their current appearance. The hypothesis here is that your brain is trying to conserve capacity by linking all recorded encounters with this type of flower so that they all share the same &quot;image file&quot; in your brain. Witness testimonies have a similar problem -- where data received after the fact can change a person's memory of what happened and how things and people actually looked. I recommend you research the problems known about witness testimony.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2015-12-14T12:49:56.280" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12817" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12806" CreationDate="2015-12-14T13:10:37.310" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although depression comes in many forms and presents itself somewhat differently in different individuals, one of the key features of major depression, as opposed to merely feeling sad, is that it literally slows down the brain's processing and reaction speeds. A heavily depressed person is not only down, but sluggish; and this sluggishness cannot simply be removed using a joke or other short-term positive stimulation. On a related note, a normal person could without too much trouble learn how to act like he or she has schizophrenia, but a real schizophrenic (without medication) could not act like a normal person very effectively, regardless of how hard it were tried.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the problems with diagnosing based on reaction times and other measurable features is that these measurements differ quite a bit from individual to individual. You would need historic data from a particular person to use for comparison to present measurements. Some people, after all, were basically born depressed while others were basically born manic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I absolutely agree that the industry (and society) could really benefit from having real testing methods involving objective measurements rather than subjective observations and hunches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: To answer your question more directly, &lt;em&gt;yes&lt;/em&gt; a person could fake depression. However, the quality of this impersonation, if you will, would depend on the knowledge and experience of the performer; and the quality of recognising this faking would depend greatly on the observer. As for reasons for faking, there are many possibilities -- this all depends on the person's agenda.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastEditorUserId="9981" LastEditDate="2015-12-14T13:22:31.323" LastActivityDate="2015-12-14T13:22:31.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12818" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-14T15:18:01.843" Score="6" ViewCount="414" Body="&lt;p&gt;It was easy for me to find that language processing is lateralised and that creativity/logic processing possibly not (against pop-psychology claims). But which is the current view hold by experts on emotion about the lateralisation of emotion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although there is a wikipedia entry suggesting that emotional processing is lateralised in the brain&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_lateralization&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_lateralization&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found that recognised neuroscience books like this: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gazzaniga, M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. MIT press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;does not seem to talk about emotional lateralisation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, I found that the bulk of references about emotional lateralisation are quite old and a meta-analysis of fmri/pet does not show much emotional lateralisation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wager, T. D., Phan, K. L., Liberzon, I., &amp;amp; Taylor, S. F. (2003). Valence, gender, and lateralization of functional brain anatomy in emotion: a meta-analysis of findings from neuroimaging. Neuroimage, 19(3), 513-531.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3605" LastActivityDate="2015-12-19T04:42:29.353" Title="Is emotional processing lateralised in the brain?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12822" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12815" CreationDate="2015-12-15T03:13:01.773" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question shows a good amount of intuition.  It is true that the signal is generally thought to diffuse passively.  However, active propagation of dendritic signals is certainly an important property.  As opposed to the axon, where the action potential is generated by voltage-gated sodium (Na+) channels, in the dendrites, the voltage gated channels are calcium (Ca2+) channels (VGCC -- voltage gated calcium channels) or non-specific cation (Na+, K+, and Ca2+) channels such as the NMDA channel.  The voltage gated nature of these excitatory channels leads to a positive feedback effect similar to that of the action potential itself. However, the time course of these signals is much slower: on the order of 10s to 100s of milliseconds, as opposed to the 1ms time scale of the action potential.  These dendritic spikes or calcium spikes or plateau potentials can lead to firing of bursts of action potentials.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a side point, action potentials generated in the soma can actually be propagated backwards (backpropagating action potentials) into the dendrite using the same voltage gated channels.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8107777&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8107777&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Schiller, J. et al. (2000) NMDA spikes in basal dendrites of cortical pyramidal neurons. Nature 404, 285–9&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Major, G. et al. (2008) Spatiotemporally graded NMDA spike/plateau potentials in basal dendrites of neocortical pyramidal neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 99, 2584–601&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cai, X. et al. (2004) Unique roles of SK and Kv4.2 potassium channels in dendritic integration. Neuron 44, 351–64&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wei DS, Mei YA, Bagal A, Kao JP, Thompson SM, Tang CM (2001) Compartmentalized and binary behavior of terminal dendrites in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Science 293:2272–2275.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I actually have written a paper myself on the potential usefulness of dendritic plateau potentials in working memory:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Sanders, H. et al. (2013) NMDA and GABAB (KIR) Conductances: The “Perfect Couple” for Bistability. J. Neurosci. 33, 424–429  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/doi/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1854-12.2013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/doi/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1854-12.2013&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2015-12-15T03:13:01.773" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12823" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-15T03:28:34.967" Score="8" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;Where do my thoughts come from? What allows me to choose them at all? Regardless of whether free will is an illusion or not, what makes a thought happen? (This is a mix of a philosophical question and a biological one)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10065" LastActivityDate="2015-12-21T06:14:51.223" Title="How do I choose what I think?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12824" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12823" CreationDate="2015-12-15T03:43:25.187" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This same query occurred to me about a year or so ago. And then I had some reason. Thoughts occurring at random is mostly dependent on our past experiences and environmental stimulus/stimuli, I believe. Regarding allowing/blocking one's thoughts, I guess it's partly conscious and mostly involuntary. But practice does somewhat improve the process. That's what I've come up to till now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8593" LastEditorUserId="8593" LastEditDate="2015-12-15T04:27:12.917" LastActivityDate="2015-12-15T04:27:12.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12825" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12258" CreationDate="2015-12-15T04:44:04.387" Score="6" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When one is either learning or working with a new concept that is -&#xA;  complex, untangle, counter-intuitive, tedious, multi-dimensional,&#xA;  boring and difficult, it appears mood is altered to a lower state,&#xA;  very similar to that of a depressive state, however is temporary,&#xA;  until another concepts comes along (still new) that is simple, clear&#xA;  and straight forward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that show correlation to dopamine and serotonin&#xA;  in such a case&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, there are studies that suggest that failure can lead to reduced dopamine and seratonin. Essentially, dopamine production is argued to be produced by reward [1]. One type of reward is success at at something. By extension, where there is no success, less dopamine is therefore produced. As dopamine provides energy and a motivation to act [1] individuals have less motivation and energy. Further, in parallel more they may produce more cortisol, leading to a them developing a depressive state [e.g., 2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;more importantly, are there any studies or know&#xA;  methods that reverse this, causing instead increased dopamine and&#xA;  serotonin during such events?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, there are some known methods that you can use to increase serotonin/dopamine before/during these sorts of events:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Break down the task so that you get a dopamine boost everytime you&#xA;get one part done [e.g., 1]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Manage your expectations - much of reward is about expectations. If&#xA;you want to be better than before when doing something, as opposed&#xA;to be the best, then you are much more likely to find something&#xA;rewarding, and produce more dopamine [4].&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Listen to music - in some cases this can raise dopamine levels to&#xA;ensure that you have sufficient motivation to work [3]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consume substances that will increase dopamine( e.g., st. johns wort)&#xA;or dopamines precursors (e.g., Tyrosine).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This article provides a set of potentially useful approaches that&#xA;may be of use for increasing dopamine. However, before adopting them&#xA;I would investigate the literature cited[4].&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Exercise prior to the task [5]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am happy to clarify or expand on any part of this answer if you want, so just let me know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Hoebel, B. G., Rada, P. V., Mark, G. P. and Pothos, E. N. (1999) 'Neural systems for reinforcement and inhibition of behavior: Relevance to eating, addiction, and depression'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201301/cortisol-why-the-stress-hormone-is-public-enemy-no-1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201301/cortisol-why-the-stress-hormone-is-public-enemy-no-1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Salimpoor, V. N., Benovoy, M., Larcher, K., Dagher, A. and Zatorre, R. J. (2011) 'Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music', Nat Neurosci, 14(2), 257-262.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4]&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201112/the-neuroscience-perseverance&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201112/the-neuroscience-perseverance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[5] Young, S. N. (2007). &quot;How to increase serotonin in the human brain without drugs.&quot; Journal of Psychiatry &amp;amp; Neuroscience : JPN 32(6): 394-399.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2015-12-15T23:00:36.480" LastActivityDate="2015-12-15T23:00:36.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12826" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-15T10:07:22.990" Score="3" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive distortions like &lt;code&gt;All-or-nothing thinking&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;Fortune Teller Error&lt;/code&gt;; do they exist in non-depressed people with a low intensity as well or they do not have these things at all? In other way, having cognitive distortions is the root cause of depression or having those distortions with high intensity is actually the root cause of depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7020" LastEditorUserId="7020" LastEditDate="2015-12-16T13:53:25.810" LastActivityDate="2015-12-16T13:53:25.810" Title="Do cognitive distortions not exist at all in non-depressed people?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12827" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12823" CreationDate="2015-12-15T10:22:37.517" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thomas Metzinger wrote a few interesting articles about this, he calls it Mental autonomy. (here's an open access &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3868016/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;The myth of cognitive agency: subpersonal thinking as a cyclically recurring loss of mental autonomy. Front Psychol. 2013; 4: 931.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9178" LastActivityDate="2015-12-15T10:22:37.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12828" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12813" CreationDate="2015-12-15T11:09:13.863" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.6. Bayesian Hierarchical predictive coding approach to explanation of the findings&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;from this thesis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1435549/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1435549/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a comparison between image compression algorithms and what the brain does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10069" LastActivityDate="2015-12-15T11:09:13.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12829" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12875" CreationDate="2015-12-15T12:00:19.213" Score="3" ViewCount="753" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a music producer and often my &quot;best&quot; pieces always came to my mind shortly before I fell asleep. Sometimes I actually grab a recorder, hum the melody and finish the idea on the very next day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is now: how can this be possible? In a state where my brain is supposed to shut down (and pretty much does) it is literally exploding out of ideas. I also feel a huge increase in euphoria in these very moments but I can't really tell whether this happens before or after I get the idea for a certain sound/melody.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Might it be that my creativity is &quot;blocked&quot; all day until my brain finally drops all obstacles which then makes way for my creative flow? Or is it that no new input needs to be processed as I lay in total darkness and silence and therefore new &quot;material&quot; to process isn't coming in which leads my brain to &quot;invent&quot; something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This doesn't happen every time but most often when I am very tired and don't need longer than 15 minutes to fall asleep - usually this is a matter of hours for me, hours in which I am not productive at all. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10070" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-01-13T12:47:00.660" LastActivityDate="2017-01-13T12:47:00.660" Title="Why am I more &quot;musically&quot; creative in the last 30 seconds before falling asleep?" Tags="&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12830" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-15T13:24:13.907" Score="7" ViewCount="263" Body="&lt;p&gt;We need wearable EEG headset with raw data output accessible from various platforms. I heard that devices like that have commonly the output encoded and available adapters are designed for one or just few platforms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What we really prefer is device with output with standard (or well known) protocol, so we can create our own adapters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you know what EEG wearable headset is the best for this purpose?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6988" LastActivityDate="2016-07-16T20:04:11.967" Title="Suggestion for wearable EEG headset" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12831" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12297" CreationDate="2015-12-15T16:44:54.127" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychtoolbox-3 maintainer here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will probably buy one for some christmas entertainment and see how it does wrt. Psychtoolbox. In the past, with Broadcoms proprietary drivers, i wouldn't have trusted it for a second to provide trustworthy visual timing etc. Also their proprietary drivers only support OpneGL-ES afaik, and that is quite limiting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, Eric Anholt, a top open-source graphics driver developer, was hired by Broadcom a year ago to develop a fully open-source graphics stack for RPi / the VideoCore-4 QPI graphics processor, and that stuff is shaping up nicely lately. I was a bit involved in bringup of XOrg support for the xf86-video-modesetting driver of the just recently released XServer 1.18. As Rpi's open source graphics stack uses that driver, i think the user-space support for RPi looks quite decent now. I also did a quick code review of the improvements to the RPi kms display driver in the Linux kernel, and they look as if they might work well enough for somewhat trustworthy display timing. Those stuff is scheduled for Linux 4.5, and maybe would get backported by the RPi foundation to their distribution kernel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The nice thing about the FOSS driver would be not only increased trustworthyness, but also regular desktop OpenGL support, which would make things easier for PTB and probably also PsychoPy etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course you won't get the graphics performance or possibly stimulus precision out of a RPi that you'd get from a standard Intel graphics chip, like in a NUC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So basically i'm cautiously optimistic that the RPi might become at least somewhat useable for at least some not too demanding use cases within the next couple of months or maybe sometimes 2016. But i haven't tried one yet and things always tend to take much longer than one expects and the devil is always in the details, so consider this just a slightly informed opinion, based on some initial code review and skimming of available information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10071" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-15T17:40:32.973" LastActivityDate="2015-12-15T17:40:32.973" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12832" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12813" CreationDate="2015-12-15T17:55:14.657" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Horace Barlow was probably the first to elaborate on the idea of compression in sensory systems:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barlow, Possible principles underlying the transformation of sensory messages. Sensory Communication, 1961.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is interesting to get his perspective 40 years later from:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barlow, Redundancy reduction revisited., Network, 2001.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recently, Bialek and colleagues have done a lot of research on this (again, primarily in sensory systems). For example, here is a recent study where they quantify the amount of predictive information (about the future state of a stimulus) compressed into retinal ganglion signalling (and downstream):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Palmer et al., Predictive information in a sensory population, PNAS, 2015.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case, they observe that the retina encodes predictive information about the future state of an external stimulus at a rate that approaches a theoretic limit (according to their model based on the Information Bottleneck principle) thus exhibiting (roughly) maximal compression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10072" LastActivityDate="2015-12-15T17:55:14.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12834" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12846" CreationDate="2015-12-15T22:00:32.303" Score="4" ViewCount="593" Body="&lt;p&gt;In computer programming, when algorithms are using loops/recursion without an exit condition, the algorithm will never end or get out of resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does the brain work around getting into endless loops/recursions due to interconnected nets, i.e. when there are circularities in the nets? For example, neuron A activates neuron B which activates C which activates A, and so on. Or are there no circularities in the brain structure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastActivityDate="2015-12-16T18:54:02.263" Title="Why doesn't the brain get into infinite loops when being queried?" Tags="&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12836" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12829" CreationDate="2015-12-15T23:54:24.877" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Creativity is hindered by stress. When you are trying extremely hard to come up with this great musical masterpiece, you're going about it all the wrong way. Think about what artists say about their music so often: &quot;It just came to me&quot;. Music (and creativity in general) are linked to inspiration. As you're going to sleep, your body and brain is shutting down. So you start to forget about the logistics of life (the left side of the brain) and your right side is allowed to think more freely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10074" LastActivityDate="2015-12-15T23:54:24.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12837" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12834" CreationDate="2015-12-16T00:04:57.653" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain is full of neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters are connected to more neurotransmitters, etc. And they're not just one-way. One thought leads to another which could lead back to the initial thought. And when you learn, you create new neural pathways which helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10074" LastActivityDate="2015-12-16T00:04:57.653" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12838" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12779" CreationDate="2015-12-16T04:56:53.927" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A good, and very pertinent question. This speculative and blunt answer is based on the literature that I have studied as part of understanding behavior change. It is a simplification of the literature, but it should set a foundation that you could build on if you wanted to investigate further and develop a more nuanced view. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is religious affiliation really a predisposing factor for people to&#xA;  actually commit acts of terrorism and politically-motivated violence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I start with a basic assumption: As terrorists are people we can assume that they are motivated by the same things as people in general. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on this assumption it seems more than reasonable to expect that religious affiliation would influence behavior, and in some cases influence likelihood of violence and terrorism. In all that follows you can assume that I am contrasting one 'more benign' form of religious affiliation, such as atheism, with another form which is more easily used to justify violence, such as Christianity or Islam. The following are some reasons why having one type of affiliation rather than the other might affect behavior:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mental characteristics, such as values, attitudes, and beliefs, have a strong influence on behavior [e.g. 1]. Additionally, these mental attributes are influenced by information [e.g., 2], such as what might have been encountered in religious literature. Given this argument, it seems reasonable to assume that the religious literature that terrorists have read could have influenced their mental attributes, and in turn predisposed them, even if just to a small extent, to engage in terrorist behavior. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Expected value has a strong influence on behavior [3]. Essentially, people are more likely to engage in behaviours that they believe will create value for them. For most of us, suicide is a pretty low value outcome but for certain religions, suicide to kill others is going to be rewarded by eternal life, along with a number of devoted companions. Likewise a war can be holy for some religious affiliations but not others. In light of this example, it seems reasonable to assume that religious beliefs that make a terrorist behaviour appear like it will be more rewarding, will in turn influence people with those beliefs,than those without, to be more likely to engage in that behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Research suggests that most people generally require justifications for their actions to avoid congnitive dissonance [e.g., 4]. Those who have been raised by learning a religious scripture which presents many justifications for violence, would in turn have easy mental access to these justifications when thinking about how to act. Indeed, they might have access to the justification that a supreme, unquestionable, omnipent, ominpotent individual wants them to act in a violent way. Accordingly, it is reasonable to assume that individuals with these sets of justifications could use them to justify violence, while those not in possession of such justifications would not be able to.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am happy to clarify, or add to this as you wish. I am sure I have oversimplified things in a few cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]Ajzen, I. and M. Fishbein (2000). &quot;Attitudes and the attitude-behavior relation: Reasoned and automatic processes.&quot; European Review of Social Psychology 11(1): 1-33.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Chaiken, S. (1980). &quot;Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion.&quot; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39(5): 752-766.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Wigfield, A. and J. S. Eccles (2000). &quot;Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.&quot; Contemporary Educational Psychology 25(1): 68-81.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Festinger, L. (1962). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, Calif., Stanford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2016-01-14T10:30:04.103" LastActivityDate="2016-01-14T10:30:04.103" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12841" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-16T13:37:58.297" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Preparing a dissertation, I would be interested in finding studies/articles concerning work conditions in open space offices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding what is expected and advocated by the benefits, I would currently hypothesize that this environment has a negative impact on long-term individual motivation, and it is more difficult to concentrate and to avoid preemption.&#xA;If I find some clues in this direction, my first and current plan would be something like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The benefits wanted by companies in terms of group:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Team cohesion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fluidity of communication (see theory of information processing) and knowledge sharing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Motivation (by collective emulation and cohesion and/or better hierarchical surveillance)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Disadvantages&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Leveling / erasing of people (intrinsic individual characteristics are flattened into a group mean, probably the resulting form of the most influential and extrovert behaviors)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Distraction: a single person can create a unplanned meeting (whatever personal/professional topics) or a game (for example starting throwing a single soft ball) that will degenerate into massive service interruption (because nobody is really in charge of that, and hierarchy may think it is part of cohesion)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Insecurity* and lack of autonomy, loosing ability to create a personal space of withdrawal)&#xA;(* in this context, insecurity would be related to this quotes &quot;These openings would foster a sense of insecurity related to the failure to exercise a comfortable grip on his/her personal space/sphere, especially in some situations where the distance with the hierarchical instance is lower.&quot; translated from one of my book)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Particularly, and for now, I would be interested by reading researchers that may have studied directly or indirectly any of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;open space drawbacks&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;productivity (before/after comparison)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;knowledge sharing before/after (before/after comparison)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;intimacy feeling/private sphere respect before/after (before/after comparison)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;concentration/focus (before/after comparison)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;spontaneous criticisms in small &quot;human sized&quot; desk (3-4 persons) versus &quot;keep it for me&quot; and have bad feelings concerning troublemakers because it may be herder to spot a problem in front of a bigger audience&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;accumulated distraction moments (before/after comparison)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have some books in my native language but they are not related directly to these questions, and I find it hard to get some English literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you suggest some pointers or books or methodology on how you would find such articles ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10080" LastEditorUserId="10080" LastEditDate="2015-12-17T07:29:41.380" LastActivityDate="2017-04-11T05:34:03.260" Title="Intrapersonal drawbacks of landscaped open spaces" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12843" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-16T16:11:20.130" Score="3" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are the limitations to our vision like the field of view and singular focus entirely based on the limitations of the eye?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like it's possible to feed an artificial signal into the brain through the optic nerve.  What would happen if you fed a 360 video through such interface?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kinds of differences in experience would this provide, regarding the ability to focus on particular object for example? Seems like moving the eye would not be substantial anymore (no need for optical focusing), which introduces another curious situation on it's own. Would the brain be able to adapt to operate with multiple (mental-visual) focus points in such setting?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10082" LastActivityDate="2016-02-15T08:58:28.333" Title="How much our visual limitations are instrument(eye)-based, and how much are they brain-based?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12844" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12843" CreationDate="2015-12-16T18:35:24.990" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that the eyes are actually quite poor in terms of providing the brain with a clean image. Perhaps the only areas where eyes are better than cameras are with simultaneously viewing light and dark together (high-contrast), being quite fast at focusing, and being able to see reasonably in low-light. Each eye has a full-on blind spot, and the ability to see colours in the periphery is quite limited. Almost everything about our clean visual perception is a result of the brain's compensatory mechanisms -- such as filling in holes and choosing colours based on memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although an unscientific perspective, when I dream, I can see clearly not only in the centre but also in my periphery. Moreover, my vision does not have the static-like overlay in my dreams like it does in real life. (I am often consciously aware when I am dreaming, wherein I have done various tests in my dreams) Hence, my guess is that the brain is capable of handling a fair bit more data than the eyes provide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you consider all the people born with abnormalities, and when you consider the array of change that your body goes through during development all the way through old age, it should be capable of handling all sorts of unnatural situations. Even looking at a computer screen and understanding the idea of windows being behind other windows and the idea of a webpage being like a long scroll for which you can see only a part of it are rather unnatural. Many of those brought up before the time of computers have a great deal of difficulty understanding the virtual realm that resides inside the screen (of computers, smartphones, and other modern gadgets).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concentration of receptors is vastly greater near the centre of visual fixation. While I doubt the brain could handle seeing in full definition in the periphery, it could probably handle quite a bit more than it currently does. I do believe the brain could handle mentally focusing on multiple regions simultaneously. I can focus mentally on three or four areas of my periphery at once, despite the image being quite unclear. At the same time, the brain has limited capacity. For example, they say that the human brain can handle tracking up to 60 moving objects within something like 30deg of visual field. If we could see all the way around us at once, I imagine it would be quite demanding of our attention -- but I am sure we could grow to become accustomed to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2015-12-16T18:35:24.990" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12846" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12834" CreationDate="2015-12-16T18:54:02.263" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain often does create looping conditions. When these loops involve a large number of neurons, we call it a seizure. An analogy in electrical engineering would be a feedback loop -- such as literal feedback between a microphone and speakers. In the brain, fortunately, these loops are usually self-dissolving since the neurons involved will often run out of neurotransmitter or energy, or inhibitory neurons will get involved (like referees breaking up a fight). Many of the neurotransmitters and hormones in the body act as regulators of ongoing processes. There are almost always negative feedback mechanisms whose purpose is to prevent overload on various systems. The equivalent in programming would be using a counter variable in a while loop to break if it loops too many times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This all, of course, was with respect to short pathways (small number of links). Larger, more complex pathways such as thoughts and goals are probably handled in part by different mechanisms, such as the instinct of not wanting to waste too much time getting nowhere. At the same time, getting frustrated and rage quitting is a perfect example of hormones and neurotransmitters rising to the point of stopping the loop of trying to do something that is not working as desired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2015-12-16T18:54:02.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12847" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12848" CreationDate="2015-12-17T07:30:40.687" Score="1" ViewCount="330" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider the following quotation by Poulain de la Barre:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Everything that has been written by men about women should be viewed with suspicion, because they are both judge and party.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to be completely impartial when considering yourself, or matters in which you have a significant vested interest, or will one always be biased?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8528" LastActivityDate="2019-05-22T02:48:34.507" Title="Is it possible to be completely impartial when considering yourself?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12847" CreationDate="2015-12-17T09:02:05.987" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;For most people, I would say no, they lack the self-awareness and self-control to be able to make such a judgement. Those who have practiced a good amount of meditation would, on average, be better candidates. Moreover, nearly anyone experiencing strong emotions would have extra trouble thinking objectively and detached from personal interest. Those who can turn their emotions off would be better candidates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another method to consider is creating an objective measuring system that does not rely on subjective information. Technology or strict definitions may be needed for the method to be reliably applicable. If the person making the measurement system created it with the intent to use on others, it could be good to use back on the creator. Some simple examples here are those measurement systems intended to assess physical abilities and strength. Granted one had reasonable self-control and integrity, it would be pretty easy to accurately measure one's own physical strength using a weight set, for example. A fair person could also measure his or her own maximum running speed with pretty good accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for matters of &quot;significant vested interest&quot;, I would need some specific examples to really be able to say whether it would be reasonable to expect a person to be able to self-assess. The only example that comes to mind right now is that of whether the world would be a better place without oneself. That would be difficult for many people to answer accurately since, at least it seems to me, many people do not consider their own value to society when considering their career or other choices that affect others. Some people have a net positive effect on society while others have a net negative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2015-12-17T09:02:05.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12849" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-17T09:09:56.247" Score="3" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schema therapy is a cognitive therapy based on people developing so-called &quot;schemas&quot; (as far as I understand, patterns of cognition and behavior) early in their lives and then using these schemas to their detriment later. Schema therapy is based on identifying these schemas and leading the patient to develop different mechanisms of dealing with these situations. (if any of that is very incorrect, I'd be happy to be corrected) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What personality disorders is this technique successfully used for? Are there any where it is recommended against? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9713" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-17T22:06:51.837" LastActivityDate="2018-09-29T07:33:48.850" Title="What personality disorders is schema therapy successfully used for?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12852" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12830" CreationDate="2015-12-17T18:40:21.163" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Emotiv EPOC+ Research Edition can be used on Windows, Linux and Mac. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has 14 electrodes (+2 reference electrodes) and is used in several publicized studies. &#xA;You can access raw data via their software &quot;Testbench&quot; and output it as CSV or use third party software like OpenVibe, BCI2000 and EEGLab.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the little drawbacks are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It is a wireless device, so you really should put the usb dongle for wireless signal transmission with a long usb cable directly on the device, to overcome signal distortion&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The reference electrode processing is done within the device&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It seems to be more intended for consumer use than for medical use&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT about realtime usage of EPOC+ and OpenVibe Software:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are studies and projects using the EPOC+ in realtime with OpenVibe. OpenVibe has a built in driver for the EPOC+ Research Edition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.de/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=6&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiz2c-FpuXJAhVBhA8KHY0tD-IQFghbMAU&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtg.upf.edu%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2FSergio%2520Giraldo%2520-%2520Brain-Activity-Driven%2520Real-Time%2520Music%2520Emotive%2520Control.pdf&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNEi0w9wT2eMlUUxvUyLj2jsKL1ewg&amp;amp;sig2=eJMv2T_OjE4tHr6JnbV4IA&amp;amp;bvm=bv.110151844,d.ZWU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.google.de/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=6&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiz2c-FpuXJAhVBhA8KHY0tD-IQFghbMAU&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtg.upf.edu%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2FSergio%2520Giraldo%2520-%2520Brain-Activity-Driven%2520Real-Time%2520Music%2520Emotive%2520Control.pdf&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNEi0w9wT2eMlUUxvUyLj2jsKL1ewg&amp;amp;sig2=eJMv2T_OjE4tHr6JnbV4IA&amp;amp;bvm=bv.110151844,d.ZWU&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in this project two devices can be used, the EPOC+ and the the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Enobio&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which seems to be an intersting device, too. But I do not have enough knowledge about the Enobio to recommend it. But it might be even better as the EPOC+, as they have models with more electrodes. This is the realtime application for the two devices:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/marcelfarres/Play_Your_Mood&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://github.com/marcelfarres/Play_Your_Mood&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, OpenVibe features drivers for quite some EEGs, but it can only be used on Windows and Linux. On Mac you would have to compile it yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10090" LastEditorUserId="10090" LastEditDate="2015-12-18T11:55:16.050" LastActivityDate="2015-12-18T11:55:16.050" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12854" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12818" CreationDate="2015-12-17T18:47:07.157" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my knowledge emotion lateralisation is still a theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there are studies that apply this theory for their works:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262288467_Detecting_emotion_from_EEG_signals_using_the_emotive_epoc_device&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262288467_Detecting_emotion_from_EEG_signals_using_the_emotive_epoc_device&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And there are also studies that indicate that affective (emotion) processing is different for left-handers:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3305/eeg-correlates-of-handedness&quot;&gt;EEG correlates of handedness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my own opininon I would say that emotion lateralisation is present, but not generic. But i am not an expert yet, just a both handed individual that has studied the effects of dominant hand change and how this affects human emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10090" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2015-12-17T18:47:07.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12855" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7805" CreationDate="2015-12-17T21:05:34.800" Score="1" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In physics, exponential of negative energy is often probability (e.g. in maximum entropy models).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;|| is a notation used in divergences (or info theory) where the order matters. That is $D(A||B) \neq D(B||A)$ as in KL divergence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2015-12-17T21:05:34.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12856" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12858" CreationDate="2015-12-18T06:22:23.793" Score="4" ViewCount="362" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a series of .img files from a previous analysis in SPM that Freesurfer (FS) cannot directly handle. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;FS comes with a conversion tool, the mri_convert command, but I am not able to make it run iteratively over all the files in the same directory. I found a mention about the --sdcmlist argument &lt;a href=&quot;https://mail.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/pipermail/freesurfer/2009-May/010526.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;online&lt;/a&gt;, however I am not figuring out the proper syntax for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I run:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;mri_convert --sdcmlist 000123_1_4.img 000123_1_4.mgz&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I get:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;mri_convert: missing output volume name&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would anyone suggest a way of going about these conversions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10038" LastEditorUserId="10038" LastEditDate="2015-12-18T06:35:39.347" LastActivityDate="2015-12-24T00:22:46.383" Title="Batch converting .img files to .mgz in FreeSurfer" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12857" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-18T17:53:10.657" Score="4" ViewCount="173" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to be very hard to figure out automatically, what content I will enjoy and what content I will not enjoy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there are methods that require me to sit in front of a computer and press yes or no when I see content to determine whether I like it or not. But not only is it tedious, it is also not precise. It is not precise, because there are always more emotions involved, it is about the state of emotions and not a single emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore my idea is this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I am watching pictures or media of other kind, my brain waves are measured. Having seen a lot of photo, there will be a certain correlation to a photo being seen and a brain reaction. I could use this information to predict which media will evoke certain emotions in me. The only drawback is that this is not a static database that can be used over time but due to my increase of knowledge it needs to be updated. But in general this should give useful information that enables prediction based on machine learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Will this approach give me or anyone else performing this experiment useful data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10102" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-22T02:31:47.683" LastActivityDate="2016-07-22T18:37:42.983" Title="Can brainwaves from EEG be used to measure enjoyment of media?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12856" CreationDate="2015-12-18T21:14:41.107" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find a way of doing that using the arguments in the mri_convert, so I decided to do it programatically in bash. This answer will only work in Linux (or in any bash). It's an one-line command to iterativelly run the convertion on all files in the same directory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;for f in *.img; do mri_convert $f $f.mgz; done&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is one aspect that I did not get right, that is FS actually handles img files, however these files do not have directionality information, thus using them is not recommended. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One can simply feed the recon-all command with the img file and the command will take care of the conversion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10038" LastEditorUserId="10038" LastEditDate="2015-12-24T00:22:46.383" LastActivityDate="2015-12-24T00:22:46.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12859" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12872" CreationDate="2015-12-19T01:19:44.177" Score="3" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a neuroscience class, I was told that if some part of the brain gets damaged somehow and it's early enough, the functionalities of that part of the brain are rearranged to another part of the brain. This was used to prove that all parts of the brain utilize the same general mechanism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now my questions are: &#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;1. How does the brain get assigned these locations initially? Is it genetics?&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2. If the functionality is reassigned, won't it affect the place where it is now put? &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;3. How does the brain decide where to put it? Is the brain self aware? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9954" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-06-17T18:47:59.877" LastActivityDate="2018-06-17T18:47:59.877" Title="Re-arrangement of brain's functions" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12860" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12818" CreationDate="2015-12-19T04:42:29.353" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alright, so I'll give this question a go...  Admittedly, I'm not really familiar with theories of emotion lateralization, but let's look at some meta-analyses for insight!!!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;As a quick theoretical note, a single study cannot confirm emotion-related lateralization. The representation of emotions or affect in the brain can change from context to context, person to person, and over time.&lt;/em&gt;  &lt;strong&gt;This is why we need to rely on meta-analysis&lt;/strong&gt; (in my opinion)&lt;strong&gt;!&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unc.edu/~kal29/docs/Lindquistetal_CC_inpress.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lindquist et al. (2015)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is a meta-analysis of positive and negative affect in the brain.&lt;/em&gt; Overall, the meta-analysis shows large correspondence between the brain regions that are involved in positive vs. negative affect (in favor of a valence-general &quot;workspace&quot;).  Moreover, affect seems to be represented &lt;strong&gt;bilaterally&lt;/strong&gt; in most regions as well as &lt;strong&gt;right temporal/occipital cortex&lt;/strong&gt; (see image below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fTAGm.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fTAGm.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These areas represent the &quot;salience network,&quot; which is involved in self-relevant attention (e.g., to internal bodily sensations and &quot;feelings&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z2eMb.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z2eMb.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the above image shows that the &lt;strong&gt;left amygdala&lt;/strong&gt; and the &lt;strong&gt;left insula&lt;/strong&gt; are more often involved in negative affect than positive affect.  No regions seem to show preference for positive affect over negative affect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004066&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wager et al. (2015)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is a meta-analysis using very, very fancy statistical techniques to differentiate among discrete emotion categories (e.g., fear, disgust, anger, etc.).&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ig3L7.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ig3L7.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above image (B) shows activation intensity in cortex, amygdala, basal ganglia, and thalamus for each emotion.  You can see that some regions are more strongly active for certain emotions in a lateralized manner (R and L mean Right and Left Hemisphere).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most significant lateralization was for happiness, which showed &quot;&lt;strong&gt;left-hemisphere dominance in the hippocampus&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; (p. 16). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While these meta-analyses provide interesting clues about emotion lateralization, I'm going to go ahead and say that we don't really know whether emotion is lateralized. Moreover, the idea of &quot;emotional processing&quot; is incredibly vague and is likely constituted by more basic psychological processes (e.g., interoception and exteroception).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theory about sympathetic/parasympathetic afferent streams to the right vs. left insula seems plausible (outlined in Wikipedia; Craig), especially given the importance of interoception to affect and emotions (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v16/n7/full/nrn3950.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barrett &amp;amp; Simmons, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, overall, it's just not clear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-12-19T04:42:29.353" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12862" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12868" CreationDate="2015-12-19T15:37:49.617" Score="4" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;It doesn't happen anymore, but when I was younger I would often get strange sensations regarding scale that I never heard anyone else report.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There were two different flavors. One felt like the room and everything in it were both small and large at the same time. If I were to ask myself, &quot;Do I feel like I'm small in a small room, or huge in a huge room?&quot; I would say, &quot;both, at the same time&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other happened only in my mind. Roughly speaking, it was a kind of tactile sensation. It felt like I was sort of... &quot;handling&quot; an object, perhaps pencil-shaped, that was skinny and fat at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It happened most often when I was about to fall asleep, but it sometimes occurred in the middle of the day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this sort of thing known and documented? Is there any sense to be made of it? I tried to search online but had no luck. What would I even search for?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4705" LastActivityDate="2015-12-20T22:24:24.490" Title="Paradoxical senses of scale: Are they common or is it just me?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12863" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12862" CreationDate="2015-12-19T16:17:17.627" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I too have experienced this sensation. I used to experience it quite often when I was younger, but I still experience it once in a blue moon. I have a friend who also sometimes experiences it. For me, it was not really the environment but rather that I felt I would become larger and smaller over several seconds, as if there were some sort of constriction followed by expansion going on (of far greater amplitude than breathing, for example). For years I had no hypothesis on the cause, but then I took a class on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;biopsychology&lt;/a&gt;, wherein I thoroughly studied the materials, including additional material. I now have a hypothesis on a possible cause: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcolepsy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;narcolepsy&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I was a child, I have experienced episodes of conscious sleep paralysis (during sleeping hours, not during the day), which I learned in biopsychology to be related to narcolepsy. My hypothesis is that these sensations of growing and shrinking are related to a very light case of narcolepsy or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataplexy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cataplexy&lt;/a&gt;. I had a friend once tell me of experiencing these sensations, whereafter I expressed that I too felt similar sensations at times. It so happens that this friend had a mother with official narcolepsy, which further supports this hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I too would be interested to learn whether this sensation is related to cataplexy or narcolepsy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastEditorUserId="9981" LastEditDate="2015-12-19T16:31:10.360" LastActivityDate="2015-12-19T16:31:10.360" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12867" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-20T15:09:20.860" Score="1" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently became aware of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatoparaphrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Somatoparaphrenia&lt;/a&gt; delusion, where a person thinks that a part of their body belongs to someone else. No amount of logic or evidence would persuade that person otherwise. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is not my leg, this is my fathers leg.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me ask - &lt;strong&gt;is there an emotional equivalent of Somatoparaphrenia, where a person pathologically projects some emotions into others and is unable to realize it is their own emotion?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of disorders like Narcissistic Personality Disorder, which has a tendency of projecting negative feelings into the world. But are there more severe cases?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2015-12-20T15:09:20.860" Title="Is there an emotional equivalent of Somatoparaphrenia?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12868" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12862" CreationDate="2015-12-20T22:16:47.347" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The symptoms belong to the &lt;strong&gt;Alice-in-Wonderland Syndrome&lt;/strong&gt;, which is supposed to be very common in childhood. An interesting article appeared in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/06/23/alice-in-wonderland-syndrome/?_r=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;New York Times&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9902" LastEditorUserId="9902" LastEditDate="2015-12-20T22:24:24.490" LastActivityDate="2015-12-20T22:24:24.490" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12869" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-20T23:58:16.780" Score="4" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;A key concept in 1960s control theory is TOTE (Test-Operate-Test-Exit)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zOijY.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zOijY.png&quot; alt=&quot;A state diagram showing a first stage as test: &amp;quot;test nail&amp;quot;, if it sticks up, the next operation is &amp;quot;hammer nail&amp;quot; going back to the &amp;quot;test nail&amp;quot; stage. If it is flush, exit&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept seems to be neatly mapped to a modern cognitive concept: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The brain constantly compares perceived state to the normal state, if two do not match our attentive selection mechanism overshoots and consciousness is engaged. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Similarly, when we formulate a plan, we constantly compare the perceived and desired state and take action to reach the desired state (fight), yet we may give up (flight).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: do recent cognitive theories supports this concept or are there competing models?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;Miller, G. a, Galanter, E., Pribram, K.H., 1960. &lt;em&gt;Plans and the Structure of Behavior&lt;/em&gt;. Martino Fine Books, S.l.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-07-24T14:28:45.397" LastActivityDate="2017-07-24T14:28:45.397" Title="TOTE: Desired vs perceived state = Fight or flight" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12870" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12887" CreationDate="2015-12-21T00:01:06.347" Score="0" ViewCount="202" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/fswiki/FreeSurferBeginnersGuide?highlight=%28%28FsTutorial%29%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FreeSurfer&lt;/a&gt; uses the recon-all command to semi-automatically generate its statistics. This tool implies a certain directory structure in which the files with the images for the samples should be organized into. In FreeSurfer tutorial they call this specific directory structure the &lt;a href=&quot;http://freesurfer.net/fswiki/FsFastTutorialV5.1/FsFastDirStruct&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FSFAST structure&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need to analyse images that were previously worked on in SPM, and it has the following directory structure for the patients:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;/experiment/patients/A.o/&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and for controls:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;/experiment/controls/A.o/&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within each directory there are .hdr, .img, .mat and .mask files for each observation, which was obtained in two different times. So the naming of the files have the following order: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;experiment_subjectnumber_time1.img&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and for the second acquisition reads:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;experiment_subjectnumber_time2.img&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same with all the before mentioned extensions (hdr, mat, mask).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that in the FreeSurfer workflow the command &lt;a href=&quot;https://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/fswiki/FsFastUnpackData&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;unpacksdcmdir&lt;/a&gt; is used to extract data from the nii and dicon types and organize them in the FSFAST structure. Can it be used on directory structures like the one I have?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10038" LastActivityDate="2015-12-24T00:20:25.037" Title="How to import images used to analysis in SPM to FreeSurfer" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12871" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-21T00:26:42.107" Score="2" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is sodium thiopental (truth serum) used in any psychiatric or psychoanalytic therapies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I presume it is legal for use, since it is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_III_drugs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schedule III&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drugs.com/pro/pentothal.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;it is administered in surgeries&lt;/a&gt;.  It clearly has use &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol5no2/html/v05i2a09p_0001.htm#13-gottschalk-l-a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;in criminal interrogation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would also take answers that regard the history of its use in psychotherapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastEditorUserId="2584" LastEditDate="2015-12-21T01:07:35.793" LastActivityDate="2015-12-21T01:07:35.793" Title="Is truth serum used in any psychiatric or psychoanalytic practices?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12872" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12859" CreationDate="2015-12-21T06:01:44.253" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This was used to prove that &lt;strong&gt;all parts of brain utilize same general mechanism.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not quite true. While a good deal of reorganization can happen post-damage, brain function will not be re-localized to &lt;em&gt;anywhere&lt;/em&gt;. Instead, what often happens is that, if a location on one hemisphere is damaged, the function is taken over by the corresponding location on the other hemisphere. In the extreme, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispherectomy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;some children have an entire hemisphere removed&lt;/a&gt; (to treat seizure disorders), and the remaining hemisphere takes over nearly all the function of the removed hemisphere. Hopefully this partially answers your second question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your first question, both genetics and environmental input shape how functions get localized in brain tissue. We know environmental input is important because people that are deprived of some kind of input (e.g., vision or sound) will re-assign the brain tissue to processing input that &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; received (so for a Deaf person, auditory regions in temporal lobe may be repurposed for processing visual input). I can't, off the top of my head, think of concrete cases to illustrate how genes influence function localization, but hopefully it's obvious enough that this is the case / how this might work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Re: your last question about the brain being self-aware...well, in one sense the brain is self-aware since &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; are self-aware and &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; are your brain. But we must be careful about what exactly we mean by &quot;self-aware&quot;. It can be easy to fallaciously invoke the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homunculus_argument&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;homunculus&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4991" LastActivityDate="2015-12-21T06:01:44.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12874" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12823" CreationDate="2015-12-21T06:14:51.223" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, I think you'll find that most cognitive scientists do not believe in free will. It definitely is relevant to your question, because if you believe in free will, then you basically don't believe that our thoughts have causes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, you'll be interested, I think, in the idea of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreading_activation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;spreading activation&lt;/a&gt;. Models based on spreading activation capture the intuition that our train of thought has an associative character (I think of castles, which remind me of kings, which remind me of giant drumsticks, which remind me of chickens, etc etc.). But don't get too hung up on this model -- associationism like this can only be part of the story (often our train of thought has a much more hierarchical structure).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4991" LastActivityDate="2015-12-21T06:14:51.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12875" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12829" CreationDate="2015-12-21T17:28:37.567" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is quite a well documented phenomenon - stereotypically these moments of creative insight occur in the shower. A google for 'psychology aha moment' or 'neuroscience creative aha' will give you some articles, in Psychology Today for instance, talking about this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One characterisation of thought is that links between neurons are created and by travelling down the intricate pathway, you have the thought. A lot of conscious thought is driven by &quot;picking&quot; the &quot;quickest&quot; path and travelling down that, as it is economical in terms of energy use.&#xA;One understanding of creativity is that it is combining of existing ideas in novel patterns. When you enter a more relaxed state, or even just a more distracted state such as showering or exercising, your brain is free to try novel combinations as you are not consciously driving it down specific well-worn pathways (the &quot;easy&quot; paths).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mark Beeman has done research on this, which he calls it insight. For more information, see the article he co-wrote &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.creativitypost.com/science/the_aha_moment._the_cognitive_neuroscience_of_insight&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Aha! Moment: the Neural Basis of Solving Problems with Insight&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For another explanation, Alice Flaherty has done research linking these moments to dopamine release, which is more abundant in our brains when we relax. For more information see the publication &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cne.20768/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frontotemporal and dopaminergic control of idea generation and creative drive&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10116" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-01-13T12:44:55.340" LastActivityDate="2017-01-13T12:44:55.340" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12876" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12879" CreationDate="2015-12-21T22:26:32.313" Score="1" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;Having read &quot;the mind that changes itself,&quot; i've become interested in neuroscience. However reading discussions about this book online there does appear to be controversy about the book and the author doesn't appear to be an actual neuroscientist as well as many scathing reviews online. It still was a good read and factual (i think?). However the actual subject i find very interesting. I was wondering if anyone could suggest a more respected book to give a good introduction, or any good resources to learn from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10122" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2015-12-22T04:11:44.980" LastActivityDate="2015-12-22T10:27:35.417" Title="What is a good beginner's book to read to get a greater understanding of neuroscience?" Tags="&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12878" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12583" CreationDate="2015-12-22T06:36:01.840" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Upon closer examination, it appears that Rejection Sensitive Dysphoria is a term that was coined by Dr. William Dodson to describe the phenomenon of rejection sensitivity in ADHD sufferers. It does not appear to be a 'valid' term, in the sense that there is no DSM definition. In fact, it seems that Dodson himself is the only one to have used the term. Dodson specializes in adult ADHD, and so it makes sense that the only articles associated with the term would pertain to ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the phenomenon of rejection sensitivity itself, note the definition of dysphoria as follows: &quot;a state of feeling unwell or unhappy; a feeling of emotional and mental discomfort as a symptom of discontentment, restlessness, dissatisfaction, malaise, depression, anxiety or indifference.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a broader sense, these are issues associated with chemical imbalances -- as is ADHD. One could even describe ADHD as its own dysphoria. It is also quite common for other disorders to coexist alongside ADHD, particularly anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder and bipolar disorder. This -- coupled with the fact that children with ADHD often &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18822833&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;find themselves socially isolated&lt;/a&gt; -- may be responsible for a higher prevalence of rejection sensitivity in those with the disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following is an edit by the OP, Jack Bauer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dodsonadhdcenter.com/rejection-sensitive-dysphoria/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dodson likely did not coin the term RSD&lt;/a&gt;, but he might have been the first to use it with ADHD. It has been used in relation to borderline people: &lt;a href=&quot;http://grantome.com/grant/NIH/Z01-MH002188-02&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=jRK-GOSNKnwC&amp;amp;pg=PA107&amp;amp;lpg=PA107&amp;amp;dq=%22rejection+sensitive+dysphoria%22+%22borderline%22&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=trX81pxzzs&amp;amp;sig=ENAjN3BN7JD44T-ZGYW2WcQQYGA&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiK2cDq7vLJAhUFUKYKHUgfDE0Q6AEILzAC#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22rejection%20sensitive%20dysphoria%22%20%22borderline%22&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=jhtvBV3i0rkC&amp;amp;pg=PA342&amp;amp;lpg=PA342&amp;amp;dq=%22rejection+sensitive+dysphoria%22+%22borderline%22&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=vloNeT8f7a&amp;amp;sig=b-GFYtixppr5XnRgc1g5O3Vd90U&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiK2cDq7vLJAhUFUKYKHUgfDE0Q6AEIPDAG#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22rejection%20sensitive%20dysphoria%22%20%22borderline%22&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=tG4ABAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA258&amp;amp;lpg=PA258&amp;amp;dq=%22rejection+sensitive+dysphoria%22+%22borderline%22&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=jyoa5PgfHs&amp;amp;sig=4vxUtS4yNV1IVe7XtAyQ33uqpZQ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiK2cDq7vLJAhUFUKYKHUgfDE0Q6AEINzAE#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22rejection%20sensitive%20dysphoria%22%20%22borderline%22&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bphope.com/6-factors-that-differentiate-adhd-from-bipolar-disorder/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8248" LastEditorUserId="8982" LastEditDate="2018-04-03T16:58:35.697" LastActivityDate="2018-04-03T16:58:35.697" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12879" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12876" CreationDate="2015-12-22T10:27:35.417" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could try this one: 30-Second Brain: The 50 Most Mind-blowing Ideas in Neuroscience, Each Explained in Half a Minute. ISBN-10: 184831647X. I haven't read it myself but it covers a really wide spectrum: single neurons, neural networks, brain architecture, awareness, perception, disease, ageing, etc. &#xA;Importantly it's written by really good scientists in who are all currently doing really interesting things. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9178" LastActivityDate="2015-12-22T10:27:35.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12880" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-22T16:38:31.297" Score="3" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have always been curious about the concept of a self-image. I used to be very interested in why some people have a positive or negative self-image. Lately I have begun going a bit deeper and I have been considering what drives people to have a self-image and sustain it in the first place.&#xA;I have all kinds of ideas, but would be interesting in references to books, theories, or names of fields/areas in psychology which deal with the following questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why is a self-image formed in the first-place? What drives us to form and sustain a self-image. What evolutionary benefits are there to having a self-image.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do we have a drive to incorporate certain characteristics into our self-image (e.g. smart, beautiful) as opposed to others (e.g. dumb, ugly)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you very much!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10127" LastEditorUserId="10127" LastEditDate="2015-12-22T21:08:50.997" LastActivityDate="2015-12-22T21:08:50.997" Title="Are there theories which explain why human beings form and sustain a self-image?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12881" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-22T22:08:56.353" Score="1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201211/when-are-you-neurotic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This online article&lt;/a&gt; defines neurotic habits as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...automatic or ritualized patterns of overt behavior that people engage in to alleviate anxiety and provide a sense of familiar security.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a term for patterns of &lt;strong&gt;covert&lt;/strong&gt; behavior in the same context?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10129" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2015-12-29T04:25:15.593" LastActivityDate="2015-12-29T04:25:15.593" Title="Term for neurotic covert behavior" Tags="&lt;neuroticism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12882" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10651" CreationDate="2015-12-23T01:46:19.070" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer: just an opinion of someone on the web, it's not health advice. And I might be wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With that said...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion it's wrong. He can't control his ANS &lt;em&gt;just&lt;/em&gt; by using his mind. He uses: breathing techniques, exposure to cold and having the right mindset in order to withstand the cold. There's also a Dutch article on the site that says this. The way he handles the cold is also the same way he handles his ANS in general. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the wikipedia page is wrong about it. Also, the researchers that did studies on him at the Radboud University of Nijmegen are not specialized in understanding meditation. In most cases I'd disagree that what Wim does is meditation at all. While I respect the knowledge of the researchers, I think they were dead wrong in understanding what meditation is back then. It's really more of a behavioural thing with your breath. The meditation I know is more about mentally focusing on your breath or body, not physically altering it. Their expertise is in all sorts of: viruses, bacteria and the human body in general -- including combining the 3 for experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a better source about the science of Wim Hof: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.icemanwimhof.com/science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.icemanwimhof.com/science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion that source is a lot better. Then again, it is a very wise to be sceptic (hint: also with my post). I think a lot of people made wrong claims about his method. I think almost everyone involved made at least a wrong claim about something of it. People are enthusiastic and lack expertise in some area and that's when claims might be overstated or misinterpreted by the one reading about them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You don't have to be too sceptic though, it definitely works and improved my life. I love all weather now with regards to temperature. I sometimes use his method as a natural painkiller as it releases adrenaline, though I'm still on the experimental side with that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I believe to know all this is because:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I participated in one of the experiment and trained for 4 days with Wim and other participants&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I asked a ton of questions to the researchers who were there from the Radboud University.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I have 400 hours of meditation experience and read about 100 articles on them from Science Daily, and about 30 real papers and 1 book about meditation that uses science as its way of justification (Search Inside Yourself by Chade Meng-Tan).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10130" LastActivityDate="2015-12-23T01:46:19.070" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12883" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-23T05:06:25.850" Score="1" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Robert Baron's book I found learning to be &quot;any permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential as a result of experiences. (Bandura,1986).But I got a question that what is meant by- RELATIVELY PERMANENT ....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it means that the changed behaviour should last for a relatively longer period , but &quot;relative to what&quot; , so it looks like an ambiguity thers and not like a specific testable or scientific definition...&#xA;Can anyone supply me some clarification over this definition or&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Some more specific definition along with author and date please...As it should be with the definition in my exam my lecturer has given this definition without any clarification &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also books give only what I have written without specifying the permanence in explaination ... please help or mention any source for it..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10132" LastEditorUserId="10132" LastEditDate="2015-12-23T05:16:54.460" LastActivityDate="2015-12-23T05:16:54.460" Title="The explaination of definition of learning" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12884" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12885" CreationDate="2015-12-23T09:45:25.347" Score="12" ViewCount="74108" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of people had some experience with dying in their dreams. They all confirm they remember the whole story until the precise moment of death and it is the death itself what woke them up - not being nervous, scared or shocked (I remember myself dying peacefully in bed in one of my dreams, no fighting or falling involved).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have never met anyone who continued dreaming after dying - although some religious people should be deeply convinced that the death is not the end of their story. It also quite a common plot of novels or movies: the main character dies and appears in some kind of &quot;afterworld&quot; - I have never met anyone with this experience, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it caused by the fact that our brain just does not know what happens next when it is all over?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or is the moment of death such a &quot;low-level&quot; shock for our minds, that it just &quot;reboots&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10134" LastEditorUserId="10134" LastEditDate="2015-12-23T09:58:53.493" LastActivityDate="2017-03-09T17:05:43.900" Title="Why do we wake up when we die in our dreams?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12885" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12884" CreationDate="2015-12-23T19:21:59.580" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you dream you're in REM sleep (rapid eye movement). REM sleep is only slightly more &quot;deep&quot; than stage 1 of non-REM which means it's not that hard to wake you up in the first place. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dying in a dream is a stressful event, which causes your brain to release adrenaline. You can't sleep and have an adrenaline rush at the same time so you wake up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These dreams where you die and wake up are usually more memorable due to the fact that you wake up whereas most people don't remember 95% of their dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Adrenalin:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Being particularly scary or threatening, nightmares can provoke ‘fight and flight’ responses, and the release of adrenalin whilst we are still asleep. Once you awaken from a nightmare it may then take a little time to come down from this elevated state, preventing you from being able to get back to sleep as easily or quickly.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9TZOiC23CpI&amp;amp;feature=youtu.be&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9TZOiC23CpI&amp;amp;feature=youtu.be&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Profeso Colin Espie, Director of the Sleep Centre at the University of Glasgow and co-founder of Sleepio&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Forgetting Dreams:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;We forget almost all dreams soon after waking up. Our forgetfulness is generally attributed to neurochemical conditions in the brain that occur during REM sleep, a phase of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and dreaming. But that may not be the whole story.&#xA;Perhaps the most compelling explanation is the absence of the hormone norepinephrine in the cerebral cortex, a brain region that plays a key role in memory, thought, language and consciousness. A study published in 2002 in the American Journal of Psychiatry supports the theory that the presence of norepinephrine enhances memory in humans, although its role in learning and recall remains controversial.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-memories-of-vivid-dreams/&quot;&gt;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-memories-of-vivid-dreams/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;At least 95% of all dreams are not remembered. Certain brain chemicals necessary for converting short-term memories into long-term ones are suppressed during REM sleep. Unless a dream is particularly vivid and if one wakes during or immediately after it, the content of the dream is not remembered&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hobson, J.A.; McCarly, R.W. (1977). &quot;The brain as a dream-state generator: An activation-synthesis hypothesis of the dream process&quot;. American Journal of Psychiatry 134 (12): 1335–1348.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9807" LastEditorUserId="9807" LastEditDate="2015-12-23T22:16:59.643" LastActivityDate="2015-12-23T22:16:59.643" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12886" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13353" CreationDate="2015-12-23T21:20:05.033" Score="6" ViewCount="749" Body="&lt;p&gt;In computer programming we have a debugger that we can use to execute a program step by step. In that mode, the program can be suspended and we can analyze the state of the hardware, modify the state and control the flow of the program to experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, the question: Does the brain have something similar? Like a &quot;debugger mode&quot; in which it can reflect about or analyze its internal structures?&#xA;I think this is the mode that therapists use to analyze behavior, isn't it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-08-05T16:32:11.500" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T17:20:18.637" Title="Does the brain have a 'debugging mode'?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12887" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12870" CreationDate="2015-12-24T00:20:25.037" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found help at the FreeSurfer mailing list regarding this question. The answer is that for the structural analysis, there is no need to run the recon-all command in a specific directory structure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is just a matter of running &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;recon-all -s SUBJECTNAME -all -i IMAGE.IMG&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I am feeding an img file, which is what I am using now, however the creators of the software suggest the use of the DICON filetype.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10038" LastActivityDate="2015-12-24T00:20:25.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12888" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-24T01:03:08.683" Score="2" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;I googled this quite a lot and it seems that I can't find the answer to the above question. I can find details on what to do to avoid the burnout but nothing specific on how long should one study new material every day.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say that it is up to you to set a due date for when you are done with the learning, you have to digest around 20 books and you need to practice. How much new material and old material can you study per day without burning out?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10140" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-24T21:04:38.900" LastActivityDate="2015-12-24T21:04:38.900" Title="How long should one study daily in order to avoid burnout?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-07-05T19:12:57.817" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12889" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12894" CreationDate="2015-12-24T02:45:47.730" Score="3" ViewCount="2007" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed that I and many of my peers tend to say &quot;Oh!&quot; whenever we are surprised or think of an answer to a question. This &quot;Oh!&quot; is not only prevalent in English, but also in Korean and German. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: Sorry for not clarifying. I was wondering why we say, &quot;Oh!&quot; instead of perhaps, &quot;Pft!&quot; or &quot;Tsch!&quot; or any other type of sound. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10141" LastEditorUserId="10141" LastEditDate="2015-12-24T20:25:17.277" LastActivityDate="2015-12-25T10:12:33.503" Title="Why do we say, &quot;Oh!&quot; when we are surprised?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12890" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13246" CreationDate="2015-12-24T18:12:31.977" Score="4" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nerves can detect pressure, temperature, light (eyes), sound, friction- at least. Does each sensation have its own neurotransmitter? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm only a little familiar with neurotransmitters. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-physiology-textbook/nervous-tissue-11/neurophysiology-113/types-of-neurotransmitters-by-function-619-3349/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This page&lt;/a&gt; pretty well sums up what I know about neurotransmitters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it seems like its a combination of neurotransmitters that flow from any single perception area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10146" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-24T21:03:13.297" LastActivityDate="2016-02-04T19:50:56.673" Title="Are there specific neurotransmitters for specific sensations?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12891" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12889" CreationDate="2015-12-24T20:22:10.027" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this is likely an expression of shock. Think to the days when there was significant danger in the world. Saying &lt;em&gt;&quot;Oh!&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;&quot;Ah!&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, or other exclamatory phrases lets others know that there is something significant going on. Whether spotting a predator in the bushes, or learning some interesting news, this excalamation warns others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for thinking of the answer to a question, think of your thought process. You're thinking, thinking, thinking... suddenly, you think of an answer. In this case, the &quot;Oh!&quot; serves to let others know that you have thought of something. It's prevalent in many languages simply because this is a pretty universal thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10147" LastActivityDate="2015-12-24T20:22:10.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12893" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12830" CreationDate="2015-12-25T01:24:13.057" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have you looked into &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.openbci.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;OpenBCI&lt;/a&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WkHn1.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WkHn1.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can view their latest kickstarter here: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/openbci/openbci-biosensing-for-everybody&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/openbci/openbci-biosensing-for-everybody&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9807" LastEditorUserId="9807" LastEditDate="2015-12-25T01:33:09.733" LastActivityDate="2015-12-25T01:33:09.733" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12894" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12889" CreationDate="2015-12-25T05:54:57.067" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a hard question because there are probably many different (but not equally valid) answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my perspective (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=j361BQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=Barrett+russell+psychological+construction&amp;amp;ots=ZVvw3Ag8aW&amp;amp;sig=8K0Zz2UPOz4slySKVle6qXWqaK8#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Barrett%20russell%20psychological%20construction&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Barrett &amp;amp; Russell, 2015&lt;/a&gt;), there are a couple of things to think about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How often do you actually say &quot;Oh!&quot; when you are surprised?&lt;/strong&gt; Your memory of these instances is likely unreliable, as you're depending on semantic memory about cultural beliefs, and not on episodic memory of your actual behavior (&lt;a href=&quot;https://my.apa.org/apa/idm/login.seam?ERIGHTS_TARGET=http%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2Fjournals%2Fbul%2F128%2F6%2F934%2F&amp;amp;AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Robinson &amp;amp; Clore, 2002&lt;/a&gt;).  Indeed, we might expect a lot of variability across different contexts (see next bulletpoint).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How much variability is there within/between individuals and cultures?&lt;/strong&gt;  If we've learned anything from relating emotions to variables like physiology, behavior, and facial expressions, we know that there is no one-to-one correspondence (e.g., fear and running away, anger and increased heart rate, etc.).  Instead the relations between discrete emotions and these response systems change across individuals, contexts, and cultures.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does surprise produce an &quot;Oh!&quot; or does an &quot;Oh!&quot; indicate surprise?&lt;/strong&gt;  On the one hand, you can think of an emotion as a reaction to some stimulus, producing loosely coordinated responses (e.g., &quot;Oh!&quot;).  On the other hand, you can think of emotions as &lt;em&gt;interpretations&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;categorizations&lt;/em&gt; of what's going internally and externally.  In this sense, you infer from your &quot;Oh!&quot; that you are surprised.  This means that &quot;surprise&quot; is a category that you deploy for all the instances in which you say &quot;Oh!&quot;  This is sort of like how &quot;bird&quot; is a category for all instances in which the object being described is animate and has wings.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So in a tautological way, you say &quot;Oh!&quot; when you are surprised because you categorize all instances of &quot;Oh!&quot; as surprise.&lt;/strong&gt;  Either way, your question has not been studied empirically (to my knowledge), so it's hard to give an answer based on actual data, and different theories will make different hypotheses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2015-12-25T05:54:57.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12895" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12889" CreationDate="2015-12-25T10:12:33.503" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;the behaviour you draw attention to is widespread and seems to be based on a response which is to some extent &lt;i&gt;involuntary&lt;/i&gt;. so it is not unreasonable to wonder if there is some genetically mediated neural substrate. obvious questions arise re the developmental aspect, particularly in the early years, and re the presence or absence of this response in other mammalian, particularly primate, species. (it might also be worth looking at how this response is incorporated into signing languages.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the articulation of an &quot;Oh!&quot; is a rapid exhalation of breath with no consonant which suggests classification with other paralinguistic vocalizations. the expression &quot;Wow!&quot; is similar, but the muscular accommodation required to pronounce the initial &quot;W&quot; suggests an element of cognitive mediation has modified the more instinctive &quot;Oh&quot; to add a semantic component. thus we observe that &quot;Wow!&quot; can be modified in quite flexible ways, by varying stress and duration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it may help to relate &quot;Oh!&quot; to certain other behaviours. for example the &quot;Oof!&quot; of pain (&quot;with &quot;Ouch!&quot; as a more formalized modification analogous to the shift from &quot;Oh!&quot; to &quot;Wow!&quot;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;there is also a related form of expression eliciting a rapid &lt;i&gt;intake&lt;/i&gt; of the breath, perhaps through slightly clenched jaw and pursed lips, which is evoked by certain over-intense stimuli - e.g. a drink which is too hot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;as a coffee-addict i have confirmed with others similarly afflicted, that the first caffeine hit of the day can invoke an in voluntary, deeply-satisfied &quot;Ah!&quot;. this response (although it can be exaggerated for dramatic or comic effect) feels to me to be instinct-based. it does not seem to be initiated by any imperative to communicaticate. indeed the presence of another person might cause an attempt to stifle or minimize the &quot;Ah!&quot; (politesse)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;finally one should mention in this context the now-widespread meme of the &quot;Aha!&quot; experience, though noting that for at least one great creative scientist, the Muse of history has recorded his &quot;Aha!&quot; response as the phonetically complex and semantically-loaded &quot;Efrika!&quot; - accompanied by an activation of the non-verbal jumping-out-of-a-bath alarm reflex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4047" LastActivityDate="2015-12-25T10:12:33.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12896" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-25T15:48:33.397" Score="3" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;In order to understand how we get rid of established habits/behavior:&#xA;Can myelinated connections be dissolved or are new connections created that bypass those connections?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-02-05T14:44:33.163" LastActivityDate="2016-04-05T20:25:14.693" Title="Do dissolving myelinated connections explain learning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12897" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12684" CreationDate="2015-12-26T00:44:12.030" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the first question, I think the answer is no.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's an inconsistency between this statement in the dream and the dreamer's current beliefs, but how can you show that it's a difference between Freudian entities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which one would be the superego, the ID, or the ego? How would you know? I think the phenomenon doesn't provide enough information to draw that conclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of this is: say that the ego believes the old belief, and the superego is automatically correcting to the new belief. Then what if the person learns a third overriding belief? Presumably, either of the old beliefs can be called up in a dream. But then do the beliefs shuffle down to the id, ego and superego, or is the superego carrying two beliefs, or what?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why would the id care about which version is true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of a belief that is overridden many times is what year it is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone dreamt of someone saying that it's currently what's actually a previous year, how would you assign that to the Freudian entities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;edit: By the way, I'm not a psychologist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10151" LastActivityDate="2015-12-26T00:44:12.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12898" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12924" CreationDate="2015-12-26T13:03:46.600" Score="2" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, Physical Experimentation of Human Brain is not possible. So how does people come up with the idea that different parts of brain is associated with different specific functions? and Who found it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cerebrum for memory, speech etc..&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cerebellum for motor, sensory etc..&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10154" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T22:50:32.850" Title="Discovery of “Functions of Brain”" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12899" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-26T13:51:57.733" Score="9" ViewCount="226" Body="&lt;p&gt;Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) is described as a pleasurable, tingly sensation in the (back of the) head.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The sensation can be triggered by a vast variety of stimuli (auditory, visual, olfactory etc) but seems dependent on attention. It seems not everyone can get this sensation and among those people that do, stimuli that trigger the sensation vary considerably. See also:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_sensory_meridian_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_sensory_meridian_response&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what could be the physical origin of this sensation? And how come only a select group of people seem able to experience it? In &lt;a href=&quot;http://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/asmr/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/asmr/&lt;/a&gt; the ASMR sensation is proposed to be caused by either [1] small seizures or [2] extra sensitivity or extra 'pleasure-shots' to stimuli that for other people are just moderately satisfying. Other sources compare ASMR to meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know more about this phenomenon, or have another theory about the mechanism behind it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10153" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-24T09:54:07.887" LastActivityDate="2018-12-03T03:36:12.300" Title="Any ideas about the neural mechanism underlying the ASMR sensation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12900" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12909" CreationDate="2015-12-26T17:20:06.423" Score="2" ViewCount="2016" Body="&lt;p&gt;Among the various definitions of the word &lt;em&gt;consciousness&lt;/em&gt; is &lt;em&gt;awareness&lt;/em&gt;, with &lt;em&gt;wakefulness&lt;/em&gt; a general synonym.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone hits you over the head, knocking you unconsciousness (though still alive), then you're said to be unconscious. But are you also considered to be unconscious when you're sleeping?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the key differences (for me) is that a sleeping person can typically react to an alarm clock, whereas a person who has been rendered unconscious through an injury is effectively dead to the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If sleep is NOT a form of unconsciousness, what is it? Is a sleeping person still conscious, or is there another term to describe it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastActivityDate="2015-12-27T05:44:10.603" Title="Does sleep = consciousness, unconsciousness or something else?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12901" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-26T17:58:59.573" Score="2" ViewCount="218" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have often observed that while I can understand concepts related to Finance and Literature very easily I find it extremely difficult to understand scientific topics related to Physics, Maths or Chemistry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it is due to a certain part of my brain not working optimally, then which part of the brain is it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9952" LastActivityDate="2016-01-05T09:56:42.093" Title="Which part of the brain is not working optimally if an individual is unable to understand scientific concepts and mathematics?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12902" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-26T18:58:47.540" Score="4" ViewCount="747" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a term in the perception / cognition area of research.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recently saw &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/eXr9rNa.gifv&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this visual illusion&lt;/a&gt; that 'flips' what is &lt;em&gt;negative-space&lt;/em&gt; and what is &lt;em&gt;positive-space&lt;/em&gt;.  This is known in the arts as &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=figure-ground%20reversal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;figure-ground reversal&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a word / term that addresses when the thing we are observing changes, such that the parts that signify the 'figure' and 'ground' are themselves switched.  Is there a word for this?  Does Ecological Psychology have a way that it organizes such stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/18f1A.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/18f1A.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would think there may be a term that address when our perception 'flips' the perception of &lt;a href=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Cup_or_faces_paradox.svg/300px-Cup_or_faces_paradox.svg.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a static image&lt;/a&gt;, and afterward we are biased to perceive the 'ground' differently.  This happens when we see a &lt;em&gt;vase&lt;/em&gt; instead of &lt;em&gt;faces&lt;/em&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I don't know &lt;em&gt;that word&lt;/em&gt;, nor do I know if it applies to the occurrence of when a thing/image/perceptual-field changes, in order to &lt;em&gt;action&lt;/em&gt; the figure-ground reversal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cyFsi.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cyFsi.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2584" LastEditorUserId="2584" LastEditDate="2015-12-28T22:31:58.763" LastActivityDate="2016-01-01T15:40:32.807" Title="Is there terminology for perceptual illusions at the moment that figure-ground reversal occurs?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12903" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-26T19:47:17.567" Score="1" ViewCount="339" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was in a conversation with an Enneagram scholar who claimed that certain Enneagram types are more likely to hold certain specific positions or have certain professions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any data or has there been any research published that has studied the Enneagram type distribution of fields or titles thought to be Enneagram-type-personality-specific? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we were to give the Enneagram test to ten-thousand nurses, would we find that a statistically significant number of them are Twos?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we were to give the Enneagram test to ten-thousand career scientists, would we find that a statistically significant number of them are Fives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10156" LastActivityDate="2019-08-08T23:49:13.417" Title="Research on Distribution of Enneagram Types in a Given Profession" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12905" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12908" CreationDate="2015-12-26T23:06:17.333" Score="1" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember reading that the amount of measured willpower is uncorrelated with dieting success.&#xA;On the other hand there are various popular article that suggest that there a link.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does the science on the subject say?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastActivityDate="2015-12-27T05:28:39.897" Title="Are people with high willpower more likely to succeed at keeping a diet then people with lower willpower?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;willpower&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12906" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12907" CreationDate="2015-12-27T03:33:38.093" Score="2" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most pre-medical students take psychology, biology, chemistry or something science-related, in addition to the classes needed as prerequisites for medical school, for their undergraduate degree or even for a master's, but is there any particular degree besides an MD that someone who wants to be a psychiatrist needs to take?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, is a business, philosophy, english or political science major who has taken the required classes of medical school who later finishes medical school eligible to train to become a psychiatrist? I'm curious as to how such a person would get the psychology-related training and knowledge. Is it in the training after medical school? Is it related to medical school electives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T03:54:14.440" Title="Do psychiatrists have educational requirements other than an MD?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12907" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12906" CreationDate="2015-12-27T05:12:07.133" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The only required degree to become a psychiatrist is a doctoral degree (M.D.). Using your example, yes those people could train to become psychiatrists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After passing the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) and going through med school, most students undergo a psychiatric residency (aka. clerkship) where they are trained in different medical centers (hospitals, health clinics, psychiatric wards, etc.). This allows the prospective psychiatrist to gain &quot;real world&quot; experience. After a psychiatric residency, psychiatrists must then take an exam issued by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abpn.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology&lt;/a&gt;. If they pass this exam they are certified and can then legally practice as a psychiatrist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source:&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://study.com/articles/Psychiatrist_Educational_Requirements_for_Psychiatrists.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://study.com/articles/Psychiatrist_Educational_Requirements_for_Psychiatrists.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: Med school teaches you theoretical psychiatric knowledge whereas the clerkship will teach you how to apply it. The clerkship could also train you in specialty fields. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9807" LastEditorUserId="9807" LastEditDate="2016-01-04T03:54:14.440" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T03:54:14.440" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12908" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12905" CreationDate="2015-12-27T05:28:39.897" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S009265660900172X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; that was published in 2009, which focused on food and self-control. This study, revealed that self-control didn’t have much of an effect one way or another on whether or not the volunteers were able to constrain themselves from eating the presented food (in this case, chips)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, professor and health psychologist &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.umn.edu/people/profile.php?UID=mann&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Traci L Mann&lt;/a&gt; Ph.D. concluded ,through her studies, that willpower is a myth when it comes to dieting. You can view the multiple papers she has written &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Traci%20Mann&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; or purchase &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0062329235&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;her book&lt;/a&gt; on this topic on amazon.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9807" LastActivityDate="2015-12-27T05:28:39.897" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12909" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12900" CreationDate="2015-12-27T05:44:10.603" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/unconscious&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dictionary definition&lt;/a&gt;  of &quot;unconscious&quot; is to not be capable of conscious thought, ie, be asleep and unaware. Technically, you are unconscious when you are asleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you get knocked out ie. a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concussion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;concussion&lt;/a&gt;, it is thought that the forces from the injury disrupt the normal cellular activities in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticular_activating_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reticular activating system&lt;/a&gt; located in the areas impacted and that this disruption produces the loss of consciousness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Terminology wise, I believe this would be considered a temporary &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coma&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;coma&lt;/a&gt;. (The definition of a coma is: a state of unconsciousness in which a person: cannot be awakened; fails to respond normally to painful stimuli, light, or sound; lacks a normal wake-sleep cycle; and does not initiate voluntary actions.)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9807" LastActivityDate="2015-12-27T05:44:10.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12911" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-28T00:44:39.627" Score="1" ViewCount="5000" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a friend who has a terrible fear of dams, water reservoirs, jetties or bridges with big blocks on water; in general, a fear of large buildings on water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He often tells me that he imagines a dam near the gates and has &lt;em&gt;&quot;anxiety attacks&quot;&lt;/em&gt; and becomes very afraid. However, he is not afraid of swimming, or common places with water, like the ocean, pools and so on. On the contrary, he loves to swim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While he is not afraid of pools, he is very afraid of the wells of the pools where the water enters or where is filtered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ob9ZB.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ob9ZB.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;building over a stream&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BrtR8.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BrtR8.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;bridge over river&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His psychologist doesn't know the name of such a phobia and, after a while, his diagnosis was &lt;em&gt;hydrophobia&lt;/em&gt;. The problem is that he is not afraid of water, only these large structures over the water, whose purpose is to control water flow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can I get information about this phobia; is there a specific name?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;And how can be treated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10168" LastEditorUserId="10168" LastEditDate="2016-10-15T03:15:06.883" LastActivityDate="2018-01-17T21:38:47.990" Title="What is the name of the phobia of dams?" Tags="&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2018-11-06T16:37:02.720" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12912" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12911" CreationDate="2015-12-28T01:52:15.350" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, there is no specific definition for this phobia. No search reveals anything similar. It is important to recognise that simply defining phobias is not medically useful and does not provide further insight into human cognition. It would not be efficient to provide a label for all the phobias which exist. Generally labels are created when the population of people with the disorder reaches some threshold that specific treatments are developed. Your friend simply has a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.beyondblue.org.au/the-facts/anxiety/types-of-anxiety/specific-phobias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;specific phobia&quot;&lt;/a&gt; of the situational type (also see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_phobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia entry&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine treatment would be the same as for most specific phobias. Generally this involves a form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CBT&lt;/a&gt; known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;exposure therapy&lt;/a&gt; or graded exposure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you desperately require a definition, I like hydrostructuraphobia - taken from latin word for structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6947" LastActivityDate="2015-12-28T01:52:15.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12913" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-28T02:54:38.880" Score="3" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the technical name for the public display of personal traits that are unproductive or unhealthy as an attempt to make oneself seem more likeable or relatable? (e.g procrastination)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10169" LastEditorUserId="10175" LastEditDate="2015-12-29T21:58:28.440" LastActivityDate="2016-05-02T14:53:02.830" Title="Technical term for the displaying of 'bad' traits to seem more likeable" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12915" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-28T16:12:49.413" Score="2" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently interested in gathering information and knowledge related to advanced &quot;conspiracy theorists&quot; to help with challenging/talking/helping them recover.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;To define a severe/entrenched &quot;conspiracy theorist&quot; see the following attributes:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has the urge/need to &quot;inform&quot; new people they meet.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rejects facts or proof (All of the reading I have read has indicated attempting to reason with someone like this will only push them deeper into their hole)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has the inability to think of most other things in life other than the &quot;end of the world&quot; (an addiction)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consumes large amounts of information related to the &quot;end of the world&quot; or &quot;conspiracy theories&quot; from other people that have similar thoughts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Might start street prophesizing (imagine the guy on the street with a sign that says, &quot;the end is nigh, repent&quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Some of the topics that one of these entrenched conspiracy theorists might spout are as follows (NOTE: This is not a fully inclusive list of theories)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;9/11 conspiracy, Mayan end of the world (EOTW), other general EOTW scenarios.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Planet Nibiru &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pope is the Antichrist&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;World ending comet&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Three Days of Darkness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V4Ul4VEf_xY&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rapture (Etc)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3937/what-are-the-mechanics-behind-the-mind-of-a-conspiracy-theorist&quot;&gt;There's another question that goes into the understanding of a conspiracy theorist&lt;/a&gt;, but it does not touch how one might go about helping an individual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm truly trying to get advice/help/resources to help a person that might be afflicted with an entrenched belief in one or many conspiracy theories.  While I understand the best way for someone to find their way out of this belief system is to have them come to the conclusion by themselves, I'm looking for advice/help that third parties can perform to assist with the progress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10172" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-04-17T12:32:28.257" LastActivityDate="2019-04-17T12:32:28.257" Title="Understanding/Helping an Entrenched &quot;Conspiracy Theorist&quot;" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="12916" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-28T21:57:17.103" Score="1" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do people sometimes not understand that there are other ways of dealing with depression? I have done everything I know that I can do for this person. I've helped a few of my friends stop their cutting and stuff and I love listening and helping them and helping them figure out other soulutions for dealing with their emotions but I'm having trouble with this one&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you think I should tell my friend's parents now? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10161" LastEditorUserId="10175" LastEditDate="2015-12-29T21:58:18.633" LastActivityDate="2015-12-30T11:59:36.080" Title="What if he hates me for telling?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2015-12-29T21:57:53.197" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12917" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-28T22:27:16.120" Score="1" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychosis&lt;/a&gt; refers to an abnormal condition of the mind described as involving a &quot;loss of contact with reality&quot;. -Wikipedia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I listen to person who practices &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Age&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;new age&lt;/a&gt;, I often think that is the person in some kind of psychosis. They talk eg. about special powers got from the stone, telepathy or connection to some kind of divine powers, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastActivityDate="2015-12-28T22:27:16.120" Title="Are some of the new age proponents in psychosis?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-01-27T23:35:01.233" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12918" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12916" CreationDate="2015-12-29T02:47:00.650" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Each person deals with and reacts to psychological issues, including depression, differently. It's not your fault that the other person isn't finding your approach helpful. Also remember that symptoms of depression include negative thinking and trouble focusing, so don't blame yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, sometimes you have to tell another person what is going on when you are seriously concerned about another person's well-being. Tell someone you trust. This person should be able to listen and make good choices about what to do with the information you tell them. They should be able to understand that you want to respect this person's feelings and privacy and concerns about expressing these to anyone. However the person you tell should know whether or not it is a wise decision to intervene, and how.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Perhaps they could give you advice on how to better understand and help your depressed friend in a way you hadn't thought of before, provided the situation is not too serious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If your friend is in danger, you need to tell someone.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10176" LastEditorUserId="10175" LastEditDate="2015-12-29T21:58:13.053" LastActivityDate="2015-12-29T21:58:13.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12919" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9897" CreationDate="2015-12-29T05:30:23.563" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a counselllor and use many different therapies and techniques with clients. Different therapies offer different ways to work with a client. CBT is more of a teaching therapy teaching the clients strategies and coping skills to help them with solving their issues. Psychoanalysis as mentioned in an above comment as Freudian is one of the foundations of psychology and works with the belief that all disorder stems from the childhood. This is because this is when we learn the most and learn how to react and behave in certain situations. It is a very good way to work on issues stemming from childhood. Erikson's theory expanded on Freud's theory and included other stages we go through to become fulfilled as human beings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the reason we don't give advice is not because we don't want to or we like to avoid it, it is merely a legal; one, we are not legally or ethically covered to give advice and if we did and it went wrong we would get sued. It is ok to ask the opinion of the counsellor however that is not important what is important is why does the client need to hear it from someone else and have trouble knowing what to do. This can also be stemed from a childhood issue where they don't have good enough boundaries and rely on the thoughts of others to make decisions for them so when it goes wrong they have someone else to blame other than themselves. Also it could be that they constantly need other peoples approval another issue stemming from childhood which caused them to not be strong enough in themselves to make sound decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good psychologists and counsellors are aware of a lot more than just issues and what should you do about it, we are trained in problem solving and helping people to become autonomous. The saying &quot;you can give a man a fish and feed him for a day or teach him to fish and feed him for a lifetime&quot; applies here. Counsellors teach their clients about themselves and help them understand why they are like they are and then help them learn new ways to solve their problems. So they don't always need to be asking others what they should do. Be strong make a decision, learn from mistakes, readjust your goals and keep moving forward toward success. There is no need for approval, blame or asking of opinions.&#xA;Sorry it is a long one but legally that is how it is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10178" LastActivityDate="2015-12-29T05:30:23.563" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12920" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12916" CreationDate="2015-12-29T09:33:15.673" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do these friends that you are helping have any other friends in whom they have confided? If there are other people who &lt;em&gt;already&lt;/em&gt; know, and who are your age and potentially going through similar things, it can help to talk to them. This also has the benefit of not telling anyone your friend might not want you to.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;One possibility would be to contact a counselor/therapist - if you are at school they will likely have one available to whom you can go in full confidentiality, and who will be trained and experienced to help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If you believe that your friend may be in danger, for example suicide,&lt;/strong&gt; or that things are getting out of control, they need help, and it is reasonable to break a promise of confidentiality if it could save their life. If you are in the UK, you can call the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.samaritans.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;samaritans&lt;/a&gt; on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.samaritans.org/how-we-can-help-you/contact-us&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;116 123&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Also, please look after yourself, even if you don't have depression or any of the feelings that you are helping your friends with, it can be hard. Any feelings of blame towards yourself, guilt, uselessness are understandale but they do not apply. you are doing amazingly for helping these people, and in some cases even stopping self harm. The samaritans number isn't just for people thinking of suicide, it's for people in need of help, and this is very understandable with so much going on, and helping so many people. And, thank you. Even if you're not experiencing appreciation from your friends just yet, you have done an incredible thing for them; making their lives better, and stopping them hurting themselves. Please don't hesitate to reach out for help, for any of you.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10175" LastEditorUserId="10175" LastEditDate="2015-12-30T11:59:36.080" LastActivityDate="2015-12-30T11:59:36.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12921" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12930" CreationDate="2015-12-29T10:23:08.390" Score="2" ViewCount="1316" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in bootstrap, especially how it's entering the psychologist's world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Boostrapping is used to 'omit' classical assumptions to get statistics. Bootstrapping starts with creating new samples from an original sample (that is considered as a population). Those new samples are generated via resampling with replacement (so that in a new sample observations can be repeated). Doing this (for example) 1000 times, you can get 1000 new samples and then calculate statistics of interest on each of a new sample. Thus you get 1000 of means (as an example). In the end you can calculate (bootstrapped) confidence interval.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for papers on bootstrap in social sciences (like this one Wright, D.B, London, K., Field, A.P. (2011) Using Bootstrap Estimation and the Plug-in Principle for Clinical Psychology Data, &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, DOI: 10.5127/jep.013611), where the authors explain bootstrap technique to psychologists in their subfield or those papers (in social science) where bootstrap is used extensively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone has seen, read or known such papers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4874" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-29T17:53:07.130" LastActivityDate="2015-12-31T08:56:02.530" Title="Bootstrapping in Psychology" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12922" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-29T18:40:45.713" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to parse the significance of Michael Persinger's work. From what I can understand, he uses toroids to create magnetic fields which can &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.infona.pl/resource/bwmeta1.element.baztech-237ff459-eb61-4787-bf1d-287e3573db2d&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;change the PH of spring water&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://file.scirp.org/Html/17181.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;change photon emission in brain tissue&lt;/a&gt;. He then applies this to &lt;a href=&quot;http://jcer.com/index.php/jcj/article/view/493&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;two human brains separated by great distances&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are his results significant? If so, what predictions are they making? All I can make out from these papers is that when brains are exposed to similar to conditions they exhibit similar brain waves. Why don't they compare to a baseline of those not exposed to these magnetic signals? And why do they only show the correlation between paired individuals, instead of showing correlation between paired and non-paired individuals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-29T23:34:01.497" LastActivityDate="2015-12-29T23:34:01.497" Title="What is definition of &quot;excessive correlation&quot; is Michael Persinger using?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12923" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-30T06:56:48.527" Score="3" ViewCount="7184" Body="&lt;p&gt;I saw the film &lt;em&gt;&quot;Lucy&quot;&lt;/em&gt; in 2015. The film says that humans can use 100% percent of the capacity of their brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to my personal ideas, the capacity of the brain will changed based on the basic knowledge of a person. We all know Albert Einstein was a great knowledgeable human in the world. This level of knowledge can change by the time, for example he was arguably the best scientist or philosopher of his time; he used his brain as much as possible for innovation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the present, there are many more scientists in the world, but the world is filled with knowledge, new technology etc. Man's basic knowledge could be higher than a scientist in the past, because this knowledge is openly available everywhere. But the problem is that they don't use their brain to the same level as Einstein or any other scientist that has lived in the past. That means that they don't use the highest capacity of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So according to my idea, the capacity of the brain will vary depending on external environmental factors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to comments and suggestions in this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2461348,00.asp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; I read, I was unable to identify the truth: whether people can enhance their brain capacity like &quot;Lucy&quot;. And I need to know whether humans have a fixed brain capacity or not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most religions say that their saints had used 100% of their brain capacity. So what about other humans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10185" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-31T20:20:21.530" LastActivityDate="2020-06-12T18:45:18.383" Title="Is it possible to increase the capacity of human brain like “Lucy”?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12898" CreationDate="2015-12-30T10:16:23.817" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often, we learn about brain functions when parts of the brain become damaged. One famous example is that of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uakron.edu/gage/story.dot&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Phineas Gage&lt;/a&gt;. He survived severe brain damage, and his character and abilities were noticeably different. From the article:-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Some months after the accident, probably in about the middle of 1849, Phineas felt strong enough to resume work.  But because his personality had changed so much, the contractors who had employed him would not give him his place again.  Before the accident he had been their most capable and efficient foreman, one with a well-balanced mind, and who was looked on as a shrewd smart business man.  He was now, Harlow said, fitful, irreverent, and grossly profane, showing little deference for his fellows.  He was also impatient and obstinate, yet capricious and vacillating, unable to settle on any of the plans he devised for future action.  His friends said he was &quot;No longer Gage.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastActivityDate="2015-12-30T10:16:23.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12926" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12942" CreationDate="2015-12-30T20:59:08.283" Score="5" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know how true is the following sentence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One can only imagine combinations of things he has experienced through his senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to state that this sentence is about imagination, not about thinking boundaries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As examples: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can think about a universe with 4 dimensions, but you can't imagine it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can think about infra-red radiation, but you can only imagine it as a combination of known colors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10194" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-31T20:23:09.690" LastActivityDate="2016-01-03T20:19:25.660" Title="Imagination limits" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12928" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12714" CreationDate="2015-12-31T03:05:39.250" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Prolific Academic&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, you could use &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.prolific.ac/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Prolific Academic&lt;/a&gt;. It is similar to Mechanical Turk in that it provides a system for recruiting paid online participants. However, it is more specifically designed for running academic research. And it has specific provision for running longitudinal studies. I've  used it for cross-sectional research, and had a fairly good experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a post about &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.prolificacademic.co.uk/2014/08/03/how-to-run-a-longitutinal-study/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;running longitudinal studies on Prolific&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Payment:&lt;/strong&gt; Payment on Prolific is based on the proposed time it takes to complete the study and a minimum effective hourly rate. In general, I found that most participants are quite quick at completing survey items. If a participant takes a little longer, they still get the proposed rate. So at present, you might pay say 5/ 60 minutes * 5 pounds  = .41 pounds per participant (i.e., about 60 US cents per wave per participant). But this is just a rough guide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Identification across waves:&lt;/strong&gt; Prolific assigns each participant a unique ID that would be common across logins. You'd generally just have a question that asks participants to enter their prolific ID at the start of each wave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Not paying for incomplete data&lt;/strong&gt;: I'm not sure what is considered reasonable here. I think each wave of data collection would be seen as a separate study, and you would generally be expected to pay if the participant completes the wave. One option would be to increase the payment for subsequent waves or offer bonus payment to incentivise completion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Survey Platform&lt;/strong&gt;: Our school has a licence to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.qualtrics.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Qualtrics&lt;/a&gt;. I've found this to be very good for surveys and it integrates well with Prolific (i.e., [redirecting participants back to Prolific](&lt;a href=&quot;https://prolificac.zendesk.com/hc/en-us/articles/202985142-How-do-I-add-a-completion-URL-at-the-end-of-my-study-&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://prolificac.zendesk.com/hc/en-us/articles/202985142-How-do-I-add-a-completion-URL-at-the-end-of-my-study-&lt;/a&gt;, copying surveys to create subsequent waves), working many devices, etc.). That said, your study is pretty simple in terms of data collection, so you could probably use just about any survey platform.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sending emails&lt;/strong&gt;: You're not allowed to collect identifying information such as emails. I imagine you would need to setup a subsequent study within Prolific for subsequent waves of data collection. Participants are generally notified of the study by email, but you'd need to check how reliable this is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2015-12-31T03:05:39.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12929" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12932" CreationDate="2015-12-31T07:54:15.913" Score="1" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine I have an educational website which hosts high school students and presents lessons like chemistry, physics, mathematics, etc. Now I want to give each one of my lessons a unique color. I thought maybe there is a psychological thing about this. Is there? If so, could any one give such resource that tells me what color is suitable for chemistry and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10198" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2015-12-31T20:21:57.257" LastActivityDate="2016-01-02T22:41:45.880" Title="psychologically , which color for which lesson?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12930" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12921" CreationDate="2015-12-31T08:56:02.530" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I embarked on using bootstrapping in my research I found this chapter/lecture notes by Cosma Shalizi very useful:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Bootstrap, 36-402, Advanced Data Analysis, 3 February 2011&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stat.cmu.edu/~cshalizi/402/lectures/08-bootstrap/lecture-08.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.stat.cmu.edu/~cshalizi/402/lectures/08-bootstrap/lecture-08.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see now that he has also written a short introduction for American Scientist&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shalizi, C. (2010). The bootstrap. American Scientist, 98(3),&#xA;186-190. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.americanscientist.org/libraries/documents/201048159157846-2010-05Shalizi.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.americanscientist.org/libraries/documents/201048159157846-2010-05Shalizi.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We published this paper, which uses bootstrapping in the third analysis (and so may directly answer your question). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stafford, T., &amp;amp; Dewar, M. (2014). Tracing the trajectory of skill learning with a very large sample of online game players. Psychological science, 25(2), 511-518. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/25/2/511.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/25/2/511.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aside from mere egotism on my part, the analysis code for the paper is available, so you can see mechanically how I did it for my analysis (in Python)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/tomstafford/axongame&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://github.com/tomstafford/axongame&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9476" LastActivityDate="2015-12-31T08:56:02.530" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12931" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10297" CreationDate="2015-12-31T11:30:12.020" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the US or the UK, the tests are regularly re-normed to keep the average score 100. But if you use the UK/US average as a baseline to look at IQ scores around the world, then the &quot;average IQ&quot; globally is closer to 88, and dropping, despite the Flynn effect (whose effect has already maxed out in many developed countries, where IQ levels are sometimes now in decline). Generally, people in lower IQ countries tend to have more children, who then grow up to be low-IQ adults (again, generally speaking, and obviously not in every case), which leads to a global decrease in the average IQ. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/IQ/1950-2050/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This chart/animation&lt;/a&gt; shows what the estimated average is in 2015, what it was in 1950, and estimates what the global average will be in 2050 (the animation takes a few seconds to load).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2730791/Are-STUPID-Britons-people-IQ-decline.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This 2014 article in the Daily Mail&lt;/a&gt; offers a good summary of the research being done into the global drop in IQ scores. Yes, I know, it's the Daily Mail (actually Mail Online), but it does provide concise and easily Google-able references to the main researchers in this field, for example Jan te Nijenhuis, Michael Woodley, and most (in)famously Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen, who pretty much pioneered the idea of how nation-level IQs have major effects on a nation's outcomes (which research has made the duo pretty unpopular, as the implications of their work aren't pretty).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10207" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-02-15T16:48:25.940" LastActivityDate="2018-02-15T16:48:25.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12932" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12929" CreationDate="2015-12-31T12:00:26.127" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't ever seen material which describes links between colors and some knowledge fields. To my mind, it depends on your &lt;em&gt;own experience&lt;/em&gt;. But there are a lot of material about common feelings of different colors, that could be helpful for design, for organization of any kind of information. Look &lt;a href=&quot;https://precisionintermedia.com/color&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://blog.kissmetrics.com/psychology-of-color-and-conversions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10173" LastActivityDate="2015-12-31T12:00:26.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12933" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12923" CreationDate="2015-12-31T12:27:29.573" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Usage of brain capacity? That's an ridiculous expression. I see, you have already read about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_percent_of_the_brain_myth&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;ten percent of the brain&quot; myth&lt;/a&gt;. As Krotanix wrote above, a brain uses all its functions in different time, coz you can't and shouldn't remember, feel everything in one moment. Vice versa, we can think about every detail independently, step by step, for understanding of full picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There were many experiments to explain difference between brain work of beginners and masters is some fields (some researches are described in the book of Robert Solso). It was found that they had almost the same brain activity. So, difference is in knowledge and experience, not in brain capacity or activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10173" LastActivityDate="2015-12-31T12:27:29.573" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12934" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2015-12-31T13:10:55.657" Score="3" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pain scales&lt;/a&gt; which talk about the extent of pain, i.e. how much of the body is in pain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm in the process of trying to work out whether several lesions, hurt with the same &lt;em&gt;intensity&lt;/em&gt; as a single lesion of the same severity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-02-02T06:17:39.780" LastActivityDate="2016-06-01T08:10:28.177" Title="Are there any pain scales which measure how much of the body is in pain?" Tags="&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12938" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12417" CreationDate="2016-01-01T01:22:23.173" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a few commercial EEG makers that do allow monitoring of raw EEG data. For instance, I know the Muse headband and OpenBCI allow you to do this with little trouble. These both support sampling rates up to 250 Hz. (The OpenBCI in principle could have a higher sampling rate, but i don't know anyone who has done this.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Emotiv EPOC also has an option to get raw EEG data. You have to pay more for the research version of the SDK to get the data officially. However, &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/openyou/emokit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;someone&lt;/a&gt; has reverse engineered their protocol, so you can access the raw data that way. This has a sampling rate of up to 128 Hz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, if you still want to build your own EEG, OpenBCI has documented all of their plans, so a good start would be to replicate their product. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the older, but still useful, &lt;a href=&quot;http://openeeg.sourceforge.net/doc/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;OpenEEG project&lt;/a&gt;, which also has open plans for an EEG device.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10224" LastActivityDate="2016-01-01T01:22:23.173" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12940" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12902" CreationDate="2016-01-01T15:40:32.807" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many such illusions. It mostly belongs to pattern-recognition and gestalt psychology. From German it means &lt;em&gt;&quot;shape&quot;, &quot;form&quot;, &quot;essence&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. To answer your question, I think, here there are &lt;em&gt;illusory contours&lt;/em&gt; (when you watch and understand an illusion) and &lt;em&gt;lateral inhibition&lt;/em&gt; (when you have got new understanding of the picture and compare it with previous form).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Enjoy more pictures ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5zWO4.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5zWO4.gif&quot; alt=&quot;A man and a woman face&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hiDw3.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hiDw3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;A joke about gestalt-psychologists&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10173" LastActivityDate="2016-01-01T15:40:32.807" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12941" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8509" CreationDate="2016-01-01T17:23:25.747" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dynamical systems models is commonly used in the domain of perception and action. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cog.brown.edu/research/ven_lab/Publications/Warren_P&amp;amp;A_PR06.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Warren, 2006&lt;/a&gt; for a comprehensive review. This work uses the mathematical formalism of dynamics and not just the metaphorical concepts. An exploration of the references of Warren's paper, as well as of papers that have cited it, will find many examples of dynamical models of perception and action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For another example of dynamical modeling in perception-action research (with moves toward more &quot;cognitive&quot; models as well), I recommend &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0262611317&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scott Kelos' Book &lt;em&gt;Dynamic Patterns&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. This is an accessible overview (10 years before Warren's paper) that makes very explicit the connection between the metaphors and actual models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will also add that there are close theoretical and methodological links between Warren, Thelen/Smith, and Kelso that go beyond merely the use of dynamical systems models. For example, they all draw links between dynamical systems methods and the possibility of a non-representational ontology of mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All that said, even within perception-action, there are many researchers who use the metaphorical concepts of dynamical systems theory inexactly. A chapter of my Ph.D. thesis will be on incorrect use of the terms &quot;attractor&quot; and &quot;bifurcation&quot;, etc., in the literature. (playing fast and loose with fixed points vs. nullclines, state variables vs. parameters, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10232" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-01T17:49:47.823" LastActivityDate="2016-01-01T17:49:47.823" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12942" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12926" CreationDate="2016-01-01T20:44:34.747" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many people who have tried psychedelics would probably disagree with that statement based on their experiences alone. There are various such accounts available if you search, such as on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.erowid.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Erowid&lt;/a&gt;. On the other hand, perhaps the statement holds for average persons in &quot;normal&quot; states of mind. From an evolutionary perspective, there would be very little use in imagining things fundamentally different from normal life (or normal reality), so you would expect such experiences to be limited to abnormal states of mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To think about this question more philosophically, there are &lt;em&gt;endless&lt;/em&gt; possible illogical (or unobserved) &quot;realities&quot; to be envisioned while there are perhaps only a finite number of true realities. This concept is related to the idea that you cannot prove a negative such as &quot;There is no hidden pink unicorn ghost floating above you right now&quot;. Because the unobservable possibilities are endless while the observable ones are much more finite, the mind would be at a total waste to spend time processing the unobservable possibilities. This is not to say the mind is incapable of it, but rather that there is strong selective pressure to prevent such processing under normal conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2016-01-01T20:44:34.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12943" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12886" CreationDate="2016-01-01T21:17:21.177" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some types of &lt;strong&gt;meditation&lt;/strong&gt; (when successful) can bring about states that can certainly be used for debugging purposes. One of the key factors is the ability to relax enough while maintaining sufficient focus to be able (a) to see why you are thinking or reacting in a certain way and (b) to stop immediately in your thinking tracks and choose a different path. While this approach may not be so low-level as desired, it can still serve meta-debugging purposes. Essentially you want to slow down enough to see individual thoughts while not being controlled entirely by them. I would imagine that certain &lt;strong&gt;drugs&lt;/strong&gt; can also bring about debug-friendly states (when used correctly, of course). &lt;strong&gt;Psycho-feedback&lt;/strong&gt; technologies could probably help as well, such as by making it easier to see when you are reacting emotionally to a thought or other stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Split-brain&lt;/a&gt; patients sometimes give hints that perhaps different regions of the brain can possess consciousness (awareness) &lt;em&gt;independently&lt;/em&gt; from other parts. In theory, it may be necessary to have one brain region debug another if &lt;em&gt;low-level&lt;/em&gt; monitoring is needed. How to make this happen, on the other hand, is a big question of its own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2016-01-01T21:17:21.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12944" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12901" CreationDate="2016-01-02T05:50:07.207" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Almost every area of your brain would be involved in learning and understanding such high-level topics, so any perceived inability to learn a specific topic is very unlikely to be due to a particular area of your brain not working optimally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning new things can take a lot of time and practice. A lot of times people don't see as much improvement as they would like and this discourages them from continuing to practice. If you can easily understand Finance and Literature, then I believe that you have the ability to catch on with Physics and Math. Just keep reading and trying and eventually you will see improvement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastEditorUserId="10227" LastEditDate="2016-01-02T05:58:22.420" LastActivityDate="2016-01-02T05:58:22.420" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12945" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-02T06:42:36.790" Score="2" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find ballpark estimates for the number of neurons in each functional area of the visual cortex (V1, V2, V3, etc). While nice if known, the numbers themselves are not as important to me as the relative size differences of the areas, so this information would be just as welcomed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, if known, are the total synapse averages fairly consistent between areas, or do they change dramatically?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found rough estimates for V1 here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.vision.caltech.edu/~harel/fun/v1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.vision.caltech.edu/~harel/fun/v1.html&lt;/a&gt; but am having trouble finding this sort of information out for subsequent areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7580" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T07:04:40.077" Title="What are the estimates in total neurons and average connections per neuron for each of the processing areas of the visual cortex?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12947" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12913" CreationDate="2016-01-02T14:20:15.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may not fit exactly the scenario described, but some form of strategic affect display or 'appraisal theory', these relate to social theories of (&amp;amp; displays of) emotion, as oppose personality traits as such, but may be relevant nonetheless. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So for example, you might want to come across as being more aggressive &amp;amp; assertive, or alternately more compassionate &amp;amp; caring, in any given scenario, because you feel that is the appropriate thing to do, or you may gain some advantage from that - even though you may feel otherwise indifferent about whatever it is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, the way the question is phrased - whether something is 'productive' or 'unproductive' in a social sense, as oppose to a personal level, is open to interpretation, i.e. if it makes you more 'likeable' then it is socially productive (at least in the short term), regardless of whether it it something that is generally regarded as being a negative trait.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope that's relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10245" LastActivityDate="2016-01-02T14:20:15.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12949" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-02T19:23:03.617" Score="2" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;As we all know, certain actions like,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;blinking of eye&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;breathing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;all happen involuntarily, and we have the option to control them voluntarily as well(holding breath etc..) when needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, once we change our focus on something else for a few minutes, we forget that we had voluntary control(like holding breath etc..), and involuntary actions takes place automatically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, Can we transfer &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;voluntary control&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;involuntary&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; by will?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. Since the question is about experience, I couldn't ask more clearly. Sorry for that. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10154" LastActivityDate="2016-01-02T19:23:03.617" Title="Changing Voluntary to Involuntary by will" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12951" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12934" CreationDate="2016-01-02T23:24:40.047" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can tell you this, in RA the addition of swollen joints in a flair up increases the pain until your number exceeds so many than the pain levels. In arthritis of the spine, spondylosis seams to stay the same as the gradual increase of more arthritic vertebra increases. But when spondyolithisis increased from one to two the pain was double. (The movement forward or sideways of the vertebra) That's all I know,10 years experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10250" LastActivityDate="2016-01-02T23:24:40.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12952" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-02T23:34:26.140" Score="2" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a vast simplification, the mid-brain sends reward signals (for example through dopaminergic neurons) that tell the rest of the brain whether it succeeded at fulfilling the needs of the organism. If there are certain activities in the brain that lead to a successful action, then these activities should have a higher probability of occurring again (since that is useful for achieving the organism's needs in future).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To increase the probability of the occurrence of an activation pattern as a response to a certain history of sensory input, the neurons that were involved to produce this pattern will need to adapt their synapses such that they become more sensitive to this input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering, how are the reward signals thought to affect the neurons that were involved in the previous actions of the organism at the synaptic level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2570" LastActivityDate="2016-01-05T16:31:11.887" Title="How do reward signals strengthen synaptic connections in the human brain?" Tags="&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12953" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-02T23:42:09.607" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;As an example, I would like to know which Brodmann areas innervate the layer IV of area 10 in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To which degree are these connections known? What are good books or other kinds of resources that provide information about this, perhaps in a tabular form?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2570" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-06T21:26:01.100" LastActivityDate="2016-06-07T12:41:44.123" Title="Where can I find good references about the neuronal connections in various areas in the cortex?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12954" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12923" CreationDate="2016-01-03T01:51:05.110" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wired.com/2014/07/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-10-brain-myth-explained-in-60-seconds/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; may provide you with extra supplementary information regarding the notorious &quot;10 Percent Myth&quot;. &#xA;To respond to your statement regarding increasing brain capacity through am increase in knowledge:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Synaptic Consolidation is the process by which items are transferred from short-term to long-term memory. Within the first minutes or hours after acquisition, the engram (memory trace) is encoded within synapses, becoming resistant (though not immune) to interference from outside sources. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Knowledge has to do with &quot;saving&quot; the original memory traces followed when first learning the information. It does not necessarily have to do with active brain capacity. Thus, an increase in knowledge will not necessarily cause an increase in used brain capacity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You see, the primary issue here is energy cost. Although the brain typically only constitutes 2 percent of the body's weight, it utilizes around 20 percent of the body's energy intake. As a species, we have been &quot;designed&quot; through the filtering of many &quot;versions&quot; our species to be most efficient. As we have not found a particular need to utilize such a large percentage of our brain &lt;em&gt;at a time&lt;/em&gt; throughout the millennia, our brains have been simplified into a somewhat energy-efficient structure, utilizing a portion of the total capacity at a time. However, if Man had originally needed to use more of the brain capacity for a majority of his or her daily activities, it would be safe to expect that we would use a larger portion of our brains at any given instance. Assuming you are still in a state of heightened neuroplasticity, it is potentially possible to &quot;increase the amount of brain capacity used at a time&quot; by participating in activities requiring multiple parts of your brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But how many different activities can you think of that would require reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, problem solving, movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli, visual processing, perception, recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10141" LastActivityDate="2016-01-03T01:51:05.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12955" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-03T16:12:50.500" Score="2" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am conducting research on Arab homosexual men. I want to translate to Arabic and validate psychological scales like scales for gender dysphoria, internalized homophobia scales ..etc&#xA;first, How to know if the scale is copyrighted or not?(e.g. are scales in the DSM copyrighted ?)&#xA;second, is their any plan or self-study book to help me do this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10257" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-01-05T05:37:37.357" LastActivityDate="2016-02-04T06:19:19.913" Title="Self-study guide for translating a psychological scale" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12956" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12923" CreationDate="2016-01-03T19:25:35.227" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Lucy&quot; was an interesting movie but is not based on how the brain functions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider that an epileptic seizure is what greatly increased activity of the brain looks like. Or consider that tDCS (magnetically causing all neurons in an area of the brain to fire simultaneously) is used to render an area of brain inactive as the neurons recover after firing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you start talking about intelligence you are discussing the mind rather than the architecture of the brain. A good way to distinguish the two is to think about if you can point to it. Frontal lobe - yes! Joy, no.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mechanics of the brain can be observed but how higher functions relate to this mechanics is not all that well known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Summing up. &quot;Lucy&quot; was a fun movie but read evidence based research if you want to understand brains. &quot;Neurons firing&quot; is not the same as &quot;thinking&quot;. Brain activity is not the same as wisdom or insight. The dualist and reductionist versions of how we exist really needs to be discussed more. The mind was dismissed by the behaviouralists without any evidence to support the dismissal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10262" LastActivityDate="2016-01-03T19:25:35.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12958" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-03T20:03:23.183" Score="1" ViewCount="307" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of the Defense Mechanisms are unconscious, but for those who know about them and still use then it somehow becomes conscious. They know they are using it, and not do anything about it. For example when one loses trust in everyone around them, but they tell everyone who understands about their secret or something that shouldn't be shared easily; Reaction Formation, yes.&#xA;So, when, let's say, someone has mood swings, they cry when a bit depressed or even just sad, and laugh like there's no tomorrow when they're happy, even if it's the moment right after their cry, or just shout out loud because they are angry while they are generally a calm person. They simply let it all sink in and accept everything that comes, without doing anything about it, even though they know they should, and they know where the wrong is. &#xA;So can't it be set as one?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9747" LastActivityDate="2016-01-03T20:03:23.183" Title="Can &quot;acceptance&quot; become a Defense Mechanism?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12959" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12926" CreationDate="2016-01-03T20:19:25.660" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is this a sentence in Sophie's World?&#xA;It is more of an empirical thought. The weird thing about it is it cannot be &quot;empirically&quot; proved, since it's not something material, or can be made materialistic. All that can be done is to discuss about it. I, myself, have thought about it quite a lot, and haven't reached an answer. I cannot disagree nor agree. &#xA;Imagine an artist, of fantasy things. They, let's assume, paint a unique kind of a monster or something, though it's not something they've seen before, i.e. experienced, it is something combined of what they've seen before somehow, somewhere. Yet, that same artist may come up with something never ever existed, nor they've experienced it in any way before, but did imagine it and made a paint from it. &#xA;I haven't been able to go further :D I hope it's helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9747" LastActivityDate="2016-01-03T20:19:25.660" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12960" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12771" CreationDate="2016-01-03T20:37:12.980" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The recent visual working memory literature has predominately used the method of adjustment. In particular, there is a lot of work using continuous color adjustment tasks:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wilken P., Ma W. (2004). A detection theory account of change detection. Journal of Vision, 4 (12): 11, 1120–1135.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zhang, W., &amp;amp; Luck, S. J. (2008). Discrete fixed-resolution representations in visual working memory. Nature, 453(7192), 233-235.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a recent open access paper using the method of adjustment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brady, T. F. and Alvarez, G.A. (2015). Contextual effects in visual working memory reveal hierarchically structured memory representations. Journal of Vision.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2471226&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2471226&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10264" LastActivityDate="2016-01-03T20:37:12.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12961" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10279" CreationDate="2016-01-04T01:39:41.733" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a simple logic to understand. &#xA;In the brain the grey matter is on the cotex.Grey matter is a tissue made of the cytons due to which the cotex is pinkish Grey in colour. The White matter,the tissue made of axons is inside to the brain.&#xA;   Cortex is the processing centre which has cytons. In the spine the processing is to be done internally. So the cytons concentrate inside the spine which we call the Grey matter.Similarly the axons are to be around the Grey matter to transfer messages from and to other organs.They form the White matter outside the spine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10269" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T01:39:41.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12962" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-04T01:46:45.737" Score="0" ViewCount="222" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read that 10% of autistic people and 1% of nonautistic people are savants. It seems like lacking an ability is what defines somebody to be autistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10270" LastEditorUserId="10270" LastEditDate="2016-01-04T02:05:42.090" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T13:37:37.843" Title="Why are autistic people more likely to be savants than nonautistic people?" Tags="&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12963" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12945" CreationDate="2016-01-04T07:04:40.077" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found a table listing the relative volumes of 39 different BAs in the supplementary material of:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2672563/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Hazlett, Erin A. et al. “Cortical Gray and White Matter Volume in Unmedicated Schizotypal and Schizophrenia Patients.” Schizophrenia research 101.1-3 &amp;#40;2008&amp;#41;: 111–123. PMC. Web. 4 Jan. 2016.&quot;&gt;Hazlett, Erin A. et al. &quot;Cortical Gray and White Matter Volume in Unmedicated Schizotypal and Schizophrenia Patients&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which seems to be open-access.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This data is from MRI scans of 148 healthy controls. The mean total brain volume was 1216cm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not sure how the density of neurons differs across areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2672563/bin/NIHMS51479-supplement-01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Here is a link to the supplementary pdf&quot;&gt;Here is a link to the supplementary pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T07:04:40.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12964" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-04T10:17:48.783" Score="3" ViewCount="312" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for the best way to turn standard EEG scans into 3D images of activity in the brain over the time of scanning, for example like the &lt;a href=&quot;http://cdni.wired.co.uk/1240x826/a_c/Brain_12.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Glass Brain images&lt;/a&gt; or even &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=connectome&amp;amp;espv=2&amp;amp;biw=1920&amp;amp;bih=955&amp;amp;source=lnms&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwitnMP_9I_KAhVDOQ8KHdfVAPAQ_AUIBigB&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;connectome-style images&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have experience of collecting EEG data and basic experience of EEG analysis using the SPM package for MATLAB, but this didn't include creating a 3D image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there capability to create this using SPM or perhaps another add on or even other software entirely that I can access?&#xA;Alternatively, does anyone know of any service which would do this for me?&#xA;I work for for a technology company, not as part of a testing lab or affiliated to a university, so don't have access to these sorts of labs and expertise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10116" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T22:28:23.097" Title="What is the best way to turn EEG scans in to 3D images?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12965" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12962" CreationDate="2016-01-04T13:21:13.033" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer, this is less of an answer and more of a critique of the demographics behind Savant Syndrome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Currently there are very few issues with finding a decent answer to this question: This 10% of autistics being savants seems tenuous, there is no clear cut unambiguous research from current and respected journals analysing the prevalence of savant syndrome. The last paper to back these claims was in &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ajp.145.5.563?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&amp;amp;rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&amp;amp;rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1988&lt;/a&gt;, and that is the only one reporting these numbers. This 1988 paper seems to be to source of the statistics reported in the question and on websites such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.autism.com/understanding_savants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the autism institute&lt;/a&gt;. However there have been no repetitions of this reported prevalence. Savant syndrome is a popular idea that people with learning disability can be brilliant too, and they can, there are real cases of Savant Syndrome. A few journal articles describe the workings of Savant Syndrome, such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1385.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;brain function and abilities&lt;/a&gt;. However these are not common, much like Savant Syndrome, if Savant Syndrome was as common as reported by the 1988 paper we would see savants amongst autistics as we do left handers across Europeans. From personal experience I would say we do not, I spent many years working with people who have ASD, I meet any savants, even though I would have liked too. Of course it is entirely possible that I could I just happened to be statistically unlucky. The lack of further prevalence data is suggests that these results haven't been replicated, and may therefore be misleading. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So whats causing this statistic? In my opinion its likely to be two factors. First the &lt;a href=&quot;http://aut.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/10/14/1362361315607724.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;over diagnosis of autism&lt;/a&gt;, many children are diagnosed with Asperger’s who are not later in life. Secondly intelligent children are often diagnosed as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stuff.co.nz/life-style/5464232/Autistic-or-just-brilliant/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;autistic&lt;/a&gt; or with &lt;a href=&quot;http://sengifted.org/archives/articles/misdiagnosis-and-dual-diagnosis-of-gifted-children&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mood disorders&lt;/a&gt;, intelligent people may think differently to the general population and some of their tendencies may seem 'autistic', like there fascination with particular subjects/objects, such behaviours might contribute to a ASD diagnosis in children.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no prevalence data for savants in 'normal' populations, but you could say anyone who is talented and passionate about a particular skill or subject is a savant, from footballers to scientists, many 'normal' people are exceptional. Personally, I work in an academic departments, and I meet people that would fit the definition for the abilities of a savant on a daily basis, but they don't have a disorder. You probably do as well, yet because they don't have a disability you wouldn't use the same term savant, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.dmu.ac.uk/drhiles/Savant%20Syndrome.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;technically you shouldn't&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conclusion: More data needed! Their clearly isn't enough support to make the claim that 10% of autistics are savants, and additionally there seems to be no real comparison with 'normal' functioning individuals. And the definition of savant is also dubious, can normal people be savants?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2016-01-04T13:37:37.843" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T13:37:37.843" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12966" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12771" CreationDate="2016-01-04T17:09:40.583" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Method of adjustment is still in use in vision science, especially when dealing with illusions. Its major advantage over, for example, 2AFC tasks is the speed of estimation -- you need way less trials to measure the effect, which could be useful in clinical settings [1]. &#xA;You could also try to search for &quot;nulling&quot; instead of &quot;adjustment&quot; -- nulling is the most powerful variation of the adjustment method, when the subject has control over some aspect of the stimulus and asked to adjust it so as to &quot;null out&quot; the illusion .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is easy to find such studies with a &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.fr/scholar?as_ylo=2012&amp;amp;q=%22method+of+adjustment%22+vision&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;targeted Google Scholar search&lt;/a&gt;, here are some examples: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maus, G. W., Ward, J., Nijhawan, R., &amp;amp; Whitney, D. (2012). The perceived position of moving objects: transcranial magnetic stimulation of area MT+ reduces the flash-lag effect. Cerebral Cortex, bhs021.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liberman, A., Fischer, J., &amp;amp; Whitney, D. (2014). Serial dependence in the perception of faces. Current Biology, 24(21), 2569-2574.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cavanagh, P., &amp;amp; Anstis, S. (2013). The flash grab effect. Vision research, 91, 8-20.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schloss, K. B., Fortenbaugh, F. C., &amp;amp; Palmer, S. E. (2014). The configural shape illusion. Journal of vision, 14(8), 23.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.isr.syr.edu/faculty/bfarell/pelli_farell2010psychophysical-methods.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pelli. D. G., &amp;amp; Farell, B. Psychophysical methods&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6385" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T17:09:40.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12964" CreationDate="2016-01-04T22:28:23.097" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;By 3D image, I assume that you want a projection of the topographic map onto a 3D model of the head. For an accurate resolution, you would need to have acquired the position of the EEG channels on the head as well as the shape of the participant's head. However, this kind of data is not often acquired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The next best solution is to use an existing model of the channel position for your EEG system on a template head. The head plot function in EEGLAB can do that: &lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/eeglab/allfunctions/headplot.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/eeglab/allfunctions/headplot.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Transferring your files from SPM format to EEGLAB format should be quite straightforward. You can find solutions to this problem on both the EEGLAB and SPM mailing lists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T22:28:23.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12968" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12898" CreationDate="2016-01-04T22:50:32.850" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to studies of patient with particular focal lesions, brain function in particular areas can also be studies in other ways. For one, functions are often conserved between species so that studying animals can give some indication of the role of a brain region in humans. This may be done by applying lesions or through treatment with genetic or pharmacological agents. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain function can also be studied in healthy humans through invasive or non-invasive methods. Sometimes electrodes are implanted in preparation for neurosurgery and these recordings can be used to learn something about brain activity associated with different tasks that the patient is asked to perform. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Non-invasive methods allow for the imaging or manipulation of brain function. Methods like functional magnetic resonance imaging or magneto-encephalography make it possible to record aspects of brain activity. In the analysis, statistical procedures are applied that identify the areas that are most closely associated with a particular tasks, which leads to the association of brain area and function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, trans-cranial magnetic stimulation can be used to manipulate brain function for a short time. When this disruption leads to an impairment on s particular task, the brain area that was targeted is thought to be involved in that task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the current view is moving away from describing simple association between an area and a behavioural or cognitive function. The old approach has sometimes dismissively been termed &quot;modern phrenology&quot;. In more recent years, the focus has shifted towards describing the role of a brain structure within a wider network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will find many more details about this in any introductory cognitive neuroscience textbook, if you are interested. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-01-04T22:50:32.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12969" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17127" CreationDate="2016-01-04T23:33:07.880" Score="3" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has there been any research on how mammals predict the speed of moving objects? In particular, how do they integrate top-down information? For instance, do they have greater difficulty estimating the speed of a fast-moving sloth more than a moving mouse?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-15T20:31:35.937" LastActivityDate="2017-04-16T14:28:04.360" Title="How do mammals estimate the speed of moving objects?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12970" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15677" CreationDate="2016-01-05T04:40:14.040" Score="2" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am learning how to use SPM and ISAS to analyze ictal and interictal SPECT. However I am stuck at a point of their &lt;a href=&quot;http://spect.yale.edu/analysis_details.html#set_origin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tutorial&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the item 1.2 one has to set the origin for the SPECT image. That is, to pinpoint the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior_commissure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anterior commissure&lt;/a&gt;. This is a fairly easy task in a MRI, but very hard to do in a SPECT. How am I to find a tiny anatomical area in such a blurry image (like the one below)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ajinL.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ajinL.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any anatomical references that I should be using in order to find the approximate area for the anterior commissure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help would be greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10038" LastActivityDate="2016-08-26T18:05:17.517" Title="Finding the anterior comissure to set origin in a SPECT image using SPM/ISAS" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12971" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12955" CreationDate="2016-01-05T05:37:09.283" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article by Gudmundsson (2009) looks very useful. It describes an eight step process for translating and adaptive psychological instruments. The article is written clearly with concrete suggestions and references to the broader literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;selecting an instrument for translation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;selecting qualified translators&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;selecting qualified experts &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Method of translation (e.g., back translation, two independent translations)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Method of adaptation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Investigating bias&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;pilot studies&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;validity studies&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, psychological scales are copyrighted. That said, many academics would be excited at the prospect of having their scale being translated into another language. Thus, in general, a good approach is to contact the author of the scale to get their consent to you performing the translation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gudmundsson, E. (2009). Guidelines for translating and adapting psychological instruments. Nordic Psychology, 61(2), 29.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-01-05T05:37:09.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12972" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12990" CreationDate="2016-01-05T06:49:22.040" Score="2" ViewCount="1358" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to install &lt;a href=&quot;http://marsbar.sourceforge.net/download.html#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MARSBAR&lt;/a&gt; toolbox into &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/software/spm12/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SPM12&lt;/a&gt;, but I am running into different problems. Initially they were all related to directory ownership and permissions (using Ubuntu 14.04), which I managed to correct, but then &lt;a href=&quot;https://au.mathworks.com/products/matlab/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;matlab&lt;/a&gt; wouldn't find the script files (extension .m). I added them manually to the path, and that worked out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, and here is the point I can't go through, when I run &lt;code&gt;marsbar&lt;/code&gt; in MATLAB I keep running into:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt;&amp;gt; marsbar&#xA;MarsBaR analysis functions prepended to path&#xA;Undefined function or variable 'marmoire'.&#xA;&#xA;Error in marsbar (line 125)&#xA;  o = marmoire;&#xA;&#xA;Error in marsbar (line 57)&#xA;marsbar('on');&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though the function marmoire that it is complaining about IS on the path and with proper permissions! &lt;strong&gt;&amp;lt;- Actually not, see below.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Googling the error took me to a lot of different complaints from users that had difficulties about running it on SPM12 &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.gmane.org/gmane.comp.graphics.spm.marsbar/month=20060301&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://marsbar-users.narkive.com/YFbLYFhJ/no-subject&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;, however none were quite the same as the problem I've been facing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://marsbar.sourceforge.net/marsbar.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;documentation&lt;/a&gt; for the toolbox is quite outdated now, it seems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any light here would be greatly appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE 6.1.16&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;As per suggestion in the comments I added two lines before marsbar calls marmoire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gHvYF.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gHvYF.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now the error is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt;&amp;gt; marsbar&#xA;MarsBaR analysis functions prepended to path&#xA;Undefined function or variable 'marmoire'.&#xA;&#xA;Error in marsbar (line 125)&#xA;  which marmoire&#xA;&#xA;Error in marsbar (line 57)&#xA;marsbar('on');&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which means that marmoire is not actually in the proper path, however I copied it to the same directory as marsbar:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/i9jZv.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/i9jZv.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the problem persists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10038" LastEditorUserId="10038" LastEditDate="2016-01-05T23:16:13.093" LastActivityDate="2016-06-06T23:23:58.387" Title="How to install MARSBAR toolbox in SPM12?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12973" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12901" CreationDate="2016-01-05T09:56:42.093" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Even though it is true that most of the brain is involved in complex tasks, there is some research to suggest that there are specific areas that are more important for problem solving or maths. This is indicated in core deficits in certain individuals. Those are people with low performance in specific areas compared to other areas (what's called a dissociation). However, the number of people that show such a deficit is rare. &#xA;Brian Butterworth argued that such a core deficit exists for Maths ability. People with this true dyscalculia show a deficit even in very simple comparisons of different numbers of dots, but are in the typical range for other abilities, e.g. verbal reasoning. There is a network of brain regions that corresponds to this, comprising the angular gyrus, the superior parietal lobule, and the intra-parietal  sulcus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is an excellent introduction to these topics (also including a discussion of general reasoning and the brain) in this book:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mareshal, Butterworth (editors) (2013): 'Educational Neuroscience', 1st edition, Wiley-Blackwell&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-01-05T09:56:42.093" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12890" CreationDate="2016-01-05T10:35:51.983" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are neurotransmitters that are associated with specific functions within a neural circuit, but I would not associate a specific neurotransmitter with a specific sensation. There is also more complexity to this, because there is a plenty of receptors for each neurotransmitter. These receptors have slightly different properties, which may influence the effect on the post-synaptic neuron and consequently the percept. &#xA;Another concept is the effect of neuromodulators that regulate larger areas of the brain, e.g. noradrenaline, or serotonin. These have broad effects that change the brain state and are associated with a certain 'feeling'. For example, release of noradrenaline would lead to higher ventilation, higher heart rate, sweating etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-01-05T10:35:51.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12952" CreationDate="2016-01-05T16:31:11.887" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;dopamine release changes the nature of synaptic long term potentiation (ltp) thought to underly long term memory. see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627305003971&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627305003971&lt;/a&gt; for a paper i am familiar with, for an entry point to that field &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;for a review article:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v5/n6/abs/nrn1406.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v5/n6/abs/nrn1406.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;see section titled &quot;Dopamine and memory at the cellular level&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2016-01-05T16:31:11.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12976" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12972" CreationDate="2016-01-05T16:43:54.607" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Try inserting the lines:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;which marmoire&#xA;pause&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;into marsbar just before Line 125.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would help you verify for sure that marmoire is on the path when that line is being called.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-01-05T16:43:54.607" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12977" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-05T17:41:20.867" Score="4" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is the fallacy when one assumes that all successful outcomes were &lt;em&gt;most likely&lt;/em&gt; thanks to that one individual that they always communicate with, and fail to recognize (consciously or subconsciously) the effort of the rest of the group, or an individual from that group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure if this is a proximity induced issue, continuing communication, perceived availability, or some sort of quasi in-group bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10290" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2016-01-07T12:29:56.730" LastActivityDate="2016-05-06T20:58:17.160" Title="Name the bias when one attributes all group successes to the individual they're in contact with the most" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12978" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-06T02:05:39.887" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if there are scientific proven techniques that help in making long term changes to a person's habit. Self management and motivation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10292" LastActivityDate="2016-01-06T02:05:39.887" Title="Scientifically Proven Positive habits hacks" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T23:24:08.340" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12980" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-06T12:40:54.933" Score="1" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are some practical techniques/methods which can be used to train/improve your working memory and what studies have been done on this subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10300" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-06T21:29:58.943" LastActivityDate="2016-01-06T21:29:58.943" Title="Cognitive Techniques to train Working Memory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12712" CreationDate="2016-01-06T13:44:44.530" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is based around the age the average human goes through puberty.The body transforms and certain chemicals are increased causing the brain to induce thoughts of breeding involuntary.The human female is now able to produce offspring after puberty and at this stage the birth of a healthy child is at its climax.Sex is now a normality in lifestyle.Every human goes through this stage and knows the typical age when this occurs.A parent knows after their child forgoes puberty adulthood soon follows and all information and knowledge of how to produce life through breeding is now accepted and no longer suppressed but now taught.If puberty took place during the ages of 3-5 yrs old in humans,information related to breeding to a 3-5 yr old child would be accepted.Certain behaviours in humans are involuntary kept private and less likely to be performed in public due to the programing of the human brain and sometimes what is considered norm in the society the human is raised in.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9522" LastActivityDate="2016-01-06T13:44:44.530" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12982" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12980" CreationDate="2016-01-06T13:46:36.727" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a few commercial packages that provide training for verbal and visuo-spaital working memory. The most well-known is CogMed (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogmed.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.cogmed.com&lt;/a&gt;). Another popular one is Jungle Memory (&lt;a href=&quot;http://junglememory.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://junglememory.com&lt;/a&gt;). Both of these packages have been used in research studies (comment about these results below) There is also a myriad of online working memory games that promise to improve working memory, e.g. some games in Luminosity (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lumosity.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.lumosity.com&lt;/a&gt;). The content of these games is very similar, but there are fewer independent scientific studies of them as far as I'm aware. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a caveat, the scientific evidence about the benefit of WM training is mixed at best. Training on WM tasks improves performance on them. This improvement also transfers to similar tasks (near transfer). However, there is currently little evidence for transfer to other tasks or improvements in everyday function (far transfer). For example, have a look at this report from a randomised control trial of working memory training in children: &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/desc.12068/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/desc.12068/full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-01-06T13:46:36.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12983" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-06T19:34:20.767" Score="0" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's my understanding there are 150 trillion synapses in the human brain (give or take). Is there a way to calculate the cumulative width of all synaptic clefts associated with the synapses? I would expect that some would be shared by several synapses. At 20-40nm per synaptic cleft, 150 trillion of them would add up to a sizeable distance, which seems implausible, given the size of the brain's surface.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone have any suggestions on the best way to calculate this -- if there is one?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10304" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-06T21:40:07.000" LastActivityDate="2016-01-06T21:40:07.000" Title="Is there any way to calculate the cumulative width of synaptic clefts?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12984" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12980" CreationDate="2016-01-06T19:37:15.423" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In recent news, Lumosity has paid a $2 million fine to the FTC for unsubstantiated claims about the benefits of its training. I've heard CogMed recommended by practicing neuro rehab professionals. Apparently, there is science to back its claims. It gets a bit pricey, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10304" LastActivityDate="2016-01-06T19:37:15.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12985" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12983" CreationDate="2016-01-06T20:27:57.230" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mathematically, you're correct to think that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;linearly&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; the total distance would be sizable, however don't forget the third axis, depth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Given the following:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The adult human brain is estimated to contain from 100–500 trillion synapses.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;(Drachman D (2005). &quot;Do we have brain to spare?&quot;.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's go with 150 from your example&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... and ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Every cubic millimeter of cerebral cortex contains roughly a billion of them.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;(Alonso-Nanclares L, Gonzalez-Soriano J, Rodriguez JR, DeFelipe J (September 2008). &quot;Gender differences in human cortical synaptic density&quot;)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Let's calculate the total volume these synapses occupy:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;150,000,000,000,000 / 1,000,000,000 = 150,000 cubic mm =&gt; 150 cubic cm &lt;em&gt;(&#xA;You can picture this as a cuboid 15cm wide by 10cm tall which is roughly the size of a &lt;strong&gt;butter bar&lt;/strong&gt; )&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if all synapses can fit in a 15cm x 10cm cuboid then the clefts could all fit in a significantly less space. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to calculate &lt;strong&gt;linear&lt;/strong&gt; distance for, let's say an average of 30nm clefts then:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;150,000,000,000,000,000 * 30nm = 4,500,000,000,000,000nm =&gt; 4500km&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10290" LastEditorUserId="10290" LastEditDate="2016-01-06T20:52:49.980" LastActivityDate="2016-01-06T20:52:49.980" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12987" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-06T21:03:07.040" Score="2" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's the description of a process which I call &quot;loopback teaching&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;First, I learn something the &quot;normal&quot; way, e.g. by reading or watching.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I imagine a person or multiple people which I think may be interested in the topic. If there are no such people I know of, I just imagine I'm reading a lecture to some abstract audience.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I explain the topic in a way I would do that in real life. I can imagine some kind of presentation (with slides or on a whiteboard), which I go through in a sequence, mostly without skipping. I use my internal speech in mostly the same way I do that when speaking out loud in real life in similar situations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I noticed I started doing this back when I was at school, and much later I found out that other people use different forms of this technique, or something very similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are multiple related things I know of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber_duck_debugging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rubber duck debugging&lt;/a&gt;, or generally explaining something to inanimate object&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_by_teaching&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Learning by teaching&lt;/a&gt;, or generally explaining something you wish to learn to another people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a name for this study technique?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this related to speech internalization? If so, how? Is there any studies on that subject? In the example above I internalize a dialogue instead of a monologue, and this seems similar to how children internalize their private monologue at the age of 7 years (if I'm not mistaken).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7869" LastEditorUserId="7869" LastEditDate="2016-01-06T21:43:55.520" LastActivityDate="2016-01-06T21:43:55.520" Title="Is there a name for &quot;loopback teaching&quot; technique (explaining something to yourself to learn it)?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12988" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-06T21:37:36.820" Score="7" ViewCount="238" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for an open access dataset of 7-tesla resting state fMRI images of human subjects. I've been able to find one so far (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/articles/sdata201454&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/articles/sdata201454&lt;/a&gt;). However, I need images that were acquired using MP-RAGE (not MP2-RAGE) sequencing. I've checked the major open neuroscience repos so far with no luck. Does anyone know of an open access dataset that meets this description?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10306" LastActivityDate="2019-08-04T14:06:24.793" Title="Open access 7T resting-state fMRI dataset" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7651" CreationDate="2016-01-06T23:54:44.973" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have done a good bit of research and reading regarding hypnosis as well as having used it to resolve several issues and change certain behaviors.  I think that this answer can basically be boiled down to two statements.  One, hypnosis cannot &quot;make&quot; you do anything. Two, hypnosis can facilitate changing any behavior or belief that you DESIRE. I have found it especially helpful with things that I WANTED to do but had trouble sticking to.  Hypnosis works at the subconscious level.  Many things that it changes you won't even realize anything has happened until days or weeks later when it hits you &quot;hey, I'm doing that different!&quot;  That is the power of hypnosis. It works in the background of your mind and outside of your conscious control.  The biggest thing affecting the effectiveness is your &quot;want to&quot; for the change.  I've also received some training in hypnosis.  In a demonstration or stage hypnosis setting I could &quot;make&quot; you do nearly anything if you were in the right stage of trance.  However, if I tried to make any lasting change in your behavior that you had not agreed to and did not want, your mind would reject it and it would not have any lasting effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10308" LastActivityDate="2016-01-06T23:54:44.973" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12990" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12972" CreationDate="2016-01-07T00:44:26.040" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thanks for the comments, @serk1. The answer to this question is that that is a bug, it seems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I gave up editing the scripts myself and decided to reinstall Matlab and Marsbar, and it properly recognized the path and the permission for the files after that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will leave the question here, in case someone run into similar problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10038" LastEditorUserId="10038" LastEditDate="2016-06-06T23:23:58.387" LastActivityDate="2016-06-06T23:23:58.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12991" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="12994" CreationDate="2016-01-07T07:17:34.277" Score="2" ViewCount="291" Body="&lt;p&gt;We can identify many kinds of patterns of how neurons connect such as lateral inhibition, negative/positive feedback, convergence, divergence, and facilitation. But have any of these circuits been used to make claims about how a cognitive or psychological phenomena is computed? Is that even possible, given its complexity? In which context is neural circuitry useful?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastActivityDate="2016-01-09T00:34:39.883" Title="How useful are neural circuits in psychology?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12994" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12991" CreationDate="2016-01-07T13:30:04.817" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Contrary to one of the other answers, I will have to respectfully disagree. Neural circuity is both the pinnacle and future of cognitive neuroscience. We already know the large areas of the brain are associated with specific cognitive processes, for example the NAc shell is associated with desire to seek out motivational objects such as food, but this could just as easily facilitate gaming, dancing or sex. The problem comes with investigating these behaviours in humans. We can easily test circuits on animals, but humans are far more difficult as we can only use scanning equipment like EEG and fMRI. While scanning equipment has improved the spatial or temporal resolution makes studying these circuits in humans difficult. However animal research supplements this and can show us circuits that are involved in particular cognitions, while the patterns of neural firing tell indicate particular activity. For instance we know the visual pathways in great detail how light engages neural activity in the retina, and how this information is transmitted to the occipital cortex to create a representation spread across the neural activity of the occipital cortex. In fact we understand this so well now that cognitive neuroscientists can take an EEG recording of activity while you sleep and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/340/6132/639.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;interpret the neural activity into an image&lt;/a&gt; under specific circumstances. This fascinating method is called neural decoding, and it was developed out from our understanding of neural patterns of activity and mapping of neural networks developed over decades. Of course the same neural activity can be used to map networks and model neural activity in &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=7614748&amp;amp;fileId=S0305000910000024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;computational models which mimic&lt;/a&gt; cognitive processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this is easier for vision, hearing and somatic perception as these are straightforward cognitive processes which are generating virtual representations of the world we experience. What is far more difficult to assess are the memories and experiences that are recalled and how these influence decision making relative to the environment you find yourself in. However this is all being investigated, research starts with large neural structures like the NAc shell and then moves down to more specific areas followed by the circuits connecting it to other parts of the brain relative to particular cognitions. An example may help, motivation like hunger drives you to eat this is used by both information coming from your environment and internal changes. For instance once food has been consumed our brains assess the value of the food, did we like it? was the food more or less pleasurable than last time? did it make us happy? This activates the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0896627315001336/1-s2.0-S0896627315001336-main.pdf?_tid=efe6cc9e-b53a-11e5-902d-00000aab0f6b&amp;amp;acdnat=1452170224_db9a4d3870d39bac9ce629a230ad41a8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pACC, PAG, OCC, lOFC, rACC&lt;/a&gt;. The areas mentioned largely deal with attention, affective assessment (feelings), and pleasure. The activation of these areas helps an individual to make future decisions about consuming food. In rats the order of area activation is well understood, in humans there is still work to be done. But overall the fundamental mechanisms are the same, &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000437&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;and can be modelled&lt;/a&gt; computationally. Understanding how the fundamental structures and there activity in context for both people and animals is essential in understanding disorders ranging from schizophrenia to obesity, and helps other researchers to develop assessments and interventions, such as drugs or government legislation. Or for companies to taylor their products to their consumers needs. Crucially, to the question at least, this information can be used to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/089976699300016890#.Vo5qwLQijAM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;predict behaviour&lt;/a&gt;, in fact that basically the role of any computational model.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fundamentally our hard wiring is relatively similar, it is this that we investigate, and it is these hard wired mechanisms that have the greatest impact on our behaviour and cognition.  Cognitive scientists use the activation patterns of neutrons as a means of mapping these cognitive processes in neural circuitry. Finally I will say that overall the brain isn't really so complicated, its quiet simple really if you consider it from an evolutionary perspective. We and all other animals have developed by means of natural selection to survive long enough to pass on our genes, both our behaviour and neural development demonstrate this. The extra complications in behaviour are merely complexities that enhance gene survival, until they are lost or supersede within the same selection process. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2016-01-07T13:43:03.843" LastActivityDate="2016-01-07T13:43:03.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12995" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-07T15:26:17.523" Score="0" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;Herff et. al. demonstrate in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2015.00217/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brain-to-text: decoding spoken phrases from phone representations in the brain&lt;/a&gt;&quot; a brain-to-text system to map intracranial electrocorticographic recordings to text. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been looking for literature attempting to go the other direction, text-to-brain, but have not had much luck finding anything on Springer, Google Scholar, and related services. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For someone in the know, what's the current state of the text-to-brain problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10315" LastActivityDate="2016-01-08T00:16:15.437" Title="Text-to-brain literature?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12996" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-07T15:56:05.133" Score="3" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hello right now I am dealing with the studies of C.Daniel Batson, who provided several studies and experiments to reveal moral hypocrisy. I think that I understand the basic idea of his theory, however I am not really able to interpret his statistic outcomes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not know if some of you have access to the full text, but the study is listed under the title: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In a very different voice: Unmasking moral hypocrisy&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;Batson, C. Daniel; Kobrynowicz, Diane; Dinnerstein, Jessica L.; Kampf, Hannah C.; Wilson, Angela D.&#xA;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, &lt;strong&gt;Vol 72(6)&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;Jun 1997&lt;/strong&gt;, 1335-1348&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I will provide some relevant excerpts in the form of pictures for better comprehension towards my question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First excerpts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2a169.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2a169.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this part Batson et. al. presents his results and compare them through the previously measured responsibility measures indexes. The confusing part starts from the yellow lined part. I do not really understand what does he mean by coding?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, he mentions that only one of this applied measures correlated with the results and provides the result &lt;strong&gt;r(18)=0,39, p&amp;lt; 0,05&lt;/strong&gt; (blue lined). This is the core of my real problem. First of all I do not really understand what does the r(18) mean? I think it has something to do with a normal distribution right? Moreover, I have no idea how to read the 0,39 in a clear way. Does it mean that 39% of the results actually are coherent with the previously applied measurement indexes of moral responsibility? In the end I also struggle to interpret the p-vale of 0,05. Does it mean that the value (0,39) would be theoretically rejected, if it would be below 0,05?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To demonstrate the full results I also provide you the second excerpt:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aleD3.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aleD3.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I really struggling to understand this notations. The worst thing is that it is not explained in the whole text, how these numbers have to be interpret. I also read several other psychological texts, which have very similar expressions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope that my question is somehow understandable, because it is very difficult to ask this question, if nobody has an access to the full text. I would be extremely grateful, if someone could help me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Best Regards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10317" LastEditorUserId="10317" LastEditDate="2016-01-08T12:25:52.673" LastActivityDate="2016-01-08T12:25:52.673" Title="Interpretation of results on the studies of &quot;Moral Hypocrisy&quot;" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12997" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12995" CreationDate="2016-01-07T16:46:59.233" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;pretty simple: through direct electromagnetic stimulation of photoreceptors in the retina in patterns corresponding to letter shapes, transduced through layers of processing there, passed through the optic nerve to the lgn of the thalamus and from there to visual cortex, eventually you get a complete neural representation of the text. alternatively, you could use direct stimulation of the chochlea via pressure waves in the ear canal transduced by the bones of the inner ear. the auditory cortex will then do most of the heavy lifting. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;seriously, though, that paper's achievement was pretty limited: &quot;With 10 words in the dictionary, 75% of all words are recognized correctly.&quot; That is just over 3 bits of information being conveyed. And that is after training the classifier. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Training the brain to classify direct inputs is at about the same level of a few bits. www.nature.com/articles/srep01319 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9951/what-research-has-been-done-on-brain-to-brain-interfaces?rq=1&quot;&gt;What research has been done on brain-to-brain interfaces?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-01-07T16:46:59.233" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="12998" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-07T18:57:07.293" Score="2" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there some research on how to engage in highly-focused thinking for more than a few hours at a time? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read (informally, i.e., not research papers) that engaging in enjoyable non-focused thinking for a few hours after the effort may help one recharge. Is this true, can anyone please refer me to any research done in this area (hopefully including physiological aspects)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10321" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-01-08T03:41:29.130" LastActivityDate="2016-01-08T03:41:29.130" Title="How can you learn to engage in highly focused thinking for a sustained period of time?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13000" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-08T00:08:01.957" Score="0" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;How can we apply the cognitive neuroscience in the classroom?&#xA;What is a good general reference discussing the current status of neuroeducation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10325" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-01-08T03:38:57.533" LastActivityDate="2016-01-08T10:32:15.117" Title="What is the current status of neuroeducation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-02-20T05:54:09.970" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12995" CreationDate="2016-01-08T00:16:15.437" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;We don't have a well tested or accepted model of how specific items are encoded in the cortex, so text to brain is still far off. However, it is possible to send information to the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/341/6144/387.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ramirez et al. 2013. Creating a False Memory in the Hippocampus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study (in mice) involved creating a false sense of fear associated with a particular context. This implanted information is much higher level than just text, but it is still information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-01-08T00:16:15.437" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13002" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-08T02:58:42.843" Score="2" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;We just met a woman that feels heat (literally, hot enough for her to say she was burned) from inanimate objects. She says it is mainly the floors and chairs in her home, and she is unable to walk in certain places or sit in certain places if they are hot at the time. Not everything is hot all the time, and sometimes she has no problem with chairs or floors, but will suddenly get burned as she walks across the floor, or sits in her chair.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She's becoming very anxious over this, and I'm wondering if there is a physical or mental disorder that could explain it. Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10327" LastActivityDate="2016-01-08T02:58:42.843" Title="Is there a disorder that causes one to feel heat from an inanimate object?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-06-06T11:33:06.450" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13005" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-08T08:02:58.750" Score="3" ViewCount="164" Body="&lt;p&gt;i'm looking for a lab setup for psychological experiments to help people relieve stress better with various auditory and visual stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;what i want is a software like brainbay that can use not just EEG, but GSR sensors, ECG or HRV sensors at the very least. that being said, it'd be nice to have audiostrobe compatibility as well. i know brainbay and even MATLAB have EEG and even camera capabilities to track eye movement. but i'm looking for something more than just EEG. even EEG and GSR would be amazing. hell, even if someone could point me to a GSR plugin and audiostrobe plugin for brainbay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and secondly, hardware. i know the Epoc Emotiv is used in a lot of EEG-only applications, including being a standard option within brainbay. is this a good buy for at-home non-medical research? at school they have 3000\$ plus equiptment and as a student, i can't afford that kind of set up. i'm looking for a good but non-medical grade headset and GSR sensor. most headsets i see are around 200-300\$ and that's ok for me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;so, my question is, what is a good setup that you guys use? what can you suggest to me?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9944" LastActivityDate="2016-01-08T08:02:58.750" Title="What is a good software/hardware combination for biofeedback monitoring that includes GSR, GSM, HRV, and EEG?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13007" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13000" CreationDate="2016-01-08T10:32:15.117" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The general is that neuroeducation or educational neuroscience holds great promise for the future, but is in a very early stage of development. There is great interest in the topic, which is evident in scientific journal, textbooks, and science centres dedicated to the topic that have recently been created. These are good sources of reference as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Journals:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Educational Neuroscience: &lt;a href=&quot;https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/educational-neuroscience/journal202455&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/educational-neuroscience/journal202455&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trends in Neuroscience and Education: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journals.elsevier.com/trends-in-neuroscience-and-education/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.journals.elsevier.com/trends-in-neuroscience-and-education/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Book:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Educational Neuroscience: &lt;a href=&quot;http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1119973198.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1119973198.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scientific centres:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These centres will often organise seminars, workshops, or other events and have a list of their research output and current projects on their websites. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.educationalneuroscience.org.uk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.educationalneuroscience.org.uk&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cne.psychol.cam.ac.uk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.cne.psychol.cam.ac.uk&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an introduction, I recommend the following Opinion Article: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goswami, U. (2006). Neuroscience and education: from research to practice? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7(5), 406–413. doi:10.1038/nrn1907&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please note that this is not a comprehensive list, but just some resources that I can recommend as someone working in a related field.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-01-08T10:32:15.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13008" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13011" CreationDate="2016-01-08T13:28:11.423" Score="8" ViewCount="509" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find a computer simulation of Pavlovian learning. i.e. an action such as salivation in response to a stimulus such as a bell ringing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most neural network models I've seen seem to be more about trying to recognise things such as handwriting or speech rather than the stimulus-response model. And they don't usually incorporate the temporal nature of Pavlovian learning. e.g. Ring a bell, wait a bit, give dog food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any computer simulations of this? (Do they have a name?) Is there a connected neuron model of this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-08T19:46:57.150" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T18:54:00.117" Title="Is there a neural network model of Pavlovian Learning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13009" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-08T14:25:21.007" Score="2" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing a technical book. Is there any studies/books on how can I influence the readers subconscious to help them memorize the technical data easier? Preferably ways that do not involve images, styles, etc.. as such techniques are not suitable for technical books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10333" LastActivityDate="2016-06-08T20:42:36.783" Title="Way to influence readers subconscious to memorize technical data?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13010" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13009" CreationDate="2016-01-08T19:36:09.960" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can use priming but that assumes that the reader is already familiar with the subject or has read about connected topics. Priming has various aspects but with your requirements you just eliminated the most important ones: images, styles etc. Read more about priming, I am not an expert, there might be more than the above&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10140" LastActivityDate="2016-01-08T19:36:09.960" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13011" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13008" CreationDate="2016-01-08T19:57:56.253" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, what you're looking for is a biologically plausible model of reinforcement learning and/or conditioning. I know of two publications in particular that address this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first is &lt;a href=&quot;http://iccm-conference.org/2013-proceedings/papers/0009/paper0009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Biologically Plausible Spiking Neuron Model of Fear Conditioning&lt;/a&gt; and the second is &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/bekolay.2014a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Spiking Neural Integrator Model of the Adaptive Control of Action by the Medial Prefrontal Cortex&lt;/a&gt;. They both using the Neural Engineering Framework and a learning rule to modify the connection weights between ensembles of biologically plausible spiking neurons. These connections are modified to create and destroy associations between stimuli and an action. However, in the second paper, it's shown that the mechanism can also learn timing information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-31T18:54:00.117" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T18:54:00.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13012" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-08T20:01:04.990" Score="4" ViewCount="179" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assume that you are using priming as a technique to improve your performance in a specific area. Ex: When I am sleepy in the morning I use more alert music to get my mind up to speed. If I want to stay focused I try to visualize a focused person or I try to focus on an object for a few minutes. With these I am trying to used the ideomotor link (as Khaneman calls it) and to increase the concentration power directly or indirectly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now let's assume that I want to go back and get out of being focused and staying alert and I expose myself to stimuli that would send me in the opposite direction. Would the initial priming be an obstacle in this direction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: in Kahneman's example imagining yourself smiling will actually improve your mood. Same way, imagining yourself concentrating on something should improve your focus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10140" LastActivityDate="2016-07-13T21:54:47.393" Title="Can you override priming?" Tags="&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13014" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3305" CreationDate="2016-01-08T22:00:31.223" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://file.scirp.org/Html/6-2250018_23957.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Propper RE, et al. 2012. Asymmetry in Resting Alpha Activity: Effects of Handedness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors found differences in resting state alpha power depending on degree of handedness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ABSTRACT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Study Aim&lt;/strong&gt;: Frontal electroencephalographic (EEG) alpha band power during rest shows increased right, and/or decreased left, hemisphere activity under conditions of state or trait withdrawal-associated affect. Non-right-handers (NRH) are more likely to have mental illnesses and dispositions that involve such withdrawal-related affect. The aim of the study was to examine whether NRH might be characterized by increased right, relative to left, hemisphere activity during rest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Methods&lt;/strong&gt;: The present research investigated that hypothesis by examining resting EEG alpha power in consistently-right-handed (CRH) and NRH individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Results&lt;/strong&gt;: In support of the hypothesis, NRH demonstrated decreased right hemisphere alpha power, and therefore increased right hemisphere activity, during rest, compared to CRH.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions&lt;/strong&gt;: The study demonstrates further support for an association between increased right hemisphere activity and negative affect via an association between such EEG activity and NRH.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastEditorUserId="10227" LastEditDate="2016-01-11T02:36:50.167" LastActivityDate="2016-01-11T02:36:50.167" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13016" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13018" CreationDate="2016-01-08T22:35:54.443" Score="2" ViewCount="1111" Body="&lt;p&gt;While reading, I tend to subvocalize what I have read. I feel this as disturbing, but as many people do this, there must be a reason why the brain does this. So, what is subvocalization good for?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-09T03:15:19.433" LastActivityDate="2016-01-09T03:54:06.223" Title="What is subvocalization good for?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13017" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12991" CreationDate="2016-01-09T00:34:39.883" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check out [&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002328]&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002328]&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;The Contribution of Network Organization and Integration to the Development of Cognitive Control&#xA;by Scott Marek,Kai Hwang,William Foran,Michael N. Hallquist,Beatriz Luna&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just Published on PLOS Biology: December 29, 2015&#xA;DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002328&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cognitive control, which continues to mature throughout adolescence,&#xA;  is supported by the ability for well-defined organized brain networks&#xA;  to flexibly integrate information. However, the development of&#xA;  intrinsic brain network organization and its relationship to observed&#xA;  improvements in cognitive control are not well understood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a fascinating read about how brain function may &quot;top out&quot; at a certain point, but the increasing integration of networks contribute to increased cognitive control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10304" LastActivityDate="2016-01-09T00:34:39.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13018" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13016" CreationDate="2016-01-09T03:54:06.223" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It should be pointed out that subvocalisation while reading is not necessarily of the same cause or purpose as subvocalisation while doing other activities. Many people are able (or accustomed) to comprehending written language only by converting it to spoken language mentally. This allows the interpretation process to share the same brain regions, as opposed to using one modality for reading and another for listening. Naturally some people are more prone to logical (read: serialised) thinking while others are more prone to visual (read: parallel) thinking. Those individuals prone to logical thinking are more likely to subvocalise while reading since this allows the reading process to correspond well with one's usual way of thinking. The reverse should be true for those accustomed to visual thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The act of subvocalising while doing non-reading activities is probably similar in that it may allow the thinking to be of one's usual modality (logical). Taking it further, however, subvocalisation is a way of putting thoughts into words. It is common knowledge that when you put an understanding into your own words you are more likely to develop a lasting memory. This is presumably because explaining something in words requires that the ideas be organised in a coherent fashion, as opposed to possessing merely a superficial glimpse of awareness. To think about it another way, putting thoughts into words creates durable mental objects that can then be stored away into memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2016-01-09T03:54:06.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13019" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-09T05:43:56.470" Score="0" ViewCount="1506" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've come across these terminologies—&lt;em&gt;threshold symptoms&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;sub-threshold symptoms&lt;/em&gt;—in one of the papers in psychology where &lt;em&gt;delayed reactions&lt;/em&gt; are introduced:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Empirical studies that have mapped PTSD symptoms over time in fact observed what appear to be delayed elevations in the direction of threshold symptoms...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I don't have any ideas what those words are all about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10347" LastActivityDate="2016-02-10T11:22:43.733" Title="What are threshold symptoms and sub-threshold symptoms?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13020" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-09T07:35:40.890" Score="1" ViewCount="438" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't understand the Wikipedia article on depressants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what I have gathered:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Depression and anxiety disorders are treated by antidepressants.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Narcolepsy, ADHD, obesity, smoking addiction, lethargy are treated by stimulants.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The opposite class drug of a depressant is a stimulant not an antidepressant.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what do depressants treat? Bipolar? Mania? Impulse control disorders? I couldn't find any articles on treating bipolar with depressants. What I have found are Lithium and mood stabilisers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia article said depressants can treat OCD, anxiety or depression. Why? This seems a little odd for terminology. Depression is treated with a depressant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8982" LastActivityDate="2016-03-09T17:02:14.850" Title="What do depressants treat? Are they used in bipolar to treat mania?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13021" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-09T11:47:59.923" Score="2" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;Learning vocabulary seems to be efficient if the words are learned in a fixed sequence, but it seems to be harder to recall these words in a different sequence then the learning sequence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder which theory can explain this effect, is it &quot;chunking&quot;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some definitions define chunking as a process where facts are organized in groups &quot;chunks&quot; that can be better memorized then the single facts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other definitions, it is described as an effect, where the elements of a chunk can be better predicted, because the probability of the occurrence of an element following another element is higher. Or in other words, we learn, that in the context of a special chunk an 'a' is mostly followed by an 'b' and so we can memorize the chunk 'ab' better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10350" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-11T01:18:29.693" LastActivityDate="2016-01-11T01:18:29.693" Title="Chunking and learning vocabulary" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13022" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13055" CreationDate="2016-01-09T12:03:49.070" Score="5" ViewCount="1025" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read in various places that the average college student IQ is about 115, and the various estimations of IQ by college major reached by converting SAT to IQ all use 115 as the starting point for college students. However, the most recent source for this number is The Bell Curve, which was in the early 1990s. It is also just about the only source of the last 40+ years. Can anyone provide a more recent documentation of the average IQ of college students? (that isn't just a reference to an older study)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10351" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-11T01:19:14.050" LastActivityDate="2016-01-13T01:20:19.307" Title="Can anyone provide a modern source for the average college student IQ of 115?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13024" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13020" CreationDate="2016-01-09T15:47:43.900" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Depressants&lt;/em&gt; belong to a general class of drugs that decrease activity in one or more parts of the nervous system. &lt;em&gt;Depression&lt;/em&gt; in the usual sense of the word comprises a particular subset of &lt;em&gt;depressed&lt;/em&gt; states, particulars as it refers to lack of happiness or drive. Not all depressed states are considered depression in the common sense of the word. Similarly, not all stimulated states are the opposite of this depression. Different parts of the brain can be depressed or stimulated, and the &lt;em&gt;affects&lt;/em&gt; of these &lt;em&gt;effects&lt;/em&gt; come in many forms and resulting psychological states. Generally speaking, a depressant can be used to treat a condition if that particular depressant decreases activity in a part of the nervous system that is overactive in that condition. Anxiety, as you have mentioned, is a prime example condition where one part of the brain is overactive, for which certain depressant drugs can calm that part of the brain to effect relief from the anxiety. If a particular case of depression is caused by overactivity in one or more brain regions, then it could in theory be possible to treat that depression using depressants that decrease activity in those particular brain regions. The key thing to keep in mind here is that mental depression can be caused by over or underactivity in various brain regions, so there is a possibility of using either specific types of stimulants or specific types of depressants to effect relief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2016-01-09T15:47:43.900" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13025" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13021" CreationDate="2016-01-09T16:59:54.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you've got a reasonable handle on why learning vocabulary in a single, fixed order is probably not a great idea. You may also be interested in what is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-dependent_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;context-dependent memory&lt;/a&gt;, where you recall things best in a context similar to that which you learned those things in (shitty sentence, but you know what I mean).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4991" LastActivityDate="2016-01-09T16:59:54.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13026" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25854" CreationDate="2016-01-09T17:53:13.823" Score="5" ViewCount="258" Body="&lt;p&gt;I realize all people have various and complex biases, and that we all get into arguments from time to time. However, I've known one or two people who seemed abnormally resistant to suggestions that they might be mistaken. Their tendancy to distrust and argue seemed to impair them socially, to the point where they struggled to maintain relationships. This makes me wonder if &quot;self-infallability&quot; is ever actually a mental disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a mental disorder associated with being severely argumentative or otherwise &quot;self-infallible&quot;? Especially if it impairs one's social or academic skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10358" LastActivityDate="2020-08-24T23:13:16.023" Title="Is self-infallibility a mental disorder?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13027" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13078" CreationDate="2016-01-09T18:34:22.090" Score="14" ViewCount="8061" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read a lot on how most psychologists reject the Myers Briggs Type Indicator for its lack of scientific backing, but I have yet to find much information on the acceptance of Carl Jung's theories, specifically his idea of cognitive functions. I'm nowhere near an expert in psychology, so I could be totally off base, but in my subjective experience, Jung's ideas of cognitive functions seem to have much more explanatory power than the MBTI E/I, N/S, T/F, J/P dichotomies, and framing the theory in those terms seems to cause much less inaccuracies in typing people differently over time -- one of the reasons I've heard most psychologists reject the MBTI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do Jung's theories have more backing than the MBTI, or are they essentially on the same scientific footing? I get that trait-based models like HEXANO may be better in actually predicting behaviour, but what interests me about Jung's idea of cognitive functions is that they better explain &lt;em&gt;motivation&lt;/em&gt; and modes of thoughts, which I find very personally compelling. My only fear is that explaining motivations and modes of thought would be more difficult to scientifically pose as opposed to trait-based models of personality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would also be interested to know if Jung's theories do not have a solid scientific foundation, if there are similar &quot;cognitive function&quot; based theories that are more accepted in the psychological community. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10359" LastActivityDate="2019-03-06T21:37:25.460" Title="Is there a reasonable scientific backing for Carl Jung's type theories?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13030" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-10T00:34:17.667" Score="3" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a scientific explanation of one's aesthetic preferences? Why do they differ from one person to another? Are they the results of one's culture and social interactions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any reference would be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10361" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2016-01-10T01:18:52.910" LastActivityDate="2016-01-10T01:18:52.910" Title="How are our tastes created?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-07-05T12:47:47.617" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13032" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-10T15:40:38.063" Score="2" ViewCount="784" Body="&lt;p&gt;What size(s) are neurotransmitters? What is their size relative to the synaptic cleft? Relatively speaking,  can we tell how far they must travel to cross the gap? Twice their own length? More?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I reallize this calls for gross oversimplification, and there are bound to be infinite variations, but I am building a conceptual model to understand relationship between the neurotransmitters and their respective &quot;milieux&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10304" LastActivityDate="2016-01-11T02:55:25.973" Title="How large is a neurotransmitter? Max and min sizes?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13034" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13081" CreationDate="2016-01-10T21:28:54.413" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Stack Exchange websites has people anonymously up vote or down vote whether questions and answers are good or bad and everyone builds their reputation based on this alone. I saw a question on the mathematics board that was not off topic but, in the beginning, was being down voted due to either being too elementary or perceived as what I consider people to be saying as a &quot;stupid question&quot;. Do you think that removing this shawl of anonymity would change the way people interact with each other on Stack Exchange? For better or For Worse?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10345" LastActivityDate="2016-01-15T15:35:03.760" Title="Anonymity creates an environment full of bullies?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13035" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13022" CreationDate="2016-01-10T21:45:14.957" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232514979_The_IQ_of_the_average_college_student&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232514979_The_IQ_of_the_average_college_student&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this article that seems to answer your question in the abstract. I didn't bother to sign up and read the whole thing though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10345" LastActivityDate="2016-01-10T21:45:14.957" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13037" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13032" CreationDate="2016-01-11T02:55:25.973" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the textbook &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience. 2nd edition&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuropeptides are relatively large transmitter molecules composed of 3 to 36 amino acids&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Individual amino acids, such as glutamate and GABA, as well as the transmitters acetylcholine, serotonin, and histamine, are much smaller than neuropeptides and have therefore come to be called small-molecule neurotransmitters&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Large proteins are around 10nm, because the amino acids wrap around each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that a good estimate of the size of neurotransmitters would be from around 0.5 to 5 nanometers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://bionumbers.hms.harvard.edu/bionumber.aspx?&amp;amp;id=100721&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Typical synaptic cleft distance is around 20 nanometers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-01-11T02:55:25.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13039" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13019" CreationDate="2016-01-11T10:27:54.533" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe that the concept of 'subthreashold symptoms' refers to a situation where a client clearly presents with symptoms of a given condition but, crucially, they present with too few symptoms to meet the diagnostic criteria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10999243&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This link&lt;/a&gt;, which hopefully also satisfies Seanny123's request for a document, states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although DSM-IV acknowledged the clinical significance of some subthreshold forms of unipolar depression, such as minor depression (MinD) and recurrent brief depression (RBD), clinicians continued to struggle with the concept of &quot;subthreshold&quot; depression. A substantial number of patients continued to present with depressive symptoms that still did not satisfy any DSM-IV diagnosis. Generally, these patients failed to complain of anhedonia and depressed mood, a criterion that DSM-IV mandates for any diagnosis of depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8528" LastActivityDate="2016-01-11T10:27:54.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13041" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13022" CreationDate="2016-01-11T16:36:12.300" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you search for &quot;IQ students&quot; on google scholar since 2012 you will find plenty of literature. However, the problem will be that there are many different &quot;standardised intelligence tests&quot;, and not all of them call themselves &quot;IQ&quot;. You might want to restrict your search to a specific test like the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale which is one of the most used. The norms for such tests are published, organised into age/socioeconomic groups, so that may be the &quot;original&quot; source. For Wechsler the citation is:&#xA;Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler adult intelligence scale-fourth. San Antonio: Pearson.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a recent other example, this paper used this scale with 42 college students and found a mean of 105 which they (reasonably) conclude is &quot;close to national norms&quot;:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3389807/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3389807/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You don't specify, but I am assuming you are talking about average US college students. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since you are interested in the relationship between IQ and SATs, this recent paper might also be of interest, although it focuses on grade 8 students:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/25/3/736.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/25/3/736.full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-01-11T16:36:12.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13042" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-11T20:59:19.993" Score="2" ViewCount="181" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some psychologist told this on TV few years ago and this came to my mind when I spoke with my friend about personalities of some celebrities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried to find some articles or studies about the topic on internet, but couldn't find any.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6750" LastEditorUserId="6750" LastEditDate="2016-01-25T15:33:59.960" LastActivityDate="2016-01-25T19:38:17.493" Title="If someone gets &quot;too much&quot; attention, does it expose his/her to mental illness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T21:57:27.153" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13043" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-11T23:09:02.880" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;King has power&#xA;King are respected (people bow to them)&#xA;Just king are respected more than unjust king&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just laws are respected more than unjust laws.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the relationship of that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is respect merely beliefs, or perceptions of power and justice?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a mathematical relationship?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do people obey those who they respect more?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastActivityDate="2016-01-11T23:09:02.880" Title="What is the relationship with power, justice, and respect?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13044" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-11T23:55:36.400" Score="8" ViewCount="190" Body="&lt;p&gt;Did anyone do a research on corelation between honesty and success, establishing individual's honesty through a provocative experiment and comparing it with his/her salary amount, satisfaction of achievement etc?&#xA;Or anything close to that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10375" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-24T08:39:46.220" LastActivityDate="2019-03-05T14:50:15.740" Title="Is there a research on correlation between honesty and success?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13045" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="793" CreationDate="2016-01-12T00:30:25.193" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that &quot;inconceivable&quot; is too strong a term, and that yes, some people can conceive of their non-existence. The point is that the Ego cannot conceive of its own non-existence. People who transcend the ego point of view can.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way I think of it is this: &lt;em&gt;What happens to a piece of music when the performance ends?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastActivityDate="2016-01-12T00:30:25.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13046" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13047" CreationDate="2016-01-12T09:18:33.003" Score="1" ViewCount="172" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know a girl who is (or claims to be) lesbian.&#xA;I also know that big part of her childhood (12-now years) she hated her mother.&#xA;Her father left family when she was infant (1-2 years). I dont know what she thinks about her father.&#xA;She is 17 now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder, is it possible that by not-accepting her mother, she does not accept her own gender? Or is it more likely that not having a father, influenced her sexual orientation?&#xA;Was any documented research conducted, that would confirm/reject that?&#xA;Any other thoughts on that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;EDIT&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I should have mention about it earlier but somehow I forgot about that.&#xA;I know that she had experiance when she got home earlier one day, and saw her mother with her lover having sex. She told it my sister. More or less after that, she started to dress like a man and (I think) she lost this 'little girl/child' identity. She become more serious and her marks at school rised very high. She is the best in class now but before that experience she was one of the worst.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I dont know if this is relevant, but she consider herself as a loner and watches a lot of anime now. I think this is all what I know about her.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel confused. I always thought that only small percent of people are really homosexual (because of chromosome mutation), and the rest just believes (because many possible reasons) that they are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10379" LastEditorUserId="10379" LastEditDate="2016-01-13T07:31:02.283" LastActivityDate="2016-01-18T11:39:30.100" Title="Can hate to same gender parent cause homosexualism?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2016-01-25T21:08:54.500" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13047" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13046" CreationDate="2016-01-12T12:55:39.157" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gender is not, despite what others might say, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-neuro-061010-113654&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a social construct&lt;/a&gt;, and neither is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Wolpe/publication/8261924_Ethics_and_social_policy_in_research_on_the_neuroscience_of_human_sexuality/links/543336980cf20c6211be43ee.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sexuality&lt;/a&gt;, just google &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Reimer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;David Rimmer&lt;/a&gt; to see what happens when researchers have messed with these. While we don't understand what causes homo-sexuality fully, typically speaking sexuality seems to be influenced by hormone exposure in the womb, when a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3138231/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;human is a foetus&lt;/a&gt;. Although studies have found that roughly 5-10% of people have had &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.samesexattraction.org/how-many-are-gay.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;same-sex sexual experiences&lt;/a&gt;, this appears to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp-3.18.0b/ovidweb.cgi?QS2=434f4e1a73d37e8c6d5cc3ea7a7100e0bdbc72cb40c7d35fa1a1823ee7be1e9292b151482656e17feec4a6ff213a471d4a3193ec569e96732de909045623f1da3b77521ac27e0496ac1264fc3678e073e97ea66cb4eebb91510e93560fd84a8fcc8cf073ce0169a8dfb7a577f15ddd29872dc6ff98945c4c1126564abe9ca2fc5dc97a1708bca1c0776bbc29ad3cbebc3dd58efacf2c0988e82bca35747c07c28c3942f004be9b2c20149e20b494eca1018862cc058ccd750e4fb7d0c14c553487b722f661d16564bb3889939a057f059688d3ff7ad5b411784fc951c7de7259&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;relatively common in adolescence&lt;/a&gt; although it does happen later in life too. Speculatively its possible that this partly comes from people learning about themselves and their sexuality. However despite people having these same-sex experiences only &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/integrated-household-survey/integrated-household-survey/january-to-december-2012/info-sexual-identity.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1-3% of people identify as homo or bisexual&lt;/a&gt;. Why do people have these experiences? There are a a multitude of reasons, some people are homosexual, while some may be curious or undecided, or perhaps some other reason. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ignoring the sexuality side and looking at group identification: people have all sorts of reasons for &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=8Jzkgbq2vYwC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA111&amp;amp;dq=social%20identification%20theory%20review&amp;amp;ots=425Z7KJpn5&amp;amp;sig=0iJ6H3mr479fa0B1BT7aBfTeNak#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=social%20identification%20theory%20review&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;identifying with particular groups&lt;/a&gt; or demographics. While relationships with parents are certainly cause for being rebelliousness, its not going to turn anyone homosexual who isn't already inclined. There seems to be &lt;strong&gt;no recent evidence&lt;/strong&gt; about parenting style and sexuality, apart from on religious websites that have no place here, although &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.stonewall.org.uk/sites/default/files/so_you_think_your_child_is_gay.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;stonewall say that there is no relationship&lt;/a&gt;. However the research linking the two is absent, which usually suggests either it hasn't been researcher properly or, more likely, that there is no relationship at all. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2016-01-18T11:39:30.100" LastActivityDate="2016-01-18T11:39:30.100" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13048" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13252" CreationDate="2016-01-12T20:18:06.347" Score="6" ViewCount="189" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard that LSD allows you to see ridiculous things. But they are things that you have seen, or can imagine to see. If you've never seen before (like a blind person), what effect will LSD have on you? Articles on google do not go into the specifics of the brain functionality when the drug is taken. I'm looking for a more detailed explanation &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10384" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-02-05T14:45:30.537" LastActivityDate="2016-02-05T16:52:56.450" Title="How would the blind experience a hallucinogen like LSD?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13049" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-12T21:24:48.947" Score="2" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume synapses/dendrites/axons are relations which connect one entity/neuron to another, for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a car is a vehicle: &quot;is&quot; relation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bob has a sister: &quot;has&quot; relation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would just imagine that when car is fired it would activate the connected neuron vehicle. But how does the brain differentiate between the relation types? What makes it &quot;know&quot; that a car &quot;is&quot; a vehicle and not &quot;has&quot; a vehicle?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-07-05T17:48:46.247" LastActivityDate="2016-07-06T01:02:20.633" Title="Do synapses have special types?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13050" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13034" CreationDate="2016-01-12T21:31:02.140" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Of course it would change the way people interact with one another. Social and situational settings strongly affect behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's funny you see it this way. One can argue that it's exactly the opposite! Like with parliamentary elections, anonymity means that people act based on their own beliefs without &lt;strong&gt;being swayed by social pressure&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's more without anonymity, people may start keeping score, which will further bias the objectivity of the votes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to services like Stack Exchange, the general idea is that the various opinions will eventually regress to the mean - so the majority has it. Sure, for this to happen you need quite a lot of votes, but my experience is that usually gross down/up votes are justified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2016-01-12T21:31:02.140" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13052" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-12T22:24:26.440" Score="2" ViewCount="1556" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a percentage of their endeavours, do those with a tendency to use bullying focus more or less on sociopaths as a per capita of their targets?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10388" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-12T23:24:26.683" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T13:30:35.590" Title="Do bullies pick on sociopaths?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13053" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13077" CreationDate="2016-01-12T22:39:43.977" Score="2" ViewCount="1045" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my math and physics classes, half the students are seeing or have seen psychologists because of depression. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on my experiences I feel that there is a huge correlation between logical people doing, maths, physics, informatics, programming, computer game making and depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this just a personal opinion or is it more widespread? Does anybody have an explanation for this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10389" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-15T20:10:43.503" LastActivityDate="2016-01-15T20:10:43.503" Title="Are a lot of highly logical people (such as mathematicians) prone to depression?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-01-15T10:33:18.967" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13055" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13022" CreationDate="2016-01-13T01:20:19.307" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ok I finally found the official demographic norming data from the WAIS-IV on page 104 of this book: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;WAIS-IV Clinical Use and Interpretation: Scientist-Practitioner Perspectives&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can see a preview of this book at &lt;a href=&quot;http://tinyurl.com/z3vr44e&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://tinyurl.com/z3vr44e&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to my question is: &lt;strong&gt;Some college:      102.28&#xA;                                College graduates: 110.77&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10351" LastActivityDate="2016-01-13T01:20:19.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13056" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13076" CreationDate="2016-01-13T08:38:55.320" Score="2" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard that gambling tendencies may be inherited from parents. I am not sure about that so I posted this question. Is that true? Has any researches been done on that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10379" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T19:28:52.190" Title="Is gambling hereditary?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13057" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13067" CreationDate="2016-01-13T09:00:42.513" Score="5" ViewCount="1084" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do we pick partner most &lt;strong&gt;similar&lt;/strong&gt; to opposite-sex parent? Do men pick life partner who is similar to their mother? Does it apply to women too? By similar, I mean mostly character/mental features. I dont consider appearance, but It would be interesting to know if that matters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If yes, is it possible that man (for example) would look for/pick a partner who has character &lt;strong&gt;opposite&lt;/strong&gt; to his mother? What could be scientific reason for that? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10379" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-13T17:16:19.203" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T17:45:09.430" Title="Do we pick partner most similar to opposite-sex parent?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13060" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-13T14:15:22.223" Score="7" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was trying to work up a small clip of repeating &lt;em&gt;beep&lt;/em&gt; sounds I recorded from a mobile game. This series of sounds, when played, gave an unmistakable perception of increasing pitch with every rendition of the &lt;em&gt;beep&lt;/em&gt;. I recorded the sound and plotted a spectrogram of the sound, and also a frequency spectra of the first and the last rendition in a series of 10 repetitions (which should apparently have the largest difference in the pitch perception). What was surprising, is that, visibly, on the spectrogram, and also on the frequency spectra, they were exactly the same. Using an enhanced autocorrelation function too, the two repetitions hardly had any gross differences.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since this is primarily based on visual differences in the plots, there could be subtle shifts which would not be visibly apparent. But in listening, there is a very noticeable rise in pitch, which seems less probable to be a consequence of subtle shifts of the autocorrelation-maxima. &lt;strong&gt;Why then does this seem to be the case? Is it only a subtle shift that I am unable to appreciate or is it something more higher-order than that?&lt;/strong&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The pictures contain the spectrogram of the sound in question, the autocorrelation plots (which I understand to be more neurally relevant then the freq spectra) for the highlighted window (the plot with the blue heading) and a similarly placed window around the last repetition (the plot with the white heading). Do let me know if any further information is required. I don't know how can I get the sound uploaded in here.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pMC1a.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pMC1a.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CrDKL.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CrDKL.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NrdMY.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NrdMY.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I am unsure if the provided spectra are rendered non-informative due to ambient noise, for the recording has been done in a noisy environment using a laptop mic. All analysis via &lt;a href=&quot;http://audacityteam.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Audacity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/em&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10400" LastEditorUserId="10400" LastEditDate="2016-01-13T14:21:14.400" LastActivityDate="2017-03-16T23:34:14.190" Title="Increasing pitch perception of the same auditory stimuli" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13062" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-13T15:28:12.990" Score="3" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I was young, I was told that to count syllables in a word, you could clap them. One clap for each syllable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You would say it aloud like this: cu-shion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was not taught rules about how to pick out each syllable from a word. I just figured it out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The funky thing with this is that syllables have no defined length, and some words are only one syllable while others are a few.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning how to count syllables is unlike math because in math, one can't do something until they have learned all the rules for how it should be done properly. I was never taught rules like this for counting syllables, I just figured it out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: how do humans learn this skill without being taught? Is it like learning to walk?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10402" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-13T16:58:36.647" LastActivityDate="2016-05-28T02:05:33.227" Title="How do we learn to count syllables?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13063" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13012" CreationDate="2016-01-13T15:43:24.223" Score="-2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Would the initial priming be an obstacle in this direction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes. But not an exceedingly difficult one to overcome since you manage to prime yourself into being focused in the first place. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personality plays a vital role of course. If you're a natural hyperactive person it would obviously be an easier task to prime yourself into being alert than to enter a state of complete focus and calmness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10404" LastActivityDate="2016-01-13T15:43:24.223" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13065" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-13T18:49:40.807" Score="4" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not aware of a distinct term for what I'm trying to describe, so I will attempt to describe this in hopes that someone can help me find if there's a term or research done in this direction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember thousands of dreams, and can recall them spontaneously. From such large subset of dreams, I've observed that there are some dreams that share a common feeling/ experience/ perceptual theme. A lot of this can be described visually, but the experience extends to other senses as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These dreams can be experienced years apart, and the exact content does not matter. What I'm interested in is the overall theme and how perception of the visuals within the dream is affected. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dreams with very dark environments, there are no ambient glowing light sources, and the lights that exist are more like LED specs than light bulbs. Objects are still perceived, but the contrast is very low &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hyper-realistic dreams, bright and colorful, where details are extremely vivid, sharp, as if everything has been &quot;photoshopped&quot; to look better than reality.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dreams with landscape and characters affected by death, decay and rot, predominantly brownish, greenish, grayish hues.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a term for these different kinds of perceptual experiences in dreams?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess what I'm describing can be compared to a photo filter applied to the entire environment: &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2cnHi.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2cnHi.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2016-05-23T23:38:57.377" LastActivityDate="2018-06-16T13:58:52.007" Title="Are there distinct visual perception themes that have been recognized in dreams?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13067" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13057" CreationDate="2016-01-14T06:05:46.017" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Good question. Here is what I found. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People may be attracted to the physical features that our opposite sex parent posses {1,2} However, the jury is out as to whether people are more likely to be attracted to people who share the mental traits of parents {3,4}. As an example of this {3} write&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Much of the current research on parental identification and mate&#xA;  selection is contradictory and inconclusive. The studies that are&#xA;  available suggest a similarity between partner choice and parental&#xA;  similarity, although the results for similarity between partner choice&#xA;  and parent vary by gender. Various theories suggest that individuals&#xA;  choose mates based on some type of similarity with their partners.&#xA;  Such similarities include values, religion, physical attractiveness,&#xA;  or expressiveness (Bailey et al., 1994; Boyden, Carroll, &amp;amp; Maier,&#xA;  1984; Howard et al., 1987; Murstein, 1976). Parental identification&#xA;  research also is inconclusive, with some studies finding same-sex&#xA;  parent identification and others finding opposite-sex parent or both&#xA;  parent identification (Geher, 2000; von der Lippe, 1965)&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am happy to go into more detail about any of this, if you want me to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{1} Little, A., et al. (2003). &quot;Investigating an imprinting-like phenomenon in humans: partners and opposite-sex parents have similar hair and eye colour.&quot; Evolution and Human Behavior 24(1): 43-51.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{2} Perrett, D. I., et al. (2002). &quot;Facial attractiveness judgements reflect learning of parental age characteristics.&quot; Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 269(1494): 873-880.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{3}van Eeden-Moorefield, B. and E. W. Lindsey (2005). &quot;Intergenerational Effects of Parental Personality and Relationship Traits on Mate Choice Among Gay Male and Lesbian Offspring.&quot; Journal of Homosexuality 49(1): 123-143.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{4} Strokoff, Johanna, &quot;Parental influence on romantic attraction with simulated online dating profiles.&quot; (2015). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 2232.&#xA;Retrieved from &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastActivityDate="2016-01-14T06:05:46.017" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13069" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13048" CreationDate="2016-01-14T11:39:16.093" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure about any reliable research on hallucinations in blind people per se. However, there is a large body of literature on visual imagery in congenitally blind groups. This is assuming that hallucinations are based on typical representations, but are usually held in check through inhibition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research conducted by Pring et al.  found that congenitally blind people experienced non-visual imagery in a memory recall task, but the imagery was less vivid in comparison to typically-sighted controls (&lt;a href=&quot;http://jvi.sagepub.com/content/19/3/108&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Goddard &amp;amp; Pring, 2001&lt;/a&gt;). A review by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763408000638&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cattaneo and colleagues&lt;/a&gt; also indicated that imagery does exist in congenitally blind people, but that it may rely more on verbal or haptic representations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extrapolating from this research, one would assume that congenitally blind individuals experience hallucinations that are based on non-visual experiences and that these may be less vivid compared to visual hallucinations in sighted people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2016-01-15T09:24:42.150" LastActivityDate="2016-01-15T09:24:42.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13070" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13073" CreationDate="2016-01-14T13:12:17.243" Score="3" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;Local learning rules like &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.colorado.edu/~oreilly/papers/OReilly96_generec_nc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Contrastive Hebbian Learning&lt;/a&gt;, XCAL, etc. are based on the idea of strengthening edges when the neurons they connect fire simultaneously. This causes frequent patterns in the input stream to be encoded in the layers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand how this attracts similar input patterns into learned activation states. However, I fail to see how this memory can be used to predict the future input. How is it possible for neurons to predict future input streams under local learning rules?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vrnPG.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vrnPG.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Initial and final states in Hebbian Learning&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From: &lt;a href=&quot;http://slideplayer.com/slide/272753/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Introduction Hebbian learning (2005)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="908" LastEditDate="2016-02-03T01:37:28.473" LastActivityDate="2016-02-03T01:37:28.473" Title="How can neuronal networks with local learning rules predict their future inputs?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13071" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-14T13:56:42.730" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find research on the role of interactions between caregiver and infant via shared gaze/joint attention for the development of executive abilities, including attention and inhibition. My assumption is that joint attention serves as an externally guided precursors of later self-generated executive abilities as might be postulated based on Vygotsky. References or comments would be most welcome&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-01-14T13:56:42.730" Title="Role of shared gaze/joint attention in infants for the development of executive function" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13073" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13070" CreationDate="2016-01-14T18:57:03.227" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;see Lisman, J. E. and Otmakhova, N. A. (2001), Storage, recall, and novelty detection of sequences by the hippocampus: Elaborating on the SOCRATIC model to account for normal and aberrant effects of dopamine. Hippocampus, 11: 551–568. doi: 10.1002/hipo.1071: &lt;a href=&quot;http://wwww.bio.brandeis.edu/lismanlab/pdf/socratic.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://wwww.bio.brandeis.edu/lismanlab/pdf/socratic.pdf&lt;/a&gt; for one proposed mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in short, local learning rules can develop connections between items that occur sequentially.  if you have one network that pattern completes (i.e. identifies) the input, you can pass that identification to a second network which learns temporal associations between items.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2016-01-14T18:57:03.227" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13074" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13075" CreationDate="2016-01-15T00:47:33.180" Score="3" ViewCount="271" Body="&lt;p&gt;All frameworks have limitations. Although I ask a lot of questions on this site in regards to the advantages of the Neural Engineering Framework (NEF), there must be significant limitations. What are they?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-01-19T00:47:28.983" LastActivityDate="2018-01-24T16:46:01.173" Title="Limitations of Neural Engineering Framework (NEF)" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13075" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13074" CreationDate="2016-01-15T00:47:33.180" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The limitations of the NEF fall into three main categories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;1. Simplistic Use of Neurotransmitters&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The NEF uses neurotransmitters and their rate of propagation to set a time constant on an exponential low-pass filter for spikes, as well as for modulation of learning rules (dopamine). This is currently the only use of neurotransmitters in the NEF, despite their being many functions that they could serve in terms of signalling and modulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;2. Limitations When Using Complex Neuron Models&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although different filters are being investigated by Aaron Voelker, the vast majority of filters used, as mentioned in the last point, still rely on the single time constant and on linear decoding. More complex neural models, although easily included in a feed-forward connection, usually have multiple time constants and non-linear synpatic effects, which make it very difficult to capture their dynamics. This is covered in chapter 4 of &lt;a href=&quot;https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/4179&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bryan Tripp's PhD thesis&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;3. Lack of Developmental Explanation&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This last problem may be more of a reflection on the state of neuroscience, than an actual limitation of the NEF.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The NEF describes fully formed, adaptive, but non-developmental networks. Although the NEF can learn functions, it does not describe how certain structures such as the Basal Ganglia came to be formed. Neither does it give any description of how neurogenesis might occur within the framework, although it is easy to imagine how it might be leveraged to increase accuracy of certain populations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the NEF is the only framework I know of that tries base behaviour on a biologically plausible substrate, it is not the silver bullet of theoretical neuroscience. It is very much a zeroth-order guess at the computations that the brain my perform.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-01-24T16:46:01.173" LastActivityDate="2018-01-24T16:46:01.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13076" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13056" CreationDate="2016-01-15T01:00:40.847" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It could be to some extent, for example, because gambling behaviour is mediated by traits like impulsiveness {1,2} which are heritable {3}.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{1} Steel, Z. and A. Blaszczynski (1998). &quot;Impulsivity, personality disorders and pathological gambling severity.&quot; Addiction 93(6): 895-905.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{2} Michalczuk, R., et al. (2011). &quot;Impulsivity and cognitive distortions in pathological gamblers attending the UK National Problem Gambling Clinic: a preliminary report.&quot; Psychological Medicine 41(12): 2625-2635.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{3} Bezdjian, S., et al. (2011). &quot;Genetic and environmental influences on impulsivity: A meta-analysis of twin, family and adoption studies.&quot; Clinical psychology review 31(7): 1209-1223.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastActivityDate="2016-01-15T01:00:40.847" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13053" CreationDate="2016-01-15T04:39:39.720" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Overall, based on my limited research it appears there is no evidence that people who are more logical are more likely to experience depression. There is a theory that people who see the world more accurately (of which rationality would be a component) are more likely to become depressed. It is called depressive realism {1}. However, the theory doesn't seem to be well researched or supported. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather that high levels of logical thinking supporting depression it may well be that factors that predict logical thinking also predict depression. One of these is introversion which, based on some research {e.g., 2}, &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; be correlated with intelligence (which is related to logical thought) and appears to be correlated with depression {3}.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, and this is just my opinion, I think that it is possible that the relationship that between maths, physics and programming students and depression might actually be explained by link between introversion and depression as all of these types of careers are probably more commonly associated with introverts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{1} Ackermann, R. and R. J. DeRubeis (1991). &quot;Is depressive realism real?&quot; Clinical psychology review 11(5): 565-584.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{2} Furnham, A., et al. (1998). &quot;Personality and intelligence.&quot; Personality and Individual Differences 24(2): 187-192.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{3} Janowsky, D. S., et al. (2002). &quot;Myers Briggs Type indicator personality profiles in unipolar depressed patients.&quot; The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry 3(4): 207-215.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastActivityDate="2016-01-15T04:39:39.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13078" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13027" CreationDate="2016-01-15T04:52:17.383" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;It appears that there is little scientific backing for Jung's theories. As these theories were first suggested at the start of the 20th century they have had a considerable amount of time to receive scientific support. If they were accepted by scientists it therefore seems like they would have been widely used and cited by scholars in the interim period. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if I do a search (in titles, abstracts and keywords) for related content on SCOPUS I get only 12 references (the details of which I have pasted below for you to consider). The low level of search results (and the fact that few of these appear relevant) provides strong evidence that there is little scientific support for Jung's work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of alternative theories to consider, if I were you I would have a look at the &quot;big five&quot; also known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;OCEAN&lt;/a&gt; as there is a lot more support for this personality theory. For examples of some influential and interesting articles, please see the OCEAN references section below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References from the SCOPUS literature search:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Search term:&#xA;TITLE-ABS-KEY ( jung  &quot;cognitive functions&quot; )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Novak M.    Ideal types of law from the perspective of psychological typology [Idealni tipi prava v lu?i psihološke tipologije] 2013    Revus   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lo J.-J., Chan Y.-C.    Design of adaptive web interfaces with respect to student cognitive styles  2011    Advances in Intelligent and Soft Computing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Semetsky I. Jung and Tarot: A Theory-practice Nexus in Education and Counselling    2012    Jung and Educational Theory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Connolly A.M.   Cognitive aesthetics of alchemical imagery  2013    Journal of Analytical Psychology&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Naghavi H.R., Nyberg L. Integrative action in the fronto-parietal network: A cure for a scattered mind  2007    Behavioral and Brain Sciences&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sebastian A., Jung P., Krause-Utz A., Lieb K., Schmahl C., Tüscher O.   Frontal dysfunctions of impulse control - A systematic review in borderline personality disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder   2014    Frontiers in Human Neuroscience&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Segall J.M., Allen E.A., Jung R.E., Erhardt E.B., Arja S.K., Kiehl K., Calhoun V.D. Correspondence between structure and function in the human brain at rest    2012    Frontiers in Neuroinformatics&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vieira A.G., Sperb T.M. Symbolic play and the narrative organization of the child's life experience [O brincar simbólico e a organização narrativa da experiência de vida na criança]   2007    Psicologia: Reflexao e Critica&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Park H.-J., Lee S.Y., Shim H.S., Kim J.S., Kim K.S., Shim I.    Chronic treatment with squid phosphatidylserine activates glucose uptake and ameliorates TMT-induced cognitive deficit in rats via activation of cholinergic systems    2012    Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seo Y., Burns K., Fennell C., Kim J.-H., Gunstad J., Glickman E., McDaniel J.   The Influence of Exercise on Cognitive Performance in Normobaric Hypoxia    2015    High Altitude Medicine and Biology  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kwon H.G., Choi B.Y., Kim S.H., Chang C.H., Jung Y.J., Lee H.D., Jang S.H.  Injury of the cingulum in patients with putaminal hemorrhage: A diffusion tensor tractography study 2014    Frontiers in Human Neuroscience &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lee J.H., Kim S.E., Park C.-H., Yoo J.H., Lee H.W.  Gray and White Matter Volumes and Cognitive Dysfunction in Drug-Naïve Newly Diagnosed Pediatric Epilepsy    2015    BioMed Research International   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;OCEAN sample references&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roberts, Brent W., Kate E. Walton, and Wolfgang Viechtbauer. &quot;Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies.&quot; Psychological bulletin 132.1 (2006): 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hayes, Natalie, and Stephen Joseph. &quot;Big 5 correlates of three measures of subjective well-being.&quot; Personality and Individual differences 34.4 (2003): 723-727.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kotov, Roman, et al. &quot;Linking “big” personality traits to anxiety, depressive, and substance use disorders: a meta-analysis.&quot; Psychological bulletin 136.5 (2010): 768.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2016-01-17T23:21:48.143" LastActivityDate="2016-01-17T23:21:48.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13080" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-15T12:19:36.383" Score="4" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;The benefits of exercise on the psyche are well documented, encompassing catharsis, endorphin release, mental health improvements and self esteem. &#xA;There is also evidence that it increases cognitive function short and long term. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would seem that these benefits are from more BDNF, blood with higher oxygen content, and more bloodflow to the brain. I would think the blood effects would cause the short term benefits, while aiding in the increased neurogenesis long term. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just went for a run. &#xA;I assumed the immediate(within the hour of exercise) clarity I felt to be attributable to the mood-altering affects(catharsis, stress relief, endorphins, etc).&#xA;Quick searches show websites like ScientificAmerican and brainblogger et al confirm that more bloodflow to the brain contributes to state and structural changes in the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in The Brain; A Very Short Introduction by Michael O'Shea, it mentions; [On the topic of areas of the brain requiring more glucose and oxygen] &quot;A simple solution to this problem would be to pump more blood into the active region, much in the same way that a muscle is supplied with more blood when exercised vigorously. However unlike a muscle, which becomes engorged with blood and swells when exercised, the brain is confined by the skull and cannot be allowed to swell significantly. The solution to this tricky problem is to maintain a constant overall blood volume in the brain and to arrange for blood to be diverted preferentially to active regions.&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm skeptical of the bloodflow explanation, since there is the counter evidence from the book I cited. &#xA;This raises a related question concerning blood though.&#xA;&quot;Would breathing air with higher oxygen content be beneficial to brain function?&quot;(I'm aware too high and there isn't enough carbonic acid, no?). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6876" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-15T20:12:39.130" LastActivityDate="2016-01-15T20:12:39.130" Title="Does exercise substantially affect bloodflow to brain" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;&lt;neurogenesis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13081" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13034" CreationDate="2016-01-15T15:35:03.760" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have had the same question a while back when I observed similar behavior in a forum on a language learning website (I know that the question here is specific about stack-overflow). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There were two things I noticed- One with regards to my own behavior. I started giving my votes without having to worry that I will offend or please someone. &#xA;-Two was that I have seen people downvote some of the questions which were relevant to the topic.. while some irrelevant content was upvoted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I believe the anonymity works both ways- good and bad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10419" LastActivityDate="2016-01-15T15:35:03.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13082" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14037" CreationDate="2016-01-15T20:16:56.987" Score="6" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;Think you can help make life better for a nation of call center workers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a large insurance company, I used to work in the call center for both Auto Claims and then Homeowner Claims, before I was promoted on to other things.  It's a complicated and stressful position, where customers are already upset because they have just gotten in a car accident or their house just burned down.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Call volume varies, but tends to be constant during many busy periods. As soon as you're done with one call, sometimes there's a lull, but usually another call is waiting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The problem is&lt;/strong&gt; that this leads to people taking a breather during &quot;After Call Work,&quot; purposefully inflating their call time in order to catch a break from the stressful calls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A potential solution&lt;/strong&gt;, I've always wondered, is to pre-program an automatic break of no calls for X minutes after Y calls. (e.g. a 1 minute break after every 3 calls.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question&lt;/strong&gt; is, would there be any scientific basis that could help justify a Return On Investment? Is a rest period worth the drain on phone coverage?  Or is it more beneficial to leave it up to the workers, to sacrifice their Average Handling Time at will to decompress at their own pace?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3020" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-15T20:32:14.757" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T15:04:10.243" Title="Provable ROI for call center rest periods?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13084" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-16T10:00:42.617" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a relation between &quot;declarative vs. procedural memory&quot; and &quot;substantive vs. verb&quot;?&#xA;For example, are substantives (as a kind of information entities) stored in the declarative memory whereas verbs define capabilities/behavior and hence stored in the procedural memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tree: a substantive, can directly be stored in declarative memory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;to climb: a verb, defines a capability/behavior and can be stored in the procedural memory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastActivityDate="2016-03-29T00:38:57.410" Title="relation of substantive/verb to declarative/procedural memory" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13085" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-16T18:07:32.827" Score="11" ViewCount="6836" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is deliberate practice uncomfortable? For example, during learning college math and playing the piano. Why do we get headaches after long hours of practice?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/11276/what-in-neurons-and-their-connections-changes-during-the-process-of-learning&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;, learning is about connecting distant neural networks; in forming these synapses resources are recruited such as calcium and glucose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now since the brain has no pain receptors, the discomfort must be coming from the surrounding nerves in the skull and neck. Possibilities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a) Requiring greater resources is straining our blood system and hence the pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b) Forming many connections continuously creates excess of neurotransmitters such as glutamine that strain and literally swell brain areas, which in turn hit against our skull nerves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please feel free to correct me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This topic is closely connected with the cellular mechanism of &lt;a href=&quot;http://mf.gu.se/english/research/our-explanation-for-the-origin-of-mental-fatigue-at-a-cellular-level&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mental fatigue&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10430" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-09-20T15:33:33.743" LastActivityDate="2021-02-09T16:29:24.610" Title="Why does learning new mental skills lead to headaches?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13088" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-16T21:58:46.527" Score="2" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ken Reid was an artist who drew for the &lt;em&gt;Beano&lt;/em&gt; and other comics, and was known for strips such as &lt;em&gt;Frankie Stein&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Queen of the Seas&lt;/em&gt;. And for &lt;em&gt;The Nervs&lt;/em&gt;, about the little men who run our brains, but that's not why I'm asking this. He had a rather grotesque way of drawing faces, which made protrusions such as chins and Adam's apples stand out using very few lines. There are examples of his work on &lt;a href=&quot;http://lewstringer.blogspot.co.uk/2012/07/ken-reid-genius.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lew Stringer's blog&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_448y6kVhntg/RhIjT_1lF0I/AAAAAAAAA3I/KtvcxEIE3F8/s1600-h/nervs_pg1.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this copy of &lt;em&gt;The Nervs&lt;/em&gt; strip&lt;/a&gt;. What interests me is why the lines he drew are so effective. What is the visual system interpreting them as?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To demonstrate, here are three images from the above-linked strip. I've marked the parts of interest with an arrow:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/52uJj.png&quot; alt=&quot;Frame 1, row 1&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tNWEb.png&quot; alt=&quot;Frame 2, row 2&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TqtPh.png&quot; alt=&quot;Frame 1, row 3&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the second image, the back of the knee, there's an upward-curving line above a short vertical above two downward-curving lines. The higher downward-curving line is presumably the contour of the lower leg. But it's less obvious what the downward-curving line below it is. Nevertheless, it certainly helps in giving a sense of three-dimensional form. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, in the third image, some of the three upward-curving lines could be folds where the chin presses back against itself. But is the visual system interpreting them all as folds? I don't know, but again, they readily give a sense of form. If there's anyone here who is working on perception of shape, I'd like to know how you think these lines are being interpreted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, I and other readers have noticed that Reid's drawings seem very &quot;intense&quot;. As one reader commented in a blog, &quot;they seem to enter the subconscious and stick there for the rest of your life&quot;. I'd be interested in any ideas on why, and how this relates to what I've asked above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10436" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-01-09T05:16:12.767" LastActivityDate="2019-01-09T05:16:12.767" Title="What is it about Ken Reid's style of drawing lumps on surfaces [shown here] that makes our visual system so easily interpret it?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13089" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-17T01:13:21.330" Score="1" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do people &quot;set great store&quot; by their things? If for example photos are lost or damaged, why is this a big deal? It seems to me that relationships are the only really important thing, and because we never know if the person will come home from work alive, all we can do is deal with &quot;the person standing in front of us at the time.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T17:34:37.193" Title="Why are people so attached to their possessions?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-01-27T23:33:20.790" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13091" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1932" CreationDate="2016-01-17T06:23:59.047" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon of not being able to visualise has recently been dubbed &quot;aphantasia&quot; by Adam Zeman at Exeter: see the university's press release &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.exeter.ac.uk/news/research/title_467790_en.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Can’t count sheep? You could have aphantasia&lt;/a&gt;. They had a year-long project which finished a few days ago called &lt;a href=&quot;https://medicine.exeter.ac.uk/research/neuroscience/theeyesmind/aboutthestudy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Eye's Mind&lt;/a&gt; to study people at both ends of the ability spectrum. One of their objectives is to produce a meta-analysis of the research that has examined what happens in the brain when we visualise, searching for consistent patterns in the varied and sometimes conflicting results of previous studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More anecdotally, if you read &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/AMA/comments/2rn842/im_unable_to_produce_mental_images_ask_me_anything/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this Reddit thread&lt;/a&gt;, you'll discover that quite a few people can't visualise. It's an informative thread, which shows that visualisers and non-visualisers are often unaware of each other's existence. Look also at this &lt;a href=&quot;http://ask.metafilter.com/143968/I-cannot-mentally-visualize&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;MetaFilter thread&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://dfan.org/blog/2010/01/23/i-still-dont-see-anything-when-i-close-my-eyes/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this blog post&lt;/a&gt;. Googling phrases such as &quot;I can't mentally visualise&quot; will turn up more discussions on the same theme, including suggested &quot;cures&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10436" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-17T14:19:05.143" LastActivityDate="2016-01-17T14:19:05.143" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13093" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-17T09:02:25.477" Score="2" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;Line drawing is a very stylised form of art. There are no lines in nature, and artists have to learn the conventions to be used when drawing in line. I am interested in whether one could help them learn by repeated priming of associations from realistic images to line drawings of those images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, here is an example, a drawing of a boy from the children's annual &lt;em&gt;Sunshine Stories&lt;/em&gt;, published probably in the 1930s. The top of the chin has been omitted, because it catches the light. The upper lip is shown dark, and the lower lip is omitted, being indicated only by a shadow under it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2zSRh.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Drawing of boy from 1930s children&amp;#39;s annual, showing conventions used in drawing the face&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.j-paine.org/lds/not_exist_2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;very common convention&lt;/a&gt;. The link points at an excerpt from an instructional book that was very popular in its time, &lt;em&gt;Simple Sketching in Line&lt;/em&gt; by L. A. Doust. For some reason, the visual system seems to pay too much attention to bottom lips that are outlined or dark, so artists have discovered that it's often best only to draw the shadow under them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Faces are not the only subject that gets conventionalised. For example, at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.j-paine.org/lds/texture.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this page&lt;/a&gt; and subsequent pages, I show some of the conventions used in indicating texture. These slides, by the way, are from a talk I gave on the semantics of line in drawing, showing the different purposes for which artists use line.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, imagine that we ask a skilled illustrator to take 500 (say) photos and make a drawing of each, using a common and consistent style. We then use the photos paired with their drawings as priming stimuli. Is there any evidence for or against my hypothesis that this would help novices learn the mapping from realistic images to drawings thereof? In a sense, it's analogous to teaching musicians to sight-read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A hi-tech alternative to photos and drawings would be mediated-reality glasses. In Oxford, Stephen Hicks is developing &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.va-st.com/smart-specs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smart Spex&lt;/a&gt;, which help people with poor vision to see. The third image on that page shows a scene, labelled &quot;a&quot;, and the specs' renderings of it. Rendering &quot;c&quot; is similar to a line drawing. If a subject were to wear these glasses in &quot;line drawing&quot; mode continuously, would they absorb its rendering conventions? If so, it could be a very useful way to teach drawing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10436" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-01-10T08:27:02.850" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T08:27:02.850" Title="Could one use priming (from realistic images to drawings thereof) to help teach the conventions of line drawing?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13094" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13095" CreationDate="2016-01-17T09:19:50.983" Score="1" ViewCount="179" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read a few books on Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) and, it seems that a corner stone of NLP is strong inner visualisation skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that looks at the correlation between visualisation ability and the effectiveness of NLP?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any scientifically proven techniques for measuring and improving visualisation skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10444" LastEditorUserId="10073" LastEditDate="2016-01-26T20:31:17.023" LastActivityDate="2016-01-26T20:31:17.023" Title="Does nlp have a dependency on a subject having strong visualisation skills?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;neuro-linguistic-prog&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13095" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13094" CreationDate="2016-01-17T14:12:55.277" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;NLP (Neurolinguistic Programming) is a pseudoscience at worst, and not a science, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming&quot;&gt;&quot;an approach to communication, personal development, and psychotherapy&quot;&lt;/a&gt; at best. There is little scientific research, and no reliable scientific findings, supporting the effectiveness of NLP, and the evidence is probably best interpreted as speaking against the effectiveness and veracity of NLP &lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3481516/&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hrdq.3920080403/abstract;jsessionid=9D8E2D38BF639D67547AE9EE8EF8FF78.f04t01&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/ppb.2010.41.issue-2/v10059-010-0008-0/v10059-010-0008-0.xml&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In non-scientific venues, there are indeed sometimes claims that NLP can help with visualisation as understood by NLP, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00003319.htm&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. In contrast, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3394779/&quot;&gt;a recent experimental finding that is actually scientific&lt;/a&gt; disconfirmed NLP claims about the nature of visualization as conceptualized by NLP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be noted that there seems to be little overlap between visualization - if assumed to refer to the same concept as &lt;em&gt;mental imagery&lt;/em&gt; - as employed by vision researchers and cognitive scientists studying vision, and the NLP concept of visualization. The latter instead vaguely resembles some concepts in cognitive linguistics (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~israel/lakoff-ConTheorMetaphor.pdf&quot;&gt;research into metaphors such as those by George Lakoff&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also want to emphasize that Neurolinguistic Programming is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; neurolinguistics, which is a legitimate subfield of cognitive science: the study of how the brain implements language. In contrast, NLP can most likely justifiably called quackery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2016-01-17T14:12:55.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13096" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13099" CreationDate="2016-01-18T00:07:35.113" Score="4" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it known whether the connection strength of synapses is important to the functioning of the brain or does just the binary existence of a synapse matter? Also, how widely do the strengths of synapses change, if any?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="908" LastEditDate="2016-01-18T01:14:15.120" LastActivityDate="2016-01-18T22:31:59.710" Title="Are axons in the brain weighted?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13097" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24719" CreationDate="2016-01-18T00:12:29.587" Score="5" ViewCount="370" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can two given neurons in the human brain can be directly connected more than once, either mutually or in the same or direction? Also, can the same neuron have transitive connections to itself (in order to amplify itself for example)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-06T18:53:52.943" LastActivityDate="2020-01-08T13:36:07.367" Title="Can two neurons in the brain be connected more than once?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13098" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13100" CreationDate="2016-01-18T00:55:31.680" Score="4" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;The neocortex is likely to process sparse representations in a hierarchy with information close to the raw sensor input appearing in lower levels and abstract concepts being appearing in higher levels. However, I'm interested in the exact nature of information being passed upwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are some gating mechanisms in the neocortex. I could imagine that they prevent obvious information from being passed up. For example, since it was already reported and didn't changed. Much like workers within corporate hierarchies only report the same status once.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Similarly, it would make sense to pass up information that a lower layer doesn't understand and can't handle itself. This would also be comparable to workers at a company who ask their managers for decision they can't make.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If planning happens within the hierarchy of the neocortex, higher layers might hand down high levels options for the lower levels to unroll and simulate. In that case, the result might be passed up afterwards.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Encoding continuous input streams, attractor patterns are likely to emerge within levels of the hierarchy. I could imagine that the type of information send upwards changes when a level settles in a stable pattern.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence for or against these guesses? What else know about the nature of information that's passed up within the neocortex?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="908" LastEditDate="2016-01-18T01:03:58.113" LastActivityDate="2016-01-18T01:41:07.433" Title="What is known about the information that's passed upwards within the neocortex?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13099" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13096" CreationDate="2016-01-18T01:11:02.603" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, yes, the strength of synapses matters. A synapse that has been potentiated means that the postsynaptic neuron will fire more readily as a function of the stimulation from the presynaptic neuron.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for how widely the strengths vary, I have to admit I'm not quite sure how to answer that...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4991" LastActivityDate="2016-01-18T01:11:02.603" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13100" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13098" CreationDate="2016-01-18T01:21:32.297" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your guess 1 basically sounds like habituation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Per your clarification in your comment, 2 sounds like you are generally talking about the role of prediction error in learning. There's a lot of work on this. Neural network models generally learn by modifying the connection strengths in response to error. The most well-known algorithm for this is known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backpropagation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;backpropagation&lt;/a&gt;. Although this is an error signal propagating &lt;em&gt;down&lt;/em&gt; a network, not up it, as you proposed. There's also the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rescorla%E2%80%93Wagner_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rescorla-Wagner model&lt;/a&gt; of learning, another example of error-driven learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3 sounds like top-down processing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up_design#Neuroscience_and_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up_design#Neuroscience_and_psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding 4, neural firing patterns definitely settle into attractors. This has been pretty extensively modeled:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Attractor_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Attractor_network&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4991" LastEditorUserId="4991" LastEditDate="2016-01-18T01:41:07.433" LastActivityDate="2016-01-18T01:41:07.433" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13097" CreationDate="2016-01-18T01:26:52.527" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The commenter below alerted me to the existence of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autapse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;autapses&lt;/a&gt;, which apparently are chemical synapses between a neuron and itself. So those clearly exist. At the same time, it does seem that there is a mechanism that would suppress self-synapses: a protein called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSCAM#Regulation_of_synaptogenesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dscam&lt;/a&gt; that acts during neuronal development. Dscam is a membrane protein that can form a high number of isoforms through alternative splicing and thereby provides an identity to the developing neuron to prevent forming connections to itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I &lt;em&gt;suspect&lt;/em&gt; that what is more common is for a neuron to be connected to itself &lt;em&gt;indirectly&lt;/em&gt;. That is, neuron 1 stimulates neuron 2, which stimulates neuron 3, which stimulates neuron 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: Just heard about &lt;a href=&quot;http://medicalxpress.com/news/2016-01-memory-capacity-brain-previously-thought.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;, which shows that two neurons &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; be connected via two different synapses!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4991" LastEditorUserId="4991" LastEditDate="2016-01-21T06:20:52.733" LastActivityDate="2016-01-21T06:20:52.733" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13103" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13106" CreationDate="2016-01-18T08:02:24.690" Score="5" ViewCount="2744" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just came across an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.omgfacts.com/nerd/8434/Your-pupils-dilate-when-you-see-someone-attractive&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; on the internet stating that,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pupils dilate when we find someone or something attractive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, as far as I know, this kind of dilation doesn't seem to have any effect on attractiveness of subject, does it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;For example:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose if a one person A in love with person B, and pupils of A tend to dilate when seeing B, What effect does it have on B? Any psychological effect perhaps?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. I'm not sure if this should be on Cog.Sci&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10154" OwnerDisplayName="Snazzy Sanoj" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T00:31:59.297" Title="Why do pupils dilate in response to emotional state?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13105" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13123" CreationDate="2016-01-18T14:19:52.940" Score="2" ViewCount="1938" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the psychology the same as in casino games? where the person is addicted because winning is so unpredictable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are RPG games addictive by Gestalt theory, where players mind likes to see things organized and being whole and completed as opposed to being fractioned and incomplete?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10454" LastActivityDate="2018-12-29T05:25:32.653" Title="What is the psychology behind addictive video games?" Tags="&lt;video-games&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13106" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13103" CreationDate="2016-01-18T19:31:53.950" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The dilation of the pupil is under control of the sympathetic nervous system. The main role of the sympathetic nervous system is to get the body ready for fast response. The typical example is the 'fight-or-flight' response, but that can also occur in the presence of a potential sexual partner. Therefore, dilated pupils can be a sign of sexual arousal. &#xA;Now, that's the response of the person showing the dilated pupils, but your question related to the effect on the other person. People with more dilated pupils are rated as more attractive by observers unaware of this manipulation &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513804000261&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tombs &amp;amp; Silverman, 2004&lt;/a&gt; - at least for males looking at females. As an aside, people in ancient Egypt are said to have used atropine, which is a poison extracted from the belladonna plant, as a cosmetic to artificially dilate their pupils. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-01-18T19:31:53.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13108" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13096" CreationDate="2016-01-18T22:26:59.217" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is it known whether the connection strength of synapses is important&#xA;  to the functioning of the brain or does just the binary existence of a&#xA;  synapse matter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it's safe to say that neuroscience, as a field, would stand behind this statement from neurobiologist David Sweatt, in his excellent 2003 (1st edition...2nd is probably even more current) book, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0123749514&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Mechanisms of Memory&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which he refers to as a &quot;general hypothesis of memory storage&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Memories are stored as alterations in the strength of of synaptic&#xA;  connections between neurons in the CNS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, yes, variations in synaptic strength is thought to be fundamental to the functioning of the human brain and, in fact, all nervous systems. And it need not be seen purely in terms of a learning &amp;amp; memory paradigm. Any well-tuned network will need to have synaptic strengths set accordingly to produce a desired input-output function, so even if the strengths are hard-wired and unchangeable, they would still need to vary. It's important to note that synaptic strengths will vary over &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; types of synapses--classical excitatory and inhibitory synapses, and neuromodulatory synapses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As of today, there appear to be 3,381 papers that are brought up when the search term &quot;long term potentiation&quot; (or &quot;LTP&quot;, one of the most studied phenomena in synatpology) is put into PubMed as appearing in the title, and 935 with the words &quot;long term depression&quot;--and these are just two of the approaches to studying changes in synaptic strength. Habituation, sensitization, synaptic scaling, synaptic depression and facilitation (short time scale), and other mechanisms are also described. Looking at changes in synaptic strength is one of the biggest subcategories of cellular neuroscience research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Also, how widely do the strengths of synapses change, if any?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A classic LTP graph will typically display synaptic strength changes of about 200-250% of initial synaptic strength (or 1-1.5x &lt;em&gt;more&lt;/em&gt; than you started with. If this were weightlifting and you started lifting 100 lbs, after you could lift 200 to 250 lbs). For an example of this displayed on a classic LTP style graph, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.genes2cognition.org/g2c/gfx/two-pathway_ltp_graph.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this graph.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if you Google &quot;LTP graph&quot;, you can quickly scan many such graphs. Most of these have similar amounts of potentiation (strengthening). But the range is likely more than just 2-2.5x strength, because these same synapses can be depressed from their baseline synaptic strength to below baseline, and in the intact animal's brain, the range of changes could (I'd guess) be larger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastEditorUserId="6642" LastEditDate="2016-01-18T22:31:59.710" LastActivityDate="2016-01-18T22:31:59.710" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13109" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13052" CreationDate="2016-01-19T00:09:12.500" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As a percentage of their endeavours, do those with a tendency to use&#xA;  bullying focus more or less on sociopaths as a per capita of their&#xA;  targets?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for this interesting question. Based on my research the short answer appears to be that there is no clear evidence either way. The longer answer is that this is probably too complicated a question to easily answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Explanation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/wicked-deeds/201401/how-tell-sociopath-psychopath&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychology today&lt;/a&gt; I take sociopaths to be those who have: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A disregard for laws and social mores &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A disregard for the rights of others &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A failure to feel remorse or guilt &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A tendency to display violent behavior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also important to consider that sociopaths develop these traits rather than being born with them, like psychopaths are (see quote from psychology today &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/wicked-deeds/201401/how-tell-sociopath-psychopath&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychopathy is related to a physiological defect that results in the&#xA;  underdevelopment of the part of the brain responsible for impulse&#xA;  control and emotions. Sociopathy, on the other hand, is more likely&#xA;  the product of childhood trauma and physical/emotional abuse. Because&#xA;  sociopathy appears to be learned rather than innate, sociopaths are&#xA;  capable of empathy in certain limited circumstances but not in others,&#xA;  and with a few individuals but not others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The literature on child bullying suggests that both bullies and victims tend to be more likely to have psychiatric disorders, such as sociopathy. The rates are 13% for bullies/ 8% for victims {1}. This suggests that 92% of those who are bullied are not sociopaths, but it fails to control for the fact that fewer individuals have sociopathic tendencies at that age. What is really needed is a test comparing two samples of children, on with sociopathic tendencies and one without.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An additional complication with this question is that it may be the case that children become sociopaths due to being bullied rather than being bullied because they are sociopaths {2,3}&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed some research {e.g., 2} suggests that anti-social personality disorder (which includes sociopathy) is the most common disorder amongst victims of bullying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this answer has been useful. Please let me know if you would like more information or need clarification on any points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{1} Copeland, W. E., et al. (2013). &quot;Adult psychiatric outcomes of bullying and being bullied by peers in childhood and adolescence.&quot; JAMA psychiatry 70(4): 419-426.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{2} Sourander, A., et al. (2007). &quot;What is the early adulthood outcome of boys who bully or are bullied in childhood? The Finnish “From a Boy to a Man” study.&quot; Pediatrics 120(2): 397-404.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{3} Arseneault, L., et al. (2010). &quot;Bullying victimization in youths and mental health problems:‘Much ado about nothing’?&quot; Psychological Medicine 40(05): 717-729.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2016-01-19T23:04:12.817" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T23:04:12.817" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13110" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13103" CreationDate="2016-01-19T00:24:59.780" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pupil dilation is a reflection of sympathetic arousal, and it seems to be related specifically to &lt;strong&gt;prediction error&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13415-014-0333-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Braem et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3879532/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lavin et al., 2013&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3183372/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Preuschoff et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt;) and consequently predicts your learning rate (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v15/n7/full/nn.3130.html%3FWT.ec_id%3DNEURO-201207?message-global=remove&amp;amp;WT.ec_id=NEURO-201207&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nassar et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case where you see an attractive person amidst a sea of average faces, this violates your predictions--you have prediction error (or &quot;surprise&quot;).  You expected to see an average face, not an attractive face, and your pupils dilate in response.  If you are continually exposed to this attractive person, your pupil dilation will decrease over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is true with emotions more generally--when you feel negative or positive this usually indicates prediction error (or success), which then up- or downregulates your learning rate, respectively (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003094&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Joffily &amp;amp; Coricelli, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why is pupil dilation associated with prediction error?&lt;/strong&gt;  The sphincter (contracts the eye) and dilator (dilates the eye) are innervated by acetylcholine and noradrenaline, respectively. Noradrenergic activity in the locus coeruleus might encode &quot;unexpected uncertainty,&quot; which interacts with antagonistic cholinergic activity.  Interestingly, dilating the pupil on one task can increase the learning rate on another, unrelated task (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v15/n7/full/nn.3130.html%3FWT.ec_id%3DNEURO-201207?message-global=remove&amp;amp;WT.ec_id=NEURO-201207&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nassar et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;), which might be mediated by incidental activation of noradrenergic activity in the locus coeruleus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hmmmm, I don't actually seem to know enough about this such that I can explain all of it clearly! But hopefully this provides some insight into your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2016-01-19T00:31:59.297" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T00:31:59.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13111" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3216" CreationDate="2016-01-19T00:48:44.860" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fieldtriptoolbox.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FieldTrip&lt;/a&gt; for Matlab, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://mne-tools.github.io/mne-python-intro/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;MNE&lt;/a&gt; for Python&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T00:48:44.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13112" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-19T04:13:24.937" Score="3" ViewCount="3076" Body="&lt;p&gt;What advantages does a neuron with multiple dendrites have, as opposed to one with fewer dendrites?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10460" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-05T21:39:17.397" LastActivityDate="2017-09-30T08:32:11.493" Title="What advantages does a neuron with multiple dendrites have?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13116" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13089" CreationDate="2016-01-19T17:34:37.193" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it's a primal need that is built in via natural selection. Those that had attachments to places and things outpased those who didn't. The affection a child shows for a favorite toy or a teenager shows for a favorite pair of shoes. Also, when a possession has been won over a great hardship, it has intrinsic meaning. This has a social and mental advantage when connecting to others. Social animals (like humans) must succeed in interactions to remain prosperous and leads to groupings of individuals for the overall benefits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10463" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T17:34:37.193" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13117" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13057" CreationDate="2016-01-19T17:45:09.430" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From personal experience, we pick partners of many types for many reasons... But we work best with someone who is similar to our parents. We were &quot;trained&quot; to get along in a similar fashion and when our partner matches the same upbringing, it clicks better. We also pick partners from completely different upbringings and sometimes they work and sometimes they don't. Attraction can be physical, sexual, friendship, even shared difficulties or a thousand other reasons. Parents are familiar territory, finding someone who shares the sames values and goals is a powerful attraction in itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10463" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T17:45:09.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13118" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-19T17:51:49.313" Score="4" ViewCount="205" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently in deep learning, there's been a surge in learning how to use memories as part of the optimisation process (i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_short-term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;LSTM&lt;/a&gt;'s and &lt;a href=&quot;https://research.facebook.com/blog/inferring-algorithmic-patterns-with-stack/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stacks&lt;/a&gt;). However, these aren't really analogous to how a cognitive systems learns how to use it's working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there models of how working memory modules (where a saved value decays over time) can be learned to be optimally leveraged? Either via reinforcement learning or supervised learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-04T16:48:48.407" LastActivityDate="2016-05-04T10:01:29.570" Title="Cognitive Models of learning Working Memory usage" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13119" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13056" CreationDate="2016-01-19T19:28:52.190" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Besides any brain markers that might say &quot;yes&quot;, there is a huge amount of influence on upbringing. How parents behave and the way they look at &quot;chance/risk&quot; in life can affect how a child might be raised. Addictive personalities breed addictive traights in others such as overeating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10463" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T19:28:52.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13120" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-19T20:23:31.653" Score="1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I´m doing some research and can´t find what control some reactions during naps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, after 1 year taking the same bus way home, my brain mastered the timing of napping. Wherever i get on, i start a nap and ALWAYS get up just before i have to get down the bus, it doesn´t matter if the nap took 5, 10, 25 or 50 minutes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that maybe stimulations like sounds or body feelings of the road and environment are the triggers but can´t find information about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, i would like to distinguish it from the internal clock that concerns the whole day that regulates our lifestyle. (Circadian rhythm)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10464" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-01-21T00:24:41.797" LastActivityDate="2016-01-21T00:24:41.797" Title="Do we have an &quot;internal timer&quot; when taking naps?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13121" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13105" CreationDate="2016-01-19T21:20:20.947" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;People play games for different reasons - &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartle_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;check out the Bartle test which describes some motivations behind actions in games&lt;/a&gt;, particularly multiplayer RPGs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've written an ebook on video game addiction, and will attempt to illustrate factors that contribute to a game being &quot;addictive&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a few types of most addictive video games &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Massively Multiplayer Role Playing Games (MMORPG like World of Warcraft)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Competitive shooters. (like Call of Duty or World of Tanks) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Build and steal&quot; strategy games (like Clash of Clans)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Purely social/achievement driven games (like FarmVille)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example World of Warcraft, has been described as a &quot;&lt;strong&gt;theme park&lt;/strong&gt; MMORPG&quot; - playera can do a variety of activities and if they get bored, they can do something else. The &lt;strong&gt;social component&lt;/strong&gt; is a big part of a person wanting to return to this kind of games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then there are shooter games that are played in short matches, for example World of Tanks, War Thunder. Games like these depend on persistent RPG character progression to &lt;strong&gt;artificially create inequality&lt;/strong&gt; among players. For example in a 32 player tank you can be driving the weakest tank, pretty much being prey for everyone else. This creates a feeling of &quot;this is unfair!&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part of the addictive nature of these games is that &lt;strong&gt;player is forced to &quot;grind&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; - play the game over and over again, frequently without any enjoyment. This is a way to get better tanks/planes/guns/etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way &quot;grinding&quot; is done in competitive games is by playing &lt;strong&gt;short matches&lt;/strong&gt; (3-7 minutes), typically &lt;strong&gt;very adrenaline driven engagements&lt;/strong&gt;. Once an engagement is over, a player is left in a state of imbalance - the player wants to experience the rush of victory again or is dissatisfied with defeat and wants to win instead. It's difficult to get off this cycle, which is why such games are called addictive. A player can spend entire day doing these short matches while looking forward to a more powerful tank/plane/gun/etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some ways, this random element with inequality and short matches can be compared to a casino slot machine on steroids. &lt;strong&gt;Instead of pulling the handle, a player presses the &quot;Battle&quot; button&lt;/strong&gt;, which is results in the player placed in a random battle. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally there are a number of simple &quot;build and steal&quot; kind of games, like Clash of Clans (smart phone games). A player builds a settlement, but resources are very scarce. A player is encouraged to steal resources by raiding neighboring settlements.  These games also thrive on the feeling of inequality among players The inequality gap between players can be lessened by &lt;strong&gt;paying real money - &quot;Pay to Win (P2W)&quot; model&lt;/strong&gt;.** &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&quot;Pay to Win&quot; is very much like gambling&lt;/strong&gt;, and companies like Apple and Clash of Clans developers are taking heat for allowing 12 year olds spend real money in games to cover the inequality. It has been calculated that to buy everything in a game like Clash of Clans, a person &lt;strong&gt;would have to spend 11000 $$USD&lt;/strong&gt; or close to a year of real time waiting for the resources to build up (all the while being raided by stronger players). Top of the line planes or tanks can cost up to 200$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once real money are invested, different mechanics come to play - it's hard to abandon a game where you invested hundreds of hours or dollars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of this post is based on my own observations and analysis, as there isn't much mainstream interest in understanding the addictive nature of video games. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-01-19T21:20:20.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13123" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13105" CreationDate="2016-01-20T04:15:14.520" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is the psychology the same as in casino games? where the person is&#xA;  addicted because winning is so unpredictable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are RPG games addictive by Gestalt theory, where players mind likes to&#xA;  see things organized and being whole and completed as opposed to being&#xA;  fractioned and incomplete?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that both of these factors play a role. As people react to media much like reality (1), a video game is really just like a particular social situation that people are placed within.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In any situation where individuals get rewards, unpredictable rewards are likely to be the most effective (2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise many people express a desire for closure (3), which &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to these factors video games also provide several other rewards that can foster addiction, such as (see 4):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Status&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social interaction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social acceptance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Escape from negative realities (e.g., day to day life)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A sense of progression&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Accumulation of resources&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Challenges that they can overcome&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learning experiences&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is worth pointing out that one of the main reasons that video games may be so addictive is the fact that &quot;real&quot; life may be so isolating and unrewarding for people (5).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1 Reeves, B. and C. Nass (1996). The media equation: how people treat computers, television, and the new media like real people and places. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2 Berns, G. S., et al. (2001). &quot;Predictability modulates human brain response to reward.&quot; The Journal of Neuroscience 21(8): 2793-2798.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3 Webster, Donna M., and Arie W. Kruglanski. &quot;Individual differences in need for cognitive closure.&quot; Journal of personality and social psychology 67.6 (1994): 1049.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4 Werbach, K. and D. Hunter (2012). For the win: How game thinking can revolutionize your business, Wharton Digital Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5 Alexander, B. K. &quot;Healing Addiction Through Community: A Much Longer Road Than it Seems?&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastActivityDate="2016-01-20T04:15:14.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13124" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-20T05:26:46.340" Score="5" ViewCount="352" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have created a community wiki question to encourage/enable users to share the books or paper from cognitive science that you think is most important for others to read and know about. Please just give one suggestion per answer and please make sure that you explain why it is important that people understand this reading and what it explains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that you can suggest more several pieces of content if you think that they are all equally essential but this is generally discouraged. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I note that a previous &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/165/what-are-the-must-know-papers-of-cognitive-science&quot;&gt;question&lt;/a&gt;, which I have voted to reopen, asked for the must know papers of cognitive science and was closed for being too broad. If that policy of closing these sorts of &quot;polls&quot; remains in place then I am happy to remove or modify my question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I would suggest that the question be left open as I have seen similar questions (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cstheory.stackexchange.com/questions/1168/what-papers-should-everyone-read&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/74/the-must-read-user-interface-book&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;) being very well received on other stackexchange forums and attracting considerable interest and engagement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While some of these question have since been closed, I oppose that policy as I accord with the view from &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/74/the-must-read-user-interface-book&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, that &quot;'must read books' questions are pretty much my favourite part of every stackexchange site – Damon Mar 9 '11 at 17:48&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-01-28T23:58:52.243" Title="Which paper or book from cognitive science do you think everyone should read or know about, and why?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" CommunityOwnedDate="2016-01-28T19:00:46.863" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13125" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13132" CreationDate="2016-01-20T06:05:35.730" Score="1" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given articles like &lt;a href=&quot;https://cosmosmagazine.com/life-sciences/buzz-around-brain-stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;, and their associated research {1}, I am developing an interest in transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), and other forms of brain stimulation as they appear like they may have. I might be interested in trying it at home.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a result I would like ask for evidence to help me answer one or more of the following questions: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the best headset for brain stimulation that a normal person can buy or build? I am aware of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.foc.us/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;these&lt;/a&gt;, but would like the opinion of an expert.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the best online communities, or sources of information for conducting brain stimulation at home?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How should I engage in brain stimulation at home? A guide, or link to one would be appreciated&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it safe to conduction brain stimulation at home? If there is evidence that one type of brain stimulation, and/or headset is safe then please provide evidence of this.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;{1} Santarnecchi, E., et al. (2016). &quot;Individual differences and specificity of prefrontal gamma frequency-tACS on fluid intelligence capabilities.&quot; Cortex 75: 33-43.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastEditorUserId="9754" LastEditDate="2016-01-22T02:08:18.230" LastActivityDate="2016-01-22T14:34:46.627" Title="Conducting brain stimulation at home" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13126" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-20T08:05:05.767" Score="1" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lets assume that there is a group of students and one teacher (typical school situation). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Child of the teacher is in that group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence, that school teachers demand more from their children than other children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence, that children who are taught by parent-teacher achieve better/worse results than other students in same group?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10379" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-21T15:57:35.983" LastActivityDate="2016-01-21T15:57:35.983" Title="Do school teachers demand more from their children than other students?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13127" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13174" CreationDate="2016-01-20T12:03:15.830" Score="4" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a teacher at a highschool and currently we've been working on projects that are supposed to make the kids appreciate those around them especially the other teachers and workers at the school. During an advisory time earlier this year, we had the students write a letter of appreciation to someone who works at the school. Another project that we're going to start up is a student voted &quot;employee of the month&quot; and that teacher/worker will be somehow celebrated -we haven't worked out the details-. The problem with both of these ideas is that they're ineffective and the students all just wrote letters begrudgingly and I think this upcoming project won't make them feel appreciation for those who help them either. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there general steps, for either creating an environment for students to appreciate teachers and other workers? Or are there general ways that appreciation works in the mind so that we can come up with projects that will truly help them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10169" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-01-21T16:09:49.893" LastActivityDate="2016-01-27T17:28:06.853" Title="How to foster an environment for appreciation" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13128" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13126" CreationDate="2016-01-20T16:04:31.540" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;From Personal Experience, teachers will demand more from their child if their child is in that class for a couple of reasons: To show the rest of the class that there is no favoritism towards the child, as well as to ensure that the child performs exceptionally in the class.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether they achieve better/worse results is dependent on the level that this &quot;extra demand&quot; is taken to. For example a child may feel like he's being treated unfairly, and act out as a result, or become overwhelmed by the amount of work. But if it is a reasonable increase in demand, then the student will surely benefit. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10384" LastActivityDate="2016-01-20T16:04:31.540" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13125" CreationDate="2016-01-20T23:07:59.650" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;At the moment, there are no TMS/tDCS protocols that were approved for the home use in USA or EU. So, please, don´t. Fortunately, TMS devices are quite expensive and cannot be used by a single man. tDCS is easier, but decent companies on the market like NeuroConn or Neuroelectrics will not sell an equipment to a private person.&#xA;Foc.us device, by the way, was proved to impair the memory [1].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.Steenbergen, Laura, et al. &quot;“Unfocus” on foc. us: commercial tDCS headset impairs working memory.&quot; Experimental brain research (2015): 1-7.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15227" LastEditorUserId="15227" LastEditDate="2016-01-20T23:19:28.253" LastActivityDate="2016-01-20T23:19:28.253" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13133" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13124" CreationDate="2016-01-21T05:25:53.990" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ok, I will start. I don't necessarily know if these are definitely the best three books I have read, but they are three of the best. If I think of better ones then I will add them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0374533555&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Thinking, Fast and Slow&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0061353248&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Predictably Irrational&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0205609996&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Influence: Science and practice&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My interest in cognitive science is about i) understanding my own irrationality and ii) understanding how to change behaviour (e.g., persuasion, influence etc) to help people to have better lives. My three choices reflect this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As related to this, I think that these books would be valuable for anyone to read as they could help you to better understand how to i)  make better decisions, ii) help other people to make better decisions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9754" LastActivityDate="2016-01-21T05:25:53.990" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2016-01-28T19:00:46.863" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13134" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13124" CreationDate="2016-01-21T06:29:10.090" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.comp.dit.ie/dgordon/courses/ilt/areviewofbfskinnersverbalbehavior1959.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chomsky's review of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior&lt;/a&gt;. This review helped kick off both modern linguistics and the cognitive revolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/5782&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Marr and Poggio (1976)&lt;/a&gt;. Here is where Marr's famous levels of analysis of information processing systems are detailed. These levels provide a framework for organizing all of cognitive science research, in my and many others' opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: My girlfriend (another psych PhD student) suggested a book that I agree is pretty foundational in cogsci: Jerry Fodor's 1983 monograph Modularity of Mind. &lt;a href=&quot;http://mapageweb.umontreal.ca/tuitekj/cours/chomsky/Fodor-modularity.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here's the precis&lt;/a&gt;. This is basically a thesis about how the mind is organized: into functionally specialized 'modules'. The modularity thesis makes a number of other claims about the qualities of these modules, including informational encapsulation (modules are not sensitive to all potentially relevant information) and domain-specificity (they work only on certain inputs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT 2: Okay, once I got started on Fodor, I couldn't stop. Just as important as knowing about modularity is knowing about Fodor's language of thought hypothesis. I haven't read his 1975 book in which he lays out these ideas, but the gist is that thought takes place via a mental language with its own syntax and semantics. Check out the &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-thought/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on the LoT&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4991" LastEditorUserId="4991" LastEditDate="2016-01-21T16:36:15.590" LastActivityDate="2016-01-21T16:36:15.590" CommentCount="4" CommunityOwnedDate="2016-01-28T19:00:46.863" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13135" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13415" CreationDate="2016-01-21T08:20:26.833" Score="2" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in the influence of authority. I would like to know if it is possible for authority to urge someone to commit suicide. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By urge, I mean not using any negative force, so affected person feels that suicide is 'right thing to do', and doesn't feel (consciously) forced to do it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10379" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-26T19:38:58.170" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T19:38:58.170" Title="Can authority urge person to commit suicide?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13137" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13124" CreationDate="2016-01-21T14:58:33.980" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;My answer is going to be super skewed, I think, toward my interests. Nonetheless, I'd consider these papers &quot;revolutionary,&quot; and I think their legacy will be long-lasting and their impact expansive (across all domains of psychology).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://affective-science.org/pubs/2006/Barrett2006kinds.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Are emotions natural kinds?&lt;/a&gt; (Barrett, 2006).  This paper upends many decades of thinking about what emotions are and has sparked a huge debate and a paradigm shift.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://users.monash.edu/~naotsugt/Tsuchiya_Labs_Homepage/Bryan_Paton_files/Commentary%20.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Whatever next? Predictive brains, situated agents, and the future of cognitive science&lt;/a&gt;. (Clark, 2013).  If this paper doesn't blow your mind, I don't know what will.  Predictive coding is gradually taking over psychology…&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oh gosh…I'll have to come up with a third one later. :)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2016-01-21T14:58:33.980" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2016-01-28T19:00:46.863" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13140" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-22T03:39:35.743" Score="1" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I saw this interesting article titled, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/01/consoling-voles-reignite-debate-about-animal-empathy/425034/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;“Consoling Voles Hint at Animal Empathy.”&lt;/a&gt; The basic idea stated is if voles have a relationship, and are then separated and one of the voles sees the other put in a stressful situation, the unharmed vole would immediately begin to console the hurt/traumatized vole when they were reunited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is not about the validity of the concept—I mean it’s a cute theory that I am willing to accept—but this section on a similar study on rats confused me a bit; bold emphasis is mine:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The researchers billed these rescues as evidence of empathy—that “rats&#xA;  free their cagemate in order to end distress.” But others argued that&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;the rescuers could simply have been behaving selfishly, in an attempt&#xA;  to get social contact.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in the context of this article—and perhaps &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-013-0692-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the source article that article cites&lt;/a&gt;—what exactly is the meaning of “social contact.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the idea presented that empathy is a selfless act where one sees someone/something in distress and—without personal concerns—acts to aid the other person.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And that “social contact”—devoid of empathy—is a selfish concept where the person acting in response to someone/something is doing so only to benefit themselves by seeming superficially empathetic to others or perhaps simply taking advantage of someone in distress to their own future benefit?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5004" LastActivityDate="2016-01-22T03:39:35.743" Title="Understanding the difference between empathy and need for social contact in this article on empathetic voles" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13142" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13135" CreationDate="2016-01-22T09:13:16.313" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Absolutely! First and foremost most people commit suicide on their own authority.&#xA;I discovered that suicide can seem convincingly rational and sound. &#xA;Suicides are with ease driven by the thoughts and feelings that it is the best that can happen to ones loved ones and society if you die, solves all their problems, good riddance.&#xA;So yes, it is fully possible to give strong enough incentive over time if it is the subjects whole environment that pushes the same self image onto the person, that image should include diffuse feelings of being a problem, not quite living up to standards anywhere(shifting goalposts on what the standards are) making the subject aware of it causing disappointment repeatedly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10498" LastActivityDate="2016-01-22T09:13:16.313" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13143" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13125" CreationDate="2016-01-22T14:34:46.627" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to the previous answer: A recent meta-analysis of the 59 transcranial direct current simulation (tDCS) studies in healthy volunteers found no evidence for any benefit of stimulation on cognitive performance &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainstimjrnl.com/article/S1935-861X(15)00857-8/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;. There is a possibility that tDCS might have some benefit in specific populations, e.g. for training motor tasks in post-stroke rehabilitation &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/138/1/149&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;. However, even within the scientific community, the question of stimulation parameters that might substantially influence the effectiveness of tDCS are not settled. This includs placement of sensors, duration, frequency, and polarity. Studies also find that there is substantial variability in the response to tDCS between participants, which is purely understood at the moment. The group of Prof. Andrea Antal, University of Göttingen, conducts some detailed research on this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/88816.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A further concern is safety. Even though it is fairly easy to put a tDCS device together, this is strongly discouraged: There is little evidence for any benefits and little research on possible negative effect of longer-term use. So, please refrain from risking your health. When the science behind tDCS is better understood, it might become more widely available. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-01-22T14:34:46.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13144" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15264" CreationDate="2016-01-22T17:14:53.200" Score="4" ViewCount="166" Body="&lt;p&gt;How common is it for patients diagnosed with depression to self-prescribe themselves marijuana after trying prescription anti-depressants? Is there any evidence that this self-treatment is effective or satisfies some need that is not filled with typical prescription medication?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-22T10:53:00.930" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T17:57:17.563" Title="What is the effectiveness of self-prescribed marijuana for depression?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13145" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12609" CreationDate="2016-01-22T20:10:29.817" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given that all production rules reside in the Basal Ganglia and Thamalus, although it is not explicitly stated, the only place the rule compilation could feasibly take place is in the Basal Ganglia and Thalamus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-01-22T20:10:29.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13146" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4385" CreationDate="2016-01-23T00:27:36.333" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nearly everything that goes on in our minds happens &quot;for no apparent reason&quot; because we are only conscious of a small part of our mental activity. If it were not so, we would have too much to attend to, and could not think rationally. &quot;Life without filters would be overwhelming.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown in the split brain research that we can have two entire separate consciousnesses in one brain (if the corpus callosum is severed), and it is easily possible to have many unrelated &quot;bubbles&quot; of awareness / mental activity going on at once.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One time, when I was about to get in to a boating accident (I narrowly missed hitting a piling at night) I had 4 separate conscious thoughts speak in my mind at one time, while I was trying to see ahead AND my body was turning the wheel so hard that the boat went up on its side. I reacted before I could see what I was going to hit, and had thoughts about the outcome and other things going on (a huge meteor went across low in the sky right in front of me right then) before I had even averted the collision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The wonder is that we spend so much time &quot;&lt;em&gt;alone in our heads without adult supervision&lt;/em&gt;&quot; that we are not more aware of the many levels of simultaneous perception, memory, reaction, deciding and responding which go on all the time. But it is Ego which suppresses all of that, in favor of narrating life to itself. I am not surprised at all when some lower-priority thought interrupts with something important, interesting, relevant or just unfathomable to my pitiful self-awareness at that moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we &quot;remember everything&quot;? No, I don't think so, but there is a lot more in memory than we are aware of. &lt;em&gt;Salient&lt;/em&gt; things come back to our recall. I had a dream once of being in a house, and I held on to many details of the dream when I woke up. I wondered if it was the house my family moved out of when I was 3, which I have no significant memories of. I described what I had seen in the dream to my parents (I was about 45 at the time) and they confirmed that it accurately described the house. So, the memory was there, I just didn't have a consciously available 'handle' to retrieve it. Dreaming brings up many things that do not arise in waking consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastEditorDisplayName="user9634" LastEditDate="2016-01-23T00:34:15.683" LastActivityDate="2016-01-23T00:34:15.683" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13151" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-23T13:44:38.657" Score="2" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a toolbox to model visual search performance in a singleton search task based on line orientations (you need to find a line that is most different from all others in it's orientation). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The desirable features would be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feature-detectors that resemble real neurons.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Memory for distribution of distractors in feature space during previous trials.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there something like that? I also know that sometimes similar tasks are studied in texture discrimination. Maybe there is something close to what I need in that domain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="448" LastActivityDate="2016-01-27T17:35:02.763" Title="Toolbox for modelling visual search performance" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13152" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-23T15:15:13.210" Score="2" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do I suppress strong emotions in favour of doing the right thing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10511" LastActivityDate="2016-01-23T15:15:13.210" Title="How do I make myself think before I act?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-02-18T17:50:35.143" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13155" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13158" CreationDate="2016-01-24T09:58:03.850" Score="1" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;When discussing Spike Timing Dependent Plasticity in neurons, when we say that a neuron fires do we mean it fires only one spike? Or do we still say &quot;the neuron has fired&quot; when a train of n spikes was actually fired? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find this detail a little confusing when we learn spike timing dependent plasticity (STDP), for example. If the neuron fires only one spike, then the time of firing is precise enough for relative timing between input and output signals to be well defined, and then the theory makes sense. Otherwise, one should give an approximation of the duration of the firing train of spikes and compare it with the duration of depolarization process in the dendrite that triggered this firing. But I can't find any of these anywhere. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastEditorUserId="6642" LastEditDate="2016-01-25T09:26:14.143" LastActivityDate="2016-01-27T04:07:28.730" Title="Understanding neuronal firing in the context of Spike Timing Dependent Plasticity" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13156" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-24T10:46:40.430" Score="3" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to categorize &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Lewin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kurt Lewin&lt;/a&gt;'s work, specifically his force field model and his three-step model of change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I read, he was strongly influenced by the Gestaltists and he's considered the father of social psychology.  However, the Gestaltists, as far as I understand it, were mostly concerned with perception and the above models are developmental and/or social.  The category of social psychology is a bit broad though---there are vastly different approaches in that category.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would it be fair to say that Lewin took the Gestaltists' notion that the whole is more than the parts and applied it to social systems in which the system is more than the individuals, that he took the idea from psychodynamics that individuals aren't atomic wholes but really systems of integrated but often warring forces, and that he used the concepts of dynamic systems theory to describe how inner- and intra-personal forces settle into semi-stable equilibria?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I appreciate any type of source, but citeable ones would be really great.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10520" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-01-25T04:19:21.023" LastActivityDate="2016-01-25T04:19:21.023" Title="Categorization of Lewin's Work" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;dynamic-systems&gt;&lt;gestalt-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13157" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13155" CreationDate="2016-01-24T17:36:06.883" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not sure I understand your question correctly.  What is it you can't find anywhere?  I would comment and ask for clarification, but that requires 50 rep which I don't have in this community.  Just tell me if my reply doesn't answer your question and I'll update.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two basic ways to describe neurons' firing.  One is rate-based and the other is spiking.&#xA;In rate-based neural networks, we look at the &lt;em&gt;intensity&lt;/em&gt;, as it were, of a neuron's response to a certain input.&#xA;Within the framework of rate-based neural networks, we usually assign numbers to firing rates without attaching any units.&#xA;That is, in the &lt;em&gt;model&lt;/em&gt; of a neural network, we may say that the response of a neuron has a firing rate of 0.8, but we don't specify 0.8 of what this is (spikes per second, per 10 seconds, per minute...), and it usually doesn't matter either, because all that is important is that it is more or less than the response of another neuron or to a different stimulus.&#xA;Note that this presumes that the rate is constant after the stimulus is presented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In spiking neural networks, we model neurons' responses in much greater detail, designing differential equations which describe the time course of polarization and depolarization, such that a given depolarization can lead to explosive behavior which we call a 'spike'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, many instances of neural information processing can be described very adequately using rate-based abstractions.&#xA;This is convenient, because rate-based ANN tend to be much more stable and computationally more efficient.&#xA;Also, biological neural firing can be measured much more easily in terms of intensity than in terms of spiking---especially for whole populations.&#xA;Therefore, we know more about many of the phenomena we try to model in terms of firing rates than in terms of timing, so rate-based neural networks actually capture our knowledge better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Only in those cases where we have information about the precise timing of responses, and where we believe it to be important for the phenomena we try to model, does it make sense to accept the much more specific and difficult ontological commitments of spiking neural networks.&#xA;Otherwise, we understand what is happening in terms of intensity, not timing, and therefore the actual number of spikes per second do not matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point is, 'firing' refers to related but very different concepts in the two abstractions of biological neurons, and they can't really be compared.&#xA;Either you talk about individual spikes in a spiking model, or you talk about rates of spiking over some non-descript unit of time in a rate-based ANN, but trying too hard to compare the two concepts will lead to confusing and nonsensical situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10520" LastEditorUserId="10520" LastEditDate="2016-01-24T17:52:59.797" LastActivityDate="2016-01-24T17:52:59.797" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13158" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13155" CreationDate="2016-01-24T23:14:59.223" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find this detail a little confusing when we learn spike-timing-dependent plasticity for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the original spike timing dependent plasticity work by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/18/24/10464.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bi and Poo (1998)&lt;/a&gt;, the focus is best understood as on &lt;strong&gt;single spikes at a time&lt;/strong&gt;. This is because their protocol was to provide repeated stimulations of both pre- and post-synaptic neurons, each producing a single spike, and to do this for one minute, but, importantly, at a low frequency of just 1 Hz. Once every second may seem frequent at the macros scale of everyday life, but to a neuron, this is a rather low rate of firing. But what mattered to whether they were able to get potentiation or depression of the synapse was the precise timing of the two spikes:  pre followed by post spiking produced potentiation; post followed by pre produced depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is, to quote you, indeed&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;precise enough for relative timing between input and output signals to be well defined and then the theory makes sense.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, your confusion is when there is a higher rate of firing in a naturally occurring spike train--how are we to know which counts as a &amp;quot;post before pre&amp;quot; event vs. a &amp;quot;pre before post&amp;quot; event?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your suggestion was to count the entire train of spikes as one unit:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise one should give an approximation of the duration of the&#xA;firing train of spikes and compare it with the duration of&#xA;depolarization process in the dendrite that triggered this firing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's one possibility, but it essentially throws out the interesting STDP result itself, probably prematurely. What if, instead, we just let some spike trains happen, measure the precise times of every spike (pre and post) in them, and assess the effects on plasticity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That was done. In 2002, Froemke and Dan published &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6879/abs/416433a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Spike-timing-dependent synaptic modification induced by natural spike trains&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which shows what actually happens, in terms of synaptic plasticity. Here's what they found (emphases mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We found that in visual cortical slices the contribution of each&#xA;pre-/postsynaptic spike pair to synaptic modification depends not only&#xA;on the interval between the pair, but also on the timing of preceding&#xA;spikes. &lt;strong&gt;The efficacy of each spike in synaptic modification was&#xA;suppressed by the preceding spike&lt;/strong&gt; in the same neuron, occurring within&#xA;several tens of milliseconds. The direction and magnitude of synaptic&#xA;modifications induced by spike patterns recorded in vivo in response&#xA;to natural visual stimuli were well predicted by incorporating the&#xA;suppressive inter-spike interaction within each neuron. Thus,&#xA;activity-induced synaptic modification depends not only on the&#xA;relative spike timing between the neurons, but also on the spiking&#xA;pattern within each neuron. &lt;strong&gt;For natural spike trains, the timing of&#xA;the first spike in each burst is dominant in synaptic modification.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize, individual pre/post spike pairings in the train do matter, but they tend to cancel each other out in cases where the rate and pattern of spiking produces spikes close enough in time (10s of milliseconds), &lt;em&gt;with the exception of the first spike in each burst!&lt;/em&gt; Very interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-01-27T04:07:28.730" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13159" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13164" CreationDate="2016-01-25T07:50:47.480" Score="6" ViewCount="185" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;I came up with this question because of my personal experience. I think it may help you understand my question better, so I will describe it briefly.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Piece of metal&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I was a kid, I (accidentally) watched a horror movie. There was a scene, in which one of characters was using a fork to take out small piece of metal from his body. It scared me very much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After 15 years, I watched this horror again (and again - accidentally). I was very surprised that, when watching above scene, the small piece of metal was much, much smaller then I remembered. I estimate, that in reality it was about 3x smaller.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Until this experience, I though that memory is somehow 'fixed' since remembered. Was there any research conducted that would prove that memories are not fixed, not constant? It seems like feeling of fear somehow scaled up the source of fear (piece of metal) in my memory image, or some parts of memorised image grew with me. It was like my memory was 'updated'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If memories are indid 'mutable' by experiences, the obvious question comes to mind - can suggestion influence or even change memories?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10379" LastEditorUserId="10587" LastEditDate="2016-05-10T03:57:07.167" LastActivityDate="2016-05-10T03:57:07.167" Title="Can suggestion change memories?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13163" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-25T22:24:59.783" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;When someone is incapable of making a choice &lt;strong&gt;on behalf of others&lt;/strong&gt;, and structures everything they do to present every possible option and opportunity, what tends to be the cause of this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10388" LastEditorUserId="10388" LastEditDate="2016-01-27T05:49:09.787" LastActivityDate="2016-01-27T05:49:09.787" Title="Is there a tag for those create exhaustive lists of opportunities?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13164" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13159" CreationDate="2016-01-25T22:25:39.400" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer to your question is yes, our memories are very malleable. Look into the research of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus&quot;&gt;Elizabeth Loftus&lt;/a&gt;. She is kind of the pioneer on this topic and has done a ton of research into false memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/elizabeth_loftus_the_fiction_of_memory?language=en&quot;&gt;Here is a TED talk by her that you might find interesting&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/12/4/361.long&quot;&gt;here is a review article&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-01-25T22:25:39.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13165" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-26T12:55:25.117" Score="9" ViewCount="190" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am asking whether adults, especially in circumstances like a monastery or Zen center, can become able long-term to sleep only about 4 to 5 hours a night? So, that would mean: no children to care for, no heavy labor, lots of time spent meditating and doing other things that the body would find restful and undemanding...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the mind get along on much less hours of sleep than the usual adult? I am not asking about the absolute numbers, only if it can be reduced and sustained over years, or permanently?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastActivityDate="2019-01-08T21:50:23.480" Title="Can adults adapt to less sleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13166" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13151" CreationDate="2016-01-26T15:15:02.193" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm assuming that you want some kind of &quot;computer vision&quot; model (in that you want to be able to provide the model with input stimuli in the form of an image), and that you want to predict some kind of behaviour? (e.g., RT from a search task). Fleshing out the different processes involved is not going to be trivial, so there probably isn't a &quot;one-size-fits-all&quot; &quot;toolbox&quot; for your problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the &quot;saliency map model&quot; by Itti and Koch would be suitable. There are many more modern versions of this (including a MATLAB toolbox and a number of related models). While it is not necessarily the best, the advantages in this case are that Itti and Koch actually used an orientation pop-out task in their original paper (Vision Research, 2000). However, I'm not sure to what degree the feature detectors actually resemble neurons, and I don't think a memory component has been included.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastEditorUserId="9539" LastEditDate="2016-01-27T17:35:02.763" LastActivityDate="2016-01-27T17:35:02.763" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13167" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13215" CreationDate="2016-01-26T15:22:53.033" Score="1" ViewCount="640" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ignoring someone is a manipulatory technique used at times. Ignoring the attacks of someone else through emotional detachment has a very strong effect on the attacker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this kind of manipulative behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-01-27T13:33:06.563" LastActivityDate="2016-02-01T16:09:34.113" Title="Why being ignored is 'painful' for human beings?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13171" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-27T05:45:55.247" Score="3" ViewCount="435" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptive_field&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; about receptive fields of visual system and it states the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The receptive field is often identified as the region of the retina where the action of light alters the firing of the neuron. In retinal ganglion cells (see below), this area of the retina would encompass all the photoreceptors, all the rods and cones from one eye.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/B4cxn.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/B4cxn.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand the part where it says that the neurons firing increases as we put light on the center of the receptive (for the ON center type) and &lt;em&gt;etc.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm not sure about is the location of this circle, in other words, &lt;strong&gt;where is this circle that we put light on&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I think is that the circle is the area of retina where we have the rod and cone shaped photoreceptors. Does this means that for every ganglion cell the photoreceptors connected to it are always shaped like a circle ?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7116" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-18T09:26:19.900" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T10:39:19.250" Title="What is the location of the center-surround receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13172" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-27T06:16:12.797" Score="5" ViewCount="3275" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptive_field&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; on receptive fields (RFs). There, a receptive field is defined as: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The receptive field of an individual sensory neuron is the particular region of the sensory space (e.g., the body surface, or the visual field) in which a stimulus will trigger the firing of that neuron&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.coursera.org/course/compneuro&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the online course&lt;/a&gt; that I am taking, the slides of prof. Rao defines the receptive field as: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;specific properties of a sensory stimulus that generate a strong response from the cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first definition states that the RF is a sensory area, while the second one is saying that it is the stimulus and its properties. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which one of these options is correct, or are they both correct? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7116" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-18T13:27:48.187" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T21:26:58.377" Title="What is the definition of a receptive field?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13173" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13196" CreationDate="2016-01-27T08:50:48.500" Score="9" ViewCount="1011" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people form a belief and become absolutely resistant to any contrary evidence or reasoning. Even in the face of overwhelming evidence, these people stick to their beliefs. I'm pretty sure this is something that has been investigated by cognitive sciences, and I'd like to know what this phenomenon is called as I'd like to learn more about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what is the mechanism of this denial-of-evidence called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recently came to the conclusion that a lot of people who hold onto conspiracies and the like show similar behaviors to religious fanatics. The way these conspiracy-believers argue and the way they react when confronted with critique or even evidence seems to be similar, no matter what conspiracy-topic it's about (with varying degrees of fanaticism, of course; some &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; still be reached with reason while others are so deep into their belief-system that they cannot be reached any longer). I find this strangely fascinating and would like to understand the &quot;mechanics&quot; of this phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10555" LastEditorUserId="9981" LastEditDate="2016-01-27T16:14:48.147" LastActivityDate="2017-05-03T08:09:58.687" Title="Denial of evidence and reason" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2016-02-04T09:57:41.883" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13174" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13127" CreationDate="2016-01-27T14:41:34.683" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly, this question sounds pretty clearly self-serving, like saying &quot;I want people to like me more; how do I make them like me?&quot;. Secondly, school is a business, much like other businesses. When a company makes a product, of course the company hopes the market will &quot;appreciate&quot; the product. There are many marketing strategies used out there, but the long-term viability of a product requires that it provides clear value. Without that value, prospects cannot be expected to appreciate the product. In the case of high school, most students are probably aware that the product is not being sold to the students but instead to the parents. Hence, students are not the customer. Since students are not the customer, and since students had little to no say in the product's design, getting the students to appreciate the product is going to be very challenging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One approach is to make the students believe they are the customer. You might, for example, use a bandwagon strategy wherein you explain that &quot;There are many happy students from years prior who have attended this school and are now enjoying a life of success and freedom&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another approach, which would be more honest, would be to actually &lt;strong&gt;make the students into the customer&lt;/strong&gt;, such as by designing the curriculum around their needs and aspirations while providing &lt;strong&gt;a clear value that cannot easily be found elsewhere&lt;/strong&gt;. If you are to be honest with yourself, this is the only noble approach. If a school cannot provide clear benefits that a student cannot find outside of school (such as on the Internet or in books alone), then that school is not doing its job. Sure, there are many types of rhetoric and trickery that can (and often are) employed by schools and governments, but these are nothing to be proud of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short: Provide a unique and worthwhile opportunity with a benefit that can be seen clearly. Engage the students in the curriculum -- make &lt;em&gt;them&lt;/em&gt; the customer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: While a bit off-topic, I just remembered a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xe6nLVXEC0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;music video&lt;/a&gt; that critiques some of the curriculum focus in the recent if not current school system. This video had no bearing on my answer here as I only remembered the video afterward, but its topic is related enough to be worth mentioning here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastEditorUserId="9981" LastEditDate="2016-01-27T17:28:06.853" LastActivityDate="2016-01-27T17:28:06.853" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13175" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-27T15:06:39.597" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine you are driving your car, in front of you, you see a wall. What prevents us from driving against the wall? Is this accomplished by the brain having inhibitory synapses established here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastActivityDate="2016-01-27T15:59:51.103" Title="Are inhibitory synapses the cause of not doing something?" Tags="&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13176" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13175" CreationDate="2016-01-27T15:44:52.887" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Inhibitory synapses allows one brain region to suppress activity in another. Since the car is in motion per the laws of motion and momentum, it would be incorrect to say that suppressing one brain region would cause the car to stop moving toward the wall. The closest thing would be if those inhibitory synapses caused one part of your brain to inhibit the part that causes your foot to press the accelerator pedal. For example, dopaminergic neural processes from the &lt;em&gt;basal ganglia&lt;/em&gt; (particularly the &lt;em&gt;substantia nigra&lt;/em&gt;) indeed suppress motor impulse indirectly (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_ganglia_disease&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;see here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substantia_nigra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). However, more activity than simply releasing the pedal is required in most cases to avoid hitting something. In short, you most certainly need both inhibitory and excitatory synapses to help you avoid running into something on the road or on your path as you walk. These functions are probably very complex, involving a great many of both types of synapses in several brain regions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to remember that many if not most neural circuits are primarily for very specific actions in the body or mind. Most &quot;actions&quot; in the common sense that a person can undertake are the result of a great many action potentials in the brain. Perhaps in some very small (such as microscopic) creatures, a single action potential is needed to initiate an activity such as feeding, but larger creatures with bigger brains have so many neural pathways that most observable actions of the animal require many internal actions of the processing system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastEditorUserId="9981" LastEditDate="2016-01-27T15:59:51.103" LastActivityDate="2016-01-27T15:59:51.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13177" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-27T17:33:35.177" Score="0" ViewCount="3265" Body="&lt;p&gt;For me it seems that getting angry or irritated makes me less intelligent but it didn't try testing it. Has there indeed been such tests or anything else about testing IQ levels of different moods for the same subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2846" LastActivityDate="2016-01-28T08:18:35.343" Title="Does anger lower a person's cognitive ability?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13178" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13177" CreationDate="2016-01-27T19:59:08.383" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first question that should be asked is, do you mean cognitive ability or IQ? They are intertwined, but different. Unfortunately, I can not comment.  I'm going to answer based on the question in the title.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes. Walter Mischels work on self-control indicates that anger, a &amp;quot;hot&amp;quot; emotion led by the amygdala in the limbic system, will provoke more immediate response. Limiting &lt;a href=&quot;http://sharpbrains.com/blog/2006/12/18/what-are-cognitive-abilities/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;cognitive abilities&quot;&gt;cognitive abilities&lt;/a&gt; like working memory, judgment and evaluation, reasoning and &amp;quot;computation&amp;quot;, decision making, and comprehension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The limbic system consists of primitive brain structures located under the cortex on top of the brain stem, which developed early in our evolution. These structures regulate basic drives and emotions essential for survival, from fear and &lt;strong&gt;anger&lt;/strong&gt; to hunger and sex... Within the limbic system, the amygdala is especially important. It plays a key role in fear responses and in sexual and appetitive behavior. The amygdala rapidly mobilizes the body for action. &lt;strong&gt;It does not pause to think and reflect or worry about long term consequences.&lt;/strong&gt; (Pg 43)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hot system is ... Reflexive, simple, emotional, it automatically and quickly triggers consumptive behavior, arousal, and impulsive action (Pg 44-45)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This hot response is not useful when success in a given situation depends on staying cool, planning ahead, and problem-solving rationally. (Pg 45)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &amp;quot;cool&amp;quot; cognitive system, where we find our cognitive abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Closely interconnected with the brain's hot system is its cool system, which is &lt;strong&gt;cognitive&lt;/strong&gt;, complex, reflective, and slower to activate. It is centered primarily in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). It's important to note that stress attenuates the cool system and accentuates the hot system. The hot and cool systems continuously and seamlessly interact in a reciprocal relationship: as one becomes more active the other becomes less active. (Pg 46)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The PFC is the most evolved region of the brain. It enables and supports the highest-order cognitive abilities that make us distinctly human. ...Unlike the hot system, the cool system is attuned to the informational aspects of stimuli and enables rational, reflective, and strategic behavior. (Pg 46)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here we have a pretty clear description of how anger, &amp;quot;hot&amp;quot;, limits the cognitive abilities of the prefrontal cortex, or the &amp;quot;cold&amp;quot; system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prolonged stress impairs the PFC, which is essential... for things like surviving high school, holding down a job, pursuing an advanced degree... and refraining from decisions that seem intuitively right but on closer examination are really stupid. (Pg 49)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the same book, research done by nueroscientist Amy Arnsten at Yale is mentioned,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Even quite mild acute uncontrollable stress (&lt;em&gt;like that caused by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.therapists.com/fundamentals/anger&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;anger&quot;&gt;anger&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;) can cause rapid and dramatic loss of prefrontal cognitive abilities.&amp;quot; The longer stress persists, the more those cognitive abilities are hurt and the more permanent the damage, ultimately leading to mental as well as physical illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Italicized content is a personal addition to clarify how anger can cause uncontrollable stress)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Demonstrating long term and short term impacts of stress caused by anger and irritation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Walter Mischel. &amp;quot;The Marshmallow Test: Why Self-Control is the Engine of Success&amp;quot;. 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-01-28T08:18:35.343" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13179" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13190" CreationDate="2016-01-28T12:19:02.250" Score="2" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that levels in the sensorimotor hierarchy of the brain learn recurring features of their input streams. The results are activation patterns with single neurons firing for the existence of specific higher level patterns. Those sparse representations are passed upward to the next higher layer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, there is a neuron firing whenever there is a face in the scene. On this higher level, neurons are not restricted to a small window of our field of view anymore. My question is how those high level sparse representations still retain information about positions and counts of objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One bad explanation would be that there are neurons representing counts in general. If &quot;three&quot; and &quot;face&quot; are both active, there are three faces in the scene. But this doesn't hold for two kinds of objects at the same time since it's not clear which count is for which object. And what if both have the same count.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="908" LastEditDate="2016-01-28T19:13:22.923" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T01:21:47.360" Title="How are positions and counts of higher concepts encoded in sparse representations?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13180" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13195" CreationDate="2016-01-28T12:25:01.213" Score="0" ViewCount="185" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think emotions and hormones frames the overall thinking processes of the brain. However, I'm interested in how this works on a neuronal level. For example, dopamine is some kind of reward signal for the brain. How does it interact with individual neurons or synapses and affect the way they behave?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="908" LastEditDate="2016-01-28T13:45:23.857" LastActivityDate="2016-01-30T05:08:12.607" Title="How do neuro transmitters interact with neurons in the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13181" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17388" CreationDate="2016-01-28T12:35:59.533" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the Leabra cognitive architecture, sparse representations are created by simply ignoring all but the k strongest activations, if I understand correctly. In Hierarchical Temporal Memory, instead, each firing neuron inhibits an area of a given radius during this time step. To me, this seems more plausible due to the locality of neuronal connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the k-winner inhibition biologically plausible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="908" LastEditDate="2016-02-01T22:35:36.213" LastActivityDate="2017-05-28T12:41:57.447" Title="Is k-winner a biological plausible model of inhibition?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13182" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13203" CreationDate="2016-01-28T13:43:09.217" Score="3" ViewCount="337" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does dopamine spread and interact across the whole brain? If not, which areas are affected most and which least?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastActivityDate="2016-01-31T16:23:22.060" Title="Which parts of the brain are affected by dopamine?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13183" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-28T14:12:38.580" Score="2" ViewCount="178" Body="&lt;p&gt;Observation A:&#xA;It's easy to recite the alphabet. It's hard to recite the alphabet backwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Observation B:&#xA;It's easy to recite the number 1 to 26. It's easy to recite the number 1 to 26 backwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is the difference between A and B explained?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I came across the first observation  in the book &quot;How to Create a Mind&quot; by Ray Kurzweil)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8123" LastActivityDate="2016-01-28T14:12:38.580" Title="Reciting Reverse Order Alphabet vs Reverse Order Counting" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13184" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13181" CreationDate="2016-01-28T17:46:43.777" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/29/23/7497.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Second Function of Gamma Frequency Oscillations: An E%-Max Winner-Take-All Mechanism Selects Which Cells Fire&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by de Almeida, et al., 2009 for a biologically plausible implementation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-05-28T10:37:56.847" LastActivityDate="2017-05-28T10:37:56.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13185" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13084" CreationDate="2016-01-28T23:03:31.730" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;While it's true that universal nouns will link mostly to other universal nouns (&lt;em&gt;a tree is a plant&lt;/em&gt;), and universal verbs will link mostly to other universal verbs (&lt;em&gt;to climb is to move&lt;/em&gt;), it is not necessary that they be in separate memory areas from each other; or even that they be separate from event memory (&lt;em&gt;one cat did climb one tree&lt;/em&gt;).  The most efficient memory scheme would minimize the length of all links.  One way would be to store all new memories in a fairly linear structure, and then use an off-line process (sleep) to spread them around to minimize total link lengths {or to optimize lengths around importance of fast access}. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10564" LastActivityDate="2016-01-28T23:03:31.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13186" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13062" CreationDate="2016-01-28T23:26:24.810" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like most of language, we have an innate ability to learn by exposure, with the rules remaining subconscious until someone forces us to explain them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Syllables are based on phonemes, so we need to know the rules of spelling if we don't already know the word by sound.  Each syllable consists of an &lt;strong&gt;onset&lt;/strong&gt; and a &lt;strong&gt;rime&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The onset is a cluster of consonants (or it is null, at the beginning of some words).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The rime is a cluster of vowels {or diphthongs...}, plus an optional cluster of consonants {typically at the end of a word}.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus: cushion: [c] (u) + [sh] (io[n]) = 2 syllables&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10565" LastActivityDate="2016-01-28T23:26:24.810" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13187" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9659" CreationDate="2016-01-29T02:41:10.560" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://thethinkingasexual.wordpress.com/2015/01/29/how-many-people-are-aromantic/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How Many People Are Aromantic?&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; from the blog &lt;em&gt;The Thinking Aro&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on the 2014 Asexual Community Census data provided &lt;a href=&quot;https://asexualcensus.wordpress.com/2014/11/17/cross-orientations-among-non-aces/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;25.9%&lt;/strong&gt; of asexuals are aromantic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we run with the studies performed on self-reporting asexuals currently on the books, approximately &lt;strong&gt;one percent of the human population is asexual.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that in the United States alone, there are approximately &lt;strong&gt;3,161,000 asexuals.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The number of aromantic asexuals in the U.S. should be about &lt;strong&gt;818,699.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(The one dilemma we have in arriving at accurate numbers is that we can’t know if the 1% of people who are asexual includes demisexuals and gray-asexuals or not. The 2014 Asexual Census reports that 25.9% of asexuals are aromantic; &lt;strong&gt;9.1%&lt;/strong&gt; of gray-asexuals are aromantic and &lt;strong&gt;3.5%&lt;/strong&gt; of demisexuals are aromantic. When dividing the entire asexual spectrum by romantic orientation, aromantics make up 19% total, so if gray-asexuals and demisexuals would be part of the 1% of “asexuals” in the human population, then the number of aromantics would be lower than what I listed above. But if they aren’t part of that 1%, then the numbers would actually be higher.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, the data collected through the 2014 census from sexual people (anyone who isn’t asexual, demisexual, or gray-asexual) is obviously tough to accept as accurately representative of the real sexual population because sexual people who completed the census would obviously be a specific type who has exposure to the asexual community online and therefore is aware of romantic and sexual orientations and information that most people in the world at large don’t have. But just for the hell of it, let’s consider the numbers that come of the data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of the sexual people who took the census, &lt;strong&gt;4.3%&lt;/strong&gt; identified as aromantic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if 4.3% of sexual people are aromantic (which might at first seem high but then again, maybe not), that means there should be around &lt;strong&gt;13,456,377 aromantic sexual people in the United States.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Add that to the more reliable stat we have for aromantic asexuals, and there are roughly &lt;strong&gt;14,275,076 aromantic people currently living in the U.S.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author seems to place the population of the U.S. at 316,100,00, so these (highly uncertain) figures imply &lt;strong&gt;4.5%&lt;/strong&gt; of population is aromantic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, this is assuming that 99% of human beings are sexual, excluding demisexuals and gray-asexuals. If we were to lump in demisexuals and gray-asexuals as part of that 99% of everyone who is not asexual, then the number of aromantics rises because we add the 9.1% of gray-aces who are aro and the 3.5% of demisexuals who are aro to the 4.3% of sexual people who are aro.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These numbers do not include anyone, asexual-spectrum or sexual, who are demiromantic, grayromantic, or WTFromantic. Those are just the aromantics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for whether the aromanticism rate is different among sexual orientations, it is according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://asexualcensus.wordpress.com/2014/11/17/cross-orientations-among-non-aces/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cross-orientations among non-aces&lt;/a&gt; from the &lt;em&gt;Asexual Census Blog&lt;/em&gt;, which much of the above blog post was based on. The post states that 25.9% of asexuals, 3.5% of demisexuals, 9.1% of gray-asexuals, and 4.3% of non-aces are aromantic. It doesn't break down non-ace orientations though for their individual rates of aromanticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6191" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-01-29T03:01:09.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13189" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13173" CreationDate="2016-01-29T17:18:55.653" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the Wikipedia's page on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Dissonance&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology, cognitive dissonance is the mental stress or discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time, performs an action that is contradictory to one or more beliefs, ideas or values, &lt;strong&gt;or is confronted by new information that conflicts with existing beliefs, ideas, or values&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, individuals try to reduce the discomfort by having the attitude you described:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If the dissonance is not reduced by changing one's belief, the dissonance can result in restoring consonance through misperception, rejection or refutation of the information, seeking support from others who share the beliefs, and attempting to persuade others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10361" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-03T08:09:58.687" LastActivityDate="2017-05-03T08:09:58.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13190" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13179" CreationDate="2016-01-29T18:08:30.640" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Two ideas on this so far:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I think we have neurons representing multiple occurrences of a given feature, for example one neuron for &quot;one face&quot;, one for &quot;two faces&quot;, etc. At some number it doesn't really make a big difference anymore, so there is just a neuron for &quot;group of faces&quot;. This would explain why we can recognize small number of objects in a glimpse but have to count for larger amount. Corrections and suggestions are welcome.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In his 2014 talk at MIT, Prof. Hinton explains how the brain might find equivariant features instead of invariant features. Basically, in addition to existence of a feature, neurons in the same cortical cell might output the properties of this feature. In vision, those properties would be position and rotation, for example.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="908" LastEditDate="2016-02-06T00:04:55.740" LastActivityDate="2016-02-06T00:04:55.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13191" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13182" CreationDate="2016-01-29T18:44:38.583" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, unlike norepinephrine and serotonin, dopamine's pathway is limited.actually it affects two part of cognition, reward and motor functions.&#xA;As part of the reward pathway, dopamine is manufactured in nerve cell bodies located within the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and is released in the nucleus accumbens and the prefrontal cortex. The motor functions of dopamine are linked to a separate pathway, with cell bodies in the substantia nigra that manufacture and release dopamine into the striatum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10578" LastActivityDate="2016-01-29T18:44:38.583" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13192" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13173" CreationDate="2016-01-29T19:07:51.240" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually it is simply called denial as a defense mechanism . as you may have already know, most of our cognition happens in a subconscious and semiconscious level. a belief system is usually what people learn in their childhood and from their parents so it really sticks to brain and goes underlying the whole subconscious and semiconscious thought.&#xA;So, when you try to convince them that their belief is wrong, they simply alter their perception in advantage of their belief and since they don't do it on a conscious level they are not aware of it.&#xA;The whole point of this mechanism is to avoid distress over the organization of thoughts and behavior. Some people lives are based on their beliefs so it's so simplistic that one assumes it can be changed overnight, because if it does, mental distress will result in a mental breakdown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10578" LastEditorUserId="10578" LastEditDate="2016-01-29T19:28:04.113" LastActivityDate="2016-01-29T19:28:04.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13194" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-30T02:53:29.873" Score="0" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the neural activity that correlates with motor skill function tend to be focused near or far from the outer surface of the brain, or both? And what about perception?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My deeper curiosity being: I'd conjecture that the first is either near the surface or both, given the ability of technology now to read input directly from the brain in order to move virtual objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10581" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-05-01T01:00:35.777" LastActivityDate="2016-05-01T16:03:48.940" Title="Where is motor skill function located within the brain?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13195" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13180" CreationDate="2016-01-30T05:08:12.607" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually it's a bit complicated but in simple terms : &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurotransmitters are stored in a synapse in synaptic vesicles, clustered beneath the membrane in the axon terminal located at the presynaptic side of the synapse. Neurotransmitters are released into and diffused across the synaptic cleft, where they bind to specific receptors in the membrane on the postsynaptic side of the synapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most neurotransmitters are about the size of a single amino acid, however, some neurotransmitters may be the size of larger proteins or peptides. A released neurotransmitter is typically available in the synaptic cleft for a short time before it is metabolized by enzymes, pulled back into the presynaptic neuron through reuptake, or bound to a postsynaptic receptor. Nevertheless, short-term exposure of the receptor to a neurotransmitter is typically sufficient for causing a postsynaptic response by way of synaptic transmission.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In response to a threshold action potential or graded electrical potential, a neurotransmitter is released at the presynaptic terminal. Low level &quot;baseline&quot; release also occurs without electrical stimulation. The released neurotransmitter may then move across the synapse to be detected by and bind with receptors in the postsynaptic neuron. Binding of neurotransmitters may influence the postsynaptic neuron in either an inhibitory or excitatory way. This neuron may be connected to many more neurons, and if the total of excitatory influences are greater than those of inhibitory influences, the neuron will also &quot;fire&quot;. Ultimately it will create a new action potential at its axon hillock to release neurotransmitters and pass on the information to yet another neighboring neuron.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10578" LastActivityDate="2016-01-30T05:08:12.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13196" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13173" CreationDate="2016-01-30T05:54:13.723" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias, also called confirmatory bias or myside bias, is&#xA;  the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information&#xA;  in a way that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses, while giving&#xA;  disproportionately less consideration to alternative possibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A feature of this bias is belief perseverance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... when beliefs persist after the evidence for them is shown to be false ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias is an umbrella term for a variety of strategies and effects that may be applicable in different situations, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-justification&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-justification&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-verification&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_polarization&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;attitude polarization&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;escalation of commitment&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_picking&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cherry picking&lt;/a&gt;, etc, etc.  See the duplicate questions I listed in the comments above for more varieties of these.  You may find that some sub-category of confirmation bias is more apt to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: Cognitive dissonance refers to the cause of a number of possible inconsistency &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance#Reducing&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;reduction strategies&lt;/a&gt;, of which belief perseverance is one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: Denial refers to an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego-defence mechanism&lt;/a&gt; - ie, it applies only if the person feels personally threatened by the inconsistency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2016-01-30T05:54:13.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13197" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13194" CreationDate="2016-01-30T05:55:35.753" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most brain-machine interfaces involving movement would be based on activity in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;primary motor cortex&lt;/a&gt;, which, as you said, is near the surface. Right next to that are is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;primary somatosensory cortex&lt;/a&gt;, which is the first cortical area where touch information is processed. It is also near the surface. Most of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neocortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neocortex&lt;/a&gt; is going to be near the surface, with some parts (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;gyri&lt;/a&gt;) closer than others (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sulci&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The primary reason that there is more progress being made with reading &lt;strong&gt;from&lt;/strong&gt; the brain as opposed to sending information &lt;strong&gt;to&lt;/strong&gt; the brain is that we have very little understanding of how information is stored and processed in the brain, the &lt;em&gt;language of the brain&lt;/em&gt;. What we do know is that we can record neural activity and feed it into some type of machine learning algorithm which then can interpret this activity to some degree. Note that the output of these models is usually very limited and their performance is far from perfect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Going the other way is a lot more difficult, because we would need to be able to &lt;em&gt;speak the language&lt;/em&gt; of the brain. You might think that you could just reverse the models somehow, but it's not that simple. The good news is that all of this research (brain machine interfaces, as well as all of the other basic science work being done) is slowly moving towards a better understanding of how the brain works to a level where we will someday be able to &lt;em&gt;speak the language&lt;/em&gt;. I wouldn't be surprised if, in less than 10 years, we will be seeing neural implants being tested that communicate bidirectionally with the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-01-30T05:55:35.753" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13200" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13182" CreationDate="2016-01-30T15:53:37.893" Score="2" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parts of the brain affected by dopamine &#xA;Dopamine exerts different effects in different regions and pathways throughout the brain. In the &lt;strong&gt;mesolimbic pathway&lt;/strong&gt;, dopamine is believed to be involved in motivation and addiction due to the feelings of reward and pleasure associated with dopamine release here. In the &lt;strong&gt;mesocortical pathway&lt;/strong&gt;, dopamine is linked to emotional and motivational activities. In the &lt;strong&gt;nigrostriatal pathway&lt;/strong&gt; dopamine is responsible for regulating and initiating motor activity. In the &lt;strong&gt;tuberoinfundibular pathway&lt;/strong&gt;, dopamine regulates the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interaction with the brain and where (already answered by @shayankabiri)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10587" LastActivityDate="2016-01-30T15:53:37.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13203" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13182" CreationDate="2016-01-30T20:55:10.507" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quoting my thesis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CNS Dopamine/DA projections primarily emerge from two subcortical basal ganglia nuclei in the brain stem, travelling along three major pathways (Purves et al., 2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The nigrostriatal pathway, connecting the substantia nigra and the striatum, is mainly implicated in higher motor control. The mesolimbic pathway contains DA projections from the Ventral Tegmental Area/VTA and the pars compacta of the Substantia Nigra (SNc) to limbic systems including hip- pocampus, amgydala and thalamus, and is critical in learning and memory in a mechanism that is well-investigated (Lisman &amp;amp; Grace, 2005). The mesocortical pathway connects the VTA and SNc to the cortex. In contrast to the extensive noradrenergic innervation of the cortex, DA therefore reaches only selected areas (Foote &amp;amp; Morrison, 1987). DA density is extensive in prefrontal and anterior cingulate areas, and falls off rapidly across an rostro-caudal gradient. The temporal lobe is only weakly innvervated (including the enthorinal cortex), and little to no innervation reaches parietal and especially occipital lobes, though DA fibers in monkey area 7 have been reported (Foote &amp;amp; Morrison, 1987).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So basically, subcortical innervation is rich, but cortical innervation is focused on frontal areas. DA is often depicted as having &lt;em&gt;zero&lt;/em&gt; cortical presence outside of frontal areas, but this is false; while DA innervation density falls off sharply outside of the frontal lobes, at least in humans and other apes, there is some DA reaching at least as far back as the temporal lobes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this is only the &lt;em&gt;direct&lt;/em&gt; effect of DA. In principle, all of the brain is strongly affected by the effects of DA, because frontal cortices, who are strongly influenced by DA, in turn strongly influence the rest of the bain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources (obviously): Foote, S. L., &amp;amp; Morrison, J. H. (1987). Extrathalamic modulation of cortical function. Annual review of neuroscience, 10, 67–95.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-01-31T16:23:22.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13205" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-31T08:29:55.013" Score="2" ViewCount="1278" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am insatiably curious about the topic of &quot;accelerated learning&quot;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Think about that scene in the matrix where trinity downloads the skill of how to fly a helicopter into her brain in a few seconds. :)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &quot;accelerated learning&quot;, I mean committing new information to long term memory in a highly recallable fashion with maximum efficiency - i.e. minimum time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that developing the optimal accelerated learning algorithm requires a deep understanding of how the brain actually learns (at the level of neurons and synapses).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is from this perspective, that I am considering these 2 &quot;modes&quot; of the brain called &quot;focused mode&quot; and &quot;diffused mode&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to state my intuition about how these 2 modes are used by the brain to learn and then have someone more knowledgeable than I tell me where I am wrong. Or perhaps improve the explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My intuition is that &quot;diffused mode&quot; is about making associations.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;i.e. Noticing how things are similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we learn something new, we try to associate it to something we already know.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Like maybe when you see a pomelo for the first time, you might associate it to a grapefruit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My intuition is that &quot;focused mode&quot; is about making discernments.&#xA;i.e. Noticing how things are different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a pomelo is different than a grapefruit in several ways:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It's bigger.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It's inner skin is thicker.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; the process of learning the concept of &quot;pomelo&quot; then involves refining a &quot;sparse distributed representation&quot; of the object in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &quot;sparse distributed representation&quot; is just a bunch of neurons that fire together to signify the thought of a unique concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So learning involves starting with a sparse distributed representation for an existing concept that we are familiar with, and then making changes to that representation via discernment until we have a new unique &quot;sparse distributed representation&quot; for our new concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastEditorUserId="8423" LastEditDate="2016-02-07T08:34:49.683" LastActivityDate="2017-04-25T11:21:54.727" Title="How does the brains &quot;focused&quot; and &quot;diffused&quot; modes facilitate learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13206" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-01-31T09:09:24.930" Score="-4" ViewCount="1511" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a hard question to ask without coming off as a sexist, merely via the title, so I'd like to make one thing clear right away: I understand that men and women have an identical capability of developing intelligence on perfectly equal levels. I'm not expressing that I think any one woman is any less capable of equal or greater intelligence compared to any man. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With that said, I understand that the human mind is a very dynamic tool that can be excersised and developed. Just like after never lifting a weight in my life, I wouldn't be capable of walking in and bench press 350, I can't expect to have an IQ of 130 all in a sudden after never once putting my mind to solving a tough problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my life experience, I've met highly intelligent people, both men and women. However I've noticed a strong trend of women having far less interest in the very problem solving that defines one's IQ. I have put some thought into this, and after learning that men and women have identical brains for the most part, I assumed the trend must be due to hormonal differences, causing women to spend far more time on emotional thought processes rather than on problem solving. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I completely wrong? Partially wrong? I'm not an expert in cognitive sciences, so I ask this question with an open mind. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: This question hasn't been received well. See my comment on an answer below for a brief explanation of my thinking. Basically I'm either asking the wrong things, or in the wrong place. I'm not trying to be sexist though. I genuinely want to study the topic in order to understand, in the best interest of women, whom I find aren't engaging as much as men are in intellectual topics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9361" LastEditorUserId="9361" LastEditDate="2016-02-28T08:18:24.750" LastActivityDate="2017-02-15T00:44:29.387" Title="Do hormonal factors cause a trend of lower IQ in women?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2017-02-21T21:42:58.713" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13209" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-01T05:11:23.590" Score="0" ViewCount="448" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone constantly invalidates your experiences and feelings does that mean they are a narcissist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if I am really hurt by someone and I go to a friend for support and my friend &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; invalidates everything I tell them does that mean they lack empathy? The interaction is always confusing and the fact of the matter is always deflected. They say things like 'I'm sure he didn't mean it. That wasn't his intention. etc.' Always!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that a sign of narcissism? They can't feel the pain themselves or they can't see it so they dismiss it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But they say they care then impose what they think you should feel onto you.&#xA;Self-absorbed? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10597" LastEditorUserId="10597" LastEditDate="2016-07-18T05:14:02.487" LastActivityDate="2016-07-18T05:14:02.487" Title="If a person constantly invalidates your feelings is he/she a narcissist?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-07-20T04:29:30.637" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13210" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-01T05:24:25.887" Score="1" ViewCount="185" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read that our heart can think like our brain. Of course it doesn't have complete functionality of brain but it has its own consciousness. Is it true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10598" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-02-01T20:46:32.390" LastActivityDate="2016-02-01T20:46:32.390" Title="Is the heart conscious?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13212" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-01T07:17:59.113" Score="1" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm asking as much to improve my study skills as out of curiosity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research into when memorisation fails? Specifically, why the same person can sometimes routinely fail to remember things, and at other times have a very good memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps a difference between a robust and large short term memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2016-02-01T07:17:59.113" Title="Is there a psychological concept about erratic (long term) memorisation?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13213" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-01T10:24:03.217" Score="-1" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was curious as to know what are the natural causes for the secretion of dopamine in our body. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any specific foods that increases the dopamine level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is said that dopamine are usually high when you are in love is that a myth or a fact? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does dopamine affect ones behavior/mood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10601" LastActivityDate="2016-02-18T22:04:51.397" Title="What causes dopamine in our body" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-02-18T22:50:30.843" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13215" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13167" CreationDate="2016-02-01T16:09:34.113" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ignoring is a type of social rejection see extracts from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rejection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social rejection occurs when an individual is deliberately excluded&#xA;from a social relationship or social interaction. ... rejection can be either active, by bullying, teasing, or ridiculing, or passive, by ignoring a person, or giving the &amp;quot;silent treatment.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers have also investigated how the brain responds to social&#xA;rejection. One study found that the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex&#xA;is active when people are experiencing both physical pain and &amp;quot;social&#xA;pain,&amp;quot; in response to social rejection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-02-01T16:09:34.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13216" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13210" CreationDate="2016-02-01T19:34:17.590" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The general consensus of the scientific community would be that the human heart is not capable of consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The machinery behind consciousness is not well understood, of course, and there is quite a bit of debate, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-theory-of-consciousness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;it is thought that some minimum level of complexity is required in order for consciousness to arise&lt;/a&gt;. The human heart, while containing some neural circuitry, is very unlikely to reach this minimum level of complexity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Are-there-neurons-in-the-human-heart-What-are-the-implications-of-this&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is a Quora discussion that further explores this issue&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-02-01T19:34:17.590" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13217" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-01T20:20:21.460" Score="2" ViewCount="483" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between &lt;em&gt;stereoscopic depth&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;crossed/uncrossed disparity&lt;/em&gt;, and specifically in terms of their use in the methods to manipulate visual stimuli to investigate depth-perception?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9853" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-22T12:00:48.123" LastActivityDate="2016-07-22T12:16:47.820" Title="What is the difference between 'stereoscopic depth' and 'crossed/uncrossed disparity'?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13218" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13231" CreationDate="2016-02-01T21:33:10.890" Score="6" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen neuroscience and facial recognition studies that give evidence for this idea of simple geometric shapes causing emotional responses or quicker recognition of negative affect.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there studies exploring the other end? (i.e. positive valence of simple geometric shapes)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Larson, C. L., Aronoff, J., Sarinopoulos, I. C., &amp;amp; Zhu, D. C. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21111&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Recognizing threat: A simple geometric shape activates neural circuitry for threat detection.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 21(8), 1523-1535.&#xA;Watson, D. G., Blagrove, E., Evans, C., &amp;amp; Moore, L. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0024495&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Negative triangles: Simple geometric shapes convey emotional valence.&lt;/a&gt; Emotion, 12(1), 18-22. doi:10.1037/a0024495&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10606" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-02-05T13:18:27.910" LastActivityDate="2016-02-05T13:18:27.910" Title="Valence conveyed in simple geometric shapes" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13219" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-02T02:36:33.220" Score="5" ViewCount="573" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read a long time ago that in a study of two-week old infants response to touch, the female babies were far and away more sensitive. In most gender comparisons, there are the familiar &quot;two humps&quot; in the distribution of responses, but in this case, &lt;strong&gt;the male and female response ranges did not even overlap&lt;/strong&gt;: the most sensitive male infant was less sensitive than the least sensitive female. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has this sort of difference been shown in more recent research and with other age groups? It seems to me that it would have to be innate, because two weeks is not a long time to be affected by cultural differences. I would think that this difference would persist with age, and would explain a lot of the difference in how men and women function during sex, or any sort of intimate touch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-01T11:10:49.633" LastActivityDate="2016-06-01T11:10:49.633" Title="Is touch sensitivity higher for females?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;touch&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13220" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-02T02:45:06.787" Score="1" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which theories deal with cost benefit analysis? For example, given a binary choice of hard and easy tasks (eg. Picking low hanging fruit, stealing what is not bolted down, cheating on a test, taking a spacial shortcut/jaywalking) one would exhibit preference towards the easy one. How can that be explained from behavioral, evolutionary or cognitive perspective? I need studies or names.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10609" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-02-03T22:13:59.883" LastActivityDate="2016-02-03T22:13:59.883" Title="Which theories explain that given a choice of hard and easy tasks one would pick the easy one?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13209" CreationDate="2016-02-02T15:08:58.077" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It really depends. first of all, the problem might be in the person who asks, maybe they really are super sensitive and what they are upset about is not rational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also you can never know from someones words that they lack empathy or not.&#xA;Some people are just tough, maybe he was in some back breaking situations in life that yours seem minor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And also lack of empathy is just a small part of narcissism and is not a &quot;only and only&quot; determinant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you wanna see if others have empathy or not, you better watch their acts rather than analyzing their words. do they have criminal tendencies or ever were accused of criminal act? are they non-empathetic in their job? are they careless about others life situations? are they reckless? do they put others in trouble to get something they want? and so on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10578" LastActivityDate="2016-02-02T15:08:58.077" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13225" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13206" CreationDate="2016-02-02T15:23:17.067" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you've ask is totally valid. what you assumed to be the cause is horribly invalid. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I'm glad you asked, because I have a good answer for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, women have more harmonized brain than men.neural connections are disturbed all over both hemispheres.men have single hemisphere concentrated neurons. so it is safe to say women brain is at least in a physiological way, better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second of all, they are really better. women can read social conditions more precise than any man and they emotionally understand better and can detect hidden deceptions in a better way and at the same time, they are as much competent in intellectual efforts as men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third of all, the only reason some women are less into computational or scientific problem is sexist people in society.and these sexist people are both male and female parent. according to Freud's theory of psycho-sexual development, the stage that kid plays with certain parts of their body is essential in developing a sense of curiosity. I don't know about the place you live, but in my culture boys play with their genitalia freely and no one cares, but if a girl do that, they will bring the hell down on earth. so it is product of this manner, leads to suppression of sense of curiosity in a baby girl and later in adulthood as a woman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10578" LastActivityDate="2016-02-02T15:23:17.067" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13230" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-02T22:49:46.750" Score="7" ViewCount="4370" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Monasteries and other spiritual contexts, there seems to be a &quot;rule&quot; that sleep is wasted time, and so the usual daily schedule only allows for about 4-5 hours of sleep. This might be enough for an 80-year-old, but anyone else will probably be sleep-deprived and not very functional, let alone be able to make any spiritual progress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I asked about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/13165/can-adults-adapt-to-less-sleep&quot;&gt;whether adults can get by with less sleep&lt;/a&gt;, and got no answers. Does anyone know &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; spiritual scenarios seem to try to reduce sleep hours? One thought is that people think it is associated with laziness, indolence, lethargy, unproductive time, idleness, sloth, etc. But no one tries to reduce food intake, or use of the toilet, so why is sleep the big bad guy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2018-03-08T06:59:56.747" Title="Why do Spiritual people try to sleep less?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13231" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13218" CreationDate="2016-02-02T23:18:33.710" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I love this kind of research because it shows how there's an affective undercurrent to essentially every part of our lives.  This is formalized in &lt;strong&gt;microvalence theory&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00107/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lebrecht et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;), which posits that all objects, even ordinary ones, are imbued with valence (e.g., explaining why you prefer one chair over another).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as positive geometric shapes, there is evidence for consistent positive reactions to circular and curvilinear shapes (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/17/8/645.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bar &amp;amp; Neta, 2006&lt;/a&gt;; see also &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11031-011-9249-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Larson, Aronoff, &amp;amp; Steuer, 2011&lt;/a&gt;).  There may be some obvious top-down mechanisms mediating this effect, such as positive associations with a smile (vs. a frown; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mar.20817/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Salgado-Montejo, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2016-02-02T23:18:33.710" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13232" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-03T01:23:22.870" Score="5" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the neocortex, input patterns are compressed hierarchically. Sensory inputs in the lower levels are combined by higher levels to form abstract concepts. However, there are even more feedback connections ranging from higher levels downward to lower ones. Those are assumed to unroll higher concepts back into lower patterns that could have caused them in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If patterns could flow up and down through the same synapses, it would be easy to understand how higher patterns cause lower patterns similar to those that could have caused them. In a mathematical sense, traversing the connections in the inverse direction would cause the inverse of the upward transformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5242/are-connections-in-the-human-brain-directed&quot;&gt;synapses are mainly directed&lt;/a&gt;. So patterns cannot flow downward through the same synapses. How do the feedback connections still learn transformations similar to the inverse of the upward connections?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2019-08-16T11:17:46.880" Title="How can higher concepts get unrolled with upward and feedback connections differing?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13235" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5456" CreationDate="2016-02-03T04:37:56.733" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;They did it on a monkey. It was trained to pick up something with its left or right hand according to a signal. Then they split its brain and tested it. I can't remember all the details but the experiment did not bring more to the human experiments. If you are still interested I can find the link or article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastActivityDate="2016-02-03T04:37:56.733" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13236" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13270" CreationDate="2016-02-03T13:37:39.620" Score="0" ViewCount="331" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rejection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Social Rejection&lt;/a&gt; from Wikipedia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;rejection can be passive, by ignoring a person, or giving the &quot;silent&#xA;  treatment&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to say that the &lt;strong&gt;victim of a verbal aggression&lt;/strong&gt; who &lt;strong&gt;hide&lt;/strong&gt; or repress (&lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/05/03/scan.nss043.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;negate&lt;/a&gt;) the &lt;strong&gt;negative emotions&lt;/strong&gt; like fear, anger, sadness through the &lt;a href=&quot;http://evolutioncounseling.com/detached-personality/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;emotional detouchment&lt;/a&gt; showing himself as secure, not hurted &lt;strong&gt;can lead the other to feel impotent&lt;/strong&gt; and thus become even more aggressive to get an emotional reaction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can emotional detachment be considered as a dysfunctional behavior for the victim of a verbal aggression?&lt;/strong&gt; Opposed to demanding empathy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional detachment can be considered a kind of hostile / aggressive behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence that most of people would suffer from these kind of other's behaviours so that they can be considered a way to hurt people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2016-02-08T13:28:52.817" LastActivityDate="2016-02-08T13:28:52.817" Title="Emotional detachment as a reaction can be considered an aggressive behavior?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13238" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-03T20:01:41.830" Score="3" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have recently read an &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/illusion-chasers/what-little-babies-see-that-you-no-longer-can/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; in which it is stated, that the researchers can discriminate if a baby knows an object, by looking at the length of time the baby looks at the object. Do adults also tend to look longer to novel stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="826" OwnerDisplayName="emanuele" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-02-03T21:21:57.910" LastActivityDate="2016-02-03T21:21:57.910" Title="Infants tend to look longer at novel stimuli than at repeated stimuli, is this true in adults?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13240" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-04T09:50:05.453" Score="2" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several studies have shown that alot of &lt;strong&gt;people are biased to underestimate\undervalue overweight people&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2013/06/06/188891906/the-fat-shaming-professor-a-twitter-fueled-firestorm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2013/06/06/188891906/the-fat-shaming-professor-a-twitter-fueled-firestorm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2016-02-04T16:52:52.047" Title="Why are people biased against overweight people?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13241" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13492" CreationDate="2016-02-04T10:06:18.243" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, the upward connection between layers in the neocortex flows through the thalamus which is assumed to have a gating function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder whether there is a single value per gate, determining the degree to which patterns can pass. Or can the gate be different for different synapses or signals at the same time? In this case, there would be more like a vector of degrees for all individual synapses of the gated nerve cord.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there anything known about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="908" LastEditDate="2017-06-12T19:22:44.177" LastActivityDate="2017-06-12T19:22:44.177" Title="Do gating mechanisms in the neocortex have individual degrees for all gated connections?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13242" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-04T15:21:47.107" Score="3" ViewCount="744" Body="&lt;p&gt;AI, to the level that we attempt to create it these days, involves creating neural networks that learn from stimulus (experience, data) and reinforcement. A higher score such as in a Go game, or a higher % of matched words, faces or signs seems to equate to positive reinforcement within classical conditioning.&#xA;Given that behaviourism is mostly seen as somewhat outdated, if the above makes sense, could this model of learning be limiting progress in AI?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10635" LastActivityDate="2016-02-04T15:21:47.107" Title="Is the current approach to AI learning essentially behaviourism?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13243" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13240" CreationDate="2016-02-04T16:52:52.047" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is easy to fall into an interpretive bias when evaluating the capabilities of overweight people. In other words, we understand that they are not as physically capable, and therefore undervalued/underestimated due to the interpretive bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing is, similar to the idea of racism, Positive Distinctiveness kicks in. This is where, as humans, we see ourselves as part of a group (in this case, a non-overweight group) and we like to perceive our group as the more significant one. Unfortunately, one of the ways to perceive ourselves that way is by looking down on other groups (overweight people), and therefore they are undervalued.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10384" LastActivityDate="2016-02-04T16:52:52.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13246" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12890" CreationDate="2016-02-04T19:50:56.673" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. For example, the neurotransmitter at the first stage of auditory processing (the inner hair cell VII cranial nerve synapse) and visual processing (rod and cone synapses with a bipolar cells) is glutamate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-02-04T19:50:56.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13248" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12163" CreationDate="2016-02-05T03:37:11.780" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;So there's a lot of things to talk about here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off, there are many strategies one can use to regulate stress.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=MlMKkPUAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;James Gross&lt;/a&gt;, for example, has put forward an incredibly influential process model of the strategies we might use. His work and others have pointed to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Distraction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reappraisal (reinterpreting the situation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Expressive suppression&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thought suppression (&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=QZCy54UAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=sra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wegner&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rumination (&lt;a href=&quot;http://pps.sagepub.com/content/3/5/400.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nolen-Hoeksema&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Worry&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-distancing (&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=aUIvcKUAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ayduk&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=lA9EX54AAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kross&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Situation selection&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Situation modification&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interpersonal regulation (social support)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Acceptance (&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=swzdYN8AAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Linehan&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Exercise&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social sharing (&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=qE0UjjsAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rimé&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Externalizing behavior (e.g., aggression)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Drugs&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And more…&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not all of these are &quot;effective,&quot; but you can see that there are a lot of ways to cope with stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When talking about aggression, there's likely a bunch of processes going on that could change depending on the context and individual.  The psychophysiology and neurochemical changes from one instance to another, and from one person to another, are likely not going to be the same. &lt;strong&gt;So there's not really one answer to your question.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, aggression:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;can be negatively or positively valenced (i.e., it can feel good or bad; e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2015/07/30/scan.nsv082.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chester &amp;amp; DeWall, 2015&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;might involve some sort of external or internal focus (recruiting relatively more exteroceptive attentional networks, e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004066&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wager et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt; or interoceptive cortex, e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/10/4/508.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dambacher et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;, respectively)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;might involve a lot of top-down regulation (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2016/01/10/scan.nsv154.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Achterberg et al., 2016&lt;/a&gt;) or be largely impulsive&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;might motivate approach or withdrawal behaviors&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And this logic extends to neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and hormones.  Their activity depends on the context and the person (over time).  &lt;strong&gt;In general, you can probably expect a complex interaction among these things, and involvement of practically all of them.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So as with most things in psychology, the answer is: &lt;strong&gt;it depends!&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2016-02-05T03:37:11.780" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13250" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-05T10:38:14.240" Score="3" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I tried to google for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.it/search?q=female%2Bbody%2Bself%2Besteem%2Bstatistic&amp;amp;oq=female%2Bbody%2Bself%2Besteem%2Bstatistic&amp;amp;aqs=chrome..69i57.8540j0j1&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;es_sm=93&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;female body self esteem statistic&lt;/a&gt;. It seem that on a statistic basis women tend to see themselves as not being enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if there are evidence that this problem is related to &lt;strong&gt;social media pressures&lt;/strong&gt; and if there is a &lt;strong&gt;gender bias&lt;/strong&gt; on body acceptance related especially to &lt;strong&gt;western countries&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2016-02-09T15:49:52.877" LastActivityDate="2016-02-09T15:50:22.017" Title="Body acceptance: is there a gender bias?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13251" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-05T12:01:20.970" Score="1" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was thinking of how &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/13240/why-are-people-biased-against-overweight-people/13243#13243&quot;&gt;a lot of people are biased against overweight people&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the answers considers how we tend to &quot;take part&quot; with those that remind us of ourselves, and we are biased against those who seem different from us.&#xA;This should imply that a person who is biased against overweight people is a person who considers him/herself &quot;not one of the overweight people&quot;.&#xA;This further implies that the biases a person has, says something about his/her identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any research on what characterizes people who are biased against any specific group of people?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any kind of research on what characterizes people prone to any specific bias?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-02-05T13:06:45.563" Title="Links between biases and personality?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13252" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13048" CreationDate="2016-02-05T14:23:23.373" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Based on a dated and small study, early-blind individuals do not experience drug-induced hallucinations, while the late-blind can, but not necessarily do so.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lycaeum.org/research/researchpdfs/1094.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Krill &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (1963)&lt;/a&gt; investigated the effects of LSD on totally blind people (i.e., no residual vision) and they report visual hallucinations in 13 out of 24 subjects. This study shortly reviews three other studies in this field (LSD and mescalin administered to blind people) and the consensus the authors reach is that blind folks do experience visual hallucinations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as @JoeBathelt very rightfully notes, it is important to acknowledge the difference between &lt;strong&gt;congenitally&lt;/strong&gt; blind and &lt;strong&gt;late blind&lt;/strong&gt; people that lost vision later in life. Late-blind individuals often experience visual imagery, while congenitally blind do not and cannot. In the Krill &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt; study linked, they included four congenitally blind subjects. The remainder were acquired blind that had lost their eye sight later in life. The congenitally blind group had lost their vision at, or before the age of two (which I would call early blind, but that's debatable). None of these 4 subjects experienced hallucinations. Given that half of their study group experienced hallucinations, one would expect two of these four to have experienced hallucinations. Although the congenitally (i.e., early-blind) group was small, it leads me hence to believe that prior visual experience at least early in life is a prerequisite for visual hallucinations to occur. However, not many studies have been published on the topic and I am most curious to see more answers to this most interesting question.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lycaeum.org/research/researchpdfs/1094.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Krill &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Arch Ophthal&lt;/em&gt; (1963); &lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;: 180-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-02-05T16:52:56.450" LastActivityDate="2016-02-05T16:52:56.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12896" CreationDate="2016-02-05T14:42:38.400" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002261.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Myelin&lt;/a&gt; is a greatly extended and modified plasma membrane wrapped around the nerve &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://et%20al.,%20editors.%20Neuroscience.%202nd%20edition.%20Sunderland%20(MA):%20Sinauer%20Associates;%202001.%20Long-Term%20Synaptic%20Depression&quot;&gt;axon&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in a spiral fashion &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27954/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Morell &amp;amp; Quarles, 1999)&lt;/a&gt;. It typically forms on long axons to increase conduction speed and efficiency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning predominantly takes place in cortical areas and it is believed that it mainly depends on synaptic changes, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_07/i_07_m/i_07_m_tra/i_07_m_tra.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;long-term potentiation&lt;/a&gt; (LTP) of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.human-memory.net/brain_neurons.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;synapses&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Forgetting things is believed to be mediated through &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10899/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;long-term depression&lt;/a&gt; (LTD). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both LTP and LTD are synaptic processes and do not involve myelin, as that substance is found around axons. Although there is a lot more to learning than I can cover here, I dare say it doesn't involve myelination, and forgetting things doesn't involve demyelination, or &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/demyelinating-disease/expert-answers/faq-20058521/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Demyelination&lt;/a&gt; typically results in disease. The most common one being &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/multiple-sclerosis/guide/multiple-sclerosis-symptoms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;multiple sclerosis&lt;/a&gt;, characterized by blurred or double vision,&#xA;thinking problems, lack of coordination, loss of balance, numbness, tingling&#xA;and weakness in an arm or leg.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27954/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Morell &amp;amp; Quarles. The Myelin Sheath. In: Siegel GJ &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., (eds). Basic Neurochemistry. 6&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven (1999)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10899/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., (eds). Neuroscience. 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-04-05T20:25:14.693" LastActivityDate="2016-04-05T20:25:14.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13255" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-05T18:35:18.487" Score="2" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Or can they fire few times then pause and again, firefew times and pause periodically? &#xA;If  the second case happens then do we know if the neurons that fire in synchronity fire the same number of times at each wave cycle? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastEditorUserId="9424" LastEditDate="2016-02-06T01:05:07.713" LastActivityDate="2016-02-06T01:51:34.037" Title="During synchronized waves oscillation (alpha beta etc...) do neurons fire only once for each wave cycle?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13256" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-05T18:49:56.333" Score="2" ViewCount="221" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do visual cortical signals always go back and forth between the thalamus, or other subcortical structures, or can they travel directly from one region in the cortex to another?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-18T20:15:06.900" LastActivityDate="2017-02-19T11:03:34.633" Title="Do direct cortical pathways exist in the visual system, or do they all go via the thalamus?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13259" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13255" CreationDate="2016-02-06T01:51:34.037" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably, the &quot;oscillation&quot; refers to the signals of eeg/ecog/meg? If this is the case, then the answer is NO, individual neurons in a local network are firing with much higher rate then the frequency of the oscillatory field produced by the network. (Otherwise, the oscillations would look more like a ripples, not like the periodic function.) The exact number of spikes of any given individual neuron is vary over time within a certain range and most probably different from one cycle of the network-level oscillation to another. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, individual neuronal activity is probabilistic, not deterministic. So, any natural situation is changing the probability of the spike, but it is never 100% predictable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15227" LastActivityDate="2016-02-06T01:51:34.037" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13263" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13230" CreationDate="2016-02-07T11:41:53.400" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's consider what happens when we sleep. Our body specially brain gets relaxed, you will see change in brain waves. During sleeping less cycles per second waves occur than awaken times. Blood circulation increases, your brain gets repaired from everyday workings. Now some spiritual activities may elevate these situations inside your brain, specially meditation. Almost all spiritual people meditate, one way or another. Research shows deep meditation for half an hour works like 2 hours of sleeping! What monks of course do. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10666" LastActivityDate="2016-02-07T11:41:53.400" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13269" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-08T05:03:25.417" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any psychometrics researches about the relationship between difficulty and grade distribution in differnt college courses titles?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10675" LastEditorUserId="10675" LastEditDate="2016-02-08T05:10:36.490" LastActivityDate="2016-02-08T05:10:36.490" Title="Is there any psychometrics researches about the relationship between difficulty and grade distribution?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13270" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13236" CreationDate="2016-02-08T08:43:49.647" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not clear the context in which you expect an answer. For example, should it be considered from a legal, ethical, survival, or psychological standpoint? I would expect the answers aimed at different philosophies to differ quite a bit. Let me address a few of your questions, at least as I understood them in your posting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the person being &quot;ignored&quot; feel impotent as a result of this &quot;silent treatment&quot;? Of course this can happen. However, this reaction is not something that should be blamed on the person doing the ignoring. After all, if you look at someone funny and they throw a tantrum, is it your fault they cannot control themselves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Can emotional detachment be considered as a dysfunctional behavior for the victim of a verbal aggression?&quot; &lt;em&gt;Dysfunctional&lt;/em&gt; is not a term that can be legitimately applied here without context. There are many cases where ignoring a verbally abusive person can be extremely useful or even necessary to carry on with daily activities. For example, if people talking on forums got caught up responding to trolls, they would not be able to have reasonable discussions with non-trolls. A troll is a perfect example of a verbally abusive person for which silent treatment is clearly not &quot;dysfunctional&quot;. The key thing you have to understand here is the &lt;em&gt;intent&lt;/em&gt; of the verbal abuse. If the abuser is simply trying to reason or convey a message, with no hidden agenda, then reasoning in response may be fine. However, if the verbal abuser is &lt;em&gt;socially sadistic&lt;/em&gt;, such as a troll, then the worst thing you can do is to get emotional in response to his or her provocation. After all, that would be accepting the damage they are trying to inflict for their sadistic pleasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Should a person &quot;demand empathy&quot; instead of ignoring the abuser? Successfully demanding and receiving empathy requires two things: (1) You must be deserving of empathy, which is highly subjective, and (2) the abuser must be able to feel empathy. The former requirement could necessitate skills in persuasion, which not everyone has. Furthermore, if you are being verbally abused because you legitimately did something wrong, you would need to show that you understand your wrongdoing and truly intend to make things right. The latter requirement depends on the personality and mental state of the abuser. A psychopath, for example, would not be able to feel empathy, so there would be essentially no point in trying to demand empathy from them. In fact, it would be dysfunctional to demand empathy from a psychopath. Such would be like demanding a shower head to dry you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;[Can] emotional detachment can be considered hostile / aggressive?&quot; Hostile perhaps, but I cannot see it being &quot;aggressive&quot; since it is in the very definition of the word that force be involved, which clearly is not the case in reactionary abstinence. Sure, there is such as thing as &quot;passive aggressive&quot;, but the term itself is practically oxymoron. A more correct term would be &quot;passive hostility&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2016-02-08T08:43:49.647" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13272" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-08T18:55:32.957" Score="0" ViewCount="3652" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a test to see if the Prefrontal cortex of someone works normally? especially a simple test like a questionnaire that you give the individuals to fill out and based on their answer you obtain results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My next question, if someone's prefrontal cortex does not work normally, how that can be cured? I am looking for natural ways, natural medicines, or methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9874" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-02-09T03:38:29.670" LastActivityDate="2016-03-10T23:14:27.933" Title="how to see prefrontal cortex is functioning well by a test?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13272" CreationDate="2016-02-09T16:08:50.170" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll tackle the first part of the question as cognitive training is a whole can of worms on its own: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The function of the prefrontal cortex should be assessed by a trained neuropsychologist, who can administer the appropriate tests and compare results to reference data from the broader population. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One commonly used test associated with prefrontal cortex function is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) [1]. For this test, the participant has to match cards according to changing rules. This test has been used extensively with patients with various neurological deficits and psychiatric disorders and seems to be sensitive to pathology of the prefrontal cortex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questionnaire measures are generally quite crude and are usually only used as a screening instrument for more detailed tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cognitiveatlas.org/task/Wisconsin_card_sorting_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.cognitiveatlas.org/task/Wisconsin_card_sorting_test&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-02-09T16:08:50.170" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13278" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13272" CreationDate="2016-02-09T22:03:33.687" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2738354/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This article might interest you&lt;/a&gt;. It discusses some of the anatomy, functions, and neuropsychological tests related to the prefrontal cortex (PFC).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is a relatively big area and serves many functions, so there's not going to be a single test that evaluates PFC function. Some tests will look at inhibition (the ability to avoid an automatic or trained behavior), task switching (like the WCST mentioned above), attention (PFC is thought to be important for controlling directed attention), working memory (memory of a small set of items for a short period of time). &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-control#Brain_regions_involved&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Self control&lt;/a&gt; is a really important function served by the PFC, especially in modern society. Remember that everyone is different, so someone will a lack of inhibition might not necessarily fall into the category of having a brain disorder. A neuropsychologist will do their best to use the limited tools available to categorize you based on some generally agreed upon diagnostic criteria, and if you fall into a gray area then that diagnosis might not mean much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as how to cure an abnormal PFC? If you are under 25 years old or so, time will help. &lt;a href=&quot;http://mentalhealthdaily.com/2015/02/18/at-what-age-is-the-brain-fully-developed/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Many people's PFC is not fully developed until their mid 20s&lt;/a&gt;. Cognitive training is unproven, but the human brain is really good at learning and changing. It seems that people can learn maladaptive behavioral patterns over time, so why can't they train themselves toward better patterns? If you want to improve your self control (say to stick with a diet), then use every opportunity you get to train your self control. Make it like a game and give yourself a pat on the back when you do well. If you really stick to it, your brain could eventually learn to prioritize this type of behavior and get better at it. Note that this type of training hasn't necessarily been scientifically proven, but it makes sense and it sure hasn't been disproven either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. I'd recommend that you skip any natural medicines that might be advertised as improving cognition. Best bet nutritionally is to &lt;a href=&quot;http://michaelpollan.com/reviews/how-to-eat/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;eat well&lt;/a&gt; and drink a lot of water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-02-09T22:03:33.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13282" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-10T15:15:12.163" Score="2" ViewCount="404" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been researching the differences between stress and anxiety to understand them for my own curiosity. My basic understanding is that stress is a variation from routine or something that upsets your normal balance while anxiety is worry about something when there is no stressor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question, then, is this: if stress is caused by change to normal routine, would a good change with only positive effects still be considered stress? For example, going on vacation. The travel could certainly be stressful (or perhaps just anxious), but once a person arrives, lets assume they have a very good, relaxing stay. Could this be considered a stress since it is a change from the normal routine, despite having no negative effects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I admit that most likely the answer lies in a misunderstanding I have about the definition of stress, but I am curious...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10699" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T05:25:12.817" Title="Can a positive change result in positive stress?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13283" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13292" CreationDate="2016-02-10T23:51:15.527" Score="5" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;Correct me if I am wrong please, from what I understand horizontal communication spans very short distance in all layers of the neocortex but layers I and II. In these two layers dendrites and axons can travel horizontally a little farther, but how far? Also the question can have different subcases. First one, how far can one single dendrite or axon travel horizontally in the neocortex ? Second one, how far can a signal travel (possibly going through several synapses) horizontally in the neocortex?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastEditorUserId="4991" LastEditDate="2016-02-13T13:51:51.320" LastActivityDate="2016-02-26T08:46:13.387" Title="How far can a signal travel in the neocortex without passing through the white matter?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13286" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-11T14:20:03.297" Score="3" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm planning to do a survey with students (age around 16) with questions/answer-possibilities that have been 'proven' to be significant indicators of student success/good grades. So, I'm not really interested in the relationship of the variables to the outcome, instead, I want to feed the data of the survey to a machine learning algorithm to check the algorithm's correctness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of coming up with the questions of the survey myself, I would like to ground them academically, i.e.: based on academic literature. I don't need very 'original' ones, the significance of the variables themselves is not the focus of my research (actually, I want 'proven' significant variables).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Best case scenario would be to find a canonical list of survey questions and answer-possibilities which have been 'proven' to be influential (significant) indicators of student success/grades, from which I can take the ones appropriate for my research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing that would be help me is a source which discusses good and bad practices for setting up a survey such as mine (which might also point me to the questions I want to ask).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found some papers, such as (Sykes &amp;amp; Kuyper, 2009) about predicting student success/grades, from which I can pick some variables/questions, but none of them were close enough to my case to be fully satisfactory for my purpose. If anyone can help me with a good paper that investigates roughly the same as my research, this would also help, as I might then base my survey (partly) on this research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10712" LastEditorUserId="10712" LastEditDate="2016-02-11T15:25:32.903" LastActivityDate="2016-02-20T02:58:40.570" Title="Ground a student survey in academic literature" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13287" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-11T16:07:11.717" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;In computer programming, when a program analyzes itself, we call it &quot;reflection&quot; or &quot;introspection&quot;.&#xA;Example:&#xA;A program has several features. When the program runs, it can analyze itself to determine what features it supports and present it in the user interface. The user could choose one of the features and instruct the program to run it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, the question:&#xA;Is there an equivalent mechanism in the brain? I.e. how can the brain think/reflect about a behavior/capability without executing the behavior/capability? Is there a special &quot;module&quot; in the brain that is responsible for reflection and one responsible for execution? If yes, how does the brain decide which module to use in the specific context (thinking vs. acting)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastActivityDate="2016-02-11T16:07:11.717" Title="Thinking about something vs. doing something" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-07-14T19:30:05.033" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13288" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-11T17:32:55.167" Score="1" ViewCount="11377" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroelectro.org/ephys_prop/2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this site gives a distribution of values of the input resistance of various cells&lt;/a&gt;. The values are in MOhms. The definition says that &quot;input resistance measured at steady-state voltage response to current injection&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can its value be interpreted? What do high or low values indicate? Does it relate to other cell properties?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2016-02-12T19:09:28.330" Title="What is input resistance and how to interpret its values?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13291" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-12T06:04:46.560" Score="3" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we need to repeat a letter or digit several times (for example when spelling out a number or an acronym) it is easier to explicitly quantify it instead of spelling it out repeatedly: for example we will spell &lt;em&gt;I-triple-E&lt;/em&gt; instead of &lt;em&gt;I-E-E-E&lt;/em&gt;, or &lt;em&gt;triple-five&lt;/em&gt; instead of &lt;em&gt;five-five-five&lt;/em&gt; (in French: SSII spelled as &lt;em&gt;deux-es-deux-i&lt;/em&gt; instead of &lt;em&gt;es-es-i-i&lt;/em&gt;), we will write W3 instead of WWW, etc. My intuition tells me that when we repeat the same letter/digit multiple times the listener will need to count them, and may get confused, while if we warn him/her that there will be a repetition and give the final count of items, he/she avoids counting operation and therefore also the risk of miscounting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: how is this operation called, and do you know if anyone has studied it (in a psychological or cognitive frame)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10715" LastEditorUserId="10715" LastEditDate="2016-02-12T09:45:49.400" LastActivityDate="2016-02-12T09:45:49.400" Title="How is it called when we explicitly quantify a letter or digit instead of spelling it out multiple times?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13292" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13283" CreationDate="2016-02-12T07:18:46.317" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The distance of horizontal communication depends on species, cortical region, and cortical layer. Very few combinations of those 3 factors have ever been studied. For the combinations with which I am familiar, most horizontal connections are limited to a few hundred microns, though some are as long as a few millimeters. Most of that distance is axonal because dendrites are generally much shorter than axons. Of all the connections I've read about, none span an entire region. To get across a region, a connected series of signals would have to make several hops through several neurons and across several synapses, as you suggested in your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The direct path of an axon connecting two cortical areas (or an axon from a subcortical area to a cortical area) is through the white matter, but sometimes an axon will additionally ascend to layer I of the target area before branching, presumably to save space. This is the main use of layer I, and the lengths of these connections is several millimeters or centimeters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have never heard of the longer-distance horizontal connections that you suggest occur in layer II; layers II through VI contain neurons with short horizontal and vertical connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Alonso, J.-M. (2002) Neural Connections and Receptive Field Properties in the Primary Visual Cortex. The Neuroscientist. 8(5): 443-456.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Feldmeyer, D. (2012) Excitatory Neuronal Connectivity in the Barrel Cortex. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 6: 1-22.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Rockland, K.S. and Virga, A. (1989) Terminal Arbors of Individual Feedback Axons Projecting from Area V2 to V1 in the Macaque Monkey: A Study Using Immunohistochemistry of Anterogradely Transported Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 285: 54-72.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastEditorUserId="421" LastEditDate="2016-02-26T08:46:13.387" LastActivityDate="2016-02-26T08:46:13.387" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13294" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-12T17:06:12.373" Score="1" ViewCount="535" Body="&lt;p&gt;See the answer to this question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/7691/4425&quot;&gt;Is there a term that describes the personality trait of always desiring more?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Schwartz and colleagues (2002) have proposed that people fall into two&#xA;  groups: those who seek to maximize their decision by finding the very&#xA;  best option out of choices presented (maximizers), and those who have&#xA;  an idea in mind of what would be an &quot;acceptable&quot; option and settle for&#xA;  the first choice that surpasses their expectations (satisficers).&#xA;  Maximizers are always on the look out for &quot;the best,&quot; are less&#xA;  satisfied with their choices, more likely to &quot;socially compare&quot; their&#xA;  options to others, and more likely to experience regret (Ma &amp;amp; Roese,&#xA;  2014). Another recent publication proposed that when individuals&#xA;  experience &quot;choice closure,&quot; and stop re-evaluating the non-selected&#xA;  alternative options, satisfaction with choice can increase (Gu, Botti,&#xA;  &amp;amp; Farro, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to state that looking for challenges and being a maximizer can be correlated to a low selfesteem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-02-29T12:58:43.530" Title="Is low self esteem pushing person toward maximizing (instead of being easily satisfied)" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13295" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13288" CreationDate="2016-02-12T19:09:28.330" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ohm's law famously states V=IR, the voltage change (V) across a resistor generated by a current (I) equals the current multiplied by the resistance (R).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The resistor in this case is the cell membrane.  When an experimenter injects a known amount of current through an electrode, the voltage change that occurs is related to that current by the resistance of the cell membrane.  A high value indicates that the cell membrane does not let current pass easily so a given amount of current requires a large voltage changes.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The size of the cell and the number of open ion channels affect the input resistance.  Larger size means lower resistance (more surface area for current to flow through) and more open ion channels means lower resistance (the conductance g=1/R increases when you open ion channels so the resistance decreases).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for relevance to neural computation, higher input resistance means that less synaptic input (current injection) can lead to larger voltage changes.  Manipulating input resistance (say by opening Cl- channels, which don't change the voltage of the cell much but do decrease the resistance) can change the responsiveness of the neuron to other inputs.  This phenomenon is called shunting inhibition.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2016-02-12T19:09:28.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13296" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-12T19:27:48.350" Score="2" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, I have heard many say that ants don't have consciousness but humans do. I have always thought that our bodies/brain works more like computers (inputs and outputs). An analogy I can give (may not be the best) is that ants are like calculators and humans are like computers. It's the same idea of input and output but the outputs we give are a lot more complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can we definitely say that we are conscious and not responding to inputs albeit much more complexly than ants?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10720" LastActivityDate="2016-02-12T19:58:41.600" Title="Why do we say that some animals have consciousness and some don't?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13297" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13296" CreationDate="2016-02-12T19:58:41.600" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This reminds me of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/13210/is-the-heart-conscious/13216#13216&quot;&gt;similar question&lt;/a&gt; I answered a few weeks ago. Not exactly the same situation, but the leading theory is that it &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-theory-of-consciousness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;comes down to complexity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll start out by saying that we don't know for sure what animals are conscious or even what consciousness is, exactly. In fact, it's not even possible to prove without a doubt that you or I are conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We do mostly seem to have a general intuition of what consciousness is, and which things are or are not conscious. Probably most people would say that an ant does not possess consciousness, and the complexity argument would back that up. While ants &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Do-ants-have-brains&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;do have brains&lt;/a&gt;, the structure of their brains is very different from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neocortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain of a mammal&lt;/a&gt;. Most people would say that a human has consciousness; from experience for one thing. How about a killer whale, a monkey, or even a human infant? There might be less of a consensus in these cases. In my opinion, we should err on the side of consciousness whenever possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, I get what you're saying with the computer analogy, but the human brain is &lt;strong&gt;so&lt;/strong&gt; much more complex than a computer and it definitely works differently than any kind of man made computer. Even &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.technologyreview.com/s/412700/building-a-brain-on-a-silicon-chip/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some of the new chips&lt;/a&gt; that are built to mimic networks of neurons are missing a lot of what is going on in vivo. There are interactions occurring between living neurons that aren't fully understood yet. A more accurate analogy would be that the human brain is like a high-end future computer-like object and an ant nervous system is like a very low-end future computer-like object. One difference between high-end and low-end future computer-like objects might be the ability to experience consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-02-12T19:58:41.600" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13298" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-12T21:56:16.010" Score="3" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;Question 1:&#xA;Does sleeping at different times daily affect the attention for ADHD and Non ADHD ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example let us consider the below scenario,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Day 1&lt;/strong&gt; : Sleep time is 1:00 AM&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Day 2&lt;/strong&gt; : Sleep time is 2:00 AM&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Day 3&lt;/strong&gt; : Sleep time is 4:00 AM&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Day 4&lt;/strong&gt; : Sleep time is 12:30 AM&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Day 4&lt;/strong&gt;:  Sleep time is 2:00 AM&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do such patterns affect the attention for ADHD people ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Note: Provided that the sleep time is 6- 7 hours per day *&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question 2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we compromise the lost sleep ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7657" LastActivityDate="2016-02-12T21:56:16.010" Title="Relation between Sleeping pattern and attention for ADHD people" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13299" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13352" CreationDate="2016-02-12T23:36:34.933" Score="1" ViewCount="208" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wrote a research paper regarding the mental health of adolescents at a local magnet school, emphasizing the sources and affects of stress and the subsequent vulnerabilities it poses to developing forms psychopathology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My problem: I need to formally establish that many students struggle with mental health problems. My initial idea was administering the BDI but, long story short, it can't happen. How else should I go about &quot;formalizing&quot; statistically the prevalence of psychopathology among the student body?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10722" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-02-19T03:53:03.587" LastActivityDate="2016-02-19T03:53:03.587" Title="How to measure or estimate the prevalence of psychopathology in a particular school?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13300" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-13T01:53:28.877" Score="9" ViewCount="1761" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disorders are usually discrete. For example, if you are given a test for, say, ADHD, they are usually only two results &quot;you have ADHD&quot; or &quot;you don't have ADHD&quot;. Autism is treated as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;spectrum&lt;/a&gt;, but this spectrum is by no means continuous, also being in discrete parts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this? Why can't you get a result of &quot;76% ADHD&quot;? Intelligence, for example, is measured continuously, as is personality (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychometrics&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychometrics&lt;/a&gt;). Of course, tests can't be continuous, having a finite number of questions, but neither are rulers, which measure the continuous quantity of length, or IQ tests, which measure the continuous quantity of IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, why are disorders measured discretely? For example, if one person has 38% of a disorder, they may benefit from different treatment than someone with 87% of a disorder in a predictable way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are disorders discrete?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7015" LastActivityDate="2016-02-21T04:40:49.760" Title="Why are disorders discrete?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13307" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12554" CreationDate="2016-02-13T17:38:55.100" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The person knows he is doing something wrong but doesn't listen to his conscience. He doesn't have the will to try and change it or perhaps there are more benefits than drawbacks in continuing to behave that way.&#xA;Its easier to attribute it to someone else rather than having to acknowledge the motivation, behaviour or emotion in yourself.&#xA;You free yourself of the responsibility, guilt or shame of having those motivations, behaviours and emotions. &#xA;&quot;You're the one who hates me!&quot; You basically don't like that you hate this person so would rather make it feel like it is he/she that hates you. You just don't want to admit you ever had those feelings and by reminding yourself of this warped thought you are trying to hide or erase your emotion&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10732" LastEditorUserId="10732" LastEditDate="2016-02-13T18:00:01.703" LastActivityDate="2016-02-13T18:00:01.703" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13311" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13328" CreationDate="2016-02-14T08:00:52.467" Score="2" ViewCount="2936" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can you give me concrete example of mindless activity and mindful activity? &#xA;which category &quot;watching movie&quot; or &quot;reading novel&quot; belongs to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;my definition of mindful and mindless?&#xA;mindful to me is being aware of things I am doing. mindless is doing it without being aware of that activity (like auto pilot) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;how to measure mindful and mindless objectively?&#xA;I honestly don't know the answer to that. but if i may try, maybe from the way I can retrace it back in my memory to the detail information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been doing a lot of activity throughout my daily routine. a lot of those activities has been done mindlessly out of habit. how can I do it mindfully? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10736" LastEditorUserId="10736" LastEditDate="2016-02-14T15:57:17.120" LastActivityDate="2016-02-15T16:37:28.100" Title="give me concrete example of mindless and mindful activity" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13313" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13326" CreationDate="2016-02-14T14:32:28.057" Score="2" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;What evidence and counter-evidence is there for mathematical ability for being correlated with gender? If there is a difference, how significant is it (mean vs. &lt;a href=&quot;http://slatestarcodex.com/2015/01/24/perceptions-of-required-ability-act-as-a-proxy-for-actual-required-ability-in-explaining-the-gender-gap/#comment-176241&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;variance&lt;/a&gt;) and when does it start to become visible? Actual causes for this difference are secondary and outside the scope of this question (although still very valid paths of research and investigation). Also, to further narrow the scope of the question, let's focus on evidence based on Western cultures (Europe, USA, Canada).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The evidence I have so far is &lt;a href=&quot;http://slatestarcodex.com/2015/01/24/perceptions-of-required-ability-act-as-a-proxy-for-actual-required-ability-in-explaining-the-gender-gap/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this blog post&lt;/a&gt;, which finds a correlation between gender and math scores on the GRE and SATs. I also seem to recall finding somewhere evidence that gender-based math differences start as early as first grade, but I can't find the link at this point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not expecting a conclusive answer, more of a quick summary of the state of the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-02-15T13:45:36.473" LastActivityDate="2017-01-21T09:29:56.220" Title="Evidence for gender-based math ability differences?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13314" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13311" CreationDate="2016-02-14T16:57:57.157" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure that a &quot;concrete example&quot; of mindless activity vs. mindful activity is possible, because it requires the use of subjective interpretations of what constitutes either of those two notions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Mindfulness&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mindfulness is a state of active, open attention on the present. When you're mindful, you observe your thoughts and feelings from a distance, without judging them good or bad. Instead of letting your life pass you by, mindfulness means living in the moment and awakening to experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/mindfulness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/mindfulness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using this definition, it seems as though there are relatively few activities one can perform while being &lt;em&gt;mindful&lt;/em&gt;. If an activity requires a high level of concentration to perform, than it would be difficult or impossible to simultaneously focus on the meditative internal and external reflection implied by 'mindfulness.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of some activities that might be more favorable to such meditation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Going for a walk or hike somewhere&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Going to a quiet, secluded location&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Doing chores around the house that require little concentration&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of some activities that might &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; be favorable to such meditation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Socializing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Working on a task that requires a lot of concentration or creative problem-solving&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Watching an interesting movie or reading an interesting book, (unless perhaps you pause for self-reflection from time to time.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Mindlessness&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is also tricky because it may mean different things to different people. Mindlessness might mean simply the opposite of mindfulness, in which case the counter-examples I listed above might be considered 'mindless.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it seems a bit strange to include things like creative problem-solving and socializing as a &quot;mindless&quot; activity; because your mind is absolutely engaged in what's going on, just not in the same sense as it is for a mindful / introspective reflection. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps a fair definition of &quot;mindlessness&quot; is if you're by yourself with some free time; instead of choosing to engage in some social and/or mental activity, or meditate in a mindful way, you just sit around; being bored, thinking about how boring something is, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet even &quot;mindlessness&quot; with it's negative connotations may have some importance. Sometimes when you're undergoing great stress, mindful meditation may be good and useful but you're not ready to do it; you may need to distract yourself from something that's troubling you. You might have to try something &quot;mindless&quot; to clear your head a bit before you can even be &quot;mindful.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The truth is; the human brain never truly slows down while you're alive. There's a persistent myth that we only use 10% of our brain; but while it's true that only portions of our brain are active at any given moment, we actually use 100% of our brain, just not all at the same time. It would be destructive and/or impossible to use 100% of your brain at once, that's not how the brain is designed to work. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ed.ted.com/lessons/what-percentage-of-your-brain-do-you-use-richard-e-cytowic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ed.ted.com/lessons/what-percentage-of-your-brain-do-you-use-richard-e-cytowic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this sense, the question of &quot;mindfulness vs. mindlessness&quot; isn't necessarily about whether or not you're using your mind. You use your mind regardless, even in your sleep. The question becomes whether or not you're using your mind &lt;em&gt;well&lt;/em&gt;, and that ultimately is a personal, subjective question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest I can say to understanding it objectively is that it's probably healthiest to strive for balance in how you live your life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10739" LastActivityDate="2016-02-14T16:57:57.157" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13315" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-14T18:35:14.920" Score="1" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have began taking a class on the sociology of gender and how gender is more malleable than previously thought and that femininity and masculinity exists in a continuum. What does this actually imply for the observable activity of people? For example, are women born with more male brains more likely to be lesbian? or prefer male friends? or prefer a more feminine sexual partner? And Can you tell from physical appearances that an individual has a more masculine or feminine brain? (ex: a man with a more feminine voice or a woman with more masculine features)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10694" LastActivityDate="2016-02-15T05:19:34.413" Title="What does it even mean to have a male/female brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;gender&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13316" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-14T18:59:04.953" Score="2" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed that when I look at a cropped picture of someone's face, I fill in the remaining image of his/her body in a manner that is consistent with the face (wider face, larger body, skinnier face, frail body, large jaw, more muscular body, etc). &#xA;Does the human brain immediately and accurately fill in such information and guess what a persons's body looks like from just images of the face?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10694" LastActivityDate="2016-02-17T19:08:56.857" Title="Are people able to accurately judge body shape and size from images of the face?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13317" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14137" CreationDate="2016-02-14T21:10:11.000" Score="0" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming that the brain (structure) is only constructed using neurons and synapses, then what is the difference between the following linguistic statements from a 'mechanical point of view'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bob is a builder.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bob should be a builder.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bob must be a builder.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In each statement, there are the same &quot;neurons&quot; involved: &quot;Bob&quot; and &quot;builder&quot;. I am trying to understand how both neurons could be connected/modelled in each statement in order to differentiate between the semantics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-06-02T15:11:18.500" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T15:15:26.127" Title="Neuronal differences of linguistic statements" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2016-06-02T19:31:45.803" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13318" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-14T21:14:49.143" Score="1" ViewCount="501" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to make a speller with BCI using EEG (SSVEP or P300, whichever is easier). I would be really grateful if someone could give me a plan of action so as to where do I get started and what skills or tools I might require. As for now, I have access to a cognitive neuroscience lab and EEG.&#xA;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10740" LastActivityDate="2016-02-15T23:57:14.363" Title="How can I make a speller with BCI?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13320" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-15T05:02:55.560" Score="1" ViewCount="1119" Body="&lt;p&gt;In modern comic book fiction, a superhero wears a partial mask to obscure their identity.  This mask is properly known as a &quot;Domino Mask&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UxVMm.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UxVMm.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now obviously these masks are not the most effective masks in the world.  However, is there any cog sci evidence that they provide any protection at all?  I highly doubt there's any evidence to show they prevent someone from identifying you, but is there any evidence to suggest they even slow identification down or increase errors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10744" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-02-15T05:07:16.983" LastActivityDate="2016-04-17T17:04:07.210" Title="Are superhero masks effective at concealing your identity?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13315" CreationDate="2016-02-15T05:19:34.413" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think the idea of a male/female brain is well established in the neurosciences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you read a book like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusions_of_Gender&quot;&gt;Delusions of Gender&lt;/a&gt; you'll get a critical perspective on the status of sex differences in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At some level, sex differences in behaviour must be mediated through the brain. But there are major debates about the degree to which such behavioural differences are influenced by social versus biological factors. Likewise, the image of the brain can create an excessive sense in which we are talking about a fixed entity. In addition, with regards to a range of behaviours and brain factors, there is often more overlap than there are differences between the sexes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;None of this aims to deny the value of a deep study of the neuroscience of sex differences. It's just that I don't think the concept of the &quot;female brain&quot; makes sense, certainly not at this point in our understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-02-15T05:19:34.413" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13322" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13330" CreationDate="2016-02-15T08:13:40.423" Score="1" ViewCount="275" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in using cognitive biases as basis for behavior change, similar to what we see in gaminfication (e.g. instant gratification to hook people to continue playing). I'm new to the field and I wonder if there are some underlying theories I should be aware of.&#xA;I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias_modification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive bias modification&lt;/a&gt; however they seem to focus on clinical applications helping patients with depression, anxiety or addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a theory about how to apply cognitive biases for more general or other behavior change directions (not clinical applications)?&#xA;Let's say I have a certain unwanted habit I want to get rid off, depending on the habit and my background, there might be cognitive biases to help me change the habit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10680" LastActivityDate="2016-02-17T07:03:35.063" Title="Using Cognitive biases for behavior change?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13323" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13367" CreationDate="2016-02-15T08:53:59.237" Score="1" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a discussion about choices about occupation, I shared the image of &lt;a href=&quot;https://40.media.tumblr.com/9e00f3ef1c3293959c81f38874f97a9f/tumblr_o224ki8bPX1ugt2xio1_540.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this tweet&lt;/a&gt;. The following was one of the replies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of course you can sit and complain about it, but it tells you about your own shortcomings be it laziness, cowardice, fears of all kinds lack of initiative etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further the commenter pointed out that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Personal success or happiness after (everything else being equal) is determined by your personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He claims this using the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_marshmallow_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;theory of delayed gratification&lt;/a&gt;. His point being [from the wiki link]:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In follow-up studies, the researchers found that children who were&#xA;  able to wait longer for the preferred rewards tended to have better&#xA;  life outcomes, as measured by SAT scores, educational&#xA;  attainment, body mass index (BMI), and other life measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually he might be right. I have no idea of modern cognitive science results. So I want to know the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there results in cognitive sciences that show personal success or happiness is determined by one's personality? And that any occupation failure is determined mostly by personal shortcomings and is largely independent of social identities?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10746" LastActivityDate="2016-02-26T09:37:14.230" Title="Is it established that personal success or happiness is primarily determined by personality and is largely independent of social identities?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13324" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12843" CreationDate="2016-02-15T08:58:28.333" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The distinction that you draw between &quot;instrument&quot;/eye and brain is not particularly clear, and to some people it makes more sense to think of the eye as &lt;em&gt;part of&lt;/em&gt; the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless, let me try and summarise some visual limitations and their causes.&#xA;Our visual acuity and contrast sensitivity are limited by the optics of the eye (e.g., the lens), the arrangement of photoreceptors on the retina, and the centre-surround organisation of receptive fields (in the retina, but also in V1 and other parts of the visual brain). Some good sources for this are:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://foundationsofvision.stanford.edu/chapter-6-the-cortical-representation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://foundationsofvision.stanford.edu/chapter-6-the-cortical-representation/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;(the second of these, Wandell's book, has plenty about the organisation of visual cortex).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I think you are hinting, we also move our eyes (fixations and saccades), so that we process a sequence of locations at high (foveal) spatial resolution. I suppose you could also look at this as a limitation (though it is one that is shared by almost all species, which is quite interesting in itself).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Answers to the rest of your question are obviously going to be speculative. On the one hand, the brain is quite plastic and shows (sometimes amazing) re-organisation if it is given different visual inputs (for example there is evidence that the visual cortex of blind people takes on different functions). On the other hand, I find it very unlikely that our visual cortex would cope with the increase in information that you are suggesting, or that it would allow us to behave any differently. It would mean a dramatic re-organisation of the way it is currently set up (which reflects the receptive fields and the field of view we normally have). Bear in mind that there are far fewer responding neurons in V1 than there are photoreceptors in the retina, so the brain is already filtering and compressing the information. There simply wouldn't be enough to perform the same computations across a far wider area, though I suppose we might have poorer resolution over a wider area. As for the other point and the answer about &quot;mentally focusing&quot;, in natural conditions both fixation and covert attention tend to be on a single location. This probably has numerous benefits (e.g., mapping coordinates in space so that we can plan actions) and a much wider field or multiple pointers would probably be less efficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-02-15T08:58:28.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13325" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13323" CreationDate="2016-02-15T12:36:49.390" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This seems to me the old nature versus nurture debate and there is no real answer to this. However, I highly doubt that it is personality (as an inherent trait of you - nature) that's the most important factor for personal success. The question is what shapes your personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Family matters a lot, so building your personality over the right type of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2014/12/19/371679655/some-early-childhood-experiences-shape-adult-life-but-which&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Childhood experiences&lt;/a&gt; seems to have strong effects on personal performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, even such mundane things like names can have a huge impact on personal success regarding &lt;a href=&quot;http://public.econ.duke.edu/~hf14/teaching/povertydisc/readings/bertrand-mullainathan2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;job oppurtunities&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10749" LastActivityDate="2016-02-15T12:36:49.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13326" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13313" CreationDate="2016-02-15T14:23:30.597" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is generally understood that girls develop a small to moderate deficit in math abilities, compared to boys, over the course of schooling, as measured by mean school grades or test scores (Hyde &amp;amp; Linn, 2006 give a number of .08 standard deviations in favor of men for mathematical problem solving on average, a larger effect favoring elementary school girls, and no difference for high school math; on the maths section of the SAT, girls score ~.3 SD below boys). Similarly, particularly math-heavy academic disciplines (such as physics, maths, computer science) feature a smaller proportion of women than other disciplines, although this effect is attenuated for some surprising cases, such as statistics, and present for some math-light degrees, such as philosophy. This effect is the stronger, the further advanced the position is (e.g., the ratio of female maths BAs is much higher than the ratio of female math PhDs).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;All in all, across these various measures, women tend to score slightly worse than men, although not across the board, and extreme differences are only observable in comparatively rare and extreme contexts (e.g., math PhDs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The variance ratio (that is, how much more men vary compared to women) is somewhere around 1.1 as given by Hyde, indicating that men show a bit, but not much more variance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These findings concern data from the United States. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.wisc.edu/faculty-hyde.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Janet Hyde&lt;/a&gt; has published multiple &lt;em&gt;cross-national&lt;/em&gt; meta-analyses on this topic, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/bul-136-1-103.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cross-National Patterns of Gender Differences in Mathematics: A Meta-Analysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/106/22/8801.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gender, culture, and mathematics performance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/314/5799/599.full-text.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gender Similarities in Mathematics and Science&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Her primary finding is the &lt;em&gt;culture dependence&lt;/em&gt; of this gender gap. For example, she observes the gap not only varies with countries, but also interacts with, for example, gender equality (although see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nber.org/papers/w15430.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fryer &amp;amp; Levitt, 2009&lt;/a&gt;). It is different for various ethnic groups within countries (e.g., amongst US Asians, women are somewhat more frequently top scorers). Furthermore, the effects are highly variable in time; for example, the ratio of female math PhDs hit an all-time low of 5% in the 1950s, was higher in the pre-war time, and has been on a steady upwards trend ever since.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Combining all of this evidence, it seems to me fair to say that there is currently, in Western countries in this time, somewhat stronger math performance by boys, but that there is no convincing evidence that this pattern is necessarily generalizable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastEditorUserId="4957" LastEditDate="2016-02-15T14:28:31.303" LastActivityDate="2016-02-15T14:28:31.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13328" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13311" CreationDate="2016-02-15T16:37:28.100" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In think what you are referring to automaticity Vs explicit processes, which according to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory#Systems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dual processing theory&lt;/a&gt; are performed from system 1 and system 2 respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automaticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Automaticity&lt;/a&gt;  is the ability to do things without occupying the mind&#xA;  with the low-level details required, allowing it to become an&#xA;  automatic response pattern or habit. It is usually the result of&#xA;  learning, repetition, and practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Examples of automaticity are common activities such as walking,&#xA;  speaking, bicycle-riding, assembly-line work, and driving a car (the&#xA;  last of these sometimes being termed &quot;highway hypnosis&quot;). After an&#xA;  activity is sufficiently practiced, it is possible to focus the mind&#xA;  on other activities or thoughts while undertaking an automatized&#xA;  activity (for example, holding a conversation or planning a speech&#xA;  while driving a car).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory#Systems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;System 2&lt;/a&gt; is evolutionarily recent and specific to humans. It is&#xA;  also known as the explicit system, the rule-based system, the rational&#xA;  system, or the analytic system. It performs the more slow and&#xA;  sequential thinking. It is domain-general, performed in the central&#xA;  working memory system. Because of this, it has a limited capacity and&#xA;  is slower than System 1 which correlates it with general intelligence.&#xA;  It is known as the rational system because it reasons according to&#xA;  logical standards. Some overall properties associated with System 2&#xA;  are that it is rule-based, analytic, controlled, demanding of&#xA;  cognitive capacity, and slow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of explicit processes is finding the result of 312x254, learning a new physics theory etc&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2016-02-15T16:37:28.100" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13330" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13322" CreationDate="2016-02-15T23:34:54.507" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;CBM is not so much a theoretical framework but rather a label attached to a collection of methods and biases. In a way, this reflects the state of research on heuristics and biases, at least in behavioral economics. As many famed findings in the field have come from attempts to &quot;disprove&quot; traditional economic theory, the resulting effects (biases) have often remained without a satisfying explanation in the form of a plausible cognitive process. This has hindered&lt;br&gt;&#xA;the formulation of a common theoretical framework in which various biases &#xA;could be classified (according to, e.g., underlying cognitive mechanisms,  preconditions w.r.t. context and subject, effective interventions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(To name an exception, a framework covering comparison selection was recently proposed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://faculty.fuqua.duke.edu/~jrb12/bio/Jim/simonson%20bettman%20kramer%20payne.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Simonson, Bettman, Kramer &amp;amp; Payne 2012&lt;/a&gt;. The authors cover a number of effects which may commonly be labeled &quot;biases&quot;. In addition, various frameworks based on some form of dual-process theory have been proposed, but there is a lot of redundancy between them.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, the &quot;heuristics and biases&quot; literature has remained largely separate from the psychology of behavior change and, arguably, from cognitive psychology. Look no further than the popular &quot;Nudge&quot; by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein: almost all of their implications are derived directly from the biases &quot;as effects&quot; rather than being derived within a more general framework grounded in cognitive process theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, to the best of my knowledge, the framework that you seek does not exist. I expect that you will find it necessary to devise behavior change strategies one bias at a time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;As a final remark, the heuristics and biases literature has been criticized for tarnishing what may actually be highly adaptative and efficient cognitive strategies (see the illuminating works by Gerd Gigerenzer). Accordingly, many a bias may be exploitable only under rather specific and unusual circumstances.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10755" LastActivityDate="2016-02-15T23:34:54.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13331" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13318" CreationDate="2016-02-15T23:57:14.363" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yeah this is a very common and effective approach. Try doing a google search for: &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;P300 speller github&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; for some implementations. One issue that you should pay attention to is the limited refresh rate of computer monitors. You are going to want very accurate synchronization between what is shown on a monitor and the EEG being recorded. You'll want to use some type of framework that allows for this synchronization such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychopy.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PsychoPy&lt;/a&gt; (for Python) or &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychtoolbox.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychtoolbox&lt;/a&gt; (for Matlab). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://depositonce.tu-berlin.de/bitstream/11303/4734/2/venthur_bastian.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is a great writeup&lt;/a&gt; of how to implement a P300 speller in Python. Looks like they use &lt;a href=&quot;http://bbci.de/pyff/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pyff&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First step, in my opinion, is to look at some examples that have already been implemented:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/jadref/buffer_bci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Matlab framework&lt;/a&gt; for BCI with an &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/jadref/buffer_bci/tree/master/matrixSpellerPTB&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;example P300 speller&lt;/a&gt; that uses PsychToolbox for good event timing. Looks like the repository is actively maintained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://openvibe.inria.fr/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;OpenVibe&lt;/a&gt;. Another framework for BCI. There are &lt;a href=&quot;http://openvibe.inria.fr/?s=speller&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a lot of examples&lt;/a&gt; available there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Try one or a few of these out and see if you can get something that has already been made working. Then you'll be in a much better position to implement your own speller.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-02-15T23:57:14.363" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13333" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-16T06:27:08.300" Score="0" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Setting:&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;Bathroom, you've just brushed your teeth, turned the water on to let the remainder drift into the drain. After a moment you know there is something that needs to happen(obviously turning off the sink) but instead you flick the light switch off, for no apparent reason. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I realize it's an odd situation but it can be compared to other events where there are multiple options for action and 'accidentally' choose the&#xA; one you don't mean to.&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt;Would this be regarded as cognitive dissonance or is there a better name for this type of action? Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10759" LastActivityDate="2016-02-16T19:14:54.567" Title="Looking for a name of a theory or reason behind a seeming cognitive mistake or error" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13335" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13320" CreationDate="2016-02-16T15:46:53.790" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of any proper identity recognition experiments using such a mask, and obviously it depends on how difficult the recognition test is. However, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027712001412&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is a paper where they found that sunglasses (and facemasks) impeded accuracy in an &lt;em&gt;emotion&lt;/em&gt; recognition task. I would guess that often identity recognition is just as difficult as emotion recognition, so I would assume glasses or a mask would make people (slightly) worse. In general, this is a question about what features are necessary/useful for face recognition. There is lots of research about this, and studies such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Frederic_Gosselin2/publication/11169253_Show_Me_the_Features!_Understanding_Recognition_From_the_Use_of_Visual_Information/links/55e8808308aeb65162630c88.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; show that the eyes are particularly important. So disrupting this part of the face, and potentially the relationships between them, is actually not a bad way to disguise yourself (though obviously a full-on balaclava would be better!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-02-16T15:46:53.790" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13336" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-16T16:29:24.953" Score="5" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know this is a silly question, but I'm curious as to what is the exact phase when we experience of the thrill of doing an exciting activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_transporter&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; briefly describes the whole process. So, what is the exact point where we feel like &quot;rewarded&quot;, when dopamine is released or when it is binded to one of its intended &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_receptor#Dopamine_receptor_subtypes&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;receptors&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8409" OwnerDisplayName="azam" LastActivityDate="2016-02-16T19:14:27.533" Title="When does reward occur? When dopamine is released or when it is binded?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13337" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13343" CreationDate="2016-02-16T18:55:04.660" Score="1" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure, if I'm alone, but I never liked music, any kind of music. It never made me happy or sad. Actually it never ever had any effects on me right from my childhood days. My iPod(received as a gift) is filled with audio version of movies and dramas, but never songs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it some kind of mental illness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10766" LastActivityDate="2016-02-16T20:38:21.727" Title="Why I dont like music?" Tags="&lt;music&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2016-02-18T12:47:27.247" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13338" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13336" CreationDate="2016-02-16T19:03:45.467" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding of feed forward systems is that the uptake of transmitter would induce the effect. Though, the simultaneous release of more dopamine is part of its effect. The synaptic gap has no mechanism of inducing a response to a transmitter besides the reuptake on the other side. I am no sort of professional so take what I say with a grain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10627" LastActivityDate="2016-02-16T19:03:45.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13333" CreationDate="2016-02-16T19:14:54.567" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think what you describe is a capture error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://wikiofscience.wikidot.com/quasiscience:error#toc7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Capture errors&lt;/a&gt; refer to frequently performed tasks that take over the&#xA;  correct intended action. Wickens &amp;amp; Hollands clearly define capture&#xA;  errors as resulting from two primary reasons: (1) the intended action&#xA;  and the resulted action share somewhat characteristics that are&#xA;  closely related: and (2) the action sequence is resulted from&#xA;  automated behaviour and therefore, not closely monitored by attention.&#xA;  The example stated earlier about pouring orange juice instead of milk&#xA;  is a capture error by itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You had the intention to close the sink, but instead you closed the light. Both actions share the characteristic of closing, closing the light is the most frequent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2016-02-16T19:14:54.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13342" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-16T20:28:00.577" Score="6" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose a math textbook contains an overview chapter for each part of the textbook. The intent of those overview chapters is to motivate and introduce the new mathematical concepts which will be discussed in the respective part of the textbook. For example, why do we need the mathematical concept? How did the concept evolve in history? What will be the content of the next chapters?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this context, will the overview sections facilitate learning? How important are overview chapters in textbooks for the success of learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note:&lt;/em&gt; I reasked this question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://matheducators.stackexchange.com/questions/10765/do-overview-sections-increase-learning-outcome&quot;&gt;matheducators.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8857" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-01-05T17:57:15.373" LastActivityDate="2018-01-05T17:57:15.373" Title="Do &quot;overview&quot; sections increase learning outcome?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13343" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13337" CreationDate="2016-02-16T20:38:21.727" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't call it a disorder, unless it significantly affects your life. Not enjoying music or not being able to produce music is known as &quot;amusia&quot;. It probably has to do with differences in perceiving pitch [1]. It can also occur in people with recently fitted hearing aids or cochlear implants [2].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in this, there is a chapter about cases of amusia in Oliver Sack's book Musicophilia [3].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[1] Liu F, Patel AD, Fourcin A, Stewart L. (2010). Intonation processing in congenital amusia: discrimination, identification and imitation. Brain. 133(Pt 6):1682-93. doi:10.1093/brain/awq089&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[2] Cooper, W., Tobey, E., &amp;amp; Loizou, P. (2008). Music Perception by Cochlear Implant and Normal Hearing Listeners as Measured by the Montreal Battery for Evaluation of Amusia. Ear and Hearing, 29(4), 618. doi:10.1097/AUD.0b013e318174e787&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[3] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oliversacks.com/books-by-oliver-sacks/musicophilia/&quot;&gt;http://www.oliversacks.com/books-by-oliver-sacks/musicophilia/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-02-16T20:38:21.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13344" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12886" CreationDate="2016-02-17T00:51:24.483" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are three ways that you can get to know yourself better:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self Inquiry &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alpha State &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Default_mode_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Default Mode Network&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Default Processing&lt;/strong&gt; happens when we blink, among other times. Oftentimes when someone falls in to an Alpha State, they stop blinking, so they lose awareness of themselves as separate agents. So these are two complementary possibilities. I often have to remind myself to blink while driving and listening to music, because I get in to an alpha state easily in doing that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Default Processing is when the brain refocuses on internal states and awareness, and does &quot;housekeeping&quot; tasks like integrating short-term memory. You could think of this as serving some features of an &quot;operating system&quot; where the brain tracks its own state. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastActivityDate="2016-02-17T00:51:24.483" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13345" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-17T01:42:25.883" Score="0" ViewCount="392" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a bit confused by the effects of orgasm in bonding; everything I seem to read seems to be a bit careless with the truth and does not mention why people fall out of love or why people who are in relationships cheat, etc. Could anyone please elaborate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10694" LastActivityDate="2016-02-21T07:12:52.763" Title="If orgasm triggers bonding and feelings of love, why don't people continue to stay in love?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13347" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13348" CreationDate="2016-02-17T12:01:16.490" Score="3" ViewCount="934" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have data from the behavioral component of an fMRI study in which subjects are asked to perform a 2AFC discrimination task with targets at variable contrast.  That is, a target will be presented at one of several possible contrasts, and the subject must later identify which of two possible responses has the same orientation as the target stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below is an example of data from one subject:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/G2Y7c.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/G2Y7c.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I've attempted to fit a psychometric function, using the following procedure (in Python):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;import numpy as np&#xA;import pylab&#xA;from scipy.optimize import curve_fit&#xA;&#xA;def sigmoid(x, x0, k):&#xA;     y = 1 / (1 + np.exp(-k*(x-x0)))&#xA;     return y&#xA;&#xA;xdata = np.array([0.0,   1.0,  3.0, 4.3, 7.0,   8.0,   8.5, 10.0, 12.0])&#xA;ydata = np.array([0.01, 0.02, 0.04, 0.11, 0.43,  0.7, 0.89, 0.95, 0.99])&#xA;&#xA;popt, pcov = curve_fit(sigmoid, xdata, ydata)&#xA;print popt&#xA;&#xA;x = np.linspace(-1, 15, 50)&#xA;y = sigmoid(x, *popt)&#xA;&#xA;pylab.plot(xdata, ydata, 'o', label='data')&#xA;pylab.plot(x,y, label='fit')&#xA;pylab.ylim(0, 1.05)&#xA;pylab.legend(loc='best')&#xA;pylab.show()&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of particular note is the sigmoid formula I'm using:  &lt;code&gt;1 / (1 + exp(-k * (x - x0)))&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with this approach is that the fit will pass through zero, wheras with 2AFC data, the minimum value is theoretically .5 -- the guessing rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;How can I fit a sigmoid function such that the fit spans from .5 to 1.0?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-02-17T13:09:53.150" Title="How can I fit a psychometric function such that the minimum is 50% (chance level)?" Tags="&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13348" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13347" CreationDate="2016-02-17T13:09:53.150" Score="5" Body="&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Add 0.5 to the intercept and multiply the sigmoid by 0.5 since it now only spans a y-range half of before: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;y = 0.5 + 0.5 / (1 + np.exp(-k*(x-x0)))&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, for any chance level:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;chance = 0.5  # between 0 and 1&#xA;y = chance + (1-chance) / (1 + np.exp(-k*(x-x0)))&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5130" LastActivityDate="2016-02-17T13:09:53.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13349" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13345" CreationDate="2016-02-17T16:51:00.103" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Surely, orgasms do &lt;strike&gt;release&lt;/strike&gt; &lt;em&gt;drain out&lt;/em&gt; dopamine but you're forgetting another important factor in dopamine release, which is &lt;strong&gt;novelty&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ever heard that couples get bored of sex after an year or two? It's because they find it routine and boring. Cheating (an e.g) gives you the thrill of novelty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same activities which we find thrilling / rewarding will not remain that way. It has something to do with the sensitivity of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dopamine receptors&lt;/a&gt;. Take novelty seekers (e.g) they tend to find novel activities thrilling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The worst scenario occurs, when a person no longer finds any activity interesting. That is nothing but &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhedonia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Anhedonia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; I'm sorry, but I just realized that staying in love is a bit different from enjoying orgasms after reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.health-science-spirit.com/sexrelation.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;. A relationship is far more complicated than just producing enough dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Release of enough &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livestrong.com/article/331715-cocoa-powder-health-benefits/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;endorphins&lt;/a&gt;, helps you stay happy, if you're happy you're likely to not hate other people around you, if you do not hate them, you're likely to like them by releasing enough oxytocin (physical touch etc.). Apart from that, a sense of responsibility and well being comes into picture when you're serotonin levels are moderate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definitely low dopamine levels is a cause, but &lt;em&gt;not the only&lt;/em&gt; cause of cheating etc. Any imbalance of neurochemicals causes not only relationships fall, but also other unhealthy / anti social behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8409" LastEditorUserId="8409" LastEditDate="2016-02-21T07:12:52.763" LastActivityDate="2016-02-21T07:12:52.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13350" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13687" CreationDate="2016-02-17T18:21:14.043" Score="8" ViewCount="5851" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder why we feel happy and comfortable when seeing the view of trees, green plants and flowers. Why do we admire sea, waves, fishes inside pure water and sun set? why do we love seeing the view of sky, moon and stars? Why people love nature even it is not real like a Picture on a computer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be more clear, People love seeing sea but the don't feel the same when they see a cup of water although they both are water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it pure psychological reason? or There are some other biological reasons or chemistry of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you very much,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10775" LastActivityDate="2018-12-07T21:39:21.837" Title="Why do people love nature?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13351" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13316" CreationDate="2016-02-17T18:32:26.563" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, barring weird instances of swelling that is localised to the face, for example. Evolutionary psychologists argue that facial cues, including adiposity and skin pigmentation, to name but two, serves as a cue for general health. If this argument holds true, it means that humans developed a fine-tuned ability to make quick judgments about someone's fitness to mate based on various factors related to health, of which facial features happens to be a big one. This might also explain why we find highly symmetrical faces more attractive, as facial symmetry is positively correlated with genetic health markers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example is the seemingly robust correlation between testosterone levels and the square jaw that you mentioned. In turn, testosterone and muscle mass are linked. Ao seeing someone with a square jaw, you automatically infer their testosterone levels as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from that, there is an obvious correlation between facial adiposity and BMI, which heavily influences judgments about general health and mating preference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short answer: You have this ability because it's highly advantageous when it comes to making judgments about choosing good mates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6415" LastEditorUserId="6415" LastEditDate="2016-02-17T19:08:56.857" LastActivityDate="2016-02-17T19:08:56.857" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13352" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13299" CreationDate="2016-02-17T19:03:11.957" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer to this question depends on your ultimate goal. If you want to know whether or not students at this school are more likely to suffer from a psychopathology/s, you'll need to compare them to some other population. This other normative population can be students at another school, students in the country, students in the world etc. If you don't have access to data on another population you won't be able to use most of the truly inferential statisticsal procedures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to look at the school in isolation, you can use descriptive statistics and &quot;describe&quot; the situation at the school by looking at the way in which psychopathologies present, or, are distributed at this school. Additionally, you can have some arbitrary cut-point or score that you can use to make a judgment call. This probably won't cut it in an academic journal though, depending on the journal and field. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reiterating Russell's suggestion, you can look at the correlation between the incidence of psychopathology and these stress factors you mentioned. This will at least allow you to compare these students to a hypothetical population of students where there is no correlation between psychopathology and these stress factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your starting point will likely be to properly operationise your variables and then scouring the literature to see if you can glean something to compare or even make sense of your data from it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First prize will be using an established and validated instrument. If you can't, you can still try and wing it, but be careful of the interviews though. To use the type of statistics I think you're hinting at, you need to properly operationilse your variables and quantify them. This is going to be hard to do with open ended questions, for example. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6415" LastActivityDate="2016-02-17T19:03:11.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13353" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12886" CreationDate="2016-02-17T22:11:02.287" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: Not a debugger, but possibly a control flow override.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a common fallacy known as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introspection_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;introspection illusion&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The introspection illusion is a cognitive bias in which people wrongly&#xA;  think they have direct insight into the origins of their mental&#xA;  states. ... In certain situations, this illusion leads people to make&#xA;  confident but false explanations of their own behavior (called &quot;causal&#xA;  theories&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introspection_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;) or inaccurate predictions of their future mental states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was long thought that self-focus, meditation, concentration, hypnosis, self-reflection, psychoactive chemicals, and similar techniques can help improve one's insight into their brain's functioning, mental state, decision-making process, cause of emotions, buried memories, and other such private information.  However, research has repeatedly demonstrated that this is not the case - it is at best an illusion, where people fill in gaps with confabulated self-knowledge that they do not actually have access to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are too many examples of this to list here, but check out &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introspection_illusion#Choice_blindness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;choice blindness&lt;/a&gt; (people give explanations for decisions that they did not make), &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misattribution_of_arousal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;misattribution of arousal&lt;/a&gt; (people misattribute the causes of their emotions), and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confabulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;memory confabulation&lt;/a&gt; (people confidently recollect incorrect memories) for some well-known cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More in-depth literature on the subject can be found in a review by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/gpr/5/3/241/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Silva &amp;amp; Gendolla (2001)&lt;/a&gt; of over 30 years of research into an informal theory called the &quot;perceptual accuracy hypothesis&quot; that claims (but no evidence supports this) that self-focus increases accuracy of self-knowledge in a wide variety of aspects of the self.  Another review by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14744224&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wilson &amp;amp; Dunn (2003)&lt;/a&gt;, notes the lack of evidence for any potential for improvement of self-knowledge using introspection.  A more modern review by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3208397/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bollich, Johannet, and Vazire1 (2011)&lt;/a&gt; comes to essentially the same conclusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... we conclude that the road to self-knowledge likely cannot be&#xA;  traveled alone but must be traveled with close others who can help&#xA;  shed light on our blind spots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some decades now, computer scientists have been attempting to reproduce the function of the brain using &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;artificial neural networks&lt;/a&gt;, with some success.  An interesting aspect of neural networks is that they, like the brain, also do not have a debugger - at least not a useful one.  Ask a programmer to explain why their neural network misclassified a training input, and they will respond with a statistical analysis and abstract mathematical model that describes the overall system, not a coherent reason like “it thought this R was an A, so assumed the word was gain instead of grin…”  The only way to get such an explanation is to look at the result, and then guess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The kind of &quot;talk therapy&quot; psychotherapy (such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CBT&lt;/a&gt;) that you ask about has been demonstrated to be more effective than placebo, so we know that something about it works, but what about it works is not well understood.  Perhaps even the illusion of insight has some therapeutic effect, or perhaps there is a cognitive override mechanism at work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dual process theory&lt;/a&gt; is a well established idea that suggests that we have such a mechanism of control override that allows us (like some debuggers) to change the progression of mental processes mid-way.  This is typically the role believed to be played by our &quot;conscious&quot; mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-08-07T17:20:18.637" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T17:20:18.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13356" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13213" CreationDate="2016-02-18T03:45:33.170" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The way that you are describing dopamine fundamentally misunderstands how neurotransmitters work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It makes sense to talk about hormones as elevated or reduced above a baseline level. This does not work for neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin and oxytocin. This is because hormones are usually synthesised and released within specific systems, and are distributed rather uniformly through blood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurotransmitters do not have this property. They are produced within specific neurons (for example, the raphe nuclei produce serotonin), and are distributed into neuronal cell bodies. They are then released by individual neurons as a signal. While one neuron may release serotonin, the one next to might not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is why the idea of boosting a neurotransmitter across the board is wrong, and why blanket statements like dopamine being high when in love don't make sense. Dopamine is not something that the brain pumps out, but is used as a signal by one neuron communicating to another. Certain actions or consequences may result in &lt;em&gt;more&lt;/em&gt; dopamine release within certain parts of the brain, but this is because the brain is signalling the particular action/outcome that led to the dopamine release.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10780" LastEditorUserId="10780" LastEditDate="2016-02-18T04:00:03.403" LastActivityDate="2016-02-18T04:00:03.403" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13357" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13508" CreationDate="2016-02-18T05:52:23.567" Score="3" ViewCount="745" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why are so many people &lt;em&gt;arachnophobes&lt;/em&gt; (have an extreme fear of spiders)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10784" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2016-03-10T19:07:25.647" LastActivityDate="2016-03-11T15:14:19.200" Title="Why are so many people arachnophobes (afraid of spiders)?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13360" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13414" CreationDate="2016-02-18T16:09:03.190" Score="4" ViewCount="1708" Body="&lt;p&gt;As playing games for a prolonged period, tend to develop a addictive behavior in humans, Is there any possibility for addiction to music?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I.e.&lt;/em&gt;, when a person listens to certain list of songs and gets addicted to it, without which the person finds the day boring (or emotionally disturbed)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10154" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-12-15T21:03:06.393" LastActivityDate="2019-12-18T16:03:46.437" Title="Can music be addictive?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13362" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13213" CreationDate="2016-02-18T22:04:51.397" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Allow me to extend a more empathetic answer; stack exchange is great, but the rigid responses are sometimes hard to stomach. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that basically works as a messenger between nerve cells. It tells you when you do something good by releasing a chemical that tells the brain “this is nice, this is good”. It’s closely associated with risk taking &amp;amp; reward motivated behavior; pathways or grooves in the brain are created every time a sensation is perceived as good or makes you happy. Everyone’s perception of “happy” or “good” is different based on the life experiences that they have registered in the brain &amp;amp; the grooves they create over time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dopamine is tricky… the release of dopamine (in large amounts) tends to leave you with a “high” or feeling of ecstasy… but it can quickly lead to addiction or destructive habits as well. Every time dopamine is released, a groove is created and forms a habit; often times subconsciously you follow that groove every time a similar situation arises because the first time you did, it lead to pleasure. This is where conscious behavior really becomes an important factor, if you’re looking to prevent these habits from taking over your life. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where certain drugs are prone to release higher amounts of dopamine than others… there are other things in life that create the same dopamine grooves that drugs do, often in equal amounts. Food, sex, gratification from work, Social Media notifications (the research on this today is astounding; now that social media platforms have been around for over a decade, we are starting to see the relationship of depression linked to social media addiction) … all of these things register as pleasing to the brain and therefore grooves are created to remind you how to behave in the future if you want to attain the same “good” feeling. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pavlov’s dogs are a classic example of ways in which you can train the brain to perform desired reactions using dopamine; but also an example of how it can be used to enslave a being through thought forming behavior. Many arguments could be made on the latter point… from mass distraction of the population to the dumbing down of humanity by those in a position to control… but that’s for another topic &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dopamine is an amazing function of your body… it is wise to understand how it works and how it effects your day to day decision making. I think cell phones are a prime example of how out of control we’ve allowed our behavior to become; I would argue we are all addicted to stimulation and overloading our senses. Over time, the effects will present themselves. My advice is to simplify your life and attempt to limit the sensory interaction each day. Enjoy the little things as much as possible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-wise/201209/why-were-all-addicted-texts-twitter-and-google&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-wise/201209/why-were-all-addicted-texts-twitter-and-google&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10779" LastActivityDate="2016-02-18T22:04:51.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13363" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13345" CreationDate="2016-02-18T22:10:40.823" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-oxytocin-is-the-love-hormone/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Oxytocin&lt;/a&gt; is the neurochemical that causes bonding. Its levels in the brain increase during sex and other activities. However, after an orgasm, &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00345-004-0496-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;dopamine levels decrease and prolactin levels increase.&lt;/a&gt; The combination of these things can contribute to moods and behaviors that cause disharmony in relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10795" LastActivityDate="2016-02-18T22:10:40.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13365" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13065" CreationDate="2016-02-19T17:43:18.810" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this is the closest article to what I'm attempting to describe -&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.boredpanda.com/how-different-drugs-affect-you-artist-illustrations-art-brian-pollett/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An artists illustration of the effect of 20 different drugs on perception&lt;/a&gt;. He draws the same image &quot;under the influence&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an example of an image with the color palette and &quot;decay&quot; attributes I was describing&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ceBpT.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ceBpT.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;example of decay&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-02-19T17:43:18.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13366" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13205" CreationDate="2016-02-19T18:18:21.753" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A big assumption here is that diffuse mode is something you can activate at any time. Where as most teachers on the subject view it as a process that activates through inattention (think daydreaming). Inattention can be difficult with work, commute, home, and family as sources of stress or focus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another is that focused mode is only for unique identification. Every researcher I've come across acknowledges that making connections is readily available in the focused mode, but it's going to be more limited to the concept you're working with. In her class on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.coursera.org/learn/learning-how-to-learn/home/welcome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Learning how to Learn&lt;/a&gt; Barbara Oakley states,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;With the focus mode... You're able to figure out the problem you're trying to solve or the concept you're trying to understand while it's related to something you're rather familiar with. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Segway into the zero-sum-game of these modes. While one is turning on the other is turning off. Not in a binary sense, but along a spectrum. Which is why you might let a problem sit in the back of your mind while you work on similar subjects and all of a sudden you reach an 'aha' moment and make the final necessary connection. Or at least move onto next steps. Instead of inattention to a problem leading you straight into sandy beaches. Again from Barbara Oakley,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As far neuroscientists know right now, you're either in the focus mode or the diffuse mode of thinking. Being in one mode seems to limit your access to the other mode.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.artofmanliness.com/2015/02/18/hypnagogic-nap/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Salvador Dali&lt;/a&gt; would take advantage of the diffuse mode and spoke about such with his &quot;sleeping key&quot; method. The idea is to relax to the point you're about to enter the first stage of sleep while keeping a primary thought in mind. As you drift off you'll lose focus letting your mind make connections, until the key drops and you wake up ready to jot down ideas or work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further Reading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A Mind for Numbers&lt;/strong&gt; by Barbara Oakley&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Thinking Fast, Thinking Slow&lt;/strong&gt; by Daniel Kahneman &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mary Helen Immordino-Yang, &lt;strong&gt;&quot;Rest is Not Idleness: Implications of the Brain's&#xA;Default Mode for Human Development and Education&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastEditorUserId="10420" LastEditDate="2016-02-20T02:28:05.787" LastActivityDate="2016-02-20T02:28:05.787" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13367" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13323" CreationDate="2016-02-19T18:31:53.043" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a growing body of work around social emotional learning that states that factors such as, self-control, grit, and mindset can have a huge impact on long-term success. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, these are often coined character strengths, not personality. And as such, these strengths can be trained. The Marshmallow Tests may have given evidence that self-control positively correlates with success, but much more importantly that self-control can be trained and is not wholly innate. In his latest book, Walter Mischel (author of The Marshmallow Test, study and book) goes to say that what we grow to become is neither wholly nature or nurture, but a conglomerate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Angela Duckworth (grit) and Carol Dweck (mindset) have similar views about how we can train our character strengths to better help us succeed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, &quot;is determined by?&quot; Probably not. Too much goes into what makes a human human and even personality changes over time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Independent of social identities? Definitely not. All of the above authors have had their work criticized for letting their work be distributed as, &quot;just the harder and you'll be fine&quot; regardless of social standing (race, sex, income) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastActivityDate="2016-02-19T18:31:53.043" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13368" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13282" CreationDate="2016-02-19T18:57:40.237" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you're looking for the word &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;eustress&quot;&lt;/a&gt; or &quot;good stress&quot;. Which isn't exactly a label of stress, which as commented is negative, but a positive perception of stress. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My favorite go to example is the positivity often associated with, &quot;challenge accepted!&quot; Here we have a change that is often motivational, difficult, and identifiable as worthwhile. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastActivityDate="2016-02-19T18:57:40.237" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13369" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13286" CreationDate="2016-02-20T02:58:40.570" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stanford.edu/cdweck&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Carol Dweck&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://sites.sas.upenn.edu/duckworth/pages/research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Angela Duckworth&lt;/a&gt; have fairly brief tests meant to measure student success and by some extension grades. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dweck's work focuses on how having a &quot;fixed mindset&quot; limits a students ability to grow in a subject and is used to explain why students are so apt to give up when met with challenge. Her &lt;a href=&quot;http://mindsetonline.com/testyourmindset/step1.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;quiz&lt;/a&gt; would have to be formatted for pen and paper and her research is rather sparse on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Duckworth focuses on both grit and self-control. She has researched heavily the effects of grit over the last 10 years while Walter Mischel works on self-control and has been for the past 40 years. Duckworth was Mischels student. Unfortunately, his test for self-control would likely be too abstract for your needs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Needless to say her work has been shown to measure student success over the last ten years. Her &lt;a href=&quot;https://sites.sas.upenn.edu/duckworth/pages/research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;website offers several quizzes&lt;/a&gt; on grit or self control for adults and students. The same links provides access to her publications. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastActivityDate="2016-02-20T02:58:40.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13370" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13373" CreationDate="2016-02-20T18:13:59.893" Score="2" ViewCount="650" Body="&lt;p&gt;For my master thesis i would like to make a survey on user emotions on using a web user interface. The proband should write down his emotions using the &quot;Geneva emotion wheel&quot;. (More information here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-sciences.org/gew&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.affective-sciences.org/gew&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now i would like to know if there are any survey tools out there which offer this GEW as a clickable version. Or is it somewhere availlable as a &quot;widget&quot; which i can add then to my self created online survey?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10805" LastActivityDate="2016-02-20T21:57:48.320" Title="Survey tool with clickable version of the &quot;Geneva emotion wheel&quot;" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13372" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-20T21:28:40.443" Score="3" ViewCount="2128" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand a fare bit about autism, and Binaural Beats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Autism is the result of synaptic pathways becoming malformed during the fetal stage of pregnancy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Binaural Beat is a collection of two frequencies layered on top of each other to produce a third frequency which mimics a brain wave frequency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know they have done experiments on people to find the effectiveness of a Binaural Beat, under controlled conditions, to perform a triple blind study.&#xA; However as an Autistic person I find myself wondering if any of the participants in that study had any form of Autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that if the synaptic pathways in the brain of a fetus can become so malformed that they result in things like, Learning Difficulties and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified with traits of Aspergers Syndrome, then how would the brain of an autistic person interpret a Binaural Beat in comparison to a Neurotypical person ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Binaural Beats are essentially two similar frequencies, you play a Binaural Beat through headphones and the brain of a Neuro-Typical person interprets the two frequencies from both ears to create the actual Binaural Beat which only the brain can here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this so for people with an Autistic Spectrum Disorder ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10807" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2016-02-23T23:24:35.840" LastActivityDate="2020-06-16T09:42:02.173" Title="What is the effect of Binaural Beats on an Autistic brain?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;binaural-beats&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13373" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13370" CreationDate="2016-02-20T21:57:48.320" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I made up a SVG version connected to a hidden html form. It's not perfect, but it may be useful anyway. You can find it &lt;a href=&quot;http://damien.lockner.fr/ressources/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that a sufficient screen resolution is required.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please send me feedbacks if you use it so that I can improve it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3656" LastActivityDate="2016-02-20T21:57:48.320" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13376" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13300" CreationDate="2016-02-21T04:40:49.760" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is why sometimes we report certain psychiatric conditions as being discrete (henceforth categorical) and sometimes as being dimensional (or in a spectrum).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer is related to the history of psychiatric classifications. By the time DSM-III was designed, there was an increasing resistance to psychoanalysis in America. Psychoanalysis tended to organize disorders in a dimensional fashion (have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://philosophybites.com/2016/01/steven-hyman-on-categorising-mental-disorders.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; podcast. So the final product (DSM-III) translated that resistance by organizing all conditions in categories, increasing significantly their number as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the past 10 years the lack of success (this is questionable, but psychiatry did not developed as well as, say, oncology)  of the field made some scholars rethink about the exclusive use of categories. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that categories are suited health insurances and legal objectives. For instance, judges are normally interested to know whether someone has or not a condition in order to decide about responsibility (necessary and sufficient conditions). The same with health insurance companies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that psychiatry should be thinking on advancing the field, instead of satisfying the legal system or the health insurance companies (these are very important issues as well, don't get me wrong, but they are secondary). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now the question is: are mental disorders really dimensional things? What are the evidences for thinking this way? I will only mention on argument and then I will suggest some readings to read all the other findings that suggests so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The level of co-occurrence of mental disorders (co-morbidity) are very high. So that alcoholism is commonly accompanied by anxiety and depression. Depression and anxiety are themselves commonly found together, and the same for almost all the other hundreds of conditions. That means that perhaps a dimensional approach would be a better one to treat theses concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we accept that personality and intelligence are the type of things that should be treated as dimensional, then? Because the psychologists have been working without giving as much attention to politics than the psychiatrists in the last half-century. And they developed the statistical scaffolding for their theories on personality and intelligence, quite independently from psychiatrists. That is why these subjects are treated today as dimensional, whereas mental disorders are treated as categorical (note though that personality disorders also exists in the classification systems and DSM-5 attempts to introduce some dimensional approach on the subject).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, why Autism has been taken as a spectrum condition? Simply because its study has gained traction only recently, and also because the main researchers in the area used methods from psychology to develop their ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the answer is that your perception that disorders are discrete is something inherited by the long use of classification systems like DSM, but that it will change shortly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://amzn.to/1Vw2O39&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bentall, R. P. (2004). Madness Explained: Psychosis and Human Nature. Penguin.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Volkmar, F. R., &amp;amp; McPartland, J. C. (2014). From Kanner to DSM-5: autism as an evolving diagnostic concept. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10, 193–212. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153710&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153710&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://amzn.to/1Txrp9V&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;APA. (2013). DSM 5. American Psychiatric Association. http://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.744053&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zachar, P. (2000). Psychiatric disorders are not natural kinds. Philosophy, Psychiatry, &amp;amp; Psychology, 7(3), 167–182.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10038" LastActivityDate="2016-02-21T04:40:49.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13378" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-21T13:45:40.893" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently trying to make a non-cognitive index using questions/variables. However there are following problems;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(a) The scales of the questions/variables vary, so I have a scale from 1 to 4 and some with 1 to 5&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(b) I also have dummy variables that have been coded as 0 and 1 (yes/no)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The strategy I have in mind is to find the athematic mean of the scales that are similar and then calculate a weighted geometric mean. Do you think this is correct? Plus because of the dummy variable would it be correct to recode it as 1 and 2 so as to prevent my weighted geometric mean from going to zero?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10813" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-02-21T20:26:39.040" LastActivityDate="2016-02-21T20:26:39.040" Title="How to create a non cogntive index" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13379" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-21T19:51:56.980" Score="3" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is what I know so far:&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Neurons are nodes with a number called the threshold.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Neurons are connected to other neurons through directed axons.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Axons take the signals produced by neurons and deposit them on other neurons, these signals can be &quot;negative&quot; or &quot;positive&quot;.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Once all the signals coming into a particular neuron are added up, if the sum is greater than the threshold, that neuron fires.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;My question is: are these all the rules? And do all neurons have the same rules?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10817" LastActivityDate="2016-03-06T22:02:09.670" Title="What are the rules that govern neuron behavior?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13380" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13381" CreationDate="2016-02-21T20:09:23.513" Score="5" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;NEURON is a software package for simulating neurons and networks in great detail. Although it's quite easy to find papers that use NEURON with &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?as_ylo=2015&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=1,5&amp;amp;cites=16673989093981586499&amp;amp;scipsc=&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a simple Google Scholar search&lt;/a&gt;, is there some way to find which models are publicly available? For example, some repository of NEURON models and their associated publications?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is no standard, an answer with a few examples of recent (last 10 years) publications with a freely available NEURON model would be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-02-21T20:17:02.710" LastActivityDate="2016-02-21T20:36:50.830" Title="Publicly Available NEURON models" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13381" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13380" CreationDate="2016-02-21T20:36:50.830" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;A repository of publicly available NEURON models can be found on &lt;a href=&quot;https://senselab.med.yale.edu/modeldb/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ModelDB&lt;/a&gt; by filtering for &lt;a href=&quot;https://senselab.med.yale.edu/ModelDB/ModelList.cshtml?id=1882&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Models that contain the Modeling Application: NEURON&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-02-21T20:36:50.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13382" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-21T23:13:54.593" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many discussions people show &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-serving_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;self serving bias&lt;/a&gt; and mental rigidity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume one of the actor is very confident with rhetoric and shows really low agreeableness and a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;passive hostility&lt;/a&gt; (the definition given by wikipedia fits very well) toward the other one. He can be frustrated or Narcissistic.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other tries to express his perceptions of some reality but his argumentations are not perfect in the form in which they are formulated, so he is accused of the typical formal errors (i.e. &quot;generalization&quot;, &quot;you cannot be sure&quot;). It's extremely easy to create a wall in this way (only philosophers or scientific papers are formally correct). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the formal errors in an argumentation don't prove the speaker is wrong. But many people can think that winning an argumentation means being right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This second guy (like the victim of many narcissists) could feel impotent, overwhelmed, or experience a kind of &lt;a href=&quot;https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaslighting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gaslighting&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a specific name for expressing this kind of argumentative hostility? Something like 'rubber wall'? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-02-29T10:41:38.250" LastActivityDate="2016-02-29T10:41:38.250" Title="Low agreeableness on argumentations with people confident in rethoric" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13384" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-22T07:38:21.213" Score="5" ViewCount="495" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question is why we use P and N for naming positive and negative EEG component(for instance N170 or P100) but for MEG data we use M in both case, I mean M170 and M100 in this example?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10820" LastEditorUserId="3167" LastEditDate="2016-02-26T01:37:06.050" LastActivityDate="2016-02-26T08:13:58.810" Title="Component naming of MEG vs. EEG" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;meg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13386" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-22T15:23:34.287" Score="6" ViewCount="4169" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I give a task in which there are only two response-options, and I want to categorise the participant according to their responses, what is the 'cutoff' or required proportion of one type of response?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;50-50 would be chance level performance: 50% Type A responses; 50% Type B responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;100-0 would be a perfect Type A performance: 100% Type A responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably a significant number of Type A responses (say, probably around 65%) would qualify as 'Type A' as opposed to 'chance performance'. But how should I decide on what that number is - what is a justifiable criterion and how do I justify using it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9853" LastActivityDate="2016-02-23T15:54:22.507" Title="In a forced-choice task, what proportion of responses is above chance level?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13387" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13379" CreationDate="2016-02-22T22:46:12.567" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Those are very simplified rules which are decent enough for simple neural networks but real neurons in the brain are a lot more complicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v5/n4/abs/nrn1397.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; for some ways that an axon can play a role beyond the simplified rules you mentioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-02-22T22:46:12.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13388" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13386" CreationDate="2016-02-23T00:01:43.430" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;binomial distribution&lt;/a&gt; and the answer depends on the total number of Type A and B questions as well as what confidence level you want to use for the cutoff. There is probably a formula for determining what you want, but I don't know what it is. You can compute it yourself using a permutation test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generate a null hypothesis distribution of random guesses and then use this to find the cutoff for whatever p-value (probability that randomly guessing will give a score greater than a certain value) you are comfortable with. The easiest way to get that value is to sort all of the null performance scores and get one that is 95% higher than all of the others (say Score #950 if you did 1000 random guesses and sorted the scores).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is some Matlab code to estimate this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;n_trials = 50;&#xA;p_cutoff = 0.05;&#xA;n_permutations = 100000;&#xA;% Create a vector of n_trials 'correct' responses and replicate it across n_permutations&#xA;expected_values = repmat(randi([0 1],[1 n_trials]),[n_permutations 1]);&#xA;% Create an array of n_permutations x n_trials random guesses&#xA;random_responses = randi([0 1],[n_permutations n_trials]);&#xA;% Compute the percent correct for each permutation&#xA;percent_correct = sum(expected_values==random_responses,2)/n_trials;&#xA;% Compute and print the cutoff percentage for desired p value&#xA;fprintf('\np=%1.3f Cutoff for %d trials: %3.1f%%\n\n', p_cutoff, n_trials, quantile(percent_correct,1-p_cutoff)*100);&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some cutoffs for p=0.05 assuming the same number of Type A and Type B questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;n_trials cutoff&#xA;10       80.0%&#xA;20       70.0%&#xA;30       63.3%&#xA;40       62.5%&#xA;50       62.0%&#xA;75       60.0%&#xA;100      58.0%&#xA;250      55.2%&#xA;500      53.6%&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More total questions (trials) and the cutoff gets closer to 50%. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note this is all assuming that there is no kind of bias, say a participant choosing randomly will be more likely to choose A (like the first answer or something like that).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://stattrek.com/online-calculator/binomial.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is an online calculator&lt;/a&gt; for computing some probabilities with the binomial distribution. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-02-23T00:01:43.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13389" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-23T01:50:56.667" Score="2" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that the lateral intraparietal cortex (LIP) maps &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23473325&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;various features of targets&lt;/a&gt; onto an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v3/n7/full/nrn873.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;eye-centric reference frame&lt;/a&gt;. I also know that this mapping predicts where &lt;a href=&quot;http://mahoney.cpmc.columbia.edu/goldberglab/goldbergetal2002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;visual attention (in the form of saccades) will be directed&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23152627&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;helps maintain the integrity of the mapping&lt;/a&gt;. Finally, I've also noted that the &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002072&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;LIP has various projections to the visual cortex ventral and dorsal stream&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the function of these projections to the visual cortex? How is the visual cortex influenced by the aforementioned functions of the LIP?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-02-23T01:50:56.667" Title="Influence of LIP on visual cortex" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9628" CreationDate="2016-02-23T13:33:35.310" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ericsson doesn't emphasize on the precise number of hours needed to be a world-level expert. What he emphasizes is the importance of deliberate practice in gaining expertise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BTW, Macnamara et al.'s meta-analytic research has some severe weaknesses. For example,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Not representative&lt;/strong&gt; : They categorized the previous researches into 5 domains -- sports, games, education, professions, and music. For instance, in the professions domain, they concluded that DP explains 1% of variance in performance. However, the more carefully you look into their research, the more you will be surprised. The professions domain includes only 4 researches. Researches about soccer referees, pilots, insurance sales agents, and computer programmers. Even more the sample size for each effect size in that domain doesn't go over 100. For games domain, there are 8 researches and the six are about chess and the rest two are about scramble. I don't think it can represent something like &quot;professions&quot; or &quot;games&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Not balanced&lt;/strong&gt; : If a paper included multiple effect sizes for different samples (for example, the study divided the sample group into ages), their research treated each one as significant as any other effect sizes from different papers. The problem with this is it could be biased by that particular research setting and method. For example, in the education domain, the total number of effect size analyzed here is 51, and almost half of them came from just two papers. How they defined and measured the deliberate practice and performance in those studies might have had a bigger influence to the result of the meta-analysis.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Loose definition of performance and deliberate practice&lt;/strong&gt; : The definitions of those two were not strictly following what Ericsson has emphasized. For example, in the study of pilots, they considered flying hours as deliberate practice hours. And in the study of computer programmers, they considered job level as performance -- it has been already shown job level is not a good predictor for performance. Also, in the study of soccer referees, they asked the referees to recall the accumulated hours of deliberate practices, and moreover, their definition of deliberate practice included running and flexibility trainings, and even sauna times, whereas the performance was perception and judgment test like foul and offside assessments. You see they measured and compared so remotely related things.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are more to point out, but I will stop here and let you read it and think yourself. Their research data is open at &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/rhfsk/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/rhfsk/&lt;/a&gt; and their methodological details are at &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/suppl/2014/07/01/0956797614535810.DC1/DS_10.11770956797614535810_SupplementalMethodsandResults.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/suppl/2014/07/01/0956797614535810.DC1/DS_10.11770956797614535810_SupplementalMethodsandResults.pdf&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent researches in deliberate practices has been focusing on the quality of deliberate practices and I am more interested in this area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2300" LastEditorUserId="2300" LastEditDate="2016-02-23T13:41:00.190" LastActivityDate="2016-02-23T13:41:00.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13392" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13386" CreationDate="2016-02-23T15:54:22.507" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many cases, we talk about threshold as being the minimum &quot;signal&quot; level needed to &quot;reliably&quot; detect the presence of the signal. This threshold level is well above the signal level for there to be a statistically significant increase in the probability of correct. The idea being that the minimum signal level to be statistically better than chance depends on the number of trials, while the signal level to be better than &quot;threshold&quot; is independent of the number of trials (although the precision, and possibly the accuracy, of the estimated threshold depends on the number of trials).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Historically, threshold was estimated by fitting a psychometric function to measures of the probability of correct (or hit rate). For a 2AFC task, the psychometric function goes from 50 to 100 percent correct and threshold was arbitrarily defined as the signal level needed to get 75 percent correct. This choice was mostly because it made the math easier. An alternative to defining threshold in terms of percent correct is to use d prime. Typically, a d prime of unity is chosen as threshold, which under certain conditions corresponds to 68 percent correct. Adaptive methods like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5541744&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Levitt (1971)&lt;/a&gt; track specific points on the psychometric function. For example, a 2-down 1-up procedure tracks 70.7 percent correct and a 3-down 1-up procedure tracks 79.4 percent correct and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6844102&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;QUEST&lt;/a&gt; procedure tracks 92 percent correct. All of these values (and others) have been used to define threshold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While one might think having thresholds defined between 68 and 92 percent correct would cause problems, often the psychometric function is steep enough (the transition from 50%+$\epsilon$ to 100%-$\epsilon$ is rapid) that the differences in the definition of threshold are obscured by the measurement noise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a pragmatic approach, chose the definition of threshold that makes the most sense given the measurement procedure you are using.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-02-23T15:54:22.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13393" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13379" CreationDate="2016-02-23T16:00:22.613" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The rules that govern the behavior of neurons are described by the Nobel prize winning work of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hodgkin and Huxley&lt;/a&gt;. The model has seen a huge number of revisions and extension since its first publication, but remains the foundation by which we understand how neurons work. At its heart are a set of nonlinear differential equations that describe how ions flow across the cell membrane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-02-23T16:00:22.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13394" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13372" CreationDate="2016-02-23T16:11:05.290" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The evidence in support of binaural beats as a therapeutic tool is sketchy: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8371/is-there-scientific-evidence-on-the-benefits-of-binaural-beats&quot;&gt;Is there scientific evidence on the benefits of binaural beats?&lt;/a&gt; Given our lack of understanding of if binaural beats can cause entrainment in the brain, never mind how they cause entrainment, it is not possibly to make conclusions about how the binaural beat would affect the autistic brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-02-23T16:11:05.290" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13395" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-24T05:57:29.220" Score="1" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suffer from memory problem but find it difficult to undrstand whether it is more belief based or real, need a standard test to confirm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10835" LastActivityDate="2016-02-27T13:31:47.037" Title="Can somebody provide a standard test to measure ones working memory &amp; short term memory" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-03-20T05:56:04.860" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13396" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-24T10:31:04.307" Score="7" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LEpYm.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LEpYm.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Where is it?&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just saw this picture puzzle, and found it easily by doing a row-by-row scan, but it seems harder to find it just by looking around. I was thinking that the puzzle was intentionally designed to draw attention away from the correct location, by the following features:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Every snowman is different and its nose points in an apparently arbitrary direction, so as to prevent any uniformity that would give the panda away.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A sizeable fraction of the snowmen have extra things like scarves, hats, bow-ties and and even candy sticks, most of which are also brightly coloured. These distract the viewer as they automatically spend more time looking at these oddities, especially those with patterns. (Saccades tend to concentrate about them.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The panda ears are almost the same size as the buttons on the chest of each snowman, and the snowmen themselves are positioned such that many of them have their buttons appearing just above the snowmen in front of them at about where the ears should be.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I was wondering what are the psychological processes that facilitate such visual misdirection. Is it just the saccade mechanism? My second question is whether there are more convincing examples. For other kinds of visual illusions there are plenty of unambiguous examples, but this one does not feel like an illusion as the task is just to find something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10837" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-18T13:51:56.280" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T14:44:46.093" Title="Find the panda among snowmen!" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13397" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13444" CreationDate="2016-02-24T12:59:44.687" Score="7" ViewCount="1028" Body="&lt;p&gt;I consider myself a person with above average intelligence, that is, I am able to understand complex systems with relative ease. My weak point however is that I've always struggled with memorizing. Back in school I excelled in math and physics, but struggled with e.g. history, not because I wasn't interested in it, but simply because I had a hard time memorizing what was necessary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a good method for memorizing? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Context: I am planning to go back to university this fall. I am learning now for the entrance exam. That is something I will manage, but I anticipate university exams themselves being harder than that, and I will attend to uni while still having a day job. That is, I have no time to waste on improper/suboptimal learning methods. I aim for BA first, then MA. I am 31 years old now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10839" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-29T17:52:24.893" LastActivityDate="2017-07-29T17:52:24.893" Title="What is the easiest way to memorize big amounts of information (a.k.a. learning for exams)?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13398" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13402" CreationDate="2016-02-24T13:26:02.770" Score="2" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is surprisingly hard to find information about the timing of neurons, in particular how long an action potential can contribute to the summation of a neuron. Is it on the order of milliseconds or seconds, i.e. for a neuron to fire, do many of the presynaptic neurons fire about at the same time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2570" LastActivityDate="2016-02-24T15:43:02.507" Title="How long does a spiking signal last?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13399" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-24T13:29:10.620" Score="6" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is non-synaptic plasticity (e.g. changes in the spike threshold) believed to play a large role in learning and memory? If so, which roles are these effects believed to play?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2570" LastActivityDate="2018-06-17T18:46:16.717" Title="What is the role of non-synaptic plasticity in learning and memory?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13400" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10271" CreationDate="2016-02-24T13:48:17.843" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Laziness as well as lack of motivation can be attributed to chemical imbalances, biology, and patterns of human behavior. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clinical Depression can cause a lack of motivation as well as laziness. Studies have shown that clinical depression can be due to an overall lack of certain neurotransmitters, or neurotransmitters not working correctly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humans also tend to have hormonal changes throughout life that can cause a lack of energy, and sense of overall well-being. This is just one of many answers of the biological reason for laziness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The importance of routine, waking up when you don't want to, exercising, and eating correctly are all efficient patterns and habits that can prevent laziness, and a lack of motivation. If your pattern is to stay in bed, eat poorly, and neglect exercise, I believe that laziness can be attributed to your general pattern of behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9075" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-02-26T22:29:11.663" LastActivityDate="2016-02-26T22:29:11.663" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13401" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12522" CreationDate="2016-02-24T14:56:34.477" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both of your proposed methods to increase the measureable affect of binaural beats on the brain would introduce a monaural beat. For example, sweeping the volume from left to right means the volume in at least one ear is changing over time. You would hear a beating if you listened to just this ear. Similarly, to sweep the frequency range, you would need to change the frequency in at least one ear. If you listened to just this ear, you would hear a &quot;beat&quot; (or more precisely frequency modulation). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not aware of any research on how sounds that have both monaural and binaural beats affect the brain. My guess is that people who are interested in using binaural beats to influence the brain would stay away from stimuli that have monaural beats since you can hear the monaural beat with a single ear. From my understanding of the literature on using binaural beats to influence the brain, there is something special about binaural beats since the beat is created by the brain (which is sort of true and sort of wrong).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-02-24T14:56:34.477" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13402" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13398" CreationDate="2016-02-24T15:33:25.820" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many of the neurons in the auditory system have voltage-gated low threshold potassium channels which allow neurons to maintain high firing rates and high temporal acuity. This makes the auditory system a good candidate for finding &quot;fast&quot; neurons. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16647828&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;McGineley and Oertel (2006)&lt;/a&gt; looked at temporal integration in the ventral cochlear nucleus of the auditory system and found that the integration window was as low as 1.4 ms for octopus cells and of &quot;unlimited&quot; duration for T stellate cells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think, but I do not know how to calculate an integration window, that the cells of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/28/27/6914.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Medial Superior Olive are even faster&lt;/a&gt;. These cells need to encode differences in timing between the ears on the order of 10s of microseconds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2016-02-24T15:43:02.507" LastActivityDate="2016-02-24T15:43:02.507" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13403" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13397" CreationDate="2016-02-24T22:40:44.400" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Barbara Oakley, author of &lt;em&gt;A Mind for Numbers&lt;/em&gt;, gave a talk about her findings on effective ways of learning and thinking. Some of what she said were things we've all heard before: eat right, exercise, sleep well, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What was more interesting to me was the research on having the right &lt;em&gt;schedule&lt;/em&gt; for learning. How everything added up to your highest level of retainment. According to their findings, the easiest way to retain new information (aka study for an exam), was having an effective daily routine:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; - Eat breakfast&#xA; - Study/learn new material&#xA; - Take breaks for your mind to think on it subconsciously (called diffused learning)&#xA; - Go for a walk or bonus if you exercise regularly&#xA; - Get a full night's sleep&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All for the highest level of retainment of the information learned from the day before. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Starting this kind of routine early is also a great recipe for avoiding procrastination and cramming! Not to mention even more beneficial to you, since you will also be working while attending university.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only other shortcuts I know of come from personal experience of flashcards, writing things over and over again, and cramming techniques. I'd recommend the other thing if you can swing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10844" LastActivityDate="2016-02-24T22:40:44.400" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13405" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-25T07:15:20.577" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do patients who pay more money for a therapy session get more results because they are more committed to the process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there studies that investigated this effect that hold the skill of the therapist constant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastActivityDate="2016-02-25T07:15:20.577" Title="How does the money a client pays for a therapist effect the effectiveness of the treatment?" Tags="&lt;incentives&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13406" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13384" CreationDate="2016-02-25T13:42:33.957" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;EEG and MEG measure two different but related signals. While EEG records the electric activity from the scalp, MEG records changes in the magnetic field induced by electric activity in the brain. Because of this, MEG is largely insensitive to sources oriented radially, but can pick up sources oriented tangentially to the cortex. Moreover, EEG is sensitive to volume currents (i.e., the spread of currents across the brain), while MEG less so [1].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of this distinction, while two components can have the same latency — let's say the face-specific N170 and the M170 — the sources originating them might be different. Naming the components differently stresses this important distinction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For reference, I recommend the following articles and books&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baillet, S., Mosher, J. C., &amp;amp; Leahy, R. M. (2001). Electromagnetic brain mapping. Signal Processing Magazine, IEEE, 18(6), 14–30.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hansen, P., Kringelbach, M., &amp;amp; Salmelin, R. (2010). MEG:An Introduction to Methods. Oxford University Press, USA.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10847" LastActivityDate="2016-02-25T13:42:33.957" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13407" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-25T13:52:06.190" Score="6" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I see it the goal of cognitive sciences is to find a description of mental processes in terms of neural computations that can be eventually formalized by a mathematical theory to generate accurate predictions. However, I was wondering whether we got to such a point in any area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first positive examples that came to my mind were vision and the Gestalt rules of perception or decision-making. But what about other processes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10847" LastActivityDate="2016-06-18T23:41:27.623" Title="What is a good example of a psychological theory that became formalized into neural and computational terms?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13408" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-25T14:04:24.447" Score="0" ViewCount="247" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've tried to make some searches on egocentrism and its opposite (Allocentrism).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The definitions from Wikipedia are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Egocentrism&lt;/strong&gt; is the inability to differentiate between self and other.&#xA;  More specifically, it is the inability to untangle subjective schemas&#xA;  from objective reality; an inability to understand or assume any&#xA;  perspective other than their own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although &lt;strong&gt;egocentrism&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;narcissism&lt;/strong&gt; appear similar, they are not the&#xA;  same. A person who is egocentric believes they are the center of&#xA;  attention, like a narcissist, but does not receive gratification by&#xA;  one's own admiration. An &lt;strong&gt;egotist&lt;/strong&gt; is a person whose ego is greatly&#xA;  influenced by the approval of others while a narcissist is not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Allocentrism&lt;/strong&gt; is a collectivistic personality attribute whereby people&#xA;  center their attention and actions on other people rather than&#xA;  themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But since the &lt;strong&gt;prosocial&lt;/strong&gt; actions are often motivated by ego needs (see Polatch effect for the extreme) can we say that among extreme idealistic people (i.e. militants in extreme organizations) we can find &lt;strong&gt;Narcissists&lt;/strong&gt; as well? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A narcissist has absence of self-compassion, he thinks to be perfect. Is there a correlation between some form of Narcissism and altruism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: I found this&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“(The) Israeli zoologist Amotz Zahavi (suggested that) (a)ltruistic&#xA;  giving may be an advertisement of dominance and superiority.&#xA;  Anthropologists know it as the Potlach Effect ...  Only a genuinely&#xA;  superior individual can afford to advertise the fact by means of a&#xA;  costly gift ... through costly demonstrations of superiority,&#xA;  including ostentatious generosity and public spirited risk taking...&#xA;  (I)f Zahavi is right ... conspicuous generosity (is) a way of buying&#xA;  unfakeably authentic (self-)advertising.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(any help at improving the question is very welcome)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="4425" LastEditDate="2016-02-29T08:38:42.553" LastActivityDate="2016-02-29T08:38:42.553" Title="Can someone who is never speaking of himself and present himself as very altruistic be egocentric / narcissistic?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;social&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13409" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-25T14:10:50.297" Score="1" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am pursuing Computational Neuro-Science and learning about human Brain. After some reading I got this doubt that when does the brain actually gets switched on? Does it happen right in the mother's womb or when the baby comes out? or Is it wrong on my part to assume that the brain gets switched on one particular moment?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9480" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2016-03-03T10:25:44.437" LastActivityDate="2016-03-03T10:25:44.437" Title="When does the brain 'switch on'?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-03-03T10:26:12.187" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13410" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13408" CreationDate="2016-02-25T17:05:04.423" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the empathy-altruism hypothesis, in some circumstances, people help because they genuinely care about the welfare of the other person and not because of any other personal goal i.e. avoid distress, social norm, Self-affirmation etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;empathy-altruism hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; basically states that&#xA;  psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire&#xA;  to help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are&#xA;  contrasted with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to&#xA;  reduce their own unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern&#xA;  help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be&#xA;  easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid&#xA;  helping unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to&#xA;  another's suffering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The social exchange theory states that altruism does not exist unless&#xA;  benefits to the helper outweigh the costs. C. Daniel Batson disagrees.&#xA;  He holds that people help others in need out of genuine concern for&#xA;  the well-being of the other person. The key ingredient to helping is&#xA;  &quot;empathic concern&quot;. According to his '&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy-altruism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;empathy-altruism hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;', if&#xA;  you feel empathy towards another person you will help them, regardless&#xA;  of what you can gain from it (1991).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iep.utm.edu/psychego/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;debate&lt;/a&gt; about the empathy-altruism hypothesis theory, but I tend to agree with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2016-02-25T17:05:04.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13411" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-25T21:27:39.117" Score="3" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychological egoism, can anyone provide an everyday action which a healthy human mind would carry out which doesn't have the motive of preservation of the individuals own life at heart?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, some may provide the example of forming friendships or falling in love. However this is ultimately because forming relationships with these people is mutually benefit since they will both have someone to rely on, crucial to Humans, who are social creatures which would struggle to survive by themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interested to see if anyone can dissuade me from this dark outlook of Humanity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10853" LastActivityDate="2016-03-15T23:23:49.107" Title="Disprove that Humans are selfish" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13412" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13384" CreationDate="2016-02-26T01:36:16.860" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apart from making the distinction between recording techniques (talking about N170 and you refer to ERP), here is an explanation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Naming convention refers more to neurophysiology than waveform (component) directions.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The standard tool modeling the EEG/MEG activity is a &lt;strong&gt;dipole&lt;/strong&gt;. A dipole consists of a pair of a negative and positive charges and it &lt;strong&gt;generates both an electric and a magnetic field&lt;/strong&gt; (see figure). You can see in the electric field panel that the positive activity is ahead of the positive charge, here the head of the arrow (on the contrary, the magnetic field is oriented on the side of the dipole). Therefore, a positivity in an ERP signal (P300 for example) corresponds to an increase of the dipole activity measured ahead of the positive charge (resp. negative for N400). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, we can say the electrical positive P300 component (or waveform) is neurophysiologicaly a positive electrical activity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the contrary, the magnetic main activity does not follow the main direction of the dipole but its perpendicular one. Therefore, we can't relate an increase in a magnetic field to the positive/negative direction of the dipole. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, a magnetic N170 would not be grounded on neurophysiological basis, but just in the fact that N only refers to a negative on-going measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xH8v5.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xH8v5.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3167" LastEditorUserId="3167" LastEditDate="2016-02-26T08:13:58.810" LastActivityDate="2016-02-26T08:13:58.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13413" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13411" CreationDate="2016-02-26T04:53:19.780" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Giving a dollar to homeless people on the street serves no aid to the donor, since the only difference is who has that dollar, and clearly to have the dollar is better than not.&#xA;This action is therefore entirely altruistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10856" LastActivityDate="2016-02-26T04:53:19.780" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13414" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13360" CreationDate="2016-02-26T08:58:53.910" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.softpedia.com/news/Addiction-to-Music-Has-Biochemical-Basis-179952.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Addiction to Music Has Biochemical Basis&amp;quot; on Softpedia News&lt;/a&gt; by Tudor Vieru, which reports on findings by Robert Zatorre and Valorie Salimpoor (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f818/f3a9db17e3defb250a0c00ff64b4c4631376.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salimpoor &amp;amp; Zatorre, 2013&lt;/a&gt;), who both hold appointments as neuroscientists at the McGill University:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;listening to music you like also triggers the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that plays a role in underlying pleasurable reactions caused by food, drugs and arousal before intercourse&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The chemical has been linked in a variety of studies with mechanisms underlying addiction in humans, and it would appear that it also plays a role in the way people feel when listening to their favorite tunes.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Dopamine is important because it makes us want to repeat behaviors. It’s the reason why addictions exist, whether positive or negative,”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;the euphoric ‘highs’ from music are neurochemically reinforced by our brain so we keep coming back to them. It’s like drugs. It works on the same system as cocaine,&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;It’s working on the same systems of addiction, which explain why we’re willing to spend so much time and money trying to achieve musical experiences,&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Salimpoor, V. N., &amp;amp; Zatorre, R. J. (2013). Neural interactions that give rise to musical pleasure. &lt;em&gt;Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 7&lt;/em&gt;(1), 62–75. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031819&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/a0031819&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f818/f3a9db17e3defb250a0c00ff64b4c4631376.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f818/f3a9db17e3defb250a0c00ff64b4c4631376.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-12-18T16:03:46.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13415" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13135" CreationDate="2016-02-26T09:30:09.237" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe that this has been proven by history and is also happening in the present world. During World War 2, there were (1)&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamikaze&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;kamikaze pilots&lt;/a&gt;. In today's world, there are (2)suicide bombers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) Kamikaze - This was a direct order to Japanese pilots from their authorities to kill themselves and take out as many of the enemy as they could.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) Suicide bombing - This too is a direct order from religious authorities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can also be argued that culture is an &amp;quot;authority&amp;quot;. Culture is passed down from elders who are authority figures. In Japan, there was &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seppuku&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Seppuku&lt;/a&gt;. Samurai who were captured would disembowel themselves, because their culture dictated that this was the honorable thing to do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope I understood your question correctly and was able to answer it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8894" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-02-26T09:30:09.237" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13416" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13323" CreationDate="2016-02-26T09:37:14.230" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think you can separate personality from social identity (?)  With the marshmallow test, for example, the children who have learned not to trust adults or who live in chaotic environments have more motivation to grab the first marshmallow rather than wait.  Their outcomes in life are therefore as likely to be a result of their relationships and environment as they are to be related to unchanging aspects of their personality.  I'm sure they've done the experiments controlling for socioeconomic circumstances, etc., but there's no way of controlling for the quality of relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the answer for me is no, I don't think it's possible to prove such a thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10860" LastActivityDate="2016-02-26T09:37:14.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13418" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12160" CreationDate="2016-02-26T20:53:55.280" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Robot-assisted therapy doesn't automatically mean that it is separate kind of therapy. You may for example teach an imitation by ABA principles with the robot. In other words, you are following traditional therapies but also using a robot. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kids may benefit from robot-assisted therapy primarily because robots are usually reinforcement for them, i.e. kids are motivated to interact with them and of course they will learn more. For kids who prefer rules and restrictive environment and behavior, robots are &quot;friendly&quot; because they don't change a lot- they always follow the same program in a same way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other side, it is complicate to do a program for every child individually. Therapist should know how to handle with a robot and a child in a same time and it may be hard. And most important, robot isn't a human so child will probably have more issues with generalization of the skill than (s)he would have with just a human therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shortly it is hard to give you one answer on this matter because we have different robot-assisted therapies, we have different skills to teach, different children (e.g low/ high functioning autism, or to use proper terminology- different disorders in Autism Spectrum Disorders), etc. If we want to compare benefits of robots then, for example, we should have experimental and control groups, teaching the same skills in the same way with the only difference- presence and absence of a robot. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;1)&lt;/strong&gt; doi: 10.1109/ROBOT.2010.5509327&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;2)&lt;/strong&gt; DOI: 10.1075/pc.12.1.03dau&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;3)&lt;/strong&gt; doi: 10.1146/annurev-bioeng-071811-150036&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;4)&lt;/strong&gt; Pop, C., Petrule, A., Pintea. S., Peca, A., Simut, R., Vanderborght, B., &amp;amp; David, D. (2013). Imitation and social behaviors of children with ASD in interaction  with Robonova. A series of single case experiments, Transylvanian Journal of  Psychology, 14(1), 71–91. &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;5)&lt;/strong&gt; DOI: 10.1007/s10803-012-1645-2&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;6)&lt;/strong&gt; doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2011.05.006&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10867" LastEditorUserId="10867" LastEditDate="2016-02-27T23:55:31.313" LastActivityDate="2016-02-27T23:55:31.313" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13420" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13395" CreationDate="2016-02-27T13:31:47.037" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It might be difficult to distinguish between belief-based and actual memory difficulties, especially in a self-administered test. The most objective measure would be a computerised assessment, e.g. the Automatic Working Memory Assessment, which contains measures of short-term and working memory in the verbal and spatial domain [1]. Some commonly used assessments of these constructs are [2]:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Verbal short-term memory&lt;/strong&gt;: digit span, running span&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Verbal working memory&lt;/strong&gt;: backward digit span, n-back span&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Spatial short-term memory&lt;/strong&gt;: dot matrix, forward Corsi block task&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Spatial working memory&lt;/strong&gt;: backward Corsi block task  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1080/01443410802243828&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1080/01443410802243828&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1201&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1201&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-02-27T13:31:47.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13425" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-28T12:34:36.473" Score="0" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to make better user experience for my poll application and one of ideas I have for this is breaking multi choices poll to binary polls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is statistical result of a question with these 4 options (a or b or c or d) equals with sum of statistical results of these 6 binary questions?:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(a or b), (a or c), (a or d), (b or c), (b or d), (c or d)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;assume I ask these questions from separate people and I ask these questions equally&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;for example: assume we have a society with 1000 members if we ask all of them the first question, people will answer it with this distribution: a:60%, d:20%, b:15%, c:5%&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;now assume if we ask those six binary questions from all members of that society and then we sum each vote of winners of each of those questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;we ask 1000 times a or b and answer is a:600,b:400&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;we ask 1000 times a or c and answer is a:500,c:500&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;we ask 1000 times a or d and answer is a:100,d:900 ....)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;we sum number of votes on a and it is 1300 =600+500+100&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;we do similar thing with b,c and d, is this result similar with result of first question?(a:60%, d:20%, b:15%, c:5% ) and is meaning of this result similar with first one?&#xA;===update===&#xA;@Bruno mention to inconsistency of result of this approach and I think it can be solved if we do not show all combination to all voters. If voter1 chooses &quot;a&quot; between &quot;a&quot; and &quot;b&quot; we do not show questions with any combination of  &quot;b&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10880" LastEditorUserId="10880" LastEditDate="2016-02-29T07:45:59.797" LastActivityDate="2016-02-29T08:37:39.793" Title="are statistic results of these two questions equal?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13206" CreationDate="2016-02-28T13:01:47.907" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think anybody wants to limit particular topics on here, but the point of the site is to discuss science. Science starts with empirical observation, rather than just anecdote. So the first flaw in your view seems to be that you are taking your anecdotal experience as evidence for &quot;a trend of lower IQ in women&quot;. Many people have looked SCIENTIFICALLY at sex differences in cognitive abilities, but these tend to be small and not to include a general difference in IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later on in your question/comments, it sounds like you are more interested in &quot;a strong trend of women having far less interest in the very problem solving that defines one's IQ&quot;. This seems to be about interest rather than ability, and note that there is a big debate about IQ tests and the things they measure (and interest in problem solving is not one). So again, there is, as far as I know, no scientific evidence of differences in this and certainly not enough to qualify as a &quot;strong trend&quot;. For more about sex differences in cognition, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/action/resources/research-in-action/share.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/action/resources/research-in-action/share.aspx&lt;/a&gt; and the references mentioned there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your comment that &quot;I came here to figure out why all women that I meet seem to be less interested in topics of intelligence (science, engineering, philosophy) compared to men Ive met. &quot; is again anecdotal and you seem to be presuming that those subjects are &quot;topics of intelligence&quot; more so than, say, linguistics or art. There is evidence of course for sex/gender differences in take-up of STEM careers, and if you look into this you will see that you are completely off by saying that &quot;women aren't getting more involved in science after the Womens Rights Movement&quot;. There is a big drive to celebrate women in STEM, partly because early encouragement is thought to be a factor in what boys and girls end up studying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since your initial trend is not supported, it seems pointless to look for a &quot;hormonal factor&quot;. If that is your interest you might be better off looking at differences in cognition between/within individuals with different amounts of hormones (e.g., related to the menstrual cycle). Sex hormones such as testosterone might be of interest to you (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5819/what-are-the-cognitive-effects-of-increasing-testosterone-levels-in-men&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; answer).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-02-28T13:01:47.907" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13427" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4450" CreationDate="2016-02-28T13:26:46.427" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;While eye contact is certainly important in social interaction I think you should beware pseudoscientific dating advice based on manufacturing &quot;attraction&quot; between men and women. Since this site is about science, let me point to a couple of areas of empirical research looking at eye contact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, there are quite a few experimental papers showing that (pictures of) faces with direct gaze (looking towards you) capture and hold attention, are remembered better, and that they are rated as more attractive. For details see this &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.uncw.edu/hakanr/documents/gazeandattraction.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;. There are other similar papers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, there is a long tradition of looking at gaze in non-verbal behaviour. Basically, although this shows that people are sensitive to direct gaze it is only one of many cues related to conversation etc. A classic review is &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/100/1/78/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. Interestingly, the timing of direct gaze (when you look and when you look away) is very important in &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0136905&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;conversation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This suggests to me that both looking at someone too long, and not looking at them enough or at awkward times, can cause interactions to suffer. Atypical eye contact is a diagnostic criterion for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.autismspeaks.org/site-wide/eye-gaze&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;autism&lt;/a&gt;, which is normally associated with difficulties in socialising.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-02-28T13:26:46.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13428" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13425" CreationDate="2016-02-28T18:01:40.180" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;That's a good question, but... No way, man, they're not equal!! When you ask someone to choose between 4 options, their answer just means about their pick for the 4 options. And this, and only this, is the way to know the preference of people for those 4 options!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way you're purposing could even generate an inconsistency... Suppose that one person prefer A over B and C, but not over D. It doesn't means that they would necessarily prefer D over B and C, nor means that A or D would be the choice among all. Our choices are not rational, so, if just the order you offer the 4 (or 2) options could induce people to prefer one of the options, asking all vs all could generate a lot of noise!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not saying it's a bad idea, depends on the purpose of your question, of course, and on what you want to know!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know what's your objective, exactly, but maybe you want to ask people to put them in order of importance! e.g., you might be wanting to ask people:&#xA;&quot;Classify these options in order of importance&quot;. This is what does it looks like, by your question, but it's just a guess at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It all will depend on what you want to know and the evolved specificity. In some cases, it would be a good idea, in others not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10881" LastActivityDate="2016-02-28T18:01:40.180" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13429" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13409" CreationDate="2016-02-28T23:35:08.730" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I love this question. While I don't have a definitive answer, I can help with some known factors of child development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are studies suggesting that the parents' voices and repeated music is heard in the womb by the fetus and responded to after birth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specific studies (see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2013/08/babies-learn-recognize-words-womb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2013/08/babies-learn-recognize-words-womb&lt;/a&gt;) classify the &lt;strong&gt;third trimester&lt;/strong&gt; (last three months) of development in the womb to be the key point at which sensory hearing and brain function/classification is active, thus suggesting the brain is &quot;turned on&quot; during or prior to the last trimester.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would love to hear further studies from others that clarify this point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10886" LastActivityDate="2016-02-28T23:35:08.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13430" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13442" CreationDate="2016-02-29T00:39:11.453" Score="0" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a particular problem I've had since as long as I can remember , but I always managed to shove it to the back of my head and ignore, albeit acknowledging its existence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll provide a bit of relevant background regarding the particular areas in which this issue has profoundly affected me. I'm quite fond of different areas of mathematics and I dare say I'm proficient in at least one of those.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I've always encountered this shortcoming. Any time I'm supposed to attack a new problem or teach myself a new concept, I feel like a wall rises right in front of me. If I don't see the solution right away I get terrified, especially when I'm in public. Even when I'm by myself at home I find it incredibly hard to just lay some thoughts on the paper if I'm not completely sure of the next logical step in the process of finding a solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I get a terrible mixed feeling, one one side itching to solve the problem, on the other side this damned blockage that prevents from going all in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This made me ask myself ? How is it that I got good with calculus ? And now I realize...what I've been doing all along was looking for solutions of my problems online before trying to even attempt solving a problem and . I haven't told anyone about this because I feel so, so awfully ashamed by it.. But now I'm desperate for help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By some mysterious process, this made me one of the best mathematics students in my university (CS undergrad). Even though I've absorbed and emulated others' way of thinking I manage to see simple and elegant solutions to a larger number of problems than my peers who've worked so much harder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At this point, I feel like this irrational fear or mental obstruction suffocates me and stands in my way of truly becoming as good as I hope to become. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This all boils down to :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why am I so afraid of simply trying ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What can I do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would mean the world to me if you could help, I didn't know where else to go. If you need any clarifications, please feel free to ask. Also, if you can't formulate any advise, I would also appreciate suggestions to  materials/papers that might encapsulate my issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10887" LastActivityDate="2016-03-01T11:04:36.697" Title="How does one explain the irrational fear of approaching problems?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-03-01T11:54:07.093" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13431" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13425" CreationDate="2016-02-29T08:37:39.793" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It slightly depends on what you are asking and you might want to post on one of the mathematical stack exchanges instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are asking &quot;Do I get the same information by asking binary comparisons as by asking the four-option choice?&quot; Then my answer is that you actually get &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;more&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; information, both about the pattern in the group and about a particular individual. Imagine if person X chooses A in the four option case, all you know is that they prefer A the best. If they then complete all 6 binary options, you will still find this out, but you will also know how they feel about B vs. C etc, so you will be able to find the complete ranking for each person. For the whole group, you would certainly be able to find the overall ranking, but I don't think you'd be able to sum the choices in the way you state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are asking &quot;will people respond in the same way?&quot;, then the answer is probably &quot;No&quot; because, as Bruno notes, people are not always rational and will be affected by the number of choices. Even if you imagine there is some random &quot;noise&quot; in their decision, then making six independent choices will produce some conflicts and potentially amplify this &quot;error&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At any rate, it doesn't seem like this is going to make the user experience more comfortable! This is not my area, but you could read something about &quot;rational choice theory&quot; to get some background about the math/assumptions.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_choice_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_choice_theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-02-29T08:37:39.793" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13432" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-24T04:10:19.787" Score="10" ViewCount="216" Body="&lt;p&gt;Saying (or even just thinking) a word or phrase results from activity in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_processing_in_the_brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;multiple regions&lt;/a&gt; of your brain. Of course, we can measure/'map' this activity to some degree; From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;EEG measures the brain's electrical activity directly, while other methods record changes in blood flow (e.g., SPECT, fMRI) or metabolic activity (e.g., PET, NIRS), which are indirect markers of brain electrical activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is, just how &lt;em&gt;precise&lt;/em&gt; is this mapping? Is it precise enough to answer the following question? (and if so, has anyone examined it)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm curious if the same word or thought in different languages is produced by the same pattern of brain activity&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For example: does &quot;hello&quot; for a native English speaker generate the same signal response as a Spanish speaker saying &quot;hola&quot;? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, I guess the question I'm asking is: &lt;strong&gt;are the signals/activity generated by the brain to create language driven more by the phonetics/orthographics/structure of a word or the meaning/connotation of that word/concept?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can we quantify that person x speaking the greeting &quot;hello&quot; is more/less similar to a Spanish speaker saying &quot;hola&quot; than, say, both speakers saying &quot;a&quot; (in English &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; is an article; in Spanish &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; is equivalent to the English &quot;to&quot;)?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two notes / caveats:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I would assume that the same word in different languages would generate different signals in the &lt;em&gt;same&lt;/em&gt; individual (i.e., one who comprehends the meaning of the word in both languages). Though perhaps this isn't true (which could also be very interesting).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Of course perhaps sex, gender, age, or even just general variation between individuals (or even variation &lt;em&gt;within&lt;/em&gt; an individual) might produce slightly different activity signals for the same task/word.  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10834" OwnerDisplayName="theforestecologist" LastEditorUserId="10834" LastEditDate="2017-08-11T04:07:16.863" LastActivityDate="2017-08-11T04:07:16.863" Title="Does the brain generate identical words in different languages similarly?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13434" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13294" CreationDate="2016-02-29T12:58:43.530" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There seems to be indeed some correlation between maximization and self-esteem (as can be seen even in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximization_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt;). However it doesn't necessarily predicts low self-esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quoted from wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Initial research on maximizing showed uniformly negative outcomes&#xA;  associated with chronic maximizing tendencies. Such tendencies were&#xA;  associated with lower happiness, self-esteem, and life&#xA;  satisfaction;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/dont-delay/200804/what-flavor-perfectionist-are-you-it-matters&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt; with greater depression and regret;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/dont-delay/200804/what-flavor-perfectionist-are-you-it-matters&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt; with lower&#xA;  satisfaction with choices;[8][9] with greater perfectionism;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfectionism_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;[10]&#xA;  and with greater decision-making confusion, commitment anxiety, and&#xA;  rumination ... However, as disagreement over the definition of maximizing &#xA;  grew, research began to show diverging effects: some negative, some&#xA;  neutral, and some positive&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, those results closely resembles studies regarding correlation between &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfectionism_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;perfectionism&quot;&lt;/a&gt; and &quot;self-esteem&quot; (perfectionism being a similar concept to maximization which you described).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been many studies, but in general, perfectionism can be detrimental only when it's maladaptive/ neurotic. On the other hand, positive/adaptive perfectionism tend to correlate with positive emotions, which can factors in a more positive self-esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some studies further classified that perfectionism coming from one-self is associated with adaptive aspect of perfectionism, and thus more related to positive emotions. While perfectionism that comes form social environment (imposed/prescribed by others), is more associated to the maladaptive aspect. As discussed in this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/dont-delay/200804/what-flavor-perfectionist-are-you-it-matters&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It somewhat make senses considering the definition of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-esteem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;self-esteem&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. In general, self-esteem is defined as how we evaluate our own worth, which starts early in infancy. It affected by many factors which may changes across lifetime (for example in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/hp-ps/dca-dea/publications/ffc-ief/book-livre-5-eng.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;childhood&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://understandingteenagers.com.au/blog/teenagers-and-self-esteem-key-factors/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;teens&lt;/a&gt;), but in general it's largely affected by social factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary, it's possible that being a maximizer (or being perfectionist in general) correlated to low-self esteem. But it depends on how exactly the maximizing is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6461" LastActivityDate="2016-02-29T12:58:43.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13435" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-29T14:59:47.597" Score="5" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;we are looking into running simulations of the nervous system of C. Elegans. It is believed by most people that the worm's nervous system encodes information through graded potentials and/or plateau potentials rather than action potentials, as would be the case for example in many parts of the human nervous system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are planning on building upon a &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/openworm/CElegansNeuroML&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEURON simulation created by the OpenWorm team&lt;/a&gt;. We want to see where we can get by including channel mechanisms and most importantly by making the transition from a spiking network model to a model reflecting the above belief that C. Elegans does not use action potentials. We then want to compare this with data collected at the University of Vienna.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, I am a student of mathematics and this is a project for university, so I am hopelessly confused by the neuroscience books I have been looking at. Instead, I hope that you guys can help me out with my question. To explain, consider the following scenario inside of C. Elegans:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Say I have neurons A and B, connected through some type of synapse. Neuron A is stimulated by a voltage clamp and generates a varying, graded potential lasting over a prolonged period (say 20 ms). Now what would a typical membrane potential of neuron B that one would expect in this situation look like? In pictures:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/e5sVm.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/e5sVm.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;The top graph shows the membrane potential of neuron A as a function of time, the bottom graph similarly for neuron B.&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize this is a somewhat ill-posed question, but I am not asking for a detailed chemical or biological explanation of the process, but rather a heuristic that can serve as a starting point for a simulation. In case there is something already known in this respect, I would be thankful if you could point me to the references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The next question would then be how one could implement this in NEURON, which has only NetCon to create networks. I figured I could use an artificial simulated synapse by drawing a small long cylinder with several compartments between neurons and then using a gap junction type connection, but I really don't know if this even makes sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10893" LastEditorUserId="10893" LastEditDate="2016-03-02T12:22:27.993" LastActivityDate="2016-03-02T18:24:53.423" Title="A question on synapses" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13436" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13397" CreationDate="2016-02-29T17:27:01.997" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since you excelled in math and physics, I'm going to guess that deriving information from first principles is fun, easy, and rewarding for you.  And memorizing just feels wrong.  Memorizing doesn't feel like &quot;learning&quot; because you're not deriving from first principles. You don't understand WHY the answer is correct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can relate 100%.  At least for me, the only answer was (1) mnemonics and (2) repetition.  When you're memorizing a lot of information for exams, just coming up with a clever mnemonic isn't enough.  You need to practice the mnemonics, so when asked a question, the mnemonic comes to mind right away.  I personally found flash cards helpful for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take heart. This memorizing (in my opinion) is an artifact of certain teaching styles.  When you're out of school and working in a field, those things that you use all the time you memorize out of sheer repetition without even trying (like a phone number you dial often). Those things you don't use all the time--even if you did have them memorized--you forget them anway.  So you look them up as needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10279" LastEditorUserId="10279" LastEditDate="2016-03-06T02:57:25.527" LastActivityDate="2016-03-06T02:57:25.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13437" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13411" CreationDate="2016-02-29T19:44:29.140" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depends on what you mean by &quot;selfish&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfishness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Selfishness&lt;/a&gt; itself is generally defined as being concerned, sometimes excessively or exclusively, for oneself or one's own advantage, pleasure, or welfare, regardless of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If that's what you mean by being selfish, then a simple act of helping others at the cost of your own pleasure, benefits, or welfare already disapproves that deep-down humans are all selfish. You can argue that such acts may ultimately caused by expectations of a perceived benefit, conscious or not. But consider these examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A mother/father jumping in to save their child from a speeding car,&#xA;saving the child but killing them in the process.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A soldier throwing him/herself to a grenade to save his/her fellow soldiers.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Someone who attempt to stop a school-shooting, and got killed in the process&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Acts such as those, which resulted in ending of one's life, most likely don't stem from expectations of future benefits (I mean, they would be dead afterwards, what benefits could they be possibly expecting?). And they surely don't have the motive of preservation of the individuals own life at heart.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, you can still argue that &quot;heaven&quot; or similar religion's concepts may be the main motive. But I'm pretty sure that even people who doesn't believe such concepts would still likely to do the first example (at least).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking it further, such acts may indeed be explained by needs of preservation of human as a species (sacrificing one live in order to save more lives or future generation). If this still classifies as &quot;selfish&quot; to you, then I can't find other example. However, I would argue that what human behavior can't be ultimately traced back to &quot;human species preservation&quot; motive, with or without personal benefits? I believe that there's nothing wrong with that, and thus it's not a &quot;dark outlook&quot; at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6461" LastEditorUserId="6461" LastEditDate="2016-03-01T02:22:04.253" LastActivityDate="2016-03-01T02:22:04.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13438" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-02-29T22:05:59.760" Score="2" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've often heard the claim that women are forgetting, or remembering labour and birth pain as being less &lt;a href=&quot;http://theconversation.com/mondays-medical-myth-women-forget-the-pain-of-childbirth-12271&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;severe&lt;/a&gt;. Some people say that this mechanism has an evolutionary advantage, as if it didn't exist women would avoid having more babies...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this explanation possible? I'm assuming most animals don't know the relation between contraception and labor, so they won't be able to avoid labor even if they wanted...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How long have humans been aware of this relation, and is it possible that evolution has been able to work in that time-span?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10895" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-03-01T14:33:13.063" LastActivityDate="2016-03-01T14:33:13.063" Title="Can forgetting labor pain be an evolutionary advantage as animals don't know how to avoid labor?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13439" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13118" CreationDate="2016-02-29T23:52:56.993" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I could only find a single instance of learning to leverage a memory. &lt;a href=&quot;http://adb.sagepub.com/content/15/3/329.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;The Origin of Epistemic Structures and Proto-Representations&quot; by Chandrasekharan and Stewart&lt;/a&gt; shows how to include the option to save the current state (by training a neural network to output '1' given the current state input) and input this memory into the state representation of a reinforcement learning task. In the paper, this method allows an agent to switch between foraging and returning home.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frustratingly, checking the citations of this paper leads to a dead end, so further references would be greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-02-29T23:52:56.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13440" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13409" CreationDate="2016-03-01T01:53:21.277" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;auditory and sensory systems if you will are 'on' from within womb visual stimuli confirms all those sounds with visual feedback after birth while sensory information starts to form memories along with those new images.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10897" LastActivityDate="2016-03-01T01:53:21.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13441" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13438" CreationDate="2016-03-01T02:39:23.017" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I agree.  The connection between having sex and the pain of labor is so distant, it seems unlikely that it could be selected against.  In theory though, there could be enough time in human history for it to have happened, especially early on when child mortality was much higher than now.  If every mother who remembered extreme pain in labor never gave birth again, and a large proportion of those babies died, the attribute could disappear within a generation or two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is evidence that mothers &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14992155&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;don't always forget the pain of labor&lt;/a&gt;.  Even if they do forget to some extent, I'm not sure how that compares to other kinds of pain.  For example, marathon runners &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09658211.2015.1023809?journalCode=pmem20&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;forget the pain of their last race&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some advantages of remembering the pain of labor could be preparation for subsequent births and arranging support in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10860" LastActivityDate="2016-03-01T02:39:23.017" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13442" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13430" CreationDate="2016-03-01T05:27:54.880" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/fear-of-failure.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fear of failure&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atychiphobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Atychiphobia)&lt;/a&gt; is a form of specific phobia that may &lt;strong&gt;to some degree&lt;/strong&gt; explains your situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, please &lt;strong&gt;DO NOT&lt;/strong&gt; instantly think/feel that you're experiencing a mental disorder or something similar. I cannot stress this enough, sharing some characteristics or experiencing some signs/symptoms of a disorder does not immediately means that you have that disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I stated &quot;to some degree&quot; because features of &quot;fear of failure&quot; matched what you described, but only partly so. Note that in the linked explanation, on most cases, this fear will make a person avoid distinguishing him/herself and instead strive for mediocrity. However you have had achievements that clearly distinguishes yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, I would argue that you have such expectations of yourself, and the thought of failing to fulfill them are so great that you rather not try unless you're sure you will succeed. And when you did succeed, you tend to undermine/ brush-aside your own capabilities; since having such capabilities would mean that you're expected to achieve even more things in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many articles discussing about this, and many offers ways/strategy to overcome this particular fear. For example this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychalive.org/how-to-overcome-the-fear-of-failure/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;. However I'm sorry that I couldn't find related books, papers, or scientific publications. All in all, I would personally advise you to stop thinking about results, and try to just &quot;jump&quot; the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this answer helps in any way!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6461" LastEditorUserId="6461" LastEditDate="2016-03-01T11:04:36.697" LastActivityDate="2016-03-01T11:04:36.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13444" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13397" CreationDate="2016-03-01T14:58:19.453" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thanks for everyone for your answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've found this book and it seems to be what I was looking for: &lt;a href=&quot;http://makeitstick.net&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Make It Stick - The Science of Successful Learning&lt;/a&gt; by Peter C. Brown et al. The basic premise is that retrieving things from memory makes them actually stick. The more effort to retrieve it the better. Therefore you shouldn't mass learn because it's more or less a waste of time, rather embed waits and do something else, interleave subjects, and most importantly test yourself by retrieving from memory instead of rereading, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, there is an other book that looks great, with a seemingly great deal of overlap with the former: &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0812984293&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How We Learn&lt;/a&gt; by Benedict Carey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am also mentioning that I've stumbled upon a book asserting that everyone has to find about what their &quot;learning style&quot; is, like visual/auditory/etc... and left vs right hemisphere, but concluded that it is unfounded at best (the word pseudoscience comes to my mind), so I returned it. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_styles#Criticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Criticism&lt;/a&gt; at Wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10839" LastActivityDate="2016-03-01T14:58:19.453" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13446" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13409" CreationDate="2016-03-01T22:00:48.620" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect that a boolean thinking is somewhat a mismatch to the biological processes that govern fetus development - it's all much more of a gradient than light switches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is to become the brain starts forming around 16 days after conception. By around week 6, neurons start to communicate and we can detect fetus movements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is around week 15 that the sense of touch starts to develop, shortly followed by an extremely crude hearing sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is around week 30 that the actual global network which is a prerequisite for consciousness is sufficiently formed and shows synchrony. But as far as consciousness goes, many other aspects of it cannot be observed (not conclusively at least). What we do know is that at birth processes that could carry the hallmarks of consciousness are extremely slow compared to those of adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps another important milestone is placed two months after birth, where there's strong evidence showing a capacity to hold information for a few seconds, ie, short-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So as initially suggested, the whole thing doesn't quite switch itself on - it is rather progressive in nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2016-03-01T22:00:48.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13448" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13397" CreationDate="2016-03-02T17:16:23.707" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you want to learn something then investigating how the brain encodes memory, and looking at methods of enhancing these tasks is the way to go. Pop psychology books do the field little credit and are often riddled with academic inaccuracies. However if you are going to use a book I highly recommend Human Memory by the brilliant Alan Braddeley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory is largely split between three according Atkinson and Schiffrin's (1986) model: sensory store-&gt;short term store(STM)-&gt; long term store (LTM). Although this can then be sub-split into explicit and implicit memory, and the sensory store is what we would now call attentional processing. Broadly speaking we have little control of attentional processes than STM. So lets look at how you many enhance the encoding between STM and LTM. Much of what I'm about to mention comes developed out of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002253717280001X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Levels of Encoding&lt;/a&gt; theory which essentially suggests that information is processed at different levels depending upon the complexity and relationships, the greater the depth of the encoding and associations the easier something is to remember. Many Mnemonic (memory) techniques are based on this. For instance, &quot;Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain&quot;= the colours of the rainbow. technically this is shallow encoding because its only the first letter or each word relating to the colour in the order they occur in light refraction. But this is are easier than remember the colours based upon there discrete and unconnected names. The more associations you make the easier something is to remember as it makes more associations heres an deeper example remember this list and hide it once you have read it and try to recall after the maths test: Carrot, Monkey, Telephone, Guitar, School, Bottle, Newspaper, Mansion, Henry, Catastrophe, Worms, canopy, Hairspray. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Answer the following: 2x3.5=?, (7/2)x3=?, square root of 27?, A car accretes from 0-50 m/sec in over a distance of 34 meters how long did it take? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recall the list?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If instead you tried to recall the list as a story it would be easier to remember all the items...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Monkey was eating a Carrot when the Selephone rang offering Guitar lessons at a School, he/she decided to go and packed a Bottle and Newspaper. Upon leaving the Mansion he/she walked past Henry who was having a Catastrophically collecting worms under his fishing Canopy with a Hairspray can.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a deeper level of encoding that should be easier to remember because it has more detail applying the words in an episodic and semantic style. This activates more &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/91/6/2008.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain regions&lt;/a&gt; providing more cues for how associations for the information that one wishes to store. I literally can't write enough about neural encoding of memory there is a plethora of research, and I strongly suggest a google scholar search if you are interested. But the over riding suggestion is increase associations, for instance when I was studying for my exams I would write notes and cue cards which were highlighted, I would also create stories and words made of the items I wanted to remember. In addition I would drink a particular flavour of squash while doing my learning and revising. The reason being is that these all create associations, and if you can take a cue with you into an exam, such as apple juice, it well help you to remember. Visualisation a lot too, imagining the place you were when you learnt something and the smells and related tastes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally it cannot be understated the role that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0028966748&amp;amp;origin=resultslist&amp;amp;sort=cp-f&amp;amp;src=s&amp;amp;st1=limbic%20system%20and%20memory&amp;amp;st2=&amp;amp;sid=6A38A5A38B64A01D55E14C86DCA7A120.fM4vPBipdL1BpirDq5Cw%3A610&amp;amp;sot=b&amp;amp;sdt=b&amp;amp;sl=39&amp;amp;s=TITLE-ABS-KEY%28limbic%20system%20and%20memory%29&amp;amp;relpos=1&amp;amp;citeCnt=2160&amp;amp;searchTerm=&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;affective (emotional) processing&lt;/a&gt; plays, information is often affectively encoded. Trying to remember how you felt or giving data a&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/027273589290116P&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ffective significance can aid recall&lt;/a&gt; or being in the same state of affect helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially a large part of memory can be understood in terms of Pavolivan and operant conditioning, coupled with motivational and affective relevance. In other words learnt associations and reinforcement may act as cues and learning mechanisms that strengthen memory. The relevance of these cues one can give both motivational and affective significance, and these may also be used to help recall. In addition the level of detail and information relative to the encoding process strengthens or deepens the learning process. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a REDUCTIONIST explanation of memory there is a lot more on it and the precise mechanisms related to what is being learnt, there is also a lot i haven't mentioned. Sorry for the lack of references I have a job to do, but you can google a lot of these topics and you will encounter most while learning about cognitive neuroscience. Memory research is probably one of the best understood areas of cognitive neuroscience along with perception. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastActivityDate="2016-03-02T17:16:23.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13450" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13435" CreationDate="2016-03-02T18:24:53.423" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v12/n4/pdf/nn0409-377.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this research paper&lt;/a&gt; by Lockary and Goodman, the resting membrane potential of C.Elegans is two fold because its a stepped resting potential of -70mV and -35mV. After an initial activation a resting potential of -35mV is held following a higher depolarisation, so on your graph the initial depolarisation would be a little higher, and then drops to -35mV for roughly 60+ secs. When terminated, or receiving a inhibitory signal this drops to -70mV. I don't see any reason why the receiving neuron would respond any differently so long as the activation strength was enough to create positive depolarisation. As mentioned by Izhaki in the comments, the strength of the synapse connections plays an important role. &lt;a href=&quot;http://thesis.library.caltech.edu/5848/1/thesis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is a good thesis on transfer between neutrons in C.Elgans&lt;/a&gt;, it also explains the methods to investigates neutrons in the central nervous system of C.Elegans, and seems to see two patterns of activation depending on the method applied. Only a few of the neutrons have been fully recorded in C. Elegans so its possible that different potential patterns may occur, nervous systems are far from homogeneous, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12171116&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;humans appear to use more than one type&lt;/a&gt;.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't respond anymore than this at the moment as I don't have time for the extra reading but I hope this is at least useful.      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastActivityDate="2016-03-02T18:24:53.423" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13453" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8415" CreationDate="2016-03-03T13:32:34.403" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Contrary to another post here, in my opinion and also that of an increasing majority of researchers studying this field, SSRIs and the so called 'antidepressant' drugs cause great harm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0016605/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Firstly here is a list of common side effects&lt;/a&gt;: Insomnia (which is common in depression anyway), increased anxiousness, feeling sick, indigestion, diarrhea or constipation, loss of appetite, fluctuations in weight, dizziness, blurred vision, dry mouth, excessive sweating, headaches, reduced sex drive, difficulty achieving orgasm, erectile dysfunction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;None of these are good effects which is why we don't give them to people who are 'healthy'. More importantly the devastating effect these side effects can have on a patients life could potentially be far more harmful than before the drug was taken, for example increased marital problems. &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wps.20243/epdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;According to Joanna Moncrieff these effects compound depression&lt;/a&gt;, and more importantly disturb the chemical balance in the the brain, and as a result compound or cause the very symptoms they are meant to cure. Central to this notion and the question presented here, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/1072889/14891065/1320009670867/antidep+El-Mallakh-tardivedysphoriadarticle1.pdf?token=hutRTG7dlk%2FYnSaPYE%2ByIwui0N0%3D&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;long-term use of SSRIs may causes&lt;/a&gt; what we call &lt;a href=&quot;http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/1072889/15035221/1320787504360/Antidep+SSRI+apathy+syndrome+Barnhart+2004.pdf?token=PvfA9yIzcniAVQQ0GX103SflLMw%3D&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;'serotonin induced apathy'&lt;/a&gt;, in other words, &lt;a href=&quot;http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/1072889/14891065/1320009670867/antidep+El-Mallakh-tardivedysphoriadarticle1.pdf?token=o1qgiD6AzDspO64UTISKzRIfK74%3D&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;after initial positive effect of SSRIs (quiet possibly short-term placebo effect), patients become indifferent to their environments&lt;/a&gt;. Furthermore Long-term use of SSRIs leads to abnormal brain neurogenesis not seen in non-depressed samples, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322306005816&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this is often taken to as proof of how SSRIs exert there action&lt;/a&gt;, or rather it was before 2008 (see below meta analysis). However it seems that this neurogenesis is less likely to be positive considering the negative effects and lack of efficacy SSRIs display.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The long-term use of SSRIs often leads to the development of apathy, which utimatley will lead many patients back into depression. The rate of relapse in people taking 'anti-depressants' &lt;a href=&quot;http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/1072889/14890979/1320009370450/antidep+Andrews+etal+drug+exposure+raises+greater+relapse+risk.pdf?token=hVNkhJbAIf35F%2F2jY01Idyhb5LU%3D&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;is &gt;40% while patients with placebo is roughly 24%&lt;/a&gt;. If that isn't bad enough at a &lt;a href=&quot;http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/1072889/14890821/1320008484347/antidep+2010+MN+rept+depressed+chronic+ill+20101.pdf?token=WubXGUFWo9AaPJiz2933Azu7aS0%3D&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;12 month follow up only &amp;lt;5% of patients are in remission&lt;/a&gt; for their depression. Why might this be? Well &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050045&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2008 meta-analysis by Kirsch et al found that all 'anti-depressants' are below clinical levels of acceptance&lt;/a&gt;, in other words no more effective than placebo. However it should be noted that in severe depression SSRIs are useful only!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason anti-depressants such as SSRIs are ineffective is because of the simplistic approach taken  to treatment with these drugs. The brain is not some 'big bag of chemicals', neurons  are not purely serotonergic &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10818/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in fact they often release multiple NTs&lt;/a&gt;. And crucially serotonin NT is used throughout the central nervous system, for more than mood regulation. The fact that SSRIs do not work over the long-term tells us the serotonin theory of depression is wrong. Perhaps more importantly roughly 10% of people in the UK are on 'anti-depressants', we can talk about over medicalisation of mental health, but the reality is large amounts of people are taking these drugs for large amounts of time (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/mental_health/mhgap/evidence/depression/q2/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;9-12 months recommend&lt;/a&gt;). This is not helped by the fact that governments are more interested in investing in &lt;a href=&quot;http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/special/depressionreport.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cheap medical 'cures' than long-term methods with greater efficacy that cost more&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry its so long, and I'm sorry its so short there is so much to say about how SSRIs don't work and how bad they are regarding people thinking they are getting effective cures, along with the neuroscience and discussions on publication bias. Its a fascinating topic, thanks for the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="10098" LastEditDate="2019-09-09T16:51:55.090" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T16:51:55.090" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13454" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12913" CreationDate="2016-03-03T14:20:03.933" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a related concept to this in evolutionary biology called the Handicap Principle or Zahavi Principle [1]. It originally tried to explain why certain species evolved traits that are clearly not adaptive, but seemed to be favoured by sexual selection. For instance, the colourful plumage of the male peacock makes the male a target for predation, but may signal superior fitness to females. The logic behind is could be that the male is showing off that he can afford these non-adaptive nornaments and still get away with it. The kind of behaviour that you are describing may serve a similar purpose. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Zahavi, Amotz (1975). &quot;Mate selection—a selection for a handicap&quot;. Journal of Theoretical Biology 53 (1): 205–214. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(75)90111-3&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-03-03T14:20:03.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13455" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13407" CreationDate="2016-03-03T21:08:01.090" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check out all of the videos in this playlist&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lrppe54fixc&amp;amp;list=PL1hKzFfV5qJlVTjD8XWzyiaHxBZZ7iWs9&amp;amp;index=3&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lrppe54fixc&amp;amp;list=PL1hKzFfV5qJlVTjD8XWzyiaHxBZZ7iWs9&amp;amp;index=3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The particular video I linked gives the example of the &quot;Papez circuit&quot;.  Other interviewees mention other examples as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2016-03-03T21:08:01.090" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13456" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-04T00:42:59.150" Score="2" ViewCount="287" Body="&lt;p&gt;FreeSurfer makes inferences about volume, through the calculation of the surface of the brain. The parametric method (used in SPM) is a voxel-based statistics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;FreeSurfer analysis does not map the brain using the traditional Brodmann's areas (BA) (at least not &lt;a href=&quot;https://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/fswiki/BrodmannAreaMaps&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;entirely&lt;/a&gt;), instead it uses the Desikan-Killiany Atlas (DKA).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers that are used to think about the brain regions considering the BAs, may have a hard time to relocate them in terms of DKA. Is there a table with equivalence that one can use in order to translate from one into the other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10038" LastEditorUserId="10038" LastEditDate="2020-01-01T13:35:22.617" LastActivityDate="2020-01-01T13:35:22.617" Title="Is there an equivalence table between the Desikan-Killiany atlas to brodmann areas?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13457" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13379" CreationDate="2016-03-04T02:29:22.307" Score="7" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My question is: are these all the rules? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;No.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some things you left out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Plasticity (change)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Very-short-term &lt;em&gt;synaptic&lt;/em&gt; &quot;plasticity&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; (changes in synaptic strength); at least a few different forms of this (post-tetanic potentiation, short term synaptic depression, synaptic facilitation).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Very-short-term &lt;em&gt;intrinsic&lt;/em&gt; &quot;plasticity&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; (changes in spiking behavior): spiking accommodation, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Medium to long-term synaptic plasticity&lt;/strong&gt;; several forms of this: classical Long Term Potentiation or Depression, Spike Timing Dependent Potentiation, synaptic underpinnings of habituation and sensitization in, e.g., Aplysia, synaptic scaling.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Medium to long-term plasticity of intrinsic properties&lt;/strong&gt;, like threshold, input resistance, firing properties.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Metaplasticity&lt;/strong&gt; (changing the changeability)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Neuromodulation&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Co-transmission&lt;/strong&gt; of classical neurotransmitters with a neuropeptides&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuromodulation of ionic conductances&lt;/strong&gt; directly, postsynaptically&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuromodulation of ionic conductances&lt;/strong&gt; directly, presynaptically&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuromodulation via metabotropic receptors&lt;/strong&gt; and signaling to the nucleus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why there are &lt;strong&gt;dozens of neuromodulators&lt;/strong&gt; just for controlling a &lt;strong&gt;crab's digestion.&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bio.brandeis.edu/faculty/modulatorsEdit.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ref&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Odds n' Ends&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Electrical &quot;synapses&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; (&quot;gap junctions&quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Refractory periods&lt;/strong&gt; preventing firing even if above threshold&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extrasynaptic and presynaptic&lt;/strong&gt; receptors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Retrograde transmission&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Axonal failures&lt;/strong&gt; and branch points&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Non-traditional innervation&lt;/strong&gt; (dendro-axonic, dendro-dendritic, autapses, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ephatic coupling&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v14/n2/full/nn.2727.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ref&lt;/a&gt;) (through local electrical fields)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Wiggling dendritic&lt;/strong&gt; spines&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Glial function&lt;/strong&gt; as a modifier of neuronal function.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I'm sure I'm leaving out another 20 or so interesting ones. Arguably, everything I've listed here modifies or has causal relevance to the simple set of rules you provided above. And of course, I'm still leaving out an enormous amount of detail of neuroscience (cell types, architecture/circuit diagrams, molecular cascades, cytoskeletal aspects, development, etc.) that have relevance to &quot;the rules&quot; as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;And do all neurons have the same rules?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No. Any of the above may vary depending on cell type, part of the nervous system, individual differences, development, species, sex, time of day or other cycles, environmental factors, and possibly other factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastEditorUserId="6642" LastEditDate="2016-03-05T04:29:02.123" LastActivityDate="2016-03-05T04:29:02.123" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13460" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13483" CreationDate="2016-03-04T08:54:08.770" Score="8" ViewCount="6517" Body="&lt;p&gt;Big5 is probably the most used personality model in research, while MBTI has not gained status of being scientifically supported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What exact research has been done on correlating the two models?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Could someone give me links to full research reports with correlations between the two models?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Correlations between subfacets would be especially useful (i.e MBTI extroversion vs Big5 extroversion).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T18:39:38.230" Title="What correlation research has been done on MBTI vs Big5?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13462" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-04T09:51:58.693" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;This might be a very broad question, but I'm looking for gathering a list of any hormone that can cause psychological effects - especially long-term.&#xA;I would like to build a list of psychological traits that may be caused by high rates of specific hormones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of such a hormone would be testosterone, which is known to increase risk-taking among other things. So regularly taking risks may be a sign of high rates of testosterone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So &lt;strong&gt;which hormones are known to cause which psychological effects?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2016-03-04T09:51:58.693" Title="Which hormones are known to cause which psychological effects?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-06T08:12:12.743" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13463" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13460" CreationDate="2016-03-04T10:53:17.023" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;So far found these 2 sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: A Critical Review and Practical Guide: Book by Rowan Bayne (1997). Google-book link &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.id/books?id=vYIR5xWDXf0C&amp;amp;pg=PT152&amp;amp;lpg=PT152&amp;amp;dq=kroeger%20thuesen%20mbti&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=8adlCp-REq&amp;amp;sig=ml_SHWysJKDfl8AYI7CsIleCB7o&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=kroeger%20thuesen%20mbti&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; (Sorry I don't have the book), check on page 24-26.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myers-Briggs and Four-Type Structure: A principal components and equimax study of the four dimensions of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Research by Jamie Larson. Link &lt;a href=&quot;https://gustavus.edu/psychology/files/Larson.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short summary, I believe the above sources found that MBTI does correlate with BIG-5 Factor model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6461" LastActivityDate="2016-03-04T10:53:17.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13466" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13504" CreationDate="2016-03-04T13:18:58.533" Score="4" ViewCount="653" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it true that people handle bad news better if they got told good news first, or do they 'forget' the good news if the bad news is told after?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it better to save the good news for last so the person who gets the news will have a better average feeling about the conversation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10920" LastActivityDate="2016-03-09T06:37:01.407" Title="Good news or bad news first" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13467" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13379" CreationDate="2016-03-04T14:15:08.457" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's also Dale's law:  in general, a given neuron releases only a single type of neurotransmitter.  While that is not really true for neuromodulatory neurons, it is broadly true of neurons that receive glutamate and GABA, the primary excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;tl;dr Neurons are either inhibitory at all their output synapses or excitatory at all their output synapses but not both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-03-06T22:02:09.670" LastActivityDate="2016-03-06T22:02:09.670" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13472" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13512" CreationDate="2016-03-04T22:16:43.473" Score="2" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for the advice regarding the modelling of the results of a working (short-term) memory test. In a typical case, performance in such tests can be characterized using the hit rate and false alarm rate, which can be nicely combined into d-prime, and the reaction time. My question is whether there are smart concepts how all these parameters may be fused together to generate some sort of the &quot;working memory performance index&quot;? (Toy example: d-prime that is weighted by the log-transformed reaction time.) Any references will be very much appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Upd: I am interesting in the specific application and possible specific pitfalls for the working memory research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15227" LastEditorUserId="15227" LastEditDate="2016-03-15T20:04:28.010" LastActivityDate="2016-03-15T20:04:28.010" Title="Models of a working (short-term) memory task that combine performance and reaction time?" Tags="&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13473" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13357" CreationDate="2016-03-04T22:22:53.340" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans are most comfortable with those things that resemble themselves, both in terms of physical features and mentality. A dog, for example, may have an extra set of legs and a tail, but does not differ all that significantly from humans or other mammals&amp;mdash;we can similarly see ourselves in the behavior and apparent emotions they exhibit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Arachnids, on the other hand, are several orders of magnitude more alien. Beyond the gross physical dissimilarities, it is impossible to attribute anything resembling human emotion or motivation to them. Add to that their penchant for appearing unexpected in dark places and their inherently predatory nature, the very &lt;em&gt;idea&lt;/em&gt; of spiders triggers in many people a primordial dread.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10928" LastEditorUserId="10928" LastEditDate="2016-03-05T21:09:22.757" LastActivityDate="2016-03-05T21:09:22.757" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13480" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-05T23:58:46.783" Score="7" ViewCount="199" Body="&lt;p&gt;A single Brodmann area is defined based off cellular composition. Are the Brodmann areas ordinal, and if so for what reason? (e.g. is there something that makes Brodmann area 1 the &quot;first one&quot;, and area 2 the &quot;second one&quot;?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastEditorUserId="7569" LastEditDate="2016-03-06T04:31:01.810" LastActivityDate="2016-05-05T22:49:59.547" Title="Is the ordering of Brodmann areas arbitrary?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13482" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13480" CreationDate="2016-03-06T04:41:28.240" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The place to find this answer is of course Brodmann's original 1909 manuscript &lt;em&gt;Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Großhirnrinde: in ihren Prinzipien dargestellt auf Grund des Zellenbaues&lt;/em&gt;  available &lt;a href=&quot;http://digital.zbmed.de/zbmed/id/554966&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; in German  or &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/b138298&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; in English (&lt;em&gt;Brodmann's Localisation in the Cerebral Cortex: The Principles of Comparative Localisation in the Cerebral Cortex Based on Cytoarchitectonics&lt;/em&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The English version is unfortunately not open access (and I don't have the inclination to pay US$90 for it) and the German version is a scanned copy of the original printing, so there's no easy way to search the text without reading all of it. However, skimming through it, I see that the description of the areas (which he calls &lt;em&gt;Felder&lt;/em&gt;, lit. 'fields') begins in Kapitel IV (Chapter 4), page 130. He mentions that this work is largely an extension of his previous 1907 work, but beyond that there doesn't appear to be any mention of why he choose his numbering, at least not that I could find with a quick skim. It appears though that he choose a more or less arbitrary starting point and worked more or less counter clockwise from there, with a few small exceptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Elsewhere in the manuscript, Brodmann discusses the division of the cortex into larger homologous regions in both humans and other mammals (p. 129), and it's clear from the description of the areas that they are not divided up based on any study of homology. For example, he mentions that the &lt;em&gt;regio postcentralis&lt;/em&gt; (lat. &quot;post central region&quot;) is divided up into the cytoarchitectural areas 1, 2, 3 and 43 (pp. 130--132). The regions appear to correspond loosely with our modern notion of &quot;lobes&quot;, but tend to be somewhat smaller (for example, there are additional subdivisions near the central sulcus).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3670" LastEditorUserId="3670" LastEditDate="2016-03-06T22:07:22.233" LastActivityDate="2016-03-06T22:07:22.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13483" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13460" CreationDate="2016-03-06T16:00:14.270" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;The MBTI can be considered to be subsumed by the Big5/Five-Factor Model. McCrae and Costa examined this back in the late 1980’s. First of all, they showed that the types do not interact in a statistically meaningful way indicating that there isn’t a reason to interpret four type categories (e.g., ESTJ vs INFP). The categories (e.g., extraversion vs introversion) describe some meaningful amount of variance themselves but combining them into the types and interpreting the whole is not statistically warranted (McCrae &amp;amp; Costa Jr., 1989). Statistically, false dichotomization/median splits (here called types) reduces the predictive power of a measure in general. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To further examine the universality of the Five-Factor Model, they examined how the MBTI dimensional raw scores related to the FFM/Big5 scores. They showed that FFM-Extroversion was highly correlated to MBTI-Introversion (r = -.74), FFM-Neuroticism was weakly correlated to MBTI-Introversion (r = .16), FFM-Openness was correlated to MBTI-Intuition (r = .72), and to MBTI-Perception (r = .30), FFM-Agreeableness was correlated to MBTI-Feeling (r = .44), FFM-Contentiousness correlated to MBTI-Perception (r = .49). These correlations were for men only, but are reported to give as an example of how the FFM can account for MBTI measures. The MBTI does not capture trait Neuroticism which could be considered a fault because Neuroticism is strongly predictive of many negative outcomes (Barlow, Sauer-Zavala, Carl, Bullis, &amp;amp; Ellard, 2014). The other factors of the MBTI are accounted for in the FFM, but captures additional variance above and beyond the MBTI. Validity and universality of the Five-factor model is another question but, briefly, it is empirically derived from factor analysis of the entire English dictionary (lexical approach) a factor structure which has been replicated in over 40 languages (McCrae &amp;amp; Costa, 2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;                                **References**&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barlow, D. H., Sauer-Zavala, S., Carl, J. R., Bullis, J. R., &amp;amp; Ellard, K. K. (2014). The Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Neuroticism: Back to the Future . Clinical Psychological Science , 2 (3 ), 344–365. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McCrae, R. R., &amp;amp; Costa Jr., P. T. (1989). Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator From the Perspective of the Five-Factor Model of Personality. Journal of Personality, 57(1), 17–40.(&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Costa3/publication/20447534_Reinterpreting_the_Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator_From_the_Perspective_of_the_Five-Factor_Model_of_Personality/links/00b49515b9ad847e86000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Costa3/publication/20447534_Reinterpreting_the_Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator_From_the_Perspective_of_the_Five-Factor_Model_of_Personality/links/00b49515b9ad847e86000000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McCrae, R. R., &amp;amp; Costa, P. T. (2008). Empirical and Theoretical Status of the Five-Factor Model of Personality Traits. The SAGE Handbook of Personality Theory and Assessment: Volume 1 — Personality Theories and Models. SAGE Publications Ltd (pp. 273–295).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8880" LastEditorUserId="8880" LastEditDate="2016-03-07T18:39:38.230" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T18:39:38.230" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13484" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-06T18:03:23.967" Score="3" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are attempting to run simulations of the C. Elegans neuronal network by building upon &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/openworm/CElegansNeuroML&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;work of the OpenWorm team&lt;/a&gt;. We are looking into implementing a neuron model that produces plateau potentials rather than action potentials, as suggested by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v12/n4/pdf/nn0409-377.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;. Thanks to @Comte for pointing me to this paper (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/13435/a-question-on-synapses&quot;&gt;this link&lt;/a&gt; for another question related to our project).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is my question: What are known-to-work mathematical models of neurons that produce plateau potentials, rather than action potentials? Ideally, the model should be formulated as a system of differential equations (as is for example the Hodgkin-Huxley model), hence easy to implement in NEURON.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(A note on my personal background: I am a student of mathematics, and this is a project for university.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10893" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T00:17:38.477" Title="Modeling plateau potentials" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;model&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13485" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13484" CreationDate="2016-03-06T21:34:13.250" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;i once wrote a paper doing biophysical modeling of neurons that could create plateau potentials.  While the paper itself is not exactly what you are looking for, there should be lots of good references in there:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/2/424.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/2/424.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Sanders H, Berends M, &#xA;Major G, &#xA;Goldman MS,&#xA;Lisman JE. (2013) NMDA and GABAB (KIR) Conductances: The “Perfect Couple” for Bistability. J. Neurosci. 33, 424–429&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;also, check other articles that cited that paper: &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=2120401607202660739&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=2120401607202660739&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-03-07T00:17:38.477" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T00:17:38.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13486" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13532" CreationDate="2016-03-06T21:40:41.127" Score="4" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any tutorials or introductions (specifically not slides from talks) on the very basic details of EEG data collection and processing? Things like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Discussions of reference systems (montages)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &quot;usual&quot; sequence of initial processing steps&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Identification of artifacts by type and usual procedures for dealing with them&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Precise methods of electrode placement (such as good ways to measure electrodes on the head, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically I am looking for a sketch of standard or usual procedures used either widely in EEG or, failing that, commonly in EEG studies that make use of longer, continuous recordings (as opposed to ERPs). What is sometimes called &quot;lab lore&quot; or the common things you need to know that are often glossed over in journal articles. (Something akin to the very introductory textbooks available for fMRI.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The usual response to this is Steven Luck's book: &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/introduction-event-related-potential-technique-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique&lt;/a&gt; -- but that book is so centered on ERP recordings, that it is very hard to follow for other types of EEG collection, such as long continuous recordings. On the other side, journal articles are generally too brief about their recording and initial data analysis procedures to replicate their work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additionally, open-access/open-source information is preferable&lt;/strong&gt;; we don't have the money for the usually priced textbooks. (I'll accept those if there are no open answers, but open is better!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3506/getting-started-with-eeg-data&quot;&gt;this other article &quot;Getting Started with EEG&quot;&lt;/a&gt; either recommends Luck's book (which is good, but too ERP focused) or begs the original question of learning &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; to collect and process EEG by basically saying &quot;just collect it on yourself and do it.&quot; So this is strictly not a duplicate question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7740" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-04-25T06:47:13.867" Title="Introduction or Tutorial on Continuous EEG Collection Procedures and Initial Processing?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13487" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12813" CreationDate="2016-03-07T00:27:57.590" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Semantic Pointer Architecture (SPA), which was used to built the biologically plausible cognitive-model Spaun, is a demonstration of the utility of compression in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Spaun uses compression to relate concepts in a unified and grounded manner.  For example, for number concepts in Spaun's &quot;copying task&quot;, Spaun first gets the concept of the number by gradually extracting larger and larger features until from a visual hierarchy. This is analogous to the Deep Learning's Restricted Boltzmann Machines. This compressed representation can than be decompressed into individual motor actions and sent back down the motor hierarchy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize, the perception problem is the dual of the action problem and they are unified my compression, as visualised in the image below taken from &lt;a href=&quot;https://studywolf.wordpress.com/2014/07/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the presentation found here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/684QG.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/684QG.png&quot; alt=&quot;perception problem is the dual of the action problem&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This compression has also been used in terms of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5738/4397&quot;&gt;scalable knowledge representations&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further information on the concepts behind SPA and Spaun, beyond the context of compression, see &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T01:04:27.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13488" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12299" CreationDate="2016-03-07T00:29:12.177" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To begin to answer this question, we must first unpack the concepts in their current context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The NEF makes no prediction about how error is propagated in the brain. It explains how to do computation using vectors in spiking neural networks. Also, it defines how error signals can be used to change how the signal is encoded (take in) and decoded (sent out) from the neural population, as well as perform probabilistic computations. For further information on this, see PES, BCM and VOja, as well as Chapter 9 of the NEF textbook.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The SPA also makes no claims how error is propagated throughout the brain. It only claims that compression must occur for scalable and grounded knowledge representation and defines some operations for accomplishing this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Predictive coding appears to be (based off the paper you linked) about defining &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; the error is propagating. Specifically, errors go up with higher level impressions adjusting how errors go up the hierarchy based on predictions/impressions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As hinted at previously, this is somewhat separate from the NEF/SPA, however this does not imply they can't be integrated, nor does it mean that there doesn't already exist some models that fulfill the predictive coding criteria other than simply unifying perception and action by using similar representations (I think the &lt;a href=&quot;https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/9089&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DeWolf's REACH control hierarchy&lt;/a&gt; might fall under this category). It just means that as of now, there have been no explicit relations between the two modelling philosophies. To create a stronger conclusion, I would need to understand the implementation details of Predictive Coding to see if they are biologically plausible or if they can't be formulated as vector based operations within the SPA. This seems to be the position that my colleagues share (they actually have an comment article appended to the one you linked called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23663446&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;God, the devil, and the details: Fleshing out the&#xA;predictive processing framework&lt;/a&gt;&quot;) which is that more work needs to be done before a position can be taken.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-11-28T02:54:56.400" LastActivityDate="2016-11-28T02:54:56.400" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13490" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13179" CreationDate="2016-03-07T01:21:47.360" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are basically asking how to bind different concepts together based off their representation in neurons. The one way I know how to do this is using the Semantic Pointer Architecture (SPA).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To understand how lower level neural activities can be compressed as a concept, please see my answer on &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/13487/4397&quot;&gt;compression in the brain using the SPA&lt;/a&gt;. This answer explains how low-level features can be compressed into a higher level concept vector.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once you've accepted, that concepts can be represented as high dimensional vectors and these vectors can be manipulated using neurons, we now have to define what types of manipulations can be used to represent counts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A perfect example of this is &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/rasmussen.2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dan Rasmussen's neural system for solving Raven's Progressive Matrices&lt;/a&gt;. In the system, graphical cells in a matrice are represent using a neural symbols bound together using circular convolution. For example, the top-left cell in the below image could be represented as symbols bound together as &lt;code&gt;SHAPE*CIRCLE+COLOR*BLACK+NUMBER*ONE&lt;/code&gt; where every word written in ALL CAPS is a symbol represented by a high dimensional vector and based on sensory input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VUrSF.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VUrSF.png&quot; alt=&quot;matrix of symbols&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To relate numbers to each other, the number &lt;code&gt;ONE&lt;/code&gt; is defined as a unitary vector which can be convolved with itself to represent new numbers. For example &lt;code&gt;TWO=ONE*ONE&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;THREE=ONE*ONE*ONE=TWO*ONE&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For implementation details and to try out these concepts for yourself if a simulator, please see &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/nengo/nengo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nengo&lt;/a&gt; and &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T01:21:47.360" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13491" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-07T01:27:28.853" Score="2" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if there is some good research that tried to put spoken sentence length and its processing time in simple relation without focusing on meaning of words etc. It would be nice to know results for a big range of sentence lengths (from 2 words to 10 words, at least).&#xA;I've found some answers for reading time (where relation appears to be linear) on this site, but that is not quite what I'm interested in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10946" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T01:27:28.853" Title="Relation of spoken sentence length and processing time required" Tags="&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13492" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13241" CreationDate="2016-03-07T03:47:14.897" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A paper just came out last week in Neuron demonstrating dendrite-specific gating:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(16)00054-4?elsca1=etoc&amp;amp;elsca2=email&amp;amp;elsca3=0896-6273_20160302_89_5_&amp;amp;elsca4=Cell%20Press&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(16)00054-4?elsca1=etoc&amp;amp;elsca2=email&amp;amp;elsca3=0896-6273_20160302_89_5_&amp;amp;elsca4=Cell%20Press&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Structured Dendritic Inhibition Supports Branch-Selective Integration in CA1 Pyramidal Cells&#xA;Erik B. Bloss, Mark S. Cembrowski, Bill Karsh, Jennifer Colonell, Richard D. Fetter, Nelson Spruston&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.01.029&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.01.029&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T03:47:14.897" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13493" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13460" CreationDate="2016-03-07T05:39:29.623" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1713/is-there-an-open-source-free-official-myers-briggs-assessment-i-can-adopt&quot;&gt;To quote my answer to another question&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The IPIP website provides measures of the Big 5. The following table from Furnham (1996) summarises some correlations across a few studies between the NEO Big 5 and the MBTI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dGJdf.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You can find a listing of some of the multi-construct measures including Big 5 measures on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newMultipleconstructs.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ipip website&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Furnham, A. (1996). The big five versus the big four: the relationship between the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and NEO-PI five factor model of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 303-307.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T05:39:29.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13494" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-07T08:10:18.037" Score="0" ViewCount="220" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does it affect brain negatively if I remember unimportant things? In other words: Is the capacity of the brain (or just too much chaotic data densed together) sometimes a significant factor for an individual's inteligence? Is something practically not worth remembering? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T16:00:24.763" Title="Is something not worth remembering?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13495" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13494" CreationDate="2016-03-07T16:00:24.763" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are capacity limitation, especially at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;working memory&lt;/a&gt;, that makes it impossible and inefficient to process everything we experience in the past. Our brain creates abstractions of things i.e. we do not remember every dog we have seen, but we remember the dog category. We forget unimportant details, but we maintain &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;episodic memory&lt;/a&gt; for things that are important or recent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The dysfunctional aspect of remembering everything can be demonstrated through a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthymesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hyperthymesia&lt;/a&gt; patient called AJ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hyperthymestic abilities can have a detrimental effect on cognitive&#xA;  capacity. The constant, irrepressible stream of memories has caused&#xA;  significant disruption to AJ's life. She described her recollection as&#xA;  &quot;non-stop, uncontrollable and totally exhausting&quot; and as &quot;a burden&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;At school, AJ was an average student, clearly unable to apply her&#xA;  exceptional memory to her studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Deficits in executive functioning and anomalous lateralisation were&#xA;  also identified in AJ. These cognitive deficiencies are characteristic&#xA;  of frontostriatal disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T16:00:24.763" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13497" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13507" CreationDate="2016-03-07T18:37:53.643" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I a fairly solid grasp of Statistics and have taught statistics to both undergraduate and graduate Psychology students. There are, however, sizable gaps in my knowledge and I have attempted to employ a statistical consultant a couple of times. The conversations generally devolved into the consultant suggesting experiments and analyses that did not answer the research questions I was interested in. I am beginning a retrospective epidemiological study which is far enough outside my experience that I want to try a statistical consultant again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I prepare for talking to a statistical consultant such that our discussions can be productive. How much time will it take before I see progress being made on our mutual understanding of the issues (hours, days, weeks, months ...)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-03-09T15:23:58.303" Title="How to efficiently use a statistical consultant?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13498" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13466" CreationDate="2016-03-07T19:04:46.507" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Micha, you've asked a question that promises divergent answers, but it gets to the heart of human relationships because it's a situation (telling news, sometimes good, sometimes bad, sometimes both) we all experience as tellers and as listeners. It would take some amazingly clever social scientists to devise experiments that might shed light on this question. The problem, however,  is that there is no such thing as &quot;good news&quot; or &quot;bad news,&quot; not in any scientific context. There may be bad news: &quot;Your father died in an accident,&quot; or &quot;I had a fender-bender in your car,&quot; or &quot;The growth in your brain is malignant,&quot; or &quot;You know your favorite vase? I accidentally broke it.&quot; Or good news: &quot;The ABC company called and said you got the job,&quot; or &quot;The growth in your brain is not malignant,&quot; or &quot;Your little sister made an 'A' in her Chemistry class,&quot; or &quot;Yes, I'd like to go to the concert with you.&quot; There is only specific news with a total range of degrees and kinds of bad things and good things. The point is, no one can answer your questions accurately using those general terms. But as I said, this is a vital question that we all deal with, in our personal and in our professional lives. You will find, in your research, that the variables are seemingly endless regarding factors in a person's response to good or bad news. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10951" LastActivityDate="2016-03-07T19:04:46.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13499" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-07T20:26:54.203" Score="2" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am specifically interested in the difference between these two processes during producing a response to a question. What are the differences of the cognitive process between those two scenarios? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hypothesize that writing requires more iterations in the thought process but couldn't find an answer to this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10953" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-08T18:19:50.650" LastActivityDate="2016-03-08T18:19:50.650" Title="What are the differences between formulating a response in speech vs. formulating a written response?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;writing&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;speech-comprehension&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13500" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-08T15:08:30.067" Score="2" ViewCount="1053" Body="&lt;p&gt;The majority of people who think certain people are bad people are usually because they have been exposed to the bad things they do or also because they measure how bad they are based on only the bad things they do, and vice versa with good. There's several very ethically and morally good people that would never be able to harm anyone regardless of circumstance but there's also good people (on the same scale as the previous example) that (like me) would not think twice about killing someone if it came to a life or death situation or something similar. How could a persons real good or bad be evaluated in an approach that would be decorrelated of errors, unbiased, and as accurate as possible? Would it be best to weigh their wrongdoings?the good things they do? Both? How would they be weighed to provide the most accurate result?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10924" LastActivityDate="2016-05-13T02:05:28.607" Title="How can a persons good or bad be accurately measured?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13501" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-08T15:56:52.393" Score="3" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;A significant amount of people say that you need to do things over and over again to implement a habit into your subconscious mind where you no longer have to think to do it. If, let's say, I want to implement a habit of drinking water when I walk in my bathroom in the morning but fail to do it due to the fact that this is attempted in the morning 2 minutes after waking where I'm still tired and less awake, would it be possible for me to implement this habit or at least become much more conscious of it by playing the scenario in my head, maybe even acting it out mid-day, or just thinking about why I should do it, etc. ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10924" LastActivityDate="2016-03-09T17:39:09.707" Title="Can habits be implemented by playing mental scenarios or playing things in your head?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13503" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13230" CreationDate="2016-03-08T22:24:26.157" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a difference between spiritual people and students trying to learn something. &lt;strong&gt;Sleep deprivation is an effective tool of breaking old learned routines - you just cant remember them too well when sleep deprived&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://consumer.healthday.com/encyclopedia/stress-management-37/stress-health-news-640/sleep-deprivation-and-stress-646063.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;). Once you learned what you need, sleep deprivation becomes very disruptive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example given is performing a novel task, like reciting the months of a calendar year backwards(December - November - October...). Old ingrained pattern of (January-February-March...) gets in the way, and people who are &lt;strong&gt;sleep deprived are apparently doing better on a this task&lt;/strong&gt; than control subjects, because the old pattern is not remembered as well. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://consumer.healthday.com/encyclopedia/stress-management-37/stress-health-news-640/sleep-deprivation-and-stress-646063.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Same source&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a number of &quot;programs&quot; and &quot;cults&quot; like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.landmarkworldwide.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Landmark Forum&lt;/a&gt;, which attempt to teach/brainwash/indoctrinate you into learning some new outlook on life in a very short period of time. It has been proposed that sleep deprivation is a very big part of this &quot;reprogramming&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-03-08T22:24:26.157" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13504" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13466" CreationDate="2016-03-09T06:37:01.407" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;My suggestion is to look to prospect theory here. In general, people feel losses 2.5x more than gains (Kahneman + Tversky). There's also an inversion curve: more good has diminishing returns, more bad has diminishing returns too.&#xA;Basically we 'acclimate'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a very crude way to think about it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good news first:&#xA;In this situation, we could go up the curve, then 2.5X down for the bad news, or the other way around.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bad news first:&#xA;In this situation, you go down the curve first, but coming back the curve you erase the curve of the bad news, which is 2.5x steeper, so you're actually net gaining in positive utility, because the same amount of good news brings you up the curve more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is called the silver lining effect in the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So all in all, deliver the bad news first: you'll gain more 'upside' on reversing bad news than following up good news with bad (silver lining effect) + people will remember the good news at the end of the conversation (recency effect).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10965" LastActivityDate="2016-03-09T06:37:01.407" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13357" CreationDate="2016-03-09T06:40:52.797" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A quick lit scan suggests evolutionary advantage to being afraid of spiders and snakes. Unclear what causes this mechanism: &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/10/1004_snakefears.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/10/1004_snakefears.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social conditioning also likely plays a huge role here. Spiders in our society are seen as evil / scary (via Halloween, movies, etc.). This unconscious bias makes people naturally afraid of bugs and spiders through social conditioning and social physics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10965" LastActivityDate="2016-03-09T06:40:52.797" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13506" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-09T07:57:12.450" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for studies which looks at understanding and preference of incomplete sentences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, is there a higher workload for (in)complete sentences or even though the sentence might be fully understandable with the key information people might still prefer the complete sentence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in this question for an verbal context but a written context would be great as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10966" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-09T16:32:00.960" LastActivityDate="2016-03-09T16:32:00.960" Title="Incomplete sentences" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;speech-comprehension&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13507" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13497" CreationDate="2016-03-09T15:23:58.303" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a challenging question. As a bit of background, I am a cognitive scientist for the most part (by my highest graduate degree), but in addition to that, I have graduate degrees in both math and statistics and I have worked professionally as a consultant in those fields for many years. So I have some access to the problems on both sides of this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Statistical consulting is a point of training for some, but certainly &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; all, graduate students in statistics. What this means is that some people acting as consultants will be well trained in this activity, while others may be picking it up as they go. &lt;strong&gt;So you want to talk to either a more senior consultant or work with a statistics consultancy that has more senior people there to make sure your consultant knows what he or she is doing.&lt;/strong&gt; That said, there is a &lt;em&gt;standard of care&lt;/em&gt; in consulting these days, outlined in (among other examples) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amstat.org/sections/cnsl/brochures/SCSBrochure%202013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this ASA document&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://iase-web.org/documents/papers/icots8/ICOTS8_4H2_MOOLMAN.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this 2010 conference paper&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://iase-web.org/documents/papers/isi54/3084.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this white paper by Flavia Jolliffe&lt;/a&gt;. Also &lt;a href=&quot;http://csyue.nccu.edu.tw/ch/Nonstatistical%20Aspects%20of%20Statistical%20Consulting.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Zahn and Isenberg&lt;/a&gt; is a classical paper on this. These may give you an idea of what the consultants who get trained are taught.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consultants in statistics are well trained (usually!) in methodologies, but the main weakness in their training is usually exposure to the complexities of any given scientific field. In particular, unless they consult for people in your field regularly, the single hardest problem will be communicating in a concise way what it has taken you years to learn yourself: the specifics of your research problems. &lt;strong&gt;A solution here is to find someone who specializes in problems related to your research area.&lt;/strong&gt; While not comprehensive, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amstat.org/consultantdirectory/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this page at ASA&lt;/a&gt; lets you search for statisticians by speciality, including some content areas (including epidemiology). Also remember that statisticians live in various academic departments (if you are using academic consultants) and these departments often are only vaguely aware of each other: as an example, I used to be at a university where the main campus statistical consultancy was in a school of social sciences, and the actual statistics department did not interact with them at all. Searching broadly is sometimes helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If you cannot find a specialist, then communication is the key, and it &lt;em&gt;will&lt;/em&gt; take longer to get to results in your relationship with your consultant.&lt;/strong&gt; The &lt;a href=&quot;http://iase-web.org/documents/papers/isi54/3084.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paper by Jolliffe&lt;/a&gt; (above) has good advice that might be useful both to the consultant and to the client in terms of what to do and how to communicate (and there are some references there that go further). But this will be the central problem, so working closely on clarifying the research goals is probably the most important step.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A good preparation is to think about the problem before meeting the consultant and imagine trying to explain it to a good student or colleague from another field.&lt;/strong&gt; Try to think through the particularly specialist parts of the problem before meeting the consultant; how would you explain these to someone new in your research lab? &lt;strong&gt;Likewise, if the consultant is not clear in responding to you, be direct is asking for more clarity.&lt;/strong&gt; I believe this is covered by item &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amstat.org/about/ethicalguidelines.cfm#responsibilities_colleagues&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;E.2&lt;/a&gt; of the ASA's ethical guidelines for consulting and collaborating for statisticians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not that any of this applies to your case, but from the point of view of the consultant, there are a number of things worth noting. First, clients, especially those with statistical knowledge, often come in with strong expectations of what the right answer is, and sometimes grow offended at questions from the consultant that try to get at the real questions being asked. As an example, I used to consult with psychologists who basically wanted me to tell them how to do an ANOVA on their data, even when that was the wrong analysis. So be open to analyses that you are not used to using. Also, a good consultant will ask a lot of questions to clarify the statistical question you want answered. Always assume good faith, and do try to answer the questions even if you don't fully understand them. But be willing to say (and &lt;em&gt;explain&lt;/em&gt;) when you think the consultant's questions miss the point. Another issue is when people come into consulting so late that all there is for the statistician to do is conduct a &lt;em&gt;post mortem&lt;/em&gt;. If you are serious about consulting, meet with them early on in the process. Finally, work out payments or collaboration rules up front. You would be amazed how often statisticians are asked to do &lt;em&gt;pro bono&lt;/em&gt; work, either implicitly or explicitly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;tl;dr Communication, and it may take some time.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7740" LastActivityDate="2016-03-09T15:23:58.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13508" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13357" CreationDate="2016-03-09T17:30:33.893" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer can be found from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;evolutionary psychology&lt;/a&gt;. We are wired to feel fear when we encounter stimulus that look like spiders and snakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Evolutionary psychologists argue that much of human behavior is the&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  output of psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  problems in human ancestral environments&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spiders and snakes were major threads in the early years of the evolutionary history of humans. Human ancestors that were more afraid of spiders/snakes had an evolutionary advantage over those who did not, because they were more cautious and survived more years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;people nonetheless learn to fear spiders and snakes about as easily as&#xA;  they do a pointed gun, and more easily than an unpointed gun, rabbits&#xA;  or flowers. A potential explanation is that spiders and snakes&#xA;  were a threat to human ancestors throughout the Pleistocene, whereas&#xA;  guns (and rabbits and flowers) were not. There is thus a mismatch&#xA;  between humans' evolved fear-learning psychology and the modern&#xA;  environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="10784" LastEditDate="2016-03-11T15:14:19.200" LastActivityDate="2016-03-11T15:14:19.200" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13501" CreationDate="2016-03-09T17:39:09.707" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is yes and can be supported by a theory called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementation_intention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;implementation intention&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An implementation intention is a self-regulatory strategy in the&#xA;  form of an &quot;if-then plan&quot; that can lead to better goal attainment, as&#xA;  well as help in habit and behavior modification. It is subordinate to&#xA;  goal intentions as it specifies the when, where and how portions of&#xA;  goal-directed behavior. The concept of implementation intentions was&#xA;  introduced in 1999 by psychologist Peter Gollwitzer. Studies&#xA;  conducted in 1997 and earlier showed that the use of implementation&#xA;  intentions can result in a higher probability of successful goal&#xA;  attainment, by predetermining a specific and desired goal-directed&#xA;  behavior in response to a particular future event or cue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2016-03-09T17:39:09.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13510" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-10T02:07:34.917" Score="0" ViewCount="449" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Joan has seen several specialists and undergone numerous diagnostic tests to determine the cause of her recurring headaches and episodes of dizziness. The doctors are perplexed and can seem to find no physiological cause for Joan's symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess would be between 3 possible disorders: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If she's lying about the headaches and dizziness, then she is seeking attention which could point to Histrionic Personality Disorder (if she makes a big scene every time she goes to get tested). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If she's not lying and the doctors can't find a physiological symptom, then it could be Generalized Anxiety Disorder (she keeps going to get tested because she is having trouble identifying cause of stress). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If she is not lying, then she could just be imagining the headaches and suffering from schizophrenia, which is characterized by breaks from reality (as in, she imagines the headaches and dizziness but they don't really occur.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10972" LastActivityDate="2016-03-10T03:05:00.197" Title="What is Joan suffering from in this example?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-03-27T23:38:25.700" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13511" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13510" CreationDate="2016-03-10T03:05:00.197" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think you can rule out that she really is suffering from headaches and dizziness.  Just because the doctors can't find a physiological cause doesn't mean that there isn't one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10860" LastActivityDate="2016-03-10T03:05:00.197" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13512" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13472" CreationDate="2016-03-10T03:47:06.153" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a tough question, one that I have had to face in my own research. Your question has already been answered/addressed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/660/how-to-analyze-reaction-times-and-accuracy-together&quot;&gt;How to analyze reaction times and accuracy together?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, there is no universal method. If you don't find the references or methods listed in that question useful, then I suggest you will require a computational model such as the Linear Ballistic Accumulator. The LBA is a (structurally and computationally) framework that informs process underling both RT and error data (drift rate vs response criterion).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6947" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-03-10T03:47:06.153" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13513" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-10T09:32:57.577" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do any commodity technologies exist that offer useful neuroimaging data? By commodity I mean lowish cost and not requiring specialist technicians to run. &#xA;By useful I mean able to reliably provide some signal at different times from the same subject, even if it is of a limited nature. If so, what are the capabilities of the technology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, do the cheap EEG machines provide useful data or not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are any such technologies likely to become available in the foreseeable future?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8708" LastActivityDate="2016-03-10T16:50:18.833" Title="Which commodity technologies offer useful neuroimaging data?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;devices&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13514" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13500" CreationDate="2016-03-10T10:45:05.433" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think answers to your questions are fully based on your moral principles and your world view. Because there is no obvious common principles. Christians believe in objective rightness of God's rules. For atheists that is good doing, what is good for person and society. Some wild men can think that eating each other is a good thing for many generations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, have a look on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;stages of moral development&quot;&gt;stages of moral development&lt;/a&gt;, you might be interested in that. It is about how person's understanding of moral principles changes through time, how a person learns more general concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10173" LastActivityDate="2016-03-10T10:45:05.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13515" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13357" CreationDate="2016-03-10T11:32:00.837" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the American Psychiatric Association, phobias affect more than one in ten people in the US, and of those individuals, up to 40% of phobias are related to bugs (including spiders), mice, snake and bats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are clearly a lot of arachnophobes. But do they know why they fear spiders? Can they do something to control those fears?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once bitten twice shy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologists believe that one reason why people fear spiders is because of some direct experience with the arachnids instilled that fear in them. This is known as the “conditioning” view of arachnophobia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was also an effect from family. Those people fearful of spiders reported having a family member with similar fears, but the study was unable to separate genetic factors from environmental ones. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not surprisingly, if you give kids a list of things that might be scary for them, the vast majority check off things like not breathing, getting hit by a car, bombs, fire or burglars as quite important. Interestingly, if you give them a free option to tell researchers what sorts of things they fear the most, both boys and girls report “spiders” as their top fear (the second fear is being kidnapped, third is predators and fourth is the dark).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is surprising. Of all the things kids might report, they list spiders as the number one fear. So in contrast to Davey’s work, Muris finds that the kids that were most fearful of spiders could relate that fear to specific events. Perhaps conditioning is the pathway to arachnophobia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10978" LastActivityDate="2016-03-10T11:32:00.837" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13516" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13549" CreationDate="2016-03-10T14:34:34.683" Score="1" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;CBT: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, no doubt is far better than medications while having long terms goals in mind, but the question is: can it cure any kind of depression, like Seasonal Affective Disorder, Melancholic Depression etc? Or there are a few kinds of depression that can be cured only through medications? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7020" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-06-09T16:16:04.430" LastActivityDate="2020-11-15T03:50:25.950" Title="Can CBT cure any kind of depression?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13517" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13500" CreationDate="2016-03-10T16:17:13.000" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a way, I agree with the answer given by AivanF.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But more can be said. One of the greatest biologist of our times, the scientist &lt;strong&gt;Edward O. Wilson&lt;/strong&gt; has something to say about what humanity has been calling good and evil, regardless of any particular world view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1998/04/the-biological-basis-of-morality/377087/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;What have been thought of as moral sentiments are now taken to mean&#xA;  moral instincts (as defined by the modern behavioral sciences),&#xA;  subject to judgment according to their consequences. Such sentiments&#xA;  are thus derived from epigenetic rules -- hereditary biases in mental&#xA;  development, usually conditioned by emotion, that influence concepts&#xA;  and decisions made from them. The primary origin of moral instincts is&#xA;  the dynamic relation between &lt;strong&gt;cooperation and defection&lt;/strong&gt;. The&#xA;  essential ingredient for the molding of the instincts during genetic&#xA;  evolution in any species is intelligence high enough to judge and&#xA;  manipulate the tension generated by the dynamism. That level of&#xA;  intelligence allows the building of complex mental scenarios well into&#xA;  the future. It occurs, so far as is known, only in human beings and&#xA;  perhaps their closest relatives among the higher apes.&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That dynamism is, in a way, the old issue of good vs. evil:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/spiegel-interview-with-edward-wilson-on-the-formation-of-morals-a-884767-2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;We are determined by the interplay between individual and group&#xA;  selection where &lt;strong&gt;individual selection is responsible for much of what&#xA;  we call sin, while group selection is responsible for the greater part&#xA;  of virtue. We're all in constant conflict between self-sacrifice for&#xA;  the group on the one hand and egoism and selfishness on the other&lt;/strong&gt;. I&#xA;  go so far as to say that all the subjects of humanities, from law to&#xA;  the creative arts are based upon this play of individual versus group&#xA;  selection.&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, all the science that studies these issues agreees that a moral development means a greater ability to take into account the wellbeing of something else than me (something like &quot;I care about: me -&gt; my family -&gt; closest people -&gt; my nation -&gt; all human beings -&gt; live on the planet...&quot;). So, we are also talking about empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That been said, there are people unable to take empathy into account: &lt;strong&gt;psychopaths&lt;/strong&gt;. Differences in their brain have been found related to prosocial behaviour: they just don't care about other people's feelings or wellbeing (they can't, just like blinds can't see). So, we could state they are pure evil, from this point of view. But that doesn't mean that they can't do good, just that their motivation to do so is selfish. What differentiates people in terms of moral is not what they do (their wrongdoings or the good things they do), is &lt;em&gt;why they do what they do&lt;/em&gt;. Is my main motivation selfish while I don't care if it damages you or not? That's the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, can we state that a &quot;good person&quot; is empathic and a &quot;bad person&quot; is selfish? If we set aside psychopaths (and people with strong &lt;strong&gt;narcissistic&lt;/strong&gt; traits, but explaining this would make this answer too long), &lt;strong&gt;we all behave in both ways&lt;/strong&gt;, given the situation. And that doesn't mean we are bad people, &lt;strong&gt;that means we are human!&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the famous old sentence states:  &quot;Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto&quot;&#xA;&quot;I am a man: I deem nothing pertaining to man foreign to me.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in scientific terms and from this point of view, the only way to measure &quot;good or bad&quot; is measuring moral development. And we must take into account age, otherwise a two year old kid would be a demon!! ;) :D&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example to do so: The &lt;strong&gt;Moral Development Scale for Professionals (MDSP)&lt;/strong&gt;, based on &lt;strong&gt;Lawrence Kohlberg&lt;/strong&gt;’s theory of moral development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10979" LastEditorUserId="10979" LastEditDate="2016-03-10T16:34:32.163" LastActivityDate="2016-03-10T16:34:32.163" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13518" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13513" CreationDate="2016-03-10T16:50:18.833" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is a little vague, but here is a partial answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a number of EEG systems available that are low-cost. Examples include &lt;a href=&quot;https://emotiv.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Emotiv's EPOC System&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.openbci.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;OpenBCI project&lt;/a&gt;. The former has been available in various models for some years now and it has been established that it records real EEG signals, as opposed to just recording signals generated in the muscles and other artifacts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first major validation document is by Ekanayake as a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.visaduma.info/neurofeedback/P300nEmotiv.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;white paper&lt;/a&gt;, that has been updated (&lt;a href=&quot;http://neurofeedback.visaduma.info/emotivresearch.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). As I understand it, these are not peer reviewed, nor were they presented at a conference. But the work is quite good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the collection of ERP (Evoked Potentials) data, there are two substantial peer-reviewed papers by a research group: &lt;a href=&quot;https://peerj.com/articles/907/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Validation of the Emotiv EPOC EEG system for research quality auditory event-related potentials in children&lt;/a&gt; by Badcock et al. (2015) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://peerj.com/articles/38/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Validation of the Emotiv EPOC EEG gaming system for measuring research quality auditory ERPs&lt;/a&gt;, also by Badcock et al. (2013). While these papers are on ERP experiments, their results suggest that other collection styles, such as continuous collection, are likely to be ok as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, Liu et al. (2102), &lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&amp;amp;arnumber=6273184&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Implementation of SSVEP Based BCI with Emotiv EPOC&lt;/a&gt;, is suggestive but appears to be an unreviewed conference paper. As a &lt;em&gt;counterpoint&lt;/em&gt; to this, there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://biomedical-engineering-online.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-925X-12-56&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Performance of the Emotiv Epoc headset for P300-based applications&lt;/a&gt;, by Duvinage et al. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=emotiv%20eeg%20epoc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Searching Google Scholar for these topics&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,11&amp;amp;q=emotiv%20eeg%20epoc&amp;amp;scisbd=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;shows a trend&lt;/a&gt; that more recent papers are generally more positive, but I don't have time to work the statistics to show that is more than my quick opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an aside, our laboratory has been using the Emotiv system for approximately a year and a half, collecting data for approximately 6 months or so, and for continuous EEG collection (non-ERP) we are replicating the expected EEG phenomena. Hopefully we'll be added to the peer-reviewed literature above soon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7740" LastActivityDate="2016-03-10T16:50:18.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13520" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13521" CreationDate="2016-03-11T02:14:58.177" Score="0" ViewCount="2472" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently in AP Psychology and studying for the exam using the College Board's course description, which contains sample psychology multiple choice questions. Here is one question, taken from the document:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lee is about to skydive for the first time. He interprets his racing heart to be the result of his eager anticipation and excitement. This best represents which theory of emotion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(a) Cannon-Bard&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(b) James-Lange&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(c) Drive reduction&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(d) Schachter’s two factor&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(e) Arousal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Immediately, I ruled out A, B, C, and E, leaving &amp;quot;D&amp;quot; as the choice. But per the definition of the Schachter two factor theory of emotion (alternatively known as the Schachter-Singer model), an emotion is felt only after there has been a physiological response and a cognitive appraisal of the situation. &lt;a href=&quot;http://study.com/academy/lesson/schachters-two-factor-theory-of-emotion.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is one source that explains this, but our AP Psychology textbook also explains it in that way. I don't see how that matches the given scenario. Why is this correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9595" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-03-11T09:37:33.090" Title="Theories of Emotion: Schachter's Two Factor Theory Example" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13521" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13520" CreationDate="2016-03-11T09:14:45.703" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it's because he interprets his emotion as anticipation and excitement because of the context - because he's about to go skydiving which is fun and exciting.  If he was at home watching a boring TV show and had the same physiological experience, he might think he was having a symptom of some kind of heart disease.  If he'd just tried a new drug and had the experience, he'd think it a side effect of the drug.  If he'd just met a new person and had the racing heart, he might think he was in love.  The physiological response (racing heart) is necessary, but it needs to be defined cognitively according to the context (skydiving), that's the two-factor theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10860" LastEditorUserId="10860" LastEditDate="2016-03-11T09:37:33.090" LastActivityDate="2016-03-11T09:37:33.090" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13522" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-11T09:39:09.183" Score="0" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alright, so last night I had a dream about someone being murdered in my apartment, basically the floor right above me, and there's this guy who always plays loud music and throws stuff out his window (I'm guessing he's distressed), what would this mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10986" LastActivityDate="2016-03-17T11:46:24.457" Title="What would this dream mean?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-03-13T04:52:12.650" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13523" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13522" CreationDate="2016-03-11T12:05:11.283" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dreams don't always make sense, nor do they always have to make sense, although founder of the psychoanalytic field Sigmund Freud believed in dream interpretation: that dreams have a manifest content (literally what goes on in the dream) and a latent content (symbolic, not-initially-apparent meaning of the dream). It's worth noting there's no scientific evidence to back this up, and it's just something Freud believed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of your dream, it could simply be that your mind associated your neighbor's aggression/distress with a display of aggression (homicide) and somehow connected the two in one dream. Freud would probably argue something along the lines of &quot;Your repressed anger or frustration towards this individual manifests itself in the form of a dream in which he is murdered&quot;. Don't overthink this, and don't think your dream means anything bad. Dreams can be pretty bizarre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9595" LastActivityDate="2016-03-11T12:05:11.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13525" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-11T15:28:38.287" Score="8" ViewCount="680" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find good documentation on using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychopy.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychoPy&lt;/a&gt; to measure Event-Related Potentials. In particular, I want to measure and compare the amplitude of the N170, a face-sensitive ERP, when presenting neutral versus threatening faces.&#xA;I would be using the Emotiv Epoc EEG headset, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277818124_Measuring_the_face-sensitive_N170_with_a_gaming_EEG_system_A_validation_study&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;whose validity for research on the N170 has been documented&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10990" LastEditorUserId="10990" LastEditDate="2016-03-23T10:55:59.287" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T19:02:42.920" Title="Do you know any good tutorial on designing EEG experiments with PsychoPy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;event-related-potential&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13526" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13522" CreationDate="2016-03-11T16:54:16.937" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;There's no external meaning to a dream. It's the dreamer who makes sense of it&lt;/strong&gt;, so they don't have a general meaning that could apply to everyone and they can't be &quot;interpreted&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That been said, there are &lt;strong&gt;hints to find our own sense out of a dream&lt;/strong&gt;: try to see it as it is speaking all about you (it is! as you are the dreamer). The house is you, the various floors are different aspects or levels of your personality (maybe mind, body, emotions... but that's just an example) or of your life (work, family, leisure... as another example), and the people involved just various aspects of your own personality, we can all see &quot;different me's&quot; inside ourselves (we are not the same &quot;personality&quot; when applying for a work than when we play with our kids... etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, and just as an example: maybe you have one of those auto-critical minds that never shuts up (the noisy distressed neighbour upstairs) that &quot;kills&quot; (murders) your spontaneity (another part of our personalities: the playful child we all also are). Or maybe vice-versa: you are very impulsive and the dream reflects your ignored fear of the consequences (that kills the much needed grown up we must also be).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe these examples can help you gain an idea of a way to interpret your own dreams. After all, it's our own brain that produces images to balance our mind, so usually they reflect things that when we are awake we don't take into account or don't pay enough attention. In my examples, the &quot;advice&quot; that can be applied could be &quot;don't be so hard on yourself, as you are &quot;killing&quot; your joy, spontaneity... etc&quot; or &quot;be more responsible, as you are &quot;killing&quot; your health or your future... etc&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also find meaning in the emotion itself. Seems you are kind of an spectator in the dream, is your neighbour who is distressed and someone else is being killed. There are people that don't allow themselves to recognise they feel angry or they don't do something with their anger (anger is only destructive when it is not used to build), so they dream with things like &quot;another one is distressed&quot; &quot;someone kills someone&quot;. Anger is much needed to survive and to live healthy. It tells us what hurts us and what things we want and don't want in our lives. So, if we &quot;don't feel anger&quot; we live sad and stressed lives. Anger is there but we don't listen and don't do anything constructive with it, so we dream with it. It's just like when we are thirsty, if we don't drink our brain constantly produces images and even sounds of water in our minds... isn't it? Well, dreaming is the same thing. In fact there's the saying: &quot;I'm dreaming with a glass of water!&quot; &quot;I'm dreaming with my bed!&quot; (when we are very tired) just because of that: don't forget and focus your attention on what you need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In any case, it's only you who can tell you've come with the right meaning. You'll feel that something makes sense for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10979" LastEditorUserId="10979" LastEditDate="2016-03-17T11:46:24.457" LastActivityDate="2016-03-17T11:46:24.457" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13527" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-11T17:09:50.900" Score="1" ViewCount="577" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychology always tell us the brain is meant to relax during rest/sleep/unconsciousness, but why is it that when one sleep and have a dream, the dreams are so fast that you hardly remember 60% of the dream after you wake up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is it that the brain processes faster during sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How can you remember at-least 60% of your dream, after you are awake, not after several days, month or years?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10991" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-16T20:16:55.180" LastActivityDate="2017-12-16T20:16:55.180" Title="Why are dream so fast?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13528" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13527" CreationDate="2016-03-11T20:57:28.020" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sleeping is a usual, necessary process for memorization and brain rest. It is commonly known that there are two phases of sleeping: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;rapid eye movement sleep&lt;/a&gt; (REM) with high brain activity and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-rapid_eye_movement_sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;non-rapid&lt;/a&gt; with low activity and usually without dreams. When you get tired and fall asleep, you enter directly into second, non-rapid phase, and your &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_discourse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;internal discourse&lt;/a&gt; stops. Obviously, this brain state doesn't differ faster processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During REM sleep there are some images, dreams in your head, combinations of ideas, memories and worries, which aren't useful, since brain erases most of it. But there is one interesting technic, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucid_dream&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;lucid dream&lt;/a&gt;. Using that you can keep consciousness when falling asleep or get it while sleeping. You can control dreams, do whatever you want, even control memories, if you got high skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what about speed of this REM condition? Despite the rapid eye-movements, this condition also doesn't provide high speed of thinking. Sometimes (e.g. during a nap or while awakening) you can have dreams and feel, hear things round you; and you can observe that your dreams and real world go at the same speed. However, when you awoke, thanks to special chemical mechanisms you forget dreams, it seems dim and far - that makes the illusion of fast feelings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the answers are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;No, it is just another kind of brain work.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You can learn lucid dreaming. Also you may just try remember dreams every morning, e.g. I keep dreams diary for a few years and now can remember about 5 dreams per night, when I started from 1 dream per month.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to add, from mine and friends experience, there is nothing very interesting or useful about remembering or controlling dreams. It is a real trash for mind, although unusual trash.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10173" LastEditorUserId="10173" LastEditDate="2016-03-12T20:52:54.113" LastActivityDate="2016-03-12T20:52:54.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13530" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-12T12:37:57.513" Score="5" ViewCount="214" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard that learning to Juggle (new things) helps increase neurogenesis. So, what does it depend on? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does it have to be a &lt;strong&gt;physical skill&lt;/strong&gt; only? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Or can I study / &lt;strong&gt;read&lt;/strong&gt; about Economics(which is new to me) for that?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Should I have new &lt;strong&gt;emotional&lt;/strong&gt; experiences like death in family, first time love etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, when we try memorize something, say a poem, &lt;strong&gt;how is it decided that this has to be stored in the existing neurons or in the new neurons&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware that while connecting the dots, new connections are formed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8409" LastActivityDate="2016-03-14T19:47:58.860" Title="How / when does neurogenesis occur while learning?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13531" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19792" CreationDate="2016-03-12T18:13:28.123" Score="2" ViewCount="1874" Body="&lt;p&gt;I went through literature and I am confused which theories of personality belong to humanistic, in literature there is often just Rogers (who is sometimes also considered to be phenomenologic) and Maslow. Do you know about some other that could be considered for humanistic too?&#xA;Can I say that all humanistic psychologists created humanistic personality theory (e. g. Allport, Frankl etc.)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6990" LastActivityDate="2018-05-23T16:22:45.810" Title="Which personality theories do belong to humanistic?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13532" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13486" CreationDate="2016-03-12T23:41:21.693" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are plenty of books and courses about EEG. I personally can recommend the book from Mike Cohen &quot;Analyzing Neural Time Series Data&quot;. It´s well written, simple and condense introduction into EEG, electrophysiology, experimental design, data acquisition and, mostly, basic-to-advance analytical techniques. Book comes with the demo data and code for the analysis in Matlab.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, you can go directly to the website of any big EEG community that developing an analytical toolbox (like EEGLab, Fieldtrip, or Brainstorm). Each of them provides sufficient amount of the introductory materials and step-by-step tutorials, including video lectures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15227" LastActivityDate="2016-03-12T23:41:21.693" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7678" CreationDate="2016-03-13T12:08:00.960" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've found out that the name given by Albert Ellis is must-urbation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://albertellis.org/musturbation-stop-rubbing-wrong-way/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://albertellis.org/musturbation-stop-rubbing-wrong-way/&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/musturbation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/musturbation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The compulsive insistence that things ought to be a particular way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastActivityDate="2016-03-13T12:08:00.960" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13538" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13539" CreationDate="2016-03-14T00:38:25.900" Score="2" ViewCount="220" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://hexaco.org/scaledescriptions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;HEXACO&lt;/a&gt; and some other measures of personality describe certain traits as &quot;interstitial&quot;. What does it mean for a personality trait to be &quot;interstitial&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-05-13T01:02:23.613" Title="What is an interstitial personality trait?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13538" CreationDate="2016-03-14T00:38:25.900" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many personality measures are organised hierarchically where broad traits are defined as the combination of multiple narrow traits. Broad traits are often called domains and narrow traits are often called facets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two influential examples are the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NEO-PI&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://hexaco.org/scaledescriptions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;HEXACO&lt;/a&gt; models of personality. For example, the NEO-PI has five broad traits and each broad trait is composed of 6 narrow traits. The HEXACO model includes six broad traits and each broad trait is composed of four narrow traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, some measures include narrow traits that do not fit so neatly within a particular hierarchical framework. For example, factor analytic research may indicate that the trait loads substantially on more than one broad trait. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Interstitial traits are narrow traits that are meaningfully correlated with two or more broad traits.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The terminology comes from the word &quot;interstices&quot; meaning &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/interstice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;a small space that lies between things&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Thus, such traits occupy a narrow unique space that overlaps with more than one broad trait. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure whether the term &quot;interstitial&quot; could be used to describe traits that are relatively unrelated to any broad trait.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-03-14T00:38:25.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13541" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-14T10:31:46.723" Score="0" ViewCount="630" Body="&lt;p&gt;what are the components of logical mathematical intelligence?&#xA;The logical mathematic intelligence is one among the multiple intelligences suggested by Howard Gardner. I require the components of the same to make a test to measure logical mathematical intelligence of my students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6410" LastActivityDate="2016-04-29T14:38:36.333" Title="what are the components of logical mathematical intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13542" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-14T12:10:23.093" Score="2" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have often told people that I make a mistake two different ways before I really understand a situation. Is there any research that explains how and why this works? As an analogy, there is something called a &quot;paperclip tree&quot;, a branching structure of linked paperclips (or any other small objects that can be connected loosely). You can find the longest path through the tree by picking it up anywhere, then grasping the lowest point and picking it up again. Absolute, guaranteed, must work every time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is learning by making two mistakes something like this? Something like triangulation - two points of view? I also find that I have to sleep twice before something is really integrated in to my awareness and memory. After just one sleep it disappears and can't be recalled. This is why I often tell people that I cannot remember yesterday, but before that is clear. Also why naps are so helpful for learning. Any thoughts in how these things all work? Back propagation? Default Processing? Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastActivityDate="2016-03-14T12:10:23.093" Title="Third time's the Charm: any research into how we learn from error?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13543" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13530" CreationDate="2016-03-14T19:47:58.860" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been discovered that neurogenesis takes place only on the hippocampus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quoting &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.coursera.org/instructor/~242&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Leonard E. White&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We now agree that the production of new &#xA;  neurons in the human brain is really &#xA;  limited to a special set of stem cells &#xA;  that seem to sit in the basal region of &#xA;  dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. &#xA;  So in this subgranular zone, we have a &#xA;  population of neural stem cells that can &#xA;  differentiate into interneurons that are &#xA;  found in the granule cell layer of the &#xA;  hippocampus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also as you said, this production could be modulated through some interventions (e.g. learning)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This genesis of new &#xA;  neurons in the hippocampus can be &#xA;  modulated. &#xA;  By all kinds of different interventions &#xA;  including pharmacological agents such as &#xA;  antidepressant medications. &#xA;  As well as physical interventions, such &#xA;  as exercise. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, this has been mentioned in this ted talk:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/sandrine_thuret_you_can_grow_new_brain_cells_here_s_how&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.ted.com/talks/sandrine_thuret_you_can_grow_new_brain_cells_here_s_how&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, the following activities impact &lt;strong&gt;positively&lt;/strong&gt; on neurogenesis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sex&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Running&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Good diet&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While these ones impact &lt;strong&gt;negatively&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stress&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bad sleep&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ageing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;pd: Concerning how memory works, my knowledge there is limited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11015" LastActivityDate="2016-03-14T19:47:58.860" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13544" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13969" CreationDate="2016-03-14T19:57:51.803" Score="5" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_artificial_neural_networks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Types of Neural Networks&quot; wiki page&lt;/a&gt; doesn't even have the word &quot;convolution&quot; in it, and yet there's an &lt;a href=&quot;http://cs.stanford.edu/people/karpathy/convnetjs/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;entire Javascript library&lt;/a&gt; based on Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what makes CNNs &quot;convolutional&quot;? When I hear &quot;convolution&quot;, I think of either smearing/blurring together (as in the &quot;convolve&quot; tool in programs like Photoshop), or complexity/tangling (e.g., &quot;a long and unnecessarily convoluted explanation&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I think of neural networks, I think of networks with distinct layers, where neurons from one layer only connect to neurons of the next layer. To me, &quot;convolutional&quot; suggests that the neurons are more intricately connected somehow—or &quot;tangled up&quot;. But I see nothing in the javascript library's documentation to suggest that this is the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The background section in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/abs/1602.09046&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;On Complex Valued Convolutional Neural&#xA;Networks&quot;&lt;/a&gt; master thesis suggests that CNNs are what has made neural networks actually useful for tasks like computer vision and face recognition. Why remains unclear, however, the term &quot;convolution operation&quot; was mentioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Guberman, N. (2016). &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/abs/1602.09046&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;On Complex Valued Convolutional Neural Networks.&lt;/a&gt; arXiv preprint arXiv:1602.09046.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-05-19T07:38:05.213" LastActivityDate="2016-05-19T07:38:05.213" Title="What does &quot;Convolutional&quot; signify in &quot;Convolutional Neural Network&quot;?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13547" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-14T22:56:45.083" Score="2" ViewCount="399" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of people are skeptic about the impact of subliminal messages. Good research and experiments on this topic are hard to find. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, I want to execute an experiment on this topic. To do this right, I'm curious what the best ways are to influence someone's decision making via subliminal messages / priming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone have experience or helpful research that will increase the chance of successfully persuading people subliminally in my experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11019" LastEditorUserId="11019" LastEditDate="2016-03-15T20:08:04.417" LastActivityDate="2018-05-06T19:33:51.127" Title="Subliminal Persuasion: best chances of success" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13549" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13516" CreationDate="2016-03-14T23:39:36.650" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Cure&quot; is a very risky word here. If I stick to it, the answer is no, because no treatment is 100% successful; not in all cases. Let's talk about significant outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CBT is not the only therapy that science has proven to have aceptable outcomes in depression treatment. Also Interpersonal Therapy, CBASP or even electroshock therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the recent research in the field of antidepressants is surprisingly questioning their real outcomes.You can research the works of Irving Kirsch, who found that antidepressants weren't statistically better than placebo in the treatment of depression. He found out that the research that had been done till the moment was not completely double-blinded, as antidepressants have noticeable side effects and people &quot;knew&quot; when they were having the drug and not the placebo... the ones having side-effects improved. It seems that the more side effects, the more effective a substance was in major depression, either being an antidepressant, an opiate, synthetic thyroid hormone... etc. You may read further &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2011/06/23/epidemic-mental-illness-why/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This recent paper has also interesting results that apply to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137864&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Driessen E, Hollon SD, Bockting CLH, Cuijpers P, Turner EH (2015) Does Publication Bias Inflate the Apparent Efficacy of Psychological Treatment for Major Depressive Disorder? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of US National Institutes of Health-Funded Trials.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The efficacy of psychological interventions for depression has been&#xA;  overestimated in the published literature, just as it has been for&#xA;  pharmacotherapy. Both are efficacious but not to the extent that the&#xA;  published literature would suggest.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, first of all, CBT can &lt;em&gt;alleviate&lt;/em&gt; any kind of depression, but not only CBT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, it can be the case that someone has great results only with medication but usually they're not long term ones (there is also research that seem to point out that antidepressants worsen the long-term course of depression).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And third, different kind of depressions have greater outcomes with different approaches. For example, it's well known that antidepressants don't work with dysthymia but learning social skills is usually very useful and leads to good results; that light therapy can alleviate a Seasonal Affective Disorder to the same extent as CBT, or that the best treatment for psychotic depression is electroshock therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10979" LastActivityDate="2016-03-14T23:39:36.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13551" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13516" CreationDate="2016-03-15T06:05:57.043" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are different levels of depression and some antidepressants work well than others as a variances in individuals mind may counteract against the meds. This is supposedly the key to upkeep the emotions in order to stabilize while going through CBT. It has helped me and I think it is critical if you want to get healthy faster. In other words psychological dependencies such as abusing substances can cause unhealthy changes to your overall health as it is cycled with mental and physical health. Not all depression can be &quot;cured&quot; through pharmaceutical medicines. It just helps like putting a bandaid on a fresh wound. But if CBT is involved then that would be like putting neosporin or antibiotic ointment on the wound to heal up with a rather cleaner scar than it is untreated. Not all scars can go away but proper psychological diagnosis with the insights can make a speedier process in the meantime for healing into good shape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11023" LastActivityDate="2016-03-15T06:05:57.043" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13554" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-15T19:57:00.577" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;In their paper &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26529489?dopt=Abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A cortical network that marks the moment when conscious representations are updated&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Stottinger et al claim that there is a network in the anterior insula, medial and inferior frontal regions and inferior parietal cortex that updates conscious representation. However, they did this by studying changing images. Is there any reason to believe that this system is not just for updating visual representations, as opposed to general conscious representation? (note: I only have access to the abstract, so I'm unsure whether this is addressed in the paper)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Full abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In order to survive in a complex, noisy and constantly changing environment we need to categorize the world (e.g., Is this food edible or poisonous?) and we need to update our interpretations when things change. How does our brain update when object categories change from one to the next? We investigated the neural correlates associated with this updating process. We used event-related fMRI while people viewed a sequence of images that morphed from one object (e.g., a plane) to another (e.g., a shark). All participants were naïve as to the identity of the second object. The point at which participants 'saw' the second object was unpredictable and uncontaminated by any dramatic or salient change to the images themselves. The moment when subjective perceptual representations changed activated a circumscribed network including the anterior insula, medial and inferior frontal regions and inferior parietal cortex. In a setting where neither the timing nor nature of the visual transition was predictable, this restricted cortical network signals the time of updating a perceptual representation. The anterior insula and mid-frontal regions (including the ACC) were activated not only at the actual time when change was reported, but also immediately before, suggesting that these areas are also involved in processing alternative options after a mismatch has been detected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6314" LastActivityDate="2016-03-15T19:57:00.577" Title="Conscious versus Visual Representation Update" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13556" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13411" CreationDate="2016-03-15T23:01:37.860" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I encourage you to read what &lt;strong&gt;evolutionary psychology&lt;/strong&gt; has to say about what you're talking about. This science is maybe the origin of your &quot;dark&quot; vision but it is due to a common oversimplification. As my explanation could be no way better than &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pinker&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Steven Pinker&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;'s one about this issue, I extract here this paragraphs that contain a clarification about your question &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychology-t.html?_r=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(full text here)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The attempt to dissect our moral intuitions can look like an attempt&#xA;  to debunk them. Evolutionary psychologists seem to want to unmask our&#xA;  noblest motives as ultimately self-interested — to show that our love&#xA;  for children, compassion for the unfortunate and sense of justice are&#xA;  just tactics in a Darwinian struggle to perpetuate our genes.[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In reality, none of these fears are warranted, and it’s important to&#xA;  see why not. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, the meme of the selfish gene escaped from popular&#xA;  biology books and mutated into the idea that organisms (including&#xA;  people) are ruthlessly self-serving. And this doesn’t follow. Genes&#xA;  are not a reservoir of our dark unconscious wishes. &lt;strong&gt;“Selfish” genes&#xA;  are perfectly compatible with selfless organisms, because a gene’s&#xA;  metaphorical goal of selfishly replicating itself can be implemented&#xA;  by wiring up the brain of the organism to do unselfish things&lt;/strong&gt;, like&#xA;  being nice to relatives or doing good deeds for needy strangers.&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;When a mother stays up all night comforting a sick child, the genes that endowed her with that tenderness were “selfish” in a metaphorical&#xA;  sense, but by no stretch of the imagination is she being selfish.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nor does reciprocal altruism — the evolutionary rationale behind&#xA;  fairness — imply that people do good deeds in the cynical expectation&#xA;  of repayment down the line. We all know of unrequited good deeds, like&#xA;  tipping a waitress in a city you will never visit again and falling on&#xA;  a grenade to save platoonmates. These bursts of goodness are not as&#xA;  anomalous to a biologist as they might appear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In his classic 1971 article, Trivers, the biologist, showed how&#xA;  natural selection could push in the direction of true selflessness. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trivers' article is also clarifying to answer your question. If you read the full text of the article you'll also find an explanation about how true selflessness can perfectly be a product of natural selection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The word &quot;dark&quot; in your question attracted my attention. Why should it be &quot;dark&quot; to profit from doing good? Is like saying that the pleasure of drinking water when one is thirsty is not a real pleasure because the &quot;real intention&quot; of thirst is to preserve one's own life (usually nobody drinks motivated by not dying but for pleasure, although avoiding death is what we are &quot;really&quot; doing). Why should be there any contradiction? does the &quot;real&quot; (functional) explanation of what we drink for make it less pleasant? Does any explanation about doing good to others make those things less good?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10979" LastEditorUserId="10979" LastEditDate="2016-03-15T23:23:49.107" LastActivityDate="2016-03-15T23:23:49.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13557" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13547" CreationDate="2016-03-16T01:50:30.140" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To my mind, a good way for your interesting idea is to verify advices how to keep attention of the interlocutor. Do you mean this? Such as &lt;em&gt;&quot;show non-verbal signs of listening, look in pupils&quot;, &quot;observe and react to changes of speaker's behavior and body language&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, etc. So, in one part of observation listeners follow the advices, and in another part listeners just do not follow it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for me, results of that experiment are obvious. Since I keep using these advices I always have fruitful talking with people. It really can change your repertoire for the better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10173" LastActivityDate="2016-03-16T01:50:30.140" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13558" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-16T03:20:11.710" Score="2" ViewCount="765" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the commonly observed biases in survey and are there any statistical or non-statistical methods to avoid it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am conducting a survey for automobile seat comfort, I think my current methodology may have following issues :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subjects may give average rating when they are unsure&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subjective rating may be anchored on the first vehicle subject sits in&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10695" LastActivityDate="2016-04-17T12:57:54.727" Title="Biases in subjective survey" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13559" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-16T09:45:11.787" Score="1" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider I have a few references from white to yellowish, and I look at them in 2 different lights: a cool-coloured light (white/~6500k) and a warm-coloured light (yellow/~3500k). Firstly, intuitively, I thought that I will perceive the whiter ones to be yellower in yellow light, but I don't -- in fact, it's the opposite: I see the yellower ones whiter in yellow light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does it mean? Does it mean that the colour constancy mechanisms of humans notices there's a yellow light and tries to adjust the brain such that I perceive yellowish stuff as white? If so, how come the ones that are intrinsically yellowish are still perceived as white? Does the colour constancy mechanism overestimates how much to correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9581" LastActivityDate="2016-04-16T22:52:14.927" Title="Does color constancy overestimate?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13560" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-16T10:24:40.187" Score="2" ViewCount="241" Body="&lt;p&gt;i'am currently reading &quot; theoretical neuroscience by dayan abbott&quot; and it says &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot; If we ignore the brief duration of an action potential (about&#xA;1 ms), an action potential sequence can be characterized simply by a list&#xA;of the times when spikes occurred. For n spikes, we denote these times&#xA;by $ti$ with i = 1, 2,... , n. The trial during which the spikes are recorded&#xA;is taken to start at time zero and end at time T, so 0 ≤ $ti$ ≤ T for all i. The&#xA;spike sequence can also be represented as a sum of infinitesimally narrow,&#xA;idealized spikes in the form of Dirac δ functions . &quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/U01iQ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/U01iQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;then it says we average  ρ(t) s that we get during the trials .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot; We use angle brackets, &amp;lt;&gt; , to denote averages over trials that use&#xA;the same stimulus, so that  for any quantity z is the sum of the values&#xA;of z obtained from many trials involving the same stimulus, divided by&#xA;the number of trials. The trial-averaged neural response function is thus&#xA;denoted by &amp;lt;ρ(t)&gt; &quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;how can we average ρ(t) . it consists of many infinity long spikes . so summing them and then dividing them by number of trials . is just like summing them . &#xA;and does not give us the sense of average spikes .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the book further explains :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot; In any integral expression, the neural response function generates a contribution whenever a spike occurs. If instead, we use the trial-average response function this generates contributions proportional to the fraction of trials on which a spike occurred. &quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the materials I'm referring to are from pages 7 and 8 .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7116" LastActivityDate="2016-03-16T23:59:26.157" Title="what is the &quot;trial-averaged neural response function&quot;?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13562" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-16T17:48:16.583" Score="3" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has anyone succeeded in measuring where the focus is between saccades? Through some kind of nonintrusive brainscan perhaps? I would like to be able to draw with my thought :) (Something similar would be okay, like the position or shape I am thinking of overlayed on what I see)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11033" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-01T19:09:55.847" LastActivityDate="2020-10-08T15:04:27.980" Title="Is there visual focus during a saccade?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13563" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-16T18:58:01.950" Score="4" ViewCount="357" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which behavior/personality traits should I look for?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10914" LastActivityDate="2017-01-28T20:57:49.493" Title="How can I recognize if a person is good subject for hypnosis?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13566" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-16T21:25:18.663" Score="1" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human brain is a signal processing system. Input streams contain sensory, motor, reward and possibly more signals mixed. I wonder if neuro transmitters associated with reward increase or decrease memorization of those streams. That would result in a tendency to memorize streams co-occurring with high reward over those co-occurring with low reward. Thus, attractors would settle for better streams and we would perform actions  optimizing the reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastActivityDate="2019-01-09T17:37:02.260" Title="Is the amount of learning modulated by reward transmitters?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13568" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13560" CreationDate="2016-03-16T23:59:26.157" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;ρ(t) in Equation 1.1 cannot be summed and averaged because the idealized spikes are infinitesimally narrow and the chance of two spikes from different trials occurring at the same time t is zero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Equation 1.2, the idea of convolving each idealized spike with a &quot;well behaved function&quot; h(t). If you use a rectangular function around zero as h(t), with a reasonable width (say 1ms), then Equation 1.2 will give you a timeseries that can be averaged. This is because the chances of two nonzero values from different trials occurring at the same t will become a more reasonable (nonzero) value. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have enough trials, then your trial-averaged neural response function using this more reasonable representation of spikes will give you a good sense of the average spike density.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-03-16T23:59:26.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13569" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-17T17:47:17.960" Score="0" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working with a clinician and need her to randomly assign patients into one of two groups with the goal of having roughly equal numbers in both groups. The clinician does not have access to a random number generator and it would be inappropriate for her to flip a coin before the allocation. We initially decided upon using the second hand on a clock and splitting on the top/bottom half of the minute, but the exam room does not have a clock and she does not wear a watch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are thinking of splitting on the first letter of the first name which is on the patient's chart. We would then flip every couple of weeks whether the first half of the alphabet was in group A or group B. Is this a reasonable approach? Is there a better one? If we go this way, what letter do we split on to give roughly equal sizes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-03-18T01:50:58.057" Title="How to random assign subjects to a group without any equipment?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13570" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13599" CreationDate="2016-03-17T18:56:25.350" Score="2" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;We inherit a lot from our ancestors, but how much the term &lt;strong&gt;Genetic Anxiety&lt;/strong&gt; is true, and if it is true, can it be cured through the same ways(CBT, Exposure Therapy) or it has to be dealt with medications? Put otherwise, is it the medications only that can cure genetic anxiety?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7020" LastActivityDate="2016-04-18T22:21:53.643" Title="Is there anything called Genetic Anxiety?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13571" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13569" CreationDate="2016-03-17T19:18:19.983" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer: I do not suggest using this solution for any real-world applications. This is simply a demonstration.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what your background is, but this is really easy to do in code. You could simply run a random number generator and print off the results for the clinician.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an example solution in R:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;ngen &amp;lt;- function(patients, weeks){&#xA;  df &amp;lt;- data.frame( t( replicate(patients, sample(c(&quot;A&quot;,&quot;B&quot;), weeks, replace=T)) ) )&#xA;  colnames(df) &amp;lt;- paste(replicate(ncol(df), &quot;Week&quot;), as.character(1:ncol(df)))&#xA;  rownames(df) &amp;lt;- paste(replicate(nrow(df), &quot;Patient&quot;), as.character(1:nrow(df)))&#xA;  print(df)&#xA;}&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Example Usage&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ngen(patients = 10, weeks = 5)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;           Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5&#xA;Patient 1       A      B      A      B      A&#xA;Patient 2       B      B      A      B      A&#xA;Patient 3       A      B      A      A      B&#xA;Patient 4       A      A      A      A      A&#xA;Patient 5       A      B      A      A      A&#xA;Patient 6       B      B      B      A      B&#xA;Patient 7       A      A      A      B      A&#xA;Patient 8       A      B      A      B      B&#xA;Patient 9       B      A      A      B      B&#xA;Patient 10      B      A      B      A      B&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Check by simulating 10,000 weeks:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;m &amp;lt;- ngen(patients = 10, weeks = 10000)&#xA;&#xA;# look at patient 1:&#xA;mean(as.numeric(m[1,]) - 1)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mean condition for patient 1 is 0.5, &#xA;i.e., even chance of being in condition A or condition B as n weeks goes to infinity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7961" LastEditorUserId="7961" LastEditDate="2016-03-17T19:30:29.553" LastActivityDate="2016-03-17T19:30:29.553" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13572" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13559" CreationDate="2016-03-17T22:28:58.220" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Color constancy works only if the incident illumination contains a range of wavelengths. The different cone cells of the eye register different but overlapping ranges of wavelengths of the light reflected by every object in the scene. From this information, the visual system attempts to determine the approximate composition of the illuminating light. This illumination is then discounted in order to obtain the object's &quot;true color&quot; or reflectance: the wavelengths of light the object reflects. This reflectance then largely determines the perceived color.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_constancy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also known that the color constancy of humans is subject to individual differences. The perception of painters like Claude Monet but also landscape photographs illustrate that attention and learning processes play a role while performing color constancy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10469555?dopt=Abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Anya Hurlbert: Colour vision: Is colour constancy real? Curr Biol. 9(15): 1999: R558-561, Review Article&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user11049" LastActivityDate="2016-03-17T22:28:58.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13574" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13569" CreationDate="2016-03-18T00:57:15.900" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If the patient has given you some kind of ID number (soc#, drivers license, patient number, birthday month... most any number) just split by even/odd. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we assume that such numbers are sequential or randomly assigned, then there should be no large bias, or association with any patient characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have two or more numbers available, you could add the last digits and see if that is even or odd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastActivityDate="2016-03-18T00:57:15.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13575" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13569" CreationDate="2016-03-18T01:50:58.057" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could generate a random 0-1 sequence at the start of the study and allocate participants as they come in based on that sequence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can use this simple online tool to generate the sequence ( &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.randomizer.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.randomizer.org/&lt;/a&gt; ), if you want to avoid doing some basic programming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll need to have a system for allocating IDs to participants, so I imagine that just preparing the sequence of random allocation ahead of time should be okay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-03-18T01:50:58.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13577" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2016-03-18T02:05:53.580" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Persistent Non-Symbolic Experience - a research field that focuses on cognitive development beyond normal ego development. It studies states of awareness commonly called &quot;enlightenment&quot; and related terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastEditorDisplayName="user9634" LastEditDate="2016-05-01T01:02:58.100" LastActivityDate="2016-05-01T01:02:58.100" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13578" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2016-03-18T02:05:53.580" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2016-03-18T02:05:53.580" LastActivityDate="2016-03-18T02:05:53.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13579" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2016-03-18T02:09:11.493" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nonduality is a mental state where one has transcended the usual distinctions of subject-object, self-other, and other common distinctions made by the ego. It is a developmental stage beyond full ego development, posited by many theorists in the past and now being studied psychologically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastEditorDisplayName="user9634" LastEditDate="2016-05-01T01:00:45.247" LastActivityDate="2016-05-01T01:00:45.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13580" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2016-03-18T02:09:11.493" Score="0" Body="For states of awareness where the usual subject-object distinctions are not salient." OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastEditorDisplayName="user9634" LastEditDate="2016-05-01T01:00:13.087" LastActivityDate="2016-05-01T01:00:13.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13581" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13563" CreationDate="2016-03-18T03:14:56.423" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Despite quite of lot of research looking for personality correlates of hypnotisability no very clear links have been found. There is evidence of weak associations between hypnotisability and &lt;em&gt;absorption&lt;/em&gt; (the capacity to direct a great deal of attention to a narrow range of stimuli, such as getting caught up in film or book) and also of associations between hypnotisability and &lt;em&gt;fantasy-proneness&lt;/em&gt; (the tendency to engage in imaginative activity) - but neither of these characteristics has much practical predictive value. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, in scientific hypnosis, rather than using indirect personality measure to identify hypnotisable participants, researchers use measures specifically designed to measure hypnotisability. The most common measures are the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotisability and the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale. Both of these are behavioural measures that consist of an induction followed series of simple hypnotic suggestions (e.g., your arm will heavy). Following the suggestions participants are scored as passing or failing each suggestion based on whether they meet a specific criteria (i.e., did they drop their arm more than 6 inches). The more items they pass, the higher their hypnotisability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary: personality cannot reliably predict hypnotisability. To tell if someone is susceptible, the best way is to see how they respond to hypnotic items. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="406" LastActivityDate="2016-03-18T03:14:56.423" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13582" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13570" CreationDate="2016-03-18T04:58:46.890" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think something like this can only be passed down like an immunity; sort of like cancer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your parents can give you a certain amount of immunity to cancer, or even the opposite. I believe that this also correlates to anxiety, more focusing on mental toughness and ability to take more straining situations. This also depends on the person's environment they grow up in and the experiences they are exposed to. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11028" LastActivityDate="2016-03-18T04:58:46.890" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13583" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-18T05:44:20.353" Score="3" ViewCount="309" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wanting to get estimates of the test-retest correlation for the six HEXACO domains. I'm curious to obtain estimates of test-retest correlation over various time frames (e.g., 1 month, 1 years, 2 years, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T07:50:53.657" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T07:50:53.657" Title="What is the test-retest correlation for HEXACO personality?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13584" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13583" CreationDate="2016-03-18T06:00:54.590" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have not yet found HEXACO domain estimates. I've had a lock through the main articles listed as references on &lt;a href=&quot;http://hexaco.org/references&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://hexaco.org/references&lt;/a&gt; but they seem to focus more on internal structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the HEXACO-PI is quite similar to the the NEO-PI in terms of number of items per domain and the general approach to trait measurement. Thus, I would expect that NEO-PI stability would provide a ballpark of what to expect. The following is a summary of few studies from the Wikipedia article on the NEO-PI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The test retest reliability of an early version of the NEO after 3 months was: N = .87, E = .91, O = .86.[14] &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The test retest reliability reported in the manual of the NEO PI-R over 6 years was: N = .83, E = .82, O = .83, A = .63, C = .79. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;A 2001 study by Kurtz and Parrish[15] on the short-term test-retest reliability yielded coefficients of α = .91–.93 for domains and α&#xA;  =.70–.91 for facets after a one-week interval. ...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;A 2006 study by Terracciano et al.[16] on the long-term test-retest reliability yielded coefficients of α = .78–.85 for domains and α =&#xA;  .57–.82 for facets after a 10-year interval.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;SOURCE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McCrae, R. R.; Costa, P. T. (1983). &quot;Joint factors in self-reports and ratings: Neuroticism, extraversion and openness to experience&quot;. Personality and Individual Differences 4 (3): 245–255. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(83)90146-0.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kurtz J. E., Parrish C. L. (2001). &quot;Semantic response consistency and protocol validity in structured personality assessment: The case of the NEO PI-R&quot;. Journal of Personality Assessment 76 (2): 315–332. doi:10.1207/S15327752JPA7602_12. PMID 11393463.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Terracciano, A.; Abdel-Khalek,et al (2005). &quot;National Character Does Not Reflect Mean Personality Trait Levels in 49 Cultures&quot;. Science 310 (5745): 96–100. doi:10.1126/science.1117199. PMC 2775052. PMID 16210536.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-03-18T06:00:54.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13586" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13558" CreationDate="2016-03-18T12:13:14.663" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are lots of commonly observed biases in surveys, and a whole field of survey methodology and statistics which investigates them. To get an idea of this, take a look at the table of contents of these journals:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/content/current&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/content/current&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jssam.oxfordjournals.org/content/current&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://jssam.oxfordjournals.org/content/current&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many people in this field are dealing with large data-sets (e.g., national censuses with many thousands of respondents), and they concentrate on things like estimating non-responses statistically (to take into account that some people with some opinions are less likely to complete the survey in the first place). Other widely investigated biases include &quot;social desirability&quot;, which is the issue that people often respond with what is most social acceptable, even if it is not necessarily accurate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, your question suggests you are looking on a smaller scale. Although it is a bit old, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.537&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; is a nice review of cross-overs between psychology and survey statistics. Not sure if the full article is stuck behind a paywall. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.ucsd.edu/~cmckenzie/Schwarz1999AmPsychologist.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; covers some similar ground.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;RE: Your first identified issue&lt;/strong&gt;, I assume that by &quot;average&quot; rating, you mean that people tend to choose the middle scale point if they are unsure (obviously they don't normally know the true average/mean response from their peers). There is evidence of this (see the Schwarz article above). From the abstract of &lt;a href=&quot;http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/content/49/3/388.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schwarz et al., 1985&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These results indicate that subjects inferred the average amount of&#xA;  television watching from the response alternatives provided them and&#xA;  used it as a standard of comparison in evaluating their behavior and&#xA;  its implications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What this means is that you should be a bit careful about choosing your scale (people will use the end points to evaluate what the average rating is). However, normally you are interested in relative deviations from this (which seats are rated higher or lower than average &lt;em&gt;relative to other seats&lt;/em&gt;), so this is an issue only if you are seeking a &quot;real number&quot; answer (such as the number of hours people watch TV). One way to counteract the &quot;centering&quot; bias is to use a 4 or 6-point scale rather than an odd number (so that there is no exact centre option) A related issue is that people are often reluctant to choose the most extreme options (&quot;endpoint bias&quot;). The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wiki on Likert scales&lt;/a&gt; has some information about this, assuming you are using such a scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;RE: Your second issue&lt;/strong&gt;, yes, question order matters. People often spend less time and respond differently on later questions (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://poq.oxfordjournals.org/content/73/2/349.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; paper). The specific issues of anchoring responses are discussed &lt;a href=&quot;http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic181820.files/Gehlbach-Anchoring_and_Adjusting.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. However, In your case this should be easy to control for by randomising the order in which they sit in the vehicles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-03-18T12:13:14.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13320" CreationDate="2016-03-18T16:19:17.387" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;However, is there any cog sci evidence that they provide any protection at all? I highly doubt there's any evidence to show they prevent someone from identifying you, but is there any evidence to suggest they even slow identification down or increase errors?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No and yes. As far as I know there's no evidence that &lt;strong&gt;masks&lt;/strong&gt; in particular provide a special protection that differs from other physical objects that disrupt the face/bodyparts like when you cover your face with your own hands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I think it is helpful to explain (concisely) how identification and visual recognition in the process of perceptual organization works:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stage 1&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;When we see something in our environment (face of a person) our organ of perception (eyes in this case) receives a stimulus (light) that causes the creation of an neural impulse that is send to the brain (image of a face).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stage 2&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Now our brain combines the information (the image of the face that we just saw) with a-priori-knowledge from our brain (a cocktail of experiences, expectations, language knowledge...). By doing so it identifies the object (face of my friend) &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; recognizes it. Recognizing means you are aware of the object's function (it's a friend, not a foe -&gt; no danger).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stage 3&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;The result is a mental re-creation of the object we just saw – a so called &lt;em&gt;percept&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to sum it up, if a mask or any other physical object is in the line of sight, it alters the information we receive about the covered object. And if our brain cannot &lt;em&gt;fill in the blanks&lt;/em&gt;, the stage of identification is slowed down or the object cannot be identified at all.&#xA;So it depends on what part of the face is covered and to what extend &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; how much information about the object we try to identify is already available in our brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user11049" LastActivityDate="2016-03-18T16:19:17.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13591" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3848" CreationDate="2016-03-18T21:06:07.617" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yes&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=js_unuMakWc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;video example of Derren Brown making a man drunk&lt;/a&gt;) with caveats:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not for every person being drunk means loosing his inhibitions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can't force people to do something they don't want to do (&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/gygL_CXAZk0?t=16m27s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;example by Anthony&#xA;Galie&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10914" LastActivityDate="2016-03-18T21:06:07.617" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13594" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-19T05:20:18.197" Score="1" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could (TBI) Traumatic brain injuries be linked to Post Traumatic stress syndrome (PTSD)? I know there is a lot of concern with veterans and PTSD, but I am more interested in all the other situations/civilian cases of PTSD. From what I have read, there are overlapping symptoms between PTSD and TBI? Is it possible for someone to have PTSD from damage to the brain and not from a specific event? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11066" LastActivityDate="2016-08-31T18:04:09.957" Title="Is there a link between brain injuries (TBI) and PTSD?" Tags="&lt;brain-injury&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13595" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13566" CreationDate="2016-03-19T15:46:03.913" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The effect of dopamine signaling is one of the areas where computational neuroscience has provided insight into brain mechanisms, specifically via Reinforcement Learning (RL) models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based off &lt;a href=&quot;http://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2013/papers/0580/paper0580.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/bitstream/handle/10012/8943/Rasmussen_Daniel.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PHD thesis&lt;/a&gt; from Dan Rasmussen, this first began with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9658025&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this publication from Schultz&lt;/a&gt; showing that dopamine acts as a reward signaler. From the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dopamine neurons are activated by rewarding events that are better&#xA;  than predicted, remain uninfluenced by events that are as good as&#xA;  predicted, and are depressed by events that are worse than predicted.&#xA;  By signaling rewards according to a prediction error, dopamine&#xA;  responses have the formal characteristics of a teaching signal&#xA;  postulated by reinforcement learning theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question directly, it does seem the speed/plasticity of learning is modulated by dopamine neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-03-19T15:46:03.913" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13597" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-19T20:58:28.100" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that neurons can be stimulated mechanically (like in the 'funny bone') and I'm wondering if neurons in the brain could be stimulated similarly, for example via focused ultrasound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11074" LastActivityDate="2016-03-19T20:58:28.100" Title="Can CNS neurons be stimulated with focused audio?" Tags="&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13599" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13570" CreationDate="2016-03-19T21:29:26.063" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Predisposition to anxiety &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety#Biological_vulnerabilities&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;can be inherited&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Genetics and family history (e.g., parental anxiety) may predispose an&#xA;  individual for an increased risk of an anxiety disorder, but generally&#xA;  external stimuli will trigger its onset or exacerbation. Genetics&#xA;  accounts for about 43% variance in panic disorder and 28% in&#xA;  generalized anxiety disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety_disorder#Treatment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Treatment for anxiety disorders&lt;/a&gt; is not generally modified for genetic component, so therapies such as conditioning or CBT may be used regardless.  All anxiety disorders are assumed to involve an environment (non-genetic) trigger that can be addressed through therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v17/n1/full/nn.3594.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dias &amp;amp; Ressler (2013)&lt;/a&gt; suggests that this is not necessarily the case in mice, where epigenetics alone (with no environmental trigger) can cause a purely genetic anxiety.  (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10486479/Phobias-may-be-memories-passed-down-in-genes-from-ancestors.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Layman version&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2016-03-19T21:29:26.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13600" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-19T22:48:38.773" Score="3" ViewCount="1191" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've never had my IQ measured before. After some research I decided to take the Raven's Standard Progressive Matrix test. After Googling I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia page. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.free-iq-test.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This test&lt;/a&gt; was linked on the Wikipedia page, and I took the test and acquired my raw score. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that I may need to take the advanced version of the test if my score is high enough, but that's besides the point. After acquiring my raw score, I researched how to get a rough IQ conversion. I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4483/how-to-calculate-iq-score-based-on-raw-score-and-adjust-for-age&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; here. It describes how to convert your raw score to a z-score, and then get a rough estimate of IQ from the z-score. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, acquiring the z-score requires norms for the raw scores, if I'm not mistaken. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where can I find the norms? Specifically, I need the mean raw score and the standard deviation for the United States general population. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11075" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-03-19T22:48:38.773" Title="Where can I find the norms for Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13601" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13547" CreationDate="2016-03-20T05:49:47.643" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Edited:&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Making sure to make a path of trailing the information to the commons that is able to redirect from the beginning point as subliminal, i.e. I have reported there is a location point where to find the hidden message then to another hidden spot where the message resides then the person gets the message and can claim a reward. If you can find that person who can follow these then these are the queues of seeing how willingly the effort comes along with it then can have another person who is in good connection with the person and try to see if he/she picks up the information without looking consciously, and grab information from the person that's connected too. All in all, it's trial and error for an individual person and it takes a lot of time and patience. This is all just an idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They could also be on some particular substance or have higher knowledge along with coordination and balance with the psych. They may remain unconsciously knowing something is particularly there; it’s very hard to pick up the sensibility in which, is a very hard deal to break through to find the right person. It is in fact very wise to keep things subliminal as possible to find the subliminal person because it attracts them and to remain subliminal. Once you find the particular one that seem to be unconscious of but really is consciously aware. The person doesn't have to say what or look at your body but in their possible peripheral vision. Sometimes you just can't rule it out, some are just too good to be true; some are way too good to be true. It's in some sort of higher intelligence to think before they react. And typically intuitive personage are capable of this but not all are good responders/followers. &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;*1&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Also it's like a person has trained itself into a unconcious and sub&#xA;  concious state to not react. But is conciously able to react as if it&#xA;  were internally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for a matter of fact I have for a very long time didn't hear a sound until the age of 3 then picked up on hearing. This has made me become effective at my picking up skills in a very correct way. I started formulating my own hand signs to my parents until they have found I was deaf. I was typically not recognizing my hearing senses so it allowed me to balance my sense over sight vs hearing. &lt;strong&gt;*2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;*1&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200705/gut-almighty&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200705/gut-almighty&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;*2&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prelingual_deafness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prelingual_deafness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Added:&lt;/em&gt; I’m sorry I've lost track in the post about the autism part scratch that. Lost senses from the early age 'till the age of 3 are capable of mastering to accommodate the other senses to a heightened level. The overall senses of the brain is training itself to accommodate the loss senses. Such as like the (anti-)phantom sense, possibly become the 6th sense. I.e a person with lost sense regain it’s natural balance. I can relate to this book. It's in .PDF format &lt;strong&gt;*3&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your brain changes with every experience: every sight, every sound, every touch, every thought, every emotion. It then interprets future experiences based on the past experiences. But a person with hearing disability can't pick up the subliminal messages as well as near perfect hearing. &lt;strong&gt;*4&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Autism puts things together in a complex puzzle.&lt;strong&gt;*5&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So with this attributed with number &lt;em&gt;*3&lt;/em&gt; &amp;amp; number &lt;em&gt;*2&lt;/em&gt;. It can put all the puzzles together and fills in the missing puzzles as a dummy puzzle to accommodate then this goes back to number &lt;em&gt;*1&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried to render this question for the right answer as rational as possible lol, I sense there is something there but not quite understood right. It is a plugin and play kind of deal with there are other things I can recognize is there but there's no way how I can precisely explain or to even convey in this language. It's an onomatopoeia along with transpositioning the language involved and it may seem irrational when really it's rational. Trying to keep all of this rational as possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;*3&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://richardlouv.com/images/uploads/excerpt-the-nature-principle-richard-louv.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://richardlouv.com/images/uploads/excerpt-the-nature-principle-richard-louv.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;*4&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ilslearningcorner.com/2015-06-the-age-when-your-childs-brain-stops-learning/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://ilslearningcorner.com/2015-06-the-age-when-your-childs-brain-stops-learning/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;*5&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/child-psychology/autism-aspergers/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/child-psychology/autism-aspergers/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11023" LastEditorUserId="11023" LastEditDate="2016-03-21T02:38:18.007" LastActivityDate="2016-03-21T02:38:18.007" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13604" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13282" CreationDate="2016-03-21T01:37:40.387" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, let's look at a definition of stress:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. It can come from any event or thought that makes you feel frustrated, angry, or nervous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stress is your body's reaction to a challenge or demand. In short bursts, stress can be positive, such as when it helps you avoid danger or meet a deadline. But when stress lasts for a long time, it may harm your health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://umm.edu/health/medical/ency/articles/stress-and-anxiety&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://umm.edu/health/medical/ency/articles/stress-and-anxiety&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it is a reaction to a challenge or demand that results in tension. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;My question, then, is this: if stress is caused by change to normal routine, would a good change with only positive effects still be considered stress? For example, going on vacation. The travel could certainly be stressful (or perhaps just anxious), but once a person arrives, lets assume they have a very good, relaxing stay. Could this be considered a stress since it is a change from the normal routine, despite having no negative effects?&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the above definition, though the trip there may be stressful, for a normal person, the stay itself will likely not be considered &quot;stress.&quot; However, this depends largely on the psychology of the person involved. For example, if someone has serious anxiety when breaking from routine, such a person would be more likely to find a vacation stressful, even the part of it that is supposed to be relaxing and enjoyable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress is often presented by the healthcare system as a negative thing, however, the fight or flight response is something which allowed us to be more capable of survival in difficult situations, historically speaking. There are certain doctors/researchers who embrace this more positive outlook, attempting to see the possible positive aspects of stress, rather than viewing it as only a negative thing. This is useful because the mere act of viewing stress as only a negative thing can actually compound the amount of stress felt, as one is not only stressed, but becomes stressed &lt;em&gt;about&lt;/em&gt; their stress. Here is some information and a TED talk by Kelly McGonigal who covers the idea of stress from that standpoint: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/speakers/kelly_mcgonigal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ted.com/speakers/kelly_mcgonigal&lt;/a&gt; She also wrote a book called &quot;The Upside of Stress&quot; if you're interested. I've listened to part of the audiobook of it and it's quite good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user11083" LastActivityDate="2016-03-21T01:37:40.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13605" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13923" CreationDate="2016-03-21T06:57:37.593" Score="11" ViewCount="9065" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering why it's easier to see black text on a white background than it is to see white text on a black background. I say that it's harder based on life experience (Hate webpages with black backgrounds!) and not from any actual studies I know of that have been done. Nonetheless, I think most people will agree with me on this one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My two general theories are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For some reason it strains the eyes (not quite sure why that would be), and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;We're just really used to it, so our brains have become wired specifically to process black text on white backgrounds&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user11086" LastEditorUserId="7114" LastEditDate="2016-05-08T22:06:59.723" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T22:16:14.017" Title="Why is it easier to see black text on a white background?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13607" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-21T21:20:41.370" Score="5" ViewCount="272" Body="&lt;p&gt;Economists widely use utility function (and more broader approach called hedonistic regression) but are there explanations or derivations of utility function from the perspective of cognitive sciences or psychology which can take into account personality, beliefs and experience (memory) and ongoing emotions (affects)? Clearly one should start with the Maslov pyramid that determines goals and needs and then one can proceed to explain why different people value differently one and the same goods or services? Are there such research trends, some keywords, terms, notable researchers in this area?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read only about incorporation of altruism in the utility function of neoclassical economics, about hypberbolic discount function and so on. But I have not managed to find more practical explanation of utility function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;This question has the following context&lt;/strong&gt;: I am trying to model the economic behavior or BDI agent - agent with Beliefs/Desires/Intentions. BDI is the most popular approach for modelling cognitive agents. Recent research (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.idsia.ch/~steunebrink/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://people.idsia.ch/~steunebrink/&lt;/a&gt;) has endowed BDI agents with formalization of emotions (KARO logic framework) and there is scarce but ongoing work to endow BDI agents with personality (e.g IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing and Five Factor Model from personality psychology). So, BDI agents have cognition, personality and affects and they can be used as models of human economic behavior. But there is missing link from economics and cognitive sciences - how humans act as economic agents? What are the models? What goals they can have, how behavior (decision to make purchase) can be infered from agent's goals, beliefs, personality and emotions? How human perception of utility (of particular attributes of particular products, particular designs, particular type of entertainment, etc.) is connected with his personality, experience, beliefs, affects? Utility function seems to be promising proxy in this research - psychology can explain utility function and economics can apply this function to particular transactions.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is there some research along this lines?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This should be promising area of research. Because common approach to economic analysis and prediction is connected with Data Science and statistical methods (conjoint analysis and hedonic regression). What I am trying to do is to find logic, semantic, cognitive methods of explanation and prediction of customer behavior. Similar trend - from statistical to semantic methods can be found in other fields of Science as well - e.g. in natural language processing, in search engine engineering and so on.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10670" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-04-25T23:57:12.703" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T01:51:07.817" Title="How to explain utility function from personality, beliefs and ongoing emotions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13608" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-22T02:16:55.963" Score="1" ViewCount="567" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've learnt to mirror-write as shown below &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XpR5f.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XpR5f.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; using my non-dominant hand. One of the things I've observed is that it's a lot easier when I do it with my &lt;strong&gt;eyes closed&lt;/strong&gt;. For e.g. if my eyes were closed, I'd be able to write faster and with less mirror-mistakes (writing &lt;strong&gt;regular b&lt;/strong&gt; - &lt;code&gt;b&lt;/code&gt; instead of &lt;strong&gt;mirrored b&lt;/strong&gt; - &lt;code&gt;d&lt;/code&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any existing research that can explain this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11084" LastActivityDate="2017-12-13T14:47:50.913" Title="mirror-writing using non-dominant hand easier with closed eyes" Tags="&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13609" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-22T03:00:02.540" Score="2" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;While piloting a task in psychtoolbox and exiting via (ctrl-c --&gt; sca), I receive this error:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Error using WinTabMex Tried to initialize WinTab, but it is already&#xA;  initialized! Call code 1 (Shutdown) first! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I call code 1 or otherwise intelligently resolve this error? &#xA;Restarting MATLAB fixes the problem, but it seems like a brute-force solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11091" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-23T22:17:46.920" LastActivityDate="2016-03-23T22:17:46.920" Title="How to intelligently resolve WinTabMex error in Psychtoolbox on Windows 7?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13610" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-22T04:46:50.643" Score="1" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is it that humans feel compassion towards non-humans, such as animals? For me, the sight of an injured bird causes an emotional response, but I cannot explain what would cause it. From an evolutionary standpoint, I can't think what advantage compassion towards &quot;prey&quot; would bring for survival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11095" LastActivityDate="2016-03-22T04:46:50.643" Title="Why do humans feel compassion towards non-humans?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13611" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-21T03:55:23.633" Score="6" ViewCount="2318" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know many devoutly religious people despite being totally atheist myself. I have occasionally discussed their beliefs and their religion with them, always respectfully. I am able to hypothesise scenarios assuming their beliefs are correct. However, when I ask them to consider my point of view, they seem unable to do so, because to them it doesn't make sense that God doesn't exist, or whatever else is said in their religious texts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I view it like visiting their home. I can visit them and enjoy their hospitality and they enjoy showing me around their home but I don't want to move in with them (convert to their religion). If I invite them to visit my home (hypothesise a universe without God), they always refuse. I'm not suggesting that they move in with me (become an atheist), and in fact, I don't care whether they do or not, and I don't even have any expectation that they would.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems as though atheism is so uncomfortable to them that they reject it without examining it except in a very general and distant way. The strange thing is, that they all view me as a good person despite me not sharing their beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is it so difficult for them to discuss atheist principles when I have no trouble discussing their religion with them? In fact, I find religions fascinating in the same way that I find people living in other countries fascinating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11098" OwnerDisplayName="CJ Dennis" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-26T09:11:31.580" LastActivityDate="2016-07-01T12:39:51.933" Title="Why are religious people seemingly unable to hypothesise about a universe without God?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13612" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-22T13:59:02.223" Score="2" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaGo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;AlphaGo&lt;/a&gt; is an artificial intelligence which has beaten top human GO-players. Even the creators and instructors do not know how AlphaGo came to it's conclusion to put a stone just at this position. Top-Players thought, AlphaGo did a mistake and in further progress it appeared to be a genius move. In fact AlphaGo played like no player in thousands of years - and won that match.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How could AlphaGo create that novel move? Is it really a new creation or is it just a product of a machine?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11102" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-30T21:49:36.880" LastActivityDate="2018-08-03T12:01:11.077" Title="Can machines really create anything new?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13613" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7880" CreationDate="2016-03-22T14:20:49.443" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm studying computer science at KIT (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany) specializing in Machine Learning and a minor in Mathematics. I am not a biologist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An artificial neural network is basically a mathematical function. It is built from simple functions which have parameters (numbers) which get adjusted (learned). One example of such a function is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$\varphi(x_1, \dots, x_n) = \frac{1}{1+e^{\sum_{i=1}^n w_i x_i}} \text{ with } w_i \in \mathbb{R}, x_i \in \mathbb{R}$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, there are parameter &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w_i$&lt;/span&gt; which can be set to any number. The &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x_i$&lt;/span&gt; are the inputs. But those inputs themselves can be the output of another function &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\varphi$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common way to visualize those simple functions is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eBPgU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eBPgU.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are thousands of those simple functions (also called &amp;quot;neurons&amp;quot;) which build an artificial neural network. This results in a single function which has &lt;strong&gt;millions of parameters&lt;/strong&gt; in the biggest networks. Neural networks use relatively simple topologies which can often be expressed in a tree structure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mgIPe.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mgIPe.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Every single circle is one neuron (also called &amp;quot;perceptron&amp;quot; in some cases).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have lots of training data, &lt;strong&gt;train once a long time, then use it often&lt;/strong&gt;. A long time often means several days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an artificial neural network (ANN), the signal is send &lt;strong&gt;synchronously&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, the human brain isn't fully understood by now. From what I've heard, the basic building blocks are also called neurons. They look like that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FkbqB.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FkbqB.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is that axon terminals of one neuron, which are closer to the axon hillock of another neuron have more influence on the output of the signal. But the relationship is different. It is a process which is much better described by differential equations, not something simple as the equation for artificial neurons above. The neurons send their signals &lt;strong&gt;asynchronously&lt;/strong&gt;. According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animals_by_number_of_neurons&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, humans have 86 000 000 000 neurons. They are certainly restricted in how they can be connected, but there are also certainly &lt;strong&gt;many billions of parameters&lt;/strong&gt; which can be adjusted in &amp;quot;standard human brains&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By now, we don't know how humans really (exactly, in all details) learn. This is certainly a key difference. But we don't learn once for a long time and stop learning then. We are &lt;strong&gt;continuously learning very short times&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also: &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/abs/1511.09030&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;On-line Recognition of Handwritten Mathematical Symbols&lt;/a&gt;, Chapter 4.3 for more details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;TL;DR and some more facts&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Signal transport and processing&lt;/strong&gt;: The human brain works asynchronously, ANNs work synchronously.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Parameter count&lt;/strong&gt;: Humans have many billions (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.businessinsider.de/a-google-ai-godfather-says-machines-could-match-human-abilities-in-5-years-2016-3?r=US&amp;amp;IR=T&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;businessinsider.de&lt;/a&gt; writes &amp;quot;1,000 trillion&amp;quot;) of adjustable parameters / 86Bn neurons (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2012/feb/28/how-many-neurons-human-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;). Even the most complicated ANNs only have several million learnable parameters.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Training algorithm&lt;/strong&gt;: ANNs use Gradient Descent for learning. Human brains use something different (but we don't know what)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Processing speed&lt;/strong&gt;: Single biological neurons are slow, while standard neurons in ANNs are fast. (Yes, I did not confuse the two. The artificial ones are faster. And I ignore spiking networks as I didn't see a single example where they are actually useful)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Topology&lt;/strong&gt;: Biological neural networks have complicated topologies, while ANNs are often in a tree structure (I am aware of recurrent networks - they are still pretty simple from their structure)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Power consumption&lt;/strong&gt;: Biological neural networks use very little power compared to artificial networks&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Biological networks usually don't stop / start learning. ANNs have different fitting (train) and prediction (evaluate) phases.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Field of application&lt;/strong&gt;: ANNs are specialized. They can only perform one task. They might be perfect at playing chess, but they fail at playing go (or vice versa). Biological neural networks can learn completely new tasks.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ANNs need a target function. You need to tell them what is good and what is bad. I'm not sure if you can compare this to e.g. pain in biological networks.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4643" LastEditorUserId="4643" LastEditDate="2020-12-20T11:10:37.647" LastActivityDate="2020-12-20T11:10:37.647" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13614" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-22T14:50:52.967" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I was asked a question that made me stuck: &quot;how does dreaming states and hypnotic state differ?&quot;. What available EEG, fMRI and other means of obtaining data on the brain activity show in such cases?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How much is known about changes of the brain activity when brain moves from wakefulness to sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For now, I only found tiny mentioning of the similarity between the REM state and hypnosis in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; (part about Joe Griffin and Ivan Tyrrell), but there wasn't mentioning of the real similarities like EEG rhythms or brain activity scan data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The person asking the question mentioned a competent specialist having several decades of practice (I don't know who it is).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He told he heard an intriguing (at least for me) idea from this specialist: &quot;when the person starts to sleep, there is a moment of a high susceptibility to the hypnosis&quot;; I'd like to know a bit more about that: is that right, or maybe there is some misunderstanding? Maybe there are good materials on this particular topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1017" LastActivityDate="2016-03-22T14:50:52.967" Title="Possible links of the dreaming and hypnotic state" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13615" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-22T20:17:31.673" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &quot;Theoretical Neuroscience&quot; by Dayan and Abbott, section 2.2 &quot;Estimating Firing Rates&quot;, it describes how by using a linear model in combination with averaged experimental firing rates you can acquire a non-linear model graphically. This is shown in the figure below: &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cnqMU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cnqMU.png&quot; alt=&quot;non-linear&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the synthetic neuron &lt;a href=&quot;https://gist.github.com/Seanny123/78676146d7745cb2527e&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defined here&lt;/a&gt;, I was able to acquire both average experimental firing rates, as well as a linear model. I calculated the linear model by first acquiring the Spike-Triggered-Average using a white noise signal and then convolving it with the same white noise signal. Given that you can acquire the kernel according to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7laV0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7laV0.png&quot; alt=&quot;kernel&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And that you can the acquire a linear model given:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/72grX.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/72grX.png&quot; alt=&quot;convolution&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where $s(t-\tau)$ is the original white-noise stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, when I try to plot this result, I get a graph that looks like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zQwSW.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zQwSW.png&quot; alt=&quot;non-linear&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given this graph, my reasoning and &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/Seanny123/SYDE552/blob/28328b116d809b380653a218d7b9336eac44feea/lnp/Q2.ipynb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;my code&lt;/a&gt;, where could I be going wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-03-22T20:17:31.673" Title="Creating non-linear neuron model from linear and actual rates" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13616" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1770" CreationDate="2016-03-22T21:33:28.250" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found the term &quot;holiday anniversary  memory triggers&quot; on a popular psychology website. It clusters a lot of symptoms together:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://outofthefog.website/top-100-trait-blog/2015/11/4/holiday-anniversary-memory-triggers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://outofthefog.website/top-100-trait-blog/2015/11/4/holiday-anniversary-memory-triggers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-03-22T21:33:28.250" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13617" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13626" CreationDate="2016-03-23T00:18:04.490" Score="5" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Background&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm in high school currently conducting research (obviously it is relatively rudimentary compared to what is being done in the labs, etc.) in computational neuroscience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm dealing with multiple datasets each containing time series data for a majority of neurons in C. Elegans (the dataset is the one used in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/cell/pdfExtended/S0092-8674(15)01196-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Saul Kato's Global Brain Dynamics Embed the Motor Command Sequence of Caenorhabditis elegans&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking to do a pairwise comparison of each neuron in every dataset; if $N_{ij}$ is the $j^{th}$ neuron in the $i^{th}$ dataset, then I will do a pairwise comparison of all neurons in the $j^{th}$ column. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going through &lt;a href=&quot;http://mathematical-neuroscience.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13408-015-0030-9#CR29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; which proposes a method of comparing time series data across neurons. The paper uses this spiking model: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/su5Bj.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/su5Bj.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering how neuroscientists approach such models they read about in literature; how they dissect it mathematically, what crosses their mind when they look at these models, etc. and where I can go to gain a rigorous foundation to truly and intuitively understand the models I read about in the future. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8509" LastActivityDate="2016-04-27T01:30:38.420" Title="How to interpret neuron spiking models one comes across in literature?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;dynamic-systems&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13618" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13612" CreationDate="2016-03-23T00:51:36.297" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is actual a pretty old and often debated question. It is called &quot;Lady Lovelace's Objection&quot; and first appeared in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing_Machinery_and_Intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alan Turing's seminal paper &quot;Computing Machinery and Intelligence&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below is my response to Lovelace's Objection, as well as Alan Turing's response which I wrote for a philosophy course in 2015. Perhaps it will be of interest to you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Turing created the imitation game as a way to talk about cognition in&#xA;  machines without being bogged down by the philosophical history of the&#xA;  word “think” and “machine”. In his discussion of the imitation game,&#xA;  he addresses Ada Lovelace's objection and refutes one aspect of it,&#xA;  however he does not cover all aspects. Namely, his rebuttal to&#xA;  Lovelace's objection seems to assume the universe is deterministic and&#xA;  by rephrasing Lovelace's argument, he may be missing some of it's more&#xA;  subtle implications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Turing's imitation game has the objective of causing a human judge to&#xA;  be unable to correctly guess which amongst two players is a computer.&#xA;  The only tool at the judge's disposal is textual communication that&#xA;  can be directed to each of the players individually, similar to an&#xA;  Internet chat room or an e-mail exchange. If the machine can confuse&#xA;  the judge, given a certain time or question limit, the machine is said&#xA;  to have won the imitation game and to have passed the Turing test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lovelace's argument against a machine passing the Turing test and thus&#xA;  being able to “think”, is that a machine (specifically referring to&#xA;  the Analytical Machine) “has no pretences to originate anything. It&#xA;  can do whatever we know how to order it to perform” (Turing 1950,&#xA;  450). Turing faces this argument by first rephrasing it into&#xA;  questioning whether a machine “can never do anything 'new'” (Turing&#xA;  1950, 450). He refutes this reformulated objection by questioning&#xA;  whether human beings have ever done anything new. In other words, he&#xA;  claims that there is no verifiable proof that any creation from a&#xA;  human being was not the product of their education; whether formally&#xA;  studied or learned from the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Turing's claim is a reasonable one, but he risks getting caught up in&#xA;  the debate of free will versus determinism, since he seems to be&#xA;  claiming that a human being is purely a function of this environment.&#xA;  He assumes that all that is necessary to imitate a human being is to&#xA;  determine the function that maps the external environment to human&#xA;  reasoning. The belief of the existence of this function is known as&#xA;  determinism within philosophy and is a matter of much debate.&#xA;  Alternatively, to avoid this philosophical quagmire, instead of&#xA;  appealing to determinism, we could instead look at what is required&#xA;  for a computer to create something “new”. Creating something “new”&#xA;  could be interpreted as synthesizing new information. The proof that a&#xA;  computer can accomplish this task can be proven by examining a&#xA;  rule-based system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A rule-based system is based on the idea that most of human knowledge&#xA;  can be represented by rules and human reasoning can be approximated by&#xA;  the manipulation of these rules in a logical manner. For example, to&#xA;  represent a navigation plan, you can know a series of logical steps or&#xA;  rules describing routes, such as “Lester street connects my house to&#xA;  highway 69” and “highway 69 leads to Sudbury”. It is possible to&#xA;  program a computer using to search through these steps and come to a&#xA;  conclusion, in this case the route from Sudbury to Lester street&#xA;  (Thagard 2005, 47). You can then synthesize new rules by combining&#xA;  them using a process known as “chunking” or “composition”, and saving&#xA;  them so that the search doesn't need to be executed every time this&#xA;  objective (getting from Sudbury to Lester) needs to be accomplished&#xA;  (Thagard 2005, 49). Additionally, rules can be used to generate&#xA;  explanations or hypotheses by abductive inference (Thagard 2005, 50).&#xA;  Both the plan, the explanation and the summary did not exist until the&#xA;  computer sought them out and discovered them. This can be seen as the&#xA;  equivalent of a machine producing something “new” and acquiring “new”&#xA;  knowledge. Using mathematical terminology, it can be said that the&#xA;  system is non-monotonic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are many flaws to this simplistic rule-based system. It is&#xA;  computationally inefficient and does grasp all of the psychological&#xA;  complexity of a human being. Consequently, it could be argued that&#xA;  this model could never evolve to successfully imitate a human being.&#xA;  However these are superficial concerns. It would be a mistake to&#xA;  broaden this specific rule-based system's inability to evolve to all&#xA;  computational models. Instead, what should be retained from the&#xA;  example of the rule-based system is that it is possible to contain&#xA;  aspects of human reasoning and ingenuity within a computational model.&#xA;  Additionally, the flaws of computational inefficiency and&#xA;  psychological incompleteness can be and have been addressed by newer,&#xA;  more complete models. For example, ACT-R has been shown to be able to&#xA;  imitate certain attributes of a human being, such as natural language&#xA;  processing, in the form of language acquisition (Anderson 2002, 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alan Turing (1950), Computing Machinery and Intelligence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Paul Thaghard (2005), Mind: Introduction to Cognitive Science, 2nd Edition. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/mind-second-edition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MIT Press&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taatgen, N.A. &amp;amp; Anderson, J.R. (2002). Why do children learn to say &quot;broke&quot;? A model of learning the past tense without feedback. Cognition, 86(2), 123–155.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-30T21:47:49.030" LastActivityDate="2018-07-30T21:47:49.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13621" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13624" CreationDate="2016-03-23T08:54:29.130" Score="6" ViewCount="1139" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have absolutely no knowledge of psychology. But I am wondering what causes emotions in human? Emotions such as happiness, sadness, love, hate etc. Is there some sort of hormones responsible for this? How does brain understands this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10366" LastEditorUserId="10366" LastEditDate="2020-11-17T23:55:03.833" LastActivityDate="2020-11-17T23:55:03.833" Title="What causes emotions?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13622" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-23T10:44:42.540" Score="1" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the Emotiv website, they offer to pay an extra $300 to access &quot;raw EEG data&quot;. If I don't pay that, will I still be able to retrieve the EEG data with the python-emotiv library?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10990" LastActivityDate="2016-04-26T22:44:43.657" Title="Do you need to pay an extra $300 to be able to retrieve data from the Emotiv Epoc via the python-emotiv library?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13623" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8899" CreationDate="2016-03-23T14:29:16.687" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is YES, light is exactly like sound when it comes to cognitive psychology.  We relate to both in the same ways, and no feature of the physics of either acoustics or photonics refutes this.  So yes, there are combinations of colors, tones, shades, shapes and forms which are found to be pleasing and a simple visit to any department store and a conversation with the sales staff as to what is flying off the shelves allows one to create products that will also sell, based on those perceived 'predilections'.  These are voted on by millions of consumers across the globe and are quite predictable, understandable, and useful.  We all know this, so I have no idea why anyone would bother to over technicalize this truth, and attempt to grind it into oblivion!?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some references to such visual predilections:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;www.tigercolor.com/color-lab/color-theory/color-theory-intro.htm#color_harmonies&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1stwebdesigner.com/please-clients-color-combinations/&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;inspirationfeed.com/inspiration/video-inspiration/30-aesthetically-pleasing-color-combinations/&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“The various levels of formal, rhythmic, timbral, and harmonic stasis in Grouper’s music then act like the treatment of a canvas for musician and audience alike. That may seem like a forced analogy, but its fairly apt given Harris’s visual predilections—she was an art student at Berkeley before turning her focus to music, and still contributes visually to her music career with album artwork and concert videos. It’s fitting then that she describes her treatment of the beclouded lyrics as similar to her use of pastels in visual works, which really only invites further listener speculation.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;www.newmusicbox.org/articles/Traveling-Through-a-Sea-The-Music-of-Grouper/&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“As for the screenplay by Adam Cooper, Bill Collage, Jeffrey Caine, and Steven Zaillian, it seems shaped by committee to play to the visual predilections of the director, which proves to be both strength and weakness, and it avoids the kind of right-and-wrong preachiness we sometimes expect in any faith-based movie.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;philadelphia.cbslocal.com/2014/12/11/movie-review-exodus-gods-and-kings/&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Lang unleashed the full force of his visual predilections in Metropolis.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;www.filmsufi.com/2008/11/metropolis-fritz-lang-1927.html&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“The insights yielded will be of value to those with an interest in modern literature, differential aesthetics, visual culture, perception, and the experience of blindness.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;books.google.com/books/about/Toward_an_Aesthetics_of_Blindness.html?id=PINlAAAAMAAJ&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11116" LastActivityDate="2016-03-23T14:29:16.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13624" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13621" CreationDate="2016-03-23T19:23:02.740" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's break this down into two terms: &lt;em&gt;affect&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;emotion&lt;/em&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Affect&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Affect corresponds to two dimensions that underlie emotional experience: &lt;strong&gt;valence&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;arousal&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Valence&lt;/strong&gt; - feelings of pleasantness and unpleasantness &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Arousal&lt;/strong&gt; - feelings of activation (e.g., alert, energized) and deactivation (e.g., de-energized, sleepy)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what are the sources of these two basic sensory dimensions? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;One answer is&lt;/strong&gt;... immunologic, metabolic, and autonomic changes in the body, whose sensory input flows up and is processed by primary interoceptive cortex (posterior insula) (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v16/n7/abs/nrn3950.html&quot;&gt;Barrett &amp;amp; Simmons, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).  Think of the body as a source of sensory input, just like any other modality (visual, auditory, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, there are top-down predictions descending from agranular interoceptive cortex, which are actually responsible for most of our interoceptive sensations (i.e., conscious affect).  That is, most of your affective feelings are produced by top-down predictions about input from the body rather than bodily input itself.  Weird!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Another part of the answer is...&lt;/strong&gt; endogenous opioid and cannabinoid signals in certain &quot;hotspots&quot; of the brain (e.g., nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum), which are thought to mediate pleasure (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959438813000330&quot;&gt;Berridge &amp;amp; Kringelbach, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;But in general&lt;/strong&gt;... this is still being figured out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Emotion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to this part depends on your theory, about which I'll be very brief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Basic emotion theorists&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/3/4/364.short&quot;&gt;Ekman &amp;amp; Cordaro, 2011&lt;/a&gt;) argue that emotions correspond to discrete, circumscribed parts of your brain (e.g., the amygdala and fear, the insula and disgust).  We have &quot;affect programs,&quot; that when activated, produce a discrete emotion (fear, anger, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Constructionists&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;amp;aid=8593980&amp;amp;fileId=S0140525X11000446&quot;&gt;Lindquist et al., 2013&lt;/a&gt;) argue that emotions are essentially interpretations of your affect (valence and arousal) in a given context.  So &quot;fear&quot; is just a concept that you deploy in certain situations (e.g., when you feel negative, highly aroused, and are running from a bear). On this view, emotions emerge from interactions among distributed brain networks that are involved in more basic psychological processes (e.g., exteroception, interoception, conceptualization, language).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The meta-analytic evidence seems to favor the latter view, but there's still a buttload of work to be done on this end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as controlling emotions--well, that's an entirely different question.  But see &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=MlMKkPUAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot;&gt;James Gross&lt;/a&gt; for more info.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2016-03-23T19:23:02.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13626" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13617" CreationDate="2016-03-23T20:39:22.900" Score="7" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Read dayan and abbot &quot;theoretical neuroscience&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Learn differential equations &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Know the relationship between voltage, current, resistance and conductance&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Differential equations is absolutely essential though. you don't need to learn to solve them (the computer will do that for you), you just need to learn to know what they mean.    &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How do researchers translate observations of nature into symbolic, mathematical approximations/models of these phenomena? By gaining intuition of how the model components relate to empirical observations. it is relatively rare that someone comes up with a new model from scratch. most of the time people retool or remix previous models. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-04-27T01:30:38.420" LastActivityDate="2016-04-27T01:30:38.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13627" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-23T21:46:47.817" Score="2" ViewCount="189" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to figure out how MBTI would be operationalized in scientific research.&#xA;How could one operationalize the different types, E, I, N, S, T, F, P and J?&#xA;How could one look at numerical measurements of individuals and say &quot;That is an E&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research on objective differences between the types (without using NEO-PI-R or other Big5 inventories as the objective reference)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2016-04-21T07:34:36.113" LastActivityDate="2016-04-21T07:34:36.113" Title="Can MBTI be measured objectively?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13630" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-23T22:52:48.057" Score="1" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am developing a game where the music needs to be synchronized to the actual game logic. That means that some objects in the game react to events in the music. Of course, the music will never be completely synced to the output on the screen, so I need an indication of the time difference so I can sync the music manually to the game logic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the average/maximum time for a human to still associate a visual event on the screen with an auditory musical event?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11121" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-02T07:56:38.733" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T07:57:35.457" Title="What is the maximum time difference to still associate an acoustic and visual event?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13632" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13621" CreationDate="2016-03-24T07:53:13.187" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It mostly depends which theory you go by.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologists have proposed &lt;strong&gt;theories of emotion&lt;/strong&gt; to explain what emotions are, by what they are caused and what effect they have on living beings.&#xA;There're different ways to categorize those theories like on the basis of the content of emotions for example and the major theories can be grouped into three main categories: physiological, neurological, and cognitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;James-Lange-Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;This theory suggests that when you see an external stimulus that leads to a physiological reaction. Your emotional reaction is dependent upon how you interpret those physical reactions. For example, suppose you are walking in the woods and you see a grizzly bear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cannon-Bard-Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Suggests that the physical and psychological experience of emotion happen at the same time, and that one does not cause the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Schachter-Singer-Therory&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;This theory suggests that the physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion. A stimulus leads to a physiological response that is then cognitively interpreted and labeled which results in an emotion.&#xA;Schachter and Singer’s theory draws on both the James-Lange theory and the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion. Like the James-Lange theory, the Schachter-Singer theory proposes that people do infer emotions based on physiological responses. The critical factor is the situation and the cognitive interpretation that people use to label that emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case you want to delve a bit deeper into that topic visit &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologytopics/a/theories-of-emotion.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are looking for a general defintion of emotions go with this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Emotions are complex patterns of psychological and physiological reactions. They are object-related (= require an external stimulus) and mostly short-lived (in contrast to &lt;em&gt;moods&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user11049" LastEditorDisplayName="user11049" LastEditDate="2016-03-24T08:03:33.700" LastActivityDate="2016-03-24T08:03:33.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13633" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13638" CreationDate="2016-03-24T08:06:59.827" Score="5" ViewCount="820" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand, when a neuron fires the action potential generated in a cell body reaches only the presynaptic part of the synapse, then triggers the transmitter to pass through the gap, and that transmitter causes the membrane in the postsynaptic part to open ion channels, pumps, etc ..., which generate a completely new electric potential that finally reaches the receiver cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the electricity generated in a firing neuron never actually reaches receivers (not directly)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11124" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-04-01T12:32:06.153" LastActivityDate="2016-04-01T12:36:21.367" Title="Does electricity pass through synapse?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13634" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13633" CreationDate="2016-03-24T20:32:41.850" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does electricity pass through synapse?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No because ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... when a neuron fires the action potential generated in a cell body&#xA;  reaches only the presynaptic part of the synapse, then triggers the&#xA;  transmitter to pass through the gap, and that transmitter causes the&#xA;  membrane in the postsynaptic part to open ion channels, pumps, etc&#xA;  ..., which generate a completely new electric potential that finally&#xA;  reaches the receiver cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So the electricity generated in a firing neuron never actually reaches&#xA;  receivers (not directly) ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You actually answered your own question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Keep in mind that neurotransmitter release and action potential are two different things. Sometimes the amount of neurotransmitter released are not enough to depolarize the postsynaptic membrane for an action potential to happen. Conversely action potentials can happen in the absence of neurotransmitter as it happens in many cells with peacemaking activity. Remember that action potentials are a result of the biophysical properties of the membranes where they are produced and of course this depends on the different ion channels present in that membrane.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/post/What_is_the_relationship_between_action_potential_and_signal_transduction-two_events_that_follow_the_binding_of_a_neurotransmitter_to_its_receptors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Source)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also think about the mechanic of the saltatory conduction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Myelinated axons only allow action potentials to occur at the unmyelinated nodes of Ranvier that occur between the myelinated internodes. It is by this restriction that saltatory conduction propagates an action potential along the axon of a neuron at rates significantly higher than would be possible without the myelination of the axon (200 m/s compared to 2 m/s). As sodium rushes into the node it creates an electrical force which pushes on the ions already inside the axon. This rapid conduction of electrical signal reaches the next node and creates another action potential, thus &lt;strong&gt;refreshing the signal&lt;/strong&gt;. In this manner, saltatory conduction allows electrical nerve signals to be propagated long distances at high rates without any degradation of the signal. Although the action potential appears to jump along the axon, this phenomenon is actually just the rapid, almost instantaneous, conduction of the signal inside the myelinated portion of the axon.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltatory_conduction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Source)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user11049" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-04-01T12:36:21.367" LastActivityDate="2016-04-01T12:36:21.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13636" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13674" CreationDate="2016-03-25T02:37:26.143" Score="4" ViewCount="912" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want a term for the tendency of individuals to confirm their existing biases/opinions by seeking out and reinforcing their opinions with like-minded individuals (as far as I know, this is distinct from confirmation bias). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11131" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-25T15:25:09.910" LastActivityDate="2016-03-30T17:29:23.793" Title="Official term for the tendency to associate with like-minded people?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13638" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13633" CreationDate="2016-03-25T12:35:30.670" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yes&lt;/strong&gt; – electricity does pass through synapses if the link between the neurons in question is constituted by an &lt;strong&gt;electrical synapse&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapse#Chemical_or_electrical&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;two different types of synapses&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;chemical synapses&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;electrical synapses&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_synapse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;chemical synapse&lt;/a&gt;, an arriving pre-synaptic action potential indeed causes the release of neurotransmitters which carry the signal across the synaptic cleft to the subsynaptic membrane. This can effect an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron (among other things).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_synapse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;electrical synapse&lt;/a&gt;, on the other hand, &lt;strong&gt;ions do actually move from the presynaptic cell, through a gap junction channel, and to the postsynaptic cell&lt;/strong&gt;, capable to cause a depolarization there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Electrical synapses are found in many animals (including human). Due to their different characteristics, like the lack of neurotransmitter-related mechanisms and a significantly smaller synaptic cleft, they e. g. allow for a faster propagation of a signal between two neurons (while the signal decreases in strength due to the lack of gain). They occur as a part of neural structures which require fast signal transmission.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(While more technical details can be found in the referenced sources, it is helpful to review some of the basic concepts to avoid misconceptions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is sometimes (naively) assumed that the propagation of an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;action potential&lt;/a&gt; consists in a flow of electric charge along the axon, but what actually happens is that ions move through the membrane, i. e. roughly along an axis that is orthogonal to the direction of the signal. &lt;em&gt;It is the action potential that moves along the axon.&lt;/em&gt; Thus, the original question is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; to be taken to mean &lt;em&gt;»Does the electric current that moves along the length of the axon also move through the synaptic cleft?«&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still – even if the flow of electric charge does not constitute the action potential, &lt;em&gt;electricity can flow along the axon&lt;/em&gt;, as well. This is what happens in the case of saltatory conduction between the nodes of Ranvier in myelinated axons. It is generally referred to as an &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrotonic_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;electrotonic potential&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8427" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-01T07:26:07.957" LastActivityDate="2016-04-01T07:26:07.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13643" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-26T12:00:54.957" Score="1" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading &quot;The Art of Happiness&quot; right now, and in it, it's written that our need from intimacy stems a fear that developed at childbirth. According to the text, there's much evidence that this fear develops at the 1-year mark, when separation from one's father and mother becomes apparent. The book goes further to state that the root of all suffering in humanity is due to an innate fear of re-experiencing this separated-ness. This by the way, can be found on page 79/235 in the section of &quot;the art of happiness&quot; entitled &quot;expanding our definition of intimacy&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this true, then are we all Obsessive-Compulsive and just reliving the same scenarios over and over in our lives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user11145" LastEditorDisplayName="user11145" LastEditDate="2016-04-01T17:23:27.820" LastActivityDate="2016-04-01T17:23:27.820" Title="Where does the human need for intimacy stem from?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13644" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13648" CreationDate="2016-03-26T15:23:53.547" Score="4" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say person is moving homes and has lots of kids toys, suits, shirts, ties and other stuff that he seldom uses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He is am planning to sell it all in a car boot sale even if he knows that it's counter productive. He would have to use ~30£ on entry fees and fuel, without even accounting for Sunday lost. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Logical solution would be just drive to the nearest skip or charity shop, and yet he can't make himself to do it, &lt;strong&gt;which of cognitive bias is at play here?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think this is 'sunk cost' because he is loosing that stuff anyway, it's just that loosing it and &lt;strong&gt;knowing that someone else will be able to use it&lt;/strong&gt; somehow makes ones loss more acceptable, which is sub-optimal and suggests a bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10060" LastEditorUserId="10060" LastEditDate="2016-03-29T13:53:24.097" LastActivityDate="2016-03-29T13:53:24.097" Title="What cognitive bias prevents you from discarding stuff?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13645" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7880" CreationDate="2016-03-26T18:02:23.637" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am an Statistics student at University of Warwick (incoming Stanford University) and I have an interest in explaining machine learning concepts in a &lt;strong&gt;non-mathematical/non-technical&lt;/strong&gt; way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Biological Neural Network&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our brain has a large network of interlinked neurons, which act as a highway for information to be transmitted from point A to point B. To send different kinds of information from A to B, the brain activates a different sets of neurons, and so essentially uses a different route to get from A to B. This is how a typical neuron might look like.&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://annalyzin.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/neuron-illustrated.png?w=1050&quot; alt=&quot;neuron&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At each neuron, its dendrites receive incoming signals sent by other neurons. If the neuron receives a high enough level of signals within a certain period of time, the neuron sends an electrical pulse into the terminals. These outgoing signals are then received by other neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Artificial Neural Network&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ANN model is modelled after the biological neural network (and hence its namesake). Similarly, in the ANN model, we have an input node (in this example we give it a handwritten image of the number 6), and an output node, which is the digit that the program recognized. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://annalyzin.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/ann-1.png?w=1044&quot; alt=&quot;Artificial Neural Network overview&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;A simple Artificial Neural Network map, showing two scenarios with two different inputs but with the same output. Activated neurons along the path are shown in red.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main characteristics of an ANN is as such:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Step 1.&lt;/strong&gt; When the input node is given an image, it activates a unique set of neurons in the first layer, starting a chain reaction that would pave a unique path to the output node. In Scenario 1, neurons A, B, and D are activated in layer 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Step 2.&lt;/strong&gt; The activated neurons send signals to every connected neuron in the next layer. This directly affects which neurons are activated in the next layer. In Scenario 1, neuron A sends a signal to E and G, neuron B sends a signal to E, and neuron D sends a signal to F and G.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Step 3.&lt;/strong&gt; In the next layer, each neuron is governed by a rule on what combinations of received signals would activate the neuron (rules are trained when we give the ANN program training data, i.e. images of handwritten digits and the correct answer). In Scenario 1, neuron E is activated by the signals from A and B. However, for neuron F and G, their neurons’ rules tell them that they have not received the right signals to be activated, and hence they remains grey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Step 4.&lt;/strong&gt; Steps 2-3 are repeated for all the remaining layers (it is possible for the model to have more than 2 layers), until we are left with the output node.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Step 5.&lt;/strong&gt; The output node deduces the correct digit based on signals received from neurons in the layer directly preceding it (layer 2). Each combination of activated neurons in layer 2 leads to one solution, though each solution can be represented by different combinations of activated neurons. In Scenarios 1 &amp;amp; 2, two images given to the input. Because the images are different, the network activates a different set of neurons to get from the input to the output. However, the output is still able to recognise that both images are “6”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Read the full post here, which includes some examples of handwritten digits that were used: &lt;a href=&quot;https://annalyzin.wordpress.com/2016/03/13/how-do-computers-recognise-handwriting-using-artificial-neural-networks/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://annalyzin.wordpress.com/2016/03/13/how-do-computers-recognise-handwriting-using-artificial-neural-networks/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11147" LastActivityDate="2016-03-26T18:02:23.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13646" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13654" CreationDate="2016-03-26T21:58:05.787" Score="2" ViewCount="885" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering about the development of sexual fetishes, not necessarily in its meaning of having a sexual affection for inanimate objects, but in its broader meaning of any type of sexual abnormality.&#xA;As far as I know, such preferences develop through conditioning; i.e. in a state of arousal something not related to sex is perceived and assosiated with one's feelings. For example, one might experience a leather outfit while being aroused and develop a fetish for them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is quite a harmless example, but many fetishes may actually be harmful and an individual may want to prevent its development. For the sake of argument, a castration fetish could be considered extremely dangerous, leading to potential self harm at some point in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would a person who experiences arousal from such a fetish be able to prevent it from emerging? As an example, one could avoid masturbation while thinking of the unwanted fetish. This on the other hand would lead to repression of these unfulfilled desires and could possibly backfire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the development of sexual preferences be actually stopped and/or influenced, and if so, what would be the best way to do so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11148" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-26T22:40:13.850" LastActivityDate="2016-03-28T17:00:58.743" Title="how can the development of sexual preferences be influenced?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13008" CreationDate="2016-03-27T00:25:31.933" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would classify pavlovian learning as a type of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hebbian learning&lt;/a&gt;. Where events that occur together positively reinforce each other (different from reinforcement learning).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This idea has been modified into hopfield networks, and then their descendants boltzmann and restricted boltzmann machines. They use an algorithm called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restricted_Boltzmann_machine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;contrastive divergence&lt;/a&gt; which is effectively hebbian learning. It tries to make events that occur together produce more stable states, and events that do not occur together are made  less stable, thus given a partial state, the network will be attracted to the stable state. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if a bell rings, and food is received the net will learn that this is a (more) stable state and when/if only the bell rings then the net will naturally be attracted to the state, bell + food, as all other states are less stable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Unfortunately I do not understand contrastive divergence particularly well, it may be better to look it up yourself). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This work leads into unsupervised learning, deep learning and auto-encoders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although, on second thoughts, I should clarify that this doesn't currently work with temporal difference. So I don't know if I really answered the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10802" LastEditorUserId="10802" LastEditDate="2016-05-29T00:30:29.087" LastActivityDate="2016-05-29T00:30:29.087" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13648" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13644" CreationDate="2016-03-27T17:04:01.047" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;One possible explanation for the scenario you are describing is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect&quot;&gt;Endowment effect&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology and behavioral economics, the endowment effect is the&#xA;  hypothesis that people ascribe more value to things merely because&#xA;  they own them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the theories that explain the phenomenon is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect#Loss_aversion&quot;&gt;based on loss&#xA;aversion&lt;/a&gt; : &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It was proposed by Kahneman and his colleagues that the&#xA;  endowment effect is, in part, due to the fact that once a person owns&#xA;  an item, forgoing it feels like a loss, and humans are loss-averse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2016-03-27T17:04:01.047" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13649" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13622" CreationDate="2016-03-27T21:56:38.380" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the non-eeg emotiv Epoc, the SDK only offers to retrieve the actions and their values detected from the device. But no raw data. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9557" LastActivityDate="2016-03-27T21:56:38.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13651" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-28T09:29:59.153" Score="0" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have two groups (13 experimental and 13 control participants) performing on two cognitive tasks. I have accuracy (omissions, commissions) and reaction time measurement from each test for each person. To avoid type-I error, I was suggested to decrease my number of DVs, I now have d-prime (d') and reaction time (RT) as the DVs (both continuous). I would like to compare performances on both the tasks, across both the groups. My questions pertaining to this design are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is d-prime a good measurement to substitute accuracy scores ? or&#xA;could you please suggest a unitary index that would reflect&#xA;behavioral performance (from omissions, commissions, RT data)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Should I do a one way MANOVA? (IV- groups; DV- test1 d', test2 d', test1 RT, test2 RT)?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;or Should I do a mixed model MANOVA? (if yes, how to do this, what are my DVs)?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11156" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-31T15:03:35.847" LastActivityDate="2016-04-03T18:41:38.257" Title="Which is a better statistical option to compare differences across groups?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13652" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-28T12:35:43.520" Score="3" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reality checks are recommended to train the capability for lucid dreaming. Are there studies on the effectivness of reality checks done together with a partner or within a group of people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think they are at least as effective as individual ones, since it shouldn't matter e.g. who switches the light to see whether it's working, but maybe it's more fun in a group. And maybe it is more common to see someone else in dream doing something rather than performing a task yourself...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T07:25:34.823" Title="Are Reality Checks in Groups More Effective?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13653" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-28T16:17:13.620" Score="0" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;Considering the definition of neuroplasticity as the capability of our brain to rewire itself by forming new neural connections throughout the life, it seems to me that our brain is like a programmable computer and all we have to do is to input new codes and debug/delete/re-program what we have internalized from our parents and the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having that in mind, this notion that people are being born by some special gifts called &quot;aptitudes&quot; loses its credibility. According to what aptitude pros say: &quot;Aptitudes are natural talents born differently in every individual and they are special abilities for doing, or learning to do, certain kinds of things which is unique in every person.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that what we have in our unconscious &quot;to some extent&quot; can be controlled by what we consciously decide to do and therefore, neuroplasticity seems more true to me than being born by special gifts called &quot;aptitudes&quot;. Am I correct? or, there is still more to know about the relationship between &quot;neuroplasticity&quot; and &quot;aptitudes&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11161" LastEditorUserId="11162" LastEditDate="2016-04-04T09:45:28.123" LastActivityDate="2017-07-16T19:50:57.943" Title="Does neuroplasticity cancel the notion of &quot;aptitudes&quot; as a natural gift?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-07-18T11:17:14.700" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13654" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13646" CreationDate="2016-03-28T17:00:58.743" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;A bit of background on me: I’m a clinical psychologist and have worked with many sexual disorders, ranging from paedophile, to gender identity disorder. I am however no expert in any of these, so my answer is based on my own clinical experience and reading of the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of my colleagues, and me, think that the general answer is: no – there is not much you can do to stop the development of a fetish. The most common fetish I encounter is SM / bondage. Most of my patients that have this fetish; feel that they had this inclination very early in life, and seldom are they traceable to specific events or experiences in their life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Same goes with paedophilia. Here I think things are a bit more complicated, as there seems to be two kinds of people (that enter therapy that is, and as such come in contact with me). One group seem to be born with this fetish, if you can call it that. They don’t know why, and how they developed it, and many of them have poor insight into their condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, there are the ones that spontaneously develop an interest in adulthood. They usually descript their fetish more as a curiosity toward the subject. And most of them never develop into a pure disorder (at least they don’t act on their impulses), and drops it after a while. These people usually develop the fetish during periods of stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To build the argument that fetishes are innate. I don’t know if this is a valid comparison to make, but I think most gay people would say that their sexual preference is not something that could be controlled with masturbation-regulation, or whatever. I think most of them would say, that being gay, is just who they are. An assertion supported by the fact that all animals ever closely studied have shown to have a few members of their group who are gay. As such, one could argue that sexual interest seem to very much linked to genetics and biology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of the above does not however preclude us from looking for ways to modify a fetish and/or reduce it. When I work with people who are distressed; there are a few things I focus on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.Make sure that the fetish is an actual problem. You would be surprised by how often people get panicked by fetish thoughts alone, without the sexual arousal or interest in acting on the fetish. If this is the case, we would work in a metacognitive framework to reduce patient response and thought about the fetish-thoughts. Other times the fetish is not a problem because there actually is nothing wrong with being into “weird” stuff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If the fetish is a problem. The next step is basic Cognitive Psychology. A lot of people can have quite a lot of change in their problematic fetishes if they are just able to have a good narrative and a good ability to articulate the consequences of the fetish. Sometimes people are not even fully aware of the negative sides of their actions, and the fetish will itself diminish somewhat once they have a fuller understanding of the implications of acting on their desire.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Stimulus control. You don’t start working in a bakery to “satisfy” you need for food, when you are trying to lose weight. For the same reason one should avoid situations that trigger the problematic lusts. I once had a paedophile that wanted to work in a kindergarden – thinking that he would get fulfilled his need just by watching the kids, so that he would feel less need to act on impulses later. Same as with the old catharsis theory from Freud, the mind doesn’t seem to work that way.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Establish overriding associations. Sometimes it can help to try to associate the destructive fetish with something negative. For instance one could try to associate rape with going to jail, being beaten up, or something else negative. This is quite hard to do, and there are no good mainstream guides on this. It’s kind of the opposite to when people overcome their fears be associating something scary with something positive (like when you try to imagine that you are friends with the ghost, instead of its victim). We often find that a good way to remove something from the brain, is to overwrite it. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reduce other stressors in life. Often fetishisms pop up in response to overwhelming stress from other parts in a persons’ life. An example could be a male that gets fired by a female boss, and starts to really dig in on fantasies about raping and murdering women. Another example would be children that gets messed up by a horrible upbringing, and start feeding their aggressive and dominant sexual fantasies (sex, dominance and aggression are linked in the mind &#xA;for many people). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Learn coping strategies. Here one needs to be creative. This could range from not searching for related porn, all the way to masturbating instead of acting on an impulse. There are no “one answer fits all”, and needs to problem-solve with the person to find out what’s optimal, what’s necessary, and what’s possible.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One last note. Your question was mostly focused on the “development” of fetishes, and how to stop them. My answer was more a general answer to treatment of fetish disorders after they developed. But I do think that most of these points are relevant. When it comes to development of fetishes, I would say that my point 5 is most relevant – Try to reduce other stress, and try to create a happy life for the individual in general, and one significantly reduce the chance of antisocial behaviour of all kind, even destructive fetishes. Other than that, remember that you never change anybody, yourself or others, by force. They need to want it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11159" LastActivityDate="2016-03-28T17:00:58.743" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13655" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-28T20:31:23.277" Score="3" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many papers published seem to focused on oscillations to characterize synchronisation and communication between different brain areas. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v18/n9/full/nn.4071.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper from Voytek et. al&lt;/a&gt; where &lt;a href=&quot;http://voyteklab.com/nature-neuroscience-paper-oscillatory-dynamics-coordinating-human-frontal-networks-in-support-of-goal-maintenance/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;communication between brain areas increases with the abstractedness of the task&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there models that relate neuron firing to these types of oscillatory readings? In other words, given spiking data and location of a neuron ensemble, would it be possible to model the types of oscillations that might be read?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-03-29T16:07:45.403" Title="Models relating neuron firing to oscillatory dynamics" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13656" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-28T22:39:00.020" Score="2" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;Deja vu is the feeling of having been where you are presently at some point in the past (usually pointed to dreams because you often cant remember dreams). What would you call that distant memory you cant remember having, in respect to the memory you are presently building? Is deja vu the bundle of 2 memories clashing or is it that distant memory you cant recall or is it that strange significant feeling youre having in the present and the distant memory is something else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11164" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-29T02:25:13.993" LastActivityDate="2016-03-29T02:25:13.993" Title="Deja vu and some specifics" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13657" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13677" CreationDate="2016-03-29T00:09:26.850" Score="3" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm hoping to contribute to the OpenWorm project by helping their efforts to parameterize the neurons in CElegans so the model elicits biologically realistic behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is I've got only five activity series datasets for all neurons in CE and I fear whatever model is trained on these datasets won't be an accurate model of the full space of neural activity in CElegans. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you give some ideas as to how the field works around this and where I can read about what methods are used to resolve this issue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8509" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-29T02:24:20.867" LastActivityDate="2016-03-31T13:25:55.637" Title="Problems with parameterizing neuronal simulation on a limited number of datasets" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13658" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13655" CreationDate="2016-03-29T04:53:44.553" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The oscillations measured by EEG, ECoG, and MEG are thought to originate in the apical dendrites' fluctuating potentials. Try looking into the forward problem of EEG. Like the inverse problem but in reverse. Given a known source potential (apparently it's very common to model cortical neurons' LFP as a distribution of current dipoles?) you solve the Poisson equation to get the potential at the recording electrode.&#xA;I'm reading through this review right now and it's very interesting: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2234413/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2234413/&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other avenues which seem interesting are neural mass/neural field models, especially Walter Freeman's work on neurodynamics. See: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Freeman_K-set&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Freeman_K-set&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abstracted away from the biology a bit there's Jack Cowan's field models and stochastic neural networks. But they're both absolutely &lt;em&gt;prolific&lt;/em&gt; and the math is dense and I'm not quite sure where to even really begin.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9671" LastActivityDate="2016-03-29T04:53:44.553" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13659" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-29T12:23:18.887" Score="3" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing up the results of a measure of emotional management, and I'm hypothesising that under- or over-management of emotions leads to negative consequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a term which expresses that both a very high, or a very low score, on this measure, is suboptimal (unlike, for example, IQ, in which a higher score is always considered superior to a lower one), but I can't think of, or find an appropriate term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was suggested to me, by a colleague, to use the term &quot;curvilinear&quot;, but I don't think that expresses what I want.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11168" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-03-31T14:59:59.783" LastActivityDate="2016-03-31T14:59:59.783" Title="Is there a term for a measure in which an extremely high or low score is considered bad?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13660" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13655" CreationDate="2016-03-29T16:07:45.403" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You really want to read the work by Gyorgy Buzsaki.  The recent Schomburg et al., 2014 is quite illuminating although quite dense.  Try my F1000 review for starters.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://f1000.com/prime/contributor/evaluate/article/718892254&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://f1000.com/prime/contributor/evaluate/article/718892254&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The original paper can be found here&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627314007818&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627314007818&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2016-03-29T16:07:45.403" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13661" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10478" CreationDate="2016-03-29T17:29:46.513" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the context of the question I think it makes sense to limit the scope to earlier developments in psychoanalysis. Thompson (1957) gives an overview of what can be called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;psychoanalytic schools&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. She includes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Freudian psychoanalysis&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Individual psychology (Alfred Adler)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Analytical psychology (Carl Gustav Jung)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Object relations theory (Sándor Ferenczi, Otto Rank)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;(Wilhelm Reich)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Karen Horney (sometimes denoted »Culturalist Psychoanaysis«)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Erich Fromm (sometimes denoted »Culturalist Psychoanaysis«)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harry Stack Sullivan (sometimes denoted »Culturalist Psychoanaysis«)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, several &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;psychoanalytic psychologies&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; can be distinguished. Following a systematization by Gottfried Fischer, there are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Drive theory/drive psychology (psychodynamic theory)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ego psychology (Freudian psychoanalytic psychology/structural theory)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Object relations theory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self psychology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Newer psychoanalytic schools comprise e. g. Lacanian psychoanalysis, interpersonal psychoanalysis and relational psychoanalysis – but for a more comprehensive list see Kernberg (2001) and Gabbard (2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Literature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Frosh, Stephen (2012). A Brief Introduction to Psychoanalytic Theory. London: Palgrave.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gabbard, Glen O. (2009) Textbook of Psychotherapeutic Treatments. American Psychiatric Publishing. (Ch. 1: Theoretical Models of Psychodynamic Psychotherapy)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kernberg, Otto F. (2001). Recent Developments in the Technical Approaches of English-Language Psychoanalytic Schools. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, Volume LXX, Issue 3, 519–547.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thompson, Clara Mabel (1957). The different schools of psychoanalysis. American Journal of Nursing, 57, 1304–1307.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thompson, Clara Mabel &amp;amp; Mullahy, Patrick (1951). Psychoanalysis: Evolution and Development (3rd ed.). New York: Hermitage House.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8427" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-01T07:32:18.927" LastActivityDate="2016-04-01T07:32:18.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13662" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-29T19:58:00.173" Score="2" ViewCount="248" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I've come across an article from a questionable source called &lt;a href=&quot;http://io9.gizmodo.com/5851828/10-things-an-electromagnetic-field-can-do-to-your-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;10 Things An Electromagnetic Field Can Do To Your Brain&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of hints in this article that the writer doesn't have a strong understanding of what they are talking about, i.e. referring to electromagnetic waves as being 'high' and 'medium'. They could be high energy, high frequency, but not 'high'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless of the accuracy or technical mistakes of the writer, I would like to know if there is a lot of truth to this article. The article suggests that areas of the brain were targeted and stimulated with electromagnetic waves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know about TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) devices which stimulate the brain via magnetic fields and tDCS which stimulate the brain via electric current, but I have never heard of any tEMS (transcranial Electro-Magnetic Stimulation) devices. Do they exist? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've done some searches, but have only come up with results to the more common TMS device.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4189" LastActivityDate="2016-03-29T22:02:48.117" Title="Can electromagnetic fields be used to stimulate areas of the brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13663" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13662" CreationDate="2016-03-29T20:36:07.753" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe this is not what you expected, but since you mentioned electro-magnetic stimulation, I'd like to mention &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optogenetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;optogentics&lt;/a&gt;, where light (electro-magnetic waves) are used to &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;control cells in living tissue, typically neurons, that have been genetically modified to express light-sensitive ion channels. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="370" LastActivityDate="2016-03-29T20:36:07.753" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13664" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-29T20:55:30.080" Score="3" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say that you've trained a network with a set of training data comprising of data points A,B,C, and D.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the effect of, say, point B on the network be undone without also losing the training from points C and D? In other words, can we perform some operation on the ABCD-trained network and end up with a network identical to one that has been trained only on A,C, and D?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastActivityDate="2016-03-30T20:17:38.353" Title="Can training on neural networks be selectively undone?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13665" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-29T21:53:55.690" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've done a lot of thinking and some casual quantitative exploration with computational neuroscience – like running PCA on some neural activity data I obtained, some analysis of the static connectome of the organism I'm studying, etc. and now I want to develop the hard skills necessary in computational neuroscience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to begin playing around with parameterizing neurons, specifically I'm looking to find the minimal parameters for oscillatory dynamics in a neuronal network. If I'm using the hodkgin huxley model, how would I parameterize a self-connected neuron to exhibit oscillatory dynamics at its membrane potential? I imagine some form of bifurcation theory is relevant but don't know how to put it into practice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8509" LastActivityDate="2016-03-29T21:53:55.690" Title="How would I train a self-connected hodgkin huxley neuron to exhibit oscillatory dynamics" Tags="&lt;agent-based-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13666" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13662" CreationDate="2016-03-29T21:56:59.800" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I understand your question correctly, electro-magnetic stimulation is really quite the same thing as magnetic stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typical transcranial magnetic stimulation devices use a large conductive loop, or sometimes 2 loops, and run large amounts of electric current through them. This causes a strong magnetic field to be produced. This magnetic field can alter the behavior of electric current in brain in different ways depending on how it's applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is even a team working on a wearable 'shower cap' with small motors that quickly rotate small magnets. This is more portable, localizable, and versatile than the typical 'wand' based transcranial stimulation, and has shown real measurable effects to stroke victims and also for memory recall tests, so far. (It is very new, however)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing to keep in mind is that electricity and magnetism are two sides of the same coin, really, so saying 'electromagnetic field' stimulation is nearly indistinguishable from 'electric field' or 'magnetic field'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I can't speak for the article. The first line in the article does not bode well:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We all know that electromagnetic fields are magic and can do anything&#xA;  at any time for any reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe try to find some articles on the physics behind why it works, you might get a better answer. As an electrical engineer, I know first hand that this kind of physics can be daunting, but maybe you can find an ELI5 about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More to the point: the article is very click-baity, but yes, it is possible to use electromagnetic fields to stimulate specific areas of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9484" LastEditorUserId="9484" LastEditDate="2016-03-29T22:02:48.117" LastActivityDate="2016-03-29T22:02:48.117" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13668" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13664" CreationDate="2016-03-30T08:50:07.493" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;So lets be clear. (I think) we are talking about back propagation here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, you probably could get from the ABCD-trained network to an ACD-trained network. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The network adapts with each data point it is trained on. As such, the relationship between how an individual data point effects the net, changes with training. What really matters to the net is the average of all of these interactions, and this is were a lot of specific information related to individual data points is lost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in reality, achieving this would require you to know how the net (trained only on A) changed in response B. So we would need to be saving previous changes to weights and biases (for each data point if we wanted it to be more general/flexible).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't see this as particularly practical. But you could do it if you wanted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10802" LastEditorUserId="10802" LastEditDate="2016-03-30T20:17:38.353" LastActivityDate="2016-03-30T20:17:38.353" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13670" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-30T13:08:10.430" Score="3" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like most cognitive architectures are evaluated on toy problems that do not challenge more than one sense (usually the visual one). What neuronal cognitive architectures were evaluated in the more complex case of multiple senses?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastActivityDate="2016-03-30T13:08:10.430" Title="What cognitive architectures out there combine multiple sensor streams?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13671" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-30T13:50:58.170" Score="4" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;A very general approach to describe the dynamics of the brain is through differential equations. Instead, one could choose a more restrictive approach and describe it as an optimization. Can we assume that observed human behavior can be explained well as an optimization of an unknown cost function? What is the scientific evidence for and against this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="908" LastEditDate="2020-09-07T02:56:57.123" LastActivityDate="2021-02-04T04:05:20.660" Title="Are human behavior and brain dynamics well described as an optimization?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13673" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13659" CreationDate="2016-03-30T14:46:41.777" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recommend looking at non-scientific writing describing when too much AND too little of something is not good-- when average/in the middle is best for a certain outcome. This is true in many aspects of life, so you'll find a variety of words that may express what you want to convey about these high-end suboptimal and low-end suboptimal scores. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;English StackExchage wordies may know an existing noun/adjective for exactly what you want. If there isn't a word to express what you mean, you're free to create one. Perhaps pairing the prefix &quot;extra-&quot; in the sense of &quot;outside the optimal range&quot;, or the prefix &quot;dys-&quot; in the sense of &quot;unfavorable scores&quot; with word(s) relevant to the measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11170" LastActivityDate="2016-03-30T14:46:41.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13636" CreationDate="2016-03-30T17:29:23.793" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Self-selection bias is probably the best domain specific term. Generally, this is called assortativity, as in assortative mating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2016-03-30T17:29:23.793" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13675" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13659" CreationDate="2016-03-30T18:42:25.007" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_U&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Inverted U&lt;/a&gt; is what you're looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The specific example given by Wikipedia is the Yerkes–Dodson law, which essentially states that arousal levels that are too high and too low have negative effects on performance of certain tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many other examples of this type of relationship. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20459310&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is another example&lt;/a&gt;, showing that the level of alpha (10 Hz neural oscillations) before a visual stimulus has an inverted U shaped relationship with the evoked response to the stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-03-30T18:42:25.007" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13676" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-31T11:03:30.760" Score="2" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm rewriting a journal article on flyover animations: the virtual camera moves in a 3D map environment (e.g. a flyover of the Grand Canyon showing off the topography).  The paper describes our user experiment varying characteristics of the flyover and testing its effect on survey knowledge.  Its been peer reviewed and the reviewer pointed out that there is a body of literature on the subject that needs to be synthesised into the paper.  His/her exact words:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is literature not covered by the author(s’) review with regards&#xA;  to existing theory and research in:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;spatial cognition and spatial knowledge acquisition; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;the conceptualization of 3D virtual spaces and 3D camera fly-throughs;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;empirical geovisualization studies.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What we've already got in the paper relevant to the discussion points:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harrower and Sheesley (2007)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Midtho and Nordvick (2007)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thorndyke and HayesRoth (1980)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Seigal and White (1975)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Steck and Mallot (1998)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've done extensive searching using Google Scholar mixing up numerous search terms but I haven't been able to find any further relevant literature.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11181" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-04-01T12:41:10.870" LastActivityDate="2016-04-01T12:41:10.870" Title="Searching for literature on cognition of flyover animations" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13657" CreationDate="2016-03-31T13:25:55.637" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because of variation between organisms, cells in the same organism, or even the same cell separated by a few days, can have different parameter set. However, I think this is where parameter fitting becomes useful. As suggested in the comments knowing how parameters change between cells or over time can be very insightful. Parameter Estimation is very important because it allows us gather more information about the parameter set from less experimental data and thus allowing more complex experiments.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Philosophy aside, here are some tips for getting into the field. I'd suggest reading this open access article by Van Giet &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Erik_De_Schutter/publication/23476235_Automated_neuron_model_optimization_techniques_a_review/links/0912f50bc00097d685000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and I'll give a brief review of their article. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General Model&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;First one needs a general framework to work within,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is your type of neuron model going to be?  a integrate and fire neuron(discontinuous reset) or is electrophysilogical model (continuous). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the currents/channels/gates in it (Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine, Calcium)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what form do the differential equations take?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the known/unknown parameters?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The  more  you can answer these questions the easier the parameter fitting process will be, but beware, a one size fits all approach rarely works in biology because of cell to cell variation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Error Function&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Next one needs what is called an error function, or a way to tell if the model output voltage trace is similar to the actual voltage trace. The most classical (but in my honest opinion the worst one)  is the $\mathcal{L}_2$ norm on the voltages. The  $\mathcal{L}_2$ is simply &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\sqrt{\sum^{N}_i (V_{model}(i)-V_{data}(i))^2}$$ &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To see why this is so bad I attached a sample (simulated trace from the Hodgkin-Huxley model). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nqUPz.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nqUPz.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Two Voltage Traces&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Blue Trace is from a Neuron with slightly less injected current then the yellow Trace one. As you can see yellow has a faster frequency than blue, and as a result the  $\mathcal{L}_2$ norm is massive  for each misaligned spike. However the spike trains are intuitively very close as seen not only in where the spikes line up but where the spikes so one would like a measure that defines misaligned phase and frequency. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Van Geit &lt;em&gt;et al's.&lt;/em&gt; insight is that the  $\mathcal{L}_2$ is the wrong norm to compare voltage distance in. What they do is make a parametric plot of voltage verses voltage's derivative. The then compare distance between the curves like in the below plot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pfF0C.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pfF0C.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We see that the voltage traces are indeed very similar, but to calculate distance between these curves, we must disregard time data. We can imagine subdividing phase space into a grid of equally sized boxes. Then count up the number of data points and model points in the boxes. In math notation this amounts to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$&#xA;\sqrt{\sum^{N_x,N_y}_{i,j} (V_{model}(i,j)-V_{data}(i,j))} &#xA;$$  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;we have lost information about phase of the spike. It is also important to note that this is &lt;em&gt;highly dependent&lt;/em&gt; on the size of the boxes, if they are too small the error will be high, too big the error will be to low.  While there method may not be the only proposed solution it does better than the $\mathcal{L}_2$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Yrcvc.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Yrcvc.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is both methods side by side for comparison. The black dot is the true solution. Blue is $\mathcal{L}_2$ and Yellow is Van Geit's method. You'll note that both are ``noisy&quot; but there is a better trend in Van Geit's method than the $\mathcal{L}_2$ norm, thus optimization is easier. For the $\mathcal{L}_2$ method notice how the function is flat far away from a very steep and narrow valley. This is hard for optimization algorithms to hit. Van Geit's method is better because it has more of a downward slope that can be followed to a better global minima.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also  Note that this noise is not from random variation (although that makes it worse) but rather from discretization of the data and model. (remember everything stored in a computer has a sample rate no matter how small). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Optimization Algorithm&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Now Once has an appropriate error function one needs to use a optimization algorithm too find the local minimum of said error function. In my example here, I am using injected current as my parameter, but in every neuron model has many parameters that one needs to optimize over so direct visualization like is usually impossible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another caveat is the ``noise&quot;. these local valleys can make optimization algorithms get stuck in the local minima. Stochastic (random) optimization algorithms like simulated annealing  can help with getting stuck in these valleys, as they have a chance to jump past them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Good Initial guesses&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;As far as not responding the &quot;full space'' of solutions, the more of the possible inputs one has the better chance of being able to predict a different input. Also defining the computational behavior of your neuron is a good start.  Having a general model that acts qualitatively correctly but not quantitatively is often a good start to parameter fitting, This means one doesn't start with a neuron that doesn't respond to inputs, or something else physically unrealistic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway hope this gives a background to things to consider, this field is far from solved, and in need of creative solutions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7610" LastActivityDate="2016-03-31T13:25:55.637" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13678" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-31T13:50:34.483" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been provided datasets from two questionnaires, with the aim of exploring any relationships between the factors measured by one, and factors measured by the other. One questionnaire looks at personality (big 5 type stuff), while the other looks at self-assessed capability (self-efficacy). Note, however, that I am performing exploratory research - I'm looking for correlations, rather than suggesting causation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The questionnaires each feature approximately 60 questions, which fit within a number of dimensions. I didn't construct the questionnaires, so, as part of the analysis I looked at the correlation coefficients of scores between dimensions within each questionnaire, before looking at the correlations of dimensions between questionnaires (I hope I'm making sense!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I've found is that almost all the dimensions within the questionnaire measuring self-efficacy correlate with each other, to a strong degree (more than ±0.5) significant at the 0.01 level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My experience in questionnaire design and analysis is limited, however, this result seems instinctively bad. Having done some reading around the issue, I have come across &quot;multicollinearity&quot;, however, as I am not performing regression (because I'm not looking for causation), I don't think this is the appropriate term. Similarly, I have come across the term &quot;factor loading&quot;, but, again, I'm not doing factor analysis here, so I don't think this is applicable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My, albeit naive, understanding is that either the factors are all measuring the same (or a very similar) thing (an issue with construct validity, maybe?), or the factors are all different, but strongly and significantly related (in which case, is this an issue?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My overall question is this: Am I correct in this understanding / is there a way (or multiple ways) to explain what's going on here? And, for bonus points, does this issue (if it even is an issue) have a technical term?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As always, many thanks in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11168" LastActivityDate="2016-03-31T13:50:34.483" Title="How to interpret strong, significant correlations between dimensions on a measure?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reliability&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13679" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-03-31T23:25:14.813" Score="2" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is certainly a great fact/truth that the ability of thought to &lt;strong&gt;describe&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;or&lt;/em&gt; reconfigure sensory experience is &lt;strong&gt;ultimately&lt;/strong&gt; dependent upon the extent to which thought is similar to sensory experience. It occurs to me that dreams make thought &lt;strong&gt;more like&lt;/strong&gt; sensory experience in general, thereby improving upon memory &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;understanding&lt;/strong&gt;. Thoughts are invisible. The space in dreams is visible &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; invisible in fundamental equilibrium and balance, thereby making sensory experience maximally consistent with/similar to thought. This improves upon memory &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; understanding. There is no outsmarting the genius of dreams. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dreams balance being and experience. Dream experience is possible/potential &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; actual &lt;strong&gt;in balance&lt;/strong&gt;. Dreams balance conscious and unconscious experience. In dreams, we are relatively unconscious; and yet we are still conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thoughts are invisible. Do dreams improve upon memory and understanding by making the sensory experience &lt;strong&gt;MORE LIKE&lt;/strong&gt; thought? This is a very important question which can improve upon our understanding of what dreams really are as well. Indeed, dreams fundamentally average &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; balance our &lt;em&gt;bodily/visual&lt;/em&gt; experience. Notice that dreams involve balanced &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; maximum &lt;em&gt;middle strength&lt;/em&gt; force/energy feeling/touch consistent with the experience of &lt;em&gt;middle distance&lt;/em&gt; in/of space and &lt;em&gt;instantaneity&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider that dream experience and waking experience are fundamentally related, and they are fundamentally linked; and they are separate experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11192" LastEditorUserId="11192" LastEditDate="2016-04-02T20:06:36.860" LastActivityDate="2016-04-02T20:06:36.860" Title="Do dreams improve upon memory and understanding by making the sensory experience MORE LIKE thought?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2016-04-13T10:23:32.563" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13680" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-01T00:00:18.083" Score="5" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to display the effect of taking for example Prozac on level of Serotonin and other neurotransmitters/hormones in the body? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally speaking s is it possible to say: taking 1mg of medication A increases hormones B and C within 3 months by 2 units for the majority of people? or perhaps not this accurate but by some accuracy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or taking food A, increases hormones C and D?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words is it possible to quantify the effect of any drug/food to the body?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11193" LastEditorUserId="11193" LastEditDate="2016-04-06T16:37:36.463" LastActivityDate="2016-06-08T11:35:54.880" Title="Is it possible to quantify/measure the effect of certain medication on our neurotransmitters and hormones?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13683" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15860" CreationDate="2016-04-02T00:07:28.710" Score="6" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading over some sources about ANNs, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_96/journal/vol4/cs11/report.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; I found this diagram of a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN, the source calls it a feedback neural network).&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/c9yS7.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/c9yS7.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I noticed that a few neurons in this diagram lead to other neurons that are dead ends (have no connections to other neurons). For example, neuron &lt;em&gt;U5&lt;/em&gt; leads to no other neurons, and &lt;em&gt;U9&lt;/em&gt; has a connection to &lt;em&gt;U4&lt;/em&gt;, but &lt;em&gt;U4&lt;/em&gt; doesn't have a connection to any other neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a purpose for &lt;em&gt;U5&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;U4&lt;/em&gt; to even exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or am I missing something bigger here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11200" LastActivityDate="2016-09-07T00:13:53.027" Title="What is the purpose of dead end neurons in this diagram?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13685" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-02T12:41:54.310" Score="1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;People's facial shape when smiling are different. Some are bright, some looks like there's a bit embarrassment, others may be with a twist, even if they are all smiling from true happiness. &#xA;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;These facial looks may give the observer different feelings, that is, seeing brighter smiles makes you feel happier too, or that you feel the smiler must be happier if she has a brighter smile on her face. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is this true?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;A step further. If you force a smile in your face, do brighter smiles induce brighter feelings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11204" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2016-05-01T00:54:13.963" LastActivityDate="2016-05-01T00:54:13.963" Title="Do people with brighter smiles feel brighter?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-05-01T01:00:10.990" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13687" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13350" CreationDate="2016-04-02T19:49:26.840" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;People love nature because truth, nature/natural experience, and reality go hand in hand. Nature provides serenity, beauty, and calm. Our &lt;strong&gt;world of experience&lt;/strong&gt; is what gives us, and provides for, life. Ultimately and fundamentally, the integrated extensiveness (and sensibility) of being and experience go hand in hand, as the self represents, forms, and experiences a comprehensive approximation of experience in general by combining conscious and unconscious experience. In fact, we always begin with typical/ordinary and common experience in establishing physical fundamentals/truths. Experience is the best teacher, and the creations of our thought that replace nature/natural experience, such as TV and mirrors, &lt;em&gt;maximally&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;reduce&lt;/strong&gt; the integrated extensiveness of space/our experience. A true, extensive, integrated, and natural balance of being and experience is best. Balance and completeness go hand in hand. If we walk away from reality, reality walks away from us.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11192" LastActivityDate="2016-04-02T19:49:26.840" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13690" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-03T05:12:51.063" Score="5" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is admitted the hippocampus is necessary to the formation of new long term memories. At first, information goes back and forth between various parts of the cortex and the hippocampus. That's how a long term memory is being formed. Once it is formed the hippocampus is not necessary to retrieve the memory. It can be bypassed.  The question is do we know how it is possible? How does the hippocampus (and maybe the Papez circuit) associate informations from various areas of the cortex to make one memory? Do we have a physical explanation that makes sense?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastEditorUserId="9424" LastEditDate="2016-04-04T07:53:11.730" LastActivityDate="2016-04-04T07:53:11.730" Title="How does the hippocampus and the &quot;Papez&quot; circuit form a memory?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13693" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13807" CreationDate="2016-04-03T17:02:19.607" Score="7" ViewCount="230" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_06/i_06_cr/i_06_cr_mou/i_06_cr_mou.html#4&quot;&gt;high level flow of information through the brain for the purpose of motor control&lt;/a&gt; is well established. It is also known the cerebellum stores many different movements, while also participating in the fine-tuning and coordination of movements. However, how are these movements stored? Are they stored on a per-limb basis, based on activity or by some other methodology entirely?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-04-05T15:10:44.610" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T14:39:35.513" Title="How are movements stored in the brain?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13694" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-03T17:27:16.077" Score="3" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;Central Pattern Generators are populations of neurons found in the spinal chord that assist in the creation of rhythmic movements. See &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25582580&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human spinal locomotor control is based on flexibly organized burst generators&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Danner et al, for a recent publication on the topic. How does the brain-based motor system interact with these pattern generators? Do they operate mostly independently or is there some feedback being communicated? If there is feedback, what type of information is it transmitting?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-20T18:12:41.060" LastActivityDate="2017-07-20T18:12:41.060" Title="How do the motor system and Central Pattern Generators interact?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13695" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-03T17:27:33.833" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a soon to be graduating applied mathematician interviewing for a research position soon in a lab considered with neurological imaging and association of brain networks with things like aging, combined tasks, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, I believe I have a strong repertoire of applied mathematics and research experience in applied mathematics/computation relevant to the task at hand, and I can talk comfortably about the skills advertised (data analytics, programming, experimental design, etc.). My background is in graph theory, computational biology, and systems modeling. However, I want to be able to communicate about brain networks and integration/segregation of the brain while factors such as aging, task completion, injury, etc. change during the interview. Therefore, I would love to skim some introductory texts or read some landmark papers about this field so I can sell myself as competent for the job. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the job itself does not require the research assistant to be equipped with such information, I think it would be best to up the ante in terms of how I present myself. Could anyone recommend such texts or literature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it helps, I have an undergraduate degrees in biology/biochemistry so I'm relatively familiar with the nomenclature surrounding neurophysiology, neurotransmitters, etc. and I have a working knowledge of an introductory neuroscience and psychology course so I am familiar with theories of memory, and the different parts of the human brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11216" LastActivityDate="2016-04-03T21:53:59.627" Title="I need good introductory texts/publications on brain networks and functional integration/segregation" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13696" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13651" CreationDate="2016-04-03T18:41:38.257" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;If you have single-trial data&lt;/em&gt;, the &lt;strong&gt;drift-diffusion model/DDM&lt;/strong&gt; and related models, originating with Roger Ratcliff (1976/1978), can simultaneously fit the whole response distribution, both RTs and accuracies. It captures phenomena such that in some experiments, errors are systematically faster or slower than correct responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fitting and interpreting the DDM can be non-trivial, but it has many advantages, such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;accurately accounting for the distribution of RT data&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;directly relating to cognitive processes (e.g. evidence accumulation speed, sensory encoding speed)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DDM works by modeling the decision process as a random walk next to (usually two) decision thresholds (e.g. corresponding to the correct and the incorrect button in a 2-alternative false choice task), which after an initial period of encoding begins drifting towards the correct boundary at a speed corresponding to the effectivity of taking up evidence. Occasionally, the drift process reaches the wrong boundary. When a boundary is crossed, execution of the corresponding response is initiated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DDM is fitted to the whole RT distribution and the resulting parameters can be submitted to statistical tests between conditions. For an example of hierarchical Bayesian estimation of the model, consider &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/hddm-devs/hddm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;HDDM&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ratcliff, R. &amp;amp; Murdock, B. B., Jr. (1976). Retrieval processes in recognition memory. Psychological Review, 83, 190-214.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ratcliff, R. (1978). A theory of memory retrieval. Psychological Review, 85, 59-108.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Forstmann, B. U., Ratcliff, R., &amp;amp; Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2016). Sequential sampling models in cognitive neuroscience: Advantages, applications, and extensions. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 641-666.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ratcliff, R., Smith, P.L., Brown, S.D., &amp;amp; McKoon, G. (2016). Diffusion decision model: Current issues and history. Trends in Cognitive Science, 20, 260-281.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Wiecki TV, Sofer I and Frank MJ (2013). HDDM: Hierarchical Bayesian estimation of the Drift-Diffusion Model in Python. Front. Neuroinform. 7:14. doi: 10.3389/fninf.2013.00014  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4957" LastActivityDate="2016-04-03T18:41:38.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13698" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13695" CreationDate="2016-04-03T21:53:59.627" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A good introductory book is &quot;Networks of the Brain&quot; by Olaf Sporns. It will give you a general overview of the ideas and theories in the field. For more details consult the bibliography or read some of the journal articles by Dr. Sporns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/networks-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/networks-brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~cortex/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.indiana.edu/~cortex/index.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9444" LastActivityDate="2016-04-03T21:53:59.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13699" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-04T01:39:44.587" Score="6" ViewCount="1138" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have long been interested in dreaming, including how dream content can shed some light on brain chemistry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did a search on the subject of testosterone levels altering dream content and see some anecdotal evidence from bodybuilding forums and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drugs.com/answers/testosterone-androgel-side-effects-930681.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;androgel users&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These people report wet dreams, while others report increased sexual content in dreams. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do elevated levels of testosterone cause more explicit sexual dream content?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-04-04T01:39:44.587" Title="Does testosterone level cause more sexual dream content?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13701" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13703" CreationDate="2016-04-04T07:11:23.460" Score="2" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been thinking about how using social networks (like Facebook, Twitter and etc) have been changing the way we think. For example, Facebook feed is tailored on the basis of what we like. On Twitter, I usually follow people whose ideas I adhere to. So we are being introduced to information we like more and more thereby making us biased towards ideas that we like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: can you kindly point me to research studies that show we like to see/read information on themes/topics/ideas that we like?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you kindly give me some pointers on that? Thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11220" LastActivityDate="2016-04-04T16:06:51.657" Title="Is there any research showing we only like to see/read information on themes/topics/ideas we like?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13703" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13701" CreationDate="2016-04-04T16:06:51.657" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you describe is known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_exposure_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Selective Exposure to Information&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Selective exposure is a theory within the practice of psychology,&#xA;  often used in media and communication research, that historically&#xA;  refers to individuals’ tendency to favor information which reinforces&#xA;  their pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below find extracts from this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2009/07/like-minded.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; about selective exposure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The researchers found that people are about twice as likely to select&#xA;  information that supports their own point of view (67 percent) as to&#xA;  consider an opposing idea (33 percent). Certain individuals, those&#xA;  with close-minded personalities, are even more reluctant to expose&#xA;  themselves to differing perspectives&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Perhaps more surprisingly, people who have little confidence in their&#xA;  own beliefs are less likely to expose themselves to contrary views&#xA;  than people who are very confident in their own ideas   ...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The researchers also found, not surprisingly, that people are more&#xA;  resistant to new points of view when their own ideas are associated&#xA;  with political, religious or ethical values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above article is based on this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/bul1354555.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;research article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A very related theory is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias, also called confirmatory bias or myside bias, is&#xA;  the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information&#xA;  in a way that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses, while giving&#xA;  disproportionately less consideration to alternative possibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion the reasons why we employ selective exposure are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Preserve and form &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(social_science)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;identity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belongingness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Belongingness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The need for certainty. We need to have firm theories that do not change whenever we encounter dis-confirming evidence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Competence. The need to have good skills  i.e. fishers forum &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2016-04-04T16:06:51.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13706" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13680" CreationDate="2016-04-06T04:56:47.890" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes but antidepressants are in a class of their own! We do measure the serotonin, etc in R&amp;amp;D and food consumption and various other  lists of increasing the drug and decreases in the body and gathered during clinical trials in the FDA and then continually monitoring is part of the process of legalization and why you see some drugs suddenly pulled from the market. But the brain is still the least understood part of the body in the medical community. The most commonly prescribed antidepressants are currently SSRIs, preventing serotonin,5-HT, from being reabsorbed, as their name, selective “serotonin reuptake inhibitors”, indicates. That resulted in all black box suicide warnings via the FDA bc we just don't know nor understand enough about them and our brain to predict their unpredictable behavior.For example Brintellix,the newest version of the SSRI and It is different enough from the welter of SSRIs currently available that it’s not simply a ‘me too’ drug. By its developer’s own admission, no one knows what effects are produced by 5 of the 6 functions Brintellix was designed to cause. But we do know that the 6th function, serotonin/5-HT reuptake inhibition, ( may cause suicidal behavior in a unique class of individuals:All of the other 5 functions interfere with normal brain activity—and the manufacturer admits that no one knows what those effects will be!Studies show Inexplicable violence, turned both inward and outward,( is the result of SSRIs causing a single change to brain function. )Brintellix  causes several changes. These changes involve the handling of glutamate, which is a critical amino acid that’s required for brain function and cellular metabolism. Glutamate is necessary—at proper levels, in the right places, and at the right times—for learning, remembering, thinking, and emotions. It’s also involved in energy production throughout the body. Glutamate excites neural function. Too much glutamate can burn nerves out and too little keeps them from functioning properly. Not only does Brintellix manipulate 5-HT (serotonin), like all other SSRIs, it also manipulates 5-HT1A: Agonist,5-HT1B: Partial Agonist5-HT3: Antagonist 5-HT1D: Antagonist 5-HT7: Antagonist. An agonist triggers a response from a cell. An antagonist does the opposite. It blocks a cell’s response.No one knows what relationship exists between any of these neural receptors and Brintellix’s effect.  No one knows what these manipulations of the brain will do to the body, intelligence, emotional state, sexuality, criminality, empathy, or anything in the future.So while it is available, it is not much help past the R&amp;amp;D process. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11126" LastActivityDate="2016-04-06T04:56:47.890" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13708" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-06T13:48:38.077" Score="3" ViewCount="289" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand how to analyze the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event-related_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;ERP (Event-Related Potentials)&lt;/a&gt; from EEG recordings and in particular  the P300 wave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have come up with a few questions which I hope you might be able to help with:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I assume that the number of repetitions of the stimulus should give better results, but I am not sure why. On the one hand, it should help, because averaged results are usually better in electrophysiology. On the other hand, maybe there is some unwanted adaptation effect in the subject? So, are repetitions wanted in this kind of experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There are time points in which I didn't expect P300 but the brain activity was not 0. I understand that there is always a background activity in the brain, but maybe there is more to it? And if so, are there certain frequencies that are expected in the EEG?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;When I analyze the data using an average response, should I assume anything on the P300 response?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What is the recommended sample Rate I should use? I guess there should be an advantage for high sample rates to increase resolution, but I am not sure about that. Am I right, or maybe a lower sample rate has advantages that I am not aware of?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9947" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-10T09:35:33.820" LastActivityDate="2016-06-10T17:59:42.423" Title="How do I obtain recordings of the P300 wave of the event-related potential in the EEG?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;event-related-potential&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13709" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-06T17:23:13.000" Score="-1" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on the typical relationship advise: &quot;Don't try to change your partner&quot; and such, I would say that many people want to see their romantic partners behaving just a little bit differently. It is a common thinking pattern. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a person may be wanting for the strong and independent partner to be more caring and compassionate. Or wanting for a partner to spend more time listening, or being more punctual, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These thoughts can be summarized as &quot;Our relationship would be perfect if only he/she did XYZ&quot;. In other words, people expects to experience relationship bliss when their partner complies with their wishes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that the XYZ is always a moving target, and can never actually be fulfilled, a sort of mirage, just out of reach. This makes me think these thoughts could be caused by some neurochemical process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is expectation of relationship bliss, conditional on XYZ is just a side effect of some neurochemical process?&lt;/strong&gt; Is it an expression of seeking novelty in a relationship (&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=6Og8CwAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA25&amp;amp;lpg=PA25&amp;amp;dq=novelty%20same%20but%20different&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=zhaWiIeMA7&amp;amp;sig=DUHm69llnBYhhqY3AFgGBqHgHPI&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwj0tJn5w_rLAhWIdh4KHf6GCCcQ6AEIPjAF#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=novelty%20same%20but%20different&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;same, but different&lt;/a&gt;&quot;)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; To clarify what I mean by Neurochemical:&#xA; If a person ingests 8 shots of hard liquor, there's a new chemical -alcohol introduced into blood circulation. In a short time alcohol will affect cognition regardless of any protests from the person's higher order cognition. A person cannot will themselves to not feel the effects of the chemical and act normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ingested chemical affects the brain (neurochemical?). Until the chemical is cleared from the circulation or neutralized, the person will continue experiencing cognitive effects of the chemical compound. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &lt;strong&gt;neurochemical process&lt;/strong&gt; I meant an indigenous process by which brain can release a brain affecting chemical/hormone that will act according to the model above. Adrenaline in fight/flight response is an example of such chemical. Maybe Oxytocin is another example. I know of words like psychoactive, psychedelic, neuromodulator and less scientific terms like &quot;mind altering&quot;, but none of these seemed to fit. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2016-04-08T14:55:41.520" LastActivityDate="2016-04-08T14:55:41.520" Title="Can the desire to change a romantic partner ever be satisfied?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13710" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-06T17:39:25.923" Score="2" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is already well known that imagining certain things can have a physiological effect on us. For example, imagining an intense situation can cause the heart rate to go up, while imagining a quiet, safe place might have the opposite effect (or maybe that one is simply a result of distracting oneself from whatever may cause unrest).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example would be imagining yourself doing something you don't want to do. From what I understand, this reduces the stress of anticipating work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder, though, what exactly separates this from actually doing what you imagine? what are the differences in the physiological effects? How different is the activation of the brain? (aside from the obvious - for example, imagining something physical happening to you, such as being punched, won't actually cause any bruising)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5006" LastActivityDate="2016-04-06T17:39:25.923" Title="The line between fantasy and reality" Tags="&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-20T10:48:14.353" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13711" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13739" CreationDate="2016-04-06T21:36:42.243" Score="1" ViewCount="218" Body="&lt;p&gt;Murray's &lt;em&gt;The Bell Curve&lt;/em&gt; came up in a discussion recently.  I have a very clear memory of reading a review of the book at the time it came out.  The reviewer claimed that one of the many problems with Murray's methodology was that he relied on IQ tests written in English but given to African students whose first language was French.  I cannot find a link to this anywhere. Anyone have any info on this?  Is the critique accurate?  Is it possible that I am remembering the review of some other work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11248" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-04-14T02:44:05.217" LastActivityDate="2016-07-20T01:22:19.053" Title="Problem with IQ tests in Murray's &quot;The Bell Curve&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13714" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-08T09:00:40.970" Score="3" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's lots of evidence on personality correlating to various behavior, like speed when talking, words used, walking pace, types of books owned, reactions to situations, colors on clothing, +++. Is there any research on the opposite, measuring personality based on behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How reliable would it be to measure someones personality based on behavior?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2016-04-08T09:00:40.970" Title="Can personality be measured without self-report or peer-report?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13715" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13709" CreationDate="2016-04-08T10:14:06.463" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;People are different. Our thoughts and behaviour emerge from a neural network that is shaped by countless events and no two people experience the world exactly in the same way. Even identical twins present conflicting attitudes and beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, social interaction will always involve some level of conflict. Cultures form due to differences between agents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This conflict is actually pivotal to our well-being, and is far better recognised by Eastern philosophy - conflict drives change, change results in conflict. If we all thought exactly the same, our life would likely be a a bore and we would have little motivation improve it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Partners are no different from any other person, but our interaction with them is more intense, and often involves high personal stakes. In turn, conflicts are frequent and often emotional, but conflict resolution and behaviour change are not easy affairs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are right that our mental state is in constant flux - people's needs and aspirations change over time. So there will always be some other desired state - many cognitive models are goal-driven (goal being a desired state).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd attribute your concern mainly to social aspects that stem from some cognitive properties. I've covered individual differences, and due to limited relevance omitted pattern recognition and change detection, which also play an important role in relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This makes me think these thoughts could be caused by some neurochemical process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what you mean by &lt;em&gt;neurochemical&lt;/em&gt;, where did electricity go, and whether you simply mean a &lt;em&gt;cognitive process&lt;/em&gt;. But the sentence is unclear since any though is caused by some cognitive process (involving both neurons and chemicals). I also don't quite see how such conclusion follows from the premise of goals being a moving target.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2016-04-08T10:14:06.463" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13716" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13680" CreationDate="2016-04-08T15:25:43.673" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you are interested in the &quot;Quantified self&quot; movement, which deals with self knowledge about one's body function. While this is not a comprehensive answer, there are a few things to consider:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Many hormone levels follow &lt;strong&gt;diurnal (24hr) cyclical patterns&lt;/strong&gt;, and vary throughout the day. Sleep schedule (wake/bedtime) affects these cycles. This taking single measurements at different times of the day would give you very different results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of sleep pattern (black bar is sleep relative to 24 hr time), wake up times would affect hormone levels at different times.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xtZLG.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xtZLG.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) There are &lt;strong&gt;seasonal variations&lt;/strong&gt; in hormone levels (for example these &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11999723&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;control white/brown fur color in animals living around arctic circle&lt;/a&gt;). As such, your 3 month study needs to account for the change in seasons, and may be heavily influenced by natural changes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3)There were a number of startups trying to sell &lt;strong&gt;hormone testing kits&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B00025OG1C&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;like this one&lt;/a&gt; to general public, however these are expensive and &quot;not intended to treat, diagnose, etc&quot;. In short, without your own lab, it's really hard for an average person to get this kind of info. A doctor can prescribe a single time test, but those can easily cost hundreds of dollars and are not very descriptive, as the &quot;normal&quot; ranges they give are ridiculously broad (for example testosterone is at range 270 to 1070ng/dl)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) While it's common to hear popular science refer to &quot;serotonin or dopamine flooding the brain&quot; - ask yourself, where is this flooding occurs? As such, &lt;strong&gt;where do you actually measure these changes&lt;/strong&gt;? I still can't find a clear answer to these questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My personal research into sleep makes me hypothesize that one can get an impression that something is changing in the serotonin/dopamine/testosterone system by looking at the duration, clarity and content of one's dreams. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-04-08T15:25:43.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13718" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1748" CreationDate="2016-04-08T18:39:06.780" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12891651&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MRI Spectroscopy&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;http://spinwarp.ucsd.edu/neuroweb/Text/mrs-TXT.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;another method&lt;/a&gt; for measuring neurotransmitters in the living human brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9627/measuring-short-term-long-term-and-sensory-memory-in-adolescents?rq=1&quot;&gt;Dopamine Reduction in the Substantia Nigra of Parkinson's Disease Patients Confirmed by In Vivo Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15921662&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Direct detection of brain acetylcholine synthesis by magnetic resonance spectroscopy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-04-08T18:39:06.780" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5952" CreationDate="2016-04-09T02:44:59.693" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not an expert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Words are vague. People can call something investment even if no money is invested.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's much more effective to read people's motives than to read their words.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Humans are self seeking rational assholes. Reasoning are often done for moral reasoning. The thing is none of us are too moral. We do the moral acts for indirect benefit of avoiding punishments. Saying something is wrong means absolutely nothing to motivate a person unless he see a disadvantage of that.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me share you an experience about how a lawyer manage to sell me an insurance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am already afraid of buying insurance. So many people says that insurance agent are liars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I got a lawyer and I only want to buy a little bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I asked the lawyer, I want a small insurance. The rest of the money should be invested. They agreed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I asked them, &quot;How much of the money is for investment and how much for insurance.&quot; The lawyer said all investment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One year latter I learned that I lost half of the money for &quot;fees&quot;. The lawyer simply said it's all investment. Unit link is long term investment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So basically I ended up buying a small insurance at 100 times of normal price. The money I thought are invested are gone for that irrational fee. I filed a lawsuit for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He is in a very stretch sense, technically correct. The insurance is small. The benefit is small. Even the insurance company claimed the same thing. Unit link is long term investment. It's an investment where 100% of the money is spent on fees. But technically it's still an investment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, a &quot;reasoning&quot; that &quot;it's all investment&quot; is absolutely useless. It doesn't mean what I think it means. It makes me throw money away. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And that leads to what typical problems we have on &quot;reasoning&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would give another sample.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bob sees money on table. I said don't steal it's wrong to steal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What really happens is that humans are rational assholes. Bob would steal if and only if he won't get caught. However, humans like to pretend that they are &quot;moral&quot; people. Humans like to pretend that they wouldn't steal not because they might get caught but because they are a moral person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, any rational reasoning of whether stealing is wrong or not will be totally irrelevant. You can say stealing is wrong. Bob will say that it's government's responsibility to avoid corruption. Most of us would break the law and find some justification to do it. So what's the point of reason?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastActivityDate="2016-04-09T02:44:59.693" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13723" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-09T17:31:07.737" Score="1" ViewCount="348" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading about Panama leaks and I was wondering why do people keep their wealth secret? What's the psychology behind it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11220" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-04-11T01:59:55.970" LastActivityDate="2016-04-12T10:24:36.737" Title="Why do people hide wealth?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13724" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-09T17:57:33.897" Score="3" ViewCount="230" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen many time in my life where I encountered few peoples who hate those person who are going great with their life and achieving something. I mean why some people hate those person who are doing great in some particular field but the other guy is not able to do it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if 2 persons are working together and among them one of them is getting famous and achieving so many things then the other guy starts hating him and sees him as an enemy or rival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any explanation behind this type of behaviour or it is common to most of the people as it is natural?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11271" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-04-11T01:59:07.890" LastActivityDate="2016-04-11T01:59:07.890" Title="Why are some people jealous of other people's success?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13725" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-09T20:05:16.590" Score="1" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to ask for suggestions of literature regarding the study of facial features, preferably in a context of how they may be considered attractive or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clarify, the goal is to try and gain an understanding of what distinct facial features exist, and of what variation exists regarding each of them (in lengths, angles, other topographical aspects), and of how those features combine into more visually complex features, etc. This is for no particular purpose other than just my own curiosity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11273" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-15T10:18:45.783" LastActivityDate="2016-04-15T10:18:45.783" Title="Literature with regards to facial attractiveness?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13726" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13724" CreationDate="2016-04-09T21:36:56.657" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Social Order and Hierarchy. As Humans our brains are designed to see where we fit in the social order. If someones success is perceived as a threat, it can lead to anxiety and fear from the person whom is resentful and jealous.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While in the modern world there is no need for this fear, our ancestors had to compete within their tribe(s) for resources,status,choice etc. If one member of the tribe gained more status than another they would have more access to resources, supplies, privilege, reproductive power etc. This could lead to competition from other members of the tribe fearful that they would not have enough resources, or access to enough supplies, ultimately seeing one of their tribe members as a potential threat to their own well-being.This applies to survival and reproduction value as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion: While this type of behavior can still be common, it is a highly outdated form of thinking that comes from our hardwired tribe mentality, defense mechanisms,and the need for humans to look for for a social order and hierarchy in modern society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9075" LastActivityDate="2016-04-09T21:36:56.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13727" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13627" CreationDate="2016-04-11T02:03:13.683" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is research ongoing to correlate MBTI with quantitative, neurological data. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.darionardi.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dario Nardi&lt;/a&gt;, for example, has found differences in EEG patterns between people of different types. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pdx.edu/sysc/sites/www.pdx.edu.sysc/files/neuro-systems.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here is a PDF from him on the topic.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11279" LastEditorUserId="11279" LastEditDate="2016-04-19T20:07:08.653" LastActivityDate="2016-04-19T20:07:08.653" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13728" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13733" CreationDate="2016-04-11T04:48:56.940" Score="1" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen and experienced the following phenomena. It often happen in a work environment but can happen anytime and anywhere:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Person A is doing something that requires full concentration (like reading or thinking deeply).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Person B suddenly ask/say something to Person A&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) Person A replied with &quot;What do you say?&quot; or &quot;Pardon please&quot; (or something similar, as if he/she doesn't hear what person B said) after some brief pause/delay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) Person B didn't answer back (optional)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5) Person A answers/responses (before Person B repeats what he/she said) to Person B (as if he/she heard it fully)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a psychological term that describes/explain it? How it is happening? What is its effect with the brain of Person A if there is?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S.&#xA;I don't know what is the right tag for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11280" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-07-09T19:28:08.033" LastActivityDate="2016-07-09T19:28:08.033" Title="How come that someone understands an utterance only after a few moments?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13728" CreationDate="2016-04-11T10:07:34.423" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably, everyone has experienced such situation, although only a few people pay attention to this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a usual human behaviour. People do ask about your question to get some time for thinking what to answer. Furthermore, this behaviour is very common among journalists, because this may be a way to avoid answering the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, there is another reason. A person who is asking feels more confidence. Thus, people may ask again to bring the situation under their own control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10173" LastEditorUserId="10173" LastEditDate="2016-04-11T10:13:30.707" LastActivityDate="2016-04-11T10:13:30.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13731" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-11T11:04:32.190" Score="5" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given that surfaces which capture attention are more likely to be perceived as figures (or figures attract attention more than ground does?), is there a bias associated with the luminance of a surface? For example, we often see dark figures (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, text) on white paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you know of any literature to suggest a bias where darker surfaces are shown to attract attention more effectively than lighter surfaces (or &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, alternatively, is there data available on a possible bias where figure-ground segmentation is more likely to occur for a dark figure on a white ground (or &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11283" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-07T21:47:13.637" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T21:15:22.767" Title="Is there any evidence for a bias towards perceiving darker surfaces as 'figure' rather than 'ground'?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13732" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13743" CreationDate="2016-04-11T11:29:48.033" Score="9" ViewCount="413" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ukessays.com/essays/psychology/neuron-functions-and-understanding-human-behaviour-psychology-essay.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Based on an article by UK Essays&lt;/a&gt;, we are nothing more than robots that operate based on our past experience and other factors like amount of neurotransmitters, hormones, and other chemicals, trying to get optimal outcomes for ourselves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this mean that every human mind can be reduced to (a very complex and nonperfect) function?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10060" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-04-27T14:37:51.207" LastActivityDate="2020-09-22T09:27:40.197" Title="Can humans be reduced to a function?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13733" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13728" CreationDate="2016-04-11T14:38:17.670" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think what you describe can be explained by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echoic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;echoic memory&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;working memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Echoic memory&lt;/strong&gt; is one of the sensory memory registers; a component of&#xA;  sensory memory (SM) that is specific to retaining auditory&#xA;  information. The sensory memory for sounds that people have just&#xA;  perceived is the form of echoic memory. ... This particular sensory store is capable of storing large amounts of&#xA;  auditory information that is only retained for a short period of time&#xA;  (3–4 seconds). This echoic sound resonates in the mind and is replayed&#xA;  for this brief amount of time shortly after the presentation of&#xA;  auditory stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Working memory,&lt;/strong&gt; a core executive function, is a cognitive memory&#xA;  buffer with a limited capacity that is responsible for the transient&#xA;  holding, processing, and manipulation of information. Working&#xA;  memory is an important process for reasoning and the guidance of&#xA;  decision making and behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person A is fully concentrated and his working memory capacity is full, so he does not pay attention to what the other person is saying. But when person A asks &quot;What do you say?&quot;, working memory resources are released and attention is diverted to the echoic memory which replays what person B said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2016-04-11T14:38:17.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13735" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13723" CreationDate="2016-04-12T10:24:36.737" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quiet simply: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/2937956?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;loss aversion&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022053104001930&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;People are adverse&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/315/5811/515&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;to loss&lt;/a&gt;, the majority of people who are wealthy pay into a system they get little direct benefit from, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ifs.org.uk/publications/4813&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;in comparison to poorer people who tend to get back what they put in or more depending on circumstance&lt;/a&gt;. However &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/download/5jxrjncwxv6j.pdf?expires=1460455907&amp;amp;id=id&amp;amp;accname=guest&amp;amp;checksum=10C632EC71EA7F2D9FFA0A656EF7D4A7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the rich, and everyone else, benefit from being in wealthy westernised societies with higher levels of tax&lt;/a&gt;, because people have more money in these countries. It is the tax system which allows these countries to develop their citizens, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21657433-poor-countries-need-get-better-raising-tax-and-multinational-firms-need&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;poor countries have lower levels of education and poor infrastructure&lt;/a&gt; as a result of low taxation and poor distribution of expenditure. However people &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/alesina/files/loss_aversions_aer_march_2015.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;do not calculate costs and indirect benefits together&lt;/a&gt;...&quot;individuals bracket indirect benefits and costs separately. This is the case when the primitive utility function&quot;...&quot;satisfies the decomposability property (Tversky and Kahnemann, 1991)&quot; Alesinay and Passarelliz (2015). Basically as indirect benefits are not calculated directly from costs individuals will look to avoid loss, its quiet natural to avoid loss. If you think about inheritance tax, money and property that have already been taxed are taxed again, surely an individual should be able to decide what to do with their property? Of course the state would agree for redistributing wealth for the benefit of society. Although this would seem unfair to the individual who saved in comparison to those that spent all they had. The point is that its just as easy to justify tax avoidance as it is to promote taxation, we could easily get into the principles of collectivism and individualism here but that is for the politics and philosophy areas of stackexchange.       &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastActivityDate="2016-04-12T10:24:36.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13736" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-12T10:35:05.960" Score="3" ViewCount="157" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concept of freshness has developed over the last century to involve a range of sensations and responses to tastes, smells and feelings associated with foods, the environment and cleaning products. But what is it that contributes or tells us that something is fresh from a neurocognitive perspective? It seems unlikely that freshness be merely the absence of negative stimuli that promote a disgust response, as freshness is often associated as a positive response. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this is a wide ranging question, however there is surprisingly little research on a concept that advertisers use daily, to promote cleaning products. Its unusual that such a important perception and its associated behaviour has so little academic research. Funny how merely watching the adverts between TV shows can make you curious!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The exact questions are...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What are the cognitive factors that make humans or animals perceive something to be fresh/clean?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What are the neurocognitve mechanisms underlying these processes?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="11370" LastEditDate="2016-05-18T09:32:50.217" LastActivityDate="2016-05-30T10:45:20.383" Title="Environmental cleanliness: what is cognitively fresh?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13738" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13732" CreationDate="2016-04-12T21:12:25.990" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The final two paragraphs &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ukessays.com/essays/psychology/neuron-functions-and-understanding-human-behaviour-psychology-essay.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;of that piece&lt;/a&gt; address this exact question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although understanding how neurons communicate with each other contributes to our understanding of behaviour at the level of biology, behaviour cannot be reduced to biological explanations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, the communication of neurons within the nervous system assists our understanding of behaviour however, is not the only contributing factor. Reducing explanations of behaviour to a biological level suggests that we are all robots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article states that if we reduced human behavior to only biological factors we would essentially be robots, but that we can't reduce behavior to biology alone. So, we cannot be essentially robots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we could develop a way to hold all other factors same, than biology would work as a way to program humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-04-27T14:44:42.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13739" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13711" CreationDate="2016-04-12T21:30:41.357" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;After some significant searching myself I don't believe that what you've stated was one of the many criticisms of &quot;The Bell Curve&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It wouldn't be impossible for the review you read to go something like, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Murray's, &quot;The Bell Curve&quot; is akin to other racially biased research like as XYZ's &quot;IQ Research&quot;, in which XYZ claimed that African students had, on average, lower IQs, but when the research was reviewed showed that those students had received a test in English, while their primary language was French.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory can be a tricky thing and the way connections are formed around subjects we don't use often is haphazard at best. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastActivityDate="2016-04-12T21:30:41.357" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13743" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13732" CreationDate="2016-04-13T11:13:53.323" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the key concept to tackle this question is to consider the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction&quot;&gt;abstraction&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abstract models are generalized models of some kind &quot;reality&quot; that we are interested in, with the aim to describe some behavior of the system in question reasonably well. Often the abstraction should also be relevant to many instances of the entity that we would like to describe: If you want a abstract model to describe a human, you would probably want it to be useful to describe many humans, and not just a specific human. This might provide less detailed predictive power for individuals, but might be more useful to apply to populations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When talking about the world or the reality in any kind of descriptive way, we are really always using abstract models to think, rationalize and communicate about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now for your question, of course you can make an abstract model of a human being, but you would have to ask yourself on what level of detail you want. Ignoring the practical difficulties in constructing this, we have to consider that the path to a model that matches &quot;reality&quot; as good as possible is endless. For example, for you to successfully model a brain, you would in the end not only have to describe every atom of the brain, but the quarks and maybe end up all the way in string theory. And in the same time capturing all the emergent behavior down this chain and not only being a reductionist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Theoretically, I'd say that the answer to your question is definitely yes, it would be theoretically possible to make a abstract model for a human mind that has &quot;good enough&quot; predictive power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everything we know about the real world is deterministic (except for some uncertainties if we get down to quantum mechanics, that probably would not have any significant influence on a very high-level system like a brain anyway). There is no scientific support that imaginal non-deterministic things like &quot;free will&quot; either exists or have any practical influence, so there is nothing except the pure complexity of the matter, our knowledge and our scientific processes that sets the limits for how detailed we can describe something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6894" LastActivityDate="2016-04-13T11:13:53.323" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13744" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-13T12:04:41.617" Score="4" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several studies on new-born and infant are based on the gaze, but depending on the age of the subject, the assumption is different. For new-born, a long gaze is supposed to mean that what they look at is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016363839890011X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;agreeable&lt;/a&gt;. For infants, a long gaze is supposed to means that they are &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/348/6230/91&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;surprised&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On what are these two assumptions based? Can they be verified? &#xA;If yes, at what age does the meaning of a long gaze change? And why does it change? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7760" LastEditorUserId="7760" LastEditDate="2018-03-22T18:39:58.423" LastActivityDate="2018-03-22T18:39:58.423" Title="The meaning of a long gaze : supposed to indicate agreeableness in new-borns but suprise in infants" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13745" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="565" CreationDate="2016-04-13T12:20:15.023" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question presupposes that 'deep' (in the brainstem) is the same thing as difficult to extinguish. But the anatomical location doesn't tell us how difficult it is to unlearn a CTA. One reason CTAs are difficult to extinguish is because extinction relies upon exposure to the cue (taste, in this case). And not many animals (including humans) will voluntarily re-expose themselves to unpleasant tastes. The resistance to extinction usually claimed for CTAs is more likely due to avoidance behaviour, rather than anatomical location of the neuroplasticity involved. When CTAs are extinguished by forcing the animal to taste the cue (e.g,. by gavaging), extinction occurs at the same rate as other flavour preferences. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/372&quot;&gt;http://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/372&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An implication for treating CTAs in humans (e.g., after chemotherapy) is that re-exposure to the taste will eventually be successful. Obtaining voluntary re-exposure in the patient might be achieved by counter-conditioning such as combining the taste with a sweet additive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11306" LastActivityDate="2016-04-13T12:20:15.023" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13746" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10332" CreationDate="2016-04-13T12:29:29.567" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Australian Schizophrenia Research Bank (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schizophreniaresearch.org.au/bank/research-information/information-on-datasample-availability-for-researchers/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.schizophreniaresearch.org.au/bank/research-information/information-on-datasample-availability-for-researchers/&lt;/a&gt;) has an 'open' database of clinical MRI (T1s and DTI) as well as healthy controls. Access isn't free though - they charge an administration fee to cover costs. It is an ongoing effort and I think there is about 500 MRIs from patients in there now, but I'm not sure what the latest numbers are exactly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11306" LastActivityDate="2016-04-13T12:29:29.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13747" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="442" CreationDate="2016-04-13T12:53:33.800" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think anyone has ever bothered (though Ralph Miller might disagree), since many of the 'failures' are outside of the model's purview. The model expresses as simply as possible the profound insight that we learn most when our expectations are not met. Many features of learning won't conform to this general principle (spontaneous recovery) but it doesn't make it wrong. Other features of learning emerge when the model is applied in layers or a hierarchy, rather than as a single unit (e.g., rapid reacquisition). Hence there is little pressure to adapt the model, although many adaptions have been proposed to account for one effect or another (e.g., Van Hamme &amp;amp;  Wasserman, 1994; Dickinson &amp;amp; Burke, 1996 etc). However these have usually limited it's generalisability due to overfitting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11306" LastActivityDate="2016-04-13T12:53:33.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13749" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6483" CreationDate="2016-04-14T02:48:54.277" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;At least in part, the games include elements that make &lt;strong&gt;children more susceptible to buying in-app-purchases&lt;/strong&gt;. Though this tactic &lt;a href=&quot;http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-847_en.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;may have been somewhat attenuated.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some other cases, I found the following conclusion from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juho_Hamari/publication/290436981_Why_do_people_buy_virtual_goods_A_literature_review/links/569828fc08ae34f3cf1f422b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this review paper&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Purchase behavior &#xA;      is explained primarily with purchase intention but also &#xA;      with habits. Purchase intention in turn is most strongly &#xA;      driven  by  how  satisfied  people  are  with  the  use  of&lt;br&gt;&#xA;      virtual goods and whether they have a positive attitude &#xA;      towards  using  real  money  in  virtual  environments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Moreover,  people  seem  to  purchase  virtual  goods  in  order   to   give   a   favorable   image   of   themselves.  Furthermore, interestingly the enjoyment of using the core service where the virtual goods are sold in does not predict virtual good purchases while it is thought as one of the main reasons for using the service. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These results   could   be   in   line   with   past   literature   that   suggests   that   game   operators   attempt   to   increase   demand     for     virtual     goods     by     intentionally  inconveniencing  players  by  limiting  some  aspects  of the  game  or  making  the  game  more  burdensome  to  play. Therefore, enjoyment may have a double role in explaining   purchases;   enjoyment   of   the   game   is needed  for  retaining  players  and  thus  increasing  the likelihood of purchases but on the other hand, negative enjoyment is needed for the player to feel the need to purchase more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2016-04-14T02:48:54.277" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13751" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9402" CreationDate="2016-04-14T12:59:15.403" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't exactly what it is you are after, but if you are looking for other analyzing techniques, you should try &lt;strong&gt;Independent Component Analysis&lt;/strong&gt; (ICA). I have heard (but I do not have references) that ICA is better than PCA analyses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A very neat (and free) Matlab toolbox that has this function is FieldTrip (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fieldtriptoolbox.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.fieldtriptoolbox.org/&lt;/a&gt;). It is a nicely documented toolbox, including an easy to follow walk through and multiple tutorials, starting from reading in the EEG data, all the way to statistical analyses. FieldTrip is probably your best bet in finding the P300 differences, and still understanding what happens with the data (since you have to specify everything yourself). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-13T21:52:02.497" LastActivityDate="2016-06-13T21:52:02.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13753" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13761" CreationDate="2016-04-14T14:04:38.440" Score="5" ViewCount="353" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am fairly new to EEG research and I am unsure what the best ordering is for preprocessing data. Do you correct for baseline and filter the data before you go on with artifact rejection/correction, or the other way around? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can imagine the former to be correct, because baseline correction and filtering makes it easier to interpret the data visually, making it easier to identify artifacts. However, if you filter the data first, some artifacts may become less severe, making it difficult to have artifact rejection be done automatically. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are your thoughts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-04-15T18:35:29.100" LastActivityDate="2016-04-15T18:35:29.100" Title="In what order do you preprocess EEG data?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13754" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-14T19:26:40.897" Score="3" ViewCount="1133" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a Matlab toolbox for doing source localization using LAURA or sLORETA within Matlab (not requiring additional software like LORETA-KEY, etc.)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9444" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-11-23T11:52:25.623" LastActivityDate="2016-11-23T11:52:25.623" Title="LAURA/LORETA source localization in Matlab" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12614" CreationDate="2016-04-14T20:02:04.663" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Empathy cant be measured, however it can be judged by a person's actions in routine life. &#xA;If a person is generally sensitive to other's feelings irrespective of age, gender, specie, he can be called to have Empathy generally. &#xA;Another person might empathize with his children, but not with others say that of his neighbors, so he may be judged as a less empathetic person. &#xA;It is greatly influenced by relationship. A person is greatly protective about own children, but he may infact wish harm for those of his enemies. The reason for loss of Empathy in this case is the animosity he shares with that other person.&#xA;No offence to anyone for the following views.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It is also influenced by cultures and religions. Islam as a culture is less empathetic towards all and so they have more instance of violence in their community. &#xA;It is just an observation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4330" LastActivityDate="2016-04-14T20:02:04.663" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13759" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13772" CreationDate="2016-04-14T20:53:10.897" Score="4" ViewCount="228" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a EEG hobbyist using &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.olimex.com/Products/EEG/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Olimex EEG SMT&quot;&gt;Olimex EEG SMT&lt;/a&gt;, and I'm using 4 dry, active electrodes to record EEG signals (the Olimex uses bipolar montage, so I actually have 2 channels). However, I cannot measure any waves apart from eye movement and hand/leg movement. I'm thinking of spending more money to improve my EEG setup but I don't know exactly why I'm getting this poor quality recordings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why I am not getting better results? Do I need conductive paste or do I need more channels?&#xA;Would conductive paste improve my results? How much?&#xA;Would more channels improve the signal together with signal processing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10020" LastActivityDate="2019-07-10T01:01:54.837" Title="EEG Signal quality" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13760" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-14T21:05:46.110" Score="4" ViewCount="342" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human visual system is very good at 'cancelling out' shadows and other lightning effects, and focusing on the contrast in images. A famous example of this is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checker_shadow_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adelson's checker shadow illusion&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LUmGqm.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LUmGqm.png&quot; alt=&quot;Adelson's checker shadow illusion&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the above image, cell A and B are the same exact colour, yet we see cell B as significantly lighter than cell B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case, if I wanted to get a machine to make an observation similar to the human perception, I would use a technique like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_histogram_equalization&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;adaptive histogram equalization&lt;/a&gt; to enhance the contrasts and eliminate the shadows and lighting effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In computational terms, histogram equalization works by taking the cumulative distribution of the histogram of pixel intensities and stretching it to be a line. This transformation makes the histogram uniform, and thus maximizes the entropy and amount of information conveyed by each bit -- giving an information theoretic justification for why one would want detectors that use this sort of transform. Adaptive histogram equalization works the same way but instead of transforming the global histogram, first divides the image into a large number of tiles and then normalizes each tile. This tends to amplify the signal, while 'cancelling out' the local background due to effects like shadows or lighting gradients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Laughlin (1981) showed that the large monopolar cells in the insect compound eye -- specifically in &lt;em&gt;Calliphora stygia&lt;/em&gt; -- implement histogram equalization through their neural coding to cancel out the ambient contrast of typical natural scenes. &lt;strong&gt;Has something similar been shown in vertebrate visual systems?&lt;/strong&gt; In particular, in the human -- or similar -- visual system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, Laughlin (1981) could not look at adaptation of the eye to a specific scene, and was comparing to a static typical environment, has this research been extended to look at dynamic changes in the coding pattern in response to specific scenes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Laughlin, S. (1981). A simple coding procedure enhances a neuron's information capacity. &lt;em&gt;Zeitschrift für Naturforschung&lt;/em&gt; c, 36(9-10), 910-912.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-04-15T09:23:46.850" Title="Does the human visual system implement (adaptive) histogram equalization?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13761" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13753" CreationDate="2016-04-14T21:18:16.723" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You kind of have to do some kind of baseline correction first (or a highpass filter on the unepoched data) because of slow drifting. Lowpass filtering before artifact rejection is fine as long as you don't ever go back to the unfiltered signal in your analyses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After that, you can either throw out trials that exceed a set threshold, or you can do a two-step artifact rejection procedure. For the two-step rejection throw out anything beyond a large threshold. Then throw out any trials with points that exceed a set number of standard deviations from the mean of all trials at each time point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I say that filtering before artifact rejection is okay is because the artifacts that you are filtering out should not be related to the brain activity you are interested in. This is reasonable for frequencies above, say, 50Hz, because that should just be external and muscle noise. Anything lower than that could affect task-related brain activity, say eye movements for example. You might not want to include trials where the subject was looking away from the screen or closed their eyes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-04-14T21:18:16.723" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13762" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10267" CreationDate="2016-04-14T23:45:55.660" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The information you seek is contained in the header of the image file. Matlab has open source tools for reading the header information. e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/29344-read-medical-data-3d&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/29344-read-medical-data-3d&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want an even more open source option, NiBabel is an open source python library for reading .nii files (header and image). I think the command  print(header.get_data_shape()) will return the image dimensions. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://nipy.org/nibabel/nibabel_images.html#the-image-header&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://nipy.org/nibabel/nibabel_images.html#the-image-header&lt;/a&gt; for instructions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11306" LastEditorUserId="11306" LastEditDate="2016-04-14T23:51:26.610" LastActivityDate="2016-04-14T23:51:26.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13764" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-15T09:19:54.173" Score="0" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;A close friend, who is going through a mentally rough and disturbed period, just called me, and it made me come up with a question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You call a close friend and someone picks up; but you're not sure from the voice whether it's your friend or someone with a similar voice, so your (sub)conscious faces a dilemma:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a) if it's a stranger I better not talk to them as a close friend because that could be embarrassing, so I should assume it's a stranger first and talk formally&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b) if it's my friend, I better not talk to them formally as a stranger because that would be awkward, so I should assume it's my friend first and talk without façade&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: what, in the (sub)conscious, determines that choice for a given individual?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11326" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-04-23T22:16:22.607" LastActivityDate="2016-04-23T22:16:22.607" Title="Caller's dilemma" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-05-01T00:58:28.313" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13760" CreationDate="2016-04-15T09:23:46.850" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This isn't exactly what you are referring to, but I think provides a similar function and has been shown in vertebrate vision:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normalization_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normalization_model&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perceptionGrad/Readings/Carandini-NRN2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Divisive normalization as a canonical computation across the brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While this does not implement histogram equalization, I think it is actually a better-suited explanation of the checker board illusion - because local luminance and contrast normalises the activity of all neurons in the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, this doesn't quite answer your question but maybe provides an alternative computational step occurring in vertebrates?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11325" LastActivityDate="2016-04-15T09:23:46.850" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13766" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8610" CreationDate="2016-04-15T10:24:21.083" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The EEG signals between these regions will not be independent. The electrical activity that is being measured at the scalp, is the result of electrical flow inside the brain. This flow does not go in just one direction. It 'smears out' a little bit to surrounding areas, since the entire scalp/body is conductive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another reason that the activity measured at different sites is not completely independent is because brain areas interact with each other. The old Brodman Area topography is kind of outdated, and made place for networks of activity. To say that each channel is independent is thus inherently false. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ICA does assume independent sources, but with this they do not mean the channels. For example, the ICA finds a pattern, e.g. jumps of blinks, in, say, 15 channels. ICA then assumes that they are caused by only one thing, and this pattern will thus be extracted to only one component, not two. The different components, which are the result of an ICA, are thus in fact the independent sources. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-04-15T10:24:21.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13767" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13783" CreationDate="2016-04-15T10:31:02.937" Score="4" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am doing a study to the effects of sustained attention on Situation Awareness, i.e. how well one perceives and understands the relevant information in their direct environment (in both space and time) and the ability to make predictions about the near future. I want to use EEG to measure the participants sustained attention by calculating the mean power in the Alpha frequency band, over two second periods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am in doubt however, over which channels I should calculate this average. Perceptual related brain responses usually occur in the occipital lobe and other more posterior located regions, but where do I draw the line? Are there some references that may support such a decision? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-09-01T21:00:02.680" LastActivityDate="2016-09-01T21:00:02.680" Title="Mapping Sustained Attention on the brain (EEG)" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;situation-awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13768" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13764" CreationDate="2016-04-15T17:55:31.760" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might want to look at some decision making literature. A nice and easy to understand theory is the Drift Diffusion model. This model works with binary decisions, and argues that &quot;evidence&quot;, an subconscious representation of it, for either one of the options is accumulated over time. The option that accumulates enough evidence, i.e. when it exceeds a certain threshold, the quickest, is the option one chooses for. See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-alternative_forced_choice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-alternative_forced_choice&lt;/a&gt; . &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to know more about it, you might also want to look at the Linear Ballistic Accumulater theory. That is a more recent theory of decision making and, perhaps, a more correct one.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-04-15T17:55:31.760" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13769" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-15T20:33:16.033" Score="4" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;We all know the stories of people who saw a miracle in the deepist troubles like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.chicoer.com/article/ZZ/20100814/NEWS/100819841&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;gangsters who turned to faith&lt;/a&gt; - or an older example could be the miracles in jail &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;in the Bible&lt;/a&gt; (Acts: Peter and Paul).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How wide-spread is the phenomenon where people expierence hallucinations in a depressing situation? What is the neurological cause? And what hormones (neurotrasmitters) participate on this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please concentrate on the neurological point of view, rather than on the psychological aspects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2016-05-16T16:27:43.297" LastActivityDate="2016-05-16T16:27:43.297" Title="Why do hallucinations appear in depression?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13770" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13769" CreationDate="2016-04-15T20:49:05.873" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have a look at The God drug DMT. It causes people to see/talk to God and can be taken as an actual drug, but I believe it is also produced in the body during near death experiences. I am no expert in it but here's wikipedia: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/N,N-Dimethyltryptamine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/N,N-Dimethyltryptamine&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-04-15T20:49:05.873" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13771" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13924" CreationDate="2016-04-16T00:46:22.797" Score="8" ViewCount="444" Body="&lt;p&gt;Synapses likely change their strengths based on a form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike-timing-dependent_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;spike-timing-dependent plasticity&lt;/a&gt;. Is this true for all types of synapses in all parts of the human brain? I wonder if there are also synapses with hard-wired connectivity, i.e. that do not depend on the activations of nearby neurons or do not change at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="908" LastEditDate="2016-05-12T19:08:04.523" LastActivityDate="2016-05-14T16:30:45.127" Title="Do all types of synapses in the brain change based on spike-timing-dependent plasticity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13772" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13759" CreationDate="2016-04-16T11:02:21.017" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes and sort of. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dry electrodes are known for lesser signal quality in comparison to &quot;wet&quot; electrodes. Adding some paste/gel to dry electrodes does help. My professor just got an Emotive Insight and found that this helped quite a bit. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More electrodes does not automatically improve the channel to channel quality. However, more electrodes will allow you to measure activity on different locations more precisely. This may improve your ability to recognize different patterns and, therefore, more processes than blinks and movements. More channels will also improve the quality of Independent Component Analyses (ICA), a tool for recognizing and correcting artifacts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I cannot tell you how much it will improve though. You can have a look at thesignal-to-noise ratio, but I don't know if you can actually calculate values, or that it only provides a theoretical idea/trend in improvement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-04-16T11:02:21.017" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13775" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-17T10:33:56.657" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing a research paper and I'm wondering if someone can help me out by throwing out a few terms. I'm looking for a theory that talks about how the more difficult a task is, the more authoritative / appreciated is the person who completed the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, let's say Exam A is only passed by 5% of people that take it. Is there a cognitive theory that says that people who pass the exam will be more appreciated / seen as more authoritative given that they completed a task most fail at?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11341" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2016-04-18T01:16:50.990" LastActivityDate="2016-04-18T01:16:50.990" Title="Does difficulty of task increase perceived authority?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13779" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13771" CreationDate="2016-04-18T14:04:32.453" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably not. STDP has mostly been demonstrated in excitatory glutamatergic neurons in the hippocampus. Considering all the other types of cells in the brain (dopaminergic, serotonergic, inhibitory, those located in cortical areas with closed plasticity windows those in the brain stem), it's erroneous to assume they all implement STDP like rules. That said, I can't think of any examples off the top of my head...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11356" LastActivityDate="2016-04-18T14:04:32.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13780" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-18T18:33:28.570" Score="1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because of our eye functioning as a camera obscura the light entering our pupils is hitting the retina of the eye in opposite directions. So what is left becomes right and right left and above becomes beneath and beneath becomes above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So somewhere in our brains this image is turned back to the world how it is. But how and where is the brain that doing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11358" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-18T19:23:53.557" LastActivityDate="2016-04-19T06:53:57.643" Title="Is it known how the brain corrects the world-up-side-down-view of our eyes?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-04-19T10:40:35.247" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13781" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="337" CreationDate="2016-04-18T21:14:59.023" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is &lt;strong&gt;not the case that the brain flips the retinal image&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;nor does it have to&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;nor are there any images in the brain like there are on the retina&lt;/strong&gt;. It is &lt;strong&gt;just as meaningless to say that the retinal image is upside down in relation to the orientation of our perceptions&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Richard L. Gregory gives a nice explanation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is generally accepted that this does not need a special compensation mechanism because retinal images are not seen, as objects are seen […]. A compensating mechanism is not needed as they are not objects of perception but rather one stage of processing lying between objects and vision. […] When the head is tilted, the world remains upright. This extends to standing on one's head, when the retinal image is reversed and yet up and down remain normal. (Richard L. Gregory (2004): Illusions, In: The Oxford Companion to the Mind, 2nd Edition, p. 429).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to grasp this issue is by the difference of physical space and phenomenal space, as Norbert Bischof does:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We thus have to distinguish a &lt;em&gt;physical space&lt;/em&gt;, in which our body is located and the brain processes take place, and a &lt;em&gt;space experience&lt;/em&gt; which the phenomenal world is embedded in. [… Both] &lt;em&gt;cannot be localized&lt;/em&gt; in relation to one another. There is no superordinate coordinate system which they can be jointly fit into. They are […] »incommensurable«, which literally means there is no common scale that could be applied to both. […] (Norbert Bischof (2009): Psychologie, 2nd Edition, pp. 48–49, my translation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bischof goes on to state that the retinal image and the consciously experienced phenomenon can not possibly be integrated within one and the same space in the first place, and thus don't stand in any spatial relation whatsoever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8427" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-26T09:42:01.293" LastActivityDate="2016-04-26T09:42:01.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13782" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="337" CreationDate="2016-04-18T21:17:27.643" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many transformations between the light hitting your retina and your perception of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The signals from your retina initially travel through the &lt;a href=&quot;https://myweb.rollins.edu/jsiry/VisualPathways.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;visual pathways&lt;/a&gt; to reach your visual cortex, where visual information is processed. The representation of this visual information in your brain is also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(07)00376-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;shaped by other brain activity&lt;/a&gt; representing &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multisensory_integration#General_introduction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;your other senses&lt;/a&gt; (sound, touch, etc) and also internal processes like your current &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9375191&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mood&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tobias_Egner/publication/26776567_Expectation_(and_attention)_in_visual_cognition/links/0912f50bb5013cf9dd000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;expectations&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the time all of this information is incorporated into your conscious perception, the orientation of the photons as they hit your retina is gone and all you have is your brain's interpretation of the world around you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastEditorUserId="10227" LastEditDate="2016-04-18T21:24:04.157" LastActivityDate="2016-04-18T21:24:04.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13783" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13767" CreationDate="2016-04-18T21:42:14.237" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;You should consider using subject-specific alpha channels and frequency ranges. There are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/post/Does_anyone_knows_how_I_can_quantify_the_individual_alpha_frequency_IAF&quot;&gt;differences between individuals in alpha peak frequency&lt;/a&gt;. Also the placement of the EEG cap as well as small differences in orientations of cortex can affect which channels pick up perceptual activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One way to do this would be to record data from the subject with their eyes open and then their eyes closed, say for 60 seconds each. Then you can find the channels where there is a significant difference in power around the alpha range between these two conditions. You can also use this data to determine the peak frequency of each subject's alpha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11360" LastActivityDate="2016-04-18T21:42:14.237" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13784" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-19T06:42:34.767" Score="1" ViewCount="334" Body="&lt;p&gt;So which one? I find physics fascinating but biology easy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11365" LastActivityDate="2016-04-19T06:42:34.767" Title="Is INTJ mbti-personality better suited to do a physics degree or medicine/biology degree?" Tags="&lt;mbti&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-04-19T08:10:37.063" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13787" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-20T00:32:42.300" Score="4" ViewCount="284" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have Aspergers and ADD. When I read autobiographies (most of all by female aspergers) I often think that they have actually &lt;em&gt;at least&lt;/em&gt; a mild form of ADD or ADHD, too. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A German doctor (Dr. Helga Simchen) wrote she thinks that Asperger Syndrome should rather be on the AD(H)S spectrum than on the autism spectrum.&#xA;My personal opinion is: no. They're nevertheless different things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what is the current scientific standpoint about AS and AD(H)S?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11373" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-08-20T22:14:21.753" LastActivityDate="2016-08-24T13:25:28.640" Title="Is there a scientific opinion about the connection between Asperger Syndrome and AD(H)D?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13788" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-20T02:14:16.340" Score="3" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;For the purposes of this question, I will use the example of a legally sanctioned athletic contest (i.e., a boxing match), rather than criminal activity or accidents, but the question certainly applies to any brain trauma that has similar effects.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone who watches boxing and other fighting sports knows that when a fighter is hit hard in the head or face, a few things are very likely to happen (links lead to videos showing examples of the effect in question):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The legs either go &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/VKCM5hVhHKU?t=4m11s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stiff&lt;/a&gt;, go &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/trArNgBNxhE?t=2m54s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;limp&lt;/a&gt;, or begin to &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/_6AmqhTkRNA?t=17s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wobble&lt;/a&gt;;  sometimes, they seem to &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/RmljZRox8OU?t=51m30s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;move in unpredictable, involuntary ways&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The eyes glaze over and &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/CiCy1uxSI-o?t=20m7s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;seem to lose focus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The fighter will stumble and fall, sometimes after a &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/5hzvG0w_Rzc?t=6s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;slight delay&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mobility and coordination are &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/sccD0Uvz6Rg?t=10m49s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;profoundly reduced&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The fighter appears to &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/2o7A3rMN6Co?t=5s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lose spatial awareness and orientation, sometimes even seeming to be confused as to where he/she is&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In some cases, the fighter will immediately lose consciousness, but I am more interested in the alternative - that is, a serious blow to the brain that results in the above effects, but doesn't render the victim totally unconscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, when the face or head suffers a strong, sudden impact from the front, back, or sides (or, in cases like an uppercut punch, from below, and to the bottom of the chin), momentum causes the brain to strike one or more surfaces inside the skull, so there is some mechanical/physical injury going on - in short, the person who was hit has a concussion.  I know that this can cause significant, long-term damage to the brain and nervous system, but I am interested in the short-term, immediate effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this physical/mechanical injury the sole reason we see the symptoms I've described above?  Are there separate processes taking place (e.g., abnormal electrical/chemical activity causing the symptoms described above)?  Or does the physical/mechanical injury cause other types of abnormal activity in the brain/nervous system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;In short, do we know what is happening inside the brain after a hard blow, causing such pronounced effects, described above, in the rest of the body?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8988" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-04-24T06:13:59.197" Title="Do we know what is happening inside the brain when a person is hit in the head?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13789" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3889" CreationDate="2016-04-20T09:03:44.223" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would go for data in OpenfMRI &lt;a href=&quot;https://openfmri.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://openfmri.org/&lt;/a&gt;. It has, as of 2016, a growing collection of data and attempts to present data in a standardized form, so it will be easy to work across datasets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @craig-bennett noted there are problems with the fMRI Data Center:&#xA;I am afraid that the fMRI Data Center is still (as of 2016) no longer well-supported. When I now try &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fmridc.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.fmridc.org&lt;/a&gt; I see nothing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9333" LastEditorUserId="9333" LastEditDate="2016-04-20T11:24:37.360" LastActivityDate="2016-04-20T11:24:37.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13790" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-20T10:44:53.740" Score="2" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;It might be that this question is not suitable for this SE site so feel free to close.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several scientific studies prove what we all kind of know: That bragging is being frowned upon - see e.g. this article and the references within: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/05/how-to-boast-on-the-sly/476373/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How to boast on the sly (The Atlantic, April 2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet by now we all know one person who does basically nothing else but bragging, boasting, telling us that he is the most wonderful person on the planet... and let me hasten to add that seemingly people not only accept it but really embrace it and even seem to love it: Of course I am talking about Donald Trump!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What is going on? What has the psychological literature to say about this seemingly paradox phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11376" LastActivityDate="2016-04-20T10:44:53.740" Title="Bragging is bad for your reputation... but there is one exception: What is going on?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-05-01T00:50:32.540" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13791" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-20T11:01:34.993" Score="4" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why MEG is not sensitive to inhomogeneous conductivity profile of different brain compartments (scalp,skull and brain) but EEG is sensitive to that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10820" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T05:18:23.987" Title="Insensitivity of MEG to inhomogeneous conductivity" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;meg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13792" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2025" CreationDate="2016-04-20T15:44:52.803" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think what Einstein had in mind is that in order to come up with original ideas one must keep a balance between knowledge and creativity, as already stated by Jeromy Anglim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a paper titled &quot;The Composing Process and the Academic Composing Process&quot; written by Stephen Krashen, Krashen says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although there is no empirical research on this hypothesis, writing experts recommend that academics begin writing before doing their “literature review”(more about that later) and before they think about gathering data. They recommend beginning by putting their ideas in outline form, or in any kind of planning format that feels comfortable.&#xA;  Peter Elbow explains the reason for this: It’s much easier to write in the beginning when you know less about a topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Relevant to the question: The Academic Composing Process (page 7)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Link for the full article:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/articles/2005_composing_&amp;amp;_academic_process_krashen.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/articles/2005_composing_&amp;amp;_academic_process_krashen.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11379" LastEditorUserId="11379" LastEditDate="2016-04-21T17:49:09.920" LastActivityDate="2016-04-21T17:49:09.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13793" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-20T15:48:15.713" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am exploring brain MRI scans. Using &lt;a href=&quot;https://lcni.uoregon.edu/downloads/mriconvert/mriconvert-and-mcverter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;MRIConvert&lt;/a&gt;, I converted dcm files to NIFTI. Some of the outputted NIFTI files have O- in their filenames and I could not figure out what does it mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example filenames:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;xxxxxx_006_O-Ax_T1_FSE.nii&#xA;xxxxxx_007_O-COR_T2_FSE.nii&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11380" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-04-22T13:23:31.050" LastActivityDate="2016-04-22T13:23:31.050" Title="What does O- mean in a NIFTI file name of an MRI?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13794" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13627" CreationDate="2016-04-20T16:26:25.220" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The main question here is &quot;is there any scientific research into objective differences between people with MBTI types?&quot; I suppose a second question is &quot;does this research actually SHOW differences?&quot;. This is one aspect of the debate about the validity of MBTI, which is covered in other questions (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/13460/what-correlation-research-has-been-done-on-mbti-vs-big5?lq=1&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is not as much research as you might think, which is because most scientists avoid the MBTI. It is a commercial product (you have to pay for it) with poor reliability, which means that scientific psychology tends to use better-validated and published scales. &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/joop.12098/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This recent meta analysis&lt;/a&gt; includes MBTI as one of the &quot;ipsative&quot; measures, finding little validity for predicting occupation. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1359432X.2012.716198&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; is similar and suggests that normative measures like the MBTI can predict GPA and job performance, although they do so less well than the Big Five. I haven't found any other studies looking more closely at behaviour, although given that some people consider the Big Five to subsume MBTI types, you could look for that instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-04-20T16:26:25.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13795" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-20T21:22:54.223" Score="2" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;You have two friends: Alice and Bob. Suppose you have a way to remove a healthy neuron from Alice's brain and conserve it in some safe place. And, viceversa, suppose you have a way to graft this neuron in a certain region of Bob's brain (assuming the new neuron will develop connections with the others nearby).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then keep repeating the following two steps:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;remove one neuron from Alice and another from Bob, both possibly from the same region;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;graft Alice's neuron in Bob's brain and viceversa (again, both in the same region)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;until all neurons have been exchanged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After we have exchanged all the neurons, &lt;strong&gt;will Alice and Bob still feel the same?&lt;/strong&gt; If so, consider this: let &lt;code&gt;v&lt;/code&gt; be the speed at which we complete the entire operation, with &lt;code&gt;v = 1&lt;/code&gt; meaning instant exchange and &lt;code&gt;v = 0&lt;/code&gt; meaning infinite time (no exhange at all). &lt;strong&gt;What would be the maximum possible value of &lt;code&gt;v&lt;/code&gt; such that Bob and Alice still feel the same after the operation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11386" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-04-22T13:24:13.517" LastActivityDate="2016-04-22T13:24:13.517" Title="Consciousness and neural grafting" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-07-13T22:18:55.713" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13797" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12577" CreationDate="2016-04-21T02:01:14.963" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two ways to interpret/answer this question. First, is there a recognized disorder that is characterized by mania in the absence of depression? Second, are there people who experience mania in the absence of depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to the first interpretation is no. There is currently no &quot;major manic disorder&quot; or &quot;unipolar mania.&quot; Given the DSM-5 criteria, a person with mania in the absence of depression would likely receive a diagnosis of Bipolar I Disorder, which is the same diagnosis that they would get if they had mania with depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to the second interpretation is obviously more difficult. I don't have concrete data, but it appears to be rare. See the following link for an interesting discussion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/serendipupdate/why-no-unipolar-mania-listing-dsm-iv&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why no unipolar mania listing in DSM-IV?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11319" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2019-08-26T03:45:14.223" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T03:45:14.223" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13798" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13791" CreationDate="2016-04-21T05:07:33.623" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;MEG measures magnetic fields and EEG measures electrical potentials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One property of magnetic fields is that organic matter (scalp, skull, and brain) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.physlink.com/Education/AskExperts/ae512.cfm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;does not block them in any significant way&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Electrical potentials measured on the scalp, on the other hand, are definitely affected by the matter between the source of the signal and the location they are measured. This is because the scalp, skull, and brain provide significant resistance to the flow of electrons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-04-21T05:07:33.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13799" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5462" CreationDate="2016-04-21T07:27:41.237" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, Thinking without language is possible. Suppose a well-known boy &quot;Mogli&quot; who was left alone in jungle before he could learn language from his parents. But still he could manage to live many years in jungle till he met other humans. Mogli may be a fictional character but story is based on real incidence and much this kind of cases has been recorded. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My point is, in absence of language the jungle boy was able to learn things, think which is good and bad. Make strategies and learned how to use objects. His learning was beyond natural instincts. Without thought or cognitive processes it would not be possible to live throughout these many years. When these kinds of kids are adopted again by humans they learned how to use their vocal cords, modulate voices, and understand gestures. During this learning they think and finally they learn to use language to express their thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11394" LastActivityDate="2016-04-21T07:27:41.237" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13800" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-21T08:28:22.903" Score="2" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;Within Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) there is a cognitive distortion named &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_distortion#Disqualifying_the_positive&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;disqualifying the positive&quot;&lt;/a&gt; where positive events are discounted:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Example: Upon receiving a congratulation, a person dismisses it&#xA;  out-of-hand, believing it to be undeserved, and automatically&#xA;  interpreting the compliment (at least inwardly) as an attempt at&#xA;  flattery or perhaps as arising out of naïveté.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other examples include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;That compliment doesn't count. They don't know me yet.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They are only talking to me because they think me to be something I'm not.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I got this achievement. Big deal. Anyone else could get it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;He/she gave me this gift. It's useless like all other gifts I get.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can this distortion be overcome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3841" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-04-26T14:25:41.920" LastActivityDate="2016-04-27T16:35:58.930" Title="How can the cognitive distortion &quot;disqualifying / rejecting the positive&quot; be overcome?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13806" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8671" CreationDate="2016-04-22T18:50:30.457" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes it is possible. It is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;very common&lt;/a&gt; for normal individuals to feel like they should remember something, but are then unable to actually recall the contents of that particular memory. This &lt;em&gt;feeling of knowing&lt;/em&gt; is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamemory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;metamemory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://whoville.ucsd.edu/PDFs/114_Shimamura_Squire_JEP_1986.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This study by Art Shimamura and Larry Squire&lt;/a&gt; found that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;patients with severe anterograde amnesia can produce accurate&#xA;  feeling-of-knowing judgments. Thus, impaired feeling-of-knowing&#xA;  accuracy is not an obligatory feature of amnesia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, some of those patients may wake up each morning and soon realize that something is amiss, as they are unable to recall facts or events that they feel they should be able to recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-04-22T18:50:30.457" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13693" CreationDate="2016-04-22T19:05:18.040" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Forgive me for not including any scientific references (I've been out of the human movement science for a while), but it is believed that movements are saved and executed in a &quot;goal-directed&quot; way. It is not the case that every muscle has its own area and they are individually activated on a scale of 0 (no contraction) -100 (max contraction) depending on the movement you make.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So let us look at the smallest units of a movement, the motor/muscle unit &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_unit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(wiki)&lt;/a&gt;. This is a group of muscle cells that is activated by one efferent neuron. Several muscle units, over several muscles, are activated per movement. The brain cells that activate the neurons that stimulates these motor units are stored in groups, and will/can be activated simultaneously/shortly after one another (but I will not go into the matter of timing). &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9BiQ0.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9BiQ0.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is possible for the same movement to be be executed by different sets of muscle units (otherwise doing repetitive bicep curls, for instance, is impossible. The relaxation of muscle fibers is not that fast enough to allow repetitive activation). All these sets of muscle units, or the brains cells that are responsible for activating them, are thus stored nearby each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you are a novice, the brain cells are not organized in a very neat way. It varies a lot which cells are activated together, and this explains the variability of your movement; sometimes, wrong motor units are activated. However, with practice, the connections between the &quot;correct&quot; cells will become stronger, and more specialized groups of cells will form. Moreover, more cells will be &quot;made available&quot; (also called scaffolding) for these type of movements . This cán be seen in the homunculus (the bigger hands e.g. represent more fine-tuned motor control of the fingers). This will improve the odds of executing the movement correctly, and allows you to fine-tune your movements. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want references, I'd suggest searching in PubMed for motor control, neuromechanics, learning and scaffolding (making cells available). &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_06/d_06_cr/d_06_cr_mou/d_06_cr_mou.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a website that tells the entire story of taking a motor action, including planning and control of the cerebellum. I omitted these parts of to story so to only focus on the &quot;storing&quot; of the movements. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-05-23T14:39:35.513" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T14:39:35.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13809" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-23T14:50:35.793" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Gated Attractors Learning Instruction Sequences (GALIS) framework, used to solve a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0893608016300028&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;card-matching task&lt;/a&gt;, as well as &lt;a href=&quot;https://cgis.cs.umd.edu/~jared/2013-NN-sylvester.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the n-back task&lt;/a&gt;, appears to be trying to unite high-level symbolic reasoning to neural networks. This is also the goal of the NEF/SPA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the differences in approach and what trade-offs exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-04-23T14:50:35.793" Title="Difference between GALIS and NEF/SPA?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;nef&gt;&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13810" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13813" CreationDate="2016-04-23T14:52:03.223" Score="6" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I´m imagining a checkerboard in my mind, can one find, with all kinds of fancy equipment, a corresponding figure in the area of my visual cortex? For example, the neurons firing in such a way as they do when actually seeing a board, in which case the firing neurons obvious have the shape of a chessboard. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I've seen a lot of chessboards I can imagine one by the same pattern of firing neurons (which have for this particular case all different, or more or less the same connection strengths) as in the actual case of seeing one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" OwnerDisplayName="descheleschilder" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-24T15:54:12.583" LastActivityDate="2016-04-24T15:54:12.583" Title="If I think of a checkerboard, is there a similar structure to see in my visual cortex?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;imagery&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13812" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13817" CreationDate="2016-04-23T20:12:16.623" Score="1" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say a participant is shown a reference stimulus of white colour. Afterwards, they are shown a number of test stimuli that range from yellow to blue like this (yellow -&gt; less_yellow -&gt; whitish -&gt; white -&gt; less_whitish -&gt; blueish -&gt; blue) and they are asked to note which one is identical to the reference stimulus&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience, the participant is likely to underestimate, and pick the stimulus before the actual &quot;white&quot;, but rather somewhere in the area of &quot;whitish&quot;. This may be because they're shown stimuli that progressively go towards the target they are looking for, and they are worried they might miss it, and every new stimulus looks more and more like the reference stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone knows of a psychological bias that relates to this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: After going through some lists of cognitive biases, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrast_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;contrast effect&lt;/a&gt; is similar to what I am referring to, but it does not relate to other facts such as fear of passing the threshold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit2: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Less-is-better_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Less-is-better effect&lt;/a&gt; seems to be related to this too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9581" LastEditorUserId="9581" LastEditDate="2016-04-24T08:02:15.527" LastActivityDate="2016-04-24T13:30:43.347" Title="What's this cognitive bias that relates to misremembering exact stimuli?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13813" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13810" CreationDate="2016-04-23T20:24:18.447" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably. What you mentioned in your question is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinotopy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retinotopy&lt;/a&gt;. There is a mapping between locations on your retina and areas on your cortex. As you go further up the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/What_and_where_pathways&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual processing streams&lt;/a&gt;, the mapping gets more complex and the patterns would be less obvious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/8/5/1531.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here's an image of from a 1988 paper in the Journal of Neuroscience (Tootell, et al.)&lt;/a&gt;. It shows a visual pattern on the left, and the corresponding neurons that were activated by that pattern in a monkey's primary visual cortex. The pattern was created using a technique called &lt;em&gt;Deoxyglucose Labeling&lt;/em&gt;, where active neurons absorb a radioactive substance which can later be detected during dissection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/x1oi2.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/x1oi2.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Retinotopic map in macaque&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/22/15/6549.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here's something similar in a mouse brain&lt;/a&gt; using a different technique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question is about &lt;strong&gt;imagining&lt;/strong&gt; a visual image, though. That is more complicated and research is currently underway to answer that question. Evidence points towards similar cortical patterns between imagined and perceived stimuli. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/15/10/1570.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here is a study&lt;/a&gt;, not as detailed as the mouse or monkey ones, that found some evidence for retinotopy during imagining visual stimuli. &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/pdf/1510.06479v2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here is another&lt;/a&gt; where researchers could decode an imagined visual stimulus through fMRI. And &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/15/10/1570.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here is yet another&lt;/a&gt; using fMRI to detect the direction of imagined motion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a huge difference between the precise results from the animal perception studies and the human imagining studies. One big difference is that it is very difficult or impossible to do invasive studies with humans where you can get such high precision. Another difficulty with this research is knowing exactly when and what someone is imagining. It's easy to correlate brain activity with an external stimulus, because you know exactly what is occurring. All you have for the imagining case is self-report, which can be flawed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, the research is progressing and there will be a good answer to this question soon enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastEditorUserId="10227" LastEditDate="2016-04-23T20:42:15.140" LastActivityDate="2016-04-23T20:42:15.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13814" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13836" CreationDate="2016-04-23T21:10:31.690" Score="4" ViewCount="179" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer - I am not a student of psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm currently researching Internet Addiction Disorder and online games for a paper I'm writing. Is there an actual reason why it's not included? Is it because it's such a new area of study?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11416" LastActivityDate="2016-04-27T05:14:33.240" Title="Why is Internet Addiction Disorder not listed in the DSM-5 manual?" Tags="&lt;internet&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13815" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-24T09:32:32.883" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, I get the inexplicable feeling, which also happens to be maddening, that the word &lt;strong&gt;why&lt;/strong&gt; is spelled wrong. In my mind, for a few seconds at least, the spelling doesn't match with the word at all.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other words are &lt;strong&gt;while&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;when&lt;/strong&gt; etc. This is usually followed by a frantic search online or in a dictionary for the word's spelling, after which my mind truly believes that the spelling of the word is correct.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11417" LastActivityDate="2016-04-24T09:32:32.883" Title="What is the phenomenon where a person inexplicably feels that a word is spelled wrong?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-05-01T00:44:05.010" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13816" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-24T11:41:56.013" Score="3" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just discovered voltage &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage-sensitive_dye&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sensitive dyes technique&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen that figures are labelled with dF/F0, what does it stands for? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11418" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2016-05-01T00:48:23.467" LastActivityDate="2016-05-01T00:48:23.467" Title="Voltage sensitive dyes technique: What is the underlying measure?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13817" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13812" CreationDate="2016-04-24T11:47:27.007" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As opposed to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrast_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;contrast effect&lt;/a&gt; which relates to stimuli that are presented simultaneously or in immediate succession, the similar &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinction_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;distinction bias&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; constitutes a possible/partial explanation for the phenomenon that you conjecture: stimuli are experienced as more distinct when presented simultaneously than when they are presented separately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another bias that may play a role here is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;anchoring&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which describes the tendency to take that piece of information which is presented first in some context as a reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this applies to (perceptual) judgement, not so much to memory/misremembering (but I think that this is what your question is actually about).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am sceptical regarding the observation of underestimation being more likely. It is possible that some worry to miss leads to a hasty decision, but isn't it equally possible that a more optimistic participant has an opposite tendency, missing the correct stimulus? This will depend on the design, too – it should make a difference whether the displayed series just starts with the yellow sample, shows the blue sample before starting with the yellow, shows the whole continuum before starting at either end, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, the &lt;strong&gt;accuracy of perceptual judgement&lt;/strong&gt; is the subject of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detection_theory#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;signal detection theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; which considers tendencies to falsely miss a present target stimulus, or to falsely rate an absent target stimulus as present. Signal detection theory explicitly includes &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Response_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;response bias&lt;/a&gt; and reasons why responses may be either liberally or conservatively biased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8427" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-24T13:30:43.347" LastActivityDate="2016-04-24T13:30:43.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13818" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-24T14:29:11.983" Score="3" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;As is known, a neuron can have incoming and outgoing synapses. When a neuron fires, what does prevent that only outgoing synapses are activated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-24T18:01:48.850" LastActivityDate="2016-04-26T10:07:29.860" Title="What prevents a neuron from activating an incoming synapse?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13819" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13816" CreationDate="2016-04-24T16:34:44.997" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found that dF/F0 stands for the relative difference in fluorescence at a certain wavelength. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OsXmN.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OsXmN.png&quot; alt=&quot;df&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11418" LastActivityDate="2016-04-24T16:34:44.997" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13820" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13818" CreationDate="2016-04-24T19:01:36.443" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basically there are two reasons. First, (most) synapses are asymmetrically designed in such a way that &lt;strong&gt;synaptic transmission only works in one direction&lt;/strong&gt;. Second, &lt;strong&gt;action potentials usually run in one direction only&lt;/strong&gt;, from the axon hillock down the axon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saying that a neuron fires means that an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;action potential&lt;/a&gt; (AP) is effected, a series of  depolarisations along the axon which constitute a signal that moves down the axon, since &lt;strong&gt;APs are usually initiated at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon_hillock&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;axon hillock&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Neural signal flow thus generally is directed &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodromic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;orthodromically&lt;/a&gt;, i.e. along the axon and away from the soma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A synapse is constituted partially by the presynaptic neuron, partially by the postsynaptic neuron. It is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon_terminal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;axon terminals&lt;/a&gt;, located at the distal end of the presynaptic neuron's axon, which can carry a neural signal further over the synaptic cleft to effect an AP in the postsynaptic neuron. This &lt;strong&gt;generally works in one direction only&lt;/strong&gt; – e.g. the presynaptic part of the synapse can release neurotransmitters, and the postsynaptic part of the synapse has receptors for the neurotransmitters, not the other way round (mind that this does not imply that the postsynaptic part of the synapse cannot have any effect on its presynaptic counterpart).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the propagation of the AP along the axon basically works through causing neighbouring parts of the axon to depolarize, it would be possible that at some point a &lt;strong&gt;second AP&lt;/strong&gt; is generated which runs back &lt;strong&gt;into the direction the original AP came from&lt;/strong&gt;. However, &lt;strong&gt;this is prevented by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterhyperpolarization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;afterhyperpolarization&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (also called refractory period): the membrane potential falls below the usual resting potential and thus prevents this running back up of a second, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidromic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;antidromic&lt;/a&gt; AP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mechanism of afterhyperpolarization is largely responsible for unidirectional propagation. &lt;em&gt;However&lt;/em&gt;, it has to be emphasized that this only applies if the AP is initiated at the axon hillock in the first place. &lt;strong&gt;If an action potential forms at some point down the axon, it is indeed possible that two APs are generated&lt;/strong&gt;, one moving down the axon, another one moving upwards towards the soma. This is called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_backpropagation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neural backpropagation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, and while it constitutes an actual phenomenon in the nervous systems, there is not much clarity yet about its (possible) functions. However, the above mentioned unidirectional design of chemical synapses prevents this signal to effect synaptic transmission.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another phenomenon that can be said to reverse the »normal«, unidirectional flow in neurons is that of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrotonic_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;electrotonic potentials&lt;/a&gt; (but they don't effect anything like antidromic APs), and finally an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autapse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;autapse&lt;/a&gt; is a synapse from a neuron's axon onto its own dendrite, so that in some sense it is correct to say that a neuron with an autapse activates an »incoming synapse« (however not in the sense the question seems to imply). Finally, it should also be mentioned that in contrast to chemical synapses, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_synapse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;electrical synapses&lt;/a&gt; work in both directions (notwithstanding the above).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8427" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-26T10:07:29.860" LastActivityDate="2016-04-26T10:07:29.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13823" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="399" CreationDate="2016-04-25T03:25:44.340" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The free iPhone/Android app &lt;a href=&quot;http://asada.tukusi.ne.jp/cvsimulator/e/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Chromatic Vision Simulator&lt;/a&gt; mimics all 3 forms of color deficiency and allows you to apply a percentage of deficit to photos or live camera input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11428" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-27T10:34:04.260" LastActivityDate="2016-04-27T10:34:04.260" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13824" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15259" CreationDate="2016-04-25T06:23:41.160" Score="2" ViewCount="1018" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any chance that a neuron could fire when hyperpolarized? In that case, would the spike be different than usual?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11124" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-17T11:16:58.483" LastActivityDate="2018-01-20T01:33:59.280" Title="Can a hyperpolarized neuron fire action potentials?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13825" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13833" CreationDate="2016-04-25T06:31:00.573" Score="3" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to have a neuron that in some synapses releases inhibitory neurotransmitters and excitatory in others (everything triggered by the same spike) ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11124" LastActivityDate="2016-04-26T13:39:46.590" Title="Can one neuron spike inhibit and excite at the same time?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13828" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-25T15:12:34.313" Score="4" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know there have been many studies on meditation in general, with noticeable changes in the brain. From a skeptic's perspective, I am curious if there are noticeable changes in the brain between &quot;normal&quot; practitioners and &quot;enlightened&quot; practitioners.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any studies that focused on self-reported or peer-reported &quot;enlightened&quot; people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2664" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-04-27T14:59:31.750" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T23:09:37.083" Title="Does any neurological research exist surrounding Buddhist &quot;enlightenment&quot;?" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13829" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-25T17:19:05.593" Score="5" ViewCount="1354" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just discovered voltage &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage-sensitive_dye&quot;&gt;sensitive dyes technique&lt;/a&gt; and I was wondering what would be the advantage to use 2-photons microscopy compared to confocal microscopy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They are both fluorescent techniques which can measure photon's emission, in most of the cases it looks like 2-photons microscopy is preferred over confocal microscopy, but why is that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11418" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-04-25T17:21:02.643" LastActivityDate="2016-09-06T16:50:09.177" Title="Voltage sensitive dyes technique: 2-photons microscopy vs confocal microscopy" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13830" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13732" CreationDate="2016-04-26T00:22:43.980" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a review of how this question is debated in Cognitive Science, search for Searle's Chinese Room Thought Experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the Chinese Room Thought Experiment, Searle argues &lt;strong&gt;there is something fundamentally meaningful (semantic-holding-preserving) about the internal state of a living being&lt;/strong&gt;. Additionally, this meaning cannot be approximated by a computer. Consequently, &lt;strong&gt;since this meaning cannot be approximated, the human being cannot be reduced to a function&lt;/strong&gt;. Any attempt at this will fail to approximate this &quot;meaning&quot; and be incomplete in some respect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To justify this stance, he makes the analogy between a person in a room that receives commands through a door in Chinese. Although the person does not understand Chinese, thanks to reference books, he can give the appropriate response on a piece of paper and slip it back under the door. In the analogy, the reference books are the database of rules, the person is the program and the door is the input and output. Obviously the program (person) does not understand Chinese or anything about the meaning of the input and output. How can any computer program (or as you say in your question &quot;function&quot;) be said to approximate the human mind if it doesn't understand anything?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many replies to this thought experiment. The most potent reply I've come across to this is the System's Reply, which claims that although the person does not understand Chinese, the system as a whole is what understands Chinese.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Searle replies to this argument by letting the man internalize the books and let him wander outside into China. Searle claims that the man will still not understand Chinese in any &quot;meaningful&quot; manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't find this reply convincing since, when you look at what &quot;meaningful&quot; means to Searle and where it comes from biologically, Searle justifies that there is something in the synapses that can't be captured by a computer. This is an ineffective argument since it can't be proven or disproven by measurement or experiment. Additionally, it is easily defeated by Pylyshyn's reductionist argument. Pylyshyn argues that according to Searle, if you individually replaced every synapse with an identically functioning silicon component, eventually you would cease to have meaningful thought, which seems absurd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I would argue that Searle's counter-argument to the System's Reply is a limited metaphor. Give the person a chance to modify the books in their head as well as interact with Chinese in the wild and undoubtedly they will understand Chinese! That's literally how people learn language!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I have clearly chosen a side in this debate, it's far from settled, as most things remain in philosophy, but hopefully this gives you a good starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-31T19:06:31.890" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T19:06:31.890" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13831" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-26T10:49:38.820" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the past few years my target has been to work out every morning (resistance training). On average I have only made it to the gym around 2 out of every 5 mornings. On days on which I do make it, I feel hugely improved mood and productivity. So,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the current state of research at the intersection of delayed reward and exercise?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can motivation can be improved short- or long-term?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11441" LastEditorUserId="11441" LastEditDate="2016-04-26T14:51:53.083" LastActivityDate="2016-04-26T14:51:53.083" Title="How does one internalize the delayed reward of exercise?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13833" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13825" CreationDate="2016-04-26T13:39:46.590" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The textbook convention is that neurons release only one type of chemical from their synaptic terminals. This is known as Dale's Principle (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale%27s_principle&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale%27s_principle&lt;/a&gt;), and would exclude the possibility that neurons can release both inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples have been found of neurons which co-release two types of neurotransmitters, such as Glutamate and Dopamine [1] or GABA and Dopamine [2]. The effect of Dopamine depends on the types of Dopamine receptors in the target neuron, is generally modulatory, and can not be classified as purely excitatory or inhibitory [3], which is what your question asked. There is no evidence for neurons which release purely inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters, such as GABA and glutamate respectively. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Sulzer, D., and S. Rayport. &quot;Dale's principle and glutamate corelease from ventral midbrain dopamine neurons.&quot; Amino acids 19.1 (2000): 45-52.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Tritsch, Nicolas X., Jun B. Ding, and Bernardo L. Sabatini. &#xA;&quot;Dopaminergic neurons inhibit striatal output through non-canonical release of GABA.&quot; Nature 490.7419 (2012): 262-266.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Romanelli RJ, Williams JT, Neve KA (2009). &quot;Chapter 6: Dopamine receptor signalling: intracellular pathways to behavior&quot;. In Neve KA. The Dopamine Receptors. Springer. pp. 137–174. ISBN 1-60327-333-6.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7906" LastActivityDate="2016-04-26T13:39:46.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13834" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13732" CreationDate="2016-04-26T17:58:03.557" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently became aware of the field of &lt;strong&gt;Evolutionary Psychology&lt;/strong&gt; and read the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-scientific-fundamentalist/201101/beautiful-people-have-more-daughters&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Why beautiful people have more daughters&quot;&lt;/a&gt; by Satoshi Kanazawa. It is quite enlightening - this new field suggests that humans have built-in psychological programs and preferences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kanazawa suggests - when looking for a potential mate in the african savanna, without the concept of age and calendar, the human &lt;strong&gt;male brain&lt;/strong&gt; has evolved to prefer traits associated with high fertility and youth:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long shiny hair&lt;/strong&gt; (disease causes hair to lose luster - evidence of health)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Waist to hip ratio&lt;/strong&gt; of ~0.7 (Indicates fertility and healthy hormone levels)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Big breasts&lt;/strong&gt; (larger breasts sag more with age - easier to guess age)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Blonde hair&lt;/strong&gt; (more of a northern European trait, where clothing obscures traits listed above, and teenagers lose blonde hair and turn brunette with age)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Blue eyes&lt;/strong&gt; (easier to see arousal via pupil dilation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The factors above combine into the universal model of beauty, because youth maximizes reproductive success (younger woman can conceive easier and will give birth to more children than a woman in her 30s). The primitive brain effortlessly and unconsciously reads traits above as &quot;attractive&quot;. Yet one will have hard time rationally explaining why they are attractive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To answer your question - I would say that these &quot;lower order&quot; cognitive processes can indeed be modeled like a robot or personal function.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-04-26T17:58:03.557" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13835" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-26T20:24:44.510" Score="3" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've just been reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/97/4/548/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; and I am currently conducting an experiment for my undergraduate thesis. The experiment involves reality monitoring source memory judgments and I therefore want to use multinomial processing tree models (MPTM) to analyse the behavioral data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the article I linked above, they have an example under the heading &quot;Reality monitoring&quot; from an article by Johnson, Foley, and Leach (1988). They include the original 3x3 data table from their study, as well as a parameter estimate using MPTM. Can someone help me explain how they obtain those variables? For example, when I try to calculate D1 based on the original 3x3 data I get (87+8)/(87+8+25) = 0,79 and not 0,75 as is stated in their table.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11447" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-04-26T23:35:26.730" LastActivityDate="2016-04-26T23:35:26.730" Title="How do I get calculate D1 and d1 in a multinomial processing tree model?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13836" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13814" CreationDate="2016-04-27T05:14:33.240" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's debate over whether Internet addiction is it's own disorder or a symptom of an underlying psychosis. See this essay by the first man to publish the term: &lt;a href=&quot;https://theconversation.com/is-internet-addiction-a-misnomer-55727&quot;&gt;https://theconversation.com/is-internet-addiction-a-misnomer-55727&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10774" LastActivityDate="2016-04-27T05:14:33.240" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13837" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-27T10:49:26.333" Score="3" ViewCount="219" Body="&lt;p&gt;I posted the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/32661/is-50-of-a-happiness-determined-by-genetics&quot;&gt;&quot;Is 50% of a happiness determined by genetics?&quot; on Skeptics&lt;/a&gt; but realize I don't fully understand the claim. What does it mean that 50% of happiness is determined by genetics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it mean that each time a person is happy, 50% of the reason they are happy is because of genetics? How can that possibly make sense as happiness is a human construct so why wouldn't the genetic factor apply the same to other emotions like sadness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is an example of how genetics determines happiness, that someone is predisposed to liking chocolate, so if they're happy when eating chocolate cake, genetics is 50% of the reason they are happy? Is that the claim?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this mean that an unhappy person can't do that much to become happy? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: would it be correct to say a person can change their level of happiness by +/-50%? Is this what the claim is saying? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TL;DR does the statement mean a person has at most 50% control over how happy they are?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2013/02/12/study-happiness-is-partially-genetic/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CBS New York reports on research presenting this claim&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:46:43.487" LastActivityDate="2016-04-30T15:48:51.810" Title="What does the statement mean &quot;50% of happiness is determined by genetics&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13838" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-27T13:59:47.250" Score="2" ViewCount="589" Body="&lt;p&gt;I continue to see an oversimplification in the descriptions of the options available that arouse cognitive dissonance: some websites state that all decisions have positive and negative aspects that will lead to dissonance and some say that dissonance is aroused only when a decision is made between two equally desirable options.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, do ALL decisions arouse cognitive dissonance? Or just the decisions made between options that are equally or near-equally desirable? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if I were to choose between an Ivy league college or a SUNY school, I don't think I would very much regret going to the Ivy league school and not the other (or would I be reducing dissonance by telling myself that?). However, the website explaining cognitive dissonance simply labels these options as &quot;colleges&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also what if the decision making was something trivial (in my perceptions)? Do whimsical decisions arouse dissonance as well? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if I had a very large sum of money and I was selecting between two equally desirable cars, and I could very easily afford both, would I still experience much dissonance? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10694" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T05:57:36.887" Title="Do ALL decisions arouse cognitive dissonance?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13840" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13607" CreationDate="2016-04-27T16:51:13.490" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;How to integrate realistic cognitive models of human behaviour and ecomonic models is an open research question, however to tackle it, it might be helpful to break it into a few more easily answerable sub-questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What models of human planning with emotional influence exist?&lt;/strong&gt; There are a number of models in existence that try to &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/Articles/thagard-schroeder.emotions-pointers.2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;capture emotion&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/117/1/61/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;personality&lt;/a&gt;. However, I don't know any that apply to planning specifically, given that modelling long-term planning is an extremely hard problem in it's own right! My lab-mate Peter Blouw made a rudimentary model of planning with Bryan Tripp that just got accepted to the CogSci2016 Conference. I will update this answer with the link once it is public ally available.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What models of human social interactions integrate personality?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.ca/citations?view_op=view_citation&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;user=YcBGOtQAAAAJ&amp;amp;sortby=pubdate&amp;amp;citation_for_view=YcBGOtQAAAAJ:tswL-GKFg8UC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human social interactions are really hard to model&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/12395/4397&quot;&gt;especially at a large scale&lt;/a&gt;, consequently most models that currently exist are rudimentary at best.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the most detailed cognitive model of human behaviour used in economics?&lt;/strong&gt; I don't know the answer to this off the top of my head, by I remember this being discussed in Khaneman's &quot;Think Fast, Thinking Slow&quot;, where he talks about the diminishing returns that come with including more complicated cognitive factors in economic models.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To get more complete answers to these questions, feel free to ask them as separate questions on this site. I will happily upvote them!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-04-27T16:51:13.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13842" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-28T14:03:27.850" Score="1" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the explicitness of rules affect how ardently those affected by the rules attempt to circumvent them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in a game where the rule says &quot;do not communicate&quot;, then the players would not try to communicate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in a game where the rule says &quot;do not verbally communicate&quot;, then the players would try to sign.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11460" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-04-28T16:36:16.837" LastActivityDate="2016-04-28T17:56:25.273" Title="Is it a phenomenon that explicit rules encourage others to find loopholes?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13843" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13837" CreationDate="2016-04-28T17:44:45.093" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can think of two ways this can work (though not sure of 50% or more or less):&#xA;(1) The &quot;environment&quot; to support a happy mind would, among other things, constitute a healthy body. And a body being healthy does depend, among other things, on genetics.&#xA;(2) The predisposition of an individual to feel happy, given a suitable stimulus might depend on genetics; probably some kind of &quot;happiness&quot; gene!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11464" LastActivityDate="2016-04-28T17:44:45.093" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13845" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10105" CreationDate="2016-04-28T19:05:15.797" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://whathecode.wordpress.com/2011/02/10/camelcase-vs-underscores-scientific-showdown/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the author of the blog post you refer to&lt;/a&gt;, I can state that at the time of writing (early 2011) there were not too many studies reporting on this specific topic, which is why I reported on the single study I found at the time (Binkley et al. 2009). However, I advise you to read a follow-up study by a different group of researchers (Sharif and Maletic 2010). They address some of the shortcomings in the earlier study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The common finding for both studies is that camelCasing is slower to read, which &lt;a href=&quot;https://whathecode.wordpress.com/2013/02/16/camelcase-vs-underscores-revisited/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;I summarized in a follow-up post&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;No difference in accuracy&lt;/strong&gt; was reported (as opposed to Binkley et al.),&#xA;  but on average, &lt;strong&gt;camel-cased identifiers took 932ms (20%) longer&lt;/strong&gt; than&#xA;  underscored identifiers, in line with the 13,5% longer as reported by&#xA;  Binkley et al. The eye tracking results also give some insight into&#xA;  visual effort. &lt;strong&gt;Camel-cased identifiers require a higher average&#xA;  duration of fixations.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on more general studies in cognitive science (Epelboim et al. 2009) (as &lt;a href=&quot;https://whathecode.wordpress.com/2011/02/10/camelcase-vs-underscores-scientific-showdown/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;I mentioned in the summary of the first study&lt;/a&gt;) this was to be expected:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Natural language research in psychology found that replacing spaces&#xA;  with Latin letters, Greek letters or digits had a negative impact on&#xA;  reading. However, shaded boxes (similar to underscores) have&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;essentially no effect on reading times&lt;/strong&gt; or on recognition of individual&#xA;  words. Removing spaces altogether slows down reading 10-20%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I haven't done any follow-up research on this, thus it would definitely be worthwhile to dig into more recent citations. The ones listed below should provide a suitable starting point to this end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Binkley, D., Davis, M., Lawrie, D., &amp;amp; Morrell, C. (2009, May). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ICPC.2009.5090039&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;To camelcase or under_score.&lt;/a&gt; In Program Comprehension, 2009. ICPC'09. IEEE 17th International Conference on (pp. 158-167). IEEE. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.158.9499&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Sharif, B., &amp;amp; Maletic, J. I. (2010, June). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ICPC.2010.41&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;An eye tracking study on camelcase and under_score identifier styles&lt;/a&gt;. In Program Comprehension (ICPC), 2010 IEEE 18th International Conference on (pp. 196-205). IEEE. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bonita_Sharif/publication/224159770_An_Eye_Tracking_Study_on_camelCase_and_under_score_Identifier_Styles/links/00b49534cc03bab22b000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Epelboim, J., Booth, J. R., Ashkenazy, R., Taleghani, A., &amp;amp; Steinman, R. M. (1997). Fillers and spaces in text: The importance of word recognition during reading. Vision Research, 37(20), 2899-2914.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2016-04-28T19:05:15.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13846" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13837" CreationDate="2016-04-28T20:25:30.837" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the idea is that genetics regulate neurochemistry and therefore daily mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example--it's likely that some people naturally experience more pleasure due to the calibration of their dopamine and serotonin systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Habits of mind may also play a role, but almost certainly a smaller one than genetics do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastActivityDate="2016-04-28T20:25:30.837" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13847" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-04-28T21:08:11.307" Score="1" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that a psychopath experiences diminished or non-existent empathy and remorse as well as dis-inhibition meaning that they have a certain 'meanness' and a poor impulse control. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in how they would deem the actions that they perform as a result of their condition. &lt;strong&gt;Would they justify their actions as being morally correct?&lt;/strong&gt; The right thing to do, so to speak.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11466" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-04-29T07:47:39.233" LastActivityDate="2016-04-29T07:47:39.233" Title="How would a psychopath deem their actions?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13847" CreationDate="2016-04-28T21:21:02.747" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, usually they are smart and know that their actions are considered morally incorrect, but they just don't care.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11467" LastActivityDate="2016-04-28T21:21:02.747" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13850" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10344" CreationDate="2016-04-29T11:44:34.157" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not a psychologist. However, I am a writer, so I will try my best. When an author sets out to create a fictional work, he or she aims to immerse the reader in the world, to get the reader to care for the characters. All of this is done in order to leave an impression on the reader--an emotional connection established between the character and the reader makes a work of fiction that much more better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When killing a character, an author is attempting to use the connection that the reader has with the character in order to produce emotions in the reader. In addition, the author may be aiming to support a major theme in the work. However, the death of a fictional character mainly serves to produce emotions in the reader, and give him/her a sense of resolution to the character.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11472" LastActivityDate="2016-04-29T11:44:34.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13851" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13541" CreationDate="2016-04-29T14:38:36.333" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question may be too complex to answer specifically as there are several components that identify Logical-Mathematical intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of behaviour high LMI people &lt;strong&gt;need&lt;/strong&gt; things to explore and think about, and are often seen as manipulative and often seek new experiences or topic matter to discover.  These people &lt;strong&gt;love&lt;/strong&gt; to experiment, question, figure out and calculate and often excel in logical or mathematical topics (as the name implies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Testing for this in isolation may prove to be difficult as question sets focusing on logical reasoning and mathematical prowess may be skewed due to several reasons, including insufficient education to master the mathematics and the fact that given time most people have the ability to respond to LMI based questions.  Its is also very common that people may have a high L sub-component and a low M sub-component and vice-versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;May I suggest a more holistic way of measuring MI in all it's facets, and then extracting the top LMI performers.  There are a few commercial tests and testing bodies that can help you here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11474" LastActivityDate="2016-04-29T14:38:36.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13854" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13837" CreationDate="2016-04-30T15:30:37.097" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The statement 50% of happiness is determined by genetics is presumably talking about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability#Estimating_heritability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;heritability estimates&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is probably talking about the percentage of variance explained by genetics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These estimates are commonly estimated using twin studies. For example, you administer a survey to people that ask a bunch of questions about how happy they feel. There are a variety of measures (e.g., life satisfaction measures, quality of life measures, measures of tendencies to experience positive and negative emotions). If you administer these measures to twins, some of which are fraternal and some of which are identical, you can compare the degree to which the overlap in happiness scores increases in the identical over the fraternal twins. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A wide range of theories of well-being suggest that most people are happy most of the time. There is also theory to suggest that a person's emotional tendencies (e.g., see neuroticism, extraversion, well-being, and so on) are quite stable over long periods of time (i.e., over many years). So this does suggest, that at the very least, it is unusual for someone's emotional tendency to change dramatically over time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-04-30T15:48:51.810" LastActivityDate="2016-04-30T15:48:51.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13855" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13860" CreationDate="2016-04-30T16:54:24.350" Score="5" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/13833/11124&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; answer a neuron can release only specific type of neurotransmitters at the time, however, could it change over time? For example a neuron that now releases only inhibitory neurotransmitters, after a few days will turn into a neuron releasing only excitatory neurotransmitters. If it is possible, then what does it depend on (mathematical models appreciated)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11124" LastEditorUserId="11124" LastEditDate="2017-04-29T07:29:55.667" LastActivityDate="2017-04-29T07:29:55.667" Title="Can neuron change from excitatory to inhibitory (and vice versa) over time?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13856" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13838" CreationDate="2016-04-30T22:01:40.657" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: This is mostly a question about statistical significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive dissonance theory encompasses several different research paradigms.  I believe this question is about the &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance#Free_choice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;free-choice&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; paradigm - the only one that involves decision-making.  This paradigm is also sometimes referred to as &amp;quot;choice-induced dissonance&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;post-decisional attitude change&amp;quot; (though the latter &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fscan%2Fnsq054&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;may be a misnomer&lt;/a&gt;, as attitude change may happen during the decision-making process rather than after).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Traditional view:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the original formulation of this paradigm by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0041006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brehm (1956)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A second prediction, that dissonance and consequent attempts to reduce&#xA;it would be greater, the more closely the alternatives approached&#xA;equality, also received support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, it was suggested that dissonance occurs in all decisions, but decisions arouse more dissonance the more difficult (closer) they are, and presumably less dissonance the easier (more distanced) they are.  The problem with this formulation is that at some point, the dissonance induced by sufficiently easy decisions is so small as to fail to reach statistical significance (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;p-value&lt;/a&gt;), making it essentially impossible to test this aspect of the hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first 50 years or so since the theory was proposed, much support has been found for dissonance aroused by difficult decisions (for reviews, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/3150746&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cummings &amp;amp; Venkatesan, 1976&lt;/a&gt;; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/10318-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harmon-Jones &amp;amp; Mills, 1999&lt;/a&gt;).  Numerous variables other than &amp;quot;closeness of alternatives&amp;quot; have been proposed to moderate dissonance, such as importance of the decision, relevance to self, how public the decision is, personality traits, etc - see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2011.580155&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kenworthy et al (2011)&lt;/a&gt; for a review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Recent developments:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020217&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chen and Risen (2010)&lt;/a&gt; called the entire paradigm into question by pointing out that it is subject to a statistical artifact (first &lt;a href=&quot;https://ssrn.com/abstract=1160268&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;noted in 2008&lt;/a&gt;) that could be responsible for many false-positive results.  That is, statistically significant changes in preference may be even more difficult to induce in subjects than previously believed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers are currently in the process of replicating and reevaluating the body of work that this paradigm is based on, controlling for the statistical artifact.  Unfortunately, any assessments made prior to this of the level of cognitive dissonance produced by decisions are &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00041&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;likely overestimated&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using the free-choice paradigm, many social psychological studies have&#xA;investigated the effect of moderating factors on choice-induced&#xA;preference change ... (e.g., choice importance, choice reversibility,&#xA;etc. ...) ... However, without a proper control condition, any&#xA;argument about absolute preference change would not be warranted&#xA;(i.e., it is unclear whether or not significant dissonance reduction&#xA;occurred in each condition). ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same argument applies to past studies comparing preference change&#xA;between two groups of individuals with different personalities ... or&#xA;different cultural backgrounds ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Data from Izuma et al. (2010) suggests that individual differences in&#xA;preference changes, which are measured in the typical free-choice&#xA;paradigm explain only about 28% of the total variance in true&#xA;preference changes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-01-05T05:57:36.887" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T05:57:36.887" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13859" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13194" CreationDate="2016-05-01T16:03:48.940" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Motor neurons, i.e neurons from wich there emerge coherent and parallel signals to our body to move it in an orderly and coherent way, are situated in the upper cortex, wich can be activated by will, or artificial (in wich case the ones who do the controlling do actually the same, also by will, only not to move their own body, but someone´s other).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering perception, I know that smelling something doesn´t develop in the cortex, but seeing for sure. The neurons responsible for seeing are in the cortex in the back of your head. This region is divided by the so-called area´s  V-1 to V-5, each with an own task. It possible that someone because of this sees only blackness but can nevertheless point out in wich direction an object moves. and some people can´t see the difference between a circle or a square.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The perception of feeling is also situated in the cortex on top of your head (I´m sure you know that deformed person that represents how the strength of the feeling if someone touches you; the person with the big lips).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastActivityDate="2016-05-01T16:03:48.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13860" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13855" CreationDate="2016-05-01T16:09:18.533" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, it is not possible for a neuron to change which type of neurotransmitter it releases.  However, it is the case that the neurotransmitter GABA changes from excitatory to inhibitory over the course of development.  This is occurs because GABA activates Cl- (chloride) channels.  The chloride concentration gradient across the cell membrane changes directions over development, so the direction of current caused by opening of Cl- channels also changes.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3, 728-739 (September 2002) | doi:10.1038/nrn920&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Excitatory actions of gaba during development: the nature of the nurture&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Yehezkel Ben-Ari&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v3/n9/abs/nrn920.html&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v3/n9/abs/nrn920.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2016-05-01T16:09:18.533" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13861" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-01T16:11:51.390" Score="5" ViewCount="367" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How is it possible that after using LSD you can hear sounds and see colors?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have my own experience with this phenomenon. When I´m lying totally relaxed in bed and suddenly a door is closed loudly, I see an explosion of colors. Are the two brain regions responsible for hearing and seeing, if you´re totally relaxed (for example just before falling asleep), somehow more connected with each other?    Maybe the two regions are disconnected in a relaxed mode, but when a sudden sound (or maybe a flash of light in the other direction) occurs the neural network associated with hearing is suddenly &amp;quot;scared&amp;quot; and sends a &amp;quot;cry for help&amp;quot; to adjacent regions (resulting in a flash of light or in the other direction a sound, but I've never experienced this).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I edited because the new answer is always welcome, though the first answer is very clear about this &amp;quot; tpo-cic&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="11444" LastEditDate="2020-09-05T08:39:39.917" LastActivityDate="2020-09-05T10:33:20.590" Title="Can LSD connect sensory regions in the brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13862" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13868" CreationDate="2016-05-01T19:18:54.220" Score="6" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading now many studies about juvenile offending and delinquency, and there are always compared offenders´ results from different tests (for example personality, IQ) with control group. I am asking myself why, when there exist norms that are representative for normal population?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6990" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-05-03T15:07:19.277" LastActivityDate="2016-05-03T15:07:19.277" Title="Why compare a target group to a control group when population norms are available?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13863" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-01T19:46:46.203" Score="1" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find a real, reliable, accurate IQ test, that someone could take multiple times (so maybe has randomized questions?). It is for a study involving IQ and video games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11488" LastActivityDate="2016-05-01T19:46:46.203" Title="Where can I find a real, reliable, iq test that someone could take multiple times?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13864" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1556" CreationDate="2016-05-01T23:08:47.010" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Taking Up John Berryman's challenge in the Comment to the Question:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Most people do not develop mentally past the Concrete Operations stage or early Formal Operations (Piaget). People with this (very common and normal) level of mental development do not reason well in abstract terms and cannot do advanced symbolic manipulations. They are prone to the many Cognitive Biases and other types of fallacy because &lt;strong&gt;they cannot see how proper reasoning is different from the fallacies and biases.&lt;/strong&gt; (Indeed, if everyone could reason properly, the biases would not exist.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, like the common tendency to need glasses to see well, and the likelihood of having crooked teeth or getting cataracts, these are just normal situations that render many people unable to reason as needed to understand science. No amount of 'splaining' or 'edumication' will help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People usually stop developing mentally when they finish school, unless they are unusually motivated to keep studying something out of interest or have very stimulating companions. &#xA;(Note that this is not to say that anyone &lt;em&gt;cannot&lt;/em&gt; develop farther mentally due to some sort of deficiency, merely that they &lt;em&gt;do not&lt;/em&gt;, out of life choice and habit. So don't call me a bigot!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastActivityDate="2016-05-01T23:08:47.010" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13865" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-02T10:27:02.743" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am confident of my knowledge because I’ve studied and practiced long enough. Tomorrow is the exam. Which is better of the following, given I have the time to practice even more. I would have a good night’s sleep either way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Practice even more.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do something else, maybe read a fiction book.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do something else which requires harder mental effort but practically useful, i.e. do my (unrelated) work.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The current subject at hand is math, but I am interested in the answer in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10839" LastActivityDate="2016-05-02T10:27:02.743" Title="Should I learn the day before an exam if I am already confident enough?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13867" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13894" CreationDate="2016-05-03T05:10:13.123" Score="1" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;In stories such as Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keyes, the main character, Charlie Gordon, receives an operation on his brain that triples his intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could something like this be achieved if the brain is somehow sped up and forced to do more in less time? And wouldn't something like this cause the brain to deteriorate rapidly from being &quot;worn out&quot; by so much use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/memory-medic/201211/what-happens-the-aging-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; that as the brain ages, it will shrink and will have larger fissures in it. In the story, after what seems to have been a short life, the mouse dies and is dissected. The mouse's brain is found to have much larger fissures and have shrinked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this wearing out or aging of the brain due to increased activity by surgical means accurate in any way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11499" LastActivityDate="2016-05-10T19:00:36.470" Title="Would Artificial Super-Intelligence From Science Fiction &quot;Speed Up&quot; The Brain and Wear it Out Faster Leading to Earlier Death?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13868" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13862" CreationDate="2016-05-03T13:41:05.470" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say your juvenile offender are on average 16 year old boys from Britain, and the control group consists of (on average) 16 year old British boys who haven't done anything wrong. The only difference between these groups are the fact one has a criminal record or not. If you would look at the true norm, you could be looking at the world wide norm of both boys and girls from both Britain and other countries that may or may not have a criminal record. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The control groups (and actual participants) are thus chosen (and tested) specifically to factor out unforeseen variability. Depending on the question authors want to answer, different control groups may be necessary. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-05-03T13:41:05.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13869" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13891" CreationDate="2016-05-03T17:42:07.993" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading a paper that reports average ratings of chords by two different groups of subjects (trained musicians, and non-musicians). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gu7BI.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gu7BI.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper makes the argument that &quot;These group differences may reflect either the manner in which the two groups of subjects used the rating scale or in their perceptions of the chords.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, one would hope that the latter is the case rather than the former, although from this graph one can't be sure since error bars, which would be very informative in this case, are not shown. My question is: is it correct to say that the answer to this question can be given if one compares the variances across groups, e.g.with Levine's test? And that, if found to be unequal, one can argue that the group difference reflects an artefact, i.e. a difference in the way the two groups of subjects used the rating scale?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="6446" LastEditDate="2016-05-04T12:04:40.783" LastActivityDate="2016-05-08T10:17:56.313" Title="Group differences reflecting different use of a rating scale vs actual difference in perception" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13870" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10344" CreationDate="2016-05-03T21:26:26.533" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are various reasons why this question is interesting for cognitive science research.  Examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Children's programming is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g7184&quot;&gt;more violent and features more death&lt;/a&gt; than adult programming.  Children's first exposure to the concept of death is often in fiction.  Nonetheless, we know little about the meaning of death of fictional characters to children.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/publications-and-resources/research/briefings/africa/somalia/health-radio-drama&quot;&gt;Research done in Somalia&lt;/a&gt; following the airing of a BBC radio show depicting the fictional death of a young girl from diarrhoea - one of the biggest killers of children - shows that listeners were greatly affected by the story, learned preventative measures, and put their knowledge into practice, potentially saving lives.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grief counsellors often report patients presenting the same symptoms for grief over a fictional character's death as that of a relative or friend.  Furthermore, using the same therapy has similar effects on grieving for fictional loss as it does for real.  As such, some &lt;a href=&quot;http://time.com/3834589/grief-counselor-mourn-fictional-character-death/&quot;&gt;counsellors advocate&lt;/a&gt; for treating such grief the same as the real thing, rather than something less serious.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fiction writers are also interested in this question for obvious reasons.  For example, what makes &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pdcnet.org/collection/show?id=signsystems_2009_0037_40910_0082_0097&amp;amp;file_type=pdf&quot;&gt;Anna Karenina's death&lt;/a&gt; (considered one of the most tragic deaths in fictional history) so powerful to readers?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Methodology&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The currently popular paradigm in psychology for testing the effect of fiction on subjects involves correlating exposure to fiction with various scales of social understanding and empathy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Subjects may be directly exposed to fictional material as part of the experiment (eg, asked to read a passage or view a clip), or their lifetime exposure to fiction may be estimated through self-reporting via the Author Recognition Test (ART), a validated task-based measure.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) can be used to measure subjects' tendency to become immersed and engaged in narrative.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The most popular tools for measuring social skills and theory of mind are the Mind-in-the-Eyes task (MIE) or Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) - well known tests involving labelling mental states from pictures of eyes.  Other tests of social aptitude are also commonly administered.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Indexes of affect and emotion are also used to measure effects; eg, depression, stress, self-esteem, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In neuroscience, researchers like to compare neuroimaging results of subjects exposed to fictional material, to results of exposure to corresponding real events.  For example, how does the brain react to reading about an action compared to performing that action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fiction vs non-fiction&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evidence indeed supports your assertion that fiction has a different effect on readers than non-fiction.  Far from an unrealistic, fake, or disengaging experience, a variety of different experiments suggest that subjects are more engaged (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2012.01432.x/abstract;jsessionid=05AC4A30CD68D0F5FE1F440DDF0BD161.f04t01&quot;&gt;Appel &amp;amp; Maleckar, 2012&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&amp;amp;uid=2009-20809-006&quot;&gt;Goldstein, 2009&lt;/a&gt;), learn empathy and improve social skills (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/ssol.3.1.06dji&quot;&gt;Djikic et al, 2013&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S009265660500053X&quot;&gt;Mar et al, 2006&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S019188691100451X&quot;&gt;Johnson, 2012&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0055341&quot;&gt;Bal &amp;amp; Veltkamp, 2013&lt;/a&gt;), and score better on Theory of Mind tests (&lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/342/6156/377.abstract&quot;&gt;Kidd &amp;amp; Castano, 2013&lt;/a&gt;), following exposure to fiction, than after exposure to non-fiction with the same content.  There is even evidence that reading fiction may affect personality (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2009-01844-004&quot;&gt;Djikic et al, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an experiment by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/677563?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot;&gt;Ebery and Meyvis (2014)&lt;/a&gt;, subjects predicted that they would be more engaged and emotionally impacted by stories based in fact than fiction.  The participants were then given a story to read about the death of a young girl.  Though all participants read the same story, half were told it was based on true events, while the other half were told it was a fictional account.  Contrary to their beliefs, actual results demonstrated that subjects were more engaged and emotionally impacted by the same story when told in advance that it was fictional.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evidence of these effects of fiction has been replicated across various media formats, including &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885201409000835&quot;&gt;film&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21171755&quot;&gt;video games&lt;/a&gt;.  There are also some notable exceptions: Television for instance, often has &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885201409000835&quot;&gt;an inferior effect&lt;/a&gt;.  Hypotheses suggested to account for this difference include lower quality content, and at least in children, television is also a less social affair compared to other media where parents are naturally more involved.  There is also a difference in effect between &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/342/6156/377.abstract&quot;&gt;literary fiction and popular fiction&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are, similarly, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2013-32688-001/&quot;&gt;different effects across genres&lt;/a&gt; (eg, comedy vs drama), presentation quality (eg, matching soundtrack), and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/677563?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot;&gt;continuity&lt;/a&gt; (eg, technical problems).  Thus there are many factors that affect results, together constituting the overall engagement or immersion factor (sometimes referred to as &quot;transportation&quot; or &quot;experience-taking&quot;), that in turn affects the meaning of a fictional character to its audience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Mental states&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is still a relatively immature area of research, so the usual caveats apply, as many variables have not been explored yet.  For example, many of these results have not been tested across cultures, though there is some indication that personality is not a significant factor in results (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228803316_Exploring_the_link_between_reading_fiction_and_empathy_Ruling_out_individual_differences_and_examining_outcomes&quot;&gt;Mar et al, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Already however, some high-level theories about the meaning of fictional characters have started to emerge.  One such theory is fiction as simulation (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;http://pps.sagepub.com/content/3/3/173.short&quot;&gt;Mar &amp;amp; Oatley, 2008&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/gpr/3/2/101/&quot;&gt;Oatley,1999&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;fiction ... is simulation that runs on minds of readers just as&#xA;  computer simulations run on computers. ... in the simulations of&#xA;  fiction, personal truths can be explored that allow readers to&#xA;  experience emotions-their own emotions-and understand aspects of them&#xA;  that are obscure, in relation to contexts in which the emotions arise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This view is supported by the learning effects of fiction on readers as reviewed above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather than focusing on simulation, learning, and practice effects, an alternative approach emphasizes the similarity between the effects of literary events and real-life events (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2004-00153-002&quot;&gt;Zwann, 2004&lt;/a&gt;).  Support for this view comes from neuroimaging of subjects exposed to fictional content compared with subjects experiencing the real counterpart.  Such studies show that the same areas of the brain are activated in both cases (&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/20/8/989&quot;&gt;Speer et al, 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16949331&quot;&gt;de Vignemont &amp;amp; Singer, 2006&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145406&quot;&gt;Mar, 2011&lt;/a&gt;), suggesting that the mental states involved are essentially the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does this mean for the death of a fictional character?  Well, if mental states evoked by fictional stories simulate or mirror mental states evoked by real-life events, then the death of a fictional character could have the same meaning as the death of a real-life person.  The death of a favoured character in a television show may have the same effect as the death of a favourite celebrity; the death of a highly engaging fictional character in a book may have the same impact as that of a close friend or family member; and the death of a protagonist one identifies personally with in a story may be equivalent to coming to terms with one's own mortality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2016-05-03T21:26:26.533" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13871" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-03T21:52:52.710" Score="2" ViewCount="579" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a word representing the behavior of people who talk a lot about what they like and use what you say to get back to a topic they want to talk about?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11503" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-05-13T14:57:32.683" LastActivityDate="2016-05-13T14:57:32.683" Title="Is there a name for people who don't listen and talk a lot" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13873" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-04T08:33:19.733" Score="4" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies on the effects of long term imprisonment on cognitive abilities? I'm looking for something which focuses on cognitive impairment rather than other psychological issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11508" LastActivityDate="2016-05-04T08:33:19.733" Title="Cognitive impairment in long term prisoners" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T21:56:16.297" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13874" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13118" CreationDate="2016-05-04T10:01:29.570" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;ACT-R is a complete cognitive model that incorporates Working Memory,  Declarative Memory and Procedural Memory, but also incorporates input (visual and auditory) and output (manual) buffers. It is a really interesting model about the human in its entirety but, it is at a high level of abstraction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper about memory you want is &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/?post_type=publications&amp;amp;p=13920&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;REFLECTIONS OF THE&#xA;ENVIRONMENT IN MEMORY&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Schooler and Anderson. It describes how and why memory is like Reïnforcement learning. In this &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tops.12183/abstract;jsessionid=1EE00B01462ACBBBDA6E467198B56DE8.f03t03&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; you can read how memory is used for studying. About learning to leverage the working memory, I don't exactly know what you mean, but I think these papers give you a nice headstart. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to learn more about ACT-R, I would recommend this &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/?post_type=publications&amp;amp;p=14305&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;book&lt;/a&gt;, or just read the many papers they have published over the years. They have great examples that explain &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/755Salvucci-PR08.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;multitasking&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13421-011-0113-0/fulltext.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;time perception&lt;/a&gt; among others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-05-04T10:01:29.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13877" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13898" CreationDate="2016-05-04T13:07:24.897" Score="5" ViewCount="142" Body="&lt;p&gt;In our day to day life, especially at work(in Office say a software company), due to the nature of work, it requires a lot of attention and deep involvement in the system/code. It is popular belief that taking breaks increases one's productivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering that in order to take a break, a person spends 30 minutes reading a non-fiction book, on his/her favorite topic, totally unrelated to office work, will it account to taking a break. Or due to the huge context switch, will it actually lead to more curiosity and distraction from office work and affect productivity inversely?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6833" LastActivityDate="2016-05-09T10:57:27.403" Title="Can reading a non-fiction book with great curiosity account to taking a break?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13879" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13869" CreationDate="2016-05-04T21:47:35.203" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, I don't think so .  Greater variance could reflect variance in perception just as much as variance in the way the rating scale is used. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11518" LastActivityDate="2016-05-04T21:47:35.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13881" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-05T05:12:35.310" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work as a kindergarten teacher, and it's always fascinating to me that children are so quick to be affectionate and take interest in what their teacher is doing.  Is there an evolutionary reason for this behaviour? Are children genetically programmed from birth to be loving and to affect the emotional bonds of adults around them, in order to receive more resources (food, shelter, etc., for survival)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user11145" LastActivityDate="2016-05-05T05:12:35.310" Title="Why are Children always so interested in adults?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-07-13T22:15:52.543" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13883" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-06T03:36:35.080" Score="5" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;What I mean is like how one might tire of a typical everyday activity they enjoy if they indulge in it too much, like how if you listen to your favorite album too many times you eventually won't be able to enjoy it anymore. I guess this would also be analogous to how addicts develop a tolerance to their drug of choice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I figure it is an interesting phenomenon that must have a very large affect on our behavior patterns so there must be a technical term for it. I wanted to know so I can look into any research there has been on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11531" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-05-06T18:20:33.620" LastActivityDate="2016-05-08T09:39:27.090" Title="Is there a technical term for someone being burnt out on something they enjoy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13885" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-06T21:38:59.680" Score="7" ViewCount="1528" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's think about it, we have all adopted to learn the meaning of words through experiences or emotions. We didn't learn each and every word from a dictionary. What if I understand a word slightly differently in my complex mind? Could it result in some sort of pessimistic or optimistic or abstract outcome? And how often is this case true in our society?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11538" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-05-09T11:56:01.853" LastActivityDate="2016-05-25T10:02:41.227" Title="What if people understand or interpret words differently in their mind?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13887" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-07T11:51:17.070" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am writing a research paper on leadership styles in IT companies in X country. However, I cannot find a western literature on generalization of leadership styles exercised in IT companies, such as software companies for example. I am not interested in Project Management leadership styles as I have people of different titles in my sample. Please let me know if you have any suggestions on particular papers or authors who explored this question? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11541" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2016-05-24T01:05:02.193" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T01:05:02.193" Title="What are the common leadership styles in IT companies?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;leadership&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13888" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13889" CreationDate="2016-05-07T16:25:19.170" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;When running a one-way ANOVA, selecting &quot;Post-hoc&quot; and ticking &quot;Bonferroni&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a box at the bottom which says &quot;significance level&quot; and the default is 0.05.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: should I leave the default value (assuming SPSS adjusts accordingly) or change the value to 0.05/k (k groups)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9853" LastActivityDate="2016-05-07T19:53:23.837" Title="In SPSS, should you change the significance level for One way ANOVA post-hocs?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-07-06T19:15:39.757" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13889" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13888" CreationDate="2016-05-07T19:53:23.837" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Leave it at 0.05 . SPSS corrects it properly. Only when you want to test with different alpha's (.10 or 0.01 e.g.) you should change it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-05-07T19:53:23.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13890" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13883" CreationDate="2016-05-08T09:39:27.090" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no specific term for this &lt;em&gt;entire&lt;/em&gt; phenomenon because there is more than one psychological theory playing a role in your overindulgence or &quot;binge&quot;. Fatigue from repetitiveness, durability bias, and habituation all play a huge role in determining how long you can listen to a certain song before its gets repetitive and boring. &#xA;On the other hand, tolerance from substance abuse has its own special term: Drug Habituation.&#xA;You would be best off searching scholarly journals using the keywords fatigue and habituation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further Reading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/durability_bias.htm&quot;&gt;http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/durability_bias.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11545" LastActivityDate="2016-05-08T09:39:27.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13891" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13869" CreationDate="2016-05-08T10:17:56.313" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I indeed think that it is not possible to conclude that the scales are used differently, based on variance alone. Normally one would assume the scale is used properly and the effect you see is indeed the result of (not) having a trained ear. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There do exist ways to investigate how one uses a subjective scale. In a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mentalworkload.com/userfiles/files/2015_kramer_ea_how%20busy%20is%20busy_%20Validation%20of%20the%20dutch%20IWS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; I presented, we looked at how people interpreted a subjective workload scale. This scale contained verbal descriptors that conveyed a particular amount of workload, and this amount was estimated by the participants. This scale was designed to be linear and cover workload from &quot;no workload&quot; to &quot;work too demanding&quot;. Therefore, we would expect a linear line that starts at 0 (no workload) to 150 (complete overload; we used 150 instead of 100). The results indeed confirmed this and the groups perceived the items on the scale similarly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far, the method is kind of similar to your paper. The difference is that we gave the participants anchor-points to help them rate the items: The zero-point (no workload) and the 150-point (complete overload). This way the participants had the same reference points, which should enable them to use the entire range, regardless of their experience or something. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also use these anchor points to see how consonance ratings differ. Let them listen to a perfect dissonant and a perfect consonant tone and say they are rated zero and ten respectively (or something like that). If the two groupsc rate the sounds similarly now, they have probably interpreted the scale differently before. However, if you still find the same difference as before, it may suggests that untrained musicians can indeed not distinguish the sound very well (and the scale was interpreted properly before). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-05-08T10:17:56.313" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13892" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-08T12:34:18.210" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed that when I am in a thinking mode and someone that matters to me such as my mother criticises me I keep thinking about it throughout the day and this has a negative impact on me and my emotions. On the other hand when I decide to stop engaging in mindful thought and manage to do so it seems I am able to focus on something else or not focus at all this alleviating stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder whether stopping oneself from thinking is a good coping strategy for dealing with criticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9995" LastActivityDate="2016-05-08T12:34:18.210" Title="Does thoughtfulness make us more susceptible to criticism?" Tags="&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-05-19T15:03:45.040" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13893" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17027" CreationDate="2016-05-08T16:27:54.950" Score="6" ViewCount="233" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research indicates that scenic, natural environments positively impact human health and mental well-being&lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/inkfish/2015/12/01/more-evidence-that-scenic-environments-keep-people-healthy/#.Vy9jyCFP2Pk&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt; [1]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4204431/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/a&gt;. But what about the impact of &lt;strong&gt;man-made architecture&lt;/strong&gt; and various architectural styles on human cognition and well-being - has any empirical research investigated this? Are there any arguments in cognitive science that support the claim that we respond differently to different architectural surroundings? Moreover, is there anything known about the validity of the concept of &lt;em&gt;universal/objective aesthetics&lt;/em&gt; in architecture, grounded on neurobiology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I'm interested in comparing the impact of various architectural styles and their inherent philosophies on our cognition (health, creativity, pro-social behavior ...). Personally, I noticed that I feel much more calm, focused and creative in cities with classical architecture and its many derivatives, e.g. historical Vienna or Venice - the architecture itself seems to impact my perception of the world. In contrast, more contemporary architecture that represents, roughly, primarily pragmatism - think megalopolis like NYC or industrial Chicago - invokes in me much more negative feelings of alienation and nihilism, to put it shortly. I wonder how common this is, and to what extent it could be explained with nature rather than nurture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5109" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2017-03-28T22:21:44.357" LastActivityDate="2017-03-28T22:21:44.357" Title="How does architecture impact cognition and mental health?" Tags="&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13894" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13867" CreationDate="2016-05-08T17:05:44.713" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our brain runs on a series of chemical and electrical reactions running at a stable pace. Unlike computers, you cannot &quot;overclock&quot; the brain into running these reactions any faster than normal. &#xA;However, if we were to assume the psuedoscience to be true, it would be logical for the brain to undergo premature death. With the rates of these reactions increased you would see the rate of DNA mutations increase along with the amount of oxidative stress. All of which are causes of cancer and cell death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How to actually improve cognitive function:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikihow.com/Increase-Your-Brain&amp;#39;s-Processing-Speed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://m.wikihow.com/Increase-Your-Brain's-Processing-Speed&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11545" LastEditorUserId="11499" LastEditDate="2016-05-08T23:30:32.163" LastActivityDate="2016-05-08T23:30:32.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13895" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-08T17:12:18.557" Score="4" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I sit in my local tram/bus/any public transport, I notice ads which ask me to use the transport system which I &lt;em&gt;do currently&lt;/em&gt; use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seriously, I'm already using it at that time. Why placing ads for the same?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No other party was interested in placing an ad, so use the space for something less useless than &lt;em&gt;nothing&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Repeat things often&lt;/em&gt; theory (to deeply burn this into my mind)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To make people using it only sometimes use it more often&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;That people like me ask this stuff and discuss it with their friends or in the internet (scnr)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11547" LastActivityDate="2016-05-08T17:12:18.557" Title="Why are there ads inside trams which ask me to use the tram?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13896" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13605" CreationDate="2016-05-08T22:48:00.837" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As Waldemar said, it is has a natural reason. During long evolution the eyes are adopted to acquire information through shadows around the objects, but it works also in reverted mode (light object on a dark background). However it is understood that the eye cannot work in two modes at the same time (normal and reverted), so black text on light background is just the more natural way, since we are &quot;day&quot; animals and most of the time we need dark objects/contours and light backgrond to acqure information effectively.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly there are anecdotes told, that a dark theme reduces the eye strain. This is a typical fallacy: a user sets a dark theme and sees much less light - at a first glance it reduces the strain, but if you need to &lt;em&gt;read the text&lt;/em&gt; and not only stare at the screen, it turns out that it is just very unnatural way. No matter how does one play with colors, black text on light background will always win.  And in a low lighted room, one just need to tune the background color, but it never should go in the reverted mode, if you really care about your eyes.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also I have read some experimental reports that people with certain impairments are known to find it easier to read with reverted contrast. I personally could believe in this, but again, I am &lt;em&gt;very very skeptical&lt;/em&gt; about that.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just think that in most cases those experiments just lack the appropriate setup and proper question formulation. I doubt that using dark theme can be any good solution for patients with such impairments.  I suppose there can be some very rare case, if a patient has some kind of &quot;reverted&quot; vision, which means he can &lt;em&gt;see&lt;/em&gt; better in reverted contrast, which in turn IMHO is very uncommon, at least I have never ever heard about it. In such a case I would say, it is a very severe impairment, and can only evoke pity.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words I suppose that the percent of people, who  &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt;  can read better with reverted contrast is very small, I would speculate the percentage must be a number with many zeroes after the dot.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;So if someone claims that light text on dark ground is better readable, almost sure he is talking rubbish and is damaging his own eyes without even understanding it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;FOLLOWUP&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the question, if B on W is really better than W on B, one can find enough clarifications, similar to the given above.&#xA;One article with a self-explaining title: &#xA;&quot;Positive display polarity is advantageous for both younger and older adults&quot;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00140139.2013.790485&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00140139.2013.790485&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conclusion of the study: &#xA;&quot;... The presentation in positive polarity is recommended for all ages. ...&quot;&#xA;This is just something that one need to accept and stop searching for something that is not there.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll just put here a list of related &lt;strong&gt;misbeliefs&lt;/strong&gt;:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;B on W is better because historically people used black ink on a light medium and got used to it.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the latter is true, it is still not the reason, and the reason lies much deeper in our nature.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dark background causes less eye strain.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ok, but where is the information we read then? One reads through patterns (words) and not some abstract blobs, one needs sharp details for effective decoding.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In a dark environment use a dark theme.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just forget about the dark environment, buy a lamp and set up a comfort lighting. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was experimenting a lot and reading on the subject of optimal text/ground color, but I've never doubted that inverted contrast is a bad idea for text, regardless of the media and lighting.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me much more interesting is, which ground color is actually optimal on a monitor? I mean optimal for reading text in normal conditions - in a room with normal lighting (not too dark, but no bright sun).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After comparing my experience with opinions found in the web and from some of my coworkers, which I use sometimes as experimental persons :)&#xA;it turns out that this optimum is indeed quite narrow.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So this is my personal choice for the background color, and it is similar to other's personal preferences:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/a4RG3.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/a4RG3.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note the value of the color, &lt;strong&gt;#E6E8DC&lt;/strong&gt; and especially the Hue value: 73 degrees. (This color picker is in Photoshop, other programs can use other HSB ranges and units.)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my statement is, if you start with this color, you'll be not far from the optimum, which of couse can vary in some range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How could it be theoretically supported? I don't know actually, but here is an interesting, let's say, coincidence: Let's consider the book &quot;Sensation and Perception&quot; by E. Bruce Goldstein, Page 56&#xA;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.de/books/about/Sensation_and_Perception.html?id=2tW91BWeNq4C&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://books.google.de/books/about/Sensation_and_Perception.html?id=2tW91BWeNq4C&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&lt;/a&gt;)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Vac60.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Vac60.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here one sees the visual stimuli peak depending on light wavelength. Interestingly this peak lies exactly on the same Hue range, &#xA;which I found most comfortable for reading (compare with previous image). And the farther from this Hue value, the worse was my reading experince.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this explain something on a low-level? Well it should provide more contrast in terms of stimuli. But why this particular Hue value, I don't know, but it is still very interesting. Probably it has also something to do with evolution: mixing the color of sand, green vegetation, brown leaves could give something similar to this color Hue. Anyway, this color optimum is something that I can setup for me easily on a computer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Now going back to the original question&lt;/strong&gt;:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why&lt;/strong&gt; dark on light is easier? Namely, how does it come so?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting question, and I think in general it can be explained as the natural evolution. Just think of millions of years of evolution and these things:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A crab on the sand&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A bug on a leaf &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A structure of a tree or cracks on a stone&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make a parallel with reading it is better to think of the last example - a crack on a stone. This is statical information about an object, its form, exactly what we need to decode a text piece.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also counter examples - e.g. light hay on the dark ground, but such things simply are less common in our world. So here lies the answer -  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;we treat the objects by dark contours and shadows simply because these&#xA;  represent &lt;strong&gt;dominant&lt;/strong&gt; forms, or patterns in the nature. To be more exact, those patterns which are important for our life and activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a creature evolves in other environment, like deep sea or a cave, then it can come to other principles of course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good example is this test from the same book &quot;Sensation and Perception&quot;, page 109. This test is used for slightly other purposes, but it shows the general principle:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mtnVj.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mtnVj.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Answering the question, one can notice that one tends to identify the dark areas as objects, not the light ones, despite they are formed by the same curves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7114" LastEditorUserId="7114" LastEditDate="2016-05-13T15:30:19.810" LastActivityDate="2016-05-13T15:30:19.810" CommentCount="15" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13897" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13893" CreationDate="2016-05-09T02:05:00.387" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although this paper is not grounded in neurobiology &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494416300378&quot;&gt;&quot;Up speeds you down. Awe-evoking monumental buildings trigger behavioral and perceived freezing&quot; by Joey et al.&lt;/a&gt; should be a good starting point for further research into the domain of environmental psychology with a focus on human-made environments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the paper, subjects are shown to have slower reaction times when faced with larger buildings, which they relate to behavioural freezing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-05-09T02:05:00.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13898" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13877" CreationDate="2016-05-09T10:57:27.403" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot depends on your definition of what constitutes 'a break'. Many are likely to argue a break involves relaxing, a 'fun' pastime, which in another question on this site &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/5795/21&quot;&gt;has been discussed to be beneficial for the work environment &lt;strong&gt;in the case of social activities&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;..., having fun at work was perceived to positively&#xA;  influence workplace relationships to a moderate-high degree,&#xA;  contribute to managing stress to a moderate degree, improved job&#xA;  satisfaction to moderate degree &lt;strong&gt;and was reported to have a little more&#xA;  than neutral, direct impact on workplace effectiveness&lt;/strong&gt;. These outcomes&#xA;  must however be examined in the context of results, suggesting not&#xA;  only are different types of fun activities enjoyed more, but different&#xA;  types of activities are highly salient in relation to the particular&#xA;  organisational variable measured.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, these results do not seem to generalize to your scenario, as you seem to be more interested in taking a break from ongoing work and potentially switching to other &lt;strong&gt;mentally demanding individual&lt;/strong&gt; work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore I believe the following study on &lt;strong&gt;multitasking&lt;/strong&gt;—the interleaving of several primary tasks—which are&#xA;executed one at a time) by Adler and Benbunan-Fich (2012) measures results more in line with what you are after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our results show an inverted-U pattern for performance efficiency&#xA;  (productivity) and a decreasing line for performance effectiveness&#xA;  (accuracy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is thus an optimal amount of task switching which leads to the highest productivity. However, increased levels of multitasking lead to a significant loss in accuracy, indicating a trade-off between productivity and accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These results thus seem to confirm that in at least the context of the study &lt;strong&gt;switching to a different task can improve productivity&lt;/strong&gt;, in line with increased effectiveness when taking 'a break'. To which degree (and if at all), however, will depend highly on the specific tasks and work environment. For example, a follow-up study by the same authors (Adler and Benbunan-Fich, 2015) shows that &lt;strong&gt;subjective task difficulty is a determining factor&lt;/strong&gt;: easy tasks&#xA;benefit from multitasking by increasing stimulation, whereas hard&#xA;tasks decrease performance as the result of an overload in mental&#xA;workload.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Adler, R. F., &amp;amp; Benbunan-Fich, R. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2011.10.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Juggling on a high wire: Multitasking effects on performance.&lt;/a&gt; International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 70(2), 156-168.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Adler, R. F., &amp;amp; Benbunan-Fich, R. (2015). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwu005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The effects of task difficulty and multitasking on performance.&lt;/a&gt; Interacting with Computers, 27(4), 430-439.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-05-09T10:57:27.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13899" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13885" CreationDate="2016-05-09T11:46:40.533" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quite certainly this is the case (even if you learn all words from a dictionary), but this is more of a philosophical debate. It is unclear what you are after when referring to 'pessimistic', 'optimistic', or 'abstract' outcomes, but I can point you in the right direction in case you want to read up more on this subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One concept that comes to mind from linguistics and philosophy of language is  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indexicality&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;indexicality&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... an indexical behavior or utterance points to (or indicates) some state&#xA;  of affairs. For example, &lt;em&gt;I&lt;/em&gt; refers to whoever is speaking; &lt;em&gt;now&lt;/em&gt; refers to the time at which that word is uttered; and &lt;em&gt;here&lt;/em&gt; refers to the place of utterance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, some argue the same holds true for almost any utterance. (Suchman, 1986)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Among philosophers and linguists, the term &lt;em&gt;indexicality&lt;/em&gt; typically is&#xA;  used to distinguish those classes of expressions whose meaning is&#xA;  conditional on the situation of their use in this way from those such&#xA;  as, for example, definite noun phrases whose meaning is claimed to be&#xA;  specifiable in objective, or context-independent terms. &lt;strong&gt;But the&#xA;  &lt;em&gt;communicative&lt;/em&gt; significance of a linguistic expression is always dependent on the circumstances of its use.&lt;/strong&gt; A formal statement not of&#xA;  what the language means in relation to any context, but of what the&#xA;  language-user means in relation to some particular context, requires a&#xA;  description of the context or situation of the utterance itself. And&#xA;  every utterance's situation comprises an indefinite range of possibly&#xA;  relevant features. Our practical solution to this theoretical problem&#xA;  is not to enumerate some subset of the relevant circumstances—we&#xA;  generally never mention our circumstances as such at all—but to &quot;wave&#xA;  our hand&quot; at the situation, as if we always included in our utterance&#xA;  an implicit ceteris paribus clause and closed with an implicit et&#xA;  cetera clause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Suchman, L. (1986). Plans and situated actions. New York, Cambridge University.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2016-05-09T11:46:40.533" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13900" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-09T11:53:48.767" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychologist often prefict phenomena before they are scientifically observed. For example they have known for a long time that if you don't think about something for some time, you forget it. This can be explained as the loss of the connection between neurons when no signal goes through them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How could we explain the transferring aggression similarly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2016-05-09T11:53:48.767" Title="How does aggression transferring work neurologically?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13901" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-10T07:33:39.973" Score="9" ViewCount="7636" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can curiosity be described as an emotion? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On one hand it is definitely an emotion in the sense that is a feeling. IT feels like you want to know something. Furthermore, it can be pleasant or unpleasant according to the circumstances. So there is a basis for thinking that I could. I am wondering if there are good arguments on why it would be problematic to define curiosity as an emotion? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9346" LastEditorUserId="10587" LastEditDate="2016-10-15T18:56:25.933" LastActivityDate="2016-10-16T11:48:30.430" Title="Can curiosity be described as an emotion?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13902" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-10T15:56:47.737" Score="1" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;Please help me out in my effort to better understand the emotion of extreme fear. I will use the example of Ridley Scott’s film “Alien” featuring H.R. Giger’s Xenomorph preying on the crew of the “Nostromo”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I believe that the cast and crew of “Alien” did an excellent job in portraying the emotions of the humans during their encounter with an unmentionably vicious and seemingly unstoppable predator in the horrific solitude of space, I keep asking myself:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the limits to the fear a human mind can deal with before descending into insanity or causing the individual to enter a stupor? Would a real human being in the shoes of Ellen Ripley be able to survive and preserve her sanity?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additional questions I don’t seek explicit answers to but which might inform and elucidate my main query are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;How long and how far can adrenaline keep the body and mind alert before fatigue compels a human to rest and sleep regardless of the imminence of existential danger? &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Can a bizarrely strange and tremendously terrifying situation effectively neutralize the survival instinct, e.g. by overwhelming the capacity of the mind to process new information and resulting in the individual being awe-struck and incapable of either fighting or fleeing? &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Could a certain type of psychopath – because of lack of fear and empathy as well as being out of touch with reality – be significantly better suited to surviving the encounter with such a monster? &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Could a (nearly) complete lack of imagination (as a non-deviant character trait) mitigate the adverse effects of fear a person would experience in such a situation? Conversely, would a highly impressionable person succumb and collapse more easily? &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Is there a correlation between a sudden and surprising threat and the will for struggle, on the one hand, and a repetitive, “banal” mortal danger from the point of view of helpless people and inertness and lack of resistance, on the other? To clarify: Am I more likely to be able to muster my strength and fight back an enemy, however terrible, that just attacked for the first time, than somebody or something that I have seen methodically, mercilessly and effortlessly destroy all around me? &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;i&gt;P.S. As I am inexperienced in neuroscience, I am not completely sure I have used the correct tags.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11238" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-05-10T17:13:38.453" LastActivityDate="2016-05-10T17:13:38.453" Title="The limits of fear: Could one really survive an encounter with the Alien?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-05-24T00:48:08.713" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13904" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13867" CreationDate="2016-05-10T19:00:36.470" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen this TED talk that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/suzana_herculano_houzel_what_is_so_special_about_the_human_brain/transcript?language=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;suggests that cooking allowed humans to ingest more calories in a given day by &quot;pre-digesting&quot; food&lt;/a&gt; using fire. This caused &quot;rapid&quot; evolutionary increases in brain size. The talk suggests that gorilla brains are small because they spend almost entire day eating low calorie food and don't have spare energy to devote to brain development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the modern age, 50000 calories from sugar costs less than 10$. The definition of &quot;binge eating disorder&quot; is eating 5000-15000 calories in one sitting. From this point of view, the modern man has plenty of energy to dedicate to &quot;overclocking&quot; the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frequently used neuronal networks develop &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelin#Function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Myelin sheath, which increases nerve impulse propagation speed&lt;/a&gt;. Apparently training a specific move in sports causes myelin sheath to develop around the responsible neural network, causing increased performance. I'm not aware of negative side effects of myelination process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-05-10T19:00:36.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13905" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-10T20:43:51.340" Score="2" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence that a little bit of inner anger is healthy when engaging in problem solving? I personally feel this way, but feel that people around me misinterpret my anger as being directed at them and the world around me instead of at the problem I'm trying to solve. Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9995" LastActivityDate="2016-05-17T07:56:12.333" Title="Anger and problem solving" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13907" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13911" CreationDate="2016-05-10T22:38:01.673" Score="4" ViewCount="1598" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the action potential and resting potential of a given neuron differ from another neuron within the same network or is it constant? If not what determines and affects these potentials and can they change overtime? If so what factor contribute to this change and how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11574" LastActivityDate="2016-05-11T11:02:41.677" Title="Is the Resting Potential and Action Potential Thresholds the same across all neurons in a network?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13911" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13907" CreationDate="2016-05-11T11:02:41.677" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short no. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cims.ucsd.edu/neurophysics/courses/physics_171/Bean_AP_Review.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The speed at which and Action Potential (AP) occurs, resting membrane potential, and threshold to AP all vary across types of neutron&lt;/a&gt;. See the graph below (Bean, 2007)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Yxixb.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Yxixb.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reasons for these differences are various, as you will see if you read the referenced article, which I highly recommend as everything I write from here is based upon it. The main factors influencing AP differences are firstly that the classical AP diagram is based on an isolate squid giant axon (not neuron) in a superficial environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YA62g.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YA62g.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we investigate neurons in mammals we investigate them relative to surrounding neurons, which influences chemoelectric potentials and subsequently APs. Furthermore neurons aren't uniform in shape which also has an influence. Secondly voltage gating varies within and between ions gates in the neural membranes for instance &quot;the kinetics of sodium currents differ in detail between different types of neurons62 and, remarkably, even between different regions of the same neuron, with sodium channels in hippocampal mossy fibre boutons (formed by the axons of granule cells of the dentate gyrus) inactivating twice as fast as the sodium channels in the granule cell sonata&quot; Bean (2007). Potassium channels appear to lack uniformity as well. See below for difference in voltages across ion channels between neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gfhkm.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gfhkm.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Differences in ion channel voltages between neuronal type&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And there are other factors as well of course, such as frequency of activation influencing voltage required to depolarise. Depolarisation rates, and differences between fast spiking neurons, such as purkinji, and others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall the brain is not uniform, despite what you may learn or have learnt in text books in classes. This is done to ease learning, can you imagine trying to learnt this without the basics? However this fundamental research has important implications for neural imaging, psychopharmatuics, and of course cognitive processes such as speed of processing etc.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case you can't access the reference...&#xA;The referenced journal article is a brilliant review in nature about this exact topic, its called &quot;The action potential in mammalian central neurons&quot; By Bruce P Bean     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastActivityDate="2016-05-11T11:02:41.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13913" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13917" CreationDate="2016-05-11T18:40:21.543" Score="10" ViewCount="3184" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have MATLAB. I would like to try out a small EEG project because my field of interest is in neuroscience, however I'm still doing my undergrad. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10735" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-18T11:55:24.700" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T11:55:24.700" Title="Is there a way to make a DIY EEG?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10366" CreationDate="2016-05-11T22:55:05.983" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think we can respond to something reflexively long before fear has a chance to happen. If you almost stumble, your body responded, perhaps even by spinal reflex, before the &quot;news&quot; had even reached your brain. Walking is conditioned by years of practice, including practice almost falling. We get better and better at not falling, otherwise things like skating or riding a unicycle would be impossible. Driving builds on the same sensory and motor mechanisms as walking: We see threats and feel conditions which trigger the appropriate correct responses by reflex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have you ever wondered why when you are poked by something sharp you &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; move away from it, never drive it into your body? Almost magic. Reflex. Anything involving locomotion works the same way. People with experience in momentum-altering activities like skiing respond better to loss of traction when driving a car. (So it is fortunate that most of the skiers live in areas where the roads get snowy! What a useful coincidence!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, fear doesn't even enter the picture until you are already starting to respond, unless you have no reflexes in place to get triggered, like being on a roller coaster or while someone else is driving. I was driving a boat once when I started to notice an object ahead in the dim glow of the red-green forelight. It was about 20 feet away (a small part of a second) and as I was peering at it in perplexity my hands had &lt;em&gt;already&lt;/em&gt; turned the wheel hard over and the boat went up on its side. Meantime, I had four separate verbal thoughts at once, one of them about the huge meteor streaking across the horizon ahead at that very moment. By the time I felt any fear, I had stopped the boat and was looking over the side for a hole (which was not there, fortunately).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastEditorDisplayName="user9634" LastEditDate="2016-05-11T23:07:16.063" LastActivityDate="2016-05-11T23:07:16.063" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13913" CreationDate="2016-05-11T23:14:06.923" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://openeeg.sourceforge.net/doc/&quot;&gt;OpenEEG&lt;/a&gt; project has some information for building your own EEG system. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.instructables.com/id/DIY-EEG-and-ECG-Circuit/&quot;&gt;Instructables has a &quot;simple&quot; EEG circuit&lt;/a&gt; you can build. Note that this is going to be somewhat costly and time consuming because you are dealing with tiny voltages and high impedances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://openbci.com/&quot;&gt;OpenBCI&lt;/a&gt; has some hardware for sale (still expensive but not as bad as research-grade equipment) and their &lt;a href=&quot;http://openbci.com/index.php/forum/&quot;&gt;forum&lt;/a&gt; can be helpful for the DIY EEG enthusiast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also might want to look into utilizing some existing publicly available EEG datasets instead of collecting the data yourself:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://bnci-horizon-2020.eu/database/data-sets&quot;&gt;BCNI&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://archive.ics.uci.edu/ml/datasets/EEG+Database&quot;&gt;UCI&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://sites.google.com/site/neuroinformaticsimageanalysis/home/data-repositories&quot;&gt;NIAL&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/~arno/fam2data/publicly_available_EEG_data.html&quot;&gt;UCSD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainsignals.de/&quot;&gt;More links&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-05-11T23:14:06.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13918" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-12T04:12:02.227" Score="0" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am asking here since I have no idea where else I could of asked. I have a friend who is having difficulties with depression. I don't how long this has been ongoing, but he is often down. I presume it might of have been because he got rejected by the girl he liked. My friend often jokes about being in depression or suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today, we were walking outside and talking and my friend suddenly pulls up his sleeve and we (we were 3 other friends with him at that time) saw lots of cuts, around 15 of them, and one huge one in the middle (a very deep wound). He seemed &lt;em&gt;proud of showing off his cuts&lt;/em&gt;, and bragged about the scar his big one would leave. We were quite shocked and did not know how to react. My other friend then confessed that he had seen the scars on a picture my friend sent him, but he thought it was a joke.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My friend has been seeing the school therapist for a while, but these scars were (presumably) from yesterday. I wonder if he is telling everything to this professional. I am a bit worried about my friend; that was a very deep wound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to have some tips on how to deal with a situation like this. He is seeing professional help, but I don't know if it is helping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11589" LastActivityDate="2016-05-14T06:05:58.703" Title="How to deal with a friend who cuts" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-05-24T00:48:26.153" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13919" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-11T16:56:03.827" Score="6" ViewCount="1171" Body="&lt;p&gt;All of my life I have been told to be more patient, to stop &quot;racing through life&quot;, etc.  Happily, I am finally mature enough to accept that as solid advice, but I am curious as to whether it is possible that I perceive time differently than others do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today, for example, I was stuck at a red light in traffic on a road that was three lanes wide.  I was in the second row of cars that were stopped at the intersection.  When the light turned green, it seemed to me like 10-20 seconds elapsed before any of the three cars in the first row began to move forward.  Obviously, it is unlikely that all three cars in the front row reacted this slowly--hence my question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11590" OwnerDisplayName="Matthew Patrick Cashatt" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-03-02T12:24:48.003" LastActivityDate="2017-08-11T07:46:30.783" Title="Is it possible that people perceive time differently than others do?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13920" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13965" CreationDate="2016-05-12T06:06:02.253" Score="1" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suppose there's nothing wrong about the idea that a cognitively separated person could cognitively function as anybody else. But brain as I understand it always needs a potential from some sense. If I suddenly lost all my senses and my brain would stop working for a second would I be able to recover my brain activity? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise, the brain keeps the same electrical impulses running in the brain so you can't really think of anything new, right? I am really interested just in the way the brain creates new electrical potentials, &quot;just on his own.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2016-05-19T14:45:35.780" LastActivityDate="2016-05-19T14:45:35.780" Title="Where would a cognitively separated person get their brain signals excited from?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13921" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13919" CreationDate="2016-05-12T06:59:54.200" Score="9" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes. People estimate time differently, by focusing their attention on time in more or lesser degree. Also within a person, time estimation may vary due to stochastic variations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/697interval-published.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; is a really nice paper that tries to explain time-perception in a cognitive architecture called ACT-R. It is a model of human cognition that tries to explain human behavior with only basic functions (declarative and procedural memory, vision, working memory a.o.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Very shortly, the model is as follows: There is a pacemaker. This pacemaker creates pulses that are counted and saved in memory, and this memory is coupled to a particular time-frame. Each time you start counting, you reset the pacemaker to zero. So, for instance, after some practice, you learn that five seconds consists of 23 pulses, and eight seconds is equivalent to 30 pulses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The pacemaker has two properties however. First, the pacemaker is not perfect. There are minor variations in the duration of each interval between the pulses. Five seconds may thus sometimes be perceived as 22 pulses and sometimes as 24 pulses. This is the reason variability exists in time estimations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, the duration of intervals between pulses increases over time. Where the time between a pulse may be 200 ms (+- random value) when you start to count, it may be 400 ms (+- random value) after ten seconds. On top of that, the effects of random noise also becomes larger. If you count the pulses, the precision of the counting will thus decrease. Therefore it is increasingly difficult to estimate longer periods of time as compared to shorter periods of time. In figure 2 in the paper, this is depicted with the increasing width of the normal distributions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attention&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;So far I have only explained how one person may perceive time differently due to stochastic differences in pulse productions. What I left out so far is the attentional component of the model. When you focus your attention on the pulses your estimates will be rather good, because you perceive these pulses more consciously. However, as anyone may know, &quot;time may fly&quot; (when you're having fun). This is believed to be caused by the lack of attention to the pulses, therefore being unaware of how time passes. It is however not entirely clear how this attentional component works, and the debate is still ongoing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Neuro-biology:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The model was based on a paper written by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Matthew_Matell/publication/8251929_Cortico-striatal_circuits_and_interval_timing_coincidence_detection_of_oscillatory_processes/links/0fcfd5061e7376554c000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mattel and Meck (2004)&lt;/a&gt;, which provide a neuro-biological explanation for the pacemaker. The model they propose is the &quot;striatal beat frequency model&quot;, which states that there is neuronal activity oscillating at different rates in different networks of neurons. The oscillations are then detected by Striatal Spiny Neurons, which result in a sort of &quot;barcode&quot;(i.e. an array neurons being active and inactive; see Figure 1A). It is these barcodes that are memorized and associated with a particular duration (See Figure 1B). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CoHGN.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CoHGN.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Figure 1: Striatal beat frequency model. Picture taken from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/figure/257646604_fig4_The-striatal-beat-frequency-model-A-All-frontal-cortex-oscillators-start-in-phase-at&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Researchgate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned earlier, the pacemaker needs to be reset when you start counting from zero. It is theorized that this is done by a burst of dopamine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v6/n10/abs/nrn1764.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a review about the neural pathways for time-estimation by Buhusi and Meck (2005). My neuro-biology is a little rusty though, so if there is anyone that could comment/elaborate on this, that would be highly appreciated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Buhusi, C. V., &amp;amp; Meck, W. H. (2005). What makes us tick? Functional and neural mechanisms of interval timing. Nature reviews. Neuroscience, 6(10), 755.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Matell, M. S., &amp;amp; Meck, W. H. (2004). Cortico-striatal circuits and interval timing: coincidence detection of oscillatory processes. Cognitive brain research, 21(2), 139-170.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taatgen, N. A., Van Rijn, H., &amp;amp; Anderson, J. (2007). An integrated theory of prospective time interval estimation: The role of cognition, attention, and learning. Psychological Review, 114(3), 577.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-08-11T07:46:30.783" LastActivityDate="2017-08-11T07:46:30.783" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13922" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-12T11:23:10.007" Score="2" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Good Judgement project asks it's forecasters to estimate the likelihood of events occurring by asking them for probabilities (20%, 60%...). Sport betting usually communicates the odds of an event (1:4, 2:3). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research done to see whether forecasters using either method make better predictions? Whether either method leads to a lower Briers score?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-26T17:47:31.270" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T17:47:31.270" Title="Are there studies that compare the accuracy of forecasters that are asked to state probabilities vs. forecasters that are asked to state odds?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13923" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13605" CreationDate="2016-05-12T12:01:38.850" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is that it is not necessarily easier to read black on white. Contrast is more important in lightness and colour, it just so happens that black and white is the highest contrast. So its no accident that most books are in black and white. There is a plethora of research on perceptual processing which is easily found on google scholar if you which to investigate this further. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Colour and Reading&#xA;In 1984 a study was conducted comparing 24 colour combinations of text and back ground, this was of course on an older monitor, &lt;a href=&quot;http://pro.sagepub.com/content/28/4/326.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;but there wasn't any significant difference between individuals in there ability to detect text targets relative to colour different colour combinations&lt;/a&gt;. This included black and white. However research with colour contrast, has found that &lt;a href=&quot;http://lite.mst.edu/media/research/ctel/documents/LITE-2003-04.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;variations in contrast of colour rather than colour itself&lt;/a&gt; influence reading speeds, and errors in reading. Greater colour contrast between text and back ground is reported to enhance speed of reading and reducing errors. In addition improving speed of reading, high colour contrast has been found &lt;a href=&quot;http://lite.mst.edu/media/research/ctel/documents/LITE-2003-04.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;enhance retention of text based information when compared to lower colour contrasts&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;fig 1. low colour contrast&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2PBKc.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2PBKc.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;low chromatic contrast&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;fig 2. high colour contrast&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/e4DTL.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/e4DTL.png&quot; alt=&quot;high chromatic contrast&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to colour, contrast in luminescence (lightness) between text and background also influences readability. According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sbri.fr/files/publications/knoblauch%2091%20josaa.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Knoblach et al (2001)&lt;/a&gt; high contrasts in luminescence between background and text enhances reading speed to a greater degree than colour contrast, although colour contrast keeps reading speed high when luminescence is low. &lt;strong&gt;In other words greater differences in the lightness and the colour of text and background is optimum for reading ability.&lt;/strong&gt; Industrial researchers have taken this further with a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/2009/HPL-2009-182.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2009 study by Hewlett Packard (HP) specifically stating that 30 units CIE lightness contrast is optimum&lt;/a&gt; for reading rates and reduced error, &lt;strong&gt;this is not the highest contrast, although still high&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2231110&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;However high colour contract and luminescence contrast are not additive&lt;/a&gt;, as they are coded in the same way in the visual system. Essentially so as long one of the contrasts is high reading speed and errors should low, meaning you don't need to use back on white. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I haven't discussed here the two systems which process light: the magnocellular and parvocellular systems. &lt;strong&gt;So yes we are hardwired to process colour differently from grayscale.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;fig 3. Diagram of Visual system&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EaJuR.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EaJuR.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;note. Mi = Magnocelluar (grayscale, low resolution, movement) Pi = Parvocelluar (colour and high resolution)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698903000853&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;magnocellular visual pathway which is dominate for processing text&lt;/a&gt;, and uses gray scale (black to white). However dyslexics, like myself, appear to have a preference and adaption toward utilising the parvocellular visual pathway (colour processing). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/18/17/6939.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This is likely due to differences in visual processing using the magnocellular system between controls and dyslexics&lt;/a&gt;, which suggests that dyslexics do not process greyscale as well as non-dyslexics. However this isn't to say that you need to be dyslexic to prefer processing with the colour system than grayscale. &lt;strong&gt;THIS SECTION IS SPECULATION BASED ON NEURAL MECHANICS&lt;/strong&gt; There is also the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0166223696100345&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;possibility that prolonged activation of the magnocelluar system&lt;/a&gt;, by reading, may fatigue the neurons or/and photoreceptors, consequently reducing ease of reading. Hence why e-readers tend to use grey backgrounds.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Summary&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is more stuff to add in about positive and negative contrasts, for instance there is little difference in reading ability for black on white in comparison to vice versa. Overall, however, there is little difference in reading performance so long as colour and luminescence contrasts are high, meaning that black on white (highest contrast in both) is not necessarily better. Some individuals have a preference for using colour over grey scale, which while activating different visual pathways is still coded similarly for contrast in the brain. The preference against black on white may be due to the fatiguing nature of over activation of neurons in the visual pathways, or other factors such as dyslexia.      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2016-05-12T16:08:41.070" LastActivityDate="2016-05-12T16:08:41.070" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13771" CreationDate="2016-05-12T17:56:32.693" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Synapses likely change their strengths based on a form of spike-timing-dependent plasticity. Is this true for all types of synapses in all parts of the human brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, not all. For example, there is &lt;strong&gt;frequency-dependent-plasticity&lt;/strong&gt;, where the firing frequency of the pre-synaptic cell will change the synaptic strength. In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v16/n7/fig_tab/nn.3408_F3.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nikolaev, et. al. (2013)&lt;/a&gt;, frequencies below ~5Hz will depress the synapse, while those above 5Hz will facilitate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I wonder if there are also synapses with hard-wired connectivity, i.e. that does not does not depend on the activations of nearby neurons or does not change at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's possible that there might be, after all, you're talking about a complex object like the human brain. Though, this may be very rare. For example, even &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11164/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;electrical synapses&lt;/a&gt;, or gap junctions, appear to exhibit plasticity. In Fig 6 of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005273612001848&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pereda et. al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt;, you can see how the conductance of the gap junctions is altered by the activity of nearby cells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastEditorUserId="4055" LastEditDate="2016-05-14T16:30:45.127" LastActivityDate="2016-05-14T16:30:45.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13925" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15493" CreationDate="2016-05-12T18:27:58.810" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do STDP synapses potentiate and depress at the same time? Consider the following scenario where two cells are connected by an STDP synapse: PRE and POST. PRE cell fires two action potentials 2 ms apart (A and C below). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SJ9yq.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SJ9yq.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Spike Timing Dependent Plasticity&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cell POST fires an action potential (B) equally between the two spikes of the PRE cell. Assuming the STDP curve is symmetrical, would this situation result in no net change of the synaptic weight?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that since B occurs shortly after A, then that would potentiate the synapse. And B occurs shortly before C, then that would depress the synapse by an equal amount. Thus resulting in no net change. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it correct, that both depression and facilitation takes place in an STDP synapse simultaneously?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2016-07-21T16:58:04.073" Title="Do STDP synapses potentiate AND depress at the same time?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13926" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13500" CreationDate="2016-05-13T02:05:28.607" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before we can even begin to discuss how to &lt;em&gt;measure&lt;/em&gt; a person's relative good and bad degrees, we must define &lt;em&gt;good&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;bad&lt;/em&gt;. These terms are far too vague on the surface. Even if we agreed on more specific terms such as &lt;em&gt;moral&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;immoral&lt;/em&gt;, there would still be a fair amount of disagreement on their meanings. For example, &lt;em&gt;moral&lt;/em&gt; could be grounded in religion; emotion; group survival; species survival; planetary biological continuity; perpetuity of culture, information, and consciousness; or something else entirely. Similarly, when we speak of &lt;em&gt;good&lt;/em&gt;, we should ask ourselves, &quot;Good for what&quot;? Is it good for Me? You? This or that nation? Advancing technology? Destroying your enemy? Equality? Non-human animals and nature? Having fun?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often times we hear of &lt;em&gt;good&lt;/em&gt; being that which &quot;chooses the group over the individual&quot;, but even in that definition I doubt we can find agreement. For example, any individual who fails to be productive would do better for the group by taking his or her own life. Would everyone agree on this type of action being the &lt;em&gt;good&lt;/em&gt; of which we speak? Taking it further, some individuals work harder than others while consuming less resources. Would it thus be &lt;em&gt;good&lt;/em&gt; for all but the most productive individuals to cease to exist? That would be, after all, good for the group as a whole since it would provide selective pressure toward maximum productivity and efficiency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another type of &lt;em&gt;good&lt;/em&gt; is happiness. If we agreed that happiness is that which makes us feel good, then we find ourselves in a hedonistic pursuit. Virtual reality and carefully-crafted drugs could probably bring about a very large amount of this &quot;happiness&quot; while consuming the least natural resources per-capita. In this situation, those individuals who develop VR and drugs would be the most &lt;em&gt;good&lt;/em&gt; individuals since they bring us further toward happiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once we have defined very carefully what we mean by &lt;em&gt;good&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;bad&lt;/em&gt;, we could then measure an individual against those criteria. Without formal, solid definitions we can expect the debate to be inefficient and inconclusive. It would be unrealistic to make a measuring tool for an undefined property. In that case, we might as well assign individuals random values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your main question directly: First define &lt;em&gt;good&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;bad&lt;/em&gt; in a concrete way. Then develop ways to measure for each person his or her relative contributions to these definitions of good and bad. Finally, subtract the measurement of bad from that of good for a given person to obtain a general level of &lt;em&gt;net goodness&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2016-05-13T02:05:28.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13928" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-14T04:34:05.447" Score="5" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find colors that trigger different sort of emotions for people. I keep finding different answers for different colors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ex. &#xA;Some say blue means friendly and calm. Others say that green means calm but not blue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an official chart for this that is backed up by research? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a blogger so I am trying to analyze what colors I need to use in order for my audience to understand what I'm saying. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Another edit&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel bad for not adding this. lol My blog is about learning how to blog and increasing traffic. I'm trying to learn more about color theory so that I know what colors to use to catch people's eye. Here are specific examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Landing page color button&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Background colors to induce trust&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;colors that try to show creativity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does that help?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11603" LastEditorUserId="11603" LastEditDate="2016-05-19T06:45:03.390" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T03:21:30.887" Title="Official Color-Emotion relations" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13929" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13918" CreationDate="2016-05-14T06:05:58.703" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although popular culture and public opinion may lead people to believe that self injury is either a phase or people seeking attention. The truth is that this behavior becomes an unhealthy coping mechanism for any number of unpleasant scenarios.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea of distractionary coping mechanisms by themselves are not harmful, but self injury is specifically more dangerous because causing injury in the first place opens ones self up to infection, permanent physical damage, even accidental suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self injury often co-occurs with another mental illness, both disorders need to be diagnosed and treated by a decent psychiatric team which may include medications, but most definitely therapy. This is much more than a school therapist can provide. There is more information here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/self-injury/home/ovc-20165425&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mayo Clinic on Self Injury&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If your friend is not receiving the level of help that he needs or he cannot commit to safety, it would be best to take some type of action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Possibly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Call a help line&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Inform the school therapist &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If your friend has any supportive family members, maybe informing them would help&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In any immediate emergency call 911&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11604" LastActivityDate="2016-05-14T06:05:58.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13932" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-14T17:11:16.437" Score="5" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any cognitive tests, or test suites, available on the Android? I'm thinking something like quantified-mind.com but for android. The closest I've been able to find is Brainturk Brain Training, but there doesn't appear to be a way to export results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's similar to this question, but for the android: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/506/are-there-any-cognitive-test-or-test-suites-available-on-the-ipad#&quot;&gt;Are there any cognitive test (or test suites) available on the iPad?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My 4 main criteria are (like &lt;a href=&quot;http://measuredme.com/2012/11/one-of-the-self-tracking-projects-that-i-always-wanted-to-do-was-to-determine-the-impact-of-sleep-diet-and-exercise-regimen.html/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;app should simply measure cognitive or mental skills/abilities, as&#xA;opposed to training or improving them measurement methods used in the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;app should be as close to scientific as possible (a lot of game apps&#xA;failed this requirement) &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the tests should take as little time as possible (preferably under 5 min)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;have a way to export data (e.g. into csv)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8253" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-05-25T13:42:32.487" Title="Are there any cognitive tests, or test suites, available on the Android?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13933" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-14T18:45:43.907" Score="2" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do small animals see the events surrounding them as going faster or slower in comparison to bigger creatures, such as us humans? Are those surrounding events appear to happen at a different speed for those small creatures such as a fly or a little sea crab?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2016-05-24T01:06:17.890" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T01:06:17.890" Title="Is there a difference in the perception of time in animals of different size?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="13" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13936" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13928" CreationDate="2016-05-15T04:58:37.090" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not really, that would be too easy!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because there are several factors which can influence the emotion from the color. I have several in mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;One of them is cultural background, as norms and habits, and thus cultural value, meaning, may change between people for a same color (interindividual differences).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Another one is context, as color preference may be affected by the field where it's used. For a bold example, black color would look &quot;nice&quot; on a luxury ad, but not so much for an health communication (intrapersonal differences). See also Bonnardel, N., Piolat, A., &amp;amp; Le Bigot, L. (2011). The impact of colour websites on appealing and users’ cognitive processes. Displays, 32, 2, 69-80.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;And you also have physiological issues. Color perception is affected by surrounding other colors (see Johannes Itten). Therefore the emotion would change as well. As a result, it may be more relevant to elicit the emotional impact of a set of colors instead of one only. Also there are several strategies to make colors fit together.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Also in a physiological view, some people have color deficiency, and it may therefore affect their &quot;emotional perception&quot; (I don't have any reference on that, just a personal hypothesis).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what I would suggest is to test the emotions elicited by a specific set of colors, for a specific field/context, for a specific audience. You would therefore get some clues for those conditions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3656" LastActivityDate="2016-05-15T04:58:37.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13937" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-15T06:23:04.727" Score="2" ViewCount="632" Body="&lt;p&gt;What kind of direct exchange do we have between the two halves of the thalamus, whether going through the thalamic adhesion or not? Do we know what parts of left and right thalamus are connected and what kind of information they exchange? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-19T20:20:57.623" LastActivityDate="2016-05-19T20:25:41.177" Title="What is the function of the connection between the two halves of the thalamus?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13938" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-15T12:20:55.603" Score="0" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;In our everyday life, people always intentionally or unintentionally value some objects. However, some tend to overvalue the value of objects, while others tend to undervalue them. For some the deviation is big, while for others it is small. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I wonder, are there existing research findings related to this? Or is there a mathematical model to model different people's subjective tendencies on how they value objects in daily life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11606" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-05-16T11:04:57.573" LastActivityDate="2016-05-16T19:06:01.223" Title="People's subjective tendency: Is there a mathematical model?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13939" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-15T14:28:09.353" Score="2" ViewCount="8792" Body="&lt;p&gt;Description: Student quite enthusiastic and focused during class, but can't recreate the same enthusiasm and concentration when studying alone in home. Motivation is unable to reduce the level of procrastination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Result: Poor performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a reason why a different environment may affect one's attention to studying? Is it possible for someone to be unable to focus on study despite desperately trying to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11614" LastEditorUserId="11614" LastEditDate="2016-10-25T16:51:28.433" LastActivityDate="2016-10-25T16:51:28.433" Title="Why do some students find it difficult to focus on study when at home?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;procrastination&gt;&lt;compulsive&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13940" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14047" CreationDate="2016-05-15T19:42:06.223" Score="0" ViewCount="3505" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sooner or later most people will want to have children. What are some of the most common psychological reasons leading people to want to have children? What are their motivations and expectations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9995" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2016-05-23T23:38:15.407" LastActivityDate="2016-05-25T08:19:44.080" Title="Why do people want to have children?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2016-06-01T12:10:15.767" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13941" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12556" CreationDate="2016-05-15T21:12:02.187" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, we need to distinguish between those punishments brought about by nature and those brought about by society and law. Many actions in nature have an &lt;strong&gt;implicit consequence&lt;/strong&gt;, such as harm, that may come back on the performer. Regardless of whether a particular person or group agrees that the consequence is &quot;right&quot; or &quot;just&quot;, jumping off a high cliff and landing on rocks will probably kill you. The stock market example is like this -- the consequence of a bad prediction can be disastrous on one's finances, and the result is basically independent of what society thinks about the situation. Many actions in society, on the other hand, have &lt;strong&gt;explicit consequences&lt;/strong&gt; set by humans. Because these consequences are not determined by &lt;em&gt;natural phenomena&lt;/em&gt; so much as &lt;em&gt;thoughts of man&lt;/em&gt;, questions of intent, prior occurrence, and extraneous circumstance may be brought into the picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Free market&lt;/em&gt; is a system that while created by humans behaves like a natural system. Consequences in a free market generally do not consider intent, prior occurrence, of extraneous circumstance. Larger entities, as an exception, may have special treatment by governments since these entities may have strong effects on society as a whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now to the question of &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; people (and other thinking animals) tend to consider intent when evaluating an action or inaction of another being. On the surface, one may argue that deliberate and unintentional results should be treated equally since they have the same potential for harm. If we look at the &lt;strong&gt;goal of preventing further harm&lt;/strong&gt; in the future (to society as a whole), however, we see a very important difference between deliberate and unintentional results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the harmful result of a person's actions was &lt;strong&gt;unintentional&lt;/strong&gt;, the result alone should prompt the person to control himself or herself. After all, we tend to disagree with results that do not meet our intentions. These results make us &lt;strong&gt;feel stupid&lt;/strong&gt;, and they make us &lt;strong&gt;look stupid&lt;/strong&gt;, the combination of which is in many cases &lt;strong&gt;sufficient deterrence from relapse&lt;/strong&gt;. Those having empathy are even less likely to make the same mistake again when they see the unintended harm they have caused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the harmful result of a person's actions was &lt;strong&gt;deliberate&lt;/strong&gt;, on the other hand, the balance of natural forces of deterrence is considerably different. Since the result was intended, the person will &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; feel stupid. In fact, he or she will probably &lt;strong&gt;feel proud&lt;/strong&gt; of having succeeded. In some cases, we will still have empathy playing a role. In practice, however, those individuals lacking empathy are far more likely to commit crimes and other wrongdoing while simultaneously &lt;strong&gt;lacking any remorse&lt;/strong&gt;. In the extreme case we call these people &lt;strong&gt;psychopaths&lt;/strong&gt;. While the psychopath proper may be relatively uncommon, lesser forms such as many &lt;strong&gt;narcissists&lt;/strong&gt; may still exist in sufficient number that we cannot expect empathy alone from acting as deterrence from relapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, &lt;strong&gt;we must consider intent&lt;/strong&gt; when an action leads to harm. Other important factors to consider are prior occurrence, extraneous circumstance, and the psychological profile of the individual. When a person has a history that suggests a lack of empathy, we can expect that person to be more likely to relapse and hence more dangerous to society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A side case is that of the &lt;strong&gt;idiot&lt;/strong&gt;. These individuals often &lt;strong&gt;lack prudence&lt;/strong&gt; when acting or making decisions. While an idiot may not intend to do harm, he or she may be naturally unsafe as a result of being unable to make proper judgements. &lt;strong&gt;Punishment may be unsuitable&lt;/strong&gt; for complete idiots since they may not be able to change their ways due to lack of awareness and understanding. In these cases, one option is to keep these individuals &lt;strong&gt;away from means to causing harm&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, it is best if idiots do not operate motor vehicles or firearms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2016-05-15T21:12:02.187" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13943" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15202" CreationDate="2016-05-16T18:57:29.657" Score="5" ViewCount="715" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depression and anxiety most of the time stem from a past trauma, but it is actually not the events, but the thoughts that create the symptoms of depression and anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Out of those thoughts, perfectionism and approval addiction are prominent, and I, myself, am an example of it. So how does a traumatic event tend to generate the cognition of perfectionism and approval addiction, or does it even tend to generate it or is it, itself a result of it(depression and anxiety)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7020" LastEditorUserId="7020" LastEditDate="2017-05-09T14:33:49.967" LastActivityDate="2017-05-09T14:33:49.967" Title="Perfectionism, and approval addiction: how are these two generated from a trauma?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13944" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13938" CreationDate="2016-05-16T19:06:01.223" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there is a mathematical model for this.&#xA;Have a look at &lt;strong&gt;Bayes' Theorem&lt;/strong&gt;. It is also very interesting from a philosophical and psychological point of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a link from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bayes-theorem/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bayes-theorem/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11523" LastActivityDate="2016-05-16T19:06:01.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13946" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-17T01:29:26.867" Score="9" ViewCount="13375" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, in this sentence by the the time you are done reading you will have already skipped over the double &quot;the&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched this on the internet a little, but I have found nothing that focuses on why this happens and shows actual proof and not just a hunch someone has on why it happens.  Would someone explain this and post a link to a trustworthy website that explains it in more detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aS9YV.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aS9YV.png&quot; alt=&quot;double the illusion&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11623" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2016-05-19T18:05:20.207" LastActivityDate="2020-02-11T17:46:45.830" Title="Why does the brain skip over repeated &quot;the&quot; words in sentences?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13947" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-17T03:44:57.567" Score="1" ViewCount="864" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, I know next to nothing about cognitive sciences, but I experienced something today that got me curious. So please forgive me for maybe not being able to express my questions adequately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today I was driving around with a friend of mine quite late when we passed someone in the bike lane who turned out to be a guy and a girl (probably around my age. I'm 24.) who had crashed while riding a bike down a hill, with her sitting on the handle bar. (Her shoe was completely entangled in the spokes of the front wheel.)&#xA;The guy was lying unconsciously on the ground, just beside the bike, bleeding heavily from the head, gasping for air, while she was standing next to him with blood all over her face in some state of shock.&#xA;My friend called 911 and ran off to find a street sign for them to locate us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I am trying to shorten this story a bit, but I am still quite shaken by the experience, so I am having a hard time extracting the parts that are relevant to my questions.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some other people came by in a car and got out to help, while the guy - totally unresponsive - managed to stand up. They got him to sit down against a fence, still unable to communicate. At some point we realized that they did not speak Danish (we're in Denmark). While the other passersby tried to care for the guy, I got the girl's shoe out of the wheel, because I noticed she was walking around with no shoes and it's quite cold. When I tried to give them to her, she just hugged me. She just hugged me really tight, with her face against my chest, shaking and hyperventilating. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the police and an ambulance arrived, we were still standing about 5 meters from the guy, still hugging, while everyone else was helping the guy. At this point, she spoke a full sentence for the first time, asking &quot;Is he okay?&quot;. I told her &quot;I think so.&quot; and I think at this point she realized what had happened, because it made her cry audibly for the first time during the episode. I imagine she could be blaming herself for the accident. If her foot hadn't gotten in the wheel, they wouldn't have crashed. I asked her if she wanted to go to the ambulance, she said yes and I walked her to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fast forward half an hour. We drove off after talking to the police, and while sitting in the car still shaking, I noticed a strange feeling accompanying the shock of the experience. I felt, and still am feeling (it's about 3 hours ago now) some kind of strange bond with these people.&#xA;I have never been involved in an accident like that before, so I have nothing to compare it to, but I am left with - first of all - a feeling of wanting to meet them again. Not only to see if the guy is all right, but actually, genuinely wanting to get to know them. Second of all, something about the girl hugging me like that, really affected me. It's almost as if I'm experiencing something kind of similar to the feeling of being about to fall in love with someone. Some kind of unexplainable connection. I am quite aware that what I am experiencing only &lt;em&gt;resembles&lt;/em&gt; the felling of being in love, and how irrational this is, hence my wondering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Firstly: her behavior during the incident. What cognitive processes&#xA;could cause her to seek this kind of comfort in a stranger, while her&#xA;friend is sitting 5 meters from her, bleeding heavily from the head.&#xA;It seems like a peculiar reaction to me.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Secondly: what cognitive processes could cause me to feel this&#xA;strange one-sided bond with them? Especially the girl. Why would&#xA;someone feel like they're  falling in love with a person they don't&#xA;know, and have only ever spoken a couple of words to, after such an&#xA;incident?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What effect does that kind of traumatic event have on the forming of&#xA;emotional bonds between people, during the event?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would love to know more about this, so if you know of any studies or literature of any kind, please let me know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11624" LastActivityDate="2016-05-17T03:44:57.567" Title="Spontaneous emotional bonding in traumatic events" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-05-19T09:50:31.430" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13948" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13905" CreationDate="2016-05-17T07:56:12.333" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According the the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes%E2%80%93Dodson_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Yerkes–Dodson&lt;/a&gt; law, a moderate level of arousal gives energy to the task, improving performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Yerkes–Dodson law is an empirical relationship between arousal and&#xA;  performance, originally developed by psychologists Robert M. Yerkes&#xA;  and John Dillingham Dodson in 1908. The law dictates that&#xA;  performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only&#xA;  up to a point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance&#xA;  decreases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anger is an emotion that creates arousal, but it is also a negative emotion that makes other people more hostile and negative. Other emotions that create positive arousal are excitement, interest, curiosity etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2016-05-17T07:56:12.333" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13952" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-17T21:43:42.890" Score="3" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've come across the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetting_curve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ebbinghaus Curve&lt;/a&gt; (forgetting curve) showing the retention of learned knowledge over time, but I wondered if there was the same kind of model for the retention of details from experiences over time, i.e., how much detail of an event does someone forget as time passes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One would guess the same kind of curve may have been produced for this but I'm unsure what to look for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11638" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-05-18T10:12:53.407" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T10:12:53.407" Title="Ebbinghaus like model for retention of details from experience" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13953" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12611" CreationDate="2016-05-18T07:48:00.923" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Subcortical structures can definitely show neuroplasticity in adults. Most likely, all brain structures can show plastic changes to some degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The question is rather broad, as there are many &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intropsych.com/ch02_human_nervous_system/subcortical_structures.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;subcortical structures&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.whatisneuroplasticity.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neuroplasticity&lt;/a&gt; is age-dependent. I will therefore restrict my answer to three examples I dug up from the literature. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in primates it has been shown that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dartmouth.edu/~rswenson/NeuroSci/chapter_10.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;thalamic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2517&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;brainstem&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; areas projecting to the somatosensory cortex are plastic and change their projections to the cortex to aid in the rearrangement of the somatotopical map &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10845057&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Jones, 2000)&lt;/a&gt;.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Changes in the connectivity between hemispheres has been associated with plastic changes in the &lt;strong&gt;callosal pathway&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://radiopaedia.org/articles/corpus-callosum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;) after somatosensory lesions in the cortex &lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0168010209002090/1-s2.0-S0168010209002090-main.pdf?_tid=8226563c-1cca-11e6-b257-00000aab0f01&amp;amp;acdnat=1463556857_3d28d7d1d3b34fbc5b35623272c718fb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Duffau, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a last example, subcortical plasticity has been shown after lesioning the spinal cord in monkeys and rats. By interrupting the ascending projections of mechanoreceptor afferents of the forelimb and the rest of the lower body the corresponding part of the somatotopic representation of primary somatosensory cortex becomes completely deafferented and unresponsive to tactile stimuli. If some of the afferents from the hand remain intact after such dorsal column lesions, the remaining afferents will extensively reactivate portions of somatosensory cortex formerly representing the hand over the course of a month. This functional reorganization has been linked to the sprouting of preserved afferents within the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/coursebook/webstem4-10.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cuneate nucleus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of the &lt;strong&gt;dorsal column–trigeminal complex&lt;/strong&gt; in the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/medulla-oblongata&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;medulla&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, also subcortical brain structure &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014488607002452&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Kaas &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of structures that are resilient to plasticity, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.doctorclaudia.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Aguire&lt;/a&gt; from USC argues that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.headspace.com/blog/2015/01/30/which-parts-of-the-brain-are-most-resilient-to-change/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;every brain structure has the potential for neural plasticity to occur&lt;/a&gt;. Basically, because the term plasticity is pretty much all-encompassing, and I quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[N]europlasticity is the ability of elements in the brain to show structural and functional changes in response to internal and external events. Neuroplasticity occurs at different levels: structural[ly], functional[ly] and [through] all the molecular and cellular mechanisms that accompany these changes. [...] At all times, these players are constantly changing [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Admittedly it is a popular-scientific and broad answer to this question, but I do agree with it.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0168010209002090/1-s2.0-S0168010209002090-main.pdf?_tid=8226563c-1cca-11e6-b257-00000aab0f01&amp;amp;acdnat=1463556857_3d28d7d1d3b34fbc5b35623272c718fb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Duffau, &lt;em&gt;Neurosci Res&lt;/em&gt;(2009); &lt;strong&gt;65&lt;/strong&gt;: 131–5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10845057&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jones, &lt;em&gt;Annu Rev Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2000); &lt;strong&gt;23&lt;/strong&gt;:1-37&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014488607002452&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kaas &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Exp Neurol&lt;/em&gt; (2000); &lt;strong&gt;209&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 407–16&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-18T12:28:48.537" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T12:28:48.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13954" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12204" CreationDate="2016-05-18T08:01:32.423" Score="2" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ad 1. Difficult to answer, but I found an article from as early as 1825 that links the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.moillusions.com/reverse-spokes-illusion/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rotating spokes illusion&lt;/a&gt; to the retina &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/107736?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Roget, 1825)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ad 2. Interesting question, but more a question of semantics I think. Personally, I think optical illusion is fine, as used by a master of illusions &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.michaelbach.de/ot/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Michael Bach&lt;/a&gt;. Admittedly, he is German, so if this is linguistically the best term may be better off at &lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;English.SE&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_illusion#Pathological_visual_illusions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual illusion&lt;/a&gt; may be better targeted for (pathological) phenomena associated with the use of hallucinogens and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.healthline.com/health/psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychotic states&lt;/a&gt; such as those seen in episodes of positive symptomatology. Although here, visual delusions and hallucinations are more appropriate terminology, in my opinion. One way or the other, for the use of referring to benign brain trickery, I would stick to optical illusion, but visual illusions is fine too.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ad 3. Reportedly, one of the most well-known contributions in optical illusions are his writings on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://io9.gizmodo.com/5961969/this-optical-illusion-discovered-by-aristotle-is-still-a-brain-twister&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motion-after effect&lt;/a&gt;. He believed, erroneously, that the motion aftereffect was a form of visual inertia, a tendency to continue seeing things move in the same direction because of the inertia of some physical movement stimulated in the brain &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/107736?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ramachandran &amp;amp; Ramachandran, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/107736?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ramachandran &amp;amp; Ramachandran, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt; (March 2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/107736?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Roget, &lt;em&gt;Phil Trans Royal Soc B&lt;/em&gt; (1825); &lt;strong&gt;115&lt;/strong&gt;: 131-40&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:38:11.667" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T12:57:13.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13955" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12238" CreationDate="2016-05-18T08:14:03.403" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The primary auditory cortex is mainly involved in relatively simple processing of sound. The language areas involved in producing and understanding speech are associative auditory cortices and are considered to be areas higher up in the hierarchy. They are connected to the primary auditory cortex, but are situated at anatomically different locations in the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dartmouth.edu/~rswenson/NeuroSci/chapter_11.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;primary auditory cortex&lt;/a&gt; is engaged in the &lt;strong&gt;low-level processing&lt;/strong&gt; of sound. For example, it contains a tonotopic map that is used to separately process the various frequencies in the incoming sound &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10900/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2001)&lt;/a&gt; (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The language area involved in &lt;strong&gt;production of speech&lt;/strong&gt; of the brain is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/speechbrain.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Broca's area&lt;/a&gt; (Fig. 1) and is anatomically distinct from the primary auditory cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The part of the brain dealing with &lt;strong&gt;understanding speech&lt;/strong&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/speechbrain.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wernicke's area&lt;/a&gt; (Fig. 1), and is also a distinct anatomical structure in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/speechbrain.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;angular gyrus&lt;/a&gt; has also been associated with specific speech production pathologies (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yDJFO.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yDJFO.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;auditory system&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Central auditory system. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_10/i_10_cr/i_10_cr_lan/i_10_cr_lan.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McGill University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10900/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds). &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. (2001). Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-06T13:23:56.870" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T13:23:56.870" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13956" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12769" CreationDate="2016-05-18T09:14:07.830" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Yes, retinal circuitry enhances the perception of contrast.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In the retina, the neurons that guide the visual signal to the brain, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/a/a_02/a_02_cl/a_02_cl_vis/a_02_cl_vis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retinal ganglion cells&lt;/a&gt; (RGCs), process contrast. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/book/b10.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;receptive fields&lt;/a&gt; (RFs) of these cells exhibit a so-called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/ganglion/ganglion.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;center-surround&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; organization (Fig. 1). They integrate the signal from multiple cones in the retina. ON RGCs fire when their RF is illuminated in the center (the central cone in the retina in the RF is illuminated) and they are inhibited when their surround is illuminated. OFF-center RGCs do the reverse. Together this organization results in sharpening of contrasts and aids in the coding of edges and contours. &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-iii-retinal-circuits/midget-pathways-of-the-primate-retina-underly-resolution/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Midget cells&lt;/a&gt; also have RFs like this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remember that the retina is considered a part of the central nervous system by some. Thi because of its embryological origins, but also because of its complexity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that further processing of contrast and edges occurs in the primary visual cortex (V1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-ix-psychophysics-of-vision/the-primary-visual-cortex/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Schmolesky, 2002)&lt;/a&gt; and that awareness of that contrast information, i.e., the &lt;strong&gt;perception&lt;/strong&gt; of edges, patterns and objects within the visual field occurs at high-tier associative cortices &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16271507&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Lorreys, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vggNv.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vggNv.png&quot; alt=&quot;RGC RFs&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Center-surround RFs in RGCs. ON cells (left) fire when illuminated in the center, and are inhibited when illuminated in the surround. OFF cells have a reversed pattern (right). source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://white.stanford.edu/teach/index.php/Fundamental_Psychophysical_Experiments:_Color_discrimination_contours,_colorblind_perceptions,_and_contrast_sensitivity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16271507&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lorreys, &lt;em&gt;Trends Cogn Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;9&lt;/strong&gt;(12):556-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-ix-psychophysics-of-vision/the-primary-visual-cortex/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schmolesky, &lt;em&gt;Webvision, The Organization of the Retina and Visual System&lt;/em&gt;, Kolb &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds). Utah University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-06T13:23:21.097" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T13:23:21.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13957" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13171" CreationDate="2016-05-18T09:23:42.367" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A nice illustrative image of how the photoreceptors connect to the retinal ganglion cell (RGC), and thereby facilitate the center-surround structure is provided in figure 1 below. It shows a cross section through the &lt;a href=&quot;http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/book/b9.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retina&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KX56i.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KX56i.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;center-surround&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Photoreceptor organization and connections to the retinal ganglion cell. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_02/i_02_cl/i_02_cl_vis/i_02_cl_vis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McGill University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The receptive fields (RFs) are determined by the number of photoreceptors connected to the RFs. RFs are smaller in the central high acuity area of the retina (the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fovea&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;) and increase in size more eccentrically. As a result, &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual acuity&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;highest in the center visual field&lt;/a&gt;, and degrades more eccentrically in the field of view. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-18T10:39:19.250" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T10:39:19.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13958" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15333" CreationDate="2016-05-18T12:43:32.133" Score="6" ViewCount="2259" Body="&lt;p&gt;A hypnosis professional told me this is true, so I am asking: is it a fact of psychology that many people have a voice that they talk with &quot;in their head&quot; which talks back to them and helps solve problems? I find that this voice often has a perspective I never had and presents ideas I had not thought of. But it does not just tell me what to do. When I really get in a fix, it backs off and lets me solve the problem &quot;by myself&quot;. I am about 50 and it has been there as far back as I can recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it common to have an &quot;Accompanying Voice&quot; and conversations where both voices appear to have equal standing and independence?&lt;/strong&gt; Is there research which shows this is something other than a hallucination? (After all, an internal monologue is not a hallucination. Why not have two voices in your mind?) The prevailing idea is that voices are hallucinations, but it seems that they could just be parts of the self. This is a cornerstone of Transpersonal Psychology, which uses a dialog method to help people improve self-awareness and solve inner issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Addition:&lt;/strong&gt; Here is some info from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intervoiceonline.org/2298/voices/positive-voices/hearing-voices-amongst-normal-people.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a site about this topic&lt;/a&gt;, although it does not address my question directly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because of prevailing attitudes psychiatry and within society as a&#xA;  whole, it is important to point out, that there are many people who&#xA;  hear voices who can cope with their voices and regard them as a&#xA;  positive part of their lives. Neither is it the case that voices have&#xA;  always been regarded as a negative experience, throughout history and&#xA;  even today there are people who hear voices who find their voices&#xA;  inspirational and comforting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These are facts, that on the face of it are hard to square with the&#xA;  negative way that the experience is regarded by psychiatry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;More Addition:&lt;/strong&gt; Here is a bit about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodtherapy.org/learn-about-therapy/types/voice-dialogue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the Voice Dialog technique used in Transpersonal Psychology&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Voice Dialogue Technique&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The Voice Dialogue technique allows a client&#xA;  to gain a deeper sense of inner wisdom and gives them the opportunity&#xA;  to identify and examine the voices within. Being armed with this&#xA;  powerful knowledge provides a greater resource from which the client&#xA;  can draw upon when faced with difficult circumstances. The Voice&#xA;  Dialogue guides a client into realizing that there are parts of their&#xA;  inner being that propel them, but they are separate from those parts.&#xA;  They begin to understand that they are made up of many parts and each&#xA;  serves a function and has an energy force that sustains it. With this&#xA;  awareness, a client is able to create a balance among all of his&#xA;  corresponding and correlating parts and can determine which ones to&#xA;  silence and which ones to accentuate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The &quot;Aware Ego&quot; in Voice Dialogue&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  In Voice Dialogue, this heightened&#xA;  sense of awareness is referred to as the &quot;aware ego.&quot; An aware ego is&#xA;  not a trait that one possesses, rather it is a process by which we&#xA;  begin to know all of the layers of our consciousness on an intimate&#xA;  level. Because there is an negative for every positive, the aware ego&#xA;  assumes that you can experience both the beneficial part of your&#xA;  consciousness and its opposite. With enough insight into your own&#xA;  identity, you can choose freely which one will serve you better, and&#xA;  can adjust, alter, and align the parts within to meet your goals for&#xA;  healing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me, this is about using a process which gets underneath assumptions, especially unconscious ones. The biggest assumption is that we are one singular thing that is consistent and understandable. Not So. But we can become master of ourselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastEditorDisplayName="user9634" LastEditDate="2016-05-19T22:11:22.123" LastActivityDate="2018-10-18T08:26:46.147" Title="Do many people have an &quot;Accompanying Voice&quot; - an equal they converse with?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13959" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-18T13:09:43.043" Score="3" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;Being conscious (awake) and unconscious (asleep) are two mutually exclusive states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The boundary between them (&quot;falling asleep&quot;) is very pleasant. Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conscious =&gt; Unconscious&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people say sleeping is their favorite thing (or one of); but it's not really sleeping that they love, because they are unconscious and thus unaware of the state they're in; it has to be the boundary between the two that they love so much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Going the other direction (waking up) is not usually so pleasant. Why not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conscious and subconscience are two coexisting areas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Conscious&#xA;------------&#xA;Subconscious&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;e.g., our conscious may realize that the light turned red before we got to the intersection, while our subconscious is noting that the tree on the corner was trimmed yesterday. It may be that we have a &quot;superconscious,&quot; too - known as &quot;intuition&quot; or such.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what about in our unconscious state - is there a sub and/or super unconscious, like so:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Superunconscious&#xA;----------------&#xA;Unconscious&#xA;----------------&#xA;Subunconscious&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, which or both? Is that where our dreams live? And why is it that in that part of our unconscious (the dream state) we sometimes seem to have no conscience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we have a subunconscious and/or a superunconscious?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we cross over from consciousness to unconsciousness, do we ever go straight into the dream state, or is a dreamless unconsciousness always achieved first (we have to get to the dream state from the unconscious state)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BTW, I realize that dreaming is referred to as a state, but it is not mutually exclusive to unconsciousness (you are dreaming &lt;em&gt;while&lt;/em&gt; you are unconscious/sleeping, not dreaming &lt;em&gt;instead&lt;/em&gt; of sleeping).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11646" LastEditorUserId="11646" LastEditDate="2016-05-18T15:02:57.470" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T17:53:31.437" Title="Do we have a sub- or super-unconscious?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-05-24T01:08:14.353" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13960" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13172" CreationDate="2016-05-18T13:24:23.403" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A receptive field is an area in which stimulation leads to response of a particular sensory neuron.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A receptive field is often functionally characterized by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/receptive/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;electrophysiological experiments&lt;/a&gt;. During these experiments, a certain area of the body is stimulated: &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, a certain part of the visual field is illuminated, or a certain area of the skin is haptically stimulated (Fig. 1), &lt;em&gt;etc.&lt;/em&gt;. Then it is determined if a neuron shows a response, either a stimulation (increased firing rate), or inhibition (decreased firing rate). By probing multiple, overlapping areas, the RF can be characterized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://doicondia.ru/fyputad.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Levine and Shefner&lt;/a&gt; (1991) define a receptive field as an &quot;&lt;strong&gt;area in which stimulation leads to response of a particular sensory neuron&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;RF&lt;/strong&gt; is hence &lt;strong&gt;a property of the neuron&lt;/strong&gt; and not of the stimulus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, that property of the neuron depends heavily on the stimulus. For example, an &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-ii-anatomy-and-physiology-of-the-retina/morphology-and-circuitry-of-ganglion-cells/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ON retinal ganglion cell&lt;/a&gt; will not respond when the, say, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11059/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;red-cones&lt;/a&gt; in the center of its receptive field in the retina are illuminated with UV light, while it will vigorously respond when the light is red. It is here where your professor may have been hinting at, i.e., at the close interplay between stimulus and response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/br9Zo.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/br9Zo.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;RF&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Schematic of the receptive field (RF) of a pain in the skin. The RF is determined by the arborations of the free nerve endings in the dendritic zone of the pain receptor cell. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://courses.lumenlearning.com/austincc-ap1/chapter/pain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lumen Learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-06T21:26:58.377" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T21:26:58.377" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13961" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13396" CreationDate="2016-05-18T13:39:47.540" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;At least three things play a  role here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Camouflage&lt;/strong&gt;: the panda looks like the snowman in shape and coloring. Further, the ears of the panda are the buttons of the snowmen behind, &lt;em&gt;i.e&lt;/em&gt;. the panda partly merges with the 'background' snowmen;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Clutter&lt;/strong&gt;: there are simply many, many snowmen;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Distracters&lt;/strong&gt;: The colored hats and other attributes are more salient and draw the attention away from the colorless panda.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saccades are indeed often made to salient features in the visual scene, so that may indeed be one of the factors (cf. point 3).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am unsure what you mean with more convincing examples and illusions, but this is not really an illusion. Below examples of camouflage (Fig. 1) and cluttered images (Fig. 2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rRRaB.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rRRaB.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;camouflage&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Find the leaf-tailed gecko. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.boredpanda.com/animal-camouflage/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bored Panda&lt;/a&gt; (apt!)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/d2JMB.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/d2JMB.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;clutter&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Find the coffee maker. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://etchingfitness.blogspot.nl/2013/01/hidden-object-puzzle.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EtchingFitness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-18T14:44:46.093" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T14:44:46.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13962" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-18T15:40:59.943" Score="3" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been trying to use Google Scholar to find something on this issue, but I fear I may not have found anything due to using incorrect terms. I am looking for any work which looks at rating systems and people's use of them (I hope this is the right forum). We are all familiar with the idea of rating things numerically, like out of a scale of 5. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it is also possible for people to rate things relatively ie A &gt; B and B &gt; C. Other preferences can then be inferred, ie A &gt; C. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In certain instances, where people may be reluctant to provide low ratings, these relative valuations may therefore be useful. I am wondering if this is something which has been looked at in any work that anyone knows of? Is 'relative valuation' the correct term for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11647" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-09T21:49:58.960" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T06:50:21.557" Title="Does work exist on relative valuations versus numeric valuations?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13963" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13920" CreationDate="2016-05-18T17:03:47.290" Score="4" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Physics&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps you are asking, &quot;Where would the energy, or the electrical potential, come from?&quot; Short answer: Sugar. Or, at the cellular level, ATP. Point is -- nerve impulses from the senses are [probably] not the brain's main source of energy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Internal Stimulation&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The five senses provide external stimulation to the brain. But that stimulation takes time to spread through the brain.  Not only that, the brain's operation is not a one-way street. Signals can (and do) backpropagate. So, cutting off input for a second will not instantly reduce signal transduction to zero. Over time, yes, overall activity would likely decrease significantly. You could test this by putting someone in an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_tank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;isolation tank&lt;/a&gt; and doing an MRI. (Sensory input isn't totally muted in this scenario, but it's clearly reduced.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The human brain certainly has internal mechanisms that allow the mind to recall previously experienced stimuli. Ever heard the phrase &quot;the mind's eye&quot;? That's one name for the thing that allows us to remember things we've seen, heard, touched, or tasted before -- and imagine experiences we've never actually had. Art, creativity, and even hallucination come to mind. (More on that last one in a second. But first...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...Let's talk about dreams! The separated person's state is a lot like sleep. During sleep, sensory input is chemically muted, or at least turned wayyyyy down. The mind doesn't pay as much attention to its surroundings. If you sleep especially long, the mind 'gets bored' and finds ways to entertain itself, like dreaming. Think about a prisoner that's been locked up for years, whose main source of entertainment is, in fact, the self. This is another example of the idea: When no novelty exists in the stimulation from the outside world, the self works to manufacture the novelty it craves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, drugs. Hallucinogenic chemicals like psilocybin (found in &quot;magic&quot; mushrooms), LSD, and DMT can cause people to ignore their senses in favor of more novel stimulation generated internally. DMT users often use &quot;dreamlike&quot; to describe their experiences, and the parallels between a hallucinogenic &quot;trip&quot; and an ordinary &quot;dream&quot; are pretty obvious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, suppose your senses are cut off suddenly. Unless you have never dreamed, visualized something, heard a song in your head, had a sexual fantasy, or otherwise imagined something, I don't think your mind would &quot;stop working&quot;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Artificial Neural Networks vs. Human Brains&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A brain is one kind of mind. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another kind of mind is an artificial neural network, or ANN. To my knowledge, all ANNs have inputs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A brain without senses would be like a neural network without inputs. For the reason I just stated, this doesn't really compute (ha.) But, a biological brain has a little more to it than the simple little computer brains that run our search engines and social networks. ANNs only simulate SOME features of human brains -- specifically, neurons and the signals they pass to each other. In addition to the neurons and signals, human brains have lots of chemicals, like sugar and neurotransmitters, that affect their operation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most ANNs are designed to take one set of inputs and turn it into one set of outputs. For a human, &quot;one set of inputs&quot; is not clearly defined, because our existence does not appear to be framewise (until MAYBE you get REALLY into physics). We receive input continuously, and produce output continuously. Lots and lots of of operations per second!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point is: For a simple feed-forward neural network, cutting off input would cause it to stop functioning, yes. But there are versions of neural networks (convolutional, I think?) that feature neurons that feed back into previous layers, and those, like the human mind, will continue producing output long after input is reduced to zero. In fact, it would take a very specific (and you could say improbable) neural network to produce zero output when given zero input. Most of the ones I've seen are initialized with some random weights. I guess a human brain isn't exactly random when it grows. But a baby kicks (output) in the womb, before it's received much &quot;input&quot;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T17:03:47.290" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13964" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-18T17:31:50.383" Score="3" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;p&gt;The modern world has two new ways of finding abundance of employment and relationships:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Job boards, career sites and recruiters for finding jobs&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Online dating sites for finding dates&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While seemingly different, they share a couple similarities ~ 20% top performers and 20% top attractive people have really easy time finding the next job or romantic partner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For &lt;strong&gt;example&lt;/strong&gt;, a talented engineer working at Apple may have 50 recruiters knocking on his door, trying to &quot;poach&quot; him to the next hottest job or startup. An attractive woman on Tinder would match with just about any guy she wants and be swamped with messages from guys. &lt;strong&gt;Both of these people can find a great (but not perfect) job or a partner easily&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I've been reading and observing, the ease with which the needs for job/partner can be fulfilled by top percentile of people makes these people devalue the experience. The good things are overlooked once negatives start to show up. This can make a person experience rapid build up of dissatisfaction with the current situation and want to &quot;trade up&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me ask: &lt;strong&gt;Are the experiences of dissatisfaction with job and relationships, as experienced by people who &quot;have it easy&quot; related?&lt;/strong&gt; Do they use the same mental mechanism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a sense, this question is a continuation of this one: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1792/how-long-can-a-person-stay-happy-excited-and-motivated-about-something-new&quot;&gt;How long can a person stay happy, excited and motivated about something new?&lt;/a&gt; I'm asking if there's a universal mechanism by which a person starts to seek &quot;something better&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-06-24T02:38:29.583" Title="Do dissatisfaction with a job and relationships share the same mental mechanism?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13965" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13920" CreationDate="2016-05-18T17:37:11.127" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Seems that you are asking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am really interested just in the way the brain creates new&#xA;  electrical potentials, &quot;just on his own.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;whether [sic] the brain would 'stop working', implying that there no longer is any neural activity due to the lack of external impulses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you were to theoretically disconnect the brain from all sensory input, there could be several sources of activity. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Random noise.&lt;/strong&gt; Neurons are messy objects, there are many small and large molecules floating &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytosol&quot;&gt;inside&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracellular_fluid&quot;&gt;outside&lt;/a&gt; the cells. Furthermore, the membranes themselves are relatively dynamic, and are studded with receptors, ion channels, and other proteins, some of which migrate regularly (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid_raft&quot;&gt;Lipid rafts&lt;/a&gt;). The ion channels (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_channel&quot;&gt;sodium&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_channel&quot;&gt;potassium&lt;/a&gt;) that contribute to the electric currents that generate action potentials, can be affected by thermal fluctuations, and thus change their open-closed states in a stochastic manner. Notice the fluxuations in Figure 1 of &lt;a href=&quot;http://jgp.rupress.org/content/84/4/505.full.pdf&quot;&gt;Horn and Vandenberg (1984)&lt;/a&gt; obtained from a single sodium channel.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Some cells fire without any external stimulation&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_pattern_generator&quot;&gt;Central pattern generator&lt;/a&gt; circuits is one example, and pacemaker neurons is another. Take a look at Figure 1 of &lt;a href=&quot;http://jgp.rupress.org/content/51/1/29.full.pdf&quot;&gt;Alving (1968)&lt;/a&gt; where an isolated neuron exhibits regular spiking without any external input. One can imagine that one such spiking cell could be connected to other neurons and could cause them to spike as well.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Gain control mechanisms might amplify noise.&lt;/strong&gt; In your scenario, if the brain is not receiving sensory input, the natural &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627302008292&quot;&gt;gain control mechanisms&lt;/a&gt;, attempting to maintain a certain activity range, might increase amplification to such an extent that the thermal noise fluctuations become consciously perceived. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_deprivation&quot;&gt;sensory deprivation&lt;/a&gt; can result in hallucinations, which might be explained by noise amplification by gain control mechanisms. Similar mechanism can also be seen in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jiri_Wackermann/publication/5229879_Ganzfeld-induced_hallucinatory_experience_its_phenomenology_and_cerebral_electrophysiology/links/00b7d5338334c265e5000000.pdf&quot;&gt;Ganzfeld effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, any one or a combination of the mechanisms described above could cause spontaneous brain activity without external stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T17:37:11.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13966" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13959" CreationDate="2016-05-18T17:53:31.437" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sleep and dreaming is somewhat of a specialty of mind, so I can comment on the wake-sleep-wake transition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People typically love the feeling of relaxation and warmth associated with sleep.  Waking up naturally can feel just as good - imagine lounging in bed on a Sunday morning without having to get out of bed. Waking due to alarm is an abrupt event which is indeed unpleasant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of conscious - unconscious transition at wake/sleep. There are a number of techniques, sharing the acronym &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.world-of-lucid-dreaming.com/wake-induced-lucid-dreams.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WILD - Wake Induced Lucid Dreaming&lt;/a&gt;, where a person, through practice, enters dreaming state directly from waking state, while remaining conscious. There are different variant of this technique, some accompanied by vivid hallucinations and sleep paralysis, while other are more subtle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the existence of wake induced lucid dreaming demonstrates that the wake-sleep transition is not a binary event, but instead is a sequence of predictable events. Typically the ability to record short term memories is gone first, followed by intensification of mental imagery, followed by seamless transition into a dream featuring that imagery. &lt;strong&gt;You can think of dreaming as &quot;dimming&quot; of consciousness, rather than turning it off.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a number of drugs/supplements that are known to boost vividness of dreaming or increase subjective experience of consciousness (such as use of logic, decision making and control). After a certain threshold the person becomes self aware of the fact that he is dreaming. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this way, consciousness &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomic_brain_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;can be described as a hologram&lt;/a&gt;. Adding pixels to hologram makes it more vivid, removing pixels makes it more fuzzy. At a certain number of pixels, the ability to recognize the image is gone. Add these pixels back and the image returns. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T17:53:31.437" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13967" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-18T19:54:03.763" Score="5" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;A recent development in Artificial Neural Networks for machine learning applications is the use of Adversarial Networks (&lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/pdf/1604.07379v1.pdf&quot;&gt;see this paper for an example&lt;/a&gt;). Adversarial Networks is a network architecture where one network learns to &quot;fool&quot; the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this type of adversarial learning exist in the brain at a neuronal level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T19:54:03.763" Title="Do adversarial neural networks exist in the brain?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13969" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13544" CreationDate="2016-05-18T20:11:58.797" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Convolution is a technical term, and comes from the signal processing field. Unfortunately, it is easily confused with &quot;convoluting&quot;. Effectively, &quot;to convolve&quot; means to pick a small &quot;window&quot;, slide it across your signal, and compute the same function for each step.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In CNNs, when applied to classifying, for example images, it means taking a small window, of say 3x3 pixels, sliding it across the whole image, and feeding the small sections of the larger image under the window into a neural network. The outputs of the network are then combined into a new layer and can then be fed into another NN layer for classification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HMDnR.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HMDnR.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Convolutional Neural Network&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the example above, the window is 3x3 pixels wide, and the step size is 1. Depending on the application, it's possible to have larger/smaller windows and step sizes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The resulting layer can be said to be the &lt;em&gt;result of convolving the original image with a neural network&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When using convolution filters in, say Photoshop, it's using a similar method where it takes sliding windows of pixels and computes a function (for example to achieve blur, the average RGB values of the window pixels) and creates a new image out of those. You can then say that &lt;em&gt;convolving an image with a pixel average function results in a blurred image&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2016-05-18T20:11:58.797" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13971" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13946" CreationDate="2016-05-19T08:35:35.290" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;A study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3543826/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rainer &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2011)&lt;/a&gt; has shown that words are skipped and apparently filled in mentally quite often (in the order of 8 to 30% of times).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two important factors that increased skipping rates were the &lt;em&gt;length&lt;/em&gt; of the word and the &lt;em&gt;predictability&lt;/em&gt; of the word due to contextual constraints. Both cases apply on the word '&lt;em&gt;the&lt;/em&gt;', because it is &lt;strong&gt;short&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;highly predictable&lt;/strong&gt;, being a common &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/the&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;adjective&lt;/a&gt; and in fact one of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.trussel.com/the.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;most used words&lt;/a&gt; in the English language. In other words, besides being short and predictable, it is also a very common word that has relatively little impact on the meaning of a sentence.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3543826/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rainer &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;37&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 514–28&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-19T12:59:26.930" LastActivityDate="2016-05-19T12:59:26.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13972" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13962" CreationDate="2016-05-19T08:53:11.997" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Sensory systems in general operate on a relative basis. Hence, seemingly objective rating scales are often still relative, because subjects implicitly, or explicitly compare previous trials to the current one. Perception is per definition always relative. So numeric ratings are similar to ''larger than'', or ''smaller than'' ratings. The advatnage of numeric ratings is that it is a (semi-)continuous scale, allowing for quantitative analyses.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;You are asking about &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rating_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rating scales&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and specifically to the difference between numbering opposed to larger-than / smaller-than ratings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have to realize that when subjects rate on a scale from, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;,  0 to 10, the S is already quite explicitly indicating whether a trial's stimulus is larger or smaller than a previous trial. Even if you force an absolute number scale, the result is a comparison nonetheless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, even if you as an experimenter force an absolute rating, Ss will always start comparing later conditions to previous ones (this is larger/bigger/brighter/more intense than the last trial, &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;.), either consciously or subconsciously. The only really absolute one, in absence of a baseline measure, will be the very first trial. It is a known phenomenon that previous trials affect subsequent ratings because of that. Hence, true absolute ratings are a rarity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also - perception &lt;em&gt;is &lt;a href=&quot;http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/adaptation.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;physiologically and per definition&lt;/em&gt; always relative&lt;/a&gt;. Sensory systems operate at relative measures at the neural level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And to conclude, as a comment - What often happens in rating experiments is that the experimenter assigns a certain baseline. For example, consider the rating of speech-understanding. First, the listener can be instructed to rate speech in silence from 0 (unintelligible) to 10 (highly intelligible). You might urge the S to rate it 10, as speech in silence is per definition highly recognizable and understandable. After that, you present various distorted speech forms, or speech in variable amounts of noise. Under these conditions, Ss will (likely) rate these trials lower, because of lower signal-to-noise ratios. This way, the absolute ratings are relative less than/larger than comparisons nonetheless, because Ss are rating the subsequent trials relative to baseline. i.e., they are comparing the noisy conditions to 10 - per definition a relative measure, whether you are asking them to give numbers, or larger than, or smaller than answers. The big advantage of numbers is that it allows for (semi-)quantitative analyses, while '&amp;lt;', '=' or '&gt;' will make your life a lot harder to do stats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-10T06:50:21.557" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T06:50:21.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13973" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13939" CreationDate="2016-05-19T12:25:41.327" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer to this question could be found in the mind-wandering literature (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015331&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; for a review). Figure 1 in the paper really nicely depicts the possible situations possible when looking at task engagement and self-generated thought. I'll summarize them here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You are engaged in the task, i.e. attention is focused outwards, and the stimuli you perceive are task-related. You are focused.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You are generating thoughts about the task you are working on, i.e. attention is focused internally, but regarding the task. This is not a harmful state, since contemplating about something relevant may be very useful.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You are engaged in the task, but a non-relevant stimulus is perceived (e.g. phone ringing, seeing your dirty dishes on the kitchen counter). You get distracted.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You are generating thoughts about something completely irrelevant (e.g. your upcoming holiday. This is the most harmful state, and will only stop until you realize your mind is wandering. (I will not go into the meta-cognitive processes of this. For that, see the referenced paper).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are thus two reasons why you fail to focus on the task at hand. (1) there are external stimuli that distract you, or (2) you distract yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Task Interruptions and Multi-tasking&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the problem is that too many distracting stimuli are present, we should look at the multitasking literature. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cs.drexel.edu/%7Esalvucci/publications/Salvucci-CHI10.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salvucci and Bogunovic (2010)&lt;/a&gt; for instance, showed that workload determines how easily a distracting task/stimuli may grab your attention. The lower workload is, the more &amp;quot;opportunities&amp;quot; there are to switch to the other task. With more opportunities I mean that you use little cognitive resources on the primary task, which allows a secondary task to be attended at. This is also shown by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/12664220/CHOICE_IN_MULTITASKING_How_delays_in_the_primary_task_turn_a_rational_into_an_irrational_multitasker&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Katidioti and Taatgen (2014)&lt;/a&gt; by showing that people tend to switch tasks when the time to load a webpage is rather long (3000 ms in the paper). During this period of time, a person has to wait before he can continue his task, therefore decreasing workload at the time. On the other hand, when workload is high and you are focused on the task, less opportunities exist for switching tasks. This may also be explained by &amp;quot;attentional narrowing&amp;quot;, i.e. having a higher focus on one task/stimulus and, therefore, being unable to actually perceive distracting stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, when you do get interrupted during a high-workload period, the costs of task-switching is a lot higher. It takes considerable more time to &amp;quot;reset&amp;quot; your goals and, sometimes (when you had to remember a particular fact e.g.), you must again search for that information (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cs.drexel.edu/%7Esalvucci/publications/Salvucci-CHI10.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salvucci &amp;amp; Bogunovic, 2010&lt;/a&gt;). This may greatly affect productivity, even more so if you consider people are interrupted every six minutes (Reference in &lt;a href=&quot;http://interruptions.net/literature/Katidioti-JExpPsycholAppl14.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Katidioti et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Self-generated Thought (SGT)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being distracted by SGTs is also greatly affected by workload, as described in the review (as are all other statements). Again, if workload is low, there are more opportunities to &amp;quot;reset&amp;quot; your goals, i.e. to focus attention internally. On the other hand, if workload is high, you are less likely to create SGT. This effect is especially easy to see during vigilance tasks (such as studying or monitoring).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Getting distracted by yourself, i.e. focusing on SGT, is not always a bad thing though, so do not immediately try to diagnose ADHD or something. It has been shown that people that create more SGT are more creative than people who are in general more focused. Moreover, as stated earlier, SGT may be about task-relevant issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Concluding&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are thus two reasons why one may get distracted when studying alone. There are external stimuli that grab your attentions or you just have difficulties with vigilance tasks and you distract yourself. Let me give you some tips that may help focusing your attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Clean up your house before you start studying. If there is nothing to do around you, you won't have a reason to get distracted by another task. You could also try to study in a library. You definitely won't start vacuuming over there.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Study with a fellow student. The &amp;quot;social pressure&amp;quot; (this is how I experience it) prevents me from doing other things, because I know it will also distract the other. Another benefit is that you can ask each other thing you do not understand. The downside of studying together is that the other may in fact be the distractor.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Staying vigilant is difficult for a longer period of time. Switch between studying and walking for instance may help focusing your attention for the briefer periods of time.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Make the material more interactive. Reading a book requires vigilance and is a really passive way of studying. Make flash cards, write a summary, create a game; anything that may help you study in a more interactive way is good.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I really hope this will help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-05-19T12:25:41.327" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12479" CreationDate="2016-05-19T13:12:49.347" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there have been a number of studies on language development in children with congenital profound visual impairment (PVI) over the years. Selma Fraiberg first described differences in early development, specifically later emergence of personal pronouns compared to typically sighted children [1].&#xA;More recent studies found that the vocabulary development of children with PVI follows a different trajectory. Vocabulary sizes is initially smaller compared to typically-sighted children, then develops rapidly and may surpass the vocabulary size of typically-sighted children of the same age [2]. Differences in the way that language is acquired in the early years, e.g. through shared gaze interaction with the caregiver, may part of the reason for the different developmental trajectories. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is only a very superficial treatment of this question. There are entire books on this topic that offer a detailed discussion of the research:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perez-Pereira, M., &amp;amp; Conti-Ramsden, G. (1999): Language development and social interaction in blind children. Hove, UK: Psychology Press/Taylor and Francis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pring (2004): Autism and blindness. Research and reflections. London: John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Fraiberg (1968): &quot;Parallel and divergent patterns in blind and sighted infants&quot; The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, Vol 23, 1968, 264-300.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[2] McConachie &amp;amp; Moore (1994). &quot;Early expressive language of severely visually impaired children&quot; Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 36(3), 230–240.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-05-19T13:12:49.347" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11102" CreationDate="2016-05-19T13:39:23.547" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Different diagnostic systems may assign these syndromes to different categories based on theory or clinical opinion. In the DSM-IV era, OCD was listed under the &quot;Anxiety disorders&quot; category; however, in the DSM-5, it is now listed under a different &quot;Obsessive-Compulsive and related disorders&quot; category. ADHD is currently under the &quot;Neurodevelopmental disorders&quot; category.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, many would argue that categorization should be based on empirical evaluation of the co-occurrence of syndromes and lower-level symptoms rather than on psychiatric theory or clinical opinion. When approached from this viewpoint, you find that OCD loads highly on the &lt;em&gt;Internalizing&lt;/em&gt; spectrum  (along with MDD, GAD, PTSD, and eating disorders) and ADHD loads highly on the &lt;em&gt;Externalizing&lt;/em&gt; spectrum (along with substance abuse and conduct-related disorders) and moderately on the &lt;em&gt;Antagonism&lt;/em&gt; spectrum (along with narcissism, antisocial, and histrionic disorders). There are many articles on such empirical evaluations and various dimensional and hierarchical approaches to understanding psychopathology that I could share if you are interested. One place to start is would be the &lt;a href=&quot;https://medicine.stonybrookmedicine.edu/HITOP/AboutHiTOP&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) system&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11319" LastActivityDate="2016-05-19T13:39:23.547" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13976" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13958" CreationDate="2016-05-19T13:56:14.727" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;From a quick search online I see no reason why you distantiate what you describe from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_hallucination#Individual_accounts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;auditory hallucinations&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a form of hallucination that involves perceiving sounds without&#xA;  auditory stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intervoiceonline.org/2298/voices/positive-voices/hearing-voices-amongst-normal-people.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the article you link to&lt;/a&gt;, which arguably &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; address your question (yes, some people report experiencing this), you mainly seem to be concerned that this would unequivocally be considered a mental illness. Your actual question thus seems to be &quot;&lt;strong&gt;Is hearing multiple voices always considered a mental illness?&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Judging from the Wikipedia article (and its subheading &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_hallucination#Non-disease_associated_causes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;'Non-disease associated causes'&lt;/a&gt;) this is seemingly not the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, individuals may hear voices without suffering from&#xA;  diagnosable mental illness. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/7177-hearing-voices-people.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Thompson, 2006&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/7177-hearing-voices-people.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The article by Thompson&lt;/a&gt; mentions a study for which unfortunately no source is provided, thus I would take the following with a grain of salt:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But studies by Dutch researchers that began in the 1990s found that&#xA;  some healthy people also regularly hear voices. ... Many of the people&#xA;  who contacted them did not find the voices disruptive and had never&#xA;  felt the need to consult mental health services. ... The resulting&#xA;  studies found that more people might hear voices than psychologists&#xA;  had thought, perhaps around 4 percent of the population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It might, however, set you on the right path to finding the actual studies, or more recent work in regards to how many people report hearing voices not attributed to the self without considering them a mental illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Thompson, Andrea (September 15, 2006). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/7177-hearing-voices-people.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Hearing Voices: Some People Like It&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. LiveScience.com.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-05-19T14:43:47.720" LastActivityDate="2016-05-19T14:43:47.720" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13978" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13937" CreationDate="2016-05-19T20:20:32.497" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The function of the thalamic adhesion in humans is unknown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The two halves of the thalamus are separated by the third ventricle. In about 80% of people, the thalami are connected via the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interthalamic_adhesion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;thalamic adhesion&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;em&gt;massa intermedia&lt;/em&gt;, Fig. 1), which mainly contains cell bodies, but also commissural fiber systems that connect some thalamic nuclei (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ijav.org/2010/ijav_10_174-175.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Satheesha &amp;amp; Soumya, 2010&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ijav.org/2010/ijav_10_174-175.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2005&lt;/a&gt;). Because the structure is absent in about 20% of the people, it is not a critical structure. The significance and consequences of its presence or absence is not known in humans (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ijav.org/2010/ijav_10_174-175.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2005&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is known that there are sex-differences between the presence of the structure. It is present in 78% of females and 68% males &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1744245&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Allen &amp;amp; Gorski, 1991)&lt;/a&gt; and it is about 50% bigger in females, when present. In schizophrenics, female patients were shown to have a significantly higher incidence of absent &lt;em&gt;massa intermedia&lt;/em&gt; (33%) than their healthy controls (14%), whereas male patients showed no such difference &lt;a href=&quot;http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0920996400000670&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Nopoulus &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2001)&lt;/a&gt;.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In rhesus monkeys, ablation of the structure has been shown to lead to ipsilateral motor deficits &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/2/347&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Lumley, 1972)&lt;/a&gt;, but that has likely no relation to the commmissural tracts in question.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5q5v9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5q5v9.png&quot; alt=&quot;CI&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Dissection showing the &lt;em&gt;massa Intermedia&lt;/em&gt; connecting the two thalami through the third ventricle. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interthalamic_adhesion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1744245&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Allen &amp;amp; Gorski, &lt;em&gt;J Comp Neurol&lt;/em&gt; (1991); &lt;strong&gt;312&lt;/strong&gt;(1):97-104&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/2/347&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lumley, &lt;em&gt;Brain&lt;/em&gt; (1972); &lt;strong&gt;95&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 347-56&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0920996400000670&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nopoulus &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Schizophr Res&lt;/em&gt; (2001); &lt;strong&gt;48&lt;/strong&gt;(2-3): 177-85&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ijav.org/2010/ijav_10_174-175.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Satheesha &amp;amp; Soumya, &lt;em&gt;Int J Anatomic Va&lt;/em&gt;r (2010); &lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt;: 174–5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ijav.org/2010/ijav_10_174-175.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neuroanatomy&lt;/em&gt; (2005); eISSN 1303-1775 • pISSN 1303-1783&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-19T20:25:41.177" LastActivityDate="2016-05-19T20:25:41.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13979" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13980" CreationDate="2016-05-19T21:34:36.627" Score="7" ViewCount="1996" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering what the most straightforward way is to measure stress levels objectively and quantitatively *, and specifically, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load&quot;&gt;cognitive load&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. I am open to suggestions, but my understanding is that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.calmclinic.com/anxiety/symptoms/pupil&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;pupil dilation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and increased &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3386730/&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;skin conductivity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; are good objective and quantifiable  measures of stress. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question now is - &lt;strong&gt;is there an established opinion which of the two is the preferred method?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing is that skin conductance is relatively straightforward. An electrode or two suffices - too easy. Pupillometry, on the other hand, requires either cumbersome glasses or a head-mounted device, or, alternatively, a table-top device necessitating the subject to focus on a restricted field of view (otherwise the camera looses the pupil).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given we are considering measuring children, an electrode would intuitively be better, as it can be secured firmly to a finger, it allows for easy instructions - 'don't touch it', and it is relatively robust to artifacts, given that puil recordings suffer from eye blinks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Should we consider practical considerations only and choose skin conductance, or are there compelling reasons to use an eye tracker instead&lt;/strong&gt; **? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;*: we wish to avoid questionnaires due to time constraints&lt;br&gt;&#xA;**: we don't have money for both :-)&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-20T11:53:02.530" LastActivityDate="2016-05-20T11:53:02.530" Title="How to measure stress quantitatively?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13980" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13979" CreationDate="2016-05-19T22:38:45.647" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;When your goals is to measure one option over the other&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As part of a Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) study I also needed to measure cognitive load in order to assess whether a particular user interface could reduce perceived cognitive load (as compared to a control group). Because of practical reasons (and not to intrude too much in 'ordinary' computer usage) I decided to stick to the commonly used NASA TLX scale (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193120605000909&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hart, 2006&lt;/a&gt;). However, for small-scale studies (mine involved just 16 participants) I have the impression you are just as well off merely asking for qualitative feedback. Of course you can't run statistics on these, but interpreting effect size on such small sample sizes is arguably meaningless either way. You could thus simply ask participants which option is preferred in regards to perceived cognitive load and report on this as a 'significant' result. Of course I can not guarantee whether reviewers would agree. :) In the case you have suitable existing NASA TLX measures to compare against this still remains a worthwhile option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as you state a big downside to such a scale-based test is that it can only be administered at a few points throughout the study, since filling out scales is time intensive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For large scale or continuous quantitative studies&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Skin conductance, blood volume, and pulse rate seem quite promising and are being used in HCI (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2015.03.002&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Janssen et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2207676.2207754&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mark et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;), which are indicative of &lt;em&gt;arousal&lt;/em&gt;. These nowadays can more easily be measured in an easy form factor (e.g., a watch). However, it is important to mention that arousal is not indicative of &lt;em&gt;valence&lt;/em&gt;—the&#xA;pleasantness or unpleasantness of stimuli. Neither is using such equipment straightforward. Establishing a baseline for participants takes a considerable amount of work and care needs to be taken to do it properly (if one wants to compare results with other participants). Measurements on the wrist (as in measured by a watch) are weaker than on palms. For some people, no suitable signal is measured at all. Environmental factors like temperature changes and movement (in regards to skin conductance) and changes in lighting (pupil dilation) need to be controlled for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer one of your containing questions, I do not believe there is an &lt;em&gt;established&lt;/em&gt; opinion or a preferred method and it still relies heavily on what can be measured in the given context and what is to be expected (e.g., can it be presumed there is no positive valence?). Depending on the study one could still be preferred over the other (does the task involve movement?), and I definitely would not rule out qualitative measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Studies comparing different measures&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I was looking for information I did run into some sources which compare different measures. However, I can not summarize them by heart, but I hope the current mentioned issues and sources can already guide you in the right direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A master thesis by Forne (2012): &lt;a href=&quot;http://kiosk.nada.kth.se/utbildning/grukth/exjobb/rapportlistor/2012/rapporter12/forne_malin_12082.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Physiology as a Tool for UX and Usability Testing.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haapalainen et al. (2010) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sjunikim/publications/UBICOMP2010_Cognitive_Load.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psycho-physiological measures for assessing cognitive load.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Hart, S. G. (2006, October). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193120605000909&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NASA-task load index (NASA-TLX); 20 years later.&lt;/a&gt; In Proceedings of the human factors and ergonomics society annual meeting (Vol. 50, No. 9, pp. 904-908). Sage Publications.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Janssen, C. P., Gould, S. J., Li, S. Y., Brumby, D. P., &amp;amp; Cox, A. L. (2015). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2015.03.002&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Integrating knowledge of multitasking and Interruptions across different Perspectives and research methods.&lt;/a&gt; International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 79, 1-5.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Mark, G., Voida, S., &amp;amp; Cardello, A. (2012, May). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2207676.2207754&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A pace not dictated by electrons: an empirical study of work without email.&lt;/a&gt; In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 555-564). ACM.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Forne, M. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;http://kiosk.nada.kth.se/utbildning/grukth/exjobb/rapportlistor/2012/rapporter12/forne_malin_12082.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Physiology as a Tool for UX and Usability Testing.&lt;/a&gt; School of Computer Science and Communication, Master. Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Haapalainen, E., Kim, S., Forlizzi, J. F., &amp;amp; Dey, A. K. (2010, September). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sjunikim/publications/UBICOMP2010_Cognitive_Load.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psycho-physiological measures for assessing cognitive load.&lt;/a&gt; In Proceedings of the 12th ACM international conference on Ubiquitous computing (pp. 301-310). ACM.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-20T11:26:24.630" LastActivityDate="2016-05-20T11:26:24.630" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13982" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13983" CreationDate="2016-05-20T01:54:56.690" Score="4" ViewCount="2958" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested to know how to distinguish sensations from thoughts, according to the techniques and concepts of neuroscience and psychology. Is there an explicit distinction between them, or are there cases where the instrumental techniques and theoretical concepts fail?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11656" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-06-19T18:22:25.160" LastActivityDate="2018-06-19T18:22:25.160" Title="Difference between thoughts and sensations" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13983" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13982" CreationDate="2016-05-20T08:36:12.903" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Sensations are different from thoughts and are separated in the spatial and temporal domain. The distinction between thoughts and perceptions, however, is less well defined, but can still be dealt with experimentally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://nobaproject.com/modules/sensation-and-perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;description of &lt;strong&gt;sensation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is as follows: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The physical process during which our sensory organs [...] respond to&#xA;  external stimuli. [...] During sensation, our sense organs are&#xA;  engaging in transduction, the conversion of one form of energy into&#xA;  another. Physical energy such as light or a sound wave is converted&#xA;  into a form of energy the brain can understand: electrical&#xA;  [impulses generated in neurons]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sensation precedes &lt;a href=&quot;http://nobaproject.com/modules/sensation-and-perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;perception&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which includes the process of processing stages higher up in the brain, during which we become &lt;em&gt;aware&lt;/em&gt; of the sensations and make sense of it all (&lt;em&gt;integration&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More concisely, sensation is the &lt;strong&gt;detection of physical stimuli by low-level, peripheral neural processes&lt;/strong&gt;. Perception is the &lt;strong&gt;processing of sensations that lead to becoming aware of the sensation&lt;/strong&gt;, the latter mediated by higher cortical processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/consciousness-and-the-brain/201202/what-is-thought&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Thoughts&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are generated centrally in the brain, without the need for external input. So to answer your question - thoughts are generated in the central nervous system in the brain, while sensation occurs peripherally, e.g., in the eye (detection of light by the retina), skin (detection of touch by mechanoreceptors), the ear (setection of vibrations by the mechanoreceptors in the cochlea), &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;. Electrophysiologically, a sensation hence will occur at an anatomically different place and will precede the activity in the brain in time. These two processes are separated both in the spatial and temporal domain. Note that thoughts can not activate peripheral sensory systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps you were more after the &lt;em&gt;distinction between &lt;strong&gt;perception&lt;/strong&gt; and thoughts&lt;/em&gt;? Here, the distinction becomes less well-defined, as &lt;strong&gt;imagery&lt;/strong&gt; of sensory input may activate sensory brain areas in much the same way as the factual perception of a physical stimulus (&lt;em&gt;e.g&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11496156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Aleman &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., (2001)&lt;/a&gt;). For example, brain imaging studies in late-blind folks (people that lost their eye sight later in life) and even in the congenitally blind, can be complicated because of this. When brain activation is tested in a blind person using a vision aid (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wicab.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BrainPort&lt;/a&gt;) when looking at visual stimuli, the activation pattern can be dictated or compromised, because they can &lt;strong&gt;imagine&lt;/strong&gt; the stimulus to be there based on early memories when they still had functional vision. Hence, the distinction between thoughts and perceptual phenomena is less distinct. Nonetheless, perceptual phenomena are preceded by sensation, while imagery is not. Hence, this causality of the former can distinguish it from the latter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11496156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Aleman &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neuroreport&lt;/em&gt; (2001); &lt;strong&gt;12&lt;/strong&gt;(11): 2601-4)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-21T05:09:00.820" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T05:09:00.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13984" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-20T08:51:21.003" Score="3" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, creating an experiment in which the words &quot;male&quot; and &quot;female&quot; would be presented on the left or right side of a screen, and participants had to click a left button for &quot;male&quot; and a right button for &quot;female&quot; (and vice versa in a second group), would we find shorter reaction times when one gender was presented to a particular side of the participants' bodies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there studies that have researched this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2016-05-20T08:51:21.003" Title="Are the sides of the body associated with gender stereotypes?" Tags="&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13985" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9169" CreationDate="2016-05-20T09:22:46.513" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...studies that show that every part of the cortex does essentially the same thing!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be much interested in seeing these studies - Although the brain is plastic and inter-individual differences can be substantial, it is generally accepted that functional regions are well defined in terms of their anatomical locations and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.technologyreview.com/s/526501/brain-mapping/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;brain mapping&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; was, and still is, a field of research in its own right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies where &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;tiny areas of neocortex [were studied]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;have been done, and showing &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;what it does&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notable examples include &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-unit_recording&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;singe-unit recordings&lt;/a&gt; (cellular level - as tiny as you can get) that mapped the primary visual cortex (V1) and auditory cortex (AI). Such studies have shown that V1 contains retinotopic maps, and AI contains tonotopic maps, &lt;em&gt;i.e.,&lt;/em&gt; these studies showed that each region in the retina projects to a well-defined and neatly organized region in V1 (&lt;em&gt;e.g&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14640747908400703&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cowey, 1979)&lt;/a&gt;, and well-defined anatomical locations in the cochlea project to well-defined and well organized regions in AI (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17598590&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ozaki &amp;amp; Hashimoto, 2007&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;what information it contains&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is hard to answer, as the brain is not a hard disk that can be read back. However, studies on Alzheimer patients do reveal that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/site/scripts/documents_info.php?documentID=123&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;old memories are often relatively spared, while new ones fail to be stored properly&lt;/a&gt;, indicating indirectly what information the affected cortex contains. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14640747908400703&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cowey, &lt;em&gt;Quarterly J Exp Psychol&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;31&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 1-17&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17598590&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ozaki &amp;amp; Hashimoto, &lt;em&gt;Can J Neurol Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;34&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 146-53&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-20T11:13:04.300" LastActivityDate="2016-05-20T11:13:04.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13986" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12750" CreationDate="2016-05-20T14:16:53.623" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/105/17/6409.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tightly coupled brain activity and cerebral ATP metabolic rate&lt;/a&gt;&quot; which is summarised in the Scientific American article &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-does-the-brain-need-s/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Why Does the Brain Need So Much Power?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, conscious computation accounts for 50% of the brain's power consumption. From the Scientific American article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Chen and his colleagues used MRS specifically to track the rate of&#xA;  adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production, the primary source of&#xA;  cellular energy, in rat brains. MRS employs a magnetic resonance&#xA;  imaging (MRI) machine programmed to pick up particular elements in the&#xA;  body—in this case, the three phosphorus atoms in each ATP molecule...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The team noted that when the lab rats were knocked out, they produced&#xA;  50 percent fewer ATP molecules than when they were mildly&#xA;  anesthetized.The ATP produced when the brain is inactive, says Chen,&#xA;  seems to go mostly toward cell maintenance, whereas the additional ATP&#xA;  found in the more alert animals fueled other brain functions. He&#xA;  speculates that only a third of the ATP produced in fully awake brains&#xA;  is used for housekeeping functions, leaving the rest for other&#xA;  activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-05-20T14:16:53.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13987" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13861" CreationDate="2016-05-20T14:41:04.653" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon you are referring to is called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-synesthesia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which can be defined as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.daysyn.com/Sinkeetal2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sinke &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Synesthesia (Greek: &lt;em&gt;syn&lt;/em&gt; = together; &lt;em&gt;aesthesis&lt;/em&gt; = perception) is [...] a crossing of sensory perceptions, where stimulation within one sensory modality/stream leads to an internally generated perceptual experience of another sensory modality/stream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Synesthesia does not have to be drug-induced; there are people that experience it always (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-synesthesia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synesthetes&lt;/a&gt;). Their perceptions are often quite subtle, for example, specific written characters assume specific colors &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.daysyn.com/Sinkeetal2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sinke &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are no explicit models for drug-induced synesthesia &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3797969/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Luke &amp;amp; Turhune, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;. Nevertheless, the neurophysiological changes brought about by them can provide models for why hallucinogens can induce a synesthetic state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two major classes of &lt;strong&gt;psychedelic hallucinogens&lt;/strong&gt;, the indoleamines (e.g., LSD) and the phenethylamines (e.g., mescaline), have a common site of action, namely &lt;strong&gt;activation of serotine (5-HT) receptors&lt;/strong&gt;. Specifically, they are &lt;strong&gt;partial agonists&lt;/strong&gt; of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1853/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5-HT&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;A&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and other 5-HT&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; receptors in the central nervous system. The noradrenergic locus coeruleus and the cerebral cortex are among the regions where hallucinogens have prominent effects through their actions upon a 5-HT&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;A receptors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, hallucinogens like LSD are thought to inhibit serotonergic neuron transduction, referred to as the &lt;strong&gt;disinhibited feedback model&lt;/strong&gt;. Serotonin (5-HT) is mainly produced in the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14729135&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;raphne nuclei&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (RN) of the midbrain. The RN extends its projections into the brainstem and up into the higher cortex. It has been suggested that neurons of the RN may inhibit sensation, thus protecting the brain from sensory overload. Thus, 5-HT may be labeled to be primarily an inhibitory neurotransmitter. A decrease in 5-HT activity hence leads to disinhibition of the next neuron in the chain (e.g., neurons in the cortex) and becomes more active &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.daysyn.com/Sinkeetal2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sinke &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. This increased activity of the cortex may in turn explain the hallucinogenic activity of LSD and related drugs &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.daysyn.com/Sinkeetal2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sinke &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a few 5-HT receptors are excitatory ion channels (5-HT3), and some 5-HT receptor subtypes may have excitatory effects &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.daysyn.com/Sinkeetal2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sinke &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. Specifically, &lt;strong&gt;5-HT&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;A receptor activation&lt;/strong&gt; has been shown to directly mediate an &lt;strong&gt;enhancement&lt;/strong&gt; of nonsynchronous, late components of &lt;strong&gt;glutamatergic excitatory postsynaptic potentials at apical dendrites of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Pyramidal_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;layer V cortical pyramidal cells&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Hallucinogens indeed increase cortical excitability and activate large areas of the cortex. It has been proposed that this effect of hallucinogens on cerebral glutamatergic transmission may in fact be responsible for the higher-level cognitive, perceptual, and affective distortions produced by these drugs &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v21/n1s/full/1395318a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Aghajanian &amp;amp; Marek, 1999)&lt;/a&gt;. Along the lines of these observations, the effect is quite similar to the disinhibited feedback model, in that the effects of drug intoxication are due to enhanced activation of brain regions. With regard to synesthetic effects, it is proposed that this abnormal activity &lt;strong&gt;spreads to neighboring sensory areas that, in turn, lead to cross-modal sensory activations and hence synesthesia&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.daysyn.com/Sinkeetal2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sinke &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since serotonergic systems appear to be intimately involved in the control of sensation, sleep, attention, and mood, it may be possible to explain the actions of LSD and other hallucinogens by their disinhibition of these critical systems &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.daysyn.com/Sinkeetal2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sinke &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v21/n1s/full/1395318a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aghajanian &amp;amp; Marek, Neuropsychopharmacology (1999) &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;: 16S–23S&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3797969/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Luke &amp;amp; Turhune. Frontiers in Psychology (2013); &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;: 753&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.daysyn.com/Sinkeetal2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sinke &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Consciousness and Cognition (2012); &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;: 1419–34&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="11444" LastEditDate="2020-09-05T10:33:20.590" LastActivityDate="2020-09-05T10:33:20.590" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="13988" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-20T16:16:14.530" Score="3" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;In speed reading, people are taught to read much faster by avoiding the common habit of mentally vocalizing the words in our heads. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is mental vocalization an unnecessary habit that can be scraped away without inhibiting comprehension? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or rather, is this common mental process of imaginary vocalization a vital step in the process of comprehension?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9361" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-05-21T01:49:23.277" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T01:49:23.277" Title="Does reading a word without mentally vocalizing it inhibit your ability to comprehend?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13989" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="13997" CreationDate="2016-05-20T18:26:52.610" Score="9" ViewCount="1287" Body="&lt;p&gt;Edit: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/scientificamericanmind/journal/v17/n3/full/scientificamericanmind0606-6.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This study is much more relevant&lt;/a&gt; in terms of the question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/26/4/518&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This study&lt;/a&gt; suggests (according to article linked below) that a multilingual person can have multiple personalities, each tied to one of the languages that he or she speaks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3004943/Being-bilingual-really-two-minds-Researchers-say-people-different-personalities-language.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article about the study.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One personality may be active when the person is interacting in one language, another when interacting in another language, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen this phenomena very distinctly in myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does this happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11664" LastEditorUserId="11664" LastEditDate="2016-05-21T13:22:39.660" LastActivityDate="2018-10-20T19:49:41.920" Title="Why do people have different personalities when speaking different languages?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13991" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-20T20:04:07.790" Score="3" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;I ate lunch and then played pool with a co-worker after lunch today at our office. We get along quite well and talk often. Yet while socially engaged, instead of professionally, I found myself laughing disproportionately at things that were only moderately funny. I did my best to suppress it because it would have been embarrassing to laugh too hard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After we finished I returned to my computer and began to work on some programming tasks. A few minutes later my wife sent me a funny picture on social media. I could barely control myself and almost burst out loud laughing. Had I seen the image later on in the day I would have not almost gone into a laughing fit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I noticed this behavior much more often as an adolescent in similar situations than I do now. It seems to be related to my comfort in social situations which has changed as I have grown older.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we laugh harder and more often in social situations? Also, does suppressing laughter bottle it up? Why does this improve as we grow older?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I may also be interesting to note that he is not my superior. I am a partner in the company and oversee him, so its not related to his having a higher social status in the workplace.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11665" LastActivityDate="2016-05-20T20:04:07.790" Title="Why do we laugh more easily in social situations?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13992" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-21T03:26:08.533" Score="1" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example in the matrix, when the little bug crawls through his belly button my belly button feels weird. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11668" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T08:51:57.410" Title="What's the feeling where you feel weird in places where people in movies get stabbed etc" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13993" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7816" CreationDate="2016-05-21T06:36:37.943" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since this (excellent) question has been around for a while without any answer, I thought I'd give my two cents. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think we do this as a gesture of &lt;em&gt;respect&lt;/em&gt; to the other person. We may fear that if we don't acknowledge them at all, it will come off as rude or arrogant. Maybe we fear that if we don't even look at the other person, we're basically pretending as if they're not there. So we want to acknowledge them in some way. However, they are often a total stranger, so we may feel that saying &quot;hi&quot; or anything like that, is a bit over the top. (Sometimes we may actually say &quot;hi&quot; combined with the frown, though.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, as you suggest in the question itself, it's a way to acknowledge the other person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, why not give an authentic smile? Well, because it's a little bit difficult to give a real smile without actually being happy about something. If you see a dear friend for the first time in months, you'll probably give a real smile, because you are &lt;em&gt;genuinely happy to see them.&lt;/em&gt; When you meet a total stranger, the truth is that that person doesn't really mean much to you. You might not really feel that you have anything to smile about. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have you ever tried to smile for a photograph, when you're actually not very happy? It's not easy. The smile often looks inauthentic. Similarly here, we try our best to greet the passing person with respect, but it's not that easy to smile authentically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not wanting to look like a fake smiling clown, we may not even try that hard. The other person knows that we're just trying to acknowledge them. They're not looking to give us an Oscar award anyway. And we know that they know that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we were to make eye contact with them without altering our facial expression at all, we might end up looking a bit mad. (Imagine it, you cross paths with someone, and they just look into your eyes without altering their facial expression at all. Personally, I would be a bit freaked out if that happened.) Most changes in our expression will be better than nothing (except, of course for a downright hostile or angry face). It means we acknowledge that they are there, and we are making an effort to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's another possible reason: &lt;em&gt;Fear of rejection.&lt;/em&gt; We want to acknowledge the person. So why not give them a real smile? Well, what if you do, and they respond with a careful nod, a frown like the ones in OP, or even totally ignore you? (This is quite possible, since it's not that easy to produce a genuine smile.) When you genuinely smile at someone, you are giving a little part of yourself out to them. If they then merely nod at you, or something like that, most people will feel uncomfortable. As if they just gave someone a gift and the other person was uninterested in the gift. I'm not saying this is a reasonable feeling, I'm just saying it's the way people might feel, thus motivating their behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11664" LastEditorUserId="11664" LastEditDate="2017-12-30T08:21:33.570" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T08:21:33.570" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13995" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13992" CreationDate="2016-05-21T08:51:57.410" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are describing seems to be a form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror-touch_synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mirror touch synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mirror-touch synesthesia is a condition which causes individuals to experience the same sensation (such as touch) that another person feels. For example, if someone with this condition were to observe someone touching their cheek, they would feel the same sensation on their own cheek. Synesthesia, in general, is described as a condition in which a stimulus causes an individual to experience an additional sensation. Synesthesia is usually a developmental condition, however recent research has shown that mirror touch synesthesia can be acquired after sensory loss following amputation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11671" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T08:51:57.410" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13996" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-21T09:15:08.103" Score="1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had  a weird  dream  about  my  boobs  being  as  hard  as  a morning  stiffy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;oh  and  for  some  reason  thinking  of  my fiancee  in the  same  dream  made  me  pregnant  and  I was  still  stuck  in my  house with  the man I  live  with&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;not just  the nipples  :p  both  breasts. oh and  I just  stood  on my head  for a microsecond&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I has  a  son already&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11673" LastEditorUserId="11673" LastEditDate="2016-05-21T09:42:59.583" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T09:42:59.583" Title="What does pregnancy dreams mean?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-05-23T14:19:51.303" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="13997" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13989" CreationDate="2016-05-21T09:46:09.410" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;That is a really interesting question. There are some studies that found that the emotional response is strong in one's native language compared to languages that are acquired later. For instance, a study by Harris and colleagues found that physiological arousal was stronger to swear words or childhood reprimands in the first language of the participants compared to a fluent second language [1]. For bilinguals, the response was similar for both languages.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coming back to your question, this could indicate that people might display different personalities, because they judge the emotional content of language differently in their non-native language. This could have to do with the context in which the language was learned, i.e. in infancy versus classroom learning. Alternatively, differences in exposure might make a difference, because hearing words and phrases in many different context provides a better understanding of their connotations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Harris, C. L., Aycicegi, A., &amp;amp; Gleason, J. B. (2003). Taboo words and reprimands elicit greater autonomic reactivity in a first language than in a second language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24(04), 561–579. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716403000286&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716403000286&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T09:46:09.410" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14000" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13943" CreationDate="2016-05-21T10:21:55.497" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I doubt trauma would create personality factors. If one is a perfectionist addicted to approval, the features might become stronger after a trauma, yet trauma itself would not be the source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Possibly, one might feel weaker after a trauma but then, self-criticism strictly is not the resolve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-criticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-criticism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I cannot agree &quot;a traumatic event tends to generate the cognition of perfectionism and approval addiction&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11675" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T10:21:55.497" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13958" CreationDate="2016-05-21T10:31:43.547" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have never heard a thing like an &quot;inner voice&quot;. I take it for a figure of speech. It might be interesting to compare linguality factors. I am bilingual. Maybe there is no way my brain would produce anything like a &quot;voice&quot; (it would have to speak two languages at the same time). Obviously, I'm not complaining. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many people have endophasia, but is not a &quot;voice&quot;. Imagery happens to partake in language perception, as when we read books and imagine the characters, but again, these are not &quot;voices&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feel welcome to read my work,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://feedbackandlanguage.com/2015/07/10/chapter-three-the-role-of-feedback-in-language-use/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://feedbackandlanguage.com/2015/07/10/chapter-three-the-role-of-feedback-in-language-use/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11675" LastEditorUserId="11675" LastEditDate="2016-05-21T10:40:57.907" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T10:40:57.907" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14003" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13989" CreationDate="2016-05-21T12:32:24.457" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a typical example of the misrepresentation of scientific reseach in popular media.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The orignal study concludes that &quot;language effects on cognition are context-bound and transient, revealing unprecedented levels of malleability in human cognition&quot;. The word &quot;personality&quot; does not appear in the original paper. Nevertheless the Daily Mail comes to the conclusion that &quot;[s]peaking two languages really could give you a split personality, researchers have found&quot;. No, they haven't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To understand what is going on here, I recommend the following video to you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.facebook.com/LastWeekTonight/videos/896755337120143/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.facebook.com/LastWeekTonight/videos/896755337120143/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; the study find? It finds that the different grammatical structures of different languages can influence how people perceive the world and process information. (Please note the word &quot;can&quot; here! It does not always happen, and only to a small extent.) This is an old hat and called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sapir-Whorf hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for how this changes the &quot;personality&quot; of multilingual speakers: It doesn't. It changes the &lt;em&gt;information&lt;/em&gt; that the speakers use to assess the situation and plan their behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T12:32:24.457" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14004" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-21T13:00:47.513" Score="2" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies showing that there is a direct connection (or a lack of a connection) between performance on a speeded, written, multiple choice test, and making quick decisions during a critical incident?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11677" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T13:00:47.513" Title="Can a multiple choice test reliably measure decision making speed?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;validation&gt;&lt;selection-recruitment&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14005" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20401" CreationDate="2016-05-21T14:49:21.033" Score="10" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have built several apps in Norwegian about hunting, philosophy etc. Students use the app to learn a subject and test their knowledge before doing their exam. In current state i have one question with three alternatives, where one is correct. The student will be presented with the solution to the question after they have chosen the alternative, and not on the end of the test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the the capital city of Australia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Canberra&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sydney&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Melbourne&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if anyone know if there is any research on if students learn more/less/equal by being presented with 4 alternatives instead of three. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the the capital city of Australia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Canberra&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sydney&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Melbourne&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Edmunton&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this have any effect for learning, since it's less probable to just check the correct by chance. Maybe students have to do more active thinking since it's more alternatives to think about, and therefore learn more?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11678" LastActivityDate="2018-08-06T17:02:16.050" Title="Does the number of alternatives in a multiple choice question affect the learning output?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14006" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-21T16:21:46.920" Score="5" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Would it cause any speech issues if I decide to teach my toddler English and Spanish at the same time? Or should I teach one language first and then the other one?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11666" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-06-23T23:24:10.293" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T23:24:10.293" Title="What are the pros and cons of teaching a toddler two languages simultaneously versus sequentially?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14007" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9169" CreationDate="2016-05-21T17:29:00.630" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wanted to make a few additions to Christiaan's answer. First of all, the functional location's as described by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brodmann (wiki)&lt;/a&gt; is a little outdated. Nowadays, it is believed that there are networks of regions that are responsible for a particular function. An example is the default mode network, a network of the ACC and prefrontal regions, that is associated with self-generated thought or mind-wandering (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/100/1/253.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015331&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also another line of research that focuses on functional location: Trans-cranial Magnetic stimulation (TMS). With TMS you stimulate the brain with a strong magnetic field, therewith (de-)activating a particular area of the brain for a short period of time. If you would stimulate a part of the motor cortex, you could, for instance twitch someone's arm. Or, if you would stimulate parts of the visual cortex, you could temporarily cause (color-/movement-) blindness. If you search for TMS, there are plenty of other examples. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T17:29:00.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2016-05-21T19:08:26.977" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;To complement the answers, there's also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jatos.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Just Another Tool for Online Studies:  JATOS&lt;/a&gt; (disclaimer: I'm one of the authors). It's an open source tool that focusses on the server side. It will provide:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a secure server&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a database (MySQL or H2)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;participant management (optionally prevents repeated access)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a graphical user interface to access results&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;run group studies in real-time&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a few etceteras. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because JATOS focusses on the server side, it doesn't restrict in -almost- any way what you run in the browser (i.e., what you do in the client side). That means that it's actually complementary to a few of the tools that other answers suggested, that will mostly give you client-side solutions to present stimuli and measure reaction times in the browser. &#xA;For the latter,  I use the &lt;code&gt;performance.now&lt;/code&gt; method in JavaScript that runs in most browsers and works pretty well. Probably not for careful priming or multisensory integration-type experiments, though.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9178" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T19:08:26.977" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14009" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13932" CreationDate="2016-05-21T23:12:25.897" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The N-back task is a typical test for cognitive capabilities. There are many version of it in the Google play store. You could try a few of them and see which suits your needs best. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-05-21T23:12:25.897" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14011" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14018" CreationDate="2016-05-22T09:08:16.997" Score="4" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;To clarify, I am not talking about Bayesian model of cognition. That model refers to the theory that the human learning and inference approximately match Bayesian inference reasoning. (The two topics are not unrelated though).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am talking about is the choosing of one hypothesis over another in explaining sets of data obtained. I recently read this paper (Jefferys &amp;amp; Berger 1992) that applies Bayesian inference to quantitatively explain Ockham's razor (the rule of thumb that simpler hypotheses are better).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the link to the article:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/29774559&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/29774559&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bayesian inference description&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the paper, the author implemented Baye's theorem to calculate the probability of a hypothesis being correct when new data is presented. The equation is as follows:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nA1px.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nA1px.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where $P(H_i|D\&amp;amp;I)$ is the probability of a certain hypothesis being true given prior information (I) and new data (D).&#xA;$P(D|H_i\&amp;amp;I)$ is the probability of new data (D) occurring given prior information (I) and the hypothesis being true (Hi).&#xA;$P(H_i|I)$ is the prior probability ascribed to the hypothesis (Hi). $P(D|I)$ is the probability of new data (D) occurring given prior information (I) no matter whether the hypothesis is true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the paper, the author applied the Bayesian inference to show how data given for each trial can lead to weighing of one hypothesis vs another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The example he gave compared two hypotheses: 1st hypothesis (H1) states that the coin has one head and one tail. 2nd hypothesis (H2) states that the coin has two heads. Initially, probability of each hypothesis being true is likely (there has not been a coin flip, and the experimenter does not know the coin at all). Thus, $P(H_1|\emptyset) = P(H_2|\emptyset) = 0.5$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1st trial occurs, and the coin lands head.&#xA;The probability of each hypothesis is modified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For 1st hypothesis (1 head 1 tail), $P(Head|H_1\&amp;amp;\emptyset) = 0.5$, $P(H_1|\emptyset)=0.5$, and $P(Head|\emptyset)=unknown$. Thus, $P(H_1|Head)=\frac{0.25}{P(Head|\emptyset)}$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For 2nd hypothesis (2 heads), $P(Head|H_2\&amp;amp;\emptyset) = 1$, $P(H_2|\emptyset)=0.5$, and $P(Head|\emptyset)=unknown$. Thus, $P(H_2|Head)=\frac{0.5}{P(Head|\emptyset)}$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$P(Head|\emptyset)$ is normalization factor, and we are only comparing two hypotheses. Thus, $P(H_1|Head) + P(H_2|Head) = 1$. Thus, $P(H_1|Head) = 1/3$ and $P(H_2|Head) = 2/3$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Flipping the coin multiple times and getting head each time decreases $P(H_1|Head)$ while increasing $P(H_2|Head)$ to near 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Applications to cognitive science and specifically neuroimaging or EEG&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this method of hypotheses weighting to be very insightful and was wondering if there were applications of Bayesian inference to cognitive science in determining one hypothesis over another. Examples on neuroimaging or EEG data processing would be preferred since I am interested in that field, but any other example would be a good starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11684" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T00:10:38.073" Title="Implementation of Bayesian inference on cognitive science research question" Tags="&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14013" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15242" CreationDate="2016-05-22T10:40:51.287" Score="5" ViewCount="162" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm still having a hard time understanding the symptoms of hemineglect, mainly because perception and attention has been two peas of a pod for most of my experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Hemineglect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scholarpedia&lt;/a&gt; article states that a hemineglect patient is likely to shave just one side of their facial hair (thus having left half of their beard intact).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also know that while hemineglect patients have harder time attending to the side contralateral to the lesion location, external effort to bring attention to the contralateral side can bring attention to the contralateral side temporarily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If that is the case and the patient is still familiar with the concept of body symmetry, then my question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why doesn't the patient use their concept of symmetry to force themselves to pay attention to the contralateral side?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is even the concept of bilateral symmetry affected, possibly because any memory of an object brought up from long-term memory also loses the contralateral side?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11684" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-16T10:37:47.657" LastActivityDate="2016-06-16T21:09:16.583" Title="Why can't hemineglect patients be trained to actively pay attention to their neglected side?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14015" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14011" CreationDate="2016-05-22T16:04:57.977" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bayesian model comparison is widely performed. Here's a recent invasive electrophysiology example on decision-making:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26160947&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Single-trial spike trains in parietal cortex reveal discrete steps during decision-making&lt;/a&gt; Science, 2015&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2016-05-22T16:04:57.977" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14016" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13928" CreationDate="2016-05-22T16:06:36.213" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Color codes&quot; would be most often arbitrary, or depend on culture. &quot;Blue means  friendly and calm &quot; is absolutely arbitrary. Naturally, it does not mean we take the opposite for the &quot;meaning&quot;. Colors are not words, and there is not any &quot;official&quot; or standardized color interpretation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I simply like blue, but to think about it, I would say it has to be it makes a balanced impression on my retinas. And it is good for work with longer texts: a blue background and yellow font make a contrast comparable with that between black and white, on screen. Green is quite well-toned for backgrounds, too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you think about a website, white backgrounds with black font have more impact on the eye, so visitors might avoid prolonged exposure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11675" LastEditorUserId="11675" LastEditDate="2016-05-23T03:21:30.887" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T03:21:30.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14018" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14011" CreationDate="2016-05-22T16:55:48.880" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A good starting point is probably Alex Etz's &lt;a href=&quot;https://alexanderetz.com/understanding-bayes/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Understanding Bayes&lt;/a&gt; blog post series. He also co-authored a related paper that should be a great starting point: &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/xs6ag/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;How to become a Bayesian in eight easy steps: An annotated reading list&lt;/a&gt; (link is to pre-print).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Richard Morey's &lt;a href=&quot;http://bayesfactor.blogspot.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BayesFactor blog&lt;/a&gt; is great resource for understanding the Bayesian model comparison approach. He has authored &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.cf.ac.uk/contactsandpeople/academics/morey.php#publications&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;many papers&lt;/a&gt; that are relevant, but the blog is the best starting point for learning about the approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a really accessible textbook, John Kruschke's &lt;a href=&quot;https://sites.google.com/site/doingbayesiandataanalysis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Doing Bayesian Data Analysis&lt;/a&gt; is an excellent and thorough treatment of the use of Bayesian parameter estimation in data analysis.  This approach is a bit different from the model comparison approach, but the conceptual ideas are the same. A related paper that motivates the approach in the book is &lt;a href=&quot;http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2606016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;available here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2016-05-23T00:10:38.073" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T00:10:38.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14019" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-22T17:43:12.720" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;When memorizing a sentence or a full story: then, how does the brain encode the order of the words of the sentence or the sentences in the story?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-06-09T16:11:55.050" LastActivityDate="2017-09-04T02:54:34.730" Title="How does the brain encode order of information in sentences/stories?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14022" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-23T08:13:31.987" Score="8" ViewCount="2264" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering (and searching with no success) if there are any examples of differential equations in psychology? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean, no tutorial explaining what is differenetial equations or even partial differential equations, but a research (like in emotions or social psychology, or cognitive psychology) by psychologists that use these equations to model the data? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[update, 29.05.2016]&lt;/strong&gt; Stack Community always reminds me that the quality of the answers depends on the question asked. Just as &lt;em&gt;a good question is half of the problem&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I'll try to make myself clear with an example. I thought about an article in psychology, say about cognitive dissonance, emotions, coping or else, that use differential equations to decribe phenomenon &lt;em&gt;without&lt;/em&gt; invoking physics or chemistry or other hard science. Article by Deboeck &amp;amp; Bergeman introduces pendulum model(Christiaan's comment). But I don't have to refer to physics when doing ordinary squares regression, so that's why I thought it is possible to use differential equations without explicite references to physical models. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;June 2, 2016: I never suggested we could &quot;use differential equations without explicit reference to physical models&quot;. I have always said the same: the mathematical interpretation of cellular processes has lost prominence (owing to further research). The biological processes obviously remain; the interpretation has not been able to hold.  Teresa Pelka&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4874" LastEditorUserId="4874" LastEditDate="2016-06-02T08:13:28.647" LastActivityDate="2016-06-05T21:49:38.730" Title="Differential equations in psychology" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2016-06-03T21:32:03.397" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14023" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12265" CreationDate="2016-05-23T10:39:13.717" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;On the basis of a cursory literature review, I conclude that Jospeh's observations were correct, but his conclusions that a callosotomy can result in a dual consciousness were far stretched.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;First off, I'm not an expert on this topic, but I will give my referenced opinion anyway, as there is no answer yet to this question; Below are quoted the two sections from the wiki &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_consciousness_%28neuroscience%29#cite_note-f-16&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dual consciousness (neuroscience)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, as linked in the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rhawn Joseph observed two patients who had both undergone a complete corpus callosotomy. Joseph observed that one of the patient’s right hemisphere is able to gather, comprehend, and express information. The right hemisphere was able to direct activity to the patient’s left arm and leg. The execution of the left arm and leg's action as was inhibited by the left hemisphere. Joseph found that the patient’s left leg would attempt to move forward as if to walk straight but the right leg would either refuse move or begin to walk in the opposite direction. After observing the struggles of the execution of activities involving the left and right arms and legs, led Joseph to believe that the two hemispheres possessed their own consciousness.[16]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Joseph also noted that the patient had other specific instances of&#xA;  conflict between the right and left hemispheres including, the left&#xA;  hand (right hemisphere) carrying out actions contrary to the left&#xA;  hemisphere's motives such as the left hand turning off the television&#xA;  immediately after the right hand turned it on. Joseph found that the&#xA;  patient’s left leg would only allow the patient to return home when&#xA;  the patient was going for a walk and would reject continuing to go for&#xA;  that walk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First thing to note - he describes two patients and only one of them is highlighted on the wiki; hence, this is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_report&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;case report&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=91fbb01d-0577-4a71-b235-e225cf5c281f%40sessionmgr4001&amp;amp;vid=1&amp;amp;hid=4209&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Joseph, 1988)&lt;/a&gt;. Case reports can't control for any other personal characteristics of that one patient. Such anecdotal reports are important, but they may not be a reflection of the population as a whole (i.e., people with a transected corpus callosum).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, the term '&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/03/phlegm-theories-of-consciousness/472812/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;consciousness&lt;/a&gt;' is a loosely defined and debated one. Similarly, the '&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201112/what-is-the-mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mind&lt;/a&gt;' is a broad and ill-defined term. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then you proceed to scrutinize his work as based on his unconventional beliefs on the origin of life as based on a &lt;a href=&quot;http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Rhawn_Joseph&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;rational wiki page&lt;/a&gt;. Although his ideas on this may be unconventional, that doesn't mean he has reported flawed observations during his professional career as a neuropsychologist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, and I quote a part of the Discussion section of &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=91fbb01d-0577-4a71-b235-e225cf5c281f%40sessionmgr4001&amp;amp;vid=1&amp;amp;hid=4209&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Joseph (1988)&lt;/a&gt; where he describes anecdotal behaviors of 2-C:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[He] became angry with his left hand, swore and expressed &quot;hate&quot; for it, struck his left hand/arm with his right hand, and engaged in physical struggles with his left extremity, the right attempting to force the left to comply with some particular activity or to cease to act in a manner that the left hemisphere found objectionable or annoying. [...] In general, these findings indicate that the isolated right cerebral hemisphere of 2-C was able to understand and follow certain simple verbal commands, obtain and maintain knowledge [...], as well as respond, make decisions and act purposefully- even when his left hemisphere had no idea as to what information the right possessed and why it was behaving in a particular manner. &lt;strong&gt;Given the differential behavioral observations with regard to the activity and responsiveness of the left half of their bodies, it appears that 2-C (unlike 1-C) is possessed of two minds, one of which resides within the right, the other within the left cerebral&lt;/strong&gt; hemisphere. Nevertheless, it appears that 2-C's left hemisphere remains predominant in regard to most expressive activities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bold text is probably what fueled the wiki article. To me, personally, the 'hatred' and frustration of C-2 is easily explained by the loss of body control. Who wouldn't feel frustration and resentment to that side of the body? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, a paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/ajp.101.5.594&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Andrew &amp;amp; Akelaitis (1945)&lt;/a&gt; explains a similar behavior by their (partial-)split-brain patients with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dyspraxiauk.com/diagnosticcriteria.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;diagnostic dyspraxia&lt;/a&gt;. These authors explain the phenomenon not by a dualistic consciousness, but 'simply' by an &lt;strong&gt;unbalanced inhibitory influence&lt;/strong&gt; of the dominant hemisphere over the non-dominant side. This decreased inhibitory control was hypothesized to lead to the uncoordinated behavior on the non-dominant side. These symptoms generally diminish over time, as the brain deploys alternative inter-hemispheric routing of communications. This sounds more plausible to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, there is a a publication that coins it &quot;alien hand syndrome&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://toddfeinberg.com/accelsite/media/mediaFile2884.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Feinberg &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1992)&lt;/a&gt;. They too, ascribe the phenomenon by a disturbed inhibitory interhemispheric control, and I quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Callosal AHS [alien hand syndrome] is best explained by hemispheric disconnection manifested during behaviors requiring dominant-hemisphere control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I conclude form this quick literature review that Joseph ascribes the presence of two minds based on something that can be explained at a more basic level, and hence by a more simple model, namely disinhibited motor control. Given the principle of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/parsimony&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;parsimony&lt;/a&gt;, I conclude his observations were right, but that his conclusions were not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/ajp.101.5.594&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Andrew &amp;amp; Akelaitis (1945) &lt;em&gt;Am J Psychiatr&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;101&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 594-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://toddfeinberg.com/accelsite/media/mediaFile2884.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Feinberg &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neurology&lt;/em&gt; (1992); &lt;strong&gt;42&lt;/strong&gt;: 19-24&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=91fbb01d-0577-4a71-b235-e225cf5c281f%40sessionmgr4001&amp;amp;vid=1&amp;amp;hid=4209&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Joseph, &lt;em&gt;J Clin Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (1988); &lt;strong&gt;44&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 770-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-24T09:44:12.233" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T09:44:12.233" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14024" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14031" CreationDate="2016-05-23T11:39:29.547" Score="2" ViewCount="4410" Body="&lt;p&gt;In different papers I see these terms with very close definitions. Are they different things? If yes, how one can differentiate them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11686" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2016-05-24T01:01:34.300" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T01:01:34.300" Title="Social loafing vs. Free riding" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14025" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-23T14:15:55.940" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently writing my dissertation which will examine the impact of emotion on cognitive ability. I plan to use two test groups to test my hypothesis, one which is primed to feel happy the other which is primed to feel slightly stressed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a question set  which I can use as a reliable test of cognitive ability - i.e. a question set that has been verified as appropriate by peer review. I am basing my experiment on an experiment carried out by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JMP-02-2013-0071&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bachkirov (2015)&lt;/a&gt;. The issue I have is that I don't have the resources to use the same method and am seeking to simplify by using a questionnaire but I can't find a suitable question set. My main criteria are :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The question set should simply measure cognitive or mental skills/abilities&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The question set should take approximately 15 minutes to complete&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The question set should be suitable to administer via survey monkey or such like &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The question set should be peer reviewed/ of have been used in a similar study which has been published .&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Bachkirov, A. A. (2015). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JMP-02-2013-0071&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Managerial decision making under specific emotions&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 30(7), 861-874.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11685" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-06-23T23:21:21.060" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T23:21:21.060" Title="Short validated measure of cognitive ability suitable for online experiment on the effect of emotion on ability test performance" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14026" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-23T14:50:31.730" Score="7" ViewCount="222" Body="&lt;p&gt;Normally, signal detection theory (SDT) is applied to data that involves giving two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) responses to pairs of stimuli, for instance saying whether stimulus B was the same or different from stimulus A. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering if SDT can also be applied to such judgements being made of single-stimulus presentations, particularly ones for which the &quot;correct&quot; answer is not necessarily objectively-determined, such as, for instance, seeing a visual stimulus and deciding whether it belongs to category A or category B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T15:29:26.610" Title="Applying signal detection theory to single-stimulus presentations" Tags="&lt;signal-detection&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14027" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14026" CreationDate="2016-05-23T15:29:26.610" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a huge number of paradigms that SDT can be applied to. The simplest is probably the so-called yes/no paradigm. You present a single stimulus (typically noise alone or signal plus noise) and ask was the signal present. The subject if forced to respond with either yes or no. This type of paradigm typically leads to a response bias. In a 2-interval, 2-alterantive, Forced-Choice (2I-2AFC) paradigm both a noise alone stimulus and a signal plus noise stimulus are presented in random order. Subjects are then forced to to respond if the signal was in the first or second interval. The randomization tends to reduce (but not necessarily eliminate) the response bias linked to the stimulus (subjects may respond first more often than second, but they will be randomly allocated to noise and signal plus noise trials). One can both increase the number of intervals and/or the number of responses. For example a 1I-3AFC paradigm might involve responses of red, green, or blue. A typical 3I-AFC is the AXB paradigm. Confidence rating paradigms also fall within the scope of SDT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without objective definitions of the &quot;noise&quot; and &quot;signal plus noise&quot; categories, it is not possible to define a &lt;em&gt;hit&lt;/em&gt; or a &lt;em&gt;correct rejection&lt;/em&gt;. As hits and correct rejections are the basis of SDT, it is not clear if SDT will be useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T15:29:26.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14028" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14022" CreationDate="2016-05-23T15:37:54.403" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model&quot;&gt;Hodgkin and Huxley model&lt;/a&gt; of neuronal firing is based on non-linear differential equations. A significant portion of research on sensation and perception is based on such models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T15:37:54.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14029" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6227" CreationDate="2016-05-23T18:03:52.900" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;More than two years later, I now have a heuristic (which is a close as I can get to an objective metric) that I rely on. As I write about in &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/@seanaubin/why-does-ai-still-suck-and-can-it-suck-less-9db36be294dc#.1l42uxoei&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one of my blog posts&lt;/a&gt;, there are a couple of tasks that humans are capable of that are still really hard for machines. They require the following things for a machine (or a neural model):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Balancing Planning and Exploration:&lt;/strong&gt; Modelling the environment's future state and the possible future states via exploration efficiently.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scaling Skills:&lt;/strong&gt; Transfering skills between tasks and building more complex skills atop of basic skills.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Knowledge Representation:&lt;/strong&gt; Keeping relations between skills, environmental variables, past knowledge and priorities all usefully organised.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any neural model that begins to leverage these things is evaluated as impressive in my eyes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, these requirements are mostly for Artificial Intelligence. What about neural models specifically? All neural models that complete a task are, by definition, cognitive models, so in addition to the above criteria they must satisfy various &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/6247/4397&quot;&gt;Cognitive Criteria&lt;/a&gt; to prove the system is achieving it's goals in a human-like manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-05-23T22:08:49.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14031" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14024" CreationDate="2016-05-24T01:01:17.160" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are correct in that these terms are very close in definition, but terminology is not just about identifying a concept. Terminology is also about identifying the perspective from which you will look at the concept and the community to which you, as the researcher, belong. Here, free-riding and social loafing have very different histories. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social loafing comes from the social psychology literature and is most closely associated with the methods and typical explanations of that field. Thus, you will typically encounter social loafing around discussions of motivation, diffusion of responsibility, and feeling of effort as dispensable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Free-riding comes from the economics and game theory literature and is most closely associated with the models and methods of those fields. Thus, you will typically encounter free-riding around discussions of cost-benefit analysis, rational choice, and (the paradox of) cooperation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only difference in concept (that I know of) comes from the economics focus on rationality. Social psychologists would classify as social loafing situations where the 'slacking' of an individual hurts not only the group, but their own performance as well (they would have individually -- not just as a group -- gotten a higher payoff if they didn't slack). On the other hand, economists, would not consider this as a case of (rational) free-riding, since they reserve that word for social dilemmas where cooperating costs you more than the marginal increase you get from the benefit to the group, but where everybody free-riding is even worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, the terms cross-fertilize, especially in the direction of free-riding entering the discussions of social loafing. In the social psychology literature, you will see free-riding used as an &lt;em&gt;explanation&lt;/em&gt; of social loafing in cases where the experimenters believe that the choice to loaf is based on a (rational) cost/benefit analysis instead of some of the other factors I discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="29" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T01:01:17.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14033" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-24T03:45:45.047" Score="3" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;My curiosity is merely of whether (in a future where we have computers with the processing power of the human brain) it's possible that actually simulating a neural network's physical &lt;em&gt;behavior&lt;/em&gt; on the most fundamental level might be more effective than using algorithms to reach the same result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm hoping for an answer which argues this topic on a purely fundamental level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it likely (or not) that we might achieve a superior (more efficient, more intelligent, more dynamic) result by simulating the advanced behavior of neural interaction (the neuro-activity patterns the brain experiences to form emotions, develop conclusions, processes sensory data, establish and/or revisit memories, etc) than we can reach by using shortcuts (advanced machine learning algorithms, etc)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9361" LastEditorUserId="9361" LastEditDate="2016-05-24T03:54:07.947" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T12:13:40.293" Title="Could physically simulating neural structure on a fundamental level yield superior results to machine learning algorithms?" Tags="&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14034" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13082" CreationDate="2016-05-24T09:48:45.630" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Taking a break at work wards emotional job-burnout and can also led to job satisfaction, and a greater effort at job tasks. Of one in five of the half of U.S. employees (10%) work a full-time 60+ hours a week (2014 Gallup poll, 2014), one in five of these employees (2%) taking lunch breaks (Right Management, 2012). Employees may take up to 2 breaks a day, feeling more energized and motivated from a morning break, and are more productive throughout the day.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.health.com/2015/09/18/workday-breaks-help-employees-reboot-researchers-say/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://news.health.com/2015/09/18/workday-breaks-help-employees-reboot-researchers-say/&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11696" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T09:48:45.630" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14035" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14033" CreationDate="2016-05-24T12:13:40.293" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Very interesting question. Although I have not a single little bit of expertise in this area, I do have some references you may want to read. First is a paper by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229444024_Silicon_Chip_Interfaced_with_a_Geometrically_Defined_Net_of_Snail_Neurons&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Merz and Fromherz (2005)&lt;/a&gt; where they grew snail neurons on a silicon chip. &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC3979335&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pfister et al (2007)&lt;/a&gt; also tried to grow neurons to allow interfacing between neurons and machine (for neural prosthesis e.g.). There is thus definitely a field of research that believe neural interfacing may be better than mechanical and algorithmic networks.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been 10 years worth of research since these papers so I bet there are some advancements that may give you a more definitive answer than mine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T12:13:40.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14036" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7595" CreationDate="2016-05-24T14:06:32.713" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Digital Marketing often produces 'content' for users to consume. &#xA;That content is ment to catch and keep the attention of the user, in an attempt to make the user trust and follow the sender (usually a website or blog). &#xA;When the user shows engagement like clicking the right buttons, the user will somehow be tempted with some kind of offer (a newsletter, a free ebook, etc). If the user takes that bait, there will later be an offer to actually buy something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The whole idea here is to catch and keep the users' attention.&#xA;One of the most common ways to achieve this, is by making lists of something the user might want to read\see. &#xA;In order to have users click(open) the content to begin with, the writer needs to make the content seem valuable in only 1 short line.&#xA;By typing the number of entries on that list, the writer is trying to make a point: There's stuff to see her, come check it out!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T14:06:32.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14037" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13082" CreationDate="2016-05-24T14:48:15.620" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://interruptions.net/literature/McFarlane-HCI02_2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; is the paper you would want to read on this topic. The paper empirically compares four modes of managing interruptions. It is a great (and long) read so I'll try to summarize the bit for you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are thus four modes of managing interruptions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Immediate interruptions. There is no management whatsoever. As soon there is a distracting stimulus/task, it has to be attended to. In your case, you could think of being in a conversation with one costumer and immediately being switched to another. You can already imagine this is not a very good one. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Negotiated interruptions. You can decide all by yourself whether and when to attend to the interruptions. You could choose to finish a difficult part of one task and only attend to the interrupting task when that is done. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mediated interruptions. Some other metric decides when an interruption is deemed appropriate. A well known metric is workload, as measured by pupil dilation. To bigger you pupil is, the higher workload is. Interrupting would be best in low workload situations (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cs.drexel.edu/~salvucci/publications/Salvucci-CHI10.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Salvucci and Bogunovic,2010)&lt;/a&gt;). What you suggested, the cooldown time, is also a mediated system. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Planned interruptions. Interruptions only come at moments you have planned. Though this may seem nice, in many situations, such as yours, this is not possible. Even if you could plan the moments, in dynamic environments you cannot predict the best moments. You could have an incredible high workload on one day, and have nothing to do on another. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;So which is best?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results show that the best interruption management systems are a combination of negotiated and mediated management (believe me on this one, I do not want to discuss 20 pages of results here haha). Mediated management systems will determine the best moments of interruptions which is incredibly useful. However, if workload is very high for a longer period of time, the callers may be on hold for too long. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The negotiated management of interruptions allows people to work as hard as they can/want. Some people perform better under pressure than others and may choose to wait for a shorter period of time. The downside, however, is the fact that people are bad at this. Some people stress themselves out and never wait (Asking for reference here) and some people wait to long and may get distracted by other things (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/12664220/CHOICE_IN_MULTITASKING_How_delays_in_the_primary_task_turn_a_rational_into_an_irrational_multitasker&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Katidioti et al.,2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A combination would thus be best. Mediate the interruptions, but allow the employees to continue working when they want to. In you case, you could have a short mandatory pause duration and a suggested longer pause duration (or conversely, an maximum pause duration). You could then determine the duration of the pause based on the length of the last call(s) for instance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this answers your question and if you have any questions just let me know. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: The literature I described above mainly focuses on multitasking, while your question is about sequential tasking. Nevertheless I do believe the above can be generalized to your problem. The interruptions are now in fact the breaks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A final note, if people purposefully inflate there call time, this may be an indicator that workload is indeed too high. Talk with the people and ask what they think of the situation and what they think may be a good solution. When changing an interface/task/process, people accept the changes much more quickly if they are involved in the process (Asking for reference). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;References:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://interruptions.net/literature/McFarlane-HCI02_2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Daniel C. McFarlane (2002): Comparison of Four Primary Methods for Coordinating the Interruption of People in Human–Computer Interaction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cs.drexel.edu/~salvucci/publications/Salvucci-CHI10.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Salvucci and Bogunovic (2012): Multitasking and Monotasking: The Effects of&#xA;Mental Workload on Deferred Task Interruptions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/12664220/CHOICE_IN_MULTITASKING_How_delays_in_the_primary_task_turn_a_rational_into_an_irrational_multitasker&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Katidioti and Taatgen (2014): CHOICE IN MULTITASKING: How delays in the primary task turn a rational into an irrational multitasker&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-05-24T15:04:10.243" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T15:04:10.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14038" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-24T15:46:42.127" Score="11" ViewCount="243" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have already asked this question &lt;a href=&quot;https://academia.stackexchange.com/questions/69216/effects-of-game-based-learning-on-motivation-for-learning&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, but I did not receive my answer. I found this site a more appropriate place to ask it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found many studies discovering the impacts of game-based learning on motivation for learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=game-based%20learning%20impact%20motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;For example, these papers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also find a summary of them in &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_38&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this book chapter&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is still unclear to me if this motivation is for entertainment or for learning. I was wondering if there is any study showing that students who are adapted to this method of learning have a higher motivation to pursue learning in other forms. My concern is about long-term effects of this method of learning. What is the intrinsic reaction of K-12 students who have adapted to game-based learning when they start higher education in which game-based learning is not provided? Will they have a higher incentive to study? or a lower incentive, because they prefer to play games rather than studying?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11686" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:49:49.363" LastActivityDate="2016-12-20T11:03:50.527" Title="Effects of Game-based Learning on Motivation for Learning" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;incentives&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14039" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17126" CreationDate="2016-05-24T07:51:56.610" Score="4" ViewCount="177" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can understand that colours are just manipulation of our brain to light rays of different wavelength and energy. We perceive patterns better at higher contrast. Do we perceive patterns better at high contrast because of adaptive processes in our brain, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, do we habituate to the colours?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, consider a black board; we find texts written by white chalk easier to see than if it was written by blue chalk. Is white chalk on black board a form of adaptation of our brain, or it is always preferred by the brain in comparison to blue? In terms of wave mechanics, the white chalk may cause greater disturbance in the light waves travelling from the black board to our eyes.&#xA;Please don't consider the case of any eye defects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11706" OwnerDisplayName="user56396" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-15T20:30:51.153" LastActivityDate="2017-04-18T12:28:27.527" Title="Do we perceive contrast colour patterns easily because of adaptation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14040" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9456" CreationDate="2016-05-24T18:22:34.917" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As explained in &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/eliasmith2003a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the NEF book&lt;/a&gt;, all non-linear dynamical systems can be represented in the NEF.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The SPA is simply applying semantic meaning and manipulations to the vectors represented by the NEF. The two most prominent examples of this are the motor system and the inference system in Spaun, which are shown in the aforementioned &quot;rapid variable creation&quot; task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The vision system represents symbols (numbers) which get sent to the inference system. The inference system figures out the answer and sends it to the motor system. The motor system converts the symbol to a path and follows it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adding dynamics in a similar system with dynamics being visually identified, manipulated and then output, instead of static paths. One could imagine a system where the dynamics of the movement of an object are identified, manipulated neurally and then imitated. For example, having the running of a cheetah represented a series of limb movements, mapping them onto the human body and then having a human imitate that gait.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this hasn't been implemented yet (and would look quite silly), but it shouldn't be super difficult. The main problem would be a good &quot;demo&quot; or psychological data to match, but I think this is still a good example. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-05-24T18:22:34.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14041" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-24T19:23:49.913" Score="2" ViewCount="3574" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the purpose of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-spiking_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;non-spiking neurons&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxonic_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anaxonic neurons&lt;/a&gt; in neural tissue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11705" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-30T13:06:53.433" LastActivityDate="2016-05-30T18:08:07.400" Title="What is the purpose of non-spiking and anaxonic neurons?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14042" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-24T19:46:56.097" Score="5" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there R packages/functions for importing EGI eeg data format into R?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9444" LastActivityDate="2018-04-14T07:34:59.987" Title="Importing EGI eeg binary format data into R?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14043" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-24T20:24:07.080" Score="2" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;In signal detection theory, d' (sensitivity) is computed in terms of z-scores, to allow comparison (subtraction) of hit rates from false alarm rates. Even so, the interpretation of the d' is not straightforward: I was not able to find any absolute guidelines in terms of how much d' needs to be for it to mean &quot;good&quot; sensitivity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From eye-balling a bunch of papers, it seems that d' should be above 2 or at least 1.5, but it's not at all clear. The only absolute reference is of course d'=0, which corresponds to chance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, at the group level, is a good enough (i.e. above chance) performance necessarily indicated by a significant 1-sample t-test against zero?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="6446" LastEditDate="2016-05-25T07:37:52.223" LastActivityDate="2016-12-02T18:50:01.650" Title="Upwards of what d' values constitute &quot;good&quot; sensitivity?" Tags="&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14044" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14054" CreationDate="2016-05-25T07:23:17.980" Score="8" ViewCount="1661" Body="&lt;p&gt;Related/bonus points: I seem to remember reading about some equation that states the amount of information that can be held by a neural network with n neurons in it arranged in l layers, or something vaguely like that (n and l probably weren't even the letters in it.) Can anyone help me remember what I'm thinking of?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(The brain is a very large neural network. So, if we have an equation for neural networks, we should be able to get an estimate of the information contained in the human brain's neural network.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastEditorUserId="11010" LastEditDate="2021-01-05T02:13:45.050" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T05:34:34.000" Title="What is the information storage capacity of the human brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="14045" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13611" CreationDate="2016-05-25T07:48:19.693" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;To quote the great Aldous Huxley :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How shall we define a god? Expressed in psychological terms (which are&#xA;primary-there is no getting behind them) a god is something that gives&#xA;us the peculiar kind of feeling which Professor Otto has called&#xA;“numinous”. Numinous feelings are the original god-stuff from which&#xA;the theory-making mind extracts the individualised gods of the&#xA;pantheon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;— Aldous Huxley&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even &amp;quot;the Hitch&amp;quot; acknowledged &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numinous&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;the Numinous&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I’m a materialist…yet there is something beyond the material, or not&#xA;entirely consistent with it, what you could call the Numinous, the&#xA;Transcendent, or at its best the Ecstatic. […] It’s in certain music,&#xA;landscape, certain creative work, without this we really would merely&#xA;be primates. It’s important to appreciate the finesse of that, and&#xA;religion has done a very good job of enshrining it in music and&#xA;architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;— Christopher Hitchens&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, he also pointed out this :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think everybody has had the experience at some point when they feel&#xA;that there’s more to life than just matter. But I think it’s very&#xA;important to keep that under control and not to hand it over to be&#xA;exploited by […] those who think that God has given them instructions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;— Christopher Hitchens&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the cause of the divide between Theists and Atheists. Both experience the Numinous more or less the same way, but Atheists look for explanations in science whereas Theists look for ancient texts they believe to be divine revelations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why do some look for explanations in science whereas others look for explanations in ancient texts? It's a matter of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_style&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;cognitive style&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. More in particular, in depends on your &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathizing%E2%80%93systemizing_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;empathy and systemizing quotients&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extreme systemizers are not very likely to follow &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicaldaily.com/your-gut-feeling-way-more-just-feeling-science-intuition-325338&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;their gut&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (they may even be incapable of experiencing &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;intuition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;). Because of that, they're also less likely to follow any kind of external authority. Their systemizing nature requires a rigidly consistent logical framework to make sense of things, which they often find only in science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, extreme empathizers are more likely to follow &amp;quot;their gut&amp;quot;, and also more likely to follow any kind of authority (including ancient religious texts). They tend to feel a lot more comfortable with experiencing &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and logical frameworks lacking consistence, which is common for religion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still, I believe the gap between Theism and Atheism largely relies on purely semantic differences with respect to how both approach the Numinous. I address this in greater detail in my article &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/@johnslegers/the-atheistic-approach-to-god-5ae3f2b0012b&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Atheistic approach to God… or how to bridge the gap between Atheists and Theists&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Edit :&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With respect to extreme empathizers being more comfortable experiencing cognitive dissonance, I'm refering to cognitive dissonance at the level of belief. It's more important to them that their emotions correspond with their beliefs than that their set of beliefs as a whole is a consistent set.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, extreme systemizers care mostly about their set of beliefs forming a consistent framework.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4605" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-05-26T07:47:57.930" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14046" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12265" CreationDate="2016-05-25T08:02:24.970" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Joseph's description of his patients fascinated me. The concept of two minds fighting for control isn't a new one to me, but was previously restricted to science fiction and/or horror genres. How strange to find a real-life example of it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I find unsatisfying about the explanation of &quot;reduced inhibitory control of the dominant hemisphere over the non-dominant one&quot; is this: Where did the alien hand's impulse to turn off the TV come from?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consciousness and intent seem closely related. I suppose One consciousness can have multiple intents, but the act of picking up a remote and turning off a television is a fairly complex one; it implies a conception of the remote and the TV, and more importantly, a desire or will to turn it off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to be implied that the &quot;dominant&quot; hemisphere is in control of the mouth and perhaps by implication the verbal centers. Were that not the case, it might be difficult for the patient to communicate at all. Perhaps there are individual bodies for whom this is the case, but they're unable to tell us so! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Split personalities seem relevant--a brain that hasn't lost interconnectivity entirely, but which localized it's activity excessively--doesn't operate in parallel--&quot;takes turns&quot;--Isn't &quot;integrated&quot; or &quot;cohesive.&quot; Just what came to mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without being able to talk to the patient, or to Joseph, it's very hard to say whether Joseph's conclusions were correct. Is/was Joseph a smart guy? Is he prone to overly dramatic explanations, or would he only say something like this if he was quite sure it was true? I'll edit this when I get a chance to look at it in more detail. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastActivityDate="2016-05-25T08:02:24.970" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14047" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13940" CreationDate="2016-05-25T08:19:44.080" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many reasons why people want to have children :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some want to have children because they hope it can save their declining marriage / relationship&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some want to have children because they feel instinctively driven towards it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some want to have children because they feel they're supposed to&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some want to have children because they feel they're missing &quot;something&quot; in their lives&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some want to have children because they want to learn more about themselves&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some want to have children because they want to learn more about the man or woman they love&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still, I believe most reasons why people want to have children are perfectly captured by this single quote :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nevertheless, if you ask me, most people have children just as their&#xA;  own enthusiasm about life begins to wane. A child allows us to revisit&#xA;  the excitement we once felt about, well... everything. A generation&#xA;  later, our grandkids bump up our enthusiasm yet again. Reproducing is&#xA;  a kind of booster shot to keep us loving life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;― Chuck Palahniuk, &lt;em&gt;Damned&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4605" LastActivityDate="2016-05-25T08:19:44.080" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14048" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13611" CreationDate="2016-05-25T08:35:43.383" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;: Some people just like anthropomorphizing more than others do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The comment made by user &quot;a human&quot; on the  original question inspired the following train of thought:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take two people, Alfred and Zack. Alfred is a &quot;people person&quot;. Zack is a mathematician. Your satisfaction with this answer will likely depend on your tendency to support the following intuitions about Alfred and Zack.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alfred likes to think of the world in terms of what people intend and want. Key word: people. So when confronted with more abstract concepts, like chemistry, Alfred handles things better when he can assign them names and talk about their behavior in terms of human behavior. This is called Anthropomorphizing. When dealing with people, it works really well. When dealing with abstractions, it's kind of a hack; it gets him by, but doesn't provide him a platform with which to excel at, say, vector calculus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zack is less socially apt than Alfred. Maybe a little nerdy, withdrawn. Maybe he has Asperger's. But, he's very good at abstract thought. He doesn't &quot;get&quot; people like Alfred does, but he can do proofs like a boss. Calculus? No sweat. Physics? Easy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(If you're Zack, you might wish I had just talked about &quot;people person&quot; and &quot;not-people person&quot; in the abstract, rather than creating concrete examples and giving them names.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to venture a guess that Alfred finds it harder to believe in a Godless universe than Zack. And that these perspectives aren't likely to change much with time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what makes Alfred and Zack different? Is it neurostructural, neurochemical, or simply habitual? If it's neurostructural, they're doomed to disagree, but maybe their kids aren't. If it's neurochemical, then maybe one or the other will go on Prozac (or something stronger) and temporarily come to Jesus (or run away from him), then go off Prozac and revert back to his old self. If it's habitual, then maybe they'll switch places down the line due to some personal experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: In light of the above post (about empathizers and systemizers:) the Alfred I described is an extreme empathizer, while the Zack I described is an extreme systemizer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the field of neural networks, the number of layers in a network is sometimes said to have to do with the &quot;amount of abstraction.&quot; To me, this suggests that different human brains might also have different network depth. So, a 'deep' human brain might be more abstraction-focused and, perhaps, systematic (Zack) while a 'shallow' one might be more feeling-focused and empathetic (Alfred.) (I apologize for the slightly stigmatic nature of the words &quot;deep&quot; and &quot;shallow&quot; -- maybe someone can suggest alternative terms.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That would be the &quot;neurostructural&quot; explanation. But it seems clear that neurochemistry also plays a role in empathy (we're starting to think that even &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/tylenol-empathy-acetaminophen_us_573a1804e4b060aa781ae499&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tylenol might have an effect on empathy&lt;/a&gt;, not to mention stronger substances like cocaine) so clearly the issue is more complex than the above duality would like to suggest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastEditorUserId="11010" LastEditDate="2016-05-27T05:00:02.680" LastActivityDate="2016-05-27T05:00:02.680" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14051" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13885" CreationDate="2016-05-25T10:02:41.227" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Much of what we perceive cannot be expressed by language. It's unspeakable. As a consequence, differences in interpretation are very common, especially when it involves complex abstract concepts or highly subjective emotional experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Krizan&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Kim Krizan&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Creation seems to come out of imperfection. It seems to come out of a&#xA;  striving and a frustration. And this is where I think language came&#xA;  from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I mean, it came from our desire to transcend our isolation and have&#xA;  some sort of connection with one another. And it had to be easy when&#xA;  it was just simple survival. Like, you know, &quot;water.&quot; We came up with&#xA;  a sound for that. Or &quot;Saber-toothed tiger right behind you.&quot; We came&#xA;  up with a sound for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But when it gets really interesting, I think, is when we use that same&#xA;  system of symbols to communicate all the abstract and intangible&#xA;  things that we're experiencing. What is, like, frustration? Or what is&#xA;  anger or love?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When I say &quot;love,&quot; the sound comes out of my mouth and it hits the&#xA;  other person's ear, travels through this Byzantine conduit in their&#xA;  brain, you know, through their memories of love or lack of love, and&#xA;  they register what I'm saying and they say yes, they understand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But how do I know they understand? Because words are inert. They're&#xA;  just symbols. They're dead, you know? And so much of our experience is&#xA;  intangible. So much of what we perceive cannot be expressed. It's&#xA;  unspeakable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;And yet, when we communicate with one another, and we feel&#xA;  that we've connected, and we think that we're understood, I think we&#xA;  have a feeling of almost spiritual communion. And that feeling might&#xA;  be transient, but I think it's what we live for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4605" LastActivityDate="2016-05-25T10:02:41.227" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14052" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16533" CreationDate="2016-05-25T14:26:04.423" Score="4" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering (as a non-psychologist/cogsci programmer) what would be a &lt;strong&gt;good mathematical function to model the decay human relationships&lt;/strong&gt;, or in other words, how people forget about people they don't interact anymore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The background&lt;/strong&gt;: I'm building an agent-based model where agents (representing people) interact, converging on a semi-stable network. If a link between two agents is not used, it should weaken, and eventually fade. Currently the growth and decay of a link between two agents is linear between 0..1 (more interactions -&gt; stronger link, up to 1; less interactions -&gt; link gradually weakens, evetually drops to 0). While my current decay function is linear, for the part that controls who interacts with who, I'm using an S-shaped function - there's a higher chance to interact with agents one knows, and who their &quot;friends&quot; know, but the sum of these values is then &quot;bent&quot; on an S-curve. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept of &lt;strong&gt;time&lt;/strong&gt; in the model (counted in iterations of interactions) is relative, so it's not about minutes, days or years. I'm rather interested in a formal model that would capture the dynamics of forgetting people they don't see around anymore. I have a gut feeling it's not linear - one won't start to forget their mother, and the relationship won't weaken, if they don't see her for a little while. But if you just ask for directions on the street, chances are you'll forget the person rather quickly (unless he/she was hot or something; but the agents in my model don't have properties pertaining to such attributes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few &lt;strong&gt;alternatives&lt;/strong&gt; could thus be: a &lt;strong&gt;sigmoid/S-curve&lt;/strong&gt; (but the &quot;steepness/curviness&quot; would be a question still; green line below), &lt;strong&gt;logarithmic&lt;/strong&gt; (also looks nice, but steepness of the curve would be a question; yellow), &lt;strong&gt;exponential&lt;/strong&gt; (doesn't seem likely though; orange), perfect memory until &lt;strong&gt;arbitrary cutoff&lt;/strong&gt; (probably not; red), compared to simply linear (blue).&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/W6Ozt.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/W6Ozt.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If an curve could be decided on for the decay, then I suppose I would also use it for link growth (e.g., on an S-curve a slow growth in the beginning up to a point (strangers) and towards higher values (friends past the get-to-know phase)). It might be useful to think of the lines on the plot as trajectories of a relationship, with the stength on the y-axis and relative time (either way) on x.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The question&lt;/strong&gt; then: which one of these functions (and which parameters; or some other function) would be best to model the dynamics of how quickly people start to forget about/lose their connections with other people when they don't interact - or in other words, how a relationship weakens due to sparse contact? I assume there's literature on the subject, but I would have no idea where to start (googling generic keywords like relationships and decay function does not help), so a good answer could cite relevant sources or otherwise show the superiority of one function over the others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11710" LastEditorUserId="11710" LastEditDate="2016-05-25T14:44:10.197" LastActivityDate="2017-01-09T01:07:01.010" Title="What is a realistic mathematical function to model link decay in a social network?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;agent-based-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14053" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-25T14:53:49.733" Score="1" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;While watching TV series (Game of thrones, Death in paradise, New tricks, etc.) I try to count how long one shot was shown before the next shot was shown. The duration of the shots almost never exceeded 10 seconds. Is there some psychological reason for that? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastActivityDate="2016-05-26T21:59:49.133" Title="Why is it that in TV series the major part of the shots don´t last longer than 10 seconds?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14054" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14044" CreationDate="2016-05-25T15:01:21.403" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer:&lt;/strong&gt; Quantifying the capacity of the human brain is quiet complex as you might imagine. And although in cognitive neuroscience we often compare the brain to computers this is not an exact comparison, in many ways the brain is far more complicated and encodes information in a very different way than the comparison of CPU processors and hard-drives. The short answer is that we have understandings about capacity under specific situations regarding STM, but LTM capacity is mostly based on estimates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR: Estimates vary from 10^13 to 10^18 bytes (10 terabytes - 1 exabyte), and even this range should probably be taken with a grain of salt.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The long version:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory in the brain is often split by cognitive psychologists into several different modules, such as the memory storage model suggested by atkinson and shiffrin; attention-&amp;gt;short-term(STM)-&amp;gt;long-term(LTM).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fig 1.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mHNMz.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mHNMz.png&quot; alt=&quot;atkinson and shiffrin model of memory&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;This model is largely inaccurate as the brain encodes information relative the type of information received&lt;/strong&gt;, for instance auditory inputs will be processed by neural areas associated with auditory processing first. In addition attentional processing, unlike in this model, relies heavy in precognitive processing e.g. if you are hungry you will attend more to food. That being said we still use STM and LTM to distinguish between memory that is in use and memory that is stored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short-term memory capacity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The rather brilliant researchers &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v4/n10/abs/nrn1201.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baddley and Hitch&lt;/a&gt; developed what is perhaps the most compelling models for short-term memory processing. The working memory model (see Fig. 1) accounts for &lt;a href=&quot;http://McLeod,%20S.%20A.%20(2012).%20Working%20Memory.%20Retrieved%20from%20www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;differences in information types&lt;/a&gt; and how it is held within the processing centres of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fig 2.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L1KXh.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L1KXh.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Working memory model&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=jp9dt4_0_cIC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA3&amp;amp;dq=Human%20Cognitive%20Abilities&amp;amp;ots=dBCWLgNo_4&amp;amp;sig=I8tFGFfnokZekHUPJV_D9BiJgeg#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Human%20Cognitive%20Abilities&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;meta-analysis of 400 studies&lt;/a&gt; has displayed good support for the three main modules of cognitive memory. Generally speaking the central executive can be considered as the processor, while while the episodic buffer, phonological loop and visit-spatial sketchpad may be the modular RAM which holds information for processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Baddley the phonological loop can hold about &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/255/5044/556.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2 seconds of auditory information&lt;/a&gt;, this would be a list of unrelated words with a task designed to restrict rehearsal and encoding of information. However if the information was related, say &amp;quot;Our lecturer told us to read chapter 3 of working memory&amp;quot; we could hold more of the information as its related and may be chunked together. 'Chunking' is a feature of memory that complies similar information together. The capacity recorded generally depends on numerous factors, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.york.ac.uk/res/wml/Gathercole%20et%20al04%20DevPsy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;such as the task type, time between learning and recall&lt;/a&gt;, and the significance of the information. In addition we can also add age and context (internal and external) as factors influencing memory recall. Overall we can't identify the exact capacity of working memory due to the complexity of information processing, what we can say is that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3721021/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;working memory deals with small amounts of information spit across different modules&lt;/a&gt;, and relates this to LTM. Although that small amount of information is probably a lot more than your average super computer can process as &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/19767/supercomputer-vs-human-brain&quot;&gt;this post indicates&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long-term capacity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As with STM, LTM is modular in anyways. However the total capacity is somewhat related too neurons, with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19226510&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;86-100 million neurons and 1000 glia cells&lt;/a&gt; thats means the human brain has a large capacity for storing information. However as previously mentioned these neurons relate to particular types of information. With regard to processing capacity the human brain is estimated to be [10 to the power of 17] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v7/n2/full/nrn1848.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;11&lt;/a&gt; flops per sec, according to the blue brain project. Another &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.terasemjournals.org/GNJournal/GN0104/tuszynski_01b.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent estimate puts the processing capacity of the brain at 10^28 Flops&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fig 3. A comparison of recent predictions of neural processing capacity and current fastest Super CPU&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Cc62L.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Cc62L.png&quot; alt=&quot;Recent comparison of predicted neural processing capacity and current fastest super computer&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://aiimpacts.org/brain-performance-in-teps/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A different measure of calculating processing capacity has been devised by Grace and Christiano who stated the following...&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can use Traversed Edges Per Second (TEPS) to measure a computer’s ability to communicate information internally. We can also estimate the human brain’s communication performance in terms of TEPS, and use this to meaningfully compare brains to computers. We estimate that the human brain performs around  0.18 – 6.4 * 1014 TEPS. This is within an order of magnitude more than existing supercomputers. TEPS = synapse-spikes/second in the brain&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;= Number of synapses in the brain * Average spikes/second in synapses&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;= Number of synapses in the brain * Average spikes/second in neurons&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;= 1.8-3.2 x 10^14 * 0.1-2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;= 0.18 – 6.4 * 10^14&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the brain operates at around 18-640 trillion TEPS, while closest supercomputer is 2.3 * 10^13 TEPS (23 trillion TEPS).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory has been calculated to be around 2.5 petabytes (2.5 * 10^15 bytes), as reported &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-the-memory-capacity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; (seems to be based upon speculation by Prof P Reber). Another estimate has the neural memory capacity at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.terasemjournals.org/GNJournal/GN0104/tuszynski_01b.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;8∙10^19 bits&lt;/a&gt;--that's over 8 quintillion (10^18) bytes. Some researchers at Berkeley have suggested a relatively small 10-100 terabytes (10^13 to 10^14 bytes). All these estimates are based on variations in calculations relative to neuron density and and synapse connections across the whole brain. The larger estimates take addition account of other factors involved in neural communication. But the overall criticism I have is that we can't simply say that one synapse is 1 byte or 200 calculations per second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term estimate is generous here; guesstimate would be far more accurate. Individual neurons are complicated enough; moving to distributed and interconnected networks in the brain is just another level. Neurons do not conduct calculations independently; they rely heaving on context and information types. So we can say the processing of the brain is modular, in fact we already know this to be true to &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=CZS_yDoFV7AC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA13&amp;amp;dq=sensory%20processing%20and%20perception%20in%20the%20brain&amp;amp;ots=8c4hds09qE&amp;amp;sig=fMFigD5WmcxsSvtnsQo2wgnAoDw#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=sensory%20processing%20and%20perception%20in%20the%20brain&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;initial sensory processing&lt;/a&gt;. There is also no clearly obvious separation of memory from processing, although we know in motivation for instance certain areas will activate (the so called 'reward system') when assessing motivational objects. We won't say this is memory but it relies on it previous associations in memory. So some areas of the brain are used to assess rather than recall but they will activate together. The point being that we can't bundle all neurons together to calculate memory or processing. We just don't know what the vast amount of neurons are doing right now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I highly recommend &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/brain-emulation-roadmap-report.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;, for more information and references regarding computational and memory estimates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="11010" LastEditDate="2021-01-05T05:34:34.000" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T05:34:34.000" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="14055" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-25T15:17:15.553" Score="2" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a good review paper on electrode selection in EEG analysis to avoid the problem of double dipping (Kilner, 2013)? This is a well documented issue in neuroimaging (&lt;a href=&quot;http://individual.utoronto.ca/MSL/papers/Kriegeskorte_09_Circular_analysis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kriegeskorte et al, 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.ucsd.edu/~cmckenzie/Vuletal2009Perspectives.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Vul et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;), but I wanted to find a deeper exploration of the approaches to deal with this with experiments involving high density EEG caps and selection of electrodes (clusters of electrodes) of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9444" LastActivityDate="2016-05-25T15:17:15.553" Title="EEG electrode cluster selection" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14057" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-25T20:25:25.450" Score="2" ViewCount="142" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read somewhere that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our visual perception degrades non-linearly with distance from the&#xA;  fovea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it was not referenced. I was wondering if there is a reference talking about this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, is there a scientific reference stating the degradation of vision as a function of degrees in the field of view?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11716" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-26T21:05:50.237" LastActivityDate="2016-05-27T05:49:46.037" Title="What is the relation of visual quality and distance from the central field of view?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14058" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14057" CreationDate="2016-05-25T21:36:33.730" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming you are talking about the ability of the visual system to resolve &lt;strong&gt;spatial detail&lt;/strong&gt; (resolution, if you wish), then your question is on &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003396.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual acuity&lt;/a&gt; as a function of &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-xiii-facts-and-figures-concerning-the-human-retina/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;eccentricity on the retina&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (Fig. 1). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due to the densely packed cones at the fovea (corresponding to the central field of view (FOV), see Fig. 1), visual acuity (VA) is the greatest at the center of fixation. More eccentrically, VA declines markedly. &lt;em&gt;E.g.&lt;/em&gt;, at 10 minutes of arc (1/6 of a degree) from fixation, there is a 25 % loss of visual acuity (Fig. 1.) This dependence of VA on eccentricity is indeed &lt;strong&gt;nonlinear&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;cf&lt;/em&gt;. Fig. 1) and correlates with the cone packing density and photopic resolution in the region up to a few degrees eccentricity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, at larger eccentricities, visual acuity is worse than that predicted by cone spacing alone, indicating that other post-receptoral retinal elements are the limiting factor. One of these factors is the &lt;strong&gt;increased density of rods in eccentric regions&lt;/strong&gt;; rods are built for speed and &lt;strong&gt;sensitivity&lt;/strong&gt;. The latter is accomplished in part by &lt;strong&gt;funneling the inputs of multiple rods onto a single retinal ganglion cell (RGC)&lt;/strong&gt;. RGCs transmit the signals via the optic nerve to the visual centers in the brain stem, ultimately ending up in the brain. Foveal cones, on the other hand, are connected 1:1 and hence the spatial resolution and thus SA is much better in foveal regions. &lt;strong&gt;The foveal region contains high densities of cones&lt;/strong&gt; (good VA), while more eccentrically more rods are present (worse VA); see Fig. 2. This is exactly the reason that we read by focusing our central foveal view on the characters. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vvdc4.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vvdc4.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;VA as function of eccentricity&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. VA as a functin of eccentricity. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vvdc4.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kalloniatis &amp;amp; Luu (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qoYbV.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qoYbV.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Retina and photoRs&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Rod and cone densities as a function of eccentricity. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vvdc4.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kolb (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vvdc4.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kalloniatis &amp;amp; Luu. &lt;strong&gt;Visual acuity&lt;/strong&gt;. In: &lt;em&gt;Webvision. The Organization of the Retina and Visual System&lt;/em&gt;. Kolb &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds). Utah University (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-ii-anatomy-and-physiology-of-the-retina/photoreceptors/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kolb. &lt;strong&gt;Photoreceptors&lt;/strong&gt;. In: &lt;em&gt;Webvision. The Organization of the Retina and Visual System&lt;/em&gt;. Kolb &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds). Utah University (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-27T05:49:46.037" LastActivityDate="2016-05-27T05:49:46.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14059" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14065" CreationDate="2016-05-25T21:41:32.220" Score="4" ViewCount="328" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder how stable the brain is as a dynamical system. In other words, how important the state (current activation) of the brain is for its further functioning. Would the brain recover from a state of zero or random activity given sensible inputs from the environment, e.g. visual and auditory input?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By zero activity I mean equilibrium potential everywhere and no spikes. By random activity I mean independent random potentials and thus an initially random spike pattern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, normal brain activity is needed to keep people alive (e.g. control breathing) but maybe there were cases where machines ensured vital control for brain-dead subjects or computer simulations of neuronal brain models. An answer from either view would be interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="908" LastEditDate="2016-05-26T20:41:27.927" LastActivityDate="2016-05-26T20:49:57.437" Title="Can normal brain activity arise from no (or random) brain activity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;dynamic-systems&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14060" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-26T01:48:14.493" Score="5" ViewCount="228" Body="&lt;p&gt;DNA would seem to be the only candidate for propagating instinctual behavior, yet I find that not credible. DNA mainly codes for the production of protein structures (like enzymes) and is mainly about cellular mechanisms like respiration. It is said that we have 99% of our DNA in common with another primate (Chimpanzee? Do we behave much like them?) and that we have about 50% in common with plants (Carl Sagan said an Oak Tree) which would indicate that only cellular-level information is contained in DNA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a mystery how tissues and systems arise, so it should be an even greater mystery how &lt;em&gt;behavior&lt;/em&gt; could be somehow passed along in a mechanism for folding proteins. &lt;strong&gt;Is there any model that definitely links instincts to DNA, such that if the DNA is altered, the instinctual behavior changes?&lt;/strong&gt; If not, are there any candidates for the actual mechanism of instinct transmission?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastActivityDate="2018-06-12T08:24:26.540" Title="Is there evidence of a mechanism for transmission of instinct?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14061" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14060" CreationDate="2016-05-26T07:38:54.010" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/12/japan.justinmccurry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/12/japan.justinmccurry&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Here they talk about scientist who shut down fear of cat in mice behavior. After genetic engineering the mouse isn't afraid of the cat smell. The conclusion of this study is that fear (at least in this case) is not learned through experience, but a consequence of genetic evolution. In the end, they even explain that mice are still afraid by the sound of the cat. So it's seems to be possible to modify a really precise reaction and not just a large class of behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, all the complex chemicals activities in our brain are coded by dna, so it's not surprising that our instincts are inherited.&#xA;For the 99% of dna in common with Chimpanzee, I have to say that 1% is still a big number of genes, and can make a huge difference. Also they might be some part of the dna that are not used anymore in the 99% (they are just relics of evolution).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually I found information (one from Carl Sagan) saying that big parts (sometimes 80% or 97%) of our dna are unused. I'm not sure about those numbers thought, and one has to be careful because the sources don't seems to be always reliable to me. (The best might be non-coding dna on wikipedia)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kobayakawa, K., Kobayakawa, R., Matsumoto, H., Oka, Y., Imai, T., Ikawa, M., ... &amp;amp; Mori, K. (2007). Innate versus learned odour processing in the mouse olfactory bulb. &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt;, 450(7169), 503. &lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06281&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/nature06281&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17989651&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;17989651&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/download/45075404/Innate_versus_learned_odour_processing_i20160425-21574-dycs42.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.academia.edu/download/45075404/Innate_versus_learned_odour_processing_i20160425-21574-dycs42.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11626" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-12T08:24:26.540" LastActivityDate="2018-06-12T08:24:26.540" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="14062" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7894" CreationDate="2016-05-26T08:14:30.693" Score="2" Body="&lt;h3&gt;What is Autism?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologists, psychoanalysts and neuroscientists all commonly apply a triune model of the brain :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Reptilian complex (aka “instinct” aka “the Id”) : where primitive subconscious emotions (such as sadness, anger, fear and happiness) reside and which is correlated to primitive neurochemical algorithms that measure one’s capacity to take care of oneself.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Paleomammalian complex (aka “consciousness” aka “the Ego”) : where individual consciousness resides, and which is correlated to defensive, perceptual, intellectual-cognitive, and executive functions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Neomammalian complex (aka “intuition” aka “the Super-ego”) : where collective consciousness resides, and which is highly correlated to the internalization of cultural rules, mainly taught by parents applying their guidance and influence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Autistic individuals, the Neomammalian complex does not behave as it normally should, which could have any of a multitude of causes. In essence, that means that Autistic people are lacking what is commonly refered to as a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicaldaily.com/your-gut-feeling-way-more-just-feeling-science-intuition-325338&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;“gut feeling”&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Autistic people can’t just follow “whatever their heart desires”. So they need to analyse whatever data they have all the time to compensate for that lack.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Autism and emotions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The emotional life of Autistic people is no less intense than that of other people (if not more intense), but — due to the lack of a “gut feeling” — it is not as layered. Much of the wide range of subtle nuances in their emotional spectrum of “Neurotypicals” (aka “normal people”) is completely alien to Autistic people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Autistic emotional life is almost exclusively an expression of the level of (dis)comfort one experiences at any given time. While that may seem a very limited range of emotions, the emotional life of people with Autism can nevertheless be just as intense as (if nor more than) that of “Neurotypicals”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because Autistic people need to analyse everything all the time whenever “Neurotypicals” can just rely on their “gut feeling”, Autistic people are far more sensitive to a multitude of stress factors, but also far more capable of experiencing a state of Zen-like tranquility when stress factors are minimal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that Autistic people and “Neurotypicals” experience a vastly different emotional spectrum, with different triggers, different sensitivities, different preferences, etc. The obvious consequence thereof is that Autistic people struggle to comprehend the emotional spectrum of “Neurotypicals”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps less obvious is that it’s no different the other way around. It is not just difficult for Autistic people to understand and communicate with “Neurotypicals”, but also for “Neurotypicals” to understand and communicate with Autistic people, because their perception of themselves and the world around them is so vastly different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Implicit learning and language&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the Neomammalian complex does not behave as it normally should, Autistic people don't just lack only “gut feeling”. They also lack a mechanism known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;“implicit learning”&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (or their capacity for “implicit learning” is very limited). This is a mechanism that allows humans to learn through observation at a sub-conscious level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because Autistic people can't learn at the sub-conscious level, they need to learn pretty much everything at a conscious level. Learning something at a conscious level is a lot harder and requires a lot more intelligence than learning something at a sub-conscious level. Because one's native language is typically learnt implicitly, Autistic people therefore require more effort and intelligence to be able to learn their first (native) language than other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Communication difficulties between individuals with Autism and so-called &amp;quot;Neurotypicals&amp;quot; therefore exist at two levels. Not only do both have a different emotional spectrum, but they also learn to express their thoughts and emotions in different ways, further widening the gap between Autistic and &amp;quot;Neurotypical&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4605" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-05-26T08:14:30.693" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14063" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13861" CreationDate="2016-05-26T09:39:37.167" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/apr/11/lsd-impact-brain-revealed-groundbreaking-images&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In a recent study&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, brain scans revealed that people under the influence of LSD experience images through information drawn from many parts of their brains, and not just the visual cortex at the back of the head that normally processes visual information. While under influence, regions normally segregated spoke to one another. Further images showed that other brain regions that usually form a network became more separated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both alterations in your brain perfectly explain &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XRV5NsyaRlU&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;the many differences in one's perception&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; while under the influence of LSD, which can include (but doesn't necessarilly include) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;synesthesia&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/j5k8K.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/j5k8K.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4605" LastActivityDate="2016-05-26T09:39:37.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14064" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14068" CreationDate="2016-05-26T10:48:48.730" Score="11" ViewCount="2943" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://ssrn.com/abstract=2380375&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; paper titled: &lt;code&gt;Effect of Temporal Spacing between Advertising Exposures&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this paper, the author mentions the ACT-R model and how it explains an optimal information- retrieval system in which items are stored in such a way that the cost of retrieval is minimal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as I am not from a cognitive psychology background, I was unable to find the paper which proposed the model. (As the model is used and extended in many paper, I wasn't been able to find the original one).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, can anyone give a (dumbed down) explanation of how the ACT-R model works, and how it explains information storage?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Update] From the wikipedia link of ACT-R, I understand how the information is segregated. However, I still didn't understand how it is being stored and the learning process, and how it tries to minimize the cost of retrieval and (try to) maximize recall.  (If it is already present in the wiki page, then the technical jargon might have confused me.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9876" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-05-26T15:01:00.607" LastActivityDate="2017-05-17T09:18:39.587" Title="What is the ACT-R model of learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;act-r&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14065" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14059" CreationDate="2016-05-26T11:56:53.603" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no such thing as &quot;zero&quot; activity in regards to brain circuits. Even when you record neurons from a brain slice in vitro, you have spontaneous network activity. There is a few studies that suggest that brain circuits are chaotic, where infinitesimal difference in the initial state will lead to exponentially diverging patterns of activity: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Banerjee, A., Seriès, P., &amp;amp; Pouget, A. (2008). Dynamical constraints&#xA;on using precise spike timing to compute in recurrent cortical&#xA;networks. Neural Computation, 20(4), 974–993.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;London, M., Roth, A., Beeren, L., Häusser, M., &amp;amp; Latham, P. E.&#xA;(2010). Sensitivity to perturbations in vivo implies high noise and&#xA;suggests rate coding in cortex. Nature, 466(7302), 123–127.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question, the interaction between the internal state of a system and external stimuli is an important topic in neuroscience, and it is not clear how internally and externally generated dynamics interact. Here is a paper that discuss it under the term of &quot;state-dependent computing&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Buonomano, D. V., &amp;amp; Maass, W. (2009). State-dependent computations:&#xA;spatiotemporal processing in cortical networks. Nature Reviews&#xA;Neuroscience, 10(2), 113–125.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And there are multiple studies investigating spontaneous brain activity: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Foster, B. L., He, B. J., Honey, C. J., Jerbi, K., Maier, A., &amp;amp;&#xA;Saalmann, Y. B. (2016). Spontaneous Neural Dynamics and Multi-scale&#xA;Network Organization. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 10.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope it helps answer your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11720" LastActivityDate="2016-05-26T11:56:53.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14068" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14064" CreationDate="2016-05-26T15:57:08.050" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;ACT-R can best be summarized with this (tiny but more recent) graph:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mIi1v.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mIi1v.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Modular representation of ACT-R&amp;#39;s cognitive architecture&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ACT-R is a cognitive architecture that tries to explain as much of human behavior as possible with as little rules as possible. It works at a high level of abstraction and came down to a list of so-called &quot;modules&quot;, each having its own functions. The exact mechanisms of each of these modules are actually mathematical models which are based on many years of research. Each module has an accompanying buffer, which can be seen as an accompanying temporary storage unit which allows information to flow between modules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One module is the visual module, in which vision and attention are modeled. When a stimulus is presented, the model will/may focus its attention on it. The time for it to do so is based on the location the model's attention was focused and the distance to the new location (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitts%27s_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fitts's Law&lt;/a&gt; like). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, there is the manual module, which calculates how long a particular motor movement might take. Again, Fitts's law is a large part of this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more interesting modules are the Declarative Module and the Imaginal Module, and the Goal Buffer. In the declarative module factual information is stored. I also wrote something about it &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/13118/cognitive-models-of-learning-working-memory-usage/13874#13874&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. The paper I cited over there described how memories decay over time and how this decay may become slower (the effect of studying at intervals). &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tops.12183/abstract;jsessionid=1EE00B01462ACBBBDA6E467198B56DE8.f03t03&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; may especially be interesting also. Incorrect facts may also be stored but, since incorrect facts are encountered less often, they are are more easily forgotten. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The imaginal module is similar to working memory. Here you store information temporarily to allow short-term memorization. When a piece of information, also known as &quot;chunk&quot; is removed from this module, it automatically goes to the declarative module. There, depending on how often you use that &quot;chunk&quot;, it will decay in a more or lesser degree. Placing something in the imaginal buffer is thus similar to mentally rehearsing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Goal buffer keeps track of what you are doing. For every little sub-task there is, you can set a goal. The goal-buffer is especially important for selecting the right production rule (see below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The core of ACT-R&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All these modules come together in the Procedural module, in which production rules are stored. Production rules is analogous to procedural memory, which is the knowledge of how to execute a (part of) the task. It is here that all information comes together, and determines what the next step of action may be. In ACT-R, the procedural module is a BIG if-then-statement. If the goal is to do X (taking from the goal buffer), and we have knowledge y (from the retrieval buffer), and we see information z (from the visual buffer), then we can perform action A (via the manual buffer). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, there are more production rules having the same conditionals. That means, if the goal is to do X (taking from the goal buffer), and we have knowledge Y (from the retrieval buffer), and we see information Z (from the visual buffer), then we can either perform action A or action B (via the manual buffer). This, the conditionals and corresponding action, are stored as two separate production rules. So we have Rule A and Rule B, which may be selected if we see X, Y and Z. Both production rule has a Utility value, i.e. a value of how successful the outcome was of that execution. The higher utility is, the bigger the probability of selecting it. This allows humans to make mistakes (selecting a wrong production rule) and to learn from these mistakes. Production rules that are successful will increase their Utility, whereas rules that are more often unsuccessful will have their utility decay over time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Example&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing ACT-R has modeled is solving mathematical equations. For this, we need some assumptions. We are highly trained in additions from up to 50, so we can retrieve these facts without a problem. Then, we go into our production rule:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;IF&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Goal = addition&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Visual = 5+9&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  THEN&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  new Goal = retrieve&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Imaginal = 5+9 (to temporarily remember)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now the next rule:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;IF&#xA;  Goal = retrieve&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Imaginal = 5+9 (here you use the temporarily remembered info)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  THEN&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Declarative = 14  (here, the result of the memory retrieval is saved)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  New Goal = Type answer  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then a final rule:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;IF&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Goal = Type answer&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Declarative = 14&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  THEN&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Manual = Type 14. (here, a value is calculated of how long it would take to move your hand from Base position, to 1, to 4). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is pretty much how ACT-R works. I bet that the IF-THEN syntax is not completely correct, but this is the essence. With basic IF-THEN rules, and knowledge and information from different modules, you can perform any task. Do note that ACT-R works at a very high level of abstraction (plus you can manually adapt the decay rate of memories to make the data fit better). Not every module is thus very well explained and there is quite some criticism on the model. However, the simplicity-explainability ratio (Occam's razor?) is very nice. For the best description of the model, I recommend the book &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://global.oup.com/academic/product/how-can-the-human-mind-occur-in-the-physical-universe-9780195324259?cc=nl&amp;amp;lang=en&amp;amp;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How does the human mind occur in the physical universe&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by John Anderson. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Examples of mistakes&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For completeness I will also describe two mistakes that can occur. The first mistake is an incorrect memory retrieval. As a beginner in learning to count, you may have accidentally answered 13 once instead of 14 on the equation. This means it is saved in the declarative memory, but, most likely, activation has decayed a little. Because the retrieval process is stochastic and the activation value only serves as probabilities, it is possible that you accidentally select 13 instead of 14. Very simply, the second conditional will become the following. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;IF&#xA;  Goal = retrieve&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Imaginal = 5+9 (here you use the temporarily remembered info)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  THEN&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Declarative = 13&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  New Goal = Type answer  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second way a mistake can be made is by selecting a wrong production rule with the same conditionals. For instance, during additions, you learn that 5+9 equals 14, and you see a pattern: you add a one and remove one from 5. because this is a successful strategy in some cases, it may actually gain some utility. So, as the innocent child that you are, when you see 15+9 you answer 114; you added a one and removed one from 5. This will be a production rule with the exact same conditionals, but where you perform a different action. The first production rule could then look like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;IF&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Goal = addition&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Visual = 5+9&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  THEN&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  new Goal = move One&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Imaginal = 5+9 (to temporarily remember)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After this, you would not follow the same steps anymore, because the goal buffer holds a different value (&quot;move One&quot; instead of &quot;retrieve&quot;). This means a different production rule will be selected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Tutorial&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/wordpress/wp-content/themes/ACT-R/actr7/EnvironmentManual.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tutorial&lt;/a&gt; of ACT-R exists which rather nicely takes you through the steps of basic model making, the exact syntax and the structure of the modules/buffers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-05-17T09:18:39.587" LastActivityDate="2017-05-17T09:18:39.587" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14069" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14053" CreationDate="2016-05-26T15:58:23.207" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;James E. Cutting has done a number of studies on this topic in the movie domain. Take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.psych.cornell.edu/%7Ejec7/pubs/cutting&amp;amp;candanProj15.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Shot Durations, Shot Classes, and the Increased Pace of Popular   Movies&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; (Cutting, 2015):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The pace of popular movies has    increased and statements about  this trend can be found in both the popular media and   in  scholarly works (see, for example, Bordwell and Thompson 2004;  Bordwell,   Staiger, and Thompson 1985; Cutting, Brunick, DeLong, Iricinschi, and Candan 2011b; Salt 2006, 2009)&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;...   shorter shot durations make for more cuts, which in turn make for&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;more intensified demands on viewers’ attention.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More work can be found here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://people.psych.cornell.edu/%7Ejec7/pictures_film.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://people.psych.cornell.edu/~jec7/pictures_film.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9444" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-05-26T21:59:49.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14071" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-26T19:04:45.643" Score="3" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;I teach, as a layman, young adult students who mostly try to get a degree part-time whilst juggling full-time jobs and small crumbs of left-overs of a  private life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As it is hard for them to do rock-solid preparation, there is often a serious amount of test-anxiety close to the exams and up to the point where they forget something they definitely had down before. I want to educate myself on techniques to relieve test-anxiety in others as a teacher. Google gives innumerable hits for relieving that form of stress yourself, but not from the educator's viewpoint. Any help would be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11723" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-26T22:39:25.853" LastActivityDate="2016-07-26T23:29:54.213" Title="How to help relieve test-anxiety in others" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14072" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14059" CreationDate="2016-05-26T20:31:38.963" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on computational models of resting brain activity, it can be assumed that the brain is a multistable dynamical systems that operates on the edge of a &quot;critical&quot; bifurcation point seperating a low firing  spontaneous state (which can be seen as more or less random low firing activity) from a state of high frequency activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;see for example the work from Deco et al. or Hansen et al.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Deco, G., &amp;amp; Jirsa, V. K. (2012). Ongoing cortical activity at rest:&#xA;criticality, multistability, and ghost attractors. The Journal of&#xA;Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience,&#xA;32(10), 3366–75. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2523-11.2012&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Deco, G., Ponce-Alvarez, A., Mantini, D., Romani, G. L., Hagmann, P.,&#xA;&amp;amp; Corbetta, M. (2013). Resting-state functional connectivity emerges&#xA;from structurally and dynamically shaped slow linear fluctuations.&#xA;The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for&#xA;Neuroscience, 33(27), 11239–52. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1091-13.2013&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Deco, G., Jirsa, V. K., &amp;amp; McIntosh, A. R. (2013). Resting brains&#xA;never rest: computational insights into potential cognitive&#xA;architectures. Trends in Neurosciences, 36(5), 268–74.&#xA;doi:10.1016/j.tins.2013.03.001 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hansen, E. C. a., Battaglia, D., Spiegler, A., Deco, G., &amp;amp; Jirsa, V. &#xA;K. (2015). Functional connectivity dynamics: Modeling the switching&lt;br&gt;&#xA;behavior of the resting state. NeuroImage, 105, 525–535.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.11.001&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This state is the most economic state since it is on the edge of stability, which means that small inputs will lead to a bifurcation where the spontaneous state becomes unstable and the high firing &quot;task-activated&quot; state becomes stable. This provides high flexibility to brain operations. The control parameter in most of the models is the coupling strength between neurons. As Philippe mentioned, there is always some degree of spontaneous activity in normal functioning (healthy) brains, and I'm only aware of models which simulate neurons by means of chaotic systems or realistic neuronal spiking networks which have some low degree of connectivity/coupling to simulate a low firing &quot;random&quot; state, but there may be other models, which I do not know about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But let's assume you simulate a model just with random spontaneous activity. Then there would be no information exchange between neurons when there is a low coupling, thus there would not emerge any form of resting state network, which can be seen as a form of &quot;ghost attractors&quot; where brain areas exchange information by spike synchronization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer your question, I'd say that the normal healthy brain is wired in a way that it can respond to environmental stimuli very flexibly and is able to switch from a resting state (for example when closing eyes and relax without any form of stimulation) to a task-activated or stimulus activated state very quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this can all be different when there is some form of physical damage to central hubs of brain function (think of the brain as small world network), which can't be compensated or substance induced changes like LSD or Psilocybin. Or think about mental disorder like schizophrenia or psychosis with visual and auditory hallucinations asf. There are probably many ways of altering the optimal operation point of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4439" LastEditorUserId="4439" LastEditDate="2016-05-26T20:49:57.437" LastActivityDate="2016-05-26T20:49:57.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14073" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14075" CreationDate="2016-05-27T06:19:43.633" Score="1" ViewCount="807" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Christian tradition, there are said to be &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;seven deadly sins&lt;/a&gt;&quot;: Lust, Gluttony, Greed, Sloth, Wrath, Envy, and Pride.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Catholicism specifically, there are sometimes said to be seven virtues, each sin having an opposite: Chastity, Temperance, Charity, Diligence, Patience, Kindness, and Humility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a sense, this is a personality model. (Each sin/virtue duality can be thought of as a spectrum, with the sin lying at one end, and the virtue at the other. In the middle would be the &quot;average&quot; soul.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Big Five&quot; traits&lt;/a&gt; come to mind, with the acronym &quot;OCEAN&quot;: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What other major personality models are out there that use 3-9 axes (plural of axis) to describe an individual's personality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related questions that floated about:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4177/can-7-deadly-sins-virtues-be-explained-in-terms-of-brain-hormone-level-or-rece&quot;&gt;The 7 Deadlies and Hormones/Receptors&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6228/why-are-the-big-five-factors-of-personality-correlated&quot;&gt;Why are the Big 5 not orthogonal?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8469/connections-between-different-theories-of-personality&quot;&gt;Connections between theories of personality&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Other clues (quotes and links:)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big Five Wiki&lt;/a&gt; on the context of the Big Five:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Big five personality traits was the model to comprehend the relationship between personality and academic behaviors.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  [...]  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.taoism.net/ttc/complete.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tao Te Ching&lt;/a&gt;, Chapter 15: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hesitant, like crossing a wintry river&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Cautious, like fearing four neighbors&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Solemn, like a guest&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Loose, like ice about to melt&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Genuine, like plain wood&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Open, like a valley&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Opaque, like muddy water  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facet_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia Article: &quot;Facet&quot; (Psychology), a concept within the Big Five personality model&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Values_in_Action_Inventory_of_Strengths&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia Article: Six Values in Positive Psychology&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wisdom and Knowledge&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Courage&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Humanity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Justice&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Temperance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Transcendence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurotransmitter/Receptor types/systems:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dopamine&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Serotonin&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cannabinoid&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;GABA&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Adrenergic (Epinephrine/Norepinephrine)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nicotinic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;???&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T15:53:38.837" Title="Personality Models: The Big Five, the Seven Deadly Sins, and?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14074" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10814" CreationDate="2016-05-27T08:12:36.457" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Generally, a few months of active, guided training.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Based on an article from a guide cane instructor who is a cane traveler himself, I can answer the question as follows: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off - it depends on at least three important variables;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The student's &lt;strong&gt;background&lt;/strong&gt;; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The student's &lt;strong&gt;aptitude&lt;/strong&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the amount of &lt;strong&gt;time available&lt;/strong&gt; to the student.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ad. 1 : If the student is planning only to use the cane in already familiar environments, the process will be easier. Fear of traffic, or unfamiliarity with it may complicate the learning process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ad. 2. The level of independence is important; an older persom who has been used to be guided by another, sighted person for years will have a hard time replacing those two eyes with a cane. A youngster, on the other hand, will likely be able to learn faster, be more motivated and more daring than an old person. The elderly may be less mobile and possibly afraid of falling, have balance disorders &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ad. 3. Time should be measured in two ways: the number of hours per day and week, and the number of months to be filled with this schedule. The author of the cited article below started as a student spending &lt;strong&gt;fifteen to twenty hours a week in guided practice&lt;/strong&gt; and that worked well for her. The author says to have known people who made good progress with &lt;strong&gt;four to five hours of guided practice in a week&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;anything under three hours per week is probably getting rather thin&lt;/strong&gt;; and these hourse refer to &lt;strong&gt;specific skill practice&lt;/strong&gt;, besides using the cane wherever and whenever possible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author spent &lt;strong&gt;an intensive six weeks&lt;/strong&gt; on travel to reach a satisfactory level of skill. Most people he knows who worked steadily for &lt;strong&gt;several hours a week&lt;/strong&gt;, plus &lt;strong&gt;out-of-class everyday use&lt;/strong&gt; were able to gain sufficient skill to cane travel in &lt;strong&gt;two to three months when starting as a beginner&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://nfb.org/images/nfb/publications/fr/fr15/issue1/f150122.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bickford, &lt;em&gt;Future Reflections&lt;/em&gt; (Winter 1996); &lt;strong&gt;15&lt;/strong&gt;(1)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-27T17:08:35.767" LastActivityDate="2016-05-27T17:08:35.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14075" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14073" CreationDate="2016-05-27T10:18:58.587" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depending on your definition of 'personality model' there are plenty to choose from. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have any good overview of similarities and differences, which are tests more than models, or which are really two names on the same model. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Big 5/5 factor model. 5x6 axes. Tests include NEO-PI, MMPI-2, IPIP ++.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Global 5. 5 axes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;BELBIN &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emneagram/RHETI&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hexaco&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Holland COdes/RIASEC&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jung/MBTI/Kiersey/DISC, 16 PF, MENTI. 4 axes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;MOTIV&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;R-Drive&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Temperaments. 4 axes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hartman. 4 axes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kolb/Mumford &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learning styles, Grasha­Riechmann styles, Dunn and Dunn styles, Canfield styles&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which ones you should focus on depends on what you are looking for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Big 5\NEO-PI-R is the most scientifically supported model, so I mostly keep to that one. The hard part about Big 5 is the number of traits total (30), which takes a while to really learn, understand and remember. &#xA;MBTI is useful in learning theory about personality types, differences and traits, but it lacks scientific support. &#xA;The others I haven't studied much yet. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general I think it's a good idea to use Big 5 as the base, and search for correlations with traits from Big 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://similarminds.com/personality_types.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://similarminds.com/personality_types.html&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://tcc.kcc.hawaii.edu/previous/TCC%202005/santo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://tcc.kcc.hawaii.edu/previous/TCC%202005/santo.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personalityresearch.org/bigfive.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.personalityresearch.org/bigfive.html&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hexaco.org/scaledescriptions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://hexaco.org/scaledescriptions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="5059" LastEditDate="2016-05-29T15:40:28.503" LastActivityDate="2016-05-29T15:40:28.503" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14076" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-27T18:29:02.227" Score="1" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a link between high intelligence or creativity, measured with currently valid psychometrics, such as IQ tests or tests of creativity and mental disorders like depression, anxiety, or bipolarity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11730" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-31T14:52:39.307" LastActivityDate="2016-05-31T14:52:39.307" Title="Is there a link between intelligence and mental disturbances?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2016-06-01T23:24:54.297" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14071" CreationDate="2016-05-27T20:11:44.103" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Being a layman, you can only give advice to the students. When their test anxiety is serious, the best advice you can give them is - &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;seek professional help&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are, as you say, numerous ways to relieve 'normal' anxiety. A good web source is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/generalized-anxiety-disorder/expert-answers/test-anxiety/faq-20058195&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt;, that gives the following tips, which may aid your students too:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learn your students to study efficiently; your institution may offer dedicated &lt;strong&gt;study-skill courses&lt;/strong&gt; to the students;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can learn them &lt;strong&gt;test-taking strategies&lt;/strong&gt;; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Students feel more relaxed if they study systematically and &lt;strong&gt;practice the material&lt;/strong&gt; that will be on a test. Establish a consistent pretest routine. That way they'll learn what works best for them, which eases stress levels;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Teach them &lt;strong&gt;relaxation techniques&lt;/strong&gt;. There are a multitude of them, applicable to either right before the test, or during the test to help them stay calm, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, breathing techniques, muscle relaxing strategies, closing the eyes and imagining a positive outcome, or meditation techniques;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Remind them to &lt;strong&gt;eat and drink&lt;/strong&gt;. Their brain needs fuel to function. They should eat a meal before the test and drink plenty of water. However, sugary drinks such as soda pops can cause the blood sugar to peak and then steeply drop. Also, caffeine may not be wise as it can increase anxiety;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Let them &lt;strong&gt;exercise&lt;/strong&gt;. Regular aerobic exercise, and exercising on exam day, can release tension;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Urge them to get plenty of &lt;strong&gt;sleep&lt;/strong&gt;. Sleep is directly related to academic performance. Preteens and teenagers especially need to get regular, solid sleep;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Make sure your students can openly &lt;strong&gt;discuss anxiety&lt;/strong&gt; issues with you;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A student may have a &lt;strong&gt;learning disability&lt;/strong&gt; that requires &lt;strong&gt;professional help&lt;/strong&gt;. Test anxiety may improve by addressing the underlying condition that interferes with the ability to learn, focus or concentrate — for example, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or dyslexia. If a student has been diagnosed with a learning disability you can provide them with assistance with test taking, such as extra time to complete a test or having questions read aloud;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And again - urge them to seek &lt;strong&gt;professional help&lt;/strong&gt;, if necessary. Talk therapy (psychotherapy) with a psychologist or other mental health provider can help them to work through their feelings, thoughts and behaviors that may cause or worsen anxiety. You can ask around at your institution if it has a counseling service in-house, otherwise you can advise your students to seek professional help outside the school's setting.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2016-05-27T20:11:44.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14079" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14022" CreationDate="2016-05-27T21:08:17.010" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Hodgkin-Huxley is an observation on cellular processes. It cannot embrace structures of just a few neurons, as a neural schema. For action potentials, we could say they are all-or-none options. Singular potentials yet are ignored by the nervous system by biological default, and we cannot discard the role of graded potentials, in the work of the system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of the Hodgkin-Huxley, it is the hypothesis that cell membranes had ion channels to remain valid and affirmed (Erwin Neher, Bert Sakmann, and Roderick MacKinnon). However, singular cell incitation may test inconclusive (Vander et al., 1985), therefore mathematical models have been mostly abandoned, for life sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mathematical calculation on the human mind is not considered likely either, see Damasio, A. 2000. The Feeling of What Happens: Body, Emotion and the Making of Consciousness. MIT Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://feedbackandlanguage.com/chapter-one-neurophysiology-of-feedback/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://feedbackandlanguage.com/chapter-one-neurophysiology-of-feedback/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are no equations in psychology, unless you take an equation for a figure of speech. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Mathematical psychology&quot; or psychometrics would reflect on data, and data presentations may be affected by the way measurements are gathered and analyzed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychometrics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychometrics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ability to sum up, make an integer, or a differential equation on machine output does not mean capableness to perceive a human being mathematically. (Further, I really do not know why try to picture humans as sets of mathematical figures.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Mathematical predictability&quot; about a person could be only a manipulated result, via incentives or stimuli. Obviously, such manipulation would be ethically disagreeable as well as scientifically useless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update, June 5 2016:&lt;/strong&gt; Artem Kaznatcheev's marking the question as answered with artificial network and hologram semantics theory is a misunderstanding. This question is about psychology as concerned with emotions, social psychology, or cognitive psychology:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;I mean (...) research (like in emotions or social psychology, or cognitive psychology)&quot;, is the wording. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the holoword theory as indicated among the &quot;answers&quot; cannot apply to natural information processing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;A major stumbling block on the road to a &lt;strong&gt;unified account of lexical processing&lt;/strong&gt; has been the lack of a unified representation for words that incorporates information about orthography, phonology, semantics, and syntax.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~clcl/Papers/Holowords_BRM.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.indiana.edu/~clcl/Papers/Holowords_BRM.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No such unified account is likely about humans. Human information processing is feedback-oriented. The observation does not encourage pursuits for a uniform neural model for language. Human speech and language are a natural faculty by a human person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personality factors matter already with language cerebral patterns. The patterns and their networks are not innate. They are biological connections everyone needs to make on his or her own. In consequence, there cannot be a universal (unified, uniform) neural format for language. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://feedbackandlanguage.com/general-conclusions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://feedbackandlanguage.com/general-conclusions/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, &quot;mind modularity”, “language universals”, or “notional matrices” cannot explain the language information pool phenomena of the Warrens experiment. The fact does not make room for mathematics or physics. Not only with generative phonology, mathematical values or symbolics that pertain with physics would be an arbitrary ascription, to think about live human brain tissue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://feedbackandlanguage.com/chapter-three-the-role-of-feedback-in-language-use/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://feedbackandlanguage.com/chapter-three-the-role-of-feedback-in-language-use/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question wording also is, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;I am wondering (and searching with no success)&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is because there are no such equations. I'm fine with that, and now I've done all I could to explain: if you make a computer, you naturally mind this is a computer you make, not a human brain. Here's the bibliography :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://feedbackandlanguage.com/bibliography/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://feedbackandlanguage.com/bibliography/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11675" LastEditorUserId="11675" LastEditDate="2016-06-05T21:49:38.730" LastActivityDate="2016-06-05T21:49:38.730" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14080" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-27T22:46:08.970" Score="2" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the explanation for which we forget easily our dreams when we wake up?. It has a biological sense, such as to avoid to confuse reality world experiences with dream world experiences? or there are other psychological or psychoanalytic explanations? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I appreciate your help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11732" LastEditorUserId="11732" LastEditDate="2016-05-27T23:05:15.337" LastActivityDate="2016-05-27T23:05:15.337" Title="why we forget dreams when we wake up?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-05-28T17:34:35.623" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14081" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-28T00:20:07.080" Score="8" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm no cognitive scientist, and this video I'm about to cite is certainly not claiming to be a good cog sci resource, but I have done some studying up on neurology and some of the parts of this guy's (detailed) explanation of how memory works seems different from what I understood. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The video: &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/CUT6nET1yjo?t=6m3s&quot;&gt;Film Theory: How to KILL DEADPOOL! (at 6:03)&lt;/a&gt; probably gave 85% (or 99%?) of the 7.7 million viewers who watched it the most detailed explanation they'd ever received of how memory works. I'm just curious to know how much of his explanation is accurate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, how accurate is this explanation of memory?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9361" LastEditorUserId="9361" LastEditDate="2016-05-28T02:17:41.597" LastActivityDate="2017-03-28T16:16:00.403" Title="How accurate is this explanation of memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14082" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14089" CreationDate="2016-05-28T02:11:24.920" Score="7" ViewCount="472" Body="&lt;p&gt;A friend of mine showed me a paper (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4172306/pdf/zfp_222_3_128.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kirsch, 2014&lt;/a&gt;) where the author claims that antidepressants work mostly through a placebo effect (backed up with relevant citations). Antidepressants are generally serotonin enhancers and their mechanism of action hinges on the premise that there is a chemical imbalance of serotonin in the brain. But not only do they not work significantly  better than placebos, but also there are antidepressants that do not enhance serotonin but suppress it. There are some that do nothing to serotonin at all, but their therapeutic effects are all the same, according to Hirsch. So the effect is independent of the chemical composition. That means the chemical imbalance theory is wrong. Is my understanding, as a layperson, correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If all of this is legitimate, does that makes any sense to take medicines for an ADHD patient as well? I mean, does the placebo effect, if true, affect ADHD patients, too?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I fear that if people get to see this paper, they may misinterpret the results and may refuse to go to a psychiatrist and get treated even if they have legitimate issues. This is alarming, IMO.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4172306/pdf/zfp_222_3_128.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kirsch, Antidepressants and the Placebo Effect, &lt;em&gt;Zeitschrift für Psychologie&lt;/em&gt; (2014); 222(3): 128–134&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11733" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-28T20:26:03.010" LastActivityDate="2018-01-05T06:33:23.647" Title="Can the effectiveness of antidepressants be explained by a placebo effect?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14083" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14092" CreationDate="2016-05-28T03:05:35.050" Score="9" ViewCount="11666" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laziness&quot;&gt;Laziness&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avolition&quot;&gt;Avolition&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They seem behaviorally similar. Is the difference cognitive perhaps?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7015" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-11-28T20:00:28.153" LastActivityDate="2018-07-08T06:59:10.157" Title="What is the difference between Avolition and Laziness?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;willpower&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14084" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13989" CreationDate="2016-05-28T05:10:12.277" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are the person to have the best insight into yourself, yet I think you might care to tell between linguality and a psychiatric disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Multiple personality is a dissociative disorder to connote confusion over own identity and a stipulated, partial memory loss. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Multilingualism does not induce any such confusion, or memory loss, and a translator does not become two people at a computer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Language is constitutive to personality. There are no people to whom it does not matter if own language skill embraces one or more languages, and if the skill is personally gratifying as well as effective. Language yet is not a personality. If we phrase language as a personality factor, we need to mind we cannot tell personalities by languages. Words as “constitutive” or “constituent” probably reflect on the matter more pragmatically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see attempts at having languages for personalities as exhibiting a monolingual defense instrument. More and more people speak and write in more than one language. People who speak one language may remain absolutely fine with the fact, learn another language (it is not true we cannot learn languages beyond ages 14 or 15), or develop a defense mechanism. Especially the phrasing “malleability”, in the Mail Online article, would imply a psychological defensive: it happens to induce associations with aggression. Well, languages are not so easy to learn, after all. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11675" LastEditorUserId="11675" LastEditDate="2016-05-28T06:47:24.107" LastActivityDate="2016-05-28T06:47:24.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14085" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14126" CreationDate="2016-05-28T12:08:45.957" Score="1" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a good way to train that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be able to pause thinking about something that you can't change right now, until it's actually time. That might be one day, one week or one month later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11739" LastActivityDate="2016-06-01T16:53:38.417" Title="How to think about things when it's the right time?" Tags="&lt;wandering-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14086" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3102" CreationDate="2016-05-28T16:08:25.410" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Of course, the type of data you use depends  lot on what your model purports to explain. The way i take your question, you are looking for straight up artificial classification learning experiments. Is this correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, John Kruschke has published several of his most important datasets &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~kruschke/publications.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;on his website&lt;/a&gt;.  I have often used these in my model testing. His '93 and '96 papers in connection science are especially notable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, Nosofsky has not done the same thing, but you can find PDFs &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/nosofsky/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;on his website&lt;/a&gt;, many of which contain reports of data (i.e., tables) detailed enough to simulate. I'd especially look at his '86 paper in JEP General, but there is tons on his publications page and that's just the start...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, one of my favorite, under-simulated, datasets was published in the '92 cogsci proceedings by Aha &amp;amp; Goldstone. &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.44.2943&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt; here&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11741" LastActivityDate="2016-05-28T16:08:25.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14087" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-28T16:18:10.327" Score="4" ViewCount="438" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two visual attention networks proposed by Maurizio Corbetta and Gordon L. Shulman (2002). These are top-down and bottom-up attention networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One system, which includes parts of the intraparietal cortex and superior frontal cortex, is involved in preparing and applying goal-directed (top-down) selection for stimuli and responses. This system is also modulated by the detection of stimuli. The other system, which includes the temporoparietal cortex and inferior frontal cortex, and is largely lateralized to the right hemisphere, is not involved in top-down selection. Instead, this system is specialized for the detection of behaviourally relevant stimuli, particularly when they are salient or unexpected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also two ventral streams proposed by Melvyn A. Goodale and A. David Milner (1992). These are ventral stream and dorsal stream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We propose that the ventral stream of projections from the striate cortex to the inferotemporal cortex plays the major role in the perceptual identification of objects, while the dorsal stream projecting from the striate cortex to the posterior parietal region mediates the required sensorimotor transformations for visually guided actions directed at such objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: &lt;strong&gt;What is the relationship between these two proposed networks?&lt;/strong&gt; As in do they affect each other, or is one a preliminary network that occurs before the other? There have been studies on this but I am having difficulty making sense of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: Visual streams and shifting attention (Brown 2009) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079612309176045&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079612309176045&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To gain insight into the relationship between M/dorsal and P/ventral activity and deploying visual attention, we used a covert cuing paradigm to manipulate attention while bottom-up and top-down perceptual stimulus variables created M/dorsal and P/ventral-biased conditions. One study examined the object advantage, where responses are faster for within-relative to equidistant between-object shifts of attention. Visual stream contributions to object- and spaced-based attention were revealed using psychophysically equiluminant conditions expected to reduce M/dorsal activity. Other studies investigating visual stream contributions to location-based inhibition of return (IOR) used IOR magnitude as an indicator of the ease or difficulty of deploying spatial attention. Greater IOR was found under P/ventral-biased conditions. Less IOR was found under M/dorsal-biased conditions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11684" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-01T11:11:15.637" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T15:30:02.087" Title="What is the relationship between visual attention network and visual stream (Two-streams hypothesis)?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14088" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13008" CreationDate="2016-05-28T17:43:01.643" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A true classic -- the Configural-Cue model -- uses the Rescorla-Wagner rule to learn associations between cues and outcomes. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0749596X88900721&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Link1&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1990-27492-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Link2&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xge/117/3/227/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Link3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my view this is one of the most straightforward (i.e., simplest) models of conditioning, likely a good starting point for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11741" LastActivityDate="2016-05-28T17:43:01.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14089" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14082" CreationDate="2016-05-28T19:47:42.443" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Don't believe everything you read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The article cited &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4172306/pdf/zfp_222_3_128.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kirsch, 2014)&lt;/a&gt; appears in a German journal with a mediocre impact factor. Not the most convincing platform.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'll cite parts of the abstract, starting with &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But analyses of the published data and the unpublished data that were&#xA;  hidden by drug companies reveals that most (if not all) of the&#xA;  benefits are due to the placebo effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His reference list includes some 40+ references; if I type in &quot;antidepressant AND serotonin&quot; in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scopus.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scopus&lt;/a&gt; (an established academic search engine I often use) I get 23k+ hits. With a bald statement like Hirsch makes, he might be skipping the literature proving him wrong.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some antidepressants increase serotonin levels, some decrease it, and&#xA;  some have no effect at all on serotonin. Nevertheless, they all show&#xA;  the same therapeutic benefit.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The new generation of antidepressants, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/antidepressants/art-20044970&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;SNRIs&lt;/a&gt;, also have action on nor-epinephrine and may be more effective than the regular &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/depression/ssris-myths-and-facts-about-antidepressants&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;SSRIs&lt;/a&gt;. Serotonin may and likely is not the whole story. Depression is a complex disease with variable etiologies. Thinking it's all about serotonin is a bit short-sighted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Even the small statistical difference between antidepressants and&#xA;  placebos may be an enhanced placebo effect, due to the fact that most&#xA;  patients and doctors in clinical trials successfully break blind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oh come on - when you put forth such a line in the abstract that other researchers can't successfully perform a proper masked clinical trial, only testifies of a lack of proper data to back his [flawed] claims up.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The serotonin theory is as close as any theory in the history of&#xA;  science to having been proved wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a totally subjective thing to say. I don't care where it ranks in a ladder. Especially not in an abstract. Saying stuff like this only testifies he has nothing better to say in the abstract.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Instead of curing depression, popular antidepressants may induce a&#xA;  biological vulnerability making people more likely to become depressed&#xA;  in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would need carefully planned prospective clinical studies to prove. Until this is addressed, he shouldn't be going down this path.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly - Hirsch has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-skeptical-sleuth/201203/irving-kirsch-d-j-vu-all-over-again&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;criticized&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; proclaiming the same stuff since the 1990's, without changing the contents of his message. Perhaps he should stop theorizing and start experimenting to put his conspiracy theories to the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dropbox.com/sh/mzn47rkgrleizpm/Ba4ZkHHwlp/klein%20hearing%20bias.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Klein (1998)&lt;/a&gt;, Kirsch bases his claims on a flawed study &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&amp;amp;id=1999-11094-001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kirsch &amp;amp; Sapirstein, 1998)&lt;/a&gt;, where Kirsch claims that the substantial majority of drug effect is due to placebo effect and the rest is either measurement error or active placebo effect. Klein criticizes the article, because it was derived from a relative small group of unrepresentative, inconsistently and erroneously selected articles arbitrarily analyzed by an obscure, misleading effect size. Further, he identifies problems with the meta-analytic approach in general, such as the lack of attempts to further segment the placebo response. Lastly, he points to the lack of peer review and the opportunity provided by an electronic journal for rapid publication.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4172306/pdf/zfp_222_3_128.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kirsch, &lt;em&gt;Zeitschrift für Psychologie&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;222&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 128–34&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&amp;amp;id=1999-11094-001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kirsch &amp;amp; Sapirstein, &lt;em&gt;Prevention &amp;amp; Treatment&lt;/em&gt; (1998); &lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;: 0002a&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dropbox.com/sh/mzn47rkgrleizpm/Ba4ZkHHwlp/klein%20hearing%20bias.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Klein, &lt;em&gt;Prevention &amp;amp; Treatment&lt;/em&gt; (1998); &lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;: 0006c&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-28T20:57:03.307" LastActivityDate="2016-05-28T20:57:03.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14090" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="22055" CreationDate="2016-05-28T21:25:32.673" Score="4" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine an Italian person is living in London. A poll on the street asks them to estimate the total number of Italians in London. This person then gives a highly incorrect, overblown guess. It's simply common for people of a single nationality to notice each other in the crowd or go to the same places, so it's somewhat likely that one would have an inflated estimate in their heads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example would be a &quot;reverse &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness_stereotype&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;physical attractiveness stereotype&lt;/a&gt;&quot;: a person holding the belief that &quot;all people are friendly&quot;. However in reality this could be explained by the fact that the person holding the belief is highly attractive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do you call this bias? &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Selection bias&lt;/a&gt; seems close, but is there something more specific?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11742" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-17T15:34:04.453" LastActivityDate="2019-11-06T15:38:46.660" Title="How do you call the cognitive bias of not seeing self as the common denominator?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14091" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14081" CreationDate="2016-05-28T21:35:37.967" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Really nice video and pretty much seems to be correct. The only thing that i am questioning is about the patterns. He says they won't exist after regeneration. However, just a thought: if you would replace one neuron of a network with a new (exactly the same but younger) neuron, it would receive the same input and produce the same output right? Then why would a memory be lost. Taking a step further, if an entire network is replaced, wouldn't the hippocampus with Long Term Memories (LTM)s still be able to give the same input to that network, which would then show a similar activation pattern, thus remembering?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To finish my short argument. Assuming that the hippocampus indeed stores the patterns for LTMs and the cells in Deadpool regenerate in an identical way, then I believe that LTMs may still exist after regeneration. Only when the hippocampus is affected, LTMs may be lost. I base this just on my thought experiment however and have no scientific proof. Maybe you can ask the YouTube guy for some references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-06-09T17:57:08.733" LastActivityDate="2016-06-09T17:57:08.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14092" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14083" CreationDate="2016-05-29T09:13:43.320" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/14083/what-is-the-difference-between-avolition-and-laziness#comment25198_14083&quot;&gt;Robin Kramer gave a good starting point in his comment&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As he said, the difference between laziness and avolition primarily come from the causes of each behavior. Laziness is common among psychologically &quot;normal&quot; individuals while avolition is commonly seen in patients with schizophrenia or depression. Now I will go in depth with each to better characterize them and hopefully show the differences between the two. I will talk about avolition first because it is better defined in the field of psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Avolition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definition of avolition mainly comes from research of schizophrenia symptoms. Schizophrenia symptoms can be divided as positive and negative symptoms. Negative symptoms can be divided into diminished expression and amotivation. Amotivation consists of anhedonia and avolition (Foussias &amp;amp; Remington, 2008). Anhedonia is diminished capacity to experience pleasant emotions. Avolition is the loss of drive and lack of curiosity. Avolition occurs in depression as well but is different for the two disorders. Avolition comes with saddening or depressed effect for people with depression, but this is not the case for people with schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since activation of prefrontal cortex is generally associated with initiation of spontaneous activity (which is less in frequency in people with avolition), hypoactivation of prefrontal cortex may be the cause of avolition in patients with schizophrenia (Sebanz &amp;amp; Prinz, 2006). Another study shows anti-correlation between dorsal caudate activity and negative symptoms of schizophrenia including avolition (Mucci et al., 2015). This indicates that avolition may be caused by abnormalities in the motivation-related circuit. There are two networks known to be involved in motivation-related brain network: first one includes the ventral striatum, orbito-frontal cortex (OFC), insula, and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and is involved in liking, reward anticipation, reward valuation, and representation of stimulus-reward associations. The other circuit includes the dorsal caudate and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and is involved in representation of the expected reward and causal connection between action and reward (Liljeholm et al., 2011). Thus, there is a theory that patients with schizophrenia may exhibit avolition because they are not able to anticipate reward from their actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Laziness&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Laziness itself is not studied extensively in psychology primarily because it has not been well-defined. At first glance, laziness seems to be a familiar concept to the usual people. However, laziness may involve many factors of human behavior that are at times but not always exhibited in people considered to be lazy. For example, one of the requirements of being lazy may be having no motivation. Without motivation, the person is less likely to show desire to take certain actions. But plenty show desire and motivation; these motivations are just not targetted to a long term goal. With these difficulties in mind, I personally believe that one of the economics definitions of laziness is most in line with what people commonly refer to as laziness: tendency for people to focus on the activities that give immediate pleasure rather than longer-term activities (Frédéric Bastiat, 1850). Bastiat called it idleness rather than laziness, but I believe they are synonymous in this context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the cause of laziness, I must confess this is not something I am familiar with. However, popular sources such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolution-the-self/200806/laziness-fact-or-fiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt; state that there can be multiple causes for laziness. One would be lack of interest in the field itself. Another would be lacking faith that the action will be worth the effort - which is similar concept to learned helplessness. One study states that anterior frontomedian cortex is involved in making these internal judgements leading to decision making (Zysset et al., 2002). However, studies such as this does not show what causes change in the activation of the anterior frontomedian cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also noticed that a popular YouTube video about laziness refers to a mouse study that selectively bred physically active mice which led to physically active mice descendents having the same characteristics. The video uses this study to state that there are genetic factors involved in laziness. Not only is it a stretch to make a connection between laziness of humans and tendency to wheel run by mice, the study itself is flawed in that the mice were bred with their parents for the first few weeks. This means that environmental factors cannot be ruled out. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2836544/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here's&lt;/a&gt; the paper if you want to take a look.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bastiat, Frédéric. Economic Harmonies. George B. de Huszar, trans. and W. Hayden Boyers, ed. 1996. Library of Economics and Liberty. Retrieved May 29, 2016 from the World Wide Web: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.econlib.org/library/Bastiat/basHar20.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.econlib.org/library/Bastiat/basHar20.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Foussias, G., &amp;amp; Remington, G. (2010). Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia: Avolition and Occam’s Razor. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 36(2), 359–369. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbn094&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbn094&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leon F Seltzer (2008). Laziness: Fact or Fiction?. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolution-the-self/200806/laziness-fact-or-fiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolution-the-self/200806/laziness-fact-or-fiction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liljeholm, M., Tricomi, E., O’Doherty, J. P., &amp;amp; Balleine, B. W. (2011). Neural correlates of instrumental contingency learning: Differential effects of action-reward conjunction and disjunction. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(7), 2474–2480. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3354-10.2011&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3354-10.2011&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mucci, A., Dima, D., Soricelli, A., Volpe, U., Bucci, P., Frangou, S., … Maj, M. (2015). Is avolition in schizophrenia associated with a deficit of dorsal caudate activity? A functional magnetic resonance imaging study during reward anticipation and feedback. Psychological Medicine, 45(8), 1765–1778. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714002943&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714002943&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sebanz, Natalie (Ed); Prinz, Wolfgang (Ed)&#xA;Cambridge, MA, US: MIT Press Disorders of volition. (2006). vii 493 pp.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stefan Zysset, Oswald Huber, Evelyn Ferstl, D.Yves von Cramon, The Anterior Frontomedian Cortex and Evaluative Judgment: An fMRI Study, NeuroImage, Volume 15, Issue 4, April 2002, Pages 983-991, ISSN 1053-8119, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.1008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.1008&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811901910080&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811901910080&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11684" LastEditorUserId="11684" LastEditDate="2018-07-08T06:59:10.157" LastActivityDate="2018-07-08T06:59:10.157" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="14093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8351" CreationDate="2016-05-29T09:55:17.860" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;When a person feels inferior to another,&lt;/strong&gt; then the only way they can replace that feeling of inferiority is to find a way to control that person's emotions from displacing their own. Their visible dominant emotion becomes jealously - in extreme cases this can manifest itself as anger and violence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Some people particularly men&lt;/strong&gt; can becomes jealous of a woman's beauty and see rape as a punishment rather than a pleasure. This in their mind justifies the rape. They see the rape as a release from the torment they have had to endure by not feeling equal to the attractiveness in the exchange of emotions with others&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Any method of dealing with rapists&lt;/strong&gt; will only succeed if the feeling of low emotional worth is dealt with. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;They are jealous of the lack of control&lt;/strong&gt; of the situation they are in, and that the other person is able to use that control to direct interaction and actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example of free-exchange.&lt;/strong&gt; I make a joke that Obama'a revenge on America for not awarding him President of all Time Award is Donald Trump. You laugh. We have entered into free exchange of emotion. Nothing is asked of each other other than free-exchange. I gave you my opinion in the form of a joke and you rewarded me with your laughter. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After the exchange we both feel equal to each other and have the 'feel good' emotion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;We can then carry on our interaction on equal terms.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those who wish to hurt  need to use their emotions in the form of power in order to that. The visible display of the success of that change of emotional superiority is for that person to see the hurt they have casued with their power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trolls are a good example.Some are highly organised groups of people who take pleasure in exerting emotional control over others with verbal abuse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The simplest way to combat this is to make sure you publicly display them and their comments and of course use the law to prosecute them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Your question is a topical one.&lt;/strong&gt; As from it I have explained how  interaction is formed by the free exchange of emotion and how that free exchange can becomes in teh ownership of one person by hurting the other. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Of course in a face to face conversation you can identify the speaker - it is a question to ask should the Internet do the same?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11724" LastActivityDate="2016-05-29T09:55:17.860" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14094" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-22T21:54:17.510" Score="2" ViewCount="3539" Body="&lt;p&gt;If color as we perceive it is dependent on the wave lengths that are reflected by an object, with white reflecting all hues and black absorbing all, how do we detect a black object? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do understand there is no such thing as a perfect black. Is it this physical imperfection of black surfaces that provides the visual system with a cue about its shading?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="noBuddha" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-31T07:50:53.623" LastActivityDate="2018-04-30T07:46:47.360" Title="If the color black reflects no light, how are we able to see it?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14098" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14094" CreationDate="2016-05-29T19:07:07.907" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Objects are visually perceived when they reflect light. A &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mondigroup.com/paper_new/EN/color_copy_professional/Color%20Laser%20Printing/Introduction%20to%20colour/Light%20%20Colour%20perception/light_colour_perception.aspx&quot;&gt;black object does not reflect any light&lt;/a&gt;. In other words, no photons are reflected to be detected by the photoreceptors in the retina. A black shape on a colored background appears black because its brightness approaches zero relative to its surroundings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Black, as any other perceived hue, is a relative perception. The visual system, as any other sensory system, detects physical stimuli in a relative way. For example, under bright daylight (photopic conditions) a camera flash might appear as a weak source of light. That same flash viewed under dark (scoptopic) conditions may appear as a blinding flash. When the visual system is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/light-and-dark-adaptation/&quot;&gt;light-adapted&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, it needs a lot of photons to be able to respond to a visual stimulus. Under this condition, dark colored objects may &lt;strong&gt;appear black&lt;/strong&gt;, simply because the photoreceptor's thresholds are too high. Conversely, that same dark object may appear as gray under scotopic conditions when the retina is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/light-and-dark-adaptation/&quot;&gt;dark-adapted&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (colors are not perceived under scotopic conditions - note here that &lt;strong&gt;black and white are &lt;em&gt;not colors&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, but the two extremes on the perceived gray-scale).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important thing to realize is that colors are perceptions and subject to neurophysiological processing imperfections. For example, blind people &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-ouch-31487662&quot;&gt;rarely perceive the world as black&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, despite the fact that their visual system cannot detect photons. Instead, they may perceive the world as a grayish hue, they often &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21033-stars-in-your-eyes-to-help-blind-people-see/&quot;&gt;experience illusionary spontaneous flashes of light&lt;/a&gt; (phosphenes), or even entire visual scenes (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rnib.org.uk/eye-health/your-guide-charles-bonnet-syndrome-cbs/charles-bonnet-syndrome&quot;&gt;Charles Bonnet syndrome&lt;/a&gt;). Hence, while a &lt;em&gt;black object&lt;/em&gt; is physically defined as &lt;em&gt;an object that emits/reflects no photons&lt;/em&gt;, it does not mean that the corresponding area in the neural representation of the visual field is silent. Perhaps on the contrary.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-29T22:28:39.803" LastActivityDate="2016-05-29T22:28:39.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14100" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13736" CreationDate="2016-05-29T23:14:41.887" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Freshness is a term which is widely used to identify odors. The olfactive stimuli which is trigerred by fragrant materials like citruses, aromatics( lavender, rosemary), peppermints or green materials (like leafs or grass) these are more volatile groups they are light molecules and usually refer to freshness. But the cool or fresh sensation not just come from the olfactive perception or identification it is because of the trigeminal nerve fibers which are responsible of sensing temperature and irritating substances. It is both temperature and the identification why there is a common freshness perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: All the cleansing products which are perfumed, tested durig the wet and dry stages to examine power and hedonic scales. So perfumes inside the product need to be percieved during wet and dry stages and fragrant materials need to diffuse quickly to create a first impression: here something is about to be all clean. These kind of diffusion only obtained with the volatilest chemicals which are mostly triggered trigeminal nerves and creating a fresh or cool sensation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0031938475900815&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Doty RL. Intranasal trigeminal detection of chemical vapors by humans.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/10/2268.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Interactions between Olfaction and the Trigeminal System: What Can Be Learned from Olfactory Loss&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11751" LastEditorUserId="11751" LastEditDate="2016-05-30T10:45:20.383" LastActivityDate="2016-05-30T10:45:20.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13989" CreationDate="2016-05-30T03:59:55.290" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both of my parents and I are multilingual. We come from Czech Republic and have learned multiple languages through our lives as we moved around.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have noticed, even within myself that I &quot;feel&quot; different speaking a European language compared to English. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not being able to go into the neurobiology of brain plasticity and change within when developing with multiple languages I can give my understanding through Psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that language can be contextual in different parts of a persons life if it is a progression in time from one language to another as opposed to learning multiple languages at the same time. This in turn can build associations that bind the language with emotion at the time of learning the language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, when I learned Czech until I was 7, which I have a different emotional connection and association with. So when I hear it and speak it I feel different. I feel calmer and my stress level decrease, I also realised I have different reactions to circumstances. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However when I deal with day to day life in English I feel more assertive and actually aggressive in my speech and reactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that the learned associations between the language and the persons life can create a type of personality that isn't necessarily a split personality as it is the same cognitive person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry if I used the wrong expressions in trying to describe the scenarios from my own experience and introspection on the same topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11738" LastActivityDate="2016-05-30T03:59:55.290" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14102" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-30T06:32:39.340" Score="2" ViewCount="798" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people with severe epileptic seizures have the connection between their two brain halves cut. How appears reality for them, and why does this procedure helps them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-30T19:08:27.227" LastActivityDate="2016-05-30T20:26:45.513" Title="How do people with a split brain experience reality?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;epilepsy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14103" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14102" CreationDate="2016-05-30T08:38:24.833" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://radiopaedia.org/articles/corpus-callosum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is the largest of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://oxfordmedicine.com/view/10.1093/med/9780199541164.001.0001/med-9780199541164-chapter-009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;commissural neural&lt;/a&gt; pathways, linking the cerebral cortex of the left and right hemisphere. The sectioning of this tract is called a &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/the-split-brain-a-tale-of-two-halves-1.10213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;corpus callosotomy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, which disconnects the two sides of the neocortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A callosotomy is used in cases of intractable epilepsy, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, epilepsy that cannot be treated sufficiently with medication. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patients with their &lt;em&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/em&gt; severed have been shown to have difficulties in tasks that require &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~primate/brain.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lateralized brain areas&lt;/a&gt; to work together. For example, the left visual field is processed in the right hemisphere in the brain (and &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;), speech and language centers are primarily located in the left hemisphere (in most people) and the right hemisphere specializes in visual-spatial processing and facial recognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When experiments are done under laboratory conditions, the &lt;strong&gt;lateralization of the brain&lt;/strong&gt; becomes quite evident in these patients. For instance, a compelling experiment is shown in Fig. 1. When a split-brain subject is shown a word in the right field of view, the image is processed in the left hemisphere in the brain. The case shown shows the typical case where the language centers reside in the left hemisphere too. In this case, the subject is able to say what the word was ('&lt;em&gt;face&lt;/em&gt;'). However, when the same word is shown on the left, the visual image is processed in the right hemisphere, where the speech centers are less well represented, if at all. In this case &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;the subject cannot verbalize what they saw, but they are able to draw it&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;(!). And in fact, subjects may &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;say they saw nothing at all when a visual stimulus is presented on their left side, but still make a motor response to it&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g., press a button when instructed to do so when a stimulus pops up).    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GijcH.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GijcH.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;split brain&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Split brain experiment. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/483260a-i2-0-jpg-7.3303?article=1.10213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nature&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why does callosotomy help epilepsy patients&lt;/strong&gt;? When conventional methods fail to treat severe forms of epilepsy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/neurosurgery/for-patients/conditions/intractable-epilepsy.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intractable epilepsy&lt;/a&gt;), sectioning the &lt;em&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/em&gt; may help to prevent the seizure from spreading from one hemisphere to the next. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/neurology_neurosurgery/centers_clinics/epilepsy/seizures/types/generalized-seizures.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Generalized seizures&lt;/a&gt; result in loss of consciousness only when both hemispheres are affected. Often, seizures start in a hot spot, called an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.epilepsysociety.org.uk/epileptic-seizures#.V0wIxZF96Uk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;epileptic focus&lt;/a&gt;. From there it spreads over the cortex and the subject gradually loses consciousness. Once it jumps over, via the &lt;em&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/em&gt;, the subject loses consciousness entirely. Hence, severing the major connection between the two hemispheres can keep seizures from evolving into full-blown generalized seizures. However, callosotomies have been really rare in the past and they are hardly performed today, due to the advances made in anti-epileptic drug development, combination therapies, micro surgery, &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Resource&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/the-split-brain-a-tale-of-two-halves-1.10213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nature News, March 2012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-30T20:26:45.513" LastActivityDate="2016-05-30T20:26:45.513" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14105" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-30T09:44:33.390" Score="7" ViewCount="3103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a heterosexual male. Male bodies do not appeal to me much. I find my own (average) body mediocre. At the same time I find average female bodies rather interesting and attractive. The same goes for faces and &quot;male&quot; and &quot;female&quot; character traits. So I wonder how homosexuals judge themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since gay men and lesbian women are attracted to bodies, faces and possibly personalities of the same sex, maybe they find their own bodies, faces and personality more aggreeable on average than the heterosexual, for whom persons of their own kind must by definition lack at least some aspects of attractiveness (i.e. the sexual and erotic appeal).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is so, then maybe traits like narcissism are more frequent and disorders like body dysmophic disorder are less frequent among homosexuals. In general terms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do homosexuals like themselves more than heterosexuals?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where &quot;liking&quot; includes anything from feeling attractive to disorders such as narcissism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or doesn't sexual orientation moderate &quot;self-love&quot; at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastActivityDate="2016-11-25T07:00:28.343" Title="Does homosexuality correlate with narcissism or finding yourself attractive?" Tags="&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;self&gt;&lt;attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14107" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14041" CreationDate="2016-05-30T12:59:27.663" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The standard &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;textbook neuron&lt;/a&gt; receives input at its dendritic tree, fires action potentials and has a single, long output axon to send the message off to distant locations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, non-spiking, anaxonic neurons are not a rarity; in various sensory systems there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-v-phototransduction-in-rods-and-cones/bipolar-cell-pathways-in-the-vertebrate-retina/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bipolar cells&lt;/a&gt; present that lack a clearly defined axon and are non-spiking, such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-iii-retinal-circuits/roles-of-amacrine-cells/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;amacrine cells&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuronbank.org/wiki/index.php/Horizontal_cells&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;horizontal cells&lt;/a&gt; in the vertebrate retina (Fig. 1.) and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurosciences.case.edu/faculty/strowbridge/OlfactoryBulb/bulb1.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;granule cells&lt;/a&gt; in the mammalian olfactory bulb &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/aohc1988/52/Supplement/52_Supplement_139/_pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hisada, 1989)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, non-spiking neurons work as analogue integrators. Where a spiking neuron can only transmit a spike, or no spike (binary signal), a non-spiking neuron can convey an infinitesimal number of membrane voltages instead. Hence, it is well suited to integrate the input from various other neurons. Amacrine cells and horizontal cells &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-iii-retinal-circuits/roles-of-amacrine-cells/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lack clearly defined axonic elements&lt;/a&gt; and are thus non-spiking anaxonic neurons. Their dendrites, however, do form synapses with other neurons, generally on their dendrites too, forming &lt;a href=&quot;http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/book/b12.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dendro-dendritic connections&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/book/b12.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The function of the bipolar cells in the vertebrate retina are unclear&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other non-spiking anaxonic neurons identified. A notable example are the interneurons seen in the ganglia of the motor systems of various arthropods, including crayfish, locusts and cockroaches. Here, they are coupled to neurons that convey descending output to motoneurons, and they are thought to be involved in selecting the adequate information to be gated to the motoneurons &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7296293&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Takahata &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1981)&lt;/a&gt;, or to be necessary for generating oscillations in the system (&lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/38/1/33.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pearson &amp;amp; Fourtner, 1975)&lt;/a&gt;. But again, their exact functions are unclear. One reason why may be because they are local circuit neurons. In other words, they do not send their signals far off to distant locations because they lack clear axons. For example, the role of the retinal ganglion cells becomes readily apparent when you sever their long axons that are bundled in the optic nerve (one becomes blind in that eye).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qSNns.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qSNns.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;retina&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Retinal circuitry showing the non-spiking, anaxonic horizontal and bipolar cells. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/book/b12.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;David Hubel's Eye, Brain, and Vision&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/aohc1988/52/Supplement/52_Supplement_139/_pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hisada, &lt;em&gt;Arch Histol Cytol&lt;/em&gt; (1989); &lt;strong&gt;52&lt;/strong&gt;(Suppl): 139-46&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/38/1/33.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pearson &amp;amp; Fourtner, &lt;em&gt;J Neurophysiol&lt;/em&gt; (1975); &lt;strong&gt;38&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 33-52&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7296293&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Takahata &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Brain Res&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;226&lt;/strong&gt;: 309-14&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-05-30T18:08:07.400" LastActivityDate="2016-05-30T18:08:07.400" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14108" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-30T19:55:49.027" Score="3" ViewCount="202" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently stumbled upon &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_theory_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kurt Lewin's field theory&lt;/a&gt;. However, not being very familiar with gestalt psychology, I could not assess whether Lewin's theoretical framework is still used today and if yes, what its applications are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words: Is it still a recognised psychological theory? If yes, what are its application in psychological research and applied psychology? If no: Is it because Lewin's ideas have been proven wrong, because they've been forgotten or because they were never actually accepted within psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11757" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-05-30T23:23:32.627" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T23:12:22.127" Title="is Lewin's field theory still used in modern psychology? If yes, what are its applications?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;gestalt-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14111" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15184" CreationDate="2016-05-31T08:40:33.050" Score="2" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pearson-studium.de/psychologie_1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Psychologie&amp;quot; by Richard J. Gerrig, Philip Zimbardo&lt;/a&gt; I read there are studies claiming that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;die gegenwärtige Forschung legt nahe, dass das Hormon eine facettenreiche Rolle bei persönlichen und sozialen Prozessen spielt&amp;quot; (IsHak et al., 2011)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Translation&lt;/em&gt;:&#xA;Recent studies suggest that the hormone plays a diverse role in personal and social processes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another study was carried out in order to examine the effects of oxytocin on trust. In this study, half of subjects where given a dose of oxytocin, and the other half not. Furthermore, they carried out fMRT scans to examine the areas on which the oxytocin had an effect on. The study showed that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;die Scans ergaben, dass Oxytozin-Teilnehmer weniger Aktivität in GehirnRegionen aufwiesen, die wie Amygdala mit Furchtreaktionen in Zusammenhang stehen. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627308003279&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baumgartner et al., 2008&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Translation&lt;/em&gt;:&#xA;The scans suggested that participants who were given a dose of oxytocin showed less brain activity in regions which are, like the amygdala, associated with fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, I do not have access to the paper where this seems to be described (Baumgartner et al. 2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To what extent does oxytocin reduce brain activity and in which regions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Baumgartner, T., Heinrichs, M., Vonlanthen, A., Fischbacher, U., &amp;amp; Fehr, E. (2008, May 22). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627308003279&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oxytocin Shapes the Neural Circuitry of Trust and Trust Adaptation in Humans.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10587" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-06-06T20:59:38.667" Title="Does oxytocin reduce brain activity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;oxytocin&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14113" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14076" CreationDate="2016-05-31T10:18:36.170" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like Mr Smitherson's consideration, which is indeed in the realm of possibilities. I haven't read a definitive study yet, I will search and return soon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, for further consideration to the question from a psychological/cognitive perception I posit the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Persons with abnormal, on the high scale of intelligence, would perhaps have more varied considerations when presented with a situation or when presented with a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People with a higher IQ would normally think deeper into a problem. This would activate more brain cells, and drain the brain of the chemicals it uses to function. This would lead to imbalance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second consideration is that people who are more intelligent, would think about things further. To expand on that idea, since I am not the best at explaining stuff, I'll give an example: a person, of high IQ, is presented with information on global warming, a normal (for the sake of argument) person would take in the information and perhaps think &quot;this isn't good&quot; and leave it there. The person of higher IQ would thinking further about the implications, perhaps research and may find the situation hopeless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Constant barrage of these situations may lead to lower moods and the elevated hopeless thinking lead to depression fueled by anxiety for the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what I would consider to be the cause behind any correlation between intelligence and mental illness in the form or depression/anxiety (these two conditions feed each other into a spiral)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11738" LastActivityDate="2016-05-31T10:18:36.170" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14114" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15206" CreationDate="2016-05-31T11:10:27.890" Score="9" ViewCount="1008" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/the-split-brain-a-tale-of-two-halves-1.10213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nature link&lt;/a&gt; provided, split brain reportedly alters the processing of &lt;strong&gt;sensory input&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, an aberrant performance on monocular visual tasks under laboratory conditions), and impairs &lt;strong&gt;motor output&lt;/strong&gt; execution (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, impaired ability to make goal-directed movements).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now my question is whether &lt;strong&gt;a split brain (&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/guide/corpus-callosotomy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;corpus callosotomy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;) affects the ability to have an internal monologue in any way?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious of that because I heard about &amp;quot;Bicameral mind&amp;quot; theory (although I didn't read the book) and that on of the reasons of &amp;quot;bicameralism&amp;quot; was weak connection between hemispheres. I couldn't find anything about formation of inner voice and decided to ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/news/the-split-brain-a-tale-of-two-halves-1.10213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nature News, 2012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11765" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-12T08:47:51.867" LastActivityDate="2021-02-12T08:47:51.867" Title="Does a split brain affect the inner voice?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="14115" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14090" CreationDate="2016-05-31T18:00:46.820" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;While I am not sure if people actually do overestimate the incidence of a minority group (or maybe they do, I would want to see the data), we can treat this as a philosophical question about what we would call that phenomenon were it to exist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The notion of bias in psychology is less precisely defined than a similar notion of bias that lives within the fields of computer science, machine learning, and computational cognitive science. This notion of bias is simply the property of an learning algorithm or a cognitive model or a person that cause it to favor some hypotheses or explanations over others in the absence of specific data. For example, if I come across an unknown large animal with big teeth, I may have a bias that causes me to expect it to attack, even though I do not have any direct experience as to whether or not it is friendly. If you think about it, any prediction we make requires such a bias, because we never have data about what has not yet happened. If you are interested in learning more about this, I suggest reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/induction-problem/#HumInd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hume&lt;/a&gt;, Tversky and Kahneman, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://dml.cs.byu.edu/~cgc/docs/mldm_tools/Reading/Need%20for%20Bias.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mitchell&lt;/a&gt; as a start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree that what you are talking about is a bias in this sense, but I do not know whether there is an established term for the specific type of bias. In general, while it is useful for exams and for reference, I recommend avoiding leaning too hard on the idea that all phenomena fit neatly into well-defined and labeled concepts such as &quot;selection bias&quot; or &quot;reverse physical attractiveness stereotype.&quot; While some people might have a term for the phenomenon you have mentioned, it is more useful to articulate and understand it in terms of what it is: a cognitive tendency to overestimate subpopulations in large cities in the absence of relevant data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether this is a general phenomenon about human estimation or it is limited to cases of subpopulation estimates in large cities is an empirical question. If you want to know more, you'll have to run some experiments!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: Now that I think about it, this sounds like like the availability heuristic discovered by Tversky and Kahneman. Basically, the availability heuristic (or bias) is the conflation of the biased sample that you have easy access to with the full population. In the case of your example, an Italian person living in an Italian community would likely run into a lot of Italians day-to-day and therefore might come to believe that Italians are prevalent in the total population, even though this incidence of seeing Italians is solely due to his membership in this particular community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11767" LastEditorUserId="11767" LastEditDate="2016-05-31T18:32:48.113" LastActivityDate="2016-05-31T18:32:48.113" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14117" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-05-31T19:14:14.893" Score="1" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering what your guys thoughts were about cognitive science making unique contributions to improve the methodological and theoretical foundations of psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can it make unique contributions?&#xA;Will it ever be able to replace psychology?&#xA;What about the replication crisis of psychology? Does this have an impact on the reputation of cognitive science?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking forward to hearing your thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11772" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T15:52:13.910" Title="Can cognitive science improve psychology?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-06-02T16:14:14.207" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14119" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14117" CreationDate="2016-05-31T20:28:21.383" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most likely cognitive science and psychology fields will come together into one field of study, but only with technical improvements to be made. This trend has already begun, with more psychology departments conducting experiments that involve neuroimaging or EEG.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive science, while attempting to be a scientific field with empirical methods, has its theoretical backgrounds in psychology (such as attention, working-memory, consciousness, and so on). This provides a limited credibility to the current findings of cognitive science. We only know certain areas are activated during a task, but vague localization of brain area to a task is not enough for the understanding of brain mechanisms that is desired for practical applications. Only when experimental methods become higher resolution (enough to fully explain brain activities and behaviors with activations of certain neurons) will cognitive science become a full-fledged science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, psychology theories have been based on observations of behaviors and assumptions made by psychologists. With more concrete information from cognitive science, psychologists would be able to update their theories that are better backed by experimental evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For replication crisis, well it comes from a lack of emphasis on replication studies by the research funding system in place as well as a lack of understanding of statistics (incorrect use of p-values). There is indeed a cross-effect of psychology replication crisis affecting cognitive science reputation because the term cognitive psychology is used often and interchangeably with cognitive science recently. That's not the only issue for cognitive science, though. Cognitive science has its own study &quot;validity&quot; crisis in that cognitive scientist may find some significant activation in some area and relate it to some other characteristic just because of some correlation. One outstanding example is the study that found significant differences in brain activation between Republicans and Democrats (really?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nice book about limitations of cognitive science in current state: &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0199838720&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.amazon.com/Brain-Imaging-Cannot-About-Consciousness/dp/0199838720&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Republican-Democrat brain study: &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0052970&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0052970&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Republican-Democrat brain study debunked: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.science20.com/science_20/republican_and_democratic_brains_debunked_hopefully_last_time-119666&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.science20.com/science_20/republican_and_democratic_brains_debunked_hopefully_last_time-119666&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11684" LastActivityDate="2016-05-31T20:28:21.383" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14121" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13219" CreationDate="2016-06-01T10:05:27.980" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Females are more sensitive to some, but not all somatosensory stimuli. Males are either less sensitive, or as sensitive as females.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A normative study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20138430&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Blankenburg &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; determined reference values for a battery of somatosensory tests including cold detection threshold (CDT); warm detection threshold (WDT); thermal sensory limen (TSL); cold pain threshold (CPT); hot pain threshold (HPT); pressure pain threshold (blunt pressure, PPT); mechanical pain threshold (pinprick, MPT); mechanical pain sensitivity (pinprick, MPS); wind-up ratio (WUR); mechanical detection threshold (MDT); vibration detection threshold (VDT) in male and female subjects in the age range of 6 - 16 years. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Girls were significantly more sensitive to CDT, WDT, TSL, CPT, HPT and PPT.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;No significant difference was found for MPT, MPS, WUR, MDT or VDT.&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the authors note that some of their findings did not match that of other studies. For example, better thermal detection in female than in males as found in their study matches the data in adults of previous studies, but did not match other studies that also used kids. The lack of sex-dependency of mechanical pain sensitivity contrasted other studies in children and adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would suggest reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20138430&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Blankenburg &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; for more details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another study showed female infants to have lower electro-tactile thresholds (are more 'sensitive') than age-matched males &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1126121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Lipsitt, 1959)&lt;/a&gt;.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20138430&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Blankenburg &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Pain&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;149&lt;/strong&gt;: 76–88&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1126121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lipsitt, &lt;em&gt;Child Development&lt;/em&gt; (1959); &lt;strong&gt;30&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 547-54&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-01T10:11:11.477" LastActivityDate="2016-06-01T10:11:11.477" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14122" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2016-06-01T10:20:07.213" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;What we typically refer to as “the sense of touch” is what we will call “active” or “haptic” touch. This refers to touch that involves some movement. This movement can be voluntary, exploratory movements of the hands and other sensory surfaces involved in touch, or it can also refer to experiences generated by objects moving against a stationary body. In most cases, haptic touch will involve the engagement of kinesthesis (awareness of movement) and proprioception (awareness of bodily position). Some apply the term “haptic” for any touch that involves the activation of (the physiologically and functionally distinct) kinesthetic or proprioceptive systems. Touch mediated entirely through the skin is generally referred to as “cutaneous touch”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/touch/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-01T10:20:07.213" LastActivityDate="2016-06-01T10:20:07.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14123" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2016-06-01T10:20:07.213" Score="0" Body="Tag related to questions on the sense of touch and haptics, including, but not limited to peripheral processes dealing with touch, central processing of touch stimuli in the brain; kinesthetic systems (awareness of movement); and proprioceptive system (muscle spindles including the multisensory processes involving the balance organ). Often, but arguably, even heat and pain reception in the skin are grouped under the sense of touch." OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-01-07T23:56:54.093" LastActivityDate="2017-01-07T23:56:54.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14124" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13562" CreationDate="2016-06-01T10:54:41.883" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The retinal image cannot be refocused on an intermediate target during a saccade. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Psychophysical experiments have shown that during a saccade, attention is aimed at the target location. Instructing the subject to make a saccade from location A to C, while focusing on another point B proved impossible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors conclude that: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A] saccade executed to a peripheral location in the visual field&#xA;  involves the orienting of attention to that location, prior to the&#xA;  actual execution of the saccade. The inability to orient attention to&#xA;  one location and simultaneously execute a saccade to another location&#xA;  suggests that orienting of attention may be an essential component of&#xA;  preparing and/or executing saccades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, a saccade is meant to shift the point of focus, and attention cannot be paid to another point during a saccade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03206794#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hoffman &amp;amp; Baskaran, &lt;em&gt;Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics&lt;/em&gt; (1995); &lt;strong&gt;57&lt;/strong&gt;(6), 787-95&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-07T05:58:43.207" LastActivityDate="2018-07-07T05:58:43.207" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="14125" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8855" CreationDate="2016-06-01T10:59:54.270" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pain is a form of stress. I would replace pain with another, ethically less problematic stressor. If you would want to do it elegantly, test a group of subjects with chronic pain (anything; &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, back pain) and use a control group where you submit a group of healthy subjects to a stress test (e.g. Stroop test - huge body of literature on this) and a third group without a stressor. See if the pain group matches the stressed group and whether they are both significantly different from the controls. If yes, you've found a way to prevent ethically kind of unacceptable tests, where the search for volunteers will likely be very difficult too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2016-06-01T10:59:54.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14126" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14085" CreationDate="2016-06-01T15:36:21.157" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you refer to is probably 'controlling' your mind, which is a common practice called '&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mindfulness&lt;/a&gt; training', i.e., learning to observe thoughts without interacting with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4439" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-06-01T16:53:38.417" LastActivityDate="2016-06-01T16:53:38.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14127" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10395" CreationDate="2016-06-01T18:59:14.657" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, brain-computer interfaces based on EEG use motor-cortex responses by asking the subject to imagine body movements. &lt;em&gt;E.g.&lt;/em&gt;, a left-arm movement imagination would translate to moving the robot to the left &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;. In other words, imagining the robot going left will probably result in a diffuse, poor-defined brain response, while imagined motor movements are more useful. See a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/10395/description-of-an-eeg-experiment&quot;&gt;slide presentation&lt;/a&gt; here on this topic.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-07-06T10:38:27.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14130" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-01T22:41:03.013" Score="0" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I always knew that, while asleep, stuff like processing words and/or reading texts could not be done by the brain. I'm not even a student in the area, so by &lt;em&gt;knew&lt;/em&gt; you could understand as &lt;em&gt;vulgar knowledge&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I noticed many times is that in my dreams I read and pay attention to words, and the most recent case was right today, when I composed a verse making fun of an existent melody (to put in context, is when you want to mock a song in some way). While the context of the verse and dream was given to my subconscious by my recent obsession about missing playing poker with my friends, what seemed unusual to me is that I did that in a vivid way to the point I remember it letter by letter (and laugh about).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I ask about this is: Is this an expected thing that happens while asleep or could be a sign of a health problem? (don't know: stress, insomnia, or even something I should worry about)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An appropriate answer should be backed by a meaningful and reputed research result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11310" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T04:21:44.413" Title="Is this expected to happen while asleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14131" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14130" CreationDate="2016-06-02T04:21:44.413" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The appropriate answer is that dreams are generally not in any way diagnostic of a health issue. Being able to read while dreaming is absolutely not diagnostic. I can't imagine that any reputable research has been done on this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T04:21:44.413" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10395" CreationDate="2016-06-02T06:18:54.433" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I agree with Christiaan. Similar movements are stored nearby and are thus difficult to distinguish (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/13693/11318&quot;&gt;How are movements stored in the brain?&lt;/a&gt; ), even more so with the spatial resolution of EEG. What I would like to add is that for imagery to be motor imagery, you have to imagine the movement in first person perspective. Imaging someone else to execute a movement will not show in the motor cortex. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18838371&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; is a nice paper showing result of novices using a new BCI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BCIs go further than steering a Robot or a pointer on the screen (which can be achieved in a similar fashion). BCIs are also used for disabled peopled who cannot speak for instance. For this they have developed a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2461285&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;P300 speller&lt;/a&gt;: a matrix of letters which one by one flicker at a high speed. Whenever the letter that you were thinking of highlights in the screen, a strong P300 can be recognized in an ERP. In &lt;a href=&quot;https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/521054/filename/krusienski_jne_2006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, multiple algorithms are compared for its accuracy.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A final way of BCI makes use of the frequency spectrum (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Y_Akiyama/publication/41388160_The_Development_of_BCI_Using_Alpha_Waves_for_Controlling_the_Robot_Arm/links/5422aa0a0cf26120b7a2c842.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; for example). By focussing more or less, relaxing more or less etc, the power in the different frequency bands will vary. At our university we have a game called mind-ball, a very simple one-vs-one game where you have relax as much as possible (have high alpha and theta) to move a little ball to your opponents side of the table. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T08:28:51.547" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14133" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13630" CreationDate="2016-06-02T07:35:57.980" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In the case of simple stimuli, visual and auditory stimuli can be offset between &lt;strong&gt;25 and 50 ms&lt;/strong&gt; and still be perceived as coming from one and the same same event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The question can be re-phrased as &lt;em&gt;what is the &lt;strong&gt;window of integration&lt;/strong&gt; of &lt;strong&gt;intersensory asynchrony&lt;/strong&gt; in case of visual and auditory stimuli&lt;/em&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A well-known example where these two stimulus modalities are perceived as separate, while they are in fact coming from the same event, is a thunder heard &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; lightning. This is caused by the fact that sound travels at a speed much slower than light, and hence a thunder can lag lightning by seconds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/P4Q3J.png&quot; alt=&quot;Thunder lightning&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/sound2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NASA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In many instances, however, a multimodal perception is actually perceived as being synchronous, while they are in fact offset in time due to differences in physical characteristics of the stimuli. Take the storm as an example - when it is far away, the thunder is perceptually dissociated from the lightning, because the sound lags the light by seconds. But when the thunderstorm is close enough, the auditory crack and visual lightning are perceived as synchronous, while in fact they are still offset because of the sound travelling so much slower than light. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question becomes, as you rightfully ask, what are the &lt;em&gt;margins&lt;/em&gt; in which stimuli across modalities can be asynchronous while perceived as one event? In other words, what is the &lt;em&gt;window of integration&lt;/em&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jean_Vroomen/publication/43535149_Perception_of_intersensory_synchrony_a_tutorial_review/links/0fcfd506d6effbeaa1000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vroomen and Keetels (2010)&lt;/a&gt; conclude in their review on this topic that a stimulus asynchrony in the case of auditory beeps and visual flashes can be between &lt;strong&gt;25 and 50 ms&lt;/strong&gt; and still be perceived as coming from the same event. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The window of integration between more complex stimuli can be much greater. For example, the window for &lt;strong&gt;speech and visual information&lt;/strong&gt; can be as large as &lt;strong&gt;203 ms&lt;/strong&gt;. Such large windows of integration point toward higher processes playing a role in the brain. Only temporal lags &lt;strong&gt;below 20 msec&lt;/strong&gt; are expected to go &lt;strong&gt;unnoticed because of hard-wired limitations&lt;/strong&gt; on the resolution power of the individual senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jean_Vroomen/publication/43535149_Perception_of_intersensory_synchrony_a_tutorial_review/links/0fcfd506d6effbeaa1000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vroomen and Keetels (2010)&lt;/a&gt; argue there must be &lt;strong&gt;higher processes&lt;/strong&gt; at work in the brain that actively synchronize percepts that are offset in time, but seem to belong to one and the same event. One such mechanism is referred to as &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://acousticengineering.wordpress.com/tag/ventriloquist-effect/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;temporal ventriloquism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, which means that a &lt;em&gt;perceptual modality is &lt;strong&gt;actively shifted in time&lt;/strong&gt; to match it with another modality&lt;/em&gt;. This effect is most pronounced in visual stimuli, in that a visual percept is actively adjusted in time to match a sound or tactile stimulus. Likely visual percepts are shifted preferably by the brain, because the visual system is the slowest of all the senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jean_Vroomen/publication/43535149_Perception_of_intersensory_synchrony_a_tutorial_review/links/0fcfd506d6effbeaa1000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vroomen &amp;amp; Keetels, &lt;em&gt;Att Percept Psychophys&lt;/em&gt; 2010; &lt;strong&gt;72&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 871-84&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-02T07:57:35.457" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T07:57:35.457" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14134" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-02T10:30:04.350" Score="0" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;The ambiguity effect says that we try to avoid uncertain outcomes. Still, many products are selling well excactly because they give uncertain outcomes. One example is Kinder Eggs, and many similar candies\toys. Some shops also get rid og their spare products by selling them in 'surprise bags'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why do people like buying products with uncertain outcomes, if the ambiguity effect is true?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T17:49:26.537" Title="Why do we like expected surprises?" Tags="&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14135" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11041" CreationDate="2016-06-02T10:57:48.980" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I never thought that my Bachelor Thesis would ever come in handy. Thank you for this question! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;No, you cannot keep up two unrelated rhythms in a stable coordinated fashion when tapping for your finger for instance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long Answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Let us start with (and skip over) the oldest paper that I have about it. Haken, Kelso and Bunz (1985) described in a mathematical model how you would coordinate two rhythmic movements (tapping fingers) and how you change phases. In-phase means you tap at the same time, whereas anti-phase means you tap with one whilst going up with the other and vice versa. I will not describe these formula, but now you know they exist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From now on, I will refer to &quot;two agents&quot; instead of fingers. I do this, because the coupling and rhythm is not limited to body parts. Even different people start to get synchronized during rhythmic movements. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kerry_Marsh/publication/6075756_Rocking_together_Dynamics_of_intentional_and_unintentional_interpersonal_coordination/links/0c96051940a5bb3014000000.pdf&quot;&gt;Richardson (2007)&lt;/a&gt; showed that people, without explicit instructions, started to synchronize their movements in a rocking chair. However, also during walking/running, people start to synchronize (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239938018_Side_by_Side_Treadmill_Walking_With_Intentionally_Desynchronized_Gait&quot;&gt;Nessler, 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What research over the years has shown that (stability of) rhythmic movements rely on three factors to be coordinated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;First, you need to be coupled, i.e. you must be able to see/feel the other agent's rhythm. When you don't perceive a rhythm, their is nothing to adapt to (See also Richardson, 2007; Nessler, 2012; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rens_Meerhoff/publication/262305231_Asymmetric_interpersonal_coupling_in_a_cyclic_sports-related_movement_task/links/54bd64e50cf218da9391b092.pdf&quot;&gt;Meerhof &amp;amp; De Poel, 2014&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Second, the phase of the movements: Moving in-phase is very easy and you can do that from low frequencies up to very high frequencies. Moving in anti-phase is a little more difficult. The agents will be stably coordinated at low frequencies, however, as you increase the frequency it will be more and more difficult to keep it up, ultimately leading to a synchronization period, after which you'll move in an in-phase pattern (try it out; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rens_Meerhoff/publication/262305231_Asymmetric_interpersonal_coupling_in_a_cyclic_sports-related_movement_task/links/54bd64e50cf218da9391b092.pdf&quot;&gt;Meerhof &amp;amp; De Poel, 2014&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Third, as I already said just now: The frequency of movements. At low frequencies movements are easier to coordinate in a stable fashion than higher frequencies (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ivana_Konvalinka/publication/45539436_Follow_you_follow_me_Continuous_mutual_prediction_and_adaptation_in_joint_tapping/links/00463529851b1687b7000000.pdf&quot;&gt;Konvalinka, 2011&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this last study, two participants in different rooms listened to a beat (of either 96, 120, 150 Hz, which could differ between participant) for eight seconds, after which they had to continue that beat by tapping their index-finger. Following, depending on the condition, they (1) kept hearing the computer-generated beat, (2) listened to their own generated beat, (3) listened to the beat of the other subject while the other heard his own generated beat, or (4) the two participants hear the beats generated by the second participant. There were many many results given all these conditions. What it all came down to was that the participants' own beat-frequency moved toward the other's, and that the rhythm became less stable, when they listened to the beat of the other participant. When the participants heard each other, the frequencies moved to each other and ultimately produced a very stable beat (they synchronized). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper thus showed that, whenever you are coupled (which fingers always are, it's called proprioception) you tend to synchronize. It is thus impossible to keep rhythm when you perceive a completely unrelated beat. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T10:57:48.980" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14136" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-02T11:00:17.543" Score="0" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do you know about any documented application of engineering psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you know about something, please provide your answer with a reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6988" LastEditorUserId="6988" LastEditDate="2016-06-02T12:53:19.797" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T19:19:29.103" Title="Any documented applications of engineering psychology?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-02T20:38:43.063" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14137" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13317" CreationDate="2016-06-02T15:15:26.127" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question reduces to &quot;what are the neural mechanisms behind language?&quot;, which is very much a work in progress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only neural model of language that I currently know of is the Semantic Pointer Architecture (SPA), which is largely theoretical and only has some super basic examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, the SPA represents language as vector manipulation. The vectors are represented in neurons using the Neural Engineering Framework.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more details on how this is done, check out &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith and &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/people/peter-blouw.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the work by Peter Blouw&lt;/a&gt; who is trying to solve part of this problem with his PhD thesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T15:15:26.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14138" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14087" CreationDate="2016-06-02T15:30:02.087" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;My short answer would be that there is no clear relationship between these two models about how visual information processing works in the brain. However, the terminology and evidence overlaps considerably which makes this confusing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One way to think about this is that the two models are explaining different stages of processing. The two visual streams is somewhat more general and it is very much founded on brain anatomy (lesion studies in animals and neuropsychology). It is to do with what happens to the visual information that comes into the brain, and the theory is that while some of it is processed to consciously recognise stuff (ventral), a separate pathway is involved with supplying visual information for action. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;None of this is explicitly about &quot;Attention&quot;. Corbetta and others are trying to relate brain structures to experiments in typical observers where processing changes even though stimuli are perceptually available. Although their two networks are sometimes called &quot;dorsal and ventral&quot;, because of the involvement of superior/inferior brain regions, this does &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; imply that they map on to Milner and Goodale's visual streams. There are several other differences in anatomy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems likely that &lt;em&gt;both&lt;/em&gt; top-down and bottom-up attention can modulate perceptual processing in &lt;em&gt;both&lt;/em&gt; visual streams (and they interact too!). It might help to think of some examples...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If you are more likely to act on something when it is more salient&#xA;(e.g., avoiding a colourful obstacle without thinking about it) then&#xA;this suggests the &quot;bottom-up&quot; system has detected the obstacle and&#xA;prioritised it's processing for action (dorsal stream).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If you are voluntarily told to pay attention to something, and you&#xA;are quicker to act on this, it suggests that &quot;top down&quot; attention has&#xA;enhanced the dorsal stream.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If you are voluntarily told to pay attention to something and you are&#xA;quicker to recognise it, then this would be an effect on conscious&lt;br&gt;&#xA;recognition, thought to be part of the ventral stream.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If your attention is captured &quot;bottom-up&quot; by something, this is also &#xA;going to make you better at consciously recognising it with your&lt;br&gt;&#xA;ventral stream.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/103/26/10046.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://nro.sagepub.com/content/20/2/150.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; are a couple of recent neuroscience papers on the attentional systems involved, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/713756776&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is a classic paper showing attention is coupled in both perception and action streams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T15:30:02.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14139" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14117" CreationDate="2016-06-02T15:52:13.910" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Answering this question is very difficult without first agreeing what &quot;cognitive science&quot; is (a problem for this very site!). Unlike another answer here, to me, cognitive science is not necessarily about neuroscience methods (that would be cognitive &lt;strong&gt;neuro&lt;/strong&gt;science). Instead, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary hodgepodge of people doing empirical psychology, computer science, linguistics and philosophy of mind. And I say this as a member of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://cognitivesciencesociety.org/index.html&quot;&gt;Cognitive Science Society&lt;/a&gt;. Although neuroscience is often involved, cognitive science is much older and historically linked to computing, AI and the cognitive revolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It certainly has made, and will continue to make, unique contributions to psychology. One can argue about the overlap between cognitive psychology and cognitive science (to me it is considerable), but theories of information processing from computing, computational models, linguistic theory and many other examples can make more precise predictions which people can verify with empirical data (these people are normally psychologists). This improves psychology which has sometimes suffered from being too vague (&quot;boxology&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because I see CS as an umbrella including psychology, I don't think it makes sense to think of it &quot;replacing&quot; psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because CS has often included people doing empirical experiments on human behaviour, the replication crisis certainly has implications (though it may be buffered by it's emphasis on theory). Cognitive psychologists are certainly guilty sometimes, though much of the soul-searching on replications, p-hacking etc comes from experimental social psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T15:52:13.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14140" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14134" CreationDate="2016-06-02T17:49:26.537" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no ambiguity as such with respect to expectations in those examples. When you buy a Kinder Egg, you know up front you won't know what's in there. In other words, it's perfectly unambiguous that you don't know what to expect from a Kinder Egg.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2868" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T17:49:26.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14141" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14136" CreationDate="2016-06-02T19:19:29.103" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;After some brief research, it seems that most mechanical forms that are designed with human use in mind are examples of engineering psychology. Engineering psychologists specialize in the relationship between humans and the products we use every day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tufts University, MA, offers a major in engineering psychology called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://engineering.tufts.edu/me/undergraduate/bs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bachelor of Science in Human Factors Engineering (Engineering Psychology)&lt;/a&gt;&quot; which seems to support this idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So any tool that has been designed specifically to improve the relationship between humans and their working environment is an applied example. Take, for example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j7FioTdZaEk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this hilarious hamster wheel desk&lt;/a&gt;. Probably not the greatest example of engineering psychology, but an interesting example anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps a more practical example, taken from a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/8027873-psychology-and-work-today&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;text-book&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research by engineering psychologists has demonstrated that using cell phones while driving degrades performance by increasing driver reaction time, particularly among older drivers, and can lead to higher accident risk among drivers of all ages. These and similar research findings are instigating state regulation of cell phone use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9484" LastActivityDate="2016-06-02T19:19:29.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14142" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-02T21:21:33.293" Score="5" ViewCount="291" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working with a Hodgkin-Huxley model that receives synaptic inputs from presynaptic neurons. If it receives a spike from an excitatory presynaptic neuron, the voltage of my HH neuron inceases by an amount $g$. If it receives a spike from an inhibitory neuron, the voltage jumps down by an amount $g \times K$ (so K is the factor controlling how much the voltage drops relative to how much it would increase from an excitatory neuron). I read in textbooks that the ratio of excitatory:inhibitory neurons is generally $4:1$. That implies that for the system to be &quot;balanced&quot;, I should have $K=4$. If $K&amp;lt;4$, then there is a net drift upwards in voltage towards the threshold values, and for $K&amp;gt;4$, there is a net drift downwards away from the threshold. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have two sub-questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Is there a typical value of $g$ (the EPSP amplitude) that is biologically plausible? I've seen anywhere from $0.1-0.5$ and above which is quite a big range. I know that there is often a big range based on stimulus and whatnot, but I'm looking for a biologically reasonable value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) What is a typical value of $K$? In other words, what is the size of a typical IPSP amplitude relative to the EPSP amplitude? I've seen anywhere from the amplitude being the same to the amplitude being 4x the EPSP amplitude (which of course is a mighty big range).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11792" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-06-03T02:45:08.317" LastActivityDate="2016-06-05T01:51:56.350" Title="EPSP/IPSP amplitude values?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14145" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-03T04:14:23.700" Score="1" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mushrooms have several benefits. One of these is psychological. Can mushroom improve human memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11794" LastActivityDate="2016-06-03T08:16:38.210" Title="can mushroom improve your memory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-03T11:33:40.220" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14154" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14145" CreationDate="2016-06-03T08:16:38.210" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mushrooms contain psilocybin, which gets converted into psilocin. These act on serotonin receptors, which may play a role in memory. (Edits coming later)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastActivityDate="2016-06-03T08:16:38.210" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14156" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14022" CreationDate="2016-06-03T13:52:08.477" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A large and notable area within psychology to which differential equations are central is dynamical systems theory. It is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_systems_theory#In_cognitive_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;widely applied to cognitive science&lt;/a&gt;. Differential equations are used to describe (model) the states on one or more dimensions that a system can take which changes over time. Dynamical systems have been widely &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_model#Dynamical_systems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;used to model cognition&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many applications of dynamical systems theory in psychology accordingly concern questions classically within the scope of cognitive psychology, but there are examples from other areas like social and developmental psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mind that dynamical systems theory originated within physics, specifically mechanics, and that accordingly it has been widely used to model material processes. However the use of models from physics is not uncommon in psychology (think of conceiving the circadian rhythm as a harmonic oscillator (pendulum) or Lorenz' psychohydraulic model of motivation) and the states of some modelled system can be highly abstract and ›non-physical‹.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since dynamical systems have been discussed here to some extent, I am referring you to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/288/what-are-good-examples-of-applying-dynamical-systems-in-cognitive-science/&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8509/dynamical-systems-theory-as-a-metaphor-in-psychology-is-it-useful-or-not&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; question instead of providing more information here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me however second the recommendation of Schöner's »Dynamical Systems Approaches to Cognition« in Sun (ed.): Cambridge Handbook of Computational Psychology (2008) there for a decent overview, and point out a passage on nonlinear dynamical system modeling in R.W.J. Neufeld's chapter »Mathematical and Computational Modeling in Clinical Psychology« in Busemeyer et al. (eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Computational and Mathematical Psychology (2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8427" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-06-03T14:22:59.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14157" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14158" CreationDate="2016-06-03T19:07:37.370" Score="3" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;When training fine motor skills, are identically setup practice sessions ideal or, like machine learning, does adding noise/variability to the practice session increase skill acquisition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-06-03T19:07:37.370" Title="Effect of variability due during motor skill training" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14158" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14157" CreationDate="2016-06-03T19:07:37.370" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(15)01514-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Motor Skills Are Strengthened through Reconsolidation&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (available through SciHub) adding variability to practice sessions increases learning speed. In the paper, patients were directed to move a cursor on a screen to certain targets via pinch force. Patients who's pinch force mapping was modified during each trial ended up learning faster and performing better on the original pinch task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-06-03T19:07:37.370" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14159" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="14165" CreationDate="2016-06-03T19:35:02.467" Score="5" ViewCount="169" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question: How does the firing of dopaminergic neurons affect the dispersal of dopamine?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Evidence of my limited familiarity with dopaminergic neurons and motivation for asking the question:&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;Most of what I know about dopamine and dopaminergic neurons comes from reading papers on reinforcement learning and its possible neuronal implementation. I was surprised to see that (if I've understood correctly) firing of dopamininergic neurons might encode an error signal like the one propagated in simple temporal-difference learning (like in Schultz et al. 1997), while dopamine itself seems not to be involved in such basic aspects of learning but instead in higher levels of hierarchical reinforcement learning, like &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/brain/135/6/1871.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;constructing representations of the environment found in model-based RL to be used in executive functions&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/139/2/355.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;generalizing and applying learnt information in novel tasks&lt;/a&gt;. I suspect that firing of dopamininergic neurons affects the dispersion of dopamine , but I'm not sure if my suspicion is the result of a misunderstanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hypothetical context for an answer in case the question is too broad:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I'm imagining a group of dopaminergic neurons, some with axons extending to some brain region &lt;em&gt;A&lt;/em&gt; and others with axons extending to brain region &lt;em&gt;B&lt;/em&gt;. Say the neurons with axons extending to brain region &lt;em&gt;A&lt;/em&gt; fire more than the others. This means they will produce more dopamine, and I suspect more dopamine will be present in &lt;em&gt;A&lt;/em&gt;, but I'm having trouble finding supporting evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10659" LastEditorUserId="10659" LastEditDate="2016-06-04T00:07:22.737" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T07:44:47.653" Title="What's the relation between firing of dopaminergic neurons and dopamine dispersion in terms of neurophysiological processes?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14160" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9254" CreationDate="2016-06-03T19:35:14.680" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am gay. I have been diagnosed with PTSD twice, once in 1999 and again in 2011. The PTSD relates to 2 aspects of something that happened to me in 1972. In 1972 I saw my boyfriend die in a road accident. I was depressed for a long time before a mental breakdown in 1998 led to me being treated for PTSD as a result of this death. I received a 40 sessions of therapy to help me come to terms with my boyfriends death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All was relatively well until I had another breakdown in 2010. It was during psychotherapy that I broke through a blockage in my mind and I realised that I did not in fact see my boyfriend die, it was a false memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This false memory/image manifested itself into my brain as a result of receiving (at age 18) very painful electric shock therapy designed to stop me loving my boyfriend. My brain decided the only way to stop this barbaric treatment was to invent his death. The therapy then stopped. There are reasons that I never saw my friend again, even though he didn't die until 1983.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The people who carried out my torture were more interested in stopping me being gay than they were in my future life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of my present therapists (I am receiving EMDR) has asked me if she can use me as a case study and I said yes, so maybe when my case is presented it will confirm that PTSD can be based on a false memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10330" LastActivityDate="2016-06-03T19:35:14.680" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14163" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-03T20:54:28.973" Score="5" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any other silent speech recognition method (EEG/ECoG/Intracortical etc), with accuracy as good as the Audeo device developed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://about.me/michaelcallahan&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Michael Callahan&lt;/a&gt; and team - see the demo &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67Gl1DnMVco&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, which is based on non-invasive EMG readings at larynx ? By silent recognition, I mean any method which does not require actual phonation, although most of the such methods will come under electrophysiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11802" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-06-11T19:48:05.193" Title="Silent speech recognition method or system with highest accuracy?" Tags="&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14165" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14159" CreationDate="2016-06-04T00:42:17.490" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've mostly figured it out now, and I've a better idea of the words and phrases I need to search to get the information I was asking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The short answer comes from &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopaminergic_pathways&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;The neurons' somata produce the enzymes that synthesize dopamine, and they are then transmitted via the projecting axons to their synaptic destinations, where most of the dopamine is produced.&quot; The transmission is a direct result of the firing of the neuron, so DA is dispersed, in the areas where dopaminergic axons end, proportional to the firing of the neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more complete answer would involve an understanding of the difference between tonic and phasic transmission, for which &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-tonic-and-phasic-dopamine-transmission&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; has proved an informative and accessible source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above sources support the suspicion I mentioned in the hypothetical context provided in the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10659" LastActivityDate="2016-06-04T00:42:17.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14168" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14159" CreationDate="2016-06-05T01:10:44.883" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dopaminergic neurons synthesize dopamine and release it at their synapses with target neurons (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27141430&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;David Sulzer's review article&lt;/a&gt;. The activity of a dopaminergic neuron (its instantaneous firing rate) is one of the main determinants of how much dopamine is released per unit time at its many synaptic terminals. The amount of dopamine synthesized is also important. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many other factors that influence the extracellular concentration of dopamine in the brain, including, but not limited to, the &lt;strong&gt;number and distribution of synaptic vesicles&lt;/strong&gt; (which sequester the dopamine until it is released into the synaptic clefts), the &lt;strong&gt;number and distribution of calcium channels&lt;/strong&gt; (which control how much calcium enters each synaptic terminal in order to trigger fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane), and the &lt;strong&gt;amounts and types of dopamine transporters&lt;/strong&gt; (that traffic dopamine from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic terminal and then back into synaptic vesicles).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11812" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-23T07:44:47.653" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T07:44:47.653" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="14169" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14142" CreationDate="2016-06-05T01:51:56.350" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;By definition, current-based synapses are biologically implausible.  After all, biological synapses are conductance-based [1].  It is possible that current based synapses are sufficient to answer the question you are asking.  It is also possible that they are not.  Generally, biological plausibility is not a matter of the parameter values you are using but rather a matter of whether the question you are asking has biological relevance. After all, unless you have a morphologically accurate simulation including every single receptor type, etc. your model is not biologically realistic.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question you are asking doesn't have a good answer because you are asking a biologically non-sensical question:  what is the value of current based synapse magnitudes?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The only way one could possibly answer that question is if one knew why that question needs an answer.  Maybe you don't even need a reasonable value for the question you are trying to answer because the phenomenon is robust.  Maybe you need the answer to the fifth decimal place because your model is very sensitive to that value.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Point is, biological realism is incredibly context-specific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Although I have heard a strange argument that the high resistance at the spine neck means that synapses are practically current sources.  I don't know anyone that relies on that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2016-06-05T01:51:56.350" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15169" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-05T10:38:25.753" Score="1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand when cognitive dissonance was first defined. Would mental health professionals have known about the concept of cognitive dissonance in 1972?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10330" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-06-05T11:00:40.413" LastActivityDate="2016-06-06T02:10:58.343" Title="When was cognitve dissonance discovered?" Tags="&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15171" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9881" CreationDate="2016-06-05T17:48:37.337" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I love the way this question is structured. It naturally implies a prejudice and a hatred for those who're mentally disabled, which seems to imply that neurotypical people tend to be more violent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And that's actually true. There's a history of neurotypicality resulting in greater violence and psychopathy than neurodiversity. The thing is? A neurodiverse person has a hard time being a sociopath because they don't have the tools necessary to manipulate people. So when you think of that person who snaps and goes around killing people? That's a neurotypical extravert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Look up Ted Bundy and you'll see what I mean. Neurotypicals are far likely to snap and become serial killers. Not just that, but numerous studies have shown that neurodiverse people are far less prone to the kind of prejudices and bigotries that neurotyipcal people can have a proclivity for. Prejudices are especially common in neurotypical extraverts a they prefer to have 'their own kind' surrounding them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, no. Not really. If anything, the opposite is true. I feel safer being around neurodiverse people, because I know they won't snap and murder me in the most depraved way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12815" LastActivityDate="2016-06-05T17:48:37.337" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15172" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12170" CreationDate="2016-06-05T21:21:34.887" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brent_Elliott/publication/24409294_Delusions_illusions_and_hallucinations_in_epilepsy_1._Elementary_phenomena/links/09e4150f410efa5ff0000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elliot &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2008)&lt;/a&gt; define a &lt;strong&gt;hallucination&lt;/strong&gt; as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A sensory experience which occurs &lt;strong&gt;in the absence of corresponding external stimulation&lt;/strong&gt; of the relevant sensory organ, has sufficient sense of reality resemble a &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;veridical&lt;/a&gt; perception (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt; the perception seems to be &quot;real&quot;), over which the subject does not feel direct and voluntary control, and which occurs in the awake state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They define &lt;strong&gt;illusions&lt;/strong&gt; as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These are &lt;strong&gt;false perceptions of a real external stimulus&lt;/strong&gt;, for example a change in shape, size, color or texture. In some cases, where the external stimulus is minimal, the differentiation nosologically (&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nosology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;: the classification of diseases) from hallucination can be difﬁcult, although illusions carry different aetiological and diagnostic implications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and &lt;strong&gt;delusions&lt;/strong&gt; as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A]bnormalities of &lt;strong&gt;thought rather than perception&lt;/strong&gt; (although they may develop from the latter) and may be defined as ‘fixed false beliefs, strongly held and immutable in the face of refuting evidence, that are not consonant with the person’s education, social and cultural background.' [I]ts exact meaning and usage have evolved continuously, reflecting trends in psychology. Delusional themes commonly include: guilt, worthlessness, ill-health, persecution, reference, grandeur, love, jealousy, poverty, infestation, and religion. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the difference between a hallucination and an illusion, which are the most closely related ones among the three, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-disjunctive/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford Encyclopedia&lt;/a&gt; gives a clear-cut example, namely: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, when one has a visual experience as of a &lt;strong&gt;red object&lt;/strong&gt;, it may be that one is &lt;strong&gt;really seeing&lt;/strong&gt; an object and its red color (&lt;em&gt;veridical perception&lt;/em&gt;), that one is seeing a &lt;strong&gt;green object&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;illusion&lt;/em&gt;), or that one is &lt;strong&gt;not seeing an object at all&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;hallucination&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brent_Elliott/publication/24409294_Delusions_illusions_and_hallucinations_in_epilepsy_1._Elementary_phenomena/links/09e4150f410efa5ff0000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elliot &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Epilepsy Research&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;85&lt;/strong&gt;: 162-71&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-07T06:03:11.627" LastActivityDate="2018-07-07T06:03:11.627" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15173" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13112" CreationDate="2016-06-05T21:38:49.363" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;More dendritic input makes a neuron more suitable as an &lt;strong&gt;integrator&lt;/strong&gt;. The more dendrites a neuron has, however, the less faithful it will transmit a single incoming signal, as other incoming input may interfere with transmission. Hence, a neuron with a single dendrite will be better suited to faithfully &lt;strong&gt;relay&lt;/strong&gt; incoming signals.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Among the most faithful neurons are the &lt;strong&gt;cone &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;bipolar cells&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in  the central part of the retina, who receive a single input and transmit a single output &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10850/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2001)&lt;/a&gt; via a single axon to the retinal ganglion cell who's axons make up the optic nerve, while on the other end of the spectrum there are, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purkinje_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Purkinje cells&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in the cerebellum that can receive input from as many as 80,000 fibers &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/87/7/2662.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Konnerth &lt;em&gt;et. al&lt;/em&gt;, 1998)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/87/7/2662.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Konnerth &lt;em&gt;et. al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt; (1998); &lt;strong&gt;87&lt;/strong&gt;: 2662-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10850/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds.), editors. &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;. 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates (2001) Functional Specialization of the Rod and Cone Systems&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-07-05T06:53:00.627" LastActivityDate="2016-07-05T06:53:00.627" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15174" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-05T22:03:01.173" Score="0" ViewCount="1952" Body="&lt;p&gt;Though sometimes beauty is in the eye of the beholder there must be certain physical traits that humans consistently find attractive. What are these physical beauty traits for women in modern developed countries? An example is large eyes. Ethnicity or country of origin doesn't matter. Provide your sources if possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12818" LastActivityDate="2016-06-08T21:53:37.303" Title="What are the laws of female physical attractiveness?" Tags="&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15175" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15174" CreationDate="2016-06-05T22:51:21.673" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an excellent paper at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21536551&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Evolutionary considerations of facial attraction&lt;/a&gt; which you may find useful. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoteny&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neoteny&lt;/a&gt; is also a useful discussion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My off the cuff summary would be that humans do appear to have retained much of their juvenile characteristics in comparison with other primates. Across cultures female faces with more neoteny (more childlike) are considered more attractive. As a general rule, the less masculine, the more feminine, so you can negate the masculine markers, i.e., larger jawbones, more prominent cheekbones, thinner cheeks, to increase femininity perception. That would, of course, include less facial hair, since that is a general neoteny character that would be more attractive. My recollection of several studies of so-called &quot;baby face ratings&quot; might pertain also, in that larger eyes, more prominent eyebrows, smaller chin, are typically perceived as innocent or less threatening, so I would guess that would also fall into the normal feminine perception category.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general terms, symmetric faces are more attractive (right hand left hand comparison on the midline), so that would apply to women also. Averageness, surprisingly, is also more attractive, in that the more closely a face resembles the majority of faces is perhaps a sign that the person is less likely to have deletrious alleles.  Facial averageness seems to be associated with medical health. Skin color is also a measure of perceived health. Typically pallor is perceived as possible illness. Texture of facial skin is a marker, smoother being more attractive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is an interesting paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/asset?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0025656.PDF&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cosmetics as Extended Phenotype&lt;/a&gt; that examines how cosmetics may be used to exaggerate cues to sexual dimorphism. Another paper, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1535/3497&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Face is not an empty canvas&lt;/a&gt; discusses how the morphology of faces is more desirable when it tends to heighten the expected emotions for the particular sex role, for example, the rounded baby face with larger eyes is perceived as more approachable and warm and more feminine generally. Finally, this article &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0057985&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Aspects of Facial Contrast Decrease with Age and are Cues for Age Perception&lt;/a&gt; discusses how aspects like wrinkling and loss of luminance contrast between the eyes and surrounding skin and the lips and surrounding skin increases the perception of aging and decreases the attractiveness of female faces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12817" LastEditorUserId="12817" LastEditDate="2016-06-08T20:44:17.960" LastActivityDate="2016-06-08T20:44:17.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15176" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15169" CreationDate="2016-06-06T02:10:58.343" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Glen McGhee's &quot;A Cultural History of Cognitive Dissonance,&quot; (2005/2014) notes that Gustav Ichheiser (1897-1969) dealt with personal dissonance and dissonance reduction in 1928 (212 Note 2). Also Kurt Lewin's tension theory, and Festinger's level of aspiration work in 1940. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lorne L. Dawson also has an interesting chapter, &quot;Clearing the Underbrush: Moving Beyond Festinger To A New Paradigm For The Study of Failed Prophecy&quot; (2011) that reminds us of the seminal role that Festinger/Riecken/Schachter, &quot;When Prophecy Fails&quot; (1956) plays in the development of cognitive dissonance theory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive dissonance has been a part of social psychology and experimental psychology for a long time -- but what do you mean by &quot;mental health professionals&quot;? How were they trained? Where did they go to school? In the 1970s, there were numerous therapies, including Gestalt, Rogerian, Reichian, Freudian, Jungian, etc. Or are you talking about social workers? MSWs? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12819" LastActivityDate="2016-06-06T02:10:58.343" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15178" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15179" CreationDate="2016-06-06T10:04:57.213" Score="2" ViewCount="335" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are now a number of EEG headsets that can capture bran signals and give you raw EEG data from brain. EPOC Emotiv is one the famous one with I guess 14 channel. Now as the title of this post reads, my question is if it is really possible to analyze the raw data and print out what the person is trying to say without speaking? There is a difference between it's not possible and it's too hard to extract the data. From my understanding so far, the signals are different from person to person so perhaps there could be a training program so that the person can train it as to what word he or she meant and the program later can detect the meaning of that particular signal. Is this really possible? If it's hard, how hard it is? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12823" LastActivityDate="2016-06-06T11:24:01.110" Title="Is it possible to read words a person thinking about via EEG headsets?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15179" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15178" CreationDate="2016-06-06T11:24:01.110" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What Christiaan says true. It is sheer impossible. However, there is technology that cán &quot;see your mental pictures&quot;. In a TED-talk by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/mary_lou_jepsen_could_future_devices_read_images_from_our_brains&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mary-Lou Jepsen&lt;/a&gt; she explains how fMRI and machine learning algorithms are used to recreate viewed or imagined videos from brain activity. It is a really neat TED-talk and definitely worth watching. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is possible using EEG is to make a Brain Computer Interface. I discussed this topic briefly in another question (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/10395/brain-computer-interface-with-eeg-how-to-name-imaginary-movement-of-a-non-self/14132#14132&quot;&gt;Brain-computer interface with EEG: how to name imaginary movement of a non-self object?&lt;/a&gt;). Hopes these answers help you somehow. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-06-06T11:24:01.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15181" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-06T13:11:44.097" Score="2" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard about this method in a psychology lecture once: let's say that a person has some sort of chronic illness, and they are offered an operation to cure them. Then, the patient is asked about what the minimum chance of success of the operation is, such that they would agree to undergo it. For instance, a patient for whom there is a 99% chance of success of the operation will probably have a higher quality of life while having his/her illness than a patient that only has a 30% chance of success of the operation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is this scale of happiness of ill patients called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12828" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-06-08T21:27:48.930" LastActivityDate="2016-06-08T21:27:48.930" Title="Self-Perceived Quality of Life based on operation success chance" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15182" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15681" CreationDate="2016-06-06T15:16:11.877" Score="5" ViewCount="219" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've estimated a model for an fMRI dataset, so I now have a &lt;code&gt;beta_*.nii&lt;/code&gt; file for each regressor in my model.  In a seperate step, I've defined ROIs using marsbar and proceeded to extract the corresponding voxels in one of these β-maps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the ROI extracted from said β-map contains only &lt;code&gt;NaN&lt;/code&gt; values.  Why should there be NaNs at all?  What does such a null value represent in the context of model βs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2926" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-08-31T14:31:22.237" LastActivityDate="2016-08-31T14:31:22.237" Title="What do NaNs represent in an SPM β-map?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15183" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1889" CreationDate="2016-06-06T20:00:21.640" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Muscles are controlled by motor neurons in the spinal cord. The number of motor neurons that fire, as well as their individual firing rates govern the control of muscle force.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Muscles consist of contractile elements: the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/Courses/bio210/chap09/lecture1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;muscle fibers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. These muscle fibers are under direct control of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motor neurons&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in the spinal cord &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10816/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Purves &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;, as shown in Fig. 1. The motor neurons in the spinal cord are under direct control of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter01.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motor cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in the brain. When the motor neurons fire, they release &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11143/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;acetylcholine&lt;/a&gt;, which in turn makes the muscle fibers &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://meat.tamu.edu/ansc-307-honors/muscle-contraction/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;contract&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The force in which a muscle contracts is basically governed by how &lt;strong&gt;strong a single muscle contracts&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;strong&gt;the number of muscle fibers&lt;/strong&gt; that are recruited. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, there is the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter01.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rate code&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; that allow motor neurons to regulate muscle force. An increase in the rate of action potentials fired by the motor neuron causes an increase in the amount of force that the associated motor unit (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, one or more muscle fibers) generates. When the motor neuron fires a single action potential, the muscle may only slightly twitch. If the motor neuron fires at high rates, however, the second action potential may arrive at the muscle unit before the muscle has had time to recover from the first twitch, and that second action potential will produce a greater amount of force than the first. This is due to an increase in strength of muscle contraction through &lt;strong&gt;action potential summation&lt;/strong&gt;. This process has a limit. When the successive action potentials no longer produce a summation of muscle contraction (because the muscle is at its maximum state of contraction), the muscle is in a state called tetanus and is pushed to its limit (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter01.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuroscience Online&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, there the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter01.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recruitment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of motor neurons (size principle). When a signal is sent to the motor neurons to execute a movement, motor neurons are not all recruited at the same time, or at random. The motor neuron size principle states that, with increasing strength of input onto the motor neurons from the higher brain centers, smaller motor neurons are recruited first, while the larger motor neurons are recruited only when the motor signal increases. Why does this orderly recruitment occur? Because of Ohm’s Law, a small amount of synaptic current will be sufficient to cause the membrane potential of a small motor neuron to reach firing threshold, while the large motor neuron stays below threshold. As the amount of current increases, the membrane potential of the larger motor neuron also increases, until it also reaches firing threshold. This process is called &lt;strong&gt;recruitment&lt;/strong&gt; and results in more motor neurons to be activated when the brain signals for the need for a high contractile force. More motor neurons will recruit more muscle fibers (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter01.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuroscience Online&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tEW22.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tEW22.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Motorneuron&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Motor neurons from the spinal cord innervate the muscles. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://sevneurology.com/pbvetsociety-spinal-cord-lecture/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SE Veterinary Neurology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10816/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds), &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates. Motor Neuron-Muscle Relationships&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter01.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;University of Texas, Houston Health Science Center. Neuroscience Online&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-26T22:35:51.993" LastActivityDate="2016-06-26T22:35:51.993" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15184" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14111" CreationDate="2016-06-06T20:38:06.687" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The dreaded &lt;em&gt;it depends&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This question was discussed behind the scenes &lt;a href=&quot;http://chat.stackexchange.com/rooms/2250/the-axon-terminal&quot;&gt;in chat&lt;/a&gt; and we concluded with the consensus on explaining why this question is hard to answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, you are asking on the suppressive effects of oxytocin on the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, it depends highly on the brain area under investigation. Many, and perhaps all imaging studies focus on a few promising structures in the brain. Those promising structures (&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/2/1/67.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;regions of interest&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;) need to be identified by prior research. The effect on amygdala and other fear centers has already been answered in the question (suppression). So to answer this question, one has to review all the existing  literature to find any brain structure that is suppressed. This community is not here to conduct literature reviews, or write review papers. We're here to concisely answer focused questions, as outlined in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/help/dont-ask&quot;&gt;help center&lt;/a&gt;. As written there, the &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; questions are great. The &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;where&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;how much&lt;/em&gt; questions like this are questionable questions.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, suppression is relative. If you investigate a subject in a certain state (e.g., terrified, when experiencing feelings of love or hatred) and test a drug such as the love hormone oxytocin, it may, or may  not have totally different effects. The physiological state is very important. Suppressive actions can become evident in  a hyperactive system, but have the opposite effect on a neural system that is relative inactive. It is all not so black-and-white. Hence - again - questions need focus and be outlined such that borders exist that emphasize, and most importantly limit the scope of the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, my answer is that it depends on the brain area under investigation and on the physiological state of that brain area.      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Note. We do appreciate all your background research, your efforts in improving the question and I seriously do love neuroscience. It's my job, it's my passion, it's my hobby. Please feel more than free to further refine your interesting question and please also feel more than encouraged to continue to enrich this site with your contributions.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-06-06T20:59:38.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15185" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12953" CreationDate="2016-06-06T21:25:31.880" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2041910/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Diffusion tensor imaging&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (DTI for short) may be the technique you are after. It is able to record nerve fibers in MRI images. I couldn't find the specifics you were after,  and the subdivision into layers may outrun the resolution of MRI, but it may  be a good start. Two references that may get you going on tensor imaging are cited below. Additional, targeted &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000005/CH005.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;electrophysiological&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; papers on  your area of interest may provide layer-specific connections. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4262592/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Aggarwal &lt;em&gt;et  al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neuroimage&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;105&lt;/strong&gt;: 198–207&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3888365/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Christoph  &lt;em&gt;et  al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Cereb Cortex&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;24&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 328–39&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-07T12:41:44.123" LastActivityDate="2016-06-07T12:41:44.123" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15188" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10362" CreationDate="2016-06-07T09:16:25.177" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cannabis can cause an acute and short-lasting episode of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/guide/mental-health-anxiety-disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anxiety&lt;/a&gt;, which often resembles a state of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/guide/mental-health-panic-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;panic&lt;/a&gt;. When taken in high doses these effects can be intense and turn into attacks of panic and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/tc/phobias-topic-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;phobia&lt;/a&gt;. About 20–30% of users show brief acute anxiety reactions after smoking the drug. These symptoms tend to occur more in drug-naive subjects and in novel or stressful environments. In contrast, long-term users typically report that cannabis reduces their anxiety &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zerrin_Atakan/publication/26754337_Cannabis_and_anxiety_a_critical_review_of_the_evidence/links/09e415075bc44046dd000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Crippa &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anxiety is also one of the main manifestations of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/addiction/news/20080507/withdrawal-symptoms-from-smoking-pot&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cannabis withdrawal syndrome&lt;/a&gt;. Its onset is typically between the second and sixth day and lasts from 4 to 14 days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main active psychoactive ingredient in cannabis, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol&lt;/a&gt; (THC), affects serotonergic, noradrenergic, GABAergic and glutamatergic transmission, but there is relatively little known about how it exactly induces anxiety. One of the reasons being that the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sane.org/mental-health-and-illness/facts-and-guides/cannabis-and-psychotic-illness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;psychotic effects of cannabis consumption&lt;/a&gt; has received way more attention, likely because it is a more severe side effect than the anxiety symptoms. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/about-nida/legislative-activities/testimony-to-congress/2016/biology-potential-therapeutic-effects-cannabidiol&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cannabidiol&lt;/a&gt; has been associated with an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiolytic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anxiolytic&lt;/a&gt; effect, perhaps through its effects on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT1A_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;5HT&lt;sub&gt;1A&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/a&gt; receptors &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zerrin_Atakan/publication/26754337_Cannabis_and_anxiety_a_critical_review_of_the_evidence/links/09e415075bc44046dd000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Crippa &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that the amount of anxiety also depends on the genetic make-up of the user &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/adb.12372/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Otten &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2016)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Acute intoxication could also lead to anxiety secondary to impaired cognitive functioning and the clouding of consciousness &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zerrin_Atakan/publication/26754337_Cannabis_and_anxiety_a_critical_review_of_the_evidence/links/09e415075bc44046dd000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Crippa &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;, as mentioned in the question by the OP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zerrin_Atakan/publication/26754337_Cannabis_and_anxiety_a_critical_review_of_the_evidence/links/09e415075bc44046dd000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Crippa &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;24&lt;/strong&gt;: 515–23&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/adb.12372/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Otten &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Addict Biol&lt;/em&gt; (2016); [Epub ahead of print]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-07T11:57:10.797" LastActivityDate="2016-06-07T11:57:10.797" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15190" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-07T17:06:01.030" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a few books that provide an academic or at least &quot;well-researched&quot; perspective on temperament theory.  This could include material on the OCEAN model, or other research into the psychology of human personality and temperament.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Textbooks are fine; any good books you know of would be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4429" LastEditorUserId="4429" LastEditDate="2016-06-07T17:18:42.693" LastActivityDate="2016-06-07T17:18:42.693" Title="Good academic books on temperament theory?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15193" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-08T08:51:17.367" Score="3" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;As there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/111/24/8788.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks&quot;&gt;evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks&lt;/a&gt;, I'd like to know if any study has been made regarding predictive keyboards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the popularity of predictive keyboards in the mobile space, I would say that there is a good chance that similar effect can be measured.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such keyboards come with pre-trained models that usually adapt to the user's behavior, even faster if it has the grants and features to analyze previous user written content. I believe that it can lead to self feeding spirals on the psychological side and, depending on the age group, neurological effects but I would like to know what has been researched already.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question on the title is meant to be a focused starting point as, depending on the answer I would have the vocabulary to actually make many others (some probably very obvious given the above mentioned).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3617" LastActivityDate="2016-06-08T08:51:17.367" Title="Is there any study about the impact on the continuous use of predictive keyboard by neurologically and psychologically health individuals?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15195" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13680" CreationDate="2016-06-08T11:35:54.880" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes it is possible, but it is difficult. The way it would be done currently is to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbar_puncture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;insert a needle into the base of your spinal cord&lt;/a&gt; to measure the concentration of a metabolite of serotonin, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-Hydroxyindoleacetic_acid&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;5-HIAA&lt;/a&gt;, in the fluid surrounding your brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also possible to measure levels of this metabolite in saliva, urine, or in the bloodstream, but these measures would not necessarily represent the levels of serotonin in your central nervous system (brain). This is because &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/232248.php#what_does_serotonin_do&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;serotonin plays a role in other (non-brain) bodily functions&lt;/a&gt;, and serotonin can not cross the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;blood-brain barrier&lt;/a&gt;. In other words, only serotonin that has been produced in the brain can be used by the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10227" LastActivityDate="2016-06-08T11:35:54.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15197" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-08T12:02:04.403" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;The mesolimbic pathways &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/113/1/200.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;appear to be involved&lt;/a&gt; in signaling both factual and counterfactual reward prediction errors (regret and relief). In which ways are these signals believed to affect neurons in the cortex? It seems to me there are several possibilities, for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The mesolimbic pathways &quot;know&quot; which cortical areas are responsible for recent actions and directly send signals to them to change,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;or the cortical areas themselves &quot;know&quot; when they are responsible for a prediction error, and they know which neurons to blame and how to change them. All the mesolimbic pathways do is just encouraging the cortex to repeat recent activations in a counterfactual manner a couple of times so that the error becomes smaller each time. (This is how relief and regret feel to me, if I'm not fooled by some preconceptions.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2570" LastEditorUserId="2570" LastEditDate="2016-06-08T12:35:52.527" LastActivityDate="2016-06-08T12:35:52.527" Title="Which mechanisms are hypothesized to change synapses in the cortex in response to signals from the mesolimbic pathways?" Tags="&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15200" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13009" CreationDate="2016-06-08T19:46:07.030" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Priming involves the perception of similar elements between information. The similarity between information influences the memory as it has already been primed by previous memory traces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do know of a study that suggests that when simple contours of an image are primed before complex versions of those contours, those contours are rated more positively &lt;a href=&quot;http://bora.uib.no/bitstream/handle/1956/594/BORA_PSPR04.pdf?sequence=1&amp;amp;isAllowed=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Reber &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2004)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study relates to the theory of processing fluency, which proposes that the visual information is more liked because the information is more compatible than it would be otherwise (if the complex contour was shown without the simple one) that's only one part of the theory. The article is called:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most simple answer is to relate the information with previously memorized information as it may be more likely to be recalled because it is connected to other memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://bora.uib.no/bitstream/handle/1956/594/BORA_PSPR04.pdf?sequence=1&amp;amp;isAllowed=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reber &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: Is beauty in the perceiver's processing experience? &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Review&lt;/em&gt; ( 2004); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 364–382&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12853" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-08T20:42:36.783" LastActivityDate="2016-06-08T20:42:36.783" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15201" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9881" CreationDate="2016-06-08T19:56:21.260" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Part of the very basic components of abnormal psychology suggests that any behaviour that could be dangerous to oneself or another individual could qualify for a diagnosis for mental illness. But, this is only when other factors are taken into account, for example the presence of dysfunctional behaviour that hinders appropriate functioning in society. &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1464134707&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Comer, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone who is mentally ill may be more dangerous than someone who is not. However, you should note that only a small select few mental illnesses involve violence in their diagnosis, antisocial personality, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most mentally ill people are not violent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1464134707&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Comer, R. J. (2011). Fundamentals of abnormal psychology. New York: Worth.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurodiverse people may still have the tools to manipulate people just fine. In fact both attention deficit disorder (ADD) and antisocial personalities are theorized to be characterized by propensities of stimulus hunger, as in low arousal theory. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldcat.org/title/psychopathy-theory-and-research-theory-and-research/oclc/916741415&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Hare, 1970)&lt;/a&gt; This could suggest that ADD and Antisocial personality disorders may share fundamental characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note also that Neurodiverse individuals may have issues with executive functioning that may impair social interaction, but also note that between Autism and Attention-Deficit disorder these impairments occur for different reasons. An individual with ADD may have trouble reading social cues because of working memory deficits and inattention. But with Autism it is shown to possibly be due to a difference of semantic processing strategy. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3898534/pdf/10803_2013_Article_1858.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Moseley, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;, a local processing bias (with global processing not in tact) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www2.bc.edu/~winner/pdf/autistic_local_processing_bias.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Drake, 2010)&lt;/a&gt; , as well as working memory deficits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurodiversity covers a wide range of neurological disorders. Autism being one of the most prominent&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldcat.org/title/psychopathy-theory-and-research-theory-and-research/oclc/916741415&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hare, Robert D. Psychopathy: Theory and Research: Theory and Research. New York &amp;lt;&amp;lt;[u.a.: Wiley, 1970. Print.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3898534/pdf/10803_2013_Article_1858.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Moseley, Rachel L. et al. “Brain Routes for Reading in Adults with and without Autism: EMEG Evidence.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 44.1 (2014): 137–153. PMC. Web. 8 June 2016.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www2.bc.edu/~winner/pdf/autistic_local_processing_bias.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Drake, Jennifer E. et al. “`Autistic’ Local Processing Bias Also Found in Children Gifted in Realistic Drawing.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 40.6 (2010): 762–773. Web.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12853" LastEditorUserId="12853" LastEditDate="2016-06-09T09:10:51.667" LastActivityDate="2016-06-09T09:10:51.667" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15202" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13943" CreationDate="2016-06-08T20:24:30.183" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to say that this kind of issue is environmental. Behaviours of perfectionism are developed because of certain factors that may stem from early childhood (as in how the parents treat the child). If self esteem is measured based on the standards that the authority sets, but the child cannot reach them, they may come to know themselves as inadequate. Freud talks about this in his theory of psychoanalysis and in the psychodynamic theory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think it's specifically one case of trauma, but a series of evaluations that causes the development of low self esteem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before the child has a complete theory of mind he may not seperate himself from his environment and in turn mirror or internalize the negative image of how his parents treat him. &#xA;Some evidence suggests that perception becomes more global with age (which may reflect the development of a pragmatic perceptive system that allows faster identification of objects in the environment. ) &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1995-36327-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Akshoomoff et al., 1995)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Its possible that this global perceptive system may become tied to negative emotional trauma. Which makes negative behaviours more easily developable. &#xA;Predictions of outcomes of events have also been tied to perception, as perception as been shown to be constructive (in the sense that it builds on itself from past experiences, even emotional ones)  &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/asset?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0038118.PDF&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Sinke,  et al., 2012)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Individuals who experience abuse may unconsciously recall the outcomes of that abuse during similar situations, causing distress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, some Self theorists may also see the traumatic experiences as negatively affecting the sense of self. Approval addiction may be seen as an act taken to strengthen self identity, as the authority figure did not properly bolster the self esteem during development, so the individual may try to compensate for that by seeking approval. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1995-36327-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Developmental trends in visuospatial analysis and planning: I. Copying a complex figure. Akshoomoff, Natacha A.; Stiles, Joan&#xA;Neuropsychology, Vol 9(3), Jul 1995, 364-377&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/asset?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0038118.PDF&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sinke, Charlotte B. A. et al. “The Constructive Nature of Affective Vision: Seeing Fearful Scenes Activates Extrastriate Body Area.” PLoS ONE 7.6 (2012): e38118. Web.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12853" LastEditorUserId="12853" LastEditDate="2016-06-08T22:36:20.067" LastActivityDate="2016-06-08T22:36:20.067" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15203" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5627" CreationDate="2016-06-08T21:10:55.213" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Music is known as a form of an abstract stimulus, which can arouse feelings of euphoria, similar to tangible rewards that involve the striatal (corpus striatum) dopamine system. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a study, published in nature neuroscience, researchers used the   neurochemical specificity of 11C Raclopride positron emission tomography scanning, combined with psychophysiological measures of autonomic nervous system activity, to find endogenous dopamine release in the striatum at peak emotional arousal during music listening. To examine the time course of dopamine release, they used functional magnetic resonance imaging with the same stimuli and listeners, and found a functional dissociation: the caudate was more involved during the anticipation and the nucleus accumbens was more involved during the experience of peak emotional responses to music. These results indicate that intense pleasure in response to music can lead to dopamine release in the striatal system. Notably, the anticipation of an abstract reward can result in dopamine release in an anatomical pathway distinct from that associated with the peak pleasure itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3YPep.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3YPep.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Music characterized by genres and musical elements evoke distinct patterns of messenger production.Music of Johann Strauss caused rises in atrial filling fraction and atrial natriuretic peptide and falls in cortisol and tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA). Prolactin, cortisol, noradrenaline, and t-PA concentrations decreased after listening to the music of H.W. Henze. Ravi Shankar’s music resulted in lowered concentrations of cortisol, noradrenaline, and t-PA.Listening to techno music was found to alter levels of b-endorphin, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), norepinephrine , growth hormone, prolactin, and cortisol in healthy people.Critically ill patients who listened to Mozart’s slow piano sonatas had increased growth hormone and decreased interleukin (IL)6 levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the neurochemistry of music by Mona Lisa Chanda and Daniel J. Levitin, Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, QC H3A 1B1, Canada&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rvYAk.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rvYAk.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer&lt;/strong&gt;: I will keep editing my answer, this is just a start!&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;References:&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Krumhansl,  C.L.  An  exploratory  study  of  musical  emotions  and  psychophysiology. Can. J. Exp. Psychol. 51, 336–353 (1997).&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Egerton, A. et al. The dopaminergic basis of human behaviors: a review of molecular imaging studies. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 33, 1109–1132 (2009).&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Dube, L. &amp;amp; Lebel, J. The content and structure of laypeople’s concept of pleasure. Cogn. Emot. 17, 263–295 (2003).&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Sloboda,  J.  &amp;amp;  Juslin,  P.N.  Psychological  perspectives  on  music  and  emotion.  in Music  and  Emotion:  Theory  and  Research  (ed.  Sloboda,  J.)  71–104  (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001).&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Möckel M, Röcker L, Stoörk T. Immediate physiological responses of healthy volunteers to different types of music: cardiovascular,hormonal and mental changes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1994;68(6):451-459.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Gerra G, Zaimovic A, Franchini D, et al. Neuroendocrine Responses of healthy volunteers to ‘techno-music’: relationships with personality traits and emotional state. Int J Psychophysiol.1998;28(1):99-111.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10587" LastEditorUserId="10587" LastEditDate="2016-09-14T20:46:43.713" LastActivityDate="2016-09-14T20:46:43.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15204" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15174" CreationDate="2016-06-08T21:43:15.373" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Attractiveness has shown to be related to symmetry. A study that used a computer to simulate perceptive systems showed that a visual system designed to recognize an object from multiple positions would most quickly identify symmetrical figures.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7969448&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Enquist, 1994)&lt;/a&gt;  In addition, some research suggests that familiarity, attraction, and preference have been shown to operate on similar mechanisms.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psy2.ucsd.edu/~pwinkiel/reber-schwarz-winkielman-beauty-PSPR-2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Reber, et al)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7969448&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Enquist, Magnus, and Anthony Arak. “Symmetry, Beauty and Evolution.” Nature 372.6502 (1994): 169–172. Web.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psy2.ucsd.edu/~pwinkiel/reber-schwarz-winkielman-beauty-PSPR-2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Reber &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: Is beauty in the perceiver's processing experience? &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Review&lt;/em&gt; ( 2004);&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12853" LastEditorUserId="12853" LastEditDate="2016-06-08T21:53:37.303" LastActivityDate="2016-06-08T21:53:37.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15205" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-08T23:21:14.883" Score="4" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am aware of the Frequency Illusion which makes it more likely for us to notice a new word if we just heard about it recently, but I was wondering if this is true for emotions as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Logically, I assume it would be yes because you are more aware about your emotions and hence more likely to notice that you are experiencing the emotion. Have there been any conclusive studies done on this subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know much about linguistics but if, say, a certain isolated tribe has not come up with a word for &quot;happiness&quot;, would they ever feel happiness in the same way that we do, or feel it less frequently?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12855" LastActivityDate="2016-06-19T19:07:00.390" Title="Does knowing a word for an emotion cause a person to feel the emotion more frequently?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15206" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14114" CreationDate="2016-06-09T03:10:30.400" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: Probably not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's first keep in mind that very few split-brain patients have ever been studied.  Add to this that inner speech is not a well studied area in general.  As the resulting Venn diagram suggests, there is next to nothing known about inner speech in split-brain patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, remember that one of the key reasons why inner speech is problematic to investigate is because up until recently, our main data source has been self-reports, considered notoriously unreliable as a methodology.  This is especially exacerbated in patients with awareness deficiencies such as split-brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Split-brain patients in general report &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/483260a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;no significant post-operative changes&lt;/a&gt; in their cognitive function, sense of self, or conscious experience.  Internal monologue remains intact, and appears to function as normal.  However testing under lab conditions demonstrates that subjects do in fact experience significant changes in awareness - &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/s0028-3932(03)00047-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;effectively neglecting&lt;/a&gt; half of their perceptual experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If self-reports of awareness are so significantly inaccurate, then what are we to make of split-brain patients' self-evaluation of conscious experience and other cognitive functions?  The truth is, we just don't know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Relatively recently, new techniques for studying inner speech have been developed, such as fMRI imaging of subjects instructed to or prevented from engaging in self-reflection and internal monologue.  Such studies suggest that inner speech is primarily localized to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broca%27s_area&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Broca's area&lt;/a&gt; (LIFG, on the left side of the brain), just as is outer speech (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291700033699&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McGuire, 1996&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2174/1874440001206010078&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Morin &amp;amp; Hamper, 2012&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_monologue#Neurological_correlates&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;).  These findings are consistent with other evidence that inner speech is a form of silent (simulated) outer speech, and thus uses the same physical mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0867-24&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;split-brain paradigm experiments&lt;/a&gt;, subjects are able to articulate stimuli presented to their right field of view (left hemisphere, where Broca's area is), but unable to do so for stimuli presented to their left side (right hemisphere, where language is lacking).  To communicate with the right hemisphere, researchers have subjects use their left hand to gesture responses in some way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These experiments were instrumental in localizing language function in the brain, and they demonstrated that language capabilities are largely lateralized in the left hemisphere.  However, the right hemisphere has sufficient language understanding capabilities to gesture meaningful responses without the left hemisphere's awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So although it's tempting to suggest that inner speech, localized in Broca's area on the left side of the brain, should be unaffected by corpus callosotomy, as reported by split-brain patients, the language capabilities of the right hemisphere leave open the possibility that a separate experience may exist there, potentially implying some reduction in function of (outer and inner) speech in the left side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And indeed, while language function is highly lateralized in 90% of right-handed people, function is more &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateralization_of_brain_function#Handedness_and_language&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;evenly distributed&lt;/a&gt; amongst the hemispheres in other cases.  By some stroke of luck, this was the case in a particularly interesting split-brain patient by the name of Paul S.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remarkably, in the experiments conducted with Paul, he was able to use his left hand to spell out single word answers using Scrabble pieces to express what his right hemisphere was thinking (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410020513&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LeDoux et al, 1977&lt;/a&gt;).  As with other split-brain subjects, his right hemisphere had a quite different experience from his left, but unlike other patients, Paul was able to demonstrate a slightly different personality residing in his right brain, with different opinions, preferences, and decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could this mean that Paul S. had a second, independent internal monologue in his right hemisphere that the left hemisphere was unaware of?  The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dual-consciousness&lt;/a&gt; interpretation of this case study has been the subject of much debate, but most scholars suspect that this is unlikely: Language function is simply too rudimentary in the right hemisphere, even in this remarkable case, to plausibly support this hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-02-12T00:18:29.157" LastActivityDate="2021-02-12T00:18:29.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15212" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15228" CreationDate="2016-06-09T19:49:19.000" Score="9" ViewCount="453" Body="&lt;p&gt;Initial research: I've found papers by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.hawaii.edu/~elaineh/79.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clark and Hatfield (1989)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bradley.edu/dotAsset/165805.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Buss and Schmidt (1993)&lt;/a&gt; that seem to lend support to the idea of heterosexual females being more selective than heterosexual males. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Motivation: I have constructed a game theoretic model of romantic advances. Within this model, it is possible to show that certain Nash equilibria are Pareto improvements upon others depending on which sex is more selective. Thus, I'm looking for empirical evidence as to which (if any) sex is more selective&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of any other empirical studies that support or go against the idea that heterosexual women are more selective in who they date, have sex with or have relationships than heterosexual men?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Buss, D. M., &amp;amp; Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: an evolutionary perspective on human mating. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;100&lt;/em&gt;(2), 204.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clark, R. D., &amp;amp; Hatfield, E. (1989). Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Psychology &amp;amp; Human Sexuality&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;2&lt;/em&gt;(1), 39-55.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12858" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-06-10T15:52:14.057" LastActivityDate="2016-06-13T15:26:00.317" Title="Are there empirical studies showing that one sex is more sexually selective than the other?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15214" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13708" CreationDate="2016-06-09T22:39:56.730" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1464675&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;P300&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; wave is a positive deflection in the human event-related potential (ERP). A common experiment in which it is analyzed is the &quot;oddball&quot; paradigm, where a subject detects an occasional target stimulus in a regular train of standard stimuli. The P300 wave only occurs if the subject is actively engaged in the task of detecting the targets and its amplitude varies with the improbability of the targets. Its latency varies with the difficulty of discriminating the target stimulus from the standard stimuli. A typical peak latency when a young adult subject makes a simple discrimination is 300 ms. The P300 wave may represent the transfer of information to consciousness, a process that involves many different regions of the brain &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Terence_Picton/publication/21690394_The_P300_wave_of_the_human_event-related_potential/links/552e75a60cf22d43716e77fd.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Picton, 1992)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ad. 1: Averaging reduces the random background EEG activity (&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ims.mf.uni-lj.si/archive/15(1)/21.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;noise&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;), as well as &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1140247-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;artifacts&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; due to movement or eye blinks. Random events will average out, while the ERP itself, being highly synchronized with the stimulus, will persist in the signal. In short: averaging increases the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;signal-to-noise ratio&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (SNR). &lt;code&gt;Is this wanted?&lt;/code&gt; - That depends on the SNR you wish to obtain. The more averages, the better the SNR. &lt;code&gt;[M]aybe there is an unwanted adaptation effect of the subject&lt;/code&gt; - if you are afraid of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_adaptation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;adaptation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; - do repeated measures and analyze single ERPs, or small chunks of averages across the recording - it will give you an idea whether there is adaptation, and if yes, how much. I wouldn't worry about it too much. The long time scale of P300 recordings (second-range) allows the nervous system plenty of time to recover.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ad. 2. There is always background EEG, except in (brain) dead subjects - and these subjects won't be too cooperative. &lt;code&gt;[A]re there certain frequencies that are expected in the EEG&lt;/code&gt; - ERPs are not analyzed in the frequency domain, but in the time domain. If you are interested in the frequency content of the EEG; it is much dependent on the state of the subject. An awake, vigilant test subject with their eyes open will show &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;beta activity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (6 - 31 Hz band).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ad. 3. Averaging doesn't change the timing characteristics of the ERP, barred the recording is properly time-locked with the stimulus.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ad. 4. Higher sampling rates are generally better. If your system allows it, crank it up. You can always downsample later. Downsampling may have the advantage of smoothing high-frequency noise and enhancing the ease of handling of the data. ERPs are slow responses, so you don't need 100 kHz signals. For EEG generally 500 Hz is used, because according to the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/eControlHTML/Freq/Nyquist2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nyquist criterion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; you need at least twice the numbers of samples than your highest frequency of interest. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;gamma band&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is 32+ Hz, so 500 Hz is pretty safe &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.umass.edu/lscott/publications/CH01%20DeBoer%20et%20al.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(De Haan, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;. For ERPs, 200 Hz may be sufficient. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; suggests higher rates for EEG. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; &lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://people.umass.edu/lscott/publications/CH01%20DeBoer%20et%20al.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;De Haan, &lt;em&gt;Infant EEG and Event-Related Potentials&lt;/em&gt;; Psychology Press (2013)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; &lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Terence_Picton/publication/21690394_The_P300_wave_of_the_human_event-related_potential/links/552e75a60cf22d43716e77fd.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Picton, &lt;em&gt;J Clin Neurophysiol&lt;/em&gt; (1992); &lt;strong&gt;9&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 456-79&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-10T17:59:42.423" LastActivityDate="2016-06-10T17:59:42.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15216" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12988" CreationDate="2016-06-10T05:48:20.967" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There two 7 Tesla data sets currently publicly available, bith within the &lt;strong&gt;OpenfMRI data collection&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://openfmri.org/dataset/ds000113/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here is a link&lt;/a&gt; to a 350 GB data set for 20 subjects watching the audio version of Forrest Gump. The authors also have all the scripts available at Github to enable reproduction. The associate publication can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/articles/sdata20143&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other 7T data set you allready mentioned in your question. As far as I know there are only these two as of June 2016.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user10922" LastActivityDate="2016-06-10T05:48:20.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4583" CreationDate="2016-06-10T13:55:35.967" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although I cannot answer the question on lying, (self-)speech and thinking are intimately linked to each-other, and actually used in UX-design (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3230315_Thinking_About_Thinking_Aloud_A_Comparison_of_TwoVerbal_Protocols_for_Usability_Testing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krahmer, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. He compared two different approaches of thinking-aloud. In other words, people are perfectly able to verbalize their thoughts and actually do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the approaches he compares is a proposal of &lt;a href=&quot;https://psy.fsu.edu/faculty/ericsson/ericsson.proto.thnk.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ericsson and Simon (1993)&lt;/a&gt;. In their nice and brief paper, they discuss (and refer to) many scientific papers (e.g. cognitive scientific and psychological) where self-speech is used during problem solving. Moreover, it showed that self-speech is related to other variables that correspond to thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their review, Ericsson and Simon (1993) found that [[...]] there seemed to be close correspondence between subjects’ thoughts and what information that they looked at--when subjects verbalized thoughts about objects in the environment they very frequently looked at them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I must admit that self-speech in this way is only used as a methods of identifying cognitive processes, and is often a mandated task in the experiment. However, the fact that people are able to reflect on their thoughts, gives me reason to believe that they can do so unconsciously too. If someone could correct me or confirm this, I invite you to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-07-02T06:43:26.450" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15219" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-10T16:51:46.880" Score="2" ViewCount="674" Body="&lt;p&gt;Emotional intelligence and EQ are often used as phrases for social intelligence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are they really the same? Would social intelligence always imply emotional intelligence and vice versa?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastActivityDate="2017-04-28T11:18:31.387" Title="Are social intelligence and emotional intelligence the same thing?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15220" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-11T17:52:56.343" Score="1" ViewCount="1123" Body="&lt;p&gt;I already have the recommended algorithm &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.washington.edu/agg/iat_materials.htm#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;to analyse IAT data&lt;/a&gt;. It allows to compare within-subject differences in response latency in the  congruent versus non-congruent condition.&#xA;However, in addition to analyzing the within-subject differences, I also need to know if the differences between two groups are statistically significant. How should I go about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10990" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T03:52:29.420" Title="How to compare IAT (Implicit Association Test) results of two different groups?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15222" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15223" CreationDate="2016-06-12T16:53:36.487" Score="13" ViewCount="14791" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depending upon its activity, the brain emits waves, which represent the summation of individual neurons firing. Are these waves electromagnetic waves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11802" LastEditorUserId="11802" LastEditDate="2016-06-12T23:09:28.597" LastActivityDate="2021-02-22T09:40:10.350" Title="Are brain waves electromagnetic waves?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;meg&gt;" AnswerCount="8" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15223" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15222" CreationDate="2016-06-12T17:58:24.957" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Brain waves are not electromagnetic waves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Measured brain activity, as you already mentioned, is the result of individual neurons firing. The activity exists, in fact, of two parts. First of all, there are the action potentials (APs). APs are current flow within a neuron from one end to the other. The magnitude of these APs (and the summation of many) is so low however, that it is barely measurable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The actual brain activity we can measure is the result of the second way of signal conduction: post-synaptic potentials as a result of neurotransmitters. (Pyramidal) Neurons communicate with each other through neurotransmitters, which are released from multiple synapses and flow to the axon of the next neuron. The release of the neurotransmitters causes a much larger potential difference that is conducted through different tissues (e.g. bones and skin). The activity that we measure with EEG is thus only the result of potential difference of the pyramidal neurons. Due to how electrical fields work, we are only able to measure the neurons oriented in right angles to the surface of the scalp (see the right picture).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/poSw2.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/poSw2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Difference between EEG and MEG&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A magnetic field cán also be measured though, but this is in fact the result of the flow in current. If electricity flows through a loop, a magnetic field is generated. Moreover, if there is a magnetic field, electrical current will be generated. This is how MEG works. If there is an electrical current, and you place these loops around the head, the magnetic field will be &amp;quot;caught&amp;quot;. Then, in turn, this magnetic field will generated electricity in the MEG recording equipment, thereby recording electrical activity in the brain (See left part of the picture, there are two loops where the magnetic field goes through). The magnetic fields are orthogonal to the electrical fields (look for the Right-hand rule) and neurons that lie parallel to the scalp are more easily measurable. EEG and MEG complement each other thus, and combining them greatly improves localization of activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a quick and dirty explanation. For a better one, you may want to read the book of Luck: An Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique (2014), which explains it really nicely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-06-12T21:07:50.003" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15222" CreationDate="2016-06-12T19:57:51.313" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Brainwaves are typically associated with the electroencephalogram, which is a signal mainly composed of potential differences generated in the superficial layers of the brain. Potential differences represent electric fields and do not represent electromagnetic (EM) radiation. EM radiation is build up of packets of energy (photons). EM radiation types are characterized and classified by their specific wavelengths, but this has nothing to do with brain waves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In addition to Robin Kramer's excellent answer I wish to approach this question from a more terminological approach, namely &lt;em&gt;what are brainwaves?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Brainwave&lt;/em&gt; is a bit of a colloquial term. It is typically associated with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/eeg/basics/definition/prc-20014093&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;electroencephalogram (EEG)&lt;/a&gt;. The EEG measures &lt;strong&gt;electrical potential differences&lt;/strong&gt;, typically across the scalp (Fig. 1). This electrical activity emanating from the brain is displayed in the form of brainwaves. There are four categories of these brainwaves. These categories are based on frequency bands. The term frequency bands is a more formal term and refers to the way EEGs are typically analyzed, namely via &lt;a href=&quot;http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/fourier/fourier.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fourier transformation&lt;/a&gt;. Fourier transformation dissects any time-based signal into a number of well-defined sine waves, each with a characteristic frequency, expressed in cycles per second (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, Hz). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the brain is aroused and actively engaged in mental activities, it generates &lt;em&gt;beta waves&lt;/em&gt;. These beta waves are of relatively low amplitude, and are the fastest of the four different brainwaves (15 to 40 Hz frequency band). &lt;em&gt;Alpha waves&lt;/em&gt; (9 - 14 Hz) represent non-arousal, are slower, and higher in amplitude. A person who has completed a task and sits down to rest is often in an alpha state. The next state, &lt;em&gt;theta brainwaves&lt;/em&gt; (5 - 8 Hz), are typically of even greater amplitude and slower frequency. This frequency range is normally between 5 and 8 cycles a second. A person who has taken time off from a task and begins to daydream is often in a theta brainwave state. A person who is driving on a freeway, and discovers that they can't recall the last five miles, is often in a theta state induced by the process of freeway driving. The final brainwave state is &lt;em&gt;delta&lt;/em&gt; (1.5 - 4 Hz). Here the brainwaves are of the greatest amplitude and slowest frequency. A deep, dreamless sleep is characterized by this frequency band. When we go for a night's sleep, brainwaves typically descend from beta, to alpha, to theta and finally, when we fall asleep, to delta (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-the-function-of-t-1997-12-22/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, 1997)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/F01O6.gif&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/F01O6.gif&quot; alt=&quot;EEG&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. EEG traces. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-the-function-of-t-1997-12-22/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, (1997)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EEG activity is measured via electrodes and these pick up a potential difference, or &lt;a href=&quot;http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/PY106/Electricfield.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;electric field&lt;/a&gt;. An electric field is not electromagnetic (EM), because it is not (necessarily) accompanied by a magnetic component. An electric field is generated everywhere where charge is separated. If no current flows, there is still an electric field, namely a static electric field. Only  when current starts to flow a magnetic component is introduced (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/peh-emf/about/WhatisEMF/en/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WHO&lt;/a&gt;). In the brain, static electric fields may exist, but EEG activity is typically evoked by repetitive, synchronized neural firings. Within the tissue, hence, current flows during action potential generation and hence there is definitely a magnetic component involved, this is measured with a &lt;a href=&quot;http://ilabs.washington.edu/what-magnetoencephalography-meg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;magnetoencephalogram (MEG)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MEG measures magnetic fields and is typically not analyzed in the form of brainwaves but in the form of brain images (Fig. 2). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JkQMw.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JkQMw.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;MEG&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. MEG analysis. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.med.nyu.edu/thesenlab/research-0/magnetoencephalography-meg/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NYU Cognitive Neurophysiology Lab&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MEG signals are also &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; EM radiation, but magnetic signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, then what is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs/space-environment/2-what-is-electromagnetic-radiation.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;EM radiation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;? EM radiation is a &lt;strong&gt;form of energy that is produced by oscillating electric and magnetic disturbance&lt;/strong&gt;, or by the &lt;strong&gt;movement of electrically charged particles&lt;/strong&gt; traveling through a vacuum or matter. The electric and magnetic fields come at right angles to each other and combined wave moves perpendicular to both magnetic and electric oscillating fields thus the disturbance. Electron radiation is released as photons, which are bundles of light energy that travel at the speed of light as quantized harmonic waves. This energy is then grouped into categories based on its wavelength into the electromagnetic spectrum. These electric and magnetic waves travel perpendicular to each other and have certain characteristics, including amplitude, wavelength, and frequency (Fig. 3).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6r8D6.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6r8D6.png&quot; alt=&quot;EM spectrum&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 3. EM spectrum. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Core/Physical_Chemistry/Spectroscopy/Fundamentals/Electromagnetic_Radiation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;UC Davis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, EM radiation can either act as a &lt;strong&gt;wave&lt;/strong&gt; or a &lt;strong&gt;particle&lt;/strong&gt;, namely a &lt;strong&gt;photon&lt;/strong&gt;. As a wave, it is represented by velocity, wavelength, and frequency. As a particle, EM is represented as a photon, which transports energy. Photons with higher energies produce shorter wavelengths and photons with lower energies produce longer wavelengths.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-13T11:27:59.133" LastActivityDate="2016-06-13T11:27:59.133" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15225" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15222" CreationDate="2016-06-12T21:07:47.403" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;If &quot;brain waves&quot; produce a time-varying electric potential as shown on the EEG, then as far as I know electromagnetic waves are present.  I was taught that you cannot have a time varying electric potential without creating an electromagnetic wave.  You can try browsing wiki explanation &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations&lt;/a&gt;, but the main idea is that a time varying electric field cannot exist without the presence of a time-varying magnetic field.  I admit I have basically zero background knowledge on brainwaves, however after reading the two previous thorough answers I was left wondering why a brain wave would not fall into the category of electromagnetic waves.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;An electric field is not electromagnetic (EM), because it is not (necessarily) accompanied by a magnetic component.&quot; This is theoretically true for static electric fields, but I think static electric fields are similar to a &quot;vacuum state&quot; in the sense that they don't exist in real life or even if they did it would be really hard to measure without perturbing the system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Waves are not static and, therefore, the EEG certainly shows a time-varying electric field.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12886" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-02-27T12:10:12.790" LastActivityDate="2017-02-27T12:10:12.790" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15226" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15232" CreationDate="2016-06-13T08:50:11.363" Score="4" ViewCount="1700" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any “official” term to describe a study in which subjects were deceived about the real purpose of the research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am talking about studies that purposefully hide the real research questions from the subjects so as to prevent demand effects from influencing the results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make it more explicit: In my case, I tell people to watch a series of video clips from an online portal to describe the contents. What people don't know is that some of the videos are (purposefully) significantly distorted. I record their reactions to it (e.g. physiogically) — but people still think they're just describing videos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12892" LastEditorUserId="12892" LastEditDate="2016-06-13T11:42:56.203" LastActivityDate="2017-04-10T21:20:54.757" Title="How do you call a study in which subjects were deceived about the real purpose?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15228" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15212" CreationDate="2016-06-13T15:26:00.317" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As noted above, evolutionary theories suggest that (heterosexual) females should be more choosy than males, because they typically invest far more resources in raising offspring (men have enough time and sperm that their genes are going to be more successful if they adopt a scattergun approach!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;disclaimer&lt;/strong&gt; here is that, in humans, research on sex preferences is difficult because it is mostly based on self-reported preferences, and because these are likely coloured by cultural and historical norms. However, there is significant empirical evidence that females are more choosy. Searching on google scholar for &quot;sex differences&quot; and &quot;mate preference&quot; or similar will give you lots of options. Here are a few.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/383125/1/Schmitt%20et%20al%202003b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a study which summarises, across many cultures, some sex differences in self-reported mating preferences. As predicted by Buss and others, the authors find that across all cultures men report that they &lt;em&gt;desire&lt;/em&gt; more sexual partners than women. This is not a small effect. They also find that men are more likely to consent to sex after a brief period of time, and that men everywhere are more likely to be seeking short-term partners. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.queensu.ca/psychology/sites/webpublish.queensu.ca.psycwww/files/files/Faculty/Vern%20Qunisey/Landoldt-etalE-SB-1995.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a more experimental paper where they changed the attractiveness and implied wealth of potential partners and found that men were more likely to go for short term, multi-partner strategies than women who were more likely to go for long term, committed relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there are also many studies from other species, some of which show the conditions in which men become more choosy. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982209017035&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; paper even includes a video of a female beetle trying to reject a male! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John_Reynolds5/publication/236170178_Mutual_mate_choice_and_sex_differences_in_choosiness._Evolution/links/00b49516ca7683e56f000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; paper proposes a mathematical model which might also be helpful. Modern models are much more nuanced about how male and female choice interact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-06-13T15:26:00.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15229" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-13T15:53:40.710" Score="-3" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;Obviously caffeine is a stimulant, and wakes us up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research into how it affects fatigue: e.g. how different it is to rest (i.e. I'm not asking about the pathways by which caffeine achieves this).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2016-06-13T18:45:24.887" Title="Effects of caffeine on fatigue" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2016-06-27T22:21:17.060" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15230" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15234" CreationDate="2016-06-13T16:10:36.790" Score="4" ViewCount="964" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose I am talking to someone and while talking more thoughts come to my mind that I wish to talk about. I postpone those thoughts, however, to tell everything synchronously, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, I wish to tell the old thoughts first and then the new thoughts in sequence. But by the time I finish telling previous thoughts and try to come to those new thoughts that I postponed to tell, some are vanished. This must be a very common phenomenon, as everyone has experienced the dreaded &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;What on earth was I about to say...?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the term for this mental state, or of the process mentioned?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4273" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-13T19:52:20.807" LastActivityDate="2016-06-16T18:47:35.193" Title="What is the mental state called when I forget my thoughts?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15231" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-13T16:53:51.517" Score="4" ViewCount="1012" Body="&lt;p&gt;Adobe Illustrator has taken over five minutes (and counting) to render a vector 2D image rotated 18° in 3D on my computer. And yet, I and nearly anyone else can easily visualize the subject rotated almost instantaneously, and with little effort rotate the object continuously in real time in the mind's eye.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NI8Rc.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NI8Rc.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Spinning Flamingo&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not asking how the brain &lt;em&gt;stores&lt;/em&gt; representations of objects, as that's clearly up for debate. But how does the brain &lt;em&gt;structure&lt;/em&gt; its internal representation of 3D visual data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's almost definitely not in some pixel-based format, as can be shown by simply visualizing an object of some sort, and then zooming in mentally on some detail and noticing the image retains its sharpness. It's probably not breaking down objects into geometric shapes either, because at least I personally don't visualize my friends as stick figures. It could be a &lt;a href=&quot;http://searchwindevelopment.techtarget.com/definition/vector-graphics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;vector format&lt;/a&gt;, but then it should be easier to visualize complex shapes that are mathematically simple, like this one:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OTbUE.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OTbUE.png&quot; alt=&quot;Complex but mathematically simple shape&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it would seem that the brain uses some other format. To the best knowledge of modern cognitive, how does this work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12897" LastActivityDate="2020-10-20T14:52:44.443" Title="How does the brain structure 3D visual data?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15232" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15226" CreationDate="2016-06-13T18:01:53.890" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The relevant section 8.03 in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/principles.pdf&quot;&gt;APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct&lt;/a&gt; does not employ a proper term. In the literature, »deception/deceptive study/experiment/method(s)« are sometimes used, however not in the sense of a technical term – most often the matter is paraphrased as in »studies that use deception«.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Milgram experiment(s) prominently employed deception, and the latter is most often discussed in the context of social psychology. On the other hand, there are much less clear cases. Robin Kramer in his comment is right that often it is not clear for the subject which variables are actually measured by some technique in a straightforward sense – think of a questionnaire that is part of a job application procedure, or e.g. indirect techniques for measuring attitudes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since deception as a clear-cut methodical device has been prominently used in social psychology, let's take a look at a popular text book:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this kind of experiment, it’s essential that the participant experience contrived events as if they were real; this is called a &lt;em&gt;deception experiment&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Deception&lt;/strong&gt; in social psychological research involves misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that transpire. (Aronson/Wilson/Akert/Sommers (2016): Social Psychology (9th ed.), p. 46)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, Aronson et al. (2016) give the following references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Christensen, L. (1988). Deception in psychological research: When is its use justified? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 664–675.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Epley, E., &amp;amp; Hu , C. (1998). Suspicion, affective response, and education benefit as a result of deception in psychology research. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 759–768.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Finney, P. D. (1987). When consent information refers to risk and deception: Implications for social research. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 2, 37–48.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gerdes, E. P. (1979). College students’ reactions to social psychological experiments involving deception. Journal of Social Psychology, 107, 99–110.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sharpe, D., Adair, J. G., &amp;amp; Roese, N. J. (1992).&#xA;Twenty years of deception research: A decline in subjects’ trust? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 585–590.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8427" LastActivityDate="2016-06-13T18:01:53.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15229" CreationDate="2016-06-13T18:45:24.887" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can caffeine replace sleep? The simple answer here is no. The easiest way to explain why is to dip our toes into the mechanism by which caffeine works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a nutshell, a large part of what you perceive as drowsiness is caused by adenosine building up in adenosine receptors. The longer you stay awake (and the more active you are to a degree), the more adenosine builds up, the more drowsy you get, until finally you sleep and the adenosine is flushed out. Caffeine is a competitive antagonist of adenosine receptors, meaning that it fights adenosine for spots in the receptors and blocks adenosine from activating the receptor, without the caffeine itself activating them. The longer you stay awake on caffeine, the more adenosine fights caffeine for spots in the receptors, and the more other signs of sleep deprivation that aren't affected by caffeine accumulate. This is why you might sometimes experience that odd &quot;worn out but not exactly tired&quot; feeling late into an all-nighter. Caffeine doesn't actually provide rest or any equivalent, it basically creates the illusion of being well-rested, even as you continue to build sleep debt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Caffeine doesn't seem to be able to replace sleep, simply delay it, and you can easily test this yourself. Also, as your body breaks down caffeine over a number of hours, and the impact of sleep deprivation increases the longer you force yourself to stay awake, you will need to continue to consume more and more caffeine to maintain the effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20164566&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20164566&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00201#pharmacology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00201#pharmacology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12897" LastActivityDate="2016-06-13T18:45:24.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15234" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15230" CreationDate="2016-06-13T19:10:22.337" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The key term in your question is working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7143&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Working memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is involved in information-processing functions such as encoding, storing, and retrieving data and it is a system that temporarily stored and manages information required to carry out cognitive tasks, such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One relatively straightforward test to assess working memory is &lt;strong&gt;memory span&lt;/strong&gt;. In this test the number of items (usually words or numbers) is determined that a person can hold onto and recall. In a typical test of memory span, an examiner reads a list of random numbers aloud at about the rate of one number per second. At the end of a sequence, the person being tested is asked to recall the items in order. The average memory span for normal adults is 7 items (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7143&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Medicine Net&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the definition of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7143&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;working memory&lt;/a&gt;, as opposed to short-term memory and, to a lesser extent, long-term memory are not that well defined. In fact, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7143&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Medicine Net&lt;/a&gt; links two identical webpages to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7142&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;short-term memory&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7142&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;working memory&lt;/a&gt;. The difference between working memory and short-term memory is indeed subtle. Working memory is generally thought to rely on short-term memory, but to additionally involve processes to effectively &lt;em&gt;use those memories&lt;/em&gt; during cognitive tasks. The difference may be explained as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2657600/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Cowen, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[W]orking memory includes short-term memory and other processing&#xA;  mechanisms that help to make use of short-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference between short- and long-term memory stores is based on a difference in their &lt;em&gt;duration&lt;/em&gt; and in their &lt;em&gt;capacity&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2657600/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Cowen, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;. Long-term memory, not surprisingly, is of longer duration and it can hold much more information. However, it cannot be accessed as readily compared to short-term and working memory.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2657600/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cowen, &lt;em&gt;Prog Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;169&lt;/strong&gt;: 323–38&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-13T19:28:22.147" LastActivityDate="2016-06-13T19:28:22.147" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15236" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6483" CreationDate="2016-06-14T18:51:38.383" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The economic concept of marginalism comes to mind. Actors will spend money to buy virtual goods if the marginal cost (price) is lower than the marginal (subjective) utility of the virtual good. If you have lots of money it's easier to spend $10 on extra lives. This explains some of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the purchases are small, so the individual cost/utility analysis is biased, it's &quot;just&quot; $10. Over time it might become a &lt;a href=&quot;http://gizmodo.com/holy-shit-i-just-spent-236-on-candy-crush-help-1032185653&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;problem&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a lot like any other kind of addiction, and I think (baseless speculation) that the &quot;big whales&quot; are more likely to be predisposed for addictions than the general population. The utility, positive affect generated by a feeling of progress and accomplishment, becomes harder to maintain and creates a &quot;need&quot; to keep playing. And when the individual transaction costs are so low it's that much harder to resist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: I've found some sources that might answer your question better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ojs.bibsys.no/index.php/Nokobit/article/view/29/26&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; discusses how game designers might think about it. Not peer-reviewed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.no/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjP-cCdnbTNAhWOKywKHbx0BlQQFgggMAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D964189&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNGTU7bec7lKLExrfVfXhAgCYoiQQQ&amp;amp;sig2=AxeYfVdP6wIKG_4eZi4kbg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;different&lt;/a&gt; behavioural economics perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.no/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwj53LapnLTNAhXNJSwKHQsECd0QFggiMAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fdare.uva.nl%2Fdocument%2F492007&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNGRcJIfo4nDBy1_SpSEiqeYVAReWQ&amp;amp;sig2=FC4xZBSjaszN6dQCQ-0q7A&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Some&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.diva-portal.se/smash/get/diva2:824916/FULLTEXT01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;other&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13691180802587813&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;papers&lt;/a&gt; on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: Most of these discuss microtransactions and virtual goods. Candy crush is mostly lives, leading to different motivations than games like &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.valvesoftware.com/economics/arbitrage-and-equilibrium-in-the-team-fortress-2-economy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Team Fortress 2&lt;/a&gt; with cosmetics like hats and skins (and keys).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12906" LastEditorUserId="12906" LastEditDate="2016-06-19T14:17:36.560" LastActivityDate="2016-06-19T14:17:36.560" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15237" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-15T03:28:59.557" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;What does it mean for a man to keep dreaming of being pregnant??? Is it normal or does it have a special symbolism? Pls help if you have expertise in interpreting such things &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12908" LastActivityDate="2016-06-15T03:28:59.557" Title="Dreams and symbolism. Are dreams trully indicative of what is about to happen or do they merely serve as symbolic direction of what path to follow?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-06-15T13:19:49.317" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15238" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15239" CreationDate="2016-06-15T18:42:11.920" Score="2" ViewCount="149" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that many neurons have an input current-spiking frequency (I-F) relationships, &lt;a href=&quot;https://grey.colorado.edu/mediawiki/sites/CompCogNeuro/images/8/8f/refractory.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;e.g. as seen here.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, all the I-F curves I've encountered show the input current in a fairly small range (few pA or nA), suggesting that there is no limit to this behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if the current is increased indefinitely, there is a point where the membrane voltage does not recover to the resting, or smaller, potential. For example, here are voltage traces of a simulated &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactory_bulb_mitral_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mitral cell&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;At 0.1nA&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AmdK2.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AmdK2.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;0.5nA&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1RK19.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1RK19.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1nA&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CVGpe.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CVGpe.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;10nA&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Rk3BG.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Rk3BG.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do neurons limit the amount of current that enters the cell? If the cell is large, with many incoming synapses, it seems like there would be stimuli that could result in &quot;too many channels&quot; open at the same time. &lt;strong&gt;How do cells ensure the input current remains within the acceptable range?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastEditorUserId="4055" LastEditDate="2016-06-15T19:03:17.210" LastActivityDate="2016-06-15T20:33:05.090" Title="How do neurons limit their input current?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15239" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15238" CreationDate="2016-06-15T18:57:53.560" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Current is Voltage (driving potential) times conductance.  As the membrane potential approaches the Nernst potential of the conductance, the current approaches 0.  Conductances can be turned on or off through receptor binding, but there is no such thing as voltage-independent current injection (at least under physiologically relevant conditions).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, it is the case that if you artificially inject large amplitudes of current into neurons, you observe voltage traces similar to your simulations.  This will very quickly lead to cell death.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-06-15T20:33:05.090" LastActivityDate="2016-06-15T20:33:05.090" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15241" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10958" CreationDate="2016-06-16T08:16:08.897" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This term depicts a wide spread problem in society that the term 'mental illness' carries with it stigmas and negative connotations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, From a psychologist's perspective, we want people with mental illnesses to recognise them and seek help/treatment so that the problem can be solved. However, negative labels often cause people to ignore signs of mental illness. The effect is that fewer people with problems are seeking help from them, causing them and those around them to suffer for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, mental illnesses carry no moral significance or worth. An individual afflicted by a mental illness has done nothing to deserve it. It is unfair on them to be ostracized for something beyond their control, however this is often what happens with mental illnesses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leprosy has been greatly feared and shunned for thousands of years by humans everywhere. An individual with leprosy would be separated from the society and would be forced to survive on their own or find a leper colony if they were lucky. This is similar to how many people suffering mental illness suffer today. Often they cannot take care of themselves, and are shunned regardless of their suffering.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12916" LastActivityDate="2016-06-16T08:16:08.897" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15242" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14013" CreationDate="2016-06-16T10:10:30.357" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Symptoms of hemi-neglect are often accompanied by additional layers of cognitive deficits that make rehabilitation challenging. Logic reason is often dissociated from these patients' perceptions, or they simply dismiss there is a problem altogether.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispatial_neglect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hemineglect&lt;/a&gt; is the impaired or lost ability to react to, or process sensory stimuli presented in the hemispace contralateral to a lesion of the human right or left cerebral hemisphere. Besides this &lt;em&gt;sensory neglect&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;motor neglect&lt;/em&gt; may occur, manifesting itself as a reduced use or even non-use of a contralateral extremity. Finally, there is &lt;em&gt;representational neglect&lt;/em&gt;, referring to impaired spatial imagination &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301008200000289&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Kerkhoff, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of &lt;strong&gt;rehabilitation treatment of neglect&lt;/strong&gt;, it seems indeed logical to suggest the patient to actively start paying attention to the neglected side in tasks of everyday life. In fact, this is an accepted rehab strategy used, which can be regarded as a coping strategy. Though this approach is intuitively the most straightforward way to rehab these patients, it often proves to be difficult for therapists, because often additional, more global cognitive deficits exist besides the hemi-inattention &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19590378&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Marshall, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. As you indicate, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anosognosia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;anosognosia&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (deficit of self-awareness, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, a disability to acknowledge the existence of his or her disability) is seen in hemineglect patients in up to 20% to 58% of cases. When the patient dismisses the problem, treatment is next to impossible. &lt;strong&gt;Personality changes&lt;/strong&gt; such as apathy, emotional instability, disinhibition and agitation further complicate rehab. Finally, although perception may be abnormal, and it can be pointed out to them (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, '&lt;em&gt;this arm that you claim is not yours can be traced back to your body&lt;/em&gt;), they are often unable to reconcile logic of the situation with abnormal perceptions. An example is given by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19590378&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Marsshall (2009)&lt;/a&gt;, where a patient is described who reported that his hospital room was the “&lt;em&gt;only one to have telephones with 2 columns of numbers.&lt;/em&gt;” On a line bisection task, a hemineglect patient may be trained to move the gaze leftward to identify a cue at the left extent of a line, confirming that the whole line is in view, and yet, that patient may still bisect the line to the right of midpoint as the gaze tracks rightward. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, there is a &lt;strong&gt;dissociation between perception and logic&lt;/strong&gt;. This was examplified by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10465667&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ramachandran &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (1999)&lt;/a&gt;. They investigated twelve patients with left hemineglect caused by right hemisphere stroke by showing them a mirror. A mirror was placed on their right side (their 'good'side), while &#xA;an object was held out for them on their left (their neglected side). The patients were made explicitly aware that the object was on their left and that the mirror was just a reflection of the object. And still, a substantial&#xA;subset of patients (no numbers are provided in the article, unfortunately; it is a pilot-report) repeatedly reached for the object’s reflection on the right, even going so far as to say, “it’s behind the mirror.” &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, brain injury may result in more that just a hemi-inattention. Other cognitive deficits add to the complexity to the syndrome and pose challenges to devise effective rehab treatments &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19590378&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Marsshall, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301008200000289&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kerkhoff, &lt;em&gt;Prog Neurobiol&lt;/em&gt; (2001); &lt;strong&gt;63&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 1–27&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19590378&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Marshall, &lt;em&gt;The Neurologist&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;15&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 185-92&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10465667&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ramachandran, &lt;em&gt;Med Hypotheses&lt;/em&gt; (1999); &lt;strong&gt;52&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 303-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-16T21:09:16.583" LastActivityDate="2016-06-16T21:09:16.583" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15246" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15247" CreationDate="2016-06-17T00:15:15.810" Score="4" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_learning#Types_of_sequence_learning&quot;&gt;Motor Sequence Learning&lt;/a&gt; is the study of the cognitive ability to chain various motor sequences together. The most intuitive example of this is learning to play a sequence of notes on a piano. Initially, each note will be played hesitantly while consulting the sheet music for guidance. However, with practice, more and more of the sequence becomes memorised and can be played smoothly. Additionally, sequences that are learned can be transferred to other contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the most comprehensive model or description of neurophysiological mechanisms of this cognitive ability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-06-17T00:15:15.810" Title="What models/mechanisms exist for the brain to chain movements together?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15247" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15246" CreationDate="2016-06-17T00:15:15.810" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the paper &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/4364824/file/6812279.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Control of automated behavior: insights from the discrete sequence production task&lt;/a&gt;&quot; a task similar to piano playing is discussed. The task, shown in the figure below, involves a user pressing a key corresponding to visual input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uXjfr.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uXjfr.png&quot; alt=&quot;task description&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the most interesting results from the paper is, as shown below, after learning, the response times of certain series of movements have lower reaction times. They also seem to be organised in specifically sized chunks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4Yzr8.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4Yzr8.png&quot; alt=&quot;chunking&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The model of how this works is called the Dual Processor Model (DMP), which claims that two processors, one cognitive and one motor, race each other to execute a task. It is only described at a high level and never built into a model. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-06-17T00:15:15.810" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15248" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4578" CreationDate="2016-06-17T03:01:10.487" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've looked through that book briefly but never really got into it... if I could suggest some others, though: Dayan and Abbott's &lt;em&gt;Theoretical Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; is a standard text in computational neuroscience but if I understand your question correctly, you might enjoy Kevin Murphy's &lt;em&gt;Machine Learning: A Probabilistic Perspective&lt;/em&gt;, or David MacKay's &lt;em&gt;Information theory, inference, and learning algorithms&lt;/em&gt; a bit more. Trappenberg's &lt;em&gt;Fundamentals of computational neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; is also one of my favourites, but moreso on the neuroscience side of things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8895" LastActivityDate="2016-06-17T03:01:10.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15249" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15299" CreationDate="2016-06-17T05:52:50.640" Score="4" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence that supports the idea that a severe depression/anxiety can't be treated with CBT? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since, it's in severe state, and one has to use anti-depressants to lower the level, and then obviously CBT can help reduce a moderate to low level depression. Is a severe depression/anxiety too strong to be healed by CBT, and it makes the usage of anti-depressants necessary?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7020" LastEditorUserId="7020" LastEditDate="2016-06-17T06:30:26.683" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T21:14:22.400" Title="Severe depression/anxiety can't be treated with CBT" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15250" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13824" CreationDate="2016-06-17T11:16:48.170" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In principle, no. An &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/actionpot.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;action potential&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is initiated due to the activation of Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; channels. These are so-called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2230911/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;voltage-gated channels&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, meaning that they sense a &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depolarization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depolarization&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and subsequently open their Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; pore to allow Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; to flow in, further depolarizing the cell. This is the depolarizing phase of an action potential. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage-gated_potassium_channel&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Voltage-gated K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; channels&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; open up also due to depolarization, but have slower kinetics and hence they kick in later than the Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; channels. Influx of K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; opposes the effect of Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; influx and brings the cell membrane potential back to its resting state (or even hyperpolarizes the cell). This ends the action potential (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dUxvW.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dUxvW.png&quot; alt=&quot;AP&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Action potential and membrane conductances. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://antranik.org/what-is-an-action-potential-nerve-impulse/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Antranik&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An action potential cannot be generated in a &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperpolarization_(biology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hyperpolarized&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; state, because the Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; channels are closed. A depolarization is necessary to open them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a neuron was able to fire when hyperpolarized, there would be no regulatory mechanism to inhibit the cell. This would mean it would keep on firing, regardless of its input - not very useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21668/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lodish , The Action Potential and Conduction of Electric Impulses. In: &lt;em&gt;Molecular Cell Biology&lt;/em&gt;, 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ed. New York: W. H. Freeman (2000)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-07-27T21:49:47.120" LastActivityDate="2016-07-27T21:49:47.120" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15251" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13217" CreationDate="2016-06-17T12:00:31.447" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Stereoscopic vision is the perception of depth via disparity. Disparity is the mechanism that the visual system uses to create binocular depth perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A dictionary definition of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dictionary.com/browse/stereoscopic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stereoscopic&lt;/a&gt; is the following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[N]oting or pertaining to three-dimensional vision or any of various processes and devices for giving the illusion of depth from two-dimensional images or reproductions, as of a photograph or motion picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So stereoscopic depth perception refers to the ability of perceiving depth in a 2D image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more visual-scientific description of &lt;em&gt;stereopsis&lt;/em&gt; is the following &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/perception-of-depth/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Kalloniatis &amp;amp; Luu, 2016)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stereopsis refers to our ability to appreciate depth, that is the ability to distinguish the relative distance of objects with an apparent physical displacement between the objects. [...] &lt;strong&gt;Stereopsis&lt;/strong&gt; is an important &lt;strong&gt;binocular cue&lt;/strong&gt; to depth perception. &lt;strong&gt;Stereopsis cannot occur monocularly&lt;/strong&gt; and is due to &lt;strong&gt;binocular retinal disparity&lt;/strong&gt; [where] two objects stimulate [...] disparate (&lt;strong&gt;non-corresponding&lt;/strong&gt;) retinal points [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/perception-of-depth/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Monocular cues&lt;/a&gt; include occlusion, lights &amp;amp; shade, among others. &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/perception-of-depth/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Binocular cues&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, stereoscopic cues are caused by the slightly offset retinal images on our two eyes due to the distance between them. This is called disparity. Disparity depends on the focal distance, and in a nutshell, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/depth/depth-size.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;uncrossed disparity&lt;/a&gt; refers to points in space closer than the focus distance and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/depth/depth-size.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;crossed disparity&lt;/a&gt; to points more distant than the focal distance (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/depth/depth-size.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Heeger, New York University&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hence, long story short, stereoscopic depth is a perception, disparity is the mechanism that the visual system uses to create that perception.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/perception-of-depth/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kalloniatis &amp;amp; Luu, Perception of Depth. In: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System, Utah University (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-22T10:45:07.990" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T10:45:07.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15252" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-17T13:57:00.957" Score="1" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;As one ages he/she will definitely encounter a lot of people who will do their best to make the most out of him/her.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any books regarding this ?? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12923" LastActivityDate="2016-06-19T07:40:08.277" Title="The art of exploiting people and taking advantage of them" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-06-20T07:08:33.790" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15255" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-17T21:19:48.553" Score="1" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;To clarify i mean like how when someone doesn't use contractions it is a red flag for lying. Or when someone says something they are mad or annoyed. Basically what their speech and body language says about what they are thinking/feeling.&#xA;Stuff that the main character in Lie To Me uses like body language, speech changes and micro expressions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12924" LastActivityDate="2016-06-17T21:19:48.553" Title="What is the study of body language and speech and what it means the person is feeling or thinking?" Tags="&lt;body-language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-07-13T15:52:05.837" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15259" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13824" CreationDate="2016-06-18T11:01:54.147" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps this is not what you asked, but there's a phenomenon called &lt;strong&gt;rebound spiking&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;postinhibitory spiking&lt;/strong&gt; where a hyperpolarization causes spiking. This is due to the oscillatory property of membrane dynamics (certain subsets of type-II neurons). Spikes can be evoked after inhibitory current stops. Figure 7.29 from Izhikevich's book:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/smdIb.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/smdIb.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a partial figure from Hasselmo 2014 (recordings from entorhinal cortex stellate cells).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/k1h7o.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/k1h7o.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hasselmo, M. E. (2014). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0523&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuronal rebound spiking, resonance frequency and theta cycle skipping may contribute to grid cell firing in medial entorhinal cortex&lt;/a&gt;. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 369(1635):20120523+.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Izhikevich, E. M. (2007). Dynamical systems in neuroscience : the geometry of excitability and bursting. Computational neuroscience. MIT Press.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastEditorUserId="301" LastEditDate="2016-06-18T14:11:44.270" LastActivityDate="2016-06-18T14:11:44.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15260" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15252" CreationDate="2016-06-18T18:12:55.653" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Look for persuasion methods. Read any book written for sales people. They use these methods a lot. Every time when I came across a sales person I bring my shield up because I know for a fact that most of them are well trained in these methods. For them it is a way of living &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10140" LastActivityDate="2016-06-18T18:12:55.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15261" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8556" CreationDate="2016-06-18T20:21:42.460" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I myself have not come across a complete end-to-end hippocampal model, but I would imagine that such an implementation would be quite broad in scope. Edmund Rolls has some nice papers on the hippocampus, one of which is a particularly informative and recent review: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kesner RP, and Rolls ET. A computational theory of hippocampal function, and tests of the theory: New developments. &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews&lt;/em&gt; 48 (2015) 92-147 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oxcns.org/papers/539%20Kesner%20Rolls%202014%20A%20theory%20of%20hippocampal%20function.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF here (Second page missing?)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll be very interested to read other answers to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8895" LastActivityDate="2016-06-18T20:21:42.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15263" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13407" CreationDate="2016-06-18T23:41:27.623" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have one particular area to offer as a potential example. Keep in mind that likely no formalization of psychological concepts has heretofore been comprehensive (and the utility of a comprehensive &quot;model&quot; may be questionable, but I'll leave this for my more philosophical colleagues to consider).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Reinforcement Learning&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not a psychologist, but from what I can tell, both classical and instrumental conditioning are formalized in reinforcement learning. For instance, many but not all aspects of classical conditioning may be captured by models such as the Rescorla-Wagner rule. One of the most successful models of instrumental control has been the temporal-difference learning algorithm (Sutton &amp;amp; Barto 1998), which contributed significantly to our understanding of the computational function of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons in several species (Schultz, Dayan, and Montague 1997; Schultz, 2015; Eschel et al 2015). The mathematical details will not be presented here since excellent treatments exist elsewhere (Sutton &amp;amp; Barto 1998; Dayan &amp;amp; Abbott, 2001). Briefly put, not only has the temporal difference learning rule mathematically formalized elements of psychological theories of behavioural control (mapping from behavioural to algorithmic level), but its critical element (the reward prediction error) has also been successfully mapped to neural substrates. (For many years, these neural substrates were independently thought to be involved in reward learning.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;A note on further implications&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know you didn't ask directly about this, but I can't help myself :P &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of particular interest in recent years relates to the fact that instrumental control can be further subdivided into model-free (MF; aka &quot;habitual&quot;) and model-based (MB; &quot;goal-directed&quot;) systems (Dolan &amp;amp; Dayan, 2013), and that humans ostensibly use a combination of the two during sequential planning tasks (Daw et al. 2011). Probing the balance of MB/MF control in healthy controls and neuropsychiatric patients has suggested that deficits in goal-directed control may, in fact, be a cross-cutting neuropsychiatric symptom dimension spanning eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and addiction (Gillan et al. 2016). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.&lt;a href=&quot;https://webdocs.cs.ualberta.ca/~sutton/book/the-book.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sutton &amp;amp; Barto. &lt;em&gt;Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction&lt;/em&gt; (1998)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2. Schultz, W., Dayan, P., &amp;amp; Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; (New York, N.Y.), 275(5306), 1593–1599.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;3. Schultz, W. (2015). Neuronal Reward and Decision Signals: From Theories to Data. &lt;em&gt;Physiological Reviews&lt;/em&gt;, 95(3), 853–951.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;4. Eshel, N., Bukwich, M., Rao, V., Hemmelder, V., Tian, J., &amp;amp; Uchida, N. (2015). Arithmetic and local circuitry underlying dopamine prediction errors. &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;6. Dayan, P., &amp;amp; Abbott, L. F. (2001). Theoretical Neuroscience: Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems. Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;6. Dolan, R. J., &amp;amp; Dayan, P. (2013). Goals and habits in the brain. &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt;, 80(2), 312–325.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;7. Daw, N. D., Gershman, S. J., Seymour, B., Dayan, P., &amp;amp; Dolan, R. J. (2011). Model-based influences on humans’ choices and striatal prediction errors. &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt;, 69(6), 1204–1215.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;8. Gillan, C. M., Kosinski, M., Whelan, R., Phelps, E. A., &amp;amp; Daw, N. D. (2016). Characterizing a psychiatric symptom dimension related to deficits in goal-directed control. &lt;em&gt;eLife&lt;/em&gt;, 5, 1–24.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;9. Voon, V. et al. (2014). Disorders of compulsivity: a common bias towards learning habits. &lt;em&gt;Molecular Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 20(October 2013), 1–8.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;10. Voon, V. et al. (2015). Motivation and value influences in the relative balance of goal-directed and habitual behaviours in obsessive-compulsive disorder. &lt;em&gt;Translational Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 5(11), e670. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8895" LastActivityDate="2016-06-18T23:41:27.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15264" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13144" CreationDate="2016-06-19T00:17:58.840" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Question 1: I am unaware of any studies directly addressing the epidemiology of self-medication with cannabis in cases of treatment-resistant depression (it seems like that is what you are asking about). However, there are several lines of therapy that have demonstrated effectiveness in depression beyond the first line antidepressants &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.canmat.org/guides.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(CANMAT Depression Guidelines)&lt;/a&gt;. None of these include marijuana or cannabinoids.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question 2: There is (to my knowledge) absolutely no evidence that marijuana is an effective treatment for depression. The article by Volkow et al. (2014) although titled &quot;Adverse Effects,&quot; also reviews conditions for which evidence of effectiveness exists for &lt;em&gt;symptomatic&lt;/em&gt; treatment with marijuana or cannabinoids. These conditions include glaucoma, nausea, AIDS-associated anorexia and wasting syndrome, chronic pain, inflammation, multiple sclerosis, and epilepsy (Volkow et al. 2014). That being said, the quality of that evidence is unclear to me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It must also be mentioned that studies will generally be limited by heterogeneous cannabinoid content in the active compound. Not all cannabinoids are created equal, and from what I understand one of the potentially most medically useful cannabinoids is cannabidiol (CBD; Curran et al., 2016); THC and CBD may have opposing effects, with THC generally associated with &lt;em&gt;impairments&lt;/em&gt; across several psychological functions (Curran et al. 2016). On the other hand, small studies have suggested a potential role for CBD (but &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; THC) in augmenting psychotherapeutic treatment of some anxiety disorders. The evidence thus far seems to suggest that marijuana would not have a role in treatment of psychiatric disorders in general, let alone depression, but that further research about the effects of isolated CBD might be warranted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Reference&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Volkow, N. D., et al. (2014). Adverse Health Effects of Marijuana Use. &lt;em&gt;New England Journal of Medicine&lt;/em&gt;, 370(23), 2219–2227.    &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Curran, H. V, Freeman, T, P., Mokrysz, C., Lewis D, A., Morgan, C, J, A., &amp;amp; Parsons, L. H. (2016). Keep off the grass? Cannabis, cognition and addiction. &lt;em&gt;Nature Reviews Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 17(5), 293–306.   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baldwin, D. S., Anderson, I. M., Nutt, D. J., Allgulander, C., Bandelow, B., den Boer, J. a, … Wittchen, H.-U. (2014). Evidence-based pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a revision of the 2005 guidelines from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 28, 403–39.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8895" LastActivityDate="2016-06-19T00:17:58.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15265" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15252" CreationDate="2016-06-19T07:40:08.277" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From a hackers perspective I would recommend to check out a term called &quot;social engineering&quot;. This is all about manipulating people in order to get sensitive information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A great book about this is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://g.co/kgs/sbIwNa&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Art of Human Hacking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12935" LastActivityDate="2016-06-19T07:40:08.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15266" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-19T14:22:28.047" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are some of the advantages &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nengo.ca/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nengo&lt;/a&gt; offer as a framework for modeling memory&#xA;related cognitive processes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12939" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-06-22T15:35:20.233" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T15:35:20.233" Title="Advantages of Nengo for memory related tasks" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;nef&gt;&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2016-07-13T16:19:51.133" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15267" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8780" CreationDate="2016-06-19T14:42:18.017" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could check out the &lt;a href=&quot;http://match.ctglab.nl/#/home&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meta-Analysis of Twin Correlations and Heritability (MATCH) website&lt;/a&gt; which is fully interactive and searchable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following image is a screenshot from their results on Schizophrenia, which shows that generally the concordance (here reported as correlation) of diagnosis between MZ twins is generally quite a bit higher than across DZ twins:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/j4CkC.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/j4CkC.png&quot; alt=&quot;all = both sexes; ss = same sex; m = male; f = female; mz = monozygotic; dz = dizygotic; dos = ?&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8895" LastActivityDate="2016-06-19T14:42:18.017" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15268" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15205" CreationDate="2016-06-19T19:07:00.390" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer would be no. To go along with the comments babies feel emotions however do not know words. As they grow adults help them organize their emotions for example a baby cries with frustration and anger because they may be hungry as you get older you have learned how to deal with that experience. As it is impossible to feel any emotion without having a thought first, emotions stem from what we are thinking which would be mostly concepts we don't think in random words. Therefore if we like to be happy we will think about things or do things that make us such. We are made to feel a wide range of emotions and they come and go. Knowing a word is not going to help someone know happiness better. Learning to control thoughts would be much more helpful. Just as a baby feels all emotions it does not yet understand them. What good would a huge vocabulary be if we could not put together concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10187" LastActivityDate="2016-06-19T19:07:00.390" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15271" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-20T04:35:15.017" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose you are in a room with two other persons, both of them talking. If you want to hear one of them, you are able to block out the other even though he is talking (although not very loud). How our brain does this as if the other person is not talking, even though the sound waves from both the persons are entering your ears?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11802" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T06:00:07.093" Title="Blocking out unwanted sound sources" Tags="&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15272" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-20T07:55:09.457" Score="6" ViewCount="1601" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neurons are mostly unidirectional, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt; electrical impulses enter from one end and leave through the other. Are there bidirectional neurons as well, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, neurons that have a receiving end and a transmitting end that are not mutually exclusive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11802" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-20T13:01:26.683" LastActivityDate="2018-01-13T20:57:08.877" Title="Are there bidirectional neurons?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15273" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-20T09:27:43.677" Score="4" ViewCount="434" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_contours#/media/File:Kanizsa_triangle.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kanizsa Triangle&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AEjXN.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AEjXN.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_contours#/media/File:Kanizsa_triangle.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kanizsa Triangle&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was socialized in a &quot;western&quot; world, where I learned mathematics for about 13 years; I have designed products surrounding me using geometric forms and so forth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I wonder if somebody would see the triangle who never or rarely saw a triangle before?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12952" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-06-24T23:11:20.243" LastActivityDate="2016-06-24T23:11:20.243" Title="Is prior experience necessary to perceive the Kanizsa triangle illusion?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;gestalt-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15274" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-20T09:53:19.167" Score="8" ViewCount="3623" Body="&lt;p&gt;Different areas of the inner ear (the cochlea) are sensitive to different acoustic frequencies. Hence, the cochlea basically performs a fast Fourier transform on the audio signal. This spectral information is subsequently sent to the auditory cortex. But &lt;strong&gt;how does the cochlea encodes the intensity of an acoustic stimulus?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11802" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-07-01T16:27:08.760" LastActivityDate="2016-07-01T16:27:08.760" Title="How does the inner ear encode sound intensity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15275" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15274" CreationDate="2016-06-20T11:20:20.237" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hair cells in the cochlea can code sound intensity via the amount of neurotransmitter they release. Higher sound levels result in more neurotransmitter release and in turn to higher firing rates in the spiral ganglion cells of the auditory nerve. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Sound waves are picked up by the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/ncomms/journal/v2/n10/full/ncomms1533.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mechanoreceptors&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in the inner ear: the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10867/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;hair cells&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Hair cells release the excitatory neurotransmitter &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurotransporter.org/glutamate.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;glutamate&lt;/a&gt;. Dependent on the direction of the deflection of the hairs (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10867/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stereocilia&lt;/a&gt;) on the hair cells, the hair cell releases more neurotransmitter (activation) or less (inhibition) than at its resting state (Fig. 1). The released glutamate activates the primary sensory neurons that connect to the hair cells, namely the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cochlea.eu/en/cochlea/organ-of-corti/innervation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;spiral ganglion cells&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (SGCs). The axons of the SGCs combine to form the auditory nerve &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/jphysiol.2004.082214/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Fuchs, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z88n7.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z88n7.gif&quot; alt=&quot;HC&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Hair cells are activated when their stereocilia are bent in one direction (depolarization) or inhibited when the cilia bend to the other direction (hyperpolarization). source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.susqneuro.com/publications/dizzy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yanowski&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hair cell cilia contain mechanoreceptor proteins, that open or close, dependent on the direction in which the cilia bend (Fig. 2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y7Hdi.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y7Hdi.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;mechanoRs&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Mechanoreceptors in the cochlear hair cell. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v15/n9/full/nrn3786.html?WT.feed_name=subjects_hair-cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hudspeth (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because sound waves have sinusoidal shapes, hair cells undergo cycles of activation and inhibition, closely following the input waves. Louder stimuli cause the cilia to bend further. This causes larger responses in the hair cell and larger amounts of neurotransmitter to be released in the depolarizing phase of the auditory stimulus. This in turn leads to &lt;strong&gt;higher spike rates&lt;/strong&gt; in the spiral ganglion cell axons &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/jphysiol.2004.082214/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Fuchs, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;. Spike rate in the spiral ganglion cells are thought to primarily encode sound intensity &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/43/15424.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Heil &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A secondary mechanism of loudness coding &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; be related to the fact that increased sound levels activate a larger area in the cochlea, due to the low-frequency tail (&lt;a href=&quot;http://research.meei.harvard.edu/eplhistory/Kiang_papers_CD_contents/1974_Kiang_Moxon.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kiang &amp;amp; Moxon, 1974&lt;/a&gt;). Hence, more neurons start firing at higher sound levels when the tone frequency is the same. However, although it is a plausible mechanism, it is a secondary intensity code, if any.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/jphysiol.2004.082214/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fuchs, &lt;em&gt;J Physiol&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;566&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 7–12&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/43/15424.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Heil &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; 2011; &lt;strong&gt;31&lt;/strong&gt;(43): 15424-37&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v15/n9/full/nrn3786.html?WT.feed_name=subjects_hair-cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hudspeth, &lt;em&gt;Nature Rev Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;15&lt;/strong&gt;: 600–14&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://research.meei.harvard.edu/eplhistory/Kiang_papers_CD_contents/1974_Kiang_Moxon.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kiang &amp;amp; Moxon, &lt;em&gt;JASA&lt;/em&gt; 1954; &lt;strong&gt;55&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 620-30&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-30T18:33:45.543" LastActivityDate="2016-06-30T18:33:45.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15276" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15272" CreationDate="2016-06-20T12:56:33.463" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The classical, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/link-suggestion/wpcd_2008-09_augmented/wp/c/Chemical_synapse.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;chemical synapse&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; offers only one-way traffic. Under physiological conditions, the presynaptic neuron releases vesicles at its axon terminal and the postsynaptic neuron expresses the corresponding receptor proteins in the dendritic region. Conversely, the presynaptic neuron lacks the receptor molecules and the postsynaptic neuron lacks the secretory machinery to release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11009/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2001)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note, however, that the presynaptic neuron may express regulatory neurotransmitter receptors that bind its own released neurotransmitter, but these do not generate action potentials. And note that the postsynaptic neuron may release neuromodulators in the synaptic cleft. However, these compounds do not initiate action potentials, but have only a regulatory role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is, however, also the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_01/d_01_m/d_01_m_ana/d_01_m_ana.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;electrical synapse&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, mediated by gap junctions. These gap junctions are protein pores that electrically and chemically connect adjacent neurons directly. In this case, potential changes generated in one cell may freely spread like a wave to other neighboring cells. Note that this mode of electric coupling does not induce action potentials, but it represents the passive spread of voltage differences, called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/electrotonic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;electrotonic coupling&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4019879/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Mylvaganam &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2014)&lt;/a&gt;. Which cell initiates the wave is irrelevant, as the wave can spread to each cell as long as it is connection via gap junctions. Although these gap junctions are referred to as &lt;em&gt;electrical synapses&lt;/em&gt;, the terminology &lt;em&gt;presynaptic&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;postsynaptic&lt;/em&gt; applies in a much looser sense, as any neuron in the tissue can act as either one &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005273604000410&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Sheriar, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4019879/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mylvaganam &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Physiol&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;: 172&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11009/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds.), &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;. 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates (2001)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005273604000410&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sherair &lt;em&gt;BBA&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;1662&lt;/strong&gt;(1–2): 113–37&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-21T05:33:54.743" LastActivityDate="2016-06-21T05:33:54.743" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15273" CreationDate="2016-06-20T14:02:08.373" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a difficult question to answer. My educated guess is that the appearance of the triangle, and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://gestaltrevision.be/en/what-we-do/overview/39-research-areas/mid-level/93-subjective-contours&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;illusionary contours&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in general, would persist, even in individuals who have never seen a triangle before in their lives. I &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; they would perceive the illusionary contours, but it might just not make sense to them, as the shapes may be unfamilair to them. In other words, they would not &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/assn_cor.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;associate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; the form with something meaningful. The reason why I &lt;em&gt;expect&lt;/em&gt; previous experience with geometrical shapes is unimportant for illusiuonary contours to be perceived is two-fold:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Illusionary contours are generated in the secondary visual cortex (V2), which is a low-level part of the visual system. It performs relatively simple processing such as the coding of orientations, contours and the perception of background and foreground &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v10/n10/full/nn1975.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Anzai &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2007)&lt;/a&gt;. Such &lt;strong&gt;low-level processing&lt;/strong&gt; is, expectedly, &lt;strong&gt;largely innate&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The neural representations of illusionary contours have been shown in a variety of species. Admittedly, most electrophysiological evidence comes from primates (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/224/4654/1260&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Heydt, 1984)&lt;/a&gt;, but &lt;strong&gt;illusionary contours have even been shown to be recognized by cuttlefish&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3350684/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Zylinsk &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. Hence, given the fact that relatively uncomplicated species like cuttlefish are able to successfully perceive illusionary contours, I doubt that prior experience in the geometry of the illusionary contour is a critical factor in perceiving it. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v10/n10/full/nn1975.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Anzal &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Nature Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;10&lt;/strong&gt;: 1313 - 21&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/224/4654/1260&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Heydt, &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; (1984); &lt;strong&gt;224&lt;/strong&gt;(4654): 1260-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3350684/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Zylinsk &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Proc Biol Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;279&lt;/strong&gt;(1737): 2386–90&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-06-23T18:28:08.573" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T18:28:08.573" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15279" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15219" CreationDate="2016-06-20T15:21:28.353" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;These terms are defined by the underlying theory of Intelligence.  For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social Intelligence (SI) comes from a definition by Edward Thorndike in 1920.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotional Intelligence (EI) (or EQ - Q=Quota) first appeared in a 1964 paper by Michael Beldoch, later by Goleman.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Then there is Interpersonal &amp;amp; Intrapersonal Intelligences from Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligence theory.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally speaking, they pertain to similar concepts with some overlap from theory to theory.  When speaking of this type of intelligence it is often recommended to cite the theory the discussion is based on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11474" LastEditorUserId="11474" LastEditDate="2016-06-20T15:27:49.060" LastActivityDate="2016-06-20T15:27:49.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15280" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-20T19:04:45.950" Score="3" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is often said that infants / toddlers* develop in a focused manner. I am specifically interested in the notion  that a quick development of speech occurs at the expense of motor skill development and &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there scientific evidence that speech and motor control development are indeed competitive&lt;/strong&gt;, in the sense that a quick development of motor control inhibits speech development, or &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can they develop more or less in parallel as well?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;*With infants / toddlers I mean normal, healthy kids between 0 and 24 months of age.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12960" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-20T20:43:04.567" LastActivityDate="2016-06-20T20:43:04.567" Title="Does increased motor development always occur at the expense of speech development, or vice versa?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15281" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15231" CreationDate="2016-06-20T20:13:33.900" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question cannot be answered in the form in which you asked it both because of the limits of current neuroscientific theories and methodologies when it comes to determining the structures of complex neural representations (although we have made headway in a few cases such as place cells and grid cells), and because neural representations are not really analogous to our colloquial concepts of simple mappings from numbers to images (ex. pixel, vector, wavelet, etc. bases for digital image representation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would encourage you to think, not only in terms of these representational formats privileged by Von Neumann style computer architectures (i.e. normal computers) with separate processing and digital memory systems, but in terms of a neural computer with distributed computation and memory. Neuroscientists typically think of neural representation in visual perception as occurring at a number of stages of increased abstraction. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;At the retina&lt;/a&gt;, the image is represented roughly in terms of what you might think of as pixels, but it is really just a set of photosensors and attached neurons that are activated due to light hitting the retina in different places at different frequencies and amplitudes. In &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex#Primary_visual_cortex_.28V1.29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;V1 or primary visual cortex&lt;/a&gt;, the representation is in terms of what can be thought of as &quot;edge detectors.&quot; In V2, the cells are tuned for a variety of slightly more complex properties such as  such as orientation, spatial frequency, color, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binocular_disparity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;binocular disparity&lt;/a&gt; (an important piece of information for 3D perception.) As you go up through V3, V4, V5, and V6, the representations becomes more and more complex until they contain information about the structure of the underlying concept itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 3-dimensionality does not come in until the visual information from both eyes is combined with top-down information about how things tend to be in the world (which comes from other senses and experiences as well) in order to infer the likely shape of the object. It is unclear whether there is any place in the brain where an image is represented explicitly as a 3D model of a visual object. More likely the raw perceptual data such as colors and patterns is represented in one area and is associated with the more object-centric structural representation in another area and this association causes the co-activation of all the neurons relevant to the perception of the object in it's three dimensional form. The information is neither represented in one area of the brain nor in one scheme but is distributed across a large number of neurons with different degrees of activation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can also think of this in terms of the contemporary theory of enactive perception, which states that the brain represents information in terms of state-action-observation contingencies. In this theory, there is no &quot;image&quot; present at all, but only a set of neural activations which correlate with prior experience (where the correlations are stored in terms of associative links between neurons creating a causal activation path along which &quot;information&quot; travels) and relationships between potential actions (either low level motor actions of the retina or other muscles, or higher level actions such as taking a step forward) and their likely consequences (both low level perceptual consequences such as the expected changes in the sensory data when an action such as moving the head is taken and higher level perceptual and conceptual consequences such as a cup falling when you choose to open your hand and the associated experiences.) In this more comprehensive picture, visual information cannot be strictly separated from from conceptual and multi-sensory information and so three-dimensional visual information is represented both in terms of neural activations causally associated with the structure of the perceived object as well as the activations associated with all the other conceptual beliefs and perceptual expectations that relate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to read more, these sources should be a good start: &lt;a href=&quot;http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/39939727/Transient_and_sustained_activity_in_a_di20151112-5796-vgowyp.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ56TQJRTWSMTNPEA&amp;amp;Expires=1466455672&amp;amp;Signature=duYuMAjKs9%2B8UnJE6t8CgU1ZdXU%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DTransient_and_sustained_activity_in_a_di.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Neuroscience paper&quot;&gt;distributed neural memory&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/25/19/4806.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Distributed neural representation of a higher order process&quot;&gt;distributed neural representation of a higher order process&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/action-perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Action in perception&quot;&gt;perception as associations between actions and observations&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also a few sources that offer direct experimental evidence towards your question, but do not provide as much of a conceptual introduction to neural computation and representation. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2883007/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Neural computations underlying depth perception&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v8/n5/full/nrn2131.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Binocular depth perception and the cerebral cortex&lt;/a&gt; as a start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question also makes reference to rotating an object &quot;in the mind's eye.&quot; There is also a very large body of research on this phenomenon, which is called &quot;mental rotation.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_rotation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; is a good place to start but there is a lot more to say about this interesting phenomenon, so feel free to ask a related question if you are curious!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11767" LastEditorUserId="11767" LastEditDate="2016-06-20T20:20:41.523" LastActivityDate="2016-06-20T20:20:41.523" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15282" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-21T00:22:41.373" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are quite a few meta-analyses of the relationship between personality and job performance (for a review, see Barrick &amp;amp; Mount, 2012; and specific meta-analyses: Barrick &amp;amp; Mount, 1991; Murray R Barrick, Michael K Mount, &amp;amp; Timothy A Judge, 2001; Hurtz &amp;amp; Donovan, 2000; J. Salgado, 1997; Tett, Jackson, &amp;amp; Rothstein, 1991). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These often come up with raw meta-analytic mean correlations between conscientiousness and job performance of around r = .15.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is a lot of discussion in general at the moment about replicability  and publication bias. In particular, if papers that showed a correlation between personality and job performance, were more likely to be published, then this would inflate the meta-analytic estimate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, there have been quite a few studies of personality and performance with huge sample sizes (10,000+) and these would quite likely be published regardless of the exact results, and they also would have sufficient statistical power to detect even small effects. And for most meta-analyses, large sample size studies get a greater weighting in the estimation process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I seem to remember reading a paper a few months back that examined this question. If I recall, the authors concluded that the meta-analytic estimate of relationship between conscientiousness and performance might be inflated slightly. However,  I can't remember what was the reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Questions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What research has been conducted on publication bias or other factors that might influence the accuracy of the meta-analytic estimate of the relationship between personality (and conscientiousness specifically) and job performance?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the evidence for and against this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T03:43:16.403" Title="Does the meta-analytic literature overestimate the relationship between conscientiousness and job performance?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;selection-recruitment&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15283" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15351" CreationDate="2016-06-21T00:56:39.123" Score="2" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to read up on the phenomena where one person's desire/motivation to do a certain task or obligation within a system of process is influenced by whether he thinks others in that process are also doing their job. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;John's willingness to report a crime to the police is low because he feels the cops in his town are incompetent. He thinks his efforts will just be wasted&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Mike's desire to recycle is high because he sees how serious the city council are in collecting and separating the waste&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Currently I'm thinking Ryan &amp;amp; Deci's Self-determination Theory might fit to explain this (the competence part or the 3 SDT pillars), but SDT only concerns with the individual's sense of achievement/competence. My angle is more like &quot;I will do [won't do] my part because I know someone else down the line will do [won't do] their part to achieve the objective&quot;, so there is a social/systems element to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm also thinking maybe it's literature around scepticism, but that concept is closer to James Randi-esque 'scientific scepticism' rather than what I'm going for. Pessimism doesn't really work as well, since it deals mostly with personal/internal factors as opposed to external..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any ideas what theory/literature talks about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: answered my own question below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12963" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-29T10:39:49.610" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T10:39:49.610" Title="What theory explains where motivation to do something depends on perception of others' input?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15284" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12542" CreationDate="2016-06-21T02:45:47.683" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not an answer to your question but you probably want lookup Howard Gardner and his theory of Multiple Intelligence (MI).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic proposition here is that the IQ test (origins in the work by Alfred Binet) is not a wholistic measure of intelligence and that it measures the ability of one to think in a certain expected way.  Gardner proposes that there are many ways to think (and thus how one learns) and he comes up with 7 distinctly different types of intelligence (his later work adds more).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not familiar with your child subjects, but in comparison if you measure IQ of some Autistic children they may measure extremely high IQ, but may be perceived as slow or unresponsive to other tasks like social interaction (or low &quot;EQ&quot;).  This does not mean that they are either intelligent or not intelligent, just that they think in a different way than the observer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Speed (and age) is a factor of intelligence, but irrelevant if the underlying measure is fundamentally flawed.  For example, you can be quick at maths or slow at maths, this will just tell you if you are intelligent at mathematical thinking.  But it will not tell you is your are &quot;intelligent&quot; because you could be quick to learn music rhythms (thus musically intelligent) but this is not measured in IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11474" LastActivityDate="2016-06-21T02:45:47.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15285" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12343" CreationDate="2016-06-21T03:04:51.217" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Howard Gardner and his theory of Multiple Intelligence, I can propose that there is no link between IQ and the ability to mimic sound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The IQ test (originating in the work by Alfred Binet) is not a measure of intelligence pre-se, but rather a measure of the ability of the subject to comprehend in the manner expected.  [Look for Gardner's explanation of the Hammer, Screw Driver and Nail question.]  Gardner proposes that we have the ability to either master or lack in 7 different types of intelligence.  (Not as in one stronger than the other, more like at different levels for each one.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ measures some elements of linguistic, mathematical and spacial intelligence, but does not measure the others.  According to Gardner, the musical intelligence is the ability to comprehend tones, and patterns in sound quicker than others.  I thus propose that mimicking should have some direct correlation with Musical Intelligence, and since Musical Intelligence in not a measure in the IQ test there will be no link.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11474" LastEditorUserId="11474" LastEditDate="2016-06-21T14:29:04.950" LastActivityDate="2016-06-21T14:29:04.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15286" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15288" CreationDate="2016-06-21T10:29:05.773" Score="5" ViewCount="1043" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many people, especially teenagers, are insecure about some aspects. They may be insecure about their looks, their (odd) behavior, or may question whether they belong to a group (of friends, colleagues and what not). I quickly looked at some social psychological literature but I could only find that in some cultures people are more self-oriented and in others they are more group-oriented (see the abstract of this &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com.proxy-ub.rug.nl/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-08120-2_3#page-1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;book&lt;/a&gt;, I was not able to read more). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I was wondering thus: why people are insecure?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I would consider an evolutionary perspective, insecurity (1) should have some beneficial effects, (2) should disappear if harmful for people, or (3) is not harmful enough to disappear. It is not likely to be the second for it then should not exist, so hypothesis (1) and (3) remain. Is there some benefit to being insecure, or is their some other explanation for why it exists?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-21T13:19:14.587" LastActivityDate="2017-06-25T19:27:18.613" Title="Why are people insecure?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;social-desirability&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15287" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15289" CreationDate="2016-06-21T12:31:34.807" Score="2" ViewCount="2097" Body="&lt;p&gt;As in title; is it possible/common for women to have fetishes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It always seemed to me that fetishes are related to men only. Is it true? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10379" LastActivityDate="2017-06-27T18:13:42.517" Title="Do women have fetishes?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15288" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15286" CreationDate="2016-06-21T13:16:50.163" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hypothesis (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The question is quite broad, as exemplified by the statement: &lt;em&gt;They may be insecure about their looks, their (odd) behavior, or may question whether they belong to a group (of friends, colleagues &lt;strong&gt;and what not&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally and anecdotally, I think that a healthy &lt;strong&gt;self-doubt&lt;/strong&gt; forms the core of &lt;strong&gt;self-reflection&lt;/strong&gt; and allows a social animal like &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens&lt;/em&gt; to improve its behavior and mold itself according to the social structure with all its rights and obligations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To approach this question with a less opinion-based perspective, I think that the root of a possible answer is the question what happens when people &lt;strong&gt;lack any self-doubt&lt;/strong&gt;. I'm not a psychologist, but &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder#cite_note-pmid21430487-7&quot;&gt;narcissistic personality disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (NPD) comes to mind. The characteristic features of this condition are dominance, arrogance, superiority, power seeking, and disregard of others. All these traits seem to fit a total lack of self doubt &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/practicalpsychiatry/Abstract/2011/03000/Narcissistic_Personality_Disorder___A_Clinical.3.aspx&quot;&gt;(Ronningstam, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. However, some phenotypes of this condition may include insecure people, but it is just for the purpose of showing what people may turn into that lack self-doubt (and admittedly oversimplifying NPD). The typical NPD sufferer therefore won't fit in well in a social structure, and humankind, obviously, has built highly complex social societies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of evolution, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2011/11/human-evolution.aspx&quot;&gt;Joseph Henrich&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; explains that long before the origins of agriculture, when humans expanded across the globe from the arid deserts of Australia to the frozen tundra of the Canadian Arctic, survival in the immense diversity of habitats depended not on specific genetic adaptations, but on large bodies of culturally transmitted know-how, abilities, and skills that &lt;strong&gt;no single individual could figure out in his or her lifetime&lt;/strong&gt;. Even among &lt;strong&gt;foraging societies, humans show an immense variety of social organizations, group sizes, kinship structures, and mating patterns&lt;/strong&gt;. He explains that this diversity is at least partially rooted in culturally-acquired and &lt;strong&gt;widely shared social rules&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/practicalpsychiatry/Abstract/2011/03000/Narcissistic_Personality_Disorder___A_Clinical.3.aspx&quot;&gt;Ronningstam, J Psychiatric Practice (2011); &lt;strong&gt;17&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 89–99&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2016-06-21T13:16:50.163" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15289" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15287" CreationDate="2016-06-21T13:57:17.517" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a non-clinical sample in a study on paraphilic sexual interests, &lt;a href=&quot;http://sax.sagepub.com/content/early/2014/03/05/1079063214525645.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dawson et al. (2016)&lt;/a&gt; report that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fisher’s exact test of proportions revealed that a significantly greater proportion of men reported arousal to activities related to voyeurism, fetishism, sadism, biastophilia, and urophilia compared with women (all ps &amp;lt; .05). A greater proportion of men were also more likely to endorse items related to frotteurism, hebephilia, and pedophilia compared with women (all ps &gt; .05 and &amp;lt; .10). Similar proportions of men and women reported being aroused by activities involving exhibitionism, scatologia, transvestic fetishism, masochism, scatophilia, and zoophilia (all ps &gt; .10). [Absolute numbers are reported in table 4 on page 13 of the PDF.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;A fortiori&lt;/em&gt; the answer is &lt;strong&gt;yes&lt;/strong&gt;, women do »have fetishes«.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Samantha J. Dawson/Brittany A. Bannerman/Martin L. Lalumière. 2016. Paraphilic Interests: An Examination of Sex Differences in a Nonclinical Sample. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of&#xA;Research and Treatment 28(1), pp. 20–45.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8427" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-06-22T17:24:39.367" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T17:24:39.367" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15290" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-21T16:57:39.703" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know someone who I believe to be a pathological lier. The sow fiction into almost everything they say to some degree and when pressed make up a more elaborate lie to cover the fiction. Often the lies are gross exaggerations with some truth to them. I read that %40  of people diagnosed with PL have some sort of neurological disorder, and that on average they are below the median IQ. This individual is very intelligent and to my knowledge has no neurological disorders. I want to get this person help but the biggest lie they tell is that don't lie). Is there treatment for for PL medical or cognitive? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12967" LastActivityDate="2016-06-21T16:57:39.703" Title="What is the treatment for Pathological Liars?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-27T22:24:06.497" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15291" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15406" CreationDate="2016-06-21T19:30:28.980" Score="1" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my layman's experience, I'm vaguely aware there are four base emotions: &lt;strong&gt;happy, sad, afraid/surprised, and angry/disgusted&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/02/new-research-says-there-are-only-four-emotions/283560/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some background:  We're training an AI to learn the difference between happy voices and angry voices.  We've had some success, by showing it 200 &lt;strong&gt;angry&lt;/strong&gt; audio clips, 200 &lt;strong&gt;happy&lt;/strong&gt; audio clips, and 200 &lt;strong&gt;neutral&lt;/strong&gt;.  It can now reasonably tell when we're talking pleasantly or confrontationally... but the accuracy could be better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our total training dataset is made up of these audio clips: &lt;strong&gt;Happy, angry, neutral, calm, sad, fearful, disgust, and surprised&lt;/strong&gt;. I think we can be more accurate by including these emotions.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this is the problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Happy/angry/neutral span opposite ends of a spectrum; like binary.  It's easy to say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Happy     1&#xA;Neutral   0&#xA;Angry    -1&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's the shape of the data we need to train a neural network to recognize 'Happy'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question would be, is there any 'right answer' on filling in these blanks?  I've given it my best guesses below, but I'm hoping for something more scientific....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Happy     1&#xA;Angry    -1&#xA;Neutral   0&#xA;Calm      X  (0.5?)&#xA;Sad       X  (-1?)&#xA;Fearful   X  (-0.5?)&#xA;Disgust   X  (-0.75?)&#xA;Surprised X  (0.75?)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; &#xA;1: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/02/new-research-says-there-are-only-four-emotions/283560/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/02/new-research-says-there-are-only-four-emotions/283560/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3020" LastEditorUserId="3020" LastEditDate="2016-06-21T19:47:53.297" LastActivityDate="2016-07-06T19:42:12.760" Title="Other emotions relative to angry/happy base emotions" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15293" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-21T22:47:47.243" Score="3" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Background: I have constructed a game theoretic model of romantic advances. There are a number of Nash equilibria in this model, distinguished by the frequency with which each sex makes romantic advances. I wish to know which equilibrium (if any) might be an accurate description of reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Initial research: I've found it surprisingly difficult to find studies of the sort I'm, after. Thus far I have found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Article in psychology today, with a study showing that men are more likely to have asked for a first date in the last year, and less likely to have received a request for a first date than women - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-how-and-why-sex-differences/201104/why-dont-women-ask-men-out-first-dates&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-how-and-why-sex-differences/201104/why-dont-women-ask-men-out-first-dates&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Data from dating site OKCupid, showing that men send out first messages at roughly 3.5 times the rate that women do - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.okcupid.com/deep-end/a-womans-advantage&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.okcupid.com/deep-end/a-womans-advantage&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question: Does anyone know of any further, 'stronger' studies indicating whether one sex makes romantic advances more frequently than the other? By 'romantic advances' here, I have in mind asking for first dates, requesting contact details, initiating first kiss, initiating first sexual contact, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12858" LastActivityDate="2016-06-21T22:47:47.243" Title="Is there evidence that heterosexual males make 'romantic advances' more often than heterosexual females?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15295" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15271" CreationDate="2016-06-22T06:00:07.093" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You're not really blocking them out. It's more that you're processing the language of the person you're focusing on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could do exactly what you describe at reasonably high volume levels. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though the level is not equal for all people. Young children and people with attention difficulties &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://eideneurolearningblog.blogspot.com/2012/01/why-its-hard-to-listen-to-two-people.html?m=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Why it's Difficult to Listen to two People&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T06:00:07.093" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15296" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-22T14:54:13.750" Score="1" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard an anecdotal opinion that according to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis, people who don't fulfill themselves sexually tend to be more diligent. I would like to know; was any research conducted to confirm that statement?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &quot;don't fulfill themselves sexually&quot; I mean that they are abstinent or unfulfilled&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &quot;more diligent&quot; I mean that they work harder or are more determined to &lt;strong&gt;achieve&lt;/strong&gt; their goals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All I could find to reference my question is defence mechanism described by Freud, called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublimation_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sublimation&lt;/a&gt;. I would like to know if any group-experiment based research can support this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is very similar question already on cogsci &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3849/can-motivation-for-sex-be-transformed-into-productive-motivation/3855#3855&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, which seems to provide conclusion that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The question &quot;What is the effect of sexual abstinence on intellectual&#xA;  and artistic achievment?&quot; has specifically been answered by studies on&#xA;  celibacy, which show either no or a negative effect (Baumeister, Dale,&#xA;  &amp;amp; Sommer, 1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10379" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T08:25:33.640" Title="Correlation between sex and achievement" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-06-13T08:26:00.817" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15297" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13144" CreationDate="2016-06-22T17:57:17.563" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've had several patients who asserted that marijuana use improves their anxiety or depressive symptoms. Some report an increase in motivation. I'm not aware of any evidence that cannabis is safe and effective for depression, but I wouldn't rule out the possibility that some subset of patients might benefit from it's use. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11812" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T17:57:17.563" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15298" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15286" CreationDate="2016-06-22T18:05:02.363" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suggest you read about attachment theory. The most common reason for insecurity is a failure to form secure attachments or a traumatic loss of an attachment. This is especially harmful in early childhood. By the way, narcissistic personality disorder is invariably associated (and caused by) severe insecurity. It is the result of an attempt to overcome that insecurity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11812" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-23T07:47:40.543" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T07:47:40.543" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15299" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15249" CreationDate="2016-06-22T18:08:12.717" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, that is the consensus view among psychiatrists and clinical psychologists (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23240706&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Parker &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012&lt;/a&gt;). A commonly referenced authoritative guideline for treatment of major depressive disorder is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg90/chapter/1-Guidance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NICE guide&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23240706&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Parker &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Acta Psychiatr Scand&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;128&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 271-81&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11812" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-22T21:14:22.400" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T21:14:22.400" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15300" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15273" CreationDate="2016-06-22T19:24:40.987" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that illusory contours could be experienced independently of cultural influence: a person would see a figure but she would not know it is a &quot;triangle&quot;. The reason is that illusory contours as the ones you see in the figure share many of their properties with illusory phenomena that could be obtained with simple alignments of image features. As such, the illusion of a contour can be obtained also with overall irregular shape, although the regularity of the figure could facilitate the occurrence. There are several examples of irregular figures with illusory contours. See for the phenomenon of neon color spreading. Displays in this case easily allow more complex patterns, see for example:&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.blelb.ch/oldblelbsite/english/blelbspots/spot05/expspot05_en.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.blelb.ch/oldblelbsite/english/blelbspots/spot05/expspot05_en.htm&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12978" LastActivityDate="2016-06-22T19:24:40.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15301" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-22T19:46:54.960" Score="5" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking about the mechanism by which an animal has built in preferences for some visual objects in the real world. The most well known example is the seagull chicks and pecking at a red dot or stripe:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2GTzO.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2GTzO.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can think of other examples that expose preferences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Human male preference for nubile females&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Human baby preference for human face over a rock&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Human observers being able to predict election results based solely on photos of candidates&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that in each case there's some very rapid analysis of visual features taking place, and in case of newborn babies, there's not enough time to be &quot;taught&quot; to perceive something specific. This makes me ask:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any structures (adaptations) within the human brain which are responsible for our built in instincts and preferences?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2016-06-27T22:04:27.383" Title="Are animal instincts and preferences based on some brain micro structures?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15302" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-22T23:16:31.433" Score="6" ViewCount="259" Body="&lt;p&gt;On &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Spike-timing_dependent_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scholarpedia&lt;/a&gt; they introduce STDP (spike timing dependent plasticity) as a temporally asymmetric form of Hebbian learning, making it sound as if the original Hebbian rule still has relevance in neuroscience. On the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wiki page on Hebbian theory&lt;/a&gt;, however, it seems SDTP and Hebbian theory are pretty much synonyms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do all cases of neuron types that were previously thought to follow the Hebbian learning rule (fire together, wire together) actually follow the STDP rule? If not, are there statistics about how often each learning rule occurs in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2570" LastEditorUserId="2570" LastEditDate="2016-06-23T13:17:58.073" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T06:59:50.017" Title="Does STDP make the Hebbian learning rule redundant?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15282" CreationDate="2016-06-23T00:18:00.857" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm posting a summary here (thanks to @DJ Sims for directing me to the paper of interest). &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0141468&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kepes and McDaniel (2015)&lt;/a&gt; re-analysed data from an existing meta-analysis. The existing meta-analysis had been examining various moderators of the relationship between big 5 personality and job performance. Kepes and McDaniel performed a range of sensitivity analyses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They summarise their results as follows: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Publication bias analyses&#xA;  demonstrated that the validity of conscientiousness is moderately&#xA;  overestimated (by around 30%; a correlation difference of about .06).&#xA;  The misestimation of the validity appears to be due primarily to&#xA;  suppression of small effects sizes in the journal literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As evidence for publication bias, they show that the average validity for conscientiousness is lower in unpublished samples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results for the sub-group distributions of samples from journal&#xA;  articles (k = 67) and non-journal sources (k = 46) [indicate that] samples &#xA;  published in journal articles reported larger average&#xA;  effect size estimates (   $\bar{r}_{oRE}$   = .19) than samples from non-journal sources (&#xA;    $\bar{r}_{oRE}$ = .12.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;A few critical comments:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When publishing results showing the relationship between big 5 personality and performance, there are five correlations presented. Assuming that publication bias sometimes led to a requirement to have at least one significant correlation, then the publication bias should be less.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study does not cite or discuss other common meta-analyses on the Big 5 and job performance, which interestingly have often obtained meta-analytic estimates similar to what they say is the correct value. For example, the famous early meta-analysis by Barrick &amp;amp; Mount (1991) using 12,893 cases and 92 correlations obtained a mean raw correlation between conscientiousness and job proficiency of $\bar{r}$ = .13. In a meta-analysis by Hurtz and Donovan that exclusively used correlations for measures using the big 5, they obtained an overall validity for conscientiousness of $\bar{r}$ = .14. This also is very close to what might be expected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These traditional estimates of validity from previous meta-analyses are sample weighted means. Thus, they naturally weight large samples more. So, for example, one study with 2000 participants would be weighted as much as 20 studies each with 100 participants. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are good reasons to assume that publication bias would have less of an effect on large sample studies (e.g., n &gt; 1000). First, when the sample size is sufficiently large, the results become intrinsically interesting. Reviewers can not argue that it was merely a lack of statistical power. Second, such studies generally have sufficient power to detect correlations in the r = .10 area. For example, assuming a population correlation .10, alpha of .05, and a two-tailed test, to have at least 90% power to detect a significant correlation you would need at least 1,046 participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My take away from the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is probably publication bias in the literature in relation to small sample studies. I imagine this publication bias is relative. If I were to guess, I'd say strong bias at n &amp;lt; 100; moderate bias n &amp;lt; 200, and progressively less as you move to 500+.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kepes, S., &amp;amp; McDaniel, M. A. (2015). The Validity of Conscientiousness Is Overestimated in the Prediction of Job Performance. PloS one, 10(10), e0141468. &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0141468&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0141468&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-06-23T03:43:16.403" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T03:43:16.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15304" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-23T00:51:50.910" Score="5" ViewCount="309" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a known disorder where the subject thinks someone &lt;em&gt;else&lt;/em&gt; or other people around them are sick or dying, say exo-hypochondria?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case I am thinking of a wife pathologically convinced that her husband is dying or seriously ill of some unspecified condition and that he knows this and is deliberately concealing it from her.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12982" LastEditorUserId="12982" LastEditDate="2016-06-25T11:21:25.473" LastActivityDate="2016-06-26T07:23:43.120" Title="Does a mental disorder exist where people think someone else is sick?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15305" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15308" CreationDate="2016-06-23T01:04:10.483" Score="1" ViewCount="700" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need to take EEG readings on dogs for BCI and seizure prediction research. To do so do I need special equipment? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an accepted approach in terms of frequency, electrode size and placement, etc? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10975" LastEditorUserId="10975" LastEditDate="2016-06-23T16:50:38.383" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T16:50:38.383" Title="How to use EEG on dogs?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15307" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15220" CreationDate="2016-06-23T03:52:29.420" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume IAT gives you a score for each person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine you could just do an independent groups t-test to assess whether the means of the two groups significantly differ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T03:52:29.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15308" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15305" CreationDate="2016-06-23T09:43:12.973" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;After a quick google search I (surprisingly) found that it already has an application: the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2526360/The-headset-lets-DOG-talk-Prototype-analyses-pets-thoughts-translates-human-speech.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;No More Woof headset&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the most important part is that you have a headset that fits and does not move when a dog walks or turns his head. Then it does not matter that much where and how the electrodes are oriented. The only thing you need to do is map the locations of the available electrodes to correct brain-regions of a dog. For human studies there are many different layouts of EEG caps (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fieldtriptoolbox.org/template/layout&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FieldTrip&lt;/a&gt;), which is fine, because they have such a clear mapping to brain areas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How a dog's brain looks like and what frequencies can be expected I do not know, however. Perhaps you can follow up on the &quot;No More Woof&quot; to see what references they used to base their approach on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T09:43:12.973" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15309" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15304" CreationDate="2016-06-23T09:48:03.160" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a condition called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;hypochondriases by proxy&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14685518&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Moreira &amp;amp; Moreira, 1999)&lt;/a&gt;. It is also referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;http://fmc-reg.onecount.net/onecount/redirects/post-gateway.php?redirect=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pediatricnews.com%2Frss-feed%2Fsingle-article%2Fhow-to-spot-and-treat-vulnerable-child-syndrome%2Fa5512ce6821b03df7bfdd534e0cd4706.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;vulnerable child syndrome&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://rjp.com.ro/articles/2015.3/Pedia_Nr-3_2015_Art-3-en.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Pacurar &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. The parent, particularly if (s)he is inexperienced or unsupported, might see symptoms and illness in a child where in fact there are none. For instance, the parent might be convinced that a common cold is a respiratory infection, or that a simple headache is a brain tumor. In such a scenario, the parent might exaggerate the child's symptoms in order to get the physician to take her fears seriously. This would then be akin to a &quot;cry for help&quot; rather than an intentional desire to malinger &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.msbp.com/ericmart.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Mart, 1999)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypochondriases by proxy is reported to be related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munchausen_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Munchausen syndrome&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/tc/munchausen-syndrome-by-proxy-topic-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Munchausen by proxy syndrome&lt;/a&gt;, which belong belong to a group of diseases called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/factitious-disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;factitious disorders&lt;/a&gt;. In these disorders, a healthy person feigns to suffer from disease, illness, or psychological issues to draw attention or sympathy, or they can project a disease or illness upon to another person, asking or requiring medical intervention for them, respectively &lt;a href=&quot;http://rjp.com.ro/articles/2015.3/Pedia_Nr-3_2015_Art-3-en.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&#xA;(Pacurar &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.msbp.com/ericmart.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mart, Am J Forensic Psychol (1999); &lt;strong&gt;17&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 69&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14685518&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Moreira &amp;amp; Moreira, &lt;em&gt;J Pediatr (Rio J)&lt;/em&gt; (1999); &lt;strong&gt;75&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 373-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://rjp.com.ro/articles/2015.3/Pedia_Nr-3_2015_Art-3-en.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pacurar, &lt;em&gt;Romanian J Pediatrics&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;LXIV&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 252-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-26T07:23:43.120" LastActivityDate="2016-06-26T07:23:43.120" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15311" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15301" CreationDate="2016-06-23T14:01:02.717" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is the structure called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusiform_face_area&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fusiform-face area (FFA)&lt;/a&gt;, which is located in the low tempero-parietal region. In human studies, the FFA has shown to highlight strongly when you look at a human face, as opposed to any other (inanimate) object. This is what the region got its name from. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is believed that the FFA is not necessarily a face area (See &quot;Function and Controversy&quot; on the Wiki page). Instead, researchers argue that the area is a visual expertise area. Where we, as humans, are experts in recognizing faces, zebras, for instance, are incredibly good at distinguishing the stripes of other zebras. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This even goes for within-species differences. Western people that have never worked with Chinese symbols will show little to no activation in the FFA, whereas Chinese people that use it daily will show this activation. This would also explain &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-race_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cross-race recognition&lt;/a&gt; (thanks Josh) i.e. it is easier to distinguish people from the same race then someone from different races. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to your question about preferences: I don't know for sure. I have heard that people like what they know. That would imply that whatever the FFA is expert in, is more preferable to the person/animal. I have no reference, so if anyone does have some, I welcome you to edit my answer or post your own. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11010" LastEditDate="2016-06-27T22:04:27.383" LastActivityDate="2016-06-27T22:04:27.383" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15312" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-23T14:38:13.027" Score="1" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psc.dss.ucdavis.edu/sommerb/sommerdemo/mapping/cogmap.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cognitive maps&lt;/a&gt; refer to mental representations of physical spaces. It seems like the work on this concept dropped off significantly in the 1990s but I’m not in the field, so I can’t say for sure. Are they still relevant for use in studies in psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12990" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-06-27T22:07:23.833" LastActivityDate="2016-06-27T22:07:23.833" Title="Are cognitive maps still widely studied within psychology? Why or why not?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15314" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15273" CreationDate="2016-06-23T16:05:25.240" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;First&lt;/strong&gt;, in the context of your reference to cultural context, one aspect of your question appears to be whether or not a person who has never had experiences of triangles before can have a triangle experience. &lt;strong&gt;Second&lt;/strong&gt;, it is of interest whether that experience can be brought about by a configuration of shapes which is considered appropriate to elicit the perception of illusory contour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;As to the second question&lt;/strong&gt;, you seem readily inclined to take the view that someone who has previously seen triangles, knows what triangles are, and can also verbally express that experience (»I'm seeing &lt;em&gt;a triangle&lt;/em&gt;!«), can indeed have a triangle experience when looking at the Kanizsa figure. (This is not to be taken for granted. Taking a gestaltist view however will grant that perception at least some kind of actual reality. Consider the question whether you see a second triangle constituted by black lines &lt;em&gt;behind&lt;/em&gt; the ›illusory‹ one.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if we are willing to allow this, then we can actually &lt;strong&gt;reduce the whole question to the first part&lt;/strong&gt;. A common psychological stance on perception, taking input from philosophy of mind, assumes a perceptual episode to be constituted by an object providing stimulation to the senses, leading to a ›perception‹ that is not conscious, which is then somehow translated into a conscious perception that corresponds to a phenomenon, which again is fully &lt;em&gt;recognized&lt;/em&gt; in the sense of a perceptual judgement. Here, of particular interest is the difference between perceptual experience and perceptual judgement (you might also ask yourself whether a cat can see a triangle):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[W]e must be careful to distinguish such a perceptual judgement from a perceptual experience. A person may have a perceptual experience of seeing a table to be rectangular without necessarily being willing, or even able, to form the perceptual judgement that he sees that a certain table is rectangular. […] [T]he person may be &lt;em&gt;unable&lt;/em&gt; to form the perceptual judgement in question because he lacks the requisite concepts. Thus, for example, one might be prepared to attribute a young child a perceptual experience of seeing a table to be rectangular and yet doubt whether the child is capable of forming the perceptual judgement that &lt;em&gt;it sees that&lt;/em&gt; a certain table is rectangular […]. (Lowe 2000, pp. 132–133)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summing it up&lt;/strong&gt;, the answer is &lt;strong&gt;yes, that person could justifiably be said to see a triangle&lt;/strong&gt;, however, depending on particulars of the question, the answer might differ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Taking a different approach&lt;/strong&gt;, we can take the question to mean: &lt;strong&gt;Given which previous experience are we capable to perceive illusory contour?&lt;/strong&gt;, and there is evidence that the visual system's capability to recognize simple shapes is largely innate (notwithstanding the fact that lack of any visual input will prevent vision to develop in the first place). See Christiaans answer for some more detail. A particularly interesting question in this context, which relates to the difference between perceptual experience and perceptual judgement discussed above, is &lt;strong&gt;at what age is a person capable of perceiving illusory countours?&lt;/strong&gt; In this regard, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0163638390900324&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ghim (1990)&lt;/a&gt; concludes that »infants as young as 3 months of age are able to perceive subjective contours«, and in a related study, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.qub.ac.uk/staff/profiles/curran/6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Curran et al. (1999)&lt;/a&gt; conclude that »by 2 months of age, the infant's visual system contains the nonlinear mechanisms necessary to extract an illusory contour from aligned terminators«.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;W Curran, OJ Braddick, J Atkinson, J Wattam-Bell, R Andrew. 1999. Development of illusory-contour perception in infants. &lt;em&gt;Perception&lt;/em&gt;, Vol. 28, pp. 527–538.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;H-R Ghim. 1990. Evidence for perceptual organization in infants: Perception of subjective contours by young infants. &lt;em&gt;Infant Behavior and Development&lt;/em&gt; 13(2), pp. 221–248.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;EJ Lowe. 2000. &lt;em&gt;An Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind&lt;/em&gt;. Cambridge University Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8427" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-06-23T19:52:46.987" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T19:52:46.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15315" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-23T17:42:39.527" Score="3" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is known that concepts with similar attributes (color, shape... Etc.) are represented in a similar manner in the brain. However, is there any evidence of abstract relations, such as the as causal relation between two events are also represented in similar manners?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a example, the relation between a switch and a light (wherein the tilting of the switch causes the light to turn on), should have the same representation as a knob and a light (wherein the turning of the knob causes the light to turn on). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What experimental setup could be used to test this with fMRI?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-06-26T03:21:30.983" LastActivityDate="2016-06-26T03:21:30.983" Title="How are abstract relations represented neurally?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15319" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14108" CreationDate="2016-06-23T23:12:22.127" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've come across Lewin's theory of organisational change a lot. It is often presented in introductory courses on organisational behavior, I/O psychology, and organisational change. It is a three stage theory that talks about unfreezing, making a change, and refreezing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-06-23T23:12:22.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15320" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13964" CreationDate="2016-06-23T23:44:23.580" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, personality traits correlate with most measures of satisfaction. Most notably, there is a large literature showing that personality correlates with life satisfaction (see Steel et al). In general, neuroticism is the biggest correlate followed by extraversion and conscientiousness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following table from Grant et al summarises two major meta-analyses on the correlation between big 5 personality and various measures of well-being including life satisfaction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/N7fMR.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/N7fMR.png&quot; alt=&quot;big 5 personality and well-being meta analytic correlations&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a theoretical perspective, personality represents an interpretative lens through which people experience the world. Some people are generally more positive or more negative. Some people focus on problems, others focus on what they have. Of course, eve &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Personality and Job Satisfaction&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've seen similar correlations looking at personality and job satisfaction (see Judge et al), although in general these correlations are smaller than for life satisfaction. This may reflect the greater role of context. Here is the table of meta-analytic correlations from Judge et al between big 5 personality and job satisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/c6RvE.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/c6RvE.png&quot; alt=&quot;meta analytic correlation between big 5 and job satisfaction&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Personality and Relationship Satisfaction&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the meta-analytic estimate of the correlation between personality and intimate partner relationship satisfaction from Malouff et al (2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KTsaT.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KTsaT.png&quot; alt=&quot;meta analytic correlation between big 5 and relationship satisfaction&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;General Comments&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, the two tables above look somewhat similar to each other. Neuroticism correlations are the largest in both (r = -.22, r = -24).&#xA;However, extraversion and conscientiousness may be slightly more relevant to job satisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grant, S., Langan-Fox, J., &amp;amp; Anglim, J. (2009). The big five traits as predictors of subjective and psychological well-being 1.Psychological reports, 105(1), 205-231.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Judge, T. A., Heller, D., &amp;amp; Mount, M. K. (2002). Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: a meta-analysis. Journal of applied psychology, 87(3), 530.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Steel, P., Schmidt, J., &amp;amp; Shultz, J. (2008). Refining the relationship between personality and subjective well-being. Psychological bulletin, 134(1), 138.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Malouff, J. M., Thorsteinsson, E. B., Schutte, N. S., Bhullar, N., &amp;amp; Rooke, S. E. (2010). The five-factor model of personality and relationship satisfaction of intimate partners: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(1), 124-127.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-06-24T02:38:29.583" LastActivityDate="2016-06-24T02:38:29.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15322" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-24T11:48:33.763" Score="1" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the mechanisms by which ketamine reduces the symptoms of depression and anxiety?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11812" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-24T13:09:28.507" LastActivityDate="2016-06-24T13:09:28.507" Title="Mechanism of ketamine in treatment of depression and anxiety?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15327" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-26T15:33:32.383" Score="16" ViewCount="1178" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do we perceive inner speech? Does it follow the same neural pathways as normal acoustic speech? If yes, what is the extent of overlap between the two neural pathways?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11802" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-08-05T19:49:23.760" LastActivityDate="2017-08-24T23:56:48.327" Title="How do we hear our inner voice?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15328" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15327" CreationDate="2016-06-26T17:24:02.873" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, inner speech does not follow the same neural pathway as speech coming in from outside.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather, inner speech uses the same neural mechanism as outer speech - that is, speech going out.  The neural mechanisms of inner speech can be studied using recently developed technologies such as fMRI imaging of subjects instructed to or prevented from engaging in self-reflection and internal monologue.  Such studies suggest that inner speech is primarily localized to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broca%27s_area&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Broca's area&lt;/a&gt; (LIFG, on the left side of the brain), just as is outer speech (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8643761&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McGuire, 1996&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23049653&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Morin &amp;amp; Hamper, 2012&lt;/a&gt;). These findings are consistent with other evidence that inner speech is a form of silent (simulated) outer speech, and thus uses the same physical mechanism.  This is based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_speech&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;private speech&lt;/a&gt; theories originating in the 1920s and 30s by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, that inner speech is actually outer speech that children learn to internalize.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lXv7I.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lXv7I.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if inner speech uses the same mechanism as outer speech rather than the incoming auditory system, then how is it that we &quot;hear&quot; it?  One proposal is based on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corollary_discharge&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attenuation mechanism&lt;/a&gt; involved in normal speech production.  This mechanism filters self-generated sounds from other sounds.  It is believed to work analogously to noise cancellation technologies - by predicting self-generated sound and modulating audio processing accordingly.  Experiments by &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/24/9/1824&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scott (2013)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://asa.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1121/1.4794932&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scott et al (2013)&lt;/a&gt; demonstrate that this attenuation is also active in inner speech, and suggests that perhaps what we &quot;hear&quot; is the prediction of our own voice by this system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another approach by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26197805&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alderson-Day et al (2016)&lt;/a&gt; distinguishes between multiple kinds of inner speech - monologic inner speech of the type traditionally studied as above, and dialogic inner speech that adds a second voice (an interlocutor).  Brain scans of subjects engaging in dialogic inner speech show additional activity in areas associated with auditory hallucinations, and may therefore be &quot;heard&quot; in a similar way.  This is still a very active area of research, so stay tuned!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-08-24T23:56:48.327" LastActivityDate="2017-08-24T23:56:48.327" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15330" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15331" CreationDate="2016-06-27T05:03:50.610" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;As mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/9130/4397&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;, it's possible to generate an fMRI BOLD signal from neurotransmitter consumption. What equation would be appropriate for this use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-07-29T14:17:43.690" Title="Generate fMRI from neurotransmitter consumption" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15331" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15330" CreationDate="2016-06-27T05:03:50.610" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The simplest equation for getting a BOLD signal from neurotransmitter that I could find was in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/606and-alb-fin.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tracing Problem Solving in Real Time: fMRI Analysis&#xA;of the Subject-paced Tower of Hanoi&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, which itself references many other publications where it was used:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$H(t)= m \times(t/s)^a\times e^{-(t/s)}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The parameters $s$, $a$ and $m$ don't have an explicit meaning. Heuristically, from the text:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;$m$ is the magnitude of the response and $s$ is a time scale. The function&#xA;  peaks at time $a \times s$. The parameter a determines the shape of the&#xA;  function such that the larger $a$ is the more narrowly the function will&#xA;  be distributed around its peak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it seems you have to fit it to some previous data in the area you're trying to generate data from before it can be used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-06-27T05:03:50.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15332" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-27T08:35:11.083" Score="2" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;Im a painter for many years. When I paint, I usually walk around and look at my painting for many hours. When painting session is long, it harder and harder to maintain a &quot;fresh look&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By fresh look; I mean state of mind (perception) when I am as objective about my work as possible. The longer the session continues and painting is changed; its harder for me to be objective about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be objective and fresh, artists would take many 5-min breaks in one painting session. I used to do that too, until I learned a &quot;strange trick&quot; from my friend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whole trick is to take your painting and just rotate it about 90 or 180 degrees for a moment and look at it. Surprisingly, this gives a fresh (somehow new) perspective at painting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to ask; why is that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me, that somehow brain filters out many informations about images that it knows. When I rotate my image; it is recognized as different (not &quot;known&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any research on described phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10379" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2016-06-27T14:16:33.273" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T11:30:15.593" Title="How image orientation influences perception" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13958" CreationDate="2016-06-27T15:10:21.780" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most people (including myself) do not hear or speak with inner voices, but it is not unheard of, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hearing-voices.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hearing Voices Network&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ego State theory is a theory of multiple personality facets (ego states). In their book &quot;Ego States: Theory and Therapy&quot;, John G. and Helen H. Watkins transcribe several hypnosis sessions, where they communicate with different ego states of a person. Ego States are often mentioned in the context of trauma or multiple personalities, but they also exist in the average person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that extreme cases help to understand normal phenomena, so I'd also recommend &quot;The Flock&quot; by Joan Frances Casey, a journey from multiple personalities that do not know of each other to working together to one integrated personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13010" LastEditorUserId="13010" LastEditDate="2016-06-28T09:35:47.227" LastActivityDate="2016-06-28T09:35:47.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15334" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-27T16:31:11.640" Score="11" ViewCount="165" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm actually writing a science fiction novel set a couple decades in the future. Brains are not my field. I've done as much research as I could.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the story, the protagonist finds out he has died, but to have his deceased brain scanned, mapping out all the nuerons and synapse connections. Perhaps with an advanced MRI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then a &quot;system&quot; essentially iterates over many various stimuli. Simulating to the brain the visual sensation of seeing a bird, for example. The machine looks for the corresponding neurons to fire when seeing a bird. The machine iterates over many birds to understand how this brain stores &quot;birds&quot;, and repeats this process for basically anything that could be detected from the senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then this brain could be stored in a computer and bioprinted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've seen videos of researchers today simulating a primitive network of neurons, so this seems vaguely possible. I know we are also currently capable of bioprinting blood vessels and skin today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a brain was bioprinted with the exact neuron network and synapse connections as a host brain, would this brain theoretically hold the previous memories from the host it's made from?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13017" LastEditorUserId="13017" LastEditDate="2016-06-29T18:07:51.220" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T18:07:51.220" Title="Is a network of neurons the only factor in memory?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15335" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15354" CreationDate="2016-06-27T16:57:17.963" Score="7" ViewCount="178" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's my understanding that brain activity in the prefrontal cortex is suppressed during sleep and that mindfulness stimulates activity in that region. Based on this, it seems counterintuitive to think that the average person who is lying in bed and using mindfulness meditation reduces his/her sleep latency. Is there any empirical indication or theoretical argument either way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="3379" LastEditDate="2016-06-27T20:11:40.337" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T18:58:52.190" Title="Is mindfulness meditation an effective method to fall asleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15338" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-27T20:45:57.430" Score="3" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a comprehensive overview of priming literature in psychology and cognitive science. A survey article or a book would be a great start. More specifically, I am interested to learn about different types of priming, stimuli, and applications in which priming is used, in addition to some common methodological practices in this field. Any help would be greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update for those who think this question is not specific enough:&lt;/strong&gt; Which book do you recommend to a person interested in learning about priming in depth?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13024" LastEditorUserId="13024" LastEditDate="2016-06-29T19:37:32.323" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T19:37:32.323" Title="An Overview of Priming in Psychology" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-06-29T19:27:41.997" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15339" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-27T22:23:45.550" Score="-2" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the prevalence in the general population? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12972" LastActivityDate="2016-07-04T13:28:38.487" Title="What is the prevalence of lifelong, early onset, chronic depression?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15338" CreationDate="2016-06-28T04:46:05.480" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This should be rather easy to find on google scholar, especially with the recent replicability crisis in social psychology. In particular, Bargh and Cesario has a few things to say in 'defense' of priming. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can start with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-natural-unconscious/201205/priming-effects-replicate-just-fine-thanks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bargh&lt;/a&gt;'s article, which is a response to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencenews.org/article/hot-and-cold-priming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article by Bower&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cesario's article is &lt;a href=&quot;http://pps.sagepub.com/content/9/1/40.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, and for an overview of the whole issue surrounding priming and replicability, you can try &lt;a href=&quot;http://pps.sagepub.com/content/7/6/528.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pashler and Wagenmaker&lt;/a&gt;'s article. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12963" LastActivityDate="2016-06-28T04:46:05.480" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15341" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15334" CreationDate="2016-06-28T06:08:29.987" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, theoretically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Now&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to my ongoing informal research, there are two sides of brain preservation innovation: 1) the preservation and mapping (building) the connectome; and 2) the reinstantiation of memories and/or creating consciousness from a connectome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainpreservation.org/overview/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.brainpreservation.org/overview/&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[N]euroscience is now identifying the synaptic and nuclear structures&#xA;that contain our unique memories and identity, and new electron&#xA;microscopy (EM) imaging techniques are allowing us to verify when&#xA;these structures have been successfully preserved, from gross&#xA;connectivity in the connectome, all the way to particular synaptic&#xA;features, receptor distributions, and even the signal states&#xA;(phosphorylation, methylation, acetylation, etc.) of individual brain&#xA;proteins and epigenomic DNA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[…]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, MRI machines have been built that can image individual cell&#xA;proteins, improbable as this sounds. Such technology may one day give&#xA;us the ability to inexpensively and nondestructively scan preserved&#xA;brains to upload the molecular features of memory and identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainpreservation.org/content-2/connectome/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.brainpreservation.org/content-2/connectome/&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is a Connectome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A connectome* is the complete map of the neural connections in a&#xA;brain. It is sometimes referred to as a “wiring diagram” of the&#xA;molecular connections between neurons, trading on the analogy of a&#xA;brain to an electronic device, where axons and dendrites are wires and&#xA;neuron bodies are components. Depending on the scientist, the term&#xA;connectome may or may not also include learning-relevant molecular&#xA;states at each synaptic connection (the “synaptome”) and any&#xA;learning-relevant changes in the nucleus of each neuron (the&#xA;“epigenome”).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QwrFI.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QwrFI.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;The-Small-Mammal-Brain-Preservation-Prize&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Progress&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, &amp;quot;The Small Mammal BPF Prize&amp;quot; was won. It's one in a series of competitions for brain preservation (BP) achievements. This competition is doing for BP what XPRIZE is doing for space innovation with competitions like the Ansari X Prize.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The winning team used a combination of plastination (chemopreservation) and cryonics (cryopreservation) to preserve a rabbit brain. From the press release &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainpreservation.org/small-mammal-announcement/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.brainpreservation.org/small-mammal-announcement/&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Small Mammal Brain Preservation Prize has officially been won by&#xA;researchers at 21st Century Medicine. Using a combination of ultrafast&#xA;chemical fixation and cryogenic storage, it is the first demonstration&#xA;that near­ perfect, long­-term structural preservation of an intact&#xA;mammalian brain is achievable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Future&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In regard to reinstantiation of memories and/or creating consciousness: when progressive innovations in technology enable mapping of the entire connectome, the next step is applying a &amp;quot;runtime&amp;quot; to the structure. This runtime is described as &amp;quot;cycles&amp;quot; by György Buzsáki in his book Rhythms of the Brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a sequence of &amp;quot;cycles,&amp;quot; György Buzsáki guides the reader from the&#xA;physics of oscillations through neuronal assembly organization to&#xA;complex cognitive processing and memory storage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Book resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amazon: &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0199828237&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.amazon.com/Rhythms-Brain-Gyorgy-Buzsaki/dp/0199828237&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;EDU (PDF): &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.caam.rice.edu/%7Eyad1/miscellaneous/References/Neuroscience/Papers/Hippocampus/RythmsOfTheBrainBuszaki.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.caam.rice.edu/~yad1/miscellaneous/References/Neuroscience/Papers/Hippocampus/RythmsOfTheBrainBuszaki.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Th0ta.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Th0ta.png&quot; alt=&quot;OpenWorm-Project-1&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/asiNE.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/asiNE.png&quot; alt=&quot;OpenWorm-Project-2&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example 1&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The OpenWorm project is an example of contemporary connectome innovation, which is a necessary step for the memory/consciousness side of BP. From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.openworm.org&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.openworm.org&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OpenWorm is an open source project dedicated to creating the world’s&#xA;first virtual organism in a computer, a C.elegans nematode. Throughout&#xA;the years we have built a network of relationships with with many&#xA;biologists and neuroscientists interested in C. elegant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/c-elegans-connectome/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/c-elegans-connectome/&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because a lone connectome is a snapshot of pathways through which&#xA;information might flow in an incredibly dynamic organ, it cannot&#xA;reveal how neurons behave in real time, nor does it account for the&#xA;many mysterious ways that neurons regulate one another's behavior.&#xA;Without such maps, however, scientists cannot thoroughly understand&#xA;how the brain processes information at the level of the circuit. In&#xA;combination with other tools, the C. elegans connectome has in fact&#xA;taught scientists a lot about the worm's behavior; partial connectomes&#xA;that researchers have established in the crustacean nervous system&#xA;have been similarly helpful. Scientists are also learning how to make&#xA;connectomes faster than before and to enhance the information they&#xA;provide. Many researchers in the field summarize their philosophy like&#xA;this: &amp;quot;A connectome is necessary, but not sufficient.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rZDYW.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rZDYW.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Whole-Cell-Computational-Model-Predicts-Phenotype-from-Genotype&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example 2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe Stanford's computer model of an organism is in the scope of BP and could be the foundation of what eventually becomes entire brain/connectome virtualization. This breakthrough is an example of the technological capabilities in 2012. Now, in 2016 with AI tech on the rise, exponential progress in this field may become a reality in our lifetime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/july/computer-model-organism-071812.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/july/computer-model-organism-071812.html&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[In 2012] Stanford researchers produce first complete computer model&#xA;of an organism. A mammoth effort has produced a complete computational&#xA;model of the bacterium Mycoplasma genitalium, opening the door for&#xA;biological computer-aided design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(12)00776-3&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(12)00776-3&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Understanding how complex phenotypes arise from individual molecules&#xA;and their interactions is a primary challenge in biology that&#xA;computational approaches are poised to tackle. We report a whole-cell&#xA;computational model of the life cycle of the human pathogen Mycoplasma&#xA;genitalium that includes all of its molecular components and their&#xA;interactions. An integrative approach to modeling that combines&#xA;diverse mathematics enabled the simultaneous inclusion of&#xA;fundamentally different cellular processes and experimental&#xA;measurements. Our whole-cell model accounts for all annotated gene&#xA;functions and was validated against a broad range of data. The model&#xA;provides insights into many previously unobserved cellular behaviors,&#xA;including in vivo rates of protein-DNA association and an inverse&#xA;relationship between the durations of DNA replication initiation and&#xA;replication. In addition, experimental analysis directed by model&#xA;predictions identified previously undetected kinetic parameters and&#xA;biological functions. We conclude that comprehensive whole-cell models&#xA;can be used to facilitate biological discovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13011" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-06-28T06:08:29.987" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15342" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26697" CreationDate="2016-06-28T07:22:56.563" Score="8" ViewCount="331" Body="&lt;p&gt;Philosopher Wittgenstein says that &quot;the limit of my language means the limit of my world&quot;. One theory that supports this statement is that people couldn't see the blue colour until they have the word &lt;em&gt;blue&lt;/em&gt;. However, it has been proven to be false in Skeptics: &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/q/26918/28910&quot;&gt;Could people perceive the color blue in ancient times?&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is there any scientific evidence that prove (or at least agree with) this statement?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-07T07:37:52.237" LastActivityDate="2021-02-23T20:03:54.790" Title="Is there any evidence that language is the limit of the world?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15343" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15342" CreationDate="2016-06-28T09:00:54.917" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Very interesting question! Patrick Winston - profesor at MIT said: &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-034-artificial-intelligence-fall-2010/lecture-videos/lecture-1-introduction-and-scope/TjZBTDzGeGg.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;If you can name something, you get power over it!&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&#xA;Prove by contradiction: Suppose someone cannot explorer new things. Then give 3 cards (pink, blue, green) to that person who does not know blue as a color. The person will recognize &quot;blue&quot; as a color. If you don't tell the name &quot;blue&quot; it will be some other words, for sure, but we have the ability for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;generalization&lt;/a&gt; which leads to no limits of our world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13028" LastEditorUserId="13028" LastEditDate="2016-06-30T13:33:33.773" LastActivityDate="2016-06-30T13:33:33.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15345" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17702" CreationDate="2016-06-28T16:49:59.987" Score="7" ViewCount="1539" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on my minimal knowledge of old Freudian Psychoanalysis, if our drives and urges are not met they become more powerful, even overwhelming, for the individual, perhaps causing them psychological difficulties or even causing them to then project the restriction on others. This sentiment has been echoed many times in different contexts since then and it seems to me that the modern generation operates under the assumption that trying too hard to suppress a desire is unhealthy (sexual liberation, free expression etc). It is often used, for example, as a criticism of religion that attempts to impose rules and boundaries which result in the suppression of urges and even further curiosity simply because it is forbidden. I also see many pop psychology articles about this idea. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;what empirical evidence exists to support the notion that repressed desires will make them stronger?&lt;/strong&gt; Other relevant question that may be of interest: Is it a result of human's natural curiosity? Is it intrinsic to human drive? Is it a form of obsessive-compulsive behavior? What criticism has been leveled against this theory in the Freudian version or any modern interpretations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7432" LastActivityDate="2017-07-10T11:40:11.647" Title="Does suppressing a desire make it more powerful?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15346" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-28T18:32:59.840" Score="1" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking in terms of the middle ear and the very intricate and tiny bones that process a &quot;sound wave&quot; into &quot;what we hear.&quot; Is there an output to the middle ear ossicle chain bones such that a signal is being sent from the ears to outside of our body too? If so what is that frequency?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13014" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-08T22:09:47.473" LastActivityDate="2016-08-08T22:09:47.473" Title="Does &quot;hearing&quot; give off an electronic signal?" Tags="&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-08-24T17:21:51.003" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15348" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-28T23:40:04.643" Score="1" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know some selective serotonin inhibitors, such as Prozac, are prescribed for anxiety, but can they also cause anxiety? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12967" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-06-29T09:23:24.663" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T09:23:24.663" Title="Can Prozac cause anxiety?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15349" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-29T00:42:22.053" Score="1" ViewCount="2663" Body="&lt;p&gt;While many theories in cognitive science rely on the concept of a &quot;belief&quot; I do not see much on the definition of a belief or how it compares to other mental states. What is a belief, and how does it compare to things like opinions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10625" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-06-29T21:52:45.277" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T21:52:45.277" Title="What is a belief, and how does it differ from an opinion?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15351" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15283" CreationDate="2016-06-29T03:43:21.860" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've found if not an answer then at least a good starting point to this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theory of trust in management literature explains that in a contractual situation, the actors may be motivated to fulfil their end of the bargain based on the trust they place to the actor on the opposite side. Specifically, there's two types of trust:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Competence trust = perception that the other party is able to fulfil their end of the contract.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Goodwill trust = perception that the other party will fulfil their end of the contract. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though this discusses it in a formal contract setting, I feel this applies to 'social contract' context as well, i.e part of why a person is willing to spend effort on something like fill up tax reports is because he trusts that his effort will not be reciprocated by the tax agency who will then handle the money and make use of it properly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper is here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.114.3411&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.114.3411&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12963" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T03:43:21.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15353" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15349" CreationDate="2016-06-29T04:55:00.067" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Edit: This &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/2005/jun/30/psychology.neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; from the Guardian reviews research into what forms and influences belief, gives some make up of what a belief is, but I could not find a, and separate, scientific defintion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A opinion is a judgement based on facts while a belief is a conviction based on personal values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt; An opinion is a judgment based on facts, an honest attempt to draw a reasonable conclusion from factual evidence. (For example, we know that millions of people go without proper medical care, and so you form the opinion that the country should institute national health insurance even though it would cost billions of dollars.) An opinion is potentially changeable--depending on how the evidence is interpreted. By themselves, opinions have little power to convince. You must always let your reader know what your evidence is and how it led you to arrive at your opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unlike an opinion, a belief is a conviction based on cultural or personal faith, morality, or values. Statements such as &amp;quot;Capital punishment is legalized murder&amp;quot; are often called &amp;quot;opinions&amp;quot; because they express viewpoints, but they are not based on facts or other evidence. They cannot be disproved or even contested in a rational or logical manner. Since beliefs are inarguable, they cannot serve as the thesis of a formal argument. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;url=http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/teaching/co300man/pop12d.cfm&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwi0g5W2t8zNAhUU_WMKHX2pDV4QFggdMAE&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNG1OZds1IRV89vhBg6DJS_dNXgpDA&amp;amp;sig2=h0eoUytsSCROX6n76SzN_Q&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Colorado State University &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T15:39:00.210" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15354" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15335" CreationDate="2016-06-29T05:19:18.283" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;**Is there any empirical evidence meditation is good for sleep? **&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes. There is. But it definitely depends on the type of meditation. Some types of meditation increase alertness. A few articles I found mentioned a study based on this, but failed to link properly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The below link is the empirical evidence. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/mobile/article.aspx?articleid=2110998&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mindfulness Meditation and Improvement in Sleep Quality and Daytime Impairment Among Older Adults With Sleep Disturbances&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This second study demonstrates that people who meditate may need less sleep. I don't know if that qualifies for you. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2919439/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meditation acutely improves psychomotor vigilance, and may decrease sleep need.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T05:19:18.283" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15355" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15348" CreationDate="2016-06-29T07:48:12.443" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugs.com/prozac.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Prozac&lt;/a&gt; (the generic drug &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugs.com/fluoxetine.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;fluoxetine&lt;/a&gt;) is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/ssris/art-20044825&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor&lt;/a&gt; (SSRI) and is primarily prescribed as an &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/depression/ssris-myths-and-facts-about-antidepressants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;antidepressant&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, but also as an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/depression/ssris-myths-and-facts-about-antidepressants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;anxiolytic&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The side effects of fluoxetine indeed include anxiety, but this is a rare phenomenon (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugs.com/sfx/prozac-side-effects.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Drugs.com&lt;/a&gt;). The more common complaints are restlessness and skin rash. In fact, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/ssris/art-20044825?pg=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mayo Clinic&lt;/a&gt; doesn't even list anxiety as a general side effect of SSRIs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T07:48:12.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15356" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8813" CreationDate="2016-06-29T14:51:12.377" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have experience with consumer grade EEG,  but at fp1 and fp2 you should be able to measure the P3a response. Given the high impedance you will need a lot of trials,  but the response is typically seen at fp1 and fp2 in research. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168559798000331&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168559798000331&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the Tp sites they are a bit posterior but you may be able to pick up the T complex.  Typically this response is measured at more anterior sites. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1388245703000051&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1388245703000051&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13038" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T14:51:12.377" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15357" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15342" CreationDate="2016-06-29T14:51:45.117" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not quite your question, but it's the closest thing I know of.  There's a significant amount of work suggesting that &lt;strong&gt;purely morphological attributes can shape conceptualization&lt;/strong&gt;: looking at the impact of grammatical gender on the attributes assigned to the nouns that have a specific grammatical gender--that is, grammatically male nouns are rated higher on stereotypically masculine attributes and lower on stereotypically feminine attributes.  You could argue that morphological sway on the semantic content of the noun is a &quot;limit&quot;, I suppose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some studies have done nice pairing of languages to demonstrate reverse effects on the same nouns according to different grammatical gender. If you're interested in reading the studies, &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01068252&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Konishi 1993&lt;/a&gt; is a good place to start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T14:51:45.117" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15359" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15342" CreationDate="2016-06-29T19:08:57.780" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;First some linguistic theory background.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Noam Chomsky has hypothesized that language developed internally to facilitate certain aspects of human cognition. According to Chomsky's hypothesis, human ability to articulate language audibly for communication appeared much later. Chomsky claims that the rather sudden emergence of language as communication points to the longer evolution of this internal language as an underpinning of human cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, Chomsky holds that this evolution of language results from an &quot;organ&quot; in the human mind, which evolved to provide the facility of language. That is why a child of 18 months can begin to speak, despite rather sparse informational language context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This all suggests that human cognition is tied intimately to language, and that human language is a narrower facility than might otherwise be thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, the limits of human language, generally, almost certainly limits your cognition, perception of the world, and capacity to cognitively model reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are, however, other cognitive systems than language. The system that allows temporal spatial imaging, for example. Another example is the visual system that perceives color, which is almost certainly much older than the human cognitive system, evolutionarily speaking. Therefore, even prior to having the capacity of speech, our evolutionary ancestors could perceive blue, even without a word for it. However, they lacked the capacity to imbue the perception with meaning beyond the drives that color perceptions trigger, such as eating ripe fruit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this mean that they really did not see what we call &quot;blue&quot;? That is an interesting point for further discussion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2016-06-29T19:08:57.780" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15360" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15362" CreationDate="2016-06-30T12:15:31.853" Score="1" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not sure if this is the right place for this question that I find hard to formulate in the first place...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a paper, I'd like to argue that interactivity helps to develop an understanding of a thing. This is in context is astronomy, scientists learning about the universe basically. I'd like to argue in favour of interactive data exploration. This is not going to be a psychology paper. To put it bluntly, I'd like to better understand this to write the motivational section, use the proper terms, and have a nice citation I can put at the end of it :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me try to explain what I'm after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Google Maps analogy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interative maps give an overview of the world and then allow the user to zoom in, pan around and look at streetview pics. If this information would be presented in a non-interative way, say a box you can put coordinates in and you get the streetview picture out a minute later, the user would not just be slower, but would not be able to explore and understand the world in the same way that interactive maps allow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Slider analogy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Say you have two parameters and an result value that results from it due to some hidden math. If I give you two sliders, you can play around with them and develop a sense for the correlation easily, a child would get an intuition for it. But if I give you a form where you have to type in two numbers and press a button to see the result, it be almost impossible to develop the same level of understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that the instantaneous feedback and the ability to 'play' with it, really make it far easier for us to learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;edit:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been some study of this kind of learning? Does it have a name? Where would I start to research this? How do I go about arguing that interactivity offers a great benefit to explore, say, a dataset? That interactivity offers more than just the efficency gained from less waiting for results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13042" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-06-30T19:32:51.327" LastActivityDate="2016-06-30T19:32:51.327" Title="Importance of interactivity in learning" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15362" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15360" CreationDate="2016-06-30T13:22:20.547" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can attack it from many different angles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps a good place to start is the distinction between the &lt;strong&gt;behaviourist and cognitive learning theories&lt;/strong&gt;. Although both can be facilitated using interaction, behaviourist theories put the teacher as the focal point, whereas cognitive ones put the learner first. In that respect, a good interactive learning design will give learners more control over the learning experience. I also believe you can demonstrate that interactive learning has greater potential to be mapped to experiential learning (see Kolb Cycle for instance).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another related topic is that interactive learning based on &lt;strong&gt;self-exploration&lt;/strong&gt; is likely to result in higher intrinsic motivation compared to guided learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another line of argument can many aspects of interaction that can aid cognition (or reduce cognitive load, if you wish) - A book (non interactive) is a get-it-or-leave-it type of delivery; interactive systems enable techniques such as &lt;strong&gt;progressive disclosure&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;contextual help&lt;/strong&gt; which can markedly improve comprehension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps important to assert that interactive learning, on its own, does not secure better comprehension - the experience design is what really matters; interactive learning can simply enable features that non-interactive learning cannot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You should be able to find some research papers on the topic via &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=interactive+learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are just a few leads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2016-06-30T13:22:20.547" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15363" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15346" CreationDate="2016-06-30T13:33:35.567" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;No there isn't any output for these bones other than mechanically pushing against the oval window.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ydkSp.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ydkSp.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;An illustration of our ear&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sound waves travel through the ear canal.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They hit the ear drum (Tympanic membrane).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The three bones (ossicles) in our middle ear are simply an impedance matching device (very much like gears on bicycles). They amplify the ear drum movement with the Stapes pushing against the oval window (part of the inner ear).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The mechanical movement of the stapes against the oval window causes liquid within the Cochlea to oscillate.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Within the Cochlea there are tiny hair cells that discharge (snap) in response to a specific frequency/amplitude (See &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/15275/11318&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When discharge, a nerve pulse is sent to our brain. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-06-30T15:43:45.547" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15364" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15332" CreationDate="2016-06-30T13:54:26.997" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;No life can emerge in chaos - for life to emerge the environment has to be orderly. Organisms have to adapt to their environment, meaning optimise (or satisfice) output in light of input. In a &lt;strong&gt;patternless&lt;/strong&gt; environment, there is no chance doing so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our brain evolved in light of this - we constantly learn and update what the &quot;norm&quot; is - let it be there's light if it's day or the hair colour of your partner. Equally, the brain constantly compares stimuli to the norm - if it's all good, no action needed, but a deviation from the norm shall raise an alarm bell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, we are 'programmed' to ignore what's normal, and be alert to the abnormal. Perhaps the most famous example of it is the sound of mechanical clock, which is simply not perceived once we spend enough time in the room it is in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your specific case, seeing the same image for a prolong time results in it becoming a norm in our brain, resulting in reduced brain activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2016-06-30T13:54:26.997" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15366" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-30T14:21:00.970" Score="2" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read that one of the tests of animal intelligence is whether or not the animal recognizes itself in the mirror or can determine that other animals have motives other than it's own (ex: can deceive the animal).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time I've recently heard the following idea from evolutionary psychology - a human female has &quot;neural circuits&quot; that can evaluate and signal the willingness of the male partner to commit long term to her and her offspring. It sounded like this process is entirely subconscious and results in a certain feeling which the woman can consciously act upon. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, it sounded like some of these circuits have evolved independently of each other, thus capable of leading to conflicting feelings when multiple circuits signal simultaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This made me think - &lt;strong&gt;are &quot;neural circuits&quot; really capable of independently processing information in terms of other human being and his/her possible motives?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OR, do human neural circuits related to social cognition simply operate on concentrations of neuromodulators? In terms of the example above - maybe all these circuits are doing are detecting significant oxytocin spikes, keeping the guard up until these spikes are detected?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2016-06-30T14:40:43.500" LastActivityDate="2016-06-30T14:40:43.500" Title="Can human brain neural circuits understand the concept of &quot;other human beings&quot; and their motives?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15368" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12542" CreationDate="2016-06-30T16:53:49.597" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Being twice-exceptional (2e) myself I can tell you what I know. As another reply indicated the appearance of &quot;slowness&quot; is an effect of the observer's perception. This is true because of a fundamental difference with the mental processing techniques adopted by twice exceptional, gifted people and people described by the autism spectrum. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For most people mental processing inclinations involve a bottom-up orientation, which is like stacking Lego blocks to build up coherent thought. While 2e people, and their like, are inclined towards a top-down mental processing orientation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bottom-up processing is immediately productive because each block added builds the resulting product. Top-down processing is not particularly productive because it doesn't really make things--instead organizes things logically so results are arrived by removing irrelevant or senseless aspects of structural relationships (basically reclassifying info sets towards task relevancy, i.e., grouping and ordering things). (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00405848609543213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Catron &amp;amp; Wingenbach, 1986&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So basically 2e kids design systems when needing to produce results. Mainstream western culture places greater value on products (visual materiality) than processes (incremental materiality) in terms successful activity, particularly since we are addicted to immediate gratification. Therefore our value system allows the appearance of &quot;doing nothing&quot;, thus organizing information for systemic comprehension is not valued do to its lack of visual materiality (you can not see it) which is attributed to being unproductive or slow. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, to specifically answer your question: &#xA;A high IQ does not specifically indicate lightning fast thinking abilities; instead it shows a person's aptitude. The tests original intention was not to sort people by levels of intelligence but instead identify those who are generally less informed than their age peers. The association  is referred to as aptitude which can be described as their intellectual attitude or their inclinations towards being apt to learn (apt-attitude, aptitude). Speedy thinking is in this way an accidental symptom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Catron, Rena M., and Nancy Wingenbach. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00405848609543213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;Developing the potential of the gifted reader.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; Theory into Practice 25.2 (1986): 134-140. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://idmforgifted.pbworks.com/f/DevelopingGT%2BRdrPotential.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;]&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13045" LastEditorUserId="4116" LastEditDate="2016-08-01T01:05:33.500" LastActivityDate="2016-08-01T01:05:33.500" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15369" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13611" CreationDate="2016-06-30T18:20:26.497" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a former atheist: I can, for the sake of argument, make a point in the form &quot;If there is no God...&quot;. So in that sense, I can easily hypothesize the non-existence of God. However, many religious people, myself included, find the universe without a God to be a mess of contradiction to the point that it is essentially self-refuting and absurd. Therefore it is difficult to actually &quot;hypothesize a universe without a God&quot; because the consequences of such a thing being true would render so many other things nonsensical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often my discussions with atheists end up being a bit frustrating on one or both sides because the consequences of the existence or non-existence of God on a worldview are so profound and far-reaching that one could spend years simply working those consequences out. A short list of things that require at least some reassessment: Morality, Free Will, Epistemology, Scientific Philosophy, Logic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think for most people they think of God as something that could just as easily exist or not exist, no different from whether a unicorn exists or a black swan exists. But if you look at theology, at least in the Christian sense, you find that the existence of God is so intertwined with everything else that you can't rip it out. Asking a person reasonably well-versed in Christian theology to imagine a universe without a God would be like imagining a world where math doesn't work. Maybe you could do it in a very limited scope, as long as you fudge the details, (In such a world I wouldn't have to learn math in school!) but you can't really extrapolate it to a substantive worldview because the contradictions render the whole thought experiment nonsensical in fairly short order.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This being said, when I was an atheist I did in fact notice some of these nonsensical conclusions and had to live with the cognitive dissonance that my worldview did not match my experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some quick caveats to the above. Not being able to imagine a world without God is not the same as not being able to imagine not believing in God. Also, it doesn't hinder us in imagining certain consequences of that non-existence in isolation. (Like if there is no God, then &amp;lt;fill in the blank&amp;gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13048" LastActivityDate="2016-06-30T18:20:26.497" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15370" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-06-30T21:52:22.430" Score="1" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;What technological leaps would be necessary to capture the absolute state of the brain? This would need to include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a representation of each neuron&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a representation of each neural connection&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the chemical balances of the dendral connections between each neuron&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And maybe we would also need to capture:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the current synaptic activity of each neuron&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if we need that, perhaps if you lose the flow of synapses, you break the mind, or perhaps the state of the neurons will continue to work properly the next time synaptic input is introduced and the mind will &quot;wake up&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Either way, that's an incredible amount of detail, especially chemical information, that would have to be captured so we could convert it into a virtual simulation of the functional aspects of each neuron making up that brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the major technological gaps that we would need to overcome in order to scan the brain with that level of detail?&lt;/strong&gt; I'm interested in the specific aspects of scanning technology that would have to be invented beyond our current brain scanning technology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9361" LastEditorUserId="9361" LastEditDate="2016-07-01T09:46:23.357" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T18:50:22.533" Title="What leaps in technology would be needed to scan the total state of the human brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-07-12T21:02:57.160" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15371" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15370" CreationDate="2016-06-30T23:41:26.890" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question can be reduced to &quot;What level of detail do we need to know about a brain to be able to simulate it?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to this question is &lt;em&gt;we have no idea&lt;/em&gt;. The Blue Brain project has bet on the synaptic level, but they haven't been able to scale up to behaviour yet. But why stop at the synaptic level? Why not go down to molecules or atoms? Sure the computational power required goes up, but then we get a better model! And computers are getting faster and lower power all the time, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually, &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/@seanaubin/a-way-around-the-coming-performance-walls-neuromorphic-hardware-with-spiking-neurons-facd4291b201#.tyw2omfo7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;traditional processors have hit a wall in terms of power efficiency&lt;/a&gt; [1]. So you do end up needing to choose a reasonable level of detail for what you're choosing to model, since &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095943881300189X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;detail for detail's sake isn't going to get you anywhere&lt;/a&gt; [2]. Once we can understand the basic functions the brain is computing and how it's computing them, we can start looking for that level of detail in the human brain for simulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, rather than a simple technological advancement, we need a theoretical advancement in understanding &lt;em&gt;what the brain is even doing in the first place&lt;/em&gt; before we can use the data meaningfully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &quot;Finding a roadmap to achieve large neuromorphic hardware systems&quot; by  Jennifer Hasler and Bo Marr. Specifically, Figure 17 shows the &quot;power efficiency wall&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] &quot;The use and abuse of large-scale brain models&quot; by Chris Eliasmith and Oliver Trujillo&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-31T18:50:22.533" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T18:50:22.533" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15373" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15370" CreationDate="2016-07-01T05:46:18.390" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What leaps in technology would be needed to scan the total state of&#xA;  the human brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Rl7Aa.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Rl7Aa.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;scanning of preserved intact mammalian brain&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Preface&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2016, the &quot;Small Mammal BPF Prize&quot; was won, see: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainpreservation.org/small-mammal-announcement/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.brainpreservation.org/small-mammal-announcement/&lt;/a&gt;. It's the first of two stages of competition for brain preservation (BP) achievements. This competition is doing for BP what XPRIZE is doing for space innovation with competitions like the Ansari X Prize.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Researchers from 21st Century Medicine have developed a new technique&#xA;  to allow long term storage of a near-perfect mammalian brain. It’s a&#xA;  breakthrough that could have serious implications for cryonics, and&#xA;  the futuristic prospect of bringing the frozen dead back to life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By using a chemical compound to turn a rabbit’s brain into a near&#xA;  glass-like state, and then cooling it to -211 degrees Fahrenheit (-135&#xA;  degrees Celsius), a research team from California-based 21st Century&#xA;  Medicine (21CM) showed that it’s possible to enable near-perfect,&#xA;  long-term structural preservation of an intact mammalian brain. The&#xA;  achievement has earned not just accolades from the scientific&#xA;  community, but a prestigious award as well; the 21CM researchers are&#xA;  today being awarded the $26,735 Small Mammal Brain Preservation Prize,&#xA;  which is run by the Brain Preservation Foundation (BPF). — &lt;a href=&quot;http://gizmodo.com/brain-preservation-breakthrough-could-usher-in-a-new-er-1758022181&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://gizmodo.com/brain-preservation-breakthrough-could-usher-in-a-new-er-1758022181&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you consider focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIBSEM)-level scanning to be adequate, than the technology is already available:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the types of electron microscopy neuroscientists commonly use&#xA;  (FIBSEM, etc.), preserved neural tissue can be visualized down to&#xA;  about a 6 nanometer resolution. This allows them to directly see each&#xA;  neuron’s synapses and dendrites (connections to other neurons). This&#xA;  level of detail also includes the ability to image, directly and&#xA;  indirectly (via molecular probes), many elements of the “synaptome,”&#xA;  the number and types of special proteins (vesicles, signaling&#xA;  proteins, cytoskeleton), receptors (Glutamate, etc.), and&#xA;  neurotransmitters (at least six types in human neurons) that are known&#xA;  to be involved in long-term learning and memory at each synapse in the&#xA;  brain, and elements of the “epigenome” (learning-based DNA methylation&#xA;  and histone modifications) in the nucleus of each neuron.&#xA;  — &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainpreservation.org/tech-prize&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.brainpreservation.org/tech-prize&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you don't consider FIBSEM-level scanning to be adequate, then the &lt;em&gt;leaps in technology&lt;/em&gt; needed for this feat are on the horizon:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our ability to scan and verify is also rapidly improving. New types of&#xA;  electron microscopy, such as Cryo-TEM, can image at an amazing 3&#xA;  angstrom resolution, 50 times greater magnification than FIBSEM, a&#xA;  scale where &lt;em&gt;brain proteins and even individual atoms can be directly&#xA;  seen.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;  — &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainpreservation.org/tech-prize/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.brainpreservation.org/tech-prize/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, the scanning technology is either currently adequate or will be in the near future. The major leap, will be the actual preservation of a large mammalian brain: BPF Prize Stage 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Related Topic&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;perhaps the state of the neurons will continue to work properly the&#xA;  next time synaptic input is introduced and the mind will &quot;wake up&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In regard to the &quot;wake up&quot; part, (IMO) once mapping the brain's connectome is achievable, the next step is virtualization including a &quot;runtime&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run_time_(program_lifecycle_phase)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia.org/wiki/Run_time_(program_lifecycle_phase)&lt;/a&gt; by applying what's already known from scientific research:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;… self-emerged oscillatory timing is the brain's fundamental organizer&#xA;  of neuronal information. The small-world-like connectivity of the&#xA;  cerebral cortex allows for global computation on multiple spatial and&#xA;  temporal scales. The perpetual interactions among the multiple network&#xA;  oscillators keep cortical systems in a highly sensitive &quot;metastable&quot;&#xA;  state and provide energy-efficient synchronizing mechanisms via weak links. — &lt;a href=&quot;https://global.oup.com/academic/product/rhythms-of-the-brain-9780199828234&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://global.oup.com/academic/product/rhythms-of-the-brain-9780199828234&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John Smart, VP of the BPF, via io9's article, &quot;How to Live Forever By Turning Your Brain Into Plastic&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We appear to be our special, complex patterns,&quot; Smart told io9, &quot;not&#xA;  our matter, or even our type of matter.&quot; He notes that each of the&#xA;  250,000 or so people who have had cochlear implants has had one small&#xA;  nervous system pattern replaced, or &quot;uploaded&quot;, into technology.&#xA;  Retinal implants are coming next. It's the pattern replication that we&#xA;  care about, not the matter, or &quot;substrate.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Patternism, in conjunction with connectomics, may eventually reveal&#xA;  our neural correlates of identity — and allow us to preserve&#xA;  capacities like memories, thoughts, emotions, even consciousness.&#xA;  &quot;Consciousness is transitory, it's like a pattern in a stream,&quot; said&#xA;  Smart, &quot;and it's also overrated. You don't have it when you sleep, and&#xA;  it's rebooted, at a later time, from much more durable cellular and&#xA;  molecular patterns when you are knocked unconscious, given anesthesia,&#xA;  drowned for an hour in cold water with no EEG, and so on.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Identity, argues Smart, is what really matters — those patterns that&#xA;  are stored in our neural architectures. — &lt;a href=&quot;http://io9.gizmodo.com/5943304/how-to-preserve-your-brain-by-turning-it-into-plastic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://io9.gizmodo.com/5943304/how-to-preserve-your-brain-by-turning-it-into-plastic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13011" LastActivityDate="2016-07-01T05:46:18.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15374" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4583" CreationDate="2016-07-01T12:39:37.133" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is my belief that liars inclined to lie to them selves. Freudian psychology can illustrate this point through the concept of the ego-sensor.  Liars can be compelled to lie to themselves in order to protect the ego. Thereby, preserving their sense of identity. This usually occurs in the form of denial, detachment, or reattribution. I do not believe that they intentionally lie to themselves nor do I find that to be possible. Still I've found that the ego will do anything to protect it self when feeling threatened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13045" LastActivityDate="2016-07-01T12:39:37.133" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15375" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13611" CreationDate="2016-07-01T12:39:51.933" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;While it is true that some denominations are more attractive for some personality styles, Christianity is a broad movement encompassing all kinds of personalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We live in a mostly secular culture now, so most Christians already know in great detail what atheists believe. Many have at least pondered the atheistic worldview - or have been atheists or agnostics themselves. So it's hard to learn something new from a random atheist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, not that many people are really interested in exploring different worldviews in great detail. That's true for atheists and religious peolpe alike. You yourself are an exception. So keep looking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13010" LastActivityDate="2016-07-01T12:39:51.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15376" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-01T13:49:31.067" Score="2" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am about to run an online user experiment to compare different strategies of the recommender system. I will compare 18 strategies and each strategy produces five recommendations, thus I have to ask subjects to evaluate 90 recommendations in total. However, the strategies make duplicated recommendations (i.e., some recommendations appear in several strategies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(i) In the current design, each page provides five recommendations made by one strategy. After a user inputs evaluations for all of them, another page shows up, where five recommendations by another strategy are given. Thus, a user sometimes sees recommendations which he already evaluated. I think this design is widely used in previous works, although how to handle duplicated recommendations has not been discussed extensively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(ii) Or is it reasonable to first extract all unique recommendations, split them into different pages, and show them in the random order? I think this design makes the experiment shorter. But this design has not been used, to the best of my knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have a suggestion or know a paper related to it, please give it to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13064" LastActivityDate="2016-07-01T13:49:31.067" Title="How to handle duplicated recommendations in an online experiment for the recommender system" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15378" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-01T18:12:18.790" Score="2" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looking for a list of the most common mathematical models of learning. In particular, I am interested in models that explain behavior such as &quot;learning by doing&quot; or &quot;learning from others&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13066" LastActivityDate="2016-07-01T18:12:18.790" Title="Mathematical models of learning" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2016-07-05T19:12:37.813" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15380" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20494" CreationDate="2016-07-01T22:11:50.123" Score="7" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2013/03/07/can-photodiode-be-conscious/&quot;&gt;Searle's reply to Tononi and Koch's objections&lt;/a&gt; to Searle's characterization of their Intergrated Information Theory (IIT) of consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I do understand why IIT is problematic, both from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;url=http://virgil.gr/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/searle.pdf&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwi2wvboo9PNAhVP92MKHVS5BI8QFggbMAA&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNEc0X7oXzOJ5BcDV1LkxJcgUEI-GA&amp;amp;sig2=R9kGgMSHa8KX-n1kiVRjVA&quot;&gt;Searle's original review&lt;/a&gt; and from &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/Articles/thagard.two-theories.consc&amp;amp;cog.2014.pdf&quot;&gt;Thagard's alternative proposal&lt;/a&gt;, I don't understand his reply.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, what does Searle mean by IIT being &quot;unmotivated&quot;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-08-19T14:08:24.180" Title="Why is IIT &quot;unmotivated&quot;?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15381" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4583" CreationDate="2016-07-02T05:05:30.667" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well practiced liars often convince themselves of their own lie, it being an alternate truth for them. When you are convinced that a lie is the real truth and that truth is either mellowed or expanded upon an original truth it becomes much easier to tell that false reality to others. When you know someone is lying it's usually because of involuntary movements such as rapid eye movement, quivering, or just that look in their eyes. If a well practiced liar removed or subdued those warning signals and reduced nervousness by making themselves believe their own lie, there will be no or less fidgeting and anxious movements. It is also beneficial for liar to convince themselves of their false truth so that they can repeat the same story or explanation when its needed. They also always keep a lie simple and concise, and only volunteer extra information when they anticipate the next interrogative inquiry. If they offer the information up front it becomes more believable but at the same time, if they lie up a life story leading up to this moment you would think, &lt;em&gt;&quot;Whoa, this is way too much information, what are they hiding?&quot;&lt;/em&gt; But yet too little information leads to the same result of someone wondering if the lying person is holding something back or not telling the whole truth. If a true liar can convince them self that their lie is in fact reality it becomes much easier to tell that truth. Say, with a polygraph machine, &lt;strong&gt;aka the &lt;em&gt;lie detector&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. If that person cant hide their anxiety or nervousness the machine will detect those emotions and start spiking off the grid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user13070" LastActivityDate="2016-07-02T05:05:30.667" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15382" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-02T08:53:12.707" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read about an experiment in which the researcher could predict which finger a test person would raise at a given signal. Already before the test person was conscious about which finger to raise, the researcher could tell by the image of the test person's brain (which can be obtained from an MRI- or PET-scan of the brain) finger it would gonna be. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a way of behavior for the test person so the researcher &lt;em&gt;can't&lt;/em&gt; predict which finger the person is gonna stick up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, could this be possible if the test person relates his choice to the ticking of the clock in the research room? By which I mean that when the experiment starts, the person under investigation can look at the seconds showing finger (how appropriate in this experiment!) and at each tick, he or she thinks of the next finger on his hands (starting with a by the person predetermined finger and going from the left to the right or vice-versa). When the signal sound he raises the finger which he has in mind at that moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This doesn't change the goal of the experiment which is if one can predict which finger someone raises.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="11444" LastEditDate="2019-12-12T21:46:33.853" LastActivityDate="2019-12-12T21:46:33.853" Title="Can a test subject make the predictions (concerning the movement of fingers), made by a researcher, invalid or invisible?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-07-06T12:52:44.017" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15386" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5518" CreationDate="2016-07-02T16:06:42.597" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Coming in super late to this one, but I think Nick's answer only gets at one side of the equation.  He's suggesting that sadness might cause stomach pain (somatization), which is likely true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it's also possible that stomach pain causes negative affect (in a non-trivial way, independent of the affect associated with the pain itself).  That is, stomach pain represents an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938411003076&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;allostatic (cf. homeostatic)&lt;/a&gt; deviation, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v16/n7/abs/nrn3950.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;affect is the mental representation of that deviation&lt;/a&gt;.  So if something bad is happening in your body that your brain does not predict, this is represented mentally as negative affect.  Indeed, that's the function of affect--to represent bodily allostasis and motivate action to maintain it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2016-07-02T16:06:42.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15387" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="767" CreationDate="2016-07-02T20:28:11.937" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;★★★★★INSTINCTS★★★★★&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;     If the hunger instinct and the sex instinct are considered as instincts, then we can define an instinct as follows: &quot;An instinct is a biological force that has the capability to produce a periodical biological urge of a particular type.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;    According to this theory, the following is the list of the instincts that are present in men and women:&#xA;        1. Respiratory instincts - instinct of inspiration &#xA;               and instinct of expiration.&#xA;        2. Hunger instinct.&#xA;        3. Thirst instinct.&#xA;        4. Defecation instinct.&#xA;        5. Urinary instinct.&#xA;        6. Blinking instinct (of the eyes during waking).&#xA;        7. Instinct of sleep.&#xA;        8. Orgasm instinct (in grown-ups), commonly known as the sex instinct. The orgasm instinct periodically produces an urge for orgasmic ejaculation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;    Besides the above-mentioned instincts, women also have the following special instincts:&#xA;        a) Instinct of menstruation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;        b) Instinct of ovulation and pregnancy.&#xA;        c) Birth-giving instinct in pregnant women.&#xA;        d) Lactation instinct in nursing mothers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;     Three of these special instincts make women biologically superior to men in the propagation and survival of the human race! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13076" LastActivityDate="2016-07-02T20:28:11.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15388" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-03T09:19:37.217" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given: a brain cell has an average temperature,  T.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If: &#xA;perpetual brain activity pattern, X ; &#xA;has an average conductive resistance, R;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore:&#xA;Could it be rationally assumed that activity pattern X, increases T, by a factor of R?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13045" LastEditorUserId="13045" LastEditDate="2016-07-08T12:21:08.953" LastActivityDate="2016-07-08T12:21:08.953" Title="Brain cell temperature" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2016-07-05T20:14:16.350" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15390" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15339" CreationDate="2016-07-03T17:14:40.353" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysthymia#Epidemiology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, with dysthymia being another word for &quot;chronic depression&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Globally dysthymia occurs in about 105 million people a year (1.5% of the population). It is slightly more common in women (1.8%) than in men (1.3%). The lifetime prevalence rate of dysthymia in community settings appears to range from 3 to 6% in the United States. However, in primary care settings the rate is higher ranging from 5 to 15 percent. United States prevalence rates tend to be somewhat higher than rates in other countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="13081" LastEditDate="2016-07-04T13:28:38.487" LastActivityDate="2016-07-04T13:28:38.487" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15393" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12264" CreationDate="2016-07-04T19:14:58.627" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A prototypical &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflex_arc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reflex arc&lt;/a&gt; just consist of two or three neurons, an afferent (sensory) neuron, possibly one or more interneuron(s), and an efferent (motor) neuron. A reflex arc is a rather direct connection, e.g. just from the sensory organ to the spinal chord and from there to the effector organ – it does not involve processing by the higher parts of the nervous system. To answer your second question: &lt;strong&gt;this is one path, consisting of two or more parts (two or more neurons)&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is conceivable that some manipulation would change the reaction time. If we could e.g. somehow replace one of the three neurons with a longer version, the reaction time would somehow grow, and since there are several neurons, their processing time might indeed be manipulated individually. It would not really matter which one of the neurons was manipulated, or if more than one would be manipulated. The total additional reaction time would be the sum of the individual additional reaction times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your first question: &lt;strong&gt;at which of the three neurons the signal were to take longer (»the timing would be different«) would depend upon which one of them was previously manipulated&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reflexes&lt;/a&gt; that involve more complex neural structure, but nothing like (conscious) bodily feelings/pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withdrawal_reflex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;withdrawal reflex&lt;/a&gt; that you mention is likewise based on receptors in the skin that through their relatively direct linkage with motor neurons can effect a withdrawal reaction without any (consciously) perceived heat or pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8427" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-07-04T19:23:40.187" LastActivityDate="2016-07-04T19:23:40.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15394" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-05T02:13:16.993" Score="3" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the introduction of this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24747738&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt;, the authors mention something called &quot;fiber bundle matching&quot;. I'm having trouble understanding if this is an analysis performed on a single subject's data or across subjects. In other words, do you match fibers within one subject to compute a tractography for that subject or do you match fibers across subjects to come up with an &quot;average tractography&quot;? If the former, what is one way to go about computing an average tractography?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13000" LastActivityDate="2016-07-05T02:13:16.993" Title="What is fiber bundle matching?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15395" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-05T03:03:57.050" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the optimal mean correct on a multiple choice test item in order to maximise the measurement of individual differences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-07-05T03:13:40.270" Title="What is the optimal mean correct on a multiple choice test in order to maximise the measurement of individual differences?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15396" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15395" CreationDate="2016-07-05T03:13:40.270" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that in general a percentage correct of 50% is optimal where there is no scope for guessing.&#xA;However, on multiple choice tests there is a certain number of response options. Thus, the probability of getting the correct answer if you know nothing, is one over the number of response options.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case I believe that the optimum is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$1/k + \frac{1 - 1/k}{2}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where k is the number of response options.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the optimum for different values of k would be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;k = 2: optimum proportion correct = 0.75&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;k = 3: optimum proportion correct = 0.67&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;k = 4: optimum proportion correct = 0.625&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;k is infinite: optimum proportion correct = 0.50&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I'd still like to find the classic references where I obtained these ideas from. And I imagine item-response theory might have a little more to say about this, particularly regarding the common recommendation to vary the proportion correct over a range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, none of the above recommendations address the issue that setting the difficulty at the above level for most items can be intimidating for some test takers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-07-05T03:13:40.270" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15400" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8594" CreationDate="2016-07-05T21:52:58.107" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my knowledge.  Children do make up words and sounds that feel similar to the ones they are intended to mean.  However, as the child develops these pseudo-words begin to disappear.  New temporary replacement words may form as they begin to understand that they are not using the correct words.  However, developmentally a child should be &lt;strong&gt;speaking in full sentences by about 3 years old&lt;/strong&gt; and definitely by 4 years old.  They will most likely continue to have problems with various connecting words, plurals, and saying words how they appear to sound (even if they say them wrong). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It helps with their learning to&lt;/strong&gt; break down words into syllables so that they can grasp how each sound works together to form the words that you are using to communicate with them.  I'll see if I can find my old developmental psychology book to back this up more, but I'm going on a class I took years ago.  That and watching 3 kids move through the stages (got a 22 month old, 3, and 7 year old myself).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13096" LastActivityDate="2016-07-05T21:52:58.107" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15401" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13049" CreationDate="2016-07-06T01:02:20.633" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question seems to be asking &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/494/4397&quot;&gt;How is knowledge represented in neurons&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and then jumps to the assumption &quot;synapses represents relations&quot;. As discussed in the linked question, there is a lot of evidence that this method of binding is not biologically plausible, given that it doesn't scale well to the level of human vocabulary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, to answer your question, it is hypothesised that there are &quot;special&quot; synapses to do certain operations/relations, however the model you seem to be holding in your mind is incorrect. For more information, please check out &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith or the other reference below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eric Crawford, Matthew Gingerich, and Chris Eliasmith. &lt;a href=&quot;http://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2013/papers/0099/paper0099.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biologically plausible, human-scale knowledge representation&lt;/a&gt;. In &lt;em&gt;35th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society&lt;/em&gt;, 412–417. 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-07-06T01:02:20.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15402" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15" CreationDate="2016-07-06T01:29:11.900" Score="2" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Gf/Gc Quickie Test&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Gf/Gc Quickie Test Battery (Stankov, 1997) is a one-on-one administered intelligence test. It is designed for teaching purposes, but has been used in research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Gf/Gc Quickie Test Battery is a collection of tasks used by&#xA;psychologists to assess human cognitive abilities. It is derived from&#xA;within the framework of fluid and crystallized intelligence (Horn &amp;amp;&#xA;Cattell, 1966), which is outlined below. This battery is designed for&#xA;teaching purposes and the scores obtained must not be regarded as&#xA;reflecting an “intelligence quotient”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a link to the test items and administration manual:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://klingenstein09.wikispaces.com/file/view/Sample_Cognitive_Tests.docx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://klingenstein09.wikispaces.com/file/view/Sample_Cognitive_Tests.docx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stankov, L. (1997). The Gf/Gc Quickie Test Battery. Unpublished test battery from the School of Psychology. Australia: University of Sydney.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-07-03T02:05:26.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15404" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16058" CreationDate="2016-07-06T15:21:14.407" Score="3" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are new connections continuously forged in the adult human brain, or do we just start all wired together and then prune until we have something we like?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-07-06T21:59:42.973" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T18:43:26.477" Title="Can &quot;fire together, wire together&quot; be undone?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15405" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-06T17:11:46.350" Score="4" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am about to simulate a neuron activity with the &quot;Leaky Integrate and Fire&quot; neuron model. But for that I need the membrane resistance. I was really looking a lot online, but I just cant find a value.&#xA;Does anybody know the measured resistance value, or the value usually used in this model?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13102" LastActivityDate="2016-07-10T23:10:59.307" Title="Membrane resistance of a neuron" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15406" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15291" CreationDate="2016-07-06T19:36:45.977" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I mentioned in the comments, the tool we're using is &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/tyiannak/pyAudioAnalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pyAudioAnalysis&lt;/a&gt;.  The tool's author, Theodoros Giannakopoulos, also wrote an earlier paper &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220734016_A_dimensional_approach_to_emotion_recognition_of_speech_from_movies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A dimensional approach to emotion recognition of speech from movies&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &quot;Emotion Wheel&quot; from that paper appears to be exactly what I was looking for:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WzQLc.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WzQLc.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also worth mentioning, maybe, that this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297452126_A_multimodal_adaptive_dialogue_manager_for_depressive_and_anxiety_disorder_screening_a_Wizard-of-Oz_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;later paper&lt;/a&gt; seems to describe all the specific characteristics that pyAudioAnalysis analyzes: &quot;signal energy, entropy of energy, zero  crossing  rate, spectral centroid, spectral flux, Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficients, Chroma-based features, etc.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3020" LastEditorUserId="3020" LastEditDate="2016-07-06T19:42:12.760" LastActivityDate="2016-07-06T19:42:12.760" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15408" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15404" CreationDate="2016-07-06T21:59:20.800" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The phrase &quot;fire together, wire together&quot; comes from an explanation of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hebbian Learning&lt;/a&gt; and refers to the adaptation of synapses as a response to the firing of already connected neurons. This is one of several &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Synaptic Plasticity&lt;/a&gt; mechanisms. Two others that exist are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Long Term Potentiation&lt;/a&gt; (strengthening and creation) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Long Term Depression&lt;/a&gt; (weakening and destruction).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these mechanisms are still being researched heavily to understand their detail better. However, I hope this gives you a good starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-31T18:43:26.477" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T18:43:26.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15411" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15412" CreationDate="2016-07-07T17:24:31.237" Score="6" ViewCount="736" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.prisonexp.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford prison experiment&lt;/a&gt; tested what would happen when a group of subjects was pushed in the role of prisoner, while a second group was assigned the role of guards. Within merely a day or so, the guards started to harass the prisoners, humiliate them and made the prisoners physically and mentally suffer, forcing them to cleaning out toilet bowls with their bare hands, do push-ups, jumping jacks and what not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I am wondering - how can normal people turn so evil? Were the assigned guards tested for any existing psychological problems prior to the experiment, or were they randomly chosen? In general, how &lt;em&gt;did&lt;/em&gt; the researchers choose the subjects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13116" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-07-07T20:35:45.260" LastActivityDate="2016-07-07T21:16:46.587" Title="Were the subjects in the Stanford prison experiment randomly assigned to the study?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15412" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15411" CreationDate="2016-07-07T19:45:29.847" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The subjects in this experiment were randomly assigned in two groups (prisoner versus guard). They were all healthy and without any  identified psychological issues. I quote from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.prisonexp.org/setting-up&quot;&gt;Setting-Up page of your linked website&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We wanted to see what the psychological effects were of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. To do this, we decided to set up a simulated prison and then carefully note the effects of this institution on the behavior of all those within its walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;More than 70 applicants answered our ad and were given &lt;strong&gt;diagnostic&#xA;  interviews&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;personality tests&lt;/strong&gt; to &lt;strong&gt;eliminate candidates with&#xA;  psychological problems&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;medical disabilities&lt;/strong&gt;, or a &lt;strong&gt;history of&#xA;  crime or drug abuse&lt;/strong&gt;. Ultimately, we were left with a sample of 24&#xA;  college students from the U.S. and Canada who happened to be in the&#xA;  Stanford area and wanted to earn $15/day by participating in a study.&#xA;  On all dimensions that we were able to test or observe, they reacted&#xA;  normally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our study of prison life began, then, with an &lt;strong&gt;average group of&#xA;  healthy, intelligent, middle-class males&lt;/strong&gt;. These boys were&#xA;  arbitrarily divided into two groups by a flip of the coin. Half were&#xA;  randomly assigned to be guards, the other to be prisoners.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that people can do pretty nasty  stuff under experimental conditions. For instance, take the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/milgram.html&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Milgram experiment&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. In this experiment, actors were placed behind a closed door. They would be faking a test subject being electrocuted up until the point of agony. The real test subjects were instructed that they would be helping in an experiment where the effect of punishment through electric shocks would be tested in a learning task. The actors had to answer questions and when they were wrong, the test subjects were instructed to deliver increasingly stronger electrical shocks by pushing a button, until the trainee would improve their performance on the task. This experiment ended up with people consciously electrocuting innocent volunteers. Although everything was faked behind the scenes, it did show that regular, healthy test subjects obediently followed the instructions of the authorative experimenter when instructed to increase the voltage and electrocute the person behind the door, even when the actor was screaming in agony and explaining having a heart rhythm disorder.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-07-07T21:16:46.587" LastActivityDate="2016-07-07T21:16:46.587" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15414" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12124" CreationDate="2016-07-07T23:13:39.480" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This website &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aboutdyscalculia.org/causes.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.aboutdyscalculia.org/causes.html&lt;/a&gt; provides answers to some of the questions you posed, although I am not sure it is the most up to date information. I would always advise one to do research on more scientific grounds.&#xA;From my perspective, dyslexia has also been more studied than dyscalculia as its impact in academics seem more easily perceived thus easier to diagnose. Furthermore, I think that there is a social component to the issue as people often accept with ease someone struggling with mathematics but respond with more preoccupation towards difficulties with reading and spelling.&#xA;I leave you one article that may be helpful to you. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3514770/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3514770/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13054" LastEditorUserId="13054" LastEditDate="2016-07-23T03:49:02.293" LastActivityDate="2016-07-23T03:49:02.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15416" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6452" CreationDate="2016-07-08T02:44:30.640" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because it it socially unacceptable to pick ones nose.  However, we all do it at some point or another.  Whether there is a tissue directly involved or not is another story.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Also, typically people are alone in their car and due to &quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;social inattention&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; (also called civil inattention &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_inattention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_inattention&lt;/a&gt;) they may assume that no one is paying close enough attention to care.  Even if they do, the chances that it is someone they personally know are typically low (depending on various factors such as size of the city and neighborhood etc.)  But, I'm betting that most instances happen outside of the proximity of one's neighborhood.  I'd like to see a statistic on that one!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13096" LastActivityDate="2016-07-08T02:44:30.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15417" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-08T08:28:57.620" Score="3" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm attempting to use a computational model, in particular a linear non-linear cascade (LNP) to encode the spiking of a neuron responding to a thermal stimulus. In a LNP, it assumes that the stimulus is 'radially symmetric' [1], for example having a Gaussian probability distribution. However, is it possible to use a LNP model (or another well known encoding model) when the stimulus is deterministic? The stimulus I'm using is a ramping thermal stimulus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Chichilnisky EJ (2001) A simple white noise analysis of neuronal light responses. Network (Bristol, England) 12: 199–213.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10553" LastActivityDate="2016-07-10T20:56:35.000" Title="Using a Linear Non-linear Cascade with a Non-Random (deterministic) Stimulus" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;linear-mixed-model&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15419" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-08T17:52:42.587" Score="2" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it my mind's eye that is the problem or is this a &quot;artifact&quot; of the film? I would think it was my mind's eye as the medium of film is purely analog and not a digital representation that exists to conform to &quot;what should be&quot; and not in fact what is visually seen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13014" LastActivityDate="2016-07-10T19:21:07.797" Title="What causes the spokes of a Wagon Wheel to &quot;move&quot;(rotate) in the opposite direction of the Wagon Wheel itself?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15420" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15419" CreationDate="2016-07-08T18:00:00.250" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This happens when the wheel is observed as an image through a projector or with light shining on it that is periodically blinking. What you are seeing is essentially the additive effects of two periodic functions, the first is the period of the light flicker and the second is the period of the wheel rotation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if the wheel is rotating at a frequency that is evenly divisible by the frequency of the light, then the spokes appear to be standing still. If it is rotating faster, then they are appear to be moving in one direction. If it is rotating slower, then it appears to be moving in the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under household lighting, the light pulses are at 60 Hz. The frame rate of movie cameras is usually 24 Hz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2016-07-08T18:00:00.250" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15423" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15452" CreationDate="2016-07-09T14:44:18.007" Score="4" ViewCount="9555" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed I retain a much smaller fraction of the information I consume when I'm tired compared to when I'm well slept. Not only that, but I typically have to revisit the same material more times due to this issue, and at that point the information no longer seems new and exciting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Outside the context of academia and deadlines, if one is self-studying new material is it more beneficial to wait till they're better slept or should they power through the fatigue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2568" LastEditorUserId="2568" LastEditDate="2016-07-09T15:23:40.027" LastActivityDate="2016-07-13T06:59:53.003" Title="Is it counter-productive to study while tired?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15426" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15451" CreationDate="2016-07-09T19:41:54.573" Score="3" ViewCount="512" Body="&lt;p&gt;When wathcing the European Championship athletics, I hear many people talking about being in a &quot;flow&quot;. Flow is defined as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Flow is an optimal psychological state that occurs when there is a balance between perceived challenges and skills in an activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). It is a state of concentration so focused that it amounts to absolute absorption in an activity. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Susan_Jackson3/publication/29455230_Relationships_between_Flow_Self-Concept_Psychological_Skills_and_Performance/links/0deec5226669539231000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This sound nice, but to me it is still a quite abstract definition and it is not really clear to me how being in a flow works. &lt;strong&gt;Is there a more low level (cognitive) explanation of being in a flow?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I thought that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10413209508406962#.V4FSt7iLSUk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; could shine some light on the subject, but I am unable to access it.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-07-09T20:06:07.160" LastActivityDate="2016-07-13T06:12:20.483" Title="How is &quot;being in a flow&quot; explained cognitively?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;sport-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15427" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-09T21:10:57.837" Score="4" ViewCount="419" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there established methods to, say, enhance someone's conscientiousness or agreeableness? In particular, since it seems there's evidence linking positive relationship between &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ets.org/s/workforce_readiness/pdf/21334_big_5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the big five to academic and workplace performance&lt;/a&gt;, is there a way to enhance these five traits in students either in primary/secondary education or higher education?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12963" LastEditorUserId="8427" LastEditDate="2016-07-10T21:05:22.997" LastActivityDate="2016-07-10T21:05:22.997" Title="Can the big five personality dimensions be trained/enhanced?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15431" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15419" CreationDate="2016-07-10T19:21:07.797" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As John and Robin mentioned above, it relates to the superimposition of periodic functions. These functions can be an oscillating light source such as 60HZ AC lighting (power plants deliver electrical energy as oscillations to avoid the increased resistance presented by direct current), an oscillating image capture device such as a video camera, or the neuronal oscillations in your retina and primary visual cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's start by going through the example where the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=5&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiJi8m-x-nNAhULzmMKHXVdA44QFgg-MAQ&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.michaelbach.de%2Fot%2Fmot_spoke-illusion%2F&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNGzdLh7xVca38jVRNcGSUxtNvSKIg&amp;amp;sig2=XgBVzB9FMS6CMHGHFW1EAQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;reverse spoke illusion&quot;&lt;/a&gt; is caused by the interaction of the rotation and neural oscillation. We can then generalize this to all the forms of this illusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You perceive rotational motion when your eye &quot;takes pictures&quot; of a rotating object (we'll use a clockwise-rotating wheel with a single spoke for simplicity) as it moves. If the spokes in each picture are slightly clockwise of the spokes in the last picture, then higher order visual processing areas in your brain infer that the cause of this systematic difference in successive images is the physical rotation of the wheel. You experience this accordingly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, your brain only takes these pictures so fast. If the wheel is rotating slowly, the successive images are very similar, and it is easy to infer the clockwise rotation of the wheel from the series of small differences in spoke position. However, as the wheel spins faster and faster, the spokes travel farther and farther between pictures (the rate at which these pictures are taken is relatively fixed.) Because the wheel is rotating, it is a periodic function. Every time the wheel rotates once, it is in the same position it was in before. As the wheel continues to spin faster, the rate at which pictures are taken is exactly the same as the rotational period of the wheel. At this point, each picture will look exactly the same, because the wheel will be in the same position at each picture. The wheel will then appear to be fixed and not moving at all. At other speeds, each picture will be taken when the wheel spoke is slightly &lt;em&gt;behind&lt;/em&gt; (counterclockwise of) where it was in the last picture. Since the brain infers motion by the relative distance between pictures, it will take this to mean that the wheel is traveling in the opposite direction!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This effect is multiplied by the number of spokes in the wheel. If the spokes are visually indistinguishable, then this period at which the wheel looks the same is the time it takes the wheel to rotate once divided by the number of spokes. A 5-spoked wheel will only need to spin 1/5th as fast for the same effect to occur. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can now imagine how this phenomenon would present itself in other contexts with interacting oscillations. In the case of household lighting, the oscillations of the electric current effectively serve as the times at which pictures are taken (although this is a little more complicated because there are three sets of oscillations interacting, since your brain is still only taking pictures at a certain speed.) The same occurs when a digital or film camera takes pictures at a certain frequency. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These articles go into more depth on the scientific research that has been done on this phenomenon: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagon-wheel_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.028701&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a relevant research paper&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These pages are nice because they build a little more intuition for the effects of superimposition and convolution of periodic functions: &lt;a href=&quot;http://fsinet.fsid.cvut.cz/en/U2052/node105.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;math page&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/superposition/superposition.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;acoustics as an example&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me know if you could use some visual illustrations of the effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11767" LastActivityDate="2016-07-10T19:21:07.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15432" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15417" CreationDate="2016-07-10T20:56:35.000" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is yes. The longer answer involves a more precise meaning of deterministic and a number of research considerations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the strict sense of deterministic, which means that given the same input, the same output will always occur, any probability distribution modeled on a computer is deterministic, since most digital computers have a deterministic instruction set. However, this isn't quite relevant for your task, since the samples from the distribution that your model sees are largely uncorrelated with the model properties, making them appear random &lt;em&gt;to the model.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers often use probabilistic or stochastic stimuli because they are the simplest option and because they do not want to introduce a number of potential biases that occur when the model interacts with or entrains to specific patterns in deterministic stimuli. Such patterns would produce effects that are not representative of the general properties of the model, which may be misleading. Introducing a probability distribution therefore becomes a simple way to explore more of the state space of the model. Additional reasons why people introduce noise (through a stochastic stimulus) include the fact that real neurons tend to exist in noisy environments (modeling considerations), and the fact that some kinds of proofs about model performance are easier to perform for probabilistic stimuli. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your choice as to whether you want to use a deterministic stimulus depends largely on your goals in this research project. Do you want to know what happens when the model sees a specific pattern? Do you care if this pattern has noise in it? Do you want to perform mathematical proofs? Do you care about perturbation stability (some deterministic models may falsely appear stable because they are not moved off of their tiny equilibrium point by noise)? What process are you modeling?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given these considerations, you should be able to choose what kind of stimulus to use. Your model will accept many kinds of stimuli as input, but the choice of stimulus affects what you will learn from the specific simulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11767" LastActivityDate="2016-07-10T20:56:35.000" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15433" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15439" CreationDate="2016-07-10T21:16:00.567" Score="5" ViewCount="749" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nernst_equation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Nernst equation&lt;/a&gt; is an equation that relates the the total voltage, i.e. the electromotive force, of the full cell at any point in time to the standard electrode potential, temperature, activity, and reaction quotient of the underlying reactions and species used. I have been wondering why &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_constant&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Universal gas constant (R)&lt;/a&gt; is included in Nernst and Goldmann equations while describing the steady state of membrane potential?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13088" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-07-11T21:36:00.300" LastActivityDate="2016-07-11T21:36:00.300" Title="What is the role of (why )universal gas constant in Nernst equation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15435" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15405" CreationDate="2016-07-10T23:10:59.307" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;If there is literature that you are building off of or comparing your approach to, I would look in their papers to see what values they used and use the same. This is the standard approach, as it yields easily comparable experimental results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are just looking for some ballpark numbers for less formal research, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~eorhan/notes/lif-neuron.pdf&quot;&gt;these guys&lt;/a&gt; used 1 mΩ, &lt;a href=&quot;http://icwww.epfl.ch/~gerstner/SPNM/node26.html&quot;&gt;these guys&lt;/a&gt; did the same, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.ucdavis.edu/goldman/Tutorials_files/Integrate%26Fire.pdf&quot;&gt;these guys&lt;/a&gt; say they use 10 MΩ (I think they might mean mΩ). If you want, you can also tune the model by altering this parameter until it yields expected behaviors you are looking for under conditions where you know how the model performs. Different kinds of neurons have different resistance. It's hard to be more specific without knowing more details about what you want to do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11767" LastActivityDate="2016-07-10T23:10:59.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15437" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-11T08:54:26.400" Score="0" ViewCount="5200" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a person with multiple personalities, can one personality murder or kill another personality such that the killed personality never surface again?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Did it ever happen or studied?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13141" LastActivityDate="2016-07-12T18:52:20.223" Title="Can one personality kill another personality?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-07-12T19:50:37.593" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15439" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15433" CreationDate="2016-07-11T18:02:31.903" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;As in the ideal gas law, the universal gas constant allows for calculation of amount of energy associated with a certain group of molecules (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_constant&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_constant&lt;/a&gt;).  As the Nernst equation compares the &quot;osmotic pressure&quot; to &quot;electrical pressure&quot;, the universal gas constant is needed to convert amount of an ion on the two sides of a membrane (&quot;osmotic concentrations&quot;) to the amount of energy associated with that concentration differential (&quot;osmotic pressure&quot;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carefully looking at the units of all of the constituents of the equation can help clear things up.  R is in units of J / (mol * degree), and V is J/coulomb.  zF in the denominator gets you your coulombs.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In short, both the left and right sides of the equation are more or less measures of energy.  R converts amounts of ions to the energy associated with their osmotic pressure so that it can be compared with the electrical energy associated with their charge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-07-11T18:09:49.580" LastActivityDate="2016-07-11T18:09:49.580" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15440" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4096" CreationDate="2016-07-11T19:42:20.600" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hamid et al. Mesolimbic dopamine signals the value of work. Nature Neuroscience 2016.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v19/n1/full/nn.4173.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v19/n1/full/nn.4173.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a paper that argues that dopamine signals discounted value of future returns. This is precisely what you are asking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the authors argue, that if rewards are further away in time or space, they are discounted, and that DA release in the ventral striatum is more strongly related to this discounted value than prediction errors (current dominant theory of DA function).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think you should take a moment to read it! It is a seminal paper that makes a profound point about dopamine function, very neatly unifying previously disparate ideas of what the hell is DA good for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13151" LastActivityDate="2016-07-11T19:42:20.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15442" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15437" CreationDate="2016-07-12T01:08:42.087" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Far from being simply encoded in the genes, much of personality is a flexible and dynamic thing (Mischel &amp;amp; Shoda, 1995) that changes over the life span and is shaped by experience (Roberts, Walton, &amp;amp; Viechtbauer, 2006).&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stanford.edu/sites/all/files/cdweckpersonalitychanged_0.pdf&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Can Personality Be Changed?&lt;/em&gt; by Dweck&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After searching for related case studies, this is the closest I could find: &quot;Deathman, age 27, intervened when John, Gail and Diana argued.&quot; -- &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fmsfonline.org/links/ginterestmpdfourcases.html&quot;&gt;Four Cases of Supposed Multiple Personality Disorder: Evidence of Unjustified Diagnoses&lt;/a&gt; This women's multiple personalities fought each other (even though the authors doubt she had MPD). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps &quot;kill&quot; is not the best word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4116" LastActivityDate="2016-07-12T01:08:42.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15445" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10559" CreationDate="2016-07-12T13:08:12.067" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can I interpret your question as &quot;Can a human brain perform complex computational tasks, like encode MD5, on par with a computer?&quot;? To answer that question, I'm going to have to say no, that's why we invented computers in the first place. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, I think you're asking the question from more of a human performance standpoint, rather than strictly a language or computer science standpoint. You said in your comment, &quot;I believe that there are pretty no limits to what a brain can learn&quot;. That's a fantastic attitude, but sadly, it's simply not true. It &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; true that you can study and try to learn anything, but everyone's performance is going to be limited individually. Some people may master something and others may struggle, given the same amount of time to practice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain is mysterious, but we do know that our thoughts and movements are controlled by neurons firing. The brain adapts the firing patterns of the neurons in order for us to &quot;learn&quot;. More neurons doesn't necessarily imply better performance or learning ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that a fixed number of neurons being present in the brain at any one moment, combined with the fact that it takes some amount of time for a neuron to fire and react, would suggest there is a hard cap on a persons processing power at any one time. A person can't immediately become better with the resources they have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Genes, diet, and other factors would affect a persons biological ability to grow new, well-functioning neurons, and their ability for their brain to &quot;tune&quot; existing neurons in order to learn. General health would affect this, and since a person can't be &quot;unlimitedly healthy&quot;, it follows that there is some limit on the person's ability to create and &quot;tune&quot; neurons. A person can't unlimitedly increase their resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These two points suggest that our performance ability is ultimately limited by time, and I think there is simply not enough time to learn to speak binary at a fast enough and large enough scale to be useful EG listening to wifi. And if you consider today's data rates, 100MB/s just as an example, this would probably be beyond our ears' sensory perception capabilities anyways. I believe there are studies on the &quot;rate&quot; at which we can perceive sensory stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To provide another example to consider, I'm thinking about weightlifting, since the world deadlift record was just broken at 500kg. There's no &quot;limit&quot; on how much weight a person can lift, but there is certainly a limit to the rate at which you can train your body, and a limit on the amount of time you have to do it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in order to learn to decode HTTPS naturally in your brain, you would simply need to make exponential gains in your brains biological/physical ability to process and compute. There's no reason you can't, but we haven't figured out how to do that yet. Simply spending all of your time trying to learn it would certainly get you &lt;em&gt;somewhere&lt;/em&gt;, but certainly not enough to &quot;speak HTTPS&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13154" LastActivityDate="2016-07-12T13:08:12.067" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15446" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-12T14:26:58.877" Score="4" ViewCount="3113" Body="&lt;p&gt;For instance, does watching an artist draw improve your drawing skill, even if you're not drawing along with them? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13155" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-07-27T20:53:39.533" LastActivityDate="2016-07-29T14:33:49.190" Title="Can you learn a skill by observing someone else?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15448" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15437" CreationDate="2016-07-12T18:52:20.223" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In working with MPD patients, I understand the creation of personality in the context of MPD to be different than the creation of personality of the core individual. Our personalities are formed both from DNA and from our interactions with our environment. In the case of someone who has MPD, each personality serves a purpose. Occasionally, individuals with MPD will develop a personality that demonstrates dominance or the need to fight. This dominance or fight instinct is their primary coping mechanism. If this particular personality feels threatened by one of the other personalities, or perceives one of the other personalities to be weak (causing weakness of the whole), then the one can attack the other. How the brain creates or destroys personalities of an MPD is unknown. Most often it simply appears that the personality that was attacked is hidden, dead, or reabsorbed into the collective. The thoughts, feelings, and even memories from that personality can simply be gone. Where they &quot;go&quot; is also unknown. It is not believed that a formed personality is stored in memory the way we store other known information. It isn't like amnesia. But, there can be clear gaps in what one remembers. The core personality will often recall that there was once a personality that existed, but will be unable to recall the details held by that personality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13159" LastActivityDate="2016-07-12T18:52:20.223" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15451" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15426" CreationDate="2016-07-13T06:12:20.483" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a six-step breakdown of 'the flow' or 'zone' from it's creator &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/history-of-happiness/mihaly-csikszentmihalyi/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mihály Csíkszentmihályi&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Intense and focused concentration on the present moment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Merging of action and awareness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;A loss of reflective self-consciousness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;A sense of personal control or agency over the situation or activity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;A distortion of temporal experience&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Experience of the activity as intrinsically rewarding, also referred to as autotelic experience&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which can be found from his &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/science-of-happiness/getting-in-the-flow/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;website&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a photo available that denotes when flow would be considered achieved. (&lt;strong&gt;Upper Right&lt;/strong&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cCVFU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cCVFU.png&quot; alt=&quot;The State of Flow&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For even easier understanding, an example of the six steps in order from my personal life, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When implementing or working on a new project in Excel/VBA (Work I'm very comfortable with) I usually start with music to block out distractions and assist in focusing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As my process moves on I'm no longer able to hear the music, though it's still on. My brain is queuing next lines of code to test and my fingers are an output.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm less focused on mistakes, mishaps, meetings, or just general things on my plate. My only issue is my task-at-hand&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am the author and implementation. The code is mine. It's finished when I am.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In deep focus, a day that started at 9am and feels like may be 10am is actually closer to 1pm... and I should eat.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Every proper step IS rewarding, I'm challenging myself with a problem and completing work.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastActivityDate="2016-07-13T06:12:20.483" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15452" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15423" CreationDate="2016-07-13T06:59:53.003" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. When studying sleep is crucial in consolidating memories. Recently a wave of research and opinion has hit around optimizing learning, sleep is always mentioned as key. To prominent authors are &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0812984293&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Benedict Carey&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B00G3L19ZU&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barbara Oakley&lt;/a&gt;. There work is much easier to process than the below research paper, but we like well researched answers!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So here we go, why studying while fatigued is counter-productive and the underlying mechanism of memory consolidation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Whereas older research concentrated on the role of rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep, recent work has revealed the importance of slow-wave sleep (SWS) for memory consolidation and also enlightened some of the underlying electrophysiological, neurochemical, and genetic mechanisms, as well as developmental aspects in these processes. Specifically, newer findings characterize sleep as a brain state optimizing memory consolidation, in opposition to the waking brain being optimized for encoding of memories&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Consolidation originates from reactivation of recently encoded neuronal memory representations, which occur during SWS and transform respective representations for integration into long-term memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This work is available for free from the NCBI &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3768102/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastActivityDate="2016-07-13T06:59:53.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15454" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-14T03:35:43.117" Score="2" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can going from a highly intensive and stressful environment to one which is calm and relaxed impact long-term memory or, specifically, one's ability to easily recall information?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I have spent the past year in a very intense and stressful academic environment where I would often go for days without sleep. During this time, I was able to quickly recall information and do very well. However, now that I am on &quot;summer break&quot; I am noticing that my memory is not as sharp. Specifically, I am having difficulty recalling names and specific pieces of information that I should know. This occurs on only on occasion and only happens with things that are more obscure or non-essential (i.e. couldn't come up with the name to a song I know all of the lyrics to. I knew the title immediately once I saw it). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has happened to me once before while on break and shortly after returning to work I noticed that my memory had returned to normal. This only happens with names and it almost feels as though there is a mental block preventing me from remembering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there an explanation as to why this is occurring?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;As a note: I am still a teenager so age is hopefully not a factor.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13168" LastEditorUserId="7654" LastEditDate="2016-07-16T00:10:44.703" LastActivityDate="2016-07-16T00:10:44.703" Title="Can drastic changes in stress levels impact long-term memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-07-16T17:26:28.413" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15457" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15483" CreationDate="2016-07-15T14:13:21.120" Score="1" ViewCount="351" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've observed multiple occasions where females are better at multitasking than males. It's not rare to see a lady driving a car, doing her make up and talking on the phone at the same time. Once I worked at a call center, and women were able to talk on the phone with a client and successfully perform a second task without much disruption. From my experience men have struggled with the same or similar combination of tasks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that backs up my anecdotal evidence? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13100" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-07-16T00:07:49.767" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T10:35:09.943" Title="Are women better at multitasking?" Tags="&lt;gender&gt;&lt;multi-tasking&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15462" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13486" CreationDate="2016-07-16T19:49:40.637" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a new FREE introductory document on the brain and EEG. You can download it over here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.advancedbrainmonitoring.com/free-eeg-pocket-guide-download/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.advancedbrainmonitoring.com/free-eeg-pocket-guide-download/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another popular book is &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/introduction-event-related-potential-technique&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An introduction to event-related potentials&lt;/a&gt;, by Steven J. Luck.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-04-25T06:47:13.867" LastActivityDate="2017-04-25T06:47:13.867" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15463" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12830" CreationDate="2016-07-16T20:04:11.967" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Advanced Brain Monitoring has amazing high quality EEG systems that are almost as good as medical grade equipment (Reference will follow).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several choices you can make. There is the X-10 (9 channels plus mastoid and ECG), the X-24 (20 channels plus mastoid and ECG). Each of these systems also have accelerometers integrated. Moreover, ABM has a sleep profiler, an even simpler EEG system with fewer channels. ABM also provides neat online and offline analysis software. Definitely recommend it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other possibilities are the Nexus systems and Biopac Mobita. I haven't worked with them but they exist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-07-16T20:04:11.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15464" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-17T00:03:46.677" Score="2" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;If light travels at c, and the human nervous system is a lot slower than light speed, therefore it would take a lot of time for us to process what we see, why aren't we blind to what's going around us because everything we see is slowly processed at an inferior speed (let the inferior speed be defined as is less than c--the speed of light)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13185" LastActivityDate="2017-05-13T22:00:57.513" Title="If light travels at c, and the human nervous system's speed/perception speed&lt;c, why aren't we not seeing or blind at some times?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15465" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15464" CreationDate="2016-07-17T01:30:16.717" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you are confusing speed with rate.  The speed of light is how long it take to for light to get from one point to another, not how often light &quot;events&quot; arrive at the eye.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To give an analogy, imagine a highway.  There are 500 cars on that highway.  They are traveling at 70 mph.  Those cars then exit the highway onto a residential rode.  They are then travelling at 30 mph.  Does this require some of the cars disappear?  No, they are all there, just moving at a different speed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So for vision, imagine a certain light source emits a burst of 500 photons.  The light source is 1 meter away from the eye, so it takes about 3 nanoseconds for the photons to arrive at the eye.  Then they are converted into electrical impulses by the eye, and processed by the brain.  Let's say this takes 100 milliseconds (I am just making that number up).  That is about 30 million times longer.  But it is still processing the same 500 photons, it just takes longer for them (or the electrical impulses they create) to get from one point to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7616" LastActivityDate="2016-07-17T01:30:16.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15467" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-17T13:32:10.050" Score="1" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know papers indicating that too much information is bad for the memory or even more precise - that too much learning matter is bad for the success of a student? I know a bit of the mechanism of how memory works (Papez circle, Hippocampus etc.) but not too much. So if there is any mechanism that also would indicate my hypothesis, could you help me with that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks a lot!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13187" LastActivityDate="2016-07-17T13:32:10.050" Title="Are there any papers showing that too much learning matters is bad for memory?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;mental-exhaustion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2016-07-27T20:32:58.797" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15468" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-17T19:23:08.620" Score="1" ViewCount="179" Body="&lt;p&gt;What theories exist explaining the interaction between creativity and long term memory? I am especially interested in how, in creative work, a thought triggers a memory that may not be related to it in an obvious way. I realise this is a broad question, so I was hoping you folks could give me a few articles or books as starting points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13190" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-07-18T00:46:50.610" LastActivityDate="2016-07-18T00:46:50.610" Title="Relation between memory and creativity" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15469" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15741" CreationDate="2016-07-18T01:53:02.300" Score="5" ViewCount="1316" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often when I'm reading theoretical neuroscience publications, such as &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://biorxiv.org/content/early/2016/06/13/058545&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Towards an integration of deep learning and neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, as well as &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1405122870.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Memory and the Computational Brain&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, theorists often mention the importance of content-addressable memories. They are defined as follows in the former publication:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Content addressable memories are classic models in neuroscience. Most simply, they allow us to recognize a situation&#xA;  similar to one that we have seen before, and to “fill in” stored&#xA;  patterns based on partial or noisy information, but they may also be&#xA;  put to use as sub-components of many other functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the Associative Memory often used in SPA-based models, such as the model used in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cogs.12261/abstract;jsessionid=B9F9C1072A3265CBBFBF6879D268AD33.f02t03&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biologically Plausible, Human-Scale Knowledge Representation&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, the same thing as a content-addressable memories?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-01-24T17:04:25.183" Title="Difference between content-addressable memory and associative memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;nef&gt;&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15471" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3674" CreationDate="2016-07-18T22:13:24.153" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes we can. The state is nowadays called 'Lucid Dreaming' and it is not a theory or New Age superstition. It has been scientifically proven first by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.keithhearne.com/science-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dr Keith Hearn&lt;/a&gt; and consequently by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_LaBerge&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dr Stephen Laberge&lt;/a&gt;. They both used variations of the same method, namely having the dreamer produce prearranged, measurable signals from inside the dream once the become lucid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additional Subjective Info:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Really for something like that you can try it for yourself. With a bit of discipline everyone can do it. I am exploring it myself and from the people I have told through the years five followed the methods and they were all succesful. I recommend the book 'Are you Dreaming?' by Daniel Love as it is scientific and extensive, covering all levels. If you ask me, every scientist that deals with the mind should be developing this skill. It is the ultimate introspection playground (and lots of fun).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One word of caution. If you google the term you are going to end up with billions of New Age and religious cults and wild theories about aliens, gnomes, angels, other dimensions etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unless you are interested in the sociology of belief and cult formation just ignore the lot and read the science and the 'Are you Dreaming?' book (no I am not getting any money from the author).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7535" LastEditorUserId="7535" LastEditDate="2016-07-18T22:28:17.777" LastActivityDate="2016-07-18T22:28:17.777" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15473" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-19T16:48:05.393" Score="4" ViewCount="450" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have an experiment with $N$ signal trials and $M$ no signal trials and I have measure the number of hits $nHit$ and the number of false alarms $nFA$. From this I can compute the probability of a hit $p(Hit)$, the probability of a false alarm $p(FA)$, and the index of sensitivity $d^\prime$. Specifically, I define $d^\prime=z(p(Hit))-z(p(FA))$ where $z(.)$ is the inverse of the normal distribution cumulative density function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can also find the confidence intervals of $p(Hit)$ and $p(FA)$ with the inverse of the binomial distribution cumulative density function. Is there a similar way of calculating the confidence interval of $d^\prime$ that doesn't involve resampling the data (e.g., bootstrapping). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-07-20T01:27:42.590" LastActivityDate="2016-07-20T01:27:42.590" Title="How to calculate the confidence interval for $d^\prime$ (d prime)?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15474" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13711" CreationDate="2016-07-20T01:22:19.053" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know where you read that. I'm not familiar enough with &quot;The Bell Curve&quot; to inform you whether it's true or not. However, even if it were true, the language and cultural bias explanation for lower negro IQ has been shown wrong. Raven's progressive matrix IQ test has no language or cultural requirements whatsoever so it's impossible to attribute IQ scores on this form of IQ test to these biases. Sure enough, results consistent with Murray's results have been found by Rushton and Skuy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=7F75E24231A12E5DD9D86E604AC1B69A?doi=10.1.1.503.9118&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=7F75E24231A12E5DD9D86E604AC1B69A?doi=10.1.1.503.9118&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13212" LastActivityDate="2016-07-20T01:22:19.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15475" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15473" CreationDate="2016-07-20T01:25:13.230" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't done much d-prime stuff for a long time, but perhaps check out the &lt;code&gt;discrim&lt;/code&gt; function in the &lt;code&gt;sensR&lt;/code&gt; package in R.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.inside-r.org/packages/cran/sensR/docs/discrim&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.inside-r.org/packages/cran/sensR/docs/discrim&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if I understand correctly you could pass arguments like the following: a person had 60 items correct out of 100 and null hypothesis d-prime is 0 (you can specify either a null d-prime or a null probability of correct).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;library(sensR)&#xA;discrim(correct = 60, total = 100, d.prime0=0)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This produces the  following output:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Estimates for the duotrio discrimination protocol with 60 correct&#xA;answers in 100 trials. One-sided p-value and 95 % two-sided confidence&#xA;intervals are based on the 'exact' binomial test. &#xA;&#xA;        Estimate Std. Error Lower  Upper&#xA;pc         0.600    0.04899   0.5 0.6967&#xA;pd         0.200    0.09798   0.0 0.3934&#xA;d-prime    1.115    0.31360   0.0 1.6958&#xA;&#xA;Result of difference test:&#xA;'exact' binomial test:  p-value = 0.02844 &#xA;Alternative hypothesis: d-prime is greater than 0 &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I.e., you appear to get a lower and upper confidence interval on d-prime (e.g., 0 to 1.6958). The confidence interval can be specified with the &lt;code&gt;conf.level&lt;/code&gt; argument but defaults to 0.95. There's more details in Christensen (2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Christensen, R. H. B. (2015). Statistical methodology for sensory discrimination tests and its implementation in sensR. &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.192.6348&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.192.6348&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-07-20T01:25:13.230" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15476" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-20T01:56:43.873" Score="1" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am attempting to figure out a battery of tests that I can perform on myself on a daily/weekly basis to test whether any intervention I attempt on myself actually improves my cognitive performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From various sites, and with the awesome help of Seanny123, I narrowed it down to 3 variables I want to test for 1. attention 2. reaction-time 3. memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a few websites/software that seem to do this and seem legitimate &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psytoolkit.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psytoolkit.org/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pebl.sourceforge.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://pebl.sourceforge.net/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, even these software/website has multitude of tests and I am not sure which one to run.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would you have any suggestions on which tests to run and using what software so as to comprehensively test these three areas (attention, reaction-time, memory) on a daily/weekly basis (totaly test time say ~ 15 min)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for your help&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13213" LastEditorUserId="13213" LastEditDate="2016-07-21T00:51:29.323" LastActivityDate="2016-07-21T00:51:29.323" Title="how to comprehensively assess three areas of cognition (attention, reaction-time, memory) on a daily, personal basis, preferably online,?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="13" ClosedDate="2016-07-27T20:33:31.313" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15478" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15489" CreationDate="2016-07-20T06:55:08.433" Score="-1" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;We can't compute (speaking of some of the functions a computer can perform ) as fast as a computer. Where does this shortcoming stem from- working memory or clock frequency perhaps comparable to the firing frequency of neurons- in this analogy? I have come across that the conscious mind can hold only about 40 bits(or other similar, small numbers) at a time. So what all could I accomplish given I had access to say 6 GB of RAM?&#xA;Note: Please consider this analogy even if it's remotely applicable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13218" LastActivityDate="2016-07-28T22:51:41.487" Title="Human brain v/s computer: speed comparison?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15479" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-20T07:57:26.970" Score="1" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why when we see a cute cat or dog, we immedietly want to make physical contact with it (touch, hug, smell, etc.)? Does brain percives cute things somehow like food? Or maybe it triggers parent-child reaction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10379" LastActivityDate="2016-07-20T23:24:04.977" Title="Why cute things make us want to touch it?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2016-07-31T01:43:46.860" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15481" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8203" CreationDate="2016-07-20T09:15:44.590" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question rightly refers to different types of subliminal messaging, and so there is much confusion in this area. This was not helped by James Vicary's fraudulent &quot;Drink Coca-Cola&quot; study. Many people took this at face value and assumed that all forms of subliminal research were stopped in its tracks. In fact, the opposite is true - the controversy engaged a new generation of researchers, who have since shown subliminal messaging to work across a number of methods, context, and purposes. Studies like Vicary's are now commonplace. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X7tEo8xJ9VM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;You Tube Link here&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;If you're researching the topic, the usual sources like PubMed/Medline are useful. The US National Library of Medicine has a good collection of papers as well.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.subliminaltoday.com/articles/evidence/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;curated list&lt;/a&gt; of the seminal studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Evidence for Subliminal Messaging falls into two categories:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Group Experimental Testing&lt;/strong&gt;: Unlike any other forms of the so-called'talking cures' therapies, subliminal messaging lends itself perfectly to double blind testing. Here one group of subjects receive subliminal messages, and another gets a placebo recording (or a blank screen in the case of visual subliminal). These papers represent an earlier tranche of research (from about the 70′s to the mid 90′s). This demonstrated unequivocally that there is a subliminal effect, but was unable to explain the how. This came later. It is also fair to say that just like anything in the behavioural sciences, there also a handful of good and respected experiments which show subliminal messaging doesn't work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;fMRI tests and observations:&lt;/strong&gt; From the mid 90′s onward, fMRI was able to show the perception and processing of subliminal information within the brain in real time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would hasten to add that proof that they exist/work/are effective - &lt;em&gt;does not mean that they can be used for anything and everything&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13220" LastEditorUserId="13220" LastEditDate="2016-07-20T09:20:58.227" LastActivityDate="2016-07-20T09:20:58.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15482" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-20T09:48:00.013" Score="2" ViewCount="1113" Body="&lt;p&gt;Personally I believe introvert and extrovert are one of the most thrown around and misused words. I would go as far to say as what they mean in common everyday English is not the same as what they mean in psychology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What exactly is the definition of introversion and extroversion? I've seen lots of psychology &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quietrev.com/the-introvert-test/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;surveys, such as this one&lt;/a&gt;, where the possibles answers are too limited. I mean, I know a lot of people who would be considered extroverts but are still tired after a music festival or concert. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-07-21T04:59:22.747" LastActivityDate="2016-08-02T11:55:43.843" Title="What is the scientific definition of Introversion/Extroversion?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15483" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15457" CreationDate="2016-07-20T11:40:45.207" Score="4" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no consistent evidence for the fact that women are better than men at multitasking. We do know that multitasking is detrimental for performance, whether it is forced or scheduled. Women do appear to be better at planning when to multitask and, in fact, do it less often than men. &lt;strong&gt;Counter-intuitively, women may give the impression to be better at multitasking because they do it less often.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The notion that women are better multitaskers is deeply grained in our society. There is even an evolutionary explanation as of why that may be the case. As paraphrased by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Xiaolan_Fu/publication/224094593_A_Deeper_Look_at_Gender_Difference_in_Multitasking_Gender-Specific_Mechanism_of_Cognitive_Control/links/56f4899b08ae7c1fda2d779f.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ren, Zhou and Fu (2009)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] females who stayed at home could not afford focusing solely on food preparation because the offspring cannot be left on their own. In other words, the structure of primitive human society exerted a strong selection pressure against females who were incapable of juggling several chores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Women are better&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In controlled experiments, people even found some evidence (&lt;a href=&quot;http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2050-7283-1-18&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stoet et al, 2013&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Xiaolan_Fu/publication/224094593_A_Deeper_Look_at_Gender_Difference_in_Multitasking_Gender-Specific_Mechanism_of_Cognitive_Control/links/56f4899b08ae7c1fda2d779f.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ren et al, 2009&lt;/a&gt;) that supports that women are better multitaskers. In the study of Stoet et al, stimuli were shown that had two dimensions (shape and filling) each of which had two features (which determined which button to press). Only when the stimulus was presented, it became apparent on which dimension the participant had to focus. The results showed that 120 women performed significantly better on the task, compared to 120 men. As you can see from the Figure, the effect is not that large though. With enough participants, every minor effect will become significant at one point. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PJCkY.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PJCkY.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;RTs and %Errors on a two-choice decision making task.&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the study of Ren, the participants were to perform a go-nogo task, followed by a flanker task (target identification). In a simple condition (always go, followed by a flanker task), men and women were, in a way, monotasking the flanker task. In the hierarchical condition participants had to make a decision on both go-nogo, which determined whether the flanker task had to be performed. There are two important notions that we must consider here. First of all, women improved on the hierarchical conditions! This is very surprising given the general consensus is that multitasking is detrimental for performance. Secondary task performance, for instance, is even being used as a measure for mental workload (&lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/221/4615/1080&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wickens, 1983&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/41175138/Adaptive_Automation_of_a_Dynamic_Control20160114-13238-12hmry0.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1490349285&amp;amp;Signature=Y5ISTCfzs8%2FqkD2XVO2isHWaB9A%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DAdaptive_Automation_of_a_Dynamic_Control.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaber, 1999&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This surprising observation may be explained by the notion of the authors themselves (which is the second notion): the task at hand is not necessarily multitasking in the sense of rapid switching between (often unrelated) tasks. Instead, I think, the task in this study must be seen as sequential monotasking, in which the first task determines how the second one must be performed.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Women are not better&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Another study investigated multitasking abilities between men and women using sudoku's and cross-word puzzles (&lt;a href=&quot;http://econ.mtakti.hu/file/download/korosi/2011/peter.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Buser and Peter, 2011&lt;/a&gt;). The tasks were either performed (1) sequentially, (2) forced multitasking or (3) freely scheduled. Results showed that during forced multitasking and freely scheduled multitasking, performance dropped significantly compared to sequential task execution. No gender differences were found here. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Then why do we think women are better multitaskers?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stoet et al, performed two experiments. In the second experiment, three more ecological valid task were to be performed concurrently, for which the participants had eight minutes in total. The order in which they had to be performed was up to the participants. Here, less obvious differences were found. In two of the task there was no significant difference in performance. One task, the key-finding task, did show that women were significantly better. However, we must again ask, is this because of their multitasking ability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the participants could decide when and how to perform the task (sequential monotasking or multitasking-wise), they were in charge of the planning. It has been shown that people are generally bad at this and performance always is affected (Katidioti, 2014; see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/13082/provable-roi-for-call-center-rest-periods/14037#14037&quot;&gt;Provable ROI for call center rest periods?&lt;/a&gt;; Buser and Peter). What Buser and Peter found, however, is that &lt;strong&gt;women are less inclined to multitask compared to men when given the choice.&lt;/strong&gt; If this is indeed the case, this may explain the fact that women performed better at the key searching task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T10:35:09.943" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15484" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15482" CreationDate="2016-07-20T12:21:25.203" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I totally agree. These words have become colloquial and have lost much of their meaning - and are therefore increasingly less helpful. Introversion is confused with shyness and sensitivity, while Extroversion is confused with social skills. This is partly because there is no agreed upon definition, insofar that they are &lt;strong&gt;operationally defined&lt;/strong&gt; by each psychometric test/framework differently. That is to say, the same theoretical construct/concept is measured differently in each test, and therefore are operationally defined by a different set of responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Its is generally agreed that is is a &lt;strong&gt;continuum&lt;/strong&gt; and that individuals &lt;strong&gt;do not reside exclusively on the same part of the continuum all the time&lt;/strong&gt;, across contexts (which is where your festival example comes from). That is, an individual may have a strong/weak tendency but may behave differently dependent upon the situation they find themselves in. &lt;em&gt;Anecdotally, for what it's worth, I find an individual's tendency is best revealed when they are under pressure or are experiencing anxiety.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the original interpretation, look no further than &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion#Eysenck.27s_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Carl Jung&lt;/a&gt;'s definition. The most widely accepted operational definition according to most Psychology research is possibly &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck#Model_of_personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Three Factor Model&lt;/a&gt;, while the most popular operational definition, where most lay people hang their hat is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. I'd say people warm to this the most, and is the definition most people are likely referring to when they speak of &#xA;Introversion/Extroversion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking to these three sources, you should get the original theoretical definition for the construct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13220" LastEditorUserId="13220" LastEditDate="2016-07-21T09:17:29.220" LastActivityDate="2016-07-21T09:17:29.220" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15486" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-20T16:27:38.823" Score="1" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are trying to map people collaboration skills and aptitudes, in a business context. In particular we are interested in the following personality traits:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Intrinsic Motivation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Attitude to risk&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Empathy (We mean: (1) I try to be on time whenever possible, independent of who the other person is; (2) I consider my collaborators also my friends)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trust (We mean: Do I trust other people in the group?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tendency to ethical behavior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you have any suggestions of pre-existing tests which can help in mapping such constructs? Constructs can be renamed, I'm not sure we are using the most appropriate language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would you include other traits to the aim of assessing collaboration skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8212" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-07-26T06:33:39.077" LastActivityDate="2016-07-26T06:33:39.077" Title="Tests to Assess Collaboration Skills" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;collaboration&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15487" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-20T16:55:24.630" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unexplained or difficult to explain shortness of breath seems to be blamed on anxiety very frequently despite lack of diagnostic evidence, especially in individuals with psychiatric conditions. This is not helpful to people that experience shortness of breath as a side effect of medication or from other causes that have not been identified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can one make sure that the diagnosis (and vast symptoms) of anxiety isn't being applied too liberally and that the patient receives the best possible diagnosis/care (especially when there are concurrent psychiatric conditions)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13223" LastEditorUserId="13223" LastEditDate="2016-07-21T01:59:10.743" LastActivityDate="2016-07-25T18:05:33.950" Title="Differential diagnosis for shortness of breath from anxiety" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2016-08-24T17:21:40.537" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15489" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15478" CreationDate="2016-07-20T20:37:42.187" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Doing this sort of comparison is very difficult.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, the brain is not digital by any stretch of the imagination, it is &lt;a href=&quot;http://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/is-the-brain-analog-or-digital/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;highly analog&lt;/a&gt;.  Computers, on the other hand, are digital (binary, specifically).  So doing a calculation measurement on a brain is hard to begin with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, the way they handle tasks is very different.  Computers are designed to carry out individual, complex tasks in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing#Background&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;stepwise manner&lt;/a&gt;.  Brains, on the other hand, are designed to do an enormous number of simpler tasks &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dnalc.org/view/1194-Brain-as-Parallel-Processor.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;in parallel&lt;/a&gt;.  So an individual task for a brain might be slower, but that is because the brain is doing a lot of other stuff at the same time, and only a small portion of the total &quot;processing power&quot; is available to individual tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third, their architectures are organized to do completely different tasks.  Modern computers are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit#Structure_and_implementation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;largely designed&lt;/a&gt; to do mathematical calculations on binary numbers, integers, and/or floating-point numbers.  Processors are largely designed around doing these sorts of calculations (and moving memory around).  Brains, on the other hand, are pretty bad at those sorts of calculations, and don't seem to have anything equivalent to moving blocks of memory around (the brain has no such thing as &quot;RAM&quot;).  Brains are much better at fuzzy (non-binary) operations like &lt;a href=&quot;http://bigthink.com/endless-innovation/humans-are-the-worlds-best-pattern-recognition-machines-but-for-how-long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pattern matching&lt;/a&gt;, things that computers are really bad at.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it isn't that computers are faster than brains, they aren't.  It is that brains and computers are optimized for different sorts of tasks, and they do those tasks in different ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7616" LastEditorUserId="7616" LastEditDate="2016-07-20T22:28:26.767" LastActivityDate="2016-07-20T22:28:26.767" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15491" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-21T12:07:29.917" Score="1" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was staring blankly at my desk thinking about how to overcome a programming task at work when it suddenly dawned on me I had spent the best part of half an hour trying to envision how this problem could be solved. This got me thinking, why is it thoughts have to take a non-zero length of time to occur? What is the process in the mind that causes it to be slow, almost as if I were to be speaking the thoughts aloud? Is our thought process just wildly inefficient? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13231" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-08-05T19:51:29.667" LastActivityDate="2016-08-05T19:51:29.667" Title="Why do thoughts take a non-zero length of time?" Tags="&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2016-07-27T20:31:15.827" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15493" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13925" CreationDate="2016-07-21T16:58:04.073" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't make comments yet, so in the following I will assume that by 'STDP synapse' you mean the model of a synapse using the STDP rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The scenario that you are describing is a triplet experiment with a PRE-POST-PRE protocol and to answer your question: Yes, in this case the STDP rule predicts both, weakening and strengthening of the same synapse and given symmetric curves the net change would be zero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this &lt;a href=&quot;http://lcn.epfl.ch/team/pfister/papers/Pfister_06c.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; in Figure 2 C,D they address this scenario (they report a non-zero net change but I guess it's due to asymmetric STDP curves). As they mention, the STDP rule is also symmetric in a different way in that it would predict the same net change in a POST-PRE-POST scenario because it simply adds up the two spike-pair events (PRE-POST and POST-PRE). Also in Figure 2 C,D is shown that experimental results differ from the STDP predictions because they are not the same for the PRE-POST-PRE and the POST-PRE-POST case. This discrepancy is actually the motivation of the more general triplet rule that is described in the reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2016-07-21T16:58:04.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15495" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15527" CreationDate="2016-07-21T18:47:07.567" Score="1" ViewCount="564" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on some EEG data we collected using the Emotiv Epoc headset using 14 channel sensors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need to isolate chunks of data where all 14 channels are stable (non-noisy) for a given length of time (e.g. 5 seconds). I've written a MATLAB script for this, such that I calculate the standard deviation of each channel and pass an analysis window over the data, comparing the difference between maximum and minimum values in the window to this standard deviation (i.e. where maximum - minimum is less than the standard deviation [or 3-5 standard deviations], I treat that window as stable).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on this criteria, I am having some success in finding 5 second long segments but am worried this data may not be reliable (or not as stable/artefact free as desired).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any better ways of performing this analysis? Even better, are there any functions built into EEGLAB for this very purpose?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Further info:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've selected only the relevant channels and can now look through my EEG data files.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am no neuroscience expert, actually I'm rather new to this sort of analysis, so apologies if this question is overly basic or off-point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We collected our data in a museum environment (very noisy in many ways), with participants sitting as still as possible for 2-minute sessions at a go. For this reason, there is a high likelihood of artefacts being found in the data due to movement, the environment and possibly even inaccuracies from the device itself (since we went through a rather large number of participants, cleaning and charging the headsets in between trials). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I've discussed with the team, I've been told that removing artefacts wouldn't solve the issue (though admittedly I'm no expert as to why this would be). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For clarity, the data we've collected looks similar to the plot below. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/J0Nbj.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/J0Nbj.png&quot; alt=&quot;Noisy Data&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And we're looking for a minimum of 5 seconds of stable data, closer to the plot below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/F2BHZ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/F2BHZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;Stable Data&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I know this data selection can be done manually using pop_eegplot, however since we have close to 300 data files I'm looking to automate this (and hopefully get more reliable selections).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13235" LastEditorUserId="13235" LastEditDate="2016-07-22T11:39:07.313" LastActivityDate="2016-07-28T22:05:26.297" Title="Isolating stable EEG data across all channels in EEGLAB" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15498" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6538" CreationDate="2016-07-22T16:57:09.217" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a really nice and recent &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010945212001773&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;review&lt;/a&gt; about the current state of research regarding hypnosis, which also cites the resource of another answer here). I will quote here the part about EEG studies but would recommend to read the whole article (if you can't access the article, &lt;a href=&quot;http://sci-hub.bz/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sci-hub&lt;/a&gt; can probably help you).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;3.1. The EEG spectrum&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Historically, the most popular approach to understanding the neural&#xA;  substrates of hypnosis has been to examine EEG correlates of&#xA;  hypnotizability and changes in the EEG spectrum which occur when&#xA;  hypnosis is induced (e.g., Lee et al., 2007; for a comprehensive&#xA;  listing of studies, see Hinterberger et al., 2011; Vaitl et al.,&#xA;  2005). Many of these studies were “fishing expeditions”, conducted in&#xA;  the hopes that they would yield interesting results, rather than tests&#xA;  of specific hypothesis about the nature or locus of electrocortical&#xA;  changes associated with hypnosis. Still, they were not always without&#xA;  some theoretical rationale, however weak. For example, in the late&#xA;  1960s it was suggested that hypnotizability and hypnosis were&#xA;  associated with increased density of alpha activity in the EEG – a&#xA;  hypothesis which drew strength from early reports of increased alpha&#xA;  density in Zen and yoga meditation, as well as the meditation-like&#xA;  experiences once thought to be produced by EEG alpha biofeedback.&#xA;  Similar considerations, as well as speculations concerning the&#xA;  relevance of 40-Hz activity to focused arousal, perceptual binding,&#xA;  and consciousness itself, prompted investigation of the gamma band of&#xA;  the EEG (DePascalis, 1999, 2007). Finally, in a manner reminiscent of&#xA;  the 19th-century analogy between hypnosis and sleep, the association&#xA;  between theta activity and hypnagogic imagery led some investigators&#xA;  to focus on this portion of the EEG spectrum (Sabourin et al., 1990;&#xA;  Williams and Gruzelier, 2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The most thorough of these studies was reported by Ray et al., who&#xA;  took advantage of advanced EEG technology to examine alpha, beta, and&#xA;  theta activity recorded separately from frontal, temporal, parietal,&#xA;  and occipital sites of both left and right hemispheres in hypnotizable&#xA;  and insusceptible male and female college students before and after a&#xA;  hypnotic induction (Graffin et al., 1995; Ray, 1997). As might be&#xA;  imagined, given the 3 × 4 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 design, the results of this&#xA;  experiment were quite complex. Analysis of baseline differences,&#xA;  before hypnotic induction, revealed higher theta power in hypnotizable&#xA;  compared to insusceptible subjects, especially in frontal and temporal&#xA;  areas. Hypnotizable subjects showed greater resting alpha activity&#xA;  only in the temporal area. The induction of hypnosis decreased theta&#xA;  activity in hypnotizable subjects, while increasing it among&#xA;  insusceptibles, particularly in parietal and occipital areas. Alpha&#xA;  activity generally increased across all sites in all subjects,&#xA;  consistent with enhanced relaxation and reduction of visual activity.&#xA;  Graffin et al. interpreted the changes in theta as indicative of&#xA;  heightened concentration among hypnotizable subjects, but the fact&#xA;  that theta activity decreased in hypnotizable subjects and increased&#xA;  in insusceptible subjects suggests that, following the induction of&#xA;  hypnosis, both groups of subjects were actually in very similar&#xA;  cortical states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say the summary is: It's complicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2016-07-22T16:57:09.217" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12857" CreationDate="2016-07-22T18:37:42.983" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the question whether this experiment will give you useful data can be split into two parts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the EEG reflect the emotional state ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the stimulus (media,pictures) induce such an emotional state ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the first question there is a lot of research going on and this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hindawi.com/journals/cmmm/2013/573734/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;review&lt;/a&gt; might be a good starting point to get into the topic. Without knowing much of the literature I would guess though, that you always need some ground-truth data of the emotional state to train your classifier. This would mean that you would need to somehow 'measure' your emotional state during the EEG recording. You could avoid this by separately 'measuring' your emotional state when watching the media but then you would have to assume that it's always the same emotional state which might not be true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you don't want to measure the emotional state, you could also try to do unsupervised learning on the EEG signal, maybe saying that you want to find 3 different emotional states and in the best case the algorithm will give you a nice partition of your stimuli into three categories but there is no way that it can know what emotions those categories stand for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the second question I guess it would make sense start with a set of stimuli for which you are sure that they induce strong emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of this is speaking of general emotional states. Reducing the problem to only distinguishing enjoyment vs. no enjoyment would make it a bit easier of course but the aspects to consider remain the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2016-07-22T18:37:42.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15500" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-22T19:06:54.493" Score="3" ViewCount="910" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following is an observation I made in an informal sample group of about 10 people. I am looking into understanding the behavior I observed. Here is the setting:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a computer keyboard there are the 4 arrow directions: up/forward, down/backward, left and right. Only the up/forward and down/backward keys are functional. On the screen is a first-person view that can rotate left (counterclockwise) and right (clockwise). The up/forward and down/backward keys are to be bounded to those rotations, so that pressing one would rotate the view in the bound direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that most people bind the up/forward key to the right rotation and the down/backward key to the left rotation. I thought that this has to do with handedness, but it seems not to be the case. The exact numbers don't matter because there is not enough here for statistical significance. It could be that there is an association of clockwise rotation with (time) moving forwards, and same for counterclockwise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any reasoning for this, or studies on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13242" LastActivityDate="2020-03-30T04:56:15.167" Title="Is forward associated with right and backwards with left?" Tags="&lt;lateralization&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15501" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-22T20:51:28.720" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a non-psychologist so would appreciate any guidance from this community. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've heard arguments that people have overconfidence, probability matching tendencies, etc, because that is chosen by evolution. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those theories are elegant but clearly prone to &quot;theory fitting&quot;. What are some methods people have used to test/reject such theories? Are there general methods or are the tests all theory-dependent? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13243" LastActivityDate="2016-07-23T01:14:54.647" Title="How to test a theory that explains a psychological phenomenon using evolutionary arguments?" Tags="&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-07-27T20:34:26.470" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15503" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15500" CreationDate="2016-07-23T03:30:22.500" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It may have to do with language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea that language influences thought is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Linguistic Relativity&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The more accepted weak version claims that linguistic categories and&#xA;  usage only influence thoughts and decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lera Boroditsky summarizes research on the influence language has on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.edge.org/conversation/how-does-our-language-shape-the-way-we-think&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;direction and time&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;English speakers tend to talk about time using horizontal spatial&#xA;  metaphors (e.g., &quot;The best is ahead of us,&quot; &quot;The worst is behind us&quot;),&#xA;  whereas Mandarin speakers have a vertical metaphor for time (e.g., the&#xA;  next month is the &quot;down month&quot; and the last month is the &quot;up month&quot;).&#xA;  ... Imagine this simple experiment. I stand next to you, point to a&#xA;  spot in space directly in front of you, and tell you, &quot;This spot,&#xA;  here, is today. Where would you put yesterday? And where would you put&#xA;  tomorrow?&quot; When English speakers are asked to do this, they nearly&#xA;  always point horizontally. But Mandarin speakers often point&#xA;  vertically, about seven or eight times more often than do English&#xA;  speakers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in more detail in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://psych.stanford.edu/~lera/papers/sci-am-2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Scientific American article&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... my colleague Alice Gaby of the University of California, Berkeley,&#xA;  and I gave Kuuk Thaayorre speakers sets of pictures that showed&#xA;  temporal progressions—a man aging, a crocodile growing, a banana being&#xA;  eaten. We then asked them to arrange the shuffled photographs on the&#xA;  ground to indicate the correct temporal order. We tested each person&#xA;  twice, each time facing in a different cardinal direction. English&#xA;  speakers given this task will arrange the cards so that time proceeds&#xA;  from left to right. Hebrew speakers will tend to lay out the cards&#xA;  from right to left. This shows that writing direction in a language&#xA;  influences how we organize time. The Kuuk Thaayorre, however, did not&#xA;  routinely arrange the cards from left to right or right to left. They&#xA;  arranged them from east to west. ... in Aymara, a language spoken in&#xA;  the Andes, the past is said to be in front and the future behind. And&#xA;  the Aymara speakers’ body language matches their way of talking: in&#xA;  2006 Raphael Núñez of U.C.S.D. and Eve Sweetser of U.C. Berkeley found&#xA;  that Aymara gesture in front of them when talking about the past and&#xA;  behind them when discussing the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This suggests that if you reversed the exercise, binding the left/right keys to movement forward or back, then you might get different results from Hebrew speakers than English ones.  And if you presented this exercise to speakers of Kuuk Thaayorre, then the results might depend on which way the keyboard is oriented - ie, you would get different results depending on whether the keyboard faces East or West!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-07-23T03:54:48.187" LastActivityDate="2016-07-23T03:54:48.187" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15504" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-23T05:55:47.600" Score="1" ViewCount="339" Body="&lt;p&gt;This graph is taken from the article from Wired about Piotr Woźniak and his spaced repetition learning software SuperMemo: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wired.com/2008/04/ff-wozniak/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Want to Remember Everything You'll Ever Learn? Surrender to This Algorithm&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lMYV0.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lMYV0.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know how accurate this graph is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the axes and the lines accurate?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When would the fifth reminder be?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2016-07-25T14:02:16.397" LastActivityDate="2016-07-25T14:02:16.397" Title="How accurate is this graph about learning curve and spaced repetition system?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15505" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-23T17:34:50.220" Score="4" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;: A study published last summer in the journal &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt; found that when participants were tasked with finding a new home and job by interacting with characters in a virtual roleplaying game, activation in the hippocampus revealed tracking of social relationships through two dimensional vectors based on power and affiliation. In essence, they navigated through social space just as they would a physical environment: by using a cognitive map. Original article: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tavares, R. M., Mendelsohn, A., Grossman, Y., Williams, C. H., Shapiro, M., Trope, Y., &amp;amp; Schiller, D. (2015). A map for social navigation in the human brain. Neuron 87: 231-243. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.06.011&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.06.011&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;: What are some hypotheses as to why this relationship exists? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Side note&lt;/strong&gt;: If anyone is interested in participating, I am completing a research study to investigate the relationship between social and spatial skills. Here's the link for that: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.surveygizmo.com/s3/2620527/Social-and-Spatial-Skills-Assessment&quot;&gt;http://www.surveygizmo.com/s3/2620527/Social-and-Spatial-Skills-Assessment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13250" LastActivityDate="2016-10-31T12:56:33.677" Title="What are some explanations for the relationship between social and spatial mapping?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;&lt;social&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15506" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10263" CreationDate="2016-07-24T19:29:55.000" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of any drug therapy that becomes less with use, especially for treatment of psychological disorders. The only instance I would know of is an individual is attempting to remove a medication to try something new/ different. The basic reasoning is described below. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is an understanding of the pharmacodynamics of how the drugs or medications are believed to behave when interacting with the brain. Receptor cites can also be a factor, and will depend on if the medication is believed to be an agonistic action, or an antagonistic action (does it block receptors from uptake, or does it increase?). Either way, the neurobiology of the brain at the synapse of the neurotransmitter is believed to change, and the amount of certain chemicals could change as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another few contributing factors would be how the therapeutic range for the medication is thought of by the pharmacological community, or how much dosage an individual needs for the medication to be therapeutic. Anyone that has been on a medication longer-term might experience withdraw effects when reducing the medication because the brain isn't able to take over production of the &quot;needed&quot; neurotransmitters. A half-life discusses how long the drug will remain in the body, and at what point it might stop the therapeutic range, which is why some dosing is over several ingestion cycles verses an extended release. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I highly recommend the book &quot;A Primer of Drug Action&quot; by Julien, Adcokat and Comaty (2011) for further reading. It describes a lot of medications and drugs. There are a variety of understandings of these medications and drugs currently. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13214" LastActivityDate="2016-07-24T19:29:55.000" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15508" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-25T03:14:15.223" Score="4" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was recently trying to argue that the Democratic National Committee's efforts to undermine the Bernie Sanders campaign were probably ineffective, and that those who attempted to do so probably suffered from a specific cognitive bias. Namely, due to their presence in the &quot;political operative&quot; nexus, they tended to overestimate, in general, the impact that political operations have on elections, swaying public opinion, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder whether social scientists have observed that, in general, experts overestimate their ability to make an impact, because they put the system they belong to on a pedestal. Has such a cognitive bias ever been discussed in the literature? Is there a name for it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13256" LastActivityDate="2017-04-22T11:25:08.880" Title="Is there a cognitive bias which describes expert communities' overestimation of their potential impact?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15508" CreationDate="2016-07-25T06:23:42.223" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This sounds like a mix of biases &quot;due to the effectiveness of a search set&quot;, &quot;the illusion of validity&quot; and &quot;biases of imaginability&quot;. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.math.mcgill.ca/vetta/CS764.dir/judgement.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;judgement under uncertainty&quot;&gt;judgement under uncertainty [Science, New Series, Vol. 185, No. 4157. (Sep. 27, 1974), pp. 1124-1131.]&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13257" LastEditorUserId="13257" LastEditDate="2016-07-26T07:29:19.477" LastActivityDate="2016-07-26T07:29:19.477" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15510" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15513" CreationDate="2016-07-25T14:04:57.073" Score="5" ViewCount="2865" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a person is talking to another person and the other person is looking away but still listening, many times I've seen people insist by saying:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Look at me when I'm talking you&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gently saying &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Look at me&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does someone have to say that if the other person is listening anyway? What extra advantage does looking at a persons face have?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2582" LastEditorUserId="2582" LastEditDate="2016-07-25T15:07:02.427" LastActivityDate="2021-02-27T14:50:11.323" Title="What's the psychological basis for &quot;Look at me when I'm talking to you&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15512" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-25T15:55:24.633" Score="3" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looking at papers, I often see an fMRI volume summarised by taking a single axial, sagittal and coronal slice (typically in MNI152 space). For an example see Figure 1 in de Bie et al, 2011 [1]. &#xA;The text of a number of papers I have browsed doesn't explain how the slices are selected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is what methods are conventional for selecting the x,y,z slice co-ordinates in such figures? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alle_meije_Wink/publication/51077270_Resting-state_networks_in_awake_five-_to_eight-year_old_children/links/0fcfd50a5fafa7a0bb000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alle_meije_Wink/publication/51077270_Resting-state_networks_in_awake_five-_to_eight-year_old_children/links/0fcfd50a5fafa7a0bb000000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8708" LastActivityDate="2016-07-25T15:55:24.633" Title="Convention for selection of summary slices in fMRI" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;publication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15513" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15510" CreationDate="2016-07-25T17:38:00.870" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://msue.anr.msu.edu/news/eye_contact_an_introduction_to_its_role_in_communication&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This article may help&lt;/a&gt; Basically if you look anywhere but at the speaker you can seem less attentive and looking at them shows you are paying attention to what they have to say&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also one of a few primary elements in building rapport in those who you have just met and also to maintain rapport especially when listening to a problem the speaker has in a therapeutic or even business relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-07-25T17:38:00.870" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15514" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15487" CreationDate="2016-07-25T18:05:33.950" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that if you combine the reading of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/about/Pages/Default.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;DSM&lt;/a&gt; with a pharmaceutical book such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bnf.org/products/bnf-online/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BNF&lt;/a&gt; you will get the desired results when you know what your client is prescribed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-07-25T18:05:33.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15515" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15516" CreationDate="2016-07-25T18:21:41.363" Score="6" ViewCount="265" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've reviewed the papers by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0059831&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Grant, D. A., &amp;amp; Berg, E. (1948)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0061659&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fey, E. T. (1951)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These papers from what I was able to find, lay out the basis of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). There are three possible rules for sorting the cards; color, shape, or count. I am curious why the WCST places 4 stimulus cards in front of the patient when 3 carefully chosen cards would be sufficient. With 4 cards it seems that unless the examiner makes special preparations, there might be occasions when there is more than 1 correct stimulus card to choose, or during a transition from certain rule to the next the patient may make an incorrect guess and won't be able to tell which rule to eliminate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone explain why there has to be 4 stimulus cards? Could I run an equally effective WCST with 3 stimulus cards?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Grant, D. A., &amp;amp; Berg, E. (1948). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0059831&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A behavioral analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting to new responses in a Weigl-type card-sorting problem.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of experimental psychology, 38(4), 404.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Fey, E. T. (1951). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0061659&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The performance of young schizophrenics and young normals on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of consulting psychology, 15(4), 311.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13262" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-07-25T23:50:45.023" LastActivityDate="2016-07-27T19:48:55.980" Title="Significance of 4 stimulus cards in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test?" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;&lt;frontal-lobes&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15516" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15515" CreationDate="2016-07-25T19:15:25.480" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot tell you why they chose four cards, but I do know that it is perfectly fine to use three, (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org.proxy-ub.rug.nl/content/35/21/8145.full#F1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Niv and colleagues, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To give you more info on why the WCST is used in the study by Niv. The study wanted to see how you could best model learning (and relearning) multidimensional information, to be able to better understand how people make sense of the multidimensional information provided by the real world. Therefore, they had participants perform the WCST with three cards. Multiple reinforcement learning algorithms were then fitted to the behavioral data, and they found that a reinforcement learning model that includes decay (as to model memory decay) was best able to do so. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe it would have been perfectly fine to have used four cards in that study as well. It would make it more difficult to learn on which dimension to focus, which would probably also be modeled. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also variations of the WCST (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25509823&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Catherwood and colleagues, 2014&lt;/a&gt;). In that study they instead of took apart four dimensions and showed a 2x2 matrix with each unit depicting a different dimension. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;In short&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on the goal of your experiment, you can decide how you would like to use the WCST specifically. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-07-26T06:16:07.903" LastActivityDate="2016-07-26T06:16:07.903" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15520" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15510" CreationDate="2016-07-26T10:16:39.510" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Communication is not only auditory but &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesture#Neurology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;gestural&lt;/a&gt; and visual, and is illustrated by the McGurk Effect. The combination of auditory and visual information when someone is speaking can lead to the perception of a third sound. So, in a way, when someone says 'look at me when I'm speaking', this is a way to ensure that the listener gets all the information possible for accurate perception, as you may mishear the sound, and without the visual input, perception may become inaccurate. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G-lN8vWm3m0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here's a video on the McGurk Effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13274" LastActivityDate="2016-07-26T10:16:39.510" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15526" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15495" CreationDate="2016-07-27T11:55:28.397" Score="0" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This answer is not on how to find clean data. Instead, I would like to argue that you can clean your data. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We collected our data in a museum environment (very noisy in many ways), with participants sitting as still as possible for 2-minute sessions at a go. For this reason, there is a high likelihood of art[i]facts being found in the data due to movement, the environment and possibly even inaccuracies from the device itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is indeed true. The Emotiv Epoc has shown to not be the best EEG headset and introduces a lot of noise (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/W_David_Hairston/publication/263286124_A_Comparison_of_Electroencephalography_Signals_Acquired_from_Conventional_and_Mobile_Systems/links/544f01db0cf2bca5ce90c2fa.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ries et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;). In this study, where they used an odd-ball paradigm (a highly controlled lab experiment), the authors found that significantly more trials had to be removed, compared to medical grade EEG (BioSemi) and another wearable EEG headset (B-Alert X10). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From what I've discussed with the team, I've been told that removing artefacts wouldn't solve the issue &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is true that removing muscle artifacts (they were sitting still right?) and system noise will not be very helpful. The data will be contaminated throughout the task, and removing that would likely also remove some actual data. It may be interesting to investigate at what frequency the system adds noise. You could do a measurement with the system while it's not equipped to the head, and then calculate the frequency spectrum with an FFT. This will give you an indication of how your actual data was affected. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can remove ocular artifacts though. As you showed in the picture, there is only one clear peak in that five second period. That particular patterns is a clear eye blink. Another EOG artifact is an eye movement, which can be seen in the picture below as the jumps in data in the top two channels (between 3 and 3.5 seconds).Both artifacts can easily and rather safely be removed due to their distinct patterns. For this I always use an independent component analysis (ICA; &lt;a href=&quot;http://sccn.ucsd.edu/~scott/pdf/NIPS95b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Makeig et  al., 1996&lt;/a&gt;). This is also explained by &lt;a href=&quot;https://sccn.ucsd.edu/eeglab/download/eeglab_jnm03.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Delorme and Makeig (2004)&lt;/a&gt; for EEGLab specifically (and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fieldtriptoolbox.org/example/use_independent_component_analysis_ica_to_remove_eog_artifacts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is a tutorial that explains it with FieldTrip).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fV2WO.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fV2WO.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What would that mean for your data?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Whenever you got rid of the EOG artifacts, your data should be pretty clean. Then, you do not need to search for clean periods but you can select the same (or a random) period of time for each participant. However, if you really do not want to clean your data, this answer doesn't help you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-07-27T11:55:28.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15527" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15495" CreationDate="2016-07-27T12:06:11.680" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could try to use approaches that are similar to measure the strength (and delay) of a P3 response in ERP data. There are many ways described to measure the P3 responses (or any other response you are interested in) in the book of &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/introduction-event-related-potential-technique&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Luck: An introduction to the event related potential technique&lt;/a&gt;. These include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Maximum value (within a time frame; sort of what you are doing)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mean peak value (averaged over a time frame)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Area of the response ($amplitude * time$)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am probably missing a few, so you might want to check out that book. These may provide more reliable results than solely looking at max-min differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-07-27T12:06:11.680" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15528" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-27T15:46:00.993" Score="1" ViewCount="206" Body="&lt;p&gt;When researching the pharmacological mechanisms of action and interactions that various psychotropic drugs, poisons, neurotoxins, etc. have on the brain: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I frequently see off-hand references to the element &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Potassium(K);&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in the context of matters concerning neurons, neurotransmitters, neurotransmission, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Potassium(K)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; relevant/significant/important to neurology &amp;amp; the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9059" LastEditorUserId="9059" LastEditDate="2016-08-04T17:24:09.710" LastActivityDate="2016-08-04T17:24:09.710" Title="Why is Potassium(K) important to neurology &amp; the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15529" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15495" CreationDate="2016-07-27T17:10:52.607" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this &lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=6346834&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conference paper&lt;/a&gt; they propose an algorithm that roughly goes as follows (if you can't access it, just add &quot;sci-hub.bz&quot; after &quot;.org&quot; in the url and it redirects you directly to the pdf) :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Divide channels into four groups: 1) frontal, 2) central, 3) temporal and 4) parietal+occipital.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For each group take three signals: 1) the raw signal, 2) the alpha band(8-12Hz, using a 3rd order butterworth band-pass filter) and 3) the beta band(13-35Hz).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For each group and each signal calculate the four metrics: 1) max amplitude, 2) standard deviation, 3) kurtosis and 4) skewness. For the frequency band signals they also take the mean power and the standard deviation of the power.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They then go on and find optimal thresholds for each metric, group, and signal by using a differential evolution algorithm on training data, so unfortunately it's not immediately applicable for you. As I see it, you have at least two options here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Create 5 seconds long epochs of your data and label a lot of them. Use that data to learn optimal thresholds (unfortunately they don't give any details on how to do that, so you would have to figure that out yourself). This would obviously take a lot of effort but at the end you can be quite confident about your classification.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Just try some value ranges for the different metrics, you can orient yourself on the values they found in the paper (you have to read them from the plots though).  Check the resulting classifications. Pick the threshold values that give the &quot;best&quot; results by inspections. This is not as systematic as the first option but might fit your needs already. For example if you just want to avoid to have segments that were falsely classified as &quot;clean&quot; you might just go for very conservative/safe threshold values. There is a &lt;strong&gt;big danger&lt;/strong&gt; here though, that you will get lost in an endless loop of &quot;maybe if I adjust this threshold a bit more&quot; and will never stop exploring. To help with that, you might also reduce the number of metrics, groups or signals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2016-07-27T17:10:52.607" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15532" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15515" CreationDate="2016-07-27T19:48:55.980" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wanted to report further findings in my search for the answer to this question. I will not accept this as the answer but I think anyone else who looks into this issue may find this information useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I obtained the original paper by Berg (1) published in 1948 in the journal of general psychology. The paper makes no explicit mention of why 4 stimulus cards are shown. Perhaps the choice was to follow previous methods in similar tests such as the Goldstein-Sheerer cube test (2). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results of the Berg paper, a &lt;em&gt;post-hoc&lt;/em&gt; style analysis, grouped the participants into 3 groups based on quantitative performance (A,B, and C). Group A quickly determined the rules of the test and performed well on the remainder of the test. Group B took longer and verbally reported trying many hypotheses of the rules before discovering there were 3 rules to choose from. Group C had no idea what was going on, some subjects perseverated 100 trials with their own incorrect rule. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I therefore speculate that if there were only 3 stimulus cards that group B would be somewhat eliminated. Subjects who could determine the rules would get there faster by elimination since there could only be 1 correct stimulus card at a time. One virtue then, of having 4 cards, is to parse out subjects who have a more keen ability to &quot;think/shift&quot; which could be more useful/powerful if the goal of the test is to quantify shifting ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, I took the online test located &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psytoolkit.org/experiment-library/experiment_wcst.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and found 18 out of 60 trials where there was more than 1 matching possibility yet I was able to succeed at the test because I was able to track which rule I had been using. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree with Robin Kramer that the number of stimulus cards can be altered depending on the purpose of the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;A simple objective technique for measuring flexibility in thinking.&quot; Berg, A, 1948, Journal of General Psychology, Vol 39,&#xA;  15-22.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Abstract and concrete behavior: An experimental study with special tests.&quot; Goldstein, K., Scheerer, M., 1941, Psychology Monologues, Vol&#xA;  53, 1-151&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13262" LastActivityDate="2016-07-27T19:48:55.980" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15533" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15528" CreationDate="2016-07-27T20:48:18.267" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Without Potassium (K), no chemicals move.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Central Nervous System is comprised of a variety of chemicals, electrical signals and neurotransmitters to send a variety of signals through the brain and a variety of receptors of the nervous system. If you want to send a signal of neurotransmitters (medications/ or other chemicals found in your list), there must be proper voltage to move the chemicals around.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Potassium (K) and Sodium (Na) interact with their respective ion channels to depolarize the cell from -70mV (theoretical resting) to about +55mV (about when movement of neurotransmitters happens). The cells attempt to create an equilibrium, but are in a feedback loop of chemical and electrical interactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luo's Principles of Neurobiology (2015) is a good reference, and there are a variety of other human biology texts that could also illustrate the examples of how these chemicals interact. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mindcreators.com/neuronbasics.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.mindcreators.com/neuronbasics.htm&lt;/a&gt; also seems to be a good source of visuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13214" LastActivityDate="2016-07-27T20:48:18.267" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15534" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-28T06:29:31.067" Score="3" ViewCount="1343" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/sfWo3.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/sfWo3.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've always loved pondering emotion theories and usually agree with them, but Plutchik describes the intense form of anticipation to be Vigilance, and this is quite confusing to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vigilance as defined on wiki:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;In modern psychology, vigilance, also termed sustained concentration, is defined as the ability to maintain concentrated attention over prolonged periods of time.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This describes a character trait and not an emotion. So my question is has the meaning of vigilance changed since Plutchik's theory, and if so what would be the modern equivalent of this emotion. Or did Plutchik drop the ball on this part of an otherwise excellent theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13283" LastActivityDate="2020-06-01T14:13:59.713" Title="Vigilance is an emotion?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15535" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-28T06:58:19.570" Score="2" ViewCount="501" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was just reading some of the items in the HEXACO measure of personality. It seems to me that the &quot;honesty-humility&quot; factor is actually more naturally expressed in the opposite way. I.e., about three quarters of the items are reverse scored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, items measuring fairness (i.e., reverse coded) tend to focus on a willingness to engage in corrupt or even criminal behavior to advance your self-interest. Items measuring greed avoidance seem to be focused on concern with social status grounded in superficial things. Modesty items seems more like a measure of narcissism (i.e., believing you are better than others in some essential and vague way). Sincerity seems to have items concerned with a willingness to engage in social manipulation through flattery and guilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This got me interested in the correlation between honest-humility and the dark triad: machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the best estimates of the correlation between HEXACO honesty-humility (and facets) with the Dark Triad?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2020-09-03T15:35:18.090" LastActivityDate="2020-09-03T15:35:18.090" Title="What are the correlations between the facets of honesty-humility in HEXACO personality and the Dark Triad?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15536" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-28T07:52:12.273" Score="1" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;I learned about this but forget its name. The idea is that when people hear a word or think of a concept they tend to come up with certain examples that fit the idea more than others. For example, if people think of birds, they tend to think of sparrows or seagulls, not penguins, even though penguins fit the definition of bird perfectly. If people are told to imagine a chair, they tend to think of one with 4 legs, probably made of wood, not something like a movie theater chair. What's the name for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-07-28T17:27:19.903" LastActivityDate="2016-07-29T20:00:50.697" Title="What's the term in psychology for the way people think of concepts using examples?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15536" CreationDate="2016-07-28T17:19:58.113" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are talking about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exemplar_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Exemplar Theory&lt;/a&gt;, since the question is almost verbatim from Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, the model proposes that people create the “bird” category&#xA;  by maintaining in their memory a collection of all the birds they have&#xA;  experienced: sparrows, robins, ostriches, penguins, etc. If a new&#xA;  stimulus is similar enough to some of these stored bird examples, the&#xA;  person categorizes the stimulus in the “bird” category.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This contrasts with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Prototype Theory&lt;/a&gt;, which proposes that categories are based on a single example rather than multiple:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... prototype theory would consider a category like bird as consisting of&#xA;  different elements which have unequal status - e.g. a robin is more&#xA;  prototypical of a bird than, say a penguin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NYZnY.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NYZnY.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other theories on categorization (or how a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Concept&lt;/a&gt; is structured in the mind) include &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Essentialism&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept#Theory-theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Theory-theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2016-07-28T17:19:58.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15540" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-28T18:01:06.633" Score="-1" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;Currently, what is the status of traits theory in personality psychology? Is it still a satisfactory theoretical framework to which to refer? What about its personality tests? Could you support your answer with recent scientific literature, please?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11674" LastActivityDate="2016-08-28T02:40:10.947" Title="What is the status of traits theory in personality psychology?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15541" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-28T18:40:41.893" Score="3" ViewCount="1653" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm an engineer, interested in mental machinery, to imitate cognitive capabilities of the human mind into primitive artificial models. In this case, cognitive neuroscience (CogN) is something, apparently, relevant and important field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I have no clear idea about the differences between computational neuroscience (CompN) and systems neuroscience (SysN) &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;and their relevance to my target&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. In my view, these two topics are very similar (if not the same!), because one need to analyze the brain and its systematic functionality by computational approaches. Furthermore, it is inevitable to consider system-driven perspective to be able to present computational interpretation for neural systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, what is the subtle difference between SysN and CompN?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Which one should be taken into account within (in coordination with CogN) to studying of the mental functionality of the brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: Someone else's answer to the first question, does which sound like a seminal viewpoint:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I feel the question is ill-posed. Don’t pick a “field” to study. Pick&#xA;  a problem to study. Based on the problem selected one or another field&#xA;  may be more relevant for your work, but it is unlikely that any&#xA;  interesting question about cognition will fall wholly within the&#xA;  domain of any one classically defined area of neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13286" LastEditorUserId="13286" LastEditDate="2016-07-30T20:20:36.930" LastActivityDate="2016-07-30T20:20:36.930" Title="What's the difference between computational neuroscience and systems neuroscience?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15542" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15541" CreationDate="2016-07-28T19:41:55.373" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you have sliced off tiny bits of both systems and computational neuroscience to the extent that you now think they are the same. In fact, they are massively different. The is no &lt;em&gt;need to analyze the brain and its systematic functionality by computational approaches&lt;/em&gt;; there are lots of non-computational approaches to study the brain and its systematic functionality. Computational neuroscience requires computation, but can be applied on a variety of scales (e.g., single neuron or system). System neuroscience only applies to systems, but can be done with a variety of techniques (e.g., computational, intercellular recordings, and fMRI).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not entirely sure what it means to study the &quot;mental functionality of the brain&quot;, but my guess is it requires systems neuroscience. There is no inherent reason that you would need to do this with a computational approach. That said, it sounds like you want to take a computational approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-07-28T19:41:55.373" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15543" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15541" CreationDate="2016-07-28T21:33:31.353" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Systems neuroscience studies systems, such as the visual sensory system - from the light (input) to the cortical representation. Systems neuroscience generally implies an integrated approach that includes &lt;em&gt;fundamental&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;basic neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; - the study of cellular and molecular functions of the nervous system(s) - and typically borders to behavioral or cognitive neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whereas &lt;em&gt;cognitive neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; aims to explain the &quot;biology of the mind&quot; - for example, how is memory realized in the brain - systems neuroscience aims to explain how the brain works - for example, how does the brain give rise to vision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Computational neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; is fundamentally a mathematical discipline that is realized using computers. It is used to both simulate (&lt;em&gt;theoretical neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;) and validate &lt;em&gt;in vivo&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;in vitro&lt;/em&gt; findings &lt;em&gt;in silico&lt;/em&gt;. It includes the abstraction of general laws based (more or less) on empirical data. Generally, initial parameters are based on findings from basic neuroscience, which enables biophysically realistic models based on the functionality of neurons to be implemented. However, less realistic simplified models are often used to model neural networks that have an applied AI task. However, these models border to computer science and in particular AI and machine learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuroscience is a large field and there is a strong need to bridge the different disciplines that contribute to the science, not only through computational neuroscience, but also through neuroinformatics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The exponential growth of the data produced in neuroscience mean that&#xA;  computational approaches are fundamental to make sense of this information, including theoretical modelling and methods for large scale data analysis/integration that are capable  of handling and comparing data generated over such&#xA;  diverse timescales (e.g. synaptic versus  genetic  changes).  As  such,  quantitative  theoretical  neuroscience  must  be   gradually integrated with&#xA;  mainstream experimental neuroscience.&#xA;  —&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.braincouncil.eu/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Consensus-Doc-pol-summary-Launch-2016-03-18-final.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;European Brain Council Consensus Statement - March 2016&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;In response to comment&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Basic neuroscience&quot; requires an &lt;em&gt;invasive&lt;/em&gt; study of neurons in order to study the molecular mechanisms of the cell - on the most basic level. That is why mostly animals are used in this type of study. (However, neuroanatomists also study human post-mortem brains, and molecular imaging can be used in humans, but on a different level of explanation - a whole-brain perspective - with less specificity of the causal mechanisms on the cellular level.) &lt;em&gt;Molecular neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; studies, for example, the properties of different types of calcium channels. A famous computational model is the Hodgkin-Huxley model that is based on the study of aplysia. In this regard, basic neuroscience informs computational models that are bottom-up, but there are also top-down models that rely on pure psychology, and a range of models in-between.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;N.B. I would be careful to use the term &quot;exploratory&quot;, because this implies that the science proceeds without a hypothesis. That is rarely the case in the natural sciences, but some of the pioneering work is indeed exploratory.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a PhD student in Neuroscience working with humans. Some of my colleagues work with animals or cell cultures. One of my collaborators works in computational neuroscience and we are currently working on a new model together that we might be able to update based on the empirical findings in my lab. This type of collaboration is important, because the computational model &quot;knows&quot; more basic science, than I could possibly study in humans. That is why we can use computational models to test the limits of our findings - to test if our models of cognition are compatible with biophysical models, which are informed by principles derived from animal studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastEditorUserId="3258" LastEditDate="2016-07-29T13:35:16.483" LastActivityDate="2016-07-29T13:35:16.483" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15544" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15495" CreationDate="2016-07-28T22:05:26.297" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For automation, you need to write &lt;a href=&quot;https://sccn.ucsd.edu/wiki/Chapter_02:_Writing_EEGLAB_Scripts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a MATLAB script that controls EEGLAB&lt;/a&gt;. One option is to use the Automatic Artifact Removal toolbox, which you can find a link to &lt;a href=&quot;https://sccn.ucsd.edu/wiki/EEGLAB_Plugins&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, min, max, abs(max-min) criteria suffice to mark the artifactual events, followed by artifact rejection. However, line noise and environmental noise must be dealt with separately. The influence of eye movements can also be removed - either using ICA, which would be a timely process for 300 data sets (assuming you do not have have access to a MATLAB computer cluster), or computing virtual EOG channels and excluding data based on some criterion for those peaks. Compute the channel Af4-Af3 for horizontal eye movements and F7-F3 for vertical. Tweak the parameters for a single noisy data set first. If that works, batch process the files with the same criteria. I would start with Steven Luck's criteria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Artefacts will go away once you start averaging across trials because of common mode rejection, but they can be influential if not dealt with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-07-28T22:05:26.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15545" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15478" CreationDate="2016-07-28T22:51:41.487" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neurons have a refractory period, meaning that they are rate limited (see Kandel et al., Principles of Neural Science). As the demand on working memory increases, more neurons need to be working in synchrony (Vogel &amp;amp; Luck, 2013 ...). The human brain is characterized by gyri, compared to the flat surface of the mouse brain. This evolutionary adaption is believed to reflect a biological strategy to maximize the brain use inside the skull. However, brain size does not correlate with intelligence. The density of white matter fibers, however, sometimes do. An increase of grey matter also reflects knowledge, in taxi drivers for example. (However, it is also known that more efficient processing requires less neurons. See the documentary on Vanessa Mae for an example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a human being had 6 GB RAM, you would have to take into account the cycle speed, swap speed, etc. This would reflect an autistic alien being capable of rendering roughly 12 hours of music all at once.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2016-07-28T22:51:41.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15547" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15540" CreationDate="2016-07-29T01:46:45.947" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is quite vague. The trait perspective is probably the most actively researched perspective in personality research. Many thousands of papers are published each year using trait-based measures. And there is a lot of active debate about theoretical and measurement issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-07-29T01:46:45.947" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15551" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15330" CreationDate="2016-07-29T14:17:43.690" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not clear what neurotransmitter you are interested in, but one model that relates the PET ligand affinity to the cerebral blood volume (CBV) from fMRI looks like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5gUOw.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5gUOw.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Source:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3703969/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurovascular coupling to D2/D3 dopamine receptor occupancy using simultaneous PET/functional MRI&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find several studies, which try to relate neurotransmitters with oxygen consumption. Google made the following suggestions to me:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811905008074&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain hemodynamic changes mediated by dopamine receptors: Role of the cerebral microvasculature in dopamine-mediated neurovascular coupling&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/42512253/GABA_concentrations_in_the_human_anterio20160209-28311-jg5ug3.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ56TQJRTWSMTNPEA&amp;amp;Expires=1469804295&amp;amp;Signature=2zSy5TJUSWOCjVLpI5fYTjHq54g%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DGABA_concentrations_in_the_human_anterio.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GABA concentrations in the human anterior cingulate cortex predict&#xA;negative BOLD responses in&#xA;fMRI&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to PET, of special interest is the technique MRS using the same type of scanner that is used for fMRI:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3383792/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;In vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy of GABA: A methodological review&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2016-07-29T14:17:43.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15552" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15446" CreationDate="2016-07-29T14:33:49.190" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Watching others perform a skill serves as both instruction and visualization practice. The instruction can provide the beginner with a wealth of information that they lack, when starting a skill. It provides the experienced practitioner with details of technique that informs their growth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How productive watching can be sometimes depends upon previous experience. For example, in the medical profession there is a phrase, &quot;Watch one. Do one. Teach one.&quot; Which indicates that the practitioner should observe a technique once, do the technique once, and then teach it to someone else, once. This seems frightening, at first glance, since I certainly do not want to be someone's &quot;do one&quot; when I am lying on a surgery table. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the actual context of this learning method matters. Generally, what the practitioner is learning is some small variant of a skill they have already mastered. For example, if they already know a wide array of stitches for closing wounds, they may be learning a variant of one of these stitches. In this case, seeing the technique performed slowly once is sufficient. Then they practice the stitch by &quot;doing one&quot;, often while being observed. Finally, they teach the technique to someone. This serves to reinforce their new knowledge, because to teach someone else something requires that you think about the subject carefully, which in turn aids in mastery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such a system of learning by watching breaks down, if the context of previous knowledge is omitted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastActivityDate="2016-07-29T14:33:49.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15553" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15557" CreationDate="2016-07-29T14:51:42.570" Score="1" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; is an excellent overview to the concept of Flow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is, from personal experience, in one specific area, I think it's incomplete. To quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schaffer (2013) proposed 7 flow conditions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Knowing what to do&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Knowing how to do it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Knowing how well you are doing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Knowing where to go (if navigation is involved)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;High perceived challenges&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;High perceived skills&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Freedom from distractions[22]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And there are times when I can check the above off but still be feeling unable to get in the zone. My best guess is the weak point is either:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;distractions - it's a broad term, and feeling under pressure, even if completely self imposed, comes under that category.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Knowing how to do it. If there are several options, and you know how you might do each, but can't decide which might be best, it becomes an issue, even if there is no obvious difference.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any alternative models which explore possible barriers in more detail? Or any concepts such supplement flow theory to give further preconditions for flow? Stating the obvious perhaps, nearly any aspect of a person's general state of mind can be a barrier. Stress, even on unrelated tasks, is an obvious one. Is that already coversed in the above model? It would hamper decision making (knowing how you're going to do it), even though you do know how to do it. Perhaps it also counts as a distraction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One last thought: perhaps, checking off the above, but feeling unable to achieve flow is itself a sign of incorrect cognition, since one or more points have been incorrectly assessed. (Assuming the model is correct and complete).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8588" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-08-01T17:47:50.607" Title="Models of barriers to &quot;Flow&quot; (being in &quot;the zone&quot;)" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15554" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15528" CreationDate="2016-07-29T15:00:57.697" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The main cell of the brain is the neuron. The neuron has a semipermeable membrane that under specific circumstances lets potassium through. Another common cell is the glia cell, which only has potassium channels. Potassium, K+, has a positive charge and it can pass across the membrane at specific channels, depending on their state (open/closed). The channels are ion specific as the amino acids that make up the channels (proteins) have different charges and configurations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Different membrane &lt;em&gt;ion channels&lt;/em&gt; have different roles. K+ is mainly found in the cytoplasm during resting state with an equilibrium potential of -75mV. In the typical neuron model, this potential is larger than that of Na+ or Cl-.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ions seek out an equilibrium where they do not have to move because positive and negative charges repel each other. However, the cell is determined to manage this laziness and to avoid a stand-still, it has a negative potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When K+ exits the cell, the relationship between positive and negative ions changes, leading to an increasing voltage difference between the inner cytoplasmic and the outer extracellular ions. The negativity in the cell increases and two things happen: a chemical driving force from K+ and an electrical driving force - resulting from the voltage difference. As the K+ exits the cell, neighboring channels increasingly adopt the same pattern and this gives rise to a domino effect along the cell membrane, which travels through the axon. As this switch from -/+ to +/- occurs as K+ passes the membrane the outer charges ++++ switch to ----. This results in a voltage +- that grows along the axis ++--, +++---, ++++----, but this is mediated by Cl-, resulting in a cycling of the potential - and it moves:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;------, +-----, ++----, +++---, +++++-, -+++++, --++++, ---+++, ----+, ------&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Kandel et al., Principles of Neural Science, 5th ed., p.126-129, p.144)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The potassium drives the action potential and that is why neurons can &quot;talk to each other&quot; and signals can reach their destination. This is why potassium is important for the nervous system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Above, +++--- implies the outer charge and thus the cell membrane has the voltage:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;+ + + - - - &#xA;- - - + + +&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastEditorUserId="3258" LastEditDate="2016-07-29T15:11:43.513" LastActivityDate="2016-07-29T15:11:43.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15556" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-29T21:20:54.673" Score="-1" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a sort of disclaimer, &quot;diagnosis&quot; is a much stronger word than what is meant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADD seems to be an umbrella term. Where does one start with self-diagnosis? Or what macro-level categories are there (to further observe oneself for certain characteristics or traits). An outline is probably the best way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not mean &quot;disability&quot; as an excuse for lazy university students who do not try. Furthermore, please assume that 'study skills' (organization, time management, note taking, etc) are average or above average (since this also factors into academic performance).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: This question applies to many people. Labeling something is not the same thing as &quot;self-help.&quot; The question is specifically phrased to not ask for opinion based answers. Furthermore, noting the Hawthorne effect does not necessarily cause altered behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4116" LastEditorUserId="4116" LastEditDate="2016-08-04T01:01:42.300" LastActivityDate="2016-08-04T01:01:42.300" Title="How to go about self-diagnosis for a learning disability that was formally diagnosed as related to ADD?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2016-08-03T11:48:07.530" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15557" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15553" CreationDate="2016-07-29T21:45:47.297" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The model is mindfulness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are three options:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can focus on the negative&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can focus on the positive&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can focus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2016-07-29T21:45:47.297" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15558" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15563" CreationDate="2016-07-28T22:17:30.047" Score="2" ViewCount="736" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently a high school student and have grown curious at what the limitation of memory storage in the brain might be in humans. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Information is coded genetically and stored in the brain, but is there a limit to how much information a person can retain without forgetting?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In high school I have taken a broad courses in biology, chemistry, physics, calculus and more. I wonder if my desire to learn and keep moving forward will be hindered mentally by the intrinsic aspects of memory (if they do exist)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13290" OwnerDisplayName="Sigma6RPU" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-08-05T19:49:59.260" LastActivityDate="2016-08-05T19:49:59.260" Title="What is the limit of human memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15559" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-30T05:35:57.280" Score="0" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading the book &quot;The Psychedelic Experience&quot;.&#xA;In the following two sentences word &quot;dominants&quot; is used&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;1. ...world of psychic “dominants” from which the ego originally emancipated itself with enormous effort&#xA;&#xA;2. ...and the terrifying dream evoked by karma and played out by the unconscious “dominants” begins&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does &quot;dominants&quot; mean in these sentences. I googled if &quot;dominants&quot; has any special meaning in psychology but couldn't find any results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13292" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T08:58:59.433" Title="what does “dominants” mean in psychology" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15560" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-30T06:57:53.903" Score="0" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is about &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.facebook.com/DeceptionExpert/videos/vb.442668942581631/581023625412828/?type=2&amp;amp;theater&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; video. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summary of the Video:&lt;/strong&gt; (can skip if you watched it)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only audio is &quot;elevator music.&quot; There is a man who communicates only with written orange signs. He asks the viewers to quickly perform some easy arithmetic calculations, and he shows the answer to each one after a few seconds:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$5+3 \ \ = 8$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$9+2 \  \ =11$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$10-6=4$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, he asks the viewer to quickly pick a number between $5$ and $12$. At this point, I suddenly felt a sense of urgency, and rapidly picked $7$; it was the only number I could think of in that second. Of course at the end of the video, the man guessed that the subject picked $7$. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does this video influence the viewer to pick $7$? More generally, what techniques do these types of videos employ to try to manipulate the subject into chosing a certain outcome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried to look for certain patterns in the calculations and I found a diagonal symmetry, but I'm not sure if it's relevant: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$\color {red}{\text{odd}}  \ \ + \color {red}{\text{odd}}$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$\color {red}{\text{odd}}  \  \ +  \color {blue}{\text{even}}$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$\color {blue}{\text{even}} \  +    \color {blue}{\text{even}}$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've also noticed that the average of the $3$ results is $\dfrac {8+11+4}{3} = 7. \overline {6}$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13293" LastEditorUserId="13293" LastEditDate="2016-07-30T15:04:53.590" LastActivityDate="2016-08-01T10:38:16.143" Title="What techniques are being used here to influence the subject to pick a certain outcome?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15561" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15559" CreationDate="2016-07-30T07:23:43.763" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have just been doing some research on this piece of writing and I wonder if anyone really should take heed to what is written.  The reason is that the writing seems to be an attempt on a &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;psychedelic version of the Tibetan Book of the Dead&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://deoxy.org/psyexp.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(source)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not something I personally would take any notice of, however, from my understanding after reading the above source, this writing is talking about &quot;transcendence&quot; and the &quot;pre-mortem-death-rebirth experience&quot; through the stages of ego-loss, hallucinations and &quot;reentry&quot; created by ingestion of psychedelic drugs such as LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, DMT, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of course, the drug dose does not produce the transcendent experience. It merely acts as a chemical key - it opens the mind, frees the nervous system of its ordinary patterns and structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where it says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...the terrifying dream evoked by karma and played out by the unconscious &quot;dominants&quot; begins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it seems to be talking about the &quot;second stage&quot; called the Chonyid state (hallucination state) where you have &quot;reached your goal&quot; of ego-loss in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-id-ego-and-superego.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fruedian sense&lt;/a&gt; and now you are allowing your thoughts to come to play as though they are reality as the preceding part of the sentence says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The &quot;thought-forms&quot; appear as realities, fantasy takes on real form&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the effect of taking these psychedelic drugs.  The ego is diminished and therefore you lose touch with reality, norms and rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the &quot;dominants&quot; in this writing is referring to the dominant thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;edit - &lt;em&gt;for further info&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am in the middle of learning about analytical psychology and for the authors to refer to Carl Jung as someone who was interested in the Tibetan Book of the Dead (Bardo Thodol) and that he would possibly advocate their &quot;psychedelic version&quot; interested me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carl Jung apparently suffered from a form of psychosis and as a result, he suffered with visions and hallucinations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Jung spent time in his study inducing the visions and hallucinations. He did this not through the use of any kind of drug, apparently, but instead through his own personal methods that allowed his unconscious mind to become totally open and flowing forth. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2014/01/23/3-things-you-didnt-know-about-carl-jungs-psychosis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2016-07-30T07:52:03.403" LastActivityDate="2016-07-30T07:52:03.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15510" CreationDate="2016-07-30T07:46:57.527" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As to answering why a person insists on eye contact, the matter is most probably individual. This is the person's preference. Eye contact does not have a universal meaning. Here is a post on differences between Western and Eastern cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blog.joytours.com/2012/12/20/the-role-of-eye-contact-in-different-cultures/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://blog.joytours.com/2012/12/20/the-role-of-eye-contact-in-different-cultures/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also if to talk &quot;Westerners alone&quot;, eye contact can be associated with friendship, sexual attraction, as well as hate and struggle for dominance. See Wikipedia on the Affilliative Conflict Theory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affiliative_conflict_theory#Balanced&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affiliative_conflict_theory#Balanced&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Persons with learning difficulty, especially if linguistically impeded, would heavily rely on facial expression. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://do2learn.com/disabilities/CharacteristicsAndStrategies/IntellectualDisability_Characteristics.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://do2learn.com/disabilities/CharacteristicsAndStrategies/IntellectualDisability_Characteristics.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scholars discussing ideas may &quot;take turns&quot; in eye contact, generally keeping one another in visual field. Focus tends to shift attention to hearing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, everyone needs to balance his or her approach individually. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11675" LastEditorUserId="11675" LastEditDate="2016-07-30T07:57:45.503" LastActivityDate="2016-07-30T07:57:45.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15563" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15558" CreationDate="2016-07-30T07:58:52.960" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-the-memory-capacity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-the-memory-capacity/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Is-there-a-physical-limit-to-human-memory-If-yes-can-it-or-has-it-been-measured&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.quora.com/Is-there-a-physical-limit-to-human-memory-If-yes-can-it-or-has-it-been-measured&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's said that you store everything or nearly everything you experience in your subconscious mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13289" LastActivityDate="2016-07-30T07:58:52.960" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15565" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15505" CreationDate="2016-07-30T09:26:36.507" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand you are asking why there would be a relationship between social space and physical, spatial environment, via a cognitive map. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That would be owing to humans naturally mapping environments as well as experience (Tolman made his name on a natural phenomenon). Lakoff claimed that mapping for temporal orientation was a biologically determined process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://tujournals.ulb.tu-darmstadt.de/index.php/zif/article/viewFile/546/522&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Radden (2013)&lt;/a&gt; agrees that humans operate a spatio-physical “image content” in order to “objectify” experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I cannot agree that suffering or danger bring heightened awareness and high information processing, whereas routine activities would be “situations of low information processing” (Radden), &lt;strong&gt;dimensionality&lt;/strong&gt; stirs my further opposition. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Time encourages Radden to terms as &quot;zero-dimension&quot;. Your quote emphasizes two-dimensional Euclidean spaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Zero dimension&quot; would not be perceivable, therefore unfit for human natural mapping. Two-dimensional correlates would have resulted from the framework of a computer game talking bubbles (as the authors admit), rather than natural hippocampal function, evolved in three-dimensional space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, brainstem and neocortical performance should not be omitted from a picture for real social interaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11675" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2016-10-31T12:56:33.677" LastActivityDate="2016-10-31T12:56:33.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15566" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15534" CreationDate="2016-07-30T10:19:34.580" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Vigilance is a state of consciousness, medically, &quot;the quality or state of being wakeful and alert;  degree of wakefulness or responsiveness to stimuli&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://c.merriam-webster.com/medlineplus/vigilance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://c.merriam-webster.com/medlineplus/vigilance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Objectively, vigilance does not have to correlate with anticipation (we can be conscious and focused on work, without anticipating developments), just as pensiveness does not have to come with sadness (we can think for no sad reason at all). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mr. Plutchik's theorem is being adapted for robotics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scriptol.com/robotics/plutchik.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.scriptol.com/robotics/plutchik.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11675" LastEditorUserId="11675" LastEditDate="2016-07-30T10:25:16.547" LastActivityDate="2016-07-30T10:25:16.547" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15568" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16313" CreationDate="2016-07-30T12:51:17.780" Score="1" ViewCount="556" Body="&lt;p&gt;This one might need a bit of an explanation. I read a statement someone made a few months ago about the normalization of concepts in society. That is if you have ideas that don't exist within the range of socially acceptable opinion, people won't tend to understand or accept them, and so discourse is usually confined to that range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I'm wondering if there is a term for either:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An inability to accept ideas that are outside the norm of socially acceptable opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OR&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon in general, where public discourse is usually limited by a range of what's acceptable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13294" LastActivityDate="2016-11-28T20:23:53.317" Title="Term for an inability to accept ideas that are outside the norm" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15570" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15572" CreationDate="2016-07-31T03:50:30.310" Score="1" ViewCount="215" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not an university graduate but I have a passion for learning. I want to learn computer science and I keep on searching some good reference material. Recently I found some lecture notes on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_computation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;TOC&lt;/a&gt; of a well known teacher although he has explained things in detail but I am having hard time to grasp the material. One of the reason being is that they assume that you have a good mathematical foundation and other is you have the TA and professor to help when needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, for the first reason I have a good mathematical background but sometimes it may not suffice to the expectation. Second, I am a self learner hence I don't have the luxury to clear my doubts and ask questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am doing is try to study the material normally 2-3 pages and re-read it until it makes sense or I get frustrated, next day I try to feel positive and try again, I am making progress but it feels slow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I will be able to change my brain's wiring by such constant effort?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How to judge that I know the material? by doing exercises? but I don't have solution?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How to be motivated in such situations?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9622" LastActivityDate="2016-07-31T20:26:40.823" Title="Reading and understanding difficult material" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2016-08-17T05:51:48.490" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15571" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-31T08:14:56.067" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think this is an entirely appropriate forum for this question, but as there is no general sociocultural (or even better African studies) forum on StackExchange it seemed like the best available option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a widespread and diverse collection of languages (e.g. English and Japanese, which are about as diverse as you can get), there is a cognitive-linguistic metaphor where the color white represents good and the color black evil. This association is at times used in a racist way to say that whites are good/safe and blacks are evil/dangerous, and the times it's not clear whether or not such an implication is being made are frequent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some languages, like English, give hints that this association may be due to black representing night, which even today is associated with danger and the sinister (and far more so in pre-modern societies). How then do African cultures (especially pre-modern ones - and of course I'm talking about those African races/ethnicities who are &quot;black&quot;) relate night, dark colors, and their own skin tone conceptually to avoid the association between their skin tone and evil? I can think of a few different options, but all of them are just guesses as I'm not well versed in African culture and philosophy (linguistics is my thing, though I'm also not extremely knowledgeable Niger-Congo and other native African languages).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13304" LastActivityDate="2016-07-31T08:14:56.067" Title="White/Black Metaphor in African Societies?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15572" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15570" CreationDate="2016-07-31T08:30:59.283" Score="2" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Definetly yes! Even if you feel frustrated at the beginning, thinking and learning about a topic has an impact on your brain. See for example Robert Greenes book &quot;Mastery&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastery_(book)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastery_(book)&lt;/a&gt;), where he describes the lives of various geniuses like Leonardo da Vinci and Charles Darwin. They all spent a lot of time becoming masters of their field.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Theoretical Computer Science is a very abstrct topic. I would recomend you to participate in some online class. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.coursera.org/courses?languages=en&amp;amp;query=computer+science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.coursera.org/courses?languages=en&amp;amp;query=computer+science&lt;/a&gt; for example. There you can do excercises that get peer reviewed by others. So you know if you did well or not.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Increase you motivation by:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learning in groups like on Coursera.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Setting clear goals. What do you want to achieve? Get a better job? Write it down. Hang it on the wall.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taking small steps. If you take steps that are too big, you might feel overwhelmed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13303" LastEditorUserId="13303" LastEditDate="2016-07-31T08:37:36.517" LastActivityDate="2016-07-31T08:37:36.517" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15573" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15570" CreationDate="2016-07-31T08:44:53.633" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before I attempt to answer your questions, can I suggest you look at joining the computer science group on stack exchange.  Even though you have no TA or instructor, use of groups like this obviously gove you the benefit of learning through peers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now to your questions..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I will be able to change my brain's wiring by such constant effort?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning rewires your brain. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/learning-rewires-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This article&lt;/a&gt; may help to explain that.  For more, you could look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?q=learning%20changes%20brain%20wiring&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0&amp;amp;as_vis=1&amp;amp;oi=scholart&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjcmeLeo53OAhVEchQKHcgeCdIQgQMIHDAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;these articles&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How to judge that I know the material? by doing exercises? but I don't have solution?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That can be a difficult one because as you may not be following a structured curriculum you will not be able to formulate a theory test.  However, could you judge understanding by learning what you need to know and testing your theory with some kind of practical test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How to be motivated in such situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a few websites and forums out there on studying methods etc. and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/showthread.php?t=297453&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this page&lt;/a&gt; gives ideas on motivation for studying&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-07-31T08:44:53.633" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15576" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-07-31T18:51:54.680" Score="2" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;We're all being constantly told that strong work ethics, honestly reputation and all similar things is the key and the only key to success. But observation of success of certain politicians, marketing companies and even some colleagues in an office casts doubts on this alleged correlation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uea.ac.uk/documents/3154295/7054672/Honesty+paper/41fecf09-235e-45c1-afc2-b872ea0ac882&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Honesty and beliefs about honesty in 15 countries&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by DavidHugh-Jones shows relation between population honestly and economy growth which is of much less doubt but what would be much more interesting is to see correlation between individual's honesty and individual's success. From the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016726811630052X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;highlights on ScienceDirect&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Average honesty of resident nationals of 15 countries was measured in two experiments.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;There are large cross-country differences in honesty.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Honesty correlates at country level with GDP and Protestantism.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Participants’ expectations about honesty in different countries were also elicited.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Expectations were not correlated to reality, but driven by cognitive biases.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an scientific social experiment supporting this or indeed the opposite?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13309" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-03-18T00:14:42.897" LastActivityDate="2018-03-18T00:14:42.897" Title="What is the relationship between a strong work ethic and an honest reputation and individual success?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15577" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15570" CreationDate="2016-07-31T20:26:40.823" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have never found a better learning method than to put the book down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a great Philosopher of our Age once said &quot;a man has to know his limitations&quot; or more specifically...that he is limited, just a man.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13014" LastActivityDate="2016-07-31T20:26:40.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15579" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15560" CreationDate="2016-08-01T10:38:16.143" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Priming&lt;/a&gt; is a phenomenon where an exposure to a stimulus affect/influences response to another stimulus. It is however, a broad definition which may or may not fully explains what actually happened in the video.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For what's it worth, I notice that number 7 was the only number (between 0-9) that didn't appear at all in any of the arithmetic calculations, answers or questions. But I can't say that I understand how this could influence subject's choice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6461" LastActivityDate="2016-08-01T10:38:16.143" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15580" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-01T17:20:55.413" Score="0" ViewCount="192" Body="&lt;p&gt;How would one go about improving their verbal reasoning ability?&#xA;Are there any specific exercises a person can practise to develop their verbal reasoning skillset?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13316" LastActivityDate="2016-08-01T20:00:09.930" Title="Verbal reasoning development" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-08-08T18:54:13.800" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15581" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-01T17:52:02.950" Score="5" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;NI data acquisition cards offer a possibility of synchronising data acquisition with the pulses of a 80 MHz Ti:Sapphire laser. This supposedly helps improve the signal to noise ratio, since the true fluorescence signals should be time-locked to the laser pulses, while electrical noise in the PMT amplifier circuits and noise from the PMT itself are not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone done a head-to-head comparison of SNR on a two-photon microscope with and without triggered acquisition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13318" LastActivityDate="2016-09-06T22:07:16.637" Title="Is there a tangible benefit of synchronising the sample clock to the laser pulses in a resonant scanning two-photon microscope?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15582" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15580" CreationDate="2016-08-01T20:00:09.930" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is an example of a verbal reasoning problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;When will Joe Bloggs retire?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Joe Bloggs currently works as a civil servant&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Those in the civil service generally retire at 65&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does one figure out that Joe Bloggs will retire at approximately 65? You connect civil servant to civil service then use association to get an output. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.examkrackers.com/LSAT/LSAT-About.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;LSAT&lt;/a&gt; is a Law School test for verbal reasoning, and the sections it tests you on are the components of verbal reasoning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reading Comprehension - ability to understand complex language material like paragraphs or passages and able to answer questions regarding them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Analytical reasoning - ability to understand relationships in language material like statements or passages and being able to draw reasonable conclusions from them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Logical reasoning - Using critical thinking to assess and complete an argument given on the test.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how do you build up these skills? Well reading comprehension is easy, you read and then think about what you just read. For analytical reasoning, do research and practice on annotating. For logical reasoning, look into &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Deductive Reasoning&lt;/a&gt; and any other forms of reasoning in the &quot;See Also&quot; section. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is very possible that you already have a good amount of practice in one or more of these skills. In that case, you want to practice what you have the least amount of experience in. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13319" LastActivityDate="2016-08-01T20:00:09.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15583" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15568" CreationDate="2016-08-01T20:04:12.777" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;At an individual level, a person that refuses to even consider an idea that goes against his or her existing beliefs would be called close-minded or narrow-minded. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intolerant and prejudiced can also be used, but intolerant tends to be applied when discussing religious or political ideas, and prejudiced when talking about racial relations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conformist can also be used, and is a more neutral term. It's also a bit vague, so you'd have to specify which idea or range is being conformed to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A public discourse limited to an acceptable range of subjects would limited to &quot;safe topics&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person who can accept or generate ideas outside of socially acceptable opinions can be labelled a free-thinker. Depending on how far outside the norms the ideas are, the person and may be branded a &quot;radical&quot; or even &quot;pervert&quot; in order to indicate society or government's disapproval of the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13317" LastActivityDate="2016-08-01T20:04:12.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15585" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15556" CreationDate="2016-08-02T01:33:55.477" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a precursor, there are common pitfalls of self diagnosis. If already diagnosed as ADD/ADHD or slow processing speed, it may be a lack of understanding or knowledge of the causes of this disorder rather than a different disability:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/12485/is-there-a-difference-between-add-and-adhd&quot;&gt;Is there a difference between ADD and ADHD?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/12314/why-adhd-instead-of-add-why-predominantly-hyperactive-impulsive-instead-of-pr&quot;&gt;Why ADHD instead of ADD? / Why predominantly hyperactive-impulsive instead of predominantly-impulsive?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1886/how-well-defined-is-add-adhd&quot;&gt;How well defined is ADD/ADHD?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/10823/how-does-one-respond-to-an-add-adhd-diagnosis-of-ones-self-or-ones-child&quot;&gt;How does one respond to an ADD/ADHD diagnosis of one's self or one's child?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, there are obvious hindrances that probably would have been identified already: Dyslexia (significantly observable reading issue), dysgraphia (incoherent writing), dyscalculia (calculating), dyspraxia (coordination), &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_developmental_disorder#Comparison_and_conditions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;etc&lt;/a&gt;. Again, for these  you will know right away and describe with unspecialized language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for an outline of these specific learning disorders, they are broken up as simple as this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reading&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Writing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Math &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more detailed overview of subcategories is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.naset.org/fileadmin/user_upload/LD_Report/Issue__3_LD_Report_Characteristic_of_LD.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-08-02T01:33:55.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15586" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-02T05:16:52.023" Score="2" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't understand this theory that states there are only three kinds of mental loads:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The theory is that there are basically three different kinds of&#xA;  demands or loads that you can make on a person: Cognitive (thinking&#xA;  and remembering), Visual, and Motor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.blog.theteamw.com/2011/02/17/100-things-you-should-know-about-people-60-cognitive-loads-are-the-most-expensive/#comments&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;, Posted on February 17, 2011 by Susan Weinschenk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about things like listening to someone speak? Or if someone's learning to play a musical instrument and is trying to hit the right note. Is this only in the context of interaction design. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastActivityDate="2016-08-15T03:38:19.910" Title="What is meant by this theory that there are only 3 possible kinds of cognitive loads?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15586" CreationDate="2016-08-02T08:22:25.953" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The source you mention is a web blog about computer and office work. The blog doesn't describe a '&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;theory&lt;/a&gt;', not even a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; for that matter, it just outlines a starting point for a popular scientific blog on cognitive load in everyday life. It all depends on the task what adds mental load. Every input, let it be acoustic (e.g. speech), visual (e.g. computer tasks), touch or internal mental processes can all increase cognitive load. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can recommend reading the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wiki page on cognitive load&lt;/a&gt; as a starting point to better understand different aspects of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/cognitive-load.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive load theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-03T12:02:41.180" LastActivityDate="2016-08-03T12:02:41.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15589" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15482" CreationDate="2016-08-02T11:55:43.843" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most succinct and evidence-based definitions of introversion and extraversion were those of Hans Eysenck in the '60s. He defined introversion as having an over-aroused autonomic nervous system, so introverts avoid stimulation, and extraverts as having over-aroused autonomic nervous systems, thus they seek stimulation. Of course all this functions as a continuum, and his measuring instruments, (questionnaires), reflected this.  His evidence for the theory was based on dozens of experiments, by him and by many other researchers where, (for example), the top 10% scorers (extraverts) and bottom 10% (introverts) on his Introversion-Extraversion scale were compared on many tasks.  Strongest differences were found in vigilance tasks where introverts did significantly better than extraverts - as predicted. There were many such findings reported in many journal articles, research which was extended to include EEG and other physical measures of autonomic nervous system activity. It is possible that interest in his work faded as a result of his becoming involved in research on group IQ differences, not conducive to a quiet career at the time. The personality work was interesting, very carefully laid out, and worth looking up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8461" LastActivityDate="2016-08-02T11:55:43.843" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15592" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15596" CreationDate="2016-08-03T00:51:59.273" Score="1" ViewCount="165" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I was sleeping on a road trip and I had to wake up to go to the restroom at a gas station we stopped at. I walked in like a zombie and the cashier sheepishly said hello to me. I took it that he was nervous and then my brain started coming up with some scenario that he was being held hostage by someone, told not to call the police and was somewhere in the store. As I was going to the restroom I sort of convinced myself that this was actually happening and I started to get kind of nervous. Later I realized that the only reason the cashier seemed nervous was because I walked in like I had just risen from the dead. Which got me worried again thinking I'm starting to develop some form of schizophrenia. I'm 16 years old and have been diagnosed with OCD in the past. I know this is a better question for a professional but I figured this would give me a quick reassurance for concern or if that was just an ocd sort of thing. I will be talking to a doctor and my parents afterward I just trust stack exchange's opinion for now. Thank you&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13332" LastEditorUserId="13332" LastEditDate="2016-08-03T18:10:20.773" LastActivityDate="2016-08-03T18:10:20.773" Title="Is it common for OCD sufferers to experience schizophrenic episodes" Tags="&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-08-18T11:05:39.667" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15593" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15556" CreationDate="2016-08-03T02:51:20.230" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Attempting to diagnose your self is likely to result in a diagnosis riddled with confirmation bias, and therefore incorrect. However, if you insist on diagnosing yourself I would recommend starting with the DSM-V (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual - 5). This is a psychiatrist's bible, and strictly outlines the set of symptoms that are required for a particular diagnosis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A caveat before reading - read the entire chapter, not just the symptom list. The supporting information discusses the symptomology in depth, and will provide a much more accurate diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Manual can be found here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psicovalero.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/dsm-v-ingles-manual-diagnc3b3stico-y-estadc3adstico-de-los-trastornos-mentales.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual V&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13291" LastActivityDate="2016-08-03T02:51:20.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15595" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-03T03:10:05.070" Score="2" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that experiences are compound in nature and take inputs from multiple senses. But when I ask people to describe the sense associated with their earliest memories I get answers that vary. For some its visual, others auditory yet others tactile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know more about the specific aspect of first memories that help me understand the reason for this varied response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13333" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-08-03T06:25:40.930" LastActivityDate="2016-08-03T07:03:36.223" Title="What are the main sensory features of earliest memories of childhood?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15596" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15592" CreationDate="2016-08-03T03:18:57.967" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As someone who has had OCD since the age of 12, I can assure that this sounds very much like an OCD symptom. It is likely that you walked into the store &quot;like a zombie&quot;, and at the time, did not consider your personal appearance, assuming only that the store owner was acting strange. However, if you had been aware of the way you were acting, you would have likely picked up on this instantly and dismissed it. Unless we are salient to our own features, we are unaware of how others are perceiving us. Your ability to gauge your salience was likely decreased due to just waking up from your nap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an OCD sufferer, I've definitely had bouts where I was concerned I was developing schizophrenia, only to realize later that I was hyper-aware of every little &quot;sign&quot; that pointed in that direction. If this is an ongoing worry of yours, confirmation bias will likely amplify the most ambiguous of symptoms related to losing your mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's get a little further into schizophrenia, however. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual - IV (yes, the old one, though the symptoms have not changed much) states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Characteristic symptoms: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Two or more of the following, each present for much of the time during a one-&gt;month period (or less, if symptoms remitted with treatment).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Delusions&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hallucinations&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Disorganized speech, which is a manifestation of formal thought disorder&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Grossly disorganized behavior (e.g. dressing inappropriately, crying&#xA;  frequently) or catatonic behavior&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Negative symptoms: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Blunted affect (lack or decline in emotional response)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Alogia (lack or decline in speech)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Avolition (lack or decline in motivation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Imapaired communication (due to hearing voices)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Social or occupational dysfunction: one or more major areas of functioning, work, interpersonal relations, self-care, are markedly below the level achieved prior to the onset.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Significant duration: Continuous signs of the disturbance persist for at least six months. This six-month period must include at least one month of symptoms (or less, if symptoms remitted with treatment).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If signs of disturbance are present for more than a month but less than six months, the diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder is applied. Psychotic symptoms lasting less than a month may be diagnosed as brief psychotic disorder, and various conditions may be classed as psychotic disorder not otherwise specified. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First and foremost hallucinations and delusions are NOT something that you are able to identify. Schizophrenia leaves the sufferer out of touch with reality. The sufferer believes in their hallucinations and delusions with every fibre of their body, they don't simply think that they are hallucination or becoming deluded. That being said, no, you are not developing schizophrenia. If you were, you wouldn't know it, and once you found out that you had it, you'd be the last one to know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note &quot;positive&quot; and &quot;negative&quot; symptoms, are not &quot;good&quot; and &quot;bad&quot;. Think of a positive symptom as an addition to one's life (the addition of delusions), and a negative symptom as something that's being taken away from one's life (motivation). If you read further down the DSM criteria, you will see that &quot;one-off&quot; events like this do not substantiate a diagnosis of schizophrenia. However, a brief psychotic episode is still possible, possible, but extremely highly unlikely based on the fact that you have a great amount of insight (self-knowledge) of what was going on with you in the store.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13291" LastActivityDate="2016-08-03T03:18:57.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15597" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15607" CreationDate="2016-08-03T03:34:56.597" Score="1" ViewCount="1508" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, PTSD was first used as a broader label for symptoms associated with so-called shell-shock, and has been diagnosed for symptoms of a milder nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is there a lower limit to the point at which PTSD can be diagnosed? For example, is it possible to have such a mild form of PTSD that it does not interfere with normal functioning, but exhibits the same features?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I ask, is I live in the UK where the National Health System (NHS) is increasingly struggling with funding. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Post-traumatic-stress-disorder/Pages/Introduction.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Their website on PTSD&lt;/a&gt; seems to only state the most extreme of traumatic events as possible causes. In short, I think it is to get out of giving help to all but the absolute worst cases. Hospitals and many mental health services have large burdens and turn many seeking help away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone where to suggest they have PTSD, I feel that with literature such as the above, it belittles anyone experiencing &quot;mild&quot; events such as domestic abuse, which barely fits into their categories. Not only might they not get treated, but experience or perceive scorn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one were to seek help for PTSD and have to justify the help needed, regardless of the cause, how might it be done? Could the symptoms be misdiagnosed as, for example, regular stress, or anxiety, and would treatment for those be different to that required to help with PTSD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8588" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-04T17:05:36.030" LastActivityDate="2018-09-04T17:05:36.030" Title="Can PTSD be mild? Do the traumas have to be of a certain kind?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15598" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15602" CreationDate="2016-08-03T03:39:50.540" Score="0" ViewCount="307" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone explain how Just World Theory applies in real life? I have learned about it from textbooks but have trouble believing parts of it. Does it always apply? For example does it apply to individual situations like if you see someone get hit by a car you don’t normally think “that person must have deserved it” but is it more for an overall lifestyle for example if someone works a minimum wage job it would be “this person has a lazy personality”. I’m basically asking does Just World Theory have any qualifications for when it applies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess psychology isn't like this, but does the Just World Theory apply to everyone in every situation all the time, or what?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastActivityDate="2016-08-03T09:52:54.267" Title="When does Just World Theory apply?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15600" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15595" CreationDate="2016-08-03T06:38:04.577" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found a study by Mullen (1994) which discusses the empirical literature on earliest childhood memories (see also the wikipedia article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_amnesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;childhood amensia&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a few interesting quotes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The average age of earliest memory is consistently found to be in the vicinity of 3.5 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mullen mentions theories for the amnesia prior to this point focussing particularly on the role of language development and training provided by parents in how to socially construct accessible memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mullen distinguishes between types of memories which in some sense pertains to your question about senses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;White and Pillemer (1979) suggest that there may be a dual system of&#xA;  autobiographical memory in which one aspect is a verbally accessible&#xA;  store of interconnected narratives organized with respect to a time&#xA;  frame and the other aspect is an unorganized collection of fragments&#xA;  of images, behaviors and emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In study 3, Mullen (1994) examined the content of earliest reported memories.&#xA;Here is a table summarising content features of these memories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ko0Qw.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ko0Qw.png&quot; alt=&quot;table of earliest memories&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, it appears that most of these memories reflect an event in some sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course there are a bunch of methodological things going on here. &#xA;I imagine if you delve into the references or &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?q=related:sWoqnSx8racJ:scholar.google.com/&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,39&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;these related articles&lt;/a&gt; you will find out more on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kihlstrom et al (1982) looks like it might be worth a read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mullen, M. K. (1994). Earliest recollections of childhood: A demographic analysis. Cognition, 52(1), 55-79.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kihlstrom, J. F., &amp;amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (1982). The earliest recollection: A new survey. Journal of Personality, 50(2), 134-148.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-08-03T07:03:36.223" LastActivityDate="2016-08-03T07:03:36.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15601" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15597" CreationDate="2016-08-03T09:09:53.553" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The DSM (Diagnostics and Statistics Manual) is used here in the UK as well as in the US.  The 5th edition, which is the current edition, stipulates the criteria required to diagnose PTSD &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Psychiatrists/Practice/DSM/APA_DSM-5-PTSD.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here is an info sheet on it&lt;/a&gt;.  You could get a copy of DSM-5 in the library or buy it from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/aw/d/0890425558&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amazon&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your specific questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do the traumas have to be of a certain kind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, the DSM states that triggers for PTSD are &amp;quot;exposure to actual or&#xA;threatened death, serious injury or sexual violation&amp;quot;. But this is not the whole story, further criteria are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The exposure must result from one or more of the  following scenarios,&#xA;in which the individual:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;directly experiences the traumatic event;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;witnesses the traumatic event in person;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;learns that the traumatic event occurred to a close family member or close friend (with  the actual or threatened death being either violent or accidental); or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;experiences first-hand repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of the traumatic event (not through media, pictures, television or movies unless work-related).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The disturbance, regardless of its trigger, causes clinically significant distress or impairment in the individual’s social interactions, capacity to work or other important areas of functioning. It is not the physiological result of another medical condition, medication, drugs or alcohol.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And to your first question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can PTSD be mild? ... But is there a lower limit to the point at which PTSD can be diagnosed? For example, is it possible to have such a mild form of PTSD that it does not interfere with normal functioning, but exhibits the same features?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say, given the criteria above, there is no mild form. If it does not interfere with normal functioning it does not meet the criteria and is therefore not diagnosed as PTSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-04T16:46:05.123" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15602" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15598" CreationDate="2016-08-03T09:52:54.267" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-world_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Just-World Theory/Belief/Hypotheses&lt;/a&gt; is an assumption that people eventually get what they deserves. Good people will eventually receive good things and bad people will eventually be punished, hence the world is &quot;just/fair&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One form of defensive attribution is to believe that bad things happen&#xA;  only to bad people or at least, only to people who make stupid&#xA;  mistakes or poor choices. Therefore, bad things won t happen to us&#xA;  because we won t be that stupid or careless. Melvin Lerner (1980,&#xA;  1998) has called this the belief in a just world the assumption that&#xA;  people get what they deserve and deserve what they get (Hafer, 2000;&#xA;  Hafer &amp;amp; Begue, 2005; Lipkus, Dalbert, &amp;amp; Siegler, 1996).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fundamentally, this belief is motivated by our need to feel secure, to decrease anxiety from our vulnerabilities. After all, if bad things can happen to anyone, they can also happen to me regardless of what I do/don't do. Consequently, there are no guarantee that I'll receive &quot;reward&quot; for doing good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By using this attributional bias [belief in just world], the perceiver does not have to&#xA;  acknowledge that there is a certain randomness in life, that an&#xA;  accident or criminal may be waiting just around the corner for an&#xA;  innocent person like oneself. The belief in a just world keeps&#xA;  anxiety-provoking thoughts about one s own safety at bay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can imagine that this &quot;randomness&quot; can be overwhelming at times, especially when a tragedy strikes; for example when someone from work/school was raped.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ironically, those who strongly believe in a just-world tend to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victim_blaming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;unfairly judge&lt;/a&gt; that it must have happened because the victim did something wrong, e.g dressed inappropriately, flirting, etc. That way, the person can still believe that this world is fair, and if he/she doesn't do bad things, it will never happen to him/her.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research by Elaine Walster (1966) and others has focused on such&#xA;  attributions, which these investigators call blaming the victim (e.g.,&#xA;  Burger, 1981; Lerner &amp;amp; Miller, 1978; Stormo, Lang, &amp;amp; Stritzke, 1997).&#xA;  In several experiments, they have found that the victims of crimes or&#xA;  accidents are often seen as causing their fate. For example, not only&#xA;  do people tend to believe that rape victims are to blame for the rape&#xA;  (Abrams, Viki, Masser, &amp;amp; Bohner, 2003; Bell, Kuriloff, &amp;amp; Lottes,&#xA;  1994), but also battered wives are often seen as responsible for their&#xA;  abusive husbands behavior (Summers &amp;amp; Feldman, 1984).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When something bad happens to another&#xA;  person (as when someone is mugged or raped), we will undoubtedly feel&#xA;  sorry for the person but at the same time will feel relieved that this&#xA;  horrible thing didn t happen to us. We will also feel scared that such&#xA;  a thing might happen to us in the future. How can we cope with these&#xA;  fears and worries? We can protect ourselves from the fear we feel by&#xA;  convincing ourselves that the person must have done something to cause&#xA;  the tragedy. We feel safe, then, because we would have behaved more&#xA;  cautiously (Jones &amp;amp; Aronson, 1973).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it always apply? No, not for everyone and not in every situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It explains one possible way people deal with anxiety of feeling insecure, but not as the only way. I couldn't find any scientific sources, but I imagine that people can see tragedy without feeling any insecurities, or can perceive the world as fair but have an entirely different reaction, or even doesn't see the world as just/fair in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson, Robin M. Akert. (2010). &lt;em&gt;Social Psychology Seventh Edition&lt;/em&gt;. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6461" LastActivityDate="2016-08-03T09:52:54.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15603" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-02T04:08:58.727" Score="3" ViewCount="856" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been told that only a small percentage of the population think literally but I can find no studies or statistics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is not about Lateral thinking (Edward de Bono- solving problems through an indirect and creative approach)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A literal thinker is a person who applies the most literal meaning to words and has difficulty considering figurative uses of words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13334" OwnerDisplayName="Felicity Mulhall" LastEditorUserId="29" LastEditDate="2016-08-04T06:58:50.277" LastActivityDate="2016-08-04T06:58:50.277" Title="What percentage of people are literal thinkers?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15605" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-03T10:55:05.070" Score="2" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the handwriting analysis of a person predict only his/her behavior or only his/her character or both? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13336" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-03T11:20:37.340" LastActivityDate="2016-08-04T01:09:17.220" Title="Is hand-writing analysis used for analysis of a person's behaviour or anlayzing a person's character?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15606" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15605" CreationDate="2016-08-03T11:19:54.523" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2380858/What-does-handwriting-say-Study-finds-5-000-personality-traits-linked-write.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Handwriting analysis&lt;/a&gt; can, arguably, provide information on personal qualities &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1983.tb00127.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Klimoski &amp;amp; Rafaeli, 1983)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;I.e.&lt;/em&gt;, handwriting analysis may tell you something about the character of a person. In turn, &lt;a href=&quot;https://explorable.com/behaviourist-theories-of-personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;character affects behavior&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1983.tb00127.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Klimoski &amp;amp; Rafaeli, Journal of Occupational Psychology (1983), &lt;strong&gt;56&lt;/strong&gt;(3):  191-202&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2016-08-03T11:19:54.523" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15607" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15597" CreationDate="2016-08-03T12:45:03.687" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In order for something to be diagnosed as a disorder by a mental health professional, the client typically experiences distress and impairment in activities of daily functioning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the time frame is under 3 to 6 months, please consider &quot;Acute Stress Disorder&quot; as a possibility. I agree that the DSM V is going to be a useful resource for diagnostics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trauma, in any form, does pose very specific challenges for diagnostics and a treatment plan. For further reading on trauma therapy, I highly suggest &quot;Life After Trauma: A Workbook for Healing&quot; by Rosenbloom and Williams (2010). Treatment will be dependent on the practitioner's training, and the formulated diagnosis. You are welcome to research efficacies of therapeutic interventions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapy is very useful for any and all of the items you have mentioned. If you are attempting to get insurance coverage, usually a diagnosis from a qualified professional will qualify you for therapy (at least here in the United States). A good diagnosis could take a few sessions to formulate. It's sometimes a longer process if someone suspects trauma. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13214" LastActivityDate="2016-08-03T12:45:03.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15608" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15605" CreationDate="2016-08-03T14:09:11.950" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The professional term for hand-writing analysis seems to be &quot;Graphology&quot; and there is no &lt;em&gt;clear&lt;/em&gt; evidence that it could be used to predict a person's behaviour or character. For a starting point see the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt;, then there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/03/news/03iht-grapho.html?pagewanted=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; in the New York Times from 1993 and this &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4223445.stm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;more recent article&lt;/a&gt; from BBC from 2005 for more casual explanations of the phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more scientific references there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://ie.technion.ac.il/Home/Users/anatr/2259916.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; from 1983 and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0191886987900456&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt; from 1987 that both fail to show significant results. Also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568773.001.0001/acprof-9780198568773-chapter-17&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this book chapter&lt;/a&gt; might give a good overview but I can only tell from the abstract and you would have to find it at a library or purchase it somehow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rafaeli, A., &amp;amp; Klimoski, R. J. (1983). Predicting sales success through handwriting analysis: An evaluation of the effects of training and handwriting sample content. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68(2), 212.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beyerstein, B. L. (2007). Graphology—a total write-off. Tall Tales about the Mind &amp;amp; Brain: Separating Fact from Fiction, 233-70.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Furnham, A., &amp;amp; Gunter, B. (1987). Graphology and personality: Another failure to validate graphological analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 8(3), 433-435.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-08-04T01:09:17.220" LastActivityDate="2016-08-04T01:09:17.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15610" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-03T17:49:23.527" Score="1" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, people tend to simply max out their profit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the process to max out their profit, humans have this peculiar cognitive function, called sense of morality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have no idea how it evolve but it seems to have some function and affect their behaviors. Somehow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to know how this strange cognitive function affect humans behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, most of us don't just grab fried chicken and run away. We sense that it's politically incorrect and not profitable. However, some may think it's just wrong and don't do it anyway without thinking if it's profitable or not. Or do they?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that people are more willing to negotiate if they think those who pressure them have earned their profit &quot;rightfully&quot;. People are more likely to condemn if they think what others do is wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But that seems to be a very amateur observation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we see someone put gun on someone's head, we are more likely to think, we should punish this robber rather than thinking what does he want. On the other hand, people are more willing to pay tax that goes to welfare recipients. That's probably because we think that robbing is wrong, while voting for welfare is right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, how does our sense of right and wrong affect our behavior and how does that lead to our individual profit or our selfish genes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 2 things I have in mind is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People tend to do what's right&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In conflict, people tend to side with those they think is right. For example, if a thief is beaten up to death, conservatives would side with those who protect their properties while liberals would side with the thieves.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="699" LastEditDate="2016-08-09T17:36:15.340" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T16:12:12.520" Title="How does people's sense of right and wrong affect their behavior?" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15611" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15610" CreationDate="2016-08-03T20:04:01.000" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting question which seems that even the experts are still investigating it to a degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take a look at the links I provide in this answer and look at the &lt;strong&gt;conformity studies&lt;/strong&gt; like the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/milgram.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milgram Experiment&lt;/a&gt; and the works of Dr Phil Zimbardo with his &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.prisonexp.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford Prison Experiment&lt;/a&gt; and his book on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lucifereffect.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Lucifer Effect&lt;/a&gt; (a study of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_on_the_psychology_of_evil&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology of Evil&lt;/a&gt; and heroism) etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stanley Milgram tested earlier conformity studies by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/asch-conformity.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Solomon Asch&lt;/a&gt; to see what extent the experiment can reach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that even though there are a few who are an exception, there are those with high moral standards who can be swayed into doing something bad.  Especially when their actions are &quot;justified&quot; by someone in authority &lt;strong&gt;or seem to have more knowledge of the situation&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seems to be a fine line which can be very blurry to a degree.  For a rather pessimistic view on society have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cracked.com/article_16239_5-psychological-experiments-that-prove-humanity-doomed.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-01-23T16:12:12.520" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T16:12:12.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15614" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-04T08:52:15.743" Score="3" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lulu Xie et al write in their paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/342/6156/373&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using real-time assessments of tetramethylammonium diffusion and two-photon imaging in live mice, we show that natural sleep or anesthesia are associated with a 60% increase in the interstitial space, resulting in a striking increase in convective exchange of cerebrospinal fluid with interstitial fluid. In turn, convective fluxes of interstitial fluid increased the rate of β-amyloid clearance during sleep. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that Alzheimer's patients have more β-amyloid in their brains, do they also have less interstitial space?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastEditorUserId="11015" LastEditDate="2017-09-29T10:45:08.217" LastActivityDate="2017-09-29T10:45:08.217" Title="Do Alzheimer's patients have spaces in their brain with low interstitial space?" Tags="&lt;alzheimer&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15616" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-04T09:05:19.073" Score="2" ViewCount="438" Body="&lt;p&gt;While spotting a liar,is it paying attention to verbal cues such as&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;pauses in speech and speech disturbances, including &quot;ahs,&quot; stutters, and incomplete sentences&lt;/strong&gt; that weighs more or&#xA;is it paying attention to non-verbal cues such as&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;inconsistent eye contact, increased degree of eye contact, blink frequency, chin movement&lt;/strong&gt; that weighs more&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13336" LastEditorUserId="13336" LastEditDate="2016-08-04T09:55:33.723" LastActivityDate="2016-08-04T12:35:05.580" Title="While spoting a liar, whether observing the verbal cue or observing the non-verbal cue helps?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;deception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15617" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15620" CreationDate="2016-08-04T09:10:42.570" Score="2" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lulu Xie et al write in their paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/342/6156/373&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using real-time assessments of tetramethylammonium diffusion and two-photon imaging in live mice, we show that natural sleep or anesthesia are associated with a 60% increase in the interstitial space&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we have technology to do the similar measurements in humans and not only in mice? Have those measurements been done?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastEditorUserId="3258" LastEditDate="2016-08-11T15:15:00.230" LastActivityDate="2016-08-11T15:15:00.230" Title="Do we have technology to ethically measure the changes of interstitial space in sleeping humans?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15619" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15616" CreationDate="2016-08-04T12:35:05.580" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not entirely clear whether you are asking how much weight &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; we place on different cues (if we want to spot liars) or how much people actually &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; use these cues. There is a big literature on lie detection though. &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.475.9615&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a recent paper that discusses some of this work and will give you a start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the salient points are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People are actually pretty bad at guessing truths and lies, though it is hard to do experiments on.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Although there are some cues that give people away, these are faint and unreliable. The most reliable ones are actually just the things that they say (the facts).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Non-verbal cues and speech disturbances are actually pretty poor cues even though people think they are good ones. They are also pretty easy to fake.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-08-04T12:35:05.580" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15620" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15617" CreationDate="2016-08-04T12:44:38.080" Score="2" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fphar.2016.00216&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;It is possible to extract samples of interstitial fluid in humans.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jlr.org/content/41/8/1317.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The method has been described in detail.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it ethically permissible to extract the entire contents of the interstitial space? No. It is vital for survival.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Technically, it seems possible to perform the procedure before and after sleep. I am not sure if this has been done though. To what extent this is an invasive procedure I do not know, but it appears to involve surgery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/61/17/6400?ijkey=e283201fdd4d53ba616e2e028728d929669b9c09&amp;amp;keytype2=tf_ipsecsha&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;In addition, &lt;em&gt;local&lt;/em&gt; interstitual fluid pressure (IFP) can be&#xA;measured in humans under anesthesia.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both methods pose ethical challenges and it appears that these methods are relevant in clinical settings, where the cost-to-benefit analysis would suggest a benefit to the patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2016-08-04T12:44:38.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15625" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-05T13:13:11.613" Score="2" ViewCount="164" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often see couples fight after sex. Why is this? Is there an actual biological effects (release of endorphins or other hormones) post-coitus (or post-orgasm) that would increase irritability in an individual?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand how it works and what neurons / recipes are involved in such experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9995" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-08-06T15:03:08.423" LastActivityDate="2016-08-14T19:29:37.770" Title="Post-coital effects on human cognition" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-08-21T19:56:43.590" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15627" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-05T15:37:25.730" Score="1" ViewCount="649" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading about Myer Briggs personality types and Jung cognitive functions for the first time.   Based on my understanding, it seems like each of the 16 MB personality profiles attempt to map to some combination of the 8 Jung cognitive functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I can't seem to find an MB profile that maps to the following Jung cognitive function combination&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Primary function - Introverted Intuition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Auxillary function - Introverted Thinking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tertiary function - Introverted Feeling&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inferior function - Extroverted Sensing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it because the Jung cognitive function combination I stated is a theoretically and/or practically impossible?  If so, why is that the case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2486" LastActivityDate="2020-06-03T04:04:35.263" Title="Myer Brigg type for Ni &gt; Ti &gt; Fi &gt; Se" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15630" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-05T22:12:26.743" Score="8" ViewCount="572" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was recently at the ACM Symposium on Applied Perception, where I saw a keynote on visual attention. The speaker (&lt;a href=&quot;http://ilab.usc.edu/itti/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Laurent Itti&lt;/a&gt;) showed an animation that blew my mind. It showed a video of fish swimming in the ocean, and next to it, the same video as &quot;seen&quot; by the retina. The latter was upside down and distorted beyond recognition except at the fovea, which darted around to salient locations in the video. I had heard it explained before that &quot;your eye doesn't 'see' images, your brain reconstructs them,&quot; but I had never before seen it illustrated so well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to find a similar animation to show friends and students, but I'm having trouble finding anything. Searches yield mostly diagrams of light passing through the eye or something similar. The only thing I've found that shows what an image actually looks like when it reaches the retina is this picture.&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Retinal_Image.png/1024px-Retinal_Image.png&quot; alt=&quot;blurry, upside-down view of face as seen by retina&quot;&gt;&#xA;It's a nice start, but I'd really like an animation, like a video or GIF, to show how the brain stitches together the retinal images at each fixation into what seems like a coherent image/video.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you help me find such an animation? Something that shows what a raw visual feed actually looks like?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13363" LastActivityDate="2016-09-05T18:33:57.280" Title="What does the visual feed from the retina look like before it is processed by the visual cortex?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;teaching-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15631" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15630" CreationDate="2016-08-06T02:03:25.643" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a &lt;strong&gt;LOT&lt;/strong&gt; more to &quot;your eye doesn't 'see' images, your brain reconstructs them&quot; then what is shown in that picture.  After the image is flipped and distorted, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptive_field#Retinal_ganglion_cells&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;contrast information&lt;/a&gt; at various scales is extracted and pretty much everything else is thrown away.  Here is a simulation of that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Red_on_centre_green_off_centre.png&quot; alt=&quot;Edge Detection simulation&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This information is then used to build up &lt;a href=&quot;http://serre-lab.clps.brown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Serre-encyclopedia_revised.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;progressively more complex&lt;/a&gt; and abstract representations of the visual scene.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=io6Ckvyjo5w&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt; showing a simulation of how this edge detection works, but it doesn't appear to include the distortion and receptive field sizes.  I haven't been able to find a video that combined everything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7616" LastEditorUserId="7616" LastEditDate="2016-08-06T02:10:21.640" LastActivityDate="2016-08-06T02:10:21.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15633" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15627" CreationDate="2016-08-06T12:46:36.693" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you look more into the history of the creators of the Myer's Briggs, you will notice that it is loosely based off Jungian archetypes. It was not created with 16 types initially. Actually, the Jungian theory is only in a few scales (I-E, S-N, T-F), and one of the criticisms of this test is that the theoretical basis really was not preserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The combinations you have discussed might not be available, because statistically, it would not have a lot of strength. I would worry about intercorrelated scales, because there is some evidence out there that they are currently, and that does not provide a lot of statistical strength for an actual assessment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could further investigate the manual and gain more insight through some of these readings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myers, I. Briggs. (2003). MBTI manual: a guide to the development and use of    the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. 3rd ed. Mountain View, Calif.: CPP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Capraro, R. M, &amp;amp; Capraro, M. M. (2002). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator score   reliability across: Studies a meta-analytic reliability generalization  study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62, 590-602. doi:     10.1177/0013164402062004004&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pulver, C. A., &amp;amp; Kelly, K. R. (2008). Incremental validity of the Myers-Briggs type indicator in predicting academic major selection of undecided university students. Journal of Career Assessment, 16(4), 441-455. doi: 10.1177/1069072708318902&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13214" LastActivityDate="2016-08-06T12:46:36.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15635" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-06T16:45:57.167" Score="-2" ViewCount="509" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is megalomania a part of schizophrenia, the latter having to do with personality splits, as opposed to being a disorder of its own. According to Polya's book, thinking big is one of the thinking techniques that makes you good at mathematics, so, by this argument, every mathematician would be a megalomaniac.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But schizophrenia has nothing to do with it, because it can be looked at as a separate, possibly related problem. Find more inspiration in Polya's book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9995" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-08-11T19:41:06.597" LastActivityDate="2016-08-15T17:56:28.240" Title="Megalomania versus schizophrenia" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2016-08-17T20:01:58.343" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15636" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15658" CreationDate="2016-08-06T16:51:23.457" Score="7" ViewCount="595" Body="&lt;p&gt;The beneficial effects of exercise are well documented on cognitive ability (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2897704/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763413001012&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;) and reducing cognitive decline (&lt;a href=&quot;http://jap.physiology.org/content/111/5/1505.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;). However, has the type of exercise ever been analysed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In healthy adults, is there a difference on the effects of aerobic (running) and resistance training (lifting weights) on cognitive ability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-08-30T11:10:23.507" Title="Effects of aerobic vs. resistance training on cognition" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15630" CreationDate="2016-08-06T17:33:52.683" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not exactly what you are looking for, but worthwhile showing students IMHO:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scroll down for the video.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.maxplanckflorida.org/news-and-media/news/from-retina-to-cortex-an-unexpected-division-of-labor/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.maxplanckflorida.org/news-and-media/news/from-retina-to-cortex-an-unexpected-division-of-labor/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2016-08-06T17:33:52.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15638" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15635" CreationDate="2016-08-06T17:58:01.790" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schizophrenia symptoms vary widely from patient to patient. Only a subgroup of schizophrenics experience grandiose delusion. According to one school of thought, humanistic psychotherapy, individuals have different degrees of congruence between the self and the ideal self, with consequences for self-realization. If one thinks to much of one self, one risks not to develop as a person as one is satisfied.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9ESGB.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9ESGB.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in Logos therapy, the view is that one should think better of oneself in order that one dares to approach situations that one would have not dared to approach otherwise, according to Viktor Frankl, thereby opening up to new experiences. A different advice applies to people with perhaps the most realistic worldview: patients with depression are perhaps aligned with their self-image, but their low sense of self-worth reduces their ability to take action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the images do not match the objective &quot;self&quot; either depression or megalomania could result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some mathematicians also have schizophrenia - a famous example being &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Forbes_Nash_Jr.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Forbes Nash Jr.&lt;/a&gt; whose life was portrayed in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0268978/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Beautiful Mind&lt;/a&gt;. That is why I do not see how your observation is necessarily controversial. Being able to think outside the box requires some distance to reality. Some studies have suggested a link between creativity and schizophrenia. Nevertheless, it is important to note that creativity without constraints has no real application in life, other than perhaps art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the most creative artists choose a specific formula, so that they can restrict their thoughts. For example, Bach chose to write fugues. He could have written only fantasias instead, but for a creative person this is not as challenging as the logic of a fugue. Mathematicians are very structured and write proofs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recommended reading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hide-and-seek/201509/mad-genius-schizophrenia-and-creativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hide-and-seek/201509/mad-genius-schizophrenia-and-creativity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(By the way, if you wish to recommend a book, adding a title or a link helps others to find it. :-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastEditorUserId="3258" LastEditDate="2016-08-06T18:05:08.773" LastActivityDate="2016-08-06T18:05:08.773" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15640" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15649" CreationDate="2016-08-06T22:38:41.757" Score="6" ViewCount="301" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neurohormones are produced in many different bodily systems other than the brain--skin, intestines, stomach, etc. Has there been any research suggesting whether or not some people might actually perform cognitive functions normally associated only with the brain (like processing sensory input to make complex decisions) with parts of their body other than their brain? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, crows have demonstrated they are capable of complex problem solving, even though they do not have a cerebral cortex. Scientists now believe crows use their telencephalon to perform complex reasoning tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, crows use a part of their physiology not previously associated with complex reasoning for complex reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, to extend the idea even further, could humans also be using organs or systems to handle processes usually presumed to be handled only by the brain? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since so many bodily systems produce neurohormones, they seem like likely possible candidates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has any research been done to test this proposition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13373" LastEditorUserId="13373" LastEditDate="2016-08-07T13:23:21.537" LastActivityDate="2016-08-18T17:18:07.190" Title="Thinking with organs/systems other than the brain" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15641" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15680" CreationDate="2016-08-06T23:58:13.180" Score="6" ViewCount="904" Body="&lt;p&gt;I grew up in a country where my grandmother's generation used to believe that left handed were related with the Devil, so I know many friends that have been &quot;corrected&quot; when kids and now they are right handed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a scientific way to find out if you are in truth right handed or if you were corrected? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming you were originally left handed but you were grown as right handed, does that makes you a non-natural ambidextrous? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10642" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-08-07T14:27:47.257" LastActivityDate="2016-08-12T20:08:08.053" Title="Scientific way to prove you are ambidextrous, right handed or left handed?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15645" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-07T20:31:15.500" Score="5" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;A paper I'm looking at titled &quot;Synaptic Modifications in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons: Dependence on Spike Timing, Synaptic Strength, and Postsynaptic Cell Type&quot; (can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~sereno/201/readings/02.09-OrigSTDP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) showed a relationship between spike timing and LTP/LTD. However, I'm having a bit of difficulty understanding what Figure 7 shows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3NApw.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3NApw.png&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 7&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since this photo I've seen published in multiple textbooks and reviews, it seems like a very important figure to understand what is going on. According to what they wrote in the introduction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Our results showed that postsynaptic spiking that peaked within a time window of 20 msec after synaptic activation resulted in LTP, whereas spiking within a window of 20 msec before synaptic activation led to LTD&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that you have two neurons, a presynaptic neuron and a postsynaptic neuron and then based on their relative firing timings, that tells you whether or not there is an increase or decrease in the synaptic weight provided that the timings are close enough together. What confuses me as a non-biologist is how a postsynaptic spike could occur before the presynaptic spike does? I would think the only way a postsynaptic spike occurs is when the presynaptic neuron fires into the postsynaptic one. And then this time interval... is it from when the timing of the last presynaptic spike to the first spike of the postsynaptic one? Or from the first presynaptic spike since you would need multiple of them to induce a spike from the postsynaptic one? I'd mainly like to ask for more clarity over how to interpret what is happening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11792" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-08-12T02:51:52.720" LastActivityDate="2016-08-12T02:51:52.720" Title="Spike Timing Dependent Plasticity interpretation" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15646" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15645" CreationDate="2016-08-07T22:45:00.057" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The best explanation for STDP that I've ever seen is &lt;a href=&quot;http://ncase.me/neurons/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nicky Case's Neurotic Neurons&lt;/a&gt;. In this &lt;a href=&quot;http://explorableexplanations.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Explorable Explanation&lt;/a&gt;, I think you'll find that your misunderstanding lies in the fact that both the pre-synaptic (Neuron A) and the post-synaptic neuron (Neuron B) exist in a network of other neurons. They are not only connected to each other. You are correct in saying that it often takes more than one incoming spike to make a neuron fire. These spikes are usually coming from other neurons (Neuron C, D, E... etc). So it's incorrect to think that &quot;the only way a postsynaptic spike occurs is when the presynaptic neuron fires into the postsynaptic one&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, to summarize, yes the time interval is the time difference between the last pre-synaptic spike to the first spike of the post-synaptic spike. These neurons exist in a network of neurons. It's probably best to think of STDP as a coincidence detector.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-08-07T22:45:00.057" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15647" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15656" CreationDate="2016-08-08T03:27:07.480" Score="0" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I gave up long ago on formulating what seems like a new concept as I came to peace with the fact that billions of people alive and dead means there's very little room for &lt;strong&gt;new concepts&lt;/strong&gt;. (just an anecdote, not the focus of my question)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I want to know what theory or concept describes the idea in which constantly comparing two things (or more?) in a &quot;yin and yang&quot; like opposition would associate rivalry between the two things even if non existed before the intentional creation of this comparison.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This idea came to me through observation of how politics and media works, whether scientifically intended or just mere learned through experience, in instigating seemingly unrelated concepts in a comparison situation, and enforcing that comparison on the masses to create such rivalry between the two concepts; then have the ability to influence external factors to skew the mass opinion one way or the other. It works because they're using it then with the oldest trick in the books: divide and conquer. So they get those two things, put them in such a rivalry comparison where if one existed the other can not exist at the same time, creating division and &quot;teams&quot; of sort, then appealing to each team in some way or the other to win its loyalty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So the question is:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What theory or concept describes the creation of rivalry between two ideas to instigate division?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One idea I had was really just describing it as &quot;competition&quot;. But this doesn't work; In competition, there's variable degrees of existence of each competing idea. However in the case of my question, where one idea exists in some context, the other idea can't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13381" LastEditorUserId="13381" LastEditDate="2016-08-08T03:34:09.233" LastActivityDate="2016-08-09T03:34:59.917" Title="What is a principle that describes competitive advantage in this case" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2016-08-17T05:49:38.527" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15648" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12448" CreationDate="2016-08-08T08:17:39.423" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Switch-tracking seems very similar to the &lt;strong&gt;&quot;Dialogue Alignment&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; in Psycholinguistics and some other fields of Cognitive Science. &lt;em&gt;For a successful conversation interlocutors need to develop similar representations&lt;/em&gt;. Switch-tracking, however seems an abstract conceptual domain problem, but dialogue alignment mostly investigates issues in a more concrete linguistic domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some related publications:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pickering, M. J., &amp;amp; Garrod, S. (2006). Alignment as the basis for&#xA;  successful communication. Research on Language and Computation,&#xA;  4(2-3), 203-228.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Garrod, S., &amp;amp; Pickering, M. J. (2007). Alignment in dialogue. The&#xA;  Oxford handbook of psycholinguistics, 443-451.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brennan, S. E., Galati, A., &amp;amp; Kuhlen, A. K. (2010). Two minds, one&#xA;  dialog: Coordinating speaking and understanding. Psychology of&#xA;  Learning and Motivation, 53, 301-344.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And this one investigates bilingual alignments:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Purmohammad, M. (2015). Linguistic alignment in L1–L2 dialogue.&#xA;  Language and Dialogue, 5(2), 312-333.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="646" LastActivityDate="2016-08-08T08:17:39.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15649" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15640" CreationDate="2016-08-08T16:56:05.247" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer your question – no. It is the brain that ‘thinks’ and does complex cognitive reasoning. And actually, it depends what you mean by ‘thinking’. I have studied Neuroscience for a long time and there is no evidence to suggest that the type of complex reasoning you are talking about is performed by any organ other than the brain (in any animal). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is true that other organs than the brain produce neurohormones, but it doesn’t mean these organs are the site of action of these neurohormones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the specific parts of the brain involved – I don’t know – there is still a lot of research on this going on. The telencephalon is part of the brain, and includes both the cerebral cortex and sub-cortical regions. There is strong evidence to suggest the prefrontal cortex (cortex) and hippocampus (sub-cortical) are highly-involved in complex reasoning. And many other parts of the brain are also involved in conscious and unconscious cognitive processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, we also have a brainstem, a spinal cord and an enteric nervous system, which perform complex neural computations – but they do not ‘think’ the way we commonly think about thinking. As for non-neural parts of an organism – there is no evidence that those ‘think’.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this help. I'd be interested in what others have to say on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regards&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;HM&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BSc (Biomedical Sciences – Neuroscience) (UCL)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;#&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some references that I studied from last year:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These University-level textbooks:&#xA;--- &quot;Anatomy and Physiology&quot; by Tortora et al;&#xA;--- &quot;Neuroscience&quot; by Purves et al;&#xA;--- &quot;Principles of Neural Science&quot; by Kandel et al;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also:&#xA;The Making of Memory by Steven Rose;&#xA;The Human Brain by Susan Greenfield;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Neuron to Cognition via Computational Neuroscience&#xA;.&lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/neuron-cognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://mitpress.mit.edu/neuron-cognition&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cerebral cortex – Scholarpedia article&#xA;www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cerebral_cortex&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function,&#xA;Miller &amp;amp; Cohen 2001, Annual review of neuroscience &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hippocampal system mediates logical reasoning about familiar spatial environments, Goel et al 2004 - Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, MIT Press&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Role of the hippocampus in imagination and future thinking&#xA;Maguire &amp;amp; D Hassabis - 2011 - PNAS&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Think Twice: How the Gut's &quot;Second Brain&quot; Influences Mood and Well ... &#xA;www.scientificamerican.com/article/gut-second-brain/&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;may be useful:&#xA;.&lt;a href=&quot;http://engineering.mit.edu/ask/how-does-random-group-molecules-form-thinking-breathing-human&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://engineering.mit.edu/ask/how-does-random-group-molecules-form-thinking-breathing-human&lt;/a&gt; ;;;;; &#xA;.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/neurophilosophy/2013/aug/09/a-new-way-of-thinking-about-how-the-brain-works&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.theguardian.com/science/neurophilosophy/2013/aug/09/a-new-way-of-thinking-about-how-the-brain-works&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for evidence that anything else than networks of neurons can enable cognitive processes – eg. skin in your leg or bone in your arm – I have never seen. Although computer transistor circuits are a possible (non-biological) candidate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13384" LastEditorUserId="13384" LastEditDate="2016-08-08T18:35:50.210" LastActivityDate="2016-08-08T18:35:50.210" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15652" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-08T17:33:23.543" Score="2" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the highest award for rewarding someone in cognitive sciences research/applications?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13385" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-08-08T19:30:14.693" LastActivityDate="2016-08-13T17:46:37.210" Title="Nobel Prize in Cognitive Science" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-08-15T13:18:10.370" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15654" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-09T03:24:45.490" Score="4" ViewCount="1949" Body="&lt;p&gt;My background is more strongly grounded in the Big 5 model of personality. I'm gradually getting familiar with the HEXACO model of personality. I realise that HEXACO is not just the Big 5 plus honesty-humility. But given that the Big 5 will be many people's frame of reference when learning about the HEXACO, what is a quick summary of how HEXACO and the Big 5 differ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, what are the correlations between measures of HEXACO and NEO-FFI or NEO-PI (i.e., arguably the most popular big 5 measure)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-08-09T04:36:13.940" Title="What are the correlations between HEXACO and NEO-PI factors?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15655" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15654" CreationDate="2016-08-09T03:24:45.490" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on n = 290, I found this correlation matrix in Gaughan et al (2012) (I think the adjusted R-squareds are for regression models predicting domain scores from the domains of the other measure; e.g., 50% of variance in honesty-humility was predicted by the five NEO domain scores).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MsdYn.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MsdYn.png&quot; alt=&quot;neo hexaco correlations&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Summarising these correlations, focusing on the HEXACO:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Honesty-humility is most closely related to agreeableness but is not the same&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotionality is related to neuroticism, but also quite distinct the correlation is much weaker than would be required to argue it is a similar construct.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Extraversion is mostly the same in both models, but hexaco extraversion seems to be more related to neuroticism (-) than NEO neuroticism.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Agreeableness (HEXACO) is moderately related to NEO agreeableness, but there are clearly differences. HEXACO  agreeableness also has a notable correlation with neuroticism (-).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conscientiousness is mostly the same in both models. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Openness is similar in both models, but not massive.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Focusing on the NEO &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuroticism is distributed across hexaco emotioanlity, extraversion, and agreeableness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;So in summary&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;HEXACO Extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness can probably be related to a similar interpretative framework as the NEO/Big 5 literature.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Relating HEXACO to NEO agreeableness and neuroticism is difficult. Using emotionality as a proxy for neuroticism is definitely problematic. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Another empirical study&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here was another study I found in Ashton et al (2014) using Big 5 markers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yCE5H.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yCE5H.png&quot; alt=&quot;big 5 and hexaco&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Correlations between honesty-humility and agreeableness were not as strong as above. Also, the negative correlation between neuroticism and extraversion was much smaller.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;How it is discussed in a paper&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this paragraph from Dunlop et al (2016) to be a good quick summary of the differences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Within the HEXACO model, the Openness, Extraversion, and&#xA;  Conscientiousness factors generally correspond to their Big Five&#xA;  counterparts. The Emotionality and Agreeableness factors of the HEXACO&#xA;  represent rotational variants of Neuroticism and Agreeableness in the&#xA;  Big Five. However, the most prominent difference between the HEXACO&#xA;  and Five Factor model is the addition of the HEXACO Honesty-Humility&#xA;  factor ... (Ashton &amp;amp; Lee, 2007; Ashton, Lee, &amp;amp; de Vries, 2014).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gaughan, E. T., Miller, J. D., &amp;amp; Lynam, D. R. (2012). Examining the utility of general models of personality in the study of psychopathy: A comparison of the HEXACO-PI-R and NEO PI-R. Journal of personality disorders, 26(4), 513.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dunlop, P. D., Bourdage, J. S., de Vries, R. E., Hilbig, B. E., Zettler, I., &amp;amp; Ludeke, S. G. (2016). Openness to (reporting) experiences that we never had: Overclaiming as an outcome of the knowledge accumulated through a proclivity for cognitive and aesthetic exploration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., &amp;amp; de Vries, R. E. (2014). The HEXACO honesty-humility, agreeableness, and emotionality factors a review of research and theory. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18(2), 139-152.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-08-09T04:36:13.940" LastActivityDate="2016-08-09T04:36:13.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15656" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15647" CreationDate="2016-08-09T03:34:59.917" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;strong&gt;Binary Opposition&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Systems are &quot;binary&quot; when they are composed of only two parts.  It's easy to imagine things &quot;in opposition,&quot; like the Boston Red Sox and the New York Yankees, or the World War II alliances known as the &quot;Axis Powers&quot; and &quot;the Allies.&quot;  For an opposition to be truly &quot;binary,&quot; however, the opposing classes of thing/idea must be mutually exclusive.  That is, membership in one class must make impossible membership in the other. &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.goucher.edu/eng105sanders/binary_oppositions.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My observation is that this is being politicized and used in conjunction with other techniques to exert control. So they're creating &quot;Binary Oppositions&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13381" LastActivityDate="2016-08-09T03:34:59.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15658" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15636" CreationDate="2016-08-09T19:11:57.857" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jap.physiology.org/content/111/5/1505.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Exercise, brain, and cognition across the life span&lt;/a&gt;&quot; which was cited in the original question, there are different effects that differ for various populations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Developing Brains&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no research on the effects resistance training in children. However, general exercise has significant benefits:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a meta-analysis that aggregated results across 44 studies found an&#xA;  overall effect size of 0.32 for the association between childhood&#xA;  physical activity and fitness and cognition, with significant effects&#xA;  across a range of abilities, such as perceptual skills (0.49),&#xA;  creativity and concentration (0.40), academic readiness (0.39) and&#xA;  achievement (0.30), IQ (0.34), and math (0.20) and verbal (0.17) tests&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aerobic exercise has specifically been shown to increase the capabilities of relational memory and accuracy of cognitive performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Adult Brains&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since young brains are relatively stable, little research has been done on the effects of exercise on this population. All that has been determined behaviourly is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;aerobic fitness effects on behavior may only emerge in this&#xA;  high-functioning group when the task is extremely difficult or that&#xA;  young adults have a greater range of compensatory strategies compared&#xA;  with children and older adults to achieve enhanced performance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ageing Brains&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aerobic training has many positive effects on ageing across a broad range of intensities, however resistance training appears to only have benefits with higher resistance levels. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-08-09T19:11:57.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15659" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15640" CreationDate="2016-08-09T23:11:15.460" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If, as Harry said, we think only with our brains, the neuroscientist Antonio Damasio wrote about the importance of the body in rational thinking in his book &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes%27_Error&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Descartes' Error&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His hypothesis is that the brain continuously computes all informations (state, activity...) coming from our organs $-$ informations which he called &quot;somatic markers&quot; $-$ and thus, the decisions our brains make are biased by these informations. In particular, somatic markers help a lot to discriminate non-relevant &quot;thoughts&quot; or potential decisions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book is called &quot;Descartes' Error&quot; because Descartes thought he had to get rid of his feelings to be able to think rationally. Damasio thinks, in the contrary, that feelings help to do so. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this answer complete Harry's one, by showing that if only the brain is capable of thinking, organs are necessary anyway (according to Antonio Damasio at least). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13391" LastActivityDate="2016-08-09T23:11:15.460" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15663" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-10T09:36:30.267" Score="-2" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;You get horny, and you don't prevent yourself. You just go after satisfying your need. Another time you do this. Again another time, and more and more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A time comes when you feel like you can't control yourself, even if you want to. In the beginning you could if you wanted to, but now things seem to be out of your control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally I've experienced this pattern about food, lust, and responsibility. Empirically I think there should be a pattern that our decisions today will effect our decisions tomorrow. That is, with each decision, mind changes to make that decision easier next time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this truly exist? Do we have a theory or a research behind this pattern?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think each decision effects mind in a way that we might say that special connections are made between neurons and those special connections will impact next decisions of the same kind. I searched and couldn't find anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2850" LastEditorUserId="2850" LastEditDate="2016-08-20T08:20:54.283" LastActivityDate="2016-08-20T08:20:54.283" Title="How neural mechanisms lead to the creation of habits or destructive behaviours?" Tags="&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2016-08-19T16:59:53.933" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15664" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15725" CreationDate="2016-08-10T15:43:11.140" Score="0" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;I watched a ted talk which is about &lt;a href=&quot;https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=B8rmi95pYL0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;optimism bias&lt;/a&gt; by Tali Sharot. It stated that we are more optimistic about ourselves and our peers and we are more passimistic about others.But, I can't find an apt explanation for it.I observed this behaviour in all humans at some extent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What makes the difference? Is there any scientific explanation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13411" LastEditorUserId="7416" LastEditDate="2018-04-01T06:09:34.307" LastActivityDate="2018-04-01T06:09:34.307" Title="Why we are more optimistic about ourselves and our peers and pessimistic about others?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15665" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15666" CreationDate="2016-08-10T17:12:56.480" Score="-1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just watched the Purge 3 and noticed that they include characters intentionally there for you to dislike, so they can satisfy you with their misfortunes.  In the first movie, it's a very satisfying brutal smashing of the woman's face on a desk.   In the third movie, it jumps to an uncut scene of shooting a young teenage girl in the face with a shotgun, as well as a mass shooting at a church.&#xA;I find it somewhat disturbing that I enjoy seeing this, and am also unsure if its a bad thing or not.  What is the psychological term for this?  I'd like to read about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10114" LastActivityDate="2016-08-10T20:53:38.693" Title="What is the term for enjoying seeing bad/unlikable characters die?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15666" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15665" CreationDate="2016-08-10T20:53:38.693" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term you are looking for is the german word &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schadenfreude&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Schadenfreude&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; which was adopted into English. The wikipedia page that I linked here should be a good start for reading and you could continue by checking the resources from the section &quot;Scientific studies&quot; there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2016-08-10T20:53:38.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15667" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-10T22:27:52.137" Score="3" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;Current Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are capable of doing variational inference and learning representations and factors to explain the inputs, the outside world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the network gets bigger and more complicated, nothing will stop it from trying to explain, learn and predict its own inner states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think consciousness can be generated from this close loop process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember that Hofstadter's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del,_Escher,_Bach&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Godel Escher Bach&lt;/a&gt; describes similar idea, I am just exicted about thinking it through. I want to know if there are references of similar or opposite ideas. I guess &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Am_a_Strange_Loop&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;I am a strange loop&lt;/a&gt; is another book about this, but I haven't start reading it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2648" LastEditorUserId="2648" LastEditDate="2016-08-12T13:02:37.463" LastActivityDate="2016-08-12T13:02:37.463" Title="Can a sufficiently complex ANN simulate consciousness?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-08-24T17:23:30.293" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15668" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15669" CreationDate="2016-08-11T05:23:01.473" Score="3" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's the term for when it's impossible for someone to understand the possible interpretations of something because they already know what it means. I remember hearing what it was a while ago so I know there is one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, if someone is predisposed to only see something a certain way because that was what was originally in their head, so they can't see it the way other people do, not because they're being closed minded but it's almost like a perception bias. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take a picture that can be seen certain ways, like that duck/rabbit 'illusion'. If I told you that what I made was a duck and all you ever can see is a duck, then if someone with a fresh perspective see's a rabbit then the duck seeing person will think they're wrong. The person who see's a duck might be right, but it doesn't mean that the person who sees a rabbit is a complete moron. I want to use this term to describe User Interface interaction and how even though it can be developed appropriately it might be easy for users to intuit interaction differently and thus making it difficult to adapt to the UI developers design&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13415" LastActivityDate="2016-08-11T06:22:00.080" Title="Term for being unable to see how hard something is because you already understand it" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15669" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15668" CreationDate="2016-08-11T05:44:59.587" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if this is an exact answer, but several topics come to my mind to describe this phenomena, mainly these ones:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Expertise (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expertise_reversal_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Expertise reversal effect&lt;/a&gt;),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schemas&lt;/a&gt; and mindsets,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Availability heuristic&lt;/a&gt; (or other &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;biases and fallacies&lt;/a&gt; that influence expectations).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It might depend on the aspect or scientific field from which you want to describe it. For example, there might also be some learning-based justifications from neuroscience perspective (e.g. reinforcement learning models for synaptic plasticity).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="646" LastEditorUserId="646" LastEditDate="2016-08-11T05:52:41.023" LastActivityDate="2016-08-11T05:52:41.023" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15670" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15668" CreationDate="2016-08-11T06:22:00.080" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe you are looking for the &lt;strong&gt;curse of knowledge&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Curse_of_knowledge&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;curse of knowledge&lt;/a&gt; is a cognitive bias that occurs when, in&#xA;  predicting others' forecasts or behaviors, individuals are unable to&#xA;  ignore the knowledge they have that others do not have, or when they&#xA;  are unable to disregard information already processed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13417" LastActivityDate="2016-08-11T06:22:00.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15673" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15667" CreationDate="2016-08-11T15:46:32.947" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;David Chalmers has argued against the thermostat view, suggesting that adaptation to the environment is not sufficient. John Searle also disagrees that the current state of machine learning is capable of consciousness on the grounds that information processing is not a sufficient criterion (public lecture, 2016). Both of these philosophers emphasize clarity in their presentation of arguments and I highly recommend reading some of their books for a general introduction to current problems in consciousness and perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Complexity&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 1998, Tononi and Edelman published a science paper on &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/282/5395/1846.long&quot;&gt;Consciousness and Complexity&lt;/a&gt;. One of the main proponents, from the same lineage of researchers, links the complexity criterion to consciousness: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sussex.ac.uk/profiles/22981/publications&quot;&gt;Anil Seth&lt;/a&gt; and colleagues have suggested that a measure of complexity is central to explaining consciousness (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.izhikevich.org/publications/hiphi.pdf&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;). His works are probably a good starting point if you are interested in a possible link between (abstract formulations that are relevant to both) artificial intelligence and consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Recurrent Processing&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although &quot;recursive complexity&quot; is a concept in Anil Seth's work, if you are particularly interested in the role of recurrent processing for consciousness, Victor Lamme's work on vision could be a starting point: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01657-X&quot;&gt;Lamme &amp;amp; Roelfsma (2000)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Et cetera&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For various views and perspectives, visit the most complete collection of references on consciousness online: &lt;a href=&quot;http://consc.net/online/&quot;&gt;http://consc.net/online/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2016-08-11T15:46:32.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15645" CreationDate="2016-08-11T16:32:03.847" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you have two unidirectional neurons (ignoring back-propagation), both will elicit an action potential above a certain treshold. As you probably know, action potentials have a certain recovery rate. However, it is the intracellular processes that distinguish LTP from LTD. In LTP, Ca2+ influx is higher than in LTD and activates a protein cascade. LTP activates Ca2+/calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII), while LTD deactivatse CaMKII. Both LTP and LTD are &lt;em&gt;input specific&lt;/em&gt; – &lt;strong&gt;repeated stimulation at different frequencies will result in different neurotransmitory processes at the synapse&lt;/strong&gt;, due to different levels of Ca2+ influx, which in turn triggers two different types of protein cascades that have a significant impact on the connectivity as well as the type of memory that the type of plasticity (LTP or LTD) is associated with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Mostly paraphrased from: Manahan-Vaughan, D. (2010). Hippocampal Long-term Depression as a Declarative Memory Mechanism. In: P. K. Stanton, C. Bramham, &amp;amp; H. E. Scharfman (Eds.). (2010). &lt;em&gt;Synaptic Plasticity and Transsynaptic Signaling&lt;/em&gt;, Ch. 18, pp.305-315. NY: Springer.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2016-08-11T16:32:03.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15675" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-11T18:59:14.080" Score="3" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on a question about whether psychophysiological data--&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodermal_activity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EDA&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;EEG&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupillometry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pupillometry&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_rate_variability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;HRV/IBI&lt;/a&gt;, etc--can indicate within-group (non-romantic!) relationships or collaboration.  My own background is in psychophysiology and neurophysiology, so I'm very comfortable with those kinds of data, but I don't have much experience with groups and relationships.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What work has been done in assessing social/relationship factors with psychophysiological data?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2016-08-11T18:59:14.080" Title="Psychophysiological indicators of relationship/collaboration/alignment" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15676" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-11T20:45:17.027" Score="2" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any (psychology) studies you've come across that are about how students perform after looking up certain answers--not all answers--for homework that is not graded? (I do not mean students who lack motivation.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This may be too specific of a question so if you've come across related research it would be appreciated. Really, anything related to using a solution manual or solution websites will work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also welcome any efforts to improve this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4116" LastEditorUserId="4116" LastEditDate="2016-08-12T10:59:26.950" LastActivityDate="2016-08-12T10:59:26.950" Title="What studies are there about looking up answers for non-credit assignments?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12970" CreationDate="2016-08-12T04:03:29.597" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can use the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.med.harvard.edu/aanlib/home.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Whole Brain Atlas by Harvard&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.med.harvard.edu/aanlib/cases/caseNA/pb9.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;look at the normal brain anatomy in 3-D with MRI/PET&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check the Anterior Commissure (AC) on the MRI and sync it with the PET or SPECT. It helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically, select &quot;Anterior Commissure&quot; and T1/FDG and click sync to show all the orientations in the same modalities and anatomical structure. It helps to find the anterior commissure in a normal brain using nuclear medicine image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13427" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-08-26T18:05:17.517" LastActivityDate="2016-08-26T18:05:17.517" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15679" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9705" CreationDate="2016-08-12T15:27:15.270" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;An Associative Memory &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; a classifier and &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; equivalent to a Hamming Network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For documentation on the NEF Associative Memory, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://pythonhosted.org/nengo/examples/associative_memory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this practical Nengo documentation&lt;/a&gt; and the paper &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/stewart.2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A biologically realistic cleanup memory: Autoassociation in spiking neurons&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Basically, each ensemble of an associative memory computes the similarity measure of the input firing pattern to a given firing pattern. Mutual inhibition is then used between the nodes to find the most similar input so that only the ensemble with the most similar input outputs a signal. In an associative, this output similarity signal is used to map the input pattern to a new output pattern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://home.agh.edu.pl/~vlsi/AI/hamming_en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A Hamming Network&lt;/a&gt; is a classifier that receives patterns with input nodes also detecting similarity. However, unlike the Associative Memory it has a binary output using mutual inhibition. That being said, it would be easy to add a thresholding ensemble to the output of the Associative Memory to accomplish this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, an Associative Memory is basically a Hamming Network implemented using the NEF.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-08-12T15:27:15.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15680" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15641" CreationDate="2016-08-12T16:06:23.450" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know whether the following has been used to distinguish natural from &quot;corrected&quot; right handers, but following up on the suggestion from @user3169, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_Handedness_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Edinburgh Handedness Inventory&lt;/a&gt; contains a range of handedness tasks, many of which would probably not be as explicitly trained as writing or eating, and which thus potentially could be used in distinguishing natural from corrected right handers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is an online version of the inventory &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainmapping.org/shared/Edinburgh.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8345" LastActivityDate="2016-08-12T16:06:23.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15681" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15182" CreationDate="2016-08-12T16:12:08.297" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apparently, this can happen when your ROI is near the edge of the brain as reported &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/cgi-bin/webadmin?A2=spm;bcd35412.0804&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. The thread is pretty old though so this might have been fixed by today and there is another reason in your case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2016-08-12T16:12:08.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15682" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-12T17:30:42.687" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does one best interpret the Halstead-Reitan Index ranging from 0.0 to 1 ? How closely is this assessment of neurocognition subsequent to injury correlated to structural arrangement of the brain per medical imaging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13435" LastEditorUserId="13435" LastEditDate="2016-08-12T19:11:37.013" LastActivityDate="2016-08-12T19:11:37.013" Title="Interpretation of Halstead-Reitan Impairment Index Parameter" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15683" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-12T19:10:13.823" Score="7" ViewCount="756" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://miniscope.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;UCLA miniscope&lt;/a&gt; is an open source alternative to the Inscopix system for calcium imaging in freely behaving animals.  One of the benefits of their system that they tout is &lt;a href=&quot;http://miniscope.org/index.php?title=FAQs#How_does_the_Miniscope_system_differ_from_the_nVista_system_from_Inscopix.3F&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the ability to have a commutator on the data cable&lt;/a&gt;. A commutator allows for a cable to rotate without twisting, a major problem when trying to record from freely moving animals. Other methods that I have heard of to allow rotation include a MMCX connector on the cable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't seen any specific recipes for solving this problem; the &lt;a href=&quot;http://miniscope.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;miniscope website&lt;/a&gt; has no instructions on including a commutator in the cable, only vague references to the possiblity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any solutions out there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-08-18T21:00:44.783" LastActivityDate="2020-12-04T14:55:44.337" Title="How does one add a commutator to the UCLA miniscope cable?" Tags="&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15684" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2016-08-12T19:35:16.430" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2016-08-12T19:35:16.430" LastActivityDate="2016-08-12T19:35:16.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15685" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2016-08-12T19:35:16.430" Score="0" Body="For practical questions about performing neuroscience experiments." OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-08-14T00:32:34.947" LastActivityDate="2016-08-14T00:32:34.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15686" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-12T20:04:50.093" Score="5" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may be more of a signal processing question but I'm looking to measure and compare activity in different frequency bands for each sensor. Unfortunately, all papers I've looked at simply refer to &quot;alpha activity&quot; without specifying how this was calculated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any standard method or &quot;best practice&quot; to measure the level of activity? Is it simply the average energy in the band (sum of the square of the absolute of the signal?) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help with this would be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13235" LastActivityDate="2016-09-14T12:15:26.233" Title="Method/Unit for measuring activity in specific frequency band for EEG" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15687" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15641" CreationDate="2016-08-12T20:08:08.053" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fingtertapping, Pegs, Dynamometer Testing could be used to evaluate if one side is more dominant than the other and to what degree. Using one hand at a time and then compare results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fingertapping: press the counter lever fully as many times as possible within a certain time frame.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pegs: start with a metal plate with rows of peg holes, and all cylindrical pegs in a pile. Fill the holes from left to right, row upon row, one hand at a time, as quickly as possible i.e. for time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dynamometer: measure grip strength using the device.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13435" LastActivityDate="2016-08-12T20:08:08.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15688" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-13T00:37:06.263" Score="2" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading a paper discussing the persistence of self in advanced Alzheimer's Disease &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1958994/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Persistence of Self in advanced AD&lt;/a&gt; and was struck by the similarity of one contradictory account to an Idres Shah story of Mulla Nasrudin:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nasrudin was going into a large inn to sleep for the night. There were many&#xA;  beds all in one room. The thought occurred to Nasrudin that in the dark he&#xA;  would not know who he was, so he tied a balloon to his ankle. While Nasrudin&#xA;  was sleeping, the man in the next bed decided to play a joke. He untied&#xA;  Nasrudin's balloon and tied it on his own ankle. When Nasrudin woke up, he&#xA;  looked at the man next to him. Then he reached out to shake hands and said,&#xA;  &quot;Ah, I know who you are. You are Mullah Nasrudin, but please, tell me who I&#xA;  am.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the subjects in the cited study maintained an awareness of themselves as autonomous persons with a distinct identity despite deterioration in cognitive abilities, but one rare contradiction was a subject, &quot;Molly,&quot; who evidenced the following behavior:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Molly was found searching through other people's belongings. When asked what she was looking for she replied: &quot;I look for Molly and I can't find her.&quot; After describing some of her [cognitive] limitations, she added &quot;That's not me, not the real Molly. So I go around looking for Molly but she's nowhere to be found.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some claim that it would be difficult to detect a so-called philosophical zombie of the type described by Chalmers (1996), but it appears that human beings who are losing their sense of personal identity are not able to function properly, i.e., that a zombie without true conscious experience would probably be impossible. &lt;strong&gt;That got me to wondering whether neuroscience has any new insight to offer on the question of how this seemingly important aspect of consciousness arises&lt;/strong&gt;, i.e., it seems somewhat distinct from executive function (prefrontal cortex, generalizing) and memory generally (largely hippocampus mediated).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would seem important to literally flesh out the possible functional character of personal identity both for the implications for the quest for machine consciousness as well as the humane treatment of Alzheimer's patients (who are judged to be losing their humanity merely on the basis of reduced cognitive functions in the areas of information processing, attention, memory, executive function and reasoning, etc.). As John Locke observed, humorously in my opinion,  if the soul was to be defined as a substance that was always thinking (he referring to Descartes proposition) many men would suspect they had no souls all at, since they passed away a good part of their lives without thinking (Essay Concerning Human Understanding). It appears thinking and personal identity are distinct and it would be useful to understand at least as a conceptual proposal what this implies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12817" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-08-13T12:56:19.503" LastActivityDate="2016-08-13T12:56:19.503" Title="Alzheimer's, Mulla Nasrudin and disjunction of cognition and personal identity" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;self&gt;&lt;alzheimer&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2018-03-17T20:57:49.853" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15691" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-13T13:22:11.377" Score="5" ViewCount="264" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many studies show that humans are subject to “cognitive bias” such as the loss aversion or, ingroup vs outgroup, or negativity bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These studies often claim that the cognitive biases are universal among humans (that all humans have the tendency to be affected by the bias), but most of these studies are run on westerners. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I’m thus looking for bias that has really been proved to be universal based on studies run on people from different origins/culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only study I found, coming close to my requirement has tested the “hot hand bias” (or “winning streak effect”) in American undergraduates and Shuar hunter–horticulturalists from Ecuador.  (The conclusion that the “hot hand bias is universal” is only based on 2 populations, 32 students at UCLA and 32 Shuar hunter-horticulturalists) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Wilke, A., &amp;amp; Barrett, H. C. (2009). The hot hand phenomenon as a cognitive adaptation to clumped resources. Evolution and Human Behavior, 30(3), 161-169.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13452" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-08-19T16:53:52.810" LastActivityDate="2016-08-19T16:53:52.810" Title="Are some cognitive bias universal? If yes, which one?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-08-19T17:28:15.877" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15692" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-13T14:37:18.303" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does contextual switching (or its derivatives thereof such as multitasking) increase one's motivation to further continue with the original activity? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example: I see people at the gym who listen to music while on the treadmill, or even in the library while solving math problems. They claim that it motivates them. Are they correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13453" LastEditorUserId="13453" LastEditDate="2016-08-13T15:11:03.490" LastActivityDate="2016-08-13T15:11:03.490" Title="Does Contextual switching Boost Motivation?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15693" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15663" CreationDate="2016-08-13T15:05:37.897" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will attempt to answer your question. However, I will not be able to provide a neurological explanation of the mechanisms of this pattern. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off, apparently such a thing does exist. In cognitive and behavioural psychology fields, such a pattern has been studied extensively by many researchers ever since. One example of a theory that addresses this pattern is a repackaged popular theory known as the &lt;em&gt;Theory of Cognitive Dissonance&lt;/em&gt; by an American cognitive psychologist named Leon Festinger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theory of dissonance attempts to explain this pattern through suggesting that when a person makes a decision, he/she will end up repeating this decision sometime later due to feeling remorseful after making the decision. Some people tend to feel more remorseful than others when making a decision such as smoking a cigarette or drinking alcohol so they end up abusing these substances. When one makes a decision, he/she tries to convince himself/herself that &quot;it must be right, or otherwise I would not have done it&quot;. If, however, he/she has decided earlier that it is too wrong to do it, then the dissonance from doing it will be greater and one will be more likely to redo the action that caused him the remorse. Examples of this exist with the buyer's remorse, smoker's remorse (that's why they have these labels on the cigarette packets that scare you even more) and even the liker's remorse (clicking the like button in facebook). In all cases you realize that you have done something wrong, so you simply do it again. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13453" LastActivityDate="2016-08-13T15:05:37.897" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15694" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15652" CreationDate="2016-08-13T17:46:37.210" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;To the best of my knowledge, there is one and only one psychologist who received the Nobel prize: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The prize was awarded for economy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it's possible for cognitive scientists to win the actual Nobel prize if his or her work is relevant to any of the Nobel prize categories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe there are other laureates whose work could be seen as cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13455" LastActivityDate="2016-08-13T17:46:37.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15699" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3629" CreationDate="2016-08-14T19:22:17.763" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any harmful effect of scolding kids. Also does that affect more to kids who are 1 year old or to those who are much older like 5 years and so.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The simple answer is, &quot;yes there can be harmful effects&quot; and &quot;yes younger kids are probably more affected.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scolding and the perceptions by the child being scolded are both multivariate in nature. The act of scolding is multivariate because there can be multiple actions of differing intensities taking place during the scolding. No two scolding episodes are precisely alike. The perceptions of the child being scolded are very important. How does the child perceive the angry face or the raised spanking hand? Does the child experience intense fear that can have long-lasting effects? These are important questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The age of the child is important with regard to the child's perceptions. An older child getting spanked by his mom or yelled at by his mom might find it to be somewhat humorous. A much younger child, with much less life experience, could find the same scolding horrendous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13459" LastActivityDate="2016-08-14T19:22:17.763" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15701" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15686" CreationDate="2016-08-14T22:30:05.757" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;To do this in EEGLAB, you are going to want to read this: sccn.ucsd.edu/wiki/Chapter_11:_Timefrequency_decomposition. Your &quot;level of activity&quot; in a given frequency band is the magnitude of the frequency representation in that frequency band at a given point in time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Really, though, EEGLAB is very heavily geared towards ICA analysis of whole brain activity, not of frequency analysis of single electrodes.  If you want to do single electrode frequency analysis in Matlab, I would suggest using chronux (&lt;a href=&quot;http://chronux.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://chronux.org&lt;/a&gt;): functions such as mtspectrumc will give you the frequency spectrum and then you can just take the magnitude of the spectrum in your preferred frequency band as your &quot;level of activity&quot; of that frequency band.  See &lt;a href=&quot;http://chronux.org/chronuxFiles/filesReleases/manual.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://chronux.org/chronuxFiles/filesReleases/manual.pdf&lt;/a&gt; Section 2.2.1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2016-08-14T22:30:05.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15703" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15586" CreationDate="2016-08-15T03:38:19.910" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a current PhD student in Cognitive Load Theory, and I have to agree with @Christiaan above, the article you refer to is just a blog, and doesn't refer to any theory specifically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IF the article is referring to Cognitive Load Theory itself, then there are 3 described types of cognitive load.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Intrinsic Load - The load for how innately difficult the task is to the learner (this varies based on previous expertise).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Extraneous Load - The load for how effective the instructional strategy or materials being presented are (bad instructions from a teacher or poorlly designed worksheets increase this type of load).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Germane Load - the load devoted to actual learning, that is information processing, integration and schema acquisition.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your article mentions different sensory inputs, and while there are aspects of CLT that relate to different types of sensory input, they aren't ever referred to as 'kinds of cognitive load'. If anything these may be referred to as 'working memory channels' based on Baddeley &amp;amp; Hitch's model of working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13461" LastActivityDate="2016-08-15T03:38:19.910" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15705" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-15T08:01:46.543" Score="11" ViewCount="667" Body="&lt;p&gt;There has been a long debate going on on the actual form of the &lt;em&gt;Forgetting curve&lt;/em&gt;, but my question will be about its change when we review a previously memorised fact - Unfortunately, I couldn't seem to find too much information (or perhaps I used wrong terms) on this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe the most up-to-date and least divisive research paper on the topic of the actual form of the Forgetting curve would be &lt;em&gt;Averell, L., &amp;amp; Heathcote, A. (2011). The form of the forgetting curve and the fate of memories. Journal of Mathematical Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, which I have seen referenced here multiple times. According to it the shape of the curve is best described as&#xA;$$R(t) = a + (1-a)*b*(1+t)^{-β}$$&#xA;which would yield $1$ at $t=0$ if the encoding happened without a problem (which we assume did). My concrete question would be that how the three parameter change after repeated exposure to the fact (where we assume that at this specific $t_r$ the retention increases to $1$ again). I think it is fair to assume that it is going to be yet another curve describable with a Power function starting at $t_r$ which should have a higher asymptote as the original function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A picture (although not scientific nor correct in terms of the actual form) illustrating my question has been already posted here at &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8377/how-are-these-review-forgetting-curve-calculated&quot;&gt;How are these review-forgetting curve calculated?&lt;/a&gt;, although for different purposes than mine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8768" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2021-05-04T01:05:15.427" Title="How does the Forgetting curve change after repeated exposure to the same item we would like to memorise?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15706" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-15T13:11:40.180" Score="0" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;What psychiatric disorder would describe someone who doesn't believe anything presented to them (other than what they already know and are sure is true)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. Not to be distinguished by those that have a disorder because they are confused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9995" LastActivityDate="2016-08-17T21:13:01.390" Title="Psychiatric name of disbelief disorder" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-11-06T15:16:51.523" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15713" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-16T18:07:32.023" Score="2" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe I'm referring to the dominant ideology, but is it possible for people to get together and combine their narcissistc ideologies together and share them? Are there any good papers on this subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13467" LastActivityDate="2016-08-18T00:27:50.053" Title="Is there a such thing as collective narcissism?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-08-19T17:00:08.140" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15715" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15713" CreationDate="2016-08-16T19:14:53.943" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Possibly worth considering: Theodor W. Adorno.  &quot;What Does Coming to Terms with the Past Mean?&quot; (1959) included among selected writings in &quot;Can One Live after Auschwitz? A Philosophical Reader (2003). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adorno wrote: &quot;On the subjective side, in the psyche of people, National Socialism increased beyond measure the collective narcissism, simply put: national vanity. The individual’s narcissistic instinctual drives, which are promised less and less satisfaction by a callous world and which nonetheless persist undiminished as long as civilization denies them so much, find substitute satisfaction in the identification with the whole. This collective narcissism was severely damaged by the collapse of Hitler’s regime, but the damage occurred at the level of mere factuality, without individuals making themselves conscious of it and thereby coping with it.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13469" LastActivityDate="2016-08-16T19:14:53.943" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15719" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15720" CreationDate="2016-08-17T01:23:53.473" Score="6" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as modern psychology is concerned, is there currently a standard scientific model for the conscious and unconscious mind, as well as conscious experience/perception? If so, are there any recommended resources (scientific books/articles) that detail this model? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently reading &lt;em&gt;The Mind Illuminated&lt;/em&gt; by John Yates, and while the book itself is tremendously helpful in the study and practice of mindfulness, I wanted to do some fact checking and research on the information presented in the book. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the book John Yates describes all conscious perception, that is, &#xA;&lt;em&gt;visual&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;auditory&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;somatosensory&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;gustatory&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;olfactory&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;mind sense&lt;/em&gt; (thoughts, memories, emotions)&#xA;as taking on one of two qualities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attention&lt;/strong&gt;: The cognitive ability to select and analyze specific information (sensory input, thoughts, memories, emotions, etc.) and ignore other information arising from a vast field of internal and external stimuli&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Awareness&lt;/strong&gt;: A general cognizance of sensory information; mental objects like thoughts, memories, and feelings; and the overall state and activity of the mind. Unlike attention which isolates and analyzes specific objects, peripheral awareness is inclusive holistic, and only minimally conceptual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in vision, objects of &lt;em&gt;attention&lt;/em&gt; result in focused and sharper visual perception, whereas object of &lt;em&gt;awareness&lt;/em&gt; form our periphery and are more blurry. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;strong&gt;Mind-System&lt;/strong&gt; model, Yates describes the mind as having a structure depicted in this image&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pNNBh.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pNNBh.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where the mind is divided into Unconscious and Conscious, and the Unconscious Mind is composed of the Sensory and Discriminating Mind. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question to academics: does this information sound consistent with what is presented in modern day psychology &amp;amp; cognitive science? And where may find more academic explanation of these types of models. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13473" LastActivityDate="2018-07-20T20:39:48.150" Title="Model for the Un/Conscious Mind" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;model&gt;&lt;scientific-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15720" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15719" CreationDate="2016-08-17T02:02:47.917" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I only know of one Cognitive Model dividing the unconscious and conscious mind is presented by Paul Thaghard in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/Articles/thagard.two-theories.consc&amp;amp;cog.2014.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Two theories of consciousness: Semantic pointer competition vs. information integration&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. I explain this model in layman's terms in &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/@seanaubin/modelling-the-divide-between-conscious-and-subconscious-66a6fdd9eaf3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;my blog post&lt;/a&gt;. In this answer, I'll compare Thaghard's model to Yate's model you've presented above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yate's model is based on the ideas of &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogweb.ucla.edu/CogSci/Baars-update_03.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Global Workspace Theory&lt;/a&gt; (GWB). GWB posits that unconscious processes compete for the spotlight of attention so that they can enter consciousness. This seems to be what Yate's is suggesting in this diagram and would tie in nicely with mindfulness meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;GWB isn't a bad model. It makes a few predictions and describes a lot of phenomena (comas, certain types of blindness). However, it's not easily testable or disprovable. How do these unconscious processes interact? What type of representation would unconscious processes use and how does this relate to neurons? Can I build a computation model of consciousness based off this specification? These are the things that Paul's model worries about and specifies. Paul's model is essentially a more specified version of the Yate's model. It defines a representation (&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/tagged/spa&quot;&gt;Semantic Pointers&lt;/a&gt;) which relates to neurons and makes testable claims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize and get back to your question, Yate's model is vaguely consistent with Cognitive Science, but it is under-specified. For further reading on more specific models, check the links in this answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-20T20:39:48.150" LastActivityDate="2018-07-20T20:39:48.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6335" CreationDate="2016-08-17T06:42:55.740" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is definitely more than one aspect to this question. One of them is if there is a certain type of person that views life as a zero-sum game. What I looked into is if there is a certain type of person that actually gains something from hurting others. &#xA;There seems to be: The everyday sadist. &#xA;Buckels, Jones and Paulhus (2013) mean that there is a sadist personality type that is expressed in everyday life. (See: &lt;a href=&quot;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/24/11/2201&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/24/11/2201&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/everyday-sadists-take-pleasure-in-others-pain.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/everyday-sadists-take-pleasure-in-others-pain.html&lt;/a&gt; for an article summing up the scientific article).&#xA;These researchers have been looking into traits that they call the &quot;Dark Triad&quot;. &quot;When aggression was easy, sadism and Dark Triad measures predicted unprovoked aggression. However, only sadists were willing to work for the opportunity to hurt an innocent person.&quot; &#xA;People strong in this trait would probably feel affirmed by a world view that enables them to fund pleasure with a rationale behind it.&#xA;This answer is inadequate as a complete response to your question. &#xA;Something I'd like to look into further is the Just World hypothesis, where the belief that the world should mete our justice leads us to act in a certain way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13440" LastActivityDate="2016-08-17T06:42:55.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15725" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15664" CreationDate="2016-08-17T19:10:57.967" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm going to take the evolutionary standpoint. Many of these reasons and explanations Tali Sharot already gave in her talk. You could also check out her books. I'm going to try to make the point I see in it clear.&#xA;First the basics of evolutionary advantages - traits in a species are favored by evolution if they make it likelier for us to survive and procreate. (those with unfavorable characteristics are less likely to survive in order to procreate!)&#xA;The genes we have are more likely to be passed on if we reach a mature age, find a partner and successfully rear our offspring. &#xA;This is the basic idea behind an evolutionary explanation. &#xA;As she says, optimism makes it more likely for us to reach for higher goals - and also for achieving them. &#xA;Hope and our happiness leads to better health, reduces stress and a longer life span and thus, it's more likely that we're going to pass on our genes.&#xA;Why not for others? We know that bad things happen and that the world is dangerous, but if we can convince ourselves that it happens to others, rather than us, we'll be happier.&#xA;Well, that's very basic evolutionary explanation. &#xA;Here's an article that goes into this:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brainpickings.org/2012/12/12/science-of-optimism-sharot/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.brainpickings.org/2012/12/12/science-of-optimism-sharot/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Her full-length book: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.de/Optimism-Bias-wired-bright-English-ebook/dp/B005RZB6VU/ref=asap_bc?ie=UTF8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.amazon.de/Optimism-Bias-wired-bright-English-ebook/dp/B005RZB6VU/ref=asap_bc?ie=UTF8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13440" LastActivityDate="2016-08-17T19:10:57.967" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15726" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-17T20:32:38.730" Score="3" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a scientific reference on the numbers (or proportion) of excitatory and inhibitory neurons in the thalamus of the cat?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13482" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-19T08:27:05.303" LastActivityDate="2016-10-18T17:06:17.100" Title="What is the proportion of excitatory vs. inhibitory neurons in the feline thalamus?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15727" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15706" CreationDate="2016-08-17T21:13:01.390" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;My research on your question has so far not showed any disorder that matches this description. Something we all suffer from, however, is confirmation bias. We interpret new information in the light of our current views and disregard information that don't match our existing beliefs. Research has shown that being confronted with convincing arguments for the opposite view might strengthen our belief in the one we already hold. You can read more about this in books like Mistakes Were Made But not By Me: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistakes_Were_Made_(But_Not_by_Me)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistakes_Were_Made_(But_Not_by_Me)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13440" LastActivityDate="2016-08-17T21:13:01.390" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15713" CreationDate="2016-08-18T00:27:50.053" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;So &quot;Narcissis&quot; was an actual &quot;person&quot; in Greece who so fell in love with himself he bacame a flower that always was by the waterside so he could see his reflection and how pretty he was. Therefore my answer is &quot;no&quot; in the Historical sense of the word. &quot;Looking at the mirror&quot; is a powerful tool in psychology though and the irony that Narcissis was a male is interesting. A collection of male narcissists ... the only thing that comes to mind is Hollywood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13014" LastActivityDate="2016-08-18T00:27:50.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15730" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19829" CreationDate="2016-08-18T01:58:40.443" Score="8" ViewCount="498" Body="&lt;p&gt;A famous picture depicts Quang Duc self-immolating himself in protest of the Vietnam War. David Halberstram: &quot;As he burned he never moved a muscle, never uttered a sound [...]. His face  seemed to remain fairly calm until it was so blackened by the flames  that you couldn’t make it out anymore.&quot; I'm ignoring shock and hormonal responses in this question, as he remained calm during the initial stage of the burning (where these effects are unlikely to have been live). I'm also (perhaps wrongly) assuming that he wasn't under the influence of drugs and didn't have a cognitive impairment that made him unable to feel the pain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A question like this has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/How-was-Thich-Quang-Duc-able-to-burn-himself-to-death-without-moving-a-muscle&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;asked before on Quora&lt;/a&gt;, but I'm not satisfied by any of the given answers. Specifically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Based on personal/anecdotal experiences, I'm not convinced that confidence/motivation/conviction or any rationalization is able to trigger this ability.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I also don't see how one can use deliberate practice in this task (i.e., build up tolerance with systematic desensitization or connecting the pain signal with positive thoughts/experiences) without seriously damaging the body.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I'm also not convinced that traditional/standard mindfulness meditation has this kind of efficacy. I remember seeing various efficacy quantities of mindfulness meditation (and therapy) in a meta study and none of them seemed to be at the quantity required to remain calm in response to this extreme stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I'm also skeptical that detachment is viable in this scenario, given the sheer magnitude of the nociceptive stimulus (also, I was under the impression that Buddhist meditation advises the practitioner to be aware to the pain, not detach from it).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If the explanation is elevated gamma-wave activity, how does one reliably reach this state &quot;on-demand&quot; and how does one maintain it during the endurance of significant nociceptive pain?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I should note that I'm not sure how different the mindfulness-based techniques of today are from the Buddhist meditation practiced by Quang Duc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the research shows that one of the points I'm skeptical about is actually effective in remaining calm in the face of extreme pain. If so, I'd love to hear about it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-18T14:05:08.080" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T12:59:09.507" Title="How do certain individuals, like Quang Duc, develop the ability to remain calm when enduring significant nociceptive pain?" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;pain&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15733" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15730" CreationDate="2016-08-18T09:48:01.510" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;As mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/19775&quot;&gt;Can calmness happen during the fight-flight response?&lt;/a&gt;, with looking at the possibility of calmness during stress and trauma, you only have to look at the situation with rape victims and soldiers witnessing severe traumatic events who dissociate (Ellert, et al. 2011)(Waller, et al. 2001) during the event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dissociation is a psychological defence mechanism (Cardeña, 1994) which helps the person to get through the situation with as little harm as possible.  Think about it like throwing a switch on conscious awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst some define dissociation as a combination of 2 distinct psychological mechanisms (Brown, 2006), the psychobiological mechanism of dissociation is little understood; but, when someone is dissociated from the event, the detachment of conscious awareness from the event can make the person appear very calm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thích Quảng Đức&lt;/a&gt;, I would hypothesise that he &lt;strong&gt;somehow&lt;/strong&gt; managed to &quot;mentally switch off from the event&quot; by dissociating through detachment.  Quảng Đức set light to himself as a protest because he felt there was no other way to convey such a strong message. As far as he believed, he had no choice, just like rape victims and soldiers can have no choice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing with the football fan at the Bradford Fire @Robin mentioned, was that he was inevitably pumped full of adrenaline from his adrenal glands to assist in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flight/Fright&lt;/a&gt; response. &lt;a href=&quot;http://sportsandpain.co.nz/painclinic/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Advice-sheet-adrenaline.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cortisol is also released&lt;/a&gt; at the same time and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.practicalpainmanagement.com/pain/cortisol-screening-chronic-pain-patients&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cortisol is good for numbing any present pain&lt;/a&gt; in order for you to flee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear of impending pain could activate the flight/fight response releasing the Adrenaline and Cortisol which could be what was happening in the scenario mentioned in the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Needless to say that once the Cortisol has lowered he will feel the pain caused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brown, R. J. (2006). Different types of “dissociation” have different psychological mechanisms. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Trauma &amp;amp; Dissociation&lt;/em&gt;, 7(4), 7-28.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1300/J229v07n04_02&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1300/J229v07n04_02&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cardeña, E. (1994) The domain of dissociation. In: &lt;em&gt;Dissociation: Clinical and theoretical aspects&lt;/em&gt;, Edited by: Lynn, S. J. and Rhue, J. W. 5–31. New York, NY: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ellert R. S. Nijenhuis PhD &amp;amp; Onno van der Hart PhD (2011) Dissociation in Trauma: A New Definition and Comparison with Previous Formulations, &lt;em&gt;Journal of Trauma &amp;amp; Dissociation&lt;/em&gt;, 12(4), 416-445.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2011.570592&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/15299732.2011.570592&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Waller, G., Hamilton, K., Elliott, P., Lewendon, J., Stopa, L., Waters, A., ... &amp;amp; Hargreaves, I. (2001). Somatoform dissociation, psychological dissociation, and specific forms of trauma. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Trauma &amp;amp; Dissociation&lt;/em&gt;, 1(4), 81-98.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1300/J229v01n04_05&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1300/J229v01n04_05&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-21T05:23:48.150" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T05:23:48.150" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15734" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-18T13:27:48.087" Score="3" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hattie &amp;amp; Timperley (2007) mention a meta-analysis about video or audio feedback with a mean effective size of .64 (Table 2 on page 84). They state that this analysis was part of the meta-analysis done by Hattie in 1999. However, I couldn't find a reference to the cited work in Hattie (1999) nor in Hattie &amp;amp; Timperley (2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question:&lt;/strong&gt; Do you know any research about the effectiveness of feedback given with audio or video (in comparision to face-to-face feedback or written feedback)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What I have found so far:&lt;/strong&gt; Allen et al. (2002) conclude in a meta-analysis that &quot;students find distance learning as satisfactory as traditional classroom learning formats.&quot; (page 93). They also see evidence that distance learning is as effective as classical learning formats. Thus, it wouldn't wonder me, that the same is true for video feedback vs. classical face-to-face feedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Allen, M., Bourhis, J., Burrell, N., &amp;amp; Mabry, E. (2002). Comparing student satisfaction with distance education to traditional classrooms in higher education: A meta-analysis. The American Journal of Distance Education, 16(2), 83-97. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anitacrawley.net/Resources/Articles/Comparing%20student%20satisfaction%20meta%20analysis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hattie, J., &amp;amp; Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of educational research, 77(1), 81-112. &lt;a href=&quot;https://insightplatform-public.sharepoint.com/SiteAssets/feedback-and-reporting/characteristics-of-effective-feedback/power_feedback.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hattie, J. (1999). Influences on student learning. Inaugural lecture given on August, 2, 1999. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.collegenet.co.uk/tools/download/hattie%20augural%20address_20_doc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt; I also asked this question &lt;a href=&quot;https://matheducators.stackexchange.com/q/11362/5097&quot;&gt;on matheducators.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8857" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:50:24.040" LastActivityDate="2016-08-31T15:04:55.600" Title="Effectiveness of audio / video feedback" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15735" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15640" CreationDate="2016-08-18T17:18:07.190" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just want add / clarify something on top of Aika’s answer – I want to say that Damasio’s work does not contradict what I said.  This is another big misunderstanding. All our feelings and bodily sensations are a product of the brain, even if the information if initially processed in the peripheral nervous system. Yes, peripherally-computed sensory information is vital to cognitive systems, but it is the brain that integrates all this to construct and simulate somatic marker sensations and rational thinking for complex decision-making. We could theoretically take away all peripheral nerves from the brain and replace them with wires to then input any information we want, to then simulate any type of thought we want in that brain. Unfortunately, while there has been some recent experiments in that, we are very far from that technology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13384" LastActivityDate="2016-08-18T17:18:07.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15736" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-18T18:41:44.013" Score="2" ViewCount="404" Body="&lt;p&gt;Prison isolation is likely so hard for inmates because people are sociable creatures. Yet, isolation is still used in prisons ('&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermax_prison&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;supermax prisons&lt;/a&gt;'), in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cchrint.org/2014/11/13/top-10-forms-of-psychiatric-institution-abuse/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mental hospitals&lt;/a&gt;, but also as a strategy to educate children, given that some parents lock their kids in their room.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are those isolations in use? Do they have beneficial effects on prisoners or psychiatric patients? Does it treat their symptoms or criminal traits?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13131" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-19T12:37:25.610" LastActivityDate="2016-08-19T19:40:11.840" Title="Why is solitary confinement used so widely?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15737" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15726" CreationDate="2016-08-18T20:15:52.713" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found two articles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3940(85)90403-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Madarasz et.al. (1985)&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;GABA cells&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;27 % LGN&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;33 % Ventrobasal complex&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;25 % Antero-ventral nucleus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/3/9/1868.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Penny et.al. (1983)&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;GAD-immuninoreactive neurons&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;30 % VentroPosterior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Madarász, M., Somogyi, G., Somogyi, J., &amp;amp; Hamori, J. (1985). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3940(85)90403-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Numerical estimation of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-containing neurons in three thalamic nuclei of the cat: direct GABA immunocytochemistry.&lt;/a&gt; Neuroscience letters, 61(1), 73-78.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Penny, G. R., Fitzpatrick, D., Schmechel, D. E., &amp;amp; Diamond, I. T. (1983). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/3/9/1868.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Glutamic acid decarboxylase-immunoreactive neurons and horseradish peroxidase-labeled projection neurons in the ventral posterior nucleus of the cat and Galago senegalensis.&lt;/a&gt; The Journal of Neuroscience, 3(9), 1868-1887.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13482" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-08-19T16:09:53.640" LastActivityDate="2016-08-19T16:09:53.640" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15738" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-18T21:29:54.657" Score="1" ViewCount="132" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question is a follow-up to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/11053/3379&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; great answer to a question about the neurological mechanism of self-control. It explains that people who exhibit self-control are able to repress/isolate the negative emotion from thoughts about the self.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider a use case where a student who approaches a representative of his favorite company at a career fair. The rep gives him negative feedback as a result of the student acting very awkward and being inexperienced in professional small talk. The student now experiences negative emotions (embarrassment). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would it be more helpful now for the student to feel/live through the negative experience (with self-compassion and without judgment) or repress/ignore it?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With respect to the former option, Andy Puddicombe, a mindfulness meditation expert, recommends that one note the negative emotion and experience it (without judgment, but characterizing certain properties of the pain) with the goal of reducing its severity. Kristin Neff, a self-compassion expert, also recommends not ignoring the pain. She has published a meditation exercise where the painful emotion is visualized and &quot;smoothed&quot; with the same goal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps my misunderstanding is caused by what the words &lt;em&gt;inhibition&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;repression&lt;/em&gt; refer to in the original &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/11053/3379&quot;&gt;question&lt;/a&gt;. The responding user may refer to the connection between the negative emotion and self-worth, rather than how the individual should relate to the negative emotion itself when it surfaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-11-30T06:37:01.570" Title="Should an individual deliberately focus/experience/feel or ignore/detach/repress negative emotions in order to isolate them from self-worth?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15740" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15736" CreationDate="2016-08-19T12:30:08.557" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/27/what-is-solitary-confinement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Solitary confinement&lt;/a&gt; serves no therapeutic purpose. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/2012/05/solitary.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Two uses of solitary confinement&lt;/a&gt; are generally acknowledged, namely as &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/what-does-solitary-confinement-do-to-your-mind/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;safety measure&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; to protect the individual from themselves or to protect others from harm, or as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/27/what-is-solitary-confinement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;measure of discipline&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (that is, punishment). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deprived of normal human interaction, many segregated prisoners reportedly suffer from mental health problems including anxiety, panic, insomnia, paranoia, aggression and depression &lt;a href=&quot;http://cad.sagepub.com/content/49/1/124.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Haney, 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. In experimental subjects hallucinations have been reported too (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/what-does-solitary-confinement-do-to-your-mind/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Frontline&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To the question &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; these psychological effects happen there is not much known, as research into the topic is obviously deemed not ethical, and the use of it in correctional facilities and psychiatric wards is scrutinized. In fact, its use in psychiatric environments is starting to decline (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/2012/05/solitary.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;APA&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, some guesses might be made on the effects of solitary confinement on the brain. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20140514-how-extreme-isolation-warps-minds&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hallucinations&lt;/a&gt; may be caused by the fact that sensory perception is accustomed to dealing with a large quantity of information. In fact, one of the major goals of the higher sensory centers is the &lt;em&gt;filtering&lt;/em&gt; of irrelevant information rather than processing all of it. When sensory input is deprived, the brain starts to make up things, just as deaf people may develop tinnitus and blind people may see phosphenes and other visual hallucinations (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20140514-how-extreme-isolation-warps-minds&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BBC Future&lt;/a&gt;). The psychological deficits may be sought in the fact that we derive meaning from our emotional states largely through contact with others. Human emotions are thought to have evolved because they aided co-operation among our early ancestors who benefited from living in groups. With no one to mediate our feelings or to determine their appropriateness, the sense of self becomes distorted and the sense of reality disintegrates (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20140514-how-extreme-isolation-warps-minds&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BBC Future&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://cad.sagepub.com/content/49/1/124.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Haney, &lt;em&gt;Crime &amp;amp; Delinquency&lt;/em&gt; (2003); &lt;strong&gt;49&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 124-56&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-19T19:40:11.840" LastActivityDate="2016-08-19T19:40:11.840" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15741" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15469" CreationDate="2016-08-19T13:52:17.577" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content-addressable_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;From Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Content-addressable memory (CAM) is a special type of computer memory&#xA;  used in certain very-high-speed searching applications. It is also&#xA;  known as associative memory, associative storage, or associative array [...]&#xA;  It compares input search data (tag) against a table of stored data,&#xA;  and returns the address of matching data (or in the case of&#xA;  associative memory, the matching data)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As noted in the above question, there are many implementations of content-addressable memories in neural networks, such as the Hamming network and Hopfield networks. The Associative Memory used in SPA-based models performs the same function as these aforementioned networks and the Wikipedia description. Given a SPA vector as input, the Associative Memory outputs the corresponding vector as an output. Thus, the SPA-based Associative Memory is a content-addressable memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-01-24T17:04:25.183" LastActivityDate="2018-01-24T17:04:25.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15742" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-19T16:53:44.887" Score="2" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the Oedipus and Electra complex, which are often regarded as the reason why daughters are attached to their fathers more and the sons to the mothers, also explain why sons-in-law are not liked by the fathers and daughters-in-law are not liked by the mothers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it because the sons and daughters-in-law are regarded as an challenge/barrier to their relationship with their sons and daughters?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13456" LastEditorUserId="13937" LastEditDate="2020-12-26T09:29:27.303" LastActivityDate="2020-12-26T09:29:27.303" Title="Oedipus/Electra complex and in-laws" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15743" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-19T17:21:38.617" Score="1" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;In various cognitive modelling publications, &quot;One-Shot Learning&quot;, which is just learning given very few examples, is praised as being an essential part of human cognition. For example, in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jmlr.org/proceedings/papers/v27/salakhutdinov12a/salakhutdinov12a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;One-Shot Learning with a Hierarchical Nonparametric Bayesian Model&lt;/a&gt;&quot; a statistical model is used to quickly develop categories given a few examples of digits from the MNIST database.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are models built using the NEF/SPA capable of &quot;One-Shot Learning&quot;? Are there any examples of this being performed in a task?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-08-19T17:21:38.617" Title="How is &quot;one-shot learning&quot; implemented in the NEF/SPA?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;nef&gt;&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15744" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15749" CreationDate="2016-08-19T17:31:57.053" Score="3" ViewCount="2076" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have recently discovered that &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/15741/4397&quot;&gt;both Hamming and Hopfield networks are both content addressable memories&lt;/a&gt;. However, what is the difference between these two networks designs and their performance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T15:43:17.027" Title="What's the difference between a Hamming and Hopfield network?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15745" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8390" CreationDate="2016-08-19T17:38:03.850" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although the effects of BCM and Oja's learning rule have &lt;a href=&quot;https://pythonhosted.org/nengo/examples/learn_unsupervised.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;been explored superficially in a computational manner&lt;/a&gt; in the context of the NEF, judging from the results (which I've reproduced below) it isn't clear to me if they can/should be combined in any meaningful way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y3pMC.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y3pMC.png&quot; alt=&quot;oja and bcm&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best hypothesis that I can come up with is BCM forces the ensemble to be either &quot;ON&quot; or &quot;OFF&quot; by minimising transitory states, while Oja provides limits to how much the connection weights can change. So in a way, Oja provides bounds to BCM? Further investigation is needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-08-19T17:38:03.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15747" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15748" CreationDate="2016-08-19T21:33:56.543" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a long-standing debate in theoretical neuroscience about what information of spikes is most important: rate or phase? What stance does the NEF take on this manner?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-03-28T14:29:53.917" Title="What coding scheme does NEF use? Rate or phase?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15748" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15747" CreationDate="2016-08-19T21:33:56.543" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The NEF has no formal stance on whether rate information or phase information is of importance. All it cares about is spikes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As proof, consider the derivation of the decoders, which is the core of the NEF.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Decoders, $d$ are a vector of synaptic weights applied to the activities of neurons (one decoding weight per neuron) to approximate a given function $f(x(t))$. They can be thought of as the axons of a neuron.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the spiking neurons activities in the matrix $A$ (rows are neurons, columns are evaluation points), to an input $x$, this relation can be explained as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$A \cdot d = f(x(t))$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given an equation with one unknown, where a matrix $A$ is combined with a vector $d$ to get another vector $f(x(t))$, this can be solved using linear algebra to find $d$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note how there is no mention of rate or phase in this derivation. Admittedly, in the Nengo neural simulator, rate neurons can be used and functions that take phase into account can be calculated, but these design choices are up to the modeller and are not forced by the NEF itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-03-28T14:29:53.917" LastActivityDate="2018-03-28T14:29:53.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15749" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15744" CreationDate="2016-08-20T02:49:20.893" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hopfield and Hamming networks are older connectionist networks used to classify noisy binary input data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopfield networks are the basis for Hamming networks, so let's focus on those first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Hopfield network is a set of neurons that do classification via mutual inhibition, as shown in the figure below from Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/V00XA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/V00XA.png&quot; alt=&quot;mutual-inhibition&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note the neurons are not like your typical biologically plausible neurons, they have two states &quot;+1&quot; and &quot;-1&quot;. Their update rule, which forces them into an output pattern, enables these two states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Hamming network is a two-layer network, as shown in this figure (taken from &lt;a href=&quot;http://home.agh.edu.pl/~vlsi/AI/hamming_en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) where the data is flowing from the bottom:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WTscH.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WTscH.png&quot; alt=&quot;hamming-net&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, the second layer, sometimes called the MaxNet layer, is identical to the Hopfield Network, however the input layer resembles a classic single-layer perceptron. This single-layer perceptron is train according to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamming_distance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hamming Distances&lt;/a&gt; of the inputs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Performance wise, as shown in the conclusion &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.ca/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjxyqCW_M7OAhWGJR4KHcHXBq8QFggeMAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dtic.mil%2Fcgi-bin%2FGetTRDoc%3FAD%3DADA182255&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNGoj9tbl99gQ61YpCzOl_gP4k-clQ&amp;amp;sig2=AKhP5wek8y-0K6Tgg6ltvg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Comparison of Hamming and Hopfield&#xA;Neural Nets for Pattern Classification&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Lippmann et al., Hamming nets generally out-perform Hopfield nets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-05T15:43:17.027" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T15:43:17.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15752" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2016-08-21T09:18:34.570" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions about the high-level construct called situation awareness, meaning the perception of environmental elements with respect to time or space, the comprehension of their meaning, and the projection of their status in the near future (&lt;a href=&quot;http://uwf.edu/skass/documents/HF.37.1995-Endsley-Theory.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Endsley, 1995&lt;/a&gt;). Situation awareness is an important construct within the human factors domain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situation_awareness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Situation Awareness&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-08-21T18:37:38.297" LastActivityDate="2016-08-21T18:37:38.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15753" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2016-08-21T09:18:34.570" Score="0" Body="For questions about the high-level construct called situation awareness, meaning the perception of environmental elements with respect to time or space, the comprehension of their meaning, and the projection of their status in the near future. " OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-08-21T18:37:43.497" LastActivityDate="2016-08-21T18:37:43.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15754" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-21T09:26:35.567" Score="2" ViewCount="468" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most famous definition of situation awareness (SA) is the three-level model proposed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://uwf.edu/skass/documents/HF.37.1995-Endsley-Theory.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Endsley (1995)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the perception of environmental elements with respect to time or space [(Level 1 SA)], the comprehension of their meaning [(Level 2 SA)], and the projection of their status in the near future [(Level 3 SA)]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the definition of &lt;a href=&quot;http://peterhancock.ucf.edu/Downloads/chap/Smith_Hancock_1994.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Smith and Hancock (1995)&lt;/a&gt; is based on Neisser's perceptual-cycle model (Neisser, 1976) and states that SA is: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;adaptive, externally-directed consciousness that has as its products knowledge about a dynamic task environment and directed action within that environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do these models differ from each other, and do these differences have practical implications?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ps. Many more definitions of SA exist. These are all summarized in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.raes-hfg.com/crm/reports/sa-defns.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this document&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Endsley, M. R. (1995). Toward a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 37(1), 32-64.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality: Principles and implications of cognitive psychology. WH Freeman/Times Books/Henry Holt &amp;amp; Co.&#xA;ISO 690 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, K., &amp;amp; Hancock, P. A. (1995). Situation awareness is adaptive, externally directed consciousness. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 37(1), 137-148.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-08-23T14:18:12.857" LastActivityDate="2016-09-22T15:17:32.500" Title="What is the difference between two models of situation awareness?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;situation-awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15758" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15683" CreationDate="2016-08-22T21:29:30.210" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;NeuroTek Inc (neurotek.ca) specializes in motorized commutators and is in the process of building a commutator to handle digital and analog. Specifically it is being built for mini microscopes and electrophys. Contact neurotek@gmx.com for more information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13507" LastActivityDate="2016-08-22T21:29:30.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15760" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16091" CreationDate="2016-08-23T06:29:04.300" Score="3" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;In modern research of brain volume and function there are two main players. &lt;a href=&quot;https://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;FreeSurfer&lt;/a&gt; which is free of cost and open source and the older, but more frequently used, statistical parametric mapping that itself is also opensourced but is typically used within Matlab, which is closed source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What should I have in mind while deciding which one to pick for my research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10038" LastActivityDate="2016-10-21T14:43:34.337" Title="What are the main differences between the FreeSurfer volumetric approach and the statistical parametric mapping from SPM?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15761" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15754" CreationDate="2016-08-23T14:13:10.713" Score="2" Body="&lt;h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Endsley considers SA to be a product. Smith and Hancock argue that SA is a process. Deciding for a definition is important, since it can determine the focus of the research and methodology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Three-level model&lt;/strong&gt; proposed by Endsley considers SA to be a product. In other words, SA is a mental picture that can be tested by testing an operators knowledge about the current situation. On popular mean of doing is the Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&amp;amp;arnumber=195097&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D195097&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Endsley, 1988&lt;/a&gt;). With the SAGAT, researchers freeze the task (in a simulator) and present the operator with a set of queries, that cover each of the three levels. Examples of these questions in the domain of train traffic controlling is shown in Table 2 (taken form &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-07515-0_51&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lo, Sehic and Meijer, 2013&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MjTM3.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MjTM3.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The perceptual-cycle model&lt;/strong&gt; argues that SA is a cyclical process of attention, in which perception, knowledge, anticipation and action-taking take place concurrently, in order to generate a `product of consciousness', that is, an understanding of the current situation (see Figure 3, taken from Smith and Hancock, 1995). The product can not be not be seen separately from the process, however; The perception of relevant information will lead to a better understanding, but a better understanding will also direction your attention. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Measuring one's SA as a process implies measuring how well the acquisition of SA is over time. This has, among others, been done with tools such as eye tracking and EEG (For a review, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/1422/1/Situation_awareness_measurement_Salmon_et_al.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salmon, 2006&lt;/a&gt;). The perceptual-cycle model does acknowledge the existence of a product of consciousness (and the testing of it with the SAGAT), but this provides an incomplete picture. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2rj93.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2rj93.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-08-23T14:13:10.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15762" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15781" CreationDate="2016-08-23T14:35:16.393" Score="2" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.nl/books?hl=nl&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=13KlHVBoNRAC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA272&amp;amp;dq=Situation%20awareness-oriented%20design%20oxford%20handbook%20of%20cognitive&amp;amp;ots=oZhLsX7laW&amp;amp;sig=Xkz8gnHhDQ_j5yKIiY3X9iyot_Q&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;A review&lt;/a&gt; compared many different ways for assessing Situation Awareness (SA), such as query based tools, external observers and self-report tools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper argues that query based tools, such as the SAGAT (&lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&amp;amp;arnumber=195097&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D195097&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Endsley, 1988&lt;/a&gt;) and the (SPAM; Durso et al., 2004), are the most reliable way of assessing SA, compared to the other methods. &lt;strong&gt;What are the shortcomings of these query based methods, however?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Durso, F. T., Dattel, A. R., Banbury, S., &amp;amp; Tremblay, S. (2004). SPAM: The real-time assessment of SA. A cognitive approach to situation awareness: Theory and application, 1, 137-154.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&amp;amp;arnumber=195097&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D195097&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Endsley, M. R. (1988, May). Situation awareness global assessment technique (SAGAT). In Aerospace and Electronics Conference, 1988. NAECON 1988., Proceedings of the IEEE 1988 National (pp. 789-795). IEEE.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.nl/books?hl=nl&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=13KlHVBoNRAC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA272&amp;amp;dq=Situation%20awareness-oriented%20design%20oxford%20handbook%20of%20cognitive&amp;amp;ots=oZhLsX7laW&amp;amp;sig=Xkz8gnHhDQ_j5yKIiY3X9iyot_Q&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Endsley, M. R. (2013). Situation awareness-oriented design. The Oxford handbook of cognitive engineering. Oxford University Press, New York, 272-285.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-08-24T08:50:52.217" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T11:06:53.453" Title="What are shortcomings of query bases tools for measuring Situation Awareness?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;situation-awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15763" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-23T17:10:38.073" Score="8" ViewCount="891" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the book &lt;em&gt;Man and His Symbols&lt;/em&gt; Jung discusses the &lt;em&gt;Anima&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Animus&lt;/em&gt; extensively.  As I understand it they are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the collective unconscious.  The Anima is expressed as the inner feminine personality in the unconscious of man; the Animus as the inner masculine personality of the unconscious of female&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found it strange that Jung only talks about the Anima in terms of the male psyche, and the Animus in term of the female psyche.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is why isn't there an Animus concept in the male psyche or an Anima concept in the female psyche?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where is the archetype of the male part of the male unconscious and the female part of the female unconscious? Is that just another piece of the psyche the Jung defines as part of the Self?  Where does the Animus live in the male total psyche? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8225" LastActivityDate="2019-04-25T02:04:13.430" Title="Jung - Anima and Animus" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15764" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-23T19:02:34.873" Score="14" ViewCount="340" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some texts advise playing chess with children and mature people. Should I take them seriously, and why should chess boost intellect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, I would like to be able to read and understand technical texts quickly. Should I learn playing chess for this? In &lt;a href=&quot;http://examinedexistence.com/does-playing-chess-make-you-smarter/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this text&lt;/a&gt;, for instance, they hype all kinds of advantages gained from chess, but they raise the meaningful questions at the end:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Is there anything else besides playing chess that these GMs can be experts at?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;• Granting these GMs were already genius by birth, is it safe to infer that playing chess has enhanced their overall intellect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the course of trolling, they conclude, &amp;quot;Go ahead and grab a chess board.&amp;quot; This leaves me pondering if the effect they hyped indeed exists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13511" LastEditorDisplayName="user27529" LastEditDate="2021-01-01T00:22:31.157" LastActivityDate="2021-01-01T00:22:31.157" Title="Does chess enhance cognitive abilities?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;transfer&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15766" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15764" CreationDate="2016-08-24T07:24:47.513" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. In general, transfer between skills is minimal whether they be cognitive or motor. Thus, studying and practicing chess will make you better at chess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studying a technical field that you are trying to master will make you understand that technical field better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, intelligence is correlated with  interest and aptitude in intellectual activities. Thus, if anything, the causal relationship is that intelligence causes interest and aptitude in chess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, life involves opportunity costs. Thus, time spent playing chess, is time not spent studying your technical field. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-08-25T00:28:56.537" LastActivityDate="2016-08-25T00:28:56.537" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15767" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13787" CreationDate="2016-08-24T11:59:32.680" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a significant overlap between symptoms of classic Autism, Asperger syndrome, AD(H)D and OCD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following graph gives a good overview of how they are correlated at the behavioral and sensory level:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YTVfY.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YTVfY.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://theemergencesite.com/Tech/TechIssues-Autism-OCD-Aspergers-ADD.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Further reading&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/07/160727110911.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Common brain changes found in children with autism, ADHD and OCD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4010758/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Co-Occurrence of Autism and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children – What Do We Know?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/265251.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autistic traits in some children with ADHD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/261526.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Third Of Autism Cases Also Have ADHD Symptoms&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1750946711001036&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autism and ADHD: Overlapping and discriminating symptoms&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/15503-autism-adhd-share-genetic-similarities.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autism and ADHD Share Genetic Similarities&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2015/09/08/peds.2015-1502&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Timing of the Diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4605" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-08-24T13:25:28.640" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15770" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15763" CreationDate="2016-08-24T22:51:32.560" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the way I understand it, everyone, male or female has both masculine and feminine personalities and it is up to the subjects whether they recognise that or not and to what level.  The idea is that in order to become all you can be you need to integrate yourself with your inner opposite sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The animus within the woman and the anima within the man are the opposing personalities to their sex and how they are 'supposed' to behave.  An example would be that if a man has a strongly developed anima (fully accepted and integrated into his psyche) the man will be fully open to emotionality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anima_and_animus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;article from Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/freudian-sip/201103/jung-dummies-animus-planet-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this good article&lt;/a&gt; from Psychology Today may help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-08-24T22:51:32.560" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15771" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15764" CreationDate="2016-08-25T22:34:38.050" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think learning to play chess will have no effect on your ability to understand technical texts. Your time would be better invested in reading the technical texts with accompanying explanatory material.&#xA;This study by Sala, Gorini and Pravettoni (2015) shows that learning to play chess can improve mathematical problem-solving abilities in young pupils. They go into detail into how and why they think that is, as well as a comprehensive review of other studies that have been made.&#xA;Many studies have found that chess players are intelligent - but the causality is seldom clear. Chess might simply attract intelligent people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;a href=&quot;http://sgo.sagepub.com/content/5/3/2158244015596050.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mathematical Problem-Solving Abilities and Chess: An Experimental Study on Young Pupils&lt;/a&gt; by Giovanni Sala et al (2015, CC-BY licence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13440" LastEditorUserId="13937" LastEditDate="2020-12-31T06:21:15.137" LastActivityDate="2020-12-31T06:21:15.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15772" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15764" CreationDate="2016-08-25T22:46:18.983" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Giovanni Sala was concerned by this same question, so he did a meta-analysis of 24 studies in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2016/papers/0545/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beyond the 64 Squares: Does Chess Instruction Enhance Children’s Academic and Cognitive Skills? A Meta-Analysis&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and found that there was still a lot of doubt in the results. Specifically, in all the papers, he never found the control group was reasonable. Of course children who played chess rather than doing nothing performed better at various tasks, as can be seen in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2016/papers/0344/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Enhancing Creativity in Children by Imparting Chess Training&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. But what about regular instruction or playing other games?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consequently, he followed his meta-analysis up with a randomized plucebo controlled trial focused in mathematical cognitive skills in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2016/papers/0344/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Does Chess Instruction Enhance Mathematical Ability in Children? A Three-Group Design to Control for Placebo Effects&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and found that the effect of chess, when compared to actual mathematics instruction (Control), was meaningless as shown in the tables below. However, it did surpass &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the game Go&lt;/a&gt; in transfer learning outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8kpRL.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8kpRL.png&quot; alt=&quot;table 1 math skills&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/avHQR.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/avHQR.png&quot; alt=&quot;table 2 metacognitive skills&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As he concluded at his talk at the CogSci 2016 conference (where all the papers I cited come from) which I attended, far transfer-learning is really hard. To improve skills in certain domains, it is better to study that domain than to hope a marginally related activity will grant insight. To make studying that domain easier, new materials need to be developed rather than searching for new related activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; This area is still under active research, as discussed in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00238/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Effects of Chess Instruction on Pupils' Cognitive and Academic Skills: State of the Art and Theoretical Challenges&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-03-12T13:12:30.417" LastActivityDate="2017-03-12T13:12:30.417" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15773" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10260" CreationDate="2016-08-25T22:58:11.957" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Chess is considered &quot;special&quot; due to certain attributes of the game. From &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2016/papers/0545/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Beyond the 64 Squares: Does Chess Instruction Enhance Children’s Academic and Cognitive Skills? A Meta-Analysis&lt;/a&gt;&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Two main explanations have been adduced to support this hypothesis.&#xA;  First, chess requires decision-making skills and high-level processes&#xA;  (such as acquiring and selecting relevant information from a problem)&#xA;  similar to those used in mathematics and reading (Margulies, 1992).&#xA;  Second, since chess is a demanding task involving focused attention&#xA;  and problem solving, playing chess should strengthen these cognitive&#xA;  abilities and thus be beneficial for children's school performance&#xA;  (Bart, 2014).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this consideration is only marginally valid. In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2016/papers/0344/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Enhancing Creativity in Children by Imparting Chess Training&lt;/a&gt;&quot; the increase in mathematical skills from Chess was compared to mathematical instruction and playing &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;the game Go&lt;/a&gt;. Although Chess outperformed Go, thus cementing it's &quot;specialness&quot;, it did not beat basic mathematical instruction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, Chess is a bit &quot;special&quot; among games in terms of cognitive improvement, however it doesn't beat actually doing a task and it seems unlikely for any other game would be superior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-08-25T22:58:11.957" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15775" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15777" CreationDate="2016-08-26T02:50:35.960" Score="6" ViewCount="313" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's commonly believed that sadness from romantic rejection &lt;em&gt;causes&lt;/em&gt; chest pain (&quot;heart ache&quot;).  This isn't that outlandish of a hypothesis, given that affect is just the mental representation of sensory input (e.g., chest pain) from our body to our brain.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is there any good evidence for this link?  It's a widely held belief that I've never seen systematically substantiated, so it would be cool to see a study on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2018-06-28T13:18:49.700" Title="Is there any good evidence that sadness causes chest pain (&quot;heart ache&quot;)?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15777" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15775" CreationDate="2016-08-26T06:07:41.407" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a fairly recently recognized medical condition called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takotsubo_cardiomyopathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;stress-induced cardiomyopathy&lt;/a&gt;, associated with chest pain and physical damage to the left ventricle:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because this weakening can be triggered by emotional stress, such as&#xA;  the death of a loved one, a break-up, or constant anxiety, it is also&#xA;  known as broken-heart syndrome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although most patients recover within a few weeks, in some extreme cases, this condition is known to be fatal.  As this diagnosis is still fairly new, prevalence is not accurately known, but it might be quite common in break ups - see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20876058&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koulouris et al (2010)&lt;/a&gt; for a review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychological distress can be a causal factor in other heart conditions as well (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1832196&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carey et al 2014&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://openheart.bmj.com/content/3/1/e000367.full#ref-7&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Graff et al, 2016&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3384441/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Buckley et al, 2012&lt;/a&gt;) that may be associated with chest pain.  However, other than these indirect effects, test subjects can generally distinguish psychological pain from physical pain, so although people may report &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2919607&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychosomatic symptoms such as chest pain&lt;/a&gt; associated with romantic rejection, it is not expected to be an indicator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, across cultures and in many different languages, the same terminology is used to describe both physical and psychological pain, suggesting a similarity in experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Social pain&quot; is the mental stress resulting from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rejection#Romantic_rejection&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;rejection&lt;/a&gt;, bereavement, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broken_heart&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;heartache&lt;/a&gt;, exclusion, etc.  There are quite a few studies supporting a link between social pain and physical pain - see &lt;a href=&quot;http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/21/1/42.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eisenberger (2012)&lt;/a&gt; for a fairly recent review.  In the typical experimental paradigm, subjects who have recently experienced social pain are reminded of their experience, eliciting the social pain response, while being monitored using physiological and/or neurological measurement tools such as fMRI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such studies have demonstrated that social pain experience uses many of the same neurological mechanisms as physical pain.  For example, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/108/15/6270.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kross et al (2011)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Here we demonstrate that when rejection is powerfully elicited—by&#xA;  having people who recently experienced an unwanted break-up view a&#xA;  photograph of their ex-partner as they think about being&#xA;  rejected—areas that support the sensory components of physical pain&#xA;  (secondary somatosensory cortex; dorsal posterior insula) become&#xA;  active.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Combined with similar results from lesion studies, pain sensitivity, and changes in dopamine and cortisol, this has led to the hypothesis that humans evolved a mechanism for social pain that recycles the physical pain system (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pubpdf.com/pub/15740417/Why-does-social-exclusion-hurt-The-relationship-between-social-and-physical-pain&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Macdonald &amp;amp; Leary, 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/abstract/S1364-6613%2804%2900143-3?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1364661304001433%3Fshowall%3Dtrue&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eisenberger &amp;amp; Lieberman, 2004&lt;/a&gt;), eg:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It has been suggested that, in mammalian species, the&#xA;  social-attachment system borrowed the computations of the pain system&#xA;  to prevent the potentially harmful consequences of social separation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overlap between the neural mechanisms for physical and non-physical pain is not complete however, presumably accounting for the differences in reported experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-08-27T03:51:51.107" LastActivityDate="2016-08-27T03:51:51.107" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15779" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15780" CreationDate="2016-08-26T07:54:24.057" Score="11" ViewCount="358" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/15764/chess-to-enhance-human-cognitive-abilities&quot;&gt;a question&lt;/a&gt; was asked about the benefit of playing chess on cognitive abilities. More specifically, how chess would improve understanding technical texts. Many other questions are also focused on learning and skim the topic of transfer of learning (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/207/does-learning-one-discipline-improve-performance-in-another-discipline&quot;&gt;Does learning one discipline improve performance in another discipline?&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/278/why-is-training-better-when-following-an-easy-to-difficult-schedule&quot;&gt;Why is training better when following an easy-to-difficult schedule?&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/221/how-does-task-difficulty-schedule-affect-the-rate-and-efficiency-of-perceptual-l&quot;&gt;How does task difficulty schedule affect the rate and efficiency of perceptual learning?&lt;/a&gt; ). However, it is not entirely clear to me how transfer can be explained, independent of the type of tasks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What does recent scientific research say about transfer of skill, or are there cognitive models that help explain it?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2017-01-26T16:45:06.273" Title="Cognitive models for transfer of skills" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;transfer&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15780" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15779" CreationDate="2016-08-26T07:54:24.057" Score="5" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A cognitive model is made that decomposes any skill in smaller elements or production rules. These elements (or combinations thereof) are often context independent and can be used for multiple tasks. The requirement for transfer of skill is that the tasks need to have some sort of overlap in how it is performed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a cognitive model that tries to explain how transfer works (and thereby acknowledges its existence). The theory is called primitive elements theory of cognitive skills (PRIMs; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ai.rug.nl/~niels/publications/2013-19654-001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Taatgen, 2013&lt;/a&gt;). The model is implemented based on the ideas of the cognitive architecture &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/14064/what-is-the-act-r-model-of-learning&quot;&gt;ACT-R&lt;/a&gt;. I will not go in to that too much, but in Figure 1 is the PRIMs representation of ACT-R:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/73ZZ3.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/73ZZ3.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to PRIMs, each production rule represents part of a cognitive task. While initially each production rule is a separate cognitive step, with learning you can accumulate these production rules into one (See Figure 4 for an example). &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HgBmr.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HgBmr.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is that some of these elements (gray and white ones) are context independent. Steps like &quot;check for empty working memory&quot; and &quot;check for visual input&quot; are used in almost any task that requires visual input. Being context independent makes it not necessary to learn this over and over for every new skill you want to learn. The final figure (Figure 9) shows how counting, or to be more precise, an iterative component of counting, can be transferred to a Semantic task (answering questions like &quot;is a canary a bird?&quot;). &lt;strong&gt;The essence of transfer is thus that the tasks need to have some overlap in how the task is performed&lt;/strong&gt; (in terms of basic cognitive elements).&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EjSCd.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EjSCd.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ai.rug.nl/~niels/publications/2013-19654-001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Taatgen, N. A. (2013). The nature and transfer of cognitive skills. Psychological review, 120(3), 439.&#xA;ISO 690 &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-08-26T07:54:24.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15781" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15762" CreationDate="2016-08-26T08:54:42.190" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The SAGAT is incredibly intrusive and relies on the subjects' memory, which is fallible. The SPAM is less intrusive and is less dependent on the subjects' memory. However, it is difficult to match the SPAM questions to the decision making process of an operator. More complete explanations of the methods can be found in papers of &lt;a href=&quot;http://hfs.sagepub.com/content/54/5/838.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pierce (2012)&lt;/a&gt; and the review of &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.nl/books?hl=nl&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=13KlHVBoNRAC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA272&amp;amp;dq=Situation%20awareness-oriented%20design%20oxford%20handbook%20of%20cognitive&amp;amp;ots=oZhLsX7laW&amp;amp;sig=Xkz8gnHhDQ_j5yKIiY3X9iyot_Q&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Endsley (2013)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;SAGAT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The most well known query based tools are the Situation Awareness Global Assessment Tool (SAGAT; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&amp;amp;arnumber=195097&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D195097&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Endsley, 1988&lt;/a&gt;). The SAGAT is used by periodically asking a set of questions about the situation at hand, thereby covering each of the three levels of SA (See Table 2 for examples in the Train Traffic Controller domain). The amount of correctly answered questions is the measure for the quality of SA. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The main drawback of the SAGAT (or any query based method) is that situation specific questions need to be formulated. The researcher must thus know what will happen in the simulator and how the subjects will try to gain SA and tackle the problems.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, the SAGAT requires that the task is frozen for a while. The task is thus incredibly intrusive and is not well suited for field studies, because you cannot pause the task in real life. In simulators, the freezes may greatly impact the flow of the task and, subsequently, how the task is performed. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Beside the freeze, the screen is also made blank, to prevent the subject from looking up the answers. The subject is thus entirely reliable on his memory. Memory is fallible, however, and it may very well be possible that the subject was aware of a cue a couple of minutes ago, but at the moment the SAGAT questions are shown not anymore. On top of that, it isn't even necessary to remember every piece of information; the operator perceives the information, acts on it, and can then forget about it an focus on other parts. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Finally, with the SAGAT you only get a general idea of one's SA, because of two reasons: (1) without asking hundreds of questions you cannot capture the entire SA of the operator and (2) you only get one score of SA (the sum of correct answers). In other words, you will never understand how SA varied throughout the task. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hTQMA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hTQMA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;SPAM&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In an attempt to simplify SA measures, Durso et al (2004) developed the Situation Present Assessment Method (SPAM; see also &lt;a href=&quot;http://hfs.sagepub.com/content/54/5/838.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pierce et al, 2012&lt;/a&gt;). The SPAM uses the same questions as the SAGAT but presents them while the task is ongoing. Instead of a large list of questions, only one or two questions are presented at a time. The questions are in general presented every two to three minutes. The correctness of the answers plus the response times (RTs) are measures of SA. The idea is that when RTs are short knows (where to find) the answer and is therefore aware. Conversely, when RTs are long, the operator did not know the answer or where to find them, and is therefore considered to be less aware. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The first and foremost shortcoming of the SPAM is that it is extremely difficult to formulate the questions and plan them at the right moments. Decision processes may vary between subjects. Some questions may thus be shown too early for some subjects (they had not attended that information yet), whereas it would be too late for others (it may have been forgotten already). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, some subjects may find the content of the question irrelevant; One's SA may thus differ from another, which is not necessarily better or worse. One or two question can also impossibly capture the entire SA. To minimize these issues, it is again extremely important to understand what happens in the scenario and how the subjects will tackle the issues. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The temporal resolution is also still lacking. Only one or two questions can be asked every two-to-three minutes. Although this is much better than the SAGAT, it still leaves room for a lot of interpretation. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Finally, because the questions are presented while the task is ongoing, it can greatly increase the amount of workload. Moreover, it may fundamentally change the dynamics of the task; the questions may probe the subjects to focus on particular aspects, thereby losing the natural way of performing the task. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-08-26T08:54:42.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15782" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15790" CreationDate="2016-08-26T12:17:46.427" Score="4" ViewCount="1906" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a new psychiatry trainee. I've run through the literature available to me (plus google), and the descriptions of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) and hypochondriasis seem too similar. Here's what I've understood so far:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypochondriasis represents a general anxiety of disease/symptoms whereas BDD happens to revolve around a single issue. The former is more about somatic symptoms whereas the latter is about physical appearances. But I wonder if this understanding is correct and whether there is a clearer differentiation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13528" LastEditorUserId="13528" LastEditDate="2016-08-26T14:28:36.217" LastActivityDate="2016-08-29T14:20:43.223" Title="Whats the difference between BDD and hypochondriasis?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15785" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-27T11:02:51.633" Score="4" ViewCount="917" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is obvious that human beings on many occasions consider others to be inferior, whether this relates to specific individuals, or to groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it also seems to me that humans very often feel the specific feeling of &lt;strong&gt;hate&lt;/strong&gt; towards people they consider inferior (e.g. disabled people, or specific races during fascism). However, hate doesn't logically follow from a perception of inferiority, since one could also feel empathy or indifferent towards people that one considers inferior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is: Is there some research that suggests an innate tendency for people to hate those that they consider weak or inferior, and is there some (psychological or evolutionary) explanation for this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13372" LastActivityDate="2016-08-27T11:02:51.633" Title="Is &quot;hate towards weakness/inferiority&quot; a general and innate human characteristic?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15787" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-27T16:30:52.420" Score="2" ViewCount="209" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apparently, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2i9fKG5-zEE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;somebody has recalled previously forgotton memories and become able to speak fluent french after a coma&lt;/a&gt;. I'm wondering if people can also train themselves to be good at recalling previously forgotten memories by training themselves to recall information they've forgotten that there's a record of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if a cell phone gets invented where you can type in somebody's name and then type what their phone number was and when you want to phone them, you have to go to their name and then start typing digits from beginning to end from memory and as soon as you type a digit incorrectly, you get notified and then you have to type that digit followed by the next digit and will be notified when you do so correctly, I wonder if the people using it would train themselves to recall memories of what phone numbers were.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if people would become even smarter if some of the memories they trained themselves to recall were memories from before they started the training because that way, their brain has to form complex connections in order to recall memories that were lost in the brain than to just not forget stuff they learn from then on. That's probably because lost memories get scattered to unrecognizability in the brain but that doesn't mean there isn't a complex method of extracting the memory from the disorder. Maybe unlike the man in the previously linked video who thought he was somebody else, with sufficient training, they'll learn how to properly extract their past experience correctly from the disorder and have undistorted memories. Maybe getting an actual defect in the connection suppressing ability making you do something like only have suppress unimportant connections from an accident like in that video could make it so easy to recall previously forgotten memories cause of not suppressing the connections for extracting them that much and be superior to any possible training to recall previously forgotten memories because you'll be hyper-aware thinking about a large amount of your past all at once because it's just as easy as thinking about a single past experience because the memories of the individual experiences were already lost in the brain, and the you can recall memories that were even more badly lost with the defect in the connection suppressing ability than you would with training alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if in general, it's easier for autistic people to train themselves to recall previously forgotten memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10270" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-03-20T20:59:56.243" LastActivityDate="2018-10-30T00:28:16.407" Title="Can people improve their memory by training themselves to recall previously forgotten memories?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15788" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15787" CreationDate="2016-08-29T11:50:24.633" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Memory is not fixed - &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;it is very plastic&lt;/a&gt;.  If you look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-amnesia.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amnesia&lt;/a&gt;, there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.news-medical.net/health/Causes-of-amnesia.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;many different causes&lt;/a&gt; and many &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.news-medical.net/health/Symptoms-of-amnesia.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;different ways it can manifest itself&lt;/a&gt;. It can also be anywhere between mild and severe.  There are methods which can be used to try and prevent further memory loss - by abstaining from alcohol when it is caused by alcohol abuse such as with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/site/scripts/documents_info.php?documentID=98&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Korsakoff's syndrome&lt;/a&gt;, by using diaries, calendars, wall planners etc. But just like with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/alzheimers/guide/alzheimers-disease-stages&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alzheimer's Disease&lt;/a&gt; there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/alzheimers/guide/treatment-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;no effective (and ethical treatment) for memory loss&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which brings me onto the ethics of memory recall therapy or training.  If you look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9254/ptsd-based-on-false-memories&quot;&gt;studies into memory&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/PTSD%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder)&lt;/a&gt; - also found in category &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2016/en#/F40-F48&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;F43.1 in ICD-10&lt;/a&gt; - methods used to try and help sufferers to remember the traumatic events for this example, have been found through research to cause &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fmsfonline.org/?faq=faq&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;False Memory Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;.  Although as with many pieces of research, there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.screamsfromchildhood.com/hoax_false_memory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;opponents to the idea&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I know, and believe from looking at research, once memory is lost, it is lost for good.  You may recall parts of the memory through various ways but to &lt;strong&gt;try&lt;/strong&gt; and recall the whole memory can lead to a change in what actually happened as @Arnon pointed out in his comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-10-30T00:28:16.407" LastActivityDate="2018-10-30T00:28:16.407" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15790" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15782" CreationDate="2016-08-29T14:20:43.223" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;DSM-5 is the go to book for psychiatric dignoses and I would strongly recommend you pick up a copy if you are studying Psychiatry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am going to split my answer in 3 as you are talking about two different disgnoses and the 3rd part will be making a comparison between the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Hypochondriasis&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more recently approved Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) contains many revisions, but few are as sweeping as those involving somatoform disorders. In the updated edition, hypochondriasis and several related conditions have been replaced by two new, empirically derived concepts: &lt;em&gt;Somatic Symptom Disorder&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Illness Anxiety Disorder&lt;/em&gt;. They differ markedly from the somatoform disorders in DSM-IV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To meet the diagnostic criteria for Somatic Symptom Disorder under DSM-5 (Page 311), patients must have:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oxXYo.png&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oxXYo.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Somatic Symptom Disorder is considered &lt;strong&gt;persistant&lt;/strong&gt; if it is characterised by severe symptoms, marked impairment, and long duration (more than 6 months).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM also goes on to say that there are 3 levels of severity, which are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Mild&lt;/strong&gt; if only one of the symptoms specified in Criterion B is fulfilled.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Moderate&lt;/strong&gt; If two or more of the symptoms specified in Criterion B are fulfilled.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Severe&lt;/strong&gt; If two or more of the symptoms specified in Criterion B are fulfilled, plus there are multiple somatic complaints (or one very severe somatic symptom).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patients with illness anxiety disorder may or may not have a medical condition but have heightened bodily sensations, are intensely anxious about the possibility of an undiagnosed illness, or devote excessive time and energy to health concerns, often obsessively researching them. Like people with somatic symptom disorder, they are not easily reassured. Illness anxiety disorder can cause considerable distress and life disruption, even at moderate levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In DSM-5 Page 315 it states that the diagnostic critera for Illness Anxiety Disorder is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious illness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Somatic symptoms are not present or, if present, are only mild in intensity. If another medical condition is present or there is a high&#xA;  risk for developing a medical condition (e.g., strong family history&#xA;  is present), the preoccupation is clearly excessive or&#xA;  disproportionate.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;There is a high level of anxiety about health, and the individual is easily alarmed about personal health status.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The individual performs excessive health-related behaviours (e.g., repeatedly checks his or her body for signs of illness) or exhibits&#xA;  maladaptive avoidance (e.g., avoids doctor appointments and&#xA;  hospitals).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Illness preoccupation has been present for at least 6 months, but the specific illness that is feared may change over that period of&#xA;  time.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The illness-related preoccupation is not better explained by another mental disorder, such as somatic symptom disorder, panic&#xA;  disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, body dysmorphic disorder,&#xA;  obsessive-compulsive disorder, or delusional disorder, somatic type.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM goes on to say that there are two types of Illness Anxiety Disorder&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Care-seeking type:&lt;/strong&gt; Medical care, including physician visits or undergoing tests and procedures, is frequently used.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Care-avoidant type:&lt;/strong&gt; Medical care is rarely used.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Diagnostic Features&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Most individuals with hypochondriasis are now classified as having&#xA;  somatic symptom disorder; however, in a minority of cases, the&#xA;  diagnosis of illness anxiety disorder applies instead...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In DSM-5, BDD is described under Obsessive Compulsive Disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BDD as described in DSM-5&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Preoccupation with one or more perceived defects or flaws in physical appearance that are not observable or appear slight to others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;At some point during the course of the disorder, the individual has performed repetitive behaviors (e.g., mirror checking, excessive&#xA;  grooming, skin picking, reassurance seeking) or mental acts (e.g.,&#xA;  comparing his or her appearance with that of others) in response to&#xA;  the appearance concerns.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The preoccupation causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of&#xA;  functioning.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The appearance preoccupation is not better explained by concerns with body fat or weight in an individual whose symptoms meet&#xA;  diagnostic criteria for an eating disorder.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Diagnostic Features&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Individuals with body dysmorphic disorder (formerly known as&#xA;  dysmorphophobia) are preoccupied with one or more perceived defects or&#xA;  flaws in their physical appearance, which they believe look ugly,&#xA;  unattractive, abnormal, or deformed...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Comparison between Hypochondriasis and BDD&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you compare the two within the DSM they do differ as you suggest where Hypochondriasis is more about somatic symptoms as it is about &lt;strong&gt;perception of illness&lt;/strong&gt; whereas BDD is about physical appearances.  However when you look at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2016/en&quot;&gt;International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD)&lt;/a&gt; produced by the World Health Organisation, which is linked to in the DSM with the ICD codes at the top of each Diagnostic Criteria (for example 300.82 (F45.1) for Somatic Symptom Disorder - &lt;em&gt;see image above&lt;/em&gt;), the 10th revision ICD code - ICD-10 - which is in brackets, refers to &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2016/en#/F40-F48&quot;&gt;Section F45 of the ICD&lt;/a&gt; and this adds to the definitions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;F45 - Somatoform disorders&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The main feature is repeated presentation of physical symptoms&#xA;  together with persistent requests for medical investigations, in spite&#xA;  of repeated negative findings and reassurances by doctors that the&#xA;  symptoms have no physical basis. If any physical disorders are&#xA;  present, they do not explain the nature and extent of the symptoms or&#xA;  the distress and preoccupation of the patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;F45.2 - Hypochondriacal disorder&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The essential feature is a persistent preoccupation with the possibility of having one or more serious and progressive physical&#xA;  disorders. Patients manifest persistent somatic complaints or a&#xA;  persistent preoccupation with their physical appearance. Normal or&#xA;  commonplace sensations and appearances are often interpreted by&#xA;  patients as abnormal and distressing, and attention is usually focused&#xA;  upon only one or two organs or systems of the body. Marked depression&#xA;  and anxiety are often present, and may justify additional diagnoses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Body dysmorphic disorder&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Dysmorphophobia (nondelusional)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Hypochondriacal neurosis&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Hypochondriasis&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Nosophobia&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Excl.:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  delusional dysmorphophobia (F22.8)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  fixed delusions about bodily functions or shape (F22.-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When reading this it confuses things as F45.2 considers BDD to be a somatic disorder as it is about perception rather than fact, however in my view, as psychiatry uses the DSM to distinguish between the two, in a psychiatric sense you get a definitive answer which you already have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With psychosomatic disorders your mind can make your body act like it actually has the medical problem or &lt;a href=&quot;http://patient.info/health/psychosomatic-disorders&quot;&gt;make an actual problem like pain worse&lt;/a&gt;, where as in BDD your mind cannot alter the physical shape of the body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-08-29T14:20:43.223" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15791" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-29T15:04:02.523" Score="2" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in learning more about self-control and how and if people have increased or enchanted it. I looked on Google scholar, but I don't think I am using the correct key words. Do you know of any papers that are on this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT:&#xA;Specifically about either increasing daily exercise or something tied to physical health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6276" LastEditorUserId="6276" LastEditDate="2016-08-29T15:17:28.253" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T00:37:41.527" Title="Paper (s) on enhancing self-control" Tags="&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15792" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15791" CreationDate="2016-08-29T15:47:50.957" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Along with many others, Google Scholar came up with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=self%20control%20over%20physical%20health&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;as_sdt=1%2C5&amp;amp;as_sdtp=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;following articles&lt;/a&gt; for me&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/233/4770/1271&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;American Association for the Advancement of Science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;talks about the relationship between health and a sense of control old age&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/108/7/2693.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;National Academy of Sciences&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;Experimental and economic studies suggest large-scale programs aimed at self-control to improve citizens' health could reap benefits&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Karoly/publication/227920078_Self-Regulation_Assessment_and_Intervention_in_Physical_Health_and_Illness_A_Review/links/00b4951e6b33b5493a000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;International Association of Applied Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Self-Regulation Assessment and Intervention in Physical Health and Illness: A Review&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=P3UoIuANmrIC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA42&amp;amp;dq=self%20control%20over%20physical%20health&amp;amp;ots=AQKcGJf-k_&amp;amp;sig=49nneaQvmwpBDp9kzA1ffmoDWRc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Book - The Self-regulation of Health and Illness Behaviour&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-08-29T15:47:50.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15793" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-29T16:16:02.863" Score="3" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am building a project to visualise brain data from EEG, specifically emotions. I have found a significant numbers of papers that describe methods that include pre-processing, feature extraction and classification to get a 2 dimensional affect-valence measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However the methods in the papers are too complex for a programmer who doesn't specialise in EEG and they don't describe the details of the process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a way that one can turn either raw data or frequency band data into an emotional readout? I have access to the Emotiv Insight (5 channel) and the Muse (4 channel). It's not for a scientific purpose, so it doesn't need to be too exact. A crude guess would do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found &lt;a href=&quot;https://trainorlab.mcmaster.ca/publications/pdfs/schmidt_trainor_2001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper from 2001&lt;/a&gt; which describes a method using the frontal lobes which I might be able to reproduce. However the reason it is easy to implement is because it lacks the machine learning and processing that more contemporary papers have to classify EEG data into emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.708.1066&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Detecting Emotion from EEG Signals Using the Emotiv Epoc Device (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~muli/file/emotion_embc09.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Emotion Classification based on Gamma EEG&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0095415&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Classifying Different Emotional States by Means of EEG-Based Functional Connectivity Patterns&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5910636/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;EEG-based emotion recognition during watching movies&quot;&gt;EEG-based emotion recognition during watching movies&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13552" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-29T20:09:20.280" LastActivityDate="2016-08-29T20:09:20.280" Title="Is there a reasonably easy way to get emotions from EEG?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15795" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10387" CreationDate="2016-08-29T17:47:30.257" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you suffer stress or anxiety, a chemical warfare gets underway within the body and if not dealt with effectively, everything starts to self-destruct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress and anxiety will activate the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Autonomic Nervous System&lt;/a&gt; and cause Cortisol levels to increase to get us ready for conflict and prevent wind-down, which in turn will lower Serotonin levels. The low levels of Serotonin will affect our ability to have a restful sleep and because Serotonin helps to relay messages from one area of the brain to another, the low levels will also affect the ability of your brain to act on information received as efficiently as it should. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.boots.com/depression/guide/serotonin-faqs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WebMD 2015)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0001401.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Noradrenalin is affected by stress and anxiety&lt;/a&gt;, and noradrenalin is another “feel good hormone”, which when imbalanced will affect many aspects of our system, one of which is energy levels causing us to feel lethargic and not wanting to bother with life.  Dopamine and endorphins are other happiness hormones which are affected by stress and anxiety affecting our ability to enjoy things, therefore it is no surprise that it can lead to depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorphins&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Endorphins trigger a positive feeling in the body&lt;/a&gt;, similar to that of morphine. For example, the feeling that follows a run or workout is often described as &quot;euphoric&quot;, which indicates the endorphine boosting effects of exercise. That feeling, known as a &quot;runner's high,&quot; can be accompanied by a positive and energizing outlook on life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As high levels of Cortisol and high levels of the &quot;feel good hormones&quot; cannot coincide together, the increase in endorphines will in turn lower Cortisol levels and therefore increase the Noradrenaline, Dopamine and Seratonin levels boosting the positive outlook on life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-08-29T17:47:30.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15797" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15811" CreationDate="2016-08-29T19:09:13.527" Score="3" ViewCount="469" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do we need to break down long sentences that won't immediately scan? Is it an attention thing? Working memory, executive function?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies show that if there are many stimuli present (especially if they are task-related)...&quot;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is a straightforward sentence. The only ambiguous term is &quot;they&quot;. Does it mean &quot;studies&quot; or &quot;stimuli&quot;? In this case it is, obviously, stimuli, but the issue seems to be that i need to read the &quot;they&quot; slower, and am not primed to. What part of cognition is being tested?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-31T08:54:47.810" LastActivityDate="2017-06-01T12:51:19.350" Title="Why do we need to break down long sentences to understand them?" Tags="&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15798" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15534" CreationDate="2016-08-29T21:57:08.287" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, there's a bunch of problems with Plutchik's theory in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plutchik uses vigilance to describe a high arousal state of exploration.  He administered a (dichotomous) semantic differentiation task to study different emotion words, and vigilance was above all described as good (vs. bad), strong (vs. weak), active (vs. passive), and constrained (vs. spacious).  Based on these ideas, vigilance could probably be considered an emotion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, whether this is an emotion depends (1) on your theory of emotions and (2) on how the word is used (conceptually/semantically). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the contemporary &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/6/4/292.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;theory of constructed emotions&lt;/a&gt;, vigilance could be an emotion if you use it to conceptualize your affect in a given situation.  So if you feel negative, highly aroused and alert, and believe there are a million spiders hiding nearby, you could conceptualize this affective state as vigilance (&quot;I feel vigilant&quot;).  In this case, vigilance would be an emotion.  (According to these criteria, virtually any string of letters could be an emotion.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if vigilance is only describing a particular state of attentional deployment, then it wouldn't be considered an emotion (although it would still be a conceptualization, but of your attention, not your affect).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2016-08-29T22:20:23.943" LastActivityDate="2016-08-29T22:20:23.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15800" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15791" CreationDate="2016-08-30T00:37:41.527" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I said in the comments you're unlikely to find many, if any, papers on enhancing self-control. The two most prominent researchers, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/indiv_pages/mischel/Walter_Mischel.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Walter Mischel&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://psy.fsu.edu/faculty/baumeister.dp.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Roy Baumeister&lt;/a&gt;, focus on whether self-control can be learned and self-control as a resource, respectively. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some articles, like this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/helpcenter/willpower-self-control.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;one&lt;/a&gt; from the APA or this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&amp;amp;ion=1&amp;amp;espv=2&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8#q=kelly%20mcgonigal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;blog post&lt;/a&gt; based on work from Kelly Mcgonigal, will mention ways with which to help your self-control &quot;cheat&quot; temptation through little hints, life hacks, or roundabout ways like physical health and self-esteem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those articles also makes mention of the resource or &quot;muscle&quot; model of self-control. Which states that the more self-control you use the more fatigued it will become. &lt;strong&gt;And&lt;/strong&gt;, like a muscle, the more you use it the stronger it will be. The resource model has gone back and forth on being debunked, mainly around the need for glucose to &quot;refuel&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, that doesn't really get to the heart of your question. Mainly because boosting self-control, building healthy habits, and increasing willpower and diligence will come down largely to the individual and the task at hand. Something that makes generic research almost impossible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'd suggest you do, if your goal is physical fitness, is to look up how to make a habit out of things like; going to the gym, eating healthier, or just being more active. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T00:37:41.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15801" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-30T02:03:40.207" Score="4" ViewCount="274" Body="&lt;p&gt;Latency jitter refers to the phenomenon that an ERP component appears at various time in different trials, without adjusting this difference when averaging across trials will lead to diminished ERP (reducing the peak). Peak-picking (Spencer, Abad &amp;amp; Donchin, 2000) and Woody filter described in Woody (1967) are the ones I can find. Do you know of other methods to address the latency jitter problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A graph of latency jitter in ERPs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/I1UQa.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/I1UQa.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spencer, K., Abad, E, &amp;amp; Donchin, E. (2000) On the search for the neurophysiological manifestation of recollective experience. Psychophysiology, 37, 494-506&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Woody, C. D. (1967). Characterization of an adaptive filter for the analysis of variable latency neuroelectric signals. Medical and biological engineering,5(6), 539-554&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="7138" LastEditDate="2016-08-30T19:03:24.350" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T19:03:24.350" Title="What are other methods for adjusting latency jitter in event-related potentials (ERPs) (P300 in particular) besides Woody filter and peak-picking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15802" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4354" CreationDate="2016-08-30T07:44:51.557" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another good set of psychological datasets can be found on the website of the European Journal of Psychological Assessment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://us.hogrefe.com/products/journals/ejpa/special-features&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://us.hogrefe.com/products/journals/ejpa/special-features&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are datasets aligned with over 20 studies often in the area of psychological tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T07:44:51.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15803" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15807" CreationDate="2016-08-30T10:32:00.917" Score="5" ViewCount="1048" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I ask my toddler if she wants bananas or apples, she will consistently choose apples. The same goes for colors, other related objects, or even seemingly unrelated items - She always chooses last.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is she biased to choose the last option? Is this bias specific to children, or is it a common phenomenon in adults too?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modality_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Modality effect&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13560" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-30T14:48:34.413" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T18:49:14.730" Title="Why do children tend to choose the last option in a two-alternative forced choice task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15805" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15332" CreationDate="2016-08-30T11:30:15.593" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is difficult to examine this phenomenon because we would have to define what it means to have a &quot;fresh look&quot; and how we could measure it. It is an interesting observation though. Here are a few possibilities for how we might interpret what's going on here, with some references to related cognitive science research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One obvious point is that we recognise things more slowly when they are upside down. This is particularly well known in face recognition, but there are also (smaller) inversion effects in other types of stimuli such as scenes. This is often taken as evidence that when we encode or recognise something, we are not just remembering the pieces separately but are doing some sort of &quot;holistic&quot; processing which fits them together. In this case, you could say that when you turn the picture you take longer to recognise it, or that you see it as novel, and that makes you view it in a &quot;fresh&quot; way.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jesse_Husk/publication/5857415_Inverting_houses_and_textures_Investigating_the_characteristics_of_learned_inversion_effects/links/55dcbc1b08ae83e420ee5038.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jesse_Husk/publication/5857415_Inverting_houses_and_textures_Investigating_the_characteristics_of_learned_inversion_effects/links/55dcbc1b08ae83e420ee5038.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A related point is that objects often have a &quot;canonical orientation&quot; which we are most used to seeing them from. This has been a point of interest for models of object recognition, which often assumed that our representation is &quot;view independent&quot;. So if you are painting objects, it certainly would be harder to process if you rotate them from the canonical. &lt;a href=&quot;http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/30745263/pdf699.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ56TQJRTWSMTNPEA&amp;amp;Expires=1472559612&amp;amp;Signature=yDh4VqjQ%2Bsg1ibIebSzKt4fMvmM%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DOrientation_dependence_in_the_recognitio.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/30745263/pdf699.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ56TQJRTWSMTNPEA&amp;amp;Expires=1472559612&amp;amp;Signature=yDh4VqjQ%2Bsg1ibIebSzKt4fMvmM%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DOrientation_dependence_in_the_recognitio.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As we might expect from the above, viewing something from a different orientation does actually change the things that we pay attention to and look at. For example, people make frequent horizontal eye movements when looking at landscapes, but if you rotate the image they seem to make a different pattern and may be drawn to different things.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://supersaturated.com/papers/pdfs/horizonSaccade.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://supersaturated.com/papers/pdfs/horizonSaccade.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2158151&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2158151&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T11:30:15.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15806" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19506" CreationDate="2016-08-30T11:52:22.827" Score="5" ViewCount="343" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot remember where I read this, possibly &lt;a href=&quot;http://hpmor.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eliezer Yudkowsky's HPMOR&lt;/a&gt;.  I'm looking to read the actual experiment and its results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experiment supposedly got 3 groups of dogs.  One they consistently treated with only love.  The second one was treated consistently negatively.  The third group was treated positively and negatively at random.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Supposedly the 3rd group showed the highest degree of affection towards their handlers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone point me to the experiment, or any source or detailed description about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13561" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-04-16T08:03:34.357" LastActivityDate="2018-04-16T08:08:43.507" Title="Experiment where groups of dogs were treated differently to find difference in affection" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;&lt;attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15803" CreationDate="2016-08-30T14:12:45.690" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, and not specifically related to children, choosing out of a set of options often depends on people’s &lt;strong&gt;memory&lt;/strong&gt;. In an ideal world, people’s options would be presented simultaneously, but in reality, options are often presented serially over time. Both the &lt;strong&gt;delay of time&lt;/strong&gt; as well as &lt;strong&gt;interference from other cognitively demanding tasks&lt;/strong&gt; are likely to increase uncertainty in one’s evaluations of more distant options compared to more recent options, and therefore increases the amount of regression to an overall category mean. In other words, &lt;strong&gt;imperfect recall introduces uncertainty&lt;/strong&gt; in earlier options and judgments of the earlier presented options regresses as memory decays over time. Relatively &lt;strong&gt;desirable options will therefore tend to seem less desirable with time&lt;/strong&gt;, and relatively &lt;strong&gt;undesirable options will tend to seem less undesirable&lt;/strong&gt; with time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People therefore tend to select the first option in a set when choosing between generally undesirable options, and will tend to select the last when choosing between generally desirable options &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.chicagobooth.edu/nicholas.epley/Li%26Epley.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Li &amp;amp; Apley, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of kids I can add that their working memory span is relatively short, in the order of 10 seconds for a 1-year old &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Isabel_Smith2/publication/5657563_Executive_Function_in_Preschoolers_A_Review_Using_an_Integrative_Framework/links/02e7e517e93d808fc6000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Garon &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;, probably adding to the imperfect recall hypothesis stated above. Further, the executive functioning of kids is limited; most kids between 3 and 6 years are able to recall 4 digits or less in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2978794/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;digit span test&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&amp;amp;context=dcnlfacpub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Espy &amp;amp; Bull, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;, further complicating a seemingly simple task for small children, namely recalling the options, let alone choosing a preferred option between them.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&amp;amp;context=dcnlfacpub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Espy &amp;amp; Bull, &lt;em&gt;Developmental Neuropsychology&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;28&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 669–88&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Isabel_Smith2/publication/5657563_Executive_Function_in_Preschoolers_A_Review_Using_an_Integrative_Framework/links/02e7e517e93d808fc6000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Garon &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;134&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 31–60&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.chicagobooth.edu/nicholas.epley/Li%26Epley.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Li &amp;amp; Apley, &lt;em&gt;J Behav Dec Making&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;22&lt;/strong&gt;: 378–89&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-30T18:49:14.730" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T18:49:14.730" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15808" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-30T19:19:19.317" Score="6" ViewCount="384" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a graduate student in CS, and naturally, I take several breaks a day from studying, but I feel that most of those breaks are habit-influenced and that I do not absolutely need to get off my seat and meditate, exercise, etc. For instance, I love reading/learning philosophy, but because I am aware that such a practice requires non-trivial brain effort, I only do that on vacations and I find myself disinclined to attempt such a thing on those breaks. However, I think that this disinclination stems from &lt;em&gt;my awareness&lt;/em&gt; of the non-triviality of the undertaking and essentially &lt;em&gt;my laziness or mental fatigue&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;not from natural brain-related issues&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there documented evidence that the brain needs regular periods of rest in certain individual-dependent amounts, apart and &lt;em&gt;in addition&lt;/em&gt; to the normal ~8 hours of sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13566" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-13T10:21:28.163" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T13:59:27.777" Title="Apart from sleep, does the brain needs rest?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;mental-exhaustion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15809" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8855" CreationDate="2016-08-30T23:21:21.070" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are definitely a few ways to ethically inflict pain, including electrical stimulation, pressure, and heat/cold.  Lots of studies have used them, for example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/303/5661/1162&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wager et al. (2004)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/345/6192/75&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wilson et al. (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're looking for someone with lots of experience inflicting pain in a lab setting, &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=8b7b-6EAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=sra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Tor Wager&lt;/a&gt; is your guy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2016-08-30T23:21:21.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15810" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15979" CreationDate="2016-08-31T02:55:45.900" Score="4" ViewCount="256" Body="&lt;p&gt;While a link has been shown that when a person is in a depressed episode there can be a negative effect on the individuals memory.&#xA;(Hubbard et al, 2016). This shows that when a person is experiencing the symptoms of a depressive episode they can experience problems with memory and further impaired cognitive behavior(i.e slow to acknowledge new tasks, taking longer to comprehend sentences)&#xA;Going beyond this point can depression have lasting memory effects after the symptoms have subdued and can memory be enhanced if someone is in a manic state?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699931.2014.991694&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hubbard, N. A., Hutchison, J. L., Turner, M., Montroy, J., Bowles, R. P., &amp;amp; Rypma, B. (2016). Depressive thoughts limit working memory capacity in dysphoria. Cognition and Emotion, 30(2), 193-209.&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13569" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2016-10-06T06:00:15.407" LastActivityDate="2016-10-06T06:00:15.407" Title="What effect can depression have on memory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15811" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15797" CreationDate="2016-08-31T08:44:01.010" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, the difficulty in the specific example given in the question is more a matter of &lt;strong&gt;proper writing&lt;/strong&gt; habits than anything else. The use of &lt;strong&gt;parentheses&lt;/strong&gt; is often discouraged because it &lt;strong&gt;disrupts sentence structure&lt;/strong&gt; and therefore &lt;strong&gt;interferes with the flow of information&lt;/strong&gt;. Secondly, the use of referring words (&lt;a href=&quot;http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-speech/pronouns/types-of-pronouns.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;pronouns&lt;/a&gt;) to earlier parts of the sentence are generally encouraged, barred that the pronoun is unambiguous. In the example the pronoun is ambiguous, as both '&lt;em&gt;stimuli&lt;/em&gt;' and '&lt;em&gt;studies&lt;/em&gt;' can be '&lt;em&gt;task-related&lt;/em&gt;'. The cited sentence is therefore a prime example of how &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; to write a decent English sentence and could be a textbook example for Scientific-English writing courses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of cognition, it is indeed related to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2657600/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;working memory&lt;/a&gt;, as you need to remember the words in the earlier part of the sentence. Of course &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;attention&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigilance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;vigilance&lt;/a&gt;) is needed to extract the information in the sentence. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_functions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Executive function&lt;/a&gt; therefore is involved, as it includes all aforementioned processes.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-31T08:55:15.820" LastActivityDate="2016-08-31T08:55:15.820" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15812" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15832" CreationDate="2016-08-31T09:42:56.493" Score="5" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have the following problem: we conducted an event-related fMRI experiment using Presentation software to display the experiment. Usually each fMRI pulse/scan is logged in the presentation log file so the times for event-related analysis can be derived later on. Unfortunately, for about half of the subjects these triggers in the log files are missing, so I don't know when the experimental events occurred relative to the first scan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you have any ideas how I might still try to analyze that part of the data? All suggestions are welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13572" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-31T09:55:43.657" LastActivityDate="2016-09-02T17:37:06.770" Title="How to analyze event-related fMRI data with missing fMRI trigger in logfile?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15813" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7793" CreationDate="2016-08-31T09:49:23.487" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;People that loose their eye sight do not go insane. They do tend to develop depression more often than sighted people &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11075067&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Koenes &amp;amp; Karshmer, 2000)&lt;/a&gt; and suicide rates are increased in the blind population &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0033318299712296&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(De Leo &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1999)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason why blind people tend to have enhanced functionality of the other senses (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, touch and hearing) is generally referred to as sensory &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/superpowers-for-the-blind-and-deaf/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;compensation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. In blind people, it has been shown that the brain undergoes a massive restructuring through the process of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cortical plasticity&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v389/n6647/full/389180a0.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cohen, 1997&lt;/a&gt;). The deafferented visual cortex is thought to loose its integrity due to a lack of synaptic input and therefore becomes prone to be taken over by other sensory modalities such as touch and hearing &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00291/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Lee &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2014)&lt;/a&gt;. Although it is tempting to speculate that this cross-modal plasticity is the neurophysiological correlate of compensation, much of the evidence to date points to the fact that blind people 'simply' &lt;strong&gt;train the other senses&lt;/strong&gt; more intensively compared to their sighted peers. No solid evidence exists that cortical cross-modal changes in the blind improve their performance on, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, Braille reading or the use of other sensory substitution approaches like the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wicab.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BrainPort device&lt;/a&gt;. The BrainPort converts visual images to tactile sensations presented to the tongue. Studies using the BrainPort and comparing a blind group and sighted controls on their performance with this assistive technology consistently find that sighted people perform as well with the device and are not outperformed by the blind, as long as they receive equal amounts of training. This, despite the fact that gross cross-modal changes occur in the blind after device training, but not in sighted controls. These same findings generally hold for studies using other approaches like Braille reading or acoustic sensory substitution (reviewed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/H_Stronks/publication/280118618_The_role_of_visual_deprivation_and_experience_on_the_performance_of_sensory_substitution_devices/links/55ca07d608aea2d9bdcbf35b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015&lt;/a&gt;).     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/superpowers-for-the-blind-and-deaf/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cohen, &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; (1997); &lt;strong&gt;389&lt;/strong&gt;: 180-3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0033318299712296&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;De Leo &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Psychosomatics&lt;/em&gt; (1999); &lt;strong&gt;40&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 339–44&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11075067&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Koenes &amp;amp; Karshmer, &lt;em&gt;Issues Ment Health Nurs&lt;/em&gt; (2000); &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 269-79&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00291/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lee &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Hum Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/H_Stronks/publication/280118618_The_role_of_visual_deprivation_and_experience_on_the_performance_of_sensory_substitution_devices/links/55ca07d608aea2d9bdcbf35b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;1624&lt;/strong&gt;: 140–52&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-08-31T10:04:20.913" LastActivityDate="2016-08-31T10:04:20.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15816" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15828" CreationDate="2016-08-31T16:12:03.210" Score="2" ViewCount="552" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am still studying and where I extensively use the DSM whilst writing essays etc. for my coursework, a question has arisen with regard to referencing the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems&lt;/a&gt; (ICD) whilst researching, and whilst answering a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/15782/whats-the-difference-between-bdd-and-hypochondriasis/15790#comment28919_15790&quot;&gt;question within Cognitive Sciences&lt;/a&gt;.  Providing the answer raised this question when referencing the ICD codes used in the DSM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those familiar with 5th edition of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders&lt;/a&gt; (DSM-5) will know that with information on each mental health disgnostic criteria, there are ICD codes at the top, which are ICD-9 codes followed by the now compulsory ICD-10 codes in brackets.  Whilst in my essays etc., just like in the DSM-5, I reference both ICD-9 and ICD-10 codes, however all &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HIPAA&lt;/a&gt;-covered entities had to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;transition from using ICD-9 codes to using ICD-10 codes back in late 2015&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem arises for me when looking in the ICD for the codes referenced in the DSM.  I'll give some examples here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order for me to answer the question, I referenced DSM diagnostic criteria for Somatic Symptom Disorder, Illness Anxiety Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For Somatic Symptom Disorder, in the DSM it references ICD-10 code F45.1 which &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2016/en#/F40-F48&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in the ICD&lt;/a&gt;, that code is for Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder, however as I highlighted in my answer, F45 which is the header of that section of codes refers to Somatoform Disorders.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When looking at Illness Anxiety Disorder, the DSM references ICD-10 code F45.21 which doesn't exist.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When looking at BDD, the DSM references ICD-10 code F45.22 and when you look in the ICD, again there is no such code, however there is F45.2 which refers to Hypochondriacal Disorder which in turn references BDD as a Hypochondriacal Disorder.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On page 23 of DSM-5 - under &lt;em&gt;Coding and Reporting Procedures&lt;/em&gt;, which is within the &lt;strong&gt;Use of the Manual&lt;/strong&gt; section - it indicates that the ICD codes are typically used by institutions and agencies for data collection and billing purposes and they were established by WHO, the U.S. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS), and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Center for Health Statistics to ensure consistent international recording of prevalence and mortality rates for identified health conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I missing something when looking at the ICD publication to look the diagnoses up under the ICD-10 codes or am I looking at things in the wrong way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-09-02T11:12:51.303" Title="DSM and references to ICD" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;publication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15818" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-08-31T17:47:21.070" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have taken enough psychology courses to know that people are attracted to those similar to them in personality, attitudes, and important values but no one explains how they accurately judge such characteristics (i.e. the process through which this occurs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do people find those who are similar in friendship and in particular potential romantic partners when they have very limited information? Is it really solely due to proximity? Are those near us more likely to be similar to us?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I am especially curious about more superficial initial attractions such as physical appearance. How on earth do people manage to judge similarity from physical features? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10694" LastActivityDate="2016-08-31T17:47:21.070" Title="How do people navigate the social world and find people who are similar?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15819" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13594" CreationDate="2016-08-31T18:04:09.957" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is reported that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/02699059509005780&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mild traumatic brain injury does not produce Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder&lt;/a&gt; however, according to &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.4.629&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this report in the American Journal of Psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;, severe TBI &lt;strong&gt;could possibly&lt;/strong&gt; lead to PTSD in approximately 27% of cases.  In this study of 96 patients  (77 men and 19 women), after 6 months following hospital discharge for severe traumatic brain injury, 27% of them suffered PTSD.  Out of these patients:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;19% reported having intrusive memories,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;23% reported having nightmares,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;31% reported having a sense of reliving the trauma,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;65% reported avoidance of thoughts,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;65% reported avoidance of places; and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;73% had signs of hypervigilance.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However one point of note that the report detailed was that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;First, our patients were not selected consecutively, and their&#xA;  responses may not be representative of populations with severe&#xA;  traumatic brain injury. Second, we did not obtain neuropsychological&#xA;  information on each patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I must admit that when I was looking at the report, due to the high number reliving the trauma and avoiding certain places, I wondered whether the trauma leading to PTSD was actually the brain injury or if it was the traumatic effect of the event which led to the brain injury.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another point of note is that it was also reported in a committee hearing in the U. S. House of Representatives, that &lt;a href=&quot;https://veterans.house.gov/hearing-transcript/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-treatment-and-research-moving-ahead-toward&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;people with TBI are more likely to develop PTSD than those who have not incurred a brain injury&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, from looking at these reports, I think the jury may be still out on this one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-08-31T18:04:09.957" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15821" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6048" CreationDate="2016-09-01T13:10:19.343" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;An animal study did not reveal any effects on the synchronization of the cerebral hemispheres after callosotomy, as based on EEG recordings. When one hemisphere showed sleep patterns on the EEG, the other half would show similar activity.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;If intact commissures are needed between the two hemispheres to synchronize the two halves of the brain, a callosotomy would be expected to result in different EEG patterns during sleep. The most extreme case being laid out in the question, namely one hemisphere being in a different &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arousal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;arousal state&lt;/a&gt; than the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a study in split-brain cats &lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/0006899374902339/1-s2.0-0006899374902339-main.pdf?_tid=a331ee5a-7043-11e6-b45c-00000aab0f01&amp;amp;acdnat=1472734828_457cfa646adc7cb653c5d9826e46b856&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Susic &amp;amp; Kovaevic, 1974)&lt;/a&gt; the authors performed a &lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/0006899374902339/1-s2.0-0006899374902339-main.pdf?_tid=a331ee5a-7043-11e6-b45c-00000aab0f01&amp;amp;acdnat=1472734828_457cfa646adc7cb653c5d9826e46b856&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;callosotomy&lt;/a&gt; or related surgeries, including the sectioning of the &lt;em&gt;anterior&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;posterior&lt;/em&gt; commissures&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;, and recorded the EEG during various behavioral states, including wake and sleep states and their transitions. After separation of the hemispheres the authors &lt;strong&gt;did not find any differences in EEG patterns across the two hemispheres&lt;/strong&gt; in cats. Specifically, during transition from the alert to the drowsy state, the onset of EEG slowing appeared &lt;strong&gt;simultaneously&lt;/strong&gt; in both hemispheres in all cats regardless of the type of section made. The shift from the &lt;strong&gt;synchronized to desynchronized pattern&lt;/strong&gt; occurring during arousal or at the beginning of the paradoxal sleep (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;REM sleep&lt;/a&gt;) was always &lt;strong&gt;simultaneous&lt;/strong&gt; in both cerebral hemispheres. The transition from REM to short arousal or to slow-wave sleep patterns was also &lt;strong&gt;bilaterally symmetrical&lt;/strong&gt;. These results demonstrate that shifts in behavioral states from vigilance to sleep and &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt; are characterized by a simultaneous bilateral symmetry of the EEG events. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; List of surgical groups (&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;= 14 per group)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cats with sections of commissural systems between hemispheres and diencephalon (&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;em&gt;fornix&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;commissura hippocampi&lt;/em&gt;,&#xA;&lt;em&gt;septum&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;commissura anterior&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;em&gt;massa intermedia of thalami&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;commissura posterior&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;em&gt;commissura habenularum&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;commissura intercollicularis&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cats with interrupted left optic tract and sections of the commissural system between hemispheres and diencephalon.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cats with an interrupted left optic tract and section of the left half of the midbrain tegmentum (the lesion passed intercollicularly in the&#xA;dorsal part, and ventrally into the premesencephalic area).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cats with an interrupted left optic tract section of the left half of the midbrain tegmentum and section of commissural systems, combined with the section of crossed fibers of the &lt;em&gt;commissura supraoptica&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/0006899374902339/1-s2.0-0006899374902339-main.pdf?_tid=a331ee5a-7043-11e6-b45c-00000aab0f01&amp;amp;acdnat=1472734828_457cfa646adc7cb653c5d9826e46b856&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Susic &amp;amp; Kovaevic, &lt;em&gt;Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (1974); &lt;strong&gt;65&lt;/strong&gt;: 427-41&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-01T13:30:26.077" LastActivityDate="2016-09-01T13:30:26.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15822" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4958" CreationDate="2016-09-01T14:09:53.257" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-i-foundations/gross-anatomy-of-the-ey/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Accommodation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is the process where the lens in the eye changes shape to focus on an object. The eyes have a default accommodation distance, called the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.humanics-es.com/viewing-distance.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;resting point of accommodation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (RPA). &lt;strong&gt;The RPA is the distance at which the eyes focus when there is nothing to focus on&lt;/strong&gt;. The RPA is not identical to the acommodation state of the eye when focusing at infinity. Instead, the RPA can be measured in total darkness. There, the eyes' focal distance will equal the RPA after accommodation is complete. If the lights were then turned on, an object placed at that distance would be in clear focus. The RPA averages 30 inches (approximately 760 mm) for younger people and gets farther away with age (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.allscan.ca/ergo/vangle.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;D. Ankrum&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The RPA can be measured by using infrared optometry, which is a non-invasive technique to measure the refractive state of the eye and the accommodation &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698997004240&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Roorda &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1998)&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698997004240&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Roorda &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Vis Res&lt;/em&gt; (1998); &lt;strong&gt;38&lt;/strong&gt;(13): 1913–24&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-05T11:11:15.267" LastActivityDate="2016-09-05T11:11:15.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15824" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15825" CreationDate="2016-09-01T15:21:45.653" Score="6" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find a standardised test that is used to measure stress in the workplace. So far I've found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.arbejdsmiljoforskning.dk/~/media/Spoergeskemaer/copsoq/uk/copsoq-ii-short-questionnaire-english.pdf#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire - COPSOQ II&lt;/a&gt;, which looks good. But I want to see what other options there are, or if there are any known major problems with COPSOQ II. Equally even the short version of COPSOQ II is arguably too long for what I want to use it for, so shorter suggestions would be greatly appreciated too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13582" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-09-15T00:44:49.827" LastActivityDate="2016-09-15T00:44:49.827" Title="Standardised test to measure workplace stress" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15825" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15824" CreationDate="2016-09-01T18:43:01.983" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although it is not exactly stress, there are many self-rating scales for workload. The most popular one is the NASA-Task Load Index (&lt;strong&gt;NASA-TLX&lt;/strong&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.nl/url?sa=t&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;url=http://humansystems.arc.nasa.gov/groups/tlx/downloads/NASA-TLXChapter.pdf&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiHpNLI7O7OAhWBPxoKHWzuDSYQFggiMAE&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNGA36vyRtaGFVvgmqkClwD35YlJ0w&amp;amp;sig2=piv2bGWdnjAEJlR0rQTjhQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hart &amp;amp; Staveland, 1988&lt;/a&gt;; see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.nl/url?sa=t&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;url=http://humansystems.arc.nasa.gov/groups/tlx/downloads/TLXScale.pdf&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjE5sCO7e7OAhUEfhoKHcHMC_wQFggmMAM&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNFL3N_CBBniIYlCRYrY-I9m59vqSQ&amp;amp;sig2=Uw3ZdoLOTd3pBAq_5Krikw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). The NASA-TLX consists of six dimensions, which a.o. describe temporal demands, mental effort and frustration. Although there is some weighting procedure accompanied with it, you can just sum the scores of each dimension to get a general workload score. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another popular scale is the rating scale mental effort (&lt;strong&gt;RSME&lt;/strong&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://adasgeek.wordpress.com/2013/12/19/rsme/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Zijlstra, 1993&lt;/a&gt;). This scale is one-dimensional and is responded to by marking a cross on a line. The scale ranges from 0 to 150 and is marked with anchors points at uneven intervals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Last one I know is the Integrated Workload Scale (&lt;strong&gt;IWS&lt;/strong&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003687005000918&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Pickup et al. 2005&lt;/a&gt;). This scale consists of nine items which describe a particular degree of workload ranging from &quot;not demanding&quot; to &quot;work too demanding&quot;. The scale acknowledges that workload is influenced by several dimension and, therefore, the items do describe several dimensions, such as mental effort and temporal demands. The scale has been developed for train traffic controllers but a validation study suggests that it can be used in different languages and in many other domains (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intergo.nl/public/Downloads/119/bestand/2015_how%20busy%20is%20busy.%20Validation%20of%20the%20dutch%20IWS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kramer, Johnson &amp;amp; Zeilstra, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The benefit of the RSME and the IWS is that they can easily be used during the task, since the rating procedure it rather simple and short. Of course, there are also several physiological (e.g. skin conductance, HRV) and performance measures (e.g. RT to a secondary task). For a comparison please refer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=683356&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brookhuis &amp;amp; De Waard (2001)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-09-14T13:05:06.343" LastActivityDate="2016-09-14T13:05:06.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15826" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11064" CreationDate="2016-09-01T20:21:02.227" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Likely, the subject pool of &lt;em&gt;craniopagus&lt;/em&gt; twins is too small to allow for scientific research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;As far as I can see after a cursory search, there is no scientific data available on the shared thoughts and experiences of &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/brain/129/5/1084.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;craniopagus&lt;/em&gt; twins&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Note that the incidence is only 1 in 10–20 per million births in the US. The rare occurrence, together wit the fact that neurosurgical advances increase the odds of successful separation &lt;a href=&quot;http://thejns.org/doi/abs/10.3171/PED-08/01/001?journalCode=ped.1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Browd &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2008)&lt;/a&gt; make them a truly rare phenomenon. On top of that, parents with conjoined twins will practically be living in the hospital with frequent, stressful visits to a variety of caregivers. In those difficult living situations likely the last thing they are waiting for is another white coat asking questions. In other words, the subject pool for research is minimized further by low response-rates when invitations for research participation are distributed (educated guess, being a parent).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://thejns.org/doi/abs/10.3171/PED-08/01/001?journalCode=ped.1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Browd &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurosurgery: Pediatrics&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 1-20&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-01T20:54:11.570" LastActivityDate="2016-09-01T20:54:11.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15828" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15816" CreationDate="2016-09-02T11:12:51.303" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/2009/10/icd-dsm.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this 2009 article&lt;/a&gt; on the APA website (The APA are the writers of the DSM)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is widespread sentiment that it is not helpful to the field to&#xA;  have two separate classification systems for mental disorders. [However], Many&#xA;  important distinctions between the two systems remain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article also mentioned that Geoffrey Reed (WHO psychologist) said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The American Psychiatric Association can really be credited with a&#xA;  revolution in psychiatric nosology with the publication of DSM-III by&#xA;  introducing a descriptive nosological system based on co-occurring&#xA;  clusters of symptoms,&lt;br&gt;...&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The ICD is produced by a global health agency with a constitutional&#xA;  public health mission, while the DSM is produced by a single national&#xA;  professional association.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;WHO's primary focus for the mental and&#xA;  behavioral disorders classification is to help countries to reduce the&#xA;  disease burden of mental disorders. ICD's development is global,&#xA;  multidisciplinary and multilingual; the primary constituency of the&#xA;  DSM is U.S. psychiatrists.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;The ICD is approved by the World Health&#xA;  Assembly, composed of the health ministers of all 193 WHO member&#xA;  countries; the DSM is approved by the assembly of the American&#xA;  Psychiatric Association, a group much like APA's Council of&#xA;  Representatives.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;The ICD is distributed as broadly as possible at&#xA;  a very low cost, with substantial discounts to low-income countries,&#xA;  and available free on the Internet; the DSM generates a very&#xA;  substantial portion of the American Psychiatric Association's revenue,&#xA;  not only from sales of the book itself, but also from related products&#xA;  and copyright permissions for books and scientific articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article also says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There was very little international participation in the DSM-III, but&#xA;  at the time it may have been impossible to make such a big shift at&#xA;  the international level, he explained. As a result, DSM-III and ICD-8&#xA;  (the version in effect at the time) were quite different from one&#xA;  another but as the descriptive phenomenological approach to diagnose&#xA;  mental disorders became dominant, the DSM and ICD have become very&#xA;  similar, partly because of collaborative agreements between the two&#xA;  organizations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article asked if the DSM will be superseded by the ICD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is little justification for maintaining the DSM as a separate&#xA;  diagnostic system from the ICD in the long run, particularly given the&#xA;  U.S. government's substantial engagement with WHO in the area of&#xA;  classification systems. But, said Reed, &quot;there would still be a role&#xA;  for the DSM, because it contains a lot of additional information that&#xA;  will never be part of the ICD. In the future, it may be viewed as an&#xA;  important textbook of psychiatric diagnosis rather than as the&#xA;  diagnostic 'Bible.'&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As there is more information in the DSM that will never be part of the ICD, plus, due to the fact that the DSM is the goto book for psychiatry, it is the DSM's criteria which needs to be followed when making psychiatric diagnoses.  The ICD codes in the DSM should just be used for the purposes they have been designed for, which as mentioned in the DSM on page 23, they are for data collection and billing purposes and for health statistics to ensure consistent international recording of prevalence and mortality rates for identified health conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-09-02T11:12:51.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15829" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-02T12:50:55.383" Score="4" ViewCount="446" Body="&lt;p&gt;Extracellular electrophysiological recordings of rodent brains using tetrodes requires plating them with gold solution in order to achieve appropriate impedances. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does the ideal plating impedance depends on the size, depth of the desired recording structure, and the packing density of the objective cells? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13360" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-05T20:28:00.620" LastActivityDate="2016-09-06T07:17:28.417" Title="At what impedances should one gold plate 12.5-µm diameter nichrome wire tetrodes for targeting different brain areas?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15831" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15683" CreationDate="2016-09-02T16:24:12.000" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't seen any either. But what I do know is that there is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z5a-SPW9oWE&amp;amp;feature=youtu.be&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wireless&lt;/a&gt; version coming out. It Might make sense to wait for one since commutators tend to be expensive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13360" LastActivityDate="2016-09-02T16:24:12.000" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15832" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15812" CreationDate="2016-09-02T17:37:06.770" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can see one case in which you still might analyze the data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This only works under three conditions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;your paradigm has &lt;strong&gt;no&lt;/strong&gt; variable durations of either stimulus presentations or breaks or others (or you can determine all the times retrospectively) &lt;strong&gt;AND&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;all your fmri scans have timestamps in their header information (which I think is always the case, at least in the raw&#xA;file) &lt;strong&gt;AND&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the pulse sequences and the presentation were always&#xA;started at the same time (or the logfile has at least a starting time and the difference between both starts was consistent).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess you can answer immediately whether the first condition is met. For the second one, any appropriate software for opening the raw files should be able to show you the timestamps if they exist. For dicom files there are timestamps for study time, series time and acquisition time where the acquisition time is different for every single file (according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://afni.nimh.nih.gov/pub/dist/doc/program_help/dicom_hinfo.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this help site&lt;/a&gt; from the AFNI program). The third one you might also immediately know but if not you could look into the timestamps of the subjects where you do have the triggers in the logfile and compare it with the starting time of the logfile (if that exists). If you calculate that difference for all subjects and it's always the same you are lucky and can calculate the trigger times for the subjects where they are missing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2016-09-02T17:37:06.770" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15833" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3889" CreationDate="2016-09-02T18:00:53.250" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was recently an issue about repositories for neuroimaging data. I just copied the table listing all of them from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811915010101&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;. (Feel free to add links, I will do so when I have more time.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Title, Author&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The NITRC image repository,Kennedy D.N. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Function Biomedical Informatics Research Network data repository,Keator D.B. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The image and data archive at the Laboratory of Neuro Imaging,Crawford K. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;COINS Data Exchange: an open platform for compiling curating and disseminating neuroimaging data,Landis D. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuroimaging data sharing on the neuroinformatics database platform,Book G.A. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;XNAT central: open sourcing imaging research data,Herrick R. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science Center for Computational Imaging XNAT: a multimodal data archive and processing environment,Harrigan L. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ConnectomeDB—sharing human brain connectivity data,Hodge R. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;MGH—USC human connectome project datasets with ultra-high b-value diffusion MRI,Fan Q. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort: a publicly available resource for the study of normal and abnormal brain development in youth,Satterthwaite D. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parkinson's disease biomarkers program brain imaging repository,Vaillancourt D. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) component of the NIH MRI study of normal brain development (PedsDTI),Pierpaoli C. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Northwestern University Neuroimaging Data Archive (NUNDA),Alpert K. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Age-ility Project (Phase 1): structural and functional imaging and electrophysiological data repository,Karayanidis F. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Open Science CBS Neuroimaging Repository: sharing ultra-high-field magnetic resonance images of the brain,Tardif L. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Pediatric Imaging Neurocognition and Genetics (PING) data repository,Jernigan L. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;SchizConnect: mediating neuroimaging databases on schizophrenia and related disorders for large-scale integration,Wang L. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sharing data in the global Alzheimer's association interactive network,Neu S.C. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Data integration: combined imaging and electrophysiology data in the cloud,Kini G. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;OMEGA: the open MEG archive,Baillet S. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The MNI data-sharing and processing ecosystem,Das S. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Northwestern University Schizophrenia Data Sharing for SchizConnect: a longitudinal dataset for large-scale integration,Kogan A. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Cerebral Blood Flow Biomedical Informatics Research Network (CBFBIRN) data repository,Shin D. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The PLORAS Database: a data repository for predicting language outcome and recovery after stroke,Seghier M. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Center for Integrated Molecular Brain Imaging (Cimbi) database,Knudsen M. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Database integration of protocol-specific neurological imaging datasets,Pacurar E. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;BIL&amp;amp;GIN: a neuroimaging cognitive behavioral and genetic database for the study of human brain lateralization,Mazoyer B. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pain and Interoception Imaging Network (PAIN): a multimodal multisite brain-imaging repository for chronic somatic and visceral pain disorders,Labus J. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Connected brains and minds — the UMCD repository for brain connectivity matrices,Brown A. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;NeuroVault.org: a repository for sharing unthresholded statistical maps parcellations and atlases of the human brain,Gorgolewski J. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ANIMA: a data-sharing initiative for neuroimaging meta-analyses,Reid T. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A database of age-appropriate average MRI templates,Richards J.E. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Cambridge MRI database for animal models of Huntington disease,Sawiak J. et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2016-09-02T18:00:53.250" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2016-09-02T18:00:53.250" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15835" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8538" CreationDate="2016-09-03T21:10:47.377" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is: it depends on age. For younger adults, negative memories last longer than positive memories. The opposite is true for older adults (above 60 years old).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.usc.edu/projects/matherlab/pdfs/MatherTsukubainpress.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; is a good review of some of the above effects: Choice-supportive bias, Mood congruent memory bias, Positivity effect, and Negativity bias. It suggests that negative bias only exists among younger adults, while positive memories last longer than negative memories among older adults. The paper also provided several explanations. One of them is that older adults tend to exhibit auto-activation of emotional regulation ability, thus cognitive control comes into play during the memory recall process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mather, M. (2006). Why memories may become more positive as people age. Memory and emotion: Interdisciplinary perspectives, 135-158.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="7138" LastEditDate="2019-08-03T14:54:06.710" LastActivityDate="2019-08-03T14:54:06.710" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15836" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-03T22:47:26.297" Score="4" ViewCount="325" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several studies have suggested that negative memories fade faster than positive memories: Walker, Vogl and Thompson (1997) had the subjects kept dairy during a 3-month period, and rated the events on a pleasantness scale each time, memory tests were conducted on various intervals: 3 months, 1 year and 4.5 years. Results showed that pleasant events are remembered better compared to unpleasant ones, unpleasant ratings also decreased more than pleasant ratings compared to the original ratings. Ritchie et al.(2009) found that the fading affect for negative events is greater than its fixed affect. Kensinger (2008) found that older adults remembered positive nonarousing words better than negative nonarousing words; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is Taylor's (1991) mobilization-minimization hypothesis trying to explain this phenomenon, are you aware of any studies addressing this phenomenon with neural data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kensinger, E. A. (2008). Age differences in memory for arousing and&#xA;nonarousing emotional words. Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological&#xA;Sciences and Social Sciences, 63, P13–P18.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ritchie, Timothy; Skowronski, John J.; Hartnett, Jessica; Wells, Brett; Walker, W. Richard (April 2009). &quot;The fading affect bias in the context of emotion activation level, mood, and personal theories of emotion change&quot; (PDF). Memory. 17 (4): 428–444. doi:10.1080/09658210902791665.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taylor, S. E. (1991). Asymmetrical effects of positive and negative events: the mobilization-minimization hypothesis. Psychological bulletin, 110(1), 67.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Walker, W. R., Vogl, R. J., &amp;amp; Thompson, C. P. (1997). Autobiographical memory: Unpleasantness fades faster than pleasantness over time. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11(5), 399-413.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-06T19:29:27.570" LastActivityDate="2016-09-06T19:29:27.570" Title="What neural mechanism explains the phenomenon that bad memories fade faster than good ones?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15837" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12619" CreationDate="2016-09-03T23:20:25.670" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &quot;social brain&quot; concept likely originated with Robin Dunbar's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence#Social_brain_hypothesis&quot;&gt;Social Brain Hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;, proposed in 1998.  However, Dunbar was not suggesting that the brain has dedicated &quot;social modules&quot;.  Rather, the hypothesis was that the evolutionary driving force behind intelligence (increased brain size and capacity) was social - most prominently the need to track relationships in communities of up to 150 people (henceforth known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunbar%27s_number&quot;&gt;Dunbar's number&lt;/a&gt;).  However, I'll focus my answer on the question as asked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Plasticity:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the criteria for &quot;inherently&quot; social requires some &quot;module&quot; of the brain that has no value outside of a social context, then it is difficult to argue that the brain is &quot;inherently&quot; &lt;em&gt;anything&lt;/em&gt; because the brain is so plastic (contrast this view with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_nativism&quot;&gt;nativism&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, say we argue that the brain is &quot;inherently&quot; visual as there is a fairly distinct &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex&quot;&gt;visual cortex&lt;/a&gt; dedicated to this function.  However, in blind people and others, this area can be co-opted for &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273%2810%2900763-4?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0896627310007634%3Fshowall%3Dtrue&quot;&gt;auditory, tactile, and spatial processing&lt;/a&gt;, so there is nothing &quot;inherently&quot; visual about it.  Perhaps we should focus on a &quot;lower level&quot; part of the visual processing system, such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus&quot;&gt;LGN&lt;/a&gt;, that really is only ever used for visual processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Language:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is difficult (though not impossible) to imagine evolutionary value for language and speech production outside a social context, and this function does appear to have domain-specific modularity in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iVYh3.jpg&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iVYh3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Broca's area is considered the &quot;motor speech cortex&quot;, and appears to be dedicated to speech production.  But like most areas of the brain, the boundaries of this region are not well defined, and on closer inspection, neither is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broca%27s_area#Functions&quot;&gt;its function&lt;/a&gt; - although just about all functions attributed to Broca's area are social.  While language processing has for a long time been associated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broca%27s_area&quot;&gt;Broca's&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area&quot;&gt;Wernicke's&lt;/a&gt; areas on the left side of the brain, language processing can spread out as far as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17109238&quot;&gt;the right hemisphere&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13554790902729473&quot;&gt;some individuals&lt;/a&gt; with lesions in these regions can retain largely unaffected language capabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Relating:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusiform_face_area&quot;&gt;FFA&lt;/a&gt;, in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusiform_gyrus&quot;&gt;fusiform gyrus&lt;/a&gt;, is another potentially social part of the brain, critical for face recognition - a lesion in this region leads to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosopagnosia&quot;&gt;prosopagnosia&lt;/a&gt; (face blindness).  This function is distinct from the system for recognizing inanimate objects, such that other &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_agnosia&quot;&gt;visual agnosias&lt;/a&gt; may not affect facial recognition ability.  This function is already &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_perception#Development&quot;&gt;developed in infancy&lt;/a&gt;, and is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1857737/#sec8&quot;&gt;strong candidate for domain-specificity&lt;/a&gt;.  However, once again, this region of the brain may have other functions, and facial recognition can be subsumed (although less efficiently) by other regions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DMNqd.gif&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Fusiform face area&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DMNqd.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum&quot;&gt;autism and Asperger's&lt;/a&gt; provide another hint at the social nature of the human brain.  Though their etiology is not well understood, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_autism&quot;&gt;it is considered biological&lt;/a&gt;, suggesting a disruption of some inherent social mechanism of the brain.  However, since ASD &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asperger_syndrome#Characteristics&quot;&gt;affects other cognitive functions&lt;/a&gt; as well, it is again not clear that a distinctly social element of the brain is involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Learning:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2889690/&quot;&gt;social reward&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/21/1/42.abstract&quot;&gt;social pain&lt;/a&gt; have been shown to largely recycle the non-social reward and punishment systems, suggesting that there may be nothing inherent in the brain to support learning by social motivation.  However, as pointed out in the question, Theory-of-Mind capabilities may have &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind#Brain_mechanisms&quot;&gt;some modular support&lt;/a&gt; in the brain, though no domain-specific mechanisms have been implicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Noam Chomsky &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Behavior#Chomsky.27s_review&quot;&gt;famously argued&lt;/a&gt; that language acquisition in humans &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_of_the_stimulus&quot;&gt;happens far too quickly&lt;/a&gt; to be accounted for by simple learning - that is, our brain must be &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition_device&quot;&gt;somehow predisposed for language acquisition&lt;/a&gt;.  How this happens is still not well understood, but the same logic is applicable to many other aspects of our social capabilities: We are simply too well honed at social functions such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition_device&quot;&gt;language&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence#Social_brain_hypothesis&quot;&gt;relationships&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory&quot;&gt;modelling&lt;/a&gt;, and other social behaviours to be accounted for by learning / culture alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2016-09-03T23:20:25.670" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15838" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15847" CreationDate="2016-09-04T06:12:09.797" Score="4" ViewCount="6410" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why was Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD) changed to Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)?    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently researching DID and working on an essay relating to its treatment. This change was made from DSM III to DSM IV. I am referencing those two manuals for the treatments and so I was required to explain the terminology change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13603" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-09-05T20:08:59.140" LastActivityDate="2016-09-05T20:08:59.140" Title="Why was MPD changed to DID?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15839" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15842" CreationDate="2016-09-04T17:33:59.757" Score="1" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why can certain people only recognize certain people. For example, if someone white sees a bunch of African or Asian people, how come it's hard for him to differentiate between them, while they can differentiate between themselves so easily. And the same thing with animals, for example: how come apes can differentiate between themselves, but when I go to the zoo they all look the same. Also since facial recognition is not a thing from the past anymore, does anyone know how much are faces really are different?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user13606" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-09-05T06:05:33.960" LastActivityDate="2016-09-05T06:08:24.467" Title="Why are people better at distinguishing people of their own racial group and why are animals better at recognising animals of their own species?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15839" CreationDate="2016-09-05T06:08:24.467" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The ability of people to better recognise and distinguish faces of their own race has been well studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a general discussion, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-race_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cross-race effect&lt;/a&gt; where a range of hypotheses have been proposed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-09-05T06:08:24.467" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15843" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-05T08:06:35.580" Score="3" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;With regard to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glymphatic_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;glymphatic system&lt;/a&gt;, is here a relationship between:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The amount of time spent awake and the amount of interstitial waste accumulated in the brain?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The amount of time spent asleep and the amount of interstitial waste removed?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The time spent awake versus asleep, and the final amount of interstitial waste present at the end of a 24-hour period?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user13613" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-05T11:22:07.940" LastActivityDate="2016-09-05T11:22:07.940" Title="Is there a relationship between the amount of time spent awake/asleep, and interstitial waste removal in the brain?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15844" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-05T12:05:14.343" Score="3" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many adolescents transgress rules and break laws, not out of criminal intent or because they have some disorder, but &quot;for fun&quot;, as an adventure, for the experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is this explained from the perspective of psychology and cognitive sciences? Does this behavior serve a developmental purpose, or is it merely a dangerous side effect that is best suppressed and controlled by parents and authorities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following functions have been suggested&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; for adolescent risk-taking behavior, such as psychoactive substance use, risky driving, or antisocial behavior:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;self-affirmation and experimentation / exploration&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;identification and social acceptance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ritual and emulation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;social visibility and desirability&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;self-exoneration&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;escape through action and excitement&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the term &quot;risk&quot; implies that these behaviors are not necessarily functional in the sense that they help the individual develop healthily. Smoking may lead to peer acceptance, but it is certainly not healthy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, the ubiquity of these behaviors suggests that they must serve some functional purpose. What is it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Bonino, S., Cattelino, E., Ciairano, S., Mc Donald, L., &amp;amp; Jessor, R. (2005). &lt;em&gt;Adolescents and Risk: Behavior, Functions, and Protective Factors&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Springer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorDisplayName="user3116" LastEditDate="2016-09-05T14:54:59.563" LastActivityDate="2016-09-07T08:55:29.580" Title="Is there a developmental purpose to adolescent transgressions?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15845" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15846" CreationDate="2016-09-05T14:40:58.600" Score="6" ViewCount="526" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many questions were asked about general procedures of Electroencephalography (EEG), which were phrased in a rather specific context. Not only were these questions hard to find, they might also be difficult to generalize for novices. This was discussed in this &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2138/21&quot;&gt;meta-post&lt;/a&gt;. Providing a more generalized context could make the information more accessible. Therefore: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the physiology behind EEG measurements and how is this recorded?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-03-16T15:50:00.660" LastActivityDate="2016-10-26T17:53:06.433" Title="Physiology behind EEG measurements" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;meg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15846" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15845" CreationDate="2016-09-05T14:40:58.600" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;EEG research all started with Hans Berger, who in 1929 reported that brain activity could be recorded by measuring electrical activity on the scalp. Although the notion of ‘brain waves’ that were found by Berger was controversial, over the years many researchers replicated the results, which led to the acceptance of EEG as a real phenomenon. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neurons&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Before going into all the different ways of analyzing EEG data, let us first try to understand the brain and how brain activity is generated. Let us therefore look at one of the smallest units in the brain: the neuron. Each neuron has a resting potential of 75 millivolts, meaning that the there is a difference in electrical potential of 75 millivolts between the inside of the cell and the outside. This resting potential is maintained by the Sodium-Potassium pump, by ensuring that there is a high concentration of sodium (Na+) outside of the cell, and a high concentration of potassium (K+) inside the cell. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neuron can be stimulated by an external electrical potential, which will cause the permeability of the cell wall to change. The Na+ and K+ ions are then temporarily free to move through the cell wall, such that the concentration of Na+ and K+ will be the same both inside and outside of the cell. Accompanied with this free flow is a huge increase in voltage, which is also referred to as an &lt;em&gt;action potential&lt;/em&gt;. This action potential will be propagated through the axon to the synapses, which will release neurotransmitters outside of the cell. These neurotransmitters will, in turn, attach to a receptor site at the dendrites of a new neuron, thereby changing the permeability of that neuron. Again, charged ions will flow into that cell, which will result in &lt;em&gt;post-synaptic potential&lt;/em&gt;. This potential can be either inhibitory or excitatory. Thousands of synapses can be related to one dendrite. When enough excitatory post-synaptic potentials (EPSPs) occur simultaneously from these synapses, a new action potential can occur in the new neuron. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Electrical fields&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The influx of ions at the dendritic side of a neuron, as the result of an EPSP, will result in a negatively charged extra-cellular space, relative to the axon-side of the neuron. This is especially interesting for a pyramidal cell, where the axons and dendrites are clearly separated (See Figure 1; left). Because of this orientation, a &lt;em&gt;dipole&lt;/em&gt; will come to exist. A dipole is when a positively charged area is close to a negatively charged area which creates an &lt;em&gt;electrical field&lt;/em&gt;: a space surrounding an ion in which force is exerted on other ions (See Figure 1; right). “When a large number of small dipoles, such as those generated by activity in a pyramidal cell, are summed together, the resulting electrical potential can be described as a single, larger dipole referred to as an ‘equivalent current dipole’ (ECD). The ECD has an orientation equal to the average of the orientations of the smaller dipoles” (Dickter and Kieffaber, 2014). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EtlMX.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EtlMX.png&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 1: Taken from Dickter and Kieffaber (2014)&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Measuring EEG&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The geometry of the pyramidal cells is not all that makes the electrical fields measurable. The orientation is incredibly important. As stated earlier, the electrical fields have the same orientation as the pyramidal neurons (See Figure 1). If the pyramidal cells are perpendicular to the scalp, the electrical fields will be so as well. The electrical fields will then point ‘outwards’ and thereby affect the potential at the scalp (See Figure 2, right). This is what is recorded with EEG. Conversely, when the pyramidal cells are in parallel with the scalp, the electrical fields will be so as well, and therefore will not reach the scalp (see Figure 2; left) and will not be measureable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yIevX.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yIevX.png&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 2: Taken from Dickter and Kieffaber (2014)&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The extent to which the electrical fields are summed, depends on the spatial and temporal contiguity of the pyramidal cells. Neurons that are closer together will have a higher summation than two neurons that are far apart. Although the human body is full of fluids and electrical flow can be conducted throughout it, the effect will diminish when the distance increases. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So now we know where the signal comes from. But how is it recorded? Well, an EEG cap contains electrodes, which are “connected” to the scalp by use of a conductive gel. This gel contains free ions that are able to move freely which, therefore, allows the gel to conduct the biological signal. The signal is then conducted to the metallic electrode through “redox (oxidation-reduction) reactions”, which is the interchange of electrodes between the gel and the metal of the electrodes. When considering Silver-Chloride (AgCl) electrodes, Cl- ions can be removed from the silver and, conversely, Cl- can be bound to free Ag+ ions, thereby creating the compound AgCl. This changes in the metal will then be conducted through the cable to the systems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Analog Digital Conversion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;At this moment, the signal is still analog, that is, a natural occurring signal that can have any natural value. The computer however, is nog capable of measuring analog values. Instead, the analog signal must be converted to digital values, such that it can be represented in bits (ones and zeros). This is done by taking a range of voltages that you expect to be measured, and divide that by the amount of bits that the system can take (see Figure 3)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/F44vW.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/F44vW.png&quot; alt=&quot;Taken from Dickter and Kieffaber (2014)&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extra Note&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EEG can only measure the activity of pyramidal cells that are perpendicular to the scalp and at the surface of the cortex. Are the other pyramidal cells then just lost? Not really. Another really neat property of electrical flow is that it creates a magnetic field that is perpendicular to the dipole (See Figure 4). For the magnetic field to “move out of the head”, making it measurable, the pyramidal cells must lie parallel to the scalp. Magnetic fields also do not need conductive tissue to be measured. This can be recorded with magneto-encephalography (MEG). MEG is thus a perfect complement to EEG, although deeper positioned structures can still not be recorded. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QJHgj.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QJHgj.png&quot; alt=&quot;Picture taken from Luck (2014)&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/introduction-event-related-potential-technique&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Luck, S. J. (2014). An introduction to the event-related potential technique. MIT press. ISO 690&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/eeg-methods-for-the-psychological-sciences/book238043&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dickter, C. L., &amp;amp; Kieffaber, P. D. (2013). EEG methods for the psychological sciences. Sage.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-10-26T17:53:06.433" LastActivityDate="2016-10-26T17:53:06.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15847" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15838" CreationDate="2016-09-05T19:25:26.490" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;DID is one of the most controversial psychiatric disorders, with &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F13554790801992768&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;no clear consensus on diagnostic criteria or treatment&lt;/a&gt;.  To answer your question on why MPD was renamed DID, for completeness, there is a bit of history to bear in mind and we will look at the versions of the DSM over the years and how things changed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;DSM-II&lt;/strong&gt; used the term Hysterical Neurosis, Dissociative Type. It described the possible occurrence of alterations in the patient's state of consciousness or identity, and included the symptoms of &quot;amnesia, somnambulism, fugue, and multiple personality.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;DSM-III&lt;/strong&gt; grouped the diagnosis with the other four major dissociative disorders using the term &quot;multiple personality disorder&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;DSM-IV&lt;/strong&gt; made more changes to DID &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=YBSqjV6wFQQC&amp;amp;pg=PA473&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;than any other dissociative disorder&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=3SQrtpnHb9MC&amp;amp;pg=PA526&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;renamed it DID&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The name was changed for two reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The change emphasises the main problem is not a multitude of personalities, but rather a &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=YBSqjV6wFQQC&amp;amp;pg=PA473&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;lack of a single, unified identity&lt;/a&gt; and an emphasis on &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fda.20874&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;the identities as centers of information processing&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The term &quot;personality&quot; is used to refer to &quot;characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, moods and behaviors of the whole individual&quot;, while for a patient with DID, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=YBSqjV6wFQQC&amp;amp;pg=PA473&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;switches between identities and behavior patterns is the personality.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is for this reason the &lt;strong&gt;DSM-IV-TR&lt;/strong&gt; referred to &quot;distinct identities or personality states&quot; instead of personalities. The diagnostic criteria also changed to indicate that while the patient may name and personalise alters, &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=YBSqjV6wFQQC&amp;amp;pg=PA473&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;they lack an independent, objective existence&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;DSM-IV-TR&lt;/strong&gt; criteria for DID have been criticised for failing to capture the clinical complexity of DID, lacking usefulness in diagnosing individuals with DID (for instance, by focusing on the two least frequent and most subtle symptoms of DID) producing a high rate of false negatives and an excessive number of &lt;strong&gt;Dissociative disorder not otherwise specified (DDNOS)&lt;/strong&gt; diagnoses, for excluding possession (seen as a cross-cultural form of DID), and for including only two &quot;core&quot; symptoms of DID (amnesia and self-alteration) while failing to discuss hallucinations, trance-like states, somatoform, depersonalisation, and derealisation symptoms. Arguments have been made for allowing diagnosis through the presence of some, but not all of the characteristics of DID rather than the current exclusive focus on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fda.20874&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;two least common and noticeable features&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;DSM-5&lt;/strong&gt; updated the definition of DID in 2013, and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Practice/DSM/DSM-5/Changes-from-DSM-IV-TR--to-DSM-5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;summary of changes&lt;/a&gt; listed the changes as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several changes to the criteria for dissociative identity disorder&#xA;  have been made in DSM-5. First, Criterion A has been expanded to&#xA;  include certain possession-form phenomena and functional neurological&#xA;  symptoms to account for more diverse presentations of the disorder.&#xA;  Second, Criterion A now specifically states that transitions in&#xA;  identity may be observable by others or self-reported. Third,&#xA;  according to Criterion B, individuals with dissociative identity&#xA;  disorder may have recurrent gaps in recall for everyday events, not&#xA;  just for traumatic experiences. Other text modifications clarify the&#xA;  nature and course of identity disruptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-09-05T19:25:26.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15829" CreationDate="2016-09-05T20:02:05.130" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The ideal impedance of any electrode aimed at recording low-amplitude neural signals (barred suction glass-pipette electrodes for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_clamp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;patch clamping&lt;/a&gt;) is simply: &lt;strong&gt;as low as possible&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jove.com/video/1098/micro-drive-array-for-chronic-in-vivo-recording-tetrode-assembly&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tetrodes&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, electrodes consisting of a bundle of four microwires that can record from multiple neurons simultaneously in the brain of freely moving animal, they are usually electroplated to reduce their impedance from 2-3 MΩ to 200-500 kΩ (measured at 1 kHz). Low impedances increase the signal-to-noise ratio and allow for the recording of small-amplitude signals. Tetrodes with lower impedances could theoretically further improve SNR, but this is technically not possible with the standard electroplating methods, per an article from 2009 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3048465/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ferguson &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A straightforward way of reducing impedance is to increase the surface of the electrode. Increasing the absolute size may very well be detrimental to the purpose of collecting single unit recordings, as larger electrodes inherently pick up the activity more neurons. A more feasible way is to increase the surface by means of altering the microstructure of the electrode, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, increase its &lt;em&gt;roughness&lt;/em&gt; (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MFG4n.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MFG4n.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;electrode surface&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. smooth (A) and rough electrode surface (B). source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2015/tc/c5tc00145e#!divAbstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jeff-Du &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; (2015)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A method where tetrodes were plated with a gold solution with added polyethylene glycol (PEG) or multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) solutions was reported to to lower the impedance further to 30-70 kΩ. MWCNTs and PEG reportedly act as inhibitors in the electroplating process and create a larger surface area, thereby lowering the impedance on the tetrode tips &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3048465/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ferguson &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3048465/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ferguson &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Sens Actuators A Phys&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;156&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 388–93&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2015/tc/c5tc00145e#!divAbstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jeff Du &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Mater Chem C&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt;: 6515-24&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-06T07:17:28.417" LastActivityDate="2016-09-06T07:17:28.417" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15849" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-06T07:51:28.073" Score="3" ViewCount="1591" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had a question about sirens in another section which led to a question in physics section...and I was told my question is more suitable for cognitive science.  So here it goes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many kinds of noises: from a heavy truck going by to the wailing of sirens from an ambulance. Then there is someone next to you snoring. Although they are all bothersome, they can't be the exact same thing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've heard people use the term &quot;white noise&quot; to cancel out or reduce other noise. Granted I have used various earplugs (which reduce only reduce certain kinds of noise and not that well either), but looking at white noise, I realized there is so much about noise and sounds that I don't know about. For instance there is also brown noise and pink noise. There is a sound's loudness, pitch, timber, direction, frequency, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I go about finding the right kind of sound masking for different kinds of sounds like snoring and wailing ambulances?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13622" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-06T13:24:34.740" LastActivityDate="2016-09-06T20:06:02.073" Title="What is the difference between noise reduction and noise cancellation?" Tags="&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;psychoacoustics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15851" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15849" CreationDate="2016-09-06T08:35:41.240" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure but you what you might want to learn is phase cancellation. Sound is a wave, the compression and dilatation of the air between the source of noise and your ears. &#xA;If you add another sound, where the waves are exactly the opposite of the first one, they will both disappear.&#xA;Some headphones use this technique to reduce the sound. They detect the sound around you and cancel it by creating an opposite sound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_noise_control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_noise_control&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit : Actually you can see more illustrations here :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two dimensional diagram are usually used to represent the vibration. Your ear doesn't hear all the sounds. You can add several sounds together. They will be mixed and this will change the way you hear it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11626" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-06T09:36:02.097" LastActivityDate="2016-09-06T09:36:02.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15852" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15849" CreationDate="2016-09-06T08:46:02.107" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's start with the terminologies in your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~emusic/etext/acoustics/chapter1_loudness.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Loudness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: The level (amplitude) of the sound. The higher the sound level, the louder it is perceived. Loudness is measured on a dB scale, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.noise-measurement.nl/sound-power-pressure-dB(A)-SPL-SWL.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dBA&lt;/a&gt; (corrected for the human sensitivity across frequencies), &lt;a href=&quot;https://auditoryneuroscience.com/acoustics/clinical_audiograms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dB HL&lt;/a&gt; (used in the clinic relative to normal-hearing level) or &lt;a href=&quot;http://ec.europa.eu/health/opinions/en/hearing-loss-personal-music-player-mp3/l-3/2-sound-measurement-decibel.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dB SPL&lt;/a&gt; (a more physical approach to sound level). In Figure 1 below an impression is given in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.noise-measurement.nl/sound-power-pressure-dB(A)-SPL-SWL.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dBA&lt;/a&gt; (A-weighted sound levels). Don't worry about dB scalings too much. Generally spoken, normal speech is around 65 dB, background noise around 30 dB and the pain threshold around 130 dB (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/new_noise/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;OSHA&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3gh7y.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3gh7y.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;sound level chart&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Sound level chart. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://demo.bigtraction.com/iq/cinema/cinema-audio/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IQ&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~emusic/acoustics/frequency.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frequency&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: A perfect &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.math.umn.edu/~rogness/math1155/soundwaves/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sine wave&lt;/a&gt; has a single &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frequency&lt;/a&gt;. This corresponds to a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/tone.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pure tone&lt;/a&gt;. Most normally occurring sounds have multiple frequencies. Frequency determines pitch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.le.ac.uk/se/centres/sci/selfstudy/snd5.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pitch&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: Basically determined by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~emusic/acoustics/frequency.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frequency&lt;/a&gt; of the sound. The audible frequency range of humans ranges from approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/HearingRange.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LSU&lt;/a&gt;). The subjective perception of frequency is called pitch.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thefreedictionary.com/timber&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Timber&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: no, no, timber has something to do with wood - it's &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/science/timbre&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;timbre&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Timbre represents 'those subjective qualities of [sounds] not determined by [their] pitch our loudness. It is determined by the frequency spectrum and envelope (envelope is the slow, low-frequency part of the sound that envelopes it) (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbre&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt;). In terms of sound attenuation/masking/cancellation, it is of not much interest. Likely the timbre can influence the nuisance factor of a sound, but not more. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Direction&lt;/strong&gt;: acoustically generally defined as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_localization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;azimuth&lt;/a&gt; (degrees in horizontal plane) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_localization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;elevation&lt;/a&gt; (degrees in the vertical plane). Also here, in terms of sound attenuation/masking/cancellation, it is of not much interest &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/science/white-noise-acoustics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;White noise&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: A random signal with a constant power spectral density. It is a discrete signal whose samples are regarded as a sequence of serially uncorrelated random variables with zero mean and finite variance. One may also require that the samples be independent and have the same probability distribution. If each sample has a normal distribution with zero mean, the signal is said to be Gaussian white noise (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_noise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Subjectively, white noise has a sharp, rather unpleasant hissing quality to it.&lt;/strong&gt; Check it out at &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinetonegenerator.com/noise.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Online Tone Generator&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/science/pink-noise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pink noise&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: Pink noise or 1⁄f noise is a signal or process with a frequency spectrum such that the power spectral density [...] is inversely proportional to the frequency of the signal. [E]ach octave [...] carries an equal amount of noise energy. The name arises from the pink appearance of visible light with this power spectrum (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_noise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;strong&gt;Pink noise has much higher low-frequency contribution than white noise, and is therefore more pleasant to the ear. It approaches the sound of rainfall, or that of a waterfall. Pink noise is a better choice when you wish to go to sleep, as it is often experienced as relaxing&lt;/strong&gt;. Check it out at &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinetonegenerator.com/noise.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Online Tone Generator&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brown noise doesn't exist, as far as I know. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colors_of_noise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brownian noise&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is what you are after. Brownian noise, or red noise, is the kind of signal noise produced by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/zgr2pv4/revision/5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brownian motion&lt;/a&gt;, hence its alternative name of &lt;a href=&quot;http://arxiv.org/abs/1305.1721&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;random walk noise&lt;/a&gt;. The term &quot;Brownian noise&quot; comes not from the color, but after &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brown_(Scottish_botanist_from_Montrose)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robert Brown&lt;/a&gt;, the discoverer of Brownian motion. The term &quot;red noise&quot; comes from the &quot;white noise&quot;/&quot;white light&quot; analogy; red noise is strong in longer wavelengths, similar to the red end of the visible spectrum (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian_noise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt;). It is a much less commonly encountered noise. Check it out at &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinetonegenerator.com/noise.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Online Tone Generator&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's basically three things you can do to get rid of pesky sounds:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_attenuation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Attenuation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. This is a typically a &lt;strong&gt;passive&lt;/strong&gt; way of noise reduction, which can be accomplished by blocking the noise with ear plugs, ear muffs, sound-proof walls etc. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earplug&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ear plugs&lt;/a&gt; come in a huge variety, ranging from a couple of foam ear plugs for a few cents per pair to sophisticated ear plugs of hundreds of bucks, to the hand-made, individually tailored plugs available from medical professionals. The latter, obviously, are the best. They are used by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hearnet.com/images_site/erme_brochure.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;professional musicians&lt;/a&gt; for example and are made by professionals by making a cast of your outer ear and molding a perfectly fitting shape into it. All these plugs do, however, is dampen the sounds, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, lower the sound level. The better ones attenuate sounds with a good many dBs (say 30 to 40 dB) with a 'flat &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dspguide.com/ch9/2.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frequency characteristic&lt;/a&gt;', meaning they attenuate all audible frequencies in roughly the same way. The cheaper ones attenuate poorly, and worse, often their frequency characteristics show a peak at the higher frequencies and low performance at the low frequencies. This causes bass noises to come straight through (snoring, musical drums etc.). However, even with a rockstar plug of -40dB, you will reduce a siren passing close by with only 40 dB, leaving about 70 dB (depending on the distance from the siren of course).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cambridgesound.com/learn/sound-masking-101/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Masking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. This is an &lt;strong&gt;active&lt;/strong&gt; approach, where you don't attenuate the background noise, but you mask it with a more pleasant sound. White noise is ideal, as it encompasses all audible frequencies. This means that whatever the noise source is, it will be effectively masked by the white noise. The pink noise may, however, be a better candidate, because it is more pleasant to the ear than white noise, as said. At the higher frequencies, pink noise will perform less well than white noise, however, so the ambulance wail will come through relatively loud. Low-frequency noises like snoring are masked well. In fact, pink noise is often used for babies and adults to sleep, because it is a rather pleasant sound. However, to mask a sound with a certain frequency spectrum of 70 dB, you need an equal 'amount' of pink noise in the same frequency band to mask it completely. Since low frequencies are well represented in pink noise, low-frequency sounds of relatively low sound level are masked pretty well, such as snoring, or the pesky bass of the neighbors TV. To block out a siren, or the noise of a full blown house party, you should turn up the pink noise so loud that it simply wouldn't do you any good.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_noise_control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cancellation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. This is intelligent &lt;strong&gt;active&lt;/strong&gt; sound masking, also called active noise. Here, a device records the surrounding noise with a microphone and a built-in speaker generates sounds reversed in phase with the same amplitude. Theoretically, this perfectly cancels out the noise, whatever the frequency, whatever the level. Protection of a &quot;1-dimension zone&quot; is relatively straightforward and requires only one or two microphones and speakers to be effective. Several commercial applications have been successful, especially the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise-cancelling_headphones&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;noise-cancelling headphones&lt;/a&gt;. The term &quot;1-dimension&quot; refers to a simple pistonic relationship between the noise and the active speaker (mechanical noise reduction) or between the active speaker and the listener (headphones). Cancellation of sounds in a 3D environment becomes challenging (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_noise_control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-06T20:06:02.073" LastActivityDate="2016-09-06T20:06:02.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15855" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13829" CreationDate="2016-09-06T16:50:09.177" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy and 2-photon Fluorescence Microscopy are two techniques commonly used in neuroscience to image only one plane of the sample and thus increase resolution. However, how they achieve this technically is  distinct. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Confocal  (confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM))&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://nikon.magnet.fsu.edu/articles/confocal/confocalintrobasics.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;confocal microscopy&lt;/a&gt; the sample is scanned with a laser in X and Y coordinates and fluorescence is recovered by de-scanning the emitted photons. To select photons emitted only in the imaging plane (focal plane), a pin-hole restricts the collection of the emitted light allowing only the passage of photons emitted in the plane one is currently imaging. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jWIbC.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jWIbC.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This image exemplifies how emitted photons (dashed red beam) originating outside of the focal plane will be blocked by the pinhole before reaching the detector.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has several consequences &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) The laser light &lt;strong&gt;will&lt;/strong&gt; excite fluorophore which you are not imaging (because the emitted photons are blocked by the pinhole). This bleaches your sample below and above your imaging plane while you are not collecting information from those planes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) The emission path has to be de-scanned in order for the pinhole to work. This long path from the emission to the detection of the emission photons means that you are loosing some precious emission photos. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2-photon Scanning Laser Microscopy&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of confocal microscopy excitation is achieved by the acceptance of 1 high energy photon. However, in &lt;a href=&quot;http://nikon.magnet.fsu.edu/articles/fluorescence/multiphoton/multiphotonintro.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2-photon microscopy&lt;/a&gt;, two photons of half the energy are used to excite the fluorophore. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uLMeH.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uLMeH.png&quot; alt=&quot;single photon vs 2-photon excitation&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This introduces a non-linearity that has the following immediate consequence : if you need to 2-photons to coincide on the same fluorophore to excite it then you will only excite molecules of flurophore in a small volume of space in which the intensity of the laser is sufficient. Then since the excitation of molecules is limited to a small volume in x,y,z. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HZHQ4.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HZHQ4.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This image shows the difference between excitation when done with single photon (left) and 2-photon (right). Black is the areas where the excitation took place. As you can see on the left the single photon excitation excites planes below and above the imaging plane.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then 3 things happen&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) You can restrict your imaging to a plane without the need of adding a pinhole. In Confocal the pinhole restricts the passage of photons emitted from planes other than the imaging plane. In 2-photon your effective excitation is already restricted in the Z plane, so the emission will also be restricted to this plane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Since you now don't need a pinhole, you don't need to de-scan the emission. This means you can put your detector (Photon Multiplier Tube: PMT) very close to where the emission happens. Now you want all the photons you can get, because they all come from your image plane!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) You are not bleaching other Z planes of your sample, because the intensity in other planes is not enough so that 2 photons excite the fluorophores. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13360" LastActivityDate="2016-09-06T16:50:09.177" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15856" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12246" CreationDate="2016-09-06T19:58:43.287" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answers:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) The true purpose of this architecture is not known (yet).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Yes, it is the same information, since the signal comes from the same axon (for climbing fibers see e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9284054&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;De Zeeuw et al., 1997&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Comment on the first answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, though, there are many theories about the function of the cerebellar circuits, including these collaterals of the mossy and the climbing fibers. I would refer to the articles on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cerebellum#The_cerebellum_implements_spatio-temporal_transformations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;scholarpedia&lt;/a&gt; as entry points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To give you an &lt;strong&gt;extremely simplified&lt;/strong&gt; scenario where such an architecture could be useful:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say the mossy fibers contain the motor plan, coming from the cerebral cortex and the climbing fibers contain the true state of the limbs coming from the peripheral sensors (formulated like this, these statements are certainly not true). Now the direct signals to the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) could be used to quickly compute a rough &quot;movement error&quot; (i.e. planned trajectory vs. real trajectory) that already initiates a quick, rough movement correction. The signals to the cerebellar cortex would be used to compute an exact &quot;movement error&quot; which is also integrated at the DCN &quot;a bit later&quot; (i.e. some synaptic transmissions later) to further refine the movement correction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, this is certainly not what is going on in the cerebellum but might give you some intuition of why such a circuitry could exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;De Zeeuw CI, Van Alphen AM, Hawkins RK, Ruigrok TJ. Climbing fibre collaterals contact neurons in the cerebellar nuclei that provide a GABAergic feedback to the inferior olive. Neuroscience. 1997 Oct; 80(4):981-6.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2016-09-06T19:58:43.287" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15860" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13683" CreationDate="2016-09-07T00:08:48.053" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As said in the comments, $U_4$ and $U_5$ are not used to compute the values of the output neurons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in some cases one may allow the connections between neurons to change over time, in which case $U_4$ and $U_5$ may be later used to compute the values of the output neurons. Seanny123 gives biology as an example. For another example, you may want to look at the  literature on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroevolution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;neuro-evolution&lt;/a&gt;, i.e. optimization of neural architectures with evolutionary algorithms, which may allow changing the connections between neurons over generations (e.g. that's what I did for my master thesis:  &lt;em&gt;Franck Dernoncourt. &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.francky.me/doc/mrf2011-HEC-ISIR-ENS_en.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The medial Reticular Formation: a neural substrate for action selection? An evaluation via evolutionary computation.&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Master's Thesis. École Normale&#xA;Supérieure Ulm. 2011.&lt;/em&gt;, though I may have coded the mutation and crossover operators in such a way that dead-end neurons don't appear, I don't recall).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="517" LastEditorUserId="517" LastEditDate="2016-09-07T00:13:53.027" LastActivityDate="2016-09-07T00:13:53.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15861" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-07T06:24:20.003" Score="2" ViewCount="172" Body="&lt;p&gt;I get the impression most people having a cognitive problem are encouraged to see either a psychologists or psychiatrists (the actual medical doctors) to&#xA;engage in verbal or pharmaceutical therapy. I actually knew someone who, in the '80s, was having visual hallucinations for months and seeing a therapist before she actually got a brain scan and discovered it was a benign tumor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I can understand that scans cost money, since repeated therapy sessions also cost money, I don't really understand why the prevailing advice isn't &quot;scan the person's brain first, and check their blood, then try chatting with them if it isn't obvious after that&quot;. Wouldn't you want to go with the obvious, empirical objective measures first, and switch to heuristics after that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which isn't to say that it isn't important to have an initial conversation with the person- for the same reason a person should have a conversation with their GP- but it seems like that only makes sense as a precursor or supplement to the physical testing that also needs to happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13632" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-07T10:49:21.180" LastActivityDate="2016-09-07T10:53:29.470" Title="Why is the initial first-line response to a psychological problem not a brain scan?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15862" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15844" CreationDate="2016-09-07T08:42:13.113" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The function of rebellion is to challenge conclusions reached by previous generations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the conclusions of each generation were not challenged, errors in judgment would be perpetuated, leading to larger and larger errors in subsequent generations as each successive generation built upon the false conclusions of the previous generations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This can be observed in technological and entrepreneurial &quot;disruptions&quot;, in which rebels (entrepreneurs) gain competitive advantages by challenging established assumptions about the market, or &quot;conventional wisdom,&quot; and generate creative solutions that serve as more than just clones  of established business models. (PayPal, Facebook, Google, Twitter, Amazon, Uber, and perhaps even Tesla could be said to have profited from this disruptive, creative paradigm.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adolescents transgress for many reasons, but important to remember is that they often do so not in directed pursuit of goals, but rather to explore the possibility space and establish their sense of self-determination. Later, as goal-attainment becomes important, individuals who have explored larger spaces have larger bodies of experience upon which to draw, from which they can generate creative solutions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no academic sources for these assertions. They are simply observations of learning patterns that I have seen others exploit, and thus learned to exploit myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastEditorUserId="11010" LastEditDate="2016-09-07T08:55:29.580" LastActivityDate="2016-09-07T08:55:29.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15863" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15861" CreationDate="2016-09-07T08:47:45.230" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first stop when a non-emergency medical issue evolves is, as you say, a visit to the GP. This is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; a supplement to diagnosis. Instead, a visit to the GP can be a critical step in the treatment process and a GP will assess what the &lt;strong&gt;most probable&lt;/strong&gt; underlying cause is during a &lt;a href=&quot;http://patient.info/doctor/consultation-analysis&quot;&gt;consultation&lt;/a&gt;, based on a physical examination and verbal communications. Then the GP can refer the patient to the proper next medical practitioner for specialized help. Note that a diagnosis involves mainly &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;excluding other causes and narrowing down the list of options&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your case report lacks some critical information (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, age at diagnosis &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;.), but the statistics behind the diagnosis can still tell a lot about the GPs decision: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cbtrus.org/factsheet/factsheet.html&quot;&gt;incidence of brain tumors&lt;/a&gt; is about 22 cases per 100,000 individuals (&lt;strong&gt;0.02%&lt;/strong&gt;). Brain tumors are most likely to arise in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abta.org/about-us/news/brain-tumor-statistics/&quot;&gt;kids or late teens&lt;/a&gt;. Dependent on the age of your friend at the time of diagnosis, this may have placed them out of that age window.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The incidence of visual hallucinations is about 17 per 1000 &lt;strong&gt;(1.7%)&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1792560&quot;&gt;(Tien, 1991)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, orders of magnitude higher than brain tumors. In other words, just a minor fraction of visual hallucinations are caused by brain tumors. A more likely cause for hallucinations are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/schizophrenia/guide/schizophrenia-symptoms&quot;&gt;positive psychotic symptoms&lt;/a&gt;, the realm of psychotherapists and psychiatrists. Most visual hallucinations are caused by psychosis (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, schizophrenia), Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/brain/what-are-hallucinations#1&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt;). The latter two are typical cheriatric diseases (diseases linked to old age). If your friend was not considered an elderly at the time of diagnosis, it would make psychosis the most likely candidate cause of the symptoms. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain scans do not diagnose Alzheimer's or Parkinson's, nor psychosis. A brain scan would only, perhaps, find a tumor that has a very small chance of occurring. Moreover, a single scan may not be enough. The tumor may be small and clinical tests, fMRI, PET, or bone scans may be necessary (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/neurology_neurosurgery/centers_clinics/brain_tumor/diagnosis/how-to-diagnose-brain-tumors.html&quot;&gt;JHMI&lt;/a&gt;), which can result in an extensive list of scans, many hospital visits, and associated financial burden. The GP chose the best hit, and that's a psychiatric issue.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1792560&quot;&gt;Tien, &lt;em&gt;Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol&lt;/em&gt; (1991); &lt;strong&gt;26&lt;/strong&gt;(6):287-92&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-07T10:53:29.470" LastActivityDate="2016-09-07T10:53:29.470" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15864" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2016-09-07T08:57:48.577" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A diagnosis may involve:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A physical exam. The doctor will try to rule out physical problems that could cause your symptoms.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lab tests. These may include, for example, a check of your thyroid function or a screening for alcohol and drugs.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A psychological evaluation. A doctor or mental health provider talks to the patient about their symptoms, thoughts, feelings and behavior patterns. A questionnaire may be deployed to help answer these questions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mental-illness/basics/tests-diagnosis/con-20033813&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-07T08:57:48.577" LastActivityDate="2016-09-07T08:57:48.577" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15865" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2016-09-07T08:57:48.577" Score="0" Body="The process of determining the cause of an illness and check for related complications." OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-07T08:57:48.577" LastActivityDate="2016-09-07T08:57:48.577" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15866" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-07T08:58:06.417" Score="11" ViewCount="271" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has any research been done on how clinicians' (either internists or psychiatrists) known psychological conditions influence the diagnoses, misdiagnoses, and prognoses they make?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And, related to that, has there been any concerted conscious effort made to control for the above?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'm also curious how medical, non-psychological conditions affect the above, but that wouldn't strictly-speaking be on topic so I'm limiting this to psychological problems for now.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;the kind of studies I mean&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm envisaging is a study akin to the following, and am curious about what similar studies have found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;two pools of practicing clinicians are chosen (with random partitioning between the two),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;everyone in pool A is screened for current psychological disorders by a subset (say, three) of &lt;em&gt;multiple, randomly chosen&lt;/em&gt; individuals from pool B,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the professional (diagnostic) history of every clinician in pool A is reviewed, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the experimenter looks for patterns of correlation between mental disorders in the clinicians themselves, and the disorders that those individuals tend to diagnose / misdiagnose (sensitivity v. specificity). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;the kind of (statistically significant) results I'm curious about&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, for example, do clinicians who have (to choose two disorders randomly) NPD tend to diagnose depression more often than those without NPD? And, when they do diagnose depression, do they tend to have more favorable or less favorable prognoses for their patients? What are their recommendations? And how often do their recommendations work out well v. badly? What mental characteristics are adaptive v. maladaptive within this extremely specific context?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More to the point, does it &quot;take one to know one&quot;, or does a lack of personal experience with something provide better objectivity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And are some disorders (maladaptive within larger society) unambiguously good across-the-board in a clinical setting, are they all harmful, or should people with disorder X specialize in disorder Y, and avoid treating patients with disorder Z?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, pool A doesn't actually need to be psych clinicians. It could be applied to GPs, oncologists, surgeons, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13632" LastEditorUserId="13632" LastEditDate="2016-09-09T23:41:00.397" LastActivityDate="2018-07-14T13:32:24.240" Title="How do clinicians control for their own mental disorders?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15868" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-07T13:01:13.617" Score="2" ViewCount="5899" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally, people looking at an example of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubin_vase&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rubin Vase&lt;/a&gt; see either the vase, or the faces. The brain seems to make a decision on which one is being viewed, but both cannot be focused-on at the same time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the Rubin vase a form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inattentional_blindness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;inattentional blindness&lt;/a&gt;, caused by the same brain function that only allows us to focus on certain objects in our field-of-view, but not others? The &lt;a href=&quot;http://bigthink.com/videos/missing-the-200-pound-gorilla-in-the-room&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gorilla-in-the-Room&lt;/a&gt; is another example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13634" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-07T19:19:45.020" LastActivityDate="2017-11-14T01:01:17.723" Title="Is the Rubin Vase illusion an example of inattentional blindness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15869" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15866" CreationDate="2016-09-07T13:24:47.387" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.counsellingme.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/What-is-supervision.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clinical Supervision&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?q=psychiatrist+clinical+supervision&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;see these articles on effectiveness&lt;/a&gt;) is standard practice and required in codes of practice for registered counsellors, psychotherapists, psychologists, psychiatrists, etc. and those in training.&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; This is separate and completely different to line-management but necessary for effective line-management&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;There is no one way to do clinical supervision, but there are a few principles…&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;clinical supervision allows a person to focus on particular aspects of their clinical practice in a way that they would not normally do&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it is characterised by reflection on previous action and its implications for future action&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a clinical supervisor will often challenge the supervisee to think outside of their current ways of working&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the clinical supervisor will offer support and advice&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the supervisee tends to learn alternative ways of working and specific skills&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the clinical supervisor will be interested in the quality of the supervisees performance and wellbeing; and will offer constructive feedback&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming that all therapists follow the code of practice, all clinicians will be monitored for mental health conditions and other problems which would affect their ability to perform their work effectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clinical supervisors have a duty of care, not only to the supervisee (the therapist), but also the supervisee's clients, and if the supervisor feels that abuse of power is occurring they must refer it to the governing bodies to remove their licence to practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If they feel there are any mental health issues preventing the supervisee from acting effectively, then the supervisor will refer the supervisee for therapy.  If necessary, they may also take further action to prevent the therapist from causing harm to their clients whilst undergoing therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-14T13:32:24.240" LastActivityDate="2018-07-14T13:32:24.240" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15872" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15868" CreationDate="2016-09-07T19:02:44.263" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The Rubin Vase is a visual illusion, which can be traced down to the way the visual system analyzes visual scenes in terms of objects and background. Inattentional blindness is not an illusion, it is the failure to detect stimuli when the mind is focused on something else. It has to do with the limitations in the capacity of the visual system to extract relevant information from a visual scene.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Rubin Vase illusion (Fig. 1) is an example of an &lt;strong&gt;ambiguous &lt;a href=&quot;http://art.nmu.edu/groups/cognates/wiki/661cf/FigureGround_Reversal.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;figure/ground illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The visual system interprets patterns in terms of external objects. To do this, the visual system distinguishes objects (figure) from background (ground). In the Rubin Vase illusion, when the faces are considered background, you will see the vase as figure, and &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fkcsv.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fkcsv.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/37ekq.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/37ekq.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Rubin vase illusion. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psylux.psych.tu-dresden.de/i1/kaw/diverses%20Material/www.illusionworks.com/html/figure_ground.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TU Dresden&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The visual system represents objects primarily in terms of their contours. Also, elements that are close together, or share certain features, or are homogeneous in certain respects tend to be grouped together (grouping). The sudden reversal one may perceive is thought to be due to a shift of attention on the shape of the contour. The observer's &quot;perceptual set&quot; and individual interests can also bias the situation. Biasing the shapes or contours can make one interpretation stronger than the other one. This particular illusion involves higher cortical processing, because previously stored information about vases and faces are resourced (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psylux.psych.tu-dresden.de/i1/kaw/diverses%20Material/www.illusionworks.com/html/figure_ground.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TU Dresden&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Invisible Gorilla (see a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theinvisiblegorilla.com/gorilla_experiment.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;video clip here&lt;/a&gt;) (Fig. 2) is the effect where people instructed to focus on a particular target are prone to miss other salient, sometimes striking stimuli. The classic, familiar example being subjects shown a basketball game and they are instructed to keep count of how many times the ball is passed between players in the black team. When the subjects watch the video clip and attentively count the number of passes, about half of the subjects totally miss the scene in the video where a man in a giant gorilla suit walks slowly into the middle of the screen, beats his chest and then wanders off, because they were so focused on counting the passes (that’s not to mention the other deliberate mistakes in the video) (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://lifeinthefastlane.com/inattentional-blindness-unintentional-consequences/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Life in the Fast Lane&lt;/a&gt;). A newer version hits home even harder; 24 experienced radiologists were asked to perform a familiar lung-nodule detection task. A gorilla, 48 times the size of the average nodule, was inserted in the last case that was presented. Eighty-three percent of the radiologists did not see the gorilla. Eye tracking revealed that the majority of those who missed the gorilla looked directly at its location. Thus, even expert searchers, operating in their domain of expertise, are vulnerable to inattentional blindness &lt;a href=&quot;http://search.bwh.harvard.edu/new/pubs/DrewVoWolfe13.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Drew &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;.,, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4umqp.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4umqp.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;invisible gorilla&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Invisible Gorilla. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://healthyinfluence.com/wordpress/2013/09/16/exposure-is-not-reception-as-the-gorilla-proves/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Persuasion Blog&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Invisible Gorilla is an example of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/apr01/blindness.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inattentional blindness&lt;/a&gt;. Inattentional blindness can be defined as: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The failure to notice unexpected objects or events when attention is focused elsewhere&lt;/strong&gt; [...] (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://nobaproject.com/modules/failures-of-awareness-the-case-of-inattentional-blindness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simons&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://search.bwh.harvard.edu/new/pubs/DrewVoWolfe13.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Drew &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;24&lt;/strong&gt;(9): 1848–53&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-07T19:47:45.613" LastActivityDate="2016-09-07T19:47:45.613" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15873" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13731" CreationDate="2016-09-07T21:45:19.763" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;From my personal experience, I do not think darker surfaces are regarded preferably as the object, and light surfaces as the background.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I have been pondering on this question for so long that I decided to post &lt;em&gt;an&lt;/em&gt; answer. Perhaps it will draw attention from others who can give a more definitive answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This answer was inspired by &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/15868/is-the-rubin-vase-illusion-an-example-of-inattentional-blindness&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; on the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psylux.psych.tu-dresden.de/i1/kaw/diverses%20Material/www.illusionworks.com/html/figure_ground.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rubin Vase Illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. It is an &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Figure-ground_perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ambiguous figure/ground illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; which is thought to depend on the visual system analyzing scenes in terms of object (figure) and background (ground). You can see a vase when you regard the faces as background and &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;. In the Fig. 1 below I have posted two versions of this illusion where the black and white portions are reversed. Personally, and hence anecdotally, I do not perceive a clear difference in the perception of the vase versus faces between both figures. Hence, based on this anecdotal evidence I tend to believe that the definition of figure and ground is independent on color (shades of gray in this case). I couldn't find references for the flip-flop rates or vase-versus-face perception time on the two stimuli, unfortunately. In all, what a great question!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/d8iNA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/d8iNA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IOtK0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IOtK0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Contrast-inverted Rubin Illusions. sources: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2855546/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Winkler &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2006)&lt;/a&gt; (left panel) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intropsych.com/ch04_senses/gestalt_psychology.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Russel &amp;amp; Dowey (2014)&lt;/a&gt; (right panel)&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intropsych.com/ch04_senses/gestalt_psychology.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Russel &amp;amp; Dowey, &lt;em&gt;Psychology: An Introduction&lt;/em&gt; (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2855546/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Winkler &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Eur J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;24&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 625–34&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-06T21:15:22.767" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T21:15:22.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15874" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-08T02:04:55.993" Score="1" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was always fascinated by the stark contrast between the character played by Brad Pitt in True Romance (small role) and the character Rusty in Ocean's Eleven. Same person, completely different persona. Gary Oldman is another one that is so chamaeleon like, it is often difficult to recognize him in character (nevermind the makeup and costume).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I am curious to know if the techniques associated with method acting, attempting to live in the shoes of a desired character, have any basis for helping a normal person become the type of person they desire to be (behavior and persoanlity).&lt;/strong&gt; I am not sure if method actors ever actually 'become' the character they are portraying, but from outward appearances it would be difficult to tell. They may very well easily discard their character once finished. However, I have heard that DiCaprio suffered from some residual effects of portraying Howard Hughes in The Aviator. This type of behavioral modification is similar to &quot;fake it until you make it&quot;, or simply performing a repetitive action until it becomes natural. Nothing new. But I am wondering if method acting (and its associated techniques) could contribute something new to this process affecting our natural selves. Does this take advantage of our neural plasticity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If the answer is yes, how long would one have to perform these techniques before any noticeable chamge would occur? This, I supose, would help to compare its efficacy against other techniques.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Also, I'm not sure if this would be any easier or more productive than other CBT techniques, since if anyone could portray personas well, everyone would work in Hollywood.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13644" LastActivityDate="2016-09-08T02:04:55.993" Title="Method Acting Used For Cognitive Behavioral Modification" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15877" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18231" CreationDate="2016-09-08T06:14:10.297" Score="4" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for the bias of comparing numbers on a relative scale?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a few examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The car salesman sells you a \$900 navigation system as an up-sell to a \$30,000 car.  It doesn't seem like that much because it 900 is a relatively small percentage of 30000.  And let's say a top quality system installed, away from the dealership is \$700; a difference of \$200.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What causes us to think \$200 isn't that much?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if shopping in a store where the top priced GPS was \$700 and all the others are priced around \$500, now \$200 seems too much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or how about a homeowner trying to sell a house for \$200,000 when a potential buyer bids at \$185,000 because of water damage in one room.  The seller accepts even though the cost to repair the damage might be only \$10000.  The \$5000 doesn't seem like that big of a loss for the hassle of having to do the repair, but in a lot of other circumstances (like selling a car) it's a deal breaker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another.  Take a trip to a neighboring town and you might go a mile or two out of your way to see an attraction you just discovered.  Take a trip across the country and you might visit a whole other state, hundreds of miles out of your way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that anchoring bias can cause you to, for instance, perceive a price as being lower because of false higher price.  But is it the same as this relative scaling bias?  Or is this called something else altogether?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13645" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-06T14:42:39.970" LastActivityDate="2017-10-06T14:42:39.970" Title="Cognitive bias of comparing numbers on a relative scale" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15878" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15881" CreationDate="2016-09-08T15:40:15.690" Score="5" ViewCount="226" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was fascinated when I first read Ramachandran's article about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouba/kiki_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;kiki bouba effect&lt;/a&gt;, and I was wondering if cats experience the same thing... As Ramachandran proved, our angular gyrus is responsible for this phenomenon, and I found a part of cat's brain, named FAES, which has neurons that spike for auditory and visual stimuli. Does anyone know if they experience it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13651" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-08T20:38:10.287" LastActivityDate="2020-04-14T14:00:14.110" Title="Do cats exhibit the bouba/kiki effect?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;cross-modal&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15881" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15878" CreationDate="2016-09-08T20:24:39.217" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The bouba/kiki effect is the phenomenon that about 95% of subjects assign the name &lt;em&gt;bouba&lt;/em&gt; to a blobby form, and the name &lt;em&gt;kiki&lt;/em&gt; to a pointy shape (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PtgA5.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PtgA5.gif&quot; alt=&quot;bouba/kiki&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Kiki and bouba, at least in 95% of the people. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.synesthesiatest.org/blog/bouba-kiki-effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Synesthesia Test&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is thought that the reason behind the strong preference is that the sharp changes in visual direction of the lines in the left-hand panel in Fig. 1 mimics the sharp phonemic inflections of the sound &lt;em&gt;kiki&lt;/em&gt;, as well as the sharp inflection of the tongue on the palate. Ramachandran poses that the bouba/kiki effect provides a clue for understanding the origins of proto-language, for it suggests that there sounds are mapped on to objects. Ramachandran poses that the representation of certain lip and tongue movements in motor brain areas are mapped in non-arbitrary ways onto certain sound inflections and phonemic representations in auditory regions and the latter in turn may have links to an external object’s visual appearance. These factors may have co-evolved, forming&#xA;a possible origin of proto-language &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imprint.co.uk/rama/synaesthesia.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ramachandran &amp;amp; Hubbard, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To get to your question: cats can't talk. Their vocalizations are relatively restricted, adding up to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/cat-experts-reveal-the-meaning-behind-different-meows-a6895251.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;16 different sounds&lt;/a&gt;. They include the familiar meows, hissing when angry and purring when happy. The purring comes from deep within the body and isn't related to speech at all. The hissing sounds a bit like an /h/ and the meows include more varieties. However, the variability in 'meows' is largely due to &lt;strong&gt;intonations&lt;/strong&gt; (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/cat-experts-reveal-the-meaning-behind-different-meows-a6895251.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Independent&lt;/a&gt;), and not so much the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eupedia.com/linguistics/number_of_phonemes_in_european_languages.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;phonemes&lt;/a&gt;. Phonemes are: '[...] sound[s], or set of similar speech sounds, which are perceived as a single distinctive sound by speakers of the language or dialect in question. For example, the &quot;c/k&quot; sounds in cat and kitten represent the English phoneme /k/. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human speech is extremely diverse and is produced by the interplay of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/jcoleman/phonation.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;various organs&lt;/a&gt;, includes lip, tongue and glottal movements that change the way the vocal cords produce sounds. There are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eupedia.com/linguistics/number_of_phonemes_in_european_languages.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;36 phonemes&lt;/a&gt; (speech sounds) recognized in English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bouba/kiki effect hinges strongly on the phonemes /b/ and /k/ and, perhaps, /i/ and /ou/. Both in Ramachandran &amp;amp; Hubbard's experiment (bouba/kiki) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imprint.co.uk/rama/synaesthesia.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ramachandran &amp;amp; Hubbard, 2001)&lt;/a&gt; and the original study by Kohler (baluba/takete) (reviewed shortly in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.nyu.edu/niccl/publicationlinks/OzturkKrehmVouloumanos_JECP_2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Ozturk et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2013)&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cats don't have that kind of repertoire of phonemes. So regardless the similarity in some brain areas, I dare to say a bouba/kiki or baluba/takete effect can never be found in cats. I realize this is a rather mechanistic approach to the question and I am indeed not saying that cats cannot experience &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-synesthesia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. But that's another question...     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.nyu.edu/niccl/publicationlinks/OzturkKrehmVouloumanos_JECP_2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ozturk &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Exp Child Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;114&lt;/strong&gt;: 173–86&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imprint.co.uk/rama/synaesthesia.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ramachandran &amp;amp; Hubbard, &lt;em&gt;J Consciousness Studies&lt;/em&gt; (2001); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;(12): 3–34&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-14T14:00:14.110" LastActivityDate="2020-04-14T14:00:14.110" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15882" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15924" CreationDate="2016-09-08T20:47:33.660" Score="5" ViewCount="535" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://ankisrs.net/docs/manual.html#reverse-cards&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this spaced repetition type flashcard user manual&lt;/a&gt; one can,&#xA;&quot;create cards that go in both directions (e.g., both “ookii”→“big” and “big”→“ookii”).&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, would studying two flashcards (both with the same content but in reverse order, lessen the benefits of studying right at the periphery (i.e., spaced repetition)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a related question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/480/are-spaced-flashcards-effective-for-learning&quot;&gt;Are spaced flashcards effective for learning?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any comments with relevant studies is welcome--along with help. Feel free to edit or add to any idea to make the question less unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2018-08-04T21:26:20.840" Title="Does studying flashcards, both front to back and back to front, decrease retention opposed to only memorizing one way?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15887" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-09T22:25:00.600" Score="4" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking to test some computational models using ERP components as inputs (eg. p300, n170)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if there is an existing library anywhere that would have a bank of wave/component examples that I could download?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or alternatively, maybe preferably, is there any useable Python or R code that I could use to just generate these types of waves/components?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9054" LastActivityDate="2016-09-09T22:25:00.600" Title="Library (or manual creation) of ERP components" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15888" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15897" CreationDate="2016-09-10T02:05:42.960" Score="4" ViewCount="272" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence for neurons existing within other neurons in humans or other organisms? From what little I've learned about physical neuroscience while learning to build neural nets, I don't see how one neural cell could actually contain another, as a nested structure implies; on the other hand, I figured I'd ask, because neuroscientists have discovered such a wide variety of neuron types, exhibiting all kinds of fascinating behaviors and structures. Furthermore, I suppose it's conceivable that the complex firing of neurotransmitters might be interpreted in a hierarchical way, akin to nested neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I'm asking is entirely practical: I've recently discovered that there may be certain advantages to treating neurons as nested structures when performing data and object modeling of neural nets. I'm interested in finding out if such nesting could be biologically plausible and if so, how I could go about finding more information on the topic. I've performed Internet searches and looked through the threads at StackExchange and can find nary a reference to the term &quot;nested neuron.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edited to Add (from the comments section, by request): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm asking whether neuroscientists currently possess any evidence for biological nested neurons. It's a very simple yes-or-no thing; either professional neuroscientists have such evidence in hand or they don't. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13660" LastEditorUserId="13660" LastEditDate="2016-09-12T17:03:53.463" LastActivityDate="2017-01-09T20:00:56.043" Title="&quot;Nested Neurons&quot;: Are they biologically plausible?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15890" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15898" CreationDate="2016-09-10T22:52:57.710" Score="2" ViewCount="758" Body="&lt;p&gt;Emotional Reasoning, a cognitive distortion discovered by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_T._Beck&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Aaron T. Beck&lt;/a&gt;, as stated on Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Emotional reasoning is a cognitive process by which a person concludes that his/her emotional reaction proves something is true, regardless of the observed evidence. For example, even though a spouse has shown only devotion, a person using emotional reasoning might conclude, &quot;I know my spouse is being unfaithful because I feel jealous.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I go to an haunted place, and I become really anxious there, so my emotions are representing my thoughts about that place. So it's simple: you feel the way you think. How does Emotional Reasoning fit in this scene, or is it something else?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7020" LastActivityDate="2016-09-12T08:41:40.077" Title="What exactly is Emotional Reasoning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15891" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-10T23:05:20.580" Score="2" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;By 'trivial' error I mean one that's &lt;em&gt;local&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;easy to confirm&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;easy to understand&lt;/em&gt;. Something that makes you look silly. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sign errors in mathematics.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Forgetting to do a unit conversion in physics.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Skipping over a number in accounting.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Off by one errors in programming.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fencepost errors in programming.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Out of bounds errors in programming.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Null value errors in programming.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rear-ending someone at a stoplight when driving.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some historical examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://heartbleed.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;heartbleed&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2014/02/24/anatomy-of-a-goto-fail-apples-ssl-bug-explained-plus-an-unofficial-patch/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;goto fail&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Climate_Orbiter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mars Climate Orbiter&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ima.umn.edu/~arnold/disasters/ariane.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ariane 5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some anti-examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therac-25&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Therac-25&lt;/a&gt; bug&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the &lt;a href=&quot;https://aphyr.com/tags/jepsen&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;database concurrency bugs found by Jepsen&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Anyways&lt;/em&gt;... I'm looking for studies that investigated how often these mistakes happen, and how much the rates vary from person to person. Do some people make lots of them? Do some people make almost none? How much does practice affect the error rate? Are there disorders that affect the rate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8018" LastActivityDate="2016-09-10T23:05:20.580" Title="Typical rates for 'trivial' errors?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15893" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15888" CreationDate="2016-09-11T11:09:04.003" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I understand the idea of parallel computing, the idea of massive parallelism is to reduce the (computer) node sizes while maximizing connections between nodes. If you look at the evolution of supercomputers, initially they were build of very powerful superscalar processors. But, as time goes, they are trying to build of more interconnected lighter processors. That is because communication is the bottleneck in the supercomputing. Powerful nodes compute too much information that they need to stand by to receive/send more to/from their (distant) neighbours. It makes no sense to make very powerful nodes, but, instead to spend the machine space to more cabling. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neural networks are the ultimate parallelism machines. Their compute nodes, neurons, are as simple as possible. The paradigm, known as connectionism, means that computation is achieved through emergence of results when simple nodes communicate with each other. It consists mostly of cables. In NN the computation is made by thouthands of inter-neuron synapses rather than neuron itself. The idea is that you should connect directly with as much other neurons as possible. You can consider a number of connected neurons as one neuron (subnetwork) but why and, for sure, you do not want to isolate any neurons by a physical wrapper to force them to connect only to each other and prevent possible connections the rest of the neurons. It seems unnecessary, difficult to implement and not only wasteful but adverse limitation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is hardly a room for other (sub)neural network in the neuron. You may decide yourself, analyzing the function of neuron how can you implement it. As far as I know, biologically plausible spiking neurons are made of simple capacitor+resistor+something firing a spike if capacitor charge exceeds some threshold. Nothing indicates that you either can fit another neural network into the neuron or need it to simulate it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why not to hypothesize existence of humans inside the neurons or smaller heads in human head? A head, made of other heads can give more power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13511" LastEditorUserId="13511" LastEditDate="2016-09-11T17:02:20.287" LastActivityDate="2016-09-11T17:02:20.287" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15894" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-11T21:13:58.967" Score="6" ViewCount="1105" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone who had low working memory scores as a child suddenly sees in improvement in attention as he grows older, does his ability to hold and manipulate information also increase? Or does attention serve as bottleneck score for such working memory exams?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, is there a way for someone to assess his WM at home? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13673" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-09-29T08:54:48.727" LastActivityDate="2016-10-02T11:09:52.530" Title="What is the relationship between Working Memory and Attention, and how can one assess his WM?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15895" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15903" CreationDate="2016-09-12T00:36:12.587" Score="4" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't found anything that speaks directly to this question, but here is the account Simon (1990) p9 provides of satisficing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If the task domain has little structure or the structure is unknown to&#xA;  us, we apply so-called &quot;weak methods,&quot; which experience has shown to&#xA;  be useful in many domains, but which may still require us to search a&#xA;  good deal. One weak method is satisficing--using experience to&#xA;  construct an expectation of how good a solution we might reasonably&#xA;  achieve, and halting search as soon as a solution is reached that&#xA;  meets the expectation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simon, H. A. (1990). Invariants of human behavior. Annual review of psychology, 41(1), 1-20. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastActivityDate="2016-09-13T00:05:26.990" Title="Is satisficing conceptualised as being unconscious/automatic, or conscious/volitional?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15896" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15888" CreationDate="2016-09-12T06:58:00.677" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are some notes and ideas, and hopefully an answer to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;New membranes are produced by a process during divisions as you read in genetics; sometime calls embryogenesis.It is just the divisions of cytoplasm. The layer than separates nuclides are suggested to polarize toward nuclides inside a single cytoplasmic they all are. So, as it might be guessed by the definition of the word &quot;cell&quot;, normally in final form of a tissue there will be no cell inside a cell (or its cytoplasm). They will be split into two cells, as always in science this is what &quot;usually&quot; happens (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2734032/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;This article provides some backgrounds on how this mechanism works&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There are however vesicles, simply bags of some chemical stuff (e.g. neurotransmitters). They fuse into the cell membrane at its terminals and some N.t. would be released. They are not living cells though, but their outside layer is similar to the ones in a real cell, made in form of phospholipid bilayer.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rather than neurons, there are some more cells in the nervous system, called &lt;em&gt;Glias&lt;/em&gt;, even more than neurons. Their main role seems to support neurons and synapses. You may think of them as supporting cells, joint with a neuron or a synapse helps them being activated or deactivated. There are recent studies, investigating the role of Glias in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Neurons (for example in cortex, which is the most influential area of the brain interested computer scientists) do not perform activations alone. But they form a network; in fact networks of networks. In cortex, they together form columns, super columns, and in human around 6 layers. They usually study groups, columns or bigger forms of interconnected neurons, except in invasive single neuron imaging techniques. So neurons have been in some sense studied doing computations &lt;em&gt;&quot;on average&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, but not alone. Even the activation in neurons (action potentials) are generated at a place called axon hillock, that does not rationalize having two cells can simple generate two independent signals and then merge them together; this can be done easier at synapse level since nature is just a sloth and select best random outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Synapses are where information is stored in artificial and natural neural networks. So even a cell within a cell (connected), does not provide further improvements (like new trends of providing computing power necessary for deep nets). By cell-within-cell in ANNs you just add another connection and possibly a new layer. You can do the same by defining new layer as in deep networks. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Action potentials to send signals of activation forward in cell are performed and developed in places outside the cell body (soma). There are usually occurs in dendrites and mostly in axons. So biologically speaking. A cell body within a cell body does not help or intervenes in computations or for communication. If it happens in real world, there are just mutations, or wrongly or in-lab developed ones (It is possible, right?); similarly other solutions perform same mechanism, for example like a single neuron, or two connected neurons normally through a single synapse.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Though the idea could be investigated by self-similar systems (fractals), dimension of self-similarity measures, dynamic systems, and in general chaos theory. In neural system this fractal dimension is an integer at cell level (a single cell). You can however study how this self-similarity works for artificial neural nets :-).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I've tried to look at you question from biologically-inspired computer science perspective...&lt;/em&gt;, and hope it helps :-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="646" LastEditorUserId="646" LastEditDate="2016-09-12T08:14:17.643" LastActivityDate="2016-09-12T08:14:17.643" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15897" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15888" CreationDate="2016-09-12T08:10:00.037" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disregarding the feasibility of neurons within neurons &lt;em&gt;in silico&lt;/em&gt;, the answer to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence for neurons existing within other neurons in humans or other organisms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;from a practical, biological point of view is &lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The literature point-of-view&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The strongest argument against the neuron embedded (I'll deliberately not say &quot;nested&quot; as it has a computational and statistical taste to it) in another neuron is: I've never heard of it. I could cite every single neuro textbook I have &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; mentioning the phenomenon, but I'll wager that doesn't make too much sense, hence this unreferenced argument.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The physiological view&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Neurons need a &lt;a href=&quot;https://courses.washington.edu/conj/membpot/membranepot.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;membrane potential&lt;/a&gt; to operate, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, to fire &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10897/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;action potentials&lt;/a&gt;, or change their membrane in a graded manner. That membrane potential is, with perhaps an exception or two, always negative. That is, inside negative, outside neutral. A neuron within a neuron would provide inhospitable living conditions for the former. The latter wouldn't be too happy either. The former will not be able to build up the normal &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.evolutionnews.org/2015/03/pumping_for_lif094241.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gradient&lt;/a&gt; of high Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; outside the cell, and a high K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; inside, as the enveloping neuron would try to do exactly that same thing. The inner cell would thus build up a gradient (push Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; out) and the enveloping cell would again transport the Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; out. For K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; the reverse would happen (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://highered.mheducation.com/sites/9834092339/student_view0/chapter44/sodium-potassium_exchange_pump.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;-ATPase&lt;/a&gt; for background). In short, the inner cell would not be able to build up a membrane gradient, while the outer cell would have to deal with a pesky parasite messing up its ionic homeostasis. The inner cell would die, as many processes vital to the cell need a gradient (ion transport of nutrients along the membrane, disposal of garbage) and the outer cell would then finally be a happy neuron, barred the debris in its insides.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The teleological view&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Physically embedded neurons don't make sense. Simply, because neurons exist, basically, to convey information from one neuron to the next. The textbook example of a neuron (Fig. 1) has an input part (the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/courses/1010/mangels/neuro/neurocells/neurocells.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dendritic region&lt;/a&gt;), a space-traversing part to cover distance (the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biology-pages.info/N/Neurons.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;axon&lt;/a&gt;) and an output part (the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Axon_terminals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;axon terminal&lt;/a&gt;). Any processing occurring within the neuron is done primarily by logic operators such as summation, subtraction and integration (through the dendritic tree collecting information) and gain control (inhibitory or excitatory influences in dendritic region, cell body or axonal part). But in the end, a neuron is designed to get information from A to B. Therefore, a neuron within a neuron doesn't make sense from a neurophysiological vantage point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nOlNp.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nOlNp.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Motoneuron&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Textbook example of a motor neuron. The neuron receives information from higher motor areas in the dendritic region and stimulates the muscle using action potentials. Rate code is used to regulate the strength of muscle contraction. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://obes.dvrlists.com/motor-neuron-disease-causes/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Obes DVR Lists&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10897/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds.) &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates (2001). The Ionic Basis of Action Potentials&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-16T19:24:14.600" LastActivityDate="2016-09-16T19:24:14.600" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15898" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15890" CreationDate="2016-09-12T08:41:40.077" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The quote you gave was from the beginning of Wikipedia article on Emotional Reasoning and if you read further down in that article it tells you that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Beck believed that emotional reasoning stemmed from negative thoughts that were uncontrollable and happened without effort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional Reasoning is a cognitive distortion which amplifies the effects of other cognitive distortions and it is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/docs/ACFE3EE.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;style of unhelpful thinking whereby you base your view of situations, yourself, or others, on the way you are thinking&lt;/a&gt;.  What you are thinking and feeling &lt;strong&gt;could&lt;/strong&gt; be rational but with this situation you are thinking irrationally as there is no hard factual evidence to support the thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might think &quot;I feel like an idiot, therefore I am an idiot&quot;; &quot;I feel guilty, therefore I must have done something bad&quot;;  &quot;I feel inadequate, therefore I must be a worthless person&quot;; &quot;I'm furious with you, therefore you must have been acting badly and trying to take advantage of me&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or just as in the question but phrased in this way, &quot;I feel jealous, therefore it must be true that my spouse is being unfaithful&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With Emotional Reasoning you are reacting to what you alone are witnessing.  The proposed situation regarding a haunted house making you feel anxious is not Emotional Reasoning.  You are feeling anxious because you are apprehensive of what might happen if you encounter a ghost/spirit some other people have said they have witnessed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-09-12T08:41:40.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15900" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16039" CreationDate="2016-09-12T14:02:13.877" Score="7" ViewCount="411" Body="&lt;p&gt;I find many sources saying that parents with perfectionist ideals can ultimately push a child to shed his or her attitude of wanting to please their parents and become rebellious. What I cannot find is an explanation of the mechanism behind this change. Are there any theories or studies that attempt to explain this &lt;strong&gt;reversal of character&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://tip.duke.edu/node/702&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Rimm (essay)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.parents.com/parenting/better-parenting/advice/perfectionist-parent/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Parents.com (article - anecdotal) &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2016-10-01T20:27:59.193" LastActivityDate="2017-03-05T14:58:01.397" Title="How does parental expectation lead a child from adaptive perfectionism to rebelliousness?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15901" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15955" CreationDate="2016-09-12T14:47:42.590" Score="4" ViewCount="503" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been addicted to 'Great courses' books for some time now and have read quite a few books on &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B00FPT9S40&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;influence&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B00DTNWN0A&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;social skills&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B00DTO4OB0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;conflict management&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B00K2NEINA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;negotiating&lt;/a&gt;, etc.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having basic knowledge in these areas I am now finding hard to see what is the difference between someone being &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machiavellianism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Machiavellian&lt;/a&gt; and simply knowing how to negotiate, influence others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One could argue that being moral is what separates the two however knowing about cultural differences across the world it would be quite hard to draw a line (we burned witches after having 'magna carta' and developed judiciary system for centuries) plus would inevitably have to delve in to moral philosophy... and eventually pretty much would end up having to make judgments subjectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there an actual difference between Machiavellianism and good negotiating skills?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10060" LastActivityDate="2016-09-24T03:05:39.733" Title="What is the difference between Machiavellianism and good negotiating/influence skills?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15903" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15895" CreationDate="2016-09-13T00:05:26.990" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Satisficing is goal directed and satisficers intend to achieve satisfactory results. Therefore, satisficing seems to involve conscious choices being made. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in Unconscious Thought Theory (UTT), &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cG49BAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA233&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;unconscious thought produces superior decisions compared to conscious thought when decision making is complex&lt;/a&gt; and there are paragraphs of &lt;a href=&quot;http://inctpped.ie.ufrj.br/spiderweb/pdf_2/Dosi_1_An_evolutionary-theory-of_economic_change..pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nelson and Winter (1982)&lt;/a&gt; that indicate that satisficing can be achieved from a sequence of mechanical, automatic steps of rule following.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore looking at both H.A. Simon's conception and the findings from Nelson and Winter, satisficing can be either conscious or unconscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-09-13T00:05:26.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15906" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15686" CreationDate="2016-09-14T12:15:26.233" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;How you analyse your data depends a bit on how you did your time-frequency decomposition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're using a fast Fourier transform, you will likely cut out the temporal window of interest prior to analysis, and your power estimate will be a single value (per subject and/or condition) within this time window. For example, alpha wave desynchronisation is likely to kick in something like 100 ms after the onset of a tone, and you might be interested in its power between then and 300 ms. This is based on theory and literature, there is no single answer. But if you do cut out a time window in advance like this, make sure that the time window of interest is an exact multiple of the size of the cycle you are looking at! (e.g. a multiple of 1/10th of a second for 10 Hz.) Otherwise you might get some nasty artifacts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you will then end up with is one data point per subject and condition, per EEG sensor. Some people pre-select a group of sensors based on the literature, and look at average power across these sensors. In that case you can use any of the standard parametric statistics to test your hypotheses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, you might adopt a sliding time window or similar approach (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fieldtriptoolbox.org/tutorial/timefrequencyanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;see here&lt;/a&gt;), where you get an estimation of how power develops over time (per sensor and frequency band). In that case your data space is larger, and the usual way to constrain it is to use &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fieldtriptoolbox.org/tutorial/cluster_permutation_freq&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cluster-based permutation tests&lt;/a&gt; which are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fieldtriptoolbox.org/tutorial/eventrelatedstatistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;nonparametric&lt;/a&gt;. This will give you back clusters of significant differences across time and/or sensors (this means groups of successive time points or sensors near each other that show an experimental effect). Again, whether you want to average across sensors is a theoretical question. You can also decide to average across time using this approach, and to end up with a single data point per subject/condition as above. This approach is not particularly temporally precise - the data will be a bit smeared across time - but it gives you a better overview of what is going on in the brain and in which frequency bands the interesting effects might lie.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the unit, I prefer to convert raw power to decibel, because the scale is symmetric around zero and comparable across experiments. So, 10*log10 of the power in your signal. If you're using a baseline, make it an absolute baseline (it's equivalent to a relative baseline for raw power, which is the standard).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2016-09-14T12:15:26.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15907" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-14T18:44:08.967" Score="3" ViewCount="312" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many sources claim that bipolar disorder is associated with problems in the homeostasis of excitatory neurotransmitters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true? What are the leading theories about neurological causes for bipolar disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7084" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-14T19:37:46.293" LastActivityDate="2016-09-14T19:37:46.293" Title="What is the neurological basis of bipolar disorder?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;&lt;etiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15908" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15907" CreationDate="2016-09-14T19:20:44.117" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The exact cause of bipolar disorder is unknown (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nhs.uk/aboutNHSChoices/Pages/ContactUs.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NHS&lt;/a&gt;). It is believed that there are a number of interacting physical, environmental and social factors that may cause bipolar disorder to develop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Chemical imbalance in the brain&lt;/strong&gt;: Bipolar disorder is believed to be the result of chemical imbalances in the brain, and &lt;strong&gt;noradrenaline&lt;/strong&gt; has been implicated &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006322394912017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Young &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1994)&lt;/a&gt;. Noradrenalin (norepinephrine) in the central nervous system regulates arousal and modulates reward circuitry and positive reinforcement. Many antidepressant drugs target noradrenergic projections to alleviate symptoms of depression &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/page/Norepinephrine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Trevino &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. There is evidence that episodes of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/disorders/manic-episode/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mania&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; may occur when levels of noradrenaline are too high, and episodes of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-what-you-need-to-know-12-2015/index.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;depression&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; may be the result of noradrenaline levels becoming too low (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nhs.uk/aboutNHSChoices/Pages/ContactUs.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NHS&lt;/a&gt;). Reduced serotonin levels have been found too, which is a general hallmark of depression and not specifically related to bipolar disorder &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006322394912017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Young &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1994)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Genetics&lt;/strong&gt;: bipolar disorder tends to run in families &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673609600726&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Lichtenstein &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2009&lt;/a&gt;. The family members of a person with the condition have an increased risk of developing it themselves. However, no single gene is responsible for bipolar disorder. Instead, a number of genetic and environmental factors are thought to act as triggers (sources: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nhs.uk/aboutNHSChoices/Pages/ContactUs.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NHS&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bipolar-disorder/basics/risk-factors/con-20027544&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mayo Clinic&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Triggers&lt;/strong&gt;: A stressful circumstance or situation often triggers the symptoms of bipolar disorder, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, physical, sexual or emotional abuse, or&#xA;the death of a close family member. These life-altering events can cause episodes of depression at any time in a person's life. Bipolar disorder may also be triggered by physical illness, sleep disturbances, overwhelming problems in everyday life (sources: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nhs.uk/aboutNHSChoices/Pages/ContactUs.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NHS&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bipolar-disorder/basics/risk-factors/con-20027544&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mayo Clinic&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673609600726&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lichtenstein &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Lancet&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;373&lt;/strong&gt;(9659): 234–9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/page/Norepinephrine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Trevino &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Encyclopedia of Human Behavior&lt;/em&gt; (2012), 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006322394912017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Young &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Biol Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (1994); &lt;strong&gt;35&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 121–7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-14T19:36:20.920" LastActivityDate="2016-09-14T19:36:20.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15909" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2016-09-14T19:28:21.673" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sources: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=3334&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Medicine net&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wiki page on Mental disorder&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-14T19:28:21.673" LastActivityDate="2016-09-14T19:28:21.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15910" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2016-09-14T19:28:21.673" Score="0" Body="Etiology is the study of causes. In the general context in medicine, it is the study of the causes of disease. In the context of the Cognitive Sciences it is the study of the causes of mental illness. &#xD;&#xA;&#xD;&#xA;A mental disorder, also called a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a diagnosis, most often by a psychiatrist, of a behavioral or mental pattern that may cause suffering or a poor ability to function in life." OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-15T11:40:16.437" LastActivityDate="2016-09-15T11:40:16.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15915" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-15T05:39:48.027" Score="3" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;lexical hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; was used to I think &lt;em&gt;create&lt;/em&gt; the 5 factor model of personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anything similar been done in the science of 'creativity'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While, clearly, &quot;creativity&quot; is a component of intelligence, even if it is also one in personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What got me thinking about this, is the measurement of 'creativity', which is I think notoriously difficult, even more so that aptitude in general. Specifically, I was thinking about how it seems that 'fluency' seems lexically close to some terms close to creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How would &lt;em&gt;general&lt;/em&gt; cognitive fluency, as it is measured by cognitive test, correlate with creativity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;fluency, noun&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the ability to express oneself easily and articulately.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;fantasy, noun&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a fanciful mental image, typically one on which a person often dwells and which reflects their conscious or unconscious wishes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;imagination, noun&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the faculty or action of forming new ideas, or images or concepts of &#xA;external objects not present to the senses.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2016-09-15T05:47:49.883" LastActivityDate="2018-03-03T13:41:20.717" Title="Does the lexical hypothesis have any role in 'creativity'?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12391" CreationDate="2016-09-16T05:57:45.787" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could start by reading &quot;Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns&quot;. This is a consensus article based on many of the world's leading researchers on intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empirical research suggests that variations in intelligence is largely hereditary.&#xA;Specifically estimates of heritability of intelligence at adulthood based on monozygotic twin samples who were reared appart suggests correlations of around .68 to .78 (see p.85 of the above article).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, these estimates are typically based on samples growing up in the same country at a similar point in time. These estimates would be smaller if for example, monozygotic twins could be separated so that one twin grew up in a stone age society and another grew up in developed society with good education and health care.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence is something that develops over time. We can contrast acquired knowledge and skills (often called crystallised intelligence) with more abstract capacities (often called fluid intelligence). In particular, crystallised intelligence is predicted to improve more with schooling and general exposure to cultural learning experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot more could be said about all this, but I recommend you just read the article, see below. It discusses these issue in accessible language and much greater depth:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mensa.ch/sites/default/files/Intelligence_Neisser1996.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mensa.ch/sites/default/files/Intelligence_Neisser1996.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rcgd.isr.umich.edu/life/Readings2007/Nisbett%20reading.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://rcgd.isr.umich.edu/life/Readings2007/Nisbett%20reading.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-09-16T05:57:45.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15918" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-16T08:37:03.960" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's consider an experiment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Take a baby and have it raise in a very law-strict environment (his&#xA;  parents are very strict and follow any rules, be it legal, be it&#xA;  religious, be it moral) but with some freedom (he could start learning&#xA;  the violin if he was interested into). Now, imagine you have the same &#xA;  child raised by a family very tolerant, so tolerant that he could do&#xA;  anything he wants (be it legal, be it illegal).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So here is the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Which scenario can he have a deeper sense of himself, the world and anything else?&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;is it philosophically right if he finds a fortune (becomes rich, athletic, many friends ...) by mean of scenario #1?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My point is that when you are in a very strict law environment, you tend to be channeled in only few possible directions, so your feelings, impulses and so on are extremely lowered in potential: you may become a billionaire by limiting yourself, but it would be not the real you. On the other side, by living with no limits (legal, religious ...), you can discover the real you because you are not affected by society and its laws, but you can hurt yourself and others around you (you may do something dangerous by exposing yourself to human limits).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know there are important factors compromising the result of the experiment, the psychology of the child (this experiment may lead to different results based upon your psychology and how you react to external stimuli), but all I would like are some insights, some tips to go deeper in this argument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user13720" LastEditorDisplayName="user13720" LastEditDate="2016-09-20T16:56:23.340" LastActivityDate="2016-09-20T16:56:23.340" Title="When many laws are too many laws?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2016-09-19T08:20:41.280" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15919" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-16T13:49:15.413" Score="-2" ViewCount="971" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen a lot of claims related to this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mild forms of autism increase IQ&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;IQ scores abruptly increased after 1979, when the MMR vaccine was introduced&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Flynn Effect was mainly on nonverbal IQ&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Large IQ gains occurred in East Asia and Kenya along with introduction of vaccination&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There may be a nonlinear effect, such that the increasing levels of vaccination in the 80s and 90s reduced IQ&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The largest IQ gains occurred in racial groups with the lowest autism rates&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there scientific proof for a relationship between IQ, autism and vaccines? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user13722" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-09-20T13:35:16.017" LastActivityDate="2020-11-22T23:24:33.837" Title="Is the Flynn effect autism?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15922" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15919" CreationDate="2016-09-18T02:18:13.363" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Flynn effect refers to the tendency over the last century or so for IQ scores to increase each generation by a few points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no link between vaccination and autism. It is pseudo-scientific myth, which has dangerous consequences for public health. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMR_vaccine_controversy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;see discussion here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm no expert in autism research, but in general, children with autism have lower IQ. I'm also not entirely clear how much the increasing rate of autism is a diagnostic change versus real change in prevalence (but I'll leave that to someone else). If there was a change, in real prevalence, then it would be an interesting question as to what might be causing it. One explanation that seems more plausible to me is that parental age is correlated with autism rates and that has certainly been increasing in the developed world.  But this is not my area of expertise, so I'm not trying to present a definitive answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many plausible explanations for the Flynn effect related to societal level changes in nutrition, health, education, technology, parenting practices, educational strategies, screening of foetuses, and so forth. It's also interesting to ponder how much the change is related to the latent trait of intelligence, and how much is related to test taking skill. In some respects we are seeing similar societal level changes in height and life expectancy. Presumably, a whole range of societal changes could be culminating in what we see in terms of group-level IQ change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Declines in the rate of intergenerational increases in IQ in particular subgroups may be related to some form asymptotic process. I.e., there is a point at which further IQ gains become more difficult to achieve for a society. In contrast, as social groups move from extreme disadvantage to less disadvantage, the gains may be quite noticeable. For example, I've read that the gap between black and white IQ scores in the United States has been reduced in recent years (based on greater inter-generational increases in IQ for blacks than for whites). And this in some sense speak to what the focus is on gain scores. Even if one social group has poorer environmental conditions (health, education, nutrition, etc.) than another, if the relative improvement in those conditions over a generation or two has been greater, we might still expect a greater gain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-09-19T00:24:58.080" LastActivityDate="2016-09-19T00:24:58.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15923" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-18T12:06:37.213" Score="2" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I made an error in my qualtrics survey, and used a 5-point Likert scale, when the measure was supposed to use a 4-point scale. I have collected a lot of my data for my dissertation, and am now very nervous.  Do I have to go back and collect all of my data again?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13740" LastActivityDate="2016-09-19T02:20:16.317" Title="Can I use data taken in a 5-point Likert Scale, and convert it as if it were taken as a 4-point Likert?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15882" CreationDate="2016-09-18T19:50:32.127" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, it just makes the intervals suboptimal. Either &lt;strong&gt;bury the card&lt;/strong&gt; if the opposite side came recently or change the card to the direction it will usually appear. (Sometimes it will be the description first.) The forgetting curve, memorizing right at the periphery, will still go back up: &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HsDd0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HsDd0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the study done by Glenberg Smith &amp;amp; Green about this...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anki is programmed to deal with similar &lt;a href=&quot;https://apps.ankiweb.net/docs/manual.html#siblings-and-burying&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;sibling&quot; cards&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;The algorithm will &lt;strong&gt;bury them&lt;/strong&gt;--except when learning...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/topic/Spaced-Repetition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.quora.com/topic/Spaced-Repetition&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/Anki/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.reddit.com/r/Anki/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://anki.tenderapp.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://anki.tenderapp.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4116" LastEditorUserId="4116" LastEditDate="2018-08-04T21:26:20.840" LastActivityDate="2018-08-04T21:26:20.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="15925" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10265" CreationDate="2016-09-18T21:00:47.153" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assessing someone's personality without questionnaires can be done, an interesting &quot;manual&quot; is the book &quot;Snoop&quot; by Sam Gosling. Note, though, that Gosling limits himself to the Big 5, so he teaches how to recognize Openness to Experience (from someone's room: variety of topics in bookcase) but does not explicitly address Need for Cognition. But Gosling's book would be a decent place to start if you want to learn to assess personality factors without questionnaires.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another book I'd recommend is Daniel Nettle's book &quot;Personality&quot;, since terms like &quot;introversion&quot; mean different things to different people. For Nettle (and I guess mainstream psychology) introversion is relatively straightforward: it is basically (relatively) low sensitivity to positive emotions. However, 'laypeople' may consider a person an introvert if he or she is shy - but shyness is usually more related to neuroticism than to introversion. And an author like Susan Cain (&quot;Quiet&quot;) seems to define introversion as what Nettle would call a combination of &quot;true&quot; introversion, neuroticism (shyness) and openness to experience/need for cognition. So if one would follow Cain's description, one would naturally link need for cognition to introversion, while 'scientific' psychology would not proclaim that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, personality factors tend to interact - extraverts may go to parties more often, so have less time to read books, and may therefore 'know less', causing others to underestimate their Need for Cognition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, if I would want to try to assess someone's need for cognition, I'd probably look at Openness, possibly substracting for supernatural beliefs like astrology or crop circles being caused by aliens, and for strict dogmatism/unquestioning deference to authority. If I can have a long debate with someone about a topic, without the other person saying things like 'because I say so' or 'that is obvious', or 'it is true since my intuition says so', or 'this (topic) is irrelevant', I'd guess the other would be relatively high on Need for Cognition. That being said, until the day that we can precisely define Need for Cognition as a sum of genes or the amplitude of a certain brainwave or the relative size of say the anterior cingulate cortex, there's always the risk that NfC itself is some kind of mixture of curiosity, enjoyment of thinking, culture of the parental home etcetera and assessment is skewed by for example the mood that the other person happens to be in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So on your questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, there is no relation between extraversion and Need for Cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;One may be able to guess a very approximate level of NfC if one has information about a person (level of education, political preference, interior of office, hobbies, the level of detail he/she discusses things in, width of interests) but if someone is a painfully shy and private person it may simply not be possible; I doubt you can read NfC from the shape of one's nose or such...&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13743" LastActivityDate="2016-09-18T21:00:47.153" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15926" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18669" CreationDate="2016-09-19T00:05:13.043" Score="4" ViewCount="3479" Body="&lt;p&gt;It would be best if the answer could be broken down by age and sex, and even by other variables (alcohol-drinker vs teetotaller, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there's a difference between self-report data and data from studies that observe people sleeping, I'm interested in that too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This image, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1JVg8.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1JVg8.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Waking up&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which I took from &lt;a href=&quot;https://theconversation.com/broken-sleep-its-a-rollercoaster-ride-1792&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, implies that waking up several times is normal, but the article doesn't provide any information on averages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be that the median is more useful than the mean in this context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="8310" LastEditDate="2016-09-19T00:10:23.253" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T16:50:32.073" Title="How many times on average do people wake up per night?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15927" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15923" CreationDate="2016-09-19T02:20:16.317" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, from my extensive experience, using a four or a five point response scale is not going to change much the psychometric properties of a typical psychological self-report scale (e.g., reliability and factor loadings). I also imagine that if you were to measure a multi-item scale with a four point version and a five point version that the correlation would be very close to the test-retest correlation you get with the five point scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More extreme changes (e.g., using a 2-point instead of a 5-point) or radically altering the response options would eventually start to create issues, but in the 4 to 7 point range, I think the effects would be subtle, especially if you are dealing with a multi-item scale. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main issue you will have is that you wont be able to compare your descriptive statistics (e.g., means and standard deviations) with other authors who have used the standard 5-point scale. Whether this is an issue, depends on the aims of your analyses. If you are focused on relationships between variables (e.g., correlations, regressions, group differences, SEM, and so on), then whether you use a 4 or a 5-point scale is not going to make much difference. If you want to compare the means of your sample to the means of previous samples, or if there are particular scoring rules that involve the original metrics (e.g., some tests have cut-off scores used for classification), then you have more of a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are ways to approximate a rescaling. I.e., estimating what the means and SDs would have been had you used the 5-point instead of the 4-point scale. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;rescaled_old_score =  (old_score - OLD_MIN) / (OLD_MAX - OLD_MIN) &#xA;new_score = rescaled_old_score * (NEW_MAX - NEW_MIN) + NEW_MIN&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's what the function looks like in R:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;rescale_item &amp;lt;- function(old_score, old_min = 1, old_max = 4, new_min = 1, new_max = 5) {&#xA;    rescaled_old_score &amp;lt;-  (old_score - old_min) / (old_max - old_min) &#xA;    rescaled_old_score * (new_max - new_min) + new_min&#xA;}&#xA;&#xA;template &amp;lt;- data.frame(original = 1:4)&#xA;template$new &amp;lt;- round(rescale_item(template$original, 1, 4, 1, 5), 2)&#xA;template&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which leads to the following rescaling:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;  original  new&#xA;1        1 1.00&#xA;2        2 2.33&#xA;3        3 3.67&#xA;4        4 5.00&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this is only an approximation. Better estimates of the mapping values could be obtained by administering the tests using both scales to the same sample.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-09-19T02:20:16.317" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15931" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15901" CreationDate="2016-09-20T13:25:30.040" Score="0" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Negotiations can be subdivided into two categories: cooperative negotiations and competitive negotiations. Machiavellianism could be considered to be similar to competitive negotiations. It depends on the situation whether Machiavellianism can be considered as &quot;good negotiation&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Negotiation is a form of decision-making where two or more parties jointly search a space of possible solutions with the goal of reaching a consensus (p. 4, &lt;a href=&quot;http://xenia.media.mit.edu/~guttman/research/pubs/cia98-a4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gutmann &amp;amp; Maes, 1998&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors discuss two categories of negotiations that exist in a continuum: Competitive negotiations and cooperative negotiations. For competitive negotiations the goal is maximize your own reward. This often, if not always, comes at the cost of the reward of the other agent, i.e. the party you are negotiating with, because you have mutually exclusive goals. For example, if you must share 10 dollars, the goal of both agents would be to receive 10 dollars. With competitive negotiations, you try to come as close to that 10 dollar as possible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During cooperative negotiations you try to find the best outcome for both parties. One reason to do so it that if you do not find the shared beneficial outcome, the reward could be even lower. For example, you again must share 10 dollars. However, if there is no consensus after some time, no money is given at all. Another example may be if there are repeated interactions (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nyu.edu/econ/user/debraj/Papers/BMR-IGTR.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bendor et al., 2001&lt;/a&gt;). If in the first negotiation you negotiate competitively, the other agent may be less inclined to accept sub-optimal outcomes in the second negotiation. Here is an old paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://users.auth.gr/users/7/8/007287/public_html/Research/GameTheory/05PapersAdvanced/PapersByNash/Nash1953.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nash (1953)&lt;/a&gt; on cooperative negotiations (this is the same guy as from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://montoya.econ.ubc.ca/Econ522/Congestion_games_-_Rosenthal.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Nash-equilibrium&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Machiavellianism&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;According to the Wikipedia page &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machiavellianism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Machiavellianism&lt;/a&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct [...] characterized by a duplicitous interpersonal style, a cynical disregard for morality and a focus on self-interest and personal gain.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I understand it correctly, Machiavellianism is thus clearly a competitive negotiation style in which the only goal is to maximize your own utility at the expense of the other agent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there an actual difference between Machiavellianism and good negotiating skills?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It depends from what you considered &quot;good&quot; negotiation. A competitive (Machiavellian) negotiation does not always result in an optimal outcome, nor does a cooperative one. Only in particular situations you could argue that Machiavellianism is the most effective strategy. However, given that Machiavellianism constitues &lt;strong&gt;a cynical disregard for morality&lt;/strong&gt;, my guts tell me that is is not &quot;good&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-09-20T13:30:58.440" LastActivityDate="2016-09-20T13:30:58.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15932" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-20T13:29:00.737" Score="6" ViewCount="1057" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rXrMc.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rXrMc.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;examples&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;Neuronal networks can make loops because a neuron has a direction (from dendrite to axon).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the smallest area in the cortex where we can find a loop and what are these loops?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand there are loops between different cortical areas through the white matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Experiments, like this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3415278/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one&lt;/a&gt;, show there are interactions between cortical layers. But it doesn't necessary mean there are loops.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other experiments, like this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7973662&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one&lt;/a&gt;,   looking at signals propagation in pieces of cortex with a  cut showed the propagation could  somehow circumvent the cut and keep propagating. Again it shows the existence of some local circuits but not necessarily loops.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we have a proof of local loops in the cortex? &#xA;How large a piece of cortex has to be to contain a loop? &#xA;What are these loops?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-03-09T07:02:10.047" LastActivityDate="2017-03-09T07:02:10.047" Title="Are there neural loops within a column or an area of the cortex?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15933" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-20T22:03:52.540" Score="10" ViewCount="658" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reframed the original question to include more background information:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My experiment concerns the recall ability of individuals concerning information about animals. Within-subject design: Whether an animal is dangerous or safe (danger). Whether an animal lives in Africa or Australia (location). In the recall phase, participants had to identify the animals they saw as dangerous/safe, African/Australian. &#xA;Responses were coded as Hit (stimuli danger, response danger), Miss (stimuli danger, response Safe), correct rejection (Stimuli safe, response safe) and finally false alarm (stimuli safe, response danger)&#xA;We expected that sensitivity depends on the importance of the information to wellbeing (this has been found in other studies as well), but also that bias is affected by individual differences. D’ refers to sensitivity as it is the difference between the signal (danger) and noise distribution (safe). C refers to the bias (the criterion of the respondent, a tendency to say yes or no) and c’ is c relative to d’ . However, d’ in some cases is 0, when the proportion of hits (hits/(hits+misses) is equal to the proportion of false alarms (false alarms/(fa+correct rejections)) making it impossible to compute c’ (c/d'). As such, my question is whether there is a commonly used and supported correction? &#xA;More information about signal detection theory and its use in cognitive sciences can be found &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detection_theory&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for the comments so far, I hope the question is clearer now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Original question:&#xA;As described in &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P094AgAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PP5&amp;amp;lpg=PP5&amp;amp;dq=%22detection+theory+a+user%27s+guide%22+lawrence+erlbaum&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=bcpb0yLd9Z&amp;amp;sig=sdnEW6z6b3DCYh_4dcEd6nd9Qug&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=sG8QVLffC4vkapvEgtgL&amp;amp;ved=0CEUQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22detection%20theory%20a%20user%27s%20guide%22%20lawrence%20erlbaum&amp;amp;f=false&quot;&gt;Detection theory: A user's guide&lt;/a&gt; page 28, bias indicator c can be normalized into c' by dividing it by d'. In short, d' = z(H)-Z(FA); c = -0.5(z(H)+Z(FA)); c' = c/d'.&#xA;However, in some of my cases d' is 0 (For instance, H=.72, FA =.72). Is there a standard correction that allows for the calculation of c'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13763" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-22T12:46:33.407" LastActivityDate="2016-09-23T00:39:15.427" Title="Signal detection theory: How to calculate c' when d' is 0?" Tags="&lt;signal-detection&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15934" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-21T05:23:44.077" Score="4" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, if we say &quot;a neuron connects to Layer V of the cortex&quot;, does it mean it synapses inside layer V, or does it imply that the soma of the neuron it synapses to is in Layer V (and it could synapse inside Layer II for example)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9424" LastEditorUserId="9424" LastEditDate="2016-09-28T20:34:34.697" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T20:34:34.697" Title="What does it mean when we say that &quot;a neuron connects to a certain cortical layer&quot;?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15934" CreationDate="2016-09-21T07:41:20.010" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both are correct, technically, neurons a lined and positioned through synaptic connections and so logically each layer should comprise both the soma of neurons as well as the neurites for synaptic connections that can or may extend outside its layer and protrude its network outside. I highly recommend studying and understanding the processes and actions that are underscored in neural activity in the visual cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10884/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10884/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS. brain has 6 layers, try picturing fetal neurons climbing up radial glia stalks that transcend layers during fetal development!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13766" LastActivityDate="2016-09-21T07:41:20.010" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15938" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15945" CreationDate="2016-09-21T13:16:02.463" Score="3" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the action potential travels in the dendrite towards the cell body, it may encounter &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-an-axon-branch.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;axonal branches&lt;/a&gt;. What happens at the branch? What makes it go to the cell body instead of other dendrite?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, as the action potential travel from the axon to its branches, does it go to only one or all terminals? If it goes to only one terminal, how is it decided which terminal it has to go?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13768" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-22T12:37:26.213" LastActivityDate="2016-09-22T16:53:15.133" Title="How is an action potential conducted across axonal branches in a neuron?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15940" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-21T17:39:18.793" Score="4" ViewCount="369" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading the paper &quot;Classical and Bayesian Inference in Neuroimaging&quot; by Friston. In the introduction he says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;[...] a trivially small activation can be declared significant if there are sufficient degrees of freedom to render the variability of the action's estimate small enough.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard the terms &quot;degrees of freedom&quot; in the context of neuroimaging numerous times but I never understood what it actually means. I sometimes also encounter the same term in a statistical context but I assume it's not the same as what Friston is referring to here. Or am I utterly mistaken?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13773" LastActivityDate="2016-12-14T21:31:17.260" Title="What is meant by &quot;degrees of freedom&quot; in fMRI?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15941" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-21T18:05:02.797" Score="1" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suppose this is a bit relative to each and every person, but in general those who are defeatists tend to view the potential outcomes of new actions negatively. Have any therapy techniques been shown to counter this sort of thinking and behavior? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2568" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-09-21T23:38:12.253" LastActivityDate="2016-09-21T23:38:12.253" Title="What techniques have been shown to improve a self-defeatist attitude?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15942" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-22T02:19:19.110" Score="6" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since matter at rest tends to stay at rest until acted upon, there must be some mechanism in the brain causing cerebrospinal fluid to move from the choroid plexus to other areas of the central nervous system.  Is there some kind of hydraulic pump that causes it to flow from one area to the next?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the ventricular system seems to be more of a continuous cavity, rather than a unidirectional closed circuit. How does the fluid make it's way into the far corners of the lateral ventricles, and other nooks and crannies of the ventricular system without the risk of fluid in some areas staying stagnant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13775" LastActivityDate="2016-10-05T14:03:12.497" Title="What causes CSF to flow?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15944" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15934" CreationDate="2016-09-22T12:16:27.360" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In complicated matters like neural connections in a layered cortex, it is all about semantics. One should carefully place statements in their context and deduce their meaning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In Fig. 1 a schematic of the layering of the cortex is shown. The layers can be separated based on their histological and neurophysiological features:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Layer I: the molecular layer, contains primarily axons running parallel (horizontal) to the cortical surface. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Layer II, the external granular layer, is composed of a mixture of small granule cells and pyramidal cells. The apical dendrites of the pyramidal cells &lt;strong&gt;extend into layer I&lt;/strong&gt; and their axons descend into and through the deeper cortical layers.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Layer III, the external pyramidal layer, contains primarily pyramidal cells. Their &lt;strong&gt;apical dendrites ascend into layer I&lt;/strong&gt; and their axons descend into and through the deeper layers.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Layer IV, the internal granular layer, consists almost exclusively of stellate neurons. It can be divided into subdivisions in many neocortical areas. Layer IV is the primary target for ascending sensory information from the thalamus.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Layer V, the internal pyramidal layer, consists predominantly of pyramidal cells. &lt;strong&gt;Apical dendrites may extend upward one or two layers, and the larger pyramidal cells may have dendrites extending into layer I.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Layer VI, the multiform layer, contains an assortment of neuron types. The &lt;strong&gt;dendrites of pyramidal cells may extend into layer I&lt;/strong&gt;. (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://clinicalgate.com/the-cerebral-cortex-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clinical Gate&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the text in bold above shows, the apical dendrites of pyramidal cells can extend many layers. Hence, it is a matter of reading the text carefully to know what they are talking about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your example...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A] neuron connects to Layer V of the cortex...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...it would depend on the context, but in this isolated instance it simply reads that a neuron's axon terminates in layer V. Especially in histological texts a line like this would most likely have identified the axon and the axon terminal and have identified the layer where it terminates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as said above, dendrites of pyramids &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; extend all the way up to layer I, so if a text would say...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A] neuron synapses onto a layer V neuron...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it is left undetermined exactly where that connection is made (can be layers I, II, III, IV, or V in the case of pyramidal cells).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What can be of help is the fact that when a text talks about... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...a layer V neuron&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...you can safely assume that its cell body is located in layer V, as a cell's location is determined by its cell body. Its dendrites can be in any layer (especially of the larger pyramid cells) and its axon may traverse all layers.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ASTKs.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ASTKs.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;cortex&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Layers in the cortex. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://clinicalgate.com/the-cerebral-cortex-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clinical Gate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-22T13:52:38.407" LastActivityDate="2016-09-22T13:52:38.407" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15945" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15938" CreationDate="2016-09-22T12:35:19.183" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often action potentials arise not until the initial segment of the axon, sometimes referred to as the   &lt;a href=&quot;http://michaeldmann.net/mann13.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;axon hillock&lt;/a&gt;. This has to do with a critical density of &lt;a href=&quot;https://courses.washington.edu/conj/membrane/nachan.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;voltage-gated sodium channels&lt;/a&gt; needed for action potential generation &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v11/n2/full/nn2040.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Kole &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2008)&lt;/a&gt;. The way it is conducted though the dendrites is hence often by means of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.physiologyweb.com/lecture_notes/neuronal_action_potential/neuronal_action_potential_graded_potentials_versus_action_potentials.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;graded dendritic potentials&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://droualb.faculty.mjc.edu/Course%20Materials/Physiology%20101/Chapter%20Notes/Fall%202007/chapter_7%20Fall%202007.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Axon terminals&lt;/a&gt; are not &quot;gated&quot;. The axon potential simply is conducted through all of them (see &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://aneskey.com/peripheral-nervous-system/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Anesthesia Key&lt;/a&gt;), barred any refractory effects or inhibitory or excitatory inputs from axoaxonal connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v11/n2/full/nn2040.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kole &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Nature Neurosci (2008); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;: 178-86&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-09-22T16:53:15.133" LastActivityDate="2016-09-22T16:53:15.133" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15946" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-22T19:57:04.067" Score="3" ViewCount="216" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some report indicates that working memory capacity is equal to the g factor, so I'm wondering what is actual point of view on this among psychologists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Colom, R., Abad, F. J., Rebollo, I., &amp;amp; Shih, P. C. (2005). Memory span and general intelligence: A latent variable approach. Intelligence, 33, 623–642.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4874" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T11:37:34.533" Title="Is working memory equivalent to fluid intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15949" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15933" CreationDate="2016-09-23T00:39:15.427" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As you mention Macmillan and Creelman, they talk about 3 types of bias: c, c', and beta. As I said in this &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6302/two-different-values-for-criterion-in-signal-detection-theory/8177#8177&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; it normally does not matter which one you use since they are pretty easy to switch between. When d' is zero, then c' and beta are no longer as informative as c. I would suggest reporting c, possibly along with c', in this case. Alternatively, you could report hit and false alarm rates. If you only report c' and d', you will not be telling the whole story.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-09-23T00:39:15.427" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15951" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-23T09:56:54.560" Score="4" ViewCount="1123" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I have read here and there, I've managed to stitch together some superficial understanding of focus and creativity. My understanding is that focus and creativity seem like opposites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've seen references (which all seem to originate from a coursera course on learning) to two distinct &quot;modes of thought&quot;. One called 'Focused' and one called 'Diffuse'. In focused mode, we focus on doing something we already know how to do. In Diffuse mode, we don't focus on a specific task we are instead searching for a way to do something, until we come up with an idea - it is at that point we focus on completing a task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether this view of thought is scientifically grounded or not, there does seem to be some truth to it: the default mode network, whose activity is reduced during certain types of meditation (at least, according to wikipedia), from what i can understand is linked to creativity . The explanation of this default mode seems similar to the &quot;diffuse&quot; mode of thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems (at least, to me), that focus and creativity are opposites - which makes sense in some ways. But is it really so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are creativity and focus competitive as far as the brain structures that support these are concerned? That is, if I improve my ability to focus, will it interfere with my &lt;strong&gt;ability&lt;/strong&gt; to be creative?&#xA;This seems somewhat ridiculous to me, but I suspect it's only because I want to believe it isn't so. For the moment, my understanding is that creativity and focus are separate,  and require &quot;switching&quot; between them, which leads to the next question:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are creativity and focus competitive as far as brain activity goes? that is, if I try to focus on something right now, will it interfere with my ability to be creative? If I focus on solving a problem I know how to solve, I probably won't be looking for a creative solution (also, there is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstellung_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;Einstellung effect&quot;&gt;Einstellung effect&lt;/a&gt;). But does the same mechanism responsible for maintaining or focus interfere with our ability to be creative at the moment?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5006" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2016-09-28T15:52:32.860" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T15:52:32.860" Title="The relationship between creativity and focus" Tags="&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15953" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15954" CreationDate="2016-09-24T02:00:49.750" Score="3" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_operating_characteristic#History&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;On Wikipedia it is written&lt;/a&gt; that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the 1950s, ROC curves were employed in psychophysics to assess&#xA;  human (and occasionally non-human animal) detection of weak signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Green and Swets (1966) is cited as attesting to that fact. I don't have any way of accessing that book, and nor would it necessarily constitute the first proposal of ROC curves for usage in psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Green, D. M., &amp;amp; Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. Society, 1, 521.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastEditorUserId="8310" LastEditDate="2016-09-24T02:27:10.603" LastActivityDate="2016-09-24T02:27:10.603" Title="Who first proposed using ROC curves in a psychological context?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15954" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15953" CreationDate="2016-09-24T02:00:49.750" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I worked out the answer to the question just as I was about to post it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Swets (1973) writes of a 1954 conference that  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Peterson and Birdsall had presented it a year earlier in a technical&#xA;  report. So it is fair to say, from the vantage point of psychology,&#xA;  that Peterson and Birdsall showed us how to plot the data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unless Swets is mistaken, the answer is Peterson and Birdsall (1953).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Peterson, W. W., &amp;amp; Birdsall, T. G. The Theory of Signal Detectability (1953). Technical report No. 13, Electronic Defense Group, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Swets, J. A. (1973). The relative operating characteristic in psychology. Science, 182(4116), 990-1000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8310" LastActivityDate="2016-09-24T02:00:49.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15955" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15901" CreationDate="2016-09-24T03:05:39.733" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term &quot;Machiavellianism&quot; can be used to refer to adherence to a set of strategies and guidelines for manipulation (eg, &quot;personally deliver good news but have bad news delivered by others&quot;), a moral philosophy (eg, &quot;the means justifies the ends&quot;), or a personality trait (also called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machiavellian_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Machiavellian intelligence&lt;/a&gt;&quot;).  Since you've posted this question on a cognitive science forum, I will focus on the latter definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Machiavellianism is measured (as any personality trait), using a self-report scale.  This test, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~dpaulhus/research/DARK_TRIAD/MEASURES/Mach%20IV%20with%20key.doc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mach-IV&lt;/a&gt;, developed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780121744502&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Christie &amp;amp; Geis (1970)&lt;/a&gt;, does not measure negotiation skills, but mostly focuses on social and moral attitudes and beliefs.  As such, it would not normally be equated with any particular skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~dpaulhus/research/DARK_TRIAD/CHAPTERS/Fehr-Samsom-Paulhus.1992.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fehr, Samson, &amp;amp; Paulhus (1992)&lt;/a&gt; review 17 years of research on Machiavellianism, including its association with persuasion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several studies have found that high Machs are particularly adept at&#xA;  persuading others in bargaining situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The review also mentions some notable exceptions, including a study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com/content/11/1/51.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fry (1985)&lt;/a&gt;, that showed that a simple visual barrier greatly reduces the influence of high Machs.  A more recent review by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2009-12071-007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Jones &amp;amp; Paulhus (2009)&lt;/a&gt; also agrees:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... high Mach IV scores do predict who will and who will not engage in&#xA;  interpersonal manipulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So although the term refers to a set of self-reported attitudes about social relationships, and not a measure of any particular skills, it would be reasonable to say that Machiavellianism &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;correlates with&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; negotiation skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For completeness, I should mention that the strong correlation is not an accident.  In fact, as the review points out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the construct validity of Machiavellianism rests largely on the&#xA;  match between high Mach IV scores and actual pragmatic manipulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, the test was written and adjusted to have this correlation, so it may be more accurate to say that Machiavellianism &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;is validated by&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; negotiation skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2016-09-24T03:05:39.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15960" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15977" CreationDate="2016-09-25T10:09:24.133" Score="3" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recently read a paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/1415404?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(The James-Lange theory of emotions: a critical examination and an alternative theory&lt;/a&gt;), in which the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%E2%80%93Lange_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;James-Lange Theory&lt;/a&gt; was challenged by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Bradford_Cannon&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Walter Bradford Cannon&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence it was stated that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;{Emotional responses can be distinguished by on the basis of autonomic activity., emotions were less intense when the brain was disconnected from the viscera} ... Some artificial manipulations of organ activity can induce emotions such as &lt;em&gt;intravenous administration of of cholecystokinin (a gastric peptide) which can provoke panic attacks&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the physiological process of intravenously inducing an emotion? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10587" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T15:21:36.077" Title="How does the intravenous administration of cholecystokinin provoke panic attacks?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15962" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-26T13:31:31.063" Score="0" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often end up having loads of things which I am learning. One of the pattern which I have observed over time is that I often end up leaving things half way - for months and then, I have to restart doing the basics again. I feel that if only I ended up taking a few steps more, I could have gained much more from my revisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a couple of questions - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is this good practice?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is there any cognitive reason behind this?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How does one overcome/control this tendency to start off something new before finishing the older ones?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13814" LastActivityDate="2016-10-02T11:31:00.720" Title="What are the techniques to get over the learning plateau?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-10-02T18:45:41.113" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15963" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-27T07:11:51.273" Score="1" ViewCount="808" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there databases or data sets that contain metrics about lie detection?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The data would include variables such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Did the subject lie? (0 or 1 variable)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brain activity measures (fMRI, EEG) when subject was given question. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, was the hippocampus hyperactive when the subject was probed about a question? (Could be a discrete or continuous variable)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Metrics of the rest of the body&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: Average heart rate, blood pressure level, level of various hormones, facial expressions, body posture, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Any other metrics to describe people (remains to be seen if some of these variables would be useful): socio-economic status, age, race, gender, political affiliation, relgious affiliation, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does data involving, at least, points 1, 2, 3, exist? Point 4 would be a luxury, I suppose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13823" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-17T04:54:35.147" LastActivityDate="2016-10-17T04:54:35.147" Title="Where can I get data on lie detection and brain activity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15966" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15963" CreationDate="2016-09-27T12:54:06.467" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might have trouble finding raw data but there have been plenty of studies looking at the neurological and physiological activity associated with deception, which may contain answers to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few examples:&#xA;Ganis et al used fMRI and found that both types of lies (rehearsed &amp;amp; spontaneous) elicited more activation than telling the truth in anterior prefrontal cortices (bilaterally), the parahippocampal gyrus (bilaterally), the right precuneus, and the left cerebellum. At least in part, distinct neural networks support different types of deception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thackray &amp;amp; Orne published a pretty thorough comparison of lie detection methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bradley &amp;amp; Janisse looked at threat and deception but discuss physiological response in depth. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abe et al used PET scans to argue that we have distinct neural pathways for deception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally Sip et al discuss the efficacy of deception detection and studies summarising that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The problems&#xA;  that bedevilled the old technology have not&#xA;  been eliminated by the new&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/13/8/830.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Ganis, G., Kosslyn, S. M., Stose, S., Thompson, W. L., &amp;amp; Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2003). Neural correlates of different types of deception: an fMRI investigation. Cerebral cortex, 13(8), 830-836.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.upenn.edu/history/orne/thackrayorne1968psychophys329339.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Thackray, R. I., &amp;amp; Orne, M. T. (1968). A COMPARISON OF PHYSIOLOGICAL INDICES IN DETECTION OE DECEPTION. Psychophysiology, 4(3), 329-339.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/M_Bradley/publication/34372512_Accuracy_demonstrations_threat_and_the_detection_of_deception_microform__cardiovascular_electrodermal_and_pupillary_measures_/links/53da74220cf2a19eee8850ff.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bradley, M. T., &amp;amp; Janisse, M. P. (1981). Accuracy demonstrations, threat, and the detection of deception: Cardiovascular, electrodermal, and pupillary measures. Psychophysiology, 18(3), 307-315.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/60e9/e6bb6d53770010f195dfe477d0e384654923.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Abe, N., Suzuki, M., Mori, E., Itoh, M., &amp;amp; Fujii, T. (2007). Deceiving others: distinct neural responses of the prefrontal cortex and amygdala in simple fabrication and deception with social interactions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19(2), 287-295.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pure.au.dk/portal/files/40608301/SipTiCS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sip, K. E., Roepstorff, A., McGregor, W., &amp;amp; Frith, C. D. (2008). Detecting deception: the scope and limits. Trends in cognitive sciences, 12(2), 48-53.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2016-09-27T12:54:06.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15951" CreationDate="2016-09-27T13:50:30.650" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't really answer your questions as they relate to your ability to be creative. Also I'm unsure as to how 'focus' is defined, however, I know of research linking both attention and working memory to creativity which you may be able to draw conclusions from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some mixed research to back the idea creativity and attention are linked; it has been hypothesised that individuals who suffer from ADHD (and thus a widened attentional focus) may have higher creative abilities than non ADHD individuals. One study on teens found that although those with ADHD out performed those without on tasks that involve overcoming the influence of examples, they showed a reduced capacity to generate a functional invention during an imagery task (Abraham et al 2006). White and Shah (2006) found similar results in adults and suggest than the disparity in creative ability may be linked to inhibition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has also been some research suggesting that creativity and capacity of working memory have opposing characteristics possibly in terms of diffuse attention. Working memory (WM) is an essential component for human&#xA;higher order cognitive activities (large capacity for WM could come under 'focus'). Attention and WM share neural substrates and they are cognitively deeply associated (Awh and Jonides, 2001). Takeuchi et al used fMRI to investigate the link between WM and creativity and found that individual creativity, as measured by the divergent thinking test, is related to the inefficient reallocation of attention, congruent with the idea that diffuse attention is associated with individual creativity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psydok.psycharchives.de/jspui/handle/20.500.11780/393&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Abraham, A., Windmann, S., Siefen, R., Daum, I., &amp;amp; Güntürkün, O. (2006). Creative thinking in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child Neuropsychology, 12(2), 111-123.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Holly_White3/publication/222652807_Uninhibited_imaginations_Creativity_in_adults_with_Attention-DeficitHyperactivity_Disorder/links/0a85e52f5075a9f863000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;White, H. A., &amp;amp; Shah, P. (2006). Uninhibited imaginations: creativity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(6), 1121-1131.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.724.5063&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Hashizume, H., Sassa, Y., Nagase, T., Nouchi, R., &amp;amp; Kawashima, R. (2011). Failing to deactivate: the association between brain activity during a working memory task and creativity. Neuroimage, 55(2), 681-687.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Awh, E., &amp;amp; Jonides, J. (2001). Overlapping mechanisms of attention and spatial working memory. Trends in cognitive sciences, 5(3), 119-126.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2016-09-27T13:50:30.650" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15968" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15963" CreationDate="2016-09-27T14:01:19.013" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Simple answer. Yes, each researcher keeps data they use for research for at least 5 years, but their is no central database. You will need to request access to that data from the authors of any academic research on lie detection. If you read what I have written below then you can follow the links to the authors of the research and request their data. Although please be aware that they have may not wish to share their data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The kinds of data you ask do exist but nobody takes all these measures in one experiment.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel inclined to provide a bit of background about lie detection research if you might indulge me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, there is no such thing as a lie detector. The most sensitive equipment that could potentially be used to detect lies is electroencephalography (EEG), as it has high temporal resolution which would be necessary for lie detection. EEG equipment records electrical signals on the the scalp, which originate from the brain if you do it well, or from the surrounding muscles if you set the equipment up badly. Within the last 20 years research has tried and failed to accurately and constantly detect detection with both EEG and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Hippocampal activity you will only really get with fMRI, although there are methods for EEG to get a weak signal. In general there are many problems using fMRI for lie detection, please see this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3781577/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;. Both methods are inconsistent at the detection of deception at the level of the individual, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169260708002484&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;although some methods claim to have more success than others&lt;/a&gt;(please bare in mind this research was done in an Iranian university, meaning they are not known for their academic rigour at the time of writing). For instance &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876013002481&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this attached review&lt;/a&gt; reports that EEG analysis detection of 'deception' within p300 (this is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P300_(neuroscience)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;decision making signal that EEG detects&lt;/a&gt;) has been reported between 90 and 75% accurate in participant groups, looking at the data I would put it closer to 70%. This is not good enough for any uses by law enforcement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regards to questioning, law enforcement uses very specific techniques i.e. the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15614263.2013.819616&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive interview&lt;/a&gt; so as not to negatively impact on recall. In addition these experiments are often done in the lab, where students are given a scenario and told to lie. This is very different from lying in the real world, for instance the signal of 'deception' in the p300 may get easily confused with normal decision making. Or the activity in certain neural areas may be normal functioning involved in recall rather than deception.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16859438&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Without training lie detection is around 50%&lt;/a&gt;, in laboratory conditions. With regards to your other requests, galvanic skin response and heart rate changes have been used in the past with polygraphs. T&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/research/action/polygraph.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;hese are generally to reconsidered to be poor measures of lie detection as well.&lt;/a&gt;Another report &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938408001947&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. Although some reports find remarkable findings, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938408000255&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;80% lie detection&lt;/a&gt;, or if you are in china then they a reporting &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938414005964&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;95% lie detection&lt;/a&gt;. Although polygraph was debunked years ago to be at around 60%-65% &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v307/n5953/abs/307681a0.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;accurate&lt;/a&gt;, see here for an excellent &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bps.org.uk/sites/default/files/documents/polygraphic_deception_detection_-_a_review_of_the_current_scientific_status_and_fields_of_application.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;review&lt;/a&gt;. As the review points out false positives are a huge problem in polygraph techniques, as they are in other techniques too.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastActivityDate="2016-09-27T14:01:19.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15969" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12125" CreationDate="2016-09-27T15:07:24.050" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mommy_(2014_film)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mommy&lt;/a&gt; is about the problems of a mother with his child which is said to have ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, I think you will get better answers on &lt;a href=&quot;https://movies.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;https://movies.stackexchange.com/&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:54:05.207" LastActivityDate="2016-09-27T15:42:58.530" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15971" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-28T01:54:56.793" Score="8" ViewCount="1700" Body="&lt;p&gt;When listening to music, I often see people tap their feet either to the main beat or the dominating rhythm of the music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do people do this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12842" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T12:17:20.210" Title="Why do people tap their foot to music?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15972" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-28T05:25:34.927" Score="1" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any link, e-book, whitepaper that you can provide me to help me determine the prevalence of IPT and CBT amongst kids 7 - 12 years and adolescents 12 - 17 years who suffer from Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). This is for a clinical trial campaign we are doing due diligence for. I need to know if we can target enough number of participants to start a study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13831" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T10:40:43.357" Title="What's the prevalence of interpersonal psychotherapy and cognitive behavior in the treatment of depression?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15973" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15972" CreationDate="2016-09-28T10:40:43.357" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/statistics/mental-health-statistics-children-and-young-people&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mental health foundation (MHF)&lt;/a&gt; UK do some good work here, collecting data about prevalence of mental health problems and engagement with therapy. I have linked to a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/sites/default/files/fundamental-facts-15.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2015 report&lt;/a&gt; which summarises a plethora of research on the depression, including MDD. You can follow the references to find information about the prevalence of MDD and engagement in therapy. For example, the paper references a &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01682.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2006 meta-analysis of the prevalence of depression between 1965-1996&lt;/a&gt; (USA statistics)...&quot;overall prevalence estimates were: under 13, 2.8% (standard error (SE) .5%); 13–18 5.6% (SE .3%); 13–18 girls: 5.9% (SE .3%); 13–18 boys: 4.6% (SE .3%)&quot; (Costello et al., 2006). A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/252660/33571_2901304_CMO_Chapter_10.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;UK government report&lt;/a&gt; basically puts this prevalence at similar levels to the US. Going back to the USA, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/prevalence/major-depression-among-adolescents.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a 2014 report puts the incidence of depressive episode experiences at 11% of the US adolescent population&lt;/a&gt;. All I can say is that I'm glad I'm not a teenager anymore!   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapy engagement and age is a bit more difficult to obtain, especially for interpersonal therapy in younger age groups. In the UK 38% of all therapy in primary healthcare (basically non-hospitalised patients) was CBT in 2013/14. In the &lt;a href=&quot;http://content.digital.nhs.uk/catalogue/PUB19098/psyc-ther-ann-rep-2014-15.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;annual NHS report for Improving Access to Psychological Therapies&lt;/a&gt; 2014/15(IAPT) puts this at 34% (1.2 million) by contrast interpersonal therapy was only around was just over 1% (40,000) of appointments. Under 18s age groups are not given, but it is reasonable to assume given the kind of therapy available for adults in the UK the rates would be similar for children, particularly because CBT training is more readily therapy. If your in the US it may be important to consider that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2938751/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;therapy engagement maybe lower in younger age groups&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TANGENT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Worryingly and personally the most horrible statistic I have read all week is that &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/195/2/118.full-text.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;depression in children is a risk factor to mortality comparable to smoking&lt;/a&gt;. However meta analysis have reported that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3584580/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;CBT is 51-87% effective in treating depression&lt;/a&gt;. A Canadian report puts psychotherapy (CBT and IPT included) as .66 (cohen's D) more effective than no treatment at all in children with depression. The report does not compare success rates of either therapeutic technique. However &lt;a href=&quot;http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/5/2/e005918.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a study has been planned to compare therapeutic treatments in children and adolescence&lt;/a&gt;, it has not been published yet. Rates of recovery in adults (which is often lower than children) may be an indicator, with &lt;a href=&quot;http://content.digital.nhs.uk/catalogue/PUB19098/psyc-ther-ann-rep-2014-15.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;IAPT reporting 58.4% recovery with CBT and 53.9% with IPT&lt;/a&gt; (remember the small sample size for IPT in IAPT). Within anxiety research &lt;a href=&quot;http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1107417&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive therapy is found to be far more effective than IPT&lt;/a&gt;. One study appears to suggest that C&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/lat/1/S/36/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;BT is also more affective with depression than IPT&lt;/a&gt;, although &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/190/6/496.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;a slightly older study found no significant difference&lt;/a&gt;, which looking at the IAPT data would seem to be more likely.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope that is helpful, I would also recommend looking at the USA based Nation &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/depression/index.shtml#part_145400&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Institute of Mental Health website&lt;/a&gt;, they have a lot of information and links to research.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T10:40:43.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15946" CreationDate="2016-09-28T11:37:34.533" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would not go as far as saying that working memory (WM) is equal to g factor (gf). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735805001005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WM only accounts for 38% of variation&lt;/a&gt; in gf performance whether is no time pressure, this is not insignificant but it important to consider that holding information is important for any gf task. It has perviously been considered that the complexity of information required in different gf tasks would depend on WM capacity. For those that do not know: working memory (WM) is basically the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3721021/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;capacity of information an individual can temporally hold at any one time&lt;/a&gt;. Anyhow the notion that complexity takes up more working memory and therefore is predictive of gf performance, in other words holding information in WM is thought to help us analyse and break it down to solve problems such as posed in gf tasks. This notion is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2485208/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;does not appear to be supported, with research finding that the correlation between gf and WM being relatively consistent across task complexities&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what is the function of this relationship? A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3930174/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2011 fMRI study by Burgess et al&lt;/a&gt; strongly suggests that the relationship between WM and gf is to do with interference control, in their words...&quot;Our findings suggest that the relationship between WM span and gF can be linked, at least in part, to a common dependence on mechanisms of interference control that reflect activation in a core set of brain regions centered on the lateral PFC and parietal cortex...these regions [are] fairly specific and selective in their predictive utility for explaining common variance in gF and WM span...We theorize that the exact brain regions and processes related to gF and WM span will likely depend upon the nature of processing required during the task, and the temporal dynamics of those task demands.&quot; Simply, the primary function of the relationship WM capacity and gf appears to be to focus on task. Interestingly from the area of hedonics we know that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4715338/pdf/12888_2016_Article_714.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;WM is predictive of how likely an individual is to respond their environment&lt;/a&gt; and motivational prompts such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22613059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;food&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3119708/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;alcohol&lt;/a&gt;. These motivational cues can be considered interference from long term goals such as avoiding eating or maintaining sobriety.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T11:37:34.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15971" CreationDate="2016-09-28T12:05:11.413" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short Answer:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People tap their feet due to increased activity in the cerebellum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Detailed Answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There already is some evidence that music can release certain &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/15203/10587&quot;&gt;neurotransmitters&lt;/a&gt;, including dopamine. You can assume that people who tap their feet to the music, are in someway &quot;pleased&quot; by the music, meaning that their body goes into some sort of physiological joyride. Part of this joyride is an increased blood flow to the limbs, an increase in heart rate, dilated pupils, and most significantly a rise in activity of the cerebellum. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the theory that music can have similar effects as drugs &amp;amp; addiction on the reward pathway of the brain. This pathway stimulates the flow of dopamine  to the striatum, which is a part of the forebrain, activated by reward, motivation and addiction. &#xA;In addition those dopamine levels can already peak milliseconds before something &quot;special&quot; in the song starts (e.g the bass drop, guitar solo, etc.), which strengthens the theory that our brain anticipates and predicts upcoming events (such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory-prediction_framework&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;memory prediction framework&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, for example to songs the individual is completely unfamiliar with, the memory prediction framework may not be activated, therefore dopamine levels will not spike before the actual e.g. &quot;drop&quot;, but after it happens, the striatum will be filled with dopamine. &#xA;Furthermore, as mentioned in the beginning of the answer, the cerebellum gets more active as certain music is played, releasing neurotransmitters, and therefore the increased activity an individual is more likely to move their e.g. legs, because of a heightened motor-system. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1920543/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adinoff, B. (2004). Neurobiologic Processes in Drug Reward and Addiction. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 12(6), 305-320. doi:10.1080/10673220490910844&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/98/20/11818.SHORT&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blood, A. J., &amp;amp; Zatorre, R. J. (2001). Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98(20), 11818-11823. doi:10.1073/pnas.191355898&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10587" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T12:05:11.413" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15976" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15971" CreationDate="2016-09-28T12:17:20.210" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is that it is pleasurable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent research from Witek et al (2014) sheds light on this. Their research on affective response and desire to move when listening to funk drum breaks showed that &quot;syncopation seems to be an important structural factor in embodied and affective responses to groove&quot;. Here is their full PLOS article: &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0094446&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0094446&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This research rests on a longer history of research on the relationship to sound and motion. A nice framework that synthesizes this research was developed by Godøy et al. (2016) - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09298215.2016.1184689&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09298215.2016.1184689&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13106" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T12:17:20.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15977" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15960" CreationDate="2016-09-28T15:21:36.077" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Emotions are often linked to chemical activity in the brain. Neurotransmitters such as serotonin , dopamine, norepinephrine etc are linked to inducing emotional states, therefore if you can take a drug which will increase the amount of a transmitter then you will respond accordingly e.g. MDMA &gt; serotonin &gt; feeling of escstacy/happiness (Meyer &amp;amp; Quenzer, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of Cholecystokinin (CCK), Singh et al found evidence suggesting that activation of the brain CCK-B receptor induces anxiety and that selective antagonists of this receptor represent a separate class of anxiolytic (relaxing) agents. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simply:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inject drug  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;drug reaches blood brain barrier  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;drug crosses or is turned into drug that can cross (e.g. codiene &gt; morphine) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;drug turns into neurotransmitter/ or precursor to (e.g. 5HTP &gt; serotonin) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;binds to/ activates receptor this activation causes an emotional/physical&#xA;response&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This process varies depending on the drug but that is loosely it as I understand it. Much of this taken from the Meyers textbook, which I read a long time ago so feel free to correct me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/88/4/1130.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Singh, L., Lewis, A. S., Field, M. J., Hughes, J., &amp;amp; Woodruff, G. N. (1991). Evidence for an involvement of the brain cholecystokinin B receptor in anxiety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 88(4), 1130-1133.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meyer, J. S., &amp;amp; Quenzer, L. F. (2013). Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the brain, and behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2016-09-28T15:21:36.077" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15978" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15894" CreationDate="2016-09-29T08:38:44.393" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Engle has published extensive papers about this topic and if you are interested I suggest looking him up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2001 Kane, Bleckley, Conway, &amp;amp; Engle (In Engle, 2002) attempted to directly measure the relationship between WM and executive attention, and conclude that that the underlying factor responsible for the relationship between measures of&#xA;WM capacity and performance on higher-order cognitive tasks is a&#xA;domain-free executive-attention system. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although individuals possessing different WM capacities will&#xA;  show differences in number of items stored in a variety of memory&#xA;  tasks, this is a result of differing ability to maintain and inhibit&#xA;  information, particularly in the face of distraction and interference.&#xA;  Only when the context makes it difficult to maintain the appropriate task&#xA;  goal do people with high WM spans perform better than people with low&#xA;  WM spans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2003  he found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Individual differences in working-memory (WM) capacity predicted performance on the Stroop task in 5 experiments, indicating the importance of executive control and goal maintenance to selective attention&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion the two are obviously linked however it would be difficult to infer causality or direction in the relationship. It would make sense that if your attention improves your working memory would also improve, however it's hard to say if one causes the other  or if they are intrinsically linked and would just both increase at the same time.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of measuring WM at home here is a link to an n-back test which I think will be fairly easy to do at home: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cognitivefun.net/test/4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://cognitivefun.net/test/4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The n-back task requires participants to decide whether each stimulus in a sequence matches the one that appeared n items ago. N-back has become a standard measure for WMC, however treat results with a pinch of salt as Kane et al (2007) have called it's validity into question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~pgraf/Psy583Readings/Engle%202002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Engle, R. W. (2002). Working memory capacity as executive attention. Current directions in psychological science, 11(1), 19-23.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael_Kane4/publication/10839514_Working-memory_capacity_and_the_control_of_attention_The_contributions_of_goal_neglect_response_competition_and_task_set_to_Stroop_interference/links/0046351cc85a3e411f000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kane, M. J., &amp;amp; Engle, R. W. (2003). Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: the contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference. Journal of experimental psychology: General, 132(1), 47.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael_Kane4/publication/6360078_Working_memory_attention_control_and_the_n-back_task_A_question_of_construct_validity/links/00b7d51cc84a02c446000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kane, M. J., Conway, A. R., Miura, T. K., &amp;amp; Colflesh, G. J. (2007). Working memory, attention control, and the N-back task: a question of construct validity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33(3), 615.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2016-09-29T08:38:44.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15979" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15810" CreationDate="2016-09-29T09:49:49.653" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;My initial thought when reading this question is that it would an extremely difficult thing to pin down whether or not depression would affect memory in the long term this is due to a variety of confounding factors but the one that strikes me as most prominent is that major depression rarely goes untreated for a long period of time, in a population of people suffering with depression most are likely to have sought treatment as some point. Meaning that a study into the effects of depression in the long term would be very difficult to facilitate as it would be hard to infer whether the changes in memory function would be due to depression or the effects of treatment for depression such as SSRIs, MAOIs, electroconvulsive therapy, and others. Although, SSRIs have actually been found to improve memory (Harmer et al, 2002), and effects of ECT have been found to be temporary with people recovering by 6 months (Calev et al, 1991). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A link between depression and memory impairment is supported &#xA;Burt, Zembar, &amp;amp; Niederehe conducted a meta analysis of 99 studies looking at depression and memory and found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A significant, stable association between depression and memory&#xA;  impairment was revealed. Further analyses indicated, however, that it&#xA;  is likely that depression is linked to particular aspects of memory,&#xA;  the linkage is found in particular subsets of depressed individuals,&#xA;  and memory impairment is not unique to depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some evidence that people suffering from major depressive disorder have slightly different brain structure to neurotypical individuals. Brenner et al found that Patients with depression had a statistically significant 19% smaller left hippocampal volume than comparison subjects, without smaller volumes of comparison regions (amygdala, caudate, frontal lobe, and temporal lobe) or whole brain volume. It was not clear if this could change when the persons symptoms subdued, however to me it seemed like a permanent difference (obviously difficult to infer causality tho). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of memory being enhanced in a manic state it appears that memory is much the same in a manic state as it is in a normal state (Glahn et al; Weingartner et al)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/bremner2000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Bremner, J. D., Narayan, M., Anderson, E. R., Staib, L. H., Miller, H. L., &amp;amp; Charney, D. S. (2000). Hippocampal volume reduction in major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(1), 115-118.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1995-21418-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Burt, D. B., Zembar, M. J., &amp;amp; Niederehe, G. (1995). Depression and memory impairment: a meta-analysis of the association, its pattern, and specificity. Psychological bulletin, 117(2), 285.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/jonmd/Abstract/1991/09000/Early_and_Long_Term_Effects_of_Electroconvulsive.2.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Calev, A., Nigal, D., Shapira, B., Tubi, N., Chazan, S., Ben-Yehuda, Y., ... &amp;amp; Lerer, B. (1991). Early and long-term effects of electroconvulsive therapy and depression on memory and other cognitive functions. The Journal of nervous and mental disease, 179(9), 526-533&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sibel_Cakir/publication/7236873_Differential_working_memory_impairment_in_bipolar_disorder_and_schizophrenia_effects_of_lifetime_history_of_psychosis/links/09e4150b854cc8e81d000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Glahn, D. C., Bearden, C. E., Cakir, S., Barrett, J. A., Najt, P., Serap Monkul, E., ... &amp;amp; Soares, J. C. (2006). Differential working memory impairment in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: effects of lifetime history of psychosis. Bipolar disorders, 8(2), 117-123&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jtoomim.org/brain-training/Harmer%20et%20al.%20-%202002%20-%20Acute%20administration%20of%20citalopram%20facilitates%20mem.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Harmer, C. J., Bhagwagar, Z., Cowen, P. J., &amp;amp; Goodwin, G. M. (2002). Acute administration of citalopram facilitates memory consolidation in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology, 163(1), 106-110.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Herbert_Weingartner3/publication/22281127_Mood-state-dependent_retrieval_of_verbal_associations._J_Abnorm_Psychol/links/549183910cf2d1800d89e309.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Weingartner, H., Miller, H., &amp;amp; Murphy, D. L. (1977). Mood-state-dependent retrieval of verbal associations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86(3), 276.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastEditorUserId="10587" LastEditDate="2016-09-29T16:54:31.100" LastActivityDate="2016-09-29T16:54:31.100" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15980" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-29T18:28:00.020" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are planning an experiment using the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odds_and_evens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;odds-and-evens&lt;/a&gt; game. The rules of the game are simple: player A selects either &quot;1&quot; or &quot;2&quot;; player B selects simultaneously either &quot;1&quot; or &quot;2&quot;; if both select the same number, player A wins \$1 and B wins nothing; if they select different numbers, player B wins \$1 and A wins nothing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In our experiment, player A is a human subject and player B is a computer program (the computer is programmed to play randomly - select &quot;1&quot; or &quot;2&quot; with equal probability each time). Our concern is: how to convince the human that this is really what's going on? The problem is that, the human reveals his choice by clicking a button, before the computer reveals its choice. So in theory, we could have programmed the computer to always choose a number different than the choice of the human. Indeed, we have an incentive to do so because it will reduce the amount of money that we will have to pay to the subjects!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can we convince the human subjects that the computer makes its choice simultaneously and does not &quot;cheat&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As computer scientists, the first option that came to our mind is to use a cryptographic &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commitment_scheme&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;commitment scheme&lt;/a&gt;. But, this might be too complicated for the subjects to understand. Are there simpler solutions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7803" LastActivityDate="2016-09-29T20:16:37.777" Title="How to convince subjects that the computer is playing fairly" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15980" CreationDate="2016-09-29T20:16:37.777" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm imagining a system that chooses the computer's response not in a stochastic manner, but chaotically. Suppose you have some chaotic mapping function from the [0,1] interval to the {heads, tails} set. Choosing any real number in the set will get you some deterministic mapping to heads or tails. This mapping equation should be quite complex, but made visible to the user. Have them choose a number in [0, 1], and you'll get an output that appears random, but could be computed if the user chose to take the time. You just need to make the mapping function complex enough that it's not easily computable to rig the game, and also such that it maps 50% to heads and 50% to tails.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13850" LastActivityDate="2016-09-29T20:16:37.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15982" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15932" CreationDate="2016-09-30T05:07:23.197" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read evidence for single-neuron, two-neuron, and larger loops/cycles throughout the cortex, including intralaminar, interlaminar, and interareal neural loops. But it would take me far too long to back that statement up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, I offer a list of papers to get you started. I've read all these papers, and they all provide evidence for neural loops in the cortex, especially two-neuron loops. Within these papers, search for &quot;loop&quot;, &quot;reciprocal&quot;, and, if you're interested in single-neuron loops, &quot;autapse&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Alonso, J.-M. (2002) Neural Connections and Receptive Field Properties in the Primary Visual Cortex. The Neuroscientist. 8(5):443-456&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Feldmeyer, D. (2012) Excitatory Neuronal Connectivity in the Barrel Cortex. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 6(24):1-22&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Rockland, K.S. and Knutson, T. (2000) Feedback Connections from Area MT of the Squirrel Monkey to Areas V1 and V2. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 425:345-368&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Thomson, A.M., West, D.C., Wang, Y., and Bannnister, A.P. (2002) Synaptic Connections and Small Circuits Involving Excitatory and Inhibitory Neurons in Layers 2-5 of Adult Rat and Cat Neocortex: Triple Intracellular Recordings and Biocytin Labelling In Vitro. Cerebral Cortex. 12:936-953&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="421" LastActivityDate="2016-09-30T05:07:23.197" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15983" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15932" CreationDate="2016-09-30T08:04:48.537" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you're calling &quot;loops&quot; are usually referred to as &lt;em&gt;Recurrent Neural Networks&lt;/em&gt; (as opposed to &lt;em&gt;Feedforward Neural Networks&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scholarpedia has an article on them, with a bibliography:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Typically... reviews consider RNNs that are artificial neural&#xA;  networks (aRNN) useful in technological applications. To complement&#xA;  these contributions, the present summary focuses on &lt;strong&gt;biological&#xA;  recurrent neural networks (bRNN) that are found in the brain&lt;/strong&gt;. Since&#xA;  feedback is ubiquitous in the brain, this task, in full generality,&#xA;  could include most of the brain's dynamics. The current review divides&#xA;  bRNNS into those in which feedback signals occur in neurons within a&#xA;  single processing layer,  which occurs in networks for such diverse&#xA;  functional roles as storing spatial patterns in short-term memory,&#xA;  winner-take-all decision making, contrast enhancement and&#xA;  normalization, hill climbing, oscillations of multiple types&#xA;  (synchronous, traveling waves, chaotic), storing temporal sequences of&#xA;  events in working memory, and serial learning of lists; and those in&#xA;  which feedback signals occur between multiple processing layers, such&#xA;  as occurs when bottom-up adaptive filters activate learned recognition&#xA;  categories and top-down learned expectations focus attention on&#xA;  expected patterns of critical features and thereby modulate both types&#xA;  of learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At least in this article (i just skimmed it) it looks like most of the presumed biological neural networks are inferred to exist from models, rather than having actually been found with a microscope.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/15932/are-there-neural-loops-within-a-column-or-an-area-of-the-cortex/15982#15982&quot;&gt;John's&lt;/a&gt; answer lists some papers which sounds like they probably provide more direct evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13846" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-09-30T08:04:48.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15985" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-09-30T16:38:55.833" Score="5" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is it that most psychophysics experiments only use a handful of subjects (typically around five, but sometimes even four, three or two), whereas the &quot;norm&quot; for experimental psychology (assuming a medium effect size) is around N=25? Is the motivation to reduce sampling error and increase external validity not the same for psychophysics as it is for e.g. decision-making experiments? Or is it the case that individual differences are smaller in perception than they are in cognition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastActivityDate="2016-09-30T19:16:57.357" Title="Why so few subjects in psychophysics?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;sampling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15986" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15985" CreationDate="2016-09-30T19:16:57.357" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is partly as you already guessed, because the phenomena that are studied don't vary as much between individuals. This doesn't necessarily mean that individual differences in perception are smaller, it means that individual differences &lt;em&gt;in those aspects of perception that are studied in psychophysics&lt;/em&gt; are smaller.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another reason is that it is customary in psychophysics to instead use large numbers of stimuli - sometimes thousands - thus making sure that the estimate per individual is &lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt; precise. In that sense the more cognitive topics are much more underpowered, often employing groups of several tens of stimuli to generalize about entire classes of objects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2016-09-30T19:16:57.357" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15987" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3599" CreationDate="2016-09-30T19:43:42.017" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;One study (Zhao et. al., 2010), investigating the sleep architecture of two bat species (one nocturnal, and one mixed), notes the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;C. sphinx&lt;/em&gt; was found to sleep predominantly throughout the day (60% of total sleep quota) during which time it spent significantly longer&#xA;  time in NREM and REM sleep. Compared to &lt;em&gt;E. spelaea&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;C. sphinx&lt;/em&gt; had&#xA;  significantly less REM and NREM sleep episodes but their duration was&#xA;  significantly longer. &lt;em&gt;E. spelaea&lt;/em&gt; appears to distribute its time at&#xA;  wake and in REM and NREM sleep equally throughout the light and dark&#xA;  phases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XPSa2.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XPSa2.png&quot; alt=&quot;Bat sleep architecture&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Top three rows are for the predominantly nocturnal bat &lt;em&gt;C. sphinx&lt;/em&gt;. Note the &quot;Wake&quot; rows for the two species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jon_Flanders/publication/40821192_Characterization_of_the_sleep_architecture_in_two_species_of_fruit_bat/links/00b4952974f1cb971e000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zhao, X., Sun, H., Tang, Z., Flanders, J., Zhang, S., &amp;amp; Ma, Y. (2010). &lt;em&gt;Characterization of the sleep architecture in two species of fruit bat.&lt;/em&gt; Behavioural brain research, 208(2), 497-501.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2016-09-30T19:43:42.017" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15894" CreationDate="2016-10-02T11:09:52.530" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Working memory (WM) and attention are interrelated, as a precondition for WM to operate is attention. In addition to attention we need awareness. The general view is that WM is explicit - conscious - and never implicit. The key difference between the term &quot;working memory&quot; and the older term &quot;short-term memory&quot;, is precisely highlighting the role of attention and updating in memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question, we should consider that there are different types of attention. We can distinguish between momentary &quot;spot-light&quot; attention (or we could speak of &quot;selective attention&quot;) and sustained attention (vigilance). In addition to WM training, there are training tasks for improving sustained attention. These are distinct put overlapping domains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, the n-back task that was recommend in another answer varies due to different designs of the task and a score is therefore not easily comparable to other n-back scores, but for the same task only. One important distinction can be made between tasks that are designed for testing and tasks that are designed for training. In training tasks you are supposed to change your score and these tasks are therefor not ideal for measurement, whereas test tasks should ideally be more robust to change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some clinical tools that have been established for assessing short-term memory. These tasks include Raven's progressive matrices and the Corsi block task. The advantage of these tests is their comparability between individuals. A disadvantage is that they are rarely computerized and less accesible outside the neuropsychological community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;WM is a very broad and colorful concept. Maintaining and updating information are two separate aspects of WM. The first requires sustained attention, the second requires flexibility of thought. Traditionally, the upper limit of the capacity for a number of items is measured. This is equivalent to storage in short-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, one further requirement for defining WM is the online manipulation of maintained items. The size of the short-term store - number of items - is just another index of WM performance, although it is still considered the gold standard. However, the score is heavily dependent on what task you choose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a student I am currently working on a classical working memory task for testing that runs in your browser. I hope to release it this year as open source. There is still much work to be done to give people at home the ability to test working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, motivation and working memory are strongly linked. Comparing yourself to your peers can reduce performance. It is therefore better to take a &quot;master-oriented&quot; approach and to compare your score with your previous scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2016-10-02T11:09:52.530" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15990" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15962" CreationDate="2016-10-02T11:31:00.720" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Increased spacing between learning sessions has been found to improve long-term learning when studying for tests. The key is to study less per session, but more often. To develop a habit, you could start by connecting your time of study to a habit that you have already established. For example, if you always brush your teeth, you could associate putting the toot-brush back with walking over to your study area and opening a book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Repeated learning further enables learning. This is one of the reasons spaced learning works. Once you have studied a chapter the previous session, you go back to the same chapter, skim it, and think about the concepts that you have learned. Repetition is key to rote learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Facing the hard parts requires a very thorough understanding of the basics. Know the basics. Don't be afraid of your brain working harder on some problems. The more advanced stuff will take more time to learn. That is the natural course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TLDR:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A lack of repetition, spacing, and knowledge of the fundamentals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;See above.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2016-10-02T11:31:00.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15991" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9149" CreationDate="2016-10-03T03:28:00.153" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to what's mentioned above I quite like &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/podcasts/510308/hidden-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Hidden Brain&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and I'm starting &lt;a href=&quot;http://datadistiller.ca/remix-to-cognition-podcast/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;one myself&lt;/a&gt;. It's early days and very high level, introductory stuff, and I'd like to get into the more philosophical side of CogSci soon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13866" LastActivityDate="2016-10-03T03:28:00.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15993" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="15998" CreationDate="2016-10-03T16:11:48.247" Score="4" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are in a crowd and you hear someone call for help you assume that someone else will deal with it. If you are alone and you hear someone call for help you go and help them. What is that effect called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13872" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-04T05:47:56.620" LastActivityDate="2016-10-04T05:47:56.620" Title="What is the effect called whereby people don't offer help when in a crowd because they assume someone else will help?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15997" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-03T21:37:16.543" Score="5" ViewCount="240" Body="&lt;p&gt;Event-related potentials (ERPs) can reflect the electrophysiological phenomena behind perception &amp;amp; attention. Often, certain time windows are applied for the analysis of ERP peaks (components). I cannot find any explicit justification in the literature why or how those time windows are chosen? E.g., P1 being the largest amplitude between 90 - 120ms. What factors should one consider when choosing time windows, and how ought this to be reported?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9853" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-10-14T09:51:50.343" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T10:02:17.257" Title="How do you form a rationale to justify choice of time windows in ERP analysis?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15998" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15993" CreationDate="2016-10-03T22:19:03.650" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bystander_effect&quot;&gt;bystander effect&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The bystander effect, or bystander apathy, is a social psychological&#xA;  phenomenon that refers to cases in which individuals do not offer any&#xA;  means of help to a victim when other people are present. The&#xA;  probability of help is inversely related to the number of bystanders.&#xA;  In other words, the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely&#xA;  it is that any one of them will help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was highlighted by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_Kitty_Genovese&quot;&gt;Murder of Kitty Genovese&lt;/a&gt;, which is part of the negative image of New Yorkers as apathetic, and is therefore sometimes also called &quot;Genovese syndrome&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bystander effect is a sub-type of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_of_responsibility&quot;&gt;Diffusion of responsibility&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2016-10-03T22:19:03.650" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="15999" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-03T22:55:20.307" Score="4" ViewCount="675" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find a n-back (also known as 1-back/one-back) test made in MATLAB.&#xA;In case you know how to make one (for instance by using psychtoolbox) or have some code you would like to share, that would be very appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically anything that could help me is appreciated, as long as it is connected to MATLAB.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13875" LastActivityDate="2016-10-03T22:55:20.307" Title="MATLAB n-back test" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16001" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16003" CreationDate="2016-10-04T05:12:46.440" Score="1" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that most animals run away or avoid fire at all costs. This is especially apparent &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hoiUdRJGt3M&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;during wild fires&lt;/a&gt;. Humans, obviously, have figured out how to use fire as a tool. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are we the only known species that is capable of manipulating fire? Do chimpanzees, or other primates, learn to approach fire? Are there any known examples of successfully training primates to use fire as a tool?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2016-10-04T09:02:09.357" Title="What do chimpanzees do with fire in the wild, and can they be trained to manipulate burning objects?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16002" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-04T07:03:51.183" Score="2" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;When measuring a particular phenomenon or cognitive state, it is interesting to use multiple measures. This allows you to inspect the similarity and differences of these measures, and serves as an indication of the validity of the measures. This is also referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;triangulation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my study, I will measure workload with two systems that measure galvanic skin response (GRS) and two systems that measure heart rate variability (HRV). Not all systems allow for reliable time-stamping, however, making it difficult to synchronize the different systems' recordings. In order to triangulate the data, I must know how the time-lines overlap. Currently, the best approach is to start the System1, and then, with a stopwatch, measure the time it takes to start System2. Then, you can ignore/remove the data of System1 for that period of time and the data is lined up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an alternative I though to elicit a clear physiological response that would show in each system (by for example scaring the people or, less favorable, giving people electrical shocks). The goal is to have a physiological response that is distinguishable form any normal HRV or GSR response. &lt;strong&gt;Is there a reliable way to elicit and identify such a response in HRV or GSR?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want thus that the HRV/GSR-response can be used as a &quot;start of the experiment&quot; marker or trigger that is recorded in each system. This way, I do not have to worry about synchronization until the analysis of the data. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-10-04T10:22:31.837" LastActivityDate="2016-10-04T10:22:31.837" Title="How can you &quot;time-stamp&quot; data based on a physiological response?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;workload&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16003" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16001" CreationDate="2016-10-04T09:02:09.357" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Primatologist Jill Pruetz at Iowa State University in Ames was &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.livescience.com/5946-chimps-master-step-controlling-fire.html&quot;&gt;observing savanna chimpanzees in Senegal&lt;/a&gt; and found that chimps there have mastered the first step in controlling fire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://worldnewsdailyreport.com/congo-a-group-of-chimpanzees-seem-to-have-mastered-fire/&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; from worldnewsdailyreport.com, which talks about a group of chimps in the Congo mastering the use of fire through experimentation and observation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The BBC also had a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2594650/I-just-wanna-like-oo-oo-From-toasting-marshmallows-camp-fire-writing-paper-pen-flossing-teeth-primates-remarkably-human-traits.html&quot;&gt;documentary called Monkey Planet&lt;/a&gt; which showed a bonobo chimpanzee in a zoo in Illinois building a fire, lighting it using matches, and toasting marshmallows on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-10-04T09:02:09.357" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16004" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9149" CreationDate="2016-10-04T13:32:49.840" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I enjoy &lt;a href=&quot;http://brainpodcast.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brain Matters&lt;/a&gt;, it's very neuroscience based &amp;amp; full of interesting people &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2016-10-04T13:32:49.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16007" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-05T08:16:47.487" Score="3" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence that better sleep reduces the symptoms of chronic severe Fibromyalgia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Severe fibromyalgia has been linked to the possible depletion of serotonin through prolonged and persistent sleep deprivation. Is this clinically proven and is there evidence that serotonin will intermediate to reduce the cycle of sleep loss, low serotonin production, chronic muscular pain, back to sleep loss? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13885" LastEditorUserId="13895" LastEditDate="2016-10-06T00:06:38.940" LastActivityDate="2016-10-06T00:06:38.940" Title="Is there any evidence that better sleep reduces the symptoms of chronic severe Fibromyalgia?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;pain&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16009" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10390" CreationDate="2016-10-05T13:12:17.933" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm unsure if there are necessarily specific areas for focusing on body parts, but I would assume that what you are talking about would function as part of the attentional system, which is a form of executive control; and is found in specialized cortical areas of the frontal and parietal lobes (Posner &amp;amp; Peterson, 1989).  Attention is carried out by a network of anatomical areas. It is neither the property of a single center, nor is it a general function of the brain operating as a whole (Mesulam, 1981; Rizzolatti, Gentilucci &amp;amp; Matelli, 1985). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Posner &amp;amp; Dehaene (1994) emphasise this further: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recent brain-imaging and neurophysiological data indicate that attention is neither a property of a single brain area, nor of the entire brain. While attentional effects seem mediated by a relative amplification of blood flow and electrical activity in the cortical areas processing the attended computation, the details of how this is done through enhancement of attended or suppression of unattended items, or both, appear to depend on the task and brain-area studied.  The origins of these amplification effects are to be found in specialized cortical areas of the frontal and parietal lobes that have been described as the anterior and posterior attention systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ana.410100402/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mesulam, M. (1981). A cortical network for directed attention and unilateral neglect. Annals of neurology, 10(4), 309-325.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0166223694900787&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Posner, M. I., &amp;amp; Dehaene, S. (1994). Attentional networks. Trends in neurosciences, 17(2), 75-79.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a206157.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Posner, M. I., &amp;amp; Petersen, S. E. (1989). The attention system of the human brain (No. TR-89-1). WASHINGTON UNIV ST LOUIS MO DEPT OF NEUROLOGY.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rizzolatti, G., Gentilucci, M., &amp;amp; Matelli, M. (1985). Selective spatial attention: One center, one circuit, or many circuits. Attention and performance XI, 25, 1-265.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2016-10-05T13:12:17.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16011" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10390" CreationDate="2016-10-05T13:51:59.177" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly its important to note that attention basically the outcome of automatic processes, although &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n3/abs/nn0300_284.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;attention may easily be directed by conscious choices&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a previous poster mentioned the &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/271/5248/512.long&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;reticular formation does have a mediating role in attention&lt;/a&gt;. However its doesn't really control attention, so much as it does direct it based on processing in other brain areas, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811901908390&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sturm and Willmes (2001)&lt;/a&gt; aptly encapsulate this as...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For an interpretation of the findings, we have proposed a network in which the anterior cingulate gyrus and the dorsolateral frontal cortex intrinsically control the brain-stem NA activation system via the reticular nucleus of the thalamus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The vast majority of attentional processing at the most basic level is scanning the environment, in order to create a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.ubc.ca/%7Erensink/publications/download/VisCog_00.02.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;simulation in our minds&lt;/a&gt;. This simulation is not perfect by any means, in fact it appears that we only pay attention to a few key features and it is only when we focus or are guided to use a narrow area of the perceptual field that we attended to things we might not have seen, such as demonstrated by the phenomenon known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://search.bwh.harvard.edu/new/pubs/CBD_Sareen_2015.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;'change blindness'&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a perception perceptive, early attentional processing is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v5/n6/pdf/nrn1411.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;influence by a number of factors relating to stimuli variability&lt;/a&gt;, which may guide the deployment of attention, such as motion, size and colour. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3iHwA.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3iHwA.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Fig 1. Unguided environment scanning is non selective, feature scanning which requires more processing is selective and aids quick recognition.&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Fig 1. Unguided environment scanning is non selective, feature scanning which requires more processing is selective and aids quick recognition. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661310002536&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Searching for an object requires use of both of these systems&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This early feature recognition is strongly associated with activity in the ventral visual system, see fig 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DL7SB.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DL7SB.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Fig 2. Diagram of the dorsal visual stream (non selective) and ventral visual stream (selective)&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;Fig 2. Diagram of the dorsal visual stream (non selective) and ventral visual stream (selective).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The excellent work of Prof. Jeramy Wolfe, over views much of this perceptual research. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xhp/29/2/483/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;When looking for particular information an individual easily guide there attention&lt;/a&gt; to the relevant information, such information may even be primed rather than instructed. The pathways and areas of the brain associated with selective attention are relatively simple: the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2681259/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;frontal eye (motor control), super parietal lobe (suppress normal attentional flow to specify new target)&lt;/a&gt;, intraparietal sulcus &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/05/14/brain.awr085.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(spatial orientation, salience mapping&lt;/a&gt;, and short-term visual memory).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vmvpD.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vmvpD.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Fig 3. Areas associated with attentional control, and orientation&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fig 3. Areas associated with attentional control, and orientation (Blue).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luckily after years of research we understand attentional processing from a perceptual viewpoint rather well, however simple questions are far more complex than they at first seem. The current focus on research are narrowing down these areas, personally I think the more interesting questions regard saliency and hedonics. These questions look at reward processing in the brain, and how attention is implicitly guided, if your interested in this then you should check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://lsa.umich.edu/psych/research&amp;amp;labs/berridge/Publications.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kent Berridge's research&lt;/a&gt;, which guides this area of research. Finally I'll just mention that acting on implicit processes seems to depend on executive functioning, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2852635/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;working memory capacity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2016-10-05T14:53:12.780" LastActivityDate="2016-10-05T14:53:12.780" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16012" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15942" CreationDate="2016-10-05T14:03:12.497" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following is taken from the bio answer &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/94/how-does-cerebrospinal-fluid-circulate-in-the-central-nervous-system&quot;&gt;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/94/how-does-cerebrospinal-fluid-circulate-in-the-central-nervous-system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Venous system has generally low pressure, thus sucking the CSF up to drainage points. Speaking about drainage we also should consider the fact that the venous system has a pressure lower than the atmospheric pressure and much lower than pressure in any middle-sized arterial vessels. This is reached by having elastic walls and by transmitting the negative pressure from the mediastinum during the inhale, when the diaphragm and the thorax expand. This negative pressure propagates mostly to the connected vessels, including sinus system. Due to the elastic wall other parts of venous system can accommodate this negative pressure constrict their lumen, but not the sinus system which has a hard external framework formed by dura mater and bones. That is here we can measure the lowest pressure and this is the pressure that sucks CSF in into the venous system&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/NPH_MRI_272_GILD.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;click here for bonus .gif of this process happening in an MRI&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:14.127" LastActivityDate="2016-10-05T14:03:12.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16013" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-05T15:45:25.150" Score="2" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;When there's a stressful situation with no real danger like we need a hug  or we stress-eat. Are we trying to develop in our brain networks a fear of actually dangerous situations instead of fear of situation when we're safe and have what we need?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or what is the reason behind the evolution of this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some more examples of the followed phenomenon:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Antidepressants are part of the official treatment plan of depression or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder#Prevention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PTSD&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When we cause ourselves an injury, we pat our wounds.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/workout-craving-dessert-study_us_57a49a0ee4b056bad2152ec3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;People crave sweets after exercise&lt;/a&gt; (might seem like an escape from a predator to our body)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/diet/stop-emotional-eating&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stress-eating&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could those be examples of it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-10-13T07:51:12.090" LastActivityDate="2016-10-13T07:51:12.090" Title="Are we trying to motivate ourselves by combinating safe stressful situations with pleasure regards?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2016-10-10T14:13:39.433" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16014" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-05T20:16:42.303" Score="3" ViewCount="188" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can anybody point me to a recent scientific publication(s) that show the changes in a person's EEG using binaural beat meditation is similar to the EEG changes observed using traditional non-aided meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13815" LastActivityDate="2016-10-06T13:48:09.430" Title="Binaural Beats Meditation EEG versus Non-aided mediation EEG" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;binaural-beats&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16015" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12209" CreationDate="2016-10-05T23:31:59.400" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know for a fact that it generates evaluation measures of symptom clusters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume that it would also show global functioning patterns because it rates the severity of client symptoms, from which it would be easy to calculate a metric for Global Functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: I am in my last year of study to become a psychologist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13895" LastActivityDate="2016-10-05T23:31:59.400" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16017" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16018" CreationDate="2016-10-06T08:38:07.143" Score="9" ViewCount="4454" Body="&lt;p&gt;Electrodermal activity (EDA) is a measure of the sympathetic activity, typically caused by stress or an emotional state. Analysis not a straightforward process like analysing reaction times. It requires some sophisticated algorithms to distinguish tonic activity (Galvanic Skin Level; GSL) and phasic activity (Galvanic Skin Responses; GSRs; see Figure 5). For a more elaborate explanation of EDA and how to analyze it, please see &lt;a href=&quot;http://download.xuebalib.com/xuebalib.com.7601.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bouscein (2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/32BrX.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/32BrX.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.biopac.com/application/electrodermal-activity/advanced-feature/skin-conductance-response-analysis/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;BioPac&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.biopac.com/wp-content/uploads/EDA-SCR-Analysis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Braithwaite, 2013&lt;/a&gt;) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.movisens.com/en/products/dataanalyzer/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Movisens&lt;/a&gt; provide software toolboxes for analyzing this data, but these are costly packages. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ledalab.de/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ledalab&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://pspm.sourceforge.net/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsPM&lt;/a&gt; are open-source Matlab toolboxes that are also able to pre-process and quantify GSL and GSRs. Unfortunately, Matlab itself is not open-source and quite expensive. &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Are there other free solutions that allow you to analyse EDA data, such as Python or R packages?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://download.xuebalib.com/xuebalib.com.7601.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bouscein, W., Roth, W. T., Dawson, M. E., &amp;amp; Filion, D. L. (2012). Publication recommendations for electrodermal measurements. Psychophysiology, 49, 1017-1034.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-08-14T08:50:34.153" LastActivityDate="2019-09-11T16:05:18.297" Title="Open-source software for analyzing Electrodermal activity" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;workload&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16018" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16017" CreationDate="2016-10-06T09:24:27.860" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found a list of Python and Matlab packages. I'll summarize them over here. As soon as I have gone through the packages, I'll provide some additional details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Online&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://eda-explorer.media.mit.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;edaExplorer&lt;/a&gt;: Also in Python.*&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;EdaExplorer is a tool that is able to detect noisy data from clean data. Five second epochs are made which will be categorized by a model that is the result of a supervised machine learning algorithm (a support vector machine). The data can be marked binary (clean vs noisy) or multiclass (clean, doubtfull or noisy). The noisy data can subsequently be removed. Moreover, edaExplorer is able to find peaks (GSRs) and you can label epochs by walking through the data.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Python&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;*&lt;a href=&quot;http://eda-explorer.media.mit.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;edaExplorer&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/lciti/cvxEDA&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cvxEDA&lt;/a&gt;: Also in Matlab.**&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;cvxEDA uses a convex optimization procedure to separate the data into three components: (1) a tonic component, (2) a phasic component and (3) a noise term. The noise term is simply a sequence of zero-averaged Gaussian random variables with variance &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\sigma^{2}$&lt;/span&gt;. The phasic component is determined by the convolution of sudomotor nerve pulses. The tonic component is all that is left, slow varying changes in conductivity. The function is physiologically plausibly and has shown to outperform the continuous deconvolution analysis (CDA), as implemented in Ledalab.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pypi.python.org/pypi/Pypsy/0.1.1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PyPsy 0.1.1&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://pypi.python.org/pypi/Pypsy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PyPsy 0.1.5&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;R&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Java&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Matlab&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;**&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/lciti/cvxEDA&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cvxEDA&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://affect.media.mit.edu/edasleep/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;edaSleep&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/mateusjoffily/EDA/wiki&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;EDA&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ledalab.de/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ledalab&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pspm.sourceforge.net/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsPM&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most packages came from &lt;a href=&quot;http://affect.media.mit.edu/software.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://affect.media.mit.edu/software.php&lt;/a&gt;. The website provides tools for analyzing several other stuff, such as facial recognition. Definitely worth taking a look.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;edaExplorer: Taylor, S., Jaques, N., Chen, W., Fedor, S., Sano, A., &amp;amp; Picard, R. &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.media.mit.edu/%7Ecvx/docs/15.Taylor-Jaques-et-al-ArtifactDetectionEDA.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Automatic identification of artifacts in electrodermal activity data&lt;/a&gt;. In Engineering in Medicine and Biology Conference. 2015.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;cvxEDA: A Greco, G Valenza, A Lanata, EP Scilingo, and L Citi. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270588614_cvxEDA_A_Convex_Optimization_Approach_to_Electrodermal_Activity_Processing&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cvxEDA: a Convex Optimization Approach to Electrodermal Activity Processing&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 2015. DOI: 10.1109/TBME.2015.2474131&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;edaSleep: Akane Sano, Rosalind W. Picard, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dspace.mit.edu/openaccess-disseminate/1721.1/80411&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Toward a Taxonomy of Autonomic Sleep Patterns with Electrodermal Activity&lt;/a&gt;, IEEE EMBC 2011, Boston, USA, August 2011&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-05-01T08:23:24.143" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16019" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12224" CreationDate="2016-10-06T10:25:20.143" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The basic idea of &lt;em&gt;Quinian Boostrapping&lt;/em&gt; is that you start off not understanding a concept, but use a symbolic placeholder for it, and then fill in the details over time. For example, right now you don't understand &lt;em&gt;Quinian Bootstrapping&lt;/em&gt; but you do have the placeholder term &quot;Quinian Bootstrapping&quot; that you can hold in your mind and relate to other things you know and learn. Over time, your placeholder is replaced with the actual concept. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this is how nearly all of our concepts work. What is &quot;water&quot; or &quot;planet&quot; or &quot;electricity&quot;? You start off with &quot;I learned some arbitrary word that picks out some category of thing in the universe&quot; and then approach the real concept over time. But note that an &quot;expert&quot; on the concept may surprise you: &quot;ice is a form of water even though you think it is not&quot; and &quot;Pluto is not a planet even though you think it is&quot; and &quot;the bright flashes during a storm and the stuff that makes the TV work are the same.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You asked specifically about weight. Imagine a child newly learning &quot;weight&quot; as opposed to &quot;mass&quot; (and as opposed to &quot;density&quot; and &quot;volume&quot; and other nearby terms). The child will start off just knowing that there are various terms that are picking out nearby concepts, but not understanding what makes them different. But as the child is led through examples (e.g., &quot;the same object will weigh more on Earth than on Mars&quot;) the placeholders become elaborated into concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This bootstrapping ability relies on being able to relate information from a variety of sources to an arbitrary placeholder symbol, which means it is likely unique to humans.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13902" LastActivityDate="2016-10-06T10:25:20.143" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16020" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16014" CreationDate="2016-10-06T13:48:09.430" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Theta and Alpha are the waves associated with meditation (KaKasamatsu &amp;amp; Hirai, 1966; Khare &amp;amp; Nigam, 2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Owen and Atwater found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;binaural auditory beats in the EEG alpha frequency range may increase&#xA;  alpha EEG production and subjective relaxation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore On et al (2013) found that binaural beats could increase Theta activity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Binaural beat is the rhythmic stimulus which is generated to produce&#xA;  the desired audio frequency with the intention to make brainwave to&#xA;  follow that frequency. In the end of our research, the result shows&#xA;  that Theta brainwave increases after listening to binaural beat.&#xA;  Although the Delta brainwave is not really affected in this&#xA;  experiment, there is still an increment of delta brainwave after&#xA;  listening to binaural beat. The result shows that binaural beat&#xA;  affected on delta and theta brainwaves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also found one from Lavallee (2011) that found the experienced meditators couldn't be hindered by binaural beats:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Based on the results of this study, novice meditators were not able&#xA;  to maintain certain levels of θ power in the occipital regions when&#xA;  hindering binaural beats were presented, whereas when the facilitative&#xA;  binaural beats were presented, the experienced meditators displayed&#xA;  increased θ power in the left temporal lobe&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suggesting that the effect of binaural beats may not be as strong as long term meditative practise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/acm.2009.0691&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Lavallee, C. F., Koren, S. A., &amp;amp; Persinger, M. A. (2011). A quantitative electroencephalographic study of meditation and binaural beat entrainment. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 17(4), 351-&lt;/a&gt;355.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6530068/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;On, F. R., Jailani, R., Norhazman, H., &amp;amp; Zaini, N. M. (2013, March). Binaural beat effect on brainwaves based on EEG. In Signal Processing and its Applications (CSPA), 2013 IEEE 9th International Colloquium on (pp. 339-343). IEEE.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://is.muni.cz/www/178816/EEG_and_Zazen.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Kasamatsu, A., &amp;amp; Hirai, T. (1966). An electroencephalographic study on the Zen meditation (Zazen). Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 20(4), 315-336.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Baruch_Cahn/publication/7241255_Meditation_states_and_traits_EEG_ERP_and_Neuroimaging_Studies/links/0a85e532e79516ae2c000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Khare, K. C., &amp;amp; Nigam, S. K. (2000). A Study of Electroencephalogram in Mediators. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 44(2), 173-178.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Owens, J. E., &amp;amp; Atwater, F. H. (1995). EEG correleates of an induced altered state of consciousness: mind awake/body asleep. Submitted for publication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2016-10-06T13:48:09.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16021" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-06T16:16:54.870" Score="7" ViewCount="934" Body="&lt;p&gt;This article, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/children-intelligence-iq-mother-inherit-inheritance-genetics-genes-a7345596.html?cmpid=facebook-post&quot;&gt;http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/children-intelligence-iq-mother-inherit-inheritance-genetics-genes-a7345596.html?cmpid=facebook-post&lt;/a&gt;, suggests that children inherit intelligence from mothers, and that fathers have basically no role in that (except emotional and intuitional &quot;intelligence&quot; as they call it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since often journalists can misinterpret scientific studies, I am interested, if there are researchers in this field on this site, who can say &lt;strong&gt;to what extent is the statement in this article&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Children inherit intelligence only from their mothers and not their fathers&quot; -  &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user13903" LastEditorDisplayName="user13903" LastEditDate="2016-10-07T09:20:07.373" LastActivityDate="2021-04-24T09:42:28.323" Title="Do children inherit intelligence from their mothers and not their fathers?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16024" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20539" CreationDate="2016-10-07T05:55:26.797" Score="3" ViewCount="234" Body="&lt;p&gt;Roger Penrose and Stuart Hameroff have a theory called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/01/140116085105.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Orgastrated Objective Reduction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; or Orch OR, and they claim this has been confirmed. The article says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The origin of consciousness reflects our place in the universe, the nature of our existence. Did consciousness evolve from complex computations among brain neurons, as most scientists assert? Or has consciousness, in some sense, been here all along, as spiritual approaches maintain?' ask Hameroff and Penrose in the current review. 'This opens a potential Pandora's Box, but our theory accommodates both these views, &lt;strong&gt;suggesting consciousness derives from quantum vibrations in microtubules&lt;/strong&gt;, protein polymers inside brain neurons, which both govern neuronal and synaptic function, and connect brain processes to self-organizing processes in the fine scale, 'proto-conscious' quantum structure of reality.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the 18th century, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hartley_(philosopher)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;David Hartley&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; proposed in his book &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observations_on_Man&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Observations of Man&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; that counciousness arises when particles of matter vibrate in our brain. Wikipedia says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hartley's physical theory gave birth to the modern study of the intimate connection of physiological and psychical facts. He believed that &lt;strong&gt;sensation is the result of a vibration of the minute particles of the medullary substance of the nerves&lt;/strong&gt;, to account for which he postulated, with Newton, a subtle elastic ether, rare in the interstices of solid bodies and in their close neighbourhood, and denser as it recedes from them. Pleasure is the result of moderate vibrations, pain of vibrations so violent as to break the continuity of the nerves. &lt;strong&gt;These vibrations leave behind them in the brain a tendency to fainter vibrations or &quot;vibratiuncles&quot; of a similar kind, which correspond to &quot;ideas of sensation.&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; This accounts for memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Priestley&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Joseph Priestley&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; expanded on this idea in his essay &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disquisitions_relating_to_Matter_and_Spirit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Disquisitions Relating to Matter and Spirit&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Priestley believed that all matter had the power of attraction and repulsion  (&lt;a href=&quot;https://hsm.stackexchange.com/questions/5265/was-joseph-priestley-describing-fundamental-interactions-in-the-18th-century&quot;&gt;fundamental interactions?&lt;/a&gt;) and that perception and thought arises from this phenomena in our brain through &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_ideas&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;association&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Priestley says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nothing but a precise and definite knowledge of the nature of perception and thought can authorize any person to affirm, whether they may not belong to an extended substance, which has also the properties of attraction and repulsion.&lt;/strong&gt; Seeing, therefore, no sort of reason to imagine that these different properties are really inconsistent any more than the different properties of resistance and extension, I am, of course, under the necessity of being guided by the phenomena in my conclusions concerning the proper feat of the powers of perception and thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Giving Hartley and Priestley a little latitude because they lived 300 years ago, is Orch OR basically a reworking of their theories?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13908" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:51:33.093" LastActivityDate="2018-08-25T09:42:32.370" Title="What are the differences between Orch OR and Hartley's vibratiuncles?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16025" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16037" CreationDate="2016-10-07T05:56:10.903" Score="4" ViewCount="583" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need a button box / response box to hook up with a laptop computer and Windows Operating System for a reaction time study. A simple box will suffice and I do not need more than two buttons. I need a reaction time accuracy of at least +/- 10 ms. Ideally, the box will work with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Praat&lt;/a&gt; MFC environment on a Windows machine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am searching for a proven, commercial solution, instead of building something myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5742/button-box-recommendations-for-a-reaction-time-study/5768&quot;&gt;previous question&lt;/a&gt; recommends a product that is not available anymore, and the producer doesn't seem to have a new product in this line.  Additionally, the recommendations in that question are targeted at a OS X and Linux solution. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1183" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-10-10T19:07:27.640" LastActivityDate="2016-10-12T12:34:47.380" Title="Where can I obtain a button box for reaction-time measurements under a Windows OS?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16026" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12209" CreationDate="2016-10-07T08:48:39.600" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find the SCID anywhere on the web. So i did some digging I found one literature search that used the DSM SCID as an example of a semi-structured interview from which GF data could be found (H Monrad, 2014). I also found that DSM- 5 had removed the GF scale (Gold, 2014), but presumably the alternative measures the same properties. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF), the previously&#xA;  endorsed numerical rating scale used for assessment of functioning and&#xA;  reported on Axis V, has been eliminated. In its place, DSM-5 offers&#xA;  psychiatrists a new tool for assessment of global functioning and&#xA;  impairment, the World Health Organization Disability Assessment&#xA;  Schedule 2 (WHODAS 2.0).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And finallly I found a study by Aas which looks at rating the GF assesment, in which they reference a study by Williams which looks at the test retest reliability of the SCID. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rating GAF may mean choosing the lowest score for other specified time periods, for example the lowest level in the past month or for the worst week during the month prior to interview (Williams et al, 1992). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on the above it is reasonable to conclude that the SCID contains a measure for GF, even if it now called WHODAS. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://annals-general-psychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1744-859X-10-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Aas, I. M. (2011). Guidelines for rating global assessment of functioning (GAF). Annals of general psychiatry, 10(1), 1.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/495832&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Williams, J. B., Gibbon, M., First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Davies, M., Borus, J., ... &amp;amp; Wittchen, H. U. (1992). The structured clinical interview for DSM-III-R (SCID): II. Multisite test-retest reliability. Archives of general psychiatry, 49(8), 630-636.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jaapl.org/content/42/2/173.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Gold, L. H. (2014). DSM-5 and the assessment of functioning: the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 (WHODAS 2.0). Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online, 42(2), 173-181.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4287015/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;H Monrad Aas, I. (2014). Collecting Information for Rating Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF): Sources of Information and Methods for Information Collection. Current psychiatry reviews, 10(4), 330-347.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2016-10-07T08:48:39.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16027" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-07T11:03:40.703" Score="1" ViewCount="497" Body="&lt;p&gt;Salience makes objects pop-up from their surrounding and immediately attract our attention. A salient object in the visual domain would, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, be a red dot among white ones. We can sometimes intuitively say an object is more salient than the other, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, a moving red dot might be more salient than a static one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a way to quantify how salient an object is?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To narrow down the question a little, suppose you have a set of different output devices that can provide either visual or auditory cues (LEDs, loudspeakers, lamps, screens...) and they are near a target object you which to attract attention to. Ideally one would choose the output device that is closest to the target object to attract attention, but depending on the distance, the output device may not be as conspicuous. So at a given distance, I would like to know, which device will attract attention the most. The environment would be mostly static and well lit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13911" LastEditorUserId="13911" LastEditDate="2016-10-07T16:16:24.520" LastActivityDate="2016-10-10T12:17:24.697" Title="How to measure visual salience quantitatively" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16029" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16034" CreationDate="2016-10-07T12:58:04.760" Score="1" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;We've all heard the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-26258662&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sayings&lt;/a&gt; that we would rather have half of a chocolate right now, than a whole chocolate in a month, because we, as wild animals, are constantly seeking for sources. But what's really the evolutionary principle behind this? Is it just that we are better at imagining a near pleasure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="10587" LastEditDate="2016-10-08T17:06:25.773" LastActivityDate="2016-10-10T06:11:03.417" Title="What stands behind the desire to want things now?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16031" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16021" CreationDate="2016-10-08T05:08:12.890" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The psychology-spot article mostly links to researches done on mice. Only three links are about human genetics. One is philosophical in nature, other two deal with mental retardation. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11718922&quot;&gt;This study&lt;/a&gt; says that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;X chromosome contains a significantly higher number of genes that, when mutated, cause mental impairment&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We know that boys get their X chromosome from their mothers. Therefore, they inherit mental retardation from their mothers. But look at the terminology used in the research paper. They have not found some IQ value stored somewhere in the X chromosome. Therefore, we cannot say that mutations in the X chromosome is responsible for high intelligence as well (the study proposes such a link, but has no data to support it). There is a mystery here: if mothers carry key to mental retardation in sons, it must be a hidden trait in women because they do not exhibit that deviation as much as men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bmj.com/content/333/7575/945&quot;&gt;This study&lt;/a&gt; takes mother's IQ into account, but it does not make any attempt to establish a direct link between the IQ of mother and son.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conclusion: We can assume that boys inherit mental retardation from mothers (because boys get mother's X chromosome). We can not assume anything else yet, not from this study. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following is pure speculation: Men have higher deviation in their intelligence Bell curve on both sides. If one side of it is linked to their mothers, the other side might as well be, but it probably has nothing to do with the intelligence of the mother. In my personal opinion, that article is just wishful feminist thinking. If such link was present, it would have been highlighted long ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11614" LastEditorUserId="11614" LastEditDate="2016-10-08T07:16:11.647" LastActivityDate="2016-10-08T07:16:11.647" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4831" CreationDate="2016-10-09T09:43:32.593" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you have ADHD you will probably not follow instructions properly, which could be either, not at all, or just partially, partly due to being impulsive, not being able to remember what they've just read or heard (I'm talking seconds here), being distracted, not learning from past mistakes (because they've been forgotten or did not bubble up into memory in time).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this because (a) I have ADHD and (b) I do this all the time and (c) its documented all over the internet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps (belatedly) :D&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13919" LastActivityDate="2016-10-09T09:43:32.593" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16034" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16029" CreationDate="2016-10-10T06:11:03.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The evolutionary significance of &lt;strong&gt;self-regulation&lt;/strong&gt; is that humans are more capable of this feat than apes. We can solve problems without visual feedback, by visualization. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eva.mpg.de/documents/Springer/V%C3%B6lter_Problem_AnimCog_2012_1560386.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Apes are good problem solvers, but have difficulties when the task does not offer visual cues&lt;/a&gt;, but requires prospective and causal reasoning. This is one of the reasons monkeys fail on delay discounting tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2016-10-10T06:11:03.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16035" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16027" CreationDate="2016-10-10T06:17:59.173" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The duration of eye fixation has been used in  both infants and adults to measure locus of attention. This can be achieved using an eye-tracker. A more primitive and less exact way is to manually count the frames of a video recording of subjects. The frames per second (FPS) would be a limiting factor. In addition, the item that was first observed is the more salient one, provided that there is no secondary bias in the task (i.e. the objects should be an equal distance apart or the distance could be randomized).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For &lt;strong&gt;visual search&lt;/strong&gt; and serial search tasks, responses are gathered and individual response curves (reciever operator characteristics, ROC) for participants and conditions can be computed using &lt;strong&gt;signal detection theory (SDT)&lt;/strong&gt;. The discrimination index d prime (d') can then be calculated only if &lt;em&gt;two&lt;/em&gt; explicit responses are required exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another option is to vary the presentation time systematically in order to quantify processing speed, but this requires a more computational approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastEditorUserId="3258" LastEditDate="2016-10-10T12:17:24.697" LastActivityDate="2016-10-10T12:17:24.697" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16036" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16027" CreationDate="2016-10-10T10:17:54.100" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;As with many such questions, this depends on your definition of (visual) salience. Your question suggests that you want to compare this across sensory modalities (auditory and visual) which comes with considerable difficulties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One possible definition of &quot;salience&quot; is the property of a stimulus which makes it stand out from its background and grab our attention (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Visual_salience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Visual_salience&lt;/a&gt;). You could measure this empirically by asking observers to find/respond to the item in various different locations. They should be quicker to do so if this item is more salient (all other things being equal). This is essentially the logic behind most experiments into visual attention and visual search. As mentioned in another answer you could also monitor where the observer is looking, because salient things should be looked at earlier and more often. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is now a huge amount of research into modelling image-based, visual salience. In theory, such models aim to take a picture of a scene and predict which parts of the image are going to attract attention. Another way to quantify the salience of different items would therefore be to measure the contrast or activity in the saliency map for particular locations. There is much more about this, and many references, in the scholarpedia reference above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastActivityDate="2016-10-10T10:17:54.100" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16037" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16025" CreationDate="2016-10-10T13:54:52.857" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;You can try a Cedrus response pad. They are reasonably priced and my personal experiences with these boxes are good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Response latency (RT) measurements using standard USB input devices like a mouse or keyboard are possible, but USB devices limit accuracy. For example, the standard polling latency of any USB device is 8 msec. On top of that, the keys on a standard USB keyboard are serially polled, introducing additional latencies of up to 20 msec &lt;a href=&quot;http://lobes.osu.edu/Journals/BRM10.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Li &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2010)&lt;/a&gt;. If you are measuring standard &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/rob/Courses/InformationInSpeech/CDROM/Literature/LOTwinterschool2006/biae.clemson.edu/bpc/bp/Lab/110/reaction.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reaction times&lt;/a&gt; in the order of 150 - 200 ms, such a hardware delay may well be too much. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Response pads dedicated for RT measurements have internal hardware that take into account any such latencies and determine RTs typically with accuracies in the submillisecond range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have used the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cedrus.com/responsepads/rb530.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cedrus RB-530 response box&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which is one of the simpler models in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://cedrus.com/responsepads/rb_series.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;response box series&lt;/a&gt; the &lt;a href=&quot;http://cedrus.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Cedrus Company&lt;/a&gt; offers. Admittedly, although I have used the Cedrus to register RTs, I have never actually analyzed these results in detail. However, as far as I can see, the RTs obtained made sense and the device seems reliable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The good thing is that the Cedrus RB-530 response box is supported by a &lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.psychtoolbox.org/CedrusResponseBox&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;set of functions&lt;/a&gt; in the the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychtoolbox.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Psychophysics Toolbox (PTB-3)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.psychtoolbox.org/Psychtoolbox&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PTB documentation&lt;/a&gt;, as well as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/PSYCHTOOLBOX/info&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;PTB discussion forum&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/psychtoolbox/conversations/messages/16508&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this thread&lt;/a&gt;) thrust forward by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/nc/employee/details/kleinerm.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Mario Kleiner&lt;/a&gt; contain a wealth of tips, tricks and pitfalls in RT measurements. The PTB-3 Matlab extensions are specifically designed to cope with the hopelessly senseless and sluggish Windows-way of internal-process timing. Linux is by far the best OS for well-controlled timing operations, and also Mac outruns Windows substantially.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note, however, that &lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.psychtoolbox.org/CedrusResponseBox&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;not all the reviews on the Cedrus RB-530 are unequivocally positive&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://lobes.osu.edu/Journals/BRM10.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Li &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Behav Res Methods&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;42&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 212-25&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-10-12T12:34:47.380" LastActivityDate="2016-10-12T12:34:47.380" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16038" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16021" CreationDate="2016-10-10T20:02:41.490" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I am adding another answer because the previous one has already been upvoted by others. I am retreating from my previous conclusion, and I think it would be unfair to carry forward the upvotes to my current opinion.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I looked into genetics after having this conversation between me and no comprende:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...........We know that boys get their X chromosome from their mothers...........  we cannot say that mutations in the X chromosome is responsible for high intelligence ........... if mothers carry key to mental retardation in sons, it must be a hidden trait........&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Response:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;......... females get 2 copies, so recessive harmful mutations show up far less in females.............if one copy makes a good version and the other makes a bad version, you are still functional  – no comprende &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The old &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-are-dominant-and-recessive-alleles&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Dominant and recessive&lt;/a&gt; gene theory to explain why females suffer less genetic anomalies has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jan_Oosterwijk/publication/8394540_Inheritance_of_most_X-linked_traits_is_not_dominant_or_recessive_just_X-linked/links/0912f50a2ac232fff1000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;challenged&lt;/a&gt;. The reason is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/x-chromosome-x-inactivation-323&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;X inactivation&lt;/a&gt;. X inactivation prevents two copies of same allele being active on an offspring and it occurs at a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v426/n6968/full/nature02222.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;very early stage&lt;/a&gt;. The choice of which one to disable is random, but it has been observed that even distribution of inactivation in XX heterozygote is better for health. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skewed_X-inactivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Skewed inactivation&lt;/a&gt; has been associated with genetic diseases like &lt;a href=&quot;http://jmg.bmj.com/content/39/1/30.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;breast cancer&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707600469&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;mental retardation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, we also found &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dvg.1020170304/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;. Basically, X-skewed mothers have only 25% chance of passing on their active (those responsible for retardation) alleles to their sons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two conclusive studies that resolve the puzzle by showing that &lt;a href=&quot;http://pps.sagepub.com/content/4/6/598.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;X chromosome is indeed key to our general intelligence&lt;/a&gt;, but it is still a male trait because &lt;a href=&quot;http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/20/7/1113.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;X chromosome is enriched for male-specific but not female-specific genes&lt;/a&gt;. Females do not get to enjoy most of its benefits despite being the bigger carriers of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion I have to agree with Jennifer's theory, but she has not made it clear what &quot;inheriting intelligence from mother&quot; actually means. We should not try to seek validation of our social idealism in genetics because genetics records our past. It does present some hard limits, but not this time. I did not find any ill-effect of choosing an intellectually gifted female as mating partner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a scientist's standpoint, it will be interesting to see (sadly we will not live to see it) how our genes cope if our mating choices start changing. There are some inefficiencies in our genes that may pose some problems, but who knows?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11614" LastEditorUserId="11614" LastEditDate="2016-10-11T13:58:49.950" LastActivityDate="2016-10-11T13:58:49.950" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16039" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15900" CreationDate="2016-10-11T07:25:29.437" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Childhood/adolescent rebelliousness could be explained by psychological reactance theory (Brehm, 1966) and self-determination theory (Ryan &amp;amp; Deci, 2000). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychological reactance theory, Brehm states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The idea fundamental to reactance theory, namely, that people become motivationally aroused by a threat to or elimination of a behavioral freedom. This motivational state is what is called psychological reactance. It impels the individual to restore the particular freedom that was threatened or taken away. It does not impel the individual to acquire just any freedom--only the one threatened or taken away will do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychological reactance would be elicited when freedom is taken away, thereby motivating individuals to engage in oppositional behavior. It follows that it parents are perfectionist they would be more likely to take away freedom from their child. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-determination theory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Central to SDT are the basic psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence. When satisfied, these needs foster growth and psychosocial&#xA;adjustment. When frustrated, people would display maladjustment and psychopathology (Ryan &amp;amp; Deci, 2000; Vansteenkiste &amp;amp; Ryan, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially &quot;Don't tell me what to do&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another idea is that parental pressure can create a lot of stress, and that rebelling or dropping out is simply a reaction to this stress. Stoeber &amp;amp; Rambow (2007) found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Parental pressure to be perfect and negative reactions to&#xA;  imperfection, are associated with the motivation to avoid failure and&#xA;  low well-being and thus may undermine healthy adolescent development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However they do also go on to say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Not all aspects of perfectionism are neurotic, unhealthy, or maladaptive. On the contrary, strivingfor perfection can form part of a healthy pursuit of excellence (Shafran, Cooper, &amp;amp; Fairburn, 2002) and may be adaptive in achievement situations where perfectionistic strivings could provide&#xA;  students with additional motivation to do their best and thus achieve better grades. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears to me that children/ adolescents reaction to perfectionist parenting is not a change in character, but just a reaction to the environment that has been created for them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/6883/volumes/v16/NA-16&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/readings%20595/deci%2000%20goals%20sdt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Deci, E. L., &amp;amp; Ryan, R. M. (2000). The&quot; what&quot; and&quot; why&quot; of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Joachim_Stoeber/publication/222513761_Perfectionism_in_adolescent_school_students_Relations_with_motivation_achievement_and_well-being/links/56a50ca308ae232fb2078f9d.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Stoeber, J., &amp;amp; Rambow, A. (2007). Perfectionism in adolescent school students: Relations with motivation, achievement, and well-being. Personality and individual differences, 42(7), 1379-1389.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/4303500/file/6810420.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Vansteenkiste, M., &amp;amp; Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: Basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 23(3), 263.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2016-10-11T07:25:29.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16041" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-11T19:41:23.450" Score="6" ViewCount="2977" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder why can't we understand text the same way we understand pictures?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everything we see but text we understand without the inner voice, we don't subvocalize/describe a forest, a street or anything. We just understand it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why can't reading work the same way? When I look at words I recognize them but they have no meaning until I &lt;em&gt;read&lt;/em&gt; them in my mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there even anyone who got rid of subvocalization completely and can read a 300 page book just in one evening understanding pretty everything?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It even works the same the other way around. If I try to &lt;em&gt;see&lt;/em&gt; a textural representation of some thing like let's say a table, I first have to &lt;em&gt;say&lt;/em&gt; in my mind. Why is it so? It's really annoying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;text &amp;gt; voice (in my mind) &amp;gt; understanding&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;why not&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;text &amp;gt; understanding&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also don't get it why people consider this normal. It slows everything down. Imagine you could read a book in a single eventing if not the subvoc. We must do something terribly wrong when learning to read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not asking about speed-reading because subvoc is not only an issue there - although it is most noticable when reading - but it also interfers when thinking and forces you to &lt;em&gt;say&lt;/em&gt; your thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13915" LastEditorUserId="13915" LastEditDate="2016-10-11T20:02:48.083" LastActivityDate="2016-10-14T14:42:19.630" Title="Why can't we understand text without subvocalizating it?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16042" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16050" CreationDate="2016-10-12T01:02:55.827" Score="3" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say that I wanted to convince a person that oranges tasted nice. One particular method I could use would be to go on an hour long spiel, where I take on two voices - a hyperbolic voice (which says that we should ONLY eat oranges every single day because they are LITERALLY the best tasting thing ever) and a rational voice (which is more subtle, gives reasonable arguments as to why oranges taste nice like 'they have high sugar content', and is generally less explosive)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After hearing the hyperbolic &quot;WE SHOULD ONLY EAT ORANGES&quot; message, which the person will probably immediately reject, it seems likely that the person will accept the more rational message that 'oranges taste pretty nice' as a &lt;em&gt;compromise&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This might sound very vague, but I feel like I've read about this theory (in some form) a few years ago, I just can't remember what it's called? Is there a specific term in psychology for this effect, or does this make no sense? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13940" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-06T09:12:06.233" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T09:12:06.233" Title="Term for using hyperbole to make a softer argument seem more palatable?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;persuasion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16044" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-12T03:27:29.497" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say I have a set of photographs and I want to ascertain the most popular one based on a group of people choosing their favourite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the most optimal way of structuring a survey to derive a confident estimate of most preferred photo with the smallest sample size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example would it be better to do...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Show all photos and ask people to pick their favourite&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Show a subset of photos and ask people to pick favourite&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some other structure&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the optimal structure change if you have more options?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13941" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-17T05:00:30.853" LastActivityDate="2016-10-17T05:00:30.853" Title="What is the optimal way of structuring a multiple choice preference evaluation to determine most popular photo in a set?" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16046" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15900" CreationDate="2016-10-12T06:04:15.617" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;well,Freud explains in &lt;a href=&quot;https://artistresearcher.wordpress.com/2010/04/22/sigmund-freud-psychological-projection/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Sigmund Freud – Psychological Projection&lt;/a&gt; as &lt;code&gt;“Projecting our problems onto other people”&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to the theories of Sigmund Freud, psychological projection&#xA;  is a psychological defense mechanism whereby one “projects” one’s own&#xA;  undesirable thoughts, motivations, desires, feelings, and so on onto&#xA;  someone else (usually another person, but psychological projection&#xA;  onto animals and inanimate objects also occurs). The principle of&#xA;  projection is well-established in psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If a parent has repressed feelings that they have a lazy nature, they&#xA;  will see a hint of laziness in their child and begin to rage against&#xA;  this.  A child will do anything it is told not to do, because it is a&#xA;  way of getting the parents attention, even though it may be negative&#xA;  behavior.  Over time this negative attention feels like love to the&#xA;  child. They get reversed wired and begin to do passive aggressive&#xA;  behavior to get the attention of the parent, even though it is painful&#xA;  for both. To the child this negative behavior begins to feel like&#xA;  love.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;That scales up and hence the rebelliousness.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.childtrends.org/indicators/parental-expectations-for-their-childrens-academic-attainment/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; Research which has shown that parental expectations for children’s academic achievement predict educational outcomes more than do other measures of parental involvement, such as attending school events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13943" LastEditorUserId="13943" LastEditDate="2016-10-12T06:13:35.917" LastActivityDate="2016-10-12T06:13:35.917" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16047" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-12T09:24:23.887" Score="7" ViewCount="214" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suppose that it is well-known that different people need different amounts of sleep. I read somewhere that most people need something between 7 and 8 hours each day, though some people need only 6 hours, and (for instance) I have two friends who only need 5 hours. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Q: Besides genetic factors, what determines a healthy individual's required amount of sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is there a correlation between an individual's g factor and their required amount of sleep? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is there a correlation between an individual's weight and their required amount of sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I am not interested in findings related to infants or teenagers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2017-03-15T04:07:12.813" LastActivityDate="2017-05-17T17:22:57.820" Title="What factors determine a healthy individual's required amount of sleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16048" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15900" CreationDate="2016-10-12T13:38:13.177" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://search.proquest.com/docview/1295931198/fulltextPDF/2DB178CAE09D4759PQ/1?accountid=12045&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Balswick &amp;amp; Macrides (1975)&lt;/a&gt; found adolescent rebellion to be the product of the specific home environment. Among other factors, they found that a patriarchal and restrictive home often led to rebellious adolescents. A very restrictive home leads to frustration and then to aggression. The authors explain their findings with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychcentral.com/encyclopedia/frustration-aggression-hypothesis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;frustration-aggression theory&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://robertmijas.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/frustration-aggression.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;(Berkowitz, 1989)&lt;/a&gt;. This theory suggests that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...frustration, or failure to reach a certain desired goal due to&#xA;  circumstance, often leads to aggression or behavior that intends harm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the authors did not look specifically at parental expectations, I think the theory can be applied to your question nonetheless. High expectations of a child may not necessarily lead to frustration and reactive aggression. What may well trigger frustration and aggression is when the parental expectations are &lt;em&gt;too&lt;/em&gt; high such that they cannot be possibly met by the child. Frustration and aggression of the child may then be fueled by the incapability to meet those expectations.       &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://search.proquest.com/docview/1295931198/fulltextPDF/2DB178CAE09D4759PQ/1?accountid=12045&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Balswick &amp;amp; Macrides, &lt;em&gt;Adolescence&lt;/em&gt; (1975); &lt;strong&gt;X&lt;/strong&gt;(38): 253-66&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://robertmijas.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/frustration-aggression.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Berkowitz, &lt;em&gt;Psychol Bull&lt;/em&gt; (1989); &lt;strong&gt;106&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 59-73&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-10-12T14:07:14.263" LastActivityDate="2016-10-12T14:07:14.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16050" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16042" CreationDate="2016-10-13T03:09:58.763" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several cognitive biases which describe why people are often more likely to accept a position after being presented with an unreasonable position.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Focalism&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Focalism&lt;/a&gt; or anchoring is the cognitive bias in which humans rely heavily on the first piece of presented information (the &lt;em&gt;anchor&lt;/em&gt;) to make subsequent judgments. From the wiki definition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, the initial price offered for a used car sets the standard for the rest of the negotiations, so that prices lower than the initial price seem more reasonable even if they are still higher than what the car is really worth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Door-in-the-face technique&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Door-in-the-face_technique&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;DITF method&lt;/a&gt; is a compliance manipulation technique in which a persuader attempts to convince a respondent to agree or comply with an argument by initially making a substantial and unreasonable request, and then when it is turned down, making a second more reasonable request. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/31/2/206/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cialdini (1975)&lt;/a&gt; for the founding investigation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6947" LastActivityDate="2016-10-13T03:09:58.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16052" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-13T18:11:31.050" Score="2" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is something that's never really bothered me too terribly much, but it's interesting how my word choice alone seems to lead people to believe that I am anything other than what I am. Not that have any plans to change the way I write, but I do want to know if there's anything hidden within my manner of speech that leads people to think one way versus another, be it societal expectations, gender norms, or something else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For reference: See &lt;a href=&quot;https://workplace.stackexchange.com/questions/77477/placed-on-work-schedule-despite-approved-time-off-request-is-it-unreasonable-to&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13960" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:48:50.370" LastActivityDate="2016-10-13T18:11:31.050" Title="Why do people assume I am male online when I am female?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-10-13T21:48:58.127" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16053" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16041" CreationDate="2016-10-13T23:32:47.103" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In japanese language, kanjis are more than phonemes but represent an idea. For instance, both tree and spirit have the same sound (ki) and can be written with the hiragana &quot;letter&quot; き. But when kanjis are used tree is 木 while spirit is 気.&#xA;Therefore, it is possible to read without subvocalizing. We can read as if it was graphics.&#xA;So, when using kanji is much more like text &gt; undestanding.&#xA;But is hard to think doing it purely because we use many words that have no physical meaning such as &quot;as&quot;, &quot;such&quot;, &quot;meaning&quot; etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13953" LastActivityDate="2016-10-13T23:32:47.103" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16054" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-14T07:26:28.087" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I experience, with infrequency (every year or so), problems identifying specific words as &quot;correct&quot;.  I will read it, I immediately think it is misspelled, or isn't a word, but then after confirming it is correct, it still temporarily registers as incorrect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just now, I had problems recognizing the word &quot;button&quot; was correct.  I read it over and over for a minute, searched Google to confirm I didn't go insane, but my brain couldn't recognize the word.  It passed after this minute and everything was back to normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Context:  I was coding in HTML and made a pile of buttons, and I've been using this word repeatedly (although prior occurrences did not occur after repetition).  I suddenly though I misspelled every instance of this word, but then realize that was impossible because it was working in the browser I was testing on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my previous experience of this, in separate instances, was not able to recognize the word &quot;hour&quot; and &quot;one&quot;.  I forgot what other words this happened with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know if there is medical term for this type of event?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13964" LastActivityDate="2016-10-14T07:26:28.087" Title="Is there a medical name for transient word recognition problems?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16055" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15997" CreationDate="2016-10-14T09:27:57.687" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Electrophysiological responses in general often come in waveforms. These are characterized by a number of peaks and troughs. Dependent on the specific response, arbitrary naming conventions are used. Generally something along the lines of P1 (positive peak #1), N1 (negative peak #1), P2 etc. Sometimes latencies are used as a subscript too to indicate which peak it is.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The timing of ERP peaks is more of a convention than anything else. In fact, electrophysiological responses often have specific latencies, but only specified in a certain range. Age, medical conditions, random recording variability, equipment and analysis method may all affect the specific peak latencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally spoken, there are three main methods to characterize positive (P) and negative (N) deflections in electrophysiological responses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; method simply denotes the first positive peak as P1, the first negative peak as N1, the second positive peak as P2 and so forth (Fig. 1). Auditory CAP recordings are designated this way, for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Sqfqm.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Sqfqm.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;auditory oddball&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Peaks in an auditory oddball ERP. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;amp;pid=S1983-32882013000300001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chernyshev &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2013)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, deflections may be designated a number that indicates their approximate latency. For example the P300 is an often encountered wave in oddball-paradigm ERPs. The P300 relates to the subject's attention to the task at hand. Given the higher-order processing involved, it appears relatively late in ERP recordings namely around 300 ms or so (Fig. 2), hence the name P300.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TJswC.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TJswC.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;ERP peaks&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Text book ERP example showing N200 and P300 peaks. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medsci.org/v02p0147.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pattel &amp;amp; Azzam (2005)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another commonly applied notation are Roman numerals; PI, NI, PII &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;. ABR peaks are often designated this way (Fig. 3).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5Ox6l.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5Ox6l.png&quot; alt=&quot;ABR&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Fig. 3. Auditory brain stem response. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.eng.monash.edu.au/non-cms/ecse/ieee/ieeebio1999/p50.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UNSW&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the end, the &lt;em&gt;rationale&lt;/em&gt; you are talking about is all about conventions, approximations and generalizations. In fact, when people investigate specific responses that are not yet characterized by generally accepted conventions, the authors often just make something up along the lines pointed out above. As long as you define it specifically in your report whether it is a longstanding accepted scientific convention, or a simple customized numbering devised by your lab, it's all OK, really.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;amp;pid=S1983-32882013000300001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chernyshev &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Psychol Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;(3)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medsci.org/v02p0147.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pattel &amp;amp; Azzam, &lt;em&gt;Int J Med Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 147-54&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-10T10:02:17.257" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T10:02:17.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16056" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-14T11:10:47.753" Score="1" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine yourself in a room where there are students, which have done their homework. The homework was to read a text, and therefore you will sit alone and read it.  There is one kid with Dyslexia who needs to hear the text with help from a computer, and the rest of the class are discussing the matter in the text. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why might someone who is reading be more irritated at a computer voice than actual voices?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13965" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-17T04:58:53.770" LastActivityDate="2016-10-17T04:58:53.770" Title="Why might computerised voices in the background be more disruptive than human voices?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-10-17T08:15:11.210" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16057" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15932" CreationDate="2016-10-14T14:07:52.403" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, absolutely there are loops, and they can occur on a very small spatial scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do we have a proof of local loops in the cortex?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a few papers that describe experimental quantification of small networks (2+ neurons) with recurrent connections in various patterns:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Sporns O, Kötter R. 2004. Motifs in Brain Networks. PLoS Biology 2:e369&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Song S, Sjöström PJ, Reigl M, Nelson S, Chklovskii DB. 2005. Highly Nonrandom Features of Synaptic Local Connectivity in Local Cortical Circuits. Public Library of Science Biology 3:0507–0519&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Perin R, Berger TK, Markram H. 2011. A Synaptic Organizing Principle for Cortical Neuronal Groups. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108:5419–5424&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How large a piece of cortex has to be to contain a loop?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Judging from the experimental evidence I cited, loops of connections can occur on the scale of neighbouring neurons. That means, the smallest piece of cortex that contains a few neurons can contain a loop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are these loops?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what you're getting at here; if you are asking &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; there are loops, then we can only speculate. But even if connections were made randomly, loops would exist. A better question is &lt;em&gt;why are there more bidirectional / motif connections than we expect by chance?&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2016-10-14T14:07:52.403" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16058" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15404" CreationDate="2016-10-14T14:40:39.297" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Development of patterns of synaptic connection contains elements of both outgrowth and pruning. For example, this paper from zebrafish development illustrates both those mechanisms, which appear to be tightly linked:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Meyer MP, Smith SJ. 2006. Evidence From in Vivo Imaging That Synaptogenesis Guides the Growth and Branching of Axonal Arbors by Two Distinct Mechanisms. Journal of Neuroscience 26:3604–3614.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In more advanced animals (e.g. cats), there is also evidence for both outgrowth and pruning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Callaway EM, Katz LC. 1990. Emergence and Refinement of Clustered Horizontal Connections in Cat Striate Cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 10:1134–1153.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also evidence for generation of new neurons in adult humans, which implies that new synaptic connections must be forged to integrate newborn neurons into existing networks:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ericsson et al. 1998. Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nature Medicine 4:1313-1317.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2016-10-14T14:40:39.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16059" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16041" CreationDate="2016-10-14T14:42:19.630" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Visual experience is 2 dimensional, or even 3 dimensional (moving things). Spoken and heard language is one dimensional in the sense that it must be processed in order: either sounds in order or written symbols in order. The ordering is important. Visually, because things move around, there is no 'ordering' of what we see, so the brain developed ways of processing it more holistically. (Consider the well-known description of &quot;what a frog sees&quot;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even still, we understand a visual image by having the eye fixate on various points all around it (as revealed by eye-tracking studies, even with animals). And, one can see a few words at a distance and know what they say without hearing words in the mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because writing is intended to stand in place of hearing spoken words, there is really no better way for us to interpret writing, other than to convert it to apparent spoken words and then process it. This is similar to how images taken in ultraviolet, infrared, X-rays, etc are converted to something we can see, and how radio waves are converted to something we can hear. It is just that we handle reading internally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Separating the interpretation of spoken language from a simulated hearing of it would be a feat. But writing can be made distinct from hearing, if concepts (ideograms) are written instead of sounds - as in Chinese, Japanese and similar writing systems. These written languages are freed from the problems of dialect and change over time: people with many different spoken languages can all read written ideograms just fine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastActivityDate="2016-10-14T14:42:19.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16060" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-14T14:42:46.420" Score="6" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we speak, our ears give us feedback on the same. This, presumably, helps in learning a language and adjusting the volume of our speech. How do deaf people get this feedback to learn a new language or adjust the volume of their speech?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11802" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-17T04:55:57.190" LastActivityDate="2016-10-17T20:58:06.483" Title="How do deaf people get feedback on their speech?" Tags="&lt;audition&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16061" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15683" CreationDate="2016-10-14T16:32:38.293" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm one of the developers of the Miniscope. We have been very happy with #FL-2-C from dragonfly. This commutator is very low torque and we have never had an issue with sending power or data through it. The key is to minimize the length of non-coax cabling coming out of the top and bottom of the commutator. We trim the lead wires short and solder coax connectors to both ends of the commutator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a slightly cheaper option you can check out the commutators sold by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.moog.com/products/slip-rings/commercial-industrial-slip-rings/compact-slip-ring-capsules.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; title=&quot;MOOG&quot;&gt;MOOG&lt;/a&gt;. I should mention that we haven't tested these with the Miniscope system yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13969" LastActivityDate="2016-10-14T16:32:38.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16063" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13901" CreationDate="2016-10-15T14:42:38.743" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short Answer:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, curiosity cannot be described as an emotion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Detailed Answer:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Curiosity is a desire, aspiration for something. An &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#Classification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt; is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;affective aspect of consciousness&lt;/a&gt;, also known as affect integration.&#xA;However, curiosity and pretty much &lt;em&gt;everything&lt;/em&gt; can induce an emotion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10587" LastActivityDate="2016-10-15T14:42:38.743" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16067" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-15T22:07:24.863" Score="6" ViewCount="132" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me preface this by saying I'm as skeptical as anyone about equating neural structures with traditional computing hardware (e.g. 'how many MBs is long term memory?'), but episodic memories seems like one place where talking about storage capability seems warranted, since episodes are quite discrete. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've heard discussion about the hippocampus being able to store all of the relevant events for the past 10 years, and that it &lt;a href=&quot;https://grey.colorado.edu/mediawiki/sites/CompCogNeuro/images/5/50/OReillyBhattacharyyaHowardEtAl11.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;slowly transfers its knowledge to the cortex, which has a much higher capacity&lt;/a&gt;. But how many separately encoded events can it hold? I know it uses a sparse coding scheme to keep related memories separate, so it should be possible to infer capacity from the size of the neural populations involved and the average activity. Has someone looked into this before?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20" LastActivityDate="2016-10-15T22:07:24.863" Title="Current estimates of the capacity of hippocampal episodic memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;episodic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16069" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13901" CreationDate="2016-10-15T23:25:43.500" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The currently accepted model of curiosity is &lt;a href=&quot;http://drjlitman.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Litman-Jimerson-2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;that of Litman&lt;/a&gt;. It describes curiosity as a sort of motivating factor:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Curiosity as a feeling of deprivation (CFD) reflects feelings of uncertainty and tension that motivate information-seeking and problem-solving behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now we only need to establish a link between motivation and emotional intelligence. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cambridge.org.secure.sci-hub.cc/core/journals/journal-of-management-and-organization/article/testing-the-links-between-emotional-intelligence-and-motivation/B0BF1FF537ABA86DC6913D1884EAAB2D&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;In this study&lt;/a&gt;, scientists found a link between the two, but came to conclusion that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Structural&#xA;  equation modeling indicates that motivation is not a factor of emotional  ntelligence but that it is related to the construct particularly through the regulation of emotion and the appraisal of others’ emotions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit based on more updated study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before we proceed further, I tried to find further proof that curiosity is indeed a motivation. I found confirmation of that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/15184082_The_Work_Preference_Inventory_Assessing_Intrinsic_and_Extrinsic_Motivational_Orientations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, which categorises curiosity as an intrinsic motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Back on topic, Here is an invaluable resource that I found thanks to mrt: &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1462516971&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;The Psychological Construction of Emotion - Edited by Barrett and Russell&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The entire chapter 11 is relevant. It contains lots of relevant citations too (Specially the works of Panksepp). I can't quote all of it because fair use has a limit. I will just post a glimpse:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In view of the clear evidence linking DA transmission to aspects of&#xA;  motivation, what does this say about dopaminergic involvement in emotion? Is DA irrelevant as an ingredient in emotional states? Not necessarily.&#xA;  Burgdorf and Panksepp (2006) suggested that ventral striatal mechanisms&#xA;  are not related to “pleasure” or “consummatory reward” in the traditional sense, but instead are involved in anticipatory or appetitive energizing effects of stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book establishes a difference between hedonic &quot;liking&quot; and dopamine-induced &quot;wanting&quot;. [ Dopamine has been linked to pleasurable simulations as well as aversive stimulations ] Depressed people do not lose their appreciation of pleasurable things like tasty food (quoting the book here), but find no energy in their pursuit of motivational stimuli, exertion of effort, and motivational anticipation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion: I would like to propose that being curious is similar to being a foodie, or adventurous. Not sure about lexical term, but there seems to be a need to differentiate between core emotions and their drive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11614" LastEditorUserId="11614" LastEditDate="2016-10-16T11:48:30.430" LastActivityDate="2016-10-16T11:48:30.430" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16072" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-16T15:24:15.937" Score="5" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had a discussion with my friend recently about slip-ups in speech - the ones where you intented a gramatically correct sentence but somewhere between the conscious mind and your mouth a (usually small but often times a rather unexpected) mistake occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is whether this phenomenon arises in the same way in the brain (what happens?) as a analogous mistake in writing, where one might for example mistype a letter, or put one too many bellies on a 'B' etc. Or in an even broader view, how does this compare to mistakes in a well trained movement, e.g. while playing a guitar a finger escapes its well-intentioned, and many times practised passage to an unexpected fret?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13987" LastEditorUserId="13987" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T21:59:32.030" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T21:59:32.030" Title="Is there a fundamental difference in the way we think while writing when compared to speaking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16073" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16081" CreationDate="2016-10-16T22:52:11.300" Score="5" ViewCount="359" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any established literature that indicates that attending a funeral aids in the grieving process? I would like to know if funerals pay a critical role in the grieving process and what makes them important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user6653" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-18T03:28:23.673" LastActivityDate="2016-10-18T04:42:53.380" Title="How beneficial is attending a funeral in the process of grieving and why?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16074" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16080" CreationDate="2016-10-17T08:28:30.360" Score="4" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;By physical activities I mean any kind of task, work, sport, you have to use your body. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not always have the time to do some task or even the possibility (need some equipment, not great situation). I try to imagine myself doing what I intend to practice. Example: some katas (karate movements), sign language, arts&amp;amp;crafts. Is like I imagine how will it be so when I can do it, I can do it better. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do I need to practce the real movements to improve or by thinking I have enough? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13992" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-10-17T10:44:49.293" LastActivityDate="2016-10-19T14:56:16.130" Title="Can you practice and improve physical activities only by thinking?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;imagery&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16076" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16077" CreationDate="2016-10-17T14:02:01.113" Score="8" ViewCount="11517" Body="&lt;p&gt;Heart rate variability (HRV) is often used as a measure of the sympathetic nervous system. One way to quantify HRV is by calculating the Inter-beat interval (IBI), also referred to as the RR-interval. The RR-interval refers to the time between two R-peak of a traditional ECG heart-beat waveform (see Figure 1). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/B4j77.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/B4j77.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Figure 1: Two subsequent heart-beats with component names. The RR interval is the time between two subsequent R-peaks. Picture taken from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://lifeinthefastlane.com/ecg-st-segment-evaluation/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://lifeinthefastlane.com/ecg-st-segment-evaluation/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in a review article by &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01040&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shaffer, McCraty and Zerr (2014)&lt;/a&gt; they refer to normal-to-normal (NN) intervals instead. This extends to the statistical measures of the RR intervals, such as SDRR, pRR50 (&lt;a href=&quot;http://innovareacademics.in/journals/index.php/ijcpr/article/viewFile/3396/1314&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Urooj, Gupta, Sp &amp;amp; Tandon, 2014&lt;/a&gt;), i.e., SDNN and pNN50, respectively (Shafer et al., 2014). &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;What is the difference between RR-intervals and the NN-intervals?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01040&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shaffer, F., McCraty, R., &amp;amp; Zerr, C. L. (2014). A healthy heart is not a metronome: an integrative review of the heart's anatomy and heart rate variability. Frontiers in psychology, 5, 1040.&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://innovareacademics.in/journals/index.php/ijcpr/article/viewFile/3396/1314&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Urooj, M., Gupta, S., Sp, V., &amp;amp; Tandon, M. (2014). REFERENCE RANGE OF HEART RATE VARIABILITY AND VALIDATION IN SUBJECTS WITH ASYMPTOMATIC ELEVATED LIVER FUNCTION ENZYMES. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Research, 6(4), 49-52.&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-12-27T11:05:13.900" Title="What is the difference between RR-intervals and NN-intervals in HRV-data?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;workload&gt;&lt;heart-rate-variability&gt;&lt;ecg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16076" CreationDate="2016-10-17T14:02:01.113" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The difference is rather simple. NN-intervals refer to the intervals between &lt;strong&gt;normal&lt;/strong&gt; R-peaks. During a measurement, artifacts may arise due to arrhythmic events or faulty sensors, for example (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230638325_A_Real-Time_Automated_Point-Process_Method_for_the_Detection_and_Correction_of_Erroneous_and_Ectopic_Heartbeats&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Citi, Brown &amp;amp; Barbieri, 2012&lt;/a&gt;). This may lead to abnormal R-peaks, which may in turn distort the statistical measures. To ensure reliable and valid data, only normal R-peaks are selected. Alternatively, the abnormal R-peaks can be corrected. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In practice, however, RR-intervals and NN-intervals are synonymous (Tarvainen, 2014; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_rate_variability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wiki&lt;/a&gt;). The use of &quot;NN-intervals&quot; is merely used to emphasize that normal R-peaks were used. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230638325_A_Real-Time_Automated_Point-Process_Method_for_the_Detection_and_Correction_of_Erroneous_and_Ectopic_Heartbeats&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Citi, L., Brown, E. N., &amp;amp; Barbieri, R. (2012). A real-time automated point-process method for the detection and correction of erroneous and ectopic heartbeats. IEEE transactions on biomedical engineering, 59(10), 2828-2837.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tarvainen, M.P. (2014). Kubios HRV version 2.2: User's Guide. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_rate_variability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_rate_variability&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-10-28T09:43:56.837" LastActivityDate="2016-10-28T09:43:56.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16078" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16060" CreationDate="2016-10-17T20:58:06.483" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many &quot;deaf&quot; individuals still have some functional hearing. Even in the case of a total loss of hearing, there are proprioceptive cues that provide useful feedback for speech production. The typical way of teaching pre-lingually deaf children how to speak involves hours of one-on-one time with a speech-language pathologist. The child learns to speak by placing their hand on the throat/mouth of the instructor and feeling the vibrations and movements of the articulators. There is also software that process speech in near real-time and helps the talker adjust their speech to match a target pattern. These same techniques could be used for the post-lingually deaf. That said, I think it is pretty rare for post-lingually deaf individuals to learn a second spoken language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-10-17T20:58:06.483" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16079" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13060" CreationDate="2016-10-17T21:10:35.947" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ignoring your pictures for a second, it sounds like what you are referring to is pitch circularity. &lt;a href=&quot;http://deutsch.ucsd.edu/psychology/pages.php?i=213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Diana Deutsch&lt;/a&gt; was a pioneer in this area. The key is that generating these sounds is tricky and that unless you inspect the &quot;correct&quot; dimensions of the stimuli you will not see the differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-10-17T21:10:35.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16080" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16074" CreationDate="2016-10-17T23:45:40.327" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;My general understanding is that thinking about executing the motor tasks in your mind can improve skill. It's not as good as actually practicing the task. I'm not sure exactly how conclusive the literature is on what moderates the effectiveness of mental practice. However, presumably, the nature of the task, the nature of the mental activities performed, your current skill level, and so on, should be relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps check out Driskell et al (1994) for a review and a meta-analysis. It has a more nuanced treatment. Specifically, they define the relevant act as &quot;mental practice&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mental practice is the symbolic, covert, mental rehearsal of a task in&#xA;  the absence of actual, overt, physical rehearsal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it's not just any kind of thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pascual-Leone, A., Nguyet, D., Cohen, L. G., Brasil-Neto, J. P., Cammarota, A., &amp;amp; Hallett, M. (1995). Modulation of muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills. Journal of neurophysiology, 74(3), 1037-1045. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aidan_Moran/publication/228118007_Does_Mental_Practice_Enhance_Performance/links/00b49527e74ea53a69000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aidan_Moran/publication/228118007_Does_Mental_Practice_Enhance_Performance/links/00b49527e74ea53a69000000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-10-17T23:45:40.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16081" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16073" CreationDate="2016-10-18T03:36:51.913" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I had a quick look into your question (not my area). It turns out there is long established  journal called &quot;Death Studies&quot; that focuses specifically on &quot;bereavement and loss, grief therapy, death attitudes, suicide, and death education&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a quick search on Google Scholar for &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=funerals%20grieving&quot;&gt;&quot;funerals grieving&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, I found an article by  Romanoff (1998) that looked like it might provide a starting point. That said, it's not especially empirical (i.e., it is not an RCT evaluating the effectiveness of funeral attendance).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, to quote the text:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Funeral rituals are symbolic enactments that provide meaning- ful and affirming experiences for the bereaved. Funeral rituals mediate the transition of the deceased from life to death, and mediate the transition of the bereaved from one social status to another (Pine, 1989). They provide opportunities for the public display of grief, structures for the delimitation of grief, vehicles for affirming the relationship of the deceased to the community, and&#xA;  the continuity of the community in his or her absence (Fulton, 1988) . During this time of transition, members of the social group tend to the bereaved in an outpouring of human support that tran- scends social status ( Turner, 1969) . Postfuneral bereavement rituals, while rare in American culture (McGoldrick et al., 1991), provide structure to the grieving and full incorporation into a new social status ( Goldberg, 1981) .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Romanoff, B. D. (1998). Rituals and the grieving process. Death studies, 22(8), 697-711.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-18T04:42:53.380" LastActivityDate="2016-10-18T04:42:53.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16083" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16137" CreationDate="2016-10-18T23:00:58.887" Score="6" ViewCount="301" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read about some of the differences, but they may be opinions not supported by best scientific evidence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the limbic system, in particular amygdala and hippocampus would be activated in both, and in many other emotional reactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But even more relevant, given that this is cog-sci exchange, is that there is the idea that fear and anger are cognitively similar in that they both focus and narrow the mind, but that anger focuses the mind much more because fearing a certain object also makes one hypervigilant so the person could potentially react to lots of other potential signs of danger at the same time.  But my thinking is that anger can also lead to arousal and person being irritated by lots of other previously-neutral stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another idea I remember is that apparently fear leads to feeling cold in the extremities but anger the head and particularly the arms can remain or get warmer.  Or as this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2013/12/30/258313116/mapping-emotions-on-the-body-love-makes-us-warm-all-over&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;NPR article&lt;/a&gt; says, fear leads to feelings in the chest area, but anger is one of the few feelings that activates the arms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Internally it is my own experience that fear leads to shrinking and weakness while anger leads to a kind of activation and strength.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Externally there are behavioral differences but also in terms of body language and facial expression, apparently one can tell anger and fear apart.  Clenching jaws and fists in anger...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the problem is people rarely express these emotions so fully in their body or their face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or to be more accurate, it depends on the person and how expressive they are and how frightened/angry they feel, culture, age, etc.  But such facial expressions as ones below are not ones I see around me often.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.unc.edu/~andrei/expressions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.cs.unc.edu/~andrei/expressions/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, I once had a talk with a doctoral candidate and very briefly we touched on this, which is obviously quite a big topic, but he told me one of the difficulties is that the feelings that follow each other very fast and also that a person might react to feelings with other feelings.  For instance, you become angry at your child but then almost instantly you might feel fear at how angry you are, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the above are sort of what I've read or remember about the differences.  I really like to learn more about this so if you feel this question is too broad, just choose the area that you know most about and correct my thinking there.  Since this was the only psychology section of the forum, I posted it here, and surely anger/fear distinction not only can be studied by different branches of psychology (biopsych, behavioral psych, cog psych, clinical psych, etc), but as a human emotion, it can also be studied by anthropology, for instance, on the cultural level.  So I'm aware of that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13841" LastEditorUserId="13841" LastEditDate="2016-10-26T22:27:43.057" LastActivityDate="2016-10-27T00:32:38.347" Title="Are there reliable ways to distinguish anger from fear, be it through body, mind, internally, externally?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16084" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-19T02:42:27.097" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why are visualizing mnemonicsusually wacky? I've been told to picture images and associated stories (for example, with the Major System) as ridiculous and zany as possible. Is it because our brains are more likely to remember extraordinary things?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14009" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-20T01:34:41.723" LastActivityDate="2016-10-20T01:34:41.723" Title="Why are visualizing mnemonics usually wacky?" Tags="&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;mnemonic&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16085" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19566" CreationDate="2016-10-19T14:43:38.733" Score="4" ViewCount="423" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dating coaches make the point that women may &quot;like,&quot; or &quot;appreciate&quot; a nice man, but they aren't likely to be attracted to, or fall madly in love with such behavior (until fairly late in the relationship, e.g. steady dating or engagement).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One such person, Leil Lowndes in &quot;Undercover Sex Signals,&quot; noted, &quot;A woman subconsciously listens to her genes.&quot; That one quote opened up a whole new way of thinking to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, a domineering, hard-as-nails man might not be pleasant to live with, but a woman might be attracted to him because he is signaling that he would be a good (protective and providing) father for her children. Likewise for the &quot;bad boy,&quot; who is unconventional, independent, and seemingly courageous, even though he may be &quot;independent&quot; to the point of being unfaithful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it true that at some level, women and men who are dating &quot;rate&quot; each other based on the other's presumed parenting ability (e.g. that men prefer good looks as a sign of good &quot;motherhood&quot;)? And that members of the opposite sex that aren't perceived as good parenting material are often &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friend_zone&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;&quot;friend-zoned&quot;&lt;/a&gt; despite their other virtues?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, dating coaches have their points of view, but they are &quot;street smart.&quot; More to the point, they sometimes cited scientific studies to prove their cases. So what to the &quot;scientists&quot; have to say about this matter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; This question is not about &quot;externals&quot; preached by pick-up artists like Pellicer, using such techniques as body language, eye contact, or good conversation skills. This is about the theory of a woman (Lowndes) who hypothesizes that we are only one step (in evolutionary terms) away from &quot;cavemen,&quot; and that therefore evidence of good cavemen traits (toughness and self sufficiency for men, physical appeal for women) still makes one attractive (at a visceral level) to members of the opposite sex. Even though other traits such as intelligence, humor, and empathy might be more relevant in the modern world, they might not do as good a job at sparking immediate attraction as the more primitive traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2016-10-21T22:54:19.793" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T01:19:12.270" Title="What does the literature say about why women aren't attracted to nice guys?" Tags="&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16086" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16074" CreationDate="2016-10-19T14:56:16.130" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. In one famous &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.breakthroughbasketball.com/mental/visualization.html&quot;&gt;experiment&lt;/a&gt;,a college basketball team was divided into three groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Group 1 was supposed to show up to practice shooting baskets for a week on a daily basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Group 2 was asked to &quot;think about&quot; practicing shooting baskets during the alloted time, without showing up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Group 3 was asked to &quot;forget about&quot; basketball for the week.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After the one week period, Group 3 showed no improvement in shooting baskets. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Group 1 improved meaningfully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Group 2 improved almost as much as group 1, and way more than group 3.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastActivityDate="2016-10-19T14:56:16.130" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16087" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-19T17:51:57.827" Score="1" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;When someone has a hallucination of a person or odor does is that a fantasy which one have never seen before (so a kind of construction) or can it be a remembering but then more real as seen in the mind? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are they considered to be the same or is there made a distinction in therapy (if necassary)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11358" LastActivityDate="2016-10-26T16:33:48.010" Title="Are hallucinations mostly 'real' fantasies or are they 'real' memories?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-10-27T09:52:42.900" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16089" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16683" CreationDate="2016-10-20T13:28:37.087" Score="4" ViewCount="3843" Body="&lt;p&gt;A definition for &lt;strong&gt;apparent movement&lt;/strong&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The perception of movement produced by stimuli that are stationary but are presented first at one position and then, at an appropriate time interval, presented at a different position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tyBb9.gif&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tyBb9.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;strong&gt;apparent motion&lt;/strong&gt; is defined as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Motion can be detected even if there is no real motion&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip_book&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flip Books&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now to my actual &lt;strong&gt;question&lt;/strong&gt;: I know that those two forms of perception are very close; so what is the actual difference between the two? Is there a pure definition of the difference?&#xA;I feel that both apparent movement and apparent motion are according to Gleitman et al. (2010) pretty much the same, and could be applied to both sorts of examples. So if presented with a stimulus/illusion, how would one approach them to discern which is which?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10587" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-02-03T10:15:48.807" Title="What is the difference between apparent motion and apparent movement?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16090" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-20T14:53:37.280" Score="5" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.humanconnectomeproject.org&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;projects&lt;/a&gt; that try to map brain connectivity. My question is whether there is a dataset available with the complete connectivity of just a single &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortical_minicolumn&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;minicolumn&lt;/a&gt; of the neocortex. Doesn't have to be human. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13888" LastActivityDate="2016-11-01T16:30:31.740" Title="Is there a complete connectome of a minicolumn of the neocortex?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16091" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15760" CreationDate="2016-10-20T17:51:27.647" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Freesurfer is great for mapping cortical thickness using anatomical MRI data, while SPM can be used to compare two populations, voxel-by-voxel. This is useful for PET imaging. For example you can see where in the brain amyloid uptake occurs in alzheimer's patients, vs healthy controls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our lab uses Freesurfer to process functional MRI data, so I don't have any experience using SPM for this. I will say though that probably the main difference is that many of the Freesurfer processes are simple via command line in UNIX, while SPM has a easy-to-use graphical interface.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SPM however also has command line functionality, so if you are comfortable with that, you might want to explore that. The bottom line is that you will just have to experiment with both programs to find what works for you. Methodologically, both tools should give you the same results, so it's really just a matter of preference, and depends on what you are studying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9484" LastEditorUserId="9484" LastEditDate="2016-10-21T14:43:34.337" LastActivityDate="2016-10-21T14:43:34.337" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16095" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16100" CreationDate="2016-10-21T15:38:55.917" Score="3" ViewCount="758" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found articles the try to give a possible biological neural network for the movement of limbs, neurons in the eyes, etc. Is there an explanation on how the neural network that controls the heart works?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13768" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-10-21T15:45:04.397" LastActivityDate="2016-10-22T00:14:00.267" Title="Function of heart neural network?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16096" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16099" CreationDate="2016-10-21T18:22:25.790" Score="5" ViewCount="425" Body="&lt;p&gt;For long I've seen uncountable number of blogs, websites, tutorials, booklets about career-guide, self-improvement, meditation, parenting etc. claiming; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Right hemisphere loves to work random, creative way; in contrast left-hemisphere loves to follow instructions and discipline.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Right hemisphere takes part in lateral-thinking; in contrast left-hemisphere takes part in vertical thinking.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Right hemisphere deals with pictures, visions, senses, feelings etc; in contrast, Left hemisphere deals with formula, equation, numbers, names, letters, calculations etc.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Right hemisphere works in nonlinear, meshy manner; in contrast, Left hemisphere works in linear, rigid, sequential way. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Right hemisphere see the whole, big-picture. Left hemisphere see one part only&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some example &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.highiqpro.com/iq-creativity/creativity-and-iq&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; , &lt;a href=&quot;http://brainmadesimple.com/left-and-right-hemispheres.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://ucmas.ca/our-programs/whole-brain-development/left-brain-vs-right-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; , &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kidport.com/reflib/science/HumanBody/NervousSystem/BrainHemispheres.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://artofteachingscience.org/mos/2.13.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.diffen.com/difference/Left_Brain_vs_Right_Brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; et cetera. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus I developed a concept about behavior of 2 hemisphere. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Now While I was going through following research article (of 2000):&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/123/7/1293&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cerebral specialization and interhemispheric communication&lt;/a&gt; by M. Gazzaniga  (&lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/brain/123/7/1293.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;) , &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I stuck on a diagram telling the &lt;em&gt;exact opposite&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ezVQn.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ezVQn.png&quot; alt=&quot;From research paper&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;(URL: &lt;a href=&quot;https://d1gqps90bl2jsp.cloudfront.net/content/brain/123/7/1293/F16.medium.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://d1gqps90bl2jsp.cloudfront.net/content/brain/123/7/1293/F16.medium.gif&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I've slightly edited the screenshot to enlarge the text and utilize the whitespace). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only thing of the paper maches with popular view, is; the right hemisphere is taking important part in understanding pictures, geometric shapes, extrapolating to fill a gap in an image, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But according to this diagram; actually &lt;em&gt;Left hemisphere&lt;/em&gt; is site for viewing the 'big-picture' of a subject ('living things'), finding 'similarity' (sings, eats, has a etc). Also From personal experience, the way of thinking shown as relational-map at left hemisphere, is the cause of 'randomness' in me, so that I keep many books and files scattered while working; or was broken line (que) in school to collect a grass or stone. The thing shown at left side forces me to collect various objects and arrange them... not the rightward one. Also I zone-out too-much and day-dream because of the left-one... not the right-one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, clearly the right-hemisphere in this diagram, is processing information in much rigid, linear or sequential, disciplined way; and looking a small-part... not the big-picture. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, please could anyone explain me, why should I still have to consider left hemisphere as a rigid linear servant and right-hemisphere as rulebreaker daydreaming artist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(P.S. most of these popular-series's tell that Right hemisphere is intuitive and Left hemisphere is logical. But I can't believe this because I can't separate logic and intuition. Logic is the bridge between intuition and reality.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="10587" LastEditDate="2016-10-22T01:20:56.050" LastActivityDate="2021-05-01T22:44:13.207" Title="Brain Right hemisphere is random and left hemisphere is linear? really?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16098" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-21T22:32:55.350" Score="8" ViewCount="421" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand why babies seem cute to us from an evolutionary point of view: They need our protection and love to grow, so it's beneficial for them to look good for us, or at least their parents, since that makes them more likely to be taken care of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But why does this pattern repeat with baby animals? It seems that small puppies or kitten appear cute to a large number of people, so how does that make evolutionary sense? Do they remind us of our babies? Did domestic animals evolve to be &quot;cute&quot; in order for us to take care of them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14042" LastEditorUserId="10587" LastEditDate="2016-10-24T11:44:33.947" LastActivityDate="2016-11-30T06:31:08.970" Title="Why baby animals seem &quot;cute&quot; to us?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16099" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16096" CreationDate="2016-10-21T23:57:33.923" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;You shouldn't.  It is one of those &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-myths/201206/why-the-left-brain-right-brain-myth-will-probably-never-die&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stubbornly persistent myths&lt;/a&gt;.  It is almost entirely false.  It is true that in some tasks one half of the brain is more prominent (although even in supposed classic cases like speech both halves are actually involved, just one half more than the other).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the idea that one half of the brain is logical and the other intuitive or emotional is simply false.  At most, one half the brain is slightly more prominent in processing some tasks that may be perceived by us as more logical or more intuitive, but that is really as far as it goes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7616" LastEditorUserId="28337" LastEditDate="2021-05-01T22:44:13.207" LastActivityDate="2021-05-01T22:44:13.207" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16100" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16095" CreationDate="2016-10-22T00:14:00.267" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The heart isn't really &quot;controlled&quot; by the nervous system in the same way, say, the limbs are.  Heart muscle cells (cardiac myocytes) beat with a steady rhythm even in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b1WD564sjWw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;complete isolation&lt;/a&gt;.  Collections of isolated cardiac myocytes will &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y5uKMM8Od9g&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;beat synchronously&lt;/a&gt;.  The beating of the heart is controlled internally by two bundles of specialized cardiac myocytes, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cts.usc.edu/zglossary-sanode.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sinoatrial node&lt;/a&gt; being the primary controller and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cts.usc.edu/zglossary-avnode.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;atrioventricular node&lt;/a&gt; regulating how the beat changes between the upper and lower chambers of the heart.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the heart beating it controlled internally, the nervous system does have an influence.  This comes more generally from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/sympathetic_nervous_system.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;sympathetic&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/parasympathetic_nervous_system.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;parasympathetic&lt;/a&gt; nervous system, which control how our bodies respond to various levels of arousal and stress.  These systems influence many parts of the body, but they influence the heart by &quot;instructing&quot; the sinoatrial node to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7907146&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;alter its rate of beating&lt;/a&gt;.  This is controlled primarily by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1923077-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;vagus nerve&lt;/a&gt;, if you are wondering about the specific neural anatomy.  That nerve is involved in a wide variety of tasks, but it is particular important for the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7616" LastActivityDate="2016-10-22T00:14:00.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16101" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-22T02:33:33.010" Score="1" ViewCount="1652" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does Computer science(or computationalism) has any role to play in Cognitive science or Creativity studies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13978" LastActivityDate="2016-10-25T22:12:31.027" Title="Does Computer science has any role to play in Cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-10-25T11:41:19.423" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16105" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16098" CreationDate="2016-10-22T13:02:29.890" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are referring to is broadly known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3260535/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;baby schema&lt;/a&gt;. However, does this not only apply to human babies, but actually to most mammals which need (parental)care. Certain features in the mammal trigger the release of hormones, which in turn will/can trigger caretaking behaviour in humans. The hormone release is associated with the eye and head shape. &#xA;The reason behind this “phenomenon” is to provide and warrant for the safety and well-being of the baby (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/guides/zc8bgk7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;evolutionary benefit&lt;/a&gt;). Of course, this works also with the non-parents of the mammal, which provides that the animal baby’s well-being is also ensured if the parents are not available to do it. &#xA;Also, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cuteness&lt;/a&gt; does not only apply to humans, but is very interspecific, hence the reason why we sometimes here about babies being raised by wolves, or orphan kitten being cared after by a dog. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6iQZc.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6iQZc.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10587" LastEditorUserId="10587" LastEditDate="2016-11-30T06:31:08.970" LastActivityDate="2016-11-30T06:31:08.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16108" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16101" CreationDate="2016-10-22T20:17:02.537" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. Computer science is one of central disciplines of cognitive science. In fact, the dominant, central dogma of modern (i.e., the last 50 years) cognitive science is that cognition &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; computation. This SEP article elaborates on this thesis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if you don't think that cognition is computation, you would still likely think that computer science is relevant to cognitive science insofar as CompSci is necessary for computational modeling of any phenomena. For example, some dynamical systems theorists would use computational, dynamical models of cognitive processes, even if they aren't claiming that the mind is &lt;em&gt;computing&lt;/em&gt; differential or difference equations. (Just like we might use differential equations to model hurricanes, even if we maybe don't think the hurricane itself is computing the equations.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm less sure of what is considered &quot;creativity studies&quot;, exactly, but I can imagine that computer science would be relevant. For example, CS -- and linguistics -- is definitely interested in questions like &quot;How are an infinite number of expressions created from finite means?&quot; Different kinds of grammars -- like regular grammars vs context-free grammars -- have different 'creative' powers. Creativity here is more defined in purely formal terms, as opposed to perhaps the semantic/artistic terms that you may have in mind. But, I and many others would argue, formal creativity and semantic/artistic creativity are intimately related.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4991" LastEditorUserId="4991" LastEditDate="2016-10-25T22:12:31.027" LastActivityDate="2016-10-25T22:12:31.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16115" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-23T23:16:22.170" Score="2" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The therapist asked John &amp;quot;Tell me about yourself?&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John  starting talking about himself, his upbringing and his family. However Instead of using the word &amp;quot;I&amp;quot; he mostly uses the word &amp;quot;He&amp;quot; in all his sentences&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the therapist pointed this out to John he was unaware he was doing this and he didn't believe the therapist. John said he has permanent employment and someone at work would have pointed it out to him if he did this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What condition could John have? What does it say about John that he doesn't realize he is doing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some answers I can think of&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;He has an inferiority complex and speaks about himself in the 3rd person in order to distance/disassociate himself from the person who he is.&#xA;Him not realizing it means he has been doing it for some significant time so that it has become second nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;he could have a fantasy prone personality which results in him losing touch with reality resulting in him seeing himself in the 3rd person like a computer game&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What other possible answers could there be or where can I be pointed to do research on this condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14061" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-07-05T10:23:48.027" Title="Adult talking in the 3rd person when talking about himself" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-07-05T11:16:36.050" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16116" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-24T03:19:12.913" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sally never got married nor had children but sometimes imagines a 5-year daughter old  talking to her. Sally never at any moment thinks the child is real and in such incidents griefs for being too old and having missed the opportunity for having children. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do you call this type of regret/grief?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14061" LastActivityDate="2016-10-24T03:19:12.913" Title="Grieving for a loss of not experiencing an event" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16117" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-24T05:39:16.030" Score="1" ViewCount="1310" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some constructs in psychology are sometimes conceptualised ipsatively. I.e., where the sum of the scales adds up to a constant (e.g., personal values; coping styles). The aim of such measures is often to show the relative position on such scales. In some cases, such scales are created by their response format (e.g., participants respond to questions that require some form of rank ordering of constructs). However, it is also possible to score tests with normative items (e.g., 20 items each on 1 to 5 scale, measuring 4 constructs) in an ipsative way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I recently ran into confusion about exactly how such ipsatised scores should be computed. I can think of a few different ways (e.g., subtracting the mean across all items from each item; dividing scale scores by sum of scale scores; saving residuals where scale is predicted by total score, etc.). I imagine many of these approaches yield similar variables. However, if you need to write a paper using ipsatised scores, you need to justify your particular approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a standard way of performing ipsatisation on scales made up of normative likert-type items?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-24T07:03:17.330" LastActivityDate="2016-10-24T07:03:17.330" Title="How to generate ipsative scores from a test with normative Likert-type items?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16118" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16117" CreationDate="2016-10-24T06:59:33.507" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Baron (1996) writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Scores on a multi-scale measure are ipsative when raw scale scores sum to a constant for any individual.&#xA;  An ipsative score can be thought of as the normative equivalent controlled for overall total score across scales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meade (2004) describes perhaps the most common form of ipsatisation based on normative scores as &quot;deviational ipsative&quot; (Radcliffe, 1963):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;normative data (e.g., Likert scales) can be made to be ipsative by simply subtracting the grand mean of each individual’s scale scores (averaged across all scales) from each of his or her individual scale scores (i.e., ipsatized data, Cattell, 1944; additive ipsative data (AID), Chan &amp;amp; Bentler, 1993);&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it seems that there are range of other ways to create ipsative scores (i.e., that satisfy the formal requirement). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The above substraction method can also involve dividing by the within-person population standard deviation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Save the residuals of a regression model predicting each scale from the mean of all scales&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ran quick comparison on some personality data and it seemed like the residual regression and the deviation approach achieved very similar results (see R code at the bottom of post. Thus, it makes sense that the simpler to calculate deviation approach is often applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Radcliffe, J. A. (1963). Some properties of ipsative score matrices and their relevance for some current interest tests. Australian Journal of Psychology, 15(1), 1-11.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Meade, A.W. (2004). Psychometric problems and issues involved with creating and using ipsative measures for selection. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology (2004), 77, 531–552.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baron, H. (1996). Strengths and limitations of ipsative measurement. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69(1), 49-56.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;R code&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt; # load some personality data&#xA;&amp;gt; library(psych)&#xA;&amp;gt; data(bfi)&#xA;&amp;gt; scales &amp;lt;- c(&quot;a1&quot;, &quot;a2&quot;, &quot;a3&quot;)&#xA;&amp;gt; names(bfi) &amp;lt;- tolower(names(bfi))&#xA;&amp;gt; bfi &amp;lt;- bfi[,scales]&#xA;&amp;gt; bfi &amp;lt;- na.omit(bfi)&#xA;&amp;gt; head(bfi)&#xA;      a1 a2 a3&#xA;61617  2  4  3&#xA;61618  2  4  5&#xA;61620  5  4  5&#xA;61621  4  4  6&#xA;61622  2  3  3&#xA;61623  6  6  5&#xA;&amp;gt; # calculate overall mean&#xA;&amp;gt; bfi$omean &amp;lt;- apply(bfi[,scales], 1, mean)&#xA;&amp;gt; # calculate ipsative scores based regression residuals&#xA;&amp;gt; bfi$res_a1 &amp;lt;- resid(lm(a1 ~ omean, bfi))&#xA;&amp;gt; bfi$res_a2 &amp;lt;- resid(lm(a2 ~ omean, bfi))&#xA;&amp;gt; bfi$res_a3 &amp;lt;- resid(lm(a3 ~ omean,bfi))&#xA;&amp;gt; # calculate devaiation ipsative scores&#xA;&amp;gt; bfi$dev_a1 &amp;lt;- bfi$a1 - bfi$omean&#xA;&amp;gt; bfi$dev_a2 &amp;lt;- bfi$a2 - bfi$omean&#xA;&amp;gt; bfi$dev_a3 &amp;lt;- bfi$a3 - bfi$omean&#xA;&amp;gt; # check that both satisfy ipsatisation requirement&#xA;&amp;gt; all(round(apply(bfi[,paste0(&quot;res_&quot;, scales)], 1, sum), 6) == 0)&#xA;[1] TRUE&#xA;&amp;gt; all(round(apply(bfi[,paste0(&quot;dev_&quot;, scales)], 1, sum), 6) == 0)&#xA;[1] TRUE&#xA;&amp;gt; # Examine similarities between approaches (see diagonal)&#xA;&amp;gt; round(cor(bfi[paste0(&quot;res_&quot;, scales)], bfi[paste0(&quot;dev_&quot;, scales)]), 3)&#xA;       dev_a1 dev_a2 dev_a3&#xA;res_a1  0.981 -0.729 -0.711&#xA;res_a2 -0.716  0.999  0.065&#xA;res_a3 -0.718  0.067  0.971&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-10-24T06:59:33.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16120" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16121" CreationDate="2016-10-24T16:15:24.767" Score="4" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to generate correlations between random variables (two dimensional) with a defined linear relationship (in the $r$ sense), but with different visual patterns when plotted. I am trying to create a 'guess the correlation' task where I can systematically manipulate the difficulty for an observer to guess the linear relationship. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am doing now is given a correlation $r$ I generate the first and second values, $X_1$ and $X_2$, with $n$ samples from the standard normal distribution. Then from there I make $X_3$ a linear combination of the two $X_3 = r X_1 + \sqrt{1-r^2}\,X_2$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then:  $Y_1 = \mu_1  + \sigma_1 X_1, \quad Y_2 = \mu_2 + \sigma_2 X_3$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And now $Y_1$ and $Y_2$ have a correlation $r$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For manipulating the difficulty I've been playing with the parameters of the distribution and $n$, however, I am not satisfied with the results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any idea on how to systematically increase the difficulty of the task? (i.e., adding outliers, for instance etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: Difficulty is a cognitive/psychology question rather than a statistical one. I intend to test the notion of difficulty empirically (i.e., under a specific parameter combinations, people tend to do worse). The idea is to generate plots with varying parameters for a given correlation value (i.e., changing the number of points, the variance, outlier, functional form? etc). What are the parameters and what would be a systematic way to manipulate them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14067" LastActivityDate="2016-10-24T23:21:18.823" Title="Manipulating the difficulty of guessing a correlation" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16121" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16120" CreationDate="2016-10-24T22:52:16.293" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You will probably need to do pilot testing to ascertain the difficulty of a given correlational task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From pilot testing, you would need to quantify the difficulty of the task. One option would be the mean discrepancy between actual and predicted correlation. However, there would be other metrics of both degree of error and difficulty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would hypothesise that the easiest correlations to guess based on scatterplots would be strong linear relationships involving bivariate normal distributions and lots of data (e.g., n &gt; 1000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a whole bunch of things that you could try to make the task more difficult. Here's what comes to my mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Outliers (both outliers that increase the correlation and outliers that decrease the correlations); vary the number of outliers in a particular region; combine outliers that increase and decrease the correlation; make outliers even more extreme&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Non-linear relationships (e.g., mixtures of linear and another function such as quadratic, cyclical, stepwise; power functions, logistic fucntions, circular, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;bimodal distributions on one or both variables&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Highly skewed distributions on one or both variables&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fewer data points&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;data that yield correlations only a little bit above or below zero&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;where there is a function like a quadratic, make the x depend on y rather than y depend on x. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, I think that practice and feedback effects will also be relevant. I.e., it may be relevant to ascertain whether the differences in difficulty with novices also correspond to relative differences in difficulty with participants who have been exposed to the full range of items you have generated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-24T23:21:18.823" LastActivityDate="2016-10-24T23:21:18.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16124" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-25T12:09:05.670" Score="2" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently the term unconscious bias, referring to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/26/unconscious-race-bias-at-work-i-know-have-taken-the-test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;race&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/women-in-leadership/2013/aug/15/guilty-of-unconscious-bias-job-roles&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sex&lt;/a&gt;, has increasingly appeared in the media. It appears that the support for these terms come from research conducted using the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103100914707&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Implicit Association Test (IAT)&lt;/a&gt;. However as I understand it the IAT is not a particularly reliable measure. My questions are quiet simple:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are these findings reliable and valid?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is driving these effects? In-group/out-group differences, sexism and racism, methodological errors etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the findings of previous IAT studies be used to extrapolate to unconscious racism and sexism? What are the consequences for the research and media based upon these findings.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;RULES&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that this is a very emotive subject, but please try to remain rational. Any emotional or subjective answers will be rejected.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note.&lt;/em&gt; I have done a bit of background reading on this while creating the question, but I don't have time to answer this myself at this time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a few references...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/articleid=10.1371/journal.pone.0004215&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lebrecht (2009) Perceptual other-race training reduces implicit racial bias.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/beautiful-minds/201101/does-the-implicit-association-test-iat-really-measure-racial-prejudice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaufman, psychology today article. (2011)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S074756321100094X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rezaei (2011). Validity and reliability of the IAT: Measuring gender and ethnic stereotypes.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="13943" LastEditDate="2016-11-02T11:15:43.340" LastActivityDate="2016-11-02T11:15:43.340" Title="Unconscious Racial and Gender Biases: The role of IAT" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;racism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16127" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13939" CreationDate="2016-10-25T14:27:17.110" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is unclear. It does not properly list the symptoms. This is because back then I did not know what to look for. The symptoms I was observing were actually effects of stress/anxiety. Naturally, the students get more stressed when they are studying alone. Fortunately, I have been able to correctly match all the symptoms with one disorder: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-handicapping&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Self-Handicapping&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not an officially accepted disease:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-handicapping (formally called self-defeating personality disorder) has not been added to DSM yet for some reason. Therefore, psychologists cannot diagnose someone with it. Apparently social anxiety is a thing but academic avoidance is not, even though research suggests that both are forms of self-handicapping [ &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/48/4/970/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/51/2/451/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt; ]. Hopefully SDPD can still be diagnosed as PDNOS (301.9). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My observation: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I determined that the students in question are not getting distracted due to OCD or ADHD. Instead, they are choosing to get distracted, but not out of their free will. They are procrastinating almost compulsively. That is why initially I (and a therapist as well) mistook it as OCD. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Diagnosis&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We all know that students often procrastinate or do not like to study. We generally identify these students as bad students. However, when this behavior comes coupled with genuine intention to learn and score good ranks, most teachers get confused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a quote from &lt;a href=&quot;http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ837977.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; study: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In student populations, self-handicapping has been associated with&#xA;  poor adjustment and academic underachievement (Zuckerman, Kieffer, &amp;amp;&#xA;  Knee, 1998) and lower achievement (Garcia, 1995). Procrastination has&#xA;  been linked with higher levels of depression and anxiety and reduced&#xA;  self-esteem in both clinical and non-clinical populations (Lay &amp;amp;&#xA;  Silverman, 1996; Martin et al., 1996; Saddler &amp;amp; Sacks, 1993).&#xA;  Zuckerman et al. (1998) found that self-handicappers displayed worse&#xA;  performance, poorer study habits and lower self-esteem than those who&#xA;  didn’t self-handicap. Garcia (1995) found that self handicappers had&#xA;  low levels of intrinsic goals, poor rehearsal strategies and poor time&#xA;  management practices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More studies on this topic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X00910415&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X00910415&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959475297000157&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959475297000157&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have some points to add to these studies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The link between self-handicapping and low intrinsic motivation as claimed in these studies suggests that students are move vulnerable to self-handicapping when placed in a competitive environment (driven by extrinsic motivation).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Good students can fall in the grasp of self-handicapping due to their perfectionism, but underachieving students are also bound to get tired of their lack of excellence at some point. The bar does not always need to be unrealistically high. (This is supported by Hugh Kearns's new model).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Be extra cautious about students with performance-avoidance goals. Students pursuing performance-avoidance goals strive not to perform worse than the others. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1041608011001129&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;These students have been found to be vulnerable to self-handicapping&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It has been observed that: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Goal progress and goal inspiration build on each-other to create an&#xA;  upward spiral. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S019188691100417X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1041608011001129&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Another study&lt;/a&gt; documents Loss of intrinsic motivation in cases of self-handicapping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the data we are able to identify two extremes: one is an upwards spiral, the other is downwards.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I have noticed that students with self-handicapping tend to be socially awkward. I don't have enough data to confirm anything, but theory suggests such a link so maybe it is good idea to check shy students for this disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Treatment&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several ways to deal with self-handicapping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The first solution is to never let it occur in the first place. Do not ignore your underachieving students. Conventionally, only intellectually gifted students are given challenging tasks. However, students who are performing poorly (but have acceptable IQ) also need tasks that will &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2383929/pdf/zpq6829.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;exercise their fluid intelligence&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Try to inspire intrinsic motivation. This will also help with &lt;a href=&quot;http://psp.sagepub.com/content/28/5/671.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;reducing the effect of self-handicapping&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Be careful about students who ask a lot of questions. More effort suggests less ability. Encourage them to find solutions on their own. (Source: personal experience and citation no. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cambridge.org.secure.sci-hub.cc/core/journals/behaviour-change/article/a-cognitive-behavioural-coaching-intervention-for-the-treatment-of-perfectionism-and-self-handicapping-in-a-nonclinical-population/75F8D77949DBE011950B7A1E9DFB8D3D#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;8&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive reorientation techniques can help. Hugh has developed a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cambridge.org.secure.sci-hub.cc/core/journals/behaviour-change/article/a-cognitive-behavioural-coaching-intervention-for-the-treatment-of-perfectionism-and-self-handicapping-in-a-nonclinical-population/75F8D77949DBE011950B7A1E9DFB8D3D#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;cognitive behavioural coaching&lt;/a&gt; technique that attempt to jump start the upwards spiral in a student by giving him/her achievable goals and monitoring the success. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The worst thing you can do to an under-performing student is giving them generic canned advise and motivation without verifying whether the student has symptoms of self-handicapping. You should not further motivate already motivated students. It does not work. Ironically enough, people are &lt;a href=&quot;http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ837977.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;more likely to self-handicap if they view a task as important&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;This disorder often comes with depression (check 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; quote). Depressed people have difficulties with pursuit of motivational stimuli and exertion of effort (The Psychological Construction of Emotion -Barrett Ch: 11). Cognitive Behavioural coaching will likely be difficult until depression is lifted. Therefore, treatment of depression is first priority.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am still testing the effectiveness of available treatments. I will update the text if I find anything new.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11614" LastEditorUserId="11614" LastEditDate="2016-10-25T16:18:36.383" LastActivityDate="2016-10-25T16:18:36.383" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16129" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15226" CreationDate="2016-10-25T21:23:08.900" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another term is &quot;objective personality tests&quot; (OPT) in the tradition of R. B. Cattell. A classical OPT would consist in giving a stressful task and observing emotional reactions while the subject is focused on the task; for instance a task requiring fine motor skills. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A further term is &quot;performance testing of personality&quot; as exposed in the paper linked &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/23082436?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; (it was free to read at the time of writing). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the question refers to &quot;a study&quot; I would rather think about the &quot;deceptiveness&quot; of the methods deployed in a study since they are the part of the study which will be relevant to the subject's experience of the study. The study itself in my eyes seems to be relevant to scholarly readers who will be informed about the methods. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&#xA;Santostefano, S. (1962). Performance testing of personality. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, 8(2), 83-97.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastEditorDisplayName="user14074" LastEditDate="2017-04-10T21:20:54.757" LastActivityDate="2017-04-10T21:20:54.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16131" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-26T15:20:25.953" Score="2" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on an essay trying to link an increased fear of something with information received from the media about it and I'm trying to find out if there are any studies on the matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me give an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;An african-american sees news about cops shooting other black men in the US. &#xA;Is he now more afraid of running into police?&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;A person sees news about a friend being arrested for his political opinions&#xA;Is she now more afraid of expressing her opinions?&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me it seems that both are true, but I'm looking for studies that could confirm it or deny it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14090" LastActivityDate="2017-08-06T16:33:24.757" Title="Can information in the media increase fear of something?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16087" CreationDate="2016-10-26T16:33:48.010" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hallucinations involving a person or odour can be either from memory or completely made up (constructed) within the mind.  Where they are from memory they generally, but not always, take the form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashback_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;flashbacks&lt;/a&gt; which are very intrusive in the sense that they are unwanted, and can be triggered by something the person sees or hears, but again, not always.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://theydiffer.com/difference-between-neurosis-and-psychosis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Neuroses and psychoses&lt;/a&gt; which involve &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashback_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;flashbacks&lt;/a&gt; can take on any form in any combination of any 1 or more of the senses of the body:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sight (Visual flashbacks)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sound (Auditory flashbacks)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Smell (Olfactory flashbacks)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Touch (Kineasthetic flashbacks - sometimes referred to as tactile flashbacks)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taste (Gustatory flashacks)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychoses such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/schizophrenia/guide/schizophrenia-symptoms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Schizophrenia can involve the same hallucinations&lt;/a&gt; but they are different to flashbacks as they are not necessarily recalling an event from the past.  They can be completely constructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a psychiatrist is making a diagnosis, using their knowledge of ,or through reference to, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;DSM&lt;/a&gt;, they will need to be aware of the form and source of the hallucinations which will play a part in how they will form the diagnosis and treatment plan through medication and/or therapy.  The latest edition of the DSM is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Fifth Edition (DSM-5)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapists will need to be aware of how the hallucinations form with their client in order for the therapist to effectively help their clients to deal with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-10-26T16:33:48.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16133" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16138" CreationDate="2016-10-26T17:47:20.170" Score="2" ViewCount="804" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are trying to develop metrics that measure levels of ownership, team spirit and collaboration within our group. The assumption is that these three traits are key to being productive employees. Once these measures are developed, we will test whether these measures are predictive of project outcome, ie, do teams with high scores on the ownership/teamwork/collaboration scales typically more productive (as measured by another set of measures).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can you measure an employees level of ownership, team spirit and collaborative nature?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14092" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-11-09T13:26:47.657" LastActivityDate="2016-11-09T13:26:47.657" Title="How to measure employee ownership, team spirit, and collaborative nature?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16134" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-26T17:51:06.513" Score="3" ViewCount="3202" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heart rate variability (HRV), the change in the time intervals between adjacent heartbeats, is an emergent property of interdependent regulatory systems that operate on different time scales to adapt to challenges and achieve optimal performance (&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01040&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shaffer et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In laymen terms, HRV is a measure of effort and exertion, either physical or mental. The time intervals between adjacent heartbeats, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16076/what-is-the-difference-between-rr-intervals-and-nn-intervals-in-hrv-data&quot;&gt;also referred to as RR intervals, NN intervals or InterBeat Intervals (IBI)&lt;/a&gt;, are determined based on peak values in physiological signals. The IBI can be determined with either electrocardiogram (ECG) and photoplethysmography (PPG; &lt;a href=&quot;http://hamlyn.doc.ic.ac.uk/bsn2014/poster/BSN2014-poster09p-maeda.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Madea et al., n.d.&lt;/a&gt;; see Figure 1).&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/82fcm.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/82fcm.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Figure 1: ECG (top) and PPG (bottom) patterns and the marked intervals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With these IBIs, different metrics of HRV can be calculated. These metrics can be subdivided into the time domain (e.g. mean RR, SDRR), frequency domain (e.g. high- and low frequency, or HF/LF) and non-linear metrics (For a review, see Shaffer et al., 2004). The analysis is not straightforward, however, but require some complex calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are some freely available software packages that allow easy calculation of these metrics?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hamlyn.doc.ic.ac.uk/bsn2014/poster/BSN2014-poster09p-maeda.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yuka Maeda, Masaki Sekine, Toshiyo Tamura, Koichi Mizutani (n.d.). Evaluation of green light PPG in Heart Rate Variability parameters.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01040&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shaffer, F., McCraty, R., &amp;amp; Zerr, C. L. (2014). A healthy heart is not a metronome: an integrative review of the heart's anatomy and heart rate variability. Frontiers in psychology, 5, 1040.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-10-31T14:52:21.740" Title="Open source software for analyzing Heart Rate Variability (HRV)" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;workload&gt;&lt;heart-rate-variability&gt;&lt;ecg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16135" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16134" CreationDate="2016-10-26T17:51:06.513" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A variety of packages exist that allow the calculation of these metrics. I will describe these packages by category:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Software&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kubios is a program from Finland that has a nice &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9DJwk.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GUI&lt;/a&gt;, in which you can import both ECG data or IBI (not PPG), to calculate all the metrics. They support some a variety of file-formats, but you can import any other text-file with some additional specifications (e.g. the time indices). The software allows several settings for filtering e.g., and allows you to easily segment and analyse the data. However, batch analyses are not possible, so all the steps must be repeated for every subject.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;NB. The website has gone offline just this week. The software (for both Mac OS and Windows) can still be downloaded though. Ping me in the Axon Terminal and I'll send you the links.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;*NNB. Kubios now links to a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.facebook.com/kubios&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Facebook page&lt;/a&gt;. They are currently working on a new release. *&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/milegroup/ghrv&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gHRV&lt;/a&gt; is implemented in Python and works with a &lt;a href=&quot;http://milegroup.github.io/ghrv/docfigures/Figure12.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GUI&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://milegroup.github.io/ghrv/doc.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;website&lt;/a&gt;). Some typical formats are accepted, including IBIs in an ASCII text format. However, it cannot read the time indices. Therefore, the program will not know whether or when R-peaks and, subsequently, IBIs were missed (compare &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fvgvk.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;true data in Kubios&lt;/a&gt; vs &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FrdlL.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gHRV loaded&lt;/a&gt;). Interpolation and time, frequency and non-linear analyses are possible. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Python&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;gHRV can also be used in Python itself with the source code. This give you more flexibility and allows you to batch analyze your data. I have not been able to test this, however. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/rhenanbartels/hrv&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hrv&lt;/a&gt; is a module that is currently being developed by Rhenan Bartels. At the moment, only simple time domain analyses are possible which works well with complete IBI datasets. At the moment of typing, Rhenan is developing a frequency domain analysis, and he will implement a way to interpolate missing data. He is also open to suggestions if you need a particular functionality. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;R&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rhrv.r-forge.r-project.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;RHRV&lt;/a&gt; is a complete R-package that organizes the data in a structured way. You need to import the IBIs or time indices of the beats (or some device specific files), after which all metrics can be calculated. There are also filtering methods and allows easy manual removal of outliers in GUI if necessary. The package is documented well and there are some video tutorials. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Matlab&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/jramshur/HRVAS&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HRV Analysis Software&lt;/a&gt; (HRVAS) &#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is a heart rate variability (HRV) analysis tool developed using MATLAB. HRVAS can detrend and filter IBI and can perform time domain, frequency domain, time-frequency, Poincare', and nonlinear HRV analysis &lt;a href=&quot;https://sourceforge.net/projects/hrvas/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(From website)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-10-31T14:52:21.740" LastActivityDate="2016-10-31T14:52:21.740" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16136" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-26T20:17:30.163" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has there been empirical research on the effectiveness  of assertiveness training?&#xA;What does it say about its effectiveness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14093" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-27T01:35:51.677" LastActivityDate="2016-10-27T01:35:51.677" Title="How effective is assertiveness training?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16137" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16083" CreationDate="2016-10-27T00:32:38.347" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The most conservative answer is&lt;/strong&gt; that we can reliably distinguish anger from fear &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;if&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; we constrain our examination to a particular context, a set of stimuli, or a person.   However, studies on emotions within single individuals have only begun to attract funding, so we don't quite know yet how well we can do this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we ignore contextual and individual differences, then our ability to reliably distinguish between these emotions drops significantly. This is because fear and anger can manifest very differently depending on the context and/or person (there's large variability in a bunch of response systems: facial, bodily, neural, behavioral, etc.), which prevents us from classifying them accurately or in a perceiver-independent (i.e., objective) way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But let's look at some papers...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Brain&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the results from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-science.org/pubs/2015/wager-et-al-plos-computational-biology-2015.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt; for anger and fear:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/88ylF.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/88ylF.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/97Cds.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/97Cds.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Body&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read a meta-analysis under review that used fancy statistical analyses to distinguish emotions by physiology.  The conclusion was that we can't distinguish emotions based on physiological variables, so as of right now we don't believe there are reliable physiological differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For relevant reading, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-science.org/pubs/2014/quigley-barrett-biological-physiology-2014.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, which provides a systematic qualitative review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Face&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is still under study.  The idea of universal facial expressions is incredibly controversial (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://emr.sagepub.com/content/5/1/8.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nelson &amp;amp; Russell, 2013&lt;/a&gt;), so it's best not to take it as fact, independent of your theoretical orientation.  It's quite possible that under many circumstances we can distinguish &quot;anger faces&quot; and &quot;fear faces,&quot; but others we cannot. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;However&lt;/strong&gt;, the most important point is that it's not even clear that we can reliably know that an &quot;anger face&quot; is actually an &quot;anger face&quot; and a &quot;fear face&quot; is actually a &quot;fear face,&quot; given that there can be so much variability in facial production and perception (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2016/10/12/1611622113.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this recent study&lt;/a&gt;).  I've never even seen Ekman's &quot;universal&quot; fear face in real life.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Behavior&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anger and fear are traditionally contrasted in terms of approach and withdrawal, respectively.  However, this probably isn't a reliable difference (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103113001728&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;), as it depends on goals, environmental constraints, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall... it's pretty difficult to objectively determine if someone is experiencing a certain emotion, let alone distinguishing between two of them. We might be able to do it better as we take a more idiographic approach, but studies like that have only begun to emerge.  Some people argue that multivariate analyses are the answer, but even these aren't reliable classifiers from one context to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2016-10-27T00:32:38.347" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16138" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16133" CreationDate="2016-10-27T01:30:32.533" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you are talking about a range of concepts.&#xA;You could look into measures related to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Organisational citizenship behaviour: This tends to look at good discretionary behaviors such as collaboration, helping out colleagues, and so on.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Engagement and affective commitment: Both these constructs are closely related to motivation and alignment with the organisation (e.g., ownership).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just do a search on google scholar for articles on these topics and look at the methods sections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a range of popular measures that could readily be applied as self-report instruments. Alternatively, you could get peers or supervisors to rate employees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few suggestions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lee and Allen's (2002) Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=2&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwi8qbn06vnPAhWMnpQKHRLSAJwQFggoMAE&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wilmarschaufeli.nl%2Fpublications%2FSchaufeli%2F251.pdf&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNEXGZlXkHp_i7tl0s4yn6BsHmk80A&amp;amp;sig2=aQdS3ZrWYUou5q06w23usQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Utrecht engagement scale&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-10-28T07:36:40.543" LastActivityDate="2016-10-28T07:36:40.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16139" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16165" CreationDate="2016-10-27T19:36:35.583" Score="2" ViewCount="570" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, I want to evaluate a personality test I took to see how &quot;valid&quot; it is. At first when I took the test I thought it was scary accurate and decided to look over it to make sure it wasn't like a fortune cookie. However, I was told it was like Myers-Briggs. So, I decided to read the Wikipedia entry and through that I remembered something from Psychology Class that goes over how to evaluate tests, such as validity, reliability, etc... I am trying to figure out/remember how to evaluate them so I can check this test (and future tests), for its accuracy (If it turns out to be a really good test, I may have any of my employees (when I have a business) do it and may use it throughout other aspects of my life).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, my question is, how would I go about properly evaluating the test and is there a good checklist I can print out and use, or a better or different way to check it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit:&#xA;To help narrow down the question, I am looking for finding out if the test can actually measure what it is attempting to measure (that includes Strengths &amp;amp; Weaknesses, Romantic Relationships, Friendships, Parenthood, Career Paths, Workplace Habits which is listed on each of the personalities pages). Like @Ebbinghaus said, it sounds like a psuedo-scientific test, and sure I am hoping that it isn't, but if it is, I will just see if I can find a better/real scientific test that can help with relations and personalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, I don't know what it takes to make a meta post, but evaluating tests might make a good meta post so if anyone knowledgeable in this field (I guess you can call it a field) wants to take it up, you should!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14103" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-11-03T04:56:51.703" LastActivityDate="2016-11-03T09:43:26.370" Title="Checklist to evaluate the validity of a personality test" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16144" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16145" CreationDate="2016-10-28T19:42:24.347" Score="8" ViewCount="7291" Body="&lt;p&gt;What exactly is the difference between affect and feeling?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;Affect&lt;/a&gt; seems to refer to conscious experience:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Affect&lt;/strong&gt; is the experience of feeling or emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And confusingly, so does &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling&quot;&gt;feeling&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology, the word is usually reserved for the&#xA;  conscious subjective experience of emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize that the definitions of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_%28psychology%29&quot;&gt;mood&lt;/a&gt; are dicey as there are several different approaches (with corresponding definitions) in common use today.  But is it the same for affect and feeling?  Are there accepted definitions, or even accepted parts of definitions?  Or do definitions depend on the emotion model?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-08-15T12:09:35.773" Title="What is the difference between affect and feeling?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16145" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16144" CreationDate="2016-10-29T03:14:43.490" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to constructionists (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/76/5/805/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Russell &amp;amp; Barrett, 1999&lt;/a&gt;), affect (or &quot;core affect&quot;) is a composite of valence and arousal, which underlies all emotional experience.  So when I feel good and highly aroused, that's &lt;strong&gt;affect&lt;/strong&gt;.  When I categorize my affect (good, high arousal) as excitement, that's an &lt;strong&gt;emotion&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to those who consider emotions to be multi-componential reactions to the environment (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/gpr/2/3/271/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gross, 1998&lt;/a&gt;), &lt;strong&gt;affect&lt;/strong&gt; is an umbrella word to describe anything related to emotions or mood.  It's definition isn't as specific as the one above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, &quot;&lt;strong&gt;feelings&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; has no specific definition.  It's a vague term that most emotion theorists don't use because it could refer to almost anything (e.g., interoception, nociception, exteroception like touch).  To specify that feelings are specific to the affective domain, we often use the phrase &lt;strong&gt;affective feelings&lt;/strong&gt;, but it's not a word that's central to any modern emotion theory that I know of. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So when in doubt, don't use the word &lt;em&gt;feelings&lt;/em&gt;. But do use &lt;em&gt;affect&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;emotion&lt;/em&gt;, or &lt;em&gt;mood&lt;/em&gt;, as long as you explicitly define them using whatever theory you subscribe to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2016-10-29T18:00:48.017" LastActivityDate="2016-10-29T18:00:48.017" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16146" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-29T21:30:39.113" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could anyone help with finding a questionnaire that measures participants emotion at the time of completion of the questionnaire about the effect on memory recall in eyewitness testimony?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14119" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-10-31T01:59:05.933" LastActivityDate="2016-10-31T02:02:33.660" Title="Questionnaire that measures participants emotion at the time of completion of the questionnaire" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-11-02T08:30:53.150" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16148" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7763" CreationDate="2016-10-31T01:06:01.767" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive Load is very subjective, and typical mental interference tasks (like solving problems while working on another task) aren't used in studies involving Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), except to measure individual differences in Working Memory Capacity before the experiment begins. Most experiments in CLT ensure that all participants' CL is through the roof, to test whether any interventions have an effect on their CL and therefore performance. This is usually done through the complexity of the task itself, i.e. the difficulty of the subject matter specific to the subjects demographics and prior experience combined with a complex problem solving task (usually without mental interference). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer your question, if you're more interested in Working Memory span or capacity, then &lt;a href=&quot;http://rdcu.be/mbi8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; outlines lots of different tasks you can give them. If you're more wanting to look at increasing CL from a CLT perspective, just look at any of the seminal studies by Sweller, Paas, Chandler, Ayers or Kalyuga for how they increased CL during the experiment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13461" LastActivityDate="2016-10-31T01:06:01.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16149" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16146" CreationDate="2016-10-31T02:02:33.660" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is very specific in that it pertains to memory recall in eyewitness testimony. But presumably the context is not the main point. The main point is that you want to get a measures of state emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most common measure that I'm familiar with is the PANAS (Watson, Clark, Tellegen, 1988). It asks about the frequency of experiencing a set of common positive and negative emotions. It yields overall scores positive affect and negative affect. It can be asked with different time-frame instructions (e.g., last hour, today, last week, etc.). Choose the time frame that most aligns with your construct of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_measures&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_measures&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watson, D.; Clark, L. A.; Tellegen, A. (1988). &quot;Development and Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales&quot;. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 54 (6): 1063–1070. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-10-31T02:02:33.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16150" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-10-31T13:21:26.587" Score="4" ViewCount="806" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the 1964 book, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_People_Play_(book)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Games People Play&lt;/a&gt;, by psychiatrist Eric Berne, the author describes a psychopathic phenomena he calls the &lt;em&gt;schlemiel&lt;/em&gt;, after the Jewish folk stereotype. According to Berne, the schlemiel does deliberately destructive acts and sabotage and disguises them to look like accidents. The purpose of this is to elicit sympathy and compassion in those he has duped, called &lt;em&gt;schlamazels&lt;/em&gt;. In other words, it is a game with a purely psychological payoff, but damaging real world effects. According to Berne schlemiels often end up as criminals, playing their &quot;game&quot; with judges and police officers after they have outgrown parents and teachers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This psycho-type seems to be unique to Berne's book and I have not been able to find any other clinical discussions of the phenomenon. Was this idea invented by Berne and purely unique to his book, or has the idea been studied by other researchers in the cognitive sciences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12982" LastActivityDate="2019-11-15T16:03:00.220" Title="Clinical pathology of schlemielism" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16151" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15535" CreationDate="2016-11-01T04:58:23.647" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lee and Ashton (2014) write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A few studies have directly examined the relations of the Dark Triad&#xA;  with the Honesty–Humility factor (as operationalized in the HEXACO&#xA;  Personality Inventory [–Revised]; HEXACO-PI[-R]). These investigations&#xA;  have found the low pole of the Honesty– Humility factor to be&#xA;  essentially identical to the common elementof the Dark Triad variables&#xA;  (Lee &amp;amp; Ashton, 2005; Lee et al., 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One study I found by Aghababaei et al (2014) reports the following correlations for 223 employees using 12 item dark triad and 60-item hexaco.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/l3fKy.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/l3fKy.png&quot; alt=&quot;hexaco dark triad correlations&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this is not the ideal study for facet-level measurement of honesty-humility. Ideally, you'd want more items both for facet-level measurement and measurement of each of the dark triad in order to get a broad and reliable measure. But it should give some idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lee, K., &amp;amp; Ashton, M. C. (2014). The dark triad, the big five, and the HEXACO model. Personality and Individual Differences, 67, 2-5.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Aghababaei, N., Mohammadtabar, S., &amp;amp; Saffarinia, M. (2014). Dirty Dozen vs. the H factor: Comparison of the Dark Triad and Honesty–Humility in prosociality, religiosity, and happiness. Personality and Individual Differences, 67, 6-10.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-11-01T04:58:23.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16152" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-01T05:57:02.703" Score="1" ViewCount="1158" Body="&lt;p&gt;The PVQ has some unusual aspects to how it is scored. It asks questions in the third person, it uses ipsatisation in the scoring, and the number of items per basic value can vary from  3 to 9 items. I'm curious to know how stable scores are over short periods of time (e.g., a week or a month).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any published test-retest correlations for the PVQ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-11-01T06:19:56.623" Title="What is the test-retest reliability for the Portrait Values Questionnaire?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16153" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16152" CreationDate="2016-11-01T05:59:30.833" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Shwartz (2003) writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Two studies with students have assessed the test-retest reliability of&#xA;  the ten values, as measured by the PVQ. Respondents completed the PVQ&#xA;  twice, separated by an interval of two-weeks in Israel and 6 weeks in&#xA;  Germany. The test-retest reliabilities (Israel &amp;amp; Germany) were&#xA;  moderate to high: power .84 &amp;amp; .77, security .88 &amp;amp; .70, conformity .86&#xA;  &amp;amp; .72, tradition .81 &amp;amp; .80, benevolence .82 &amp;amp; .62, universalism .83 &amp;amp;&#xA;  .75, self-direction .66 &amp;amp; .70, stimulation .74 &amp;amp; .76, hedonism .84 &amp;amp;&#xA;  .65, achievement .83 &amp;amp; .82.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, It would be good have moreinformation in that description to really evaluate the quality of the data. I.e., Was the data ipsatised? What was the sample size?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwartz, Caprara, and Vecchione (2010) measured basic values using the PVQ in a sample 1030 participants before and after an election. They report that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Test-retest correlations ranged from .65 (benevolence) to .75 (achievement and hedonism).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This 2010 paper seems more relevant given the large adult sample.&#xA;Overall, these test-retest correlations are a little lower than what I've often seen with a well-validated measure of personality, where you might see test-retest correlations more in the .75 to .85 range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, it's difficult to say whether these slightly lower correlations reflect the slightly more volatile nature of values or whether it is due to some measurement issues. In particular, I imagine having 3 items for some scales should lead to slightly lower test-retest correlations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schwartz, S. H. (2003). A proposal for measuring value orientations across nations. Questionnaire Package of the European Social Survey, 259-290.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-11-01T06:19:56.623" LastActivityDate="2016-11-01T06:19:56.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16154" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16090" CreationDate="2016-11-01T16:30:31.740" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately not. The closest publication would be &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature17192&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lee et al 2016&lt;/a&gt;, which is a reconstruction of a network of functionally-characterised neurons in mouse V1. They state the data &quot;will be available&quot; at &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurodata.io/lee16&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurodata&lt;/a&gt;; currently only the EM dataset appears to be there, and not the correspondence with functional imaging. I encourage you to contact them for the data set.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, there are functional measurements and small networks available from mouse visual cortex &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/072595&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cossell et al. 2015&lt;/a&gt; (self-cite; data available on request); and anatomical statistical measurements available from rat somatosensory cortex &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.09.029&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Markram et al. 2016&lt;/a&gt; (data available from &lt;a href=&quot;https://bbp.epfl.ch/nmc-portal&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NMC&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2016-11-01T16:30:31.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16155" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-01T19:20:07.237" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a model (bayesian or not) on how people would estimate the correlation between two variables from a given scatter plot. Any one knows of such model?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14067" LastActivityDate="2016-11-01T19:20:07.237" Title="Model of human estimation of correlation tasks" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16156" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-02T00:22:01.773" Score="5" ViewCount="1799" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember reading in a lot of introductory psychology texts that since there can be no random assignment of gender as a factor, the experiment can only be seen as a quasi-experiment. How does this work? Does gender as a factor always make my experiment quasi-experimental?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13440" LastActivityDate="2017-01-10T15:16:34.883" Title="Does gender as a factor always make my experiment quasi-experimental?" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16157" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-02T08:01:23.620" Score="0" ViewCount="315" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is cognitive and social turn in (cognitive) psychology? &#xA;Googling has not returned anything on this. I came across this in my lecture slides listed under possible Cognitive Psychology approaches, along with Introspection and Behaviourism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14140" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-11-02T08:33:00.457" LastActivityDate="2017-04-11T21:03:03.687" Title="Cognitive turn and social turn approaches in cognitive psychology" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16160" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-02T11:22:28.183" Score="3" ViewCount="641" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there even one? It seems to me the point of it was to show that humans are not well adapted to solving deductive reasoning problems, like if P, then Q.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wason, P. C. (1968). Reasoning about a rule. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20(3):273-281.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wason_selection_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wason_selection_task&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14142" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-11-03T06:49:13.400" LastActivityDate="2016-11-03T09:07:09.527" Title="What is the independent variable in the Wason 1968 experiment on the Wason Selection Task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16161" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16156" CreationDate="2016-11-02T11:59:16.740" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;If your experiment is preselecting and assigning participants non-randomly, such as using sex as the main factor to partition participant groups and responses, then yes it is quasi-experimental design. If the participant partitioning is random then this is not a quasi-experimental. However many studies may investigate sex differences as part of an exploratory analysis. You may investigate sex differences as a byproduct of a between-, within- or mixed-experimental designs to see if there are any sex differences influencing the data outside of the experimental manipulations. This does not make the design quasi, but is important to investigate because there are often differences between males and females in cognitive task performance e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://scottbarrykaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Kaufman-2007.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;working memory tasks&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899314013067&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neural activity&lt;/a&gt;. The examples I have given are easily found in papers on the areas I'm personally investigating at the moment (working memory) which are quasi-experimatal designs because sex was the main grouping factor, but differences can be found in a great many papers which were not looking at sex differences specifically.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially the quasi design basically just means non-random assignment, and is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1380192/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;useful in many study types&lt;/a&gt; not just for investigating sex differences. To summerise, quasi-design if preselected non-random assignment. Not quasi if used as part of exploratory analysis of a study using random group assignment to the experimental conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2017-01-10T15:16:34.883" LastActivityDate="2017-01-10T15:16:34.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16164" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16160" CreationDate="2016-11-03T09:07:09.527" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The paper uses rather dense language so I can understand why you might be confused. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The wikipedia page offers a good example of the Wason selection task:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You are shown a set of four cards placed on a table, each of which has&#xA;  a number on one side and a colored patch on the other side. The&#xA;  visible faces of the cards show 3, 8, red and brown. Which card(s)&#xA;  must you turn over in order to test the truth of the proposition that&#xA;  if a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is&#xA;  red?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wason designed the task to examine the human tendencies to make four kinds of inferences. Two valid inferences: modus ponens (if P implies Q &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; P is true, then Q is true), and modus tollens (if P implies Q &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; Q is false, then P is false). And also two invalid inferences: denial of the antecedent (if P implies Q &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; P is false, then Q is false), and affirmation of the consequent (if P implies Q &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; Q is true, then P is true). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both experiments in the Wason paper manipulate between an experimental and control condition &lt;strong&gt;the instructions and preparation given to participants before they perform the selection&lt;/strong&gt;. This manipulation defines the independent variables of the experiments that you're asking about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first experiment, subjects in the experimental group are prompted after trying the selection task to &quot;project falsity&quot;, or, in other ways, to say what values associated with P, not-P, Q, not-Q in the context of the selection test would make a conditional sentence &lt;em&gt;false&lt;/em&gt;. Subjects in the control group were &lt;em&gt;instead&lt;/em&gt; merely prompted to think again about their initial selections (ie revise them) &quot;because people often do this task too quickly and get it wrong&quot;. Since Wason investigated how these changes in instructions affected behavior, they are the experiment's independent variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can see from this quote here that something similar is going on in the second experiment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the experimental group the conditional sentence was presented and&#xA;  the four programme cards were handed to the subjects who were asked to&#xA;  pick out “the one card which makes the rule false” (i.e. falsifies the&#xA;  conditional sentence). They were then asked to pick out any which&#xA;  “prove the rule true.” It was explained to them that their decisions&#xA;  meant that the converse of the sentence could not be assumed-“that the&#xA;  rule only held one way.” The subjects in the control group were given&#xA;  a similar amount of time to understand the conditional sentence without any &#xA;  explanation of its meaning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The special manipulation in the instructions here is that experimental subjects 1) were told that only one card would make the conditional statement false, and 2) received some explanation that the converse of said conditional statement couldn't be assumed. So, they got extra information and Wason examined how it impacted their answers. That's the independent variable for the second experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3349" LastActivityDate="2016-11-03T09:07:09.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16165" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16139" CreationDate="2016-11-03T09:24:11.703" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_validity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_validity&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This wikipedia page seems be a good starting point for answering to your quesion, but as has been noted elsewhere, there's no neat, concise way to respond. Still, although classical models divided the concept into various &quot;validities&quot; (such as content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity), the currently dominant view is that validity is a single unitary construct. So the answer might be somewhat more unitary than other commenters claim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Guion, R. M. (1980). On trinitarian doctrines of validity. Professional Psychology, 11, 385-398. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50, 741-749.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3349" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-11-03T09:43:26.370" LastActivityDate="2016-11-03T09:43:26.370" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16166" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16157" CreationDate="2016-11-03T13:41:41.537" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There isn't a single, simple answer to this question. Instead, I would expect as many answers as there are theoretical foundations/schools within psychology. From a point of view grounded in Theory of Action I maintain: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Behaviorism&lt;/em&gt; posits that behavior is learned in response to both combinations of stimuli (Pavlov) and reinforcing stimuli (Skinner). The processes inside the individual are reduced to the concept of reaction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;cognitive turn&lt;/em&gt; opened the so-called &quot;black box&quot; of the subject, reasoning, feeling and so on. Scholars left the &quot;reliable terrain&quot; of directly observable attributes of behavior and gave birth to theories which aim to both describe and explain the invisible internal psychic processes. One subjectively important milestone is the work by Miller, Galanter and Pribram: The individual is an &lt;em&gt;actor&lt;/em&gt;. As such he/she doesn't just behave in reaction to external stimuli. He/she tests (plans) various alternative ways to act in a given situation within a cognitive representation of the environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One example for a &lt;em&gt;social turn&lt;/em&gt; in psychology is Social Cognitive Theory by A. Bandura. The actor does not just rationally plan the best way to reach a goal – he/she also reproduces the ways of acting experienced in the social system. Rationality is bounded by the norms of the social system. In other words, an actor acts in a particular way, even if it is dysfunctional, because it mirrors what significant others have done before. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: Literature about the cited works is readily available in both university libraries and the Internet. (Also: One of the textbooks by P. &#xA;G. Zimbardo et al.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastEditorDisplayName="user14074" LastEditDate="2017-04-11T21:03:03.687" LastActivityDate="2017-04-11T21:03:03.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16168" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-03T20:25:43.427" Score="1" ViewCount="4341" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is whether there exists a phenomenon in which a girl that had a bad relationship with a father (referring to a father that's too harsh, too cruel or that doesn't show love, and hates his daughter) implies that the girl will try to seek male attention and approval, when a &quot;normal&quot; individual would not, or a girl that seeks to be with &quot;bad boys&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in knowing if this has been researched and what is the name of this topic in cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I couldn't find any tag myself that fits for this question, I choosed any tag because I couldn't post, please change it if you can to something related to the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14042" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-29T15:04:46.800" LastActivityDate="2018-09-29T15:04:46.800" Title="What are &quot;daddy issues&quot;?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16170" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-03T23:45:16.213" Score="7" ViewCount="616" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible that the measured rise in average IQ in the last century is related to the discovery that drinking alcohol during pregnancy can result in birth defects, including issues with brain development?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has any work been done on this question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11212" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2017-03-15T04:42:06.020" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T13:28:38.910" Title="Is the Flynn effect related to the discovery of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16175" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-05T10:29:06.757" Score="6" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know from many studies (see e.g. &lt;strong&gt;Taylor, 2009&lt;/strong&gt; for an empirical and experiential overview) that  processing of information is massively heterogeneous with respect to hemisphere. How does this lateral effect show up in processing of basic somatosensory information? Do we fundamentally experience our left and right sides of our body differently? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some evidence points to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/12818/14176&quot;&gt;emotional lateralization&lt;/a&gt; in the brain. If the answer to the last question above is &quot;yes&quot;, how are the two related?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taylor, Jill Bolte. My stroke of insight. Hachette UK, 2009.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14176" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-12-08T20:31:29.720" Title="Difference in hemispheres when processing of somatosensory information" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16176" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-05T15:03:26.877" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a scenario where people are receiving a massive value of not getting sick and dying in a relatively long period but not valuing it as much as short term solutions that make them feel better within shorter period with added risks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Percieved as more valueable&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cAL5Z.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cAL5Z.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Percieved as less valueable&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UESAb.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UESAb.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To simplify magine getting 10 euros every day and 300 once a month. I have observed people perceive latter as more valuable and choosing that option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I have to write a document providing scientific basic or at least some 3rd party source confirming said assumption. I think this is related to cognitive biases and delayed gratification perception but I don't actually know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How to find scientific or credible sources supporting or exploring section of applied psychology related to subjective perception of value overtime and size of received value in instance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On related note whats the maximum duration in which people atribute value to an action and where can I find proof for it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; Gaining money was a poor analogy. Its stopping damage/loss from ocuring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14177" LastEditorUserId="14177" LastEditDate="2016-11-11T15:43:51.407" LastActivityDate="2016-11-11T15:43:51.407" Title="What bias is responsible for people perceiving immediate and sudden value over long time value delivery as more?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16178" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-06T17:15:39.537" Score="3" ViewCount="342" Body="&lt;p&gt;In theory, improving business performance by improving engagement makes sense. Yet surveys suggest that since 1991, the workforce is about 30% engaged, 40% disengaged and the remaining 30% actively disengaged, as widely reported by Gallup. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gallup.com/services/178517/state-global-workplace.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.gallup.com/services/178517/state-global-workplace.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Billions are being spent for no result, despite the considerable benefits the engaged enjoy, and the disbenefits suffered by the others. It seems that engaged people are so both at home and work, likewise the disengaged. Neither group seem able to turn it on or off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the failure to improve aggregate employee engagement levels suggest that the concept of employee engagement is flawed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14182" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-11-11T05:10:08.800" LastActivityDate="2017-06-26T16:49:48.840" Title="Is the concept of &quot;employee engagement&quot; flawed?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16179" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12525" CreationDate="2016-11-06T21:01:59.547" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From a practical perspective, if you had to bet the farm, I'd put it the need to feel acknowledged and understood. But it's not that easy. Socrates spent his life interacting with random strangers in pursuit of knowledge and the truth. As you know, this was one of the origins of the scientific method.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have forgotten that when we meet people, the first law of communication is: In order to be understood, first we must understand. The one thing you can give anyone, and that they crave, is your undivided attention.'Twas ever thus, but particularly in recent years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We want to be listened to, to tell our story, and for the exchange to be about us. It's worth remembering that in a social interaction, one party can choose to change the nature and outcome and make it far more meaningful, if they choose to do so, simply by letting the other person talk or giving them the opportunity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other primate species, social grooming takes place more naturally. If I'm not having my fur cleaned, I'll go and clean someone else's, in the knowledge that sooner or later, someone will clean mine. In our species, we tend to wait for our needs to be met before we may or may not reciprocate, even if it means waiting a long,long time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's probably wrong to think of any specific emotions we illicit in this context, since it's the other party who we hope to benefit primarily. The actions we take will determine to a large extent what comes back, and we can make of that whatever we choose. Socrates had a good point when he just waylaid people in the street. I doubt social isolation was ever an issue for him, because he was prepared to take the first step.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'm sorry if this answer isn't an academic tour do force, but since I couldn't comment.... And in any case, you aren't overburdened by replies!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14182" LastActivityDate="2016-11-06T21:01:59.547" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16180" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-06T21:34:25.453" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;DSM-V defines compulsions (as part of OCD) and then adds a bunch of qualifications.  I wonder if we can define compulsions in a more objective way.  Compulsions are repetitive behavior/thoughts intended to reduce distress and/or prevent a potentially serious situation.  In this way they are different from other repetitive behavior, for instance, in autistic disorders.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this definition alone does not seem to be enough to distinguish compulsions from socially sanctioned and justified rituals and activities, be it praying for hours, working 16 hours a day, or whatever.  In addition, when we talk about compulsive gambling, shopping, gaming, TV watching, studying, eating, whatever, about people feeling &quot;compelled&quot; to do things in a certain rather rigid and repetitive way, how are we defining compulsions?  Is it about reduced wilfulness (as in addictive behavior)?  Is it about how irrational the behavior is (though it's hard to decide logically how we should live our life, as even philosophers can differ on this point)?  And so on.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13841" LastActivityDate="2016-11-08T09:05:20.127" Title="Can compulsions be defined in a way that is independent of obsessions, culture, etc?" Tags="&lt;compulsive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16182" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-07T02:37:50.280" Score="2" ViewCount="544" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, I have been wondering why boys are so attracted to war and war-specific video games.  Perhaps it is improper of me to assume that this obsession only applies to boys, but for the most part I have only experienced it amongst males.  I, myself, have noticed a personal attraction to the idea of war, but have never understood why it so appeals to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychology behind all this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is it a correct assumption to say that boys who play violent video games are becoming desensitized?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14186" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2020-09-02T06:34:28.387" LastActivityDate="2020-09-02T06:34:28.387" Title="Boys and the obsession with war" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;military-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2016-11-09T13:23:53.890" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16185" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10465" CreationDate="2016-11-07T09:07:32.803" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll try and answer this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An astroglial calcium wave is the phenomena in which astrocytes express a variety of ion channels and membrane receptors, which enable them to respond on a millisecond time scale to neuronal activity with changes in membrane potential and/or increases in intracellular Ca2+ levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Astrocytes were not only able to respond to external stimulation with increases in intracellular calcium elevations but, most importantly, they were be able to transmit these calcium signals to adjacent non-stimulated astrocytes, as intercellular Ca2+ waves (ICWs). The presence of such phenomenon of propagating waves of calcium lead to the proposition that “networks of astrocytes constitute an extraneuronal pathway for rapid long-distance signal transmission within the CNS.” &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are they solitons? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No as they are followed by similar events and a soliton is neither preceded nor followed by another such disturbance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A calcium wave is defined as a localized increase in cytosolic Ca2+&#xA;  that is followed by a succession of similar events in a wave-like&#xA;  fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do they propagate intercellularly? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think so yes or if not propagate then communicate -&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;They were be able to transmit these calcium signals to adjacent&#xA;  non-stimulated astrocytes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are they independent of neuronal input? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is a reciprocal communication between neurons and astrocytes.&#xA;  Hippocampal neuronal activity was shown to trigger calcium waves in&#xA;  astrocyte networks (Dani et al., 1992) and astrocyte calcium waves&#xA;  were shown to modulate neuronal activity (Dani et al., 1992; Kang et&#xA;  al., 1998; Nedergaard, 1994; Parpura et al., 1994; Parri et al.,&#xA;  2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the astroglial mesh be viewed as an astroglial field (obviously more speculative)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This one I couldn't find any discussion on - nor could I form a conclusion on other than I suppose it could?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2605018/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scemes, E., &amp;amp; Giaume, C. (2006). Astrocyte calcium waves: what they are and what they do. Glia, 54(7), 716-725.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2016-11-07T09:07:32.803" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16186" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8629" CreationDate="2016-11-07T09:33:33.817" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Loss of consciousness is usually caused by a lack of oxygen to the brain - in the case of injury it could be directly cause by the injury or it may be because they are shocked or scared - this is called vasovagal syncope. Basically, severe emotional stress leads to a burst of activity in particular nerves that lead to reduced heart rate and dilation of vessels throughout the body, reducing blood pressure suddenly. The effect is temporarily reduced blood flow to the brain, which causes temporary loss of consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasovagal_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;Wiki&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-11-08T16:53:04.057" LastActivityDate="2016-11-08T16:53:04.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16188" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-07T17:19:19.397" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am doing research on the mega-projects (e.g. roads, buildings, airports, rail projects, bridges and etc). Specifically, I am trying to see what kind of psychological effects mega-projects may have on the citizens? What do citizens think of them? What are their perceptions? What psychological impact it may have on citizens (particularly of developing countries)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there research studies that I can consult?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11220" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-11-08T02:16:47.417" LastActivityDate="2016-11-08T02:16:47.417" Title="Psychological effects of mega-projects on citizens" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-11-09T13:17:30.720" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16193" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16178" CreationDate="2016-11-08T02:04:49.947" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few points:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cut-offs are somewhat arbitrary. Engagement is typically measured using a mulit-item scale. It will generate a scaled response. E.g., there might be 10 items each measured on a 1 to 5 scale. Presumably, Gallup adopts an approach of carving up that scale into categories of engagement. I think they use 12 items from the Gallup Q12; they might be the items listed in Harter et al (2002). Anyway, the main point is that employees will get a score from 1 to 5. If an employee gets a mean of 3.9 on a 1 to 5 scale do we say that they are engaged or neither engaged nor disengaged. If you define 3 as the cutoff for being engaged, then more workers will appear engaged than if you make 4 the cutoff. &#xA;I'm not saying that the cutoff is completely arbitrary. Presumably you could ask managers about what set of responses imply engagement. I had a read of some Gallup material (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gallup.com/services/178514/state-american-workplace.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) and I could not find a specification of how these categories are operationalised other than they were based on the 12 items. My main point is that a consulting company could readily choose cutoffs to present a more positive or pessimistic picture of engagement in the workplace if they were so motivated. Furthermore, the choice of items will also influence the means you obtain. If you choose more extreme items, then you'll get lower means (e.g., mean agreement will be lower on items like &quot;I absolutely love my work&quot; than on &quot;I like my job&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Self-report measures of engagement correlate extremely highly with job satisfaction. Thus, the entire literature about job satisfaction is relevant. I agree that the construct of engagement has greater linkages with motivation and commitment. However, the survey responses you get pick up on largely the same variance as obtained when measuring job satisfaction. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Job satisfaction is influenced by personality (Judge et al 2002). So there is a degree of stability that is driven by underlying individual differences. That said, just because group-level means may have remained stable over the years, individuals will change over time in their job satisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Job satisfaction is related to expectations, and expectations can change over time (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory&lt;/a&gt;). So for example, if workplaces implement flexible work practices or other initiatives to increase motivation and engagement, then this will be begin to form an expectation. And the absence of these expectations will lead to lower satisfaction. A parallel line of research examining life satisfaction often shows that mean life satisfaction is often around 7.5 out of 10 and that it does not change much over the years as economic conditions have improved. The idea is that there is a homeostatic process related to expectation management and so on that leads to fairly stable scores (Cummins et al 2003). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite all of the above, organisations should still invest in increasing the motivation, satisfaction, and commitment of their staff. Employee opinion surveys also serve a range of useful purposes for organisations. In particular, the provide a more data-driven approach to tracking and understanding the satisfaction-levels of their workplace. Furthermore, there are a range of interventions and strategies that are important for managing engagement, which in turn should influence productivity and retention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., &amp;amp; Hayes, T. L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: a meta-analysis. Journal of applied psychology, 87(2), 268.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cummins, R. A., Eckersley, R., Pallant, J., Van Vugt, J., &amp;amp; Misajon, R. (2003). Developing a national index of subjective wellbeing: The Australian Unity Wellbeing Index. Social indicators research, 64(2), 159-190.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Judge, T. A., Heller, D., &amp;amp; Mount, M. K. (2002). Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: a meta-analysis. Journal of applied psychology, 87(3), 530.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-11-08T02:18:06.383" LastActivityDate="2016-11-08T02:18:06.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16194" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16180" CreationDate="2016-11-08T09:05:20.127" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) includes a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/Obsessive%2520Compulsive%2520Disorders%2520Fact%2520Sheet.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;new chapter on Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders&lt;/a&gt; to reflect the increasing evidence of these disorders’ relatedness to one another and distinction from other anxiety disorders, as well as to help clinicians better identify and treat individuals suffering from these disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are right that compulsions are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;repetitive behavior/thoughts intended to reduce distress and/or&#xA;  prevent a potentially serious situation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and this definition &lt;strong&gt;can&lt;/strong&gt; be used for compulsive behaviour which does not pose a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this chapter the DSM is talking about disorders which in turn means we are talking about unjustified or socially unacceptable behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-11-08T09:05:20.127" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16198" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8629" CreationDate="2016-11-08T18:58:41.160" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a powerful theoretical consideration that a loss of consciousness is an internal protective mechanism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the loss of consciousness is a significant threat in a hostile external environment, it is only when the nervous system itself is severely threatened internally that consciousness becomes compromised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, loss of consciousness can be protective in the face of physical and emotional trauma, against shock and by inducing the 'ragdoll' effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=86KyIsdi8D8C&amp;amp;pg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Toward a Science of Consciousness: The First Tucson Discussions ..., Volume 1 By Stuart R. Hameroff, Alfred W. Kaszniak&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7901" LastActivityDate="2016-11-08T18:58:41.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16200" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16175" CreationDate="2016-11-08T19:46:00.890" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given how dynamic the interplay of systems involved in creating one’s experience of somatosensory perception is, as well as the rich neurobiological of individuals, I would say the answer to your question depends on the ‘we’ in question, as well as what might constitute a discernable difference in experience across the two sides of the body. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, when it comes to our experience of our somatosensory perception we have a few key players (notably the thalamus and corpus callosum) who help integrate laterialized processing in advance of rendering to our consciousness the feeling of a unified somatic whole. If those players are compromised, their ability to stitch together the output of laterialized processing is also compromised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suggest checking out Coghill et all 2001 for an overview of the literature, as well as the literature on corpus callosum lesions, thalamic lesions, and case studies from  Dejerine–Roussy syndrome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;RESOURCES&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overview of &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter04.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Somatosensory pathways&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11387404&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hemispheric lateralization of somatosensory processing&lt;/a&gt; (Coghill, Gilron and Iadarola 2001) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627315004134&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Top-Down Cortical Circuit for Accurate Sensory Perception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627305000735&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cortical Function: A View from the Thalamus&lt;/a&gt; (Basso, Uhlrich, and Bickford 2005) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3164038/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Somatosensory processing in neurodevelopmental disorders&lt;/a&gt; (Carissa J. Cascioco 2010) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13106" LastActivityDate="2016-11-08T19:46:00.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16203" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-09T17:59:49.263" Score="3" ViewCount="709" Body="&lt;p&gt;Raven's Progressive Matrices: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is a nonverbal group test typically used in educational settings. It is usually a 60-item test used in measuring abstract reasoning and regarded as a non-verbal estimate of fluid intelligence. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where can one find adult norms for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Raven's progressive matrices&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, how can I find the percentile for a raw score of 56 out of 60 for a 36 year old caucasian male?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14207" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-11-10T04:55:27.827" LastActivityDate="2016-11-10T04:55:27.827" Title="How to obtain adult norms for Raven's progressive matrices?" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16204" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16218" CreationDate="2016-11-09T21:13:50.243" Score="3" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Every time I got aware of something I could do well, it got a little bit worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I could immitate a lot of accents or people, but when I thought about it &quot;Hey, I am very good at immitating something&quot;, I couldn't do it that well anymore. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I could sing a tone nearly the same it was played to me, but when I thought about it ( that I could do it well ), I couldn't do it that well anymore.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I was able to have a good conversation with nearly everyone, but when I thought about it, that I am good at it, ......&#xA;and so on....&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that I wasn't thinking I could do those better than I could in reality! ( because than it would be logically why it seemed to me that it got worse )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And when I wasn't thinking, that I am good at for example immitating, I was able to do it that well again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: Why does this happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean, either I am good at it or not right? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13289" LastActivityDate="2016-11-11T06:45:34.020" Title="When I got aware of some ability, I couldn't do it that well anymore" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-11-14T11:25:41.120" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16206" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18232" CreationDate="2016-11-10T02:43:44.517" Score="6" ViewCount="3118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to measure galvanic skin response in real-time with a wrist-wearable device, similar to what is being done in the paper &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rd.springer.com/article/10.1155/S1110865704406192&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Using Noninvasive Wearable Computers to Recognize Human Emotions from Physiological Signals&lt;/a&gt;&quot; which is used the, now discontinued, BodyMedia SenseWear. What solutions exist for this problem? From my preliminary research, I have found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Microsoft Band (&lt;a href=&quot;https://developer.microsoftband.com/bandSDK&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;no longer supported&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Empatica &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.empatica.com/e4-wristband&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;E4&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.empatica.com/product-embrace&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Embrace&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://imotions.com/gsr/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;iMotion GSR&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jawbone UP3 (according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://jawbone.com/blog/up3-wearable-heart-rate-monitor/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this blog post&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there other solutions that I've missed? How does one compare the accuracy of these various solutions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-01-20T10:56:47.993" LastActivityDate="2017-10-06T14:35:54.717" Title="How to measure galvanic skin response with wearables?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16207" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16203" CreationDate="2016-11-10T04:54:49.653" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You would need to obtain a copy of the test manual. It includes norm tables for different groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you Google it you might be able to find out &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/search?q=raven+manual+standard+progressive+matrices&amp;amp;oq=raven+manual+standard+progressive+matrices&amp;amp;gs_l=serp.3..35i39k1j0i22i30k1l3.2212.2212.0.2970.1.1.0.0.0.0.208.208.2-1.1.0....0...1.1.64.serp..0.1.208.O-lWxkEDWQ0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;where to purchase a copy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Equally, many psychology departments have test libraries and they are likely to have a copy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also possible that some journal articles that have used Raven's could provide a rougher approximation to actual test norms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2016-11-10T04:54:49.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16211" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16206" CreationDate="2016-11-10T07:29:02.457" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A system that I am currently testing is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.movisens.com/en/products/eda-sensor/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MoviSens EdaMove&lt;/a&gt;. The system consists of a small device that can be attached to the arm, and two electrodes to measures EDA at the palms of your hand. The EdaMove uses the exosomatic method, by applying a 0.5V direct current, and samples with 32 Hz. An accelerometer is also included in the sensor, so that you can correct the EDA recordings for movement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far, the recordings are pretty good, but I haven't done any formal testing yet. Usability-wise, it may not be the best solution, since it is somewhat more intrusive than a wristband/watch. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt; This is the fun part. Skin conductance is a measure of skin sweatiness. Unfortunately, the stickers that attach the sensors to the skin (similar to how ECG/EEG-reference sensors are attached) let loose when the hands start to sweat. This is even more so with many movements. For tasks that require much manual work or fine hand-movements, the EdaMove may not be the best sensor. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the E4, I know that performance is not perfect, but it is okay. Benefit is that the E4 also includes an PPG sensor and accelerometer. Moreover, the E4 allows you to monitor the recordings in real time with their Android/iPhone app. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two major issues though with the E4. 1: It needs a good connection with the skin. If not, you could rather easily have missing data (especially so for the HRV sensor). The sensor should thus fit rather tightly. 2: Empatica applies some filtering of the data before you can extract it. It is not clear, however, to what extent it is being filtered. &lt;em&gt;NB. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://support.empatica.com/hc/en-us/articles/201608896-Can-my-data-be-exported-How-is-the-data-formatted-for-export-&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;website&lt;/a&gt; states that raw-data is provided. Only the interbeat intervals (IBI), an HRV metric appears to be filtered.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-08-15T06:50:48.130" LastActivityDate="2017-08-15T06:50:48.130" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16212" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-10T10:22:21.160" Score="2" ViewCount="215" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://reliability.com/industry/pdf/Skills-rules-knowledge-Rasmussen-seg.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rasmussen (1983)&lt;/a&gt; argued that with expertise, task are performed in different ways. He made a distinction between Rule- (least experience), Knowledge- and Skill-based behavior (most experience). The idea is that with training, less deliberate thought is necessary to perform a particular type of task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another factor that may play a role in task-performance is executive functioning, such as planning and cognitive control, i.e. the ability to focus on a task or switch tasks, either pro-actively or re-actively (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3289517/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Braver, 2012&lt;/a&gt;). I've heard that with expertise, executive functions improve. However, I cannot find a reference to support this. &lt;strong&gt;Is there any literature that may support this statement?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3289517/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Braver, T. S. (2012). The variable nature of cognitive control: a dual mechanisms framework. Trends in cognitive sciences, 16(2), 106-113.&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://reliability.com/industry/pdf/Skills-rules-knowledge-Rasmussen-seg.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rasmussen, J. (1983). Skills, rules, and knowledge; signals, signs, and symbols, and other distinctions in human performance models. IEEE transactions on systems, man, and cybernetics, (3), 257-266.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-11-10T10:40:11.523" LastActivityDate="2016-11-11T15:59:45.103" Title="The effect of learning/expertise on cognitive control" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16213" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16212" CreationDate="2016-11-10T13:01:00.223" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll update this answer as I come across more papers, but here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alves, H., Voss, M. W., Boot, W. R., Deslandes, A., Cossich, V., Salles, J. I., &amp;amp; Kramer, A. F. (2013). Perceptual-Cognitive Expertise in Elite Volleyball Players. Frontiers in Psychology Front. Psychol., 4. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00036&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The goal of the current study was to investigate the relationship&#xA;  between sport expertise and perceptual and cognitive skills, as&#xA;  measured by the component skills approach. We hypothesized that&#xA;  athletes would outperform non-athlete controls in a number of&#xA;  perceptual and cognitive domains and that sport expertise would&#xA;  minimize gender differences. A total of 154 individuals (87&#xA;  professional volleyball players and 67 non-athlete controls)&#xA;  participated in the study. Participants performed a cognitive battery,&#xA;  which included tests of executive control, memory, and visuo-spatial&#xA;  attention. &lt;strong&gt;Athletes showed superior performance speed on three tasks&#xA;  (two executive control tasks and one visuo-spatial attentional&#xA;  processing task).&lt;/strong&gt; In a subset of tasks, gender effects were observed&#xA;  mainly in the control group, supporting the notion that athletic&#xA;  experience can reduce traditional gender effects. The expertise&#xA;  effects obtained substantiate the view that laboratory tests of&#xA;  cognition may indeed enlighten the sport-cognition relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It isn't a precise confirmation of the statement; after all, it only finds a relationship between cognitive control and expertise &lt;em&gt;in a particular domain&lt;/em&gt;. But it definitely supports the statement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article here: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Voss, M. W., Kramer, A. F., Basak, C., Prakash, R. S., &amp;amp; Roberts, B. (2009). Are expert athletes ‘expert’ in the cognitive laboratory? A meta-analytic review of cognition and sport expertise. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(6), 812-826. doi:10.1002/acp.1588&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;performs a whole meta-analysis on athlete expertise and cognitive performance and offers a lot of results confirming increased attentional performance, but specifically states (in the year 2009!):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;we found no studies that have examined classic executive function&#xA;  measures such as task-switching, dual task performance, or inhibition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article found &lt;a href=&quot;http://princeton.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?bookMark=ePnHCXMwjV3LagMxDDQ5tQn9heJ7s7DR-nkLhJZ-QHs2m0Qme1kCcaGfX429LT300Lsk2AeyBs2M1-phBDd7LlXDdVaNPdM4VZXBW-HaYp4J62q3EkwUBMxY4-UfhRgodj1FuvveBshM39-rPb6b9HNdve9xVbEWsK2vy_PoPBV0B83zBS9MN2GAnubLdKz0p416f3l-O7x2yzUD3Qn4pos-5zx4BvjIgxv5TNyfKFuODu5pYcfSxK0TZADnmCAzQDDM3hyH0Zkd00Y9tbq_T650bW4R2O5SNBZHLQYoiQ7_jz4sRt0QqBdJfWypUKx83H6SLDa00aH29s8ASjdKffKwYpHqMpKk8lnoC_EkfQc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fencing experience and physical fitness facilitate a person's ability&#xA;  to withhold action when necessary. The interactive nature of aerobic&#xA;  fitness and sport expertise on action inhibition suggests that&#xA;  cognitive control benefits most from the combination of physical and&#xA;  mental training compared to when each is administered singly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and I think I'm bored now! Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3349" LastActivityDate="2016-11-10T13:01:00.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16214" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16168" CreationDate="2016-11-10T13:10:33.290" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's a thesis on the effects of &quot;daddy issues&quot; on women's later relationships. Its content and its citations may be enough to satisfy your interest. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jackson, L. M. (2010). Where's my daddy: Effects of fatherlessness on women's relational communication (Order No. 1477319). Available from ProQuest Dissertations &amp;amp; Theses Global. (577596068). Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://search.proquest.com/docview/577596068?accountid=13314&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://search.proquest.com/docview/577596068?accountid=13314&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The purpose of this thesis research was to understand the relationship&#xA;  between father absence and women’s communication styles in romantic&#xA;  heterosexual relationships under social cognitive theory. Two studies&#xA;  were conducted using a multi-method research approach in order to&#xA;  triangulate the results. Seven fatherless women were interviewed to&#xA;  arrive at a better understanding of how father absence informed their&#xA;  romantic relational experiences. Specifically, the topics of&#xA;  relationship roles, self-disclosure, expression, and self-silencing in&#xA;  romantic relationships were examined in the interviews. Participants&#xA;  reflected on what growing up fatherless meant to them and whether or&#xA;  not this had any influence on the role they played (dominant,&#xA;  submissive, egalitarian), and how open or closed they were in their&#xA;  romantic relationships (from their own perspective). Open&#xA;  communication refers to whether or not individuals express their&#xA;  thoughts, feelings and needs as well as how often they express these&#xA;  thoughts to their partners. Questions were also asked to determine&#xA;  whether these women self-disclosed intimate details to their romantic&#xA;  partners or self-silenced themselves. An online quantitative survey&#xA;  (N=131) examined similar research questions and tested predictions&#xA;  based on the results of the first qualitative study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results from the interviews indicated that fatherless women&#xA;  consider themselves to be open, able to easily express themselves,&#xA;  independent and even dominant in their romantic relationships; yet&#xA;  despite holding these characteristics, these women remained in&#xA;  dysfunctional relationships for long periods of time. Further, when&#xA;  self-silencing did occur, it was because they did not want to not&#xA;  “push” their significant others away. There was also a tension between&#xA;  wanting to hold a dominant role in their romantic relationships and&#xA;  also being attracted to men who hold stereotypical male gender roles.&#xA;  Hence, there was a tension with agreeing or disagreeing with these&#xA;  socially constructed gender roles. In the second study, women who grew&#xA;  up fatherless had a significantly less happy childhood upbringing than&#xA;  those who had fathers. Also, in line with the results from the first&#xA;  study, fatherless women tended towards higher scores on&#xA;  self-disclosure, greater ease of expression, and lower scores on&#xA;  self-silencing. Significant associations were found between negative&#xA;  relationship with father and relational self-esteem, overall&#xA;  self-disclosure and overall self-silencing in romantic relationships.&#xA;  The respondents who had negative relationships with their fathers&#xA;  self-disclosed less in their romantic relationships and self-silenced&#xA;  more, hid their feelings more, and privileged their romantic partners&#xA;  in communication interactions. Taken together, findings from this&#xA;  triangulated study add to the nascent body of work examining and&#xA;  explaining the deleterious fallout from father absence on women’s&#xA;  communication and other variables in their romantic relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3349" LastActivityDate="2016-11-10T13:10:33.290" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16204" CreationDate="2016-11-11T06:45:34.020" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It makes sense that you should either be good at something or not, but in fact our abilities vary a lot under different conditions. &#xA;It sounds like what you are experiencing is loss of automaticity. There are things we do best without the interference of the conscious mind, like playing sports or driving or any skill that we have practiced a lot of times. When we pay attention to what we are doing, we may not be able to do the action as quickly or as well.&#xA;It might also have something to do with &quot;choking&quot; under pressure to do things well. There was no pressure before you decided you are good at it, then it became harder to do it well after that.&#xA;There's an older paper that explores these ideas. Shiffrin, R.M., &amp;amp; Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing. II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84(2), 127-190.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14212" LastActivityDate="2016-11-11T06:45:34.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16219" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-11T10:34:43.917" Score="4" ViewCount="549" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have done several searches without finding any papers addressing this question..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know if there is any evidence to suggest that the strength of the simultaneous contrast illusion (or any similar effect) is affected by the length of time that a person looks at the display.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, are people more likely to report a contrast effect / perceive the effect more strongly (as in perceive a bigger difference between targets) if they stare at the display for a few seconds as opposed to seeing a much more brief presentation of the display? Or vice versa?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're aware of any literature or a good starting point for this, I'd be grateful if you can point me in the right direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Equally, is there any literature addressing a similar question for different types of illusory effects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9853" LastActivityDate="2016-11-29T08:56:08.397" Title="Does the strength of the simultaneous contrast illusion vary with the length of time it is viewed?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16220" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16219" CreationDate="2016-11-11T11:53:08.903" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm still not 100% with this answer but this is what I've got:&#xA;Research into time effect on illusion is sparce, but from what i have found I think it depends on the type of illusion. I found a paper by McCauley and Henrich which discusses the way in which illusions are processed - diachronic being over time and synchronic being instantly. They have used Müller-Lyer illusion as an example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Diachronic penetration contrasts with the synchronic penetration of&#xA;  those input systems. Because subjects either (a) acquire some explicit&#xA;  theory (that has implications for their demonstratively illusory&#xA;  experience with some stimulus),6 or (b) gain wider perceptual&#xA;  experience including, possibly, wider experience with the&#xA;  illusion-inducing stimulus and, presumably, thereby obtain a new&#xA;  implicit conception of it,7 or (c) both, they would, in the case of&#xA;  synchronic penetration, instantly or at least very quickly cease to&#xA;  experience the illusion or, at any rate, experience a mitigated&#xA;  version of the illusion—e.g., the perceived disparity between the&#xA;  lines in the Müller-Lyer illusion (below) would measurably decrease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gazki.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gazki.png&quot; alt=&quot;Müller-Lyer illusion&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the Müller-Lyer illusion is a persistent illusion, Fodor (1983) also cites the Ames room and the phi phenomenom (perceiving a series of still images, when viewed in rapid succession, as continuous motion) as persistent illusions. It appears that the simultaneous contrast illusion is a persistent illusions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The simultaneous contrast illusion is induced by the distribution of the peripheral gray values which indeed show a continuous shift of gray levels, although in a reverse direction. The phenomenon of simultaneous contrast helps us to make the contrast clearer; helping us to identify figure-ground relations more easily, more quickly and more securely (Carbon, 2014). Visual processing is very fast, it generally starts at about 75-80 ms (Vanrullen &amp;amp; Thorpe, 2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yIP7N.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yIP7N.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Simultaneous contrast&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some illusions that once they are 'figured out' wont work again (such as change blindness).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Qf0Bo.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Qf0Bo.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;The Ames room&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some illuisons require sematic knowledge to fill in the gaps for example the illusion below. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What we will perceive at first glance is mainly guided through the&#xA;  specific activation of our semantic network. If we have been exposed&#xA;  to a picture of a man before, or if we think of a man or have heard&#xA;  the word “man”, the chance is strongly increased that our perceptual&#xA;  system interprets the ambiguous pattern towards a depiction of a&#xA;  man—if the prior experiences were more associated with a rat, a mouse&#xA;  or another animal of such a kind, we will, in contrast, tend to&#xA;  interpret the ambiguous pattern more as a rat (Carbon, 2014).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XfBsO.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XfBsO.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Man-rat illusion&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At first glance you perceive the illusion as one thing but you may go onto to perceive both things. This would require more time -  and this would be the illusion changing over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I've concluded about the simultaneous contrast illusion and others like it is that perception of them is two things - fast and persistant. What I've drawn from this is that they don't change over time, and that not many researchers are interested in whether or not they change over time, possibly due to coming to the same conclusion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/32159838/12_McCauley-TheDiachronicPenetrabilityOfTheVisualInputSystem.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ56TQJRTWSMTNPEA&amp;amp;Expires=1478865966&amp;amp;Signature=blDJU%2F6CmtMBuGDA9oqNecQ4Ops%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DSusceptibility_to_the_Mu_ller-Lyer_Illus.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McCauley, R. N., &amp;amp; Henrich, J. (2006). Susceptibility to the Müller-Lyer illusion, theory-neutral observation, and the diachronic penetrability of the visual input system. Philosophical Psychology, 19(1), 79-101.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00566/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carbon, C. C. (2014). Understanding human perception by human-made illusions. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 8, 566.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://sites.oxy.edu/clint/physio/article/Thetimecourseofvisualprocessing.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vanrullen, R., &amp;amp; Thorpe, S. J. (2001). The time course of visual processing: from early perception to decision-making. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 13(4), 454-461.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2016-11-16T09:48:56.633" LastActivityDate="2016-11-16T09:48:56.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16224" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16229" CreationDate="2016-11-12T16:52:29.880" Score="-1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;...with computer models?&#xA;( hacking the executive functions of something &lt;a href=&quot;http://singularityhub.com/2016/11/01/googles-impressive-new-deep-learning-ai-now-has-a-memory/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;like this&lt;/a&gt;, for making the algorithm more &lt;em&gt;&quot;impulsive&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, or &lt;em&gt;&quot;inattentive&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...with animal models?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;( using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneously_hypertensive_rat#SHR_and_coping&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;SHR rat-like&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, animals with higher intellect, and more sociability. (&lt;em&gt;apropos, the similarity is superficial only for me?&lt;/em&gt; )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8291" LastEditorUserId="8291" LastEditDate="2016-11-12T17:49:30.543" LastActivityDate="2016-11-13T11:55:18.787" Title="Best way to modeling ADHD?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-11-14T21:33:56.623" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16226" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16168" CreationDate="2016-11-12T18:53:38.463" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Daddy issues&quot; is not a well-defined term, however, the extrapolation of attachment style theory answers to this question somewhat. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_in_adults#Relationship_outcomes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Relationship outcomes of different attachment styles&quot;&gt;Relationship outcomes of different attachment styles&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(this is not clearly cognitive science, and more precisely &quot;family issues&quot; instead of &quot;daddy issues&quot;)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4382/classification-of-attachment-styles/4554&quot;&gt;Stack Overflow thread about the topic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(I'm new here, and amazed how well written are the answers :O )&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/q3ibf.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/q3ibf.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8291" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-11-12T18:53:38.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16228" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="325" CreationDate="2016-11-12T23:21:23.257" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Note: There are different kinds of confidence ratings (eg, confidence in skill or ability, confidence in knowledge or expertise, etc).  This answer only addresses the question as asked, regarding confidence in memory or familiarity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_fluency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Processing fluency&lt;/a&gt; - sometimes referred to as &quot;cognitive fluency&quot;, &quot;cognitive ease&quot;, or just &quot;fluency&quot; - is a mechanism proposed to underlie confidence ratings about familiarity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... perceptual fluency can contribute to the experience of familiarity&#xA;  when fluent processing is attributed to the past. ... Jacoby and&#xA;  Dallas in 1981 argued that items from past experience are processed&#xA;  more fluently. ... people sometimes take fluency as an indication that&#xA;  a stimulus is familiar even though the sense of familiarity is&#xA;  false. Perceptual fluency literature has been dominated with&#xA;  research that posits that fluency leads to familiarity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Processing fluency, as investigated by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/?&amp;amp;fa=main.doiLanding&amp;amp;doi=10.1037/a0013025&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hertwig et al (2008)&lt;/a&gt;, refers to latency - ie, the speed with which processing occurs.  They demonstrate that the human mind is able to discriminate retrieval (response) latencies with great accuracy (down to 100ms), and these latencies correlate strongly with recognition confidence ratings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cebFWOlx848&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-11-14T17:54:06.627" LastActivityDate="2016-11-14T17:54:06.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16229" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16224" CreationDate="2016-11-13T11:55:18.787" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The approach you would take will depend upon your level of analysis. For instance, one could choose to model an entire individual's behaviour (i.e. with heuristic models), the activity of neural circuits, the activity of a subset of neural populations, etc. By your question including traits such as &quot;impulsivity,&quot; I will assume that you are looking to model an individual's behaviour. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would suggest starting by using reinforcement learning models, where there exist parameters that can be directly interpreted as behavioural traits. For instance, in the following SARSA rule,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$&#xA;\mathcal{Q}_t(s_t, a_t; \alpha, \gamma) = \mathcal{Q}_{t-1}(s_t, a_t) + \alpha \Big( r_t + \gamma \mathcal{Q}_{t-1}(s_{t+1}, a_{t+1})-\mathcal{Q}_{t-1}(s_t, a_t) \Big),&#xA;$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the $\gamma$ parameter --- where $0 \leq \gamma \leq 1$ --- is representative of delay discounting, which is related but not equivalent to impulsivity. Note that I have omitted $\lbrace \alpha, \gamma \rbrace$ from the $\mathcal{Q}$ expressions on the right hand side for notational simplicity. Another potentially related measure of impulsivity could be the inverse softmax temperature $\beta$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$&#xA;P(a_t | \mathcal{Q}_t(s_t, a_t; \alpha, \gamma), \beta) = \frac{e^{\beta \mathcal{Q}_t(s_t, a_t; \alpha, \gamma)}}{\sum_{a' \in \mathcal{A}}e^{\beta \mathcal{Q}_t(s_t, a'; \alpha, \gamma)} },&#xA;$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where $\mathcal{A}$ is the space of all possible actions. The inverse softmax temperature can be thought of as a measure of &quot;decision randomness.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above were just some small points that might get you started. I can think of a few other ways to approach the problem (indeed there are some other necessary considerations), but won't outline them here to keep the answer parsimonious. Notwithstanding, I think you might be interested in the following paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hauser, T. U., Fiore, V. G., Moutoussis, M., &amp;amp; Dolan, R. J. (2016). Computational Psychiatry of ADHD: Neural Gain Impairments across Marrian Levels of Analysis. Trends in Neurosciences, 39(2), 63–73.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8895" LastActivityDate="2016-11-13T11:55:18.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16230" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-13T12:39:59.320" Score="6" ViewCount="337" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question asks whether it is understood that dreams are created on-the-fly as they are experienced, or whether they are pre-recorded and played back to the dreamer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have experienced interruptions such as loud noises become part of a dream, as if they are inserted in real-time into the dream. &#xA;Also this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mental-mishaps/201007/inception-the-science-creating-dreams&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Psychology Today&quot;&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt; article suggests that thoughts just before sleeping can be inserted into dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Arnon Weinberg's excellent answer to the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/8554/14235&quot;&gt;How long do dreams last?&lt;/a&gt;, I understand that it &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; possible for real-life input to be added to dreams on-the-fly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chris' answer and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SimplyPsychology's&lt;/a&gt; article about Sigmund Freud mention something called dream work, the process of converting an underlying wish into a dream, an experience that satisfies an unconscious - possibly immoral - desire in a morally acceptable way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking into when this dream work process occurs, if they are formed during the first stages of sleep, or created as the dreamer dreams, or before sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14235" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-11-14T11:29:48.797" Title="When are dreams created?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16231" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16230" CreationDate="2016-11-13T15:49:49.320" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The origins of dreams have been studied by many different people and your approach to understanding the origins depends on your approach, however, dreams seem to originate within the unconscious part of the mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a huge subject and therefore the following is only a taster to lead you into further reading on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the psychodynamic approach, Sigmund Freud studied dreams and in 1900, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Freud/Dreams/dreams.pdf&quot;&gt;he wrote a book on his theories&lt;/a&gt;.  If you are unfamiliar with the psychodynamic approach and psychoanalysis, it may be worth reading the full article at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html&quot;&gt;SimplyPsychology&lt;/a&gt;, however if you are familiar with terms such as ego, id and superego along with Freud's theroies of the unconscious mind, then you can skip to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html#dream&quot;&gt;Dreams Analysis&lt;/a&gt; bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, Freud believed &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;dreams to be the &lt;em&gt;royal road to the unconscious&lt;/em&gt; as it is in dreams that&#xA;  the ego's defenses are lowered so that some of the repressed material&#xA;  comes through to awareness, albeit in distorted form. Dreams perform&#xA;  important functions for the unconscious mind and serve as valuable&#xA;  clues to how the unconscious mind operates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Repressed material is referred to being disturbing or threatening thoughts which are repressed by the ego by an unconscious mechanism called the &lt;em&gt;ego defence mechanism&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the person centred approach, Carl Jung talked about the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jungiantherapist.net/blind-spots-meaning-of-dreams/&quot;&gt;compensatory nature of dreams&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; and Carl Rogers said in his book &lt;em&gt;A way of being&lt;/em&gt; (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In relating to the client a Jungian will want to relate to the&#xA;  unconscious as well as the conscious side of the client's personality.&#xA;  This means that it will be natural to give special attention to such&#xA;  things as dreams, fantasies, and projections, which from a Jungian&#xA;  point of view are our chief means of contact with the unconscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dreams will be given special significance, since the dream provides a&#xA;  view of the client's problem that is different from his or her&#xA;  conscious view, yet is still an aspect of the client's view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Putting these ideas together in a summary, dreams&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;can sometimes be pre-recorded in the form of memories of what was said or thought - e.g. in nightmares relating to past traumatic events such as war or abuse - although they can sometimes be a little skewed towards the person's understanding of what happened, and &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;they can sometimes be a product of repressed &lt;strong&gt;or&lt;/strong&gt; unrepressed thoughts and feelings just as the article you linked to in your question suggests.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would also like to draw on a word of caution mentioned in the SimplyPsychology article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;'Dream dictionaries', which are still popular now, were a source of&#xA;  irritation to Freud. In an amusing example of the limitations of&#xA;  universal symbols, one of Freud's patients, after dreaming about&#xA;  holding a wriggling fish, said to him 'that's a Freudian symbol - it&#xA;  must be a penis!'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Freud explored further and it turned out that the woman's mother, who&#xA;  was a passionate astrologer and a Pisces, was on the patient's mind&#xA;  because she disapproved of her daughter being in analysis. It seems&#xA;  more plausible, as Freud suggested, that the fish represented the&#xA;  patient's mother rather than a penis!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is believed from both approaches that dreams perform important functions for the unconscious mind, and these dreams can be beneficial in therapy if &lt;strong&gt;carefully and correctly&lt;/strong&gt; examined by the therapist &lt;strong&gt;with the client&lt;/strong&gt;, as they can open you up to a different view of how things happened in the past or are happening in the present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit: to reflect alteration of OP question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On reflection on my answer above you concluded that Freud's work covered&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the process of converting an underlying wish into a dream, an&#xA;  experience that satisfies an unconscious - possibly immoral - desire&#xA;  in a morally acceptable way&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst dreams can reflect unconscious immoral desires, the desires can be moral but repressed for other reasons such as personal prejudice.  Repression is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://changingminds.org/explanations/behaviors/coping/repression.htm&quot;&gt;powerful ego defence mechanism&lt;/a&gt; whereby it can prevent a thought or memory which can be psychologically damaging from reaching the conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Repression is unconscious. When we deliberately and consciously try to push away thoughts, this is suppression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The combination of the answers given in this posting point to the fact that dream creation can occur either before dreaming, at the start or during dreaming.  Repression and suppression of thoughts and memories can lead to your unconscious creating the dream when in sleep as your ego defenses are lowered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2016-11-14T11:29:48.797" LastActivityDate="2016-11-14T11:29:48.797" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16233" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-14T22:18:39.813" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I managed to get myself confused on this one. &#xA;So I am planning to conduct an experiment within an organization. I want to explore effects of recognition on people's motivation. Recognition will be in a form of personalised recognition letter. Experimental group will receive the letter, control group won't. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wanted to measure levels of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in both groups prior to the intervention, and then post-intervention. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;my IVs: intervention/no intervention; time period 1/time period 2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;my DV: motivation &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;is it independent groups design and I will need factorial ANOVA? Or time doesn't count as a variable?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;or maybe I don't need to measure motivation levels before at all?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14247" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-11-15T02:28:06.493" LastActivityDate="2016-11-15T02:28:06.493" Title="Two time points, control and experimental groups: What design is it?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-11-29T15:16:45.953" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16234" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16233" CreationDate="2016-11-14T23:10:35.767" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could call it a 2 by 2 mixed design where condition is a between-subjects factor and has two levels (intervention, no intervention) and time is a within-subjects factor and has two levels (time 1 and time 2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding how to analyse this data, check out this question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/3466/best-practice-when-analysing-pre-post-treatment-control-designs&quot;&gt;Best practice when analysing pre-post treatment-control designs&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:44:18.443" LastActivityDate="2016-11-14T23:10:35.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16235" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-15T00:16:37.043" Score="5" ViewCount="779" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most personality tests I've done online leave a lot to be desired.  For starters, personality is not set in stone, people act differently at different times and under different circumstances, and asking people to objectively assess themselves is really asking too much.  What I mean by the last statement is this: Some tests ask you point blank if you like order, get angry easily, are responsible, fear the worst, want to be in control, if you keep your promises, etc.  To answer these fairly abstract and decontextualized question, you're supposed to objectively go over many situations (at home, at work, with friends vs strangers, when in good mood vs bad mood, little promises vs big ones, different kinds of promises, past and present, etc) and then draw a conclusion and decide whether that's somewhat/moderately/very true.  That's asking a lot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I wonder if there are tests where you're given a scenario which is more specific (e.g. you're out with a close friend and she tells you a secret about another close friend of yours, something that is about to happen that won't harm but will very much embarrass the second friend.  Will you keep your promise and not share that secret?).  I just made this up, and I don't know what it measures, so just see it as an example of what I meant by &quot;scenario&quot;.      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this will be easier to answer and will reflect your personality, better than you having to evaluate whether &quot;I keep my promises&quot;.  Of course I'm also aware than depending on the situation given, it might introduce elements that will reduce validity of the answer, so I imagine the scenarios have to be fairly short and as neutral as possible.  But I am interested in such tests, if they do exist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13841" LastActivityDate="2016-11-16T18:36:36.240" Title="Are there personality tests out there with questions based on scenarios?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16236" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16619" CreationDate="2016-11-15T19:26:52.217" Score="3" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is true that the brain greatly outperforms the calculator, but it is apparent that humans make mistakes even with simple math problems, and take longer to answer, whilst the calculator just runs a bunch of bits through logic gates and pops out a correct result almost instantaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering the above statement, it seems apparent that the human mind takes a completely different approach to arithmetic problems than the calculator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any research that at least provides a general idea of the brain's approach?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13068" LastActivityDate="2017-01-24T19:09:13.380" Title="Is there any explanation of how the human brain calculates arithmetical problems?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16243" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16250" CreationDate="2016-11-16T08:06:45.423" Score="0" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was looking at a row of candy bars in a vending machine today. Later on, I found another vending machine in the same building. Most of the bars were the same, but I immediately noticed that one was different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I had to list the names of the bars, I would have a lot of difficulty remembering all of them. I also would not be able to say which of the original bars was missing. But they must all be stored somewhere in my memory, because a different bar stood out at once.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this phenomenon in cognitive science? The idea that humans can forget the details of information, but are still able to tell when a new piece of information is different. Perhaps it had some early evolutionary advantage?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14254" LastActivityDate="2016-11-17T19:51:10.630" Title="Recognizing which object is new, while forgetting original objects" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-11-21T07:33:05.407" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16244" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16219" CreationDate="2016-11-16T13:17:34.500" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have an answer, but I do have a potential starting point to offer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the answer will depend on how/whether adaptation changes per luminance level. It might be the case that brighter surfaces lead to more visual adaptation. Or it might be that adaptation depends on perceived and not only presented luminance. Or it might be that the contrast itself is the thing the visual system adapts to (again, physical or perceived). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a classical Science paper that combines luminance, contrast, visual adaptation and time into a single paradigm:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Anstis SM (1967) Visual adaptation to gradual change of intensity.&#xA;  Science 155:710-712&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It describes the recovery from adaptation through a change in afterimage luminance over time. If I remember correctly, the stimulus was a gradually dimming light that was repeatedly displayed - the afterimage was a gradually brightening spot. (Or maybe it was the other way around) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopefully you can find more from this point on. Stuart Anstis has done more work on the topic since that paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2016-11-16T13:17:34.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16245" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16235" CreationDate="2016-11-16T18:36:36.240" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Kolbe tests have questions like &quot;If I believed something important could be made to help humanity I would:&quot; with a set of 4 responses where you choose one as most likely and one as least likely. These responses might be &quot;Investigate it; Design it; Sell or promote it; Build it&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The purpose of the test is to find your action style and their internal research indicates a high degree of reliability over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will need to do more research to find it, but there is a test used to help pair up college dorm mates that relies just on a series of groups of photos where the individual just chooses one from each group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6353" LastActivityDate="2016-11-16T18:36:36.240" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16246" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16275" CreationDate="2016-11-17T07:09:23.663" Score="4" ViewCount="209" Body="&lt;p&gt;How &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/8923/4397&quot;&gt;biologically plausible&lt;/a&gt; are Restricted Bolztmann Machines (RBMs) and their stacked equivalent Deep Belief Networks (DBNs)? I know that Deep Learning (DL) in general isn't considered biologically plausible, since it requires information to be propagated backwards through uni-directional synapses. However, from what I understand, DBNs don't use back-prop and instead uses some sort of unsupervised learning algorithm. Does that make them more biologically plausible? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2016-11-21T17:27:03.903" Title="Biological plausibility of RBMs" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16250" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16243" CreationDate="2016-11-17T19:51:10.630" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this phenomenon in cognitive science? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you are describing is a number of things that in general have to do with attention and memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first one of them is &lt;strong&gt;priming&lt;/strong&gt;. Memory can be both conscious and unconscious, or declarative and implicit, and attended vs unattended. I've always found the names a bit confusing, but in short there is a lot of information that your brain stores without you being in the know. The priming bit comes from experiments where sets of words were presented to test subjects as part of a context, that is they were not part of the main activity or focus, and later when tested for another set of words that included those same first words, the subjects scored higher on recognizing them. An advertising billboard on the highway or street is designed to take advantage of priming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second thing at play here is what's called &lt;strong&gt;pop-out search&lt;/strong&gt; ( Treisman &amp;amp; Gelade ,1980). When a target of a visual search can be identified by a single feature such as color, it pops-out, in the image below, how long does it take you to find the special K ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, back to the candy bar example: by staring longingly into the first vending machine, you primed yourself with candy bars unknowingly, and upon encountering a second one, your undirected visual search immediately noticed the one that was different from the first set.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/19cIn.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/19cIn.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Perhaps it had some early evolutionary advantage?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe it could, imagine you live in the savanah so something like this might be your day to day, you are familiar with it, yet if a lion or other predator  were to be in the mix, this popout search + familiarity would help you spot it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xdKtu.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xdKtu.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastActivityDate="2016-11-17T19:51:10.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16252" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-18T00:52:11.097" Score="1" ViewCount="273" Body="&lt;p&gt;I took a sociology class that I didn't agree very much with. One thing we discussed was why people who go through hazing (e.g.  Jean-François Caudron joining a hokey team) often report feeling closer with their colleagues and a increased sense of happiness after such an unpleasant experience. Apparently this is to avoid cognitive dissonance: if the person didn't think it's worth it, then he would be a fool for going through such a bad experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do I understand that right? Are theories like this scientific or are they more of just a suggestion? For example if someone likes their job, but gets paid poorly, according to this theory could it be that they are tricking/convincing them self into liking the job so they don't feel like a fool for getting paid poorly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4176" LastEditorUserId="4176" LastEditDate="2016-11-18T19:20:49.147" LastActivityDate="2016-11-21T02:20:40.947" Title="Cognitive dissonance and interpreting unplesant situations as having a good effect" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16254" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-18T14:10:14.393" Score="2" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;At a hospital I work in (as a new psychiatry trainee), some admitted patients - especially those with conversion disorder - are made by psychologists to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stop meeting their friends or family&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spend the entire day in isolation on their beds&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Only eat simple (but not aversive) food such as bread with milk.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This treatment lasts for weeks. They call it &quot;extinction therapy&quot;. However, in attempts of finding scientific evidence relating to this practice, I looked it up online and couldn't find any references to &quot;extinction therapy&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&#xA;Is the above psychological management a known and named concept? If so, what is it called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13528" LastActivityDate="2016-11-18T16:29:51.810" Title="What is the name for the psychological therapy involving socially isolating a patient?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16255" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16277" CreationDate="2016-11-18T15:48:45.827" Score="2" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;With computers, tablets and smartphones, people spend more and more time in front of a screen, and perhaps, less time with actual people.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience, after spending a lot of time on my computer, I notice I am less able to hold a good conversation, sometimes lose a little bit of self confidence and care more about what others think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any scientific research that shows a relationship between social skills and computer usage (especially watching YouTube-Videos)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13289" LastEditorUserId="13289" LastEditDate="2016-11-18T16:18:59.593" LastActivityDate="2016-11-22T02:16:31.277" Title="Does computer usage (YouTube, Facebook, etc. ) influence social abilities?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16256" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16254" CreationDate="2016-11-18T16:29:51.810" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my recent graduate school psychology training, no therapy of this type was ever mentioned. In fact, conversion disorders are under some scrutiny because, in at least 33% of cases, an organic cause eventually is discerned. &lt;a href=&quot;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-clinical&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Medscape on conversion disorders&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;In-patient treatment is uncommon these days, and most modern psychological treatment includes increasing social support, activating the patient with exercise and meaningful activity. &#xA;I would be concerned about the nutritional and, more seriously, the emotional impact of this unusual form of &quot;treatment&quot;. &#xA;BTW, Extinction, as a therapy, usually refers to a phobia treatment with relaxation training and progressive exposure to the feared stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14212" LastActivityDate="2016-11-18T16:29:51.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16258" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16264" CreationDate="2016-11-18T21:27:46.790" Score="2" ViewCount="342" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we talk, we tend to use filler words like &quot;ehm&quot;, &quot;um&quot;, &quot;uh&quot;, etc.&#xA;What is the rationale behind those constructs from a neurolinguistic point of view?&#xA;It seems this happens while we are thinking or searching for an answer to a question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastActivityDate="2016-11-25T02:21:01.043" Title="What is the rationale behind filler words?" Tags="&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16264" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16258" CreationDate="2016-11-19T20:04:17.363" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is the rationale behind those constructs from a neurolinguistic point of view?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A simple conversation engages multiple areas of the brain, there are temporal areas for recognizing, planning &amp;amp; generating speech, motor areas for executing it,Frontal &amp;amp; PreFrontal areas for making sense of it,defining social context, and memory subsystems for holding both to small sound bites and longer conversational threads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my view,filler words are the speech equivalent of learned reflexes for movement or conditioned responses in the context of a conversation. Additionally, since we are also capable of overriding and co-opting such mechanisms, they can also be thrown in consciously (when stalling for time as you note) or avoided when public speaking by breaking cadence with silence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a neurolinguistics point of view, they most likely involve wernicke's area which is involved in the planning and selecting of words for speech ( along with recognition) and might involve PF-Temporal Areas trying to catch up in word and ideas selection or comprehension while maintaining cadence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind, ( The language chapter)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="14245" LastEditDate="2016-11-25T02:21:01.043" LastActivityDate="2016-11-25T02:21:01.043" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16265" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-19T21:13:53.340" Score="3" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for the name of an effect that relates confidence in your decisions (dependent variable) against your level of knowledge for a specific domain (independent variable).  I don't remember where I first heard of this.  It could have been more than 20 years ago in college psych classes, or years later in management seminars.  It could have been junk science I heard from a friend.  It's been too long ago to remember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The gist is this: A graph of decisiveness or confidence in your ability to make decsion (on the y axis) vs. education/experiences/fund of knowledge (on the x axis) is shaped like a U.  When you have little knowledge, you underestimate the complexity of a situation, and you think making decisions is easy.  The nadir of the U happens when you know enough to understand a domain's complexity, and you find it hard to make decisions because you're overwhelmed by all the possibilities.  With experience, at the upper end of the x-axis, you have started to assimilate the information in a more intuitive way, you can better estimate the most likely outcomes, and you're better at accepting uncertainty. So you find it easier to make decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideas that are vaguely similar are the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hype_cycle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hype Cycle&lt;/a&gt; (&quot;valley of expectations&quot;), the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunning-Kruger effect&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_amnesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;source amnesia&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I may be thinking of the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_stages_of_competence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Four Stages of Competence&lt;/a&gt;.&quot;  Perhaps the U-shaped graph and the emphasis on confidence in &lt;em&gt;decision making&lt;/em&gt; was just a unique way one of my instructors presented the data.  It may have got this idea from a medical internship manual (I no longer have) with a graph very much like the Hype Cycle, but related to experience gained over the course of an intern year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this effect sound familiar to anyone?  I'm looking for a name for the effect. Part of me thinks that over time, I may have conflated the Hype Cycle with the Four Stages of competence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10279" LastEditorUserId="10279" LastEditDate="2016-11-19T23:20:26.340" LastActivityDate="2016-11-26T01:12:15.367" Title="Looking for the term for the relationship between &quot;confidence&quot; and &quot;knowledge&quot;" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-31T23:19:34.020" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16266" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-18T21:21:15.963" Score="3" ViewCount="682" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was just told by an elder that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midlife_crisis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;midlife crisis&lt;/a&gt; occurs during an adult stage and it is a time whereby an adult starts having several thoughts concerning his/her life. After my &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ask-the-brains-is-the-midlife/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;research&lt;/a&gt;, I found out that it claims that midlife crisis is a myth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is this true?&lt;/strong&gt;, if not;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What happens in the brain during such midlife crisis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can a teen experience midlife crisis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13936" OwnerDisplayName="Prince" LastActivityDate="2016-11-20T05:59:20.173" Title="What happens in the brain during mid-life crisis?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16267" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16276" CreationDate="2016-11-20T18:09:19.693" Score="2" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say I have an almost perfect metronome which ticks at 60 beats per minute, except for one beat that is slightly off from time to time. &#xA;What's the maximum error this metronome can have without a human being able to notice the rhythmic default?&#xA;Is there any study related to that?&#xA;Also, would it depend on the metronome speed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14295" LastEditorUserId="7616" LastEditDate="2016-11-20T19:33:27.883" LastActivityDate="2016-11-21T19:25:17.877" Title="Interclick interval resolution of the ear" Tags="&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16268" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16267" CreationDate="2016-11-20T20:23:19.337" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC548951/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mental chronometry studies&lt;/a&gt;, I would venture that 160 - 190 ms would be a reasonable lower limit for the deviation of a beat for a trained subject( i.e the time it takes to process the stimulus), the upper limit is somehow harder to estimate...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What's the maximum error this metronome can have without a human being able to notice the rhythmic default? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depends in general, the ability to discriminate a deviant beat in a set I believe is a learned behavior, so it could vary from individual to individual and training. Beat matching comes to mind, it takes a DJ anywhere from months to years to accurately tell by how much 2 songs beats are out of sync and to match them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;would it depend on the metronome speed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By speeding the metronome you are reducing the time in between ticks, so you are effectively making it harder to detect the deviation, (this also implies you are increasing the bpms).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="14245" LastEditDate="2016-11-21T02:18:07.300" LastActivityDate="2016-11-21T02:18:07.300" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16269" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19776" CreationDate="2016-11-21T01:40:40.570" Score="17" ViewCount="3895" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the common criticisms of Deep Learning is it's training algorithms, back-propagation of error (back-prop), has no &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/8923/4397&quot;&gt;biologically plausible&lt;/a&gt; implementation, despite evidence of something like it occurring in the brain. The default implementation is considered biologically implausible due to it's reliance on bi-directional synapses. However, there's been a lot of publications published showing implementations that should be plausible. Specifically, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://biorxiv.org/content/early/2016/08/22/058545&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;section 2.2.2 of the review &amp;quot;Towards an integration of deep learning and neuroscience&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; and some discussion I've had:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms13276&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Random synaptic feedback weights support error backpropagation for&#xA;deep learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1609.01596&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Direct Feedback Alignment&lt;/a&gt; (related to the&#xA;previous random weights idea) and it's inclusion in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://fzenke.net/index.php/2017/02/19/learning-in-multi-layer-spiking-neural-networks/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Superspike algorithm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.00161&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Deep learning with segregated&#xA;dendrites&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1502.04156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spike timing dependent plasticity (STDP) with&#xA;iterative inference and target propagation&lt;/a&gt; which is based off &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1412.7525&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Difference Target Propagation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kickback from &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1411.6191&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kickback cuts Backprop's red-tape: Biologically plausible credit assignment in neural networks&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Generalized Recirculation from &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.colorado.edu/%7Eoreilly/papers/oreilly96_generec_nc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biologically Plausible Error-driven Learning using Local Activation Differences: The Generalized Recirculation Algorithm&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Contrastive Hebbian Learning from &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12590814&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Equivalence of backpropagation and contrastive Hebbian learning in a layered network&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Complex neurons from &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1013776130161&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Supervised and unsupervised learning with two sites of synaptic integration&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Using an attention mechanism from &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1811.01768&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Biologically Plausible Learning Rule for Deep Learning in the Brain&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Layer-specific target from &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/2006.06438&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GAIT-prop: A biologically plausible learning rulederived from backpropagation of error&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are any of these implementable in spiking neurons, able to scale to more than two layers and have been shown to work on normal Deep Learning benchmarks such as MNIST or ImageNet?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2020-06-18T12:12:31.447" LastActivityDate="2020-06-18T12:12:31.447" Title="Is back-prop biologically plausible?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16271" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16252" CreationDate="2016-11-21T02:11:58.803" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hazing can be approached from different perspectives (including sociology) because it's a complex phenomenon that is not well understood nor always clearly defined.  But from a psychological perspective, you are right, one of the theories used to explain the phenomenon is that of &quot;cognitive dissonance&quot;, first put forth by Festinger in the 50s.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And yes it's a scientific theory and one of the most respected ones in the whole field of psychological sciences.  This does not mean it explains everything or has no shortcomings but it means that many studies have supported its explanatory power, just as the evolutionary theory in biology is not perfect but has a lot of explanatory power in that field.  Granted psychological theories are not as good as theories in other fields (long story) but as I said, this is one of the best we've got in this field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So what is cognitive dissonance?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll start with &lt;a href=&quot;http://academic.laverne.edu/~ear/ls/Foundations/Misc/Ed310_LearningTheories.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an&lt;/a&gt; example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Consider someone who buys an expensive car but discovers that it is not comfortable on long drives. Dissonance exists between their beliefs that they have bought a good car and that a good car should be comfortable. Dissonance could be eliminated by deciding that it does not matter since the car is mainly used for short trips (reducing the importance of the dissonant &#xA;belief) or focusing on the cars strengths such as safety, appearance, handling (thereby adding more consonant beliefs). The dissonance could also be eliminated by getting rid of the car, but this behavior is a lot harder to achieve than changing beliefs.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;a href=&quot;http://colfa.utsa.edu/users/dpillow/self/lecnotes13.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; are the principles in brief (though the theory is more complex than this): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Definition--The unpleasant psychological state aroused when holding two conflicting cognitions.  Discrepancy can exist between 1. attitude vs attitude and 2. attitude versus behavior.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Basic Hypothesis--The existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate the person to try to reduce dissonance.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Five different ways to reduce the dissonance: A. Change your attitude. B. Change your behavior. C. Add consonant cognitions. D. Minimize the importance of the conflict. E. Reduce perceived choice.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the original papers on hazing and cognitive dissonance was by Aronson and Mills in 1959, entitled &quot;The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group.&quot;  A paper in 1994 by Elliot &amp;amp; Devine suggested that the thing that people experience when there is cognitive dissonance is not just physiological arousal but also a psychological effect, a &quot;distinct, aversive feeling.&quot;  If you've ever stood in a long lineup to get an average product or see a so-so movie or get a seat at a restaurant that offered only average food at best (which happened to me last week) you know what that feels like.:)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, in terms of your job example, yes, that could be true, but keep in mind three things, one that, as I mentioned above, there are several ways to reduce dissonance.  Two, that he could actually like the job that much that the pay is not significant to him.  And three, it's important that an action is freely chosen (or perceived to be so).  If the person in question had to take the only job that he was accepted for, he doesn't have much cognitive dissonance, unlike a person who is highly qualified and accepted to work at ten different companies and after careful evaluation ends up choosing a company that turns out to have serious shortcomings.  This, by the way, is tied in with the concept of regret.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, it's useful to think of freely chosen effort put into something as how much you value it, and that any later thoughts or feelings or fact contrary to this are going to cause you dissonance.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope that this answer has been useful to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Aronson, E. &amp;amp; J. Mills (1959).  The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 59 (2), 177-181.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Elliot, A.J. &amp;amp; Devine P.G. (1994). On the motivational nature of cognitive dissonance: dissonance as psychological discomfort. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67, 382–394.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13841" LastEditorUserId="13841" LastEditDate="2016-11-21T02:20:40.947" LastActivityDate="2016-11-21T02:20:40.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16275" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16246" CreationDate="2016-11-21T17:00:27.363" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, I want to clarify a few things. Deep Learning simply refers to any learning on a deep (more than one hidden layer) neural network, where the learning happens (i.e. parameters are adjusted) at all layers in the network. Therefore, deep learning algorithms can span the gamut between quite biologically plausible to very biologically implausible, and can include supervised and unsupervised (and maybe even reinforcement-driven) algorithms. That said, the algorithms that are currently very successful in deep learning (e.g. backprop on a convnet), are not very bio-plausible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As pointed out in the comments, bio-plausibility is difficult to quantify. What is helpful is pointing out what aspects of an algorithm are or are not bio-plausible, so that's what I'll try to do here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One mark in favour of RBMs is that the error signals are local. The objective function for an RBM is completely defined by the two layers of the RBM, and this holds even when the RBM is embedded in a larger network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I am reluctant to say that the weight update of an RBM is completely local, at least in their typical formulation. RBMs are typically trained using Contrastive Divergence (CD) [1]. After the forward pass (computing the hidden node activations from the inputs), CD requires recomputing the input node activations from the hiddens, and then recomputing the hidden node activations from these new input node activations. (This can happen many more times depending on the particular variant of CD, but has to happen at least once.) This is called Gibbs sampling, and it is unclear to me how this could happen in biology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another mark against RBMs is that they have tied weights: the feedback weights are the transpose of the feedforward weights. Some autoencoders avoid this problem by having untied weights, though this can also make them more difficult to train (the increased flexibility leads to more local minima).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Deep Belief Network (DBN) is initialized by stacking a bunch of RBMs together. One can think of the first RBM as encoding the inputs (i.e. finding a probability distribution over the inputs), the second RBM as encoding the encoding created by the first, the third RBM encoding this second encoding, and so on. Creating the DBN sometimes involves &quot;untying&quot; the weights, so that there are now separate feedforward and feedback weights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once constructed, DBNs can be fine-tuned using a number of algorithms, some more bio-plausible than others. Here, fine tuning simply refers to adjusting all the parameters of the DBN together to minimize some global objective function, rather than using the local objective functions for each RBM (as was done when creating the network). One fine-tuning algorithm is the wake-sleep algorithm [1], an unsupervised learning algorithm that has two distinct phases [2]: A &quot;wake&quot; phase, where the network is run forward, and the feedback weights are adjusted based on these feedforward activations; A sleep phase, where the network is run in reverse (generatively), and the feedforward weights are adjusted based on these feedback activations. This algorithm is reasonably bio-plausible, since the weight updates can be determined locally, and feedforward and feedback weights are separate and are adjusted separately. Some of the papers on the wake-sleep algorithm suggest that it might map onto and explain the wake-sleep cycles of animals, however I do not know of any studies that provide evidence of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DBNs can also be fine-tuned using supervised learning algorithms, namely backprop. This of course brings all the bio-plausibility concerns associated with backprop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to summarize, and address your overall question, which I interpret as &quot;Are RBMs and DBNs more bio-plausible than deep networks trained with backprop?&quot;: It's going to depend on how exactly they're trained. RBMs run synapses backwards just like backprop does, but propagating things backwards through unidirectional synapses is only one of the bio-plausibility concerns associated with backprop. Others include that backprop requires the derivatives of the hidden units at their activation points, and that backprop uses continuous values, not spikes (for a fuller list, see [3]). RBMs avoid these two concerns, however they add additional concerns, like how Gibbs sampling might happen in biology. Which one is &quot;more&quot; or &quot;less&quot; biologically plausible depends on which of these problems might be more easily solved in the brain. With regards to DBNs, I would say that the wake-sleep algorithm is more biologically plausible than backprop, in that the mechanisms in the brain seem more tailored to implement the wake-sleep algorithm than backprop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, could a DBN trained with wake-sleep and a shallow classifier on top achieve the same results as a convnet trained with backprop, on a task like ILSVRC-2012 (ImageNet)? Certainly not with our current computational power and the current machine learning knowledge and tricks. And even though I don't expect a good bio-plausible learning algorithm to scale to large datasets right out of the box, it is important to keep in mind that whatever algorithms we want to attribute to the brain, they're going to have to scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16764513&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16764513&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wake-sleep_algorithm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wake-sleep_algorithm&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[3] &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1502.04156v3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://arxiv.org/abs/1502.04156v3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14302" LastEditorUserId="14302" LastEditDate="2016-11-21T17:27:03.903" LastActivityDate="2016-11-21T17:27:03.903" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16276" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16267" CreationDate="2016-11-21T17:20:01.627" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been studies on this, both with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uccs.edu/Documents/humanneurophysiologylab/21%20Davalos%20et%20al%202003a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paired clicks&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304394004001077&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;long streams of clicks&lt;/a&gt;.  Normal listeners can detect changes of the sort you describe with essentially perfect reliability down to about 45 ms and with better chance performance below 30 ms.  I haven't been able to find a study measuring the minimal threshold for this change, but from the studies I have found it should probably be in the 10-20 ms range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for how the interval affects it, the answer depends on the direction of change and the direction of interval change, so it is hard to give a single answer.  The affect seems to be larger at larger interval changes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this is a very low-level task, with slightly higher modulation rates processed at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1972.tb05328.x/epdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;very lowest levels&lt;/a&gt; of the auditory pathway.  It is also a task that is highly &quot;conserved&quot; evolutionarily, that is it is very consistent across species.  Fish have &lt;a href=&quot;http://scitation.aip.org/content/asa/journal/jasa/108/4/10.1121/1.1287845&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;similar performance&lt;/a&gt; to humans at this task.  And not that in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304394004001077&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stream study&lt;/a&gt;, it used &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mismatch negativity&lt;/a&gt;, which is a change in electrical activity in your brain that occurs even if you are not paying attention to the stimulus and don't consciously notice the change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7616" LastEditorUserId="7616" LastEditDate="2016-11-21T19:25:17.877" LastActivityDate="2016-11-21T19:25:17.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16255" CreationDate="2016-11-22T02:16:31.277" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Social media usage is still quite new and there have been no major longitudinal study that I know of, that has looked into how usage influences social abilities in the long run.  If you limit it to youtube only, then I don't know of any study at all that looked at youtube usage only and social skills.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the reasons it's difficult to study this, is that people who are drawn to these online activities are not the same as others, and not everyone who uses them becomes &quot;addicted&quot; to them.  In other words, we don't start with people having the exact same social or cognitive skills.  In addition, people don't actually use them the exact same way (length of time, content, etc).  Not to mention that people often don't just use one particular thing like youtube but many different sites and so that's another reason it's difficult to make comparisons.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there are ways to use them that can be of benefit.  For instance, concerning younger people who use social media including youtube, The American Academic of Pediatrics &lt;a href=&quot;https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2011/03/28/peds.2011-0054&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mentions&lt;/a&gt; potential benefits, such as communicating and socializing, better learning opportunities, and access to health info, while warning of dangers such as cyberbullying, sexting, violation of privacy, powerful influence of advertisement, and last but not least, &quot;facebook depression.&quot;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting area of study is &quot;internet addiction&quot;.  The final decision was made not to include it in the latest psychiatric diagnostic manual (DSM-V), partly because as one article asks &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2010.tb00280.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Problematic Internet use: a distinct disorder, a manifestation of an underlying psychopathology, or a troublesome behaviour?&lt;/a&gt;  Other authors however have a specific definition in mind, such as this &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101556&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;editorial&lt;/a&gt; that states the four defining criteria of internet addiction: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;1) excessive use, often associated with a loss of sense of time or a&#xA;  neglect of basic drives, 2) withdrawal, including feelings of anger,&#xA;  tension, and/or depression when the computer is inaccessible, 3)&#xA;  tolerance, including the need for better computer equipment, more&#xA;  software, or more hours of use, and 4) negative repercussions,&#xA;  including arguments, lying, poor achievement, social isolation, and&#xA;  fatigue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In summary&lt;/strong&gt;: There is a lack of good longitudinal research in this very important area.  There is also problem with defining what is appropriate usage and what is not.  But it is speculated that proper usage (e.g. access to useful info, or socializing) can be beneficial while inappropriate usage (e.g. online bullying) can be detrimental to mental health.  Regardless of purpose of usage, excessive usage to the point of ignoring more important daily functions may also be a sign of mental illness, be it caused by the computer usage itself or as manifestation of another already present illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this has been useful to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;References:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Block J. J. (2008). Issues for DSM-V: Internet Addiction. American Journal of Psychiatry; 165, 306–307.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;O’Keeffe, G., &amp;amp; Clarke-Pearson, K. (2011). Clinical report the impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics, 127, 800–804.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Starcevic, V. (2010). Problematic internet use: A distinct disorder,&#xA;a manifestation of an underlying psychopathology, or a troublesome behaviour?&#xA;World Psychiatry, 9, 92.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13841" LastActivityDate="2016-11-22T02:16:31.277" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16278" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13754" CreationDate="2016-11-22T16:47:49.263" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The open-source Matlab package called Fieldtrip has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fieldtriptoolbox.org/reference/ft_sourceanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;source analysis function&lt;/a&gt; in which you can specify the method you want. These include both sLORETA and eLORETA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case you did acquire LOERTA-KEY, you also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fieldtriptoolbox.org/getting_started/loreta&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;import sLORETA files&lt;/a&gt; into Fieldtrip and continue further analyses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2016-11-22T16:47:49.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16280" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-22T21:15:04.363" Score="8" ViewCount="265" Body="&lt;p&gt;Note: I am &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; talking about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_instrument&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Law of the instrument&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am referring to the following &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/7635/8226&quot;&gt;(anti-)pattern of behavior&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A person very competent in one area (say, Philosophy) peremptorily expressing his opinion on an unrelated area (say, Medicine) as if he were an expert there also (and he is not).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many prominent examples (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unz.com/jthompson/swanning-about-fooled-by-algebra/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an expert in finance making &lt;em&gt;sweeping assertions with great confidence and surrounded by insulting language ... [about] a field he palpably does not master&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;), but, obviously, &lt;em&gt;plural of &quot;anecdote&quot; is not &quot;data&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does this pattern actually exist &lt;em&gt;statistically&lt;/em&gt; or is it just a variant of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning-Kruger_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunning-Kruger effect&lt;/a&gt; (&quot;Unskilled and Unaware of It&quot;)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One way to test this would be to plot the DK curve (actual expertise vs. self-assessment) for a given domain for &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the &quot;general population&quot; (people who have no significant expertise in other domains) and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the &quot;outside experts&quot; (people who are experts in an unrelated domain)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and check whether they would be statistically significantly different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g., one can try to use StackExchange as the source of data: measure the user expertise by the reputation and subjective assessment thereof by the &quot;confidence level&quot; of their posts (questions/answers/comments).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has something like this been done? &#xA;Does the question make sense to the practitioners in the field?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8226" LastEditorUserId="8226" LastEditDate="2019-01-04T15:43:37.210" LastActivityDate="2019-01-04T15:43:37.210" Title="Does Golden Hammer really exist?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16282" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-23T17:43:37.200" Score="1" ViewCount="771" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing a big 5 personality test using Big 5 Mini Markers by Saucier, as described here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.uoregon.edu/prsnlty/SAUCIER/Saucier.Minimarkers.Full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://pages.uoregon.edu/prsnlty/SAUCIER/Saucier.Minimarkers.Full.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that most markers have about 0.7 correlation to Big5 trait, there's a limit to the score a user can get. While the theoretical max is 72 (8 markers * 9 points), the user can only get 55 on openness to experience and 67 on others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to give the user percentile score as to how high they rate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do I use the theoretical max of 72 or the actual max the user can get on this test for determining low-medium-high or percentiles?&lt;/strong&gt; In other words, would 55 openness be equal to 100th percentile, or would 72?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this example of a mini marker result online:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Your Scores&#xA;Exraversion = 45&#xA;Agreeableness = 45&#xA;Conscientiousness = 45&#xA;Stability = 45&#xA;Openess = 45&#xA;Scores should range between 8 and 72. &#xA;Scores from 8 to 29 could be considered &quot;low,&quot; &#xA;from 30 to 50 &quot;average,&quot; &#xA;and from 51 to 72 &quot;high.&quot;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My personal calculations are as follows (by giving 1 or 9 each question that has a relevant coefficient):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; MIN&#xA; openness: 6.21&#xA; conscientiousness: 7.44&#xA; extraversion: 8.02&#xA; agreeableness: 7.51&#xA; stability: 7.49&#xA;&#xA; MAX&#xA; openness: 55.89&#xA; conscientiousness: 66.96&#xA; extraversion: 72.18&#xA; agreeableness: 67.59&#xA; stability: 67.41&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2016-11-24T02:57:32.620" LastActivityDate="2016-11-24T02:57:32.620" Title="How to determine percentile rankings for responses to for Big5 Mini-Markers test?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16283" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16286" CreationDate="2016-11-24T16:10:35.543" Score="2" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;There seem to be a lot of studies about the influence of self-image on our psychology, but I've been wondering: Is there research on what type of self-image (positive, negative) most people have? Do people in Western countries tend to have a positive or a negative self-image?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14315" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-11-25T00:28:04.253" LastActivityDate="2016-11-26T06:43:34.207" Title="What self-image do most people have?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16284" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-24T16:19:36.470" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;When taking an IQ test, if a subject responds to all questions correctly, they will achieve the maximum (raw) score, a finite number. Yet, due to the test's normalisation that takes the median raw score across the population and defines it into a standardised score of 100, IQ scores are expressed not as raw scores but as standardised scores, or equivalently, a number of standard deviations (SDs) away from 100. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: what sense does it make to speak of very high IQ scores, such as for instance 170, that correspond to an extreme in the distribution's tail, when, if one were to convert back to raw scores, this would seem to result in a raw score higher than the one corresponding to an &quot;all answers correct&quot; result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Put more simply, my question is: since there is a hard-limit on raw scores, why is it that the normal distribution used to describe an IQ score can (theoretically) lead, along its tails, to infinitely-large numbers - as well as, conversely, to negative numbers - as raw scores, both extremes being out of the raw-scores range?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastActivityDate="2016-11-26T15:19:45.393" Title="IQ scores - fixed raw scores vs infinite tails of the underlying normal distribution of standard scores" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16286" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16283" CreationDate="2016-11-24T19:38:09.060" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory#Tension_with_self-enhancement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Short answer&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... on the balance, most people tend to view themselves positively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Longer answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not much is clear about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-image&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-image&lt;/a&gt;.  One thing that is clear is that self-image is not one thing.  In the research literature, it can refer to a conglomerate of fairly independent / mildly correlated constructs, such as body image, self-schema, self-valuation, self-esteem, self-perceived physical attractiveness, self-worth, etc...  That is to say, one can score positively on some of these measures and negatively on others, with little relationship between the scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Culture may indeed &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority#Cultural_differences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;play a role as well&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;More recent research investigating self-esteem in other countries&#xA;  suggests that illusory superiority depends on culture. Some studies&#xA;  indicate that East Asians tend to underestimate their own abilities in&#xA;  order to improve themselves and get along with others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The uncertainty between positive and negative self-image is underscored by the existence of both an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;above-average-effect&lt;/a&gt;, and a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worse-than-average_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;worse-than-average&lt;/a&gt; effect.  Each may refer to different aspects of self-image, but may even refer to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_illusions#Negative_counterparts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;same aspects&lt;/a&gt;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, while college students rate themselves as more likely&#xA;  than average to live to 70, they believe they are less likely than&#xA;  average to live to 100. People regard themselves as above average on&#xA;  easy tasks such as riding a bicycle but below average on difficult&#xA;  tasks like riding a unicycle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2016-11-26T06:43:34.207" LastActivityDate="2016-11-26T06:43:34.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16288" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14105" CreationDate="2016-11-25T06:54:29.570" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you have here is a hypothesis and it's almost impossible to answer this conclusively because you can't design a randomized study but only look at correlations.  In addition, &quot;narcissism&quot; itself is far from a simple concept and used differently by different researchers.  For instance some see is as synonymous with self-esteem and self-confidence, some don't.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, your view is closer to some of the psychoanalytical views of homosexuality.  For instance, a hundred years ago, in talking about narcissism and abnormal development, Freud suggested that people who had experienced problems during libidnal development (libido is a kind of instinctual sexual energy behind our psychological development), including gays and &quot;perverts&quot;, instead of choosing their mother as their &quot;love-object&quot;, they'd use themselves as the love object.  He labeled this abnormal sexual development a kind of narcissism.  The theory is more complex than that but I just wanted to give you an idea of the kind of views I was referring to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Contemporary research does not follow this line of thinking nor talks about development, gays or not, in those terms.  In fact many (not all) psychoanalytical concepts are no longer seen as scientific (=falsifiable) so they're not seriously studied these days in universities.  You would instead find researchers look, for instance, at homosexuality and mental health (with a lot of attention paid to social factors; see Herek &amp;amp; Garnets, 2007), but not studies of narcissistic development in homosexuals, except a couple here and there in psychoanalytical journals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I took a look and most recent study I found in a non-psychoanalytical journal was by an Israeli researcher, Rubinstein, published in 2010.  In her study she found exactly what she believed based on Freudian conception, that gays were more narcissistic but had less self confidence than heterosexuals.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the invited commentary on that study (Hartmann, same issue, can't find citing info) mentions, given that there is still stigma against homosexuals, one need a higher standard for offering the conclusion that she had (the study used only 200 Jewish students in their 20s living in Israel and within what Hartmann calls &quot;forceful social and religious traditions&quot;, and had relied on self-report, which is far from objective).  In her defense, Rubinstein did talk about three potential interpretations and also the limitations of her study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summary:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some psychoanalysts believe that homosexuals are more narcissistic than heterosexuals but no good data is available to confirm that, partly because researchers try to be careful when they study sexual orientation because of potential misuse of findings, but more importantly because those conceptions of homosexuality are no longer seen as scientific or more useful/productive than current biological or psychological theories of homosexual development. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope you found this answer helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Works Cited&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Freud, S. (1957). On narcissism: An introduction. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.),The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 14, pp. 67–104). London: Hogarth Press (Original work published 1914).&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Herek, G. M., &amp;amp; Garnets, L. D. (2007). Sexual orientation and mental health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 353–375.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Rubinstein, G. (2010). Narcissism and Self-Esteem Among Homosexual and Heterosexual Male Students. Journal of Sex &amp;amp; Marital Therapy, 36:24–34.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13841" LastEditorUserId="13841" LastEditDate="2016-11-25T07:00:28.343" LastActivityDate="2016-11-25T07:00:28.343" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16290" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16265" CreationDate="2016-11-25T18:15:21.533" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot know what your friend or teacher ever told you, but you would be talking about cognizance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognizance and Experience of Technology&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://staffweb.ncnu.edu.tw/clhung/MOT/papers/9.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://staffweb.ncnu.edu.tw/clhung/MOT/papers/9.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Knowledge base as a set of cognizance objects &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.csulb.edu/journals/jecr/issues/20004/paper3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://web.csulb.edu/journals/jecr/issues/20004/paper3.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11675" LastEditorUserId="11675" LastEditDate="2016-11-26T01:12:15.367" LastActivityDate="2016-11-26T01:12:15.367" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16292" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8021" CreationDate="2016-11-26T00:11:13.533" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unlike a computer, where the circuitry is information agnostic (it can represent anything digital), &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_neural_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neural networks&lt;/a&gt; (both biological and artificial) are not.  The organization of neurons (their connections and the strengths of those connections) determines what they represent and how they process information.  Thus, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual cortex&lt;/a&gt; cannot be recruited for audio processing when your eyes are closed because the visual cortex is only capable of the function of processing visual information (very different from a GPU).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroplasticity&lt;/a&gt;, the visual cortex can (with much training over a long period of time) actually be &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273%2810%2900763-4?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0896627310007634%3Fshowall%3Dtrue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recruited for other functions&lt;/a&gt; (including audio processing) in blind people for example, but then that becomes the only function it performs - ie, neuroplasticity does not give the brain a context-switching capability like computers have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-02-25T03:55:49.833" LastActivityDate="2018-02-25T03:55:49.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16294" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-26T03:31:57.877" Score="4" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which research article showed that East Asian parents used verbs more while White parents used adjectives more and had implications for causal and math learning? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please give the citation of the relevant article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10495" LastActivityDate="2016-12-02T06:26:59.297" Title="Which research article showed that East Asian parents used verbs more to their infants and toddlers?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16295" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-26T10:51:09.970" Score="8" ViewCount="399" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to work out how to get my team to understand that different people in the team get different things out of work (excluding the financial drivers). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to explain this in terms of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_motivation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;intrinsic motivators&lt;/a&gt;. I'm trying to get a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.creativerevolution.com.au/mi/7-factors-promote-intrinsic-motivation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;definitive list&lt;/a&gt;. I think they are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Challenge&lt;/strong&gt; - We are best motivated when we are working toward personally meaningful goals whose attainment requires activity at a continuously optimal (intermediate) level of difficulty.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Curiosity&lt;/strong&gt; - Something in the physical environment attracts our attention or there is a discrepancy between present knowledge or skills and what these could be if we engaged in some activity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Environment Influence&lt;/strong&gt; - We have a basic tendency to want to control what happens to us.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scenario-planning&lt;/strong&gt; - We use mental images of things and situations that are not actually present to stimulate our behavior.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Competition&lt;/strong&gt; - We feel satisfaction by comparing our performance favorably to that of others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cooperation&lt;/strong&gt; - We feel satisfaction by helping others achieve our goals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Recognition&lt;/strong&gt; - We feel satisfaction when others recognize and appreciate our accomplishments.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there doesn't appear to be a final word on this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;Is there a definitive list of intrinsic motivators?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastActivityDate="2019-09-22T07:16:09.377" Title="Is there a definitive list of intrinsic motivators?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16298" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16284" CreationDate="2016-11-26T15:19:45.393" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is provided by the Test theory, which distinguishes between the true value of a latent (=unobservable) psychological construct, in this case the IQ of a person, and the IQ score measured with an IQ test. A good test is objective, reliable and valid which ultimately means that each measured score reflects the underlying construct (measured IQ= true IQ). High validity means that the test measures what it claims to measure. If a person has an IQ 170 but the IQ test assigns that person IQ 160, because this is the highest possible score in that test, then this result is invalid and the test is not a good tool for measuring high IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In practice, the test manual should clarify what is the IQ range, in which the test provides reliable and valid estimates of person's IQ. Furthermore, the authors may provide multiple test versions which differ in difficulty. For instance, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Raven's Progressive Matrices&lt;/a&gt; come in three test versions: test for normal adults, test for children and mentally impaired individuals, and a test for people with above-average IQ. As you can imagine, the last-mentioned test features higher number of tasks than the normal version.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8618" LastActivityDate="2016-11-26T15:19:45.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16300" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16304" CreationDate="2016-11-26T18:43:42.533" Score="2" ViewCount="813" Body="&lt;p&gt;We got 3 brains right. Reptilian. Mamalian. And the neo cortex thingy that makes us primate. And humans supposedly have tons of neo cortex and that what makes us human allowing us to code and code.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That means, things that reptilian have should be in reptilian brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet amygdala is located not on brain stem or reptilian brain, but in middle brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How come?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastActivityDate="2016-11-27T09:39:45.487" Title="Why is amygdala located on paleo mamalian part of the brain?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16301" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16302" CreationDate="2016-11-26T18:45:41.930" Score="1" ViewCount="548" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read that humans have 2 memory systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One is fight or flight memory located in amygdala. Another is episodic memory located in hippocamus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then I've heard that there is another memory system. Semantic memory located on the temporal lobe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, how many memory systems do we have?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I can derive most math formula on top of my head but keep forgetting where I put my glasses, is something wrong in my hippocampus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastEditorUserId="14343" LastEditDate="2016-11-29T11:12:22.023" LastActivityDate="2016-11-29T11:12:22.023" Title="How many memory systems do we have?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16302" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16301" CreationDate="2016-11-26T20:59:21.260" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Okay, how many memory do we have?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like many things in neuroscience &amp;amp; cognitive science, it depends on how you categorize it, it is also an evolving field and you might be surprised to know that the number of memory systems is closer to 10-12, although the number might go up or down in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general there are 2 ways of dividing memory: by time range ( Long term and short term) and by intentional recollection, each one further subdivides and overlaps at some points. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One is fight or flight memory located in amygdala.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala#Memory_modulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Amygdala&lt;/a&gt; is a complex mass of gray matter that plays an important role in emotions, it both integrates and has a role in associative learning in between stimuli and experiences/feelings among other functions, so in a way it is involved in memory, ( emotional memory).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The fight or flight response&lt;/a&gt; on the other hand is a whole other complex subsystem of our bodies mainly involving the visceral motor system (the sympathetic division) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another is episodic memory located in hippocamus&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Episodic memory is one of the subdivisions of memory, mainly dealing with events as opposed to facts ( that would be semantic)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus#Role_in_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The hippocampus&lt;/a&gt; is a crucial component to memory, but is part of a bigger system mainly involved with transfering and facilitiating the creation of short term memories to long term memories. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If I can derive most math formula on top of my head but keep forgetting where I put my glasses, is something wrong in my hippocampus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most likely not, as this very brief and incomplete review hopefully shows you, there are a number of different systems at play for what we normally bunch up into the word memory, there are also different types of memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deriving a math formula on the top of you head involves another type of memory, working memory, along with the phonological loop if you think in words about your equations ( these 2 are sort of buffers) , and long term memories across your neocortex with a number of connections and interconnections, in other words your whole brain lights up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forgetting your glasses on the other hand is usually a problem of not encoding the initial percept in the first place ( i.e. to increase the odds of you finding your glasses again, you need to consciously aknowledge where you are leaving them in the first place rather than just dropping them).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, what you do in between leaving your glasses and trying to recover them also influences how much you remember them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned memory is a complex and deep subject, as way of sources here are a few books I consulted:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;- Cognitive Neuroscience (Third edition)&#xA;- Neuroscience (Third edition)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- In search of memory&#xA;- The seven sins of memory&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="14245" LastEditDate="2016-11-26T22:30:31.763" LastActivityDate="2016-11-26T22:30:31.763" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16303" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-27T02:56:37.537" Score="2" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that there are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_of_obtaining_knowledge#Methods&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;methods of obtaining knowledge&lt;/a&gt;. These being:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Observation or experience. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reason or Logic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Modelling&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Testimony. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Authority. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Truth by message. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some call this &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/q/39286/4472&quot;&gt;epistemic preference&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wondering if this can be influenced to change - if people wilfully choose it, if it is a factor of their upbringing or is even genetic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;Is there evidence to suggest that one's epistemic preference is fixed or is flexible?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:42:22.350" LastActivityDate="2016-11-27T02:56:37.537" Title="Is there evidence to suggest that one's epistemic preference is fixed or is flexible?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16304" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16300" CreationDate="2016-11-27T08:30:02.817" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The reason why the amygdalae are in the middle of the brain is because they are not part of the reptilian brain.  The amygdalae interact with many areas of the brain and are in the limbic system.  They are often referred to being the &quot;fear centre&quot;, but they have roles &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/amygdala-beyond-fear&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;beyond just being a simple threat detector&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies have found the amygdalae to be active not just during fear conditioning, but also when learning to link a previously neutral stimulus with a positive experience by&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;interacting with reward areas of the brain like the ventral striatum, which &lt;strong&gt;is&lt;/strong&gt; in the reptilian brain&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;playing an important role in forming memories associated with drug use.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;being an important region for the consolidation of memories that have any strong emotional component - whether positive or negative.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zaLjH.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zaLjH.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;the amygdalae (Source: Wikipedia)&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;the amygdalae (Source: Wikipedia)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are functional differences between the right and left amygdala. In &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/cercor/bhl041&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;one study&lt;/a&gt;, electrical stimulations of the right amygdala induced negative emotions, especially fear and sadness. In contrast, stimulation of the left amygdala was able to induce either pleasant (happiness) or unpleasant (fear, anxiety, sadness) emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the idea of 3 parts to the brain, this idea was started by American physician and neuroscientist Paul D. MacLean.  He originally formulated the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kheper.net/topics/intelligence/MacLean.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;triune brain model&lt;/a&gt; in the 1960s and propounded it at length in his 1990 book &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Triune-Brain-Evolution-Paleocerebral-Functions/dp/0306431688&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Triune Brain in Evolution&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The triune brain consists of the reptilian complex (also known as the &quot;reptilian brain&quot;), the paleomammalian complex (limbic system), and the neomammalian complex (neocortex).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reptilian complex, was the name MacLean gave to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_ganglia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;basal ganglia&lt;/a&gt; which consists of the dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen), ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle), globus pallidus, ventral pallidum, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TD4FW.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TD4FW.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;basal ganglia (source: Wikipedia)&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;basal ganglia (source: Wikipedia)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neomammalian complex (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neocortex&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;neocortex&lt;/a&gt;) is a part of the mammalian brain.  The neocortex consists of the grey matter, or neuronal cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers, surrounding the deeper &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_matter&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;white matter&lt;/a&gt; (myelinated axons) in the cerebrum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VRE3r.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VRE3r.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;neocortex (source: Wikipedia) &quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;neocortex - Human brain right dissected lateral view, showing grey matter (the darker outer parts), and white matter (the inner and prominently whiter parts) - source: Wikipedia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paleomammalian complex (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;limbic system&lt;/a&gt;) consists of olfactory bulbs, hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, anterior thalamic nuclei, fornix, columns of fornix, mammillary body, septum pellucidum, habenular commissure, cingulategyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, limbic cortex, and limbic midbrain areas&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1QVFq.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1QVFq.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;the limbic system (source: Wikipedia)&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;the limbic system (source: Wikipedia)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2016-11-27T09:39:45.487" LastActivityDate="2016-11-27T09:39:45.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16305" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-27T14:36:55.590" Score="4" ViewCount="206" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently found the following image:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eZpKy.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eZpKy.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can easily see the &quot;17&quot; in the image if I'm scrolling and (much less easy) when I move my eyes and don't look directly on it. Why is that the case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case you don't see it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Skz1m.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Skz1m.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4643" LastActivityDate="2016-12-01T23:30:14.690" Title="Why can I see the number only when I don't look directly at it?" Tags="&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16310" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16294" CreationDate="2016-11-28T12:31:29.150" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OKqZBAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PT266&amp;amp;lpg=PT266&amp;amp;dq=asians%20parents%20using%20more%20verbs&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=jOpHOokUwb&amp;amp;sig=f_HRs7_pKjZPJ4rbd_rri1QLNIc&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjHkr_yucvQAhVFDMAKHWZHAGgQ6AEIHTAA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=asians%20parents%20using%20more%20verbs&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dimensions of Human Behavior: The Changing Life Course&#xA;By Elizabeth D. Hutchison&lt;/strong&gt; Chapter Language skills&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2QrOk.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2QrOk.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hoff, E. (2006). How social contexts support and shape language development. Developmental Review, 26(1), 55-88.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14347" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-12-02T06:26:59.297" LastActivityDate="2016-12-02T06:26:59.297" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16311" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-28T12:33:02.800" Score="2" ViewCount="1111" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to be the obvious for many psychologists, but on what grounds emotions are considered to be different than reflexes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4874" LastActivityDate="2016-12-29T07:35:59.677" Title="Emotions and reflexes - difference" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16313" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15568" CreationDate="2016-11-28T20:23:53.317" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What prompted the original question was someone I follow on Twitter mentioning the term I was referring to, which I had forgotten and wanted to remember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luckily, he recently re-posted the concept. It's called the &lt;strong&gt;Overton Window&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Overton window, also known as the window of discourse, is the&#xA;  range of ideas the public will accept. It is used by media&#xA;  pundits.[1][2] The term is derived from its originator, Joseph P.&#xA;  Overton (1960–2003),[3] a former vice president of the Mackinac Center&#xA;  for Public Policy,[4] who in his description of his window claimed&#xA;  that an idea's political viability depends mainly on whether it falls&#xA;  within the window, rather than on politicians' individual&#xA;  preferences.[5] According to Overton's description, his window&#xA;  includes a range of policies considered politically acceptable in the&#xA;  current climate of public opinion, which a politician can recommend&#xA;  without being considered too extreme to gain or keep public office.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd think you could also apply this concept to the psychology of individuals. If you push their line of thinking too far, too fast, it will often be rejected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13294" LastActivityDate="2016-11-28T20:23:53.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16315" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-28T22:01:42.883" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;Experiments that collect subjective ratings (e.g. on a Likert 1-7 scale) necessarily have to account for between-subjects differences in how the range of the rating scale is used by different people, i.e. the fact that, for various reasons, some subjects are quite restrictive in their usage of the scale (e.g. they rarely rate lower than 3 or higher than 5), while others use up the entire scale quite liberally. I know that for this problem it suffices to simply z-score all the raw ratings within each subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, another problem that often occurs with such data sets is when it turns out (as per post-study debriefings) that subjects change their scale-using strategy &lt;em&gt;during the course&lt;/em&gt; of the experiment, such as for instance if they realise that an item they've previously rated 7 was in fact not really worthy of a 7 rating, since the current item is in fact &quot;worthy of a 7&quot;, and so they wish they could go back and correct the previous rating to, say, a 5 or a 6 - which the experimental paradigm might not allow them to do. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: Is there any statistical way to correct for this second sort of problem, i.e. &lt;em&gt;within&lt;/em&gt;-subject variability in the rating scale usage? Clearly, z-scoring the ratings within-subject does nothing to fix this sort of mid-experiment strategy change in how the scale ratings are given; and in fact only works to eliminate between-subjects variability if the within-subjects variability described above is assumed to be negligible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that, to a previous &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/13869/group-differences-reflecting-different-use-of-a-rating-scale-vs-actual-differenc&quot;&gt;question&lt;/a&gt; I had on the topic of rating scales, someone helpfully suggested that the problem of between-subject variability can be reduced by using &quot;anchor points&quot; during the instructions, i.e. providing examples to subjects of what a &quot;1&quot; stimulus, as well as what a &quot;7&quot; stimulus, are respectively like. This would of course solve both problems described above, but does assume that the right instructions were given during data collection, whereas my question concerns correction of an existing data set, one that presumably did not inocculate against this beforehand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-11-28T22:01:42.883" Title="Correcting for individual differences in the usage (employed range) of rating scales" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16318" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16311" CreationDate="2016-11-29T07:21:22.277" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a simplified example, a tennis player's eyes see the tennis ball's movements, and is working with the brain to track the speed and trajectory.  The brain is then reacting to these cues along with all other available cues, to send signals to the nerves responsible for moving the body in the required way to respond to these cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If however, something happens externally to the tennis game, which is then interpreted by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot;&gt;amygdalae and hypothalamus&lt;/a&gt; as a threat to the host's wellbeing, the brain's attention is immediately moved from the tennis game to the threat in order for it to react in the best way possible to protect the body from the perceived impending danger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, the brain may not be immediately conscious of the threat in a psychological sense as it may not have time to think about the threat in a psychological way, but nevertheless, the brain will be conscious of the impending danger and will respond accordingly in the most efficient way possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is reflex reaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional reactions are psychological reactions to stimulae which the brain receives, whereas reflex reactions are reactions which result from stimulae which the brain currently doesn't have time to process psychologically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-11-29T07:21:22.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16319" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16219" CreationDate="2016-11-29T08:56:08.397" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I understand the question correctly, you are asking about the perceived intensity of a stimulus, depending on time of its display. I would suggest you look for literature which discusses temporal summation. In non-psychological tongue it's called Bloch's Law (Response=Intensity*time of display).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe this would serve you:&#xA;Barlow, H. B. (1958). Temporal and spatial summation in human vision at different background intensities. The Journal of physiology, 141(2), 337.‏&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14220" LastActivityDate="2016-11-29T08:56:08.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16320" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16329" CreationDate="2016-11-29T15:55:07.543" Score="4" ViewCount="636" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does our brain translate periheral sensations due to injuries into pain perceptions? As an &lt;em&gt;in silico&lt;/em&gt; analogy - if a stimulus is applied to a sensor it can be transmitted to a microprocessor. The micro processor then processes the information. However, a microprocessor will not cause the sensor to &quot;feel&quot; that stimulus. In other words, the processed information of the sensor is not projected back to that sensor as a perceived stimulus. Hence, in electronic circuits the information is processed unidirectionally. In contrast, in the peripheral nervous system sensory inputs are processed in the central nervous system, ultimately resulting in perceived sensations on the location of the sensor. Thus, apparently, the peripheral and central nervous systems operate in a feedback loop. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How does our nervous system do this? In other words, how does it localize the source of the stimulus (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, pain) and turn that sensation into a perception on that location, rather than just unidirectionally process the information?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14360" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-11-30T22:27:54.787" LastActivityDate="2016-12-19T10:03:59.727" Title="How does the brain project pain on to a particular part of the body?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16322" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-29T23:24:24.650" Score="1" ViewCount="185" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that they are both used in computational neuroscience. However, I am trying to optimize my studying, so it might be useful to know which to focus more time upon, at least in the beginning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14366" LastEditorUserId="14366" LastEditDate="2016-11-30T23:49:30.403" LastActivityDate="2016-11-30T23:49:30.403" Title="Which is more important for computational neuroscience: differential equations or linear algebra?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-12-02T15:20:27.607" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16327" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-30T17:39:42.537" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am designing a survey that will have to be administered over the phone. While I have used 7-point Likerts on many occasions, saying &quot;On a scale of one to seven&quot; out loud makes it seem, suddenly, extremely unintuitive. If I were to ask a friend something, I would ask on a scale of 1 to 10.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand the issues behind having an even number of points, but is there any other strong reason not to ask 1:10? My own sense is that the simple familiarity of the scale would allow for more reliable answers, and I have no desire to list (each time) &quot;Not at all, a little, somewhat ...&quot; which I anticipate will simply exhaust my already time-strapped and generally no-nonsense population. 1:10 is fast, and low burden. Or will that familiarity itself result in biases?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14372" LastActivityDate="2016-11-30T17:39:42.537" Title="Scales in Oral vs. Paper Surveys" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16329" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16320" CreationDate="2016-11-30T21:16:52.057" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Peripheral sensory information is projected unidirectionally to the brain. A sensory strip of the brain contains a topographical representation of the surface of the body that facilitates the localization of peripheral stimuli. Hence, there is no feedback from the brain to the periphery necessary to locate the source of a peripheral stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The sensory systems in the skin project unidirectionally to the somatosensory cortex. In the somatosensory cortex there are so-called topographical maps. These maps contain the neurons that connect to different parts of the body. Typically, neurons receiving information from one part of the body are clustered together in the brain. For example, the sensory outputs of the peripheral touch receptors in the finger digits ultimately synapse onto cortical sensory neurons that are close together. Touch receptors in the toes for example are processed farther away &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11153/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;. A famous graphical presentation is the somatosensory homunculus (Fig. 1), showing the areas of the sensory cortex devoted to processing sensory inputs in different bodily parts, including touch; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ts9ZC.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ts9ZC.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;homunculus&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Sensory homunculus. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intropsych.com/ch02_human_nervous_system/homunculus.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Russel &amp;amp; Dewy (2007)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The sensory cortex, hence, is a highly structured cortical area, in which sensory information (including outputs from touch, pain, heat and cold receptors for example) is funelled to a topographical representation in the brain. See for a nice introductory this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/somatosensation-2014-03-27T18:45:57.777Z/v/somatosensory-homunculus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;video from Khan Academy&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question - there is &lt;strong&gt;no feedback&lt;/strong&gt; from the brain back to the periphery necessary to process peripheral sensations into localized perceptions. The bodily map is maintained in the brain and contains all the information necessary to pinpoint the stimulus locus on the skin. This localization is more accurate when more peripheral fibers are present, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt; when receptor density is higher. This is centrally reflected in the sensory strip in a larger area of the cortex being devoted to bodily parts with denser receptor innervation. This is the reason why the homunculus is so distorted (Fig. 2). For example, the lips, tongue and finger tips are highly sensitive and contain high densities of peripheral receptors. In effect, relatively large areas of the somatosensory cortex are dedicated to processing their inputs.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PBNIs.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PBNIs.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;homunculus2&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. 3D representation of the sensory homunculus. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ucalgary.ca/pip369/mod7/touch/neural2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;University of Calgary&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11153/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;. 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates (2001)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intropsych.com/ch02_human_nervous_system/homunculus.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Russel &amp;amp; Dewey, &lt;em&gt;Psychology: An Introduction&lt;/em&gt; (2007-2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-12-19T10:03:59.727" LastActivityDate="2016-12-19T10:03:59.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16330" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-30T21:57:18.543" Score="1" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a classic study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shepard RN, Metzler J. Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science. 1971;171: 701–703.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which showed that when people are asked to tell whether two 3D objects are &quot;rotated&quot; versions of each other (as opposed to different objects), the average time to generate a correct response is linearly related to the angle of rotation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: has anyone ever held the response window constant, and measured % correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14375" LastActivityDate="2016-11-30T21:57:18.543" Title="Percent correct metric for mental rotation task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T23:22:29.310" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16331" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-11-30T23:53:35.263" Score="3" ViewCount="412" Body="&lt;p&gt;Complex networks and graph theory seem like they would be important for computational neuroscience, but they don't come up in the literature as often as I would expect. I'm wondering how frequently they are utilized and what specific ways they tend to be applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14366" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T16:22:54.080" Title="How often are complex networks and graph theory useful in computational neuroscience?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16333" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-01T14:00:29.077" Score="0" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is my first post to Cognitive Sciences, i'm a Biologist by trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Biological sciences, I have noticed more and more that people take criticism very personally. If I were to criticize a plumber's use of an 1/2&quot; pipe when they should have used a 3/4&quot; pipe, or a computer technician's use of a 600W power supply rather than a 1000W power supply, they might take it personally, but I feel they are far more likely to respond from a facts-based point of view. In biological sciences however, I more and more get the impression that people think attacking their work is a personal attack on their character.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps it's the high-stakes nature of a job. To have a paper retracted in the early stages of your career as a researcher is to essentially stop being a researcher. Which since most people get their PhD around 30 is a pretty big blow to anyone's life plans. Not so with a plumber who does a bad job one day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So i'm wondering if this can be quantified. Some metric of how personally people take criticism, or how objective they can be. Does such a phycological test exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you so much!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14381" LastActivityDate="2016-12-01T22:34:18.727" Title="A measure of how personally people take critisism" Tags="&lt;social-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16335" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16305" CreationDate="2016-12-01T22:29:34.083" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can see the number better when you move the image or your eyes, because with this action you reduce the overall contrast of the image.&#xA;The &quot;image&quot; in brain is a composition of many images which are acquired in small time periods, and the result can be approximately described as an average of many still images. So they are kind of blurred together. When scrolling it can also help to reduce contrast, because in short time periods the LCD pixels cannot reach the full contrast, so it appears in lowered contrast.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The contrast of stripes in your initial image is very high. Actually &lt;em&gt;contrast&lt;/em&gt; is the synonym for &lt;em&gt;information&lt;/em&gt;. So the underlying number 17 is simply lost in dominant information.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To demonstrate it better, one can play with different image filters which can reproduce the movement effect. A good one is Photoshop's &quot;Motion blur&quot; filter, here is the result for Motion blur at 45 degrees:   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GWM1j.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GWM1j.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7114" LastEditorUserId="7114" LastEditDate="2016-12-01T23:30:14.690" LastActivityDate="2016-12-01T23:30:14.690" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16336" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16333" CreationDate="2016-12-01T22:34:18.727" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not know whether such a test exist, and I also would be wondering how you could convince someone to take a &quot;how offended do you get&quot; - Test :P.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, this is a weird topic to quantify, because of your special &quot;needs&quot;.&#xA;You have on the one hand the &quot;Offendedness&quot;, the measurement of how a person is likely to respond negatively and get in a personal defense position when you give them criticism. This really depends a person's development, If someone as you said puts in 15 years of hard work to get a PhD they may be really defensive of criticism against their work. If you would criticise the same people maybe of their ability to play guitar which they have maximum 100 hours on, they may not react defensively. So you would need to determine special offendedness of criticism in some subject like Biology. Also the measurement is really hard. You may be able to diagnose people with emotional dysfunction by letting them look at eyes and guess the emotion (and even here, the error rate is probably high), but how are you assuring that people would honestly and self reflecting in a test of how offended they may get. People are biased against themselves and others, the human is not a objective living thing, if you would generalize it, in my experience even the most intelligent and even the most objective people I met are nearly the ones who are the most subjective / biased in the &quot;right&quot; direction. You often see such scientist debating against religious people and not finding arguments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then the second thing you touched on is the objectivity. Objectivity in itself is subjective, sounds weird but let me explain. &#xA;People who think they are objective most of the time are subjective thinking. And objective people are the ones who know that they are subjectively thinking because they know it is really hard to not be subject to the mind-boggling biases of the human mind and perception.&#xA;That being said, it is non-sense to ask the people about their own objectivity, and the only opportunity is to do it through an indirect test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there lies another Problem. People are going to act differently if they are in front of a test. You can not expect to get the same answers like to kill their family for the life of humanity in a real situation and on a computer test. On the online test they are way more likely to say yes, but in reality they are surely not objective enough to overcome their subjectivity, who can you expect to kill their family for the greater good?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Complexness of the tests makes it really hard to do them without the people acting differently like in the second example or being biased against themselves in the first example. You always are able on your own empirical data to determine the tendency of people being offended or not but I believe because of the complications it is near impossible to find a objective scale to determine it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14384" LastActivityDate="2016-12-01T22:34:18.727" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16339" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-02T14:38:03.007" Score="2" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to run a psychology experiment for one of my courses and it involves people trying to guard some &quot;treasure&quot; of theirs and trying not to lose it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My problem is that I can't ethically (or legally) force them to offer up their own money and then actually penalize them for not doing well.  At the same time, many of the participants that I've run so far have figured out that it's all a ruse and it's fake and they're not going to actually lose any money so the data may not accurately show how people react in those situations when there is something on the line.    Or I could give them a hypothetical scenario in which their job is tied to how well they do but again, it's not real so people often just don't try.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally, I would have some sort of funding for this where I can offer them $10 if they do well and slowly start taking away money as they fail to give them some incentive.  However, I don't have any of that (it's a course project) and I'm trying to figure out how to incentivize them.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help or ideas would be greatly appreciated.  Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="noblerare" LastActivityDate="2016-12-02T22:01:03.233" Title="How do you raise the stakes in an experiment without actually paying people money?" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16340" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16353" CreationDate="2016-12-02T18:21:40.903" Score="1" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am searching for real neuron firing data, so I can look at each neuron for fire timing (frequency) and incoming/outgoing signal-strength. I already found short youtube videos of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yy994HpFudc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;real neuron firing footage (measured via calcium)&lt;/a&gt;, but I am searching for numeric data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Data-Requirements&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Region is not important&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the longer time range, the better&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14391" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-12-06T08:07:04.707" LastActivityDate="2016-12-06T08:07:04.707" Title="Searching for real biological neuron firing data [numeric]" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-12-06T08:07:33.917" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16341" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14043" CreationDate="2016-12-02T18:50:01.650" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no standard definition for a &quot;good&quot; value of d'. The index of sensitivity d' can be related to percent correct under certain conditions (unbiased observer, equal probability of signal and no signal trials, and a single observation). Under these conditions values of d' of 1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5 equate to a probability of correct of 0.69, 0.77, 0.84, and 0.89, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Historically, &quot;threshold&quot; was often defined as a probability of correct of 0.75. This is the midpoint of the psychometric function and in a yes/no task and the point with the steepest slope. With the transformed up-down method (Levitt, 1971) it is much easier to track a a probability of correct of 0.707 or 0.794, than a probability of correct of 0.75. These equate roughly to a d' of 1 and 1.5. Things got messier as people switched to 2-interval 2-AFC paradigms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to think about this is that the index of sensitivity d' is essentially the same thing as Cohen's d. Cohen (1988) proposed that values of Cohen's d of 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 were small, medium, and large effects, respectively. Again, there is no obvious mapping of &quot;good&quot; onto small, medium, and large.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2016-12-02T18:50:01.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16343" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16339" CreationDate="2016-12-02T19:45:19.163" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Make them create something with their own hands, something hard to make and use that as currency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I first became aware of this type of experiments from a ted talk by Dan Ariely which I recommend you watch, specially the last part:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/2015/10/02/443434903/what-pushes-us-to-work-hard-even-when-we-don-t-have-to&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What Pushes Us To Work Hard — Even When We Don't Have To?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The gist from these behavioral economics experiments, is that we value things we make substantially higher than an impartial evaluator,even more if making them was difficult,challenging or rewarding; so if you don't have money but have willing  experimenters, you could possibly make them create something, let them assign a value and then use it as currency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You experiment would be as follow:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Create something - Origami,painting, sculpture of themselves &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Assign Value - Ask them how much would they sell it for&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Substitute for currency - Take their thing away from them, now you have something you can reward them with or even fraction.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="14245" LastEditDate="2016-12-02T19:51:58.233" LastActivityDate="2016-12-02T19:51:58.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16344" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16339" CreationDate="2016-12-02T22:01:03.233" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have run a number of studies with incentive paradigms.  There are several ways to do this without spending any/very much money.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of my favorite methods that works quite well is called a &quot;hall of fame&quot; manipulation.  The paradigm is set up such that participants earn arbitrary points during the task.  After I explain the rules of the game, I explain that they will have a chance to make our hall of fame, which is simply a high scores list.  It's made up, but it comes up on the screen for them to view, and they are asked to enter in a user name in case they have a high enough score to make the list.  Of course, for anonymity I don't actually record their user name or update the list based on participants' performance.  At my school, undergraduates seem highly motivated by this because they are competitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing we do in my lab is associate arbitrary points with earning candy at the end of the experiment.  I like this manipulation less because many undergraduates are trying to watch what they eat, and are not very motivated by this.  However, in combination with the hall of fame list, it seems to work quite well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are able to get a little bit of money, what you can do is buy one Amazon gift card for say, 50 or 100$ and tell participants they'll win raffle tickets which you will draw from to select one winner after you've run your experiment.  This has obvious pros and cons, namely, it's good that you don't have to pay each participant, and it's bad because some participants will decide that they have no chance of winning the raffle and they won't be motivated by it at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, another option that is good for if you want to have several levels of incentives is to use symbols during the experiment such as: \$ for low incentive, \$\$ for medium, and \$$$ for high. In reality these amounts can correspond to pennies, allowing a participant to earn, say, $10 max over the study, but they don't have to see on each trial how minuscule the money is. The symbols will motivate them more so than the amount of money would.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that you are doing this for a course, I recommend using points and a high scores list.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing that is annoying about doing an incentive manipulation is that if you fail to find an effect, it may be that there is no effect of incentive, or it may be that your incentive wasn't strong enough; you'll have no way of knowing.  As with any study, a good idea is to have some other aspect of the data that you're interested in studying so even if your incentive manipulation isn't successful, you can still address some other question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps! Good luck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14388" LastActivityDate="2016-12-02T22:01:03.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16345" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16347" CreationDate="2016-12-03T04:22:11.033" Score="0" ViewCount="401" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since I've heard about evolution theory, I tend to think about new things with the help of this theory. While not being always accurate, I find the reasoning that makes this theory possible very interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can ask a question like &lt;code&gt;Why do humans have 2 eyes?&lt;/code&gt; and answer hypothetically that it was more advantageous for creatures to have 2 eyes than having 1 or 3. We can imagine that having 1 eye wouldn't allow to see the depth and make the creature able to live even when losing 1 eye. This answer isn't correct but makes sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can do the same with behavior. &lt;code&gt;Why do we tend to be jealous?&lt;/code&gt; We can imagine that forcing your sexual partner to stay with you gives your more chances to spread your genes. I'm not saying that this is the only answer but that's one hypothetical answer that makes sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, what about suicide? From what I have read, people tend to suicide when their amount of pain is higher than what they can support. I don't see any reason why creatures(or anything from bacteria to human) would be advantaged from committing suicide. Why didn't the natural selection keep the individuals that can endure anything since they have more chances to stay alive and spread their genes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14393" LastEditorUserId="8191" LastEditDate="2016-12-03T13:51:10.163" LastActivityDate="2016-12-03T13:51:10.163" Title="Why do suicide has been kept in natural selection?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2016-12-03T13:54:25.790" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16347" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16345" CreationDate="2016-12-03T10:50:52.113" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This assumes that tendency to suicide is hereditary. It seems that currently, the consensus is that suicide risk can be increased by environmental factors as well as by family history, so it may only be partially encoded in our genes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For that part of the 'suicide genes' that does survive the natural selection, some of the possible explanations could be that people who commit suicide may have already had children, so their genes have been passed on to the next generation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another explanation could be, linked to what Yuval Noah Harari mentioned in &quot;Sapiens&quot;. Hunter-gatherers were constantly on the move and it was not uncommon for them to kill or leave behind the elderly or individuals who would otherwise be a burden or slow down the tribe. It became a social norm, potentially to the point where the sick individuals would be ready to commit suicide themselves. The tribes which practised this were able to hunt and gather more, increasing their chances of survival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All this is, however, a speculation, it is very hard to prove the evolutionary causes of suicides under scientific rigour, especially when running a controlled study is almost impossible. Even if we were able to run a controlled study, we'd most likely find that there is a large number of factors that allowed suicide genes to prevail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8191" LastActivityDate="2016-12-03T10:50:52.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16348" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-03T11:12:03.357" Score="1" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;People learn (or actually acquire) languages naturally. As we grow up, we learn also multiple other skills which we then use in everyday life. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of these skills are often compared to a language, for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mathematics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reading&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Playing musical instrument&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Programming languages&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Law&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Playing chess (proven to rely on patterns)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dancing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Painting or, more generally, producing works of art.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of the above have been compared at one point to a language. They are used to communicate ideas, emotions and information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The language is used for communication. In the same way, one person knowing the law/programming language/accounting wouldn't actually possess any useful skill without the presence of other lawyers/computers/tax system. So one can argue that all these skills are relevant and can be evaluated only in the presence of other people who receive the message expressed using them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the same way, if one person invents their own language but nobody else understands it, we wouldn't classify it as a language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, could it be that most of the skills we learn could be described as a language? &#xA;What would be arguments against it?&#xA;Is there any evidence I can look into with regards to similarities between learning different skills and learning languages?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8191" LastEditorUserId="8191" LastEditDate="2016-12-07T06:37:19.177" LastActivityDate="2016-12-07T19:37:20.080" Title="Could any kind of learning be framed as learning a language?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-12-14T19:20:23.650" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16349" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16364" CreationDate="2016-12-03T19:43:18.950" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has a hypersensitivity to depictions of embarrassing situations in media been described in the psychology literature?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How would I go about researching this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14397" LastActivityDate="2016-12-05T20:57:32.520" Title="Has a hypersensitivity to depictions of embarrassing situations in media been described in the psychology literature?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16350" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-03T19:44:30.440" Score="5" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;After understanding that &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/15878/do-cats-exhibit-the-bouba-kiki-effect&quot;&gt;cats cannot experience the Kiki/Bouba effect&lt;/a&gt;, I wonder if smart non-human primates can experience it. There is evidence suggesting that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3251154/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chimpanzees associate high pitch with high luminance, and low pitch with low luminance.&lt;/a&gt;. However, the kiki/bouba effect is a more complicated phenomenon. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So do chimps experience it, even at a lower level, or is the Kiki/Bouba effect limited to human beings only?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13651" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-08T18:14:38.933" LastActivityDate="2018-07-08T18:14:38.933" Title="Do non-human primates exhibit the Kiki/Bouba effect?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;cross-modal&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16351" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1134" CreationDate="2016-12-03T22:17:24.767" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people with &quot;without a problem&quot; have fallen under &lt;strong&gt;Gut Health/Gut Microbiota&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drperlmutter.com/study/randomized-controlled-trial-test-effect-multispecies-probiotics-cognitive-reactivity-sad-mood/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;A randomized controlled trial to test the effect of multispecies probiotics on cognitive reactivity to sad mood.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&quot;Conclusion: These results provide the first evidence that the intake of probiotics may help reduce negative thoughts associated with&#xA;  sad mood. Probiotics supplementation warrants further research as a&#xA;  potential preventive strategy for depression.&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also see: &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drperlmutter.com/depression-microbiome-leaky-gut/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Depression, The Microbiome &amp;amp; Leaky Gut&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drperlmutter.com/study/randomized-controlled-trial-test-effect-multispecies-probiotics-cognitive-reactivity-sad-mood/#sthash.mtkhAYRd.dpuf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.drperlmutter.com/study/randomized-controlled-trial-test-effect-multispecies-probiotics-cognitive-reactivity-sad-mood/#sthash.mtkhAYRd.dpuf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drperlmutter.com/depression-microbiome-leaky-gut/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.drperlmutter.com/depression-microbiome-leaky-gut/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brain Maker: The Power of Gut Microbes to Heal and Protect Your Brain–for Life, Dr. David Perlmutter,  Kristin Loberg&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="849" LastActivityDate="2016-12-03T22:17:24.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16353" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16340" CreationDate="2016-12-04T04:46:09.423" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The website &lt;a href=&quot;http://crcns.org/data-sets&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;crcns.org&lt;/a&gt; hosts open source data recorded from neurons in various brain areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-12-04T09:35:15.407" LastActivityDate="2016-12-04T09:35:15.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16354" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-04T19:26:11.003" Score="0" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for survey participants from the UK. Is there a place I can publish my survey in order to get UK participants?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14410" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-12-06T00:35:27.757" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T00:33:25.453" Title="Where could I collect UK participants for my survey?" Tags="&lt;survey&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16356" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5251" CreationDate="2016-12-04T20:39:10.377" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Logical Thinking is a very broad class of phenomena whereas counting is a very specific one. Logical Thinking dependes on the invidual having logical operations, which follow a course of development from early childhood, as proposed by Piaget. Counting itself has been a subject of research that shows that indeed young children can learn to count without understanding what number is. For example, a child may count two rows of items and count both as having &quot;six&quot;, yet when one of such rows's elements are spaced, thereby removing the optical correspondence between the items, that same child will deny that both rows still have the same amount. A review of this research and other topics related to early mathematics learning can be found in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/sites/default/files/P2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/sites/default/files/P2.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14412" LastActivityDate="2016-12-04T20:39:10.377" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16358" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-04T21:06:52.660" Score="2" ViewCount="166" Body="&lt;p&gt;For some reason people are more comfortable swapping words when referring to the same thing. e.g. referring to a penis or vagina can make a person uncomfortable where using the words &quot;family jewels&quot; or &quot;down there&quot; does not&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess is that something in the brain processes the sound, turns it into a meaning of some sought, the meaning is some how associated with the emotion and and object, but more closely associated with an emotion than and object hence using another word for the same object is more comfortable. My knowledge in this area is limited hence im asking&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EXe4I.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EXe4I.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;draw.io version of image &lt;a href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/open?id=0Bz-acU90dFRMZ1ptQnl2SWJESWs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://drive.google.com/open?id=0Bz-acU90dFRMZ1ptQnl2SWJESWs&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11296" LastActivityDate="2016-12-04T21:06:52.660" Title="How do euphemisms work in the brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T21:58:05.743" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16359" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-04T14:07:55.267" Score="-1" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm more concerned about the biological aspect of this question than the psychological one (although both are equally bewildering). But what makes our brain conscious of one thing and unconscious of another?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Irena Mason" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2016-12-05T15:32:07.527" LastActivityDate="2016-12-05T15:32:07.527" Title="What really is 'Consciousness'?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16360" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16359" CreationDate="2016-12-04T18:25:44.387" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...what makes our brain conscious of one thing and unconscious of another?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under normal conditions, our brain itself regulates what we are conscious of and what we suppress (or don't perceive). By &lt;em&gt;conscious&lt;/em&gt;, I'll assume you mean &lt;em&gt;aware&lt;/em&gt;. Why are we aware of the news on the television, but not consciously aware of someone outside mowing the lawn, for example? Or why are we aware of ringing in our ears (tinnitus) in the evening, but less so during our workday?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;All&lt;/em&gt; stimuli is 'perceived' at the input point. All stimuli is then processed at some level(s) in the brain. But only some of the constantly incoming information makes it to our consciousness. At multiple levels of the CNS, specialized brain tissue/areas &quot;decide&quot; whether or not to let that information through to the higher brain levels (responsible for consciousness). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on the stimulus, different areas of the brain are responsible. Noise is processed differently than vision or sensations of pressure on our bodies, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want an example of the processes involved in only one area of consciousness, the paper below is a quick read. (You'll have to google it; it's a PDF.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Conscious Perception of&#xA;Emotional Stimuli: Brain Mechanisms, Derek G.V. Mitchell et al., &lt;em&gt;The Neuroscientist&lt;/em&gt;, 2011 &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" OwnerDisplayName="anongoodnurse" LastActivityDate="2016-12-04T20:29:32.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16362" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16354" CreationDate="2016-12-05T11:21:54.113" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could obtain paid participants from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.prolific.ac/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.prolific.ac/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That site allows you filter by country.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The prices are reasonable, especially if your survey is short and you don't need too many participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-06-01T00:33:25.453" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T00:33:25.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16364" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16349" CreationDate="2016-12-05T20:57:32.520" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you have access to online databases via a university or public library, I would recommend searching for scholarly articles using keywords such as “embarrassment” and “media.”  Using my university’s library website I was able to search two major psychology databases, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection and PsycARTICLES. First I searched using the term “embarrassment” by itself, which produced the largest and broadest set of hits. Then I tried combinations of “embarrasement” plus other keywords, including “media,” “art,” “film,” “television,” and “sensitivity.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I did not find any articles specifically pertaining to hypersensitive reactions to embarrassing situations in media, I did find some that seem tangentially related, and which may be of interest. The lack of results also points to a need for scholarship in this area, if you are looking for something to research!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My search yielded multiple articles about the feeling of embarrassment itself. One that seemed promising is &quot;The Unwanted Exposure of the Self: A Phenomenological Study of Embarrassment” by Robbins and Parlavecchio. From the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Through a synthesis of prior theory and empirical research, these authors propose a model of embarrassment in which embarrassment is understood to signify the core, essential theme of a self that has been exposed to unwanted attention. Through an empirical, phenomenological method of analysis of data from 6 undergraduate college students, the authors identify 8 themes of embarrassment and relate them through a structural description of the phenomenon. The findings support the unwanted exposure model of embarrassment. (Robbins and Parlavecchio 2006)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article may offer a useful framework for understanding of how embarrassment is viewed in psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Only one article I found made mention of embarrassment in media, and it was Tom Ballingall’s book review of Documentary's Awkward Turn: Cringe Comedy and Media Spectatorship by Jason Middleton. In this review, Ballingall writes that the book examines the evolution of “cringe comedy” and mockumentary, and the various dimensions of spectatorship the genre engenders.  He states: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“When individuals sense and feel the rules of social life and/or documentary filmmaking breaking down (i.e., when awkwardness emerges), they are confronted with nothing less than the constructedness of documentary's criteria for truth and authenticity.” (2015)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Middleton's book may be a good place to start. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&#xA;Ballingall, Tim. &quot;Documentary's Awkward Turn: Cringe Comedy and Media Spectatorship.&quot; Journal of Popular Culture 48, no. 1 (February 2015): 209-211. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, EBSCOhost (accessed December 5, 2016)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Robbins, Brent Dean, and Holly Parlavecchio. 2006. &quot;The Unwanted Exposure of the Self: A Phenomenological Study of Embarrassment.&quot; Humanistic Psychologist 34, no. 4: 321-345. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, EBSCOhost (accessed December 5, 2016)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14417" LastActivityDate="2016-12-05T20:57:32.520" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16367" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2016-12-06T00:25:47.870" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2016-12-06T00:25:47.870" LastActivityDate="2016-12-06T00:25:47.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16368" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2016-12-06T00:25:47.870" Score="0" Body="For questions that deal with substances injected or ingested into the body for various physiological or psychological effects." OwnerUserId="1141" LastEditorUserId="1141" LastEditDate="2016-12-06T12:34:21.133" LastActivityDate="2016-12-06T12:34:21.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16369" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-06T01:04:13.780" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed that when someone repeats something too often or is too insistent about it, I will be more likely to doubt them, even if what they're saying is true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My thought process might go something like &quot;the repetition and insistence might signal that they're compensating for something&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the acquaintance of a murder victim who constantly claims their innocence even when not being accused would probably trigger some doubt in my mind. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if there's a name for that phenomenon if it exists at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14420" LastActivityDate="2016-12-06T01:04:13.780" Title="&quot;Repeating truth too often or being too insistent about it leads to doubt&quot;, is there such an effect?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2016-12-15T16:38:09.323" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16370" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16372" CreationDate="2016-12-06T13:58:40.403" Score="7" ViewCount="319" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently reading fast and slow and the author mentions the results of &lt;strong&gt;a lot&lt;/strong&gt; of studies. However, these are not directly cited, although some can possibly be googled with the information given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if there exists a version with all the references &lt;strong&gt;or&lt;/strong&gt; an academic book which provides similar information and references. I don't have much knowledge on the subject, so I do not know the technical terms for some of the phenomena explained in the book, and thus I do not know how to look for the papers pertaining them. (A suggestion of how familiarize myself with such terms is also welcome).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14422" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-12-06T22:19:57.293" LastActivityDate="2016-12-31T10:43:19.437" Title="Where are scientific references for the claims made in &quot;Thinking Fast and Slow&quot;" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16371" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-06T18:44:50.490" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been thinking about how much time do the Czech biology teachers spend just teaching the Czech terms for the organisms which they probably won't encounter again with, considering the fact that studies use exclusively the latin ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it just came to my mind that maybe it's easier for the brain to remember your native name for the organism and then connect it with the latin name, I've heard some physicists saying that those native-foreign pair words are often &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calque&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;calques&lt;/a&gt; - so apart from the connection with the actual organism you make the connection with the meaning of the word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But those are just my guesses. Are there any studies on this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2016-12-06T18:44:50.490" Title="Studies about learning terms in your native language?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16372" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16370" CreationDate="2016-12-06T22:17:17.013" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just found the book I used to study decision making. It's called Judgement and Decision Making and is written by Daniel and David Hardman. It is a perfect introductory book on the topic with references to pretty recent literature. It covers much of Tversky and Kahneman's work (the latter being the author of Thinking Fast and Slow), but also refer to literature of many other good research. I think this book may be the best scientific approximation of Thinking Fast and Slow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.nl/books?hl=nl&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=MhwKMSpf818C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA1&amp;amp;dq=Judgment%20and%20Decision%20Making:%20Psychological%20Perspectives&amp;amp;ots=2YpXhfOI2Y&amp;amp;sig=oAcpMr9NPn4ZY8ErDpoRTqGPN-U#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Judgment%20and%20Decision%20Making%3A%20Psychological%20Perspectives&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hardman, D. K. &amp;amp; Hardman, D., (2009). Judgment and decision making: Psychological perspectives (Vol. 11). John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2016-12-06T22:22:58.133" LastActivityDate="2016-12-06T22:22:58.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16373" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-07T06:33:49.487" Score="2" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;For instance consider psychiatrist, clinical psychologist, clinical social worker, family/marriage therapists, occupational therapists (in some places they can provide therapy), professional counselors, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've found research articles talking about stressful careers in general but not comparison. Wiki contributors cite an article from the 80s saying, &quot;Professions with high levels of burnout include social workers, nurses, teachers, lawyers, engineers, medical practitioners, customer service representatives, and police officers.  One reason why burnout is so prevalent within the human services field is due in part to the high-stress work environment and emotional demands of the job.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14430" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-12-07T08:18:24.050" LastActivityDate="2016-12-07T08:18:24.050" Title="Has there been a study comparing stress level or burnout between different occupations that provide therapy?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16374" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16348" CreationDate="2016-12-07T06:36:06.253" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It appears that the language and learning new skills would often (depending on the skill) be managed by different parts of the brain. It is, therefore, unlikely to be similar. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good description of how the learning process works from neuroscience's point of view can be found here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s4/chapter07.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s4/chapter07.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This same course also describes how the language is managed in the brain in this chapter: &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s4/chapter08.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s4/chapter08.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on the above, it doesn't seem to be the case that the mentioned skills are similar to language, at least not in terms of how the brain processes them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8191" LastActivityDate="2016-12-07T06:36:06.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16377" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16348" CreationDate="2016-12-07T19:37:20.080" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would argue that as soon as you start to consider model-free learning, such as reinforecement learning (e.g. Pavlovian Conditioning) that the language idea breaks down. For example, I don't think that learning that a bell is often paired with food can be usefully thought of as learning a language without some serious contortion of the meaning of what a language is. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this is mind, if you consider that language is a very high-order cognitive ability that relatively few animals poses, yet even sea snails can learn (just ask Eric Kandel), I would say that the majority of learning cannot usefully be considered learning a language. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, from your question you seem to only be concerned with complex skill learning. At this point it's probably more useful to consider what criteria are required to define something as language (e.g. a grammar, syntax, symbolic conveying of information), and then see if the skills that you are interested fulfill those criteria. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14253" LastActivityDate="2016-12-07T19:37:20.080" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16379" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-07T19:50:22.173" Score="5" ViewCount="317" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer:&lt;/strong&gt; I am very much a layman in these areas of research, so please do amend the question in order to conform to conventional usage of terminology and definitions thereof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westworld_(TV_series)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the series &lt;em&gt;Westworld&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (not the film from 1973), there are a number of themes related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;consciousness&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentience#Philosophy_and_sentience&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;sentience&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-awareness#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-awareness&lt;/a&gt;. However, it seems that the main in-universe theory of what drives consciousness&lt;sup&gt;&amp;dagger;&lt;/sup&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Firstly, a version of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameralism_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;bicameralism&lt;/a&gt;, namely that the (sentient) mind is, was, or &amp;mdash; in the case of Westworld &amp;mdash; &lt;em&gt;can be defined as being&lt;/em&gt; composed of an active part &quot;generating&quot; thought and a passive part which &quot;accepts/consumes/processes&quot; this thought.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Secondly &amp;mdash; and, according to my limited knowledge of psychology/cognitive science, perhaps more accurately &amp;mdash; that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;memory&lt;/a&gt; and (past) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;experience&lt;/a&gt; is a fundamental part of the development of consciousness/sentience/self-awareness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, I know that ideas in psychology and the philosophy of mind are extremely difficult to prove &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/scientists-replicated-100-psychology-studies-and-fewer-half-got-same-results-180956426/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;even empirically&lt;/a&gt;, let alone formally. However, it is still possible to not only do experiments which provide corroborating evidence proving the above but also to intrinsically evaluate the above hypothesis for general consistency. Therefore, &lt;strong&gt;regardless of how accurately these ideas describe how &lt;em&gt;human&lt;/em&gt; minds actually work, how plausible is it to define &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt; form of consciousness according to the above?&lt;/strong&gt; (yes, I know that one point of the entire series is to drive home the idea that there is no magical &quot;switch&quot; to &quot;turning on&quot; consciousness/sentience; It's not a binary distinction).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Own speculations&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At least in the human mind, &lt;a href=&quot;https://naturescienceart.org/2011/10/30/memory-and-consciousness/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;memories in fact involve complex chains of synapses which, allow us to, in some form, indeed &quot;re-live&quot; past experience to some degree&lt;/a&gt;. In fact, (please help me find the citation), it has been shown that people thinking about doing physical activity display activity in parts of the brain responsible for planning of the actual motor movement for that activity. Given that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/westworld/comments/5e58f8/plot_hole_or_something_to_be_explained/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Hosts in the series are able to &quot;perfectly&quot; re-live past experiences&lt;/a&gt;, is it possible that &quot;consciousness&quot; could even more plausibly emerge as a complex interaction between these networks, i.e. sensory input triggers multiple memories (which are in fact parts of a larger &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;neural network&lt;/a&gt;), which then &quot;output&quot; a response of some kind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even in humans, what constitutes a &quot;mind&quot; develops over time (cf. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind#Development&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;theory of mind&lt;/a&gt;) &amp;mdash; whether or not this is due to accumulating experiences and memories is beyond my (current) knowledge. Since even we aren't born with some sort of &quot;fully-developed&quot; cognition, is it not plausible that some other being/machine/whatever could develop cognitively from a &quot;lower&quot; point than what children start at to something similar to our own adult &quot;cognition&quot; (ignoring the problem of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_zombie&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;philosophical zombies&lt;/a&gt;)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if cognition &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; be driven by such a network of  &quot;memories&quot;, is this not in fact then incompatible with the notion of a &quot;bicameral&quot; mind? Does that not mean that, despite how smart/sound the individual ideas in the show seem in isolation, that Westworldian cognition is intrinsically unsound?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;dagger;&lt;/sup&gt;In this question, I conflate &lt;em&gt;consciousness&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;sentience&lt;/em&gt; for the sake of convenience; Is there not a more proper term which encompasses both?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14443" OwnerDisplayName="errantlinguist" LastEditorUserId="14443" LastEditDate="2016-12-08T06:48:30.560" LastActivityDate="2016-12-08T06:48:30.560" Title="How sound is the psychology of Westworld?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16380" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16350" CreationDate="2016-12-08T13:18:30.347" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;As far as I can see, testing the existence of the kiki/bouba effect in primates is technically impossible, because of their lack of speech and/or potential bias due to training effects inherently necessary for animal behavioral experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The reasoning in that &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/15878/do-cats-exhibit-the-bouba-kiki-effect&quot;&gt;other question&lt;/a&gt; was basically as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cats [&lt;em&gt;read: non-human animals&lt;/em&gt;] don't have that kind of repertoire of phonemes. So regardless the &gt; similarity in some brain areas [&lt;em&gt;of animals other than modern day humans&lt;/em&gt;], I dare to say a bouba/kiki or&#xA;  baluba/takete effect can never be found in cats [or any other non-human animals].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence - along those lines the answer to your question is 'no', as the bouba/kiki effect can simply not be tested in its current form in non-human animals, because the latter are not capable of uttering the words bouba or kiki. An interesting note on this are parrots and related species that are capable of reproducing human speech. However, they simply imitate the sounds, just like other species of birds imitate the sounds of ringtones and the likes. That, however, does not mean they associate those words or sounds with the meaning they have to us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, as suggested in that previous answer; synesthesia and cross-modal associations can certainly not be ruled out by any means.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting side track on your question would be the question wether there are cross-cultural differences &lt;em&gt;within&lt;/em&gt; the human species. For example, folks speaking languages unrelated to Western languages, like the tonal language Chinese Mandarin, &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; produce a different outcome in the same bouba/kiki test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The comment from ArnonWeinberg is an interesting one - why not train an animal to point at one of the two graphs when hearing bouba or kiki? Well, the issue here is that the animal needs training; the trick with the bouba/kiki effect is that naive people assign the same pointy structure to the work kiki and the blobby image to bouba. If one would train an animal the trainer needs to reward (or punish) the animal when it responds in a satisfactory way. That means the experimenter's influence on the animal's response will be paramount for the outcome of the experiment. In turn, a trained animal will respond the way it was taught, which is not the intention of this experiment.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-07T20:16:48.270" LastActivityDate="2018-07-07T20:16:48.270" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16382" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-10T03:32:49.770" Score="1" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brianrlittle.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr Brian Little&lt;/a&gt; stand up and give a great talk on personality types. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On one of his slides - he showed a 'concentration scale diagram' with introverts at the top, ambiverts in the middle, and extraverts at the bottom. He made the point that optimal concentration is in the middle of the diagram - where the ambiverts are. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(You can see it in the video &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NZ5o9PcHeL0&amp;amp;t=8m23s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; from a different presentation at 8:23)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His subsequent point was that the caffeine in coffee had an 'upward pushing effect' - which would lift an extravert into an optimal zone of concentration, but would have a negative effect on an introvert. (They would be lifted away from the optimal zone of concentration. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;What is the name of the introvert-extravert concentration scale diagram?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastActivityDate="2016-12-10T03:32:49.770" Title="What is the name of the introvert-extravert concentration scale diagram?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;&lt;introversion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16383" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16414" CreationDate="2016-12-10T12:23:49.597" Score="3" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are plenty of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/all-the-rage/201302/avoiding-the-angry-email-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;helpful descriptions&lt;/a&gt; of how to avoid angry emails. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2014/02/the-best-way-to-defuse-your-stress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reasoning&lt;/a&gt; is largely that it doesn't solve the problem. That is, sending an email whilst angry causes more problems for you than it solves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what about the recipient? Logically and analytically we know that people don't respond well to an emotive email. But is there statistical or experimental evidence of the changes in brain/body state (or behaviour) that occur when people receive emotive emails?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;Is there evidence to suggest that receiving angry emails increases stress levels?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastActivityDate="2016-12-16T00:46:39.283" Title="Is there evidence to suggest that receiving angry emails increases stress levels?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16385" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-10T15:24:37.007" Score="3" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;Earworms (or sometimes referred as sticky tunes, involuntary musical imagery, stuck songs) is a phenomenon that many people experience in their daily lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although several studies suggest that they do not last more than several days, there is a case where the song was stuck in a man's head for over 33 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to be ethically problematic to test which songs create earworms, because the melodies may be stuck in participants' heads, even if they knew about the aim and possible consequences of the study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any way to test which songs create earworms without any ethical troubles?&lt;/strong&gt; I can only think of doing a descriptive research, asking &quot;Do you know this song? How sticky is this song?&quot; but making conclusions from this data would be quite difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or maybe I should add this question: Since mostly earworms last for a few days, it is not probable that the participant will have an earworm that negatively affects his/her life. &lt;strong&gt;So, can I do an experiment about earworms since an ethical problem is highly unlikely?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7063" LastActivityDate="2016-12-10T15:24:37.007" Title="Testing earworms without ethical problems" Tags="&lt;music&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16386" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16393" CreationDate="2016-12-10T19:37:00.033" Score="-1" ViewCount="2695" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading about eminent psychologists and I came across William James and a book that he has written: &lt;em&gt;The Principles of Psychology&lt;/em&gt;. However, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Principles_of_Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia states this book is outdated&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Philosopher Helmut R. Wagner writes that most of the book's contents&#xA;  are now outdated, but that it still contains insights of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article referenced is the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wagner, Helmut R. (1983). Phenomenology of Consciousness and Sociology of the Life-world: An Introductory Study. Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press. p. 218. ISBN 0-88864-032-3.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true or is it still worth reading?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14357" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2016-12-15T18:14:58.357" LastActivityDate="2016-12-16T11:49:08.247" Title="Is ''The principles of psychology'' by ''William James'' outdated?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2016-12-15T05:44:29.010" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16388" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-10T21:00:34.803" Score="1" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me be clear that my intentions here are peaceful in light of recent race relation issues in the United States; I want to bring this issue to the forefront, because fear of dark skinned people is an emotional response and NOT a logical one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering how much of this maladaptation is brought about by a deep subconscious childhood fear of the dark.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now of course there are cultural aspects to this as well; too much emphasis on &quot;Good&quot; being light, and &quot;Dark&quot; being bad; I am already aware of these and already know that they have no correlation at all with a persons skin color; the color of a persons skin has absolutely nothing to do with the moral compass of a person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me if a maladaptation like this could be proven; it would help people with such a fear to go &quot;oh no, that's non-sense, that's just my emotions acting up&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence or studies that have proven this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="521" LastEditorUserId="521" LastEditDate="2016-12-10T21:55:08.297" LastActivityDate="2016-12-10T21:55:08.297" Title="Is fear of darker skinned people a shared psychological maladaptation brought on by subconscious childhood Achluophobia?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16389" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-10T23:01:31.040" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Despite being rare, a maternal refusal syndrome can have devasting consequences on children, spouse, and the mother herself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears indeed that occasionally women don't bond that well to their kids, and this may be accompanied by a crisis in their marriage too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The evidence on this is quite limited and confused with post-partum depression, which is a completely different entity (see for instance &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2098475/We-didnt-love-babies-What-happens-maternal-instinct-just-doesnt-kick-Three-women-break-motherhood-s-greatest-taboo-.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hardy&lt;/a&gt;, a Wikipedia entry on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_bond&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;maternal bond&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/kith-and-kin/201312/the-maternal-myth&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ragdale&lt;/a&gt;). Indeed, I mean by maternity refusal syndrome to the incapacity to bond effectively and rejoice with the kids not shortly after delivery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can it best be prevented and managed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13347" LastEditorUserId="13347" LastEditDate="2016-12-21T10:27:53.667" LastActivityDate="2016-12-21T10:27:53.667" Title="How can a maternity refusal syndrome be prevented or treated?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16391" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-12T06:03:04.283" Score="4" ViewCount="288" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have &lt;a href=&quot;https://graphicdesign.stackexchange.com/questions/69591/what-is-the-optimal-contrast-ratio-for-best-readability&quot;&gt;asked the same question&lt;/a&gt; half a year ago on Graphic Design but received no useful answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG20-TECHS/G17.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;According to the W3C&lt;/a&gt; (and &lt;a href=&quot;https://graphicdesign.stackexchange.com/questions/19/contrast-ratio-between-foreground-and-background&quot;&gt;another question on this site&lt;/a&gt;), the contrast ratio between body text and text background should be at least 7:1 for good legibility. Google takes this up in their typography guidelines, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/design/spec/style/typography.html#typography-other-typographic-guidelines&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;they also maintain that&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Text with too much contrast can also be hard to read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, they don't state what &quot;too much contrast&quot; exactly is, and I was unable to find anything definite on the web.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the &lt;em&gt;optimal&lt;/em&gt; contrast ratio for best readability&lt;/strong&gt; – that is, neither too little nor too much contrast – for subjects with normal vision &lt;strong&gt;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:46:19.570" LastActivityDate="2016-12-16T11:14:55.047" Title="What is the optimal contrast ratio for best readability?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16393" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16386" CreationDate="2016-12-13T10:20:03.217" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;See this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.com/gp/customer-reviews/R1HCBOZM66IGEM/ref=cm_cr_arp_d_viewpnt?ie=UTF8&amp;amp;ASIN=B008TVFCXC#R1HCBOZM66IGEM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;review&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;Reference &quot;Joseph C. Hager, Ph.D.&quot; Amazon Review -&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why would anyone want to read a book about psychology that was first&#xA;  published 113 years ago? One answer is the rationale for reading any&#xA;  psychology book: that it provides insights into psychological issues&#xA;  not available elsewhere. Although many psychologists of the late 19th&#xA;  and early 20th century probably started their career by reading this&#xA;  book, it is not appropriate today as an introduction to psychology.&#xA;  Too many of James's viewpoints are antiquated, and his facts, outdated&#xA;  or incorrect. Neither is it the book to read if you are looking for&#xA;  contemporary psychological views or a compilation of psychological&#xA;  knowledge. Recent textbooks are better for these purposes. Yet, the&#xA;  word most frequently used to describe James's Principles of Psychology&#xA;  is probably 'monumental' and rightly so because not only is this a&#xA;  lengthy work (~1400pgs), but it also is the culmination of a long line&#xA;  of philosophical thinking about the Soul, Self, Mind, Matter, and&#xA;  related topics that began with the pre-Socratic Greeks and continued&#xA;  through the 19th century, when positivist philosophers and&#xA;  experimentalists began to explore psychologically relevant&#xA;  philosophical questions in more concrete terms, invoking a scientific&#xA;  method and rejecting metaphysics. At the end of the 19th century, a&#xA;  seeming riot of discussion about the meaning of life, the nature of&#xA;  consciousness, mind, ego, evolution, and related subjects dominated&#xA;  the scientific and popular culture. At this point in history, William&#xA;  James, an American trained as a physician and employed as a Harvard&#xA;  professor, examines the various philosophies of the previous two&#xA;  millenia, picking out those aspects relevant to psychology, comparing&#xA;  and sorting them to reveal their value as unambiguous theories that&#xA;  might be tested by research, and reflecting on how the evidence stacks&#xA;  up in their favor. He also advances his own, original conceptions on&#xA;  various issues. His work is not the first to collect speculation and&#xA;  evidence into a coherent psychology, and there are many previous works&#xA;  with &quot;Psychology&quot; in their titles, but James's efforts would galvanize&#xA;  an American discipline of psychological science that would eventually&#xA;  become a dominant intellectual force. James defines psychology as the&#xA;  &quot;Science of Mental Life&quot; and describes the stream of consciousness as&#xA;  &quot;the ultimate fact for psychology.&quot; Out of his viewpoint, the school&#xA;  of functionalism in psychology developed, where the mind is conceived&#xA;  as a useful organ that evolves according to natural selection and&#xA;  grows according to discoverable rules. His orientation towards&#xA;  physiological and behavioral data eventually diminished the then&#xA;  dominant psychological method of introspection that James himself uses&#xA;  so frequently with great effect. Subsequent viewpoints in psychology,&#xA;  such as behaviorism, though taking part of their inspiration from&#xA;  functionalism, reject James's definition of psychology, so that by the&#xA;  end of the 20th century, most psychologists with an empirical&#xA;  orientation may call themselves &quot;behavioral scientists,&quot; but certainly&#xA;  not &quot;mental scientists.&quot; Reading this book can be disconcerting,&#xA;  perhaps because of his period style or Victorian sensibilities, or the&#xA;  frequent, unglossed short quotes and phrases in German, French, and&#xA;  Latin because he assumes the reader has at least these minimal&#xA;  language skills. Perhaps also, it is because James is not only&#xA;  conversant with the giants of philosophy and experimental technique&#xA;  who preceeded him, but seemingly, with virtually every published&#xA;  sentence to date bearing on the subjects of concern, and in veritable&#xA;  fractal detail, producing a tour de force in erudition. His is not the&#xA;  style of current psychology journals and textbooks, but fortunately he&#xA;  does translate into English many long passages he quotes from their&#xA;  original sources. Yet possibly the most disconcerting aspects are the&#xA;  subjects that James raises in this book. The new mainstream psychology&#xA;  after James rejects many topics as unsuitable - even for discussion -&#xA;  that figure prominently in the intellectual history of philosophy and&#xA;  psychology. James's view that the concept of Soul should be eliminated&#xA;  in scientific works is one point on which later psychologists heartily&#xA;  agree, but they also, to a large extent, throw out other concepts of&#xA;  central concern to James, such as mind, emotion, will, and feeling.&#xA;  Rare pleas by scholars with varying backgrounds (e.g., Ornstein,&#xA;  Tomkins) urge students of psychology to revisit issues discussed by&#xA;  James and address the larger questions contained therein, but such&#xA;  exhorations echo mostly in halls of learning emptied by Vita&#xA;  enhancement pressures. Renewal of interest reappears lately for some&#xA;  of the suppressed topics, cast into such areas as cognitive psychology&#xA;  or emotion theory, but James's idea that the mind is a core concept&#xA;  remains foreign to virtually all contemporary psychologists, and much&#xA;  of his emphasis seems uncomfortable from today's viewpoint. The&#xA;  reluctance among psychologists to embrace such philosophical and&#xA;  scientific issues concerning the mind is remarkably not shared by some&#xA;  physicists, mathematicians, biologists, computer scientists, and other&#xA;  scientists who in recent works have implied that psychologists may be&#xA;  irrelevant to elucidating such issues, if not muddle-headed,&#xA;  scientific dwarfs. This twist is ironic because psychologists restrict&#xA;  their vocabulary and investigations partly to ape their conception of&#xA;  these &quot;hard-core&quot; sciences. It is not clear whether psychology will&#xA;  survive the choices that psychologists have made about their subject&#xA;  matter, or whether psychology departments will inevitably be diced and&#xA;  parsed into their appropriate slots in departments of computer&#xA;  science, biology, medicine, statistics, and physics, but certainly,&#xA;  the end of psychology is nearer if tomorrow's students of psychology&#xA;  fail to study James's Principles of Psychology. James's work is the&#xA;  jumping off point for much of what forms 20th century psychology:&#xA;  habit, association, attention, memory, imagination, object and space&#xA;  perception, etc. His thoughts about emotion, feelings, the self,&#xA;  consciousness, and other topics remain important for today's&#xA;  theoretical views. On the other hand, this work predates&#xA;  psychoanalysis and does not include an organized account of abnormal&#xA;  psychology, human communication, and other topics raised in most&#xA;  elementary surveys of psychology. The context in which James puts&#xA;  scientific psychology is probably the most important lesson of this&#xA;  book. The Dover edition is unabridged, the only form of this work that&#xA;  should be considered by the serious reader.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14347" LastEditorUserId="14347" LastEditDate="2016-12-16T11:49:08.247" LastActivityDate="2016-12-16T11:49:08.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16397" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16398" CreationDate="2016-12-14T08:12:36.423" Score="5" ViewCount="273" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, when you close your eyes in the dark, you see what looks like sparks or flashes. Sometimes when you are tired, your vision seems to shift sideways and realign, like someone bumped into a camera, although you didn't move your eyes. It seems to me that some of these apparent sensations are not caused by (external) stimuli to the sensory apparatus but rather by an &quot;overexcited&quot; nervous system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a term for such &quot;mistakes&quot; of the visual system? I don't know what terms to use to describe these phenomena in scientific reports.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-12-14T09:32:52.083" LastActivityDate="2017-03-05T14:57:40.243" Title="What do you call sensations without stimuli?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16398" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16397" CreationDate="2016-12-14T09:32:31.977" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Visual hallucinations&lt;/em&gt; and, more specifically, &lt;em&gt;phosphenes&lt;/em&gt; are the terms you are probably after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I'll basically provide a list of terminologies below, as your question seems to indicate you're walking on unfamiliar grounds with your research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For a starters, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://allpsych.com/psychology101/sensation_perception/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;sensations&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; refer to the peripheral detection of stimuli. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://allpsych.com/psychology101/sensation_perception/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Perceptions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are the higher cognitive, central correlate of those sensations involving the conscious awareness of them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The sparks or flashes you're talking about may be caused &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dartmouth.edu/~rswenson/NeuroSci/chapter_3.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;peripherally&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (sensation level), but likely find their origins &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dartmouth.edu/~dons/part_1/chapter_9.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;centrally&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (perceptual). This, because people with low-vision, or blind people lacking functional photoreceptors in their retinae can experience them too, and sometimes in exaggerated and pathological forms.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The visual field shifts are most likely caused by eye movements, unless you can provide solid sources to back up your thoughts that it can happen without eye movements. Likely, &lt;a href=&quot;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1199177-overview&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;nystagmus&lt;/a&gt; or related involuntary eye movements are involved, which can be exaggerated by some physical conditions, again including blindness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Now, as my knowledge is restricted to visual impairments, I can say that spontaneous spots of light are not sensations, but &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;hallucinations&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. A hallucination being &quot;...&lt;em&gt;a sensory experience, possessing the compelling sense of reality of a true perception, but occurring without external stimulation of the relevant sensory organ&lt;/em&gt;. Specifically, they are &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;elementary&lt;/em&gt; visual hallucinations&lt;/strong&gt;, as opposed to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;complex&lt;/em&gt; visual hallucinations&lt;/strong&gt;. An example of the latter is the &lt;em&gt;Charles Bonnet Syndrome&lt;/em&gt;, where blind folks experience complex visual scenes, including faces. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Back to your question on elementary visual hallucinations, they are referred to as &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oubliette.org.uk/Three.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;phosphenes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.retinalphysician.com/issues/2007/nov-dec/not-just-a-pvd-differential-diagnosis-of-flashing&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;photopsiae&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, or &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;unformed visual hallucinations&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, Typically they consist of colored or colorless bright lights, such as points, flashes, stars, and sparks. To provide some context to these terms: Phosphenes are generally used to describe benign phenomena, as well as for stimuli evoked by electrical stimulation of the retina or other visual centers (forget about the latter for the sake of simplicity, as these are not hallucinations anymore). Photospsias are generally used in the literature associated with retinal disease. Unformed hallucinations, personally, I've never encountered in my field of research, but the linked article below gives it as a last option, so I simply included it here too.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039625702004149&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Menen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; (2003), &lt;em&gt;Survey of Ophthalmology&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;48&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 58–72&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-12-14T10:07:31.080" LastActivityDate="2016-12-14T10:07:31.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16399" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16391" CreationDate="2016-12-14T10:53:34.637" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Higher contrast increases readability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In a series of papers under the umbrella &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0042698985901178&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychophysics of Reading&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (link is to first paper in the series of five) the authors investigate parameters that affect readability in normally sighted folks, as well as people with impaired vision. These studies seem particularly relevant to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors investigated reading rates as an outcome measure for readability. In paper V of the series &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0042698987900289&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Legge &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2007)&lt;/a&gt; they tested the dependence of letter size and contrast (black-and-white) on reading rate. Rates were highest (about 350 words/min) for letters ranging in size from 0.25° to 2° visual angle. Within this range, &lt;strong&gt;reading rates&lt;/strong&gt; proved to be &lt;strong&gt;tolerant to contrast reduction&lt;/strong&gt;. For 1° letters, reading rate decreased by less than a factor of two for a tenfold reduction in contrast. The results were very similar for white-on-black and black-on-white text. Reading rate declined more rapidly for very small (&amp;lt;0.25°) and very large (&gt;2°) letters with lower contrast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on these findings, the intuitive answer to your question is, the larger the contrast, the better. I've never heard of decreasing contrast enhancing reading abilities, barred under some very specific conditions of ultra-low vision, regardless of Google's statements on this. Your first reference clearly supports 'higher contrast is better', without the presence of a sort of optimum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0042698987900289&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Legge &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Vis Res&lt;/em&gt; (1985); &lt;strong&gt;25&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 239–52&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-12-16T11:14:55.047" LastActivityDate="2016-12-16T11:14:55.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16400" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16989" CreationDate="2016-12-14T11:10:32.960" Score="4" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;Various Deep Learning algorithms [1] and neural models [2] make use of neurogenesis to reduce prediction errors. How much evidence is there that neurogenesis is driven by prediction error or novel inputs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1612.03770&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurogenesis in Deep Learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3812781/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The mechanisms for pattern completion and pattern separation in the hippocampus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-09-30T20:16:25.293" Title="Is neurogenesis driven by prediction error?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16402" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-14T08:36:49.843" Score="3" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Marr (1982) identified three levels at which we can describe information processing systems, including the human mind: the computational level, the algorithmic/representation level, and the implementation level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I'm wondering which level is depicted by this situation:&#xA;A theory that baseball players estimate how quickly to run to catch a ball by fixating on the ball, beginning to run, and adjusting their running speed so that the angle of their gaze remains constant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14520" OwnerDisplayName="Manish Bhatt" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2016-12-15T01:59:21.923" LastActivityDate="2016-12-15T01:59:21.923" Title="Marr's analysis for ball pursuit" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16403" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-14T18:18:57.103" Score="2" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've given several psychometric tests for various companies without giving it a second thought but now that I think about it, it seems quite deep and fascinating. I'd like to understand, if anyone care to explain, what do these tests try to measure, how can one create such a test to use in teams &amp;amp; hiring processes and finally, can someone 'prepare' for a psychometric test to do better? if yes, how? (Both in advance as well as when only a few hours are remaining.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14483" LastActivityDate="2016-12-14T18:18:57.103" Title="How do psychometric employee screening tests work and how can students tackle them?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-12-27T20:03:34.540" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16405" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15940" CreationDate="2016-12-14T21:31:17.260" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a statistical context, any &lt;em&gt;independent&lt;/em&gt; datum adds a degree of freedom. So when Friston talks about &quot;sufficient degrees of freedom to render the variability of the action's estimate small enough&quot; he simply means &quot;sufficient sample size to cancel out noise&quot;. At least that's my take on it, based only on the single quoted phrase(!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14486" LastActivityDate="2016-12-14T21:31:17.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16407" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16402" CreationDate="2016-12-15T01:46:43.387" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The computational level is about available information and in-principle what can be derived from that information. For catching a ball, this would be, for example, an analysis of what information is available to a fielder using a particular perceptual device, and what possible inferences could be drawn from that information. From the flux of light projected on a stationary 2D retina, is it &lt;em&gt;possible&lt;/em&gt; to derive where the ball will be when? What if the 2D retina can move in response to the light, then is it possible? What if there are two eyes (i.e., stereo vision)? Your description of the procedure for catching a ball &lt;em&gt;assumes&lt;/em&gt; that the information used by procedure is sufficient, but does not explicitly analyze and prove it, so your description is probably not best thought of as the computational level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The algorithmic level is about the particular representation and process for computing an inference and making a response. There are usually many different ways to compute an answer. For example, adding two numbers can be done with Roman numerals and a difficult process, or with binary numerals using a power-of-2 place system and a simple process. Your description of a procedure for catching the ball seems closest to the algorithmic level, but the description would have to specify more details to be a fully fleshed-out algorithm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The implementational level is about &quot;hardware&quot;. How do the optical tracts of the brain encode and process the signal, and how does the body implement the motions requested by the brain? Your description of a process for catching the ball does not rely upon or mention these details, so is probably not best thought of as the implementational level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(At least, that's my take on it. I think that the levels were intended as a useful framework for organizing and thinking about theories and how they interconnect. Marr suggested --if I recall correctly-- that it was valuable to do a computational analysis before diving into algorithmic particulars. But discussants sometimes devolve into heated philosophical debates about the &quot;correct&quot; interpretation of this or that. I hope this answer does not generate too much heat.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14486" LastActivityDate="2016-12-15T01:46:43.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16413" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16416" CreationDate="2016-12-15T19:31:10.910" Score="0" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was looking for some research study that links activity/response of brain stimulated due to natural scenery (or walk but i guess that is more implausible situation just to track what is going on in brain while being out of an scanner)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I googled but it results are useless. Is there any study done related to this? Please post link to resource related to the issue. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: I am not a person with great grasp at cognitive science but just curious to know things more scientifically. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8425" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2016-12-16T08:40:47.990" LastActivityDate="2016-12-16T09:39:27.627" Title="Any study related to intimacy with nature and link with how it affects hormones or other chemical equations of brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16414" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16383" CreationDate="2016-12-16T00:46:39.283" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The reaction to an angry email is just the same as reacting to any angry comment (verbal or written). It is usually seen as a provocation and triggers the urge to retaliate or invoke self-defense. The mental stress is a consequence of this situation. Often this stress is transient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no nowledge of any documented evidence of stress or the level and duration of the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14501" LastActivityDate="2016-12-16T00:46:39.283" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16415" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-16T01:34:36.957" Score="3" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems individuals are able to adjust their cognitive aptitude to some degree through nurture, which is controlled by various elements such as environment and conditioning. However, they're stuck with their nature - heredity. Is it possible to measure and compare one's capacities to occupational cognitive demands?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14438" LastEditorUserId="21999" LastEditDate="2019-04-22T01:33:37.770" LastActivityDate="2019-04-23T13:47:37.253" Title="Is there a way to test brain activity/aptitude on a measurable scale in order to identify a suitable occupational aptitude?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16416" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16413" CreationDate="2016-12-16T09:06:24.927" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The positive impact of natural scenery on individuals well being has been well studied. I found a few studies looking at the physiological effects of viewing natural scenes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Electroencephalography (EEG) has been used to access the electrical activity of the localized brain cortex associated with natural and urban environments (Ulrich, 1981; Nakamura, 1992). Ulrich reported that subjects shown urban and scenes produced more alpha (relaxation) activity when viewing nature scenes. High alpha amplitudes are associated with lower levels of physiological&#xA;arousal as well as feelings of wakeful relaxation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recently Kim at al (2010) conducted a functional magnetic imaging (fMRI) study exposing participants to either rural (natural) or urban scenery, they found that different areas of the brain were active when viewing the different scenes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Activation of the anterior cingulate gyrus, globus pallidus, putamen&#xA;  and head of the caudate nucleus was dominant during rural scenery&#xA;  viewing, whereas activation of the hippocampus, parahippocamus and&#xA;  amygdala was dominant during urban scenery viewing (p &amp;lt; 0.01). These&#xA;  findings allow better characterization of neural activation,&#xA;  suggesting an inherent preference towards nature-friendly living.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of hormones, cortisol, amylase and adrenaline would be the ones changed by exposure to natural scenes as these are the hormones most associated with stress (Rashkova et al, 2012; Takahashi, 2005; Takai, 2004). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Park et al (2007) got two groups of participants to spend time in either a forest or a city for a day and then swap and spend a day in the opposite environment they found that: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concentration of salivary cortisol in the forest area first group was significantly lower than that of the group that went to the city area first even after being in both landscapes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's worth noting however that a meta-analysis by Bowler et al (2010) found that research looking at hormones and natural environments was not consistent:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Meta-analysis of data on blood pressure and cortisol concentrations&#xA;  found less evidence of a consistent difference between environments&#xA;  across studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Other hormones, or measures of hormone activation, apart from&#xA;  cortisol, have also been investigated such as adrenaline and&#xA;  noradrenalin and salivary amylase.  Across these different studies and&#xA;  outcomes, their results provide mixed findings, with no clear,&#xA;  consistent difference emerging in the effect of different&#xA;  environments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bowler, D. E., Buyung-Ali, L. M., Knight, T. M., &amp;amp; Pullin, A. S. (2010). A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments. BMC public health, 10(1), 456.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Park, B. J., Tsunetsugu, Y., Kasetani, T., Hirano, H., Kagawa, T., Sato, M., &amp;amp; Miyazaki, Y. (2007). Physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest)-using salivary cortisol and cerebral activity as indicators. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 26(2), 123-128.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Takai, N., Yamaguchi, M., Aragaki, T., Eto, K., Uchihashi, K., &amp;amp; Nishikawa, Y. (2004). Effect of psychological stress on the salivary cortisol and amylase levels in healthy young adults. Archives of oral biology, 49(12), 963-968.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Takahashi, T., Ikeda, K., Ishikawa, M., Kitamura, N., Tsukasaki, T., Nakama, D., &amp;amp; Kameda, T. (2005). Anxiety, reactivity, and social stress-induced cortisol elevation in humans. Neuroendocrinology Letters, 26(4), 351-354.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rashkova, M. R., Ribagin, L. S., &amp;amp; Toneva, N. G. (2012). Correlation between salivary α-amylase and stress-related anxiety. Folia medica, 54(2), 46-51.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Roger_Ulrich4/publication/222484914_Stress_Recovery_During_Exposure_to_Natural_and_Urban_Environments._Journal_of_Environmental_Psychology._11_201-230/links/5484322d0cf25dbd59eb1339.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ulrich, R. S. (1981). Natural versus urban scenes some psychophysiological effects. Environment and behavior, 13(5), 523-556.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nakamura, R., &amp;amp; Fujii, E. (1992). A comparative study of the characteristics of the electroencephalogram when observing a hedge and a concrete block fence. Journal of the Japanese Institute of Landscape Architects, 55(5), 139-144.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kim, G. W., Jeong, G. W., Kim, T. H., Baek, H. S., Oh, S. K., Kang, H. K., ... &amp;amp; Song, J. K. (2010). Functional neuroanatomy associated with natural and urban scenic views in the human brain: 3.0 T functional MR imaging. Korean Journal of Radiology, 11(5), 507-513.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969710001695&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kim, T. H., Jeong, G. W., Baek, H. S., Kim, G. W., Sundaram, T., Kang, H. K., ... &amp;amp; Song, J. K. (2010). Human brain activation in response to visual stimulation with rural and urban scenery pictures: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Science of the total environment, 408(12), 2600-2607.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastEditorUserId="8183" LastEditDate="2016-12-16T09:39:27.627" LastActivityDate="2016-12-16T09:39:27.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16417" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-16T16:48:12.500" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am showing participants a scatter plot of x and y and then asking them to guess the correlation. I am trying to model how they arrive at their estimates. For simplicity, our baseline model assumes uncertainty in the perception component only (there is no parameter estimation uncertainty), assuming that observers compute a noisy representation of points’ positions in the two-dimensional scene.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, given &lt;code&gt;data = (user_estimated_correlation,x,y)&lt;/code&gt; where &lt;code&gt;x,y&lt;/code&gt; are the actual data points and &lt;code&gt;user_estimated_correlation&lt;/code&gt; is the participants guess of the correlation, I would like to infer the noise level added by the uncertainty in the perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;def perception_model(data):&#xA;    user_estimated_correlation,x,y=data&#xA;&#xA;    noise_in_x = pm.Normal('mu_x', 0,x.max()-x.min(), size=x.shape[0])&#xA;    noise_in_y = pm.Normal('mu_y', 0,y.max()-y.min(), size=y.shape[0])&#xA;&#xA;    @pm.deterministic&#xA;    def add_noise(sigma=sigma,guess=guess):&#xA;        noisy_x = x+noise_in_x&#xA;        noisy_y = y+noise_in&#xA;        return noisy_x,noisy_y&#xA;&#xA;   noisy_guess=np.corrcoef(add_noise(x,y))&#xA;&#xA;   ##how do I do this line? I want to infer the visual noise parameters for the user .. or the actual noisy dataset they observed (i.e., noisy_x, noisy_y)&#xA;   observe(user_estimated_correlation ==  noisy_guess) &#xA;   return locals()&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14067" LastActivityDate="2016-12-16T16:48:12.500" Title="Pymc conditioning on an observed" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16418" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1773" CreationDate="2016-12-16T18:05:37.667" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The R package &lt;a href=&quot;https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/rtdists/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;rtdists&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is another great option:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Provides response time distributions (density/PDF, distribution function/CDF, quantile function, and random generation): (a) Ratcliff diffusion model based on C code by Andreas and Jochen Voss and (b) linear ballistic accumulator (LBA) with different distributions underlying the drift rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="696" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-12-18T03:19:00.227" LastActivityDate="2016-12-18T03:19:00.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16419" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3729" CreationDate="2016-12-17T18:46:27.407" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Npr.org, has a great multi part piece on the subject,  and points to a cognitive benefit in the elderly in so far as dementia prevention&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2016/11/29/497943749/6-potential-brain-benefits-of-bilingual-education&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;enter link description here&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14514" LastActivityDate="2016-12-17T18:46:27.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16420" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-18T01:38:00.773" Score="5" ViewCount="444" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has any reliable study been done to compare mental health (e.g. depression or suicide rate) of transgender people before and after procedures (hormone or surgery) intended to change their bodies to have characteristics that match their gender identity compared with psychological therapy intended to try and make them more comfortable with their biological sex?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard some people claim that John's Hopkins used to perform sex-change procedures but stopped after failing to find it benefiting the mental health of those who they were performed on. But I have also heard people claim that these treatments really do cause a practical improvement in the mental health of transgender people. I'm not sure who, if either side or both, to trust.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please avoid political discussion or debate on whether a transgender person can actually switch sexes or if it's a delusional disorder, even if your opinion on that might inform what you think the proper way of treating transgender people is. I'm just curious about reliable data on the psychological effects of the alternatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14517" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T15:46:09.747" Title="Effects of treatment versus psychotherapy on mental health of transgender people" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;gender&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16424" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16420" CreationDate="2016-12-18T07:42:57.280" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Johns Hopkins &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newyorkapologetics.com/johns-hopkins-stopped-doing-sex-reassignment-surgery/&quot;&gt;did stop doing gender reassignment surgery&lt;/a&gt; and one of their psychiatrists apparently says that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The suicide rate among transgendered people who had the surgery is 20 times higher&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/michael-w-chapman/johns-hopkins-psychiatrist-transgender-mental-disorder-sex-change&quot;&gt;apparently says&lt;/a&gt; that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;transgenderism is a “mental disorder” that merits treatment, that sex change is “biologically impossible,” and that people who promote sexual reassignment surgery are collaborating with and promoting a mental disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.advocate.com/commentary/2015/12/15/scary-science-johns-hopkins-university&quot;&gt;this website&lt;/a&gt;, the Johns Hopkins psychiatrist involved has a history of speaking out against transgendered people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the flip side, the DSM-5 (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot;&gt;5th Edition of the Diagnostics and Statistics Manual&lt;/a&gt;) in 2013 added Gender Dysphoria as the new term for Gender Identity Disorder &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/File%2520Library/Psychiatrists/Practice/DSM/APA_DSM-5-Gender-Dysphoria.pdf&quot;&gt;in order to try and prevent stigma&lt;/a&gt;; and current case reports offer &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theravive.com/therapedia/Gender-Dysphoria-DSM--5-302.85-(F64.9)&quot;&gt;no evidence that psychotherapy offers total and long-standing change of gender dysphoria&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2016-12-18T07:42:57.280" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16425" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1773" CreationDate="2016-12-18T22:41:50.063" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the subheading you also mention that you're interested in matlab / python implementations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've personally used DMAT in matlab at that's a nice package. However, the python based HDDM package may be one of the best around at the moment (in my opinion) and it has a good user guide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ski.clps.brown.edu/hddm_docs/abstract.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://ski.clps.brown.edu/hddm_docs/abstract.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and the paper associated with the package:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wieki et al (2013): &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fninf.2013.00014/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fninf.2013.00014/full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wiecki, T. V., Sofer, I., &amp;amp; Frank, M. J. (2013). HDDM: hierarchical bayesian estimation of the drift-diffusion model in python. Frontiers in neuroinformatics, 7, 14. &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fninf.2013.00014/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fninf.2013.00014/full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14253" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2016-12-18T22:56:57.650" LastActivityDate="2016-12-18T22:56:57.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16427" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16429" CreationDate="2016-12-19T16:23:19.360" Score="9" ViewCount="221" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been reading on wiki about sleep deprivation it would appear that one can die without sleep... I have heard that it was used as torture method by quite a few agencies, but didn't know that one could die from it....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;REM is just brain running a simulation&lt;/a&gt; to improve long term memory by re-firing the neuron paths to make them 'stick' better... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When death from sleep derivation occurs, what mechanism is failing that makes one not to be alive anymore. I mean there has to be some physical thing that breaks down, otherwise one would just loose consciousness and wake up in 40 hours or so...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10060" LastActivityDate="2016-12-20T18:29:50.990" Title="Death from sleep deprivation, what physical mechanism is failing that makes one not to be alive anymore?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16429" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16427" CreationDate="2016-12-20T03:07:35.430" Score="6" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As far as I know REM is just brain running a simulation &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During sleep hormones and neurotransmitters shift in their quantities available along the phases of sleep: slow wave sleep, intermediate stages and REM ( this happens several times during a typical sleeping session) and each phase brings corresponding highs and lows of the aforementioned chemicals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is not a definitive and agreed function of sleep, but currently it is heavily tied to memory consolidation and metabolic regulation as well as a supporting role in the immune system.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;1&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When death from sleep derivation occurs, what mechanism is failing that makes one not to be alive anymore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, we don't really know,at least in humans it is not something we can really experiment, so most of the accounts are just that, anecdotes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to try to answer the question, we unfortunately have to turn to the animal world, studies of Total Sleep Deprivation (TSD) in rats are perhaps the best researched ones, and yet there is still coinsiderable doubt about what ends up being the cause of death. &lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;2&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; and it's relationship to sleep. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I mean there has to be some physical thing that breaks down&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize a review/update of the original sleep deprivation study&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;3&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effects of total sleep deprivation seem to have interfered with thermoregulation,caused a deterioration in the appearance of the rats, skin lesions, and changes in brain activity; infection, hypothermia and malnutrition are the leading suspects then and the thing that broke down in a roundabout way is the supporting mix of chemicals ( neurotransmitters, hormones) &amp;amp; brain activity that normally keep these deadly effects at bay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference/Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A great and accessible introduction to the science of sleep is The Secret World of Sleep (Lewis). - Sleep and Metabolism: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2929498/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2929498/&lt;/a&gt; -Sleep and the immune system: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12701994/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12701994/&lt;/a&gt; - Neuroscience (Purves) has a more technical overview. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2928622&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep deprivation in the rat: III. Total sleep deprivation.&lt;/a&gt; In this 1989 study rats were deprived of sleep and died, no direct cause was found.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journalsleep.org/Articles/250104.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep Deprivation in the Rat: An Update of the 1989 Pape&lt;/a&gt;r Does a great job in presenting the difficulties of a definitive answer, but does give a general one.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="14245" LastEditDate="2016-12-20T18:29:50.990" LastActivityDate="2016-12-20T18:29:50.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16430" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22" CreationDate="2016-12-20T10:16:22.003" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Above answers are great, I just wanted to add that you do not need a 'smart' person to create IQ test... you or me could do it... Any set of questions would measure one or more dimensions of intelligence... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You would give your set of questions to many people and their results would show up as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gaussian&lt;/a&gt;. You would then assign 100 IQ point at the peak and subdivide the Gaussian into parts by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution#Standard_deviation_and_coverage&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;standard deviation&lt;/a&gt; where each segment would &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ_classification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;be your 10 IQ point increment&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/o7ZzS.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/o7ZzS.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S Don't get me wrong chances are it wouldn't be the best IQ test but test nevertheless...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10060" LastActivityDate="2016-12-20T10:16:22.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16431" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-20T10:58:39.253" Score="5" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a person with slight phobia of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fear paralysis&lt;/a&gt;, (A fear that in critical situation when he will most need to react fast to save his (or loved ones) lives he will just be sitting there paralyzed watching his demise...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16434/how-does-fear-paralysis-occur/16435#16435&quot;&gt;This question answers&lt;/a&gt; on the mechanism that causes fear paralysis...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any technique to 'snap out of it'? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean we had quite a few wars and cataclysms like tsunamis and earthquakes&#xA; so I would expect for some research done, at least by military...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can fear paralysis be overcome?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10060" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-12-20T15:47:20.827" Title="How can fear paralysis be overcome?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16432" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14038" CreationDate="2016-12-20T11:03:50.527" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it depends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the game is good, the player will be motivated to learn what they need to succeed in the game. The long term effects may vary depending on different attributes, which I divided into two groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is of course not an exhaustive list.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Providing learning tools&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Did the game generalize enough, so that the player feels like the more they learn the better they will be in the game? as opposed to being predictable enough so that the user can learn exactly what they need and only that.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Did the user learn how to learn independently or did they rely on specific instructions in the game?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;providing learning motivation&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why did the user not want to learn in the first place? If it's because of a sense of incapability, games are great. If it's lack of interest, the long term effect could be negligible.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Did what the player learn in the game turn out useful for the player in real life? Did the player see it as a positive outcome of learning, or as an outcome of the game?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Did a motivation swap occur? sometimes the user may be one that learns for fun, and after playing the game they will only learn for points etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the concepts 'game' and 'learn' are so wide and subjective, I'm doubtful you can get a clear cut answer on this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14531" LastActivityDate="2016-12-20T11:03:50.527" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16434" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16435" CreationDate="2016-12-20T15:41:50.737" Score="3" ViewCount="853" Body="&lt;p&gt;(This question is in relation &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16431/how-can-fear-paralysis-be-overcome&quot;&gt;to this question here&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does fear paralysis occur? What is the mechanism that makes this happen in brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10060" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-12-20T15:42:26.637" Title="How does fear paralysis occur?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16435" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16434" CreationDate="2016-12-20T15:42:26.637" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.retainedneonatalreflexes.com.au/reflexes/reflexes-fear-paralysis-reflex/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Taken from here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Fear Paralysis Reflex begins to function very early after&#xA;conception and should normally be integrated before birth.  It can be&#xA;seen in the womb as movement of the head, neck and body in response to&#xA;threat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is sometimes classified as a withdrawal reflex rather than&#xA;a primitive reflex. If this reflex is retained after birth, it can be&#xA;characterised by withdrawal, reticence at being involved in anything&#xA;new, fear of different circumstances, and is often described as the&#xA;“scaredy cat” child who bears the brunt of teasing by normally&#xA;adventurous children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;This behaviour appears to be&#xA;due to the reflex’s involvement with the parasympathetic nervous&#xA;system.&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;strong&gt;Most of us are familiar with the “fight or flight” adrenalin&#xA;rush of the sympathetic nervous system, however the FPR taps into the&#xA;opposing system urging the body to “eat and stay”.&lt;/strong&gt;  The&#xA;parasympathetic nervous system is intimately involved with the vagus&#xA;nerve.  This nerve comes directly from the brain to aid the organs.&#xA;It bypasses the spinal cord, so in the case of spinal injury we are&#xA;still able to digest our food.  The vagus nerve may be mechanically&#xA;trapped in the skull, chest, abdomen or neck.  Release of this nerve&#xA;entrapment corrects one physical factor that contributes to the&#xA;retention of the FPR.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10060" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-12-20T15:42:26.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16436" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16817" CreationDate="2016-12-20T17:49:30.490" Score="4" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;//dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005653411471&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autism-Spectrum Quotient test&lt;/a&gt;, the subject is confronted with fifty statements such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don’t particularly enjoy reading fiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I prefer to do things the same way over and over again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and is asked whether they&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;definitely agree,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;slightly agree,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;slightly disagree, or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;definitely disagree&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;with them. There is no neutral option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The test is scored as follows: If the subject agrees with an “autistic” statement, they score a point. The same applies, if they disagree with a “non-autistic” statement. There is no distinction between &lt;em&gt;slightly&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;definitely&lt;/em&gt; agreeing (or disagreeing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would expect that this test design (no neutral option, no distinction between slight and strong tendencies) leads to an amplification of small effects, such as interpretation of the question, slight tendencies, priming, chance, and so on. While I acknowledge that this effect may be desired in customer surveys and similar, it seems problematic to me in a test for the purposes of diagnosis and epidemology (such as this test). For example, I would expect that people who are already diagnosed with autism (and know this) or people with clichéically autistic interests like mathematics are more likely to tend for the more autistic option – even if their actual stance on the question in neutral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, I am a layman and I acknowledge that designing such a test is not easy, as one has to account for several effects. Hence I wonder: &lt;strong&gt;What are the justifications for such a test design&lt;/strong&gt;, in particular in light of its applications (diagnosis and epidemology) and my above criticism? The &lt;a href=&quot;//dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1005653411471&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper introducing the test&lt;/a&gt; does not provide any citations or reasons for this, at least not in those sections where I would expect it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2981" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-02-20T21:13:44.250" Title="Rationale behind an “all-or-nothing” design for a test for the purposes of diagnosis and epidemology" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16437" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16415" CreationDate="2016-12-21T02:42:37.187" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the United States Armed Forces, it is possible. They do something similar to what you propose with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Services_Vocational_Aptitude_Battery&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery&lt;/a&gt;. However, according to the section &quot;Test Validity&quot; of the linked Wikipedia article, there is some debate about whether it only measures literacy or IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2016-12-21T02:42:37.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16438" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-21T14:43:31.517" Score="4" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say that dreaming is like any conscious experience, except that objective reasoning is turned off. Do fMRI imaging studies indicate that the reasoning centers of the brain are inactive during REM sleep? Are other sensory sections, like the visual cortex active?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By reasoning centers of the brain, I am referring to area(s) specifically associated with logic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8401" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-04-25T01:08:14.490" LastActivityDate="2017-04-25T01:08:14.490" Title="Activation of brain reasoning areas during dreaming" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16439" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16544" CreationDate="2016-12-21T16:17:17.010" Score="5" ViewCount="2161" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Reverse inference&lt;/em&gt;, i.e. the use of brain activation (fMRI) data to infer the engagement of a certain mental function, is heavily criticised (e.g., Poldrack 2011, Neuron). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time, &lt;em&gt;decoding&lt;/em&gt;, the process of applying machine learning algorithms to such brain activation patterns in order to infer something about the mental function that elicited this response (e.g. to distinguish between two different conditions in an fMRI experiment), is extensively used and actively developed - multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) being just the most widespread of these techniques. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two concepts appear, however, to be one and the same; or rather, that the second (decoding) is a special case of the first (reverse inference). Is there an additional nuance to their difference? Also, why is decoding not criticised in the same way as reverse inference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="6446" LastEditDate="2016-12-23T09:50:12.713" LastActivityDate="2017-01-12T18:26:46.157" Title="Difference between reverse inference and decoding (e.g. MVPA) in fMRI" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16440" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-21T16:26:08.457" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know what is the exact cause of this but when there is some song playing around me or someone is talking near me its harder for me to concentrate my thoughts or imagine something. However pure instrumental music is fine&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a frequent video game player where you need to keep listening to enemy movements and to keep track of their positions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Playing games like that has led me to be able to operate without concentrating all of my senses on one thing. Like I can do do something carefully by my hands looking at it and at the sane time hear what people are talking about around me, often involuntarily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this means when someone talks or a song plays with recognisable speech in it then my concentration involuntarily shift to the audio and it's harder to concentrate on my thoughts. I have to put effort to ignore the sound and keep at my thoughts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is this phenomenon called? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14543" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-01-24T06:02:06.477" LastActivityDate="2017-01-24T06:02:06.477" Title="Hard to think when hearing audible speech" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;multi-tasking&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16441" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-21T16:49:58.087" Score="0" ViewCount="1370" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans have this strange behavior:&#xA;Some people like other people which are disliked by a third party of people.&#xA;But there are also people that are generally disliked by most ofthe others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me make an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person A, B and C like Person D&#xA;Person B, C and D like Person F, but A hates F&#xA;Person A, C and D like Person G, but B hates G&#xA;Person F and G get along well with C&#xA;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can you explane this strange behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people can't get along with each other, but both have common friends, that get along with both of them. So it can't be like that they are so different from a cultural standpoint, because they have common friends that get along with both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you get the point?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However there are people that are liked by most of the People and there are also people, that are commonly disliked by the majority of people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are they doing right/wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you say, &quot;people like those who are similar to them&quot;, how can it be, that A and D don't get along, if both are similar to B, which can get along with both?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are A and D doing wrong, so that they can't get along. Due to the fact, that B get's along with both, which means, that both aren't bad persons and people you can get along with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you generally say what makes the difference in these groups of people?&#xA;Where do these preferences come from and why do some not get along?&#xA;The question is not, what makes someone likable (that is asked here &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/16442/14541&quot;&gt;What makes you like someone?&lt;/a&gt;), it's more on how to determine wheter two people like eachother or not, on what is this based and can you influence it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is maby, the way people get introduced, a factor? What are the big factors&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned below, the question might be rephrased to:&#xA;&quot;How can you describe this behaviour&quot;?&#xA;(I don't wan't to boil it down to one factor (and it's probably impossible to list all of them), but I would like to get a general Idea, on how this works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14541" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2016-12-23T07:43:53.180" Title="What makes people like other people?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-01-01T23:10:00.640" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16442" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-21T17:31:11.813" Score="1" ViewCount="646" Body="&lt;p&gt;Everyone has some friends and some people, you can't get along with.&#xA;But what makes them different?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it smell, the voice, attractiveness, the way they express themselves, their sence of humor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can try, as hard as I want, to like some people, but they appeal just not sympathic to me. I'ts not that they are bad people or mean and I can have a good conversation with them, but somehow, I just don't like them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know, liking someone is highly subjective, but this is exactely my question!&#xA;Which factors decide upon, whether you like someone or not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And how can it be that some people are generally liked and disliked?&#xA;What is their factor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not a duplicate of &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/16441/14541&quot;&gt;What makes people like other people?&lt;/a&gt;, which is asking for group behaviour. I would like to know, what makes an Individual likable or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd much rather have a list of factoras as an Answer than an explanation (the explanation is asked for in the previously mentioned question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, &quot;what makes someone likable&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14541" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2016-12-21T17:47:06.763" Title="What makes you like someone?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2016-12-27T20:03:01.047" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16443" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-21T17:48:39.210" Score="2" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any books anyone can recommend that do not have any or much in the way of prerequisites but go through the anatomy of the central nervous system while laying out in detail the functions of the various regions of the brain &lt;em&gt;especially the higher brain&lt;/em&gt;. &#xA;I do not mean a book that merely cuts the brain into brain stem, the mid brain and higher regions like the cortices and then simply divides those regions into a dozen or so further categories. I am looking for something that is a lot more detailed and focuses on the functions of thought, emotions, sensations, perceptions, and memory and the cellular anatomy that goes along with them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize it might be difficult to find a textbook without any prerequisites, so let me say as few prerequisites as possible.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9818" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-30T21:52:57.080" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T22:42:26.520" Title="Books on Neurological functions?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16444" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16451" CreationDate="2016-12-21T20:35:26.217" Score="2" ViewCount="260" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question requires very little background:&#xA;1. English is my second language and I find myself thinking mostly in it&#xA;2. I tend to listen more than to read it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I read a book from the computer screen (the same screen on which I watch documentaries) about science I tend to read the words but to also hear them in my mind, like if I was reading them out loud (or some documentary speaker was talking) and only after that I perceive the whole sentence. It seems to me that I can not control this process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My expectations are that reading has nothing to do with hearing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The opposite of my situation is to hear something and experience it reading it in your mind on a sheet of paper and after that you perceive the information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any idea why this is happening?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14544" LastActivityDate="2017-01-17T08:16:01.507" Title="Why I read by hearing the words?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16446" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16438" CreationDate="2016-12-22T00:50:37.893" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot answer from fMRI's, but this theory conflicts with other anecdotal evidence from medicine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In sensory deprivation, or under psychotomimetic substances, you can be awake and unimpaired logically, and still have reality make as little sense as it does in a dream.  (People on LSD are not less logical, in an abstract sense.  If you can get them to care about an IQ test long enough to take it, they can do just as well.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To the extent those effects are comparable, I would doubt it is reason that is impaired.  It is more likely that reasoning is fine, but the ability to check predictions against perception is lacking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Antonio Damasio's &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&amp;amp;pg=PA217#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;observations&lt;/a&gt; on brain lesions that limit emotion, explained in his popularizing &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=MRY3hmYc1W8C&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;book&lt;/a&gt;, seems to indicate that abstract reason needs physical grounding (from the environment or from internal sensations like emotional reactions) or it goes off the rails and does not result in what we ordinarily consider logic, even if the reasoning skills themselves are in order.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Much perceptual feedback and even internal feeback loops are disabled or attenuated by the physiological paralysis in sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6786" LastEditorUserId="6786" LastEditDate="2017-01-23T00:19:36.447" LastActivityDate="2017-01-23T00:19:36.447" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16447" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-22T21:22:53.283" Score="2" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not have much knowledge, if any, on cognitive sciences so bare with me if this question is trivial or absurd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder this question because, personally, I feel less or more conscious during days where I'm less or more cognitively active. I'm sure this is not an uncommon experience. On days where I am very 'slow', I zone in and out of focus quite frequently and I cannot retain focus for long periods of time. During these moments out of focus and inside of my mind, thinking, I don't feel conscious. I feel as though I am waking up each time I come back to attention. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, when I really try hard to focus on, say, a beautiful scene (like a setting sun) I feel extremely more conscious because I am actively processing the definition of the image quality (requiring working memory, correct?). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It feels wrong posting something like this because it's entirely anecdotal but I'm not sure how else to research this 'feeling'..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14554" LastActivityDate="2016-12-22T21:22:53.283" Title="Is the feeling of consciousness simply a perceived effect of a functional working memory and focus?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-01-01T23:13:27.783" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16448" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16441" CreationDate="2016-12-22T21:37:55.963" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;is the question: What makes people like other people? or: how can you explain the phenomenon described above?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it's the former, it has an answer already and this should be marked a duplicate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will try to answer the latter, if it can be considered on topic here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just because you have a mutual friend, doesn't mean you are going to be friends with someone. Humans are not this simple. The factors involved in deciding whether you like someone is very complicated. As you mentioned, the way you get introduced can definitely affect whether someone likes another person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humans have evolved as social creatures and our social interactions have evolved deeply like our intelligence. When you try to logically predict a phenomenon based on ONE factor when there exists a LOT more, you will not get a good prediction. It is not a strange phenomenon, it is quite natural if you consider the personalities that each person and the desires that they have in a friend. A and B might have a completely different type of friendship than B and D, by the way. To me, this question is misguided.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14554" LastActivityDate="2016-12-22T21:37:55.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16450" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16546" CreationDate="2016-12-23T02:43:00.730" Score="4" ViewCount="621" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone wears prism glasses that turn the visual field upside down (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=upside%20down%20glasses&amp;amp;view=detail&amp;amp;mid=645B90783B432E785CDE645B90783B432E785CDE&amp;amp;FORM=VIRE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; video), this person will eventually adapt and see the world in its normal orientation again. Now my question is, how does the person wearing these glasses perceive the transition from upside-down back to normal after the prism glasses are taken off?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="11444" LastEditDate="2019-04-19T13:00:34.877" LastActivityDate="2019-04-19T13:00:34.877" Title="How does a person who wears prism glasses through which the world is perceived upside-down experience the transition back to normal?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;adaptation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16451" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16444" CreationDate="2016-12-23T02:53:13.550" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When I read a book I tend to read the words but to also hear them in my mind&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Inner Speech&lt;/strong&gt; is the general name given to this phenomenon,&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;1&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  although it also goes by imagined speech, silent speech or covert speech, there are few studies and even less definite conclusions as to how it happens and its role in reading comprehension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;and only after that I perceive the whole sentence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, language comprehension goes through the perception of sounds, words and sentences followed by meaning ( independently or in succession) , in order to comprehend a sentence or paragraph you hold words or sentences in some form of short term memory, for visual language ( written words, sign language ), we have a visual sketchpad and for spoken words we have a phonological loop and other inter related memory structures,these buffers also connect or send information to other associational areas in the brain where meaning is presumably derived.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;2&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It seems to me that I can not control this process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another related concept to inner speech is &lt;strong&gt;private speech&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;3&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, words spoken out loud to oneself. Private speech is both healthy and normal in children from the ages of 2 to 7 ( a student reading in class to himself in whispers for instance ), although we generally stop the public practice when we grow up due mostly to our social environment and other factors. It is then conceivable that our preferred way ( although not the only one) way of reading for comprehension is to use silent private speech which in turn goes through the language comprehension process outlined above.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;4&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My expectations are that reading has nothing to do with hearing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes and no, while the entry point might be a different one ( visual vs auditory), most likely the language centers and higher associational areas get recruited by either one while reading or hearing, furthermore, by translating internally in between domains, you have access to memories specific to that domain, for instance: when perceiving visually a stop sign (and reacting rapidly), reading and imagining a color, or hearing how something smells&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;5&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Any idea why this is happening?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Languages consisting of ideograms( Japanese kanji ) present some clues along with the previous overview. Even though the kanji ideograms have more in common with pictures than words; the principal speech comprehension centers get predominantly recruited ( there are still differences though).&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;6&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; Language has also been predominantly spoken ( the written word is relatively new to our species ) so it makes sense from an adaptive perspective ( i.e it is more efficient) to have a language comprehension center devoted to the older spoken language ( or general sound deciphering) and co-opt it for reading, this new routing happens with the aid of inner silent speech ( which could be a modification of private speech) and other memory buffers.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Notes, reference &amp;amp; sources:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1.&lt;/strong&gt; A great introduction and overview: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4538954/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2.&lt;/strong&gt; Cognitive Neuroscience( Gazzinga) Has a great overview of language and memory and there are whole fields of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurolinguistics&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psycholinguistics&lt;/a&gt; devoted to language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3.&lt;/strong&gt; The wiki on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_speech&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;private speech&lt;/a&gt; and previous sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;4.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=0GyLBQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA229&amp;amp;dq=from%20print%20to%20sound%20and%20meaning&amp;amp;pg=PA229#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=from%20print%20to%20sound%20and%20meaning&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;From Print to sound and meaning&lt;/a&gt; (Cognitive Neuroscience of Language -Kemmerer) presents a model of this arrangement.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;5.&lt;/strong&gt; A contrasting issue is early blind subjects that read in braile, the entry point here is tactile but ends up recruiting language and visual areas the same. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/23/10/4005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;see Visual Cortex Activity in Early and Late Blind People&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;6.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2782536/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Japanese and English sentence reading comprehension and writing systems: An fMRI study of first and second language effects on brain activation&lt;/a&gt; Presents a detailed account.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="14245" LastEditDate="2016-12-25T20:03:12.337" LastActivityDate="2016-12-25T20:03:12.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16453" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16454" CreationDate="2016-12-23T19:21:31.587" Score="2" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am designing an experiment to evaluate potential interventions for reducing procrastination. I am hence looking for one or more tasks to induce procrastination in an online experiment with participants recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk. Real world tasks associated with procrastination tend to feel meaningless, taxing, unpleasant, frustrating, or boring, and they are often unstructured such that people don't know how to begin, and are unsure about whether and how they are going to succeed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have piloted a vigilance task because it is known to be boring but it was insufficient to induce procrastination in people working on Mechanical Turk. Can you think of any more suitable tasks that have some of the characteristics listed above?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14557" LastEditorUserId="14557" LastEditDate="2016-12-23T19:30:34.850" LastActivityDate="2016-12-24T08:40:44.220" Title="How to induce procrastination in an online experiment?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;procrastination&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16454" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16453" CreationDate="2016-12-24T08:40:44.220" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Present subjects with a long-form writing task about anything - most likely, you'd be best-off supplying a topic that's difficult to write about (self-analysis, distant dates, self-assumed tardiness, etc) and not fun to think about. Don't set a time limit or a word limit, and stress that it's important they answer fully, completely, and honestly. If you want best results, you should aim to have a secondary control question that's meant to be easy to reply to, or relaxing, or ultimately nice to think about. Maybe pick &quot;The best time of your life&quot; vs. &quot;The absolute worst time of your life&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then provide them with a procrastinatory task. If you have access to the room they'd be doing this in, provide something hard to notice on first go, but actively distracting - for example, a Spanish soap opera on mute. Up to you on behavioral protocol here - you could watch it while you wait (and risk influencing the subject to watch it too), not appear to notice it, etc. Your goal at this stage is to be able to measure the time spent not working on the task - you might want to make notes of when they look away, create a program that records exactly how much time is spent not inputting data, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also choose to make the testing separate and instead only give a single type of test (easy/hard) to a single person, and that person's procrastination responses are recorded. Etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The important thing to remember is that you don't need to invoke the purest sense of boredom or negative emotion to make a subject procrastinate; you only need to gently invoke procrastinatory emotions, and then provide a suitable distraction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14561" LastActivityDate="2016-12-24T08:40:44.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16455" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16440" CreationDate="2016-12-25T01:31:26.017" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many things at work here. A lot of your sensitivity to human voice can be attributed to the tonotopic organization of the basilar membrane. Check out this image of the cochlea and notice how its sensitivity to different frequencies does &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; decrease linearly over space &lt;a href=&quot;https://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/98/14298-004-99934987.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/98/14298-004-99934987.jpg&lt;/a&gt; , this entails that we are most sensitive to frequencies in the 2-4kHZ range, which significantly overlaps with the frequency range of human speech &lt;a href=&quot;https://users.cs.cf.ac.uk/Dave.Marshall/Multimedia/node271.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://users.cs.cf.ac.uk/Dave.Marshall/Multimedia/node271.html&lt;/a&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also evidence for using a network of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_specificity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;domain specific&lt;/a&gt; mental processes to do complex tasks like navigating a room. Specifically, it seems that linguistic processes make spacial navigation tasks easier(&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3572715/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3572715/&lt;/a&gt; ; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2745626/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2745626/&lt;/a&gt;) --if this is true we could predict that overloading someone's linguistic capabilities by, say, speaking to them, would make spatial navigation tasks harder, which could explain how some stimuli can be &quot;less distracting&quot; than others within different contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastActivityDate="2016-12-25T01:31:26.017" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16457" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="476" CreationDate="2016-12-26T01:07:58.367" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Overchoice or &quot;choice overload&quot; are the common used terms for&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;describing the cognitive process in which people have a difficult time making a decision when faced with many options (Wikipedia on Overchoice)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same souce refers that the concept was first introduced by Alvin Toffler in his book named Future Shock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barry Schwartz as well as &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1470593107073842&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barbara Fasolo and collegues&lt;/a&gt; call it &quot;the tiranny of choice&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless, recently, some authors have been cast doubts&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;on the phenomenon being as pervasive or important as some might have given it credit for. Instead, it appears probable that such choice effects might be limited to particular contexts, assuming they reliably exist in the first place (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/pop-psych/201602/is-choice-overload-real-thing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Is Choice Overload a Real Thing?&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14570" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T01:07:58.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16458" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13607" CreationDate="2016-12-26T01:51:07.817" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The behaviour of agents can be predicted from utility or value based decision analysis models. Basically, you can model how the agent decides based on multiple objectives (or goals) by means of a multicriteria decision model. A simple multicriteria model consists in the weighted aggregation of value (utility) functions. Value (utility) functions represent how the agent values distinct levels of consequences on each objective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-criteria_decision_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multicriteria decision analysis&lt;/a&gt; (MCDA) based on utility or value measurement are the fields that you should explore to construct such a model.&#xA;MCDA has a sound foundational basis and it is the prescritive (normative + descritive) approach to make sound decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A rational agent (decision-maker) faced with alternative courses of actions from which it must select one, it should always select the action with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expected_utility_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;highest overall expected value (or utility)&lt;/a&gt; as computed from the referred multicriteria decision model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The distinct intrinsic beliefs, personalities, emotions, etc. are modeled by distinct value (or utility) functions and weights; so that each agent (decision-maker) behaves according to a specifc multicriteria model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14570" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T01:51:07.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16459" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1208" CreationDate="2016-12-26T02:21:37.903" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many strategies which diminish bias in decision-making. That is actually the cornerstone of the field called &quot;decision analysis&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biases, anomalies, heuristics, or any other kind of non-rational behavioral errors that people usually make in their usual everyday decisions is the realm of descriptive (or behavioral) decision-making (Von Winterfeldt and Edwards, 1986).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Normative decision-making studies how decisions should be made if people were completely rational and did not have any limitations or random inconsistencies on their perceptions, reasoning, or acts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, decision analysis studies how decisions should and could be made better, in practice, by real people. In this sense, it is a prescriptive approach. It fills the gap between descriptive and normative decision theories, drawing from behavioral decision theory research to develop effective decision analysis techniques (e.g. probability, and value elicitation protocols) that conform to normative decision-making (Raiffa et al., 2003; Clemen, 2008; Russo and Schoemaker, 1989).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Von Winterfeldt D, Edwards W (1986) Decision Analysis and Behavioural Research. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Raiffa H, Richardson J, Metcalfe D (2003) Negotiation Analysis: The Science and Art of Collaborative Decision. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Clemen RT (2008) Improving and measuring the effectiveness of decision analysis: Linking decision analysis and behavioral decision research. In T Kugler, JC Smith, T Connolly, Y-J. Son (eds.) Decision Modeling and Behavior in Complex and Uncertain Environments, Springer, New York: 3-31&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Russo JE, Schoemaker PJH (1989) Decision Traps: The Ten Barriers to Brilliant Decision-Making and How to Overcome Them. Doubleday, New York&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14570" LastEditorUserId="14570" LastEditDate="2016-12-26T02:51:42.690" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T02:51:42.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="546" CreationDate="2016-12-26T02:37:39.070" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human brain is subject to many faults and biases (Kahneman, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human beings usually use heuristics, screening, ranking, and other rules of thumb to limit the complexity of a decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kahneman has described the two cognitive systems that drive our judgement and decision making (Kahneman, 2011). System 1 refers to our intuitive system, which is typically fast, automatic, emotional, implicit, and effortless. Despite its long-standing effectiveness in specific decision situations, particularly when quick decisions are of great value (Gladwell, 2007), it can also be the cause of several cognitive biases that hinder our judgements and decisions. On the contrary, system 2 refers to reasoning, which is obviously lazier and effortful than system 1, but more conscious, deliberative, and logical. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For complex high-stakes decisions, it is worthwhile to follow a formal, rational, systematic procedure. This is the aim of decision analysis, helping DMs overcome system 1’s errors and biases towards system 2’s more careful and conscious deliberation (Clemen, 2008). Indeed, considerable research suggests that people will maximize their chances of making the best decision if they use a sound decision analysis method (Russo and Schoemaker, 1989).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a decision-maker wants to guide his decision making process satisfying a set of simple and transparent axioms, which most people would regard as rational (Goodwin and Wright, 2004), and some logical theorems that follow from them, then the unique standard for correctness is decision analysis (Keeney, 1982; Howard, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Kahneman D (2011) Thinking, Fast and Slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Gladwell M (2007) Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking. Back Bay Books&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Clemen RT (2008) Improving and measuring the effectiveness of decision analysis: Linking decision analysis and behavioral decision research. In T Kugler, JC Smith, T Connolly, Y-J. Son (eds.) Decision Modeling and Behavior in Complex and Uncertain Environments, Springer, New York: 3-31&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Russo JE, Schoemaker PJH (1989) Decision Traps: The Ten Barriers to Brilliant Decision-Making and How to Overcome Them. Doubleday, New York&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Goodwin P, Wright G (2004) Decision Analysis for Management Judgment. Wiley and Sons, New York&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Keeney RL (1982) Decision Analysis: An Overview. Operations Research, 30(5): 803-838&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Howard RA (2007) The Foundations of Decision Analysis Revisited. In W Edwards, RF Miles Jr, D von Winterfeldt (eds.) Advances in Decision Analysis: From Foundations to Applications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 32-56&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14570" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T02:37:39.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16461" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8070" CreationDate="2016-12-26T02:45:29.493" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following article addresses the issue of decision-making process alignment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clemen RT (2008) Improving and measuring the effectiveness of decision analysis: Linking decision analysis and behavioral decision research. In T Kugler, JC Smith, T Connolly, Y-J. Son (eds.) Decision Modeling and Behavior in Complex and Uncertain Environments, Springer, New York: 3-31&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, the following article presents another specific measure which was used to validate the group alignment among the participants by following a particular decision-making process:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rdcu.be/njCD&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Supporting Multicriteria Group Decisions with MACBETH Tools: Selection of Sustainable Brownfield Redevelopment Actions. Group Decision and Negotiation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14570" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T02:45:29.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16462" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9734" CreationDate="2016-12-26T04:18:34.350" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You certainly did not understand it correctly, because the statement that the second case is either rational or not cannot be stated based only on the information you provided.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The rationality of the second statement depends on the specific decision-maker's attitude to risk only. It is not possible to infer it based only on the information you are providing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;strong&gt;Let's consider the first case: &quot;You value 5 dollars twice as much as 4 dollars&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A possible decision situation would be a day in which you are so starving that you might well eat one hamburguer as two. However, one hamburguer costs 4 dollars in the store where you are; but there is a promotion in which you can buy two hamburgueres for the price of 5 dollars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could represent this situation stating that you value the same:&#xA;a) 4 additional dollars, in relation to your current &lt;em&gt;status quo&lt;/em&gt;;&#xA;b) as the 1 additional dollar, in relation to the moment after receiving the previous 4 dollars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this situation, there is no uncertainty involved about the consequences of your decision. If you pay 4 dollars, you eat one hamburguer. If you pay 5 dollars, you eat two hamburguers. In certain situations, you can model your preference by means of a value function (rather than an utility function).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A value function measures only how much you value (i.e. how much you consider attractive, desirable, preferable) distinct consequences, so that consequence levels with higher values mean that you prefer them in relation to consequence levels with lower values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Utility not only measures this value, but it also measures your attitude in relation to uncertainty (risk). Since this is a certain situation, your utility function is exactly the same as your value function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;strong&gt;Now for the second case: &quot;Why is not also rational to value 5 dollars twice as much as an 80% chance of 5 dollars&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This situation is distinct from the previous one, because now one of the alternatives is uncertain, there is only a 80% chance of occurring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A possible decision situation would be the case in which the store has offering a promotion in which you could take a 20% chance of eating your first hamburguer for free, but if you lose you would have to pay 5 dollars for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only possible way that you could &quot;value 5 dollars twice as much as 80% chance of 5 dollars&quot; is if you are indifferent between:&#xA;a) paying 4 dollars for eating one hamburguer (as in the previous case);&#xA;b) or accepting this new promotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are indifferent, then IT IS RATIONAL that you &lt;em&gt;value 5 dollars twice as much as an 80% chance of 5 dollars&lt;/em&gt;! In this case, it is said that you are risk-neutral, and once more, your utility function is exactly the same as your value function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you prefer choice a) then it means you are not willing to risk having to pay 5 dollars for the hamburguer. Then, you no longer &lt;em&gt;value 5 dollars twice as much as an 80% chance of 5 dollars&lt;/em&gt;! You now &lt;em&gt;value 5 dollars MORE THAN TWICE AS an 80% chance of 5 dollars&lt;/em&gt;! In this case, it is said that you are risk-averse, and now your utility function is distinct from your value function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, If you prefer choice b) then, once more, you no longer &lt;em&gt;value 5 dollars twice as much as an 80% chance of 5 dollars&lt;/em&gt;! You now &lt;em&gt;value 5 dollars LESS THAN TWICE AS an 80% chance of 5 dollars&lt;/em&gt;! In this case, it is said that you are risk-seeking, and again your utility function is distinct from your value function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: Note that utilites (and values) are always subjective, so the term is redundant (that's why I did not mentioned it at all)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14570" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T04:18:34.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16464" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2016-12-26T04:55:25.010" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Preference is the comparison of alternatives based on the value (or utility) which a decision-maker assigns to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14570" LastEditorUserId="14570" LastEditDate="2016-12-26T11:58:18.787" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T11:58:18.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16465" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2016-12-26T04:55:25.010" Score="0" Body="Preference is the comparison of alternatives based on the value (or utility) which a decision-maker assigns to them." OwnerUserId="14570" LastEditorUserId="14570" LastEditDate="2016-12-26T11:58:26.720" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T11:58:26.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16466" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4022" CreationDate="2016-12-26T05:16:31.513" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Analytical thinking should be used instead of intuition for new high-stakes and complex decisions only, since it has a cost, particularly in terms of the time and other valuable resources used in the process.&#xA;In sum, the expected gains from analytical thinking must surpass the respective expected costs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14570" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T05:16:31.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16467" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-26T08:43:15.920" Score="1" ViewCount="384" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed people get a little frustrated or uncomfortable when a unknown or known person invade the personal space .&#xA;How can one define Personal Space . Why do people get uncomfortable .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7416" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T23:14:03.203" Title="How can one describe personal space and its comfortable area" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16468" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16467" CreationDate="2016-12-26T23:14:03.203" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Personal Space may be seen as one's working area for carrying out autonomous actions and thoughts. When someone invades that space, you have decreased capacity to act autonomously. For example, when someone is physically too close, you have decreased freedom of locomotion and movement. When someone is being nosy or intellectually getting into your business, they are interfering with your ability to act by your own feelings and beliefs. The reason is that you begin to consider how that person might judge your actions and motivations. The key problem is interference with autonomy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Put another way, invading someone's personal space interferes with that person's life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness by imposing external opinions or forces the individual does not desire in his or her life. Naturally social actions and interactions are meant to accommodate the feelings and desires of bystanders, but some actions are purely personal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The situation is a bit different when we are talking about close friends or relatives. Presumably the reason here is that these external parties have already been screened for agreeability and likeability, so not only is there less likelihood of opposition, but there is also a personal desire to find agreement. Moreover, the less agreeable a person appears to be, the less you would want that person interfering with or even knowing your personal feelings, plans, and circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2016-12-26T23:14:03.203" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16469" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-27T05:47:03.380" Score="2" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently been exposed to the term &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_(psychology)#Extinction_burst&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;extinction burst&lt;/a&gt; and was wondering how it applies to adult humans and habit modification and behavior management. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the research I've found focuses on animals and generally fails to extend the results to adult humans. Usually limiting to toddlers and animals in application. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that points to adults being able to limit behavior through extinction without outside help (teachers, therapists, psychologist, etc.) in their own habits?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research on topic:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2007/12/lattal.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Extinction and Memory &amp;#40;APA&amp;#41;&quot;&gt;Extinction and Memory (APA)&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywell.com/what-is-extinction-2795176&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What is Extinction (VeryWell)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastEditorUserId="10420" LastEditDate="2016-12-27T16:34:21.220" LastActivityDate="2016-12-27T16:34:21.220" Title="Extinction Burst in Humans" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16472" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-27T16:57:22.453" Score="2" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am very curious as to what exactly is done during a mental competency evaluation. (Not too sure if this is a good question for this forum- apologies if not!) In this instance, a criminal defendant in Tennessee will go through this process as the preliminary hearing has been delayed about 3.5 months. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I understand, the defendant will be transported from the county jail on a daily/weekly basis to undergo this evaluation. This will be used to see if the defendant is mentally competent to actually stand trial if it goes that far (i.e. if the defendant does not take a plea bargain).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm just curious as to what questions are asked, what methods are used, who conducts the evaluation, and how the information is presented once the preliminary hearing actually rolls around.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14581" LastEditorUserId="13656" LastEditDate="2017-01-04T16:08:04.697" LastActivityDate="2017-01-04T16:08:04.697" Title="What is involved in a Mental Competency Evaluation in the criminal justice system?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16473" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-27T20:16:35.787" Score="5" ViewCount="483" Body="&lt;p&gt;The famous &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenhan_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rosenhan experiment of 1973&lt;/a&gt; showed that doctors in asylums routinely misdiagnosed normal people with various psychiatric disorders. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have any followup studies been done to confirm these results? I am particularly interested in any studies in which the pseudopatients did not feign insanity, but act normally during the course of the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12982" LastEditorUserId="14565" LastEditDate="2016-12-28T11:42:39.213" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T15:05:45.323" Title="Have there been followups to the Rosenhan Experiment?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16474" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-28T04:43:53.870" Score="1" ViewCount="1936" Body="&lt;p&gt;Antidepressants works temporarily (as long as you take them), and also affects the cognitive behaviour. Should they be seen as a permanent solution for depression? Shouldn't we find a solution at the psychosocial level, which actually works rather than suppressing the thoughts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14587" LastEditorUserId="10098" LastEditDate="2018-02-27T06:56:50.370" LastActivityDate="2018-07-15T09:37:28.573" Title="Do antidepressants provide a permanent solution for depression and anxiety?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16475" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12454" CreationDate="2016-12-28T05:56:34.400" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I asked this question back when I was building a neural model of progression through counting strategies [&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7sXAN.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]. The quotes in this answer are taken from that publication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologically, there is some evidence of addition speedup being a result of memorisation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typically, children progress through various strategies before finally&#xA;memorizing the results of addition, as shown in Table 1 (Siegler,&#xA;1987). The Counting strategy involves choosing the larger number and&#xA;incrementing it a number of times equal to the smaller number. The&#xA;Recall strategy is where the two numbers form an association with a&#xA;previously memorized answer, which is then recalled from long-term&#xA;memory. Other strategies have been identified, although we focus here&#xA;on recall and counting [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[The] recall strategy [...] improves reaction time and accuracy,&#xA;consistent with the data from Tables 2 and 3, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7sXAN.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7sXAN.png&quot; alt=&quot;table_1&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WowRd.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WowRd.png&quot; alt=&quot;table_2_and_3&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also some evidence from the Cognitive Neuroscience point of view which ends up being supported by the neural model I built:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, when doing mental calculation, age is correlated with the use&#xA;of parietal brain areas. However, it is inversely correlated with the&#xA;use of prefrontal and hippocampal brain areas, as well as the use of&#xA;the dorsal basal ganglia area (Rivera, Reiss, Eckert, &amp;amp; Menon, 2005).&#xA;Within the model, this transition can be framed as older children&#xA;using fewer iterative processes (no use of working memory in&#xA;prefrontal, no iterative process control requiring the basal ganglia,&#xA;and no loading of instructions from the hippocampus) and more&#xA;memorization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, those with dyscalculia show greater activation&#xA;of the prefrontal cortex compared to individuals with normal numeracy&#xA;(Kucian &amp;amp; von Aster, 2015). Although this model make no claims about&#xA;why dyscalculia occurs, given that it is a complicated disability&#xA;usually accompanied by various comorbidities and no direct cause&#xA;(Rubinsten &amp;amp; Henik, 2009), it does provide part of a possible&#xA;explanation as to why such compensation occurs. Specifically, those&#xA;with dyscalculia are unable to consolidate the functional role of the&#xA;prefrontal cortex during the counting task within the frontal-parietal&#xA;region and must instead rely on their working memory. Given an&#xA;excessively noisy input, inaccurate feedback, or inappropriate&#xA;modulation of the error signal, the Fast-Net could fail to learn the&#xA;mapping between addends and sum. Consequently, there would be limited&#xA;progression from counting to recall and a continued dependence on&#xA;working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/files/publications/aubin.2016a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Improving With Practice: A Neural Model of&#xA;Mathematical Development&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2016-12-28T05:56:34.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16477" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16480" CreationDate="2016-12-28T15:55:51.187" Score="5" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if there are any studies on how (or if) the position of the head changes our thoughts or dreams. Mainly I mean when lying down, as I experienced it is hard to keep the thoughts that where there moments ago when I turn from one side to another in bed. I guess this can be explained by how the blood flows in our brains, that one side gets more blood than the other when lying on your side. But does that mean you could influence your dreams by your sleeping position? Would you react differently to outside influences depending on what your head position is? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have to mention I have no knowledge at all in these kind of stuff and I'm just asking out of curiosity. Does anyone know about something like this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14496" LastActivityDate="2020-06-05T03:01:23.533" Title="Study about how position of head influences thoughts" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16478" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-28T16:52:53.187" Score="2" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;I tried very hard to find references on this in Google Scholar and Web of Science, but I fear I don't have enough experience with this area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My partner is great at Spanish, and informed me that in the Spanish language you don't say &quot;I lost the jacket,&quot; you say something like &quot;The jacket was lost to me.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could such grammatical differences lead to increases in collectivist culture or more tightly knit social fabrics in places like Mexico as opposed to individualist countries like the US?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this question too big? How would you find any relevant studies on this? Are there any other phenomena you are aware of where the structure of a language affects macro phenomena like culture?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14591" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-01-02T03:24:00.437" LastActivityDate="2017-01-02T03:24:00.437" Title="Do grammatical differences in language affect politics?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16479" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-28T17:42:18.460" Score="2" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can anti depressant medicine cause memory loss  ? Seen many suffering from cognitive problems after taking anti-depressants and for some , it went worse even after medicine was stopped.What can be the possible reasons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14587" LastEditorUserId="14587" LastEditDate="2016-12-29T05:30:17.630" LastActivityDate="2016-12-30T13:25:54.330" Title="Anti-depressant medicine and memory loss" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16480" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16477" CreationDate="2016-12-28T18:43:48.520" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hue,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you are interested in a field of research known as embodied cognitive science. It is a fascinating field that looks at how we use our bodies and environments in conjunction with or instead of our brains to complete some cognitive task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suggest you start by reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(16)30098-5&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Risko &amp;amp; Gilbert (2016)&lt;/a&gt; for a recent review of a phenomenon known as &quot;cognitive offloading&quot; which I think will give you some interesting insights to some of the questions you posed. Evan Risko has done some interesting work on the effects of head tilts on cognition which I think you'll find interesting.  If you can't access the article due to the paywall, let me know, and I can send it to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, I do not know any research on dreams and such.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14592" LastActivityDate="2016-12-28T18:43:48.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16482" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-29T05:35:29.533" Score="3" ViewCount="3041" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am doing an analysis of the brain of the Creature in Frankenstein by looking at its actions and experiences from a scientific perspective. For this, I was wondering:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between the Cingulate Gyrus and the Cingulate Cortex?&#xA;What is the function of these structures?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14539" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-12-30T13:22:30.813" LastActivityDate="2016-12-30T13:22:30.813" Title="Difference between the cingulate gyrus and the cingulate cortex" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16484" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-29T08:47:44.737" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not yet that SE experienced user but one thing I've observed is that If I give a good answer then I get upvotes on my other questions too.But as I give a comment that may seem to be bad to the OP I get downvotes on my other questions.&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As in real world example can be as:&lt;br/&gt; A bad action against someone&#xA;  resulting in their bad action against the person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a unique word for this in psychology ?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14599" LastEditorUserId="14599" LastEditDate="2017-01-04T16:21:26.973" LastActivityDate="2017-01-04T16:21:26.973" Title="Psychology behind SE?" Tags="&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-01-04T19:36:32.527" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16491" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16370" CreationDate="2016-12-30T08:49:35.917" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I recall correctly, the result of the work of Kahnemman and Tversky leaded is the Prospect Theory (&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.se/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=prospect%20theory&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;as_sdt=1%2C5&amp;amp;as_sdtp=&amp;amp;oq=prospe&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kahneman, D., &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica: Journal of the econometric society, 263-291.&lt;/a&gt;). The main components of that theory are include in that book (&quot;Think fast and Slow&quot;). So, I believe that that paper you can provide you with more reference on the work of these two authors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8314" LastEditorUserId="8314" LastEditDate="2016-12-31T10:43:19.437" LastActivityDate="2016-12-31T10:43:19.437" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16492" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16482" CreationDate="2016-12-30T09:47:03.233" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The cingulate gyrus and cingulate sulcus are the two components that make up the cingulate cortex. The cingulate cortex is involved in emotions, self-control, and problem solving.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In terms of the anatomy of the cingulate area in the brain the following nomenclature is important:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dartmouth.edu/~rswenson/NeuroSci/chapter_11.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cerebral cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: the few-millimeters of superficial layer of the brain with its characteristic foldings in higher &lt;em&gt;animalia&lt;/em&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The cortical foldings result in the formation of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/sulcgyri.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sulci&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/sulcgyri.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gyri&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (plural for &lt;em&gt;sulcus&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;gyrus&lt;/em&gt;). Sulci are grooves, gyri are ridges. These wrinkles increase the cortical surface and allow more neurons to be packed onto the brain. Cortical neurons are important for higher cognitive functions, explaining why higher primates have a high density of sulci and gyri.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cingulate_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cingulate cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; comprises one sulcus and one gyrus: the cingulate sulcus and cingulate gyrus (Fig. 1) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.principlesofneuralscience.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kandel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2000)&lt;/a&gt;. Hence, the cingulate gyrus is part of the cingulate cortex. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the functions associated with the cingulate region - The cingulate cortex is an integral part of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/limbicsystem.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;limbic system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The limbic system is the emotional control center of the brain. The cingulate cortex as such is involved in emotional self-control, focused problem solving, error recognition, and adaptive response to changing conditions &lt;a href=&quot;http://allmanlab.caltech.edu/PDFs/AllmanHakeemHofetal2001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Allman &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;. Especially the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) has received special attention, as it connects the limbic system with the “cognitive” prefrontal cortex. The ACC is thought to integrate the neuronal circuitry for affect regulation and a locus responsible for affective disorders &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/jnp.23.2.jnp121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Stevens &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/n8Z6T.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/n8Z6T.png&quot; alt=&quot;cingulate cortex&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. The cingulate cortex comprises one sulcus and one gyrus. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cingulate_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://allmanlab.caltech.edu/PDFs/AllmanHakeemHofetal2001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Allman &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, Annals NY Acad Sci (2001); &lt;strong&gt;935&lt;/strong&gt;: 107-17&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.principlesofneuralscience.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kandel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., The anatomical organization of the central nervous system. In: &lt;em&gt;Principles of neural science&lt;/em&gt; 4&lt;sup&gt;the&lt;/sup&gt; ed. (2000)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/jnp.23.2.jnp121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stevens &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;23&lt;/strong&gt;(2): Spring 2011&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2016-12-30T10:51:21.483" LastActivityDate="2016-12-30T10:51:21.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16496" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2016-12-31T04:13:03.163" Score="1" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can an auditory hallucination be true hallucination even if the person clàims that it doesnot reduces in volume when he plugs his ears. Similarly can a visual hallucination still be a true hallucination even when it doesn't disappear when person closes his eyes??&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13528" LastActivityDate="2017-01-02T08:16:41.100" Title="Does a true hallucination need to go away while plugging one's ears?" Tags="&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16497" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16474" CreationDate="2016-12-31T09:15:19.450" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your assumption that antidepressants works by &quot;suppressing the thoughts&quot; is not supported. Arguably it's quite the opposite. But let us not comment any further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now onto your question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Do anti depressant provide permanent solution for depression and anxiety?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At least for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), they normally do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;According to a brochure from the Boynton Health Service of the University of Minnesota:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Once you respond to an antidepressant, we recommend that you&#xA;  continue to take the medication for at least six months. If you stop&#xA;  taking the antidepressant before six months have passed there is an&#xA;  increased chance that your depression will return. For depressions&#xA;  that have lasted a long time (a year or longer), or for a recurrent&#xA;  depression, longer periods of treatment should be considered. If you&#xA;  wish to discontinue your medication, we recommend that you do this&#xA;  during times of decreased demands, such as during breaks or during the&#xA;  summer months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mentalhealth.umn.edu/medication/pdfs/antidep_bro.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Common Questions About Antidepressants&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (2005) - page 2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;According to an article available from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology healthcare service MIT Medical:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clinicians usually recommend that people continue taking&#xA;  antidepressants for about six months after they begin feeling better.&#xA;  Although it is tempting to stop taking the medication as soon as you&#xA;  feel better, abruptly stopping will greatly increase your risk of&#xA;  relapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Source: &quot;FAQ: Antidepressants&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://medical.mit.edu/faqs/antidepressants#faq-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;question #7: &quot;How long should I continue to take antidepressants?&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;From an article published by the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, doctor David Louis Dunner has this to say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to the AHCPR Practice Guidelines(1) for the treatment of&#xA;  major depression, acute episodes of depression should be treated for&#xA;  almost a year and recurrent episodes should be treated somewhat&#xA;  longer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, Dr. John M. Zajecka states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clinicians should perceive depression as potentially being a lifelong&#xA;  illness that may require treatment indefinitely in many patients&#xA;  rather than as an illness that can usually be cured with a single,&#xA;  short course of treatment like an antibiotic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr. Michael Edward Thase notes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is a difference between “forever” and “indefinitely.” In the&#xA;  future, treatments that target the altered pathologic mechanisms of&#xA;  recurrent depression may be available and may have a more curative&#xA;  effect than the present medications, which suppress illness activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While it's debatable whether &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; &quot;present medications&quot; simply suppress depressive symptoms, consider that this article was published in 2007.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &quot;Preventing Recurrent Depression: Long-Term Treatment for Major Depressive Disorder&quot; - PMC &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1911177/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1911177&lt;/a&gt;. PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17388700&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;17388700&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) Clinical Practice Guideline. Number 5: Depression in Primary Care, vol 2. Treatment of Major Depression. Rockville, Md: US Dept Health Human Services, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research; 1993. AHCPR Publication 93-0551.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Last but not least, from Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies have shown that 80% of those suffering from their first major&#xA;  depressive episode will suffer from at least 1 more during their&#xA;  life,(1) with a lifetime average of 4 episodes.(2) Other general&#xA;  population studies indicate that around half those who have an episode&#xA;  recover (whether treated or not) and remain well, while the other half&#xA;  will have at least one more, and around 15% of those experience&#xA;  chronic recurrence.(3) Studies recruiting from selective inpatient&#xA;  sources suggest lower recovery and higher chronicity, while studies of&#xA;  mostly outpatients show that nearly all recover, with a median episode&#xA;  duration of 11 months. Around 90% of those with severe or psychotic&#xA;  depression, most of whom also meet criteria for other mental&#xA;  disorders, experience recurrence.(4)(5)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recurrence is more likely if symptoms have not fully resolved with&#xA;  treatment. Current guidelines recommend continuing antidepressants for&#xA;  four to six months after remission to prevent relapse. Evidence from&#xA;  many randomized controlled trials indicates continuing antidepressant&#xA;  medications after recovery can reduce the chance of relapse by 70%&#xA;  (41% on placebo vs. 18% on antidepressant). The preventive effect&#xA;  probably lasts for at least the first 36 months of use.(6)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Those people experiencing repeated episodes of depression require&#xA;  ongoing treatment in order to prevent more severe, long-term&#xA;  depression. In some cases, people must take medications for long&#xA;  periods of time or for the rest of their lives.(7)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;hr&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(1) Fava GA, Park SK, Sonino N (2006). &quot;Treatment of recurrent&#xA;  depression.&quot;. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 6 (11): 1735–1740.&#xA;  doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1586%2F14737175.6.11.1735&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1586/14737175.6.11.1735&lt;/a&gt;. PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17144786&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;17144786&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(2) Limosin F, Mekaoui L, Hautecouverture S (2007). &quot;Stratégies&#xA;  thérapeutiques prophylactiques dans la dépression unipolaire&#xA;  [Prophylactic treatment for recurrent major depression]&quot;. La Presse&#xA;  Médicale. 36 (11–C2): 1627–1633. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.lpm.2007.03.032&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.lpm.2007.03.032&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;  PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17555914&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;17555914&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(3) Eaton WW, Shao H, Nestadt G, Lee HB, Lee BH, Bienvenu OJ, Zandi P&#xA;  (2008). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2761826&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Population-based study of first onset and chronicity in&#xA;  major depressive disorder&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Archives of General Psychiatry. 65&#xA;  (5): 513–20. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Farchpsyc.65.5.513&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/archpsyc.65.5.513&lt;/a&gt;. PMC &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2761826&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2761826&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;  PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18458203&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;18458203&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(4) Holma KM, Holma IA, Melartin TK, Rytsälä HJ, Isometsä ET (2008).&#xA;  &quot;Long-term outcome of major depressive disorder in psychiatric&#xA;  patients is variable&quot;. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 69 (2):&#xA;  196–205. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.4088%2FJCP.v69n0205&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.4088/JCP.v69n0205&lt;/a&gt;. PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18251627&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;18251627&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(5) Kanai T, Takeuchi H, Furukawa TA, Yoshimura R, Imaizumi T,&#xA;  Kitamura T, Takahashi K (2003). &quot;Time to recurrence after recovery&#xA;  from major depressive episodes and its predictors&quot;. Psychological&#xA;  Medicine. 33 (5): 839–45. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0033291703007827&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1017/S0033291703007827&lt;/a&gt;. PMID&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12877398&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;12877398&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(6) Geddes JR, Carney SM, Davies C, Furukawa TA, Kupfer DJ, Frank E,&#xA;  Goodwin GM (2003). &quot;Relapse prevention with antidepressant drug&#xA;  treatment in depressive disorders: A systematic review&quot;. Lancet. 361&#xA;  (9358): 653–61. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2803%2912599-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12599-8&lt;/a&gt;. PMID&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12606176&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;12606176&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(7) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000945.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Major Depression&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. MedlinePlus. 10 March 2014. Retrieved 16&#xA;  July 2010.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10098" LastEditorUserId="10098" LastEditDate="2018-07-15T09:37:28.573" LastActivityDate="2018-07-15T09:37:28.573" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16498" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16496" CreationDate="2017-01-02T00:38:48.673" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A hallucination is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a perception in the absence of external stimulus that has qualities of real perception&lt;/a&gt; and hallucinations can occur in different ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Visual hallucinations can occur with the eyes open or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-cause-of-closed-eye-visual-hallucinations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;closed&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed-eye_hallucination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;see also&lt;/a&gt;).  Visual hallucinations can also occur with people who have &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_release_hallucinations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lost their sight&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just like visual hallucinations, auditory hallucinations can also occur with the ears open or plugged.  To highlight the point, I suffer with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinnitus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tinnitus&lt;/a&gt; and I hear the noise with my ears plugged or open. Auditory hallucinations can also occur in people with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_ear_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hearing loss&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-01-02T08:16:41.100" LastActivityDate="2017-01-02T08:16:41.100" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16501" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-03T20:03:13.283" Score="12" ViewCount="867" Body="&lt;p&gt;So although working memory training was somewhat of a fad (and I guess some benefits did come out of training, like improved attention/executive function), reviews such as Melby-Lervåg et al. (2016) show that even though WMC changes, fluid intelligence does not through WM training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if there's any evidence out there that fluid intelligence can change. If so, are there any proven interventions that can change fluid intelligence; or are we still looking for those interventions with the trust that something will prove successful in terms of fluid intelligence improvement?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., &amp;amp; Hulme, C. (2016). &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691616635612&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of “far transfer” evidence from a meta-analytic review&lt;/a&gt;. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(4), 512-534. [&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~tredick/NIHMS758206.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;]&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13673" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-01-09T23:11:11.767" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T08:09:09.273" Title="Is there any evidence that fluid intelligence is malleable?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16505" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-04T16:34:32.350" Score="2" ViewCount="197" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read that people with high IQ are not necessarily good or better speakers or writers. I wonder if that is true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read that for instance left-handed people are overrepresented among high IQ people as well as overrepresented among people with verbal and speech problems. Left-handed people are also overrepresented among low IQ people which might explain the verbal and speech problems if that is not adjusted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any study or evidence supporting any of these claims?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2846" LastActivityDate="2017-01-04T16:34:32.350" Title="Is it true that IQ and verbal ability are not much correlated?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16507" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-04T22:43:56.723" Score="1" ViewCount="4596" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I've had this question over the past week since New Years. I am currently 21 years old and yea, time flies so fast. New years just feels like one year closer to death. Can you believe it? The internet was founded around the years when I was born. Can you believe where we are today? Can you believe that it's 70% through the decade already? Yet 7 years ago, I was barely in high school and iPads were invented?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So at the start of New Years, I've started to get this feeling &quot;what is the point of living life if eventually we'll all die&quot;? And furthermore, I got another question. If we die, doesn't everything come to an end? Don't you lose memory of absolutely everything you've done in life? So in other words, what's the point of doing things in life if we're all going to eventually die and never even remember what we've done? Maybe other people might but would you personally have remembered this upon your death? I'm talking in a non-religious point of view. From a scientific logical point of view, everything you've done in life comes to an end and you cannot even backtrack anything to trace your memories or whatnot. I don't believe that scientifically there is a such thing as &quot;afterlife&quot; or whatnot. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So really, I got extremely depressed over the past few days thinking about this question. I mean you can be the richest person in the world right now but in probably ~80 years, you'll completely forget about that. Or otherwise you can live in total misery and poverty but you'll forget about it maybe 50 years later. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So this question has struck my head really hard. I felt like I didn't want to do anything. What is the actual point of life if we're all going to die no matter what we have accomplished?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14641" LastActivityDate="2017-01-05T01:42:02.630" Title="What is the point of living a life if we're all going to eventually die?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-01-05T07:29:35.430" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16520" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16474" CreationDate="2017-01-06T19:02:51.903" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most studies exploring the impact of medication for the treatment of depression track patients in the short term.  Also, these clinical studies are typically not as comparable to the general population as many of exclusion criteria are strict, and rule out individuals who have co-morbid conditions like an anxiety disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psych242.class.uic.edu/Articles/Zimmerman,%20Sampling%20in%20depression%20research,%20AmJrPsy,%202002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psych242.class.uic.edu/Articles/Zimmerman,%20Sampling%20in%20depression%20research,%20AmJrPsy,%202002.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, medication without any psychological intervention is largely a short-term fix.  Most studies have shown that the most effective course is to have a combination of antidepressants and therapy, like CBT. In my experience, getting to the core of a psychological issue requires exploration through therapy, while medication is important for managing some symptoms, specifically in the case of severe depression. It is important for a person to be stable before engaging in intensive psychotherapy, hence, medication should be the first course of action, along with more behavioral approaches such as behavioral activation, positive coping skills, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;In any comparison between psychotherapy and medication, it is important to examine whether the sample was responsive to medications and whether pharmacotherapy was adequately implemented. Among more severely depressed participants in this trial,ADM significantly outperformed placebo through 8 weeks of treatment. There were no significant differences in outcome between ADM and placebo for the less severely depressed participants,&#xA;consistent with findings from numerous other studies (Hollon et al., 2002). In the absence of a demonstrated drug effect for such patients, there may be little justification for prescribing psychoactive medications when there are comparably effective psychosocial alternatives free of side effects.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ww.abnormalwootwoot.com/Cool_Abnormal_Reads_Videos_ETC._files/Dimidjian%202006-Randomized%20Trial%20of%20Behavioral%20Activation_1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Among more severely depressed patients, behavioral activation was comparable to antidepressant medication, and both significantly outperformed cognitive therapy.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depression occurs for many reasons.  One route is commonly due to negative and distorted core beliefs (in line with CBT theory).  These beliefs and narratives need to be brought out of automatic processing and explored, and ultimately changed or replaced with beliefs that are not distorted.  Also, depression occurs when automatic thoughts are highly negative, bringing about debilitating emotions.  Often, people attempt to suppress these thoughts by avoiding situations or even resorting to means of distracting themselves by using drugs.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depression can also occur when one is no longer living in line with their core and true values, and rather responding to life based upon avoidance of feared outcomes, often irrational and unexplored fears.  This is in line with Acceptance and Commitment (ACT) theory, which proposes that through mindfulness and learning to observe the process of your mind and body rather than getting attached to the content, you will gain freedom from the impact of the thoughts.  Then, you can start to focus on your values, and slowly identify how you interrupt your pursuit of a meaningful life.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;If depressive symptoms are severe, and a person is struggling to get out of bed, than medication can help provide reduce these symptoms enough to motivate the person to engage in therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, medication alone is not a long term fix to psychological problems, although it can be highly effective and necessary for certain populations. Medication also communicates that depression and anxiety are things to be fixed; they are not.  All humans, at some point in their lives, will struggle psychologically.  Moreover, we all do our best and have ways of responding that we typically learned as children and that helped us to survive at certain points in our lives.  The issue becomes that when our context changes, some become stuck in old ways of responding to a new context.  Adaptation is key, and to adapt you have to become self-aware in order to have the choice to make a positive change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14654" LastEditorUserId="14654" LastEditDate="2017-01-06T20:25:24.593" LastActivityDate="2017-01-06T20:25:24.593" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16521" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-06T22:00:36.153" Score="3" ViewCount="281" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if there exists a validated questionnaire designed to assess the duration/intensity/type of physical activity someone has taken part in over the past 1-3 days?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've seen many questionnaires (e.g. IPAQ, link to full questionnaire &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sdp.univ.fvg.it/sites/default/files/IPAQ_English_self-admin_long.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) where the target time scale is 1 week, but I'm looking for something that captures exercise amount on a much shorter/recent time scale&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally it would also be short and quick to administer (for reference, I would consider both versions of the IPAQ too long)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask because I'm interested in people's recent levels of exercise and I've tried administering a short questionnaire where I ask things like &quot;how many minutes of aerobic exercise did you do yesterday?&quot; but when I looked at the the data it turns out that &gt;70% of people report 0, so I end up with a zero-inflated variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could be due to a poorly worded question, poor response format, or any number of reasons. Ideally, I would conduct a full survey design study and use factor analysis to create/validate a short form questionnaire, but at this point it might be easier to just use one that currently exists, if there is one&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anything like this already exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Craig, C. L., Marshall, A. L., Sandstrom, M., Bauman, A. E., Booth, M. L., Ainsworth, B. E., … Oja, P. (2003). International Physical Activity Questionnaire: 12-Country Reliability and Validity. Medicine &amp;amp; Science in Sports &amp;amp; Exercise, 35(8), 1381–1395. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000078924.61453.FB&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000078924.61453.FB&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9054" LastEditorUserId="9054" LastEditDate="2017-01-08T21:49:23.140" LastActivityDate="2017-01-08T21:49:23.140" Title="Exercise and physical activity questionnaire" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16527" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16269" CreationDate="2017-01-07T21:32:36.190" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know much about this, but here goes anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I heard that the reason backprop isnt biologically plausible is that it requires global control/coordination for the propagation of the gradients. (verification of this would be nice...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1608.05343&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;decoupled neural interface&lt;/a&gt; seems to solve this problem by making gradient propagation local (using a finite difference approximation to break the dependency). So could be biologically plausible, while keeping much of the flavour of backprop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, in my mind the bi-directional argument isnt much of an issue. As you can just have another neuron/path doing the backward step/propagation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10802" LastActivityDate="2017-01-07T21:32:36.190" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16529" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17915" CreationDate="2017-01-07T23:50:53.003" Score="6" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the visual sciences it is known that the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblique_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;oblique effect&lt;/a&gt; can be reduced by means of training. The oblique effect is observed when testing subjects psychophysically with a grating acuity task (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://iovs.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2126684&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BaGa test&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aoa.org/patients-and-public/eye-and-vision-problems/glossary-of-eye-and-vision-conditions/visual-acuity?sso=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual acuity&lt;/a&gt; is better when horizontal or vertical gratings are tested than when diagonals are used. The performance in discerning diagonal gratings has been shown to improve after training subjects, although performance in the cardinal directions stays better than the oblique stimuli. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1483524&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;oblique effect has been observed in the tactile sense&lt;/a&gt; too (the sense of touch). However, the amount of papers in the scientific literature is quite restricted in the tactile modality. I wasn't able to find evidence in the literature whether training can improve people's performance in tactile diagonal grating tasks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can training reduce the oblique effect in the tactile modality&lt;/strong&gt;, comparable to that observed in visual grating tasks?    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-19T21:10:54.053" LastActivityDate="2017-08-19T21:10:54.053" Title="Does training affect the tactile oblique effect?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;touch&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16530" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-08T08:18:20.673" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading the review paper: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2430002/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Levels of processing during non-conscious&#xA;perception: a critical review of visual masking&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;and have encountered the terms: semantic activation and lexical processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone state what is the difference between the two?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I saw some definitions in the web but I look for something else.&#xA;I am looking for an example for an experiment which focuses on one methid and not the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9947" LastActivityDate="2017-01-08T08:18:20.673" Title="What is the difference between semantic activation to lexical processing?" Tags="&lt;semantic-memory&gt;&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16531" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17953" CreationDate="2017-01-08T09:35:35.560" Score="12" ViewCount="9287" Body="&lt;p&gt;In his book &lt;em&gt;Thinking, Fast and Slow&lt;/em&gt;, Daniel Kahneman describes a mental exercise which he calls &lt;em&gt;Add One&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To start, make up several strings of 4 digits, all different, and write each string on an index card. Place a blank card on top of the deck. The task you will perform is called Add-1. Here is how it goes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Start beating a steady rhythm. Remove the blank card and read the four digits aloud. Wait for two beats, then report a string in which each of the original digits is incremented by 1. If the digits on the card are 5294, the correct response is 6305. Keeping the rhythm is important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This description is a bit vague and I'm wondering how the exercise is supposed to work exactly. He does not mention to cover up the card before reporting the modified digits. This would allow to perform the transformations on-the-fly digit by digit. This does not sound challenging at all and does not fit to Kahneman's following statements of loading the working memory, in particular:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Few people can cope with more than four digits in the Add-1 task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My assumption was that he means something like that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beat 1: Uncover card&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beat 2: Read aloud first digit&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beat 3: Read aloud second digit&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beat 4: Read aloud third digit&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beat 5: Read aloud fourth digit&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beat 6: Wait + cover card&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beat 7: Wait&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beat 8: Say first digit + 1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beat 9: Say second digit + 1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beat 10: Say third digit + 1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beat 11: Say fourth digit + 1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a quick Google search reveals a few implementations, for instance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;http://healthresearchblog.blogspot.de/2011/11/working-memory-with-r-code.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;blog post&lt;/a&gt; resulting in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qMy_6Pgiokk&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;YouTube video of the exercise&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An Android app &lt;a href=&quot;http://jcfrei.com/a-slow-thinking-trainer/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;slow thinking trainer&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my surprise both attempts use the dull version of reporting the transformed digits while seeing them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: Is there a better description of the exercise which was originally used in the scientific studies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14660" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-08-20T02:17:46.567" Title="Kahneman's add one / three exercise" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16533" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14052" CreationDate="2017-01-08T23:33:57.243" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's a nice paper that explores the question in depth: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4626528/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4626528/&lt;/a&gt;. The authors measure the emotional closeness as frequency of contact and number of different activities done together for a group of 25 people over the period of 18 months. As far as I can tell from the charts, the decay curve is closer to an exponent than to anything else for friends. However, for the kin the emotional closeness increases over time - though, again, in an exponential way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14655" LastEditorUserId="14655" LastEditDate="2017-01-09T01:07:01.010" LastActivityDate="2017-01-09T01:07:01.010" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16331" CreationDate="2017-01-09T12:46:24.690" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Graph theory and complex networks are central to many works involving fMRI (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1106612109&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/103/37/13848.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;), whole brain models (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005025&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nn.3690&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;), protein interaction graphs (&lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/296/5569/910&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v411/n6833/abs/411041a0.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;), and some EEG studies of consciousness (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/112/3/887.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/25/11/4203.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;8&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/133/1/161.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;9&lt;/a&gt;). The problem is that neuroscience is a very wide field that emcompases many different specific questions, most of which are pointed at small features that dont envolve huge networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14637" LastEditorUserId="14637" LastEditDate="2017-01-09T15:06:43.823" LastActivityDate="2017-01-09T15:06:43.823" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16536" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15888" CreationDate="2017-01-09T20:00:56.043" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the other answers point out, there is no such thing as a neuron inside another neuron, i.e. a literal nested neuron.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, from an artificial neural network point of view, there is evidence that a single pyramidal neuron can operate as a hierarchical two layer network thanks to its dendritic tree. To quote the &lt;a href=&quot;http://iec-lnc.ens.fr/IMG/Files/GNT/Publications/caze-humphries-gutkin2013-ploscb.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper's&lt;/a&gt; abstract&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Local supra-linear summation of excitatory inputs occurring in pyramidal cell dendrites, the so-called dendritic spikes, results&#xA;  in independent spiking dendritic sub-units, which turn pyramidal neurons into two-layer neural networks capable of&#xA;  computing linearly non-separable functions, such as the exclusive OR.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that the neuron behaves as if it had many nested subunits, which are in fact only branches of the dendritic tree, not real neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not an expert in that field but you should look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://iec-lnc.ens.fr/group-for-neural-theory/members/faculty-in-alphabetical-order/gutkin-boris/?lang=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boris Gutkin's work&lt;/a&gt; who is presently at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hse.ru/en/org/persons/135913473#sci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moscow&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14637" LastActivityDate="2017-01-09T20:00:56.043" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16541" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16439" CreationDate="2017-01-10T13:46:53.410" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note.&lt;/em&gt; I initially scan read the question, I have rewritten my answer as a consequence, and due to the comments given. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As highlighted by others here Multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA) is an application of machine learning, used for decoding vast quantities of complex information (neural activation patterns to particular asks). This is a form of decoding may be used to infer a cognition, otherwise known as &lt;em&gt;reverse inference&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem of &lt;em&gt;reverse inference&lt;/em&gt; is largely summed up by the following comment from Poldrak's (2011)... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The use of reasoning from activation to mental functions, known as “reverse inference”, has been previously criticized on the basis that it does not take into account how selectively the area is activated by the mental process in question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Poldrack (2011) goes on to explain that &lt;em&gt;informal reverse inference&lt;/em&gt;, which is based on a researchers knowledge, is flawed because an individuals knowledge is limited by what the remember and have read. Additionally poor interpretations are compounded from one researcher to another.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with reverse inference comes not from understanding general cognitive processes, such as sight, movement, language, decision-making etc. General patterns for general processes have been established, the problem as Poldrack (2011) points out is when we interpret patterns to more well defined cognitions, for example instead of looking at merely reward processing, we might want to compare patterns of pleasure derived from seeing highly palatable e.g. cake, and less palatable food e.g. fruit. At this level, comparing the data requires far more specific analytical approach. If we were a researcher making an inference based on our knowledge, we would have a strong chance of error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MVPA deals with a far higher resolution of data than an individual could deal with, and compares data to prior trials or previous experiments, see Fig 1. However it is critical to remember that we are comparing participants within similar contexts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fig 1. MVPA diagram of testing and inference &lt;a href=&quot;http://compmem.princeton.edu/publications/NormanEtAlTICS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Norman et al (2006)&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Yfogb.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Yfogb.png&quot; alt=&quot;Fig 1. MVPA diagram of testing and inference (Norman et al 2006)&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Poldrack (2011) gives an excellent example of how to use MVPA, which was conducted by Kay et al (2008). Simply Kay et al (2008) scanned participants viewing natural images &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;= 1750. In the following trial 120 images were added, MVPA of the neural data was able to accurately predict which images were being viewed. This method has seen substantial development to the point that using a similar method researchers have accurately analysed neural patterns observed in a participants waking brain into decoding &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/340/6132/639&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;what participants are dreaming&lt;/a&gt;. Basically the quantity and quality of when taking account of context may be used to conduct reverse inference, but this does require previous data, &lt;strong&gt;within context&lt;/strong&gt;, for the MPVA and other machine learning methods to compare too. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This does not mean that machine learning can not be wrong if incorrectly applied. It is a statistical method in which humans set the parameters, the post below by Arnon Weinberg accurately defines the issues and pot holes that must be avoided to make this method viable for reverse inference.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Norman, K. A., Polyn, S. M., Detre, G. J., &amp;amp; Haxby, J. V. (2006). Beyond mind-reading: multi-voxel pattern analysis of fMRI data. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(9), 424–430. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.07.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.07.005&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2017-01-12T16:00:30.980" LastActivityDate="2017-01-12T16:00:30.980" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16543" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-10T21:15:23.697" Score="4" ViewCount="232" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a standard and large dataset relating to cognitive performance. Ideally the data would look something like a standard IQ test, but including the raw answers, and designed to test more than just verbal and analytical skills, but other facets of intelligence as well. I'd also settle for a sufficiently large dataset of IQ tests with scores. Does such a dataset that is standard in academic research exist, and if so is it publicly available?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14685" LastActivityDate="2017-01-10T21:15:23.697" Title="Intelligence Dataset" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16544" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16439" CreationDate="2017-01-11T00:55:26.000" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: Decoding is not a special case of reverse inference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difficulty with interpreting &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroimaging&lt;/a&gt; results is that there is a tremendous amount of variability (noise) in the data.  For example, say we attempt to determine the &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/neuroreport/Abstract/2000/11270/The_neural_basis_of_romantic_love.46.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain areas associated with the emotion of romantic love&lt;/a&gt; by showing subjects images of close friends (condition 1), or images of their loved ones (condition 2), and comparing the results.  Each brain scan may show 5-10 active regions, which regions are active and to what degree varies between subjects even in the same condition, and there is even variability in brain scans of the same subject across multiple trials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To deal with this variability, the first step in just about any neuroimaging experiment's data interpretation process is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging#Statistical_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;statistical analysis&lt;/a&gt;.  This can range from an &quot;averaging&quot; or &quot;noise-cancellation&quot; analysis, to a multi-voxel / multi-frame machine-learning pattern-matching classifier (MVPA).  The data analysis is used to determine a predictor of the independent variable, and also to calculate significance (p-value) based on the consistency level in the data.  For example, we may learn that subjects viewing images of their loved ones (condition 2) have 5 areas of their brain reduce activity and 4 areas increase activity relative to subjects viewing images of other close relations (condition 1).  Note that the decoding step does not involve &quot;labelling&quot; the pattern as any particular mental state - a classifier like MVPA does not care what the patterns mean, it's just a mathematical function used to distinguish between them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QFf54.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QFf54.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a typical &lt;em&gt;cognitive&lt;/em&gt; neuroscience experiment, the next step is to attach a label to the mental state defined by the pattern found - this is forward inference.  To do this, researchers typically determine the mental state through some other validated measure - for example, a questionnaire or some other &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3805440&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;test that is known to reliably measure love&lt;/a&gt;.  The researchers may conclude: &quot;These regions of the brain are associated with the emotion of romantic love when subjects view images of their loved ones.&quot;  Immediately, a constraining factor arises: This pattern of activation is relative to the control condition only!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While forward inference involves labelling the pattern from the independent variable, reverse inference is used to label the independent variable from an activity pattern.  Reverse inference gets into trouble when it is used to label a particular pattern of activation in a different context.  For example, &quot;the same areas of the brain associated with the emotion of love in an experiment involving showing subjects images of their loved ones, also show the same pattern of activation when subjects view their iPhones, and therefore we conclude that subjects are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/01/opinion/you-love-your-iphone-literally.html?_r=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in love with their iPhones&lt;/a&gt;.&quot;  Note that statistical analysis of the data (decoding) must take place first in order to be able to make either kind of cognitive inference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reverse inferences suffer from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273%2811%2900989-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;several potential pitfalls&lt;/a&gt;, among them:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A particular pattern of activity usually indicates different mental states in different contexts, so assuming that the same pattern indicates &quot;love&quot; when applied to iPhones is invalid.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Patterns isolated using a statistical analysis usually do not fully describe the mental state, so assuming that the pattern is sufficient to indicate &quot;love&quot; is also invalid.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mental state labels themselves are context dependent, subject-dependent, and even temporally variable, so assuming that subjects would interpret their own mental state as &quot;love&quot; is invalid as well.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mental states are not discrete, as evidenced by all the &quot;noise&quot; in neuroimaging data, so subjects may identify their mental state using a variety of different labels depending on what part of their mental state they attend to, &quot;love&quot; being only one.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reverse inference is subject to these issues no matter what statistical analysis is used, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228353325_A_critique_of_multi-voxel_pattern_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MVPA is not immune&lt;/a&gt;.  However, many of these issues can be overcome using a variety of techniques.  MVPA is very valuable for dealing with the first issue - thanks to much higher &quot;resolution&quot; (level of detail, scope of data, linearity, etc), this decoding technique is significantly less likely to confuse different mental states that appear to have the same activity pattern at a lower resolution.  Another important strategy is using meta-analysis (data gathered from many different studies) to determine how useful a particular pattern is for reliably inferring a mental state.  Solving the remaining problems will likely require per-subject training data, and even more advanced analysis techniques, but already reverse inference has been a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811913000141&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;useful methodology in many studies&lt;/a&gt;, when carefully applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An additional interesting side-effect of machine-learning pattern analyzers is that they tend to remove the temptation to make unwarranted reverse inferences.  In the early days, when patterns of activation were &quot;informal&quot; - based on gross anatomy - it was too easy to make &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/01/opinion/you-love-your-iphone-literally.html?_r=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sweeping statements such as&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;... the insular cortex of the brain, which is associated with feelings of love ...&quot;  With MVPA, patterns of activation are practically impossible to describe in human language, so machines are required to make inferences, which are then inherently more objective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-01-12T18:26:46.157" LastActivityDate="2017-01-12T18:26:46.157" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16546" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16450" CreationDate="2017-01-11T20:06:47.347" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Based on the papers I've found I conclude that visual perceptions are not grossly altered after wearing prism glasses for extended periods. Instead, adaptation to prism glasses is mainly brought about by the adjustment of motor behavior to compensate for the shifted visual input. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In a review on the topic of adaptation effects in response to wearing prism glasses, Harris concludes that it is the 'position sense' that adapts, and not the visual system &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/17847340_Perceptual_adaptation_to_inverted_reversed_and_displaced_vision&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Harris, 1965)&lt;/a&gt;. In the more recent literature the adaptation to the shifts, or reversals in vision brought about by prism glasses is indeed ascribed to the adaptation of the proprioceptive system, i.e., subjects adapt their motor behavior to compensate for the visual field shift (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-002-1097-6&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Richter &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2002)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-005-0159-y&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hatada &amp;amp; Rosetti (2006)&lt;/a&gt;), or through shifts in their egocentric reference frame although subtle, short-lasting after-effects do seem to occur in the visual domain too &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-006-0381-2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hatada &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2006)&lt;/a&gt;. &#xA;Note that the experiments described above, human subjects were used and due to practical and ethical reasons, subjects did not wear the prism glasses longer than a few hours up to 1 week at max.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In animal studies, much longer prism-wearing times have been applied. In a study where monkeys wore left-right shifting prism goggles for 90 days, the ipsilateral visual cortex was found to be activated &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8606770&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sugita &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1996)&lt;/a&gt;. Normally, only the contralateral cortex is activated by ipsilateral stimuli.  Hence, here in these experiments a definite neurophysiological correlate of visual adaptation was found. In four human subjects that wore similar goggles for about 36 days it was subsequently shown that also their ipsilateral cortices were activated, but only after 1 to 2 weeks &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ef47/04066c958c74bfd1e7344d36fe7966dd16ec.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Miyauchi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. However, the authors of this study don't report the after-effects, but they do conclude that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[The] changes observed [in] adaptation to left–right reversing may be associated with the process of [...] strategic &lt;strong&gt;perceptual-motor control&lt;/strong&gt;. One of the most crucial actions for a subject with left–right reversed vision is controlling the hands [...]. For example, when the subjects wearing left–right reversing goggles pick up an object located in the left visual field, they have to use their right hand which is normally located in the right visual field and whose visual information is normally projected to left V1 (ipsilateral to the visual field in which the object appears). To perform such actions, the subjects [...] must change their &lt;strong&gt;strategic (top-down) perceptual-motor control&lt;/strong&gt;. It is well-known that top-down visual imagery alone can activate primary visual cortex with a topographical representation [...]. In addition, there are several pieces of evidence which suggest that tactile and proprioceptive perception involve visual imagery and activate visual cortices [...] &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, even when neural adaptation occurs in the visual cortex, it is mainly motor, tactile and proprioceptive adaptations playing a role in adjusting to visual shifts and not so much gross changes in the visual field of view.            &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/17847340_Perceptual_adaptation_to_inverted_reversed_and_displaced_vision&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harris, &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt; (1965); &lt;strong&gt;72&lt;/strong&gt;(6): 419-44&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-006-0381-2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hatada &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Exp Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;173&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 415–24&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-006-0437-3&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hatada &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Exp Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;174&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 189–98&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-005-0159-y&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hatada &amp;amp; Rosetti, &lt;em&gt;Exp Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;169&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 417–26&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ef47/04066c958c74bfd1e7344d36fe7966dd16ec.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Miyauchi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Physiol - Paris&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;98&lt;/strong&gt;: 207–19&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-002-1097-6&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Richter &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Exp Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2002); &lt;strong&gt;144&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 445–57&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8606770&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sugita &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; (1996); &lt;strong&gt;380&lt;/strong&gt;: 523–6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-01-11T20:26:30.390" LastActivityDate="2017-01-11T20:26:30.390" CommentCount="24" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16548" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-01-11T21:46:40.330" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-01-11T21:46:40.330" LastActivityDate="2017-01-11T21:46:40.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16549" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-01-11T21:46:40.330" Score="0" Body="Adaptation generally refers to processes involved in coping with external environmental changes. It is a broad term including evolutionary (e.g., Darwinian) evolution on a time scale of millions of years,     down to neuronal adaptation that occurs in the millisecond range. Within the confines of the Cognitive Sciences SE site it deals with neuronal adaptation (cellular level) to cognitive coping strategies (psychological level).   " OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-01-11T21:46:40.330" LastActivityDate="2017-01-11T21:46:40.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16550" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-12T00:24:15.590" Score="1" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was given a list of cognitive distortions and ways to 'untwist' them. However I noticed the 3 big things that I encounter often were not listed. Are these considered cognitive distortions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14686" LastActivityDate="2017-01-12T00:53:25.957" Title="Are stress, frustration and existentialism considered cognitive distortions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-01-23T16:41:35.700" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16551" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16550" CreationDate="2017-01-12T00:53:25.957" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you say cognitive distortions, I assume you are talking about cognitive biases: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress and frustration could be thought of as experiences. For example, some forms of stress are associated with the experience of negative emotions, fatigue, and so on. They could also influence cognitive biases. For example, fatigue can lead to a narrowing of focus. Anyway, the point is they are not cognitive biases per se.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Existentialism is a philosophy. Perhaps you are talking about experiencing existential dread or something like that. But that also is not a cognitive bias, in that it does not inherently provide a biased cognition about something. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-01-12T00:53:25.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16554" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16589" CreationDate="2017-01-12T23:36:12.867" Score="3" ViewCount="239" Body="&lt;p&gt;That's an hypothesis I have, that I believe makes plenty of sense, anyway I haven't found any article about that, although it's not like my search has been exhaustive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean, years ago, on the case you were caught doing something that society finds unusual, the worst thing that was likely going to happen to you were that some people around you, maybe a whole village if you lived in one a bit little, heard rumors about what you did and you had problems with that people around you. On some rare ocassions what you had done would get to the news and you will be highly exposed on the whole country, but it would be extremely strange than more than that would happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But now if you make something unusual, there are plenty of people that could record what you are doing and you cannot possibly be aware of everyone, and if you are caught and the video of you is uploaded, for example, to a good bunch of social networks, you are in danger of hundreds of millions of people watching what you have done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So this looks as a good reason for an increase of social phobia cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there some studies that confirm my hypothesis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastEditorUserId="8573" LastEditDate="2017-01-13T12:09:54.207" LastActivityDate="2017-01-21T07:31:54.380" Title="Are social phobia cases on rise, being the Internet and mobile phones with cameras the main cause for their rise?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16555" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-13T04:58:33.817" Score="1" ViewCount="243" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm motivated to do a lot of stuff when I get up from the PC to go to the toilet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But once I sit back down at the PC, all the motivation evaporates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Explanation and how to fix it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How to psych myself up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14702" LastActivityDate="2017-01-13T04:58:33.817" Title="Why Does My Motivation Fluctuate So Much?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-01-13T15:32:59.353" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16556" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-13T11:25:31.870" Score="1" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;Talking to people with anorexia nervosa, I noticed that some of them have actually much bigger problems than their aforementioned condition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some cases it looked as if the person was spending daily an insane amount of time on food, having no time left to deal with other more serious issues in his life. Removing his anorexia, would leave him &quot;helpless&quot; against his real fear, so why would he want that? He would rather keep postponing facing his fear... indefinitely. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies related to the above conditions being used by a person, as a way to divert his attention away from other events that are actually even more stressful? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I'm &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; implying that distraction is always the &lt;em&gt;only&lt;/em&gt; (or even the main) reason these conditions appear; I'm simply wondering if they are &lt;em&gt;sometimes&lt;/em&gt; used subconsciously as another anxiety management tool. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10654" LastEditorUserId="10654" LastEditDate="2017-01-14T07:30:05.530" LastActivityDate="2017-01-16T06:38:40.350" Title="Anorexia nervosa as an anxiety management tool" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16560" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-14T22:47:58.703" Score="6" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a question that has been bugging me for a very long time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me illustrate with a silly example. &lt;br&gt;Suppose that a study finds out that the majority of the population associate the number 1 with the colour blue (again, this is is a &lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt; silly example). Suppose this study becomes very popular and the result comes to be known to most people.&lt;br&gt; &lt;strong&gt;How will this knowledge of the experiment change behaviour?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Will the result still be the same after the study is known to the entire population?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT :&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I am not talking about the kind of results where we do not have influence on our behaviours, like our heart rate during a tense situation or how we react when our life is threatened. I am talking about experiments where we can make a conscious choice and is apparently &quot;inconsequential&quot; (so, nothing that poses harm to us).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT 2:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;//&lt;em&gt;New Example&lt;/em&gt;//&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Why-do-many-TV-sitcoms-use-laugh-tracks-and-how-long-has-this-practice-been-done&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The use of canned laughter in sitcoms&lt;/a&gt; -- Many of us by now have realised that laugh tracks are used in sitcoms to direct how the audience should react and make them think that what they are watching is funnier than it actually is (Example of Social Proof, which is nicely explained by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/28815.Influence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robert Cialdini&lt;/a&gt;). After I knew this, I actually found TV shows employing the technique to be less funny and in some cases, even annoying. (I assume that many people reacted the same way after finding out about it).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;So the study of this particular behaviour actually made me react in the opposite way that the TV show producers intended and how the study says I should be behaving. Thus, changing the results of the study.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there other studies like this? How do we design experiments that are tolerant to this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14713" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-06T09:20:58.053" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T09:20:58.053" Title="Do the results of psychological studies change our behaviour?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;persuasion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16561" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10343" CreationDate="2017-01-15T19:50:12.480" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Even though this is an old post, I'll post what I found online. I found the accepted answer to be missing something. For me, the definition of intelligence includes (even) more than either processing speed, or &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;creativity, originality, and an understanding of a domain of knowledge&quot;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the points Sydney names. There's also the ability to understand difficult concepts with ease, for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I understood the question as &quot;Are there people who understand difficult concepts very easily, but take longer than others to solve simpler problems / understand simpler concepts?&quot; (While these others might not manage to understand the difficult concepts at all, or at least take much longer until they do).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found only annectotal evidence that &quot;brilliance&quot; while being slow could be possible:&#xA; - In his &lt;a href=&quot;http://lesswrong.com/lw/lpf/the_truth_about_mathematical_ability/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;post&lt;/a&gt;, Jonah Sinick writes that &lt;em&gt;&quot;They referred me to a school psychologist, who found that I had exceptionally high reasoning abilities, but only average short term memory and processing speed:[...]&quot;&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At least it seems that processing speed can be separated from other factors of intelligence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In their book &quot;Information Processing Speed in Clinical Populations&quot;, J. DeLuca and J. Kalmar describe (in chapter 1, paragraph &quot;Processing speed in the assessment of intelligence&quot;, ~p.12-14 - I could read it on google books), how they added another factor &quot;processing speed&quot; to the &quot;Wechsler adult intelligence scale - III&quot; because they found it to be an indepentent factor. (Other &quot;indices&quot; are verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory. Don't know whether there are more.) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In an &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00107/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; on childhood math skill development: &lt;em&gt;&quot; Findings suggest that EC [they mean 'executive capability'] and processing speed are tightly intertwined in early childhood. As EC becomes progressively decoupled from processing speed with age, it begins to take on unique, discriminative importance for children's mathematics achievement.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd say&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Processing speed definitely is a part of intelligence (as other&#xA;posts say). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's not the only factor, and an IQ test should make it possible to measure other factors separately. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's different IQ tests out there, I don't know how much they separate this factor from others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; Regarding the 'Wechsler adult intelligence scale' IQ test:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Wikipedia, in WAIS-III and WAIS-IV, there are only the mentioned four secondary indices. And WAIS-IV seems to separate a category not depending on neither working memory, nor processing speed; it's called &quot;General Ability Index&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14721" LastEditorUserId="14721" LastEditDate="2017-01-16T18:56:28.243" LastActivityDate="2017-01-16T18:56:28.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16560" CreationDate="2017-01-15T22:52:20.453" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do have to note this question is broad and opinion based, according to the stack conventions. Nonetheless, I think it's an important question, given that scientific publications may alter the behavior of people en mass and even generate entire movements that, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, argue and campaign against vital medical interventions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A notorious example being the &lt;strong&gt;retracted&lt;/strong&gt; Lancet publication of the adverse effects of vaccination causing autism, based on &lt;strong&gt;fraudulent&lt;/strong&gt; data (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136032/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rao &amp;amp; Andrade, 2011&lt;/a&gt;) by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(97)11096-0/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wakefield (1998)&lt;/a&gt;. This &lt;strong&gt;unfortunate&lt;/strong&gt; paper has resulted in global anti-vaccine movements based on the &lt;strong&gt;fictional assumption&lt;/strong&gt; that vaccination can cause autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136032/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rao &amp;amp; Andrade, &lt;em&gt;Indian J Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;53&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 95–6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136032/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wakefield &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;The Lancet&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;Retracted&lt;/strong&gt;)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-01-15T22:52:20.453" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16563" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16564" CreationDate="2017-01-15T23:24:49.637" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I once read a study that compared the level of distress of completing a psychological study to other activities in daily life (e.g., commuting to work; interacting with colleagues; watching tv; or something like that).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper is a good reference when you are applying for ethics approval.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know the reference?&#xA;Or perhaps there are a few such articles?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-01-16T03:20:47.217" Title="Paper showing that completing most psychological studies is less distressing than daily life" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16564" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16563" CreationDate="2017-01-16T00:13:49.340" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article could be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How distressing is it to participate in medical research? A calibration study using an everyday events questionnaire. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Petrie, K. J., Faasse, K., Notman, T. A., &amp;amp; O'Carroll, R. (2013). &#xA;&lt;em&gt;JRSM short reports&lt;/em&gt;, 4, 1-7.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2042533313493271&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF available&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-01-16T03:20:47.217" LastActivityDate="2017-01-16T03:20:47.217" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16566" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16556" CreationDate="2017-01-16T06:38:40.350" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I'm understanding your question, you're wondering if anorexia nervosa is a symptom of other underlying problems in a person's life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a current theory being supported by &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.clinicalneuropsychiatry.org/pdf/borsbooml.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mental disorders as complex networks: An introduction and overview of a network approach to psychopathology&lt;/a&gt;&quot; written by Nuijten et. al. The paper describes how instead of seeing a disorder as a single &quot;latent variable&quot; connecting all the symptoms, all the symptoms should just be considered as a network reinforcing themselves. This is demonstrated in the figure below taken from the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/es7Fy.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/es7Fy.png&quot; alt=&quot;comparison_figure&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a discussion of the paper, see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://slatestarcodex.com/2016/12/14/ssc-journal-club-mental-disorders-as-networks/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mental Disorders As Networks&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by SlateStarCodex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-01-16T06:38:40.350" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16568" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16570" CreationDate="2017-01-16T20:04:14.510" Score="2" ViewCount="1759" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering whether there is a difference between factors and facets. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concretely, I am doing a research about transformational leadership. My questionnaire has 8 factors which is based on a theory of transformational leadership consisting of 8 components (facets?). The questionnaire just copies the theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14731" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-01-16T23:49:14.477" LastActivityDate="2017-01-18T00:23:41.127" Title="What is the difference between facets and factors?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16568" CreationDate="2017-01-16T23:48:58.223" Score="2" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Factors and facets&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In personality trait research, traits are often conceptualised hierarchically. There is also a broad consensus that a small number of broad traits (typically the Big 5, but others argue for different numbers such as the HEXACO 6) explain personality quite well. The big 5 also goes by the name Five Factor Model. The terminology of &quot;factor&quot; is quite likely linked to the method of factor analysis often used for scale construction in this area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several popular personality tests measure traits at two-levels (e.g., NEO-PI-R, HEXACO-PI-R, IPIP, etc.). So for example, the NEO-PI-R is composed of five broad factors, each of which is composed of 6 narrower facets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary, there is a range of terminology that  have similar meaning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;broad traits, domains, factors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;narrow traits, facets&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another common terminology is that of scales and subscales. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On basic level, this is just convenient terminology for describing two levels of a hierarchy of measurement, particularly where the broader level is defined by the lower level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further discussion see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anglim, J., &amp;amp; Grant, S. L. (2014). Incremental criterion prediction of personality facets over factors: Obtaining unbiased estimates and confidence intervals. Journal of Research in Personality, 53, 148-157. &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/g8kbj/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/g8kbj/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Your case of mapping a test onto a theory&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your case, you are mapping eight scales onto a theory that includes eight components. This doesn't have too much to do with the factor-facet distinction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the main issue is whether there is an overall scale (e.g., an overall leadership effectiveness scale, of which there are eight subscales). You could potentially call this the leadership effectiveness factor and call the eight elements &quot;facets&quot;. But it might be more common to merely call the eight components &quot;scales&quot; or &quot;subscales&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-01-18T00:23:41.127" LastActivityDate="2017-01-18T00:23:41.127" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16571" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-17T02:17:12.107" Score="1" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember from my university days learning about approach-avoidance conflicts. Briefly, many situations are perceived as having an upside and a downside:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If upside&gt;downside, we are likely to be attracted to the situation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The closer we are to the situation (either in time or space), the stronger the upside and downside are perceived.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The increase in the strength of a perceived downside is greater than that of the upside (the avoidance gradient is steeper than the approach gradient).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This means that even though something may be more attractive now, the closer we are to the situation, the more the downside becomes prominent. At some point, upside&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also remember that the strengths of the gradients can be influenced. For example, alcohol has a tendency to weaken the perceived downside, so that a situation becomes more attractive for longer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would explain why people make some decisions which looked OK at the time but have a long term downside. It would also explain why alcohol can influence these decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is: where can I read up more about this online?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14744" LastEditorUserId="14744" LastEditDate="2017-01-18T01:26:39.533" LastActivityDate="2017-01-18T01:26:39.533" Title="Approach-Avoidance Conflicts" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-01-25T07:08:34.020" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16574" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-17T09:57:39.877" Score="4" ViewCount="588" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wish to define neuronal activities by analyzing the peaks of each channel in EEG signals. Some papers use the negative peaks as a measure of neuronal activity and others deploy the positive peaks. Which peak polarity should I use? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14747" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-01-18T09:21:41.620" LastActivityDate="2017-01-18T09:21:41.620" Title="What is the meaning of the peak polarity in EEG data?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16575" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16574" CreationDate="2017-01-17T10:41:46.327" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The peak polarity of an EEG is arbitrary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Positive and negative in an EEG measure is arbitrary. If you measure the EEG between two electrodes and you flip the wires, the polarity of the signal will reverse too. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Only when standard EEG montages are used, in which the active and reference electrodes are strictly defined, then signal polarity makes sense, but only because a certain convention is followed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in peak amplitudes - they are independent of polarity, as long as the peak latencies are defined and absolute values are reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in peak latencies and wish to compare those with others, then you do need to be aware what polarity your signal has. If you find out the polarity is reversed due to whatever reason - multiply every sample simply with -1. Problem solved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-01-17T10:41:46.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16578" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16587" CreationDate="2017-01-18T20:19:23.163" Score="0" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in the general electrical flow through the brain and found &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/10554/flow-diagram-of-how-information-flows-through-the-brain&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; very useful answer highlighting a good amount of it, but what I can't seem get any detailed visuals for on Google anywhere is where the outputs of the brain come from. (The one in the link is super simplified)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, where and how do the muscle outputs for eye come from after passing through the complex visual cortex(es). There are tons of visuals &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gridgit.com/postpic/2015/04/visual-cortex-diagram-and-functions_120922.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;displaying the crossing inputs&lt;/a&gt;, but nothing for the outputs. Ideally, I would like to have clear visuals for all the output pathways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the information processing happen slowly outwards toward the grey matter and at the point of the grey matter these outputs get combined into nerve pathways down the side of the brain or does the brains output appear to be travelling back parallel down along the inputs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14753" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2017-01-22T22:33:55.110" Title="Direction of electrical information flow in the brain (and output locations)" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-01-23T16:42:13.570" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16579" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-19T09:59:07.083" Score="4" ViewCount="249" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is known that mirror neurons fire when watching another person performing the same activity. But do they also fire when visualizing oneself performing an activity (visualizing performing the activity in the first person in particular)?&#xA;And if they do, what are the implications for learning an activity or visualizing goals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13218" LastActivityDate="2018-12-21T18:30:19.270" Title="Do mirror neurons fire during visualization?" Tags="&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;mirror-neurons&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16580" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-19T15:34:09.987" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I've heard a lecture about the philosophy of minimalism and the rethor argued that it's &lt;a href=&quot;https://nautilusmode.com/2016/01/05/keeping-a-minimalist-planner-for-2016/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;better&lt;/a&gt; not to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theminimalists.com/21days/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;think&lt;/a&gt; much about what you're going to do in the near future for example in form of writing&#xA;less information in your calendar/planner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What has the research found about how intensive thinning about near future affects our mental health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-01-19T15:34:09.987" Title="Is there any evidence that less thinking about future improves mental health?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16583" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16661" CreationDate="2017-01-20T03:19:20.247" Score="5" ViewCount="2116" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed this in myself and in many autobiographies as well. Some memories tend to stick out really well even though there appears to be nothing special about them. For example, I vividly remember walking into my babysitter's house once when I was a child. There was nothing special about that day from any other and yet I can remember it much better than some more intense memories I've had of getting hurt or being really happy. In books as well, authors often recount plain memories that one wouldn't expect to stick out. Is there some other factor(than our emotional state at the time) that is involved in making some memories more memorable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14772" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-22T12:09:51.370" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T12:09:51.370" Title="Why do some memories stick out more than others?" Tags="&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16584" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-20T07:04:38.063" Score="2" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can look at data on smokers and recent ex-smokers to identify what variables correlate with success in quitting, or relapse. I can adjust for covariates, or leave the analysis unadjusted. I did a spot of Googling and coudldn't find analogues findings from the psychology of religion at the level of different denominations, although there were studies about religious behaviour, non-specific to particular faiths. Has this work been done, and if so, what are the determinants? If the work hasn't been done, which datasets are best suited for that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14774" LastActivityDate="2017-01-20T07:04:38.063" Title="Statistically, what are the determinants of which particular religion someone will follow?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16585" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16206" CreationDate="2017-01-20T10:08:28.783" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Accuracy Comparisons&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Simon Ollander's thesis &amp;quot;Wearable Sensor Data Fusion for Human Stress&#xA;Estimation&amp;quot; the Empatica E4 sensor is compared with laboratory quality equipment. Specifically, in the case of GSR, these were finger-tip electrodes as shown below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZOCi7.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZOCi7.png&quot; alt=&quot;electrode placement&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two tasks were compared, D2 and SCEPT. The SCEPT task consisted of the subject putting their hand in 0 freezing water (stress) vs. warm water (control), while the D2 required the subject to find all d:s with two lines among other symbols under time pressure (stress) vs. no time pressure (control). As you can see from the plots below, the signals collected from the Empatica E4 sensor differ from the lab equipment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0Kxwh.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0Kxwh.png&quot; alt=&quot;d2-task&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oTilc.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oTilc.png&quot; alt=&quot;scept-task&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To determine whether these variations were significant a stress classifier was trained on the lab-quality equipment and validated on the E4 data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z4GfR.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z4GfR.png&quot; alt=&quot;results-table&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not sure what happened with that Naive Baye's classifier...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-01-20T10:08:28.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16586" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-20T17:05:58.117" Score="1" ViewCount="15505" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know whether identity and personality are the same thing, as they both answer the question of who you are. &#xA;Nevertheless in a cognitive approach, identity is considered a part of personality, concretely it's considered as a brain structure inside of the memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14775" LastActivityDate="2019-02-17T23:09:43.093" Title="What is the relationship between identity and personality?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16587" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16578" CreationDate="2017-01-20T18:48:56.313" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @AliceD pointed out in her comment, the concept of output of the brain is too broad. If you are interested in how eye movements are generated, I suggest you read about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Frontal_eye_field&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frontal eye fields&lt;/a&gt;(FEF). This area of the prefrontal cortex is very closely related with the generation of eye movements, or saccades. However, its function is still not entirely clear. It participates in the generation of saccades, but also in the sensory processing and decision making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anatomically, the connections of the FEF are shown in the scholarpedia article I linked above, but I'll also copy it here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DZ2Zy.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DZ2Zy.png&quot; alt=&quot;FEF anatomic connections&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question, however, seems to assume that the information in the brain has a definite bottom-up direction, which somewhat neglecks the fact that brain regions have abundant recurrent and top-down connections. This is part of the reason FEF is involved both in motor, perceptual and higher cognitive processing. Nevertheless, you should take a look at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s3/chapter03.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motor cortex&lt;/a&gt;, that will give you some insight to which brain regions are associated to motor commands, i.e. outputs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14637" LastEditorUserId="14637" LastEditDate="2017-01-22T22:33:55.110" LastActivityDate="2017-01-22T22:33:55.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="29" CreationDate="2017-01-20T23:34:33.910" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Punished By Rewards&lt;/em&gt; by Alfie Kohn puts it in a behaviorist perspective, and extensively criticizes gamification inspired by operant conditioning.  (here is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2731397/?page=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a scientific article&lt;/a&gt;, a counter-argument to the book)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Daniel Pink's &lt;em&gt;Drive&lt;/em&gt; puts gamification in a humanist perspective. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brainpickings.org/2013/05/09/daniel-pink-drive-rsa-motivation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;See here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;T. Reiners, L.C. Wood (eds.), &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-319-10208-5_9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gamification in Education and Business&lt;/a&gt; (2014), chapter 9, put gamification in the perspective of motivational and learning theories. This seems like the best (and most recent!) scientific answer to your question.&#xA;The frameworks used are classic conditioning, expectancy-based theories and self-determination theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors of the specific chapter are Landers, Bauer, Callan and Armstrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13440" LastActivityDate="2017-01-20T23:34:33.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16589" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16554" CreationDate="2017-01-21T00:38:25.770" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studies have been done to see how technology can alleviate social phobia, by communication through the net. (Yen et al 2012)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heavy use increases (general) anxiety: (Anxiety was measured using the Beck Anxiety Inventory.) &quot;Logistic regression analyses indicated that heavy Internet use is associated with high anxiety; high cell-phone use is associated to being female, and having high anxiety and insomnia.&quot; (Jenaro et al, 2006) *2 A replication of this study with a comparable population might answer your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other studies have shown that &quot;social phobia was associated with the risk for smartphone addiction in young people.&quot; (Darcin et al, 2016)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study published 2009 sets the prevalence rates of social phobia at &quot;in community samples of children and adolescents also vary considerably, ranging from 0.9 to 13.1% [26]. The highest rates have been noted in studies of older adolescents and young adults &quot;, and sets the numbers for the whole population, quoting other articles,  &quot;3.9–13.7% in Western societies&quot; (Gren-Landell et al). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The prevalence numbers seem to vary wildly depending on how the research has been done, as &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1034/j.1600-0447.2002.1r103.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Furmark (2002)&lt;/a&gt; points out in his review of epidemiological studies from the 1980s onwards. - Doing this with current research would give more of an insight into your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I'm sorry to say I couldn't, so far, find a study that specifically addresses your issue. :-(&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13440" LastEditorUserId="13440" LastEditDate="2017-01-21T00:46:55.883" LastActivityDate="2017-01-21T00:46:55.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16592" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13313" CreationDate="2017-01-21T09:29:56.220" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is evidence much deeper than simply looking at grades. It should come as no surprise that male and female brains are different(for one the female weights 100 g less or so). Some key differences are that in general  - &#xA;1.Women learn to speak language earlier than boys , speak more than boys in general, have less speech problems and use both sides of the brain for language&#xA;2.Men exceed in visual spatial task, 3d cube folding, labyrinth path finding(solving rubic cube blindfolded or playing chess blindfold  for example should come very difficult for women ).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NONE OF THESE makes great difference in math and in math based sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a behavioral difference due to testosterone.&#xA;The old experiment goes(on 6 weeks of age) - give a baby a screen and some kind of rope. When the rope is pulled by the baby colorful images on the screen are changed(stimulus). On random the rope is made to stop working.&#xA;1.Typical boy behavior - gets angry, starts pulling with both hands, helping with the foot sometimes and eventually gives up and cry .&#xA;2.Typical girl behavior- immediately gives up and starts crying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On average girl's don't like clinging onto a problem too much time. They just give up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore the median should be looked for it is known that boys have greater variability in almost every physical and behavioral characteristic - that is girl's scores are more clustered and boy's are more dispersed. So i would expect that even in area's where women should have natural advantage - the top of the field guys to be men.-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14778" LastActivityDate="2017-01-21T09:29:56.220" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16594" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16607" CreationDate="2017-01-21T13:06:34.063" Score="3" ViewCount="301" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am aware of the effect of positive emotions on others, but I am wondering about negative emotions.  I am not talking about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4126/how-to-prevent-insults-from-unconsciously-causing-negative-emotions&quot;&gt;insults leading to negative emotions&lt;/a&gt;.  I am talking about emotions like anger, frustration etc. in some leading to anger, frustration etc. in others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies which suggest that there is the ability for emotions such as anger and frustration to transfer and spread amongst others or lead to &lt;strong&gt;other&lt;/strong&gt; emotions in others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, can a group of people seeing one or more people getting frustrated about something lead to some or all in the observing group suffer from frustration or annoyance or other negative emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;**Update**&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found the answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/12795/7604&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; which was interesting, talking about &lt;strong&gt;negative priors&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=L09cRS0xWj0C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP15&amp;amp;dq=aaron+beck&amp;amp;ots=FWOmjQ7jbl&amp;amp;sig=6WEjYZ2m1_JbwfwCQ5-Hjd1mWV8#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=aaron%20beck&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beck, 1979&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~daw/hdd15.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Huys, Daw, &amp;amp; Dayan, 2015&lt;/a&gt;) shaping your predictions about the world leading to more negative emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am interested in is the possibility of negative emotions spreading amongst otherwise psychologically healthy people, just as positive emotions do.  Although there is an interesting quote...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Smile and the world smiles with you, cry and you cry alone.” ― Stanley Gordon West, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodreads.com/work/quotes/888260&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Growing an Inch&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2017-01-23T13:25:52.163" Title="Negative emotions in individuals spreading to others" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16595" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16586" CreationDate="2017-01-21T19:29:53.323" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the relation is more or less subjective. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Identity&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is something that you give yourself. It has to do with what you stand for, morals, values, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is who your are physically and legally, but that's just a basic &quot;&lt;em&gt;you already know that&lt;/em&gt;&quot; statement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Personality&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is the way in which you portray or &quot;live in&quot; your identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, you can identify parts of someone's personality: &lt;em&gt;humorous, attractive, intelligent, funny.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both adapt and change over time, but your identity changes less often, I believe. Together, they are what makes &lt;strong&gt;a whole person.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's really difficult to give a concrete answer because a lot of this can be subjective, debatable and complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also important to remember that while in some cases your personality and identity may be the same, in the end, they serve different &quot;roles.&quot; If someone says &quot;you're unique&quot;, it's true. Both your &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;identity&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;personality&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are what makes you unique. They help each other in that way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Let's take a look at this from a different angle:&lt;/strong&gt; Let's say that we know this guy named Tom is a murderer. That is his identity. His personality, however, may &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; portray that and can come off as fun or charming. Personality is how someone behaves. They both go really well together but that doesn't mean that they are always similar. In most cases, you will find that they are similar, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://authentic-systems.com/personality-vs-identity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Personality vs. Identity | Authentic Systems - Motivation Research &amp;amp; Development&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WQoOqQiVzwQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Discover Your Personality&lt;/a&gt; | Truity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://hinative.com/en-US/questions/1124840&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Difference Between Personality &amp;amp; Identity | HiNative&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14784" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-01-24T02:35:55.630" LastActivityDate="2017-01-24T02:35:55.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16598" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-21T22:09:37.213" Score="1" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been working on project with a person who is climate change activist, and after all those months I had a feeling he is on to something, but I was not convinced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now comes Leonardo DiCaprio with his National Geographic documentary and I am completely sold and have started to slowly participate in the climate change movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do I value celebrities opinion, a person I have never met, more than a person I have spent months together in meetings, pubs and even birthdays?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14787" LastActivityDate="2017-01-22T23:57:15.820" Title="Why I value celebrities opinion more than a person I have actually met?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-01-23T16:40:03.620" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16599" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18865" CreationDate="2017-01-21T23:52:45.893" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have recently read the Nancy McWilliams' book &quot;Psychoanalytic Diagnosis&quot; and learned that serious studies on narcissistic personality were done mostly in the end of the XXth century. However her book does not contain any reference dating in recent 28 years. I doubt the research in this direction has just abruptly stopped.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you please point me to some particular references or more generally authors who are thought to have made some significant contributions to this field in relatively recent years?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14788" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-01-09T11:41:43.450" LastActivityDate="2018-01-09T11:41:43.450" Title="Narcissistic personality recent studies" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16601" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16598" CreationDate="2017-01-22T23:48:31.087" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;My take&lt;/em&gt; on this is because there are no other options. We have no previous emotional involvement, attachment or knowledge of them on a personal level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We trust strangers on a daily basis. We get on a bus, which is driven by  a stranger. We go out to eat food and that food is cooked by strangers. We also work for strangers (until we get to know them, better). Celebrities are paid, celebrities are smart. They build up reputation and we trust statistics more than just one example from our personal lives. Thousands of people know Leo. Millions. There are probably no public statistics on our friends or co-workers, people we work with or spend time with. We just go by &lt;em&gt;our&lt;/em&gt; opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you meet someone and work with them, what does that relationship entail? &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Emotional involvement.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; You get to know them and form opinions. Things you &lt;em&gt;like&lt;/em&gt; about them and things you don't &lt;em&gt;like&lt;/em&gt;. You're listening to more than just a few conversations about a given topic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're listening to a speech from a celebrity you know of and their opinion is to your liking, that's all you're hearing. You don't really know anything else about them to have any other options but to trust them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is also very similar to why some people trust their therapist&#xA;  over their friend, even if what both of them say are similar. Sometimes, they aren't similar. We tend to trust what we're more objective towards. Who you're surrounded by makes a huge difference. They can be abusive, vulgar, rude. You're seeing more than just one side to them. You're only seeing one side of your therapist. The helpful, knowledgeable side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we spend enough time to form an emotional bond with a therapist or let's say someone we've never met, we could very well go back to square one. Not trusting them as much as another celebrity you're objective towards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we're listening to the opinion of someone we know, other emotional factors are involved. Our dislikes (and other opinions of them) influence our trust in them and their opinions or knowledge of a given topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's about things being objective. What we don't know can't  hurt us. In your case, you don't know much about Leo's personal life. You only know the opinions he shares. There's nothing else to go by and usually documentaries give you the best parts specified information. Nothing that sounds inaccurate, immoral, wrong or questionable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Helpful Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lisa-earle-mcleod/why-we-trust-strangers-more-than-our-friends_b_5148323.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why We Trust Strangers More Than Our Friends&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://time.com/103396/we-trust-strangers-even-when-it-doesnt-make-sense-to-do-so/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;We Trust Strangers, Even When It Doesn’t Make Sense to Do So&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Why-do-some-people-prefer-to-trust-what-strangers-say-rather-than-those-they-know&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why do some people prefer to trust what strangers say rather than those they know?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14784" LastEditorUserId="14784" LastEditDate="2017-01-22T23:57:15.820" LastActivityDate="2017-01-22T23:57:15.820" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16602" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-23T10:10:21.463" Score="-3" ViewCount="678" Body="&lt;p&gt;Jim Butcher once said that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodreads.com/quotes/185629-sleep-is-god-go-worship&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep is God, Go Worship&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, Benjamin Franklin once said that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.goodreads.com/quotes/451617-there-will-be-sleeping-enough-in-the-grave&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;there is plenty of time to sleep when you are dead&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thomas Edison echoed this when he stated&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://plus.google.com/+MatthewFouts/posts/Hn5yF6G1heb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sleeping was a &quot;criminal waste of time&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All these peoples were legends. They must have said these statement in some context. It is scientifically proved that we must take at least 6 to 8 hours of sleep each night. I would like to ask stack exchange community, how would you interpret &quot;sleep&quot;? Do you really mean it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14802" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-01-23T14:36:39.220" LastActivityDate="2017-01-23T15:54:57.240" Title="Sleep is God, Go Worship! How?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-01-23T17:14:49.847" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16603" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16602" CreationDate="2017-01-23T11:04:45.650" Score="2" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Recommended amounts of sleep&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before I answer your main question, I would like to point out that your asseration that we need 6-8 hours of sleep each night is not quite accurate from what I have read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The National Sleep Foundation in the US, &lt;a href=&quot;https://sleepfoundation.org/how-sleep-works/how-much-sleep-do-we-really-need&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;released the results&lt;/a&gt; of a world-class study that took more than two years of research to complete – an update to our most-cited guidelines on how much sleep you really need at each age. You can read the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sleephealthjournal.org/article/S2352-7218(15)00015-7/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;research paper&lt;/a&gt; published in &lt;em&gt;Sleep Health&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, the required amount of sleep varies from person to person and the recommended amounts are different depending on the age of the person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kwV7N.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kwV7N.png&quot; alt=&quot;Recommended sleep times chart&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Your main question: How can sleep be interpreted by other &quot;legends&quot;?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My opinion, and 3 others looking at the flags raised on this question as I edit, is that this question is off-topic for this site as it would lead to answers which would primarily be opinion based, such as the quotes which you provided.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jim Butcher's quote was from a work of fiction (Death Mask - #5 in a series called The Dresden Files).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Benjamin Franklin's quote is his opinion on sleep&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thomas Edison's quote is another opinion on sleep. (&quot;Why sleep when you could use that time to be productive&quot; is a possible interpretation on what he was trying to convey but that is only opinion.  I don't know where this quote came from and I cannot answer for him.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Now for a more on-topic area on sleep - What is sleep?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, the National Sleep Foundation &lt;a href=&quot;https://sleepfoundation.org/how-sleep-works/what-happens-when-you-sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;covers this&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sleep architecture follows a pattern of alternating REM (rapid eye&#xA;  movement) and NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep throughout a typical&#xA;  night in a cycle that repeats itself about every 90 minutes. What role&#xA;  does each state and stage of sleep play?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;h3&gt;NREM (75% of night):&lt;/h3&gt; As we begin to fall asleep, we enter&#xA;  NREM sleep, which is composed of stages 1-4&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;h3&gt;Stage 1&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Between being awake and falling asleep&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Light sleep&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;h3&gt;Stage 2&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Onset of sleep&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Becoming disengaged from surroundings&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Breathing and heart rate are regular&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Body temperature drops (so sleeping in a cool room is helpful)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;h3&gt;Stages 3 and 4&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Deepest and most restorative sleep&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Blood pressure drops&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Breathing becomes slower&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Muscles are relaxed&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Blood supply to muscles increases&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Tissue growth and repair occurs&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Energy is restored&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Hormones are released, such as: Growth hormone, essential for growth and development, including muscle development&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;h3&gt;REM (25% of night):&lt;/h3&gt; First occurs about 90 minutes after&#xA;  falling asleep and recurs about every 90 minutes, getting longer later&#xA;  in the night&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Provides energy to brain and body&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Supports daytime performance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Brain is active and dreams occur&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Eyes dart back and forth&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Body becomes immobile and relaxed, as muscles are turned off&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-01-23T15:54:57.240" LastActivityDate="2017-01-23T15:54:57.240" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16604" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16605" CreationDate="2017-01-23T12:40:00.047" Score="0" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I participated in the study that led to &quot;A Wandering Mind Is an Unhappy Mind&quot; I answered questions on my phone that insisted that I answer as soon as I got the notification. This made me assume that there is a significant change in emotional perception as time passes, however I can't find any evidence of this. In other words, how is the experience of an emotion affected by the amount of time between it's experience and it's recollection? If this question is too broad, it can be narrowed down to pain and pleasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-01-23T12:50:24.583" Title="Effect of time on emotion self-perception" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16605" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16604" CreationDate="2017-01-23T12:50:24.583" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As shown in the Wikipedia section &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memory#Memory_of_felt_emotion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Memory of felt emotion&lt;/a&gt;&quot; there are &lt;em&gt;many&lt;/em&gt; ways that recollected emotion is significantly different than experienced emotion. From the section:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another study found that people's memories for how distressed they&#xA;  felt when they learned of the 9/11 terrorist attacks changed over time&#xA;  and moreover, were predicted by their current appraisals of the impact&#xA;  of the attacks (Levine et al., 2004). It appears that memories of past&#xA;  emotional responses are not always accurate, and can even be partially&#xA;  reconstructed based on their current appraisal of events. [45]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies have shown that as episodic memory becomes less accessible&#xA;  over time, the reliance on semantic memory to remember past emotions&#xA;  increases. In one study Levine (2009)[47] primes of the cultural belief&#xA;  of women being more emotional than men had a greater effect on&#xA;  responses for older memories compared to new memories. The long term&#xA;  recall of emotions was more in line with the primed opinions, showing&#xA;  that long term recall of emotions was heavily influenced by current&#xA;  opinions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[45] Levine L.J. and Pizarro D.A. (2004) &quot;Emotion and memory research:&#xA;  A grumpy overview&quot; Social Cognition, Vol. 22, No. 5, 2004, pp.530-554&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[47] Levine; Lench, Heather; Safer, Martin (2009). &quot;Functions of&#xA;  Remembering and Misremembering Emotion&quot;. Applied Cognitive Psychology.&#xA;  23: 1059–1075.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-01-23T12:50:24.583" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16606" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-23T12:51:43.653" Score="1" ViewCount="216" Body="&lt;p&gt;Subjectively, some emotions have a sudden onset, while others build up slowly. For example, a text message from a loved one can &lt;em&gt;quickly&lt;/em&gt; fill you with joy. Alternatively, frustration/annoyance at being stuck in traffic can build up over time or watching a funny video can help you transition from sadness to functional calm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/16604/4397&quot;&gt;various studies&lt;/a&gt;, the perceived magnitude of an emotion changes as the time between evaluation and experience grows. Similarly, is there evidence that the onset or acceleration of a built-up emotion is perceived differently at the time between the evaluation and the onset grows?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2017-01-23T12:51:43.653" Title="Subjective experience of emotional buildup" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16607" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16594" CreationDate="2017-01-23T13:25:52.163" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found that there is a term which encompasses the phenomenon of both positive and negative emotions spreading from person to person and that is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_contagion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional Contagion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8721.ep10770953&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hatfield et al. (1993)&lt;/a&gt; points out that emotions can be &quot;caught&quot; in several different ways and outlines 3 propositions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimicry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mimicry&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In conversation, people automatically and continually mimic and synchronise their movements with the facial expressions, voices, postures, movements and instrumental behaviours of other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/4120729&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feedback&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Subjective emotional experience is affected, moment to moment, by the activation of and feedback from facial, vocal, postrural and movement mimicry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Contagion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Consequently, people tend, from moment, to &quot;catch&quot; other people's emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_contagion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Apparently&lt;/a&gt;, Gerald Schoenewolf said in &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1991-19168-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional contagion: Behavioral induction in individuals and groups. &lt;em&gt;Modern Psychoanalysis&lt;/em&gt;; 15, 49-61&lt;/a&gt;, that Emotional Contagion is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a process in which a person or group influences the emotions or behaviour of another person or group through the conscious or unconscious induction of emotion states and behavioral attitudes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have access to this article so I cannot confirm this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional contagion and empathy have an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_contagion#Etymology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interesting relationship&lt;/a&gt;, in that they share similar characteristics, with the exception of the ability to differentiate between personal and pre-personal experiences, a process known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individuation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;individuation&lt;/a&gt;. In &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Art-Loving-Classics-Personal-Development/dp/1855385058&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Art of Loving&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, social psychologist Erich Fromm explores these differences, suggesting that autonomy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy_(disambiguation)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-regulation&lt;/a&gt;) is necessary for empathy, which is not found in emotional contagion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“The faculty to think objectively is &lt;em&gt;reason&lt;/em&gt;; the emotional attitude behind reason is that of &lt;em&gt;humility&lt;/em&gt;. To be objective, to use one's reason, is possible only if one has achieved an attitude of humility, if one has emerged from the dreams of omniscience and omnipotence which one has as a child. Love, being dependent on the relative absence of narcissism, requires the developement of humility, objectivity and reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I must try to see the difference between &lt;em&gt;my&lt;/em&gt; picture of a person and his behavior, as it is narcissistically distorted, and the person's reality as it exists regardless of my interests, needs and fears.”  ― &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/8788.Erich_Fromm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Erich Fromm, The Art of Loving&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-01-23T13:25:52.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16608" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17958" CreationDate="2017-01-23T13:47:01.307" Score="3" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;How did fMRI work before Echo-planar imaging (EPI) became available? EPI allows fast imaging and high temporal resolution, but it became commercial in the second half of the '90s. How was it possible to perform fMRI in the early '90s and to observe neural activation using slow gradient echo imaging which requires 3 minutes to acquire a whole image?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14804" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-22T08:25:58.830" LastActivityDate="2017-08-28T09:46:02.363" Title="How was fMRI performed before EPI became available?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16611" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16613" CreationDate="2017-01-24T11:16:13.607" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Figure 1 (shown below) of &quot;Micro-Level Affect Dynamics in Psychopathology Viewed From Complex Dynamical System Theory&quot; by Wichers et al, they claim that the emotional/affective dynamics of networks of mentally ill individuals are more highly connected than healthy controls. These highly connected networks are more sensitive to perturbations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aNygT.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aNygT.png&quot; alt=&quot;emotion network models&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How are these networks generated? What are the meaning behind the &lt;code&gt;N&lt;/code&gt; variables?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-01-24T11:45:08.683" Title="How to generate networks for dynamic emotion modelling" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;dynamic-systems&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16613" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16611" CreationDate="2017-01-24T11:45:08.683" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The networks are a stand-in for a variety of networks coming from various publications with roughly the same shape. For example, these networks from &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273978149_Emotion-Network_Density_in_Major_Depressive_Disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotion-Network Density in Major Depressive Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&quot; comparing the causal interaction between different states for those with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Healthy Controls (CTL) in various affective situations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cupcR.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cupcR.png&quot; alt=&quot;simple network&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As well as these networks from &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274088396_Exploring_the_underlying_structure_of_mental_disorders_Cross-diagnostic_differences_and_similarities_from_a_network_perspective_using_both_a_top-down_and_a_bottom-up_approach&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Exploring the underlying structure of mental disorders: cross-diagnostic differences and similarities from a network perspective using both a top-down and a bottom-up approach&lt;/a&gt;&quot; doing the same comparison:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/m9C6n.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/m9C6n.png&quot; alt=&quot;advanced network&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The method for creating these networks is covered in detail in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236207535_A_Network_Approach_to_Psychopathology_New_Insights_into_Clinical_Longitudinal_Data&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Network Approach to Psychopathology: New Insights into Clinical Longitudinal Data&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-01-24T11:45:08.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16614" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16615" CreationDate="2017-01-24T12:58:44.217" Score="0" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &quot;Determinants of Emotion Duration and Underlying Psychological and Neural Mechanisms&quot; by Verduyn et al, the authors discuss various dispositions that account for how long an emotional effect lasts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Resilience&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Depression level&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Extraversion and neuroticism&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extraversion and neuroticism are two components of the OCEAN model of personality. How were these two attributes determined to be most important when it comes to dealing with emotions? What is the relation between personality and disposition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-01-24T13:15:37.307" LastActivityDate="2017-01-26T13:41:06.213" Title="Relation between disposition personality in emotional response" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16615" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16614" CreationDate="2017-01-24T13:14:04.603" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Those two personality factors can be considered as a component of disposition. Two publications established that extraversion and neuroticism as being the most correlated with emotional processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247746194_Adding_Liebe_und_Arbeit_The_Full_Five-Factor_Model_and_Well-Being&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adding Liebe und Arbeit: The Full Five-Factor Model and Well-Being&lt;/a&gt;&quot; from McCrae et al (1991), the authors correlated three measure of weel-being with 429 adult men and women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Consistent with previous rescarch, neuroticism was negatively, and &#xA;  extraversion was positively, related to well-being. Both agreeableness&#xA;  and conscientiousness were also significant independent predictors&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9747186&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The happy personality: a meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well-being&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by DeNeve et al (1998) examine 137 personality constructs across 9 literature search strategies to find determine the effect on positive and negative affect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The traits most closely associated with SWB were&#xA;  repressive-defensiveness, trust, emotional stability, locus of&#xA;  control-chance, desire for control, hardiness, positive affectivity,&#xA;  private collective self-esteem, and tension. When personality traits&#xA;  were grouped according to the Big Five factors, Neuroticism was the&#xA;  strongest predictor of life satisfaction, happiness, and negative&#xA;  affect. Positive affect was predicted equally well by Extraversion and&#xA;  Agreeableness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-01-26T13:41:06.213" LastActivityDate="2017-01-26T13:41:06.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16616" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9776" CreationDate="2017-01-24T14:56:37.127" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am unfamiliar with the term &quot;Predictive Reverse Engineering&quot; but your question seemed very interesting.  Informally speaking, &quot;Predictive Reverse Engineering&quot; seems to denote trying to reverse engineer the brain's architecture in a way that is also able to predict brain function, which was not used in the process of constructing the brain's map. In other words, to try to construct a model of the brain from sparse data, which is able to predict the results of novel observations. Like I said, I'm no expert in the subject so I poked around a bit and here is what I found. I hope it helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.humanbrainproject.eu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;human brain project&lt;/a&gt; (HBP) has a list of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.humanbrainproject.eu/key-results&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;key results&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.humanbrainproject.eu/2016-publications;jsessionid=153j8cqybshccn6p9t24s86i&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;publications list&lt;/a&gt;. The most noteworthy of all seems to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867415011915&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Markram et al (2015)&lt;/a&gt;, which is a huge paper that shows the results of a first draft reconstruction of the rat's somatosensory cortex. This paper has a very long &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/MiamiMultiMediaURL/1-s2.0-S0092867415011915/1-s2.0-S0092867415011915-mmc8.pdf/272196/html/S0092867415011915/9a0a56860ad74790b8fa1c196fdecfcc/mmc8.pdf?_role=article-plus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;suppplementary information section&lt;/a&gt; describing how they reconstructed neuronal morphologies from the experimental data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The introduction of the above article cites many works that communicate how the anatomical and physiological properties of synaptic connections can be characterized (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452297000559&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cobb et al., 1997&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7793.1999.00169.x/abstract;jsessionid=1C4459B8D441871F518E9819FAC470C0.f02t03&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feldmeyer et al., 1999&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/18/2/397&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frick et al., 2008&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/287/5451/273&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gupta et al., 2000&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0026044988&amp;amp;origin=inward&amp;amp;txGid=F9FAA8501909196C9262BD84CE237D36.wsnAw8kcdt7IPYLO0V48gA%3a1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mason et al., 1991&lt;/a&gt;;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-33644666760&amp;amp;origin=inward&amp;amp;txGid=F9FAA8501909196C9262BD84CE237D36.wsnAw8kcdt7IPYLO0V48gA%3a11&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reyes et al., 1998&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0027743348&amp;amp;origin=inward&amp;amp;txGid=F9FAA8501909196C9262BD84CE237D36.wsnAw8kcdt7IPYLO0V48gA%3a18&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thomson et al., 1993&lt;/a&gt;). It also lists some methods used to map pre and postsynaptic neurons for individual neurons, such as: retrograde and anterograde tracers and trans-synaptic viral vectors, imaging with array tomography, and saturated reconstruction with electron microscopy. The references they cite for these methods are: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/000689939191234R&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boyd and Matsubara, 1991&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959438809000117&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Callaway, 2008&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0306452282900033&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Glenn et al., 1982&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867415008247&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kasthuri et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cne.902190403/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Killackey et al., 1983&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627307004412&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Micheva and Smith, 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S089662731000766X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Micheva et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nmeth/journal/v4/n1/full/nmeth999.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wickersham et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The methods listed above by no way map the entire somatosensory cortex. They gather data from a sparse locations and Markram et al present a computational method to reconstruct the entire microcircuitry, i.e. reverse engineer the somatosensory cortex from sparse observations. They show that they are able to cross validate their algorithmic approach with the data and also account for new experimental observations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another paper that you could find interesting is &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/370/1668/20140171&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frackowiak and Markram (2015), &quot;The future of human cerebral cartography: a novel approach&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which is a perspectives article on how the brain can be cartographically mapped to understand function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14637" LastActivityDate="2017-01-24T14:56:37.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16619" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16236" CreationDate="2017-01-24T19:09:13.380" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What I know is that there is evidence that the brain treats arithmetics very similarly as language. I also know that there is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627304006786&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cortical area&lt;/a&gt; more akin to encoding the sense of numerosity, which could be accessed while performing arithmetic calculations. However, I am no expert in the area and only know of some works done by some colleagues that I'll link here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027712001357&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eye gaze reveals a fast, parallel extraction of the syntax of arithmetic formulas&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S0219635212500252&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;When order matters: Last-come first-served effect in sequential arithmetic operations&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811912004016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The cortical representation of simple mathematical expressions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested, you should look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.college-de-france.fr/site/stanislas-dehaene/index.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanislas Dehaene's work&lt;/a&gt;. He has many papers on how the brain does math and how it also is able to naturally encode numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14637" LastActivityDate="2017-01-24T19:09:13.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16620" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16621" CreationDate="2017-01-25T08:57:42.507" Score="2" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &quot;Determinants of Emotion Duration and Underlying Psychological and Neural Mechanisms&quot; by Verduyn et al. discuss how certain physiological signals are outlasted by actual feelings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In particular, whereas the duration of expressive&#xA;  (e.g., facial expression; [1]), and (neuro)physiological components&#xA;  (e.g., cardiovascular recovery; [2]) seems to rarely exceed a few&#xA;  minutes, feelings and associated cognitions may persist for hours or&#xA;  longer (e.g., [3], [4]).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true for all external physiological signals including Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) and Electromyography (EMG)? I would find this surprising given that there is evidence of the central nervous system being related relating physical to social pain, as shown in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44673230_Acetaminophen_Reduces_Social_Pain_Behavioral_and_Neural_Evidence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Acetaminophen Reduces Social Pain: Behavioral and Neural Evidence&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Dewall et al., so I would expect some external evidence of this physical pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Ekman, Paul, and Wallace V. Friesen. &quot;Felt, false, and miserable smiles.&quot; Journal of nonverbal behavior 6.4 (1982): 238-252.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] L. Fredrickson, Barbara, and Robert W. Levenson. &quot;Positive emotions speed recovery from the cardiovascular sequelae of negative emotions.&quot; Cognition &amp;amp; emotion 12.2 (1998): 191-220.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan, and Jannay Morrow. &quot;Effects of rumination and distraction on naturally occurring depressed mood.&quot; Cognition &amp;amp; Emotion 7.6 (1993): 561-570.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Verduyn, Philippe, Iven Van Mechelen, and Francis Tuerlinckx. &quot;The relation between event processing and the duration of emotional experience.&quot; Emotion 11.1 (2011): 20.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-01-26T02:27:21.967" Title="Length of neuro-physiological signals of emotion compared to feeling time" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16621" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16620" CreationDate="2017-01-25T09:56:41.020" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3206735/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simultaneous acquisition of corrugator electromyography and functional magnetic resonance imaging: A new method for objectively measuring affect and neural activity concurrently&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Aaron et al. use face EMG to measure emotional reaction to photos. As shown in the figure below, the response only lasts a few seconds:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TCgMU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TCgMU.png&quot; alt=&quot;emg figure&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Getting a GSR response is more complicated due to the noise in the reading. In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2772899/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Time-series analysis for rapid event-related skin conductance responses&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Bach et al., the authors figure out a mathematical approach for figuring out the event-related response. Both via a smoothed fitted gamma distribution and PCA component analysis are used below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qu0mX.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qu0mX.png&quot; alt=&quot;gsr response&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both response measures seem to return to reference levels after 30 minutes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-01-26T02:27:21.967" LastActivityDate="2017-01-26T02:27:21.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16622" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-25T13:39:41.910" Score="3" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for some research identifying which brain areas or biological processes are behind specifically the hyperactivity symptoms of ADHD? I have done a preliminary search but most of the research I have found is about general ADHD symptoms/ how the brain of an individual with ADHD is different I'm struggling to find stuff focusing on the hyperactivity aspect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2017-03-15T04:39:43.350" LastActivityDate="2019-08-15T07:13:22.010" Title="Which brain areas are linked to Hyperactivity in ADHD?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16623" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-25T15:35:56.403" Score="10" ViewCount="263" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does knowledge of a psychological problem prevent (or enable one to better defend) the development of psychological issues? For example, if a person has studied about depression and is familiar with the causes and cures of it, is that person more able to prevent himself/herself from going into depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there statistics about the ratio of mental health problems among psychologists and therapists vs the general public?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14825" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-02-22T15:43:56.040" LastActivityDate="2020-10-13T05:55:50.870" Title="Are psychologists more immune to psychological problems?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16625" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16948" CreationDate="2017-01-25T18:58:01.387" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a difference in speed of impulses created by excitatory and inhibitory neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14828" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T04:39:09.820" Title="Excitatory impulse speed vs inhibitory" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16626" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17346" CreationDate="2017-01-25T22:18:14.633" Score="8" ViewCount="3442" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=6801D778EA3B1ECCAAE318955F5CAAA4?doi=10.1.1.64.2655&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunning-Kruger&lt;/a&gt; effect states that people unexperienced in a certain field or subject generally perceive themselves as having greater aptitude than in reality they do. Dunning and Kruger were able to quantify this using test-scores in their original paper, but popular expositions typically generalize this in a way consistent with the following plot:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aW6bZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;[enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a layman, this form is more interesting to me because it is more generally applicable, but it also suffers from some drawbacks:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How should experience/confidence be gauged or measured? Is there a general way to do this which doesn't rely on test scores?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Suppose experience is measured in hours spent on the subject. Is there an approximate number of hours at which the peak is reached? The minimum? If so what are these numbers?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If an answer to either (but especially 2) is possible or available, it will help conscientious newcomers to any subject estimate the amount of time needed before trusting a self-evaluation of their competency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14829" LastEditorUserId="14829" LastEditDate="2017-02-02T19:09:47.463" LastActivityDate="2017-05-19T18:59:56.283" Title="Quantifying the Dunning-Kruger Effect" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16627" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-26T09:23:00.720" Score="3" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to estimate the duration of an empirical experiment. In that experiment, the participant has to progress through as many trials as possible, and every trial is a simple multiple choice question like &lt;code&gt;Which color do you like more? Red, Blue or Green&lt;/code&gt;. The experiment should last 30 minutes, and one goal is that the participant has given as much feedback as possible. Feedback is every choice that has been displayed, not only those choices the participant decided for in every particular trial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, the participant should evaluate every choice available in a trial, and therefore time to answer should increase. However, I assume that this is not linearly correlated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I.e. is there some heuristic available that enables me to extrapolate from &lt;code&gt;time needed to answer a question with two choices&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;time needed to answer a question with 20 choices&lt;/code&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14834" LastActivityDate="2017-01-27T23:23:26.810" Title="How long does it take to decide for an multiple choice option with increasing number of choices?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16628" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-26T11:21:10.353" Score="0" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing a quasi-experiment for an assignment, and the dependent variable is emotional response. FMRI is not a feasible option, so is there another good and reliable way to measure emotion without using FMRI? I'd appreciate your suggestions for other instruments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14835" LastActivityDate="2017-01-26T13:15:06.220" Title="Measuring emotion" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-03-02T22:57:36.130" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16629" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16628" CreationDate="2017-01-26T13:15:06.220" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can simply use a questionnaire based measurement scale. I recommend the PANAS scale by Watson, Clark, and Tellegen (1988), which has extensive support in literature. It is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780123745170/Chapter%203/Chapter_3_Worksheet_3.1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;twenty-item questionnaire&lt;/a&gt;, utilising 5-point likert scales, that consolidates into two scales: positive, and negative affect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In recent research, two broad, general factors--typically labeled&#xA;  Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA)--have emerged reliably&#xA;  as the dominant dimensions of emotional experience. These factors have&#xA;  been identified in both intra- and interindividual analyses, and they&#xA;  emerge consistently across diverse descriptor sets, time frames,&#xA;  response formats, languages, and cultures&#xA;  (Clark, 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The measure has cross-cultural support, unlike most measures of state based affect.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Personal note.&lt;/em&gt; I use this measure in most of my experiments as its quick and easy to understand for participants, and is easy to respond to. I also regularly find effects with it, even if its not what I was expecting. While it is reductionist in reducing affect into two scales, this actually makes it stronger at picking up change in affect generally. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watson, D., Clark, L. A., &amp;amp; Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crawford, J. R., &amp;amp; Henry, J. D. (2004). The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS): Construct validity, measurement properties and normative data in a large non‐clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clark, D. W. A. L. A. (2015). The PANAS-X: Manual for the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule - Expanded Form, 1–28.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thompson, E. R. (2007). Development and Validation of an Internationally Reliable Short-Form of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38(2), 227–242. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1177/0022022106297301&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1177/0022022106297301&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastActivityDate="2017-01-26T13:15:06.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16630" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16627" CreationDate="2017-01-26T14:21:14.043" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A starting point is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hick%27s_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hick's Law&lt;/a&gt;:&#xA;As noted in the URL, the visual complexity of the choice space may be important independent of the informational complexity of the question options&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14836" LastEditorUserId="301" LastEditDate="2017-01-27T10:27:55.180" LastActivityDate="2017-01-27T10:27:55.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16632" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9532" CreationDate="2017-01-26T20:34:23.610" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pretty much, for the same reason you're told to use rubbing alcohol to clean open cuts/sores. When you have a quite exposed inflamed area (e.g., lesions in sore throat), viruses are not the only things that can attack or lead to more inflammation. Antibiotics may not solve the &quot;virus&quot; problem, but they lighten the load as far as handling all of the innumerable other things that will gladly (opportunistically) attack the weakened tissue. It's not uncommon for people to get &quot;secondary infections&quot; after fighting off the primary or first one(s).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, due to fears of evolving resistant strains of bacteria from antibiotic use, antibiotics are generally restricted to prescription-only in the united states. It's sort of a, &quot;You'll suffer more, but for the greater good&quot; philosophy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14841" LastActivityDate="2017-01-26T20:34:23.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16634" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-27T06:31:30.813" Score="4" ViewCount="173" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to employ Emotiv for my research project. Emotiv is a mobile EEG instrument (click &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.emotiv.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; to see more)  Unlike other EEG recording systems, I am not able to send a marker to the EEG recording using TestBench. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.crossroadsacademy.org/crossroads/wp-content/uploads/2016//05/Test-Bench-Manual-.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Although the manual&lt;/a&gt; of Testbench has suggested the use of serial port / COM port to send &lt;strong&gt;marker&lt;/strong&gt;, but I have failed to use serial port to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have coded my paradigm using Inquisit 5, I can send marker via a different system (Labchart) via parallel ports. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure if the serial port could actually be used and set marker at designated time. For that reason, I am just wondering if it is possible to include markers during EEG recording using Emotiv.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13496" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-01-30T14:06:06.863" LastActivityDate="2017-01-30T14:06:06.863" Title="Is it possible to send event markers via Emotiv epoc using Inquisit 5?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16636" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16654" CreationDate="2017-01-27T08:05:18.500" Score="2" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Intro&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/honest-signals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Honest Signals: How They Shape Our World&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and the related publications &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hd.media.mit.edu/Sloan%20Management%20Review%20Honest%20Signals.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Understanding 'Honest Signals' in Business&lt;/a&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9305/efad1aff133fd5b279ae1de7b39bfbd5618d.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social Dynamics: Signals and Behavior&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, Alex Petland puts forth the idea that non-semantic communication (communication we do without explicitly representing thoughts using words/drawings, such as our gestures or aspects of our voice) falls into the following four types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Types of Non-Semantic Communication&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;1. Consistency/Variance/Stress/Emphasis&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jerky, uneven motions indicate many different thoughts indicating openness to influence. Consistent emphasis and timing indicates mental focus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;2. Mimicry/Mirroring/Imitation&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How much the social patterns of each participant match. Correlates with trust. Verbally this is measured by sub-second utterances (&quot;Uh-huh&quot;) and exchanges built on these utterances (&quot;OK?&quot;, &quot;OK!&quot;, &quot;Done?&quot;, &quot;Yup.&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;3. Engagement/Influence&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The amount one forces or cedes their social patterns to another. Could also be considered as who's driving the conversation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;4. Activity level&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Describes how much energy in general is being expended in the interaction. Verbally, this can be considered by the ratio of silence to exclamations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He then applies these four concepts to analyse various scenarios (speed dating, negotiation) and demonstrates their predictive power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do other theories or frameworks exist with an alternative interpretation of non-semantic communication while still having the same predictive power? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-01-31T06:16:53.647" Title="Alternatives to &quot;Honest Signals&quot; theory of non-semantic communication" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16637" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-27T13:33:29.797" Score="1" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there studies that reveal how many synapses per mm3 are there in the average dolphin brain, compared to elephants and humans?&#xA;I am wondering if there is a connection between synaptic density and cognitive capacity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14847" LastEditorUserId="14847" LastEditDate="2017-01-29T21:11:00.547" LastActivityDate="2017-01-29T21:11:00.547" Title="Is there a connection between synaptic density and cognitive capacity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16639" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16647" CreationDate="2017-01-27T19:30:41.470" Score="2" ViewCount="322" Body="&lt;p&gt;How are attractor and recurrent networks related? Is attractor network is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limiting_case_(mathematics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;private case&lt;/a&gt; of recurrent? Is there a mathematical formalism that defines both rigorously as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;graphs&lt;/a&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14851" LastEditorUserId="14851" LastEditDate="2017-02-05T15:13:14.080" LastActivityDate="2017-02-05T15:13:14.080" Title="What is the difference between attractor and recurrent network?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16640" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16627" CreationDate="2017-01-27T23:23:26.810" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer time as function of the number of choices will theoretically follow a marginal decreasing convex function. There is a constant time dependent on the complexity of the question, and then a variable time dependent on the number of multiple options. I believe that in order to derive the exact functional form of this function you must make some experiments and then adjust it to the specific response times you get from your sample&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14570" LastActivityDate="2017-01-27T23:23:26.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16643" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13563" CreationDate="2017-01-28T20:57:49.493" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Instead of looking for personality traits, we can conduct some explicit visualization tests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;make two fists, bring hands together making thumbs and knuckles touching itselves, extend index fingers, pick any spot and focus attention on it, breathe and exhale slowly and deeply three times and close eyes, imagine that tips of fingers are magnetized and are being drawn closer and closer together and magnetic attraction is growing stronger and stronger until soon they actually touch&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;extend both of the arms straight out that the palms of hands are facing each other and thumbs pointing to the ceiling, turn left hand palm to the ceiling, take spot at thumb on right hand, breathe and exhale slowly and deeply three times and close eyes, imagine that there is a thick, heavy book in the palm of left hand causing the hand to feel heavier and heavier,  being pushed all the way down; imagine a string tied around right wrist, string connected to giant balloon filled with helium gas gently drawing arm  higher and higher into the air so soon arm will be pointing straight up into the air&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypnotists always look for vesiculated motion - not a smooth motion, but tugged  and jerked one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anthony Galie - &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/I2EhK9itRME?t=12m47s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/I2EhK9itRME?t=12m47s&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;David Lion - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.facebook.com/lionismtv/videos/1182427528493167/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.facebook.com/lionismtv/videos/1182427528493167/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10914" LastActivityDate="2017-01-28T20:57:49.493" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16645" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-29T03:10:52.533" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to measure/approximate/estimate intelligence with a physiological metric? What I mean is, if I put it correctly: to measure/estimate short-term memory capacity/long-term memory efficiency, speed of information transmission through brain cells/speed of new connections formation between cells etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, what can be deduced/assessed/assumed from the &lt;strong&gt;electroencephalogram&lt;/strong&gt; results? Is there some activity pattern that may be related to forgetting or the like?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14858" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-01-29T11:04:37.357" LastActivityDate="2017-01-29T11:04:37.357" Title="Are there any approaches to measuring “physical”/“neurophysiological” aspects of one's intellectual tone/state of fluid intelligence?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16639" CreationDate="2017-01-29T22:33:43.637" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many recurrent networks have attractors. For example, the BAM (bidirectional associative network) is a recurrent network: one input is presented and the network cycles until no more changes are seen in the connection weights. The BAM can be understood as developing attractor states: Seen in n-dimensions (in which n is the number of units in the model), the state can be seen as a position. Whenever the same stimuli is presented, the state of the network will stabilize to the same position. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One reference is Chartier S, Boukadoum M. (2006) A bidirectional heteroassociative memory for binary and grey-level patterns. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 17(2):385-96.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10828" LastEditorUserId="10828" LastEditDate="2017-02-04T17:50:10.930" LastActivityDate="2017-02-04T17:50:10.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16639" CreationDate="2017-01-30T05:13:25.873" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As explained in Denis Cousineau's answer, there are many recurrent neural networks who's activities can be described as attractors. However, I would like to highlight two cases in particular, the Neural Engineering Framework, Conceptors and FORCE trained networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the Neural Engineering Framework case, a recurrent neural network can approximate any dynamical system, including chaotic attractors. &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/celiasmith/syde556/blob/master/SYDE%20556%20Lecture%205%20Dynamics.ipynb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;See these notes for a derivation and a demonstration&lt;/a&gt;. The networks can achieve certain stable states, for example when emulating a memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1403.3369&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conceptors&lt;/a&gt; are similar to the Neural Engineering Framework, except they questionably swap out recurrent weights to generate different patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1609.02545&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;FORCE training&lt;/a&gt;, a chaotically spiking reservoir can be trained to approximate seemingly any desired dynamical system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all these cases, assuming you have a system that can be seen as a transition between various stable states, I don't see why each state wouldn't be possible to map onto the node of a graph.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-01-30T05:13:25.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16651" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16716" CreationDate="2017-01-30T17:31:04.510" Score="6" ViewCount="423" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Context&lt;/strong&gt;: Models of cognitive processes require very large datasets to be fitted. Sadly, it is difficult for a single laboratory to achieve this alone. I propose that we work collectively and collaboratively in realizing a 1 million RT experiment. This initiative is described on my ResearchGate page, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/project/The-1-Million-RT-initiative&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;www.researchgate.net/profile/Denis_Cousineau&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond model fitting, such a dataset will be beneficial for other purposes. Examples: Are parameters describing performances normally distributed across subjects? Does training effect --resulting in faster RT-- imply that the parameters are all evolving in one direction? Does Bayesian estimation more apt than Maximum Likelihood at characterizing the parameters? How can we estimate non-decision times? What is the shape of the RT distributions and how training effect alter its shape? In Bayes again, after how many trials does priors have no longer an impact on the estimates? etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Task Requirements:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;The task must be behavioral only (response times and response choices) as it is not possible to move EEG or fMRI material all around the world. The precise task used is not a critical constraint because the current models of cognition (sampling models such as LBA or Diffusion) are very flexible; they aim at predicting performance in a wide variety of situations.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The tasks proposed will be evaluated based on the following criteria criteria: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;small number of response alternatives&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;few conditions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;low error rates&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;stimuli that can be characterized for modeling purposes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;possibility of extended training on that task. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Possible candidate tasks could include: A redundant target detection task (Miller, 1982) or a same-different task (e.g., Bamber, 1969). These tasks are simple and accuracy is typically high (above 90% correct); they are possibly performed using some form of parallel processing; response times are generally well below 700 ms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What task and experimental design would be most suitable given the above constraints?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Please let's see what are the possible tasks, comment on others' proposals, and if you find the perfect task, upvote it. Have your colleagues make comments or propose new tasks.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10828" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-02-03T01:17:59.243" LastActivityDate="2017-04-13T06:40:16.360" Title="What experiment in a simple decision task should we run to obtain one million trials?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="11" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16652" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16651" CreationDate="2017-01-31T02:01:24.143" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Please allow me to question your setup:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your assertion that you need a million data points to distinguish between models raises the question whether your're still doing valid science, I think. Are you sure that the differences between the models are scientifically sufficiently interesting to warrant a monster project to try and distinguish between them? Especially, if this is all based on a single task. I am sure, your quest will result in a &quot;winning model&quot;. But I am not sure that it will result a generalizable scientific insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13455" LastActivityDate="2017-01-31T02:01:24.143" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16653" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-31T04:40:15.243" Score="3" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some human skills need specific input during childhood to develop, such as language skills. Is the ability to love one of them? I.e., does the formulation of intimate relationship with partner (or any other relationship, like with kids or friends) require the input of love from family members during childhood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related research can be, like, can victims of domestic violence form normal and long-lasting relationships when they grow up? Or any dataset/survey/study on similar focus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14749" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-02-03T14:38:39.363" LastActivityDate="2017-02-03T14:38:39.363" Title="Is love from families a necessity for children to form nornal relationship?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16654" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16636" CreationDate="2017-01-31T06:16:53.647" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A related theory of latent dimensions of emotional expression is Affect Control Theory (ACT), which can be broken into four separate dimensions in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18031411&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The World of Emotions Is Not Two-Dimensional&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Fontaine et al. Three of these dimensions map easily onto Honest Signals. This is shown in the table below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GEuhh.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GEuhh.png&quot; alt=&quot;comparison table&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mismatching dimensions of ACT and Honest Signals are Valence/Pleasantness and Mimicry. This makes sense since ACT is more focused on the expression and perception of emotions, whereas Honest Signals is more about the co-operation of two individuals. In other words, when two people are interacting, it's more important if one person is responding to that other person's emotions than what that emotion is. This is interestingly confirmed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonviolent_Communication#Four_components&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Non-Violent Communication&lt;/a&gt;, which establishes that mirroring an emotion must be done before the root cause of that emotion can be addressed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-01-31T06:16:53.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16656" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16671" CreationDate="2017-01-31T13:46:29.220" Score="4" ViewCount="1105" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand. In the task of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-alternative_forced_choice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Two alternative forced choice (2AFC)&lt;/a&gt;, given two possible stimuli, $S1$ or $S2$, the subject has to decide weather he\she (it) saw the sequence $(S1,S2)$ or the sequence $(S2,S1)$.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, what are the advantages of this method over the simple one, in which the subject has to decide weather he saw the stimulus $S1$ or stimulus $S2$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9947" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-03-09T07:01:01.970" LastActivityDate="2017-03-09T07:01:01.970" Title="What are the advantages of 2AFC in a psychophysical discrimination task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16657" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16663" CreationDate="2017-01-31T16:07:42.433" Score="1" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;Exactly what the title said, can they feel love/sad/hurt/disgust/fear/etc, emotions, after their neurons are dead? Also are there specific nerves for each emotion that transmits emotion? So let's say I lose some of my neurons not all, I will still feel all emotions right? I wont feel emotions until they're all gone, correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14887" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-02-06T02:54:19.670" LastActivityDate="2017-02-06T02:54:19.670" Title="People with dead nerves cell, can they feel pain/emotions?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16658" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16651" CreationDate="2017-01-31T16:09:52.947" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I myself am interested in obtaining such a dataset on the Same-Different task (Bamber, 1969). The answer is binary (same or different), accuracy is very high and there is a learning effect (short term, at least). Concerning the number of conditions, we could simplify the original task to go from 14 conditions to 8 by either:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;limiting the number of letters to 4 (instead of 1, 2, 3 and 4)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;using 1, 2 or 4 letters stimuli, and having 1 or 2 mismatches for the 2 letters stimuli, and 2 or 4 mismatches for the 4 letters stimuli &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second option is closest to the original. The first, however, would be very informative on the 4 letters condition, as there is little data on them due to the experiment's design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14888" LastActivityDate="2017-01-31T16:09:52.947" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16659" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16662" CreationDate="2017-01-31T17:09:05.240" Score="5" ViewCount="441" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the advantages of using PsychoPy for making an experiment (beyond the fact that it is free and open source)? I do not use psychophysics stimuli (no Gabor for instance); my stimuli are static images or text. Compared to E-Prime for example, how easy is it to set up a basic RT experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10828" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-02-01T03:57:47.153" LastActivityDate="2017-02-01T03:57:47.153" Title="Pros and Cons of PsychoPy for designing psychological experiments?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16660" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-01-31T17:49:46.353" Score="4" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a few open-sources tools available to run psychology experiments. However, some are working in a browser. Do we know how precisely they can record response times? Also, can we present a visual frame for a precise amount of time? Considering refresh rates and wait_top signals, this  is not trivial. The few tools I have in mind are the following, but the answer may include other platforms as well:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;jsPsych (browser-based)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;PsychoPy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;OpenSesame&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;PEBL&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If good reviews of these software have been published, please share reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10828" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-03T10:42:34.030" LastActivityDate="2017-02-06T08:27:17.817" Title="Timing accuracies for displaying frames and recording response times?" Tags="&lt;software&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16661" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16583" CreationDate="2017-01-31T20:15:01.983" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, whenever talking about memory, it helps to be specific. Memory is, somewhat controversially, categorized in a number of different ways. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll take the liberty of assuming that you are specifically referring to episodic memory. Given your examples, we might even call it autobiographical episodic memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Episodic memory is special in that it is a highly multimodal kind of memory. It's the kind of memory involved in &quot;mental time travel&quot;, or the ability to retrieve a memory over many sensory domains and &quot;relive&quot; it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As such, there's a lot we don't know about why some of these memories are encoded more strongly than others. This is especially the case for events that we don't remember paying particular attention to, like walking to your babysitter's house. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It could be, as you mentioned, that the emotional state associated with that event is strong.  Or, it could be that there's some combination of sensory inputs (sight, smell, taste, etc) that affect our bottom-up attention and are involved with being able to remember the event (Cabeza, 2008). It could also be that particular dynamic brain states are simply more &quot;friendly&quot; to encoding these memories (Watrous 2014), and your brain may have been in such a state at the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a very open question. If interested in this kind of memory, I would recommend reading Elements of Episodic Memory (Tulving 1983).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cabeza, R. Role of posterior parietal regions in episodic memory retrieval: the dual attentional processes hypothesis. Neuropsychologia 46, 1813–1827 (2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watrous, A.J., Ekstrom, A.D. The spectro-contextual encoding and retrieval theory of episodic memory. Front Hum Neurosci, 8 (2014)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11577" LastEditorUserId="11577" LastEditDate="2017-02-01T14:48:18.007" LastActivityDate="2017-02-01T14:48:18.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16662" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16659" CreationDate="2017-01-31T20:34:39.710" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I highly recommend PsychoPy over E-prime. Why? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Keeping track of who has the e-prime dongle is annoying.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Students learn it more easily (see data below).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;E-prime uses visual basic (boo) and PsychoPy uses Python (yay!).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;PsychoPy easily integrates with R, matlab, and HTML.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Everyone is doing it... (see data).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some folks at UCSD did a &lt;a href=&quot;http://lpl.ucsd.edu/software-survey-results&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;survey in summer/fall 2014&lt;/a&gt; asking researchers for their opinions. Here is a summary of the findings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aHi0n.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aHi0n.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BMmeb.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BMmeb.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14388" LastActivityDate="2017-01-31T20:34:39.710" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16663" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16657" CreationDate="2017-02-01T00:33:43.547" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the limit, if all your cells are dead, well, you won't feel anything. For the rest, it is both a question of quantity and their relations in a network of cells. One individual cell, in a large array of neurons, has very little influence on the overall behavior of the network. So remove one, you won't notice anything. Remove an important proportion of the cells, and emotions (or anything that is being processed by these cells) will degrade. Some have proposed that degradation of &quot;performance&quot; is &quot;graceful&quot;, although this is not a proven fact. Past a critical number of destruction, plausibly, the system will just make erratic behavior (or here, non-sense emotions, whatever it might look like).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some have also argued that non-nervous cells play a role in some of our cognition. So just destroying neurons may not be the whole story. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10828" LastActivityDate="2017-02-01T00:33:43.547" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16665" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-01T08:38:46.717" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on setting up an EEG experiment that will be going through a battery of various cognitive tasks. One of the tests is a Continuous Performance Task and to conduct that we'll be using a dedicated device(QikTest) that runs the test while disconnected from the stimulus computer, then is connected to get results. From there the program does an automatic analysis based on the performance and EEG results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since there is no means of automatically marking the task onset in our EEG recording at the time of the trial, the current plan is to use a video recording that contains the beginning of both EEG recording and CPT task to align the proper start time based on audio/visual cues of both for analysis. Our camera operates at 60fps so frame-to-frame is about 17ms, is this going to be a sufficiently small window to sync the data properly to capture the relevant ERP data in the EEG recording? If not would an audio recording at a higher sampling rate be sufficient(both starts have well identifiable audio cues)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit(In response to Robin's comment below): Based on previous research we'll likely be looking for ERPs in the 200-500ms window for this and the other tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14894" LastEditorUserId="14894" LastEditDate="2017-02-01T10:14:27.127" LastActivityDate="2017-02-01T10:14:27.127" Title="Syncing up CPT device with EEG recording" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16668" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16651" CreationDate="2017-02-01T19:43:42.863" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like this idea! I think the task should be one where the data could be used by many analytic tools. Hence, the data would not only be beneficial for one particular question, for example parameter estimations, but also for other tools such as Systems Factorial Technology (see Townsend &amp;amp; Nozawa, 1995), which provides a deeper understanding of the underlying cognitive sub-processes architecture, and other interesting information such as the process' capacity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suggest that the task at least respect a double factorial paradigm. This design is very simple: you have four conditions in a 2 x 2 design, where you vary two variables. It could be any variable, the only restriction is that you have to vary them independently one from another. In other words, each variable should reflect a cognitive sub-process. In one condition, both variables are in scenario where the sub-process should work very effectively (or optimally). In an other condition, both variables are in a scenario where the sub-process should work less effectively (or sub-optimally). And in the two remaining conditions, one variable works optimally and the other sub-optimally, and vice-versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the very details of the task, such as the stimuli that will be used and the specific variables, I do not have preferences. Letters are very manipulable, but they do carry semantic (more or less). Abstract stimuli could work. We could play with color, shapes, complexity, etc. At Psychonomics this year, they were many experiments which have use this design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference for citation:&#xA;Townsend, J. T. &amp;amp; Nozawa, G. (1995). Spatio-temporal properties of elementation perception an investigation of parallel, serial, and coactive theories. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 39(4), 321–359. doi: 10.1006/jmps.1995.1033&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14880" LastEditorUserId="14880" LastEditDate="2017-02-08T16:34:42.457" LastActivityDate="2017-02-08T16:34:42.457" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16669" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16682" CreationDate="2017-02-01T20:39:08.833" Score="3" ViewCount="1521" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have several response times from participants in a mental rotation task.&#xA;I'm really puzzled how to get the best distribution model to fit my data. I had checked several ones with the fitdistrplus::fitdist function and have two good candidates (log-normal &amp;amp; gamma).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to check for an ex-gaussian distribution fit (GAMLSS package), but the fitdist function ask for &quot;start&quot; parameters and I have no idea how to get them: any help would be much appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9699" LastActivityDate="2019-03-29T17:46:58.093" Title="in R : How to check RT's for ex-gaussian fit with the fitdistrplus package" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16670" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-02T02:43:29.520" Score="3" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm using NiftyReg for image registration, and I have several artifacts when applying the warp from a non-linear registering of de facto standard &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bic.mni.mcgill.ca/ServicesAtlases/ICBM152NLin2009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MNI-ICBM-152&lt;/a&gt; atlas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a few slices showing the artifacts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9T4y1.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9T4y1.png&quot; alt=&quot;First slice&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YP2SL.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YP2SL.png&quot; alt=&quot;Slice 55&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GkuQK.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GkuQK.png&quot; alt=&quot;Slice 100&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tested the registration to the the &lt;a href=&quot;https://brainder.org/download/flair/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GG-366-0.7mm&lt;/a&gt; T1 atlas (after skull-stripping with BET from FSL)&#xA;Here are the commands I ran:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;reg_f3d -ref GG-366-T1-0.7mm.brain.nii.gz -flo MNI-ICBM-152-T1.brain.nii.gz -res MNI-ICBM-152-T1.nlin-GG.nii.gz -cpp MNI-ICBM-152-T1.nlin-GG.cpp.nii.gz&#xA;reg_resample -ref GG-366-T1-0.7mm.brain.nii.gz -flo MNI-ICBM-152-WM.nii.gz -trans MNI-ICBM-152-WM.nlin-GG.cpp.nii.gz&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is using the latest git version of Nifty-Reg. Using the latest stable version (1.3.9) the result is the same, but the reg_resample program takes the -cpp parameter instead of -trans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any ideas if this is a bug in Nifty-Reg or can be worked-around?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14908" LastActivityDate="2017-02-02T02:43:29.520" Title="NiftyReg reg_resample results in strange artifacts when registering MNI-ICBM-152 atlas" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16671" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16656" CreationDate="2017-02-02T05:17:11.970" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What makes a task a two alternative forced choice task?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am beginning my answer with this question because there is a general misconception about what 2AFC really means. Many people believe that 2AFC refers to any task where subjects are asked to select one of two options (yes/no, old/new, bright/dim). &lt;em&gt;However&lt;/em&gt; what defines it instead is that there are two stimuli presented on each trial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LrNVV.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LrNVV.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your definition can be thought of as an example of a interval-2AFC (AKA temporal-2AFC), but your example is not a typical 2AFC paradigm. It is true that both s1 and s2 are presented prior to the decision, however, typically (in my experience) subjects only respond about one of the stimuli (like my examples in the figure above). That said, the important distinction is that in a true 2AFC task, subjects are presented with two stimuli per trial. Whenever subjects are judging a single stimulus per trial it is considered a discrimination task or a detection task (e.g., judging the direction of motion in a random dot kinematogram).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pros and Cons of Detection and 2AFC Tasks&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most cited reason for using the 2AFC procedure is that it is unbiased. For example, in my gender discrimination task (presented in the leftmost panel of the figure), a participant could be biased to respond male more so than female. But in the 2AFC version of the task, the participant is choosing a spatial location (left/right) or an interval (1st or 2nd), so any bias they have about gender is eliminated from the decision. If bias is reduced or eliminated it has the added benefit of rendering assumptions necessary for signal detection models obsolete (e.g., that underlying distributions are gaussian).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A second reason for using 2AFC is that there is a performance enhancement resulting from the fact that participants are provided with more information on each trial. That is, in one case you are presented with a single face and must decide which distribution it comes from, which is harder than being presented with one face from each distribution and having to judge which face belongs to the target distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the cons, the aforementioned pros may not be true at all. For that discussion I point you to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.nyu.edu/carrascolab/publications/YeshurunCarrascoMaloney_2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this 2008 paper by Yeshurun, Carrasco, &amp;amp; Maloney&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately the better procedure will depend on what your question is and what assumptions you are or are not willing to make.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14388" LastActivityDate="2017-02-02T05:17:11.970" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16673" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-02T06:26:23.137" Score="1" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laban_Movement_Analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Laban Movement Analysis (LMA)&lt;/a&gt; is an approach for describing movements using four main descriptors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Body&lt;/strong&gt;: which body parts move&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Space&lt;/strong&gt;: how much space is being taken up by the movement&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Effort&lt;/strong&gt;: the dynamic qualities of the movement&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Shape&lt;/strong&gt;: where the body parts are moving&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's been used for human gesture understanding in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laban_Movement_Analysis#Use_in_Human-Computer_Interaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;various human-computer interaction systems&lt;/a&gt;. Are there other frameworks or approaches that have been shown to be as effective? I feel like Affect Control Theory should have some relation to this, but I'm not sure what it might be. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-02-02T06:26:23.137" Title="Alternatives to Laban Movement Analysis" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16674" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-02T09:33:30.100" Score="2" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;Annotation of datasets, such as those used in action [1] and emotion recognition [2], using &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/16673/4397&quot;&gt;Laban Movement Analysis&lt;/a&gt; (LMA) is usually done by Certified Laban Movement Analyst (CLMA). How much consensus is there between separately working Laban Movement Analysts when it comes to labeling various datasets?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281286489_Multitask_Learning_for_Laban_Movement_Analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multitask learning for Laban movement analysis&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (2015)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02030/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotion Regulation through Movement: Unique Sets of Movement Characteristics are Associated with and Enhance Basic Emotions&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (2016)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-02-04T09:54:48.833" Title="What is inter-rater agreement for Laban Movement Analysis?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16675" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3982" CreationDate="2017-02-02T12:46:47.397" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;After I had finished writing my master's thesis in 2015, I decided to (try to) tackle the problem of small sample sizes with a new approach. The goal was to develop a website that allows everyone to post their empirical study (online survey or experiment) and to find additional participants based on the principle of voluntary and fair mutual support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The project has turned into a small start-up called SurveyCircle and the website &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.surveycircle.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;www.surveycircle.com&lt;/a&gt;. The platform was recently launched in 9 English speaking countries. The usage is free and you can see all current studies without even signing up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14911" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-02-03T02:28:51.643" LastActivityDate="2017-02-03T02:28:51.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16676" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16653" CreationDate="2017-02-02T13:45:14.933" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;not being an expert in developmental psychology i cant give precise information but i have recently been listen several of &quot;the great courses&quot; on human development and personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i think the consensus of modern (and a large extent of more &quot;vintage&quot; research) would support the idea that we need affection and the security that having a relationship with caregiver provides. (bowlbys monkeys etc). any diusruption to this kind of input will have an affect on development. i did read an interesting study (i think it was an Italian university) on the development of psychopathic traits in abused children, so i think its probably safe to say that the trend certainly lies in the direction that says forming relationships needs some reciprocal affection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i wouldnt go as far as to say that authoritarian parents  = less love-capable offspring, people are to complex for such a basic interpretation. there is also the issue of CBT and other treatments in helping to develop these bonds. i think most parents would probably agree that they didnt really know as much about love as they thought until they had children to care for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14046" LastActivityDate="2017-02-02T13:45:14.933" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16679" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16651" CreationDate="2017-02-02T21:02:44.593" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I agree with Marc-André, the selected stimuli should have no semantic association (or as little as possible) which is why I would encourage the use of geometric shapes that vary in colour. Additionally, I believe that the task should be as simple as possible in order to encourage the overall cleanliness of the data. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you suggested, one such task is the redundant attribute target detection task (Miller, 1982). In this task, participants are asked to keep in mind target dimensions (e.g. blue and square) and as soon as one of the dimensions is presented on screen, the participants respond as quickly and as accurately as possible. Results are typically fast, accurate, and slightly skewed – appropriate for this initiative! We could select a few colours and shapes (if we do go forward with this task) as well as what colour harmony should be selected. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, having colours that vary in “obviousness” can potentially give us a clearer understanding of the parameters within certain models. For example, an obvious blue should have quicker RT than a muted blue and the rate parameter of each individual channel should reflect that (assuming, of course, that the rate parameter is associated with &quot;obviousness&quot; at all). I am particularly interested in this aspect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While a go/no would be great for this task, I also strongly believe that a 2AFC task would yield much more interesting results and the 1million RT initiative could help us really understand the “race” in “race models”. This could be as simple as modifying the task as one with “target present” or “target absent” decisions. With clearer trends in RT we could hopefully gather information on the independence of dimensions and whether there is crosstalk between detectors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, having such data would not only benefit model fitting but also more solid architecture analyses. This would, in turn, help us get a more concrete understanding of coactive architectures (the architecture that Miller, 1982 suggested was at play in this type of task) which haven’t been as rigorously defined like other architectures (as noted by Houpt &amp;amp; Townsend, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Houpt, J.W., &amp;amp; Townsend, J.T. (2011). An extension of SIC predictions to the Wiener coactive model. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 55, 267-270&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller J. (1982). Divided attention: Evidence for coactivation with redundant signals. Cognitive Psychology, 14,247–279&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14603" LastEditorUserId="14603" LastEditDate="2017-02-14T14:59:50.893" LastActivityDate="2017-02-14T14:59:50.893" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16681" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3137" CreationDate="2017-02-02T22:36:03.517" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The fact that you can tell when I use &quot;it is&quot; or &quot;its&quot; incorrectly is confirmation of redundancy. If there was no context telling you which it should be, you wouldn't know; and if there is context telling you what it should be, there is no need to write the apostrophe because you already know what the writer intended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That much is fairly obvious. Further, data compression can give another insight into this. Standard text compression yields a much higher compression ratio than 50%. If I compress your question with &quot;gzip&quot; (a standard compression utility), it goes down from 770 bytes to 440 bytes (57% of the original). This is fairly bad, but this is with zero pre-existing knowledge -- something humans have &lt;em&gt;loads&lt;/em&gt; of when processing text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I prepend what is currently on Wikipedia's front page (some text about &quot;Suillus salmonicolor&quot;, some fungus), compressing your question takes an additional 378 bytes (49% of the original), probably because it can replace words like &quot;and&quot; with a very short code without having to pre-define it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It doesn't end there either: trying to remove redundancy (e.g. writing words in conjugated form is almost always unnecessary; as are words like &quot;she&quot; in the phrase &quot;Sarah went to the store when she needed something&quot; (&quot;Sarah went to the store when needed something&quot; gets the message across; or at least &quot;he&quot; or &quot;it&quot; (both are a character shorter) would suffice).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have often wondered how much redundancy is in languages: both in its basic form (sentences as an abstract concept) as well as in its representations (written characters or spoken sounds). I've come to terms with it because it must be for error correction. I probably wouldn't catch half of what my aunt is telling at the Christmas dinner table if not for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A related experiment that ran in 2013 looked at how much of a sentence you can hide before it becomes unreadable: &lt;a href=&quot;https://lucb1e.com/rp/js/read.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://lucb1e.com/rp/js/read.html&lt;/a&gt; For me, more than half can be hidden with no problems at all, meaning the character shapes that we use are &gt;50% redundant as well, at least when combined with the redundancy in words themselves (because an h of which the top is hidden look like an n, but the word probably only makes sense with one of the two).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1062" LastActivityDate="2017-02-02T22:36:03.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16682" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16669" CreationDate="2017-02-03T02:10:46.500" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did a quick google and found the &lt;code&gt;mesgauss&lt;/code&gt; function in the &lt;code&gt;retimes&lt;/code&gt; package. &#xA;I give a simple example of estimatinat ex-gaussian parameters from sample data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;library(retimes)&#xA;rtdata &amp;lt;- c(.5, .7, .3, 1, 2, .5, .55)&#xA;retimes::mexgauss(rtdata)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This returns:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;       mu     sigma       tau &#xA;0.2838158 0.2668972 0.5090413 &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding starting values, typically these just need to be ball-park estimates of what the parameters might be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-02-03T02:10:46.500" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16683" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16089" CreationDate="2017-02-03T09:10:37.890" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no difference between the two; illusionary movement and motion are interchangeable terms. For example, a definition of apparent &lt;strong&gt;motion&lt;/strong&gt; is (&lt;a href=&quot;http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095419778&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oxford Index&lt;/a&gt;): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A sensation of &lt;strong&gt;movement&lt;/strong&gt; in the absence of actual movement, [for example] visual illusions [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a definition for apparent &lt;strong&gt;movement&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychologydictionary.org/apparent-movement/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;) is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A]n illusion of &lt;strong&gt;motion&lt;/strong&gt; or change of size that is cued by visual tricks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, apparent movement and apparent motion are the same thing. The two visual illusions you provide, though, &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; caused by two different neurophysiological phenomena altogether. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip_book&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;flip book&lt;/a&gt; relies on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_of_vision&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;persistent vision&lt;/a&gt; where multiple images are blurred into a coherent perception over time.      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.michaelbach.de/ot/mot-snakes/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rotating spokes&lt;/a&gt; illusion is thought to be caused by asymmetric luminance steps that trigger the motion detectors in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-03T10:15:48.807" LastActivityDate="2017-02-03T10:15:48.807" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16684" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16660" CreationDate="2017-02-03T10:38:55.017" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&quot;Precision&quot; and &quot;accuracy&quot; are relative parameters and the interpretation depends on your demands; their exact values depend on your hardware and software.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;RT measurements are finicky, even on a single pc simple basic USB polling latencies can add unacceptable latencies (8 ms or so) to RT estimates. Graphics latencies in visual tasks, or syncing issues in auditory-visual tasks can seriously mess up the stimulus timing. First-time calling of Matlab commands may add unacceptable latencies to the first trial. Etcetera etcetera. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychtoolbox.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychophysics Toolbox&lt;/a&gt; site has a wealth of information on these things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on why you wish to use a browser environment,  but if you are attempting to do remote experiments over the internet, and assuming the software is stand-alone on the pc on the other end, you cannot control above-mentioned parameters at all. Further, if your pc is driving the experiment, things can get a lot worse, because a server or two will process the data in-between and there's the pc on the other end that you can't control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But everything depends on the type of reaction time you are after. Are you interested in millisecond-range responses (standard react as-fast-as-you-can tasks), or do a few seconds more or less not matter (tasks where subjects get the time to make a cognitively evaluated choice)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also - if you are interested in latency differences (e.g. before and after drinking a few beers), then systematic latency deviations due to hardware issues do not matter anymore, as they are contained in both conditions and will be subtracted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it all depends on the experiment you are to use, the hardware that will be deployed and most of all, the type of response you are testing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-06T08:27:17.817" LastActivityDate="2017-02-06T08:27:17.817" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16685" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-03T12:37:26.143" Score="2" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://home.business.utah.edu/actme/7410/TaylorTodd.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior&lt;/a&gt;, developed by Taylor and Todd,  is used to test consumer behavior regarding complex products. However, scholars use this theory only for technology related products. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to use the DTPB for financial products as well?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14920" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-02-06T03:04:36.720" LastActivityDate="2017-02-06T03:04:36.720" Title="Is it possible to use the Decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior to understand consumer behavior in relation to financial products?" Tags="&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16687" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-03T19:12:49.167" Score="1" ViewCount="284" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently saw a video (unfortunately can't remember where), where someone claimed that the use of labels to identify social groups produced or increased prejudice. So the labels of nationality, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, etc. influence the perception of such groups by others, and result in segregation and discrimination rather than a desired effect of acceptance or unification. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the context is described as &quot;identity politics&quot;, where social groups label themselves, or are labeled, in an attempt to promote awareness of their social status / plight / cause, etc.  My impression was that the labels promote an &quot;us vs. them&quot; mindset, potentially by reinforcing differences rather than shared traits. (Tribalism?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this theory regarding the 'negative' consequences of the use of labels have a name? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there studies demonstrating such behavior?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found the term &quot;labels&quot; used in the context of symbolic interactionism, but the articles I've found so far seem to describe that as the tendency of a person to act in a way that conforms to the label (e.g. a person labeled as &quot;deviant&quot; will adopt behavior to meet the definition of the term).  I'm interested in how the self-adoption of a label by a group may produce a negative perception or separation / isolation of the group, such as producing discrimination that might not otherwise occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE:&lt;/strong&gt; I saw this discussion of ingroup / outgroup behavior, which sounds relevant. Are labels one mechanism by which ingroup / outgroup associations developed?  Is the discrimination a reliable / consistent result of identifying people as outgroup?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4439/what-is-the-primary-mechanism-behind-nationalism-sports-team-ism-product-ism-e?rq=1&quot;&gt;What is the primary mechanism behind nationalism, sports-team-ism, product-ism etc.?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14923" LastEditorUserId="14923" LastEditDate="2017-02-03T19:42:34.750" LastActivityDate="2017-03-05T20:34:37.020" Title="Labeling and discrimination" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-03-09T14:46:37.747" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16688" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16687" CreationDate="2017-02-03T19:43:35.530" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like ingroup-outgroup stereotyping / bias / discrimination is the concept I'm looking for.  This article seems to sum it up well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/fulfillment-any-age/201012/in-groups-out-groups-and-the-psychology-crowds&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/fulfillment-any-age/201012/in-groups-out-groups-and-the-psychology-crowds&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14923" LastActivityDate="2017-02-03T19:43:35.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16689" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-04T06:30:09.217" Score="2" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is this conversational stratagem called when someone wants to fish out certain information from you but, because they don't want to ask you about it directly (as they expect you might get uncomfortable, distressed or angry), they ask you simple innocent-looking questions instead; answers to these questions will make up for them a picture of what they actually want to know, whilst you are supposed to NOT comprehend/realize their sly plan?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That stratagem is often employed by parents on their small kids not yet witted enough to get that they're being puppeted, psychiatrists on their patients, or simply by someone mistakenly thinking they're smarter than their interlocutor and so their tricks won't be comprehended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14925" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-04T12:41:42.413" LastActivityDate="2019-09-05T07:58:09.027" Title="What is this stratagem called when someone talks to you like you're a slow-witted kid?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16691" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-04T16:57:51.197" Score="-2" ViewCount="263" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1qA2p.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1qA2p.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We show western orientated people the picture above: A line which represents a trip from A to B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then we ask them to turn 90 degrees to the right and look at the image below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tlhQA.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tlhQA.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most people who think in the western way (whatever that may be, but I think you know what I mean) answer to the question which of the two trips from A to B corresponds to the trip above that it's the upper line from A to B. In other words, they see as if the map has turned 90 degrees as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same question was asked to people from non-western cultures (Hopi-people, Aboriginal people, Native Americans, you name it). They (almost) all said that the lower picture was correct. Instead of the entire map that turned, they perceived as if only they (or the letters) turned by 90 degrees. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like Dennis Cousineau commented below, western people use maps and the north is always on top of our maps. Non-western cultures who don't use maps (like the Native Americans or the Hopi) arrive at the right answer maybe because they don't associate, while looking at maps, the north with the upper part of the picture. They directly put the second line piece in the second picture on the line piece of the first picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What could explain this difference in orientation? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-02-09T07:35:10.820" LastActivityDate="2017-02-14T10:49:01.697" Title="Why do western people's orientation/navigation differ from non-western cultures?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16692" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-04T20:09:52.230" Score="1" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;While I can understand that this may not be all black and white - i.e. there are also definitive ambiverts - I'd just been wondering for a while now, what are the possible factors that help in defining and forming the introvert and extrovert personality features in an individual? &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, to what extent does someone's childhood and upbringing contribute to their preferred mode of operation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14434" LastEditorUserId="14434" LastEditDate="2017-02-07T01:27:49.410" LastActivityDate="2017-02-07T01:27:49.410" Title="What makes someone an introvert or an extrovert?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;introversion&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-02-07T10:59:20.463" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16693" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16639" CreationDate="2017-02-04T22:53:04.210" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Only a nonlinear recurrent system can have interesting attractors&lt;/strong&gt;: i.e., feedforward networks cannot have any attractor, and linear dynamical system can only have one (stable) fixed point (i.e., point attractor).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The relevant area of math is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_systems_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dynamical systems theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2017-02-04T22:53:04.210" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16694" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-04T23:47:04.187" Score="1" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a faint memory regarding an ancedote/experiment conducted for a certain psychological behavioral recognition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My memory recalls:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It has something to do with a University experiment which invites a certain amount of people and are expected to perform certain tasks and in the end it was something related to identifying a Sociopath or a psychopath from the group. All participants except on in the end comes to the professor / test conductor asking to retrieve some form of prize (collection of money) as the patient fakes all the questions or methods and identifies himself as a sociapath and/or pyschopath.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize this is a vague set of information, but if someone could recall this experiment or this particular piece of anecdote, it would be great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14929" LastActivityDate="2017-02-04T23:47:04.187" Title="Can someone please help me find this ancedote / experiment?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16695" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-05T04:52:13.997" Score="5" ViewCount="374" Body="&lt;p&gt;The traditional SART task requires key presses to all digits appearing on the screen. However, the key press should be withheld if the digit is a 3&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When aggregating the collected data, what is considered an error?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it simply the number of times the key was pressed when a 3 is on the screen? Or does it also include incorrectly withheld key presses (i.e. when the digit is anything other than 3)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9054" LastActivityDate="2017-06-05T13:52:45.067" Title="What is considered an error in the sustained attention to response task (SART)?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16696" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16695" CreationDate="2017-02-05T09:07:38.683" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both are errors indeed. Pressing when a 3 is shown is called a false alarm, and not pressing when a three is shown is a miss. Correct responses are (1) hits (pressing when anything but a three is shown) or (2) correct rejections (not pressing with a three). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y8t42.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y8t42.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;http://gregstevens.com/2012/06/28/minimum-wage-part-2-signal-detection-theory/&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These classifications are used in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detection_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;signal detection theory&lt;/a&gt; (Wiki). More specifically, they are used to calculate &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_index&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sensitivity&lt;/a&gt; and bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sensitivity, or d-prime (see also other questions on CogSci, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/9282/11318&quot;&gt;Calculating d-prime&lt;/a&gt;), is the metric for how well one can distinguish targets from distractors. Bias, on the other hand, is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the extent to which one response is more probable than another (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detection_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wiki&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2017-03-07T12:09:06.903" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16699" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16753" CreationDate="2017-02-06T04:45:56.753" Score="0" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose the following idealized experiment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Setup:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A pill/medication which simply induces pleasure. Perhaps something like a perfect dopamine antagonist with no side-effects. Call it &lt;em&gt;P&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A task which is to be trained. Call it &lt;em&gt;T&lt;/em&gt;. (Assume that  &lt;em&gt;T&lt;/em&gt; is not intrinsically pleasurable or unpleasant, and has no unpleasant associations for the subject)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Goal:&lt;/strong&gt; The subject of the experiment is to be introduced to &lt;em&gt;T&lt;/em&gt; in such a way that reinforces the &quot;enjoyment&quot; of  &lt;em&gt;T&lt;/em&gt; and the desire to again do task  &lt;em&gt;T&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Variables: &lt;em&gt;P&lt;/em&gt; can be administered any time -- before during or after -- task &lt;em&gt;T&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a. Is there an optimal time to introduce &lt;em&gt;P&lt;/em&gt; to facilitate the development of the desire/interest/motivation to do task &lt;em&gt;T&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;b. Is this even possible if the subject knows that &lt;em&gt;P&lt;/em&gt; induces the pleasure?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;c. Even if pleasure and &lt;em&gt;T&lt;/em&gt; are then linked, is it only under the assumption that &lt;em&gt;T&lt;/em&gt; leads to pleasure, and thus if &lt;em&gt;P&lt;/em&gt; is no longer present, the interest in &lt;em&gt;T&lt;/em&gt; will wane?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14342" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-02-06T07:23:59.783" LastActivityDate="2017-02-13T06:46:19.493" Title="How does timing of pleasure / dopamine / reward influence the formation of positive association?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2017-02-20T07:53:36.623" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16700" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3721" CreationDate="2017-02-06T08:58:17.520" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;ASSR analysis is based on the fact that the electrophysiological responses are time locked with the stimulus repetition rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is not one possible method of analysis. Generally spoken, ASSR analysis occurs in the spectral domain, and specifically the frequency of the stimulus repetition rate is analyzed, as well as its harmonics. For example, if the stimulus repetition rate is 100 Hz, the ASSR will occur at 100 Hz, 200 Hz, 300 Hz &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt; (Fig. 1). The base frequency (in this case, 100 Hz) will have the largest amplitude, and the harmonics decrease in amplitude. Detecting the presence of ASSR in the spectral domain means relying on amplitude and/or phase values (sometimes combined into a vector).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wLveG.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wLveG.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;assr&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. ASSR base frequency and harmonics. Stimulus rate was 90 Hz. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hearingreview.com/2007/11/auditory-steady-state-response-assr-a-beginners-guide/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Hearing Review&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hearingreview.com/2007/11/auditory-steady-state-response-assr-a-beginners-guide/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Hearing Review, November 2007&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.audiologieboek.nl/htm/hfd4/4-5-3.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Audiology Book (in Dutch)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-06T10:07:22.387" LastActivityDate="2017-02-06T10:07:22.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16701" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16708" CreationDate="2017-02-06T11:06:39.880" Score="2" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a test person is asked to raise one of his 10 fingers at a given signal, is the choice truly random if he counts in his mind from 1 to 10 and associates with each number one of his fingers? The 1 he associates with the left pink, the 2 with his left ring finger, 3 with his left middle finger, etc. So the test person starts to count, the experimenter gives him a signal, after which the test person raises the finger associated with the number he arrived at while counting. Let's suppose the signal is given at a random moment. Is the choice &quot;in sync&quot; with the random signal given?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, if the experimenter records which finger is raised after each of a 1000 signals are given to a single person, will the experimenter see that each finger is raised the same number of times (more or less, because the number of signals given is finite; the more signals, the better you're getting at the real distribution)? So in the case of 1000 signals given to a test person will the experimenter record that each finger is raised about 100 times?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or does the test person not make a choice at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastActivityDate="2017-02-07T02:25:40.427" Title="Can we truly random choose which finger to raise by counting to 10 in your mind?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16703" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-06T13:04:52.947" Score="0" ViewCount="311" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was thinking about studying this awesome science but, unfortunately, it's not being taught anywhere in my country (Czechia). What is the closest scientific branch to cognitive sciences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2017-02-07T00:03:43.113" Title="What is the closest scientific branch to cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-02-07T01:35:21.980" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16704" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16713" CreationDate="2017-02-06T13:15:51.970" Score="2" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume that if my brain forms a new connection (registers a new information), it can't really know &quot;where does the new element stand in the system of things&quot;. Nonetheless, it is being said that information is useful even if you forget it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say I would learn how photosynthesis works (not the words itself) when I'm 5 years old and forgot it (at least the conversation about it) since. Is it possible that the brain somehow brings the knowledge up when I'll hear about it in school ten years later?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think I need to learn about the basic &quot;remembering algorithm&quot; brain generally used. It seems weird to me that the brain would automatically find the exact same neurons where the information had been stored before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words: How does the basic architecture of the brain work so that the &quot;consciously forgotten&quot; information (in the sense that we cannot consciously recall the information) still be useful?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2017-02-21T13:51:48.977" LastActivityDate="2017-02-21T13:51:48.977" Title="How does the brain use old information to make new connections?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-02-21T11:59:00.497" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16705" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16703" CreationDate="2017-02-06T17:11:58.960" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it depends on what you find particularly interesting in cognitive sciences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that if you are drawn to learn about human behaviour, emotion, learning, and other aspects of human cognition on an abstract level, then Psychology may be the best branch for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in the neural-side of the matter, i.e. how a bunch of cells can organize and give rise to function, then you have a broad set of branches to look at. Biology is the most thematically related, and it studies the brain at several scales, from molecular biology that aims to understand gene-expression/regulation, the involvement of different proteins, neurotransmitors or other compounds in brain function, to ethology that studies how living organisms behave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also other scientific branches that are becoming more involved in neuroscience such as computer-science, mathematics and physics, however the core of these branches is farther away from cognitive science than Biology and Psychology. Again, your question is mainly opinion based and it strongly depends on your particular inclinations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14637" LastActivityDate="2017-02-06T17:11:58.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16707" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16703" CreationDate="2017-02-07T00:03:43.113" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @Lucianopaz said in his answer, this question is very broad and depends on what area of Cognitive Science you are interested in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Science&lt;/a&gt; is an &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella_term&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;umbrella term&lt;/a&gt;&quot; or a &quot;collective term&quot; for many different sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the link I provided says, there are 6 main sciences within the collection;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Philosophy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Linguistics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anthropology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;AI (Artificial Intelligence)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but within those sciences there are branches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take Psychology for example, and you could specialise in Social Psychology, Behavioural Psychology, Criminal Psychology... the list goes on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You need to work out what interests you within this collection of sciences to work out what you want to study in college and university.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-02-07T00:03:43.113" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16708" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16701" CreationDate="2017-02-07T02:25:40.427" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think your question ultimately is about whether people can or are able to behave like a uniform random number generator drawing numbers from 1 to 10.&#xA;I don't think the fact that the participant needs to raise a finger changes things much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that there is a distinction between what people do, and what people are capable of. A lot of research suggests that people are not very good at simulating randomness. That said, one can think of strategies that would allow a person to simulate randomness more effectively (e.g., drawing on sources of random information in the environment, or even applying a formula similar to that used to sequentially generate numbers using random number generators).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The broad question has already been posed on the site: &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3591/how-well-can-a-human-generated-random-number-be-predicted&quot;&gt;How well can a human-generated &amp;quot;random number&amp;quot; be predicted?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also note that a participant could just report sequentially 1,2,3..., 10, 1, ... This data would show 100 of each number for 1000 signals. Of course, this would exhibit structure that would not be present were each trial independent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-02-07T02:25:40.427" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16709" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="508" CreationDate="2017-02-07T10:22:04.723" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a further plug for PsychoPy (I'm the author so I'm a fraction biased) see also the independent data collected by Vic Ferreira&#xA;and Brendan Tomoschuk (at UCSD, neither of whom I've met):&#xA; &lt;a href=&quot;http://lpl.ucsd.edu/software-survey-results&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://lpl.ucsd.edu/software-survey-results&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;summarised neatly by kindredChords&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/16662/9955&quot;&gt;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/16662/9955&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9955" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-02-07T10:22:04.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16651" CreationDate="2017-02-07T19:49:47.613" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given many individuals (mostly men) have anomalies of colour perception, you might avoid colour; you also want a simple task with 'easy' stimuli, to enable short trial durations.  Visual search paradigms are good for this.&#xA;I echo the call for a project in which the experimental design would address something of particular interest, and ideally that would be difficult to address with a 'standard' design (e.g., with 10,000 data points, rather than 1,000,000).  Estimating the distribution of processing times for a process inferred from indirect measures may be an interesting problem domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PJ&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14952" LastActivityDate="2017-02-07T19:49:47.613" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16712" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16651" CreationDate="2017-02-07T21:04:09.807" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I vote for a simple random dot motion task. This has the advantages that:&#xA;  1. It's easy to program. It can be delivered over the web via javascript, which makes the &quot;many labs&quot; aspect easy.&#xA;  2. It's very well studied and well understood.&#xA;  3. It is easy to set 5-ish coherence levels that will sweep out almost the full range of accuracy, from chance level to 100%. This is important for distinguishing between the models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14953" LastActivityDate="2017-02-07T21:04:09.807" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16713" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16704" CreationDate="2017-02-07T21:44:51.223" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;if my brain forms a new connection (register a new information) it can't really know &quot;where does the new element stand in the system of things&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of contention on the specifics, what we have are theories of Memory and Information processing in the brain, and as such nothing I am going to mention is settled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a nutshell, there are 2 main overarching themes into how the brain processes environmental information: &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Maps and Hierarchies&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, perhaps the most researched map is that for vision or what is know as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinotopy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Retinotopic map&lt;/a&gt; this is a simplification,there is a lot of processing and multiple overlapping maps ( movement,orientations,color),&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;1&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&#xA; the Hierarchy part comes into play as the outputs of these primary maps combine to make more novel maps like edges and shapes, other parts of the brain in turn connect these primary and secondary maps into higher meaningful percepts, perhaps the most striking feature, is that you recreate the original pattern as you remember, that is the neurons (or a subset) that fired when you first experienced something, fire again when you remember it for a second time&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;2&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This scheme more or less repeats through the brain with a number of specializations&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;3&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, we devote a lot of real state to vision,social behavior ( maps and hierarchies of how to behave in public and what other people are thinking), language ( maps and hierarchies of words and meaning or a mental lexicon), as well as personal history (all the people that have wronged me, my favorite food), and finally, we have areas devoted solely to the association of other areas, a map of maps and a hierarchy of hierarchies with temporal buffers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was a whirlwind overview of how we believe information is organized, but it does not answer your question since I have mostly neglected mentioning how the information is stored and retrieved, that is mostly the domain of memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory is not a unitary concept and by that I mean that there are a lot of behaviors that are bunched all together into the word memory ( there are around 11 different types for instance)&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;4&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, I am skipping much of the details that are not relevant, but we believe that the following mechanism is at play for the type of memory you are describing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you experience something, besides direct access to your primary processing maps and hierarchies, an extra or a number of extra copies are generated and routed through a switchboard, ( the Hippocampus and related structures), it is in this switchboard that the interconnections necessary for associations are first generated, and later through a process of selective repetition, the relevant ones are preserved and eventually consolidated closer to your primary maps and hierarchies.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;5&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is it possible that the brain somehow brings the knowledge up when I'll hear about it in school ten years later?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, the specific phenomenon is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;priming&lt;/a&gt;, granted, in light of the previously discussed models, It will depend on some variables, was the information stored originally in long term memory, has there been interference from other more recent memories, how much time has it been.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It seems weird to me that the brain would automatically find the exact same neurons where the information had been stored before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, it is amazing, the information finding happens due to the organizational scheme previously described and another phenomenon called plasticity or synaptic plasticity, this last part utilizes the connective weights in between neurons to both preserve ( connections with higher weights get preserved)  and then finding related connections ( through a path of least resistance in between neurons with high weights). Additionally, long term memories utilize other strategies and optimizations and there could be further temporal and functional aspects to encoding,storing and retrieving. &lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;6&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In other words: Can the totally forgotten information still be useful?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes,provided the information was encoded and stored originally,even after years of non use, there is evidence that a priming effect might still be available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Notes, reference &amp;amp; sources:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1.&lt;/strong&gt; For an early look at Hierarchies and maps I think Vision (Marr) is a good introduction, Vision science (Palmer) has the full overview.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2.&lt;/strong&gt; This one fact deserves more attention, a good overview is found in Cognitive Science (Gazzaniga) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3.&lt;/strong&gt; Neuroscience (Purves) &amp;amp; Cognitive Science (Gazzaniga) both deal with how the neocortex subdivides and specializes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;4.&lt;/strong&gt; Cognitive Science (Gazzaniga) has a great overview of Memory and The Oxford Handbook of Memory (Tulving,Craik) is a comprehensive bible of sorts if slightly outdated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;5.&lt;/strong&gt; Gateway to memory (Gluck, Myers) has a very readable and detailed overview of the hippocampus, Rythms of the Brain(Buzsaki) expands it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;6.&lt;/strong&gt; In search of Memory (Kandel) deals with plasticity at length.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="14245" LastEditDate="2017-02-08T19:07:07.107" LastActivityDate="2017-02-08T19:07:07.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16714" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-08T01:37:12.307" Score="4" ViewCount="182" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have started to read a book called &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0863326781&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Vexed Texts: How Children's Picture Books Promote Illiteracy&quot; by Pamela Protheroe&lt;/a&gt; and her belief is that images promotes illiteracy. There seems far too much evidence that pictures books aid children in a vast amount of ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, it did make me wonder on children's dependency of what they see in comparison to what they imagine. My investigation is to find out children's understanding of the words and what they see internally without the visual cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14959" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-07-25T08:45:10.380" LastActivityDate="2018-09-23T10:01:03.577" Title="Do pictures help young children read (understand meaning) better or does it give them a delayed sense of imagination when decoding information?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16716" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16651" CreationDate="2017-02-08T04:33:43.463" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't like the idea that the task should be low error, errors are needed for modeling choice. I don't like random dot motion because there are big individual difference making it hard to find a common calibration point over people. I prefer instead a numerosity judgement, e.g., are more of less than 50% of a square array of pixels (usually a large number) blue or orange? You can make the array big enough to get fine grained control of difficulty, and randomly choose which pixels to have in each color (or brightness) on each frame if you want to make particular strategies hard to use.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14961" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T06:40:16.360" LastActivityDate="2017-04-13T06:40:16.360" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16717" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-08T06:12:39.663" Score="4" ViewCount="478" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I dream it seems that the (subjective) time is slower than the objectively passed time as seen on my clock radio. Is this because neurones fire collectively at a faster rate, so you can &quot;put an hour of dream time in a minute of objective time&quot;? If they fire at a faster rate, then this does not mean that you perceive the events in your dream as going faster, as you adapt to your experience of time in the real world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="11444" LastEditDate="2017-02-08T15:09:36.483" LastActivityDate="2017-02-09T04:14:34.207" Title="Do neurons fire at a faster rate during dreaming?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16718" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16721" CreationDate="2017-02-08T06:17:56.477" Score="3" ViewCount="185" Body="&lt;p&gt;I sometimes have the experience that because of a thunder or some other kind of loud sound my dream ends in a way that seems to match with the loud sound. For example, the loud sound of a nearby thunder translates to something making a loud noise in your dream, after which you wake up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastActivityDate="2017-02-15T08:47:01.797" Title="Can an external stimulus change the way your dream ends?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16719" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16725" CreationDate="2017-02-08T10:23:35.297" Score="1" ViewCount="292" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a psychology student and I vaguely recall a term being used to describe two emotions that cannot be expressed simultaneously. The example was fear and relaxation in terms of Systematic Desensitization. Can anyone help me out with this? Many thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14964" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-08T12:01:23.203" LastActivityDate="2017-02-08T23:50:31.247" Title="What is the term for two mutually exclusive, contrasting emotions" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16720" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16717" CreationDate="2017-02-08T12:30:59.847" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In REM sleep, the EEG is remarkably similar to that of the awake state &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10996/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2001)&lt;/a&gt;. Although the EEG represents the &lt;em&gt;synchronized activity&lt;/em&gt; of many neurons in the cortex, it does give us a clue whether they are firing faster or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wakefulness is mainly dominated by  beta and gamma waves (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Neurobiology_of_sleep_and_wakefulness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scholarpedia&lt;/a&gt;), i.e. 12 - 100 Hz. REM sleep is characterized by low-amplitude mixed-frequency brain waves, quite similar to those experienced during the waking state - theta waves, alpha waves and even the high frequency beta waves more typical of high-level active concentration and thinking, i.e. 4-30 Hz (table 1) (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.howsleepworks.com/types_rem.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BunnI.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BunnI.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;eeg&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Table 1. EEG bands. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurosky.com/2015/05/greek-alphabet-soup-making-sense-of-eeg-bands/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurosky&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if anything, I would say REM sleep, being largely devoid of the gamma band, is associated with slightly lower-frequency oscillations and hence lower neural activity overall. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10996/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds). &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;. 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates (2001)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-08T14:19:33.677" LastActivityDate="2017-02-08T14:19:33.677" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16718" CreationDate="2017-02-08T14:12:07.650" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know any scientific evidence of it, but I personally have experienced it many times. I have come to think that it is due to the decreasing depth of sleep. You may know that sleep progresses through different phases. I've read that you only dream during the light sleep phases , or at least you remember to be dreaming during theese phases.&#xA;Hearing sound doesn't affect the end of your dream , your brain reacts to the sound with including it in it's own way to your dream at anytime , you just think it's the end of the dream because in that case it wakes you up but your brain does this all night long !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've already head my alarm ringing in my dreams and it took me several minutes to find out it was realy time to awke up , and not just a background music !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry if it's not scientific enough for you but it seems pretty &quot;normal&quot; to me ^^&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT :&lt;/strong&gt; It seems like people are still trying to prove it but they're convinced it's true : &lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/17791/1/17791%2015754-39669-4-PB.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Check this studies results&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During the study they observed an impact but due to their lack of technical language the subjects couldn't describe with enough details the impact of internal stimuli on their dream , but new tests will be done with subjects trained with technical language. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14965" LastEditorUserId="14965" LastEditDate="2017-02-15T08:47:01.797" LastActivityDate="2017-02-15T08:47:01.797" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16722" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16717" CreationDate="2017-02-08T19:55:21.613" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is this because neurons fire collectively at a faster rate, so you can &quot;put an hour of dream time in a minute of objective time&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe it has more to do with what information becomes available to the association cortex and ncc (or consciousness) in the waking/sleep brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the waking brain the neocortex is connected to the environment, so things tend to progress smoothly and for the most part we have contextual references to measure the passing of time,in sleep there is a varying degree of a disconnect both internal and external culminating in REM sleep, where thalamocortical connections (a switchboard/router for the senses) are at it's lowest, so cut off from the environment an cues, the thalamus- neocortex interplay stimulates only neocortical areas ( presumably those recently active through interplay with the hippocampus ) which in turn activate related areas through plasticity. So you could be in one scene where the only measurement of time is internal followed by  another one without, the passage of time thus becomes hard to gauge. &lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;1&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The firing rate specifically as it pertains to cycles I believe is a wrong measure to focus on, for one, even in the waking gamma ( 30 &gt;htz ) we top at something like 24 fps comprehending a scene and it takes about 200ms to bind information&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;2&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;,there is little to no information ( although if I am wrong please point it out), that we increase our comprehension and perception rates as information presents itself faster, rather we drop frames, and so even at a faster rate the information available to consciousness in the sleeping or waking brain seems to be capped.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Notes, reference &amp;amp; sources:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1.&lt;/strong&gt; An excellent and readable overview of dream and it's data components is :&#xA;The Secret World of Sleep (Lewis).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2.&lt;/strong&gt; Rhythms of the brain (buzsaki) deals in depth with EEG measurements as they relate to information exchange in the brain. In search of consciousness (Koch)looks at the binding problem and ncc in detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="14245" LastEditDate="2017-02-09T04:14:34.207" LastActivityDate="2017-02-09T04:14:34.207" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16724" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16719" CreationDate="2017-02-08T22:43:19.377" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Plutchik&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robert Plutchik&lt;/a&gt;'s &lt;a href=&quot;http://study.com/academy/lesson/robert-plutchiks-wheel-of-emotions-lesson-quiz.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wheel of Emotions&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;primary emotions&lt;/strong&gt; come in pairs whose nature is to be &lt;strong&gt;polar opposites&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://study.com/academy/lesson/robert-plutchiks-wheel-of-emotions-lesson-quiz.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;linked page&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Joy is the opposite of sadness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Fear is the opposite of anger.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Anticipation is the opposite of surprise.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Disgust is the opposite of trust.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastActivityDate="2017-02-08T22:43:19.377" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16725" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16719" CreationDate="2017-02-08T23:50:31.247" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In terms of systematic desensitization, you're thinking of &lt;strong&gt;reciprocal inhibition&lt;/strong&gt; (see, e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://jamanetwork.com/journals/archneurpsyc/article-abstract/651819&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wolpe, 1954&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For what it's worth, beyond this literature, there's a general debate about whether positive and negative affect can be experienced simultaneously.  (Indeed, &lt;em&gt;Emotion Review&lt;/em&gt; just published a series of articles about this.)  It's fair to say that the debate has not been resolved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2017-02-08T23:50:31.247" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2017-02-09T09:46:02.963" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is in development within PsychoPy. Porting has begun on the Python lib underlying PsychoPy into a JavaScript lib (PsychoJS) and the Builder graphical interface can now generate the necessary html/js code for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The technology on the backend is using WebGL where available (nearly everywhere, including our phone) and this should give good timing in that it synchronises to the screen refresh. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's early days and there aren't data on RT precision yet but expectations are high. And all this is open-source, of course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychopy.org/online/online.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.psychopy.org/online/online.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9955" LastActivityDate="2017-02-09T09:46:02.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16730" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16735" CreationDate="2017-02-09T13:40:35.713" Score="1" ViewCount="329" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am having some doubts regarding my study regime; I am wondering if psychology could help?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So,I studied this one chapter thoroughly and due to shortage of time, I didn't review it for another 2-3 weeks. When I sat down to solve the related problems after 2-3 weeks, I didn't have that confidence anymore and I faced difficulty in attempting the problems that I was very comfortable with 2-3 weeks ago.This happened many times and it is spoiling all my hard work and is affecting my grades. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a specific time interval after which you must review things after first learning them so that you can retain them longer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How many times should I review it before I could remember it for an extended period of times(at least 5-6 months) ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What percentage of a particular study material could I forget after not reviewing it for 2-3 weeks? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How much time does our brain take to forget things?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that it is always easier to learn a material second time than it is to learn for the very first time. It is because every bit of that information is somewhere stored in our subconscious memory. But, still how much time it should take for me to gain the same amount of confidence about that chapter as I had a couple of weeks ago?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14973" LastEditorUserId="14973" LastEditDate="2017-02-09T13:48:44.260" LastActivityDate="2017-02-11T02:56:13.427" Title="After how much time should we review a particular study material after once studying it thoroughly so as to retain it longer?" Tags="&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16731" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16784" CreationDate="2017-02-09T16:12:55.207" Score="3" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any way to remove ocular artifacts from an EEG signal, other than applying independent &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_component_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;component analysis&lt;/a&gt;, or manual rejection?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14977" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-16T09:28:20.700" LastActivityDate="2017-02-16T09:28:20.700" Title="What are the methods to reject ocular artifacts in the EEG?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16733" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-10T01:20:37.000" Score="1" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have come across people preserving some old articles with them, which although of little day to day use to them today, they would still like to retain. I myself would love to retain any old article Ex: My Grandpa's notebook, or a favorite pen of mine I used in my school days. It would also be very hard for me to simply put the pen in dustbin. Another example is the craving to go back to the place where you once spent your glorious years as a carefree child or to make a trip to a historic place of your ancestral association. Another example is the protests or hesitation to demolish ancestral house or historic public buildings which may be old and also in ruins today&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see that apart from being an idealized form of the past which in reality might never have been so ideal, there are other distortions like compromising on the facts of the past, in addition to sometimes even leading to some sort of a waste of time, and downright clutter in your room as far are such feelings are concerned. Still this phenomenon is so common, and seems to be almost a part of every individual's life, although differing in degrees and intensity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is, what is the use of this feeling, and what is the evolutionary advantage of having such a feeling?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6833" LastActivityDate="2017-02-10T01:20:37.000" Title="Evolutionary advantage of nostagia or attachment" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16735" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16730" CreationDate="2017-02-10T04:34:45.093" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Memory is a complex phenomenon with a number of variables for which we don't have yet the whole picture, let alone specific recommendations, a lot of research is also disputed since we tend to be different from human to human, perhaps that is why it hasn't been used in academia,i.e. we don't teach how to learn. Having said that here's a brief overview of your situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first step is information encoding, a number of variables are at play here, but in short: &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;The retention of briefly presented information depends on past experience,context, and it's perceived importance&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, very little information is new ( you are not re-learning the periodic table every time you are presented with a new molecule), rather you are learning a new association and your physical situation (like where you are, distractions, motivation,emotional state, stress levels) influence the process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second step is information consolidation, that is transferring your newly formed associations from a short term memory to a longer term storage, a continual process. Any new conflicting information will negatively impact this first short( day to day)  to medium (weeks) bridge.Sleep: (non REM,slow wave or even naps) after information encoding seem to be both critical and helpful at this stage, diet,stress levels and lack of sleep work against this process.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a specific time interval after which you must review things after first learning them so that you can retain them longer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Caveat emptor&lt;/strong&gt;: A quirk of human memory, specially during early consolidation, is that retrieval ( or rehearsal ) alters the state of previously stored information, so an incorrect rehearsal session has the probability of affecting you previously well formed memories.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond that and previously mentioned variables, the consensus seems to be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rehearsals are only effective if they involve successful retrieval, in other words, if you can't remember the lesson, you are mostly at square one&lt;sup&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; and need to relearn.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Number of successful repetitions (rehearsals) increases chance of recall.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The optimal spacing strategy is  as far apart as possible.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Each successful retrieval/rehearsal gives you a cumulative bonus.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How many times should I review it before I could remember it for an extended period of times(at least 5-6 months) ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory in general stabilizes 3 to 5 years after the acquisition period&lt;sup&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3.2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; ( so as many times as possible during that time based on the above recommendations seems reasonable) with the emphasis that (another memory quirk)  in a process similar to how it is originally stored and rehearsed for consolidation, it becomes easier to recall something as you try to retrieve it.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What percentage of a particular study material could I forget after not reviewing it for 2-3 weeks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depends on the aforementioned initial encoding and subsequent stabilization plus the particular study material, ( is it a list of elements, a concept, a multi step process).In general memory tasks with unique multivariate associations (mnemonic devices for instance) fare better than less complex or even similar/competing memories. So each particular study material is expected to have a different forgetting curve in specific circumstances. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetting_curve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ebbinghaus forgetting curve&lt;/a&gt; which skirts these issues and a lot of newer research non the less can still be considered a good general estimate and starting point for how memory fades:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aqfWG.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aqfWG.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Retention vs Time&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The plot is exponential, which means that the initial conditions greatly influence future retention rates, ( &lt;em&gt;I've used a mix of subjects/conditions for an average&lt;/em&gt;), &lt;strong&gt;But&lt;/strong&gt; as mentioned your starting point and specific situation  can greatly influence memory strength (your exponent over time ), so under bad learning conditions, no interest on the subject and a very hard to discern subject matter, your curve would look like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Sjadb.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Sjadb.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am leaving aside flashbulb memories (aliens landed during your study session !, good luck thinking about anything but aliens for the next 3 weeks!), which are a separate topic and do not seem to obey normal memory consolidation rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How much time does our brain take to forget things?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned the initial conditions are critical and influence the process, there is a period of consolidation (more variables) which further influences consolidation and then one of relative stability, this period in a general simplified way looks this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pYYD7.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pYYD7.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you get a nice long sub exponential tail thanks to long term consolidation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just a quick note before wrapping up, in general people are overconfident, specially at the high end when it comes to memory retrieval &lt;sup&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3.3&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;how much time it should take for me to gain the same amount of confidence about that chapter as I had a couple of weeks ago?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due to all the above variables, it is hard to give you a definitive answer, beyond the obvious one that 2-3 weeks under your initial learning conditions are inadequate and you will have to relearn (albeit you will be doing it a slightly faster rate), there are a number of strategies for sequential learning that pair our basic understanding of memory into a studying regime, here is one such strategy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zZ3Wu.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zZ3Wu.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;learning regime based on ebbinghaus&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an oversimplification, in order for you to answer your own question, you need to standardize your learning environment and subject matter in as much as possible (don't forget to adjust for overconfidence), come up with your own decay rate and then plan your studying regime based on your learning curves which would need to be updated as you relearn and specialize, sounds like a lot, but it's basically jotting down a couple of numbers and perhaps the hardest part making sure you have the correct learning environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I haven't talked about learning aids, the effect of mnemonics as well as other strategies is well researched and I believe can be beneficial to anybody,specifically students, but I believe it should be used as a sort of extra boost rather than a foundation for learning. (i.e. An understanding of the material should come first) Use at your own risk.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Notes, reference &amp;amp; sources:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The overarching note is that memory research stands in stark contrast to most academic programs and learning environments, practices and popular myths.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1.&lt;/strong&gt; Neuroscience (Purves)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2.&lt;/strong&gt; The Secret World of Sleep (Lewis).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3.&lt;/strong&gt; The Oxford Handbook of Memory(Tulving,Craik) &lt;strong&gt;3.2&lt;/strong&gt; Strictly speaking there are a number of other variables that influence memory stability, a high emotional context for instance seems to solidify them earlier. &lt;strong&gt;3.3&lt;/strong&gt; Not trivial either and something like 20% of errors can be observed in high confidence reporting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;4.&lt;/strong&gt; You still have the benefit of the priming effect and other temporal benefits, so it's not all wasted, you can catch up faster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;5.&lt;/strong&gt; What is sometimes called Spontaneous recovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;6.&lt;/strong&gt; Your Memory: How it works and how to improve it (Higbee) has a lot of useful advice aimed mostly at students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-02-11T02:56:13.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16738" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16772" CreationDate="2017-02-10T14:02:11.320" Score="3" ViewCount="756" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I were to start listening to lectures instead of music will I retain the information? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've attempted to do this myself once with Assembly Language but I worked in a loud environment (sand blasting and concrete mixing) so couldn't really hear the  audio most of the time and programming makes for a bad audio book. At my current job it's also loud but the management doesn't care if we use ear plug headphones just don't want to pay the money for them if I wont retain much information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone have any experience with this or links to studies done?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it matters I plan to listen to lectures on computer science, quantum physics, psychology, neurology, and medical basics (anatomy, physiology, etc) and maybe various other sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14984" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-02-15T03:59:15.627" LastActivityDate="2017-02-16T07:56:13.400" Title="Do workers retain information from audio lectures when working in a physically demanding job?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-02-21T12:09:27.980" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16740" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16741" CreationDate="2017-02-10T16:16:47.400" Score="4" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nice and quick and simple, there are a few ideas on how people go through the process of bereavement, grief and loss, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCbler-Ross_model&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kübler-Ross' five stage model of grief&lt;/a&gt; so I am wondering what makes them diferent and what idea is a best representation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14807" LastActivityDate="2017-02-10T17:03:18.027" Title="Bereavement Grief and Loss" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-03-02T23:01:28.647" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16741" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16740" CreationDate="2017-02-10T16:30:16.143" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bereavement and loss can be different from person to person due to society, culture and religious beliefs; and different situations of loss can result in different reactions and death can result in different reactions depending on the relationship with the person affected and how the death occurred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example, a hospital surgeon fighting to save the life of someone on their operating table.  They know that their life can be saved but complications arise which result in their death.  Also for another example, a train driver strikes and kills a person on the line.  There can be feelings of guilt and anger with themselves as well as grief, and in the case of the train driver, there can be anger felt towards the dead person, especially if the situation was a suicide.  Whilst working on the railway I have heard comments such as “Suicide is selfish”, “They don’t think about the poor driver”, and “Now the driver is having to live on sick pay whilst he is dealing with the death in his head”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Grief can also affect a large population of people with the death of some people, for example the death of Princess Diana in 1997 and Robin Williams in 2014 (Connor, 2014)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bereavement, loss and grief can also be evident as a result of the loss of a job, sudden loss of physical or mental abilities, loss of material things, or loss of relationships through separation, divorce or death.  Catherine Jackson commented in the editorial at the front of March 2016 edition of BACPs journal ‘Therapy Today’ that, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dementia is often seen as stealing the person and leaving only a body&#xA;  behind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With death, someone who has religious and/or spiritual beliefs may believe in an after-life of varying kinds, which can add a different dimension to the therapeutic work needed as these beliefs can create different outlooks on death in all sorts of ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are 3 representations of bereavement, loss and grief I know of, which were reported by the people related to those representations which were:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bereavement.co.uk/Media-Centre/?p=856&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Colin Murray Parkes&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://therapychanges.com/blog/2015/05/review-wordens-four-tasks-of-grieving/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;William Worden&lt;/a&gt;, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCbler-Ross_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elizabeth Kübler-Ross&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;William Worden was different because he only covered the tasks involved with dealing with grief following death, however, this can be used whilst dealing with other forms of grief, and the following table I put together shows how the representations combine and overlap each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0uCFM.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0uCFM.png&quot; alt=&quot;Grief Representations&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Connor, J., 2014. &lt;em&gt;In Practice - Thinking about dying&lt;/em&gt;. Therapy Today, October, 25(8), p. 6&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-02-10T17:03:18.027" LastActivityDate="2017-02-10T17:03:18.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16742" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16743" CreationDate="2017-02-10T16:54:38.843" Score="3" ViewCount="1044" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard the true saying that without motivation, there will be no action on anything which needs to be done. I can't remember where I heard it but I have wondered about what help there can be to remove motivational barriers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs&lt;/a&gt; and then I came across Szondi's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.szondiforum.org/t419.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Drive Diagnostic Test&lt;/a&gt; which made me wonder. What other theories and methods are out there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-02-10T17:07:20.333" Title="Theories of Human Motivation" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16743" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16742" CreationDate="2017-02-10T17:07:20.333" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many different possible obstacles to motivation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Physical issues,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotional Issues,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Environmental Issues,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Relationship Issues,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personality Issues,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Historical Experience,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Financial Issues, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Practical Issues;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and they all need to be borne in mind.  We could look at Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, however, studies in motivation started long before he came up with this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The link you provided gives a lot of what you are asking about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sigmund Freud, as far back as 1927 said that a drive theory was what was lacking most in psychoanalysis.  He rejected systematics in psychology as a form of paranoia, and spoke of the drives towards life and death; and sexual/ego drives (Mélon, 1996).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, from 1927 to 1935, Hungarian psychiatrist and psychologist, Leopold Szondi aimed at working towards a systematic drive theory and he developed a “Drive Diagnostic Test” (Mélon, 1996).  On top of that, there were studies conducted by William McDougal in 1932 where it was suggested that a range of animal behaviours could be associated with some form of drive, developing Instinct Theories of Motivation whereby all activities, thoughts, and desires can be drawn from being caused by nature – our biological make-up (Psychology Notes HQ, 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then attempts were made by Clifford Morgan in 1943 to establish the classifications of Primary Drives (basic needs of the individual) and Secondary Drives (learned or social drives).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later, in 1961, David McClelland stressed the importance of social needs and specifically the need for achievement, affiliation and power (Mind Tools Ltd., n.d.), whilst in 1967, Grossman proposed the categories of Homeostatic drives (internal drives of the physical body to seek and maintain a balance within its internal environment like hunger, thirst and body temperature), and Non-homeostatic drives (situations external to the body like sexual activity, and other physical or emotional arousal).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe Grossman’s categories are categories of Morgan’s Primary Drives, where McClelland’s points refer to Morgan’s Secondary Drives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mélon, J., 1996. &lt;em&gt;Notes on the History of the Szondi Movement&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.szondiforum.org/t419.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.szondiforum.org/t419.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mind Tools Ltd., n.d. &lt;em&gt;McClelland's Human Motivation Theory&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/human-motivation-theory.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/human-motivation-theory.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology Notes HQ, 2012. &lt;em&gt;Instinct Theory of Motivation&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychologynoteshq.com/instincttheoryofmotivation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.psychologynoteshq.com/instincttheoryofmotivation/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14807" LastActivityDate="2017-02-10T17:07:20.333" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16744" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16748" CreationDate="2017-02-11T01:36:27.933" Score="2" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;When &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditional_positive_regard&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Unconditional Positive Regard&lt;/a&gt; is in use through several therapy sessions and a client asks about this technique. What explanation should be given?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14991" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-02-22T12:28:17.537" LastActivityDate="2017-02-22T12:28:17.537" Title="Awareness of unconditional positive regard" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;person-centered-therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16745" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-11T10:36:17.123" Score="3" ViewCount="6052" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I am writing (pen and paper) I  sometimes write the second letter of a word first. I write it like the first letter, so capitalized if that applies. I notice this problem the second I put it on paper, but that somehow doesn't change the fact that it is still happening. I tried to monitor this behaviour to see how and when it is happening, and found out these few things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;it always happens when I start to write  something after I stopped. So when I writing something continuously it doesn't happen, but when I stop my writing to take a sip of tea for example, it does happen  with the first word I write.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;it is always the second letter. Never the third letter, or another, always the first. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;a few other people I told about this problem said they also experienced it the same way.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;it doesn't happen when I am copying something directly out of a book etc. Only when I have the word or sentence in my head and want to write it down. But, when I read a sentence in a book, memorize it and then write it down without looking at the book again, it does happen sometimes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;there doesnt seem to be a pattern as to when it happens. Everytime it happened I wrote some keywords, and there is no logical pattern. A few of them were tired/not tired, boring/fun, school/free time, dutch/english (dutch is my first language). They all seem to appear in every possible combination completely random.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14993" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-02-27T06:39:40.007" LastActivityDate="2017-02-27T06:39:40.007" Title="Is there a name or explanation for the behaviour of writing the second letter first?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2017-02-27T06:39:56.793" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16746" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-11T18:50:08.430" Score="1" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for scales that measure the extent to which the process by which a person arrived at a real-life decision conformed to the principles of decision theory. I am specifically interested in questions that screen for established cognitive biases in decision-making such as temporal discounting, the availability bias, or the focussing illusion. Do you have any recommendations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14557" LastActivityDate="2017-02-11T18:50:08.430" Title="How to assess the rationality of real-life decisions?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16747" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16752" CreationDate="2017-02-11T20:16:41.757" Score="1" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;Tell people that God says something and they believe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tell people that the paint is wet and they have to touch to believe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I ask people if God really made &lt;a href=&quot;http://thegoodlordabove.com/god-talks-several-trump-supporters-need-safe-space/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://thegoodlordabove.com/god-talks-several-trump-supporters-need-safe-space/&lt;/a&gt; people would laugh at me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I ask people if God really made the bible or send prophets, many will stone me for even asking their sacred beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is fear of authority or instincts to obey the authority, or lack of personal cost of being false makes people easily believe things?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bible and quran, for example, carries tons of authority and tend to support status quo. People would at least have incentive to pretend they believe. A wet paint doesn't. Or what?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the explanations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastActivityDate="2017-02-12T16:06:50.100" Title="How do we explain that some humans require far more evidence for some claims than others?" Tags="&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-02-19T23:49:57.283" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16748" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16744" CreationDate="2017-02-12T00:09:45.320" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unconditional Positive Regard is one of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://counsellingtutor.com/counselling-approaches/person-centred-approach-to-counselling/carl-rogers-core-conditions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;core conditions&lt;/a&gt; in Person Centered Counselling and so is congruence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order for you to provide Unconditional  Positive Regard (UPR), you need to be congruent and in order for you to be congruent you need to be genuine in your responses.  Therefore, you should only provide the truth to any question asked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You need to tell them what UPR is and that in order for UPR to exist you will be non-judgemental and you would provide a safe and warm environment for them to explore what is troubling them in the here and now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-02-12T00:09:45.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16749" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16651" CreationDate="2017-02-12T00:22:37.263" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just a few comments...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since one of the advantages of a large data set is high statistical power, it might be a good idea to use a task where the key effect has &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; been found in previous studies.  That would produce a guaranteed result: i.e., a high-power test of an important null result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A pop-out condition in visual search would be one example (i.e., no effect of display size), but this is not ideal because it would limit the modelling end of the project.  That is, it wouldn't be too helpful to model multiple conditions with identical performance (or nearly so).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A better example would be an additive-factor experiment (somewhat as suggested by Marc-André Goulet).   I would suggest a simple 2x2 design for which previous studies had reported theoretically important factor additivity (i.e., non-significant interaction).  A big study would provide a high-power test of the null interaction.  And, as long as both main effects were present, there would be four distinct conditions to model.  This design is also interesting because a lot is known about conditions that should be satisfied by the RT distributions under certain models (for examples, see the references below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A final point: After selecting a task, it might be very useful to test out the planned analyses on simulated data, which are considerably easier to get than real data. This would help make the project's precise goals more explicit and also make sure the goals would be achievable using the proposed data set.  It might also help to reveal what aspects of the planned task/conditions were necessary for getting informative results (e.g., minimum effect sizes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cortese, J. M. &amp;amp; Dzhafarov, E. N. Empirical recovery of response time decomposition rules II. Discriminability of serial and parallel architectures.  Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 1996 , 40 , 203-218 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dzhafarov, E. N. &amp;amp; Cortese, J. M.  Empirical recovery of response time decomposition rules I. Sample-level decomposition tests. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 1996 , 40 , 185-202&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dzhafarov, E. N. &amp;amp; Schweickert, R.  Decompositions of response times: An almost general theory.  Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 1995 , 39 , 285-314&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roberts, S. &amp;amp; Sternberg, S. The meaning of additive reaction-time effects: Tests of three alternatives.  In Meyer, D. E. &amp;amp; Kornblum, S. (Eds.) Attention and performance XIV. Synergies in experimental psychology, artificial intelligence, and cognitive neuroscience., MIT Press, 1992 , 611-653 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14999" LastActivityDate="2017-02-12T00:22:37.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16752" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16747" CreationDate="2017-02-12T15:55:21.297" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are at least two important factors or phenomena at play here. The first is whether the subject of the belief has real-world &lt;strong&gt;consequences to the believer&lt;/strong&gt;. The second is whether the belief relates to &lt;strong&gt;groups to which the believer associates&lt;/strong&gt; or belongs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a person's belief on a particular matter makes no functional difference to that person, he or she is free to believe whichever or whatever way without gain or loss. In this sense, it is easy for a person to criticise others for doing something a certain way when the person doing the criticism is not in the business of trying to accomplish the same goal. A person might complain, for example, that company X would be more successful if they focused on product Y instead of product Z. Having this belief is inconsequential to the believer since he or she has nothing to gain or lose from being right or wrong. A similar occurrence is when a person believes something to be dangerous without real evidence, as for example the consumption of GMO foods. Whether GMOs actually hurt you is irrelevant to a person who eats strictly non-GMO organic foods. Granted the person has no shortage of money, the accuracy of this belief makes no functional difference, so there is little if any incentive to be honest about the actual safety record. For a person having barely enough money to buy food, on the other hand, the actual safety record of low-cost foods is much more pertinent and important since the decision makes a substantial difference in financial burden. It is easy for a person having ample money to make the claim that expensive items are substantially safer and more effective. For a person with limited funds, the truth of the matter is far more important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of &lt;strong&gt;wet paint&lt;/strong&gt;, if there is a risk to the person of getting the paint on his or her clothes, then the person is likely to see real consequences in the reality of the matter. Hence, there is little room for carelessly choosing a belief -- &lt;strong&gt;the truth has real consequences&lt;/strong&gt; to this person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person's affiliations and group identity may be &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-group_favoritism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;given high priority&lt;/a&gt;, especially when a person stands to gain from that association. &lt;strong&gt;Any attack or perceived attack on the group or its collective beliefs may be taken as an attack on the individual. The group may be seen and felt as an extended self&lt;/strong&gt;. A person having no such association or feeling toward a group or its beliefs is not likely to be much offended or protective of those beliefs. Hence, he or she is free to consider their truth or falsehood. Someone whose life and well-being depend on that group or set of beliefs, on the other hand, is not going to take skepticism lightly since it poses a very real threat. In this sense, the situation is similar to that mentioned above about consequences. If a person depends on a group or belief-system for material or emotional well-being, then any attacks on that group's reputation or status may harm the person indirectly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Naturally there is a third factor where certain religions impose or threaten &lt;strong&gt;penalties for those who do not defend the religion&lt;/strong&gt; and its beliefs. In this case, a true believer may protect the group and its beliefs purely out of fear for said consequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your main question more directly, those for whom knowing the truth is more consequential will require greater evidence than those for whom knowing the truth is irrelevant or even harmful (whether materially or emotionally). A person dependent on a group for material or emotional support is more likely to believe in that group and its teachings, regardless of the truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a side note, even science can be seen as a group identity these days, from which we can expect that some individuals would derive emotional or material well-being. Having an emotional stake in science would make a person require more evidence to the contrary before considering a religious perspective. Unfortunately, this type of group identity can blind individuals on both sides of the science/religion debate, among other debates (politics, GMOs, et cetera). Ego and emotion, when left unchecked, can be very harmful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9981" LastEditorUserId="9981" LastEditDate="2017-02-12T16:06:50.100" LastActivityDate="2017-02-12T16:06:50.100" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16753" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16699" CreationDate="2017-02-12T22:44:49.750" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;i will offer an answer to this, because i don't believe this is homework. see next comment below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Perhaps something like a perfect dopamine antagonist with no&#xA;  side-effects. Call it P&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;no, let's call it an antipsychotic. perhaps P stands for prochlorperazine. i think you mean dopamine &lt;em&gt;agonist&lt;/em&gt;. dopamine antagonists invoke what could best be described as a chemical lobotomy, and are antithetical to any notions of motivation, salience, achievement, or reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a. Is there an optimal time to introduce P to facilitate the&#xA;  development of the desire/interest/motivation to do task T?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;yes -- immediately once the desired behaviour has been undertaken successfully. with some interesting exceptions e.g. food poisoning, the shorter the latency between any behaviour and its consequences, the stronger the association between the two will become apparent to the individual. think of it as a &quot;theory of causality&quot; -- the shorter the latency, the more confident we become that the behaviour caused the outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;this is why the route of administration of a drug has a strong influence upon an individual's susceptibility to addiction, or to put it another way, motivation to consume the drug again. smoked or IV versus oral administration. conversely, it's much harder to engage in behaviours that might be beneficial to us years down the track because we have less confidence that engaging in that behaviour will result in the desired outcome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;b. Is this even possible if the subject knows that P induces the pleasure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;yes. however, if there is no intrinsic motivation to do the task, it will be much harder to facilitate the desired behaviour in the absence of the reinforcer. if you only did something because of the outcome, and not because you found some inherent enjoyment from it, after a while you might start thinking about other behaviours you could engage in to attain the same outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in the case of our fictional substance P: sure, i could keep doing what you want me to in order to obtain it. but in engaging in your task as simply a means to an end, i might start to consider more direct routes to that same end. for example, i could steal the keys to your medicine cabinet. or place a blood-filled syringe to your neck and tell you to hand it over.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;c. Even if pleasure and T are then linked, is it only under the assumption that T leads to pleasure, and thus if P is no longer present, the interest in T will wane?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;yes. here, new learning takes place: the individual has now constructed a new theory of causality. whereas once upon the individual learned that engaging in T offered access to P, it now no longer does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i would go so far as to argue that if one was not aware of the presence of P, one's interest in the task would persistent for far longer a period, and perhaps indefinitely. &quot;perhaps i'm not doing the task correctly... i know, it's because i've had a lousy week... &quot; etc, etc. one might even start engaging in superstitious behaviours in the belief that it is this superstitious ritual that influences the likelihood of the reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in order to &quot;slow down&quot; this new learning (extinction), it would be important to ensure that the reinforcement of T with P is not 1:1. the more tightly a behaviour is linked to an outcome, good or bad, the more one expects the outcome to occur when they engage in that behaviour. when the outcome is now absent, the more apparent it is that &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; about the behaviour -&gt; outcome relationship has changed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;to understand how this works, read into the relationship between different reinforcement schedules and rate of extinction. also read into the phenomenon of spontaneous recovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;now, you will need to excuse: my motivation to continue typing has now waned, and in it's place, a desire to go get high.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2017-02-13T06:46:19.493" LastActivityDate="2017-02-13T06:46:19.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16755" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16651" CreationDate="2017-02-13T09:31:08.137" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;May I ask, have you thought about using existing large datasets, such as those provided by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.projectimplicit.net/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Project Implicit&lt;/a&gt;? &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/52qxl/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dataset&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(sadly, it seems Project Implicit has not stored individual data points but rather a computed 'effect' per participant).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8259" LastEditorUserId="8259" LastEditDate="2017-02-13T09:55:30.540" LastActivityDate="2017-02-13T09:55:30.540" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16651" CreationDate="2017-02-13T10:02:54.540" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;May I suggest collecting data online? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the latest browser technologies, RTs are extremely accurate, in the order of 5 microseconds (&lt;a href=&quot;https://greensock.com/forums/topic/15548-timelinelite-timing-accuracy-usable-in-behavioural-reaction-time-based-research/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;discussion&lt;/a&gt;). Even with slightly older browser tech, collected RTs can be accurate (&lt;a href=&quot;https://peerj.com/articles/1058/#p-60&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several sites where people freely volunteer to do research (&lt;a href=&quot;https://peerj.com/articles/1058/#p-47&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;discussion&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Collecting data over multiple sites is most certainly easier when there is setup time per location.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8259" LastActivityDate="2017-02-13T10:02:54.540" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16757" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-13T11:02:38.000" Score="1" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;I´d be interested whether you know a script or anything automated to measure the face width to height ratio of a set of pictures depicting faces. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise, your experience how to do that efficiently or a list of tools to do so easily is highly appreciated as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15012" LastActivityDate="2017-02-13T11:02:38.000" Title="Is there a script to measure face width to height ratio?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-02-19T23:10:56.227" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16758" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-13T14:48:24.827" Score="4" ViewCount="359" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have psycho-physical data from a motion discrimination task in order to obtain PSE (point of subjective equality). I am using &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/wichmann-lab/psignifit/wiki&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psignifit&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; and have constructed individual psychometric logistic functions. How can I construct a distribution with averaged data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15013" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-10T07:04:09.487" LastActivityDate="2021-01-07T15:05:09.947" Title="How to fit averaged data to obtain a single psychometric function?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16759" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="751" CreationDate="2017-02-13T19:43:05.167" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Heterosexual Romantic Couples Mate Assortatively for Facial Symmetry, But Not Masculinity (Burriss et al, 2011) &quot;the authors found assortment for facial symmetry but not for sex typicality or independently rated attractiveness.&quot;&#xA;As the study concludes, &quot;humans may mate assortatively on facial symmetry, but this remains just one of the many physical and nonphysical traits to which people likely attend when forming romantic partnerships. &quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13440" LastActivityDate="2017-02-13T19:43:05.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16761" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-14T00:12:55.367" Score="4" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a neuroscience student who works with fMRI I'm competent at the standard univariate analyses and resting state analysis techniques in AFNI and MATLAB/SPM. However, I want to learn how to use models in fMRI data analyses from a start-to-finish perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically, I want to learn how to model prediction error like they did in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23278978&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; for example. The problem is, I have no one to teach/help me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are recommended resources (online or textbooks), for learning modelling of fMRI data in detail?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15017" LastEditorUserId="6422" LastEditDate="2017-04-20T12:53:41.920" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T12:53:41.920" Title="Good Resources for Learning Modeling of fMRI Data" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-03-10T12:17:53.907" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16762" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16651" CreationDate="2017-02-14T01:22:50.530" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A million trials isn't really that many. There are lots of tasks where you can collect 1000 trials an hour.  With a ten person subject panel where each person works 2 hours a day (10 hours a week) you could collect a million trials in 10 weeks. Assuming you are paying 15 USD an hour you can collect all the data for 15,000 USD which is a small grant. To run a ten person panel you would ideally want 3 testing stations and an RA to run things. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2017-02-14T01:28:50.400" LastActivityDate="2017-02-14T01:28:50.400" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16763" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9405" CreationDate="2017-02-14T07:31:02.587" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have people actually been shown a &lt;strong&gt;real&lt;/strong&gt; photograph of this dress, i.e. an image that's &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; shown at the screen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Look at your screen from beneath. Or if you have a laptop, turn the screen as far as possible away from you so that the angle between a line from your eye and the picture becomes very small. You can try it with this page. The blue on the top changes to a greenish color, and also other colors change. Anyhow, when you do this you'll see the color of the dress change from black and blue to white and gold. So the problem is related to looking at a (LED) screen from different angles. Black turns to white (grey, actually) and blue to gold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, look at this photograph:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AWSs5.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AWSs5.png&quot; alt=&quot;self made, copyright&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, look at it from beneath. What do you see?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or look at an arbitrary picture somewhere on the web. You'll see the same effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that if the real picture of the dress (so &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; the picture on a screen) is shown to a number of people, &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; will perceive the dress as black and blue.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So: print the picture, show it to whoever you want, and see how they perceive the colors of the picture. It's my guess that the described phenomenon won't be there. &lt;strong&gt;All&lt;/strong&gt; people will see the colors of the dress (in the same conditions or context) in the same way!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was just a fake internet hype!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="11444" LastEditDate="2020-02-08T14:14:32.410" LastActivityDate="2020-02-08T14:14:32.410" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16764" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-14T10:02:22.180" Score="3" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in psychology evidence on determinants of leniency of an evaluator. The evaluator will assess a service that is directly related to them (for example, customer satisfaction, or student's teaching evaluation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some papers on Accounting and Business research (like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361368203000977&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moers, 2005&lt;/a&gt;) suggesting determinants of biased subjective performance evaluations. But I would be more interested in psychological evidence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Will older evaluators be more lenient? Will married evaluators be more lenient? I have some feelings that these may be true, but could not find any academic evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any other systematic differences in characteristics of the more lenient evaluators? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15021" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-02-15T05:25:59.857" LastActivityDate="2017-02-15T05:25:59.857" Title="Factors affecting leniency of an evaluator (judge)" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16691" CreationDate="2017-02-14T10:12:42.863" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a classic example of the analytic vs holistic perceptual systems, one of the cornerstone theories on cross-cultural cognition. For a good overview of this see &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9280.02432&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Perceiving an Object and Its Context in Different Cultures&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; by Kitayama et al. (2003) or you can start with the seminal piece &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iacmr.org/v2/Conferences/WS2011/Submission_XM/Participant/Readings/Lecture8A_JiaLin/Markus%20et%20al%20(1991)%20Culture%20and%20Self%20-%20Implications%20for%20Cognition%20Emotion%20and%20Motivation-8a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Culture and the self&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; by Markus &amp;amp; Kitayama (1991).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, due to differing cultural norms certain groups of people tend to favour a more holistic or analytic attentional style. The former puts equal or greater emphasis on contextual features/factors, while the latter emphasises specific or unique characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I.t.o. the current question, a holistic perceptual style is better able to take into account the contextual factor (rotation) when making decisions, while a analytic style does not and so can cause errors in judgement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14985" LastEditorUserId="14985" LastEditDate="2017-02-14T10:49:01.697" LastActivityDate="2017-02-14T10:49:01.697" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16766" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10225" CreationDate="2017-02-14T11:21:16.350" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A bit of a broad question as a full answer will really depend on the specifics of the problem being addressed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short though, yes, cultural factors, and probably to some extent linguistic factors as well, do impact on problem solving processes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the main cross-cultural factors that can alter problem solving is the whole individualism/collectivism distinctions between broader cultural systems and they promote the use of analytic vs holistic perceptual styles. The answer in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16691/why-do-western-peoples-orientation-navigation-differ-from-non-western-cultures&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; post perhaps answers the question in a slightly more applied manner. Another thing to consider can be how certain cultural norms can promote logical vs intuitive reasoning processes as well (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2008.00266.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Buchtel &amp;amp; Norenzayan, 2005&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for language, the general consensus is that it is not the language in and of itself that shapes cognition, but rather the cultural norms or ways of being associated with any given language as a means of cultural communication (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224545.1969.9922382?journalCode=vsoc20&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;See Earle, 1969&lt;/a&gt; for an example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14985" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2017-02-14T11:21:16.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16767" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16758" CreationDate="2017-02-14T11:33:11.763" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Averaging psychometric curves may not be the preferred way to pool psychophysical data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Typically, extracted gold-standard outcome measures from the psychometric curves will be pooled and averaged to perform statistical analyses and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in the visual sciences a much-used outcome measure is the visual acuity where, for example, gratings in four orientations are shown using standard psychophysical tests. Since it's a 4AFC task, the 62.5% correct score will be taken as a measure of the threshold, where the gratings will be varied in their width, measures in cycles per degree (&lt;em&gt;cpd&lt;/em&gt;) or related measure of visual angle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To pool and average individual subject scores the acuity scores will be averaged, measured in cpd, and &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; the psychometric curves. For examples see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3763892/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nau &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2013)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/optvissci/abstract/1996/01000/the_freiburg_visual_acuity_test_automatic.8.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bach et al. (1996)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you would really insist, you could pool every measurement in case the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.hanover.edu/classes/sensation/Labs/psychophysics_I.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;method of constant stimuli&lt;/a&gt; or related paradigm was used. Then one single psychometric fit could be performed on the congregate data. Problem with this approach, as opposed to the preferred method described above, is that the fit will yield awesome outcomes in terms of superbly small variances in the fitted outcome parameters, as well as favorable descriptive statistical parameters, such as the correlation coefficient, simply because there are so many data points and hence many degrees of freedom. Further, random errors occurring in one, or a few subjects will now affect the overall fit and 'weird' data points will tend to be obscured by the multitude of data points per x value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A better approach in terms of statistical descriptive outcomes would be to first average every data point and then do the fit. However, also here outliers will be obscured because of the averaging procedure. The power of psychometric fits is that individual subjects can be analyzed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychometric-assessment.com/adaptive-testing/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adaptive method&lt;/a&gt; is used above procedure won't hold as each subject will have different x values. Adaptive procedures in general do not lend themselves very well for curve fitting as the data points around threshold are dense, but the trials targeting chance level or 100% correct are sparse or nonexistent altogether. Hence the asymptotes are ill-defined. You could average these data, if you insist, by averaging each of the fitted parameters and generate a 'master' fit out of those. Beware of logarithmic values, though, as averaging those is not arbitrary. Again, descriptive statistical parameters become obscure in such a master fit, and statistical analyses become difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, my advice is to stick with pooling the single outcome measures obtained from the psychometric curve, &lt;em&gt;i.e&lt;/em&gt;, stick to pooling your PSE outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3763892/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nau &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Transl Vis Sci Technol&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/optvissci/abstract/1996/01000/the_freiburg_visual_acuity_test_automatic.8.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bach &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;optom Vis Sci&lt;/em&gt; (1996); &lt;strong&gt;73&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 49-53&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-01-07T15:05:09.947" LastActivityDate="2021-01-07T15:05:09.947" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16768" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3506" CreationDate="2017-02-14T11:42:52.557" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are considering an alternative to matlab that is free I would recommend octave. If you are on linux you might consider the whole neurodebian. In terms of book I did not find Steve Luck's book very helpful, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/event-related-potentials&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Todd Handy's&lt;/a&gt; one was more suited for me. Also a very good book is van Drongelen's Signal Processing for Neuroscientists (cannot put the link sorry, not enough reputation), which includes matlab code with it. It is however tailored to a more technical audience. In terms of video I liked &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ouBwwbiICDk&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;these youtube video&lt;/a&gt;. They are on brain computer interfaces, but the introduction also explains a bit about EEG. It is also a bit for the technically oriented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15022" LastActivityDate="2017-02-14T11:42:52.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16770" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16738" CreationDate="2017-02-14T15:40:15.407" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not know about specific evidence on dual-task settings with 'lectures listening' as one of the tasks, but there is plenty of references in multitasking studies. Then you could consider all the evidence on the detrimental effects of dual task on human performance. It practically boils down on how much the lectures will entertain you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have experience with both listening to podcasts and to audio streams extracted from video lectures on coursera.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My experience is that lectures are much more interesting than music and therefore have a much higher divided attention cost. For example, I do listen to every nature podcast while riding my bike to work. I must admit I am glad I am not driving a car because it happened that I surprised my self in a kind of trance status while listening to the podcast. And that is not helpful when I should be paying attention to what happens on the street. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly we could consider all the literature on mental work-load. I remember there is quite a bit of literature on traffic psychology manipulating cognitive load and the ability to drive a car and ride a bike. But in terms of physically demanding job the cognitive load might not be as apparent/influential. I think it might also depend on the type of physical work. Maybe if you are at the gym and listen to the lecture the two things could not interfere with one another. I remember listening to Bill Bryson's A short history of nearly everything while painting my house and enjoying it quite a bit. With A brief history of time by Steven Hawkins sometimes I had to listen to a paragraph twice before proceeding with the book.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15022" LastEditorUserId="15022" LastEditDate="2017-02-16T07:56:13.400" LastActivityDate="2017-02-16T07:56:13.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16771" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13206" CreationDate="2017-02-15T00:34:00.777" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the following study, the level of sex hormones do affect spatial performance: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/030645309400076X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/030645309400076X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now if we subscribe to the premise of general intelligence (g factor, IQ) of how all the different cognitive abilities are positively and significantly correlated, then the above means that lower androgen levels cause a trend of lower IQ, in both sexes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I find Assortative Mating to be valid, and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intelligentpeopleforum.com/threads/are-husbands-and-wives-better-off-with-similar-intelligence-levels.17/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive IQ correlalation between spouses&lt;/a&gt; seem to be even more important than that of some physical traits, I find the above study interesting. How can the two sexes handle a natural &quot;by default&quot; mismatch, if they strive to find mates with intelligence levels as similar to their own as possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think your question is valid and I'm highly interested in this topic as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15025" LastEditorUserId="15025" LastEditDate="2017-02-15T00:44:29.387" LastActivityDate="2017-02-15T00:44:29.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16772" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16738" CreationDate="2017-02-15T02:37:05.047" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, if you want to retain information, you have to actively listen to it. Simply putting it on like you would background music is not going to help that much. However, if you do want to learn by listening to a lecture, there are several strategies you can use. Here are some listening &lt;a href=&quot;https://home.snu.edu/~hculbert/listen.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;strategies&lt;/a&gt; you can try to employ. They are mostly targeted at being in lecture, but listening is listening either way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another useful fact is that the speed that the average brain thinks at is 400 words per minute. Find the speed of speaking at which your brain doesn't tune out at, but still has time to process everything coming its way. If you have a friend, have them speak at different speeds and observe the effect on your attention span. Then when you turn on your audio lecture, see what speed the lecturer speaks at and adjust the speed in an audio editing program to match your brain's attention span. Also, if you can't change the speed of the audio but it's slower than you want, then ask yourself small questions in between sentences so that you don't lose attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously if you are trying to &quot;multitask&quot; you have to make the audio slow enough to where you can hear every word and work on your job, if that's what you wanted, but multitasking has been proven to be impossible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was a &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.3660120410/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;study done&lt;/a&gt; on audio-tutorials versus in-person lab-lecture and the people who used audio had better scores/retention. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few questions you might want to ask about yourself are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What sound intensity of music helps block out ambient noise but still allows me to hear myself think?&#xA;Where are the best places for me to listen to audio?&#xA;Which subject am I going to be listening to? (You answered this in your question but some of those subjects can't be simply listened to once through for retention. I would say Computer Science and Quantum Physics need a very quiet environment if you are going to be listening to them. Hopefully you have a pause button. Meanwhile, the others you mentioned might be possible if you are able to memorize quickly.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, if you have a car, I would highly recommend listening to your lecture in the car, and then when you are sitting down elsewhere, re-listen to that same lecture. Repetition really helps with retention! (You can find lots of articles on that online.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps! Let me know if you need clarification, etc...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15027" LastActivityDate="2017-02-15T02:37:05.047" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16773" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-15T07:59:22.763" Score="2" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this video at 1:43 and at 5:07&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cj4y0EUlU-Y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cj4y0EUlU-Y&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Richard Feynman describes the possibility that all humans think very differently during simple processes like counting. And the seeming uniformity is only in external behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence with regards to this? For example, take a disorder like dyslexia... is it possible that a young child with dyslexia at a very young naturally develops a different way of thinking that achieves the same results so that externally he doesn't appear to have any disorder at all... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious about research in this regard, as it seems it would be very difficult to test for something like this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14734" LastActivityDate="2017-02-15T07:59:22.763" Title="Is it assumed that human beings &quot;think&quot; the same way? Is there good reason for this assumption?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-02-27T06:41:02.497" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16775" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-15T15:22:58.533" Score="1" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many SF-films in which dreams of people can be seen by others on a TV-screen. Don't you have to put so many information gathering devices in a person's brain for this to accomplish, that dream can't enter your brain anymore?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastActivityDate="2017-07-19T08:46:20.910" Title="Will some people ever be able to make our dreams visible on a screen?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16776" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12505" CreationDate="2017-02-15T16:06:01.833" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Use the MAPS &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26255051&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26255051&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can request from Auburn Univeristy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15034" LastActivityDate="2017-02-15T16:06:01.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16777" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16778" CreationDate="2017-02-15T17:24:19.613" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am studying for a big exam which will include 100 out of the 300 questions I was given as material for the exam. &lt;strong&gt;They are the exact questions that will be used on the exam, including answer choices.&lt;/strong&gt;  While I am reviewing, should I make the incorrect answers available to myself, so that when I am taking the test I see the questions and answers I have been reviewing, or should I make no answers available to myself except the correct answer on the other side of a flash card?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which is the best way to learn the correct answer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15036" LastEditorUserId="15036" LastEditDate="2017-02-15T17:32:19.593" LastActivityDate="2017-02-16T00:23:05.663" Title="Does having wrong answers available while studying distract the mind from the correct answer?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-02-21T11:59:48.483" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16778" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16777" CreationDate="2017-02-15T23:49:02.760" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Which is the best way to learn the correct answer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no correct or best way to learn if phrased that way, let me elaborate:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first case you are really learning 2 things:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A series of statements : a),b),c), d).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;4 relationships : a)= false, b) = false, c) = true , d) = false.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the second case you are only learning a single relationship:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;statement X ( c in the previous case) = true&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This might sound counter intuitive, but the first case will prepare you better (even though it takes longer to practice), Why ? Because it simply matches better the recall task,which can be read as: out of this 4 cases which 3 are false and which one is true. ( a discriminating strategy can even be formulated by grouping the wrong ones via some similarity)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The opposite learning strategy is expected to fare poorly since instead of being helpful, the additional wrong choices work as recall distracters, they will each elicit the same response ( technically the correct one will also have an extra priming effect, but in order to outweigh the distracters, it would need to be consolidated over time), that is you would be expected to write it down word by word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So your choice comes down to either learn to discriminate or learn to recall perfectly, in general we fare poorly on the second task for short to medium term memories and only after repeated (or emotional) and complementary exposure can we master perfect recall ( mnemonic devices can also be used).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Oxford Handbook of Memory(Tulving,Craik) (expertise, familiarity, distracters,etc,etc)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive Science (Gazzaniga) General discrimination in memory.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="14245" LastEditDate="2017-02-16T00:23:05.663" LastActivityDate="2017-02-16T00:23:05.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16779" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-16T01:08:08.093" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a neuron fires, an action potential of about 100 mV is generated. An electrode measuring brain activity will record several hundreds neurons at a time. How much voltage an electrode directly in contact with brain tissue is expected to receive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15040" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-16T12:43:35.553" LastActivityDate="2017-02-16T12:43:35.553" Title="What is the voltage that an intracortical electrode is expected to receive?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16780" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16738" CreationDate="2017-02-16T02:32:57.537" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Straight answer: No. There is no such thing as free lunch when it comes to learning material. Your question is based on the studies of hypno-learning (learning by listening to tapes while sleeping) which has never received empirical support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To memorize in long-term memory you need: Deep encoding. Deep encoding requires transforming the material to things you already know. For example, rehearsing the material using synonyms, analogies, or examples taken from your own life. For that to happen, it requires attention and concentration. More on this next.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you can't transform the material so that it becomes deeply encoded, it needs singularity. It has to be something that hit you by its novelty. Again, to notice singularity, it takes attention on the material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Attention is quite central to learning. It is the gate by which all material reaches your working memory and from which it can reach long-term memory. Yet, you only have a limited pool of attention. If you try to stretch it over multiple tasks, it creates fatigues, stress, or diffuse anxiety. All these factors are known to reduce your ability to learn. Worse, under stress or anxiety, you will revert to stereotype techniques (here, to learn, you will revert to rote repetition of the material). Stereotype technique require less attention, but are notoriously known to result in the poorest form of learning (no duration and no understanding).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to assimilate material, only one option: concentrate on it (avoid multitasking at all cost), rephrase materials and make connections to what you already know. Otherwise, try to see in what ways it is completely novel (singular).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some references: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow, 2011. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schmidt SR (1991) Can we have a distinctive theory of memory? Mem Cognit. 1991, Nov;19(6):523-42. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Craik et Tulving (1975) Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268-294.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10828" LastActivityDate="2017-02-16T02:32:57.537" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16781" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-16T02:51:35.163" Score="12" ViewCount="260" Body="&lt;p&gt;Victims of abuse, people exposed to violent situations repeatedly, and people in war zones can develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a result. PTSD is very common and has lifelong effects on affected individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Can people exposed to trauma be treated before PTSD develops?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Would this treatment totally prevent PTSD from developing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15042" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2020-09-02T06:35:04.627" LastActivityDate="2020-09-02T06:35:04.627" Title="Is post-traumatic stress disorder preventable?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16784" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16731" CreationDate="2017-02-16T09:26:52.477" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to a review by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tcts.fpms.ac.be/biomed/private/papers/croft_barry00.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Croft &amp;amp; Barry (2000)&lt;/a&gt;, a number of possible methods exist to prevent, or reject ocular artifacts in the EEG;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Prevention/reduction of artifact instances&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Recording with eyes closed -&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A very effective method, but eye closure alters the EEG, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, it increases &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurosky.com/2015/05/greek-alphabet-soup-making-sense-of-eeg-bands/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;alpha band activity&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Let subjects fixate on a target -&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Method reduces blinks, but does not eliminate them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Rejection&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Exclude trials with amplitudes larger than, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, 50 microV  -&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Method works only with a trial-based approach; artifacts below criterion level will remain.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reduction&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Subtract a certain standard voltage when an artifact occurs  -&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A crude method;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Online attenuation of the EEG signal when an artifact is detected  -&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Works better as the former technique, but is still crude;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Regression techniques where different electrodes are used to estimate the artifact component in other electrodes  -&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A more sophisticated method with apparently good results. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For details I refer to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tcts.fpms.ac.be/biomed/private/papers/croft_barry00.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Croft &amp;amp; Barry (2000)&lt;/a&gt; and the primary literature cited therein.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tcts.fpms.ac.be/biomed/private/papers/croft_barry00.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Croft &amp;amp; Barry &lt;em&gt;Neurophysiol Clin&lt;/em&gt; (2000); &lt;strong&gt;30&lt;/strong&gt;: 5-19&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-02-16T09:26:52.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16787" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13256" CreationDate="2017-02-16T10:36:03.157" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Intracortical projections can be routed directly to other cortical areas (cortico-cortical projections), or via the thalamus (cortico-thalamo-cortical projections).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Intracortical projections do not have to cross the thalamus or other subcortical structures. Take for example the visual system - it features many cortical projections and these connections do not always enter the thalamus or other subcortical structures (Fig. 1). These connections are called cortico-cortical projections (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361923098001221&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Guandalani, 1998&lt;/a&gt;). Connections going via the thalamus, however, also exist in the visual cortex (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006899390903234&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kato, 1990&lt;/a&gt;) and are referred generally to as cortico-thalamo-cortical projections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LOZb3.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LOZb3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;visual system&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Visual system. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/a/a_02/a_02_cr/a_02_cr_vis/a_02_cr_vis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McGill&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The projections from the LGN to primary cortex (V1 in Fig. 1) and via V2, V3, V4 up to V5 all may occur without visual information entering the thalamus or other subcortical structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that on the cellular scale direct cortico-cortical connections in the cortex are abundant (Fig. 2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3RGny.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3RGny.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;visual system 2&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Local cellular connections in the visual cortex. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00172/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kang &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361923098001221&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Guandalani, &lt;em&gt;Brain Res Bull&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;47&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 377–85&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00172/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kang &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Syst Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;: 172&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006899390903234&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kato, &lt;em&gt;Brain Res&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;509&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 150–2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-19T11:03:34.633" LastActivityDate="2017-02-19T11:03:34.633" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16788" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16779" CreationDate="2017-02-16T11:52:56.360" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.med.utah.edu/Faculty/Normann.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Utah array&lt;/a&gt; is a multi-electrode array for intracortical recordings. In one of many publications on this device, the authors show some sample traces that reveal amplitudes generally &lt;strong&gt;between 5 and 40 microVolts&lt;/strong&gt;. However, measured voltage will depend on the vigilance state of the brain, recording area, time on the millisecond scale, time on the macro scale (gliosis) and insertion depth and so forth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/articles/srep36228/figures/4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;extracellular electrodes&lt;/a&gt; will never measure the high potentials that occur at the membrane surface as recorded through &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Intracellular_recording&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;intracellular&lt;/em&gt; electrodes&lt;/a&gt;. Because of the distance of extracellular electrodes to the neuronal cell membranes, the signals are much smaller.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0013469496951760/1-s2.0-S0013469496951760-main.pdf?_tid=997543a2-f43d-11e6-8f30-00000aab0f26&amp;amp;acdnat=1487245788_5c8b9c19d7a89585272ca5e8e5460780&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Craig &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Electroencephal clin Neurophysiol&lt;/em&gt; (1997); &lt;strong&gt;102&lt;/strong&gt;: 228-239&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-16T12:28:55.840" LastActivityDate="2017-02-16T12:28:55.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16793" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-17T12:23:47.687" Score="2" ViewCount="186" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's been quite a splash in the field of psychology around the  concept of &lt;strong&gt;grit&lt;/strong&gt; introduced around 2007 (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grit_(personality_trait)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt;). For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/angela_lee_duckworth_grit_the_power_of_passion_and_perseverance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the associated TED talk has been viewed more than 10 million times&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intuitively, the ideas make a lot of sense based on my own experience. While, based on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?q=Grit%3A%20Perseverance%20and%20passion%20for%20long-term%20goals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1500+ citations in Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;, it's a new idea in the field of psychology too, not just a phenomenon in the realm of public understanding of science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, what I don't quite understand is which one of the following two things this development represents:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Either a new shorthand word (&quot;grit&quot;) has been introduced for &quot;correlates of success&quot;,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Or, &lt;em&gt;grit&lt;/em&gt; is distinct from &lt;em&gt;correlates of success&lt;/em&gt;, and represents a new, standalone, awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having a new word for an old thing can actually be quite important, as it gives a sort of a visual mnemonic to summarise the major components of the correlates of success. (If someone is &quot;gritty&quot;, that says more to non-psychologists than saying that the person &quot;demonstrates traits correlated with success&quot;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it would be even more important if this wasn't just a linguistic advance, but a conceptual one. But for that, it would be necessary to show that grit is a concept &lt;em&gt;distinct&lt;/em&gt; to correlates of success. Well, at least it should be possible in principle to conduct a falsifiable experiment to study the distinction. For example, if under certain circumstances grit could in principle be shown to be significantly &lt;em&gt;negatively&lt;/em&gt; correlated with success, consistently, whenever such circumstances arise, that would establish it as a distinct concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what would be a scenario, under which, hypothetically, grit would be anticorrelated with success? (I can't think of any: in my understanding, whatever is not correlated with success cannot be called &quot;grit&quot;. Is this the accepted understanding of grit?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15060" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-02-17T14:57:43.587" LastActivityDate="2017-02-17T14:57:43.587" Title="Grit — is it distinct from correlates of success?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16794" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5745" CreationDate="2017-02-17T15:49:20.477" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There remains absolutely no doubt that autodidactism is an intrinsic component of consciousness, without which one cannot rationally claim to be either partially or fully consciousness.  Furthermore, autodidactism is an imperative, unique to high cognitive function.  The extent to which autodidactism can be regarded as a special feature isn't a particularly pertinent question because the term can only possess effective meaning within socio-economic systems which impede a natural propensity towards autodidactism, without which, no meaning can be derived.  This being the case, in a developmentally healthy social structure, there would be little use for such a term, for it would describe nothing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Institutions such as Oxford and Cambridge, to name but two of many, are often regarded as centers of educational excellence.  This is a somewhat, mischaracterization of both the institutions and the concept of education itself (especially if we examine the process of Education and Training side by side).  There is no question that such institutions have been invaluable repositories of great works and tombs, but in and of themselves say nothing about the emergence and evolution of autodidactism as an intellectual process.  In order to understand that, we must cast our nets wider and deeper to understand this phenomenon by deconstructing myths around traditional educational achievement.  See bellow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Traditional educational methods rely exclusively on three components, the product of which being evaluated accordingly, which are the 3 R's.  Inquiries into the meaning of the 3 R's has the effect of confounding everyone, even at the highest levels of academia.  Ironically enough, it took an autodidact to figure this one out, in circumstances I won't go into here.  The 3 R's are in fact, as follows:  Read, Retain and Recall (some would say Regurgitate).  Not only is this system not conducive to natural cognitive development, it acts to impede it, primarily because it restricts the development of new neural pathways associated with curiosity and abstract thought.  This is one reason why autodidactism isn't as commonplace as nature would permit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An exception to the above is the natural state of autodidactism found in early childhood.  This is soon eroded by the aggressive effects of (among other factors) regimented education.  One component of such regimentation is the requirement to wake children from natural sleep patterns in order to attend schools at an appointed time.  It has long been understood that children require more sleep during their formative years because neural pathways are developing and being reinforced which are associated with new experiences.  This is the point at which autodidactism dies as a common social feature of social evolution.  As children, autodidactism can be a term to denote a natural developmental process in early and continued development in adulthood (even though the latter is extremely rare) and as such constitutes a life enriching experience.  Conversely, in adults, it has the effect of producing extreme social isolation because of the irrational demands of mediocrity.  A secondary effect on the adult autodidact is the fact that the associated high cognitive function can (and is) often is mistaken for mental illness and medicated as such.  In conclusion, the uniqueness isn't necessarily in the intellectual capacity of the autodidact but the resilience and endurance of their psychology, which is Moreso the case with the adult autodidact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15063" LastEditorUserId="15063" LastEditDate="2017-02-17T18:06:19.137" LastActivityDate="2017-02-17T18:06:19.137" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16796" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-17T22:10:09.813" Score="2" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not wish to be controversial but this is the only place I feel I can ask the question. This question was asked on the history site but I am now trying to understand the psychological cause and effects of the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was recently shocked to hear about a certain group of people denying the Holocaust, especially on Holocaust day a few weeks ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I was listening to the arguments put forward, it seemed very clear to me that the people arguing totally believed it was a &quot;hoax&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also understand a film has been made about this after a very controversial court case who went all the way to the high court.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone explain why someone can be in total denial of a fact that can be proven.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do they live in an alternate consciousness? Is it an illness? Can these people be turned back to see the facts... or dare I say the truth?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15072" LastActivityDate="2017-02-17T22:10:09.813" Title="Denial against truth" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-02-20T05:45:20.643" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16797" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12655" CreationDate="2017-02-18T00:59:32.633" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The name you are looking for is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formication&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Formication&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Formication is the medical term for a sensation that exactly resembles that of small insects crawling on (or under) the skin. It is one specific form of a set of sensations known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresthesia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;paresthesias&lt;/a&gt;, which also include the more common prickling, tingling sensation known as &quot;pins and needles&quot;. Formication is a well documented symptom, which has numerous possible causes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-02-18T00:59:32.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16798" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16781" CreationDate="2017-02-18T01:34:58.693" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Beta blockers (β1-Blockers) lower &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;norepinephrine&lt;/a&gt; release (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2014.00051&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Berg, 2014&lt;/a&gt;), however it seems that the jury is still out on whether there is an effective &lt;strong&gt;and ethical&lt;/strong&gt; way to prevent Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.0.0140&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Donovan (2010)&lt;/a&gt; states that there isn't enough strong evidence on its efficacy.  Another point it makes (on page 11) is that...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using any beta-blocker prior to combat to prevent PTSD in military personnel should not be considered, as it would likely be more detrimental than beneficial. First, the beta-adrenergic signaling system is mediated by the catecholamines, epinephrine and norepinephrine. These hormones are central to the fight-or-flight response, and they trigger the heightened awareness necessary for soldiers to survive in combat situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This can be the same for others who repeatedly face violent situations.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plus there are strong arguments for preventing any interventions which would affect the memories of those who suffer traumatic events in this way as...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our memory preserves us and who we are and where we have been, furnishes our sense of self, and is a combination of happy moments and shameful acts.To be ourselves we cannot abandon or forget who we once were: “To alter or numb our remembrance of things past cuts to the heart of what it means to remember in a human way“.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only ethically safe way to prevent PTSD seems to be to prevent war and all other traumatic events&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berg T. (2014). β1-Blockers Lower Norepinephrine Release by Inhibiting Presynaptic, Facilitating β1-Adrenoceptors in Normotensive and Hypertensive Rats. &lt;em&gt;Frontiers in neurology, 5&lt;/em&gt;, 51. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2014.00051&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3389/fneur.2014.00051&lt;/a&gt; pmcid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3997042/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3997042&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Donovan, E. (2010). Propranolol use in the prevention and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in military veterans: forgetting therapy revisited. &lt;em&gt;Perspectives in biology and medicine&lt;/em&gt;, 53(1), 61-74. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.0.0140&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1353/pbm.0.0140&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20173296&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;20173296&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-03-02T10:48:31.757" LastActivityDate="2020-03-02T10:48:31.757" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16805" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-18T12:48:02.553" Score="1" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing a schoolwork about Spiral Dynamics and last part is doing practical research and everything is completed except we yet didnt found any digital platform with which we can conduct our research..,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would love to hear your recommendations because we are little bit lost with this part of project (still noobies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13984" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-02-21T12:11:01.173" LastActivityDate="2017-02-21T12:11:01.173" Title="What software to use for psychology questionnaire?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16806" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8539" CreationDate="2017-02-18T13:53:40.537" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of research here so there is a lot to cover.  Please bear with me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are what is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.angelfire.com/oz/robyn/threeforces.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;3 forces of psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Behavioural Theory (First Force) – (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Core-Approaches-Counselling-Psychotherapy-Short/dp/0415745144&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2014, p. 203&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Psychodynamic Theory (Second Force) – (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Core-Approaches-Counselling-Psychotherapy-Short/dp/0415745144&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2014, p. 139&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Humanistic Theory (Third Force) – (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Core-Approaches-Counselling-Psychotherapy-Short/dp/0415745144&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2014, p. 79&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although there is now talk of a possible fourth force such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://prezi.com/jvhh3da_f1_c/the-four-forces-of-psychology-sv/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multicultural Psychology&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://Transpersonal%20Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transpersonal Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short &amp;amp; Thomas (2014) also stated on page 203, that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychology was initially defined as the study of the human mind and linked to work in medicine and philosophy, however, animal research in the early 1900s produced results that could be generalised to human behaviour. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://archive.org/details/animalintelligen00thoruoft&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thorndike, 1898&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://digitalcommons.hsc.unt.edu/hmedbks/35/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pavlov, 1928&lt;/a&gt;) This led to psychology being redefined as the study of human behaviour.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;em&gt;Tabula rasa&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Behavioural approach focuses exclusively on observable and measurable behaviour [and] emphasises the importance of nurture. Humans are born as a &lt;em&gt;tabula rasa&lt;/em&gt; or blank slate on which experience writes the patterns of their future behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On page 205, the book then states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Popularity of behaviourism decreased in the 1960s to 1980s&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;This is my speculation, but I strongly believe&lt;/strong&gt; this could be due to the work of Sigmund Freud's daughter, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Freud&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anna Freud&lt;/a&gt;, and the popularisation of the works of&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanie_Klein&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Melanie Klein&lt;/a&gt; with her work on child psychology and contemporary psychoanalysis,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bowlby&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Bowlby&lt;/a&gt; with his work on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Attachment Theory&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Berne&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eric Berne&lt;/a&gt; with his work on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transactional Analysis&lt;/a&gt;, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Erik Erikson&lt;/a&gt; with his theory of personality.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Cognitive revolution redirected psychological research away from the study of behaviour to focus on theoretical models about the nature of the mind&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Radical behaviourism softened into behaviour analysis&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Behaviourism that refused to accept the existence of cognitive states was rejected in favour of a less extreme version which focused on analysing behaviour as an external (measurable) evidence of cognitive states&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springerpub.com/behavior-and-personality.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Staats (1996)&lt;/a&gt; argued that radical behaviourism failed as an approach in psychology because it did not incorporate other known phenomena, such as cognition.  Psychological behaviourism should aim to unify all elements of psychology (biology, environment, cognition, emotion, etc.) into a single grand theory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Behaviour analysis adopts an interdisciplinary approach. Theories include elements from other approaches such as cognitive, humanistic, etc.&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://uk-sba.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;UK Society for Behaviour Analysis&lt;/a&gt; describes it as the science of learning.&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;[The] experimental branch is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_analysis_of_behavior&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;experimental analysis of behaviour&lt;/a&gt; and this aims to conduct research on how humans learn new behaviours&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;[The] applied branch is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;applied behaviour analysis (ABA)&lt;/a&gt; and this aims to promote behaviour change by analysing behaviours and developing interventions to modify these behaviours in a positive direction for individuals and society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As my first link indicates, Behaviourism hasn't completely fallen out of favour.  Due to the work of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carl Rogers (1902-1987)&lt;/a&gt; there has been some shift, although not a complete shift, away from the rigidity of the Psychodynamic approach towards the Humanistic approach to therapy and Behaviourism has also started to gain more of the spotlight again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a prolific use of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT)&lt;/a&gt; within health organisations such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Cognitive-behavioural-therapy/Pages/Introduction.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NHS&lt;/a&gt; and I know of a fair few people who have been referred for CBT by NHS staff for various problems.  One thing I would like to point out though is that CBT isn't without its &lt;a href=&quot;https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-22/edition-5/moving-beyond-cognitive-behaviour-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;criticisms&lt;/a&gt;. Some believe that CBT is not a 'cure all' that some believe, and is not effective in helping PTSD sufferers, whilst there is some &lt;a href=&quot;http://%20Some%20believe%20that%20CBT%20is%20not%20a%20cure%20all%20and%20is%20not%20effective%20in%20helping%20PTSD%20sufferers.&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;data which &lt;strong&gt;could&lt;/strong&gt; back this claim up&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pavlov, I.P. (1928) &lt;em&gt;Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes: Twenty-Five Years of Objective Study of the Higher Nervous Activity Behavior of Animals&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Liverwright Publishing Corporation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short, F. &amp;amp; Thomas, P. (2015) &lt;em&gt;Core Approaches in Counselling and Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;. Hove: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Staats, A.W. (1996) &lt;em&gt;Behavior and Personality: Psychological Behaviorism&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Springer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thorndike, E.L. (1898) &lt;em&gt;Animal intelligence: an experimental study of the associative processes in animals&lt;/em&gt;. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 2, 4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-02-18T13:53:40.537" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4310" CreationDate="2017-02-18T15:03:48.783" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transactional Analysis (TA)&lt;/a&gt; was developed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Berne&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eric Berne (1910–1970)&lt;/a&gt; and is not a method of diagnosis.  As @John said in his answer, diagnosis is made using the DSM (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;currently DSM-5&lt;/a&gt;), and targeted assessment tools such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hare.org/scales/pclr.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PCL-R&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TA is an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.integrativetherapy.com/en/integrative-psychotherapy.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;integrative method of therapy&lt;/a&gt; combining &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodynamics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychodynamic&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;humanistic&lt;/a&gt; approaches.  On the difference between TA and other theories, Eric Berne said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I think most other therapies . . . talk about thinking and feeling. Our question to the patient is not what do you think or how do you feel, but what are you going to do about it? . . . There’s a story, that I think is a little unfair, but anyway it sort of illustrates what I mean, where a patient came in one day and said to the psychiatrist “by the way, I killed my wife last night and hid her body in the closet”. And some people might say “ah ha, now we’ve got something to work with, what’s your interest in closets?” Whereas we might say “why are you killing your wife?”’&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;(Berne, E. (1966) &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ericberne.com/videos/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Games People Play – The Theory Video (Available Online via YouTube)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. National Education Television.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Page 343 of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Core-Approaches-Counselling-Psychotherapy-Short/dp/0415745144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Short, F. &amp;amp; Thomas, P. (2015) &lt;em&gt;Core Approaches in Counselling and Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;. Hove: Routledge.&lt;/a&gt;, allows you to appreciate the application of transactional analysis in a therapeutic setting via a case study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-02-18T15:12:49.670" LastActivityDate="2017-02-18T15:12:49.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16805" CreationDate="2017-02-18T16:16:35.483" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One that I used at my university is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.qualtrics.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Qualtrics&lt;/a&gt;. It was under the university's license, so I don't know what the costs are for single users. Qualtrics allows you to ask many different types of questions (open ended, likert, option select and more) and can easily export the data to excel files for further processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://nl.surveymonkey.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Survey Monkey&lt;/a&gt; is another tool that is often used. Basic functions can be used for free, but for more powerful tools you'll need to pay. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I know of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/forms/about/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Form&lt;/a&gt;. Afaik it can be used for free, but I am unaware of their privacy policies (Google tends to collect a lot of data). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-02-18T18:26:01.060" LastActivityDate="2017-02-18T18:26:01.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16809" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-02-18T20:22:58.280" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain can be regarded as the control center of the body. Questions using this tag can be related to brain anatomy, brain function, neurophysiology of the brain, brain injury and so forth.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2516&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Medicine Net&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-18T20:22:58.280" LastActivityDate="2017-02-18T20:22:58.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16810" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-02-18T20:22:58.280" Score="0" Body="Tag for questions regarding the brain. The brain is the portion of the central nervous system that is located within the skull. It functions as a primary receiver, organizer, and distributor of information for the body. It has a right half and a left half, each of which is called a hemisphere." OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-18T20:22:58.280" LastActivityDate="2017-02-18T20:22:58.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16811" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12785" CreationDate="2017-02-18T23:03:53.547" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It may not be so much the direct action of DMSO on the olfactory sensory system, but the smell of one of its metabolites that is excreted via the pulmonary system and the skin after ingestion of DMSO. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is metabolized in man by oxidation to dimethyl sulfone (MSM) or by reduction to dimethyl sulfide (DMS) (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KUKJs.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KUKJs.png&quot; alt=&quot;dmso--&amp;gt;dms&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. The reaction of DMSO to DMS catalyzed by DMSO reductase. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DMSO_reductase&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://jacoblab.com/dmso_protocols.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;DMS is eliminated&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; through the breath and skin and is responsible for the characteristic garlic-like odor of the breath, and taste in the mouth associated with ingestion of DMSO. These effects can become noticeable minutes after ingestion and may last for several hours &lt;a href=&quot;http://dmso.org/articles/pharmacology/CellularMolecularAspects.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Santos &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://dmso.org/articles/pharmacology/CellularMolecularAspects.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Santos &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Biochem Pharmacol&lt;/em&gt; (2003); &lt;strong&gt;65&lt;/strong&gt;: 1035-41&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-19T19:39:47.163" LastActivityDate="2017-02-19T19:39:47.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16814" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16816" CreationDate="2017-02-19T17:50:03.947" Score="1" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are mental states that some have termed right brain e.g. &quot;Drawing on the right side of the brain&quot; but which may be incorrectly described.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a site that specializes in information on mental states called &quot;right side&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15043" LastActivityDate="2017-02-19T20:16:02.097" Title="Is there a central collection of information about the often called right brain phenomena?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-03-02T23:02:43.213" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16815" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16819" CreationDate="2017-02-19T18:31:21.027" Score="3" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;What &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_psychological_research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;qualitative studies&lt;/a&gt;, e.g. open ended interviews, are there into mindfulness therapy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been skeptical about its use, wondered if it was kinda faddy. But it occurs to me that a lot of despair type emotions may have their root in being unable to relax and enjoy life. Surely meditation is linked with that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2017-02-20T15:27:47.567" LastActivityDate="2017-02-20T15:27:47.567" Title="What qualitative studies are there into mindfulness?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-02-27T06:36:45.817" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16816" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16814" CreationDate="2017-02-19T20:16:02.097" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The chapter on Hemispheric Specialization from Cognitive Neuroscience (Gazzaniga) is a good place to start, and I am reviewing some of it here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, right side / left side  thinking has been abandoned for a systems view of cognition where both sides contribute to a given task but maintain certain specializations due to how the brain interacts with the environment as it develops, ( we still don't have all the facts though).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, 96% of humans have a left-hemisphere specialization for language and speech ( processing spoken input into words and linking to meaning), yet the right hemisphere is linked to prosody as well and both report to frontal areas (where  higher associational meaning and/or task specific operations are performed so here again it could be left or right), so when hearing a conversation you are most likely using both an projecting to one or both sides of other parts of the brain depending on context,task, motivation etc, and shifting operations dynamically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The inverse can also happen, the right hemisphere is traditionally attached to artistic thinking, yet this claim falls flat on it's face when you consider visual processing is equally divided in between hemispheres at it's early stages, the confusion stems from higher visual processing, where some visuospatial processes end up in the right side (location), but still some other processes like visual discrimination end up on the left side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with making a map of left and right areas of specialization, is that due to plasticity and the unique upbringing of each person,plus perhaps genetic variations, these areas don't overlap from person to person, so a capabilities map of general areas makes more sense for now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastActivityDate="2017-02-19T20:16:02.097" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16817" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16436" CreationDate="2017-02-20T07:21:58.623" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construct_%28philosophy%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;construct&lt;/a&gt; scales are developed with relatively little attention to the content.  Researchers may start with a large set of candidate questions, versions, formats, and phrasings, and then through a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construct_validity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;validation&lt;/a&gt; process, narrow them down to a subset that correlates well with the construct that they are trying to measure.  The goal is a balance between keeping the test short while also retaining its predictive value.  In &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11439754&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baron-Cohen et al's (2001)&lt;/a&gt; introduction, they note:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The AQ as shown in the Appendix is the outcome of piloting multiple&#xA;  versions, over several years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In many cases, researchers care less about &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; the questions work, and more just &lt;em&gt;that&lt;/em&gt; they work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, the decision to go with a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipsative&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;forced-choice&lt;/a&gt; format vs. say, a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Likert-type&lt;/a&gt; rating scale with more granularity and a neutral option, can be political:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ipsative measures may be more useful for evaluating traits within an&#xA;  individual, whereas Likert-type scales are more useful for evaluating&#xA;  traits across individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This can make forced-choice measures desirable for stigmatized labels to discourage comparing individuals to one another:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Encouraging pupils to beat their previous scores can take peer&#xA;  pressure out of situations and eliminates the competitive element&#xA;  associated with norm-based referencing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note also that the original study confirms that mathematicians score significantly higher on this scale, as is to be expected:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... scientists score higher than nonscientists; and within the&#xA;  sciences, mathematics, physical scientists, computer scientists, and&#xA;  engineers score higher than the more human or life-centered sciences&#xA;  of medicine (including veterinary science) and biology. This latter&#xA;  finding replicates our earlier studies finding a link between autism&#xA;  spectrum conditions and occupations/skills in maths, physics, and&#xA;  engineering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This suggests that the authors thought it perfectly valid for mathematicians to score higher on their autism scale (ie, this scale is not designed to differentiate the autistic tendencies of mathematicians from those of individuals diagnosed with autism).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-02-20T21:13:44.250" LastActivityDate="2017-02-20T21:13:44.250" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16818" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-20T08:40:51.547" Score="1" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;Employability is typically defined as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the continuous fulfilling, acquiring or&#xA;  creating of work through the optimal use of competences. (Van der Heijde &amp;amp; Van der Heijden, 2006) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One's employability does not only depend on one's ability to work (both physically and mentally), but also one's motivation to work and learn and the opportunity to work (Brouwers, 2012; dutch citation). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Especially for elders, who are getting older and older, and have to work longer (i.e. until a higher age), employability is becoming incredibly relevant. They need to be able (and willing) to keep on working until their retirement, either in their current position or another less demanding job. This is a difficult job without clear insights. However, with such an incredibly broad term, it will even be difficult to gain those insights. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there tools available to asses the personal factors of individuals' employability? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://doc.utwente.nl/82810/1/VanderHeijdeVanderHeijden2006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Heijde, C. M., &amp;amp; Van Der Heijden, B. I. (2006). A competence‐based and multidimensional operationalization and measurement of employability. Human resource management, 45(3), 449-476.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.flexworkresearch.org/uploads/publication/document/4726/Duurzameinzetbaarheidvandeouderewerknemer_standvanzaken.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brouwer, S., de Lange, A., van der Mei, S., Wessels, M., Koolhaas, W., Bültmann, U., ... &amp;amp; van der Klink, J. (2012). Duurzame inzetbaarheid van de oudere werknemer: stand van zaken. Universitair Medisch Centrum Groningen, Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-02-23T12:56:14.013" LastActivityDate="2017-06-09T21:05:41.703" Title="What are ways to assess employability of workers?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16819" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16815" CreationDate="2017-02-20T10:35:36.267" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia often provides references to scientific studies and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on Mindfulness&lt;/a&gt; is no exception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;main section&lt;/strong&gt; of the article has&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...Studies have also shown that rumination and worry contribute to mental illnesses such as depression and anxiety,&lt;sup&gt;[13][14]&lt;/sup&gt; and that mindfulness-based interventions are effective in the reduction of both rumination and worry.&lt;sup&gt;[13][15]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mindfulness practice is being employed in psychology to alleviate a variety of mental and physical conditions, such as bringing about reductions in depression symptoms,&lt;sup&gt;[16][17][18]&lt;/sup&gt; reducing stress,&lt;sup&gt;[17][19][20]&lt;/sup&gt; anxiety,&lt;sup&gt;[16][17][20]&lt;/sup&gt; and in the treatment of drug addiction.&lt;sup&gt;[21][22][23]&lt;/sup&gt; Recent studies demonstrate that mindfulness meditation significantly attenuates pain through multiple, unique mechanisms.&lt;sup&gt;[24]&lt;/sup&gt; It has gained worldwide popularity as a distinctive method to handle emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clinical studies have documented both physical and mental health benefits of mindfulness in different patient categories as well as in healthy adults and children.&lt;sup&gt;[3][25][26]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;plus&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research on the neural perspective of how mindfulness meditation works suggests that it exerts its effects in components of attention regulation, body awareness and emotional regulation.&lt;sup&gt;[34]&lt;/sup&gt; When considering aspects such as sense of responsibility, authenticity, compassion, self-acceptance and character, studies have shown that mindfulness meditation contributes to a more coherent and healthy sense of self and identity.&lt;sup&gt;[35][36]&lt;/sup&gt; Neuroimaging techniques suggest that mindfulness practices such as mindfulness meditation are associated with “changes in the anterior cingulate cortex, insula, temporo-parietal junction, fronto-limbic network and default mode network structures.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[37][38]&lt;/sup&gt; Further, mindfulness-induced emotional and behavioral changes have been found to be related to functional and structural changes in the brain.&lt;sup&gt;[38]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a &lt;strong&gt;scientific research&lt;/strong&gt; section&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mindfulness has gained increasing empirical attention ever since 1970.&lt;sup&gt;[120][unreliable source?]&lt;/sup&gt; According to a 2015 systematic review and meta-analysis of systematic reviews of RCTs, evidence supports the use of mindfulness programs to alleviate symptoms of a variety of mental and physical disorders.&lt;sup&gt;[25]&lt;/sup&gt; Other reviews report similar findings.&lt;sup&gt;[19][22][33]&lt;/sup&gt; Further, mindfulness meditation appears to bring about favorable structural changes in the brain,&lt;sup&gt;[32][37][121]&lt;/sup&gt; and may also prevent or delay the onset of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease.&lt;sup&gt;[122]&lt;/sup&gt; Mindfulness proved to be effective also in enhancing people’s capacity to self-regulate.&lt;sup&gt;[123]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are provided in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;full article&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is close to being put on hold or closed and to indicate why, it would produce a posting which is much longer than the standard laid out in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/help/closed-questions&quot;&gt;help center&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;if your question could be answered by an entire book, or has many valid answers, it's probably too broad for our format&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;plus, there are so many referenced studies and articles of scientific research connected to this (I counted 25 in total - 156 in the full article) that providing a full list of references here would take me an age to provide in full (with weblinks etc.) on this site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2017-02-20T10:35:36.267" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16820" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12648" CreationDate="2017-02-21T04:33:28.960" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depending on how you define stimulus duration, the auditory system likely has no minimum stimulus duration needed for conscious perception. We are quite sensitive to &quot;clicks&quot;. A &quot;standard&quot; click duration of 20 microseconds (a single sample at 50 kHz) is not uncommon. Decreasing the duration below this would simply require better stimulus generation hardware (faster sample rate and higher bandwidth transducers). Decreasing the duration would simply add high frequency energy that falls outside the audible range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An ideal impulse with infinite bandwidth will have a duration of zero (and a magnitude that is a pain to describe), but a real transducer with finite bandwidth will result in some finite duration. Further the stimulus will be mechanically filtered by the outer, middle, and inner ear further decreasing the bandwidth (aka increasing the duration). Finally in the inner ear the signal will be transformed from a mechanical/acoustic signal to an electrical signal with a duration that depends on the place in the brain that you measure the electrical signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-02-21T04:33:28.960" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16821" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15763" CreationDate="2017-02-21T13:05:26.480" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that Jung probably felt that the Animus it the base of every man's psyche and that the Anima the base of every woman's psyche. You can have differences regarding how much of the other sex's psyche you have in you, but it's not necessary to speak about an Anima for women when it's just a &quot;woman's psyche&quot; and vice versa for men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14965" LastEditorUserId="13656" LastEditDate="2017-02-21T14:12:42.820" LastActivityDate="2017-02-21T14:12:42.820" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16822" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16823" CreationDate="2017-02-22T00:37:10.970" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem I have is that the MRI scan is stopped manually, before the exam card is completed.&#xA;Thus data anaylsis programs read the header and expect a certain number of volumes but it has less, and on top of that the final volume is partial so I can't simply modify the header so that it looks for less.&#xA;Programs such as fslroi that allow trimming volumes do not handle partial volumes.&#xA;How can I remove the partial data so that the file is correctly read?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15098" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T01:38:27.293" Title="How to fix a nii or rec file with partial volume" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16823" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16822" CreationDate="2017-02-22T00:41:40.263" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found the solution using the python package nibabel.&#xA;The code is rather simple. If &lt;code&gt;filename&lt;/code&gt; is your nii, or rec file use:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;import nibabel as nib&#xA;img = nib.load(filename,permit_truncated=True)&#xA;print(&quot;Saving image with shape:&quot;,img.shape)&#xA;nib.save(img,&quot;truncated_{0}&quot;.format(filename))&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15098" LastActivityDate="2017-02-22T00:41:40.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16824" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-22T07:25:54.947" Score="4" ViewCount="468" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to work on identification of Alzheimer's patients based on given fMRI data.Basically, I want to implement the following paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25907414&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25907414&lt;/a&gt;. Where can I get preprocessed dataset or how can I preprocess dataset?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15099" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-02-22T13:34:58.060" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T04:15:25.513" Title="where can i find preprocessed fmri data set for alzheimer's disease" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;alzheimer&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16825" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-22T09:14:47.823" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neural recording via a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v34/n3/full/nbt.3428.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stentrode&lt;/a&gt; seems to be next big thing in neuroscience. It can be used to treat disabilities, brain disorders and enable brain to brain communications. Are human trials being done at large scale at various universities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15101" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-02-22T12:09:30.733" LastActivityDate="2017-02-22T12:09:30.733" Title="Human trials for stentrode neural recordings" Tags="&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16826" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-02-22T12:34:12.200" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;'Therapy' is a term which refers to many different forms of hypnotherapy, counselling and psychotherapy. The tag is meant for questions focusing on the interaction between therapist and client. If your question involves only one of &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/person-centered-therapy&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;person-centered-therapy&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;person-centered-therapy&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/psychodynamic-therapy&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;psychodynamic-therapy&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;psychodynamic-therapy&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/behavior-therapy&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;behavior-therapy&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;behavior-therapy&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/gestalt-therapy&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;gestalt-therapy&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;gestalt-therapy&lt;/a&gt;, then use the associated specialized tag instead of therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-02-22T19:27:51.657" LastActivityDate="2017-02-22T19:27:51.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16827" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-02-22T12:34:12.200" Score="0" Body="For questions focusing on the interaction between therapist and client. If your question involves only one of Person-Centered Therapy,  Psychodynamic Therapy, Behavior Therapy, or Gestalt Therapy then use the associated specialized tag instead of therapy." OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="15009" LastEditDate="2017-03-22T07:32:15.663" LastActivityDate="2017-03-22T07:32:15.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16828" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18053" CreationDate="2017-02-22T13:27:13.933" Score="4" ViewCount="190" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm confused about the exact specification of the SuperMemo2 algorithm for spaced repetition learning, as explained &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.supermemo.com/english/ol/sm2.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. After each repetition, the E-Factor has to be updated like so:&#xA;\begin{equation}&#xA;  \text{EF}_\text{new} := \max \{1.3, \text{EF}_\text{old}+(0.1-(5-q)(0.08+(5-q)0.02))\},&#xA;\end{equation}&#xA;where $q$ is the quality of response on a 0 to 5 scale. The interval $I_\text{new}$ until the next repetition is supposed to be&#xA;\begin{equation}&#xA;  I_\text{new} = I_\text{old} \cdot \text{EF},&#xA;\end{equation}&#xA;but the specification does not explain whether to use the old or the new value of $\text{EF}$. Which one is it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The implementations I found readable seem to be wrong in other places, so I'm not very confident that they are a reliable source on this issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15103" LastEditorUserId="15103" LastEditDate="2017-02-22T17:33:22.240" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T07:51:15.120" Title="Specification of SuperMemo 2" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16829" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16623" CreationDate="2017-02-22T15:29:30.753" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/features/pro-a0031182.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barriers to Psychologists Seeking Mental Health Care&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; by Jennifer L. Bearse, Mark R. McMinn, Winston Seegobin, and Kurt Free of George Fox University asks a similar question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Professional psychologists provide help to people in need, but how freely do psychologists seek psychotherapy themselves when facing personal challenges and struggles? What obstacles make it difficult for professional psychologists to seek psychotherapy? A survey of 260 professional psychologists (52% response rate) was conducted to investigate the frequency of various stressors impacting professional psychologists and the barriers they experience in seeking mental health services. Though none of the stressors were rated with particularly high frequencies, burnout was identified as the most frequent problem. Difficulty finding a psychotherapist and a lack of time were identified as the greatest obstacles to seeking psychotherapy. Practice and training implications are discussed as well as future research directions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I have said &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/15869/7604&quot;&gt;in a previous answer - see for more info.&lt;/a&gt;, there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.counsellingme.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/What-is-supervision.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clinical Supervision&lt;/a&gt;, which is standard practice and required in codes of practice for registered counsellors, psychotherapists, psychologists, psychiatrists, etc. and those in training. However, what is concerning is that I came across an article by Els van Ooijen in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bacp.co.uk/docs/pdf/15177_november%20tt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Therapy Today, November 2015, Pg 32&lt;/a&gt; that said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The number of supervision training courses is ever increasing, yet it is not uncommon for practitioners to receive supervision from untrained supervisors. During my 15 years’ experience as a supervision trainer I have heard many stories about the kind of supervision people receive, ranging from excellent and supportive to unhelpful and traumatic, with many shades in&#xA;  between.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/How-many-clinical-psychologists-suffer-from-mental-illness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An article in Quora&lt;/a&gt; listed the following research but the references information provided is not all that great so where I could I found the referenced articles and linked them below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One study found the lifetime rate of depression in psychologists and social workers to be higher than that of the general population. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.16.2.305&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Deutsch, 1985&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research has shown that female therapists commit suicide at higher rates than the general population. (Roeske, 1986; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a121573&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Steppacher &amp;amp; Mausner, 1973&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In one study, 61% of their sample of psychologists had experienced at least one episode of clinical depression. Of the 84% who had received therapy treatment, 29% had reported suicidal feelings and 4% had made at least one suicide attempt. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://kspope.com/therapistas/research9.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pope &amp;amp; Tabachnick, 1994&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Non Linked References Above&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roeske, N. (1986), &lt;em&gt;Risk factors: Predictable hazards in a health care career&lt;/em&gt;. In &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Heal_thyself.html?id=3EBrAAAAMAAJ&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;C. Scott &amp;amp; J. Hawk (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Heal Thyself: The Health of Health Care Professionals&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2017-02-22T15:29:30.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16830" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-22T17:26:20.770" Score="9" ViewCount="1609" Body="&lt;p&gt;Following the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milo_Yiannopoulos&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milo Yiannopoulos&lt;/a&gt; shebang, I had a discussion with a friend over the effects of a sexually maturing teenager (14ish) engaging in sexual behavior with a significantly older adult (at least 23 years old). In the discussion we both realized that in fact we were just spewing opinions at each-other, and in reality couldn't point to a fair study showing either the negative or positive effects of such practice. So, I am wondering &quot;are there any fair studies exploring the effects?&quot;. (I believe that societal sentiment toward such behavior will sway the &quot;victim's&quot; feelings toward the experience, and hopefully the studies will somehow control for that)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15108" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-03-31T06:22:55.213" LastActivityDate="2019-03-31T06:22:55.213" Title="What are the effects of hebephilia?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;sexual-assault&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16831" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19494" CreationDate="2017-02-22T17:53:03.527" Score="7" ViewCount="4077" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been conducting extensive research over the last few years on the history of nudity in social situations, and I am looking to expand my research base now I have come across a few other interesting facts.  I have found a lot of facts stating that although the wearing of clothes is the social norm in most cultures; some cultures, groups and individuals are more relaxed about nudity (for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nudists/naturists&lt;/a&gt; - &lt;strong&gt;WARNING! - Link is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_safe_for_work&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NSFW&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;), however, attitudes often depend on context.  It is generally agreed by naturist organisations (for example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bn.org.uk/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;British Naturism&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.inffni.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Naturist Federation&lt;/a&gt;) that eroticism and blatant sexuality have no place in naturism and are, in fact, directly opposed to its ideals. Reasons that have at times been given include rapport with other humans including equality and respect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Being nude in groups makes all feel more accepted – physically, intellectually and emotionally (&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20100408070907/http://www.parama.com/html/body_naturism.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Veltheim, 2010&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, some people feel uncomfortable in the presence of any nudity, and the presence of a nude person in a public place can give rise to controversy, irrespective of the attitude of the person who is nude.  You only have to look at the history of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nakedrambler.org/an_audience_with_stephen_gough_by_stephen-slominski.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Steven Gough&lt;/a&gt; as an example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides meeting social disapproval, in some countries and in some settings within more liberal countries, public nudity may constitute a crime of indecent exposure.  Many people have strong views on nudity, which to them can involve issues and standards of modesty, decency and morality.  Some people have a psychological aversion to nudity, called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gymnophobia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the flip side, there is a form of psychotherapy I have not long come across called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nude_psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nude Psychotherapy&lt;/a&gt; which is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the use of non-sexual social nudity as an intentional means to improve the participant's psychological health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The field began in the 1930s with psychological studies of the effects of social nudity on the lives of naturists. It developed in the 1960s along with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-groups&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;encounter group&lt;/a&gt; movement as a way to challenge preconceptions and promote intimacy and trust, but suffered a decline in the 1980s. It is still used by some organizations that offer participatory workshops on intimacy, sex and love...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...Today The Human Awareness Institute (&lt;a href=&quot;http://w15.hai.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Global Site&lt;/a&gt;) (&lt;a href=&quot;http://hai-uk.org.uk/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UK Site&lt;/a&gt;), an organization that offers participatory workshops on intimacy, sex and love continues to conduct group sessions in which the participants have the option to be naked. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.donshewey.com/sex_articles/healed_with_a_kiss.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shewey, 1994&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of historical studies on the history of clothing, social nudity, and nudity in art, ancient Greece and ancient Rome; plus there are also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20160801-our-weird-lack-of-hair-may-be-the-key-to-our-success&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anthropological studies&lt;/a&gt; on the irony of losing fur when evolving from primates (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL_4zLTemM6_0sCXAptk-T0EOjRQTBSRtO&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Horizon: What's The Problem With Nudity, 2008&lt;/a&gt;). I am not after biblical references (I have lots of those through my research) and &lt;strong&gt;I am not after personal opinions without scientific backing&lt;/strong&gt;.  What I am wondering is &lt;strong&gt;are there any referenced books, articles or scientific studies anyone is aware of, on the psychological effects of nudity - particularly social nudity&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Horizon: What's The Problem With Nudity, (2008) [Film] Directed by Paul King. UK: BBC. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL_4zLTemM6_0sCXAptk-T0EOjRQTBSRtO&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Available on YouTube&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John Veltheim, (2010). &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20100408070907/http://www.parama.com/html/body_naturism.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Naturism: Naked Beneath Your Clothing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shewey, Don (1994). &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.donshewey.com/sex_articles/healed_with_a_kiss.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Healed With a Kiss&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-04-14T08:12:15.923" LastActivityDate="2020-05-16T14:36:08.263" Title="Psychological effects of social nudity" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16833" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16851" CreationDate="2017-02-22T18:57:08.620" Score="5" ViewCount="887" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that binaural beats are a controversial subject, as they might not work for everyone. In my own tests on myself I shuffled multiple recordings of binaural beats, with stereo headphones on, not looking at the frequency and resulting brain state advertised by each. I did, in fact, experience notably different mind states in these tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Binaural beats can be generated using carriers at any frequency within the audible range of human hearing. The frequency of binaural beats dictates the mind state that is being induced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm wondering if binaural beats can be generated using carrier tones outside the range of human hearing?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And suppose that that works, do these binaural beats still have an effect on the state of mind? In other words, can you entrain your brain without being able to acoustically perceive the carrier tones producing the beats?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15111" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-26T23:02:22.617" LastActivityDate="2017-02-27T10:01:40.773" Title="Can binaural beats be generated with carrier tones outside the audible frequency range?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;binaural-beats&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16834" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16835" CreationDate="2017-02-22T21:01:25.837" Score="1" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I am hungry, I often ignore my hunger because I'm more interested in continuing what I'm currently working on than getting myself food. However, if someone else (my girlfriend, a friend, a sibling, etc) expresses that they are hungry (even unintentionally, perhaps by their stomach growling), I am much more likely to get them something to eat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In both situations, I need to stop what I am currently doing. In one situation, I receive food. In the other situation, someone else receives food. Why is someone else receiving food (or some other benefit) a stronger motivator than receiving that benefit myself? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15112" LastEditorUserId="15112" LastEditDate="2017-02-22T23:21:14.733" LastActivityDate="2017-02-22T23:21:14.733" Title="Why is it easier to neglect one's self than others?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-02-27T06:40:36.273" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16835" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16834" CreationDate="2017-02-22T23:14:49.333" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that what you are describing is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy-altruism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Empathy-Altruism&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Debate over whether other-helping behavior is motivated by self- or other interest has raged over the last 20 or so years. The prime people involved in this debate are Daniel Batson arguing for empathy-altruism, Robert Cialdini arguing for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-interest&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-interest&lt;/a&gt; and the works of John Thibaut, Harold Kelley, Caryl Rusbult, and George Homans on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_exchange_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social Exchange Theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social Exchange Theory states that human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives.  The basis is that that altruism does not exist unless benefits to the helper outweigh the costs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By contrast, C. Daniel Batson holds that people help others in need out of genuine concern for the well-being of the other person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The key ingredient to helping is &quot;empathic concern&quot;. According to [Batson's] 'empathy-altruism hypothesis', if someone feels empathy towards another person, they will help them, regardless of what they can gain from it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-02-22T23:14:49.333" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16838" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12899" CreationDate="2017-02-23T15:39:32.940" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found one study that looked at ASMR and the Default Mode Network (DNM). The DMN consists of the medial prefrontal cortex, medial temporal gyri, bilateral inferior parietal cortices, precuneus and posterior cingulate gyrus. In the study, the DMN of 11 individuals with ASMR was compared with 11 controls. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DMN of individuals with ASMR showed significantly less functional connectivity than that of controls. The DMN of individuals with ASMR also demonstrated increased connectivity between regions in the occipital, frontal, and temporal cortices, suggesting that ASMR was associated with a blending of multiple resting-state networks. This atypical functional connectivity likely influences the unique sensory-emotional experiences associated with ASMR.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17470919.2016.1188851&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;D. L. (2008). The brain’s default network: Anatomy, function, and relevance to disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124, 1–38. doi:10.1196/annals.1440.011&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8183" LastActivityDate="2017-02-23T15:39:32.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16839" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-23T19:34:58.270" Score="2" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;What neurological or physiological response would work fast enough to anesthetize or provide a euphoric sensation during or in advance of a body trauma event such as being involved in a car or bike accident, a non-lethal shark attack, falling off a ladder, etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15126" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2017-03-15T03:13:08.500" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T03:13:08.500" Title="What might explain a rush of euphoria before enduring physical pain?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;pain&gt;&lt;oxytocin&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16818" CreationDate="2017-02-24T10:46:23.250" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;One common tool to asses the personal factors of employability is the Work Ability Index (WAI; Tuomi, 1998). The WAI consists of 7 items, which contain one or multiple questions that have to be rated by the employee him-/herself. The items are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Current work ability compared with lifetime best. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Work ability in relation to the demands of the job (both physically and mentally).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Number of current diseases diagnoses by a physician.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Estimated work impairment due to diseases.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sick leave during the year.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Own prognosis of work ability two years from now.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mental resources (consists of &quot;enjoy daily tasks&quot;, &quot;active and alert&quot;, and &quot;full of hope for the future&quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Especially item 7 concerns the psychological aspects of the employee, whereas items 1, 2 and 6 do rely on the employee's own judgement. The WAI thus focuses on personal aspects of employability, which, in part, are grounded in psychological sciences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The WAI has shown to be sufficiently reliable (De Zwart, 2002; Radkiewicz, 2005) and, rather interestingly, is accepted in both the scientific community and is being used in the field (Brouwer, 2012) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://server1.docfoc.com/uploads/Z2015/12/31/fpMm9AsAlG/b9284bee3d51d86ef738ad8ea2e25444.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tuomi, K., Ilmarinen, J., Jahkola, A., Katajarinne, L., &amp;amp; Tulkki, A. (1994). Work ability index. Helsinki: Institute of Occupational Health.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/occmed/52/4/10.1093/occmed/52.4.177/2/520177.pdf?Expires=1488277824&amp;amp;Signature=QZ0VuzhbRGFTZSxeOij0JYCpOpHeGZZHRum~Y5vn3gO3wJjN~8kaUSM1CtWXrFrPovfVhovtnHCHc8fwHD9IygrRqblFS82l8TOErbSWtsy6w9Paz7hGw6el1S8X1iC395fNM0zEeA6lK6Kkq2SKsOQggmK-oSFOMIH1hLK8S-s1dAviH80bQyCBE15rnAD3p7M7hZ28WTyd2WMnSoKFLIhWDqTMSDFvkQ3MfFa7VJ7xUt75iuMPiY2ptTVGbZB~zfvB4m2SkGNtzPZGu5U4RZdGnRprVJH92HOE~A5FztjIBfuuQsYMgVpNdYtjjkdH1xG2TwnWSUNTC7VJRYwUBA__&amp;amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAIUCZBIA4LVPAVW3Q&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;De Zwart, B. C. H., Frings‐Dresen, M. H. W., &amp;amp; Van Duivenbooden, J. C. (2002). Test–retest reliability of the Work Ability Index questionnaire. Occupational medicine, 52(4), 177-181.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0531513105001937&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Radkiewicz, P., Widerszal-Bazyl, M., &amp;amp; NEXT-Study Group. (2005, June). Psychometric properties of Work Ability Index in the light of comparative survey study. In International Congress Series (Vol. 1280, pp. 304-309). Elsevier.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0531513105001937&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brouwer, S., de Lange, A., van der Mei, S., Wessels, M., Koolhaas, W., Bültmann, U., ... &amp;amp; van der Klink, J. (2012). Duurzame inzetbaarheid van de oudere werknemer: stand van zaken. Universitair Medisch Centrum Groningen, Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-02-24T12:49:57.443" LastActivityDate="2017-02-24T12:49:57.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16844" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-25T05:48:37.687" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for research that has examined the link between physical activity (as measured by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire [1] specifically) and cognitive function (any domain is fine - attention, memory etc)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most research that has examined the link between activity and cognition have been experimental/manipulation studies, but I can't seem to find much correlational work using the IPAQ&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've found a couple of pieces, for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23265015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25826160&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, but the samples are quite specific (elderly and obese)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone point me to any correlational work that has studied cognitive function of younger populations using this particular questionnaire?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Craig, C. L., Marshall, A. L., Sandstrom, M., Bauman, A. E., Booth, M. L., Ainsworth, B. E., … Oja, P. (2003). International Physical Activity Questionnaire: 12-Country Reliability and Validity. Medicine &amp;amp; Science in Sports &amp;amp; Exercise, 35(8), 1381–1395. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000078924.61453.FB&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000078924.61453.FB&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9054" LastActivityDate="2017-02-25T05:48:37.687" Title="International Physical Activity Questionnaire and cognitive function" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16848" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-26T11:59:16.100" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hi guys you know some scientists could get electronic signals from brain and move it to muscles (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/14/health/paralysis-limb-reanimation-brain-chip.html?_r=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;full article here&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: can we get signal from eye neurons and analyze it with a computer and after that see what he/she/it is seeing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If somebody did this research will you please give me an article about that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15144" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-02-26T19:09:53.687" LastActivityDate="2017-03-03T21:06:52.240" Title="get signal from eye neurons" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16849" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-26T19:50:09.503" Score="4" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is anyone aware of any concept of stimulus independent ERP (an apparent oxymororn, an event related potential that is neither sensory, cognitive nor motor elicited) ...or a procedure that looks specifically at noise waveform during ERP trials.....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically I am trying to think of an analogue of resting-state fMRI for EEG. My logic is that we can find a stimulus-independent ERP signature by&#xA;a) either taking EEG values every say 1 sec without any repetitive stimulus and averaging them just like in traditional ERP to get a stimulus independent ERP waveform&#xA;b) we can have a repetitive sound stimulus say every 1 sec and average the square of the waveform over the trials and subtract the square of the ERP calculated in usual manner. the resulting waveform will be reflective of noise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is that a waveform that is stimulus-independent / noise driven may be equivalent in value to resting-state fMRI procedures and the components of such waveforms may be of some help in delineating one person from another based around neural speed etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to find out if the concept already exists or makes sense? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="409" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-27T09:50:43.040" LastActivityDate="2017-02-27T17:59:45.083" Title="Does stimulus-independent ERP make sense/ exist?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;event-related-potential&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16850" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16833" CreationDate="2017-02-26T20:12:33.477" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, the carrier frequency for a binaural beat needs to be less than approximately 1500 Hz. The binaural beat arises because when two tones with slightly different frequencies are added, the instantaneous phase of the combination tone varies with time and has a period equal to the difference of the tones. The generation of the binaural beat therefore requires a carrier frequency at which the phase of the tone is preserved. The auditory system has amazing temporal acuity and can accurately encode phase information for frequencies up to about 1500 Hz. This information is key for localizing sounds based on interaural time differences. At really low beat frequencies (e.g., less than 1 Hz), the binaural beat can be heard as a fluctuation in sound location.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-02-26T20:12:33.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16851" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16833" CreationDate="2017-02-26T23:00:59.937" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;No, infrasonic or ultrasonic sound cannot generate binaural beats. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Binaural beats are generated in the brain and are associated with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurosky.com/2015/05/greek-alphabet-soup-making-sense-of-eeg-bands/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frequency bands of the EEG&lt;/a&gt;. Binaural beats in the delta (1 to 4 Hz) and theta (4 to 8 Hz) ranges have reportedly been associated with reports of relaxed, meditative, and creative states, and used as an aid to falling asleep. Binaural beats in the alpha frequencies (8 to 12 Hz) are said to enhance alpha brain waves and those in the beta frequencies (16 to 24 Hz) have been associated with reports of increased concentration or alertness (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.web-us.com/thescience.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Web US&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The binaural beat is not heard in the ordinary sense of the word - the human range of hearing is from 20-20,000 Hz and hence pretty much all the aforementioned frequencies cannot be registered directly by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter12.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;auditory system&lt;/a&gt;. Instead, binaural beats are &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/Auditory-Brainstem-Response/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;auditory brainstem responses&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; which originate in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ece.rice.edu/~dhj/binaural.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;superior olivary nucleus&lt;/a&gt; of each hemisphere. They result from the interaction of two different auditory stimuli from opposite ears. The carrier frequencies have to be approximately below 1000 Hz and have to differ in frequency between one and 30 Hz. For example, if a pure tone of 400 Hz is presented to the right ear and a pure tone of 410 Hz is presented simultaneously to the left ear, an amplitude modulated standing wave of 10 Hz, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the difference between the two, is experienced as the two wave forms mesh in and out of phase within the superior olivary nuclei (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.web-us.com/thescience.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Web US&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because auditory information needs to be sent to the brainstem, the auditory system is needed from the far periphery up to the brainstem. Thus, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neurophys.wisc.edu/auditory/johc.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;hair cells&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; in the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/Inner-Ear/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inner ear&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are necessary to convey the information to the brain via the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nchearingloss.org/audnerve.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;auditory nerve&lt;/a&gt;. Because &lt;a href=&quot;http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/infrasound.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;infrasonic&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/usound.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ultrasonic sounds&lt;/a&gt; do not activate the hair cells and do not lead to auditory nerve activity, these sounds can hence not activate the brainstem and do not generate binaural beats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/Auditory-Brainstem-Response/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;American Speech, Language &amp;amp; hearing Association&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter12.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gray, Auditory System: Structure and Function. In: Neuroscience Online&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.web-us.com/thescience.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Web US&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-02-27T10:01:40.773" LastActivityDate="2017-02-27T10:01:40.773" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16852" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16849" CreationDate="2017-02-27T08:01:49.110" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;An ERP is an &lt;strong&gt;Event Related Potential&lt;/strong&gt;, making it inherently connected to an event. Having stimulus/response independent ERPs is thus impossible. There do exist potentials that seem to be stimulus independent, or at least vary in timing, but these are often the result of cognitive processes. These potentials are the result of Event Related (De-)Synchronization (&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.454.1138&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pfurtscheller, 1999&lt;/a&gt;), for which you need to look into the time-frequency domain, instead of the time domain (in which the ERP is visible). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By use of a Fourier transform you can subdivide brain activity into sinussoids with different frequencies and amplitudes. These sinussoids are grouped based on their frequencies in the groups commonly referred to as the &quot;frequency bands&quot;. These include the delta- (0-4 Hz), theta- (4-8 Hz) alpha- (8-12 Hz), beta- (12-±30 Hz) and gamma frequency band (30+ Hz). The exact frequencies and groupings tend to vary between researches however (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is the time-frequency domain that you can study independent of stimuli. The power in the frequency bands can be computed in real time by use of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%E2%80%93frequency_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;time-frequency analysis&lt;/a&gt;. The steady state potentials are often used to compare brain activity between doing (nearly) nothing, and performing a particular task. This allows you to investigate what frequency bands show more (or less) activity (i.e. a higher or lower power) in particular brain areas. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/15686/method-unit-for-measuring-activity-in-specific-frequency-band-for-eeg&quot;&gt;Method/Unit for measuring activity in specific frequency band for EEG&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/15222/are-brain-waves-electromagnetic-waves&quot;&gt;Are brain waves electromagnetic waves?&lt;/a&gt; for some more specific info on EEG and analyzing data in the (time-)frequency domain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.454.1138&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pfurtscheller, G., &amp;amp; Da Silva, F. L. (1999). Event-related EEG/MEG synchronization and desynchronization: basic principles. Clinical neurophysiology, 110(11), 1842-1857.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-02-27T17:59:45.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16853" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16849" CreationDate="2017-02-27T11:10:01.283" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Resting state EEG protocols already exist, but they do not focus on ERPs (thus solving your problem). You can assess coherence between pairs of electrodes (if you enter 'resting state EEG' into google scholar there will be a bunch of articles using this method) or you could instead go for the newer hidden Markov model separation into microstates (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23545283&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;). Both of these methods focus on spectral coherence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2017-02-27T11:10:01.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16854" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-28T02:01:55.710" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering if there is an effort to described certain basic and perhaps more complicated emotions through the processes that occur in the brain. For example, when people get angry, certain stimulation occurs in brain... this might be really hard to measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I imagine there can be common observations between subjects but they won't be exact? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15156" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-02-28T05:32:53.390" LastActivityDate="2017-02-28T05:32:53.390" Title="Resources/studies on physically describing emotion?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16855" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="199" CreationDate="2017-02-28T02:55:44.620" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just found out about ICAR.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The International Cognitive Ability Resource is a public-domain&#xA;  assessment tool which aims to encourage the broader assessment of&#xA;  cognitive abilities in psychology and other social sciences and&#xA;  facilitate neuropsychological assessment in medical research and&#xA;  practice. The collaborators working on this project believe that the&#xA;  best way to achieve this aim is by making it easier for research&#xA;  scientists to employ flexible and unrestricted measures which have&#xA;  been well-validated against one another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://icar-project.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://icar-project.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's designed for researchers and you need to register to learn about what is available and gain access to measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-02-28T02:55:44.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16856" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-28T14:34:48.920" Score="3" ViewCount="197" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wanted to know if there was a studied concept/term for the notion that too much exposure (in terms of sensory stimulus) towards a bad idea/thing (eg. say drinking) in a normal connotation can make the idea look less bad and more normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eg. If a person keeps getting a lot of jokes etc. on a group chat (say, Whatsapp) or in his/her Facebook feed etc. about getting drunk, and the jokes are somehow glorifying this behavior (eg. '&lt;em&gt;I am an introvert, but when I bring in the drinks, I attract everyone&lt;/em&gt;' (I know, bad joke)). So getting a lot of such input toward a hazardous behavior may entice a not-so-heavy drinker to go full blast, because (s)he may start thinking that this is very normal and probably even fun. This is just an example, this can be thought for many other hazardous behaviors.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is that has such behavior been studied, and is this somewhat true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15162" LastEditorUserId="15162" LastEditDate="2017-03-01T12:17:10.497" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T19:12:48.473" Title="Concept for 'too much exposure to a bad idea can make it seem normal'?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15866" CreationDate="2017-02-28T20:59:17.363" Score="-1" Body="&lt;h1&gt;1&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Germany and some other countries, only licensed experts may practice psychotherapy. The institutes that offer the postgraduate education screen applicants and do their best to admit only psychologically healthy individuals. The view is that a psychotherapist must be fully &amp;quot;functional&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;2&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychotherapists are members of a professional organization which requires frequent supervision of its members. Thus, the professional behavior is controlled by colleagues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;3&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, an intelligent psychopath or borderliner will be able to fake psychological functionality and steal into the education and the profession. Since psychologists know how psychological tests work, they will give the answers to appear healthy, when screened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your &amp;quot;study&amp;quot; will never manage to identify any psychotherapists or psychologists with mental disorders, as these people will only manage to achieve that position if they are able to hide their affliction and appear healthy to highly trained experts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;4&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In countries where the titles &amp;quot;psychologist&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;psychotherapist&amp;quot; are not protected by law and anyone can offer such services irrespective of qualification, the state of psychotherapy is so bad that your study makes no sense, as there will be no difference between a mentally healthy charlatan and a mentally disordered charlatan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3116" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-02-28T20:59:17.363" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16860" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-02-28T22:56:37.713" Score="2" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a generalization, people have a bias towards believing what is convenient to them and/or doesn't challenge their worldview. I believe (though correct me if I'm wrong) this is linked to status quo bias, confirmation bias and cognitive dissonance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any attempt to quantify this numerically? e.g. in a specific experimental situation, with existing bias and a certain level of new information, how likely are people to pick the convenient/status quo interpretation of phenomena over the correct one? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, has there been any attempt to generalize this to other environments e.g. numerically predict the level of bias based on other quantifiable facts about the situation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Not a duplicate as I am asking for a numerical model of the bias not just a name for it.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15166" LastEditorUserId="15166" LastEditDate="2017-03-01T09:03:18.913" LastActivityDate="2017-03-01T09:03:18.913" Title="Quantification of tendency for people to believe what is convenient" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16863" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-01T18:30:46.590" Score="4" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question is closely related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/291680/what-drives-individual-participation-in-community-policing-of-poor-posts&quot;&gt;this Meta post&lt;/a&gt; about what drives individual participation in &quot;community policing&quot; on Stack Exchange sites (e.g. downvoting, voting to close, participating in review queues, etc.). This is also related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackoverflow.com/questions/344316/what-are-the-advantages-of-having-badges&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few ideas I came up with why people might participate (and this list is not exhaustive by any means):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People are naturally biased towards being helpful to others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gamification&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If you have a lot of posts (questions, answers, etc.) you're essentially invested in the community, which gives you an incentive to &quot;protect your investment&quot; (so to speak)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any more I'm missing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What, then, tends to drive people &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; to participate? There are certainly a lot more people who have certain moderation abilities (the ability to downvote or vote to close, for example) than who actually exercise those privileges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My other point of confusion is that it seems like a lot of the reasons I listed for people participating would seem to apply equally to people who are &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; participating. If you have a relatively high reputation (e.g. the requisite 3000 reputation required to be able to vote to close), presumably you're invested in the community too (and would therefore have the same incentive to participate as other people). So, if these actually explain the behavior, why don't they seem to &quot;work&quot; on most people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a game-theoretic (or other) explanation for what drives people to participate (or not participate)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15009" LastEditorUserId="15009" LastEditDate="2018-05-12T05:59:38.087" LastActivityDate="2018-05-12T05:59:38.087" Title="Is there a game-theoretic explanation for why people do (or don't) participate in community policing/moderation?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;&lt;altruism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16864" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-01T19:26:30.487" Score="2" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;While reading up on the differences between cognitivism and behaviorism, I came across this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cognitive science, however, overcomes Behaviorism’s main faults,&#xA;  particularly that reflexes and reinforcements cannot account for all&#xA;  human behavior and that animal behavior is not the best predictor of&#xA;  human behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://woknowing.wordpress.com/2010/10/12/behaviorism-vs-cognitivisim/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://woknowing.wordpress.com/2010/10/12/behaviorism-vs-cognitivisim/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you give some concrete examples of such behaviors that behaviorism fails to account for and where cognitivism can?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15181" LastActivityDate="2017-03-01T22:11:13.113" Title="Cognitivism over Behaviorism" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-04-14T18:22:38.857" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16865" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16864" CreationDate="2017-03-01T22:11:13.113" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;let's have a look at the social cognitive theory by Bandura:&#xA;It says, that behavior can be acquired by simply watching other people act on something. Maybe you have already heard of the famous bobo-doll experiment, if not here is a link:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=128Ts5r9NRE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=128Ts5r9NRE&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Anyway: behaviorism doesn't care about anything going on inside our mind, like reasoning for example. It simply breaks behavior down to stimulus-response-mechanisms or behavior-response-interactions, that is why behaviorists call the mind a &quot;black box&quot;. They simply think in a way of Input-Output mechanisms, the thing in between these two gets neglected.&#xA;So, going back to the social cognitive theory: Behaviorists can't explain behavior, that was acquired through observing other people. The person, who is the observer, has never experienced something like a stimulus-response trial, or acted on the behavior on his own. However, we know that it is possible and people need something like a memory, perception, reasoning, to learn in such a way. So, we need cognitive abilities to explain this kind of behavior (we have to look inside the black box), which is incompatible with behaviorism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words: every behavior, that needs or was being activated by something, that is a part of our cognitive abilities, is a behavior, that can't be explained by behaviorism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example is problem solving: To solve a problem, we think about the situation, reassemble the elements and then act. Behaviorism can't account for such a behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15183" LastActivityDate="2017-03-01T22:11:13.113" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16866" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4423" CreationDate="2017-03-02T12:53:33.203" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect it has to do with operant conditioning: behaviours that are rewarded are repeated and very hard to extinguish. We get a little rush of dopamine when something goes our way (eg. the elevator arrives and opens its doors) and if that event was immediately preceded by a certain action on our part, it acts as positive reinforcement for that action. Maybe some time in the past we pushed the button and the elevator arrived immediately. In our subconscious, we want to try and achieve the same instant reward. If the elevator doesn't come immediately, our brain is wired to repeat the action until the reward is obtained. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our brains aren't very good at processing cause and effect, so the fact that the elevator will come after one of our button pushes can only act as reinforcement. Also, the fact that there is at least some link between our pushing of the button and the arrival of the elevator is enough to kick-start the process. Muscle memory doesn't care whether we're pushing it for the first, second or fifteenth time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's similar to dogs that chase mailmen. Eventually, the pursued mailman will leave, rewarding the dog's behaviour. The dog quickly learns that chasing the mailman will always be followed by a positive outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15188" LastActivityDate="2017-03-02T12:53:33.203" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16867" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-02T16:40:33.320" Score="1" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to start off by saying that I have been a stutterer for the most of my life (I am 18) and now it is significantly bad. I noticed that the whole last year was totally stutter-free but this year, it has turned bad once again. &#xA;The stuttering does not differ when talking to strangers, family, doing presentations at Uni or talking in general - I stutter equally in each situation. However, I do not stutter at all when I am alone or talking to my pets. In fact, I have a youtube channel where I upload videos containing several analysis of different scientific topics(devised by me), in which I do not read directly from any paper  but I have all the information stored in my head. I do not stutter in any of these videos and I am talking A LOT so it is really weird to my that I can talk to myself and talk to my pet, and record videos where I theoretically know that it will be heard by others, all without stuttering. But when I am surrounded by people (it does not matter who it is), I stutter. So why does my brain reject to let the words come out/let me exhale fully with the given combination of vibration and position of my tongue etc.. Note: I do BLOCKS as my type of stuttering and not repetitions etc. like some people. I have noticed that when I am alone, my brain focuses at what I am looking at or the actual content of what I am currently saying but when I am surrounded by someone, my brain, in some way, focuses on every single word that I am saying. Sometimes, I even see the words as letters before saying them(if I actually manage to get the word out after a potential block). Anyway, I could explain a lot of my further observations but I do not think that would be beneficial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why can I speak loudly to myself without any problems and why can I record yt videos containing long analysis of different scientific topics, where I even know that somebody will listen and &quot;judge&quot; it? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why does my brain act very different when I am together with any human being?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can I reprogram my brain to do the same thing that it does when I am alone or talking to my pet, when I am together with one or more human beings?&#xA;I do not have a lack of confidence when talking to other people. Of course, I am scared of stuttering whenever I start talking to somebody, no matter how much I try to convince myself about that if I can speak when being alone, and that I actually have taught some people about different topics on my youtube channel, I can do just perfect now.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you so much! It would really mean more than just a lot if you would answer or at least share your thoughts!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15194" LastEditorUserId="15191" LastEditDate="2017-03-06T19:50:44.827" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T19:50:44.827" Title="What happens when I speak in these certain situations and how to reprogram my brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-03-07T14:43:57.420" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16869" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-02T16:52:26.100" Score="2" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working with a child who refuses to perform any SLT activities without the aid of Lego. I was wondering if anyone knew any interesting interventions involving Lego compared to standard SALT techniques. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14959" LastActivityDate="2017-03-02T16:52:26.100" Title="Does Lego intervention improve children's completion score compared to normal SALT interventions?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16870" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19174" CreationDate="2017-03-03T20:14:29.003" Score="5" ViewCount="478" Body="&lt;p&gt;I learned about John Calhoun's Mouse Utopia experiment from &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/0Z760XNy4VM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Youtube video&lt;/a&gt;. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13875732&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;corresponding 1962 paper&lt;/a&gt; isn't readily available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I want to know is, did Calhoun account for genetic diversity in his experiment? Apparently he started with only a few breeding pairs, all white lab mice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4705" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-25T12:16:23.447" LastActivityDate="2018-02-26T15:43:20.147" Title="John Calhoun's Mouse Utopia and Genetic Diversity" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16871" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16848" CreationDate="2017-03-03T21:06:52.240" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of people study the neural code of the retina. The output from retina are the retinal ganglion neurons (RGC). Their input-output relation and circuits are well modeled (but not fully understood).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usual preparation is to put retina harvested from an animal on an electrode array and record their responses to movies. See references below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baden, T., Berens, P., Franke, K., Román Rosón, M., Bethge, M., and Euler, T. (2016). The functional diversity of retinal ganglion cells in the mouse. Nature, 529(7586):345-350.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Field, G. D., Gauthier, J. L., Sher, A., Greschner, M., Machado, T. A., Jepson, L. H., Shlens, J., Gunning, D. E., Mathieson, K., Dabrowski, W., Paninski, L., Litke, A. M., and Chichilnisky, E. J. (2010). Functional connectivity in the retina at the resolution of photoreceptors. Nature, 467(7316):673-677.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pillow, J. W., Paninski, L., Uzzell, V. J., Simoncelli, E. P., and Chichilnisky, E. J. (2005). Prediction and decoding of retinal ganglion cell responses with a probabilistic spiking model. Journal of Neuroscience, 25:11003-11013.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2017-03-03T21:06:52.240" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16875" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-04T17:03:46.067" Score="3" ViewCount="128" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is known that &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/q/36652/33071&quot;&gt;humans are worse than computers&lt;/a&gt; at random number generation, and that even computer's random numbers are often imperfect and predictable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What strategies could a human employ to generate truly random numbers from a given range, and how uniformly distributed will they really be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. One trick I use, when generating a number from 1-9, is to select a random large number, say 2349, then find its &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_root&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;digital root&lt;/a&gt; (2+3+4+7 = 16, 1+6=7, so digital root is 7). I don't know how random it truly is, but it's definitely better than just instinctively selecting a number from 1 to 10.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15209" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:46:43.487" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T17:50:46.263" Title="Can a human select truly random numbers if he/she chose to?" Tags="&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-03-10T12:20:30.160" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16877" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16875" CreationDate="2017-03-05T06:51:57.830" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;One strategy for ranges that are powers of 2 is to split the range in half and flip a coin. If it's heads, the upper half is your new range. If it's tails, the lower half is your new range. Repeat until you have a single number. This gives you a truly random number.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another strategy comes from George Marsaglia, on this Google Groups page: &lt;a href=&quot;https://groups.google.com/forum/m/?hl=en#!msg/sci.math/6BIYd0cafQo/Ucipn_5T_TMJ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://groups.google.com/forum/m/?hl=en#!msg/sci.math/6BIYd0cafQo/Ucipn_5T_TMJ&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Choose a 2-digit number, say 23, your &amp;quot;seed&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Form a new 2-digit number:&#xA;the 10's digit plus 6 times the units digit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The example sequence is&#xA;23 --&amp;gt; 20 --&amp;gt; 02 --&amp;gt; 12 --&amp;gt; 13 --&amp;gt; 19 --&amp;gt; 55 --&amp;gt; 35 --&amp;gt; ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and its period is the order of the multiplier, 6, in the group of residues relatively prime to the modulus, 10. (59 in this case).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &amp;quot;random digits&amp;quot; are the units digits of the 2-digit numbers, ie, 3,0,2,2,3,9,5,...  the sequence mod 10.&#xA;The arithmetic is simple enough to carry out in your head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know what the distribution is, but the numbers &lt;em&gt;look&lt;/em&gt; random, at least to me. You could also concatenate digits to create larger numbers. You could then get a pseudo-random number for any specified length of number (i.e. 2 digits, 3 digits, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar question with many potential answers in the comments can be found at &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/1961/are-people-capable-of-generating-a-random-number&quot;&gt;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/1961/are-people-capable-of-generating-a-random-number&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15112" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T17:50:46.263" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16878" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-05T15:06:40.827" Score="3" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was fine with the theory personality characteristics are so highly variable under the throes of adolescence that it is a practical impossibility, if not clinically inappropriate, to diagnose  such disorders until the age of 18. I'm aware that antisocial personality disorder hasn't changed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Too many practitioners see a personality disorder diagnosis and turn off their brains to the likelihood of a mood, anxiety, or psychotic disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Specifically, why is the new criteria considered better than the old criteria under DSM-3 and -4?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15222" LastActivityDate="2017-03-07T14:58:43.807" Title="Why did DSM-5 and subsequently ICD-10 allow personality disorders to be diagnosed in children" Tags="&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16879" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-05T16:46:55.837" Score="3" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;Simon Sinek in his book 'Start With Why' claims how the brain might fail to communicate the actual reasons behind a made decision and instead at best rationalize it in retrospect (post hoc), due to the logic-emotion dichotomy (rational thought is a product of the neocortex while emotional weight which might have a greater role in decision-making, comes from the limbic system). I want to know more on this and other related limits as applicable (of course, assuming their existence has been scientifically proven or at least speculated). Book recommendations are being specifically asked for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13218" LastActivityDate="2017-03-07T15:33:24.570" Title="What are the limits of language with respect to communicating the actual reasons that go in making a decision?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-03-07T14:43:27.917" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16880" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-05T20:59:48.717" Score="1" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intracortical electrodes are used to record neural signals. How close an electrode should be to the target neural tissue to obtain sufficiently clean / usable or hi-fidelity signal?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15224" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2017-03-15T03:17:16.697" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T03:17:16.697" Title="How close an electrode should be to the target neural tissue?" Tags="&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-04-22T12:04:51.217" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16881" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-05T21:52:47.583" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say I play a game or sport against somebody stronger than me. I might plausibly feel a need to &lt;a href=&quot;http://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/raise-your-game&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;raise my game&lt;/a&gt;. Are there any empirical academic studies which test whether such a phenomenon exists?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15225" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-03-06T19:04:31.340" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T19:04:31.340" Title="&quot;Raise your game&quot; studies" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16883" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-05T22:23:02.167" Score="0" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider the following five &quot;things&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;science | philosophy | religion | spirituality | politics&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no training in psychology beyond high school Psych 101 long ago. I would like to know how a cognitive scientist or psychologist would likely define or categorize these things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, would a psychologist call them &quot;disciplines&quot; or something else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My grouping may not be the most logical. For example, some people may treat religion and spirituality as the same thing, while others might exclude either or both from the group. Politics is another strange one, as it draws from all the other groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary I'm jut trying to get a social scientist's perspective on this so I can better analyze, research and write about them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastEditorUserId="10155" LastEditDate="2017-03-05T22:46:12.420" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T23:24:42.517" Title="Need a perspective on science, philosophy, religion, etc" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-03-07T04:41:26.240" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16884" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-06T00:08:01.547" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a recovering alcoholic sober 11 month.  I do not crave alcohol, or need it anymore. I have adapted skills that I am no longer depressed. but enjoying life again.fun, happy, with good social skills.  I have treated myself to a month in Mexico were I have vacationed over 20 years drunk at beachside bars.  This first week, I headed to the first bar with a big party crowd.  I have met 15+ people of what I used to be like.  After 3 day same time they are all drunk and acting crazy.  By the time I left all 3 days I could swear I was drunk, lost all inhabitions, over talkative Without any alcohol. Any still no craving.???&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15229" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T23:22:17.183" Title="Alcoholic behavior at a bar without having any alcohol?" Tags="&lt;alcohol&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-03-07T02:56:29.377" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16887" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-06T10:49:05.963" Score="2" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mashable.com/2014/07/10/neurobridge-paralyzed-man/#MRj1Yeqvz5qY&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This article&lt;/a&gt; describes a research that allows a man with spinal cord injury (SCI) at the cervical level to move his finger. A chip was used to circumvent the spinal cord and send signals to the finger muscles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for the scientific paper of this study. Does someone know the article they used, or a study that describes a similar research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15144" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-03-06T13:17:51.513" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T14:28:23.827" Title="Article for bypassing spinal cord after spinal cord injury" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16889" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16887" CreationDate="2017-03-06T14:21:15.317" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most recent paper that was published is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v533/n7602/abs/nature17435.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bouton et al. (2016)&lt;/a&gt; in Nature, but is not openly available (though can be accessed via &lt;a href=&quot;http://sci-hub.cc/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://sci-hub.cc/&lt;/a&gt; ). The abstract of the paper is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Millions of people worldwide suffer from diseases that lead to paralysis through disruption of signal pathways between the brain and the muscles. Neuroprosthetic devices are designed to restore lost function and could be used to form an electronic ‘neural bypass’ to circumvent disconnected pathways in the nervous system. It has previously been shown that intracortically recorded signals can be decoded to extract information related to motion, allowing non-human primates and paralysed humans to control computers and robotic arms through imagined movements1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. In non-human primates, these types of signal have also been used to drive activation of chemically paralysed arm muscles12, 13. Here we show that intracortically recorded signals can be linked in real-time to muscle activation to restore movement in a paralysed human. We used a chronically implanted intracortical microelectrode array to record multiunit activity from the motor cortex in a study participant with quadriplegia from cervical spinal cord injury. We applied machine-learning algorithms to decode the neuronal activity and control activation of the participant’s forearm muscles through a custom-built high-resolution neuromuscular electrical stimulation system. The system provided isolated finger movements and the participant achieved continuous cortical control of six different wrist and hand motions. Furthermore, he was able to use the system to complete functional tasks relevant to daily living. Clinical assessment showed that, when using the system, his motor impairment improved from the fifth to the sixth cervical (C5–C6) to the seventh cervical to first thoracic (C7–T1) level unilaterally, conferring on him the critical abilities to grasp, manipulate, and release objects. This is the first demonstration to our knowledge of successful control of muscle activation using intracortically recorded signals in a paralysed human. These results have significant implications in advancing neuroprosthetic technology for people worldwide living with the effects of paralysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bouton, C. E., Shaikhouni, A., Annetta, N. V., Bockbrader, M. A., Friedenberg, D. A., Nielson, D. M., ... &amp;amp; Morgan, A. G. (2016). Restoring cortical control of functional movement in a human with quadriplegia. Nature, 533(7602), 247-250.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More publications from Chad Bouton can be found on his institution's page: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.feinsteininstitute.org/our-researchers/chad-bouton/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.feinsteininstitute.org/our-researchers/chad-bouton/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-03-06T14:28:23.827" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T14:28:23.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16890" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16856" CreationDate="2017-03-06T18:38:34.510" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are you thinking of &lt;em&gt;desensitization&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From wikipedia: In psychology, desensitization is defined as the diminished emotional responsiveness to a negative or aversive stimulus after repeated exposure to it. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desensitization_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desensitization_(psychology)&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Desensitization seems to match the question as posed in the title, but maybe not the question as posed in the text.  Desensitization occurs based on mere repetition.  In the body of the question, it seems like you're referring to repetition that takes place in the context of otherwise normal (non-negative or aversive) context, so that the once-negative subject acquires some of the normalcy of the context.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10279" LastEditorUserId="10279" LastEditDate="2017-03-06T19:12:48.473" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T19:12:48.473" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16891" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16881" CreationDate="2017-03-06T18:51:09.043" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jay_Hoffman/publication/232218391_The_Effect_of_Cognitive_and_Somatic_Psyching-up_Techniques_on_Isokinetic_Leg_Strength_Performance/links/55576edc08ae6943a874b084.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tenenbaum et al. (1995)&lt;/a&gt; the effect may be opposite. In their study, they had people, who where normally not engaged in a training program for strength, tested on their knee-extensor strength before and after four sessions of psychological interventions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There were three conditions. In the first, the control group, no intervention was given. In the second condition, people received positive statements. The third group of people received &quot;relaxation-visualization autogenetic training&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The surprising result were that the control improved significantly in &quot;peak force&quot;, and the improvement was significantly greater than the intervention groups. No differences in increment where found on &quot;peak power&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, the authors found that mental preparation or &quot;psyching up&quot; is not beneficial for physical performance. The authors argued that &quot;psyching up&quot; may distract you from the task you should be performing, and that that may have a negative influence on you performance. Do take into account that the study is very old and that the result may be outdated. However, the paper may be a nice start for further reading into this topic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tenenbaum, G., Bar-Eli, M., Hoffman, J. R., Jablonovski, R., Sade, S., &amp;amp; Shitrit, D. (1995). The Effect of Cognitive and Somatic Psyching-up Techniques on Isokinetic Leg Strength Performance. The Journal of Strength &amp;amp; Conditioning Research, 9(1), 3-7.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T18:51:09.043" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16895" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16879" CreationDate="2017-03-06T23:12:07.513" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps oxytocin can be associated with Sinek's &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;. I think this article can be helpful:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3444846/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oxytocin and the Biopsychology of Performance in Team Sports&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the &lt;em&gt;discussion&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The ability to perceive and understand the mental state of others is very important for an athlete in a sport and especially so in a team setting where working together toward common goals is key. Athletes have to infer internal states in order to make sense of or predict a teammate or opponent’s behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simon Sinek describes the process of finding a common thread in all your actions. He calls this &quot;your &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. Sinek states that the &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; is an unconscious part of your mind. The &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; is discovered by searching for patterns in situations where you feel motivated. A slogan-like phrase should then be developed in order to represent the &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;. The purpose of the phrase is to enable you to be conscious about the motivational drive. You should use the phrase as a guide in order to make your life more meaningful. Even though Sinek talks a lot about &quot;finding your &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;&quot;, then he doesn't talk much about techniques of applying it. I think that the &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;-phrase can be used in a couple of ways:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As a guideline in making new decisions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As a tool for unconscious focusing through &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_%28psychology%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;priming&lt;/a&gt;. This is the main function of slogans: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.corporate-eye.com/main/psychology-smart-slogan/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Psychology of a Smart Slogan&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As a starting point for building an identity, that reminds you about your &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;. An example of this is the military, where a motto is the equivalent of a &quot;&lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;-phrase&quot;. The uniforms and the etiquette also represent the unconscious &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15242" LastEditorUserId="15242" LastEditDate="2017-03-07T15:33:24.570" LastActivityDate="2017-03-07T15:33:24.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16896" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16884" CreationDate="2017-03-06T23:22:17.183" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;See the placebo effect, it's been known to work in situations right up to double blind studies on &lt;em&gt;dogs&lt;/em&gt;. Very weird. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I would guess you would consider yourself a people pleaser? I forget the name of it but there's a phenomenon whereby individuals begin to imitate their cohort (mirroring?, Stockholm effect?) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14046" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T23:22:17.183" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16897" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16883" CreationDate="2017-03-06T23:24:42.517" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see where you're coming from, I would argue that they are all based around ideologies or philosophies and to disband the &quot;philosophy&quot; heading in favour of another title.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14046" LastActivityDate="2017-03-06T23:24:42.517" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16900" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-07T03:57:24.730" Score="8" ViewCount="343" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8133/are-there-any-models-of-human-cognition-that-do-not-depend-on-physicalism-or-mat&quot;&gt;question&lt;/a&gt; on this site that asks a somewhat related question, whether there are non-physical models for cognition.  However, that question still assumes a computational paradigm for the non-physical cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/985/applications-of-computational-learning-theory-in-the-cognitive-sciences?rq=1&quot;&gt;question&lt;/a&gt; asks whether computational learning theory has been applied to cognitive science, which would then allow us to say what non-computational learning would look like.  However, there is only one answer that provides a non-computational alternative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any accepted models that do away with computationalism altogether?  Such a model would depend on cognition performing incomputable feats, such as being a Turing oracle, violating the No Free Lunch Theorem, or reducing NP to P.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1002" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-03-10T01:25:01.950" Title="Non-computational models of cognition" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16901" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16878" CreationDate="2017-03-07T14:58:43.807" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;An &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2538733/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article on the NCBI&lt;/a&gt; website states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many clinicians are reluctant to diagnose personality disorders (PDs) during youth, viewing paediatric personality deviations instead as reflective of given developmental stages. This is so despite evidence that certain youth are indeed at risk for the eventual development of PDs as adults. Unfortunately, late identification of these disorders prevents timely treatment and potentially increases morbidity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also a fair few references to articles backing the idea up&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-03-07T14:58:43.807" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16906" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5139" CreationDate="2017-03-07T22:33:28.283" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rape is physical assault.  So the question might be posed &quot;how does a masochist experience physical assault&quot;.  This phrasing I suggest makes construct weaknesses in the question becomes more apparent.  What is a masochist, how is masochism experienced; are all masochists the same; is masochism a valid construct?  It might also be posed that there is a difference between fantasies of sexual domination, or abasement, and life-style, behaviour or personality systems that seek to live out abasement, domination or pain (i.e. the difference between thinking about something and seeking to actually do it).&#xA;I'm afraid I can't attest to any structured research on the question, but I would guess that there is a major investigative problem in defining characteristics of masochism, then finding people with those characteristics who have been raped, and then getting them to speak of this in a way that would yield anything other than idiosyncratic data.  And that is before the ethical question of whthter such investigation could ever be done in a non invasive way, were it possible to find a research population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13885" LastActivityDate="2017-03-07T22:33:28.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16907" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-08T01:05:30.850" Score="2" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have some legacy preprocessing code that is designed to use SPM8. In the alignment function, it refers to a global variable &lt;code&gt;st&lt;/code&gt;, which as far as I can tell is not described in the SPM8 manual. I'm updating the code to SPM12, which does not refer to &lt;code&gt;st&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What exactly does &lt;code&gt;st&lt;/code&gt; do in SPM8? Is there an equivalent in SPM12?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15253" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T18:46:01.927" Title="&quot;st&quot; global variable in SPM8" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16912" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-09T12:44:31.827" Score="0" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;These emotional interventions, which allow contact to be selected faster by the attention mechanism for broadcasting by access consciousness, also allow the various aforementioned CELTS' learning mechanism at a faster pace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14153" LastActivityDate="2017-03-10T00:20:15.627" Title="What does &quot;access consciousness&quot; mean?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-03-10T12:20:49.770" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16914" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16921" CreationDate="2017-03-09T17:40:14.850" Score="4" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;Will cannabis be a negative factor in the ability to recall dreams from waking up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do the cannabinoids affect you when in a dreaming state?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14347" LastActivityDate="2017-03-11T08:11:54.880" Title="Does the use of cannabis affect the ability to recall dreams?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16915" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16917" CreationDate="2017-03-09T20:59:42.947" Score="1" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;99% of the time I use in the conversation (or when I am thinking) the phrase &quot;it sounds&quot; instead of &quot;it tastes&quot; when I am talking about the food, or drinks, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: &quot;This coffee sounds very good.&quot;, &quot;I like how this hamburger sounds.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not do it intentionally, sometimes I &quot;say&quot; it in my head and then say out loud the &quot;normal&quot; version.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has this something a name? Or this is probably just my association and there is nothing to it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: And recently I have used it in sentence: &quot;I wonder how this will play.&quot; (of course it was about the food, but this time I wondered how it will SMELL)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15275" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-03-13T03:28:15.923" LastActivityDate="2017-03-13T03:28:15.923" Title="Using &quot;it sounds&quot; instead of &quot;it tastes&quot;" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-03-13T03:28:47.403" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16912" CreationDate="2017-03-10T00:20:15.627" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;After doing some searching I believe I have found the passage you are referring to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The passage you gave is in a dissertation called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.archipel.uqam.ca/3798/1/D2114.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The use of emotions in the implementation of various types of learning in a cognitive agent&lt;/a&gt; by Usef Faghihi of University of Québec.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I understand of it from skim reading, the passage you gave was about operations within a particular form of Artificial Intelligence, and the passage is on page 75.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Page 43 has your answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Learning  Intelligent  Distribution  Agent  (LIDA)  (Figure  3.3)  is  a  hybrid  cognitive architecture,  developed  by  Stan  Franklin  and  his  colleagues  at  the  University  of Memphis  (Franklin  and  Patterson,  2006).  LIDA  is  IDA's  successor;  IDA  was  originally conceived  to  assign  new  billets  to  sailors.  In  the  American  Navy,  at  the  end  of  each sailor's  tour  of  duty,  he/she  is  assigned  a  new  billet  (task)  by  a  detailer.  IDA  performs the  detailer's  role.  It  communicates  with  sailors  via  e-mail  and  must  understand sailors'  requirements  and  preferences,  as  weil  as  respect  ail  constraints  of  the  Navy. To  reply  to  the  sailors,  it  has  to  communicate  with  different  databases  (Franklin  et  al., 2005,  Franklin  and  Patterson,  2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;LIDA's  architecture  is  partly  symbolic  and  partly  connectionist  and  is  equipped with  six  artificial  intelligence  software  technologies:  a  copycat  architecture,  a  sparse distributed  memory,  a  global  workspace,  a  schema  mechanism,  a  behaviour  net,  and a  sub-sumption  architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Franklin  called  LIDA  a  &quot;conscious  agent&quot;  for  its  fundamental  elements  and processes  rely  on  functional  consciousness  as  described  by  Baars  (Baars,  1997). LIDA  is  constructed  with  simple  agents  called  &quot;codelets&quot;  (which  reproduce  Baars' &quot;simple  processors&quot;).  &lt;strong&gt;The  central  point  of  the  system  is  the  &quot;access  consciousness&quot;,&lt;/strong&gt; which  allows  all  resources  to  access  centrally  selected  information  that  is  &quot;broadcast&quot; to  unconscious  processes  (which  guides  the  agent  to  be  stimulated  only  with  the most  relevant  information).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-03-10T00:20:15.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16915" CreationDate="2017-03-10T03:03:11.450" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Has this something a name?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_error&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Speech Errors&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your case (Depends on context and your particulars) it could be considered &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=_XXkGml2puUC&amp;amp;pg=PA402&amp;amp;lpg=PA402&amp;amp;dq=word%20exchange%20errors&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=X3GH_9_LGC&amp;amp;sig=7YGOiJv5rApi0woDWCgotUi8Nfw&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwit746m98rSAhXCrlQKHSU9A4g4ChDoAQgZMAA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=word%20exchange%20errors&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;semantic substitution&lt;/a&gt;,(a correct word is substituted with an erroneous but similar word) although verbs seem to be rare and it happens more with nouns. (Hotopf  1980's).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastActivityDate="2017-03-10T03:03:11.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16919" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-10T12:47:08.157" Score="0" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, I am preparing for this really important exam that requires me to give maximum time to studying and lately, I have found myself addicted to this television series. Although I study during my study time very sincerely, I have begun to realize that watching that television series eats a good amount of time in my daily schedule. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if I should completely cut it out of my schedule, which according to me might make me crave for it even more or I should watch it only in specified time of the day. If I do the latter, I am afraid, I might lose concentration because those scenes sometimes just keeping running in my head, and also I might just end up watching it for longer than I should.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What should I do? Will cutting it out completely make me crave for it even more? Or is specifying a time for it a good idea? What does psychology say?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14973" LastActivityDate="2017-03-12T02:19:40.493" Title="Should you completely get rid of your temptations or do them in moderate amount?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-03-12T07:35:58.750" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16920" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-10T22:40:54.947" Score="4" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the definition of the understanding of (written) natural language and how can we test or measure this understanding?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Natural language understanding is neglected part of natural language processing in computer science. Exact definitions and tests of understanding are necessary for producing artificial general intelligence (AGI) - e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-41649-6_13&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-41649-6_13&lt;/a&gt; article argues that artificial general intelligence (e.g. software piece) should learn and self-modify itself but such development is possible only if AGI can estimate the quality/fitness of the new self-modification - whether this self-modification is better than existing version of AGI and whether this self-modification can be applied? Obviously - if we want to apply machine learning and AGI to understanding of the natural language then we should be able to test and measure the understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is article &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-41649-6_11&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-41649-6_11&lt;/a&gt; about understanding specifically but it is somehow narrow minded to the particular QA task. Maybe cognitive science have better tests?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the reference - there are some AGI systems of &quot;cognitive architectures&quot; under development (wikipedia has list of them) - like OpenCog, NARS, Soar and some others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10670" LastEditorUserId="10670" LastEditDate="2017-03-10T22:56:18.560" LastActivityDate="2018-02-04T15:31:12.347" Title="What is understanding of natural language and how can we test or measure it?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16921" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16914" CreationDate="2017-03-11T08:11:54.880" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Current research tells us that &lt;strong&gt;yes&lt;/strong&gt;, cannabis will affect the ability to recall dreams. As for the negative - positive outcomes, it seems to be subjective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the few researchers in this field, Hans Hamburger says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“By smoking weed, you suppress the REM sleep, and with that you also&#xA;  suppress a lot of important functions of that REM sleep. One of those&#xA;  functions is reliving the things you have experienced and coming to&#xA;  terms with them, as it were. Processing all kinds of psychological&#xA;  influences is something you do in REM sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You also anticipate the things that will happen the next day or the&#xA;  days after that. While you’re sleeping, you already consider those and&#xA;  make decisions in advance.” – Hamburger&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find more of his publications here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Hans%20Hamburger&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Hans%20Hamburger&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14636" LastActivityDate="2017-03-11T08:11:54.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16925" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-11T22:26:15.913" Score="4" ViewCount="216" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer: I am not a student of psychology, just an interested guy - but here goes anyway...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ tests usually contain dozens of questions and take considerable time. I think this is because such tests have to differentiate between a great diversity of intelligence levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, &lt;strong&gt;I wonder if a test could be devised such that you answer a fraction of a number of questions associated with the usual IQ test, and the test result is yes, your IQ is between 100 and 120, or no, your IQ is outside of this range.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could be useful, if someone is intelligent, but has problems with attention, or in some kind of survey setting, where people don't have a lot of time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15291" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-03-12T22:58:12.967" LastActivityDate="2018-01-13T14:49:08.747" Title="Can a shorter IQ test be devised that provides a more approximate measure of IQ?" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16926" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16919" CreationDate="2017-03-12T02:13:48.123" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem you are experiencing is called &lt;em&gt;procrastination&lt;/em&gt;. You get suddenly very interested in TV shows as a way to avoid the task which is currently generating anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The relation between a goal (here succeeding in this important exam) and procrastination is well documented (e.g. Bandalos et al. , 2003, in the context of statistics courses). There are two types of goal one can have: &lt;strong&gt;Achievement goal&lt;/strong&gt; (desiring to succeed on an exam, for example) and &lt;strong&gt;mastery goal&lt;/strong&gt; (wishing to understand the content of the course). Sadly, only the first one generates anxiety. Many research found that a desire to understand, not necessarily to succeed, diminishes the procrastination behavior. When procrastination is absent, it also makes us immune to anxiety. Finally, anxiety, when present, tends to produce weaker grades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(in technical terms: performance goals is positively correlated with procrastination; procrastination is positively correlated with anxiety; anxiety is negatively correlated with the grade obtained; however, mastery goal is negatively correlated with procrastination).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One solution is to set study times, have a schedule for study and a schedule for TV watching, and stick to it. When it is time to study, do nothing else. At first, it will be hard, but in the long run, you will adopt the right automatisms, and study will become easy. Be realistic when setting study times. For example, avoid long study period that are unrealistic. Better have many short periods of two hours and stick to it, rather than a few periods of many hours that are not humanly realistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer your question: Your second option is the correct one: determine time slots for study; outside of those times, watch TV if you wish. Your explanation was not correct: it is not craving which makes you watch TV, it is anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bandalos, D. L., Finney, S. J., &amp;amp; Geske, J. A. (2003). A model of statistics performance based on achievement goal theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(3), 604-616. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.3.604&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10828" LastEditorUserId="10828" LastEditDate="2017-03-12T02:19:40.493" LastActivityDate="2017-03-12T02:19:40.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16927" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16925" CreationDate="2017-03-12T02:33:24.860" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, what you say is entirely possible. If precision is not as much of an issue, it is possible to devise a test (of anything, not just a test of IQ) which would return a score of, say, 115 plus or minus 10 points. It could also return a yes/no answer to a question such as &quot;is the score inside the range 100..120.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One person who explore such question is Laurencelle, 2015, &lt;em&gt;Le différentiel de sélection multiple&lt;/em&gt; [in french] &lt;strong&gt;The Quantitative Methods for Psychology&lt;/strong&gt;, 11(3), 174-188. doi &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.11.3.p174&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.11.3.p174&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10828" LastActivityDate="2017-03-12T02:33:24.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16929" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16946" CreationDate="2017-03-12T19:31:00.427" Score="3" ViewCount="204" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm asking this from a purely psychological and biological viewpoint, mainly why a drug addict is said to always remain one, even after sobering up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15290" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T02:45:15.163" Title="Why does an addict always remain one?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-03-17T05:46:58.347" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16930" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16932" CreationDate="2017-03-12T19:31:28.523" Score="4" ViewCount="571" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a quick question regarding survey construction that I'm hoping to get some clarification on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's my current survey set-up:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Question 1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Question 1a (i.e., a question that relates to information provided in Q1)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Question 2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Question 2a&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Question 3&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Question 3a&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...and so on and so forth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's what I'm looking to do: I'd like to present these questions in a random order, &lt;em&gt;however,&lt;/em&gt; Question X and Question Xa have to stay together. Is there a way to &quot;glue&quot; related questions together, and randomize presentation of those &quot;glued&quot; pairs within the Qualtrics platform?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15297" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-03-13T01:56:38.920" LastActivityDate="2017-03-13T02:01:27.037" Title="How to randomise order of survey items in Qualtrics where some items have to appear together?" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16931" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16925" CreationDate="2017-03-12T22:57:26.710" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;All else being equal, more items on an intelligence test means better reliability. As reliability increases, the standard error of measurement decreases. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good intelligence tests might have a standard error of 3 where the mean is 100 and the standard deviation is 15 (i.e., a fifth of a standard deviation). And we often talk about 95% confidence intervals which is about plus or minus two standard errors. So by your example if we say we want to know that a 95% confidence interval of a score of 110 is 100 and 120. This implies a standard error of 5 (i.e., plus of minus 2 * 5).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may want to check out the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%E2%80%93Brown_prediction_formula&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spearman-Brown prediction formula&lt;/a&gt;. It makes predictions about expected reliability of a test based on number of items assuming you know the reliability for a given number of items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article looks like a reasonable introduction to standard error of measurement and includes relevant formulas: &lt;a href=&quot;https://jalt.org/test/PDF/Brown4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://jalt.org/test/PDF/Brown4.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-03-12T22:57:26.710" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16932" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16930" CreationDate="2017-03-13T02:01:27.037" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is probably a better way of doing this, but you could probably do this using the block feature in Qualtrics. For example, I often do this when I have several multi-item scales. Each scale is a block. You might randomise item order within a block, but you can also randomise the order of blocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you could group questions (e.g., 1 and 1a) into their own block and then randomise blocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See here for info: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.qualtrics.com/support/survey-platform/survey-module/survey-flow/standard-elements/randomizer/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.qualtrics.com/support/survey-platform/survey-module/survey-flow/standard-elements/randomizer/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-03-13T02:01:27.037" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16934" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-13T11:15:26.043" Score="1" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been noticing for quite a while that I have this instinct to tear off and throw seeds from trees and plants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This happens quite literally without any thought and I rarely even notice the act.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible that humans evolved with an instinct to spread wildlife similar to pollinating or is it just a weird habit?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13362" LastActivityDate="2017-03-13T11:15:26.043" Title="Do humans have inborn instincts to spread plant seeds?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2017-03-17T05:40:19.473" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16936" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-13T17:47:03.117" Score="1" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people who experienced negative emotions after being forced in their childhood often develop a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;passive-aggressive behaviour&lt;/a&gt; as a form of self defence against whoever is trying to manipulate / force them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of a simple assertive &quot;no&quot; in a dispute they tend to overreact sometimes in a passive-aggressive way, i.e. through &lt;a href=&quot;http://evolutioncounseling.com/detached-personality/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotional detachment&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They are usually aware this can hurt the person who is angry with &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/13236/emotional-detachment-as-a-reaction-can-be-considered-an-aggressive-behavior&quot;&gt;them&lt;/a&gt; but use &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techniques_of_neutralization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Techniques of neutralization&lt;/a&gt; to feel &quot;OK&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But why do people tend to be hurt by this kind of passive aggressive behavior? Does this happen only to people with obsessive / narcissistic personality trait?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4425" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2017-03-13T23:49:29.807" Title="Do people feel impotent when arguing with someone able to do Emotional detachment?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16937" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-13T18:51:50.727" Score="3" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am designing a study in which a large number of people are being treated. I cannot influence the treatment (e.g., a delayed treatment). I am able to make pre and post treatment measures on the subjects. The treatment has many effects on the subjects. I have a screener that I believe will identify subjects that will predict individuals that will improve on measure A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The proposed experimental design is for two groups to be identified based on a screening test (the screening test can be administered pre or post treatment). Both groups will be subjected to the same treatment. Prior to and following treatment both groups will be tested on measures A and B. The hypothesis is that the treatment will effect the groups differently on measure A but not on measure B. Is there a term for this design? Is this a valid design?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-03-13T23:46:53.587" LastActivityDate="2017-03-13T23:46:53.587" Title="Experimental design with two groups, pre-post measurement, and where everyone is treated" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16939" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16937" CreationDate="2017-03-13T23:44:58.363" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would call it a pre-post quasi-experiment, albeit where you are assessing the intervention in two different pre-existing groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of assessing the effect of the intervention, there are more threats to causal inference, when you don't have a control group (i.e., one where you have pre and post measures but with no intervention or a control intervention). I.e., In addition to the effect of the treatment, there are many other explanations for any changes observed pre-post. For example, learning, maturation, fatigue, and so on. Background knowledge may be able to assist you in appraising which if any of these are likely to be significant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You then have two observed groups. This aspect is more like an observational study. You are assessing the interaction between group and the treatment. Because group is an observational variable, you would want to take care in attributing causal explanations to any differences between groups in treatment effect to group membership. Nonetheless, often in this context, the interest is more about understanding how well a treatment generalises to different populations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary, It would be better if there was a control group. Ideally, you would have a fully crossed design. I.e., group (A and B) by control (treatment and control) where participants were randomly allocated to treatment or control. But if that's not possible, the data would still be interesting; you'd need to think carefully about carry-over effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-03-13T23:44:58.363" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16940" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16936" CreationDate="2017-03-13T23:49:29.807" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer to this question is in the link to passive-aggressive behaviour I provided in your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conflict theory&lt;/a&gt;, passive-aggressive behavior can resemble a behaviour better described as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/catty&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;catty&lt;/a&gt;, as it consists of deliberate, active, but carefully veiled hostile acts which are distinctively different in character from the non-assertive style of passive resistance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When faced with any hostility, most people would feel hurt&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples given in the link to passive-aggressiveness in the workplace including&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[deliberately] 'forgetting' to do something, chronic lateness, and intentional inefficiency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;leads to others having to pick up the slack.  This not only hurts people - knowing that the passive-aggressor could have done it but didn't - but it also leads to resentment by those picking up the slack and can lead to low morale leading to more problems in the workplace.  And it can hurt anyone, not just those with obsessive/narcissistic traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-03-13T23:49:29.807" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16941" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-14T01:02:31.297" Score="5" ViewCount="370" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am writing a report on the similarities and differences between sociopathy and psychopathy. I have looked up a bit of information on the topic, but I would still like to know some of the opinions of people on this site. I do know that both have to do with a lack of empathy. Also, how do these disorders work? Is there a certain part of the brain that doesn't function correctly, thus not allowing them to feel empathy, or something of that nature?&#xA;Thanks in advance to anyone who might come across my question and decide to answer it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15306" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-09-04T14:27:44.587" LastActivityDate="2019-09-04T14:27:44.587" Title="What, exactly, is the difference between sociopathy and psychopathy?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2021-03-23T04:03:08.107" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16944" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-14T23:38:54.547" Score="4" ViewCount="534" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cialdini is famous for his book &quot;Influence&quot; where he talks about various ways to get people to do things you want them to.  They are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;reciprocation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;commitment/consistency&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;scarcity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;authority&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;liking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;social proof&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Should not punishment be included?  Or are there soft/hard ways of persuasion, or perhaps short-term/long-term distinction?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I considered maybe punishment is part of authority, but do all forms of authority have additional power to punish?  I don't think so.  Some are just empty titles/positions.  In addition, non-authority figures also have the power to punish, even if it's not legitimized, and as a result an abusive parent or child, or a bully or someone wielding a knife can punish you if you don't do what they say.  In addition, the effects of or threat of punishment itself can also last a long time, like many other persuasion/influence strategies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15319" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-01-06T15:14:36.867" LastActivityDate="2018-02-06T05:35:34.623" Title="Persuasion strategies by Cialdini (why is punishment not there?)" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;persuasion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16946" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16929" CreationDate="2017-03-15T02:45:15.163" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer, which is one of many:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One interesting hypothesis about this is the &quot;reward hijacking&quot; model. Essentially, when somebody becomes addicted their reward circuits become hypersensitive to drug-related cues and lack sensitivity to other rewards. Specifically, areas like their orbitofrontal cortex, which has to do with representing reward, and their ventral striatum, which has to do with dopamine and motivation, start to function strangely. So even when they replace the drug with new habits they still display heightened sensitivity to the drug. See Wrase et al, 2007 for one of many imaging studies on this. There are many neurobiological theories that explain why the reward sensitization occurs in response to addictive drugs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way this translates to function is that drugs appeal more and more to somebody with an addiction, while alternative habits appeal less and less. This contributes to the very high relapse rate. Interestingly, deep brain stimulation of the ventral striatum has helped curb alcohol cravings for some alcoholics. (See Knapp 2009 for rats, and Muller 2016 for a pilot study in humans.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps! The question you're asking is a very broad one, so you have a wide range of answers to explore. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wrase, J., Schlagenhauf, F., Kienast, T., Wüstenberg, T., Bermpohl, F., Kahnt, T., ... &amp;amp; Heinz, A. (2007). Dysfunction of reward processing correlates with alcohol craving in detoxified alcoholics. Neuroimage, 35(2), 787-794.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Knapp, C. M., Tozier, L., Pak, A., Ciraulo, D. A., &amp;amp; Kornetsky, C. (2009). Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens reduces ethanol consumption in rats. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 92(3), 474-479.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Müller, U. J., Sturm, V., Voges, J., Heinze, H. J., Galazky, I., Büntjen, L., ... &amp;amp; Bogerts, B. (2016). Nucleus Accumbens Deep Brain Stimulation for Alcohol Addiction–Safety and Clinical Long-term Results of a Pilot Trial. Pharmacopsychiatry, 49(04), 170-173.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13352" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T02:45:15.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16947" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16824" CreationDate="2017-03-15T04:15:25.513" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/neuro/comments/5y4pta/does_anyone_know_where_i_can_find_a_repository_of/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.reddit.com/r/neuro/comments/5y4pta/does_anyone_know_where_i_can_find_a_repository_of/&lt;/a&gt; for a similar question.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Websites that were posted there include &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.humanconnectome.org/data/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.humanconnectome.org/data/&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurovault.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://neurovault.org&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ppmi-info.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ppmi-info.org&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://openfmri.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://openfmri.org/&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://fcon_1000.projects.nitrc.org/indi/abide/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://fcon_1000.projects.nitrc.org/indi/abide/&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://radiopaedia.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://radiopaedia.org&lt;/a&gt;.  Some of those are repositories of data for other diseases, but their control scans could be useful.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T04:15:25.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16948" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16625" CreationDate="2017-03-15T04:39:09.820" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a wide variety of inhibitory neuron classes.  See here for a review of interneurons in the hippocampus: &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/jphysiol.2004.078915/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;P. Somogyi, T. Klausberger, J. Physiol. 562, 9–26 (2005).&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Different classes of interneurons have different spike durations (e.g. &quot;fast-spiking&quot; or FS cells, generally used as a marker of putative PV+ interneurons).  Additionally, different classes of interneurons have different post-synaptic receptors with specific temporal and other characteristics.  For example, GABA-A receptors have time constants of ~10ms, whereas GABA-B receptors have time constants of ~100ms (and yes, there are subtypes of those receptor classes).  You can see a modeling paper I wrote for exploration of a use for different receptor classes, as well as more references for further research. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/doi/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1854-12.2013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;H. Sanders, M. Berends, G. Major, M. S. Goldman, J. E. Lisman, J. Neurosci. 33, 424–429 (2013).&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T04:39:09.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16949" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-15T10:45:25.230" Score="3" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;When encountering a new person, does the baseline level of trust (thinking the new person is &quot;good&quot;) and it's change as result of new evidence, vary across cultures?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can imagine controlling for appearance and the act goodness, it would be possible to measure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T10:45:25.230" Title="Differences between baseline trust of stranger across cultures" Tags="&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16953" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-15T16:51:20.540" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a data scientist by trade, and am gearing up to study the impacts of behaviors on mood. It's a domain specific study. I'm well versed in the statistics, but I need to record data that can be entered by people on a daily basis that quantifies things like mood, mental and emotional state, and cognitive focus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll be tracking actions such as, for example, &quot;did the person drink coffee today&quot;, and correlating that with mood, mental, and emotional state, cognitive focus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to keep the set of survey questions as simple as possible (to hedge against missing data), but also capture the most expressive set of variables I can within the most simple framework possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a recommendation from people who study psychology on how to go about balancing simplicity against expressiveness of the survey to track mood, mental and emotional state, and cognitive focus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there standard approaches to quantifying this kind of information that I should be aware of?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8113" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T16:51:20.540" Title="What factors are used in studies quantifying and studying mood?" Tags="&lt;survey&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16954" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16907" CreationDate="2017-03-15T18:46:01.927" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;it seems that it is a struct variable that is central to how images are visualized in spm. I found a description in the spm source code in &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/canlab/spm8/blob/009e377eab146c66128c3c879dc6ce453cb7c54c/spm_orthviews.m#L158&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this github repository&lt;/a&gt; (I linked to the exact line where it is described, 158). You can check if it's the same in your spm8 installation by looking at the code of the file &quot;spm_orthviews.m&quot; which should be in the spm8 folder but I'm pretty sure it is the original version. They also use it in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/SPM/How-to#How_to_choose_the_colour_limits_in_a_rendering.3F&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this how-to on wikibooks&lt;/a&gt; but I'm not entirely sure if it's exactly the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can look at the same file in the spm12 folder (if it still exists) to find out if there is an equivalent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Comment:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you use this variable in your own script do your future self and others a favor and give it a meaningful name.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2017-03-15T18:46:01.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16957" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-16T08:12:30.600" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in measurement biases relating to self reporting in surveys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To add more context:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under some circumstances, people have been known to add a positive spin when surveyed regarding goals which have significant social status attached to them. One example is how survey subjects over report the number of sexual partners they have or the amount of money they make. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Correct me if I'm wrong, but I would assume that if someone is struggling to reach the social standard (ie: having less than what they think is the average number of sexual partners) it will be even harder to get them to be honest, since they are trying to conceal their insecurities to the researchers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under what experimental conditions are these people most likely to be honest? Are there any good studies out there that shed light on this question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15337" LastEditorUserId="15337" LastEditDate="2017-03-19T18:58:26.843" LastActivityDate="2017-03-28T22:13:35.280" Title="What is the best way to reduce measurement biases when studying topics that can evoke insecurity?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16958" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-16T13:19:12.370" Score="0" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many tools exists that allow the investigation of incidents and safe behavior on the workplace, such as the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Factors_Analysis_and_Classification_System&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HFACS&lt;/a&gt;) or the System Hardware Environment Lifeware Lifeware (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHELL_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SHELL&lt;/a&gt;) model. Both describe the importance of the influence of the (culture within an) organisation on (un)safe behavior. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These tools are used to proof whether the organisation plays a role in an incident or, in general, in unsafe behavior. However, where did these models base the assumptions on that the organisation plays a role? &lt;strong&gt;Was there scientific evidence that shows that the organisation can promote (un)safe behavior?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-05-03T07:36:18.043" LastActivityDate="2017-05-03T07:36:18.043" Title="Organisation as a factor for safe behavior on the work-place" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16961" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16971" CreationDate="2017-03-17T04:04:17.487" Score="7" ViewCount="2464" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introduction:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We humans have an eye resolution of about $576$ megapixels, but just like how nothing is perfect, our eyes have &lt;strong&gt;blindspots&lt;/strong&gt; where we can't sense any information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, you can find your blindspot by covering one eye, focusing on an object in front of you, set your thumb out in front and translate it until you can't see it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do our eyes have blindspots?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If we have blindspots, why do we still sense information in that area?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I mean for $2$ is that even though we have blindspots, we are still able to pick up information (put in simpler terms, why is our vision perfectly smooth instead of riddled with &quot;dark&quot; holes where we can't see anything).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has baffled me for some time. Any ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15352" LastActivityDate="2017-03-18T17:38:31.913" Title="Why Is It That We Have Blindspots in Our Eyes?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16962" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16961" CreationDate="2017-03-17T05:28:44.817" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have a blind spot in each eye because there are no receptor cells where the optic nerve connects to the retina of the eye.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather or not we &quot;sense&quot; anything there can be difficult to answer. Technically, no information from receptors come from that area, but the brain does fill in information to provide a complete picture. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15354" LastActivityDate="2017-03-17T05:28:44.817" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16964" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16966" CreationDate="2017-03-17T10:21:38.040" Score="3" ViewCount="3226" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently reading about the self-determination-theory (SDT) and tried to find an article dealing with the disadvantages of this theory. However i couldn't find anything. Does anybody know some disadvantages/ articles etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15183" LastActivityDate="2019-02-13T13:58:06.780" Title="Are there any critiques on the Self-Determination Theory by Deci &amp; Ryan?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16965" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16830" CreationDate="2017-03-17T20:46:25.503" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I thought I would edit to add a bit of information.  First of all for those who don't know, (I didn't until I looked it up when I saw this question for the first time), the term hebephilia has been proposed to split pedophilia and denote the erotic preference for pubescent children (roughly, ages 11 or 12-14), but it has not become widely used. Along with hebephilia, there is also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18686026&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pedohebephilia&lt;/a&gt; which is erotic preference on both pedophilic and hebephilic levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would also like to address the issue of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milo_Yiannopoulos&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milo Yiannopoulos&lt;/a&gt; who seems to have been a topic of discussion, which raised this question.  In the Wikipedia page I linked here and in my edit of the OPs question, it says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Yiannopoulos stated that sexual relationships between 13-year-old boys and adults can be &quot;perfectly consensual,&quot; because some 13-year-olds are, in his view, sexually and emotionally mature enough to consent to sex with adults; he spoke favourably both of gay 13-year-old boys having sex with adult men and straight 13-year-old boys having sex with adult women. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2017/02/20/cpac-disinvites-milo-yiannopoulos-despite-his-attempt-at-contrition.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source 1&lt;/a&gt;) (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thewrap.com/milo-yiannopoulos-denies-defending-pedophilia-video-jake-tapper/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source 2&lt;/a&gt;) He used his own experience as an example, saying he was mature enough to be capable of giving consent at a young age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The page also states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Defending himself in a press conference, Yiannopoulos alleged that he had been the victim of child abuse, and that &quot;his comments were a way to cope with it&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not going to enter into any debate or express any opinion on what Yiannopoulos said or didn't say — or even what he may have been trying to say — as this is not the forum to do this, but speaking from the standpoint of someone who has, over a period of over 17 years, supported many who have been sexually abused and raped, I can categorically say that different people use many different ways to &quot;cope&quot; with the effects of the past events.  Was he using repression or projection as an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego-defence mechanism&lt;/a&gt;? It's difficult to say.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been drafting my answer and editing the draft many times in order to make sure I try not to add anything which might inflame the already heated debate over Yiannopoulos, so here goes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question raised here is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there any fair studies exploring the effects of a sexually maturing teenager (14ish) engaging in sexual behavior with a significantly older adult (at least 23 years old)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology&lt;/em&gt; there is an article which examines behavioural scientific research on the subject (&lt;a href=&quot;http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6508&amp;amp;context=jclc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McCord, D. 1986&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A researcher reviewing the literature on the subject, came to the conclusion that little had been learned about child sexual abuse during the preceding twenty-five years.  He also noted that the literature dealing with the sexual abuse of minors, was &quot;scant, unintegrated, and ambiguous. Books on the topic are rare. Articles are scattered and hidden among a wide range of journals, many in non-accessible medical and legal journals.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One reason for the lack of solid research is simply that the subject is a very difficult one to study. Only a small percentage of cases is ever reported. In those cases that are reported, the participants are often reluctant to discuss the situation. As a result of problems like these there are methodological difficulties virtually built into most research projects in the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Comments from research state the following&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Children can exhibit the entire gamut of behaviors in response to a sexual assault, ranging from the negative to the positive.&quot; (Burgess, et al., 1978)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Children's immediate reactions to an assault vary.&quot; (Leaman, 1980)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Incest victims show a wide variety of symptom complaints or may show none at all.&quot; (Stuart &amp;amp; Greer, 1984; Sgroi, 1975)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Even those professionals who have a clinical definition with which they are comfortable will still have problems in identifying sexually abused children.&quot; (Mrazek, 1987)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason that such a wide variety of symptoms has been noted is that child sexual abuse is very complex situation from the point of view of the victim.  This can perhaps best be illustrated by comparing it with adult rape, which is, by contrast, very unambiguous from the victim's perspective. In adult rape the victim is &lt;strong&gt;often but not always&lt;/strong&gt; coerced by physical force or threats of physical force to engage in sexual activity which he or she does not desire. Under these circumstances, even when there is no physical violence, or threat of physical violence, there is no possibility of the victim enjoying the activity or emerging from the situation with any positive psychological emotions, as consent has not been given. Accordingly, it is not surprising that the reactions of adult victims to forcible rape are remarkably similar to each other and are drastically negative. By contrast, a child sexual abuse victim's feelings may be, and often are, ambivalent. The victim's will is usually much more malleable than an adult's, particularly when the perpetrator may be assuring the child that the activity is normal and even possibly suggesting that it is teaching them what they need to know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another point of note which can cause problems for the child in later life is that, although not in all cases, the child may even feel physical pleasure during the activity. As one researcher put it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Contrary to the stereotype, most victims in our study readily acknowledged the positive as well as the negative elements of their experience. They talked about the times the physical sensations felt good, or they remembered how their sexual experience with an adult or family member satisfied a longing for affection and closeness that was rarely met at any other time. (Finkelhor, 1981)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While this researcher found that 60% of adult women who had been sexually abused as children remembered the experience as primarily negative, only 7% remembered it as primarily positive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effects of statutory rape, and childhood sexual abuse &lt;strong&gt;is&lt;/strong&gt; complex and whether or not it may be perceived to be consensual, it is generally believed that &lt;strong&gt;informed&lt;/strong&gt; consent cannot be given by someone under the legal age of consent. (Abel, et al., 1984).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abel, G. G., Becker, J. V., Cunningham-Rathner, J., 1984. &lt;em&gt;Complications, Consent, and Cognitions in Sex Between Children and Adults&lt;/em&gt;. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 7(1), pp. 69-103. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-2527(84)90008-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-2527(84)90008-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burgess, A. W., Groth, N. A., Holmstrom, L. L., &amp;amp; Sgroi, S. M., 1978. &lt;em&gt;Sexual assault of children and adolescents&lt;/em&gt;. Lexington, MA: D.C. Health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finkelhor, D., 1981. &lt;em&gt;Sexually victimized children&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leaman, K. M., 1980. &lt;em&gt;Sexual abuse : the reactions of child and family&lt;/em&gt; in U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, &lt;em&gt;Sexual Abuse of Children: Selected Readings&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mrazek, P. B., 1987. &lt;em&gt;Definition and recognition of sexual child abuse: historical and cultural perspectives&lt;/em&gt; in Sexually abused children and their families. Oxford; New York: Pergamon Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McCord, D., 1985. &lt;em&gt;Expert Psychological Testimony about Child Complainants in Sexual Abuse Prosecutions: A Foray into the Admissibility of Novel Psychological Evidence&lt;/em&gt;. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 77(1), pp. 1-68.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available Free from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/vol77/iss1/1/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/vol77/iss1/1/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sgroi, S. M., 1975. &lt;em&gt;Sexual Molestation of Children: The Last Frontier in Child Abuse&lt;/em&gt;, Children Today, 4(3) pp. 18-21.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stuart, I. R., Greer, J. G, 1984. Victims of Sexual Aggression: Treatment of Children, Women, and Men. Publisher: Chapman &amp;amp; Hall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-03-31T06:18:12.120" LastActivityDate="2019-03-31T06:18:12.120" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16966" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16964" CreationDate="2017-03-17T23:05:54.777" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The University of Zurich has &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uzh.ch/iou/orga/ssl-dir/wiki/uploads/Main/Controversy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a pdf file of an article&lt;/a&gt; which was directly from the University of Rochester School of Arts and Sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article has an outline of many criticisms of SDT from behaviourists such as Eisenberger, Cameron and Pierce, which were later discounted as invalid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References to all relevant articles are within the pdf file.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-03-17T23:05:54.777" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16961" CreationDate="2017-03-18T02:20:48.297" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The reason we have a blind spot is basically because the retina is &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-i-foundations/simple-anatomy-of-the-retina/#central&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;installed backwards&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QlwQH.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QlwQH.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Retinal organization&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a layer of blood vessels, then a layer of long neurons that carry signals to the brain, then several layers of processing neurons, then the actual receptor cells that detect the light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that to get out of the eye, the blood vessels and long neurons have to pass through the layer with the receptors.  There can't be any receptors where this happens, the blood vessels and long neurons take up all the space.  So in this spot, we cannot see at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason we don't notice it is because our brains fill in missing information in our eyes.  Even though we don't notice it, our eyes are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10991/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;constantly moving around&lt;/a&gt;.  Our brain then combines what we see from various eye positions to fill in holes in what we can see and increase the perceived clarity of our vision. Further, we have two eyes, and the blind spot is in a different place in our visual field between the two eyes, so we can &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698906003932&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;take what we see&lt;/a&gt; in one eye to fill in holes in the other.  This isn't limited to the blind spot, diseases that cause a loss of vision like macular degeneration are also filled in.  Whether this is somehow adaptive or is a side-effect of the processing that fills in the blind spot is not known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is thought that this is filling-in is done in the early visual cortex, where &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698906003932&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;regions of the visual cortex&lt;/a&gt; that are active fill in areas nearby that aren't receiving any input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7616" LastActivityDate="2017-03-18T02:20:48.297" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16968" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-18T05:58:55.823" Score="7" ViewCount="468" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to materialism, the conscious mind is the product of the brain.  Thus, if the brain is split in half such that the two hemispheres cannot communicate with each other, then there are three possibilities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Both hemispheres gain their own conscious mind.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Only one hemispheres has a conscious mind.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A single conscious mind operates across both hemispheres.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within a materialistic paradigm, #3 is impossible.  There cannot be unified control without communication between the two hemispheres.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Option #1 is false according to this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/315508.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A new research study contradicts the established view that so-called&#xA;  split-brain patients have a split consciousness. Instead, the&#xA;  researchers behind the study, led by UvA psychologist Yair Pinto, have&#xA;  found strong evidence showing that despite being characterised by&#xA;  little to no communication between the right and left brain&#xA;  hemispheres, split brain does not cause two independent conscious&#xA;  perceivers in one brain. Their results are published in the latest&#xA;  edition of the journal Brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and this &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/14023/1002&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So I conclude from [sic] this quick literature review that Joseph&#xA;  ascribes the presence of two minds based on something that can be&#xA;  explained at a more basic level, and hence by a more simple model,&#xA;  namely disinhibited motor control. Given the principle of parsimony, I&#xA;  conclude his observations were right, but that his conclusions were&#xA;  not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Option #2 is false according to this &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/76/1002&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt;.  The answer state consciousness does not transfer to one half, but continues to operate in both halves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If by continuity you mean, &quot;a feeling that I am who I was before the&#xA;  operation, (perhaps with some changes)&quot;, then it seems that each&#xA;  hemisphere would separately maintain continuity, in the same way&#xA;  patients after massive strokes and other sudden brain injuries don't&#xA;  usually feel &quot;they are a different person&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, only option #3 is viable according to the available data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If option #3 is indeed the only possible explanation, yet is impossible according to materialism, then the materialistic explanation for the conscious mind is false.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A fourth possibility is there is an alternative communication pathway that is not severed, as hinted at by this &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/616/1002&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Keep in mind that there are many other pathways between the&#xA;  hemispheres besides the Corpus Callosum - such as thalamocortical&#xA;  circuits, those via the midbrain and brainstem and of course external&#xA;  sensorimotor feedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is option #3 the only viable option, or do the halves somehow communicate in a different way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1002" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-20T09:11:37.870" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T09:11:37.870" Title="Does the split brain disprove a materialistic mind?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;pathology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16970" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-18T15:47:00.507" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;So my goal is to connect STN and SNc neurons by giving synaptic weights and then see the response. I have already modelled STN and SNc separately and observed their response.&#xA; I need help with the coding part. I have already done this in MATLAB, but am supposed to do everything in NEURON simulator, by creating mod and hoc files. I went through some of the codes in modeldb website, but those seem way too complicated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15365" LastActivityDate="2017-03-18T15:47:00.507" Title="How to connect two networks in NEURON software?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-04-14T18:31:59.483" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16971" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16961" CreationDate="2017-03-18T17:38:31.913" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_spot_%28vision%29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;blind spots&lt;/a&gt; are scotomas (areas of degenerated acuity) found in all mammalian eyes, and are due to the way the optic nerve crosses the retina (back of the eye):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because there are no cells to detect light on the optic disc, the&#xA;  corresponding part of the field of vision is invisible. Some process&#xA;  in our brains interpolates the blind spot based on surrounding detail&#xA;  and information from the other eye, so we do not normally perceive the&#xA;  blind spot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotoma&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scotomas&lt;/a&gt; can result from eye damage as well, and the result is the same:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is no direct conscious awareness of visual scotomas. They are&#xA;  simply regions of reduced information within the visual field. Rather&#xA;  than recognizing an incomplete image, patients with scotomas report&#xA;  that things &quot;disappear&quot; on them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As photoreceptor density in our eyes is not evenly distributed, and changes over time due to ageing and cell damage, the way our brain &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filling-in&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;processes the visual field&lt;/a&gt; is probably an adaptation, so it is not useful to think of it as &quot;pixelated&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In vision, filling-in phenomena are those responsible for the&#xA;  completion of missing information across the physiological blind spot,&#xA;  and across natural and artificial scotomata. There is also evidence&#xA;  for similar mechanisms of completion in normal visual analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are three main perspectives on how this happens in the brain.  The first is &quot;bottom-up&quot; - called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filling-in#Isomorphic_filling-in&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;isomorphic filling-in&lt;/a&gt; - which is done by early visual systems using information from neighbouring areas.  Think of this like the &quot;magic healing brush&quot; in Photoshop.  The second is &quot;top-down&quot; - called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filling-in#Symbolic_filling-in&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;symbolic filling-in&lt;/a&gt; - which is done by downstream areas of the brain filling in the missing parts with higher-level knowledge.  The third is that filling-in is a fallacy called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homunculus_argument&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;homunculus argument&lt;/a&gt;, that is based on the false notion of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_theater&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cartesian theatre&lt;/a&gt; - that the visual system &quot;projects&quot; an image from the eye onto an observer inside our brain.  However this does not make any sense, and so there is no reason to suppose that any kind of &quot;filling-in&quot; process actually needs to happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: The eye holds an interesting place in the history of evolution, as it has been used to support the case for both intelligent design - due to its amazing complexity - and evolution by chance - due to its flawed design.  In mammalian eyes, the optic nerve delivers neurons to photoreceptors from in front, requiring it to pass through the retina.  In cephalopod (eg, octopus) eyes, the optic nerve delivers neurons to photoreceptors from behind - a design that results in no blind spots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2017-03-18T17:38:31.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16973" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-18T23:11:52.397" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see this very often. Whenever you buy a new car, listen to new music or reading new books you will nerver get the same attention or admiration if you drive an older car, don't listen to trendy music or reading books which are older than myself. And I always wanted to know why? Is it, that you seem more cultural/intellectual if you are a fan of something, which is not that up to date? Is it that it that you seem more &quot;harmless&quot; because you are not interested, that other will admire you, but you do it kind of for yourself and swimming in nostalgia? And I talk about goods or activities which are who are not less qualitative or cost more money.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15367" LastActivityDate="2017-03-18T23:11:52.397" Title="Why do people are seeming more charistmatic or sympathic, if they are fans of old things?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-03-21T14:12:59.130" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16974" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17010" CreationDate="2017-03-18T23:28:28.483" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are the two ERPs from the same study design, though different subjects. The largest amplitude in the 1st one goes up to 25 uv, while only goes up to 6 in the 2nd figure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Differences: The 1st one were recorded with 60-channel Easycap, analyzed in Brain Vision, nose referenced; while the 2nd one were recorded with EGI 128-channel Geodesic Net, analyzed in Net Station, averaging referenced. Are these sufficient to explain the big difference in the voltages? Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9NNDi.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9NNDi.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zCTxn.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zCTxn.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;2. &quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="7138" LastEditDate="2017-03-18T23:36:03.007" LastActivityDate="2017-03-25T11:41:22.177" Title="Why are the ERP amplitudes recorded and analyzed from different software so different in voltage?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16976" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-19T18:16:37.803" Score="2" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is my very first time with afni and I am having problems with the creation of the afni dataset from dicom images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I runned:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Dimon -infile_prefix IM -gert_create_dataset&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and I got this error:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Dimon version 4.18 (November 9, 2016) running, use &amp;lt;ctrl-c&amp;gt; to quit...&#xA;&#xA;-- scanning for first volume&#xA;++ Data detected to be oblique&#xA;** cannot find a volume in 4400 image files&#xA;   (max allowable = 3000, see -max_images)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I want to keep my EPI dataset oblique I added the -use_obl_origin option running:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Dimon -infile_prefix IM -gert_create_dataset -use_obl_origin&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but I still get the same error. How can I deal with this issue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14804" LastActivityDate="2017-03-19T18:16:37.803" Title="Oblique EPI in afni" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16977" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16981" CreationDate="2017-03-19T20:28:11.050" Score="2" ViewCount="1509" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for some references on the short term effects of alcohol on &quot;IQ&quot;. I am particularly interested in what aspects of &quot;intelligence&quot; is affected (e.g., cognition/reasoning/memory). Essentially, I am looking for studies that compare performance while sober and drunk in moderate drinkers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-03-20T01:38:36.187" Title="Short term effects of alcohol on IQ" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16980" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16977" CreationDate="2017-03-20T00:43:50.427" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not a complete answer, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4477198/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Abbey et al (2006)&lt;/a&gt; might be a good starting point. They summarise some literature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recent research has focused on alcohol's effects on executive cognitive functioning (ECF) and the capacity to plan, initiate, and alter goal-directed behavior (Bartholow et al., 2003; Curtin and Fairchild, 2003; Giancola, 2004). Acute alcohol consumption impedes response inhibition, particularly when the task requires suppression of a compelling, predominant response (Abroms et al., 2003; Curtin and Fairchild, 2003; Fillmore et al., 2000). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Abbey, A., Saenz, C., Buck, P. O., Parkhill, M. R., &amp;amp; Hayman Jr, L. W. (2006). The effects of acute alcohol consumption, cognitive reserve, partner risk, and gender on sexual decision making. Journal of studies on alcohol, 67(1), 113-121.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4477198/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4477198/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-03-20T00:43:50.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16977" CreationDate="2017-03-20T01:38:36.187" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1990.tb02363.x&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maylor, E. A., Rabbitt, P. , James, G. H. and Kerr, S. A.. (1990) &lt;em&gt;Comparing the effects of alcohol and intelligence on text recall and recognition&lt;/em&gt;. British Journal of Psychology, Vol.81 (No.3). pp. 299-313.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Forty male subjects were divided into two groups on the basis of their scores on a computerized intelligence test administered in a preliminary session. They then participated in a text recall and recognition experiment in which they received alcohol (1.0 ml/kg body weight) in one session and no alcohol in another session (the order being counterbalanced). Subjects were required to read a short passage, immediately recall as much of it as possible and then select from sets of four sentences the ones that appeared in the original passage (recognition). Although two different passages were used, and subjects knew about the memory tasks in advance, there was nevertheless a significant practice effect: subjects recalled 10.6 per cent more propositions on the second occasion than on the first, but this could be at least partly explained by the fact that they spent 10.0 per cent longer reading the second passage. There was also a significant 7.8 per cent slowing of reading time due to alcohol. Practice did not interact with either intelligence or alcohol on any measure of performance. Alcohol impaired the performance of high intelligence test scorers more than low scorers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.15288/jsas.1993.s11.128&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pihl, R. O., Peterson, J. B., and Lau, M. A., (1993) &lt;em&gt;A biosocial model of the alcohol-aggression relationship.&lt;/em&gt; in&#xA;Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Supplement, (11), pp. 128–139&lt;/a&gt; reported results from human subject experimentation showing that alcohol affects cortical functioning and reduces the ability to deal with threatening or novel occurrences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-03-20T01:38:36.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16982" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-20T09:11:31.227" Score="7" ViewCount="221" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am quite inspired by the results obtained by &lt;a href=&quot;https://coxlab.github.io/prednet/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PredNet&lt;/a&gt;, which implements a predictive coding model using artificial neural networks. They compute the &lt;em&gt;prediction error&lt;/em&gt; as a simple subtraction, and then split the positive and negative into two different feature maps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within the predictive coding framework it is believed that biological brains also uses the prediction error to communicate between different areas. &lt;strong&gt;How is this error signal computed in biological brains?&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am especially interested in the mechanical aspects, such as &lt;em&gt;how doe does the brain compare a prediction with the true signal?&lt;/em&gt;. Synthetic approaches generally just use a pixel-wise error, and I am wondering if the brain does something analogously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8815" LastEditorUserId="8815" LastEditDate="2017-03-20T13:59:21.337" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T16:02:26.750" Title="How is the biological error signal in predictive coding computed?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;&lt;encoding&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16983" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18" CreationDate="2017-03-20T17:42:39.873" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know this is an old question, but I just found it so...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that Pink is explaining and expanding on the concepts of &lt;a href=&quot;http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self Determination Theory&lt;/a&gt;. SDT largely refuted the mechanistic explanations of motivation, and evidence has been gathering evidence for over 40 years now. It might be helpful to differentiate between motivation and behavior. You can get someone to color between the lines by giving them a marshmallow or cheeseburger, but you can't make them want to color between the lines when no marshmallow or cheeseburger is offered, behavior vs motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the only mechanistic explanations that are valid within SDT are the the ones describing what is happening to your brain when you feel like you are gaining mastery over a subject, feeling like what you're doing is purposeful or that you have autonomy in your decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15373" LastActivityDate="2017-03-20T17:42:39.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16984" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1594" CreationDate="2017-03-20T20:54:40.143" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Doing some research on this interesting question, I can point you towards a few articles and books which can give you a start.  From my research, there are 2 possible reasons for early childbirth compared to infants of other great apes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;maternal heat stress hypothesis&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22160&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wells et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;) (mentioned in your question as &lt;strong&gt;metabolic considerations&lt;/strong&gt;) put forward as a challenge to the Obstetrical Dilema is a plausible reason.  It is well established that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-does-the-brain-need-s/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the brain uses more energy than any other human organ&lt;/a&gt;, accounting for up to 20% of the body's total energy use.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Through &lt;strong&gt;secondary altricity&lt;/strong&gt;, babies only have a third of the brain size relative to mature adults (Walker and Ruff, 1993), and in the article within Scientific American you linked to, it states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;by one estimation a human fetus would have to undergo a gestation period of 18 to 21 months instead of the usual nine to be born at a neurological and cognitive development stage comparable to that of a chimpanzee newborn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from the idea of a woman giving birth to a baby the size of a 9 to 12 month old baby being hard to imagine, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetrical_dilemma#Maternal_Heat_Stress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a larger brain mass in the newborn corresponds to more energy needed to sustain it&lt;/a&gt;.  It stands to reason that when pregnant, a human having 2 fully developed brains to provide energy for, will have problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The hypothesis, variously dubbed the ‘Machiavellian Intelligence Hypothesis’ or the ‘Social Brain Hypothesis’, depending on what theorists take to be its most important features (Adolphs, 1999), is also plausible.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In support of this idea, there is a correlation between mean group size among various primate species and their neocortex volume (specifically, the ratio of neocortex volume to the rest of the brain).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly, the emotional and social development of humans is extraordinarily complex, involving a multi-factorial interplay between genes, parental&#xA;behaviour, and the influence of culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looking at developmental issues, there are 5 models of development which theorists – and people in general – often disagree. (Miller, 2010) (Sigelman &amp;amp; Rider, 2012).  When we are looking at social development in the context of social environments we are looking at the nurture argument of nature vs nurture.  When looking at human development through other angles, along with goodness vs badness of human nature, there are other debates such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Activity vs Passivity&lt;/strong&gt; (Humans shape their environments vs environmental forces shape humans),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Continuity vs Discontinuity&lt;/strong&gt; (Changes are gradual vs dramatically through life), or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Universality vs Context Specificity&lt;/strong&gt; (Development is similar between people and cultures vs considerable differences between people and cultures)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carol Sigelman and Elizabeth Rider in their book &lt;em&gt;Life-Span Human Development&lt;/em&gt; (Sigelman &amp;amp; Rider, 2012) states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Development is characterized by lifelong plasticity. Plasticity refers to the capacity to change in response to both positive and negative experiences. Developmental scholars have long known that child development can be damaged by a deprived environment and optimized by an enriched one. It is now understood that this plasticity continues into later life—that the aging process is not fixed but rather can be altered considerably depending on the individual’s experiences. For example, elderly adults can maintain or regain some of their intellectual abilities and even enhance them with the help of physical exercise like John Tatum’s swimming, a mentally and socially active lifestyle, or training designed to improve specific cognitive skills (Hertzog et al., 2009; Willis et al., 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adolphs, R. (1999). &lt;em&gt;Social cognition and the human brain&lt;/em&gt; In: Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3(12) pp 469–479. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01399-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01399-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hertzog, C., Kramer, A. F., Wilson, R. S., &amp;amp; Lindenberger, U. (2009). &lt;em&gt;Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development: Can the functional capacity of older adults be preserved and enhanced?&lt;/em&gt; In: Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(1), pp 1–65. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01034.x.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01034.x.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sigelman, C. K. &amp;amp; Rider, E. A. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Life-Span Human Development&lt;/em&gt;. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Walker, A. and Ruff, C. A. (1993). *The Reconstruction of the Pelvis** In:&#xA;The Nariokotome Homo Erectus Skeleton. Edited by A. Walker and R. Leakey, pp 221-233. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wells, J. C. K.; Desilva, J. M.; Stock, J. T. (2012). &lt;em&gt;The obstetric dilemma: An ancient game of Russian roulette, or a variable dilemma sensitive to ecology?&lt;/em&gt; In: American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 149(s55) pp 40–71. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22160&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/ajpa.22160&lt;/a&gt;. PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23138755&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;23138755&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Willis, S. L., Tennstedt, S. L., Marsiske, M., Ball, K., Elias, J., Koepke, K. M., Morris, J. N., Rebok, G. W., Unverzagt, F. W., &amp;amp; Stoddard, A. M. for the ACTIVE Study Group (2006). &lt;em&gt;Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults&lt;/em&gt;. In: Journal of the American Medical Association, 296(23), pp 2805–2814. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.296.23.2805&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/jama.296.23.2805&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-03-20T20:54:40.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16986" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-21T21:34:43.660" Score="4" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;As some background, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrum_(software_development)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scrum process&lt;/a&gt; is a project management process used primarily in software engineering (it's what's sometimes called a type of &lt;a href=&quot;http://agilemethodology.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Agile methodology&lt;/a&gt;). Its focus is on developing software iteratively. In general, a particular team will work in one to three week increments called &lt;em&gt;sprints&lt;/em&gt;; at the beginning of the sprint, the team will select which outstanding tasks and features they are working on for the next sprint.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One major part of this is the daily stand-up meeting, which includes three questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What did you do yesterday?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are you working on today?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do you have any &quot;blockers&quot;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are limited to 15 minutes &lt;em&gt;at most&lt;/em&gt; - if there are other, non-checkin-related issues, they're discussed later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often, there will be a physical board containing sticky notes with everyone's tasks. Each column contains a particular status type (not started, in development, in QA, complete). People will physically move the sticky note with their particular task across the board as it becomes closer to completion (e.g. halfway across the development column = halfway done with development) and changes status (e.g. when you're done with development, you physically move the sticky note to the &quot;In QA&quot; column).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious about the applications of this to a partial hospitalization program or residential treatment program. It seems like virtually all of them will have some kind of process group, but that they follow a different format than this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like regular accountability for specific goals and results as well as the idea of iterative progress towards some kind of final outcome could be useful. It seems like this could be particularly beneficial for complicated compulsive behaviors like eating disorders and compulsive hoarding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone tried to apply something analogous to this in one of those kinds of programs? Could this be effective?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15009" LastEditorUserId="15009" LastEditDate="2017-03-21T23:02:58.587" LastActivityDate="2017-03-21T23:02:58.587" Title="Applications of project management techniques to managing recovery while in residential addiction treatment programs" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-27T20:36:52.047" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16987" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-22T17:46:38.073" Score="2" ViewCount="457" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on a project related to Brain-Computer Interface &amp;amp; I came across this problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the tools and techniques used to classify the EEG signals which are extracted from brain using a device which in my case is &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurosky.com/biosensors/eeg-sensor/biosensors/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurosky Mindwave Mobile Headset&lt;/a&gt;.   I needed an abstract view of what should be the design of the system? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The signal which are extracted using the electrode planted on the brain consists all type EEG signals present in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography?wprov=sfta1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EEG Spectrum&lt;/a&gt; i.e delta, alpha, beta, gamma, mu. How can I classify it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read about some of the techniques like using Discrete Fast Fourier Transform and then extraction of band powers but I didn't understand it quite well so can someone point me in right direction. I really appreciate your help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank You.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15348" LastEditorUserId="15348" LastEditDate="2019-12-25T12:22:11.440" LastActivityDate="2019-12-25T12:22:11.440" Title="Classification of EEG Signals" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16988" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-22T17:50:43.943" Score="1" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;I stumbled upon this video in a website:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://9gag.com/gag/aM8ELMP#comment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://9gag.com/gag/aM8ELMP#comment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just as the video post title says, it makes me feels really nostalgic. Is the title deceiving viewers to feel nostalgic? or is it the video that actually causes nostalgia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there visual (and other sensory) methods, like these, to create a nostalgic feeling in humans? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eHsY3.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eHsY3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;snapshot from video&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15387" LastActivityDate="2017-03-22T17:50:43.943" Title="Why does this video make me feel nostalgic?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-03-23T23:37:33.243" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16400" CreationDate="2017-03-22T19:05:20.683" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is very difficult to provide a satisfactory answer to because the technical neuroscience definition of prediction error is murky and since your question brings up machine learning then the answer is going to depend on what you're trying to do. I'm going to assume you're referring to neurogenesis in an adult brain and not the process that happens immediately after conception because that process is more analogous to deep learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;From the neuroscience perspective:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I'm not aware of much direct evidence that neurogenesis is a response to prediction errors because we understand very little about the phenomenon. However, it seems bizarre to think that neurogenesis just occurs spontaneously and randomly, so we come to the nature vs. nurture debate. Pure logic would tell me that neurogenesis in adults is something more of a maintenance response to DNA pressures and has little to do with any prediction errors generated by external environmental stimuli. Will explain why in my concluding paragraph.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind that even the death of a neuron can be considered prediction error because the machine learning equivalent of &quot;prediction error&quot; in biology is simply a signal that communicates a &quot;deficit&quot; that needs to be filled in some way. In fact, to answer this properly, we must first make it clear that there are potentially dozens, hundreds, or an arbitrarily high number of other &quot;prediction error types&quot; in use by the brain. Here are just a few major ways, hypothetically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lots of different neurotransmitters&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The opening/closing of various ion channel species that regulate the membrane potential&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Synaptic vescicles/receptors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuronal firing rates (as in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bursting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bursting&lt;/a&gt;, a rapid succession of action potentials)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Temporal coding (relative firing times to the firing of other neurons)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And I can think of 10 other more-subtle and harder to explain possibilities, but that are just as important, off the top of my head&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind that each neuron also seems to have its own differentiated mechanisms for, both, interpreting and signaling prediction error. This complicates things further. For instance, one neurotransmitter may communicate prediction error to one particular neuron, but has no effect (or a different effect) on a different neuron. It may even be that neurotransmitter X must be present while temporal code Y happens for the event to be interpreted as a prediction error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;From the machine learning perspective:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;In machine learning, we tend to oversimplify prediction error but the brain conforms to no such simplicity. I didn't want to mislead you by saying &quot;yes&quot; to your question because prediction error in artificial neural networks is traditionally a singular concept and not multiplexed like it is in neuroscience. So there is no analogy between prediction error in deep learning and prediction error in neuroscience evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might need to clarify the reason you are asking so that I can provide a more applicable response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deep learning is not biologically plausible, and it sounds like you are trying to discover a more accurate biological solution. If that's the case, looking into neurogenesis as a way to reduce prediction error may not be very fruitful because the new neurons created in adulthood only account for an incredibly tiny portion of the neurons that already exist, and humans encounter prediction errors potentially every second of every day. If we simply created new neurons for all prediction errors, then why are we born with pretty much all the neurons we will ever have? The brain overwhelmingly seems to have a way of learning and retaining the important information without having to create new neurons in response to prediction errors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15389" LastEditorUserId="15389" LastEditDate="2017-09-30T20:16:25.293" LastActivityDate="2017-09-30T20:16:25.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16990" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13432" CreationDate="2017-03-22T20:19:20.940" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's an article talking about exactly what you are asking:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00071/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EEG decoding of spoken words in bilingual listeners: from words to language invariant semantic-conceptual representations&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can say that the brain obviously has the ability to invariantly represent different stimuli as being the same abstract concept, not even from stimuli in the same domain (such as auditory to auditory) but even across different domains of knowledge (identifying astract conceptual relationships between visual signals and motor signals)! Whether this can be derived purely from EEG, I doubt it because it lacks the precision necessary (which would require single cell recordings of millions of cells at the same time). I should also note that EEG can't tell us much on how the brain generates the spectral graphs that we record, just what the electrical activity is. We also don't even know what exactly causes the signals. Electrical activity may not even be the only indication of invariance, because other underlying mechanisms may be involved. But the idea of invariance, itself, is the very idea of what you are talking about and this phenomenon is found in lots of ways. In fact, anytime anyone relates two different stimuli as the same concept, it's clear that somehow the brain has an invariant representation of the event. There exists some kind of mechanism in the brain to recognize and store abstract concepts, removed from the concrete signals from which the concepts are learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Mirror&quot; neurons are an example of the domain crossing invariance, and something you can Google. These neurons demonstrate invariance by being similarly activated when an animal witnesses another animal performing an action and when the animal performs the action itself (e.g. eating).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, your question about bilingual invariant representations and the mirror neurons are simply specific examples of a more general phenomenon. In fact, the ability for humans to have such incredible invariance is a major substrate that makes our intellectual capabilities so distinctly advanced compared to even the latest and greatest artificial intelligence attempts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the auditory language vs. language example you provided, the differences in auditory signals are ignored and our perception of the concept being communicated remains invariant. The same thing happens in vision. Even though the objective visual signals received by the brain are different, objects can be conceptually related. Just look at one face, then look at another one. You will still be able to identify both objects as the singular concept, &quot;face&quot;. You might say &quot;but the general structure of the face is still there&quot;. Yet, if you actually look at firing patterns of the neurons, they are still completely different. It's just as mysterious how the brain does this as it is that we can identify differing audio signals as the same concept. Humans possess a variety of invariant abilities in object recognition, such as scale invariance (different sizes), rotational invariance, translational invariance, skew invariance, color invariance, contrast invariance, and many others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just keep in mind that even though we possess these invariant abilities, we also maintain the distinctions in parallel. So the answer to your question is both yes and no. We generate both an invariant representation and a variant representation of whatever the stimulus is. Theoretically, both representation types are present in the EEG. However, EEG is not powerful enough to identify the specifics of how this works in language and whether this is even true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15389" LastEditorUserId="15389" LastEditDate="2017-03-24T06:22:17.297" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T06:22:17.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16991" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-22T21:20:02.677" Score="3" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are any kinds of behavior proved to correlate with estrogen levels? Any studies done on this? Any indications of such correlations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Various research has shown correlations with testosterone and behavior, and I suppose there should be something for estrogen as well:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8635/are-any-kinds-of-behavior-proved-to-correlate-with-testosterone-levels&quot;&gt;Are any kinds of behavior proved to correlate with testosterone levels?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.167" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T08:41:22.403" Title="Are any kinds of behavior proved to correlate with estrogen levels?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16992" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-22T21:48:39.963" Score="4" ViewCount="529" Body="&lt;p&gt;I pretty certain I have read somewhere about certain  personality traits that correlate with certain facial features, but I can't remember just what or where I read. I think the personality traits may have been measured with Big 5 or something close.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm not looking for cranial or racial correlations, but facial feature correlations within cultures/ethnicities. I.e specific types of wrinkles.&#xA;I'm also not looking for perceptions from other people, but measured personalities&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Testosterone is already proved to correlate to behavioral tendencies, which in turn is part of personality: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8635/are-any-kinds-of-behavior-proved-to-correlate-with-testosterone-levels&quot;&gt;Are any kinds of behavior proved to correlate with testosterone levels?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I suppose Estrogen levels would correlate somehow as well.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It would be natural that i.e people who score high at Five Factor's 'Positive Feelings' would have more smiling wrinkles.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7272664&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an abstract by Roger W. Squier and John R. C. Mew on the topic&lt;/a&gt;, but I couldn't access the report.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This might be a broad topic, but could someone give me some clues? It would be nice if I could see some research reports &lt;strong&gt;with measured correlations&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5059" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.417" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T11:35:35.320" Title="Which personality traits are proved to correlate with any facial features?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16993" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-23T04:41:22.977" Score="5" ViewCount="204" Body="&lt;p&gt;Inside the brain the electrical signals are transmitted from one neuron to another by using special chemicals, called &quot;neuro-transmitters&quot; from the axon terminals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could anyone can tell me how to calculate the approximate value of the delay time of transmitting the information from one neuron to another.&#xA;I am thinking that it will less than pico-seconds!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there are any relevant articles/research papers related to it then I really appreciate it. &#xA;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15348" LastEditorUserId="15348" LastEditDate="2019-12-25T11:55:17.967" LastActivityDate="2019-12-25T11:55:17.967" Title="Delay time of Transmitting the information from one neuron to another in brain" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="16995" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16996" CreationDate="2017-03-23T10:40:43.237" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;What could cause someone to see every interaction/conversation as a battle that they have to win. whether it be with strangers or close family members, including their children, and they have to 'win' regardless of the physical, emotional or financial cost to themselves or the person they are interacting with, even if it is entirely out of proportion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this type of behaviour ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15395" LastActivityDate="2017-03-23T11:57:47.380" Title="seeing every interaction as a conflict" Tags="&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16996" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16995" CreationDate="2017-03-23T11:57:47.380" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=9eHf_QoGY1MC&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA33&amp;amp;dq=unilateral%20control&amp;amp;f=false#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=unilateral%20control&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Unilateral Control Model of Behaviour&lt;/a&gt;.  The opposite is &quot;Give Up Control Model&quot; and in the middle, you have &quot;Mutual Learning&quot;.  You can see another copy of Unilateral Control's definition &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schwarzassociates.com/managing-performance/how-unilateral-control-undermines-team-results-and-relationships-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Having goals is essential to being effective as an individual, team, and organization. But when you use a unilateral control mindset, you see challenging situations as a contest in which there are winners and losers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-03-23T11:57:47.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16997" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="16999" CreationDate="2017-03-23T13:50:27.997" Score="0" ViewCount="4181" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Question:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding Carl Rogers' Person Centered Therapy, which of the following is the correct definition of incongruence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inconsistency between ideal self and &lt;strong&gt;real self&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inconsistency between ideal self and &lt;strong&gt;self-image&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;My Understanding:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-Worth: How we value ourselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-Image: How we see ourselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideal Self: Who we'd like to be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Real Self: Who we actually are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Problem:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The explanations I'm finding online interchangebly use real-self and self-image as part of the definition of incongruence however it is my understanding that these are these two terms mean different things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9101" LastActivityDate="2017-03-23T21:54:16.560" Title="Basic definition of incongruence" Tags="&lt;person-centered-therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="16999" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16997" CreationDate="2017-03-23T17:30:39.983" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The terms &lt;strong&gt;congruence&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;incongruence&lt;/strong&gt; are used in the 2nd and 3rd core conditions in Person-Centred Therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carl Rogers developed PCT, and outlined in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.shoreline.edu/dchris/psych236/Documents/Rogers.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Journal of Consulting Psychology (1957)&lt;/a&gt; that 6 core therapeutic conditions are needed for constructive personality change and that all 6 must be present in therapy. Rogers considered that no other conditions are necessary.  The 6 core conditions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;2 people are to be in psychological contact&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The client is to be &lt;strong&gt;incongruent&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The therapist is to be &lt;strong&gt;congruent&lt;/strong&gt; or integrated in the relationship&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The therapist experiences Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR) for the client&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The therapist has empathetic understanding of the client’s internal frame of reference and endeavours to communicate the empathy to the client&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The communication to the client of the therapist’s empathy and UPR is to a minimum degree achieved.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Incongruence&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This term used in the 2nd core condition refers to a discrepancy between the client’s perception and the reality of the situation.  The client will be aware of the reality but perceives it differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It refers to a discrepancy between the actual experience of the organism and the self picture of the individual insofar as it represents that experience… [An] instance would be the mother who develops vague illnesses whenever her only son makes plans to leave home. The actual desire is to hold on to her only source of satisfaction. To perceive this in awareness would be inconsistent with the picture she holds of herself as a good mother.  (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.shoreline.edu/dchris/psych236/Documents/Rogers.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rogers, 1957, p. 2&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Congruence&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This term used in the 3rd core condition refers to the exhibition of genuineness, transparency and wholeness.  The therapist will not give perceptions of professionalism which disguises the humanity of the therapist.  However, the therapist will convey any feelings of confusion, dislike or any other feelings arising within themselves through advanced empathy, in order to be transparent and genuine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can I be real in the relationship?  This has come to have an increasing amount of importance to me over the years.  I feel that genuineness is another way of describing the quality I would like to have.  I like the term congruence by which I mean that what I am experiencing inside is present in my awareness and comes out through my communication.  In a sense, when I have this quality, I am all in one piece in the relationship. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SgiX0QLnpBM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rogers, et al., 1965&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt; -- Edit to clarify more as requested in comments -- &lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The situation with the mother in Rogers' example shows that the mother sees her &lt;strong&gt;ideal self&lt;/strong&gt; to be a good mother but her &lt;strong&gt;perception&lt;/strong&gt; of her &lt;strong&gt;self image&lt;/strong&gt; is that she is not a good mother as she develops vague illnesses whenever her son plans to leave home.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rogers, C., 1957. The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Therapeutic Personality Change. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.shoreline.edu/dchris/psych236/Documents/Rogers.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.shoreline.edu/dchris/psych236/Documents/Rogers.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 15 March 2016]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rogers, C., Perls, F. &amp;amp; Ellis, A., 1965. Video: Three approaches to psychotherapy. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SgiX0QLnpBM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SgiX0QLnpBM&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 15 March 2016].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-03-23T21:54:16.560" LastActivityDate="2017-03-23T21:54:16.560" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17000" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16993" CreationDate="2017-03-23T19:32:39.757" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;You mentioned the neurotransmitters released at the synaptic cleft, but seem to be interested in the complete picture. An action potential is actually very slow to propagate down an axon with a conduction velocity from 0.5 to 150 m/s, depending on how myelinated the axon is (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10921/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10921/&lt;/a&gt;). A toddler can run faster than the slowest signals! The length of axons in the brain varies greatly as well, from a few micrometers to a few centimeters, but only a fraction of a percent actually grow longer than one centimeter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We will make a very rough calculation. Pretending the average axon length is half a centimeter (5 millimeters), and the average conduction velocity is 25 meters/second (or 25,000 millimeters/second), then the delay incurred from the action potential down the axon will be 0.005 seconds (or 5 milliseconds).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This doesn't include the time it takes the presynaptic cell to release neurotransmitters, the postsynaptic cell to absorb the neurotransmitters and transduce them into electrical impulse again, and propagate the electrical impulse to the soma for integration. For that, the delay is somewhere around 0.5 to 4 milliseconds (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14980200&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14980200&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously there are lots of variations in all these numbers. So how long does it take for a signal to be transmitted from the soma to the neuron's axon terminal to another? A few milliseconds. How long does it take for release and absorption of neurotransmitters? Perhaps another few milliseconds. If you're the type who wants a simple, idealized, singular number that ignores the complexity of the facts, then I would estimate something like 7 milliseconds for the total process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15389" LastEditorUserId="15389" LastEditDate="2017-03-24T06:10:59.663" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T06:10:59.663" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16992" CreationDate="2017-03-24T00:53:51.707" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading people's faces to determine their character is called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychicreadings911.com/face-reading/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;physiognomy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some might downplay the idea that it is real but&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;scientists are nowadays starting to accept that there may be a correlation between the shape of the face and characteristics. In fact, a recent study showed that men with a wide face tend to feel more powerful. The scientists from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee also noticed that men with this characteristic had a tendency to lie more in business in order to make more money. Find out more: &lt;a href=&quot;http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/06/29/rspb.2011.1193&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Royal Society Publishing (DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2011.1193)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00065&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paunonen, S. V., Ewan, K., Earthy, J., Lefave, S. and Goldberg, H. (1999), &lt;em&gt;Facial Features as Personality Cues.&lt;/em&gt; Journal of Personality, 67(3): pp 555–583. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00065&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Talked about 2 studies which&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;examined the effects of the appearance of specific facial features on attributions of personality. In Study 1, photographs of men and women were computer-manipulated to have larger than average or smaller than average eye size, and wider than average or narrower than average eye spacing. In Study 2, eye size and mouth fullness were similarly altered. Although it was found that neither eye spacing nor mouth fullness had any effect on perceptions of the targets' personality or physical characteristics, eye size had strong effects in both studies. Analyses of covariance revealed that the personality trait ratings that varied with eye size were mediated primarily by perceived differences in the targets’ masculinity-femininity and babyfacedness, and to a lesser extent by attractiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470211003770912&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kramer, R. S. S. and Ward, R. (2010) &lt;em&gt;Internal facial features are signals of personality and health.&lt;/em&gt; The Quarterly Journal Of Experimental Psychology, 63(11) DOI: 10.1080/17470211003770912&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We investigated forms of socially relevant information signalled from static images of the face. We created composite images from women scoring high and low values on personality and health dimensions and measured the accuracy of raters in discriminating high from low trait values. We also looked specifically at the information content within the internal facial features, by presenting the composite images with an occluding mask. Four of the Big Five traits were accurately discriminated on the basis of the internal facial features alone (conscientiousness was the exception), as was physical health. The addition of external features in the full-face images led to improved detection for extraversion and physical health and poorer performance on intellect/imagination (or openness). Visual appearance based on internal facial features alone can therefore accurately predict behavioural biases in the form of personality, as well as levels of physical health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T00:53:51.707" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17002" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-24T06:30:16.853" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working with fMRI data of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) patients. I want to convert brain volumes to brain graph and then using different graph metrics, I want to classify the brain volumes in AD and non-AD class.&#xA;The paper I want to implement is &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25907414&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Automatic classification of Alzheimer's disease with resting-state fMRI and graph theory&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15104" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-03-24T08:36:16.627" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T08:36:16.627" Title="How to convert fmri brain volumes to brain graph" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;alzheimer&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2017-03-27T06:21:48.963" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17003" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16991" CreationDate="2017-03-24T08:41:22.403" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/62/6/1166&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ehrhardt, A.A. (1978)&lt;/a&gt; states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A review of the behavioral effects of estrogen has to be divided on the basis of different time periods. During the critical phase of brain differentiation (which is species specific and takes place either before birth or neonatally), various sex hormones have long-term and permanent effects on behavior. Therefore, their action has been termed developmental or organizational. In contrast, hormones in adulthood, after the critical phase has passed, affect reversible changes in behavior and have been called activational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/mind-guest-blog/estrogen-s-role-in-impulsive-behavior/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article in the Scientific American&lt;/a&gt; links to other several studies including &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1523&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smith, C.T., et al. (2014)&lt;/a&gt; revealing that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;greater increases in estrogen levels across the menstrual cycle led to less impulsive decision making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;whilst &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19990705)409:3%3C438::AID-CNE8%3E3.0.CO;2-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kritzer, M.F. and Kohama, S.G. (1999)&lt;/a&gt; states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;estrogen increased dopamine innervation in the primate prefrontal cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ehrhardt, A. A. (1978). &lt;em&gt;Behavioral Effects of Estrogen in the Human Female&lt;/em&gt; In: Pediatrics, 62(6);&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/724354&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;724354&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kritzer, M.F. and Kohama, S.G. (1999). &lt;em&gt;Ovarian hormones differentially influence immunoreactivity for dopamine beta- hydroxylase, choline acetyltransferase, and serotonin in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of adult rhesus monkeys&lt;/em&gt; In: The Journal of Comparitive Neurology, 409(3): pp 438-51;&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10379829&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10379829&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19990705)409:3%3C438::AID-CNE8%3E3.0.CO;2-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19990705)409:3&amp;lt;438::AID-CNE8&gt;3.0.CO;2-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, C. T., Sierra, Y., Oppler, S. H., &amp;amp; Boettiger, C. A. (2014). &lt;em&gt;Ovarian Cycle Effects on Immediate Reward Selection Bias in Humans: A Role for Estradiol&lt;/em&gt; In: Journal of Neuroscience, 34(16): pp 5468-5476; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0014-14.2014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0014-14.2014&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T08:41:22.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17005" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17217" CreationDate="2017-03-24T09:26:37.190" Score="5" ViewCount="1130" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm developing small virtual neural networks and for the most part, the networks have remained feed-forward. When I create circular structures, it becomes a challenge to find a balance with the neural refactory period, stopping neurons from firing again for a period of time, giving them high action potential thresholds, then reducing that back down to fire again -it's tough to find a balance that stops infinite feedback loops but allows circular structures to play a role in processing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've done some reading on this and my vague idea so far is that circular structures perhaps allow the network to react to information based on its pattern, react to the information over time, so the C in an input series of A, B, C can be handled differently than the C in input series A, A, C. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that accurate, basically? What's the role of circular connection structures in a  neural network? I'm asking not only about multi-neuron circular structures like N1 =&gt; N2 =&gt; N3 =&gt; N1 but also about neurons that connect to themselves (N1 =&gt; N1) (which from my reading is something that happens if I understand correctly, but I'm unsure whether it achieves a similar affect as a larger scale circular structure).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; (=&gt; represents a neural connection) &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9361" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-03-27T03:08:47.510" LastActivityDate="2017-04-29T11:53:55.533" Title="What role do circular network structures play in neural networks?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17006" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16987" CreationDate="2017-03-24T20:24:52.263" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;BCI has rougly two different approaches to extract features. I will address them both. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When EEG is recorded, you can see an pattern of activity in a particular channel over time. This is the time-domain. The time domain is predominantly used to analyze Event Related Potentials. One application within BCI is the P300 speller. A matrix of letters is shown and letters are highlighted one at a time. Whenever the letter you thought of (i.e. attended to, i.e expected) a component called the P300 will show a larger deflection. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The P300 (or P3) is a positive deflection around 300-400 milliseconds after presentation of a stimulus. The amplitude of the P300 is highers when you perceive something you expected, and smaller when something unexpected (or unattend) is seen. The P300 speller is a neat and simple way to spell out one letter at a time thus (see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/10395/brain-computer-interface-with-eeg-how-to-name-imaginary-movement-of-a-non-self/14132#14132&quot;&gt;Brain-computer interface with EEG: how to name imaginary movement of a non-self object?&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wkBbC.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wkBbC.png&quot; alt=&quot;ERP&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Fast Fourier Transform (FTT), which you asked for, is used to transform the time-domain to the frequency domain. Every signal in the time-domain can be subdivided in simple sinusoids with different frequencies, amplitudes and phases. The amplitudes are also referred to as the power of the frequencies. The frequencies are grouped (see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16849/does-stimulus-independent-erp-make-sense-exist/16852#16852&quot;&gt;Does stimulus-independent ERP make sense/ exist?&lt;/a&gt;) and the power is correlated to many many different cognitive states (sleepiness, attentiveness, etc. See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/15222/are-brain-waves-electromagnetic-waves/15224#15224&quot;&gt;Are brain waves electromagnetic waves?&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BCI in the frequency domain makes use of the power of a frequency band. By focussing more or less attention, thereby de- or increasing the power in the alpha band, you can for instance move a cursor over a screen (also discussed here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/10395/brain-computer-interface-with-eeg-how-to-name-imaginary-movement-of-a-non-self/14132#14132&quot;&gt;Brain-computer interface with EEG: how to name imaginary movement of a non-self object?&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OgOll.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OgOll.png&quot; alt=&quot;FFT&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a third domain, namely the time-frequency domain (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8648/how-to-compare-brain-waves/8651#8651&quot;&gt;How to compare brain waves?&lt;/a&gt;) and there are many more other ways to look at the data, such as coherence and synchronization, and I bet (but do not know) that it is used for BCI applications. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some more reading on BCI see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/6554/is-eeg-brain-computer-interface-reliable&quot;&gt;Is EEG brain-computer interface reliable?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-03-24T20:24:52.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17007" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-24T21:07:44.667" Score="1" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have this property of mind where memories of every event which is slightly more important than everyday routine gets linked with apparently anything that's existing or happening at that time and place. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example talking about something important with someone while watching television would link that memory with whatever show was on tv and get recalled involuntarily every time the same show is watched.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Doing an action with a particular feeling in mind like fear , happiness , hate or hopelessness would tie that action with that feeling and the action would always trigger that feeling again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The inverse is true as well like begin extremely happy suddenly reminds you of a particular person or event&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar connections with feelings and  memories can be formed with a lot of things like smell , weather, temperature and even colour. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this quite common ? and is this recognised in cognitive sciences ? because I'm yet to meet someone with similar experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14543" LastEditorUserId="14543" LastEditDate="2017-03-27T18:13:03.193" LastActivityDate="2017-03-27T18:13:03.193" Title="Memories triggered by everything" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2017-03-25T19:20:59.493" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16982" CreationDate="2017-03-24T21:23:13.203" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I provided an answer to a similar question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16400/is-neurogenesis-driven-by-prediction-error/16989#16989&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; that limitedly deals with the role of biological prediction errors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an excerpt of that answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...to answer this properly, we must first make it clear that there are potentially dozens, hundreds, or an arbitrarily high number of other &amp;quot;prediction error types&amp;quot; in use by the brain. Here are just a few major ways, hypothetically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lots of different neurotransmitters (e.g. dopamine)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The opening/closing of various ion channel species that regulate the membrane potential&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Synaptic vescicles/receptors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuronal firing rates (as in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bursting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bursting&lt;/a&gt;, a rapid succession of action potentials)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Temporal coding (relative firing times to the firing of other neurons)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And I can think of 10 other more-subtle and harder to explain possibilities, but that are just as important, off the top of my head&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind that each neuron also seems to have its own differentiated mechanisms for, both, interpreting and signaling prediction error. This complicates things further. For instance, one neurotransmitter may communicate prediction error to one particular neuron, but has no effect (or a different effect) on a different neuron. It may even be that neurotransmitter X must be present while temporal code Y happens for the event to be interpreted as a prediction error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study of biological mechanisms for prediction error is a very complicated thing that has no simple interpretation, as opposed to what you find in artificial approaches (presumably, like your PredNet example). While we have not yet uncovered how the brain computes or uses these mechanisms to encode and communicate prediction errors across neurons, what is obvious is that the brain has to be doing some kind of prediction error coding. However, if we try to oversimplify what the brain is doing, we are likely to not have a very intelligent model. The fragility of predictions, susceptibility to error from data complications, and limited nature of current artificial intelligence implementations lends to the idea that there is a lack of good ideas about how to implement and fully utilize prediction error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The work I do is of a theoretical nature so your question is right up my alley. I have some unique ideas on how various biological prediction errors may work, but it requires a lot of background to understand. Unfortunately, I also have not published my ideas so they are definitely not peer reviewed. That makes me somewhat reluctant to mention my personal ideas as an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's possible that a kind of prediction error is used in all the listed mechanisms to fine tune the respective properties. Each mechanism likely has a unique role that is central to intelligence- from not only prediction errors encountered in the environment, but even to intrinsic behaviors and being able to predict the outcome of its own actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15389" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-03-25T23:07:06.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17009" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17011" CreationDate="2017-03-24T22:59:57.863" Score="3" ViewCount="551" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been discussing about humour and how things become funny for people with a friend, and we got stuck at this point. What is the process behind laughing at inside jokes? They don't necessarily break expectation, use sarcasm/irony nor are surreal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have no experience in psychology, but this seemed like the best place to ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15411" LastEditorUserId="14486" LastEditDate="2017-03-27T06:20:55.007" LastActivityDate="2017-03-27T06:20:55.007" Title="How do inside jokes work?" Tags="&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17010" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16974" CreationDate="2017-03-25T11:41:22.177" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is yes, probably. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Referencing is the process of subtracting a referent signal from all of your channels. While recording, the EEG data are typically online referenced to a vertex electrode, earlobes, back of the neck etc. During post collection processing EEG are most often rereferenced to the average reference, or the linked mastoids. The reference  that is selected changes the shape of the signal simply because the reference channel (or average signal if using more than one) are subtracted from every channel. This means that comparing results across data that have different references is not direct. Since referencing is linear it can typically be undone and the reference channel can be changed. I never use a nasion reference so I can't say for certain why the amplitude is so large but I would guess if you looked at the signal at that channel you would see how it is adding (if channel of interest is positive and referant is negative then amplitude goes up) to your electrode of interest or subtracting from it (if both are positive). For a P3 response 6 micro volts is reasonable. If you want a more detailed explanation of referencing I recommend Nunez's book, or another book on EEG data analysis and theory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13038" LastActivityDate="2017-03-25T11:41:22.177" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17011" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17009" CreationDate="2017-03-25T18:22:48.900" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check out the two articles below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Meyer, J. C. (2000). Humor as a double-edged sword: Four functions of humor in communication. Communication Theory.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two of the functions unite communicators through identification and clarification of norms, while two other functions divide communicators through differentiation of unacceptable behaviors and enforcement of norms. &quot;Inside jokes&quot; unite communicators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Flamson, T., &amp;amp; Barrett, H. C. (2008). The encryption theory of humor: A knowledge-based mechanism of honest signaling. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 6 (4), 261–281.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They posited that humor acts as a high-accuracy signal of shared but tacit background knowledge, including social norms. To “get” a joke requires understanding tacit knowledge assumed by the joker, and “getting” a joke virtually guarantees shared tacit knowledge. &quot;Inside jokes&quot; signal you're on the inside.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14486" LastActivityDate="2017-03-25T18:22:48.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17012" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-25T19:51:55.867" Score="1" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard about an experiment with a very simple setup where you experience a feeling of weightlessness while sitting on a chair. I heard this on a podcast but I can't remember the details or the name of the phenomenon. I only remember that you do &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; or that &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; is done to you while you sit on a chair that gives you a surprisingly real feeling of weightlessness and that this something is a pretty simple procedure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15416" LastEditorUserId="15416" LastEditDate="2017-04-06T15:43:22.843" LastActivityDate="2017-04-06T15:43:22.843" Title="What is the name for the experiment where you experience a feeling of weightlessness while sitting on a chair?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-04-04T22:01:26.040" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17015" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17005" CreationDate="2017-03-26T19:01:53.880" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if this offers you any help, but I'll give it a shot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I work with certain programs that allow me to create virtual networks. What these programs have in common is that they fire neurons one by one. So if you have a perceptron with size &lt;code&gt;{input: 1, hidden: 5; output: 1}&lt;/code&gt; it will activate the input, then it will activate the hidden neurons chronologically and then the output.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more complex feed-forward networks, neurons still get activated one by one using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_sorting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Topological sorting&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;But in circular neural networks, or networks which have connections going backward, neurons still have to be activated one by one. So say I have the following neural network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RD2WR.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RD2WR.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the order of activation in this neural network is &lt;code&gt;in, in, a, b, c, d, e, out&lt;/code&gt;. But as you might see, there is an error pointing from &lt;strong&gt;d backwards to b&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how can &lt;code&gt;b&lt;/code&gt; be influended by &lt;code&gt;d&lt;/code&gt; when b gets activated first? Because neurons &lt;strong&gt;store&lt;/strong&gt; their activation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if I run this neural network the first time, the influence from &lt;code&gt;d&lt;/code&gt; on &lt;code&gt;b&lt;/code&gt; is 0, because &lt;code&gt;d&lt;/code&gt; has no activation yet. But after this first activation, &lt;code&gt;d&lt;/code&gt; gets a value. &lt;strong&gt;So next time you run the neural network, &lt;code&gt;b&lt;/code&gt; will be influenced by the &lt;em&gt;previous&lt;/em&gt; value of &lt;code&gt;d&lt;/code&gt;!&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So arrows pointing backwards are also called memory connections; they make the previous activation values have influence on the next activation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this is somewhat clear O.O. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_short-term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LSTM&lt;/a&gt; networks use these connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15421" LastActivityDate="2017-03-26T19:01:53.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17016" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17005" CreationDate="2017-03-27T03:16:34.367" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Neural Engineering Framework uses &lt;a href=&quot;https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/celiasmith/syde556/blob/master/SYDE%20556%20Lecture%205%20Dynamics.ipynb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Principle 3&lt;/a&gt; to describe these &quot;circular&quot; or &quot;recurrent&quot; connections as dynamical systems similar to those used in control theory. However, the only reason it's able to do this is it's focus on spiking neurons and modelling their dendrites as filtering, so I'm not sure how much this applies to your case, but I thought it might still be a helpful hint on a different approach if you're interested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-03-27T03:16:34.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17017" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-27T09:10:02.577" Score="0" ViewCount="265" Body="&lt;p&gt;This weekend the clocks were set an our later (in some countries), such that the daylight lasts an hour longer in the evening. This has several reasons, among which a reduction in energy consumption and it is preferred by people who's work depends on daylight (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daylight_saving_time&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt;). Moreover, the clock will be more in sync with the natural sleep cycle which ought to improve well being (see figure). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/SpringFwd-FallBack.png/750px-SpringFwd-FallBack.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/SpringFwd-FallBack.png/750px-SpringFwd-FallBack.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, because of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daylight_saving_time&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Daylight Saving Time&lt;/a&gt; (DST), you do not only lose 1 hour of sleep that night, the entire day has shifted an hour. Subsequent nights, you'll thus likely experience that you go to bed an hour early. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does this hour of missed sleep and shift in day affect your wakefulness and attentiveness (and overall productivity at work)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-04-18T08:12:08.677" LastActivityDate="2017-06-19T13:33:47.607" Title="What is the effect of Daylight Saving Time on attentiveness and productivity?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17019" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17005" CreationDate="2017-03-27T14:16:16.987" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since this question is in the Cognitive Science category, I'm assuming you're asking for ideas supported by neuroscience evidence, and not artificial neural networks. Naturally, this makes things much more theoretical and difficult to get everyone on the same page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...so the C in an input series of A, B, C can be handled differently than the C in input series A, A, C.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I understand your example correctly, you are asking what the role of &quot;circular&quot; network connections is in processing series that vary over time, and with respect to the temporal context of the inputs. This is a very clever thing to ask and has many important applications to AI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conceptually, the brain does do this by having a mechanism to distinguish between inputs based on context. In your example, you are right in thinking that the C should be handled differently in ABC than it should in AAC. The ability to understand C in a way that is unique to the events leading up to it is a powerful one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Contextual time series analysis is something that Jeff Hawkin's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_temporal_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hierarchical Temporal Memory&lt;/a&gt; (HTM) model of intelligence (based loosely on biologically inspired ideas) tries to accomplish, and it may be relevant to you. However, it does not incorporate feedback connections from higher (more abstract) regions to lower ones. Keep in mind that HTM still has its pitfalls in contextual time series analysis and so the actual way the brain does it is much more robust. I offer this merely as an anecdote.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a biological perspective, you have to understand the word &quot;circular&quot; to mean the feedforward and feedback connections between neurons of different levels, as opposed to lateral connections between neurons within the same level. Neurons within the same level receive connections from the same inhibitory neurons (which are overwhelmingly local connections). You mentioned that neurons connect to themselves (N1 =&gt; N1), but this is not a very commonly studied thing in biology and probably has a role in error correction, boosting its own activity, or some other kind of activity modulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What seems to be happening in all parts of the brain, and even the retina, is that a level's excitatory neurons will send their feedforward signals to the next higher region's inhibitory and excitatory neurons. The inhibitory neurons will laterally inhibit the least active excitatory neurons within the same level. Some excitatory neurons will then send connections to the next higher region (feedforward) and the same process repeats. Other excitatory neurons will send connections to the lower region that connects to it (can consider these connections feedback), but will generally connect in a way to inhibit the excitatory neurons of the lower region by activating the inhibitory neurons (which work locally, thus only within that region).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With many more details excluded, this leads to a self-stabilizing framework where very little fine-tuning of arbitrary parameters is required (which apparently is a problem that you are well aware of in trying to find that balance). However, a circular network is just one substrate that is in use by the brain to understand context in time series. Unfortunately, circular connections actually have very little to do with contextual time series. Lateral connections seem to have much more to do with that than feedforward and feedback connections. With that said, there is much to be gained in combining the HTM's contextual time series analysis approach with a valid feedforward and feedback connection scheme between levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feedforward connections mainly serve to make input signals much more abstract. Feedback connections serve as a way to fine-tune the lower levels and &quot;tell&quot; those levels which activations it is allowed to have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to learn more about circular connections and their role, I strongly recommend you study the retina. It is simpler than understanding the cortex and subcortical components, and we know much more about its cognitive processing than we do of the brain. Furthermore, the retina is actually an extension of the brain. It even comes complete with neurons that process signals in complex ways. You find the circular connections of which you speak in there, inhibitory/excitatory neurons, distinct hierarchical levels, and the higher cells even demonstrate characteristics of context-dependent input series on very small timescales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15389" LastEditorUserId="15389" LastEditDate="2017-03-27T14:27:48.310" LastActivityDate="2017-03-27T14:27:48.310" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17021" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-27T15:11:42.897" Score="0" ViewCount="3021" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently designing an experiment with several conditions - how do I decide how many repetitions / stimuli within each condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that I can justify sample size with an a priori power analysis...is there any common way to choose how many trials within each of my conditions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was using sample size/power as an example of something where there is a particular approach to help decide.....what I am actually asking about is the number of &lt;strong&gt;trials&lt;/strong&gt; i.e. if I have three conditions in my experiment, how many stimuli should I design for each of the conditions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9853" LastEditorUserId="9853" LastEditDate="2017-03-30T19:58:25.550" LastActivityDate="2017-03-30T19:58:25.550" Title="How do you decide how many trials to have in an experiment?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-04-22T12:09:30.387" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17023" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17025" CreationDate="2017-03-27T19:35:44.573" Score="2" ViewCount="551" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that the term &lt;em&gt;&quot;Cognify&quot;&lt;/em&gt; in cognitive psychology means that you are made aware of something but not yet have sufficient insight to act.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the term describe the insufficiency of insight or does it describe the fact of being made aware of something (which presumably will eventually become cognitive comprehension)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm asking because the term is being used marketing wise at our company, and I want to make sure that it actually describes something positive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which would you say is the more appropriate synonym for cognify?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Being made aware of.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inadequately understood to make a decision.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15436" LastEditorUserId="15436" LastEditDate="2017-03-27T21:15:49.507" LastActivityDate="2017-03-28T11:42:08.250" Title="&quot;Cognify&quot;. Does it describe awareness or confusion?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17025" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17023" CreationDate="2017-03-28T05:48:32.110" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did a quick google search for you and cognify only returned new, hip, modern, trendy websites and apps. So that was no use. Cognify just appears to sound cool in the industry. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I looked at google scholar citation I again did not find many results, let alone studies that explicitly study cognify or cognification. As a matter of fact, only 14(!!) results were produced with just the word cognify. Within these results, I was able to find some papers that had used the word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bentrop (2014) appears to use cognify like your first translation: to become aware or to make explicit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Teachers need to “cognify” their curriculum—examine their subject&#xA;  matter to identify and explicitly teach the thinking skills which are&#xA;  embedded within their subject&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vakalo (1978) uses cognify as &quot;building a fitting (mental) picture&quot; or, similarly to the former study, &quot;becoming aware&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When one visits an area for the first time he expects evidence of the presence&#xA;  of some phenomena and absence of others. The mechanism he uses to perceive and cognify spatial phenomena is comparison.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems thus that cognify means &quot;becoming aware&quot;, more likely by yourself (through the act of deliberate thought) instead of &quot;being made aware of&quot;. The fact that Vakalo used the word in 1978 already, but is not that well known still, shows that the word hasn't gained much traction in psychological sciences. It is thus likely that cognify is not an official term. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you would like to read more on becoming aware, you should have a look at situation awareness (being aware) or situation assessment (becoming aware; e.g. Endsley, 1995; Wickens, 2008). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://digitalcommons.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1681&amp;amp;context=pacs_capstones&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bentrop, S. M. (2014). Creating an educational app rubric for teachers of students who are deaf and hard of hearing.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://uwf.edu/skass/documents/HF.37.1995-Endsley-Theory.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Endsley, M. R. (1995). Toward a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 37(1), 32-64.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vakalo, E. G. G., &amp;amp; Plessas, D. J. (1978). A conceptual framework for the estimation of opportunity loss at the regional-sectoral level with an application to Greece. Επιθεώρηση Κοινωνικών Ερευνών, 32(32), 117-126.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.535.2995&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wickens, C. D. (2008). Situation awareness: Review of Mica Endsley's 1995 articles on situation awareness theory and measurement. Human factors, 50(3), 397-403.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-03-28T11:42:08.250" LastActivityDate="2017-03-28T11:42:08.250" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17026" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17037" CreationDate="2017-03-28T13:09:21.120" Score="3" ViewCount="2303" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found the father-hunger syndrome. Does anyone knows if there is another, maybe more official term for that? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any sources that someone could use for the particular syndrome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15442" LastActivityDate="2017-04-21T13:54:18.110" Title="Father hunger syndrome" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17027" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13893" CreationDate="2017-03-28T14:35:11.683" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I managed to find some newspaper articles and research that touch this topic, claiming that indeed more traditional architecture has positive influences on health and well-being, although these statements would likely require a more careful evaluation for the sake of rigor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/12065883/Beautiful-urban-architecture-boosts-health-as-much-as-green-spaces.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beautiful urban architecture boosts health as much as green spaces &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.spectator.co.uk/2017/03/new-tory-manifesto-make-beauty-affordable/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Classical architecture makes us happy. So why not build more of it?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/articles/srep16899&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quantifying the Impact of Scenic Environments on Health&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some key points:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We find that inhabitants of more scenic environments report better&#xA;  health, across urban, suburban and rural areas, even when taking core&#xA;  socioeconomic indicators of deprivation into account, such as income,&#xA;  employment and access to services.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is a fair amount of research suggesting that traditional&#xA;  architecture, such as Georgian and Victorian terraces and mansion&#xA;  blocks, contributes to our wellbeing. Beauty makes people happy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A brisk walk in the countryside or a stroll along the beach is a&#xA;  well-known mood booster and health experts have long recommended&#xA;  getting out of the city improve physical and mental wellbeing. But a&#xA;  new study suggests that beautiful urban architecture, the sweep of&#xA;  docklands, or a gritty suburban river bank can have just as much&#xA;  impact on health and happiness levels. The findings imply that it is&#xA;  the overall cohesion of architecture and design which boosts people’s&#xA;  health and happiness, not just the number of parks and trees. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Crucially, the researchers found that areas rated as most scenic and&#xA;  uplifting were often not green areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5109" LastActivityDate="2017-03-28T14:35:11.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17029" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14081" CreationDate="2017-03-28T16:08:10.523" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, aside from the mention of there being only 100 million neurons in the brain (there are actually 86-100 billion of them), the general idea that he communicates is correct. The activity pattern of a neuron through time (i.e. temporal activation) is how cognitions are encoded. NeuronA firing 5 milliseconds before NeuronB is a VERY different pattern than NeuronA firing 5 milliseconds after NeuronB. We see this very easily in the low-level retinal bipolar cells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is seen most readily in so-called &quot;center/surround&quot; cells. Although the idea of center/surround is simplified to the point that it ignores some of the more complex aspects of the phenomenon (even by renowned scientists), it still teaches us an interesting thing about how brains work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that certain &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/ganglion/ganglion.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Retinal Ganglion Cells&lt;/a&gt; possess very idealized center/surround properties. This means that some of them react to light stimuli in a way that causes rapid action potentials when the light is shone only in the center of the RGC's receptive field. Other RGCs demonstrate a reaction of rapid action potentials only when light is shone in the surround field of the RGC's receptive field, with no light in the center. This causes both cells to have inverse properties, where one cell is active when the other one is not. Then after a small delay, the activity of each cell flip-flops so that the one that was active is now inhibited and the other cell becomes active.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pqf9P.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pqf9P.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;RGC on/off-center/surround response properties&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other RGCs also react very complexly to strange patterns of light stimuli. After studying these phenomena for a while, it becomes clear that the timing (onset or delay) of the action potentials from a neuron communicates very important codes to the postsynaptic neurons. So yes, a huge part for neurons to interpret information from a string of action potentials is largely rooted in the temporal code, relative to other neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15389" LastEditorUserId="15389" LastEditDate="2017-03-28T16:16:00.403" LastActivityDate="2017-03-28T16:16:00.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17030" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-28T16:22:37.477" Score="3" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there papers which discuss the effects of quantity and quality of breaks during learning? Do state of the art papers have a common ground?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I have found these papers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131720108984795&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Fourth R: Recess and Its Link to Learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430500207179&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The effects of different recess timing regimens on preschoolers' classroom attention&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, both focus on kids and learning in school. The second article even on preschoolers. So I'm not sure, if the hypotheses also apply to adults. Also they're from 2007 and 2008, resp.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14558" LastEditorUserId="14558" LastEditDate="2017-03-28T17:09:55.107" LastActivityDate="2017-03-28T17:09:55.107" Title="Effects of quantity and quality of breaks on learning" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17031" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16957" CreationDate="2017-03-28T22:13:35.280" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This isn't the exact answer to your question, but one way in which you can assess a person's likelihood of answering a measure honestly is the Social Desirability Scale (SDS). The SDS measures a participant's tendency to self-report responses that are viewed positively by society. Multiple versions of the SDS exist- &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.491.5048&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here's&lt;/a&gt; an example of one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15448" LastActivityDate="2017-03-28T22:13:35.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17036" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5129" CreationDate="2017-03-29T10:50:29.147" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Russia girls love primativity, a term pioneered by ethologists Anatoliy Protopopov and Oleg Novoselov. High promativity means the instincts control the behavior of an individuals, low primativity means the reason rather than instincts guides them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Low primative men are usually engaged in science, invention, innovation and revolutionary activity. All the leading ideologists of all ideologies are low-primative. They usually set up rules which other people follow. If you take Jesus Christ, Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, Richard Stallman, Albert Einstain, Sacher-Masoch and even Adolf Hitler, all of them were low-primative men. Low primative men are either irreligious or set up religions of their own. They are often concerned with the future of the humanity as a whole. Among low primative men there is greater percent of gays and other sexual deviants because the natural instincts are weak. Most of sexual maniacs and mass murderers as well as designers of genocide and wars are low-primative. They are also often involved in mass frauds and high-tech crimes. They usually have no women or their women more resemble their comrades and ugly-looking. They usually do not have kids or only very small number.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Medium primative men are those who conforms with the established rules, build carrier, often very religious, conservative, have fimily-oriented values. The majority of peace-time politicians are medium-primative. Medium primative men usually have the quantity of children just above the replacement limit (2–3) and do not hesitate to bring big money to their spouses. They are rarely concerned with the future of humanity but often very patriotic and often intolerant of sexual deviations. After the low primative men make a revolution and establish new rules, they are gradually replaced with medium primative men, who follow those said rules. The most common crimes for medium primative men are corruption and accepting bribes. Medium primative men usually have no hope for free sex, and have to pay big money to women. At the same time they usually have no problem with finding a spouse. They are at high risk of being cheated and divorced though.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;High primative men are those whose insticts lead the behavior. Most of them are petty criminals, thugs or occupying low-paid positions such as taxi drivers. They have no prospects of making any carrier and even getting a well-paid job. They are often members of various gangs, such as skin-heads, football fans or just local mafia. In school they usually bully other kids. They are often drug addicts or drunkards. The most typical crimes for this group are violent assaults, robberies, drug trade, small scale stealing. They usually start sexual life at very early age, and often have many children whom they do not support. They often originate from families of alone woman who has many kids. Their father is often unknown, dead or imprisoned.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Among these three categories of men it is the third category which is the most desirable for women. High primative men usually have a lot of sex, and never do pay for it. Conversely, it is often women who give them money. According to Novoselov, a woman cannot sincerely fall in love with a low or medium primative man.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The primativity of women is greater on average than that of men, but has less dispersion. Each woman always looks for a man of higher primativity than her own. Women like primativity the same way as men like beauty. Finding a woman who does not like high primative men is as difficult as to find a man who disliked beautiful women. But the parental education and social pressure often presses women towards medium primative men. Such women have very hard time finding a partner that would satisfy their internal desires and social expectations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Primativity is not a constant thing throughout one’s life. It decreases with age and education. High primative men can simulate low-primative behavior for a while by suppressing their instincts. There is much less methods for rising primativity, though. The following is some advice on how you can behave in high-primative manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Never tell the woman about your big property, good carrier, education. If asked, say that you cannot find a job now but your friends will help you to get some job&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Never speak with the woman on philosophical or scientific topics, the future of humanity, global warming, technology etc.&#xA;The woman should know that you have a lot of friends who respect you and a lot of women who want you.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Never tell the woman how your boss/president/Nobel committe respects you. Instead, find friends near your home, make sure they always greet you when see you. It is important to be respected near your place of living.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Make your friends and/or strangers always give you cigarettes, beer etc. Do not hesistate to ask. Never buy anything in a company, always strive that your friends buy drinks to your girlfriend at your suggestion.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Always underline you have no money. Ask the girl to lend you money or other things. Never return the borrowed, always postpone indefinitely or say you gave it to someone.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Invent reasons why you need money, ill mother, friends went to jail and need help etc.&#xA;The girl should know that you started sexual life early, you have many brothers and sisters, your relatives have been to jail.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Never say you do not smoke and/or drink because you decided so or prohibited by parents. Instead say you quit it because your gang forbids it (for better fighting).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Steal things from the girl, if discovered say you took it because needed and going to return.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lie to the girl a lot. She should understand that you are lying but never hint it or make joking face. She should see that you can lie convincingly.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Behave aggressively occasionally against other men (especially, low-primative). If in danger, do not hesistate to esscape. Women do not despise cowards the way men do. But do not allow yourself being beaten.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In every collective find the lowest-primative guy and bully him, organize your friends to help you. If not that far, at least find someone to buy beer for all (after that, you say, the guy will become your friend). Girls respect those who can make others do something for them.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If the girl asks you a cigarette, do not give yours, ask strangers for one. Better never carry cigarettes with yourself even if smoking, always ask for.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Never tell about your real estate, either owned or rented. Better say you live with your mother, sisters and brothers and you have bad relations with a sister so you do not know what to do.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Never say you know how to use a computer. If the girl discovered that you have one, say it was bought for your sister and you do not know how to use it.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Oleg Novoselov, Alex Lesley (it is a pseudonym, he is a Russian author) and others, if a woman discovers you have a resourse, she will not give you sex until she gets the resource. If you pay for a woman anywhere, she switches in the “dynamo” mode, that is to eat for your expense, exploit you and go away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15459" LastActivityDate="2017-03-29T10:50:29.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17037" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17026" CreationDate="2017-03-29T13:36:58.210" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a large subject area, but I will outline a strong starting point for you to do more research where needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00797308.1980.11823111&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;James M. Herzog's (1980)&lt;/a&gt; term &lt;em&gt;Father Hunger&lt;/em&gt;, sometimes referred to as a syndrome, and sometimes referred to as the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_complex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Father Complex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; may have its roots in many theories developed over the years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those who subscribe to Psychodynamic theories, the roots of &lt;em&gt;Father Hunger&lt;/em&gt; could be from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freud&lt;/a&gt; and his &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oedipus_complex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oedipus Complex&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carl Jung&lt;/a&gt; and his &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electra_complex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Electra Complex&lt;/a&gt;.  Both of these are in Freud's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosexual_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychosexual Theory of Development&lt;/a&gt; during the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phallic_stage&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phalic Stage&lt;/a&gt; of development, (around the age of 3 to 6 years), which also equates to Erik Erikson's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychosocial Theory of Development&lt;/a&gt; stage of Initiative vs. Guilt (Sigelman &amp;amp; Rider, 2012: p38).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;Father Complex&lt;/em&gt; Wikipedia article, which has plenty of source links, states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The father complex also stood at the conceptual core of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totem_and_Taboo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Totem and Taboo (1912-3)&lt;/a&gt;. Even after the break with Jung, when &quot;complex&quot; became a term to be handled with care among Freudians, the father complex remained important in Freud's theorizing in the twenties; — for example, it appeared prominently in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_of_an_Illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Future of an Illusion (1927)&lt;/a&gt;. Others in Freud's circle wrote freely of the complex's ambivalent nature. However, by 1946, and Otto Fenichel's compendious summary of the first psychoanalytic half-century, [in The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis (1946)] the father complex tended to be subsumed under the broader scope of the Oedipus complex as a whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alongside the shift from a Freudian emphasis on the role of the father to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.melanie-klein-trust.org.uk/klein&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Melanie Klein&lt;/a&gt;'s beliefs surrounding &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_relations_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;object relations theory&lt;/a&gt; stressing upon the mother, what psychoanalysis tended to single out was the search for the father, and the negative effects of the switched-off father.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_complex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;In postmodernism&lt;/a&gt;, the father complex surrounds the loss of paternal authority — the absence of the father.  The father could be absent due to death, marriage separation, divorce or simple withdrawal by the father.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Father hunger is the result of receiving too little quality fathering as a child or young adult. Some argue that even grown men and women need fathers or father surrogates and that the absence of such role modeling and support is associated with less fulfillment in life. In general, father hunger results from too little intimacy between child and father. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personalconsult.com/books/lostfathering1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schaller, 1995&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a mixture of psychosexual development theory and postmodernist theory within an article stating that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The tween years find daughters writhing into a sea of hormones as puberty overtakes their bodies. They become extremely emotional. Girls edging into womanhood want to know how to act. They question “Am I attractive?” “Am I loveable?”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fathers are looked to for answers to these developmental questions. Young adolescent girls bring an intensity to dads as they want to talk about these things. Girls long to understand the opposite sex and how they rate. And girls do all this in a style that is over the top – from giggling to screeching, from restless to rebellious. Uncomfortable with emotions to begin with, fathers resist daughters who feel overwhelming to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Add burgeoning sexuality to the mix. As girls physically morph into curvaceous women, fathers often withdraw because the change makes them uncomfortable, unsure if those old hugs or kisses are inappropriate somehow. (Sagarese, 2014)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Herzog, J. M. (1980). &lt;em&gt;Sleep disturbance and father hunger in 18-to-28-month-old boys: The Erlkönig Syndrome&lt;/em&gt;. In: Solnit, et al., eds. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 35(1): pp 223-230&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7433580&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;7433580&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00797308.1980.11823111&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/00797308.1980.11823111&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00797308.1980.11823111&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00797308.1980.11823111&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sagarese, M., (2014) &lt;em&gt;Dads, Daughters and Food&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2014-05-16/features/sfp-dads-daughters-food_1_father-and-daughter-dads-yo-yo-dieting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2014-05-16/features/sfp-dads-daughters-food_1_father-and-daughter-dads-yo-yo-dieting&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schaller, J. L., (1995). &lt;em&gt;The Search for Lost Fathering: Rebuilding Your Father Relationship&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;Grand Rapids, MI: Fleming H Revell Co. ISBN-13: 978-0800755522&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Chapters 1, 3 &amp;amp; 8 free to read on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personalconsult.com/books/lostfathering1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;author's website&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sigelman, C. K. &amp;amp; Rider, E. A., (2012). &lt;em&gt;Life-Span Human Development.&lt;/em&gt; 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-04-19T20:16:54.683" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T20:16:54.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17040" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-30T00:11:48.963" Score="1" ViewCount="339" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;method of loci&lt;/a&gt; is a famous way of memorizing information by associating each memorized item in a spatial way.  There's plenty of content out there describing how to do it.  I'm wondering what the drawbacks might be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone done any studies into issues that arise for people who memorize details using the method of loci?  For example, perhaps there are sets which one cannot memorize because one already memorized a related set and committed it to memory?  Or perhaps one might create hazardous paths which contain harmful memories which one would like to unlearn but cannot, causing trauma?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a non-scientific reasoning, it strikes me as there must be some drawbacks, or society would have figured this out long ago and would have taught us all to memorize everything this way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10744" LastActivityDate="2017-03-30T00:11:48.963" Title="Drawbacks to the method of loci for memorization" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17041" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-30T10:13:00.830" Score="3" ViewCount="301" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd appreciate some help from you guys. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm currently analyzing an experiment where I've entrained participants to these frequencies: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Condition 1: 4.16Hz-8.33Hz&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Condition 2: 2.77Hz-8.33Hz&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Condition 3: 2.4Hz&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For each condition I passed 8 trials of 26 seconds at Fs = 500Hz. &#xA;I'm analysing the data using FieldTrip and some toolboxes in Matlab. &#xA;I calculated the &lt;strong&gt;Power and PSD&lt;/strong&gt; using &lt;strong&gt;pwelch&lt;/strong&gt; function after processing the data in Fieldtrip.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want my data in dB units and get rid of the $1/f^\gamma$ trend where $0&amp;lt; \gamma&amp;lt;2$  (&lt;a href=&quot;http://behavioralandbrainfunctions.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1744-9081-3-62&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Demanuele et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have 2 problems:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) I don't know how to remove the 1/f trend correctly since I don't understand how the article that I mention does it (see below) in the frequency domain (I have tried fitting $1/f^\gamma$ with best $\gamma$, using the &lt;strong&gt;lsqcurvefit&lt;/strong&gt; function. Using the &lt;strong&gt;medfilt1&lt;/strong&gt; with order 15 gives me the best results. Though I think there should be a better way, also that can be defended on an article). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;the spectrogram of one EEG channel was calculated. The median across all time windows was then found for every frequency point. Thus, a graph of the median PSD value for every frequency was obtained. The same procedure was repeated for all the EEG channels. Then, the overall median of the median PSD curves of all the channels was calculated. The same was done for each of the 'task' and 'rest' condition. The average was then calculated across all conditions and this was used as our normalisation curve.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;I thought it might be helpful to provide the code I made. Sorry for the inefficiencies you may find since I am no developer: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;% Choose subject&#xA;&#xA;load matfiles/Subject05&#xA;% loading subject5 where (channel,samples,trial,condition) is a 4D matrix&#xA;&#xA;samples = numel(subject5(1,:,1,1)); % number of samples&#xA;&#xA;% Number of samples per window, the less windows the better frequency resolution and worst time resolution. I tried different windows. &#xA;nsc = floor(samples/4.5);&#xA;&#xA;nov = floor(nsc*0.75); % overlap of 75% &#xA;&#xA;fr = 0.5:0.05:15; % foi&#xA;&#xA;fs = 500; % sampling freq&#xA;&#xA;%initialize variable&#xA;medps = zeros(291,28,21,3);&#xA;&#xA;% loop conditions&#xA;for cond = 1 : length(subject5(1,1,1,:)) &#xA;&#xA;    %loop trials&#xA;    for trial = 1 : length(subject5(1,1,:,cond)) &#xA;&#xA;        % loop channels &#xA;        for chan = 1 : length(subject5(:,1,trial,cond))&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;            % calculate spectrogram for each channel, trial and condition&#xA;            %gives t(time) and ps (PSD estimate for each freq and time in Amplitude^2/Hz units)&#xA;            [~,~,t,ps] = spectrogram(subject5(chan,:,trial,cond),hamming(nsc),nov,fr,fs); &#xA;&#xA;            % calculate median over time points per channel, trial and condition&#xA;            medps(:,chan,trial,cond) = median(ps,2); &#xA;        end&#xA;    end&#xA;end&#xA;&#xA;%Calculate median over channels per trial and condition&#xA;medchan = median(medps,2); %this produces matrix freqx1channelxtrialsxcond&#xA;medchan = permute(medchan,[1 3 4 2]); %get 4D into 3D &#xA;&#xA;%Calculate median over trials per condition&#xA;medtrial = median(medchan,2); &#xA;medtrial = permute(medtrial,[1 3 2]); %Get a 2D matrix freqxcond&#xA;&#xA;%Mean over conditions is our Normalization Curve&#xA;normalizationCurve = mean(medtrial,2);&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Once I transform the data to dB units (i.e. $10*log10$) it gets really noisy, making the peaks at the foi (frequencies of interest) as big as the background or almost. I've looked into SNR but really don't know how to apply it here. The only thing I've done and still doesn't remove all the noise is the &lt;strong&gt;medfilt1&lt;/strong&gt; mentioned in 1). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope any of you with experience in this can help me solve this issue! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15467" LastEditorUserId="15467" LastEditDate="2017-04-03T12:41:02.747" LastActivityDate="2017-04-03T12:41:02.747" Title="How to denoise and get rid of 1/f trend of a PSD in an EEG synchronization experiment" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;synchronization&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17042" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17021" CreationDate="2017-03-30T19:27:28.820" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A power analysis is typically based on the difference in the mean to be detected and the expected standard deviation of the data. The amount of variation in the data (i.e., the size of the standard deviation) typically depends on individual differences in the subjects and measurement noise. The measurement noise depends on a number of things, but in many experiments can be reduced by running more trials. In the minimal risk experiments I am most familiar with, we run so many trials that we reduce the trial related noise to inconsequential amounts. We tend to use wildly inefficient methods for collecting the trials also (our stimuli and response interval are too long, we use multiple intervals, and our adaptive procedures are not optimized).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to minimize the data collection/maximize power (and this should not be the only goal) the stopping rule generally cannot be a number of trials, but rather a precision criteria. There are procedures (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698902003966&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ZEST&lt;/a&gt;) which can be set up to use a fixed number of trials or a target precision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-03-30T19:27:28.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17044" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17041" CreationDate="2017-03-30T21:09:30.567" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apparently the paper you mention is simply evaluating the median in the EEG spetrum. Say that for all your channels you get a 3D matrix PSD, with dimension 1 the number of channel, dimension 2 the time windows, and dimension 3 the frequencies. In pseudocode the article computes M = median(median(PSD,2),1), then removes the trend with CorrectedPSD = PSD - M. Which is actually fairly simple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15474" LastActivityDate="2017-03-30T21:09:30.567" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17045" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-31T01:20:48.857" Score="3" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some psychiatrists claim that when someone has psychosis, there is usually a drop in intellect. Does a drop in intellect always happen, or are the boundaries for psychosis not as discrete? Why are they sometimes confused in the absence of a drop in intellect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15476" LastEditorUserId="15890" LastEditDate="2017-05-13T05:38:44.680" LastActivityDate="2017-05-15T23:29:47.843" Title="Is a drop in intellect necessary for one to be diagnosed with psychosis?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17046" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-03-31T04:26:17.357" Score="3" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any external factors (i.e. with less focus on the genetic make-up of the individual persons) which can, in let's say, an average human, generate earlier and perhaps more clear earliest memories?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be very interested in any non-retrospective research in this area. That is: intervention studies, which I would guess probably need parents' approval.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I would be interested in both what types of events (I would naturally assume trauma is one, as well as perhaps general high emotional association in general, but I might be very wrong and would be equally interested in other ones), as well as perhaps if pedagogy or any other factor influence the ability to generate early childhood memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, I am interested in whether or not this has anything to do with an early onset of self-conscience, or any other amenability between the individual and its environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To wrap up, and state my question briefly: can an early onset of childhood-memories be fostered?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15477" LastEditorUserId="15477" LastEditDate="2017-03-31T09:32:48.443" LastActivityDate="2017-03-31T09:32:48.443" Title="What are external factors which can influence the clarity or early-prevailance of a person's earliest memory/memories" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17048" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17050" CreationDate="2017-03-31T09:10:25.120" Score="3" ViewCount="253" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does the brain cognitively differentiate between speech and a sound within a recording?  I am asking this theoretical question for speech synthesis, i.e. Making a voice with just waves (no recordings). Is this even possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15481" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-03-31T18:14:35.670" LastActivityDate="2017-04-06T17:26:24.310" Title="What is the difference (in a recording) between speech and a sound? What makes the difference to the brain?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17050" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17048" CreationDate="2017-03-31T17:59:37.293" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Speech is sound and the brain will recognise the sound as speech. As for the possibility of creating the sound of speech without recordings using sound waveforms I would say that is off topic here and would be a question for sound creators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subject of recognising speech from sounds is a big subject but to give a starting point here are a few pointers for further reading and research, depending on what area you want to look at more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Neurological basis of Speech Perception&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00035/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Heald &amp;amp; Nusbaum (2014)&lt;/a&gt; gives a brief outline of the neural processes involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One view of speech perception is that acoustic signals are transformed into representations for pattern matching to determine linguistic structure. This process can be taken as a statistical pattern-matching problem, assuming realtively stable linguistic categories are characterized by neural representations related to auditory properties of speech that can be compared to speech input. This kind of pattern matching can be termed a passive process which implies rigidity of processing with few demands on cognitive processing. An alternative view is that speech recognition, even in early stages, is an active process in which speech analysis is attentionally guided. Note that this does not mean consciously guided but that information-contingent changes in early auditory encoding can occur as a function of context and experience. Active processing assumes that attention, plasticity, and listening goals are important in considering how listeners cope with adverse circumstances that impair hearing by masking noise in the environment or hearing loss. Although theories of speech perception have begun to incorporate some active processing, they seldom treat early speech encoding as plastic and attentionally guided. Recent research has suggested that speech perception is the product of both feedforward and feedback interactions between a number of brain regions that include descending projections perhaps as far downstream as the cochlea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also define &lt;strong&gt;active&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;passive&lt;/strong&gt; processes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The distinction between active and passive processes comes from control theory and reflects the degree to which a sequence of operations, in this case neural population responses, is contingent on processing outcomes (see Nusbaum and Schwab, 1986).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lqzQ8.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lqzQ8.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 1&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Figure 1A-C [Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00035/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Heald &amp;amp; Nusbaum (2014)&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;passive process&lt;/strong&gt; is an open loop sequence of transformations that are fixed, such that there is an invariant mapping from input to output (MacKay, 1951, 1956). Figure 1A illustrates a passive process in which a pattern of inputs (e.g., basilar membrane responses) is transmitted directly over the eighth nerve to the next population of neurons (e.g., in the auditory brainstem) and upward to cortex. This is the fundamental assumption of a number of theories of auditory processing in which a fixed cascade of neural population responses are transmitted from one part of the brain to the other (e.g., Barlow, 1961).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By contrast, &lt;strong&gt;active processes&lt;/strong&gt; are variable in nature, as network processing is adjusted by an error-correcting mechanism or feedback loop. As such, outcomes may differ in different contexts. These feedback loops provide information to correct or modify processing in real time, rather than retrospectively. Nusbaum and Schwab (1986) describe two different ways an active, feedback-based system may be achieved. In one form, as illustrated in Figure 1B, expectations (derived from context) provide a hypothesis about a stimulus pattern that is being processed. In this case, sensory patterns (e.g., basilar membrane responses) are transmitted in much the same way as in a passive process (e.g., to the auditory brainstem). However, descending projections may modify the nature of neural population responses in various ways as a consequence of neural responses in cortical systems. For example, top-down effects of knowledge or expectations have been shown to alter low level processing in the auditory brainstem (e.g., Galbraith and Arroyo, 1993) or in the cochlea (e.g., Giard et al., 1994). Active systems may occur in another form, as illustrated in Figure 1C. In this case, there may be a strong bottom-up processing path as in a passive system, but feedback signals from higher cortical levels can change processing in real time at lower levels (e.g., brainstem). An example of this would be the kind of observation made by Spinelli and Pribram (1966) in showing that electrical stimulation of the inferotemporal cortex changed the receptive field structure for lateral geniculate neurons or Moran and Desimone’s (1985) demonstration that spatial attentional cueing changes effective receptive fields in striate and extrastriate cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Linguistic Speech Perception&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following information was sourced from an article by John Kingston (Professor in the Department of Linguistics, University of Massachusetts) in 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Links below are for Free PDF files - DOIs are provided in the references section in case of future breaks in links&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to the motor theory of speech perception (&lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.umass.edu/jkingstn/files/2013/12/liberman-etal-1967-psych-rev-74-6-431.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liberman, et al., 1967&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.umass.edu/jkingstn/files/2013/12/liberman_mattingly_1985_cognition.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liberman &amp;amp; Mattingly, 1985&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.umass.edu/jkingstn/files/2013/12/liberman_mattingly_1989_science.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liberman &amp;amp; Mattingly, 1989&lt;/a&gt;), listeners recognize speech sounds by emulating their articulation in their heads. The sound is recognized when the acoustic properties of the emulation match those of the speech sound heard...Now, this is embodied cognition in that the cognitive act of perceiving a speech sound consists of emulating the speaker’s articulatory behavior mentally, i.e. behaving in the mind as the speaker would in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to the direct realist theory of speech perception (&lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.umass.edu/jkingstn/files/2013/12/fowler-2006-p-and-p.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fowler, 2006&lt;/a&gt;), no such emulation nor embodied cognition is necessary to perceive speech sounds because the speaker’s articulatory behavior in pronouncing them so structures the acoustic properties of the speech signal that the listener can identify the unique articulation that produced those properties. In other words, the acoustic properties are specific information about the articulations that produced them...This is extended cognition because no mental act is required to extract information from the speech signal’s acoustic properties. The information is instead present and patent within those properties and no analysis is required to turn those properties into information. All the cognitive work, other than simply being around to hear the sounds, is done outside the listener’s head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kingston says that there are empirical and theoretical challenges to both the motor theory’s and direct realism’s accounts of speech perception, stating that speech perception is neither emboedied or extended; however he did not elaborate on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Source&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kingston, J., (2013). &lt;em&gt;Why speech perception is neither embodied nor extended cognition&lt;/em&gt; [Online] Available at &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.umass.edu/jkingstn/2013/12/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://blogs.umass.edu/jkingstn/2013/12/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barlow, H. B. (1961). &lt;em&gt;Possible principles underlying the transformations of sensory messages&lt;/em&gt; In: Sensory Communication, ed W. Rosenblith (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press): pp 217–234. ISBN-13: 978-0262518420 DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262518420.003.0013&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.7551/mitpress/9780262518420.003.0013&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fowler, C. A. (2006). &lt;em&gt;Compensation for coarticulation reflects gesture perception, not spectral contrast&lt;/em&gt;, In: Perception &amp;amp; Psychophysics. 68(2): pp 161-177. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03193666&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3758/BF03193666&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16773890&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;16773890&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Galbraith, G. C., and Arroyo, C. (1993). &lt;em&gt;Selective attention and brainstem frequency-following responses&lt;/em&gt;, In: Biological Psychology 37(1): pp 3–22. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-0511(93)90024-3&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0301-0511(93)90024-3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Giard, M. H., Collet, L., Bouchet, P., and Pernier, J. (1994). &lt;em&gt;Auditory selective attention in the human cochlea&lt;/em&gt;, In: Brain Research 633(1-2): pp 353–356. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(94)91561-X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0006-8993(94)91561-x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heald, S. L. M., and Nusbaum, H. C., (2014). &lt;em&gt;Speech perception as an active cognitive process&lt;/em&gt; In: Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience Vol.8 DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00035&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3389/fnsys.2014.00035&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3956139/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3956139&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br&gt;URL: &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00035&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00035&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liberman, A.M., Cooper, F.S., Shankweiler, D.P., &amp;amp; Studdert-Kennedy, M. (1967). &lt;em&gt;Perception of the speech code&lt;/em&gt;, In: Psychological Review. 74(6): pp 431-461. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0020279&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0020279&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4170865&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;4170865&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liberman, A.M., &amp;amp; Mattingly, I.G. (1985). &lt;em&gt;The motor theory of speech percepton revised&lt;/em&gt;, In: Cognition. 21(1): pp 1-36. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(85)90021-6&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0010-0277(85)90021-6&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4075760&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;4075760&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liberman, A.M., &amp;amp; Mattingly, I.G. (1989). &lt;em&gt;A specialization for speech perception&lt;/em&gt;, In: Science 243(4890): pp 489-494. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.2643163&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1126/science.2643163&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2643163&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2643163&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MacKay, D. M. (1951). &lt;em&gt;Mind-like Behaviour in artefacts&lt;/em&gt;, In: The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 3(12): pp 352-353 DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjps/II.6.105&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1093/bjps/II.6.105&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MacKay, D. M. (1956). &lt;em&gt;The epistemological problem for automata&lt;/em&gt;, In: Automata Studies (AM34), eds C. E. Shannon and J. McCarthy (Princeton: Princeton University Press): pp 235-252&lt;br&gt;ISBN-13: 978-0691079165 Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1bgzb3s.14&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1bgzb3s.14&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moran, J., and Desimone, R. (1985). &lt;em&gt;Selective attention gates visual processing in the extrastriate cortex&lt;/em&gt;, In: Science 229(4715): pp 782–784. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.4023713&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1126/science.4023713&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nusbaum, H. C., and Schwab, E. C. (1986). &lt;em&gt;The role of attention and active processing in speech perception&lt;/em&gt;, In: Pattern Recognition by Humans and Machines: Speech Perception (Vol. 1), eds E. C. Schwab and H. C. Nusbaum (San Diego: Academic Press): pp 113–157.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-631403-8.50009-6&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/B978-0-12-631403-8.50009-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spinelli, D. N., and Pribram, K. H. (1966). &lt;em&gt;Changes in visual recovery functions produced by temporal lobe stimulation in monkeys&lt;/em&gt;, In: Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 20(1): pp 44–49. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0013-4694(66)90139-8&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0013-4694(66)90139-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-03-31T18:15:45.307" LastActivityDate="2017-03-31T18:15:45.307" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17051" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-01T03:13:22.663" Score="2" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;Numerous studies have shown that severe early life stress can cause long term cognitive and learning impairments (ex. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3050094/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3050094/&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I have not found any studies that look into circumcision and cognitive outcome. The only study I've found is this recent German study: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/tp/journal/v7/n3/full/tp201723a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.nature.com/tp/journal/v7/n3/full/tp201723a.html&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some tell me there are methodological flaws (such as small sample size and ineffective means to measure stress-related disorders). I personally can't spot any problems, but I'm not a neuroscientist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do you guys think in regards to this? Can an acute but severe bout of stress to a neonate cause any permanent neurological changes and cognitive impairments?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13673" LastActivityDate="2017-04-01T03:13:22.663" Title="Can the stress response from neonatal circumcision cause cognitive impairment?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T21:56:50.943" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17052" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-01T04:04:59.620" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;A research like: “of 100 families that we studied we found: biological siblings had stronger/weaker bond vs. half-siblings vs non-biological and 40 years later their relationship was found stronger/weaker”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or kids 40 years after moving out of their parents house children had stronger/weaker bonds with their biological aunt/uncle/grandparent/cousins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15490" LastEditorUserId="15490" LastEditDate="2017-04-01T04:11:26.230" LastActivityDate="2017-04-01T04:11:26.230" Title="Is there any research which compares the bond between biological siblings vs. non-biological siblings or half-siblings?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-04-04T22:16:39.673" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17053" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-01T11:24:38.967" Score="4" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was just thinking, if we as humans want to sort out our differences of opinion on, say, politics or religion, what would be a good means to debate such a concept while at the same time make everyone feel they're on board?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most sites on such things are either:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Biased or unbiased (but usually persuasive) writings or studies that are written by a single individual or group (one way communication)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Organised Q&amp;amp;A, forums, expert's opinion, etc. (two way communication, but often between those who have a good understanding and those who do not)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unorganised and random chatting between fellow users (one to one communication, or group chatting within a small group/anonymous users)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any research or thought given to the idea of a collective idea generating mechanism, where everybody provides their inputs, and is more likely to accept the results of such a debate (if results do come up)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe a huge online wiki organised as a nodal network, where claims are supported or questioned. Evidence is put up on both sides, and further threads can be opened to debate the validity of given evidence. Bigger claims are made based on the validity of smaller claims, etc. etc. (But that's just my thoughts)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15209" LastEditorUserId="15209" LastEditDate="2017-04-01T14:19:22.653" LastActivityDate="2017-04-03T20:23:35.163" Title="What kind of data structuring is conducive to healthy debate?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-04-04T22:00:17.960" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17056" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17053" CreationDate="2017-04-02T08:22:22.867" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been fascinated by this question for years, but unfortunately don't have a conclusive answer. So instead, I'll make an ad-hoc list of the things I've found/explored about this topic and hopefully this will give you a starting point until someone else can create a better answer with better references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My current approach to this is &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/@seanaubin/mind-maps-for-augmented-thinking-communication-24a7d949388d&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MindMaps&lt;/a&gt;, which is similar to nodal network you propose. I've used Mindmaps in various scenarios, including trying to determine an &lt;a href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B3e4kGv2b1RAZXQ2blZpakZBQTA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;appropriate&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B3e4kGv2b1RAakJsaUgyNExPR28&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scope&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B3e4kGv2b1RAUklFVFNKdllVd2M/view?usp=sharing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;for this site&lt;/a&gt;. However, I know of no formal study of this format of discussion and if it's better than linear forms of discussion as supported by forums.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other models include &lt;a href=&quot;https://hapgood.us/2014/11/06/federated-education-new-directions-in-digital-collaboration/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Federated Wikis&lt;/a&gt;, which seems closer to your idea of an interconnected Wiki for discussion. However, these seems more targeted to spontaneous cross-fertilization of ideas, rather than debate. This is a new platform, so it's not surprising that there has been no formal study of the ideas that culminate from this form of digital interaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of the content of documents, Bret Viktor has been investigating this and is trying to create a paradigm of &lt;a href=&quot;http://worrydream.com/ExplorableExplanations/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Explorable Explorations&lt;/a&gt;. Explorable Explanations rely on manipulable data-driven proofs rather than rhetoric based argumentation to prove their point. See the link for further examples. There is a collection of Explorable Explanations available online, which address a variety of topics, including CBT. However, I know of no evidence that these forms of explanations are more effective than traditional narrative-driven explanations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, to unify all of these approaches philosophically, Joe Edelman is putting forth &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/@edelwax/nothing-to-be-done-bfe2ce71a3a2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a philosophy&lt;/a&gt; which dictates that shared values are the root of empathy and understanding. I know of no system that implements this philosophy of finding common values between participants, but it does seem like a useful framework to guide design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's all I've found so far. I know lots of people doing research in Human Computer Interaction, but I've seen very little work in the domain of consensus building. I really hope further posters can provide superior references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-04-02T08:22:22.867" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17057" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-02T11:38:47.110" Score="2" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am struggling with getting started using the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/glba/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;glba package in R&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often, the program will not fit the data at all. It immediately converges, but not really, and then instead of estimating it gives the starting values that I gave it, or it generates absurd values, such as negative non-decision times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried to fit the data that is given as an example (bh08) and it worked great, however, with my own data that seemed superficially at least very similar (the RT distributions were in the same ballpark, and with a similar distribution shape) it did not work (converged immediately).  I started with the suggested starting values, but also changed them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any smart advice?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I guess RT should be in seconds and accuracy is a 1:0 variable.  By the way, the program worked and did not stop when RT was in milliseconds, but the estimates were bizarre).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15497" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-04-03T03:47:16.957" LastActivityDate="2017-04-03T13:31:08.850" Title="How to get started with the glba R-package?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17058" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-02T14:45:41.953" Score="2" ViewCount="1357" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in books by academics that examine the following. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/How-Read-Book-Mortimer-Adler/dp/0671212095&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;How to Read a Book: The Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is the only relevant one that I found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose a reader to be deciding which books to read about a topic. Why do some readers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;judge some books easier to read than others? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;comprehend some books faster and retain more than others?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What do authors (not) do that affect 1 and 2 above?   &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastEditorUserId="6479" LastEditDate="2017-08-09T02:54:32.273" LastActivityDate="2017-08-10T17:59:52.200" Title="What makes a book easier or harder to read?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17059" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-02T14:53:48.730" Score="3" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any books that examine questions about relevance in general like the following?&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Relevance Theory&lt;/a&gt; seems something else and inapplicable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What makes something (ir)relevant to an argument or discourse? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How can humans improve on deciding whether something is (ir)relevant?    &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-12T11:48:10.850" LastActivityDate="2018-07-12T11:48:10.850" Title="What makes something relevant to an argument and how can people improve in determining relevance?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;speech-comprehension&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17060" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17059" CreationDate="2017-04-02T15:52:17.237" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on relevance&lt;/a&gt; references a couple of books and a few journal articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia article says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;h2&gt;Cognitive science and pragmatics&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Further information: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Relevance theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 1986, Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson drew attention to the central importance of relevance decisions in reasoning and communication. They proposed an account of the process of inferring relevant information from any given utterance. To do this work, they used what they called the &quot;Principle of Relevance&quot;: namely, the position that any utterance addressed to someone automatically conveys the presumption of its own optimal relevance. The central idea of Sperber and Wilson's theory is that all utterances are encountered in some context, and the correct interpretation of a particular utterance is the one that allows most new implications to be made in that context on the basis of the least amount of information necessary to convey it. For Sperber and Wilson, relevance is conceived as relative or subjective, as it depends upon the state of knowledge of a hearer when they encounter an utterance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The books referenced are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sperber, D. &amp;amp; D. Wilson (1986/1995). &lt;em&gt;Relevance: Communication and Cognition&lt;/em&gt; 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN-13: 978-0631198789&lt;br&gt;Available from:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Relevance-Communication-Cognition-Dan-Sperber/dp/0631198784&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amazon UK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0631198784&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amazon US&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.ca/Relevance-Communication-Cognition-Dan-Sperber/dp/0631198784&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amazon Canada&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sperber, D. &amp;amp; D. Wilson (2004). &lt;em&gt;Relevance Theory&lt;/em&gt;, In: Horn, L.R. &amp;amp; Ward, G. (eds.) 2004 &lt;em&gt;The Handbook of Pragmatics&lt;/em&gt; Oxford: Blackwell: pp 607-632. ISBN-13: 978-0631225485&lt;br&gt;Available from:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Handbook-Pragmatics-Blackwell-Handbooks-Linguistics/dp/063122548X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amazon UK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/063122548X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amazon US&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.ca/Handbook-Pragmatics-Blackwell-Handbooks-Linguistics/dp/063122548X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amazon Canada&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dan.sperber.fr/?p=93&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;free access to this part of the book&lt;/a&gt; on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dan.sperber.fr&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dan Sperber's website&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When going to the amazon pages for the relevant books, it also suggests other books other people have bought with these books along with other possible related books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-04-02T15:52:17.237" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17062" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17057" CreationDate="2017-04-03T13:31:08.850" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It appears as if the problem was caused by pre-processing using (the amazing) tidyverse package.  When I (a) wrote the dataframe as a .csv file and then uploaded it, the LBA worked (in most subjects) nicely, converged quickly, and yielded sensible estimates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15497" LastActivityDate="2017-04-03T13:31:08.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17063" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17053" CreationDate="2017-04-03T20:23:35.163" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a scientist and teacher turned political scientist/activist, I find your question very interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I may not adequately understand your question and/or proposal, but it sounds problematic to me. A huge online wiki organized as a nodal network, where claims and evidence can be published and debated...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Internet is already flooded with countless forums and discussion groups organized along different lines, and it's very difficult to find sites that are really credible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have enormous respect for science and the scientific community. Yet even some scientists are corporate shills, and science is commonly misrepresented in the corporate media. (The ridiculous claim that there's a &quot;scientific consensus&quot; that there's nothing wrong with genetically modified food comes to mind.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether your interest is science, philosophy or political activism, in the end, I think you have to link up with other individuals who are dedicated to searching for truth. But how do you track down such people and verify that they're genuine?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if I'm going to far astray from your question, but one thing that I think is very helpful is openness. When people are able to post anonymously or pseudonymously, without citing their credentials, it's very hard to trust them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who are looking for jobs are expected to have resumes, and scientists are expected to have degrees (and, preferably, some experience).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that spirit, I prefer communicating with real people (not pseudonyms) who have some sort of track record. And racking up points on a forum can be very deceptive; I prefer to know something about their specific beliefs and values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To put it in perspective, imagine if Plato, Aristotle and other great philosophers had discussed their theories pseudonymously on some sort of node-based wiki.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastActivityDate="2017-04-03T20:23:35.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17064" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-04T03:39:59.137" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is solely based on a personal observation of mine, but I've noticed people like me who constantly cycle music taste, and others who always listen to the same type of music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I, for example, change musical tastes every 2-3 months, because I get sick of the same thing, but will eventually come back to it within a couple of years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I notice people who only listen to EDM, or only listen to rap, or only listen to alternative, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has any studies been done on this subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I noticed some studies about music changing with age, but that isn't exactly the same thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15507" LastActivityDate="2017-04-04T03:39:59.137" Title="Why do some people cycle musical tastes, and some people continually listen to the same type of music?" Tags="&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-04-04T21:58:18.623" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17065" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-04T05:47:18.860" Score="4" ViewCount="814" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have like 0 experience or knowledge about brain signals and all that stuff but I'm curious about how much we know about the brain in terms of like tricking your brain that with simulation of pain. The reason why i got curious is because I love video games and I just started imagining like some sort of real life game or even just using virtual reality where if you were to get hurt in the game in some spot you would feel pain in real life. I'm not sure if there's some sort of article or like something online where it explains this sort of stuff that I'm talking about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15508" LastActivityDate="2017-04-09T17:09:17.120" Title="Are we able to simulate pain through the brain?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;&lt;pain&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17066" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-04T08:19:32.307" Score="2" ViewCount="396" Body="&lt;p&gt;Think of two different scenarios. In both scenarios the subject is looking at emotional images, but in the first one emotional stimuli &quot;interfere&quot; with the behaviour, while in the second one emotionali stimuli are related to his/her goal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;strong&gt;scenario A&lt;/strong&gt; the subject looks at emotional images but is not focused on the emotional content (for example, his/her task is to pay attention to the size of the image).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;strong&gt;scenario B&lt;/strong&gt; the subject looks at emotional images and is focused on the emotional content (for example, his/her task is to rate the image).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which psychological processes would you think are most different between the two scenarios? In which way the brain is differentially affected by this &quot;emotional interference&quot;, in your opinion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14348" LastActivityDate="2017-04-04T08:19:32.307" Title="In which way emotional &quot;interference&quot; affect the brain / the behaviour?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17067" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-04T14:43:38.270" Score="2" ViewCount="285" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that when we process some information or solve some problem, we need to pull information from long term memory to working memory. There are few factors known to me that can cause a failure during retrival:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Working memory shortage&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;poor temporal context&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The memory was never transferred to long term memory to begin with&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Low working memory is something that can be easily diagnosed with Dual n-back tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study on anterograde amnesic patients have shown that they do not appear to have poor temporal order &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0028393281900543&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(5)&lt;/a&gt;, which indicates that maybe temporal context is not to blame when people forget things. However, it is possible that this does not apply on all cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This leaves the third possibility: that short term memories do not always get transferred to long term memories. Is this a possibility? If yes, then why does it happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2657600/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Types of memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/sep05/workout.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Role of working memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5b83/58754a92cf648f3c5ccea7f34df62bba1e74.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Temporal context&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nncn.de/en/news/Forschungsergebnisse-en/langzeitgedaechtnisen&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How is information transferred into long-term memory?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0028393281900543&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anterograde amnesia and temporal order&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.wustl.edu/cdl/publications/lilienthal_etal_2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dual n-back test&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11614" LastEditorUserId="11614" LastEditDate="2017-04-05T07:30:16.333" LastActivityDate="2017-04-07T22:05:36.310" Title="Low crystalized intelligence- failure to transfer skill from Hippocampus to cortex?" Tags="&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;episodic-memory&gt;&lt;temporal-context&gt;&lt;amnesia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17070" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-05T08:22:06.160" Score="3" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;While cramming, many times we tend to remember present experiences and to forget the past ones. It seems that our present experiences replace the past ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in physical activities like sports the more we practice the more our skills develop. So it seems our experiences (i.e. memory) tend to accumulate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, how do these conflicting facts coexists?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15517" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-04-10T12:20:48.870" LastActivityDate="2017-04-10T12:20:48.870" Title="Is our memory accumulative or replacive?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-04-12T12:54:40.013" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17072" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-05T13:49:05.423" Score="3" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm planning an experiment in which participants will respond to a stimulus by using a mouse to click somewhere on a computer screen. I'm interested in analyzing the strategies participants use to generate their responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On theoretical grounds, I expect the main strategies to be associated with a particular type of mouse movement trajectory, in which the mouse moves through a sequence of &quot;fixations&quot; prior to the final click. By &quot;fixation&quot; I mean a mouse movement to a certain spot (or small area) for purposes of &quot;marking&quot; the spot in the participant's mind. I expect fixations to be associated with the mouse cursor pausing or stopping within a small area (though it might not stop entirely), or by a sudden sharp change in direction without a pause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can I extract a succession of such &quot;fixations&quot; from the raw mouse cursor trajectory (i.e., positions &amp;amp; time stamps)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2614" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-20T22:38:20.830" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T22:38:20.830" Title="How to record mouse-pointer fixations?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2017-04-22T11:51:29.883" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17073" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-05T14:39:11.650" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the fundamental criteria that determine the hierarchy of saved information in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've discovered that our languages reflect some of those factors. One of them can be sex identification - I've noticed this when I was reading &lt;em&gt;The story of your life&lt;/em&gt;, I couldn't really imagine the character of the main hero without the knowledge of her sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another criterium could be time. In many languages, an event cannot be expressed without the knowledge of the time it had taken place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we know what is the fundamental hierarchy of creating memories (I accept a very broad answer :)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2017-04-06T04:55:46.790" LastActivityDate="2017-04-06T04:55:46.790" Title="What is the basic memory-making algorithm?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-04-06T12:06:01.410" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17074" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17065" CreationDate="2017-04-05T16:12:10.553" Score="7" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears that stimulation of the thalamus would invoke feeling of pain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Direct deep brain stimulation (DBS) in the VP thalamus from patients without pain typically evoked nonpainful, paraesthetic sensation. DBS at the core and posterior inferior region of the VP thalamus can evoke pain sensation without specific topographic distribution. However, warm sensation was more frequently evoked in the posterior than in the core region. Intensity of sensation was dependent on current and frequency of microstimulation. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.e-aat.com/article/S1875-4597(13)00066-0/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yen and Lu, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The trouble is that deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a surgical procedure, so it would not be viable for any sort of virtual reality gaming, however it seems that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ucl.ac.uk/media/library/brainweek&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trans-cranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)&lt;/a&gt; could possibly be used if it could be developed and proven to be safe enough for this purpose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would have to be proven to target the specific parts of the brain required.  It would have to be proved not to be stimulating other areas that could cause unwanted and possibly dangerous consequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I have very small amounts of knowledge on what happens in the brain neurologically compared to some people here, I have had to do a lot of reading to start with and I believe I have a basic idea of how this possibly could be done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all we need to look at how pain is registered in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Nerves as pain sensors&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nociceptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nociceptor&lt;/a&gt; is a type of sensory receptor at the end of a sensory neuron's axon that responds to damaging or potentially damaging stimuli by sending signals of pain to the spinal cord and brain. This process is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nociception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nociception&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The peripheral terminal of the mature nociceptor is where the noxious stimuli are detected and transduced into electrical energy. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://cell.uchc.edu/pdf/fein/nociceptors_fein_2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fein, 2012&lt;/a&gt;)  When the electrical energy reaches a threshold value, an action potential is induced and driven towards the central nervous system (CNS). This leads to the train of events that allows for the conscious awareness of pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Message transfer to the brain&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Afferent&lt;/strong&gt; nociceptive fibers (those that send information to, rather than from the brain) travel back to the spinal cord where they form synapses in its &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_horn_of_spinal_cord&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dorsal horn&lt;/a&gt; — the posterior grey column of the spinal cord.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After reaching the specific lamina within the spinal cord, the first order nociceptive project to second order neurons. The second order neurons then send their information via two pathways to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;thalamus&lt;/a&gt; at the centre of the brain: the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_column-medial_lemniscus_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dorsal column medial-lemniscal system&lt;/a&gt; and the spinothalamic tract (or otherwise known as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterolateral_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anterolateral system&lt;/a&gt;). The first is reserved more for regular non-painful sensation, while the lateral is reserved for pain sensation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reaction from the thalamus&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The sensory information is relayed from the thalamus upward to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex#Structure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;layer IV&lt;/a&gt; of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;primary somatosensory cortex (S1)&lt;/a&gt; of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;postcentral gyrus&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Initially, Brodmann areas (BA) 1, 2 and 3a and 3b (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.appliedneuroscience.com/Brodmann.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brodmann, 1909/1994&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BJcXAAAAYAAJ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vogt, 1919&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.107591&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaas, et al., 1979&lt;/a&gt;) of the Cerebral Cortex were considered to make up the primary somatosensory cortex of the human brain, however, BA 3b is now conceived as the primary somatosensory cortex because:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it receives dense inputs from the NP nucleus of the thalamus;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;its neurons are highly responsive to somatosensory stimuli, but not other stimuli;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lesions here impair somatic sensation; and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;electrical stimulation evokes somatic sensory experience. BA 3a also receives dense input from the thalamus; however, this area is concerned with proprioception.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reaction from other parts of the brain&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The primary somatosensory cortex contains cells that project to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_somatosensory_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;secondary somatosensory cortex (S2)&lt;/a&gt;.  This is divided into several &quot;areas&quot;. An area at the entrance to the lateral sulcus, adjoining the primary somatosensory cortex (S1), is called the parietal ventral (PV) area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Area S2 is interconnected with BA 1 and densely so with BA 3b, and projects to BA 7b, insular cortex, amygdala and hippocampus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;insular cortex&lt;/a&gt;, which is in both hemesperes of the brain, are believed to be involved in consciousness and play a role in diverse functions usually linked to emotion or the regulation of the body's homeostasis. These functions include perception, motor control, self-awareness, cognitive functioning, and interpersonal experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing I knew before the research is that it is the amygdala and hyppocampus which initiates the 5F response (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fright/flight/fight/freeze/fawn&lt;/a&gt; response) to threats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brodmann, K. (1909/1994). &lt;em&gt;Localisation in the Cerebral Cortex, Translated by Laurence J. Garey&lt;/em&gt; (New York, NY:Springer Science): pp 106—110 ISBN-13: 978-0387269177&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Free PDF available from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.appliedneuroscience.com/Brodmann.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.appliedneuroscience.com/Brodmann.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fein, A. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Nociceptors and the perception of pain&lt;/em&gt; (Farmington, CT:University of Connecticut Health Center)&lt;br&gt;Free PDF available from &lt;a href=&quot;http://cell.uchc.edu/pdf/fein/nociceptors_fein_2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cell.uchc.edu/pdf/fein/nociceptors_fein_2012.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kaas, J. H., Nelson, R. J., Sur, M., Lin, C. S., and Merzenich, M. M. (1979). &lt;em&gt;Multiple representations of the body within the primary somatosensory cortex of primates&lt;/em&gt;, In: Science 204(4392): pp 521—523 DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.107591&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1126/science.107591&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/107591&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;107591&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vogt, C., and Vogt, O. (1919). &lt;em&gt;Allgemeinere Ergebnisse unserer Hirnforschung&lt;/em&gt;, In: Journal of Psychology and Neurology (Leipzig), 25: pp 279–461. OCLC: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldcat.org/title/allgemeine-ergebnisse-unserer-hirnforschung/oclc/671560835&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;671560835&lt;/a&gt; Google Books: &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BJcXAAAAYAAJ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BJcXAAAAYAAJ&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yen, C., and Lu, P. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Thalamus and pain&lt;/em&gt;, In: Acta Anaesthesiologica Taiwanica 51(2): pp 73—80. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aat.2013.06.011&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.aat.2013.06.011&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Free PDF on &lt;a href=&quot;https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – NoDerivs (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)&lt;/a&gt; at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.e-aat.com/article/S1875-4597(13)00066-0/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.e-aat.com/article/S1875-4597(13)00066-0/pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-04-09T17:09:17.120" LastActivityDate="2017-04-09T17:09:17.120" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9053" CreationDate="2017-04-06T03:43:32.250" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a cycle to an abusive relationship. During this cycle, there are extremely happy moments (usually when the abuser is repentant and loving to the victim), fantasy segments (where the abuser fantasizes about abusing him/her again--s/he won't always admit to this section), the abuse (you know this part), and the apology and promise to never do it again. The last section is where the abuser promises all kinds of things to get the partner to stay--counseling, moving...whatever it is that the other wants. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In reality, abusive behaviors can be addictive. The abuser feels powerful when abusing the other person. Even before the cycle begins, the abuser is laying the ground work through manipulative arguments and psychological/emotional manipulations; then, when the abuse begins, the victim believes that it might actually be his/her fault. As odd as it sounds to those who have not been in this situation, the thought patterns have been slowly changed over time in order to achieve this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a terrible cycle that takes a monumental amount of work to combat. For counseling to really work, both parties have to buy into it and really work at it. Even then, both parties may conclude that they bring out the worst in each other and dissolve the relationship. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Love does not mean abusing, nor allowing oneself to be abused. Sometimes, two people bring out the worst in each other. In these situations, it is better to part ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15524" LastActivityDate="2017-04-06T03:43:32.250" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17078" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-06T07:35:10.853" Score="2" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;Throughout the day, people's wakefulness and attentiveness varies, as modulated by one's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;circadian biorhythm&lt;/a&gt;. Whereas in the morning people are less awake, just before noon and around 15:00 people appear to experience peak performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8GnLr.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8GnLr.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As nicely discussed in an older question, taking caffeine also seems to generally improve cognitive performance and alertness (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/111/does-caffeine-improve-performance-for-habituated-consumers/136#136&quot;&gt;Does caffeine improve performance for habituated consumers?&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if these two factors may interact. For example, if you are in a &quot;dip&quot; in the circadian cycle, will coffee be most effective on attentiveness (because there is more room for improvement so to say)? Or will coffee be more effective when your are at a peak in the cycle, where the caffeine and the cycle amplify each other's effect? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any scientific literature that investigated the interaction between caffeine intake and the circadian cycle?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T12:56:16.467" LastActivityDate="2017-04-08T13:23:35.623" Title="Interaction between caffeine intake and biorhythm on alertness" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17079" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-06T11:54:20.550" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do we need to identify ourselves with a group? Is there naturally a hormone/neurotransmiter reward? Or is it based on more complex mechanisms like finding the &quot;deeper&quot; meanings of our actions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2017-04-06T11:54:20.550" Title="What neural mechanism is responsible for our identification with a group?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-04-12T13:39:44.490" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17080" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-06T13:37:08.880" Score="2" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;Working memory (WM) is often associated with intelligence and can supposedly be measured and trained by games like &lt;a href=&quot;http://brainscale.net/dual-n-back&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dual n-back&lt;/a&gt;. My question is if WM is task specific or has at least a task specific component. Or rather, my &lt;em&gt;intuition&lt;/em&gt; is that it is: Me training dual-n back 20 minutes are day will improve my ability to play dual n-back far more than it will improve my ability to juggle different ways of asking this question in my head while writing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is testable, so did anyone test if WM is task dependent and what did they find?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit to add:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/207/does-learning-one-discipline-improve-performance-in-another-discipline&quot;&gt;This question with answers on the cross-discipline benefits&lt;/a&gt; was marked as a possible duplicate. My question is not addressed: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/302/3900&quot;&gt;The accepted answer&lt;/a&gt; to the question explores different ways cognitive abilities might 'transfer' from one discipline to another. One important aspect here is specific sub skills - psychologists may have a strong math background that may be useful when they learn. Another important aspect is the use of metaphors.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The supposed duplicate is relevant when discussing skill transfer between tasks. WM training is often hyped as general intelligence training. There are more straightforward ways of addressing this hype, my (maybe a bit roundabout) way is questioning wether WM trained on one task is as useful for another task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3900" LastEditorUserId="3900" LastEditDate="2017-04-06T14:56:20.713" LastActivityDate="2017-04-06T14:56:20.713" Title="Is working memory somewhat task specific?" Tags="&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17081" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17048" CreationDate="2017-04-06T16:20:58.603" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;While speech is certainly sound, the brain will not always recognize speech sounds as speech.  This is clear when one constructs speech from just sine waves as it reveals how the brain goes about understanding meaningfully linguistic signals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sine wave speech is constructed by using the first 3 prominent frequency bands (ie. formants) in a speech signal and replacing them with time-varying sine wave components. Cognitively when a listener is faced with sine wave speech without knowledge that it is speech, he or she often fails to understand it.  More shockingly individuals often fail to hear it as an example of speech.  Indeed, unless you have the expectation that it is speech, it is often mistaken as birds whistling or computer generated nonsense sounds. However, you can engender understanding with the knowledge that it is language. Presumably this is because the expectation that is it speech, allows a listener to bring to bear the vast amount of knowledge they possess about language to interpret the sinewave speech signal. The idea that expectations play a large role in speech understanding is supported by the view of speech perception held by Heald &amp;amp; Nusbaum (2014): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...even in early stages, [speech perception] is an active process in which speech analysis is attentionally guided. Note that this does not mean consciously guided but that information-contingent changes in early auditory encoding can occur as a function of context and experience. Active processing assumes that attention, plasticity, and listening goals are important in considering how listeners cope with adverse circumstances that impair hearing by masking noise in the environment or hearing loss. Although theories of speech perception have begun to incorporate some active processing, they seldom treat early speech encoding as plastic and attentionally guided. Recent research has suggested that speech perception is the product of both feedforward and feedback interactions between a number of brain regions that include descending projections perhaps as far downstream as the cochlea... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are helpful online resources to understand what is cognitively occurring in speech understanding broadly as well as in the context of sine wave speech:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.haskins.yale.edu/featured/sws/sws.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.haskins.yale.edu/featured/sws/sws.html&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk/people/matt.davis/sine-wave-speech/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk/people/matt.davis/sine-wave-speech/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15521" LastEditorUserId="15521" LastEditDate="2017-04-06T17:26:24.310" LastActivityDate="2017-04-06T17:26:24.310" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17082" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17067" CreationDate="2017-04-06T19:22:17.893" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First we need to establish the link between crystallized intelligence and the types of memory. Long term memory can be divided in two parts: Procedural and declarative. &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PkUIG.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PkUIG.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Types of long term memory&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Episodic memory is recollection of events, semantic memory is recollection of learned facts, and procedural memory includes priming, classical conditioning, skill based learning etc and does not require intentional or conscious recollection of an experience (1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Among these types, Howard and Kahana's model of temporal context theory is only applicable to the declarative branch (2). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to the question depends on which type of problem solving we are talking about. All three types of memories get used during learning. Problem solving requires skill based learning. But we must also remember a lot of facts in order to solve certain real world problems. Practical experiences also come in handy. However, if we can recall all the related facts but still fail to solve a problem, that indicates poor skill-building. According to Cattell‘s (1971, 1987) Gf-Gc theory, fluid intelligence causes crystallized intelligence (5). therefore, low fluid intelligence might be a reason behind poor skill based learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;failure to transfer skill from Hippocampus to cortex&quot; is not likely to happen because skills do not seem to have any short-term and long-term phases. Excerpts from a recent study (6):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We have shown that when people adapt to successive and opposing sensorimotor transformations, they fail to consolidate learning of the first even when the two transformations or tasks are separated by 24 hr.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a meta-analysis (4): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This implies that a procedural memory may never become fully stable and instead remains vulnerable to interference. When exposed to task B, participants may have retrieved the procedural memory associated with task A and modified it, ‘overwriting’ the memory for task A with information relevant to task B............ It implies that learning a new skill leads to the automatic destruction of another skill. It would never be possible to have skill in more than one task! Our ability to acquire multiple skills may depend upon having contextual cues available to signal the switch from one task to another. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This theory proposes that our procedural memory has a completely different type of contextual cue system, one that cannot differentiate between multiple skills as efficiently as episodic memory can. This theory also explains why ADHD is such a barrier in learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now we can guess what type of memory is involved in skill learning: When a new skill is being formed by Gf, it is likely utilizing the info available in short term memory to do so. When a skill is being recalled, It goes to working memory for utilization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion: Forgetfulness indicates inefficiency in declarative memory, while poor skills might indicate low Gf and/or poor attention span. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions remaining:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What causes inefficiency in declarative memory?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How to strengthen our procedural memory? Can practice help?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do people who find it easier to learn through practical and struggle to grasp abstract concepts?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But these questions deserve new topics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Green REA, Kopelman MD. Neural organization of memory andmemory impairments. In: Trimble MR and Cummings JL, eds. Contemporary behavioural neurology. Boston: ButterworthHeinenman, 1997; 139–152.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5b83/58754a92cf648f3c5ccea7f34df62bba1e74.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5b83/58754a92cf648f3c5ccea7f34df62bba1e74.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-neuropsychological-society/article/interdependence-of-episodic-and-semantic-memory-evidence-from-neuropsychology/1A97EFA24F2CDED16D12964AD5EE67F9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-neuropsychological-society/article/interdependence-of-episodic-and-semantic-memory-evidence-from-neuropsychology/1A97EFA24F2CDED16D12964AD5EE67F9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(04)00937-6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(04)00937-6.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2639&amp;amp;context=etd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2639&amp;amp;context=etd&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.atr.jp/~kawato/Ppdf/CaithJNS04.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.cns.atr.jp/~kawato/Ppdf/CaithJNS04.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11614" LastEditorUserId="11614" LastEditDate="2017-04-06T19:35:19.453" LastActivityDate="2017-04-06T19:35:19.453" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17086" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-07T16:06:08.240" Score="3" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;In light of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_consciousness#Cambridge_Declaration_on_Consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cambridge Declaration of Consciousness&lt;/a&gt;, are there any animals, which are aware that they will die?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15535" LastActivityDate="2017-04-07T16:06:08.240" Title="Is there any animal, which knows it will die?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17088" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-07T19:39:32.670" Score="2" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Background&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While researching a particular author's mathematical exposition, I found out (directly from a primary source) that the author was probably intentionally using overly complex syntax. Purportedly, the idea was that &#xA; by producing a high &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load#Extraneous&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;extraneous cognitive load&lt;/a&gt; the student would be subject to more &quot;mental exercise,&quot; deepening understanding and cementing concepts. This led me to the following line of inquiry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We all probably agree that cognitive load is the very nature of education, at least, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load#Intrinsic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intrinsic cognitive load&lt;/a&gt; is unavoidable. But does additional extrinsic cognitive load improve the learning outcomes for students? Doesn't it seem preferable to minimize extraneous cognitive load at all times, while ramping up the level of required intrinsic cognitive load?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However plausible the idea of &quot;more mental work means more mental muscles&quot; might be, I have to question its effectiveness. The success of students under these conditions might easily be explained by other traits such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grit_(personality_trait)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;grit&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there research that says high extraneous cognitive load (e.g. intentionally complex exposition) either improves or degrades learning outcomes (such as recall and retention) in some situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Examples&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have two minor expository examples, but I hope they don't limit what you, the reader, may also have encountered like this elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, something might be defined with a &quot;double negative&quot; pattern where there was already a (seemingly) simpler positive pattern: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A set $X$ is called &lt;em&gt;closed&lt;/em&gt; if there is no limit point of $X$ which is not in $X$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Compare to: A set $X$ is called &lt;em&gt;closed&lt;/em&gt; if every limit point of $X$ is in $X$.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;if there exists a number $x$ which is not less than any element of $X$, then there is a least number which is not less than any element of $X$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Compare to: if there is a number $x$ which is greater or equal to every element of $X$, there is a least number which is greater or equal to every element of $X$.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example is that some things are stated two or three layers deep: having a list of hypotheses, of which one bullet point is another list of hypotheses.  An example of that is a pattern of the form &quot;element of the set $X$ such that for all elements $y$ of the set $Y$, $y$ has the property that for every element of the set $Z$...&quot; (I still owe a better written example of this from what I was reading.) (I think something like that is usually simplified by modularizing definitions in a different way to bundle the layers separately before stacking.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've just discovered the wiki on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desirable_difficulty&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;desirable difficulty&lt;/a&gt; which may also be helpful for me and for anyone offering a solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4088" LastEditorUserId="4088" LastEditDate="2017-08-11T13:30:59.963" LastActivityDate="2017-08-11T13:30:59.963" Title="Is there research on effectiveness of teaching with high extraneous cognitive load?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17090" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17107" CreationDate="2017-04-08T13:26:29.897" Score="0" ViewCount="260" Body="&lt;p&gt;In an interview with a Czech neurologist Syka, I've heard that much of the mental health (such as the ability to reason, communicate and process information) in older age mainly depends​ on the amount of informational ballast we create. The argument states that with this additional information, we unnecessarily wear some of the basic mental mechanisms out (Even though there's no the effect of &quot;too much memories&quot;). Does knowledge of more languages tend to improve or worsen these mental skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2017-04-10T13:27:04.580" LastActivityDate="2017-04-11T20:47:16.080" Title="Does language learning improve or worsen the ability to remember and process information?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17092" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4952" CreationDate="2017-04-08T21:48:10.893" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are different kinds of &quot;well being&quot;. However, regarding pleasure, I'd rather suggest measuring the level of dopamine released, instead of endorphins. Watch this: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T7KtC8iX5-g&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dopamine release comparison&lt;/a&gt;. Anyways, there are other neurotransmitters that produce euphoria, such as endorphins and endocannabinoids. Music, food and sex induce dopamine release, but aerobic exercise &quot;runner's high&quot; is related to endorphins, as well as endocannabinoids. Additionally, alcohol and other CNS depressants and anaesthetics such as &quot;laughing gas&quot; (nitrous oxide) do produce euphoria too, so the phenomenon of pleasure is certainly difficult to define in a biological way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15547" LastActivityDate="2017-04-08T21:48:10.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17093" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17096" CreationDate="2017-04-09T10:00:54.073" Score="4" ViewCount="163" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently i read an article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://fossbytes.com/gamalon-ai-bayesian-program-synthesis/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bayesian Program Synthesis&lt;/a&gt;. It says that Bayesian cognitive modelling would help AI systems to learn from few examples in comparison to deep learning. But i was not able to understand the advantages of using Bayesian vs other formulations in cognitive modeling. I would like to understand why this Bayesian approach stand out ? What are the drawbacks of current approaches to cognitive modeling ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15550" LastActivityDate="2017-04-09T23:46:08.133" Title="Why Bayesian Cognitive Modeling?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17094" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-09T17:50:39.713" Score="1" ViewCount="761" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm new here, so I apologise if this question doesn't fit the parameters required for this site, but I couldn't find a more appropriate stackexchange site to post it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In TV shows, films, news and other forms of media, there is a very big taboo against portraying rape be it fictional, or a footage of the event. I can understand the sensitivity regarding the latter, but when we instead consider violent scenes, or footage of violence - our tolerance seems much higher. News channels, for example, conveyed the footage of a soldier being burned alive by ISIS in a cage. But depicting a video of a man inappropriately touching a woman would invite a huge backlash. To a lesser extent, this issue also extends to violence against women being portrayed in media (taking hollywood as an example, it is very rare that they convey violence against women, and if they do it is far less severe than that against men). This last point referring to violence which is not necessarily sexual in nature against women is not the main point of my question, but rather an observation which may or may not be relevant for an answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarise, what are the psychological reasons for our 'acceptance' of very severe violence in media whilst there is a strong taboo against comparatively less severe sexual assaults. (e.g. in Game of Thrones, compare the torture of Theon Greyjoy to the criticism of the implied offscreen rape of Sansa). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15546" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T19:06:45.740" Title="The explanation behind the taboo behind rape/sexual assault versus acceptance of violence" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-04-22T11:54:21.673" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17096" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17093" CreationDate="2017-04-09T23:40:38.013" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's a quick answer from general background knowledge, not from any specific knowledge of &quot;Bayesian Program Synthesis (BPS)&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, Bayesian models can use strongly informed priors or diffuse &quot;could be anything&quot; priors. Strong priors specify that a lot of parameter values are very unlikely, while a few other parameter values are possible descriptions of the data. With a strong prior, it takes relatively little data to winnow down the possibilities (i.e., faster learning). Weak priors allow for a much broader range of possibilities, but it takes a ton of data to narrow down the possibilities (i.e., slower learning).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many Bayesian models of mind use strong priors. Such models come pre-set with particular structure or parameter dependencies that are tuned for the type of problem that needs to be learned. This is not &quot;cheating;&quot; the prior is a crucial part of the theory. Another example comes from computer vision: Figuring out what objects and lighting produced a pixelated 2D image can only be done by assuming strong prior knowledge of the types of objects and types of illumination &quot;out there&quot; in the world, otherwise it's an unsolvable problem. An introductory article is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wcs.80/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~kruschke/articles/JacobsK2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (specifically, see the section on &quot;Prior Knowledge&quot; starting on p. 17).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deep learning, however, is (as far as I know) a generic approach that can learn just about any possible relationship among variables. The cost of this weak prior is that it takes a ton of training to narrow down the parameter distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14486" LastEditorUserId="14486" LastEditDate="2017-04-09T23:46:08.133" LastActivityDate="2017-04-09T23:46:08.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17098" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17094" CreationDate="2017-04-10T15:22:56.183" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depiction of violence towards women triggers sadism in us much more effortlessly than other kinds of violence or torture. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.christopherjferguson.com/CJBGames.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A recent study&lt;/a&gt; on correlation between violent videogames and violent attitude found no link between the two. But there are plenty of studies that show direct link between consumption of violent pornography and aggression towards women. Here is a meta study with tons of citations: &lt;a href=&quot;http://aurora.umn.edu/pdf/ResearchOnPornography.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://aurora.umn.edu/pdf/ResearchOnPornography.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sadism is different from psychopathy. Psychopaths are apathetic, sadists are not. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3979588/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A recent study&lt;/a&gt; on sadism shows that sadists rated the pain experienced by the victim as more intense than the non-sadists did.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inability to form emotional disconnection and higher awareness of the victim's suffering together can explain why we people triggered by sexual violence way more easily than non-sexual violence. From the famous Milgram experiment to very recent studies like this one:&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797613490749&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797613490749&lt;/a&gt; clearly show us that everyday sadism is very common. However, I don't know why sexual violence triggers sadism in us more easily than non-sexual torture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11614" LastActivityDate="2017-04-10T15:22:56.183" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17099" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-10T16:29:59.703" Score="9" ViewCount="273" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucid_dream&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lucid dreams&lt;/a&gt; allow a person to be conscious while dreaming. It has been reported that it's possible to control various aspects of the dream environment that are not possible during wakefulness, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/drm/1/2/129/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ability to fly&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.99.3f.1239-1242&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Research&lt;/a&gt; has shown that the rate of time flow in a dream is same/similar to that of wakefulness. For example, an event that lasts about 5 minutes in a dream, corresponds to about 5 minutes of sleeping. Extending the idea that physically impossible things can be performed during lucid dreams, the question arises whether altering the flow of time, specifically slowing of it, is possible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Philosopher &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Watts&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alan Watts&lt;/a&gt; has stated that it might be possible to alter the flow of time in a dream: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://genius.com/Alan-watts-the-dream-of-life-annotated&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[...] let’s suppose that you were able every night to dream any dream you wanted to dream, and that you could for example have the power within one night to dream 75 years of time, or any length of time you wanted to have. [...] And after several nights of 75 years [...] each [...]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If such alteration would be possible in a lucid dream, it would suggest the possibility of kind of &quot;mental &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_extension&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;life extension&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, where, for example, the person physically lives ~80 years, but mentally, through lucid dreams, experiences the life of hundreds or thousands of years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question: Is there anecdotal, or otherwise, evidence or documented past attempts for slowing of perceived passage of time via lucid dreaming?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2017-12-16T14:49:00.190" Title="Can time be slowed in a lucid dream?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17100" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11030" CreationDate="2017-04-10T17:24:40.500" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not sure I completely understood your question but I will try to answer it. Different numbers and different letters can be easier or harder to remember based on the order, meaning that, depending on their sequence, it can be either way.&#xA;Ex. &#xA;a r d q&#xA;is easier to remember than&#xA;9 4 6 0&#xA;but&#xA;z n k r&#xA;is harder to remeber than&#xA;9 8 3 0.&#xA;This is because the letters are used in the English language in a way that allows you to make them into a certain sound but only if you have the right letters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope that was helpful (even though it has been almost two years),&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15563" LastActivityDate="2017-04-10T17:24:40.500" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16295" CreationDate="2017-04-10T21:51:05.630" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;While I wouldn't and cannot claim anything conclusive about intrinsic motivation, as far as I know, Self-Determination Theory (SDT, see below) is quite accredited. In short, at its core it postulates that humans are motivated by three innate psychological needs: &lt;em&gt;Autonomy&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;competence&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;relatedness&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, I believe that the motivating factors listed in the question can be reduced to the three needs postulated by SDT. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ryan, R. M., &amp;amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist&lt;/em&gt;, 55(1), 68–78. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastActivityDate="2017-04-10T21:51:05.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17102" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-10T22:58:15.767" Score="2" ViewCount="187" Body="&lt;p&gt;Conway III and Schaller (2002, p. 153) argue that &quot;There is a long history of lodging charges of non-falsifiability against evolutionary thinking in the biological  sciences&quot;. One of the critics they refer to, is Karl Popper. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone cite examples of empirical studies that falsify propositions (hypotheses, explanations etc.) rooted in evolutionary psychology, in order to argue against Conway III and Schaller (2002)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conway III, L. G., &amp;amp; Schaller, M. (2002). On the verifiability of evolutionary psychological theories: An analysis of the psychology of scientific persuasion. &lt;em&gt;Personality and social psychology review&lt;/em&gt;, 6(2), 152-166. Link to the article: &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuron4.psych.ubc.ca/~schaller/528Readings/ConwaySchaller2002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://neuron4.psych.ubc.ca/~schaller/528Readings/ConwaySchaller2002.pdf&lt;/a&gt;, retrieved 2017, Apr. 11&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastActivityDate="2017-04-10T22:58:15.767" Title="Are there empirical studies that falsify propositions rooted in evolutionary psychology?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-09-09T20:35:55.337" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17104" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12841" CreationDate="2017-04-11T05:34:03.260" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A partial answer to the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Literature about &lt;strong&gt;before/after comparisons&lt;/strong&gt; may be found searching for the phrase &quot;&lt;strong&gt;office redesign&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McElroy, J. C., &amp;amp; Morrow, P. C. (2010). Employee reactions to office redesign: A naturally occurring quasi-field experiment in a multi-generational setting. &lt;em&gt;Human Relations&lt;/em&gt;, 63(5), 609–636.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastActivityDate="2017-04-11T05:34:03.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17105" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8477" CreationDate="2017-04-11T05:52:11.787" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is the phenomena called where features of the work environment&#xA;      such as type of pen or color of paper influence productivity or&#xA;      workplace well-being?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ergonomics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definition: According to the Penguin Dictionary of Psychology (Reber &amp;amp; Reber, 2001, p. 248), ergonomics is &quot;the science of the 'fit' between jobs and persons, the study of the relationship between an individual's anatomy, physiology and psychology and the demands of particular forms of work&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How can such features be used to improve productivity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would rather say: How do such features improve productivity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Answer: By reducing or eliminating superfluous effort or even noxious effects on health while going after work tasks. In practice, according to Sonntag (2001, p. 568), this can be achieved through the &quot;identification of regulation requirements and cognitive demands&quot; as well as the &quot;identification of regulation obstacles in industrial work&quot; (ibid.). Many theoretical assumptions behind such an approach are outlined by Leitner and Resch (2005) as well as by Hacker (2003). In short, &lt;em&gt;regulation obstacles&lt;/em&gt; refers to the psychic regulation of work activity. Even more details can be found in Rau (2004). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hacker, W. (2003). Action Regulation Theory: A practical tool for the design of modern work processes? &lt;em&gt;European Journal of Work &amp;amp; Organizational Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 12(2), 105. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320344000075&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320344000075&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leitner, K., &amp;amp; Resch, M. G. (2005). Do the Effects of Job Stressors on Health Persist Over Time? A Longitudinal Study With Observational Stressor Measures. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Occupational Health Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 10(1), 18–30. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.10.1.18&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.10.1.18&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rau, R. (2004). Job Strain or Healthy Work: A Question of Task Design. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Occupational Health Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 9(4), 322–338. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.9.4.322&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.9.4.322&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reber, A. S., &amp;amp; Reber, E. S. (2001). &lt;em&gt;The Penguin dictionary of psychology&lt;/em&gt; (3rd ed). London ; New York: Penguin Books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sonntag, K. (2001). Psychological Approaches to OSH Research—An Evaluation of 20 Years of Psychological Research on Industrial Safety and Health in Germany. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics&lt;/em&gt;, 7(4), 561–573. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2001.11076508&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2001.11076508&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastEditorDisplayName="user14074" LastEditDate="2017-04-11T07:56:43.883" LastActivityDate="2017-04-11T07:56:43.883" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17106" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10705" CreationDate="2017-04-11T10:43:56.787" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although this is quite an old question, I thought I would add additional &#xA;information regarding this topic for consideration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As already noted, the storage capacity of the human brain is certainly very impressive. However, there are also some interesting quirks to human memory worth noting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;does memorising a new thing increase the chance of losing existing memories that are not directly related to the new memory (different subjects)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No -- and in fact, when something approaching the phenomenon you are describing occurs, quite the opposite appears to be true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before I clarify this, it's important to note that one should not think of memory as something that is &quot;lost&quot; in the same way that one might record over a VHS cassette tape and lose the old content in the process. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When one encodes new information (&quot;learns a new factoid&quot;), there is a greater chance of that new information adversely affecting their ability to retrieve and recall semantically related memories. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory interference is more likely to occur with similar material than different material. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two main types of interference are thought to affect memory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Proactive interference.&lt;/strong&gt; Previously learned information affects our ability to recall newly learned information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Retroactive interference.&lt;/strong&gt; Newly learned information affects our ability to recall earlier learned information.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In effect, what you might observe is precisely the opposite of what you are suggesting in your original question: when you memorise information about a &quot;different subject&quot; you are in fact less likely to &quot;lose existing memories&quot; relative to memorising information about the &quot;same or similar subject&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, it's important to recall that you're not actually overwriting or erasing the older memories, but more likely merging them together and confusing them with other memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has relevance to how one might chose to structure their learning e.g. revise for exams. After revising organic chemistry, one might derive greater benefit from subsequently revising a foreign language, rather than say, following it with inorganic chemistry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, as it relates to your Simpsons reference, the following would be more likely to be correct:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Remember that time I took a home wine-making course and forgot how to &lt;strike&gt;drive&lt;/strike&gt; brew beer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Below is a screenshot from a introductory psychology textbook detailing describing the role of interference in forgetting. It also refers to empirical research supporting the phenomenon:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lGHVH.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lGHVH.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Summary of memory interference&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From: &quot;A Level Psychology Through Diagrams&quot; By Grahame Hill &#xA;(My apologies, I had to use my undergrad textbooks in a bonfire when I was homeless and had been reduced to eating catfood)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2017-04-11T11:13:36.147" LastActivityDate="2017-04-11T11:13:36.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17107" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17090" CreationDate="2017-04-11T11:30:30.627" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;What I do not quite understand is: What is (according to Syka) &quot;useless information&quot; and how should we &quot;avoid&quot; this kind of information? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me try and answer this as follows: During our lifetime, our brain undergoes &quot;synaptic pruning&quot;, which lasts from childhood into puberty. Basically, the brain gets rid of &quot;unused&quot; synapses to make space for more complex structures according to the principle of &quot;use it or lose it&quot;. It has been hypothesised that sleep has a similar function in that it helps decrease the strength of synapses in order to save energy and not store what you may have referred to as &quot;information ballast&quot; (Synaptic Homoestasis Hypothesis). The creation of new synapses continues throughout our life, which is why there is (some) neural plasticity even in old adulthood. Thus, the brain itself knows how to get rid of irrelevant information (i.e. whatever it does not use) and is receptive to learning even in old age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is more, the brain grows with its tasks. So if you avoid learning new tasks, your brain will effectively decline and so will most cognitive skills (working memory, executive functions, processing speed, reasoning etc.). Likewise, our brain does not easily transfer skills from one task to general cognition. If you start doing Sudokus 5h a day, you will improve your Sudoku skills, but not your general ability to reason, for instance. Thus, to the contrary, it seems that what best maintains cognitive functioning in old age is continued engagement in cognitively challenging activities (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4154531/?version=meter%20at%20null&amp;amp;module=meter-Links&amp;amp;pgtype=Blogs&amp;amp;contentId=&amp;amp;mediaId=%25%25ADID%25%25&amp;amp;referrer=&amp;amp;priority=true&amp;amp;action=click&amp;amp;contentCollection=meter-links-click&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;see Park 2014&lt;/a&gt;) rather than the avoidance of new information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With multilingualism, there is currently a hot debate about its benefits for cognition. For one, it has been shown that bilinguals have a smaller lexicon (per language) than monolinguals - but generally, vocabulary keeps increasing over the lifespan, so I would not worry about that. Ellen Bialystok is a strong defender of the &quot;bilingual advantage&quot;, arguing that cognitive skills are even better preserved in bilinguals than in monolinguals, and she provided cross-sectional data showing that symptoms of dementia are delayed by 4 years in bilinguals as compared to monolinguals. The group of Kenneth Paap challenges these findings, arguing that there is no bilingual advantage &lt;a href=&quot;http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/45415313/The_importance_of_neuroscience_in_unders20160506-11979-stxwgg.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1491912647&amp;amp;Signature=5A07f4EFjk7XESlg4iRMn3bD9cs%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DThe_importance_of_neuroscience_in_unders.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;see Vaughn 2015 for a discussion&lt;/a&gt;, but there is little to no evidence suggesting a &lt;em&gt;disadvantage&lt;/em&gt; for cognitive ability in bilinguals. Starting to learn a new language in adulthood is even more promising, as it has been shown to promote grey matter increase in areas also responsible for cognitive functions that are known to decline in old age (see Antoniou et al., 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, I do not know of &quot;information ballast&quot; impairing basic mental mechanisms, but knowing more than one language has certainly not been shown to decrease your mental health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15573" LastEditorUserId="15573" LastEditDate="2017-04-11T20:47:16.080" LastActivityDate="2017-04-11T20:47:16.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17108" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17111" CreationDate="2017-04-11T13:30:02.847" Score="2" ViewCount="166" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading Identity: Youth and Crisis and I was particularly struck by this passage:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nGlQ4.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nGlQ4.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm completely lost by the idea that we are in constant process of making the present into the past - I don't believe I've seen this idea before, and I had an ever harder time trying to find it explained anywhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What does Erikson mean by &quot;constant process of making the present 'former' &quot; ? What is he referring to here?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15574" LastEditorUserId="15574" LastEditDate="2017-04-11T18:22:44.020" LastActivityDate="2017-04-18T10:33:46.857" Title="Erik Erikson: &quot;We live in a continuous process of making the present 'former' &quot;" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17109" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5922" CreationDate="2017-04-12T15:53:08.560" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It may not be possible to answer this question in terms of &quot;schema&quot;, simply because of its theoretical underpinnings. Eoin has already pointed out this limitation in his/her answer to this question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, concepts for describing both psychic representations of &quot;the world&quot; in the individual and &quot;their potential … out in the world not yet encountered by the individual&quot; (citation of the question) are available in the terminology of Activity Theory (Leont’ev, 1978). Namely, the concepts of &lt;em&gt;personal sense&lt;/em&gt; (in the individual) and &lt;em&gt;meaning&lt;/em&gt; (potentially reflected by the individual and concretized/found/passed on in the social system/society/culture). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Leont’ev (1978), the psychic representation of things, their personal sense, and their meaning are the three formative moments of human consciousness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, Aleksej Nikolaevič Leont’ev was a major exponent of the Cultural-Historical School of Psychology and a student and co-worker of L. S. Vygotsky in Sovjet Russia. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leont’ev, A. N. (1978). &lt;em&gt;Activity, Consciousness, and Personality&lt;/em&gt;. Engelwood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastActivityDate="2017-04-12T15:53:08.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17110" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-12T17:40:25.047" Score="1" ViewCount="428" Body="&lt;p&gt;To me, it seems strange that something such as depression, which anyone can feel at any given time, is diagnosed and treated medically as if it is a mental disorder. I believe depression should be treated with constructive sessions, communication and through giving people a sense of meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why is depression being treated as if it is a medical problem when it's a problem of thought?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, diagnosing a person as being depressed may re-enforce their negative ideas, while the more obvious approach would be to positively re-enforce this person?.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15585" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-26T19:48:19.673" LastActivityDate="2017-04-27T05:45:11.300" Title="Why is depression a diagnosable issue?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="16" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17111" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17108" CreationDate="2017-04-12T23:12:37.077" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You should have quoted a bit more, because he was getting to the punchline. It is a bit metaphorical, but I think he is basically saying that it is not possible to have a &quot;pure experience&quot;. We always have some individual context for everything, including our own past thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another wrinkle is that everything that we think about is already in the past. We can't walk and chew experiences at the same time, so to speak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take a good look at what Buddhism says about this sort of thing - it is a 2500 year old technology for dealing with and understanding psychological reality. You could just study nonduality (research term: &lt;strong&gt;Persistent Non-Symbolic Experience&lt;/strong&gt;) and get there faster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user9634" LastActivityDate="2017-04-12T23:12:37.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17114" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-13T03:19:30.120" Score="3" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any variants of pathological lying? As far as I understand it, that means either lying for no discernable reason, or to your advantage but a lot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are any other verbal behaviours themselves pathologised: pathological false confession, or pathological irony?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2017-04-14T13:59:53.937" Title="Are there any variants of pathological lying?" Tags="&lt;pathology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17115" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-13T07:53:07.713" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do adults recognise numbers or shapes quicker? Have there been any studies on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If an adult was asked to press a corresponding button when presented with a shape or number, which would they respond to quicker?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15593" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-04-13T08:08:18.513" LastActivityDate="2017-04-13T08:08:18.513" Title="Shape versus numbers" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-04-22T11:57:14.093" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17123" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17110" CreationDate="2017-04-15T13:17:54.260" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not everyone who feels depressed some time diagnosed with depression. Depression is not simply feeling sad. It has specific diagnosis criteria which you can find in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-V&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Diagnosis of a mental disorder is needed to help the patient, not to label them or to reenforce any idea. That's why in psychiatry, the term 'diases' is not used. Moreover, with the same way of thinking in your question, none of the psychiatric disorders could be defined. Because psychiatry is based on ways of feelings and thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15611" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-26T19:39:34.253" LastActivityDate="2017-04-26T19:39:34.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17124" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-04-15T16:26:11.403" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Temporal context model of Marc W. Howard and Michael J. Kahana explains recency and contiguity effects on human declarative memory (subcategories: episodic memory and semantic memory). According to Howard and Kahana: &quot;...the&#xA;temporal context model(TCM), uses retrieval of prior contextual states to drive contextual drift. In TCM,retrieved context is an inherently asymmetric retrieval cue. This allows the model to provide a principled explanation of the widespread advantage for forward recalls in free and serial recall.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11614" LastEditorUserId="11614" LastEditDate="2017-04-25T01:14:21.693" LastActivityDate="2017-04-25T01:14:21.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17125" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-04-15T16:26:11.403" Score="0" Body="For questions related to temporal context theory of retrieval of declarative memory." OwnerUserId="11614" LastEditorUserId="11614" LastEditDate="2017-04-21T05:03:02.083" LastActivityDate="2017-04-21T05:03:02.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17126" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14039" CreationDate="2017-04-15T19:21:06.990" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Contrast is hardwired in the visual system and can be explained by retinal and brain connectivities without the need for adaptive processes. My answer pertains to &lt;em&gt;adaptation&lt;/em&gt; at the &lt;em&gt;neurophysiological level&lt;/em&gt;. In other words, &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v16/n7/abs/nn.3408.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;short-term neural adaptation in the retina&lt;/a&gt; or the visual cortex&lt;/em&gt; are not necessary components for color-contrast coding in the visual system. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;According to the model of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.visualexpert.com/FAQ/Part1/cfaqPart1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hering&lt;/a&gt;, color contrast in trichromatic species (such as most humans) is basically established between three sets of opponent systems: yellow-blue, red-green and the achromatic channel (dark-bright), and depicted in Fig. 1. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.visualexpert.com/FAQ/Part1/cfaqPart1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;opponent system&lt;/a&gt; is established in the brain by cells in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://isle.hanover.edu/Ch06Color/Ch06OpponentCells.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual cortex&lt;/a&gt; responding to both colors of a pair, but one color (e.g. blue) excites and the other (yellow) inhibits the cell, or &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;. These systems are basically established by funneling the color information of opponent colors from the primary sensory neurons (the photoreceptive rods and cones) to color sensitive cells in the visual cortex &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-vii-color-vision/color-vision/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Gouras, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. In effect, we cannot perceive a yellowish blue, or a reddish green, because these colors are opponent colors in a pair. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ls6Ub.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ls6Ub.png&quot; alt=&quot;![Hering&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Hering model of color opponency. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.visualexpert.com/FAQ/Part1/cfaqPart1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mark Green&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of this, the primary color-pairs yellow-blue and red-green yield excellent contrast, because in the brain the opponent response of cells will cause the edge to be sharply defined. Likewise, the achromatic channel yields high-contrast acuity. Mixed colors will impinge on this system not in an ON/OFF way, but in a gradient. For example, in your example, the blue chalk will be visualized through the yellow-blue opponent channel. On a black background, color contrast will be established against the achromatic channel. The highest possible contrast would be delivered with the blue chalk on a yellow background such that the blue-yellow opponent system could be used (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; blue chalk on a yellow 'white' board :-). However, blue chalk on a blackboard had to be contrasted using the yellow-blue against the achromatic channel, which are phsyiologically not opponent systems and therefore yield less sharp contrast.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another reason is foveal tritanopia: the fovea has the highest resolution for perceiving fine detail. There are no short wave cones (blue cones) in the very center, the area of maximum resolution &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0042698981902418&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Williams &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1981)&lt;/a&gt;, so presumably it is impossible to see blue with the area of the retina with the highest contrast acuity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that while the aforementioned Hering model does not depend on adaptation, many illusions do depend on adaptive processes in the color system, most notably &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.colorcube.com/illusions/aftrimge.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;after-images&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-vii-color-vision/color-vision/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gouras, Color Vision. In: &lt;em&gt;Webvision. The Organization of the Retina and Visual System&lt;/em&gt; (2009)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0042698981902418&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Williams &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Vis Res&lt;/em&gt; (1981) &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;(9): 1341–56&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-18T12:28:27.527" LastActivityDate="2017-04-18T12:28:27.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17127" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12969" CreationDate="2017-04-15T20:07:02.043" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Two areas in the visual cortex are associated with the perception of velocity, namely:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_02/d_02_cr/d_02_cr_vis/d_02_cr_vis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;primary visual cortex&lt;/a&gt; (V1) and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;middle temporal area&lt;/a&gt; (MT or V5). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both V1 and MT contain neurons that respond strongly to motion in a particular direction and also have selective responses to a particular speed. Direction and speed together define the velocity vector, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, these V1 and MT neurons are velocity-tuned. The velocity tuned neurons in V1 typically project to velocity tuned cells in MT. While V1 contains approximately 25% velocity-tuned neurons, those in the MT neurons are nearly all velocity-tuned &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9af3/aa508469068d7c201b58461ed0962ff67a3d.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bradley &amp;amp; Goyal, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now this is all bottom-up processing. You basically ask as well whether top-down issues play a role. I do not think so. The visual system is basically split in a dorsal 'what' and a ventral 'where' stream (Fig. 1). The 'what' system identifies a target and the 'where' system (containing MT) determines location and velocity. As far as I know, there is no feedback from the dorsal stream onto the ventral one to affect velocity processing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FrC1S.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FrC1S.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;streams&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Dorsal (parietal) and ventral (temporal) streams. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/97/1/307&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lehky &amp;amp; Sereno (2007)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9af3/aa508469068d7c201b58461ed0962ff67a3d.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bradley &amp;amp; Goyal, &amp;amp;Nature Rev Neurosci (2008); &lt;strong&gt;9&lt;/strong&gt;: 686-95&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://jn.physiology.org/content/97/1/307&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lehky &amp;amp; Sereno, *J Neurophysiol (2007); &lt;strong&gt;97&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 307-19&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-16T14:28:04.360" LastActivityDate="2017-04-16T14:28:04.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17128" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17982" CreationDate="2017-04-16T07:40:28.793" Score="4" ViewCount="3518" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a person is born deaf and dumb, how can they think? In &quot;what language&quot; do these people think? Do they develop their own inner language?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately I have not found an answer, and I actually doubt it has ever been elucidated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15617" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-24T22:40:41.863" LastActivityDate="2019-11-13T03:32:12.620" Title="How do congenitally deaf and mute people think?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17129" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10266" CreationDate="2017-04-16T08:30:23.447" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know anything about those with lower than average.. BUT&#xA;Emotional Intelligence can be learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Read on:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lifehack.org/articles/communication/7-practical-ways-improve-your-emotional-intelligence.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.lifehack.org/articles/communication/7-practical-ways-improve-your-emotional-intelligence.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikihow.com/Develop-Emotional-Intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.wikihow.com/Develop-Emotional-Intelligence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This will not be a process of a few hour, nor a few days.. It will take you a few weeks or months to grasp and, maybe, a few years to have something robust.&#xA;You have only positive &quot;things&quot; to gain if you go this route&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10018" LastActivityDate="2017-04-16T08:30:23.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12969" CreationDate="2017-04-16T14:14:22.683" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;@AliceD gave a great answer on the bottom up pathway. Let me add some top-down processing bits into the picture, since that's what you are asking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, at a perceptual level, motion perception is biased by prior expectations and strength of motion signal. E.g., see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stocker, A. A. and Simoncelli, E. P. (2006). Noise characteristics and prior expectations in human visual speed perception. Nature Neuroscience, 9(4):578-585. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn1669&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn1669&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neural activity of MT (and behavior) is known to be modulated by attention. E.g., see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Monkey Area MT Latencies to Speed Changes Depend on Attention and Correlate with Behavioral Reaction Times. Neuron. 78(4):740–750. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.03.014&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.03.014&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2017-04-16T14:14:22.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17134" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14039" CreationDate="2017-04-17T12:32:21.110" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;@AliceD: All of this is very accurate. However, I would like to add that the idea of adaptation in colour perception is not entirely off the mark. What is being described in @AliceD 's reply pertains to the processes in the visual cortex, but of course the colour signal needs further processing before it can be perceived consciously. What is certainly universal is the contrast perceived between the primary colour-pairs you mentioned (because the cones in the retina block the cones of the respective opposite colour), but there is evidence that finer contrasts - for instance between different shades of blue - are acquired through culture. In Russian, there are two words for blue - a darker and a lighter shade, but they lack a common word to denote a general concept of &quot;blue&quot; as in English. Studies (although not entirely consistently) have shown that, therefore, Russian speakers are better at distinguishing finer contrasts among shades of blue &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1069397104267888&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(see Paramei, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;. So there appears to be some (cultural) learning to how we perceive colour contrasts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15573" LastActivityDate="2017-04-17T12:32:21.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17139" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17017" CreationDate="2017-04-18T08:10:54.173" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The amount of sleep that people get affects people attentiveness and their productivity to a large extent, as discussed by Rosekind et al. (2015). When switching to DST, many people experience a loss of sleep &#xA;(Barnes and Wagner, 2009) which can last up to a week and potentially longer (Harrison, 2013). This lack of sleep may explain the fact that more occupational accidents occur and productivity on the work floor drops (Barnes and Wagner, 2009; Coren, 1996). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sleep and attention&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.norcalbaa.org/uploads/NCBAA_ARTICLES_20110825_Alertness_Solutions_Cost_of_Poor_Sleep.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rosekind et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; did a research on the effect of sleep and productivity in a general sense. In their introduction, they described the following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The prefrontal cortex is an especially important part of the brain for&#xA;  such functions as temporal memory and divergent thinking tasks&#xA;  (Harrison &amp;amp; Horne, 2000b), as well as control of emotional responses&#xA;  and attention (Johnson &amp;amp; Proctor, 2004). Consistent with this&#xA;  contention, empirical research indicates that sleep is an important&#xA;  determinant of alertness and attention deployment and control (Dijk,&#xA;  Duffy, &amp;amp; Czeisler, 1992; Flower et al., 2003; Jewett &amp;amp; Kronauer, 1999;&#xA;  Smith, McEvoy, &amp;amp; Gevins, 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Following, in their study, they compared alertness and task performance of people (1) with good sleep, (2) who are at risk of losing sleep, (3) with insufficient sleep syndrome (ISS) and (4) who suffer insomnia. The results indicated that the people who sleep well always significantly outperformed the insomniacs. Effects of different sizes were found between the insomniac, at-risk and ISS group, depending on the measure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;DST&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With sleep loss, attention and productivity is thus negatively effected. But do people lose sleep because of DST? &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.reformonslheurelegale.fr/142309312&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harrison (2013)&lt;/a&gt; researched the effect of DST on sleep and related behaviors and, in his abstract, states that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Relative ease in adjustment of sleep patterns is assumed by the general population but this review suggests that the scientific data challenge a popular understanding of the clock change periods. The start of daylight saving time in the spring is thought to lead to the relatively inconsequential loss of 1 h of sleep on the night of the transition, but data suggests that increased sleep fragmentation and sleep latency present a cumulative effect of sleep loss, at least across the following week, perhaps longer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The negative effect is not limited to the shift of the clock in the spring:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The cumulative effect of five consecutive days of earlier rise times following the autumn change again suggests a net loss of sleep across the week. &lt;strong&gt;Indirect evidence of an increase in traffic accident rates, and change in health and regulatory behaviours which may be related to sleep disruption suggest that adjustment to daylight saving time is neither immediate nor without consequence.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2696&amp;amp;context=lkcsb_research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barnes and Wagner (2009)&lt;/a&gt; also showed that people slept shorter after DST and that there was an increased amount of accidents in the immediate Monday after, compared to before the switch to DST. &lt;strong&gt;No significant differences in amount of sleep or accidents were found after the autumn switch from DST to normal time.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The loss of sleep is not only a problem for productivity on the job. In a Canadian study (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejm199604043341416#t=article&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coren, 1996&lt;/a&gt;), the amount of traffic incidents were investigated over several years around the switch to DST. Three Mondays were compared: 1 week before DST, Monday immediately after DST and the Monday 1 week later. Results shows that the amount of accidents significantly increased directly after the switch to DST, and a week later (although the effect size is smaller). &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/S6FfR.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/S6FfR.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barnes, C. M., &amp;amp; Wagner, D. T. (2009). Changing to daylight saving time cuts into sleep and increases workplace injuries. Journal of applied psychology, 94(5), 1305.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coren, S. (1996). Daylight savings time and traffic accidents. New England Journal of Medicine, 334(14), 924-925.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harrison, Y. (2013). The impact of daylight saving time on sleep and related behaviours. Sleep medicine reviews, 17(4), 285-292.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rosekind, M. R., Gregory, K. B., Mallis, M. M., Brandt, S. L., Seal, B., &amp;amp; Lerner, D. (2010). The cost of poor sleep: workplace productivity loss and associated costs. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 52(1), 91-98.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-06-19T13:33:47.607" LastActivityDate="2017-06-19T13:33:47.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17142" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-18T12:36:38.717" Score="1" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;When people are made to listen to the same sounds repeatedly, it can trigger placebo effects, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, they think they've heard something new or different the $ Nth $ time around, when in fact they haven't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the name of this &quot;bias&quot;? And are there any research papers on it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've stumbled across the 'Focusing Effect' but I don't think that's what I'm looking for&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15644" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-18T19:31:03.427" LastActivityDate="2017-08-16T22:30:26.520" Title="What is the bias called when listening to the same sound repeatedly?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17143" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8922" CreationDate="2017-04-18T12:47:27.417" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, 'neuroplasticity'is a broad term. Although structural changes are the most visible form of neuroplasticity, for example neurogenesis and axon outgrowth, generally subcellular changes are also taken into the definition of plasticity as well, for example the strengthening of synapses that occurs at the molecular level:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.headspace.com/blog/2015/01/30/which-parts-of-the-brain-are-most-resilient-to-change/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuroplasticity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; occurs at different levels: structural plasticity (new neurons born, growth and shrinkage of neurons), functional synaptic plasticity (enhancing/diminishing the functional connection between neurons) and all the molecular and cellular mechanisms that accompany these changes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, the '&lt;em&gt;is there an exception to the rule&lt;/em&gt;' questions are notoriously hard to answer, as most scientific research reports pertain to the publishing of positive data (descriptions of neuroplastic changes in areas of the brain). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To cite &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.headspace.com/blog/2015/01/30/which-parts-of-the-brain-are-most-resilient-to-change/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aguire&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...[A]s long as there are neurons, there is a potential for neuronal plasticity...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, given the broad definition of neuroplasticity, I dare to state that it basically occurs in every brain region. In some more than others, however. The hot spots in the brain where &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.stanford.edu/group/hopes/cgi-bin/hopes_test/neuroplasticity/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurogenesis&lt;/a&gt; takes place even in the adult brain, e.g. the &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.stanford.edu/group/hopes/cgi-bin/hopes_test/neuroplasticity/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;hippocampus&lt;/a&gt;, are obviously the prime examples of high potential for gross plastic changes to occur.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-04-18T12:47:27.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17144" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17312" CreationDate="2017-04-18T13:50:18.267" Score="2" ViewCount="710" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Background&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The notion of grounding theory in empirical data, originates from the work by Glaser &amp;amp; Strauss (1967). At present, while reputable scholars, for instance Eisenhardt and Graebner (2007), make use of the term &quot;&lt;strong&gt;empirical grounding&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;, it doesn't seem to be used quite frequently in (English-language) psychological literature. For instance, today, the database &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PsycINFO&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsycINFO&lt;/a&gt;&quot; returns not more than 66 journal articles where the mentioned term is used. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the term &quot;&lt;strong&gt;empirical grounding&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; designate a distinct methodological procedure (or result) that exists independently from the grounded theory methodology? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eisenhardt, K. M., &amp;amp; Graebner, M. E. (2007). Theory Building from Cases: Opportunities and Challenges. &lt;em&gt;Academy of Management Journal&lt;/em&gt;, 50(1), 25–32. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2007.24160888&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2007.24160888&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Glaser, B. G., &amp;amp; Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research (4. paperback printing). New Brunswick: Aldine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastActivityDate="2017-05-15T16:26:42.000" Title="Is there a conventional use of the term &quot;empirical grounding&quot;?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17145" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-18T18:43:50.277" Score="2" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm having some trouble with understanding Reaction Time (RT) method. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a hypothesis that M occurs at B where M is a mental activity and B is a location in the brain.  To verify it, I want to use either method subtraction method or mental chronometric (here I say RT). Using fMRI and subtraction method, I think it can be done. For example, suppose that sequence of metal activities A-N-M occurs. Then, by using fMRI, where M occurs and subtract places which are activated when A and N occur. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But designing experiment using the RT, How can I do that where M occurs in brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9022" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-04-21T05:06:56.133" LastActivityDate="2017-04-21T05:06:56.133" Title="What is Reaction time method?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-04-29T13:34:18.187" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17146" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17142" CreationDate="2017-04-18T19:23:56.973" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In psychophysics, positive hit-rates on zero-intensity stimuli are called &lt;em&gt;false positives&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/514/Psychophysics.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychophysics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, it is a common phenomenon where subjects say they perceived something, while no stimulus was in fact being presented. Such responses are called &lt;strong&gt;false positives&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-3612918491/high-false-positive-rates-in-common-sensory-threshold&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Running, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Fig. 1, I have posted a psychometric curve on a so-called stimulus detection task, where the subject (in this case myself) had to identify vibratory stimuli. The x-axis is stimulus level (arbitrary units) and the y-axis shows &lt;em&gt;P&lt;/em&gt;, or the fraction correct (0 being 0% and 1 being 100% correct). At high stimulus levels (right side of the graph) I faithfully detected all stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At zero stimulus-intensity, however, no stimulus was presented, and such trials are sometimes called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199534067.001.0001/acref-9780199534067-e-1293&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;catch trials&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. In this case, only a visual cue appeared on the screen, as in all trials, to notify the subject a trial was starting. You can see I pressed the '&lt;em&gt;Yes, I can feel it button&lt;/em&gt;' in nearly 5% of the catch trials, while there was no stimulus presented at all. Subjects (too) willing to reach low thresholds (thus favorable outcomes) may tend to be trigger happy, and hit the '&lt;em&gt;Yes&lt;/em&gt; button too often.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On another note, false positives tend to creep up in case of pathologies. In my field of research, blind people with retinal implants subjected to a visual detection task with electrical stimulation of the retina may report perceiving implant-evoked stimuli, while in fact they are perceiving random phosphenes caused by neurophysiological changes in their retinae, or visual cortex. Likewise, hearing-impaired folks may perceive spontaneous auditory sensations referred to as tinnitus. When subjected to auditory detection tasks in audiometric testing, they may perceive tinnitus sensations and hit the 'Yes' button while in fact no auditory stimulus through the headphones was presented.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3oDdg.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3oDdg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;psychometric&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Psychometric curve&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-3612918491/high-false-positive-rates-in-common-sensory-threshold&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Running, Atten Percept Psychophys (2015); &lt;strong&gt;77&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 692-700&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-16T22:30:26.520" LastActivityDate="2017-08-16T22:30:26.520" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17147" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-18T19:59:28.567" Score="4" ViewCount="330" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am designing a tone-in-noise detection task (specifically a high frequency N0Spi task). For various reasons I need to use a yes-no paradigm and the method of constant stimuli. I am severely limited on the number of trials that can be presented (total of 20 trials) and the presentation order must be the same for all subjects. The subjects will be completely naive and be unfamiliar with the stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was thinking of giving them two &quot;practice&quot; trials: one with a clearly audible signal (if they knew what the signal sounded like) and one that is noise alone. I would provide feedback on these trials in the case of an incorrect response. Is there any literature on if the signal or no signal trial should come first? In a run of 20 trials, is there an optimal number of catch (no signal) trials? Is there an optimal place in the track to put these catch trials?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-15T07:08:13.103" LastActivityDate="2017-08-15T07:08:13.103" Title="At what time in a psychophysical test are catch trials preferably presented?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17150" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17163" CreationDate="2017-04-19T03:26:32.270" Score="3" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on a game that's designed to exercise the player's short-term memory. In the core game loop, I present the user with a random set of items (anywhere from 3 to 30), and after they click start, ask them to regurgitate that set of items. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The items themselves are simple but arbitrary / semantically meaningless, eg. four colours (red/blue/green/yellow), or four arrows (up/down/left/right).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I increase the game difficulty, what I want to know is: is it more difficult for humans to memorize &lt;em&gt;more groups&lt;/em&gt; (eg. five groups of two items each), or smaller groups with &lt;em&gt;more items&lt;/em&gt; (eg. two groups of five items each)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recall learning that short-term memory is generally seven items (plus or minus two, eg. 5-9 items) but I'm not sure how grouping/chunking affects that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15647" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T03:15:14.273" Title="Chunking: more chunks or more items?" Tags="&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17151" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17170" CreationDate="2017-04-19T05:29:53.727" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that human vision can get accustomed to reverse vision when wearing reverse glasses for several days. But does it work when we see the reverse image just in certain moments throughout the day? Would it be easier or more difficult for humans to learn use a reverse mirror?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-20T19:53:55.747" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T19:53:55.747" Title="Can we learn to adapt to image-reversal when being intermittently exposed to them?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17152" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10763" CreationDate="2017-04-19T05:46:21.237" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;From a biological viewpoint, these experiences are associated with the release of neurotransmitters like dopamine and oxytocin, which activate the &quot;reward pathway&quot; of the brain that is associated with feelings of happiness and mood alleviation. Since these are pleasurable experiences, we crave more and more of it, which is why a lot of our actions are governed by it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Science of Happiness. (2016). More Good Deeds. Retrieved 19 April 2017, from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.moregooddeeds.org/blog/2017/1/20/the-science-of-happiness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.moregooddeeds.org/blog/2017/1/20/the-science-of-happiness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fehlhaber, K. (2012). The Reward Pathway Reinforces Behavior - Knowing Neurons. Knowing Neurons. Retrieved 19 April 2017, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://knowingneurons.com/2012/10/31/the-reward-pathway-reinforces-behavior/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://knowingneurons.com/2012/10/31/the-reward-pathway-reinforces-behavior/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Icahn School of Medicine | Neuroscience Department | Nestler Lab | Brain Reward Pathways. (2017). Neuroscience.mssm.edu. Retrieved 19 April 2017, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.mssm.edu/nestler/brainRewardpathways.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://neuroscience.mssm.edu/nestler/brainRewardpathways.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Know your brain: Reward system. (2015). Neuroscientifically Challenged. Retrieved 19 April 2017, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/know-your-brain-reward-system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.neuroscientificallychallenged.com/blog/know-your-brain-reward-system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15649" LastEditorUserId="15649" LastEditDate="2017-04-19T15:49:07.877" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T15:49:07.877" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17154" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17147" CreationDate="2017-04-19T07:57:50.350" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Based on the experimental restrictions provided in the question and comments, my best bet would be to include 6 catch trials and to randomly present them from trial 6 and onward. Trials 1 &amp;amp; 2 are reserved for training purposes, trials 3 - 5 I would reserve for above-threshold stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;First a problem breakdown as I understand it from the question and the comments:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A Yes/No task is performed using method-of-constant stimuli;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dynamic stimulus range is known and expected outcomes are available;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The detection rate is important, whereas a 50% threshold or psychometric curve are not of interest;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zero-stimulus (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychologydictionary.org/catch-trial/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;'catch'&lt;/a&gt;) trials are a necessary component to validate the method in the normal-group;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No pilot experiment can be performed to validate the methods in a small group of controls;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Two practice trials are needed (stimulus-tone alone; noise-alone);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Critical bottle neck: 20 trials per run&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So - here is my suggestion, based on my experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off, in a yes/no task there's anything possible from correct rates from 0% to 100%. To have a reasonably estimate of the correct rate at a certain constant stimulus, multiple trials are necessary. With one trial you only get 0% or 100% correct - such a binary approach may make sense, but it will add substantial jitter. With four trials, you basically end up with correct-rate increments of 25%. Not too bad, but not pretty either. One subject error and the outcome will be substantially affected. With 8 trials, you are left with steps of 12.5%. From my point of view, &lt;strong&gt;8 trials&lt;/strong&gt; is the least you should have to have a reasonable estimate with some precision and to allow the subject to make an error without too much of an affect on the outcome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a more practical standpoint, you are left with 18 trials per run per subject (?), namely 20 trials minus two practice runs. At the minimum, from my stand point, you should use 3 stimulus levels: zero-intensity (catch trials) and two above detection-threshold stimuli to spread your chances of finding a statistical difference. I would recommend one far-above detection threshold ('High' condition), where also your impaired group will reach correct rates &gt;50% and one low level ('Low) where your impaired group will score &amp;lt;50% to have a condition that will make a positive outcome (difference control-impaired) guaranteed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means 18 trials for three conditions: 'Catch'; 'Low'; 'High'. That means 6 trials per condition, leaving you with correct-rate increments of 16.7%. Not too bad.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, where to put those catch trials into the picture?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would personally enforce the paradigm to start with the two practice trials (first the tone, then noise) and then have at least the first two or three trials above threshold; best thing to do is have the 'High' condition first for two times, then the 'Low' and start randomizing from there. Again, this is all personal opinion, based on my experience that &lt;strong&gt;dis-ambiguating the test protocol&lt;/strong&gt; is paramount. There's nothing worse than a confused subject. By having 2 well-above detection threshold stimuli (the same as training trial #1 I guess) the task is clear cut. If you start off with a catch trial after training they will likely be confused ('I didn't hear a tone!?' ; 'Should I press the button?').   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-19T09:58:20.620" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T09:58:20.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17155" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17167" CreationDate="2017-04-19T11:28:56.677" Score="2" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a person wears glasses that reverse the image upside-down, it is possible to adjust your vision in a matter of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/education/2012/nov/12/improbable-research-seeing-upside-down&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;days&lt;/a&gt;. What are the suggestions behind the neurological process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-20T12:51:44.317" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T12:51:44.317" Title="What is the neural adaptation underlying the habituation to reversed visual images?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-04-22T12:00:54.213" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17156" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16982" CreationDate="2017-04-19T16:02:26.750" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR&lt;/strong&gt;: We don't know whether the brain really uses predictive coding or not. But neurally computing an error signal on a small scale is possible (see below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Predictive coding is an &lt;em&gt;hypothesis&lt;/em&gt; for a putative signal-processing mechanism used in vertebrate brains. As things stand presently (2017), mapping the hypothesis of predictive coding onto known neural structures and responses is a matter of active research (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1612.05321&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Choi et al. 2016&quot;&gt;Choi et al. 2016&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.09.057&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Zmarz &amp;amp; Keller 2016&quot;&gt;Zmarz &amp;amp; Keller 2016&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4197&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Roth et al 2016&quot;&gt;Roth et al 2016&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a small-scale neural level, an error signal could be partially computed through converging an excitatory &quot;prediction&quot; signal and an inhibitory &quot;evidence&quot; signal onto a single neuron. This is only a partial error signal, since it is rectified by the spiking threshold of the post-synaptic neuron.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main issue is that the forward and backwards pathways need to follow very precise wiring patterns, and be quite tightly aligned, for the simple formulations of predictive coding to work. That doesn't mesh well with intuitions of what is biologically reasonable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some approaches to map a predictive coding framework onto other mechanisms that may be more biologically plausible (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/neuro.10.004.2008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Spratling 2008&quot;&gt;Spratling 2008&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T16:02:26.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17157" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16331" CreationDate="2017-04-19T16:22:54.080" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my opinion as a computational neuroscience researcher, graph theory has not made major inroads into computational neuroscience because we don't have good evidence for what graphs characterise brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, my research revolves around how patterns of connections between neurons within local cortical circuits relate to information processing mechanisms performed by those circuits. But it's only very recently (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09880&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Ko et al. 2011&quot;&gt;Ko et al. 2011&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14182&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Cossell et al. 2015&quot;&gt;Cossell et al. 2015&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.09.029&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Markram et al. 2015&quot;&gt;Markram et al. 2015&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature17192&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Lee et al. 2016&quot;&gt;Lee et al. 2016&lt;/a&gt;) that we have detailed experimental data to build a connection graph on a very small scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;small-world&quot; concept was highly influential in neuroscience for a few years, but it turns out that &quot;small-world&quot; doesn't tell you anything much about the computations performed by a network, or even tell you anything much about it's detailed structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The work of Sporns (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0020369&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Sporns &amp;amp; Kotter 2004&quot;&gt;2004&lt;/a&gt;) and others have been applied to large-scale experimental data characterising connections between cortical areas. But again, the network motifs that come out from these experimental data sets statistically don't tell us much about what is going on computationally, or even how these areas connect to each other on a fine scale. The problem here is one of physical resolution of the techniques used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some aspects of random matrix theory apply to the sorts of networks that we can build, simulating what we know about connections within the brain (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.188104&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Rajan &amp;amp; Abbott 2006&quot;&gt;Rajan &amp;amp; Abbott 2006&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.91.042808&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Muir &amp;amp; Mrsic-Flogel 2015&quot;&gt;Muir &amp;amp; Mrsic-Flogel 2015&lt;/a&gt;). Much of random matrix theory doesn't apply however, since graphs of realistic networks are non-Hermitian and can be quite constrained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T16:22:54.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17158" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2035" CreationDate="2017-04-19T18:07:40.597" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think a causal relationship between the two has been established yet. I did read about an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3948863&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;experiment conducted by Ulrich Bolm Androff&lt;/a&gt;, where the blood samples 10 physicians and psychologists were collected at 2 different times, once after they gave a public speech and once at the same time, on another day, and it was found that levels of epinephrine were found to be higher at the time directly after the speech was given. This does show a corelation between an anxiety inducing situation and levels of epinephrine, however, causal relationship cannot be established. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15649" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T18:07:40.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17159" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17094" CreationDate="2017-04-19T19:06:45.740" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In TV shows, films, news and other forms of media, there is a very big taboo against portraying rape be it fictional, or a footage of the event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know where in the world you are, but there have been many soaps and other TV shows depicting rape with varying responses.  Here in the UK there have been rapes portrayed in all of the soaps I can think of.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-37287/Rape-Coronation-Street.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coronation Street April 2001&lt;/a&gt; is one example.  There has also recently been the &lt;a href=&quot;http://metro.co.uk/2017/03/06/broadchurch-viewers-couldnt-understand-why-trish-had-a-rape-counselling-meeting-in-a-cafe-6492322/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3rd series of Broadchurch&lt;/a&gt; which dealt with rape and it's aftermath from the victim's point of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With static or moving images, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/d_to_g/extreme_pornography/#an04&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;possession of extreme pornography is illegal&lt;/a&gt; in the UK and showing an real rape or sexual assault recorded on CCTV within a TV programme or movie would be also be considered to be in bad taste.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as movies are concerned there are also a great number of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/find?ref_=nv_sr_fn&amp;amp;q=rape&amp;amp;s=kw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;movies containing rape&lt;/a&gt; of varying explicitness from mild to extreme.  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0094608/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Accused (1988)&lt;/a&gt; even &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0094608/awards&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;won a fair few awards&lt;/a&gt; including an Oscar and a Golden Globe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been a fair few movies which have been banned in some countries and some of the bans have been lifted in others.  As for reasons for viewer backlash, maybe it is down to the sensitivity with which the subject matter is dealt with.  This is open to opinion and therefore the answer to this would be off topic for this site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Severity of sexual assault&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;there is a strong taboo against comparatively less severe sexual assaults. (e.g. in Game of Thrones, compare the torture of Theon Greyjoy to the criticism of the implied offscreen rape of Sansa).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have not watched Game of Thrones and therefore I don't know what you are referring to, but a point I would like to make from the standpoint of someone who supports those who have been raped and sexually assaulted, although I cannot find any studies at the moment to reference, from the experiences of those I have supported, there is only one severity of sexual assault and all sexual assaults are as severe as each other when looking at potential psychological damage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T19:06:45.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17160" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17110" CreationDate="2017-04-19T19:46:45.623" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @user30133 pointed out,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Not everyone who feels depressed some time [is] diagnosed with depression. Depression is not simply feeling sad. It has specific diagnosis criteria which you can find in [the] DSM&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders&lt;/a&gt;, of which the most recent edition is the 5th edition (DSM-5) which also links to &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2016/en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ICD-10&lt;/a&gt; (International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NICE (The UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg90/resources/depression-in-adults-recognition-and-management-pdf-975742636741&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;states in this 64 page document outlining recognition and management of depression&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Depression is a broad and heterogeneous diagnosis. Central to it is depressed mood and/or loss of pleasure in most activities. Severity of the disorder is determined by both the number and severity of symptoms, as well as the degree of functional impairment. A formal diagnosis using the ICD-10 classification system requires at least four out of ten depressive symptoms, whereas the DSM-IV system requires at least five out of nine for a diagnosis of major depression (referred to in this guideline as 'depression'). Symptoms should be present for at least 2 weeks and each symptom should be present at sufficient severity for most of every day. Both diagnostic systems require at least one (DSM-IV) or two (ICD‑10) key symptoms (low mood,&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt; loss of interest and pleasure&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt; or loss of energy&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;) to be present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Increasingly, it is recognised that depressive symptoms below the DSM‑IV and ICD‑10 threshold criteria can be distressing and disabling if persistent. Therefore this updated guideline covers 'subthreshold depressive symptoms', which fall below the criteria for major depression, and are defined as at least one key symptom of depression but with insufficient other symptoms and/or functional impairment to meet the criteria for full diagnosis. Symptoms are considered persistent if they continue despite active monitoring and/or low-intensity intervention, or have been present for a considerable time, typically several months. (For a diagnosis of dysthymia, symptoms should be present for at least 2 years&lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It should be noted that classificatory systems are agreed conventions that seek to define different severities of depression in order to guide diagnosis and treatment, and their value is determined by how useful they are in practice. After careful review of the diagnostic criteria and the evidence, the Guideline Development Group decided to adopt DSM-IV criteria for this update rather than ICD-10, which was used in the previous guideline (NICE clinical guideline 23). This is because DSM-IV is used in nearly all the evidence reviewed and it provides definitions for atypical symptoms and seasonal depression. Its definition of severity also makes it less likely that a diagnosis of depression will be based solely on symptom counting. In practical terms, clinicians are not expected to switch to DSM-IV but should be aware that the threshold for mild depression is higher than ICD-10 (five symptoms instead of four) and that degree of functional impairment should be routinely assessed before making a diagnosis. Using DSM-IV enables the guideline to target better the use of specific interventions, such as antidepressants, for more severe degrees of depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[1] In both ICD-10 and DSM-IV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[2] In ICD-10 only.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[3] Both DSM-IV and ICD-10 have the category of dysthymia, which consists of depressive symptoms that are subthreshold for major depression but that persist (by definition for more than 2 years). There appears to be no empirical evidence that dysthymia is distinct from subthreshold depressive symptoms apart from duration of symptoms, and the term 'persistent subthreshold depressive symptoms' is preferred in this guideline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-04-19T19:46:45.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17162" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17196" CreationDate="2017-04-19T21:03:45.203" Score="3" ViewCount="4127" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, I have power spectrum density calculated by pwelch&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;f = EEG.data;&#xA;f = f(2, :);&#xA;N = EEG.pnts;&#xA;Fs = EEG.srate;&#xA;NFFT = 2^nextpow2(N);&#xA;NOVERLAP = 0;&#xA;WINDOW = 512;&#xA;[spectra, freqs] = pwelch(x, WINDOW, NOVERLAP, NFFT,Fs);&#xA;deltaIdx = find(freqs&amp;gt;1 &amp;amp; freqs&amp;lt;4);&#xA;deltaPower = mean(spectra(deltaIdx));&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The code comes from EEGLab, and can be found here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://sccn.ucsd.edu/pipermail/eeglablist/2014/008043.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://sccn.ucsd.edu/pipermail/eeglablist/2014/008043.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How should I calculate absolute power from it? What's the relationship between absolute power and power spectrum density?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15484" LastEditorUserId="15484" LastEditDate="2017-04-21T14:05:54.397" LastActivityDate="2017-04-25T13:31:20.543" Title="How to calculate absolute power for EEG from power spectra density?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17163" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17150" CreationDate="2017-04-20T03:15:14.273" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you're misunderstanding the concept of chunking. If the items are arbitrary with no connection to each other, chunking will do you no good since grouping them is meaningless and thus you're still memorizing the individual items in the groups instead of the groups themselves. This &lt;a href=&quot;https://bradylab.ucsd.edu/pdfs/BradyKonkleAlvarez2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; from Brady et al. goes into depth about the limits of working memory, I also recommend looking up the references mentioned. Here is a relevant passage about the definition of chunking from that paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cowan (2001) defined a chunk as a group of&#xA;  items where the intrachunk associations are greater than the interchunk&#xA;  associations. In other words, in the sequence FBICIA the letters&#xA;  F, B, and I are highly associated with each other and the letters C,&#xA;  I, and A are highly associated with each other, but the letters have&#xA;  fewer associations across the chunk boundaries. Thus, observers&#xA;  are able to recall the sequence using the chunks FBI and CIA,&#xA;  effectively taking up only two of the four chunks that people are&#xA;  able to store in memory (Cowan, 2001; Cowan, Chen, &amp;amp; Rouder,&#xA;  2004). By comparison, when the letters are random, say HSGABJ,&#xA;  they are more difficult to remember, since it is more difficult to&#xA;  chunk them into coherent, associated units.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14722" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T03:15:14.273" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17164" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3832" CreationDate="2017-04-20T04:20:07.767" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think reading about the &lt;a href=&quot;http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/26/3/699.full.pdf+html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;genain quadruplets&lt;/a&gt; should give you a clear idea of the effect of environment on schizophrenia. Basically, the quadruplets had a genetic disposition to this disorder and all 4 siblings were admitted at some point or another to the National Institute of Mental Health as schizophrenic. However, there were differences in the severity of the disorder in all 4 siblings due to the way they were treated by their parents, showing that despite genetic dispositions to a disorder, environmental factors do affect the severity of it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15649" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T04:20:07.767" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17165" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16968" CreationDate="2017-04-20T08:45:12.740" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question title reads:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the split brain disprove a materialistic mind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The simple answer being &lt;strong&gt;no&lt;/strong&gt;, nothing disproves that - the brain harbors the mind &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/uncovering-brainscams/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Lilienfeld &amp;amp; Arkowitz, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you mention that two hypotheses on split-brain patients are false, namely...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/315508.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Both [hemispheres] gain their own conscious mind.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/76/1002&quot;&gt;Only one [hemisphere] has a conscious mind&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...and I agree with them being incorrect hypotheses as suggested in the linked pages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you proceed with...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Does a] single conscious mind operates across both [hemispheres ?]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, you state yourself that...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...] there are [...] other pathways between the hemispheres besides the corpus callosum - such as thalamocortical circuits [...] and those via the midbrain and brainstem [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So from my perspective, up until now you have answered your own question whether one single mind operates across two hemispheres in split-brain patients. Anyway, to illustrate some additional interhemispheric commissures besides the callosal pathway, see Fig. 1. This shows that '&lt;em&gt;split-brains&lt;/em&gt; are in fact not entirely split; only the main causeway is severed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now there are wild stories about split-brain patients having a dual consciousness, including the paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=91fbb01d-0577-4a71-b235-e225cf5c281f%40sessionmgr4001&amp;amp;vid=1&amp;amp;hid=4209&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Joseph (1998)&lt;/a&gt; where the author speculates that one of his patients &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;...was possessed of two minds&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot; based on the frustrations experienced by this person because his motor skills were erratic. &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/ajp.101.5.594&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Andrew &amp;amp; Akelaitis (1945)&lt;/a&gt; explain that split-brain patients can display &lt;em&gt;diagnostic dyspraxia&lt;/em&gt; by an unbalanced inhibitory influence of the dominant hemisphere over the non-dominant side, explaining the uncoordinated behavior on the non-dominant side. These symptoms generally diminish over time, as the brain deploys alternative inter-hemispheric routing of communications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/g40di.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/g40di.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;brain&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Interhemispheric pathways are indicated by numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/g40di.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Urbanski &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/ajp.101.5.594&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Andrew &amp;amp; Akelaitis (1945) &lt;em&gt;Am J Psychiatr&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;101&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 594-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=91fbb01d-0577-4a71-b235-e225cf5c281f%40sessionmgr4001&amp;amp;vid=1&amp;amp;hid=4209&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Joseph, &lt;em&gt;J Clin Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (1988); &lt;strong&gt;44&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 770-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/uncovering-brainscams/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lilienfeld &amp;amp; Arkowitz, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am Mind&lt;/em&gt; (February 2008)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/g40di.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Urbanski &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., *Front Integr Neurosci (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T08:58:19.763" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17166" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7934" CreationDate="2017-04-20T10:19:19.887" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, help groups and health authorities recommend avoiding labels such as &quot;epileptics, schizophrenics, etc.&quot; and suggest &quot;people with epilepsy/schizocphrenia, etc.&quot;&#xA;&quot;John is epileptic&quot; can have negative connotations and also labels a person as being different, whereas &quot;John has epilepsy&quot; can be taken as John is a person (first and foremost) who happens to have epilepsy. He is not defined by his illness.&#xA;However, in a clinical or scientific context, for example in a study report, I don't believe this is important; so it depends on the readership.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15660" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T10:19:19.887" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17167" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17155" CreationDate="2017-04-20T12:49:30.270" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;From what I know from the literature, adapting to prism glasses mainly finds it origins in adaptation of behavioral motor control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The adaptation to wearing prism glasses is often ascribed to the adaptation of the proprioceptive system, i.e., subjects adapt their motor behavior to compensate for the visual field shift (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-002-1097-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Richter &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2002)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-005-0159-y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hatada &amp;amp; Rosetti (2006)&lt;/a&gt;), or through shifts in their egocentric reference frame. Admittedly, some subtle, short-lasting after-effects do seem to occur in the visual domain &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-006-0381-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hatada &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2006)&lt;/a&gt;, but gross adaptation is mainly centered on behavioral adaptations of motor control, at least as far as I am aware. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In four human subjects that wore prism glasses for about 36 days it was shown that after a week or two, also their ipsilateral visual cortices were activated, while normally only the contralateral cortex is activated &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ef47/04066c958c74bfd1e7344d36fe7966dd16ec.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Miyauchi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. So there is a definite visuo-neurophysiological correlate of wearing prism glasses. Nonetheless The authors conclude that... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[The] changes observed [in] adaptation to left–right reversing may be associated with the process of [...] strategic &lt;strong&gt;perceptual-motor control&lt;/strong&gt;. [...]. For example, when the subjects wearing left–right reversing goggles pick up an object located in the left visual field, they have to use their right hand which is normally located in the right visual field [...].   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.awz.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/archive/film_photo_and_tone_archives/video_documents/th_erismann_ikohler&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link you provide&lt;/a&gt; describes mainly anecdotal reports from a single researcher. Above studies included multiple subjects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-006-0381-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hatada &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Exp Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;173&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 415–24&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-006-0437-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hatada &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Exp Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;174&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 189–98&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-005-0159-y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hatada &amp;amp; Rosetti, &lt;em&gt;Exp Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;169&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 417–26&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ef47/04066c958c74bfd1e7344d36fe7966dd16ec.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Miyauchi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Physiol - Paris&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;98&lt;/strong&gt;: 207–19&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-002-1097-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Richter &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Exp Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2002); &lt;strong&gt;144&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 445–57&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T12:49:30.270" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17168" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17169" CreationDate="2017-04-20T13:24:59.910" Score="4" ViewCount="383" Body="&lt;p&gt;The way I understand it, memory goes through calcium influx induced LTP (Long Term potentiation) for short term storage. Long term storage requires protein synthesis. (#1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a meta-analysis (#2) shows that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a procedural memory may never become fully stable and instead remains vulnerable to interference. When exposed to task B, participants may have retrieved the procedural memory associated with task A and modified it, ‘overwriting’ the memory for task A with information relevant to task B............ It implies that learning a new skill leads to the automatic destruction of another skill. It would never be possible to have skill in more than one task! Our ability to acquire multiple skills may depend upon having contextual cues available to signal the switch from one task to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This indicates that procedural memory never goes through protein synthesis. The problem is, procedural memory can be divided into three parts: 1. Motor, 2. Perceptual, 3. Cognitive (#3). We all know that motor skills are not volatile after being practiced. Only something like Parkinson's disease can damage motor skills (#4) while perceptual skills seem even more secure. Cognitive procedural memory alone seems very vulnerable, but I don't know why this is an exception. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any theory that explains how our brain can store motor skills without any apparent LTP and protein synthesis phases?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;#1. Biopsychology by John P. J. Pinel 6th ed. P. 285&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;#2. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(04)00937-6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(04)00937-6.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;#3. &lt;a href=&quot;http://medicalfinder.jp/doi/abs/10.11477/mf.1416100315&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://medicalfinder.jp/doi/abs/10.11477/mf.1416100315&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;#4. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01688639008400978&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01688639008400978&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11614" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-21T06:01:58.403" LastActivityDate="2017-04-21T06:01:58.403" Title="How does the human brain store motor skills for long term?" Tags="&lt;procedural-memory&gt;&lt;ltp&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17169" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17168" CreationDate="2017-04-20T19:36:24.397" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I second the comments on the question that the question-post looks kind of convoluted. But it seems it all boils down to the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How does our brain store motor skills without any apparent long-term potentiation or protein synthesis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I personally think the question premise, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt; &quot;&lt;em&gt;LTP and protein synthesis are not involved in motor learning&lt;/em&gt;&quot;, is incorrect to start with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Firstly, motor learning has been linked to &lt;strong&gt;long-term potentiation&lt;/strong&gt; in the primary motor cortex &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25972791&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Avinzino &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Secondly, &lt;strong&gt;protein expression&lt;/strong&gt; is involved in motor learning as well. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8971979&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fos expression&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; has been used for decades as an immunohistochemical protein marker for neural activation. Fos expression in the motor cortex has been linked to motor learning, alongside synaptogenisis processes &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8699262&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kleim &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1996)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25972791&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Avinzino &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Behav Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;9&lt;/strong&gt;:105&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8699262&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kleim &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (1996); &lt;strong&gt;16&lt;/strong&gt;(14): 4529-35&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-20T19:46:23.117" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T19:46:23.117" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17170" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17151" CreationDate="2017-04-20T19:51:50.930" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wearing prism glasses needs adaptation of behavior. That takes time. Wearing them during all waking hours speeds up the process as it forces the wearer to adapt in everyday life. If the subject does not adapt quickly, it's going to be a very hungry, un-showered, immobile and eventually a very unhappy subject, because tasks of daily living become pretty much impossible without adapting to the prisms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Putting them on for an hour or so per day will not force the subject to cope with it. And even if a training regimen is commenced in that hour, when the subject puts them off the learning process stops. Eventually they may get there, but it is certainly not as effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T19:51:50.930" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17172" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-20T22:14:31.757" Score="3" ViewCount="2078" Body="&lt;p&gt;Using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.colourblindawareness.org/colour-blindness/colour-blindness-experience-it/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;image color-filtering techniques&lt;/a&gt; we can simulate the way colorblind people see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xSYz4.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xSYz4.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The aim of this question is to know whether the opposite process could be possible, namely can a colorblind person experience normal trichromatic vision using &lt;a href=&quot;http://enchroma.com/technology/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a  vision enhancement device&lt;/a&gt;? Could the deficit in the cones be corrected via this system?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking this one step further, if this process is possible, is it possible that humans could experience multi-cone vision as the 16-cone vision of the mantis shrimp?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14775" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-02T11:38:36.343" LastActivityDate="2017-05-02T12:15:19.063" Title="Can color blindness be treated with image filtering technology?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17173" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17072" CreationDate="2017-04-20T22:37:52.103" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the key term here is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bltt.org/quicktips/mouse_dwell.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dwell time&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. There is abundant literature on this. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780387746739?wt_mc=GoogleBooks.GoogleBooks.3.EN&amp;amp;token=gbgen#otherversion=9780387746746&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sample &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2008)&lt;/a&gt;, go into quite some detail as to how to calculate this. In a nutshell, it basically boils down to defining a cluster of pixels around the mouse pointer tip. If the mouse cursor stays within those bounds, the clock should start ticking. A certain time-based cutoff criterion (say a few hundred milliseconds) could mark it as a dwell.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780387746739?wt_mc=GoogleBooks.GoogleBooks.3.EN&amp;amp;token=gbgen#otherversion=9780387746746&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sample &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Geospatial Services and Applications for the Internet&lt;/em&gt; (2008), Springer&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-04-20T22:37:52.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17174" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-21T03:29:02.920" Score="4" ViewCount="1179" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's been quite a bit of talk about &quot;grit&quot;, lately. And the first response of many was to ponder whether it is different from big 5 conscientiousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I was wondering what the correlation is between &quot;grit&quot; and Big 5 conscientiousness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-04-21T03:29:02.920" Title="What is the correlation between grit and Big 5 conscientiousness?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17175" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17174" CreationDate="2017-04-21T03:29:02.920" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some discussion on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grit_(personality_trait)#Grit_and_personality_measures&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A meta-analysis [by Crede et al] found that the grit was functionally a measure of conscientiousness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study by Mayer and Skimmyhorn (2017) using two large military cadet samples (i.e., samples of approximately 1000 in each) obtained measures of Grit (12 item measure, Duckworth, et al 2007) and IPIP 20 item conscientiousness. They obtained correlations between conscientiousness and grit of .75 and .74 in the two samples. The reliability of conscientiousness was close around .90 for conscientiousness and .80 for grit. Thus, the correlations suggest that almost all of the meaningful individual differences are shared across the two scales.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zp0oV.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zp0oV.png&quot; alt=&quot;correlations between grit and conscientiousness&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mayer, J. D., &amp;amp; Skimmyhorn, W. (2017). Personality attributes that predict cadet performance at West Point. Journal of Research in Personality, 66, 14-26.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crede, Marcus; Tynan, Michael; Harms, Peter. &quot;Much Ado About Grit: A Meta-Analytic Synthesis of the Grit Literature.&quot;. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. doi:10.1037/pspp0000102. PMID 27845531&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-04-21T03:29:02.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17176" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-21T06:00:15.473" Score="3" ViewCount="1182" Body="&lt;p&gt;What role do the ego and group unconsciousness have in Jungian &quot;individuation&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What distinguishes Jungian psychology is the idea that there are two&#xA;  centers of the personality. The ego is the center of consciousness,&#xA;  whereas the Self is the center of the total personality, which&#xA;  includes consciousness, the unconscious, and the ego... Jungians also&#xA;  saw psychic health as depending on a periodic return to the sense of&#xA;  Self... individuation (Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_in_Jungian_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia - Self in Jungian psychology&lt;/a&gt; with interpretive liberties)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though I took some interpretive liberties, this &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; be inadvisable for wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It'd be helpful to know of aything substantial I could read, that is focused on this question, especially if (and I'm not saying it's the case that) individuation involves the externalisation of the ego.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-04-21T14:00:51.400" LastActivityDate="2017-04-21T17:04:38.323" Title="What role do the ego and group unconsciousness have in Jungian &quot;individuation&quot;?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17177" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-21T07:10:01.217" Score="3" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any frameworks to evaluate the quality of a theoretic concept in cognitive science (ideally with references)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For social sciences I found the following:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gerring, J. (1999). What makes a concept good? A criterial framework for understanding concept formation in the social sciences. &lt;em&gt;Polity&lt;/em&gt;, 31(3), 357-393.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11381" LastActivityDate="2017-04-21T07:10:01.217" Title="What Makes a Concept Good in Cognitive Science?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="14" ClosedDate="2018-03-04T23:23:56.940" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17179" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-21T15:43:21.667" Score="2" ViewCount="480" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it true that stimulants and the neurotransmitters they mimic, push into the synapse, or keep in the synapse (e.g. dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine) make neurons fire more often, while inhibitory depressants (e.g. GABA) make them fire less often?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastEditorUserId="11010" LastEditDate="2017-04-23T04:04:38.143" LastActivityDate="2017-04-23T04:04:38.143" Title="Is it true that stimulants make neurons fire more often, and depressants make them fire less often?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17180" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17176" CreationDate="2017-04-21T17:04:38.323" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ego, the &lt;strong&gt;collective unconscious&lt;/strong&gt; and the persona collectively help the person to self-actualise and reach individuation through the elements of the psyche being in harmony with each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of what I am providing in this answer has been put together using my knowledge of Jungian Psychology from my 3 year Psychotherapy course I am sudying at Reading University and information within Wolberg (2013).  Anything not referenced here is from the Wolberg book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Individuation&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's first of all define the word &lt;em&gt;Individuation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the broadest possible way, individuation can be defined as the achievement of self-actualization through a process of integrating the conscious and the unconscious. Once again, any accurate understanding of Jung should come from [Jung]. (Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://journalpsyche.org/jung-and-his-individuation-process/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Journal Psyche&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self Actualisation is a term coined by Abraham Maslow with his &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hierarchy of Needs&lt;/a&gt;, and refers to having a fulfilment and mastery of all your needs from the simplest to the more complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Jung, the Psyche, and the Collective and Personal Unconscious&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carl Gustav Jung&lt;/a&gt;, the psyche is compartmentalised in a different way than Freud proposed. He divided the psyche into&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;a superficial part, the &lt;em&gt;persona&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;a social mask assumed by the individual, made up of social interests and sanctions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;a less superficial aspect, the &lt;em&gt;ego&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;which is only to some extent conscious and reflects past-personal experiences, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;a deeply unconscious part&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;which has within it the &lt;em&gt;collective unconscious&lt;/em&gt; and contained archetypes &lt;a href=&quot;https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/34/d0/43/34d043be7df8fd48ad7bc5e6d9cae344.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Creator, Caregiver, Ruler, Jester...)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Difficulties occur when there is a lack of harmony among the persona, the ego, and the collective unconscious. Jung conceived of the idea that baser elements of the soul were present in the collective unconscious, and he characterised these as “the Shadow.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The psychic reality of the situation created by the psychic images, developed in the conscious, create complexes [e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferiority_complex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Inferiority Complex&lt;/a&gt;] and the issues, and their connected experiences are repressed or suppressed into the &quot;shadow lands&quot; of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_unconscious&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;personal unconscious&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jung also believed that the collective unconscious contained&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;creative fountains of energy. Primitive fears and other untoward manifestations of the unconscious invaded the patient’s conscious mind and created tensions and various neurotic symptoms that were attempts at self-cure. The collective unconscious, unleashed, constituted a source of danger for the person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The 2 different human characters&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jung also evolved a theory of character, whereby people are divided into two types: introverts and extroverts. The introvert’s interests centred on himself or herself; the extrovert’s interests were on the external world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A human being, said Jung, had an innate religious craving which powered the need for self-realization. There was, he explained, no retreat from life’s burdens other than to find refuge in spiritual strivings with “acceptance of the irrational and unbelievable.” By experiencing the collective unconscious, an individual no longer would experience personal sorrow &quot;but the sorrow of the world, no longer a personal isolating pain, but pain without bitterness, binding all human beings together.” We are brought “back to ourselves as an existing, living something, stretched as it were between two worlds of images, from which forces proceed that are only dimly discerned but are all the more clearly felt. This something, though strange to us, is yet so near, it is altogether ourselves and yet unrecognizable, a virtual middlepoint of such a mysterious constitution that it can demand anything, relationship with animals and with gods, with crystals and with stars.” These ideas were elaborated by Jung (1961) in his last book, &lt;em&gt;Memories, Dreams, Reflections&lt;/em&gt;, a fascinating autobiographical document that explains his relationship with Freud and gives us a broader understanding of the essence and meaning of his work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Putting it together for psychotherapy&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During Jungian psychoanalytic therapy...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;an effort is made to explore “archetypes” in order to determine how these imprints contaminate the patient’s present life and interfere with self-development and self-realization (individuation). Bringing the individual into contact with his or her collective unconscious is said to help liberate creative forces that will have a constructive effect on adjustment. Once non-conscious elements are recognized, an attempt is made to guide the patient actively into a productive relationship with the unconscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wolberg, L. R., 2013. &lt;em&gt;The Technique of Psychotherapy - Fourth Edition&lt;/em&gt;,&lt;br&gt;Chevy Chase, MD:International Psychotherapy Institute E-Books&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Available free from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.freepsychotherapybooks.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.freepsychotherapybooks.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;For further in-depth information on Jungian Analytical Psychology:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frieda Fordham (1991) &lt;em&gt;An Introduction to Jung's Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 3rd Revised Edition,&lt;br&gt;London:Penguin Books Ltd. (ISBN-13: 978-0140135688)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carl Gustav Jung (1969) &lt;em&gt;The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious (Collected Works of C. G. Jung)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;2nd edition translation in 1981 by Gerhard Adler &amp;amp; R.F.C. Hull. Princeton: Princeton University Press (ISBN-13: 978-0691018331)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;exact same edition also printed in 1991 by London:Routledge (ISBN-13: 978-0415058445)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-04-21T17:04:38.323" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17181" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-21T17:23:29.403" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my naive understanding, it seems that when people try to find correlations between a human action and a certain pattern of activity in the brain, they measure the brain activity with some device  designed for that while a group of people perform that action. It seems that it is usually deduced that the brain region that shows more activity is more responsible for the action under investigation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the proof that the relation is not inversed? That is: Why the region with less activity is not actually more responsible for the action under investigation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastActivityDate="2017-04-22T15:34:11.133" Title="Why the brain region with less activity is not more responsible for some action?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17182" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17184" CreationDate="2017-04-21T18:03:12.220" Score="10" ViewCount="18034" Body="&lt;p&gt;In an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6k3_T84z5Ds&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;advertisement by Microsoft for their To-Do product&lt;/a&gt; they use a statistic that we &quot;make over 35,000&quot; decisions a day.  Unsurprisingly, they don't cite a source.  Is there any scholarly basis for such a figure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though there are usually 86400 seconds in a day (that works out to one decision every ~2.5 seconds if you include time sleeping) you could reasonably make an argument for that number.  I say that, however, without a good operational definition for &quot;decision&quot;.  Executive function researchers may outright say that figure is bunk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q:&lt;/strong&gt; Careless usage aside, is there a source for this statistic and/or a more scholarly correct number for the &quot;number of decisions we make each day&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apparently the statistic is widely &quot;cited&quot; (without proper citation) online.  Here are a few instances (if any are left as comments I'll include them below):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://go.roberts.edu/leadingedge/the-great-choices-of-strategic-leaders&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://go.roberts.edu/leadingedge/the-great-choices-of-strategic-leaders&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.inc.com/kevin-daum/how-to-make-great-decisions-most-of-the-time.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.inc.com/kevin-daum/how-to-make-great-decisions-most-of-the-time.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question was asked on Skeptics SE, but closed without a response:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/32672/do-people-make-35000-decisions-a-day&quot;&gt;Do people make 35000 decisions a day? [closed]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4864" LastEditorUserId="4864" LastEditDate="2018-05-18T16:42:15.907" LastActivityDate="2018-05-18T16:42:15.907" Title="Basis for &quot;we make 35,000 decisions a day&quot; statistic" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17183" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10235" CreationDate="2017-04-21T20:48:10.430" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/cou/46/2/218/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Craig Waldo (1999)&lt;/a&gt; is the only study I can find at the moment which sheds any light on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although negative social attitudes toward gay men and lesbians are often referred to as &lt;em&gt;homophobia&lt;/em&gt;, several authors have argued that the term &lt;em&gt;heterosexism&lt;/em&gt; is a more appropriate and inclusive concept (e.g., Herek, 1989; 1992; Lorde, 1984; Neisen, 1990). The distinction is an important one, as it focuses on the normalizing and privileging of heterosexuality (rather than merely a fear of homosexuality) and calls attention to the prejudice and social stigma, both institutional and interpersonal, faced by GLB people. In contrast to homophobia, heterosexism includes a wide range of experiences of discrimination not limited to those related to phobias or violent episodes, and it conceptually includes prejudice toward bisexual men and women as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you said, men generally are less tolerant to those in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=LGBTQIA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LGBTQIA&lt;/a&gt; community than women and Waldo suggests that it may be down to tolerance for hetrosexism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study represents the first examination of a model of the process of heterosexism in the workplace, demonstrating that organizational factors such as tolerance for heterosexism contribute to its prevalence and that it is associated with undesirable job-related, health-related, and psychological sequelae. As such, this study provides insight into not only the costly effects that can be expected in workplaces that tolerate heterosexism, but also possible ways to counter it. By preventing heterosexism in the first place, both organizations and individuals alike will prosper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Waldo, C. R., 1999. &lt;em&gt;Working in a majority context: A structural model of heterosexism as minority stress in the workplace&lt;/em&gt; In: Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol 46(2): pp 218-232.&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.46.2.218&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.46.2.218&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-04-21T20:48:10.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17184" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17182" CreationDate="2017-04-21T23:19:13.393" Score="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;Concurring with the comments on the Skeptics question, I am also not aware of a standardized operationalization of &quot;number of decisions&quot; that could be used to produce a meaningful measure for this, and to my knowledge no (serious) research has attempted to calculate a daily tally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This clearly poses little challenge for the numerous references to this and other unsourced/uncited statistics.  While references on various blogs, social media, self-help books, and other questionable sources are not of much note, there are a few citations made on media outlets that readers might take more seriously, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/life/are-women-better-decision-makers-than-men/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Telegraph UK (2016)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;They say the average person makes 35,000 decisions a day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/becky-walsh/awkward-business_b_4797862.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Huffington Post UK (2014)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to newspaper ‘USA Today’ the average adult makes about&#xA;  35,000 decisions each day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Phrasings such as &quot;they say...&quot;, &quot;it is thought that...&quot;, &quot;according to various online sources...&quot;, etc are not very committal about validity, and the above quotes do only appear in the &quot;Lifestyle&quot; sections of these newspapers, so there is not much impetus for journalistic integrity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Articles often mention other corroborating research to make the &quot;35,000&quot; statistic sound more plausible.  An example from a different &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2011/11/14/how-to-be-a-better-decision-maker_n_1091959.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Huffington Post UK (2011)&lt;/a&gt; article (found on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/average-person-makes-773618-decisions-90742&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mirror&lt;/a&gt; magazine as well):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The average Brit makes 773,618 decisions in a lifetime but lives to&#xA;  regret as many as 143,262 of them, a study has found. ... The study of&#xA;  2,000 indecisive Brits, by Nintendo Puzzler Mind Gym 3D, found that&#xA;  ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's right, Nintendo - the game system company - purportedly conducted this apparently unpublished poll, giving a much lower number of decisions statistic (around 27 per day).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example on a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/strategic-thinking/201208/what-is-your-momentum-factor&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today (2012)&lt;/a&gt; article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to a survey by Columbia University decision researcher,&#xA;  Sheena Iyengar, the average American makes approximately 70 conscious&#xA;  decisions every day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sheena Iyengar, a professor of business at Columbia, also apparently did not publish her survey findings, but she does discuss it &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/sheena_iyengar_choosing_what_to_choose/transcript?language=en&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;on TED (2012)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I recently did a survey with over 2,000 Americans, and the average&#xA;  number of choices that the typical American reports making is about 70&#xA;  in a typical day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is something from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reference.com/world-view/many-decisions-humans-make-day-b50c6bcad5ce5872#&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;reference.com&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Each individual is different, so it is impossible to pinpoint a&#xA;  specific number of daily decisions that applies to every individual,&#xA;  but Time magazine puts the number in the thousands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The referenced &lt;a href=&quot;http://healthland.time.com/2012/09/04/making-choices-how-your-brain-decides/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Time Magazine&lt;/a&gt; article indeed says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Every day, we face thousands of decisions both major and minor ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How silly.  Here is another interesting item from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reference.com/world-view/many-thoughts-per-minute-cb7fcf22ebbf8466#&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;reference.com&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The average person has about 48.6 thoughts per minute, according to&#xA;  the Laboratory of Neuro Imaging at the University of Southern&#xA;  California. That adds up to a total of 70,000 thoughts per day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.loni.usc.edu/about_loni/education/brain_trivia.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;source cited&lt;/a&gt; for this amazing claim does not corroborate this ... any more, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20170313053429/http://loni.usc.edu/about_loni/education/brain_trivia.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;it did&lt;/a&gt;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How many thoughts does the average person have per day?&#xA;  *70,000&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So let's see, 70k thoughts per day, 35k decisions per day ... that's about 1 out of every 2 thoughts is a decision?  The other 1 in 2 thoughts must be &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gq.com/story/health-myth-does-the-average-man-really-think-about-sex-every-7-seconds&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the ones about sex&lt;/a&gt;.  But wait, what's the asterisk (*) about?  Ah:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;*This is still an open question (how many thoughts does the average human brain processes in 1 day). LONI faculty have done some very&#xA;  preliminary studies using undergraduate student volunteers and have&#xA;  estimated that one may expect around 60-70K thoughts per day. These&#xA;  results are not peer-reviewed/published. There is no generally&#xA;  accepted definition of what &quot;thought&quot; is or how it is created. In our&#xA;  study, we had assumed that a &quot;thought&quot; is a sporadic single-idea&#xA;  cognitive concept resulting from the act of thinking, or produced by&#xA;  spontaneous systems-level cognitive brain activations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most credible corroborating research I've seen so far is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0013916506295573&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wansink &amp;amp; Sobal (2007)&lt;/a&gt; paper: &quot;Mindless Eating: The 200 Daily Food Decisions We Overlook&quot;, published in the journal Environment and Behavior.  Keeping in mind that neither author is a cognitive scientist, and that this article concerns nutritional health, not psychological measurements, this is nonetheless a very &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/scholar?oi=bibs&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;cites=12130922988295639061&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;well cited&lt;/a&gt; paper.  In the paper, the authors explain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One hundred and fifty adults ... were initially asked to estimate how&#xA;  many total decisions about foods and beverages they make in one day.&#xA;  They were then asked six questions about snacks, six questions about&#xA;  meals, and six questions about beverages. ... While the typical person&#xA;  estimated they made around 15 food and beverage decisions in a day,&#xA;  the average that was calculated from subsequent questioning was 219,&#xA;  approximately 200 more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if the authors truly believe that this methodology conclusively sets the total number of daily food-related decisions, or if they were just pointing out that we are often not aware of many of the decisions that we make, but it is not difficult to imagine that if the survey contained more or fewer detailed &quot;subsequent&quot; questioning, then the total number of decisions would increase or decrease accordingly.  Regardless, this paper is an important reference for the author's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindless_Eating#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-help book&lt;/a&gt; - Mindless Eating (2006):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The phrase &quot;mindless eating&quot; refers to the empirical finding that&#xA;  people make nearly 20 times more daily decisions about food than they&#xA;  are aware of (an average of around 200 each day).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With a range of between 27 and 35,000 decisions per day, I think you can just pick any number you want for this statistic.  These types of claims are often associated with reference to research on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_fatigue&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;decision fatigue&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_depletion#Criticism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego-depletion&lt;/a&gt; - a controversial idea about the limits of human capacity for decision making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyways, I hope you had as much fun reading this answer as I had writing it.  Also, according to the Arnon Science Foundation, recent research proves that voting up this answer will make your day up to 32% better, so be sure to improve your average daily decision making by showing your support!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-04-22T04:48:11.013" LastActivityDate="2017-04-22T04:48:11.013" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17185" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17195" CreationDate="2017-04-22T12:42:30.800" Score="3" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking to gather peer reports and self reports of extraversion. Can I send out an item inventory that only has extraversion related items? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15676" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-04-24T07:26:29.647" LastActivityDate="2017-04-24T07:26:29.647" Title="Is it appropriate to do a study using only one trait from a larger personality inventory (e.g., Extraversion)?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17187" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17181" CreationDate="2017-04-22T15:34:11.133" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The thing neuroscientists do is look at the differences in brain activity. They thus don't see &quot;a high activity in brain area X&quot;. Instead, they see, between condition A and B, a difference in activity in brain area X. These differences can be both positive and negative, and each may receive it's own explanation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There must thus always be some kind of reference. This references can be done in different ways:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brain activity during a task is compared to some resting state activity. Before or after the experiment the subject is asked to sit still, often look at a fixation cross and do nothing. The assumption is that, while doing nothing, the brain is in some sort of neutral state. Every difference in activity you then find, could be attributed to the brain processes necessary to perform the experimental task. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A control task is performed. In a study to emotional responses (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychology.stonybrook.edu/ghajcak-/pubs/Moser%20Hajcak%20Bukay%20Simons%202006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moser et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;), for example, they show pictures. Some pictures contain emotion eliciting content, other pictures are perceived as emotional neutral. The reason a control task would be performed is to eliminate unknown variance in the data. If you are interested in an emotional response to pictures, and would compare that to a resting activity, as described above, you do not know for sure whether the difference in brain activity is caused by an emotional response, or by the fact that you presented a picture. By presenting emotion-full pictures and comparing brain activity with activity during presenting neutral pictures, the only difference is the emotional content in the picture. Not the type of task. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You could perform one task and make a distinction based on behavioral results you obtained. In the following fMRI study (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.med.upenn.edu/uep/assets/user-content/documents/DrummondPVTFMRISLEEP2005.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Drummond et al., 2005&lt;/a&gt;), subjects performed a psychomotor vigilance task (a simple reaction time (RT) task). The long RT-trials were seperated from the short RT-trials, and then brain activity is compared. This way, everything is the same in the experiment, but the behavior of the subjects. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Drummond, S., Bischoff-Grethe, A., Dinges, D. F., Ayalon, L., Mednick, S. C., &amp;amp; Meloy, M. J. (2005). The neural basis of the psychomotor vigilance task. Sleep, 28(9), 1059-1068.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moser, J. S., Hajcak, G., Bukay, E., &amp;amp; Simons, R. F. (2006). Intentional modulation of emotional responding to unpleasant pictures: an ERP study. Psychophysiology, 43(3), 292-296.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2017-04-22T15:34:11.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17188" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-22T18:28:07.620" Score="3" ViewCount="449" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on psychtoolbox and in my experiment I have given two images containing two roads (one is shortcut and other is longer way). In one image, the longest way is safe and in the other the shortcut way is safer. The images appear randomly. Students have to press left arrow key of laptop if longest is safe and right key for shortcut way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am confused in this whether it come under forced choice or 2AFC (alternative forced choice)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15684" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-04-25T01:05:32.987" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T20:50:21.427" Title="Calculation of d'prime in forced choice experiment" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17189" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17179" CreationDate="2017-04-22T22:05:07.480" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Generally spoken, yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Excitatory neurotransmitters lower the firing threshold, inhibitory neurotransmitters raise the firing threshold (Fig. 1). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2904507/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;glutamate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is the principle excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (contrary to what you pose in your question!). Glutamate (Glu) has multiple receptors associated with it. Each and every one of them has an excitatory effect on the postsynaptic neuron. For example, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK5274/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NMDA receptors&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are ligand-operated cation channels and binding of Glu causes the channel to open. Influx of Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; depolarizes the neuron and increases the likelihood it will reach firing threshold. Likewise, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10802/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;AMPA receptors&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; lower firing threshold by opening of Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; channels, as does acetylcholine abundant in the peripheral nervous system. Note that the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2904507/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;metabotropic Glu receptors&lt;/a&gt; have other, indirect effects on the cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inhibitory neurotransmitters like &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_04/d_04_m/d_04_m_peu/d_04_m_peu.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;GABA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, being the principal counterpart of Glu in the central nervous system operates by opening Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; channels associated with the GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; receptor. Influx of negative charge hyperpolarizes the neuron and hence increases firing threshold and hence causes the postsynaptic neuron to fire less often. &lt;a href=&quot;http://pharmrev.aspetjournals.org/content/63/1/182&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dopamine receptors&lt;/a&gt; are of the metabotropic class and have more indirect effects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gl3jc.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gl3jc.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;synapse&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter responses. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/bio-314-study-guide-2013-14-bassham/deck/10258321&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Study Blue&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-04-22T22:05:07.480" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17193" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-23T23:34:49.880" Score="2" ViewCount="1951" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because in western culture, writing and reading is from left to right, while arabic writing/reading is the opposite, chinese is from bottom to top and left to right (correct?) I don’t know about others. Also being left or right handed may be considered, I am left handed and I know it. Is it there a relation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15697" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-04-25T01:10:42.460" LastActivityDate="2017-04-25T17:34:37.617" Title="Do we all look at pictures from left to right?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17194" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-24T06:37:16.150" Score="3" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have collected a EPI BOLD sequence data using Siemens skyra 3T. The voxel size is 3x3x3 mm^3. TR = 2s. I am seeing &lt;a href=&quot;http://mri-q.com/gibbs-artifact.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gibbs artifact&lt;/a&gt; similar to the image:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qDdfF.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qDdfF.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People have suggested to smooth the data to get rid of it. But I will be doing MVPA (multi Variate Pattern Analysis). Since MVPA relies on spatial pattern, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811916001427&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;smoothing&lt;/a&gt; it is a bad idea. So can you please let me know if my results will be influenced by Gibbs artifact? &#xA;Also, from whatever I read, Fourier reconstruction at lower spatial resolution could lead to this artifact. Can any MRI scanner hardware issue cause this artifact, like heating up of RF coil, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15699" LastEditorUserId="15700" LastEditDate="2017-04-26T10:28:35.707" LastActivityDate="2017-04-26T10:28:35.707" Title="What is the effect of Gibbs artifact on multi voxel pattern analysis?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17195" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17185" CreationDate="2017-04-24T07:25:38.957" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. It is quite common to do a study that measures just one personality trait. There are many variations in this and reasons for doing this. Here are some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You measure the Big 5, but you want to incorporate some other personality trait not captured as well by the big 5 (e.g., honesty/humility from HEXACO; dark triad, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personality is a minor component of the study, so you just measure the one or two dimensions of interest.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You are specifically interested in the facets of a particular dimension so for example, you measure conscientiousness as well as many different facet scales of conscientiousness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In these cases, items are often taken from a larger inventory. E.g., you take just the extraversion items from a measure of Big 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are legitimate reasons for why you might want to only measure one personality trait. That said, if length is not a major issue, I would strongly encourage you to measure a broader set of traits. In particular, there are many benefits to getting a complete measure of the Big 5 (or perhaps HEXACO). You can then examine correlations in context and provide a much more complete picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-04-24T07:25:38.957" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17196" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17162" CreationDate="2017-04-24T09:32:34.453" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had to do some searching to be able to answer this question. As a matter of fact, a similar questions was once asked on &lt;a href=&quot;https://dsp.stackexchange.com/questions/2341/difference-between-power-spectral-density-spectral-power-and-power-ratios&quot;&gt;Signal Processing&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make the explanation more laymen-like, I think the answer means the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With pwelch or an FFT analysis you can calculate the amplitude of sinusoids with particular frequencies (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/17006/11318&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt; ). &#xA;These amplitudes squared, result in the absolute power within these specific frequencies. The resulting power per frequency is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_density#Power_spectral_density&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;power spectral density&lt;/a&gt; (PSD). In neuroscience, people do not often work with individual frequencies but work with frequency bands, such as the alpha band (8-14 Hz). This can be calculated by taking the average or the integral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The absolute power (W), you referred to, is the power of the entire signal. It thus does not make a distinction between the different frequencies. This can be calculated, by summing the power of each frequency (i.e. taking the integral of the signal). By summing, you have the total amount of power within the signal. &#xA;The absolute power can be used to normalize the PSD, by dividing the PSD by the absolute power (as described in the answer on Signal Processing). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Average vs integral&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that it is possible to calculate either the average or the integral of a frequency band. But when would you take the integral and when would you take the average? The average is an easy way of calculating how high the power is in a specific frequency band. This way, it does not matter how large the range of a frequency band is. The alpha band average will not be more inflated then the delta band (0-4 Hz) because of a bigger range. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you take the integral there will exist differences that are affected by the size of the frequency band, because you do not divide the sum by the amount of samples (i.e frequencies). However, it does allow you to normalize the PSD with the absolute power. Say, the integral of the alpha band results in &lt;code&gt;2W&lt;/code&gt;, the integral of the delta band results in &lt;code&gt;1W&lt;/code&gt;, and the absolute power of the entire spectrum equals &lt;code&gt;10W&lt;/code&gt;. Then we know that the alpha band plays a 20% part and the delta band a 10% part in the total signal. With mere averaging, this would not be possible because we 'neglect' the size of the range. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it depends on what exactly you are after. I haven't work with the absolute power and am not familiar with it's user. Perhaps it has something to do with comparisons between exp. conditions (within frequency-bands, i.e. alpha vs alpha) or within exp. conditions (between frequency bands). &lt;em&gt;If an actual expert could elaborate on why one method is beneficial over the other, that would be great.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-04-25T13:31:20.543" LastActivityDate="2017-04-25T13:31:20.543" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17197" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17193" CreationDate="2017-04-24T15:32:41.870" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;When reading you are performing a trained or learned skill, so if your instruction taught you to follow certain order that's what you do. There is a &lt;strong&gt;transfer&lt;/strong&gt; of this behavior ( &lt;em&gt;or any other learnt one for that matter&lt;/em&gt; ),into other types of images and situations,but the degree at which it is transferred depends on both context,cues, and expertise to name a few.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in one way, yes if you are presented with mainly a text based image you are expected to follow your training to some degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is but half the picture, the human visual system has evolved to notice and extract things ( &lt;em&gt;or features&lt;/em&gt; ) in a picture or real life, things that move, things with edges, moving things, things that were once important, the whole thing and on an on.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in order to analyze an image, there seems to be a complex interplay of attention from both your innate visual skills as well as features from the image that due to their novelty or other feature demand your attention, and sometimes even before that, you are making a decision as to what the image is and how to analyze it.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So which direction then ?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your eyes analyze an image through voluntary and involuntary &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccade&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;saccades&lt;/a&gt;,(directional eye movements) which due to the above explanation can be directed everywhere depending on a number of things, an interesting feature could be the starting point, or also a random one, and from there on you will keep analyzing the scene based on where your attention is at, here are 2 images being analyzed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vnnna.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vnnna.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;scan paths&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The resulting lines represent patterns of fixation and are called &lt;strong&gt;Scan Paths&lt;/strong&gt;.They differ from one observer to another and from one image to another, as well as depending on which task the observer is given and context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not aware of the same type of studies made with text and mostly text based images and predominantly left right handed subjects, that would probably give us the definite answer, but it is not too far fetched to expect some jumping around the page with periods of directional fixation based on your preferred reading method.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources/Notes&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Patterns of Fixation were pioneered by the Russian psychologist Yarbus (1965) &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Vision Science (Palmer)&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;11.2 visual selection: eye movements and attention.&lt;/em&gt; A whole chapter that goes into detail.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The nefertiti image is from Yarbus, A. L. (1967) Eye Movements and Vision. Basil Haigh (trans.). New York: Plenum Press. The face one ( not sure about the methodology ) from the wiki on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccade&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;saccades&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="14245" LastEditDate="2017-04-25T17:34:37.617" LastActivityDate="2017-04-25T17:34:37.617" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17200" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17188" CreationDate="2017-04-24T22:30:50.570" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you are struggling with the terminology. The terminology is not particularly clear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As it sounds like you are forcing them to respond with either the left or right arrow key, I would describe the task as forced choice. If you ask subjects to rate how likely the longest path is safe with the 0-9 keys, I would describe it as a rating, despite them being forced to give an answer on every trial. If you allowed them to skip trials with the space bar, some people would not call this a forced choice task. Things are messy though since you could think of the left arrow as 0, the space as 5, and the right as 9. In terms of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'$&lt;/span&gt;, what matters is that there are two choices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two most common paradigms with exactly two response choices are typically called the yes/no paradigm and the 2AFC paradigm. Despite it's name, the yes/no paradigm can have any response labels, including left arrow and right arrow. In the typical setup, in addition to both paradigm having 2 responses, both paradigms have exactly two stimulus classes (e.g., signal and noise, or in your case long and short). The defining characteristic that differentiates a yes/no paradigm from a 2AFC paradigm is that in a yes/no paradigm each trial (and hence response) is based on a single presentation of one of the stimulus classes while in the 2AFc paradigm there is a single presentation of both stimuli classes (either concurrently or sequentially). This difference is critical for calculating &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'$&lt;/span&gt; and a &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\sqrt{2}/2$&lt;/span&gt; scale factor is needed to correct for the fact that in the 2AFC paradigm there is more information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer your question, it is not clear from your description if you need to scale &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'$&lt;/span&gt; by &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\sqrt{2}/2$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorDisplayName="user8265" LastEditDate="2019-01-26T20:50:21.427" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T20:50:21.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17202" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-25T08:05:03.993" Score="7" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to conduct a research on the effect of emotions on decision. It is about the role of affective and cognitive processes in making a decision. I want to know if an individual relies more on emotions or logical thinking, but could not find any validated measure/questionnaire for that. I found some that measures the dual process theory : rational or intuitive but that is not what I am looking for.&#xA;Wondering if there is any survey/test for this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15714" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-04-26T04:01:05.503" LastActivityDate="2017-07-16T13:30:35.443" Title="Is there a standardised questionnaire measuring tendency to think emotionally versus logically?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17204" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-25T12:43:45.380" Score="4" ViewCount="683" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I know, intuition is affect-based. But how do they differ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15714" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-04-27T00:17:38.590" LastActivityDate="2021-03-05T07:10:33.330" Title="What is the difference between emotions, intuition and affect?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17206" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17220" CreationDate="2017-04-25T16:47:13.337" Score="3" ViewCount="196" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I'm studying the below questions. I appreciate they're rather broad - the purpose of this post is to get guidance on where I might start. I'm hoping someone can provide more focused examples of related studies which will help me move forward.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To what extent does a high level sense of direction weigh on day to day mental health optimisation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How is the economy relevant to mental health optimisation and does progression at such a macro level support individual psychological health progression?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By 'high level sense of direction' I mean the level of optimism in our environment - whether that be from growing financial markets, an evolving political landscape, levels of world conflict etc. (I'm talking vision/risk appetite/optimism. Perhaps there is an academic term within the cognitive sciences for this? Behavioral Ecology?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking to analyse how our global connectivity and processing of world news/events which highlight sometimes far-removed changes in our environment, directly impact our mental state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Ideas:&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have there been any studies into the relationship between economic&#xA;performance and anxiety? Maybe the psychological outlook of Millenials who experienced a very difficult economic environment during 2007 to 2013 (credit&#xA;crisis) whilst trying to enter the workforce? Many didn't and lived&#xA;with parents longer, haven't bought houses etc..&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perhaps the relationship between proliferation of social media news services and psychological health?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Please provide reading suggestions and advise if I'm not using terms recognised in the realm of cognitive science/psychology. Please add relevant tags to my question as not sure where this fits in; looking to bridge two worlds here.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9758" LastEditorUserId="9758" LastEditDate="2017-04-27T17:37:43.160" LastActivityDate="2017-04-27T19:28:05.317" Title="Mental Health Optimisation and the Macro Environment" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17207" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17110" CreationDate="2017-04-25T19:03:52.730" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Depression&quot; is a symptom or state of being, one that everyone can experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Major Depressive Disorder,&quot; however, is a diagnosable medical disorder for many reasons. The following list is by no means exhaustive:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Major Depressive Disorder runs in families, and a &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.10.1552&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;genetic component is well established&lt;/a&gt; by family and twin studies.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anyone who experiences a major depressive episode is at increased risk compared to the general population.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Major Depressive Disorder costs the US &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25742202&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;$200 billion per year&lt;/a&gt; in medical treatment and workplace costs.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are many specific ways in which functioning in the brain is altered in depressed patients. Decreased functioning in the prefrontal cortex (executive functioning) is a good example.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Contrary to belief common in the 80s and 90s, clinical depression is much more complicated than &quot;a deficiency in serotonin&quot; - the neurology is multifactorial and still poorly understood. However, clinically depressed patients (usually) respond to SSRIs in a manner different from healthy individuals. Prozac is not a &quot;happy pill&quot; if you are not depressed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;A problem of thought&quot; is one &lt;em&gt;aspect&lt;/em&gt; of depression. Most individuals have some combination of cognitive, behavioral, neurochemical, and genetic elements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree with you that telling people &quot;you have a disease&quot; is not always helpful and can be counter-productive in many instances. I too am a fan of positive psychiatry, and I think most individuals could benefit from caring for their mental wellbeing in the same way that healthy people benefit from exercise. On the other side of the coin, it is a &lt;em&gt;serious issue&lt;/em&gt; that many patients do not take seriously enough, and non-compliance to medication and therapy is common and can have very serious adverse consequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question is a good one, and a common one. Thank you for asking. Be aware, though, that it may come off as insensitive and offensive to some who have it bad. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To use rationalist terms: depression and suicide has been a large problem for many people throughout human history. From that, you can assume that 1) many people care very deeply about it, and 2) it is a &lt;em&gt;difficult problem&lt;/em&gt;. Given those facts, any statement along the lines of &quot;All it requires is ____&quot;, someone will likely take offense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15726" LastEditorUserId="15726" LastEditDate="2017-04-26T13:50:17.037" LastActivityDate="2017-04-26T13:50:17.037" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17209" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-26T11:51:42.380" Score="1" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;With the issue of being afraid of doing anything before people, one has to work hard on self control to prevent the body shaking on every tiny action, like hold a pen, drink water, etc, and when there's many people looking at him/her, it becomes almost impossible to hold shaking, to speak normally, or to think. This person is subconsciously in fear of people unhappy(?) with his actions, even though he knows there's nothing wrong with his behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a typical case in Psychology? Is there a name for it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Scenario for some background information&lt;/h2&gt; his mother died when he was very young, his father don't like him, never talked to him except call everyone dinner, never smiled to him, never spent time with him, never gave any recognition even he got full marks, curse and beat him on whatever excuse when not in good mood. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He lived in a room with a big window in the wall next to the living room(a request for curtain was rejected), he had no idea why father dissatisfied with him (he's always one of the best in his class during student period and never asked for anything from his father, if exclude care), but been used to keep an ear out on his father all the time when at home, for whenever his father step into the living room where he would be seen through the window, he could sit as straight as he can before his desk and try not to move a bit, he didn't want to give him any excuse to curse, to beat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15396" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-04-28T11:14:10.817" LastActivityDate="2017-04-28T11:14:10.817" Title="What's the psychological issue name of fear of people?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17210" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17211" CreationDate="2017-04-26T13:46:07.927" Score="6" ViewCount="2996" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hypothetically, let's say a person were to fall into a coma as an adolescent for several years, until they were a physical adult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would that person, assuming the brain was still fully functional upon awakening, still maintain the immaturity and impulsiveness of a teenager, and if so, could it be corrected by just trying to emulate adult life (effectively skipping teenage years of development), or are the experiences of a teenager still necessary to progress to an adult state of mind (aka, they would still need to have those experiences now in order to mature emotionally/mentally/etc.)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15740" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-26T19:08:19.257" LastActivityDate="2019-01-09T00:58:19.290" Title="What happens to someone missing teenage years of development?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17211" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17210" CreationDate="2017-04-26T19:02:27.310" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whilst typing this answer I upvoted this question as it points to very interesting theories of drive, motivation, and personal development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Short Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you take on board the theories surrounding life-span human development, there is an element of truth in your hypothesis.  Elements of immaturity and impulsiveness can still linger for various reasons and supposing there are no physical reasons for development delays, the reasons for the stagnation in cognitive development would need to be addressed through therapy in order for the person to be able to successfully move forward in life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although there is &lt;strong&gt;an element&lt;/strong&gt; of opinion expressed in the underlying theories I am about to outline, the theories can easily be demonstrated in many different ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looking at developmental issues, there are 5 spectrum models of development which theorists – and people in general – often disagree. (Miller, 2010; Sigelman &amp;amp; Rider, 2012):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Goodness vs Badness of Human Nature&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Humans are innately good, bad or neither&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nature vs Nurture&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Genes, biology, and maturation vs experiences, learning and social influences&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Activity vs Passivity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Humans shape their environments vs environmental forces shape humans&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Continuity vs Discontinuity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Changes are gradual vs dramatically through life&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Universality vs Context Specificity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Development is similar between people and cultures vs considerable differences between people and cultures&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all we need to look at how the theory has been developed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The prime theories of development which play a part in answering this question lay in Psychodynamic theories initially developed by Sigmund Freud and developed further with adjustments to his theories by Erik Erikson.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Sigmund Freud's Drive Theory and Stages of Development&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Drive Theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sigmund Freud argued on the debate of Nature vs Nurture and Good vs Bad, especially when he wrote his 2 essays &lt;em&gt;Thoughts for the Times on War and Death&lt;/em&gt; around 6 months after the outbreak of World War 1.  I am not sure where Freud stood on the other spectrums, although I would say that he stood on the universality side of Universality vs Context Specificity, as I believe he saw everyone had the same motivational drives and therefore everyone would react to situations in the same way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With Sigmund Freud, lot of people get hung up on the sexual elements of his theories when really, Freud’s theories centres on his motivation and &lt;strong&gt;drive theory&lt;/strong&gt; and they centre on all sorts of pleasure.  We are motivated towards whatever brings pleasure and are motivated away from pain, difficulty, destruction, confusion, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With drive theory centring on Eros and Thanatos along with the elements of the self (id, ego and super-ego), he is explaining resistance and why people use avoidance tactics through ego-defence mechanisms such as repression, denial etc. The Freud Museum’s website explains this too, along with topics such as the Oedipus Complex (Freud Museum London, n.d.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen Freud’s drive theory in play in many different ways.  People who I have been supporting after being assaulted often display these characteristics.  Although not always, they will avoid at all costs, anything they feel will put them in the same situation again, even if that means sacrificing personal and social interactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some will also seek other forms of pleasure, either just for the pleasure they gain from it, or for the purposes of blocking out bad feelings, memories and emotions they are suffering from due to the past experiences haunting them through flashbacks etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even those who have not experienced assault display drive theory traits when you look at the effects of commercialism in society.  Everyone looks for the things that will give them pleasure, whether it is the latest mobile phone, laptop or computer; or if it is a future holiday or bigger home.  The increase in readily available loans such as payday loans also make things more accessible and those who find difficulty paying them back avoid looking at the letters of demand, burying their head in the sand in the hope that they can deal with it later or it will just go away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosexual_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stages of Development&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The stages of development are a central element of Freud's Drive Theory.  Each of the stages:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oral (Birth - 1 year approx.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anal (1 – 3 years approx.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Phallic (3 – 6 years approx.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Latency (6 – puberty approx.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Genital (Puberty–death approx.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved before the individual can successfully advance to the next stage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Erikson’s Life Stages&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Erik Erikson’s &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;8 life stages of man&lt;/a&gt;, originally put together in 1950 in his book Childhood and Society, reframes Freud’s life stages and expands them.  Each stage is a dilemma and the resolution of each dilemma results in either a positive or a negative outcome. (Roche, 2009)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Erikson’s life stages, Freud’s oral stage is the stage of trust vs mistrust, the anal stage is autonomy vs shame and doubt, the phallic stage is initiative vs guilt, the latent period is industry vs inferiority and the genital stage is identity vs role confusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later, Erikson split the genital stage and labelled the puberty period of genital stage as identity vs role confusion and the later part of genital stage is intimacy vs isolation (Erikson &amp;amp; Erikson, 1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There were 2 other stages – Generativity vs Stagnation (or Fertility vs Sterility (Roche, 2009)) and Ego integrity vs despair – whilst a 9th stage was added in 1998 as the Eriksons came to believe that, “the role of old age needs to be reobserved, rethought” (Erikson &amp;amp; Erikson, 1998: p. 62).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the ninth stage (around the 80s/90s), all first eight stages go in reverse quotient order. For example, intimacy vs isolation becomes isolation vs intimacy – years of intimacy and love often give way to isolation and deprivation.  Relationships become “overshadowed by new incapacities and dependencies”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at how issues have affected people I have spoken to, the first 8 life stages are to me more like stages of assimilation of fact which can advance and recede at different times in life.  Different facts will be at different stages of assimilation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example identity vs role confusion.  You can feel very secure in your identity within society but then something can happen which can shake that sense of identity to the point where you start to question it again.  Using this “life-stage” as an example, if you speak to a man who has been raped, for many different reasons he may have questions surrounding his sexual identity which he didn’t have before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He could then misinterpret the situations he was in and re-evaluate and re-&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introjection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;introject&lt;/a&gt; his sexual identity in the wrong way, which when revisiting the past in therapy can then cause more pain and anguish having to yet again re-evaluate his sexual identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looking at this theory in the context of life stages and not stages of assimilation, the Eriksons’ revisiting of the life stages in 1998 highlights how you also need to look at these stages in the context of time-frame in which it was written.  They were originally put together in the late 40s and put into a book in 1950.  Expectations of children and adults were different then and so the timeframes of each stage may need to be adjusted and re-evaluated, however the stages still hold as being valid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Erikson, E. H. &amp;amp; Erikson, J. M., 1998. The Life Cycle Completed. New York: W.W. Norton.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, P. H., 2010. Theories of developmental psychology. New York: Worth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roche, D., 2009. Mapping the Human Phenome. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://thewayitis.info/thewayitis/inhumandev/epigenetics/mapphenome/p71.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://thewayitis.info/thewayitis/inhumandev/epigenetics/mapphenome/p71.html&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 16 March 2017].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sigelman, C. K. &amp;amp; Rider, E. A., 2012. Life-Span Human Development. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud Museum London, n.d. Are Freud's Theories All About Sex?. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.freud.org.uk/education/topic/10567/subtopic/10571/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.freud.org.uk/education/topic/10567/subtopic/10571/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 16 March 2017]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-01-09T00:58:19.290" LastActivityDate="2019-01-09T00:58:19.290" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17212" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17110" CreationDate="2017-04-26T19:02:50.747" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The current understanding is that depression is related to a neurochemical imbalance in the depressed brain. Pharmacological treatment to shift and correct that imbalance may therefore be an effective approach. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Basically you are saying depression is a state of mind and should be treated with counselling rather than  tagging a person as mentally ill and medicalizing the care.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As pointed out in the other answers, diagnosis of clinical depression happens through &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psnpaloalto.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/Depression-Diagnostic-Criteria-and-Severity-Rating.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rational guidelines&lt;/a&gt; using &lt;a href=&quot;http://m.blog.naver.com/mistyeyed73/220427762670&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;questionnaires and inventories&lt;/a&gt;. Basically, the goal is to extract the clinical, chronic depression from the other group that only shows some, but not all the symptoms of clinical depression. Normal life events can trigger a depression, but that doesn't mean that person needs medical treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, clinical depression, while being a mental disorder, has correlates in the neurochemical balance in the brain. From a neuroscience perspective, the depressed brain is physically different from a non-depressed brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Early medical treatments, and more recent accepted classes of anti-depressants show important correlates to dysfunctional &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.health.gov.au/internet/publications/publishing.nsf/Content/drugtreat-pubs-modpsy-toc~drugtreat-pubs-modpsy-2~drugtreat-pubs-modpsy-2-3~drugtreat-pubs-modpsy-2-3-intr&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mono-aminergic neurotransmission&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. A rough timeline of the various &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/antidepressants/art-20046273&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anti-depressants&lt;/a&gt; shows the neurotransmitter systems that are targeted by these drugs &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC181155/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ferguson 2001)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1950s: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/maois/art-20043992&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MAO inhibitors&lt;/a&gt;: elevate monoaminergic (MA) neurotransnmitters levels by blocking their breakdown (serotonin (5HT), noradrenaline (NE) and dopamine (DA) ;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;'50s and '60s: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/antidepressants/art-20046983&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tricyclic anti-depressants&lt;/a&gt;: elevate 5HT, NE and DA by inhibiting reuptake; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;'70s: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/ssris/art-20044825&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors&lt;/a&gt; (SSRIs): inhibit specifically reuptake of 5-HT, enhancing those levels of neurotransmitter and not others;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;'70s: &lt;a href=&quot;http://mentalhealthdaily.com/2014/12/24/norepinephrine-dopamine-reuptake-inhibitors-ndris-list/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NE &amp;amp; DA reuptake inhibitors&lt;/a&gt; (NDRIs) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;'80s: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/atypical-antidepressants/art-20048208&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;atypical antidepressants&lt;/a&gt; (a hererogeneous class targeting multiple systems, including 5HT, DA and NE)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;'90's: &lt;a href=&quot;http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/37606.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5HT &amp;amp; NE reuptake inhibitors&lt;/a&gt; (SNRIs)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without going into their specific mechanisms of action, the point I wish to make is that decades of research in anti-depressants has strongly indicated that a monoamine (MA) neurotransmitter imbalance (most notably 5HT), and specifically a &lt;strong&gt;reduced&lt;/strong&gt; MA neurotransmission is one of the leading factors to a depression &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19442174&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Muñoz &amp;amp; Alamo, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. While counseling may help, the underlying disorder may perhaps be treated effectively through treatment with antidepressants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding your statement that a diagnosis may enforce depressive thoughts -&#xA;I disagree. &lt;strong&gt;Acknowledgement&lt;/strong&gt; of the depressed state as a serious and debilitating illness is a necessary first step to recovery. Instead of the &quot;&lt;em&gt;oh it's just all between your ears - here are some positive words for you&lt;/em&gt;&quot;, depressed people are taken seriously and receive the appropriate medical care they deserve. This counts for pharmacological interventions and counseling alike. The first and likely the most crucial stage is acknowledging the problem - for the patient, the care providers, as well as for friends and family.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC181155/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ferguson, &lt;em&gt;Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2001); &lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 22-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19442174&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Muñoz &amp;amp; Alamo, &lt;em&gt;Curr Pharm Des&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;15&lt;/strong&gt;(14): 1563-86&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-04-27T05:45:11.300" LastActivityDate="2017-04-27T05:45:11.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17213" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17204" CreationDate="2017-04-26T19:25:23.717" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Intuition&lt;/a&gt; is unrelated to the other two, because it is an aspect of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognition&lt;/a&gt;. Meanwhile &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;affect&lt;/a&gt; is &quot;the experience... of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, meaning that these terms are more or less synonymous.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15741" LastActivityDate="2017-04-26T19:25:23.717" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17214" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17204" CreationDate="2017-04-26T20:06:21.383" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Intuition&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the ability to acquire knowledge without proof, evidence, or conscious reasoning, or without understanding how the knowledge was acquired (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intuition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Miriam Webster Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/intuition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oxford English Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Affect&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the experience of feeling or emotion. (Hogg, et al. 2010)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Emotion&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure (Cabanac, 2002; Schacter, 2011). Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on a definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An &lt;strong&gt;emotion&lt;/strong&gt; can be an &lt;strong&gt;affect&lt;/strong&gt; as a result of &lt;strong&gt;intuition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cabanac, M. (2002). &lt;em&gt;What is emotion?&lt;/em&gt; In: Behavioural Processes 60(2): 69-83&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-6357(02)00078-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0376-6357(02)00078-5&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12426062&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;12426062&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free PDF Available&lt;/strong&gt; from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11040893_What_is_emotion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hogg, M.A., Abrams, D., &amp;amp; Martin, G.N. (2010). &lt;em&gt;Social cognition and attitudes&lt;/em&gt;. In: Martin, G.N., Carlson, N.R., Buskist, W., (Ed.), Psychology (pp 646-677). Harlow:Pearson Education Limited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D.T., Wegner, D.M. (2011). Psychology Second Edition. New York, NY:Worth Publishers. p. 310. ISBN 978-1-4292-3719-2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-04-26T20:06:21.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17215" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16669" CreationDate="2017-04-27T02:55:50.873" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;To answer the question relating to start values for the parameters for use with &lt;code&gt;fitdist&lt;/code&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I would like to check for an ex-gaussian distribution fit (GAMLSS package), but the fitdist function ask for &quot;start&quot; parameters and I have no idea how to get them: any help would be much appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where possible, knowledge of the behavior of similar reaction times can be used. This might be particularly helpful when the sample skewness (see below) is not suitable for obtaining starting values, since skewness in particular might be anticipated to reasonably similar across different but related circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Jeromy says, start values generally just need to be rough ballpark estimates, so if you have some experience of fits you may be able to supply suitable guesses. But if you don't have any suitable idea, there's still something you can do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia page on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentially_modified_Gaussian_distribution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ExGaussian distribution&lt;/a&gt; offers some possibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, it gives method-of-moments-related estimators based on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentially_modified_Gaussian_distribution#Parameter_estimation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sample mean, variance and skewness&lt;/a&gt; (labelled $m, s^2$, and $\gamma_1$ there): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$${\displaystyle {\hat {\mu }}=m-s\left({\frac {\gamma _{1}}{2}}\right)^{1/3},}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$${\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }^{2}}=s^{2}\left[1-\left({\frac {\gamma _{1}}{2}}\right)^{2/3}\right],}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$${\displaystyle {\hat {\tau }}=s\left({\frac {\gamma _{1}}{2}}\right)^{1/3}.}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main thing to note there is that the $\tau$ (scale) parameter there is the same as the $\nu$ parameter in the &lt;code&gt;GAMLSS&lt;/code&gt; function &lt;code&gt;exGAUS&lt;/code&gt; (and is the inverse of the $\lambda$ rate-parameter in the definition of the distribution at the top of the Wikipedia article). The easy way to do this is by starting with $\hat{\tau}$:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$${\displaystyle {\hat {\tau }}=s\left({\frac {\gamma _{1}}{2}}\right)^{1/3}.}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;then&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$ \hat {\mu }=m-\hat{\tau}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\hat {\sigma}^{2}=s^{2}-\hat{\tau}^2\,.$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, you need to be careful that you don't end up with implausible values for the parameters which might happen if the sample skewness were negative (leading to an impossible value for $\tau$) or if the sample skewness were very large (perhaps leading to issues with the other two parameters, such as a negative variance) -- this must be checked. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand problems here should also be seen as a warning; if those things happen with the method of moments, there's strong potential for the likelihood function to not behave nicely as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article also mentions the range of the nonparametric skew (a skewness measure based on the second Pearson skewness), which relates the mean, median and standard deviation. This might be used in place of the moment-skewness (with some suitable modification) to obtain an estimate of the scale parameter of the exponential component.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An alternative would be to look at quantile-matching  (such as a calculation based on a high, low and middling quantile) or at estimates from quantile-based measures of location, scale and skewness, but the quantiles are not in general simple functions of the parameters; the existence of quantile and cdf functions in &lt;code&gt;GAMLSS&lt;/code&gt; make this potentially viable as a strategy, however. This would be more complex but more likely to lead to feasible values of the parameters, at least in the case where the skewness is very large.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The notion of finding a &quot;best&quot; distribution -- and in particular searching for one with a given set of data -- is not especially useful. No simple distribution will be a perfect fit (no simple model will be exactly correct). Models are useful representations rather than perfect descriptions. If one has a simple model which usually fits fairly well and has some theoretical basis by which its parameters and relationships between distributions based on different estimates can be understood, that's a good reason to use it. We should not be overly concerned about a &quot;best&quot; model for a particular data set so much as an adequate model across a variety of data of similar kinds. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In relation to the title -- fitdist (from package fitdistrplus, or fitdistr in MASS) will give parameter estimates for a fitted distribution but doesn't really tell you whether the fit is good enough for some particular purpose or other (i.e. it doesn't really check the quality of the fit in a practical sense). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15744" LastEditorUserId="15744" LastEditDate="2017-04-27T10:17:36.610" LastActivityDate="2017-04-27T10:17:36.610" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17217" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17005" CreationDate="2017-04-27T12:08:41.367" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In contrast to artificial neural networks, which are almost all feed-forward architectures, networks in biological brains are highly recurrent. In the networks of cortex, the majority of synaptic inputs a neuron receives come from nearby neurons in the same area of cortex (&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1400-04.2004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Binzegger et al. 2004&lt;/a&gt;). These are the &quot;circular&quot; connections that you are referring to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So recurrent connectivity is the rule, and simple feed-forward (or feed-back) projections between cohorts are the exception. The networks that result are therefore highly dynamic, and respond in complex ways to inputs changing over time. In general there is no one &quot;reason&quot; why recurrent connections exist. But there are guidelines about how connections between excitatory and inhibitory neurons are made.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The patterns of connections which define a network determine the computational properties of that network. At a first level, the strength and connectivity between excitatory and inhibitory neurons control the overall stability of the network (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gatsby.ucl.ac.uk/~qhuys/theoretical_neuroscience/Wilson-Cowan73.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wilson &amp;amp; Cowan 1973&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;amp;pmid=9151754&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tsodyks et al. 1997&lt;/a&gt;). It's certainly possible to have self-connections and high recurrence, and still keep the network stable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, changing the rules by which neurons connect to each other (&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1038/nature12015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ko et al. 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1038/nature14182&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cossell et al. 2015&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1038/nature17192&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lee et al. 2016&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.02.035&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wilson et al. 2017&lt;/a&gt;) changes the computational properties of the resulting network (&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.91.042808&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Muir &amp;amp; Mrsic-Flogel 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, biological neural networks are highly recurrent dynamical systems which bear only passing relationship to the acyclic networks that we use to think about feed-forward and feed-back connections in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6422" LastEditorUserId="6422" LastEditDate="2017-04-29T11:53:55.533" LastActivityDate="2017-04-29T11:53:55.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17219" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-27T17:51:19.957" Score="5" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;Shaver (1970) had two independent variables, severity of the accident outcome (severity) and similarity of the subjects to the transgressor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Severity was manipulated by giving subjects in different conditions different scenarios: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;mild outcome = the boy had the metal splinter in his wrist&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;severe outcome = the boy had a metal splinter in his eye&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How did Shaver “manipulate” the IV similarity (similar/dissimilar)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shaver, K.G. (1970). &lt;em&gt;Defensive attribution: Effects of severity and relevance on the responsibility assigned for an accident&lt;/em&gt; In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 14(2): pp 101-113.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0028777&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0028777&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15748" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-05-04T04:03:32.577" LastActivityDate="2017-05-12T18:42:01.067" Title="How did Shaver (1970) manipulate similarity in the defensive attribution study?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;social&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17220" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17206" CreationDate="2017-04-27T19:28:05.317" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a high-level overview, I usually start with Wikipedia.  Wikipedia is a peer-reviewed, community-contributed, comprehensive source of high-level information.  The user community has already done the work for us of aggregating large volumes of primary and secondary source material, digesting it for the reader, keeping it up to date, and ensuring a balanced approach. so it should meet your needs as a starting point of &quot;where the most up to date/popular/most respected views&quot; might be.  Wikipedia also provides links to related articles, and reference source materials that you can follow up on to dig deeper.  Any similar online encyclopaedia-style wiki would be fine too (eg, Scholarpedia) if you prefer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article on &quot;Causes of mental disorders&quot; has a section on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_mental_disorders#Life_experience_and_environmental_factors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;environmental factors&lt;/a&gt;.  Some highlights:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... environmental causes are stressors that individuals deal with in&#xA;  everyday life. These stressors range from financial issues to having&#xA;  low self-esteem.&#xA;  ...&#xA;  The lower the socioeconomic status of an individual the higher the&#xA;  risk of mental illness. Impoverished people are actually two to three&#xA;  times more likely to develop mental illness than those of a higher&#xA;  economic class.&#xA;  ... there is a strong association between poverty and substance abuse.&#xA;  ... Problems in communities or cultures, including poverty,&#xA;  unemployment or underemployment, lack of social cohesion, and&#xA;  migration, have been associated with the development of mental&#xA;  disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may also be interested in the reverse effect - of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_economics#Mental_health_economics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mental health on the economy&lt;/a&gt;.  You can also use Wikipedia to research specific disorders, such as the effect of the economy on major depressive disorder (depression).  It's important to pay attention to cause and effect when doing this.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;For example&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Depression is often associated with unemployment and poverty. ...&#xA;  prevalence is in groups with stronger socioeconomic factors i.e.&#xA;  homelessness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Read this carefully, as it doesn't mean that a bad economy causes depression, only that poverty and depression co-occur - it's equally likely that depression causes poverty than the other way around.  Having said that, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4269256/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;there is strong evidence&lt;/a&gt; that economic health does affect rates of depression:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although reverse causation—poor mental health leading to lower&#xA;  earnings—is present, it is no longer considered the primary mechanism&#xA;  behind the association between income and health. Several longitudinal&#xA;  studies have specifically examined the relationship between depression&#xA;  and socioeconomic status and concluded that the causal direction runs&#xA;  from socioeconomic status to depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope that this is what you were looking for to get started.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2017-04-27T19:28:05.317" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17222" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-27T20:27:20.507" Score="2" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;Languages like German and French have two different you. German has &quot;du and sie&quot; while French has &quot;tu and vous&quot;.&#xA;It's common in therapy contexts to use the more formal version &quot;sie&quot;/&quot;vous&quot;. Is there research that indicates that using the more formal pronoun increases the likelihood of treatment success?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastActivityDate="2017-04-27T20:27:20.507" Title="How does formality in a therapy relationship effect treatment outcomes?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17224" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17229" CreationDate="2017-04-28T05:44:53.193" Score="2" ViewCount="232" Body="&lt;p&gt;Common knowledge accepts that there are two conflicting types of happiness, one attained through a good family and a second one attained through a successful career. These paths of happiness, since they require the same resources, are conflicting and somebody must choose the one over the other. This point is best illustrated through the movie &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0218967/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Family Man&lt;/a&gt;. Of course there are exceptions where both types of happiness are combined very well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please can you provide research or theories that can facilitate the clarification of the following questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we really have two different types of happiness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are the two happiness qualitatively different from each other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the most important question, &lt;strong&gt;is one of them much more superior than the other type?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-04-28T12:51:36.337" Title="Family happiness Vs Career happiness" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17227" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17209" CreationDate="2017-04-28T09:50:03.890" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The general symptoms (NOT the background scenario) may point to a psychological disorter called  social phobia :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social anxiety disorder&lt;/a&gt; (SAD), also known as &lt;strong&gt;social phobia&lt;/strong&gt;, is an&#xA;anxiety disorder characterized by a significant amount of fear in one&#xA;or more social situations, causing considerable distress and impaired&#xA;ability to function in at least some parts of daily life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Physical symptoms&lt;/strong&gt; often include excessive blushing, excess sweating, trembling, palpitations, and nausea. Stammering may be present, along with rapid speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first line &lt;strong&gt;treatment&lt;/strong&gt; for social anxiety disorder is cognitive&#xA;behavioral therapy (CBT) ... . The cognitive and behavioral components&#xA;seek  to change thought patterns and physical reactions to&#xA;anxiety-inducing&#xA;situations. ... . Prescribed medications include several&#xA;classes of antidepressants: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors&#xA;(SSRIs), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and&#xA;monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is the most common anxiety disorder with up to 10% of people being affected at some point in their life&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-04-28T09:50:03.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17228" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15219" CreationDate="2017-04-28T11:18:31.387" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Emotional Intelligence encompases Social Intelligence as you can see below:&#xA;- Self-Awareness, &#xA;- Self-Management, &#xA;- Social Awareness&#xA;- Relationship Management.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.teleosleaders.com/howwedoit/emotional.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.teleosleaders.com/howwedoit/emotional.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10018" LastActivityDate="2017-04-28T11:18:31.387" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17229" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17224" CreationDate="2017-04-28T12:51:36.337" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've looked into some papers about life happiness , and how work hapiness and familly hapiness can affect it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quick google search lead me to 2 articles :&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.fr/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=8&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjkrfuzksfTAhXDPxoKHWPFAWQQFghHMAc&amp;amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fdspace.library.uu.nl%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1874%2F192602%2Fpouwels.pdf%3Fsequence%3D2&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNFVPC3Pb3kIOTxZmZ5HqaKjtlN9ZQ&amp;amp;sig2=UyKDOQpdAIAfaeKq_wcwpQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Work, family, and happiness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d446/62811ca3888d6ebf8bc3c42f009bf84a6a12.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Job Satisfaction and Family Happiness:&#xA;The Part-time Work Puzzle&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have the time to read them all , but from what I saw &quot;work hapiness&quot; and &quot;family hapiness&quot; are both parts of &quot;life hapiness&quot; but it seems like you could include as much hapiness sources as you want like &quot;sport hapiness&quot; , etc... (the last part is a personnal thought)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One important point seems to be that they're both different for men and women and are not exclusives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more details I'll invite you to reader the papers I linked you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I've read I can tell that :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do we really have two different types of happiness?&#xA;  No , we don't. Hapiness is hapiness as a whole , but it comes piece by piece from everything you enjoy in your life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are the two happiness qualitatively different from each other? Hapiness is formed from everything you enjoy in your life , so the quality of everything forming your hapiness is realy personnal. Though , the studies points that men and women react differently to the work/familly hapiness balance but here again everyone builds his hapiness his own way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is one of them much more superior than the other type ? One could argue that familly , having kids , etc is the beautifulest thing in life , and so the best source of hapiness but as I said , it's a realy personal thing and I have no trouble imagining housewifes can be as happy as women working a lot and loving their work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14965" LastActivityDate="2017-04-28T12:51:36.337" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17230" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-28T14:05:54.347" Score="7" ViewCount="554" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the obvious signs of contempt/hatred in human relations and what is the cause for these behaviors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, are there physical and behavioral traces/signs of contempt and hatred? Can a person be kind and friendly with you, but in reality he/she feels a great amount of contempt and hatred towards you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15755" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-04-29T12:55:01.217" LastActivityDate="2017-05-16T01:53:23.023" Title="How to recognize contempt" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17204" CreationDate="2017-04-29T05:19:40.940" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Affect&lt;/strong&gt; is a fundamental feature of consciousness and is a mental representation of input from the body to the brain.  Affect corresponds to feelings of (un)pleasantness and activation (arousal). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Emotions&lt;/strong&gt; are conceptualizations (interpretations) of your affect in a given context.  You might feel pleasant and highly aroused (an affective feeling) on a roller coaster, and your conceptualization of that affect in that context would be &quot;excitement&quot; (an emotional feeling).  In this sense, emotions are what we would traditionally consider to be &quot;cognitive.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v16/n7/abs/nrn3950.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under this scheme, &lt;strong&gt;intuition&lt;/strong&gt; doesn't really have a direct, formal relationship to affect or emotion, although intuitions are often affective (well, pretty much everything is affective).  But &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dshs-koeln.de/fileadmin/redaktion/Institute/Kognitions-_und_Sportspielforschung/Publikationen/Paper/Pretz_Brookings_Carlson_Humbert_Roy_Jones___Memmert_2014.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;see here&lt;/a&gt; for a more informed discussion of the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2017-04-29T05:19:40.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17234" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-29T08:28:46.403" Score="4" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to learn a second language good enough to be able to think in it the same way we think in our first language after the critical language learning period?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2017-05-01T02:19:58.567" Title="Can you become &quot;mentally&quot; bilingual after 8?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17237" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-30T15:53:39.680" Score="6" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is an interesting topic, at least to me, the psychology of people considered 'popular' at school and whether this perception of popularity is a coping mechanism for a deeper issue of self worth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could anyone link me any studies on this subject? If not, could you devolve any personal scientific opinion on the subject and any studies that may help in my further study of perceived social popularity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15585" LastActivityDate="2017-05-11T18:15:06.570" Title="Any studies on the link between popularity and happiness amongst school aged people?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17238" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17234" CreationDate="2017-04-30T16:51:33.183" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anecdotally speaking yes, I moved to another country where I couldn't practice my native one and after some years I started thinking in the once foreign one. I am now back to my original country and the process is playing out in reverse with some interesting quirks, I translate words rather than retrieve the original ones, something that at one point I did in the foreign language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Strictly speaking, my understanding of how speech and language works in the context of thinking, is that word selection is heavily influenced by both internal and external cues, ( this goes in line with how memory and conditioning work), further, models of speech generation ( both internal and external) support the idea of a general store of meaning (semantic meaning, syntactic rules,cadence,etc) generally dispersed around the NC and more locally near speech producing areas and a separate but heavily connected speech generating system (lateral sulcus: Wernicke- Broca Area).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While speaking a foreign language, working memory areas are conceivably recruited ( this is my speculation ) to translate and then produce speech, something that takes a perceivable time and is noticed by native speakers and sometimes the speaker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With time and due to plasticity, foreign speech networks get strengthened to the point of not needing any more translation and both internal (what you might call thinking) and external speech are more efficiently generated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Native speech networks can also face extinction due to the competing foreign language and disuse, but thankfully are still available ( what was once learned is easier to re-learn) so retaking or even thinking in both languages is possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for age, there is a marked advantage of being young due to known efficiencies that happen earlier in life as well as possibly being primed for foreign languages. Still,due to how plastic the brain is even into adulthood, you can become mentally bilingual at practically any age but at a different rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kemmerer, D. (2014). Cognitive neuroscience of language. Psychology Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gluck, M. A., Mercado, E., &amp;amp; Myers, C. E. (2013). Learning and memory: From brain to behavior. Palgrave Macmillan.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastEditorUserId="14245" LastEditDate="2017-05-01T02:19:58.567" LastActivityDate="2017-05-01T02:19:58.567" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17239" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-04-30T21:25:53.703" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the daily routine of a clinical psycologist? Granted, schedules fluctuate and people have different personal lives. I am writing a story that has a character with the same occupation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15786" LastActivityDate="2017-04-30T21:25:53.703" Title="Daily Life of Clinical Psycologist" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-05-01T08:46:23.157" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17240" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-01T20:01:16.013" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on an animation in which there are three somewhat small font words (Environmental, Social, and Economic) together with three colored horizontal histogram bars on each side of the labels on the upper center of the screen. These three words are spoken in sequence by the narrator.  To aid cognition and bring attention to the area being referenced by the narrator so the viewer more easily understands what the narration is referring to, I am going to have each word in turn get a visual flourish to catch attention and bring the eye to that part of the screen.  Each word will be bolded and turned to match the associated bar's color in succession as they are spoken.  Here is a shot showing upper portion of screen with the middle of the three words (Social) being emphasized in the orange color:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DBHtz.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DBHtz.png&quot; alt=&quot;Three sets of bars and labels in between them with middle one emphasized&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is shot showing whole screen with bars in context:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7KpvR.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7KpvR.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is about timing, in order to maximize viewer comprehension that the three bars are what is being spoken about in the narration, should the flourish exactly match the timing of the spoken word, or should it slightly precede it by say 1/10th of a second, or slightly follow it.  I'm thinking preceding slightly makes the most sense, but was unable to construct a google search to find any research on this question.  Similarly, should the flourish last the duration of the spoken word, or extend slightly past it, say by another 1/10th of a second?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15796" LastActivityDate="2017-05-01T20:01:16.013" Title="What timing of visual emphasis paired with a spoken word provides the best cognition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-05-12T18:03:50.610" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17241" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-01T21:42:41.720" Score="5" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Hick-Hyman law states that in a reaction-time experiment, the average reaction time of a human subject is a linear function of the average information $\sum -p \log p$, i.e. the entropy, contained in the stimulus. [Hyman 1953]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where can I get data supporting this? Data from Hyman’s paper would be great!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: more precisely, I'm looking for a complete, &lt;em&gt;trial-by-trial&lt;/em&gt; dataset; not just averages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1273" LastEditorUserId="1273" LastEditDate="2017-05-06T12:14:47.637" LastActivityDate="2017-05-06T12:14:47.637" Title="Where can I find experimental data supportive of the Hick-Hyman law?" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17242" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-02T09:05:33.080" Score="4" ViewCount="844" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I was on 7&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; grade, our math teacher asked every one of us to draw a duck. In the class of 34 students, a large portion of the students drew a left-facing duck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Dhdvc.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Dhdvc.png&quot; alt=&quot;doodle of the duck&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The teacher said that it’s a simple test to figure out if a person is either right or left-brain dominant. So the people who drew a duck facing to left is a right-brainer, and &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;. Apparently this Duck-test was quite popular in middle school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some even say, people who often draw a duck who faces left side is a left brain (instead of right). Although some says it's just muscle memory/ tendency. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is- is this mini test legit? &#xA;Can you get a glimpse of someone's brain dominance by drawing a duck?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15802" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-02T13:31:12.500" LastActivityDate="2017-05-02T18:08:15.183" Title="Can drawing a duck define a person's hemispheric dominance?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17243" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17172" CreationDate="2017-05-02T09:47:44.403" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Lost spectral sensitivity in bichromats or monochromats cannot be made up for by technology. The only thing technology can do is to process the visual image and shift its spectral content such that it falls outside the deficient region in the color-deficient spectrum. Likewise, trichromats can never match the spectral sensitivity of a dodecachromatic shrimp simply because we cannot generate visual acuity &lt;em&gt;de novo&lt;/em&gt;. Mantis shrimp can detect UV light and additional cones enhance the spectral reslution in the visible spectrum too. This cannot be emulated with a trichromatic system.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Removing colors from RGB images such that it alludes to the way color-vision impaired people perceive the world is trivial, as the image shows in the question and see Figs. 1 &amp;amp; 2. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trichromats have three cones: red, green and blue cones, inferring normal RGB vision. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088937/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cone opsins&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are responsible for capturing light and they have overlapping sensitivity spectra (Fig. 3). Dichromats have only two types of cones and lack one cone type. People suffering from protanopia are unable to perceive any ‘red’ light, those with deuteranopia are unable to perceive ‘green’ light and those with tritanopia are unable to perceive ‘blue’ light (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.colourblindawareness.org/colour-blindness/types-of-colour-blindness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Colour Blind Awareness&lt;/a&gt;). However, while they are said to be color blind, they do not lack the ability to see that one color; in fact they cannot perceive a specific section of the normal visible spectrum. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most accepted way in which we perceive color is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/book/b44.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hering theory of spectral sensitivity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Basically it states that we perceive color through two opponent systems: a red-green and a yellow-blue opponent system. Without going into detail on this (it's another story...), it's important to realize its consequences. Because of the spectral overlap of the red and green cones and the red-green opponent system in Hering's model, the outcome of either missing the red cones or the green cones is pretty similar. Hence the collective term &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.colourblindawareness.org/colour-blindness/types-of-colour-blindness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;red/green color blindness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, because people with red and green deficiencies &lt;strong&gt;see the world in a very similar way&lt;/strong&gt;. Protanopes and deuteranopes both live in a world of murky greens, where blues and yellows stand out. Browns, oranges, shades of red and green are easily confused. Both types will confuse some blues with some purples and both types will struggle to identify pale shades of most colors. For example, a person with deuteranopia sees red as a shade of green and people with deuteranomaly often misclassify brown as red (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.colourblindawareness.org/colour-blindness/types-of-colour-blindness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Colour Blind Awareness&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now - we cannot regenerate that missing cone with image filtering; removing data from an image is simple (Fig. 1). However, adding it back in is impossible. How can a person without red cones perceive red? It's simply impossible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To draw an analogy here - when a person at old age is missing the sensory cells in the basal end of the cochlea due to the steady degenerative processes of the hair cells and cannot perceive high frequency tones of, &lt;em&gt;e.g.,&lt;/em&gt; 8 kHz and up (presbyacusis), it's over. We can amplify with everything we got, but the person simply can't hear it. What we &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; do, however, is a process called &lt;a href=&quot;https://starkeypro.com/pdfs/Compression_Handbook.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frequency &lt;strong&gt;compression&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Basically what you do is squeeze the higher frequencies at the front end into the lower frequencies and amplify that through a hearing aid. In this case the person still can't perceive the frequencies, but the information is yet contained in the signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Back to your question - what Robin Kramer alluded to is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://chroma-glass.ucsd.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chroma device&lt;/a&gt;: like the hearing aid example above, this device uses signal processing tricks. Basically it can do three things for you; 1) identify colors, 2) enhance contrast 3) detect edges. Identifying colors can help by replacing reds and greens in red/green color blinds with yellows and blues. Enhancing contrast can be done in red/green color blinds by shifting the red/green spectrum towards the blues and the yellows, much like our acoustic-frequency compression scenario in the hearing aid above. Edge detection can help to improve object detection etcetera in murky images in color blinds. But all it can do is &lt;strong&gt;optimally use the limited color information available to the color deficient person&lt;/strong&gt;. It can &lt;strong&gt;not restore normal trichromatic vision in any way&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantis_shrimp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mantis shrimp&lt;/a&gt;. Six of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2014/07/03/natures-most-amazing-eyes-just-got-a-bit-weirder/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;additional cones&lt;/a&gt; are dedicated to UV vision, which is outside the visible spectrum of ours. The other ones add spectral detail. Extra cones within the visible spectrum add spectral detail. They do not add additional colors as such. UV vision cannot be inferred by technology. What you can do, however, is compressing UV wavelengths into the visible wavelengths. But still we would not be able to 'see' it as such. Further, spectral detail cannot be added by technology either.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZTR7M.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZTR7M.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;color blindness&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. color blindness simulated pictures. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://visionsalud.net/la-ceguera-a-los-colores/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vision Salud&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nFfcq.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nFfcq.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Color blindness. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://chroma-glass.ucsd.edu/ubicomp2014_chroma.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tanuwidjaja &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2014&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1Uv4x.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1Uv4x.png&quot; alt=&quot;cones&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig.3. Spectra sensitivity of the cones and the rods. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cone-response.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://chroma-glass.ucsd.edu/ubicomp2014_chroma.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tanuwidjaja &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Ubicomp 2014, September 13–17, Seattle, WA, USA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-02T12:15:19.063" LastActivityDate="2017-05-02T12:15:19.063" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17244" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17242" CreationDate="2017-05-02T13:26:06.877" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the dominant hemisphere in the first place? I found the following definition (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/dominant+hemisphere&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Medical Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[The] dominant hemisphere [is] [t]he left half of the brain in almost all right-handed people and 85% of left-handed people. This is the hemisphere concerned with &lt;strong&gt;language&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;logical thought&lt;/strong&gt; and containing the &lt;strong&gt;motor areas for voluntary use of the right side of the body&lt;/strong&gt;. In 15% of left-handed people, the right hemisphere is dominant and subserves speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, your ducks facing left or right hardly seem to reflect either language, logic, motor lateralization or handedness. Instead, often &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.hawaii.edu/~bemorton/Hemisphericity/PolarityQ.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;questionnaires&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://personality-testing.info/tests/OHBDS/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inventories&lt;/a&gt; are used, for example to tease out whether a person is logical, rational and verbal (left-sided); or emotional, manipulative/spatial and creative (right-sided). However, the meaning, relevance, and possible use of hemispheric dominance is &lt;a href=&quot;http://personality-testing.info/tests/OHBDS/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;debated&lt;/a&gt;.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that brain lateralization is certainly true for a number of functions, including speech and motor control, but the more dramatic examples of brain lateralization should be interpreted with caution, and I quote from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/download/3679701/American_Psychologist.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Corballis (1980)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Since ancient times, right and left have been associated with different fundamental classifications, including male and female, good and evil, day&#xA;  and night, straight and crooked. [...] Interpretations of cerebral asymmetry that emphasize a &lt;strong&gt;fundamental duality in cognitive processing&lt;/strong&gt; between the two sides of the brain, or that locate &lt;strong&gt;consciousness in the left side only&lt;/strong&gt;, are probably modern manifestations of the age-old &lt;strong&gt;mythology&lt;/strong&gt; of left and right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/download/3679701/American_Psychologist.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Corballis, &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist&lt;/em&gt; (1980); &lt;strong&gt;35&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 284-95&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-02T18:08:15.183" LastActivityDate="2017-05-02T18:08:15.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17245" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17241" CreationDate="2017-05-02T14:27:07.660" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psychology.uiowa.edu/faculty/mordkoff/InfoProc/pdfs/Hyman%201953.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hyman (1953)&lt;/a&gt; the following data is shown (Fig.1). The bits of information were the number of choices in an AFC task, where 1 to 8 alternatives corresponded to 0, 1, 1.58, 2.00, 2.32, 2.58, 2.81, and 3 bits of information (the &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;log of the N alternatives).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dEAk2.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dEAk2.png&quot; alt=&quot;Hyman 1953&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. RT as a function of bits of info. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psychology.uiowa.edu/faculty/mordkoff/InfoProc/pdfs/Hyman%201953.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hyman (1953)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.psychology.uiowa.edu/faculty/mordkoff/InfoProc/pdfs/Hyman%201953.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hyman, &lt;em&gt;J Exp Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (1953); &lt;strong&gt;45&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 188-96&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-02T15:14:20.373" LastActivityDate="2017-05-02T15:14:20.373" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17246" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9254" CreationDate="2017-05-02T16:56:00.940" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/15788/7604&quot;&gt;An answer I provided before&lt;/a&gt; on the possibility of recalling forgotten memories briefly talks about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fmsfonline.org/?faq=faq&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;False Memory Syndrome&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/PTSD%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PTSD&lt;/a&gt;.  As stated in the answer,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Memory is not fixed as it is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;very plastic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and as pointed out in the article you referenced (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227614253_False_Memories_of_Childhood_Experiences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hyman, et al., 1995&lt;/a&gt;), people are susceptible to creating false memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question on whether non-sufferers of PTSD can develop PTSD from false memories, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.myptsd.com/post-traumatic-memory/98/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MyPTSD.com&lt;/a&gt; states that false memories can be traumatic and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/beastly-behavior/201605/trauma-ptsd-and-memory-distortion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt; mentions an article (&lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ajp.154.2.173&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Southwick, et al., 1997&lt;/a&gt;) which reported that false memories increased PTSD in war veterans; however, I cannot find any definitive study on non-PTSD sufferers developing PTSD from false memories.  I would say that this is for the reasons &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/2868/christian-hummeluhr&quot;&gt;@ChristianHummeluhr&lt;/a&gt; pointed out in his comment&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...for methodological and ethical reasons...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the reason that false memories can be traumatic and has increased symptoms in PTSD sufferers, I would say that it is &lt;strong&gt;highly plausible&lt;/strong&gt; that false memories &lt;strong&gt;could&lt;/strong&gt; lead to PTSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/10262/memebrain&quot;&gt;@memebrain&lt;/a&gt; pointed out in his answer — although not correctly termed — there are are various forms of trauma that counsellors, psychotherapists, etc. can suffer from as a result of their work, and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ptsd.va.gov/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;US National Centre for PTSD&lt;/a&gt; (part of the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs) has an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/provider-type/responders/working-with-trauma-survivors.asp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The secondary PTSD mentioned by @memebrain is actually Secondary Traumatic Stress which&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;produces symptoms similar to PTSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We as counsellors and psychotherapists are trained to be careful not to create false memories in their clients and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;we are also told how providing therapuetic help can affect a therapist's mental health as indicated in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/16829/7604&quot;&gt;my answer to &lt;strong&gt;Are psychologists more immune to psychological problems?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;All UK therapists (experienced &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; low-experienced) who are registered with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.professionalstandards.org.uk/what-we-do/accredited-registers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Professional Standards Authority&lt;/a&gt; are required to undergo &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.counsellingme.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/What-is-supervision.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clinical Supervision&lt;/a&gt; for reasons such as this, and for other reasons in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/15866/how-do-clinicians-control-for-their-own-mental-disorders/15869#15869&quot;&gt;my answer to &lt;strong&gt;How do clinicians control for their own mental disorders?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Research Article References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hyman, I. E., Husband, T. H., &amp;amp; Billings, F. J. (1995). &lt;em&gt;False memories of childhood experiences&lt;/em&gt; In: Applied Cognitive Psychology, 9(3), pp 181-197.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/acp.2350090302&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/acp.2350090302&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free PDF available&lt;/strong&gt; at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227614253_False_Memories_of_Childhood_Experiences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Southwick, S. M., Morgan III, C. A., Nicolaou, A. L., Charney, D. S. (1997). &lt;em&gt;Consistency of Memory for Combat-Related Traumatic Events in Veterans of Operation Desert Storm&lt;/em&gt; In: The American Journal of Psychiatry 154(2) pp. 173-177.&#xA;&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.154.2.173&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1176/ajp.154.2.173&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-05-02T16:56:00.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17247" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17249" CreationDate="2017-05-02T17:02:11.550" Score="2" ViewCount="306" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's how I understand how the brain rewarding system works, as described by behaviorism: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I eat a chocolate after learning, there's a chance that I'll connect the learning with the pleasurable experience of eating chocolate, which can eventually make me love learning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this mechanism work even when I eat the chocolate &lt;em&gt;before&lt;/em&gt; the learning? Is the brain connecting of cause and effect time-dependent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2017-05-02T21:13:30.687" LastActivityDate="2019-11-07T13:57:39.447" Title="Does the brain's reward system also work when the reward comes before the experience?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17249" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17247" CreationDate="2017-05-02T18:39:54.310" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Operant conditioning through positive reinforcement is always established by applying a stimulus &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; the behavior. Negative reinforcers can, however, be deployed before the wanted behavior is initiated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The reward system can be seen as &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive reinforcement&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In experimental paradigms (and everyday life in general), reinforcement is established by a certain stimulus presented after a certain behavior, termed &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;operant conditioning&lt;/a&gt;. There are various forms of operant conditioning (Fig. 1). Without exception, the stimulus &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; follows the behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your example of the chocolate is an example of &lt;a href=&quot;https://allpsych.com/psychology101/reinforcement/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive reinforcement&lt;/a&gt;: If you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time he sits for you. The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat. This treat is reinforcing because he likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if we reverse the traditional operant conditioning process from behavior-reward to reward-behavior, then &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; behavior would lead to a reward because the reward has already been given. So also &lt;em&gt;no behavior at all&lt;/em&gt; or, even worse, &lt;em&gt;adverse behavior&lt;/em&gt; (the dog starts ripping apart the trainer) would be reinforced in this way. By definition, &lt;strong&gt;reinforcement is always given after the behavior&lt;/strong&gt;, otherwise &lt;strong&gt;there can be no link established between stimulus and associated behavior&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note, however, that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;negative reinforcement&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; can be established with the stimulus starting before the wanted behavior has been shown. The familiar example here is the nagging parent that the kid should finally clean up its room. When done, the nagging finally stops. So a negative reinforcer can be started before the behavior. But also here, the change in the stimulus switches only &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; the intended behavior has been evoked. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XlLpa.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XlLpa.png&quot; alt=&quot;operant cond&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Operant conditioning. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement#/media/File:Operant_conditioning_diagram.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Further reading&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;1. Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective, Sixth Edition, Dale H. Schunk:&#xA;Page 81 (Section: Informational Variables: Pavlov believed that stimuli non-pairing would extinguish the conditioning. Giving the reward before the conditioned behavior in the question seems a lot like unpairing stimulus and behavior)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-11-07T13:57:39.447" LastActivityDate="2019-11-07T13:57:39.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17250" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17254" CreationDate="2017-05-03T00:20:42.530" Score="5" ViewCount="2797" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have multiple friends that simply refuse to wear their seat belt whenever they ride in a car. I make them wear it when in my car, but in any other situation they choose to go without it. They are all aware of the risks of not wearing their seat belt and the implications of even the smallest car accident, so a lack of knowledge is not the problem. Also, I consider them all quite intelligent people, so the ignorance of such a simple task that can be life saving blows my mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I cannot see it a denial of evidence because they agree with my side of reasoning, and my question is not specific to my friends, so I am asking why would &lt;strong&gt;anyone&lt;/strong&gt; who knows all the facts still proceed without a seat belt?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15807" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-03T19:16:49.723" LastActivityDate="2017-05-10T09:42:32.957" Title="Why do some people refuse to wear their seat belt while being aware of the risks?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17251" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17252" CreationDate="2017-05-03T07:14:37.167" Score="7" ViewCount="1850" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the term of the state in which one acts to be very experienced even though he does not appear to know everything. And, because of his confidence, is able to persuade people that he/she is right? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The person may think that his/her knowledge is enough, but actually the world is much bigger than his experience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15810" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-05-03T12:15:44.143" LastActivityDate="2017-05-04T05:32:43.553" Title="What is the term of having a high perceived confidence while having limited knowledge?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17252" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17251" CreationDate="2017-05-03T09:34:24.970" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you are referring to the Dunning-Kruger Effect. It describes the relationship between experience one has in a particular topic and his/her confidence about being an expert. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dunning and Kruger argue that when people know nothing, they also know that they know nothing. However, after learning only a little bit, people seem to be very confident that they understand everything of the subject. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/huMHs.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/huMHs.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With more studying, one realizes that there is more to it and might feel insecure even. However, after studying more and more and more and people become an expert, people begin to realize that they do know a lot, but that it is impossible to understand everything. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both the x- and y-axis have no scales because the Dunning-Kruger effect is only conceptual. The following image, does nicely present the train of thoughts through the graph:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/owl2T.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/owl2T.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kruger, J., &amp;amp; Dunning, D. (1999). &lt;a href=&quot;http://new.avaresearch.com/files/UnskilledAndUnawareOfIt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Unskilled and unaware of it: how difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of personality and social psychology, 77(6), 1121.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pictures taken from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/dunning-kruger-effect-confidence-vs-over-confidence-harshil-rastogi&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/dunning-kruger-effect-confidence-vs-over-confidence-harshil-rastogi&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2017-05-03T09:34:24.970" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17254" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17250" CreationDate="2017-05-03T14:37:13.560" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this is a rather difficult question to answer. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/anxiety-files/200806/knowing-what-you-should-really-worry-about&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt; sums up some interesting reasons why people totally aware of the risks involved in not wearing a seat belt (or in smoking tobacco products, alcohol abuse, dangerous driving...), still choose not to wear one (light up another cigarette &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;.):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Justification of risky behavior&lt;/strong&gt; may be re-enforced by &lt;strong&gt;unreliable anecdotes&lt;/strong&gt; that &quot;show&quot; how safe it is. For example, a friend or relative never wears a seat belt and smokes every day. People can use this as 'evidence' that not buckling up or smoking are perfectly safe. The dreaded remark comes to mind that &quot;&lt;em&gt;My grampa smokes three packs a day and is in his nineties - now ciggies can't be that bad...&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In that same line, &lt;strong&gt;personal anecdotes can reinforce risky behavior&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;em&gt;If it hasn't happened yet, it will never happen&lt;/em&gt;. When people have never worn a seat belt for the last five years, they may start assuming that it is safe, because nothing has happened. They believe in the pattern, rather than considering that that luck may well be running out. &lt;em&gt;I never use a seat belt&lt;/em&gt; may be used as an argument to conclude that the absence of a bad outcome is evidence that one is somehow 'immune' to the danger involved.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;small statistical chances&lt;/strong&gt; involved may be used consciously or subconsciously &lt;strong&gt;as excuse&lt;/strong&gt;. When we think about taking another smoke, overeating, drinking yet another beer, or not wearing a seat-belt we often think &lt;em&gt;There's very little chance that the next time it will kill me&lt;/em&gt;. This is all too true. The next cigarette may not, and in fact very likely will not, kill you. But what if this is your continual belief for the next 350,000 cigarettes during your lifetime? It may not be that the next cigarette will kill you, but it may be true that holding onto this belief will kill you, eventually.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these risks involve a sort of &quot;near-sightedness&quot;. We focus on the next one-not on the long string of behaviors. We tend to think that the &quot;next time I go out driving without my seat-belt, there is a very low probability that I will get killed&quot;. This is true, but each time increases the probability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The underlying problem is that our primitive brains battles itself over &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.princeton.edu/pr/news/04/q4/1014-brain.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;short-term rewards versus long-term goals&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. As a regular quitter of smoking (I've stopped so, so many times) I know this more than anyone. The short-term reward is more important than the long run. Impulsive choices or preferences for short-term rewards result from the emotion-related parts of the brain winning out over the abstract-reasoning parts. Psychological factors other than pure reasoning often drive people's decisions, for example the small nuisance of the seat belt or the dangers of long-term smoking loose over the improved comfort of driving without a seat belt and activating the dopamine release in our limbic system when smoking a ciggie. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our evolutionary more ancient emotional &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_05/d_05_cr/d_05_cr_her/d_05_cr_her.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;limbic brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; has a hard time imagining the future, even though our logical, evolutionary more recent &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_05/d_05_cr/d_05_cr_her/d_05_cr_her.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neocortical brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (Fig. 1) clearly sees the future consequences of our current actions. Our emotional brain wants to max out that credit card, order dessert and smoke a cigarette. Our logical brain knows we should save for retirement, go for a jog and quit smoking. Quite apparently, the &lt;strong&gt;primitive emotional brain often tips the balance and defeats the newer evolved logical brain&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6VA7s.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6VA7s.png&quot; alt=&quot;brain&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. The three brain areas. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bigcommerce.com/blog/marketing-psychology/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big Commerce&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-04T05:25:54.070" LastActivityDate="2017-05-04T05:25:54.070" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17255" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17261" CreationDate="2017-05-03T16:08:35.253" Score="2" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am studying for exams but there's a TV series I couldn't get enough of. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any explanation to all addiction thing that happens with our brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I'm not talking about procrastination but generalized addiction about non chemical(drugs) things that happens with us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14277" LastEditorUserId="14277" LastEditDate="2017-05-04T16:11:07.070" LastActivityDate="2017-05-04T16:11:07.070" Title="Why do people get addicted to things like TV, Facebook, games?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17256" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-03T19:33:04.077" Score="3" ViewCount="169" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing a paper for my cultural psychology course. The paper is about Japanese child care, focused on the moral and cognitive development of Japanese children from their own traditional/cultural perspective. It is mostly an archival research on Japanese culture which I am supposed to write up and present as a realist ethnography. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any place online where I can conduct an interview with Japanese people who reside in Japan and are familiar with their own culture. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can I identify actions, activities, and goals of the culture in order to construct a meaning system so as to understand and interpret the relationship between the actors (culture), tools (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, appraisal of the child's actions), activities, scripts, and goals?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do you have any tips on how to write an ethnography?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14937" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-05T19:47:24.710" LastActivityDate="2017-05-05T21:12:52.873" Title="Cultural psychology: Japanese culture and meaning systems" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;anthropology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2017-05-06T13:40:25.497" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17258" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17251" CreationDate="2017-05-04T05:32:43.553" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another theory/study by Leonid Rozenblit and Frank Keil, is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.edge.org/response-detail/27117&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;illusion of explanatory depth&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This powerful but inaccurate feeling of knowing is what Leonid&#xA;  Rozenblit and Frank Keil in 2002 termed, the illusion of explanatory&#xA;  depth (IOED), stating, “Most people feel they understand the world&#xA;  with far greater detail, coherence, and depth than they really do.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-05-04T05:32:43.553" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17259" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-04T08:55:48.277" Score="4" ViewCount="3808" Body="&lt;p&gt;Brain Working Recursive Therapy (BWRT), introduced by hypnotherapist Terrence Watts in 2011, is a brand new form of therapy. Hence, my internet search doesn't seem to give me any idea of how successful it really is. Here's a link to the official page of BWRT: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bwrt.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.bwrt.org/&lt;/a&gt;. It hasn't got a wikipidea page yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How many sessions of BWRT does one need in general to cure one specific problem? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you could cite any links or even your personal experience, I'd greatly appreciate it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7352" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-01-03T16:21:11.387" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T13:24:05.663" Title="Success rates or reviews of Brain Working Recursive Therapy (BWRT), and number of sessions needed on average" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17261" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17255" CreationDate="2017-05-04T10:44:51.507" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;At least two phenomenons can be found here :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The drive to wath the TV series is higher than the drive to study.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The TV series are structured in such a way to attract and hook viewers.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will try to answer the second :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TV series i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soap_opera&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;soap operas&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_(TV_series)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lost TV series&lt;/a&gt; etc mostly use two components to create addiction to viewers : curiosity and emotionally charged stories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity#Curiosity-drive_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Curiosity-drive theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; relates to the undesirable experiences of&#xA;  &quot;uncertainty&quot;. The reduction of these unpleasant feelings, in turn, is&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;rewarding&lt;/strong&gt;. This theory suggests that people desire coherence and understanding in their thought processes. When this coherence is&#xA;  disrupted by something that is unfamiliar, uncertain, or ambiguous, it&#xA;  is curiosity-drive theory that attempts to gather information and&#xA;  knowledge of the unfamiliar to restore coherent thought processes once&#xA;  again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;British psychologist Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927) might have argued&#xA;  that we become glued to complex, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-babble/201403/why-were-wired-binge-watch-tv&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotionally-charged stories&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; because&#xA;  of our ability to recognize the feelings of others. A newly identified&#xA;  phenomenon at the time, Titchener coined the term empathy in 1909. In&#xA;  addition to identifying others' discomfort or elation, &quot;cognitive&#xA;  empathy&quot; examines how humans can also adopt others' psychological&#xA;  perspectives, including those of fictional characters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2017-05-04T11:22:27.723" LastActivityDate="2017-05-04T11:22:27.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17265" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-05T04:59:56.203" Score="6" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as modern psychology is concerned, do we have a &quot;standard&quot; set of emotions agreed upon by academics? For example, &lt;strong&gt;happiness&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;anger&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;sadness&lt;/strong&gt;, etc. Is there a single list that contains all emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also please pardon my novice understanding of psychology for this next question, but is there also a standard set of cognitive functions? &#xA;For example, Carl Jung proposed the following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extroversion&lt;/strong&gt;: An attitude defining the self in accordance to the standard of the external world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introversion&lt;/strong&gt;: An attitude defining the outer world in accordance to the standard of the self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intuition&lt;/strong&gt;: Abstract perception of the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sensing&lt;/strong&gt;: Concrete perception of the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Thinking&lt;/strong&gt;: Impersonal assessment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Feeling&lt;/strong&gt;: Person-centered assessment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a more modern understanding of these functions? And has academia been able to agree on a particular set? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13473" LastActivityDate="2017-05-07T21:25:53.540" Title="Standard Academic set of emotions, and cognitive functions" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17266" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-05T08:30:41.590" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm unsure if there's another exchange that would be more appropriate for this, but I'm curious about my own experiences and wanted to see what this community had to say.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Context being that I really enjoy languages and etymology, I have studied French, Japanese, Spanish and the relationships between English, Romantic languages, and by intuitive delta see German influences in modern English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, after studying French, Spanish and Japanese I've found that I have more difficulty arriving at the proper phrasing or terminology when speaking English and have occasionally found myself using grammar structures or sentence orders from Japanese, or making similar mistakes I've observed of ESL speakers that natively speak Spanish. Another observation here is that this happens when speaking more frequently than while typing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question here is primarily concerned with whether studying the other languages caused this result and if so, why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15829" LastActivityDate="2017-05-05T08:30:41.590" Title="Polylinguistic Competition" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-07-19T18:17:29.197" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17267" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-05T16:10:31.113" Score="2" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was getting in the old round corners vs square corners conversation and the majority of arguments for rounded corners revolve around our subconscious desire for natural round things over artificial angles. Then they give the terrible analogy of a fork vs a ball. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I was considering this I thought if there is an innate bias toward circular objects, it should be apparent in young children as well. So I thought the easiest way to test this was to put a block and a ball of the same size in the same room and observe with which object a baby chooses to interact. Assuming the hypothesis about subconscious choice is right, these babies should display a preference for the ball over the block.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone heard of any studies that investigate this sort of thing? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://uxmovement.com/thinking/why-rounded-corners-are-easier-on-the-eyes/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://uxmovement.com/thinking/why-rounded-corners-are-easier-on-the-eyes/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16913943&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16913943&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/11150/how-do-rounded-corners-affect-usability&quot;&gt;https://ux.stackexchange.com/questions/11150/how-do-rounded-corners-affect-usability&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15833" LastEditorUserId="15833" LastEditDate="2017-05-06T01:15:07.490" LastActivityDate="2017-05-06T01:15:07.490" Title="Are there any studies that test for preference between balls and blocks in infants?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17269" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10701" CreationDate="2017-05-05T18:16:54.660" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Take a look at this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;...,The Bell Curve. Herrnstein and Murray argue that social inequality (including racial inequality) is the result of inherited variations in IQ. Here, Chomsky presents his critique of Herrnstein’s position:&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://newlearningonline.com/new-learning/chapter-6/chomsky-on-iq-and-inequality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://newlearningonline.com/new-learning/chapter-6/chomsky-on-iq-and-inequality&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chomsky, Noam. 1972. ‘I.Q. Tests: Building Blocks for the New Class System.’ Rampart:24–30. pp. 26, 27, 28, 30.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15835" LastActivityDate="2017-05-05T18:16:54.660" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17270" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17256" CreationDate="2017-05-05T20:03:14.023" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off - this question is really broad and its scope could probably fill libraries. I will therefore limit the answer to generalized pointers in answer to your three sub questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there any place online where I can conduct an interview with Japanese people who reside in Japan and are familiar with their own culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://carla.umn.edu/culture/definitions.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Culture&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a difficult concept. What I can say here is that every Japanese person is aware of their culture, because every Japanese is a part of their culture. Japanese culture is created by the Japanese inhabitants; it's what shapes them, it is the very air they breath. Conducting interviews is something that needs to be established and anthropologists often dive into the community of interest and spend considerable amounts of time to familiarize themselves with the culture, build a network and go from there. Understanding people, let alone their culture is not something that can be done easily from behind your computer screen I'm afraid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How can I identify actions, activities, and goals of the culture in order to construct a meaning system so as to understand and interpret the relationship between the actors (culture), tools (e.g., appraisal of the child's actions), activities, scripts, and goals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first step is to develop a specific &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.esc.edu/online-writing-center/resources/research/research-paper-steps/developing-questions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;research question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and subsequently &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www3.uakron.edu/witt/rmfcs/operationalization.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;operationalize&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; it. I am reading diverse questions and here's just an excerpt from your comments:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...pinpointing some activities and understanding some of their goals. [...] Why is the expression of negative emotions discouraged in a Japanese society? What do mothers do to cultivate their child's cognitive development? Do they encourage verbal communication, eye contact, exploration, etc... Do they breastfeed? How long and why that long? How do they discipline their child? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You seem to be struggling with a lot of questions lacking the necessary research focus. Especially an undergrad study should be meticulously defined and most of all &lt;strong&gt;restricted&lt;/strong&gt; to make it &lt;strong&gt;operable&lt;/strong&gt; in the &lt;strong&gt;short time window available&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do you have any tips on how to write an ethnography?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Libraries are filled on this topic. I can refer you to &lt;a href=&quot;https://lcst3789.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/clifford-writing-culture.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clifford &amp;amp; Marcus, 1986&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://lcst3789.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/clifford-writing-culture.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clifford &amp;amp; Marcus, Writing Culture. The poetics and politics of ethnography. UC Press (1986)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-05T21:12:52.873" LastActivityDate="2017-05-05T21:12:52.873" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17271" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9762" CreationDate="2017-05-05T20:21:38.530" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I revisit this question every once in a while, constantly starting an answer with some resources, and then deleting it. Long story short: I think that there are several places where such items could be found, though I think &quot;good&quot; can be hard to define (as it is so situational)!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amplituderesearch.com/market-research-questions.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is a link that provides a few options for most of the contexts you described. I like this particular list as it describes multiple options (though sometimes there is little to distinguish) for each class of question. Perhaps this is a resource that could be used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me emphasize that, in my experience, demographic questions are &lt;strong&gt;very context specific&lt;/strong&gt;. For example: why are you using the questions? Is it for sampling weighting purposes, where you wish the sample to match population values? If so, then the &quot;correct&quot; demographics to use would be those that best match the provided population information. Is it to be included in analysis of some kind? If so, what are your research questions? A question asking the relationship between age and weight would ask for very different information than a question focused on the differential functioning of a psych evaluation between those college aged (18-22) and elderly (65+). In the first, a demographic question with a write in answer would likely be most appropriate (albeit perhaps biased), while in the second categories would serve best (with the categories being dependent on the question: so 18-22 and 65+ should be two of the categories).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I believe that these are so connected to the situation, I'll also recommend &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ICPSR&lt;/a&gt; as a place where questions from multiple surveys can be looked at side by side. I've used this to compare &lt;em&gt;many&lt;/em&gt; different versions of demographic questions to see which one fits the situation best (though again, I wouldn't say any are &quot;good&quot; out of context). This type of feature, that which compares multiple versions of the same class of question, may the best recommendation that I could give. It gives multiple options, while leaving room for professional judgement in the context of the use of the measurement instrument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A final thought. If there is not a particular purpose for the use of demographic information, then strongly consider &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; including such questions in your measurement. Often researchers wish to all sorts of information (as &quot;what if I need it later?&quot;), but this can have some adverse effects: it increases fatigue, increases the time it takes for participants, and can increase the ability to identify individuals based off of the information (potentially changing it from anonymous to confidential, or even open!). It is not hard to imagine a researcher studying teachers who wishes to know a whole series of demographics, in addition to the grade, school, and subject an individual teaches. The degree of specificity from these demographics can make participants easily identifiable. All this to say: if you don't need them, don't use them!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In closing, I recommend only using demographic questions that are necessary for your research (this includes exploratory research). If used for a specific purpose, I would challenge that the purpose often dictates the structure of the demographic question to be used (as can the population). As the purpose and population can be so different from situation to situation, I suggest the comparisons of multiple versions of the class(es) of demographic item(s) that you need, and selecting from them the one that best fulfills your purpose. For this goal, I suggest ICPSR as a great place to look at surveys who speak to a wide audience (and are well designed).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastActivityDate="2017-05-05T20:21:38.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17272" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-06T04:13:41.303" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am doing a research study on short-term memory. My research study will be whether gender has an impact on short term memory for college students. I need help identifying the scale of measurement for the dependent variable (which is the ability of both genders to recall the words) and providing a rationale. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15838" LastActivityDate="2017-05-07T00:18:38.367" Title="identifying scale of measurement for the dependent variable" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-05-10T15:24:19.987" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17274" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-06T09:12:48.837" Score="1" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;What can I study as a layman to learn enough facets of psychology to develop better understanding of human behaviour? Unfortunately as I know nothing of the field I'm not really certain about what I should even look for. Any suggestions such as subjects, books, documentaries and even advice would be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in topics such as personal fears, prejudices, motivations, mental health illnesses, hostilities, etc. On a larger scale I want a better understanding of social issues such as resistance to change, radicalisation, extremism, value systems, group dynamics, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15840" LastEditorUserId="15840" LastEditDate="2017-05-06T09:18:42.500" LastActivityDate="2017-05-06T09:18:42.500" Title="What can I study as a layman to develop practical knowledge of human psychology" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2017-05-06T16:57:55.103" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17275" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-06T13:20:26.393" Score="4" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some hypnotherapists offer healings over the internet, whereas some other don't. I'd like to know how successful is hypnosis or hypnotherapy over a distance, for example, over Skype?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7352" LastActivityDate="2017-06-27T16:29:00.170" Title="How successful is hypnosis or hypnotherapy over a distance, for example, over Skype?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17276" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17272" CreationDate="2017-05-07T00:18:38.367" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand Dependent and Independent Variables as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Independent variable: What you Manipulate, in this case gender, and to a lesser degree the stimulus (word, nonsense syllable, size of nonsense syllable, etc)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Dependent variable: A measure of performance, in your case if you are testing for word or nonsense syllable recall (I suggest the later as to avoid familiarity issues), &lt;strong&gt;how many they could remember after X time period&lt;/strong&gt;, which you could turn into recall probability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tulving, Endel, and Fergus IM Craik. The Oxford handbook of memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Additional variations on dependent variables &amp;amp;tests targeting short term memory and variations are mentioned in various chapters, see page 20 for instance and the chapters on short term memory&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14245" LastActivityDate="2017-05-07T00:18:38.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17265" CreationDate="2017-05-07T06:01:23.437" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no &quot;standard&quot; set of emotions or cognitive functions.  The set depends on the theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, some theories of emotion posit a basic six or seven (e.g., Ekman), while allowing room for many more &quot;non-basic&quot; emotions (e.g., Izard).  Others suggest that there are virtually infinite emotions and that none are basic (e.g., Barrett, Russell). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, for cognitive functions, some theories attempt to unify them under a basic set of brain computations (e.g., predictive coding, Friston). Others list a bunch like your Jung example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's important to keep in mind that emotions and cognitive functions are just concepts.  We can carve up the functions of the brain in a million different ways (concepts) and arrive at a different set of emotions and cognitions each time.  All of these could simultaneously be useful and explanatory.  Which one you choose depends on your assumptions, biases, experimental questions, methods, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Relevant sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ekman, P., &amp;amp; Cordaro, D. (2011). What is meant by calling emotions basic. Emotion Review, 3(4), 364-370.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barrett, L. F. (2006). Are emotions natural kinds?. Perspectives on psychological science, 1(1), 28-58.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Izard, C. E. (2007). Basic emotions, natural kinds, emotion schemas, and a new paradigm. Perspectives on psychological science, 2(3), 260-280.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barrett, L. F., &amp;amp; Russell, J. A. (2014). The psychological construction of emotion. Guilford Publications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clark, A. (2013). Whatever next? Predictive brains, situated agents, and the future of cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36(03), 181-204.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Friston, K. (2010). The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory?. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(2), 127-138.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2017-05-07T21:25:53.540" LastActivityDate="2017-05-07T21:25:53.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17278" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17281" CreationDate="2017-05-07T06:35:09.420" Score="4" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came across this description in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/wahl-in-frankreich/gespraech-mit-macrons-biographin-anne-fulda-15001903.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;biographical sketch&lt;/a&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emmanuel Macron&lt;/a&gt;, the currently leading candidate in the coming French presidential election (translation from German courtesy of Google translate.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On 21 December 1977, Emmanuel Macron came to the world just under a&#xA;  year after a miscarriage, which almost killed his mother. She was in a&#xA;  coma and needed a long time to finish the tragedy on the lost child.&#xA;  Emmanuel had therefore &quot;almost a mission&quot; at his birth, Fulda quoted&#xA;  his mother. It is tempting, Macron's desire to please everyone, to the&#xA;  shadow of this sister, who was still dead in the mother's womb, says&#xA;  the author.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this family situation have a well-defined name among psychologists and if so, is there a study about such cases that can be recommended? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5093" LastActivityDate="2017-05-09T09:34:54.663" Title="Miscarriage throwing potential shadow on life of next child" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17281" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17278" CreationDate="2017-05-09T09:34:54.663" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If they knew the gender it was more likely to be a stillbirth than a miscarriage. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a mother of a stillborn child, and as a psychologist, I've been interested in research on the trauma involved, but have found only a few medical papers and no serious empirical work in psychology. There is some grief literature but a lot of the accent is on 'everyone grieves differently', whereas my impression is that the trauma involved leads to quite a decisive set of commonalities among the bereaved. But I have never seen a professional, empirically informed description of these commonalities in the case of early child loss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The next child is a big theme in the bereaved parents community (they call them 'rainbow babies', in case you want to Google). One thing I've heard from a neonatologist working with parents in this situation, is that anxiety about the next baby is usually very high, even after birth, even when everything is clearly all right. It seems to take several years to get back to baseline (even in the absence of another child).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry for the anecdotal reply, I wish I had some empirical articles to back my observations. The overarching belief used to be that stillbirth is something a women can get over easily, and that it's best if the baby is not mentioned by anybody. This used to be the medical approach a few decades back, and it is only now that parents (usually mothers) are speaking up, doctors are listening, and the psychological profession yet has to follow in a serious way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think your best chance of catching some new research is by following &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.city.ac.uk/birthptsd/research/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;perinatal ptsd research&lt;/a&gt;. Perhaps the old school psychoanalysts have had thoughts about this as well, but I haven't come across them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopefully someone will prove me wrong and give you an answer with proper references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="388" LastActivityDate="2017-05-09T09:34:54.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17282" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17275" CreationDate="2017-05-09T10:21:06.990" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A literature review was conducted &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Meyran_Boniel-Nissim/publication/237739176_A_Comprehensive_Review_and_a_Meta-Analysis_of_the_Effectiveness_of_Internet-Based_Psychotherapeutic_Interventions/links/54ae40c10cf2828b29fcc7a1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barak et al. (2008)&lt;/a&gt; that compared the effectiveness of internet-based psychotherapy in general (not specifically hypnosis). From their abstract, the results indicate that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The overall mean weighted &lt;strong&gt;effect size&lt;/strong&gt; was found to be 0.53 (medium effect),&#xA;  which &lt;strong&gt;is quite similar to the average effect size of traditional, face-to-face&#xA;  therapy&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Following, they&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] examined interacting effects of various possible relevant moderators of the effects of online therapy, including type of therapy [...], type of outcome measure, time of measurement of outcome (post-therapy or follow-up), type of problem treated, therapeutic approach, and communication modality,&#xA;  among others. &lt;strong&gt;A comparison between face-to-face and Internet intervention&#xA;  as reported on in 14 of the studies revealed no differences in&#xA;  effectiveness&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, the studies reviewed,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;provide &lt;strong&gt;strong support for the adoption of online psychological&#xA;  interventions as a legitimate therapeutic activity&lt;/strong&gt; [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-27T16:29:00.170" LastActivityDate="2017-06-27T16:29:00.170" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17283" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-09T15:23:23.987" Score="0" ViewCount="242" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dictionary.com/browse/schadenfreude?s=t&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;examples at dictionary.com&lt;/a&gt; on uses of 'schadenfreude'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what is the correct way to describe a person that has/uses/suffers from schadenfreude as part of a personality disorder/mental illness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She suffers from schadenfreude?&#xA;She's diagnosed with schadenfreude?&#xA;She delights in schadenfreude? (probably not as the word itself tells us of the delight)&#xA;She engages in schadenfreude?&#xA;She commits schadenfreude?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've no idea how to describe someone's mental illness where the primary symptom of this illness is schadenfreude.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the correct way to say this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see from the comments/answer that the question is wrong - I've asked correctly with more details here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/17322/term-for-aspd-specific-for-causing-pain-to-others&quot;&gt;Term for ASPD Specific for Causing Pain to Others&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15870" LastEditorUserId="15870" LastEditDate="2017-05-17T11:21:24.517" LastActivityDate="2017-05-17T15:22:49.643" Title="What's the correct way to use 'schadenfreude' to describe a person who has/uses/suffers from it?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17284" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17892" CreationDate="2017-05-09T20:12:40.603" Score="4" ViewCount="376" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is autism and Asperger's syndrome caused by genetics or some other factor such as the environment? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am aware about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/1314/is-the-neanderthal-theory-of-autistic-brain-a-reasonable-scientific-theory?rq=1&quot;&gt;Neanderthal Theory of autism, Asperger and ADHD&lt;/a&gt;, but am not interested in this due to it appearing too broad and to me seems based off of opinions like preferring the cold to the heat which is not always the case, a the term &quot;lack of social life&quot; seem's very broad and not clear nor specific in the aspects of socializing that they are not good with. The aspect of having big brains is also very broad and does not cover in any detail about what it means by that, however if it means intelligence then this is a development from back when we needed to hunt for food as we started to create things and fleeing particular pray on sight became instinct. The section about being meat eaters does not conclude anything as many autistic people are vegans the same as neurotypicals so does not lead us anywhere. The section about woman being more submissive sexually is also not conclusive as most autistic people are asexual so there is no real dominance by both genders as most do not even partake in sexual activities. The graphs included are also questionable as they all seem to be in favor for aspies as they score higher on everything which i would say for things like the chances of having OCD they would be very much correct as the chances of having this when on the spectrum is 40 times more likely. A lack of organization is mentioned which to me does not seem right i feel that we over plan and organize. These category's specified do not cover everyone on the spectrum so therefore is not conclusive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15871" LastEditorUserId="15871" LastEditDate="2017-08-10T18:00:39.623" LastActivityDate="2019-09-02T09:35:30.503" Title="Is autism caused by genetics?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17285" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-10T08:32:45.613" Score="4" ViewCount="496" Body="&lt;p&gt;Traffic congestion is a daily phenomenon that costs people a lot of time, is bad for the environment and may even cost some money. There are many obvious causes for traffic congestion, such as the amount of cars, size of the road, situational factors on the road such as accidents etc.(e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://bklyner.com/what-really-causes-traffic-congestion-sheepshead-bay/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this blog&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_congestion#Causes&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Wiki)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that increasing the capacity of the road capacity is not a solution to the problem, since it only appears to attract more users (&lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.cord.edu/andersod/EconOfTraffic.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Arnott and Small, 1994&lt;/a&gt;). Therefore, I was thinking whether there were any other factors that could influence congestion. It is obvious that each car has a human drive (well almost each car). Perhaps, their behavior could likely also play part in causing congestion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any scientific evidence that behavioral factors (e.g. excessive de- and acceleration or lane switching) may promote/prevent traffic congestion?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Arnott, R., &amp;amp; Small, K. (1994). The economics of traffic congestion. American scientist, 446-455.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-05-10T08:37:51.747" LastActivityDate="2017-07-12T10:52:09.547" Title="What human factors play part in traffic congestion?" Tags="&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;human-error&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17286" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17250" CreationDate="2017-05-10T09:42:32.957" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Despite the neatness of the Hyperbolic Discounting idea in the first answer, I think it extremely unlikely that anyone would find putting a seatbelt on so much of a hassle that the reward gained from avoiding it is worth anything at all, let alone worth taking a known risk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are much more nuanced theories as to why people take risks that would cover this situation better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One that comes to mind is Sykes and Matza's neutralization theory (originally developed to explain moral shifting) applied here &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1080/0007131032000045888/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1080/0007131032000045888/full&lt;/a&gt; to denial of risk from cannabis, but applied in other areas of risk perception also.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps even more likely here is the concept of Risk Denial as part of a construction of a safe world view as in this study for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0022022191221006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0022022191221006&lt;/a&gt; . Essentially what happens here is that people fail to mitigate risks (such as with driving in the OP's example) in order to help them construct a safer world view in which the risk does not exist, by acting as if the risk were not there at all. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00844871?LI=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is an article relating the issue to smokers, but the same research has been done on AIDS denial, Adolescent risk-taking, and heart-disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same has been posited as a reason why it has proven so difficult to establish proper hand washing regimes in high risk areas (such a hospitals and day-care). The theory being that if the practitioners there could not easily cope with the reality of working in an environment with such high (and importantly, unobservable) risks, so they have to act as if they weren't there as a coping mechanism. Again, hyperbolic discounting (the hassle) has been cited as the most lilkley reason, but research such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16671030&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; shows it to have very little statistical influence. Video capture of hand-washing practises in hospitals with sensors have even shown people crawling under the sensors supposed to detect whether they've washed their hands properly or deliberately turning on the water to activate the sensor but not actually washing their hands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It obviously would show considerable weakness of character (by society's standard, not mine) to admit this inability to cope so it rarely crops up in self-reporting. I personally wouldn't take the agreement with the existence of the risk verbally as anything other than superficial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is likely that people who take risks such as not wearing a seatbelt simply can't cope with the risk of driving and so have to deny it exists and reinforce that denial by their actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13479" LastActivityDate="2017-05-10T09:42:32.957" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17288" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17332" CreationDate="2017-05-11T16:32:30.813" Score="4" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read quite a few statistics about divorce (sources &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mckinleyirvin.com/Family-Law-Blog/2012/October/32-Shocking-Divorce-Statistics.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2013/article/marriage-and-divorce-patterns-by-gender-race-and-educational-attainment.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;), and biggest factors seems to be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Culture - from 71% in Belgium to 2-3% in some traditional societies&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Income of the couple&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ratio of the woman's income to the man&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other factors such as education and whether they come from divorced family also plays a big factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what are some behavioral characteristic that have the biggest impact?&#xA;For example are shy people less likely to get divorced controlled for everything else? Do people who had less sexual partners in their lifetime are less likely?&#xA; Introverts or extroverts? Which of the 5 big personality traits predict best (Conscientiousness, ‎Openness to experience, ‎Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Extraversion)?&#xA;I want some respected studies video lectures very much appreciated :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14778" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-05-18T01:01:15.887" LastActivityDate="2017-06-05T20:44:34.710" Title="What are the personality and behavioural correlates of divorce?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17290" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17237" CreationDate="2017-05-11T18:15:06.570" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not very familiar with the field, but a quick Google search brought up &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bgoncalves.com/download/finish/4/296.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; paper (&quot;The Happiness Paradox: Your Friends are Happier Than You&quot; from Bollen, Goncalves, Leemput, and Ruan) which had some interesting results and conclusions. This paper considers a happiness paradox within the concept of friendships, and a friendship paradox within the concept of happiness. It also includes correlation coefficients between happiness and popularity, which may address your question. I'll note that the sample of this study isn't exactly what you are looking for: it is done via Twitter data (and, as noted in the supplementary materials of the paper, the sample only includes users with greater than 15 friends).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results seem to show that there &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; a mild correlation for &quot;happy people&quot;, but there is not much of a correlation for &quot;unhappy people&quot; (very slight, though statistically significant, negative correlation). For more details, I encourage you to read the article (which includes some nice graphics depicting their theories and the distributions of outcomes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps a start in the right direction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastActivityDate="2017-05-11T18:15:06.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17291" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17588" CreationDate="2017-05-11T20:56:25.287" Score="4" ViewCount="401" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do antidepressants, anxiolytics and sleeping pills significantly affect the intelligence of a person, for example as expressed by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;general (g) factor&lt;/a&gt;? Do these compounds affect the &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; factor each individually? And what about the combinations of the two or three of them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To narrow down the scope of the question, if necessary, we can go for commonly encountered drugs like Duloxetine (antidepressant), Xanax (anxiolytic), and Zolpidem (hypnotic/sedative).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did a Google search, but the results were not that satisfying. I couldn't find a reliable resource which properly treats the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14575" LastEditorUserId="10587" LastEditDate="2017-05-25T13:21:26.673" LastActivityDate="2017-06-23T11:29:14.110" Title="Does taking antidepressants, anxiolytics and sleep pills significantly affect a person's intelligence?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17294" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3594" CreationDate="2017-05-12T00:08:18.480" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe, and I do not know if good quality epidemiological evidence exists, that such situations may trigger abnormal illness representations among medical professionals. Factitious disorders, for instance, I believe could be some way to deflect depression in some individuals. Along with abnormal illness representations could also come abnormal moral representations of illness, which, if not outright religious, links in somewhat with the notion of salvation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies concerning abnormal illness representations are usually concerned with patient's illness representations. I see no epidemiological studies or data concerning the illness representations of medical staff, would be medical staff, or former medical staff (for instance, those who quit after traumatic experiences with patients) when they present as patients. Indeed, calling into question the illness representations of medical staff is not exactly politically correct. It's even a rather effective way to get you labelled as psychotic in some flavour or another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, from a clinical perspective, (i.e. with a clinical bias) a risk factor for factitious disorder is when someone has or has had a professional wish of working in the health care field. Such as a medical doctor who went into depression after a patient died and who did not fully get over it...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd love to know what data there really is out there to back up this clinical claim. Best I could find is Lois Krahn's work at Mayo Clinic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12777276&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12777276&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me, this is an extreme manifestation of more common mental issues affecting medical professionals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15890" LastEditorUserId="15890" LastEditDate="2017-05-12T01:32:53.893" LastActivityDate="2017-05-12T01:32:53.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17295" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17328" CreationDate="2017-05-12T04:37:47.287" Score="4" ViewCount="282" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schizophrenia has a genetic component. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Persons with OCD and first parents having OCD have a &lt;a href=&quot;https://consumer.healthday.com/health-technology-information-18/genetics-news-334/people-with-ocd-may-have-higher-odds-for-schizophrenia-study-691343.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;higher probability to develop schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it seems that a possible overlap exists between schizophrenia and OCD. And I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3738863/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; dealing with the genetic aspect of the relation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it seems like there can be a possible relation between schizophrenia and OCD, but I cannot find enough research to support it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my question is: is there a &lt;strong&gt;definitive genetic correlation&lt;/strong&gt; between schizophrenia and OCD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15258" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-12T09:10:51.230" LastActivityDate="2017-05-18T18:24:05.027" Title="Are schizophrenia and OCD genetically related?" Tags="&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17297" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17283" CreationDate="2017-05-12T09:04:03.607" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schadenfreude is an emotion only the German language has a word for. Put simply it is a person enjoying someone else’s misfortune. It does not matter if its monetary, a divorce, a failed exam, or the person being yelled at by the boss… &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Link Definition:&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/schadenfreude&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/schadenfreude&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definitely not a mental illness. (for details on mental illness see ICD-10 Fxx.xy. Link: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15307" LastEditorUserId="15307" LastEditDate="2017-05-17T15:22:49.643" LastActivityDate="2017-05-17T15:22:49.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17298" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1969" CreationDate="2017-05-12T11:50:24.733" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not know about psychopaths adhering to the Kelly criterion or not. Technically, for a perfectly informed agent seeking to take advantage reccuringly from an objectified winning yet risky position, the Kelly criterion sets the maximum bet amount over which betting would be irrational. In the sense that betting more than the Kelly criterion would deplete your finances by exposing yourself to too much risk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine that you know that a tossed coin ends up 49% of the time on heads and 51% of the time on tails. For 1 buck you bet, you earn 0 or 2 bucks depending on the outcome of the coin toss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Betting on heads is irrational. So you bet on tails. The question is &quot;what proportion of your total assets&quot; are you willing to bet? If you bet 0% of your assets, you never earn anything. If you bet 100% of your assets, you've got 49% chances of being broke the next round and having nothing left to bet again, which is kind of stupid since you've got a rational structural advantage on the bookmaker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question therefore becomes &quot;what fraction of my assets should I bet to maximise the gain with respect to the risk&quot;? The answer depends on your so called &quot;utility function&quot;. In the case where each buck gained increases your utility linearly, (i.e. you're as eager to gain a buck whether you're broke or a bilionaire, to put it simply... a buck is a buck no matter what), the Kelly criterion applies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You bet the the fraction that maximises the probabilistic expectation of the logarithm of the ratio of assets after the bet to assets before the bet. If I recall things well off the top of my head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Betting less than Kelly is not greedy enough. Betting more than Kelly is self-destructive. That's the theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the financial stock broking business, the Kelly criterion has been used in the past... almost. They divided the Kelly criterion by 2 to be on the safe side. The reason is simple: no matter how rational Kelly is, draw up a chart of the typical fluctuation of your assets using the Kelly criterion under perfect circumstances (even correcting for your utility function). Take a close look at it. Then you'll realise that you'll be in for such a &lt;a href=&quot;https://money.stackexchange.com/questions/77072/understanding-how-this-interpretation-of-kelly-criterion-helps-the-trader&quot;&gt;bumpy ride for your assets&lt;/a&gt; that russian mountains on cocaine will feel like zen meditation. Technically, betting using Kelly is exactly being on the verge of self-destructiveness...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No one, ever ever ever ever would &quot;reasonably&quot; bet their assets using Kelly. Unless you have the self-denegation of a number theorist on ketamine. Not joking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not even a psychopath.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closer you can get to the question would be: (1) are psychopaths inherently rational machines (2) are psychopaths greedy to the extreme that a buck is a buck whether they're broke or a billionaire, and (3) are they able to endure the cognitive dissonance by reconciling (1) and (2) assertively and agressively without fear of any sort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I doubt this to be the case. They may well score higher than neurotypics, but it's quite a stretch to imagine a psychopath would spontaneously follow Kelly criterion when the greediest stock brokers would not dare to. According to your study, they may well score higher on points (2) and (3).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this study, Kelly does not apply and does not determine a stop loss criterion. It simply shows psychopaths are either less emotional or have a more linear utility function than neurotypics. A fearful neurotypic may stop playing if he has had repeated bad luck. A rational and fearful neurotypic would have laid out beforehand his stop losses depending on which turn he's in and would have played all turns up to the point where he would have stopped playing definitely: he knows there's no point in postponing his luck. And he must be rather fearful to decide to stop playing, meaning that his utility function must be very concave near ruin to trigger a stop loss and very insensitive to wealth if he decides to trigger a stop loss early in the game. In a nutshell, rationality in the game is defined by playing all turns in the game up to a point where you stop playing. If the player plays, then stops, then resumes playing, he's irrational. But the more he plays, the less he's anxious. From what I've read of the article, psychopaths are not more rational, they are less fearful. Kelly has little to do here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another question you may ask is whether or not neurotypics and psychopaths end up behaving the same way as cohorts the longer they play at the betting game. How desensitised to the irrationality of the human conditioning to the game do neurotypics and psychopaths become the more they're exposed to it, and at what pace. To me that's perhaps the real question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover ruin theory such as developped in actuarial science is NOT Kelly criterion. It's standard stochastic calculus with ruin constraints. Kelly criterion is the poor man's naive implementation of stochastic calculus. Very much the same way that mysticism is the poor man's naive first attempt at science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, Kelly strategy cannot go to ruin, not because it's Kelly, but because it's a self-funded strategy, which in itself is a broad class of strategies, that includes very very stupid ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope that clarifies the scope of the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15890" LastEditorUserId="15890" LastEditDate="2017-05-12T17:52:47.580" LastActivityDate="2017-05-12T17:52:47.580" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17300" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7942" CreationDate="2017-05-12T14:26:53.427" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Visionlist is indeed extremely helpful. It's not quite the same, but I found the mailing lists of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.humanbrainmapping.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Organization for Human Brain Mapping (OHBM)&lt;/a&gt; and of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cogneurosociety.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Neuroscience Society (CNS)&lt;/a&gt; quite useful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10277" LastActivityDate="2017-05-12T14:26:53.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17301" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17219" CreationDate="2017-05-12T18:00:14.447" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This article has several experiments included in it. These have different operational definitions of variables, and specifically differ in their definitions of &quot;similarity&quot;. I'll assume you are talking about Experiment 3 where the hypothetical child is injured. From the end of Experiment 2 (p. 108, c. 2, first full paragraph):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a third experiment was conducted in which perceived personal similarity was one of the dependent variables ... Thus, only severity of consequences was&#xA;  actually manipulated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So for this situation (Experiment 3), similarity is actually treated as an outcome and is not manipulated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-05-12T18:42:01.067" LastActivityDate="2017-05-12T18:42:01.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17302" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8417" CreationDate="2017-05-13T02:46:54.267" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Comparison between Behaviorist Theory and Cognitivist Theory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the Behaviourist Theory?&lt;/strong&gt; Behaviorist theory says that learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour based on environmental conditions – linking a new behaviour to a stimulus by providing reinforcement after the correct behaviour is produced. &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;The Theorists :&lt;/strong&gt; Pavlov (1849 – 1936) Skinner (1904 – 1990) Watson (1878 – 1958)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Behaviorist approach to language learning grew out of the belief that students could learn a second language by being taught to produce the correct “response” to the appropriate stimulus. The students would then receive either instant positive or instant negative “reinforcement” in the shape of either correction or praise from the teacher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the Cognitivist Theory?&lt;/strong&gt; A cognitive theory of learning sees second language acquisition as a conscious and reasoned thinking process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies. Learning strategies are special ways of processing information that enhance comprehension, learning or retention of information. This explanation of language learning contrasts strongly with the behaviourist account of language learning, which sees language learning as an unconscious, automatic process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15901" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-05-13T19:36:46.637" LastActivityDate="2017-05-13T19:36:46.637" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17285" CreationDate="2017-05-13T10:05:42.043" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/0002177.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kesting, Treiber and Helbing (2000)&lt;/a&gt; created an Intelligent Driving Model (IDM) based on actual data on the German highway. The model is a single lane model, assuming that the trailing car tries to fixate the distance of the leading car by accelerating and decelerating only. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vIxPf.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vIxPf.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vIxPf.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kesting, Treiber and Helbing (2008)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The IDM acceleration is a continuous function incorporating different driving modes for all velocities in freeway traffic as well as city traffic. Besides the distance to the leading vehicle &lt;code&gt;s&lt;/code&gt; and the actual speed &lt;code&gt;v&lt;/code&gt;, the IDM also takes into account velocity differences &lt;code&gt;∆v&lt;/code&gt;, which play an essential stabilizing role in real traffic, especially when approaching traffic jams and avoiding rear-end collisions (see Fig. 3). The IDM acceleration function is given by:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nfh6X.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nfh6X.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;work in progress. To be continued&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastActivityDate="2017-05-13T10:05:42.043" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17304" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7942" CreationDate="2017-05-13T15:32:16.833" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a recently created cognitive science mailing list that is managed by the Cognitive Science Society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Information here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/2016/08/10/new-cogsci-mailing-list/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/2016/08/10/new-cogsci-mailing-list/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subscribe here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://lists.cognitivesciencesociety.org/listinfo.cgi/announcements-cognitivesciencesociety.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://lists.cognitivesciencesociety.org/listinfo.cgi/announcements-cognitivesciencesociety.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2017-05-13T15:32:16.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17306" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17309" CreationDate="2017-05-13T17:57:00.110" Score="3" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been looking for a computational model in cognitive science, and perused Anderson's &quot;How can the human mind occur in the physical universe?&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've also seen &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8557/what-aspects-of-act-r-are-not-contained-within-spaun&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; comparing ACT-R with a empirical model called Spaun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are Anderson's ACT-R model and Spaun the state of the art in Cognitive Science, or are there other competing models currently being researched?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1002" LastEditorUserId="1002" LastEditDate="2017-05-14T00:15:17.000" LastActivityDate="2017-05-14T22:43:11.693" Title="Are ACT-R and Spaun the state of the art in cognitive science computational models?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17307" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6293" CreationDate="2017-05-13T23:53:17.480" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First you need to score for each of the five subtests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Koh's block test:&#xA;first 5 block - if completed in less than one minute give 2 mark and if between 1 and 2 minute give 1 mark or else zero&#xA;block 6 to 10 : if completed in less than one minute give 3 marks, between 1 and 2 minute give 2 mark and between 2 and 3 minutes give 1 mark. failure zero&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Alexander's pass along test: &#xA;first four: less than one minute 2 marks, between 1 and 2 minutes give 1 mark&#xA;6 to 10 test : less than one minute 3 marks, 1 to 2 minutes 2 marks, and between 2 and 3 minute - 1 mark. failure zero&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pattern drawing:&#xA;first four: less than one minute 2 marks, between 1 and 2 minutes give 1 mark&#xA;6 to 10 test : less than one minute 3 marks, 1 to 2 minutes 2 marks, and between 2 and 3 minute - 1 mark. failure zero&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;picture construction test:&#xA;1st to 3rd test: less than one minute 2 marks, between 1 and 2 minutes give 1 mark&#xA;4 and 5 test: less than one minute 3 marks, 1 to 2 minutes 2 marks, and between 2 and 3 minute - 1 mark. failure zero&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Immediate Memory test&#xA;there are forward and reverse&#xA;for each set of forward and reverse if there is atleast one correct sequence give marks&#xA;(this you need to recheck)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;once you get all the scores added together that is your raw score. Now compare your raw score to Bhatia's Table where you will get the IQ score against the age of the individual and raw score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15907" LastActivityDate="2017-05-13T23:53:17.480" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17308" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-14T22:08:35.483" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a strong belief that being a bilingual or multilingual when we switch from one language to another our behavior change accordingly. For example, my native language is Urdu, I feel comfortable, relax and calm when i am talking to someone in Urdu but when i am talking to someone in English i feel different. I am not comfortable. I'm continuously in my mind checking my grammar, sentence structure and stuff etc. I'm sure such things happen to others as well. Has any research that has been done on this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15910" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-05-14T22:56:28.150" LastActivityDate="2017-05-14T22:56:28.150" Title="does speakers exhibit change of behavior when switching from one language to another?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-05-17T12:51:19.473" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17309" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17306" CreationDate="2017-05-14T22:43:11.693" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are TONS of other Cognitive Models being researched. Specifically, see this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.data.nvision2.eecs.yorku.ca/cognitive-architecture-survey/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;giant comprehensive list of Cognitive Models&lt;/a&gt; [1]. Given such a wide array of models, it might be more helpful to focus on which framework are still under active use, in addition to Spaun and ACT-R. In &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith, he compares Spaun with some other architectures in active use, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;LISA&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neural Blackboard Architecture (NBA)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ICS&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dynamic Field Theory (DFT)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://grey.colorado.edu/emergent/index.php/Leabra&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Leabra&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://soar.eecs.umich.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Soar&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in my personal experience as a researcher, the only one in that list that I've still seen active publications from is Leabra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, the cognitive modelling community is still very heterogenous. You never know when an old framework is going to be revived or a new one started, but hopefully the references I gave you are a good starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[1] &quot;40 Years of Cognitive Architectures: Focus on Perception, Attention, Learning and Applications&quot; Iuliia Kotseruba, Oscar J. Avella Gonzalez, John K. Tsotsos&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-05-14T22:43:11.693" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17310" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-15T00:39:20.380" Score="8" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose you're learning to sing or play an instrument, and you'd start playing some piece of music. If you are not experienced enough, the tempo would be unstable, usually getting faster until the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This phenomenon is usual, as in this question on Music SE: &lt;a href=&quot;https://music.stackexchange.com/questions/32405/why-i-tend-to-play-faster-tempo-without-realizing-it&quot;&gt;https://music.stackexchange.com/questions/32405/why-i-tend-to-play-faster-tempo-without-realizing-it&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many correlates it with adrenaline and throbbing heartbeat, but is there an experiment-backed evidence to explain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Originally posted in &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/38332/why-does-the-tempo-tends-to-get-faster-not-slower&quot;&gt;Skeptics SE&lt;/a&gt;, but I think this should be the better place.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15912" LastActivityDate="2018-04-20T16:09:55.897" Title="Why does the tempo tend to get faster?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17311" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17230" CreationDate="2017-05-15T01:53:58.670" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Contempt is expressed through a curled or snarled lip on one side of the face. It is a universal emotional expression that can be seen in all cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The expression is often accompanied by a slight smile and raised chin, sometimes referred to as a &amp;quot;sneer&amp;quot;, further showing disapproval to the target of one's contempt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Go9qk.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Go9qk.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Passion and Reason: Making Sense of Our Emotions, by Richard S. Lazarus, Bernice N. Lazarus&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liespotting, by Pamela Meyer, 2010&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Cognitive Structure of Emotions, by Andrew Ortony, Gerald L. Clore, Allan Collins&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scalar Ratings of Contempt Expressions by David Matsumoto, San Francisco State University&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8225" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-05-15T18:26:18.807" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17312" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17144" CreationDate="2017-05-15T16:05:58.230" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A search of &quot;empirical grounding&quot; in my small personal article database showed more results in test validation than in qualitative (though this could be a personal bias: I'd be curious what kinds of articles your search brought up). Searching this term in the university database brings up a large variety of results, really highlighting the diversity of the use of the term (from policy to measurement).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, a reading of the Eisenhardt and Graebner article makes it clear to me that their definition of &quot;empirical grounding&quot; is primarily focused on the thought that the theory is grounded in the data, and &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; as its own distinct methodology. In their sense, this could be viewed as an aspect of grounded theory (when done correctly, it is grounded in data).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on this, I would say that empirical grounding is not its own method (or, if it is, certainly not a standard/well-known method). To address the second part, I &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; think that the term has meaning independent of grounded theory: specifically, as its name implies, it is the practice of grounding theory/methods/conclusions within data (and this has a range of applications). In my understanding, &quot;empirical grounding&quot; is almost an epistemology in terms of its practice and scope. Thus it could, in the larger sense, be considered a broad methodology, under which traditional grounded theory (and perhaps all of quantitative) could fall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did find the below article that discussed the broadening of grounded theory from &quot;empirical grounding&quot;. They, however, seem to come to this term merely by similar processes as Eisenhardt and Graebner (simply trying to communicate that the method is grounded in data) and do not seem to view it as its own proper method or name.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goldkuhl, G., &amp;amp; Stefan, C. (2010). Adding Theoretical Grounding to Grounded Theory: Toward Multi-Grounded Theory. International Journal Of Qualitative Methods, 9(2), 187-205.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In example of the multiple uses, below is an article where Messick uses &quot;empirical grounding&quot; to mean &quot;trustworthiness&quot; regarding score interpretation (a pretty well known article and author in the measurement sphere).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Messick, S. (1980). Test validity and the ethics of assessment. American Psychologist, 35(11), 1012–1027. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.35.11.1012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.35.11.1012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;All in all, for the purposes of your question&lt;/strong&gt;: no, it doesn't appear that this is a well known or accepted methodology distinct from grounded theory. It seems to have many definitions in many contexts. Based on the Eisenhardt and Graebner article, it seems to a desirable outcome of a grounded theory. Based on definitions in the Goldkuhl and Stefan article, it is a piece of multi-grounded theory (and appears to capture the goals of traditional grounded theory).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-05-15T16:26:42.000" LastActivityDate="2017-05-15T16:26:42.000" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17313" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17045" CreationDate="2017-05-15T21:18:19.320" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question pertains to the perception of psychosis by psychiatrists and not to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5103459/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;up-to-date interpretation of research data on psychosis classification&lt;/a&gt;. So I'll focus on how pure psychosis is roughly conceptualised by the average psychiatrist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, some diagnosis such as bipolar disorder or schizo-affective disorder, while usually being considered psychotic, have the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraepelinian_dichotomy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;additional component&lt;/a&gt; of problematic affective or mood states attached to it. I'll therefore leave that out to focus on the &quot;pure psychosis&quot; part of psychiatric diagnoses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The notion of pychosis is usually presented as &quot;being out of touch with reality&quot;. A more operational description of it would be to say that a psychiatrist perceives that (1) there is something about reality or your perception thereof or your lack of perception thereof that has a damaging impact on your life and (2) he does not objectify that item.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I purposely rephrased that definition since people are sometimes &quot;persecuted&quot; or &quot;deluded&quot; (or whatever else there may be, such as hypocondria, erotomania, et ceterae) in a way that is real though not objectifiable. Or at least not objectifiable at first glance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, clinical observations of psychosis have led, broadly, pure psychosis to be conceptualised as lying qualitatively on a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.emedmd.com/content/persistent-delusional-symptoms-and-disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;linear spectrum&lt;/a&gt; extending from psychosis typical of the schizophrenia spectrum to psychosis typical of persistent delusional disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simply put, persistent delusional disorder psychosis pertains to a very well logically structured system of thought, where the patient adamantly holds some claim that seems self evident for him, and where evidence presented by him or to him is perceived discordantly by psychiatrist and patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other end of the psychosis spectrum lies schizophrenia-like psychosis. Which broadly speaking is a pattern of thought that is perceived by the psychiatrist as inconsistent, loosely organised, wishful thinking or otherwise unsupported &quot;bullshit&quot;. This can range from &quot;my parents are assholes, screw school&quot; to &quot;yeah, I've had a revelation, I can help save the world but I do not know how or why and it bothers me&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Persistent delusional disorder psychosis is a fixed set of thought pattern met by patients around 40 and that, aside from co-occuring depression or other form of distress, does not impact per se the ability to meet family obligations or job expectations. Intellect does not seem to be affected, and it is indeed used vigorously to fuel the persistent pattern of thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schizophrenia-like psychosis on the other hand is considered a disorganised pattern of thought that will lead the patient into hardships family-wise or job-wise. To diagnose schizophrenia, a usual criterion is that this pattern of thought happens at the same time as a job loss, family dysfunction, or academic or school underachievement. It is conceptualised as an impairment of intellect that will get worse the more the patient undergoes further or future life hardships. Also known as &quot;persecutions&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is why schizophrenia-like psychosis is supposed to be diagnosed with the crucial symptom of functional impairment with respect to so-called pre-morbid intellectual or social baseline functioning. Usually, in practice, determining this premorbid baseline depends on what parents or relatives say to the psychiatrist. &lt;a href=&quot;http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/aptrcpsych/14/3/235.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IQ tests are not currently used for that&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a nutshell, if a psychiatrist meets a patient who is not on the delusional disorder side of the psychosis spectrum, with no intellectual impairment compared to its premorbid baseline functioning, he should be confused as to why the patient is now in front of him in the first place. Every medical intervention is indeed triggered one way or another by someone asking for something... He might or should be confused as to what that motive really is or was.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15890" LastEditorUserId="15890" LastEditDate="2017-05-15T23:29:47.843" LastActivityDate="2017-05-15T23:29:47.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17314" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17230" CreationDate="2017-05-16T01:53:23.023" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The fundamental question here is&lt;/strong&gt;: Can we &quot;read&quot; emotions in a perceiver-independent, objective way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The answer, I'd venture, is&lt;/strong&gt;: We don't really know (although, currently, we cannot do this with great reliability or specificity).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be painstaking to go through the history of emotion research and to go over every emotion theory that supposedly has a definitive answer to this question.  &lt;strong&gt;Fortunately, a great overview of this history can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1754073909338877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would also be a pain to go through every emotion perception study, in cultures near and far, every psychophysiology study, every behavioral or neuroimaging study, and the many (sometimes quite giant) limitations of this literature.  &lt;strong&gt;Fortunately, you can find meta-analyses on these topics, which mostly suggest we cannot &quot;recognize&quot; contempt, or any other emotion, with notable reliability or specificity&lt;/strong&gt; (although we can &quot;perceive&quot; it; e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1754073912457227&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301051113002603&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/27/3/1944/3056293/Multivoxel-Pattern-Analysis-Does-Not-Provide&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004066&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;.)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it's hard to answer this question.  &lt;strong&gt;We might be able to one day, but we are very, very, very, very far away from sampling the dynamic and highly variable range of potential expressions of &quot;contempt,&quot; let alone any other emotion&lt;/strong&gt; (no study has actually tried to do this ever).  Moreover, quite a few emotion theories do not recognize contempt as universal (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/on-the-deep-structure-of-social-affect-attitudes-emotions-sentiments-and-the-case-of-contempt/4A17A398E5C7A29ACDAF3C0410C84124&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; for a recent overview).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the above doesn't confuse you enough, I'll pull in the picture I pointed to in the comments.  Same &quot;disgust&quot; face, different emotion.  Well, what about contempt?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IxK8d.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IxK8d.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize my answer is pretty unsatisfying, but if you read a great deal of the emotion literature, you might just arrive to the same conclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2017-05-16T01:53:23.023" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17315" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-16T11:00:15.570" Score="3" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a benchmark as a reference regarding the human Kinesiology that specifies the quickest movement a human can do on basic everyday movements like computer mouse clicking. As far as I know, there is an standard called MTM (Measurement Time Methods) in the field of industrial engineering and ergonomics which specifies the required time for each basic movement to be done by human. This MTM standard time is provided on the basis of not putting the human (worker) in an overload or underload working situation. So I assume MTM cannot provide me with the shortest possible duration (time) a basic movement can be performed. &#xA;I am not sure whether we have such a benchmark based on human physiology, Do you have any suggestion in this regard? I recorded response times and have a distribution of these response times for many subjects, however, I would like to estimate the minimum possible response time a human can do in my experiment&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15921" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-15T19:32:42.557" LastActivityDate="2017-11-19T09:12:20.863" Title="How to specify the quickest movement a human can do based on MTM standards?" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17316" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16047" CreationDate="2017-05-16T12:36:22.827" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is a multifactorial question dependent or correlated with a large list of variables or factors that could be grouped into:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Functions (mainly effects on neurotransmitters, also have been much studied the functions related to memory and learning).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Biological factors or bases: Indistinguishable from the previous section.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sleep dysfunctions (terrors, somnambulism, somniloquies, nocturnal jactatio capitis, bruxism, epilepsy, mental retardation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Disorders (initiation and maintenance disorders, apnea, myoclonus, restless legs syndrome, narcolepsy, hypersomnia, Kleine-Levin, Pickwick)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Patterns There are many sleep patterns.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not so easy to distinguish between health and disease since some individuals are very well adapted to patterns, dysfunctions and even some disorders.&#xA;The general intelligence factor may influence further adaptation.&#xA;The weight of the weight factor will influence to a greater extent when it is an extreme weight (mainly if there is difficulty in the breathing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many manuals that address both general topics related to sleep (International Classification of Sleep Disorders, ICSD, good general books can be found in any library of psychology faculties) and very specific research (search in psycinfo).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recommended source: Buela-Casal, G. (Comps.) (1990). Avances en la investigación del sueño y sus trastornos. Siglo Veintiuno de España Editores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2017-05-16T12:36:22.827" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17317" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17329" CreationDate="2017-05-16T13:12:30.037" Score="2" ViewCount="323" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm gonna talk about Russia. :) I'm not interested in foreign policy, relations, for this question... maybe just a tiny bit. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A little preamble. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;After the collapse of the Soviet Union (hereinafter S.U.), the people got lost, they didn't know who they were, what they wanted to do and who was going to tell them what to do. S.U. did a really good cleansing (of people's minds)... they were destroying all the traditions and knowledge that people lived by before S.U.: how to organize themselves, how to protect your property and even how to manage your household (if you're living in your own house). Private property, businesses, gold and anything valuable were seized. From the Party's point of view it was better if you live in an apartment rather than your own house. So, after the collapse, it was, loosely translated in English, the wild and evil ’90s. Basically the time of socio-political chaos. All the bad in people surfaced and no one to stop them because bribery was a second nature and it got instilled in the culture and the government.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now to the point of the question. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Nowadays, when people break laws, even those that just a manifestations of common sense and you point that out, they tend to just show &quot;muscles&quot; and try to scare you away. Examples: driving in places when it's prohibited, littering, bribing the law enforcement, causing disturbances (e.g. playing loud music). Driving dangerously is a particularly big problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reasoning often goes something like this: that's ok, no one's there, and it's really stupid not to take the &quot;opportunity&quot; (for saving little time, money, effort), I will do no harm... And even if you don't take this &quot;opportunity&quot;, in some circles there can be social pressure to act like this. Romanticizing and glorifying a criminal life-style is somewhat prevalent... unfortunately teens often don't grow out of it. The civil court is a huge hassle (unless you're some sort of a government worker), police officers often ignore &quot;small&quot; violations and you left with the aggressor alone, imagine a big guy with no morals or a sociopath. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why people don't see that they live such an a-typical, perhaps anti-social or criminal, life?&lt;/strong&gt; And is there a way to go about to make those people aware of how they behave?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any terms in psychology that describe this, any books to read or forums to visit... I'll appreciate any advice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15924" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-05-17T08:13:02.680" LastActivityDate="2019-08-07T15:46:20.353" Title="Psychology of disrespect and being proud of law breaking. How does it work and how to combat it?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17318" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-16T17:22:27.053" Score="6" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neurons are excited via an external electrode by passing current through it. A neuron at rest is at -70 mV, it needs additional charge amounting to around 15 mV to initiate an action potential. But the external electrode only gives electrons, which are negatively charged, how can they increase the potential inside the neuron? Does the electrode provide charge to the outside of the membrane of the neuron?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15928" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-05-17T06:28:44.260" LastActivityDate="2018-10-14T05:49:26.640" Title="How does neuron stimulation work?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17320" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17317" CreationDate="2017-05-17T05:39:04.103" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question can be unswered from the field of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sociology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its&#xA;  origins, development, organisation, networks, and institutions. It is&#xA;  a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation&#xA;  and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social&#xA;  order, disorder, and change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically what you describe here are the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(social)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social norms&lt;/a&gt; formed by society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From a sociological perspective, social norms are informal&#xA;  understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society.&#xA;  Social psychology recognizes smaller group units, such as a team or an&#xA;  office, may also endorse norms separately or in addition to cultural&#xA;  or societal expectations. In other words, norms are regarded as&#xA;  collective representations of acceptable group conduct as well as&#xA;  individual perceptions of particular group conduct. They can be viewed&#xA;  as cultural products (including values, customs, and traditions) which&#xA;  represent individuals' basic knowledge of what others do and think&#xA;  that they should do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The values and expectations that you experience are formed in the socio-economical environment of the specific nation througout many years of interactions among members of that society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;It is very very difficult to change deep rooted cultural habits and norms, and usually will take many years to do so. But I will give some practical advices that may help :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Lead by example&lt;/strong&gt;. If a higly regarded individual of the society, consistently demonstrates a different behavior, this may have a long lasting effect on other members of the society and may gradually change their behavior.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Don’t push information&lt;/strong&gt;, engage in active dialogue to change their goals and beliefs.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Changing the environment&lt;/strong&gt;. The environment have subtle ways in which they reinforce our habits.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Create activities&lt;/strong&gt; (like social gatherings, competitions etc) that indirectly falsify the bad sticky idea.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References of the EDIT:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.cy/books?id=w1B77ke4Y-MC&amp;amp;dq=made%20to%20stick&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwi985qjr_vTAhWMLsAKHcllAt8Q6AEIHzAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Made to Stick&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.cy/books?id=-p5ZognR-ZwC&amp;amp;dq=smart%20change&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiOovrKr_vTAhVmKcAKHTv5AI0Q6AEIHzAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smart Change&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.cy/books?id=XmzbeoN-KZ0C&amp;amp;dq=switch&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiPjtOZsPvTAhUoCsAKHXGvDcIQ6AEIIzAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Switch&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2017-05-19T07:18:14.767" LastActivityDate="2017-05-19T07:18:14.767" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17318" CreationDate="2017-05-17T08:34:15.037" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The electric field of an external electrode provokes the opening of sodium channels, which in turn has the effect that the positive charged sodium ions travel into the cell body and invoke the wanted change to the Membran potential…&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;reference: Simulation Neuronaler Netze [(&quot;Simulation of Neural Networks&quot;)] / Andreas Zell. - Bonn; Paris; Reading, Mass [u.a.]: Addison-Wesley, 1994, first edition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15934" LastEditorUserId="15934" LastEditDate="2017-05-17T09:14:10.743" LastActivityDate="2017-05-17T09:14:10.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17323" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-17T13:35:33.147" Score="1" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm new to CogSci and to Psychology in general, so forgive me if this question has been answered before...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see a pattern in many sociological environments that goes like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Someone promises a better (possibly imaginary) state of living to someone else&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;But this better state will only be achieved if the someone else endures a hardship period or similar&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A lot of &quot;Someone elses&quot; go through the hardship, and many of them endure a lot of time and justify what they are doing, even though nothing has really changed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am most interested in is this aspect of point 3: that, even if there isn't a real difference, people will think there is, just because they endured the hardship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a) A promise that some phone/shoe/whatever is much better than the alternative, but it is overpriced. People who bought it (endured the hardship) will find a justification for it at any cost (even if there isn't one).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b) A promise to achieve a peaceful state of mind through daily meditation for a long period of time. People who are committed to meditating will find any small improvement in life as if it was related to that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a psychological term for this &quot;phenomenon&quot;/behavior? Has it been studied (I'm sure it might have been)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This may be related to consistency theory, but I'm not sure about that. Any indications of articles about it would be welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15937" LastActivityDate="2017-05-17T13:35:33.147" Title="Is there a psychological term for enduring hardship to achieve a promised state?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;commitment&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17324" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1398" CreationDate="2017-05-17T15:55:45.623" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this question are mixed different topics that are not very well categorized, to find documents or specific tests is better to adapt certain topics, is not usually talk of cooperative versus competitive activities, but individual versus group activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In research on the judgment or solution of group problems, the hypothesis is implicit that the interaction brings to the product of the group something other than the mere combination of the individual products (Shaw in the book of 1981, Group dynamics, about individual learning and group learning). Look for high performance groups. In social psychology an enormous amount of variables have been studied, many of it in relation to learning and personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In relation to the field of AI:&#xA;Different programs could establish contact, store, learn and put into practice different ways of solving the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interesting books:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ferber, J. Multi-Agent System: An Introduction to Distributed Artificial Intelligence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grace, D. and Zhang, H. Cognitive Communications, Distributed Artificial Inteligence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-05-18T06:41:07.357" LastActivityDate="2017-05-18T06:41:07.357" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17325" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1977" CreationDate="2017-05-17T16:56:12.660" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came across this question whilst researching CBT for a course I am studying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I will cover in the long answer, there has been a lot of articles stating that CBT is very effective, and there are articles which have stated that it is not as effective as has been claimed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;CBT is not a single model of therapy, applicable to all clients in all situations.  This has been one of the criticisms levelled at CBT, that its 'one size fits all' approach to the complex nature of human problems will, inevitably, fail to meet the needs of many, or (at best), simply focus on symptom reduction. (Reeves, 2013)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a fair few factors which can prevent CBT from becoming effective, and a trained and certified CBT practitioner will be able to assess the suitability of CBT.  If they operate ethically, they will not go ahead with providing CBT to someone who it would not benefit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the biggest factors which doesn't allow CBT to work is that if the client is not willing &lt;strong&gt;or able&lt;/strong&gt; to challenge their thoughts and behaviours, then CBT will not be effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the long answer, which will help to explain &lt;strong&gt;some&lt;/strong&gt; of the reasons why CBT may not work with some people, I will be using a lot of the work I put into an essay I had to write for my psychotherapy course which covered Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/integrative-therapy.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;integrative approaches to therapy&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CBT is an integrative model of approach and we had to look at how an integrative approach may be used to support the client within a case study provided.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Case study provided&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hassan has been referred to you for work-related stress and anxiety.  He has a management position and is finding it difficult to cope.  At present the information you have is that he is a 42 years old Muslim man, married with 2 children.  He has lived in the UK since the age of 5 when his parents travelled here.  His father died two years later and Hassan, as the eldest son, has felt responsible for the wellbeing of his mother and sisters as well as his own family.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your referral is through an employee assistance scheme.  Hassan’s assessment shows high level of anxiety without depression.  He is otherwise fit and healthy.  You may offer him six sessions with a further six sessions if appropriate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An article (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1071164&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dhami &amp;amp; Sheikh, 2000&lt;/a&gt;) adapted from a chapter in &lt;em&gt;Caring for Muslim Patients&lt;/em&gt;, published by Radcliffe Medical Press, Oxford, England; provides key insights needed to allow Muslim clients' concerns to be adequately heard.  The vignettes section of the article gives a few sayings of Muhammad regarding relationships with parents and one of them points out that you should “strive to serve them”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the client has had the opportunity to fully integrate with the western culture they are living in, they may be more open to challenging their thoughts and beliefs, however we need to be mindful that as therapists, just like we are not here to judge, for an example, on sexuality (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pinktherapyblog.com/2016/02/17/why-i-am-resigning-from-the-british-association-for-counselling-and-psychotherapy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pink Therapy, 2016&lt;/a&gt;) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Memorandum-of-understanding-on-conversion-therapy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UKCP, 2015&lt;/a&gt;), we are not in a position to judge whether a cultural or religious belief is right or wrong, especially when we are not priests, vicars, rabbis, imams or the like.  Not only that, if the client is devout in their religious beliefs, then we are not going to change those beliefs very easily, if at all. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://churchandstate.org.uk/2015/10/the-problem-with-faith-11-ways-religion-is-destroying-humanity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Babilonia, 2015&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only time when we can intervene in any religious or cultural beliefs is when it is believed that laws may be broken such as the FGM Act (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mandatory-reporting-of-female-genital-mutilation-procedural-information&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Home Office, 2016&lt;/a&gt;) (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/d_to_g/female_genital_mutilation/#a02&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Crown Prosecution Service, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;), in which case, we would refer the legal case to the necessary authorities and it would be down to the legal profession and not the therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Strengths and Limitations of integrative approaches to counselling&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Strengths&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Integrative counselling and psychotherapy can be seen as one of the most effective approaches within counselling. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/counsellor-articles/integrative-psychotherapy-is-the-best-approach&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Counselling Directory, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)  The idea behind the integrative approach is that no single approach suits every client and therefore you use different approaches and models of therapy to suit the situation and client.  The article within The Counselling Directory cited also states that integrative therapy has four different categories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;common factors&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;Looking at the common tools available in each approach that can be useful in the therapy.  Therapist/Client rapport, therapist qualities – &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditional_positive_regard&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive regard&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers#Incongruence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;congruence&lt;/a&gt; etc. – emotional release, and clarification etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;technical eclecticism&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;The therapist looks at and selects the best interventions by relying on experience and knowledge of what has worked in the past for others, through theories and research literature.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;theoretical integration&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;The combination of two approaches with a common philosophy.  The combined ideas are theoretically the same as each other.  For example, cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is part of the theoretical integration category, as it is a combination of behaviourism and behaviour therapy, and cognitive theories and their application in therapeutic settings (Reeves, 2013), plus, cognitive analytical therapy is also a theoretical integration of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive therapy.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;assimilative integration&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;The therapist primarily sticks to one therapeutic approach, for example Humanistic or psychodynamic, but the therapist will use strategies and models from other therapeutic approaches as well.  The combination of ideas will assimilate the pure form of the primary therapeutic approach.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Limitations&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The limitations of any integrative therapy depend on the category of integration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Theoretical integration&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One problem identified in theoretical integration is that it is difficult to integrate some theories; for example, it is difficult to integrate psychodynamic theory and behavioural theory.  The psychodynamic approach suggests that our early experiences from birth onwards and their impacts lead to our psychological problems, where behaviour theory sees problems as much more agreeable to change (Reeves, 2013).  These differences result in incompatibilities between these theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Assimilative integration&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this kind of integration, there is no balance compared to the other forms of integration.  Where the therapist is primarily psychodynamic or humanistic, for example, they will pick and choose ideas from other approaches which may not be put forward by their primary approach, but can work very effectively and contribute to the treatment or treatment plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Technical eclecticism&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This shares similarities and differences with assimilative integration, but it has no theoretical underpinning to the approach. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/counsellor-articles/integrative-psychotherapy-is-the-best-approach&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Counselling Directory, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As CBT is a theoretical integrative model, and it is difficult to integrate some theories, CBT cannot and does not incorporate any psychodynamic theories.  However, if you are going to work in a fully integrative manner, you need to bear in mind the theories within the psychodynamic approach too.  If therapy seems to need some psychodynamic interventions, then you may need to drop CBT sessions sometimes and concentrate on the psychodynamic interventions, maybe through Cognitive Analytical Therapy instead, before continuing with CBT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The basic concept of CBT&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) was developed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_T._Beck&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aaron Temkin Beck&lt;/a&gt;, and as mentioned before, CBT is a combination of behaviourism and behaviour therapy, and cognitive theories and their application in therapeutic settings (Reeves, 2013).  CBT helps to change how you think, hence the word &lt;em&gt;Cognitive&lt;/em&gt;, and what you do, hence the word &lt;em&gt;Behaviour&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A difficult life situation, relationship or practical problem can lead to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Altered thinking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Altered emotions and feelings&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Altered behaviour&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Altered physical feelings or symptoms&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Things can happen the other way too.  Any of the above alterations can lead to a difficult life situation, relationship or practical problem (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/healthadvice/treatmentswellbeing/cbt/5areas.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Royal College of Psychiatrists, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CBT works by trying to get the client to think about a situation in a more helpful way in order to move forward using more helpful behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The basic concept of REBT&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) has generally been put under the same umbrella as CBT, however although it has similarities, REBT is different.  Where CBT was developed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_T._Beck&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aaron Beck&lt;/a&gt;, REBT was developed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ellis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Albert Ellis&lt;/a&gt; when he started to lose faith in the type of psychoanalysis he was using.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;REBT is a practical and action-led model of therapy and personal growth.  It doesn’t just focus on the client’s behaviours, but also allows the client to understand the behaviours of others and provide techniques that will help to solve future problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although REBT looks primarily at our current beliefs and behaviours, it also looks at the cause and effect of past experiences and beliefs which create our present beliefs and behaviours.  It does this whilst aiming to change irrational beliefs into rational ones quickly rather than slowly, however, one key point to note is that the therapist does not impose rational beliefs on the client, but accepts there are non-rational beliefs that may help people achieve happiness.  That way, the therapist is accepting the client’s value system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;REBT, uses an A-B-C-D-E formula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A&lt;/strong&gt;ctivating Experience&lt;br&gt;Also referred to by some as the Initial Sensitising Event (ISE), this is the root cause of our unhappiness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt;eliefs&lt;br&gt;Irrational self-defeating beliefs that are the source of our unhappiness, or come about as a result of the ISE&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt;onsequences&lt;br&gt;The neurotic symptoms and negative feelings and emotions that result from the ISE and/or Beliefs&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;D&lt;/strong&gt;ispute&lt;br&gt;We must dispute and challenge these irrational beliefs in order for the client to enjoy a balanced outlook in life&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;E&lt;/strong&gt;ffects&lt;br&gt;The client must learn to enjoy the effects of the new rational beliefs and get used to the changes, letting them become the new norm.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The shortfalls of CBT&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned before, One of the ideas put forward about CBT is that it is a suitable form of therapy for all human problems.  This idea can be damaging in some respects, as CBT is not suitable for all psychological conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, whilst researching the overall efficacy of CBT, I came across a few items of note.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Carl Rogers emphasised the quality of the therapeutic relationship as a necessary and sufficient condition for successful therapy (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.shoreline.edu/dchris/psych236/Documents/Rogers.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rogers, 1957&lt;/a&gt;) whereas CBT therapists tend to see the alliance as more instrumental in ensuring the patient’s adherence to the treatment protocol (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.481&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunn, et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329171500032X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goldsmith, et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Countess of Mar in the House of Lords suggested the results of a trial into the effectiveness of CBT and GET (graded exercise therapy) had been artificially inflated (BACP, 2013)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An international team of researchers (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20346&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cuijpers, et al., 2016&lt;/a&gt;) concludes that&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;…CBT is ‘probably effective’ with major depression, general anxiety disorder, panic disorder and social anxiety disorder, but not as effective as has been claimed, due to publication bias, poor quality of studies, and the use of waiting list control groups as a comparator. (BACP, 2016)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;CBT is as much based on the development of a therapeutic alliance as it is in a psychodynamic and humanistic approach.  The success of therapy will be, at least partly, informed by the nature of the therapeutic process, and not simply the application of particular theoretical ideas, as some suggest (Reeves, 2013)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Recent literature provides fairly strong evidence that CBT in addition to antipsychotic medication is effective in the management of acute as well as chronic schizophrenia (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00001504-200503000-00009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rathod &amp;amp; Turkington, 2005&lt;/a&gt;).  However, I would stress that CBT was not used alone in any of these studies from what I have seen.  It was used carefully in conjunction with psychiatric help and antipsychotic medication.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An alternative to CBT called Metacognitive Therapy (MCT) has been touted to be better than CBT. But it was developed by Manchester University (&lt;a href=&quot;https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-05-therapy-effective-cognitive-behavioral-depression.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Addelman, 2020&lt;/a&gt;) and studied by Manchester University (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02621&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wells, 2019&lt;/a&gt;) so more independent studies are needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Either way, if the client is not able or willing to challenge their thoughts and behaviours, then CBT will not be effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Addelman, M. (2020). &lt;em&gt;New therapy more effective than cognitive behavioral therapy for depression.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-05-therapy-effective-cognitive-behavioral-depression.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-05-therapy-effective-cognitive-behavioral-depression.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Babilonia, S. (2015). &lt;em&gt;Challenging religious privilege in public life&lt;/em&gt;.&#xA;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://churchandstate.org.uk/2015/10/the-problem-with-faith-11-ways-religion-is-destroying-humanity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://churchandstate.org.uk/2015/10/the-problem-with-faith-11-ways-religion-is-destroying-humanity/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BACP. (2013). Policy. &lt;em&gt;Therapy Today, 24&lt;/em&gt;(2), p. 52.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BACP. (2016). News. &lt;em&gt;Therapy Today, 27&lt;/em&gt;(8), p. 6.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crown Prosecution Service. (n.d). &lt;em&gt;Female Genital Mutilation Legal Guidance.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/d_to_g/female_genital_mutilation/#a02&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/d_to_g/female_genital_mutilation/#a02&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cuijpers, P. et al. (2016). How effective are cognitive behavior therapies for major depression and anxiety disorders? A meta-analytic update of the evidence. &lt;em&gt;World Psychiatry, 15&lt;/em&gt;(3), pp. 245-258. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20346&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20346&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dhami, S. &amp;amp; Sheikh, A. (2000). The Muslim family: predciament and promise. &lt;em&gt;The Western Journal of Medicine, 173&lt;/em&gt;(5), pp. 352-356. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1071164&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1071164&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dunn, H., Morrison, A. P. &amp;amp; Bentall, R. P.  (2006). The relationship between patient suitability, therapeutic alliance, homework compliance and outcome in cognitive therapy for psychosis. Clinical &lt;em&gt;Psychology &amp;amp; Psychotherapy, 13&lt;/em&gt;(3), pp. 145-152. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.481&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.481&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goldsmith, L. P., Lewis, S. W., Dunn, G. &amp;amp; Bentall, R. P. (2015). Psychological treatments for early psychosis can be beneficial or harmful, depending on the therapeutic alliance: an instrumental variable analysis. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Medicine, 45&lt;/em&gt;(11), pp. 2365-2373. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329171500032X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329171500032X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Home Office. (2016). &lt;em&gt;Mandatory reporting of female genital mutilation: procedural information.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mandatory-reporting-of-female-genital-mutilation-procedural-information&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mandatory-reporting-of-female-genital-mutilation-procedural-information&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pink Therapy. (2016). &lt;em&gt;Why I am resigning from the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pinktherapyblog.com/2016/02/17/why-i-am-resigning-from-the-british-association-for-counselling-and-psychotherapy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pinktherapyblog.com/2016/02/17/why-i-am-resigning-from-the-british-association-for-counselling-and-psychotherapy/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rathod, S. &amp;amp; Turkington, D. (2005). Cognitive behaviour therapy for schizophrenia: a review. &lt;em&gt;Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 18&lt;/em&gt;(2), pp. 159-163. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00001504-200503000-00009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/00001504-200503000-00009&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reeves, A. (2013). &lt;em&gt;An Introduction to Counselling and Psychotherapy: From Theory to Practice&lt;/em&gt;. London: SAGE Publications Ltd..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rogers, C. (1957). &lt;em&gt;The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Therapeutic Personality Change.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.shoreline.edu/dchris/psych236/Documents/Rogers.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.shoreline.edu/dchris/psych236/Documents/Rogers.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Royal College of Psychiatrists. (n.d.) &lt;em&gt;5 Areas Assessment.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/healthadvice/treatmentswellbeing/cbt/5areas.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/healthadvice/treatmentswellbeing/cbt/5areas.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Counselling Directory. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Integrative Psychotherapy as an Effective Form of Counselling.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/counsellor-articles/integrative-psychotherapy-is-the-best-approach&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/counsellor-articles/integrative-psychotherapy-is-the-best-approach&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UKCP. (2015). &lt;em&gt;Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on Conversion Therapy in the UK.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Memorandum-of-understanding-on-conversion-therapy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Memorandum-of-understanding-on-conversion-therapy.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wells A (2019) Breaking the Cybernetic Code: Understanding and Treating the Human Metacognitive Control System to Enhance Mental Health. &lt;em&gt;Frontiers in Psychology, 10&lt;/em&gt;(2621). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02621&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02621&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-05-14T08:47:26.303" LastActivityDate="2020-05-14T08:47:26.303" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17326" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16047" CreationDate="2017-05-17T17:22:57.820" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The National Sleep Foundation in the US, &lt;a href=&quot;https://sleepfoundation.org/how-sleep-works/how-much-sleep-do-we-really-need&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;released the results&lt;/a&gt; of a world-class study that took more than two years of research to complete – an update to our most-cited guidelines on how much sleep you really need at each age. You can read the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sleephealthjournal.org/article/S2352-7218(15)00015-7/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;research paper&lt;/a&gt; published in &lt;em&gt;Sleep Health&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, the required amount of sleep varies from person to person and the recommended amounts are different depending on the age of the person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kwV7N.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kwV7N.png&quot; alt=&quot;Recommended sleep times chart&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hirshkowitz, M. et al. (2015) National Sleep Foundation’s sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary. &lt;em&gt;Sleep Health&lt;/em&gt;, 1, pp. 40-43&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-05-17T17:22:57.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17328" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17295" CreationDate="2017-05-17T20:50:24.743" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there is almost certainly a genetic overlap between schizophrenia and OCD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quantifying the overlap in variation requires genotyping a large number of individuals, and a lot of this cross-disorder work is done by consortia. The Cross-Disorder Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium estimated the genetic correlation due to common polymorphisms between ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity), BPD (bipolar), SCZ (schizophrenia), MDD (major depression), and ASD (autism spectrum) (Wray, N.R. et al. 2013). Their key findings may interest you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The genetic correlation calculated using common SNPs was high between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (0.68 ± 0.04 s.e.), moderate between schizophrenia and major depressive disorder (0.43 ± 0.06 s.e.), bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder (0.47 ± 0.06 s.e.), and ADHD and major depressive disorder (0.32 ± 0.07 s.e.), low between schizophrenia and ASD (0.16 ± 0.06 s.e.) and non-significant for other pairs of disorders as well as between psychiatric disorders and the negative control of Crohn's disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But OCD wasn't on their list, likely because not as many cases have been genotyped for OCD as for the five disorders listed. A review in Science from 2015 shows the number of cases involved in the largest genome-wide association study for each of 13 classes of psychiatric disorder at that time, including OCD, for which 1,889 subjects had been genotyped (Geschwind, D. H. &amp;amp; Flint, J., 2015). Most likely, as the sample size of OCD cases increases, OCD will be incorporated into the PGC's cross-disorder studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A recent study used the PGC SCZ data plus data collected from 370 Spanish OCD cases to estimate the shared polygenic risk between the two disorders. They claim that SCZ polygenic risk from the PGC data explains 3.7% of the phenotypic variance in their OCD data, which represents an overlap in the genetics (Costas, J., et al., 2016).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study's results likely underestimate the true genetic correlation between the disorders for two reasons: 1) the sample sizes to date for OCD have been too small to identify genome-wide significant GWAS hits, so our understanding of OCD genetics still has quite a way to go, and 2) this study focused on exonic regions, while most of the polygenic risk for psychiatric disease is not found in exons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Costas, J., Carrera, N., Alonso, P., Gurriarán, X., Segalàs, C., Real, E., López-Solà, C., Mas, S., Gassó, P., Domènech, L., Morell, M., Quintela, I., Lázaro, L., Menchón, J. M., Estivill, X. &amp;amp; Carracedo, Á., 2016. Exon-focused genome-wide association study of obsessive-compulsive disorder and shared polygenic risk with schizophrenia. &lt;em&gt;Translational Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 6(768).&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/tp.2016.34&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/tp.2016.34&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Geschwind, Daniel H. &amp;amp; Flint J., 2015. Genetics and genomics of psychiatric disease. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; 349(6255), pp. 1489-1494.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa8954&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1126/science.aaa8954&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wray, Naomi R. and The Cross-Disorder Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium, 2013. Genetic relationship between five psychiatric disorders estimated from genome-wide SNPs. &lt;em&gt;Nature Genetics&lt;/em&gt; 45, pp. 984–994&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ng.2711&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/ng.2711&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15918" LastEditorUserId="15918" LastEditDate="2017-05-18T18:24:05.027" LastActivityDate="2017-05-18T18:24:05.027" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17329" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17317" CreationDate="2017-05-17T21:34:17.053" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Even though &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/11318/robin-kramer&quot;&gt;@RobinKramer&lt;/a&gt; did some work to remove some opinion from the question, there are still some opinions in the question which to me cannot be backed up with hard facts.  However, the question has enough in it to answer your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/6983/aliced&quot;&gt;@AliceD&lt;/a&gt;'s excellent answer in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/17250/why-do-some-people-refuse-to-wear-their-seat-belt-while-being-aware-of-the-risks&quot;&gt;possible duplicate question&lt;/a&gt; indicated by &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/11318/robin-kramer&quot;&gt;@RobinKramer&lt;/a&gt;, there is a theory followed in Sociology and Psychology which may be what you are looking for.  That is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_exchange_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social Exchange Theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the theory is generally referred to when talking about social interactions in relationships, it can also be related to the situations you are referring to.  The key point you mentioned is the thought that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The reasoning often goes something like this: that's ok, no one's there, and it's really stupid not to take the &quot;opportunity&quot; (for saving little time, money, effort), I will do no harm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Social Exchange Theory&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic idea is that the social exchange process brings satisfaction when people receive fair returns for their expenditures. The major difference between social and economic exchange is the nature of the exchange between parties.  The social exchange perspective argues that people calculate the overall worth of a particular relationship by subtracting its costs from the rewards it provides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rewards – Costs = Worth&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the costs in the situation you are talking about is bigger than the benefits (Rewards), for example, if there is a &lt;strong&gt;perceived&lt;/strong&gt; high chance that law enforcement will stop you and delay the journey (costs) this can be bigger than the rewards (a quicker journey by taking a short-cut through a restricted area), so the worth could then have a negative value leading to the choice of not taking the short-cut.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social Exchange Theory was introduced in 1958 by the sociologist &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_C._Homans&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;George Homans&lt;/a&gt; with the publication of his work &quot;Social Behavior as Exchange&quot; (Cook &amp;amp; Rice, 2001).  Homans summarised the theory in 5 propositions (University of Amsterdam, n.d.):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The 1st Proposition - Success proposition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;When an individual is rewarded for their actions, they tend to repeat the action;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The 2nd Proposition - Stimulus proposition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;The more often a particular behaviour has resulted in a reward in the past, the more likely it is that a person will respond to it (possibly with reward); and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The 3rd Proposition - Value proposition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;If the expected result of a behavioural action is considered valuable to the individual, it is more likely for that behaviour to occur&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The 4th Proposition - Deprivation–satiation proposition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;The more often in the recent past a person has received the same reward, the less valuable any further unit of that reward becomes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The 5th Proposition – Aggression-approval proposition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;When the rewards of a social exchange are not as expected, a person will react emotionally, usually in an angry or aggravated manner. Those who receive more than they expect or do not receive anticipated punishment will be happy and will behave approvingly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;How to combat the problem using Social Exchange Theory&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To tackle the problem using Social Exchange Theory, there needs to be an increase in the costs in order to out-weigh the benefits leading to a lower worth of carrying out the undesired action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cook, K. S. &amp;amp; Rice, E. R. W., 2001. Chapter 31: Exchange and Power - Issues of Structure and Agency. In: J. H. Turner, ed. Handbook of Sociological Theory. New York City: Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media, LLC, pp. 699-719.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;University of Amsterdam, n.d. SocioSite: George C. Homans - General Propositions. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sociosite.net/topics/texts/homans.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sociosite.net/topics/texts/homans.php&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 4 August 2016].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-05-17T21:34:17.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17332" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17288" CreationDate="2017-05-17T23:07:30.953" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This answer speaks mostly to the relationship between personality characteristics/disorders and divorce.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire, it seems that Positive Emotionality and Negative Emotionality were positively related to divorce risk, while Constraint was negatively related (Jockin, Mcgue, &amp;amp; Lykken, 1996). Note that this study also looks at genetic factors, and finds that “In women and men, respectively, 30% and 42% of the heritability of divorce risk consisted of genetic factors affecting personality, and personality and divorce risk correlated largely as a result of these common genetic influences.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a bit of a different perspective, other studies have assessed the relationship between divorce and personality disorders:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Multiple regression analyses showed Paranoid and Histrionic personality disorder symptoms to be consistently and positively associated with number of divorces across all three sources of personality assessment. Conversely, Avoidant personality disorder symptoms were negatively associated with number of divorces (Disney, Weinstein, &amp;amp; Oltmanns, 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll note that the Jockin, Mcgue, and Lykken study is rather old (contextually), and that the relationships that were clear 20 years ago may be different today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, though not related specifically to divorce, there is a nice article out there that attempts to illustrated differences in personalities for those looking for short-term vs. long-term relationships (Holtzman &amp;amp; Strube, 2013). This article specifically addresses an &quot;array of personality traits (Big 5, Dark Triad, and Schizoid Personality)&quot;. A bit tangentially related, but perhaps of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Disney, K. L., Weinstein, Y., &amp;amp; Oltmanns, T. F. (2012). Personality Disorder Symptoms Are Differentially Related to Divorce Frequency. Journal of Family Psychology, 26(6), 959–965. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030446&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030446&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Holtzman, N. S., &amp;amp; Strube, M. J. (2013). Above and Beyond Short-Term Mating, Long-Term Mating is Uniquely Tied to Human Personality. Evolutionary Psychology, 11(5), 1101–1129. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491301100514&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491301100514&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jockin, V., Mcgue, M., &amp;amp; Lykken, D. T. (1996). Personality and Divorce: A Genetic Analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7(2), 288–299. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.288&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.288&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-06-05T20:44:34.710" LastActivityDate="2017-06-05T20:44:34.710" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17334" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-18T11:09:43.623" Score="1" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name of the phenomenon where a person abandons simplifying a complex system upon understanding the system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I provide examples of complex systems, so as not to get hung up on a specific domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example 1&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A new member of a software development team has to work with legacy, seemingly complicated code. Said person feels the need to simplify the code, and upon doing so, familiarises him/herself with the code. This is usually the point at which the new team member abandons the refactoring/rewrite. She thinks &quot;OK, I understand it now. I can carry on with the actual task I set out to do&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Future new members of the software development team will now lose the benefit of this simplification, and will go through the same (arguably wasteful) learning process themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason for the simplification could still be entirely valid (e.g. in a software context again: using domain types instead of primitive types;  to communicate intent more clearly).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example 2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An electrician who has never been to a particular house is tasked with installing a three-way switch on the staircase. Said electrician sees the wiring and feels the need to rip it all out and start again. He/she starts making mental notes of the wires, their colours, which trip switches the wires are connected to, etc. After a while, the electrician understands the wiring, abandons the plan to rewire the entire house, and now simply installs the three-way switch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Future electricians who visit the house will lose the benefit of the rewire (simplification) and will go through the same familiarisation process themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="256" LastEditorUserId="256" LastEditDate="2017-05-19T10:15:50.280" LastActivityDate="2017-05-19T10:15:50.280" Title="What is the name of the phenomenon where a person abandons simplifying a complex system upon understanding the system?" Tags="&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17335" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-18T14:08:51.070" Score="3" ViewCount="1830" Body="&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;https://backyardbrains.com/experiments/referencing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;site&lt;/a&gt; gives basics of how to place electrodes for action potential recording. What I understand is that in order to get better signal, the reference electrode must be placed where there is minimum electrical activity. So, does that mean we can leave it hanging in the air, or attach it to a wooden surface?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15947" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-18T21:02:34.837" LastActivityDate="2017-05-20T20:51:22.073" Title="Where should I place a reference electrode?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17336" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17317" CreationDate="2017-05-18T20:29:06.963" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Hindu-Buddhist Philosophy ,the world (real and imaginary) ,contains pairs of opposite systems (mirror images). &lt;strong&gt;The opposites exist in some type of a dynamic equilibrium&lt;/strong&gt; . Occasionally ,they may annihilate each other .Matter-antimatter pairs  ,positive-negative charge pairs ,hot desert-cold desert pairs are examples.&lt;br/&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Desire to live and desire to die --also form a pair of opposites&lt;/strong&gt; . These ideas co-exist in a society--also in every individual .Some people are motivated by the desire to live more strongly than the desire to die  ,where as some people are motivated by the desire to die more strongly than the desire to die.&lt;em&gt;Ordinary people (th common man , good citizens ) belong to the first group .Adventurers ,explorers ,soldiers , criminals ,high risk game players etc , belong to the second group&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;em&gt;Circumstances decide , whether an individual behaves like a criminal or a good citizen&lt;/em&gt;...Chengiz Khan and Hitler believed that human bengs are essentially criminals , but behave like good citizens under fer of punishment ...Jesus Christ and Gandhi , on the other hand , believed that human beings are essentially good citizens , but behave like criminals when the society does not satisfy their needs and ill treats them .&lt;br/&gt; &lt;em&gt;But human needs are Infinite ,and so it is not possible for the society to satisfy all the needs of any person&lt;/em&gt; .This gives any individual a justification to behave like a criminal ..An intelligent person might understand the limitation of the society , be satisfied with whatever he gets from the society and work towards the improvement of the society .&lt;br/&gt; Whether an individual decides to behave like a law breaking criminal ,or a law abiding good citizen , depends on his level of education and general intelligence .&lt;em&gt;You may read a biography of Swami Vivekananda to start with&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14904" LastActivityDate="2017-05-18T20:29:06.963" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17337" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17335" CreationDate="2017-05-18T20:33:17.603" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In general, a reference electrode should be placed in a well-conducting medium close, or some distance away from the recording electrode.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The idea of a reference electrode is that it picks up any &lt;em&gt;unwanted signals&lt;/em&gt;, such as artifacts, that are also present on the recording electrode. Background noise and artifacts can ruin the electrophysiological signal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As your &lt;a href=&quot;https://backyardbrains.com/experiments/referencing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;linked web page&lt;/a&gt; explains nicely, a well-placed reference electrode can mitigate noise and artifacts. In the linked page they take the example of recording motoneurons in muscle. If you would place the active electrode in the nerve close to the muscle, and the reference electrode away from the nerve but still close to the muscle, any artifacts arising from, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, muscle activity are picked up by the active and reference electrodes simultaneously. The closer the reference electrode is to the recording electrode, the larger the similarity of the artifact will be and the lesser the contamination. This effect can be achieved using a differential amplifier. The subtraction of the reference signal is referred to as common-mode rejection &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17706788&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kappenman &amp;amp; Luck, 2011&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The terminology encountered is often referred to as &lt;strong&gt;monopolar&lt;/strong&gt; recording and &lt;strong&gt;bipolar&lt;/strong&gt; recording setups (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17706788&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beck et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;). Monopolar recordings use a distant reference electrode. This setup comes in handy when the potentials of interest are small and the preparation is devoid of artifacts. Because the distant reference electrode will almost pick up none of the signal, the signal is nicely preserved. However, any local artifacts will not be cancelled out. In case of artifacts and background noise, a bipolar setup is preferred by placing the reference close to the recording electrode. The signal amplitude may drop, but the added benefit of noise cancellation may outweigh that loss. Basically it is a trade-off to optimize the &lt;strong&gt;signal-to-noise ratio&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An electrophysiology amplifier records potentials (or currents). This requires a closed system that allows the passage of current through the system (Fig. 1). Large impedances will result in current flow to be minimal and hence the potentials cannot be picked up anymore. As a rule of thumb, in case of EEG recordings and other compound-action potential recordings as in your linked page, low-impedance measurements are best. Therefore, placing the reference on a high-impedance surface as suggested in the question (suspended in air or fastened to an insulator like wood) is the worst thing you can do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PALkX.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PALkX.png&quot; alt=&quot;electrodes amplifier&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Diagram of an electrophysiological recording setup. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.intechopen.com/books/computational-intelligence-in-electromyography-analysis-a-perspective-on-current-applications-and-future-challenges/signal-acquisition-using-surface-emg-and-circuit-design-considerations-for-robotic-prosthesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;InTech&lt;/a&gt;. Note that the reference electrode here is called a reference electrode. The terminology on your &lt;a href=&quot;https://backyardbrains.com/experiments/referencing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;linked web page&lt;/a&gt; is likewise confusing as they call the reference electrode the ground electrode. A ground electrode is,&#xA; however, different from the reference electrode, as the ground electrode is used to reduce outside influences on your signal, like the 50-Hz mains power or other electrical field emanating from equipment and so forth.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, for the most optimal recordings, impedances should be matched between active and reference electrode &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17706788&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kappenman &amp;amp; Luck, 2011&lt;/a&gt;). When there is a large mismatch between them, common-mode rejection works less effectively and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) will decrease. Therefore, placing the active electrode in tissue (low impedance) and the other one in a high-impedance medium will result in the common-mode rejection to fail. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2902592/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beck &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci Methods&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;166&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 159-67&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17706788&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kappenman &amp;amp; Luck, &lt;em&gt;Psychophysiology&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;47&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 888–904&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-20T20:51:22.073" LastActivityDate="2017-05-20T20:51:22.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17338" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17340" CreationDate="2017-05-18T23:04:37.190" Score="3" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a math student and I find that coming up with original ideas and being creative is very important in the field. I love math and I'm also a voracious reader and I like to learn about many things including physics, philosophy, history, music, etc. but math is on the top. So I like to think about these areas, however, sometimes I get this worry that because I'm investing my thinking into something other than math that my creative abilities will &quot;run-out&quot; and I won't be able to contribute creative ideas in math . Is there any validity to this idea?&#xA;I know my question sounds weird, but it's been bugging me especially that I'm not aware of any research regarding this.&#xA;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15950" LastActivityDate="2017-05-21T21:59:19.933" Title="Does creativity decrease when invested in multiple areas?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17339" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-19T04:19:35.410" Score="4" ViewCount="374" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let us say that one consistently goes to sleep at the same time every day, and sets an alarm for the same duration of sleep 7 hours and 45 minutes (e.g., 10:45pm to 6:30am). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One day, they get caught up in something, and are 30 minutes late to &quot;bedtime.&quot; Is it better to wait 45-60 minutes to wake up at the same time (at the end of a cycle), refreshed, and not in the middle of a cycle, groggy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know there are some odd assumptions here, but if you could please either help edit or have better questions (or advice) to strike more at the heart of the matter--please do so. I think the largest assumption is the roughly 90 minutes sleep phase cycles at the end at least:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6r2xW.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6r2xW.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4116" LastEditorUserId="4116" LastEditDate="2018-08-23T19:59:15.343" LastActivityDate="2018-10-24T15:21:06.323" Title="For an average adult, in general, if one knows they will wake up in the middle of a cycle--is it better to go to bed later?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17338" CreationDate="2017-05-19T06:12:42.273" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two sources of creativity, the within-domain analogies and the between-domain analogies. Within-domain analogies are less original but more easy to apply and use. Between-domain analogies are far more original but usually need a lot of work to apply them in the target domain. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.cy/books?id=hCDXxeC6Qi8C&amp;amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;amp;dq=tools%20for%20innovation%20book&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjd0O6QmvvTAhWCJMAKHaK5DBIQ6AEIHzAA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=tools%20for%20innovation%20book&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;see this book for more info&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Within-domain analogies&lt;/strong&gt; may be quite effective in making the resulting design solutions more useful, since the sources may be&#xA;industry standards that are effective and tested. But the resulting&#xA;solutions are less original.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Between-domain analogy&lt;/strong&gt;. Random between-domain cues have a positive&#xA;affect on originality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the community of innovation &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-shaped_skills&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;T-shaped persons&lt;/a&gt; are highly valued. These individuals are very specialized in one area (the vertical line of T) and also have a broad but shallow knowledge of many other disciplines (the horizontal line of T).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The vertical bar on the T represents the depth of related skills and&#xA;expertise in a single field, whereas the horizontal bar is the ability&#xA;to collaborate across disciplines with experts in other areas and to&#xA;apply knowledge in areas of expertise other than one's own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will not &amp;quot;run-out&amp;quot; of creativity, it is simply a matter of resource allocation. You should spend most of your time at your specialized field, but at the same time you must allocate a significant proportion of your time in other fields like physics, philosophy, history, music, engineering, biology or even to more diverse domains like fishing, sports etc. This way you will create a T-shape knowledge which according to the above references, will make you more creative and more usefull.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-05-19T06:12:42.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17342" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17334" CreationDate="2017-05-19T07:51:56.897" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon may be explained like this :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The programmer was given the task to fix a bug on a complicated legacy code he does not understand.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The programmer forms a subgoal &quot;Refactor the code&quot;, in order to achieve the above goal.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In the process of achieveing the subgoal &quot;Refactor the code&quot;, he understands what needs to be done to fix the bug. So the refactoring is not a useful goal any more and it is abandoned.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So we have a primary goal of fixing the bug and a secondary goal, formed to serve the primary goal, to refactor the code. When the primary goal is achieved the secondary is no longer relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To promote refactoring you must take actions so that the secondary goal of refactoring becomes also a primary goal, concurrently with other tasks like fixing a bug. For example you may give rewards to programmers that successfully refactor the code or you may change the culture of your team, so that refactoring is considered a social norm, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-05-19T07:51:56.897" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17343" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4406" CreationDate="2017-05-19T12:54:34.167" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is very difficult to offer a response in the sense proposed, different researchers may have very different views. &lt;strong&gt;One of the keys in these research is to have clear differences between:&lt;/strong&gt; attachment, attraction, sexual behavior, esthetics (philosophical theme), likes, interests, and very huge etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One can begin by reading Neil R. Carlson's chapter about reproductive behavior (Carlson, pp. 319-366) which addresses both hormonal and neural control of sexual behavior as well as maternal behavior from basic and general psychophysiological approaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-05-19T13:04:21.407" LastActivityDate="2017-05-19T13:04:21.407" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17344" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-19T13:01:32.603" Score="3" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you wear headphones for listening to music you hear the music inside your head. Even when you hold the two speakers at the same distance from your ears the music is still heard inside your head. If you hold one speaker further or lower from your head though, it seems the music is still playing inside your head (except when one instrument is heard only on one speaker of the headphones; then that particular sound is heard outside your head, at the place where the speaker is where that particular sound comes from), but in a different part of it, i.e. not in the center. So when are sounds heard &lt;strong&gt;inside&lt;/strong&gt; your head and others &lt;strong&gt;outside&lt;/strong&gt; (for example a knock on the door) yourself (your head)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's nice playing with this! Take two loudspeakers (with equal volume), and move them around your head. The sound will travel around, in mysterious ways, in your head, dependent on how you move the speakers. It leaves your head when both spekers are on one side of your head. Try it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="11444" LastEditDate="2020-01-11T09:34:09.053" LastActivityDate="2020-01-11T09:34:09.053" Title="Why do you hear music inside your head when wearing headphones, even when you hold the phones some distance from your head?" Tags="&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17345" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12291" CreationDate="2017-05-19T13:51:59.950" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To want, to feel, and to think, also known as conation, emotion, and cognition are the three basic categories that psychology is traditionally concerned with. The term &lt;em&gt;conation&lt;/em&gt; as far as I know is rather outdated (see Winch, 1909), whereas &lt;em&gt;motivation&lt;/em&gt; is the newer term for the &quot;drive to act&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As usual within psychology, the term &quot;conation&quot; is not used consistently. However, even when motivation and conation are given distinct meanings, the terms are still closely related to each other (e.g. Reitan &amp;amp; Wolfson, 2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To sum up, the concept of &lt;em&gt;(free) will&lt;/em&gt; is a subcategory of motivation/conation whereas sibling categories are interest or desire. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reitan, R. M., &amp;amp; Wolfson, D. (2000). Conation: A Neglected Aspect of Neuropsychological Functioning. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15(5), 443–453. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(99)00043-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(99)00043-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Winch, W. H. (1909). Conation and Mental Activity. II. The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, 6(19), 505–514. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/2012061&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.2307/2012061&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastActivityDate="2017-05-19T13:51:59.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17346" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16626" CreationDate="2017-05-19T15:02:56.373" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Premise:&lt;/strong&gt; I understand that the question is how to gauge (that is, to create a measure) or to assess &lt;em&gt;expertise&lt;/em&gt; in something. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Answer 1.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some criteria (very loosely translated from Hacker, 2005, pp. 381): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;issue-specific knowledge;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;general knowledge about the topic of expertise combined with problem-solving heuristics ranging across specific issues of this very topic;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;knowledge of ideal courses of action;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;conscious reflectiveness on the adequacy of task execution;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;metacognitive ability (e.g. internalized, automated execution involving also motivation, emotional intelligence etc.);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ability to solve new kinds of problems related to the topic of expertise. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Answer 2.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, there aren't any general numbers since it is not possible to define them without referring to both a specific topic of expertise and the predisposition of the person aiming to become an expert. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I am not aware of any research to support this claim empirically, I maintain that a logical argument can suffice: How long will it take the same individual to acquire expertise as a surgeon compared to acquiring expertise at peeling potatoes? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, the development of confidence over time is closely tied to both the frequency and the quality of feedbacks about ones' success at doing something in the real world (Hacker, 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; Unfortunately the cited work is written in German. A not as extensive English language replacement for it is Hacker (2003).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hacker, W. (2003). Action Regulation Theory: A practical tool for the design of modern work processes? European Journal of Work &amp;amp; Organizational Psychology, 12(2), 105. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320344000075&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320344000075&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hacker, W. (2005). Allgemeine Arbeitspsychologie: psychische Regulation von Wissens-, Denk- und körperlicher Arbeit. Bern: Huber.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastEditorDisplayName="user14074" LastEditDate="2017-05-19T18:59:56.283" LastActivityDate="2017-05-19T18:59:56.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17348" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5792" CreationDate="2017-05-19T15:21:42.997" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Simply &lt;code&gt;fslreorient2std&lt;/code&gt; will orient the images as you would expect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://fsl.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fsl/fslwiki/Orientation%20Explained&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://fsl.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fsl/fslwiki/Orientation%20Explained&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;fslreorient2std - this is a simple tool designed to reorient an image to match the orientation of the standard template images (MNI152) so that they appear &quot;the same way around&quot; in FSLView. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15954" LastEditorUserId="15954" LastEditDate="2017-05-20T13:43:20.390" LastActivityDate="2017-05-20T13:43:20.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17349" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-19T19:50:51.217" Score="3" ViewCount="235" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The V * I * E theory of motivation (Galbraith &amp;amp; Cummings, 1967; Vroom, 1964) posits that if either the value of a goal, its instrumentality or the expectancy to reach it is zero, then an individual will not be motivated to reach that goal (please correct me if I'm wrong). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Mandela&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nelson Mandela&lt;/a&gt; spent 27 years in jail because he was an anti-apartheid revolutionary. Apparently, he never gave up his mission. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the VIE theory of motivation, or newer developments of it, explain thoroughly why some people don't give up their goals even if they to live under adverse conditions for a very long period of time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;More details&lt;/em&gt;: One might argue that such a person didn't lose the goal but just didn't try to realize it as long as it wasn't possible. In other words: the value was kept upright but the expectancy was zero. On the other hand, if V, I or E is zero, then the motivation - the drive - is zero as well. It is unclear what kept upright the value in this case. What drives a person in such a situation to keep fighting and can that be explained by the VIE theory of motivation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Galbraith, J., &amp;amp; Cummings, L. L. (1967). An empirical investigation of the motivational determinants of task performance: Interactive effects between instrumentality—valence and motivation—ability. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 2(3), 237–257. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(67)90020-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(67)90020-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. Oxford,  England: Wiley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastActivityDate="2017-08-12T14:04:41.667" Title="Can the V * I * E theory of motivation explain the motivation of Nelson Mandela?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17350" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-20T14:16:17.163" Score="3" ViewCount="340" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is my understanding roughly correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Melatonin is 'generated' in the absence of specific wavelengths of light.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It accumulates and is only reduced by sleep, in particular REM sleep.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Melatonin and sleepiness have a causal relationship.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user7176" LastActivityDate="2017-05-23T17:01:38.883" Title="Understanding Melatonin" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17351" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17338" CreationDate="2017-05-20T21:57:51.900" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In order to be creative in some areas, you should be bothered by some problems. It is important to have relevant knowledge because creativity in math is not similar to creativity in art, where rules can be broken. Relevant knowledge is essential also because it offers tools. What is relevant is not always easy to identify. Asking related questions might also be good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important, however, to take breaks in dealing with the questions that bother you. It helps to lose the ties that tie you to specific ways of thinking.&#xA;Sleeping also contributes because it helps to lose existing ties and build new ties - some of them might be surprising. Dealing with other fields may or may not help directly, depending on how the deep structure of things might be transferred, but the breaks themselves are important, so in general, it is not a bad thing to spread on various different issues, as long as you find the time for the &quot;dry&quot; things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15962" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-05-21T21:59:19.933" LastActivityDate="2017-05-21T21:59:19.933" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17352" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-20T23:35:48.940" Score="5" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading &lt;a href=&quot;http://gershmanlab.webfactional.com/pubs/RL_causal.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reinforcement learning and causal models&lt;/a&gt; by Sam Gershman, which states that TD-learning provides an account of second-order conditioning that provides an explanation for the phenomenon occurred in trace learning (pg. 7, 3rd paragraph). The idea is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In trace conditioning, a reward is presented after some cue A with some relatively large time delay. If a second cue, B, is presented during this gap, this facilitates the learning of a conditional response to A. He says that this is because B receives a large positive value which generates a large positive prediction error at the offset of A. I do not see why this is true. If you look at TD-learning, the values of A and B should strictly be a function of their temporal distance from the reward, i.e. $$\gamma^{T-t} r_T$$, where $t$ is the current time and $T$ is the time of the reward. He goes on to say that this is related to how the prediction error is changed with the presence of B. Could somebody explain to me why having B increases the prediction error? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9128" LastActivityDate="2018-07-29T02:00:54.370" Title="How does TD-learning explain trace conditioning?" Tags="&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17353" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-21T00:38:21.767" Score="2" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I plan to measure affective states with bio-sensors. For the affective states I will use engagement, confusion, boredom and frustration. For the bio-sensors I will use ECG and skin conductance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will do a study with a couple of participants. I'm thinking about either a reading or math task (on a tablet) which the participants should perform. Of course the task should evoke these affective states. Each participant should work for 30-60min.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there some standard ways of designing such tasks (i.e. how to evoke the above affective states with reading or math tasks)? Or is there already a reading / math task available in the literature which was used for evoking these affective states?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8353" LastEditorUserId="25618" LastEditDate="2020-04-02T17:25:40.533" LastActivityDate="2020-04-02T17:25:40.533" Title="Reading / Math task for evoking affective states" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;ecg&gt;&lt;biofeedback&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17354" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-21T15:18:01.233" Score="2" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently looking for reliable scientific sources that might help me with rating emotions in video-material. Ideally a comprehensive list of facial-/postural expressions of primary and secondary emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15968" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-05-22T01:59:18.393" LastActivityDate="2017-05-22T01:59:18.393" Title="List of nonverbal expressions of primary and secondary emotions" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17355" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4585" CreationDate="2017-05-21T21:50:22.500" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Q: Does distraction cause us to skip to the next step in a motor plan?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A: It depends on the processes in progress, characteristics of the subject and characteristics of the signal to produce interference (based on an orientation reflex that is the beginning of an act of involuntary attention), many factors, mainly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Characteristics of the process involved in the distraction (mainly nature of the stimulus but also what relevance it has for the subject).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The nature of the processes that are being executed in the motor plan (automatic or controlled, these processes differ in practice, memory, difficulty, relectivity, required level of effort, etc.) (processes related to sports can be automated much from training).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Characteristics of the subject (different capacities of selective attention, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See: Shiffrin, R. M., &amp;amp; Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127-190.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-22T09:39:16.343" LastActivityDate="2017-05-22T09:39:16.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17356" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17936" CreationDate="2017-05-22T01:44:19.127" Score="4" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to analyze the electrocorticograms (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrocorticography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ECoG&lt;/a&gt;) of opening and closing the fist. I have the data of a glove to capture when the hand moves. I'm struggling with finding the best epoch or segment that represents the ECoG signals that are mostly related to opening and closing the fist. So, I'm wondering if there are works that already being done to calculate the latency between muscles response and the actual &quot;brain order&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9440" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-15T18:58:13.407" LastActivityDate="2017-08-15T19:06:48.273" Title="Latency between actual neurons firing and muscles response in open and close fist experiment" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;ecog&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17357" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-05-22T02:04:48.563" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-05-22T02:04:48.563" LastActivityDate="2017-05-22T02:04:48.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17358" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-05-22T02:04:48.563" Score="0" Body="Electrocorticography (ecog) or intracranial electroencephalography (iEEG) monitors neural activity by directly applying a grid of electrodes to a surgically exposed brain." OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-05-22T02:04:48.563" LastActivityDate="2017-05-22T02:04:48.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17359" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-22T04:15:06.773" Score="8" ViewCount="128" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came across this research article &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hindawi.com/journals/np/2013/653572/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Case Study of Ecstatic Meditation: fMRI and EEG Evidence of Self-Stimulating a Reward System&lt;/a&gt;&quot; about the brainwaves when a Yogi went into a meditative level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that we have 5 types of brainwaves:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gamma 40Hz~&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beta 14-40Hz&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alpha 7.5-14Hz&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theta 4-7.5Hz&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Delta 0.5-4Hz&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for Meditative Stages, we have 8 stages:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Material&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jhana 1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jhana 2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jhana 3&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jhana 4&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Immaterial&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jhana 5 / Arupa Jhana 1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jhana 6 / Arupa Jhana 2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jhana 7 / Arupa Jhana 3&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jhana 8 / Arupa Jhana 4&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TMNDD.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3SJ2I.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/U7yfO.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7hujs.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for what I've read on the paper, they could only start from Jhana 2 as &quot;Jhana 1 was not practiced because the associated head movements would induce excessive artifact&quot;. Until Jhana 5 as there is some problem with Jhana 6-8 because the &quot;fMRI recording then ended due to scanner memory limitations (421 volume maximum)&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can I transform each meditative states [time-series data] into brainwaves frequencies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15973" LastEditorUserId="21615" LastEditDate="2019-02-21T06:36:38.593" LastActivityDate="2019-02-22T05:49:34.690" Title="How to map EEG time-series and visualize meditative states frequencies?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17360" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-22T14:00:10.643" Score="0" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;Take 6 weeks at school or work and it'll feel like an eternity, If your out with your mates or on holiday, time flies! Why do we feel like this considering everyday contains 24 hours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15976" LastActivityDate="2017-05-23T08:02:47.037" Title="Why does the summer holiday go so quickly?" Tags="&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-05-24T06:33:45.500" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17361" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17363" CreationDate="2017-05-23T04:10:01.830" Score="5" ViewCount="2264" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently witnessed someone undergoing brain zaps and subsequent panic attacks after having stopped their SSRI medication and 48 hours partying with heavy boozing and no sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having reviewed the literature, I'm under the impression that they often occur in stress related situations or serotonin dysregulation (MDMA seems to trigger brain zaps), but I also read isolated people claiming they could voluntarily trigger brain zaps by &quot;tensing up&quot; and voluntary eye movements. These people said they could do that in a context devoid of any anxiety issues. Also a few marginal reports of brain zaps by heavy opiate, LSD, DXM and ketamin users, but who do not seem specific about details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm under the impression that brain zaps can be caused by anxiety, but also that they can trigger violent panic attacks (fight-or-flight response from the brain zaps), but again also that they reportedly occur in the absence of stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is known of what really happens at a cognitive, neural, or psychochemical level during brain zaps? What's the mechanisms? In the absence of hard science about it, what are the most plausible speculations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15890" LastEditorUserId="15890" LastEditDate="2017-05-23T09:31:02.600" LastActivityDate="2017-05-23T14:36:48.267" Title="How do brain zaps occur?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17362" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17360" CreationDate="2017-05-23T08:02:47.037" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Please check the answer to this question, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/5941/why-do-some-days-feel-fast-and-others-feel-slow?rq=1&quot;&gt;Why do some days feel fast and others feel slow?&lt;/a&gt;, think that is the answer you are looking for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15981" LastActivityDate="2017-05-23T08:02:47.037" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17363" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17361" CreationDate="2017-05-23T08:47:21.953" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here's the only speculation I could find about brain shivers aka brain zaps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cortes JA, Radhakrishnan R. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3733524/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Case of Amelioration of Venlafaxine-Discontinuation “Brain Shivers” With Atomoxetine&lt;/a&gt; The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 2013;15(2):PCC.12l01427. doi:10.4088/PCC.12l01427.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It proposes an explanation related to norepinephrine. Also, it claims that brain shivers or brain zaps are related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lhermitte%27s_sign&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lhermitte's phenomenon&lt;/a&gt;. I have &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/v16/n12/full/ni.3321.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mixed feelings&lt;/a&gt; about this specific comparison from what I've witnessed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;These facts point to the possibility that increases in synaptic norepinephrine are due to norepinephrine &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transporter_reversal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;transporter reversal&lt;/a&gt;, akin to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11137879&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dopamine transporter reversal&lt;/a&gt; associated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19199083&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;amphetamine&lt;/a&gt;. Abrupt withdrawal of venlafaxine would hence result in paradoxical increase in synaptic norepinephrine via efflux through norepinephrine transporter channels, which is normalized by atomoxetine’s norepinephrine transporter blockade.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That would explain brain zaps from stopping tramadol and SNRIs too, by the way: a noradrenergic syndrome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone has a better or more supported speculation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15890" LastEditorUserId="15890" LastEditDate="2017-05-23T14:36:48.267" LastActivityDate="2017-05-23T14:36:48.267" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17364" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-23T14:48:02.753" Score="3" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of studies have been performed on the nature of fake news and it's spread on social media sites:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2017/05/16/1700175114.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Perceived social presence reduces fact-checking&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0267323117695734&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Echo chamber and trench warfare dynamics in online debates&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/asap.12101/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Epistemic Factors in Selective Exposure and Political Misperceptions on the Right and Left&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227747056_Politically_Motivated_Reinforcement_Seeking_Reframing_the_Selective_Exposure_Debate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Politically Motivated Reinforcement Seeking: Reframing the Selective Exposure Debate&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1329334?tab=permissions&amp;amp;scroll=top&amp;amp;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Helping populism win? Social media use, filter bubbles, and support for populist presidential candidates in the 2016 US election campaign&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A problem I have with a lot of these studies is how they seem to ignore the structure of a person's personal network. For example, I'm going to trust a post on psychology from someone who frequently makes accurate posts on the topic more than I'm going to trust one from my crazy meme-posting uncle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would trust ignoring this factor if most people didn't have accurate estimations of the knowledge level of the people in their social networks?&#xA;Has there been any studies examining how accurately people keep track of who they trust on what topics? Does this accuracy affect how accurately they detect false information spread in their social network?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-06-19T10:52:29.710" LastActivityDate="2017-06-19T10:52:29.710" Title="How accurate is a person's estimate of their social networks knowledge?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17366" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17350" CreationDate="2017-05-23T17:01:38.883" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an entry in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/science/melatonin&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Encyclopædia Britannica on Melatonin&lt;/a&gt; which gives a run-down on how melatonin is produced and it's use within sleep, regulating reproductive hormones, and helping the immune system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In humans, melatonin plays an important role in the regulation of sleep cycles (i.e., circadian rhythm). Its production is influenced by the detection of light and dark by the retina of the eye. For example, the production of melatonin is inhibited when the retina detects light and is stimulated in the absence of light. Special photoreceptor cells in the retina send signals about light status to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus of the brain. These signals are then transmitted to the pineal gland. Melatonin generation by the pineal gland, which peaks during the nighttime hours, induces physiological changes that promote sleep, such as decreased body temperature and respiration rate. During the day, melatonin levels are low because large amounts of light are detected by the retina. Light inhibition of melatonin production is central to stimulating wakefulness in the morning and to maintaining alertness throughout the day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, to correct points 1-3 in your question...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Melatonin is produced &lt;strong&gt;when the retinas do not pick up any light&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Melatonin &lt;strong&gt;accumulates in the body during sleep&lt;/strong&gt; and is &lt;strong&gt;reduced when the retinas pick up light&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Melatonin &lt;strong&gt;regulates sleep cycles&lt;/strong&gt; by inducing physiological changes that promote sleep, such as decreased body temperature and respiration rate.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because melatonin regulates sleep cycles, melatonin has a big role to play in mental wellbeing.  Deregulation or misregulation of circadian rhythms can cause mood spectrum disorders, including bipolar disorder (BD), major depressive disorder (MDD), and seasonal affective disorder (SAD). (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dovepress.com/the-role-of-melatonin-in-mood-disorders-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-CPT&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;De Berardis, et al. 2015&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Reference&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;De Berardis, D., Orsolini, L., Serroni, N., Girinelli, G., Iasevoli, F., Tomasetti, C., Mazza, M., Valchera, A., Fornaro, M., Perna, G., Piersanti, M., Di Nicola, M., Cavuto, M., Martinotti, G. &amp;amp; Di Giannantonio, M., 2015. The role of melatonin in mood disorders. &lt;em&gt;ChronoPhysiology and Therapy&lt;/em&gt;, 5, pp. 65-75&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2147/CPT.S41761&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.2147/CPT.S41761&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-05-23T17:01:38.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17369" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17371" CreationDate="2017-05-24T03:59:23.627" Score="7" ViewCount="507" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the context of a broader &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/17365/52&quot;&gt;question&lt;/a&gt;, someone asked:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can the detailed analyses from, say, the Wechsler test, be used to inform decisions significantly better that gut feelings can?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While this question might be closed, I thought a more defined question regarding the correlation between self-rated and objective measures of intelligence would be good to have. I feel as if I've read papers that suggest the correlation is modest (e.g., r = .2 or .3). Presumably, Dunning-Kruger and a bunch of self-serving biases operate. But I could not find any authoritative reference off hand. So my questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the correlation between self-rated intelligence and objective measures of intelligence (i.e., full scale IQ scores from well-validated measures)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent does the correlation depend on how the self-ratings are obtained?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-05-24T06:07:29.487" Title="What is the correlation between self-rated and objective measures of intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17371" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17369" CreationDate="2017-05-24T06:07:29.487" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term you are looking for is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-test_of_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-assessed intelligence (SAI)&lt;/a&gt; (sometimes subjectively-assessed intelligence or self-estimated intelligence).  The leaders in this field are Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic and Adrian Furnham.  From their book &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ca/books?id=M0t4AgAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA121&amp;amp;lpg=PA121&amp;amp;dq=sai%20correlation%20to%20iq&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=mqs1DFXUd-&amp;amp;sig=qtrnZ3PobicGcUzlr0Bs3GaS2vQ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjh8PTv44fUAhVJ1oMKHc9LCSIQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=sai%20correlation%20to%20iq&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Personality and Intellectual Competence&quot; (2014)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Correlations between SAI and psychometric intelligence have been&#xA;  significant and positive, albeit generally modest (r&amp;lt;.30).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you are spot on. :-) SAI is a subset of self-tests of intelligence, that can range from simple estimates, to full-fledged self-administered IQ tests.  As such, correlations can vary a lot.  However, SAI is generally considered to be an estimate, rather than a test, and this does not appear to be affected much by methodology.  From &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-6494.00023/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paulhus et al (1998)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Correlations between single-item self-reports of intelligence and IQ&#xA;  scores are rather low (.20–.25) in college samples. The literature&#xA;  suggested that self-reports could be improved by three strategies: (1)&#xA;  aggregation, (2)item weighting, and (3) use of indirect, rather than&#xA;  direct, questions. ... Although results showed some success for both&#xA;  direct and indirect measures, the failure of their validities to&#xA;  exceed .30 impugns their utility as IQ proxies in competitive college&#xA;  samples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, the SAI literature reveals significant gender differences in SAI estimates - with males significantly overestimating and females significantly underestimating their intelligence - as well as significant cross-cultural differences in estimates, suggesting that the correlation is more heavily affected by social stereotypes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2017-05-24T06:07:29.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17372" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-24T09:10:52.267" Score="1" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.dilbert.com/post/126675024361/can-we-call-a-trump-puppet-a-trumpet&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one&lt;/a&gt; of his endless Blogs about Trump and hypnotism, Scott Adams, creator of the comic Dilbert, claims that by showing an image of Trump's book and his own book side-by-side he can hypnotise you into thinking his book is important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qLKdt.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qLKdt.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trump is a business tycoon/president/mysogynistic-dinosaur/fork-and-spoon-operator. Whether you love him or hate him the view is widespread that Trump is an important guy. When I see Adam's book next to Trump's my hindbrain says, 'Oh, this Scott Adams guy must be as important as Trump to have their books side-by-side'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that is true to some nonzero extent. It might be huge; it might be tiny. I am not interested in debating the exact size. My question is why does this trick not have the opposite effect? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scott Adams is best known for drawing cartoons for cripe's sake? Unlike Trump, Scott Adams is not a household name. Why doesn't the hindbrain see both books and say, 'Trump's book next to Adam's? That nobody!? Gosh I guess Trump was not as important s I thought.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the association goes one way, what's to stop it going the other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15516" LastEditorUserId="15516" LastEditDate="2017-05-24T10:18:15.050" LastActivityDate="2017-05-24T10:18:15.050" Title="What stops this (one weird) hypnotic trick having the reverse effect to intended?" Tags="&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17373" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12152" CreationDate="2017-05-24T21:21:41.420" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Canonical models of emotions in relation to pattern comclusion can not be provided.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The emotional of the musical sequences completion are directly related to the tonality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotions related to the tonality are presented in the semantic memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is possible the study of a partial mapping that relates tonality and emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best text, in my opinion, is:&#xA;Sloboda, John, A. (1985). The Musical Mind: The Cognitive Psychology of Music. &#xA;This is a compilation of numerous research in this area, others very interesting books can be found of this author.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-08-06T17:04:29.343" LastActivityDate="2017-08-06T17:04:29.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17375" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5160" CreationDate="2017-05-25T13:19:29.350" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming imagination can be roughly defined as &quot;taking things from reality/experience and mixing them up somehow to create something dissimilar from the inputs&quot;, then any cognitive framework:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;with a probabilistic interpretation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;who is capable of analogy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;roughly models how imagination may manifest itself in the human mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Imagination as inference&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine you've ridden two bicycles: a fast bicycle and a slow bicycle. The bicycle salesman now shows you a third bicycle with a speed in between the two you've previously ridden. Although you do not have any direct experience with the bicycle, you can infer from your two previous experiences that the bicycle will give you an experience somewhere in between the two. This is what I mean by &quot;probabilistic interpretation&quot;. If your cognitive model has a concept of a distribution of possible bicycle speeds, it can &lt;em&gt;infer&lt;/em&gt; points along that distribution. This approach is used in cognitive models like neural networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Imagination as analogy&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider the analogy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Structure of an atom is like a solar system. Nucleus is the sun and&#xA;  electrons are the planets revolving around their sun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given basic knowledge of the solar system, despite never seeing atoms, you can imagine a few things about atom structure. You can imagine electrons float freely around the center of the nucleus without slowing down. You were able to combine a symbol you had for the solar system with the unknown symbols of electrons and nuclei. This type of imagination is found in cognitive models like ACT-R.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Imagination as something more complicated&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two previous forms of imagination were pretty simple in terms of interactions. Two inputs formed a novel output, but scientists have all sort of theories about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;how we build models in our heads&lt;/a&gt; that involve scaling up to more than one input, drawing experiences from memory and interacting with the environment. There are so many that you have to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/6247/4397&quot;&gt;start developing criteria&lt;/a&gt; for what the best model of imagination is. Obviously, I can't cover all the models, but hopefully this gives you a good starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-05-25T13:19:29.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17376" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-25T13:24:40.980" Score="2" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know some good psychology papers on present bias that discusses the psychological mechanisms underlying this bias?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can only seem to find papers by economist and they tend to give a quite formal and mathematical explanation of the subject. I'm looking for an in depth explanation of the psychology behind present bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16001" LastActivityDate="2018-02-15T10:29:21.333" Title="Psychology literature on present bias" Tags="&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17378" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17376" CreationDate="2017-05-26T06:21:09.467" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the present bias is a result of the immediate gratification tendency that we as humans have. The following extracts are from the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.cy/books?id=-p5ZognR-ZwC&amp;amp;dq=Smart%20Change:%20Break%20the%20habits%20that%20hold%20you%20back%20and%20form%20the%20habits%20of%20success%20by%20Art%20Markman&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwi6pLi88ozUAhVIalAKHRPLA5sQ6AEIHzAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smart Change: Break the habits that hold you back and form the habits of success by Art Markman&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of the most difficult things for people (and other animals for&#xA;  that matter) is to pass up something desirable right now in favor of&#xA;  something else in the future. A piece of cake now has a stronger pull&#xA;  on our actions than having a beach-ready body by next summer. An&#xA;  afternoon playing video games feels like a better way to spend an&#xA;  afternoon than studying for an exam that won’t happen for another&#xA;  week. Checking a few emails at work feels more productive than putting&#xA;  in effort on a big long-term project that won’t be finished for&#xA;  months. You’re wired to want to do what feels good in the short term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_marshmallow_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A beautiful experimental method&lt;/a&gt; for looking at the difficulty of&#xA;  overcoming temptations was developed by Walter Mischel in the late&#xA;  1950s to study how children deal with temptation. In his studies, an&#xA;  experimenter asked four-year-old children to sit in a room and showed&#xA;  them a small tempting object like a marshmallow or a cookie. Then the&#xA;  experimenter placed the object in front of the child next to a bell&#xA;  and said that he had to leave the room for a while. If the child was&#xA;  able to wait until the experimenter got back, then the child would get&#xA;  a larger reward (like two marshmallows or cookies). However, the child&#xA;  could ring the bell at any time and just take what was on the plate.&#xA;  If the child was able to wait fifteen minutes, then the experimenter&#xA;  would come back in the room and give the child the bigger reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a typical experiment, the average child was able to go only about&#xA;  ten minutes before ringing the bell. Factored into that average are&#xA;  the many children who rang the bell soon after the experimenter left&#xA;  the room and others who were able to wait the full fifteen minutes.&#xA;  Even for those children who are successful at waiting, it can be a&#xA;  difficult experience. In fact, there are a number of popular videos on&#xA;  YouTube of children in these experiments agonizing over the&#xA;  marshmallows in front of them. It is funny to see the children&#xA;  struggle to wait for the bigger reward. But the videos also illustrate&#xA;  how hard it can be to overcome temptation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the above experiment although the future benefits are clearly better (two instead of one marshmallow), the now is weighted more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-05-26T06:21:09.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17380" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17928" CreationDate="2017-05-27T10:50:22.850" Score="4" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;The retinotopic, area-based connectivity patterns of the columnar receptive fields in the visual cortex are well-established.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do any mappings of the columnar receptive field connectivity patterns exist for associative brain regions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16018" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-07T20:30:26.047" LastActivityDate="2018-07-08T18:39:47.343" Title="Is there knowledge of the receptive field patterns of cortical columns in associative brain regions?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17381" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17391" CreationDate="2017-05-27T18:50:18.630" Score="8" ViewCount="205" Body="&lt;p&gt;The paper &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115035&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Color Psychology: Effects of Perceiving Color on Psychological Functioning in Humans&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Andrew J. Elliot and Markus A. Maier shows color effects emotion, but what property of them cause this effect? Does light blue make you feel peaceful because it is the color of the sky, or because the wavelength causes something in the brain to feel peaceful? Basically, are the color emotions controlled by association or something else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16020" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-05-29T06:02:53.277" LastActivityDate="2017-05-29T07:19:31.977" Title="Why do colors affect emotion?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17384" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24384" CreationDate="2017-05-28T00:21:54.603" Score="10" ViewCount="941" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've interacted with several individuals over the years that had narcissistic personality disorder. In particular, I find I have difficulty navigating their nebulous relationship with truth and find myself talking in circles when trying to provide them with information they view as negative feedback. After meeting someone that told me about their own experiences with their narcissist ex-husband I decided I should learn specialized behavior modification techniques that would be useful in home and business, should I notice someone exhibiting these behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are methods that can be used to provide someone with narcissistic personality disorder with accurate factual feedback without risking triggering either outright deceit or a verbally aggressive reaction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15523" LastEditorUserId="15523" LastEditDate="2017-05-31T21:04:36.007" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T19:42:32.137" Title="How can a narcissist be given negative feedback without triggering aggressive behavior?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17386" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17400" CreationDate="2017-05-28T10:50:20.913" Score="3" ViewCount="457" Body="&lt;p&gt;The NEF puts great emphasis on biological plausibility. However, I'm not clear on why the Prescribed Error Sensitivity (PES) learning rule, used in many NEF-based models, is considered to be biologically plausible. I've heard that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It doesn't rely on any globally shared information between neurons&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It empirically replicated various aspects of STDP&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I'm not sure how it does these things or why that's important. Specifically, what would an alternative to PES have to demonstrate to show  they had improved biological plausibility?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-05-28T15:03:07.883" LastActivityDate="2017-09-14T20:31:32.990" Title="Why is PES biologically plausible?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17387" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-28T11:08:08.333" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0170388&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Learning by stimulation avoidance: A principle to control spiking neural networks dynamics&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Sinpayen et al. a learning rule called Learning by Stimulation Avoidance (LSA) is presented. According to the abstract, this learning rule:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scale to at least a hundred neurons&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Explains synaptic pruning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Replicates results from &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quarterly-reviews-of-biophysics/article/development-learning-and-memory-in-large-random-networks-of-cortical-neurons-lessons-beyond-anatomy/910AE0F1F27FD2695764AD93D55E752B&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Development, learning and memory in large random networks of cortical neurons: lessons beyond anatomy&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Marom and Shadoff&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does the mechanism compare to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/17386/4397&quot;&gt;Prescribed Sensitivity Error (PES)&lt;/a&gt; learning rule used by the NEF? Is LSA compatible with the NEF?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-05-28T11:08:08.333" Title="What's the relation between PES and LSA?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;nef&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17388" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13181" CreationDate="2017-05-28T12:41:57.447" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As mentioned by honi, it is possible to have bio plausible k-means. However, neither Leabra nor Hierarchical Temporal Memory (HTM) use it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Section 3.5.1 of How to Build a Brain by Chris Eliasmith notes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are basic computational methods underlying Leabra that are of&#xA;  dubious plausibility. The most evident is that Leabra directly applies&#xA;  a k-Winner-Takes-All (kWTA) algorithm, which is acknowledged as&#xA;  biologically implausible: “although the kWTA function is somewhat&#xA;  biologically implausible in its implementation (e.g., requiring global&#xA;  information about activation states and using sorting mechanisms), it&#xA;  provides a computationally effective approximation to biologically&#xA;  plausible inhibitory dynamics”&#xA;  (&lt;a href=&quot;http://grey.colorado.edu/emergent/index.php/Leabra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://grey.colorado.edu/emergent/index.php/Leabra&lt;/a&gt;; see also O’Reilly&#xA;  &amp;amp; Munakata [2000], pp. 94-105 for further discussion). In other words,&#xA;  the actual dynamics of the system are replaced by an approximation&#xA;  that is computationally cheaper on digital computers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same problem occurs with the HTM as discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://forum.nengo.ai/t/hierarchical-temporal-memory-vs-nef-spa/257/12?u=seanny123&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this forum post by Travis DeWolf&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the second step of their spatial pooling, they&#xA;  find the k most active columns, to apply learning to only these&#xA;  columns. Dynamically, setting up WTA with lateral inhibitory&#xA;  connections is notoriously very tricky, and isn't something that can&#xA;  be done in a single time step. On top of that, controlling the&#xA;  learning so that it's only applied after the network has settled on a&#xA;  set of winners is a whole other issue. It might be the case it works&#xA;  running the whole time as the WTA circuit settles, but the dynamics&#xA;  are complex and can't just be assumed to work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize, k-winner inhibition is possible, but it's not used in a biologically plausible manner in either Leabra and HTM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-05-28T12:41:57.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17381" CreationDate="2017-05-29T06:53:43.140" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our emotional responses to colors is based on two factors : innate behavior and acquired behavior (aslo known as nature and nurture).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instinct&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Innate behavior&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is build in our genes, it is instinctive and performed without being based upon prior experience (that is, in the absence of learning), and is therefore an expression of innate biological factors. This innate behavior is formed through evolution. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;evolutionary aesthetics&lt;/a&gt; can explain the innate factor of emotional response to colors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Evolutionary aesthetics refers to evolutionary psychology theories in&#xA;  which the basic aesthetic preferences of Homo sapiens are argued to&#xA;  have evolved in order to enhance survival and reproductive success.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Based on this theory, things like color preference, preferred mate&#xA;  body ratios, shapes, emotional ties with objects, and many other&#xA;  aspects of the aesthetic experience can be explained with reference to&#xA;  human evolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Acquired behavior&lt;/strong&gt; is formed through our exepriences with the world. Our day to day interactions with our enviroment creates emotional responses and some of these responses are associated to certain colors. Also the culture has a great influence on how we interpret and subsequently emotionaly response to colors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.com/smartertravel/what-colors-mean-in-other_b_9078674.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;examples of cultural color associations:&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Take France, for example, where yellow signifies jealously, betrayal,&#xA;  weakness, and contradiction. In the 10th century, the French painted&#xA;  the doors of traitors and criminals yellow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In Japanese culture, yellow has represented bravery, wealth, and&#xA;  refinement since the War of Dynasties in 1357. During this time,&#xA;  warriors wore yellow chrysanthemums—which represent the emperor in&#xA;  Japan and royal family—as a pledge of courage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;some addtional articles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-new-brain/201104/why-we-prefer-certain-colors&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-new-brain/201104/why-we-prefer-certain-colors&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2017-05-29T07:19:31.977" LastActivityDate="2017-05-29T07:19:31.977" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17393" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17396" CreationDate="2017-05-29T12:29:28.973" Score="3" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1609.02545&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Supervised Learning in Spiking Neural Networks with FORCE Training&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Wilten Nicola and Claudia Clopath. The authors create a learning rule for learning non-linear dynamics from populations of spiking neurons. The learning rule only seems to depend on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;an error signal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the firing rates of each neurons&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;an approximate inverse correlation matrix calculated from the firing rates of each neuron&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to calculate the inverse correlation matrix of using another population of neurons or is there some biological mechanism that could be used to explain this? Additionally, is this calculation sensitive to delay? Often, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/13181/4397&quot;&gt;forgetting to take delay into account is the undoing of many learning rules and cognitive architectures&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-05-29T12:58:13.903" LastActivityDate="2017-05-30T12:46:45.200" Title="Biological Plausibility of FORCE training" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17394" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-30T00:51:55.240" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I very often find situations where someone is certain she understands something (an explanation, a thought, a set of isntructions), when, actually, there are many gaps in this understanding. I have looked among the cognitive biases, but have not found something in this line.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there such a Bias, or is it embeded in other biases?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16035" LastActivityDate="2017-05-30T00:51:55.240" Title="Is there an Illusion of Completeness of Understanding" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-05-30T07:20:32.730" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17395" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-30T12:39:45.847" Score="3" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm an Information Technology student (bachelor's degree) and as a summer project, I'd like to develop a small &quot;alarm&quot; system for ALS patients in case of emergency situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought about tracking the eye movements of the patients via electrodes and then send the eye movement signals to the software system which I'm going to develop and then process the data. I'm planning to use Python programming language since I already have some experience on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I don't have any experience with using electrodes, processing the signals to detect eye movements. Do you know any good and simple online sources for the beginners like me? I can't afford to buy books so I'd be grateful if you can suggest me free online sources. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16038" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-30T20:08:37.007" LastActivityDate="2017-05-31T19:51:55.807" Title="How to track eye movements with electrodes?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17396" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17393" CreationDate="2017-05-30T12:46:45.200" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although FORCE trained networks have dynamics that are starting to&#xA;  resemble those of populations of neurons, at present all top-down&#xA;  procedures used to construct any functional spiking neural network&#xA;  need further work to become biologically plausible learning rules&#xA;  [Sussillo and Abbott, 2009, Boerlin et al., 2013, Eliasmith et al.,&#xA;  2012]. For example, FORCE trained networks require non-local&#xA;  information in the form of the correlation matrix $P(t)$. However, we&#xA;  should not dismiss the final weight matrices generated by these&#xA;  techniques as biologically implausible simply because the techniques&#xA;  are themselves biologically implausible. More work should be done in&#xA;  implementing either FORCE, NEF, or spike-based coding networks using a&#xA;  biologically plausible learning mechanism based on synaptic plasticity&#xA;  or homeostasis [Bi and Poo, 1998, Pfister and Gerstner, 2006, Clopath&#xA;  et al., 2010, Graupner and Brunel, 2012, Babadi and Abbott, 2016,&#xA;  Vogels et al., 2011]. This has been resolved for spike-based coding&#xA;  networks and linear dynamical systems for example [Bourdoukan and&#xA;  Deneve, 2015]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, calculating the correlation matrix $P(t)$ requires every neuron to know what every other neuron is doing, so the FORCE algorithm isn't biologically plausible. I'm not sure what alternative there would be calculating the correlation matrix. Maybe there's some mathematical way to approximate it gradually over time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-05-30T12:46:45.200" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17397" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17395" CreationDate="2017-05-30T17:07:40.973" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe &lt;a href=&quot;https://backyardbrains.com/experiments/EOG&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this tutorial&lt;/a&gt; covers exactly what you are looking for. It describes how to use a relatively cheap kit ($150) to detect eye movements and eye blinks. It includes software and hardware information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4906" LastActivityDate="2017-05-30T17:07:40.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17398" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17395" CreationDate="2017-05-30T19:31:11.193" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Detecting eye movements is generally referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/oculometry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;oculometry&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oculometry can be performed using your suggested approach, namely with electrophysiological techniques. In this case the recordings are based on the dipole character of the eye. This characteristic results in detectable voltage differences when the eye moves with respect to a stationary electrode pair. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oculometry can also be performed using an eye tracker (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2213065&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liston &amp;amp; Stone, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;). This technique is based on recording the position of the pupil using infrared cameras.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A recent fairly detailed, yet accessible paper on electrophysiological oculometry can be found in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305036626_Oculometric_Assessment_of_Sensorimotor_Impairment_Associated_with_TBI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liston &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, (2016)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eye trackers can be an interesting alternative for you. They come in a vast range of prices. Due to the advent of eye trackers used in gaming, there are highly affordable eye trackers on the market nowadays (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, from &lt;a href=&quot;https://tobiigaming.com/products/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tobii&lt;/a&gt; for a little over $100). The one I am using for scientific purposes in a clinical setting from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smivision.com/eye-tracking/product/eye-tracking-glasses/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SMI&lt;/a&gt;. it is CE marked and deemed safe. However, it comes with a price tag of over 15k. The SMI system, alongside the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.arringtonresearch.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Arrington devices&lt;/a&gt; are used worldwide in clinical settings.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305036626_Oculometric_Assessment_of_Sensorimotor_Impairment_Associated_with_TBI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liston &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Optomy Vis Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;94&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 51–9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2213065&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liston &amp;amp; Stone, JOV (2014); &lt;strong&gt;14&lt;/strong&gt;(14): 1-17&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-05-31T19:51:55.807" LastActivityDate="2017-05-31T19:51:55.807" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17400" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17386" CreationDate="2017-05-31T12:53:25.813" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a learning rule to be biologically plausible, it has to only depend on knowledge/information local to the neuron (no global information about the neuron population) and has to match experimental neuroscience data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Only Neuron-Local Information&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As discussed in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2013/papers/0058/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simultaneous unsupervised and supervised learning of cognitive functions in biologically plausible spiking neural networks&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Bekolay et al., the effect of the PES learning rule on the decoders $\Delta \mathbf{d}_i$ is formulated as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\Delta \mathbf{d}_i=\kappa \mathbf{E}a_i$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$\mathbf{E}$ is the error vector is mapped onto individual neurons which also represent vectors of the same dimension. Biologically, the error vector is theorized to be dopamine levels. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$a_i$ is each neuron activity level, which in the NEF is defined as a combination of the neuron's encoder and it's activation function. See Principle 1 of the NEF for more detail.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$\mathbf{\kappa}$ is the error scaling factor&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these variables only require information local to the neuron. From the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The key difference between this rule and backpropagation is that the&#xA;  global-to- local mapping is done by imposing the portion of the error&#xA;  vector space each neuron is sensitive to via its encoder. This limits&#xA;  flexibility, but removes the dependency on global information, making&#xA;  the rule biologically plausible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Matching Neuroscience Experiments&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To actually match experimental STDP spiking data, PES must be combined with the Bienenstock, Cooper, Munro (BCM) learning rule to enforce sparsity on the encoders. This creates the homeostatic PES rule (hPES).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This matches the following experiments from &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.139&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Synaptic modification by&#xA;correlated activity: Hebb’s postulate revisited&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Bi and Poo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QcM07.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QcM07.png&quot; alt=&quot;frequency_dependence_STDP&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IAGrW.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IAGrW.png&quot; alt=&quot;STDP_curve&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Other Replications&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to these experiments, there are various papers that use the PES learning rule to replicate things such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/kolbeck2013.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a model of Fear Conditioning&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3269066/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a model N-Armed Bandit Task&lt;/a&gt;, however this evidence isn't necessarily unique to the PES learning rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-09-14T20:31:32.990" LastActivityDate="2017-09-14T20:31:32.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17402" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-31T18:10:21.590" Score="1" ViewCount="380" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes%E2%80%93Dodson_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yerkes-Dodson Law&lt;/a&gt;, there is optimal point of arousal and performance. Suppose a person takes a stimulant such as Adderall. This would increase his arousal. However, it may increase his anxiety (e.g. side effects). Would combining a &quot;downer&quot; (such as alcohol) with an &quot;upper&quot; (such as Adderall) maximize productivity? This is assuming that at a baseline level, a person cannot maximize his productivity.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16054" LastActivityDate="2017-06-02T07:44:43.793" Title="Yerkes-Dodson Law and Drugs" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17403" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-05-31T18:30:24.947" Score="5" ViewCount="633" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the information I gathered about lateral thinking, it means to solve problems using unconventional means, sometimes even without using logic. Edward de Bono invented &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L_game&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the L-game&lt;/a&gt; to illustrate lateral thinking. However, I fail to see how lateral thinking is used in solving the game. The L-game is essentially a very simplified version of Chess, both are strategy games and Chess is almost always the textbook example of logical games. In the analysis of the L-game, I found myself using purely logic (i.e. working backwards from the losing positions and identify which positions are &quot;dangerous&quot; etc). I do not see how &quot;illogical means&quot; could better help a player in winning the game. I might have misunderstood the meaning of lateral thinking, could anyone clarify?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16055" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-06-02T01:08:45.743" LastActivityDate="2017-06-07T16:24:41.027" Title="How does the L-game by Edward de Bono demonstrate lateral thinking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17404" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15797" CreationDate="2017-06-01T09:00:08.893" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To understand why long sentences are difficult to parse we need to understand how we generally parse sentences. In linguistics, often, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parse_tree&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parse tree&lt;/a&gt; are used to show how people structure sentences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Parse Trees&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A parse tree is a tree structure in which sentences (S) are deconstructed in different phrases. There are   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;noun phrases (NP), in which a noun (N) accompanied by a determinant (D) are stored. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;verb phrases (VP), in which a verb (V) and an object are stored. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The object can be many many things. As you can see in the below picture, another NP is added, to finish this simple sentence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1UlVh.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1UlVh.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this incredibly simple example, it is clear that we do not need to break down the sentence that much, nor is there any ambiguity. However, sentences can become more complex, by adding a prepositional phrase (PP):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Darwl.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Darwl.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Complexity and ambiguity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The longer sentences are, the more complex these trees become. &lt;strong&gt;The difficulty&lt;/strong&gt; in creating these trees &lt;strong&gt;is finding the correct relations between phrases&lt;/strong&gt; and, therefore, the structure of the tree. In some cases, even multiple sentences must be combined in one tree: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/a1e44.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/a1e44.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second sentence is what comes below SBAR, the auxiliary node for a new S. Moreover, as you can see, there is a line leaving the right side of the picture. The sentence could thus become even longer and more complex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When sentences are ambiguous, it is even possible to construct multiple trees that are correct, but have a different meaning. There are ways to notate these ambiguous trees, but I won't/cannot go into that. At &lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;linguistics.se&lt;/a&gt;, there is a question covering &lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/q/4619&quot;&gt;that&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, &lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/questions/1672/syntax-trees-for-sentences&quot;&gt;here is a post&lt;/a&gt; about creating parse trees/syntax trees in general, including a reference. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-06-01T12:51:19.350" LastActivityDate="2017-06-01T12:51:19.350" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17406" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10524" CreationDate="2017-06-01T15:58:34.047" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many projective tests explore family relationships, however it is frankly difficult to find projective tests exclusively focused on family relationships, can be proved:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Family Drawing Test (the most utilized).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;CAT (version of TAT for children) very, but very used.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Test by Patte Noire of Louis Corman.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;FTT Riding theory test of Carina Coulacoglou.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Test of Luisa Düss.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;TRO of Phillipson (officially focused on a person's ability to establish satisfying relationships with others, emotions in relationships)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-06-02T06:13:22.397" LastActivityDate="2017-06-02T06:13:22.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17408" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12116" CreationDate="2017-06-01T17:52:04.940" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, it's not due to synaptic pruning. If it were due to synaptic pruning babies would have better vision(esp. Peripheral) but that is not the case. Babies only have better hearing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, it is not exactly a learning process. Most of the foveal developmental starts during the prenatal period and complete by 18 months postnatal.Most of the inter-individual variance have been linked to genetic factors. There is no conclusive evidence for environmental factors affecting the foveal development. But there is speculation for possible environmental factors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference : &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3658155/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3658155/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16060" LastActivityDate="2017-06-01T17:52:04.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17410" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17402" CreationDate="2017-06-02T07:44:43.793" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think in this case, you should look at 2 graphs of optimal performance. So one inverted bell curve (Yerkes-Dodson Law)for the stimulant, and another for the 'downer'. So in this case, each has their own optimal productivity, and an interaction of the 2 isn't just a simple combination, because this would be a third graph altogether. So unless there is something you know of the exact interation effect of the particular stimulant, and particular depressant,I wouldn't risk mixing them for optimal productivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16063" LastActivityDate="2017-06-02T07:44:43.793" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17411" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-02T16:45:47.257" Score="4" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember reading of a study where children were told stories. During the telling of the story tension rose and the heart rate increased. After the story was over the heart rate went back to normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was another experiment where the story wasn't told to the end. During the telling of the story, attention shifted elsewhere while the tension was still up and the story never reached its end. In that condition, the heart rate stayed elevated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, I don't remember the exact source. Can you tell me whether the described effect exists and if so, point me to the studies about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-08-17T08:57:56.983" LastActivityDate="2017-08-17T08:57:56.983" Title="What happens with stress, if there's distraction before a story reaches it's end?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17414" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-02T22:10:46.457" Score="1" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing a study about large led billboards and I wanted to understand why we are so attracted to screens and movement in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16071" LastActivityDate="2017-06-03T13:49:30.713" Title="Why are we attracted to screens?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-06-06T06:58:50.093" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17415" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20396" CreationDate="2017-06-02T23:45:39.643" Score="4" ViewCount="3537" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://futurism.com/you-have-power-physically-reshape-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Futurism.com says that meditation can shape brains and increase brain plasticity and fit&lt;/a&gt;. Can we say that praying the Catholic rosary is a kind of meditation and does this prayer have all the benefits of meditation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The common practice of the rosary is to say five decades a day each containing an &lt;em&gt;Our Father&lt;/em&gt; and ten &lt;em&gt;Hail Marys&lt;/em&gt; keeping one's place with a looped string of beads. All Catholics know these prayers by heart and can repeat them almost automatically, so thoughts are directed towards some inner prayer and talk with God during its recital. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a kind of meditation and does it enhance brain plasticity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10670" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-08-06T05:26:10.000" LastActivityDate="2019-07-17T05:34:11.497" Title="Is praying the Catholic rosary a meditation and does it enhance brain plasticity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17418" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-04T10:15:51.083" Score="5" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find any information on whether dyslexia is equally prevalent in normally sighted people and among visually impaired people who learned reading and writing through braille?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16081" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-15T20:06:34.163" LastActivityDate="2017-06-15T20:06:34.163" Title="Is dyslexia less common among visually impaired?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17419" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-04T15:52:41.997" Score="2" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Age is a risk factor for depression when we look at the entire lifespan. Does that hold true in a population of &gt;60 years old?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16083" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-06-05T02:18:15.087" LastActivityDate="2017-06-06T17:15:53.770" Title="Does risk of developing depression continue to increase after age 60?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17420" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17438" CreationDate="2017-06-04T17:22:27.457" Score="5" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know if in an experiment participants will learn the object as a whole or feature by feature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say, my objects are geometric shapes, and its features are color and orientation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would it be a good idea if I do something like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Assign each object a unique color and a unique shape&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Randomly assign participants to either color or orientation group&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Tell participants to pay attention to &quot;the&quot; feature of objects (color or orientation, according to the group they belong) (this &quot;paying attention&quot; can be done in several ways, for example by asking participants to do an $n-$back task only with &quot;the&quot; feature)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Show objects to the participants on a screen in random order, possibly many times.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Suprise recognition task. Sometimes they will see exactly the same object, sometimes the orientation will be the same, but color will be&#xA;  different. Sometimes both color and orientation will be different&#xA;  &lt;em&gt;etc.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this experiment measure what I want to measure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you suggest some keywords for the above situation? Binding problem is somehow related but it is not exactly what I am seeking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7063" LastActivityDate="2017-06-07T10:18:32.490" Title="Determining if participants learned the objects as a whole or feature by feature" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17423" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18477" CreationDate="2017-06-05T12:30:38.457" Score="7" ViewCount="444" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pavlok.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pavlok&lt;/a&gt; is a product which is essentially a shock bracelet for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Aversion_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aversion Therapy&lt;/a&gt;. It markets itself as an intervention for a range of habits, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://pavlok.com/blog/boost-your-productivity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;procrastination&lt;/a&gt; and nail-biting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence that giving yourself a shock, when you catch yourself procrastinating or when someone else catches you procrastinating, will give you an aversion to the activities used for procrastination? Is it possible the person who receives the feedback would just find new activities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-08-20T19:33:43.273" LastActivityDate="2019-08-20T19:33:43.273" Title="Effectiveness of aversion therapy for procrastination" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17424" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17427" CreationDate="2017-06-05T12:40:42.177" Score="2" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;A product &lt;a href=&quot;https://pavlok.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pavlock&lt;/a&gt;, which is essentially a shock bracelet for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Aversion_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aversion Therapy&lt;/a&gt;, markets itself as an intervention for a range of habits, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/17423/4397&quot;&gt;procrastination&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://pavlok.com/blog/quit-biting-your-nails/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nail-biting&lt;/a&gt;. Wikipedia cites the paper &quot;A Pocket-Portable Shock Device With Application To Nailbiting&quot; from 1968. Are there more modern comparison of Aversion Therapy to other interventions? Particularly to nail-biting, since there are many applications of Aversion Therapy across addictions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-06-06T12:58:57.393" Title="Comparison of Aversion Therapy to other interventions for nail-biting" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17425" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-05T12:47:29.023" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the ability to resume a task effectively after an interruption related to a person's ability to multi-task? The only theory of multi-tasking I'm aware of is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ai.rug.nl/~niels/multitasking.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PRIMs which models multi-tasking as being limited by over-lapping neural resources&lt;/a&gt;. I'm also assuming that a person's ability to resume a task is an attribute that varies across populations, but would appreciate references providing evidence for or against this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-06-05T12:47:29.023" Title="Is robustness to interruption related to the ability to multi-task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17419" CreationDate="2017-06-05T21:13:18.100" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to the articles that @Seanny provided in the comments, I think &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18372049&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; study addresses your question pretty well. A couple of idiosyncrasies about the sample: from rural Germany, primary care attenders, 75 and over (Weyerer et al., 2008). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results are somewhat mixed: univariate analysis shows a positive relationship between age and depression (accounting for sex), while adjusting for all possible confounding variables make the effect not statistically significant (though still positive). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does this mean? Yes, there is a positive relationship between age and depression. However, the relationship may not be distinct from other aspects of old age (mobility impairment, visual impairment, etc.) that increase in prevalence as age increases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Weyerer, S., Eifflaender-Gorfer, S., Köhler, L., Jessen, F., Maier, W., Fuchs, A., … Bickel, H. (2008). Prevalence and risk factors for depression in non-demented primary care attenders aged 75 years and older. Journal of Affective Disorders, 111(2–3), 153–163. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.02.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.02.008&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastActivityDate="2017-06-05T21:13:18.100" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17427" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17424" CreationDate="2017-06-06T12:58:57.393" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the techniques used for nail-biting is the (training) &lt;strong&gt;habit-reversal&lt;/strong&gt;: Developed by Nathan H. Azrin and R. Gregory Nunn (1987) focused on the treatment of nervous habits (although in general, other authors in the clinical field developed it under different variation). It is not usually as well known as it should be, since during that time many techniques conditions were experienced: reciprocal inhibition and counterconditioning (Joseph Wolpe), exposure, alternative response, incompatible response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Key:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Given a habit that we could qualify as negative linked to nerves or anxiety, select a response that ideally is incompatible with the negative habit (in any case compete strongly). &lt;strong&gt;The incompatible response fulfills the objectives, goals, motivation or causes&lt;/strong&gt; that satisfied the negative habit, precisely about nervous habits is not convenient an increase of the anxiety, the person has developed the negative habit for reasonable reasons, whatever they are, and that habit is somehow adaptive and positive, surely to reduce anxiety). As in the case of self-instruction, it is not the point of whether the psychologist or therapist, or the client, select one or the other response, but must be meaningful and optimal for both of them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore it would be advisable to master previously:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Background, causes and triggers of behavior (&lt;strong&gt;motive or motivation of activity&lt;/strong&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Knowledge about anxiety (&lt;strong&gt;different anxiety profiles&lt;/strong&gt;) and exposure.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reciprocal inhibition and counterconditioning.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Therapy based on the alternative response.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Therapy based on incompatible response.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A very flexible and wide-ranging approach so that it can be integrated as a training and in conjunction with other techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2017-06-06T12:58:57.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17428" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-06T13:00:05.050" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;At the moment I believe that registering (aligning) Diffusion Weighted Images (DWI) to T1 images only allows for the DWI to have a parcellation basis, and otherwise it does not give much information. &#xA;As far as I know the construction of fiber tracts only uses information derived from the DWI images, so any manipulation made to the T1 images during its processing (e.g. through the basic freesurfer pipeline) should not affect the final tracts that you obtain, nor their measures of FA -fractional anisotropy- or MD -medial diffusivity- for example. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is such assumption right? I think that I might be wrong since there must be a point to the DWI to T1 registration other than allowing for parcellation of the brain, but I just cannot figure out what it is. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14422" LastEditorUserId="14422" LastEditDate="2017-06-07T07:22:02.610" LastActivityDate="2017-06-07T07:22:02.610" Title="How does processing of T1 images affect tractography after registering the DWI to T1?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17429" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17435" CreationDate="2017-06-06T14:56:04.310" Score="15" ViewCount="40198" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a lay person and new to this, and while I do understand that 145 IQ means 3 SDs up from the mean, I want to have a rough idea of what it means in real-life examples, from people who have experience in this domain. What is it that a person with a 145 IQ can typically do that a persona with a 100 IQ can typically not do? Examples of feats or the like is appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16096" LastEditorUserId="16096" LastEditDate="2017-06-08T07:45:42.517" LastActivityDate="2020-07-25T06:46:45.997" Title="What is the meaningful difference between someone with a 145 IQ compared to a 100 IQ?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17432" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17384" CreationDate="2017-06-06T17:51:37.990" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very interesting question but the answer is very complicated, so I hope to clarify some general issues and perhaps be able to divide the question into more specific questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first place it would be advisable to differentiate between a markedly narcissistic personality and what might well be considered a personality disorder. From this differentiation we could focus more on the subject of the negotiation or therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cooperative negotiation&lt;/strong&gt;. (It is not so much an explicit negotiation, can be considered a technique that pursues the influence) It is something that must be studied for a long time, and also practice through role-playing. It is important &lt;strong&gt;to take into account our own negotiation profile&lt;/strong&gt;. This is a complicated topic because often the key is to lead the person to a negotiation or agreement perspective and this contrasts with posing clear positions that are not negotiable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;I not negociate                                                                 I negociate&#xA;&#xA;[---- 0 space margin ----] --------------------------------------[---- 1 space margin ----]&#xA;                                               &#xA;                                    ^&#xA;                                    |    &#xA;&#xA;                          stance point, here and now&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is usually worked in the manuals under the terms negotiation profile, negotiation style. It can be consulted in Morton's books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Personality disorder and violence&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;explicitly clinical&lt;/strong&gt;). There are different professional specialization courses about: different personality disorders, for specific areas (schools, family, psychiatric context), focused on types of situations (bad news communication, psychology in emergencies, first aid psychological, and how to intervene in situations of violence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also find more information on the internet about &lt;strong&gt;reinforcement&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;learning&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;Behaviorism&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;behavior modification&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short there is no formula or conditions that warrant that providing feedback to a narcissistic person does not lead to a violent response, this is something that professionals must study for a long time, I think that the most appropriate is a professional to handle such situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources about Histrionic Personality Disorder:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). pg 667 and next. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources of cooperative negotiation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Morton Deutsch and Peter Coleman. (2000). The handbook of conflict resolution: theory and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Taylor, A. (2002). The Handbook of family dispute resolution: Mediation theory and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lax, D. and Sebenius, J. K. (1986). The manager as negotiator: Bargaining for cooperation and competitive gain. New York: The Free Press.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources about Conflict in social psychology (conflict and violence are recurrent themes in social psychology manuals, so many manuals could be cited):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Forgas, J. P., Kruglanski, A. W. and Williams, K. D. (2011). The psychology of social conflict and aggression. New York: Psychology press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-07-07T07:02:12.327" LastActivityDate="2017-07-07T07:02:12.327" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17433" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-06T17:58:31.947" Score="5" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Personality Item Pool&lt;/a&gt; is a public domain collection of over 3000 items and 250 scales. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there anything comparable for work psychology and the like? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-06-07T00:31:54.463" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T10:59:32.577" Title="Is there anything comparable to the IPIP for IO psychology, work psychology and the like?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17435" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17429" CreationDate="2017-06-07T00:19:42.567" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a general note, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3400/how-can-psychometry-measure-the-very-high-iqs-in-adults?rq=1&quot;&gt;precision in measurement of intelligence declines as you move to more extreme levels&lt;/a&gt;. There is greater uncertainty in measurement in the 145 range than there is at the 100 range. Norm samples get smaller, and most measures of intelligence are designed for the normal range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Categories:&lt;/strong&gt; You might find the article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ_classification&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;IQ classification useful&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;The article discusses a wide range of ways to give verbal labels to IQ scores.&#xA;For example, the following categories would put a 145 IQ person above &quot;very superior&quot; intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aBpiv.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aBpiv.png&quot; alt=&quot;wais categories&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Statistical interpretations:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;You correctly note that 145 represents 3 standard deviations above the mean. &#xA;If you assume a normal distribution and no measurement error, IQ 100 means you are more intelligent than 50% of the population, and an IQ of 145 means you are more intelligent than 99.9% of the population. Or to put another way, 1 in 2 people have an IQ greater than 100, and roughly 1 in 750 people have an IQ of greater than 145. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intuition:&lt;/strong&gt; If you went to a large representative high school (say with 500 to 1000 students), you might think of the typical student as your 100 IQ student, and the smartest kid in school as possibly being in the 145 ball park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to get some intuition is to think about the typical range IQs for various professions. As you see below, even for professions with the most intelligent people are still typically well below 145.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iqcomparisonsite.com/occupations.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.iqcomparisonsite.com/occupations.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qAWTx.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qAWTx.png&quot; alt=&quot;IQ by occupation&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-06-07T00:28:08.507" LastActivityDate="2017-06-07T00:28:08.507" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17437" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17420" CreationDate="2017-06-07T05:51:59.427" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In your experiment you are directing participants attention to a sepcific feature, in order to accomplish a difficult task. This experiemnt in my humble opinion does not test your hypothesis, probably it will replicate the findings of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inattentional_blindness#Invisible_Gorilla_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;invisible gorilla experiment&lt;/a&gt;. Particiapnts will not pay attention to any other irrelevant features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An experiment that I find related to your hypothesis is the Schyns and Rodet's (1997) feature creation experiment. The extracts below are from &lt;a href=&quot;http://orca.cf.ac.uk/35160/1/Hahn%201998.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qVX0x.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qVX0x.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Design of Schyns and Rodet’s (1997) feature creation experiment. From&#xA;  left to right, the top pictures are Martian cell exemplars from the&#xA;  XY, X, and Y categories. From left to right, the bottom pictures are&#xA;  the features xy, x, and y, defining the categories. Note that the&#xA;  feature xy is a combination of feature x and feature y. Subjects in&#xA;  the XY--&gt;X--&gt;Y (vs. X--&gt;Y--&gt;Y) group learned the category in this order.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The reasoning was that subjects should categorize X-Y cells as XY&#xA;  members if they perceived and represented XY as a conjunction of two&#xA;  individuated features. Results revealed that only one group (X--&gt;Y--&gt;XY)&#xA;  performed this categorization; the perception of XY in the other group&#xA;  prompted X or Y classifications of X-Y. In sum, orthogonal&#xA;  classifications of X-Y, when its component features were both clearly&#xA;  perceived and used in the experimental groups, suggested that&#xA;  different features were acquired to analyze perceptually and to&#xA;  represent XY. Network simulations further suggested that the feature&#xA;  vocabularies were X--&gt;Y--&gt;XY = [x,y] and XY--&gt;X--&gt;Y = [xy,x,y],&#xA;  respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-06-07T05:51:59.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17438" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17420" CreationDate="2017-06-07T10:18:32.490" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your experiment is most similar to those in categorization research. For example, Wills et al (2013)* argued that &lt;strong&gt;single-dimension&lt;/strong&gt; classification (one-feature analysis) is less effortful, than multidimensional with more than one dimension, and &lt;strong&gt;omni-dimensional&lt;/strong&gt;, where you process and categorize the stimuli as a whole. They used the &lt;strong&gt;match-to-standard&lt;/strong&gt; procedure, where each stimuli is classified by participants as members of categories. This task was first used by Regehr and Brooks (1995) and basically means that you map each the stimuli features and each stimuli feature that you categorize.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, you have Stimulus A (dark, square), Stimulus B (light, triangle) and Stimulus C (dark, triangle). The dimensions are shape and colour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Dimensions    colour shape&#xA;Stimulus A      1      0&#xA;Stimulus B      0      1&#xA;Stimulus C      1      1&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course you have to have to set up rules for stimuli structures in category learning or learning in general and fit the stimuli into those structures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you instruct them to pay attention to the first dimension only, you would pay attention only to the first dimension in the data analysis. But that would be supervised learning, and that would defeat the purpose of your experiment. If you are curious to whether they learn by single-dimensions or through omni-dimension, you must not supervise the learningand should not provide feedback, because feedback will likely become superior to simple observational learning (see Wills, Milton &amp;amp; Edmunds, 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A very good example is Nosofsky et al. (1994) replicating Shepard et al. (1961). That one is the closest to what you described you want to do. You can find the data and look at the categorisational structure in &lt;a href=&quot;http://catlearn.r-forge.r-project.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;catlearn&lt;/a&gt; (Wills et al., 2016), so you can see how they handled their stimuli dimensions and data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Hope this helps. I might have not been too coherent, but I think the gist is there.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nosofsky, R. M., Gluck, M. A., Palmeri, T. J., McKinley, S. C., &amp;amp; Glauthier, P. (1994). Comparing modes of rule-based classification learning: A replication and extension of Shepard, Hovland, and Jenkins (1961). Memory &amp;amp; Cognition, 22(3), 352–369.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regehr, G., &amp;amp; Brooks, L. R. (1995). Category organization in free classification: The organizing effect of an array of stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(2), 347–363.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shepard, R. N., Hovland, C. I., &amp;amp; Jenkins, H. M. (1961). Learning and memorization of classifications. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 75(13), 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wills, A. J., Connell, G. O., Edmunds, C. E. R., &amp;amp; Inkster, A. B. (2016). Progress in modeling through distributed collaboration: Concepts, tools, and category-learning examples. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 1–23.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wills, A. J., Milton, F., &amp;amp; Edmunds, C. E. R. (2015). Feedback can be superior to observational training for both rule-based and information-integration category structures. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://pearl.plymouth.ac.uk/handle/10026.1/3064&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pearl.plymouth.ac.uk/handle/10026.1/3064&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wills, A.J., Milton, F., Longmore, C.A., Hester, S., &amp;amp; Robinson, J. (2013). Is overall similarity classification less effortful than single-dimension classification?. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66, 299-318.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;* You can visit the authors' website to get the data and how the analysed that data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13308" LastActivityDate="2017-06-07T10:18:32.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17440" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-07T14:48:54.433" Score="3" ViewCount="198" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand, one neuron can have up to 200 000 dendrites (e.g. purkinje cells). As for axons, there can be only one per neuron, which can divide into thousands (but not hundreds of thousands) of branches at the end. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume that each dendrite has one input terminal and each axon branch has one output terminal. I also assume that only dendrites can have input terminals and that only axons' branches can have output terminals. So we can have up to 200 000 input terminals and up to thousands of output terminals per one neuron. So it seems to me like in the whole brain we have &lt;strong&gt;more input terminals than output terminals&lt;/strong&gt; available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are my assumptions correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If yes, does that mean that there are a lot of &lt;strong&gt;redundant dendritic input terminals&lt;/strong&gt; available?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16107" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-06-09T04:17:17.533" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T21:42:20.360" Title="Are all dendrites targeted by an axon, or are there a lot of &quot;empty&quot; dendrites?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17441" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17403" CreationDate="2017-06-07T16:24:41.027" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The idea is not to &lt;strong&gt;use&lt;/strong&gt; lateral thinking to win the game, but to &lt;strong&gt;teach&lt;/strong&gt; people to think laterally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;L&lt;/strong&gt; can be flipped and/or rotated as well as translated - why should you do a particular transform, and when. What move to make requires a certain amount of lateral thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly in moving a neutral piece - not all the moves available are immediately obvious to a novice player - they must learn them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the time someone has mastered a few of the advanced moves, they are beginning to think laterally (at least that is the idea!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8062" LastActivityDate="2017-06-07T16:24:41.027" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17443" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-08T01:07:56.630" Score="0" ViewCount="183" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the U.S., what safeguards are in place to prevent a mentally ill, or just spiteful or incompetent, psychiatrist / psychologist from abusing their position of power?&#xA;Assuming the person is already practicing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, are there any diagnoses that require an independent second opinion because of the serious consequences of acting on that diagnosis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, this is especially important since- given the near complete power someone in this field could have over another person's life trajectory- the field will attract abusive people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13632" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T13:13:35.143" Title="What safeguards are in place to prevent abuse of power?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17444" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-08T04:37:01.877" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read that psychological inquiry can be analogized to the work done by physicists long ago before modern sophisticated theories, such as electromagnetism.  According to the argument, psychologists could be thought of as researchers living in the 1800s trying to understand how a present-day laptop works with ideas of electricity, but no electric theory, no computer science, etc.  Only able to see how it reacts to certain things.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard this argument in other places as well and am attempting to discover if this is a fair comparison and if psychology really needs a complete neurobiology for one to gain a deep and comprehensive understanding of the human condition.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Does anyone know of any good articles or books in philosophy of psychology/science, that discuss the varying perspectives on this question?&lt;/em&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11695" LastEditorUserId="11695" LastEditDate="2017-06-10T22:41:52.280" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T22:41:52.280" Title="Is psychology equivalent to physics of the 1900s?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-06-08T08:19:39.600" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17445" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17440" CreationDate="2017-06-08T08:54:58.097" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Axonal outputs are coupled to dendrites or other effector tissues, such as muscular fibers or glandular tissue. There are no redundant axonal outputs, or redundant dendritic inputs. There is a tight coupling between the two both during developmental formation of synapses and during the maintenance of the two.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Neurons can have extensive dendritic trees (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex, Fig. 1) and also elaborate arborated axon terminals (*e.g., in the neuromuscular junction, Fig. 2).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the cases shown below, the functions can be defined as simple logical operators, namely integration (Purkinje cell) and amplification (neuromuscular junction). The Purkinje cells receive and integrate input from the brainstem. The motoneurons innervating muscle use multiple axon terminals to target a larger area of the muscle so that stronger, synchronous muscle contractions can be achieved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The development and maintenance of dendrite-axon connections are tightly coupled (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2845208/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shen &amp;amp; Lowan, 2010)&lt;/a&gt;. Generally, when either input to the dendrite is diminished (axonal regression), or output of the axon is cancelled (dendritic regression), the plasticity of the neural tissue will lead to degeneration or re-directing of the axon, or regression or re-innervation of the dendrite, respectively (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12892644&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marc &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2003&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As regarding to your math; be aware axons &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; branch, axon arborations can target a single dendritic tree, axons can terminate on other tissues, such as glands and muscles (no dendrites there!). In other words, your mathematical example is an oversimplification. Further; cells with elaborate dendritic trees as shown in Fig. 1 are common in cortical layers, but are not the norm. The ratios of the cell types have to be taken into account as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, there can be the textbook connections between neurons, namely &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://michaeldmann.net/mann13.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;axo-dendritic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; connections, but also &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://michaeldmann.net/mann13.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;axo-axonal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11567620&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Schmitz &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://michaeldmann.net/mann13.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dendrodendritic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819211/pdf/nihms498522.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Shepherd, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;, and even &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://michaeldmann.net/mann13.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;axosomatic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; synapses between neurons (Fig. 3).    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tpVtJ.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tpVtJ.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;dendritic tree&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Dendritic tree &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/classics/Wundt/Physio/chap2.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Wundt, 1904)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JgeH2.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JgeH2.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Axonal terminals in a neuromuscular junction. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/brain-muscle-connection-jamie-farrell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Farrel (2017)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/r0Ios.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/r0Ios.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;synapses&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 3. Different kinds of synapses. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://droualb.faculty.mjc.edu/Course%20Materials/Physiology%20101/Chapter%20Notes/Fall%202011/chapter_8%20Fall%202011.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Modesto Junior College&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12892644&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marc &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Prog Retin Eye Res&lt;/em&gt; (2003); &lt;strong&gt;22&lt;/strong&gt;(5):607-55&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12892644&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shen &amp;amp; Kowan, &lt;em&gt;Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;(4): a001842&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819211/pdf/nihms498522.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shepherd, &lt;em&gt;Ann N Y Acad Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;1170&lt;/strong&gt;; 1-11&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11567620&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schmitz &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Neuron (2001); &lt;strong&gt;31&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 831-40&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/classics/Wundt/Physio/chap2.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wundt, Principles of Physiological Psychology (1904)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-10T21:42:20.360" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T21:42:20.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17447" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-08T17:06:13.467" Score="2" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many years ago, in an undergraduate psychology class, we were discussing misogyny, and my professor told us that there was a significantly high number of misogynists who had lost their mothers (specifically that they had died) in their mid to late teens.  He said it was because the teen were angry at their mothers for leaving them, but were unable to process or express what they were feeling, so the anger was redirected into an anger towards all women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have tried to find some mention of this theory elsewhere, but cannot seem to formulate the right Google search phrase.  Is this a theory that still has merit, or has it been disproven?  If it is a valid belief, can someone direct me to a book or online documentation which discusses it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16116" LastActivityDate="2017-08-08T16:27:45.390" Title="Can a mother's untimely death lead to misogyny?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17451" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-09T02:02:12.513" Score="4" ViewCount="165" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the current thinking on how the brain processes generalizations? For example, the abstract idea of a right angled triangle vs specific instances of right angled triangles? Or the general idea of a cat vs specific instance of cats?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does a generalization live in the brain? What's the current thinking on how it is encoded?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Medieval philosophers point to such abstractions (that are not material timeless &quot;things&quot;) to argue that something itself not material and timeless must exist to &quot;sense&quot; them i.e. a soul. Which is hogwash. But how does one state the nature of such things in terms of human cognition? What is going on when we consider such abstractions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16122" LastEditorUserId="16122" LastEditDate="2017-06-14T02:09:53.103" LastActivityDate="2017-06-16T06:26:20.200" Title="How does the brain process generalizations?" Tags="&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17452" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2064" CreationDate="2017-06-09T03:15:46.027" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nav has already provided a fantastic answer, but I wanted to add a short bit more (primarily to highlight &lt;a href=&quot;http://intentionaltravelers.com/problems-with-mission-trips/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this fantastic post&lt;/a&gt; on the subject, not by me) addressing some of the questions in your post (not the title question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off, I see this problem as one that is very similar to problems with generic short term missions trips. The above post describes some key facets of the problem. The main one is that when many people engage in a short term missions trip, &lt;em&gt;they&lt;/em&gt; tend to walk away with the expectation of an experience (the experience of &quot;helping&quot;). This is highlighted through &quot;the desire to do a grand event... and then walk away.&quot; Orphans and the elderly are complex populations and vulnerable in almost every sense of the word. They deserve a more careful consideration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is this then addressed? A major component to a holistic solution is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_engagement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;community engagement&lt;/a&gt; movement. Many aspects of this are listed in your question &quot;...find out what their needs are, become familiar with the kids and help them in whatever way possible&quot; &lt;em&gt;that they need&lt;/em&gt;! The idea is to focus on real needs of the community, and not things that make the volunteers feel good. There is even a nice guide on community engagement found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2901283/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and formally referenced below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of the above being said, I'll add a caveat: sometimes funders will be less inclined to donate if it doesn't &lt;em&gt;feel&lt;/em&gt; like they &quot;did something.&quot; So, while there may be better ways for orphans and elderly to be helped (than &quot;narrate a poem&quot;), there may be an offsetting cost of less funding and time donated to the cause. As you have noted, less people are interested in the longer haul.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ahmed, S. M., &amp;amp; Palermo, A.-G. S. (2010). Community Engagement in Research: Frameworks for Education and Peer Review. American Journal of Public Health, 100(8), 1380–1387. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.178137&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.178137&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-06-10T21:12:08.013" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T21:12:08.013" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17453" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17456" CreationDate="2017-06-09T10:39:09.860" Score="1" ViewCount="481" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I press my eyes I can &quot;see&quot; all kind of things: sparkling blue dots (which sometimes seem random and sometimes there seems to be a pattern in them), growing or diminishing rings of all kinds of color (I once read that these circles are also present in the retina of the non-yet-born, to provide some preparation), vague black-and-white faces, and many more, sometimes strange, sometimes for a short time recognizable forms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what strange capers are the different light receptors, or neurons in or behind the retinas of my eyes performing? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="11444" LastEditDate="2017-06-10T06:08:48.413" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T06:08:48.413" Title="What happens in my retina if I press on my eyeballs?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17454" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17458" CreationDate="2017-06-09T18:22:08.050" Score="8" ViewCount="844" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am searching for freeware to measure the duration of a keystroke or mouse-click, both would work. Does anyone have an idea?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Matlab toolboxes are, unfortunately, of no use to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16016" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-09T18:50:51.387" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T20:58:59.047" Title="Freeware for measuring keystroke duration" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17456" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17453" CreationDate="2017-06-09T19:07:49.403" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Pressure phosphenes are believed to be induced by sensory neurons in the retina downstream from the photoreceptors due to stretch-mediated activation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;You are referring to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oubliette.org.uk/Three.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pressure phosphenes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. They are visual perceptions induced by applying pressure to the eye ball. They are often described as a glow with arcuate or circular characteristics and are generally perceived in the visual field opposite to the area of pressure. If the object applying the pressure is small, the center of the perceived area appears light with a dark surround and a bright outer portion. However, there is substantial inter-individual variability in how pressure phosphenes are perceived &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/eye/journal/v19/n6/full/6701600a.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Chew &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2005)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eyeball deformation leads to an activation of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/ganglion/ganglion.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ON-center ganglion cells&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in the retina, while &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/ganglion/ganglion.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;OFF-center ganglion cells&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are inhibited. It is thought that the activation of ON-center and inhibition of OFF-center ganglion cells by eyeball deformation are caused by retinal stretching, which may also lead to horizontal cell stretch. Stretching the horizontal cell membrane probably generates an increase in membrane sodium conductivity and a depolarization of the membrane potential. This depolarization of the horizontal cell membrane potential is transmitted either directly or indirectly (via receptor synapses) from the horizontal to the bipolar cells. The bipolar cells, in turn, can activate or inhibit the ganglion cells &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2531426&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Grüsser &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1989)&lt;/a&gt;. Note that in this model, the photoreceptor cells in the retina are not involved - it occurs downstream in the secondary sensory neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/eye/journal/v19/n6/full/6701600a.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chew &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Eye&lt;/em&gt; (2005) &lt;strong&gt;19&lt;/strong&gt;: 683–5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2531426&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Grüsser &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Physiol Bohemoslov&lt;/em&gt; (1989); &lt;strong&gt;38&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 289-30&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-09T21:04:18.130" LastActivityDate="2017-06-09T21:04:18.130" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17457" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="29" CreationDate="2017-06-09T19:09:27.130" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of courses and literature about gamification in learning by Karl Kapp. &lt;a href=&quot;http://karlkapp.com/articles/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://karlkapp.com/articles/&lt;/a&gt;. Most of them are not scientific articles, but there are also books, courses and insturctions how to integrate these ideas. The topics you are asking for are partly discussed there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16016" LastActivityDate="2017-06-09T19:09:27.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17458" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17454" CreationDate="2017-06-09T19:19:20.323" Score="6" Body="&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychopy (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychopy.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psychopy.org&lt;/a&gt;) can do this. It can do it in two ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Using iohub. Iohub is a crazy powerful way to get any information about any kind of input to your system, from keyboard, mouse, eye-trackers, etc. You can see the documentation for keyboard &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychopy.org/api/iohub/device/keyboard.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;from psychopy.iohub import launchHubServer&#xA;io = launchHubServer()&#xA;keyboard = io.devices.keyboard  # handy name&#xA;&#xA;print 'start pressing a key now'&#xA;key_info = keyboard.waitForReleases()[0]  # Just grab first release, even if there are multiple&#xA;print 'Press time was', key_info.duration&#xA;print '... and BTW, all key event info was', key_info&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Using pyglet: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;from psychopy import visual, event, core&#xA;win = visual.Window()  # Disadvantage: you need to have a window open to record it.&#xA;clock = core.Clock()&#xA;&#xA;# Start listening&#xA;print 'start pressing a key now'&#xA;key, time = event.waitKeys(timeStamped=True)[0]&#xA;clock.reset()  # Key down time&#xA;while event.getKeys():&#xA;    pass&#xA;print 'key lasted', clock.getTime(), 'seconds'&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If measuring key strokes is the only thing you need, psychopy may be a bit heavy since it is meant for running full experiments, but it will do the job!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5130" LastEditorUserId="5130" LastEditDate="2018-01-03T20:58:59.047" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T20:58:59.047" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17459" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-09T21:04:48.393" Score="7" ViewCount="291" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my understanding, the neocortex performs both perception and imagination/planning within the same hierarchical structure. During perception, an area of the neocortex receives current input from sensors and decides on motor actions to execute. During imagination, an area replays previous inputs, or operates on potential future inputs for planning. Actions don't actually get executed during planning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the one hand, it seems like both perception and planning are in part executed by the same neural structures. It seems intuitive that the same abstraction mechanism needs to be reused to arrive at the same high-level representations. On the other hand, it seems like the brain still needs to distinguish between them, for example to not executed imagined actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two processes certainly affect each other. Perceiving a difficult situation can cause planning, perception can cause an association to imagine another situation, or imagination sets filters on what we perceive. Are there any explanations if and how the neocortex implements both perception and imagination/planning within the same structures?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are perception and imagination states that the neocortex areas switch between, or can they be carried out simultaneously? Can multiple areas be involved in planning at the same time? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When an area sends information to another one, how does it signal whether this was perceived or imagined information? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there less of a distinction between the two than I'm thinking?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-14T20:19:58.910" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T06:35:58.110" Title="How does the neocortex distinguish between perception and imagination?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16818" CreationDate="2017-06-09T21:05:41.703" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Measures of &lt;em&gt;person-job fit&lt;/em&gt; and/or &lt;em&gt;person-organization fit&lt;/em&gt;. The following rather randomly assembled references are intended as links to some questionnaires. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chang, H.-T., Chi, N.-W., &amp;amp; Chuang, A. (2010). Exploring the moderating roles of perceived person-Job fit and person-organisation fit on the relationship between training investment and knowledge workers’ turnover intentions. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 59(4), 566–593.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kooij, D. T. A. M., van Woerkom, M., Wilkenloh, J., Dorenbosch, L., &amp;amp; Denissen, J. J. A. (2017). Job crafting towards strengths and interests: The effects of a job crafting intervention on person–job fit and the role of age. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(6), 971–981. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000194&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000194&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piasentin, K. A., &amp;amp; Chapman, D. S. (2007). Perceived similarity and complementarity as predictors of subjective person-organization fit. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 80(2), 341–354. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1348/096317906X115453&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1348/096317906X115453&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saks, A. M., &amp;amp; Ashforth, B. E. (1997). A longitudinal investigation of the relationships between job information sources, applicant perceptions of fit, and work outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 50(2), 395–426. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1997.tb00913.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1997.tb00913.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wheeler, A. R., Gallagher, V. C., Brouer, R. L., &amp;amp; Sablynski, C. J. (2007). When person-organization (mis)fit and (dis)satisfaction lead to turnover: The moderating role of perceived job mobility. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(2), 203–219. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710726447&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710726447&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastActivityDate="2017-06-09T21:05:41.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17461" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-10T04:11:13.737" Score="2" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently learned about a friend who is suffering from some serious mental illness from someone who has yet to reveal this illness to the individual.  Apparently the individual in question suffers from Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD; and perhaps some other serious issues) and has very, very little chance for improvement through treatment as the prognosis is very poor according to the professionals. This is compounded by a likelihood that this individual is going to lose their children due to the circumstances of the situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, statistically or experientially, what kind of a reaction can one normally expect from such an individual?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This person also, in the past, had an obsession with death and &quot;murder scene&quot; magazines. They also have lost someone very close through a family murder / suicide wherein a parent killed their entire family (spouse and children). This left an absolutely indelible impression upon this individual. This person also has a very reactionary and violent personality that tends to escalate issues that should be minimal. They frequently will become angered or even rage instead of having a normal weepy reaction to such stimuli that might cause a regular person sadness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I ask is that this person has children and I am extremely concerned about the manner that this news will be revealed to the individual.  I would like to understand what kind of risk the children and their spouse (with whom they do not have a good relationship) are in.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately I don't have any real power over the situation but to perhaps offer some suggestions and try to keep close (but safe) in order to keep the children out of harm's way. This has me very uncomfortable and worried as I don't have much power over the situation, but I would like to know potentially what to expect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9605" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T04:48:28.717" Title="What to expect from a seriously mentally ill individual when a poor prognosis is revealed through improper channels?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17462" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17461" CreationDate="2017-06-10T04:48:28.717" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an answer to a similar question regarding narcistic behaviour and negative feedback reaction: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/17384/how-can-a-narcissist-be-given-negative-feedback-without-triggering-aggressive-be.][1]&quot;&gt;How can a narcissist be given negative feedback without triggering aggressive behavior?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a more general answer. The case you described has surely a lot more facets and details to consider.&#xA;I would have just commented it, but I don't have enough reputation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16016" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T04:48:28.717" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17463" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17465" CreationDate="2017-06-10T08:15:04.783" Score="4" ViewCount="985" Body="&lt;p&gt;What would a reasonable estimate be of the data capacity of the human brain expressed in bytes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16128" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-10T21:06:52.457" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T21:06:52.457" Title="What is the capacity of the human brain?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17464" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17443" CreationDate="2017-06-10T13:13:35.143" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/users/7001/arnon-weinberg&quot;&gt;@ArnonWeinberg&lt;/a&gt; mentioned, clinical supervision, detailed in my answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/15866/how-do-clinicians-control-for-their-own-mental-disorders&quot;&gt;the previous question&lt;/a&gt; will prevent abuse of position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clinical supervisors have a duty of care, not only to the supervisee (the therapist), but also the supervisee's clients, and if the supervisor feels that abuse of power is occurring they must refer it to the governing bodies to remove their licence to practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If they feel there are any mental health issues preventing the supervisee from acting effectively, then the supervisor will refer the supervisee for therapy. If necessary, they may also take further action to prevent the therapist from causing harm to their clients whilst undergoing therapy. I have added this point to my previous answer mentioned here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T13:13:35.143" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17465" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17463" CreationDate="2017-06-10T15:08:56.340" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Paul Reber, professor of psychology at Northwestern University, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-the-memory-capacity/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;stated that&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The human brain consists of about one billion neurons. Each neuron forms about 1,000 connections to other neurons, amounting to more than a trillion connections. If each neuron could only help store a single memory, running out of space would be a problem. You might have only a few gigabytes of storage space, similar to the space in an iPod or a USB flash drive. Yet neurons combine so that each one helps with many memories at a time, exponentially increasing the brain’s memory storage capacity to something closer to &lt;strong&gt;around 2.5 petabytes&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petabyte&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1PB&lt;/a&gt; = 1,000,000,000,000,000 B = 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; bytes = 1000 TB (terabytes).&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terabyte&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1TB&lt;/a&gt; = 1,000,000,000,000 bytes = 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; bytes = 1000 GB (gigabytes). So&lt;br&gt;2.5PB = 2.5 million gigabytes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For comparison, if your brain worked like a digital video recorder in a television, 2.5 petabytes would be enough to hold three million hours of TV shows. You would have to leave the TV running continuously for more than 300 years to use up all that storage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same article states that although it is stated that the brain is capable of storing around 2.5PB of information,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The brain’s exact storage capacity for memories is difficult to calculate. First, we do not know how to measure the size of a memory. Second, certain memories involve more details and thus take up more space; other memories are forgotten and thus free up space. Additionally, some information is just not worth remembering in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T15:08:56.340" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17467" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-10T19:47:44.727" Score="9" ViewCount="1336" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the natural avoidance of incest something that is learned or is the human brain programmed by instinct to have a negative response to incest? This of course would have an evolutionary advantage and would hence make perfect sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15585" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-06-28T22:37:41.983" LastActivityDate="2021-05-10T23:54:46.610" Title="Is an avoidance of incest/inbreeding learned or instinctive?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;anthropology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17468" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17451" CreationDate="2017-06-10T21:28:45.833" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The thing that comes to mind first are the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://facweb.cs.depaul.edu/sgrais/gestalt_principles.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gestalt principles&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Up front -  the Gestalt theory of perception has been &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;criticized as being a descriptive theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, and not providing much insight into the processes that lead to perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the principles do address your question, as the Gestalt theory dictates that humans &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://facweb.cs.depaul.edu/sgrais/gestalt_principles.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visually and psychologically attempt to make order out of chaos&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, to create harmony or structure from seemingly disconnected bits of information. Much of the principles deal with figure/ground separation, but an important other aspect is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://facweb.cs.depaul.edu/sgrais/gestalt_principles.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;similarity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, and specifically&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gestalt theory states that things which share visual characteristics&#xA;  such as shape, size, color, texture, or value will be seen as&#xA;  belonging together in the viewer’s mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The principle of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_grouping&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;grouping&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1467-9280.00459&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Quinn &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2002)&lt;/a&gt; is indeed fundamental here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The similarity principle claims that elements tend to be integrated into groups if they are similar to each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1467-9280.00459&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quinn &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Psych Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2002); &lt;strong&gt;13&lt;/strong&gt;(4)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-10T21:39:05.047" LastActivityDate="2017-06-10T21:39:05.047" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17469" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17467" CreationDate="2017-06-10T21:59:47.473" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not my field, but I gave it a quick search. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21364180&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; article seems to speak directly to this question, summarizing and comparing multiple theories to each other. In light of these theories, the article also seems to propose a synthesized theory of the avoidance. Formal citation below. Hope this helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;APA Citation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paul, R. A. (2011). Incest Avoidance: Oedipal and Preoedipal, Natural and Cultural. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 58(6), 1087–1112. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0003065110395759&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0003065110395759&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-06-28T22:50:15.563" LastActivityDate="2017-06-28T22:50:15.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17472" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17473" CreationDate="2017-06-11T04:55:37.107" Score="3" ViewCount="879" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0030222817691870&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cautioning Health-Care Professionals: Bereaved Persons Are Misguided Through the Stages of Grief&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Stroebe et al. the popular &quot;5 stage model&quot; of Kübler-Ross is incorrect. Stroebe et al. argue:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the regularities of stage theory are too simplistic and limited; they&#xA;  fail to represent the complex emotions and processes of grief and&#xA;  grieving. They also lack empirical foundation. Using stages in&#xA;  practice is potentially harmful, and yet an (perhaps the) ultimate&#xA;  goal of theory construction in our field is to enable health-care&#xA;  professionals to provide tangible help to those who need it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the leading theories/models of bereavement and how are they superior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-06-11T05:57:48.967" Title="What is the leading alternative to the &quot;stages&quot; model of grieving?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17473" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17472" CreationDate="2017-06-11T05:57:48.967" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46630969_Theories_of_grief_and_grieving&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Theories of Grief and Bereavement&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Boerner et al. (2015) the leading theories are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Four Component Model from Bonanno and Kaltman&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Context in which loss occurs &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Subject meanings associated with loss&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Changes in representation of the lost loved ones over time&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Presence of coping and emotion processes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47716739_The_Dual_Process_Model_of_Coping_with_Bereavement_A_Decade_on&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Dual Process Model&lt;/a&gt; from Stroebe and Schut&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Loss-oriented coping&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Restoration-oriented coping&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article also notes that further work needs to be done in terms of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Effects of inter-personal relations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Influences of cultural background&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Biological aspects&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-06-11T05:57:48.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17474" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-11T07:13:14.683" Score="1" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was looking into the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Limerence#/overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;limerence&lt;/a&gt; as a stage of evolution in a romantic relationship, however I can't find any sources for it other than its origin in the book &quot;Love and Limerence: The Experience of Being in Love&quot; by Dorothy Tennov. Has there been any criticism of this as a concept, not as diagnosis for abnormal psychology? I'm somewhat skeptical of any psychological concept put forth by a single part without external validation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T16:48:33.640" Title="Validity of limerance as a romantic evolutionary stage" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17475" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-11T07:19:32.590" Score="4" ViewCount="178" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/17474/4397&quot;&gt;I was looking into the concept of limerence as a stage of evolution in a romantic relationship&lt;/a&gt;, however I couldn't contrast it with other models and their components. Assuming that romantic relationships probably vary largely depending from cultural background, what are the leading models of monogamous relationship evolution in the field of social psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-06-14T16:36:05.587" Title="Models of romantic relationships evolution" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17476" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17467" CreationDate="2017-06-11T19:31:52.123" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's selected against due to negative recessive traits/phenotypes/diseases being more pronounced and more prevalent in the gene pool of the species or population. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Individuals who do are less fit and don't fare as well on average and become less numerous in the population. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a social component too, as some comments say. To what degree is social but it is taboo in most species, certainly for mammals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: We breed K9s to different phenotypes. We inbred to get the desired traits such as body size, color, temperament, etc. The further one diverges from the ancestral populations' phenotypes, the more health issues and generic disease are expressed. For instance, hip dysplasia. A wild individual would probably die and not get to pass any genes along if they were suffering from an ailment due to close inbreeding. In this case the selection is artificial, but the point is the same. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good source to reference is Richard Dawkins' book &lt;em&gt;The greatest show on earth&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8225" LastActivityDate="2017-06-11T19:31:52.123" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17477" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17474" CreationDate="2017-06-11T19:47:43.437" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The theme of love is and will be a very broad subject in psychology. As on other occasions I have always focused on variables to take into account in this theme: attachment, attraction, sexual behavior, esthetics (philosophical theme), likes, interests, etc (as always keep in mind also that there may always be more variables than those considered).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In broad themes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Certain facts can be studied as phenomena.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A set of facts about a phenomenon can be established in a construct in a theory (here it is not so much about terms or concepts) these constructs have different realities (reality as individual mental state, reality through the influence that causes In the social or interpersonal domain), can not be directly observed, its characteristics must be studied through other objects.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In many cases it is difficult to limit the construct due to its limits, for example other processes or even other social phenomena (for example, how to determine the limit of the stereotype construct in any investigation).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Addressing the issue of validity in a broad sense (beyond validity in psychometry) (epistemological validity) can refer to many things, to perform a certain analysis, to apply a methodology, a hypothesis, an experiment, at in the end can be understood as the correct scientific procedure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term limerance has validity in that it is a concept that refers to a construct whose effects are registered by an investigator and seem to be found other sources that handle it (it is not strictly necessary for the construct to be labeled in this way in other sources , It does not matter as much the sources as the methodological validity of the scientific process, in any case if that seems to be a construct that other investigators handle)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further reading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, Hazan, Cindy; Shaver, Phillip&lt;br&gt;(DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.2.281&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Attachment Style as a Predictor of Adult Romantic Relationships&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, Judith A. Feeney, Patricia Noller&lt;br&gt;(DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.58.2.281)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cne.20772&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Romantic love: An fMRI study of a neural mechanism for mate choice&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, Helen Fisher, Arthur Aron, Lucy L. Brown&lt;br&gt;(DOI: 10.1002/cne.20772)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-06-13T16:48:33.640" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T16:48:33.640" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17478" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17454" CreationDate="2017-06-11T22:48:33.200" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thanks to Jonas Londelov, I've been able to rewrite the script for measuring multiple keys until esc is pressed and writing the key duration, the key and the info into an excel sheet. It might not be very good written I a python beginner, but it is useful. Perhaps someone else will need it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;from __future__ import division&#xA;from psychopy import visual, event, core, data, iohub&#xA;from psychopy.iohub import launchHubServer &#xA;io = iohub.launchHubServer&#xA;import csv&#xA;io = launchHubServer()&#xA;keyboard = io.devices.keyboard  # handy name&#xA;count = 0&#xA;keyinfo = &quot;&quot;&#xA;duration = 0&#xA;key = &quot;&quot;&#xA;time = core.getTime()&#xA;date = data.getDateStr(format='%Y_%b_%d_%H%M')#(format=&quot;%Y_%m_%d %H:%M (Year_Month_Day Hour:Min)&quot;)&#xA;&#xA;io.clearEvents('all')&#xA;win = visual.Window([400, 400])&#xA;msg = visual.TextStim(win, text='press a key\n &amp;lt; esc &amp;gt; to quit')&#xA;msg.draw()&#xA;win.flip()&#xA;&#xA;datafile = open(&quot;touch duration.csv&quot;, &quot;wb&quot;) #$not overwriting but longer&#xA;writer = csv.writer(datafile, delimiter=&quot;;&quot;)&#xA;# create output file header&#xA;writer.writerow([&#xA;    date,&#xA;    &quot;round&quot;, &#xA;    &quot;keyinfo&quot;, &#xA;    &quot;duration&quot;,&#xA;    &quot;key&quot;,&#xA;    ])&#xA;&#xA;while key not in ['escape', 'esc']:&#xA;    key_info = keyboard.waitForReleases()[0]  # Just grab first release, even if there are multiple&#xA;    count += 1&#xA;    key = key_info.key&#xA;    keyinfo = key_info&#xA;    duration = key_info.duration&#xA;    key = key_info.key&#xA;    print 'round number:' , count&#xA;    print key_info&#xA;    print 'Press time was', key_info.duration&#xA;    print 'key', key_info.key&#xA;    writer.writerow([&#xA;    &quot;&quot;,&#xA;    count, &#xA;    keyinfo, &#xA;    duration,&#xA;    key,&#xA;    ])&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16016" LastEditorUserId="16016" LastEditDate="2017-06-14T23:55:47.757" LastActivityDate="2017-06-14T23:55:47.757" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17479" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-12T11:03:32.763" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have just been reading about Elon Musks new company &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://neuralink.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuralink&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. He claims that it is possible to increase the communication speed between humans and computers by using direct brain interfaces which could help in exchanging large volumes of information in a short period of time. The speed with which humans generate written information is just a few bytes per second. But computers communicate with each other at a very fast rate.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So my doubts are,&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is such a thing even possible?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; I have this question because I believe that our brain does not understand binary. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It took me a few &lt;em&gt;whole minutes&lt;/em&gt; for typing this question. It was not because of my inability to type fast. It was because I had to plan with precision, each sentence I type to avoid grammatical errors and to communicate my question well (and to ensure that my question does not get hit with a series of downvotes). &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;So how does increasing the communication speed between my brain and the computer actually guaranty that I will type this question faster than I'm typing now&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If such a thing is actually possible, can you explain (&lt;em&gt;in brief&lt;/em&gt;) how will such a method work?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6235" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-06-13T16:58:12.343" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T16:58:12.343" Title="How will brain-computer interfacing work?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-06-17T13:30:23.873" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17482" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15808" CreationDate="2017-06-13T06:25:22.750" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain needs rest as much as it needs stimulation and exercise. The line has to be drawn, however, where one feels as if &lt;em&gt;too&lt;/em&gt; much rest is given. If the brain continuously is computing, organizing or analyzing complex problems 24/7, may start to degenerate. There is only &lt;em&gt;so much&lt;/em&gt; our brain can do without rest. According to the book &lt;strong&gt;Brain Facts: A Primer on the Brain and Nervous System&lt;/strong&gt;, lack of sleep stretches far beyond increased vulnerability to diseases and health complications. It encompasses, but isn't limited to: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;slowed neuroplasticity &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;general cognitive impairment implicated in the frontal lobe&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;decreased &lt;em&gt;long-term potentation&lt;/em&gt; which is important for higher cognitive function.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16148" LastEditorUserId="16148" LastEditDate="2017-06-13T13:31:14.277" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T13:31:14.277" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17484" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17491" CreationDate="2017-06-13T07:02:28.610" Score="2" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is true that many, if not all feelings of our mind like euphoria, dysphoria, pleasure, sadness &lt;em&gt;et cetera&lt;/em&gt; are linked to a chemical reaction in our brain. This reaction is essentially what &lt;em&gt;causes&lt;/em&gt; us to feel these emotions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, is the factor that causes us to really &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;feel&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; what we feel inherently biochemical? If so, then what neurobiological property of these reactions causes the intensity of the feeling? For example, what separates plain happiness from blissful ecstasy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16148" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-13T19:34:51.297" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T20:57:51.720" Title="Pleasure can be implicated in a chemical reaction in the brain, but does this really affect the intensity of the feeling?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17486" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17499" CreationDate="2017-06-13T13:42:15.920" Score="7" ViewCount="2192" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was watching &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cgdqe2vV9H8&amp;amp;t=2m10s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a short YouTube video&lt;/a&gt; that comments on the validity of IQ. That video contains the following claim (verbatim):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;You know nothing about a person's intelligence on the basis of his or her skin color. That is just a fact. &lt;strong&gt;There is much more variance among individuals in any racial group than there is between groups&lt;/strong&gt;...&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was shortly after he stated that there are real differences in the average IQ of different races.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find the bold statement confusing and am not certain how to interpret it. I understand what variance means when discussing &lt;strong&gt;a single&lt;/strong&gt; probability distribution however, my learning never extended to variance &lt;strong&gt;between&lt;/strong&gt; distributions. Could someone please explain how this is done and more importantly, why this measure justifies the first (non-bold) statement?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16153" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-06-14T04:41:06.680" LastActivityDate="2017-06-15T11:49:56.717" Title="What does it mean for there to be more variance within groups than between groups in IQ?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17487" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15808" CreationDate="2017-06-13T13:59:27.777" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2013/01/21/overcoming-information-overload&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Margarita Tartakovski on PsychCentral says&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Information is merely a click — or, more accurately, a Google search — away. Depending on your query, there’s likely at least a dozen, if not hundreds, of blogs on the topic, a similar number of books and many more articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is a good thing, but it also can overburden our brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lucyjopalladino.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lucy Jo Palladino&lt;/a&gt;, Ph.D, a psychologist and author of &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1416532005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Find Your Focus Zone: An Effective New Plan to Defeat Distraction and Overload&lt;/a&gt;, “Information overload occurs when a person is exposed to more information than the brain can process at one time.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Alvin Toffler actually coined the term in 1970 in his book &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0808501526&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Future Shock&lt;/a&gt;. As more and more people started using the Web, “information overload” became a popular phrase to describe how we felt about going online, Palladino said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to neuroscientists, the more accurate term is “&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive overload&lt;/a&gt;,” she said. That’s “because the brain can process vast amounts of information depending on the form in which it’s presented,”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Professor Torkel Klingberg, MD, PhD (2009), the brain can suffer from information overload, and he gives some examples of what he is talking about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our brains have limited capacity for processing information.  This book is an attempt to understand why this is so, what effect it has on our everyday lives, and how we can stretch these limits with mental exercise......In his article &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2005/01/overloaded-circuits-why-smart-people-underperform&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Overloaded Circuits: Why Smart People Underperform&lt;/a&gt;,&quot; psychiatrist Edward Hallowell coins the term &quot;attention deficit trait&quot; to characterize the situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From these articles, and articles linked within these articles, I would say that there are times that &lt;strong&gt;the brain needs rest at times in-between mental activities, in order to process things learnt, but the periods of rest needed can vary depending on how the activity taxes the brain, and how much it is used to dealing with the information&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T13:59:27.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17488" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17486" CreationDate="2017-06-13T15:14:45.540" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the video he is discussing some work of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Murray_(political_scientist)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Charles Murray&lt;/a&gt; (not sure how familiar you are with it). In any case, the main point of your confusion comes from the difference between &lt;strong&gt;presence&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;size&lt;/strong&gt;. Dr. Harris admits that there are differential IQ values between the races: there &lt;strong&gt;is&lt;/strong&gt; (presence) a difference. The immediate follow up, though, is that the &lt;strong&gt;size&lt;/strong&gt; of that difference pales in comparison to the variability with the group, indicating that no practical conclusions can be made.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a silly example (and not leave any Earth groups out), consider Martians and Plutons (poor Pluto...): Martians may have a slightly higher IQ than Plutons, but the variability within each group is much higher than the between group difference. Dr. Harris' whole point is that, upon meeting a random Pluton and a random Martian, you practically have no idea which of them will be smarter, &lt;em&gt;even though we know that Martians tend to be smarter&lt;/em&gt;. A pretty picture illustrates the two groups below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this helps! &lt;strong&gt;Take home message&lt;/strong&gt; from the video is that even though there are small differences between races in terms of IQ, they should not play a role in someone's judgement of another person due to the &lt;em&gt;immensely&lt;/em&gt; higher variability of IQ within any given race (there are some super smart Plutons and some super dumb Plutons, just like there are some super smart Martians and some super dumb Martians: you won't know which you are speaking to until you actually talk to them).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JzYtE.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JzYtE.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Plutons vs Martians&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Graph coded in R:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;boxplot(cbind(Plutons = rnorm(1000, mean=100, sd=15), Martians = rnorm(1000, mean=102, sd=15)))&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-06-13T16:37:12.720" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T16:37:12.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17489" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-13T16:29:45.720" Score="2" ViewCount="166" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could anyone please suggest what values to be used for Window and noverlap inputs of pwelch function in Matlab. I am using a 200 ms EEG signal with sampling frequency 1000 (so total samples 200) to evaluate spectral power. By default pwelch uses hamming window and divides the data into 8 segments with 50% overlap. Are these default values okay for my small signal?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for the help!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16155" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T16:29:45.720" Title="Window and noverlap values in pwelch function of Matlab" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17490" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17467" CreationDate="2017-06-13T16:34:59.033" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before I can answer this question, I would like to draw your attention to &lt;a href=&quot;https://itunes.apple.com/gb/podcast/why-does-law-recognize-marriage-restrict-it-as-it-does/id385577095?i=1000085423181&amp;amp;mt=2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an iTunesU talk&lt;/a&gt; hosted by Professor &lt;a href=&quot;https://law.stanford.edu/directory/ralph-richard-banks/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ralph Richard (Rick) Banks&lt;/a&gt; at Stanford Law about marriage restriction, which covers incestual relationships and the arguements for legal restriction in incestual marriage and relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this talk, Rick is not talking about incest between an adult and child as this is obviously wrong and covered by child sexual abuse laws.  What he is referring to is incestual relationships between 2 consenting adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One argument he has is that society and the law generally prohibits relationships between people related by marriage - step relatives such as step-brother and step-sister or step-mother/father and step-son/daughter such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nationnews.com/nationnews/news/32470/siblings-love-sex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nick Cameron and Danielle Heaney&lt;/a&gt;, and these cases have no bearing on genetics which others have put forward.  And on that subject, Rick argues that the risk of genetic problems occurring does not legally stop anyone having a sexual relationship with someone with genetic abnormalities, so why should the law stop consensual incest between adults?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question would come into the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/naturevsnurture.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nature vs nurture debate&lt;/a&gt; (Are behaviours inherently biologically or environmentally determined?) And cases such as Nick and Danielle, above, highlight some of the reasons why this sort of question pops up on occasions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are papers and articles which argue that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/animals-and-us/201210/the-problem-incest&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;incest causes genetic abnormalities which can weaken the gene pool within populations&lt;/a&gt;, and there are arguments which counter-act those arguments because there is the phenomenon of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_purging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Genetic Purging&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, Rick Banks puts forward a valid argument which is that the main reason for restricting incest is that it can be socially destructive for individuals in the family context.  However, is that because of social barriers to incest, or some other psychological reason? — I am digressing as that is another question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that the answer to your question on learnt or instinctive avoidance of incest is a matter of opinion at the moment.  Some people say that the taboo comes from some sort of anti-incest mechanism within the biological framework of the person.  However, from looking at things on balance through articles and papers I have read, including some of those linked in the genetic purging link above, &lt;strong&gt;I, along with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/animals-and-us/201210/the-problem-incest&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some anthropologists, say&lt;/a&gt; that incest taboos are learnt social conventions&lt;/strong&gt;.  Look at how it was generally believed that homosexuality for example is down to genetic faults or mental illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-06-13T16:50:56.217" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T16:50:56.217" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17491" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17484" CreationDate="2017-06-13T19:12:57.347" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In case of dopamine, its amounts present in the reward pathway in the brain correlates positively with the intensity of pleasure experienced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;To focus the answer I'll narrow the scope of this post to one of the most extensively investigated emotional centers in the brain, namely the reward center involving the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolimbic_pathway&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;dopaminergic mesolimbic pathway&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dopamine (DA) release in this system rewards the brain's host for beneficial things essential to life, such as eating, drinking and having sex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also one of the major neural centers in the brain involved in addiction, including nicotine, cocaine and methampetamine addiction, as well as gambling and pathological risk-taking behaviors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The opiate class of narcotics, most notably cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, morphine, heroine and their analogues invoke a massive increase in DA levels in the mesolimbic pathway. An increase in DA levels has been shown to be a final (secondary) common pathway that mediates the rewarding properties of these drugs of abuse, explaining their addictive properties &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/85/14/5274.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Chiara &amp;amp; Imperato, 1988)&lt;/a&gt;.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In humans it has been established by behavioral experiments that the magnitude of ventral striatal DA release (the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striatum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;striatum&lt;/a&gt; is a part of the reward system in the brain) correlates positively with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dictionary.com/browse/hedonic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hedonic&lt;/a&gt; (pleasure) response associated with amphetamine &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7960/1de67628ab3636a465f76f94271e9b5061a9.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Drevets &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. In other words, &lt;strong&gt;more DA is correlated with more happiness&lt;/strong&gt; and thus the amount of DA indeed correlates with the intensity of the feeling associated with its release in the reward system.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a side note on this; a notorious problem with many drugs of abuse are their purity. For example, Coca leaves cause a mild stimulant high when chewed. As far as I know, the American Indians have not suffered from overt physical or psychological dependence on these leaves in the thousands of years they probably have used them. However, shortly after the discovery of coca leaves (and opium poppies for that matter) by the Old World, the active ingredient was purified and eventually isolated. Cocaine (and morphine) cause a sudden and massive increase in dopamine levels &lt;a href=&quot;http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/205579&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Romach &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1999)&lt;/a&gt;, in turn not just leading to feelings of pleasure, but to near-instantaneous, full-blown ecstatic &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolutionary-psychiatry/201105/dopamine-primer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;euphoria&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. It is this notorious '&lt;em&gt;first-time high&lt;/em&gt;' that virtually every addict keeps on pursuing, and which they will unfortunately never experience again in their life due to tolerance that build up almost instantly after first use of highly purified preparations of coca (crack, cocaine) and poppies (morphine, heroine).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;em&gt;Post scriptum&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In general, the '&lt;em&gt;biochemistry&lt;/em&gt;' of the brain refers to neurotransmitters. Their actions are primarily due the binding of these compounds to their respective receptors. The process of neurotransmitter release and receptor binding are not &lt;em&gt;chemical reactions&lt;/em&gt; in the strictest sense of their meaning, as stated in your question. The secondary responses of the postsynaptic neuron may, or may not involve chemical reactions. Some second messenger systems do rely on chemical reactions (the metabotropic receptors including the dopamine receptors) while others do not (ion channel-coupled receptor systems for example).&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/85/14/5274.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chiara &amp;amp; Imperato, &lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt; (1998); &lt;strong&gt;85&lt;/strong&gt;: 5274-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7960/1de67628ab3636a465f76f94271e9b5061a9.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Drevets &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2001); &lt;strong&gt;49&lt;/strong&gt;: 81–96&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/205579&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Romach &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Arch Gen Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (1999); &lt;strong&gt;56&lt;/strong&gt;(12): 1101-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-13T20:57:51.720" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T20:57:51.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17494" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17496" CreationDate="2017-06-13T20:52:50.980" Score="3" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a tutor for children with learning disabilities and i have read that they have lower levels of perceived self-efficacy than students without this learning disabilities. I decided to deepen the construct of self-efficacy reading something of Bandura and i found that the perception of our efficacy can influence our behaviour and performance outcomes (Bandura, 1977).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So i asked to myself: if people - with or without learning disabilities - knew that they have thoughts (sometimes latent) about their abilities, it would affect their &lt;strong&gt;attitude&lt;/strong&gt; to a certain task? In another way: Could, just the &lt;strong&gt;knowledge&lt;/strong&gt; of self-efficacy, have some influence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-13T21:01:36.557" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T21:47:29.597" Title="Could the knowledge of the construct of self-efficacy affect the student's aptitude to a certain task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17496" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17494" CreationDate="2017-06-13T21:47:29.597" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bandura and Cervone (1983) posit: &quot;Those who have a low sense of self-efficacy may be easily discouraged by failure, whereas those who are assured of their capabilities for goal attainment intensify their efforts when their performances fall short and persist until they succeed&quot; (p. 1018). The same paper also provides empirical evidence for this claim. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Accordingly, the answer to your question is &lt;em&gt;yes&lt;/em&gt;. However, it seems more appropriate to speak of &quot;sense&quot; instead of &quot;knowledge&quot; when referring to the self-efficacy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bandura, A., &amp;amp; Cervone, D. (1983). Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(5), 1017–1028. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1017&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1017&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T21:47:29.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17497" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17498" CreationDate="2017-06-13T23:12:13.230" Score="1" ViewCount="917" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_engagement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Work engagement&lt;/a&gt; has three aspects: vigor, dedication, and absorption. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flow&lt;/a&gt; according to wikipedia &quot;is the mental state of operation in which a person performing an activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between the two concepts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16159" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T23:58:42.603" Title="What is the difference between work engagement and flow?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17498" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17497" CreationDate="2017-06-13T23:58:42.603" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;While there are some differences, the two concepts are closely related. &#xA;Both flow and work engagement are &quot;positive emotional states&quot; (Schaufeli, Bakker and Van Rhenen, 2009, p. 898). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Schaufeli et al. (2009, p. 895) &quot;recent research suggests that vigor and dedication constitute the core of engagement, whereas absorption seems to be related to the concept of flow&quot; as defined by Csikszentmihalyi and LeFevre (1989).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;However, typically, flow is a more complex concept that includes many aspects and refers to rather particular, short-term ‘peak’ experiences instead of a more pervasive and persistent state of mind, as is the case with engagement&quot; (Schaufeli et al., 2002, p. 75). Moreover, work engagement refers specifically to &quot;identification with one's work&quot; (Schaufeli et al., 2009, p. 895). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Csikszentmihalyi, M., &amp;amp; LeFevre, J. (1989). Optimal experience in work and leisure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(5), 815–822. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.5.815&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.5.815&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., &amp;amp; Van Rhenen, W. (2009). How changes in job demands and resources predict burnout, work engagement, and sickness absenteeism. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(7), 893–917. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/job.595&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/job.595&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schaufeli, W., Salanova, M., González-romá, V., &amp;amp; Bakker, A. (2002). The Measurement of Engagement and Burnout: A Two Sample Confirmatory Factor Analytic Approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 71–92. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastActivityDate="2017-06-13T23:58:42.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17486" CreationDate="2017-06-14T03:03:46.613" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;You know nothing about a person's intelligence on the basis of his or her skin color. That is just a fact. &#xA;  There is much more variance among individuals in any racial group than there is between groups...&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first two sentences are wrong. The final sentence is true. It is presumably motivated by the idea that we should not infer properties of a group to the individual especially where such inference will result in discrimination. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Empirical perspective:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;As an empirical point, racial and national differences in intelligence test scores are well established in the literature (for a review see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence:_Knowns_and_Unknowns&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence:_Knowns_and_Unknowns&lt;/a&gt;). There is plenty of debate that can be had about what this means (i.e., to what extent does it reflect genetic differences versus environmental conditions? in what ways do standard IQ tests fail to measure aspects of intelligence that might be of interest? To what extent are differences declining with reduced inequality and improved living conditions? etc.).  But as an empirical point, I've often seen studies with many thousands of people find differences between racial groups in the vicinity of one standard deviation. By conventional rules of thumb, this is a large difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Statistical perspective:&lt;/strong&gt; If groups differ on a variable, then you can use knowledge of group membership to improve your prediction on that variable. For example, occupation predicts income. If I know someone is a doctor, I can predict that they earn more money than other people. As group differences get larger, so will be the improvement in prediction  that is provided by knowing group membership.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an example where groups differ by one standard deviation (i.e., one group has mean IQ of 100, and the other has mean IQ of 85):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;# Create data: 2 groups differing by 1 SD&#xA;&amp;gt; group1 &amp;lt;- data.frame(group = 1, iq = rnorm(1000, mean = 100, sd = 15))&#xA;&amp;gt; group2 &amp;lt;- data.frame(group = 2, iq = rnorm(1000, mean = 85, sd = 15))&#xA;&amp;gt; x &amp;lt;- rbind(group1, group2)&#xA;&amp;gt;                      &#xA;&amp;gt; summary(lm(iq ~ group, x))&#xA;&#xA;Call:&#xA;lm(formula = iq ~ group, data = x)&#xA;&#xA;Residuals:&#xA;    Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max &#xA;-47.168 -10.344   0.013  10.132  52.188 &#xA;&#xA;Coefficients:&#xA;            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(&amp;gt;|t|)    &#xA;(Intercept)  114.344      1.064  107.46   &amp;lt;2e-16 ***&#xA;group        -14.279      0.673  -21.22   &amp;lt;2e-16 ***&#xA;---&#xA;Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1&#xA;&#xA;Residual standard error: 15.05 on 1998 degrees of freedom&#xA;Multiple R-squared:  0.1839,    Adjusted R-squared:  0.1835 &#xA;F-statistic: 450.2 on 1 and 1998 DF,  p-value: &amp;lt; 2.2e-16&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I then ran a multiple regression. The R-squared represents the percentage of variance explained by group (i.e., 18.4%). Thus, the within-group variance is 100% - 18.4%  = 81.6%. So that is the basis for the claim. So one possible estimate based on the literature  is that within-group variance is around four times larger than between-group variance. Of course the exact numbers would depend on which groups were being compared and which empirical literature was used to form the estimate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This raises the question of how big group differences need to be before you could say that &quot;you know something about a person based on group membership&quot;. &#xA;Presumably, such inference are partially based on practical and ethics issues related to over generalization.&#xA;In general, group differences need to be extremely large (perhaps 2 or 3 standard deviations) before the overlap between group distributions gets small. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Legal/ethical perspective:&lt;/strong&gt; More importantly, generalizing from groups to individuals is illegal in many contexts. For example, many countries have legislation that aims to prevent the use of age, race, gender, religion, etc. as the basis for making employment, education, and other defined decisions. Thus, even if membership of these categories is predictive of something relevant, decision makers are forbidden from using this information. Rather, if they want, for example, to use intelligence scores to influence hiring decisions, then they need to actually measure intelligence, rather than rely on a meta-analysis that shows that the group to which the applicant is a member tends to score higher or lower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many good reason why such a legal regime is ethical and desirable. From a practical perspective, measurement will be far superior if you actually measure the thing of interest rather than inferring it from group membership. Furthermore, in many cases, people base their beliefs about group differences on stereotypes with no empirical backing. But more importantly, it reduces the perpetuation of social inequality. It focuses attention on the skills, competencies, and capacities of the individual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-06-15T11:49:56.717" LastActivityDate="2017-06-15T11:49:56.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17502" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17451" CreationDate="2017-06-14T08:29:07.400" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Accroding to the excellent book &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.cy/books?redir_esc=y&amp;amp;id=t2jldRsNkgsC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Big Book of Concepts&lt;/a&gt; by Gregory Murphy, in the prototype view every category is represented by a summary of representation features, with weights for each value of each dimension (e.g. color, hair length). When a new member of the category is encountered we add weights of the present features and subtract the weights of it's features that are not parts of a category, and if above a certain threshold then it is judged to be in category. The prototype is the generalisation that you are looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an extract from the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.cy/books?redir_esc=y&amp;amp;id=t2jldRsNkgsC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Big Book of Concepts&lt;/a&gt; by Gregory Murphy :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AcOtK.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AcOtK.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-06-14T08:29:07.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17503" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17451" CreationDate="2017-06-14T09:58:45.983" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps you are interested in the study to analogy making. According to Wikipedia, an analogy: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject (the analogue or source) to another (the target).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An analogy is often considered between to somewhat seemingly unrelated subjects (e.g. an atom vs the solar system), sharing an abstraction, i.e. a general abstract concept. This abstraction may be similar to your &quot;general idea of a cat&quot;, which can be specified to specific kind of breeds. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quick google search resulted in the following review (&lt;a href=&quot;http://leadserv.u-bourgogne.fr/files/publications/000273-the-computational-modeling-of-analogy-making.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;French, 2002&lt;/a&gt;) of computational models that try to explain analogies. In short, there are symbolic models, connectionist models and hybrid models that each use different approaches. The rather unsatisfactory conclusion of the paper is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ywaKj.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ywaKj.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;French, R. M. (2002). The computational modeling of analogy-making. Trends in cognitive Sciences, 6(5), 200-205.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-06-16T06:26:20.200" LastActivityDate="2017-06-16T06:26:20.200" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17504" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-14T10:59:42.587" Score="2" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am doing research on flow. So far I &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/17497/what-is-the-difference-between-work-engagement-and-flow&quot;&gt;found out&lt;/a&gt; that flow is a short-term positive peak experience, but not a persistent state of mind. I wonder, what is the difference between flow and cannabis induced high? (The ICD-10 code is F12.0 &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_intoxication&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cannabinoid intoxication&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16159" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-14T12:23:00.627" LastActivityDate="2017-06-15T08:27:52.343" Title="What is the difference between flow and cannabis induced high?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="992" CreationDate="2017-06-14T12:54:31.083" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The word &lt;em&gt;subconscious&lt;/em&gt; is rarely used in scientific terminology, it is widespread in popular culture, where it is used alternately as a synonym for &lt;em&gt;unconscious&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;preconscious&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud used to identify the dynamic unconscious with the process of removal. Today, a lot of psychologist use the term &quot;unconscious&quot; to refer to a wide range of processes that are not necessarily considered part of the removal (Lyons-Ruth 2004; trad.it. 2012, 56).&#xA;I think that when we talk about &lt;strong&gt;unconscious&lt;/strong&gt; we should delineate what we are referring to a little more precisely. For example, we have a procedural memory which is &lt;strong&gt;not conscious&lt;/strong&gt; but not &quot;actively restrained out of the consciousness by the force of removal&quot; (Amedei G., Cavanna D., e Zavattini G.C, 2015)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend: &#xA;Amedei G., Cavanna D., e Zavattini G.C, [Psicologia dinamica]: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mulino.it/isbn/9788815245670&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mulino.it/isbn/9788815245670&lt;/a&gt; and this article about [procedural memory]: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/43595-procedural-memory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.livescience.com/43595-procedural-memory.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-06-14T12:54:31.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17507" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17475" CreationDate="2017-06-14T16:36:05.587" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, the most important model of monogamous relationships is the attachment model, developed by Bowlby (1969). According to Fraley and Shaver: all romantic, or couple, relationships are attachment relationships. After &lt;em&gt;imprinting&lt;/em&gt;, the characteristics of the attachment's figure (generally the mother), and the style of parenting will be recognised by the baby as the ones who are deputy to take care of him. So the baby develops expectations and begins to build his IWM (internal Working Models).&#xA;People actively seek and select - even at an unconscious level - people, situations, and relationships that match their expectations and their IWM (Grazia Attili, 2004)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this frame, Cindy Hazan and Debra Zeifman introduced a model of &lt;strong&gt;Romantic relationships&lt;/strong&gt; based on 4 stages:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Attraction, courting, flirt&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Falling in love&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Love&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ordinary life and attachment &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information I recommend:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Grazia Attili &quot;Attaccamento e amore&quot; : &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mulino.it/isbn/9788815096845&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mulino.it/isbn/9788815096845&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Adult Romantic Attachment: Theoretical Developments,&#xA;Emerging Controversies, and Unanswered Questions&quot; by Fraley and Shaver &lt;a href=&quot;http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/Readings%20595/Fraley%2000%20attch%20rev%20copy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/Readings%20595/Fraley%2000%20attch%20rev%20copy.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;John Bowlby . &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.it/books/about/Attachment.html?id=WA7JejeXYd4C&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://books.google.it/books/about/Attachment.html?id=WA7JejeXYd4C&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-06-14T16:36:05.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17504" CreationDate="2017-06-15T08:27:52.343" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Following your links I understand you are relating to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flow&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: also known as the zone, is the mental state of operation in which a person performing an activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment in the process of the activity. In essence, flow is characterized by complete absorption in what one does and loses sense of space and time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_cannabis#Short-term_effects&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;effects of cannabis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; intoxication include, but are not limited to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;general alteration of conscious perception;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;euphoria;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;feelings of well-being;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;relaxation or stress reduction;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;increased appreciation of the arts, including humor and music;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;joviality;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;metacognition and introspection;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;enhanced recollection (episodic memory);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;increased sensuality;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;increased awareness of sensatio;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;increased libido and creativity;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;abstract or philosophical thinking;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;disruption of linear memory;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;paranoia or anxiety;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;greater enjoyment of food taste and aroma;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;enhanced enjoyment of music and comedy;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;marked distortions in the perception of time and space (where experiencing a &quot;rush&quot; of ideas from the bank of long-term memory can create the subjective impression of long elapsed time, while in reality only a short time has passed).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At higher doses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;altered body image;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;auditory and/or visual illusions;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;pseudohallucinations;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ataxia;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;rarely dissociative state (depersonalization and derealization);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;acute psychosis;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in all, based on a cursory wikipedia search, I would say there are more differences than similarities between the two states of mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-06-15T08:27:52.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17511" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-15T12:17:06.897" Score="2" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;Chronic stress can have a serious impact on our physical as well as psychological health due to sustained high levels of the chemicals released in the ‘fight or flight’ response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;em&gt;abused children&lt;/em&gt; has been noticed a dysregulation of the &quot;Hypothalamic - Pituitary - Adrenal&quot; axis and particularly anomalous levels of Cortisol (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/salivary-cortisol-in-maltreated-children-evidence-of-relations-between-neuroendocrine-activity-and-social-competence/75A8F2C0458EA4633760390F01C63F35&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hart, et al., 1995&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cicchetti and Rogosch hypothesize that the reduced activity of the HPA axis may have an adaptive role cause it protects against the consequences of a chronic hypercortisolism (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2941227/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cicchetti, et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;They also suggest this alteration to have effects on social skills?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Are there any research about it?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Howe, M. L., &amp;amp; Toth, S. L. (2010). The Effects of Maltreatment and Neuroendocrine Regulation on Memory Performance. &lt;em&gt;Child Development&lt;/em&gt;, 81(5), 1504–1519.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01488.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01488.x&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2941227/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC2941227&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hart, J., Gunnar, M., &amp;amp; Cicchetti, D. (1995). Salivary cortisol in maltreated children: Evidence of relations between neuroendocrine activity and social competence. &lt;em&gt;Development and Psychopathology&lt;/em&gt;, 7(1), 11-26.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400006313&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1017/S0954579400006313&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-08-23T13:42:17.613" LastActivityDate="2017-08-23T13:42:17.613" Title="Which long-term effects can hypocortisolism have on behavior?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17514" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17418" CreationDate="2017-06-15T16:22:42.737" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term Dyslexia is used to refer to a pattern of learning difficulties&#xA;characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DSM-5 posit: &quot;The learning difficulties are not better accounted for by intellectual disabilities, &lt;strong&gt;uncorrected visual or auditory acuity&lt;/strong&gt;, other mental or neurological disorders, psychosocial adversity, lack of proficiency in the language of academic instruction, or inadequate educational instruction&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is one of the diagnostic criteria for a &quot;Specific learning disorder&quot;.&#xA;Accordingly, the answer to your question is &lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt;, because in that case we should talk about another deficit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-06-15T16:22:42.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17516" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17517" CreationDate="2017-06-15T19:40:50.000" Score="3" ViewCount="469" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find the entire connectivity matrix for the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;connectome&lt;/a&gt; of the roundworm &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. It is a much studied animal, as it features just a handful of neurons in its nervous system, 302 to be axact. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been looking forever and have come across &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dynamic-connectome.org/?page_id=25&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this website&lt;/a&gt; that seems to have &lt;em&gt;parts&lt;/em&gt; of the connectome (131 neurons and 277 neurons), but unfortunately it does not include the full connectome. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wormatlas.org/neuronalwiring.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;In the Worm Atlas&lt;/a&gt;, under section 2.1 Connectivity Data, it says it has all the data, but it doesn't seem to have the adjacency matrix for the connectome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anyone can direct me to a s&lt;strong&gt;ource where I can find a connectivity matrix of the &lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt; connectome&lt;/strong&gt; that would be a great help to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16178" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-15T20:09:24.240" LastActivityDate="2017-06-15T20:09:24.240" Title="Where can I find the connectivity matrix of the connectome of C. Elegans?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17517" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17516" CreationDate="2017-06-15T19:56:28.277" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The full connectome of &lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt; (Fig. 1.) is described by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/c-elegans-connectome/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Farber (2012)&lt;/a&gt; and as far as I know, the most complete data on &lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt;, including its connectome is available from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.openworm.org/downloads.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;OpenWorm Project&lt;/strong&gt; found here&lt;/a&gt;.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lrDW5.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lrDW5.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;connectome C. elegans&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. &lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt; connectome. image source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/c-elegans-connectome/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Farber (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/c-elegans-connectome/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Farber, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt; February 2012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Further reading&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/57594/are-there-organisms-with-fewer-than-1000-neurons/57601#57601&quot;&gt;Are there organisms with fewer than 1000 neurons?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-15T20:03:54.467" LastActivityDate="2017-06-15T20:03:54.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17519" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-16T02:45:21.000" Score="4" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I present two signals in paired comparison and ask the respondent to select the stronger signal in the pair, I find that it is the signal strength of the second signal that more so determines correct detection (0,1) yet the correlation between probability of correct detection (p) and both signals is significant and negative. Yes, the contrast contributes to the prediction of (p) but I cant figure out why my correlations are negative. It is as if the respondent is anchoring on the first signal and the &quot;smallness&quot; of the second signal determines (p). Does anyone have an explanation for this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Experiment backgrounds&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The stimulus is paired comparison words with each having a different factor loading based on it's measurement of agreeableness. So each word taps the construct more or less deeply than the other; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The contrast between the words in terms of their factor loading is the signal;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A set of 122 such paired comparison tasks was developed and the task before the respondent is to select the more agreeable word.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The stronger loading was alternated between being on the first and second word. I did find that the contrast predicted probability of correct detection (r = .20*). I know this is an unusual application of signal detection theory and you might not has seen this before.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16181" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2017-06-16T20:44:24.570" LastActivityDate="2017-08-15T21:49:17.967" Title="Understanding a negative correlation between Pc and signal strength" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17520" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-16T06:37:43.997" Score="3" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;What can we do as adults to rectify childhood damages? &#xA;For instance, When as an adult one feels lonely, anxious,etc ... at many occasions, I believe there is a good chance that those feelings are rooted in the person's childhood. Once it is diagnosed what the feelings come from originally, how can it be dealt with?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16182" LastEditorUserId="16182" LastEditDate="2017-06-18T22:58:46.667" LastActivityDate="2017-06-18T22:58:46.667" Title="How to deal with childhood trauma effectively?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-06-17T13:28:01.740" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17521" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-16T08:28:40.180" Score="1" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am cross-posting this question with &lt;a href=&quot;https://economics.stackexchange.com/q/17190/13656&quot;&gt;Economics StackExchange&lt;/a&gt; because I originally posted it on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/2308552/examples-of-behavioural-breakdowns-in-game-theory/2323514#2323514&quot;&gt;Mathematics StackExchange&lt;/a&gt; but didn't receive much helpful answers there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to compile multiple scenarios of the breakdown of game theory. Specifically, I'm looking for scenarios where game theory predicts certain behaviours, but in real-world scenarios or experiments, people tend to behave quite differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an example of the kind of thing I'm looking for, based on the ultimatum game: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Two players, A and B, are offered a certain amount of money, for example, 100€, to share between them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Player A first decides the split (e.g. 50-50, 60-40, 90-10, or whatever player A decides).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Player B chooses to either to accept Player A's split, in which case each player receives the amount dictated by Player A; or Player B refuses Player A's split, in which case both players receive 0€.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The game is played only once; there is no repitition.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Classic game theory predicts that as long as Player A offers any split in which Player B receives more than 0€, Player B would accept the offer. For example, if Player A offers 99-1, then Player B would accept the offer since 1€ is better than nothing. However, from what I understand, experiments have shown that for many offers below 50-50, Player B refuses the offer. The explanation is that when Player B perceives that Player A is being unfair, Player B often prefers that both players receive nothing rather than undergoing what they perceive to be unfair treatment. Apparently, the refusal depends on how much Player B would eventually receive. (For example, Player B might refuse a 90-10 split if 100€ is at stake, but might grudgingly accept it if 1000€ is at stake.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Could anyone please offer any examples where game theory predictions are known to differ from actual human behaviour?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Strictly speaking, in the example I gave, the problem isn't with the &quot;theory&quot; part of game theory; the problem is with correctly specifying the utilities. The players' real utility is a function of both the money they would receive and their perception of fairness. Because the game classically only specifies their utility in terms of money, the prediction fails because the perception of fairness is also important, yet neglected. It is neglected because it is much harder to quantify and to accurately specify on the same scale as money. In fact, I strongly suspect that all cases that I'm asking for would involve a similar element: the game theoretic prediction fails because players have some very important behavioural aspects of their utilities which are not specified in the game model because they are hard to quantify.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16180" LastActivityDate="2017-06-16T08:28:40.180" Title="Examples of behavioural breakdowns in game theory?" Tags="&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17522" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-16T10:45:44.897" Score="7" ViewCount="1008" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in looking at the effects of too much &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BDNF&lt;/a&gt; and other proteins such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RE1-silencing_transcription_factor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;repressor element one silencing transcription factor (REST)&lt;/a&gt;. Most research suggest that elevated levels are protective, however there is a small amount of research suggesting that too much (over expression) may actually be detrimental (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0969996108002775&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cunha, et al. 2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our results demonstrate that chronic BDNF overexpression in the central nervous system (CNS) causes learning deficits and short-term memory impairments, both in spatial and instrumental learning tasks. This observation suggests that a widespread increase in BDNF in forebrain networks may result in adverse effects on learning and memory formation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if there is any more research, or theories as to why too much of a protein that is considered to be protective could be harmful? Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cunha, C., et al. (2009) Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) overexpression in the forebrain results in learning and memory impairments. &lt;em&gt;Neurobiology of Disease&lt;/em&gt;, 33(3), pp. 358—368&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2008.11.004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.nbd.2008.11.004&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16083" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-10-26T07:20:36.607" LastActivityDate="2019-05-05T07:05:43.487" Title="Why could too much BDNF be detrimental in terms of depression and memory?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17523" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17661" CreationDate="2017-06-16T12:21:27.827" Score="4" ViewCount="235" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thanks to his studies on schizophrenic thoughts, &lt;strong&gt;Matte Blanco&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;The Unconscious as Infinite Sets. An essay in Bi-Logic&lt;/em&gt;, 1975) introduced an important modification of Freud's notion of the unconscious. He established that unconscious system is ruled by the symmetrical logic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This logic rises from two principles: the principle of generalization and the principle of symmetry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the &lt;strong&gt;Principle of symmetry&lt;/strong&gt; : In the unconscious, the inverse relationship of each relationship is treated as if it was equal to the relationship. &lt;em&gt;For example&lt;/em&gt;: if Juan is the father of Francisco, Francisco is the father of Juan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A consequence of this principle is the absence of time in the unconscious (Matte Blanco, 1975) because a logical connection of nearness between parts of a whole, cannot exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a342/beb8bc59dc106f7a7f3f4336a00c0a61ba2f.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freud (1900)&lt;/a&gt; said that the process of a dream is strictly ruled by the unconscious and said that many dreams neglect the temporal sequence of their contents, while others &lt;em&gt;try to indicate the temporal sequence in a complete way&lt;/em&gt;. Accordingly, Freud said that there's an alternation of &lt;em&gt;absence and presence&lt;/em&gt; of temporal sequences in the unconsciouss (and so in dreams).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does this alternation of &lt;em&gt;absence and presence&lt;/em&gt; of temporal sequences, involve different brain's processes?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Reference&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud, S. (1900). &lt;em&gt;The Interpretation of Dreams&lt;/em&gt; Third Edition Translated with Introduction by A.A. Brill, Ph.B., M.D. in 1913 New York:The Macmillan Company&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Original legally available to download&lt;/strong&gt; from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.forgottenbooks.com/en/books/TheInterpretationofDreams_10056678&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.forgottenbooks.com/en/books/TheInterpretationofDreams_10056678&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="16144" LastEditDate="2017-07-01T14:06:26.417" LastActivityDate="2020-07-10T14:07:47.900" Title="Is there time in dreams?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2020-07-14T16:42:33.290" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17202" CreationDate="2017-06-16T13:00:16.567" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I studied the &lt;em&gt;Child and Adolescent participation in decision-making questionnaire&lt;/em&gt; of L. O'Hare, O. Santin, K. Winter, C. McGuinness &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They found that children and young people's involvement in decision-making, when it went well, had a four stranded positive ‘therapeutic effect’ in that it led to better child/professional relationships, higher levels of self-esteem in children and young people, increased their sense of mastery and control and reduced their stress and anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some items are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Information to make a decision is presented to me in a way I understand&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am given the full information to make a decision&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I feel involved in making decisions in my life&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am given the opportunity to weigh up the pros and cons to make a decision&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I have the ability to weigh up the pros and cons to make a decision&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(...) &#xA;I wish this questionnaire will be useful for your research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;REFERENCES:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;L. O'Hare, O. Santin, K. Winter, C. McGuinness (2016), &quot;The reliability and validity of a child and adolescent participation in decision-making questionnaire&quot;, &lt;em&gt;&quot;Child: care, health and development&quot;&lt;/em&gt;,5,692-698.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LINK :  &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cch.12369/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cch.12369/full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-06-16T13:00:16.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17525" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-16T15:44:55.213" Score="4" ViewCount="2615" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard about people that experience fears for other people, or groups of people; for example a fear for babies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this a recognized pathologocal condition, or is it just a form of antisocial behavior; or maybe a sort of fear for the unknown, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/12/why-men-fear-small-babies/282616/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;new fathers fearing their newborn&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16186" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-16T19:40:44.067" LastActivityDate="2021-03-01T03:07:32.480" Title="What is a phobia against babies or kids called?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17527" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17411" CreationDate="2017-06-16T18:03:49.007" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Llzu7.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Llzu7.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When stress is chronic it could provoke bad effects:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;High blood pressure&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Impaired cognition&lt;/strong&gt; (maybe it explains the distraction) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lowered immune system&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, the distraction could be the effect of the increased level of cortisol... I wish my intervention will be useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;REFERENCES&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Michael S. Gazzaniga, Richard B. Ivry, George R. Mangun (2013),  &lt;em&gt;&quot;Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind: 4th Edition&quot;&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-06-16T18:03:49.007" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17528" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17525" CreationDate="2017-06-16T18:18:41.657" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This specific phobia doesn't exist, but I think that the symptom you described could be part of a &lt;strong&gt;Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to DSM-5,  a criterion for the diagnosis is: &quot;Marked fear or anxiety about &lt;em&gt;one&lt;/em&gt; or more social situations in which the individual is exposed to possible scrutiny by others. Examples include social interactions (e.g., having a conversation, meeting unfamiliar people), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), and performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech).&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;REFERENCES&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;DSM - 5 (2013)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-16T22:02:53.190" LastActivityDate="2017-06-16T22:02:53.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17529" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17525" CreationDate="2017-06-16T19:34:45.797" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;A rather cursory search brought me to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear_of_children&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the wikipedia page for fear of children&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear_of_children&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pedophobia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[The] fear of children, fear of infants or fear of childhood [..].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This as opposed to a pathological love for children, or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/pedophilia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pedophilia&lt;/a&gt;, which as an ongoing sexual attraction to pre-pubertal children. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case it is a fear specifically for infants, there is a more narrowly scoped type of phobia defined, namely:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://phobia.wikia.com/wiki/Brephophobia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brephophobia&lt;/strong&gt;, or &lt;strong&gt;infantophobia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; :  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[T]he fear of infant. It is more commonly suffered by adults,&#xA;  especially fertilizable women. The fear is commonly triggered due to&#xA;  miscarriage, and pressures on caring for baby.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-16T19:54:39.253" LastActivityDate="2017-06-16T19:54:39.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17530" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17519" CreationDate="2017-06-16T20:42:38.730" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I find that it is the signal strength of the second signal that more so determines correct detection (0,1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ideal unbiased observer bases the decision on $X1-X2$ while it sounds like your subjects are basing their decision on $aX1-X2$ where $a &amp;lt; 1$. While it is suboptimal, it is not a big deal. The fact that you know it means either report it or train the subjects out of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the correlation between probability of correct detection (p) and both signals is significant and negative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the first stimulus is very weak, the difference between it and the second stimulus will on average be larger than if the first stimulus is of moderate strength. One would therefore expect Pc to initially decrease as the strength of the first stimulus decreases. Additionally, if the first stimulus is very strong, the difference between it and the second stimulus will again be larger on average than if the first stimulus is of moderate strength. Therefore, for an ideal observer, the dependency of Pc of the strength of the first signal should be non-monotonic. The same holds for the second stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We know from the above statement that your subjects are not ideal. If the bias depends on the strength of the first signal (i.e., $a(X2)$ increases with X2) then the non-monotonicity of Pc on the strength of the stimuli could be hidden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-06-16T20:42:38.730" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17532" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-17T06:24:54.443" Score="4" ViewCount="241" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know of the varying types of personality tests and I find them interesting (specifically HEXACO due to it having multiple facets to expand its 6 main factors and I believe it is open-source or free to use to some extent). I was wondering if there exists any psychological tests that determine one's beliefs or philosophy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know of the Dark Triad, but that's still more personality than belief. The difference I am trying to define is that personality tests seem to me to state what a person does or how they act, but not necessarily attempt to define their reasoning or motives. I believe a psychological belief test could be interesting, and/or (if different) a test of how one's personal philosophy is correlated to academic philosophies, meaning the well-established and studied philosophies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any resources and thoughts are welcomed here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychological profiling may accomplish to some extent what I am looking for, but I am uncertain. These may help reveal one's motivations to some degree, which is still something useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15977" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-04-09T05:37:37.840" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T09:32:41.873" Title="Are there any tests for one's belief or philosophy?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17533" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-17T08:49:57.757" Score="4" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, let me state that I am a newcomer to cognitive science in general and this community in particular, so feel free to chew me out if this question is inappropriate in some way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have always thought that the definition of consciousness was a question of complexity. In particular, a network would be considered conscious if and only if it had at least as many nodes and connections as the human brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have two sub-questions regarding this definition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is there anyone in the literature who espouses this point of view? Is this point of view generally respected among cognitive scientists?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What are the potential problems with this definition as it relates to other definitions in cognitive science?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16192" LastActivityDate="2017-06-17T08:49:57.757" Title="Consciousness as sufficient complexity" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-06-18T08:43:29.713" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17534" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17532" CreationDate="2017-06-17T12:29:29.487" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The confidence in one's own ability to achieve intended results is assessed by tests on &lt;strong&gt;self-efficacy&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-efficacy or personal efficacy is a dimension developed by Bandura (1997) in his &lt;em&gt;social cognitive theory&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He also developed some tests which assess the sefl-efficacy in many situations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Academic self-efficacy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-efficacy to regulate eating habits&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Driving self-efficacy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Problem solving self- efficacy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Teacher self-efficacy &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a great deal more scales. In fact  &lt;em&gt;&quot;the efficacy belief system is not a global trait but a differentiated set of self-beliefs linked to distinct realms of functioning&quot;&lt;/em&gt; (Bandura, 1997) . Multidomain measures reveal the patterning and degree of generality of people’s sense of personal efficacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I wish to have helped you)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;REFERENCES&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bandura (1997), &lt;em&gt;Self-efficacy. The excercise of control&lt;/em&gt;, New York: Freeman&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The article: &lt;em&gt;Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales&lt;/em&gt; : link: &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.stanford.edu/dept/psychology/bandura/pajares/014-BanduraGuide2006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://web.stanford.edu/dept/psychology/bandura/pajares/014-BanduraGuide2006.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-06-17T12:29:29.487" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17535" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-17T14:27:02.800" Score="4" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am studying a case of PTSD where the patient has lost &quot;crispness of consciousness&quot; and is in a zombie-like state often found among soldiers where only programmed behavior is possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The patient is recovering and is noticing that the prefrontal cortex is coming online (I assume he is feeling bloodflow to the area) and that the process is noticeably accelerated through exercise. Are there other proven methods besides exercise that accelerate this kind of recovery / blood flow?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16193" LastActivityDate="2017-06-26T10:58:11.190" Title="PTSD recovery / prefrontal cortex blood flow" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-07-02T19:14:08.610" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17537" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17539" CreationDate="2017-06-18T01:51:29.403" Score="4" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing a (statistical) survey on whether or not international students at my college receive satisfactory grants. Here's the deal, I don't expect them to say yes it is satisfactory. I need a way to formulate questions to tricking them into giving me an accurate questions. I've already got my formalities written but how can I approach them with these questions? Bonus would be to tell how much more they would need (if at all). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16200" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-06-18T08:09:53.620" LastActivityDate="2017-06-24T08:09:59.930" Title="How to frame survey questions to get honest response?" Tags="&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17537" CreationDate="2017-06-18T10:59:52.547" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;test-retest&lt;/strong&gt; method&lt;/em&gt; would be suitable to your request.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This procedure is quite simple: individuals are asked to take the test and then take the same test again at a later date. The scores are then compared. The closer the scores are, the more reliable the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This methodology is appropriate for instruments such as IQ tests and surveys because there is little chance of people experiencing a sudden jump in IQ or suddenly changing their opinions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wish i have been helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;REFERENCES&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PICONE L., Pezzuti L., Ribaudo F.,  (2013), &lt;em&gt;&quot;Teorie e tecniche dei test&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, Roma: Carocci.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-06-18T10:59:52.547" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17540" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17557" CreationDate="2017-06-18T11:21:43.200" Score="15" ViewCount="9510" Body="&lt;p&gt;I acknowledge the fact that we currently don't understand the causes of homosexuality nearly well enough, but I have read about the following points:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;That homosexuality may not be a choice and could have genetic grounds (different studies and views presented in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2014/11/study-gay-brothers-may-confirm-x-chromosome-link-homosexuality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;That it may be a result of a traumatic experience (as &lt;a href=&quot;https://stream.org/yes-childhood-sexual-abuse-often-contribute-homosexuality/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; suggests).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without intentional cause of offense, based on these I am under the impression that homosexuality &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; potentially be a mental disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Within psychiatry, how is homosexuality discussed or classified?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15585" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-06-23T22:54:33.783" LastActivityDate="2017-06-24T13:33:54.507" Title="Within psychiatry, how is homosexuality discussed or classified?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="6" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17541" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-18T11:58:40.587" Score="2" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Factor loading background&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am using paired comparison methods to estimate estimate respondents’ sensitivity to distinctions in words used to characterize the construct of agreeableness. (e.g, Undemanding = .34 versus Peaceful = .72). The contrast between the words' factor loadings is the signal to be detected.  The stronger loading was alternated between being on the first and second word. I did find that the contrast predicted probability of correct detection (r = .20*). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Experiment background&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The stimulus is paired comparison words with each word having a different factor loading (from prior research) based on it's measurement of agreeableness. So each word taps the construct more or less deeply than the other.&#xA;The contrast between the words in terms of their factor loading is the signal.&#xA;A set of 122 such paired comparison tasks was developed and the task before the respondent is to select the more agreeable word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The respondents are students recruited for the research having varying degrees of sensitivity. Each word in the pair only has a factor loading as the estimate of signal and the contrast should be the salient feature in the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;How to get sensitivity estimate?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been using the number of correct “larger” loading detections as the respondent’s score. How might I estimate respondents' sensitivity to the presented signals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16181" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-29T18:05:01.293" LastActivityDate="2017-07-29T18:05:01.293" Title="Inter-subject signal sensitivity estimation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17542" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17540" CreationDate="2017-06-18T13:13:14.253" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whilst there have been arguments for the idea that homosexuality has a genetic base or a result of malformations of human development, today's consensus is that homosexuality is a normal variant of human behaviour (e.g. Gonsiorek, 1982) [not resulting in — or a result of — psychological disturbances or maladjustment], and therefore it is not a mental disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Homosexuality was considered to be a mental disorder in 1973, but it is not now [as of 1987].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt; The history&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is an extensive write-up on the history of this on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aglp.org/gap/1_history&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;AGLP Website&lt;/a&gt;, and when classifying behaviours as mental disorders, you currently need to refer to the the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;American Psychiatric Association&lt;/a&gt; [APA] publication, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders&lt;/a&gt; [DSM] and homosexuality had been officially classified as a mental disorder in first DSM [DSM-1] in 1952.  However, the APA removed homosexuality from the DSM (AGLP, n.d.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presented with data from researchers such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Kinsey&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alfred Kinsey&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evelyn_Hooker&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evelyn Hooker&lt;/a&gt;, the sixth printing of the DSM-II, in 1974, no longer listed homosexuality as a category of disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although some investigations published since Hooker's study have claimed to support the view of homosexuality as pathological, they have been methodologically weak. Many used only clinical or incarcerated samples, for example, from which generalizations to the population at large are not possible. Others failed to safeguard the data collection procedures from possible biases by the investigators – for example, a man's psychological functioning would be evaluated by his own psychoanalyst, who was simultaneously treating him for his homosexuality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some studies found differences between homosexual and heterosexual respondents, and then assumed that those differences indicated pathology in the homosexuals. For example, heterosexual and homosexual respondents might report different kinds of childhood experiences or family relationships. It would then be assumed that the patterns reported by the homosexuals indicated pathology, even though there were no differences in psychological functioning between the two groups. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a review of published studies comparing homosexual and heterosexual samples on psychological tests, Gonsiorek (1982) found that, although some differences have been observed in test results between homosexuals and heterosexuals, both groups consistently score within the normal range. Gonsiorek concluded that &quot;Homosexuality in and of itself is unrelated to psychological disturbance or maladjustment. Homosexuals as a group are not more psychologically disturbed on account of their homosexuality&quot; (Gonsiorek, 1982, p. 74)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/facts_mental_health.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source: University of California, Davis&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After a vote by the APA trustees in 1973, and confirmed by the wider APA membership in 1974, the diagnosis was replaced with the category of &quot;sexual orientation disturbance&quot; and a related but less public controversy involved what became the DSM-III category of Ego-dystonic Homosexuality [EDH] (Spitzer, 1981).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;During the revision process of DSM-III in the mid 1980's EDH also engendered enormous controversy. In these debates openly gay and lesbian members of the APA played a decisive role in bringing about change (Krajeski 1996). Those on the APA Advisory Committee working on the revision who wanted to retain the EDH category argued that they believed the diagnosis was clinically useful and that it was necessary for research and statistical purposes. The opponents noted that making a patient's subjective experience of their own homosexuality the determining factor of their illness was not consistent with the new evidence-based approach that psychiatry had espoused. They argued that empirical data do not support the diagnosis and that it is inappropriate to label culturally induced homophobia as a mental disorder. The APA Committee agreed with the opponents and the diagnosis of ego-dystonic homosexuality was removed from DSM-III-R (1987).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;AGLP, n.d. &lt;em&gt;The History of Psychiatry &amp;amp; Homosexuality&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aglp.org/gap/1_history&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.aglp.org/gap/1_history&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gonsiorek, J. C., 1982. &lt;em&gt;Results of psychological testing on homosexual populations&lt;/em&gt;. In:  W. Paul, J. D. Weinrich, J. C. Gonsiorek, &amp;amp; M. E. Hotvedt (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Homosexuality: Social, psychological, and biological issues&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 71–80). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Krajeski, J., 1996. &lt;em&gt;Homosexuality and the mental health professions&lt;/em&gt;. In: Textbook of Homosexuality and Mental Health, ed. R. Cabaj &amp;amp; T. Stein, pp 17-31. Washington: American Psychiatric Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spitzer, R.L., 1981. &lt;em&gt;The diagnostic status of homosexuality in DSM-III: a reformulation of the issues&lt;/em&gt;. American Journal of Psychiatry. 138(2): pp 210–215.&lt;br&gt;PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7457641&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;7457641&lt;/a&gt;. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fajp.138.2.210&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1176/ajp.138.2.210&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-06-18T13:49:19.363" LastActivityDate="2017-06-18T13:49:19.363" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17543" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17540" CreationDate="2017-06-18T13:30:31.357" Score="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) removed the diagnosis of “homosexuality” from the second edition of its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) (Jack Drescher, 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Theories of pathology which declared that some internal defect or external pathogenic agent causes homosexuality, have been rejected, such as the theories of immaturity which considered the homosexuality a &quot;developmental arrest&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is rare to find a theory of homosexuality that does not draw upon gender beliefs that contain implicit cultural ideas about the “essential” qualities of men and women. &#xA;Who is a real man? Who is a real woman? &#xA;Since there weren't scientific evidences to claim: &quot;Homosexuality is a mental disorder&quot;, after a vote, Homosexuality has been &lt;strong&gt;depathologized&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Accordingly, the answer to your question is &lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt;. Homosexuality is not a mental disorder, it's just a normal sexual orientation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further informations i suggest: &quot;Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality&quot; (Jack Drescher) 2015 : LINK: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-06-18T13:30:31.357" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17544" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17576" CreationDate="2017-06-18T14:13:43.380" Score="3" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on organising a self-help group for people who go through a divorce or a difficult break-up, and I'm wondering if there's a list of dos and don'ts with regards to things one should avoid saying, and things that might help people to recover faster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The rough thing I have in mind is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Everything is confidential and stays in the group&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Listen actively and don't interrupt&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No jugement&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Immediately redirect severe cases to licensed professionals and social workers&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But that doesn't answer the question of how one can help people to recover faster. &quot;Everything's going to be alright&quot; won't work, and &quot;there-there&quot; with a tap on the shoulder too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course I'm going to contact my local therapists and ask them the same question, but you never know what's going to work out in the end. Maybe someone here has a good idea or/and can nudge me into the right direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16207" LastActivityDate="2017-06-22T14:05:39.457" Title="Guidelines for self-help group for people who go through divorce/breakup" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17546" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17540" CreationDate="2017-06-18T21:56:39.843" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The idea that homosexuality is disadvantageous from an evolutionary perspective is, in my view, an example of how cultural bias is confused with biological process.  While there is evidence that sexual identity has some genetic basis, it is certainly a complicated feature of our identity that cannot be explained by a single gene, and should not be oversimplified into saying 'gay men had so and so trauma'. To me, that sounds similar to the argument 'vegetarians were never taught to hunt', i.e we're taking a complicated matter and trying to explain it using an argument that is based on shaky and highly individual grounds. It sounds like you're not offering any evidence on this (correct me if I'm wrong), but instead basing your claim off of some stereotypes and  anecdotes about gay men. Well, how about gay women? Or bisexual people? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crucially, we cannot, in a just society, consider homosexuality (or any sexual or gender identity) as a mental disorder, because that denies individuals the right to self-identify. If everyone who is gay is said to have a disorder, then we take away the right of those people to speak for themselves and describe their own experiences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, we shouldn't base our mental disorders off of the question 'does this help one achieve the goals of living and breeding?' This would be an example of teleological thinking about evolution, that is, assuming that evolution has a specific end goal in mind. Evolution, instead, is a natural process based off of random chance. It does not make sense to assume that what is good for our species (classically, surviving and breeding) should be the same as what is good for an individual member of the species. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this answer was a helpful addition to the discussion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16218" LastActivityDate="2017-06-18T21:56:39.843" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17549" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17540" CreationDate="2017-06-19T06:17:58.867" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not by the standards of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-IV-TR&lt;/a&gt;. Other answers discuss the case of homosexuality specifically, but the &lt;em&gt;general&lt;/em&gt; principles of psychiatric diagnosis &lt;em&gt;also&lt;/em&gt; rule out the idea of homosexuality as a mental disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The DSM-IV-TR characterizes a mental disorder as &quot;a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual [which] is associated with present distress… or disability… or with a significant increased risk of suffering.&quot; It also notes that &quot;no definition adequately specifies precise boundaries for the concept of 'mental disorder'… different situations call for different definitions&quot;. It states that &quot;there is no assumption that each category of mental disorder is a completely discrete entity with absolute boundaries dividing it from other mental disorders or from no mental disorder&quot; (APA, 1994 and 2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mental disorders are defined by distress, disability, and suffering, &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; by nebulous concepts like evolutionary fitness. Likewise, they are not defined by choice or nature or nurture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5024" LastActivityDate="2017-06-19T06:17:58.867" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17551" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17620" CreationDate="2017-06-19T09:30:00.807" Score="3" ViewCount="7388" Body="&lt;p&gt;How can we measure and quantify concentration or focus? For example, if I were to say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;If you do Activity X while using Y, you will be more concentrated&#xA;  than if you were using Z&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can I quantify that? And what tests should I do to actually prove that statement? Examples are appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I am trying to build some different technology products and I want them to help the user stay more focused than they would using a competitor product of the same kind. The only research I've done so far was to build some interfaces and ask the user how they feel.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16236" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-27T15:35:30.310" LastActivityDate="2017-06-27T15:35:30.310" Title="How to measure and quantify concentration or focus?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17552" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17540" CreationDate="2017-06-19T10:37:11.077" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;For something to be a disorder, it must of itself cause a negative outcome for the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(As an aside: &quot;...there is a recurring theme among men who live a homosexual lifestyle that they had an absence of a father figure and attempt to overcompensate...&quot;  Evidence required, please?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;...as gay couples can not generate offspring...&quot;  This statement implicitly assumes that offspring can only be generated as part of a relationship, which is clearly and categorically untrue.  Of course two gay people cannot (without medical help) produce offspring, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wilde&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a gay person&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Richardson&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;is perfectly at liberty&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vita_Sackville-West&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;to have heterosex&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincente_Minnelli&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;if they choose&lt;/a&gt;.  This may be as part of a relationship (as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinsey_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kinsey&lt;/a&gt;showed first, homo/hetero preferences are a sliding scale and not binary), because they enjoy heterosex but do not form heterosexual relationships, or simply holding their nose and doing something distasteful because they want the results.  In the latter case, &quot;the results&quot; doesn't just include children but also social acceptance in a homophobic social environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Naturally it is physically easier for a woman to have heterosex without enjoyment than a man.  Even so though, it is perfectly possible for a man to keep a mental fantasy going which does allow him to perform, even if he doesn't find his partner attractive.  A genetic cause for homosexuality therefore cannot be &quot;evolved out&quot;, because there is no limit to homosexual people of either gender having children.  This therefore puts homosexuality into the same category as lefthandedness - a deviation from the majority, certainly, but not one which makes an evolutionary difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This all purely relates to whether homosexual people are physically able to conceive children.  Survival and life chances are also highly relevant to whether a child prospers though, after the child has been conceived.  This is hard to analyse, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/01/16/gay-parents-better-than-straights_n_1208659.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;studies of outcomes since gay couples have been allowed to adopt&lt;/a&gt; suggests that they are at least as good parents as heterosexual couples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So your proposition fails.  Homosexuality cannot be a disorder, because it does not by itself produce any negative outcomes for the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16240" LastEditorUserId="16240" LastEditDate="2017-06-20T11:31:15.040" LastActivityDate="2017-06-20T11:31:15.040" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17554" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17592" CreationDate="2017-06-19T11:50:35.113" Score="5" ViewCount="844" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's no doubt: many couples break and many marriages break, what happens in these cases?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the loving encounter brain areas aimed at judgment and critical analysis, are clouded by an increase of dopamine: the neurotransmitter that activates our most irrational and euphoric drives.&#xA;The biology tells us that this pleasant situation lasts a few months (activation of oxytocin receptors) because of the decrease of dopamine in the intersynaptic space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Which other theories could explain the decline in desire/closeness?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does exist a split between desire and love?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Massimo Recalcati (2014) &quot;Non è più come prima&quot;, Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Michael S. Gazzaniga, Richard B. Ivry, George R. Mangun (2015) Neuroscienze cognitive, Zanichelli.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="16144" LastEditDate="2017-06-20T08:30:52.903" LastActivityDate="2017-06-22T23:08:18.887" Title="Psychological theories about the end of a romantic relationship" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;love&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17557" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17540" CreationDate="2017-06-19T16:01:23.967" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;To add to these great answers, I'll go on and link to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hide-and-seek/201509/when-homosexuality-stopped-being-mental-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;. It discusses the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM&lt;/a&gt; (as mentioned in other answers), but also includes a discussion of the homosexual classifications in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ICD&lt;/a&gt; (which is maintained by the WHO, as opposed to the APA). The ICD is much broader than the DSM, though. &quot;It is distinguished from the DSM in that it covers health as a whole&quot; (Wikipedia).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As with all other answers to this question, the answer from &lt;em&gt;both&lt;/em&gt; of the manuals is currently &quot;no&quot; (though it was &quot;yes&quot; for both of these in the past). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;However&lt;/strong&gt;, relating to the mention of homosexuality not being a choice: if someone was homosexual, but &lt;em&gt;wished they weren't&lt;/em&gt; (or weren't homosexual, but wished they were), this may classify under &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego-dystonic_sexual_orientation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego-dystonic sexual orientation&lt;/a&gt;, which &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; listed under the ICD-10 as a disorder of sexual development and orientation. It is not formally listed under the DSM (though it can still be implied: read the linked Wiki article for more details). This is also discussed in @Chris' answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The disorder here wouldn't be the homosexuality per se, but the fact that the sexual orientation clashes with the individuals ideal self image. An example may be something like &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gaytimes.co.uk/life/46959/i-homophobic-homosexual/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; case of a homophobic homosexual (the key piece being that someone wants to be different than how they are).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-06-19T16:55:25.740" LastActivityDate="2017-06-19T16:55:25.740" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17561" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17562" CreationDate="2017-06-19T19:59:44.897" Score="-2" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;When stumbling across the question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/17540/is-homosexuality-a-mental-disorder&quot;&gt;Is homosexuality a mental disorder?&lt;/a&gt; I realized that it is very close to a personal question that My wife and I (mostly me to be fair) about the source of homosexuality in sexually abused children and young adults. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, as I know this is a sensitive subject please understand that my goal is understanding and not offence. I am simply trying to understand a situation that may or may not arise, in our lives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me explain, and hope that this will make this question clearer. My wife and I are currently in the process of becoming Foster parents. One of the things we need to do, is to be honest about where our &quot;personal lines&quot; are. For an extreme example you don't want the leader of the KKK to be tasked with raising African American children. However a lot of our interactions are focused on finding much more mild cases of &quot;Oh I didn't realize that would be a problem for us, I never thought about it that way.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In recent classes the topics of homosexuality and sexual identity have come up. And while I have no problem with homosexuality as a choice or a pre-disposition. I wonder about homosexuality as a result of trauma. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, A teen that decides that he is homosexual, under normal circumstances is fine by me. If it is an active decision and preference then it doesn't matter, it's his choice. If it's a passive trait (for example genetic) then again it doesn't matter. It's like being left handed. It just is, move along. This is summarized for brevity, obviously. But that is a good summary of how we (both my wife and I) feel. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But one of our responsibilities as a Foster parent could include caring for sexually abused children and teens. The question is how can we, or should we try to differentiate between homosexuality as a response to trauma or naturally occurring homosexuality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16265" LastActivityDate="2017-06-19T20:53:06.513" Title="How can you tell the difference between &quot;natural&quot; homosexuality and &quot;trauma related&quot; homosexuality" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-06-19T21:27:02.067" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17561" CreationDate="2017-06-19T20:53:06.513" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no evidence that trauma influences sexual orientation.  I &lt;em&gt;hope&lt;/em&gt; that you would not try to decide for your foster children whether their &quot;gayness&quot; was real or not and &quot;cure&quot; them of it if you felt it was other than innate.  Love your child for who they are and you'll be fine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Side note:  I don't know where you are located, but in the U.S., the term &quot;homosexual&quot; has a slightly pejorative connotation (yes, I know it was once the correct term, but so were &quot;colored&quot; and &quot;retarded&quot;.  Times change).  &quot;Gay&quot; or &quot;LGBTQ&quot; are preferred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7110" LastActivityDate="2017-06-19T20:53:06.513" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17563" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-19T21:12:34.110" Score="2" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many individuals, in particular young progressives, incorporate their attitudes on gender and race into their identity. I am wondering if people who consider themselves socially conscious in this respect are less likely to show implicit bias as measured by the implicit association test (IAT). For example, do people who frequently and openly discuss and defend LGBT rights show less implicit bias (or reverse bias) towards LBGT individuals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="55" LastActivityDate="2019-09-07T07:04:05.167" Title="Are self-described &quot;socially conscious&quot; individuals less likely to show implicit bias as measured by the implicit association test (IAT)?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17565" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17582" CreationDate="2017-06-19T21:54:45.640" Score="5" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;The U.S. Transportation Security Administration has &quot;red teams&quot; who try to sneak dangerous items through airport security.  The security personnel often fail &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/investigation-breaches-us-airports-allowed-weapons-through-n367851&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;up to 95% of these tests&lt;/a&gt;. Is this high failure rate to be expected because of habituation to visual stimulus?  Specifically, a screening agent is expected to find a single weapon amidst thousands of X-rays without a weapon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is habituation, are there techniques for reducing its impact in scenarios such as this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4684" LastActivityDate="2017-06-22T07:43:22.430" Title="Is habituation responsible for inaccurate airport security screenings?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17568" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12119" CreationDate="2017-06-20T16:46:32.993" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have not come up with a definitive answer myself as there is a wide range of figures online.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/post/The_DSM-IV_lists_approximately_297_disorders_How_many_disorders_are_listed_in_the_DSM-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Michael Noll-Hussong states on ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The total number of specific diagnoses was reduced from 172 in DSM-IV to 157 in DSM-5.&#xA;  see, e.g., McCarron RM. The DSM-5 and the art of medicine: certainly uncertain. Annals of internal medicine. 2013;159(5):360-1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have recently managed to access this referenced article (&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-159-7-201310010-00688&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-159-7-201310010-00688&lt;/a&gt;) and it states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The number of psychiatric disorders decreased from 172 (DSM-IV) to 152 (DSM-5). (This does not include disorders that are “Not otherwise specified” or “Other specified/unspecified.”)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/17/dsm-5-unveiled-changes-disorders-_n_3290212.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Huffington Post states that there are over 300 in DSM-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of discrepancies in the information available I have seen, I have therefore, painstakingly gone through my copy of DSM-5 and pages 877—896 provide a&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Numerical Listing of DSM-5 Diagnoses and Codes (ICD-10-CM)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ICD-10 codes are provided for cross-referencing, and I have counted &lt;strong&gt;roughly 742&lt;/strong&gt; of them by saying that a full page has 45 and there are 20 pages with some listings taking more than 1 line.  The problem with the approximate figure of 742 is that in the list are items such as obesity which are not mental disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-16T06:37:15.580" LastActivityDate="2018-05-16T06:37:15.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17570" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-20T21:12:10.590" Score="3" ViewCount="1915" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schizophrenia is usually associated with intellectual problems. I don't think that cognitive deficits are only associated with vulnerability to schizophrenia, though there is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/6/3/161&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;much cited&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Russell et al (1997) recently proposed that intellectual decline in&#xA;  schizophrenia was a nothing more than a ‘myth’. They followed up&#xA;  patients who had received an intelligence test as a child, who then&#xA;  developed schizophrenia, and had their intelligence re-tested some 19&#xA;  years later. There were no differences between the child and adult&#xA;  IQs. However, others have criticised this study on the grounds that&#xA;  the sample was unrepresentative in that the individuals had presented&#xA;  to child psychiatry units and were far more intellectually impaired&#xA;  than subjects in other studies of children who subsequently developed&#xA;  schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my research prior to this question, it seems that there is a loss of ability, but likely not chronic decline over the course of the illness, one before or during the transition to psychosis. Another well known &lt;a href=&quot;https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/schizophreniabulletin/24/3/10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033337/2/24-3-425.pdf?Expires=1498115081&amp;amp;Signature=WE8cEp5ighHFm31AEDe1Yj29b~rOWrLjU6BJgFR2TOGdaEVI7nzTSf9OPNxcLxRalbJLr1nGar7KnjD2zstbfH0k53h~4y3bssMxMg17SPDMZK4GZ5N-4vQ6Gq9C8HgjWdtaJtwiSwjfq37qSk89Z~qAeoxu7SyilTVJ7QszrAlznKvJaCispITxyTTnXViI-9knLd0tvhlqsbwHWtiM80UysO7m2lVgLlBNUynzYy6yJ0fQQrAi0F9eGgB1CYuMGgrFSCQGOzZerZr3QkMTf8FHnpGdayK9Qz5JQGbzJu~0Ghp8BhmLu9Sf6seiKMXJAEeeSQ~9UNOa9C5lanBY5w__&amp;amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAIUCZBIA4LVPAVW3Q&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;meta review&lt;/a&gt; claims this, that there's&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;no support for hypothesizing a degenerative&#xA;  process in schizophrenia once positive symptoms appear... a static encephalopathy rather than a degenerative process&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've seen it said that it is centered on mathematical ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do we know about mathematical ability pre and post psychosis, in schizophrenia? e.g., was John Nash a worse mathematician after he went mad?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Russell, A. J., et al. (1997) &lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia and the myth of intellectual decline&lt;/em&gt;. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(5), pp 635–639.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.154.5.635&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1176/ajp.154.5.635&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9137118&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;9137118&lt;/a&gt; WOS: &lt;a href=&quot;http://apt.rcpsych.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1997WX13000009&amp;amp;link_type=ISI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A1997WX13000009&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-06-21T16:10:56.220" LastActivityDate="2019-08-09T07:21:08.650" Title="What do we know about schizophrenia and mathematics?" Tags="&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17571" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17570" CreationDate="2017-06-20T23:33:25.977" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I spent times of the order of five to eight months in hospitals in New&#xA;  Jersey, always on an involuntary basis and always attempting a legal&#xA;  argument for release. And it did happen that when I had been long&#xA;  enough hospitalized that I would finally renounce my delusional&#xA;  hypotheses and revert to thinking of myself as a human of more&#xA;  conventional circumstances and return to mathematical research. In&#xA;  these interludes of, as it were, enforced rationality, I did succeed&#xA;  in doing &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;some respectable&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; mathematical research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seems like he himself is saying his research suffered while unwell and not staying in institutions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07081242&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;standard&lt;/a&gt; deficit in IQ, of it seems around 10 points, may be inconsequential in someone like Nash. Even if the executive function and memory impairments are more significant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2017-06-21T05:31:00.447" LastActivityDate="2017-06-21T05:31:00.447" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17576" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17544" CreationDate="2017-06-21T12:44:24.717" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Aaron Beck is an psychiatrist and psychotherapist.&#xA;He is considered the founder of classical approaches to cognitive psychotherapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One technique that he suggests is the cognitive technique that generally consists of some steps. &lt;em&gt;N.B. These steps may change depending on the problem, depending on the therapist and depending on the patient-therapist alliance.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Beck, negative thoughts result from two separate minds:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The first feels uneasy thinking to flaws of the couple, to all goals not reached, to interpersonal difficulties...&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The second cannot ignore these thoughts, because the risk is to loose useful informations that would help to identify the issues that need to be addressed.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You should help the couple to pay attention to those negative thoughts that have to be taken into consideration, neglecting those that you do not think to be useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wish to have been helpful...In conclusion, i suggest Aaron Beck &lt;em&gt;&quot;Love is never enough&quot; (1990)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;REFERENCES&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aaron Beck &lt;em&gt;L'amore non basta. Come risolvere i problemi del rapporto di coppia con la terapia cognitiva&lt;/em&gt;, Roma: Astrolabio, 1990&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;@Chris' Edit for English version of book&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;English version is&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Beck, A. 1989. &lt;em&gt;Love Is Never Enough: How Couples Can Overcome Misunderstandings, Resolve Conflicts, and Solve Relationship Problems Through Cognitive Therapy&lt;/em&gt;. New York:Harper &amp;amp; Row&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-06-21T14:23:55.467" LastActivityDate="2017-06-21T14:23:55.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17577" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12783" CreationDate="2017-06-21T14:16:24.950" Score="2" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It depends on the definition you are referring to on &quot;touch them against their will?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are referring to violent touching in the form of physical punishment/restraining etc. then it is proven by the accounts given by may people who advocate physical punishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are talking about sexual touching, spanking does not necessarily teach them that it's ok for another person to touch them against their will, but it can lead to someone touching them against their will.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Preable before answering the question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To cover the point raised by @user13275 in the comments, &lt;strong&gt;physical punishment&lt;/strong&gt; (also known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporal_punishment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;corporal punishment&lt;/a&gt;) has been defined as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the use of physical force with the intention of causing a child to experience bodily pain or discomfort so as to correct or punish the child’s behavior” (Gershoff, 2008, p. 9)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;This includes: spanking&lt;/strong&gt;, hitting, pinching, squeezing, paddling, whipping, ”whupping,” swatting, smacking, slapping, washing a child’s mouth with soap, making a child kneel on painful objects, and forcing a child to stand or sit in painful positions for long periods of time. (Holinger, 2015)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a 2012 editorial piece within the Canadian Medical Association Journal, John Fletcher, MB BChir MPH, Editor-in-Chief says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is spanking wrong? Clearly, hitting anyone in anger or when losing an argument is bad behaviour. To do this to children sets a bad example and may only teach them that violence is a means to getting their own way. But what about a slap as the ultimate sanction and a means of enforcing boundaries and discipline? It’s an obvious question and one in which parents will be interested. Are those who use physical punishment bad parents?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If they are, then they are in the company of roughly 90% of my parents’ generation, including 70% of family doctors and 60% of pediatricians, who thought spanking acceptable in some circumstances. The proportion of parents who spank toddlers now is still high but closer to 50%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He also states in the editorial&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So heated is this debate, and so long-running, that the question of whether spanking is morally “right or wrong” is probably intractable. A more promising line of enquiry, however, is whether the physical punishment of children is effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst there are opponents to the idea that physical punishment is wrong, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/9188535/School-discipline-Sparing-the-rod-has-spoilt-the-children.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Birbalsingh (2012)&lt;/a&gt; for example provides an argument for how physical punishment provides an ultimate form of discipline, a key piece or research on the effects of physical punishment on the child, which the editorial points to, is Durrant and Ensom (2012) which was also published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal.  This article looks at lessons learnt from 20 years of research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Today, research showing the risks associated with physical punishment is robust, the convention has been integrated into the legal and policy frameworks of many nations, and 31 countries have enacted prohibitions against the physical punishment of children. These three forces — research, the convention and law reform — have altered the landscape of physical punishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The growing weight of evidence and the recognition of children’s rights have brought us to a historical point. Physicians familiar with the research can now confidently encourage parents to adopt constructive approaches to discipline and can comfortably use their unique influence to guide other aspects of children’s healthy development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the pieces of research that this article pointed to shows that spanking leads to escalated levels of Antisocial Behaviour from children 6-9 years of age (Straus, et al. 1997)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a treatment study, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oslc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/forgatch.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marion Forgatch&lt;/a&gt; showed that a reduction in harsh discipline used by parents of boys at risk for antisocial behaviour was followed by significant reductions in their children’s aggression. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/080580370X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Forgatch, 1991&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;In answer to your question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does spanking a child teach them that it's ok for another person to touch them against their will?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are referring to sexual touch, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way physical punishment is used will determine whether the child's autonomy is challenged or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Controlling parents are motivated by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychnet-uk.com/x_new_site/personality_psychology/personality_disorders_authoritarian.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Authoritarian Personality Syndrome&lt;/a&gt; and therefore are compelled, by fear of loss of control, to restrict the child's self-directed, autonomomous efforts.  While parents motivated by the Authoritarian Personality Syndrome are controlling, it does not follow that the converse is true.  Some subgroups of controlling parents permit high autonomy in many areas of the child's life.  Hoffman, et al. (1960) described a subgroup of parents who were perceived by their children as both coercive and permissive of high autonomy. (Baumrind, 1966)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This indicates that a parent can use physical punishment but still provide the child some autonomy over their personal rights.  The other personal rights taken away &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/prohibiting-corporal-punishment/hrlaw/crc/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;contravene articles 19, 28(2) and 37&lt;/a&gt; of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CRC.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)&lt;/a&gt; - which is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/about-us/what-we-do/child-rights/un-convention-on-the-rights-of-the-child&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;legally binding in international law&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&amp;amp;mtdsg_no=IV-11&amp;amp;chapter=4&amp;amp;lang=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;signed by 140 signatories involving 196 UN States&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, some may use physical punishment in order to take the child's autonomy away completely or deminish the child's feelings of self-worth, which can lead the child to look for love and affection elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spanking does not necessarily teach them that it's ok for another person to touch them against their will, but it can lead to someone touching them against their will.  Although with sexual touching, that there are other factors which can play a role including whether the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;http://b-inspiredmama.com/10-tips-for-teaching-kids-about-good/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;good touch/bad touch&quot;&lt;/a&gt; or the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.underwearrule.org/source/text_en.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pants/swimsuit/underwear rule&lt;/a&gt; has been taught to them, but again, that does not necessarily completely prevent it when the child is really desperate for attention, love and affection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0557026911&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anthony (2008)&lt;/a&gt; on page 253, says that you can have the following initial belief (iB)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;I absolutely must be loved by so-and-so, and if not it's awful and I am and inadequate person &lt;strong&gt;because&lt;/strong&gt; he/she does not love me!&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When you question and challenge this iB you often can come up with an Effective New Philosophy that is accurate but still in the infancy stages and therefore weak: &quot;I guess that there is no reason why so-and-so must love me, because there are other people who will love me when so-and-so does not.  I can therefore be reasonably happy without his/her love.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From experience from talking to and supporting abused people, in the bid to find love elsewhere it can lead a child (or adult in later life) to get into an abusive relationship with someone in the belief that that person is doing the things they do (including inappropriate touching etc.) because that person loves them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;H2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anthony, R. 2008. &lt;em&gt;Ending the Epidemic of Child Abuse&lt;/em&gt;. Raleigh, NC:&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.lulu.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lulu.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Paperback at &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1126611&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amazon.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;PDF eBook at &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0557026911&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lulu.com&lt;/a&gt; &lt;strong&gt;at a much cheaper price&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumrind, D. 1966. &lt;em&gt;Effects of Authoritative Parental Control on Child Behavior&lt;/em&gt; Child Development 37(4): pp 887—907&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1126611&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.2307/1126611&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Durrant, J. and Ensom, R. 2012. &lt;em&gt;Physical punishment of children: lessons from 20 years of research&lt;/em&gt;. Canadian Medical Association Journal 184(12): pp 1373–1377&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.101314&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1503/cmaj.101314&lt;/a&gt; PCMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3447048&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3447048&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forgatch M.S. 1991. &lt;em&gt;The clinical science vortex: a developing theory of antisocial behaviour&lt;/em&gt;. In: Pepler DJ, Rubin KH, editors. &lt;em&gt;The development and treatment of childhood aggression&lt;/em&gt;. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum; p. 291–315&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hoffman, L., et al. 1960. &lt;em&gt;Parental coerciveness, child autonomy and child's role at school&lt;/em&gt;. Sociometry 23(1): pp 15—22&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2786134&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.2307/2786134&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gershoff ET (2002). &lt;em&gt;Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review&lt;/em&gt;. Psychological Bulletin 128(4): pp 539-579.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Holinger, P.C. 2015. &lt;em&gt;Physical Punishment—and Violence&lt;/em&gt; Psychology Today [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/great-kids-great-parents/201508/physical-punishment-and-violence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/great-kids-great-parents/201508/physical-punishment-and-violence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Straus M.A., et al. 1997. &lt;em&gt;Spanking by parents and subsequent antisocial behavior of children&lt;/em&gt;. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine Journal 151(8): pp 761—767&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170450011002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170450011002&lt;/a&gt;  PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9265876&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;9265876&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-06-21T14:16:24.950" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17582" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17565" CreationDate="2017-06-22T07:43:22.430" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The main reason for these failures is mental fatigue and lost of concentration, in conjuction with the weak target signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigilance_(psychology)#Vigilance_decrement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vigilance decrement&lt;/a&gt; is defined as &quot;deterioration in the ability to&#xA;  remain vigilant for critical signals with time, as indicated by a&#xA;  decline in the rate of the correct detection of signals&quot;. Vigilance&#xA;  decrement is most commonly associated with monitoring to detect a weak&#xA;  target signal. Detection performance loss is less likely to occur in&#xA;  cases where the target signal exhibits a high saliency. ... Under most&#xA;  conditions, vigilance decrement becomes significant within the first&#xA;  15 minutes of attention, but a decline in detection performance can&#xA;  occur more quickly if the task demand conditions are high ... More recent studies &#xA;  indicate that vigilance is hard work, requiring the allocation of&#xA;  significant cognitive resources, and inducing significant levels of&#xA;  stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Habituation plays very little role in these failures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Early theories of vigilance explained the reduction of&#xA;  electrophysiological activity over time associated with the vigilance&#xA;  decrement as a result of neural &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigilance_(psychology)#Lack_of_habituation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;habituation&lt;/a&gt;. ... &lt;strong&gt;More recent&lt;/strong&gt; ERP&#xA;  studies indicate that when performance declines during a vigilance&#xA;  task, N100 amplitude was not diminished. These results indicate that&#xA;  vigilance is not the result of boredom or a reduction in neurological&#xA;  sensitivity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Training and motivation can decrease failures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigilance_(psychology)#Practice_and_sustained_attention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Training and practice&lt;/a&gt; significantly reduce the vigilance decrement,&#xA;  reduce the false alarm rate, and may improve sensitivity for many&#xA;  sustained attention tasks. Training improvements may also occur due to&#xA;  the reduced mental workload associated with task automaticity. In&#xA;  pilotage and airport security screening experiments, trained or expert&#xA;  subjects exhibit better detection of low salience targets, a reduction&#xA;  in false alarms, improved sensitivity, and a significantly reduced&#xA;  vigilance decrement. In some cases the vigilance decrement was&#xA;  eliminated or not apparent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-06-22T07:43:22.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17583" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17544" CreationDate="2017-06-22T13:31:59.117" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first thing I must say is that if you are not a psychology or psichiatry professional, you should not face such a task, because you will undoubtedly underestimate the difficulties of this task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You ask about what to say or what not to be cir but to get to that ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to self-help groups there are many elements to take into account:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;To begin with, &lt;strong&gt;your own profile or pattern of emotional coping and problem solving&lt;/strong&gt;, as well as your metaconsciousness about related psychological processes (in yourself and in others) matters a great deal.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It should also have training in social psychology, particularly in cooperative negotiation, discussion groups and &lt;strong&gt;group dynamics&lt;/strong&gt;, of course also be important &lt;strong&gt;adaptive disorder&lt;/strong&gt;, clinical issues and problems, difficulties, obsessions, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-help groups are positive under a number of particular conditions&lt;/strong&gt; but sometimes it is difficult to decide if organizing group sessions is positive, for example, it is usually positive when the group is relatively homogeneous, but this is a difficult question (would have that asking a question only on this issue), &lt;strong&gt;it may not suffice that people find themselves through a divorce&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In groups that may be not homogeneous, it may be convenient to establish rather &lt;strong&gt;implicit rules&lt;/strong&gt; and not so explicit, since it can not be guaranteed that the rules are met, it can be treated as &lt;strong&gt;trustworthy&lt;/strong&gt; (on the other hand trust-based groups have difficulties in admitting new members). A group of these characteristics requires standards but a lot of &lt;strong&gt;flexibility&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In relation to the above, keep in mind that the supposed rules imposed (confidentiality) may break and you should think about how to deal with these situations, in fact you must foresee them (I would not raise confidentiality).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You must keep in mind the &lt;strong&gt;role you adopt&lt;/strong&gt; since that is valid for certain issues but may make you non valid for opinions.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In many cases it will be important, not just the management of words, but the same &lt;strong&gt;space&lt;/strong&gt; or physical organization of the sessions can greatly influence, for example do not bring participants together too much if they do not want to talk to each other or form &lt;strong&gt;subgroups&lt;/strong&gt; or internal chats.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The most convenient, against the norms, can be, the agenda of the day or the subjects to be addressed, can first proceed to a presentation of official data (name, age, city of birth, profession), &lt;strong&gt;non personal matters but characterize&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Concerning couples issues, it is important to discuss in questions or therapy questions about &lt;strong&gt;3 factors&lt;/strong&gt;: factors related to one person, factors or causes related to the other person, and factors related to the partner couple, these will be the issues that require the most time.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-06-22T14:05:39.457" LastActivityDate="2017-06-22T14:05:39.457" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17584" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-22T13:44:10.490" Score="2" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;In April 2017, My younger left the house without informing anyone. It was very hot summer here in India. Whole afternoon, he walked alone. When he left he took no money, no phone and anything. Somehow, When we got him back he told us that &quot;I left home searching the god&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After few days, we told him to write about his feelings, why he left and how is he feeling now. I will attach the image of his writing. He is 16 years old.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our psychologist told he is suffering from Schizo thought disorder. I want professional opinion based on his writing. MRI REPORT : NO SIGNIFICANT ABNORMALITIES.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some Special Points:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;He has lost almost all interest in sports,games,video games,movies and music. He used to do singing but now stopped it completely.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;He listen to God songs only.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;He would go to our in-home temple many times a day and join hands. Though it has not been noticed since several months.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;He always complains that he has no time for friends, society. He says it affects his study but we don't think it does.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the images of his writing :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/guypk.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/guypk.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hruTh.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hruTh.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16291" LastEditorUserId="16291" LastEditDate="2017-06-22T16:47:20.337" LastActivityDate="2017-06-22T16:47:20.337" Title="Schizophrenia : Need a professional opinion" Tags="&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-06-22T18:41:07.997" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17291" CreationDate="2017-06-22T21:38:40.940" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;About intelligence: The subject of intelligence is broadly addressed in research in psychology, one of the most supportive theories is Spearman's bifactorial theory of intelligence, in this theory the &lt;strong&gt;factor g is a huge stable factor&lt;/strong&gt; that explains the common variance (in scores) to all the different cognitive tasks that can be put to a person. Although intelligence would approach a series of constructs that explain the abilities in the resolution of cognitive problems, other factors that modulate these intelligence factors, such as motivation (volition or will) and attention (concentration), should always be taken into account. Among others (tiredness, stress, activation, etc). External factors exert their influence in early stages of information processing, can be identified with physical characteristics (light conditions, letter size, presence of the public, the person requires lenses, etc.). In conclusion, what we call intelligence, which we consider to be very stable, does not explain everything at all in cognitive tasks, there are many other causes that can influence, for example, and as mentioned, the level of activation (sleep, fatigue) or motivation and will.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before considering an adverse drug effect, a &lt;strong&gt;period of adaptation&lt;/strong&gt; should also be considered, based on factors such as: affinity (ability of the drug to match the receptor), intrinsic activity (ability to activate the receptor after its use ) And effective dose which is the amount of drug that produces the desired effect in 50% of users. In summary there is a period in which the person is adapting to the effects of the drug and even if the dose is adequate the person may experience a great change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/q7yD2.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/q7yD2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adverse effects of drugs: Adverse effects are defined as an unwanted reaction that can be sometimes harmful and permanent, (not considered adverse effect inappropriate use) &lt;strong&gt;a high number of people report adverse effects, it is estimated that around 10 % of people experience effects but for most benefits obtained are greater than undesirable effects&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are different types of adverse effects (cutaneous, gastrointestinal, respiratory system, cardiovascular system), if a drug produced damage to intelligence, it would be a late cognitive adverse effect, ie it would manifest after a high time consuming drug (sometimes long after withdrawal of the drug).&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;In relation to adverse effects in the central nervous system, the most common are: tiredness, dizziness, confusion, tremors, headache and seizures. The increase in fatigue occurs in almost all drugs that have a suppressive effect of the central nervous system (analgesics, antipsychotics, antidepressants, hypnotics, sedatives and anticonvulsants)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on the country of residence, there are agencies that freely disclose information regarding the trade names with which the medicines are distributed in the state, these agencies also collect and study information about adverse effects recorded in other countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Duloxetine (R) (Duloxetine hydrochloride): Inhibitor of serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake. It weakly inhibits dopamine reuptake without significant affinity for histaminergic, dopaminergic, cholinergic and adrenergic receptors. Adverse effects: Headache, drowsiness, dizziness, lethargy, tremors, paraesthesia; Decreased appetite; Insomnia, agitation, decreased libido, anxiety, abnormal orgasms, abnormal dreams; blurry vision; Tinnitus; Increased blood pressure, flushing; Yawning; Nausea, dry mouth, constipation, diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomiting, dyspepsia, flatulence; Increased sweating, rash; Musculoskeletal pain, muscle spasm; Dysuria; Erectile dysfunction, ejaculation disorder, delayed ejaculation; Falls, fatigue; weightloss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Xanax (R) (Alprazolam): It is believed to exert its effect by binding to the ester-specific receptors located in SCN. It has anxiolytic, hypnotic muscle relaxant and anticonvulsive properties, as well as a specific activity in distress crisis. Adverse effects: Depression, sedation, somnolence, ataxia, memory impairment, dysarthria, dizziness, headache; Constipation, dry mouth; Fatigue, irritability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zolpiden (R) (Zolpidem hemitartrate): hypnotic type non benzodiazepine. Group of Imidazopyrines. Specific agonist of central receptors belonging to the GABA-omega macromolecular receptor complex that modulates the opening of the chlorine ion channel. Adverse effects: bitterness and dry mouth, upset stomach, drowsiness, dizziness and paradoxical reaction that usually disappear with a dose adjustment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In summary, it seems that they are drugs that, in their phase of adjustment or adaptation, may well cause a temporary reduction in cognitive performance, but this effect should be reduced and temporary, that is to say, very brief, in case the Problem persists or in case of doubt can always be accessed to make consultations to pharmacists or general medicine (even for second opinions beyond the professional who has prescribed these drugs)&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stephen M. Stahl. (2000). Essential Psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific Basis and Practical Applications. New York: Cambridge University Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stephen M. Stahl. (2005). Prescriber's Guide. New York: Cambridge University Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-06-23T11:29:14.110" LastActivityDate="2017-06-23T11:29:14.110" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17589" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-22T21:47:55.367" Score="1" ViewCount="546" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question is whether our &lt;strong&gt;sense of smell is stronger when we sleep&lt;/strong&gt;? From an evolutionary perspective this could have been beneficial in terms of runaway camp fires, marauding saber tooth tigers or the testosterone of night-raiding cave men. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this effect back off when we wake, as our eyesight comes into play? And, if so, how do we account for the claims that many people die in  night time house fires before they wake up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware that the brain is able to desensitise itself to certain smells and go about its olfactory business elsewhere. That second sniff of fresh-ground coffee beans is never as good as the first.  I'd say that most people assume they are 'a bit slow' first thing in the morning until they 'wake up properly', but is this true? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16304" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-27T15:37:47.180" LastActivityDate="2020-01-24T12:28:47.417" Title="Is our sense of smell heightened when we are asleep?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;olfaction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17591" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-22T23:02:15.013" Score="1" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do we know anything about the &lt;strong&gt;psychology of &quot;irrational numbers&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm asking because irrational numbers, like pi, seem to baffle some people. raise questions like &quot;why&quot; in ways that basic arithmetic does not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am specifically wondering if the nature of our psychology of rational numbers could explain our preference for the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ratio&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;golden ratio&lt;/a&gt;, which is &quot;the&quot; irrational that is the least approachable by fractions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2017-06-23T08:12:09.270" LastActivityDate="2017-06-23T08:12:09.270" Title="Do we know anything about the psychology of &quot;irrational numbers&quot;" Tags="&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-06-23T21:33:37.827" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17592" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17554" CreationDate="2017-06-22T23:08:18.887" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Is there a split between desire and love?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, love and lust/desire are two completely different things.&#xA;A simple definition I have of the word &lt;strong&gt;love&lt;/strong&gt;:  &lt;em&gt;An involuntary response to virtue.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This obviously means I can't &quot;love&quot; someone without knowing whether or not they are honest, benevolent, or have integrity.  It also means that I can't love someone if I am morally corrupt, because doing so would expose my corruption.  To protect myself, I would be repulsed from that person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lust, of course, is biologically programmed in our brain and nearly impossible &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; to experience, unlike love.  I can scarcely be attracted to a woman, go on one date with her, and conclude that I love her.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like you said, dopamine and other chemicals in the brain can cloud our judgement and lead us to believe we love someone and ignore their red flags for negative behaviors like abuse, when we are merely biologically driven to reproduce with them.  I have heard that this euphoria lasts for about six months until desire fizzles and romantic interest is lost by someone and the relationship ends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Which other theories explain the decline in closeness?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abuse of all kinds.  Verbal, physical, and sexual abuse cause big problems, particularly if the abuse is at a young age.  &lt;strong&gt;Simply spanking children has been conclusively found to reduce empathy and IQ and increase &quot;brain disorders.&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;  With this information available, more than 80% of American parents &lt;em&gt;still&lt;/em&gt; spank their children!  From Christian culture, to Tongan culture, to Muslim culture, spanking and abuse is &lt;em&gt;the norm&lt;/em&gt;.  How can we be close to someone if we cannot empathize with them?  Empathy is the deepest level of understanding we can have for someone at any point in time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would argue that we are increasingly trying to ignore our unconscious responses to trauma and grief, particularly as children, in society.  The problems are ignored by parents with empathy and emotional distance from their kids which allows them to spank their children and let depression and other problems that could be significant, go unnoticed or even criticized. Endless amounts of &quot;culture propaganda&quot; about how parents are inherently good and loving people despite their abuses, and schools that are teaching kids &lt;em&gt;what to think&lt;/em&gt; instead of &lt;em&gt;how to think &amp;amp; solve problems&lt;/em&gt; only exacerbate the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depression and substance abuse is a natural and valid response to events that are usually traumatic - childhood sexual abuse is just one example.  These valid responses in our brain are being labeled with &quot;brain disorder&quot; diagnoses and antidepressants when the unconscious brain is doing exactly what it was designed to do - &lt;em&gt;Warn us that something is wrong&lt;/em&gt;.  The benefit for this is obvious.  Just look at the millions of dollars worth of advertising spent for antidepressants on American television.  Often victims are told something is &lt;em&gt;wrong with them&lt;/em&gt;, when more often than not, &lt;em&gt;someone wronged them&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of finding the problems in our past that have contributed to unhealthy lifestyle patterns through therapy or self-knowledge work, we, with the help of our &quot;what to think&quot; education, run to the nearest &quot;answer&quot; - a mind-altering drug and a label for &lt;em&gt;our problem&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;A closer look at how ignoring the truth can affect society as a whole...&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biologically speaking, as children we are genetically designed to understand that our parents are biologically successful.  They reproduced.  We grow up and learn patterns of behavior from parents in order to be biologically successful based on their success.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally speaking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A boy will model general behavior patterns in his father and be attracted to the general behavior patterns found in his mother&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A girl will model general behavior patterns in her mother and be attracted to the general behavioral patterns found in her father&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patterns can be categories such as honesty, empathy, integrity, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, children that grow up without a father (exception: children of widowed mothers) experience:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased promiscuity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased likelihood of committing crimes, violence, and abuse&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased aggression&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased teen pregnancies&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased likelihood of being abused&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased likelihood of divorce&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an example of two parents that had an apparent lack of empathy for their children.  It is important to remember that empathy is taught behavior and instead of empathy, they were largely traumatized and abandoned.  The boys absence of a father leads them to have less empathy, shown through crimes and violence against other people.  The pattern often repeats through promiscuity and teen pregnancy and can extend to other families through crime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the evidence suggests that poor parenting choices, whether directly or indirectly, is deteriorating our closeness, community, and ability to love and empathize. How long before the unabused outnumber the abused?  That, I believe, is up to us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources (unfortunately can only do 2 links):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1xf78EltKM&amp;amp;t=1s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Single Mother Childhood (additional sources)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ONNRfflggBg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Facts About Spanking (additional sources)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Search &quot;sins of the father&quot; on the same channel for a firsthand abuse story&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Search &quot;confessions of a womanizer&quot; on same channel for a firsthand story from a cheater!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Search &quot;an honest conversation with a single mother&quot; on same channel for a firsthand story from a single mother&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16301" LastActivityDate="2017-06-22T23:08:18.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17593" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-23T07:50:07.940" Score="5" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm planning a study on memorability of episodic events.&#xA;Therefore, participants record a couple of hours of their daily life using an egocentric camera (encoding).&#xA;After a certain time, they are shown snippets from the recording and judge whether they remember it or not (decoding).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have a psychological background, hence I have some questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How long should the snippets be?&lt;/strong&gt; Currently, we have 5sec videos, separated by 10sec margin.&#xA;I know &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;chunking&lt;/a&gt;, however, it happens in encoding phase, I'm looking for an equivalent in decoding.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Maybe showing a few &lt;strong&gt;frames&lt;/strong&gt; from the video is &lt;strong&gt;better than&lt;/strong&gt; playing &lt;strong&gt;video?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How long should the &lt;strong&gt;time between encoding and decoding&lt;/strong&gt; be? Currently, it's 6 to 8 days. I'm aware of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Time Scale Similarity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I've found &lt;a href=&quot;http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/42521104/RememberKnow_Judgments_Probe_Degrees_of_20160209-23588-ynkdb8.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1498208075&amp;amp;Signature=aT1BM5CdTW69ExiZ53j6Pbkk5Gk%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DRemember_Know_Judgments_Probe_Degrees_of.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a work&lt;/a&gt; that suggests that &lt;strong&gt;asking people&lt;/strong&gt; whether they remember or not &lt;strong&gt;is sensible&lt;/strong&gt;. However, any further evidence would be great.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I think &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810097903214&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Experiences of Remembering, Knowing, and Guessing&lt;/a&gt; is also highly related.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As this is a scientific work, references are highly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16273" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-06-23T08:09:12.610" LastActivityDate="2017-07-08T21:28:33.917" Title="Episodic Memory Decoding" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;episodic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17595" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17619" CreationDate="2017-06-23T09:34:25.523" Score="4" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_coding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural coding&lt;/a&gt; deals with the problem on how neurons or a network of neurons processes a stimulus and creates a response in form of electrical action potentials. Information then might be encoded in the rate of the action potentials or their timing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions now are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do nerves, e.g. in the arm of a human, merely &quot;relay&quot; any information, or do they also process incoming signals in any way?&lt;/strong&gt; As a result, the electrical signal would then differ when measured at the beginning and the end of a nerve.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can a nerve be stimulated&lt;/strong&gt; at one point with a certain electrical signal as input (with varying rate etc. to encode information) and &lt;strong&gt;can the output be measured&lt;/strong&gt; at another point? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I understood correctly, this is done at a electroneuronography (ENoG) only that the electrical stimulus is not varying in rate or other properties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any links to research that deals with similar things would be great.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16310" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-27T15:38:31.637" LastActivityDate="2017-06-28T15:52:33.490" Title="Does the peripheral nervous system processes information like central neurons do?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17596" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-23T13:32:37.073" Score="4" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard that cannabis exposure during teenage years increases the probability of developing schizophrenia-like symptoms later in life. What evidence is there that this is causal and not correlational?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Current references I'm reading and will try to form into an answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/26733534/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/26733534/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/28392208/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/28392208/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/28285022/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/28285022/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/28443616/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/28443616/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-06T04:25:26.617" LastActivityDate="2017-07-06T04:25:26.617" Title="Evidence of cannabis exposure causing schizophrenia?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17597" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-23T16:35:05.660" Score="4" ViewCount="264" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is sort of related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4021/do-repressed-memories-exist&quot;&gt;this other question&lt;/a&gt;, except that here I am not asking whether the brain is viewed as being capable of repressing memories, but about any &lt;strong&gt;verified&lt;/strong&gt; cases of where that has happened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was watching a documentary in which a psychiatrist said that an individual always remembers traumatic events, and that there is no evidence for the Freudian notion that the brain represses traumatic memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So here I specifically want to exclude as evidence &lt;strong&gt;solely&lt;/strong&gt; from claims from people who say that they were abused as children but suppressed these memories (and consequently either did, or did not, develop multiple personalities).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am interested in is verified evidence of cases where a person suffered trauma but the memories of the trauma were repressed &lt;strong&gt;as per the Freudian notion&lt;/strong&gt;. With this I mean that I also want to exclude cases where the individual learned to live with the past and consequently memories of the trauma faded because it no longer carried any emotional significance to the person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would appreciate references to academic literature or articles where the evidence is mentioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does verified evidence for Freudian repression of traumatic memories exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16314" LastActivityDate="2017-06-26T15:59:23.573" Title="Does verified evidence for Freudian repression of traumatic memories exist?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17598" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17612" CreationDate="2017-06-23T17:14:12.577" Score="6" ViewCount="350" Body="&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_limb&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;phantom limbs&lt;/a&gt; in people who have lost arms or legs to amputation is pretty well-established. It makes a fair amount of sense. The &quot;brain mapping&quot; of the limb (and for that matter the nerves that led to it) don't go away just because the limb does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what about people who never had the limb? Does a person who was born with one arm due to a birth defect ever &quot;feel&quot; the second arm that should be there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16315" LastActivityDate="2020-05-01T20:18:56.460" Title="Do people with birth defects feel phantom limbs?" Tags="&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17600" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-24T01:06:02.050" Score="4" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;A year ago or so I discovered a study where the power spectrum of paintings were compared among various painters from the past and present day. Among the present day painters there were bipolar, etc. people. These present day painter's paintings were then compared with painters such as Van Gogh.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These finding were used to suggest a method to &quot;prove&quot; that painters, like Van Gogh, were bipolar or had some other mental illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought this was interesting but have long since been unable to find this again for further review. Does anyone know of this particular study,? If so could you please reference it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16318" LastActivityDate="2017-06-24T01:06:02.050" Title="Bipolar and paintings" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-06-28T19:50:44.467" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17601" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17537" CreationDate="2017-06-24T08:09:59.930" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Shuffle the questions to make at least two survey versions, which you then statistically compare to filter out any &quot;leading&quot; questions. this to compensate for the (mental state) influence that certain earlier questions will have on the following questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16319" LastActivityDate="2017-06-24T08:09:59.930" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17605" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-25T12:40:21.827" Score="3" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of my friends, for instance, say they want an &quot;intelligent&quot; girlfriend. Now, I know this is a philosophical question and a matter of opinion, and there is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/7875/how-do-laypeople-form-a-judgement-that-another-person-is-smart-or-intelligent&quot;&gt;similar question on intelligence&lt;/a&gt; looking for a scientific or some other formulaic way to label someone as intelligent, what I'm interested in is the social psychology aspect of it: what do they mean? What do people in this day and age think &quot;intelligent&quot; means? Don't they just call that to whoever is counted as intelligent by what they see as social standards? Then what are the universal standards and why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14628" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-07-10T06:27:53.050" LastActivityDate="2017-07-10T06:27:53.050" Title="Who do we count as &quot;intelligent&quot; and why?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="10" ClosedDate="2017-07-10T13:07:56.840" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17606" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-25T17:55:11.850" Score="4" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a baby is born they already know how to cry. If you inflict pain, their reaction is to cry. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is NOT why do they cry because that is obvious: they are uncomfortable, they are cold, they have been squeezed or as my Mom would say: They are crying because this world is evil and they don't want to be here. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To further remove any confusion: I do not care why they cry. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had no luck finding anything online except &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Is-crying-when-hurt-a-learned-human-behavior-or-is-it-an-automatic-response&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; Q&amp;amp;A with this answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So your first natural response is to cry, or as you like to think of it, to produce noises from your vocal throat. This is an inbuilt response. As you grow up you notice every time you emit this noise you are given food, attention, and your basic needs are accounted for. This is a learned response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interesting bit from the above quote is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;produce noises from your vocal throat. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do humans know crying? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If it is not crying and you call it &lt;em&gt;noises from vocal throat&lt;/em&gt; then why do babies produce those noises instead of noises such as laughter noises? Clearly they know that the crying type noise will get us to provide them comfort but the laughing type will not. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps when they are in the womb they can feel when the mother cries, it causes discomfort; so maybe they learn it that way through association. But that begs the question: Why don't they learn laughing in the womb as well? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will downvote answers that try to state why babies cry since I made it clear that is not my question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16335" LastEditorUserId="16335" LastEditDate="2017-06-25T18:01:30.790" LastActivityDate="2017-06-25T18:01:30.790" Title="How do we know how to cry?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-07-09T22:15:14.490" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17607" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15286" CreationDate="2017-06-25T19:27:18.613" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have not studied cognitive sciences but questions such as this always come into my mind as well. And my answer to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there some benefit to being insecure, or is their some other explanation for why it exists?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes there is benefit. Let's think of another trait: &lt;em&gt;fear&lt;/em&gt;. Fear can be a person's greatest strength but too much fear can also be detrimental. Therefore, I say the same is true for insecurity: some insecurity means the person is well aware of their weaknesses and have the ability to self reflect. Thus this trait can be beneficial. I mean if a person does not care about belonging to &lt;code&gt;a group (of friends, colleagues and what not)&lt;/code&gt;, what are their chances of survival in certain situations? Especially situations back in the days when the enemy would attack. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus your hypothesis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;insecurity (1) should have some beneficial effects&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is correct. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16335" LastActivityDate="2017-06-25T19:27:18.613" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17612" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17598" CreationDate="2017-06-26T15:34:25.093" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/discoblog/2012/03/12/can-a-limb-that-never-existed-become-a-phantom-limb/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a link to an article that discusses the very thing. Specifically, it discusses a case study conducted by Paul McGeoch and V.S. Ramachandran on a woman whose hand was amputated at 18, but who has been missing a thumb and index finger since birth. This woman &quot;sprouted a phantom hand that contained five digits, including a phantom thumb and index finger that had been absent since her birth.&quot; The end of the article discusses similarities between this phenomenon and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernumerary_phantom_limb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;supernumerary phantom limb&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately (from the article): &quot;The authors say that most people born with congenitally missing limbs do not experience phantom ones, but a small subset do.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case you are curious, below is the citation for the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13554794.2011.556128&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;case study conducted&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a side note, depending on whose &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/phantom%20limb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;definition&lt;/a&gt; you use, &quot;phantom limbs&quot; are defined solely for individuals who have had the limb amputated (though this may be due to unintentionally specific wording).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McGeoch, P. D., &amp;amp; Ramachandran, V. S. (2012). The appearance of new phantom fingers post-amputation in a phocomelus. Neurocase, 18(2), 95-97. doi:10.1080/13554794.2011.556128&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-06-26T15:47:51.673" LastActivityDate="2017-06-26T15:47:51.673" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17613" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17597" CreationDate="2017-06-26T15:59:23.573" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I find this question very interesting, for this reason i did some digging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Yes&lt;/em&gt;, there're many studies about neurobiological implication of &quot;repressed memories&quot; and they underline how informations do not disappear. Through the&#xA;mechanisms of complex neural processes, it is obvious that this information is exposed to various kinds of cellular and molecular operations. These processes can not be deleted. The brain never “forgets” at the cellular and molecular levels.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221708901_Neurobiology_of_Repression_A_Hypothetical_Interpretation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Mehmet Emin Ceylan, M.D., Aslıhan Sayın, M.D., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In recent years, an effort has been made to identify the underlying neuroanatomical,&#xA;neurophysiological and molecular underpinnings of psychoanalytical concepts like repression. The view that, every mental action is caused by a change in an&#xA;identifiable neural system (or vice versa), is not surprising. &lt;strong&gt;Any decision we make, any&#xA;feeling we have, is the result of activity in neural networks and molecular-level structures&#xA;such as receptors, messenger systems, neurotransmitters etc. that are involved in the process&#xA;of neurotransmission. Moreover, this fact applies not only to conscious mental activities, but&#xA;also to mental activities that are not conscious.&lt;/strong&gt; Everything that goes on in the brain affects our&#xA;mind, but we are not consciously aware of everything that goes on in our mind. This situation&#xA;is described by Freud as the equivalent of an unconscious mental process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We know that repression is a defense mechanism that plays a role in the formation of&#xA;unconscious mental activities and processes. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that repression&#xA;must have a neural mechanism. The technology of Freud’s time was incapable of explaining&#xA;the biological correlates of the mental processes described by his psychoanalytic theory.&#xA;Today’s technological capabilities, advances in brain imaging methods, advanced methods in&#xA;brain electrophysiology and molecular biology promise an opportunity to observe and analyze&#xA;these mechanisms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neural representation of the external event is bound by hippocampus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Then, the LTP (long-term potentiation) process provides the neural mechanisms of consolidation, in which a&#xA;particular external event becomes a lasting memory, which is the basis for long-term memory.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;While the hippocampus controls consciouss memory,the amygdala is required for the&#xA;unconsciously associated vegetative reaction (Bechara et al., 1995). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;fMRI studies in post-traumatic&#xA;stress disorder patients indicate that recall of traumatic events is associated with an increased&#xA;activation of the amygdala and a reduced activation of the hippocampus &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is reasonable to assume that repression&#xA;must have a neural mechanism: The following study suggests that &lt;strong&gt;dorsolateral prefrontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt;,&#xA;and especially its caudal part plays a major role for repression of childhood traumatic events.&#xA;Possible molecular mechanism of memory erasure in repression is long term depression of&#xA;&lt;em&gt;glutamatergic neurotransmission&lt;/em&gt; between prefrontal cortex- thalamus- limbic system.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;REFERENCES&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221708901_Neurobiology_of_Repression_A_Hypothetical_Interpretation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurobiology of Repression&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bechara, A., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., Adolphs, R., Rockland, C., Damasioa, A.R.,&#xA;1995. Double dissociation of conditioning and declerative knowledge relative to the amigdala&#xA;and hippocampus in humans. Science 269, 1115-1118.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-06-26T15:59:23.573" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17615" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16178" CreationDate="2017-06-26T16:49:48.840" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concept of &lt;em&gt;work engagemen&lt;/em&gt;t (Schaufeli et al., 2002) is not flawed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, recent research — which unfortunately for this site, is in German — shows that more research about the predictors of &lt;em&gt;work engagement&lt;/em&gt; is needed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Höge and Schnell (2012) demonstrate that &lt;em&gt;meaning in work&lt;/em&gt; (or: meaningful work) can fully mediate the relation between &lt;em&gt;core job dimensions&lt;/em&gt; (e. g. predictor variables like &lt;em&gt;task autonomy&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;task identity&lt;/em&gt;) as defined by Hackman &amp;amp; Oldham (1975) and the criterion variable &lt;em&gt;work engagement&lt;/em&gt; (Schaufeli et al., 2002). In other words: Perceiving one's work as meaningful is an important but not well known antecedent of work engagement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hackman, J. R., &amp;amp; Oldham, G. R. (1975). Development of the Job Diagnostic Survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(2), 159–170.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Höge, T., &amp;amp; Schnell, T. (2012). Kein Arbeitsengagement ohne Sinnerfüllung.: Eine Studie zum Zusammenhang von Work Engagement, Sinnerfüllung und Tätigkeitsmerkmalen. Wirtschaftspsychologie, (1), 91–99.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schaufeli, W., Salanova, M., González-romá, V., &amp;amp; Bakker, A. (2002). The Measurement of Engagement and Burnout: A Two Sample Confirmatory Factor Analytic Approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 71–92. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further readings&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For those wanting to learn more about &lt;em&gt;meaning in work&lt;/em&gt; there is an English-language paper which is, however, not related to work engagement: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schnell, T., Höge, T., &amp;amp; Pollet, E. (2013). Predicting meaning in work: Theory, data, implications. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(6), 543–554. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2013.830763&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2013.830763&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user14074" LastActivityDate="2017-06-26T16:49:48.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17616" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17275" CreationDate="2017-06-26T18:54:55.827" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you would have to define 'successful' before you could get a meaningful answer to this question. Is success a happy client? Maybe a deep trance state? Or a trance state at all? &#xA;My professional experience with skype and hypnosis is that it is much harder to determine the client's state from a monitor than in person. Feedback is limited in that you cannot hear breathing changes, see small movements easily or easily hear quietly spoken words. &#xA;On top of this, you have the possibility of disconnection at any moment that makes the practice more challenging since the client will not know that you are disconnected versus just being quiet, and is likely to either fall asleep or become alarmed/alerted after some time has passed. Neither of those would be considered successful in my mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16349" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-26T19:54:23.780" LastActivityDate="2017-06-26T19:54:23.780" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17618" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7651" CreationDate="2017-06-26T19:41:54.643" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a professional hypnotist, I would start by asking you to consider if your body perhaps needs one or more nutrients in those snacks, or maybe there is a component of salad that really doesn't work for your body? There's the possibility of aversion to salad due to a negative association at some point in your life, say as a child you were forced to eat it. And of course there's the positive association of lardy snacks that the salad has to compete with! Sugar and fat are powerful motivators. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think any respectable hypnotist would set about 'making' you like or dislike anything without seriously considering the ramifications of such an approach, and I doubt that hypnotic suggestion would be enough to overcome the messages coming from your enteric nervous system in the case of it not being an emotionally-based negative association.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16349" LastActivityDate="2017-06-26T19:41:54.643" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17619" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17595" CreationDate="2017-06-27T09:58:51.890" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peripheral nerves can be stimulated by, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, electrical pulses and their responses can be recorded back by using recording electrodes. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peripheral nerves generally do not process the signal. However, they can, and likely will, behave in a nonlinear manner, meaning that their transfer characteristics may change over time, depending on the stimulus.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I'll approach this question based on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/cochlear-implants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cochlear implant&lt;/a&gt; (CI). In short, these devices are implanted into the inner ear in people with pronounced hearing loss (Fig. 1). CIs stimulate the auditory nerve directly with electrical pulses, thereby bypassing the degenerate hair cells and restoring functional hearing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The auditory nerve responses elicited by CIs are routinely recorded to assess implant functionality. These recordings are called electrically evoked compound action potential (eCAP) responses (Fig. 2). Basically, one electrode is stimulated and the nerve response is measured by another electrode. All the action potentials of the individual auditory nerve fibers are basically recorded synchronously, resulting in a compound action potential (CAP). This will probably answer your second question, namely &lt;strong&gt;yes, nerve responses can be elicited electrically and recorded back with the proper recording setup&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To go back to your first question - nerve responses are nonlinear, as neural responses show &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_adaptation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adaptation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; to the stimulation. Basically, nerves get tired of firing after a while. To go back to the CI example; if high rates of electrical stimuli are applied to the inner ear, the auditory nerve shows a slow adaptive behavior, causing the nerve response amplitude to decline slowly over time, this is caused because more and more fibers become less responsive. Then there is a short-term effect caused by &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractory_period_(physiology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;refractoriness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of individual fibers. A few milliseconds after a fiber has fired, it is unresponsive to a following stimulus. This causes some fibers to skip the stimulus. During a high-rate pulse train, this results in e eCAP to  alternatingly have a normal and low amplitude (Fig. 3). This answers your first question, in a nutshell, namely that nerves can alter the input signal for sure. The process of adaptatin is widespread in the periphery, for example all sensory systems show it to some degree. It is, however, not a real processing such as the processing happening in the peripheral retina for example where complex circuitry markedly alters retinal output to the optic nerve. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1v91i.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1v91i.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;CI&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Cochlear implant. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.speechbuddy.com/blog/hearing-loss/is-a-cochlear-implant-right-for-your-child/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Speech Buddy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/I5qbG.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/I5qbG.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;eCAP&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Princple of eCAP recording. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.slideshare.net/alexandracostlow/cochlear-implantation-process-performance-and-culture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A.D. Costlow&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/C2Nw5.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/C2Nw5.png&quot; alt=&quot;pulse train&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 3. eCAP amplitudes during high-rate (900 pulses/s) stimulation of a CI. figure excerpt adapted from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378595514001257&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hughes &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378595514001257&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hughes &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Hear Res&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;316&lt;/strong&gt;: 44-56&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-27T15:39:27.933" LastActivityDate="2017-06-27T15:39:27.933" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17620" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17551" CreationDate="2017-06-27T11:03:24.340" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Attention can be quantified with a sustained attention to response task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I think with focus or concentration you mean sustained &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psytest.net/index.php?page=Daueraufmerksamkeit&amp;amp;hl=en_US&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attention&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; to a certain task. A sustained attention to response task (SART) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S074756329800017X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Silverstein &amp;amp; Palumbo, 1998)&lt;/a&gt; could be helpful to you (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.marsja.se/sustained-attention-task-in-psychopy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is a free PsychoPy script). SART seems to be a reliable measure for attention &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20452366&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Smilek &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2010)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically SART consists of a set of stimuli (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, simple shapes) and the subject is asked to repeatedly give a response (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; a button press) when a certain event occurs (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; a shape changes color). Reductions in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3634902/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;correct rates&lt;/a&gt;, increased &lt;a href=&quot;http://davehunter.wp.st-andrews.ac.uk/2015/04/12/fitting-a-psychometric-function/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lapse rates&lt;/a&gt;, and/or decreased &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psych.upenn.edu/~saul/rt.experimentation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reaction times&lt;/a&gt; all may signal reduced attention to the task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Admittedly I am not too familiar with these tests, but I do have a lot of experience with people loosing attention during tedious psychophysical tasks :) I hope the links and references provided here may be of further help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S074756329800017X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Silverstein &amp;amp; Palumbo, Computers in Human Behavior (1998); &lt;strong&gt;14&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 463-75&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20452366&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smilek &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychologia&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;48&lt;/strong&gt;(9): 2564-70&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-27T15:34:20.907" LastActivityDate="2017-06-27T15:34:20.907" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17621" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17589" CreationDate="2017-06-27T11:57:21.083" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The sense of smell may still be operational during sleep, but it is not enhanced. Olfactory stimuli typically will not wake you up during sleep, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Olfaction and sleep are an interesting lot. Most sensory stimuli presented during sleep typically cause awakening, especially when when they are intense  and sudden (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; a loud noise). This is not the case with odors, and even holds for unpleasant ones &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vinparleur.net/IMG/pdf/Why_odor_alarms_will_not_work_for_humans.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Carskadon &amp;amp; Herz, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, while most sensory systems stop processing their input altogether, odors remain processed by the sleeping brain. This may, at least in part, be due to the direct olfactory projections from the periphery to the cortex, without a thalamic relay being used as with the other senses &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-319-26932-0_45&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Perl &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2017)&lt;/a&gt;. However, they will typically not wake a person up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/when-seeing-not-really-believing-how-neural-adaptation-can-deceive-us&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neural adaptation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (reduction of sensitivity over time) of the olfactory system is related to repeated or sustained exposure to scents &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10944515&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Dalton, 2000)&lt;/a&gt;, and it is not affected by sleep &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt; as far as I know. Hence, taken together these findings support the claim that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vinparleur.net/IMG/pdf/Why_odor_alarms_will_not_work_for_humans.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;odor alarms will not work&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note, however, that fire comes with heat and irritant smoke that will work on the heat and pain receptors in the skin, respectively. These &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nbcnews.com/health/can-smells-wake-us-deep-sleep-1C9386712&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;may wake you up&lt;/a&gt;, barred the dulled sensory systems pick the stimuli up. And even then it may already be too late to be of any help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10944515&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dalton, &lt;em&gt;Chem Senses&lt;/em&gt; (2000); &lt;strong&gt;25&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 487-92&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vinparleur.net/IMG/pdf/Why_odor_alarms_will_not_work_for_humans.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carskadon &amp;amp; Herz, &lt;em&gt;Sleep&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;27&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 402-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-319-26932-0_45&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Perl &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, Springer Handbook of Odor: 111-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-27T20:51:48.477" LastActivityDate="2017-06-27T20:51:48.477" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17622" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-06-27T12:03:43.970" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The olfactory system represents one of the oldest sensory modalities in the phylogenetic history of mammals. (See the image below.) As a chemical sensor, the olfactory system detects food and influences social and sexual behavior. The specialized olfactory epithelial cells characterize the only group of neurons capable of regeneration. Activation occurs when odiferous molecules come in contact with specialized processes known as the olfactory vesicles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/835585-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Medscape&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wkipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-27T12:03:43.970" LastActivityDate="2017-06-27T12:03:43.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17623" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-06-27T12:03:43.970" Score="0" Body="Olfaction is the sense of smell. It is a form of chemoreception. Olfaction has many purposes, such as the detection of hazards, pheromones, and food. It integrates with other senses to form the sense of flavor. Olfaction occurs when odorants bind to specific sites on olfactory receptors located in the nasal cavity." OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-02-08T22:39:36.593" LastActivityDate="2018-02-08T22:39:36.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17627" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17630" CreationDate="2017-06-28T01:32:19.957" Score="1" ViewCount="4253" Body="&lt;p&gt;An acquaintance party is :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a college party held at the begining of the semester where students have the opportunity to meet each other. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.question.com/what-is-the-purpose-of-the-acquaintance-party-898837.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since this party is always held in different schools in most countries, it made me wonder if its purpose goes further than just having fun, or getting to know University. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How does this party help a person personally/professionally?&lt;/strong&gt; What is the main goal of this celebration, aside from having fun?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16355" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-30T07:25:56.670" LastActivityDate="2017-06-30T07:28:21.767" Title="What is acquaintance and how can it help a person?" Tags="&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-07-12T12:41:32.180" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17629" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17632" CreationDate="2017-06-28T03:49:08.343" Score="2" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;From psychology point of view, what is the reason behind terrorist attacks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the motivation for the leaders of terrorists?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the motivation for the person who performs terrorist attacks? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16182" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-06-28T18:13:37.877" LastActivityDate="2017-06-28T19:21:57.460" Title="What is the reason behind terrorist attacks?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17630" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17627" CreationDate="2017-06-28T13:26:37.870" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Acquaintance at the start of a new study can help to build a network of friends. Friends can offer mental support in difficult times, they can stimulate you in your studies, you can discuss homework with them and you can just spend your free time with them to (re-)charge before the new semester. Friends are not only fun to have, they are a necessity for a social animal species like &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens&lt;/em&gt;. On the the other hand, friends can also lure you into skipping classes, not doing your homework and focus on the 'wrong' things in life such as doing drugs. It goes both ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Social networks can impact our health, happiness, wealth, emotions, and even physical well-being. College students spend a lot of time with their friends. &lt;a href=&quot;https://news.dartmouth.edu/news/2016/12/how-your-college-friendships-help-you-or-dont&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;One estimate&lt;/a&gt; suggests that the average college student spends only 15 hours a week in class but 86 hours a week with his or her friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freshmen no longer have their parents constantly guiding them or checking in. That’s one reason why supportive friends are an important part of one’s social life during this period. These friends actually turn into students’ families during college. During this period, friends are everything; they are often the closest bonds students will ever make and sometimes the entire support system (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://valedictoriansguide.com/2016/04/30/the-importance-of-friendship-in-high-school-and-college/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Weisman&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that different people generate different kind of networks. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dartmouth.edu/faculty-directory/janice-m-mccabe&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McCabe&lt;/a&gt; showed, in a relatively small sample of students, that there are roughly three types &lt;a href=&quot;http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo24731955.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(McCabe, 2016)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Tight-knitters&quot; have a single cluster of close friends.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Compartmentalizers&quot; have a bunch of unrelated clusters of friends (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; a group of friends at university, the other at a sports club).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Samplers&quot; have one-on-one friendships with individuals who didn't necessarily know one another.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, why is this important? Every tight-knitter reporting to have friends that provided academic motivation and support eventually graduated. Among the ones who said they lacked this support and their friends distracted them from schoolwork, only half managed to graduate within six years. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Compartmentalizers and samplers both risked to be 'torn' between social contacts groups and could experience social isolation (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2016/11/02/499351266/how-college-friendships-may-affect-student-success&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NPR&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo24731955.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McGabe, Connecting in College. How friendship networks matter for academic and social success. University Chicago Press (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-06-30T07:28:21.767" LastActivityDate="2017-06-30T07:28:21.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17631" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17595" CreationDate="2017-06-28T15:52:33.490" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does the peripheral nervous system processes information like central neurons do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No. Central neurons predominately process information through neural networks. A neural network is basically a group of neurons who have synapses on each other thereby providing excitatory and inhibitory inputs. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;peripheral nervous system&lt;/a&gt; is generally thought of as being a relay between the periphery (e.g., limbs) and the brain. They do not generally form synapses with neurons outside the CNS and therefore cannot perform processing like neurons in the CNS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do nerves, e.g. in the arm of a human, merely &quot;relay&quot; any information, or do they also process incoming signals in any way? As a result, the electrical signal would then differ when measured at the beginning and the end of a nerve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the individual neuron level the &quot;signal&quot; is generally thought of as being an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;action potential&lt;/a&gt;. Action potentials are typically described as all-or-none events and propagate along the nerve fiber. The exact morphology of the action potential can change as it propagates, but when it gets to the end, it will cause the release of neurotransmitter to signal the next neuron.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An alternative definition of &quot;signal&quot; are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postsynaptic_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;post synaptic potentials&lt;/a&gt;. These are the small changes in voltage that a nerve fiber undergoes do to the presence of neurotransmitters. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hodgkin and Huxley model&lt;/a&gt; provides a mathematical description of how this process works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can a nerve be stimulated at one point with a certain electrical signal as input (with varying rate etc. to encode information) and can the output be measured at another point? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No (well maybe). Stimulating a nerve at a particular point is difficult. Hodgkin and Huxley in their Nobel prize winning work injected current (maybe voltage) into the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squid_giant_axon&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;giant axon of the squid&lt;/a&gt; and measured the response. The technique of intracellular recordings involves &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_clamp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;patch clamping&lt;/a&gt; and is not easy (again a Nobel prize worthy discovery). Patch clamping a cell in two places is probably theoretically possible, but I pity the grad student who has to do it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With extracellular recordings it is difficult to know &quot;where&quot; you are stimulating and recording. It is often hard to even know what neuron you are recording from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-06-28T15:52:33.490" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17632" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17629" CreationDate="2017-06-28T16:32:00.557" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As others have mentioned, different individuals and groups can have broad (and conflicting) motivations for specific actions. I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://politics.stackexchange.com/q/19177&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; post on the Politics SE while looking up a similar question, though I don't know if this is exactly what you are asking. The post asks why ISIS performs terrorist attacks when it brings them more attention and threat. Ultimately, they just have different goals. Looking at it from one perspective, it seems &quot;wrong&quot;. Looking at it from another, it completely makes sense. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://politics.stackexchange.com/a/19181&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; answer (to the above question) does a great job of explaining how &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/nov/15/terrorists-isis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ISIS stated goals&lt;/a&gt; relate. These goals are not focused on conquest or &quot;winning&quot; in the traditional sense, but much more on bringing division into the world. If this is the goal, terrorist attacks that bring fear, racism, and religious judgement from the West are &lt;em&gt;right&lt;/em&gt; (again, towards this purpose).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long story short: they have a different goal than many people. These attacks are actually quite rational, when working towards that goal. It is the &lt;em&gt;goal itself&lt;/em&gt; that we find irrational. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to why people believe in one goal vs. another: I don't think that this has a universal answer. Lots of complex things can go into this belief, and they can greatly vary by individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-06-28T19:21:57.460" LastActivityDate="2017-06-28T19:21:57.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17633" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17629" CreationDate="2017-06-28T18:47:42.550" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is superbly broad and largely off-topic here, as it crosses to the realms of Anthropology, Sociology and Religion Studies.Secondly, terrorist attacks may be executed by different groups of individuals, and each occurrence may be fueled by a different set of motives. Hence, I will confine my answer to a general answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, it needs mentioning that the psychology of terrorism is marked more by theory and opinion than by hard science (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/2009/11/terrorism.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA&lt;/a&gt;). By crunching the numbers it seems that religious extremism has apparently become the main driver of terrorism in recent years (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2014/nov/18/religious-extremism-main-cause-of-terrorism-according-to-report&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Guardian&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the point of the individual, there are a number of factors that may drive people to let themselves be recruited into terrorist radical organizations (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/2009/11/terrorism.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feelings of anger, alienation or disenfranchisement; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sense of powerlessness; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feelings of being victimized by the social injustice they are fighting; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Feeling of the need to take action rather than just talking about the problem. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Immoral attitudes to violence;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Their friends or family are sympathetic to the cause.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beliefs that joining a movement offers social and psychological rewards such as adventure, camaraderie and a heightened sense of identity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You ask about leaders. What is a leader? There are many leaders and layers stacked on top of each other. Divide and conquer. The same beliefs as stated above may also apply to these folks. Maybe you refer to the individual as the people that commit suicide during the atrocities. I think very personal motivations may push these people. For example believing the afterlife is eternal and that committing a certain atrocity is a good thing, granting them a place in heaven. Leaders will probably have more political motivations and will operate with a larger vision of the cause. There are many terrorist groups. The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IRA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; for example, was an Irish republican paramilitary organization that sought to separate Northern Ireland from the United Kingdom. Bin Laden, from the notorious &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Al-Qaeda&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, attacked the Twin Towers and other symbols of American power to promote widespread fear throughout the country and weaken the US’ standing in the world community, ultimately supporting their political and religious goals in the Middle East and Muslim World (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.911memorial.org/faq-about-911&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;9/11 Memorial Museum&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-06-28T18:47:42.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17634" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1525" CreationDate="2017-06-28T19:55:11.933" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Previously: All cells have receptors for glucorticoids, see these sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucocorticoid_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucocorticoid_receptor&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neil R. Carlson. (1993). Physiology of Behavior. Page 404.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You do not want us to include in our response all effects on the behavior of all the cells of the body (in animals and humans of course) (with direct functions or modulating function of course).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this specific case it does not work safeguard in the subject raised saying: I ask for the gene .. since in that case you would ask about the behavioral functions of that gene ... and we are in the same situation. Or maybe I did not understand your intelligent question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2017-06-28T19:55:11.933" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17635" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17467" CreationDate="2017-06-28T22:32:10.883" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is that we don't really know.  It is understandably difficult to conduct experiments on humans in this field, so many theories remain speculative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two competing forces (nature and nurture), known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreeding_avoidance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the inbreeding avoidance hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;, and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;incest taboo&lt;/a&gt;, both have mixed support with respect to humans.  However, as is typical of human behaviour, there is probably a mix of both at play.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Westermarck Effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreeding_depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;negative effect of inbreeding&lt;/a&gt; on genetic fitness is well supported in animal studies, though there is less confidence about humans.  This suggests that a cognitive mechanism for inbreeding avoidance might be adaptive, but it remains to be determined how &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kin_recognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;kin detection&lt;/a&gt; actually works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westermarck_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Westermarck Effect&lt;/a&gt; was proposed as early as 1891 as the instinctual mechanism in humans that might implement kin detection.  The effect is typically assumed to involve a genetic predisposition to learn to identify kin through early childhood experience.  Supportive studies demonstrate cases where genetically unrelated individuals who are raised together in their early childhood are less likely to find each other sexually attractive, less likely to find similar individuals attractive, and less likely to marry such individuals.  There are also counterpart studies on genetic siblings who are not raised together, and hence do not experience this effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This effect is found in animals, and is often implemented through olfactory detection - animals tend to avoid mating with others whose smell resembles those they have been raised with - and recently, the sense of smell has been proposed to account for the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreeding_avoidance#Human_kin_recognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Westermarck effect in humans&lt;/a&gt; as well.  Conclusive evidence is elusive however, as classical conditioning would spread avoidance to other senses.  Furthermore, much of the evidence for this effect in both humans and other &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01453-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;animals&lt;/a&gt; has been called into question over the years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Alliance Theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the apparent universality of the incest taboo suggests a genetic predisposition, the exact way in which it is implemented varies significantly across cultures (for example, how different cultures treat marriages between first-cousins).  As such, a cultural origin has been surmised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exogamy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Exogamy&lt;/a&gt; was proposed in 1949 as the mechanism behind the anthropological &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alliance Theory&lt;/a&gt;.  This theory suggests that the incest taboo is socially adaptive, as it encourages marriages between families, increasing social stability.  This was a common practice for maintaining peace among the ruling class of many monarchic societies, for example.  Accordingly, when &lt;em&gt;intra&lt;/em&gt;-family relations (endogamy) were more socially adaptive (because of isolation or protection from enemies), then the incest taboo was not present, as was the case in a few ancient societies such as Egypt, Inca, Hawaii, and China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While a cultural origin may explain biologically counter-productive exceptions, it does not eliminate a biological impetus - a selective preference for societies that adopt the taboo over ones that don't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-05-10T23:54:46.610" LastActivityDate="2021-05-10T23:54:46.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17636" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8976" CreationDate="2017-06-29T00:47:34.120" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Narcissism is an exaggerated sense of self love while megalomania is an exaggerated sense of self worth based on fantasies of power, attractiveness and other physical or psychological attributes and, therfore, all megalomaniacs are narcissists, but not all narcissists are megalomaniacs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16361" LastActivityDate="2017-06-29T00:47:34.120" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17637" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-29T06:39:01.963" Score="3" ViewCount="405" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hypnosis has been proven effective as way to treat various illnesses. So have placebos. My question is, is Hypnosis more effective than a placebo?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular has there any experiments comparing the effects of real hypnosis v.s. fake hypnosis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7015" LastActivityDate="2017-06-30T19:41:14.590" Title="Is Hypnosis more effective than a placebo?" Tags="&lt;hypnosis&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-18T20:26:44.870" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17638" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-29T06:47:16.153" Score="3" ViewCount="163" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are some scientifically credible texts (preferably free and online) that I could read to learn more about Hypnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While hypnosis is a real phenomenon, there seems to be a lot pseudoscience practitioners in the area as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I'm looking more for a text book type work explaining how hypnosis works then studies providing evidence for it. It should of course be &lt;em&gt;supported&lt;/em&gt; by studies, but its main purpose should be instruction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7015" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2017-06-29T14:45:09.577" LastActivityDate="2017-06-29T17:39:34.197" Title="Scientifically credible texts on how to perform Hypnosis" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17639" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-06-29T08:33:41.387" Score="8" ViewCount="1116" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8VdFf3egwfg&amp;amp;t=436s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;YouTube video&lt;/a&gt; of a Hubel &amp;amp; Wiesel experiment from 1965 in the visual cortex. The video shows the experimenters outlining the receptive field of a simple cell in the first part of the video using symbols. Crosses are used for excitatory responses, and triangles for inhibitory responses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As shown in the video, neuron firing rate increased when the edge of a bar of light touched the crosses present on the top left. It is not just the orientation and location of light bar, but it seems that the light bar's edge is defining the firing rate, and thus determines the receptive field. So, the oriented receptive field of the cell seems to be defined w.r.t to the stimulus edges, rather than the bright and dark regions stimulating the on-center and off-surround parts of the receptive field. It seems that the simple cell was getting triggered when the edge of the light bar touched the three lines made by cross marks and triangles in that particular orientation. So, the cell under consideration was responding to edges at three separate locations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is my understanding correct ? Please help me in understanding how oriented receptive fields made up with center-surround concept explain the excitation at the edge observed. Perhaps it can be seen as the derivative of a box-like receptive field, or an oriented receptive field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16097" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-07-04T19:29:08.797" LastActivityDate="2017-07-04T20:44:19.843" Title="What explains the characteristics of the receptive fields of simple cells in V1?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17640" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17638" CreationDate="2017-06-29T17:39:34.197" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;For scientifically supported texts, I would recommend the textbooks produced by the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis (linked &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.asch.net/Professionals/ASCHBooks.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) as a good place to start. None of these are free (legally), though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also produce a bibliography of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.asch.net/Public/ASCHBibliography.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;articles and books&lt;/a&gt; (currently some 9 pages) that provide some additional handy references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastActivityDate="2017-06-29T17:39:34.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17642" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17637" CreationDate="2017-06-29T17:58:31.137" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Answering your first question...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4812013/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; paper does a handy job of describing the situation. Specifically, it describes how &quot;more effective&quot; may not be the correct way of looking at the comparison between hypnosis and placebo. Specifically, these methods may function differently, depending on the activity of the individual's prefrontal cortex:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;In conclusion, whilst there are potentially informative similarities between hypnotic suggestion and placebos, their differences, particularly with regard to the differential contributions of regions of the prefrontal cortex, are also potentially informative as to the nature of suggestion more generally.&quot; (Parris, 2016).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd copy the whole 5th and 6th paragraph of this article if I could: I recommend giving it a glance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long story short: recent research seems to suggest that patients may be more or less susceptible to these different treatments depending on the level of activity in the PFC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parris, B. A. (2016). The Prefrontal Cortex and Suggestion: Hypnosis vs. Placebo Effects. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 415. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00415&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00415&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-06-30T19:41:14.590" LastActivityDate="2017-06-30T19:41:14.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17643" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4351" CreationDate="2017-06-30T02:38:33.370" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people actually become less happy after they win the lottery. Here's one possible explanation of why. There are lots of people each of which they can help but they don't have enough money to help all of them. Since they have so much money, they can help some of them but because they're already helping some of them, they don't have enough money to help the others. They end up getting criticized by some of them people they aren't helping because they can help them but aren't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people might not encounter that problem after they win the lottery and instead feel happy at first because they can help so many people and not worry that they aren't helping even more people that they could have helped, but they eventually stop being more happy because their brain adapts. If it's an autistic megasavant, they might continue being happy that they won the lottery because they'll keep remembering their initial impression of their new life style of finding it wierd and different and continue finding it wierd and different.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10270" LastActivityDate="2017-06-30T02:38:33.370" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17648" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17651" CreationDate="2017-07-01T09:16:16.640" Score="5" ViewCount="1286" Body="&lt;p&gt;I feel like people really often do things just because they've​ already started doing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One example could be the Electronic Evidence of Sales just established in Czechia. It's a system monitoring all the sales in the country by receiving electronic bills. Now, in order to launch it, every shop in the country had to buy a special cash register so we already invested a lot in it but some say it's ineffective so we should cancel it. And, of course, everyone says that would be dumb once we're using it but they don't realise that our past decisions are irrelevant for what we choose now, that is, a system with less effectivity. Note this story is just an example of a bad argument and might not be true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest phenomenon I could find is the naturalistic fallacy and appeal to tradition fallacy. Among friends, I call it &quot;the finishing syndrome&quot;, isn't there a more widely used term?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2017-08-18T13:20:34.220" Title="Name of the psychological phenomenon of doing something just because you've already started doing it?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17650" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17656" CreationDate="2017-07-01T13:52:13.673" Score="3" ViewCount="383" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading Zimbardo's &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1846041031&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The lucifer effect: understanding how good people turn to evil&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; in which he describes the famous &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment#Goals_and_methods&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford prison experiment&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;that investigated the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between prisoners and prison guards. The experiment's results favor situational attribution of behavior over dispositional attribution. It seemed that the situation, rather than their individual personalities, caused the participants' evil behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zimbardo concluded that a set of psychological processes - among them &lt;em&gt;deindividuation&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;obedience to authority&lt;/em&gt; - can induce good people to do evil. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifiying Zimbardo's definition of evil:  - &lt;em&gt;&quot;Evil consists in intentionally behaving in ways that harm, abuse, demean, dehumanize, or destroy innocent others - or using one's authority and systemic power to encourage or permit others to do so on your behalf&quot;&lt;/em&gt; -  my question is: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does a cerebral circuit of &lt;em&gt;evil induced by situational circumstances&lt;/em&gt; exist ?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-07-02T16:53:06.250" LastActivityDate="2017-07-02T22:21:51.850" Title="Any research on brain's processes involved in evil actions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-07-07T05:54:54.057" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17651" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17648" CreationDate="2017-07-01T15:53:23.243" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many words, it depends on the case, one is inertia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This term is also used when a phenomenon simply develops even if it is somewhat useless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In bets or game theory cognitive biases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-07-01T16:02:55.660" LastActivityDate="2017-07-01T16:02:55.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17653" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-01T19:50:20.473" Score="3" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dolphins and some birds (crows and parrots for example) are considered to be 'smart'. This made me thinking - What animals, other than humans, can possess an IQ, perhaps even at a very low level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16384" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-07-02T19:16:30.163" LastActivityDate="2017-07-04T10:21:08.633" Title="What, other than humans, can possess an IQ?" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2017-07-07T05:54:46.473" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17655" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17653" CreationDate="2017-07-02T20:16:50.920" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;IQ tests are designed to compare individuals within a given species. IQ tests for other animals than humans have been devised, however, and give insights in the distribution of smartness in other &lt;em&gt;animalia&lt;/em&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What is 'intelligence' within the confines of an IQ test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.intelltheory.com/wechsler.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;David Wechsler&lt;/a&gt; – the creator of the most widely used psychometric IQ test, the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://wechslertest.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WAIS&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; – defined intelligence as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think&#xA;  rationally and to deal effectively with his environments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our general intelligence (G) can be understood in terms of 3 underlying dimensions, made up of 5 factors (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iqmindware.com/wiki/iq-5-factors/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IQ Mindware&lt;/a&gt;):&#xA;(1) our knowledge base (crystallized intelligence)&#xA;(2) our thinking skills (fluid intelligence, visual intelligence)&#xA;(3) our cognitive efficiency or ‘brain power’ (processing speed, working memory/short-term memory) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ tests are generally administered behind the computer, or using pen and paper. This in itself is a rather challenging and cumbersome approach, even for the smartest dolphin around.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, IQ tests are made for humans and in fact, they are designed for educated people that have learned to read and write and know the difference between a triangle and a square. Many people around the world don't know what a trapezium looks like. They haven't had the education and likely, above all, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;They do not need to know it&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and yet be considered wise and smart &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;in their communities&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To put this differently, IQ tests are a Western construct designed for developed countries - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;IQ tests are widely used in our society. &lt;strong&gt;Universities&lt;/strong&gt; use IQ tests [...] to select students, &lt;strong&gt;companies&lt;/strong&gt; use IQ tests (job aptitude tests) to screen applicants, and high IQ societies such as Mensa use IQ test scores as membership criteria&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sup&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iqmindware.com/wiki/iq-5-factors/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IQ Mindware&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An IQ test is designed such that the average person in the population targeted by the test scores 100 (Fig. 1). The distribution around that 100-point average takes the shape of a standard bell-shape curve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1LPjT.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1LPjT.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Bell-shaped distribution of standard IQ tests. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iqmindware.com/wiki/iq-5-factors/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IQ Mindware&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In humans, &lt;strong&gt;factors like education and socioeconomic status can affect performance&lt;/strong&gt;. Hence, even within the human species the test may rather reflect educational status and hence can even mirror dad's well-paid job who happened to be able to pay for a respected University Fee.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, for your question, &lt;strong&gt;IQ tests are designed to compare people&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, they are tests to compare the abilities of individuals within a species. And it goes further, they are tests with a certain reference population, namely well-educated white folks, to put it bluntly.      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to &lt;strong&gt;extrapolate IQ tests to other species is difficult&lt;/strong&gt;, because intelligence tests need to be designed and administered such that &lt;strong&gt;they measure the overall smartness&lt;/strong&gt;, and not just a specific set of skills, such as the keen memories of food-hoarding birds or the fine motor skills of chimpanzees that make tools for finding insects in trees. Further, differences in animal test scores can depend on &lt;strong&gt;how motivated they are&lt;/strong&gt; to perform the tests. Because most experiments with animals are carried out using &lt;strong&gt;positive reinforcement&lt;/strong&gt; (food rewards), animals with full stomachs won't be driven to perform well and hence may get low outcomes. To be blunt again - satisfied animals will look stupid. Thus, even studies that suggest variations in intelligence among animals, including humans, carry the caveat that they might be skewed by motivational issues (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/09/iq-test-animals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Science Magazine News, 2016&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, researchers have been trying to &lt;strong&gt;develop tailored IQ tests&lt;/strong&gt; to other species. For example, in one study on New Zealand robins (Fig. 2), IQ was defined and tested on six different tests to measure various skills thought to be linked to the specific types of robin cognition, namely the ability to acquire, process, and act on information about the environment. In a test of motor skills, for example, the birds learned to flip plastic lids, one of which had a tasty meal worm at the bottom. In another test the ability to distinguish colors was quantified. In this test birds had to figure out whether the worm was hiding under a red or a blue lid. To show they could distinguish symbols, they had to discern whether the worm was under a lid marked with a cross or a square. And because these robins store food for the winter, the scientists also measured their spatial memories. They saw how well the birds could remember in which of eight wells the researchers had hidden a worm (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/09/iq-test-animals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Science Magazine News, 2016&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The robin experiment showed that between 34% and 45% of the differences in the robins’ overall performances could be explained by a similar general intelligence factor, &lt;strong&gt;suggesting that the birds’ performance is not just due to their talent on individual tests, but to their overall level of intelligence&lt;/strong&gt;. Among humans, researchers have found that &lt;strong&gt;general intelligence can account for about 40% of the individual differences&lt;/strong&gt; in IQ-type test scores. In other words, a &lt;strong&gt;battery of different, well-designed tests appears to be measuring overall intelligence rather than simply how well a person does on each individual test in humans and robins alike&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/InRkR.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/InRkR.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;NZ robin&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. New Zealand Northern Island robin. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NZ_North_Island_Robin-2.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikimedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, the great apes have been subject to specific, species-tailored IQ tests &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1603/2753&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hermann &amp;amp; Call, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1603/2753&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hermann &amp;amp; Call, &lt;em&gt;Phil Trans Soc B&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;367&lt;/strong&gt;: 1603&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-07-04T10:21:08.633" LastActivityDate="2017-07-04T10:21:08.633" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17656" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17650" CreationDate="2017-07-02T22:16:00.680" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I too have been studying Zimbardo's work and this area of research is still in its infancy at the moment, so, although those here who are more knowledgeable on neuroscience may be able to correct me if I am wrong, I believe from the lack of information I have seen that it is too early for any conclusive neurological basis to the formation of evil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/speakers/philip_zimbardo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. Philip Zimbardo&lt;/a&gt;'s work, on the subject is in his book you mentioned — &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1846041031&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Lucifer Effect&lt;/a&gt; — (Zimbardo, 2007) [See also: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lucifereffect.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lucifereffect.com] &lt;/a&gt;there is also has an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_on_the_psychology_of_evil/transcript&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;accompanying video at TED Talks&lt;/a&gt; (Zimbardo, 2008).  In this video he highlights the basis of his book.  There are also other similar works by other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The whole area of research on evil and heroism started, although not originally to study origins of evil, around 1950 with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Asch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Solomon Asch&lt;/a&gt; and his &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/conformity.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conformity&lt;/a&gt; experiment known as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/asch-conformity.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Asch Experiment&lt;/a&gt;, which led to a further experiment by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Milgram&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanley Milgram&lt;/a&gt; known as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/milgram.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milgram Experiment&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Asch’s experiment was essentially benign in nature but Stanley Milgram’s experiment had a macabre nature to it.  This made Milgram’s experiment particularly famous after he published his results as it made newspaper headlines and caused many people to sit up and really examine human nature, and the social requirement to conform to peers and authority figures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Stanley Milgram] asked the question, &quot;Could the Holocaust happen here, now?&quot; People say, &quot;No, that's Nazi Germany, Hitler, you know, that's 1939.&quot; He said, &quot;Yeah, but suppose Hitler asked you, 'Would you electrocute a stranger?' 'No way, I'm a good person.'&quot; He said, &quot;Why don't we put you in a situation and give you a chance to see what you would do?&quot; (Zimbardo, 2008)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The movie &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1063669/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Wave (2008)&lt;/a&gt; was based on teacher Ron Jones's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Third_Wave_(experiment)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Third Wave&quot; experiment&lt;/a&gt;, which took place at a Californian school in 1967 to explain how the German population could accept the actions of the Nazi regime during the Second World War. Because his students did not understand how something like national socialism could even happen, he founded a totalitarian, strictly-organized &quot;movement&quot; with harsh punishments that was led by him autocratically. The intricate sense of community led to a wave of enthusiasm not only from his own students, but also from students from other classes who joined the program later. Jones later admitted to having enjoyed having his students as followers. To eliminate the upcoming momentum, Jones aborted the project on the fifth day and showed the students the parallels towards the Nazi youth movements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is interesting with the Milgram Experiment is that &lt;strong&gt;it doesn't seem that the root of evil is &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; related to the parts of the brain related to empathy&lt;/strong&gt;.  You cannot just put those who &quot;failed&quot; the test into the category of those who lack empathy because when you watch the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ek4pWJ0_XNo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1962 documentary about the experiment on YouTube&lt;/a&gt; (PSU, 1962) which showed the experiment in action, an example is at 22 minutes into the documentary, where the &quot;teacher&quot; was showing signs of distress and wanted to check that the &quot;learner&quot; was okay before continuing.  When the &quot;teacher&quot; was told he &lt;strong&gt;must&lt;/strong&gt; continue he reluctantly did so, but he grew more agitated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stanley Milgram’s experiment seemed to inspire Dr. Philip Zimbardo with his studies into evil and heroism.  Philip Zimbardo conducted the notorious &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.prisonexp.org/the-story&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford Prison Experiment&lt;/a&gt; in 1971 and was an expert witness at Abu Grahib&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I became an expert witness for one of the guards, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Frederick&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sergeant Chip Frederick&lt;/a&gt;, and in that position, I had access to the dozen investigative reports. I had access to him. I could study him, have him come to my home, get to know him, do psychological analysis to see, was he a good apple or bad apple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Milgram's study is all about individual authority to control people. Most of the time, we are in institutions, so the Stanford Prison Study is a study of the power of institutions to influence individual behavior. Interestingly, Stanley Milgram and I were in the same high school class in James Monroe in the Bronx, 1954. (Zimbardo, 2008)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With his work, Dr. Philip Zimbardo came to the following psychological definition of evil:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Evil is the exercise of power. And that's the key: it's about power. To intentionally harm people psychologically, to hurt people physically, to destroy people mortally, or ideas, and to commit crimes against humanity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The power is in the system. The system creates the situation that corrupts the individuals, and the system is the legal, political, economic, cultural background. And this is where the power is of the bad [apple] barrel makers. (Zimbardo, 2008)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PSU, 1962. &lt;em&gt;Obedience - Films in the Behavioral Sciences&lt;/em&gt; [Video] University Park, PA:Pennsylvania State University&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldcat.org/title/obedience/oclc/498479796&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.worldcat.org/title/obedience/oclc/498479796&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;YouTube: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ek4pWJ0_XNo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ek4pWJ0_XNo&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Online Stream at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cas.byu.edu/cas&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://cas.byu.edu/cas&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zimbardo, P. G., 2007. &lt;em&gt;The Lucifer Effect: How Good People Turn Evil&lt;/em&gt; New York:The Random House Publishing Group&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zimbardo, P. G., 2008. &lt;em&gt;The Psychology of Evil&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt; &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_on_the_psychology_of_evil&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_on_the_psychology_of_evil&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-07-02T22:21:51.850" LastActivityDate="2017-07-02T22:21:51.850" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17657" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17593" CreationDate="2017-07-03T00:13:07.030" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answers to your questions in your post would depend on the scope of your study.  For example, with&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How long should the time between encoding and decoding be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it would depend on what criteria is set within the scope of the study.  If the people who are asking you to perform the study are asking for specific timescales then you need to stick to them and outline that in your report.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If however you have freedom to do so, as you seem to be asking on a psychological standpoint, it may be beneficial to test different timescales and maybe tabulate the results of memorability against time. You could even test different timescales against different ranges of emotional levels attached to the event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;does a person remember a highly emotional episodic memory longer than a non-emotional one?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What about medium levels of emotions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also add to this with your question on how long snippets should be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does a 5sec video snippet help someone to remember better than a single frame image?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have the time and freedom to explore, you can conduct a large amount of research on memory.  It would only be down to how wide you can make the scope of the study whilst keeping it within the remit of what you are trying to find out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-07-03T00:13:07.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17658" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15" CreationDate="2017-07-03T02:07:47.453" Score="2" Body="&lt;h3&gt;ICAR: INTERNATIONAL COGNITIVE ABILITY RESOURCE&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This project is an attempt to develop a public-domain assessment tool for cognitive abilities. It is being developed by several leading researchers in individual differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://icar-project.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://icar-project.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You need to register to access a short measure of cognitive ability.&#xA;They have sample items and a range of resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Condon, D. M., &amp;amp; Revelle, W. (2014). The International Cognitive Ability Resource: Development and initial validation of a public-domain measure. Intelligence, 43, 52-64.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-07-03T02:07:47.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17660" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-03T16:48:35.197" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing my master's thesis on evaluating startup team dynamics from an investors's perspective. To construct and argue the methods that I'm suggesting, I'd like to build a simple model of most important startup tasks, behaviors and characteristics where a certain characteristic of the team, say &quot;mutual trust&quot; would be connected to a desired behavior, like &quot;suggesting ideas&quot; that would be connected to success in a certain important task, like &quot;pivoting the business idea&quot;. Any characteristic could be connected to multiple behaviors, and behaviors could be connected to multiple tasks. So the model could look something like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XnXJq.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XnXJq.png&quot; alt=&quot;The framework concept&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any similar models/frameworks being used in scientific context?&lt;/strong&gt; To me, this seems like an intuitive way to build suggested connections between team/individual characteristics and business success, but I fail to find anything like this. Note that while I'm interested in team characteristics, similar logic on individual level will do fine as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please note that I don't intend to build a comprehensive map of all tasks, or do hypothesis-testing on each individual connection, but rather use this map as a basis for suggesting practical methods that will be tested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16394" LastActivityDate="2017-07-03T16:48:35.197" Title="A framework for modeling tasks, behaviors and characteristics" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-03T22:02:49.447" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17661" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17523" CreationDate="2017-07-03T21:30:22.787" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The simple answer to this question is &quot;no&quot;. Dream state accesses state of consciousness where past/present/future are melted, which is why dreamer might be re-living experiences from the past, premonitions about the future -all intermixed, as well as an abundance of other experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there is a more complex answer which might hold much more value when approaching the issue of dreams in general - and in their particularities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Freudian or even Jungian approach to dreams is a passive one. That vastly diminishes the potential they hold. It is correct that dreams let us peek into the subconscious, which to a great extent influence and even drive the &quot;conscious&quot; behaviors and states. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The superior way to approach that phenomenon is however to take an active role in the dream - what is called lucid dreaming. By this, you will get now only be able to freely explore the content of your subconscious, but to fix issues existing there - being able to solve in one night, what the psychoanalysis would in years.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Familiarize yourself with works of &lt;strong&gt;Stephen LaBerge&lt;/strong&gt; - he gives specific methods for achieving the capacity for lucid dreaming. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to go even deeper (or higher) into understanding and accessing the subconscious, as well as supra-conscious, there is a handful of schools around the world, a bit challenging to recognize, teaching genuine techniques stemming from Kashmir Shaivism, which can enable you to truly see how deep the rabbit hole goes...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11406" LastActivityDate="2017-07-03T21:30:22.787" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17662" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13605" CreationDate="2017-07-04T03:21:43.210" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know this thread is old.  I thought I'd mention another thing, which is that white on black exposes visual imperfections much more than black on white.  No matter how good you think your vision is, it has a point spread function which is imperfect.  That is, a very bright white point of light will not actually look like a perfect dot.  It will be smeared, or doubled, or a star/asterisk, or some combination of all of these.  If your vision is great, the dot may have to be brighter to expose this, but it's always there.  White on black makes it very apparent, where with black and white, the black text just gets a little bit lighter and it's not really annoying.  The effect is exacerbated by the fact that with black backgrounds, your pupil will dilate more, making the distortion worse (even people with bad eyes can often see well in the bright of day when their pupil is tiny).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16397" LastActivityDate="2017-07-04T03:21:43.210" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17665" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-04T10:53:02.400" Score="2" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question is motivated by two factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, this citation from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_mental_disorders#Definitions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the scientific and academic literature on the definition or categorization of mental disorders, one extreme argues that it is entirely a matter of value judgments (including of what is normal) while another proposes that it is or could be entirely objective and scientific (including by reference to statistical norms); other views argue that the concept refers to a &quot;fuzzy prototype&quot; that can never be precisely defined, or that the definition will always involve a mixture of scientific facts (e.g. that a natural or evolved function isn't working properly) and value judgments (e.g. that it is harmful or undesired).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The excerpt emphasizes the intrinsic fuzziness of the workings of the mind. And I can understand that there are many concepts that cannot be reliably studied using the scientific method and that there are also many concepts that are &quot;opinion-based&quot;, i.e. tend to be judged as &quot;normal&quot; or &quot;not normal&quot; by the society. Thus, the consensus varies considerably across different regions and societies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, reading this &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/17540/within-psychiatry-how-is-homosexuality-discussed-or-classified&quot;&gt;question&lt;/a&gt;, I find it disturbing that an established mental disorder can be simply voted off. Imagine a patient coming for therapy one day and hearing that they are cured (or, perhaps worse, that they are not suffering any more), not because the therapy and/or medication yielded results, but because an authority got together and the members came to an agreement that the patient's ailment simply isn't an ailment any longer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, while we have great difficulties defining and drawing lines about mental disorders, I'm asking is there any way to define a healthy mind. Think of it as a list of criteria, that would convince the patient from above, not that they don't suffer any more, but that they are healthy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16403" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-07-04T19:19:14.083" LastActivityDate="2017-07-04T19:19:14.083" Title="What is the definition of a healthy mind?" Tags="&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-05T23:57:09.473" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17671" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11050" CreationDate="2017-07-04T17:29:40.600" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In specific cases of learning disabilities (for example dyslexia), literature has highlighted relationships with emotionally distressed issues.&#xA;Among these, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;the school phobia&lt;/strong&gt; is of particular interest&lt;/em&gt; (Chitiyo and Wheeler, 2006):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;It's a fear and repulsion to the school that provokes negative emotional relationships&#xA;Involve 2% of the school population and especially in transition periods or 6 to 11 years&#xA;(Gordon e Young, 1976).&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is different from anxiety because it has more &quot;diffused&quot; and &quot;irrational&quot; components, and if untreated it can lead to serious forms of isolation and depression (Gordon and Young, 1976)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wish I've been helpful, for further informations i advise these &lt;strong&gt;references:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1 - &lt;a href=&quot;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ942221&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;School Phobia: Understanding a Complex Behavioural&lt;/a&gt; Response by Chitiyo and Wheeler&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2 - &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pr0.1976.39.3.783&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;School Phobia: A Discussion of Aetiology, Treatment and Evaluation&lt;/a&gt; by Gordon and Young &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-07-04T17:29:40.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17672" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11050" CreationDate="2017-07-04T18:07:28.267" Score="4" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the limited amount of information given, it is hard to say.  However, if the obsession causes marked distress in the person who displays obsessive behaviour, &lt;strong&gt;or&lt;/strong&gt; it substantially interferes with the person's normal routine, the obsession &lt;strong&gt;could, but not necessarily,&lt;/strong&gt; be diagnosed as a disorder under the category of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a fair few obsessive/compulsive habits which can be clinically diagnosed as being a disorder.  For any obsession or compulsion to be considered obsessive or compulsive in the realms of psychological disorders, the habits and their presenting symptoms need to follow a set criteria laid down in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders — 5th Edition)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DSM-5 has a whole section on &lt;em&gt;Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders&lt;/em&gt; and these include obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), hoarding disorder, trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder), and excoriation (skin-picking) disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be diagnosed with a Obsessive-Compulsive or related Disorder, the person:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Must exhibit obsessions, compulsions, or both.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The obsessions and/or compulsions cause marked distress, are time consuming (take more than 1 hour per day), &lt;strong&gt;or&lt;/strong&gt; interfere substantially with the person's normal routine, occupational or academic functioning, or usual social activities or relationships.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The obsessions and/or compulsions are not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or other medical condition.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The disorder is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder, such as obsession with food in the context of an eating disorder.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Obsessions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images experienced, at some time during the disturbance, as intrusive and unwanted and in most individuals cause marked anxiety or distress.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;There is some effort by the affected person to ignore or suppress such thoughts, impulses, or images, or to neutralise them with some other thought or action (i.e., by performing a compulsion).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Compulsions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Repetitive activities (e.g., hand washing, ordering, checking) or mental acts (e.g., praying, counting, repeating words silently) that the person feels driven to perform in response to an obsession or according to rules that must be applied rigidly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;These behaviours or mental acts are performed in order to prevent or reduce distress, or prevent some dreaded event or situation. However, they are either clearly excessive or not connected in a realistic way with what they are designed to neutralise or prevent. (BMJ, 2017; APA, 2013) [Emphasis mine]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When making a formal diagnosis, the person making the dignosis would have to specify certain aspects in the diagnostic report based on &lt;em&gt;specifier criteria&lt;/em&gt; laid out in the DSM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Published by the World Health Organization, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ICD-10&lt;/a&gt; offers another internationally recognised definition of OCD. It classifies OCD &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F42&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in its own chapter, F42&lt;/a&gt;, distinguished from the other anxiety disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The essential feature is recurrent obsessional thoughts or compulsive acts. Obsessional thoughts are ideas, images, or impulses that enter the patient's mind again and again in a stereotyped form. They are almost invariably distressing and the patient often tries, unsuccessfully, to resist them. They are, however, recognized as his or her own thoughts, even though they are involuntary and often repugnant. Compulsive acts or rituals are stereotyped behaviours that are repeated again and again. They are not inherently enjoyable, nor do they result in the completion of inherently useful tasks. Their function is to prevent some objectively unlikely event, often involving harm to or caused by the patient, which he or she fears might otherwise occur. Usually, this behaviour is recognized by the patient as pointless or ineffectual and repeated attempts are made to resist. Anxiety is almost invariably present. If compulsive acts are resisted the anxiety gets worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Incl.:&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;anankastic neurosis&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;obsessive-compulsive neurosis&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Excl.:&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;obsessive-compulsive personality (disorder)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although it is not a diagnostic tool, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology-tools.com/yale-brown-obsessive-compulsive-scale/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS)&lt;/a&gt; (Goodman, et al., 1989; Rosario-Campos, et al., 2006) is the most widely used measure of OCD symptoms. It is a severity assessment tool which can be used as a self-report instrument or a semi-structured interview, and has been demonstrated to be valid in OCD. The Y-BOCS exists in both an adult and a child version.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA, 2013. &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th Edition)&lt;/em&gt;. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BMJ, 2017. &lt;em&gt;British Medical Journal: Best Practices - Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/362/diagnosis/criteria.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/362/diagnosis/criteria.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goodman, et al., 1989. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. I. Development, use, and reliability. &lt;em&gt;Archives of General Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 46(11): pp. 1006-11&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2684084&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2684084&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810110048007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810110048007&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rosario-Campos, et al., 2006. The Dimensional Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (DY-BOCS): an instrument for assessing obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions. &lt;em&gt;Molecular Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 11(5): pp. 495-504.&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16432526&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;16432526&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001798&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/sj.mp.4001798&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-07-04T18:07:28.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17673" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17639" CreationDate="2017-07-04T18:53:29.390" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-ii-anatomy-and-physiology-of-the-retina/morphology-and-circuitry-of-ganglion-cells/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retinal ganglion cells&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (RGCs) and the neurons in the upstream &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/V1/lgn-V1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lateral geniculate nucleus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (LGN) both have relatively simple receptive fields that are organized in in a center-surround fashion (Fig. 1).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NirY5.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NirY5.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Center-surround receptive field in a retinal ganglion cell. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://au.pinterest.com/pin/515943701041426243/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pinterest&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/V1/lgn-V1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;primary visual cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/V1/lgn-V1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;simple cells&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; receive inputs from multiple LGN neurons (Fig. 2). By combining these inputs and aligning them with multiple ON-centers and OFF-surrounds in series (or &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;) orientation-selectivity is accomplished in V1. The video you linked corresponds to Fig. 2C:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Multiple ON-centers are linearly aligned and &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The ON-centers are sandwiched between linear arrays of OFF-surrounds.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The simple cell will respond maximally when the ON-centers are illuminated and the OFF-surrounds are not (first minute video clip);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The cell will not respond when the OFF surrounds are illuminated (1:20 point in clip), regardless whether the ON-centers are illuminated or not; the stimulation of the entire ON-center and OFF-center area results in zero activity (2:30 in clip). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A stimulus oriented obliquely to the RF also results in zero-activity, because the ON and OFF parts are both stimulated (1:50).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/k7w8a.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/k7w8a.png&quot; alt=&quot;simple cell&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Diagrams of simple cell receptive fields in primary visual cortex. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://foundationsofvision.stanford.edu/chapter-6-the-cortical-representation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-07-04T20:44:19.843" LastActivityDate="2017-07-04T20:44:19.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17674" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-04T21:23:16.270" Score="12" ViewCount="684" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am an economist working in labour market issues. It is common in my field to divide jobs between those who are intensive in &quot;manual&quot; tasks and those who are intensive in &quot;cognitive&quot; tasks (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.stlouisfed.org/on-the-economy/2016/january/jobs-involving-routine-tasks-arent-growing&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). I want to find evidence about the correlation between the &quot;ability&quot; these jobs require. In particular, &lt;strong&gt;I am looking for studies showing the correlation between &quot;manual ability&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; (perhaps &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_aptitude&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;mechanical aptitudes&lt;/a&gt;, dexterity, etc) &lt;strong&gt;and &quot;cognitive ability&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; (perhaps &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;general intelligence&lt;/a&gt;, IQ, etc).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the references I have found are literally from the first half of last century (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc83548/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5142562/pdf/psycholclin71148-0060.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2833&amp;amp;context=theses&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01619562409534592&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ggc9AAAAIAAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA16&amp;amp;lpg=PA16&amp;amp;dq=mechanical+aptitude+and+general+intelligence+-test&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=COrUnv3wkb&amp;amp;sig=7uZqCGBQtj-Uybz2n_DeJoTsv2w&amp;amp;hl=es-419&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwi48739wfDUAhWqI8AKHSdaDCkQ6AEIIjAA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=mechanical%20aptitude%20and%20general%20intelligence%20-test&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v124/n3133/abs/124757a0.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, including work by &lt;a href=&quot;http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2101/Intelligence-MEASUREMENT.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spearman&lt;/a&gt;, which apparently started this line of research, and has become widely used as a description of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iapsych.com/chcv2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;different types&lt;/a&gt; of &quot;intelligence&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, the first old reference above, in page 8, finds a high degree of correlation (0.6 to 0.7), whereas the second old reference states that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The theory that general intelligence and mechanical ability are distinct &#xA;  traits is consistently confirmed by the low correlations found between tests of intelligence and mechanical ability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but does not provide references. The third old reference, in page 101 of the pdf document, states that the correlation is low (below .30).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding modern references, I have found very few, and I am not sure they are relevant for what I am looking for. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.davidsongifted.org/Search-Database/entry/A10689&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this study&lt;/a&gt; find predictive power of fine motor skills in mathematical tests. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042813017096&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This study&lt;/a&gt; find a high correlation between general intelligence and motor skills relating learning taekwondo. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.unc.edu/~nielsen/soci708/cdocs/Schmidt_Hunter_2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This study&lt;/a&gt; finds that general intelligence is correlated with job performance across occupations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I am not satisfied with these references. &lt;strong&gt;Can you suggest me better literature? Am I using the wrong concepts? Are the references provided above &quot;sufficient&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt; Any guidance on these issues is very much appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16411" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2021-03-20T17:28:51.257" LastActivityDate="2021-03-20T17:28:51.257" Title="Correlation between &quot;mechanical aptitude&quot; and IQ" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17681" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17685" CreationDate="2017-07-05T19:07:12.773" Score="5" ViewCount="338" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world-0/canada-kori-doty-genderless-baby-searyl-atli-rights-battle-transsexual-identity-a7821201.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;article&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; about a Canadian parent fighting for the right to not give their baby a gender after arguing that a simple biological examination cannot uncover the child’s true identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This man wants his child to be able to choose its own gender when it is old enough, and has launched a judicial review against the policy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&quot;I want my kid to have all of the space to be the most whole and complete &#xA;  person that they can be.” &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Which psychological effects could be if a child was not registered as a male or female and consequently was not treated as such?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="16144" LastEditDate="2017-07-05T20:52:11.597" LastActivityDate="2017-07-07T08:58:01.893" Title="Psychological effects of being recorded as genderless at birth" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17683" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17648" CreationDate="2017-07-06T07:40:21.823" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although Cognitive Inertia (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/17651/21&quot;&gt;as mentioned by hexadecimal&lt;/a&gt;) is a nice, broad way to point to the phenomenon, people have also studied it from other points of view. Two of them are from economic and cognitive angles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From an economic level, what you are referring to is called the &lt;strong&gt;Sunk Cost Fallacy&lt;/strong&gt;. Here is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunk_cost&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an example from Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; that explains it from a business perspective: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In business, an example of sunk costs may be investment into a factory&#xA;  or research that now has a lower value or no value whatsoever. For&#xA;  example, \$20 million has been spent on building a power plant; the&#xA;  value at present is zero because it is incomplete (and no sale or&#xA;  recovery is feasible). The plant can be completed for an additional&#xA;  \$10 million, or abandoned and a different but equally valuable&#xA;  facility built for \$5 million. It should be obvious that abandonment&#xA;  and construction of the alternative facility is the more rational&#xA;  decision, even though it represents a total loss of the original&#xA;  expenditure—the original sum invested is a sunk cost. If&#xA;  decision-makers are irrational or have the wrong incentives, the&#xA;  completion of the project may be chosen. For example, politicians or&#xA;  managers may have more incentive &lt;strong&gt;to avoid the appearance of a total&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;loss.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a more personal level, this can be generally explained as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeigarnik_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zeigarnik effect&lt;/a&gt;, which states that &lt;em&gt;&quot;people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed tasks&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although there are some issues with the reliability of the effect, it is generally extrapolated to say that the phenomenon &lt;em&gt;&quot;&lt;strong&gt;compels humans to finish a task that they've already started&lt;/strong&gt;, and that when we don't finish a task we experience discomfort and intrusive thoughts about it.&quot;&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHfjvYzr-3g&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;from an AsapSCIENCE video on &quot;The science of Productivity&quot;&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15162" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-08-18T13:20:34.220" LastActivityDate="2017-08-18T13:20:34.220" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17685" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17681" CreationDate="2017-07-06T15:02:18.470" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting question and with the baby and his/her gender status, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cnn.com/2017/07/04/health/canadian-baby-gender-designation/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;CNN reported&lt;/a&gt; that the baby&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;was born in British Columbia, &quot;outside the medical system,&quot; and did not undergo a genital inspection after birth, campaign group &lt;a href=&quot;http://gender-freeidcoalition.ca&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gender Free I.D. Coalition&lt;/a&gt; said in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://koridoty.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/20170630-FOR-IMMEDIATE-RELEASE.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;statement&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Short Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seems to be &lt;strong&gt;no clinical consensus&lt;/strong&gt; on any psychological effects of not being treated as either male or female, and as the case of this baby seems to be unique and the world's first according to many reports, in the sense of the fact that the baby has not been given an official gender status, there will be no information on any potential future psychological effects to this baby.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before I answer the question, I will start with a commentary on the gender definitions often used for those who are  &quot;genderless&quot; at birth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Gender Definitions&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many different names given to gender identities which could be used to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dictionary.com/browse/genderise&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;genderise&lt;/a&gt; the baby you mentioned (Searyl Atli).  They include but are not limited to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genderqueer#Agender&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Agender&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgyny&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Androgynous&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bigender&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bigender&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_non-binary_gender_identities&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Genderfluid&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genderqueer&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Genderqueer&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hermaphrodite (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex#Hermaphrodite&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;not generally used in modern times&lt;/a&gt;),&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Intersex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://sexpression.org.uk/non-binary-gender/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Non-binary&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People born &quot;genderless&quot; were previously referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;hermaphrodites, &quot;congenital eunuchs&quot;, or even congenitally &quot;frigid&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.  Such terms have fallen out of favour; in particular, the term &quot;hermaphrodite&quot; is considered to be misleading, stigmatising, and scientifically specious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are plenty of well known people who were born without a specific gender (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_non-binary_gender_identities&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Non-Binary&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_intersex_people&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Intersex&lt;/a&gt;) including a human rights activist.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Baldacchino&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ruth Baldacchino&lt;/a&gt; has a &quot;non-binary&quot; gender identity, and describes the Maltese &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.aspx?app=lom&amp;amp;itemid=12312&amp;amp;l=1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sex Characteristics Act&lt;/a&gt; as providing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;freedom to an individual to develop, establish and express their gender, rather than having the State or the medical professionals deciding that. In other words, ... to be allowed to determine what identity fits ... best and how ... to embody that identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human rights institutions are placing increasing scrutiny on medical practices and issues of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex_human_rights&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;discrimination against intersex people&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Rationale behind medical intervention&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex#Rationales&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Medical interventions take place to address physical health concerns, and psychosocial risks. Both types of rationale are the subject of debate, particularly as the consequences of surgical (and many hormonal) interventions are lifelong and irreversible. Questions regarding physical health include accurately assessing risk levels, necessity and timing. Psychosocial rationales are particularly susceptible to questions of necessity as they reflect social and cultural concerns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Medical description of intersex traits as &lt;strong&gt;disorders of sex development&lt;/strong&gt; has been controversial since the label was introduced in 2006 (Lee, et al., 2006). The DSM-5 included a change from using &lt;em&gt;Gender Identity Disorder&lt;/em&gt; to &lt;em&gt;Gender Dysphoria&lt;/em&gt;. This revised code now specifically includes intersex people who do not identify with their sex assigned at birth, using the language of &lt;em&gt;Disorders of Sex Development&lt;/em&gt;, and this move was criticised by intersex advocacy groups in Australia and New Zealand (Kraus, 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There remains no clinical consensus about an evidence base, surgical timing, necessity, type of surgical intervention, and degree of difference warranting intervention (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/442975&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lee, et al., 2016&lt;/a&gt;)(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jpurol.com/article/S1477-5131(16)30012-2/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mouriquand, et al., 2016&lt;/a&gt;)(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19419899.2013.831214?needAccess=true&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Creighton, et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt;). Such surgeries are the subject of significant contention due to consequences that include trauma, impact on sexual function and sensation, and violation of rights to physical and mental integrity (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20739&amp;amp;LangID=E&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;OHCHR, 2016&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact it seems that the opposite is true.  Whilst it is often believed that it is essential for gender assignment surgery at or near birth, medicalisation and stigmatisation of intersex people result in significant trauma and mental health concerns (&lt;a href=&quot;http://intersexday.org/en/third-international-intersex-forum/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;IIF, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).  Whilst the IIF at the same meeting stated that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[To ensure] the bodily integrity and well-being of intersex people, autonomous non-pathologising psycho-social and peer support [should] be available to intersex people throughout their life (as self-required), as well as to parents and/or care providers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the case of Searyl Atli Doty, there will be no information on any potential future psychological effects to this baby for reasons stated in my short answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, gender is an important part of a person's sense of identification within society.  UCL (University College London) has an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ucl.ac.uk/support-pages/lgb/lgb-information-pages/sexuality_and_identity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;LGBT Student Support page which states&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gender Identity is a person's individual sense of femaleness or maleness. It is also, to some degree, a social construction that categorises certain behaviours into male and female roles. Gender identity conflicts can stem from an individual's gender indentity not matching their biological sex, an individual's gender identity being neither completely male nor female, or an individual's biological sex not being uniquely male or female.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;hence the reason why there are so many different gender identities &lt;strong&gt;and sexualities&lt;/strong&gt; within the LGBTQIA community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of the way society frames everyone based on gender, it seems important to have a gender identity, so aside from the possible legal issues such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;which set of toilets is Searyl going to be legally allowed to use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it will be interesting to the field of Psychology, how being registered and raised without a gender would affect Searyl's wellbeing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Creighton, S. M., et al., 2011. &lt;em&gt;Childhood surgery for ambiguous genitalia: glimpses of practice changes or more of the same?&lt;/em&gt; Psychology &amp;amp; Sexuality 5(1): pp. 34—43&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2013.831214&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/19419899.2013.831214&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IIF, 2013. The statement of the Third International Intersex Forum, December 2013 [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://intersexday.org/en/third-international-intersex-forum&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://intersexday.org/en/third-international-intersex-forum&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kraus, C., 2015. &lt;em&gt;Classifying Intersex in DSM-5: Critical Reflections on Gender Dysphoria&lt;/em&gt;. Archives of Sexual Behavior 44(5): pp. 1147—1163&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0550-0&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s10508-015-0550-0&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lee, P. A., et al., 2006. &lt;em&gt;Consensus Statement on Management of Intersex Disorders&lt;/em&gt;. Pediatrics 18(2)&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-0738&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1542/peds.2006-0738&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16882788&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;16882788&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lee, P. A., et al., 2016. &lt;em&gt;Global Disorders of Sex Development Update since 2006: Perceptions, Approach and Care&lt;/em&gt;. Hormone Research in Paediatrics 85: pp. 158—180&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1159/000442975&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1159/000442975&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mouriquand, P. D. E., et al., 2016. &lt;em&gt;Surgery in disorders of sex development (DSD) with a gender issue: If (why), when, and how?&lt;/em&gt; Pediatric Urology 12(3): pp. 139—149&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpurol.2016.04.001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.jpurol.2016.04.001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OHCHR, 2016. &lt;em&gt;End violence and harmful medical practices on intersex children and adults, UN and regional experts urge&lt;/em&gt; Intersex Awareness Day – Wednesday 26 October 2016 [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20739&amp;amp;LangID=E&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20739&amp;amp;LangID=E&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-07-07T08:58:01.893" LastActivityDate="2017-07-07T08:58:01.893" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17686" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-06T17:52:34.223" Score="2" ViewCount="962" Body="&lt;p&gt;Empirically, I feel like sorting things in real life is not the same as sorting things for a computer.  Algorithms like and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merge_sort&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;merge sort&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quicksort&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;quicksort&lt;/a&gt; are the fastest things to sort for computers in the long run, but if I were to sit down and sort a thousand books alphabetically I don't see myself using either of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can think of a couple of reasons off the top of my head why the sorting speed of an algorithm doesn't map to real life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Swapping items is not constant time in real life.  The more items you have in a row, the further you have to run to find something.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Indexing is not constant time.  Unless you're sorting items in numbered slots, you're not going to be able to find the 110th item easily.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Most real life array operations are faster.  For example, you can take an item from the end of a row of objects and move it to the other end.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to narrow the question a little further and say that we aren't sorting things by any obvious, intuitive traits like size.  Say we're sorting a thousand equal sized books alphabetically by title listed on the spine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What other factors of human intuition can influence the way a human sorts objects and what would be the fastest way to sort these books?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16432" LastActivityDate="2017-07-06T17:52:34.223" Title="What is the fastest sorting algorithm for humans?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-07T07:08:13.820" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17691" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17593" CreationDate="2017-07-08T21:28:33.917" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Episodic memory is probably the most complicated kind of memory, and a lot of these parameters are going to vary in interesting ways - for example, playing a video may result in better recall (what you call &quot;decoding&quot;) because it preserves the temporal context of the memory. These things are interesting, and the way you treat them depends &lt;strong&gt;entirely on the specific question you are interested in asking.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a lot of parameters here that you're going to want to just test out (and report the results of in your paper!). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I want to leave you with a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/112/35/11078.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; that may help guide your thinking. These authors did something similar, but were more interested in the neurophysiology - you might find some helpful context. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11577" LastActivityDate="2017-07-08T21:28:33.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17692" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-08T23:30:20.880" Score="2" ViewCount="2261" Body="&lt;p&gt;My reflexive response to this is no, however, I have noticed two different phenomenon which begs to re-assess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Please see and read video description and some comments: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=anMDt7Ofda8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=anMDt7Ofda8&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, in my work, I have met some adults with severe debilitating mental special needs. The ones that peaked my re-assessment on this subject, were ones who as young children, were only considered slightly &quot;slow&quot; but physically did not look different than their peers. Then around a certain age (one at 7 for example), went through a terrible reaction like massive seizures or food poisoning, making them &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;loose all mental facilities,&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; permanently. Now, at a much older age, their facial features are completely altered to what we associate &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; severely mentally debilitated people with. I prefer not to describe if possible, the point is the actual bone structure and other features seem to have shaped very differently now. However, they were not born that way and the only thing that changed was mind and brain function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, there seems to be a staggering number of people online and especially on YouTube, bewildered and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=desired%20face%20subliminal&amp;amp;ie=utf-8&amp;amp;oe=utf-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;claiming that subliminal programing videos&lt;/a&gt; have allowed them to change their facial features. With this large sample population (even if half were fake), I think it merits some sort of assessment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can one use their subconscious in some fashion to change the shape of something on their body?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16445" LastEditorUserId="16445" LastEditDate="2017-07-15T05:48:24.690" LastActivityDate="2017-07-15T05:48:24.690" Title="Can subliminal affirmations really use the subconscious mind to naturally reshape your nose?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-09T22:15:34.157" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17694" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-09T10:33:15.577" Score="7" ViewCount="744" Body="&lt;p&gt;I stumbled across the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.businessinsider.com/charlie-munger-quotes-investing-things-2016-1?international=true&amp;amp;r=US&amp;amp;IR=T&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;quote&lt;/a&gt; from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Munger&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Charlie Munger&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Generally speaking, envy, resentment, revenge and self-pity are disastrous modes of thought, self-pity gets pretty close to paranoia, and paranoia is one of the very hardest things to reverse, you do not want to drift into self-pity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And while there seems to be a basic agreement that emotions in general have an evolutionary advantage to &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2013/11/emotional-agility&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;anticipate and solve problems and avoid potential pitfalls&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, I was wondering which positive effects the &lt;em&gt;&quot;disastrous modes of thought&quot;&lt;/em&gt; might have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The discussion on &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/9140/what-is-the-evolutionary-purpose-of-envy&quot;&gt;envy&lt;/a&gt; clearly shows that there is a envy-spectrum. And certain modes of envy do contain a positive effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And while revenge might not lead to peace and harmony I understand its connection from a the evolutionary point of view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what purpose does self-pity have?&#xA;Why do we feel it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16449" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-07-11T10:38:42.003" LastActivityDate="2017-07-12T08:55:39.883" Title="Is there a (evolutionary) purpose of self-pity?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17695" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17698" CreationDate="2017-07-09T16:21:13.543" Score="3" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many studies accounting the negative effects of sleep deprivation which all seem to detail the deficiency of time for your body to &quot;reset&quot; and how this leave it in a depleted state.&#xA;If you: &#xA;efficiently supplemented the body with nutrients, also accounting for the extra time awake; &#xA;rested enough throughout the day for your body to recover fully;&#xA;maintained a healthy and focused mindset;&#xA;maybe even adapted/trained your body to prevent the negative effects, could you go without sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14927" LastActivityDate="2017-07-14T01:39:18.143" Title="Can you Counteract the Negative Effects of Sleep Deprivation?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17696" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17697" CreationDate="2017-07-09T19:30:06.633" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I am trying to quantify trends in learning for certain mediums of audio-visual communication, and what I've gathered so far suggests that there are 4 distinguishable types, being linear, logarithmic (or possibly asymptotic), exponential and ogive. How can I go from peoples qualitative observations to an actual mathematical function to show these patterns for a specific medium? Would one measure...success rate over time and that's it? Or what?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16374" LastEditorUserId="16374" LastEditDate="2017-07-10T01:59:14.043" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T05:59:31.047" Title="What variables allow one to empirically and scientifically quantify trends for learning curves?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17697" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17696" CreationDate="2017-07-09T21:02:44.930" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In psychophysical tests, often %correct rates are determined. Hence, training effects are often measured by determining correct rates. The ultimate outcome measures can be wildly variable, as they are dependent on the physical characteristics of the stimulus (visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Learning curves can be measured by measuring the performance on a certain task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I understand of your question you are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...trying to quantify trends in learning for &lt;em&gt;certain mediums&lt;/em&gt; of audio-visual communication...  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and you are looking for&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What one measure...success rate over time and that's it? Or what?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking a personal vantage point here, I have measured learning effects using various auditory, tactile and visual &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/514/Psychophysics.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychophysical&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; tests (though not a combination of them like an audio-visual test as you are planning). I will provide a few tests I have done so far to look at training effects and I will provide some basic background information on psychophysics. Please following the links if you wish to learn more on specific subjects. I have measured the following, among others:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Speech understanding&lt;/strong&gt; by measuring the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1822962-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;speech-recognition threshold (SRT)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in noise using the Dutch Matrix test &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4871208/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Houben &amp;amp; Dreschler, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. The SRT basically shows you the signal-to-noise ratio where speech understanding is 50% correct. In other words, it shows how much noise a listener can handle to still understand 50% of the words in the sentences heard. I've performed this test for 12 times over four several sessions and &lt;strong&gt;within&lt;/strong&gt; as well as &lt;strong&gt;between-session&lt;/strong&gt; learning effects were observed, and also within-run training effects (unpublished observations); &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Vibro-tactile &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/thresh.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;detection threshold&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Basically we asked the subject to answer in a &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11293457&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;yes/no task&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; if they felt a stimulus and the outcome measure was that &lt;strong&gt;stimulus level where the correct rate was 50%&lt;/strong&gt;. There was no learning effect observed within and between sessions. A within-run training effect was observed, which may have been due to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;procedural training effects&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (unpublished observations);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tactile spatial acuity using (&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-point_discrimination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2-point discrimination&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;); here a person was asked to answer whether one or two stimuli were felt and then, again, a &lt;strong&gt;percent-correct rate&lt;/strong&gt; (here: 62.5%) score was determined ultimately expressed as that &lt;strong&gt;distance where correct rate was 62.5%&lt;/strong&gt;. No training effects other than procedural learning were observed &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28569046&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A vibrotactile &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.usd.edu/coglab/WebersLaw.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intensity-difference (JND) task&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, where the subject was asked to indicate whether they could feel the difference in intensity of two stimuli. Again the correct rates were measured and expressed as that intensity where the %correct scores equaled a certain threshold &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28569046&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Visual acuity&lt;/strong&gt; was measured with a &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.michaelbach.de/fract/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;grating task&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; - again percent correct is measured, but there the outcome is visual acuity, namely an &lt;strong&gt;angle of resolution&lt;/strong&gt; where the %correct rate exceeds a certain threshold. There was procedural learning observed (unpublished observations). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that most of the above tasks were &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cis.rit.edu/people/faculty/montag/vandplite/pages/chap_4/ch4p5.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;alternative forced choice (AFC) tasks&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, where the threshold (%correct) is dependent on the number of choices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4871208/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Houben &amp;amp; Dreschler, &lt;em&gt;Trends Hear&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;(19): 1-10&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28569046&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Artif Organs&lt;/em&gt; (2017); in press&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-03T05:59:31.047" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T05:59:31.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17698" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17695" CreationDate="2017-07-10T01:21:17.557" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nutrients have little to do with it*, it's the rest cycles that are important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cells  are messy, stumbling, statistically functional things.  Periodically, a cell needs to take a break so it can perform basic maintenance tasks and undo the disorder its incurred handling numerous signaling and protein construction mechanisms [1].  For neurons, this is particularly difficult. If they take a break, they begin to lose information as they undergo long term changes in response to their activity level. So instead, animals with sufficiently complex nervous systems enter a state of reduced activity (called sleep) to help perform maintenance [2] - there's also some question to how it might contribute to memory, but that subject is more contentious [3].   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There may be volitional mental states that are achievable that can do the same things as sleep can (give all the different parts of the nervous system rest cycles and slow down metabolism) but nobody has been able to prove it yet, that I know of.  Harvard researcher, Dr. Herbert Benson, claimed it was possible in &lt;em&gt;The Relaxation Response&lt;/em&gt;, but I don't know of any one actually demonstrating it in trials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25325492&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25325492&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3972489/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3972489/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;[3] &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627304005653&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627304005653&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Granted, if you don't sleep, your metabolism doesn't slow down and you burn through nutrients faster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastEditorUserId="761" LastEditDate="2017-07-14T01:39:18.143" LastActivityDate="2017-07-14T01:39:18.143" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17699" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17700" CreationDate="2017-07-10T03:21:19.090" Score="3" ViewCount="206" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do the good ol' days seem better than they actually are? Is this a result of an error in human thought or is it because things are actually worsening?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16453" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-07-10T04:41:54.630" LastActivityDate="2017-07-10T04:41:54.630" Title="What cognitive bias (loosely) makes us all the more susceptible to the golden age fallacy" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-16T20:17:08.823" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17700" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17699" CreationDate="2017-07-10T04:40:01.130" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The cognitive bias behind &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostalgia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nostalgia&lt;/a&gt; is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rosy retrospection&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the psychological phenomenon of people sometimes judging the past&#xA;  disproportionately more positively than they judge the present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common explanation for this phenomenon is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioemotional_selectivity_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Socioemotional selectivity theory&lt;/a&gt; (SST):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The theory maintains that as time horizons shrink, as they typically&#xA;  do with age, people become increasingly selective, investing greater&#xA;  resources in emotionally meaningful goals and activities. According to&#xA;  the theory, motivational shifts also influence cognitive processing.&#xA;  Aging is associated with a relative preference for positive over&#xA;  negative information in attention and memory (called the &quot;positivity&#xA;  effect&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related to this, but somewhat different is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollyanna_principle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pollyanna principle&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... (also called Pollyannaism or positivity bias) is the tendency for&#xA;  people to remember pleasant items more accurately than unpleasant&#xA;  ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2017-07-10T04:40:01.130" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17701" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-10T09:23:57.110" Score="4" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_partial_attention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Continuous Partial Attention&lt;/a&gt; seem to be a natural reaction to the Age of Information. However, as some authors have argued:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;it leads to a higher level of stress in the brain, prohibiting reflection, contemplation and thoughtful decisions. It also dilutes efforts to focus and concentrate on the present (effectively paying attention to what you are doing in the moment instead of shifting from one activity to another). This constant connectedness also affects real-time relationships and lowers productivity levels, leading to over-stimulation and lack of fulfillment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These consequences are surely dreadful for individuals and society in general. Since the Age of Information is very likely here to stay, from an individual perspective, but also from educators and policy makers perspective, measures should be taken to &lt;strong&gt;avoid or ameliorate such effects&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there some research showing how this can be achieved? I have not found anything, but I imagine this is a very early research area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16411" LastActivityDate="2017-07-10T09:23:57.110" Title="Proven research about how to minimise Continuous Partial Attention?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17702" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15345" CreationDate="2017-07-10T11:09:46.867" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, your question title asks about suppression and your question in the main text asks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;what empirical evidence exists to support the notion that &lt;strong&gt;repressed desires&lt;/strong&gt; will make them stronger?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you need to be careful about here is that repression is different to suppression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Repression is unconscious/subconscious, whereas suppression is completely conscious&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;repression is the term for unintentional, unconscious forgetting,&#xA;  and suppression [is] intentional, conscious removal of a thought from subsequent conscious attention. Suppression is almost never studied, whereas a wide literature has formed around the concept of repression.....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;....Although repression and suppression processes are by no means mutually exclusive or contradictory, the interest value of repression has tended to exclude suppression from scientific study. It is in this sense that Freud was responsible for what we do not know about suppression. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60284-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wegner, 1992&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Short Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wegner, in the above referenced journal article points out a lot of evidence to back the though that any attempt to suppress thoughts or desires will be in vain as they will rebound.  Whether or not they become stronger is open to interpretation, as it is concluded that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When the Rolling Stones sang “You can’t always get what you want,” they provided a bit of relief by adding “but if you try some time, you just might find, you get what you need.” Regrettably, their refrain rings a false note in the world of thought suppression. The research to date suggests that you can’t always think what you want, and that even if you need ever so dearly to stop thinking of something, you still may not get what you need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I said in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/17211&quot;&gt;my answer to a previous question&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;With Sigmund Freud, lot of people get hung up on the sexual elements of his theories when really, Freud’s theories centres on his motivation and drive theory and they centre on all sorts of pleasure. We are motivated towards whatever brings pleasure and are motivated away from pain, difficulty, destruction, confusion, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looking for &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dictionary.com/browse/empirical&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;empirical evidence&lt;/a&gt;, Freud's work itself is derived from empirical evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;His theories are clinically derived - i.e. based on what his patients told him during therapy. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychodynamic.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McLeod, 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Repression is described by Freud by saying&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the essence of repression lies simply in turning something away, and keeping it at a distance, from the conscious. This view of repression would be made more complete by assuming that, before the mental organization reaches this stage, the task of fending off instinctual impulses is dealt with by the other vicissitudes which instincts may undergo - e.g. reversal into the opposite or turning round upon the subject’s own self. (Freud, 1915/1957)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are 2 parts to repression,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Primal Repression&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a first phase of repression, which consists in the psychical (ideational) representative of the instinct being denied entrance into the conscious. With this fixation is established; the representative in question persists unaltered from then onwards and the instinct remains attached to it. (Freud, 1915/1957)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Repression Proper&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;second stage of repression, repression proper, affects mental derivatives of the repressed representative, or such trains of thought as, originating elsewhere, have come into associative connection with it. On account of this association, these ideas experience the same fate as what was primally repressed. &lt;em&gt;Repression proper&lt;/em&gt;, therefore, is actually an &lt;em&gt;after-pressure&lt;/em&gt; [Nachdrängen]. (Freud, 1915/1957)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;You Can't Always Think What You Want: Problems in the Suppression of Unwanted Thoughts&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60284-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wegner, 1992&lt;/a&gt;) is an article covering articles etc. from Freud onwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you need to be careful about here is that repression is different to suppression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Repression is unconscious/subconscious, whereas suppression is completely conscious&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;repression is the term for unintentional, unconscious forgetting,&#xA;  and suppression [is] intentional, conscious removal of a thought from subsequent conscious attention. Suppression is almost never studied, whereas a wide literature has formed around the concept of repression.....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;....Although repression and suppression processes are by no means mutually exclusive or contradictory, the interest value of repression has tended to exclude suppression from scientific study. It is in this sense that Freud was responsible for what we do not know about suppression. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60284-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wegner, 1992&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now think about suppression in a quote provided by Wegner in the above article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Try to pose for yourself this task: not to think of a polar bear, and you will see that the cursed thing will come to mind every minute. (Fyodor Dostoevsky, Winter Notes on Summer Impressions)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conscious efforts to suppress unwanted thoughts are reported by normal individuals (Rachman &amp;amp; de Silva, 1978), as well as by those suffering from problems such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;depression (Turner, Beidel, &amp;amp; Nathan, 1985),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;anxiety and worry (Borkovec, Robinson, Pruzinsky, &amp;amp; DePree, 1983),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;obsessions and compulsions (Rachman &amp;amp; Hodgson, 1980; Reed, 1985),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;addiction (Marlatt &amp;amp; Parks, 1982),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;obesity (Polivy, 1990), and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;posttraumatic stress (Ellis, 1983; Horowitz, 1975; Pennebaker, 1988; Tait &amp;amp; Silver, 1989)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and is employed for the purposes of &lt;strong&gt;action inhibition&lt;/strong&gt; (behavioural self-control), &lt;strong&gt;communication inhibition&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g. keeping secrets), and &lt;strong&gt;emotional inhibition&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g. to remain calm in stressful situations) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60284-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wegner, 1992&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The suppression cycle&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The exercise of continuous thought suppression is reminiscent of the task of&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mythweb.com/encyc/entries/sisyphus.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sisyphus&lt;/a&gt;, the figure of Greek myth who was condemned forever to push a stone up a mountain only to have it roll back down. As a rule, people asked to suppress a thought (e.g., of a white bear) while they deliver verbal reports of their thinking show a cyclic sequence of activities with precisely this up-and-down character (Wegner et al., 1987). Suppression begins with a plan to self-distract (e.g., “Okay, I’ll think of something else”), continues with the choice of a distracter (e.g., “I’ll think about the telephone”) and a period of concentration on distracter-relevant thoughts (e.g., “This phone is a portable, etc.”), and is completed with an intrusive return of the suppressed thought (e.g., “There’s the white bear again”). The cycle then repeats with a return to the plan to self-distract (i.e., “Okay, I’ll think of something else”).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, according to Wegner (1992), Knutson (1990) found, that people asked to shut their eyes and report their thinking during suppression indicate more frequent occurrences of the unwanted thought than those allowed to keep their eyes open.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Automatic Target Search&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the operation of an automatic search for the unwanted thought during suppression.  For example, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;an undergraduate student I asked to think aloud while she tried not to think of the Statue of Liberty began talking about the books on the wall of the room and in a matter of moments mentioned that one was just the greenish tint of the Statue (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60284-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wegner, 1992&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of the above information points to the fact that any attempt to suppress thoughts or desires will be in vain as they will rebound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suppression is a street battle raging in the forefront of the mind, not a few random muggings hidden deep in its alleyways (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60284-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wegner, 1992&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Borkovec, T. D., Robinson, E., Pruzinsky, T., &amp;amp; DePree, J. A. (1983). Preliminary exploration of worry: Some characteristics and processes. &lt;em&gt;Behaviour Research and Therapy&lt;/em&gt;, 21: pp. 9—16.&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6830571&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;6830571&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ellis, E. M. (1983). A review of empirical rape research: Victim reactions and response to treatment. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Psychology Review&lt;/em&gt;. 3: pp. 473—490.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(83)90025-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0272-7358(83)90025-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud, S. (1957). Repression. In: J. Stachey (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 14, pp. 146—158)&lt;/em&gt; London: Hogarth. (Original work published 1915)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Horowitz, M. (1975). Intrusive and repetitive thoughts after experimental stress. &lt;em&gt;Archives of General Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 32: pp. 1457—1463.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760290125015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760290125015&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Knutson, B. (1990). &lt;em&gt;Thought suppression and access to distraction&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://stanford.edu/~knutson/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Unpublished research data&lt;/a&gt;, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.&lt;br&gt;Available by emailing: knutson'at'stanford.edu&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marlatt, G. P., &amp;amp; Parks, G. A. (1982). Self-management of addictive behaviors. In: P. Karoly &amp;amp; F. H. Kanfer (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Self-management and behavior change&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 443—488). New York: Pergamon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McLeod, S. (2007). Psychodynamic Approach. &lt;em&gt;Simply Psychology&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychodynamic.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychodynamic.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pennebaker, J. W. (1988). Confession, inhibition, and disease. In: L. Berkowitz (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;Advances in experimental social psychology&lt;/em&gt; (Vol. 22). San Diego: Academic Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Polivy, J. (1990). Inhibition of internally-cued behavior. In: E. T. Higgins &amp;amp; R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Handbook of motivation and cognition&lt;/em&gt; (Vol. 2, pp. 131—147). New York: Guilford.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rachman, S., &amp;amp; de Silva, P. (1978). Abnormal and normal obessions. &lt;em&gt;Behaviour Research and Therapy&lt;/em&gt;, 16: pp. 233—248&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(78)90022-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0005-7967(78)90022-0&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rachman, S., &amp;amp; Hodgson, R. J. (1980). &lt;em&gt;Obsessions and compulsions&lt;/em&gt;. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reed, G. F. (1985). &lt;em&gt;Obsessional experience and compulsive behavior&lt;/em&gt;. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tait, R., &amp;amp; Silver, R. C. (1989). Coming to terms with major negative life events. In J. S. Uleman &amp;amp; J. A. Bargh (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Unintended thought&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 351—382). New York: Guilford.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Turner, S . M., Beidel, D. C., &amp;amp; Nathan, R. S . (1985). Biological factors in obsessive-compulsive disorders. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, 97: pp. 430—450.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.97.3.430&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0033-2909.97.3.430&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S., 111, &amp;amp; White, L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 53: pp. 5—13.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.1.5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-3514.53.1.5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wegner, D. M. (1992). &lt;em&gt;You Can't Always Think What You Want: Problems in the Suppression of Unwanted Thoughts&lt;/em&gt;. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25: pp. 193—225&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60284-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60284-1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-07-10T11:40:11.647" LastActivityDate="2017-07-10T11:40:11.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17706" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17694" CreationDate="2017-07-11T10:09:46.740" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Self-pity may not have any evolutionary benefit, but may instead be part of the social capabilities allowing to feel empathy. Empathy in turn is a crucial component in social interactions. The development of strong social skills in early Hominids is believed to have paved the way for evolution of &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens&lt;/em&gt;, arguably the most successful species to roam the world today.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;For a trait to be evolutionary beneficial, it should increase reproductive success. Indeed, self-pity may not have a lot of benefit in that regard, especially when depressive thoughts arise. Note that Mr. Munger, who claims that self-pity is disastrous and paranoid, is a business man and may associate such feelings more from the impact it can have on productive human capabilities rather than re-productive ones. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, self-pity may be a[n unwanted] side-effect of being able to feel &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compassion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;compassion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the feeling of distress in connection with another person's suffering. In general, self-pity may be the collateral result of being able to allow man to feel &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/empathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;empathy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the experience of understanding another person's condition from their perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing is, being a parent, that kids do not feel a lot of empathy. Especially young kids (&amp;lt;2 years) lack the empathy we see in most adults (barred those with &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; autism spectrum disorder). Kids do, however, feel a lot of self-pity :) Self-pity seems to be an inborn, relatively unsophisticated emotion. Later, when they grow up, they will develop these egocentric feelings into empathy, by projecting their own emotion (self-pity) onto other people (feeling sorry for someone else). These emotions have to be developed and nurtured through social interactions. Admittedly, I am not a psychologist or evolutionary biologist, but I do reckon that feelings of self-pity are a precursor for feelings of sympathy and compassion and, on a grander scale, for feelings of empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empathy is believed to be a critical factor in enabling humans and other primates to socially interact with each other &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/336/6083/874&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(De Waal, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. In turn, the social behavior in humans is considered to have been a crucial trait that lead to the success of the human species &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.citeulike.org/group/1230/article/697206&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Byrne &amp;amp; Whiten, 1989)&lt;/a&gt;. Social interactions likely helped our ancestors to form social groups, such as extended families and coalitions that promote higher rates of survival and reproduction. Enhanced social structures allowed for the sharing of knowledge across generations. The increasing size of such social groups in turn entailed further social brain development, ultimately giving rise to the present form of the highly social brain of humans (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.com/pascal-vrticka/human-social-development_b_3921942.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Huffington Post&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans_de_Waal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frans de Waal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; has written extensively about the mechanisms and benefits of empathy in primates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.citeulike.org/group/1230/article/697206&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Machiavellian Intelligence, Oxford Science Publications (1989)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/336/6083/874&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;De Waal, &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;336&lt;/strong&gt;(6083): 874-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-07-12T08:55:39.883" LastActivityDate="2017-07-12T08:55:39.883" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17709" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17712" CreationDate="2017-07-12T10:03:53.040" Score="3" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;(Excuse the horrible title of this question. I just can't find the proper (?) words. Please edit as pleased.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It happens many times to me that when I learn about something (e.g. a word, a concept, etc), I suddenly start to see it in many places. This is not due to a change in external circumstances but to &quot;the way you look at things&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I recently learned the word &quot;oftentimes&quot;. I was not aware it existed before. And yet, I suddenly started to see it in many places, so that it caughts my attention. Naturally, people did not suddenly started to use this word, so this was clearly a change in my &lt;strong&gt;perception&lt;/strong&gt;, due to &quot;conceptual learning&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, &lt;strong&gt;is there a word for this psychological phenomenon?&lt;/strong&gt; I hardly find the proper words to search for this, so my efforts at the moment have been pointless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16411" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-07-12T12:51:15.840" LastActivityDate="2017-07-12T13:09:04.073" Title="What is the name of the &quot;Things are more visible once you learn about them&quot; phenomenon?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17710" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17717" CreationDate="2017-07-12T10:30:56.887" Score="2" ViewCount="188" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans have an intuition of when two objects or places are close or far away from each other which is seems to be relative rather than absolute. One might say that Germany is close to France, my house is close to the supermarket, etc., and then say that two plants in the backyard are far from each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even when this is subjective, based on what do we classify two objects as being far, close, or somewhere in-between? Is it just the the size of the objects? what about objects of very different sizes like a house and a pen? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about the distance from us to the objects? Would we consider two trees to be close when we are very far away, but then consider them far away when we are close to them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the parameters that we base this decision on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How would a computer classify two objects in such a way that it &quot;mimics&quot; the human decision. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13911" LastEditorUserId="13911" LastEditDate="2017-07-12T14:42:03.323" LastActivityDate="2017-07-14T08:53:55.003" Title="Relative distance" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-16T19:56:20.310" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17711" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-12T11:46:35.340" Score="3" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a student in electrical and electronics engineering. I just started working with EEG. I perform a stress test on subjects and record EEG activities with a 5-sensor headset. I use Matlab for analysis. I'm wondering if anyone can tell me the best method for data analysis. Do we expect the signal to be localized at a certain frequency range in the EEG data under stress stimulus? If so, what is the frequency range? &lt;strong&gt;Which filter should be applied to the EEG signal for the stress stimulus?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16469" LastActivityDate="2017-07-12T11:46:35.340" Title="Which filter should be applied to the EEG signal for the stress stimulus?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-07-16T20:21:23.293" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17712" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17709" CreationDate="2017-07-12T13:09:04.073" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The scenario you describe is sometimes called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.damninteresting.com/the-baader-meinhof-phenomenon/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Baader-Meinhof is the phenomenon where one stumbles upon some obscure&#xA;  piece of information—often an unfamiliar word or name—and soon&#xA;  afterwards encounters the same subject again, often repeatedly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more scientifically accepted name for this &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive bias&lt;/a&gt; seems to be &lt;strong&gt;'frequency illusion'&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The illusion in which a word, a name, or other thing that has recently&#xA;  come to one's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable&#xA;  frequency shortly afterwards[.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to why it occurs, &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/baader-meinhof-phenomenon.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; seems to state a combination of selective attention (or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentional_control&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;attentional control&lt;/a&gt;) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One, your brain seems to be excited by the fact that you've learned&#xA;  something new, and selective attention occurs. Your brain&#xA;  subconsciously thinks, &quot;Hey, that's awesome! I'm going to look for&#xA;  that thing without actually thinking about it.&quot; So now that you're&#xA;  looking for it, you find it. To make it all the more powerful,&#xA;  confirmation bias occurs after seeing it even once or twice. In other&#xA;  words, you start agreeing with yourself that, yup, you're definitely&#xA;  seeing it more&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2017-07-12T13:09:04.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17717" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17710" CreationDate="2017-07-13T15:41:59.023" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Long comment, so writing as an answer... I have to agree with @StevenJeuris: use context. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, you could establish some magnitude scale for a comparison (this is your context), then compare the distance between objects as a percentage of the magnitude. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which magnitude to use? This is &lt;em&gt;entirely&lt;/em&gt; subjective. In human behavior, individuals certainly can and do disagree on whether objects are close or not (depending on the context they are considering). An astrophysicist may consider any object on a single planet &quot;close&quot; to each other, while a microbiologist may consider any separation that can be seen with the naked eye to be &quot;far&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer &quot;what parameters do you base the decision on,&quot; consider the question &quot;close as compared to what?&quot; For the example of trees above, you may consider it as &quot;close/far, as compared to my distance from the tree,&quot; but again, there are more complex pieces (personal history, etc) that also come into play. You &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; program that (for the astrophysicist, keep the default comparative distance as an interplanetary or interstellar distance), but you'd have to make an active decision regarding the purpose of your program.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps one other thing to remember: there is no &quot;normal&quot;, necessarily. Everyone can look at comparative distance differently, and there isn't much of an objective standard to dictate someones comparison as &quot;right&quot; or &quot;wrong&quot;, there is simply what they are comparing to (and then we may be able to get into &quot;correct&quot; and &quot;incorrect&quot; comparative distances).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastActivityDate="2017-07-13T15:41:59.023" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17720" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17710" CreationDate="2017-07-14T08:53:55.003" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If understood your question well you are looking for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depth perception&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Depth perception is the visual ability to perceive the world in three&#xA;  dimensions (3D) and the distance of an object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The depth perception is achieved by specific cues in our environment :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Perspective&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The property of parallel lines converging in the&#xA;  distance, at infinity, allows us to reconstruct the relative distance&#xA;  of two parts of an object, or of landscape features. An example would&#xA;  be standing on a straight road, looking down the road, and noticing&#xA;  the road narrows as it goes off in the distance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Relative size&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If two objects are known to be the same size (e.g., two trees) but&#xA;  their absolute size is unknown, relative size cues can provide&#xA;  information about the relative depth of the two objects. If one&#xA;  subtends a larger visual angle on the retina than the other, the&#xA;  object which subtends the larger visual angle appears closer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Aerial perspective&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Due to light scattering by the atmosphere, objects that are a great&#xA;  distance away have lower luminance contrast and lower color&#xA;  saturation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Occultation&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Occultation (also referred to as interposition) happens when near&#xA;  surfaces overlap far surfaces. If one object partially blocks the view&#xA;  of another object, humans perceive it as closer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Elevation&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When an object is visible relative to the horizon, we tend to perceive&#xA;  objects which are closer to the horizon as being farther away from us,&#xA;  and objects which are farther from the horizon as being closer to us&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;see the complete list of cues at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception#Monocular_cues&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For furter reading see &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.cy/books?id=WBlUgKhMbdsC&amp;amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=depth%20perception&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual Thinking: for Design&#xA;By Colin Ware&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-07-14T08:53:55.003" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17721" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17740" CreationDate="2017-07-14T09:31:34.230" Score="5" ViewCount="1752" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly, I need to declare that I am not psychologyst, however I am currently working on visual recognition research. To be precise, I working on &lt;strong&gt;face recognition deficits&lt;/strong&gt; in Autism Spectrum Disorder. I am in charge of doing an experiment but I feel I come to a dead end even though I didn't even start with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I mentioned above, I investigate face recognition deficits in ASD. I will use faces and objects. For this task I will use &lt;strong&gt;2-AFC match-to-sample task&lt;/strong&gt;. I need to morph faces and objects and for this purpose I need to use &lt;strong&gt;a QUEST staircase&lt;/strong&gt; for measure morph distance at which participants could discriminate between items with 75% accuracy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the problem: &lt;strong&gt;I don't know how to use a QUEST staircase&lt;/strong&gt;. Or better say, I don't know how can I decide how many trials should I have, which morph distance should I use between items, how should I know which morph distracter should I use, should I use in the beginning easy test pairs and what exactly does it  means, is 85%-morph distracter is an easy pair, etc.? As you can see I don't know to do an experiment, it is almost completely new field for me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find my answers in: &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B004XVNTUA&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychophysics: A Practical Introduction by   Kingdom &amp;amp; Prins&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B008RKM92C&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Experimental Design by Cunningham &amp;amp; Wallraven&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B00G4IXSJ2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual Psychophysics by Lu &amp;amp; Dosher&lt;/a&gt; just to mention a few. However, I wish to find some book or article where I can see an example step by step how to make a similar experiment, i.e. AFC. I know there is bunch of information but I am just overwhelmed and lost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What literature/ web sites/ blogs etc. can you suggest to me? How/ where to start?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10867" LastActivityDate="2021-04-03T03:23:00.210" Title="How to use a QUEST staircase in 2-AFC?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17726" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17721" CreationDate="2017-07-15T19:14:22.540" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Start here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.211.6046&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adaptive Psychophysical Procedures (Treutwein, 1995) [PDF]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to get fancy, I suggest a more contemporary approach for the staircase called &lt;em&gt;accelerated stochastic approximation&lt;/em&gt;. You just need to figure out how to implement the equation and how to compute the scores, &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;-prime, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another classic, more general (ask a librarian): &lt;a href=&quot;http://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0932146236&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.amazon.com/Signal-Detection-Theory-Psychophysics-Marvin/dp/0932146236&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2017-07-15T19:14:22.540" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17728" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17729" CreationDate="2017-07-16T13:12:29.800" Score="0" ViewCount="197" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a name or a theory for when someone alters a truth to strengthen their point(delusion)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, remember when President Trump carried out his plan to deport &quot;illegal&quot; immigrants and the lefties painted a different picture by their &quot;Day without immigrant&quot; story to portray the administrators as cold mean bullies, as opposed to saying &quot;Day without ILLEGAL immigrants&quot;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a phenomenon where individuals will consciously alter something, not intentionally to lie malevolently, but strengthen their (obviously) weak point(something to do with ideological possession).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an official name or theory for this, like, &quot;So-and-so's theory of  such and such&quot; or is there rather a study with conclusive data/research on the phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16503" LastActivityDate="2017-07-16T18:37:44.533" Title="Name or theory for a particular phenomenon pertaining to ideological possession" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-17T05:45:35.177" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17728" CreationDate="2017-07-16T14:00:12.827" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a fallacy in thinking called &quot;confirmation bias&quot; in which one only looks at or perceives &quot;facts&quot; in light of, or to support, their pre-conceived notions.&#xA;Here is the definition of &lt;em&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;confirmation bias definition&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Of interest see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/science-choice/201504/what-is-confirmation-bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article in Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastEditorUserId="11556" LastEditDate="2017-07-16T18:37:44.533" LastActivityDate="2017-07-16T18:37:44.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17731" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13653" CreationDate="2017-07-16T19:50:57.943" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To elaborate upon @Rooirokbokkie's comment, neuroplasticity is not exactly like changing computer code, because the brain is not a computer. The brain performs computations, but thinking of it as analogical to consumer CPUs and their Von-Neumann architecture is limiting. For more information on this idea, see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~celiasmi/Papers/eliasmith.moving%20beyond%20metaphors.jphil.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moving Beyond Metaphors: Understanding The Mind For What It Is&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Chris Eliasmith.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most important difference is that not everything in your brain is re-wireable. Related questions that explore this are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/10957/4397&quot;&gt;Does adult neurogenesis occur only in the olfactory bulb and the hippocampus?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/4092/4397&quot;&gt;What evidence is there that the adult brain can produce new neurons?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-07-16T19:50:57.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17732" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-16T20:10:44.007" Score="3" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering how logical thinking/problem solving ability/learning capacity evolves and develops in individuals that study math/physics.(that need a lot of logical thinking) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is basically : &lt;strong&gt;Does studying math/physics helps you solving problems or learning other things that are not directly linked with any of this subjects ?&lt;/strong&gt; (problems from other subjects like biology or problems concerning our daily life)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if there's any research in that field (concerning some kind of facility of learning/solving other things when you've studied subjects that need a lot of logical thinking).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16342" LastActivityDate="2017-07-16T20:10:44.007" Title="Development of logical thinking/problem solving/learning capacity associated with math/physics" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-18T17:44:28.880" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17734" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17742" CreationDate="2017-07-16T15:27:17.963" Score="5" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;Fisher (2000) hypothesized that sex drive, attraction and attachment are the three primary emotions correspond to mating, reproduction and parenting behaviors; those are three discrete constellations of brain circuits, and triggered (and therefore measured and experimented) by a vast of hormones. However, the paper was published 17 years ago, contains a number of hypotheses and self-citations, and its methods mostly come from demography, not cognitive science or evolutionary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you know any update on this hypothesis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source:&lt;/strong&gt; Helen Fisher (2000), &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01614576.2000.11074334&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lust, Attraction, Attachment: Biology and Evolution of the Three Primary Emotion Systems for Mating, Reproduction, and Parenting&lt;/a&gt;, Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 25:1, 96-104&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" OwnerDisplayName="Ooker" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2017-08-03T03:15:10.993" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T03:15:10.993" Title="Is there any update on the hypothesis on primary emotions corresponding on &quot;love&quot;?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17736" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17721" CreationDate="2017-07-17T09:02:14.797" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are numerous studies that reveal contradictory data about face-to-face in autism. Continues the research paradigm that contrasts faces and objects. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2174902/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2174902/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the best text I've found to get started is: this:&lt;a href=&quot;https://psych.nyu.edu/pelli/pubs/watson1983quest.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psych.nyu.edu/pelli/pubs/watson1983quest.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Software:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mas.ncl.ac.uk/~ndjw1/bookmarks/Stats/Software-Statistical_computing/Bayesian_software/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.mas.ncl.ac.uk/~ndjw1/bookmarks/Stats/Software-Statistical_computing/Bayesian_software/index.html&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;(Some links do not work but you can find this software by google)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Differing sources indicate that differences or difficulties in looking at the face in autism are to a greater extent related to &lt;strong&gt;communication processes&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frith, Uta. (1989). Autism: Explaining the enigma. New York: Blackwell. Page 199 et seq. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Essential book which I recommend starting a task about autism.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This can constitute a powerful critic to this type of investigations today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In relation to the above it is considered that the investigation of these factors should be considered in a &lt;strong&gt;communication context&lt;/strong&gt; that on the other hand is not incompatible with research on basic processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-07-17T09:20:08.773" LastActivityDate="2017-07-17T09:20:08.773" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17738" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-17T12:19:21.783" Score="10" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am planning an experiment using mice with in vivo extracellular recordings (and maybe also optogenetic stimulation). In these kinds of experiments, the mouse is getting a reward after executing a (short term) memory involved task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I noticed that in the papers I read, it is not really possible to know if the observed $\gamma$-oscillations (for instance), derive from memory activation, or arousal (from thinking of the reward), or from attentiveness (from trying to execute the task correctly).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any ideas or a good reference for this problem of distinguishing between these related cognitive activities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of experiments with humans will also help. Maybe not directly but will give some ideas about how these notions can be separated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9947" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-21T16:40:30.073" LastActivityDate="2018-10-19T08:59:06.570" Title="How to differentiate attentiveness, arousal and memory via gamma oscillations" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17739" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-17T14:27:03.930" Score="5" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Different music genres have different beat and rhythm patterns. The lower beat and rhythm frequencies are similar to the frequency of heartbeat and this relax us.&#xA;However in my opinion, it's relevant to consider also the emotional significance which the song has for a person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How does the brain form a link between the emotional of a song and the stress system?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-07-17T14:27:03.930" Title="Is the effect of music on stress just due to beat entrainment?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17740" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17721" CreationDate="2017-07-17T16:08:21.270" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a lot going on in your question. QUEST, as well as many other adaptive procedures, is well suited for a task like estimating morph distance in a 2-AFC paradigm. There are, however, a couple of points in your question, that make me think QUEST is not a good paradigm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The QUEST paradigm is designed around setting the signal level to find the the &quot;sweet point&quot; of the psychometric function (something like the signal level that maximizes the Fisher Information). I am not aware of any psychometric function that has a sweet point of 75% correct (most are 90+ percent correct).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second issue, is you mention a fixed number of trials. Typically, QUEST is used with a stopping rule that specifies the expected variance of the estimate (i.e., you run enough trials until the CI on the estimated threshold is small enough).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The easiest way to run these types of experiments is to use software written by someone else (that you trust). Pelli was involved in the early development of both the QUEST procedure and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychtoolbox.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psych Toolbox&lt;/a&gt; for MATLAB/Octave. The Python based &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychopy.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychoPy&lt;/a&gt; also provides the QUEST procedure and is commonly used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-07-17T16:08:21.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17742" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17734" CreationDate="2017-07-18T00:40:43.877" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This hypothesis relies on a number of ideas that are difficult to defend in light of the past decade of emotion research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most notably, there is almost no evidence of modular &quot;emotion systems&quot; in the brain that coordinate some sort of stereotyped emotional response (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/brain-basis-of-emotion-a-metaanalytic-review/80F95F093305C76BA2C66BBA48D4BC8A&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004066&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/26/5/1910/1753968/The-Brain-Basis-of-Positive-and-Negative-Affect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4678183/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, rigidity in responding is often related to &lt;em&gt;reduced&lt;/em&gt; evolutionary fitness.  High fitness species have behavioral and genetic flexibility (see the evo-bio literature on degeneracy and variability).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, there's strong evidence that the brain is predictive, not reactive (for a starting point on this idea, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/whatever-next-predictive-brains-situated-agents-and-the-future-of-cognitive-science/33542C736E17E3D1D44E8D03BE5F4CD9&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;), which rejects the traditional stimulus-response paradigm (e.g., &quot;triggering&quot; a circuit).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theory also relies on an outdated understanding of neurotransmitter functions (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://secure.jbs.elsevierhealth.com/action/getSharedSiteSession?redirect=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cell.com%2Fneuron%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0896627315001336%3F_returnURL%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%252Fretrieve%252Fpii%252FS0896627315001336%253Fshowall%253Dtrue&amp;amp;rc=0&amp;amp;code=cell-site&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/norepinephrine-ignites-local-hot-spots-of-neuronal-excitation-how-arousal-amplifies-selectivity-in-perception-and-memory/A1750B4C91812D0CC7F6D42872DC05AD&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Overall&lt;/strong&gt;, this theory needs to be heavily revised in order to account for contemporary findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2017-07-18T00:40:43.877" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17745" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-18T12:43:07.857" Score="5" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are planning to do a &lt;em&gt;fully remote clinical trial&lt;/em&gt; to test an online intervention for &lt;em&gt;depression&lt;/em&gt;. We will be using a self-rated PHQ-9 at base-line, post intervention, and 90 days follow-up to test the efficacy of the intervention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The participants wouldn't know if they are assigned to the experimental or the control group (so it is definitely single-blind). Since there is no investigator who will be assessing the depression severity, there is no source of any human bias there (since double-blind trials are designed to eliminate investigator bias). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if this can be called a &lt;em&gt;double-blind study&lt;/em&gt;. I have seen other fully remote trials with a similar design but they haven't mentioned the term double-blind anywhere. Considering the fact that it is the gold standard, I am surprised that investigators did not mention it in their paper. That is the source of my confusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any thoughts are welcome. Thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8220" LastEditorUserId="8220" LastEditDate="2017-07-18T15:06:59.380" LastActivityDate="2017-07-19T11:33:33.023" Title="Double blindedness in a fully remote trial" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17747" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17745" CreationDate="2017-07-18T14:39:05.793" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Double blind basically consists when the patient does not know to which condition it belongs (control, treatment A, treatment B) and the professional does not know to which group he/she is administering the treatment (control, treatment A, treatment B).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The double-blind designation is not based on the fact that the initial level of depression is not assessed. (I guess you know it and it has been erroneously specified in the question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In online studies this denomination is not usually used although of course it is not incompatible. (The issue is that this denomination is not usually used because the trial is not common either).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short I do not see problem with the double blind designation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, it would be necessary to pay close attention to the clinical level and the characteristics of the intervention (you do not specify, is the intervention also remote?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In any case sounds very interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-07-19T11:33:33.023" LastActivityDate="2017-07-19T11:33:33.023" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17748" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17745" CreationDate="2017-07-18T15:55:50.307" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If the investigator knows what group the subject is in and then has any interaction with the subject, it is not double blind since the investigator can, potentially unintentionally, influence the subject. The fact that the measures are objective is irrelevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-07-18T15:55:50.307" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17749" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17259" CreationDate="2017-07-18T23:58:45.840" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looking at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bwrt.org/pages/client-testimonials&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;client testimonials&lt;/a&gt; on the website you provided it looks like it varies from 1 session to a few more.  Like any other therapy it seems to depend on the client and problem being dealt with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could ask the therapist how many sessions you are likely to need for your problem in order to find out whether you would like to go ahead or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am really interested in this and I am going to look at this therapy in some detail as it is interesting to me considering it is supposedly not a remodel of NLP, EFT, TFT, WSN, SD, EMDR, Hypnosis, Reiki, Meridian/Energy therapies, Noesiology, Chinosis or any other style of therapy according to the home page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-07-18T23:58:45.840" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17750" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12747" CreationDate="2017-07-19T00:29:14.177" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You would need to seek the professional advice of someone in the legal profession for this but as far as I am aware there are no provisions releasing anyone from legal duties under mandatory reporting requirements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-07-19T00:29:14.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17752" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-19T03:13:56.280" Score="5" ViewCount="521" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am concerned that when &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale?oldformat=true&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Likert-scale&lt;/a&gt; type questions are used in self-evaluation questions, the results are ambiguous and would like to know if it's possible to address this ambiguity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Interpersonal Reactivity Index&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I have seen this in multiple questionnaires, in this question, I would like to focus on it's use in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_Reactivity_Index?oldformat=true&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Interpersonal Reactivity Index&lt;/a&gt; (IRI), which is used to measure empathy. The index is a set of questions that must be answered according to a 5-point Likert-scale ranging from &quot;Does Not Describe Me Well&quot; to &quot;Describes Very Well&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Ambiguity Concerns&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider this question from the IRI:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;I daydream and fantasize, with some regularity, about things that might happen to me.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case, my concern is the temporal descriptor &quot;with some regularity&quot;. How is someone filling this survey supposed to determine what the population mean of &quot;regular&quot; means? Is it once a week? Once a month?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have similar concerns about the following question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;I often have tender, concerned feelings for people less fortunate than me. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is &quot;often&quot;? What depth/duration do the &quot;tender, concerned feelings&quot; require to qualify for this question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;How to Address Ambiguity&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is this ambiguity of language, in regards to personal assessment, addressed in these types of surveys? It seems like a better designed survey would first try to establish the person's view of the general population in terms of range of feelings it's trying to describe, as well as the duration and frequency. Consequently, the person's assessment of the general population could be taken into account for their own personal assessment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have concerns similar to this been addressed before in other contexts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-07-19T08:22:48.267" Title="Ambiguity in self-evaluating Likert-scale questions" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17753" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17752" CreationDate="2017-07-19T08:22:48.267" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe that in the first part there is some confusion of empathy and self-concept (&quot;Does Not Describe Me Well&quot; to &quot;Describes Very Well&quot;), although the basic statement refers to empathy that question is made to measure self-concept of empathy. The vast majority of tests (which do not measure performance) measure self-concept dimensions. Of course you can not measure empathy by a test, what you measure are dimensions of self-concept in relation to empathy. Empathy could be measured through behavioral registers (see attachment studies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to the second part:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ideally the test should not be ambiguous in any item (although it is common for people to comment in this regard).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Given the impossibility in most of the tests to request frequencies of behavior are usually asked similar questions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It must be taken into account that these questions are made in test format likert, it would be a serious mistake to ask similar questions in dichotomous format.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If there is ambiguity in the test this has to be reflected psychometrically as a &lt;strong&gt;low correlation and error variance&lt;/strong&gt;, provided that questions are asked that correlate with the reference question, that is to say, that usually several questions of this type are made and their Relationships when designing the test (you can also study it on your own for a class work).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The administration of the test must be performed under conditions that allow questions to be asked and the professional (or student who must know the test in detail) should clarify any doubts to the person to whom the test is administered, therefore in some countries, someone who has not studied psychology can not administer or correct (legally or validly) a psychological test.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, when I require empathy measurements I always use the TECA (acronym in Spanish)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.teaediciones.com/TECA--TEST-DE-EMPATIA-COGNITIVA-Y-AFECTIVA.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://web.teaediciones.com/TECA--TEST-DE-EMPATIA-COGNITIVA-Y-AFECTIVA.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;It allows to measure cognitive and affective components (essential in the present moment): adoption of perspectives, emotional compression, empathic stress and empathic joy. Try to translate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2017-07-19T08:22:48.267" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17754" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16775" CreationDate="2017-07-19T08:46:20.910" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @AaronWeinberg stated in the comments, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cracked.com/pictofacts-583-19-things-science-fiction-promised-and-what-we-got-instead/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;just like many other technologies within Science Fiction&lt;/a&gt;, the Science Fiction of viewing dreams on screen has started to become Science Fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rebecca Morelle, a science reporter for the BBC World Service wrote an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-22031074&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article about researchers in Japan&lt;/a&gt; who used MRI scans to reveal the images that people were seeing as they entered into an early stage of sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the articles I have seen, it looks like the research has been led by &lt;a href=&quot;http://researchmap.jp/y_kamitani/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Professor Yukiyasu Kamitani&lt;/a&gt;, from the ATR Computational Neuroscience Laboratories, in Kyoto.  It seems that the research started in 2005 with an article titled &lt;em&gt;Decoding the visual and subjective contents of the human brain&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v8/n5/full/nn1444.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kamitani &amp;amp; Tong, 2005&lt;/a&gt;) followed by the article &lt;em&gt;Neural Code Converter for Visual Image Representation&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5961315&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yamada, et al. 2011&lt;/a&gt;), follwed then by &lt;em&gt;Decoding visual experience from the human brain&lt;/em&gt; (Kamitani, 2012) and then the source of the first linked article &lt;em&gt;Neural Decoding of Visual Imagery During Sleep&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/340/6132/639&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Horikawa, et al. 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results of the first study within the 2005 article demonstrated that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;fMRI activity patterns in early visual areas, including primary visual cortex (V1), contain detailed orientation information that can reliably predict subjective perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 2011 article says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[T]he neural code converter may provide a basis for brain-to-brain communication of visual images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 2012 article says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Despite the wide-spread use of human neuroimaging, its potential to read out, or &quot;decode&quot;, mental contents from brain activity has not been fully explored. In this talk, I present methods for decoding visual representations from fMRI activity patterns based on machine learning techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and the final article in 2013 says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our findings demonstrate that specific visual experience during sleep is represented by brain activity patterns shared by stimulus perception, providing a means to uncover subjective contents of dreaming using objective neural measurement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Horikawa, T., et al. (2013) &lt;em&gt;Neural Decoding of Visual Imagery During Sleep&lt;/em&gt;. Science 340(6132): pp. 639—642&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1234330&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1126/science.1234330&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kamitani, Y. &amp;amp; Tong, F. (2005) &lt;em&gt;Decoding the visual and subjective contents of the human brain&lt;/em&gt;. Nature Neuroscience 8(5): pp. 679—685&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1444&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/nn1444&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kamitani, Y. (2012) &lt;em&gt;Decoding visual experience from the human brain&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acmmm12.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Proceeding MM '12&lt;/a&gt; (Proceedings of the 20th ACM international conference on Multimedia). New York:Association for Computing Machinery pp. 5—6 &lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/2393347.2393353&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1145/2393347.2393353&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yamada, K., et al. (2011) &lt;em&gt;Neural Code Converter for Visual Image Representation&lt;/em&gt;. 2011 International Workshop on Pattern Recognition in NeuroImaging: pp. 37—40&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1109/PRNI.2011.13&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1109/PRNI.2011.13&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-07-19T08:46:20.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17755" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-19T12:30:17.643" Score="5" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understood that ethanol increases Golgi cell firing by inhibiting the Na+/K+ ATPase channels, which makes granule cells receive more GABAergic input from the GABA that Golgi cells relase.&#xA;Some paragraph in this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v35/n9/full/npp201076a.html?foxtrotcallback=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; are not clear to me. It says that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;ethanol increased spontaneous firing frequency and depolarized the membrane potential in the perforated-patch configuration&lt;/em&gt;, but also that &lt;em&gt;ethanol does not significantly affect firing frequency or membrane potential response to current injection&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does it work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16531" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-07-19T15:06:13.173" LastActivityDate="2017-07-19T15:06:13.173" Title="How does alcohol increase firing rate in Golgi cells?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17759" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-19T21:30:57.657" Score="2" ViewCount="400" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to raise your IQ (best correlate for g I know of)? Does brain training help? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have never taken a psychologist administered IQ test before, but I did take &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iqtest.dk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a reputable online IQ test&lt;/a&gt; and experienced a shift of 20+ IQ points over a two/three year period.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I didn't do the tests incessantly, did it once, then revisited the test a few years later, and I was testing 20+ points higher than my previous score. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10516" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-07-20T05:31:34.740" LastActivityDate="2017-07-21T04:16:21.603" Title="Is it possible to increase/train your intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-07-21T11:37:14.023" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17760" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-19T22:13:56.803" Score="1" ViewCount="655" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as Artificial Intelligence is concerned, what is &quot;intelligence&quot;? The definition I see on various sites like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:       &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Intelligence has been defined in many different ways including as one's capacity for logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, planning, creativity, and problem solving          &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merriam Webster&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying situations :  reason; also :  the skilled use of reason.     &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The ability to apply knowledge to manipulate one's environment or to think abstractly as measured by objective criteria (such as tests).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;etc seem to be a bit broad and nebulous, and not necessarily what I would be thinking of if I wanted to build an AI, or evaluate the intelligence of non human life-forms.            &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The definition I currently go with is:         &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;General problem solving ability.            &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm not sure if this is broad enough to encompass all we think of when we say &quot;intelligence&quot; in the context of AI, or what we would be looking for in &quot;intelligent&quot; life-forms. What's a useful definition of intelligence. Broad enough to encompass all the we consider when we think intelligence, yet narrow enough to exclude particular idiosyncrasies of specific intelligent agents? A universal definition of intelligence applicable to all intelligent agents. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10516" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-21T17:26:37.503" LastActivityDate="2017-07-21T17:33:39.743" Title="What is &quot;intelligence&quot; in &quot;artificial intelligence&quot;?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-24T13:23:19.973" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17761" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17760" CreationDate="2017-07-20T06:11:10.363" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very broad and not well defined issue, but two theories that may help you to get a better understanding are the following :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triarchic_theory_of_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Triarchic theory of intelligence by Robert J. Sternberg&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sternberg's definition of human intelligence is &quot;(a) mental activity&#xA;  directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of,&#xA;  real-world environments relevant to one's life&quot; (Sternberg, 1985, p.&#xA;  45).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sternberg divides intelligence into three major subtheories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Componential – analytical subtheory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Analytical giftedness is influential in being able to take apart&#xA;  problems and being able to see solutions not often seen.&#xA;  Unfortunately, individuals with only this type are not as adept at&#xA;  creating unique ideas of their own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Experiential – creative subtheory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sternberg splits the role of experience into two parts: novelty and&#xA;  automation. A novel situation is one that you have never experienced&#xA;  before. People that are adept at managing a novel situation can take&#xA;  the task and find new ways of solving it that the majority of people&#xA;  would not notice (Sternberg, 1997). A process that has been automated&#xA;  has been performed multiple times and can now be done with little or&#xA;  no extra thought. Once a process is automatized, it can be run in&#xA;  parallel with the same or other processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Practical – contextual subtheory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sternberg's third subtheory of intelligence, called practical or&#xA;  contextual, &quot;deals with the mental activity involved in attaining fit&#xA;  to context&quot; (Sternberg, 1985, p. 45). Through the three processes of&#xA;  adaptation, shaping, and selection, individuals create an ideal fit&#xA;  between themselves and their environment. This type of intelligence is&#xA;  often referred to as &quot;street smarts.&quot; Adaptation occurs when one makes&#xA;  a change within oneself in order to better adjust to one's&#xA;  surroundings (Sternberg, 1985). For example, when the weather changes&#xA;  and temperatures drop, people adapt by wearing extra layers of&#xA;  clothing to remain warm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Theory of multiple intelligences by Howard Gardner&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The theory of multiple intelligences differentiates intelligence into&#xA;  specific 'modalities', rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by&#xA;  a single general ability. Howard Gardner proposed this model in his&#xA;  1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.&#xA;  According to Gardner, an intelligence must fulfill eight criteria:&#xA;  musical-rhythmic, visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic,&#xA;  logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal,&#xA;  intrapersonal, and naturalistic. He later suggested that existential&#xA;  and moral intelligence may also be worthy of inclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-07-20T06:11:10.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17762" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7930" CreationDate="2017-07-20T17:57:56.007" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a single-compartment model, you do not have spatial dimensions. Sometimes this is not a problem, for example in the stomatogastric ganglion of &lt;em&gt;C. borealis&lt;/em&gt;, in which the neurons have a mechanism to scale the signal with distance by modifying the &quot;effective reversal potential&quot; (Otopalik et al., 2017). In the case of one of these models, it would be sensible to either make an approximation of the cell surface area (Liu et al., 1998 for example) or to use parameters which are normalized by the surface area, to whose explicit numerical value we remain agnostic. One would do this by using a membrane capacitance in microfarads per centimeter squared for instance (typically about unity) and then use maximal conductances in millisiemens per centimeter squared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This way, the natural units for current divided by capacitance are mV * mS/cm^2 * cm^2/uF, or equivalent to mV/ms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you wanted to model multiple neurons with a decay factor, you could either use the cable equation and explicitly input the current into the descending neuron following that, or make a neuron with multiple compartments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15152" LastActivityDate="2017-07-20T17:57:56.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17763" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13694" CreationDate="2017-07-20T18:05:00.817" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Descending inputs onto the central pattern generating circuit provide stimulus in the form of neuromodulatory chemicals and synaptic currents (Marder 2012). The leech heartbeat pacemaker and the stomatogastric ganglion in crustaceans are well-studied model systems that show descending input from higher functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, in humans, we are not sure. This type of question is best answered in invertebrates for the time being. In invertebrate electrophysiology, the circuit can be &quot;decentralized,&quot; by chemically or physically destroying the inputs from the ascending ganglia. In the stomatogastric ganglion, this results in a less-stable but still very robust central pattern (Hamood et al., 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15152" LastActivityDate="2017-07-20T18:05:00.817" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17759" CreationDate="2017-07-20T21:07:31.530" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/36143-iq-change-time.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is the first article that popped up on a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=Is+it+possible+to+raise+your+IQ&amp;amp;rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS592US592&amp;amp;oq=Is+it+possible+to+raise+your+IQ&amp;amp;aqs=chrome..69i57j69i64&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google search&lt;/a&gt; of your first question. It poses your questions to 5 &quot;experts&quot; (psychology professors).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subtlety in their responses comes from the fact that an IQ measurement is an imperfect number meant to capture some sort of underlying construct (and that this underlying construct can constantly be under debate). So, when one raises one's score: did you get smarter, or just become a better test taker? I won't answer one way or the other, but I will quote one of the experts (discussing IQ training with children):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... what I would say, is we didn't make the children smarter, but we taught them how to use what they have more efficiently, and better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So yes, you can raise your IQ score&lt;/strong&gt;. Now what does that imply? That depends on whom you ask...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-07-21T04:16:21.603" LastActivityDate="2017-07-21T04:16:21.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17767" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-21T00:18:45.413" Score="3" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently trying to understand how speech is being perceived and understood. I am currently aware of the workings of inner ears and the basilar membrane and its frequency filtering, but going from an acoustic signal to something meaningful such as perceiving speech is still very unclear. I am working with implementing speech recognition software, and what we do is recognising basic speech units namely phonemes, but it this is how the auditory system perceives speech?.. is speech perceived as basic units, or just something man made? or is the perception of speech (very) different, and how different?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16544" LastEditorUserId="16544" LastEditDate="2017-07-21T02:40:18.567" LastActivityDate="2017-07-21T05:28:16.093" Title="Is speech perceived as set of phonemes by human?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17768" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17767" CreationDate="2017-07-21T05:28:16.093" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Phonemes are the smallest units of speech sound, usually about 20 to 60 in number, and different for each language (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dictionary.com/browse/phoneme&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;). They are what letter are to words, actually  alphabetic writing systems are derived from phonemes (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme#Correspondence_between_letters_and_phonemes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;). A group of phonemes together form a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;chunk&lt;/a&gt;, that represent a word. These chunks are arbitrary and are created by culture, and are learned by humans from very early age. Furthermore these chunks point to specific &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;concepts&lt;/a&gt; that are stored in our &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;semantic memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Concepts&lt;/strong&gt; arise as abstractions or generalisations from experience;&#xA;  from the result of a transformation of existing ideas; or from innate&#xA;  properties. A concept is instantiated by all of its&#xA;  actual or potential instances, whether these are things in the real&#xA;  world or other ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Semantic&lt;/strong&gt; memory refers to general world knowledge that we have&#xA;  accumulated throughout our lives. This general knowledge (facts,&#xA;  ideas, meaning and concepts) is intertwined in experience and&#xA;  dependent on &lt;strong&gt;culture&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-07-21T05:28:16.093" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17769" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-21T09:02:31.177" Score="1" ViewCount="2852" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning#Second-order_and_higher-order_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;second order conditioning&lt;/a&gt; next to a CS1 + US also a CS2 + CS1 association is learned so that also CS2 will cause a CR. Is the order in which the stimuli associations are learned (CS1 + US and CS2 + CS1) relevant for the strength of the CS2 -&gt; CR association?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;To make an example&lt;/em&gt;: A student gets a bad grade in an exam (CS1) and due to a extremely negative response of his / her parents (screaming, punishment = US) the student develops a fear response to exams in general (single trial fear conditioning; the response &quot;exam -&gt; fear&quot; was learned). Does the student already responds with fear to any stimuli (CS2) which signals a upcoming exam although this association was learned earlier before the fear conditioning? Is it necessary that the association CS2 + CS1 is learned after the CS1 + US association or doesn't it matter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Explanation of the abbrevations:&lt;/em&gt; In classical conditioning a association between an unconditioned stimuli (US) and a conditioned stimuli (CS) is learned so that the person also responds with the response to the conditioned stimuli which he / she has previously shown to the unconditioned stimulus. The classical example is Pavlov's experiment with a dog. A bell was ringing (CS) whenever food was presented to the dog (US). After a while the dog salivates (CR) whenever the bell rings (without presenting the food). Thus the response &quot;bell -&gt; salivation&quot; was learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In second order conditioning next to an association of an unconditioned stimulus (US) and a first conditioned stimulus (CS1) also an association of a second conditioned stimulus (CS2) with the first conditioned stimulus (CS1) is learned. Thus the person / the animal also responses with a conditioned response (CR) similar or equal to the unconditioned response (UR) to the second stimulus even though that the association CS2+US was directly presented before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8857" LastEditorUserId="8857" LastEditDate="2017-07-31T19:41:18.770" LastActivityDate="2017-07-31T19:41:18.770" Title="Is the order of stimulus pairings in second order conditioning relevant?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2017-07-21T22:49:55.080" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17770" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-21T10:09:59.880" Score="4" ViewCount="1144" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have difficulties to understand fear as a response to a stimuli. In my view fear occurs as a anticipation of a possible threat in the (nearby) future. Fear prepares the organism so that it can react faster to the threat (eg. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;fight or flight response&lt;/a&gt;). Thus, the order of the stimulus (threat) and the response (fear) is changed (&quot;fear -&gt; threat&quot; instead of &quot;threat -&gt; fear&quot;). So I would describe this connection as &quot;preparation -&gt; stimulus&quot; instead of &quot;stimulus -&gt; response&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would argue that stimuli which cause fear (eg. loud noise) are predictors of a threat. Thus for the reaction &quot;loud noise -&gt; fear&quot; we have a second order conditioning since the association &quot;loud noise -&gt; threat&quot; was created before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a similar way I would describe other fear conditioning processes. When for example a student develops a test anxiety, after multiple exams a student often experience (extremely) negative responds which he / she experience as a threat. Thus he / she learns the connection &quot;exam -&gt; threat&quot; and responds with fear at upcoming exams in order to prepare herself / himself for the anticipated threat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;My Questions:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this a valid description of fear conditioning?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it in general possible that in classical conditioning the order &quot;stimulus -&gt; response&quot; is changed to &quot;preparation behavior -&gt; stimulus&quot;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8857" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T15:44:05.537" Title="Understanding fear as a response in classical conditioning" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17773" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17760" CreationDate="2017-07-21T17:33:39.743" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the domain of Artificial Intelligence, especially when considering the plausibility of &quot;Superintelligence&quot;, the definition is of &quot;intelligence&quot; is under active debate. For an overview of some of these arguments, see the provocatively named &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.erikphoel.com/blog/superintelligence-is-a-free-lunch-and-there-are-no-free-lunches&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Superintelligence is a free lunch, and there are no free lunches&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Erik Hoel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But clearly rating a superintelligence using an IQ test is useless. We&#xA;  wouldn’t use Einstein as a metric for a real superintelligence of the&#xA;  variety Bostrom is worried about any more than we’d use the mouse as a&#xA;  metric for Einstein. So clearly the danger isn’t just from an AI with&#xA;  an exceptionally high IQ (since it’s not like high IQ people run the&#xA;  world anyways). Rather, the danger comes from the possibility of a&#xA;  runaway process of a learning algorithm that creates a god-like AI. To&#xA;  examine that we need a more abstract and highly generalizable notion&#xA;  of intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A definition of intelligence is actually given by Legg and Hutter in&#xA;  their paper “Universal intelligence: a definition of machine&#xA;  intelligence.” Taking their point broadly, the intelligence of an&#xA;  agent is the sum of the performance of that agent on all possible&#xA;  problems, weighted by the simplicity of those problems (simple&#xA;  problems are worth more). A superintelligent entity would then be&#xA;  something that scores extremely high on this scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So universal intelligence is at least somewhat describable.&#xA;  Interestingly, Einstein scores pretty low on this metric. In fact,&#xA;  every human would score pretty low on this metric. This is because the&#xA;  space of all problems include things that human beings are really bad&#xA;  at, like picking out the same two color pixels on a TV screen (and&#xA;  three pixels triads, and so on). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We can also define intelligence broadly as: given a particular goal,&#xA;  the agent who needs to achieve that goal learns everything that’s&#xA;  necessary to achieve that goal with a high probability (which might&#xA;  mean achieving other goals en route to the main goal, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-07-21T17:33:39.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17774" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-21T18:07:53.237" Score="3" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;Following up on my &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/17694/is-there-a-evolutionary-purpose-of-self-pity&quot;&gt;previous question&lt;/a&gt; on the possible &lt;em&gt;benefit&lt;/em&gt; of self-pity, I would like to understand the process which is responsible to create self-pity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @AliceD pointed out self-pity could very well be the collateral result of empathy. However, it seems to me there are a lot more people feeling empathy than people experiencing self-pity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is famous quote attributed &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Viktor E. Frankl&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Between stimulus and response there is a space. In that space is our power to choose our response. In our response lies our growth and our freedom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the idea behind this quote be used to answer my question? In other words self-pity originates in the capability of empathy and the inability to &lt;em&gt;choose the response&lt;/em&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16449" LastActivityDate="2017-07-21T18:07:53.237" Title="How is compassion &quot;derailed&quot; into self-pity" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-08-27T08:14:54.930" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17775" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20546" CreationDate="2017-07-22T04:57:01.087" Score="4" ViewCount="504" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on my understanding, executive function primarily takes place in the frontal lobes. &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02004.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Inzlicht and Gutsell found&lt;/a&gt; that exhaustion in mental tasks shows itself in decreased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex. The main neurotransmitter in that region, and in the frontal lobes in general, seems to be glutamate.  L-Theanine inhibits reuptake of glutamate via EAAT2. However, when a person consumes a L-Theanine supplement, it might not be necessarily the case that the human body will update the neurotransmitter distribution beyond the blood-brain barrier in a tantamount fashion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;L-tyrosine, like amphetamines (prescribed for ADHD), seems to increase dopamine by reuptake inhibition. I have similar concerns to the above (i.e., it might not be necessarily the case that the human body will update the neurotransmitter distribution beyond the blood-brain barrier in a tantamount fashion).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, there tends to be a lot of quackery and a lot of p-hacking with small samples when it comes to uses of L-Theanine supplements and natural remedies on health. This might be especially the case in neuroscience, where a lot of treatment effects are hard to trace. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="3379" LastEditDate="2017-07-22T21:22:37.857" LastActivityDate="2018-08-26T12:09:29.943" Title="Does consumption of amino acid supplements improve human executive function and self-regulation in ADHD cases?" Tags="&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;&lt;frontal-lobes&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17778" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-22T14:40:41.370" Score="3" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;With the help of other packages, I've estimated Drift Diffusion model parameters of my data. Now, I want to estimate the predicted (or actual) response times for each observation with the help of estimated parameters. By going through the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/rtdists/rtdists.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;manual&lt;/a&gt; I got a sense that &lt;code&gt;ddiffusion&lt;/code&gt; function estimates (predicts) the actual response times, basically I used this code for my own purposes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;dd1&amp;lt;-ddiffusion(data$rt , data$resp,a=2.16,v=1.12,t0=0.36,z=0.51).&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this function gives me actual (predicted) response time for each observation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16553" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-27T21:03:13.160" LastActivityDate="2019-10-25T10:32:24.273" Title="Does this rdists package provide actual (predicted) response time for each observation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17779" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17778" CreationDate="2017-07-22T15:43:02.017" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not very familiar with this package, but per manual (bold and italics added):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;ddiffusion&lt;/em&gt; gives the density, &lt;em&gt;pdiffusion&lt;/em&gt; gives the distribution function, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;qdiffusion&lt;/em&gt; gives the quantile function (i.e., predicted RTs)&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;rdiffusion&lt;/em&gt; generates random response times and decisions (returning a data.frame with columns rt (numeric) and response (factor)).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it looks like if you want predicted reaction times, you should use the qdiffusion function (but note that it is a quantile function).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-07-22T16:44:00.793" LastActivityDate="2017-07-22T16:44:00.793" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17782" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9671" CreationDate="2017-07-22T18:42:24.267" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect the claims were distorted versions of what was found in the study below. It supports a weaker form of the above claims: the idea that &lt;strong&gt;a person would often look at someone they are socially close to when laughing in a group setting, but not necessarily at &lt;em&gt;the socially closest&lt;/em&gt; person&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1984.tb00881.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McAdams, et. al. (1984)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[High scores on] intimacy motivation was positively associated with&#xA;  greater levels of laughter, smiling, and eye contact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Along with non verbal behaviors [...], looking, laughter, and smiling have been classified as cues of [...] &quot;intimacy&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Harper et al. (1978) conclude: &quot;With some exceptions and qualifications, the research to date shows a direct relationship between looking and positive interpersonal sentiment&quot; (p. 189)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rubin (1970) found that the amount of time in which the couple engaged in mutual eye contact during a laboratory session was positively correlated with their score on a questionnaire measure of love intensity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Observing adults interacting in dyads, Rosenfeld (1966) found that the frequency of smiling significantly differentiated between those subjects instructed to seek approval and those instructed to avoid approval from the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anecdotally, it would seem very strange that in a group setting with multiple acquaintances (for example at a dinner table with friends/family), two people would only look at each other every time a joke is made. In settings where social closeness disparity is larger (e.g. at a comedy club show) it seems obvious that two people who went to the show together would look at each other when a joke is made.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The larger point is the usefulness of the laughter-eye-contact response. The response would be useful to gauge more general &quot;who &lt;strong&gt;knows&lt;/strong&gt; who&quot; information, but would probably not be specific to any previous or desired sexual encounters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastEditorUserId="20961" LastEditDate="2018-12-04T05:25:20.933" LastActivityDate="2018-12-04T05:25:20.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17786" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-23T23:15:27.517" Score="4" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on a research paper regarding EEG signal preprocessing. The first stage includes denoising the signal. However, since I need to evaluate the performance of the method I am using, I thought of&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Using a noise free signal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Add white Gaussian noise to it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Denoise it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Compare the denoised signal with the original one.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a data base that contains real recordings of EEG signal ( not simulated ) and without any additive Gaussian noise. If not, is there any other way that I can use to evaluate my denoising method?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16567" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-07-26T16:11:26.457" LastActivityDate="2017-07-26T16:11:26.457" Title="Noise free EEG signal data base" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17789" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-24T09:37:42.000" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think / guess using multiple sources for education / learning is much better than using one source; I mean by source, visual, auditory, etc...&#xA;So at best I could learn from a person face-to-face, then watching some video, then reading a tutorial with graphs, etc...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but what about keeping reading and accumulating knowledge by forcing info by the act of just reading here and there, until the piece of info &quot;clicks&quot;.. is that a good thing? What is bad about this method? what is good? It seems like to be clutter compared to the way of learning mentioned above this paragraph...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16572" LastActivityDate="2017-07-24T09:37:42.000" Title="Which is more true about learning?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-25T03:35:00.600" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17795" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-25T08:07:10.923" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking to create a flanker task for an upcoming experiment. I'm wondering if there are any papers/websites that outline what the &quot;standard&quot; flanker task contains?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I'm trying to find some information on the most commonly used number of trials/blocks, what the experimental manipulations are (besides congruency), or timings of the stimuli&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course there's some variability to this, and it would likely change depending on the research question, but even just a range of values that I should work within would be useful&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9054" LastEditorUserId="4906" LastEditDate="2017-07-26T21:39:49.083" LastActivityDate="2017-07-26T21:39:49.083" Title="What are common parameters for the Eriksen flanker task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-27T14:37:44.193" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17800" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3420" CreationDate="2017-07-27T13:25:35.460" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both the terms hypnosis and meditation are nebulous terms and are incomparable.&#xA;There are many Hypnotic States, including the one called 'waking state'.&#xA;There are many ways to define a hypnotic state, one of them is having a single point of focus to the exclusion of all other stimuli. This would follow the definition of James Braid of 'Monoideaism'. This would also be similar to a meditative state brought about by focusing attention on one thing such as the breathe, heart beat or ringing of a bell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However if you look at volunteers at a hypnotists stage show they are up walking around, hallucinating images, sounds and feelings, this looks nothing like meditation and yet they would be considered to be 'in hypnosis'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we look at self-hypnosis and compare that to meditation, they are similar. The states are similar the process to get into that state of trance is similar and how they are used to change the brain are similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The biggest difference I can see between self-hypnosis and meditation is that meditation is viewed as a fixed teaching coming from ancient practices where as hypnosis is a growing body of knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other differences are:&#xA;That hypnotists tend to use relaxation as a means to coax the mind to move from a defensive posture to a receptive posture while meditative practices cultivate focusing the mind on discarding or ignoring other stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self hypnosis is goal specific orientated, the goal is to relax, take in a new suggestion or be in a state of repair. As a result of being goal orientated, self hypnosis can be trained by a hypnotist in a matter of minutes. Meditation from ancient practices in contrast, is intended to be a lifelong practice with skills built up the foundations of the previous skills and the benefits are non specific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16587" LastActivityDate="2017-07-27T13:25:35.460" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17801" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7834" CreationDate="2017-07-27T13:50:12.323" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are looking for is usually considered within &lt;strong&gt;synesthesia&lt;/strong&gt;, specifically auditory-visual synesthesia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually these topics are developed in &quot;commercial or industrial psychology&quot; in a general way and more specifically by psychologists incorporated in &lt;strong&gt;marketing&lt;/strong&gt;, these last studies are often not published, are made for the best initial orientation of the product with a line of consumers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a general book:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.es/books?id=ESH7AAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA812&amp;amp;lpg=PA812&amp;amp;dq=psychology+synesthesia&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=zC3KmJPT2h&amp;amp;sig=pGlZ9qPf1d14T7i96AL8OmMvVSo&amp;amp;hl=es&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjmnYvRyanVAhUNfFAKHbX-CV84ChDoAQhWMAY#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://books.google.es/books?id=ESH7AAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA812&amp;amp;lpg=PA812&amp;amp;dq=psychology+synesthesia&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=zC3KmJPT2h&amp;amp;sig=pGlZ9qPf1d14T7i96AL8OmMvVSo&amp;amp;hl=es&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjmnYvRyanVAhUNfFAKHbX-CV84ChDoAQhWMAY#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that what ultimately interests most is why (cerebrally) and what repercussions (especially in clinical) has this phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will not find it difficult to find end-of-grade papers, there are also theses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2017-07-27T13:50:12.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17802" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-27T17:36:01.797" Score="5" ViewCount="403" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen both of these in different research publications, but after searching for a while, I was not able to find the difference. I'll appreciate it if you explain the difference and give me some references to learn more about the difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some links to publications about Active learning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED449714&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED449714&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED424243&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED424243&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED336049&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED336049&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some links to publications about engaged learning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-827165091/engaged-learning-are-we-all-on-the-same-page&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-827165091/engaged-learning-are-we-all-on-the-same-page&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ871317&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ871317&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://search.proquest.com/openview/ee56bfc90cac37ad96a4f6be61918f02/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&amp;amp;cbl=29705&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://search.proquest.com/openview/ee56bfc90cac37ad96a4f6be61918f02/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&amp;amp;cbl=29705&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3200/CTCH.55.1.5-18&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3200/CTCH.55.1.5-18&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11686" LastEditorUserId="11686" LastEditDate="2017-07-27T21:03:34.833" LastActivityDate="2018-10-13T07:50:33.153" Title="Active Learning vs. Engaged Learning" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17803" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17802" CreationDate="2017-07-27T21:32:18.193" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the publications on engaged learning that you provide (the &amp;quot;Engaged Learning: Are We All on the Same Page?&amp;quot; one) seems to answer your question (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aacu.org/publications-research/periodicals/engaged-learning-are-we-all-same-page&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is a fuller version of it). The quote that addresses your question is given below (bold added).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of these concepts of engagement cover ground similar to that covered by initiatives in higher education known by other names:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Engagement with the learning process is similar to &lt;em&gt;active learning&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Engagement with the object of study is similar to &lt;em&gt;experiential learning&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Engagement with contexts generally is similar to &lt;em&gt;multidisciplinary learning&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Engagement with social and civic contexts is similar to &lt;em&gt;service learning&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, the engagement seems to encompass active learning in that active learning is the piece of engagement related to the learning process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-07-27T21:32:18.193" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17806" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-28T05:08:00.840" Score="4" ViewCount="741" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;apophenia&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is the standard term in psychology to describe the tendency to spot patterns where none exist (analogous to a Type I error - false positive). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a standard term to describe the opposite phenomenon? The tendency to miss a pattern where one exists (analogous to a Type II error - false negative).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user16591" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T15:26:24.810" Title="Antonym for apophenia" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17808" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-28T16:07:59.863" Score="8" ViewCount="492" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was trying to get power spectral density of a time-series data. The sleep recording software we use, doesn't allow to export EDF format of an interval, only of the whole record, but it allows to extract an ASCII file with &lt;code&gt;uV&lt;/code&gt; value of a single lead. We are selecting the visually &quot;cleaner&quot; part of a longer dot test task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way I'm proceeding now, is to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;import them in eeglab, &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;use FIR automatic filter with 0.5 - 28 low hi pass&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;run this script&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;[power, freq] = spectopo(EEG.data(chanNr, :), 0, sampRate, 'winsize', 512, 'freqfac', 2,'freqrange',[0 28]);&#xA;(chanNr = 1 and sampRate =512)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not familiar with signal analysis, am I proceeding in the proper way? The output I get from &lt;code&gt;spectopo&lt;/code&gt; in the &lt;code&gt;power&lt;/code&gt; variable, is &lt;code&gt;uV&lt;/code&gt; squared, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16593" LastEditorUserId="21615" LastEditDate="2019-02-27T18:15:12.057" LastActivityDate="2019-02-27T18:15:12.057" Title="EEGlab: power spectral density from a single EEG lead" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17811" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-28T20:29:15.050" Score="3" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;I struggled for years to quit smoking, then after many failed attempts I stopped without any difficulty. I've also experienced this on other things, like when I'll want to do something but I lack the discipline to do it, then eventually I'll have a surge of energy and willpower that will make it easy for me to get anything done.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychology behind this yo-yo surge of willpower?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;How can I encourage my mind and body to bring on that heightened willpower?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16596" LastActivityDate="2017-07-28T21:36:31.820" Title="Is there a name for sudden addiction relieving clarity?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;&lt;willpower&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-07-29T18:00:17.453" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17813" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17960" CreationDate="2017-07-28T23:16:28.610" Score="5" ViewCount="448" Body="&lt;p&gt;First mentioned by Kalbhaum in 1863, and better known by Kraepelin's descriptions in 1912, paraphrenia seems to be forgotten after the publication of DSM-III. It is always described by its nosology, late onset, with very systematized delirium and typical theme, without losing too much contact with reality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, it seems to have been fused with schizophrenia, persistent delirium, affective paraphrenia, and paranoid affection. Commonly described among delirium and schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ICD-10 includes it in F22 as a type of persistent delusional ideas, in ICD-9 included in paranoid states. It is not included in DSM-IV or DSM-V.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are plenty descriptive studies, but few reviews with a focus on paraphrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can anyone find a &lt;strong&gt;well-focused and detailed&lt;/strong&gt; experimental &lt;strong&gt;review&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;trial&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do psychology / psychiatry &lt;strong&gt;associations&lt;/strong&gt; claim it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there manuals that address it in &lt;strong&gt;diagnosis&lt;/strong&gt; or didactically (not in general form but with detailed author)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any &lt;strong&gt;authors&lt;/strong&gt; especially focused on this disorder?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA; 1. I am not interested in medication;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; 2. I am not interested in comorbidities such as paranoid affection (described as very characterized by a characteristic affection and there is some confusion with directly paranoid affection, affective paraphrenia).&lt;br&gt;&#xA; 3. I am not interested whether it appears to be closely related to paranoid schizophrenia (confusion due to systematized delirium).&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-22T14:22:27.263" LastActivityDate="2017-08-22T22:06:41.370" Title="What is the current status of Paraphrenia?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17818" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17819" CreationDate="2017-07-29T18:01:58.110" Score="5" ViewCount="385" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just had a discussion with someone about mental illnesses in people (specifically talking about Capgraw delusion, alien hand syndrome, and walking corpse syndrome) and how some people's lives can be ruined by mental disorders. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then I had a thought: Do animals also get mental disorders? I don't think I've ever heard anybody suggest it before...we all just assume animals are just animals and do animal stuff. Some people might say, &quot;Oh, that cat is crazy.&quot; but maybe it's actually suffering from a mental disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean, we all know animals can suffer dramatic trauma and be psychologically scarred by it...but humans can seemingly develop mental disorders without previous physical trauma and we also develop very odd mental disorders (like Capgraw delusion). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So logically, I just have to wonder if animals can develop mental disorders that are unique or similar to our own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16604" LastActivityDate="2017-08-02T19:39:48.410" Title="Can animals develop mental disorders that are unique or similar to our own?" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17819" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17818" CreationDate="2017-07-29T23:44:36.827" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the case of animals it is not common to refer to mental disorders, there is more commonly talked about behavior problems, (it is not specified in the question what kind of animals) although &lt;strong&gt;in essence animals can suffer the same as a human&lt;/strong&gt;, sometimes the variations are huge, depends on which type of animal we refer (it is not the same to speak of chimpanzee or bonobo than of mammals or other animals).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some examples of psychology (about mammals) that may be of interest, are nowadays sensitive and may even surprise some (OCD, bipolar, dementia, autism, Alzheimer, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Ethology is the science that is responsible for the study of animal behavior, although it is not the only science that studies it, for example, in the studies of psychology there are 2 subjects in relation to animal behavior: biology that sometimes It is administered by an ethologist, and comparative psychology, the latter can receive different denominations in different countries. Professionals in charge of therapy and / or training vary widely depending on the country, some are: ethologists, veterinarians, trainers but there are many more).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;MOTOR DISORDERS, STEREOTYPIES AND OCD:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In many cases animals are found with what some people classify as motor behavior disorders, other considerations can lead to obsessive compulsive disorders. These problems may consist of a bird that can no longer fly, a dog that stores objects of a certain characteristic (without food function); or a dog that usually turns and turns on itself. These problems can be caused by restrictions on movement, for example not letting a bird fly or not respecting the bird's flight practice (there are others that are produced by the way of life and hormones). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of stereotypy at the beginning of the video, Chimpance raised with artificial mother without movement and children orphaned in institutions: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6sKo-OKAuE&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6sKo-OKAuE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other examples:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=umKQxJ_rlO0&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=umKQxJ_rlO0&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=seWlk8B-W6w&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=seWlk8B-W6w&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OCD: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195561691500413&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195561691500413&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ANXIETY AND POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is well known that dogs can develop post-traumatic stress following environmental catastrophes, for example it is well known that after floods and earthquakes many times dogs experience anxiety and flashbacks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course the animals can experience stress due to mistreatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interesting links: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cesarsway.com/dog-behavior/anxiety/post-traumatic-stress-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cesarsway.com/dog-behavior/anxiety/post-traumatic-stress-disorder&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cesarsway.com/dog-behavior/anxiety/veteran-dogs-suffering-from-ptsd&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cesarsway.com/dog-behavior/anxiety/veteran-dogs-suffering-from-ptsd&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://ivcjournal.com/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-in-dogs/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://ivcjournal.com/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-in-dogs/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;SYSTEMATIZED PROBLEMS (DISORDES) DEVELOPDEP BY LEARNING, great variety.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Attachment and sociability: See &lt;strong&gt;Harlow&lt;/strong&gt; experiments.&#xA;Aggressiveness. &lt;strong&gt;Today there is widespread debate about aggressive behavior resulting from mistreatment&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;Depression / defenselessness learned. No doubt the animals have emotions, in their case not usually considered depression but learned helplessness, see &lt;strong&gt;Seligman&lt;/strong&gt; experiments, also &lt;strong&gt;Seligman and Maier&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An article I have found about it and may be interesting as well as being related to the question, but many others may be found: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Isabelle_Veissier/publication/230851712_Animals&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Isabelle_Veissier/publication/230851712_Animals&lt;/a&gt;'_emotions_Studies_in_sheep_using_appraisal_theories/links/09e41505478be19677000000/Animals-emotions-Studies-in-sheep-using-appraisal-theories.pdf&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Of course&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=kc3CAgAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=animals+emotions&amp;amp;ots=s1J20NZ2u7&amp;amp;sig=Jc-MAGzmDwPMwb-WWVIlJ1z8TFo#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=animals%20emotions&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=kc3CAgAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=animals+emotions&amp;amp;ots=s1J20NZ2u7&amp;amp;sig=Jc-MAGzmDwPMwb-WWVIlJ1z8TFo#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=animals%20emotions&amp;amp;f=false&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ORGANIC DISORDERS, an incredible broad field, some examples:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patterson, P.H. (2009). Immune involvement in &lt;strong&gt;schizophrenia&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;autism&lt;/strong&gt;: etiology, pathology and animal models. Behav. Brain Res. 204, 313–321.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Müller, M.B. &amp;amp; Holsboer, F. (2006). Mice with mutations in the HPA-system as models for symptoms of &lt;strong&gt;depression&lt;/strong&gt;. Biol. Psychiatry 59, 1104–1115.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Götz, J. &amp;amp; Ittner, L.M. (2008) Animal models of &lt;strong&gt;Alzheimer's disease&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;frontotemporal dementia&lt;/strong&gt;. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 9, 532–544.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jamain, S. (2008). Reduced social interaction and ultrasonic communication in a mouse model of monogenic heritable &lt;strong&gt;autism&lt;/strong&gt;. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105, 1710–1715. Moy, S.S. &amp;amp; Nadler, J.J. (2008). Advances in behavioral genetics: mouse models of autism. Mol. Psychiatry 13, 4–26.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Einat, H. &amp;amp; Manji, H.K. (2006). Cellular plasticity cascades: genes-to-behavior pathways in animal models of &lt;strong&gt;bipolar disorder&lt;/strong&gt;. Biol. Psychiatry 59, 1160–1171 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-07-30T00:11:16.067" LastActivityDate="2017-07-30T00:11:16.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17820" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17826" CreationDate="2017-07-30T13:27:59.340" Score="12" ViewCount="1470" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaslighting&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;gaslighting&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (referring to abusive manipulation of the facts to confuse victims) is common in pop-psychology sources, and I have friends who report that their psychologists or psychiatrists use the term as some form of shorthand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I have looked in a couple of online psychology dictionaries, and they don't define the term. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have looked on this site, and it only appears once.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have looked on Google Scholar. While I can find &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt; references to the term - especially a &quot;seminal&quot; 1981 paper, &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/7465707&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Some clinical consequences of introjection: gaslighting&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, there don't appear to be &lt;em&gt;many&lt;/em&gt; papers referencing it, and I haven't the experience to evaluate whether they are fringe ideas or mainstream science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is gaslighting just pop psychology, or is the concept of gaslighting widely accepted in the cognitive sciences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16609" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T10:10:13.657" Title="Is &quot;gaslighting&quot; a mainstream concept in the cognitive sciences?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17824" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-30T23:21:54.753" Score="3" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have there been any studies that explore how much generalization across contexts occurs with fear conditioning?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;context&quot; that the animal thinks it is in can be observed through the &quot;map&quot; that the hippocampal place cell network is using at a point in time.  Different &quot;contexts&quot; have different &quot;maps&quot;.  This is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18687478&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;global remapping&lt;/a&gt;.  I might think that the conditioned fear response would only occur in situations for which there is no hippocampal remapping as compared to the original conditioned environment (i.e. the hippocampus is using the same &quot;map&quot; as the original conditioned environment).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there evidence supporting that assumption?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2017-08-01T16:22:26.583" LastActivityDate="2017-08-01T16:22:26.583" Title="Fear Conditioning and Hippocampal Remapping" Tags="&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;hippocampus&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17825" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-31T01:03:50.737" Score="15" ViewCount="5234" Body="&lt;p&gt;Online descriptions of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunning-Kruger effect&lt;/a&gt; are often accompanied by a &quot;mount stupid&quot; graphic similar to the below - from a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/head-in-the-cloud/201701/the-dunning-kruger-president&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today article&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XgbX3.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XgbX3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the research paper does not contain this graphic.  Here are some of the graphics from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10626367&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;original 1999 paper&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/77HVY.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/77HVY.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qXEs2.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qXEs2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These graphics bare little resemblance to the ones found online - having no &quot;mount stupid&quot; in evidence.  The online images vary widely in their presentation, so if there is a primary source, then it would be good to know which one is the correct graphic, or if they are all fake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NJkCp.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;][&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QbnWs.png&quot; alt=&quot;![enter image description here&quot;&gt;]&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NJkCp.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wgoc9.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wgoc9.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar images are used on some posts in this forum:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/17251/what-is-the-term-of-having-a-high-perceived-confidence-while-having-limited-know/17252&quot;&gt;What is the term of having a high perceived confidence while having limited knowledge?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16626/quantifying-the-dunning-kruger-effect&quot;&gt;Quantifying the Dunning-Kruger Effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-04-24T13:20:55.403" Title="What is the primary source of the &quot;mount stupid&quot; graphic?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17826" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17820" CreationDate="2017-07-31T13:57:27.710" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The wikipedia article you linked to regarding the term &lt;em&gt;Gaslighting&lt;/em&gt; has references to clinical and research literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3vLaAAAAMAAJ&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dorpat, (1996)&lt;/a&gt; talks about the incidences of Gaslighting conducted by therapists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In treatment, the psychotherapist is in a position of power. Often, this power is unintentionally abused. While trying to embody a compassionate concern for patients, therapists use accepted techniques that can inadvertently lead to control, indoctrination, and therapeutic failure. Contrary to the stated tradition and values of psychotherapy, they subtly coerce patients rather than respect and genuinely help them. The more gross kinds of patient abuse, deliberate ones such as sexual and financial exploitation, are expressly forbidden by professional organizations. However, there are no regulations discouraging the more covert forms of manipulation, which are not even considered exploitative by many clinicians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=PXvhE_AD084C&amp;amp;pg=PA129&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jacobson &amp;amp; Gottman, (1998)&lt;/a&gt; talks about wife batterers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;After their decade of research with more than 200 couples, the authors conclude that not all batterers are alike, nor is the progression of their violence always predictable. But they have found that batterers tend to fall into one of two categories, which they call &quot;Pit Bulls&quot; and &quot;Cobras&quot;. Pit Bulls, men whose emotions quickly boil over, are driven by deep insecurity and an unhealthy dependence on the mates whom they abuse. Pit Bulls also tend to become stalkers, unable to let go of relationships that have ended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cobras, on the other hand, are cool and methodical as they inflict pain and humiliation on their spouses or lovers (Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PXvhE_AD084C&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Books synopsis&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the book, it says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A tactic of emotional abuse that is common among Pit Bulls, but not Cobras, is the phenomenon known as &quot;gaslighting.&quot;  (The term comes from the film &lt;em&gt;Gaslight&lt;/em&gt;, in which Charles Boyer convinces Ingrid Bergman that she is going insane.)  We gave an example of this phenomenon with Dave and Judy, in which he blatantly denied that he was a batterer.  Gaslighting is a systematic attach on the wife's perception of reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term has been used in articles I have read within the last few months including one by &lt;a href=&quot;http://narcissisticbehavior.net/the-effects-of-gaslighting-in-narcissistic-victim-syndrome/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Christine Louis de Canonville (2017)&lt;/a&gt; who &lt;a href=&quot;http://narcissisticbehavior.net/about-me/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;has a B.A. (Hons.) degree in Psychology&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/here-there-and-everywhere/201701/are-gaslighters-aware-what-they-do&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sarkis (2017)&lt;/a&gt; within &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychologyToday&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.co.uk/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;search Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;, the site will return thousands of results including articles in therapy journals, so the concept of gaslighting &lt;strong&gt;is&lt;/strong&gt; widely accepted in the cognitive sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dorpat, T. L. (1996). &lt;em&gt;Gaslighting, the Double Whammy, Interrogation, and Other Methods of Covert Control in Psychotherapy and Psychoanalysis&lt;/em&gt;. New York:Jason Aronson&lt;br&gt;ISBN-10: 1-5682-1828-1&lt;br&gt;ISBN-13: 978-1-5682-1828-1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jacobson, N. S. &amp;amp; Gottman, J. M. (1998). &lt;em&gt;When Men Batter Women: New Insights into Ending Abusive Relationships&lt;/em&gt;. New York:Simon and Schuster&lt;br&gt;ISBN-10: 1-4165-5133-6&lt;br&gt;ISBN-13: 978-1-4165-5133-1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Louis de Canonville, C. (2017). &lt;em&gt;The Effects of Gaslighting on Victims of Narcissistic Abuse&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://narcissisticbehavior.net/the-effects-of-gaslighting-in-narcissistic-victim-syndrome/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://narcissisticbehavior.net/the-effects-of-gaslighting-in-narcissistic-victim-syndrome/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sarkis, S. (2017) &lt;em&gt;Are Gaslighters Aware of What They Do?&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at:&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/here-there-and-everywhere/201701/are-gaslighters-aware-what-they-do&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/here-there-and-everywhere/201701/are-gaslighters-aware-what-they-do&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-07-31T13:57:27.710" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17828" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-07-31T21:25:15.490" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say that I hypothesised that if I behave in a certain way (X) then the people I interact with will respond with behaviour (Y). How much evidence do I need to make such claim ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9450" LastActivityDate="2017-07-31T21:25:15.490" Title="How much evidence is needed to support a claim?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-01T14:20:39.927" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17829" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-01T01:30:58.913" Score="2" ViewCount="180" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Which meditation techniques are better at &quot;entraining(?)&quot; specifically desired brainwaves?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For each brainwave range, (Alpha, Theta, etc) - are certain meditative technique more effective?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I was recently told that &quot;Kundalini&quot; was most effective towards Theta Waves, and Mindfulness more effective towards Alpha-Waves...  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had found this, but does the research indicate that some meditative techniques are actually more effective at generating &quot;high amplitude oscillations&quot; for each brainwave range? ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4684838/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EEG Derived Neuronal Dynamics during Meditation: Progress and Challenges&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2.1.1. Zen Meditation&lt;/strong&gt; - &#xA;    Zen meditation, a type of Buddhist meditation, is characterized by increase in slow alpha power, reflecting more internalized attention, and fast theta power, reflecting enhanced mindfulness in frontal area [9, 13]. Long-term practitioners show alpha1 rise in frontal region and beta rise over occipital regions [14].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2.1.2. CHAN Meditation&lt;/strong&gt; - Researchers correlated occipital alpha wave rise during eye closed relaxation and frontal alpha wave (representing mindfulness) during CHAN meditation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2.2. Transcending Meditation (TM)&lt;/strong&gt; - Various physiological and neural effects in long-term Jacobson's Progressive Relaxation (PR) meditators (a classical method of relaxation), TM meditators, and group of beginners in PR were recorded [28]. Rare theta activity (5–7 Hz) was observed in all the three. ... Higher alpha1 and beta1 reflect automatic self-transcending and open monitoring, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;[9] Takahashi T., Murata T., Hamada T., et al. Changes in EEG and autonomic nervous activity during meditation and their association with personality traits. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Psychophysiology&lt;/em&gt;. 2005;55(2):199–207. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2004.07.004.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;[13] Chang K.-M., Lo P.-C. F-VEP and alpha-suppressed EEG-physiological evidence of inner-light perception during Zen meditation. &lt;em&gt;Biomedical Engineering: Applications, Basis and Communications&lt;/em&gt;. 2006;18(1):1–7. doi: 10.4015/s1016237206000026.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;[14] Huang H.-Y., Lo P.-C. EEG dynamics of experienced Zen meditation practitioners probed by complexity index and spectral measure. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Medical Engineering and Technology&lt;/em&gt;. 2009;33(4):314–321. doi: 10.1080/03091900802602677.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;[28] Warrenburg S., Pagano R. R., Woods M., Hlastala M. A comparison of somatic relaxation and EEG activity in classical progressive relaxation and transcendental meditation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Behavioral Medicine&lt;/em&gt;. 1980;3(1):73–93. doi: 10.1007/bf00844915.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Are there any other studies like this that speak to this question?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16619" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-08-01T16:16:15.413" LastActivityDate="2017-08-01T16:16:15.413" Title="Which Meditation Techniques Correlate Best with Certain Brain-Waves?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-02T19:42:10.233" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17833" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-01T15:03:06.140" Score="4" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the immediate effect of physical exercise on one's cognitive performance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most studies I have found a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201404/physical-activity-improves-cognitive-function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; regarding the long term effect of a lifestyle which includes exercise and the outcome has been found to be positive and counteracted degeneration. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have also found studies which examine the effect of short exercises (10-15 minutes, medium intensity) which has also found to have &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3768113/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;improved affective experience and enhanced cognitive processing&quot;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the effect of a long workout (over 1h) on the mental capabilites?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16629" LastEditorUserId="16629" LastEditDate="2017-08-01T18:37:49.570" LastActivityDate="2017-08-01T18:37:49.570" Title="Immediate effect of extensive exercise on cognitive performance" Tags="&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-08-02T19:42:30.547" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17835" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10325" CreationDate="2017-08-01T19:24:23.217" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Question Restatement:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that &lt;code&gt;&quot;have exactly the same structure&quot;&lt;/code&gt; is actually a reference to whether the underlying syllogisms are similar - in both research designs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Another assumption:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; Given the absence of a quote from Daniel Kahneman's, &quot;Thinking, Fast and Slow&quot; - the question seems to be hoping for answers that will make an inference as to the goal of the questions/research.  Otherwise, this would be moot as Kahneman probably explains in context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Possible Answer - Identifying Bias when Rational Responses aren't Possible:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both research designs exhibit the same &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;challenge to BOTH a respondent, and a researcher&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;What conclusions are they inclined to, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;(bias)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; - when it is impossible to respond reasonably?&quot; (E.G., like be faced with a false dilemma logical fallacy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first tests Respondent's behavior; the second tests Researcher's behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The Linda Problem - Measuring Respondents:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;In the first case&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, the question speaks about a &quot;philosopher&quot;, and an expectation that they would be &quot;objective&quot; in their role as a banker.  Regardless, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;a rationally minded respondent&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; would immediately notices the absence of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;an obvious third answer&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, &quot;None of the Above&quot;.  Obviously, &quot;Probability cannot be inferred.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; Because respondents feel a generous inclination to &quot;help&quot; the researchers - only a very small number of respondents are likely to protest the validity of the test.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The Dinnerware Case - Measuring Researchers:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;In the second case&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, the question is framed computationally, seeking a rational answer.   Regardless, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;a rationally minded researcher&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; immediately notices the absence of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;an obvious third explanation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, &quot;Set Theory&quot; ... Obviously, &quot;Cups&quot; rings &quot;dissonant&quot; and does not have as strong a connection as the others do.  So, the research design wrongfully disregards the primal valuation of &quot;belonging&quot; - which might have a higher valuation than &quot;market value&quot;, and even &quot;utility&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; Because researchers feel an obligation to make SOME inference - only a small portion might protest the validity of the test.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conclusion:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other-words, I feel that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;the similarity between the designs&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is not at all about &quot;averaging&quot; or &quot;valuation&quot; - but their similarity is due to the &quot;dilemma&quot; that both researchers AND respondents are faced with - when confronted with an irrationality:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How much does cognitive dissonance contribute to the even distribution of bias?  (The &quot;Data&quot; in the question suggests an inverse effect.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And, if there is no even distribution of bias - when a rational answer cannot reasonably be provided, (given the logical errors of the circumstance) - then what biases do people tend towards? (The &quot;Data&quot; in the question suggests a universal bias towards &quot;belonging, association&quot;, rather than rationality, personal values, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be very interesting to see the full implementation of this instrument - as it might inform political campaigns, (IMHO).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the data from the two questions here is actually correct - then it might be consistent with what we observe in politics, (and relationships, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16619" LastEditorUserId="16619" LastEditDate="2017-08-08T23:13:42.937" LastActivityDate="2017-08-08T23:13:42.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17836" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-01T22:06:30.597" Score="4" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;As long as the study focused on people at least 18, that's all I need. Also, the researcher's minimum requirement for 'considered suicide' must be that the person at least considered it as an option. However, his minimum requirement must not reach as high as 'attempted.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What percentage of adults (It can be an average, or it can be specifically elderly, 30s, ... etc.) have at some point in their lives considered suicide?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13074" LastEditorUserId="13074" LastEditDate="2017-08-03T01:08:00.963" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T01:08:00.963" Title="What percentage of the U.S. (Adult?) population has at some point considered suicide?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-08-08T12:59:38.497" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17840" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17842" CreationDate="2017-08-03T00:33:17.917" Score="7" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has psilocybin been used for treatment of anxiety disorder? I've mostly found it used in the treatment of depression in patients diagnosed with cancer (&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1002/cpt.557&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nichols et al. 2017&lt;/a&gt;) and patients not diagnosed with anything at all (&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Griffiths et al. 2006&lt;/a&gt;). Alternatively, how legitimate is it to generalize the results of the cancer patients to a chronic anxiety disorder patient?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nichols, D. E., Johnson, M. W., &amp;amp; Nichols, C. D. (2017). &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1002/cpt.557&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychedelics as medicines: an emerging new paradigm.&lt;/a&gt; Clinical Pharmacology &amp;amp; Therapeutics, 101(2), 209-219.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Griffiths, R. R., Richards, W. A., McCann, U., &amp;amp; Jesse, R. (2006). &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance.&lt;/a&gt; Psychopharmacology, 187(3), 268-283.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2020-09-19T21:46:16.387" LastActivityDate="2020-09-19T21:46:16.387" Title="Psilocybin for treatment of anxiety disorder" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17840" CreationDate="2017-08-03T01:41:57.740" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There has been some preliminary research in the 1960's. From &amp;quot;The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: implications for the treatment of mood disorders&amp;quot; by Vollenweider and Kometer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psycholytic therapy was introduced by Ronald Sandison and applied in&#xA;Europe at 18 treatment centres. In psycholytic therapy, low to&#xA;moderate doses of LSD (50–100 μg), psilocybin (10–15 mg) or,&#xA;sporadically, ketamine were used repeatedly as an adjunct in&#xA;psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy to accelerate the&#xA;therapeutic process by facilitating regression and the recollection&#xA;and release of emotionally loaded repressed memories, and by&#xA;increasing the transference reaction. A review of 42&#xA;studies reported impressive improvement rates in (mostly&#xA;treatment-resistant) patients with anxiety disorders (improvement in&#xA;70% of patients), depression (in 62% of patients), personality&#xA;disorders (in 53–61% of patients), sexual dysfunction (in 50% of&#xA;patients) and obsessive–compulsive disorders (in 42% of patients).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, the majority of these studies had serious&#xA;methodological flaws by contemporary standards. In particular, with&#xA;the absence of adequate control groups and follow-up measurements and&#xA;with vague criteria for therapeutic outcome, the studies did not&#xA;clearly establish whether it was the drug or the therapeutic&#xA;engagement that produced the reported beneficial effect. It was also&#xA;difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding potential long-term&#xA;efficacy. Nevertheless, the studies provide a conceptual framework for&#xA;the application of psychedelics, with the data suggesting that the&#xA;most promising indication for psychedelic use might be found in the&#xA;treatment of depression and anxiety disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T01:41:57.740" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17843" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-03T02:00:09.743" Score="4" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sleeping during the day might lead e.g. to vitamin D deficiency. But I am interested in what effects might night-sleep-deprivation have on cognitive faculties. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does sleeping during the day and absolutely not getting night sleep have an effect on working memory, long-term memory, intelligence level, processing speed, etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16640" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T10:03:00.657" Title="Does night-sleep-deprivation have any effect on cognitive performance?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17844" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11100" CreationDate="2017-08-03T02:04:47.367" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just a note to add, or summarise, the above. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, results vary from study to study, and more still patient to patient. The standard iq loss, or developmental deficit, is usually estimated at less than 10 points, which is clincally significant, but not necessarily life changing. Working memory is often effected. But of course the illness / disability is a complex enough entity to make drawing any conclusions on iq loss or cognitive impairment in adulthood, on an individual basis, moot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2017-08-03T02:19:02.370" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T02:19:02.370" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17845" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17843" CreationDate="2017-08-03T09:49:04.080" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-land-nod/201508/when-working-shifts-works-against-you&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;, yes it does have various symptoms including cognitive deficiencies that make us more prone to errors and less efficient :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Circadian rhythms biologically program us to stay awake during&#xA;  daylight hours and sleep at night. Shift work goes directly against&#xA;  what our bodies desire to do, and those that struggle with this may&#xA;  suffer from shift work sleep disorder (SWSD).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... symptoms may include headaches, weight gain, gastrointestinal&#xA;  issues, fatigue, attention and concentration issues, work absenteeism,&#xA;  irritability and depression. ... Worst of all, shift workers are at a&#xA;  significantly greater risk for vehicular accidents and mistakes at&#xA;  work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The ideal situation is to maintain a steady sleep-wake schedule seven&#xA;  days a week, allowing for 7-8 hours of sleep. Although difficult to&#xA;  follow, it can be extremely helpful to help reset circadian rhythms.&#xA;  It can be especially tough on days off, when desires to socialize in&#xA;  the daytime and maintain more “normal” sleep periods kick in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2904525/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Additonal reference&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2017-08-03T10:03:00.657" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T10:03:00.657" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17847" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17806" CreationDate="2017-08-03T15:26:24.810" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't call this reference authoritative, but after a bit of research the first article in &lt;a href=&quot;http://paranthropologyjournal.weebly.com/uploads/7/7/5/3/7753171/paranthropology_vol_3_no_2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; journal (originally published in the Journal of Parapsychology) introduces the term &quot;randomania&quot; as &quot;attributing chance probability to (apparently) related phenomenon.&quot; Note that this term is specifically defined in contrast to apophenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an aside, &lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.synchrosecrets.com/?p=19553&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; blog post discusses the history of the term apophenia (and potential modern misapplications of its current definition).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastActivityDate="2017-08-03T15:26:24.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17854" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-04T15:02:46.580" Score="5" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently started a course on &quot;Speed Reading&quot;, which aim is to read faster whilst holding the level of comprehension constant (so not to its detriment, but not aimed at improving comprehension either).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, for the case of reading, I imagine we can define a &lt;strong&gt;rate at which information is been given to the brain&lt;/strong&gt;. So, the faster you read (holding comprehension constant), the higher such rate is. Clearly, the aim of such training programs like &quot;speed reading&quot; is to move that rate up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there an upper limit to such rate, perhaps because of biological reasons?&lt;/strong&gt; Does it depends on the person? Can we say, for example, that it is biologically impossible to comprehend a text reading faster than 1,000 words per minute? Is there any evidence of such limit? This information would be useful to understand the scope of improvement possible on this issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16411" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T20:49:31.740" Title="Is there a limit on the rate at which incoming information can be comprehended?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17855" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-04T16:12:52.570" Score="3" ViewCount="412" Body="&lt;p&gt;The cortex is supposedly composed of semi uniform cortical columns that are interlinked. Many of the resources on cortical columns I found using a Google search do not discuss what a column computes (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, a high dimensional prediction) but rather only provide its basic structure (L4 connects to L2/3, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be very grateful if someone could direct me to resources discussing the &lt;strong&gt;computational roles&lt;/strong&gt; of a column.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16662" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-14T10:13:20.277" LastActivityDate="2017-08-14T10:20:20.467" Title="What is the computational role of the cortical column?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17856" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16131" CreationDate="2017-08-04T18:11:35.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can information in the media increase fear of something?&#xA;Yes of course, let's see what these learning processes are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Common processes employed by psychology in order to explain the development of anxiety, fear and phobias are the &lt;strong&gt;vicarious learning processes (modeling, observational learning and social learning)&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vicarious learning, although the terms observational learning and social learning are more commonly used:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These processes of learning have been well developed (&lt;strong&gt;Albert Bandura&lt;/strong&gt;, a Canadian psychologist, is recognized as the professional who most impulse these learning processes, his investigations are often misinterpreted since one of the most famous ones also dealt with violence, his investigations are also misinterpreted in their objectives, it must be said that their research always had clinical objectives) and are commonly used for different purposes in learning, here we refer specifically to learning processes developed by a third person (such as a person who sees something on TV ) about situations and events that happen to other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In relation to frequency these learning processes are developed as commonly as classical conditioning or instrumental learning and are commonly employed in explanations of phobias, since many people with significant clinical problems with phobias have never experienced a situation (a person can develop a phobia to fly without having ever experienced any negative experience, or related incident, aboard an airplane), that is, these learning processes are based on information that the person has obtained from the story of other people's experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course the increase or development of anxiety or fear (and others) is mediated by contructs or common causes in the study of psychology: estimates of possibility and frequency, locus of control, expectations (very specifically in phobia expectations about the control of object or phobic situation), and many others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When searching databases, it may be more productive to use the term phobia than fear:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/?term=vicarious+phobia&amp;amp;cmd=DetailsSearch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/?term=vicarious+phobia&amp;amp;cmd=DetailsSearch&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About possible neuroanatomic related structures:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2555428/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2555428/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4907690/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4907690/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may also be interested in social hypotheses and theories related to the media:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivation_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivation_theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-08-06T16:33:24.757" LastActivityDate="2017-08-06T16:33:24.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17857" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17854" CreationDate="2017-08-04T19:53:54.223" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have tried speed reading myself in the past. From the research papers I have read back then, it seemed like there is no basis or evidence to the claim that with practice, reading speed can increase to more than 600-700 words per minute without any loss of comprehension (Some of the most bizarre claims include 25,000 words per minute. I would have been more impressed if the person claiming it wasn't selling online courses about speed reading for large sums of money).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find the studies I found back then, but a meta-analysis by &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/stoken/rbtfl/0GSjhNaccRKTY/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Keith Rayner†, Elizabeth R. Schotter, Michael E. J. Masson, Mary C. Potter, Rebecca Treiman (2016)&lt;/a&gt; seems to show that reading pace is highly determined by language skills and an extensive vocabulary. They show that generally there is a trade off between pace and comprehension, and some of the claims for a very high reading pace were based on prior knowledge of the texts. However, mild improvements can be achieved with practice. This article looks extremely fascinating and I wish I had the time to read all of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt;: Only now do I realize how ironic my last remark was.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16664" LastEditorUserId="16664" LastEditDate="2017-10-05T20:49:31.740" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T20:49:31.740" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17858" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17887" CreationDate="2017-08-04T20:11:31.940" Score="1" ViewCount="7424" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is psychologically/mentally self harming yourself on purpose possible, where you look for things that trigger you (trigger your anxiety, stress or PTSD), not to desensitise yourself but to hurt yourself? Is there a word for it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16453" LastActivityDate="2017-08-08T14:12:12.990" Title="Is there a word or phrase that describes emotional self harm?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-29T19:06:55.643" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17865" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-05T20:52:56.530" Score="7" ViewCount="1233" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intuitively, I'd think that cognitive dissonance (CD) is one explanation of confirmation bias (CB), since if it's the case that most people believe &quot;I am right about most things&quot;, then admitting one is wrong about something is dissonant with that. Searching &quot;cognitive dissonance confirmation bias&quot; I found a ton of (almost all non-academic) places asserting something similar, but no concrete evidence linking the two. Moreover, I don't see anything about CD &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias#Explanations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; or in any of the various other places I've read about CB.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research that identifies a connection between the two and tests it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16570" LastEditorUserId="16570" LastEditDate="2019-06-17T23:00:14.300" LastActivityDate="2019-06-17T23:13:55.440" Title="What is the connection between cognitive dissonance and confirmation bias?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17866" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-06T03:55:35.693" Score="1" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was listening to a podcast entitled Very Bad Wizards, hosted by two university academics.  One of the hosts, namely David Pizarro who is a psychologist at Cornell made the claim that most psychological mechanisms have small effects.  I have heard this too mentioned by Daniel Lakens on the small likelihood of psychological effects being very large &gt; d =1.6.  That made me curious.  &lt;strong&gt;What are examples of interventions in Psychology that reliably induce long and large changes (large effects that last longer than ~3 months)?&lt;/strong&gt;  The only example that comes to mind are mood states like trait anxiety being changed nearly indefinitely through CBT with pretty big effects.  A little background, I was a Psychology major and researcher in undergrad.  Enjoy reading about meta research so I can go pretty technical. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11695" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-08-07T07:16:43.267" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T20:51:11.117" Title="Examples of interventions that yield large long term effect sizes in psychology" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17867" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19075" CreationDate="2017-08-06T09:04:40.033" Score="5" ViewCount="361" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I've heard many people say watching violent videos affect your behaviour. But I myself don't observe any change in me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So does it truly affect anyone and if yes how exactly?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the sites that indicate this are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/action/resources/research-in-action/protect.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Violence in the Media&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Psychologists Study Potential Harmful Effects - American Psychologigal Association&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.missouri.edu/segerti/capstone/Violent%20and%20Nonviolent%20Video%20Games.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Violent and nonviolent video games produce opposing effects on aggressive and&#xA;prosocial outcomes&lt;/a&gt; - Journal of Experimental Social Psychology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16678" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-02-05T12:12:04.453" LastActivityDate="2018-02-11T01:23:21.830" Title="Do violent videos and video games affect your behaviour?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17868" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-06T10:07:10.637" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are current trends in autistic treatment regarding hyper sensitivity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16679" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-08-07T14:56:57.640" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T14:56:57.640" Title="What are current trends in autistic treatment regarding hyper sensitivity?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2017-08-06T14:15:52.847" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17869" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-07T01:10:32.883" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not an anthropologist, but I'm struck by the fact that so many &quot;primitive&quot; societies have what are loosely called &quot;manhood ceremonies.&quot; They generally test one's endurance and often involve pain and even mutilation or disfigurement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's an interesting behavior because 1) it doesn't appear to be practiced by other species (that I'm aware of), and 2) it generally isn't practiced in modern society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a term for this type of behavior, and are there any theories to explain its origin? I suppose one could just argue that it's simply designed to separate the wheat from the chaff, enabling groups to select their best hunters, warriors, etc. I just wondered what else has been learned or theorized about manhood ceremonies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T01:10:32.883" Title="Manhood Ceremonies" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2017-08-09T23:04:28.657" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17870" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-07T01:57:03.580" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the technical term for resistance to change, especially in its more extreme forms (e.g. when it defies common sense).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a study of the fifty state flags conducted a few years ago concluded that Nebraska has the worst state flag. In plain English, it's ugly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Legislators and newspapers responded by launching efforts to create a new flag, but the public overwhelmingly rallied behind the existing flag.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The crux of the problem may just be the fact that Nebraskans are simply used to the current flag and don't want change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is psychology's term for that kind of behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T01:57:03.580" Title="Term for Resistance to Change" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-08T12:21:50.327" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17872" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-07T07:15:24.897" Score="2" ViewCount="467" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently finished reading &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/26618156-habits-of-a-happy-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Habits of a happy brain&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, which discusses the role of oxytocin, serotonin, endorphin, dopamine, and cortisol in seeking behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book argues that we evolved to direct ourselves towards things that would promote our survival, and each of these hormones has a role to play in either strengthening certain behaviors, or encouraging us to move on from certain behaviors - one of the ways this is done is &quot;Dopamine/Serotonin disappointment&quot; (I don't recall if it was also relevant for oxytocin), which lessens the reward - and seems to have evolved because it encouraged us to move on and try to do even better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the book makes no mention of passion*, or how it fits in into all these discoveries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I wonder, &lt;strong&gt;how is passion possible in light of these &quot;disappointments&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt; I'd imagine passion involves a significant feeling of reward. Is there another hormone involved, one that's less... disappointing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;strong&gt;how does passion develop into what it is?&lt;/strong&gt; I am a big believer in the claim (which also appears in the book) that we evolved to seek ways to survive, and that what makes us happy (or sad, or stressed) is perceived by us as helpful (or detrimental) to our survival. &lt;strong&gt;How does one connect something to the need for survival in such a way that gives him so much energy and continuously rewards him for doing it?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And, being practical as always,&#xA;How can I get me some of them passion?&#xA;(Don't worry, it's for a good cause)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Please note that I am specifically talking about passion towards a thing/hobby, as opposed to towards a partner. I don't know how much overlap there is, but I wouldn't go there before I delve into the (surely extensive) body of research into love.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5006" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-08-08T13:10:26.163" LastActivityDate="2017-08-08T13:10:26.163" Title="What causes passion, psychologically and chemically, and how does it last?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;&lt;reward&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-08T21:09:12.953" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17877" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18978" CreationDate="2017-08-07T08:21:16.023" Score="6" ViewCount="2554" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has any extensive research been done into what the most common causes of apathy are and are there any treatments with a highly reported success rate? If so, what are these?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For clarification of what apathy is, it is &lt;strong&gt;a state of desensitization&lt;/strong&gt;, where subjects seem to strongly lack any observable moods, and have severely dampened feelings and/or emotions. One well known side effect is that apathetic people often struggle to motivate themselves to perform tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(From wikipedia)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Apathy is a lack of feeling, emotion, interest, and concern. Apathy is a state of indifference, or the suppression of emotions such as concern, excitement, motivation, and/or passion. An apathetic individual has an absence of interest in or concern about emotional, social, spiritual, philosophical, and/or physical life and the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other questions specifically about apathy: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/3787/what-are-the-cognitive-and-neurological-bases-for-apathy&quot;&gt;What are the cognitive and neurological bases for apathy?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some research about pathological apathy I was able to find: &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/26/2/807/2367142/Individual-Differences-in-Premotor-Brain-Systems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/26/2/807/2367142/Individual-Differences-in-Premotor-Brain-Systems&lt;/a&gt; (here's also an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2015-11-13-brain-structure-may-be-root-apathy-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8222" LastEditorUserId="8222" LastEditDate="2017-08-10T11:17:58.657" LastActivityDate="2018-01-24T13:16:34.203" Title="What are the best known causes and treatments for apathy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="13" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17878" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17866" CreationDate="2017-08-07T08:32:49.460" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Skill acquisition:&lt;/strong&gt; If you take a novice on a task and get them to practice that task, performance will tend to improve. See the Power Law of Practice. In many cases that I've seen, the difference between between initial and final performance is similar to the standard deviation of individual differences at baseline. So I guess you could call that a d of around 1. Of course, the exact numbers will depend on the domain, but that is indicative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, you also get forgetting effects which in some sense reduce the effect of skill acquisition over time, but there is also an associated faster relearning effect. And the degree of forgetting is related to a range of factors. In particular, motor-learning seems to have less forgetting than learning related to declarative facts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T08:32:49.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17880" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-07T17:03:46.147" Score="0" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a relative diagnosis for someone who can't simply adapt to and/or use something that is already established?  This type of personality would also need to have their own idea to validate their selection/alternative for peer acceptance.  It could be either severe (I'm guessing this would be narcissistic personality disorder) or mild.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this common or categorized in some way?  And are there ways of dealing with this type of personality/behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16692" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T18:00:46.920" Title="Question about perceived stubborn behavior patterns" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-07T18:02:03.833" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17881" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17880" CreationDate="2017-08-07T18:00:46.920" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;As noted, this is a duplicate and was asked due to the complexity of wording my search terms in a way that related to what I outlined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Confirmation Bias&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16692" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T18:00:46.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17882" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17866" CreationDate="2017-08-07T20:51:11.117" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my optional subject Treatment in phobias:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the meta-analyzes of Ruhmland and Margraf in 2001, the pre-post effects of behavioral treatment on specific phobic measures ranged from 1.42 to 2.06 for the different treatments applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Effektivität psychologischer Therapien von spezifischer Phobie and Zwanggsstoerung: Meta Analyze auf Stoerungsebene (Efficacy of phychological treatments for specific phobia and obsessive compulsive disorsers). Verhaltenstherapie, 11, 14-26.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Powers and Emmelkamp found in 2008 an effect size of 1.05 for exposure techniques compared to waiting lists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Powers, M. and Emmelkamp, ​​P. (2008). Virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety disorders: The meta-analysus. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 561-569.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding anxiety and dental phobia, the effect size of behavioral treatment on control groups in self-reports of dental anxiety has been 1.79 and the size of the pre-post effect 2.25; The effects of cognitive therapy have been similar. As for dental care, the size of the effect has been 1.4; On average, 80% and 77% of the patients have made at least one visit to the dentist within 6 months and 4 years, respectively (anxiety and dental phobia) (Kvale, Berggren and Milgrom, 2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kvale, G., Berggren, U. and Milgrom, P. (2004). Dental fear in adults: A meta-analysis of behavioral interventions. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology, 32, 250-264.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T20:51:11.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17883" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17895" CreationDate="2017-08-07T22:13:39.087" Score="2" ViewCount="202" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you use dopamine increasing drugs (such as cocaine) for long time the brain down-regulates dopamine receptors.Then dopamine has less sites to bind, therefore not making the same effect as before, which decrease our happiness and mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand low dopamine levels can cause ADHD or depression.I wonder why our brains cannot do the reverse of it (up-regulate receptors) when our dopamine levels are low?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16694" LastActivityDate="2017-08-09T20:26:51.883" Title="Why brain can't get used to low dopamine levels?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-08-10T05:23:00.373" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17884" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7875" CreationDate="2017-08-07T23:25:51.513" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Okay here's the answer. What you are talking about doesn't have a name yet. There a many different types of intelligence and an IQ test only tests some of them. So you are right in the sense you can't really tell how &quot;smart&quot; someone is off of that. For the purposes of this discussion we will now refer to the word that doesn't really exist yet as &quot;smart or smartness&quot;. How do you know if someone is &quot;smarter&quot; than you? That's subjective all on it's own. I think you meant to say, how are the &quot;smartnesses&quot;(i know oh god bad english but i had to say it that way) of any two people different and either what process is behind our ability to &quot;tell&quot; if someone is smart or you want to know how can someone who is less smart than someone can tell? Well, if there is a big enough difference in IQ, most people can tell just by talking to a person. A long time ago I heard that if there is a difference of 30 IQ points then it becomes difficult to understand a person because of the difference in known vocab and daily use of that vocab. But there are many different ways of seeing if someone is smart or not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's boring so let's talk about why everyone is wrong about intelligence. I think you are more after that then anything else. So know that the only reason we have an IQ test, is to test for the difference in the standard deviations between the &quot;intelligence&quot; of children to see if they need help or advancement. 2 SDs below or above makes you different from everyone else and you help special needs in some aspect. That's an extremely crude way of explaining that all, but it works for the purposes of what I am trying to explain now. (That's 30 IQ points up or down from 100 by the way). For the most part, IQ tests for adults don't really tell us what we are trying to find out, they were designed for children. If you want to see if someone is actually intelligent across all aspects of adult &quot;smartnessess&quot;, you can't use an IQ test. Think of the IQ test being used for adults as a way of measuring how well they may do in school or a similar area. But if we want to really find out how &quot;smart&quot; adults are we do need all aspects of intelligence that we currently know. For example, ever heard of street smarts? Some people claim they have street smarts and they don't need a formal edu because of this and that's what makes them &quot;smart&quot; or smarter then everyone else. Street smarts can mean a million different things but lets assume it means skills that have been picked up only by &quot;living&quot; on the streets, AKA a low econ area with high crime or moderate crime in most cases. Not that you are self taught in all aspects of intelligence. So while &quot;street smarts&quot; could be an aspect of intelligence, not the full picture. Also someone with street smarts might just mean they are self taught in all aspect and they very well could be our definitions of smart. Remember that school is designed for the average person and it is not suited for people that stray too far from the average(in any aspect of &quot;smartness&quot; but in the case of school we can say IQ). A smart person will be smart regardless of a formal edu or not and so will a intellectually challenged or disabled person will always be that way(brain damage in their case doesn't go away). As long as the damage is physical and not psychological. Anyways, I personally don't think we have mapped out everything yet as far as our true intelligence goes because for the simple reason of we just haven't gotten to it yet. Unless you have an idea on how knowing your real adult IQ could help anyone besides helping find people with intellectual disabilities which need help(which the current test can already do), there is no application for it. Also it's been proven in the past that it's harmful for people to know how &quot;smart&quot; they really are.(look up army test alpha and beta i think, something like that), everyone overestimates their &quot;smartness:. I personally think it would be harmful to the public if they had that info. In the US that is. I dunno about other countries but they are probably the same in first world countries. I doubt anyone who has to worry about survival, worries about how smart they are. Well I hope that answered your question. If you want sources, I am lazy and there is enough info for you to check any claim i've made on google. You wanted the answer anyways so you do the leg work if you don't believe me. There's also my opinion but i;ve stated which of this is my opinion. The rest is from about 7 years of college in psychology and another 3 years or so of personal research in the area of psych. So...I could be an expert just based on all the hours I've spent in the field of psych. So the opinion of an expert in his field is probably good for his word on some of his opinions yes?&#xA;I mean no malicious in anything I say, I am just normally sarcastic, so no offense on anything if you have taken it that way. I meant none. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16695" LastActivityDate="2017-08-07T23:25:51.513" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17885" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12800" CreationDate="2017-08-07T23:47:35.810" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In rare cases, the stalked person may actually like the attention of the stalker. This may be hard to accept to stalked victims, and especially if you are a woman, because [male] stalkers can be dangerous and terrifying. Yet, it can happen to stalked men and women that they actually experience some sort of positive emotions from having a stalker, because they may feel liked, adored, or famous. It can even be a status symbol of importance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16695" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-06T07:46:53.243" LastActivityDate="2017-10-06T07:46:53.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17886" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17890" CreationDate="2017-08-08T00:38:20.683" Score="4" ViewCount="1778" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm having trouble understanding the difference between symbols and abstract thinking in Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory. Piaget says that in the preoperational stage, children 2-7 years old can think of things in terms of symbols, and that abstract thinking forms in the formal operational stage. I thought symbols are a part of abstract thinking, perhaps because symbols, to me, seem abstract. So, what does the theory mean when it refers to &quot;abstract thinking?&quot; Can someone give me a concrete example delineating the difference between the abstract thinking and symbolism parts in their respective stages? Much thanks! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16696" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T04:59:47.800" Title="What is the difference between Symbolism and Abstract thinking in Piaget's Theory?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17887" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17858" CreationDate="2017-08-08T14:12:12.990" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;When it comes to self-harm, there is not a lot of information available about the emotional form, but there is a lot about the physical forms of self-harm such as self-flagellation (as a punishment and not for religious rituals), cutting, burning etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/self-harm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the mental health charity, Mind&lt;/a&gt;, self-harm is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;when you hurt yourself as a way of dealing with very difficult feelings, painful memories or overwhelming situations and experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Self-injury/Pages/Introduction.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The NHS states&lt;/a&gt; that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-harm is when somebody intentionally damages or injures their body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-harm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia expands on this&lt;/a&gt; by stating&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-harm (SH), also known as self-injury, is defined as the intentional, direct injuring of body tissue, done without suicidal intentions.(&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10964-005-7262-z&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Laye-Gindhu &amp;amp; Schonert-Reichl, 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2006.08.002&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Klonsky, 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0002-9432.75.2.324&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Muehlenkamp, 2005&lt;/a&gt;) These terms are used in the more recent literature in an attempt to reach a more neutral terminology. The older literature, especially that which predates the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), almost exclusively refers to &lt;strong&gt;self-mutilation&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/2015/07-08/self-injury.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The APA states&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Also known as non-suicidal self-injury, or NSSI, the condition is classified in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (2013) as a &quot;new disorder in need of further study,&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The definition in Wikipedia and used by the NHS and the APA has generally been used, but it is becoming increasingly recognised that self-harm can take on the form of emotional harm to the self.  Emotional self-harm can be conscious or unconscious, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/enlightened-living/201304/self-blame-the-ultimate-emotional-abuse&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-blame&lt;/a&gt; comes into this category.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As &quot;itsrory&quot; said in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.7cups.com/qa-self-harm-19/is-self-harm-only-physical-or-can-you-harm-yourself-emotionally-as-well-1075/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;7 Cups of Tea&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-harm is often thought of as only physical (i.e., cutting, burning, etc.), but self-harm can also be emotional. Self-harm is just that, harming the self. Anything you do to intentionally make yourself hurt for reasons that are not socially acceptable, can be viewed as self-harm. Some emotional things people do that may be classified as self-harm are: staying in an emotionally-unstable relationship and purposefully doing things that you know may make you feel sad, upset, or depressed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I would add to the end of this quote is that you need to bear in mind that purposefully revisiting painful memories can come into this category, however if you are revisiting them in a therapeutic environment in order to deal with them, it is not emotional self-harm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is different between physical and emotional self-harm is that the physical, such as cutting and burning, is &lt;strong&gt;usually&lt;/strong&gt; employed for emotional release, and not necessarily to punish; whereas the emotional self-harm punishes the person committing it.  What makes this complicated is that exceptions to this include the fact that self-flagellation can be either punishment or emotional release, and revisiting painful memories can also be done for both.  For example, someone who is not feeling anything may deliberately make themselves &quot;feel&quot; by revisiting painful memories in order to release the emotions trapped inside.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only term I can come up with for emotional self-harm is &lt;strong&gt;self-&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dictionary.com/browse/deprecation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;deprecation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Klonsky, D. (2007), &quot;The functions of deliberate self-injury: A review of the evidence&quot;, Clinical Psychological Review, 27(2): pp. 226—239&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17014942&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;17014942&lt;/a&gt;, DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2006.08.002&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.cpr.2006.08.002&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Laye-Gindhu, A. &amp;amp; Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2005), &lt;em&gt;Nonsuicidal Self-Harm Among Community Adolescents: Understanding the &quot;Whats&quot; and &quot;Whys&quot; of Self-Harm&lt;/em&gt;, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(5): pp. 447—457&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10964-005-7262-z&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s10964-005-7262-z&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2005), &lt;em&gt;Self-Injurious Behavior as a Separate Clinical Syndrome&lt;/em&gt;, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75 (2): pp. 324—333&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15839768&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;15839768&lt;/a&gt;, doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0002-9432.75.2.324&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0002-9432.75.2.324&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-08-08T14:12:12.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17888" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17349" CreationDate="2017-08-08T14:58:08.500" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The VIE theory you mentioned can explain why some people don't give up their goals even if they to live under adverse conditions for a very long period of time, and the theory is very similar to a theory followed in Sociology and Psychology.  That is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_exchange_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social Exchange Theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the theory is generally referred to when talking about social interactions in relationships, it can also be related to the situations you are referring to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Social Exchange Theory&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic idea is that the social exchange process brings satisfaction when people receive fair returns for their expenditures. The major difference between social and economic exchange is the nature of the exchange between parties.  The social exchange perspective argues that people calculate the overall worth of a particular relationship by subtracting its costs from the rewards it provides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$Rewards$ $–$ $Costs = Worth$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the $Costs$ in the situation you are talking about is bigger than the benefits ($Rewards$), the $Worth$ has a negative value leading to the choice of not carrying out the task in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To use your Nelson Mandella example,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nelson Mandela spent 27 years in jail because he was an anti-apartheid revolutionary. Apparently, he never gave up his mission.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mandella &lt;strong&gt;perceived&lt;/strong&gt; that the possible positive $Rewards$ (end to apartheid) outweighed the $Costs$ (imprisonment), therefore the $Worth$ of his &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amherst.edu/campuslife/careers/amherst-careers-in/government-nonprofit/picareers/careers/social_activism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social activism&lt;/a&gt; was positive (greater than zero).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If Mandella saw the $Costs$ being greater than the $Rewards$, the $Worth$ would have been negative and he &lt;strong&gt;may&lt;/strong&gt; have chosen a different path, but then that is speculation.  The other point of note is that motivation towards social activism is generally towards improving the status quo within society, leading to positive $Rewards$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I have put forward is on Social Exchange Theory, however a possible alternative would be that he felt that change was vital and therefore the &lt;strong&gt;value of the fight and its goal&lt;/strong&gt; outweighed the $Costs$ (VIE Theory).  Maybe both theories were in play.  This again is open to speculation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social Exchange Theory was introduced in 1958 by the sociologist &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_C._Homans&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;George Homans&lt;/a&gt; with the publication of his work &quot;Social Behavior as Exchange&quot; (Cook &amp;amp; Rice, 2001).  Homans summarised the theory in 5 propositions (University of Amsterdam, n.d.):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The 1st Proposition - Success proposition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;When an individual is rewarded for their actions, they tend to repeat the action;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The 2nd Proposition - Stimulus proposition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;The more often a particular behaviour has resulted in a reward in the past, the more likely it is that a person will respond to it (possibly with reward); and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The 3rd Proposition - Value proposition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;If the expected result of a behavioural action is considered valuable to the individual, it is more likely for that behaviour to occur&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The 4th Proposition - Deprivation–satiation proposition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;The more often in the recent past a person has received the same reward, the less valuable any further unit of that reward becomes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The 5th Proposition – Aggression-approval proposition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;When the rewards of a social exchange are not as expected, a person will react emotionally, usually in an angry or aggravated manner. Those who receive more than they expect or do not receive anticipated punishment will be happy and will behave approvingly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cook, K. S. &amp;amp; Rice, E. R. W., 2001. Chapter 31: Exchange and Power - Issues of Structure and Agency. In: J. H. Turner, ed. Handbook of Sociological Theory. New York City: Springer Science &amp;amp; Business Media, LLC, pp. 699-719.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;University of Amsterdam, n.d. SocioSite: George C. Homans - General Propositions. [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sociosite.net/topics/texts/homans.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sociosite.net/topics/texts/homans.php&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 4 August 2016].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2017-08-12T14:04:41.667" LastActivityDate="2017-08-12T14:04:41.667" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17889" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17447" CreationDate="2017-08-08T16:27:45.390" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer to this question lies within &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/17211&quot;&gt;theories I covered in an answer to another question&lt;/a&gt;, developed by Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at the theories of life-span human development — Sigmund Freud's Drive Theory and Stages of Development, and Erik Erikson’s &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;9 life stages of man&lt;/a&gt; (Erikson &amp;amp; Erikson, 1998) — the theory you hypothesised comes from 2 Freudian stages called the Latency stage and Genital statge, and Erikson's industry vs inferiority stage and identity vs role confusion stage (which later also included a 3rd Erikson stage called intimacy vs isolation stage through splitting the identity vs role confusion stage in 2 parts).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These stages need to be &quot;resolved&quot; in order to move forward in life, and with Freud's Latency Stage or Erikson's industry vs inferiority stage, the child moves from extremely rigid attachments with their parents, directing his or her energies towards socially acceptable activities such as schooling, friendships, hobbies, etc. aiming for &lt;strong&gt;partial independence&lt;/strong&gt; from the parents; whilst Freud's Genital Stage or Erikson's identity vs role confusion stage and intimacy vs isolation stage, psychological detachment and &lt;strong&gt;full independence&lt;/strong&gt; from the parents is the aim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If these dependencies are not properly dealt with due to death or divorce and separations, is is not implausible to say that misogyny will develop in boys or girls in anger towards their mother or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misandry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;misandry&lt;/a&gt; will develop in boys or girls in anger towards their father.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References and Further Reading&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Erikson, E. H. &amp;amp; Erikson, J. M., 1998. The Life Cycle Completed. New York: W.W. Norton.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, P. H., 2010. Theories of developmental psychology. New York: Worth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roche, D., 2009. Mapping the Human Phenome. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://thewayitis.info/thewayitis/inhumandev/epigenetics/mapphenome/p71.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://thewayitis.info/thewayitis/inhumandev/epigenetics/mapphenome/p71.html&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 16 March 2017].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sigelman, C. K. &amp;amp; Rider, E. A., 2012. Life-Span Human Development. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud Museum London, n.d. Are Freud's Theories All About Sex?. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.freud.org.uk/education/topic/10567/subtopic/10571/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.freud.org.uk/education/topic/10567/subtopic/10571/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 16 March 2017]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further note on reading materials&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been told that a book called &lt;em&gt;Why Men Hate Women&lt;/em&gt; by Adam Jukes is a good book on the wider subject of &lt;strong&gt;misogyny&lt;/strong&gt;, but I haven't read it so I cannot attest to it's value.  There is a review on the book within &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/boys-will-be-misogynists-mens-hatred-of-women-begins-in-infancy-psychotherapist-adam-jukes-tells-1483437.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Independent (1993)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-08-08T16:27:45.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17890" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17886" CreationDate="2017-08-08T16:59:38.310" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Symbolism uses a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbol&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;symbol&lt;/a&gt; to represent an existing object, while &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.projectlearnet.org/tutorials/concrete_vs_abstract_thinking.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;abstract thinking&lt;/a&gt; can be thought of as considering things that don't actually exist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a rough example of each, consider representation as symbolism (this paper is the plane I'm on) and consider generalization as abstraction (what it means to be &quot;on&quot; something). For another, consider something (this blue line on a paper) that represents something else (this river), contrasted with considering the concepts of &quot;blue&quot; or &quot;line&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-08-08T17:05:02.540" LastActivityDate="2017-08-08T17:05:02.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17891" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17911" CreationDate="2017-08-08T17:03:28.853" Score="6" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;There has recently been some uproar over a &lt;a href=&quot;http://gizmodo.com/exclusive-heres-the-full-10-page-anti-diversity-screed-1797564320&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;document authored by a google engineer&lt;/a&gt; arguing that differences in outcomes between men and women are in part due to biological differences. Are his claims in this area scientifically supported?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His two broad claims seem to be &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1). Women on average prefer working with people rather than things as compared to men&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2). Women are more neurotic and prone to anxiety&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16703" LastEditorUserId="16703" LastEditDate="2017-08-11T02:18:53.523" LastActivityDate="2017-08-11T19:53:18.370" Title="Are the &quot;scientific&quot; points made in the James Damore document factually accurate?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17892" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17284" CreationDate="2017-08-08T17:17:25.990" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;In light of &lt;a href=&quot;https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/q/20019&quot;&gt;a recent question in MedicalSciences.SE&lt;/a&gt;, I thought I would update this answer to include some information from my answer there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) now affects one in 68 births in the United States and is the fastest growing neurodevelopmental disability worldwide (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5373490/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Edmiston, et al. 2017&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;em&gt;[free access paper with links to cited papers]&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alarmingly, for the majority of cases, the causes of ASD are largely unknown, but it is becoming increasingly accepted that ASD is no longer defined simply as a behavioral disorder, but rather as a highly complex and heterogeneous biological disorder (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5373490/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Edmiston, et al. 2017&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With information available, the genetic and environmental causes of Autism is open to speculation and interpretation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Autistic-spectrum-disorder/Pages/Causes.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NHS webpage on Autism&lt;/a&gt; states (Emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Most researchers believe&lt;/strong&gt; that certain genes a child inherits from their parents could make them more vulnerable to developing ASD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cases of ASD have been known to run in families&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, younger siblings of children with ASD can also develop the condition, and it's common for identical twins to both develop ASD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;No specific genes linked to ASD have been identified&lt;/strong&gt;, but it may be a presenting feature of some rare genetic syndromes, including Fragile X syndrome, Williams syndrome and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/angelman-syndrome/Pages/Introduction.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Angelman syndrome&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On environmental causes the NHS say that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Some researchers believe&lt;/strong&gt; that a person born with a genetic vulnerability to ASD only develops the condition if they're exposed to a specific environmental trigger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Possible triggers&lt;/strong&gt; include being born prematurely (before 35 weeks of pregnancy), or being exposed in the womb to alcohol or to certain medication, such as sodium valproate (sometimes used to treat epilepsy during pregnancy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;No conclusive evidence has been found&lt;/strong&gt; linking pollution or maternal infections in pregnancy with an increased risk of ASD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research Autism has some referenced information on &lt;a href=&quot;http://researchautism.net/autism/causes-of-autism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;leading research into the causes of Autism&lt;/a&gt; from the Medical Research Council, National Autistic Society and the Autism Society of America; and the crux of the matter from what is said here is that the causes are still being investigated and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is no known single cause for autism, but it is generally accepted that it is caused by abnormalities in brain structure or function&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The site also provides a &lt;a href=&quot;http://researchautism.net/autism/causes-of-autism/publications-on-causes-of-autism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of publications on the &lt;strong&gt;possible&lt;/strong&gt; causes of Autism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been research into autoimmune disorders causing ASD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5373490/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Edmiston, et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt; stated (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;there are likely multiple, biologically defined subgroups within the ASD spectrum&lt;/strong&gt;(3–7). Specifically, there is growing evidence that supports maternal immune dysfunction &lt;strong&gt;may&lt;/strong&gt; underlie the behavioral abnormalities observed &lt;strong&gt;in a subset of children affected with the disorder&lt;/strong&gt;(8). Several immunologic risk factors have been described including: genetic associations with immune-related genes(9–16), family history of autoimmune disease(15, 17–21), maternal inflammation and infection during pregnancy(22–27), and altered immune responses in the children, and are associated with increased impairments in core and associated features of ASD(28). More specific to this review, maternal anti-brain autoantibodies, which are thought to access the fetal compartment during gestation, have been identified as one risk factor for developing ASD and are proposed to contribute to early neurodevelopmental perturbations in the developing fetus(29–31).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Lord C, Risi S, Lambrecht L, Cook EH, Leventhal BL, DiLavore PC, et al. The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: a standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 2000;30:205–223.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Newschaffer CJ, Croen La, Daniels J, Giarelli E, Grether JK, Levy SE, et al. The epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders. Annual review of public health. 2007;28:235–258.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Snow AV, Lecavalier L, Houts C. The structure of the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised: diagnostic and phenotypic implications. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines. 2009;50:734–742.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Ousley O, Cermak T. Autism spectrum disorder: Defining dimensions and subgroups. Current Developmental Disorders Reports. 2013;1:20–28.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;McDougle CJ, Landino SM, Vahabzadeh A, O’Rourke J, Zurcher NR, Finger BC, et al. Toward an immune-mediated subtype of autism spectrum disorder. Brain Research. 2015;1617:72–92.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Onore C, Careaga M, Ashwood P. The role of immune dysfunction in the pathophysiology of autism. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2012;26:383–392.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Warren RP, Singh VK, Cole P, Odell JD, Pingree CB, Warren WL, et al. Increased frequency of the null allele at the complement C4b locus in autism. Clinical &amp;amp; Experimental Immunology. 1991;83:438–440.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Warren RP, Odell JD, Warren WL, Burger RA, Maciulis A, Daniels WW, et al. Strong association of the third hypervariable region of HLA-DRβ1 with autism. Journal of Neuroimmunology. 1996;67:97–102.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Torres AR, Sweeten TL, Cutler A, Bedke BJ, Fillmore M, Stubbs EG, et al. The association and linkage of the HLA-A2 class I allele with autism. Human immunology. 2006;67:346–351.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Campbell DB, Li C, Sutcliffe JS, Persico AM, Levitt P. Genetic evidence implicating multiple genes in the MET receptor tyrosine kinase pathway in autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research. 2008;1:159–168.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Thanseem I, Nakamura K, Miyachi T, Toyota T, Yamada S, Tsujii M, et al. Further evidence for the role of MET in autism susceptibility. Neuroscience Research. 2010;68:137–141.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Mostafa GA, Shehab AA. The link of C4B null allele to autism and to a family history of autoimmunity in Egyptian autistic children. Journal of Neuroimmunology. 2010;223:115–119.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Jung JY, Kohane IS, Wall DP. Identification of autoimmune gene signatures in autism. Translational psychiatry. 2011;1:e63–e63.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Torres AR, Westover JB, Gibbons C, Johnson RC, Ward DC. Activating killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) and their cognate HLA ligands are significantly increased in autism. Brain, behavior, and immunity. 2012;26:1122–1127.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Comi AM, Zimmerman AW, Frye VH, Law PA, Peeden JN. Familial Clustering of Autoimmune Disorders and Evaluation of Medical Risk Factors in Autism. Journal of Child Neurology. 1999;14:388–394.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Atladóttir HO, Pedersen MG, Thorsen P, Mortensen PB, Deleuran B, Eaton WW, et al. Association of family history of autoimmune diseases and autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2009;124:687–694.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Vinet É, Pineau CA, Clarke AE, Scott S, Fombonne É, Joseph L, et al. Increased Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorders in Children Born to Women With Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Results From a Large Population-Based Cohort. Arthritis &amp;amp; rheumatology (Hoboken, NJ) 2015;67:3201–3208.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Wu S, Ding Y, Wu F, Li R, Xie G, Hou J, et al. Family history of autoimmune diseases is associated with an increased risk of autism in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews. 2015;55:322–332.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Chen S-W, Zhong X-S, Jiang L-N, Zheng X-Y, Xiong Y-Q, Ma S-J, et al. Maternal autoimmune diseases and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Behavioural brain research. 2016;296:61–69.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Chess S. Autism in children with congenital rubella. Journal of autism and childhood schizophrenia. 1971;1:33–47.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Meyer U, Nyffeler M, Engler A, Urwyler A, Schedlowski M, Knuesel I, et al. The time of prenatal immune challenge determines the specificity of inflammation-mediated brain and behavioral pathology. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 2006;26:4752–4762.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Smith SEP, Li J, Garbett K, Mirnics K, Patterson PH. Maternal Immune Activation Alters Fetal Brain Development through Interleukin-6. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 2007;27:10695–10702.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Atladóttir HÓ, Thorsen P, Østergaard L, Schendel DE, Lemcke S, Abdallah M, et al. Maternal Infection Requiring Hospitalization During Pregnancy and Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2010;40:1423–1430.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Patterson PH. Maternal infection and immune involvement in autism. Trends in Molecular Medicine. 2011;17:389–394.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Garay PA, Hsiao EY, Patterson PH, McAllister AK. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity Maternal immune activation causes age- and region-specific changes in brain cytokines in offspring throughout development. 2012&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Ashwood P, Van de Water J. Is autism an autoimmune disease? Autoimmunity reviews. 2004;3:557–562.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Braunschweig D, Van de Water J. Maternal autoantibodies in autism. Archives of neurology. 2012;69:693–699.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Fox E, Amaral D, Van de Water J. Maternal and fetal antibrain antibodies in development and disease. Developmental Neurobiology. 2012;72:1327–1334.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Fox-Edmiston E, Van De Water J. Maternal Anti-Fetal Brain IgG Autoantibodies and Autism Spectrum Disorder: Current Knowledge and its Implications for Potential Therapeutics. CNS Drugs. 2015;29:715–724.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, they pointed out that Maternal autoantibody related (MAR) ASD:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;has been noted by numerous researchers describing the presence of maternal autoantibodies reactive to fetal brain proteins in a subset of mothers of children with ASD. Further, there is now an abundance of evidence supporting their deleterious role in neurodevelopment. For the most part, these studies have described similar experimental outcomes and, given the clinical and biological heterogeneity of ASD, there likely exists a complex relationship between the presence of maternal anti-fetal brain antibodies and developmental trajectory of exposed offspring. It is still unclear how and when these maternal autoantibodies arise, but studies currently underway may provide increased insight into their ontogeny.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edmiston, E., Ashwood, P., &amp;amp; Van de Water, J. (2017). Autoimmunity, autoantibodies, and autism spectrum disorder. &lt;em&gt;Biological psychiatry, 81&lt;/em&gt;(5), 383-390. Pubmed Central: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5373490/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC5373490&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-09-02T09:35:30.503" LastActivityDate="2019-09-02T09:35:30.503" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17893" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17058" CreationDate="2017-08-08T18:31:06.673" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is open to some amount of opinion as there can be differences due to education level of the person reading the material etc.  However, there was a study by the American military in order to make their technical manuals as easy to read as possible.  The study was started by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Flesch&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rudolf Flesch&lt;/a&gt; with his Reading Ease evaluation, known as the &lt;strong&gt;Flesch reading-ease score (FRES)&lt;/strong&gt; test, and Flesch later worked with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Peter_Kincaid&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;J. Peter Kincaid&lt;/a&gt; to develop the Grade Level evaluation for the United States Navy, known as the &lt;strong&gt;&quot;The Flesch–Kincaid&quot; (F–K) reading grade level&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flesch%E2%80%93Kincaid_readability_tests&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flesch–Kincaid readability test&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (Kincaid, et al. 1975)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using the total number of words, syllables and sentences in the text, the formula for the &lt;strong&gt;Flesch reading-ease score (FRES)&lt;/strong&gt; test is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$Score = 206.835 - 1.015 \left(\frac{total\;words}{total\;sentences}\right)-84.6\left(\frac{total\;syllables}{total\;words}\right)$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The readability tests used by schools is the F–K reading grade test.  The &quot;Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level Formula&quot; instead presents a score as a U.S. grade level, making it easier for teachers, parents, librarians, and others to judge the readability level of various books and texts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using the total number of words, syllables and sentences in the text, the &lt;strong&gt;Flesch–Kincaid (F-K) Grade Level Formula&lt;/strong&gt; is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$Grade = 0.39\left(\frac{total\;words}{total\;sentences}\right)+11.8\left(\frac{total\;syllables}{total\;words}\right)-15.59$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scores can be interpreted as shown in the following&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yF7Sw.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yF7Sw.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kincaid, J. P. &lt;em&gt;Derivation of New Readability Formulas (Automated Readability Index, Fog Count, and Flesch Reading Ease Formula)&lt;/em&gt; Memphis:Naval Air Station Memphis [US Navy Unclassified PDF]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a006655.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a006655.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2017-08-08T18:31:06.673" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17894" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-09T02:58:59.883" Score="7" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in studying possible depletion of orexin levels in the brains of some mice, and am wondering if anyone knows of a staining substance/technique for use on slices of fixed mouse brains that would highlight orexin-producing neurons of the hypothalamus such that their number/volume could be examined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Context&lt;/strong&gt; - &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orexin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Orexin&lt;/a&gt; is also known as hypocretin. It is a neuropeptide associated with sleep regulation that's produced primarily in the hypothalamus. It was originally discovered in rats and it's important to me because it is well-known that depleted orexin-producing neurons are connected to narcolepsy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orexin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tsujino &amp;amp; Sakurai, 2009&lt;/a&gt;). I'm part of a large lab studying other conditions that share some symptoms with narcolepsy, and am interested in looking at orexin-producing neurons in our animal models. I don't currently have access to means to use transgenic orexin knockout mice as are mentioned in the article by Tsujino &amp;amp; Sakurai (though if anyone's used them before I'd be interested to know for the future), but I do have means to stain, view, and photograph fixed brain slices from our existing animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I'm wondering if anyone is familiar with a substance/approach to determine the approximate amount or volume of intact orexin neurons of the hypothalamus in WT mice (for comparison between animals) using a staining technique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Tsujino, N., &amp;amp; Sakurai, T. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orexin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Orexin/hypocretin: a neuropeptide at the interface of sleep, energy homeostasis, and reward system.&lt;/a&gt; Pharmacological reviews, 61(2), 162-176.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15979" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-08-10T10:00:58.997" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T20:30:11.167" Title="How to stain for orexin neurons in mice?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17895" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17883" CreationDate="2017-08-09T20:26:51.883" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Look at it this way. When rain falls on a roof, the water runs into a gutter. Up to a point, that water can run down to the drainpipe. The gutter has caught all the water, and the system is in equilibrium.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your first example, the problem is too much water. The gutter overflows. The drain is accepting the same amount of water, but the gutter can't hold all the incoming water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the other example, the problem is not enough water. The gutter is sending it all to the drain, and the drain is taking it all away. There's less water coming out of the system because there's less coming into the system. Even if you made the gutter larger, you'd have the same throughput.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer the actual question, those receptors can only process as much as they get. If there's not enough dopamine coming in, the receptors can't make more out of nothing. They can't multiply the effect, only dampen what's there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16710" LastActivityDate="2017-08-09T20:26:51.883" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17896" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3787" CreationDate="2017-08-09T23:03:03.877" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming the original poster (now departed) was considering apathy as a distinct phenomena from depression, then current evidence points to the current neurological basis of apathy being connectivity in the pre-motor brain systems according to &quot;Individual Differences in Premotor Brain Systems Underlie Behavioral Apathy&quot; by Bonelle et al. (2016):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results demonstrate that behavioral apathy is associated with&#xA;  increased effort sensitivity as well as greater recruitment of neural&#xA;  systems involved in action anticipation: supplementary motor area&#xA;  (SMA) and cingulate motor zones. In addition, decreased structural and&#xA;  functional connectivity between anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and&#xA;  SMA were associated with increased behavioral apathy. These findings&#xA;  reveal that effort sensitivity and translation of intentions into&#xA;  actions might make a critical contribution to behavioral apathy. We&#xA;  propose a mechanism whereby inefficient communication between ACC and&#xA;  SMA might lead to increased physiological cost—and greater effort&#xA;  sensitivity—for action initiation in more apathetic people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the authors of the paper controlled for depression using questionnaires:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-reports of apathy traits were obtained using a modified, extended&#xA;  version of the original Lille Apathy Rating Scale (LARS-e), available&#xA;  online in Bonnelle et al. (2014) (see Supplementary Material for more&#xA;  details). The LARS-e uses subscales that allow assessment of apathy&#xA;  traits along several domains reflecting the distinct component of&#xA;  apathy (behavioral, cognitive, and emotional). We used the “Action&#xA;  Initiation” (AI) subscale of the LARS-e, which measures every-day&#xA;  productivity and initiative and is an index of behavioral apathy&#xA;  (Sockeel et al. 2006). This subscale was previously found specifically&#xA;  to relate to the willingness to engage in an effort response in order&#xA;  to obtain a reward on our paradigm (Bonnelle et al. 2014). In&#xA;  addition, to control for a potential confound of depression and&#xA;  anhedonia, we also used the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scales (DASS)&#xA;  (Lovibond and Lovibond 1995), a questionnaire developed in nonclinical&#xA;  populations to measure depression, and the Snaith–Hamilton Pleasure&#xA;  Scale (Snaith et al. 1995), which assesses anhedonia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors assessed patients according to their willingness to complete a task while stakes (a combination of expected reward and expected effort) were manipulated. They found a high correlation between sensitivity to effort and behavioural apathy as assessed via the questionnaires in the previous quote. They then examined connectivity via fMRI of the patients completing the task and determined certain areas were more connected in patients with lower behavioural apathy. Specifically, the pre-motor brain systems were better connected in non-apathetic individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's unclear what this means cognitively, but the authors hypothesize, based on other activation, that this: &quot;might be due to higher 'subjective experience' of effort cost in individuals who are more apathetic&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-08-09T23:03:03.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17901" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3787" CreationDate="2017-08-10T22:03:57.137" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If there’s an overarching cause for apathy, it’s probably pessimism&#xA;  about your future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolution-the-self/201604/the-curse-apathy-sources-and-solutions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Curse of Apathy&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/em&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this article also has lots to say about various medical/physiological causes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be interesting to know to what extent apathy is caused or enhanced by socio-political factors. For example, when I was a teacher, I learned that certain minorities didn't try hard in school because it's seen as a sign of &quot;being too white.&quot; One could argue that might be something other than apathy, but that kind of attitude and behavior certainly hits close to home.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what about the media that tell people &quot;Don't vote!&quot; and everything's hopeless?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Activist David Meslin argues that people often care, and that apathy&#xA;  is often the result of social systems actively obstructing engagement&#xA;  and involvement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Apathy&lt;/a&gt; (Wikipedia)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this spirit, it's worth noting that apathy isn't just a problem experienced by individuals. Much has been written about societal apathy, or &quot;apathy of the masses.&quot; of course, it's well known that the masses are heavily influenced by various forms of mind control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The world is a dangerous place to live; not because of the people who are evil, but because of the people who don't do anything about it.&quot; -- Albert Einstein&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastActivityDate="2017-08-10T22:03:57.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17903" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17922" CreationDate="2017-08-11T00:05:27.283" Score="5" ViewCount="2082" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Mel Robbin's five second rule&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mel Robbins is a motivational speaker who recently published a book (&lt;a href=&quot;https://paulminors.com/5-second-rule-mel-robbins-book-summary-pdf/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;summary&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lp7E973zozc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TEDx talk&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://melrobbins.com/5-second-rule-everyday-courage/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;description&lt;/a&gt;) dealing with a simple intervention for individuals who would like to start on certain tasks, but have a hard time to do so, challenged by phenomena like &lt;a href=&quot;http://michaelinzlicht.com/publications/articles-chapters/beyond-limited-resources-self-control-failure-as-the-product-of-shifting-priorities-pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;shifting priorities&lt;/a&gt; and hyperbolic discounting. The individuals &lt;strong&gt;count down from five to one, which supposedly will commit them to the task&lt;/strong&gt;, breaking the activation barrier to start the task by preventing them from overthinking potential fears, building momentum in the face of primal urges, and developing a cue for habits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Thoughts on potential challenges&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From personal/anecdotal experience, it seems like the effectiveness of the technique depends on what percentage of time the task had been actually commenced after the countdown before (i.e., what is the individualized success rate of the technique). The mind may feel afraid of counting down in the first place, knowing that it will jeopardize the effectiveness in the future if one potentially does not subsequently start the task after the countdown. Therefore one could be conditioned to shift the fear to the countdown rather than the activity itself.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Suppression&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;five second rule&lt;/em&gt; may be viewed as an act of momentary suppression (fear, laziness etc.). Wegner's &lt;em&gt;white bears&lt;/em&gt; show that people have a hard time suppressing thoughts. While the thought may generalize to some emotions (fear, laziness etc.) and while many mindfulness experiments will likely show a long-term benefit for acknowledging - not ignoring - emotions, what is addressed here is the thrust needed to overcome the initial negative feelings only.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;A note on the question asked&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was unable to find a works cited section in the redacted advertised versions of the book. I also tried to find papers citing her intervention, but I was unable to do so (perhaps since it was published this year, 2017).  Nevertheless, it seems likely that someone has investigated the effectiveness of similar interventions, since the notion of &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;don't think about it, just do it, since you'll never feel like it&#xA;  anyway&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;appears quite frequently in media and self-help forums. &#xA;There may not be any direct experimental results out there (yet). However, I'm interested in existing (indirect and tangential) work that shows that the method may have high effectiveness in practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Robbins, M. (2017). &lt;em&gt;The 5 Second Rule: Transform Your Life, Work, and Confidence with Everyday Courage.&lt;/em&gt; Simon and Schuster.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inzlicht, M., &amp;amp; Schmeichel, B. J. (2016). &lt;em&gt;Beyond limited resources: Self-control failure as the product of shifting priorities.&lt;/em&gt; The handbook of self-regulation.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wegner, D. M. (1989). &lt;em&gt;White bears and other unwanted thoughts: Suppression, obsession, and the psychology of mental control.&lt;/em&gt; Penguin Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="3379" LastEditDate="2017-08-13T19:02:21.383" LastActivityDate="2017-08-14T03:48:21.903" Title="Is there any direct or indirect empirical support for the effectiveness of Mel Robbins' five second rule?" Tags="&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;&lt;procrastination&gt;&lt;willpower&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17904" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-11T03:14:48.823" Score="1" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sorry for giving this such a vague title, as it is slightly difficult to explain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The debate about differences in behaviour (say between the genders) is normally characterised as nature vs. nurture - that is some kind of physical difference in the structure or chemicals in someones brain vs. society teaching people to act in that way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, there is another explanation that could be important in certain circumstances and the best word that I can think to describe this is situational - that is that the two genders may be completely different situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example the fact that it is harder for women to have children at an older age then it is for men. Let's suppose we observe a greater desire among women to settle down at any earlier age. As an alternative to the brain chemistry explanation or the social expectations, this difference in behaviour could also be explained as a &quot;situational&quot; difference - that is, the women are in a different situation then the men due to having a shorter period of time in which they can have children. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a formal term for this kind of explanation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="103" LastEditorUserId="20907" LastEditDate="2019-02-01T04:43:05.127" LastActivityDate="2019-02-01T04:43:05.127" Title="Is there a scientific term for &quot;situational&quot; differences in behaviour?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;gender&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17906" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18030" CreationDate="2017-08-11T08:56:26.363" Score="3" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand, neuropsychology gains most of its insights from the reconciliation of lesions of the brain and &lt;strong&gt;cognitive impairments&lt;/strong&gt;. Normal functioning (both of the brain and the mind) plays a less important role in neuropsychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Which role does &lt;strong&gt;cognitive high-performance&lt;/strong&gt; play in&#xA;  neuropsychology? Are there attempts to map cognitive high-performance processes to neurophysiological structures and processes? Some examples would be great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of cognitive high-performance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidetic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;eidetic memory&lt;/a&gt; (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Wiltshire&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stephen Wiltshire&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;memorization of pi (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akira_Haraguchi&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Akira Haraguchi&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_calculator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mental calculators&lt;/a&gt; (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gert_Mittring&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gert Mittring&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speedcubing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;speedcubing&lt;/a&gt; (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Etter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lucas Etter&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;advanced mathematics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;advanced chess playing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mere fact that for such high-performers there are possibly enlarged (and internally more strongly and probably more specifically connected) areas of the brain (and connections between them) is not what I am looking for. Especially for the more mathematical and intricate cases there must be more than that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main difference between &lt;em&gt;neuropsycholgy by impairment&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;neuropsychology by high-performance&lt;/em&gt; seems to be that in the former case you can more easily perform statistical studies (but also single-case studies), in the latter case you can only perform single-case studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-08-31T10:58:51.830" LastActivityDate="2017-09-01T13:41:21.203" Title="The role of high-performance in neuropsychology" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17911" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17891" CreationDate="2017-08-11T16:32:02.877" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few thoughts on those two pieces...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Do women prefer working with people?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results on this are certainly debated. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/08/why-women-prefer-working-together-and-why-men-prefer-working-alone/278888/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; article summarizes a study (linked in the article) that concludes &lt;em&gt;women prefer collaborative work more than men&lt;/em&gt; (though the reasons for this are not necessarily clear). Obviously, standard contextual warnings of interpretation apply. For me, the interesting thing discussed in the article is the potential reasons for these differences (such as male overconfidence). In any case, the answer seems to be &quot;yes, women (on average) prefer collaborative work&quot;. Also, at the risk of being mis-interpreted, I should add that &lt;em&gt;individuals do not necessarily follow statistical patterns employed by research to make these claims&lt;/em&gt;, and thus, this information should &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; be used to predict the behavior of a specific individual. It merely discusses certain people's behavior in a certain setting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Are women are more prone to anxiety?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know much about this, but the first hits on my search (from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://adaa.org/living-with-anxiety/women/facts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anxiety and Depression Association of America&lt;/a&gt; and a &lt;a href=&quot;http://theconversation.com/women-are-far-more-anxious-than-men-heres-the-science-60458&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Conversation&lt;/a&gt; article from a PhD candidate at Cambridge) both seem to support that women &lt;em&gt;are about twice as likely&lt;/em&gt; to have an anxiety disorder. Theories on the reasons for this seem to vary (and not yet be proven), but the first one in both places was difference in brain chemistry. As with the previous disclaimer, this information shouldn't be used to judge individuals. Also, relating to your question, note that this is not necessarily related to job tasks. For instance, the presence of an anxiety disorder does not mean that women are less fit than men to handle the anxiety and pressure of a particular position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately, it seems that there may be &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt; scientific support on these claims &lt;em&gt;on average&lt;/em&gt;, though: 1) they are not generally &quot;proven&quot; (and may not be able to be proven for the general population), and 2) the results cannot be used to make claims on an individual (this is true of almost all research). Final note is that, in my brief review, the &lt;em&gt;reasons&lt;/em&gt; for these phenomenon (if they exist) are primary theorized and not fully studied, casting further doubt upon conclusions for action based upon this research (e.g., women shouldn't be programmers).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-08-11T19:53:18.370" LastActivityDate="2017-08-11T19:53:18.370" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17914" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17886" CreationDate="2017-08-13T01:30:52.073" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe that when Piagetian theory refers to &lt;em&gt;abstract thinking&lt;/em&gt; in the formal operations stage it means abstraction of propositional form from propositional content, in the sense that the individual is capable of reasoning on the basis of the structure of propositions, regardless of the fact that he/she considers such propositions to be true or false. This is also called hypothetico-deductive reasoning. In previous developmental stages it is very difficult to persuade a child to deduce the consequences of a fact that he/she considers to be false. Abstraction in the general sense does occur in the course of all development, as illustrated by the concept of &lt;em&gt;reflective abstraction&lt;/em&gt;. The specific difference in the formal operations stage concerns the dissociation of propositional structure from propositional content, as mentioned above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more detail on this I'd recommend Piaget &amp;amp; Inhelder's book &lt;em&gt;the psychology of the child&lt;/em&gt;. For more specific detail concerning the formal operations stages there is Inhelder &amp;amp; Piaget's book &lt;em&gt;The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14412" LastActivityDate="2017-08-13T01:30:52.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17915" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16529" CreationDate="2017-08-13T04:29:23.580" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Indeed, research on this particular question is somewhat lacking, but what is available suggests that training does improve performance in tactile tests of the oblique effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231894444_Is_haptic_perception_continuous_with_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article published 1999&lt;/a&gt;, Gentaz &amp;amp; Rossetti lament:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, the effect of practice on the haptic oblique effect has&#xA;  not been yet studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An indication that this might soon be remedied was noted in  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41487973_Effect_of_selective_and_distributed_training_on_visual_identification_of_orientation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Junker-Tschopp, Gentaz &amp;amp; Viviani (2010)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We used bars instead of fuzzy stimuli (such as Gabor’s patches)&#xA;  because this study is part of a larger project in which we also tested&#xA;  learning effects in the haptic modality (blindfolded participants&#xA;  explored manually a rod with varying orientations).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It does not look like the results of this &quot;larger project&quot; were ever published.  However, they are reviewed in the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287234514_Psychology_of_touch_and_blindness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology of Touch and Blindness&lt;/a&gt; by Morton A. Heller and Edouard Gentaz (one of the authors of the above mentioned papers) published in 2013 (pp 56-57):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... Junker-Tschopp, Gentaz, and Viviani (2010) investigated the extent&#xA;  to which visual and haptic perception are penetrable by cognitive&#xA;  factors by assessing the effect of learning on the perception of&#xA;  orientations.  The &quot;oblique effect&quot; questions the nature of the&#xA;  linkages between perception and cognition. ... In the haptic modality,&#xA;  the results showed that practice resulted in a general dramatic&#xA;  improvement of orientation discriminabilty.   Furthermore, the&#xA;  anisotropic bias in orientation perception is actually suppressed by a&#xA;  global learning paradigm ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These results are in line with the idea that the persistence of the oblique effect across modalities indicates that it is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2373857/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;situated in higher cognitive processes&lt;/a&gt; (it is a top-down effect).  This theory is backed by evidence demonstrating the similarity of the effect across visual and tactile modalities, so the effect of training would be expected to be similar in both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, not everything is the same about the oblique effect across modalities, and authors note differences such as the role of gravity cues, memory constraints, reference frame, and while training does improve discrimination, it never eliminates the oblique effect, suggesting some bottom-up influence, and hence the potential for differences in results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a recent review, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo?journalid=201&amp;amp;doi=10.11648/j.pbs.20140306.16&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mier (2014)&lt;/a&gt; examines the influence of training and feedback on the haptic perception of parallelity, and comes to a more guarded conclusion suggesting a more significant role for bottom-up processes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18021751&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kappers and coworkers (2008)&lt;/a&gt; found that the deviations were only&#xA;  marginally affected by training and feedback. Without informing their&#xA;  participants about their biased performance, they studied the effects&#xA;  of visual training (seeing the correct orientations), haptic training&#xA;  (feeling the correct orientations) and combined visuo-haptic training&#xA;  (seeing and feeling the correct orientations). In addition they&#xA;  studied the effect of error feedback on the performance of the&#xA;  participants, again under visual, haptic and visual-haptic conditions.&#xA;  They showed that the robustness of the deviations persisted even after&#xA;  participants received haptic and/or visual feedback and training.&#xA;  Haptic or visual training did not significantly decrease the magnitude&#xA;  of the deviations, only combining both training modes resulted in a&#xA;  small but significant improvement. ... Although providing participants&#xA;  with haptic and visual feedback about their errors reduced the&#xA;  deviations, performance was still far from being veridical ... As the&#xA;  authors state, it might be that extension of the feedback phase would&#xA;  eventually lead to more veridical parallel matching.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Compared to the visual realm, where training has failed to eliminate the oblique effect, the effectiveness of training on the tactile oblique effect is unclear.  The first study suggests that training is more effective on the tactile oblique effect, and is capable of entirely eliminating it, while the second study suggests that the tactile effect is less amenable to training than in the visual modality.  Note however, that the second study refers specifically to haptic perception of parallelity, which is a specific sub-case of the oblique effect where exceptionally large oblique effects have been found, and therefore may not be applicable in general.  More research is needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-08-18T17:44:53.830" LastActivityDate="2017-08-18T17:44:53.830" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17918" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-13T10:53:36.807" Score="4" ViewCount="287" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for some advice on how to take heart rate (HR) and electro-dermal activity (EDA) data files collected via an Empatica e4 and look for correlation between them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My research project is looking at emotional responses to artworks in museums. I have individual participant data and what I am finding is that when visualised simply some emotional responses provoke EDA and other HR. What I would like to do is run an analysis to show whether there is a relationship between the two. I suspect not, and that this might be a pointless exercise, but it's something I want to have in my back pocket when questioned about these relationships and to use to defend my approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has any one else done this, and if so, what was the best way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16745" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-08-20T16:05:23.380" LastActivityDate="2017-09-07T15:05:07.637" Title="How to look for correlations between heart rate and eda" Tags="&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17921" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17855" CreationDate="2017-08-13T21:28:23.423" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/Ch12.S1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cortical columns&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are groups of neurons in the brain that are oriented perpendicularly to the cortical surface. Cells within a column respond to the same stimulus property (Fig. 1). For example, primary visual cortex columns extract small bars with a specific orientation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A single cortical column consists of six distinct layers of neurons. The upper three layers (I-III) are functionally distinct from the lower two layers (V-VI). The upper layers project out to other cortical columns, both sending and receiving signals, with layer III cells projecting to adjacent columns and layer II cells projecting to more distant parts of the cortex. Layers V-VI receive input from the upper layers of adjacent columns and send their signals to extracortical structures, such as the thalamus, and motor and sensory centers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Layer IV, which divides the column into an upper and lower part, receives its inputs from the thalamus and transmits signals to the rest of the column. The thalamus receives information from all parts of the cortex and subcortical areas. It works together with the cerebral cortex to create a feedback circuit by passing information from the infragranular cells of the cortex to the thalamus and then back to the layer IV cells of the cortex, with integration occuring both on in the thalamic and cortical centers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Information flow in the cortex is mediated by the action of the supragranular cells, while additional information from the external and internal environment is integrated by the thalamus and arrives in layer IV of the cortical columns.It contains thousands or even tens of thousands of neurons corresponding to a few tens of micrometers and up to 1-2 millimetres for larger aggregated columnar structures (sources: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~lngbrain/Farh/col.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rice University&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://phys.org/news/2016-03-brain-cortical-columns-brain-computer-interfaces.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phys.org news&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The presence of cortical columns is quite firmly established. However, the histological definition, as well as the function of various types of columns are dramatically different. Columns can be defined by cellular histological feautures, pattern of connectivity, myelin content, staining property, magnitude of gene expression, or functional properties. For example, in the primary visual cortex alone, there are ocular dominance columns, orientation columns, hypercolumns, and color columns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, there are columns as well as various minicolumns. The only connections between these diverse structures and concepts is that they refer to the vertical or radial columnar organization of its elements as opposed to the horizontal or laminar organization that is more explicit in histological preparations of the mature neocortex. Thus, the term &lt;strong&gt;cortical “column” is used in so many ways that it needs specific clarification of the specific context in which it is applied&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/105/34/12099.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Rakic, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even stronger assertions have been made, up until &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...the disappointing realization that the column may have no function...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569491/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Horton &amp;amp; Adams, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, and to home in to the computational processes within a column - some sources claim that columns are capable of memorizing relations and performing more complex operations than individual neurons. If a neuron is analogous to a logic gate, a cortical column may be viewed as a small subroutine. Columnar information processing may involve the column to be fully or partially activated. A fully activated column corresponds to an action, e.g. in a column in the motor area, layers V and VI may project to a sequence of neurons that contracts muscle fibers. A partially activated column corresponds to anticipation or searching, and waits for the lower levels to become active.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this view, a column can be looked at as an adaptive automaton. An automaton being a function that chooses an action based on its current state and its inputs. Cortical columns may thus represent a goal and the initial and intermediate states. When a goal is defined, activations spread from the goal column along the upper layers (I-III). The spreading activation from columnar goals and the subgoal process of problem solving is called a Call Tree, because of the way the subgoals are solved by a recursive search (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~lngbrain/Farh/col.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rice University&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xQ3I8.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xQ3I8.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;columns&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Barrel columns in rat vibrissal cortex. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kurzweilai.net/neuroscientists-find-cortical-columns-in-brain-not-uniform-challenging-large-scale-simulation-models&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kurzweil&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569491/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Horton &amp;amp; Adams, &lt;em&gt;Phil Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;360&lt;/strong&gt;(1456): 837–62&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/105/34/12099.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rakic, &lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;105&lt;/strong&gt;(34): 12099–100&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-14T10:20:20.467" LastActivityDate="2017-08-14T10:20:20.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17922" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17903" CreationDate="2017-08-14T03:48:21.903" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm having a difficult time finding anything on suppression aside from various bits on the white bears experiment you noted. Of particular note is this study, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20660892&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;I suppress, therefore I smoke&lt;/a&gt; detailing how suppression can help with immediate control. But, when they stopped suppressing a large rebound effect occurred. This would indicate that the five-second rule, at least for continued behavior change, might have some drawbacks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like her evidence for the five-second rule is based on the culmination of other individuals work. So in the absence of evidence to support, I'll work through her claims. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She takes psychological concepts and describes how the five-second rule either enhances or overcomes them. Mel Robbins cites five principles of how the five-second rule overcomes the 'tricks your brain plays on you', in this &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.success.com/videos/youtube/the-science-behind-the-5-second-rule&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Locus of Control &amp;amp; A Bias toward Action&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Behavioral Flexibility &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do good, Be good&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Golden Rule of Habits &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Activation Energy &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Locus of Control&lt;/strong&gt; is the extent to which you believe you have control over your life. A concept rather than evidence. Robbins argues that the five-second rule will help promote your locus of control by giving you a bias toward action, that is doing over thinking. Locus of control is assumed to be related to self-efficacy, the belief in your own abilities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Behavioral Flexibility&lt;/strong&gt; Robbins asserts that only recently scientists have discovered our brains continue to grow after age 25. The research I believe she's referring to is about maturity and adulthood. I'm not sure how this relates but apparently it's good news because we can use the five-second rule even after the age of 25.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do good, Be good&lt;/strong&gt; Is based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tk4bdpA6oz4&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Timothy Wilson's cognitive behavioral therapy&lt;/a&gt; work around 'narrating your story'. From what I understand, his work focuses on writing or talking with yourself to better understand your thoughts. He mentions briefly that one way to change your narrative is to act how you want then narrate from there. I have not found any evidence this is a 'proven technique' like Robbins states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Golden Rule of Habits&lt;/strong&gt; is the concept that the only way you can break a habit is by replacing it. Starting with the cue. Robbins asserts that the five-second rule becomes a cue and by extension, gets you in the habit of action. There's extensive research on habits that might support this and a bevy of similar techniques. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Activation Energy&lt;/strong&gt; is the starting point for 'flow' which is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thepositivepsychologypeople.com/flow-research/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;based in scientific research&lt;/a&gt;. You need something to trigger that minimal exertion to get start on your task. Robbins asserts that the five-second rule can be used as your activation energy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The final and probably biggest claim is that counting back from five activates the prefrontal cortex which can override what looks to be the amygdala. I can't find substantive evidence for this statement either way.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastActivityDate="2017-08-14T03:48:21.903" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17923" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-14T07:35:29.043" Score="3" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes rational thought seems to be bypassed in the brain for more automatic behaviour (shortcuts, instinct, intuition, heuristics):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/10865206-the-willpower-instinct?ac=1&amp;amp;from_search=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Willpower Instinct&lt;/a&gt; by Kelly McGonigal she writes that high stress can cause automatic &lt;em&gt;'fight-or-flight'&lt;/em&gt; behaviour, which causes the prefrontal cortex for rational thinking to be bypassed. Relaxing yourself can help in reversing the process and becoming more rational again. She calls it the 'stop-and-think' response.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/11468377-thinking-fast-and-slow?ac=1&amp;amp;from_search=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thinking Fast and Slow&lt;/a&gt; by Daniel Kahneman he writes that when someone feels confident that there are no threats facing him their system 2 (rational system) becomes lazy, &lt;em&gt;'cognitive ease'&lt;/em&gt; and starts to depend on heuristics too much.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, apparently mental shortcuts happen both in situations of high stress &lt;em&gt;(fight or flight)&lt;/em&gt; and in situations of confidence and relaxation &lt;em&gt;(cognitive ease)&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question: To what extent is it indeed &lt;strong&gt;factually&lt;/strong&gt; true that both too much relaxation and too much stress can cause mental shortcuts? Please elaborate...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16744" LastEditorUserId="16744" LastEditDate="2017-08-14T22:16:59.130" LastActivityDate="2017-08-14T22:16:59.130" Title="To what extent is it true that both too much stress and too much relaxation lead to mental shortcuts?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-14T20:34:16.527" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17918" CreationDate="2017-08-14T09:00:09.653" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HRV measures&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Measures of heart-rate variability (HRV) are primarily calculated with the Inter-beat interval (IBI), also referred to as RR-intervals or NN-intervals (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16076/what-is-the-difference-between-rr-intervals-and-nn-intervals-in-hrv-data&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;). Some variables in the time domain are :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;SDNN/SDANN&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;NN50 / pNN50&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;SDSD&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;rMSSD&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And many more (see also the &lt;a href=&quot;http://rhrv.r-forge.r-project.org/tutorial/tutorial.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rHRV tutorial&lt;/a&gt;, which also describes frequency-domain measures). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDA measures&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Electrodermal activity can be quantified by calculating the galvanic skin level (GSL) or the galvanic skin responses (GSR; see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16017/open-source-software-for-analyzing-electrodermal-activity&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://download.xuebalib.com/xuebalib.com.7601.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bouscein (2012)&lt;/a&gt;). &#xA;GSL is a slow drifting tonic level of conductivity, whereas GSR are spikes in activity after some events. You can quantify these values by determining the average amplitude of the GSL/GSR’s within a specific time period, or calculating the amount of GSR’s. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Correlations&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you have acquired the variables you can start calculating correlations. You do have to ensure that the time intervals of these variables are the same. E.g. the average values of each variable are calculated over five-second windows. In turn, each five-second period can be considered as a data point. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some results I found in a pilot-study I performed with two participants. Because of the little amount of data, not every correlation may be what you expect. pNN50, SDNN, LFHF, LF and HF are the HRV data. numGSR (amount of spikes), eda_p_filt (mean amplitude of GSR spikes) and eda_t (tonic skin activity) are the electrodermal-activity measures. The IWS is a subjective measure of workload (Kramer, Johnson and Zeilstra, 2016), &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CrPoR.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CrPoR.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://download.xuebalib.com/xuebalib.com.7601.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bouscein, W., Roth, W. T., Dawson, M. E., &amp;amp; Filion, D. L. (2012). Publication recommendations for electrodermal measurements. Psychophysiology, 49, 1017-1034.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rhrv.r-forge.r-project.org/tutorial/tutorial.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Garcıa, C. A., Otero, A., Vila, X., Méndez, A., Rodrıguez-Linares, L., &amp;amp; Lado, M. J. (2013). Getting started with RHRV.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0954409716683857?journalCode=pifa&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kramer, R., Johnson, A., &amp;amp; Zeilstra, M. P. (2016). The Integrated Workload Scale–Translation and validation of a subjective workload scale. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16076/what-is-the-difference-between-rr-intervals-and-nn-intervals-in-hrv-data&quot;&gt;What is the difference between RR-intervals and NN-intervals in HRV-data?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16017/open-source-software-for-analyzing-electrodermal-activity&quot;&gt;Open-source software for analyzing Electrodermal activity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-09-07T15:05:07.637" LastActivityDate="2017-09-07T15:05:07.637" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17926" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-14T16:18:39.220" Score="5" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;For various reasons, I have a crappy experimental design that I am forced to deal with. I present subjects with 20 yes/no trials, out of which 5 are no-signal catch trials and 15 are signal trials. Each signal presentation has a unique level with unequal spacing (as small as one in arbitrary units and as great as 5). All subjects run the trials in the same order (i.e., the 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; trial is always at signal level, and the 11&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and the 6&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; trial are always catch trials).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make things more complicated, at the population level, and likely at the individual level, the criterion is not stable such that the probability of saying yes on a no-signal trial depends on the catch trial number (the 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; catch trial has a probability of yes of about 0.05 and the 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; catch trial has a probability of yes of about 0.2). From this mess, I need a single number representing &lt;em&gt;threshold&lt;/em&gt;. I don't really care what the threshold corresponds to (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, the signal level leading to 50% yes, 50% correct, or a d' of 1 would all be fine). Ideally, the method would provide a confidence interval on the estimate at the individual subject level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was thinking of using a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cureffi.org/2015/09/20/the-math-behind-spearman-karber-analysis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spearman-Karber&lt;/a&gt; type approach, but the unequal step sizes seems problematic (along with the variable criteria). I also don't understand the history of Spearman-Karber (i.e., where was it first published and how it relates to &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1908.tb00176.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spearman 1908&lt;/a&gt;) and kind of hope that maybe in the past 100 years we have improved on things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-15T13:16:47.823" LastActivityDate="2017-08-15T13:22:05.530" Title="Calculate threshold from 'binary' yes/no data" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17927" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17459" CreationDate="2017-08-14T20:17:22.780" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Perception and imagination in the visual system use pretty much the same neural machinery, but in opposite directions - perception goes bottom-up, from the periphery to the central nervous system, while imagery uses the top-down approach, travelling from the higher associative cortices to the lower visual areas in the brain.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The distinction between perception and imagination has received a lot of attention in the visual sciences. For example, imagery in congenitally blind individuals versus late-blind individuals is an interesting distinction to make with far-reaching consequences in certain fields of research (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3111253/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kupers &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2001)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perception in the visual system goes from the periphery (retina), via the brainstem (LGN) to the striate cortex (V1) and higher extrastriate areas (V2-V7, see Fig. 1). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Content-related activation during imagery in visual extrastriate cortex is thought to be governed by “top-down” mechanisms in parietal and frontal cortex that mediate the retrieval of object representations from long-term memory &lt;a href=&quot;https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0896-6273(00)00168-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ishai &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2000)&lt;/a&gt;. Visual imagery and visual perception draw on most of the same neural machinery. However, albeit the vast majority of activated areas are activated during both conditions, the spatial overlap is neither complete nor uniform. The overlap was much more pronounced in frontal and parietal regions (higher visual areas) than in temporal and occipital regions (lower visual areas) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0926641004000709&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ganis &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2004)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't supply you with references on your following questions, but I wouldn't see any reason why the brain couldn't... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...switch between] perception and imagination states, or [carry imagination and perception] out simultaneously&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, perception and imagination are two separate processes sharing large parts of their pathways, but not being identical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When an area sends information to another one, how does it signal whether this was perceived or imagined information?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This distinction is quite clear and pronounced, as perception is bottom-up (retinae to extristriate areas), whereas imagery is top-down (extrastriate areas to striate areas in the cortex). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there less of a distinction between the two than I'm thinking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed they are pretty similar as discussed and referenced above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JATbj.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JATbj.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;visual system&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Visual system. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://au.pinterest.com/pin/527765650055756445/?lp=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shumpei Ogawa&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0926641004000709&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ganis &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;20&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 226-41&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0896-6273(00)00168-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ishai &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt; (2000); &lt;strong&gt;28&lt;/strong&gt;: 979–90&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3111253/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kupers &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;: 19&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-06T06:35:58.110" LastActivityDate="2018-07-06T06:35:58.110" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17928" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17380" CreationDate="2017-08-14T20:32:09.857" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Associative brain areas are not retinotopically organized. Only lower visual areas more upstream from these areas are organized in such a predictable, low-level way. Higher up, things get complicated and unpredictable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/book/b10.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual &lt;strong&gt;receptive fields&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://fourier.eng.hmc.edu/e180/lectures/v1/node3.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retinotopy&lt;/a&gt; are generally &lt;strong&gt;well-preserved in the periphery and subcortical areas&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-i-foundations/simple-anatomy-of-the-retina/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retina&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/eye-disorders/optic-nerve-disorders/overview-of-optic-nerve-disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;optic nerve&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/V1/lgn-V1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LGN in the brainstem&lt;/a&gt;) and lower cortical areas (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/V1/lgn-V1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;V1&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/home/George_Mather/Linked%20Pages/Physiol/Cortex.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;V2&lt;/a&gt;) (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006899374902959&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Palmer &amp;amp; Rosenquist (1974)&lt;/a&gt;). Typically, receptive fields are &lt;strong&gt;larger and less well-defined in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/home/George_Mather/Linked%20Pages/Physiol/Cortex.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;higher visual areas&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and are virtually absent in the &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/Ch12.S1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;associative cortices&lt;/a&gt;, where complex associations within and between modalities are made (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/11/12/1182/492324/Estimating-Receptive-Field-Size-from-fMRI-Data-in&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smith &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2011)&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-streams_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ventral stream&lt;/a&gt; in the visual pathway as an example (Fig. 1). Here, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11524/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;primary visual cortex (V1)&lt;/a&gt; shows simple representations of the retinal image with retinotopicity. However, along the way to the associative cortices, cells become responsive to progressively more complicated structures, including specific faces. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RqZ6d.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RqZ6d.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;ventral stream&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. The ventral ('what') stream of the visual system. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RqZ6d.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaiser &amp;amp; Haselhuhn (2017)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/book/b10.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaiser and Haselhuhn, &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;37&lt;/strong&gt;(8): 1965-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006899374902959&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Palmer &amp;amp; Rosenquist, &lt;em&gt;Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (1974); &lt;strong&gt;67&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 27-42&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/11/12/1182/492324/Estimating-Receptive-Field-Size-from-fMRI-Data-in&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smith &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Cerebral Cortex&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;(12): 1182–90&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-08T18:39:47.343" LastActivityDate="2018-07-08T18:39:47.343" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17929" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-15T03:51:07.730" Score="1" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a sensory input is perceived, one needs to process this input from the sensory end organ (sensation) up to the brain (perception). Does a more more complex neural network consume more time than a simple one? For example, does a house fly process visual images faster than a human being? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16753" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-15T09:24:24.403" LastActivityDate="2017-08-15T09:36:31.450" Title="Does increased neural complexity slows down brain operation speeds?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17932" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17929" CreationDate="2017-08-15T09:15:04.380" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Increasing neural complexity only increases processing times when neurons are serially linked together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Neuronal conductance of action potentials takes time, as neuronal signals travel at a speed of 0.5 to 150 m/s through the axon &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10921/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2001)&lt;/a&gt;. Furthermore, synaptic transmission between neurons takes time. A chemical synaptic transmission takes approximately 0.5 ms &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1357674/?page=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Katz &amp;amp; Miledi, 1965)&lt;/a&gt;. As a consequence, stringing neurons together increases processing time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if we look at the pain response, the reflex arc is very short, covering as little as two synapses (Fig. 1). The moment you touch a hot pan, you pretty much instantly draw away your hand. This process precedes even before you become consciously aware of the fact you touched something painful. This is because conscious awareness happens in the brain, involving a longer distance to be covered from your finger, and because it involves many more synapses including the brainstem, lower cortical areas and higher cortical areas (Fig. 2). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Processing time does not necessarily have to increase when processing complexity is increased, as long as the processing takes place in parallel. For example, multiple visual pathways in the human brain run in parallel, for example the 'what' and 'where' processing in the brain in the ventral and dorsal streams &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393215300956&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Van Polanen &amp;amp; Davare, 2016)&lt;/a&gt;, as depicted in Fig. 3.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/r9cIX.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/r9cIX.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;reflex arc&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Pain reflex arc. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://owlcation.com/stem/Here-is-what-happens-when-you-accidentally-touch-a-hot-pot&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Owlcation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/X8QAR.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/X8QAR.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;painpathway&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Conscious pain pathway. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neuwritewest.org/blog/pain-in-the-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuwritewest&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3ZoEl.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3ZoEl.png&quot; alt=&quot;ventral dorsal streams&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 3. Parallel processing of 'what' and 'where' information in the visual system. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/visual-spatial-processes-2471552/packs/4358707&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brainscape&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1357674/?page=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Katz &amp;amp; Miledi, &lt;em&gt;J Physiol&lt;/em&gt; (1965); &lt;strong&gt;181&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 656–70&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10921/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds), &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 2nd ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393215300956&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Van Polanen &amp;amp; Davare, &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychologia&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;79&lt;/strong&gt;: 186–91&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-15T09:36:31.450" LastActivityDate="2017-08-15T09:36:31.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17933" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17935" CreationDate="2017-08-15T11:45:43.797" Score="3" ViewCount="181" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ideasthesia &amp;quot;can be defined as a phenomenon in which activation of concepts produces phenomenal experience&amp;quot;. The examples vary from the Kiki/Bouba phenomenon applied to (possibly) everyone to actually seeing colors in graphemes like in synesthetic people. According to the theory, &amp;quot;there is a strong similarity between semantics and sensations&amp;quot;.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/H3t6E.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/H3t6E.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://ieet.org/archive/Figure5555.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ieet.org&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Figure&lt;/strong&gt;: Sensation vs. meaning balance shown for hypothetical pieces of entertainment (red), art (yellow) and science (white), as they are broken down into their components. Only an art piece is consistently located in the gray area.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that this theory is pretty young (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ideasthesia&amp;amp;dir=prev&amp;amp;action=history&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;first creation in Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; was in 2012 by presumably one avid contributor on the field, based on their username), I wonder if there are any review or critic on the theory. What challenges does it need to answer? Which theory is it incongruent with?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• Wikipedia: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideasthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ideathesia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• TED-Ed: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIF2tssedLI&amp;amp;feature=youtu.be&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ideasthesia: How do ideas feel? - Danko Nikolić&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• IEEE: Danko Nikolić, &lt;a href=&quot;https://archive.ieet.org/articles/nikolic20160222.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ideasthesia and Art&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2021-01-05T00:12:08.433" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T00:12:08.433" Title="What challenges the ideasthesia balance theory has to answer?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;&lt;ideation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17934" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17926" CreationDate="2017-08-15T13:11:26.690" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The biggest drawback of your procedure, also point of discussion &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/17147/at-what-time-in-a-psychophysical-test-are-catch-trials-preferably-presented/17154#17154&quot;&gt;previously here&lt;/a&gt; is the &lt;strong&gt;limited number of trials&lt;/strong&gt;. Apparently, you obtained binary data, namely one answer (yes/no) per trial, basically leaving you with a &lt;strong&gt;sparsely sampled, binary data set&lt;/strong&gt;. Binary data will &lt;strong&gt;not allow a curve fitting&lt;/strong&gt;, which is the conventional way to determine a threshold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make matters worse, there is a certain bias in the catch trials. But values anywhere below 25% false positive are, imo fine. So let's forget that issue, as it is likely the least of your problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, single-stimulus per trial data are referred to as the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychologydictionary.org/method-of-limits/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Method of Limits&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Basically what you would normally do to obtain a threshold with MoL is increase the level to see where the subjects starts perceiving the stimulus (&lt;strong&gt;YES/NO reversal&lt;/strong&gt;) and then flip the sequence and see where the person stops answering YES and hits NO. Generally, such a procedure is experimentally used to get a &lt;strong&gt;quick handle of a good starting point for the 'real deal' experiments&lt;/strong&gt;. Or, it is useful in clinical environments. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003341.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;clinical audiometric thresholds&lt;/a&gt; are often determined this way - quick and dirty, but accurate by about 5 dB or so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The response you get in this case is a so-called type 2 response, since you never can tell whether the subject was right or not. You just evaluate when the subject reports to perceive the stimulus. The problem with the method described here is that the S may become habituated (&lt;em&gt;I didn't perceive it now, likely I won't in the next trial&lt;/em&gt;) or the S makes the error of expectation (&lt;em&gt;It will probably become apparent now&lt;/em&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The only way in which I can see to analyze your data is &lt;strong&gt;determine the flipping point&lt;/strong&gt; and take that as a measure. You can then, perhaps take the average between the two intensities where the response flips to get an estimate of the 50% level, the gold standard of the threshold in yes/no tasks.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Likely you will not have an unambiguous flipping point in your data, but I'm sure you can think of something. Perhaps just take the lowest intensity where a flip occurred, or something along those lines.      &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alternatively, you may group your intensities into approximate levels and average out the responses to get values including rates between 0 and 100%. This procedure, however, is likely pretty much doomed to be shot to pieces by any referee or peer in your field, the more since your step sizes are unequal. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.elsevier.com/books/psychophysics/kingdom/978-0-12-407156-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kingdom &amp;amp; Prins. &lt;em&gt;Psychophysics&lt;/em&gt;. Elsevier 2010&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-15T13:22:05.530" LastActivityDate="2017-08-15T13:22:05.530" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17933" CreationDate="2017-08-15T13:52:57.387" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ideaesthesia does not comprise a theory or even a hypothesis. It is merely a term meaning 'sensing concepts' or 'perceiving meaning'.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;As Steven Jeuris also comments, &lt;em&gt;ideaesthesia&lt;/em&gt; is not a theory, it is simply a term. It is a combination of two Greek words, namely 'concept' or 'idea', and the other is 'sensation', or '&lt;em&gt;aisthesis&lt;/em&gt;'. In translation, ideaesthesia means sensing concepts or perceiving meaning (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/36309785/Synesthesia2009_Nikolic_Ideaesthesia.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1502807619&amp;amp;Signature=b%2FDNAan6jvg9iU3tPQWxAmo%2BY7I%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DIs_synaesthesia_actually_ideaesthesia_An.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Danko Nikolić&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It it used to denote phenomena as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/head-quarters/2016/oct/17/the-boubakiki-effect-how-do-we-link-shapes-to-sounds&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Kiki/Bouba&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; effect (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/imp/jcs/2013/00000020/F0020001/art00005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milan &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2013&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Emilio_Gomez3/publication/316657036_EXPANDING_KIKIBOUBA_EXPERIMENTAL_PARADIGM_TO_OTHER_CASES_OF_IDEAESTHESIA/links/590a0c46458515ebb4a51b29/EXPANDING-KIKI-BOUBA-EXPERIMENTAL-PARADIGM-TO-OTHER-CASES-OF-IDEAESTHESIA.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Martinez &amp;amp; Milan, 2015&lt;/a&gt;) and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/tnsci.2012.3.issue-1/s13380-012-0010-4/s13380-012-0010-4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Jürgens &amp;amp; Nikolić, 2012)&lt;/a&gt; as you write. These phenomena are associated with assigning shapes to names, and colors to graphemes (and the likes), respectively. As far as I can see, &lt;em&gt;ideaesthesia&lt;/em&gt; does not explain anything, it is not an observation, it is not a hypothesis, let alone a theory. It is a term used to group phenomena where people &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;associate seemingly unrelated concepts&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, for what it's worth, a cursory &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.nl/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=Ideaesthesia&amp;amp;btnG=&amp;amp;as_sdt=1%2C5&amp;amp;as_sdtp=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar search on '&lt;em&gt;ideaesthesia&lt;/em&gt;'&lt;/a&gt; yields few hits (82), and those hits that pop up, in part referenced here, point sometimes to questionable journals or to irrelevant papers. I would hence use the term cautiously as it doesn't seem to be widely used.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/tnsci.2012.3.issue-1/s13380-012-0010-4/s13380-012-0010-4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jürgens &amp;amp; Nikolić, &lt;em&gt;Translat Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 22-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Emilio_Gomez3/publication/316657036_EXPANDING_KIKIBOUBA_EXPERIMENTAL_PARADIGM_TO_OTHER_CASES_OF_IDEAESTHESIA/links/590a0c46458515ebb4a51b29/EXPANDING-KIKI-BOUBA-EXPERIMENTAL-PARADIGM-TO-OTHER-CASES-OF-IDEAESTHESIA.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Martinez &amp;amp; Milan, &lt;em&gt;V Int Conf Synesthesia: Science and Art&lt;/em&gt;. Alcalà la Real de Jaén. España. 16–19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; May 2015&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/imp/jcs/2013/00000020/F0020001/art00005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milan &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Consciousness Studies&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;20&lt;/strong&gt;(1-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-16T09:11:36.293" LastActivityDate="2017-08-16T09:11:36.293" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17936" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17356" CreationDate="2017-08-15T18:57:55.477" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Reported motor delays between brain activity and motor response are in the order of 6 - 9 ms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I found a study where the authors used deep brain stimulation electrodes implanted in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subthalamic_nucleus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;subthalamic nucleus&lt;/a&gt; (STN, Fig. 1) in patients with Parkinson's disease to activate motor tracts at a subcortical level. The STN is not part of the pyramidal motor system, but is thought to keep things in check. Stimulation in Parkinson's is used to control involuntary movements. In this study, the authors activated motor tracts at a subcortical level via the STN &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17151002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Costa &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2007)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors recorded facial, cervical and upper limb muscle responses bilaterally by means of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoked_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motor-evoked potentials&lt;/a&gt; (MEPs) in the trapezius, deltoid, biceps and thenar muscles as well as the orbicularis oculi, orbicularis oris, masseter and sternocleidomastoid muscles. They report mean latencies in the range &lt;strong&gt;6.0 - 9.1&lt;/strong&gt; ms. MEP latencies in the orbicularis oculi and orbicularis oris were significantly longer than in the masseter and sternocleidomastoid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your experiments, there was direct, voluntary activation of the motor pathway via the pyramidal system in (healthy?) subjects. In contrast, the cited study recorded latencies in Parkinson's sufferers after direct electrical activation of a subcortical structure. Hence, the pathway is different between the two studies and the latencies observed in the cited study may not apply fully to your data set. Nonetheless, it may help you to narrow the time window in which you might search for the brain activity relative to the motor output from the experimental glove.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PVF5W.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PVF5W.png&quot; alt=&quot;STN&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Overview of a brain slice showing the position of the STN. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subthalamic_nucleus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17151002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Costa &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Brain. (2007); &lt;strong&gt;130&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 245-55&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-15T19:06:48.273" LastActivityDate="2017-08-15T19:06:48.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17937" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17315" CreationDate="2017-08-15T19:30:48.840" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know about any MTM standards or benchmarks, but motor response latencies have been assessed in many studies. Importantly, auditory response latencies are smallest, then tactile followed by visual response times. This, because the auditory system is swift, while the visual system is sluggish by comparison (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ceejpublishing.com/Articles/0023.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Packman &amp;amp; Packman&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4456887/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jain &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2015)&lt;/a&gt; report a mean visual response latency of &lt;strong&gt;247 ms&lt;/strong&gt; and an auditory response latency of &lt;strong&gt;228 ms&lt;/strong&gt;. Another study reports approximately &lt;strong&gt;144&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;133 ms&lt;/strong&gt;, respectively. The lower values are probably because the authors chose the lowest reading as their final measurement &lt;a href=&quot;http://medind.nic.in/ice/t13/i6/icet13i6p214.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gavkare &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;. Other technical differences may also have yielded deviations. Importantly, stimulus intensity affects reaction time (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, louder auditory stimuli decrease reaction time) and other stimulus parameters do so as well (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ceejpublishing.com/Articles/0023.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Packman &amp;amp; Packman&lt;/a&gt;). Importantly, age is positively correlated with reaction time &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iaeng.org/publication/IMECS2012/IMECS2012_pp1449-1454.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ng &amp;amp; Chan, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A large data set where the authors stratified their subject pool in age groups as well as other parameters can be found in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iaeng.org/publication/IMECS2012/IMECS2012_pp1449-1454.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ng &amp;amp; Chan, 2012&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://medind.nic.in/ice/t13/i6/icet13i6p214.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gavkare &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;,, Indian Medical Gazette, June 2013&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4456887/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jain &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Int J Appl Basic Med Res&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;(2)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iaeng.org/publication/IMECS2012/IMECS2012_pp1449-1454.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ng &amp;amp; Chan, IMECS (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-08-15T19:30:48.840" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17938" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15683" CreationDate="2017-08-16T00:09:05.277" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have found CRJ-05 to work fine for rats.  It requires a bit of starting torque (~0.4N*cm), so may not work for mice.  It is designed for high frequency coax communication though.   The quote we received was ~$250. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.barlintimes.com/product/coax-rotary-joint/high-frequency-rotary-joint.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.barlintimes.com/product/coax-rotary-joint/high-frequency-rotary-joint.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2017-08-16T00:09:05.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17940" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17941" CreationDate="2017-08-17T02:38:31.197" Score="5" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://andrewvs.blogs.com/usu/files/the_spacing_effect.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dempster, F. N. (1988). The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of psychological research. American Psychologist, 43(8), 627&lt;/a&gt; explains that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One implication of this account is that anything that increases the&#xA;  likelihood that a  repetition will receive full processing, such as&#xA;  events that make it difficult to retrieve the results of prior&#xA;  encodings, should improve learning. Thus, this account helps to&#xA;  explain failures to obtain the spacing effect with paraphrased&#xA;  repetitions, that is, repetitions having a  changed surface structure&#xA;  (Dellarosa &amp;amp; Bourne, 1985; Glover &amp;amp; Corkill, 1987), and under lengthy&#xA;  lag conditions (Ausubel, 1966; English et al.,  1934; Gay, 1973; Lyon,&#xA;  1914; Peterson et al.,  1935; Sones &amp;amp; Stroud, 1940).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read this paragraph several times, but cannot understand what it means. The first sentence is very understandable, but I think paraphrasing also increases the likelihood that a repetition will receive full processing and makes it difficult to retrieve the results of prior encodings. If that is the case, then paraphrasing should improve learning. However, the next sentence says: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;this account helps to explain failures to obtain the spacing effect&#xA;  with paraphrased repetitions&quot;(!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11686" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-17T10:43:06.403" LastActivityDate="2017-08-17T14:28:42.853" Title="Why does paraphrasing result in failure to obtain the spacing effect?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17941" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17940" CreationDate="2017-08-17T10:27:41.840" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Paraphrasing indeed negates the spacing effect observed in learning, because it causes mass repetition to be as effective as spaced repetition. The confusion is that paraphrasing does not degrade spaced learning, instead it improves the effectiveness of learning through mass repetition up until the level of spaced repetition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Basically the question is why&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The spacing effect fails to occur with paraphrased repetitions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&amp;amp;sid=c6d2f14d-9e6a-420c-b7ab-1f086e55cb66%40sessionmgr4010&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krug &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (1990)&lt;/a&gt; define the spacing effect as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...[T]he phenomenon in which material encountered on two different occasions with a lapse of time between the encounters is remembered better than material studied for an equal amount of time on one occasion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your cited text from &lt;a href=&quot;http://andrewvs.blogs.com/usu/files/the_spacing_effect.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dempster, 1998)&lt;/a&gt; reads:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Thus, this account helps to explain failures to obtain the spacing effect with paraphrased repetitions, that is, repetitions having a changed surface structure (Dellarosa &amp;amp; Bourne, 1985; Glover &amp;amp; Corkill, 1987).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/paraphrase&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paraphrasing&lt;/a&gt; means &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Restating] a text, passage, or work giving the meaning in another form&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now why does this fail to induce the spacing effect? The author cites two papers. The first from &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758%2FBF03198324.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dellarosa &amp;amp; Bourne (1985)&lt;/a&gt; states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On the basis of previous research, it was assumed that memory for surface structure of sentences decays rapidly, and hence can contribute to initial identification of repetitions only at short spacings. Because this manipulation&#xA;  should hinder recognition of repetitions as repetitions, it was expected to induce full processing of massed repetitions, and thus facilitate recall of these items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this important? The authors believe that processing is key to the learning of verbal information. They claim that mass repetition, defined as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[M]aterial studied for an equal amount of time [as spaced repetition] on one occasion&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spaced repetition is believed to be more effective, because the information upon repeated exposures is all &lt;strong&gt;fully processed&lt;/strong&gt;, because it is not recognized by the brain anymore as a full repeat. In contrast, mass repetition leads to incomplete processing during repeated exposures, and hence is not processed fully anymore, because the brain recognizes it as an exact repeat of previously handles material &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758%2FBF03198324.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dellarosa &amp;amp; Bourne (1985)&lt;/a&gt;. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/surface-structure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;surface structure&lt;/a&gt; of sentences is defined as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[The] representation of a string of words or morphemes as they occur in a sentence, together with labels and brackets that represent syntactic structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Changing the surface structure disrupts the brain from recognizing it as an exact repeat. &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758%2FBF03198324.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dellarosa &amp;amp; Bourne (1985)&lt;/a&gt; hypothesized that changing the surface structure might prevent the brain from recognizing the same material as exact repeats of information in mass repetition, and thus that learning would become equally effective in mass repetitions. And indeed, their experiments showed that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When sentences were repeated verbatim [] or by the same speaker [], the typical spacing effect was obtained. However, when the surface structure or speaker changed at time of repetition, massed repetitions were recalled nearly as well, or as well as their spaced counterparts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subsequently, &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&amp;amp;sid=6df72eed-09f0-4220-a5b2-0d5a9987a2ac%40sessionmgr4007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Glover &amp;amp; Corkill (1987)&lt;/a&gt;, the second paper Dempster cites, extended these findings to written text, showing the same effect, namely that changing surface structure of texts negated the spacing effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your quote from &lt;a href=&quot;http://andrewvs.blogs.com/usu/files/the_spacing_effect.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dempster, 1998)&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The spacing effect fails to occur with paraphrased repetitions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;says the same thing, albeit in a condensed and indeed less clear form. It took me quite some detective work to solve this obscure sentence indeed!! Very nice question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://andrewvs.blogs.com/usu/files/the_spacing_effect.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dempster, &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist&lt;/em&gt; (1998); &lt;strong&gt;43&lt;/strong&gt;(8): 627-34&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&amp;amp;sid=6df72eed-09f0-4220-a5b2-0d5a9987a2ac%40sessionmgr4007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Glover &amp;amp; Corkill, J Educational Psychol (1987); &lt;strong&gt;79&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 198-19&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&amp;amp;sid=c6d2f14d-9e6a-420c-b7ab-1f086e55cb66%40sessionmgr4010&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krug &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;J Educational Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (1990); &lt;strong&gt;82&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 366-71&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-17T14:28:42.853" LastActivityDate="2017-08-17T14:28:42.853" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17943" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-17T18:06:08.640" Score="5" ViewCount="419" Body="&lt;p&gt;I currently have track files of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data generated from FSL's probtrackX tractography tool. What is the best software to visualize the streamlines from FSL in 3D? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16763" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-21T19:19:59.783" LastActivityDate="2019-08-02T14:10:40.533" Title="How can I visualize DTI tractography streamlines generated from FSL's probtrackX in 3D?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17947" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-19T02:33:42.857" Score="2" ViewCount="1312" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/creativity-way-life/201107/fireworks-or-brain-zaps&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain zaps&lt;/a&gt; are explained as an electrical buzz in the head and the symptoms occur while withdrawing slowly from an SSRI antidepressant medication. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to detect brain zaps by placing EEG electrodes on the locations where many people report the phenomenon to occur (neck, spine, arms, ears, eyes, lips)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16774" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-24T12:14:11.573" LastActivityDate="2017-08-24T12:16:26.087" Title="Can brain zaps be demonstrated by EEG?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17950" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3619" CreationDate="2017-08-19T17:42:08.667" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many, if not most people are guided in their romantic choices by so-called (psychological) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovemap&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;love maps&lt;/a&gt;. According to sexologist John Money, these are not inborn, but are typically formed at an early age (single digits, before puberty), and function like a &quot;native language,&quot; complete with its own &quot;accent.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By definition, an &quot;attractive&quot; person (to a given individual), will fit that person's love map. It's like being alone in a foreign country and meeting someone who is a &quot;country(wo)man, or at least speaks your language. The attraction could be &quot;instant.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have such a decided preference for a certain type of woman, formed out of early childhood experiences with nannies, before the age of seven or eight. The term I use for such women is &quot;M1A&quot; (Maiden, first preference, class A). Other people will have first (and second) preferences, perhaps of different classes, of maidens or men. They may be different from mine, but will also originate in their own love maps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastActivityDate="2017-08-19T17:42:08.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17952" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-20T00:55:58.333" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;Once upon a time, I felt an ant crawling on my hand. I couldn't feel it initially, until it reached my wrist. Then I tried to let the ant crawl on my skin; what I found was that I couldn't feel the ant when it crawled on my finger tips, but could start to feel it when it reached the back of my hand. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It reached maximum sensation when it reached the back of my wrist. I could completely feel the difference, even when closing my eye.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Thus, is the wrist denser in neurons than the finger tips?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is true, since I know there is a type of torture that use needle to pin the victim's finger tip to cause serious pain, but if finger tips are less sensitive than the wist, shouldn't this torture should pin on the wrist to even cause more pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched for the neuron density on our hand, but can't find a satisfactory answer, maybe I just search the wrong words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16779" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-08-20T14:19:49.893" LastActivityDate="2017-08-20T14:19:49.893" Title="Does the wrist have more neurons than the finger?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-08-20T19:56:06.110" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17953" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16531" CreationDate="2017-08-20T02:08:47.997" Score="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just came across the same section you referenced above in Kahneman's fascinating book. Like you, I was curious how to actually perform it. You are absolutely right, Add-1 (and Add-3 for that matter) seems relatively trivial if you can see the digits while performing the arithmetic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I searched for the author's actual study and found a more detailed description of it summarized in another book of his, &lt;em&gt;Attention and Effort&lt;/em&gt; (1973). See page 20, which reveals that the experiment was actually harder than described in &lt;em&gt;Thinking, Fast and Slow&lt;/em&gt; because the digits were spoken one at time (as opposed to visually seeing all 4 together), thus each digit had to remembered for several seconds until the arithmetic was required.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The primary task involved the transformation of a digit string: the subject heard a series of four digits (e.g., 3916) at a rate of one digit/second, and he was instructed to pause for a second, then to respond with a transform of that series (4027), adding 1 to each digit of the original set.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe a more accurate way to recreate the original experiment with index cards would be to write only 1 digit on each card.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16780" LastEditorUserId="16780" LastEditDate="2017-08-20T02:17:46.567" LastActivityDate="2017-08-20T02:17:46.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17954" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-20T14:19:40.013" Score="1" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking to pull EDA data from an Empatica e4 into R. I can find packages and code that will enable this in Python and Matlab (see this &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/16017/open-source-software-for-analyzing-electrodermal-activity&quot;&gt;previous thread&lt;/a&gt;) but not R. I'm much more familiar with R and if at all possible would like to be able to work in that environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16787" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-08-20T16:02:00.170" LastActivityDate="2017-08-20T16:02:00.170" Title="How to work with EDA data in R environment?" Tags="&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-22T07:50:42.783" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17957" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17943" CreationDate="2017-08-21T19:19:16.643" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I must say I am not an expert, but the following sources look helpful:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0075065&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gao &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2013)&lt;/a&gt; write &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The voxel value in the resulting dataset represents the number of&#xA;  streamline samples passing through this voxel times the expected&#xA;  length of these samples. The probabilistic-tractography-derived DDM&#xA;  was generated by keeping the values of those voxels located at the WGM&#xA;  interface and setting the remaining voxels to zero. Again, the DDMs&#xA;  were rendered on the 3D WGM interface in DTI space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://fsl.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fsl/fslwiki/FDT/UserGuide&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;FDT Userguide&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; discusses tractography and PROBTRACKX in &lt;a href=&quot;https://fsl.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fsl/fslwiki/FDT/UserGuide#Including_targets_for_tractography_-_rationale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;section 2.6.3&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18619589&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Catani &amp;amp; Thiebaut de Schotten (2008)&lt;/a&gt; discuss how diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) tractography can be used to virtually dissect white matter pathways in the living human brain; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://fsl.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fslcourse/lectures/fdt2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This presentation&lt;/a&gt; contains a lot of references;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/cgi-bin/webadmin?A2=fsl;cc032134.1304&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Specialist fora like this one&lt;/a&gt; may be of help.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18619589&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Catani &amp;amp; Thiebaut de Schotten, &lt;em&gt;Cortex&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;44&lt;/strong&gt;(8):1105-32&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0075065&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gao &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;PLoS ONE&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;(10): &lt;em&gt;e75065&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-08-21T19:19:16.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17958" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16608" CreationDate="2017-08-22T08:22:08.133" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Older image collection techniques like GRASS and FLASH are slower than EPI, but still fast enough to operate within the time span of the neurovascular delay.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The speed of fMRI processing is an important limitation to what processes can be investigated with this technique. Figure 1 shows a number of physiological processes along with a time line of a number of key fMRI strategy developments  (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brainmapping.org/MarkCohen/Papers/EPI-fMRI.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cohen&lt;/a&gt;). Figure 1 shows a steady decrease in MR imaging times in the first decade of its conception. The cerebral blood flow response used in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://radiopaedia.org/articles/bold-imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fMRI BOLD imaging&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; typically begins within ~500 ms and peaks 3–5 s after stimulus presentation &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4147398/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hilman 2014)&lt;/a&gt;. fMRI BOLD is based on the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Neurovascular_coupling&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurovascular coupling&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, referring to the relationship between local neural activity and subsequent changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF). Any imaging technique that utilizes the neurovascular coupling, notably fMRI BOLD, should be fast enough to operate withing= the time window of the neurovascular delay. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brainmapping.org/MarkCohen/Papers/EPI-fMRI.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Echo-planar imaging (EPI)&lt;/a&gt;, was already known by 1977, but was implemented not until 1990 for fMRI. EPI collects image data in 40 to 150 milliseconds and hence is more than sufficient to obtain a BOLD response. Earlier image collection techniques (gradient echo methods) such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mr-tip.com/serv1.php?type=db1&amp;amp;dbs=Fast%20Low%20Angle%20Shot&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fast Low Angle Shot (FLASH)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mr-tip.com/serv1.php?type=db1&amp;amp;dbs=Gradient%20Recalled%20Acquisition%20in%20Steady%20State&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gradient Recalled Acquisition in Steady State (GRASS)&lt;/a&gt; are much slower and need several hundreds of ms (FLASH) or several seconds (GRAS) to obtain an image. Nonetheless, these processing times are still sufficient to obtain a cerebral blood flow response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tXn9q.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tXn9q.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Phys events&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZUweC.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZUweC.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Duration of various physiological processes (top) and development of imaging techniques and their image collection times (bottom). The neurovascular peak delay (around 8 sec as depicted here) has a time window sufficiently long to be recorded by GRAS, TurboFLASH and EPI have processing times within that time window and can theoretically be used for fMRI. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brainmapping.org/MarkCohen/Papers/EPI-fMRI.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cohen&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4147398/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hilman, &lt;em&gt;Annu Rev Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;37&lt;/strong&gt;: 161–81&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-28T09:46:02.363" LastActivityDate="2017-08-28T09:46:02.363" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17959" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17973" CreationDate="2017-08-22T09:51:26.353" Score="3" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;There seems to be a common view in programming / software engineering:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“because it’s boring, it’s very easy to make errors”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then the solution to this is often to introduce some level(s) of abstraction to avoid what is classed as boring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the evidence to justify this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The quote is from lecturer of a Haskell course I am taking right now, &lt;a href=&quot;https://afp-2017.github.io/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://afp-2017.github.io/index.html&lt;/a&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quick Google reveals similar statements, such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Repetition easily induces mistakes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;from &quot;Secure Development for Mobile Apps: How to Design and Code Secure Mobile Applications with PHP and JavaScript&quot; by J.D. Glaser&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; I have heard similar statements from professional software engineers, relating to justifying more levels of abstraction in code. However, I am unable to think of specific other instances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5025" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-23T19:10:53.110" LastActivityDate="2017-08-23T23:04:05.777" Title="Is there evidence for “because it’s boring, it’s very easy to make errors”" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;human-error&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17960" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17813" CreationDate="2017-08-22T11:01:53.807" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Paraphrenia is a late-onset mental disorder similar to schizophrenia in that it features the positive symptoms of the disease, such as delusions and/or hallucinations, but lacks the negative symptoms, such as the deterioration of intellect or personality. It seems to be an outdated term (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/encyclopedia/paraphrenia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Central&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can anyone find a well-focused and detailed experimental review or trial?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found a few, albeit all somewhat dated: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10097832&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ravindran &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (1999)&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mdedge.com/currentpsychiatry/article/59680/schizophrenia-other-psychotic-disorders/late-onset-schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lubman &amp;amp; Castle (2002)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1479-8301.2002.tb00029.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sato &amp;amp; Idha, (2002)&lt;/a&gt;. I can recommend to see whether these articles are cited in papers published on a later date if you prefer more recent literature.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do psychology / psychiatry associations claim it?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Difficult question. The International Late-Onset Schizophrenia Group recognizes the disorder’s late-onset version as “very late-onset schizophrenia-like psychosis &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.2.172&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Howard &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2000)&lt;/a&gt;. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CCI&lt;/a&gt; in Australia describes it. Smaller, more isolated institutions seem to recognize it, for instance, the Cardif &amp;amp; Vale Action for Mental Health at least acknowledges its existence. As you said, it appeared not in the DSM-IV and V manuals. Instead, more recently paraphrenia has been classified as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;very late-onset schizophrenia-like psychosis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patients who present these particular symptoms are generally diagnosed with a variety of other illnesses, including atypical psychosis, schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder or persistent persecutory state (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/encyclopedia/paraphrenia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Central&lt;/a&gt;). I am sure when you search under this term you will end up with substantial amounts of resources, including for example the DSM-V manual, where it is included, albeit quite vaguely defined according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4562208/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sachdev &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2015)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Manuals that address it in diagnosis or didactically?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under the more popular name late-onset psychosis, you can find its diagnostic characteristics in the DSM-V manual as stated above, in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/docs/Psychosis%20Manual.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Psychosis Manual&lt;/a&gt; from Smith &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., in this &lt;a href=&quot;https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/11306/1/fulltext.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Master's thesis&lt;/a&gt;, among hosts of other sources.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.2.172&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Howard &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Am J Psychiatry (2000); &lt;strong&gt;157&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 172-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mdedge.com/currentpsychiatry/article/59680/schizophrenia-other-psychotic-disorders/late-onset-schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lubman &amp;amp; Castle, &lt;em&gt;Current Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2002); &lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;(12): 35-44&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/11306/1/fulltext.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MacDougall, Master's thesis (2011), McMaster University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10097832&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ravindran &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Can J Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (1999); &lt;strong&gt;44&lt;/strong&gt;(2):133-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4562208/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sachdev &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Harv Rev Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;23&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 320–8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1479-8301.2002.tb00029.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sato &amp;amp; Idha, Psychogeriatrics (2002); &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 20–5&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-22T22:06:41.370" LastActivityDate="2017-08-22T22:06:41.370" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17961" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17962" CreationDate="2017-08-22T15:06:04.537" Score="3" ViewCount="1035" Body="&lt;p&gt;When Donald Trump speaks in front of a crowd, he often puts his hand at shoulder level, usually far from it, and lets his palm face the crowd and pinches his thumb and index together while either closing the other fingers or keeping them all straight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does that gesture mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SE9IW.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SE9IW.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11157" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-24T20:31:20.873" LastActivityDate="2020-04-26T18:38:28.340" Title="What is the meaning of Trump's 'thumb-and-index-pinch' when he speaks?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17962" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17961" CreationDate="2017-08-22T15:28:13.060" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The 'OK pinch' (Fig. 1) expresses precision and control. It stresses particular phrases and shows commitment to his words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In an interview with Psychology professor &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Beattie&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Geoffrey Beattie&lt;/a&gt;, communication specialist &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.alanstevens.com.au/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alan Stevens&lt;/a&gt; addressed this point on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.euronews.com/2016/08/25/what-does-donald-trumps-body-language-say-about-him&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Euro News&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/k5fuZ.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/k5fuZ.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;EuroNews on Trump&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.euronews.com/2016/08/25/what-does-donald-trumps-body-language-say-about-him&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Euro News&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...This is probably Trump’s most well-recognized gesture – the &lt;strong&gt;OK&#xA;  pinch between the thumb and forefinger&lt;/strong&gt;. [It] helps him show &lt;strong&gt;precision&#xA;  and control&lt;/strong&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These batonic [&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.yourdictionary.com/batonic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Not representing anything specific&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;] movements are stressing those bits of the message that he sees as important [...]. In some sense it’s showing commitment to what he’s saying[,] but what he’s also doing is adding an extra layer of subconscious meaning.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/egbc2.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/egbc2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Hand gestures&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Hand gestures. The second shows the thumb and forefinger touch. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://fredhatt.com/blog/2014/01/17/a-show-of-hands/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fred Hatt&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-26T18:38:28.340" LastActivityDate="2020-04-26T18:38:28.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17966" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-22T19:06:53.030" Score="2" ViewCount="479" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently came across the following paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc3374921/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Keller, A., Litzelman, K., Wisk, L. E., Maddox, T., Cheng, E. R., Creswell, P. D., &amp;amp; Witt, W. P. (2012). Does the perception that stress affects health matter? The association with health and mortality. Health Psychology, 31(5), 677.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study tracked about thirty thousand adults in the US for 8 years&#xA;  and they started by asking people &quot;How much stress have you&#xA;  experienced in the last year?&quot; They also asked, &quot;Do you believe that&#xA;  stress is harmful to your health?&quot; And then they used public death&#xA;  records to figure out who died. They found that people who experienced&#xA;  &quot;a lot of&quot; stress over the past year had a 43% increased risk of&#xA;  dying, but that was only true for the people who also believed that&#xA;  stress is harmful to their health. People who experienced a lot of&#xA;  stress but did not view stress as harmful were no more likely to die.&#xA;  In fact, they had the lowest risk of dying of anyone in the study,&#xA;  including people who had relatively little stress. The researchers&#xA;  estimated that over the eight years they were tracking deaths, 182,00&#xA;  Americans died prematurely, not from stress, but from the belief that&#xA;  stress is bad for them, which is over 20,000 deaths a year. If that&#xA;  estimate is correct, that would make believing stress is bad for you,&#xA;  the 15th largest cause of death in the United States last year, ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[From: &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/RcGyVTAoXEU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychologist Kelly McGonigal's TED Talk: How to make stress your friend, Sep, 2013]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, my questions is: &quot;Is this study confounded?&quot;&#xA;I think the way they have measured &quot;How much stress have you experienced in the last year?&quot; highly depends on the reference point defined individually for the subject. I may see an event as very stressful, and someone else may see the same event as not stressful at all. [For more information about refernce point, please look at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://citec.repec.org/d/ecm/emetrp/v_47_y_1979_i_2_p_263-91.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kahneman, D., &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica: Journal of the econometric society, 263-291.]&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;On the other hand, they have asked: &quot;Do you believe that stress is harmful to your health?&quot; Again answering this question is very subjective depending on the same reference point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Counter example: imagine subjects A has experienced so much disaster in their life that they have seen very negative health effects of stress. On the other hand, subject B has not experienced that much stress in their life. To both subjects, last year was highly stressful. Obviously, highly stressful for subject A means a complete disaster, and for subject B means a little worse than other years. When you ask them &quot;Do you believe that stress is harmful to your health?&quot;, obviously, subject A responds yes because they have experienced very negative health effects, but subject B who has not experienced that much stress in their life would probably say no. Now, subject A will probably die earlier than subject B. Could you argue that dying earlier is because of believing stress is bad for you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe this study is loosely measuring a correlation, and they cannot conclude a causal effect in this way. Please let me know if I am missing any point or I do not understand what they have done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11686" LastActivityDate="2017-09-06T21:30:08.573" Title="Does the Perception that Stress Affects Health Matter? The Association with Health and Mortality" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;&lt;causal-inference&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17967" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-22T19:18:35.000" Score="2" ViewCount="295" Body="&lt;p&gt;It happens in the case of some songs that they don't strike as extremely good the first time one listens to them but after listening to them a few more times, one suddenly starts loving them. What difference does the re-listening do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16807" LastActivityDate="2017-08-23T07:37:17.630" Title="Why do we come to like some songs after re-listening to them a few times?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17969" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17972" CreationDate="2017-08-23T00:19:25.363" Score="3" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we heard speech the brain needs to go through a series of steps to go from the received sounds to a mainly conceptual meaning that follows from the words involved. This involves solving a series of problems along the way like moving from sounds into phonemes, then to words and to sentences, to a possibly holistic meaning of the whole speech. How does the brain solves this problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was told there are many theories, but I don't have any names, except what some people call &quot;the oscillatory theory of speech perception&quot; of which I could not find much literature. Do anyone know books and papers that cover this topic, presenting different theories of speech perception, including this &quot;oscillatory&quot; theory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will greatly appreciate any linked books and papers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13726" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-23T22:05:22.910" LastActivityDate="2017-08-24T06:29:05.053" Title="What are the different theories about how the brain processes speech?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;speech-comprehension&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17970" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17967" CreationDate="2017-08-23T07:37:17.630" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The phenomenom you describe is called &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mere-exposure effect&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mere-exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon by which people&#xA;tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are&#xA;familiar with them. In social psychology, this effect is sometimes&#xA;called the familiarity principle. The effect has been demonstrated&#xA;with many kinds of things, including words, Chinese characters,&#xA;paintings, pictures of faces, geometric figures, and &lt;strong&gt;sounds&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mere-exposure effect has been explained by a two-factor theory&#xA;that posits that &lt;strong&gt;repeated exposure&lt;/strong&gt; of a stimulus &lt;strong&gt;increases perceptual&#xA;fluency&lt;/strong&gt; which is the ease with which a stimulus can be processed.&#xA;Perceptual fluency, in turn, &lt;strong&gt;increases positive affect&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The perceptual fluency is explained in detail by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://bora.uib.no/bitstream/handle/1956/594/BORA_PSPR04.pdf;jsessionid=A4A34885BE4723CE42825B3C240B4535.bora-uib_worker?sequence%253D1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; in @mrt comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-08-23T07:37:17.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17971" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-23T12:56:28.013" Score="6" ViewCount="179" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am planning a study of an online intervention for depression in India. We were planning to use Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) for assessing the depression symptom severity. One of our collaborators raised an important question in a recent meeting. He asked what is the validity of PHQ-9 in India and is there a possibility of using any other tool that is more valid?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched the web and found some studies that have used PHQ-9 in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3395288/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adult&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4319265/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;another study&lt;/a&gt;) as well as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1054139X12004077&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adolescent&lt;/a&gt; populations in India. I also found a paper that developed a slightly modified version of PHQ-9, called &lt;a href=&quot;http://repository.ias.ac.in/80134/1/80134.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PHQ-12&lt;/a&gt;, for an Indian population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just wanted to know if there is any other tool that has been developed specifically for an Indian population or even any tool that has been well validated for an Indian population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8220" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-08-25T20:04:20.580" LastActivityDate="2017-08-27T05:31:49.167" Title="Which is the most valid/validated scale for diagnosis of Major depression for an Indian population?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17972" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17969" CreationDate="2017-08-23T18:33:40.403" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is quite broad and since it seems to be basically a reference request, I will suffice by giving some prominent theories of speech perception with sources and references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Speech perception theories are grouped into two:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Passive (or non-mediated) theories&lt;/strong&gt;. These theories mostly focus on finding the identity of certain constant perceptual cues and on the ways the auditory system might extract them from the acoustic signal. These theories are basically filtering theories, and do not involve the mediation of higher cognitive processes in the extraction of these cues. It is assumed that acoustic cues are extracted in the periphery of the auditory system (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/perception/speechperception/classic_models.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mannell&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Active (or mediated) theories&lt;/strong&gt;. These theories suggest that there is no direct relationship between the acoustic signal and the perceived phoneme, but that higher level processes are involved instead that compare input patterns with internal patterns (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/perception/speechperception/classic_models.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mannell&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Passive theories&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The distinctive feature theory&lt;/strong&gt; defines a set of acoustic and articulatory features that is used to generate a binary code system of yes/no decisions to allow the identification of speech sounds at a phonemic level (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/perception/speechperception/classic_models.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mannell&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The acoustic theory&lt;/strong&gt; is also based on a set of distinctive features that are largely production based. The distinctive features are assumed to be encoded directly, and passively in the periphery of the auditory system (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/perception/speechperception/classic_models.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mannell&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Active theories&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The motor theory&lt;/strong&gt; (or analysis-by-synthesis) assumes that perception and production are closely linked and that motor commands in the brain that control movements of the muscles used to speak, also help us to perceive speech. It claims that humans are equipped with an innately present speech processing 'module' (sources: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ucalgary.ca/pip369/mod6/speech/theories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UC Calgary&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/perception/speechperception/classic_models.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mannell&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.colorado.edu/~kimlab/Liberman_Mattingly.Cognition1985.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Libermann &amp;amp; Mattingly (1985)&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The trace theory&lt;/strong&gt; assumes that there are 3 connected speech perception levels - &lt;em&gt;features, phonemes and words&lt;/em&gt;. Facilitation of these levels is assumed to occur through connections between the levels (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ucalgary.ca/pip369/mod6/speech/theories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UC Calgary&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.colorado.edu/~kimlab/Liberman_Mattingly.Cognition1985.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Libermann &amp;amp; Mattingly &lt;em&gt;Cognition&lt;/em&gt; (1985); &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;: l-36&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-08-23T18:33:40.403" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17973" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17959" CreationDate="2017-08-23T19:07:58.480" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There is scientific evidence that boredom can increase error rates.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;My gut feeling would tell me that boredom decreases vigilance, which then  would increase the chance of errors. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/vigilance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vigilance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; being defined as &lt;strong&gt;sustained attention&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://DanckertOpens%20the%20author%20workspaceOpens%20the%20author%20workspace.%20Author%20links%20open%20the%20author%20workspace.Ava-Ann%20A.Allman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Oken, 2006)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And indeed, &lt;strong&gt;vigilance has been directly linked to boredom&lt;/strong&gt;, and more specifically, boredom decreases the amount of vigilance. In fact, an accepted measure of vigilance is the error rate in task performance &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurosky.com/2015/05/greek-alphabet-soup-making-sense-of-eeg-bands/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Pattyn &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2008)&lt;/a&gt;, based on earlier observations that motor task performance decreases with lower vigilance levels &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14216122&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(MacWorth, 1968)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to measure alertness or vigilance is with EEG. Generally, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neurosky.com/2015/05/greek-alphabet-soup-making-sense-of-eeg-bands/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;low EEG frequencies&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are associated with sleepiness and reduces alertness (Delta band with 0 - 4 Hz oscillations), while &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurosky.com/2015/05/greek-alphabet-soup-making-sense-of-eeg-bands/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;high frequencies&lt;/a&gt; are associated with alert states (Gamma band at &gt;30 Hz). Figure 1 shows that EEGs with low frequencies are associated with higher error rates &lt;a href=&quot;http://DanckertOpens%20the%20author%20workspaceOpens%20the%20author%20workspace.%20Author%20links%20open%20the%20author%20workspace.Ava-Ann%20A.Allman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Oken, 2006)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Vc90I.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Vc90I.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;EEG vs error rate&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Error rates plotted against EEG spectral frequencies. As time went by, the subject lost attentiveness, EEG frequencies went down and error rates went up. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://DanckertOpens%20the%20author%20workspaceOpens%20the%20author%20workspace.%20Author%20links%20open%20the%20author%20workspace.Ava-Ann%20A.Allman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Oken, 2006)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14216122&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MacWorth, &lt;em&gt;Can J Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (1964); &lt;strong&gt;18&lt;/strong&gt;: 209-23&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://DanckertOpens%20the%20author%20workspaceOpens%20the%20author%20workspace.%20Author%20links%20open%20the%20author%20workspace.Ava-Ann%20A.Allman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oken &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Clin Neurophysiol&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;117&lt;/strong&gt;(9): 1885–901&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://neurosky.com/2015/05/greek-alphabet-soup-making-sense-of-eeg-bands/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pattyn &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Physiology &amp;amp; Behavior&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;93&lt;/strong&gt;(1–2): 69-378&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-23T23:04:05.777" LastActivityDate="2017-08-23T23:04:05.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17969" CreationDate="2017-08-23T21:55:54.023" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Factors to be considered in speech processing&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Serial versus parallel processing (ie, whether processes are carried out sequentially or processes occur simultaneously).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ascending vs. descending processes (representations about basic or fundamental characteristics or parameters of the (Vs, representations of related characteristics).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Automatic vs. controlled processes (not only do they differ in conscious control or speed, but other factors such as learning, flexibility, interference, etc.) need to be taken into account.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3 major problems that should explain theories of speech perception&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Co-articulatory speech demands&lt;/strong&gt;: When pronouncing a sequence of phonemes, each phoneme is not articulated separately, but the articulatory organs adjust their position to produce the anterior and posterior phoneme, that is, the phoneme production / n / depends on the other phonemes accompany it. The concept of co-articulatory speech demand is the source of segmentation problems, of absence of invariance; of the indissociable presence in the speech of acoustic characteristics as fundamental frequency that establishes the tone of vos and the intensity of the speech, and that the perception of the speech remains intact even when there is a loss of acoustic information by effect of the noise.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Absence of invariance&lt;/strong&gt;: Lack of correspondence between acoustic signal fragments and phonemes. The speech segments are continuous, influenced by the acoustic context. They lack invariant properties, yet the listeners capture the perceptual constants and identify the sounds. That is, the physical signal does not have the same characteristics for the same phonemes, depending on the context the signals are different, although the listener identifies the same phoneme.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Absence of segmentation&lt;/strong&gt;: The speech signal is continuous, while the speech sounds are perceived as discontinuous, for example, if in a syllable we separate the fragment of the consonant spectrum from the vocal spectrum and present the subject only the part of the Consonant, he is able to guess the vowel.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These problems lead to the need to recognize different &lt;strong&gt;levels of processing&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Auditory level (represents the signal according to its attributes of frequency, intensity and time).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Phonetic level (recognition of sounds by a combination of acoustic signals, such as formant transitions). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Phonological level (the phonetic segment becomes a phoneme applying phonological rules to the sequence of sounds). These three levels can be interpreted as successive discriminations applied to the signal.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Modularity&lt;/strong&gt;: In relation to a principle of functional specialization is studied if the processing of the language constitutes a modular system. See characteristics of the modular systems exposed by Fodor in 1983.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modularity_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modularity_of_mind&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also study the relations of the processes of the perception of the speech with the rest of processes carried out in the language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Theory of categorical perception&lt;/strong&gt; (Liberman, Harris, Hoffman and Griffith, 1957)&#xA;It indicates that responses to verbal stimuli occur in absolute terms even when the stimuli themselves can vary continuously, and indeed vary, in some gradual way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While this theory is not one of the most supportive of today, categorical perception has developed a lot and can be considered a research paradigm. A good article on categorical perception:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cocosci.berkeley.edu/tom/papers/magnet.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://cocosci.berkeley.edu/tom/papers/magnet.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Speech perception motor theory&lt;/strong&gt; (Liberman et al., 1967) speech perception is produced by reference to production, that is, that listeners use their implicit articulatory knowledge, knowledge about how sounds are produced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Interactive Activation Model&lt;/strong&gt; (McClelland and Rumelhart, 1981) Based on previous efforts (Adams, 1979; Johnston and McClelland, 1980; Morton, 1969). Model mainly focused on word, applied to written or spoken. It is based on the fact that the processing takes place simultaneously and with interaction of the three levels: traits, letters and words. Inhibitory, inhibitory and excitatory and inhibitory levels. It is the beginning of interactive and connectionist models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general the connectionist models accept influence of the syntactic and semantic context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Carroll, David, W. (1999). Psychology of Language. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many theories and studies on the perception of speech, it is a very developed and complex field, I hope to reflect basic questions to facilitate a field of study for any theory. I believe that the book on which I base provides a great basis for studying later any theory, study, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-08-24T06:29:05.053" LastActivityDate="2017-08-24T06:29:05.053" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17975" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-24T07:50:14.097" Score="3" ViewCount="678" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a background in computer science, and I wish to introduce cognitive sciences to myself, particularly from a computational/mathematical perspective. My motivation for doing this artificial general intelligence research at a later stage. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I only know of a few conferences that accept papers in the area of computational neuroscience &amp;amp; machine learning, namely &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cosyne.org/c/index.php?title=Cosyne_17&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cosyne&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://nips.cc/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIPS&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://2017.icml.cc/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ICML&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikicfp.com/cfp/servlet/event.showcfp?eventid=56720&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ICLR&lt;/a&gt; that accept papers in computational neuro. I guess that latter two (ICLR and ICML) accept papers which find some significance in ML. As for journals, I do not even know where to begin. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15309" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-24T08:46:13.233" LastActivityDate="2017-08-27T19:38:55.327" Title="What are some credible conferences and journals in computational neuroscience?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17976" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17975" CreationDate="2017-08-24T08:30:44.647" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not an expert on AI, but &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/icogsci/pub.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Sciences at Indiana University&lt;/a&gt; lists the following journals that cover your topic. The journals look credible, as they are published by Elsevier and MIT, both reputable publishers of peer-reviewed journals: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.journals.elsevier.com/artificial-intelligence/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Artificial Intelligence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; publishes state-of-the-art research reports and critical evaluations of applications, techniques and algorithms in artificial intelligence, cognitive science and related disciplines;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springer.com/computer/ai/journal/10462&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Artificial Intelligence Review&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is the reviews counterpart of above journal;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jair.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; covers all areas of artificial intelligence;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/journal/10994&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Machine Learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; covers research on computational approaches to learning; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mitpressjournals.org/toc/neco/0/0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural Computation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; covers the scientific and engineering challenges of understanding the brain and building computers.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-24T13:48:37.850" LastActivityDate="2017-08-24T13:48:37.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17977" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17947" CreationDate="2017-08-24T12:00:39.883" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I haven't been able to find studies on EEG correlates of antidepressant discontinuation syndrome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;'Brain zap' is a colloquial term for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant_discontinuation_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;antidepressant discontinuation syndrome&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the sensations you mention in the arms, neck and lips &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt; are likely caused by central effects (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, in the brain) that evoke sensory perceptions as if they occur peripherally. Hence, any electrical activity associated with antidepressant discontinuation syndrome should, likely, be sought in the cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did a literature search on &lt;code&gt;Antidepressant discontinuation syndrome AND EEG&lt;/code&gt; and I couldn't find anything. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/eeg/basics/definition/prc-20014093&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EEG&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is classically used to detect gross disturbances in the brain, like &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/diagnosis/eeg-electroencephalogram&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;epileptic activity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Epileptic discharges are paroxysmal events characterized by large parts of the cortex being synchronously entrained in activation. Because it is the cortex that is activated, the EEG electrodes are right on top of where the activity is and hence pick it up easily. Furthermore, the &lt;strong&gt;amplitude&lt;/strong&gt; of epileptic EEG activity is very high compared to the normal background EEG (Fig. 1), because large parts of the cortex fire synchronously. The clinical symptomatology of epilepsy is hence expressed as gross changes in motor behavior (convulsions), loss of consciousness or other signs &lt;a href=&quot;http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/jnnp/76/suppl_2/ii2.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Smith, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those brain zaps are comparatively benign events: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Most cases of discontinuation syndrome last between one and four weeks, are relatively mild, and resolve on their own...  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant_discontinuation_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence these 'zaps' may not pop out so easily above the background EEG. Further, epileptic discharges happen often, even in the absence of clinical symptomatologies, so they are picked up easily. Moreover, epileptic activity can often be provoked, for example by flashing a &lt;a href=&quot;https://patient.info/health/electroencephalograph-eeg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stroboscope&lt;/a&gt; in fron of the sufferer. Evoked activity can more easily be registered with EEG because the time window of interest is defined. Brain zaps on the other hand may be less common and the electrophysiologist would simply have to wait for them to occur. And even then, mild brain activity may not be sufficiently different from background EEG to yield a proper signal.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AKLq0.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AKLq0.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;epilepsy EEG&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. EEG of epileptic discharges show up clearly against the background EEG. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/jnnp/76/suppl_2/ii2.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smith (2005)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/jnnp/76/suppl_2/ii2.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smith, &lt;em&gt;J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;76&lt;/strong&gt;(SII): ii2–7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-24T12:16:26.087" LastActivityDate="2017-08-24T12:16:26.087" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17978" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17980" CreationDate="2017-08-24T12:18:39.163" Score="6" ViewCount="314" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read the case of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webofstories.com/play/oliver.sacks/143;jsessionid=48D97245FC33122ACCE8A7EA814051E&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Witty Ticcy Ray&lt;/a&gt;: a 24 years old man with disabling Tourette’s syndrome. &#xA;The first &lt;a href=&quot;http://medhum.med.nyu.edu/view/12034&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. Sacks's treatment&lt;/a&gt;, with Haldol, provokes a strong change in Ray's behavior: from tics and excitement to a catatonic state. Ray didn't like this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They had a period of three months of therapy in which Ray could express himself, he said that he couldn't live without his disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally they found a compromise: &lt;em&gt;During the week, Ray took Haldol, on weekends, he &lt;strong&gt;stopped it&lt;/strong&gt; and he was again ’witty ticcy Ray’&lt;/em&gt;. This therapy was accepted by the patient and was succesful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is it in any way dangerous to take an antipsychotic drug with that discontinuity?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-24T21:05:54.257" LastActivityDate="2017-08-24T22:21:52.280" Title="Is it dangerous to take an antipsychotic drug irregularly?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17979" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9561" CreationDate="2017-08-24T12:24:32.310" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. &lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/45055567/The_effect_of_brand_design_on_brand_gender_perceptions_and_brand_preference.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1503579818&amp;amp;Signature=RuqVdwBrImDCtnvAg%2Fwz%2BYhjhfA%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DThe_effect_of_brand_design_on_brand_gend.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lieven et al. (2015)&lt;/a&gt; attributed angular logos to masculinity (and curved logos to femininity). They grounded their hypothesis in the shared perceptual traits:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Whereas the prototypical masculine body shape involves an angular&#xA;  V-shape induced by a low WCR (Horvath, 1981) and moderate heaviness&#xA;  (Furnham and Radley, 1989), a curved (“hourglass”) body shape&#xA;  characterized by a WHR of about 0.7 and a slender build is associated&#xA;  with femininity and female attractiveness (Singh and Young, 1995).&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also cite the book Marketing Aesthetics when referring to the general concept. I'm not sure if it contains an empirical study, but it might have more evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found that previous study when I was researching the literature for my article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nickkolenda.com/font-psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;font psychology&lt;/a&gt;. You might find value in my article as well. I explain more details on the curved vs. angular relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lieven, T., Grohmann, B., Herrmann, A., Landwehr, J. R., &amp;amp; van    Tilburg, M. (2015). The effect of brand design on brand gender    perceptions and brand preference. European Journal of Marketing,    49(1/2), 146-169.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schmitt, B., &amp;amp; Simonson, A. (1997). Marketing aesthetics: The    strategic management of brands, identity, and image. Free Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16819" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-24T12:55:43.537" LastActivityDate="2017-08-24T12:55:43.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17980" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17978" CreationDate="2017-08-24T14:10:27.513" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicinenet.com/haloperidol/article.htm#what_is_haldol_(haloperidol)?&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Haldol&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (haloperidol) is mainly known for its antipsychotic properties to treat schizophrenia. It's an aged antipsychotic with a lot of side effects. Because of this, haloperidol is nowadays mostly replaced by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugs.com/drug-class/atypical-antipsychotics.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;atypical antipsychotics&lt;/a&gt;, such as clozapine as first-line treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Haloperidol's primary mechanism of action is believed to be related to its antagonistic effects on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychopharmacologyinstitute.com/cns-receptors/d2-receptors/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dopamine D2 receptor&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11873706&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Seeman, 2002)&lt;/a&gt;. However, it indeed also finds use in controlling tics and vocal utterances that are part of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tourette-syndrome/diagnosis-treatment/treatment/txc-20163628&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tourette's syndrome&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/002432057190110X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Messiha &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1971)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that it may take several weeks before haloperidol's effects become apparent, it should be taken continuously. But perhaps even more importantly,  sudden termination of taking haloperidol can lead to unpleasant &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.alternativetomeds.com/antipsychotic/haldol-withdrawal.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;withdrawal symptoms&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, including&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Delusions, hallucinations and psychotic episodes;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Breathing problems&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tremors, tightening of the muscles;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dry mouth, loss of control of your tongue;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Blurry vision;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Restlessness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, haloperidol looks like a medicine that should be taken regularly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I couldn't find evidence that it is in any way &lt;em&gt;dangerous&lt;/em&gt; to take it on an irregular regimen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/002432057190110X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Messiha &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Life Sciences&lt;/em&gt; (1971); &lt;strong&gt;10&lt;/strong&gt;(8-1): 449-57&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11873706&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Seeman, &lt;em&gt;Can J Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2002); &lt;strong&gt;47&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 27-38&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-08-24T22:21:52.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11065" CreationDate="2017-08-24T20:49:28.537" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Brain zaps are a colloquial term for certain symptoms of antidepressant discontinuation syndrome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;'&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anxietycentre.com/anxiety-symptoms/brain-zaps.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain zaps&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;' are associated with sudden shakes, or vibrations, tremors, jolts, electric shocks, or 'zaps' of the head and/or brain. As SydneyMaples rightfully commented, these are scientifically recognized as symptoms of &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/depression/guide/withdrawal-from-antidepressants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Antidepressant discontinuation syndrome&lt;/strong&gt;, or &lt;strong&gt;Antidepressant withdrawal syndrome&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Withdrawal from a wide range of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/depression/guide/depression-medications-antidepressants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;antidepressants&lt;/a&gt;, including the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugs.com/drug-class/tricyclic-antidepressants.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tricyclic antidepressants&lt;/a&gt; (TCAs), &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medicinenet.com/mao_inhibitors-oral/article.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;monoamine oxidase inhibitors&lt;/a&gt; (MAOIs) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/ssris/art-20044825&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors&lt;/a&gt; (SSRIs) can produce somatic and psychological distress, influenza-like syndromes, gastrointestinal adverse effects, arrhythmias, anxiety, sleep disturbances, movement disorders, mania or hypomania, panic attacks and delirium &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-199605040-00006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Lejoyeux &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1996)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-199605040-00006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lejoyeux &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. CNS Drugs (1996); &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 278–92&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-10T06:46:41.530" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T06:46:41.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17982" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17128" CreationDate="2017-08-24T22:38:37.857" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The inner voice of congenitally (pre-lingually) deaf people who have not received treatment like cochlear implantation, is not sound-based. Instead, it is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-voices-within/201401/do-deaf-people-hear-inner-voice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mainly based on visual images&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, such as sign-language or printed material.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;According to an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/does-someone-born-with-a-hearing-loss-hear-an-inner-voice-9012669.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anecdotal report published in the Independent&lt;/a&gt; of a congenitally deaf person, who deliberately refused cochlear implantation or other treatments, the inner voice is a &lt;strong&gt;visual entity&lt;/strong&gt; taking the form of sign-language, or visual images, or sometimes printed words. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/news-articles/0707/07070303&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An interesting report from UCL&lt;/a&gt; investigated congenitally deaf people suffering from positive psychotic symptoms. In normal-hearing people, positive psychotic symptoms typically involve hearing voices (auditory hallucinations). In congenitally deaf folks, who obviously never had the chance to hear any voices in their lives, these auditory hallucinations were described as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Not consisting of] sounds, but [...] the gender and identity of the voice [were recognized. They were] image[s] of [...] voice[s] signing [,] or lips moving in their mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/does-someone-born-with-a-hearing-loss-hear-an-inner-voice-9012669.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Independent, December 21, 2013, UK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-10T07:00:25.507" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T07:00:25.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17983" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-25T01:50:48.243" Score="2" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;In some of my dreams, I have seen people that I know, and I ask them about it the day after and they say that they saw me too. My older sister said that she had exactly the same dream as one of her male friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can we actually connect with other people mentally while sleeping?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user16823" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-25T19:35:32.813" LastActivityDate="2017-08-25T19:35:32.813" Title="Can we interconnect with other people mentally during dreaming?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-26T16:06:53.563" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17986" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-25T07:11:51.957" Score="2" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking at diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data. The data are clustered by regions of interest (ROIs). The clusters have locations with names, which I have listed below. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Which location names refer to white matter (WM) tracts or regions in the cortico-ventral basal ganglia circuit (CVBGC)?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The CVBGC includes the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), ventral striatum (VS), ventral pallidum (VP), and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC). You may know the CVBGC by other names, such as the frontostriatal system, the reward system, or perhaps the salience network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have attempted to answer this question myself, but the sources I have examined either fail to explicitly name any of the WM tracts connecting the areas of the CVBGC, or in the case of the DTI atlases, do not state which areas are connected by each tract with enough clarity for me to answer my question. Furthermore, some of the location names in the DTI data I have are regions rather than WM tracts (e.g. the middle frontal gyrus), and may be synonymous with the CVBGC area names I have listed above, but it is not clear to me if they are synonymous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you give a full or partial answer to my question, please include a citation in your response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;anterior corona radiata (ACR)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;cingulum (cingulate gyrus) (CGC)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;cerebellar hemisphere (CH)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;cerebral peduncle (CP)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus (IFO)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;inferior temporal gyrus (ITG)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;internal capsule (IC)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;middle cerebellar peduncle (MCP)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;middle frontal gyrus (MFG)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;medial lemniscus (ML)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;middle temporal gyrus (MTG)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;posterior thalamic radiation (PTR)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;superior cerebellar peduncle (SCP)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;superior corona radiata (SCR)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;superior frontal gyrus (SFG)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;supramarginal gyrus (SMG)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;uncinate fasciculus (UNC)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9217" LastEditorUserId="9217" LastEditDate="2020-02-18T04:38:31.883" LastActivityDate="2020-02-18T04:38:31.883" Title="What are the names of the white matter tracts in the cortico-ventral basal ganglia circuit?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="17987" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="17989" CreationDate="2017-08-25T07:20:48.333" Score="1" ViewCount="162" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm aware this is a bit of a general question &amp;amp; subjectively broad. It's that way on purpose.  It felt like cogsci was the best place for this question and I couldn't find anything really like it anywhere on stackexchange.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to know in general, if I need to teach someone a concept and I really want them to understand it...what method, techniques, strategies are there out there which appear to have the biggest impact on the success of a teacher teaching the student a concept?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What other factors should one possibly consider when teaching something to someone else?  (Bias, attention span...how do I deal with these?) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research for backing up anything you suggest would be ideal, but I don't want that requirement to preclude someone from posting something that could potentially be very effective but just isn't cited somewhere for some reason...maybe they experienced it with a teacher they had.  There can be value in those gems too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd actually like for this post to be one that has &lt;strong&gt;universal teaching ideas/strategy in it&lt;/strong&gt; and not just those applicable to my context below...as sometimes the only thing precluding the use of a teaching strategy in a different or more universal domain from where it came from is the ingenuity of the teacher.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I tried finding a post on stackexchange anywhere containing this question in it's general sense with answers and couldn't....there is stuff on how to teach programming, but that's just programming....some of its ideas are partially applicable universally, but not all of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Here is my specific context, although I don't want answers to get too wrapped up in it.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am teaching via Youtube video and already have planned out&#xA;1) Me drawing on a digital screen things while I'm talking&#xA;2) Using easy to relate to analogies&#xA;3) Obviously any other visuals&#xA;4) Pausing to quiz their knowledge on a previous section before they can move ahead&#xA;5) Wrapping this up in a hopefully entertaining package&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To provide some context and the format/audience...what I'll practically be using this information for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am releasing a special documentary style video with the goal making users completely understand the entire path some special research recently published takes, its reasoning for every choice it makes, and the logic for it's sequencing and timing of element.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, instead of me reciting a conclusion from some research paper, I take them through the journey so they understand it.  It's a bit of an intense topic with a profound conclusion...one that most people would also brush off immediately without fully attempting to comprehend first.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also extremely technical and includes some involving several tricky concepts from many different domains all at the same time that must be put together all in synchronicity: overarching ideas within biology &amp;amp; evolution, micro &amp;amp; cellular biology, genetics, astronomy, astrobiology, space ethics, the nature of language, information theory &amp;amp; entropy, symbiotics (study of symbols), markings of culture, probabilities &amp;amp; combinations, and...statistics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3594" LastActivityDate="2017-08-31T22:00:21.147" Title="The Art of Teaching: What are the most effective &amp; proven methods for successfully imparting a concept/idea to another" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17988" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-25T10:14:21.837" Score="2" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does it do that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Except for smell, I find brain being able to evoke almost real feels when we are in a dream. &#xA;I was even able to make myself get &lt;em&gt;high&lt;/em&gt; in a dream. And even in the dream, the brain was actually able to do a good job in giving me the persona of being a &lt;em&gt;High&lt;/em&gt; person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, why can't it evoke smell as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16814" LastActivityDate="2017-08-25T10:14:21.837" Title="How is brain able to evoke almost real physical feelings in dreams?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-08-26T09:51:57.117" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17987" CreationDate="2017-08-25T13:19:44.023" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is extremely broad so all I can do is give you an extremely broad answer. More specifically, I'll provide you a study done by John Hattie (2008), who meta-analyzed 800(!!) meta-analyses on effective teaching methods, used in primary education among others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The linked document shows a &quot;brief&quot; overview of the different methods rated and sorted by their effect sizes. Some of the intervention may be more relevant to you compared to others. Providing feedback, for instance, is more difficult in indirect communications such as video's. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hattie has also written much about providing feedback and how that affects students' learning ability (e.g. Hattie, 2007)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bvekennis.nl/Bibliotheek/16-0955.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hattie, J., &amp;amp; Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of educational research, 77(1), 81-112.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2392/2d3e21a8c447bf95c18dacf630e6ce45eea3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hattie, J. (2008). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11318" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-08-27T09:06:54.580" LastActivityDate="2017-08-27T09:06:54.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17990" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18078" CreationDate="2017-08-25T15:42:28.270" Score="2" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;I observe this kind of thinking especially in politics, for instance when someone brings up that &quot;It is fine to take a few dollars from a lot of people if it helps the country&quot;. I think the reason we see things like this is that we can better imagine the value of one thing with awesome qualities than million things of a small quality because we are more used to compare the quality, not the amount, in our daily lives.&#xA;Is there a name for a similar cognitive bias/fallacy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2017-09-09T11:53:29.383" LastActivityDate="2017-09-09T11:53:29.383" Title="Name of the bias towards not seeing small harm of many as important?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17991" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-25T16:55:05.170" Score="6" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;How can spike-timing-dependent plasticity and homeostatic plasticity both be right? If spike-timing-dependent plasticity consistently tries to strengthen connections, but homeostatic plasticity consistently tries to weaken strong connections, wouldn't the two cancel each other out, causing no net plasticity to occur and consequently brains couldn't learn?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a pretty good understanding of spike-timing-dependent plasticity, but I just recently came across homeostatic plasticity and I'm trying to understand how both theories can be right. What am I misunderstanding? Can someone help me understand homeostatic plasticity better and how it applies to spike-timing-dependent plasticity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16827" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-25T20:09:58.530" LastActivityDate="2017-08-27T05:18:18.920" Title="Spike-timing-dependent plasticity versus Homeostatic plasticity" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17992" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17983" CreationDate="2017-08-25T19:34:53.693" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Telepathy is pseudoscience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I think you are referring to the phenomenon of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;telepathy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which can be defined as  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[T]he purported transmission of information from one person to another&#xA;  without using any of our known sensory channels or physical&#xA;  interaction&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and you ask whether telepathy is a scientifically established phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Telepathy in general is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy#cite_note-Planer1980-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dismissed as being &lt;strong&gt;pseudoscience&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/the-curious-wavefunction/belief-in-multiple-universes-requires-exceptional-vision-so-does-belief-in-telepathy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Jogalekar, 2013)&lt;/a&gt; as it has been debunked in various scientific studies (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1976-27274-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ayeroff &amp;amp; Abelson (1976)&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_telepathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dream telepathy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is considered &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_telepathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pseudoscience&lt;/a&gt;. It was reportedly first documented by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freud&lt;/a&gt; in the 1940s. Freud founded many other &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pseudo-scientific&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; concepts, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychoanalysis&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/3749543&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Jupp, 1977)&lt;/a&gt;. Ullman &amp;amp; Krippner from the dream laboratory in Maimonides Medical Center in New York City claimed they had proven the existence of dream telepathy in the 1960s and 70s (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/jonmd/Abstract/1970/12000/TELEPATHY_AND_DREAMS__A_CONTROLLED_EXPERIMENT_WITH.4.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krippner &amp;amp; Ullman (1970)&lt;/a&gt;. However, the studies were rightfully challenged. For example, many of their studies were based on a few or even on single subjects (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1967-03615-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ullman &amp;amp; Krippner (1966)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/jonmd/Abstract/1970/12000/TELEPATHY_AND_DREAMS__A_CONTROLLED_EXPERIMENT_WITH.4.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krippner &amp;amp; Ullman (1970)&lt;/a&gt;). Indeed, more recent studies have failed to replicate their findings (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1971.33.3.783&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Belvedere &amp;amp; Foulkes, (1971)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1989-35029-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hearne (1989)&lt;/a&gt;).     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1976-27274-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ayeroff &amp;amp; Abelson, &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt; (1976); &lt;strong&gt;34&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 240-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1971.33.3.783&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Belvedere &amp;amp; Foulkes, &lt;em&gt;Perceptual and Motor Skills&lt;/em&gt; (1971); &lt;strong&gt;33&lt;/strong&gt;(3)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1989-35029-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hearne, J Soc Psychical Res (1989); &lt;strong&gt;55&lt;/strong&gt;(814): 271-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/the-curious-wavefunction/belief-in-multiple-universes-requires-exceptional-vision-so-does-belief-in-telepathy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jogalekar, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt; (August 2013)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/3749543&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jupp, &lt;em&gt;Philosophy&lt;/em&gt; (1977); &lt;strong&gt;52&lt;/strong&gt;(202): 441-53&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.lww.com/jonmd/Abstract/1970/12000/TELEPATHY_AND_DREAMS__A_CONTROLLED_EXPERIMENT_WITH.4.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krippner &amp;amp; Ullman J Nervous &amp;amp; Mental Disease (1970)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1967-03615-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ullman &amp;amp; Krippner &lt;em&gt;Int J Neuropsych&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 420-37&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-08-25T19:34:53.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17993" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17991" CreationDate="2017-08-25T20:02:43.910" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Homoestatic plasticity can be used with spike-dependent plasticity given they have two different goals and aren't applied uniformly across neural population. To support this argument, I'm going to use a computation model taken from &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/bekolay2013.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simultaneous unsupervised and supervised learning of cognitive functions in biologically plausible spiking neural networks&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Bekolay et al. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the model, an ensemble of neurons with input and output weights [1], is trying to learn how to change their output weights to approximate a given function. PES (STDP rule) changes the output weights of the neurons to approximate. The BCM (homeostatic rule) increases the sparsity of the input weights. When used together as hPES, they allow for less parameter sensitivity of the ensemble and a lower overall spiking rate, allowing the group of neurons to conserve energy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] For a visual explanation of what this means, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/@seanaubin/a-way-around-the-coming-performance-walls-neuromorphic-hardware-with-spiking-neurons-facd4291b201&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this blog post&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-08-25T20:02:43.910" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17996" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-27T00:33:41.507" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been diagnosed with anxiety. I tend to do certain things when I'm nervous or stressed. Like tap my foot. Just two years ago, I've started biting myself when I think of stressful situations or have painful memories. Is this normal?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16453" LastActivityDate="2017-08-27T00:33:41.507" Title="Is stimming only limited to people with autism or other disabilities or do neurotypical people stim as well? Is stimming always a symptom?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-08-28T05:47:00.943" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17997" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-27T02:23:55.847" Score="5" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to apologize in advance for my dearth of knowledge concerning cognitive science research and history, I'm an AI student.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been reading up on cognitive science/linguistics literature mostly to get a better grasp on the physical symbol system hypothesis/language of thought vs connectionism debate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read this very interesting &lt;a href=&quot;http://alpha-leonis.lids.mit.edu/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/At-the-Birth-of-Language-by-Ian-Tattersall-The-New-York-Review-of-Books.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;review&lt;/a&gt; of Berwick and Chomsky's book &quot;Why Only Us&quot; by Ian Tattersall, in which he exposes the authors' idea that language suddenly appeared as a result of a minor mutation in our ancestors' brain 80,000 years ago. However, because of the lack of linguistic archeological artefacts, it is impossible to prove. He then goes on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If that is true, perhaps the best proxies we can seek for language in&#xA;  the human archaeological record are objects or activities that reflect the working of symbolic human minds: minds capable&#xA;  of envisioning that the world could be otherwise than it is at this moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And my question is then: why does counterfactual thinking require a symbolic mind? It seems perfectly plausible to imagine a species who can't talk but can still imagine &quot;other world&quot; scenarios using his visual system. However, a counter-argument is that animals have a highly developed visual system, yet they can't think counterfactually. (Hariri is famous for saying &quot;You can never convince a chimpanzee to give you a banana by promising him that after he dies, he will get limitless bananas in chimpanzee Heaven.&quot;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This all seems related to the LoT vs Connectionism debate: did we first grow a mind strong enough to do counterfactual thinking, which was also able to process language, or is language and symbolic thought really the precursor to higher level thinking like counterfactual thinking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16574" LastActivityDate="2021-03-31T22:21:18.363" Title="Counterfactual thinking and the origin of language" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17998" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-27T03:05:11.637" Score="2" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a &quot;random-dot kinematograms&quot; implementation in javascript/HTML that I can use in web-based experiments. Something like this, where the user can specify the direction using a mouse or slider.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ejuE4.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ejuE4.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14067" LastActivityDate="2017-08-27T03:05:11.637" Title="Random-dot kinematograms implementation in javascript/HTML" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="17999" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17991" CreationDate="2017-08-27T05:18:18.920" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The key concept is that STDP is synapse specific, whereas homeostatic plasticity is more global.  (As an aside, it is incorrect to say that STDP strengthens connections.  STDP strengthens connections with pre-before-post spiking relationships, but weakens connections with post-before-pre spiking relationships.  You man be thinking of Hebbian plasticity.  The following explanation applies to either.)  Let's say you have 100 synapses onto your neuron, all of which have a weight of 1.  Let's say 10 of them undergo strengthening through Hebb's rule or STDP to achieve a weight of 10, so the total strength of all synapses into the neuron is now 190.  Then, when homeostatic plasticity is applied so that the total input to the neuron returns to a value of 100, the 10 strengthened synapses will have a new weight of 10*100/190 = 5.3, and the other 90 synapses will have a new weight of 1*100/190 = 0.53.  Therefore, even though the total input to the neuron is held constant, the distribution of those weights changes, so information gained through the initial Hebbian plasticity or STDP is retained.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2017-08-27T05:18:18.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18000" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17975" CreationDate="2017-08-27T05:23:06.267" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You also will want to check out PLOS Computational Biology.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most importantly, you want to read reviews in journals such as Nature Reviews Neuroscience, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, and Trends in Neurosciences, as well as the Current Opinion series such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.journals.elsevier.com/current-opinion-in-neurobiology/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Current Opinion in Neurobiology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2017-08-27T05:23:06.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17971" CreationDate="2017-08-27T05:31:49.167" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am sharing my research here should anybody find it useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;=========================================================================&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although PHQ-9 wasn’t developed for an Indian audience, it has been used by multiple&#xA;studies in India [1, 2, 3]. It has also been validated for an adolescent population, and a&#xA;score of was found to have high sensitivity (87.1%) and specificity (79.7%) [4]. A&#xA;modified version of PHQ-9, the PHQ-12, was developed and validated on a South Indian&#xA;population of 100 participants. PHQ-12 essentially tests the same symptoms as PHQ-9&#xA;but differs in number of questions, the specific wordings of the questions, and the&#xA;marking scheme. PHQ-12 lets the patient mark every question in a ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. A&#xA;‘Yes’ is given a score of 1 and a ‘No’ a score of 0. A total score of &amp;gt;4 according to this&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;marking scheme has shown the highest sensitivity (92.0%) and specificity (90.7%) when&#xA;compared against PHQ-9 [5].&#xA;Other popular scales for diagnosis of depression - Hamilton Depression Rating Scale,&#xA;Beck Depression Inventory, and Montogomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale - have&#xA;been adapted for an Indian population [6, 7, 8]. Brief Patient Health Questionnaire has&#xA;also been translated into 11 Indian languages and validated for an Indian population [9].&#xA;A novel scale, Amritsar Depressive Inventory (ADI), has been developed based on&#xA;symptoms which are more prevalent in Indian populations [10].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mehrotra, Seema, et al. &amp;quot;Profile of seekers of an internet-based self-help program&#xA;for depression in India: observations and implications.&amp;quot; International Journal Of&#xA;Community Medicine And Public Health (2017).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sidana, Surbhi, et al. &amp;quot;Prevalence of depression in students of a medical college in&#xA;New Delhi: a cross-sectional study.&amp;quot; The Australasian medical journal 5.5&#xA;(2012): 247.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thour, Amit, et al. &amp;quot;Depression among patients with diabetes mellitus in North&#xA;India evaluated using patient health questionnaire-9.&amp;quot; Indian journal of&#xA;endocrinology and metabolism 19.2 (2015): 252.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ganguly, Samrat, et al. &amp;quot;Patient health questionnaire-9 as an effective tool for&#xA;screening of depression among Indian adolescents.&amp;quot; Journal of Adolescent Health&#xA;52.5 (2013): 546-551.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Poongothai, S., et al. &amp;quot;Reliability and validity of a modified PHQ-9 item&#xA;inventory (PHQ-12) as a screening instrument for assessing depression in Asian&#xA;Indians (CURES-65).&amp;quot; (2009).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ajmany S, Nandi DN. Adaptation of A. T. Beck et al.&amp;#39;s &amp;quot;an inventory for&#xA;measuring depression&amp;quot; Indian J Psychiatry 1973;15:386-90.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ganguli M, Dube S, Johnston JM, Pandav R, Chandra V, Dodge HH. Depressive&#xA;symptoms, cognitive impairment and functional impairment in a rural elderly&#xA;population in India: A Hindi version of the geriatric depression scale (GDS-H).&#xA;Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1999;14:807-20.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Raguram R, Weiss MG, Channabasavanna SM, Devms GM. Stigma, depression,&#xA;and somatization in south India. Am J Psychiatry 1996;1531043-9.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kochhar, P. H., S. S. Rajadhyaksha, and V. R. Suvarna. &amp;quot;Translation and&#xA;validation of brief patient health questionnaire against DSM IV as a tool to&#xA;diagnose major depressive disorder in Indian patients.&amp;quot; Journal of postgraduate&#xA;medicine 53.2 (2007): 102.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grover, Sandeep, Alakananda Dutt, and Ajit Avasthi. &amp;quot;An overview of Indian&#xA;research in depression.&amp;quot; Indian journal of psychiatry 52.Suppl1 (2010): S178.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8220" LastActivityDate="2017-08-27T05:31:49.167" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18002" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-27T15:12:53.967" Score="3" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wanted to calculate the ratio of Theta/Beta ($\Theta$/$\beta$) in decibels for a couple of electrodes in AF3 AF4 and Cz&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was able to get these in microvolts, but would like to convert them to decibels but am unsure what is the appropriate way to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, should I convert it like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$ratio_1 = 10.log\left( \frac{\Theta_{AF3} + \Theta_{AF4} + \Theta_{Cz}}{\beta_{AF3} + \beta_{AF4} + \beta_{Cz}}\right)$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$ratio_2 = 10.log\left(\frac{\Theta_{AF3}}{\beta_{AF3}}\right) + 10.log\left(\frac{\Theta_{AF4}}{\beta_{AF4}}\right) + 10.log\left(\frac{\Theta_{Cz}}{\beta_{Cz}}\right)$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16842" LastEditorDisplayName="user17122" LastEditDate="2017-12-03T04:43:19.693" LastActivityDate="2017-12-03T04:43:19.693" Title="How do I measure ratio of EEG frequency band for a few electrodes in decibels?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18003" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17975" CreationDate="2017-08-27T19:38:55.327" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Adding to what was already mentioned, there are several &quot;Frontiers&quot; journals:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/journal/neuroscience#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frontiers in Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/journal/neural-circuits#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frontiers in Neural Circuits&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/journal/computational-neuroscience#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/journal/synaptic-neuroscience#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frontiers in Synaptic Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then there are also several rather experimental journals that also sometimes publish computational papers, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://elifesciences.org/subjects/neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elife&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Journal of Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/neuron/home&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuron&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1460-9568&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;European Journal of Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/by/section/Neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PNAS&lt;/a&gt; (proceedings of the National Acadamy of Sciences)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cerebral Cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1098-1063&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hippocampus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another review journal would &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/loi/neuro&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Annual Review of Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;. I think &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/neuro/index.html?foxtrotcallback=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nature Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; was also not mentioned yet but is very reputable. Some older (but classical) papers might even be in Physical Review Letters. Finally, there are many preprints to find on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biorxiv.org/collection/neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.biorxiv.org/collection/neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/list/q-bio.NC/new&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://arxiv.org/list/q-bio.NC/new&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it's worth mentioning that, as far as I know, conference papers are far less important in the field of Neuroscience than compared to Machine Learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2017-08-27T19:38:55.327" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18004" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-27T23:20:14.560" Score="2" ViewCount="199" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nearly every I.Q. and Cognitive test seems to ask questions for the &quot;next item in the sequence&quot;.   But, there just seems to be so many possibilities, and I can usually find a way that all of the multiple-guess choices could be true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, what are the test-givers actually looking for?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For example:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rotate the image clockwise or counter clockwise on the page, (around the Z axis).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Flip the image around the Y Axis, (Vertical Mirror).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Flip the image around the X Axis, (Horizontal Mirror).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;... Combinations of the above?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cycle the colors through sequences, (like red, green, blue ...),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc., etc.,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, I feel that because I am left-handed (or just odd?) - the &quot;simple&quot; and &quot;obvious&quot; choices seem very, very, relative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What are the actual patterns they are expecting people to apply?   If multiple patterns apply, which one do you choose?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;And, these tests often direct the test-taker to choose the &quot;simplest&quot; or &quot;most obvious&quot; solution; but, how do you know which one is which?  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16619" LastActivityDate="2017-08-27T23:20:14.560" Title="In I.Q. and Cognitive Tests, What Sequence Patterns Should be Applied?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18005" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-28T05:00:52.447" Score="6" ViewCount="407" Body="&lt;p&gt;A sufficiently low cognitive intelligence is generally considered in society to be inherently pathological, or at least very nearly so. In fact, until recently, a diagnosis of Intellectual Disability (ID) could formally be made on the basis of a low (below a cutoff value) IQ test score alone, without any evidence that the person's low intelligence actually caused any significant practical problems (e.g. the &quot;clinically significant distress or impairment&quot; frequently mentioned in the DSM).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a similar phenomenon with respect to &lt;em&gt;Emotional&lt;/em&gt; Intelligence (EQ)? That is, is having a sufficiently low EQ very strongly correlated with or otherwise significantly indicative of a diagnosable medical or psychological disorder, or is there a significant population of people with low (or even abysmally low) EQ's who function well enough in society that they cannot be diagnosed with any disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please do not simply quip that &quot;Low EQ==Autism&quot; unless you have something to back that up!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13656" LastEditorUserId="13656" LastEditDate="2019-07-16T15:44:00.327" LastActivityDate="2019-07-16T15:44:00.327" Title="Is a low Emotional Intelligence (EQ) pathological?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;emotional-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18006" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-28T05:41:19.830" Score="5" ViewCount="329" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Flynn Effect is a well-known phenomenon whereby Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test scores among the general public seem to rise over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does Emotional Intelligence (EQ) demonstrate the Flynn Effect or a similar effect? That is, is there any research indicating that people today are, are likely to be, or appear to be based on their scores more emotionally intelligent than people of the past?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the nature of the Flynn Effect in IQ is still controversial (whether it represents true gains in general cognitive ability or whether it represents a measurement error), an answer such as, &quot;Johnson (2013) observed that average EQ scores rose by 20 points between 2000 and 2010, but he suspects that it was caused mostly by people being coached in the correct answers on EQ tests by reading pop psychology books and browsing online Question and Answer sites rather than a true gain in emotional processing and reasoning abilities.&quot; would be perfectly acceptable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13656" LastEditorUserId="13656" LastEditDate="2019-07-16T15:43:29.780" LastActivityDate="2019-07-16T15:43:29.780" Title="Does Emotional Intelligence (EQ) demonstrate the Flynn Effect?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;emotional-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18005" CreationDate="2017-08-28T13:01:43.673" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Shortly&lt;/strong&gt; , a low EQ is not a sufficient condition to diagnose a mental psychiatric disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the DSM-V Proposal for the Definition of Mental/Psychiatric Disorder&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DcM9I.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DcM9I.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All these features have to be satisfied in order to diagnose a &lt;em&gt;Psychopathology&lt;/em&gt;. Having said that, a low emotional intelligence is a risk factor to contract a Mental Disease. According to Eisenberg (1995), &lt;strong&gt;our mind is influenced by biological and social factors&lt;/strong&gt; and we shouldn't embrace simplifying approaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, a good psychiatrist has to consider &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.capemaycountyherald.com/lifestyle/health_and_wellness/article_989c80ec-0211-544f-b3ff-56e0c392e361.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;four perspectives&lt;/a&gt; from which to view a psychopathology:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;em&gt;The disease perspective&lt;/em&gt;: in which patient is identified whith his illness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;em&gt;The behavior perspective&lt;/em&gt;: which looks at the behavior of the patient&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) &lt;em&gt;The dimensional perspective&lt;/em&gt;: which looks at cognitive and emotional dimensions of the patient&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) &lt;em&gt;The life story perspective&lt;/em&gt;: which looks at the life story of the patient&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3101504/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dan J. Stein, Katharine A. Phillips, Derek Bolton, K.W.M Fulford, John Z. Sadler, and Kenneth S. Kendler &lt;em&gt;&quot;What is a Mental/Psychiatric Disorder? From DSM-IV to DSM-V&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Eisenberg L. &lt;em&gt;The social construction of the human brain&lt;/em&gt; , &quot;Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 1563-75&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-08-28T13:01:43.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18009" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18010" CreationDate="2017-08-29T07:25:44.293" Score="15" ViewCount="2896" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it true that acting can affect one's behaviour?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if someone plays a protagonist, can this affect them to be a good person? Is there any solid evidence for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16859" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-08-29T14:28:53.813" LastActivityDate="2017-08-29T14:28:53.813" Title="Is it true that acting can affect one's behavior?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18010" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18009" CreationDate="2017-08-29T08:30:11.490" Score="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is true. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092656684710208&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mot &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (1994)&lt;/a&gt; published scientific research about it. Also there are a lot of actors that claim they feel that their personality has changed since they played a role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also a similair practice can be used for insecure people. If they act confident it has been proven that after some time, they feel more confident as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I'm new to stackexchange I did not know how much detail is desired. Therefore, let me expand upon my original comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article states the following hypotheses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(1) the actor chosen to play a given character would have personality characteristics similar to that of his or her corresponding character&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(2) the actor′s self-perceived personality profile would become more similar to the character′s during the rehearsal and production period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later on the article states that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Support emerged for the second hypothesis, but not for the first. Observations regarding these findings and suggestions for future explorations are given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article expands upon this, but I can't access the paper, because it's pay-walled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092656684710208&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hannah M. T., Domino G., Hanson R. Hannah R. (September 1994) Acting and Personality Change: The Measurement of Change in Self-Perceived Personality Characteristics during the Actors Character Development Process, &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality&lt;/em&gt;, 28(3):277-286&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16861" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-08-29T09:07:10.360" LastActivityDate="2017-08-29T09:07:10.360" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18014" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18006" CreationDate="2017-08-29T17:14:37.277" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Flynn effect actually says that fluid intelligence is a function of modernization. This is shown as early as Luria's work during the introduction of formal education in rural Uzbekistan, and it can be still observed today in societies that for example do not allow women into formal education. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In such cases one sees that male IQ has increased during the past decades whereas female IQ has not. Thus an argument can be made, based upon cross-cultural comparisons and taking into account differences of various groups within the same culture. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example between religious and not religious women in Israel -- the former do not serve in the military, the latter do, and this factor interacts with the male-female difference in IQ. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in order to find an emotional intelligence parallel to the Flynn effect, the question is whether there are cultural factors that are rapidly introduced to traditional societies and produce measurable differences in emotional intelligence between groups that have a different degree to exposure to these factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16796" LastActivityDate="2017-08-29T17:14:37.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18015" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15636" CreationDate="2017-08-30T11:10:23.507" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I tried to do a little research myself and like you observed, there is not much research being done on adults relating to this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I did find was research done by &lt;a href=&quot;http://education.msu.edu/kin/HBCL/_articles/Pontifex_2009_TheEffectOfAcute.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;M.B. Pontifex &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt; (2009)&lt;/a&gt;. Although this research was done on healthy 21 year olds (Young Adults).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They researched the effects of aerobic exercise and resistance excercise on reaction time of tasks as well as accuracy of tasks amongst other things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This data was collected via the following method:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Twenty-one young adult participants completed a cardiorespiratory fitness test and maximal strength tests. On&#xA;  subsequent days, task performance measures of reaction time (RT) and accuracy were collected while participants completed a modified&#xA;  Sternberg working memory task before the start of, immediately after, and 30 min after an intervention consisting of 30 min of either&#xA;  resistance or aerobic exercise and a seated rest control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their observation was that after aerobic excercise their response time latency (reaction time) was decreased directly after or 30 minutes after the excercise. This was not observed after or 30 minutes after doing resistance excercise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They stated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The current findings indicated shorter RT latency during&#xA;  a working memory task that was performed immediately&#xA;  and 30 min after an acute bout of aerobic exercise, relative&#xA;  to the pretest. Similar effects were not observed after acute&#xA;  resistance exercise or seated rest, indicating that different&#xA;  modes of exercise have differential effects on the executive&#xA;  control of working memory. Further, shorter RT latency&#xA;  was observed for task conditions requiring increased&#xA;  working memory capacity after aerobic exercise, relative&#xA;  to the pretest, providing support for the view that changes in&#xA;  cognitive function after acute exercise are disproportionately&#xA;  larger for tasks requiring greater amounts of executive&#xA;  control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://education.msu.edu/kin/HBCL/_articles/Pontifex_2009_TheEffectOfAcute.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;M.B. Pontifex, C.H.Hillman, B. Fernhall, K.M. Thompson and T.A. Valentini (2009) The Effect of Acute Aerobic and Resistance&#xA;Exercise on Working Memory. &lt;em&gt;Med. Sci. Sports Exerc&lt;/em&gt; 41(4):927–934&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16861" LastActivityDate="2017-08-30T11:10:23.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18016" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17415" CreationDate="2017-08-30T14:03:25.147" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The accepted method of praying the Rosary is to actually complete five (5) decades, each containing the Hail Mary (Ave Maria) repeated 10 times (hence the term &quot;decade&quot;). Each decade is followed by an Our Father (Pater Noster), Gloria, and a Hail Holy Queen, and the announcement of the &quot;mystery&quot; to be meditated upon during the next decade. Each day has its own theme for meditations to be contemplated (there are three traditional sets of mysteries: The Joyful, Sorrowful, and Glorious Mysteries, with Saint Pope John Paul II adding a fourth set, the Luminus Mysteries). The Rosary has a set of introductory prayers, and a closing prayer. A &quot;Full&quot; rosary, though not often completed by the lay, is a full set including all of the Mysteries, and one can purchase a &quot;complete&quot; Rosary consisting of 15 groups of 10 beads, versus the standard 5 found on most Rosaries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to a study published in the British Medical Journal (2001;323:1446-1449), researcher Dr. Luciano Bernardi, associate professor of internal medicine at the University of Pavia in Italy and his team tested whether rhythmic chanting, in this case reciting the rosary or using Yoga mantras, could have a favorable effect on the heart’s rhythms. What the team knew at the beginning of the study was that slow regular breathing was beneficial in preventing heart disease by synchronizing inherent cardiovascular rhythms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using 23 healthy adults whose heart rate and blood pressure were measured prior to the start of the study, the researchers measured their breathing rates while some participants prayed the rosary in the original Latin (Ave Maria), and others recited a given Yoga mantra. For comparison, the study participants’ breathing rates were measured during free talking and during slow breathing exercises also. What they noted is that the participants rate of breathing slowed down from fourteen breaths a minute (spontaneously) to 8 breaths per minute when they engaged in regular conversation, but breathing slowed down even more to six breaths per minute while reciting the rosary or the yoga mantra. Breathing at a slow six breaths per minute “has generally favorable effects on cardiovascular and respiratory function,’’ the researchers note. What’s more, the researchers found reciting the rosary or the yoga mantra both similarly synchronized all the hearts rhythms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It ends up that despite the cultural differences between the two spiritual practices, rosary chants and yoga mantras, Dr. Bernardi suggests that the two may have similar origins and both evolved as a simple way to slow respiration, improve concentration, and induce calm. The rosary while known to be related to the Catholic religion, was initially introduced by the Crusaders “who learnt a similar technique from the Arabs who in turn learned it from the Indian and Tibetan masters of yoga”, Dr. Bernardi states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16890" LastActivityDate="2017-08-30T14:03:25.147" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18017" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-30T16:02:08.513" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed in myself, and others (from afar) that creativity seems to decline with age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Physically, it's obvious that people peak rather early (say, 25 or 30 or so years of age). But what about when it comes to creativity? Is there a known age range that are typically the most creative years?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you compare the works of great artists (and I know there are also many exceptions/outliers), it seems most of their &quot;greatest&quot; works came earlier in life (for those that lived long lives, that is).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just a few examples of those who seemed most creative in their younger years, when more of their &quot;masterpieces&quot; were created, are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Music: Dylan, Browne, Springsteen&#xA;Literature: Twain, Steinbeck, London&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll leave it to others to add more examples, or refute these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11646" LastActivityDate="2017-08-30T16:02:08.513" Title="Is there an accepted age range for peak creativity?" Tags="&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-08-30T19:13:49.420" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18020" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12395" CreationDate="2017-08-30T20:20:11.627" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The paper &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/can-robots-make-good-models-of-biological-behaviour/2EDDC170407C49D33A59D514918C2FDA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Can robots make good models of biological behaviour&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Barbara Webb comes from a slightly different area, i.e. modeling biological organisms with robotics, making artificial cockroaches for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has a brilliant theoretical examination of modeling in terms of epistemology and philosophy of science. For your question it is possible that your skepticism is with regard dimensions 5 and 6 mentioned in the paper, i.e. structural accuracy and performance match.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of structural accuracy for example, if a social network uses random graphs, like Erdős–Rényi, it makes an assumption that is not met by the actual degree distributions of human social networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of performance match, the accuracy of the model's prediction can be assessed at various levels of precision. For example, the model may 'capture the trends' qualitatively, which may or may not be good enough for large scale simulations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other extreme one would find precise numeric predictions and examine their fit to real data. I guess that most models fall somewhere in between.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16796" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-08-31T14:00:36.670" LastActivityDate="2017-08-31T14:00:36.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18022" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-31T00:52:26.047" Score="2" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;By ANS I am referring to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximate_number_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://np.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2ayhkp/if_someone_asks_me_how_many_apples_are_on_the/cj02b7r/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this reddit answer&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The human mind has two systems for representing numbers: a subitizing&#xA;  system for numbers up to four, and an approximate ratio estimation&#xA;  system for larger numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It means that if we don't know how to count, we can only know about numbers upto 4. Anything more than that and we activate ANS system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But ANS system can't be useful for counting right? It is useful only when we have two groups of things. It is not useful when we want to estimate a magnitude of a single group of things. Is that correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1151" LastEditorUserId="1151" LastEditDate="2017-08-31T01:03:28.713" LastActivityDate="2017-08-31T01:03:28.713" Title="Is Approximate Number System used only for comparing magnitudes of groups of things, or does it also help in actual counting?" Tags="&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;numerical-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18024" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18049" CreationDate="2017-08-31T09:46:15.360" Score="5" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems generally agreed upon that semantic &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kfki.hu/~csdori/Concepts.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;concepts&lt;/a&gt; are distributedly represented by groups and groups of groups of neurons spread over the cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Disregarding the localizations, shapes and connectivity of these groups of neurons, I tried to consider them as sets (in the mathematical sense). Let $S(A)$ be the (probably fuzzy) set corresponding to concept $A$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only thing that I would take for granted is that for very similar semantic concepts $A$, $A'$ their corresponding sets of neurons $S(A), S(A')$ do overlap strongly. Otherwise the model of distributed representation would not make much sense to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other answers aren't so obvious:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does a more &lt;em&gt;general&lt;/em&gt; concept $A$ use more neurons than a more specific concept $B \subset A$ - or less? Or does it depend (on what)?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How do the sets of neurons of two concepts $A, B$ with $B \subset A$ overlap? Is maybe one a (fuzzy) subset of the other? More generally: How are semantical or extensional relations between two concepts reflected by set theoretic relations between their corresponding sets of neurons? (My intuitive guess is: $S(A)$ is larger than $S(B)$, and $S(B)$ is contained in $S(A)$, i.e. $S(B)\subset S(A)$. But this may be simply wrong.)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does a more &lt;em&gt;important&lt;/em&gt; concept $A$ (being used more often) use more neurons than a more rarely used.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if there is any evidence (empircal or theoretical) that sheds some light on these questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;[If you think, this question is devoid of scientific meaning or otherwise ill-posed, please let me know why.]&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-08-31T10:37:55.187" LastActivityDate="2017-09-04T13:26:28.550" Title="Conceptual representations in brain by distributed groups of neurons" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18025" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-08-31T18:16:15.550" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we meet someone and say they have a beard. When we meet another person with a beard. How do we know that is not the same person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, when we see the same person from a slightly different angle we recognise them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how do we not over-fit or under-fit on facial recognition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it just practice?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we just lived on an island with people who looked very different from each other (e.g. the old one, the tall one, the fat one, the bald one, the young one) and then travelled to a country with lots of similar looking people. Would we think they all looked the same?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2017-08-31T18:16:15.550" Title="How do we not think everyone is the same person from a slightly different position?" Tags="&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-09-05T12:18:12.963" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18029" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-01T08:43:00.303" Score="2" ViewCount="1826" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's commonly stated by numerous people that LSD and trytamines like DMT and psilocin are physically harmless and not neurotoxic. Is there evidence for this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recently read &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5047954/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5-meo-Dipt which is a tryptamine might be neurotoxic&lt;/a&gt;. Why would 5-meo-Dipt be neurotoxic but DMT and psilocin not be? From my understanding some people micro-dose with LSD and some tryptamines to feel sharper and increase felt intelligence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why would one tryptamine neurotoxic and others make someone feel more intelligent? Obviously &quot;feel&quot; is self reported and subjective, but I'm assuming there might be some truth to this if &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/24/15403644/microdosing-lsd-acid-productivity-benefits-brain-studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;people aren't tripping when experiencing these micro dosing effects&lt;/a&gt;. LSD isn't a tryptamine, but I think some people do similar things with tryptamines. I'm hoping someone with a better understand of neurology can answer this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To restate my question are typtamines and LSD generally neurotoxic and if not, could you please link to a study on it and what mechanism makes 5-meo-dipt possibly different, could other factors might have lead to a wrong conclusion, like for example harmful environment stress on rats or do you think all tryptamines are neurotoxic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand the possible reasons or lack there of for neurotoxicity in LSD and tryptamines but there seems to be lack of reliable sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16904" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-02T19:16:19.733" LastActivityDate="2020-04-14T09:53:13.580" Title="LSD and tryptamines harmless or neurotoxic?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-09-21T13:25:41.123" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18030" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17906" CreationDate="2017-09-01T12:48:01.377" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer to your question is that, yes, you are correct. &quot;Cognitive high performance&quot; is a much smaller part of classic neuropsychology than the study of brain damage. There are studies of the topics that you mention from a cognitive neuroscience perspective (e.g., a study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2011.05.033&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krawczyk et al. (2011)&lt;/a&gt; which does neuroimaging of chess experts). Some cases such as eidetic memory are disputed, so most of the science has focused on that. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1988-97460-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The exceptional brain&quot;&lt;/a&gt; is a classic book on &quot;special talents&quot; and neuropsychology, but it is pretty old now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't completely agree with your final point. Extremely good and extremely poor performance can both be studied with single cases OR group studies, but for the latter you obviously need to find multiple people with similar behaviour which is hard for both classic neuropsychology (e.g., selective agnosias) and for special talents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some definitions of neuropsychology specifically refer to brain damage and deficits, so in that sense your point is trivially true. Some, or perhaps most, people studying patients are partly motivated by helping people who have problems, and so studying high achievers might be less useful. We have quite a good understanding of some syndromes because of their reasonably high frequency and many decades of research (e.g., Neglect, Balints, Ataxias, Aphasias). I think you could make the argument that the behaviour demonstrated in these cases is not just &quot;less than&quot; normal but qualitatively different. Most people can play chess, improve their memory and memorize long numbers, particularly with training. So it is easier to see those with &quot;special talents&quot; as just the extreme end of a continuum which could be studied with typical people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, you might be interested in looking at work with autism which I think is a good example of something where people have looked at both the negative aspects and the (potential) advantages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Krawczyk, D. C., Boggan, A. L., McClelland, M. M., &amp;amp; Bartlett, J. C. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2011.05.033&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The neural organization of perception in chess experts&lt;/a&gt;. Neuroscience letters, 499(2), 64-69. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.utdallas.edu/chess/docs/krawczyk_etal_2011_NSL.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Obler, L. K., &amp;amp; Fein, D. E. (1988). &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1988-97460-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The exceptional brain: Neuropsychology of talent and special abilities.&lt;/a&gt; Guilford Press.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9539" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-09-01T13:41:21.203" LastActivityDate="2017-09-01T13:41:21.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18031" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-01T13:41:11.463" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a known single test person of whom the largest number of fMRI scans (while performing different tasks) have been recorded? Are these publicly available?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I assume some overarching patterns might be seen. (Comparing fMRI scans of different persons performing different tasks may be distracting.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-09-08T20:15:49.493" LastActivityDate="2017-09-08T20:15:49.493" Title="Single person with largest number of fMRI scans" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-09-08T18:40:51.180" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18032" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-02T00:07:58.877" Score="3" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently read &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wired.com/story/a-sons-race-to-give-his-dying-father-artificial-immortality/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an article&lt;/a&gt; about a journalist who created a chatbot to ensure that a conversational entity with elements of his dying father's personality would exist even after his father--terminally ill with cancer--passed away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a software engineer experienced with creating chatbots and it has crossed my mind to create one for the parents of my best childhood friend who was killed 10 years ago in a car accident. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I speak to the parents a few times a year and we have a great relationship. Having been their son's best friend when we were growing up, I know his mannerisms and expressions almost as well as they do so I am confident that I could do a good job of training the chatbot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, the parents have found their peace with my friend's passing and I don't want to do anything to jeopardize that. In any case, I would obviously discuss with them before creating such a chatbot. This leads to my ultimate question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would creating a chatbot based on a deceased loved one help or harm those of us left behind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I really don't know the right answer to this. In my most generous thoughts of how this turns out, it could give his parents, siblings, and future family members a way to remember/meet his fun, goofy personality, but I could also see this opening old wounds. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11590" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-09-02T15:46:25.713" LastActivityDate="2017-09-07T07:31:44.030" Title="Are chatbots based on deceased loved ones healthy?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2017-09-07T09:52:44.370" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18033" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-02T00:34:33.197" Score="1" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDITED QUESTION:&lt;/strong&gt; Many people insist that hate is a bad thing from a philosophical or ethical perspective. But many people in the CogSci community go one step further and claim that hate is bad in the sense that it can negatively impact one's mental or even physical health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies or literature to back up that claim? My ultimate goal is to find out how hate specifically hurts people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastEditorUserId="10155" LastEditDate="2017-09-02T21:49:45.137" LastActivityDate="2017-09-02T21:49:45.137" Title="The Effects of Hate" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-09-02T13:46:29.057" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18034" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19338" CreationDate="2017-09-02T02:53:13.793" Score="4" ViewCount="213" Body="&lt;p&gt;Starting from mark 21:50 in the lecture &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_t_NqEP80GE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BPD-related cognitive-perceptual difficulties and challenges in their diagnosis and treatment&lt;/a&gt;, there is an image of brain scan in borderline patients:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/f5rbyAC.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does this image say? The speaker says that it's something about uncontrollable manipulation of borderline patients, but I'm not really sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-03-14T04:36:12.247" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T17:04:33.750" Title="What is the meaning of the brain scan of borderline patients?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18035" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-02T10:32:09.003" Score="1" ViewCount="451" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Heuristic&lt;/strong&gt; is a mental shortcut that helps us to make decisions and judgments quickly, without spending time analyizing any aspect of reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several different categories of heuristics, three of them are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://publicwiki-01.fraunhofer.de/CIPedia/index.php/Psychological_Heuristics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Availability heuristic&lt;/a&gt; involves making decisions based upon how easy it is to bring something to mind&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://publicwiki-01.fraunhofer.de/CIPedia/index.php/Psychological_Heuristics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The representativeness heuristic&lt;/a&gt; involves making decisions by comparing the present situation to the most representative mental prototype&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nSFHFfevfms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Base-rate heuristic&lt;/a&gt; is a mental shortcut which helps us to make decisions based on probability&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read another type of heuristic: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anchoring%20Heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anchoring Heuristic&lt;/a&gt; that refers to the human tendency to accept and rely on the first piece of information received. I think that every kind of Heuristic uses an anchor to make decisions...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The point is: which is the difference among Anchoring Heuristic and the other types of heuristic?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean, to use an information as an anchor, is the mechanism of heuristic in general, isn't it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="16144" LastEditDate="2017-09-02T12:28:00.950" LastActivityDate="2017-09-02T12:28:00.950" Title="Anchoring Heuristic: a type of heuristic or the mechanism of functioning of heuristics?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18036" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-02T15:50:15.643" Score="5" ViewCount="2433" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sawyer (2005) defines &quot;Implicit Learning&quot; as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Implicit learning refers to situations in which complex information is acquired effortlessly (without a  conscious effort), and the resulting knowledge is difficult to express verbally (e.g., Berry, 1997; Cleeremans, Destrebecqz, &amp;amp; Boyer, 1998; Reber, 1967 ). Although many types of implicit learning exist, a common process underlies most of them - the rapid, effortless, and untutored detection of patterns of covariation among events (Reber, 1993). (Page 19)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_learning&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; provides a nice definition of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Soderstrom and Bjork (2015) have defined &quot;Latent learning&quot; as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Latent learning is defined as learning that occurs in the absence of any obvious reinforcement or noticeable behavioral changes. Learning is said to be “latent,” or hidden, because it is not exhibited unless a reinforcement of some kind is introduced to reveal it. Consider, for example, a person who recently moved to a new city and, apprehensive about driving, decides to ride the city bus each day to work. Riding the bus day after day, the route would be learned through observation, but such learning would only be evident if an incentive was present that required it—say, when it was necessary for the person to drive to work on his or her own. The early findings of latent learning were intriguing and controversial because they challenged the widely held assumption that learning could occur only in the presence of reinforcement. For a classic review of the early latent learning studies, we recommend Tolman (1948), in which the concept of “cognitive maps” was introduced, a term that refers to the mental representation of one’s spatial environment. (Page 177)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between these two?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sawyer, R. K. (Ed.). (2005). &lt;em&gt;The Cambridge handbook of the learning&#xA;sciences&lt;/em&gt;. Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Soderstrom, N. C., &amp;amp; Bjork, R. A. (2015). Learning versus&lt;br&gt;&#xA;performance: An integrative review. Perspectives on Psychological&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Science, 10(2), 176-199.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11686" LastActivityDate="2017-09-06T21:41:11.713" Title="Implicit Learning vs. Latent Learning" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;definition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18037" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-02T15:50:58.017" Score="3" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was a study in the 1960s that presented alternately two plausible hypotheses, I think about the influence of socioeconomic class on something. The subjects were shown fake experimental evidence to support one of them, after which they thought it was obvious that the one shown was true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic result was to show, how easy it is for us to be convinced by any story if it is made to sound plausible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone help me find this paper? I can't remember where I saw this short summary of it, but it is likely a textbook example. What's been done on the topic since then?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12928" LastActivityDate="2017-09-02T15:50:58.017" Title="Classic 1960s experiment on &quot;post hoc&quot; / &quot;obvious after the fact&quot; bias" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18038" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18029" CreationDate="2017-09-02T19:11:24.030" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;All neuropsychopharmaceuticals, including the tryptamines, are potentially neurotoxic depending on the dose at which they are ingested.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurotoxicity is, arguaby, a broad definition. According to the NIH, neurotoxicity can be caused by processes ranging from radiation to transplants, and from chemical toxins to cosmetics. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Neurotoxicity-Information-Page&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIH defines neurotoxicity as&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neurotoxicity occurs when the exposure to natural or manmade toxic substances (neurotoxicants) alters the normal activity of the nervous system. This can eventually disrupt or even kill neurons, key cells that transmit and process signals in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Neurotoxicity can result from exposure to substances used in chemotherapy, radiation treatment, drug therapies, and organ transplants, as well as exposure to heavy metals such as lead and mercury, certain foods and food additives, pesticides, industrial and/or cleaning solvents, cosmetics, and some naturally occurring substances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LSD is a tryptamine &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BdPGX.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Shulgin, &amp;amp; Shulgin, 1997)&lt;/a&gt;, see Fig. 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BdPGX.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BdPGX.png&quot; alt=&quot;LSD&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. LSD contains the tryptamine structure (in red). source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.shroomery.org/forums/showflat.php/Number/3039286/fpart/all/vc/1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shroomery&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, every compound is toxic when taken in large quantities. For instance, water can kill, referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_intoxication&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;water intoxication&lt;/a&gt;, for example as seen in people tripping on MDMA and taking in too much water &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/strange-but-true-drinking-too-much-water-can-kill/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ballantyne, 2007)&lt;/a&gt;. Oxygen, another key to life, is a deadly gas when taken in artificially high concentrations for too long. Likewise, neuropharmacologically active compounds will hence eventually become neurotoxins. This, because the definition of &lt;em&gt;neurotoxic&lt;/em&gt; is indeed quite broad (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Neurotoxicity-Information-Page&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIH&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neurotoxicity occurs when the exposure to natural or manmade toxic substances (neurotoxicants) alters the normal activity of the nervous system. This can eventually disrupt or even kill neurons, key cells that transmit and process signals in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus when you ask&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;are tryptamines, including LSD [sic] generally neurotoxic?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then the answer is yes, depending on the dose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reversely, then, every neurotoxin becomes non-toxic once taken below a certain threshold dose. If this is what you refer to by 'microdosages', then yes, even the most potent toxin becomes harmless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To specifically answer your question with regard to LSD and psilocin: LSD is suspected to be neurotoxic at clinically applied dosages &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26966135&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Larsen, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;, and psilocin can result in convulsions and death follow massive overdose &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4757-4552-8_14&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Gold &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2003)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/strange-but-true-drinking-too-much-water-can-kill/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ballantyne, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt; 2007&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4757-4552-8_14&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gold &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Atlas of Clinical Neurology&lt;/em&gt;, Springer. pp 503-24&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26966135&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Larsen, &lt;em&gt;Hist Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2016); &lt;strong&gt;27&lt;/strong&gt;(2):172-89&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://erowid.org/library/books_online/tihkal/tihkal.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shulgin &amp;amp; Shulgin, Tihkal - The Continuation, pp. 490-99&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-14T09:53:13.580" LastActivityDate="2020-04-14T09:53:13.580" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18039" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18054" CreationDate="2017-09-03T13:34:38.203" Score="5" ViewCount="2558" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently gotten into listening to podcasts. Over time, as I get accustomed to the speaker's voice, I'm able to increase the speed of the podcast to as high as 3x speed. It still feels &quot;normal&quot; to me, as if the speaker is having a normal-speed conversation with me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I turn down the speed to 1x, it sounds unbearably slow. For non-speed-listeners, listen to something at 0.5x or 0.25x, and you'll know what 1x sounds like to speed listeners. It's as if speed listening shifts up a listener's range of acceptable speed, so that lower speeds are no longer in that range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know there are plenty of other speed listeners who do the same thing (just Google &quot;speed listening&quot; to see for yourself). Yet, others have told me that at this speed, podcasts are basically unintelligible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, I have a handful of related questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What occurs in the brain when a person speed listens? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a. Why does the podcast feel &quot;normal&quot; at such fast speeds? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b. Is there a fundamental/biological difference between those who can speed listen and those who can't, or is it a learned ability?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is speed listening detrimental to listening comprehension?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16913" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-05T08:18:26.693" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T09:46:44.763" Title="How does speed listening work?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;speech-comprehension&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18042" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-03T19:27:55.977" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for more thoughts on appropriate ways of calculating chance behavior and subsequently calculating behavioral strategies for the following two types of tasks. Both have two types of errors - false alarms and missed responses (both of which occur in subjects performing the task).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) delayed match to sample task in a go/no go paradigm - responding to match stimulus w/o an intervening  distractor or nonmatch stimulus (this is just to establish a baseline that responder and I are thinking along the same lines)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) delayed match to sample task - responding to match stimulus with one or more intervening distractors or nonmatch stimuli. So subject has to withhold response and press to the match stimulus when it appears later in the trial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This complexity can lead to subjects adopting different (sometimes idiosyncratic) strategies that may have varying demands on working memory. Some tasks make this easier by adopting a heuristic where match and nonmatch are from a different category, allowing the subject to match categories instead of actual sounds or movies, making the task significantly easier. I would like to be able to quantify or model this behavior and establish putative individual strategies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16917" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-03T20:08:14.710" LastActivityDate="2017-09-03T20:08:14.710" Title="Calculating chance behavior and behavioral strategies in delayed response paradigm" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-09-09T20:38:57.383" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18043" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-04T00:24:24.087" Score="3" ViewCount="250" Body="&lt;p&gt;I feel like in the U.S where I was born and raised there are definable personality archetypes which fall into obvious stereotypes such as a dry as dust country type accent and life-style, snob, ultra conservative old woman etc What I want to know is if these behaviors have been catalogued and defined. For instances, writers have alleged that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/govbeat/wp/2013/11/08/which-of-the-11-american-nations-do-you-live-in/?utm_term=.481693b04c57&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;there are 11 different &quot;nations&quot; in the United States.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are their bases and why do people conform so rigidly to these types? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16675" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2017-09-04T09:03:06.750" LastActivityDate="2017-09-04T09:03:06.750" Title="Are There National Personality Archetypes?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-09-04T16:00:42.017" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18044" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18043" CreationDate="2017-09-04T02:45:20.390" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;News reporter Colin Woodard has published a book describing &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/govbeat/wp/2013/11/08/which-of-the-11-american-nations-do-you-live-in/?utm_term=.481693b04c57&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;11 nations&quot; of North America&lt;/a&gt;, each with its unique personality, that also influences the individuals that live within their confines. For instance, Puritain northeasterners tend to well-educated, liberal &quot;good government&quot; types. Slightly to the south and west are the commercially oriented &quot;New Netherlands&quot; types that retain the early Dutch influence. The Midlanders and Appalachians are more fragmented and less pro-Government than others. The Tidewater and the South are more &quot;traditional&quot; areas that prefer state to Federal authority. The rugged western parts of the country value hard work and self-sufficiency and (mostly) have libertarian tendencies. &quot;New France&quot; and &quot;First&quot; (Indian) nations are unique subcultures within this group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each area was initially shaped by its historical experience, and later attracted the immigrants that were most like it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastActivityDate="2017-09-04T02:45:20.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18045" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14019" CreationDate="2017-09-04T02:54:34.730" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Similar to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/13317/4397&quot;&gt;your other question&lt;/a&gt;, this one reduces to &quot;what are the neural mechanisms behind language?&quot;, which is very much a work in progress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only neural model of language that I currently know of is the Semantic Pointer Architecture (SPA), which is largely theoretical and only has some super basic examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, the SPA represents language as vector manipulation. The vectors are represented in neurons using the Neural Engineering Framework.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more details on how this is done, check out &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith and &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/people/peter-blouw.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the work by Peter Blouw&lt;/a&gt; who is trying to solve part of this problem with his PhD thesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-09-04T02:54:34.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18046" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18043" CreationDate="2017-09-04T03:00:19.817" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;David Fischer's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.historytoday.com/edward-countryman/albions-seed-four-british-folkways-america&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America&lt;/a&gt; posits that there are four different &quot;American&quot; cultures - Puritans, Quakers, Cavaliers, and Hillbillies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13656" LastActivityDate="2017-09-04T03:00:19.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18048" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-04T09:18:04.193" Score="1" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder, if the following model of the working and function of hypothetical &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandmother_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;grandmother&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_explanations_of_the_%22grandmother%22_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cells&lt;/a&gt; is worthy of consideration or not (or if it is even a common view, just differently stated).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume that a rich inner presentation of my grandmother includes simultaneously imagining parts of her look, her voice, her smell, characteristics of her speech, behaviour and personality, her name. All this represented somehow by distributed neuron assemblies spread over the cortex, in modality specific areas (modality in a wide sense).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each such assembly is somehow capable of activating other grandmother related assemblies, so if I read only the name of my grandmother (or e.g. a description of something she did in her characteristic way, or have a glance at a letter hand-written by her) a more or less rich inner representation of her arises.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could happen in two quite different ways: those different modality specific assemblies activate each other in intricate ways &lt;em&gt;directly&lt;/em&gt;, or they all activate a central small assembly (the grandmother assembly) which in turn activates the others. This assembly would work as (and have the function of) a hub. Its function would be both that of spreading and of integration of information. It would be used both for &lt;em&gt;creating&lt;/em&gt; the global representation and for maintaining/stabilizing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this hub to work, it must consist of different neurons, at least one for each modality - otherwise it would respond to rather arbitrary global patterns (summing up all excitatory inputs at once). But given that, it might work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The truth (in the brain) will probably lie inbetween these two extremes: &quot;no hub at all&quot; and &quot;very small hubs&quot;. And the hubs can be more or less important (because there are neuronal pathways bypassing them). And the hubs can be more or less specific (with respect to the cognitive item they are responsible for).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a majority opinion among cognitive neuroscientists concerning these questions (existence/number and size of such hubs and their specificity and importance)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-09-04T11:12:01.937" LastActivityDate="2017-09-04T11:12:01.937" Title="Hypothetical working and function of grandmother cells" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-09-19T10:44:33.660" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18049" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18024" CreationDate="2017-09-04T11:08:28.827" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might want to take a look at the work about conceptual spaces by Peter Gärdenfors, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0262572192&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.amazon.com/Conceptual-Spaces-Geometry-Thought-Press/dp/0262572192&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the work about semantic pointers might be interesting here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26235459&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26235459&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My opinion with regard to this is, that using set theory to represent concepts is a fruitful approach, but there needs to be a precise definition of the &quot;space&quot; we are talking about as well as if and how it is possible to define some metric on this space or a higher structure, e.g. if it is a vector space. This metric must not only take into account set overlaps but also principal phenomena corresponding to what we know about neurobiology, e.g. classical/operant conditioning etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's try to build this up systematically (Note, that I do not use a fuzzy set definition here but it might provide some more flexibility and thanks for putting me on that track ;)): We could define the set of all neurons &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;N = {n_1,n_2,...,n_m}&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and the set of all possible states of a neuron (avoiding, for now, a precise definition of what a state is. For example, a state could be a frequency or some pattern of action potentials, e.g. rate/temporal/population code or just a discrete value of the membrane potential)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;S={s_1,s_2,...,s_l}&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Cartesian product set &lt;code&gt;N x S&lt;/code&gt; will give us the set of all neurons in all possible states &lt;code&gt;C_0&lt;/code&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;C_0={n_1(s_1),n_1(s_2),n_2(s_1),n_2(s_2),...,n_m(s_l)}&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then let's define a &lt;em&gt;concept space&lt;/em&gt; as a mapping &lt;code&gt;f1&lt;/code&gt; from &lt;code&gt;C_0&lt;/code&gt; to a new set &lt;code&gt;C_1&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;C_1={{n_1(s_1),n_3(s_3),n_4(s_1),n_5(s_8)},{n_1(s_1),n_2(s_3),n_5(s_9)},...}={c1_1,c1_2,...,c1_x}&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, an element (&lt;code&gt;c1_x&lt;/code&gt;) of &lt;code&gt;C_1&lt;/code&gt; could be a visual representation of a house or some sound or smell or just a point or a line. This is what Thagard &amp;amp; Steward (2014) defined as a semantic pointer and it shares some similarity with Tononi's (e.g. 2016) approach of a qualia space (although approached from a different (set theoretic) angle since Tononi uses information theory). This also is similar to Gardenförs' concept of a conceptual space, although he did not make his definitions mathematically precise. Because strictly, &lt;code&gt;C_1&lt;/code&gt; still has no structure, i.e. is not a vector space or more generally a metric space. There still has to be defined some distance function, which is not easy to be found. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, it is possible to generate more and more sets representing more and more complex concepts by consecutive mappings &lt;code&gt;f1 to fn&lt;/code&gt;. That is we can generate a new set &lt;code&gt;C_2&lt;/code&gt; consisting of elements of &lt;code&gt;C_1&lt;/code&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;C_2={{c1_1,c1_3,c1_5,c1_9},{c1_7,c1_1,c1_8},...}={c2_1,c2_2,...,c2_x}&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine the element &lt;code&gt;c2_1&lt;/code&gt; consisting of four lines with coordinates of length &lt;code&gt;l1 to l4&lt;/code&gt; each of them in a specific angle &lt;code&gt;a1 to a4&lt;/code&gt; such that they create a square. Or take &lt;code&gt;c2_2&lt;/code&gt; as three lines with length &lt;code&gt;l1 to l3&lt;/code&gt; and angles &lt;code&gt;a1 to a3&lt;/code&gt; such that they create a triangle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This process can be repeated to generate more and more abstract concepts. I think it is easy to understand it when considering how letters are combined to words and words form sentences and sentences form even more abstract meanings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are now many questions that arise, e.g. are the mappings injective, surjective or bijective? Do inverse mappings exist? What is a suitable metric that is in accord with neurobiological and experimental data? Can a higher structure e.g. vector space be defined?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I can try to answer your questions: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Based on the above definition one can assume that more general concept e.g. a cube is formed by a set of lines, i.e. a set of semantic pointers forms another set of semantic pointers. For example, a complex movement with the hand was initially learned by combining different simple movements. Or take learning to speak a word for example.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Also based on the definition above, there must not be an overlap between sets at all! Take two very different semantic pointers for example, like barking and the visual representation of a dog. Whereas one set of semantic pointers might represent the sound, the other may represent the visual aspect, but they might not share the same neurons. But all of them together create a concept of a dog. So here again, the definition of similarity seems to be not just a simple set overlap metric (e.g. Szymkiewicz-Simpson coefficient or Jaccard index). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;This depends on the definition of important. If you define important as activated more often together, then one could just assume a simple (e.g. Hebbian or STDP) learning rule which strengthens the connection between neurons. But I doubt that more neurons will be included in the concept except when the concept is updated/broadened by new experiences. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps a bit! I'm trying to build a more general understanding of conceptual spaced based on set theory for a while and I always welcome discussions, critique or collaborations :).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Thagard, Paul, and Terrence C. Stewart. &quot;Two theories of consciousness: Semantic pointer competition vs. information integration.&quot; Consciousness and Cognition 30 (2014): 73-90.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Tononi, Giulio. &quot;Consciousness as integrated information: a provisional manifesto.&quot; The Biological Bulletin (2016).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4439" LastEditorUserId="4439" LastEditDate="2017-09-04T13:26:28.550" LastActivityDate="2017-09-04T13:26:28.550" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18051" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18039" CreationDate="2017-09-05T02:46:39.780" Score="4" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There is probably not a large difference from what occurs during normal listening--and that is likely why speed listening is effective:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a. The reason it &quot;feels&quot; normal is the same that any other sensory stimuli feel normal after a while: your brain habituates to the patterns of your sensory experience. If you increased the pitch of the podcast without changing the speed, for example, eventually the chipmunk voices would sound normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b. It is almost certainly a learned ability, or, really, just a different comfort zone. The average rate of self-talk (i.e. verbal thoughts) is usually given as around 400 words-per-minute, and this is also the upper end of normal reading rates (200-400 WPM). According to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncvs.org/ncvs/tutorials/voiceprod/tutorial/quality.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Center for Voice and Speech&lt;/a&gt;, &quot;The average rate of speech for English speakers in the United States is about 150 words per minute&quot;. Narrators for audiobooks and podcasts often speak somewhat slower than this to compensate for the lack of visual cues. So, at 3X speed, the typical audio track approaches the upper limits of typical verbal processing (by the way, reading, thinking, and listening ALL activate the same parts of auditory cortex associated with language). So, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/jan/29/speed-reading-claims-discredited-by-new-report&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;unlike with speed reading&lt;/a&gt;, it is entirely reasonable that a majority of people could learn to comprehend audio content at 3X the typical rate (but see caveat below). However, speed listening is going to require more &lt;em&gt;attention&lt;/em&gt;. People who complain they cannot understand at higher listening rates likely should say they cannot do the simultaneous commentary/reflecting/daydreaming that they normally do simultaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It depends on the content, but probably not for most podcasts. Let's assume that the baseline rate of the track is such that, at 3X, it doesn't go above 400 WPM. Most podcasts take care to provide narratives that are well-structured and easy to follow--that's why they're enjoyable to listen to. All the verbal reasoning necessary to comprehend the content is included in the track. But now imagine listening to a math or physics textbook at that speed. In this case, while sufficient information is provided for understanding, it requires quite a bit of cognitive &quot;unpacking&quot; (matching with context, relating concepts, generating cognitive models, etc.), a bit like a zip file. I remember my math professor saying even trained mathematicians can spend 30 min understanding a single page! Another caveat is memory. Even though you may comprehend every word of the track, you definitely won't remember it in every detail. And remember that commentary/reflecting/relating you gave up in focusing your attention? Studies show that's actually important to learning and memory (not so with daydreaming, of course). But as long as you pause when you come across an interesting point to really let it sink in, you'd probably solve that problem as well.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16928" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T02:46:39.780" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18052" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-05T06:12:43.827" Score="3" ViewCount="624" Body="&lt;p&gt;I consider myself to be a very critical and analytical thinker. I can't help obsess over every little detail, consider various perspectives, use-cases, etc. I've been programming since a young age (self-taught). At the same time, I have ADHD and a bad working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I master something, I find that I can think critically and outside the box much better than someone else. I can utilise it better, build upon it better, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of my bad short term memory, I assume i will do generally bad in IQ tests and this is not surprising. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of my bad memory, it might take me longer to master something than someone else. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do IQ tests measure critical thinking ability at all? Or just working memory? IQ and working memory are highly correlated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16930" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T08:21:31.733" Title="IQ, Intelligence and Critical Thinking" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-09-05T21:41:21.593" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18053" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16828" CreationDate="2017-09-05T07:51:15.120" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;$EF$ is the &quot;easiness factor&quot;. This means that the greater easiness you have, the longer will be the interval to next review ($I_\text{new}$).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if you will use the old $EF$, the new interval value will not take into account your last review quality, which makes less sense IMO.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the other hand, as I can see in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.supermemo.com/english/ol/sm2source.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;original implementation of algorithm&lt;/a&gt;, they calculate the interval first and then they calculate the easiness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;procedure Repetition(ElementNo,Grade:longint;var NextInterval:longint;commit:WordBool);&#xA;  var DataRecord:TDataRecord;&#xA;  begin&#xA;    DataRecord:=GetDataRecord(ElementNo);&#xA;&#xA;    with DataRecord do&#xA;    begin&#xA;      if Grade&amp;gt;=3 then&#xA;      begin&#xA;        if Repetition=0 then&#xA;        begin&#xA;          Interval:=1;&#xA;          Repetition:=1;&#xA;        end&#xA;        else if Repetition=1 then&#xA;        begin&#xA;          Interval:=6;&#xA;          Repetition:=2;&#xA;        end&#xA;        else begin&#xA;          Interval:=round(Interval*EF);&#xA;          Repetition:=Repetition+1;&#xA;        end;&#xA;      end&#xA;      else begin&#xA;        Repetition:=0;&#xA;        Interval:=1;&#xA;      end;&#xA;&#xA;      EF:=EF+(0.1-(5-Grade)*(0.08+(5-Grade)*0.02));&#xA;&#xA;      if EF&amp;lt;1.3 then&#xA;        EF:=1.3;&#xA;        NextInterval:=Interval;&#xA;      end;&#xA;&#xA;      if commit then&#xA;        SetDataRecord(ElementNo,DataRecord);&#xA;      end;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same is in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.supermemo.com/english/ol/sm2.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;specification&lt;/a&gt;: they calculate next interval at step 3 and $EF$ is calculated at step 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to understand what all these magic coefficients mean and how they were found, but unfortunately didn't find this information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16931" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T07:51:15.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18054" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18039" CreationDate="2017-09-05T08:17:48.110" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question made me think of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.freedomscientific.com/Products/Blindness/JAWS&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;JAWS&lt;/a&gt;, a screen reader for the blind. I have worked with visually impaired people for a while and I have always wondered how on earth they can understand the speech produced by JAWS given the sheer high speech rates they apply on their gadgets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, people with peripheral vision loss may learn to understand spoken language at rates of up to about 22 &lt;a href=&quot;http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/syllable&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;syllables&lt;/a&gt; per seconds, while the rate in normal listeners is about 8 syllables per sec &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3805979/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Dietrich &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2013)&lt;/a&gt;. These numbers are based on speech &lt;em&gt;understanding&lt;/em&gt;, as opposed to simply hearing it.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence in answer to your question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is speed listening detrimental to listening comprehension?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say no, at least not in above study, as speech understanding there was tested in a speech comprehension test, which is different than just &lt;em&gt;hearing&lt;/em&gt; the speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then your questions &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What occurs in the brain when a person speed listens?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  a. Why does the&#xA;  podcast feel &quot;normal&quot; at such fast speeds?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  b. Is there a&#xA;  fundamental/biological difference between those who can speed listen&#xA;  and those who can't, or is it a learned ability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case of blind people it has been shown that they activate their visual cortex when speed reading. This, because the deafferented area is recruited for other modalities, such as touch and hearing. This is probably not what you are after in your question though. In effect, I doubt gross effects on brain activity occurs in trained, normally sighted subjects and indeed a study where both sighted and blind individuals were trained on fast-speech understanding does not report on gross effects in the sighted group &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093934X12002003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hertrich &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2006)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It feels normal because it is a &lt;strong&gt;learned ability&lt;/strong&gt;; to continue with the example of these blind folks - they haven't been able to read for a long time and the only way they communicate through written materials is via screen readers. The spoken word is slower than reading so they crank up the speeds whenever possible, so they are slowly increasing their speech understanding skills. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3805979/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dietrich &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Hum Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;7&lt;/strong&gt;: 701&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093934X12002003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hertrich &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Brain and Language&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;124&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 9-21&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-05T09:46:44.763" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T09:46:44.763" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18055" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18052" CreationDate="2017-09-05T08:21:31.733" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a variety of &quot;IQ&quot; tests which attempt to achieve a particular goal (culture-fairness, isolating specialized aspects of cognition, etc.).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Raven's Progressive Matrices&quot; is a popular type of test that was originally developed in search of an IQ-metric that was &quot;culture-fair&quot; (that is, scoring well did not rely on any cultural background).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the same vein, it's possible to find specialized IQ tests which selectively measure verbal reasoning, spatial reasoning, and/or memory in isolation. The following website is a battle-tested resource for these sorts of metrics:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results can be mapped back into &quot;IQ&quot; space by matching the percentiles (conveniently, with the aid of this table: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.iqcomparisonsite.com/iqtable.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.iqcomparisonsite.com/iqtable.aspx&lt;/a&gt; ).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16932" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T08:21:31.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18056" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5987" CreationDate="2017-09-05T08:36:08.490" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is difficult to distinguish between these two because tests and criteria are not perfect. Still, one is a form of autism, one is related to schizophrenia, so they should be different. I would look at autistic traits: tendency to see patterns, interest in numbers, inability to read emotions. If these are normal, then probably it is not asperger or any form of autism. As for schizoid personality disorder, there is a question if we are dealing with a disorder or a personality type. If it is not damaging to the quality of life of the person or others, it should not be evaluated as a disorder. There is an introvert personality type which resembles schizoid and is connected with many difficulties in life, but is still not a personality disorder. So make these three distinctions, separate autistic spectrum by its specific signs, then disorder by evaluating if is counts as a disorder (to be treated). If not, it is simply a possibly rare personality type. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16933" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T08:36:08.490" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18059" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5987" CreationDate="2017-09-05T11:35:55.200" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very good question. It's true that there might be some problems to differentiate &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asperger_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Asperger's Syndrome&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizoid_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schizoid Personality Disorder&lt;/a&gt;, infact, according to DSM-5 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Individuals with a Schizoid Personality Disorder shows a pattern of dethachment from social&#xA;relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, the manual specifies the likeness of symptoms between Schizoid Personality Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder but &lt;em&gt;the latter records&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;a more severely impaired social interaction and stereotyped behaviors and interests.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to DSM-5, A personality disorder is an enduring pattern&#xA;of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual's&#xA;culture, &lt;strong&gt;is pervasive and inflexible&lt;/strong&gt; and occur in two or more of these fields: 1- cognition 2- affectivity 3- interpersonal functioning 4- impulse control&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM-5 divided Personality disorders in three &lt;em&gt;Clusters&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cluster A includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cluster B includes antisocial, borderline, histrionic,&#xA;and narcissistic personality disorders, &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cluster C includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessivecompulsive&#xA;personality disorders.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cluster A&lt;/strong&gt; refers to &quot;Individuals with&#xA;these disorders often appear &lt;em&gt;odd or eccentric&lt;/em&gt;.&quot; They show a bizzarre and strange behavior. &#xA;The cognitive and perceptive dimension - dysfunctional in that disorders - has been correlated with an increased activity of dopaminergic system &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14992962&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Siever, Davis, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regards to Aperger's Syndrome, DSM-5 folded it into the umbrella of autism spectrum disorders.&#xA;To the diagnose is needed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;estricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least two of the following, currently or by history&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Symptoms must be present in the early developmental period (&lt;em&gt;Not essential for a diagnose of Schizoid Personality Disorder&lt;/em&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Symptoms cause clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of current functioning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;These disturbances are not better explained by intellectual disability &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DSM-5 diagnostic criteria of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autism Spectrum Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DSM - 5 (2013)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14992962&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Siever LJ1, Davis KL&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;The pathophysiology of schizophrenia disorders: perspectives from the spectrum&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T11:35:55.200" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18060" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18077" CreationDate="2017-09-05T13:15:42.137" Score="2" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.math.mcgill.ca/rags/seminar/poli.txt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;seminar abstract titled &quot;THE UNREASONABLE INEFFECTIVENESS OF MATHEMATICS IN COGNITIVE SCIENCES&quot;&lt;/a&gt; by Roberto Poli, he mentions &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I will consider some conceptual issues that might prove important for&#xA;  framing the problem of cognitive mathematics (= mathematics for the&#xA;  cognitive sciences), namely &lt;strong&gt;the problem of n-dynamics&lt;/strong&gt;, of identity, of&#xA;  timing, and of the specious present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is &lt;strong&gt;n-dynamics&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2017-09-07T12:51:31.050" Title="What is 'n-dynamics' mentioned by Poli?" Tags="&lt;dynamic-systems&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18061" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6512" CreationDate="2017-09-05T15:36:04.973" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://electronics.stackexchange.com/a/135383/162027&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt; explains, the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation of $x$ is the same as the magnitude squared of the Fourier transform of $x$. The autocorrelation of x can be expressed as $x(t)*x(-t)$, where * means &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;convolution&lt;/a&gt; and the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation is then $X(w)X^*(w)=|X(w)^2|$, which of course is the Fourier transform of the original signal $x(t)$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for references, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/8385/reference-request-in-circuit-and-signals-for-computational-neuroscience/8395#8395&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-09-05T15:36:04.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18064" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-05T23:44:59.923" Score="1" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider a mind experiment: you are stuck inside a trapped room. There are only two ways for you to go out and you have to choose one. Would you rather go through four traps each with 20% chance of killing you (80% chance to survive each trap), or one trap that has 58% chance of killing you (42% chance to survive the only trap)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intuitively I would undoubtedly choose the first option although mathematically I should choose the second option, since mathematically the chances of surviving in the first option is only 40.96%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagining being trapped in such a room, I can easily see myself walk through the four 80% traps one by one without much trouble. But I cannot imagine myself walk through the 42% trap alive without some good luck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are two things I want to know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is my intuition similar to most people or not?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If this is indeed the most natural intuition, what is the cause that it is different from the mathematical result?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16834" LastEditorUserId="16941" LastEditDate="2017-09-06T00:57:22.020" LastActivityDate="2017-09-06T21:05:07.370" Title="A mind experiment about probability" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-09-13T07:44:17.717" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18066" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17990" CreationDate="2017-09-06T11:16:31.910" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if a &quot;cognitive bias/fallacy exist&quot;, however you could find some answers to your question looking at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.infiressources.ca/fer/Depotdocument_anglais/Defense_Mechanisms_among_Our_Students.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defense mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; that each one of us use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Defense mechanisms&lt;/strong&gt; were first described in 1874 by &lt;em&gt;Sigmund Freud&lt;/em&gt; as strategies  developed by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego&lt;/a&gt; when under pressure by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;superego&lt;/a&gt;, unconscious and external reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, they rise from conflicts and their nature depends on the quality of conflicts (Anna Freud, 1936). In this case we would talk about:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Denial:&lt;/strong&gt; A primitive defense mechanism which triggers an exclusion of an unpleasant and unbearable part of the reality from the conscious&#xA;  field. This exclusion occur by fantasy and by behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;An aspect of reality has been refused and unknown, splitting from the coscience&lt;/em&gt; (White and Gilliland, 1975).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To sum up, denial allows these individuals to hide from a reality that is too hard to cope with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wish to have been helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Ego-Mechanisms-Defence-Anna-Freud/dp/1855750384&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anna Freud (1936)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;&quot;The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0808909134&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;White and Gilliland (1975)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;&quot;Elements of Psychopathology: Mechanisms of Defense&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-09-06T11:16:31.910" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18068" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18036" CreationDate="2017-09-06T21:02:01.507" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Implicit Learning&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Implicit learning refers to situations in which complex information is&#xA;  acquired effortlessly (&lt;em&gt;without a conscious effort&lt;/em&gt;), and the resulting&#xA;  knowledge is &lt;em&gt;difficult to express verbally&lt;/em&gt;. (Italics mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As discussed in the Wikipedia page, the exact definition is controversial, but all the paradigms (verbal reports, forced-choice tests, etc.) listed, the knowledge is gained &lt;em&gt;unintentionally&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;without awareness&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both these criteria relate to the learner's subjective relationship with the acquired knowledge. It says nothing about behavior and reinforcement, which may be readily apparent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider social skills as an example. I may smile, gesture, and make eye-contact appropriately (behavior), and I experience positive social outcomes when I do so (reinforcement). However, I never explicitly set out to learn the number of milliseconds to maintain eye-contact, or what situations warrant a smile. Moreover, if someone offered to pay me to write instructions on how to engage socially, I would have a hard time articulating my knowledge. It is implicit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Latent Learning&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Latent learning is defined as learning that occurs in the absence of&#xA;  any obvious &lt;em&gt;reinforcement&lt;/em&gt; or noticeable &lt;em&gt;behavioral changes&lt;/em&gt;. (Italics mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These criteria relate to the objective behavior and circumstances of the learner. It says nothing about the learner's subjective awareness of the knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider the bus ride example. I may be perfectly aware that I am gaining knowledge of the bus route through observation. But an objective observer would have no way of proving that I have learned the route: I behave the same as if I had not learned it, and I receive no clear reinforcement for doing so. However, if someone offered to pay me to give directions to my work place, I would be able to do so. My knowledge is explicit but hidden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To sum it up very roughly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Implicit learning&lt;/em&gt; is when the knowledge you gained isn't apparent to you.&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Latent learning&lt;/em&gt; is when the knowledge you gained isn't apparent to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16928" LastEditorUserId="16928" LastEditDate="2017-09-06T21:41:11.713" LastActivityDate="2017-09-06T21:41:11.713" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18075" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18032" CreationDate="2017-09-07T07:31:44.030" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, it depends on whether they would like the AI to synthesize novel thoughts/opinions or to merely contextually quote a history of that individual's textual recordings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Making a value judgement here, I would say than an AI saying &quot;I forgive you.&quot; (from beyond the grave) is not healthy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if the chatbot acted as a way of indexing into the individual's actual history, then all potential errors become ones of context (and not content).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(This level of reproduction may not be totally necessary depending on the users' sensitivity to cognitive dissonance, but I would personally feel slimy if I tried to pass off a markov chain of scripts and data as my friend.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're open to alternatives to chatbots, I would suggest that you frame the project as a tribute to your friend's life; even a simple collection of stories from your time together could have a powerful (healthy) impact on the grieving parents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16932" LastActivityDate="2017-09-07T07:31:44.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18060" CreationDate="2017-09-07T12:51:31.050" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I contacted the author. He's now in University of Trento.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He says it refers to the theory of multiple levels of reality, the dynamics of each level, and the interaction among them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2017-09-07T12:51:31.050" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18078" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17990" CreationDate="2017-09-07T19:40:22.347" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. This is a special case of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identifiable_victim_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;identifiable victim effect&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: the cognitive bias implicated in the quote, &quot;A single death is a tragedy; a million deaths is a statistic.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The identifiable victim effect might be paraphrased as the tendency to view harm of many as unimportant. A direct corollary is the tendency to view &lt;em&gt;small&lt;/em&gt; harm of many as unimportant. Going off AliceD's example, we might expect taking \$1 from a million to sound preferable even to taking just \$100k from 1 person. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A potential objection&lt;/strong&gt; might be, &quot;sure, but in this case, 'one person' isn't really an identifiable victim. It's really about the &lt;em&gt;small amount&lt;/em&gt; of harm since both victims are just 'statistics'.&quot; Fair point, but even if you wanted to classify this as a bias distinct from the identifiable victim effect, they both result from the same cognitive heuristic: experiential thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Experiential thinking&lt;/strong&gt;, in this context, is evaluating a scenario by imagining yourself in it and judging what that experience would be like. For example, when I imagine losing \$10, it is far preferable to losing \$100k, but the fact that it is taken from a million people has little emotional relevance. You can't imagine experiencing the loss of $10 as more than one person at a time. Similarly, an identifiable victim makes my experiential thinking more vivid because I have a concrete situation in which to imagine myself. I can imagine what it's like being mugged at 11pm in an alley near 130th Street, but &quot;1,000 muggings in the past month&quot; is not something I can relate to experientially.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16928" LastActivityDate="2017-09-07T19:40:22.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18080" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17990" CreationDate="2017-09-08T02:01:28.310" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This comes under the heading of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/4500263&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;theory of organized interests&lt;/a&gt;.The idea is that there are a few parties that stand to make large gains from a situation, and therefore have an incentive to organize and capture these gains. Meanwhile, there is a large number of people that stand to receive small losses. Because these losses are individually &quot;small,&quot; the latter group of people do &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; have an incentive to organize to defend their interests against the first group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The doctrine of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_efficiency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pareto efficiency&lt;/a&gt; suggests that the action should be undertaken if the aggregate gains outweigh the aggregate losses (because the winners can compensate the losers and still come out ahead; otherwise not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastEditorUserId="680" LastEditDate="2017-09-08T02:07:13.803" LastActivityDate="2017-09-08T02:07:13.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18082" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19799" CreationDate="2017-09-08T15:18:23.220" Score="6" ViewCount="694" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_dysphoria&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gender dysphoria&lt;/a&gt; according to wikipedia is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[T]he distress a person experiences as a result of the sex and gender they were assigned at birth. In these cases, the assigned sex and gender do not match the person's gender identity, and the person is transgender.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other sources, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/gender-dysphoria#1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/gender-dysphoria/what-is-gender-dysphoria&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; basically agree that people with gender dysphoria&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[F]eel strongly that their gender does not match their biology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a test that measures gender dysphoria? I am interested in making an adaptation to such a test into Spanish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16963" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-08T18:23:54.360" LastActivityDate="2018-05-23T14:08:09.253" Title="Is there a test that measures gender dysphoria?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18083" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18082" CreationDate="2017-09-08T18:20:58.360" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A cursory Google Scholar search with the key terms &lt;strong&gt;Gender Dysphoria Questionnaire&lt;/strong&gt; brought up &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Gender Identity/Gender Dysphoria Questionnaire for Adolescents and&#xA;  Adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you wish to search for more related inventories you can look further using keywords like &lt;em&gt;'gender dysphoria'&lt;/em&gt; + &lt;em&gt;'inventory'&lt;/em&gt; / &lt;em&gt;'test'&lt;/em&gt; / &lt;em&gt;'diagnosis'&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kenneth_Zucker3/publication/299053751_The_gender_identitygender_dysphoria_questionnaire_for_adolescents_and_adults/links/56f03b2508ae584badc92f48.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Deogracias &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Sex Res&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;44&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 370–9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224490902898728&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sing &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Sex Res&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;47&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 49-58&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-08T19:09:51.347" LastActivityDate="2017-09-08T19:09:51.347" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18084" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-09T02:34:32.660" Score="7" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am using &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychopy.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychopy&lt;/a&gt; and this code for measuring keystroke duration as suggested in this answer for &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/17454/freeware-for-measuring-keystroke-duration&quot;&gt;my previous question&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;from psychopy.iohub import launchHubServer &#xA;io = launchHubServer()&#xA;keyboard = io.devices.keyboard&#xA;count = 0&#xA;keyinfo = &quot;&quot;&#xA;duration = 0&#xA;key = &quot;&quot;&#xA;&#xA;io.clearEvents('all')&#xA;&#xA;print 'begin'&#xA;&#xA;while key not in ['escape', 'esc']:&#xA;    key_info = keyboard.waitForReleases()[0] &#xA;    count += 1&#xA;    key = key_info.key&#xA;    keyinfo = key_info&#xA;    duration = key_info.duration&#xA;    key = key_info.key&#xA;    print 'round number:' , count&#xA;    print key_info&#xA;    print 'Press time was', key_info.duration&#xA;    print 'key', key_info.key&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first tests look promising, but I was wondering if there is a difference in accuracy between &lt;code&gt;iohub&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;pyglet&lt;/code&gt; function in Psychopy? Or if there would even be a more accurate solution than using one of theses two? And how is the measurement of the keystroke duration. I've been searching for it but haven't found any data for windows. The only thing I found are &lt;a href=&quot;https://groups.google.com/forum/m/#!topic/psychopy-dev/u3WyDfnIYBo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;these tests&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Has someone stumbled across a publication regarding the accuracy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover I don’t know how good RAM and CPU would need to be, right know I am using an ASUS notebook with Intel Core i7 2.6 GHz and 16GB RAM, (Bluetooth, Ethernet. Wi-Fi, Mobile and other kind of connections disabled; desktop visual effects disabled; antivirus, software updates, background programs, and other kind of asynchronous events sources disabled) and the last version of PsychoPy2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried to do preliminary tests to measure the accuracy of my test and to measure the keystroke duration with Psychopy and my keyboard simulating device. Before renting more expensive equipment, I've tried to pretest the accuracy with a 60 fps camera recording the moment of touch and without touch to the device and measuring with Psychopy at the same, to be able to compare these to values to have the accuracy. The 60 fps means, that in between frames there are 16.67 ms. My cheap camera pretest showed, that most of the processing time would be a maximum of approximately 8ms, so that I think I will achieve even lower values with better recording equipment with a higher framerate. But approximately every tenth measurement I have 24-36 ms signal processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions summarized:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does anyone know, what the reason might be that approximately every tenth measurement has higher signal processing times?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How could I make the measurement of the keystroke duration more accurate?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has anyone measured the keystroke duration accuracy of psychopys2 different functions (e.g &lt;code&gt;iohub&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;pyglet&lt;/code&gt;) in windows himself or stumbled upon literature about this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16016" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-15T20:15:15.990" LastActivityDate="2017-12-28T04:49:21.060" Title="Accuracy of psychopy keystroke duration measurement" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18085" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-09T17:46:16.803" Score="1" ViewCount="4251" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had a dream this morning. In my dream, I was using my laptop and I read a fan fiction in the internet. I have never read that fan fiction before (on principle I don't read fan fiction of that particular franchise). Furthermore, the writing style was very unlike me (I would vehemently deny it if such style was attributed to me). Also, the story if that fan fiction is not my particular head canon (if I did decide to write fan fiction, it wouldn't be that particular story).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, there were comments on the fan fiction which seemed very organic (the comments espoused a wide variety of opinions on the fan fiction), and contributed to the authenticity.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did not bother searching for the story of the fan fiction to see if it actually exists, because I felt it was a pointless venture; I haven't read any fan fiction of that particular franchise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read that you cannot read in dreams, and that contradicts my experience.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Can you read in dreams? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why?   &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;An explanation for my particular dream? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10516" LastActivityDate="2017-09-11T12:59:08.523" Title="Can you read in your dreams?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-09-21T14:11:40.860" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18087" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3523" CreationDate="2017-09-09T23:38:55.590" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Recent supporting work&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi:10.1038/nn.4479&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper&lt;/a&gt; published in the Jan 2017 issue of &lt;em&gt;Nature Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, Wei Li and colleagues propose a mechanism that supports the &quot;reverse learning&quot; process based on dendritic calcium spikes that regulate spine formation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as the authors discuss, the implications of their findings are more nuanced. They support the idea of reverse learning but show that it is not the only thing going on in REM sleep:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;REM sleep is not simply a substitute for wakefulness to stimulate plasticity, for pruning synapses during development or for persevering genetic identities of neuronal circuits. Instead, REM sleep is important for selectively incorporating new synapses into the existing circuits. It could be viewed as a “selection committee” for building and maintaining the synaptic network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dream recall&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we accept that reverse learning functions by the proposed mechanism, I would guess it would not be perturbed significantly by dream recall. This is because the calcium spikes in their experiments occurred on the order of seconds, and only during REM sleep. Dream recall, on the other hand, is is a high-level mental process that is probably restricted to humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is just my best intuitive guess. For all we know, any neural event anywhere in the brain can potentially influence a subsequent event anywhere else in the brain, so really all bets are still on the table.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16928" LastActivityDate="2017-09-09T23:38:55.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18089" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18129" CreationDate="2017-09-10T10:12:43.223" Score="2" ViewCount="335" Body="&lt;p&gt;My dad always talks vaguely about how 'only 20% (or some other small figure) of the population has the kind of brain equipped with the machinery to process [insert high-level mathematical process, e.g. sophisticated engineering technique or something of the like].' This also applies to people's struggles with probability (e.g. neglecting base rates), et cetera. I was wondering how much of math's talent is just there or not there from birth, vs capable to be learned. Thanks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, is the majority of the population actually unequipped with the mental machinery (like, say, a frog) to process high-level (say, advanced high school and beyond) maths? Prediction: no.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16860" LastActivityDate="2017-09-18T04:40:40.987" Title="To what extent is maths talent innate?" Tags="&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-09-21T13:26:19.893" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18092" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18093" CreationDate="2017-09-11T10:19:23.007" Score="18" ViewCount="9749" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/freudian-psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freudian Psychology&lt;/a&gt; is based on the work of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sigmund Freud&lt;/a&gt; (1856-1939). He is the founder of Psychoanalysis and is credited with establishing the field of verbal psychotherapy. Freud is known for his theories of the unconscious mind, dreams, infantile sexuality, libido, repression, and transference, ego, and the superego. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, despite his acclaimed influence on psychology and psychotherapy, it seems that Freudian Psychology is criticized by many &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/cross-check/why-freud-still-isnt-dead/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Horgan, 2017)&lt;/a&gt; and is even considered to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://skepdic.com/psychoan.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;pseudoscience&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is Freudian Psychology considered to be a scientifically valid approach? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/c88DU.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/c88DU.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Freud&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Sigmund Freud. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Related:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/10478/12937&quot;&gt;What are the different branches of Psychoanalysis?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/8364/12937&quot;&gt;Is there anything in Freudian psychoanalytic theory that is scientifically sound?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/9929/12937&quot;&gt;Which schools of psychotherapy are most credible to a hard scientist?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-25T07:09:39.663" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T14:22:24.087" Title="Is Freudian Psychology a scientifically valid contribution to the Cognitive Sciences?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;freud&gt;&lt;pseudoscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="8" CommunityOwnedDate="2017-09-12T06:28:09.143" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18092" CreationDate="2017-09-11T10:19:23.007" Score="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Freudian Psychology is considered by many to be pseudoscience, but as pointed out in another answer, there have recently been increasing numbers of comparisons between psychoanalysis and other depth psychology schools (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.springermedizin.de/lac-depressionsstudie/10990824&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a long-term study of CBT vs psychoanalysis for depression, where CBT is not much effective&lt;/a&gt;) with results which show that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychoanalysis&lt;/a&gt; is just as effective as CBT for many disorders,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it is more effective for certain disorders, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it is less effective for others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, psychoanalysis and CBT are both appropriate for certain patients and disorders and that the decision between them has to be made case by case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Freudian psychology is still applied, and Freudian psychoanalysis is still actively used today and according to the Science Council, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-science/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on &lt;strong&gt;evidence&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It is in the scientific evidence where the support of the Freudian approach is limited&lt;/strong&gt;. However, Freud's ideas have never been extensively assessed scientifically. For instance, there is no unambiguous evidence that psychoanalysis works &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0aa5/18b6dda4917ff48163ed86c7aff28753b6d5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Horgan, 1996)&lt;/a&gt; and supporters of Freud’s theories are believed to be influenced mainly on the confirming evidence, while they largely ignore the disconfirming cases &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-pseudoscience/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Shermer, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. Indeed, Sulloway &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258332565_Psychoanalysis_and_Pseudoscience_Frank_J_Sulloway_Revisits_Freud_and_His_Legacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Dufresne, 2007)&lt;/a&gt; argues that...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The greatest failing of psychoanalysis is its blatant rejection of the&#xA;scientific method. Without such methods for critical thinking, a&#xA;discipline inevitably drifts from one pseudoscientific system of&#xA;belief to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be stressed, however, that the human psyche is extremely complex and largely not understood. Other theories that are generally regarded as valid science, such as the string theory in astrophysics have never been proven either, and the relativity theory of Einstein took about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ubspectrum.com/article/2016/02/einsteins-theory-of-relativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hundred years to be proven right&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, distinguishing between science and pseudoscience is problematic &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-pseudoscience/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Shermer, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17702&quot;&gt;As covered in this answer&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/15345/does-suppressing-a-desire-make-it-more-powerful&quot;&gt;Does suppressing a desire make it more powerful?&lt;/a&gt;, Freud's work is derived from empirical evidence and backed up with high profile journal articles. Nonetheless, in the gray area between science and pseudoscience, according to eminent critics such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://search.proquest.com/docview/1293531417?pq-origsite=gscholar&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Karl Popper&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/9026176/Professor-Frank-Cioffi.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frank Cioffi&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Foundations_of_Psychoanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adolf Grünbaum&lt;/a&gt;, the theories of Freud are generally placed in the area of pseudoscience as they are seen as &lt;a href=&quot;http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Falsifiability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;non-falisifiable&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many authors assume that to be pseudoscientific, an activity or a teaching has to satisfy the following two criteria (Hansson 1996):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it is not scientific, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;its major proponents try to create the impression that it is scientific.&amp;quot; (Hansson, 2008)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to Hansson's first point, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201601/the-is-psychology-science-debate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a PsychologyToday article (2016)&lt;/a&gt; points out that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;psychology was defined by the application of scientific method(s) and psychologists conduct valuable research and have developed some key insights into animal behavior, cognition, consciousness, and the human condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hansson, has since updated his definition of pseudoscience to an &amp;quot;improved version&amp;quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pc4OAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA61&amp;amp;dq=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PA61#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Hansson,%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hansson, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258332565_Psychoanalysis_and_Pseudoscience_Frank_J_Sulloway_Revisits_Freud_and_His_Legacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dufresne, T. (2007) Psychoanalysis and Pseudoscience: Frank J. Sulloway Revisits Freud and His Legacy, Dufrense, T (Ed.) &lt;em&gt;Against Freud: Critics Talk Back&lt;/em&gt; Stanford: Stanford University Press&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hansson, S. O. (1996). &lt;em&gt;Defining Pseudoscience&lt;/em&gt;. Philosophia Naturalis, 33(1): pp. 169—176&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Still to find DOI/PMID reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/pseudo-science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hansson, S. O. (2008) &lt;em&gt;Science and Pseudo-Science&lt;/em&gt;. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2017 Edition) [Online]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pc4OAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA61&amp;amp;dq=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PA61#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Hansson,%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hansson, S. O. (2013). Defining pseudoscience and science. In: Pigliucci, M. &amp;amp; Boudry, M. (Eds.) &lt;em&gt;The philosophy of pseudoscience&lt;/em&gt;, Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press. pp. 61-77.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0aa5/18b6dda4917ff48163ed86c7aff28753b6d5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Horgan, J. (1996). Why Freud isn’t dead. Scientific American, 275(6), 106-111&lt;/a&gt;. or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/24993497&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201601/the-is-psychology-science-debate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychologyToday (2016) The “Is Psychology a Science?” Debate [Online]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-pseudoscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shermer, M. (2011). What is pseudoscience?. Scientific American, 305(3), 92-92&lt;/a&gt;. or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/26002803&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Supporting network posts&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8364/is-there-anything-in-freudian-psychoanalytic-theory-that-is-scientifically-sound&quot;&gt;Is there anything in Freudian psychoanalytic theory that is scientifically sound?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/12451/why-did-karl-popper-criticize-freuds-theories&quot;&gt;Why did Karl Popper criticize Freud&amp;#39;s theories?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;The community is invited to improve this answer. This question-and-answer is discussed &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.meta.stackexchange.com/questions/2292/community-answer-for-questions-on-freudian-psychology&quot;&gt;here in meta&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2020-12-19T14:22:24.087" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T14:22:24.087" CommentCount="7" CommunityOwnedDate="2017-09-12T06:25:07.737" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18094" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-11T11:50:17.960" Score="3" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;If one has say an 800 lumen bulb, how many lux are necessary in order for a human to detect when it's suddenly turned on in a room with brightness levels of &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;30  Lux &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;50  Lux&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;100 Lux&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.-How many Lux are necessary to catch a human's attention when when looking in the general direction of the bulb?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2.-How many Lux would almost guarantee to catch a human's attention?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, I wish to know the visual detection threshold, but even rough approximates would be helpful. I'm building an attention guidance system and would like to know how bright a light source would have to be in order for a user to detect it (threshold where he might detect it, and where he most likely will).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13911" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-11T13:01:41.830" LastActivityDate="2017-09-11T13:01:41.830" Title="How bright must a light bulb to be noticed in a room?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18095" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-11T12:49:14.807" Score="3" ViewCount="1863" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard that there are some people who don't feel emotions. Is that really true? Is it really possible for someone to feel no emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6527" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-11T21:00:08.067" LastActivityDate="2017-09-11T21:00:08.067" Title="Is it possible for a human to feel no emotion?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-09-12T06:20:43.357" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18097" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18095" CreationDate="2017-09-11T13:03:09.367" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is a physical possibility but you need, at the bare minimum, to feel for your self to survive; like the need to eat. If you don't want to call hunger and similar things for feelings it would be a problem anyway because discus is what make you avoiding eating bad or toxic food and fear to avid getting eaten etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;scorce: &lt;a href=&quot;http://atlasofemotions.org/#continents/disgust&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://atlasofemotions.org/#continents/disgust&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you most likely have heard is that psychopaths don't feel anything and that is not true. They do care abut them self and others in self interest but would not start crying for anyone from feeling empathy.  (I don't have a source for the later part but you can test it with a mind experiment with a psychopath and a smaller guy that tries to piss of the psychopath. Per definition the psychopath don't care if he kills the other dude but if he do he will end up in jail) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dictionary.com/browse/psychopath&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.dictionary.com/browse/psychopath&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Sorry for the horrible English, was a while since I last wrote anything)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16983" LastEditorUserId="7943" LastEditDate="2017-09-11T16:05:11.497" LastActivityDate="2017-09-11T16:05:11.497" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18099" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18089" CreationDate="2017-09-12T08:31:51.510" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intelignece is a combination of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nature and nurture&lt;/a&gt;, like most human attributes. The exact percentage is not possible to measure, at least with todays knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extract from the article by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/L4-1IntelligenceNatureVsNurture.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neill, J.T. (2004). &quot;Nature vs Nurture in Intelligence&quot;&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the overfocus on nature vs. nurture issues, the attempts to&#xA;  estimate the relative contribution rests on the somewhat naive notion&#xA;  that there is a constant, true value. In reality, &quot;gene expression is&#xA;  environment dependent&quot; and it impossible to obtain pure estimates of&#xA;  genetic vs. environmental contribution - one could not exist without&#xA;  the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-09-12T08:31:51.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18100" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-12T09:19:31.587" Score="3" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;In modern computers (and programming) one makes alienated use of the high powers of graphical processing units (GPU) for non-graphics-related tasks, enhancing drastically the power of the general purpose central processing units (CPU).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if any attempts have been made to explain high-performance in abstract (but geometry related) mathematics (by people like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thurston&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;William Thurston&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigori_Perelman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sergej Perelman&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Grothendieck&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alexander Grothendieck&lt;/a&gt;, to name just a few in no specific order) by an extraordinally strong and specific use of the visual cortex (and not only of the associative, speech-related and other parts of the cortex that are usually involved in mathematical thinking). At least the role of &amp;quot;inner geometric visualization&amp;quot; is often emphasized (without being completely understood, as I guess - not even what this means).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in his &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mathunion.org/ICM/ICM1983.1/Main/icm1983.1.0011.0014.ocr.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;laudation&lt;/a&gt; for the Fields medal winner of 1982, William Thurston, C.T.C. Wall says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thurston has fantastic geometric insight and vision; his ideas have&#xA;completely revolutionized the study of topology in 2 and 3 dimensions,&#xA;and brought about a new and fruitful interplay between analysis,&#xA;topology and geometry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is for any study that might have been performed in this direction - or for any theoretical approach that has been made.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;[One guiding idea might be the following: Consider the concept of a 5-dimensional hypercube. Just &lt;strong&gt;trying&lt;/strong&gt; hard and often to mentally visualize such a cube (which would correspond to some specific neuronal activities in the visual cortex) would &amp;quot;improve&amp;quot; (somehow) mathematical thinking about higher dimensions in other parts of the cortex - even if it's not successfull, i.e. no clear mental picture arises. (Of course, trying to do so would be &amp;quot;informed&amp;quot; by those other parts, so dependency is bidirectional.)]&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Possible follow-up question (not to be answered here!):&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Which characteristics of either the visual cortex or the other parts&#xA;of the cortex being concerned with mathematical thinking make it&#xA;possible to use the visual cortex in this way (whatever &amp;quot;this way&amp;quot;&#xA;is)? Or could just everyone use it this way?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-09-12T19:20:51.850" Title="Use of the visual cortex in mathematical thinking?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18101" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-09-12T13:46:49.420" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-12T13:46:49.420" LastActivityDate="2017-09-12T13:46:49.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18102" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-09-12T13:46:49.420" Score="0" Body="For questions on Sigmund Freud, Freudian Psychology and psychoanalysis. It is generally accepted that Freud's ideas and methods are not scientifically validated and are considered pseudoscience. This Cognitive Sciences stack is a scientific stack and hence considers Freudian Psychology as pseudoscience. " OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-12T13:46:49.420" LastActivityDate="2017-09-12T13:46:49.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18103" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-13T15:39:32.693" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;how does a new or creative idea come to mind ? or else how does an idea that leads you to solve a problem you have been working on for days suddenly come up ? you just feel like it lightened up in your mind, &#xA;Is there an area in the brain responsible for this, can this be explained by an activation of neurons in that area ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16997" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-17T09:41:26.500" LastActivityDate="2017-09-17T09:41:26.500" Title="How do ideas come to our minds?" Tags="&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-09-17T06:44:49.170" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18105" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-14T05:51:55.277" Score="2" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know this is a basic question, but I can't find the answer anywhere. How can a cell that is not photoreceptive (eg LGN and retinal gangion cells) have a receptive field that is stimulated by &quot;light&quot; (as most textbooks explain it). Isn't it truer to say that they are stimulated by incoming neuronal inputs - in which case, how can they have a &quot;circular surround&quot;? Clearly I'm lost here, so all help appreciated! Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17003" LastActivityDate="2017-09-15T10:59:25.583" Title="Are the receptive fields of bipolar and retinal ganglion cells directly stimulated by light?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18106" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-14T10:58:49.943" Score="2" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for simple artificial neural networks that may perform the following serializing task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider two identical &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopfield_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hopfield networks&lt;/a&gt;, one being at rest, the other being in a stable state of acitivity (a subset of its neurons firing synchronously). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The task is to connect these two networks to a serializer and a deserializer network with the serializer  passing only a sequence of signals to the deserializer (along one single line) such that the stable state of the first network will be reconstructed in the second network, just by the specific sequence of signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can be seen at a glance that this task cannot be solved with (de)serializers made out of &lt;a href=&quot;http://wwwold.ece.utep.edu/research/webfuzzy/docs/kk-thesis/kk-thesis-html/node12.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McCulloch-Pitts neurons&lt;/a&gt; alone? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it can not be solved: which kind of neurons would be needed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it can be solved: how (in the most simple way)? (For simplicity's sake you may consider two Hopfield networks of only three MP neurons each.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JKZoD.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JKZoD.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note, that not the total of $n$ (e.g. 3) bits (to describe completely the state of network A) has to be transferred (because of the reconstruction abilities of the identical network B). The other way around: network B might reach the copied state earlier than the end of message arrived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-09-14T11:15:29.467" LastActivityDate="2017-09-14T11:15:29.467" Title="Serializing and deserializing stable states of Hopfield networks" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;encoding&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18107" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18114" CreationDate="2017-09-14T16:33:56.447" Score="3" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does it make sense (or is even the standard approach) to model mathematically a voltage-dependent ion channel not as a &lt;em&gt;function&lt;/em&gt;, that maps a voltage to a conductance ($f:\mathbb{R}\rightarrow \mathbb{R}$), but as an &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_(mathematics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;operator&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (in the sense of functional analysis), that maps a voltage profile (= function of time = element of a vector space) to a conductance profile (= function of time = element of another vector space)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there references to the literature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Considered as operators it would be interesting to know in which ranges (of the vector space of voltage profiles) the channels behave linearly (in mathematical terms: &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; linear) - so we were done with knowing their behaviour for only a couple of base vectors (= profiles), i.e. square signals of equal height, but different widths. We would learn about rise times and time delays. In other ranges of course they behave quite non-linearily, esp. when the voltage profile crosses the threshold.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-09-15T08:18:52.730" LastActivityDate="2017-09-15T11:16:39.107" Title="Voltage-dependent ion channels as operators" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18109" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-14T18:43:08.793" Score="4" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that only around 20% of people who get a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_arrest&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cardiac arrest&lt;/a&gt; and revived could tell something about a near death experience (NDE). But if an NDE is considered to be something with the brain, why don't more people get an NDE?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://m.horizonresearch.org/Uploads/parnspearfenwresuc.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Parnia, S; Spearpoint, K; Fenwick, PB (August 2007). &quot;Near death experiences, cognitive function and psychological outcomes of surviving cardiac arrest.&quot;. Resuscitation. 74 (2): 215–21. PMID 17416449. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2007.01.020&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11358" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-15T14:36:29.850" LastActivityDate="2017-09-15T14:36:29.850" Title="Why do only about 20% of the people with a heart attack report a near-death experience?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18110" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18111" CreationDate="2017-09-15T00:47:50.553" Score="3" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/357/6355/1033&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Behavioral time scale synaptic plasticity underlies CA1 place fields&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Bittner et al. an alternative to Hebbian plasticity is proposed called Behavioral Time-scale Synaptic Plasticity (BTSP). Basically, instead of depending on Hebbian plasticity, a calcium-ion plateau can be used to create associations. From the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;BTSP can rapidly store the entire sequence of events that occurred for&#xA;  several seconds before and after plateau-potential initiation within&#xA;  the synaptic weights of area CA1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, despite reading the paper, I'm still confused about the mechanism they think performs this. Does the &quot;plateau&quot; cause all spiking neurons to strengthen their connections or does the &quot;plateau&quot; use some other mechanism to influence neurons? Is excitation or potentiation even the correct way to understand this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-09-15T00:53:29.303" LastActivityDate="2020-02-22T16:20:26.230" Title="Effect of plateau in BTSP" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18111" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18110" CreationDate="2017-09-15T01:59:32.750" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/content/357/6355/1033/suppl/DC1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Supplementary Materials&lt;/a&gt; the synaptic plasticity rule can be inferred from the data to be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$W(z) = W_0(z) + \alpha \sum_{t,t'=0}^{T} R_{CA1}(t')K(t'-t)R_{CA3}(z-x_A(t))$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$z$ is the preferred location of the place cell&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$W_0$ is the initial synaptic weight&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$\alpha$ is a learning-rate constant&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$T$ is the total running time of the experiment with $t'$ being when the plateau starts, although I'm not sure about $t'$ and it's significance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$R_{CA1}$ is a binary function which is 1 in the presence of the plateau&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$K(t'-t)$ is an unknown kernel that determines &lt;strong&gt;synaptic weights change depending on the activity of the cells&lt;/strong&gt; at time $t'=t$ &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;$R_{CA3}(z-x_A(t))$ is a model of the firing rate of the place-cell given the preferred location and the current location of the animal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that the formula for weight change depends on both:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The firing rate of the place cell&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A kernel which takes the firing rate of the place cell into account&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can say that the plateau selects for firing place cells. However, I'm still not clear on what they mean by storing &quot;entire sequence of events that occurred for several seconds before and after plateau-potential initiation&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-09-15T01:59:32.750" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18113" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18105" CreationDate="2017-09-15T10:59:25.583" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The (visual) receptive field of a neuron is the relation between the light that falls on the retina and the change in activity of that neuron, regardless of what happens in between the light and the neuron. Therefore, RGC, LGN, V1, or even higher order visual cortical neurons all have some sort of receptive fields. Not because they respond directly to patterns of light, but through cascade of signals that originate from the photoreceptors. So, yes, many LGN neurons would have center-surround receptive fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2017-09-15T10:59:25.583" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18114" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18107" CreationDate="2017-09-15T11:16:39.107" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, they are nonlinear filters, which are operators on temporal signals. I have not seen a single ion channel analyzed as nonlinear filter though. Most of the time, a system containing ion channels (such as some neuron's membrane) is analyzed as such. Papers describing the biophysics of neurons and their function as filtering devices has been one of the topics in computational neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gerstner, W. and Kistler, W. M. (2002). Spiking Neuron Models. Cambridge University Press&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Marmarelis, V. Z. (2004). Nonlinear dynamic modeling of physiological systems.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="301" LastActivityDate="2017-09-15T11:16:39.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18115" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-15T13:11:57.590" Score="5" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;On page 242 of &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0679763996&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Moral Animal&lt;/a&gt;, Robert Wright states that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In vervet monkey societies, dominant males have more of the neurotransmitter serotonin than do their subordinates. And one study found that in college fraternities, officers, on average, have more serotonin than do their less powerful fraternity brothers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, on page 82 of a different book, &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0452279631&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scattered: How ADD Originates and What You Can Do About It&lt;/a&gt;, Gabor Maté states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In troops of monkeys, the dominant, most successfully aggressive males have been found to have less serotonin than others. This would seem to prove that low serotonin levels cause aggression. However, the serotonin levels drop only &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; these males achieve dominant status. So while the relative lack of serotonin may help to &lt;em&gt;maintain&lt;/em&gt; the dominant male's aggressive capacities, it could not have &lt;em&gt;caused&lt;/em&gt; them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that Wright (a journalist) is making the complete opposite interpretation of the primate research that Maté (a physician) is, and there doesn't seem to be any subtlety in the context that alleviates the seemingly glaring contradiction, so I'm assuming that one of these two simply misunderstood the research. Who is correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(to be clear, both of these people are citing research that others have done, not making claims based on their own research)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17014" LastEditorUserId="17014" LastEditDate="2017-09-15T18:41:56.277" LastActivityDate="2017-09-15T18:41:56.277" Title="are serotonin levels higher or lower in dominant vs. non-dominant primates and humans?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18116" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-15T13:54:20.187" Score="1" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;Jungian psychology seems to have established itself in our culture (books and films draw on its archetypes etc) and, although I am by no means an expert, it seems analytical psychology is broadly considered to have some merit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the main objections, criticisms, and refutations of Jung's ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, are there strong evidence-based contradictions of his ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17015" LastActivityDate="2017-09-15T13:54:20.187" Title="What are the criticisms of Jung?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-09-21T13:25:11.990" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18117" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18115" CreationDate="2017-09-15T14:38:24.107" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems Maté simply misread the research that he cited. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/16492189_Social_and_Environmental_Influences_on_Blood_Serotonin_Concentrations_in_Monkeys&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The study on this&lt;/a&gt;, from 1984, says that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dominant male adult vervet monkeys have whole-blood serotonin concentrations approximately twice those of subordinate adult males. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17014" LastEditorUserId="17014" LastEditDate="2017-09-15T18:41:11.213" LastActivityDate="2017-09-15T18:41:11.213" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18118" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18141" CreationDate="2017-09-15T16:35:55.500" Score="6" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;In most working-memory tasks, a person is given a list and is asked to recall it in various manners. For example, they could recall it forwards, backwards, freely or try to recall a specific item given it's position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, has there been any tests where temporal information is emphasized? For example, consider the scenario where there is 1 second between the presentation of the first and second item in the list, but 2 seconds between the second and third items in the list. I could then ask the person which item was temporally closer to the second item in the list.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any Working Memory research of this temporal nature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T18:02:04.343" Title="Working Memory Timing Information Storage" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18119" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-15T17:46:50.643" Score="4" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;According with &lt;strong&gt;Darwin&lt;/strong&gt;'s &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;“Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals”&lt;/a&gt;: specific emotional states seek to appear on each human being - even on blind people - , with no differences of cultures.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;According to &lt;strong&gt;James-Lange&lt;/strong&gt; theory, the emotional states are the &lt;em&gt;results&lt;/em&gt; and not the cause, of perceived physiological changes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;According to &lt;strong&gt;Cannon-Bard&lt;/strong&gt; theory, James- Lange theory has some weak points: arousal would not be enough, and would not be necessary, the speed with which we often experience some emotions seems to overcome the speed of body response. Given that they propose that: the external stimulus is processed by the &lt;strong&gt;thalamus&lt;/strong&gt;, which sends impulses to the &lt;strong&gt;cortex&lt;/strong&gt; - where the emotion is consciously experienced - and sends impulses to the &lt;strong&gt;hypothalamus&lt;/strong&gt; - which produces autonomous physiological changes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Schachter&lt;/strong&gt;'s theory partly agree with James-Lange theory: Physiological modifications precede emotional experiences, but we have to decide which particular emotion is, giving cognitively labels to emotions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Nowadays which is the accepted theory on emotions by &lt;em&gt;social neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; ?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;References&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Student's Guide to Social Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; , Jamie Ward, 2012&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-09-15T17:46:50.643" Title="Which is the actual scientific position on the expression of human emotions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;social-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18120" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18084" CreationDate="2017-09-15T18:21:55.830" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;https://discourse.psychopy.org/t/accuracy-of-psychopy-keystroke-duration-measurement/3049/3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychopy forum&lt;/a&gt; I have received some advice:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One would be to change the code: take out the print command, no&#xA;redefining of variables &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;USB, USB device, the python and system&#xA;libraries should be the newest and fastest, if possible, because&#xA;these could have an influence on the accuracy. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And that Psychtoolbox forum could have the solution, but so far I haven't found it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16016" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-15T20:16:36.320" LastActivityDate="2017-10-15T20:16:36.320" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18121" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-15T19:08:37.210" Score="2" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you watch a waterfall for several seconds and then suddenly change your gaze to a fixed object it appears to briefly move upward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if instead you're looking at a scrolling LED marquee sign, does the motion aftereffect still take place? In reality nothing is actually moving on the marquee sign because the LEDs are all fixed in place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to this question probably has interesting implications as to where in the visual pipeline motion is being processed. The difference between the actual waterfall and the scrolling LED marquee might also be a good way to separate out various aspects of motion processing. I'd be curious in hearing commentary on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="68" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-18T12:48:33.690" LastActivityDate="2017-09-18T18:31:37.703" Title="Is there a waterfall visual after-effect with discrete inputs?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18122" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17315" CreationDate="2017-09-16T00:16:00.307" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Theoretically visual stimuli would be faster than auditory stimuli because of the given speed of light vs sound.  Therefore I &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;personally believe&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; the time from stimuli to recognition would depend on the individual and furthermore the time from recognition to the time of response (ex. Clicking a mouse immediately upon recognition of a sound or sight, followed by [roughly] identifying said object)&#xA;With all those variables, in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;MY OPINION&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; there are  absolute's: 1) light travels faster than sound; 2)visual contains more data than audio&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17020" LastEditorUserId="17020" LastEditDate="2017-11-19T09:12:20.863" LastActivityDate="2017-11-19T09:12:20.863" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18123" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-16T07:41:25.630" Score="4" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder whether it is technically possible today to have simultaneous extracellular recording in awake rodents (e.g., mice) from different non-proximate sites (e.g., V1 and frontal cortex). I mean to have two or more different electrode penetrations at the same time. Using multi-array / grid / tetrode  it is possible record from many locations, but they are spatially proximate. Any references are appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17021" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-09-16T21:02:40.117" LastActivityDate="2017-09-17T19:34:30.157" Title="Simultaneous extracellular recording from different distant sites (in rodents)" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18125" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-16T08:21:47.467" Score="2" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider two identical pieces of paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Scenario 1:&lt;/em&gt; On both something is drawn in black ink. If the difference between the areas covered in black ink is sufficiently small, I cannot see the difference between the two drawings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Scenario 2:&lt;/em&gt; Now imagine that the same parts are covered with ink, but their color differs. Again, if the difference is sufficiently small, I cannot see the difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Firstly:&lt;/strong&gt; what causes this? I am aware of the terminology of just-noticeable differences/limina, but do not understand precisely what causes them. Is there some discretization of continuous signals going on that causes `nearby signals' to be treated the same way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Secondly:&lt;/strong&gt; one person may have better vision than another, but are there physical constraints that are the same for any two persons and that imply that if the difference in scenario 1 or 2 is sufficiently small, no two persons will be able to see a difference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Addenda: I phrased the question informally by not defining what a `small difference' is, trusting/hoping that this does not lead to confusion. If desired, such statements can be made precise by adopting appropriate distance functions. In scenario 1, one way to measure distance between two areas covered in ink could be to use the Hausdorff distance; likewise, one way to measure the distance between colors in the second scenario could depend on the difference in responsiveness of the three types of cone cells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17022" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T13:17:21.207" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T13:17:21.207" Title="What is the cause of differences that are too small to see?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18126" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-17T09:58:31.487" Score="7" ViewCount="553" Body="&lt;p&gt;I got a free copy of &lt;a href=&quot;http://pebl.sourceforge.net/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PEBL&lt;/a&gt;, psych experiment software, which includes a couple of standard working memory tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I perform the digit span working memory test, I can repeat the numbers as they appear, and do some basic chunking. For example, I can repeat &lt;em&gt;'3-1-8-4'&lt;/em&gt; as &lt;em&gt;&quot;thirty one&quot; &quot;eighty four&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. But when I try any other chunking or rehearsal technique I find it impossible to do the task. I think my working memory just empties. My question is why that happens? More specifically - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What cognitive functions do more complex rehearsal and chunking techniques tap into? Is there a means to improve / train those specific cognitive functions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-18T18:27:31.463" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T09:44:51.263" Title="In the digit span test, why do some strategies work and others don't?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18127" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18123" CreationDate="2017-09-17T19:34:30.157" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't know why multi-site cortical extracellular recordings would not be feasible? What would the practical experimental or technical limitation be in your opinion? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As long as you have a &lt;a href=&quot;http://alascience.com/product/extracellular-multichannel/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multichannel amplifier suitable for extracellular recording&lt;/a&gt; and you consider the choice between using a common reference, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, monopolar recordings &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2666412/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ludwig &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2009)&lt;/a&gt;, or using paired recording-reference electrodes for bipolar measurements &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fncom.2010.00004/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Boatman-Reich &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2010)&lt;/a&gt; you should be fine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fncom.2010.00004/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boatman-Reich &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Comput Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2010)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2666412/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ludwig &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurophysiol&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;101&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 1679–89&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-09-17T19:34:30.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18129" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18089" CreationDate="2017-09-18T04:40:40.987" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;While most people can master basic math, your dad is probably correct that perhaps &quot;20%&quot; of the population is capable of understanding math at the advanced level you are talking about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One study on education concluded the following about &quot;A.P.&quot; level high school courses (not just in math): [These require students] &quot;to think in abstractions, to synthesize ideas, to grasp complicated interrelationships, to absorb and apply a large amount of academic knowledge. In no country is this ability possessed by more than a minority of children.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Admiral Hyman Rickover, &quot;American Education: A National Failure.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastActivityDate="2017-09-18T04:40:40.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18130" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-18T10:23:29.790" Score="4" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am conducting a study comparing different cigarettes in terms of their relative toxicity. As a side analysis, I wish to see if a novel cigarette, purportedly less toxic, is similarly pleasurable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants will only smoke one cigarette, so I would like to use a validated questionnaire of instantaneous well-being and satisfaction. Are there any?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13347" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-19T14:03:02.760" LastActivityDate="2017-09-19T14:23:42.997" Title="Is there a validated questionnaire on consumer well-being?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18131" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18121" CreationDate="2017-09-18T10:34:29.217" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.georgemather.com/MotionDemos/MAEQT.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;waterfall after-effect&lt;/a&gt; is an illusion falling into a broader class of visual illusionary apparent movements caused by watching a constant motion for an extended period of time. The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.michaelbach.de/ot/mot-adapt/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motion after-effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; can be explained by adaptation of visual neurons that respond selectively to movement. Motion-sensitive visual neurons are tuned to a specific direction. Exposure to a continuous motion in one particular direction fatigues specifically those visual neurons that are tuned to that direction as they continuously fire. When the visual stimulus stops, it alters the balance of activity in favor of cells tuned to the opposite direction, as these are the least fatigued by the stimulus and this causes the after-effect &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3087115/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Mather &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2008)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The motion-after effect does work well with more discreet stimuli too. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To start with, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/qLDKcZB8Eaw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is an example of a more standard waterfall effect illusion (see Fig. 1 for a related impression still image). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JI5Iz.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JI5Iz.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;![waterfall&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Waterfall. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=356PMFKY904&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carlos Vasquez&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oNhcpOIQCNs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this video&lt;/a&gt; an example is shown of the waterfall after effect with more discreet stimuli. Not particularly your standard marquee sign but it comes close and there's a definite motion after effect observable (Fig. 2). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bHLlt.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bHLlt.png&quot; alt=&quot;movie still&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Movie still from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oNhcpOIQCNs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this video&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I think your question is specifically whether a motion after-effect occurs with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chase_(lighting)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;chase-lighting&lt;/a&gt; as often seen in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquee_(sign)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marquees signs&lt;/a&gt; (Fig. 3). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/e4BBH.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/e4BBH.gif&quot; alt=&quot;marquees&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 3. Marquees sign showing illusionary apparent motion. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tewksburyschools.org/site/default.aspx?DomainID=145&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Old Turnpike School&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;chasing-light stimulus in itself is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chase_(lighting)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, as there &lt;strong&gt;is no true motion involved&lt;/strong&gt;. Instead, it is generated by using electronic circuitry to activate lights serially with a certain time delay in-between activations. Because there is no motion involved as such, I believe the after effect will not occur, or very weakly. At least, I couldn't observe an after effect after watching several chase lightings for a while. For example, the chase lightings in Fig. 1 become ambiguous when I look at it a while, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the lights actually spontaneously reverse their direction when staring at it for a while. The only thing I see when I look away, personally, is a colorful blob, and no motion after-effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3087115/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mather &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Trends Cog Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;12&lt;/strong&gt;(12): 481-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-18T18:31:37.703" LastActivityDate="2017-09-18T18:31:37.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18134" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-19T08:04:39.090" Score="1" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for fMRI studies in which the emotional response of a person listening to music is visible in the fMRI scans, paralleled by a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrospective_think_aloud&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retrospective think aloud&lt;/a&gt; report of the person describing his/her emotions while listening. Are there such studies? And did they reveal something comprehensible, i.e. can one see in the fMRI scans how emotions did manifest themselves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is, that one might be able to distinguish between emotional responses due to characteristic activity patterns or modes, perhaps including the amygdala. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know of this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AyY1ul_DbcQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt; with Oliver Sacks being the person, but it disappointed me: we only see that he is emotionally touched stronger by Bach than by Beethoven. But - as I have the impression - we cannot distinguish between positive and negative emotions by just looking at the fMRI scans, can we?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-19T10:20:01.797" LastActivityDate="2017-09-19T22:13:48.143" Title="Can we identify specific emotions on the basis of fMRI scans?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18135" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18134" CreationDate="2017-09-19T10:12:01.883" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Pleasant and unpleasant music activate other areas of the cortex, potentially allowing for differentiation of music-related emotions based on fMRI scans alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;An fMRI study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hbm.20180/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koelsch &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; investigated human emotions evoked by pleasant (consonant) and unpleasant (dissonant) music. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unpleasant music activated the...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;amygdala&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;hippocampus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;parahippocampal gyrus and &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;temporal poles.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These structures are generally implicated in negative emotions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, pleasant music activated the... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;anterior superior insula&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;ventral striatum&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heschl's gyrus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rolandic operculum. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IFG activations appear to reflect processes of music–syntactic analysis and working memory operations. The operculum, anterior superior insula, and ventral striatum are thought to be part of a pre-motor circuit for vocal sound production during the perception of pleasant sounds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hbm.20180/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koelsch &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Human Brain Mapping&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;27&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 239–50&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-19T10:19:14.790" LastActivityDate="2017-09-19T10:19:14.790" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18137" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18130" CreationDate="2017-09-19T14:02:23.783" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many consumer satisfaction tests available, see for a somewhat dated but informative review &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/9791/volumes/v08/NA-08&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Westbrook &amp;amp; Oliver (1981)&lt;/a&gt;. Most often, simple, single-item rating scales are employed. Reportedly, there is little uniformity in the number of scale steps used and in the anchoring. They often range from 3-point labeled rating scales (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;., good - neutral - bad) to 10- and 11-point variants labeled only at the extremes and midpoint (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, 0= bad; 5 = neutral; 10= excellent).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting consumer questionnaire I found was devised by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479706000211&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lou &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2007)&lt;/a&gt;. It was devised for assessing people's satisfaction with drinking water and consisted of a general part I with personal information (Fig. 1), and a part II specifically testing consumer satisfaction (Fig. 2). Because the authors targeted specifically the defining characteristics of drinking water based on the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.connecticutradon.com/blog-1/topic/foul-odor-in-water&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Water Taste and Odor Wheel&lt;/a&gt; you might want to adapt certain questions in part II to match your specific needs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vRPmb.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vRPmb.gif&quot; alt=&quot;part I&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Part I. General information. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479706000211&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lou &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2007)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2eyq3.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2eyq3.gif&quot; alt=&quot;part II&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Part II. Consumer satisfaction. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479706000211&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lou &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2007)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479706000211&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lou &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;J Environmental Management&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;82&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 1-12&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/9791/volumes/v08/NA-08&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Westbrook &amp;amp; Oliver, &lt;em&gt;Advances Consumer Res&lt;/em&gt; (1981); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;: 94-99&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-19T14:23:42.997" LastActivityDate="2017-09-19T14:23:42.997" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18138" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18149" CreationDate="2017-09-19T16:05:24.413" Score="3" ViewCount="335" Body="&lt;p&gt;Isn't there a perfect analogy between ligand-gated and voltage-gated &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/18107/voltage-dependent-ion-channels-as-operators&quot;&gt;ion channels considered (mathematically) as (non-linear) operators&lt;/a&gt;, mapping one function (of time) to another one? Voltage-gated channels respond to voltage &lt;em&gt;signals&lt;/em&gt; (= functions of time at a given location, not just a voltage), ligand-gated channels respond to neurotransmitter &lt;em&gt;signals&lt;/em&gt; (not just neurotransmitters). Both yield a conductance &lt;em&gt;profile&lt;/em&gt; (as a function of time, not just a conductance). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both ligand- and voltage-gated ion channels display some form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysteresis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hysteresis&lt;/a&gt;, i.e. the dependence of the state of a system on its history. Hysteresis can not be modelled by simple mathematical functions (by which dependencies normally are modelled), but maybe better by some non-linear operators. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With respect to the Hodgkin-Huxley model (that AliceD mentions in her answer): In this model (that is also used by Rall) the resistances (= ion channels) are just switched on and off instantaneously. But this may be oversimplified: it takes some time, and it cannot be done with arbitrary frequency. That's why we possibly need operators to describe them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: Are there references where ligand-gated channels are modelled mathematically as (non-linear) operators?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-09-21T10:28:35.057" LastActivityDate="2017-09-21T19:20:22.053" Title="Ligand-gated ion channels as operators" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18140" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18134" CreationDate="2017-09-19T22:13:48.143" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;From meta-analyses that include musical emotion inductions, there is not much evidence that we can reliably distinguish between emotions in the brain, independent of the emotion induction procedure or meta-analytical method (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/brain-basis-of-emotion-a-metaanalytic-review/80F95F093305C76BA2C66BBA48D4BC8A&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004066&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4329228/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/10/9/1257/1675553/Intrinsic-connectivity-in-the-human-brain-does-not&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/3056293&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We might be able to distinguish emotions with specificity and reliability within an individual, but this kind of work is just starting to happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2017-09-19T22:13:48.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18141" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18118" CreationDate="2017-09-19T22:40:39.177" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627314000737&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Similarity Breeds Proximity: Pattern Similarity within and across Contexts Is Related to Later Mnemonic Judgments of Temporal Proximity&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Youssef Ezzyat and Lila Davachi, timing between stimuli was kept constant, but the context of the stimuli was manipulated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yfczc.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yfczc.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;task description&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They found that changing contexts increased the perceived temporal distance between stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jnWxb.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jnWxb.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;task results&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/17/10/3956.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Learning and Generalization of Auditory Temporal–Interval Discrimination in Humans&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Wright et al., differentiating temporal distance between tones were learned. Additionally, in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Anticipation-of-future-events-improves-the-ability-Tsunoda-Kakei/1bebd54e855cb56fb69ecb0fc7f248a464cebd15&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anticipation of future events improves the ability to estimate elapsed time&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Yoshiaki Tsunoda and Shinji Kakei, the probability distribution of distance between a warning signal and a trigger for a &quot;GO&quot;-like task was learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These experiments operate on very different time scales (milliseconds vs seconds) with very differently semantically-loaded stimuli (images vs tones). Although neither of them describe in the exact experiment in the original question, together they show the various ways perception and memory is affected temporal cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-09-28T18:02:04.343" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T18:02:04.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18142" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18148" CreationDate="2017-09-20T07:29:03.440" Score="8" ViewCount="480" Body="&lt;p&gt;When confronted with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Prisoner's Dilemma&lt;/a&gt;, people often refuse to cooperate. Instead, they choose to betray other people, even when cooperation yields a more favorable outcome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do people behave in that way? Is it a genealogical feature which is embedded during evolution? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1109" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-20T23:10:22.017" LastActivityDate="2019-09-21T20:16:15.270" Title="What causes people to betray each other when facing the prisoner's dilemma?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18144" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-20T12:16:04.107" Score="3" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is mostly quoted from &lt;em&gt;A New Psychology of Women&lt;/em&gt; (2017) by Lips, page 63:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the studies included in most meta-analyses are based on a narrow range of participants (usually young, North American students) and are not reflective of the populations at large--although this limitation tends to be obscured by the combination of many studies into a single analysis (Halpern, 1995). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean, this claim is more than 20 years old. Is it true today? Is there a study that examines the demographics of meta-studies at large or something related?&#xA;If it is true, is this the case for most psychology research, male-female differences or all studies in the social sciences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4116" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T10:43:21.173" Title="Are studies included in most meta-analyses based on a narrow range of participants?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;meta-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18145" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18150" CreationDate="2017-09-20T14:08:42.730" Score="7" ViewCount="327" Body="&lt;p&gt;As many here are probably aware, a replication crisis seems to have been occurring in many scientific fields for some time now. Allegedly, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology is at the center of this crisis&lt;/a&gt;, with many of its high-profile studies turning out to be impossible to replicate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As someone who tries to regularly consume academic literature in order to educate oneself, this makes me wonder what areas within the broader umbrella of 'Cognitive Sciences' have had the most replication attempts fail and/or have the most information available about replication failures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15344" LastEditorUserId="15344" LastEditDate="2017-09-21T08:06:51.893" LastActivityDate="2017-09-21T10:47:36.783" Title="Which Cognitive Sciences are the most affected by the Replication Crisis?" Tags="&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18147" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18160" CreationDate="2017-09-20T19:46:09.363" Score="3" ViewCount="994" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question 1:&lt;/strong&gt; If tacit knowledge is that which can't be written as declarative facts or communicated easily, then how can scientists measure how much of it someone has in a lab?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question 2:&lt;/strong&gt; Is it true that tacit knowledge can never be declarative or written down?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example:&lt;/strong&gt; Knowledge like &quot;never tell your immediate boss in this organization what you feel about TPS reports, or you won't be able to get your complaint past upper management&quot; seems like tacit knowledge. But yet it's written down as a declarative fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17058" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T11:15:17.337" Title="How can tacit knowledge be measured?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18148" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18142" CreationDate="2017-09-20T20:04:12.427" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;'Short' answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The way people respond to the prisoner's dilemma strongly depends on how the experiment is set up. In a repeated game, where the same 'prisoners' meet each other multiple times, the tit-for-tat strategy seems to be favored. This, because contenders learn the other's behavior and start anticipating the choice from their opponent to manipulate the outcome. It is not so that people by default betray their opponent. The betrayal (confession) is the selfish option and is favorable when you have no idea what the other will do, as it will always work in favor of yourself. The cooperation (keeping silent) is the most risky one and you only do that when you like to take big risks (unlikely, most people don't), or when you have a fairly good idea what your opponent will do.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The prisoners’ dilemma is about cooperation and competition and applies to social settings, business and politics. In the traditional version of the game, the police have arrested two suspects A and B. Both were involved in he same crime and they are interrogated separately. The police offers A and B to confess and by doing so giving away the accomplice, or to keep silent (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/PrisonersDilemma.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Library of Economics &amp;amp; Liberty&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When A will confess and gives away B, A will be granted a shorter sentence as A has confessed and has aided the cops in sentencing B, and vice versa when B confesses. If A so confesses, but B holds silent (not knowing he has been given away), B will face an exceptionally harsh sentence because of refusing to admit his crimes (say 5 years in jail).    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When both confess they will both face reduced sentences because they are helping the police as a witness (say 2 year in jail).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When both keep silent they can only be sentenced on minor charges because of a lack of proof (say a sentence of just 1 year). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The “dilemma” faced by the prisoners is that, whatever the other does, each is better off confessing than remaining silent. But the outcome obtained when both confess is worse for each than the outcome they would have obtained had both remained silent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The prisoner's dilemma can be viewed at as a puzzle, illustrating the conflict between individual and group rationality. A group whose members pursue rational self-interest may all end up worse off than a group whose members act contrary to rational self-interest. More generally, if the payoffs are not assumed to represent self-interest, a group whose members rationally pursue any goals may all meet less success than if they had not rationally pursued their goals individually (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/prisoner-dilemma/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford University&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A slightly different interpretation takes the game to represent a choice between selfish behavior and socially desirable altruism (behavior of an individual that benefits another at its own expense). The move corresponding to confession benefits the actor, no matter what the other does (selfish), while the move corresponding to silence benefits the other player no matter what that other player does (altruism). Benefiting oneself is not always wrong, of course, and benefiting others at the expense of oneself is not always morally required, but in the prisoner's dilemma game both players prefer the outcome with the altruistic moves to that with the selfish moves. This observation has led David Gauthier and others to take the Prisoner's Dilemma to say something important about the nature of morality (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/prisoner-dilemma/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford University&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now - to come to your question - you talk about 'betrayal' (which is probably referring to 'confessing') and cooperation (probably referring to 'holding silent'). You have to realize that keeping silent means you have to &lt;strong&gt;know that the other person will (likely) do that too&lt;/strong&gt;. In a one-shot situation you cannot know. However, it is only when the game is repeatedly performed, and when the subjects can learn the behavior of their 'accomplice' that subjects start to make educated guesses. A particularly fruitful strategy, surprisingly, in a repeated game is the 'tit-for-tat' approach, an almost childish approach to the dilemma, where people cooperate with their partner on the first round, then adjust their behavior to match your partner’s, as in, you do to them what they just did to you. If your partner cooperated (stayed silent) the last time, you also choose to cooperate (stay silent too) this time; if they defected (confessed) last time, you respond in kind by retaliating (confessing) against them (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolution-the-self/201607/the-prisoner-s-dilemma-and-the-virtues-tit-tat&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Seltzer in Psychology Today, 2016&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-21T06:09:45.557" LastActivityDate="2017-09-21T06:09:45.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18149" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18138" CreationDate="2017-09-20T20:49:13.857" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Generally, Hodgkin &amp;amp; Huxley-derived models are used to describe the gating characteristics of ion channels and ligand operated receptors.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ligand-gated and voltage-operated ion channels do not really perform a memory task. Instead, they channel ions across the cell memnrane and by doing so they can convey information from out the cell (neurotransmitter release / voltage changes) into the cell. Their role is physiological and the way they are modeled is typically based on &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~wjh/hh_model_intro/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hodgkin &amp;amp; Huxley kinetics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://jgp.rupress.org/content/144/1/7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sig, 2014)&lt;/a&gt; (Fig. 1). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Vt2GS.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Vt2GS.png&quot; alt=&quot;H&amp;amp;H&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Hodgkin &amp;amp; Huxley model of membrane kinetics. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/Ch2.S2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuronal Dynamics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Hodgkin-Huxley model models the semi-permeable cell membrane as a capacitor that separates the interior of the cell from the extracellular fluid. If an input current is injected into the cell, it may add further charge on the capacitor, or leak through the channels in the cell membrane. Each channel type is modeled by a resistor (conductor of current). The unspecific channel has a leak resistance R, the sodium channel a resistance R&lt;sub&gt;Na&lt;/sub&gt; and the potassium channel a resistance R&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt;. The diagonal arrow across the diagram of the resistor indicates that the value of the resistance is not fixed, but changes depending on whether the ion channel is open or closed. Because of active ion transport through the cell membrane, the ion concentration inside the cell is different from that in the extracellular liquid. The Nernst potential generated by the difference in ion concentration is represented by a battery. The Nernst potential depends on the ion and hence there are separate batteries for sodium, potassium, and the unspecific third channel, with battery voltages E&lt;sub&gt;Na&lt;/sub&gt;, E&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt; and E&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt; (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/Ch2.S2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuronal Dynamics&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now to your edited question: you say &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Ion channels] are just switched on and off instantaneously. But this may be oversimplified: it takes some time...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It goes further than that; voltage-operated ion channels like the Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; channel are actively activated and inactivated with well-defined time constants that, among other things, govern the process of absolute and relative refractoriness of nerve cells (Fig. 2). The temporal gating characteristics in terms of activation and inactivation are expressed as time constants, which can be described in for example a &lt;strong&gt;Markov model&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1665162/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Wang &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. For example,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;dm/dt = 1/τm(V) * (m∞(V)−m), where&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;m∞(V) = α(V) / [α(V)+β(V)] (9)&#xA;τm(V) = 1 / [α(V)+β(V)]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, m∞ is the steady-state activation and τm is the activation time constant of the Na+ current (n∞ and τn represent the same quantities for the K+ current). In the case of h, h∞ and τh are called steady-state inactivation and inactivation time constant, respectively (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://huguenardlab.stanford.edu/220/Destexhe_Huguenard_chapter.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Destexhe &amp;amp; Huguenard, 2007&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar formulas apply to the association and dissociation constants in ligand-operated channels, where timing of activation and inactivation are affected by the ligand's affinity for the receptor.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/w80ye.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/w80ye.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;ion ch&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Ion channel gating. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://physrev.physiology.org/content/79/4/1317&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lehmann-Horne &amp;amp; Jurkatt-Rott (1999)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://physrev.physiology.org/content/79/4/1317&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lehmann-Horne &amp;amp; Jurkatt-Rott, &lt;em&gt;Physiol Rev&lt;/em&gt; (1999); &lt;strong&gt;79&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 1317-72&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://jgp.rupress.org/content/144/1/7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sig, &lt;em&gt;J Gen Physiol&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;144&lt;/strong&gt;(1) 7-26&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1665162/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wang &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Physiol&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;557&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 705–17&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-21T19:20:22.053" LastActivityDate="2017-09-21T19:20:22.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18150" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18145" CreationDate="2017-09-21T10:26:23.097" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;One finding from the Reproducibility Project was the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Van Bavel et al wrote that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Inbar (2) notes that the reproducibility rate of social psychology (28%) is lower than cognitive psychology (53%). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, one might expect that subdisciplines with the following features to have greater reproducibility issues:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;particularly interested in novel effects&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;many researcher degrees of freedom (e.g., analytic choices, many possible outcomes variables, many possible predictors, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;between subjects designs rather than repeated measures designs&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lower statistical power (typically because getting a sufficient sample size requires substantial resources)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;those embracing fewer open science practices (e.g., pre-registrration, open data, etc.) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, for example, cognitive psychology often uses repeated measures designs to examine fairly intuitive cognitive effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personality and individual differences research is often concerned with quantifying the degree of relationships and often has very large sample sizes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of neuroscience research traditionally used techniques like fmri that often involves many researcher degrees of freedom (e.g., many brain sites), and the research is expensive per participant so sample sizes are often too small.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social psychology has a tradition of being interested in novel experimental effects. Many of these studies have traditionally been underpowered (e.g., 20 or 30 participants per group, when perhaps 100 or 200 per group would be required for adequate power), and they have often had some degree of flexibility (e.g., choice of outcome variable; case exclusion rules; whether to transform; whether to covary for something; etc.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These effects also combine with publication bias (preferences to publish significant effects) and file draw effects to reduce replication (although the same bias reduces the awareness of these issues).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, in general, a lot is happening in the open science area to try to both increase understanding of replication issues, as well as change research practices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Van Bavel, J. J., Mende-Siedlecki, P., Brady, W. J., &amp;amp; Reinero, D. A. (2016). Contextual Sensitivity Helps Explain the Reproducibility Gap between Social and Cognitive Psychology.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-09-21T10:47:36.783" LastActivityDate="2017-09-21T10:47:36.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18152" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-21T15:31:11.123" Score="4" ViewCount="379" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not know how extensive body scans have been studied with brain-imaging techniques, e.g. fMRI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Body scan is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://palousemindfulness.com/docs/bodyscan.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;meditation technique developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn&lt;/a&gt;. It was &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness#Jon_Kabat-Zinn_and_MBSR&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;derived from a meditation practice ('sweeping') of the Burmese U Ba Khin tradition&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;It involves systematically sweeping through the body with the mind,&#xA;  bringing an affectionate, openhearted, interested attention to its&#xA;  various regions, customarily starting from the toes of the left foot&#xA;  and then moving through the entirety of the foot [...] From there, the&#xA;  focus moves into, successively, and slowly, the entirety of the pelvic&#xA;  region, including the buttocks and the genitals [...] and finally, to&#xA;  the face and head.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We are systematically and intentionally moving our attention through&#xA;  the body, attending to the various sensations in the different&#xA;  regions. That we can attend to these body sensations at all is quite&#xA;  remarkable. That we can do it at will, either impulsively or in a more&#xA;  disciplined systematic way, is even more so.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We might describe what we are doing during a body scan as tuning in&#xA;  or opening to those sensations, allowing ourselves to become aware of&#xA;  what is already unfolding.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found it quite easy to practice and had interesting and unusual experiences (mostly pleasant).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: Would any brain and brain-imaging expert - given this description - dare to guess roughly how a body scan may look like in a &quot;brain scanner&quot;, e.g. recorded with fMRI?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not such an expert, nevertheless I dare to guess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably, a body scan will - mainly but not solely - take place in the areas of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortical_homunculus&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cortical homunculus&lt;/a&gt; in the primary motor and sensory cortices.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would guess that it is here that most of body scan related neural activity will occur. But in which manner: how will activity evolve and literally move around, how will it look like in the &quot;brain scanner&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Five possibilities come to my mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Experts and laymen will see nothing but a generally increased, enigmatically billowing activity of the cortical homunculus.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;An expert would see some significant patterns, but only vague and hard to communicate.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Even the layman could see something:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;an overall increased activity of the cortical homunculus with somehow changing peaks of activity (highlights, representing the body region the attentional focus is currently on)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;a mostly &quot;dark&quot; cortical homunculus with a wandering spotlight of activity &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;a mostly dark cortical homunculus with a fading-in/fading-out spotlight every now and then&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which of these possibilities do you - as a brain and/or brain-imaging expert - consider the most probable one? Other possibilities are welcome!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And of course hints to studies where this question has been experimentally attacked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I found one &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/9/6/751/1664700/Neural-correlates-of-mindfulness-meditation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; but didn't delve deeper into it: there are too few images in it.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-09-22T09:37:54.283" LastActivityDate="2017-09-29T10:43:50.090" Title="During body-scan ('sweeping') meditation, what does brain-imaging (e.g. fMRI) look like?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18154" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18156" CreationDate="2017-09-21T18:22:29.647" Score="0" ViewCount="805" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to use a survey tool to recommend a particular decision.  In my case, I am using the Ten-Item Personality Inventory (TIPI; link here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://gosling.psy.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/JRP-03-tipi.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://gosling.psy.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/JRP-03-tipi.pdf&lt;/a&gt;) and want to understand what a good binary or ternary cut off would be to recommend a choice.  Should I use the mean score or 33% percentiles respectively or is there a better way to think about it?  Also, more generally when taking a survey test, how do you recognize if you are &quot;low,&quot; &quot;average,&quot; or &quot;high&quot; on a particular measure?  For instance, when you take a personality test and your results state you are low in neuroticism, where does that ordinal value come from?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, it should be useful to note that from the research paper I linked, I don't yet know the mean values/percentiles, so if that is the right answer, using an example referencing the paper would be most beneficial to my problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11695" LastEditorUserId="11695" LastEditDate="2017-09-21T18:28:57.580" LastActivityDate="2017-09-22T01:00:44.707" Title="How to understand what a low score or high score is for a particular measure?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18155" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-21T18:24:32.857" Score="3" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to get a foothold into a new area for me. In games of chance (e.g., the lottery or roulette) I would like to understand how to setup the payout matrix. For example, in roulette, there are a variety of bets you can make for which the house take is the same and you can go from as little as doubling your money to as much as 36 times your money. With a lottery ticket you can &lt;em&gt;win&lt;/em&gt; from as small as getting your money back to hundreds of millions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What (sub)fields does the design of the pay off structure fall under and what are some of the keywords that will let me find good introductory literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-30T16:11:04.480" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T16:33:19.843" Title="payoff matrix design for games of chance" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18156" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18154" CreationDate="2017-09-22T01:00:44.707" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, a minor point is that the TIPI is a very poor measure of individual-level personality. Two item measures of personality are rarely justifiable. Standard errors of measurement are unnecessarily large. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, you are talking about the topic of norms and standardized scores.&#xA;Any introductory book on psychological measurement will discuss topics related to standardised scores and norms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;General thoughts about defining a high and low score:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;1. &lt;strong&gt;Define your population.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You need to define your target population. E.g., Just males? Just females? What ages? What country? etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;2. Obtain estimates of norms for that population.&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You then need to get a sample estimate of that population. In some cases, the test manual may provide this. In other cases, you can look to the published literature to see various normative samples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;3. Calculate statndardized scores&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You then need to compute a standardized score that relate an a particular respondent's score to the norms. Percentile ranks are one way of doing this. Other approaches are based on z-scores (i.e., where the raw score is scales to mean of zero and an standard deviation of 1). For example, t scores are the same as z-scores, but mean is 50 and standard deviation is 10. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_score&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_score&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that these standardized scores are always contingent on your norm sample.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also a range of more sophisticated approaches that are sometimes applied. For example, if you are doing cognitive testing in children, you can interpolate norms between ages, so for example, the norm for a 6.5 year old is different to a 6.8 year old.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;4. Define cut-offs&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The definition of high and what scores are low, average, and high is somewhat arbitrary. You probably want to think about your application and what the consequences will be of these categorical designations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I think based on natural language, I think a reasonable starting point (using z-scores where mean is 0 and standard deviation is 1) would be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Low: z-score &amp;lt; -1 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Average: -1 &amp;lt; z-score &amp;lt; 1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;High: z-score &gt; 1&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd probably use language to also say that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Very low: z-score &amp;lt; -2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Very high: z-score &gt; 2&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming a normal distribution, about a sixth of the distribution would be the low category, and another sixth would be in the high category.&#xA;If the distribution is not normal (e.g., you have floor or ceiling effects), then you may prefer percentiles for the full distributions or raw scores, but in cases of published articles, you probably wont have that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Applying to the TIPI Example&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, for sake of illustration, here is how you would apply this to the above&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zowdU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zowdU.png&quot; alt=&quot;tipi norms&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For extraversion where the mean is 4.44 and SD is 1.45, then you might have cut-offs of low &amp;lt; 2.99 &amp;lt; average &amp;lt; 5.89.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, as noted above, the publication present several different norms by gender and race. You may even have your own norms that is more relevant to your context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-09-22T01:00:44.707" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18158" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-22T13:48:59.300" Score="2" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know whether there is a study in psychology which compares the effectiveness of learning by reading versus learning by listening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would assume learning by reading is better because you can fixate on certain words at the intervals you want,  skip back and forth, things that are not possible with audio.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But with audio one could listen to different sources taking simultaneously, even if of course one could follow different books at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17074" LastActivityDate="2017-09-22T13:48:59.300" Title="Learning by listening versus learning by reading" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18159" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-22T16:18:43.807" Score="-1" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we ignore religion, do gays and lesbians have different social statuses?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Please add what biases you have in the question to support the answer, e.g. the grass is greener on the other side).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did find this research report on mental health for LGB people but it does group everyone together (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2853758/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2853758/&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The report did say that social relation is an important part for mental health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the other things that I found was that LGB or LGBT one group except one that was in favour for lesbian but based on a general study made in the USA that was on tolerance of LGB as a group so it's most a blur of gray.&#xA;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/06/25/how-lgbt-adults-see-society-and-how-the-public-sees-them/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/06/25/how-lgbt-adults-see-society-and-how-the-public-sees-them/&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have a source for this: Even if it is more accepted to be lesbian, wouldn't I say that they do have a higher social status and I do feel like it is in general a very big difference on how accepted LGBs are and that really messes with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16983" LastEditorUserId="24022" LastEditDate="2021-02-27T01:04:33.007" LastActivityDate="2021-02-27T01:04:33.007" Title="Is there any difference in social status for gays and lesbians?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-09-23T16:29:05.040" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18160" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18147" CreationDate="2017-09-22T22:01:58.987" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Because tacit knowledge is defined as knowledge we cannot describe, researchers apparently adopt a strategy of just interviewing and listening for signs of tacit knowledge, as far as I understand it.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Tacit knowledge can be curtly defined as ‘&lt;strong&gt;that which we know but cannot tell&lt;/strong&gt;’.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a person may be very aware of being able to ride a bicycle and able to describe how they learned to do it. However, the person may not be able to describe critical aspects of biking, such as swift, reflex-driven adjustments due to imbalance, and subjects like the steadying effect of the gyroscopic motion of the wheels, may not be consciously realized either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still tacit knowledge can be made explicit by either making the knower to learn to tell, or by the researcher telling and seeking respondent. In other words, one has to facilitate the ‘telling’ of the untold. Both methods require the researcher to construct an account. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael_Eraut/publication/12550117_Non-formal_learning_and_tacit_knowledge_in_professional_work/links/553236370cf2f2a588ad7b57.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eraut (2000)&lt;/a&gt; claims that tacit knowledge can be examined through &lt;strong&gt;regular interactions, encouraging persons to freely describe what they know&lt;/strong&gt;. This can be facilitated by an &lt;strong&gt;informal relationship&lt;/strong&gt;, where one can freely &lt;strong&gt;interact with the person about their knowledge&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael_Eraut/publication/12550117_Non-formal_learning_and_tacit_knowledge_in_professional_work/links/553236370cf2f2a588ad7b57.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eraut, &lt;em&gt;Brit J Edu Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (2000); &lt;strong&gt;70&lt;/strong&gt;: 113–36&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-22T22:49:58.347" LastActivityDate="2017-09-22T22:49:58.347" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18161" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18159" CreationDate="2017-09-22T22:38:55.063" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, I think one would have to make their own personal observation of this and do some research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I've seen, being gay as opposed to lesbian, malexmale femalexfemale respectively, it's more acceptable to be gay. I believe this is because of how common &quot;gay jokes&quot; are, and how popular you see two men together in the media. In my hometown, when someone is introduced as gay, or &quot;comes out of the closet&quot; as they say, it's sort of funny and cute and nobody really cares. However, if it's a woman who announces her sexuality, then people are disgusted, shocked, confused, and she's more often than not labeled a &quot;butch&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I come from a very religious place, but also a place where there's no public hate. There is general tolerance and some are liberal and very supportive of the LGBTQ+ community, but for the most part it is just a general cold tolerance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is in part due to how women have been viewed since the beginning of mankind. And also how women are represented in the media today. Usually it takes several years before a residue will be left of a certain message. Seeing two gay men has been so common that it's sort of settled into less open communities, and they will shrug at a man being gay. But because women haven't been portrayed as being lesbian for as long, and when they are they are perceived as &quot;butch&quot; (tomboy, tough, etc in other words) people are less accepting of them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Women in my community are also seen as more &quot;sacred&quot; or &quot;feminine&quot; and the idea of tainting the typical girl who dresses appropriately, doesn't swear, upholds all religious doctrine 100%, and would never do anything wrong in her entire life is just absurd. It is normal for girls in my community who are not seen in this holy light to be labeled as &quot;freaks.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16119" LastActivityDate="2017-09-22T22:38:55.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18163" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-23T19:44:34.200" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have googled quite alot to find any scientific statistics on any estimates of what share of all marriages consider themselves successfull. I understand that happiness is hard to measure, but is there at least somthing? What I've found was mostly recipes from/traits of successfull pairs, but this is not what I need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanx&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17081" LastActivityDate="2017-09-23T19:44:34.200" Title="Share of happy marriages" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2017-09-25T20:24:29.573" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18170" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-25T03:55:06.310" Score="1" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently doing a study where I chose to have HR management practitioners view a sample of resumes from applicants, and then have them give a competence score. I'm just not sure what kind of scales there are to measure competence. The only one I've found was to measure emotional competence, which isn't what I'm looking for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17098" LastEditorUserId="11318" LastEditDate="2017-09-25T11:18:49.480" LastActivityDate="2017-09-25T11:18:49.480" Title="Is there an inventory to measure competence in the workplace?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18171" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-25T21:50:57.320" Score="2" ViewCount="1083" Body="&lt;p&gt;My personal experiences have shown me multiple times that by only boosting my confidence in my ability to solve a problem,  without gaining any additional knowledge, I was able to solve it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, has this been studied that to what extent our confidence in our abilities can help us to find a solution for a problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, can you please provide a link?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17106" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-09-26T15:04:42.977" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T00:08:19.373" Title="Relation of confidence and problem solving ability" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18172" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18171" CreationDate="2017-09-26T07:31:06.627" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quick answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A brief &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=relationship+between+confidence+and+skill&amp;amp;rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS592US592&amp;amp;oq=relationship+between+confidence+and+skill&amp;amp;aqs=chrome..69i57.5815j0j7&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google search&lt;/a&gt; show cases where this occurred. For example, it seems that a study on medical students showed a significant relationship between confidence and ability after training, although not before training (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1931720413002183&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clanton et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;). This being said, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunning-Kruger&lt;/a&gt; effect always comes to mind when such questions come up…&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clanton, J., Gardner, A., Cheung, M., Mellert, L., Evancho-Chapman, M., &amp;amp; George, R. L. (2014). The relationship between confidence and competence in the development of surgical skills. Journal of Surgical Education, 71(3), 405–412. &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2013.08.009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2013.08.009&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7943" LastActivityDate="2017-09-26T07:31:06.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18173" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-26T08:47:30.537" Score="2" ViewCount="596" Body="&lt;p&gt;For instance, if two parents have IQs of 160, can one calculate the probability that their child has an IQ over 160?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17107" LastEditorUserId="17107" LastEditDate="2017-09-26T09:44:24.447" LastActivityDate="2017-10-09T01:57:33.257" Title="Is it possible to calculate the probability of a child having an IQ in a certain range based on their parents' IQ?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18174" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18171" CreationDate="2017-09-26T08:57:29.877" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think what you are reffering to is known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uky.edu/%7Eeushe2/Bandura/BanEncy.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-efficacy&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perceived &lt;strong&gt;self-efficacy&lt;/strong&gt; is defined as people's beliefs about their&#xA;capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise&#xA;influence over events that affect their lives. Self-efficacy beliefs&#xA;determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A strong sense of efficacy enhances human accomplishment and&#xA;personal well-being in many ways. People with high assurance in their&#xA;capabilities approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered&#xA;rather than as threats to be avoided. Such an efficacious outlook&#xA;fosters intrinsic interest and deep engrossment in activities. They&#xA;set themselves challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to&#xA;them. They heighten and sustain their efforts in the face of failure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most courses of action are initially organized in thought.&#xA;People's beliefs in their efficacy shape the types of anticipatory&#xA;scenarios they construct and rehearse. Those who have a high sense of&#xA;efficacy, visualize success scenarios that provide positive guides and&#xA;supports for performance. Those who doubt their efficacy, visualize&#xA;failure scenarios and dwell on the many things that can go wrong. It&#xA;is difficult to achieve much while fighting self-doubt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perceived self-efficacy to control thought processes is a key factor&#xA;in regulating thought produced stress and depression. It is not the&#xA;sheer frequency of disturbing thoughts but the perceived inability to&#xA;turn them off that is the major source of distress. Both perceived&#xA;coping self-efficacy and thought control efficacy operate jointly to&#xA;reduce anxiety and avoidant behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-09-26T08:57:29.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18178" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-27T10:44:50.940" Score="2" ViewCount="228" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for the definitions of &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Multi-channel coding&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Opponent-channel coding &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And specifically in the context of visual adaptation. I have searched for information on the web and in books, but I am unable to find accurate definitions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17115" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-05T19:08:29.833" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T19:08:29.833" Title="What are the definitions of 'multi-channel coding' and 'opponent channel coding'?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18179" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-27T11:34:51.987" Score="3" ViewCount="396" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the most effective way to study? For instance, assume a student has the following 4 classes in parallel:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1- C++ &amp;amp; Data-structure&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2- Logic Design&lt;br&gt;&#xA;3- Linear Algebra&lt;br&gt;&#xA;4- Integration &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Should the student study 1 course per day, or study all 4 courses every day to study efficiently? In other words, should a student learn big chunks of information on one course/topic, or study multiple courses/topics in parallel to learn the most in the least amount of time? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17116" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-28T23:06:20.747" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T23:06:20.747" Title="What is the best time-effective study technique?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-10-12T18:43:05.670" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18181" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18171" CreationDate="2017-09-28T00:08:19.373" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are studies that looked explicitly at confidence and performance. There is a well-known relationship between confidence and performance: the less skilled people are, the less calibrated their confidence is (they are less able to estimate whether they are correct or not), and the more overconfident they tend to be. It's sad, it means that the less knowledgeable people don't even realize they are not knowledgeable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also draw conclusions indirectly from the psychosocial literature and for example the well established &quot;stereotype threat&quot; effect. Members of minority groups with a negative stereotype do not perform well when they are explicitly tested on that stereotype (e.g. African Americans on IQ tests, women on math tests, etc). But they perform as well as other groups if they are told the same test is testing something else; and they perform poorly on a tests that actually test something else if they are told it is about their stereotype. You can speculate that negative stereotypes decrease confidence and reduce performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also more studies you could draw on, for example showing that wrong feedbacks reduce learning rate etc. But at the top of my head, I can't think of a study that tested your precise question (if confidence boosts performance). My understanding of the confidence/decision-making literature is that the answer is no. What matters most is to have a well calibrated confidence (being confident when you are right, and not confident when you are wrong). Being underconfident (e.g. due to a stereotype), harms your performance, but being overconfident too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lichtenstein, S., &amp;amp; Fischhoff, B. (1977). Do those who know more also know more about how much they know?. Organizational behavior and human performance, 20(2), 159-183.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Steele, C. M., &amp;amp; Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of personality and social psychology, 69(5), 797.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T00:08:19.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18182" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18173" CreationDate="2017-09-28T00:24:03.473" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is precisely the question Galton had in mind when he invented regressions. He tested it with heights. Given parents heights, their children height is actually more likely to be closer to the population mean. So high parents tend to have smaller children, and short parents taller children (hence the term &quot;regression&quot;). To answer your question, a children of parents with high IQs (160 is very high), is likely to have a higher IQ than the average population, but lower than the parents. This is even more true than for height as IQ is a lot less heritable. The precise likelihood can be calculated given some assumption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Galton, F. (1886). Regression towards mediocrity in hereditary stature. The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 15, 246-263.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastEditorDisplayName="user17122" LastEditDate="2017-10-09T01:57:33.257" LastActivityDate="2017-10-09T01:57:33.257" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18185" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18179" CreationDate="2017-09-28T07:19:22.040" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_practice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;distributed learning&lt;/a&gt; strategy which is based on a phenomenon called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacing_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;spacing effect&lt;/a&gt;, it is better to study classes in parallel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Distributed practice&lt;/strong&gt; (also known as spaced repetition or spaced&#xA;  practice) is a learning strategy, where practice is broken up into a&#xA;  number of short sessions – over a longer period of time. Humans and&#xA;  animals learn items in a list &lt;strong&gt;more effectively&lt;/strong&gt; when they are studied&#xA;  in several sessions spread out over a long period of time, rather than&#xA;  studied repeatedly in a short period of time, a phenomenon called the&#xA;  spacing effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The opposite, massed practice&lt;/strong&gt;, consists of fewer, longer training sessions. It is generally a &lt;strong&gt;less effective&lt;/strong&gt; method of learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Greene, Robert L.. Spacing effects in memory: Evidence for a two process account. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition15. 3 (May 1989): 371-377&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Challis, Bradford H.. (Mar 1993). Spacing effects on cued-memory tests depend on level of processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 19. 2, 389-396.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T07:19:22.040" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18186" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18187" CreationDate="2017-09-28T08:42:04.880" Score="5" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know what the time scale is of the human ear. I mean, what is the shortest duration of a sound that a human ear can notice&#xA;and what is the longest duration of a sound that a human ear can not track?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9947" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-28T11:32:16.407" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T15:17:31.997" Title="What are the temporal limits of the auditory system?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18187" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18186" CreationDate="2017-09-28T09:04:37.987" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://auditoryneuroscience.com/ear/bm_motion_2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;auditory clicks&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are the shortest possible auditory stimuli. The shortest auditory click I was able to find in the literature, and which was used in a psychophysical context (i.e., audible to a human) was 10 microseconds &lt;a href=&quot;http://scitation.aip.org/content/asa/journal/jasa/49/2B/10.1121/1.1912374&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Leshowitz, 1971)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The longest sound we can hear is pretty much defined as a human's maximum age I guess. While the auditory system definitely adapts to acoustic stimuli at the neurophysiological level &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3931124/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Pérez-González &amp;amp; Malmierca 2014)&lt;/a&gt;, this neural adaptation does not become evident in gross psychophysical adaptations. In other words, prolonged acoustic stimulation does not lead to sounds becoming less audible, let alone inaudible. That, because tonal stimuli consist of continuously changing air pressure differences. Of course, a continuous pressure applied to the eardrum is not heard, but a stimulus like that is not sound, but simply pressure, as it has no tonal content.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://scitation.aip.org/content/asa/journal/jasa/49/2B/10.1121/1.1912374&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Leshowitz et al. J Acoust Soc Am 1971; 49, Suppl 2:462-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3931124/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pérez-González &amp;amp; Malmierca, &lt;em&gt;Front Integr Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;: 19&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-28T10:05:13.593" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T10:05:13.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18188" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-28T12:19:52.763" Score="3" ViewCount="149" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm pretty sure I've seen this cognitive bias described in the literature, but I can't find its official name, so I'll provisionally call it &quot;the used-book finder's bias&quot;, based on the following vignette.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Say you are browsing through some used-book store, looking for nothing in particular, when you spot, tucked in some corner, almost hidden, a copy of some &quot;classic&quot; book.  The book is in good shape, and the price is very attractive.  What a find!  You've got to have it, never mind the little voice reminding you that your reading list is already overcrowded, as are your bookshelves, and that you won't have time to read this book in the foreseeable future...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cognitive bias I'm referring to is the intense compulsion to acquire the &lt;em&gt;serendipitous find&lt;/em&gt;, even though one does not need it, and almost certainly will not do anything with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As someone who used to frequent used-book shops, I'm all too familiar with this cognitive bias.  It led me to spend a lot of money, and acquire more books than I could even store, let alone read.  (Eventually, I wised up.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mind you, the vast majority of the books I found this way were not really hard-to-find; I could easily get through other means (e.g. the library) &lt;em&gt;if&lt;/em&gt; I ever really needed to read them.  Moreover, if I had just paid full price for brand new copies of the very few among those books that I ultimately read, I would have still saved myself a lot of money.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The principal element of the bias, seems to me, is the strong feeling of &lt;em&gt;good fortune&lt;/em&gt; one feels in such a situation.  Conversely, one feels strongly that one would be a complete fool not to take advantage of such a lucky event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3256" LastEditorUserId="3256" LastEditDate="2017-09-28T13:00:57.627" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T18:01:24.890" Title="What's the technical name for this cognitive bias?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18189" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18188" CreationDate="2017-09-28T12:52:48.683" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not entirely sure about the proper scientific names but I think your issue revolves around buying things because they are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;cheap;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;hard to find.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first is a notorious reason to buy stuff; the impulsive purchase of goods, simply because they are advertised as 'buy two, pay for one!'. This &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thesimpledollar.com/buying-things-because-theyre-on-sale-is-an-awful-way-to-save-money/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bargain hunting&lt;/a&gt; can indeed become pathological and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.orchidrecoverycenter.com/blog/can-bargain-hunting-be-addictive/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;addictive&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/in-excess/201511/can-bargain-hunting-be-addictive&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt;).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The buying simply because a product is hard to find is a bit harder to frame in behaviors, but it is indeed a common phenomenon that people tend to buy stuff because they are exclusive (#55 &lt;a href=&quot;http://copytactics.com/why-people-buy-stuff&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). Also, perhaps you simply wish to buy it &lt;a href=&quot;http://copytactics.com/why-people-buy-stuff&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;just because you &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (#26 &lt;a href=&quot;http://copytactics.com/why-people-buy-stuff&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, buying stuff in general makes you feel good as it activates the reward circutry in our brain. As a consequence buying stuff can become an addiction (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychguides.com/guides/shopping-addiction-symptoms-causes-and-effects/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;shopaholics&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is actually a disorder named &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/sideways-view/201412/compulsive-buying&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;compulsive buying disorder&lt;/a&gt;. It was included in DSM-III, but not in later DSMs. It's not strictly defined but it has been associated with addictive disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, or mood disorders &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1805733/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Black, 2007)&lt;/a&gt;.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1805733/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Black, World Psychiatry (2007); &lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 14–18&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-09-28T13:01:11.127" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T13:01:11.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18191" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18186" CreationDate="2017-09-28T15:17:31.997" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In terms of the shortest stimuli, the auditory system can process acoustic impulses, but defining the duration of an impulse is problematic. As the duration of the impulse gets shorter, the bandwidth gets broader. A 25 us impulse has frequencies between 0 and 20 kHz, as you decrease the duration of the impulse you add higher frequency components such that a 10 us impulse has a maximum frequency of 50 kHz. The upper edge of human hearing is 20 kHz so it is unlikely that we could detect a difference between a 25 us impulse and a 10 us impulse (or even a 1 us impulse), but assuming sufficient energy, all would be detectable. Making really short sounds with sufficient levels of energy is technically challenging and requires good transducers, but ultrasonic transducers exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The upper limit depends on what you consider the &lt;em&gt;human ear&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://asa.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1121/1.1911699&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Durlach and Braida (1969)&lt;/a&gt; introduced the concepts of &lt;em&gt;sensory‐trace mode&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;context‐coding mode&lt;/em&gt; to separate sensory limitations from memory limitations. The 15 papers in the series, written over 25 years, delve into the details (and then some), but basically after about 250 ms, listener switch from trace mode to context coding, suggesting this is the upper limit of processing by the &lt;em&gt;ear&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, my recollection is that echolocating bats need precise temporal tuning (so sensory mode) over the time course of 10s of seconds. As humans are also able to echolocate, to an extent, there may be some aspects of the auditory system for which the neural trace degrades much more slowly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T15:17:31.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18192" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18188" CreationDate="2017-09-28T18:01:24.890" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not sure what you describe is a cognitive bias in itself, but I suspect the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarcity_heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;scarcity heuristic&lt;/a&gt; may be part of the purchaser's rationalization. (See the wikipedia article for academic references.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17128" LastActivityDate="2017-09-28T18:01:24.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18193" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18152" CreationDate="2017-09-29T10:43:50.090" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Mind of the Meditator may be what you are looking for:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/journal/v311/n5/full/scientificamerican1114-38.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/journal/v311/n5/full/scientificamerican1114-38.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The image taken from the article gives some good explanation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UKjB9.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UKjB9.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11015" LastActivityDate="2017-09-29T10:43:50.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18195" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-09-29T11:57:20.653" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://mriquestions.com/whats-that-noise.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sounds and noises&lt;/a&gt; that a typical MRI scanner produces are problematic for several reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;they give - annoying as they are - a strong feel of &lt;strong&gt;uncomfortableness&lt;/strong&gt; to any subject or patient&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;they are quite loud, dominant, and &lt;strong&gt;distracting&lt;/strong&gt; and disturb &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; kind of processing a task, not only auditory related tasks (but obviously these)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;they especially strongly disturb the measurement of any &lt;strong&gt;subtle emotional response&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard of several &lt;a href=&quot;http://mriquestions.com/whats-that-noise.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;solutions&lt;/a&gt; to this problem (partly successful):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;physical (hardware-based) attenuation and prevention &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;software-based attenuation or &quot;softening&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;making the sounds and noises part of the experimental design, e.g. in this arcticle: &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mrm.1910400621/abstract?systemMessage=Wiley%20Online%20Library%20will%20be%20unavailable%20on%20Saturday%207th%20Oct%20from%2003.00%20EDT%20%2F%2008%3A00%20BST%20%2F%2012%3A30%20IST%20%2F%2015.00%20SGT%20to%2008.00%20EDT%20%2F%2013.00%20BST%20%2F%2017%3A30%20IST%20%2F%2020.00%20SGT%20and%20Sunday%208th%20Oct%20from%2003.00%20EDT%20%2F%2008%3A00%20BST%20%2F%2012%3A30%20IST%20%2F%2015.00%20SGT%20to%2006.00%20EDT%20%2F%2011.00%20BST%20%2F%2015%3A30%20IST%20%2F%2018.00%20SGT%20for%20essential%20maintenance.%20Apologies%20for%20the%20inconvenience%20caused%20.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The MR tomograph as a sound generator&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some overviews can be found here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4139601/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Methodological challenges and solutions in auditory functional magnetic resonance imaging&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmri.10186/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Acoustic Noise and Functional Magnetic Resonance&#xA;Imaging: Current Strategies and Future Prospects&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there other - maybe completely different - approaches to solve the problem of sounds and noises&#xA;  of MRI scanners?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I assume that not everyone would have immediately come up with the third approach!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-09-29T12:37:27.643" LastActivityDate="2017-09-29T12:37:27.643" Title="How to cope with the problem of noise in fMRI?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18200" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18092" CreationDate="2017-09-30T18:52:35.760" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some thoughts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You have to differentiate between psychoanalysis (PA) as a method and procedure for psythotherapy and PA as a theory of the human psyche. Criticism is mostly aimed at PA as a theory.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The only therapeutic school that has been extensively evaluated is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT). In these evaluations, CBT is shown to &quot;work&quot;. The absence of positive proof for PA (and other schools, such as systemic, gestalt, or humanist psychotherapy) is often interpreted by critics of PA to imply that only CBT is a valid method for psychotherapy and that PA does not &quot;work&quot;. Recently, there have been increasing numbers of comparisons between CBT and other cognitive-behavioral schools and PA and other depth psychology schools (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.springermedizin.de/lac-depressionsstudie/10990824&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a long-term study of CBT vs PA for depression&lt;/a&gt;, where CBT is not much effective). The results show that PA is just as effective as CBT for many disorders, that it is more effective for certain disorders, and that it is less effective for others. Or in other words, that PA and CBT are both appropriate for certain patients and disorders and that the decision between them has to be made by case. One remaining disadvantage of PA, though, is that it is more time- and cost-intensive: PA therapies take years at three to four sessions per week, while CBT takes months at one session per week or less. Where they are equally effective, CBT is to be preferred, therefore.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Certain PA therapeutic concepts such as transference and countertransference have been absorbed by non-depth-psychology therapies, because their therapeutic concepts has been lacking in this aspect. That is, PA survives in certain concepts that have become common therapeutic lore.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The most intense criticism is aimed by experimental psychologists at PA as a theory of the psyche. &quot;Scientific&quot; psychologists believe (sic) that the Oedipus Complex is pseudoscientific nonsense. But there has been some experimental research into PA concepts, e.g. the defense mechanisms. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/vollarj/baumesiter%20roy%20-%20freudian%20defense%20mechanisms.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Roy Baumeister has reviewed experimental evidence for a number of these mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; and has found experimental evidence for the existence of some of them. Plainly said: Freud was right in at least some of these mechanisms. Another concept that is generally accepted to be accurate is the unconsious. Few non-PA psychologists today would dare to claim that the unconscious does not exist.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;PA has survived as a therapy because of institutional power (they have been a part of the health system in Western countries for a hundred years and are difficult to displace) and because it was an extremely popular ancillary science in cultural theory (e.g. to analyze literature, cf. Lacan and poststructuralism).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17141" LastActivityDate="2017-09-30T18:52:35.760" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2017-09-30T18:52:35.760" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18205" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-01T20:24:52.930" Score="4" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for some good place to start read about sociology of fashion. I guess there are some researches about why people &quot;invented&quot; fashion and is it some natural for human as a biological species or it is accidentally happened social phenomenon. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there some social functions of fashion? I suppose that from the anti-capitalism point of view fashion cult is a just a consequence of consumer society, but maybe there some scientific studies of psychology and sociology of fashion and it's social functions? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17155" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-01T20:37:58.340" LastActivityDate="2020-08-25T15:33:36.633" Title="Analysis of psychology/sociology of fashion?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18206" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18214" CreationDate="2017-10-02T01:38:17.017" Score="3" ViewCount="861" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been recently reading about hypnosis and I'm asking this question because I've had certain personal experiences that makes me confuse the term Trance with just simple sleep. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not a fan of Heavy Metal music, but I sometimes listen to it because it somehow calms me down and I usually listen to music while wearing my big uncomfortable headphone, sitting in my chair which is also very uncomfortable and having my legs resting on my desk. When I listen to music, I almost always start to imagine things, for example I sometimes try to imagine a trip to a certain place, or I try to make up a music video for that tune in my mind. The reason why I mentioned Heavy Metal is that, when I listen to that kind of music in that uncomfortable position, I fell asleep in a way that I can still hear the music and this goes on until the whole album is finished and when I wake up I feel really really fresh like my brain has been fully reset. However, this feeling does not happen when I just go to bed or I just get some rest. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I have read about hypnosis suggests a similar condition, which is when someone is between being conscious and unconscious (or I can't describe it well). However, the videos I have seen about it emphasis on comfort. Would this be (what's I'm experiencing) a kind of trance or hypnosis, or it is just a normal nap? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And would there be any reason why a music full of violence, yelling, and rough sounds would calm down the brain and put it into a semi-conscious state and then makes it very refreshed afterwards? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17156" LastActivityDate="2017-10-04T02:29:30.647" Title="Sleep vs. Trance" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18207" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18206" CreationDate="2017-10-02T03:53:39.543" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's highly plausible (judging from your description) that you induce some sort of hypnotized state. I highly doubt it's strongly related to heavy metal though. The state of mind you're hinting at is not really a state between the subconscious and conscious. It's your mind deceiving your body that you're asleep without losing awareness. The increased visual imagination indicates to me that you're approaching a dreamlike state.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about your dreams? I suggest u start writing a dream journal. Also, try practicing meditation before you go to bed and see if you achieve similar results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17157" LastActivityDate="2017-10-02T03:53:39.543" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18208" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4670" CreationDate="2017-10-02T04:01:36.803" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Explicit attitudes are consciously accessible attitudes that are controllable and easy to report. Implicit attitudes are uncontrollable and perhaps not consciously accessible to us. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17158" LastActivityDate="2017-10-02T04:01:36.803" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18209" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-02T08:53:07.030" Score="2" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I'm doing a thesis and need to find the best sensor/wearable that has a open api so I can access the data, that measures gsr (galvanic skin response) and ppg (photoplethysmography).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've seen a lot of bands but mostly discontinued (Microsoft band 2) and the e4 is really expensive (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.empatica.com/e4-wristband&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.empatica.com/e4-wristband&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do you recommend and why? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;thanks in advance &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17159" LastEditorUserId="17159" LastEditDate="2017-10-02T10:54:11.863" LastActivityDate="2017-10-02T10:54:11.863" Title="Best sensor/wearable to measure ppg and/or gsr" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-10-05T17:15:16.483" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18210" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-02T15:51:57.323" Score="3" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can anyone recommend studies about how good (or bad) everyday memory is for events? How much of what happens today will I be able to remember next week? In a month or a year? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was deliberately framed in lay language but I am looking for proper cognitive studies of episodic memory but these are likely to be relatively naturalistic - the idea is to get a sense of how much of daily life can be recalled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17161" LastEditorUserId="17161" LastEditDate="2017-10-03T10:43:59.337" LastActivityDate="2017-10-03T10:43:59.337" Title="How good (or bad) is everyday event memory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;episodic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2017-10-02T21:31:28.610" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18211" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5005" CreationDate="2017-10-03T17:26:18.283" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I agree there is some murkiness, as learning a list of words doesn't seem to resemble what we normally think of as an 'event'. I think the answer is episodic when there is a single learning episode, and the memory test asks something like &quot;what were the words you learnt in this list in this experiment&quot; (even if the qualification &quot;in this experiment&quot;) is sometimes only implied. In that case the memory is likely to be contextual and episodic. Think about the simpler example of learning individual words - these are known words, but if the task successfully taps memory for the episode in the current experiment, it is typically regarded as an episodic task, and people report recollective experience surrounding individual items (e.g Tulving's original remember-know paper here as pdf &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.esalq.usp.br/lepse/imgs/conteudo_thumb/Memory-and-Consciousness.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.esalq.usp.br/lepse/imgs/conteudo_thumb/Memory-and-Consciousness.pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if there are multiple learning episodes a semantic memory may emerge gradually - and according to some recent work on schemas, if the list corresponds well to prior knowledge there may be a 'fast track' to semantic memory, and hippocampal independence (e.g. Tse, Morris and others, &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/316/5821/76.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/316/5821/76.full&lt;/a&gt;), but there are other views.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17161" LastActivityDate="2017-10-03T17:26:18.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18212" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-03T20:24:08.080" Score="3" ViewCount="307" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen a lot of resources online about how to teach people visual thinking, but I've seen a lot less on the opposite: how to avoid visual thinking. The problem with visual thinking is that it is inherently concrete, while words are inherently abstract. Given that some subjects are more abstract than others, it is preferable in those subjects to not use visual reasoning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can visual thinking be avoided?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17172" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-04T19:51:55.853" LastActivityDate="2017-10-07T10:02:37.067" Title="How can visual thinking be avoided?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18213" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-04T02:20:42.670" Score="0" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;How can I measure someone's ability for the speed to which they react to something? Is their a way to test something like a person's reaction timing that doesn't involve something as simple as the ruler test, but rather something a bit more complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edited: The ruler test: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yn6WRm6TiPk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yn6WRm6TiPk&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;I have not yet done initial research on this topic because I want some good opinions on sources that I can use to better my understanding of this topic. I apologize if I was not clear at first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17174" LastEditorUserId="17174" LastEditDate="2017-10-05T02:03:36.127" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T11:44:30.290" Title="How can I test reaction time?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18214" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18206" CreationDate="2017-10-04T02:29:30.647" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wearing those big headphone is indirectly a way to isolate yourself from the surrounding sound. That is usually a prelude for relaxation, or meditation. &lt;em&gt;(In people with audiotory disorder, or with authism, this is a way they can feel good as that remove a big source of stimulis)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other side for the heavy metal, study have found it can be a stress reliever, as stated in that study;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4439552/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Extreme Metal Music and Anger Processing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The findings indicate that extreme music did not make angry&#xA;  participants angrier; rather, it appeared to match their physiological&#xA;  arousal and result in an increase in positive emotions. &lt;strong&gt;Listening to&#xA;  extreme music may represent a healthy way of processing anger for&#xA;  these listeners&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3352230/Heavy-metal-a-comfort-for-the-bright-child.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;news site&lt;/a&gt; suggest the same;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One student said: &quot;It helps me with stress. It's the general&#xA;  thrashiness of it. You can't really jump your anger into the floor and&#xA;  listen to your music at the same time with other types of music.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not a fact, but some &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/sep/08/classical.metal.fans.study&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;smaller&lt;/a&gt; study clasify heavy metal fan at the same level than classical fan;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Classical music and heavy metal fans might not be different after all.&#xA;  New research by scientists at Heriot-Watt University has found that&#xA;  not only are peoples' personalities linked to their taste in music –&#xA;  classical and heavy metal listeners often have very similar&#xA;  dispositions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With thoses study in head, I have no difficulty to understand why you can relax to such music. Is it hypnosis, trance or such ? who know, but something is sure is that those headphone and heavy metal is a good mix to deeply relax / meditate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17173" LastActivityDate="2017-10-04T02:29:30.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18216" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18212" CreationDate="2017-10-04T19:42:51.887" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In normally sighted people visual thinking is the dominant mode of thinking and may be intimately associated even with verbal thinking and hence difficult to root out completely.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Human thought can be generally divided into &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/visual-thinking/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2017/05/visual-images-often-intrude-on-verbal-thinking-study-says/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;verbal thinking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Visual thinking is mediated by &lt;strong&gt;visual imagery&lt;/strong&gt;, where imagery visual representations are created of things that have been, are, or will be (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, life events such as memories of a recent vacation). In contrast, verbal thinking involves thinking in words, for example when you are thinking about what and how you will tell something to friends or colleagues, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;inner speech&lt;/strong&gt; (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2017/05/visual-images-often-intrude-on-verbal-thinking-study-says/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harvard Gazette, May 2017&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28323162&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amit &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; (2017)&lt;/a&gt; investigated subjects' brain activity when recalling images or sentences. Verbal thoughts resulted in more robust activation of language centers in the brain than during visualizations. However, subjects generated visual images regardless of whether their intent was to visualize or to think verbally. One possible interpretation the authors provide is that visual thinking is a primary mode of thought, which is supported by the notion that verbal abilities appeared later in human evolution and also appears later in childhood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting notion here is of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/inherited+congenital+blindness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;congenitally blind people&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; that lack visual memory altogether. In these instances, visual imagery is totally absent and in these people verbal thinking may be the only mode of thought available &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6222145&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Zimler &amp;amp; Keenan, 1983)&lt;/a&gt;. In congenitally deaf-blind individuals the mode of thinking may be further warped into tactile thoughts. These considerations may lead to believe that with sufficient practice, pure-verbal thinking may at least theoretically be possible in the sighted.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28323162&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amit &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neuroimage&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;15&lt;/strong&gt;(152): 619-27&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6222145&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zimler &amp;amp; Keenan, &lt;em&gt;J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn&lt;/em&gt; (1983); &lt;strong&gt;9&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 269-82&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-07T10:02:37.067" LastActivityDate="2017-10-07T10:02:37.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18217" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-04T19:55:50.280" Score="3" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does the efficiency of multi-tasking differ by task type? My understanding is that multitasking impairs efficiency for cognitively challenging tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this apply to trivial tasks as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16520" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-10-06T15:09:23.827" LastActivityDate="2017-10-07T20:55:29.640" Title="Efficiency of multitasking depending on task difficulty" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18219" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18213" CreationDate="2017-10-04T23:23:11.837" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is very typical to record response times. Usually using a computer keyboard. It's easy to program or some software can do it for you (e.g. e-prime). You can also use already-made response boxes (e.g. RTbox), or make your own (e.g. with an arduino). As pointed out, it is usually good to control for performance to prevent speed-accuracy tradeoff confounds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Li, X., Liang, Z., Kleiner, M., &amp;amp; Lu, Z. L. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.1.212&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;RTbox: a device for highly accurate response time measurements.&lt;/a&gt; Behavior Research Methods, 42(1), 212-225.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schubert, T. W., D’Ausilio, A., &amp;amp; Canto, R. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0336-z&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Using Arduino microcontroller boards to measure response latencies.&lt;/a&gt; Behavior research methods, 45(4), 1332-1346.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-10-05T11:44:30.290" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T11:44:30.290" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18221" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-05T06:21:44.590" Score="8" ViewCount="1838" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the link between someone's visual and spatial working memory, their verbal working memory, and different types of cognitive abilities or tasks? More specifically, intelligence tests (WAIS, Stanford Binet, etc.) and would this relate to educational outcomes in different fields (maybe SAT scores, graduation rates in different fields, and GPA, etc.)? Is there a relationship between these variables? Some &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/07/140708092142.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cite&lt;/a&gt; working memory as the most important predictor of early academic success. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somebody who has a strong verbal working memory may generally perform well on other types of verbal tasks included on intelligence tests: vocabulary, verbal reasoning, analogies, antynoms, etc. And be better suited to learn about fields such as literature, biology, foreign languages, etc. because there is a lot of linguistic mastery required in these disciplines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or on the other hand, if somebody has a strong visual-spatial working memory they may generally perform well on intelligence tests on other types of visual-spatial tasks that also recruit reasoning ability and long-term memory. And would be better suited to learning about fields such as physics, mathematics, art, architecture, etc. because there is more of a visual-spatial component in these disciplines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there are many other factors that affect ability and learning. Working memory would be a small determinant but a determinant nonetheless. Furthermore, there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.357.1874&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;research&lt;/a&gt; which shows a link between spatial ability and achievement in STEM subjects up to graduate level studies for example. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive abilities from both of these broad areas (overall visual-spatial and verbal ability) certainly overlap highly — same with other types of reasoning abilities such as numerical and logical. However, I assume each area has a bias as to what types of cognitive abilities are used more. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seems to be a very strong correlation between the two types of working memory or short-term memory. That's what I wanted to find out mainly: &lt;strong&gt;What is the relationship between the different types of working memory or short-term memory and other types of reasoning abilities (non-working memory reasoning tasks including verbal ability, numerical, spatial, etc.)? Are the different measures of short-term and working memory measuring approximately the same thing?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How common is the occurance of individuals that have poor verbal working memory and high verbal reasoning scores on intelligence tests for example? How about for visual-spatial working memory and non-working memory visual-spatial scores on intelligence tests?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read a few papers on this subject but am unsure of the answer.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopefully, someone can point me in the right direction. Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Timothy F. Brady, Talia Konkle, George A. Alvarez; A review of visual memory capacity: Beyond individual items and toward structured representations. Journal of Vision 2011;11(5):4. doi: 10.1167/11.5.4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Teixeira, Rosani Aparecida Antunes, Zachi, Elaine Cristina, Roque, Daniela Tsubota, Taub, Anita, &amp;amp; Ventura, Dora Fix. (2011). Memory span measured by the spatial span tests of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery in a group of Brazilian children and adolescents. Dementia &amp;amp; Neuropsychologia, 5(2), 129-134. &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1980-57642011DN05020012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1980-57642011DN05020012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spatial Ability: A Neglected Talent in Educational and Occupational Settings&#xA;Harrison J. Kell &amp;amp; David Lubinski&#xA;Roeper Review Vol. 35 , Iss. 4,2013&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17044" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditorDisplayName="user17044" LastEditDate="2017-12-31T17:07:50.547" LastActivityDate="2018-03-02T12:48:52.943" Title="Link between visual-spatial + verbal working memory and intelligence/academic achievement?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18222" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18217" CreationDate="2017-10-05T06:23:27.030" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The effects of multitasking are apparent even for the most trivial tasks. For example try walking and eating a sandwich at the same time, you will walk slower and more irregular. The multitasking effects though, are much less when the competing tasks are simple or familiar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Exctract from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/research/action/multitask.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In experiments published in 2001, Joshua Rubinstein, PhD, Jeffrey&#xA;  Evans, PhD, and David Meyer, PhD, conducted four experiments in which&#xA;  young adults switched between different tasks, such as solving math&#xA;  problems or classifying geometric objects. For all tasks, the&#xA;  participants lost time when they had to switch from one task to&#xA;  another. &lt;strong&gt;As tasks got more complex, participants lost more time&lt;/strong&gt;. As a&#xA;  result, people took significantly longer to switch between more&#xA;  complex tasks. Time costs were also greater when the participants&#xA;  switched to tasks that were relatively unfamiliar. They got up to&#xA;  speed faster when they switched to tasks they knew better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://umich.edu/~bcalab/documents/RubinsteinMeyerEvans2001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rubinstein, J. S., Meyer, D. E. &amp;amp; Evans, J. E. (2001). Executive Control of Cognitive Processes in Task Switching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 27, 763-797.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T06:23:27.030" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18223" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18224" CreationDate="2017-10-05T07:18:35.327" Score="6" ViewCount="172" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a reason why people dream of demons, ghosts, and other scary creatures? More specifically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What factors cause frequent nightmares to occur&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1109" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-05T09:35:57.030" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T09:35:57.030" Title="What is the cause of frequent nightmares?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18223" CreationDate="2017-10-05T09:23:39.317" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nightmares can be defined as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0401/p2037.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Pagel, 2000)&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...vivid and terrifying nocturnal episodes in which the dreamer is abruptly awakened from sleep. Typically, the dreamer wakes from REM sleep and is able to describe a detailed, associative, often bizarre dream plot. Usually, the dreamer has difficulty returning to sleep. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nightmares are common and can be a normal reaction to stress. Frequent occurrence of nightmares, however, may become a disorder when it impairs the sufferer's everyday life and may then be referred to as Nightmare Disorder (formerly Dream Anxiety Disorder) or &quot;repeated nightmares,&quot; which is a term defined more specifically as a series of nightmares with a recurring theme (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/nightmares&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914428-overview&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nightmare disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) as: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[R]epeated awakenings with recollection of terrifying dreams, usually&#xA;  involving threats to survival, safety or physical integrity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Causes of nightmare disorder, according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/guide/nightmares-in-adults#2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/nightmares&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4542515/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sheaves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt; are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anxiety or stress, for example due to a major life event&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Depression&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychosis&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sleep deprivation &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Illness with a fever&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Medication side effects&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Drug or alcohol withdrawal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Excessive alcohol consumption&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sleep apnea, narcolepsy or restless legs syndrome or other sleep disorders&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eating just before going to bed, which raises the body's metabolism and brain activity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0401/p2037.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pagel, &lt;em&gt;Am Fam Physician&lt;/em&gt; (2000); &lt;strong&gt;61&lt;/strong&gt;(7): 2037-42&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4542515/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sheaves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Can J Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;60&lt;/strong&gt;(8): 354–61&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T09:23:39.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18225" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18217" CreationDate="2017-10-05T13:25:16.590" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, it is important to disambiguate between &lt;em&gt;concurrent multitasking&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;sequential multitasking&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/1518701.1518981&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salvucci et al, 2009&lt;/a&gt;). In a recent publication I present a short overview on related work of both (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jeuris and Bardram, 2016&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;During concurrent multitasking cognitive resources have to be divided across several competing parallel tasks, such as driving while talking on the phone. Many ‘dual-task’ studies investigate dual-task interference and reduction of performance while performing two simultaneous tasks. ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In contrast to concurrent multitasking, sequential multitasking denotes the interleaving of several primary tasks which are executed one at a time. ... Studies investigating sequential multitasking are among other things interested in measuring the effects of task interleaving on productivity and accuracy.&#xA;  ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results show an inverted U-relationship between multitasking and productivity; there is thus an optimal amount of task switching which leads to the highest productivity. However, increased levels of multitasking lead to a significant loss in accuracy, indicating a trade-off between productivity and accuracy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2011.10.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adler &amp;amp; Benbunan-Fich, 2012&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In regards to the effect of &lt;em&gt;task difficulty&lt;/em&gt; on sequential multitasking, &quot;subjective task difficulty has been found to be a determining factor: easy tasks benefit from multitasking by increasing stimulation, whereas hard tasks decrease performance as the result of an overload in mental workload (&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwu005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adler &amp;amp; Benbunan-Fich, 2015&lt;/a&gt;)&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer your question, at least one study has found that for the tasks they used more challenging tasks do 'suffer' more from multitasking. However, there is still an optimum amount of multitasking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Salvucci, D. D., Taatgen, N. A., &amp;amp; Borst, J. P. (2009, April). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/1518701.1518981&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Toward a unified theory of the multitasking continuum: From concurrent performance to task switching, interruption, and resumption.&lt;/a&gt; In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1819-1828). ACM.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Jeuris, S., &amp;amp; Bardram, J. E. (2016). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dedicated workspaces: Faster resumption times and reduced cognitive load in sequential multitasking.&lt;/a&gt; Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 404-414.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Adler, R. F., &amp;amp; Benbunan-Fich, R. (2015). &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwu005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The effects of task difficulty and multitasking on performance.&lt;/a&gt; Interacting with Computers, 27(4), 430-439.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Adler, R. F., &amp;amp; Benbunan-Fich, R. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2011.10.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Juggling on a high wire: Multitasking effects on performance.&lt;/a&gt; International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 70(2), 156-168.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-10-05T13:41:48.800" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T13:41:48.800" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18226" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18178" CreationDate="2017-10-05T19:03:16.157" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Multi-channel coding in color vision refers to the different photoreceptors in the retina.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Opponent-channel coding refers to the opposing color pairs: the red-green and yellow-blue axes. &#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think you are referring to terminologies often used in color vision. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Multi-channel coding&lt;/strong&gt; generally refers to different types of photoreceptors in the retina, namely &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cis.rit.edu/people/faculty/montag/vandplite/pages/chap_9/ch9p1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rods and cones&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. In terms of color vision, it is the cones doing the work. In trichromatic species, such as humans, there are three types of cones in normally sighted people, namely red, green and blue cones. So humans have a 3-channel color system, the same as your computer screen you are looking at now, namely R, G, and B channels.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Opponent-channel coding&lt;/strong&gt; refers to the opponent theory of color vision as proposed originally by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewald_Hering&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hering&lt;/a&gt;. It basically states that our RGB color system defines color space by 3 opponent processes, namely a black-white, a red-green and a blue-yellow opponent system (Fig. 1). Basically it is theorized that red opposes green, yellow opposes blue and white opposes black (and &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;). This means that colors are mixed between these channels (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; a reddish blue equals purple), but that colors within channels are mutually exclusive (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; there exists no such thing as a yellowish blue).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UwAbr.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UwAbr.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Hering&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Hering model of color vivion. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.ucalgary.ca/PACE/VA-Lab/colourperceptionweb/theories.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;University of Calgary&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-vii-color-vision/color-vision/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gouras, Color Vision. In: Kolb &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; (eds), &lt;em&gt;Webvision. The Organization of the Retina and Visual System&lt;/em&gt;. Utah University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T19:03:16.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18227" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6512" CreationDate="2017-10-05T19:08:07.530" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For binary data (spike-trains), people use a spike-train autocovariance function (same as autocorrelation but subtracting the mean firing rate). It's commonly used to study brain oscillations (e.g. Engel &amp;amp; Konig, 1991). There is a good description of the math in the Dayan &amp;amp; Abbott (page 27).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dayan, P., &amp;amp; Abbott, L. F. (2001). Theoretical neuroscience (Vol. 806). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.&#xA;Engel, A. K., &amp;amp; Konig, P. (1991). Interhemispheric synchronization of oscillatory neuronal responses in cat visual cortex. Science, 252(5009), 1177.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2017-10-05T19:08:07.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18231" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15877" CreationDate="2017-10-06T07:44:26.733" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's been called “relative thinking” in a few places (eg&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.sjdm.org/11/10921/jdm10921.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journal.sjdm.org/11/10921/jdm10921.html&lt;/a&gt;). The earliest I can find is in a 2004 article by Ofer Azar. A Google Scholar search turns up many other references to the term as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17192" LastActivityDate="2017-10-06T07:44:26.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18232" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16206" CreationDate="2017-10-06T09:54:26.143" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;iMotions has a &lt;a href=&quot;https://imotions.com/blog/galvanic-skin-response/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pocket guide on GSR targeting a layman audience&lt;/a&gt; (believe the &lt;a href=&quot;https://imotions.com/gsr-guide-ebook/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF you can request might be more up-to-date&lt;/a&gt;). One key thing to point out is (emphasis added):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our body has about three million sweat glands. The density of sweat&#xA;  glands varies markedly across the body, being highest on the forehead&#xA;  and cheeks, the &lt;strong&gt;palms and fingers&lt;/strong&gt; as well as on the sole of the feet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For wrist-worn devices this means ideally you place the electrodes on the &lt;strong&gt;palms or fingers&lt;/strong&gt;. Measurements on the wrist are much less sensitive, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/16585/21&quot;&gt;as shown in Seanny123's answer in case of the Empatica E4&lt;/a&gt;. Of course, not all experiments allow to place electrodes there, in which case electrodes on the wrist might still be worthwhile exploring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wearable devices supporting electrodes on the palms/fingers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.shimmersensing.com/products/shimmer3-wireless-gsr-sensor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shimmer&lt;/a&gt;, integrated in &lt;a href=&quot;https://imotions.com/gsr/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;iMotions for multimodal research&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.movisens.com/en/products/eda-sensor/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;movisens edaMove&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.moodmetric.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moodmetric ring&lt;/a&gt; (have not looked at this)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watch-like devices, with electrodes placed on the wrist:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.empatica.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Empatica E4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simband.io/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Samsung Simband&lt;/a&gt; (not commercially available yet, it seems)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other wearables:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.actigraphy.com/solutions/equivital/specifications.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Philips Respironics&lt;/a&gt; (unclear how GSR integrates)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Disclosure: I work for iMotions. Feel free to edit this list and include any other wearable devices you know of.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-10-06T10:05:25.697" LastActivityDate="2017-10-06T10:05:25.697" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18235" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8785" CreationDate="2017-10-06T20:58:57.163" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_Aspect_Scales&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Christian's answer&lt;/a&gt;, I want to note that it may be of further interest to examine the Big Five &lt;em&gt;Aspect Scales&lt;/em&gt;.  This may provide an additional level of analysis with further potential precision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The quoted text below is taken directly from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_Aspect_Scales&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia entry&lt;/a&gt; on the subject (though you can read &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.513.2517&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CG DeYoung's original paper&lt;/a&gt; as well):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The Big Five Aspect Scales is a personality test that further&#xA;  develops the big five personality traits test model by adding two&#xA;  &quot;aspects&quot; to each trait. Aspects represent a level of precision&#xA;  between the big five personality traits and the facets of the Revised&#xA;  NEO Personality Inventory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The aspects include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Openness/Creativity and Intellect for &lt;strong&gt;Openness&lt;/strong&gt;;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Orderliness and Industriousness for &lt;strong&gt;Conscientiousness&lt;/strong&gt;;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Enthusiasm and Assertiveness for &lt;strong&gt;Extraversion&lt;/strong&gt;;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Politeness and Compassion for &lt;strong&gt;Agreeableness&lt;/strong&gt;; and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Withdrawal and Volatility for &lt;strong&gt;Neuroticism&lt;/strong&gt;.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The particular aspect of Neuroticism that may be likely to contribute would be Withdrawal, or the tendency toward anticipatory anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The breakdown of Agreeableness into Compassion and Politeness may also provide some insight, considering that compassionate people may be driven by a desire to help others avoid experiencing negative emotion, and that polite people may be driven by respect for authority and desire to avoid conflict themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Please note that I did not structure this as a direct answer to your questions because it was only intended to be a comment on a previous answer.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;DeYoung, C. G., Quilty, L. C., &amp;amp; Peterson, J. B. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.880&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Between facets and domains: 10 aspects of the Big Five.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of personality and social psychology, 93(5), 880. &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.513.2517&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[PDF]&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9836" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-10-07T15:10:59.993" LastActivityDate="2017-10-07T15:10:59.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18237" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18238" CreationDate="2017-10-07T18:32:28.040" Score="4" ViewCount="5835" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do understand that for a signal to be properly sampled, it has to be done on the Nyquist sampling rate. What I do not understand is, what happens at sampling rates lower rate than the Nyquist rate, and at rates higher than the Nyquist rate, for that matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17203" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-07T19:18:19.113" LastActivityDate="2018-09-02T07:34:12.303" Title="What happens at sampling rates lower or higher that the Nyquist rate?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;&lt;sampling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18238" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18237" CreationDate="2017-10-07T19:11:51.930" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short practical answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;for a signal to be properly sampled, it has to be done [at] the Nyquist sampling rate&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Up front: sampling at the Nyquist frequency is the &lt;em&gt;bare minimum rate&lt;/em&gt; to reproduce the &lt;em&gt;frequency&lt;/em&gt; of the input signal. Dependent on your demands, I would advise to go at least 2 times that, if not more, to reproduce amplitude and shape of the signal. In other words, higher sampling rates yield better reconstructed signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The problem is that in this digital age, analogue signals are sampled digitally, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt; at fixed sampling rates. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://users.cs.cf.ac.uk/Dave.Marshall/Multimedia/node149.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nyquist criterion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; states that the sampling rate should be &lt;em&gt;at least&lt;/em&gt; twice the target frequency of the signal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose the target signal is a simple sinusoid with a frequency &lt;em&gt;f&lt;/em&gt; (Fig. 1). And let us start with the worst-case scenario, namely a digital sampling rate (SR) equaling &lt;em&gt;f&lt;/em&gt;. In this scenario, we end up with a straight line in the digitally recorded signal (upper panel). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case we slightly increase the SR to &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; the result is not much better (lower panel).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, it is not until we we go to doubling the SR to 2 times &lt;em&gt;f&lt;/em&gt;, that we obtain a saw-tooth with a frequency equaling the input signal. The shape is, however, unlike the input signal, but &lt;strong&gt;at least we have the target input frequency right&lt;/strong&gt;. However, &lt;em&gt;this does &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; mean we can faithfully reproduce the signal&lt;/em&gt;. For one thing, the &lt;strong&gt;amplitude&lt;/strong&gt; of the input signal will depend on the phase shift between SR and the signal. From here on, you can imagine that going to 4 &lt;em&gt;f&lt;/em&gt; will substantially improve the reconstructed signal in terms of shape and amplitude (see, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; this web page of &lt;a href=&quot;https://users.cs.cf.ac.uk/Dave.Marshall/Multimedia/node149.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cardif Universiy&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6At4y.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6At4y.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Nyquist&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Discrete sampling of an analogue target signal. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ni.com/white-paper/2709/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Instruments&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-07T19:34:26.067" LastActivityDate="2017-10-07T19:34:26.067" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18239" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-07T20:37:00.947" Score="1" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mr. Smith is a shy and reserved person who often feels tense and&#xA;  nervous. In therapy, he recalled that he had an unhappy childhood,&#xA;  feeling that he did not receive enough attention from his mother and&#xA;  resenting the conservative family discipline and lifestyle enforced by&#xA;  his father. He blames both parents for his current anxiety,&#xA;  unhappiness, and loneliness. In light of your understanding of the&#xA;  interactive influences of nature and nurture, explain why Mr. Smith's&#xA;  complaints about his parents may be somewhat unfair and unhelpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I propose that Mr. Smith's shyness (a personality) is not heritable and is rather a result of nature. However, his temperament of anxiety and constant tension is inherited from his parents. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17204" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-07T21:51:25.037" LastActivityDate="2017-10-07T21:51:25.037" Title="Which is heritable: personality or temperament?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;homework&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-10-12T19:52:42.290" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18241" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-10-07T21:58:28.473" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Homework questions are welcomed here, but we do ask you to share your own attempt to answer your question / assignment. If previous effort is not apparent in your post, we may put it on hold, close it, or remove it altogether.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-07T21:58:28.473" LastActivityDate="2017-10-07T21:58:28.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18242" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-10-07T21:58:28.473" Score="0" Body="This tag indicates that the question is likely based on a home assignment in university or high school courses, or it is about an elementary concept that may seem trivial to Psychology, Psychiatry or Cognitive Sciences professionals." OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-07T21:58:28.473" LastActivityDate="2017-10-07T21:58:28.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18244" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-08T21:53:43.187" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on a crowdsourcing platform where participants are given a set of choices between two items (for instance, books or movies). Out of each pair, they are to select an item which they think the majority of participants will choose over the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To provide an incentive for the participant, I'd like to turn this into a game. The idea is to reward participants for thinking about their answers, instead of just performing the activity by making arbitrary choices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The algorithm for the game is as follows:&#xA;For every item, the participant is awarded a score based on the % of previous participants who have selected that choice, with the final score being the average of all the individual item scores. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will only provide scores after a certain number of participants have completed the survey (say, 10). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: Does the algorithm suitably assess the participant's ability to determine the &quot;popular&quot; choice? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The assumption is that participants should score higher if the item they picked is much more favorable than the other, as opposed to when choosing one that's only slightly more favorable (say, 55-45 split). (On the other hand, it probably takes less skill to select &quot;clear winners&quot;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17212" LastEditorUserId="17212" LastEditDate="2017-10-08T21:59:03.220" LastActivityDate="2017-10-08T21:59:03.220" Title="Gamifying surveys by measuring the ability to discern popular taste" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18245" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-09T00:34:37.673" Score="6" ViewCount="217" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17950291&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;known&lt;/a&gt; that women with higher estrogen are more likely to find men with higher testosterone as more attractive. Positive feedback is also &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.07.012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;known&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;But are women with higher testosterone level are more likely to find men with higher estrogen level as more attractive? Are men with higher estrogen level are more likely to find women with high testosterone level as more attractive?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note, that higher testosterone does not immediately mean lower estrogen (so, first paragraph does not answer negatively) or vice versa. Some people can have both of these higher or lower than mean values (for their gender).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roney, J. R., &amp;amp; Simmons, Z. L. (2008). Women's estradiol predicts preference for facial cues of men's testosterone. &lt;em&gt;Hormones and Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 53(1), 14-19.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.09.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.09.008&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17950291&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;17950291&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Welling, L. L., Jones, B. C., DeBruine, L. M., Smith, F. G., Feinberg, D. R., Little, A. C., &amp;amp; Al-Dujaili, E. A. (2008). Men report stronger attraction to femininity in women's faces when their testosterone levels are high. &lt;em&gt;Hormones and Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 54(5), 703-708.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.07.012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.07.012&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18755192/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;18755192&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-13T07:22:51.837" LastActivityDate="2018-05-13T07:22:51.837" Title="Testosterone in women vs. estrogen in men?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18247" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-09T12:03:11.397" Score="3" ViewCount="183" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm searching for a good reference on &quot;Big 5&quot; personality theory that explains the topic in detail beyond the level of a website. I am hoping to get a pointer to some of the &quot;canonical&quot; literature--i.e. the standard papers/texts/etc. where Big 5 and its connection to factor analysis are presented rigorously. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would also love a pointer to literature which discusses the psychometric theory underlying the typical Big 5 tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14829" LastActivityDate="2018-04-09T05:38:36.590" Title="Canonical Literature for &quot;Big 5&quot; Personality Theory" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18251" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-09T17:54:13.860" Score="7" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;In 2004 &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Hawkins&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jeff Hawkins&lt;/a&gt;' book &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;On Intelligence&lt;/a&gt; was widely &lt;a href=&quot;https://numenta.com/papers-videos-and-more/resources/on-intelligence/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;praised&lt;/a&gt;. But Hawkins made some claims about artificial neural networks that seem (to me) untenable today, only 13 years later. He gives the impression that artificial neural networks are in principle not capable of what he calls invariant representations and hierarchical storage of patterns (p. 70 ff).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Did he just not (fore)see the development of deep learning which started off at the latest in 2005 (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_learning#History&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;History of deep learning&lt;/a&gt;) and which includes both invariant and hierarchical representations?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Or are his retentions against artifical neural networks (including deep learning) justified, and the invariant and hierarchical representations of deep learning are uncompetitive to those of biological networks, i.e. the neocortex? In which respect, then?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About invariant and hierarchical representations (in my words and understanding):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;An invariant representation - e.g. of a face - is one, that is independent of and thus invariant with respect to contingent aspects of the image of the face having to do with distance, viewing angle, lighting conditions and the like.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It is the representation in the highest layer of a hierarchy of representations with local geometric features being represented in the lowest layer.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This describes superficially both deep learning and cortical architectures. But maybe there are details of implementation/realisation that make the one significantly and genuinely more efficient than the other, e.g. cortical columns which seem not to be present in deep learning architectures, do they?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-10-16T16:38:32.617" LastActivityDate="2018-06-26T01:21:52.960" Title="Question concerning Jeff Hawkins' On Intelligence" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1402" CreationDate="2017-10-09T19:18:31.590" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Absolutely not. And, unlike claimed in other answers, it's about as based on Carl Jung as me whistling out of tune would be &quot;work based on Mozart.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The MBTI was &quot;developed&quot; by a &quot;psychic medium&quot; who read books on Jung and spoke to him twice, much to his chagrin. He later actively avoided her. Furthermore, Jung himself cautioned against using his Personality Types as anything but a foundation for research, as the book and his further writings were based on anecdotes and clinical observation, not research in the scientific sense. He, himself, called it &quot;Eine filosofische Excursio&quot;, &quot;a philosophical trip&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The MBTI is an overly simplified pop-sci attempt at a personality inventory. Its type descriptions are written in the form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnum_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barnum texts&lt;/a&gt;, texts that most people might find applicable to them. It is assessed through self-evaluation and strongly skewed by the expectations of those who take it. This, too, makes those Barnum Texts stronger (&quot;Do you think often?&quot; &quot;Yes&quot; &quot;You're a thinker&quot; &quot;Wow, you're sooo accurate in your assessment of me&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the test is also binary (&quot;Do you like Apples?&quot; doesn't lead to a conclusion about how much someone likes Bananas) and does not control for socialised or pathological answers, it is hopelessly useless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Saunders, F. W. Katherine and Isabel: Mother’s Light, Daughter’s Journey. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1991&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stricker and Ross (1962). Also: Stricker, L. J. &amp;amp; J. Ross. “An Assessment of Some Structural Properties of the Jungian personality Typology.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 68 (1964), pp. 62-71.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Carskadon, T. G. “Clinical and Counseling Aspects of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: A Research Review.” Research in Psychological Type, Vol. 2, No. 4 (1979a), pp. 2-31.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sipps, G. J., R. A. Alexander, and L. Friedt. “Item Analysis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.” Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. 45, No. 4 (1985), pp. 789-796.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dickson, D. H. and I. W. Kelly. “‘The Barnum Effect’ in Personality Assessment: A Review of the Literature.” Psychological Reports, Vol. 57, No. 2 (1985), pp. 367-382.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Auerbach, E. “Not Your Type, But Right for the Job.” The Wall Street&#xA;Journal, January 6, 1992, editorial, p. 11.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17214" LastEditorUserId="17214" LastEditDate="2017-10-11T06:51:49.807" LastActivityDate="2017-10-11T06:51:49.807" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18254" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-09T20:31:11.697" Score="4" ViewCount="288" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Discovery learning&lt;/strong&gt;: Novak and Cañas (2008) define discovery learning as a type of learning in which the &quot;individual discerns patterns or regularities in events or objects and recognizes these as the same regularities labeled by older persons with words or symbols. So, the attributes of concepts are identified autonomously by the learner. This is a phenomenal ability that is part of the evolutionary heritage of all normal human beings&quot; (p. 3). They exemplify that the first concepts &quot;are acquired by children during the ages of birth to 3 years, when they recognize regularities in the world around them and begin to identify language labels or symbols for these regularities. ... This early learning of concepts is primarily a discovery learning process.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, Bruyckere, Kirschner, and Hulshof (2015) explain that &quot;discovery learning&quot;, &quot;which is sometimes also referred to as &lt;strong&gt;self-discovery&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;active learning&lt;/strong&gt;, was launched by Jerome Bruner in the 1960s. According to Bruner, education needs to be organized in such a way that the learner interacts with the material to be learned in an active and self-investigatory manner. It is intended that the child should learn to think and solve problems independently. This corresponds closely with the arguments of Piaget, who stated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Each time one prematurely teaches a child something he could have discovered for himself, that child is kept from inventing it and consequently from understanding it completely (Piaget, p. 715)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, following &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/17802/active-learning-vs-engaged-learning&quot;&gt;the discussion I initiated a while ago about active learning vs. engaged learning&lt;/a&gt;, it seems that they are different names for the same concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Inductive Learning&lt;/strong&gt;: Kornell and Bjork (2008) defines inductive learning as &quot;learning a new concept or category by observing exemplars—happens constantly, for example, when a baby learns a new word or a doctor classifies x-rays&quot; (p. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now the question is if there is any difference between these types of learning or they are just different names used in different contexts for the same concept?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Novak, J. D., &amp;amp; Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;De Bruyckere, P., Kirschner, P. A., &amp;amp; Hulshof, C. D. (2015). &lt;em&gt;Urban myths about learning and education&lt;/em&gt;. Academic Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kornell, N., &amp;amp; Bjork, R. A. (2008). Learning concepts and categories: Is spacing the “enemy of induction”?. Psychological science, 19(6), 585-592.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11686" LastActivityDate="2017-10-09T20:31:11.697" Title="Discovery Learning vs. Inductive Learning vs. Active Learning vs. Engaged Learning" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-10-12T22:32:31.253" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18258" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18260" CreationDate="2017-10-10T19:50:02.493" Score="8" ViewCount="6001" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Russel's core affect framework an affective state can be decomposed into valence, arousal and dominance. How would you define these three terms (e.g. when looking at pictures)? I would define valence as the pleasure (positive / negative) and arousal as the activation level. But regarding dominance I'm absolutely unclear what this is...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8353" LastActivityDate="2017-10-11T11:19:29.570" Title="Definition of valence, arousal and dominance" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18260" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18258" CreationDate="2017-10-11T11:19:29.570" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;These concepts (valence, arousal and dominance) are fairly standardized in the emotional investigation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do you mean by valence? Although at first the emotions could and were classified as positive and negative or as pleasurable and unpleasant both the relationships between the emotions themselves due to their &lt;strong&gt;nature (evolution characteristics, etc.)&lt;/strong&gt; (they are not part of a continuum in which they are placed at the extremes but every emotion it functions independently) as the &lt;strong&gt;relationship with the person who experiences&lt;/strong&gt; them make it pass from the pleasant or unpleasant classification to the concept of valence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With arousal refers to the old classification as &lt;strong&gt;intensity of the stimulus&lt;/strong&gt; although there are more in a hundred psychosomatic aspects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dominance, tension and kinetics are added to these concepts. In particular dominance would be in relation to the concepts of &lt;strong&gt;control and again this concept is related to psychosomatic aspects&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have a document that goes deeper: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.levenswerken.eu/flash/pleasure_arousal_dominance.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.levenswerken.eu/flash/pleasure_arousal_dominance.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2017-10-11T11:19:29.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18261" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18275" CreationDate="2017-10-11T16:27:18.057" Score="3" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/ctn-waterloo/modelling_ideas/issues/18&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;I've heard anecdotally&lt;/a&gt;, that the cockroach olfactory bulb responds differently to novel stimuli vs. known stimuli. Specifically, it sends an oscillatory firing pattern for known stimuli and a constant firing pattern for novel stimuli. However, I'm having a hard time finding a reference for this? Does the olfactory bulb in insects (not just cockroaches) actually respond with different firing patterns?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-10-14T04:41:41.647" Title="Cockroach olfactory bulb response to novel stimuli" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18262" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-11T18:22:29.067" Score="6" ViewCount="2853" Body="&lt;p&gt;In New York magazine it is stated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[I]t’s strange that your handwriting changes over time; scientifically speaking, there’s no reason it should. At a certain point, you’ve learned all there is to learn about it: You’ve mastered the fine motor skills, you know the right way to grip a pen, you’ve written enough that you no longer need to think about the physical act of forming letters with your hand. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But they continue:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But still, odds are decent that your handwriting right now looks a little bit different than it did five years ago, and will look different again in five more. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now &lt;strong&gt;I am wondering if handwriting can also change on a smaller time scale, and specifically with regard to emotional states&lt;/strong&gt;. If yes, I would be interested in &lt;strong&gt;what part of the brain controls it&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17229" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-12T10:05:18.113" LastActivityDate="2017-10-12T11:27:04.830" Title="Why does handwriting change?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18264" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18262" CreationDate="2017-10-12T06:42:02.730" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain is an &lt;strong&gt;interconnected whole&lt;/strong&gt;, when we have high activity in one area of the brain other connected parts are affected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The writting is mostly controlled by the part of the brain that controls movement (lateral and medial precentral, motor cingulate and primary motor cortices, and postcentral gyrus). Research revealed that there is a direct path between amygdala and the parts of the brain that controls movement. Subsequntly writting will be affected when the amygdala is highly active.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging and probabilistic&#xA;  tractography on a cohort of 40 participants, we provide evidence of a&#xA;  structural connection between the amygdala and motor-related areas&#xA;  (lateral and medial precentral, motor cingulate and primary motor&#xA;  cortices, and postcentral gyrus) in humans. ... a direct&#xA;  amygdala-motor pathway might provide a mechanism by which the amygdala&#xA;  can influence more complex motor behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25053375&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Grèzes J., Valabrègue R., Gholipour B., Chevallier C., A direct amygdala-motor pathway for emotional displays to influence action: A diffusion tensor imaging study.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2017-10-12T10:56:32.833" LastActivityDate="2017-10-12T10:56:32.833" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18265" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18262" CreationDate="2017-10-12T09:21:45.373" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can say if you look into the way hand-writing is analyzed you can find that emotions is your answer. This is old, but a few years ago people were televised for being able to read your hand-writing and psychically read your emotions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer one of your questions, i think a less emotional review in business could get you a more consistent handwriting. Maybe a business memo, but you should take notice to the changes. I always do. When i'm sad I see the letters of my writing go downward below the line. When i'm ecstatic i see the writing go upward &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17245" LastActivityDate="2017-10-12T09:21:45.373" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18268" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18247" CreationDate="2017-10-12T14:38:11.253" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You should consult the BFQ with original copyright in 1993, Organizzazioni Speciali, Florence Italy (most likely with adaptation, editing and new copyright in the country in which you reside). Here you can find the data (for use and application) and the studies on which it is based.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a work that I had to do I followed the bibliography indicated in this test as well as part of the history of the factors (in capital letters as they appear in BFQ):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ENERGY: Extraversion (Costa and McCrae). Surgency of the Goldberg model (quantity and intensity of interpersonal interactions, in relation to affection, assertiveness, activity and gregarism).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;AFFAIRS: Liking (Costa and McCrae). Similar to cordiality vs. hostility (Digman)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MENTAL OPENING: Opening the experience (Costa and McCrae).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No matter what time you have, you will not be able to see the whole story of all the factors, you should close the focus on those that seem more interesting for your study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2017-10-12T14:38:11.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18269" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-12T15:14:02.930" Score="6" ViewCount="647" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am hoping to run a standard Piaget conservation task to test the conservation of number.  The task is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Coins such as pennies are placed on a table. A certain number of&#xA;  coins are placed in a row, and a matching series of coins is placed&#xA;  directly below the first one. So there are two equal rows of coins on&#xA;  the table. Now the experimenter spreads out one of the rows so the&#xA;  coins are farther apart. The child is asked whether the two rows of&#xA;  coins still have the same number of coins in them. A small child who&#xA;  does not yet know how to count will typically claim that the&#xA;  spread-out row has more coins in it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Previous studies are quite varied in several ways.  First, in the number of coins that are presented (typically it looks like it is 5-8). Second, how many trials are performed. Third, how many trials must a child pass/fail to conclude that he or she does or does not conserve number. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, I am asking for advice on the ideal protocol for running this task (i.e. trial types, number of trials, pass/fail requirement).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17250" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-13T16:37:36.263" LastActivityDate="2017-10-13T16:37:36.263" Title="What is the optimal way to run the Piaget Conservation of Number Task?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;&lt;numerical-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18270" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18269" CreationDate="2017-10-12T17:03:33.877" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Particular attention should be given to the theoretical framework (Piaget's Theory and constructivist perspective), hypotheses to contrast (levels), information gathering and common difficulties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Levels&quot; in quantity conservation test:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Level of absence of term-to-term correspondence:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;4-5 years.&#xA;Simple intuition.&#xA;Consider the global and static configuration of the rows (not quantity of chips or accounts).&#xA;They are limited by the configurations of the tabs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Level of correspondence term to term without conservation:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;5-6 years&#xA;They establish correspondence 1 to 1 in both rows, before the transformation of them, they break the equivalence.&#xA;They focus on aspects such as density or length.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Level of non-durable conservation:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Around 7 years.&#xA;They are conservative in some situations, depending on the context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Level of conservation required:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;7 years.&#xA;They are persevering and gives evidence of compensatory behaviors (length / density) or reversibility (join / separate).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The count for Piaget is a social skill with no logical mathematical content (concept of number). It would be necessary to differentiate between logical structures or schemas (classification, seriation and number) and infralogic structures (substance, weight, volume, space). Often smaller children count simply by saying the words: One, two, three, etc. as if it were a song but they do not follow any order or logic. Other times, although the child already has numerical structures developed, errors occur. The final step is when the reversibility of the transformations (deformations, displacements or fractions) is established. &lt;strong&gt;THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK SHOULD BE VERY WELL ESTABLISHED&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ALWAYS MUST ASK FOR REAFFIRMATION AND ASK WHY THE ANSWER HAS BEEN GIVEN&lt;/strong&gt; (but not so that the child thinks that perhaps he is giving an erroneous answer). &lt;strong&gt;YOU MUST PRACTICE SERIOUSLY BEFORE THE TEST&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leaving aside the presentation of the test that you could present as a game (and try to make it really fun) try to follow the words or terms that the child expresses, once the child responds do not add other terms, sometimes there is distraction for some concepts said by the experimenter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind &lt;strong&gt;common difficulties&lt;/strong&gt; in test with children: Lack of attention or motivation and distractions (many children can pay close attention to their mom or dad or they can go to the test with their favorite toy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2017-10-13T13:20:41.720" LastActivityDate="2017-10-13T13:20:41.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18275" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18261" CreationDate="2017-10-14T04:41:41.647" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Kay and Stopfer (2006) in their paper, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcdb.2006.04.012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Information processing in the olfactory systems of insects and vertebrates&lt;/a&gt;, it looks as though oscillatory firing patterns in insects fire as a mechanism for categorizing &lt;em&gt;all smells, novel and familiar:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several imaging techniques that assess afferent or principal neuron &#xA;  responses all indicate that odor stimulation evokes maps of activity &#xA;  that vary with the odorant; not all odorants activate all glomeruli and principal neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In both insects and vertebrates, odor stimulation elicits the oscillatory synchronization of responsive principal neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that no distinction is being made here between &lt;em&gt;novel and familiar&lt;/em&gt; olfactory stimuli. It seems that much of the research on novel olfactory stimuli as related to olfactory bulb firing patterns has been done on vertebrates, as discussed &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(94)90205-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17260" LastActivityDate="2017-10-14T04:41:41.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18276" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18302" CreationDate="2017-10-14T12:52:57.920" Score="3" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of the sources studying retina seem to suggest that retinal connectome is hardwired and species dependent (like specialized vertical movement detector in small rodents). I couldn't find a single publication exploring possibility of learning within retina. My understanding of  learning is somehow rewiring ganglion-amacrine neural circuits based on which visual features are useful for a particular individual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Modern artificial neural networks use backpropagation to learn feature detectors but there seems to be no information flowing from brain back to retina. I guess that would mean that backpropagation isn't possible in biological visual system. That in itself doesn't rule out other mechanisms of learning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there grounds to believe that retinal wiring is immutable or it is just lack of research on the topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3465" LastActivityDate="2017-10-17T23:07:35.287" Title="Learning In Retina" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18277" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18283" CreationDate="2017-10-14T13:48:18.420" Score="3" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can information be lost while traveling through neurotransmitters, if so then why? If information can be lost while traveling then is it possible to retransmit them and put back in order? For example data can be lost while traveling through network therefore we need to use &lt;strong&gt;TCP&lt;/strong&gt; (transmission control protocol).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If information can be lost while traveling through neurotransmitter. Then is it possible that, not being able to remember something you want or remembering something that are not in their orders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17262" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-15T15:15:37.330" LastActivityDate="2017-10-30T19:57:24.837" Title="Can information be lost while traveling through neurotransmitters?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18278" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18280" CreationDate="2017-10-14T16:37:42.667" Score="3" ViewCount="272" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hope this is the right (or rightest) place to ask this question, I wasn't sure whether this question is more appropriate for cogsci or biology. After all, it does concern the biology of emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge, it is established research that the brain 'knows' what emotions you are having by examining their manifestations in the body. This absurd rube-goldbergian wiring can for instance be used to force oneself to become happier (at least temporarily) by smiling for a few minutes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This brings up the question, whether emotions have any identity separate from a cluster of bodily sensations (or even more specifically, muscle contractions) at all.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is certainly true (by introspection for e.g.) that 'negative' emotions are accompanied by muscle contradictions. On the other hand, there are several different 'negative' emotions that can be easily distinguished by the person having the emotion (e.g. shame and fear). Unfortunately I am not able to simply recall the sensations I had when I was ashamed or fearful from memory and compare them, but I would assume you could even tell from the outside, simply by looking at the person afflicted, which of the two emotions they are going through.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;So, what does the research say? Are emotions uniquely recognizable by facial expression/muscle contractions? Or do emotions have some kind of 'hidden variables' in the brain?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17264" LastEditorUserId="17264" LastEditDate="2017-10-14T16:45:20.987" LastActivityDate="2017-10-15T05:58:00.100" Title="Are emotions a function of muscle contractions? If so, how does the map look like?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18280" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18278" CreationDate="2017-10-15T05:58:00.100" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your brain mentally represents afferent bodily input as &lt;strong&gt;affect&lt;/strong&gt;, or feelings of pleasantness/unpleasantness and arousal (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v3/n8/full/nrn894.html?foxtrotcallback=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Craig, 2002&lt;/a&gt;).  In certain theories (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/doi/10.1093/scan/nsw154/2823712/The-theory-of-constructed-emotion-An-active&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barrett, 2017&lt;/a&gt;), your &lt;strong&gt;emotions&lt;/strong&gt; are cognitive interpretations (conceptualizations) of your affect in a context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, there is very weak evidence that discrete emotions correspond to specific and reliable bodily responses (for the most up-to-date meta-analysis, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-science.org/pubs/2017/siegel-et-al-fingerprints-2017.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Siegel et al., in press&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also indeterminate evidence for specific and reliable correspondences with facial movements.  This has not been studied well enough to be known, although there is compelling evidence to suggest that there are no specific/reliable links on average (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YWnoDegAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hillel Aviezer's work&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, emotion research is converging on the view that emotional events are highly variable, both within and across emotion categories, as well as within and across individuals and cultures. We see this variability in neural activity, physiology, behavior, hormones, vocalizations, facial movements, and so on.  From this perspective, there are no unique emotion signatures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2017-10-15T05:58:00.100" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18281" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18126" CreationDate="2017-10-15T06:09:48.920" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Chunking leverages long-term memory for the chunks, i.e. we recognize and remember much easier the familiar chunks, sometimes algorithmically. This is much easier explained in the domain of letters/words, e.g. we'd recognize USA as substring among random letters. Similarly most would recognize the pattern 1945 (WWII end) by paired association, or 12321 &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22176752&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;algorithmically&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the classic &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)#Expertise_and_skilled_memory_effects&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;case of SF&lt;/a&gt; he used sequences familiar to him (running times) to greatly improve his performance. More unusual (cf. &lt;em&gt;Memory Search By A Memorist&lt;/em&gt;) is Rajan's ability to recognize 13- to 17-digit chunks visually/syntactically, without assigning them meaning. Ishihara, who could memorize overall longer sequences than Rajan [under controlled settings], but was much slower, used a method to convert them into syllables; he was naturally very gifted at remembering nonsense syllables though (cf. &lt;em&gt;Superior Memory&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few other association methods exist, including with places (&quot;loci&quot;), which relies on visual memory etc. It's possible to train the average person using these and attain significant improvements; the graph below (3rd one bein relevant, but I've included all for the caption) is from &lt;a href=&quot;https://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/16636/1/Konrad_Boris_Nikolai.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a recent PhD thesis&lt;/a&gt;. It takes a significant amount of practice/time to become proficient/fast in the encoding/decoding techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/htMfP.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/htMfP.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some clarification in regards to these graphs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The other two tests are self-paced (just with overall time limit) memorization tests, i.e. how many words/digits in a sequence can be retained in a 5-minute interval with no time pressure for learning each word/digit.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The digit span was tested with 2 second intervals, which probably helped with learning a bit. Other authors have used 1 second, which makes it harder to apply encoding/decoding techniques.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The training protocol (for the blue lines) was fairly involved using the Memocamp software which can display the memorization aids (loci or images), and can also display a configurable metronome.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_error&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SEM&lt;/a&gt;&quot; stands for &quot;Standard Error of the Means (the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_bar&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;error bars&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The handful of people (not in this thesis/experiment) who have practiced for years (one of SF's colleagues and two in a replication experiment) have reached 80-100 digits in the digit span test. For that level of performance, not only did they use an associative system, but also a hierarchical chunking method. The chunk size was almost universally 4 for these performers (thus the need for hierarchy). On average it took about 500 hours of practice to decrease decoding/encoding time from an initial 5 seconds to the 1 second required by the digit span test (all this cf. The &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience of Expertise&lt;/em&gt;, pp. 110-112).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-10-19T09:44:51.263" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T09:44:51.263" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18283" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18277" CreationDate="2017-10-15T15:43:44.950" Score="5" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Synapse Information Processing&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/tags/nef/info&quot;&gt;Neural Engineering Framework&lt;/a&gt; (NEF), synapses are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Leveraged to provide filtering of spikes at different time scales. This allows for &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/abrams2017.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;managing heterogeneity in neurons&lt;/a&gt;, as well as &lt;a href=&quot;http://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/celiasmith/syde556/blob/master/SYDE%20556%20Lecture%203%20Temporal%20Representation.ipynb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;allowing to trade-off speed of response for information integration over time&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Used to create dynamical systems using these filtered spikes including &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nengo.ai/nengo/examples.html#principle-3-dynamics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;oscillators, integrators&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/arvoelke/delay2017/blob/1d705612a2cb31de9542884a884dc28eb8604cbf/delay2017.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;temporal memory networks&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all of these cases, information can be lost. However, this is always framed as a trade-off between informational integrity (which can be measured various ways, such as how well a signal is classified, how well a dynamical system is approximated, how much information is compressed over time) and resource use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Retransmission as Information Recovery&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the context of the brain, TCP doesn't really make sense. TCP assumes there is a copy of the information that is desired to be transmitted somewhere, but that's usually not the case in the brain. That being said, there is something called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley%27s_model_of_working_memory#Phonological_loop&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;phonological loop&lt;/a&gt; which appears to be a short term store of what was heard. Consequently, you could interpret this replay as a retransmission and consider it to be information recovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-30T19:57:24.837" LastActivityDate="2017-10-30T19:57:24.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18286" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-16T10:04:49.573" Score="2" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading about artificial eyes and came to think about how the brain works. More specifically, what &quot;signals&quot; it uses in the case of cortical visual prosthetics in blind people? Cortical prosthetics apply current stimulations through electrodes placed on the surface of the visual cortex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now suppose I would want to let a blind person wearing a cortical prosthesis to see the color red, what signal would I send through the electrodes? Would a sine wave of 200 Hz do the job? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17280" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-19T09:09:38.747" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T11:50:34.530" Title="What electrical stimuli do brain implants use?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18288" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-16T14:45:07.423" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any methods for &quot;fixing&quot; cognitive distortions? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I have prejudice against certain type of people just because of one negative experiences in my life. Although a lot of research by my own show that I'm completely wrong to think this way about all people of the certain type I just can't fix my attitude towards them. It's like I'm programmed to think this way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what should person do in order to edit his/her beliefs if all necessary information about the topic is already obtained?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All advises I see are to research the topic or write pros and cons of the attitude but this isn't helpful because of established cognitive patterns which are in place for years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17282" LastActivityDate="2017-10-16T14:45:07.423" Title="How to fix a cognitive distortion?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-10-16T20:12:16.787" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18289" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4178" CreationDate="2017-10-16T17:33:23.460" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In response to the &lt;em&gt;First Question Only&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does research support this observation that reading from paper results in less [eye]strain ...?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study which seemed to be focusing on finding an objective measurement of eye strain does seem to show that reading from paper does result in less eye strain than reading from a VDT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00140138708969747?src=recsys&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Objective evaluation of eye strain using measurements of accommodative oscillation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Ergonomics&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Vol. 30 , Iss. 3,1987&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Accommodative oscillations occurring during eye strain induced by two different types of experimental visual search task—visual display terminal (VDT) work and conventional hard-copy (paper) work— were objectively measured using infrared optometry. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The low-frequency component (0 to 1-5 Hz) of the accommodative oscillation was found to be significantly increased after the VDT work, but not after the paper work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a questionnaire survey the subjects using the VDT complained more than the subjects given paper work of ocular symptoms such as eye strain and blurred vision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related to &lt;em&gt;both questions,&lt;/em&gt; this more-recent study shows that &quot;book-like positioning&quot; of the VDT makes a difference in eye strain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00140139.2015.1100757&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reading from computer screen versus reading from paper: does it still make a difference?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Ergonomics&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Volume 59, 2016 - Issue 5&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Four experiments were conducted to test whether recent developments in display technology would suffice to eliminate the well-known disadvantages in reading from screen as compared with paper. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Given the developments in screen technology, a re-assessment of the differences in proofreading speed and performance, well-being, and preference between computer screen and paper was conducted. State-of-the-art TFT-LCDs enable unimpaired reading, but a book-like positioning of screens seems necessary to minimize eyestrain symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6968" LastActivityDate="2017-10-16T17:33:23.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18290" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18291" CreationDate="2017-10-16T17:40:33.843" Score="4" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find a correct psychological term for a specific type of behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a person is trying to distance themselves from past suffering by projecting an idea of &quot;I'm over it&quot; to others. Trying to convince others and maybe even themselves that they've overcome something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a person who has suffered depression is trying to project an idea of &quot;I'm over it and never going back&quot; to another person suffering from depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar example would be about two people dealing with divorce or breakup and one person tries to project that they are over it not wanting to feel the pain or suffering that the other person is experiencing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it distancing? Is it disengagement?&#xA;Since there are different types of distancing, some positive some negative, what type is this?&#xA;Is it overcompensating?&#xA;Or something else completely?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17283" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-16T20:30:50.293" LastActivityDate="2017-10-17T01:56:05.860" Title="A formal term for overcoming something, or getting over something" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18291" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18290" CreationDate="2017-10-16T18:58:17.627" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term you are looking for is probably &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dissociation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a range or continuum of experiences that can be subsumed under &quot;dissociation&quot;, going from mild to pathological. On the pathological end of the continuum, for example, there is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dissociative identity disorder&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dissociation is technically a kind of defence mechanism. See for example the article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/pathological-relationships/201211/dissociation-isnt-life-skill&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dissociation Isn't a Life Skill&lt;/a&gt; on Psychology Today. The International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation has a long list of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.isst-d.org/?contentID=76&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dissociation FAQs&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13937" LastActivityDate="2017-10-16T18:58:17.627" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18292" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-16T19:55:55.670" Score="8" ViewCount="1399" Body="&lt;p&gt;Barbara Oakley's &amp;quot;Learning how to Learn&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;Mindshift&amp;quot; courses claim that having some break time in which diffuse mode thinking (afaik it's the same as default mode network) is active between study sessions (at least if you acquire knowledge or practice intellectual skills) is important. She says that seemingly unrelated concepts get linked, and the brain figures out what to do with all this new information during diffuse mode. It also boosts creativity. From my own experience diffuse mode also helps me think of ways to use the new information, e.g. to achieve my goals or to study more effectively (maybe it's a part of the &amp;quot;creativity&amp;quot; thingy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mindful meditation seems to provide multiple benefits for mental health. I wonder if replacing many breaks (aka time when I don't do intellectual work) with meditation is bad because I will not have enough diffuse mode thinking and creativity time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've tried 2 types of mindfulness meditation: body scan, during which one sequentially goes over different body parts and listens to the senses in that body part and tries not to think or do anything else; and breathing meditation, during which one focuses on one's breathing and ignores everything else. Just from how I feel during that time, I would say that I am not in diffuse mode during meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What diffuse mode is, citations from A Mind for Numbers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the very beginning of the twenty-first century, neuroscientists have been making profound advances in understanding the two different types of networks that the brain switches between—highly attentive states and more relaxed resting state networks.1 We’ll call the thinking processes related to these two different types of networks the focused mode and diffuse mode&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edward de Bono is the grand master of creativity studies, and his vertical and lateral terminology is roughly analogous to my use of the terms focused and diffuse (de Bono 1970).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Astute readers will notice my mention that the diffuse mode seems to sometimes work in the background while the focused mode is active. However, research findings show that the default-mode network for example (which is just one of the many resting state networks), seems to go quiet when the focused mode is active. So which is it? My sense as an educator and a learner myself is that some nonfocused activities can continue in the background when focused work is taking place, as long as the focused attention is shifted away from the area of interest. In some sense, then, my use of the term diffuse mode might be thought of as “nonfocused mode activities directed toward learning” rather than simply “default-mode network.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE:&#xA;It turns out the the second week has a video on mindfulness and learning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;researchers can sometimes classify meditation techniques into two different types that seem to be fundamentally different. Focused attention and open monitoring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Focus attention types of meditations such as mantra, sound or chakra meditation appear to help enhance focus mode type thinking, this kind of meditation sometimes seems to make people feel better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, open monitoring types of meditation such as, vipassana and mindfulness, appear to improve diffuse imaginative thinking. With open monitoring, we don't just focus on one thing. Instead we keep our attention open to all aspects of experience without judging or becoming attached to our thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part of the reason that building your focusing abilities may help make you feel happier. Is that it appears to suppress the diffuse mode, while it builds the focusing mode. So what does all this mean? It means that meditation can have surprisingly different effects, depending on the type. It's all very complex, and researchers are far from sorting everything out yet. In the end, practices that encourage focusing can be a great benefit for learning. But having some daily time where your mind relaxes and wanders freely is also very important, particularly if you want to encourage creativity. &lt;em&gt;From a particular stand point then if you are a meditator you might try to avoid feeling you should always be stirring your thoughts back into focus, If you catch your mind wondering outside meditation sessions.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Turns out that some types of meditation happen in diffuse mode and others happen in focused mode. My guess would that guided body scan and breathing meditation are focused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also I am not sure what she means saying that diffuse mode meditations may improve diffuse imaginative thinking. Did she just randomly blurt it out meaning trying to say that those types of meditation happen in diffuse mode? Or did she say that meaning that if you practice entering diffuse mode by meditating then your diffuse mode becomes better or you will enter it more often?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also I think that even during diffuse mode meditations, e.g. listening to body sensations that come to attention (I thnk it's diffuse mode, not 100% sure), you don't get creative and don't link concepts and process knowledge, because you're still thinking about body sensations and nothing else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17284" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-09-27T20:47:57.600" Title="Does mindful meditation inhibit diffuse thinking (aka default mode network), creativity and make studying less effective?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18293" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18290" CreationDate="2017-10-16T20:26:12.210" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;My first thought was &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/romantically-attached/201609/why-we-need-closure-broken-relationships&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;closure&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Closure can be defined as (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/in-flux/201104/5-ways-find-closure-the-past&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[F]inality; a letting go of what once was. Finding closure implies a complete acceptance of what has happened and an honoring of the transition away from what's finished to something new. In other words, closure describes the ability to go beyond imposed limitations in order to find different possibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often this term is related to broken relationships, but it can also be applied to grievance. Generally, closure means the closing of a 'chapter', &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; a closure of the hurt after the ending of a relationship, or after loosing ones job &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956522110001065&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bell &amp;amp; Taylor, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The issue of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/freedom-grieve/201202/why-people-hate-closure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;closure can be debated&lt;/a&gt;, however, and especially in the case of exceptionally painful life events, such as the death of a loved one where &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.huffingtonpost.com/ashley-davis-bush/grief_b_1553523.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;grief can be persistent for a life time&lt;/a&gt;, or in the case of progressive dementia, because the lost person is here, but not here, and the grief is 'frozen' &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11089-009-0264-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Boss, 2010)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956522110001065&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bell &amp;amp; Taylor, &lt;em&gt;Scand J Management&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;27&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 1-10&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11089-009-0264-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boss, &lt;em&gt;Pastoral Psychology&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;59&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 137–45&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-10-16T20:26:12.210" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18294" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18296" CreationDate="2017-10-17T01:22:01.060" Score="1" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the psychology behind bullying from the bullier's perspective?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kind of people become bullies? Do bullies generally have anything common in their childhood histories?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;N.B. This question excludes Cyberbullying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1109" LastEditorDisplayName="user1109" LastEditDate="2017-10-19T06:35:18.583" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T06:35:18.583" Title="Why do people bully other people?" Tags="&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18295" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18290" CreationDate="2017-10-17T01:56:05.860" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The above answers are both quite good. Could this also be just &quot;in denial&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Medical Definition of denial. : a psychological defense mechanism in which confrontation with a personal problem or with reality is avoided by denying the existence of the problem or reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastActivityDate="2017-10-17T01:56:05.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18296" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18294" CreationDate="2017-10-17T07:25:30.100" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Long story short, aspiration for leadership / dominance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By having bullied someone (and not having been told where to get off), the bully effectively establishes dominance over the victim, which indulges their ego and makes them feel strong and lifeworthy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anybody with power or strong character can become a bully towards less strong/powerful ones, unless educated or motivated not to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, bullies do not necessarily have anything common in their childhood histories that caused them to become bullies, however, having been bullied in the past or having seen bullying increases the likelihood of one becoming a bully. Vivid examples of this are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedovshchina&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dedovshchina&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ragging&lt;/a&gt; — where people justify their bully behaviour by &quot;I was bullied by older mates before, now it is my turn to take it out on the newcomers&quot;, or simply seeing that as a de-facto tradition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17261" LastEditorUserId="17261" LastEditDate="2017-10-19T01:40:06.010" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T01:40:06.010" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18298" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-17T14:54:21.890" Score="-1" ViewCount="1805" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do we need to learn to ride a bicycle? We just need to pedal and move the handle. I don't think balancing needs to be learnt. What is the thing we need to learn to ride a bicycle or is it just telling the brain that it is ok? And why do we not forget cycling? Thank You.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17278" LastEditorUserId="17308" LastEditDate="2017-10-20T21:31:57.707" LastActivityDate="2017-10-27T08:59:12.817" Title="What is there in learning to ride a bicycle?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-10-27T10:27:18.387" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18299" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-17T15:16:38.000" Score="0" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the consequences of chronic lack of sleep? For example, insomniacs are known to sleep less than normal sleeping individuals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering if there are any long term cognitive impairments from reducing sleep time to, say 4h instead of the normally recommended 8 hours in the long run, say for a year or so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10516" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-17T19:44:42.017" LastActivityDate="2017-10-17T22:31:34.633" Title="Are there any long term cognitive impairments from prolonged period reduced sleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-10-18T09:04:24.920" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18301" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18299" CreationDate="2017-10-17T22:31:34.633" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has some good information on this issue. Search for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, 'yes', sleep deprivation can have a multitude of negative consequences on your cognitive abilities, like weakening your ability to handle complex cognitive tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastActivityDate="2017-10-17T22:31:34.633" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18302" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18276" CreationDate="2017-10-17T23:07:35.287" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not immutable. There are many studies on retinal plasticity, for example using laser coagulation and showing that after selective lesions new connections can be formed even in the adult retina, restoring the responses of retinal ganglion cells in the lesioned area (e.g. see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/16/6800.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also evidence that visual experience is required for the development of the retinal circuitry after birth (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627303003891&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this other paper&lt;/a&gt;), so it doesn't seems to be entirely hardwired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9243" LastActivityDate="2017-10-17T23:07:35.287" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18303" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-18T07:19:54.107" Score="1" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;While denial of global warming is without a doubt from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bandwagon appeal&lt;/a&gt; furthered by campaign donations, I get the impression that the acceptance of global warming by politicians is also primarily a result of the bandwagon effect. The bandwagon fallacy being&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[An &lt;em&gt;argumentum ad populum&lt;/em&gt;] that concludes that a proposition is true&#xA;  because many or most people believe it: &quot;If many believe so, it is&#xA;  so.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main reason I think so is because it is not a major issue for most of them. I get the impression that if they knew how serious it is, then it would be a major issue for them, and they would have made more efforts to combat it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17294" LastEditorUserId="17294" LastEditDate="2018-02-20T06:38:10.000" LastActivityDate="2018-02-20T07:16:34.107" Title="Is acceptance of the science of global warming by politicians primarily a result of the bandwagon effect?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18304" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18303" CreationDate="2017-10-18T08:11:38.540" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, political agendas in Western democratic countries are, of course, shaped by the masses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, global warming is becoming a science in its own right. Climatology is important and is based on models based on historical data to predict the future, taking into account current greenhouse gas concentrations, melting of the polar caps, sea levels, population growth and what not. In other words, it is far too complicated a subject to be completely understood by the regular ground folks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, indeed, [intelligent, capable] politicians rely on scientists to do the thinking for them. In turn, politician's agendas are shaped by the populace so their focus is, and &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; be guided by the masses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This should, however, &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; be a reason to adhere to hypotheses and theories to be correct or incorrect based on the people's opinion. And hence I do not agree that politician's opinions in general are shaped according to the bandwagon appeal.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-20T07:16:34.107" LastActivityDate="2018-02-20T07:16:34.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18306" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="868" CreationDate="2017-10-18T23:00:10.157" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, to be able to answer your question affirmatively, we'd have to know all the effects of sleep deprivation, including the long term ones, and those are still are not fully accounted for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I did find some more recent research that addresses the question of weekend sleep recover on some parameters. Pejovic et al. found (quoting from the abstract):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Serial 24-h IL-6 plasma levels increased significantly during sleep restriction and returned to baseline after recovery sleep. Serial 24-h cortisol levels during restriction did not change compared with baseline, but after recovery they were significantly lower. Subjective and objective sleepiness increased significantly after restriction and returned to baseline after recovery. In contrast, performance deteriorated significantly after restriction and did not improve after recovery. Extended recovery sleep over the weekend reverses the impact of one work week of mild sleep restriction on daytime sleepiness, fatigue, and IL-6 levels, reduces cortisol levels, but does not correct performance deficits. The long-term effects of a repeated sleep restriction/sleep recovery weekly cycle in humans remain unknown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The good news is that on most measures there was recovery after the weekend, and this is consistent with other studies e.g. with that by Faraut on hormonal measures. I still find their performance finding rather shocking, so it's perhaps worth taking note at exactly what performance they looked at; it was basically just the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychomotor_vigilance_task&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PVT&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Avb6P.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Avb6P.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's indeed a good question how many more nights of leisurely sleep would cause PVT to recover. I strongly doubt the impairment is permanent. Alas the study by Pejovic et al. didn't have any follow-up after the weekend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar study was conducted prior by Banks et al., and they made a prediction on PVT recovery, but it still hasn't been confirmed&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurobehavioral deficits induced by 5 nights of sleep restricted to 4 h improved monotonically as acute recovery sleep dose increased, but some deficits remained after 10 h TIB [time in bed -- my note] for recovery. Complete recovery from such sleep restriction may require a longer sleep period during 1 night, and/or multiple nights of recovery sleep. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PVT fastest reaction times were projected to require a sleep dose of more than 13 h TIB (11 h TST [total sleep time -- my note]) to intersect the control condition. However, the confidence intervals for intersection with control group levels were large for all outcomes presented&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found one more recent &lt;em&gt;animal&lt;/em&gt; study on the matter, by Deurveilher et al., which used a rat version of PVT, with rather different results&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 28-h period of the 3/1 chronic sleep restriction (CSR) protocol [sleep reduced to ~60% of normal as result of this protocol -- my note] disrupted performance on a sustained attention task in rats, as sleep deprivation does in humans. Performance improved after longer [one week -- my note] periods of CSR, suggesting allostatic adaptation, contrary to some reports of progressive deterioration in psychomotor vigilance task performance during CSR in humans. However, as observed in humans, there were individual differences among rats in the vulnerability of their attention performance to CSR.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below are the graphs from the paper on the week-long CSR, which shows the remarkable allostatic adaptation on PVT, but not on weight loss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/W7DNR.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/W7DNR.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I'm guessing the jury is still out how quickly humans recover or if they may even adapt to sleep deprivation on PVT. I'm guessing that given the other effects of sleep deprivation, controlled longer-term studies in humans are probably going to be difficult to come by...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've also consulted the 6th edition (2017) of &lt;em&gt;Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine&lt;/em&gt;; its chapter on sleep deprivation (and recovery) has among its authors two of the co-authors (the lead and the PI--Dinges) of the Banks study I already mentioned. So its conclusion are somewhat similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Few studies have examined recovery sleep after periods of&#xA;sleep restriction. [...] Although participants felt that their functioning&#xA;was restored, with subjective reports of sleepiness and&#xA;performance recovering to baseline, subjective measures do&#xA;not appear to accurately parallel objective measures of neurobehavioral&#xA;recovery. These findings suggest that more than&#xA;2 or 3 nights of extended sleep may be needed to return neurobehavioral&#xA;functions to baseline levels. [...] Overall, work to date suggests that complete recovery from&#xA;a period of sleep restriction may necessitate a sleep opportunity&#xA;of more than 10 hours or more than 3 days if sleep is&#xA;restricted to 8 hours a night. In addition, different aspects of&#xA;performance and neurobehavioral function appear to recover&#xA;at different rates, with different trajectories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That combination finding is additional based one other study they highlight, by Rupp et al., which did look at longer recovery periods; the summary from the book&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rupp et al extended the recovery period&#xA;to five 8-hour sleep opportunities, following a week of sleep&#xA;restricted to 3 hours of time in bed each night. Despite the&#xA;extra recovery nights, performance still failed to return to&#xA;baseline levels. In a second group that extended their sleep&#xA;prophylactically to 10 hours of time in bed before the period&#xA;of sleep restriction, performance declined at a slower rate and&#xA;recovered to baseline more quickly, suggesting that sleep&#xA;restriction and recovery vary as a function of prior sleep.&#xA;Therefore, sleep extension or supplemental nap sleeps can be&#xA;used as a prophylactic measure or countermeasure to lessen&#xA;the performance effects of sleep deprivation during periods of&#xA;extended wakefulness or sleep deprivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at the actual article, the 5 recovery days were 8 h TIB (probably because the author works at an army hospital), which for me personally would still count as mild sleep deprivation (less than 8 hrs actual sleep = TST), and which is somewhat odd contrast with opening statement in the paper that 8 hours of actual sleep are considered non-deprived. But that seems to be the only study using a longer recovery period to date. Below is a graph from that paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/w48oj.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/w48oj.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two tests are part of PVT. And description of the two groups:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Extension” group (nightly TIB = 10 h) or a “Habitual” sleep group (usual nightly TIB).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To determine Habitual Sleep schedules for volunteers assigned to the Habitual Group, actigraphic estimated total sleep time on weeknights (Sunday through Thursday nights; nights excluded if followed by a holiday or weekend) was determined, and 15 min were added to the average (to avoid inadvertently sleep restricting volunteers) and rounded up to the nearest 5 min for the final TIB amount. Bedtime was determined by subtracting TIB from the 07:00 rise time (i.e., a subject averaging 7 hours 15 min of sleep would have a bedtime of 23:45).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frankly I find that being able to bank on sleep prior to deprivation, not just recover it thereafter, even more interesting. Also despite the obvious (and statistically significant) difference in PVT between groups,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No group differences in subjective sleepiness were evident during any phase of the study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And also another finding&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For both PVT variables, younger individuals showed a steeper slope of performance deterioration during sleep restriction and steeper slopes of improvement during the transition from sleep restriction to recovery and during recovery compared to older individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Honestly I'm a bit concerned about overfitting because this was a small study (two dozen participants). However they say in their discussion of related research that this observed interaction/influence (of age) is consistent with other studies. Perhaps it goes along with the received wisdom that older people [need to] sleep less.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another paper derived from the same study of Rupp et al. looked at math throughput and task acquisition (tested using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_Neuropsychological_Assessment_Metrics&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ANAM&lt;/a&gt;, which presents a significant learning effect) and found that their observations mostly mirror those for PVT, except that presleep wasn't as significant as recovery sleep for this math/learning test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/T2U27.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/T2U27.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, it's generally accepted (see e.g. Pilcher and Huffcutt) that sleep deprivation influences mood even more than either cognitive or motor performance, however it seems that the recovery is quicker (perhaps owing to the hormonal one?), at least in older people, cf. Reynolds et al.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the increase [in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profile_of_mood_states&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Total Mood Disturbance&lt;/a&gt; -- my note] tended to be greater in women, in both groups self-ratings of mood returned to baseline after 1 night of recovery sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pejovic et al. (2013) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3798707/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Effects of recovery sleep after one work week of mild sleep restriction on interleukin-6 and cortisol secretion and daytime sleepiness and performance&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Banks at al. (2010) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2910531/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurobehavioral Dynamics Following Chronic Sleep Restriction: Dose-Response Effects of One Night for Recovery&lt;/a&gt; (This is the study referred to in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://thechart.blogs.cnn.com/2010/08/02/%E2%80%98recovery-sleep%E2%80%99-can-make-up-for-lost-zzzs/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;CNN blog&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Deurveilher et al. (2014) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4355891/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychomotor Vigilance Task Performance During and Following Chronic Sleep Restriction in Rats&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rupp et al. (2009) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2647785/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Banking Sleep: Realization of Benefits During Subsequent Sleep Restriction and Recovery&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2009.00800.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep history affects task acquisition during subsequent sleep restriction and recovery&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pilcher and Huffcutt (1996) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8776790&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Effects of sleep deprivation on performance: a meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reynolds et al., (1986) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3809863&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep deprivation in healthy elderly men and women: effects on mood and on sleep during recovery&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T01:09:34.780" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18307" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18286" CreationDate="2017-10-19T02:22:27.310" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is frankly a bit vague, but generally speaking (i.e. answering the question from the title) the brain uses electrochemical signaling. The trouble is, of course, we are far from fully understanding what goes on in there, or how those signals achieve all that we can do. Presently we can simulate tiny fragments of a rat's brain, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/news/fragment-of-rat-brain-simulated-in-supercomputer-1.18536&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;as reported in Nature news, 2015&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer the question form the body, &quot;if I hooked up some electrode[s] to a blind persons visual cortex and wanted them to see the color red, what would i send through the el[e]ctrodes?&quot; The answer is we don't know. That's because, as &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conway et al. 2007&lt;/a&gt;, state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On a gross level, it remains disputed whether color is localized to a particular brain region; on a microscopic level, it is uncertain what contribution single cells make to the perception of specific hues. While some brain-imaging studies have suggested that color processing may be localized within the extrastriate brain [...], single-cell electrophysiological studies, which have higher spatial and temporal resolution than imaging, have produced conflicting results [...] and cast doubt on the notion of a specialized color center [...]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now if you're asking about artificial eyes... there are many kinds of proposed prosthesis, but if we talk about[bypassing the optical nerve completely such as bionic eye brain implants &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.technologyreview.com/s/608844/blind-patients-to-test-bionic-eye-brain-implants/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;as reported by MIT Technology Review, 2017&lt;/a&gt;, then currently that only works for black and white... and even then&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The patient was able to see spots of light with no significant adverse side effects. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“If we could figure out how to process and filter visual information to correctly stimulate the electrodes we could eventually improve the type of image that person will be able to perceive,”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it seems to be an open problem, even without color.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Conway, B. R., Moeller, S., &amp;amp; Tsao, D. Y. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Specialized color modules in macaque extrastriate cortex.&lt;/a&gt; Neuron, 56(3), 560-573.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-10-19T09:58:32.023" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T09:58:32.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18308" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18147" CreationDate="2017-10-19T05:23:08.307" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;TLDR version: the authors (philosophers mostly) who use that ineffable defintion don't measure anything. The authors (psychologists, economists) who do measure &quot;tacit knowledge&quot; use a much more tractable operational definition, generally defined as just not-yet-codified or non-doctrinal knowledge, which is measured like any other knowledge, starting with writing it down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frankly, the notion isn't anywhere near as clear or uncontroversial as (say) the Wikipedia article presents it. The fact that one encounters the notion more in management publications than in psychology ones... is a fair warning given the amount of management fads known to mankind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now quoting from a paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ejkm.com/issue/download.html?idArticle=406&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kabir, N. (2013)&lt;/a&gt; (whose only merit is that it ranked high a google search), &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ejkm.com/issue/download.html?idArticle=406&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Tacit Knowledge, its Codification and Technological Advancement&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several prevailing views regarding conceptual notion of the term tacit knowledge exist. The first view is that&#xA;  tacit knowledge is part of knowledge that has not been codified as yet (Ambrosini and Bowman, 2001; Boisot,&#xA;  1995; Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Leonard and Sensiper, 1998; Nonaka and Von Krogh, 2009). This&#xA;  epistemological dyadic perception places tacit knowledge as a phenomenon directly opposite to explicit&#xA;  knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The second view is tacit knowledge by very definition is tacit – ineffable. Any attempt to convert it to explicit is&#xA;  a futile effort. Tacit knowledge is the background or subsidiary knowledge of the focal knowledge of the act at&#xA;  hand. Because of this, it is not reducible to the level of explicit as it is only relevant to a specific context&#xA;  (Tsoukas, 2006: 410; Tsokas and Vladimirou, 2001: 973‐93; Cook and Brown, 1999; Brown and Duguid, 2000;&#xA;  Jones and Miller, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The third view that corresponds with our suggestion in this paper: In any context where knowledge is applied,&#xA;  a part of tacit knowledge, which is overlaid on top of all the knowledge being utilized, will always stay ineffable&#xA;  and cannot be codified. We can call this fragment of knowledge the “meta tacit”. Apart from this, most tacit&#xA;  knowledge, depending on the degree of difficulties in codification, its viability of codification and the&#xA;  availability of required resources could be codified. Collins shows eight different possible reasons or &quot;Cannot&quot;&#xA;  ranging from inconvenience to impossibility to clarify what types of tacit knowledge are not explicable. (Collins,&#xA;  2010 pp. 88‐96)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yeah, pick your poison. And measure the ineffable or some such.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another paper which calls out some of the (obvious) issues is by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.missouriwestern.edu/orgs/polanyi/TAD%20WEB%20ARCHIVE/TAD38-1/TAD38-1-fnl-pg18-37-pdf.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lowney, C. (2011), Ineffable, Tacit, Explicable and Explicit:&#xA;Qualifying Knowledge in the Age of “Intelligent” Machines&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There would appear to be problems with any formulation of tacit knowledge, be it Collins’ or&#xA;  Polanyi’s. First of all, to a critical reader, the term itself can appear to be an oxymoron. Isn’t all knowledge&#xA;  necessarily explicit? If something is not explicit but somehow veiled in silence, can it properly be called “tacit&#xA;  knowledge”? There is a second problem as well. If tacit knowledge, somehow operative in the background,&#xA;  can be made explicit, can it then properly be called “tacit knowledge”? Isn’t the term merely a placeholder&#xA;  for something unknown that, we hope, will someday become known? Putting both these problems together,&#xA;  “tacit knowledge” seems to present a dilemma: either it is tacit or it is knowledge, but not both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Collins begins mainly by addressing the second horn of the dilemma. He agrees with Polanyi that&#xA;  “tacit knowledge” is not merely a way station on the road to explicit knowledge. For Collins, the proper use&#xA;  of the word tacit, directly opposes the explicit—it is that which cannot in a strong sense become explicit.&#xA;  Background knowledge and bodily skills that can become explicit are “explicable” and therefore are not&#xA;  properly called “tacit” for Collins. So riding a bike or mastering a craft are not, in the end, proper examples&#xA;  of tacit knowledge, although the experience we have when we ride a bike, drive a car, or learn how to make&#xA;  a good pair of shoes can fool us into thinking those tasks are inexplicable&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yeah, according to Collins and his followers, Alice's example (bike riding) is not proper. So what is proper tacit knowledge for the purist then?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Collins [...] separates Relational Tacit Knowledge (RTK), e.g., learning&#xA;  the skill of a master craftsman; Somatic Tacit Knowledge (STK), e.g., riding a bike; and Collective Tacit&#xA;  Knowledge (CTK), e.g., knowing when it is appropriate to laugh at a joke. Collins rank-orders these phases&#xA;  on a scale ranging from easiest to explicate (RTK), to more difficult (STK) or impossible to explicate (CTK).&#xA;  But ultimately, for Collins, both STK and RTK are, in principle, explicable, so without a use for “tacit” as that&#xA;  which may become explicit, there would be no relational or somatic tacit knowledge per se. Only collective&#xA;  tacit knowledge would remain. Collins thus widens his use of “tacit” to include the explicable, but he will&#xA;  occasionally remind us that the proper understanding of tacit comes from its contrast with the paradigmatically&#xA;  explicit&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This to me is reading far more like philosophy than science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To conclude this, what's tacit knowledge &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/army/ari_spr01_tacit.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in the military&lt;/a&gt;? Well it's&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;knowledge not well supported by doctrine or formal training&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can certainly measure that (first by writing it down, and then asking questions about it of others)... and they do just that. So it depends how you define it... philosophically or operationally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in fact, the latter definition is prevalent in economics &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-siepr.stanford.edu/workp/swp99027.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;as pointed out by Cowen et al., (2000)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tacit knowledge thus has come to signify an absolute type, namely: “not codified” knowledge. As&#xA;  such, however, the label now covers the implicit complement of a category of containing a&#xA;  various forms of information and social knowledge, but which itself usually is left undefined and undifferentiated&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it depends who you ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Kabir, N. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ejkm.com/issue/download.html?idArticle=406&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tacit knowledge, its codification and technological advancement.&lt;/a&gt; Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management, 11(3).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Lowney, C. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.missouriwestern.edu/orgs/polanyi/TAD%20WEB%20ARCHIVE/TAD38-1/TAD38-1-fnl-pg18-37-pdf.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ineffable, tacit, explicable and explicit: qualifying knowledge in the age of “intelligent” machines.&lt;/a&gt; Tradition and Discovery: The Polanyi Society Periodical, 38(1), 18-37.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Cowan, R., David, P. A., &amp;amp; Foray, D. (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-siepr.stanford.edu/workp/swp99027.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The explicit economics of knowledge codification and tacitness.&lt;/a&gt; Industrial and corporate change, 9(2), 211-253.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-10-19T11:15:17.337" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T11:15:17.337" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18309" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18286" CreationDate="2017-10-19T08:55:02.990" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The track record of cortical visual prosthetics is limited. However, a lot more is known on auditory prostheses (mainly &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/cochlear-implants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cochlear implants&lt;/a&gt;) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_prosthesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retinal prostheses&lt;/a&gt;. In these implants, biphasic, charge balanced pulse trains are generally applied, mainly for safety reasons and to reduce current spread through the neural tissue. Sine waves have been tested in cochlear implants, but have long since been abandoned as useful stimulus. Color perception in visual cortical prosthetics is uncovered ground so far, but in retinal implants some limited data is available that color perception can be manipulated by altering the shape and frequency of the electrical pulse trains. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;First off, neural prosthetics (including auditory and visual prosthetics, as well as pace makers) in general operate through biphasic pulses instead of sine waves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biphasic pulses have the advantage that they can be very short (in the order of tens of microseconds in the case of cochlear implants, and hundreds of microseconds in retinal implants). This is advantageous, because the typical biphasic pulse has two identical phases but of opposite polarity. This means that the injected current is quickly neutralized within microseconds. Note that direct current is damaging to the delicate neural tissues. That's why charge-balanced pulses are used in modern cochlear implants to avoid direct current (DC) stimulation that may damage neural tissues &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24161948&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bahmer &amp;amp; Baumann, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sine waves have been used in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/cochlear-implants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cochlear implants&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1609401/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Clark, 2006)&lt;/a&gt;, as most of the acoustic speech information is conveyed in frequencies between 500 and 400 Hz. Indeed, the auditory nerve does show phase locking when the electrical (or acoustic) stimulus is about 100 Hz or lower. However, biphasic pulse train are the norm nowadays, because it is safer, more power efficient and more effective, as pulses on adjacent electrodes can be alternated to prevent electrical current to summate on closely spaced electrodes. This is called interleaving and has been used widely since the 1990's as it came known as the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/continuous+interleaved+sampling&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;continuous-interleaved sampling&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (CIS) strategy &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8263821&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Wilson &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1993)&lt;/a&gt;. A CIS-like strategy has been adopted in retinal implants too, for example the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.secondsight.com/g-the-argus-ii-prosthesis-system-pf-en.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Argus II prosthesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Visual prosthetics in general deliver visual perceptions on a gray scale. Cortical prosthetics have not been investigated much. However, retinal implants are currently commercially available from at least two companies. In retinal implants, phosphenes appear mostly as white spots of light, but yellow has been reported too &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-7320-6_657-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Stronks &amp;amp; Dagnelie, 2014b)&lt;/a&gt; as well as red to orange phosphenes &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24308734&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Humayun &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. Interestingly, in retinal prostheses it has indeed been shown that by carefully adjusting the pulse rate and pulse shape some crude form of color perception could be induced &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24308734&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Stronks &amp;amp; Dagnelie, 2014a)&lt;/a&gt;. However, the only consistent result seem to have been that high-pulse rates resulted in blue phosphenes when the stimulation was stopped (OFF response) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24308734&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Humayun &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. The thought is that different stimulus characteristics stimulate a different set of fibers in the retina but this is very preliminary at this stage. In cortical implants research has not even touched upon color sensations as yet, as far as I am aware. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24161948&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bahmer &amp;amp; Baumann, &lt;em&gt;Hear Res&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;306&lt;/strong&gt;: 123-30&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1609401/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clark, &lt;em&gt;Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;361&lt;/strong&gt;(1469): 791–810&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24308734&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Humayun &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Vis Res&lt;/em&gt; (2003); &lt;strong&gt;43&lt;/strong&gt;(24): 2573-81&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24308734&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks &amp;amp; Dagnelie, &lt;em&gt;Exp Rev Med Dev&lt;/em&gt; (2014a); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 23-30&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-7320-6_657-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks &amp;amp; Dagnelie, Encyclopedia of Computational Neuroscience (2014b):&#xA;1-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8263821&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wilson &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Rehabil Res Dev&lt;/em&gt; (1993); &lt;strong&gt;30&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 110-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-19T11:50:34.530" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T11:50:34.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18311" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18303" CreationDate="2017-10-19T15:02:58.027" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we stay with the Western democracies, the politician's agenda(s) are shaped &lt;em&gt;mostly&lt;/em&gt; by their own desire to remain in power (i.e. self-interest) more so than to satisfy the needs of the electorate.  If it behooves the politician to accept &quot;global warming&quot; to received more votes, than the politician will support such a cause or viewpoint.  Hence, they will join the &quot;global warming&quot; bandwagon irregardless of its scientific validity.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This is unfortunate and certainly not the ideal or preferred behavior of our elected officials. &#xA;Nevertheless, even a cursory review of US history shows us that the political mind, when at work, prefers &quot;popularity&quot; over &quot;science&quot; or &quot;reason&quot;.  After all, our elections are about popularity more than anything else.  And political agendas are shaped mostly by the power structures within society that &quot;shape&quot; the masses (via media, education, etc.)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't particularly like this situation -- but there it is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/books/review/Saletan-t.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; also is some further reading that I found interesting though there is much in the article to disagree with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastEditorUserId="11556" LastEditDate="2017-10-19T18:52:20.400" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T18:52:20.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18313" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-19T21:51:13.057" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;The obvious answer is Sigmund Freud, but was there a theorist before him who created a list of specific defense mechanisms? A defense mechanism can be defined as a method by which the mind protects itself from thoughts, feelings, impulses, and/or stimuli which would be damaging to its overall health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17308" LastEditorUserId="17308" LastEditDate="2017-10-19T22:02:22.707" LastActivityDate="2017-10-19T22:02:22.707" Title="Who was the first theorist to define a list of psychological defense mechanisms?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;&lt;freud&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18316" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18319" CreationDate="2017-10-20T18:11:01.623" Score="5" ViewCount="846" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a friend who said he was taking a test in college that involved many calculations (similar to a math test). He inexplicable mixed up numbers, for example, he switched 16 to be 61. Although he did all of the steps correctly, he got the wrong answers due to this mixup. This did not just happen once on this test, but repeatedly. He says that he has not had any issues with dyslexia throughout his life. But his sister does have it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What might be going on here? Is it possible that he has a very mild form of dyslexia that does not manifest itself except in certain circumstances (I don't know, but perhaps he was nervous/anxious when taking the test)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17315" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2019-08-11T04:04:42.917" LastActivityDate="2019-08-11T04:04:42.917" Title="Can One Have a Temporary Manifestation of Dyslexia?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-10-21T12:41:56.500" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18317" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18353" CreationDate="2017-10-20T19:49:21.820" Score="0" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose person X is looking for something he has lost. Instead of thinking he left it somewhere, he is convinced that person Y has taken it. X is so convinced of this that he will not even look for the object. Instead, he badgers person Y for the location of said object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another example, person X is sitting in the rear of a vehicle. He feels cold. The temperature for the rear of the vehicle is controlled by a panel of buttons immediately in front of X. Instead of changing the temperature, he gets angry at person Z. His first instinct is to assume that person Z changed the temperature so he would be cold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This behavior almost reminds me of Capgras syndrome. Person X attributes every negative circumstance to the malevolent intent of another individual, usually someone close to him he fears or sees as oppressive. He thinks of most people around him this way, and he sees himself as their victim. X responds this way to everything: lost items, a hamburger served differently than he ordered it, tripping and getting hurt, changes in cellular reception while driving along a freeway, etc. While some of these may be someone's fault, he attributes fault to the wrong person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this type of behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17308" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-27T11:47:32.577" LastActivityDate="2017-12-11T22:37:05.283" Title="Is there a named psychological condition for people who find every bad thing to be someone's &quot;fault?&quot;" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" ClosedDate="2017-10-27T09:01:02.723" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18318" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18320" CreationDate="2017-10-20T19:51:32.450" Score="4" ViewCount="941" Body="&lt;p&gt;For this example, I will use alcohol as an example drug, since it's legal and increases dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can drinking alcohol when performing unpleasant tasks, such as homework, cleaning, or laundry confuse the brain into associating those tasks with positive feelings, and thus increase the desire to perform those tasks, even in the absence of alcohol?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I noticed some of the songs I first heard of while drinking sounded particularly good, but also sound great when not drinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17316" LastEditorUserId="17308" LastEditDate="2017-10-21T12:40:45.783" LastActivityDate="2017-10-21T12:40:45.783" Title="Can drugs cause positive reinforcement for undesirable tasks?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18319" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18316" CreationDate="2017-10-20T19:54:45.993" Score="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;The jury is still out on temporary dyslexia, but apparently &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn322-balancing-act/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;astronauts can experience it&lt;/a&gt; on a temporary basis on return to earth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, mixing up (anagramming) digits or letters &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mindsparklearning.com/what-dyslexia-isnt/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;is not dyslexia&lt;/a&gt;. And this is confirmed from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyslexia#cite_note-LilienfeldLynn2011-25&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;another source&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A common myth closely associates dyslexia with mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At least when done with letters/words, e.g. reading smile as slime, this type of anagramming error is (sometimes) called a &quot;migration error&quot; (or more elaborately, transposition of letters within words). Furthermore, doing this on a regular basis is called Letter position dyslexia (LPD), a peripheral dyslexia. Some people with dyslexia also exhibit LPD, but LPD alone is not widely reported, no doubt in part because LPD is not that well studied: the first study of the developmental form appeared in 2007, while the first study of the acquired form came out in 2001, as far as I can tell. The only known cases of acquired LPD are following brain damage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People with developmental LPD (but not full dyslexia) fail to be identified as such in standard tests of reading in English because typical reading tests don't have enough &quot;migratable&quot; words, c.f. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.07.016&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2012 paper&lt;/a&gt; that was the first to look at LPD in English (with just 3 cases though). Also of note, one of the three cases discussed there was also officially diagnosed with attention deficit disorder and another one was suspected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One interesting aspect is that LPD is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; caused by swapping &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;phonemes&lt;/a&gt;; for instance someone with LPD can read &lt;em&gt;cloud&lt;/em&gt; instead of &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; (even though there's no &lt;em&gt;ell&lt;/em&gt; heard in &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt;). Based on this it seems plausible to me it could affect number &lt;em&gt;reading&lt;/em&gt; as well, but I haven't found any published research on migrating digits in numbers. A &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2014.00356&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2nd (2014) study of LPD in English&lt;/a&gt; included a &lt;em&gt;verbal&lt;/em&gt; digit span test, but the LPD children did not have any problems with this test; they were actually above average on verbal digit span. The paper does not report any number reading tests, unfortunately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-10-20T22:15:43.920" LastActivityDate="2017-10-20T22:15:43.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18320" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18318" CreationDate="2017-10-20T20:08:37.030" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sure. Any introduction of a positive stimulus can reinforce any associated actions. However, alcohol is a depressant, and as such will negatively impact performance on activities such as homework, cleaning, or laundry, to name a few.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia page on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning#Modifying_operant_behavior:_reinforcement_and_shaping&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;operant conditioning&lt;/a&gt; explains it well:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability of a behavior that they follow, while positive punishment and negative punishment reduce the probability of behaviour that they follow...Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is rewarding or the behavior is followed by another stimulus that is rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior. For example, if a rat in a Skinner box gets food when it presses a lever, its rate of pressing will go up. This procedure is usually called simply reinforcement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17308" LastEditorUserId="17308" LastEditDate="2017-10-20T23:15:45.373" LastActivityDate="2017-10-20T23:15:45.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18318" CreationDate="2017-10-20T20:37:21.770" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Aversive stimuli can drive drug seeking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Central to your question is the dopamine circuit of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dartmouth.edu/~rswenson/NeuroSci/chapter_9.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;limbic system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (Fig. 1), being crucial to the reward circuitry in the brain. One notorious way of powerfully activating the reward system is through intake of highly addictive dopaminergic drugs like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/cocaine/how-does-cocaine-produce-its-effects&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;cocaine&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/heroin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;heroin&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugs.com/amphetamine.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;amphetamines&lt;/a&gt;, but also alcohol, albeit less potently. They are so addictive because they evoke strong euphoric, hedonic feelings and the notorious '&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedown_(drugs)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;crash&lt;/a&gt;' when their effects wear off. The euphoric state is a powerful positive reinforcer, the crash a potent negative reinforcer.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stressors negatively impact emotional state and can drive drug seeking by modulating the activity of the mesolimbic dopamine system. In rats this was tested by stressing them with the administration of the bitter compound &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100802125848.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;quinine&lt;/a&gt;. Rats stressed in this way had a decreased dopamine tone in their limbic system. This was accompanied by an increased tendency to seek and use cocaine. This increased cocaine-seeking behavior resulted in increased dopamine levels in the limbic system, at least partially counteracting the stressful quinine shots &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4369463/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Twining &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2016)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Admittedly these findings do not directly answer your question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[When] performing unpleasant tasks [can drugs] confuse the brain into&#xA;  associating those tasks with positive feelings [?]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My answer shows that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unpleasant tasks can lower dopamine in the brain and drive drug seeking behavior [and cause addiction] when drug intake is associated with [more] positive feelings&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5hI9d.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5hI9d.png&quot; alt=&quot;DA reward system&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Dopamine pathways in the reward center of the brain. source:&#xA; &lt;a href=&quot;http://jonlieffmd.com/blog/human-brain/pleasure-circuits-in-the-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lieff J.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4369463/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Twining &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Addiction&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;102&lt;/strong&gt;(12): 1863–70&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-20T21:27:16.287" LastActivityDate="2017-10-20T21:27:16.287" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18322" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-20T22:11:45.223" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does similarity of a cue modify it's perceived recency?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider this hypothetical experiment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Given a set of visual cues presented sequentially to a subject&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Present a final visual probe. Ask the subject:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a. If the visual probe has been seen before&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b. How long it has been since the visual probe has been seen&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would the similarity of the visual probe influence judgments of time difference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-10-20T22:11:45.223" Title="Can similarity be confused with recency?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18323" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-20T22:18:41.407" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;Similar to my question about &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/18340/4397&quot;&gt;auditory signals&lt;/a&gt;, how do people match visual signals from memory? For example, consider the simplest case where there is a single degree of movement freedom, such as a knob moving up and down in a slider. If the subject was previously presented a set of these visual knob signals and then has to identify if the presented signal was present in the set, what features do humans tend to focus on? Is amplitude, frequency or something else entirely? Alternatively, a reference to what this type of experiment is called would be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-24T18:47:28.290" LastActivityDate="2017-10-24T18:47:28.290" Title="Matching continous patterns in visual signals" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18324" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-20T22:28:17.923" Score="1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do people &quot;synchronize&quot; to a periodic signal? In other words, given an oscillating auditory signal, how do people decide where the beat is? Assuming a &quot;beat&quot; divides a signal into equal repeating parts. Do they converge after a certain amount of time or is it a sudden decision? Alternatively, if there is a name for this type of beat-seeking experiment, this would also be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-23T15:47:01.900" LastActivityDate="2017-10-23T15:47:01.900" Title="Finding the repeating part of a signal" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18328" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18342" CreationDate="2017-10-22T06:30:55.337" Score="3" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;I watched a video (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1uNIID5R4pM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;First Man&lt;/a&gt;) on the evolution of humans that suggested the birth of language was probably the key to &quot;plotting&quot; and politics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to learn more about plotting, but it's a hard thing to search for online, because the word plot is so frequently used in the context of plotting a thing's position (on a graph, for example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conspire and conspiracy are also inconvenient search terms because there's so much propaganda to wade through.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a technical term for plotting or conspiring?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastEditorUserId="10155" LastEditDate="2017-10-23T00:57:06.623" LastActivityDate="2017-12-12T03:42:01.997" Title="Term for Plotting (as in behavior)" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18329" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18527" CreationDate="2017-10-22T13:59:58.343" Score="3" ViewCount="1254" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the digit span test draw on any executive functions besides working memory, if &quot;chunking&quot; is not used?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/18126/in-the-digit-span-test-why-do-some-strategies-work-and-others-dont/18281&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; neatly explains what chunking is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This [&quot;chunking&quot;] is much easier explained in the domain of letters/words, e.g.&#xA;  we'd recognize USA as substring among random letters. Similarly most&#xA;  would recognize the pattern 1945 (WWII end) by paired association, or&#xA;  12321 algorithmically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure I believe that the digit span is a test of a single raw cognitive function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;e.g. surely we don't need to &quot;chunk&quot; for perceptual speed to play a role: would that be helped by other executive functions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-22T19:44:09.327" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T06:21:41.167" Title="Does the digit span test draw on any executive functions besides working memory, if &quot;chunking&quot; is not used?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18330" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-22T17:06:26.153" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;To clarify, I'm asking if the level of stimulation / polarization required for a neuron to reach action potential / excite the neuron varies significantly from neuron to neuron- even differing in neurons of the same type. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if so, I'm curious to know whether the number of the neurons feeding into a neuron (and the frequency by which they normally fire) corresponds to the level of stimulation required for excitement. I'm wondering if neurons' thresholds for action have sensitivities (levels of input required to reach action potential) based on the number of neurons feeding into them in order to create a balance of input rate / excitement rate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To rephrase the question, I'd like to know if the action threshold of a neuron changes to fit the frequency with which it's excited. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9361" LastActivityDate="2017-10-22T20:04:17.623" Title="Do action potential thresholds vary in &quot;capacity&quot; significantly, and if so, does input frequency correspond to action potential thresholds?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18331" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-22T18:11:38.577" Score="5" ViewCount="435" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the following sentence from &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3306444/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;How does the brain solve visual object recognition?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by DiCarlo et al.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In sum, our view is that the “output” of the ventral stream is&#xA;  reflexively expressed in neuronal firing rates across a short interval&#xA;  of time (~50 ms), is an “explicit” object representation (i.e., object&#xA;  identity is easily decodable), and the rapid production of this&#xA;  representation is consistent with a largely feedforward, &lt;strong&gt;non-linear&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  processing of the visual input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm familiar with &quot;feed-forward&quot; but not with the meaning of &quot;non-linear processing&quot; in a neuroscience context. What does &quot;non-linear processing&quot; mean, exactly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9361" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-22T19:38:04.847" LastActivityDate="2017-10-22T20:12:22.723" Title="What does &quot;non-linear processing&quot; mean, exactly?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18332" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18330" CreationDate="2017-10-22T20:04:17.623" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The key to determining if depolarizing a neuron will result in an action potential is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshold_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;threshold potential&lt;/a&gt; of the cell. The threshold potential is basically the voltage, around -55 mV, at which the Na+ channels open. A number of factors (covered in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshold_potential#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeifter200555-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;) affect the exact threshold potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-10-22T20:04:17.623" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18331" CreationDate="2017-10-22T20:12:22.723" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The idea of linear/non-linear in neuroscience is the same as in mathematics. A process $f(x)$ is linear if $f(\alpha x) = \alpha f(x)$ and $f(x+y) = f(x)+f(y)$ for all $x$, $y$, and $\alpha$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-10-22T20:12:22.723" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18335" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-23T10:35:47.917" Score="2" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;With reference to the TD learning algorithm proposed by Sutton and Barto which is given by the equations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$V_i(t+1) = V_i (t)+ \beta \bigg(\lambda(t+1)+\gamma \bigg[\sum_{j}V_j(t)X_j(t+1)\bigg]-\bigg[\sum_{j}V_j(t)X_j(t) \bigg]  \bigg)\alpha\bar{X}_i(t+1),\\&#xA; \bar{X}_i(t+1)=\bar{X}_i(t)+\delta\big(X_i(t)-\bar{X}_i(t)\big)$$&#xA;I have the following doubts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If I want to simulate the algorithm in a standalone environment then how do I generate the reward signal $\lambda(t+1)$?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How is $\lambda(t+1)$ related to the conditioning stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if I wanted to simulate the facilitation of a remote association by an intervening stimulus in the TD model as shown in the fig. below then will it suffice if I consider &quot;lambda&quot; to be a signal as represented by US ? &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NrjFg.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NrjFg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;simulation&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been able to design suitable CSA and CSB. However, when I use a $\lambda$ as specified by US in the image, I don't get the result that is shown in the trials. What could possibly go wrong in the formulation of the reward?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The equations can be found in chapter 12 of the book by &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0262071029&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sutton &amp;amp; Barto, 1990&lt;/a&gt;. The chapter is titled &quot;Time-Derivative Models of Pavlovian Reinforcement&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Sutton, R. S., &amp;amp; Barto, A. G. (1990). &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0262071029&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Learning and computational neuroscience: foundations of adaptive networks&lt;/a&gt;. A/1 IT Press, Cambridge, MA, 497-437.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17333" LastEditorUserId="17333" LastEditDate="2017-10-23T18:12:01.160" LastActivityDate="2017-10-23T20:41:43.113" Title="How to generate the reward signal in temporal difference (TD) learning algorithm?" Tags="&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18340" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-23T18:34:50.313" Score="1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do people match audio signals from memory? For example, consider the simplest case where there is a single channel sound being applied to one headphone. If the subject was previously presented a set of audio signals and then has to identify if the presented signal was present in the set, what features do humans tend to focus on? Is amplitude (volume), frequency (pitch) or something else entirely? Alternatively, a reference to what this type of experiment is called would be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-24T17:58:16.980" LastActivityDate="2017-11-23T19:13:46.507" Title="Matching patterns in auditory signals" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18341" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-24T06:49:28.710" Score="2" ViewCount="427" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Context:&lt;/strong&gt; We are making a short film on different mental disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Question:&lt;/strong&gt; If it is realistically feasible for a 'alter-persona' of a person with Multiple Personality Disorder to have different mental disorders of their own such as schizophrenia and depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17341" LastActivityDate="2017-10-28T20:26:39.677" Title="Can alter-personas of a person with MPD/DID have mental diseases of their own that other 'alters' don't have" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18342" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18328" CreationDate="2017-10-24T16:14:03.420" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/scheme&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merriam-Webster's&lt;/a&gt; gives the following synonyms: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;conspiracy, design, intrigue, machination, scheme&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intrigue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Intrigue&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; yields a number of hits on books in Google Scholar, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=582997&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carlton, &lt;em&gt;Apple: The inside story of intrigue, egomania, and business blunders&lt;/em&gt; (1997)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.com/gp/search?index=books&amp;amp;linkCode=qs&amp;amp;keywords=9781477301739&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Price, &lt;em&gt;Origins of the War with Mexico: The Polk-Stockton Intrigue&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;(2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/machination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Machination&lt;/a&gt; AND intrigue&lt;/strong&gt; yields a number of hits, such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/41289315?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pula, &lt;em&gt;Polish Americans Protest Immigration Restriction: A Document&lt;/em&gt;, &#xA;Polish American Studies (2011); &lt;strong&gt;68&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 59-76&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;'&lt;strong&gt;Machination&lt;/strong&gt;' alone yields a lot of unrelated (industrial) stuff, so I think it's important to use additional identifiers when searching for literature, such as synonyms, antonyms or couple them with the topic of interest, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; 'brain mechanisms', or 'gender differences'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-11T16:03:09.050" LastActivityDate="2017-12-11T16:03:09.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18343" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18340" CreationDate="2017-10-24T18:43:55.773" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two categories of audio signal memory retrieval/recognition that appear to be being researched.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Noise Identification&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2016.00490/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Long Term Memory for Noise: Evidence of Robust Encoding of Very Short Temporal Acoustic Patterns&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, the subject were asked to discriminate 1s cyclic noises (where the two halves are equivalent) or 1s random noises. Four weeks later, target cyclic noises that were shifted or chopped+shuffled were presented in an another discrimination task. The discrimination for intact cyclic noise was significantly better than for novel cyclic noise presented four weeks later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://user-images.githubusercontent.com/1918825/31911024-57bf2b1e-b80d-11e7-88d4-f842c83054b0.png&quot; alt=&quot;noise_recog_results&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this doesn't address what aspects of audio signals people tend to focus on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Melody Identification&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the abstract of &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Contributions-of-pitch-contour-tonality-rhythm-and-Prince/93e7a70a2a5c20d92d7c67c77a9fce08e0aa31eb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Contributions of pitch contour, tonality, rhythm, and meter to melodic similarity&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this study, &lt;strong&gt;pitch contour (pattern of ups and downs)&lt;/strong&gt; served as&#xA;  pitch surface information, and &lt;strong&gt;tonality (musical key)&lt;/strong&gt; as pitch&#xA;  structure; in the temporal dimension, surface information was the&#xA;  ordinal duration ratios of &lt;strong&gt;adjacent notes (rhythm)&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;strong&gt;meter (beat,&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;or pulse)&lt;/strong&gt; comprised the structure. Factorially manipulating the&#xA;  preservation or alteration of all of these forms of information in 17&#xA;  novel melodies (typifying Western music) enabled measuring their&#xA;  effect on perceived melodic similarity. In Experiment 1, 34&#xA;  participants (varied musical training) rated the perceived similarity&#xA;  of melody pairs transposed to new starting pitches. &lt;strong&gt;Rhythm was the&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;largest contributor to perceived similarity, then contour, meter, and&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;tonality&lt;/strong&gt;. Experiment 2 used the same melodies but varied the tempo&#xA;  within a pair, and added a prefix of 3 chords, which oriented the&#xA;  listener to the starting pitch and tempo before the melody began. Now&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;contour was the strongest influence on similarity ratings, followed by&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;tonality, and then rhythm; meter was not significant&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-10-24T18:43:55.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18344" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18340" CreationDate="2017-10-24T18:49:20.847" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if there is a name to this type of experiment, but this basically sounds like a test of recognition memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The features that subjects focus on would depend entirely on the task. If you ask them to match volume, they would pay attention to volume. If you ask them to detect a frequency match, they'll focus on pitch. If you run an experiment without specifying a feature, humans generally tend to weight the different features according to their reliability (signal-to-noise ratio). So if pitch is more informative in detecting a match, they would focus largely on pitch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1026557704054&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1026557704054&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17344" LastActivityDate="2017-10-24T18:49:20.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18345" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-24T19:24:08.913" Score="4" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have recorded a long EEG experiment with BrainVision equipment and I want to split it into smaller chunks based on marker numbers. For example, I want to have the chunk of recording between markers Mk11 and Mk12. Is it possible to do so using BrainVisionAnalyser?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have tried the segmentation tool (Transformations &gt; Segment Analysis Functions &gt; Segmentation &gt; Create new segment on marker position )but it seems to be based on marker description (eg. S_5) and not marker number (eg. Mk11). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8479" LastActivityDate="2017-10-24T19:24:08.913" Title="Splitting EEG signal by marker using BrainVisionAnalyser" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18346" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18341" CreationDate="2017-10-24T23:43:46.053" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes.  For example, people suffering from DID can also suffer from depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/dissociative-identity-disorder-multiple-personality-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DID&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since, by definition &quot;dissociative identity disorder is characterized by the presence of two or more distinct or split identities or personality states that continually have power over the person's behavior. ... &quot;, then the other disorder (e.g. depression) can be unique to a persona.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastEditorUserId="11556" LastEditDate="2017-10-25T01:01:16.100" LastActivityDate="2017-10-25T01:01:16.100" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18353" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18317" CreationDate="2017-10-27T07:35:04.140" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I thing what you are looking for is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scapegoating&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scapegoating&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Scapegoating is the practice of singling out any party for unmerited&#xA;  negative treatment or blame as a scapegoat. Scapegoating may be&#xA;  conducted by individuals against individuals (e.g. &quot;he did it, not&#xA;  me!&quot;), individuals against groups (e.g., &quot;I couldn't see anything&#xA;  because of all the tall people&quot;), groups against individuals (e.g.,&#xA;  &quot;Jane was the reason our team didn't win&quot;), and groups against groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A scapegoat may be an adult, child, sibling, employee, peer, ethnic,&#xA;  political or religious group, or country. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unwanted thoughts and feelings can be unconsciously projected onto&#xA;  another who becomes a scapegoat for one's own problems. This concept&#xA;  can be extended to projection by groups. In this case the chosen&#xA;  individual, or group, becomes the scapegoat for the group's problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hostile Attribution Bias is another possibility, defined as the tendency to interpret the behaviour of another as having hostile intent even when the behaviour is ambiguous, neutral or benign.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Roy F. Baumeister &amp;amp; Kathleen D. Vohs, 2007, Encyclopedia of Social Psychology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Berkowitz and Green, 1962, the stimulus qualities of the scapegoat, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 7, 202-207&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gemmill, G., 1998, The dynamics of scapegoating in small groups, Small Group Behavior, 20, 406-418&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="17802" LastEditDate="2017-12-11T22:37:05.283" LastActivityDate="2017-12-11T22:37:05.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18354" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18298" CreationDate="2017-10-27T08:59:12.817" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Riding a bicycle is the clasical example of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;procedural memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Procedural memory guides the processes we perform and most frequently&#xA;  resides below the level of conscious awareness. When needed,&#xA;  procedural memories are automatically retrieved and utilized for the&#xA;  execution of the integrated procedures involved in both cognitive and&#xA;  motor skills, from tying shoes to flying an airplane to reading.&#xA;  Procedural memories are accessed and used without the need for&#xA;  conscious control or attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Procedural memory is created through procedural learning or, repeating&#xA;  a complex activity over and over again until all of the relevant&#xA;  neural systems work together to automatically produce the activity.&#xA;  Implicit &lt;strong&gt;procedural learning is essential for the development of any&#xA;  motor skill or cognitive activity&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we learn to ride a bicycle, the brain is learning the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motor movements&lt;/a&gt; necessary to maintain balance. This learning occurs mostly at the unconsious level, and this is probably the reason why you have the illusion that nothing is learnt.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Motor control is the process by which humans and animals use their&#xA;  brain/cognition to activate and coordinate the muscles and limbs&#xA;  involved in the performance of a motor skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The procedural memory is a type of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;long term memory&lt;/a&gt; which has a long lasting effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-10-27T08:59:12.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18355" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-27T16:47:07.240" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ok, firstly I don't know if this is the right forum to ask this question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly and most importantly I am an ally and a supporter of the community, its rights and for their equality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, I met a guy who was a military veteran and did not support the LGBTQ community and we got into a healthy argument. I told him that homosexuality was found everywhere in nature (gave him examples of a lot of animals that reproduce by having sex with the same gender).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But his counter argument was that none of these organisms have sex for pleasure (like humans do)! He went on to say that it was a rudimentary component of sustained growth for an organism's culture to produce progeny and continue growing to avoid extinction and that's why it is is justified in those organisms and he asked me from a purely biological standpoint, if homosexuality in humans was essential to the survival of the species. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, I found his argument valid and could not produce a counter argument to it. I said I'll ask people and get back to him on this. So, Is his argument right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean, if nature thought it was natural for humans to mate with the same gender, then it would've facilitated reproduction to keep the species alive right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, here's the crux of my question, when psychology says &quot;homosexuality in humans is natural&quot;, does it mean that some people are born with a natural attraction towards the same sex (&quot;wired that way&quot; in layman's terms) or does it mean biologically?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this is the wrong community to ask about biology, but would be interesting to see how they'd argue to this question. Would they consider it &quot;natural&quot; as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17369" LastActivityDate="2017-10-27T16:47:07.240" Title="Why is homosexuality considered &quot;natural&quot;?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-10-27T18:30:09.877" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18356" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-28T01:16:21.943" Score="2" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for experiments measuring how people manage growing task complexity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, consider a task, which on the surface resembles a Go No-go task, with the first instruction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Given a sequence of circles of either red or green, when you see a green circle followed by a red circle, press the red button.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After some practice, a second instruction is added:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;2a. Given a sequence of circles of either red, blue or green, when you see a blue circle followed by a red circle, press the blue button.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This instruction doesn't add much to the task complexity, but consider a more complex instruction such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;2b. Given a sequence of circles of either red, blue or green, when you see a blue circle followed by a red circle, say the word &quot;blue&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this instruction, an output modality is added. However, one could imagine another instruction where an interfering pattern is added.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;2c. Given a sequence of circles of either red, blue or green, when you see a blue circle followed by a red circle, press the yellow button.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or an instruction where a cognitive component is added:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;2d. Given a sequence of circle of either red or green, as well as the occasional digit, when you see a red circle followed by a digit, say the value of digit+1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are the experiments/models that predict the performance on various tasks given increasing complexity? The best reviews I could find were:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.biorxiv.org/content/early/2017/10/25/208280&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An information-theoretic perspective on the costs of cognition&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Zenon et al.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00680/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An information theory account of cognitive control&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Jin Fan&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, these didn't seem to include any tasks with gradually increasing complexity. Are there experiments or models that address this? I feel like this is related to &quot;cognitive load&quot;, but I couldn't find any resources describing adaptation to &quot;cognitive load&quot; with practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-10-28T01:16:21.943" Title="Experiments showing adaptation to growing task complexity" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18357" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18341" CreationDate="2017-10-28T20:26:39.677" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;While a DID system can include a lot of inside people with different ages, genders, personalities and ailments, the mental health disorder describes the whole system. But, as tale said, different alters can manifest different mental health symptoms, such as depression, anxiety, paranoia, hallucinations, psychosis and so on. These are some of the same symptoms that other mental health disorders manifest, and in general DID is comorbid with other mental illnesses, such as BPD, CPTSD, ADHD, other personality and mood disorders and so on. This is because growing up in extreme emotional/physical/sexual abuse, with no ability to escape, can result on one's mind being fractured to provide a certain level of escape through extreme dissociation (hence DID). You can imagine that someone who survived that in early childhood and on will have a host of mental health issues, some of which are sometimes possible to compensate for, or to medicate for, but most are impossible to cure, since brain plasticity dramatically declines after childhood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TL;DR: specific symptoms, shared disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17377" LastActivityDate="2017-10-28T20:26:39.677" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18359" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-29T12:29:48.397" Score="3" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;The goal is to evaluate someone's interior design preference based on some text/image based questions. Can the personality and aesthetic profile extracted from the answers be used as inputs for a cognitive model to evaluate interior design preferences? Any related material on this topic will be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17382" LastActivityDate="2017-10-29T12:29:48.397" Title="Is anyone aware of any cognitive models that appraises interior design preferences?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18360" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-29T16:11:30.863" Score="5" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;I vaguely remember reading somewhere that one of the reasons that the Romans failed to make any mathematical achievements is that their number system is illogical and does not lend itself to trivial observations that the Arabic (or Indian) numeral system allows. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, the increasing compactness of modern mathematical notation allows increasingly complex thoughts to be written down and processed with much greater ease (the only downside being the increased required background knowledge to understand the notation). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also remember reading somewhere that the reduction of Maxwell's 20 differential equations to 4 has greatly improved physicists ability to think, so much so that even a physics grad student today is able to have complex thoughts that even Newton was not capable of having, purely due to compactness of notation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually, I think the source said that the reduced set of equations emphasized the parameters that physicists normally cared about - I forgot exactly what it said. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies or books on this? I've been searching and trying to find the sources where I got these informations from but to no avail. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4117" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-10-29T19:52:12.887" LastActivityDate="2017-11-03T07:34:34.223" Title="Effect of compactness of notation on cognition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18361" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-29T20:25:01.690" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found studies on how leisure activities can positively affect well-being, e.g. stress reduction.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;My question is more specific as I want to research how participation in sport can help one deal with difficult life circumstances like for instance loss of a loved one or abuse.  Academic literature in this area seems to be very scarce.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My aim would be to bring out the implications for counselling practice and demonstrate that sport participation is effective in dealing with negative life events. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17385" LastEditorUserId="17385" LastEditDate="2017-10-31T19:35:30.127" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T19:35:30.127" Title="Can sport be used as a counselling tool to help one deal with negative life events?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sport-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18362" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-29T21:10:05.570" Score="2" ViewCount="1308" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the rationale for the normal distribution of intelligence? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm asking what the rationale is for saying that 68% of variance within intelligence falls within 1 standard deviation either side of the mean, and 95% within 2, etc.. That's just what &quot;normal distribution&quot; means. Here is a picture:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HxxI6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HxxI6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Why not suppose that intelligence is e.g. a uniform distribution? You can see clearly, in the picture below, that if it's modeled in that way:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;someone's deviation from the mean will be equal to the probability of their score.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/51jLF.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/51jLF.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2017-10-31T16:36:13.393" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T16:36:13.393" Title="What is the rationale for the normal distribution of intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18363" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18362" CreationDate="2017-10-30T10:40:57.810" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;IQ scores are distributed normally, because they follow the  central limit theorem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;When we measure &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;IQ scores&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; in sufficiently large populations, they will be normally distributed. This holds for healthy controls, as well as groups of people with ADHD or reading disabilities &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/002221940003300503?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&amp;amp;rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&amp;amp;rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kaplan &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2000)&lt;/a&gt;, and also in people with mild to moderate mental retardation &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cairn.info/revue-enfance-2003-3-page-237.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bellugi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2003)&lt;/a&gt;.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many biological variables follow a normal distribution quite well. This is a result of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;central limit theorem&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which says that when you take a large number of random numbers, the means of those numbers are approximately normally distributed &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biostathandbook.com/normality.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(McDonald, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. When for example the weight distribution is sampled in a population, it will vary with age, nutrition, disease status &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;. The addition of these independent random variables result in the variable (in this case weight) to become normally distributed (&quot;bell shaped&quot;), even if the original variables themselves are not normally distributed (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, your statement &lt;code&gt;Do we as a society have the right attitude to variation in human intelligence? Because it seems to me we are either over-nurturing the extremes, or should not represent it as a normal distribution&lt;/code&gt; doesn't really apply here, as IQ score distributions have nothing to do with 'us as a society having the right to do something'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cairn.info/revue-enfance-2003-3-page-237.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bellugi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Enfance&lt;/em&gt; (2003); &lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt;(55): 237-49&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/002221940003300503?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&amp;amp;rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&amp;amp;rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaplan &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Learning Disabilities&lt;/em&gt; (2000); &lt;strong&gt;33&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 425-32&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.biostathandbook.com/normality.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;McDonald, &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Biological Statistics&lt;/em&gt;, 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. (2012). Sparky House Publishing, Baltimore, Maryland&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-10-30T15:07:43.673" LastActivityDate="2017-10-30T15:07:43.673" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18364" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-30T13:50:07.443" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;A friend recently asked me an interesting question to which I couldn't find the answer. Does the accuracy of depression assessments vary by the profession i.e. Nurse, GP Vs Clinical Psychologist, Psychiatrist etc, of those conducting the assessment? What is the difference in false positives or misdiagnosis between these professions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am aware the forms used are mostly the same but does the diagnosis accuracy vary?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2017-11-03T16:28:05.370" LastActivityDate="2017-11-03T16:28:05.370" Title="Assessments of depression: Does the rate of false positives vary between the qualification of those testing?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18367" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18360" CreationDate="2017-10-31T06:32:38.787" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I recall correctly, in his book &quot;The number sense&quot;, Stanislas Dehaene says that one reason Chinese have better than average math skills is because all digits have only 1 syllable and the number of syllables increases linearly with the number of digits (vs. for example the horrible seventy-seven in English). If I still remember correctly, he cites some studies about that. It's not exactly what you asked but that's definitively a reference relevant to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dehaene, S. (2011). The number sense: How the mind creates mathematics. OUP USA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T06:32:38.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18370" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-10-31T18:51:39.120" Score="0" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/f7rRt.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/f7rRt.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the emotion of fear (for example) has evolved so that humans can react in an adapted way to danger, why would we be afraid in a &lt;strong&gt;laboratory setting&lt;/strong&gt;, and would this fear be &lt;em&gt;similar&lt;/em&gt; to that we experience when confronted with real danger? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover they state that make-believe emotions are &lt;strong&gt;qualitatively different from real emotions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Thus, how can we be in contact (in laboratory settings) with real emotions?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;References&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Cambridge handbook of Human Affective Neuroscience, Jorge Armony and Patrik Vuilleumier, 2013&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-10-31T18:51:39.120" Title="Are there any methodological challenges to study real-time social interactions?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;social-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18371" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18372" CreationDate="2017-10-31T20:25:03.783" Score="4" ViewCount="781" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am roommates with a maxillofacial surgeon. He told me that during his studies he read that cephalic index can be used to measure intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And he further explained that as Africans and women have smaller brains according to cephalic index, so they are less intelligent than Caucasian and Asian men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just want to know how much of this is true, if any? And please explain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17398" LastEditorUserId="17398" LastEditDate="2017-11-01T10:15:18.293" LastActivityDate="2020-08-15T17:13:33.677" Title="A doctor told me that cephalic index can be used to measure human intelligence, is it true?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18372" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18371" CreationDate="2017-10-31T22:05:06.343" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, the index and its correlation to intelligence is not strong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See the &lt;a href=&quot;http://medchrome.com/extras/facts/cephalic-index/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;medchrome.com description on cephalic index&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The underlying assumption of craniometry is that skull size and shape&#xA;  determine brain size which determines such things as intelligence and&#xA;  capacity for moral behavior. Empirical evidence for this assumption is not very strong.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Cephalic index consistently produced a very low or negative correlation with mental ability.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also this article on Smithsonian.com: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-brain-size-doesnt-correlate-with-intelligence-180947627/?all&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why Brain Size Doesn’t Correlate With Intelligence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3748&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Healy and Rowe (2007)&lt;/a&gt; provide a critique of comparative studies of brain size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Healy, S. D., &amp;amp; Rowe, C. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3748&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A critique of comparative studies of brain size.&lt;/a&gt; Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 274(1609), 453-464.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-11-02T15:55:34.207" LastActivityDate="2017-11-02T15:55:34.207" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18373" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18371" CreationDate="2017-11-01T02:10:08.870" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;(It wouldn't let me just comment)&#xA;I would add, there are multiple cases where the apparent size of the skull and therefore brain do not correlate with intelligence, and this is across different species of the planet. If it were true, why are humans one of the apparently most intellectually evolved creatures? Consider whales. This cannot be explained by the aforementioned method.&#xA;If one were to look at brain size in the human population they appear to actually be decreasing in size over time, which could lead one to conjecture people aren't getting less intelligent but that the density of neurons is changing. The density is increasing. We can justify the lack of decreasing intelligence by the intelligence metrics that exist today, regardless of how flawed they may actually be, they show an average increase compared with the past.&#xA;So, in the human case, if you were take density into consideration then this altogether and at once dismisses the idea you speak of as being patently false.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16318" LastEditorUserId="16318" LastEditDate="2017-11-04T11:26:40.670" LastActivityDate="2017-11-04T11:26:40.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18375" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-01T06:14:41.023" Score="8" ViewCount="346" Body="&lt;p&gt;In an article by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uam.es/proyectosinv/psimasd/tdata.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Santacreu et al. (2006)&lt;/a&gt; there is a mention of altruism assessment within the framework of the Character Education Inquiry (CEI):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If we return to the first half of the last century, we can find&#xA;  important precedents of objective assessment of Personality that were&#xA;  embodied in solid and coherent research programs carried out by&#xA;  important authors in this field. Amongst these, works by Hartshorne&#xA;  and May (1928, Hartshorne, May &amp;amp; Maller, 1929, Hartshorne, May &amp;amp;&#xA;  Shuttleworth 1930) must be mentioned. These authors developed a set of&#xA;  tests included in their Character Education Inquiry (CEI) oriented,&#xA;  amongst other things, to measure honesty or altruism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the present moment I do not have access to the report of the CEI to verify how Hugh Hartshorne and his colleagues were assessing &quot;honesty or altruism&quot;. However, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/2092934?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robert W. Friedrichs (1960)&lt;/a&gt; cites the report of the CEI (along with a couple of other investigations) and claims that these studies did not have as their objective the assessment of altruism. These, so he implies, are the only studies undertaken in the field of psychology which may attract attention of those interested in the study of altruism. I tried to find attempts at objective assessment of altruism in the work published since 1960, but without success. So I'm here looking for assistance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I admit that I may use the term 'objective test' incorrectly. In order to exclude any misunderstanding I would like to add that I conceive of objective test designed to assess altruism as simulated conditions in which an individual (or a group of them) is put at a moral choice being unable to uncover the simulated nature of the proceedings or to identify the qualities under scrutiny. I will be very grateful to all who help me to find reports of applications of such methods to the assessment of altruism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Santacreu, J., Rubio, V. J., &amp;amp; Hernández, J. M. (2006). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uam.es/proyectosinv/psimasd/tdata.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The objective assessment of personality: Cattells's T-data revisited and more.&lt;/a&gt; Psychology Science, 48(1), 53.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Friedrichs, R. W. (1960). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/2092934?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alter versus ego: An exploratory assessment of altruism.&lt;/a&gt; American Sociological Review, 496-508.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17400" LastEditorUserId="17400" LastEditDate="2017-11-03T10:37:54.803" LastActivityDate="2017-11-09T13:57:15.283" Title="What, if any, objective tests were designed for the assessment of altruism?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;altruism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18376" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18379" CreationDate="2017-11-01T10:26:47.300" Score="2" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machiavellianism#Relations_with_other_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia states&lt;/a&gt; that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Machiavellianism has been found to be negatively correlated with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreeableness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;agreeableness article&lt;/a&gt; has following words:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The lower-level traits, or facets, grouped under agreeableness are: &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;trust&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, and tender-mindedness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machiavellianism#Game_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article on Machiavellianism&lt;/a&gt; in some way is contradictory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was found that in a &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;trust&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; game, those with high MACH-IV scores tended to follow homo economicus' equilibrium strategies while those with low MACH-IV scores tended to deviate from the equilibrium&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In simple words that means that high machs are closer to optimal strategy in trust games than low machs. If they are mistrustful, why are they better in trust games?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's not the only contradiction. Let's look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conscientiousness article&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who score low on conscientiousness tend to be &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;laid back&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;less goal-oriented&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;less driven by success&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And now again &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machiavellianism#Motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Machiavellianism article&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;High Machs admitted to focusing on unmitigated &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;achievement&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;winning at any cost&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But enough Wikipedia, there is more ambiguousity in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4873071/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this research article&lt;/a&gt; (that references a bunch of other articles):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are at least &lt;strong&gt;two&lt;/strong&gt; main paradigms of partner selection and both can be evidenced with previous research to be relevant to the partner selection of Machiavellians. On the one hand, similarity in level of affiliation, intimacy needs and personality traits has particular importance in ideal standards and mate choice. Previous studies provided countless evidence supporting the similarity hypothesis&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Accordingly, it is also possible that a dominant high-Mach who demands attention can form the most stable – though dysfunctional and asymmetric – relationship with a submissive and permissive low-Mach partner who he or she can manipulate and exploit&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again ambiguousity. The only explanation I can propose is that there is no such thing as Machiavellianism. There are [at least] two types of personality which Machiavellianism tries to describe. Is there any concept that tried to resolve these issues? Obviuosly, Mach-IV can't separate these two types of personalities. So, are there any tests that can do it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. I expect that those &amp;quot;machiavellianists&amp;quot; who are good in trust games usually tend to choose similar [to themselves] partners for relationships and possibly, they are more goal-oriented (and should they really be a part of dark triad?). Also I won't be surprised if these two types of &amp;quot;machiavellianists&amp;quot; will differ greatly in emotional intelligence and mind theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-11-01T19:33:14.287" Title="Does Machiavellianism concept attempt to combine different personalty types?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18377" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12314" CreationDate="2017-11-01T16:30:45.120" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;ADHD used to be called just ADD in DSM-III (released in 1980), with the subtypes ADD/H (ADD with hyperactivity) and ADD/WO (ADD without hyperactivity). However, by 1987 when DSM-III-R was published, it turned out there was not enough empirical evidence to support the multidimensional view of ADD from DSM-III, so DSM-III-R adopted a unidimensional view, which was reflected in the name change to ADHD. This change was not without criticism, and it turned out that the criticism was well founded, because by the time DSM-IV came about (it was published in 1994), enough empirical evidence had accumulated for the multidimensional view, however the dimension space was refined into inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity, and allowed for a combined type as well. From empirical research it turned out that the DSM-III diagnoses of ADD/WO and ADD/H correspond fairly closely with&#xA;the DSM-IV diagnoses of ADHD predominantly inattentive type and combined type, respectively (cf. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8714321&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Morgan et al.&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now for the terminology, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/index.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;proper name&lt;/a&gt; howadays is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (i.e. with the slash), which correctly reflects the equal importance of the two dimensions (from DSM-IV and 5) in the name. If you want to be really nitpicky, the proper, unambiguous abbreviation of this name should be something like {AD/H/AD+H}D or ADD/HD/AD+HD, though of course nobody writes it like that for reasons of parsimony.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you propose to say that &quot;ADD has 3 types: predominantly inattentive [...]&quot; you're still semantically repeating inattentive which means attention deficit, so I don't get the parsimony you propose at 1 as it asymmetrical, i.e. you're still repeating something in the first subtype from the title name even though you avoid it for the 2nd subtype.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for proposal 2 &quot;ADHD has 3 types: predominantly inattentive, predominantly impulsive&quot;, you're now calling the hyperactive-impulsive just impulsive. This is more a matter of how do you want to call the hyperactivity-impulsivity subtype. There is probably not enough empirical evidence to to have 3 dimensions (inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity) for ADHD, nevertheless DSM-IV &lt;a href=&quot;https://msu.edu/course/cep/888/ADHD%20files/DSM-IV.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;distinguished&lt;/a&gt; between the latter two for reasons not entirely clear to me, but which I suspect are a matter of calling a spade a spade:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hyperactivity: (a) often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat&#xA;  (b) often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected&#xA;  (c) often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate (in adolescents or adults, may be limited to subjective feelings of restlessness)&#xA;  (d) often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly&#xA;  (e) is often “on the go” or often acts as if “driven by a motor”&#xA;  (f) often talks excessively&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Impulsivity: (g) often blurts out answers before questions have been completed&#xA;  (h) often has difficulty awaiting turn&#xA;  (i) often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For diagnostic purposes these two are combined, i.e you need 6 of any of these for hyperactive-impulsive diagnosis. Nevertheless it seems somewhat awkward to say that someone who has difficulty awaiting his/her turn is hyperactive rather than impulsive. There may be more history behind this sub-subheading split without diagnostic consequences; the DSM is designed by a committee so there may have been more to it, but I wasn't able to find out. What seems obvious is that lifting hyperactive rather than impulsive to the disorder name is appropriate given that most criteria for the subtype are of the hyperactive kind. Calling it &quot;attention-deficit/hyperactive-impulsive disorder&quot; seems really a mouthful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It turns out there's at least &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1474811/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one 2005 paper&lt;/a&gt; that partially agrees with your criticism though:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Not only is “ADHD without hyperactivity” (ADHD of the predominantly inattentive type) an awkward locution, but it also tries to squeeze ADD into a box in which it does not belong. The term ADHD should be reserved for when hyperactivity is present (as the term implies), regardless of whether inattention is also present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As it's evident in the above, abbreviations don't capture alternatives. So ADHD is hard to read as {AD|H}D. Nevertheless the DSM-5 committees were not convinced and the name remained what it is. Although some &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3955126/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;changes were made to the ADHD diagnosis the DSM-5&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The retention of the ADHD symptom domains and 18 core symptoms likely reflects a judgment that the DSM-IV definition of ADHD has largely withstood the test of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The change in nomenclature from “subtypes” in DSM-IV to “presentations” in DSM-5 reflects increasing evidence that symptoms are often fluid within individuals across their lifespan rather than stable traits. DSM-IV ADHD subtypes change across development due to the heterotypic continuity of symptom trajectories over time. For example, since inattention is relatively stable across development while hyperactivity/impulsivity often wane with age, many children diagnosed with ADHD, Combined eventually transition to ADHD, Predominantly Inattentive [...]. The “presentation” terminology better reflects that the symptom profile represents the person’s current symptomatology, which may change over time. The “type” terminology implied more stable, trait-like characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-19T17:40:23.227" LastActivityDate="2017-11-19T17:40:23.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18379" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18376" CreationDate="2017-11-01T19:03:37.450" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;If they are mistrustful, why are they better in trust games?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the abstract of the actual paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We argue that Christie and Geis’s&#xA;  Machiavellianism scale (Mach-IV) is an instrument that allows the identification of types who&#xA;  vary in cooperativeness. We use that test to predict the behavior of participants in a two-person&#xA;  one-shot constituent game in which subjects face a choice between trust and distrust, and&#xA;  between reciprocation (trustworthiness) and defection. We find that the Mach-IV scale does&#xA;  not predict trusting behavior. It does, however, predict reciprocity. Over one half of those&#xA;  who score low to average on the scale reciprocate trust. High scorers overwhelmingly defect&#xA;  when it is to their advantage to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, high Mach's know when it's to their advantage to stab you in the back and do it. Big surprise there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The game played, annotated with the results, is reproduced below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0UTJ6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0UTJ6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll not give a full explanation (read the paper if you are unfamiliar with game theory, it explains it &quot;for dummies&quot;), but suffice to say that the high Mach (H) overwhelmingly moved down as P2, i.e. maximized their own profit even if that meant screwing over the P1 player who was nice to them, whereas average-to-low (AL) Mach players reciprocated (about half the time) as P2 even though that's not the dominant strategy as P2. In other words, AL felt like reciprocating for a past favor, even though that buys them nothing in this game. High Machs (mostly) did not repay a favor in such circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-01T19:33:14.287" LastActivityDate="2017-11-01T19:33:14.287" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18380" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18384" CreationDate="2017-11-01T19:17:28.340" Score="3" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;A set of gammatone band-pass filters are often used to model the filtering performed by the human inner ear. For example, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3554696/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BatSLAM: Simultaneous Localization and Mapping Using Biomimetic Sonar&lt;/a&gt;&quot; Jan Steckel and Herbert Peremans, as well as &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/bekolay2016.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biologically inspired methods in speech recognition and synthesis: closing the loop&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Trevor Bekolay both use them. However, like all filters, if you start the input signal with silence, the gammatone filter responds differently than if you started the input signal with some sort of noise. Similarly, mammals are very rarely submerged in absolute silence. The environment and internal organs generate what I would imagine to be some sort of low frequency noise. Maybe it's a low-pass filtered white-noise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are trying to use gammatone filter in a model, what do you prepend the start of your signal with? In other words, how are gammatone filters typically &quot;primed&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-11-02T20:56:14.580" Title="How to prime gammatone filters?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18383" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18400" CreationDate="2017-11-02T06:37:06.610" Score="0" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Something that might be used to describe an individual who:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;can perform arithmetic at an advanced level (e.g. post graduate)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;does not generally struggle with memory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;can easily remember the relative ordering of past events&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;is young/not at an advanced age&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;struggles to perform basic calculations when the numbers represent units of time (e.g. &quot;it is 6pm, what time will it be 5 hours from now?&quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;has difficulty reading an analogue clock&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;has difficulty remembering the year/date an event occurred&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;has difficulty remembering the current date/their age&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17410" LastActivityDate="2017-11-05T07:09:04.973" Title="Is there a disorder similar to dyscalculia but only for time/date arithmetic? (also memory)" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18384" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18380" CreationDate="2017-11-02T17:38:40.757" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mostly it depends on the kind of experiment you're doing. If you're interested in speech (as I was), most of the important information is in the 300-3000 Hz range, where low-frequency noise will have little effect unless it's extremely loud. If the experiment you're doing deals with static or other sounds with broad power spectra, then low frequency noise could have a significant effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As with most questions of perception, what matters most isn't really the signal itself but how the signal is changing. It's a big change to go from from silence to loud static. It's a lesser change to go from quiet static to loud static. That difference is more significant than the difference between going from silence to speech and going from quiet static to human speech, because speech is similar to neither silence nor static.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3551" LastActivityDate="2017-11-02T17:38:40.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18385" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18380" CreationDate="2017-11-02T20:56:14.580" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Priming the filters (or setting the initial state) is essentially unimportant for studies of audition. In a typical study, the signal is presented at 70 dB and the background noise of a quality double-walled sound both might be 20 dB. This gives a 50 dB SNR. That means if the amplitude of the filter response to the signal is 1, the response to the noise would be 10^-5 (0.00001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are using the filter bank to study absolute detection, where the signal is small relative to the background noise, then you need to worry about the ongoing background noise (but should probably also include some sort of internal noise in the model). Even in these cases, the effect of priming will be small for signals of reasonable duration since the filters die out in a few milliseconds. So unless you are looking at absolute detection of brief signals, there is probably no reason to worry about &quot;priming&quot; the filter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2017-11-02T20:56:14.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18387" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18360" CreationDate="2017-11-03T06:21:22.293" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your hypothesis is not quite true. Even if we restrict discussions to numbers only, conciseness (the term used in literature for your &quot;compactness&quot;) is not the greatest for the Western system; the Georgian number system is superior in this respect. I'm reproducing the following table from Chrisomalis' book (p. 391).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IqWLy.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IqWLy.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Roman system, which is essentially cumulative-additive, is not included above table because it has a sub-base (of 5). Adding a sub-base improves conciseness (over a c-a system that lacks one, like the Egyptian). It's fairly easy to write a little program to compute its 1-999 signs required for Roman, but I lack the time right now (maybe later today). Also, quoting from the book:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For any natural number, no system is ever more concise than a purely&#xA;  ciphered-additive system&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i.e. the Georgian one is always the most concise (for the same base).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, Chrisomalis states quite a few observations/&quot;theorems&quot; about number systems, including their development over time, and spices these up with a discussion about the cognitive basis of each observation. Alas, there are a bit too many of those to summarize here. I'll just give you one summary table that also takes into account sign count:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PgHaC.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PgHaC.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the ciphered-additive ones do rank worse than ciphered-positional on the sign count aspect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And to make this answer a bit more self-contained, instead of the Georgian system (whose symbols I cannot type), I'll reproduce here the Latin alphabetic numerals, which were briefly used in Western Europe in the 12th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ndtph.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ndtph.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, for example, to write 101, you write ta in this system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stephen Chrisomalis, &lt;em&gt;Numerical Notation: A Comparative History&lt;/em&gt;, CUP 2010&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-03T07:34:34.223" LastActivityDate="2017-11-03T07:34:34.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18390" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18375" CreationDate="2017-11-03T13:24:57.373" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following scale; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(81)90084-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The altruistic personality and&#xA;the self-report altruism scale&lt;/a&gt;, a commonly used measure of altruistic tendency in psychological research. It has 745 citations at this time November 2017. The scale is also &lt;a href=&quot;https://cyfar.org/sites/default/files/Altruism%20Adapted%20Self-Report%20Scale%20(Rushton)%20(all%20youth)_0.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;freely available online&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rushton, J.P., Chrisjohn, R.D., Fekken, G.C., 1981. The altruistic personality and&#xA;the self-report altruism scale. Personality and Individual Differences 7,&#xA;293–302.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has been discussed as psychometrically adequate for measuring altruism, and has good the SRAS has good inter-rater reliability. However the SRAS has two main weaknesses: its expansive, in terms of its definition of altruism, it also it frames of reference are unspecified, and unclear.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other measures that investigate aspects of altruism such as the Internalised subscale of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/33287911/The_self-importance_of_moral_identity.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1509718539&amp;amp;Signature=L3QctVvjbZJWL2Y2LebV8T25avw%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DThe_Self-Importance_of_Moral_Identity.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-importance of Moral Identity&lt;/a&gt; Scale (ISMIS). In the following article they discuss moral behaviour to outgroups, which the scale measures. This is also a highly cited source for measuring altruism or moral behaviour. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a few other scales or methods of measuring altruism, I do not have time to go into detail...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Empathic Concern questionaire (EC)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fetzer.org/sites/default/files/images/stories/pdf/selfmeasures/CompassionandCompassionateLove-CompassionateLoveforSpecificCloseOther.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Compassionate love for others&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sprecher, S. &amp;amp; Fehr, B. (2005). Compassionate love for close others and humanity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22, 629-651.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10570314.2010.512278&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;State Based Empathy&lt;/a&gt;. Empathy is more of a measure of motivation to act kindly which is a precursor to altruism but not actually altruism itself.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I highly recommend you read the following blog on measuring altruism, which discusses it in far greater detail than the answer here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;T. Farsides. (2014, October 18). Conception and measurement of altruism. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://tomfarsides.blogspot.com/2014/10/conceptualisation-and-measurement-of.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://tomfarsides.blogspot.com/2014/10/conceptualisation-and-measurement-of.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-11-03T15:51:12.430" LastActivityDate="2017-11-03T15:51:12.430" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18392" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-03T16:04:57.840" Score="2" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have recently discovered that the &lt;a href=&quot;http://atlasofemotions.org/#continents/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Atlas of Emotions&lt;/a&gt; may be a useful tool in a research project I am working on. While lovely to look at, the Atlas seems to lack any description of the data encoded by the shapes of the &quot;mountains&quot; on each emotional continent. By looking, for example, at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://atlasofemotions.org/#states/enjoyment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;enjoyment page&lt;/a&gt;, one can see that the width of an emotion's mountain corresponds to the intensity interval of that emotion. But what do other features of, say, the amusement mountain encode? I am interested in a general answer to that question but also in the following specifics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(Peaks) Each mountain has a peak. How is the horizontal position of the peak inside of the emotion's interval determined? How is the peak's height determined?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(Symmetry) Some mountains exhibit left-right symmetry, while others do not. Are the mountains designed to maximize such symmetry under the constraint that each peak be visible? Or does this symmetry (when present) encode something about the emotion?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(Volume) Does the overall volume of a particular mountain encode useful data?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have sent an information request directly to Paul Ekman but thought some of you fine folks might have some insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17425" LastActivityDate="2017-11-03T16:04:57.840" Title="(Ekmans' Atlas of Emotions) What meaning (if any) can be deduced from the geometry of the &quot;mountain&quot; depicting a given emotion?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18394" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18414" CreationDate="2017-11-03T19:46:53.213" Score="5" ViewCount="205" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't seem to correctly understand what exactly is precision psychiatry? I can't find good sources on the internet about it, other than &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-017-0849-x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The new field of ‘precision psychiatry’&quot; by Fernandes et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, maybe because this is a new field. Is this different from precision medicine? If so, how? How does it relate to the definition  of the word precision (Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I can't understand how to apply precision psychiatry in order to diagnose or predict a mental disorder, for eg. PTSD. Do I have to decide and make a checklist of parameters of the subject by which I can decide if that person has that disease, and how will someone go on about diagnosing the disorder after that. Can you explain it with respect to an example like PTSD or some other disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Fernandes, B. S., Williams, L. M., Steiner, J., Leboyer, M., Carvalho, A. F., &amp;amp; Berk, M. (2017). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-017-0849-x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The new field of ‘precision psychiatry’.&lt;/a&gt; BMC medicine, 15(1), 80.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17429" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-11-06T09:03:01.283" LastActivityDate="2017-11-06T09:03:01.283" Title="Understanding Precision Psychiatry" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18395" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-03T20:43:35.417" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it was in my high school sociology class, around 1980, that I learned of an anthropologist who spent three months analysing a 90 second film of a mother, father and child in a kitchen, conducting their every day affairs. And the anthropologist, playing the film in slow motion, ultimately realized that the family was dancing, unknowingly, in a coordinated way. When one person's hand reached for the cupboard, another's head might tilt just slightly. Their bodies were incessantly, unconsciously, gracefully responding to each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please, can anybody provide a reference for this research? Do you know of any similar research? What would be key terms for me to search on? I haven't been able to find anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I observe this type of coordination in every day life, especially as an artist. From my limited experience with autistic people, I imagine that this is precisely the faculty that they lack, as if they were totally blind or partially blind, depending on where they are in the spectrum. Autistic people have to compensate, if they can at all, by consciously learning what other people are doing unconsciously. I am currently studying the origin of language and this faculty may well ground Tomasello's notion of joint intentionality. When I look at photos and videos of other great apes, they don't seem to position themselves in the way humans do, and perhaps they simply position themselves with regard to particular individuals. And this faculty is, I think, highly relevant to perceiving the sense of wholeness which architect Christopher Alexander investigates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17431" LastActivityDate="2017-11-03T20:43:35.417" Title="Who first filmed and researched unconscious synchronized movement?" Tags="&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;&lt;anthropology&gt;&lt;body-language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18396" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18397" CreationDate="2017-11-04T05:46:10.683" Score="4" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Likert Scale has been widely in use for more than 80 years (it was published in &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1933-01885-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1932&lt;/a&gt;). However, the limitations of it are well-known:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The space between each choice is possibly not equidistant. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People keep endorsing the mid-point of the scale and avoid choosing the “extremes&quot; options on the scale, even if an extreme choice would be the most accurate.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Attitudes of the population for one particular item in reality exist on a vast, multi-dimensional continuum. However, the Likert Scale is uni-dimensional and only gives 5-7 options of choice&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peoples’ answers will be influenced by previous questions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the latest development in Psychometrics? Is there any budding and promising replacement or advancement for Likert Scale?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17152" LastActivityDate="2017-11-04T07:46:08.980" Title="Advancement to Likert Scale" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18397" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18396" CreationDate="2017-11-04T07:09:12.620" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_analogue_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual analogue scale&lt;/a&gt; (VAS) has been used in some research. For a direct comparison in one study, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10645112&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vickers&lt;/a&gt; who compared VAS vs. 7-point Likert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's interesting that Vicker found a similar effect to that found in a highly cited paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.417.9488&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dawes&lt;/a&gt; on 5/7-point Likert vs 10-point Likert, namely that more points on the scale result in a lower average score... despite the fact that the stuff measured in these two studies was completely different: muscle soreness and respectively customer satisfaction. Well, the probability of this coincidence is 50%, but I couldn't find any meta-analysis of this type of study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One additional issue with Likert (and other ordinal) scales is that some researchers use the wrong statistics on it, like those assuming normal distribution, c.f. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4833473/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bishop and Herron&lt;/a&gt;, who also discuss some finer points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Refs (spelled out):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;AJ Vickers, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10645112&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Comparison of an ordinal and a continuous outcome measure of muscle soreness&lt;/a&gt;,  Int J Technology Assess Health Care. 1999;15(04):709–716&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;J Dawes, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.417.9488&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Do data characteristics change according to the number of scale points used? An experiment using 5-point, 7-point and 10-point scales&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, Int J Market Res. 2008;51(1)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;PA Bishop and RL Herron, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4833473/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Use and Misuse of the Likert Item Responses and Other Ordinal Measures&lt;/a&gt;, Int J Exerc Sci. 2015; 8(3): 297–302.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-04T07:46:08.980" LastActivityDate="2017-11-04T07:46:08.980" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18398" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-04T16:00:04.370" Score="1" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't be classified by wikipedia as someone clearly machiavellian (I'm hedonist (in the sence of general pleasure/pain, not only physical) and try not to hurt other people). Yet, I managed to score 80 on MACH-IV. But I doubt that questions are well selected. In fact almost every question is ambiguous or ill-posed (it's sometimes about belief that everyone is a kind person, I'm not an ultra-optimist, I'm realist and sometimes just about being average person).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, I could not see anything in this test that could reveal machiavellian traits. Moreover, most study show only a weak correlation between them and high score in test. The real correlation is around .2 if not lower, which makes it unreliable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm thinking is that people with similar [to mine] philosophy also can score higher than average just for similar reasons. And it's completely weird, since philosophies are too different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, for example, I know that concepts of narcissism (but NPI still has around of half useless questions in my opinion) and psychopathy are much better defined and appropriate tests seem to be more accurate. Yet, if there is another type of personality, that may ruin lifes of other people, it can't be revealed by MACH-IV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact statistics show that mean score is around 67 or so, which is considered as high Mach. If majority are high Machs, then there is no dark triad. Also, the form of graph is symmetrical, while form of graph on NPI test is highly assymmetrical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is it just a canard or is there some evidence, that such personality type exists (and it is something that is useful in terms of psychology)? (Of course, some people may treat themselves as the only really clever ones, who should rule the world, but yet think that they look as average person; which is some kind of narcissism).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastEditorUserId="17199" LastEditDate="2017-11-04T18:14:30.680" LastActivityDate="2017-11-05T08:11:06.000" Title="Is a concept of machiavellianism useful?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18399" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-04T18:42:38.623" Score="1" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;By environmental enrichment, I mean a cognitively, socially and environmentally stimulating environment.  Most of the studies I discovered were tested on animals, in which the answer is a resounding yes.  But is there anything that suggests this enhances executive functioning in humans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clarify, there is probably evidence that a deprived environment, such as isolation and poorly constructed childhood homes (Romanian orphanages comes to mind), aren't particularly good for executive functioning.  I'm more looking for evidence that enriched environments improves cognition.  For example, would traveling overseas, or learning a new skill, increase brainpower?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17435" LastEditorUserId="17435" LastEditDate="2017-11-05T00:30:52.083" LastActivityDate="2017-11-05T00:30:52.083" Title="Is there any evidence that environmental enrichment enchances executive functioning in humans?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18400" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18383" CreationDate="2017-11-04T23:02:38.700" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dyscalculia includes or at least is closely related to difficulty reading an analog clock, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscalculia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;says Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; citing a PhD thesis which I haven't checked myself. Also, without a citation this time, Wikipedia adds &quot;Difficulty with time, directions, recalling schedules, sequences of events. Difficulty keeping track of time. Frequently late or early.&quot; General comorbidity with ADHD is also mentioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are obscure forms of marginal dyslexia (there was a question here recently), so I don't doubt there are probably obscure/marginal forms of dyscalculia that may or may not have received much attention separately. Research into the heterogeneity of dyscalculia is a fairly recent endeavor. Quoting from a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5209352/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent paper on the topic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;time processing [is] more often affected by number processing than vice versa. (e.g., Cappelletti et al., 2011) Also space and time have demonstrated to exert reciprocal influence on each other. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what you describe (time but not general number dyscalculia) is probably fairly rare. The more focused article of interest by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21807010&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cappelletti et al.&lt;/a&gt; looks only at acquired cases, following brain lesions; however if my analogy with marginal forms of dyslexia holds, my crystal ball says eventually the developmental version will be found and studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the final part of your list of symptoms, I don't know how researched the relationship between remembering times and manipulating them is, but it seems obvious that the former can affect the latter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References (spelled out):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ulf Träff et al., Heterogeneity of Developmental Dyscalculia: Cases with Different Deficit Profiles, Front Psychol. 2016; 7: 2000. doi:  10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02000&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cappelletti M., Freeman E. D., Cipolotti L. (2011). Numbers and time doubly dissociate. Neuropsychologia 49, 3078–3092. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.07.014 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-05T07:09:04.973" LastActivityDate="2017-11-05T07:09:04.973" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18401" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-04T23:14:24.880" Score="3" ViewCount="200" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone shed some light on this &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.inpp.org.uk/intervention-adults-children/more-information/about-ndd/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuromotor Immaturity (NMI)&lt;/a&gt;&quot; syndrome that's been mainly promoted/researched by a UK group called INPP. As you can seen from that page, they take themselves very seriously, &quot;diagnosing NMI&quot;, as if it is well accepted diagnostic term. There's a &lt;a href=&quot;http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1118736966,subjectCd-FA10.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wiley book&lt;/a&gt; about it--written by the director of INPP--but not much else I can find... no Wikipedia page or much in the way of scientific articles about it. Is it some new term for an old thing, or what?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-04T23:19:45.227" LastActivityDate="2017-11-04T23:19:45.227" Title="INPP Neuromotor Immaturity" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18402" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-05T00:51:46.270" Score="4" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a given Hopfeild network : &#xA;$\tau\frac{dx}{dt} = -x + f(Wx + b) $&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a general Lyapunov stability function for Hopfeild networks is :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$L(x) = -\frac{1}{2}x^TWx + b^Tx + F(x)$  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where $F(x) = \int^{x} f^{-1}(y)dy$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of linear networks, $f(x) = x$, the Lyapunov function becomes: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$L(x) = \frac{1}{2}x^T(I - W)x + b^Tx$ &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is asserted that if $(I-W)$ is positive semi definite, then the $L(x)$ is the Lyapunov function and the system is stable. &#xA;Why is that a sufficient condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17438" LastActivityDate="2019-09-08T10:01:25.180" Title="Why is positive semi definiteness a sufficient condition for Lyapunov stability of the Hopfield networks?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18403" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18398" CreationDate="2017-11-05T07:58:59.050" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What I'm going to say here pertains mostly to your previous question on this topic, rather than this one, which does strike me as a bit of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-0167.40.1.120&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;knee-jerk reaction&lt;/a&gt;, however, it might help with this one as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mach-IV has, by design, four main factors but in opposite pairs, so only two main sub-scales, which are added for the total score&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;negative (vs. positive) interpersonal tactics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;cynical (vs. positive) view of human nature&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can actually look up how the individual questions load into these factors, for instance Table 2 in &lt;a href=&quot;https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/SJOP/article/viewFile/SJOP0000110003A/29491&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, the full text of which is freely available. It is possible to score high on one but not the other sub-scale. There are also to two odd questions about Morality in the Mach-IV, but this is a rather poorly designed part of the test. Mach-IV has an overall degree of internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) of 0.7 (mentioned in that paper), which is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronbach%27s_alpha#Internal_consistency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;borderline acceptable&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a newer Machiavellianism test that has seen &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.03.022&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some adoption&lt;/a&gt;, called Machiavellian Personality Scale--&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0149206308318618&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MPS (2009)&lt;/a&gt; which you might be able to find/take; the authors have made it &lt;a href=&quot;https://dahling.pages.tcnj.edu/files/2013/06/dahling-et-al-2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;freely available&lt;/a&gt;. MPS has more independent scales:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Distrust of Others (five items)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Desire for Status (three items),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Desire for Control (three items)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amorality (five items).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for usefulness, I don't know of real-world uses of Mach-IV outside of research. It's not like you won't land a job at Best Buy by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/geek/comments/9dz8l/the_unicru_test_is_a_common_commercial/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;failing it&lt;/a&gt;; actually machiavelianism might help you &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123129220146959621&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;score such a job&lt;/a&gt;, but I'm digressing too mcuh already.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-05T08:11:06.000" LastActivityDate="2017-11-05T08:11:06.000" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18405" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-05T12:30:44.920" Score="4" ViewCount="177" Body="&lt;p&gt;Initial caveat: I have very little formal education in psychology or other cognitive sciences - just a couple classes in college.  I read the guidelines in the site FAQ, but I'll understand if this question isn't right for this site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My background is in mathematics, and over the years I've taken an interest in those aspects of cognitive psychology that pertain to problem solving with the hope that I would develop an awareness of my own cognitive biases and strategies for overcoming them.  One that I latched onto is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_fixedness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;functional fixedness&lt;/a&gt;, which as I understand it is the inability to discover uses for an object other than the obvious purpose for which it was designed.  For instance, functional fixedness might inhibit a person from observing that a hammer can be used as a weight because they can't see past its ordinary function of hammering nails.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Functional fixedness affects our ability to solve a problem effectively with a given set of tools.  I am wondering if there is a similar concept (with accompanying literature) which describes the inability to &lt;em&gt;define&lt;/em&gt; a problem differently from how it is normally defined.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A standard example from mathematics involves the classical impossible ruler-and-compass constructions (such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_trisection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;trisecting an angle&lt;/a&gt;).  If one views these as geometry problems then it is extremely difficult to understand why they are impossible, but everything becomes much clearer if they are viewed as number theory problems.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;High frequency trading provides another good example: for a long time people viewed algorithmic trading as a software problem - write an algorithm which recognizes a good trade as fast as possible.  But high frequency trading really took off when somebody instead viewed it as a geography problem - if everybody has really fast algorithms then the person who is physically closest to the exchange (as measured by the length of the wire over which information is being transmitted) is the winner.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a recognized phenomenon, and has it been studied systematically?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17443" LastEditorUserId="17443" LastEditDate="2017-11-05T12:45:42.073" LastActivityDate="2017-11-08T10:57:37.267" Title="Functional fixedness for defining problems" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18406" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18410" CreationDate="2017-11-05T13:01:09.500" Score="3" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for the types of human behavioural problems where making a particular choice isn't a problem, but making the same choice over and over again leads to a bad outcome? Where there is an immediate short-term pay-off for making the choice one way, but a small long-term cost to doing it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples of these types of problems are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;weight gain  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;personal debt&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;litter&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it's a really interesting type of problem because you have to override the short term motivation many, many times to get the long term pay off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17444" LastActivityDate="2017-11-06T20:44:31.777" Title="Name for problems with a short-term pay off but small long term cost?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18407" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-05T13:27:15.210" Score="2" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;Initial caveat: I have very little formal education in psychology or other cognitive sciences - just a couple classes in college. I read the guidelines in the site FAQ, but I'll understand if this question isn't right for this site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a question about the structure of memory.  Based on my own experience with memory (which I hope is not too pathological) as well as the way memory is commonly described, I have the impression that the brain stores memory hierarchically: at the top level is a broad sense of what happened, below that are some basic ingredients (people, places, objects, etc.), below that are detailed images and narratives, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a crude example, sometimes when watch a movie before going to bed I will wake up with the ability to remember that I had watched a movie and vaguely what the genre was, but it will take some time to remember the name of he movie or the actors / characters, and longer still to recall any specific details about the plot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've managed to read a bit on the duration and reliability of memories and some about how they are stored in neurons, but I'm not sure where to look for information about the structure of larger memories and how they are recalled.  Does anybody have any insight or suggestions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17443" LastActivityDate="2017-11-05T13:27:15.210" Title="Is memory stored at different scales?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18408" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-05T14:56:32.923" Score="6" ViewCount="669" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are experiments [1] showing that our brain tries to maximize amount of dopamine. At the same time it is the brain who controls the dopamine level, because the reward system is located in the brain and if we'll stimulate specific brain areas, our body will produce dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: why can't our brain learn to constantly stimulate this &quot;reward system&quot; area? Why it learns such complex things like doing math, playing chess, helping other people, etc., which in the far end increase dopamine level (by feeling &quot;evrika&quot; moment, winning a competition, seeing other people grateful) when it can just fool its reward system and manually send electrical signals into it? It is a much more easier and    lucrative task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. I am not a biologist at all and will be very thankful if you formulate your answers easier than wikipedia articles which are a big struggle for me to comprehend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.P.S. I'd like to conduct some research in machine learning (neural networks, to be precise) and was thinking about how our brain prevents such devastating overfitting because underlying concepts can be very useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system#History&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page on the 'Reward system', History&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17445" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-11-07T08:42:45.183" LastActivityDate="2017-11-07T08:42:45.183" Title="Why our brain can't fool itself to constantly produce dopamine?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;reward&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18409" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12800" CreationDate="2017-11-05T16:25:31.297" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't seen any publication discussing Stockholm Syndrome in relation to stalking, but I have seen the syndrome discussed in relation to domestic violence. I reproduce below the criteria for occurrence in cases of domestic violence&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The victim perceives a person threatening her&#xA;  survival. The threats may be physical or psychological.&#xA;  It is not important whether others&#xA;  view her survival as threatened, but rather&#xA;  whether she does.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The victim perceives the abuser showing her&#xA;  some kindness, however small. For example,&#xA;  the kindness may be that for one day out of&#xA;  the month he does not abuse her.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The victim is isolated from outsiders. This isolation&#xA;  may be physical—she is not permitted to&#xA;  have contact with family or friends—and/or&#xA;  ideological—she is permitted exposure to&#xA;  only the abuser’s perspective.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The victim does not perceive a way to escape&#xA;  the abuser. Batterers use violence to help ensure&#xA;  that their partners do not leave them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, it could also happen in cases of stalking... however criterion 3 (victim isolation) seems much less likely to happen in cases of stalking. However, stalking is known to increase the social isolation of the victim in some circumstances (altering her/his pattern of social interaction to avoid the stalker), so stalking could potentially lead to 3... but again, I'm just theorizing off the top of my head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;NA Jackson (ed.), &lt;em&gt;Encyclopedia of Domestic Violence&lt;/em&gt;, Routledge, 2007&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-05T16:37:12.217" LastActivityDate="2017-11-05T16:37:12.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18410" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18406" CreationDate="2017-11-05T17:55:58.070" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think there is quite an established term for it; I found several:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;difficulty of envisioning long-term consequences&quot; will turn up occasionally in discussing behavior such as smoking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2014/07/3-reasons-you-underestimate-risk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;reward obscures risk&quot;&lt;/a&gt; is a bit more punchy, but it fails to capture temporal aspect: long-term risk vs short-term reward &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_preference&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;time preference&lt;/a&gt; aka temporal discounting is a well established economics notion that discounts more distant rewards (and risks) But it doesn't quite capture the contrast you want here&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;delay disconting&quot; means the same and there are at least 60 papers in pubmed, for this term, according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3213005/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;PIG -- problem of immediate gratification; this is the self-help/drug-abuse [re]formulation of the aforementioned economics principle&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;short-termism; almost exclusively used in business circles&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;akrasia [credit goes entirely to Arnon Weinberg for finding this one]; it seems this the philosophers' favorite term.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm sure there are more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After akrasia got mentioned in the other answer, I was pretty sure this gotta be the most used term in phych, because it has quite the pedigree. Alas, it didn't turn out to be so, the number of pubmed publications mentioning it is only a dozen for the base term and about half-dozen for the &quot;akratic&quot; adjective. So I think &quot;delay discounting&quot; is the most used in the psych &amp;amp; health sciences. There's even one paper that explicitly &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.sjdm.org/12/12309/jdm12309.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;says so&lt;/a&gt;, although the paper is written by a management guy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-06T06:16:52.800" LastActivityDate="2017-11-06T06:16:52.800" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18411" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18406" CreationDate="2017-11-05T18:18:49.677" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I agree with @Fizz that there is probably no specific name for the type of problem in question, but the behaviour involved is referred to as self-control, or more loosely, willpower.  Thus, the type of problem can be referred to as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-control#Counteractive&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-control dilemma&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-control dilemmas occur when long-term goals and values clash with&#xA;  short-term temptations. ... One of the most common self-control&#xA;  dilemmas involves the desire for unhealthy or unneeded food&#xA;  consumption versus the desire to maintain long-term health. ... Weak&#xA;  temptations present more of a challenge to overcome than strong&#xA;  temptations, because they appear less likely to compromise long-term&#xA;  values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and accordingly &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temptation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;temptation&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Temptation is a desire to engage in short-term urges for enjoyment,&#xA;  that threatens long-term goals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chronic failure to meet long-term goals / succumbing to temptations is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrasia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;akrasia&lt;/a&gt;, or &quot;weakness of will&quot;.  The opposite is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delayed_gratification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;delayed gratification&lt;/a&gt; - also see the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_marshmallow_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marshmallow experiment&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-11-06T20:44:31.777" LastActivityDate="2017-11-06T20:44:31.777" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18413" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18394" CreationDate="2017-11-05T23:45:43.093" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_medicine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Precision medicine&lt;/a&gt; (PM) is a medical model that proposes the&#xA;  customization of healthcare, with medical decisions, practices, or&#xA;  products being tailored to the individual patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Precision psychiatry is a sub-field of precision medicine - focusing specifically on individually tailored medical interventions for psychiatric disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The practice of precision psychiatry does not necessarily suggest a different diagnosis for psychiatric disorders such as PTSD or a different diagnostic criteria or process.  In fact, the diagnosis could very well remain the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather, precision medicine and psychiatry are concerned with customizing treatment.  To this end, medical testing would need to be more extensive and more accurate / &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://pubmedcentralcanada.ca/pmcc/articles/PMC5390384/#Sec5title&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;precise&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  It is this additional testing, useful for tailoring treatment and monitoring its progress, that is the focus of precision psychiatry:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The major challenge that precision psychiatry faces is that psychiatry&#xA;  does not yet use measurement to track the equivalent of vitals and&#xA;  images of the organs of interest, namely the brain and alterations in&#xA;  peripheral measures such as blood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A couple of good examples to consider are schizophrenia and depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Schizophrenia&lt;/strong&gt; was traditionally divided into several symptom-based &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia#Subtypes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sub-types&lt;/a&gt;.  This categorization was dropped recently, and early genetic research suggested &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25219520&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;quite different sub-types&lt;/a&gt; that might explain why the original sub-types did not work out.  However, sub-types based on genetic profile clusters may &lt;a href=&quot;http://genomesunzipped.org/2014/09/eight-types-of-schizophrenia-not-so-fast.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;also be untenable&lt;/a&gt;.  Current research has revealed over 100 genetic loci contributing to schizophrenic symptoms, and suggesting the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5441536/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;potential for custom treatments&lt;/a&gt;, as many medications have different targets.  Here we have a single diagnosis of schizophrenia done in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis_of_schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;traditional way&lt;/a&gt;, where additional genetic testing may guide individual treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Depression&lt;/strong&gt; - the core clinical symptom of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;major depressive disorder&lt;/a&gt; - has &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_of_depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;several potential treatment regimens&lt;/a&gt;, including a variety of medications, psychotherapies, brain stimulation, and alternative therapies such as light exposure and meditation, each of which appear moderately effective across the patient population.  Recently however, some limited research has suggested that brain scans can help &lt;a href=&quot;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16050518&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;predict which therapy would be most effective&lt;/a&gt; for each individual.  Here again, we have a standard diagnosis based on patient-reported symptoms, where the addition of brain scans may eventually guide individual treatment and monitoring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In precision oncology for example (another sub-field of precision medicine), the classification of biomarkers and their corresponding treatments has sometimes led to differential diagnoses, and sometimes not.  For example, breast cancer is known to have several different receptor biomarkers and corresponding treatments, but is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_cancer_classification#Receptor_status&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not necessarily classified as different types&lt;/a&gt; of breast cancer because the biomarkers don't cluster - they are specific to the patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-11-06T03:50:03.983" LastActivityDate="2017-11-06T03:50:03.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18414" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18394" CreationDate="2017-11-05T23:45:46.627" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the article you linked to, Precision Psychiatry (PP) is literally the application of Precision Medicine to psychiatry. Here &quot;precision&quot; is used to mean personalisation to each individual patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your question, you don't seem intereseted in how treatment would differ between regular Psychiatry and PP, so I won't address it. As for how diagnosis differs, it seems to mostly just imply using way more data:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Arguably, the most logical way of obtaining hypothesis-free and&#xA;  data-driven approaches in the neurobiology of psychiatric disorders is&#xA;  making use of ‘omics’ techniques. Genomics, epigenomics,&#xA;  transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, metagenomics and lipidomics&#xA;  are capable of independently providing valuable information about the&#xA;  neurobiology of these psychiatric conditions. Further, when combined&#xA;  with a multi-omics approach, in what is called panomics, and analysed&#xA;  using system biology computations, they might unveil the underlying&#xA;  biological pathways involved in psychiatric disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concidering the example of PTSD, one can imagine a patient entering a PP practicioner's office complaining of PTSD symptoms. Given these tests, the practitioner would be able to diagnose them with either PTSD type-A or PTSD type-B  or maybe actually Depression type-C depending on what mechanistic deviations are seen. The authors describe this change as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It can be conceptualised as a highly sophisticated and intricate classification system, where infinitesimal categories will, ideally, attain perfection in a detailed multidimensional classification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This differs from the typical diagnosis of PTSD, which doesn't really have a biological component, aside from anecdotal lifestyle questions about quality of sleep, exercise and diet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To respond to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do I have to decide and make a checklist of parameters of the subject by which I can decide if that person has that disease, and how will someone go on about diagnosing the disorder after that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not really a person making an individual checklist from thin air, but more about a collection of different cases being used to highlight individual differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One example of PP would be the clustering of Depression symptoms to choose the best anti-depressant medication, as described in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2604309&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reevaluating the Efficacy and Predictability of Antidepressant Treatments: A Symptom Clustering Approach&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Chekroud et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-11-05T23:45:46.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18415" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18394" CreationDate="2017-11-06T08:33:44.703" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I can't understand how to apply precision psychiatry in order to diagnose or predict a mental disorder, for eg. PTSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No one can, because precision psychiatry is pie in the sky right now. From the paper mentioned:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Considering that no single biomarker will probably define any psychiatric disorder as defined by traditional diagnostic boundaries, it will be essential to pursue in parallel theory- and data-driven discovery approaches to delineate the multivariate and combinatorial profiles of biomarkers (across units of analysis) that account for the heterogeneity of mental illnesses as they manifest clinically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if we simply talk about individualized treatments, the older term &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819149/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;personalized psychiatry&lt;/a&gt; covers it just as well. There has been some &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_medicine#Relationship_to_personalized_medicine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;terminological debate in the NRC&lt;/a&gt;, hence the old new thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-06T08:42:01.103" LastActivityDate="2017-11-06T08:42:01.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18416" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-06T10:25:54.933" Score="0" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychological &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reactance&lt;/a&gt; is the effect of irrational choice for freedom - we choose to go for a greater loss just because we like to make the bad decision for ourselves. What is the advantage behind that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2017-11-08T14:37:47.620" LastActivityDate="2017-11-08T14:37:47.620" Title="Why do we long for freedom?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18417" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18416" CreationDate="2017-11-06T10:47:43.823" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Too lazy to paraphrase right now, so quoting from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.froes.dds.nl/React.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a newsletter&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Brehm [the guy how introduced the notion Psychological Reactance--my note] has made but one remark about why people seem to behave as his theory describes. He wrote that the reactance-emotion may have “survival-value” (Brehm 1966, p. 1-2). This explanation seems quite plausible. People and other organisms who are frequently in situations in which they can choose between different behavior alternatives are likely to have evolved a capacity for choosing what is most often best for their fitness. Moreover, creating, defending and restoring situations in which the individual is free to make a choice may in itself enhance fitness. Therefore, natural selection probably favored individuals who not only perceive when their freedom is threatened, but also act so as to defend that freedom. Brehm has described the psychological mechanism by which people (and probably many other species) are motivated to defend their freedom. That is, the attractiveness of behaviors varies with the freedom an individual perceives to possess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As with most evolutionary hypotheses of behavior, it's probably hard to test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried to find papers on animal models of reactance, but (unlike say for learned helplessness) there don't seem to be any. A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4675534/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent review&lt;/a&gt; doesn't mention any such models either. It does however say some things that contradict your assumption that's just a negative outcome:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;reactance can produce both undesirable and desirable outcomes. It has been found, for example, that the experience of reactance can elicit heightened achievement motivation (Steindl &amp;amp; Jonas, 2014). Recent studies have also shown that the experience of reactance can be associated not just with negative feelings, such as anger, but also with activating positive affect, such as feeling strong and determined (Steindl, Jonas, et al., 2015). We invite future research to investigate the desirable motivational side of reactance in order to make use of its energizing probabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-06T11:16:39.203" LastActivityDate="2017-11-06T11:16:39.203" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18418" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18408" CreationDate="2017-11-06T13:33:52.810" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Continuous activation of the reward system leads to habituation and hence a downregulation of the pleasure feelings. Further, a continuous euphoric state is a potentially harmful state, as behaviors essential to life are undermined. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I'm having some difficulty what you mean with &lt;em&gt;a brain fooling itself&lt;/em&gt;. A brain cannot fool itself. More importantly for the question, however, is that in case of the reward system it definitely doesn't want to 'fool itself'. Below I outline why from two different angles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The evolutionairy perspective&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In its very essence, the reward system is one of the most ancient parts of the brain and the use of dopamine neurons to mediate reward-driven behavior is also seen in worms and flies, which evolved around 1 billion years ago &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuroscience.mssm.edu/nestler/nidappg/brainrewardpathways.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Mount Sinai Medical School)&lt;/a&gt;. Indeed, it's evolutionary role is to stimulate behaviors essential to the &lt;strong&gt;survival of an individual&lt;/strong&gt; such as eating, but it is also essential for the survival of the &lt;strong&gt;continuity of an entire species&lt;/strong&gt; by stimulating the drive for sexual reproduction &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7770195&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Melis &amp;amp; Argiolas, 1995)&lt;/a&gt;. Reward should follow beneficial behaviors - continuous activation wouldn't aid anything other than a continuous euphoric state. An individual being euphoric wouldn't survive long as it wouldn't pursue anything any longer. That would quickly lead to a discontinuation of that trait as the individual would not be fit to reproduce (Darwin's survival of the fittest). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The physiological perspective&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Continuous activation of the dopamine pathways quickly results in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugs.com/dict/habituation.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;habituation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (increasing resistance to the drug's effects) and, in the case of illicit drugs, to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/frequently-asked-questions/there-difference-between-physical-dependence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;dependence&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (craving/compulsory drug seeking), together referred to as &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/frequently-asked-questions/there-difference-between-physical-dependence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;addiction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences&lt;/em&gt;). The downregulation of the receptors for dopamine (mainly D2) is a physiological reason reward sensations should be transient and uncommon, otherwise the reward system is being tuned down.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7770195&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Melis &amp;amp; Argiolas, &lt;em&gt;Neurosci Biobehav Rev&lt;/em&gt; (1995); &lt;strong&gt;19&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 19-38&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-06T21:41:18.677" LastActivityDate="2017-11-06T21:41:18.677" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18419" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-11-06T15:13:00.080" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-11-06T15:13:00.080" LastActivityDate="2017-11-06T15:13:00.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18420" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-11-06T15:13:00.080" Score="0" Body="This is a special tag that is designed to be used only by the system for questions that have had all of their other tags removed. Do not add this tag to existing questions, it is reserved for use by the system to identify posts with no valid tags." OwnerUserId="14337" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2017-11-07T09:14:05.110" LastActivityDate="2017-11-07T09:14:05.110" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18421" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-06T15:50:14.310" Score="4" ViewCount="144" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basically, we're making a short film on mental disorders (we changed our topic since the last question I asked) and one major detail in our film is that the main character has PTSD and Schizophrenia and the main character also has had the memories of her traumatic experience suppressed by beta blockers (or any other memory-blocking drug). I'd like to know if it's possible to block and almost forget a traumatic experience with the assistance of a drug (also note that this drug was taken several years after the incident).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17341" LastActivityDate="2018-07-30T08:08:44.513" Title="If traumatic experiences that trigger PTSD can be blocked by a memory blocker" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18424" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-06T20:35:58.793" Score="0" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are problems in contemporary science, that some researches are influenced by researchers opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(One problem is, that Even in the physics, there is very known problem, that prejudice affects the result of an experiment!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another problem: it was discussed e.g. in conjunction with economic science, which is in the USA/World scale under reign of only one body of economic opinion and leaving other economic streams being suppressed. It is believed, that this was one of the cause of the world financial crises of 2008.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still another problem is big pressure to meet political correctness...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About homosexuality, absolute majority of opinions are polarized..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So please, do you know any researche(s) of homosexuality, what are well balanced or realy independent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Especially, I would like to learn, what types of homosexuality are there (is some type of homosexuality changeable? some type, what is possible to &quot;heal&quot;? how about combination with heterosexuality? exists some known causes for homosexuality? gene? how about those, who claim, that were &quot;healed from homosexuality?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there are more types of homosexuality, what is their prevalence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17455" LastActivityDate="2017-11-07T09:43:12.267" Title="Homosexuality independent researches" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2017-11-07T15:04:57.300" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18427" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18424" CreationDate="2017-11-07T09:43:12.267" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all even between quotes you shouldn't use heal about homosexuality.&#xA;Then you should first try to learn about sexuality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;what types of homosexuality are there&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Homosexuality is a thing, one thing. There is now a loooooot of sexualities, you acknowlodge them or not it's up to you, but there is not such a thing as &quot;types of homosexuality&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;how about combination with heterosexuality?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are you asking about bisexuality ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;exists some known causes for homosexuality?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Homosexuality is &quot;accepted&quot; as something you're born with. Further than this I don't know any research proving there is a gene or a cause for it to happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;how about those, who claim, that were &quot;healed from homosexuality?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess you should see it as someone who doesn't like some type of food, but buy forcing himself eating some he actully gets over it.&#xA;This being said your sexuality is something quite stronger than your food taste, and going against it often comes with depression and other issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;is some type of homosexuality changeable?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I said, going against your nature isn't something you should do because it never goes well for you. It always comes with depression, etc...&#xA;From your enormous lack of knowledge I guess you're straight, then imagine from now on trying to force yourself to be homosexual ? How hard do you think it would be ? Ho do you think you could deal with it ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14965" LastActivityDate="2017-11-07T09:43:12.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18428" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18405" CreationDate="2017-11-08T10:52:12.553" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are describing is called &lt;strong&gt;mental set&lt;/strong&gt;. The following extract is from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywell.com/what-is-a-mental-set-2795370&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this excelent article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;mental set&lt;/strong&gt; is a tendency to only see solutions that have worked in&#xA;  the past. This type of fixed thinking can make it difficult to come up&#xA;  with solutions and can impede the problem-solving process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, imagine that you are trying to solve a math problem in&#xA;  your algebra class. The problem seems similar to ones you have worked&#xA;  on previously, so you approach solving it in the same way. Because of&#xA;  your mental set, you are unable to see a simpler solution that might&#xA;  be possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additional reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=ezZWTurJuH0C&amp;amp;pg=PA341&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Galotti, Kathleen M. (5 February 2009). Cognitive Psychology: In and Out of the Laboratory. Cengage Learning. pp. 341–344. ISBN 978-0-17-644065-7. Retrieved 25 March 2011.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2017-11-08T10:57:37.267" LastActivityDate="2017-11-08T10:57:37.267" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18429" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-08T18:52:59.567" Score="1" ViewCount="210" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whenever I research cannabis induced psychosis, I mostly get two types of results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Cannabis causes psychosis directly and a bunch of other issues (mostly misleading propaganda)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) There is no evidence that cannabis actually causes psychosis directly, rather it seems to be a correlation issue. (also misleading propaganda)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, my two best friends experienced permanent psychosis immediately after a heavy cannabis use episode (on separate occasions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am convinced that cannabis is perfectly capable of causing or &quot;unlocking&quot; psychosis. I don't think that there is any question to this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But how does it actually work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one of the cases, my friend had some very strong cannabis to smoke, after which he started to hear voices, and this never ended, even months after stopping smoking. Only after anti psychotic medication (Seroquel) did the symptoms stop, and they seem to be permanent, stopping the medication causes the symptoms to come back.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I understand, Seroquel suppresses dopamine, while cannabis has nothing to do with dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how does cannabis induce a dopamine related disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17467" LastActivityDate="2017-11-09T10:53:46.610" Title="How does Cannabis cause psychosis?" Tags="&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18431" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18429" CreationDate="2017-11-08T21:17:04.793" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research into the &quot;how&quot; is ongoing. From the most &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26970363&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent review&lt;/a&gt; I could find, the effect of cannabis on the dopamine system is not entirely elucidated, even on a quantitative level:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The onset of effects of THC appears to be delayed relative to the onset&#xA;  of other psychotomimetic drugs, suggesting that the effects of THC may be downstream to its&#xA;  primary site of action. Given that the endocannabinoid system is principally a neuromodulatory&#xA;  system, perhaps the psychosis-relevant effects of THC are related to the consequences of CB1R&#xA;  activation on other neurotransmitter systems implicated in the neurobiology of psychosis.&#xA;  Cannabinoid Dopaminergic Interactions: Single doses of dopamine (D2) receptor antagonists&#xA;  (olanzapine and haloperidol) have been shown to reverse the acute psychotomimetic effects of&#xA;  THC in healthy subjects in two HLS (5, 6) although not in the third (7). Furthermore, chronic D2&#xA;  antagonist treatment failed to protect schizophrenia patients from the symptom exacerbating&#xA;  effects of THC (32).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Preclinical studies demonstrate that THC administration increases striatal dopamine&#xA;  release by 25-100%, but the human data are mixed with two studies reporting no significant&#xA;  increase (91, 92) and one study reporting a 3.9% increase in striatal dopamine release (93).&#xA;  These studies had small sample sizes and differed in the THC doses, routes of administration&#xA;  and imaging methodology. A re-analysis combining data from two studies (91, 93) reported a&#xA;  significant but small increase in THC-induced dopamine release (94). Of note, in contrast to&#xA;  amphetamine and cocaine, which induce large increases in striatal DA release (10-30%) in&#xA;  humans, THC at doses that produce robust behavioral effects induces small (2-5%) increases in&#xA;  dopamine release. More recently, Kuepper et al, 2013 reported that individuals with psychosis as&#xA;  well as those with a family history of psychosis demonstrated THC-induced striatal dopamine&#xA;  release, but this was not observed in the controls suggesting that dopamine may be involved&#xA;  particularly in the effects of THC in those with an increased risk for psychosis (95).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The review also covers several genes that have been implicated in both schizophrenia and vulnerability to THC-induced psychosis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the striatum, clearance of synaptic dopamine is highly dependent on the dopamine&#xA;  transporter (DAT). A polymorphism of the DAT1 gene is associated with lower enzymatic activity&#xA;  and thus, higher dopamine levels in the striatum, and has previously been associated with&#xA;  schizophrenia (81). Bhattacharyya et al. reported that individuals with the 9-repeat allele showed&#xA;  increased sensitivity to acute THC-induced psychotic symptoms (82).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The enzyme AKT1 inactivates glycogen synthase kinase by phosphorylation and their&#xA;  interaction has been implicated in schizophrenia (83, 84). Cannabinoids stimulate the AKT1&#xA;  pathway via CB1Rs and CB2Rs. Bhattacharyya et al found that a polymorphism of the AKT1&#xA;  gene (the GG genotype of the SNP rs1130233) moderated sensitivity to the acute psychosisinducing&#xA;  effect of THC (82). Furthermore, a synergistic influence of DAT1 and AKT1 genotypes&#xA;  on THC-induced psychotomimetic effects was also reported. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the DAT/AKT1 data on healthy individual using cannabis with is based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/mp/journal/v17/n12/full/mp2011187a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;exactly one study&lt;/a&gt;, so I reproduce their graphical finding below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/M6O4X.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/M6O4X.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas they only reported total &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_and_Negative_Syndrome_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PANSS&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the review, there's more discussion of COMT, which has seen more attention, but suffice to say the results on that have been mixed. It remains to be seen in  the DAT1/AKT1 study can be replicated. It does seem that AKT1 alone has an impact, based on more studies that found the same polymorphism of AKT1 impacts &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/228319800&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;first-episode psychosis in cannabis users&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/tp/journal/v6/n2/full/tp2015219a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychotomimetic effects in healty cannabis smokers&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find it interesting that yet another study on first-episode psychosis has implicated AKT1 polymorphism, however, this time with an interaction that enhanced its effect... except that the other gene involved was not DAT1 (as in the case of psychotomimetic effects on healthy individuals) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4849451/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;but rather with DRD2&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps 10 years from now, this question will have a less tentative answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To further complicate the issue, cannabis has more than one active substance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;CBD is the second most prominent&#xA;  cannabinoid in cannabis. Unlike THC, CBD displays CB1R antagonism/inverse agonism&#xA;  amongst several other modulatory effects on the endocannabinoid system. The potential&#xA;  antipsychotic effects of CBD have drawn increasing attention (20) and some HLS have&#xA;  examined the interactive effects of THC and CBD. Pretreatment with CBD is associated with&#xA;  lower THC-induced psychotomimetic effects, paranoia and verbal memory impairments (12, 21).&#xA;  Furthermore, while THC resulted in increased psychotic symptoms and skin conductance&#xA;  responses during processing of fearful faces; CBD, led to a reduction in anxiety and a decrease&#xA;  in skin conductance response (22). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more, there's a slightly older review that's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4033190/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;freely available in PMC&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5123717/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yet another review&lt;/a&gt; that focuses only on THC's effect on dopamine mentions some of the challenges in observing dopamine changes in humans following THC administration: insufficient PET camera resolution and doses that are substantially less than those used in animal models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-09T10:53:46.610" LastActivityDate="2017-11-09T10:53:46.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18437" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-10T07:36:13.460" Score="1" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I type mostly I omit word / words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;e.g.&lt;br/&gt;&#xA;I wanted to if it is correct -&gt; I wanted to know if it is correct. &lt;br/&gt;&#xA;It should background task -&gt; It should be done in background task.&lt;br/&gt;&#xA;etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of this I read word by word everything I have typed. Sometimes I even omit words like &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;don't&lt;/em&gt; etc.&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Very rare I have the same issue with reading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&#xA;It happens no matter in what language I am typing. (native, foreign)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kind of health issue I am having?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17481" LastEditorUserId="17481" LastEditDate="2017-11-10T10:59:29.870" LastActivityDate="2017-11-10T19:50:39.693" Title="I am omitting some words when typing unintentionally" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2017-11-10T19:50:47.253" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18438" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-10T09:38:16.103" Score="1" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a colleague that says they are totally different, that spatial memory is a memory and not a skill while mental mapping is a skill because it can be measured with test and tools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on what I read, doesn't spatial memory encompasses mental mapping?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17483" LastActivityDate="2017-11-10T17:57:18.047" Title="Are spatial memory and mental mapping skills the same?" Tags="&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18440" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-10T10:56:30.260" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I realize this question may sound very game-design oriented but it's not. It just hit me while playing a game, got me wondering and is very theoretical and purely for my own research, plus a game design SE will not be able to give me in-depth understanding of how the users possibly think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have a game that uses Gold to say build a building. You can earn the gold trough in-game actions. There's secondary resource - Diamonds, those you can buy with real money 1 diamond = 1 real life dollar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets say that building costs 1000 gold to build. You have only 500 gold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of the mobile games I've seen give you the option to substitute X-amount diamonds, say 1 diamond for every 10 gold missing. So you can trade 50 diamonds for the missing 500 gold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The next building will cost 2000 gold but now you have zero gold and can again translate 200 diamonds for gold. &#xA;Next time it will cost 10 000 requiring 1000 diamonds, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each time the diamonds are less valuable but their in-app purchase price remains the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now to the actual question:&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;If instead of 10-to-1 substitute, a system where 1 diamond represents a percentage missing, say 10% of the purchase no matter how much that is, wouldn't that give the user false sense of him getting a good deal and using more diamonds as they will not lose value over time?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the first time around you're missing 50% of the required gold, in the new system you'd only spend 5 diamonds. For the second and third building you'd spend total of 20 diamonds. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of the three purchases potentially costing you 1550 dollars and/or your users loosing interest, it would potentially costing them 25$ a price more users are much more likely to pay AND the added benefit of keeping them hooked into the game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope I'm on-topic enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17485" LastActivityDate="2017-11-10T10:56:30.260" Title="Perception of buy-able items in mobile games and tricking users into in-app purchases" Tags="&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-11-14T09:55:52.253" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18441" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18438" CreationDate="2017-11-10T17:57:18.047" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The two key parts of memory are coding and recall, we code information to our spatial memory, and the recall is the mental map and, therefore, part of memory. I'd be curious to see what your colleague's logic is behind their definition for skill, but from what is provided, I'd argue that the distinction of spatial memory being memory because we can't test it, while the mental map is a skill because we can to be in error. The Weschler Memory Scale (WNS) is designed specifically to evaluate memory (and is often a vital part of a neuropsych assessment) and, by your colleague's logic, the tests within the WMS don't test memory at all, but the way we manifest our results (such as how to use a pencil), and, of course, memory could arguably be considered a skill anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17487" LastActivityDate="2017-11-10T17:57:18.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18442" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-10T18:36:28.830" Score="16" ViewCount="32101" Body="&lt;p&gt;[Reraising &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/18437/21&quot;&gt;a recently asked question that was closed here&lt;/a&gt;, but in more cogsci fashion, I hope.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people are more inclined than others to omit a word when typing, but still be unaware of its unintended absence on a (first) proofreading. In human-computer interaction (HCI) this is called a &quot;misperception error&quot;. (according to Jan Noyes, &lt;em&gt;Designing for Humans&lt;/em&gt;, p. 147, Psychology Press 2002... but that's about all the book says on the topic).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what else is known?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;First of all, is it also called something else, perhaps more specific, because &quot;misperception error&quot; is very general, so it's hard to turn up any research on this particular error using these terms in pubmed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the prevalence among general population? It can't be something that hard to study, say among students, the low-hanging fruit of psychology and HCI studies, so I suspect some study on prevalence exists.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are some abnormal psychology correlates? I would venture a guess dyslexia and ADHD, but how much more common is it in such sub-populations than in neurotypicals?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would gladly break this into separate questions if deemed necessary, but I suspect all of the above can probably be answered from one or two papers specifically on this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25280122&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper&lt;/a&gt; on a similar auditory phenomenon, which has some generally applicable ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the application of signal detection theory (SDT) allows&#xA;  perceptual performance to be understood in terms of both sensitivity (the ability of a system to distinguish signal from noise) and response bias (the system’s bias, independent of sensitivity, for responding either positively or negatively)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So obviously there is a stronger response bias in proofreading your own typing than another's... which probably means that general statistics for &quot;filling in&quot; missing words in a sentence need to upward adjusted for proofreading your own typing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even more interesting, and perhaps a little worrisome for those exhibiting this, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This theory is supported by behavioural evidence showing that the&#xA;  influence expectation exerts over auditory perception is stronger in those who&#xA;  hallucinate [...] This theory&#xA;  is also supported by evidence that the prediction error signal, which communicates the&#xA;  discrepancy between expectation and actual sensation [...] is reduced in those who suffer from&#xA;  schizophrenia [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It remains to be seen if misperception of non-existent words due to semantic expectation correlates to some kind of predisposition for visual or other kind of hallucination. It seems a bit more far fetched.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps it's also worth noting here that simply &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03197655.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;proofreading familiar text&lt;/a&gt;, which the subject has read before in the correct version, but which is then modified by the injection of spelling errors, actually improves the detection rate of spelling errors. So not all kinds of familiarity with the text predispose to proofreading errors, at least not to proofreading spelling errors (missing or extra words were not tested in that study).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-10T22:56:44.157" LastActivityDate="2020-05-27T15:23:02.530" Title="Omitting word(s) when typing" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;typing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18443" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-10T19:16:27.110" Score="1" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have anecdotal evidence from multiple massage therapists claiming that they have triggered some form of mental / emotional response in a patient, due to physical stimulation (one case citing a sudden outburst of crying).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand there may be at least two reasons for this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Actual memory stored in cells (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Body Memory&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Something more like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;: In this case physical stimulation linking memories in the brain that are otherwise repressed or inaccessible.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems there is just about 0 credible evidence to support the first cause, but I am curious what scientific approaches have managed to explain it away in regards to the second. So more specifically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What evidence and/or theories do we have in place that surround the claim that tactile stimulation can trigger memory, notably that of the inaccessible or repressed kind?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. I especially wanted to ask this due to a highly voted skeptics post questioning the effectiveness of &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/402/is-acupuncture-an-effective-treatment&quot;&gt;acupuncture&lt;/a&gt;. (Thanks to Legend of Korra for the theory).  If acupuncture is a proven method to invoke lost memories, perhaps it is more useful than a &quot;particularly effective placebo&quot; as is currently claimed in the highest voted answer there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17488" LastEditorUserId="17488" LastEditDate="2017-11-13T15:37:23.573" LastActivityDate="2017-11-13T15:37:23.573" Title="Why does tactile stimulation such as massage sometimes trigger repressed memories or emotions?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18446" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-11T16:20:46.833" Score="5" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;I intend to provide a group task for 30 people, split into 5 or 6 groups. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately, I want them to assess which group delivered the best result (after presenting results in front of other groups) as well as grade themselves within groups based on their contribution to the team effort. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, both game theory and my simple experience of observing people being unobjective&#xA;would suggest there are plenty of ways this can go wrong if I don’t introduce some robust system that would deal, at least, with problems like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;group likely to be second will give lowest grade to group they see as objectively the best so that they boost their chances of winning &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;group likely to be the last will give lowest grades to second to last group so that they boost their chances to replace them and not finish last&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;group members will tell me each person contributed to the same extent, but it will be untrue  in most scenarios. Especially the best group has no reason to lower the grade of their colleague no matter how marginal his contribution had been. On the other hand, system where they score each other with percentage contribution is also wrong as sometimes indeed all group members collaborated on the same, high level and there is no need to point best or worst performing members and lower their grades, thus even if they all worked hard they would get the same, median mark for their performance. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does such a voting/grading system exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17492" LastEditorUserId="17492" LastEditDate="2017-11-11T20:49:59.810" LastActivityDate="2021-03-30T14:08:00.747" Title="What is the most robust method for peer grading?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18447" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-11-11T22:50:05.237" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-11-11T22:50:05.237" LastActivityDate="2017-11-11T22:50:05.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18448" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-11-11T22:50:05.237" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2017-11-11T22:50:05.237" LastActivityDate="2017-11-11T22:50:05.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18452" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-12T18:02:18.390" Score="4" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;In machine learning, Region of Interest (ROI) proposal is a method for subsampling an image to identify &quot;interesting&quot; subregions. A canonical example is from Region Convolutional Neural Networks, where the task is to identify objects in a scene:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/X3N8a.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/X3N8a.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point of the above ROI proposal is that it makes subsequent multiple object detection more efficient since the entire image no longer needs to be processed and because most objects will fall within the detected subregions. To be clear, ROI proposal is usually done using lower-level methods like looking at color gradations and estimating region boundaries. Nowedays, ROI proposal is done with convolutional layers, but even these use fairly low-level kernels to quickly propose regions. I'm specifically interested in the convolutional approaches, as they seem most relevant to the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if there is any evidence of such ROI proposal in animal vision? Specifically what is our current state-of-the-art understanding of how the brain identifies multiple objects in a complex scene? Do we have reason to believe that it's not just a left-right and top-down scan of the image, but something more efficient where lower-level neurons propose subregions to explore?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's been difficult to search for this topic online because it mainly links to ROI proposal for brain scans. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9052" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-11-13T22:53:06.337" LastActivityDate="2017-11-13T22:53:06.337" Title="Region of Interest Proposal in Vision" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18453" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18456" CreationDate="2017-11-12T18:23:55.843" Score="3" ViewCount="340" Body="&lt;p&gt;While studying Piaget's stages of cognitive development in Educational Psychology, the textbook talks about Piaget using the idea of &quot;schemas&quot; which are mental representations or ideas about what things are and how we deal with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also stumbled upon the theory of social constructionism.  While learning psychology, should I look at these as a correlation or two separate entities?  Also in the field of psychology, does one theory have precedence over another?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17502" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T07:50:45.187" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T07:50:45.187" Title="Is there a correlation between schemas and social constructs?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18454" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-11-12T20:10:18.717" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychological coping mechanisms are ('coping strategies' or 'coping skills') generally refer to adaptive strategies to reduce stress. Coping is generally reactive, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the coping response follows a certain stressor. This differs from proactive coping, in which a coping response aims to neutralize a future stressor. Subconscious or non-conscious strategies (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; defense mechanisms) are generally excluded from the area of coping. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coping_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikiepdia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-12T20:10:18.717" LastActivityDate="2017-11-12T20:10:18.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18455" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-11-12T20:10:18.717" Score="0" Body="In psychology, coping means to invest own conscious effort, to solve personal and interpersonal problems, in order to try to master, minimize or tolerate stress and conflict" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-12T20:10:18.717" LastActivityDate="2017-11-12T20:10:18.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18456" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18453" CreationDate="2017-11-13T10:23:33.020" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes the two theories are related, but the theories come from two different fields, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cogintive science&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sociology&lt;/a&gt;. First the definitions :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology and cognitive science, a &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;schema&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (plural schemata or&#xA;  schemas) describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes&#xA;  categories of information and the relationships among them&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructionism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Social constructionism&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; or the social construction of reality&#xA;  (also social concept) is a theory of knowledge in sociology and&#xA;  communication theory that examines the development of jointly&#xA;  constructed understandings of the world that form the basis for shared&#xA;  assumptions about reality&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The social construct is the jointly constructed understanding of many individuals. The understanding of &lt;strong&gt;one&lt;/strong&gt; individual is stored as a schema.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-11-13T10:23:33.020" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18457" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-13T10:42:13.943" Score="4" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;[I changed &quot;sensations&quot; to &quot;perceptions&quot;, due to @AliceD's comments &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/16398/4736&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.]&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose a patient with an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_limb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;amputated limb&lt;/a&gt; experiences and reports some phantom perception at the limb:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the limb just being there&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;numbness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a gentle touch &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;heat&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;pain&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now suppose the corresponding non-amputed limb is exposed to an appropriate stimulus that evokes the same perception. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do patients usually experience and report that the two perceptions are&#xA;  essentially the same, or do they experience and report significant&#xA;  differences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter could (but would not necessarily) mean that the activity of the receptor cells and/or neurons beyond the liaison (i.e. the more peripheral cells) contributes to the experience (qualia) of a perception, not only the central neurons in appropriate subcortical regions (e.g. the  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periaqueductal_gray&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;periaqueductal gray&lt;/a&gt; in the case of pain) and the somatosensory cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Possible reasons for differences in experience:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The activity patterns of the central system (somatosensory cortex etc.) are significantly different (because they are &quot;produced&quot; differently).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The acitivity patterns of the central system are essentially the same, but the activity of the peripheral systems (one not existing anymore) are different, and contribute to the experience.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-11-15T19:05:49.033" LastActivityDate="2017-11-15T19:05:49.033" Title="How do patients with an amputated limb experience and report their phantom perceptions?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;qualia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18458" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18453" CreationDate="2017-11-13T21:28:49.157" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both are from the same field of psychology, To be looked at separately not correlation, I do not believe that one theorie has precedent over the other theorie, they both have value in their own ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17507" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-11-14T20:40:26.243" LastActivityDate="2017-11-14T20:40:26.243" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18459" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-13T22:25:54.953" Score="4" ViewCount="229" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are planning to use the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smivision.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/smi_prod_ETG_120Hz_asgm.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SMI glasses eye tracker&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. This eye tracker obtains gaze data and we will use it for pupillometry as a measure of cognitive load. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only thing I'd like to accomplish is &lt;strong&gt;streaming the eyetracker data in real-time to a running psychophysics MATLAB script&lt;/strong&gt; to sync the eyetracker data with a listening task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, SMI's REDn system (the tabletop variant) comes with a MATLAB toolbox, but SMI's glasses don't. The glasses are a mobile application that allows the subject to wear the eye tracker as glasses. Hence, the subject can move around and doesn't have to fixate at a certain point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I was wondering if there is anyone out here that has used SMI's eye tracking glasses with a MATLAB plugin? I'd prefer a low-budget solution, preferably a freeware MATLAB tool. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am aware of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.neurobs.com/pres_docs/html/03_presentation/06_hardware_interfacing/02_lab_streaming_layer.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lab Streaming Layer&lt;/a&gt; (LSL), but I can't get that to work, because of a version issue. Basically, LSL is written for a previous software development kit (SDK) for the eyetracker driver software (iView) and the current SDK is incompatible. SMI doesn't support previous SDK versions and hence that's a dead end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am also aware of various commercial plugins, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://imotions.com/portfolio-items/smi-eye-tracking-glasses/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;iMotions&lt;/a&gt;, but those are heavy, expensive toolkits for purposes far exceeding the simple streaming of data from the eyetracker to a running MATLAB script.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-14T09:54:07.707" LastActivityDate="2017-11-14T16:52:48.013" Title="How do I stream SMI glasses eye tracker data into MATLAB?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;cognitive-load&gt;&lt;matlab&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18461" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18459" CreationDate="2017-11-14T06:41:08.230" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Philip from iMotions here. Appreciate the mention, and yes for a simple streaming of data, our solutions are probably overkill. We do however offer real automatic gaze mapping in the cloud as well as auto segmentation which saves &lt;strong&gt;a ton&lt;/strong&gt; of time&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also offer LSL in our &lt;a href=&quot;https://imotions.com/70-release/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;latest version&lt;/a&gt; but yes SMI doesn't support the previous SDK.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll listen in and hope someone can help you with your inquiry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17512" LastActivityDate="2017-11-14T06:41:08.230" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18462" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-11-14T09:03:38.567" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Cognitive load theory differentiates cognitive load into three types: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane. Intrinsic cognitive load is the effort associated with a specific topic. Extraneous cognitive load refers to the way information or tasks are presented to a learner. Germane cognitive load refers to the work put into creating a permanent store of knowledge. Cognitive load can be measured through perceived mental effort. Task-invoked pupillary responses are reliable objective measurement of cognitive load that has been directly linked to working memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page on cognitive load&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-14T09:15:34.007" LastActivityDate="2017-11-14T09:15:34.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18463" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-11-14T09:03:38.567" Score="0" Body="Cognitive load refers to the total amount of mental effort being used in the working memory." OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-14T09:03:38.567" LastActivityDate="2017-11-14T09:03:38.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18464" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-11-14T09:13:54.490" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;MATLAB is widely used as a platform to design experiments and analyze data for the cognitive sciences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This tag can be used for questions on MATLAB, but posts need to have their basis in the Cognitive Sciences. For example, if you have a question on the &lt;strong&gt;Psychophysics Toolbox&lt;/strong&gt; this site will most likely warmly welcome your questions. However, general MATLAB programming questions, baring no relation to the Cognitive Sciences, or are only slightly related should be asked elsewhere on the Stack Exchange network, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/&quot;&gt;StackOverflow.SE&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;https://superuser.com/&quot;&gt;SuperUser.SE&lt;/a&gt;. For more tips on where to post your MATLAB questions when unrelated to Cognitive Sciences see this &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/269056/where-is-the-ideal-place-to-ask-a-matlab-question&quot;&gt;meta post&lt;/a&gt;).    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MATLAB&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page on MATLAB&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-14T15:39:34.077" LastActivityDate="2017-11-14T15:39:34.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18465" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-11-14T09:13:54.490" Score="0" Body="MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a numerical computing environment developed by MathWorks. It supports matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages." OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-14T09:13:54.490" LastActivityDate="2017-11-14T09:13:54.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18466" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-14T14:18:25.390" Score="2" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; I am using fMRI individual level analysis data from my supervisor's previous paper. Before I can perform PPI on the data, I need to update the 1st level analysis batch files since they currently refer to non-existent directories and cannot be run correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Problem:&lt;/strong&gt; I updated the 1st level analysis and estimated the model successfully, but now the contrasts previously used in the study are gone and I need to set them up again for the new SPM.mat file. I have a .txt file with all the contrast names and weights, but when I try to set it up for the new SPM.mat using the batch contrast manager, I get an error claiming my contrasts vector is too long. See below:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5Mnkf.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5Mnkf.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Troubleshooting so far:&lt;/strong&gt; I checked and I can easily apply my contrast vectors to old SPM.mat, but not to the new SPM.mat. This suggests that I must have messed something up when performing the 1st level analysis. However, I kept everything (including conditions) exactly the same and only changed the filepaths. I do not know how it is possible that I ended up with a different number of parameters than in the old analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question: How do I correct my 1st level analysis to obtain the correct number of parameters for the contrast vector that I have?&lt;/strong&gt; I seem to only have 48 parameters, but my contrast vector assumes I have 156.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks SO MUCH to anybody who spends their time reading the question and trying to help. I am still very much learning SPM and keep getting stuck all the time; getting some help with this problem would be amazing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17516" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-14T14:20:32.453" LastActivityDate="2017-11-14T14:20:32.453" Title="SPM5 - contrast vectors too long when applied to a new SPM.mat file" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;spm&gt;&lt;matlab&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18468" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18472" CreationDate="2017-11-14T17:03:48.203" Score="4" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm studying a neuron in an organism that has the following properties:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The neuron's output voltage is dependent on the strength of the stimulus, if that stimulus is applied and removed without any further stimuli.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If there is another stimulus that follows the first, then the magnitude of the voltage is reduced by a factor dependent on the time between the two stimuli, even if the strength of the two stimuli is the same.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know approximately the function that governs this reduction in magnitude as a function of time between stimuli.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the Hodgkin-Huxley model sufficient to model the behaviour of this neuron?  Is there another model that is more appropriate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17518" LastActivityDate="2017-11-15T12:34:10.993" Title="Can the Hodgkin-Huxley neuron incorporate desensitization?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18470" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-14T23:01:43.077" Score="1" ViewCount="8417" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is intended to be a psychology question about human decision making and behavior as concerns advertising. As this is only my second ever question on Cognitive Sciences SE, please advise as to any reasonable improvements to the question, and now for the fun part!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few years ago, Mars the candy company decided they weren't selling enough Twix candy bars, and launched an &lt;a href=&quot;https://prnewswire2-a.akamaihd.net/p/1893751/sp/189375100/thumbnail/entry_id/1_44jsbvoe/def_height/1005/def_width/1920/version/100011/type/2/q/100&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ad campaign&lt;/a&gt; centered on the idea of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w0QpPNcT-J4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;left and right sides of the candy bar&lt;/a&gt; being a &lt;a href=&quot;https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/G/01/aplusautomation/vendorimages/1f59431a-2489-4268-97d6-a01c5ad8d9c3.jpg._CB270886092__SR970,300_.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;point of controversy&lt;/a&gt;, based on the idea that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.drugstorenews.com/sites/drugstorenews.com/files/field_main_image/2016-03/b.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one is better than the other&lt;/a&gt;. Now, three years later, they are even selling &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cspdailynews.com/sites/default/files/main/articles/Twix-ad-1920.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;packages carrying &quot;only left Twix&quot; or &quot;only right Twix&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Now obviously, this entire ad campaign is preposterous. There's no difference between the left side of a Twix bar and the right side of a Twix bar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And yet the idea of stoking controversy over meaningless polarization of the public has been a very successful strategy for viral marketing in the past. Remember &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_dress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;that yellow and gold dress&lt;/a&gt;? It seems to be fact at this point that pointless controversy creating conflict between two polar-opposite groups of people is an immensely successful means of propagating the story. In my limited marketing expertise, I'd say Mars did everything right with their Twix campaign.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why does no one care? People as a matter of fact think it ridiculous. Why isn't it working?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12897" LastActivityDate="2021-02-05T08:00:45.043" Title="Why didn't the Left Twix/Right Twix ad campaign take off?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18471" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-15T03:57:17.760" Score="3" ViewCount="274" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently came across a short piece on Twitter advocating for the preservation of dopamine release. The writer stated that a &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yCD3X.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of things&lt;/a&gt; should be avoided to preserve dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Preserve your dopamine:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Turn off all social media notifications&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Get to a commercial free place on TV and Internet&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Zero real porn and limit controllable passive porn&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Build in reflective time (I use a devotional)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Limit addictive substances (especially passive ones)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I asked why, he stated that &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qoixP.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;preserving dopamine by avoiding these activities would mean I'd have more dopamine for other activities&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;No, the more places you spend dopamine, the less you have for the&#xA;  things you need and the less you get from the things that are good for&#xA;  you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ex. Watching hardcore porn decreases your pleasure from healthy sex&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there truth to that statement? Is dopamine a truly finite resource that I won't produce more of each day if I spend it on these activities? Thus making me less motivated for important work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for information on dopamine production and benefits of preservation in the answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10420" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-11-15T04:53:53.543" LastActivityDate="2017-11-18T03:06:25.197" Title="Benefits of Preserving Dopamine" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18472" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18468" CreationDate="2017-11-15T09:15:01.523" Score="1" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Hodgkin-Huxley model does have the ability to accurately reflect adaptation processes in a neuron (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3196774&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Awiszus, (1989)&lt;/a&gt;);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A perfect integrator model is also suitable &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/NEW-ENCYCLOPEDIA-OF-NEUROSCIENCE-Theoretical-and-C-Goldman-Compte/7433bb4abd8dd497c1159164b095e95b13acda4b&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Goldman &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2007)&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A leaky integrator model is often used to model spiking behavior as well &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2954058/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Mihalas &amp;amp; Niebur, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3196774&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Awiszus, &lt;em&gt;Biol Cybern&lt;/em&gt; (1988); &lt;strong&gt;59&lt;/strong&gt;(4-5): 295-302&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/NEW-ENCYCLOPEDIA-OF-NEUROSCIENCE-Theoretical-and-C-Goldman-Compte/7433bb4abd8dd497c1159164b095e95b13acda4b&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goldman &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., New Encycopedia of Neuroscience (2007)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2954058/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mihalas &amp;amp; Niebur, &lt;em&gt;Neural Comput&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 704–18&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-15T12:34:10.993" LastActivityDate="2017-11-15T12:34:10.993" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18473" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18471" CreationDate="2017-11-15T10:07:57.877" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some truth to dopamine &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/scicurious-brain/motivation-inattention-and-adhd/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;correlating with heightened motivation&lt;/a&gt; (but dopamine can also be too much of a good thing, such in the case of behavioral addictions, like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5215459/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pathological gambling, especially the presumed iatrogenic kind&lt;/a&gt;) However, tiredness or more prceisely &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/scicurious-brain/sleep-deprived-mind-your-dopamine/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sleep depravation affects dopamine receptors&lt;/a&gt; so it will impair many brain functions besides motivation. So the advice is probably far more straightforward to formulate as &quot;don't waste your good hours with distractions only to get to work when you're tired&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, if the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/1300839&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypodopaminergia hypothesis for ADHD&lt;/a&gt; is true, then &quot;preserve your dopamine by not getting distracted&quot; is cart-before-the horse advice since under this etiological assumption, the low-dopamine condition is the cause of distractibility rather than its effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5443939/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;somehting to be said aobut the kinds of distractions you list&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Today's society is pleasure seeking. We expect to obtain pleasurable experiences fast and easily. We are used to hyper-palatable foods and drinks, and we can get pornography, games and gadgets whenever we want them. The problem: with this type of pleasure-maximizing choice behaviour we may be turning ourselves into mindless pleasure junkies, handing over our free will for the next dopamine shoot. Pleasure-only activities are fun. In excess, however, such activities might have negative effects on our biopsychological health: they provoke a change in the neural mechanisms underlying choice behaviour. Choice behaviour becomes biased towards short-term pleasure-maximizing goals, just as in the addicted brain (modulated by the amygdala, posterior ventromedial prefrontal cortex' (VMPFC), striatum, nucleus accumbens; ‘A-system’) and away from long-term prosperity and general well-being maximizing objectives (normally ensured by the insula, anterior VMPFC, hippocampus, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC); ‘I-system‘).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not something revolutionary. It's well known that a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_preference&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;temporal discounting&lt;/a&gt; function &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/108/37/15462.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;is encoded&lt;/a&gt; in brains as adaptation/response to the schedule of rewards over time. This almost certainly involves more complex processes (such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;long term potentiation&lt;/a&gt; and other forms of plasticity) than a simple reservoir-of-dopamine model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are certainly researchers looking into &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3164585/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;behavioral addictions&lt;/a&gt; in general, and in particular &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4600144/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;internet pornography addiction&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5508060/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interet gaming disorder&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3194102/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social-media addiction&lt;/a&gt;, but insofar these haven't received the wider acceptance that comes with blessing of being &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3858502/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;included in the DSM&lt;/a&gt;, ICD and so forth (except for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4019046/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gamblig addiction&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-18T03:06:25.197" LastActivityDate="2017-11-18T03:06:25.197" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18474" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-15T12:12:41.990" Score="0" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps I'm searching using the wrong term, but by prescriptivism I mean:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;holding strong beliefs and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;having a strong desire to impose them on others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that in the US nowadays these two might tingle &quot;conservatism&quot; for some, but given the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseshoe_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;horseshoe theory&lt;/a&gt; I'd rather go for a more explicit term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess these two items correlate with some personality traits as well... So has there been any research in genetic correlations of these two items even if less directly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-11-15T12:12:41.990" Title="Genetic basis of prescriptivism" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18476" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17423" CreationDate="2017-11-15T19:43:35.040" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem with procrastination when it comes to aversion therapy or Pavlok is that it isn't a specific behavior that you're grappling with but a specific series of behaviors that contribute to procrastination.   Much of these behaviors are probably under the radar of your conscious awareness and have been going on for a long time.   That's not saying that Pavlok can't be effective but you'll probably need to employ other &quot;strategies&quot; to combat this growing worldwide problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I highly recommend reading the book &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=1pwi00ZKn9YC&amp;amp;dq=isbn:1741964881&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Procrastination Equation&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, by &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=_l-1G1oAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Piers Steel&lt;/a&gt; for more insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the hallmarks of procrastination is impulsiveness (doing what feels good or right at the time).  These one behavior can be deeply rooted in you're subconscious and if you were looking for a magic bullet to combat procrastination this would be where you'd need to start IMO.  This also where Pavlok would fit in perfectly but please don't think that it's the ONLY thing because your old comfort zone will try to reassert itself despite the Pavlok aversion cues IMO.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll also need to make the new behavior &quot;feel good&quot; and the only way I know how to do this is through &quot;guided mental Imagery&quot; .   The mental Imagery sessions need to simulate as many of your sense as possible and employ strong emotions of joy or satisfaction.   Repetition is key.  Twice a day is my personal recommendation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry for being so long winded but I feel aversion therapy and procrastination are a pair that seriously need to start dating!  ;-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17528" LastEditorUserId="6259" LastEditDate="2019-08-20T05:25:29.723" LastActivityDate="2019-08-20T05:25:29.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18477" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17423" CreationDate="2017-11-16T00:09:50.257" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/psych.2014.513160&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2014 review article on procrastination&lt;/a&gt; that doesn't mention aversive therapy at all, but has this to say about treatment(s) of procrastination in general:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Even though procrastination can contribute to many adversities among those afflicted, research concerning treatment interventions is currently scarce. (Pychyl &amp;amp; Flett, 2012) In terms of clinical trials investigating different&#xA;  treatment interventions, there is insufficient knowledge regarding their usefulness (Rozental &amp;amp; Carlbring,&#xA;  2013). The research also lacks validated outcome measures, randomization, and long-term follow-ups, complicating&#xA;  the results. Treatment interventions stemming from cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) are often considered&#xA;  suitable for addressing problems of procrastination—interventions such as stimulus cues, time management,&#xA;  goal-setting techniques, learned industriousness, automaticity, stimulus control, modeling, performance&#xA;  accomplishments, implementation intentions, success spirals, and fusing (Steel, 2007)—but the evidence for&#xA;  their efficacy is still unclear (Pychyl &amp;amp; Flett, 2012). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-11-16T00:09:50.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18478" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18488" CreationDate="2017-11-16T00:18:20.583" Score="7" ViewCount="2652" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the 1970s a great new use for the rubber band was discovered: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7916(74)90086-X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-administered aversion therapy&lt;/a&gt;. It didn't go so well in some cases, like for &quot;obsessoinal thinking&quot;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pr0.1978.43.1.181&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the outcome being the opposite of the one intended&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first paper discusses two cases: one of hair-pulling (trichotillomania) and one of... homosexual ideation. Initial success but relapse and discontinued treatment are reported in the first case (hair pulling), but claimed &quot;cure&quot; in the second case. The second paper (with two negative results) discusses a case of paranoid schizophrenia and one of sexual fantasies including cheating on spouse and homosexual acts. I think most mental health professionals today would see these cases (except the hair pulling case perhaps) as inappropriate for aversion therapy, and some for any therapy (homosexual fantasies in particular).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Did self-administered aversion therapy (with rubber band or otherwise) prove ineffective in general? Or did it find some niche where it is considered successful nowadays?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-16T00:51:41.387" LastActivityDate="2019-04-11T17:24:27.237" Title="What happened to self-administered aversion therapy (with a rubber band in particular)?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18479" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18480" CreationDate="2017-11-16T06:44:08.427" Score="5" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;this question rises into my head this day. First I read the comment by &lt;a href=&quot;https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/5668/where-can-i-learn-cryptography-cryptanalysis-the-hard-way-without-going-to-scho&quot;&gt;@mikeazo&lt;/a&gt; he says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do you learn best by reading or doing? That will make a difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, today I had a class in cryptanalysis so we were doing a lot of computation in class during two hours (solving equations in order to find key of a cipher given ciphertext and plaintext). In the class I noticed that there are two types of students: faster and slower. I noticed that slower-people related to theory-people and faster-people to &quot;non-theory people&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;to define difference between theory and non-theory. Usually in science we have two types of people: theoretical people and experimental people. For example: in physics you can work in theory without doing experimental things or you can work in experimental without doing theory. Usually theory related to mathematics; since the language of science is mathematics. Now, in mathematics we have people who do &quot;computation faster&quot; like they solve puzzles quickly or they are very smart at games or multiply tens of digits without calculator, etc. While the other part, the theory-people, they analyze physical things to have a mathematical model and expect future results based on these models so if models doesn't work (such as no solution for the model under some conditions) then we say this result cannot happen in future under some conditions, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From this point-of-view, I'm really interested to see whether is there any survey or research paper about &quot;what is the consequences to be a theory-people or non-theory-people?&quot; For example: I remember Michael Sipser says in his book of &quot;Introduction to Theory of Computation&quot;, &quot;theory is good because it expands your minds&quot;. Now, if someone is doing theory, then he expands his imagination and the way of thinking to things, but how about consequences? it seems to me for the example I had today in class that &quot;theory people are slower to do normal jobs, even though they understand it&quot;. Is there any research papers about this issue! I would be happy to hear from this site anything related to this topic.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17530" LastActivityDate="2017-11-16T20:56:35.110" Title="What is the consequences to be a person who works in theory of science?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18480" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18479" CreationDate="2017-11-16T08:42:10.123" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quoting from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/089533005775196732&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Cognitive Reflection and Decision Making&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many researchers have emphasized the distinction between two types of cognitive&#xA;  processes: those executed quickly with little conscious deliberation and those&#xA;  that are slower and more reflective (Epstein, 1994; Sloman, 1996; Chaiken and&#xA;  Trope, 1999; Kahneman and Frederick, 2002). Stanovich and West (2000) called&#xA;  these &quot;System 1&quot; and &quot;System 2&quot; processes, respectively. System 1 processes occur&#xA;  spontaneously and do not require or consume much attention Recognizing that&#xA;  the face of the person entering the classroom belongs to your math teacher involves&#xA;  System 1 processes-it occurs instantly and effortlessly and is unaffected by intellect,&#xA;  alertness, motivation or the difficulty of the math problem being attempted at&#xA;  the time. Conversely, finding $\sqrt{19163}$ to two decimal places without a calculator&#xA;  involves System 2 processes-mental operations requiring effort, motivation, concentration,&#xA;  and the execution of learned rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This distinction is apparently also called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dual process theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I for one like to call these &quot;intuitionists&quot; and &quot;calculationists&quot;, but I also think the distinction is probably not too sharp. In my experience, the &quot;intuitionists&quot; exploit some patterns, partly &quot;subconsciously&quot;, and tend to be better in games like Go or Backgammon (where the trees are very broad and humans cannot think too many moves ahead) and often have surprising idea that they themselves can't always explain how they came up with, whereas the &quot;calculationists&quot; tend to be better at Chess, long proofs and so forth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not coincidentally (in my intuition) these coincide with the best performing algorithms for such games: neural nets for Backgammon, but mostly deep tree exploration for chess. These are not entirely exclusive though, good Backgammon algorithm &quot;think&quot; 2-3 moves ahead but their performance comes mainly from a very well tuned neural net. I'm less familiar with Go, but from what I know of AlphaGo the story is similar. One should not discount the role of board evaluation in chess, but I think the tree exploration is main factor for success there. Anyhow, intuition is believed by some researched to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2839455/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;work like a probabilistic decision&lt;/a&gt;, perhaps using pattern matching as discussed above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As more anecdotal evidence: When I was in grad school, I had an adviser and co-adviser who had authored a large number of papers together. They described their roles in their collaboration as one being the idea generator and other one the tester.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recently, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_thought_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;unconscious thought theory&#xA;&lt;/a&gt; posits that for complext decisions intution is essentially better, but after a highly-cited &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/311/5763/1005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;debut in &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, insofar it has failed replication particularly in large studies. I suspect a lot depends on the nature of the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, dual-system theory seems to have fared better with a (simple test of distinction), introduced in the first paper I quote in this answer; Here's a quote from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4423343/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a more recent paper&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The present study replicated and extended earlier results from Campitelli and Gerrans (2014). In particular, Cognitive Reflection and Calculation behaved like distinct abilities, and Calculation was positively correlated with numeracy. However, Cognitive Reflection was positively correlated with numeracy as well; this correlation had not been tested in earlier studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-11-16T08:42:10.123" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18481" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18482" CreationDate="2017-11-16T12:58:18.320" Score="5" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Context&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am planning an experiment where the subjects would need to determine the language of the stimulus after listening to it once, given two alternatives, L1 or L2. &#xA;In total I have 500 trials separated in 5 blocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Problem&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of my supervisors insists that I have to give the subjects a feedback immediately after they made the choice (&quot;because the experiment is boring&quot;), and the other one says I should not give them any feedback at all (&quot;they get payed for this, they have to suck it up&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I, for myself, think that maybe giving them scores after the end of a 5-minute block would be helpful to support their motivation and give a little more of motivation for them to concentrate on the following block. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone here have experience with giving feedback to subjects during the experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17531" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-11-16T14:52:03.687" LastActivityDate="2017-11-23T09:02:43.677" Title="What are the benefits of giving feedback to subjects during a discrimination task?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18482" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18481" CreationDate="2017-11-16T13:40:57.613" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Giving subjects feedback may affect their performance over time because of learning effects. The choice of giving feedback may be far less trivial than subjects getting bored yes or no. And quite frankly, subjects will get bored after a 100 trials, let alone 500, feedback or no feedback... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;You have to be aware that subjects can show learning effects in speech tests &lt;a href=&quot;https://teachingmathliteracy.weebly.com/conceptual-vs-procedural-knowledge.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(De Jong &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, in press)&lt;/a&gt;. I am unaware of the specific task you give them, but perhaps below answer will help you make a rational decision on this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://teachingmathliteracy.weebly.com/conceptual-vs-procedural-knowledge.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Procedural learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; affects the way people perform because they may get better in the task, simply because they have to learn how the task works ('&lt;em&gt;Oh wait, the trial starts already!&lt;/em&gt;' '&lt;em&gt;Oh wait, where was that answer button again&lt;/em&gt;?' '&lt;em&gt;Oh wait, what was the green button for again?&lt;/em&gt;'). If subjects show procedural learning effects, they will get better over time. This is oftentimes regardless of whether you give any feedback; subjects simply need to 'get the hang of it'.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://teachingmathliteracy.weebly.com/conceptual-vs-procedural-knowledge.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conceptual learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; will affect the performance too. This type of learning is strongly affected by whether you give them feedback. For example, if your subjects are unfamiliar with the languages and you are not providing them feedback then they will never learn them. On the other hand, when for example they hear words from a closed set and each word is repeatedly presented, and the experimenter provides the correct answer ('&lt;em&gt;This trial you heard senorita and that is Spanish and means female&lt;/em&gt;' or whatever) and the subjects repeatedly hears this word then for sure at a certain point they will learn from feedback that it is Spanish. However, without any feedback they will never learn it. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even feedback after 5 minutes may affect their performance ('&lt;em&gt;Oh I'm doing great, I can probably relax a bit&lt;/em&gt;'). In my opinion, subjects should never be given feedback, not until, perhaps, after the entire experiment is over.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://teachingmathliteracy.weebly.com/conceptual-vs-procedural-knowledge.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;De Jong &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Ear &amp;amp; Hearing&lt;/em&gt;, in press&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-16T14:57:27.697" LastActivityDate="2017-11-16T14:57:27.697" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18485" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-16T16:19:29.950" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Skeletal muscles have slow and fast twitch fibers that differ in their rate of fatigue. Is there an analogue in the subject of cognition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example I might be very quick at doing coding but very slow at arithmetic. Also I might be fast at a mental task but tire quickly. What is the study of this phenomenon called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Edit&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was suggested to me in a comment that the phenomenon of &lt;code&gt;facilitation&lt;/code&gt; shows similar behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also mentioned in the comments is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;system 1 &amp;quot;intuition&amp;quot; vs system 2 &amp;quot;calculation&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would select it as an answer if it wasn't a comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="201" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-11-17T04:48:55.473" Title="Does a comparable metaphor exist for cognition that exists for slow &amp; fast twitch muscle fibers?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18486" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-16T18:37:32.780" Score="3" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’ve seen this pattern play out a few times, and I have to believe there is some formal terminology for it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine two friends (or coworkers or husband and wife):  one person volunteers to do an undesirable task. Once complete, if the task is done imperfectly (potentially due to parameters beyond control of the first person), the second person is critical and claims this wouldn’t have happened had he/she been in charge. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example:  A couple decide to install new wood floors, which requires finding contractors, negotiating, scheduling, etc.  The wife volunteers, and as the project gets close to finishing, there is an unexpected supply shortage, and the project will be delayed a week while they await new supplies. The husband gets upset because now their house looks a mess when visiting family is in town, and blames his wife for mismanaging the project, and claims this wouldn’t have happened if he were managing the project. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This sort of behavior seems to reflect some narcissism and a lack of empathy, but I’m curious about terminology for this “Monday morning quarterbacking” time behavior. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17535" LastActivityDate="2017-11-17T15:22:58.533" Title="Do you know the name of this psychological phenomenon?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18488" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18478" CreationDate="2017-11-16T21:31:34.717" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Out of the basically four possible ways to change behaviors, your rubber band lies at one extreme, being an example of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.minddisorders.com/A-Br/Behavior-modification.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive punishment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which works by presenting an aversive stimulus after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the lesser &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.minddisorders.com/A-Br/Behavior-modification.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;negative punishment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; when a certain reinforcing stimulus is removed after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, there is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.minddisorders.com/A-Br/Behavior-modification.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive reinforcement&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which works by presenting a motivating stimulus to a person after a desired behavior is exhibited, and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.minddisorders.com/A-Br/Behavior-modification.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;negative reinforcement&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; where usually an aversive stimulus is removed after a particular behavior is exhibited. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now all three alternatives are less extreme than your example and, anecdotally, I do see a tendency toward a more positive approach in efforts to change behaviors, for example in parenting (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt; reward rather than punishment). Less anecdotally, according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punishment_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, punishment indeed seems to be used reservedly in psychotherapy nowadays and is mostly reserved to the more extreme cases to reduce outright dangerous behaviors such as head banging or biting.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-11-16T21:31:34.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18489" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-16T21:45:20.957" Score="4" ViewCount="431" Body="&lt;p&gt;Obviously the DSM doesn't see it as such, but the idea of Irvin D. Yalom appears to have some traction &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.socialworker.com/feature-articles/real-world-clinical-sw/the-tyranny-of-self-help-of-the-necessity-of-existential-depression/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;at least in magazines&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Irving Yalom, in 1981, wrote about near necessity of an existential depression. He basically suggested that a certain level of depression is normal, if not essential. He suggested that this depression is the byproduct of negotiating some key elements of our world and lives. These elements are death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness. He argued that the inner conflict that arises in negotiating these forces leaves us depressed and disillusioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, there are some sources (also not peer-reviewed) claiming that existential depression is more common in gifted individuals. (Examples: &lt;a href=&quot;http://sengifted.org/existential-depression-in-gifted-individual/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://drhilarybeech.com/project/existential-depression/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there more rigorous studies of the concept? I'm guessing that a first/necessary step would be to able to reliably distinguish it for other (proposed) subtypes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kerr's &lt;em&gt;Encyclopedia of Giftedness, Creativity, and Talent&lt;/em&gt; mentions some diagnostic instruments (p. 340):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A number of measures have been developed to assess aspects of existential depression. The Life Purpose Questionnaire and Purpose of Existence Scale specifically address the presence or lack of existential meaning in an individual's life. These measures are positively correlated with several forms of psychopathology, including depression. The Existential Anxiety Questionnaire is based on the work of the philosopher Paul Tillich and asses one's apprehension of meaninglessness and death. This measure was created to assess existential anxiety, but it can also be applied to existential depression. The Quality of Existence Scale has been used as a measure of existential depression, and the widely used Quality of Life Scale has a particular existential subscale. Finally, the Existential Depression Scale is a general measure of potential existential etiological factors in the development and maintenance of depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas it says nothing of the validity/reliability of these and also lacks inline citations, so it'll be a while before I can figure out what published studies (if any) have been using these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The end of the &quot;existential depression&quot; entry (itself authored by Thomas C. Motl) in that encyclopedia has this statement regarding treatment&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Treatment for existential depression includes traditional &quot;talking&quot; therapies [...] Pharmacological interventions are less effective because the root cause of existential depression is nonbiological. Those treated with drug therapies have higher relapse rated and a greater chance of recurrence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No indication there of what evidence that is based on though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While looking into this, I found two studies with noteworthy (IMHO) results, which don't quite answer my question though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28369920&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dutch study&lt;/a&gt; found a significant score difference on an Existential Concerns Questionnaire between nonclinical and clinical (diagnosed with depression and/or anxiety) subjects.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://digitalcommons.ciis.edu/ijts-transpersonalstudies/vol31/iss1/5/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;US study&lt;/a&gt; using The Scale for Existential Thinking&#xA;only on non-clinical subjects found that subjects of Indian origin scored higher, suggesting a possible cultural influence. Other variables like age, gender, income, or level of education did not have a significant impact on the score.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-18T15:59:00.133" LastActivityDate="2017-11-18T15:59:00.133" Title="Evidence for existential depression as a distinct subtype?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18490" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18485" CreationDate="2017-11-17T01:50:43.630" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you are talking about system 1 and 2 thinking that Kahneman called'fast' and 'slow'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While it's analagous to muscle fibre I'm not convinced it is as physiologically based. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;System 1 is fast, but also characterised by its unconscious nature. The decisions made are automatic, and based on mental shortcuts or heuristics. It serves us well a lot of the time but is more error prone. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;System 2 is more conscious and requires more cognitive effort. We are more likely to use it for complex decisions but only if we are aware of the complexity and consequences. It generally produces more reliable decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll find the same concept with different labels, but the fast and slow thinking that Kahneman referred to is probably the best known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16770" LastEditorUserId="16770" LastEditDate="2017-11-17T04:48:55.473" LastActivityDate="2017-11-17T04:48:55.473" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18491" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18486" CreationDate="2017-11-17T06:23:20.480" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this phenomenon can be explained by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindsight_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hindsight bias&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hindsight bias&lt;/strong&gt;, also known as the knew-it-all-along effect or creeping&#xA;  determinism, is the inclination, after an event has occurred, to see&#xA;  the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little&#xA;  or no objective basis for predicting it. ... Hindsight bias may cause&#xA;  memory distortion, where the recollection and reconstruction of&#xA;  content can lead to false theoretical outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;basic example&lt;/strong&gt; of the hindsight bias is when, after viewing the&#xA;  outcome of a potentially unforeseeable event, a person believes he or&#xA;  she &quot;knew it all along&quot;. Such examples are present in the writings of&#xA;  historians describing outcomes of battles, physicians recalling&#xA;  clinical trials, and in judicial systems trying to attribute&#xA;  responsibility and predictability of accidents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hindsight bias has similarities to other &lt;strong&gt;memory distortions&lt;/strong&gt;, such as&#xA;  misinformation effect and false autobiographical memory.&#xA;  Misinformation effect occurs after an event is witnessed; new&#xA;  information received after the fact influences how the person&#xA;  remembers the event, and can be called post-event misinformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is no solution to &lt;strong&gt;eliminate hindsight bias&lt;/strong&gt; in its totality, but&#xA;  only ways to reduce it. Some of which include considering&#xA;  alternative explanations or opening one's mind to different&#xA;  perspectives. In terms of auditory communication, the speaker would&#xA;  try to provide more clarity in his or her delivery and the listener&#xA;  may seek greater clarification&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2017-11-17T06:23:20.480" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18492" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18486" CreationDate="2017-11-17T14:39:32.950" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It could also be described as errors in reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The logical fallacies that come to mind are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;post hoc, ergo propter hoc (false cause)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;non sequitur (it does not follow)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To use your example,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;there is no proof that the wife was the cause of the delay and that the husband would have avoided it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;even if the wife was the planner, it does not follow that she (alone or in part) was the sole cause of the delay and that the delay would not have otherwise have happened.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychological terms, this can be referred to as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;thought disorder, specifically illogicality&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-11-17T15:22:58.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18493" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18511" CreationDate="2017-11-17T18:25:40.820" Score="4" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been many reports, that recreational drug use can cause psychosis. Some cannabis users report experiencing psychosis (sometimes permanent) immediately after use. Some methamphetamine users also report psychosis symptoms, like hearing voices, which are also sometimes permanent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of people, who like to defend cannabis (or even methamphetamine) like to argue that cannabis is unable to &lt;strong&gt;cause&lt;/strong&gt; psychosis, it can only &lt;strong&gt;trigger&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;unlock&lt;/strong&gt; it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably, there already was something wrong with this person and cannabis only &lt;strong&gt;unlocked&lt;/strong&gt; the problem, but it was going to be unlocked eventually by something anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any difference between &quot;unlocking&quot; and &quot;causing&quot; a psychosis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it true, that you can have a &quot;sleeping psychosis&quot;, which is just waiting for a disturbance to present itself?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it simply a case of genetic predisposition, which people wrongly equate with having &quot;sleeping psychosis&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am aware about the controversy regarding schizophrenia and cannabis, I am mainly talking about psychosis.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17467" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-22T10:27:57.037" LastActivityDate="2017-11-24T12:24:53.203" Title="Can drugs cause a psychosis, or only unlock it?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18497" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-18T16:17:27.597" Score="5" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;I mean in the general population. I'm aware of proposals/constructs like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignant_narcissism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;malignant narcissism&lt;/a&gt; but the empirical evidence (in the Wikipedia page at least) is mostly case-based (serial killers and so forth), i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;anecdotal&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2020-09-02T03:40:01.637" LastActivityDate="2020-09-02T03:40:01.637" Title="Does sadism correlate with narcissism?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18498" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18497" CreationDate="2017-11-18T16:52:44.117" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;At least among a sample of high-school students the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad#Dark_Tetrad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dark tetrad&lt;/a&gt; correlations &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.06.020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;look like&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3as6W.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3as6W.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So there's only a moderate correlation between narcissism and sadism (0.37), but it turned out to be strongest of the six (as commonly measured). However it was only the 2nd strongest after an &lt;a href=&quot;http://documentation.statsoft.com/STATISTICAHelp.aspx?path=Factor/FactorAnalysis/Overview/FactorAnalysisHierarchicalFactorAnalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;oblique rotation&lt;/a&gt;, the psyhopathic-sadistic one &quot;winning&quot; by small margin (0.02) in that approach:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To evaluate if the different measures of these four&#xA;  traits loaded on a more general second-order factor, we conducted&#xA;  a hierarchical analysis of oblique factors which showed&#xA;  there was not a general deviant personality factor that was likely&#xA;  to reflect all types of traits. There appeared to be four primary&#xA;  unique factors corresponding to psychopathic, narcissistic,&#xA;  Machiavellian and sadistic traits. The four constructs thus obtained,&#xA;  appeared to display a greater degree of independence&#xA;  than the original four, with Pearson’s r ranging from .01 to .26&#xA;  (Fig. 1). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So despite their moderate correlation (all four) dark tetrad bits are seen as reasonably independent factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I find strange in that figure is that after the oblique rotation there was practically no correlation between Machiavellianism and psychopathy. I'm &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/314429/interpretation-of-hierarchical-factor-analysis-results&quot;&gt;not sure what to make of that&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-11-21T12:00:26.013" LastActivityDate="2017-11-21T12:00:26.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18499" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18517" CreationDate="2017-11-19T09:29:32.323" Score="0" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the state-of-the-art approaches to analyze reaction choice experiments?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example of a reaction choice trial:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fixation cross (randomized length between 500 and 1500ms)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Choice stimulus: Indicates to press left or right button (200ms)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Response: Which and if one of the two buttons is pressed (max 1000ms after stimulus onset)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This procedure produces the following types of data:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Response times, of&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;correct responses&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;incorrect responses&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;both &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Correctness of responses&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Omitted responses&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are valid ways to analyze these interdependent yet disjunct types of results? Ideally including references to examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11381" LastEditorUserId="11381" LastEditDate="2017-11-25T21:19:17.520" LastActivityDate="2017-11-25T21:19:17.520" Title="How to analyze reaction choice experiments?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18500" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-19T09:47:59.340" Score="3" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another fairly frequent sub-topic in the popsci press (besides correlation with sadism) in relation to narcissism is &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/23-signs-youe28099re-secretly-a-narcissist-masquerading-as-a-sensitive-introvert/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;covert narcissism&lt;/a&gt;. To some extent that article confuses the covert aspect/presentation with the better studied &quot;vulnerable&quot; narcissism, but this can probably be forgiven because the DSM-IV itself wasn't terribly clear on this, although the &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/per0000023&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5 makes more of an effort to distinguish between the two dimensions&lt;/a&gt;. (And of course calling it &quot;covert&quot; makes it sound much more ominous, so it makes better click-bait, even if you're mostly talking about &quot;vulnerable&quot; narcissism.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, any studies of anything covert are probably going to underestimate it if the subjects are really good at covering it, but nonetheless, just what percentage of narcissists are generally known to be of this kind? Furthermore, is there a different mixture of vulnerable/grandiose in the covert group vs the overt one? I'm hoping some empirical studies exist on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-11-19T09:47:59.340" Title="Proportion of covert narcissists (and their structure)" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18501" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-19T10:10:08.863" Score="7" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the mental health field, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;narcissism is viewed as personality trait/disorder&lt;/a&gt;, which suggests little changes during the life of the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless, one mass media article (based on a book) is titled &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jul/08/the-age-of-entitlement-how-wealth-breeds-narcissism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The age of entitlement: how wealth breeds narcissism&lt;/a&gt;, and claims that rich people are more inclined than the poor to engage in quite a number of anti-social behaviors from violating traffic rules to plain stealing. (At least as far traffic violations are concerned, the rich can usually afford the fines more easily, and even if they have their license suspended, can better afford to pay someone else to drive them.) Another indicator was that the rich tended to draw themselves as bigger circles in relation to the world. (But if you think of yourself mainly in terms of net worth, then perhaps that's not surprising or unjustified.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of this was was based on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/paul_piff_does_money_make_you_mean&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;research of Paul Piff&lt;/a&gt; by the way. And at least &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0146167213501699?journalCode=pspc#sec-22&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;one of his studies&lt;/a&gt; really does suggest causality, it's not a matter of him being misinterpreted by the press:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rMmX6.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rMmX6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a categorical confusion here in lumping these behaviors with narcissism? Or is it really the case that the richer do these because they are more narcissistic? Or perhaps the rich narcissists are more overt and the poorer narcissists more covert? Are there experimental studies that try to separate these concerns?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-19T10:48:26.257" LastActivityDate="2017-11-26T15:15:39.860" Title="Does wealth cause (or correlates with) narcissism?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18503" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-20T10:43:44.727" Score="2" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following question is quite hypothetical, and just to get an idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume any model of how positive propositions $p$ are actively (opposed to synaptically) represented in a neural network, e.g. &quot;the cat sat on the mat&quot;. Presumably, this will be by some kind of firing of some neurons or neuron assemblies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder how the corresponding &lt;strong&gt;negative&lt;/strong&gt; proposition $\neg p$ might be represented, e.g. &quot;the cat sat &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; on the mat&quot;. Will there be an extra NOT-neuron firing? Will the same neurons fire in NOT-mode? Will the cat sit on a NON-mat? Or completely different. Or are such propositions not represented at all, i.e. we can only &quot;think positively&quot;, and only &lt;em&gt;report verbally&lt;/em&gt;, that we do or did &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; think that $p$ (which would be some kind of a meta-report)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which proposals are around for the representation of negated propositions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-11-20T12:46:05.723" LastActivityDate="2017-11-22T08:43:42.800" Title="Representations of negated propositions" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18504" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-21T01:40:51.943" Score="2" ViewCount="200" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research into purported porn addiction (which goes by many names, PPU = problematic porn use being one) identified strong correlation between porn use and frequency of masturbation. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28409565&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;For instance&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NJunA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NJunA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research exploring causality between these two? In other words, do people who watch more porn do so because they want to mastubate more often, or is it the other way around, i.e. watching more porn turns people on so they masturabate more often? (Or in more proposed-pathological terms, is porn addiction just a banal version of hypersexuality or is it an addiction on its own causing hypersexuality?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-11-21T01:40:51.943" Title="Causality studies between porn use and masturbation frequency?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18505" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-21T03:17:12.863" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I realize that giving L-dopa or similar drugs to people who don't need it would be unethical owing to their side effects*, but given that L-dopa is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19401861&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;abused by some Parkinson's disease patients&lt;/a&gt;, are there perhaps some reports of similar side-effects/syndrome in non-Parkison's individuals who might abuse L-dopa? I basically want to know whether the drug-induced dopamine dysregulation syndrome can show up in more or less &quot;healthy&quot; (not counting the abuse itself) individuals. I'm aware of course that stimulants (amphetamine, cocaine etc.) can also produce some of the same effects, but these are drugs with a more complex pharmacology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*Actually, after writing the above, I found out it was given in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3251561/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fairly recent 2012 study&lt;/a&gt; which found no mood effects. It also mentions nothing like dysregulation syndrome being observed in these healthy volunteers. Furthermore, it says that testing higher doses &quot;will be difficult, though, since higher doses of all currently available drugs that selectively augment DA neurotransmission are limited by side effects such as nausea, vomiting, dizziness and drowsiness.&quot; So I'm guessing abuse potential in healthy people is nearly nil because of this. Nevertheless, perhaps some accidental poisioning or other odball report exists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-21T03:44:24.750" LastActivityDate="2017-11-21T04:27:14.120" Title="Dopamine dysregulation syndrome in non-Parkison's subjects?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18506" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18505" CreationDate="2017-11-21T04:07:38.137" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not quite the features of dopamine dysregulation I was looking for, but plain psychosis (persecutory delusions and auditory hallucinations) was discovered in &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2017.09.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a case of conversion disorder who imagined had Parkinson's&lt;/a&gt; and self-medicated. Of note is history family of schizophrenia, but psychosis subsided &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also in not quite healthy subjects, there's &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cpt1971122part2383/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 1971 study of L-dopa in depressed patients&lt;/a&gt;. Mood elevation was reported in this study (unlike in the one on healthy volunteers) and some sobjects developed hypomania, but practically all who did had mania before (so they were bipolar). But there's not much detail on the hypomanic features developed on L-dopa. The dosage was higher in this old study, mood effects were not noted until dosage exceeded 300mg, which above the one used in the 2012 study on healthy volunteers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-21T04:27:14.120" LastActivityDate="2017-11-21T04:27:14.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18507" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-21T12:51:47.597" Score="2" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have searched a lot about the Working Memory Capacity&#xA;and savant or eidetic people but I can´t find a paper which&#xA;describes a correlation between savant/eidetic people and&#xA;the working memory capacity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone knows a paper or a experiment where such a correlation is checked/proofed ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14886" LastActivityDate="2017-11-21T12:51:47.597" Title="Does savant people have an Higher/Lower Working Memory?" Tags="&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18508" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18509" CreationDate="2017-11-21T16:48:49.050" Score="2" ViewCount="183" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading a paper and they are discussing modelling the neural networks of an organism. One of the key things they are interested in is finding out the synaptic polarity of chemical synapses.  What does that term mean, and what might its relevance be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17518" LastActivityDate="2017-11-22T10:35:19.790" Title="What is &quot;synaptic polarity&quot; in a chemical synapse?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18508" CreationDate="2017-11-21T18:06:33.530" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3788333/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper on C.elegans&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To understand the neural basis of these behaviors requires some information not only about the pattern and strength of the connections but also about the type of their synapses. The same neural circuit can perform different functions depending on the signs of synaptic polarities it contains. Specifically, circuits in which excitatory synapses dominate can sometimes become epileptic. On the other hand, networks with only inhibitory connections could be silent, and therefore in many situations useless. Thus, it may seem that some sort of an intermediate regime is necessary for a proper functioning of the nervous system&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that paper that's all they mean by it. It's not a very widespread term, and should not be confused with [the much more widespread term] neuronal polarity, which means the differentiation between dendrites and axon as the neuron develops. Also of note that synapses can also be classified morphologically, and when doing that there are more than two types, e.g. S-type, F-type and C-type. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-22T10:35:19.790" LastActivityDate="2017-11-22T10:35:19.790" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18510" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18503" CreationDate="2017-11-22T08:34:40.327" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A plausible candidate for that is interneurons subnetwork. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets say some entity may be green and cold. It also may be yellow and hot, but not cold and hot. So, we can say that for this type of entities there are 2 independant variables, describing its state. If right now the variable 'color' is set to the value &quot;red&quot; - that means the negation of all other values of that variable (not green, not blue, ... infinity of them). The question is only how to store the construct &quot;variable&quot; in the neural tissue? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One can gather all possible values of the variable and wire them all with dense lateral inhibition circuit. Activation of one neuron inside that ensemble will kill the activations of the others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And look - we've got a good instrument for detection of mistakes in our model of the world now! If the network has wired some entities' representations by lateral inhibition - it means that the network has stated a hypothesis that these entities (in some context) are just different values of the same driving factor. If in the next moment strong feedforward signal has activated 2 principal neurons inside the circle - the hypothesis was not correct. The network has detected &quot;paradox&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This explanation is plausible because of 3 facts: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a famous pinwheel pattern in the visual cortex:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ulf_Eysel/publication/260488804/figure/fig2/AS:280395397517365@1443862880768/Figure-1-Map-of-preferred-orientations-across-the-surface-of-the-primary-visual.png&quot; alt=&quot;maps of opienation selectivity&quot;&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The figure above depicts reconstructed map of different values of the variable &quot;spatial orienation&quot; in the visual cortex. They are arranged in non-random order.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Superimposition of inhibitory neurons onto that map shows that one interneuron can work with different &quot;values&quot; of spatial orienation.&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ulf_Eysel/publication/260488804/figure/fig1/AS:280378347671567@1443858815255/Figure-2-Orientation-map-across-the-primary-visual-cortex-with-superimposed-inhibitory.png&quot; alt=&quot;inhibitory&quot;&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a scientific proposition, that underlaying algorithm is the same in all parts of the cortex (i.e. differences are more likely in hyperparameters, than in essence). We dont know the algorythm (and I dont pretend that my aswer is correct), but scientists do not see dramatical differences in the microbiology of tissue in different cortex regions. So.. if some &quot;variable - value&quot; relation appears in the most good studied part of the cortex (primary one) than we, probably, have some ground to expect such tendensies in other parts.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;source of pictures - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260488804_Neurobiology_Turning_a_corner_in_vision_research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurobiology: Turning a corner in vision research,1999,Nature&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9394" LastEditorUserId="9394" LastEditDate="2017-11-22T08:43:42.800" LastActivityDate="2017-11-22T08:43:42.800" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18511" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18493" CreationDate="2017-11-22T10:17:10.800" Score="4" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can drugs cause a psychosis or only unlock it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Drugs can cause acute psychosis, but are not associated with a precipitation of a chronic psychotic state. Animal studies have shown that various drugs (including LSD, ketamine and amphetamine) can induce acute psychosis in genetically non-disposed animals &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5326711/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ham &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2017)&lt;/a&gt;. However, in general, drugs do not induce a state of chronic psychosis associated with for example schizophrenia. Chronic amphetamine use by non-psychotic individuals sometimes do develop a paranoid state resembling a psychosis, but it usually dissipates upon withdrawal from the drug. Former amphetamine addicts do remain hypersensitive to the psychotomimetic effects of AMPH, even after years of abstinence. There are also anecdotal reports that ‘physical or psychological stress’ can precipitate a psychotic episode in a portion of former addicts. This suggests that chronic amphetamine use produces a long-lasting change in some neural system(s) involved in the psychotomimetic effects of AMPH &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0165017386900020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Robinson &amp;amp; Becker, 1986)&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there any difference between &quot;unlocking&quot; and &quot;causing&quot; a psychosis?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that in genetically predisposed people &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/33/4/905/1926408&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Owet &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2007)&lt;/a&gt; you could call it unlocking, but I think that everyone has a certain chance of getting it. Some people need more extreme environmental factors (low genetic disposition) and others with a high predisposition are at higher risk of developing psychosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is it true, that you can have a &quot;sleeping psychosis&quot;, which is just waiting for a disturbance to present itself?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As said, when people are genetically predisposed, environmental factors, such as childhood trauma &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/33/1/3/1926990&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Morgan &amp;amp; Fisher)&lt;/a&gt; may relatively easily trigger a psychosis. You could call that a 'sleeping psychosis', but as with the term 'unlocking' you could just as well label it genetic predisposition I think. It's a matter of semantics I guess. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is it simply a case of genetic predisposition, which people wrongly equate with having &quot;sleeping psychosis&quot;?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, I think so. I don't, however, would call it 'wrongly'. It's more popular scientific language to call it sleeping or latent. But at the same time it also charges it with something 'inevitable' or a 'looming (sleeping) creature in the dark'. That's why I would definitely prefer to call it genetic predisposition, but in certain environments that term may also cause fear ('&lt;em&gt;oh no&lt;/em&gt;, it's embedded in my genes!). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5326711/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ham &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Exp Neurobiol (2017); &lt;strong&gt;26&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 11–24&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/33/1/3/1926990&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Morgan &amp;amp; Fisher, &lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;33&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 3-10&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/33/4/905/1926408&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Owen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;33&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 905–11&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0165017386900020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robinson &amp;amp; Becker, &lt;em&gt;Brain Res Rev&lt;/em&gt; (1986); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 157-98&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-24T12:24:53.203" LastActivityDate="2017-11-24T12:24:53.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18512" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-22T12:04:44.777" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there research attempting to model &amp;amp; simulate the spread of &quot;negative genes&quot; (and by this I mean just the phenotypic effect thereof) like the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad#Dark_Tetrad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dark tetrad&lt;/a&gt; traits in a human population? For background, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lotka–Volterra equations&lt;/a&gt; have been widely used for predator-prey simulations and so forth. However, in a human population, you'd probably need something more sophisticated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Off the top of my head, narcissism and psychopathy are high-risk-high-reward evolutionary strategies: maybe you end up king (getting elected president being too recent evolution-wise), or maybe you end up a serial killer (and eventually caught/killed) or just shunned/banished as a mere egotist. Risk sensitivity alone &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/srep08242&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;has been studied in this respect&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We observe that risk aversion only evolves when the gamble is a rare event that has a large impact on the individual's fitness. As such, we suggest that rare, high-risk, high-payoff events such as mating and mate competition could have driven the evolution of risk averse behavior in humans living in small groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a pauper seldom ended up king. Also, it is known that the mostly human ability to hoard resources/prey can have a dramatic impact on predator-prey simulations, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.02.014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;making resource/prey extinction possible for instance&lt;/a&gt;. (I guess something might need to be said about &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2830248/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scatter hoarding&lt;/a&gt; in animals; the substantial difference is that inherited socio-economics status [SES] has no known animal equivalent, methinks.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if something more specific wasn't studied, did someone study risk aversion in conjunction with inheritable SES in an evolutionary game/simulation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-22T12:27:00.240" LastActivityDate="2017-11-22T12:27:00.240" Title="Predator/prey-like simulations for dark tetrad traits?" Tags="&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18514" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-22T14:51:03.293" Score="2" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have 3 files recorded from Brain Vision Recorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They are in the following formats:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;code&gt;.eeg&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;code&gt;.amrk&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;code&gt;.ahdr&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to analyse these data using EEGLAB. The trouble is that when I tried to load the &lt;code&gt;.eeg&lt;/code&gt; file into EEGLAB (as a binary format), the eeg waves look completely distorted (in the eeg scroll option). I am new to eeg, so if someone could advise me on how to start analyzing these data (to look at simple P3 component would be greatly appreciated).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17575" LastEditorUserId="17575" LastEditDate="2017-11-24T05:34:54.780" LastActivityDate="2017-11-24T05:34:54.780" Title="How to analyse EEG files recorded from Brain Products V-Amp (Brain Vision Recorder)?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;p300&gt;&lt;matlab&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18516" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18521" CreationDate="2017-11-22T15:14:22.690" Score="3" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a neuron has both excitatory and inhibitory chemical synapses providing it with input, is it true in all organisms that the chemicals that cause the inhibition are distinct from those that cause the excitation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related question:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/18508/what-is-synaptic-polarity-in-a-chemical-synapse&quot;&gt;What is &amp;quot;synaptic polarity&amp;quot; in a chemical synapse?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17518" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-23T22:02:35.753" LastActivityDate="2017-11-23T23:03:01.300" Title="Are inhibitory synapses governed by different chemicals than excitatory synapses?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18517" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18499" CreationDate="2017-11-23T00:41:28.463" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Omitted responses are not usually analyzed (what does that even mean, no response before a deadline?, a &quot;does not want to respond&quot; button?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to analyze jointly choices and RTs, you need a model. I would say the most admitted model right now is the drift-diffusion model (Ratcliff &amp;amp; Rouder, 1998), which models choice and RTs as the accumulation of noisy evidence toward a decision boundary. These models are actually quite old (the late 50s), but they regained a lot of interest in the past 10 years. Some toolbox (e.g. Vandekerckhove &amp;amp; Tuerlinckx, 2008) will do that for you. Note that these models originally predict equal RTs for correct and incorrect choices, which is typically not what is found. You'll have to add parameters to predict these aspects which will require more data do produce good fits. You can also tweak the model to predict opt-out choices (Kiani, Corthell &amp;amp; Shadlen, 2014). You can tweak it some more to make it predict trials that failed to produce a response before a deadline, but I doubt any toolbox will do it out of the box.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These models are especially usefull if you have various conditions on the same scale (for example 5 levels of luminance), because that will strongly constrain your fits. If you want to analyze differences between a small number of conditions, especially if they are not on the same scale, I would avoid using them. (1) Fitting a 10+ parameter model to compare just 2 conditions is highly dubious (despite that people do it all the time), and (2) your results become model dependent. What if the model is wrong, are your conclusions still valid? What you can do is simply compare z-transformed ratio correct responses and median of RTs (because the are not normally distributed, you can also take their inverse which make them more or less normal) in your favorite statistical test and make sure there is no speed-accuracy tradeoff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ratcliff, R., &amp;amp; Rouder, J. N. (1998). Modeling response times for two-choice decisions. Psychological Science, 9(5), 347-356.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vandekerckhove, J., &amp;amp; Tuerlinckx, F. (2008). Diffusion model analysis with MATLAB: A DMAT primer. Behavior Research Methods, 40(1), 61-72.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kiani, R., Corthell, L., &amp;amp; Shadlen, M. N. (2014). Choice certainty is informed by both evidence and decision time. Neuron, 84(6), 1329-1342.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2017-11-23T00:41:28.463" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18518" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18481" CreationDate="2017-11-23T01:01:33.370" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me give the opposite advice. Note that I don't know the language field. But in perception people distinguish between so-called type A and type B experiments (or type 1, type 2, the classification is actually quite confusing as all authors have a different one). In type A experiments you know what the correct answer is (for example is this beep higher or lower than 1kHz). In type B experiments there is no way to know the correct answer as it depends on the subject (for example whether your subject is experiencing an aftereffect). So they answer slightly different questions, type A experiments ask &quot;how good is my observer at answering my question?&quot;, type B experiments ask &quot;how does my stimulus appear to the observer?&quot;. Therefore in perception people generally agree that if you do know the correct answer to a question, you should always provide it through feedback. It prevents observers from developing biases and allows you to truly estimate how good your observers could actually be in your task. But if what you want is precisely to study how language appear, then I guess it would be ok not to give feedback (but personally I would).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: below a good reference, see chapter 2. The classification was originally introduced by Brindley, the same one from the infamous Las Vegas conference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://fisica.cab.cnea.gov.ar/escuelaib2014-neurociencias/restricted/CURSOS/GUILLERMO/Psychophysics.%20A%20practical%20introduction%20-%20Unknown.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kingdom, F. A. A., &amp;amp; Prins, N. (2010). Psychophysics: a practical introduction&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-23T09:02:43.677" LastActivityDate="2017-11-23T09:02:43.677" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18519" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-23T07:22:27.623" Score="2" ViewCount="920" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego#Translation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The terms &quot;id&quot;, &quot;ego&quot;, and &quot;super-ego&quot; are not Freud's own. They are latinisations by his translator &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Strachey&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;James Strachey&quot;&gt;James Strachey&lt;/a&gt;. Freud himself wrote of &quot;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/das#German&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;wikt:das&quot;&gt;das&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Es#German&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;wikt:Es&quot;&gt;Es&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&quot;,&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego#cite_note-Es-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/a&gt; &quot;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;das &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Ich&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;wikt:Ich&quot;&gt;Ich&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&quot;,&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego#cite_note-Ich-19&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[19]&lt;/a&gt; and &quot;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;das &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%BCber-&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;wikt:über-&quot;&gt;Über-&lt;/a&gt;Ich&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego#cite_note-.C3.9Cber-Ich-28&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[28]&lt;/a&gt;—respectively, &quot;the It&quot;, &quot;the I&quot;, and &quot;the Over-I&quot; (or &quot;I above&quot;); thus to the German reader, Freud's original terms are more or less self-explanatory. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What's the referent of the German pronoun 'Es'? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why didn't Freud name (the concept known as ⟨Es⟩) with the referent itself instead? I.e., wouldn't naming ⟨Es⟩ as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english-german/instinct&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;'Instinkt'&lt;/a&gt; to mean &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/3975&quot;&gt;'instinctual drive'&lt;/a&gt; make the term easier to understand and more self-explanatory? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-24T17:32:36.460" LastActivityDate="2017-11-25T21:11:30.410" Title="What did Freud intend as the referent of 'Das Es' (Latin: 'id')? Why didn't he name with the referent?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;freud&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18520" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18519" CreationDate="2017-11-23T11:09:43.193" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Freud din't come up with that terminology, he borrowed it from his contemporaries. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; Freud borrowed the term &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://german.stackexchange.com/questions/2361/what-is-the-difference-between-ist-and-es&quot;&gt;das Es&lt;/a&gt;&quot; from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Groddeck&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Georg Groddeck&lt;/a&gt;, a German physician to whose unconventional ideas Freud was much attracted (Groddeck's translators render the term in English also as &quot;the It&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nietzsche, who is thought to have &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophynow.org/issues/68/Psychoanalysis_and_Philosophy_II&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;influenced Freud&lt;/a&gt; also often used the German pronoun das Es. Freud’s English translator indeed used the Latin word 'id'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-25T21:11:30.410" LastActivityDate="2017-11-25T21:11:30.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18521" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18516" CreationDate="2017-11-23T22:02:21.487" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I cannot give an exclusive answer, but if you are talking about a schoolbook neuron with different neurons synapsing onto it, then excitation is indeed generally mediated by another neurotransmitter than inhibition. Why?...&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;First and foremost. While recognizing that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/neurotransmitters-their-receptors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurotransmitters in themselves are not excitatory or inhibitory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, it is the receptors that govern their workings, it is a fact that in the central nervous system the principal excitatory neurotransmitter is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/neurotransmitters-their-receptors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;glutamate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, and the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/neurotransmitters-their-receptors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GABA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. In fact, none of the Glu receptors (ionotropic or metabotropic) afaik is inhibitory, and none of the GABA receptors is excitatory. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Secondly, from a postsynaptic point of view, synapses with different input cells are separate. In other words, a glutamatergic neuron never secretes GABA in the same synapse or &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;. In effect, neurotransmitter systems are separated. Often, a principal neurotransmitter may be accompanied by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/neurotransmitters-their-receptors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuromodulators&lt;/a&gt;, but never will one neuron release opposite effector molecules. Instead, opposing inputs are imposed by separate cells, each with their own neurotransmitter system.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The neurotransmitter &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Excitation-contraction_coupling_in_skeletal_muscle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;acetylcholine&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; can be excitatory at the neuromuscular junction in skeletal muscle, causing the muscle to contract. In contrast, it is inhibitory in the heart, where it slows heart rate. So Ach can have dualistic and even opposing actions, but the respective &lt;strong&gt;receptors are different and geographically segregated in different neurons&lt;/strong&gt;;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;But, this is schoolbook, anthropocentric knowledge, and if you ask &lt;em&gt;any creature, anywhere in the multiverse&lt;/em&gt;, then yeah... I don't know.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-23T23:03:01.300" LastActivityDate="2017-11-23T23:03:01.300" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18522" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-24T02:42:56.797" Score="0" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any literature suggesting a relationship between academic performance and cognitive function?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find something that suggests which cognitive functions/domains are typically utilized when taking school exams. Obviously this will depend heavily on the nature of the exam, but are there any studies that have looked at this generally?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, do people that perform better on exams also perform better on computer based tasks assessing working memory, or ignoring visual distractors etc? Hence allowing you to narrow down the specific set of cognitive functions associated with taking an exam?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: by cognitive function, I'm referring to things like working memory, sustained attention, executive function, spatial processing. Not so much IQ or any measures of intelligence&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9054" LastEditorUserId="9054" LastEditDate="2017-11-24T21:15:16.527" LastActivityDate="2017-11-24T21:15:16.527" Title="Academic performance" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18522" CreationDate="2017-11-24T05:22:41.513" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If by cognitive function you mean IQ, then that's most of the focus of the intelligence research, as in the main motivation to study IQ. In one large UK study of children &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289606000171&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the correlation was 0.81&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;But there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886912001894&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;personality factors influencing academic performance as well&lt;/a&gt;. Even with respect to IQ [as measured in pracice], it is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2011/04/what-does-iq-really-measure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;suspected that it is influenced in part by motivation&lt;/a&gt;, which itself may be an interaction between personality and the context/environment. And to the extent that self-discipline is different than [short-term] motivation, some research suggest &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16313657&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;it may matter even more&lt;/a&gt; for academic performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-24T06:11:01.173" LastActivityDate="2017-11-24T06:11:01.173" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18526" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18775" CreationDate="2017-11-25T00:13:05.010" Score="4" ViewCount="498" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR&#xA;What on Earth is going on in someone's head to invert a cognitive bias that is robustly observed in people who are psychologically healthy (Cohen's &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 1.28) and still present in depression (Cohen's &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 0.21)? I am looking to reconcile the &lt;em&gt;self-serving bias&lt;/em&gt; with either the &lt;em&gt;Imposter Syndrome&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;mental illness&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;Some people&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, as the familiar trope notes, &lt;em&gt;“are born on third base and go through life thinking they hit a triple.”&lt;/em&gt; While we are all familiar with individuals who are thoroughly unable to accurately attribute the true cause of their achievements, rarely do we ever consider the possibility that we too are guilty of the &lt;em&gt;self-serving bias&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The self-serving bias appears to be both universal and robust. Moreover, an attenuated bias is associated with mental illness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/D8GtY.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/D8GtY.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Mezulis, A. H., Abramson, L. Y., Hyde, J. S., &amp;amp; Hankin, B. L. (2004). Is &#xA;There a Universal Positivity Bias in Attributions? A Meta-Analytic   &#xA;Review of Individual, Developmental, and Cultural Differences in the &#xA;Self-Serving Attributional Bias. Psychological Bulletin, 130(5), 711–747. &#xA;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.5.711&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Others, on the other hand, seem to be afflicted with an attribution bias &lt;em&gt;antipodal&lt;/em&gt; to the self-serving bias. These people seem to completely unable  to internalise their achievements as truly their own, and appear to dismissively attribute their successes to external factors most people do for &lt;em&gt;everyone&lt;/em&gt; but themselves -- the Imposter Syndrome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clance and Imes (1978) first characterised the Imposter Syndrome typology among their high-achieving female patients:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UCss2.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UCss2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Clance, P. R., &amp;amp; Imes, S. A. (1978). The imposter phenomenon in high &#xA;achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic intervention. Psychotherapy: &#xA;Theory, Research &amp;amp; Practice, 15(3), 241–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0086006&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, how can we reconcile what seem to be two antipodal phenomena?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a very cursory consideration of things, it seems that for individuals with the Imposter Syndrome, the self-serving bias is either greatly attenuated, or dare I say, inverted. For that to occur, we might presume two things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They have crushingly low self-efficacy and/or; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;They are processing information in an aberrant manner. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, how does social, cognitive, or abnormal psychology reconcile the self-serving bias with the Imposter Syndrome? Is the Imposter Syndrome even a &lt;em&gt;thing&lt;/em&gt; or simply a cognitive style that occurs among people with depression? If so, what are their similarities, and what are their departures? In other words, is the phenomenology of someone with severe depression effectively the same as someone with the Imposter Syndrome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where possible, please include references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2017-12-30T03:21:10.180" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T08:02:06.597" Title="How might the &quot;Imposter Syndrome&quot; typology be reconciled with the robustness of the &quot;self-serving bias&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;attribution&gt;&lt;causal-inference&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18527" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18329" CreationDate="2017-11-25T03:06:15.223" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;if &quot;chunking&quot; is not used?&#xA;  This answer neatly explains what chunking is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chunking is a strategy for more efficiently storing information by changing the way you encode or process it. Effectively, you're arranging/re-arranging information in a way that makes sense to you. Chunking refers to breaking it up into meaningful lots. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose you had a digit span task. Normal capacity is 7 plus/minus 2 digits. I was presented the following digit span numbers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;11111111111111111111111112221111111111111111111111111&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could store it as: 1-1-1-1… however, by the time I got to the end, the information I encoded at the start would have decayed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So instead of trying to store it that way, I could break it up into the meaning parts: twenty-five 1s, three 2s, twenty-five 1s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wow! Did I just increase my digit span to over 53 digits? No, not quite. I just changed the way the information was encoded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By chunking information, one can store more information by more efficiently structuring it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does the digit span test draw on any executive functions besides working memory, if &quot;chunking&quot; is not used?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, it does. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It actually becomes a better measure of executive function. And working memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, is there a reason why you're looking at digit span? I ask because it's not a good measure of working memory capacity/executive function. Also, your use of digit span may be leading to a number of misconceptions about what is going on during the  WM task, and it's because the digit span task is biasing your understanding of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To begin with, any digit span test requires executive function. This is because at a bare minimum, you need to be paying attention to new information. You need to rehearse it. You need to store it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, if you would like to get a better conceptual idea of what working memory tasks are trying to measure then have a look for the &quot;N-back task&quot;. You should be able to download it. Recommendation: Try to &quot;walking yourself through&quot; the sorts of things you need to do in order to perform the task. It's a hard task. In fact, they don't recommend it be used to actually test WM because performance is too unreliable to be used as a measure of WMC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'm not sure I believe that the digit span is a test of a single raw cognitive function. &#xA;  e.g. surely we don't need to &quot;chunk&quot; for perceptual speed to play a role: would that be helped by other executive functions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you're asking ought to be inferable from first principles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, you need to look at positive manifold. See all those intercorrelations? They're all positive. When you move them around, however, you identify the way that different tasks build up on one another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The easiest way top make sense of this is to look at Carroll's Three Stratum Model. The single abilities are right at the bottom. But our digit span test is at stratum II&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/caRYQ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/caRYQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;Carroll&amp;#39;s Three Stratum Model&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'm not sure I believe that the digit span is a test of a single raw cognitive function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no such thing as test of a &quot;single raw cognitive function&quot;. For example, the closest to what I presume you're thinking of is say, a reaction time task. This is called an elementary cognitive task (ECT). But it's not like reaction time is comprised of a &quot;single raw cognitive function&quot;. Instead, (and I think this is what you mean is) this is meant to tap into independent processes as maximally possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But more to the point, digit span is meant to be a measure of WMC. It's &quot;higher up&quot; in terms of requiring that there is integrity of simpler cognitive processes below it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a higher-order task. It's simply not possible to tap a single raw cognitive function. Even without looking it up, I know that it has to be tapping into numerical ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;This is what a good test of WMC will be tapping into. However, digit span doesn't do this, because it's only going to be loading on the phonological loop:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L1KXh.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L1KXh.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;This is what a good test of WMC will be tapping into. However, digit span doesn&amp;#39;t do this, because it&amp;#39;s only going to be loading on the phonological loop.&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;e.g. surely we don't need to &quot;chunk&quot; for perceptual speed to play a role: would that be helped by other executive functions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think I know what you're getting at. Let's just way that, perceptual speed &lt;em&gt;has&lt;/em&gt; to have some role, because if you're, say, looking at a computer screen, light hits your eyes, the travels through the optive nerve and to your brain, Then you create a mental representation somewhere, and then perform higher order processing on it. But if you're asking will it affect it any meaningful way? Then no. But more importantly, one shouldn't design a cognitive task that does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are good and bad tasks. A well designed test of WM is will not try to &quot;tap into&quot; perceptual speed, because if you did poorly in that task, you would not know if it was due to a bottleneck in WMC (which you want) or perceptual speed. This is particularly relevant if somebody has a brain injury where damage in more elementary cognitive process renders then incapable from even performing the task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-08-21T06:21:41.167" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T06:21:41.167" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18528" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-25T09:44:30.133" Score="1" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;People say that it is harder for adults to learn to play instrument, because &lt;em&gt;their muscle became stiff&lt;/em&gt;. Is there evidence for this claim?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17571" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-11-25T20:51:37.253" LastActivityDate="2017-11-25T22:21:28.933" Title="Do children learn to play musical instrument more easily than adults?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18529" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18533" CreationDate="2017-11-25T12:45:25.077" Score="3" ViewCount="412" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have bipolar EEG signal of Fpz-Cz of EEG sleep data which I have downloaded from physionet. I would like to have Fpz signal for my sleep study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any way I could convert a bipolar EEG signal to a monopolar (unipolar) EEG signal?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17590" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-25T22:33:12.273" LastActivityDate="2017-11-25T22:40:02.107" Title="Can a bipolar EEG signal be converted to a monopolar (unipolar) one?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18531" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4718" CreationDate="2017-11-25T13:56:14.137" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;first, i commend you on your reading choice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Did you know? Fun John Lilly Factoid&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Despite identifying as a male, later in life Dr Lilly elected to have  breast implants. Those who knew him would later note that his breasts appeared to be rotting off. Oh, that's John for ya!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;for many years john lilly was my intellectual hero and i spent a lot of time pursuing his work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i recommend you read the following, both by lilly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the human biocomputer - really hard to follow, but it goes into the theoretical approach he took in investigating sensory deprivation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the scientist: a metaphysical autobiography - a much lighter read. very interesting things about his experiences, particularly with ketamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am curious about the reason of this effect. If we are deprived of our senses (being perfectly sane and without drugs), why do we start to hallucinate? What happens inside our brains?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;now, onto sensory deprivation. being such a self-indulgent wanker, i've told enough people about sensory deprivation to write it from memory. unfortunately, i have no references for you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the time, there was a Freudian theory that sleep is a form of unconsciousness that is instantiated once sensory input is withdrawal from the body. To test the theory, Lilly decided to construct an enclosure that attenuated all input as maximally possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sensory deprivation protocol&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lilly though about this matter systemically and proceeded in a perfectly logical manner. Let's go through them one by one as it's a good way to appreciate that his goal attenuate sensory input as maximally as possible without causing any organic damage to his body. Here are the pertinent specifications:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sight.&lt;/em&gt; The enclosure is completely lightproof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Smell.&lt;/em&gt; Lilly was a smoker. First, smell would be detectable and be a distraction for him. However, after enough time passes e.g. 30 minutes, we tend to habituate to smells. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Touch.&lt;/em&gt; Conceptually, this is the most interesting. Lilly filled the enclosure up with water, then added a ridiculous amount of salt. At a density of 1.30 g/ml, the human body will float in the water as though it's weightless. Initially, salt water was used, but Lilly switched over to Epsom salts (MgSO4). A solution of Epsom salt is very silky on the skin and very therapeutic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Temperature.&lt;/em&gt; Temperature is controlled with a thermostat set to 34.5 C. It was at this temperature that Lilly found that if he stayed still, he would perceive the water to be neither hot nor cold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sound.&lt;/em&gt; If sound is generated outside in the medium of air, then it needs to travel across the enclosure, into water before hitting the eardrums. Lilly found that if ge floated on the surface of the water, but with his eardrums just below the surface, the different mediums through which externally generated sound would have to travel would be dampened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Phenomenology of sensory deprivation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that's it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, when one enters the tank and starts floating in complete silence, the body will start to miss its normal sensory input. Just remember, your body is used to this. It's as though there is tonic firing of neurons at a particular regularity: your brain has constructed a map of what input it is meant to over the entirely of your life, but now that baseline input is gone. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Slowly, over time, your brain will start seeking sensory input. It will start by instantiating a behavioural response amenable to you giving it input e.g. you will feel like you want to move your hand somewhere, or maybe scratch yourself. Something. This is all occurring below our conscious awareness. You will probably catch yourself generating sensory input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if you stay still in the water, and your skin cannot detect either hot or cold, what happens is that the representation your brain makes of your body in space starts to lose sharpness. i.e. You will not know where your body ends, and where the water starts. In some sense, it's like when you use your smartphone and it asks you to calibrate the accelerator by rotating it and what have you. It needs to have a conception of gravity and acceleration in order for it to accurately construct a representation of your body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyways: eventually, your brain finally has enough: if you aren't going to furnish it wish sensory input, then it'll make some on its own. And so, it will start generating int.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short: you start hallucinating because your brain is used to a certain level of sensory input. In the absence of that bare minimum input from the sensory modalities, it will start generating whatever sensory input necessary, probably just so it can process it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My impression is that if you research the phenomenon of seeing tracers when the lights are off, an account of the neurobiological substrate of this will be reminiscent of what the the brain experiences under conditions of sensory deprivation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Did you know? Fun John Lilly Factoid&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It was while he was floating that Dr Lilly came to formulate the belief that an extraterrestrial superconsciousness  was communicating with him. During such communications, the beings instructed him to commence administering intramuscular injections of ketamine and await further instructions. So dedicated was he to honouring the wishes his guests that at his peak, he maintained a dosing schedule of 50 mg i.m. ketamine per hour, 20 hours a day, for three weeks. What selflesslessness!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2017-11-25T14:17:46.967" LastActivityDate="2017-11-25T14:17:46.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18532" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3768" CreationDate="2017-11-25T15:35:50.027" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The issue is that there are many variations of cognitive behavioral therapy, and each variation has its own techniques (as well as some that overlap with other therapies).  A lot of the time, when people are speaking about cognitive behavioral therapy, they are considering cognitive behavioral therapy as conceived by Aaron Beck.  However, there have been many different &quot;variations&quot; of cognitive behavioral therapy, which some envision as having come in three waves.  I wrote an article that I considered to be a good &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.infocounselling.com/list-of-cbt-techniques/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of cognitive behavioral therapy techniques&lt;/a&gt;.  However, I am now planning extensive revisions and possibly a couple of additional articles to clarify the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are many variations of CBT (and I shall write an article explaining that and listing them)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In total, there are over 70 techniques of CBT when you consider all the different versions of it.  I shall write an article listing them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I will either rewrite or revise my current article to reflect that it mainly accounts for CBT as conceived by Aaron Beck.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17591" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-11-25T20:48:32.127" LastActivityDate="2017-11-25T20:48:32.127" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18533" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18529" CreationDate="2017-11-25T21:36:03.717" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;As far as I can see - no you can't. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In EEG systems, unipolar signals are measurements against a distant reference electrode, for example Fpz (Fig. 1). So suppose I have recorded &lt;em&gt;unipolar&lt;/em&gt; EEG signals, say O1 and O2 against Fps, then I can obtain a bipolar measurement offline by subtracting O1-O2 (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.biopac.com/knowledge-base/bipolar-eeg/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biopac&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you start with a bipolar measurement, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; O1-O2, then you can never reduce those recordings back to O1-Fpz and O2-Fpz as the O1 and O2 signals are independent of Fpz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, 'the' Fpz signal is non-existant, as an electrophysiological potential (and in fact &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; potential), is a potential &lt;em&gt;difference&lt;/em&gt; between 2 points. There &lt;em&gt;is no&lt;/em&gt; potential difference on one electrode.        &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;PS. &#xA;I am not proficient in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat505/node/49&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;principal component analysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, but I do know that by cross-correlating various electrode-pairs a source analysis can be done. Perhaps you could somehow extract the unipolar signal from bipolar signals, but I must say that a Google Scholar search using the search terms 'principal + component + analysis + eeg + bipolar + to + unipolar' did not yield any useful hits, at least at first glance.&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/baslw.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/baslw.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig.1. EEG montage. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.edfplus.info/specs/edftexts.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kemp &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2003&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-25T22:40:02.107" LastActivityDate="2017-11-25T22:40:02.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18534" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18528" CreationDate="2017-11-25T22:14:30.103" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Roughly speaking, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00817/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;most forms of learning become harder as one ages&lt;/a&gt;. Probably the most relevant aspect for your question is &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11556-008-0030-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;learning fine motor skills&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;most studies revealed that performance gains in fine motor tasks are diminished in older adults&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-25T22:21:28.933" LastActivityDate="2017-11-25T22:21:28.933" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5829" CreationDate="2017-11-25T23:51:05.287" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Philip gave a pretty good answer (+1). There's also a phenomenon called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief_perseverance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;belief perseverance&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, typically defined as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;maintaining a belief despite new information that firmly contradicts it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This IMHO is a little closer to &quot;mental rigidity&quot;; jumping to conclusions is sometimes done because one is biased toward his &quot;rigid&quot; (prior) idea, i.e. a form of confirmation bias, although certainly other forms of cognitive deficits can lead to incorrect inferences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2017.02.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;two-factor [theoretical] approach to delusions&lt;/a&gt; basically includes belief perseverance, at least in an extreme pathological form:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Central to the two-factor approach is that the presence of any&#xA;  delusion, regardless of theme or medical context, must be&#xA;  accounted for by answering two distinct questions: 1) how did the&#xA;  unusual thought content first arise?; and 2) having once entertained&#xA;  the idea, why does the patient fail to reject it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus the question of whether &quot;mental rigidity&quot; causes other &quot;psychological problems&quot; is a bit circular because (in extreme forms) perseverance in &lt;em&gt;unusual&lt;/em&gt; beliefs is one of the symptoms of mental disorders that include delusions (schizophrenia, psychotic depression etc.), which are defined operationally, so in terms of symptoms. And we're getting a bit further afield here, but I do think it's worth mentioning that some of the debate of whether delusions are socially constructed &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3694307/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hinges on what beliefs are sufficiently unusual in a given society&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;it can be extremely difficult to develop an operational way of determining what is or is not a part of normal experience, and it is correspondingly difficult to distinguish clearly between a belief that is truly delusional and one that is merely unusual, arcane or irrational&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some psychiatrists have even investigated the perseverance in common (but non-factual) beliefs like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1071634/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;racism from a delusional-phenomenon perspective&lt;/a&gt;. Religious beliefs are also commonly &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15990520&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brought into discussion&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In clinical practice, no clear guidelines exist to distinguish between &quot;normal&quot; religious beliefs and &quot;pathological&quot; religious delusions. Historically, psychiatrists such as Freud have suggested that all religious beliefs are delusional, while the current DSM-IV definition of delusion exempts religious doctrine from pathology altogether. From an individual standpoint, a dimensional approach to delusional thinking (emphasizing conviction, preoccupation, and extension rather than content) may be useful in examining what is and is not pathological. When beliefs are shared by others, the idiosyncratic can become normalized. Therefore, recognition of social dynamics and the possibility of entire delusional subcultures is necessary in the assessment of group beliefs. Religious beliefs and delusions alike can arise from neurologic lesions and anomalous experiences, suggesting that at least some religious beliefs can be pathological.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And even further out, some famous atheists have argued that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_God_Delusion#Other_themes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some religious beliefs can make a society as a whole more dysfunctional&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now if you actually want to define stubbornness as not adapting one's beliefs to those of those around him (like in your second-to-last sentence/question)... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is it possible to state that most of people change their beliefs to become adaptive to the requirements of society while stubborn people don't?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... the more common term for [the opposite of] that is (social) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conformity&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But do note that conformity may include machiavellianism etc., so not really changing one's inner beliefs, but pretending to do so for the purpose of fitting better in society. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even glossing over that, some nonconformists (e.g. schizophrenics) may exhibit belief perseverance, but other non-conformists may exhibit huge cognitive flexibility, much more so than most people around them. In particular, think of those non-conformists that pioneered new fields of science, etc. So I think the final part of your question is conflating &quot;mental rigidity&quot;/stubbornness with non-conformism, but the two are not really the same concept, although overlap/intersection is certainly possible in some individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-26T01:18:20.420" LastActivityDate="2017-11-26T01:18:20.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18537" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-26T08:39:21.267" Score="1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rate-of-test-taking (also known as r9) is one of the main subsets of processing speed, so is tested via e.g. the symbol digit coding task. I believe it is affected by e.g. depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How likely is it that rate-of-test-taking impacts on WM tests, the digit span test etc,?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was pointed out in &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/18329/does-the-digit-span-test-draw-on-any-executive-functions-besides-working-memory/18527?noredirect=1#comment34782_18527&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt; that tests of WM should create a &quot;bottleneck&quot; so that other cognitive processes are implicated less. What about r9?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2017-11-29T11:38:28.380" LastActivityDate="2017-11-29T17:24:06.523" Title="How likely is it that rate-of-test-taking impacts on WM tests?" Tags="&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18538" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20957" CreationDate="2017-11-26T12:30:31.207" Score="12" ViewCount="202" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are brain regions (X) that show stronger activation for joyful music, regions (Y) that show stronger activation for sad music, and regions (Z) that show similar activation for both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming that joyful or sad music activates similar brain regions as other tasks designed to induce a joyful or sad mood, we know more specifically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Both joyful and sad music produce &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;amp;pid=S1516-44462017000200172&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;similar activation of the amygdala-hippocampal area, with activation extending into the parahippocampal gyrus, as well as activation of the prefrontal, temporal, and anterior cingulate cortices and the precuneus&lt;/a&gt; (regions Z).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Joyful music produces &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;amp;pid=S1516-44462017000200172&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;stronger activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the cingulate gyrus, the inferior temporal gyrus, the cerebellum, and in the vicinity of the ventral medial frontal cortex&lt;/a&gt; (regions X).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other side, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3227856/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;it has repeatedly been found that happy music is characterized by fast tempo and major mode, whereas sad music is typically played in slow tempo and minor&#xA;mode&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bringing these findings together the question arises&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By which specific neuronal mechanisms does fast tempo and major mode&#xA;  music activate more strongly brain regions X than regions Y? And vice&#xA;  versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it by some kind of fine-tuned resonance (involving feedback) between the sensory input from the ears and the brain regions involved? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there specific theoretical (computational) models, and have they been tested?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can - by these mechanisms - the subtle difference between a major and a minor third become so significant, both neuronally and emotionally?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;amp;pid=S1516-44462017000200172&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A systematic review of the neural correlates of positive emotions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3227856/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Functional MRI Study of Happy and Sad Emotions in Music with and without Lyrics&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ecff/824c7a99a1dabfca560bf1ae97d0caaefadb.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain correlates of music-evoked emotions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.willimekmusic.de/music-and-emotions.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Music and Emotions. Research on the Theory of Musical Equilibration&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://shareill.org/freebooks/download/asin=0521171555&amp;amp;type=full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Cambridge Handbook of Human Affective Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-11-27T11:15:25.580" LastActivityDate="2018-10-20T07:05:41.460" Title="By which neuronal mechanisms does music make us happy or sad?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18501" CreationDate="2017-11-26T14:32:43.647" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2017.1393367&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a review&lt;/a&gt; in a relatively obscure journal, but it seems a reasonable summary of the existing research, except for the fact that income and wealth aren't necessarily the same: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A review of literature regarding income and altruism revealed mixed evidence. Chen, Zhu, and&#xA;  Chen (2013) showed that, under a dictator game setting, pre-school children from higherincome&#xA;  families give fewer stickers (endowment of the game) to others compared to kids from&#xA;  lower-income families. Miller, Kahle, and Hastings (2015) altered the game so that the tokens&#xA;  (endowment of the game) had to be earned via work and the kids were told that the recipients of&#xA;  their donation would be other sick kids who were not able to make it to the venue on that day.&#xA;  They still found that kids from richer families are less likely to donate their tokens compared to&#xA;  kids from poorer families. Piff, Kraus, Côté, Cheng, and Keltner (2010) conducted experiments&#xA;  on adults using economic games and scenarios and found that individuals of lower socioeconomic&#xA;  status appeared to be more generous, more trusting, and more compassionate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On the other hand, Hoffman (2011) investigated historical data during the World War II&#xA;  on people’s decision to rescue the Jews. He found that the higher the income of the people, the&#xA;  more likely they were to rescue the Jews. Holland, Silva, and Mace (2012) used a lost-letter&#xA;  experiment. They dropped letters on pavements in different neighborhoods in the United&#xA;  Kingdom and found that letters dropped in the richer neighborhoods were more likely to be&#xA;  returned to the address listed on the letters. Looking into this issue more thoroughly,&#xA;  Andreoni, Nikiforakis, and Stoop (2017) designed a more complicated version of the lostletter&#xA;  experiment. Under their setting, the envelopes used were thin enough so that contents of&#xA;  items in the envelopes (cash, or bank transfer cards) could be seen from the outside. The&#xA;  letters were mis-delivered to rich and poor households in the Netherlands. Their initial results&#xA;  revealed that the rich were more likely to return the envelopes compared to the poor.&#xA;  However, with further investigations, the authors found that the rich were not more altruistic&#xA;  than the poor. The fact that the rich were more likely to return the envelopes was because they&#xA;  faced lower financial constraint and had lower marginal utility for the found money.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The above evidence showed that the relationship between income and altruism may be&#xA;  ambiguous. Thus, it cannot yet be concluded whether the degree of altruism [...] should be higher for the rich or for the poor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, that may not be as relevant as I had hoped &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4911756/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;because&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is unfortunate that a false dialectic between narcissism and altruism is in common usage. The two entities regularly co-exist. Vaillant, in his longitudinal study of healthy males, found that altruism increases significantly in the second half of life – not simply because we become more selfless as we age, but rather because helping others becomes more rewarding to us. A neuroimaging study demonstrated that those who are altruistic directly benefit from their altruism. Participants had to choose to endorse or oppose societal causes by anonymous decisions to donate or refrain from donating to real charitable organizations. The mesolimbic reward system was engaged when one donated money in the same way as it was when one received monetary awards. In other words, altruism activates brain centers that are associated with selfish pleasures like sex or eating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately the narcissism-wealth link alone has received less attention, perhaps because most researchers were interested in outward behavior (like altruism). Or in more prosaic terms, most people don't care how long you look at yourself in the mirror as long as you give them money :P&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-11-26T15:15:39.860" LastActivityDate="2017-11-26T15:15:39.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18540" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6133" CreationDate="2017-11-26T21:41:42.487" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both socionics and MBTI are a try to dig deeper on the path of Carl Gustav Jung, who observed empirically (both from his work as a psychiatrist and from his travels across the globe) that all human brains displayed common cognitive descriptions, which Jung described by two energy-attitudes, two perception functions and two judgment functions.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;About Jung&lt;/strong&gt; (about 100 years ago - his milestone book about cognitive types&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  was published in 1921)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The energy attitudes are &lt;em&gt;introverted&lt;/em&gt; - the energy flows outward from the&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  inside stimulation; and &lt;em&gt;extraverted&lt;/em&gt; - the energy flows inward from the&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  outside stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The perception functions are &lt;em&gt;intuition&lt;/em&gt; - a misnomer, with intuition you&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  take information from a 3,000 ft view and make connections from this - and&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;em&gt;sensation&lt;/em&gt; - you take information from your senses and like to get into&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  details, like with a magnifier glass.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The judging functions are &lt;em&gt;thinking&lt;/em&gt; - you make your decisions based on&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  logic - and &lt;em&gt;feeling&lt;/em&gt; - a slight misnomer, you make your decisions based on&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  your subjective set of values (N.B. objective and subjective are commonly-used&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  words in C G Jung's books).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Following Jung, we all have a piece of everything in us, but we also have a&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  preference for each dimension - energy management, taking information,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  making a decision.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Jung described a set of 2x2+2x2=8 cognitive functions: introverted thinking,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  introverted feeling, extraverted thinking, extraverted feeling, introverted&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  intuition, introverted sensation, extraverted intuition and extraverted&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  sensation - also known as Ti, Fi, Te, Fe, Ni, Si, Ne and Se. Yes, N stands&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  for iNtuition, as i stands for Introverted.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned in the comments, the MBTI was developed in the US - Katharine Briggs met Jung in Switzerland and her daughter Isabel Myers-Briggs was raised in a family/friends/colleagues environment that talked about cognitive types and she followed her own path, about 35-to-50 years after Jung.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;About Briggs and Myers&lt;/strong&gt; (about 50 years ago)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;They described the structure of the preferences of the cognitive functions:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  sixteen combinations rephrase Jung's preferences, with the three axis from&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Jung (energy orientation of the dominant function, perception function,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  judgment function) and with a fourth axis, describing &lt;strong&gt;whether the&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  extraverted function among the main two functions used by a profile&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  is either a perception function or a judgment function&lt;/strong&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This descriptions fits into four letters (E or I, S or N, T or F, J or P)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  that describes the preference of a cognitive profile for two Jungian functions.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Every profile has an inward function and an outward function, every profile&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  has a perception function and a judgment function. With a main (dominant) and&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  an auxiliary (auxiliary) function, this makes 16 combinations of letters,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  and 16 archetypes to describe common traits of a profile.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (or MBTI) is a questionnaire that tries to&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  figure out whether your preference is E or I, S or N, T or F, J or P. Its&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  main weakness is that this way of typing is not accurate at all - though it&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  had a huge success in business. This was a weakness from the science viewpoint,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  as the MBTI never improved upon itself, by trying to describe with better&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  accuracy the nature of our cognitive functions (which was Jung's goal).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, we turn to the former USSR, where other people followed the path of Jung,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;too. They founded socionics, which is an extrapolation of Jung's work to describe&lt;br&gt;&#xA;how the 16 profiles communicate and interact with one another.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;About socionics&lt;/strong&gt; (about 50 years ago - USSR)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Socionics also developed a fourth axis beyond Jung's three axis, but do not&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  be misunderstood about it, &lt;strong&gt;as it is not the same fourth axis as in MBTI&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  In socionics, the fourth letter describes &lt;strong&gt;whether the dominant function of&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  a profile is a perception function (p) or a judgment function (j)&lt;/strong&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, while MBTI focused on typing with four letters, socionics kept&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  working both on the four-letter code and on the description of the Jungian&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  functions. For the four-letter code, socionics described one-letter&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  archetypes like in MBTI, but also two-letter and three-letter archetypes.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;About the Jungian functions, socionics described how a given Jungian function&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  (e.g. Introverted Thinking) could be described by a slightly different archetype&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  depending on its rank within the eight functions - while MBTI described&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  mostly the first two or the first four functions of a profile, socionics&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  tried to describe the eight functions of a profile, by decreasing order of preference.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trying to describe a cognitive profile by an order of functions leads us to&lt;br&gt;&#xA;figuring out &lt;strong&gt;how stress states may alter our use of our preferred functions&lt;/strong&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This topic was mentioned by Jung (through the concept of Shadow), it is hardly&lt;br&gt;&#xA;described in MBTI (not much developed either is the topic of mastering our&lt;br&gt;&#xA;functions as we grow older - there are a few life stages when we care&lt;br&gt;&#xA;differently for our preferred cognitive functions), while socionics described&lt;br&gt;&#xA;a stress model called Model-A (this is a first step on our journey).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Wrapping things up - until you ask for more?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When MBTI and Socionics speak (about) the same with a different vocabulary:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  MBTI  -  Socionics  -  Jungian functions (descending order)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  INTP  -  INTj       -  Ti Ne Si Fe Te Ni Se Fi&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ENTP  -  ENTp       -  Ne Ti Fe Si Ni Te Fi Se&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  INFP  -  INFj       -  Fi Ne Si Te Fe Ni Se Ti&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ENFP  -  ENFp       -  Ne Fi Te Si Ni Fe Ti Se&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ISTP  -  ISTj       -  Ti Se Ni Fe Te Si Ne Fi&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ESTP  -  ESTp       -  Se Ti Fe Ni Si Te Fi Ne&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ISFP  -  ISFj       -  Fi Se Ni Te Fe Si Ne Ti&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ESFP  -  ESFp       -  Se Fi Te Ni Si Fe Ti Ne&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ENTJ  -  ENTj       -  Te Ni Se Fi Ti Ne Si Fe&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  INTJ  -  INTp       -  Ni Te Fi Se Ne Ti Fe Si&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ENFJ  -  ENFj       -  Fe Ni Se Ti Fi Ne Si Te&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  INFJ  -  INFp       -  Ni Fe Ti Se Ne Fi Te Si&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ESTJ  -  ESTj       -  Te Si Ne Fi Ti Se Ni Fe&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ISTJ  -  ISTp       -  Si Te Fi Ne Se Ti Fe Ni&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ESFJ  -  ESFj       -  Fe Si Ne Ti Fi Se Ni Te&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  ISFJ  -  ISFp       -  Si Fe Ti Ne Se Fi Te Ni  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I hope this helps!&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17597" LastActivityDate="2017-11-26T21:41:42.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18543" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-27T10:49:05.557" Score="2" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to create an online survey where the participant hears a series of randomly determined sound files and rates each of them on a likert scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We will have around 1000 participants, each hearing 10 randomly determined sounds, with the following condition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The sound files each depend on two variables and there is one file for each combination:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;e.g. If the two variable can take the values [&lt;strong&gt;A&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt;] and [&lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt;] respectively then there would be 9 possible sound files:&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;A1&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;A2&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;A3&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;B1&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;B2&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;B3&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;C1&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;C2&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;C3&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want each participant to hear an example of each variable exactly once.&#xA;e.g.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;A2&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;C3&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;B1&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;B2&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;A1&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;C3&lt;/strong&gt; are both valid series of sounds (no letters or numbers are repeated)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;but&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;C1&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;C2&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;A3&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;A3&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;C1&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;B3&lt;/strong&gt; are not valid series (a letter or number has been repeated).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[In my case I have 10 values of each random variable, 100 sound files].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've tried &lt;em&gt;Qualtrics&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;REDCap&lt;/em&gt; but cannot see how to do this sort of randomization.&#xA;Is there an online survey creation tool that supports this functionality?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;or failing that, can anyone explain how to to this in &lt;em&gt;Qualtics&lt;/em&gt;/&lt;em&gt;REDCap&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[I originally asked this question I academia and was advised this was a more appropriate place to ask.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17600" LastEditorUserId="17600" LastEditDate="2017-11-27T11:27:39.483" LastActivityDate="2017-11-27T11:27:39.483" Title="Desigining an online survey with two levels of randomisation" Tags="&lt;software&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18544" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-27T10:50:15.457" Score="2" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Locke&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An Essay Concerning Human Understanding&lt;/a&gt;, book 2, chapter 9:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I shall here insert a problem of that very ingenious and studious&#xA;  promoter of real knowledge, the learned and worthy &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Molyneux&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mr. Molyneux&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;  which he was pleased to send me in a letter some months since; and it&#xA;  is this:—&quot;Suppose a man born blind, and now adult, and taught by his&#xA;  touch to distinguish between a cube and a sphere of the same metal,&#xA;  and nighly of the same bigness, so as to tell, when he felt one and&#xA;  the other, which is the cube, which the sphere. Suppose then the cube&#xA;  and sphere placed on a table, and the blind man be made to see:&#xA;  quaere, whether by his sight, before he touched them, he could now&#xA;  distinguish and tell which is the globe, which the cube?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Only recently a definite experimental answer has been given to this question (which is known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molyneux%27s_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Molyneux's problem&lt;/a&gt;): &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nn.2795.epdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&quot;No&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (Sinha et al, 2011). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question goes into the same direction as Molyneux's but concerns audition and emotion, not vision. An answer to this question might give a hint to an answer to the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/18538/by-which-neuronal-mechanisms-does-sad-music-make-us-sad&quot;&gt;how it comes that we perceive music as happy or sad&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suppose a man born deaf, and now adult, and taught to distinguish between happiness and sadness, so as to tell, when he felt one and&#xA;  the other, which is happiness and which is sadness. Suppose then some happy and some sad music is played, and the deaf man be made to hear:&#xA;  quaere, whether by his hearing, he could now&#xA;  distinguish and tell which is the happy music, which the sad one?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume this question only makes sense when there is music that is somehow &quot;objectively&quot; perceived as happy or sad by healthy people (being &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_universal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cross-cultural universals&lt;/a&gt;). But this seems to be the case: In many cultures (including Asian and African) fast tempo and major mode music tends to be perceived as happy, and slow tempo and minor mode music tends to be perceived as sad (see Kleinen, 1994,&#xA; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982209008136&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fritz et al, 2009&lt;/a&gt;). So the above experiment is to be performed with prototypically happy (fast, major) and prototypically sad (slow, minor) music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Have experiments &amp;ndash; like Sinha's for vision &amp;ndash; been performed for audition and emotion (with musical stimuli)? What was the result?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sinha et al, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nn.2795.epdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The newly sighted fail to match seen with fel&lt;/a&gt;t (2011)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fritz et al, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982209008136&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Universal Recognition of Three Basic Emotions in Music&lt;/a&gt; (2009)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Günter Kleinen, Musikalischer Ausdruck und ästhetische Wertung als interkulturelle Qualität und Differenz (1994)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2017-11-27T13:26:43.427" LastActivityDate="2017-11-27T13:26:43.427" Title="Innateness of perceiving music as happy or sad" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18545" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18570" CreationDate="2017-11-27T18:11:37.500" Score="4" ViewCount="464" Body="&lt;p&gt;Usually, a study participant is viewing stimuli on a computer screen while their EEG is recorded through the hardware provided by a manufacturer. To later synchronize the EEG data to stimuli, an experimenter will send so-called 'markers' from the stimulation computer to the EEG hardware so that the markers are encoded in realtime together with the EEG data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do most manufacturers use the old-fashioned &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_port&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parallel port&lt;/a&gt; for that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know, that the parallel port allows for a &lt;em&gt;parallel&lt;/em&gt; transmission of up to 8 bits (i.e., 255 possible marker values and one '0' marker to indicate 'no marker') ... however, while that is a clear advantage, it comes at the cost of using a legacy port that is not available on modern computers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Couldn't we just use a USB port to send data serially (in smaller bit packages) ... and then join these bits to a byte (8bits) to get the same number of possible markers? USB would in theory be fast enough to even compensate for the extra time needed to 'buffer' single bits and then encoding them as a byte.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I getting something wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is the parallel port still so prevalent for this specific application (EEG)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17605" LastActivityDate="2017-12-04T23:15:16.350" Title="Why are EEG markers usually sent over the parallel port?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18546" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9163" CreationDate="2017-11-27T18:28:20.817" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you want to estimate/classify using implicit measures, whether a user is being deceptive while filling out an &lt;em&gt;online&lt;/em&gt; questionnaire ... then methods such as EEG are not suitable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recording EEG data takes a lot of preparation and at least one experimenter to prepare the &quot;user&quot; (in your case the person filling out the questionnaire). And if you are talking about &lt;em&gt;online&lt;/em&gt; questionnaires, I do not see a point in having an experimenter visit the user.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, using (often toy-like) dry-electrodes that could be prepared by a single person, will not yield a sufficient data quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the easiest might be to consensually access the webcam of a user and evaluate the video stream for e.g., eye blinks, or other tentative variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, this sounds like a very difficult task that will probably result in a high number of false positives and false negatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17605" LastActivityDate="2017-11-27T18:28:20.817" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18547" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15222" CreationDate="2017-11-27T18:59:05.463" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;My belief of electromagnetic brain waves such as today prosthetics technology that is just for fronting in today's society with smart prosthetics moving with the thought of process of your brain hooked into your electromagnetic nervous system. Are brain waves electromagnetic frequency generator 10 to 100 cycles per minute of electromagnetic frequencies or other words electromagnetic static.. flowing through our neurons and nerve endings that give us a full word mobility of motion. The conscious of life is electromagnetic frequencies of our brain wave electromagnetic static frequencies that generate movement and thought site feeling all our emotions... There are electromagnetic fields around us that interfere with our surroundings. The brain waves much lower frequency of electrical magnetic pulses.. so if Prosthetics can be tapped into are immune system of nerves and electromagnetic or should I say electrostatic static field of ones human ability.. so the question here would be if Prosthetics can tap into are electromagnetic state of brain waves. That are electrical and nature such as everything else around us how is it that are brain waves are not electromagnetic. But just at a lower frequency of rate of pulse of electromagnetic frequencies at a different rate of speed and frequency that is detectable in measurable&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17606" LastActivityDate="2017-11-27T18:59:05.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18549" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-28T00:16:33.617" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can people defeat Multiple Personality Disorder? After seeing Mike get rid of all his personalities by &quot;the push of a button&quot; and defeating Mal I've always wondered if people can defeat it...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17610" LastActivityDate="2017-11-28T00:16:33.617" Title="MPD get rid of?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2017-12-07T12:08:55.797" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18550" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18552" CreationDate="2017-11-28T07:18:42.610" Score="3" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many religious scriptures, novels, fictions you read about this battle between heart and brain. If till date we are using this in our daily conversations and history is full of these examples then there must be some origin of this concept?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17616" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-28T12:18:51.803" LastActivityDate="2017-11-28T12:18:51.803" Title="What is the origin of the belief that the heart plays a role in influencing the emotions?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18551" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18564" CreationDate="2017-11-28T10:08:53.307" Score="3" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I understand, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Transference is a phenomenon which is related to human behavior where humans unconsciously redirect/transfer their feelings about a subject in the past to apply it to a subject in the present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this definition correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the &lt;code&gt;subject in the past&lt;/code&gt; always have to be &lt;strong&gt;Parents&lt;/strong&gt;? What did Freud say about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user1109" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-30T10:45:27.293" LastActivityDate="2017-11-30T21:00:36.450" Title="Do the feelings related to Transference always originate from parents?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;transfer&gt;&lt;freud&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18552" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18550" CreationDate="2017-11-28T10:34:48.087" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century B.C., &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aristotle&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; identified the heart as the most important organ of the body, and claimed that it was the seat of intelligence and sensation. Aristotle described it as a three-chambered organ that was the center of 'vitality' in the body.  Other organs surrounding it (e.g. brain and lungs) simply existed to cool the heart (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.stanford.edu/class/history13/earlysciencelab/body/heartpages/heart.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford University&lt;/a&gt;). Since then it has been associated with emotions, although in the middle ages during the Enlightenment it already became clear that he heart was a pump, and not the seat of emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A fact, however, is that intense emotions, such as love, fear and anger have pronounced effects on heart rate, mainly because of the release of adrenaline and other (stress) responses regulated by the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (HPA) axis (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personal.psu.edu/afr3/blogs/siowfa12/2012/11/do-you-feel-love-in-your-heart-or-your-brain.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Penn State University&lt;/a&gt;). The brain sends signals to the adrenal gland, which then secretes  hormones and then they go to the heart which causes the heart to beat faster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-11-28T10:34:48.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18553" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-28T16:52:57.403" Score="0" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are single-author research articles looked down upon? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10495" LastActivityDate="2017-11-28T23:33:17.470" Title="How common are single-author research articles in cognitive psychology?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18554" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-28T19:04:09.257" Score="8" ViewCount="876" Body="&lt;p&gt;In one fairly cited &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00711.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;study by E. Glenn Schellenberg&lt;/a&gt; (~800 citations in Google Scholar) we find that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Compared with children in the control groups, children in the music groups exhibited greater increases in full-scale IQ. The effect was relatively small, but it generalized across IQ subtests, index scores, and a standardized measure of academic achievement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The exact &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002182.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;effect size&lt;/a&gt; computed by the authors was 0.35, and the raw increase in IQ score is summarized in the authors' graph below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FPLct.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FPLct.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.appstate.edu/~steelekm/documents/Steele2005-2006SRMHP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper&lt;/a&gt; by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.appstate.edu/~steelekm/research/Steele.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kenneth M. Steele&lt;/a&gt; challenging the study on methodological grounds. This criticism received &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.srmhp.org/0402/music-lessons-reply.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a reply from Schellenberg&lt;/a&gt; which in turn was &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.appstate.edu/~steelekm/documents/Steele2005-2006SRMHP-music-iq.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;answered by Steele&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, has this finding, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, that music education affects IQ, been replicated in other studies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-17T09:05:48.610" LastActivityDate="2018-04-21T08:17:30.163" Title="Does learning (to play) music increase IQ?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18555" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18553" CreationDate="2017-11-28T23:26:48.930" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To target the question in the question body here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is quite opinion-based, because everyone can decide to frown upon something. However, I think that, in general, it's much more about:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Who the author&lt;/strong&gt; is, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, what is their track record in the field;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What their &lt;strong&gt;affiliation&lt;/strong&gt; is;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What the &lt;strong&gt;quality of the article&lt;/strong&gt; is;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What the &lt;strong&gt;quality&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; impact factor) &lt;strong&gt;of the journal&lt;/strong&gt; is.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These considerations are, at least to me, much more important than how many authors follow or precede someone in the author list. I would never judge an article on the number of authors &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;. Lastly, (invited) review papers are often authored by just one author, even in the STEM sciences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-28T23:33:17.470" LastActivityDate="2017-11-28T23:33:17.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18558" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18559" CreationDate="2017-11-29T07:26:56.010" Score="4" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for research I've read about a well known effect that happens when participants complete a survey, where they do not answer what they think is right, but what they think the researchers are expecting from them.&#xA;It can be a survey but it can also be something else...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17636" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2017-11-29T07:46:13.320" LastActivityDate="2017-11-29T07:46:13.320" Title="Name of false answer effect in surveys" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18559" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18558" CreationDate="2017-11-29T07:42:29.350" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_characteristics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;demand characteristics&lt;/a&gt;&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... an experimental artifact where participants form an interpretation&#xA;  of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behavior to&#xA;  fit that interpretation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The good-participant role in which the participant attempts to discern&#xA;  the experimenter's hypotheses and to confirm them. The participant&#xA;  does not want to &quot;ruin&quot; the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Demand characteristics are a type of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Response_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;response bias&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a general term for a wide range of cognitive biases that influence&#xA;  the responses of participants away from an accurate or truthful&#xA;  response. These biases are most prevalent in the types of studies and&#xA;  research that involve participant self-report, such as structured&#xA;  interviews or surveys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another related type of response bias is the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_desirability_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social desirability bias&lt;/a&gt;&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner&#xA;  that will be viewed favorably by others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2017-11-29T07:42:29.350" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18537" CreationDate="2017-11-29T17:24:06.523" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27225070&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The neuroscience of working memory capacity and training&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Christos Constantinidis &amp;amp; Torkel Klingberg asserts that training can increase WM capacity, however this does not translate into better reasoning power:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ongoing research  aims to elucidate the extent to which the&#xA;  improvements  also translate to various other abilities, such as&#xA;  academic  abilities, that statistically correlate with WM capacity. &#xA;  Indeed, transfer to reasoning ability has been reported to  be small,&#xA;  with inconsistent findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, transfers to attention seem more promising:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;More-encouraging  transfer results are seen for attention: several&#xA;  randomized,  controlled trials, some of them including children with &#xA;  ADHD, show decreases in inattentive behaviour in every-day life after&#xA;  WM training&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They cite to support this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Klingberg, T. et al.  Computerized training of working  memory in&#xA;  children with ADHD — a randomized,  controlled trial.  J. Am. Acad.&#xA;  Child Adolesc. Psychiatry  44 , 177–186 (2005)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Brehmer, Y., Westerberg, H. &amp;amp; Backman, L. Working- memory training in&#xA;  younger and older adults: training  gains, transfer, and maintenance.&#xA;  Front. Hum. Neurosci.  6 , 63 (2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Green, C. T. et al.  Will working memory training  generalize to&#xA;  improve off-task behavior in children with &#xA;  attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?  Neurotherapeutics 9 ,&#xA;  639–648 (2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Bigorra, A., Garolera, M., Guijarro, S. &amp;amp; Hervas, A.  Long-term&#xA;  far-transfer effects of working memory  training in children with&#xA;  ADHD: a randomized  controlled trial.  Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry&#xA;  http:// dx.doi.org/&#xA;  10.1007/s00787-015-0804-3  (2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Conklin, H. M. et al.  Computerized cognitive training  for&#xA;  amelioration of cognitive late effects among  childhood cancer&#xA;  survivors: a randomized controlled  trial.  J. Clin. Oncol.  33 ,&#xA;  3894–3902 (2015)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-11-29T17:24:06.523" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18564" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18551" CreationDate="2017-11-30T10:42:55.553" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Transference is often related to feelings felt toward parents, but not always.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transference&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transference&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/6/1/57&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hughes &amp;amp; Kerr, 2000)&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the phenomenon whereby we unconsciously transfer feelings and&#xA;  attitudes from a person or situation in the past on to a person or&#xA;  situation in the present. The process is at least partly inappropriate&#xA;  to the present &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2921238/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ladson &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2007)&lt;/a&gt;, transference are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;unconscious feelings that are transposed onto another significant individual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These feelings can be beneficial for therapeutic purposes, but intense, sexualized transference can be disadvantageous. Sexualized transference is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;any transference in which the patient's fantasies about the analyst&#xA;  contain elements that are primarily reverential, romantic, intimate,&#xA;  sensual, or sexual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors give an example of projections of sexual feelings experienced during early childhood relationships. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So although transference &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt; is often described in relation to parental feelings of submission, vulnerability and openness in a relation between therapist and client, transference can take other shapes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/6/1/57&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hughes &amp;amp; Kerr, &lt;em&gt;Advances in Psychiatric Treatment&lt;/em&gt; (2000); &lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;(1) 57-64&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2921238/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ladson &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Psychiatry (Edgmont)&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 47–50&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-30T21:00:36.450" LastActivityDate="2017-11-30T21:00:36.450" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18567" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-11-30T21:13:58.983" Score="2" ViewCount="203" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any cases or studies of a &lt;code&gt;high self monitor&lt;/code&gt; who intuitively chooses to act &quot;by impulse&quot; in order to reform said impulse? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words when the HSM behaves as a &lt;code&gt;low self monitor&lt;/code&gt; they selectively and willingly embrace a &lt;code&gt;low self presentation&lt;/code&gt; in order to challenge (or embrace flaws) within their own pride, ego, or some other aspect of psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additional questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What else can be said of this situation? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What other questions, or background is necessary to analyze this occurrence? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is this behavior indicative of other problems worth investigating? (e.g. morally flawed premise for taking such action)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What negative effects could there be on the ego and super-ego by behaving this way over long periods of time? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a young age, this HSM may have discovered that behaving as a low-self-presentation allowed them to abdicate responsibility.  This was later corrected in adulthood when the subject decided to actively pursue accountability on past and present behavior... thus leading to overall character improvement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8716" LastEditorUserId="8716" LastEditDate="2017-11-30T22:44:47.483" LastActivityDate="2017-12-01T21:35:40.550" Title="Long term effects of a high self monitor who voluntarily chooses a contradictory self-presentation" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;self&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18568" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16443" CreationDate="2017-11-30T21:30:33.430" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Any basic Neuroscience book would suffice, really. For example, a really good and widely used book is  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Neural_Science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Principles of Neural Science&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; from Kandel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. I read it nearly from cover to cover, and it details the workings of the nervous system from bottom to top. Parts IV to IX are probably most relevant to you:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Part IV: The Neural Basis of Cognition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Part V: Perception&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Part VI: Movement&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Part VII: The Unconscious and Conscious Processing of Neural Information&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Part VIII: Development and the Emergence of Behavior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Part IX: Language, Thought, Affect, and Learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-11-30T21:53:33.183" LastActivityDate="2017-11-30T21:53:33.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18545" CreationDate="2017-12-01T03:01:03.793" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this is for scientists who like to design their own setups. I doubt medical EEGs have a parallel port. You do not always want to sync to a computer. You will often want to synhcronize it to a photodiode, an eyetracker, a tactile stimulator etc. With a parallel port you just plug that trigger to a given pin then you know that everytime your get an integer containing 2^(pin number) you have received a trigger on that pin: for ex. trigger on pin 0 if you are reading 1, on pin 4 if you are reading 16, and on pins 1, 3 and 6 if you are reading 74. Yes, you could read your triggers with a micropchip, then use a serial-USB converter, but that's needlessly complicated and less accurate. USB have surprisingly unreliable timings for a port that can work at such a high baudrate. So it's usually better to synchronize everything to an external input. I usually synchronize an eeg and an eyetracker to a photodiode, then I know they are synchronized perfectly (yet they often have a 1msec difference for some reason).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On top of that, I'm sure there must be some backward compatibility issues. If you are a small lab that has built a complicated setup over the years, you might not want to change your EEG if it means changing your entire apparatus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2017-12-01T03:01:03.793" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18572" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-01T07:19:03.920" Score="6" ViewCount="243" Body="&lt;p&gt;Scientists in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/07/150707102051.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wide study&lt;/a&gt; of subcortical brain abnormalities from the ENIGMA Consortium, Schizophrenia Working Group, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/mp201563#t2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;published&lt;/a&gt; in Molecular Psychiatry, analyzed the brain scans of more than 2,000 people diagnosed with schizophrenia. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I doubt diagnosis is 100% accurate, so I'm thinking a percentage of those diagnosed didn't have abnormalities. What is that percentage? (There is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/mp201563/tables/2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;table&lt;/a&gt; in the Molecular Psychiatry article, with information which might or might not be related to my question, but I don't know how to read it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17682" LastEditorUserId="17682" LastEditDate="2017-12-01T23:54:07.807" LastActivityDate="2018-08-12T21:00:55.297" Title="What percentage of those diagnosed with schizophrenia didn't have brain abnormalities?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18574" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-01T12:11:26.590" Score="1" ViewCount="220" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are the sometimes very fast and complicated rhythmic movements and often long lasting patterns a musician performs while playing a piece of music generated by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_pattern_generator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;central pattern generators&lt;/a&gt; (in the sense of Wikipedia)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask because I am astonished that intricate and fast rhythmic patterns are not mentioned in the article, but only basal and rather slow motions like locomotion, respiration, swallowing. Is it because other systems are responsible for the fast and complicated patterns observed in musical high-performance than central pattern generators? If so: which ones?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Note, that heart beat isn't mentioned, neither. What does this mean?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastActivityDate="2017-12-01T12:11:26.590" Title="Do central pattern generators control musical performance?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18576" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18567" CreationDate="2017-12-01T21:35:40.550" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;So basically the question eventually became about the influences of on-line activities on changing (improving in this case) one's behavior if not downright one's personality in real life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a body of evidence that this is not uncommon, especially with children, adolescents and young adults. It's not an incredibly well research topic, so I'll mention a few papers and their findings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185521&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The influence of anonymous peers on prosocial behavior&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Prosocial behavior of anonymous peers (confederates) exerts a profound influence on college students’ participation in a signature campaign and money donation, whereas the reading of a prosocial paragraph has no effect. Furthermore, no participants reported peer influence as a reason for engaging in prosocial behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2678173/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The Effects of Prosocial Video Games on Prosocial Behaviors: International Evidence from Correlational, Longitudinal, and Experimental Studies&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The experimental study using U.S. university undergraduates demonstrated a short-term causal impact of playing prosocial games on helpful behavior (and of playing violent games on hurtful behavior). Short-term experiments like this are especially important for at least two reasons: (a) they provide a strong case for causality; (b) they reveal underlying processes likely to influence long-term effects. The correlational study using Singaporean junior high schoolers demonstrated the predicted associations among video game habits and “real world” prosocial and antisocial behaviors and traits. Such correlational studies are important because: (a) they provide an opportunity for a theoretical model to fail; (b) they allow tests of the predicted association with long-term consequential behavioral patterns and traits; and (c) they allow tests of some plausible alternative explanations. The longitudinal study using Japanese children and adolescents demonstrated effects of earlier prosocial game play habits on later prosocial behavior. Such studies allow strong causal inferences, primarily by ruling out many alternative explanations that rely on individual differences in trait aggressiveness and in interests that exist at the first assessment time period; they also allow testing of the theoretical model with consequential real-world outcome measures. The bi-directionality of the present longitudinal results also demonstrates that the often-asked chicken and egg question is overly simplistic. These data suggest that playing prosocial games tends to increase prosocial behavior tendencies, and that prosocial tendencies tend to lead to selection of prosocial games. This clearly has implications for the parallel argument about violent media and aggression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A bit of an aside here, but their conclusions about violence are a bit simplistic. From a later &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22489544&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research on video games has yielded consistent findings that violent video games increase aggression and decrease prosocial behavior. However, these studies typically examined single-player games. Of interest is the effect of cooperative play in a violent video game on subsequent cooperative or competitive behavior. Participants played Halo II (a first-person shooter game) cooperatively or competitively and then completed a modified prisoner's dilemma task to assess competitive and cooperative behavior. Compared with the competitive play conditions, players in the cooperative condition engaged in more tit-for-tat behaviors-a pattern of behavior that typically precedes cooperative behavior. The social context of game play influenced subsequent behavior more than the content of the game that was played.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't found the exact study this refers to, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/oct/05/teens-social-networking-good-for-them&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Guardian says&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Joseph Kahne, a professor of education at Mills College in California, studied 400 teenagers over three years. Kahne found that teens who participated in fan or hobby sites were more likely than other kids to do real-world volunteering. Interestingly, this wasn't true of being on Facebook.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The findings about Facebook are fairly consistent with &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814549006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;another paper&lt;/a&gt; though, i.e. it has a weak impact on &quot;real life&quot; behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There might be more research on which (other) kinds of online communities facilitate &quot;real life&quot; pro-social behavior, I'm not terribly familiar with this area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-12-01T21:35:40.550" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18577" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-01T21:57:55.043" Score="4" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/behind-online-behavior/201604/what-screen-time-can-really-do-kids-brains&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today blog&lt;/a&gt; we read:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When very small children get hooked on tablets and smartphones, says Dr. Aric Sigman, an associate fellow of the British Psychological Society and a Fellow of Britain’s Royal Society of Medicine, they can unintentionally cause permanent damage to their still-developing brains. Too much screen time too soon, he says, “is the very thing impeding the development of the abilities that parents are so eager to foster through the tablets. The ability to focus, to concentrate, to lend attention, to sense other people’s attitudes and communicate with them, to build a large vocabulary—all those abilities are harmed.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mkay, there's little doubt that if kids play some phone/tablet-based video game all day long, they'll miss on other activities (an obvious &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/opportunity_cost&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;opportunity cost&lt;/a&gt;), but how much is too much? Are there studies quantifying this effect? And is there something specific about phone/tablet-based &quot;screen time&quot; that's particularly damaging? I mean besides the availability/portability factor, which is obvious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A theory as to how an interactive time-waster is worse than a passive one &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/does-spending-too-much-time-on-smartphones-and-tablets-damage-kids-development-a7067261.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;has been proposed&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;many apps are designed to be stimulus-driven, with exciting audiovisual rewards for completing tasks. Experts call this the “I did it!” response, which triggers the reward pathway in the brain. Because of this, tablets and smartphones make for excellent pacifiers, particularly on long plane journeys and in restaurants. But while this can be helpful in the short term, it’s important for young children to be able to develop internal mechanisms of self-regulation, whether that’s learning without constant rewards or being able to sit patiently without constant digital stimulation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is there evidence that is actually more damaging to development than a more passive time-waster? Ok, maybe that makes it more potentially addictive... so there's potential to wasting more time like that. But if we controlled for time spent, is there any other difference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the end of the latter article seems to indicate that interactivity can cut both ways:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;BedTime Math is one [opposite] example. The app delivers engaging maths story problems for parents and their children. It is one of the few tools that have been shown to make kids smarter; children who used the app even just once a week for a year improved their maths by more than a control group did. The impact was particularly strong for children whose parents were anxious about maths. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-02T03:17:39.513" LastActivityDate="2017-12-02T03:17:39.513" Title="How much tablet time is bad for kids?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18578" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3098" CreationDate="2017-12-02T04:19:37.157" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You also ask&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does any such effect vary by type of exercise? e.g. aerobics, weights&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any forms of physical exercise that can stimulate brian growth?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is one &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/106/49/20906.abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;large study&lt;/a&gt; in male Swedish adolescents (army conscripts), which found that cardiovascular fitness but not muscle strength was associated with IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-12-02T22:45:14.917" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18579" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-02T05:22:04.523" Score="2" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I am dreaming a lot at night, how many effective hours am I sleeping at night?&#xA;After dreaming heavily at night, when I wake up in the morning I feel sluggish as if I haven't slept properly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does dreaming cuts our sleeping hours?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17701" LastActivityDate="2017-12-03T02:43:10.717" Title="Does dreaming cuts our sleeping hours?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18581" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18586" CreationDate="2017-12-02T06:36:46.440" Score="3" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently start to work on sleep study.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;For my research i download sleep EEG data from physionet. The EEG data has 100 HZ sampling rate and was recorded from 2 bipolar EEG site.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When i start the preprocessing stage, i encounter a simple problem, &lt;strong&gt;how should i know if my signal has an artifact or noise?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be noted, based on nyquist theorem and my signal's sampling rate, the maximum frequency of my signal is 50 HZ, so i did not filter unnecessary EEG frequency.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In general i only used a simple notch filter at 50 HZ, and used simple threshold method in order to remove the epochs that were grossly contaminated by muscle and/or eye movement artifacts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Back to the main question, how should i know if i need to uses more complicated method for removing EMG or EOG artifact from my signal?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17590" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-07T07:47:12.190" LastActivityDate="2017-12-07T07:47:12.190" Title="How do I determine whether my EEG signal needs denoising?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18582" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-02T10:02:55.757" Score="1" ViewCount="440" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a number of different interfaces to make an place experiments online, e.g. in questions &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/699/software-for-online-psychological-experiments-that-dont-require-users-to-downlo&quot;&gt;Software for online psychological experiments that don&amp;#39;t require users to download anything&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/109/open-source-software-for-running-internet-psychological-experiments-that-collect&quot;&gt;Open source software for running Internet psychological experiments that collect reaction time data&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have an experimental design that we'd share online, but we've found that one feature may be quite rare - namely counterbalancing. We have 4 conditions, and we'd like participants to be placed in these conditions so that we have more or less equal amount in each by the end. This can be difficult for web studies since it should only count the participants that successfully completed the trial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Free and open source would be best, we don't have a designated budget to pay for setting up an experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12928" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-04T10:09:35.663" LastActivityDate="2017-12-04T11:01:01.803" Title="Platforms to make online experiments with counterbalancing" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18584" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-02T20:41:42.123" Score="1" ViewCount="13892" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can anyone explain the difference in a way which can be explained to some one who does not a have a clue about psychology? May be examples could help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17709" LastActivityDate="2020-02-06T10:46:26.623" Title="What is the difference between a bias and a heuristic explained in layman terms?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18585" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18002" CreationDate="2017-12-02T23:41:27.880" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Decidels are ratios in log scale. Usually the ratio of powers (in the physical sense). Powers sum up, but not dB. For example, a sound source at 70dB SPL means its power is approximately 3200 times higher than the reference sound source of dB SPL. If you have 2 sound sources both at 70dB, their power add up but their total sound pressure is going to be only 76dB SPL.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The appropriate way to answer your question depends on the assumptions you make. Your first equation compares the overall power within the Theta frequency band to the overall power within the Beta band, across recording locations. Your second equation compares power ratios at each location independently (although I would take the mean, not add them). Whether the first or the second equation is more appropriate is a scientific question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that dBs are usually defined in log10 scale ($\frac{ln(x)}{ln(10)}$), but it doesn't really matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2017-12-02T23:41:27.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18586" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18581" CreationDate="2017-12-02T23:54:57.483" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your recording necessarily has noise. That's a property of any physical apparatus, and you are recording the activity of noisy neurons. The other property of noise is that, by definition, it will average out. So don't do anything about that. 100Hz is quite a low frequency. Artifacts (e.g. blinks, but I doubt you would have that in sleeping subjects) would typically have a higher frequency than that so (1) it's unlikely it has been recorded by your system at all, (2) you can low-pass filter your signal to remove both the 50Hz artifact and possible other artifacts. Other artifacts such as sleeping position would have very low frequencies. So you can high-pass your signal to get rid of them. I'm not familiar with sleep EEGs but I would not worry too much about it. You can also check few papers and see how they filtered their signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2017-12-02T23:54:57.483" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18587" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18579" CreationDate="2017-12-03T02:33:01.503" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4579510/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;small study (2015)&lt;/a&gt;  in otherwise healty subjects, found no correlation between nightmares and the quality of sleep measured using widely used objective methods, or more precisely&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;sleep measures obtained by ambulatory polysomnographic recordings revealed no group differences in (a) overall sleep architecture, (b) sleep cycle duration as well as REM density and REM duration in each cycle and (c) sleep architecture when only nights with nightmares were analyzed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless the subjects who experienced nightmares reported worse &lt;em&gt;self-reported&lt;/em&gt; sleep quality. Granted, in a study like this, there's always a chance the authors failed to consider some objective sleep measure not commonly known/used today. Anyhow, the author's' conclusion was that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;nightmares result in significant impairment which is independent from disturbed sleep architecture&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And thus they suggest one seek specialized treatment for nightmares... which are correlated with quite a few psychiatric disorders, PTSD, anxiety, depression, or borderline personality disorder, to name a few.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another caveat of this study is that the authors deliberately excluded people with diagnosable psychiatric conditions from the sample. So this study does not exclude the possibility that subjects with (say) PTSD actually do have worse objective sleep... owing to nightmares.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-03T02:43:10.717" LastActivityDate="2017-12-03T02:43:10.717" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18584" CreationDate="2017-12-03T07:14:01.823" Score="6" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A heuristic is an approach to problem solving, a bias is a prejudice; so in what way do these terms confuse you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I respectfully disagree. I have noticed that the term bias and heuristic are used interchangeably in the literature that could lead to confusion. The difference between them is subtle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can anyone explain the difference in a way which can be explained to some one who does not a have &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heuristics, biases and algorithms are all related terms. The simplest way to describe them is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;heuristic&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is a rule, strategy or similar mental shortcut that one can use to derive a solution to a problem. A heuristic that works all of the time is known as an &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;algorithm&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Consider the following scenario: you get lost in a maze, what can you do to escape? The solution is to place your hand on the outer edge of the maze and keep walking until you find the exit. Heuristics can help us make sense of the world in a reliable way and reduce our mental load. However, they aren't always perfect and there is also a tendency to use them inappropriately to form beliefs. A systematic error that results from the use of a heuristic is called a &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;cognitive bias&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Per suggestions, the following should be noted:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the use of heuristics of can lead to cognitive biases, not all cognitive biases  are the result of heuristics. Generally, however, when an error in judgement or belief is identified empirically or anecdotally, there will be an attempt to account for it using heuristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, and more broadly, there is just as much ambiguity regarding the definition of cognitive bias in the literature. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in this account of attribution biases, the following definition is provided:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cognitive biases refer to systematic mistakes that derive from limits&#xA;  that are inherent in our capacity to process information.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; Because we&#xA;  are not capable of perceiving everything in our environment, our focus&#xA;  is automatically drawn to the most prominent or “eye-catching”—that&#xA;  is, perceptually salient—stimuli. This can lead us to formulate biased&#xA;  and inaccurate causal attributions (Taylor &amp;amp; Fiske, 1975).&#xA;  Specifically, we are prone to equate the most perceptually salient&#xA;  stimuli with the most causally influential stimuli.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Shiraev, E. B., Shiraev, E. B., &amp;amp; Levy, D. A. (2016). Cross-cultural psychology: Critical thinking and contemporary applications. Taylor &amp;amp; Francis.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;When the correct answer is described, they see for themselves how&#xA;  their own judgment is biased in systematic ways.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; Such personal&#xA;  demonstrations make Tversky and Kahneman's points in a salient,&#xA;  simple, and powerful way. What was innovative about their work was&#xA;  that it drew a connection between heuristics and biases: A heuristic&#xA;  is a rule of thumb used as such in different contexts. A cognitive&#xA;  bias is a systematic error in our thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Morvan, C., &amp;amp; Jenkins, W. J. (2017). Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. CRC Press.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Heuristics are the &quot;shortcuts&quot; that humans use to reduce task&#xA;  complexity in judgment and choice, and biases are the resulting gaps&#xA;  between normative behavior and the heuristically determined behavior&#xA;  (Kahneman et al., 1982).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Chipman, S. E. (Ed.). (2016). The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Science. Oxford University Press.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ditto:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cognitive biases are subconscious deviations in judgement leading to&#xA;  perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgement and illogical&#xA;  interpretation.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; From an evolutionary point of view, they have&#xA;  developed because often speed was more important than accuracy. Biases&#xA;  occur due to information processing shortcuts (or heuristics – see Box&#xA;  5.1), the brain's limited capacity to process information, social &#xA;  influence, and emotional and moral motivations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Cooper, N., &amp;amp; Frain, J. (Eds.). (2016). ABC of clinical reasoning. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although this isn't a psychology reference, the definition is a tad weird: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Architects rely on precedent knowledge to design their next&#xA;  building, believing the past buildings worked well and the knowledge&#xA;  can be transferred to their new design, promising similar&#xA;  performances. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cognitive biases (illusions) and potential errors can&#xA;  occur when using precedent knowledge for analogical, pre-parametric&#xA;  and qualitative design thinking.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Zarzar, K. M., &amp;amp; Guney, A. (Eds.). (2008). Understanding Meaningful Environments: Architectural Precedents and the Question of Identity in Creative Design (Vol. 4). IOS Press.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I am speculating, I would suggest the following explanation: strictly speaking, an error in normative reasoning need only occur once for it to potentially be the result of a cognitive bias. However, a cognitive bias would need to occur in a systematic manner in a study sample before it could be identified in empirical research and reported in the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And that, my friends, concludes my demonstration on &lt;em&gt;overkill&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2017-12-06T12:34:35.653" LastActivityDate="2017-12-06T12:34:35.653" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18589" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-03T10:13:15.473" Score="2" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because of EEG nature, in EEG analysis often researcher use Windowing/segmentation method.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As i currently work on sleep study, and in my study i need to analysis EEG data, i came to a problem.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My problem:&lt;/strong&gt; should i filter and Denise my EEG signal and then segment it or no i should firstly segment my EEG and then filter and denoise each epoch separately?    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And as extra question, is there any difference between these two in signal processing view?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17590" LastEditorUserId="17590" LastEditDate="2017-12-04T13:33:11.667" LastActivityDate="2017-12-05T09:55:38.297" Title="EEG segmentation and denoising which one should done first?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18591" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18595" CreationDate="2017-12-03T13:51:35.880" Score="2" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, reading one book I have come across such paragraph:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;&quot;[...] The operation would require de facto to create a complete record of the mind and build the brain again - an impossible thing for absolutely fundamental reasons. Cognitive science has its own theorem on uncertainty, the law proving the impossibility of reducing the mental structure to numerical data.&quot;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am guessing, that the author was referring to the Heisenberg's uncertainty theorem, but that is the only thing that came to my mind (my knowledge about cognitive sciences is very limited). Do you know, what the author might have meant? Or maybe it was just fiction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17719" LastActivityDate="2017-12-03T23:46:02.427" Title="Theorem of uncertainty in cognitive science" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18592" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18591" CreationDate="2017-12-03T14:31:02.057" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It looks like fiction to me. I think it's quite clear that mental structure can be reduced to numerical data. &lt;strong&gt;If anything, you can start with atoms, their distance from each other and angles between any three of them and inductively work up through molecules and nerves to the whole brain structure.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, such technology is not available to us today but it might tomorrow. Just look at CRISPR crisping small DNA molecules. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then there might be a difference between what the author perceives as &quot;mind&quot; and brain. That field is rather metaphysical and philosophical in nature. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But that doesn't necessarily mean such feat is fundamentally impossible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Don't take my opinion too seriously though, in the end, I am only a layman. Maybe somebody else will provide a different view on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17715" LastActivityDate="2017-12-03T14:31:02.057" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18593" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-03T17:17:39.297" Score="4" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all I'm not a medical student so I may miss some points here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that EOG (electro-oculography) works on the corneo-retinal dipole. The cornea (front of eye) is slightly positively charged and the retina (back of eye) is slightly negatively charged. When I apply electrodes on the temples and ground circuit to my forehead (helps to stabilize readings and get rid of some 60Hz interference).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zDWzU.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zDWzU.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I used that(I wrote a program) to read these signals and control some thing by moving my eyes, and follow the signals change according to my eyes movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now my program can read this simple electrecity signals and convert it in order to control something else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this doesn't make much sense, I need to make it more understandable, for example I'm wondering if there someway to read alphabets the person thought about and receive a unique signal for it, and I mean by (someway) not just through eyes maybe with brain waves or something else I don't know about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17724" LastEditorUserId="17724" LastEditDate="2017-12-04T04:47:36.053" LastActivityDate="2017-12-04T04:47:36.053" Title="Can I read what the person thinking through electrodes or something similar?" Tags="&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18594" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18593" CreationDate="2017-12-03T21:10:48.920" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I take it you want to use eye movements for data input (rather than reading people's thoughts, which would be silly to consider). It's not the greatest idea, efficiency wise, but may have its strengths in terms of convenience. From a fairly &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.708.7920&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent (2014) review of eye based HCI&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It should be noted, though, that gaze control of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIMP_(computing)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WIMP&lt;/a&gt; is&#xA;  noticeably slower and more error prone than control by conventional mouse&#xA;  and keyboard (e.g. gaze typing reaches about 20 wpm which is far from the&#xA;  80 wpm by a touch typist, see Majaranta et al. 2009a). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the 2009 paper they refer to for state of the art is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sis.uta.fi/~csolsp/docs/Majaranta_CHI_09.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Fast Gaze Typing with an Adjustable Dwell Time&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. It's basically displaying a large virtual keyboard (like your phone/tablet does) and uses a specialized algorithm to reduce errors. I'm not familiar with the details of the latter, you'll want to read the paper for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Microsoft Research has a more &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/cascading_dwell.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent (2017) paper&lt;/a&gt; using a cascading virtual keyboard and it claims improvements for the average user. The latter paper also makes me wonder if the previous research overstated its results, because&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Participants were able to achieve&#xA;  typing speeds of 12.39 WPM on average with our cascading&#xA;  technique, whereas participants were able to achieve typing&#xA;  speeds of 10.62 WPM on average with a static dwell time&#xA;  approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know what discrepancies are due to; methodology or what is being reported, I guess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, there's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;HCI stack exchange&lt;/a&gt; where I'm sure there are more knowledgeable people on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the title of your question &quot;Can I read what the person thinking through electrodes or something similar?&quot;. This is a somewhat different topic, and perhaps too broad to address here. Most of the results in this latter area&#xA;are much more experimental in nature, i.e. farther from a practical technology right now. Wikipedia's article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_identification&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;thought identification&#xA;&lt;/a&gt; is probably a resonable start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-03T22:14:39.503" LastActivityDate="2017-12-03T22:14:39.503" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18595" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18591" CreationDate="2017-12-03T23:37:29.590" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As you say in your last comment, this is clearly fictional as a theorem, but the argument has been raised in less fictional works. The &quot;theorem on uncertainty&quot; phrase probably is intended to hint to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_principle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;uncertainty principle&lt;/a&gt; and/or the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-cloning_theorem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;no-cloning theorem&lt;/a&gt; from  quantum mechanics. For instance, Scott Aaronson &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/pdf/1306.0159.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;writes&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does quantum mechanics (specifically,&#xA;  say, the No-Cloning Theorem or the uncertainty principle) put interesting limits on an&#xA;  external agent’s ability to scan, copy, and predict human brains and other complicated&#xA;  biological systems, or doesn’t it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I regard the&#xA;  above as an unsolved scientific question, and a big one. Many people seem to think the answer&#xA;  is obvious (though they disagree on what it is!), or else they reject the question as meaningless,&#xA;  unanswerable, or irrelevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that he is far from being the first to ask the question (e.g. Alan Turing did in 1951), although Aaronson did perhaps help sharpen it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So with respect to brain function, this &quot;theorem&quot; is just a hypothesis, and it may well prove to be false. The empirical evidence on the relevance of quantum processes for understanding brain functioning is questionable at best, although you do see occasional &quot;breakthroughs&quot; reported in the press, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/01/140116085105.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;e.g. on Orch OR&lt;/a&gt;; see the long list of comments under the abstract for a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24070914&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;review paper&lt;/a&gt; for more. On the other hand, other researches continue to pursue brains simulators like the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/oct/08/complex-living-brain-simulation-replicates-sensory-rat-behaviour&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blue Brain Project&lt;/a&gt;, although it's computatinally very expensive just to simulate a part of a rat's brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-03T23:46:02.427" LastActivityDate="2017-12-03T23:46:02.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18596" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18582" CreationDate="2017-12-04T10:07:41.550" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Qualtrics (survey software) and Inquisit (more sophisticated stimulus presentation software) both run online. Both tools support counterbalancing. Inquisit has extensive support for both randomisation of stimuli in a variety of ways and between-subjects allocations to orders and so on. They both require payment, but some universities have subscriptions to one or both services (especially Qualtrics).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure about how you'd solve the issue of drop out to get perfectly even numbers in each group ordering. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-12-04T10:07:41.550" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18597" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18582" CreationDate="2017-12-04T11:01:01.803" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could try www.gorilla.sc  It's cloud based software specifically designed for running cognitive psychology experiments online without needing to code.  It's not free, but it is affordable - £0.75 per participant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Counterbalancing of various sorts is built in; randomisers, stimuli set counterbalancers, order counterbalancers.  It sounds like the simple &lt;strong&gt;randomiser&lt;/strong&gt; set to &lt;strong&gt;balanced&lt;/strong&gt; will do what you want.  As long as you stay on top of rejecting Ns that drop out, you'll get a balance in each condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a GUI questionnaire builder, task builder and experiment tree builder.  So you don't need to do any coding.  The vast majority of cognitive science task can be created in it very easily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Full disclosure, I created Gorilla.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17730" LastActivityDate="2017-12-04T11:01:01.803" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18598" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2017-12-04T11:11:20.597" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://gorilla.sc/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gorilla&lt;/a&gt; is cloud based software specifically designed for running reaction time behavioural science experiments online. It's not free, but it is affordable (£0.75 per respondent) and interfaces with popular recruitment services like mTurk and Prolific Academic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a GUI questionnaire builder, task builder and experiment tree builder. So you don't need to do any coding. The vast majority of cognitive science tasks can be created in it very easily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also add snippets of JavaScript to add custom functionality or use the built in code editor tool to create a completely bespoke task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Disclosure: I built the Gorilla platform.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17730" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-04T11:59:34.627" LastActivityDate="2017-12-04T11:59:34.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18599" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18589" CreationDate="2017-12-04T12:30:46.177" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depending on whom you ask, you get both answers. That's mostly dependent on the denoising algorithm. If you're using an adaption of &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~wwtung/2010_GaoSultanHuTung.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GST&lt;/a&gt;, you are segmenting first with an n-1 overlap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're using &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S105381191100139X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;S3P&lt;/a&gt; I'd recommend not segmenting, since (in my experience) there is a slight difference, with unsegmented data having slightly closer results to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14643218&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fernandez and Li, 2003&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11722164&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frangakis and Hegerl, 2001&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17214" LastEditorUserId="17214" LastEditDate="2017-12-05T09:55:38.297" LastActivityDate="2017-12-05T09:55:38.297" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18600" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18092" CreationDate="2017-12-04T14:55:47.227" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like CBT, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_movement_desensitization_and_reprocessing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EMDR&lt;/a&gt; (Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing) is a clinically tested form of psychotherapy that is strongly grounded in psychological theory and has been shown experimentally to have a positive impact of victims of trauma and complex trauma.  There is some debate about the quality of the evidence and more studies need to be done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are now - just - beginning to understand how are genetics, experiences, thoughts and feeling and behaviour interact.  It's an exciting time in cognitive psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17730" LastActivityDate="2017-12-04T14:55:47.227" CommentCount="1" CommunityOwnedDate="2017-12-04T14:55:47.227" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18601" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-04T15:39:51.350" Score="3" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both Popper and Grünbaum took issue with Freud's theory, but they critiqued it for different reasons, in which the main difference seems (to me) to come down to this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Popper &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00022548&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interprets&lt;/a&gt; Freud as saying that something (say homosexuality) being repressed by the subject means it's a completely hidden state, so we can never know the truth value of statements like &quot;subject X is repressing his homosexuality&quot;. So Popper argued that psychoanalysis is untestable because testing inferences like &quot;if P then Q&quot; (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Paul_Schreber&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;repressed homosexuality can lead to psychosis&lt;/a&gt;) is impossible for we can never know the truth value of the antecedent (P). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, Grünbaum &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00022287&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;considered&lt;/a&gt; that statements like &quot;repressed homosexuality can lead to psychosis&quot; propose testable etiologies. And it's not hard to conceive that (say) using a penile plethysmograph one can test for homosexual preference. Once we agree we can test for the latter (even if not with perfect accuracy), we can also test for (statistical) associations etc. Kihlstrom pretty much takes this view in &lt;a href=&quot;http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/freuddead.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;listing&lt;/a&gt; most Freudian common &quot;knowledge&quot;/lore as false rather than unfalsifiable.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, Freud's theory is screwed in either case (for this example, and probably for most other). Whether it's screwed as non-falsifiable from the get go, or as falsifiable but almost certainly false ... is not incredibly interesting to most people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But for the sake of curiosity, did Freud make explicit what he considered to be knowability of &quot;repressed&quot;? I.e., did he assert about any repressed condition (as he conceived them) that we cannot really know whether it's really there? Is something called repressed by Freud if and only if it is a true hidden state? So, as an example &quot;truly repressed&quot; homosexulity could never show up on any plethysmograph, by this (Poppler-ian) definition of repressed. But did Freud explicitly define &quot;repressed&quot; in this absolute way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-05T07:10:19.220" LastActivityDate="2017-12-05T07:10:19.220" Title="Knowability of &quot;repressed&quot; in Freud's theory" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;freud&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18602" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-04T20:49:27.787" Score="3" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a source on the history of self-experimentation in the cognitive sciences, or experimental psychology in general. I am specifically interested in knowing when it stopped being the norm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on self-experimentation&lt;/a&gt; has no sources for psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17738" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-11T12:08:46.467" LastActivityDate="2017-12-11T19:56:02.760" Title="What is the history of self-experimentation in cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18605" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18606" CreationDate="2017-12-05T08:28:38.503" Score="5" ViewCount="289" Body="&lt;p&gt;Simplypsychology.org &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-therapy.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;page on Cognitive Behavioral Therapy&lt;/a&gt; mentions that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lewinsohn (1981) studied a group of participants before any of them became depressed, and found that those who later became depressed were no more likely to have negative thoughts than those who did not develop depression. This suggests that hopeless and negative thinking may be the result of depression, rather than the cause of it.  [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lewinsohn, P. M., Steinmetz, J. L., Larson, D. W., &amp;amp; Franklin, J. (1981). Depression-related cognitions: antecedent or consequence?. Journal of abnormal psychology, 90(3), 213.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been more research into the cause/effect relationship of negative thoughts and depression since then? If so, is there some kind of consensus on this cause-effect relationship? Or has the inquiry been judged not terribly interesting or (non-)productive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-04-13T18:29:34.110" Title="Negative thoughts as cause or consequence of depression" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18606" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18605" CreationDate="2017-12-05T09:40:10.207" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The cause of depression is thought to be one of neurochemistry, resulting in depressive thoughts.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I think the general consensus is that depression is a psychological disorder with neurochemical causes. In particular, the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_of_depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;serotonin hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of depression has received much attention, basically due to the success of the serotonin-specific reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) that &lt;strong&gt;increase overall serotonin levels in the brain&lt;/strong&gt;. The serotonin hypothesis basically states that depression is the &lt;strong&gt;result of a lack of serotonin and its metabolites in the brain&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://clinchem.aaccjnls.org/content/40/2/288.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nemeroff (1994)&lt;/a&gt;). However, the story is of course more complicated that that. For example, other monoamine systems in the nervous system may also be affected. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general idea is that the consequences of that monoamine imbalance in the brain include depressive thoughts, among other (more physical) effects, such as a loss of weight. The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64063/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-V criteria&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; for depression include: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Depressed mood&lt;/strong&gt; most of the day.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Diminished interest or pleasure&lt;/strong&gt; in all or most activities.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Feelings of worthlessness&lt;/strong&gt; or excessive &lt;strong&gt;guilt&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Recurrent &lt;strong&gt;thoughts of death&lt;/strong&gt; (APA, 2000, p. 356).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://clinchem.aaccjnls.org/content/40/2/288.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nemeroff, &lt;em&gt;Clin Chemistry&lt;/em&gt; (1994); &lt;strong&gt;40&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 288-95&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-04-13T18:29:34.110" LastActivityDate="2019-04-13T18:29:34.110" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18607" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18617" CreationDate="2017-12-05T18:07:37.563" Score="4" ViewCount="382" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading an article about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811912007720?via%3Dihub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;changes in thalamic volume and connections in relation to age&lt;/a&gt; and I understand that thalamic volume decreases with age. The authors find that mean diffusivity (MD) in thalamo-cortical projections increased with age. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not familiar at all with diffusion tensor imaging so I have trouble understanding what the ramifications are for the function/anatomy of the white matter tracts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17754" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-07T09:19:02.433" LastActivityDate="2017-12-07T09:19:02.433" Title="What does 'Mean Diffusivity' tell me about the connectivity of cortical areas?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18610" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-12-06T02:41:26.970" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a form of functional neuroimaging mapping brain activity to magnetic fields generated by neural currents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-06T02:41:26.970" LastActivityDate="2017-12-06T02:41:26.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18611" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-12-06T02:41:26.970" Score="0" Body="Used for questions about MEG practical use and underlying theory." OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-06T02:41:26.970" LastActivityDate="2017-12-06T02:41:26.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18612" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-06T02:57:10.560" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, neurons give a response that generates a readable MEG signal when they are firing in a relatively synchronized manner and their current carrying dendrites/axons are all aligned. This occurs most often in pyramidal neurons, due to their perpendicular alignment with the scalp. Consequently, this seems to imply MEG can be imagined as the sum of all pyramidal neuron activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, consider the case where a group of pyramidal neurons are projecting in different directions. The magnetic fields would then cancel each-other out. Would MEG then be considered to take the maximum of the neural responses? I've added top-view illustrations below to help describe the different cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Sum&quot; case where neuron are all projecting in same direction during task:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/elfjj.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/elfjj.png&quot; alt=&quot;sum_case&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Max&quot; case where neurons are projecting in many different directions during task:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Kapqk.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Kapqk.png&quot; alt=&quot;max_case&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there studies that support either case/interpretation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-12-06T02:57:10.560" Title="Does MEG measure the sum of neural activity or the maximum?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;meg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18613" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18616" CreationDate="2017-12-06T03:07:39.753" Score="1" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll preface this with I have no knowledge of psychology, but my goal is to produce some graphics dealing with correlations, and one example that I had thought of is how the Big 5 personality traits correlate with each other. I came across the R dataset ``qgraph&quot; which has the results of a 240 item questionnaire (48 questions per Big 5 trait), but this only gives me the responses to questions. I want to be able to aggregate the questionnaire data in such a way that I can accurately assign Big 5 trait percentile scores to each respondent; however, it is not at all clear to me how this should be done. What is the process of taking questionnaire data and getting percentile values for each of the Big 5 traits for the respondents? Alternatively, if there's a dataset that already include percentile scores for the respondents, I'd be interested in that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17759" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2017-12-07T05:07:38.463" LastActivityDate="2017-12-07T05:07:38.463" Title="Converting Big 5 questionnaire data to Big 5 scores using R" Tags="&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18614" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-06T19:13:12.600" Score="7" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;How accurate and precise are wearable devices to measure galvanic skin response compared to laboratory quality equipment? &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/q/16206/17770&quot;&gt;This discussion&lt;/a&gt; includes some details on the accuracy of wrist-based measurement devices but not for devises that measure at palms and fingers (see response &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/18232/17770&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/16585/17770&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Steven Jeuris &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/18232/17770&quot;&gt;lists three wearable devices&lt;/a&gt; supporting electrodes on the palms/fingers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.shimmersensing.com/products/shimmer3-wireless-gsr-sensor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shimmer&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.movisens.com/en/products/eda-sensor/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;movisens edaMove&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.moodmetric.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moodmetric ring&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How accurate and precise are they compared to laboratory quality equipment, how do they compare with each other and how do they compare with wrist-based measurement devices?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17770" LastEditorUserId="17770" LastEditDate="2017-12-09T18:31:25.890" LastActivityDate="2017-12-09T18:31:25.890" Title="Accuracy and precision of wearable devices to measure galvanic skin response?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-12-17T20:14:33.490" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18616" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18613" CreationDate="2017-12-07T05:07:07.440" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are some resources that will show you how to score the Big 5 using R.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main function that I like is called &lt;code&gt;scoreItems&lt;/code&gt; in the &lt;code&gt;psych&lt;/code&gt; package. It handles item reversal, imputation, and multiple scales. It will also give you things like alphas and item total correlations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;William Revelle has this tutorial:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://personality-project.org/r/psych/HowTo/scoring.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://personality-project.org/r/psych/HowTo/scoring.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have this video ( which has an associated github repository):&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iFFW5sK3Bhk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iFFW5sK3Bhk&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See in particular, this bit of the code: &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/jeromyanglim/score-tests-with-r-exercise/blob/master/finished-analysis/munge/01-munge.R&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://github.com/jeromyanglim/score-tests-with-r-exercise/blob/master/finished-analysis/munge/01-munge.R&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;sc &amp;lt;- scoreItems(meta.bfi[,v$scales], ccases[,meta.bfi$name])&#xA;ccases[,colnames(sc$scores)] &amp;lt;- sc$scores&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2017-12-07T05:07:07.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18617" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18607" CreationDate="2017-12-07T09:18:30.570" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The mean diffusivity (MD) in diffusion tensor imaging is a sensitive, yet a rather non-specific measure. Changes in MD tell you that water movement is altered, yet why and how will have to be answered through additional studies.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Diffusion MRI relies on the fact that water diffuses better parallel to axons than across them in the brain. Hence, in white matter that consists mainly of bundles of parallel oriented axons, water primarily moves in one direction, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, parallel to the fibers therein. In contrast, in the brain’s gray matter and the extracellular space, water moves freely in many directions. By taking advantage of the differences in diffusion rates, the white matter can be imaged in the brain. This technique is used diffusion tensor imaging, or DTI. DTI has been used to study disruptions in brain structure caused by trauma and white matter diseases, such as multiple sclerosis &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/41266/title/White-s-the-Matter/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Chi, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, there are several outcome measures in DTI and one of them is the mean diffusivity (MD). MD describes the magnitude of water diffusion within brain tissue and can be used to examine differences in brain structural integrity. Differences in MD may reflect variations within the intra- and extracellular space, a reduction in &lt;a href=&quot;https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/neuropil&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuropil&lt;/a&gt; (basically, gray matter), and/or global increases in CSF &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109158/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Clark &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. For example, increased tissue water in edema will increase the MD, whereas cell proliferation (tumor) may decrease the MD. In complex diseases like multiple sclerosis (MS), brain regions may experience an unpredictable combination of demyelination, axon loss, gliosis, and inflammation, which could result in competing influences on the diffusion tensor &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2041910/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Alexander &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2007)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;MD is a sensitive but rather non-specific measure&lt;/strong&gt; that can be affected by any disease process that &lt;strong&gt;affects the barriers that restrict the motion of water, such as cell membranes&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109158/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Clark &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2011)&lt;/a&gt;.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your linked article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811912007720?via%3Dihub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hughes &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;, the only thing they really say about the MD is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;MD increased in both thalamo-frontal and thalamo-parietal regions with increasing age [...]. These observed changes [in] white matter tracts occur in parallel with an age related decrease in frontal cortical volume and the volume of related thalamic regions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, I think in itself the change in MD tells you only that &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; has changed and that the MD &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; be a predictor for aging in the thalamocortical system.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2041910/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alexander &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neurotherapeutics&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 316–29&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/41266/title/White-s-the-Matter/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chi, &lt;em&gt;The Scientist&lt;/em&gt; (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109158/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clark &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Psychiatr Res&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;45&lt;/strong&gt;(7): 980–8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811912007720?via%3Dihub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hughes &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;NeuroImage&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;63&lt;/strong&gt; (3): 1134-42&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-12-07T09:18:30.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18618" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-07T15:42:03.893" Score="3" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm unsure if this is the place to ask, but I'm curious as to if there have been any studies on the effect of overtime hours worked and how it affects morale and possibly retention at a job? Additionally, the same information on hours cut could suffice. I'm trying to mathematically model it for work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anyone has any insight I'd greatly appreciate it! I've been trying to search the internet and it seems like a popular thing to learn in psychology or business school, but I'm coming up short with information!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17779" LastActivityDate="2017-12-07T15:42:03.893" Title="Effect of overtime hours on morale / retention at a job?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18619" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-07T19:54:35.980" Score="2" ViewCount="248" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can anyone point me to a couple prominent papers on Simon's concept of bounded rationality (i.e., that human rationality is shaped by limitations in our ability to ingest and process information)? Specifically, I'm looking for empirical evidence for or against and arguments against (I'm content with Simon's own arguments for.) I know the literature on this is extensive; I just need a very high-level overview with some credible scholarly support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17782" LastActivityDate="2017-12-12T09:05:36.677" Title="Evidence and arguments for and against bounded rationality?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;cognitive-load&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18620" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-07T22:23:54.200" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since I have learnt to program I seem to be able to structure my personal arguments more logically &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a few difficult relationships, so it been quite a big help &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone done any research into the cognitive benefits of learning coding, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or has anyone experience something similar&#xA;I would be really interested to know &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17785" LastEditorUserId="17785" LastEditDate="2017-12-07T22:30:32.103" LastActivityDate="2017-12-07T22:30:32.103" Title="Cognitive benefits of learning how to code ?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-12-08T09:21:09.663" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18621" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-08T00:01:34.773" Score="4" ViewCount="325" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on a conditioning experiment for my psychology class in which I tap my finger three times on a table and then ask my friend to sharpen a pencil for me. If she finishes the task I give a reward (ex. part of a cookie). However, I'm not sure if this would be classified as classical or operant conditioning because although it's a voluntary behavior, it's prompted by a stimulus. I think it's operant conditioning, but I just wanted to be sure. Any advice for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17786" LastActivityDate="2017-12-09T19:01:21.253" Title="Classical or Operant Conditioning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18622" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18621" CreationDate="2017-12-08T07:03:50.533" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is homework. But it's still interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm not sure if this would be classified as classical or operant conditioning because although it's a voluntary behavior, it's prompted by a stimulus. I think it's operant conditioning,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are multiple learning processes involved. Some of them have already been established e.g. asking your friend for something is already a salient motivational cue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyways, what you're describing is reminiscent of the learning phenomenon classical-to-instrumental transfer (CIT), which is also referred to in the literature as Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT). Essentially, its the phenomenon by which a conditioned stimulus (CS) eventually acts as a signal or a predictor of a reward contingency (or vice-versa). Think of it as motivation/focus/salience modifier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has particular relevance to relapse in drug dependency after a period of abstinence. An individual who has quit smoking, for example, would be more likely to relapse after years of abstinence if they are exposed to any stimuli that were present when they typically smoked. In fact, there is nothing stopping an anti-smoking billboard acting as that stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;CLIFF'S NOTES SUMMARY&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is how you would break down your homework problem. However, you should note that this is NOT the way you would want to structure the training of CIT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I'm going to assume that the end game here is to get your friend to sharpen your pencil through mere desk tapping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. INSTRUMENTAL LEARNING&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sharpening your pencil results in receiving a cookie.  By linking a desired behavioural repertoire with a positive outcome, you increase the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;[response-outcome]   pencil sharpening =&amp;gt; cookie&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your friend will eventually learn that pencil sharpening is something that is rewarded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now it's time to add additional stimuli to the learning condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two parts to this. First, your friend will learn that you asking her to sharpen your pencil will be rewarded, but in its absence, she won't. It would be done along the lines of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;CS+ (asking)   sharpening =&amp;gt; cookie&#xA;&#xA;CS- (no asking)   sharpening =&amp;gt; [no reinforcement]&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, through simple conditioning of the two stimuli, tapping and asking will also become paired:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;[classical conditioning]   tapping =&amp;gt; asking&#xA;&#xA;                                      sharpening =&amp;gt; cookie [operant conditioning]&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;CLASSICAL-TO-INSTRUMENTAL TRANSFER&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will spare you the intricacies of how the training is performed, but needless to say, eventually you could expect to observe the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tapping alone should instantiate the sharpening behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ditto asking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;As a motivational cue, sharpening should become more &lt;em&gt;vigorous&lt;/em&gt;  in the presence of tapping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I suspect, but am not certain, that asking while tapping would have some effect on the &lt;em&gt;vigour&lt;/em&gt; of sharpening observed in #3.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tapping should produce spontaneous recovery after extinction of the sharpening =&amp;gt; cookie contingency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below is an outline of how classic-to-instrumental transfer is demonstrated experimentally. If you note, you have an additional stimulus pairing (tapping=&amp;gt;asking) but it does not make this any more different to the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AXG6j.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AXG6j.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Domjan, M. (2014). The principles of learning and behavior. Nelson Education.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-12-09T19:01:21.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18623" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18628" CreationDate="2017-12-09T09:56:27.290" Score="-1" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's my experience that people (I am one of them) tend to fall asleep while watching television. Afterwards, when lying in bed, sleep doesn't come as easy as when they were watching television. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this because only the &quot;small&quot; part of the brain that is involved in watching television (and when you experience that what you're watching ain't worth looking at, so you fall asleep before you can switch the canal) and the other parts &quot;wake up&quot; when you're lying in bed, which makes it harder for you to fall asleep? Or is it just linked to being tired (in which case you would expect to fall asleep easy in bed)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can examine this by letting a group of people (&lt;strong&gt;or&lt;/strong&gt; men &lt;strong&gt;or&lt;/strong&gt; women, not both) of about the same age, physical health, etc. letting perform the same things (like eating, waking up at the same time, doing the same physical tasks), and before going to sleep letting them watch the same movie on TV. I think doing this a month suffices. After a month of collecting data (from questions asked and physical examinations), you're maybe able to say something useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="11444" LastEditDate="2017-12-13T01:51:40.403" LastActivityDate="2017-12-13T01:51:40.403" Title="Is there a known mechanism by which people fall asleep less easy after watching TV?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18624" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-09T13:41:55.390" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to better understand neural models, specifically non-spiking neurons in invertebrate motor control circuits.  I know that a spiking neuron produces spikes in membrane potential that rapidly go away and exhibit an all-or-none response.  I've also been reading that non-spiking neurons generally exhibit a graded potential.  What I don't know is if that graded potential is sustained, or if it rapidly goes away like in a spiking neuron.  In other words, if the membrane potential rises, is it possible for that membrane potential to stay elevated for long periods of time?  If so, what types of mechanisms might cause that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17518" LastActivityDate="2017-12-09T13:41:55.390" Title="Can non-spiking neurons have a sustained synaptic output current?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18625" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-09T18:36:43.930" Score="1" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://professorconfess.blogspot.com/2013/04/our-first-remedial-course.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;post&lt;/a&gt; in Professor Doom's blog contains the following exchange:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pitchman: “What we know for sure is, the students who score high&#xA;  enough for College Algebra usually took courses past College Algebra&#xA;  in high school. The students who don’t quite make it into College&#xA;  Algebra took it in high school, and so on down the line.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Faculty: “Wait a minute. You mean there’s hard evidence for what we&#xA;  know to be true: that to achieve a goal in learning, you must push&#xA;  past that goal to succeed? Why haven’t these results been published?”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general idea seems to me to be that if one wants to increase one's comfort with problems at a particular difficulty level, then one should do problems beyond that difficulty level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this effect? And if so, what are the key findings? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4117" LastActivityDate="2017-12-09T18:36:43.930" Title="What is the name of the effect whereby learning past a level increases mastery of that level?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18628" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18623" CreationDate="2017-12-11T07:18:06.840" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you describe is rather common for a certain type of insomnia, called &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.med.upenn.edu/cbti/assets/user-content/documents/PsychphysinsomniaPGandMLP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychophysiologic&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The patient has evidence of conditioned sleep difficulty and/&#xA;  or heightened arousal in bed as indicated by excessive focus&#xA;  on, and heightened anxiety about, sleep; difficulty falling&#xA;  asleep in bed at the desired bedtime or during planned&#xA;  naps, but no difficulty during other monotonous activities&#xA;  when not intending to sleep&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And more from &lt;em&gt;Therapy in Sleep Medicine&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Insomniacs often report that they fall asleep easily when&#xA;  watching television or reading in the living room, but become&#xA;  aroused upon going to bed. In addition to the previously mentioned&#xA;  tendency of insomniacs to associate bedroom stimuli&#xA;  with frustration, falling asleep when reading or watching TV&#xA;  may also result from the fact that doing so keeps the body in a&#xA;  quiet and relaxed position, and keeps the mind focused away&#xA;  from frustrating attempts to fall asleep. Support for the habit&#xA;  of reading or TV in bed is derived from Gallup polls, which&#xA;  indicate that about one third of all U.S. adults read themselves&#xA;  to sleep or fall asleep watching television in bed. Watching&#xA;  television has also been associated with falling asleep more&#xA;  easily on multiple sleep latency testing (MSLT). Nevertheless,&#xA;  there is considerable controversy regarding this recommendation,&#xA;  focused mainly on the success of Bootzin’s rules&#xA;  when used as a whole. Clinicians may, therefore, first advise&#xA;  the use of the bed only for sleeping, but if that does not help,&#xA;  they may suggest a trial of reading or watching TV in bed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more on Bootzin's rules see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/sleepless-in-america/200905/cognitive-behavioral-therapy-insomnia-part-2-stimulus-control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this page&lt;/a&gt; for instance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, not much can be said about 'why'; from the first source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;there are little to no data relating specifically to the etiology and pathophysiology of psychophysiological insomnia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, it's also known from studies on night-shift workers that 20-mins to 1-hour nap improves alertness (cf. the &lt;em&gt;Therapy&lt;/em&gt; book, which cites several studies &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9844850&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;e.g.&lt;/a&gt;), so it's rather common/expected that if you fall asleep at the TV you'll have a harder time falling asleep later, even if you don't have insomnia. The distinction is one of degree/intensity, I suppose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-12-11T07:18:06.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18629" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-11T07:46:12.623" Score="2" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard about an international research that was conducted more than 25 years ago. The following was the experiment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;25 teams, eight members per team, each team member with the same nationality had to build a ship model. The model was created in a way that all team members had to participate to assemble it. They repeated the test multiple times with the same results.&#xA;USA, Germany and Japan were the fastest, countries from East-Europe were last. They didn't understand why. Average IQ, personal traits didn't explain why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, a Polish PhD student asked the question, do they choose a leader. The American researchers replied: &quot;Of course!&quot;. However, after they analysed the video about the tests, they realised not all of the teams (nations) choose a leader. This correlated strongly with the results. So the experiment was designed for something else, but after all, it showed the importance of leader selection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I heard about this experiment from Laszlo Mero, a Hungarian research psychologist but he could not recall the name of the experiment. He told me he heard about it 25 years ago when he was at Berkeley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to read more about it, but I found nothing. &#xA;Has anyone any information about this research? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17801" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-20T14:11:32.360" LastActivityDate="2017-12-20T14:11:32.360" Title="Shipbuilding experiment about leader selection" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;&lt;leadership&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18630" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18602" CreationDate="2017-12-11T10:30:08.723" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Based on the general developments in drug and medical device development research, 1970 was a major milestone, as randomized controlled trials were marked as compulsory for new drugs to be marketed through the FDA regulations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The question is quite broad, but in terms of clinical trials I can say that since 1970 the FDA required that drug producers submit &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;randomized controlled trials&lt;/a&gt; (RCTs) results with new drug applications, heralding a new era of the RCT in drug approval regulations (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889858805703099&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meldrum (2000)&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1604635#t=article&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bothwell &amp;amp; Podolsky (2016)&lt;/a&gt;). An RCT is defined as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A] type of scientific (often medical) experiment which aims to reduce bias when testing a new treatment. The people participating in the trial are randomly allocated to either the group receiving the treatment under investigation or to a group receiving standard treatment (or placebo treatment) as the control. Randomization minimizes selection bias [...]. The RCT is often considered the &lt;strong&gt;gold standard for a clinical trial&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you are referring to questions on Cognitive Sciences or Psychology in general. Drug research and medical device investigations include the widely used psychoneuropharmaceuticals such as the antidepressants and antipsychotics, as well as medical devices such as deep brain stimulators and sensorineural implants to treat &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;., epilepsy and deafness/blindness, respectively. All of these can be included in the disciplines of Cognitive Sciences and Psychology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1604635#t=article&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bothwell &amp;amp; Podolsky, &lt;em&gt;N Engl J Med&lt;/em&gt; (2016); 375: 501-04&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889858805703099&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meldrum, &lt;em&gt;Hematology/Oncology Clinics of North America&lt;/em&gt; (2000);&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;14&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 745-60&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-11T19:56:02.760" LastActivityDate="2017-12-11T19:56:02.760" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18631" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18623" CreationDate="2017-12-11T13:54:36.927" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found a very useful quote from a book by Ray Schilling. The book is called&#xA;&quot;Healing gone wrong, healing done right&quot;. Here's the quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Your brain is working overtime when you watch TV. You do this for several hours and your brain thinks it should be active. Then you turn the TV off and want to fall asleep. Your brain thinks, no, I am activated now. Let’s have some fun: what about pupils flashing, and why not activate your eyelids: now you got eyelids jerking. Then the brain recalls some of the noises and thinks: “I can do that too” Bingo: You got high pitched heavy white noise; that’s when you over impose all of the various noises you heard on TV into one. I suggest you experiment alternative ways of handling the TV. You could give yourself 2 hours or so after finishing TV, before you go to sleep. Alternatively, you may want to not watch TV for one evening and see whether things are better.&#xA;  There is another thing: When you watch TV, you stimulate your adrenal glands to produce more cortisol, which is the waking hormone. Cortisol counteracts melatonin, which is the sleeping hormone. So, when you decide to go to bed, your hormones disagree with you. The circulating cortisol will prevent you from falling asleep and inactivate the melatonin that is released from your pineal gland when the environment around is dark. Total darkness is the trigger normally to pour out melatonin, which inactivates the still circulating cortisol. But if there is too much cortisol circulating you are still in a fight/flight mode of thinking, which was needed for daytime stress. But all of this will settle when you follow my advice above.&#xA;  If you still have problems falling asleep, take 3 mg of melatonin from the health food store about 30 minutes before bedtime. If this does not put you to sleep within 20 to 30 minutes, you are thinking too much. At that point, you would benefit from 500 mg to 1000 mg of valerian root (that’s in addition to the melatonin you already took). The valerian root calms your nerves and you will fall asleep. If you still can’t sleep, you should see your physician for a possible sleep study. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is a very enlightening piece of writing. I deduce from this that when you watch TV, your attention is only directed to the TV, shutting down other parts of the brain that would be active if you weren't watching. These other parts &quot;wake up&quot; when lying in bed [if you go to bed directly after watching your flat (or non-flat) screen], and start &quot;shouting&quot; louder than normal, which causes the difficulty of falling asleep. There is more cortisol, which competes with the melatonin. This applies of course to people who have no psychologic issues. What happens on the molecular level (which I think is the scientifically accepted answer) I can't say, though melatonin and cortisol are chemicals of which the balance for sleeping well is disturbed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="11444" LastEditDate="2017-12-11T14:20:49.763" LastActivityDate="2017-12-11T14:20:49.763" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18632" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18619" CreationDate="2017-12-11T19:57:19.560" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Paradox_of_Choice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Paradox of Choice&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; is probably the area best supported by empirical evidence that argues for [the existence of] &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;satisficiers&lt;/a&gt;. If you'd rather read a shorter paper, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12416921&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Maximizing versus satisficing: happiness is a matter of choice.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; with the same lead author (Barryt Schwartz) has &gt; 1K citation in Google Scholar; there's a &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.378.7619&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;free pdf in CiteseerX&lt;/a&gt;. And on the flip-side of that, Scheibehenne et al.'s &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scheibehenne.de/ScheibehenneGreifenederTodd2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Can There Ever Be Too Many Options? A&#xA;Meta-Analytic Review of Choice Overload&quot;&lt;/a&gt; &quot;a meta-analysis of 63 conditions from 50 published&#xA;and unpublished experiments (N = 5,036), we found a mean effect size of&#xA;virtually zero but considerable variance between studies&quot;. The latter paper has about 500 citations in GS, but it's also published in 2010 vs 2002 for the Schwartz et al. paper. That might not be the last word in this matter, because 2015 brought us Chernev et al.'s &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2014.08.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Choice Overload: a Conceptual Review and Meta-analysis&quot;&lt;/a&gt; while agreeing with the zero overall effect from the 2010 meta-analysis, does a meta-regression to obtain as significant explanatory variables for the variance: choice set complexity, decision task difficulty, preference uncertainty, and decision goal. As the names of these are not always self-explanatory, here's the authors' details:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(1) The&#xA;  complexity of the choice set describes the aspects of the decision set associated with the particular values of the choice options: the presence of a dominant option in&#xA;  the choice set, the overall attractiveness of the options in the choice set, and the relationship between individual options in the decision set (alignability and&#xA;  complementarity); (2) The difficulty of the decision task refers to the general structural characteristics of the decision problem: time constraints, decision&#xA;  accountability, and number of attributes describing each option; (3) Preference uncertainty refers to the degree to which individuals have articulated preferences with&#xA;  respect to the decision at hand and has been operationalized by two factors: the level of product-specific expertise and the availability of an articulated ideal point; and&#xA;  (4) The decision goal reflects the degree to which individuals aim to minimize the cognitive effort involved in making a choice among the options contained in the&#xA;  available assortments and is operationalized by two measures: decision intent (buying vs. browsing) and decision focus (choosing an assortment vs. choosing a&#xA;  particular option). In this context, we expect higher levels of decision task difficulty, greater choice set complexity, higher preference uncertainty, and a more&#xA;  prominent, effort-minimizing goal to produce greater choice overload.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter paper is too new to assess its impact but insofar it has about 70 citations in GS, which is not too shabby.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another highly cited paper is Kahneman's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.econ.tuwien.ac.at/lotto/papers/Kahneman2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Maps of Bounded Rationality: Psychology for Behavioral Economics&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Although it has &quot;Bounded Rationality&quot; in its title and pays homage to Simon in the opening paragraph, this is farther from Simon's own ideas of satisficing as the basis of bounded rationality. Kahaneman proposes that &quot;(i) that most judgments and most choices are made intuitively; (ii) that the rules that govern intuition are generally similar to the rules of perception&quot;. The kinds of problems used to illustrate the latter (e.g. the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/a-new-twist-on-a-classic-puzzle.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bat and ball problem&lt;/a&gt;) are not necessarily the choice problems that Simon had in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And on a somewhat (but not entirely) contrarian note, Camerer's book &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://press.princeton.edu/titles/7517.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Behavioral Game Theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (&gt;5 K citations if GS is correct) (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://people.hss.caltech.edu/~camerer/web_material/boltonreview.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this for a review&lt;/a&gt;), which has a sort of precis in &lt;a href=&quot;https://people.hss.caltech.edu/~camerer/finaltics.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper of his&lt;/a&gt; (much less cited thatn the book though), states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Even though strategic thinking is limited, behaviour can&#xA;  approximate equilibrium predictions surprisingly well if&#xA;  people can learn over time (or through imitation or some&#xA;  other adaptive process). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And he has some experimental data to prove it. I'm a bit surprised computer scientists don't stroke their ego more often with the result from 'table 1' in &lt;a href=&quot;https://authors.library.caltech.edu/11373/1/CAMae03.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; of Camerer. I guess it's not that well known (only about ~100 citations).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, my point here is that unlike the one-off experiments with choice or puzzles, iterated versions tend to produce results suggesting that the bounds on human rationality are farther than might be conceived in simpler experiments. But simultaneously this finding is also an argument for bounded rationality, at least a computational version thereof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And speaking computational interpretations, there have been some theoretical works examining (arguing for) bounded rationality from the latter perspective, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.unitn.it/files/download/23013/paper06062012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kao and Velupillai&lt;/a&gt;; the latter author also has a book-length exposition titled &lt;em&gt;Computable Economics&lt;/em&gt;. Frankly the only people who seem to argue against any bounds (as opposed to just bounds in some 'homo economicus' experiments) are those who argue for a non-computational theory of mind, like Penrose so forth; &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SEP has a good review&lt;/a&gt; of these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-12T09:05:36.677" LastActivityDate="2017-12-12T09:05:36.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18634" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18328" CreationDate="2017-12-12T03:42:01.997" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there a technical term for plotting or conspiring?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you are describing is reminiscent of the personality trait called &lt;strong&gt;Machiavellianism&lt;/strong&gt;. The construct was first described by Christie and Geiss in 1970, and refers to conduct that comports with the political philosophy of Italian writer Niccolò Machiavelli in 1532:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... manipulativeness and deceit, cynical views toward human nature, and a cold, calculating attitude towards others... cunning, deceit, and the notion that &quot;means justify the ends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/lib/machiavellianism-cognition-and-emotion-understanding-how-the-machiavellian-thinks-feels-and-thrives/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Machiavellianism, Cognition, and Emotion: Understanding how the Machiavellian Thinks, Feels, and Thrives&lt;/a&gt;. Machiavellianism is part of what's called the &lt;em&gt;dark triad&lt;/em&gt; of personality, which also includes narcissism and psychopathy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think Machiavellianism is as close as you'll get for what you've described. Here's an interesting study looking at personality ratings of Clinton and Trump by experts in US politics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We also ﬁnd a substantial difference (d = 3.18, p &amp;lt; 0.001) on&#xA;  emotional stability between the two candidates: if Clinton is perceived&#xA;  as relatively high in this trait, Trump is, again, perceived as extremely&#xA;  low. Finally, our results conﬁrm Trump's high scores for perceived&#xA;  narcissism and psychopathy. On those two traits Clinton is assessed as&#xA;  relatively average (d = 2.06 and 1.84, respectively; p &amp;lt; 0.001). &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;For&#xA;  Machiavellianism as well our experts rated Trump more severely than&#xA;  Clinton (d = 1.51, p &amp;lt; 0.001)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Nai, A., &amp;amp; Maier, J. (2018). Perceived personality and campaign style of Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump. Personality and Individual Differences, 121, 80-83.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastActivityDate="2017-12-12T03:42:01.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3707" CreationDate="2017-12-12T21:05:41.637" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember seeing something that mentioned that for people who actually believe that something spiritual is happening to them their actual brain chemistry is changing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heightened emotions emit serotonin, dopamine, etc, and that could have an effect on people with a combination of other chemicals. Any time that our emotions are heightened we experience physiological and sometimes psychological changes. To explain why people see strange things or angels and such, those are just hallucinations. These people are not mentally ill, but the way you behave and perceive the world depends on your brain chemistry and brain chemistry is malleable given certain circumstances, so over time, someone could go from a Christian to a pagan and feel and see totally different things. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an example  I want to mention near death experiences. Near death experiences are typically explained by some scientists as auditory, visual, and sensory hallucinations, some scientists think that the brain is still active to a degree after clinical death. Of course this is still being researched and debated but it would explain near death experiences and why they are all similar. Near death experiences are influenced by culture. Culture is a learned trait and for most people this culture is the same, especially when isolated. That could also be the reason why some people experience the same things as they do rituals, prey, etc. It is shared belief and it creates memories, among other things, as our brains are wired to fit these beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17813" LastActivityDate="2017-12-12T21:05:41.637" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18638" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-13T04:06:10.330" Score="3" ViewCount="185" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering from a physiological perspective what is anxiety. From my experience anxiety feels like muscle tension and lots of suppressed energy. For what I know the only thing that can make the body feel like that is adrenaline. So I am wondering if the two are the same or if anxiety is caused by different hormone. However what doesn't seem right about my hypothesis is anger increases adrenaline, but I don't think anger feel like anxiety for the general population. It would be helpful if someone could clarify me what causes the physiology of anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17815" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-13T18:13:32.403" LastActivityDate="2017-12-13T18:13:32.403" Title="Physiologically speaking is anxiety and adrenaline the same?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18641" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-13T09:43:50.197" Score="1" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen some recent papers that find elevated cortisol in GAD patients, particularly in older ones, and that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3424606/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SSRI medication lowers cortisol in such GAD patients&lt;/a&gt;. However I also found &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(91)90021-G&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an older study&lt;/a&gt; that didn't find any difference in cortisol between GAD and controls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is there some consensus on the correlation between cortisol and GAD? Is age the primary moderating factor in this correlation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-12-13T09:43:50.197" Title="Cortisol in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: is there a consensus?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18642" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18638" CreationDate="2017-12-13T10:39:43.000" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not quite the same, although there is some overlap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's colloquially known as an &quot;adrenaline rush&quot; (e.g. what you'd experience in a roller coaster or more generally in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fight-or-flight situation&lt;/a&gt;) is the result of the body's fast reaction system to stress, sometimes called the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) axis. SAM activation causes the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline);.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, sustained/chronic stress (eventually) activates the slower stress-response axis, known as the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. In humans, HPA activation releases cortisol from the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex. (The adrenal cortex is the outer layer of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adrenal gland&lt;/a&gt;, while the adrenal medulla is the inner area of the gland.) One of the actions of cortisol is to contain the activation of the SAM axis. (&lt;em&gt;Textbook of&#xA;Anxiety Disorders&lt;/em&gt;, 2nd ed., p. 571 citing the highly influential &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6368214&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper of Munck et al.&lt;/a&gt;) Cortisol has its &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_feedback#Biology_and_chemistry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;own negative-feedback loop&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic_attack#Signs_and_symptoms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;panic attack&lt;/a&gt; you'd experience mostly SAM activation, or at least this will be the dominant effect. On the other hand, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywell.com/anxiety-attacks-versus-panic-attacks-2584396&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anxiety generally refers to a broader class of reactions to stress&lt;/a&gt;, including long-term ones. E.g., [older] people with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) may experience elevated cortisol, and this is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3424606/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reduced by SSRI medication&lt;/a&gt;. Other anxiety-related disorders such as PTSD have a much more complicated picture; cortisol levels &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.plos.org/mindthebrain/2016/07/18/cortisol-the-intergenerational-transmission-of-stress-and-ptsd-an-interview-with-dr-rachel-yehuda/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;are not terribly useful in distinguishing PTSD patients from controls&lt;/a&gt;. Recent research suggests however that a dysfunctional cortisol feedback loop may be present in PTSD; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4156294/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;administration of cortisol after a potentially traumatic event seems to reduce later symptoms&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I said above is a pretty simplified picture, in which I completely glossed over the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4999448/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;complex pathways of stress-mediation in the brain&lt;/a&gt;, which actually make studying/treating anxiety disorders much less trivial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-12-13T10:39:43.000" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18643" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-10T12:49:16.833" Score="1" ViewCount="494" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do people like to listen to sad songs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sadness is not a positive feeling, so people should avoid it, right? Listening to sad songs is like inflicting some pain to yourself just for pleasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Did someone studied this? Why do people like sad songs? Is it similar mechanism to masochism? What is evolutionary role of feeling sad on purpose? What is neurological background of this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11232" OwnerDisplayName="user46147" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2017-12-28T04:19:00.827" LastActivityDate="2017-12-28T20:00:39.827" Title="Why do people like to listen to sad songs?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18644" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3707" CreationDate="2017-12-13T12:58:21.620" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research in this area is pretty patchy. Summarizing what &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion#Experimental_work&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia says on the topic&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;God helmet&quot; experiments were plagued by failures to reproduce by independent research groups&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;TLE (temporal lobe epilepsy) and its effect known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschwind_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Geschwind syndrome&lt;/a&gt; is one plausible cause... but that does not explain it in all people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/religious-experiences-shrink-part-of-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hippocampal atrophy&lt;/a&gt; is a more recent hypothesis, although it seems backed by only one study insofar&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Independently of Wikipedia I found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.01.026&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a study by Urgesi et at. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; on the effect of brain lesions (following brain cancer removal) on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-transcendence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-transcendence&lt;/a&gt;, which determined that &quot;self-transcendence increases after damage to lt and rt inferior parietal cortex&quot;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02305.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2009 study by Inzlicht et al.&lt;/a&gt; found that &quot;religious conviction is marked by reduced reactivity in the&#xA;anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a cortical system that is&#xA;involved in the experience of anxiety and is important for&#xA;self-regulation [...] These correlations remained strong even after we controlled for personality and cognitive ability.&quot; And the paper goes as far as having a &quot;xanax of the people&quot; heading for one its sections, and obvious pun on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium_of_the_people&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the better known phrase of Marx&lt;/a&gt;. The authors also point out that a similar anxiolytic effect was observed in studies of other strong beliefs, but not necessarily religious, e.g. ideological/political, citing &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1979&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amodio et al. 2007&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.18&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kay et al. 2008&lt;/a&gt;. (And starting to digress here, but the Amodio study has &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/human_nature/2007/09/liberal_interpretation.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;elicited strong reactions in the press&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-13T13:11:43.423" LastActivityDate="2017-12-13T13:11:43.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18645" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-13T13:51:45.443" Score="0" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;Part of the fictional story I am currently writing takes place in a typical dictatorship country with its propaganda, cult of the leader, etc. The main character undergoes several psychological tests over couple of days and their goal is to find out how easily the character can be manipulated, how strong an individual he is and if he succumbs to mass thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you advise me on any psychological tests that can prove such things?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17821" LastEditorUserId="13937" LastEditDate="2017-12-13T22:57:50.543" LastActivityDate="2017-12-15T18:59:58.870" Title="&quot;How easily can you succumb to propaganda and manipulation&quot; test" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13608" CreationDate="2017-12-13T14:47:50.913" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There has been some recorded research in this area from more than 150 years back (1858). The concept is called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Bilateral_transfer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bilateral transfer of learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Definition:&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;&quot;Bilateral transfer is an aspect of the transfer of learning and is the transfer of learning or performance from one side of the body after training to the other. So, for example, after training a task with the right hand there, is an improvement in left handed performance.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could also find a mention of this very specific example (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.slideshare.net/ridhi7070/bilateral-transfer-of-learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ref: Slide #8 in this slideshare presentation&lt;/a&gt;)-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;He (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Heinrich_Weber&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;E H Weber&lt;/a&gt;) observed that some children trained to write with the right hand were able without further training to produce very good mirror writing with the left hand&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why closing the eyes helps may be due to the fact that it reduces distraction but I haven't been able to find any reference for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11084" LastActivityDate="2017-12-13T14:47:50.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18648" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-13T21:53:15.370" Score="2" ViewCount="260" Body="&lt;p&gt;What causes muscle contraction in times of stress? People say it's caused because of fight or flight response is activated, but this not exact. I am looking to find the direct cause, i.e is it a direct effect of adrenaline or maybe a direct effect of cortisol? Maybe is because glucose levels rise and it's the way of our body to use that extra energy? I don't really know and searching doesn't help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17815" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-15T00:54:54.237" LastActivityDate="2017-12-15T00:54:54.237" Title="What causes muscle stiffness contraction and tension during stress" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18649" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18648" CreationDate="2017-12-14T02:42:49.783" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Presumably you to mean to ask what pathway mediates muscle tension. muscle tension is controlled by the reticular formation (in the brain stem), so it doesn't require anything special to happen in the bloodstream. The reticular formation is connected to many other areas of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To save this question from triviality and relate it to your prior one (which was about anxiety), muscle tension is the most common (if not the defining) feature of GAD, yet muscle tension cannot be understood in terms of the autonomous nervous system (ANS) response to stress (according to a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18472245&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2009 review of Pluess et al.&lt;/a&gt;) That's basically a coy of saying we don't know what exactly causes muscle tension in GAD. Furthermore, some studies of GAD reported that the typical ANS responses to stress are not present in many GAD patients (according to the aforementioned review citing in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2589925&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hoehn-Saric et al.&lt;/a&gt;). The latter issue is more controversial because a later (and more cited) study of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8645772&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thayer et al.&lt;/a&gt; did find some correlates with ANS in terms of cardiac activity, but this still doesn't quite provide a complete explanation. Another &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19700258&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2009 GAD review&lt;/a&gt; discussed 5 different conceptual models of GAD, yet none of these theories does much to explain muscle tension in GAD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-14T02:51:41.577" LastActivityDate="2017-12-14T02:51:41.577" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18651" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-14T11:10:54.553" Score="6" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a condensed form of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEO-PI&lt;/a&gt; test. Current short forms come in at 40-50 questions, I'm wondering if it's possible to achieve a very basic degree of accuracy with 20 items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17641" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-14T21:32:03.450" LastActivityDate="2018-04-09T05:47:02.887" Title="Condensed NEO-PI test" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18652" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-14T22:26:44.157" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hope this is the right place to ask this question.. If not please advise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In computer science, we often check digital libraries of ACM, IEEE, etc. And also Google scholar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But are there search engines that are like &lt;strong&gt;THE&lt;/strong&gt; main place to look for psychology literature? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8210" LastActivityDate="2017-12-14T22:26:44.157" Title="Where do psychologists typically search for literature?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18653" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1612" CreationDate="2017-12-15T12:26:20.620" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;(This is a bit brief given the complexity of the question. I'll expand later if I can summarize more of the findings.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably the only thing which is certain is the high-failure rate in CS1-level classes, worldwide. From a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/2591708.2591749&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent (2014) meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this paper, we answer the call for further substantial evidence on the CS1 failure rate phenomenon, by performing a systematic review of introductory programming literature, and a statistical analysis on pass rate data extracted from relevant articles. Pass rates describing the outcomes of 161 CS1 courses that ran in 15 different countries, across 51 institutions were extracted and analysed. An almost identical mean worldwide pass rate of 67.7% was found. Moderator analysis revealed significant, but perhaps not substantial differences in pass rates based upon: grade level, country, and class size. However, pass rates were found not to have significantly differed over time, or based upon the programming language taught in the course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was a prior world-wide study in 2007 (using online self-reported data) which agreed with this number (~33% failure rate), although the distribution observed for the passing students was different:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Dx81Y.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Dx81Y.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas neither paper compares this number with other fields, but the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/1272848.1272879&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2007 one&lt;/a&gt; also calculated that graduation from CS tertiary education is low worldwide, 26.8% so getting past CS1 hardly guarantees smooth sailing thereafter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ARtUj.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ARtUj.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter [counterproductively 3D] graph is based on UNESCO data, which is why North America is absent (the US boycott[ed] UNESCO.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is however &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/1026487.1008029&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one paper&lt;/a&gt; which does state that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies in Ireland [1] have shown that Computer Science has the highest&#xA;  failure rate, giving a 26.9% non-completion rate for Computing&#xA;  courses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[... citing:]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[1] Mark Morgan, Rita Flanagan and Thomas Kellaghan, &quot;Higher Education Report A Study of Non-Completion in Undergraduate University Courses&quot; published February 2001&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several theories for the CS1 failure rate have been advanced: genetic basis,  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08993401003612167&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;learning edge momentum&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, and/or &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/2493394.2493416&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stumbling blocks&lt;/a&gt; but it's too early to tell if any of these have convincing empirical support. (In fact the last paper argues that insofar there isn't a good data gathering strategy that would even allow one to one to decide.) And &lt;a href=&quot;https://cte-blog.uwaterloo.ca/?p=5153&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one academic blog&lt;/a&gt; suggests (based on its own data) that none might be correct. &lt;a href=&quot;http://aisel.aisnet.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&amp;amp;context=sais2015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yet another paper&lt;/a&gt; suggests that (Duckworth's) grit plays a substantial role. And with respect to the final grade being an aggregation &lt;a href=&quot;https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2459943&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one paper&lt;/a&gt; (based on a single course) suggests that students' bimodal final grades come from the practical side of the evaluation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LejvW.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LejvW.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas I was not able to find other papers looking into this aspect, however it does look to me that the grit paper does point in the same direction; it found that grit was a much better predictor than ACT (itself considered a proxy for IQ) for CS1 success.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The humps paper mentiond in the question is not taken very seriously (most of these papers dont' cite it), and &lt;a href=&quot;http://retractionwatch.com/2014/07/18/the-camel-doesnt-have-two-humps-programming-aptitude-test-canned-for-overzealous-conclusion/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;even by its own authors themselves these days&lt;/a&gt;. It also does not seem to have been the first to observe the grade distribution phenomenon. I'm not entirely sure why it became popular on-line. Its strong language and/or the SE-effect maybe. For instance &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/1083431.1083474&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this 2005 paper&lt;/a&gt; noted the 30% to 40% failure rate as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also here's a graph with the failure rate by country from the 2014 meta-analysis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xDyKL.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xDyKL.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors note that the top 3 failure leaders Portugal, Germany and Brazil were represented by a pretty small sample in this study, so the data for those countries cannot really be relied upon. On the other hand, &quot;of the 4 countries&#xA;which made 80% of the sample, Finland was found to have the lowest pass rate 57.7%&quot;. The other three countries in this 80% bulk of the data, US, UK, and Australia had statistically indistinguishable rates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the methodology should have been more upfront in this meta-analysis but they do say &quot;Currently we have found in this study 3/10 students do not complete, or fail CS1.&quot; So they definitely count withdrawals as failure, basically, for the statics they reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-16T02:41:08.177" LastActivityDate="2017-12-16T02:41:08.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18655" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18645" CreationDate="2017-12-15T17:51:42.067" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Historical examples&lt;/strong&gt; as mentioned in the comments, include: Asch's Conformity Experiment; Milgram's Obediance Experiment; and similarly, the Stanford Prison Experiment by Zimbardo. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zimbardo's experiment had more to do with situational forces and taking on an assumed role. A brief synopsis: He randomly assigns healthy students to either guard of prisoner roles in a mock basement prison. They assume their roles with striking commitment, which leads to some unfortunate interactions between the guards and prisoners. Some of his rhetoric would probably suit your story nicely. In the later chapters of his book published after the conclusion of the experiment, Zimbardo discusses his idea of a &quot;hero&quot; able to resist the situational forces. He believes this to be a latent attribute within an individual, and that leads us towards personality psychology. It is more akin to Asch's study, in that there is no true &quot;authority&quot; but rather situational forces brought about by other conforming peers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as an specific test, I believe the &lt;strong&gt;Big Five Inventory&lt;/strong&gt; can be adapted to your purposes. In personality psychology, it is regarded as a rather valid and consistent tool. Some of the metrics included could predispose an individual to obedience. Some examples that come to mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Agreeableness:&lt;/strong&gt; Includes applicable measures of trust and compliance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conscientiousness:&lt;/strong&gt; Perhaps some use of self-discipline and dutifulness would identify as positive traits for an obedient character (thinking soldier or the like).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Openness to Experience:&lt;/strong&gt; Scoring highly in measures of curiosity and values may make a character less apt to be obedient. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://fetzer.org/sites/default/files/images/stories/pdf/selfmeasures/Personality-BigFiveInventory.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt; - Also includes a 44-item sample inventory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17769" LastEditorDisplayName="user17769" LastEditDate="2017-12-15T18:59:58.870" LastActivityDate="2017-12-15T18:59:58.870" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18657" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1612" CreationDate="2017-12-15T22:04:14.403" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the research of Elizabeth Patitsas, &lt;a href=&quot;https://patitsas.blogspot.ca/2016/01/cs-grades-probably-more-normal-than-you.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the distribution is not bimodal&lt;/a&gt;. She sampled 778 University of British Columbia CS courses, as well as 5 University of Toronto CS courses and found the vast majority to not be bimodal:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An estimated 85.1% of the final grades in UBC's undergrad CS classes&#xA;  are normally-distributed. 5.8% of the classes tested as being bimodal,&#xA;  which isn't a whole lot more than the false positive rate I'd expect&#xA;  to see (5%).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can read more about these results in the blog post linked above or in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=2960310.2960312&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evidence That Computer Science Grades Are Not Bimodal&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Elizabeth Patitsas, Jesse Berlin, Michelle Craig and Steve Easterbrook.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make things worse, when discussing this, &lt;a href=&quot;https://computinged.wordpress.com/2016/04/13/where-cs-teachers-see-bimodality-guest-blog-post-from-elizabeth-patitsas/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;people who believe the distribution is bimodal are more likely to see a bimodal distribution in a normally distributed sampling&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We delayed the debriefing until after our analysis was complete, on&#xA;  the assumption you’d want to know the preliminary results of the&#xA;  study. We indeed found that participants who agreed more strongly with&#xA;  the statement “Some students are innately predisposed to do better at&#xA;  CS than others” were statistically significantly more likely to label&#xA;  ambiguous distributions as bimodal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-12-15T22:04:14.403" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18659" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-16T12:47:49.137" Score="4" ViewCount="269" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, I see there is even a cognitive theory of motivation. I closest I can find is that cognitive explanations are more about the thought process of an individual which led to certain behaviour. What then, does a pure &quot;motivational explanation&quot; mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an instance of cognitive vs. motivational explanation: &quot;There are both cognitive and motivational explanations for the competence hypothesis. [...] Perhaps the major reason for the competence hypothesis is motivational rather than cognitive.&quot; This is an excerpt from &lt;a href=&quot;https://jstor.org/stable/41760614&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Preference and Belief: Ambiguity and Competence in Choice under Uncertainty&quot;&lt;/a&gt; by  Heath and Tversky.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17843" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-17T14:04:50.450" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T16:00:35.977" Title="What is (or is there) a clear distinction between cognitive and motivational explanations for a hypothesis?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18661" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17099" CreationDate="2017-12-16T14:49:00.190" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd say yes, in german literature there are some reportings of athelets &amp;quot;training&amp;quot; in slow motion while they are lucid dreaming. I'll try to recap those reportings in english.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Tholey&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paul Tholey&lt;/a&gt; &amp;amp; Kaleb Utecht cite Sadko Günter Solinski, an equestrian, in &amp;quot;Schöpferisch Träumen&amp;quot; (p.257-258):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Als Reiter kann ich somit im Klartraum (A) meine Figuren&#xA;zentimetergenau in den Sand (bei der Dressur) bzw. in den Parcours,&#xA;z.B. eines Cross-Country hufbreitgenau in die Landschaft zeichnen (bei&#xA;der Military). Gelingt mir dies im Zeitlupentempo und verbinde ich (B)&#xA;dabei sämtliche (dem Pferd angepassten) ”Hilfen“ im jeweils einzig&#xA;richtigen Augenblick einer Bewegungsphase und ”reite ich“ (C) die&#xA;Aufgabe so mehrmals (drei- bis neunmal) während eines Klartraums&#xA;genau und vollständig durch, so verfügt mein Körper&#xA;erfahrungsgemäß am folgenden Tag über genügend ”Körperwissen“, um&#xA;den Parcours autonom, d.h. ohne mein bewußtes oder willentliches Zutun&#xA;hinter sich zu bringen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Summary: Solinski claims to able to prepare dressage and eventing very accuratly while lucid dreaming (&amp;quot;im Klartraum&amp;quot;). Sometimes he is able to do this in slow motion (&amp;quot;im Zeitlupentempo&amp;quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The citation can also be found in &lt;a href=&quot;http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/5896/1/Doktorarbeit_EndversionUB_2seitig.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Daniel Erlacher's PhD thesis&lt;/a&gt; (p.62).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Daniel Erlacher has another example in his german &lt;a href=&quot;http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/5896/1/Doktorarbeit_EndversionUB_2seitig.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PhD thesis on motor learning in lucid dreams&lt;/a&gt;. It's about himself training high diving in a lucid dream (above PDF, p.125):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ein typischer Klartraum in dieser Periode sah etwa wie folgt aus: [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ich versuche, möglichst kunstvoll Salti und Schrauben, oder&#xA;Auerbachsalti zu machen. Da das ganze langsam abläuft – wie in&#xA;Zeitlupe – habe ich die gute Gelegenheit auf alle Bewegungsabläufe&#xA;genau zu achten.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Summary: Erlacher describes one of serveral characteristic lucid treams, where he is trying to do backflips and so on. As everything happens really slowly (&amp;quot;Da das ganze langsam abläuft&amp;quot;) - like in slow motion (&amp;quot;wie in Zeitlupe&amp;quot;) - he is able to focus on every single movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17830" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-12-16T14:49:00.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18662" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18663" CreationDate="2017-12-16T17:48:53.593" Score="3" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I understand it, a brain communicates through sending signals via ions and chemical reactions resulting in concentrations of ions, a computer sends signals by electrons.  I'm really trying to do 3 things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Confirm that understanding&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Understand what is the fundamental difference between the two types of signaling.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there more to what the brain is doing at least at a relatively macro level that I may be missing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17845" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-16T18:24:06.963" LastActivityDate="2017-12-16T19:36:05.250" Title="Difference between brain and electronic device signals" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18663" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18662" CreationDate="2017-12-16T19:36:05.250" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a pretty broad question, however I think it's common enough that I think it's worth trying to answer. I'll break it down into the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What signals do the brain send?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How are these signals different than electronic signals?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;1. Brain Signals&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain has a lot of different signaling modalities. Some fast acting, some slow acting. Mostly, neurons communicate with the ions/chemicals you've mentioned above, which are actually called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/neurotransmitters-their-receptors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurotransmitters&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;2. Brain Signals vs. Electronic Device Signals&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Spikes vs. Pulses&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Electronic devices communicate by raising a potential on a wire and wait for the target of the communication to receive that pulse. The pulse can either be on or off. Neurons communicate via spikes, where the information is not &quot;on&quot; or &quot;off&quot;, but also the frequency of the spikes and the spacing between the spikes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Localised vs. Variable scopes&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Electronic device pulses have clearly defined destinations. Although neurotransmitters can target a specific neuron, they can also modulate a group of neurons. This is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromodulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuromodulation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Static vs. adaptive&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The wires on an electronic device do no change in strength. However, there are a TON of mechanisms for how the brain learns. The brain's &quot;wires&quot; called synapses, change in their effectiveness of transmission over time. The neurons themselves change in receptivity over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;The Brain is not a Computer&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize, a computer or other electronic device is a really poor metaphor for the brain. I discuss this in my blog post &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://seanny123.github.io/post/2015-09-17-Understanding-The-Brain-Where-Metaphors-Limit-You/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Understanding the Brain: Where Metaphors Limit You&lt;/a&gt;&quot; if you would like a more in depth discussion on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2017-12-16T19:36:05.250" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18665" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-16T22:46:27.440" Score="0" ViewCount="621" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the longest time, I've wondered why it is that people who are physically or mentally abused by their partners stay in these relationships. Further, it seems, admittedly from personal experience, that many people &lt;em&gt;overwhelmingly&lt;/em&gt; tend to remain in these unhealthy relationships, characterized by abuse and dependence. While reading an article about Stockholm syndrome, it occurred to me that this fairly obscure condition may in fact be far more common than previously thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What if, as a model to explain this behavior, a small portion of the population struggles to bond with people sufficiently to remain in relationships in the classical sense. In other words, prolonged periods of shared experience with exchange of emotion and vulnerability, the typical process by which bonds between people form, just isn't enough for this subset of the population. In such a population, it's not ridiculous to posit that bonds formed through Stockholm syndrome, which aren't dependent on the same shared experiences, could essentially be the only bonds left.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This model would suggest that a small portion of the population that struggles to open up to and connect with potential partners tends to form bonds with abusers, which is exactly what given evidence would suggest. Would someone a bit better educated in this subject agree or disagree?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12897" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T00:55:23.433" Title="Is staying with an abusive partner actually indicative of Stockholm syndrome?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2017-12-19T22:55:07.133" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18666" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18690" CreationDate="2017-12-16T22:56:47.517" Score="6" ViewCount="227" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's well known that mental imagery shares the neural substrates of its respective modality, despite dissociable multivariate patterns.  For example, visual imagery can be decoded across the ventral visual stream, but can be separated from vision-proper based on spatiotemporal dynamics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there seems to be some controversy about the whether the &quot;earliest&quot; sensory regions (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, V1) are involved in mental imagery. To my knowledge, many studies seem to show either nonsignificant, weak, or marginal involvement of V1 in visual imagery, but some theoretical articles seem to suggest the opposite.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone shed some light on the current thinking/evidence? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-19T10:09:06.240" LastActivityDate="2017-12-19T10:09:06.240" Title="Is V1 involved in visual imagery?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;imagery&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18667" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18665" CreationDate="2017-12-17T00:32:20.457" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Stockholm syndrome has been discussed in relation to domestic abuse, but not all that much. In the &lt;em&gt;Encyclopedia of Domestic Violence&lt;/em&gt; (Routledge, 2007, NA Jackson ed.) I found criteria given that mirror those for kidnapping victims:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The victim perceives a person threatening her&#xA;  survival. The threats may be physical or psychological.&#xA;  It is not important whether others&#xA;  view her survival as threatened, but rather&#xA;  whether she does.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The victim perceives the abuser showing her&#xA;  some kindness, however small. For example,&#xA;  the kindness may be that for one day out of&#xA;  the month he does not abuse her.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The victim is isolated from outsiders. This isolation&#xA;  may be physical—she is not permitted to&#xA;  have contact with family or friends—and/or&#xA;  ideological—she is permitted exposure to&#xA;  only the abuser’s perspective.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The victim does not perceive a way to escape&#xA;  the abuser. Batterers use violence to help ensure&#xA;  that their partners do not leave them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are pretty strong criteria to fulfill, particularly number 3 and 4. The  &lt;em&gt;Encyclopedia&lt;/em&gt; doesn't have any systematic evidence how often all these are fulfilled, in other words we don't know what the prevalence in the population would be. There has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8555117&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one scale proposed by Graham et al. (1995)&lt;/a&gt; for measuring a more gradual version of the syndrome, but I haven't found other papers using it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the usual reasons why the victims remains in an abusive relationship, they usually see (or hope for) &lt;a href=&quot;https://livescience.com/8202-women-stay-abusive-relationships.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some redeeming quality in their abuser&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a considerable number of women felt their abusive male partners still possessed some good qualities: More than half (54 percent) saw their partners as highly dependable, while one in five (21 percent) felt the men in their lives possessed significant positive traits (i.e., being affectionate).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you are proposing is a bit different than Stockholm syndrome. When you say that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a small portion of the population that struggles to open up to and connect with potential partners tends to form bonds with abusers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;you're basically proposing is that some victims have a propensity (perhaps a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;personality trait&lt;/a&gt;) for abusive partners. I'm not sure if that's the case; surely some women have submissive or masochistic BDSM fantasies, even &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19085605&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rape fantasies&lt;/a&gt;, but to argue that they could only bond with abusive partners seems extreme to me, even a form of blaming the victim. I haven't seen this trait-lie preference for abusive partners discussed in literature. As cited in the &lt;em&gt;Encyclopedia&lt;/em&gt; Graham in a 1994 book (&lt;em&gt;Loving to Survive: Sexual Terror, Men’s Violence, and Women’s Psychology&lt;/em&gt;) did propose that victims may develop &quot;borderline-like&quot; personality characteristics and behaviors... but again he says develop, not have them beforehand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is however one recent &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9180-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2008) paper&lt;/a&gt; that does discuss the personality of the victims:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Women victims of IPV [Intimate Partner Violence] had higher scores than controls in schizoid, avoidant, self-defeating personality scales, as well as in the three pathological personality scales (schizotypal, borderline and paranoid). Both physical and psychological IPV were strongly associated with personality disorder symptomatology, regardless of the effects of childhood abuse. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is after the fact though. A longitudinal study would be able to establish correlates before the IPV, but I'm not aware of such a study. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-17T00:55:23.433" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T00:55:23.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18668" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4114" CreationDate="2017-12-17T03:06:13.440" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The simple answer is that bipolar disorder can occur &lt;em&gt;without psychosis&lt;/em&gt;. The paper that opens the other answer is titled &amp;quot;Differences in resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging functional network connectivity between schizophrenia and &lt;em&gt;psychotic bipolar&lt;/em&gt; probands and their unaffected first-degree relatives.&amp;quot; (Emphasis mine.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also have (unipolar) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3686458/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depression with psychotic symptoms&lt;/a&gt;. And its status is (and has been) equally iffy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been a long-standing discussion as to whether psychotic depression is a distinct syndrome or simply represents a severe form of depression. Much of the debate stems from the fact that in DSM-II, published in 1968, “psychosis” meant severe and did not mean being out of touch with reality or having delusions or hallucinations. In 1970, Gerald Klerman and Eugene Paykel published an influential article that stated that in depression, there was a smooth continuum from mild outpatient depression to severe depression requiring inpatient hospitalization without any demarcation points. Observations that psychotic depressed patients differed from nonpsychotic patients in their response to pharmacological treatments led investigators to focus on more clearly defining this distinct clinical entity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 1992, as Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-IV was being planned, a strong argument was made in the American Journal of Psychiatry that there was sufficient evidence at that time from studies of clinical characteristics and symptoms, biology, family history, course and outcome, and treatment that psychotic depression should be a distinct illness in DSM-IV, separate from major depression. The American Journal of Psychiatry article led to a position paper submitted to the DSM-IV Work Group on mood disorders. The DSM-IV Work Group on mood disorders agreed that the clinical relevance of specifically designating patients with psychotic depression was high and considered 2 options: (1) to continue the classification as in DSM-IIIR designating psychosis as decimal point under the severity code and (2) to designate psychotic depression as a separate syndrome “major depression with psychotic features.” After much deliberation, the work group recommended the first option although it recognized it was less than optimal. Thus, in DSM-IV and DSM-IV text revision, psychotic depression remained as a subclassification of major depressive disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, in the International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision (ICD-10), psychotic depression is classified as a subtype of severe depression. Arguments that psychotic depression meets the criteria for a valid psychiatric syndrome due to its distinct clinical presentation, neurobiology, heritability, prognosis, and treatment response continue to be made with the hope that this will change in ICD-11.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In DSM-V, psychotic depression will remain as a subclassification of major depressive disorder. However, in DSM-V, psychotic features will be separated from the severity rating, and major depressive disorder with psychotic features will not necessarily need to be classified as “severe.” This is a change from DSM-IV. Moreover, in DSM-V, a hierarchy giving precedence to mood-incongruent features is being introduced to allow classification of cases in which mood-congruent and mood-incongruent psychotic features coexist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry for the rather long quote, but I cannot summarize the controversy of psychotic depression in much less than that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And to get back to bipolar, DSM-5 split the mood section (one chapter in DSM-IV) into two Depressive and Related Disorders and Bipolar and Related Disorders. They actually located Bipolar in-between Depressive and Schizophrenia Spectrum and Related Disorders&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in recognition of their place as a bridge between the two diagnostic classes in terms of symptomatology, family history and genetics&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(DSM-5, p. 123)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if you wonder why this progression, here's some correlational &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18076541/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;epidemiology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A diagnosis of BPI [bipolar I] disorder was strongly predictive of psychotic features during depression compared to MDDR [major depressive disorder] (odds ratio [OR] = 4.61, p &amp;lt; 0.0005). Having bipolar II compared to MDDR was not predictive of psychosis (OR = 1.05, p = 0.260), nor was having a family history of BPI in MDDR subjects (OR = 1.20, p = 0.840).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And one interesting thing is that in practice, the presence of psychosis makes the diagnosing psychiatrist significantly depart from the DSM:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the question of where to place psychotic symptoms within the framework of clinical diagnosis is still confusing. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18555536&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meyer and Meyer (2009)&lt;/a&gt; sought to examine this issue using identical vignettes of a clinical presentation adjusted only for the presence of auditory hallucinations (more commonly associated with psychotic disorders) and the decreased need for sleep (one possible symptom of mania) to evaluate how actual psychiatrists would diagnosis and what subsequent treatment they would recommend. Although the vignette was written to clearly present a patient with mania warranting a diagnosis of Bipolar Disorder (DSM-IV criteria), almost half of the psychiatrists gave an inappropriate diagnosis (45% total; 41.5% psychotic disorder, 3.5% other diagnosis), with a manic episode diagnosed by 37.3% of the psychiatrists and bipolar affective disorder diagnosed by 16.9% of the psychiatrists&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;as noted in &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/bs6030014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Historical Underpinnings of Bipolar Disorder Diagnostic Criteria&#xA;&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; which is actually a very good read for the historical basis of the distinction (it started with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraepelinian_dichotomy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kraepelian dichotomy&lt;/a&gt;), much more than I can hope to convey here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I will say is that the blurring distinction that the DSM-5 sorta acknowledged has been proposed much more vigorously by some researchers. In particular, Craddock &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1192%2Fbjp.bp.109.073429&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;going&amp;quot; paper&lt;/a&gt; was one of my favorite papers some years ago, proposing an even more daring overlap, with cognitive issues of schizophrenia overlapping autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y3G0R.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y3G0R.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas, the quest for biomarkers in psychiatry is still in its infancy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, while the DSM (IV) clearly defined bipolar as a mood disorder, they don't say that schizophrenia is a thought disorder, so I'm not sure what you based that on. Science Direct has a page &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;with a lot definitions of schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt; excerpted from (recent) books, and none define it a thought disorder although one (Sontheimer) does say that it is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a collection of symptoms that are dominated by psychosis. However, symptoms also include deficits in thinking, behavior, and affect [...]&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another (Benson) says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;its defining symptoms are typically delusions and hallucinations in the absence of extreme emotion. Cognitive impairment or thought disorder is also considered a cardinal symptom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kmpt.nhs.uk/conditions/thought-disorder-psychosis/6609&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the NHS does have a page&lt;/a&gt; on which it equates psychosis with thought disorder in the title. I guess the specialists don't consider the concepts synonymous, but for the general public... some let that slide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T05:49:21.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18669" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15926" CreationDate="2017-12-17T12:13:41.480" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnogram#Normal_sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paragraph from the Wikipedia article on hypnograms&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a hypnogram, a sleep cycle is usually around 90 minutes and there are four to six cycles of REM/NREM stages that occur during a major period of sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most SWS occurs in the first one or two cycles; this is the deepest period of sleep. The second half of the sleeping period contains most REM sleep and little or no SWS and may contain brief periods of wakefulness which can be recorded but are not usually perceived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The stage that occurs before waking is normally REM sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And this image (also from wiki):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Hypro_zyklus_1_en_103.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sample hypnogram showing one sleep cycle (the first of the night) from NREM through REM&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A normal and healthy person usually wakes for a brief time after his/her REM stage was finished in each sleep cycle. So, if we consider A 7–8-hour sleep probably includes four cycles, and each cycle include at least one REM, then each person at least wake four times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17590" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T16:50:32.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18670" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2017-12-17T12:29:15.720" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Degenerative brain disease resulting in progressive memory loss, impaired thinking, disorientation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17590" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-17T16:47:00.067" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T16:47:00.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18671" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2017-12-17T12:29:15.720" Score="0" Body="For question regarding different aspect of Alzheimer's disease, such as symptoms, diagnosis or treatment." OwnerUserId="17590" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-17T16:44:42.203" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T16:44:42.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18672" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8668" CreationDate="2017-12-17T15:56:22.713" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some studies that seem to support your suggestion e.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0022463&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dream reports and creative tendencies in students of the arts, sciences, and engineering&lt;/a&gt; (paywalled, so I'm quoting the abstract):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;105 students of arts, sciences, and engineering were asked to report a dream and to take a test which measures independence of judgment and relates to creativity. 4 predictions were stated: (a) (confirmed)—the proportion of dream recallers would be greatest among art students and least among engineering students; (b) (partially confirmed)—dream imaginativeness would be greatest among art students and least among engineering students; [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2162-6057.1995.tb01420.x/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Creativity and Dream Recall&lt;/a&gt; (same as above):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The literature on creativity and dream recall often found significant positive correlations between measures of creativity and dream recall frequency (DRF). The present study investigated the relation between creative interests and DRF in detail. The findings confirmed the results reported in the literature, according to which persons with visual and verbal creative skills recalled more dreams. It is suggested that the visual memory may serve as a mediator variable in the relation between creativity and DRF.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet dream recall is a complex topic. As you noted in your comment, it might be different for a single person from night to night. It also seems to be inlfuenced by a lot of factors. Schredl et al. name some of them in &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2869.2003.00344.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Factors of home dream recall: a structural equation model&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personality measures&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Creativity/fantasy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Visual memory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sleep behavior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stress measures&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet there are still a lot of factors more to be included, like demographic factors, attitude towards dreams, medication and so on (Schredl has written &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.de/scholar?q=schredl%20dream%20recall&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a lot&lt;/a&gt; about dream recall, if you want to dig deeper).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I'd summarize creativity might increase dream recall but it's only a small part of a bigger picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17830" LastEditorUserId="17830" LastEditDate="2017-12-17T16:01:57.657" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T16:01:57.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18673" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18659" CreationDate="2017-12-17T16:14:35.240" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Summary: it appears that the contrast from the paper cited is based on a 1970s paradigm where a cognitive approach meant information processing applied only to problem data, whereas the motivational approach allowed for other variables, such as self-esteem, which nowadays would be described as an affective variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's the fuller context for the claim:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;we propose that—holding judged probability constant—people&#xA;  prefer to bet in a context where they consider themselves knowledgeable or competent&#xA;  than in a context where they feel ignorant or uninformed. We assume that our&#xA;  feeling of competence&#xA;  in a given context is determined by what we know relative towhat&#xA;  can be known. Thus, it is enhanced by general knowledge, familiarity, and experience,&#xA;  and is diminished, for example, by calling attention to relevant information that is not&#xA;  available to the decision maker, especially if it is available to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are both cognitive and motivational explanations for the competence hypothesis.&#xA;  People may have learned from lifelong experience that they generally do better in&#xA;  situations they understand than in situations where they have less knowledge. This expectation&#xA;  may cariy over to situations where the chances of winning are no longer higher&#xA;  in the familiar than in the unfamiliar context. Perhaps the major reason for the competence&#xA;  hypothesis is motivational rather than cognitive. We propose that the consequences&#xA;  of each bet include, besides the monetary payoffs, the credit or blame associated&#xA;  with the outcome. Psychic payoffs of satisfaction or embarrassment can result from&#xA;  self-evaluation from an evaluation by others. In either case, the credit and the blame&#xA;  associated with an outcome depend, we suggest, on the attributions for success and&#xA;  failure. In the domain of chance, both success and failure are attributed primarily to luck.&#xA;  The situation is different when a person bets on his or her judgment. If the decision&#xA;  maker has limited understanding of the problem at hand, failure will be attributed to&#xA;  ignorance, whereas success is likely to be attributed to chance. In contrast, if the decision&#xA;  maker is an &quot;expert,&quot; success is attributable to knowledge, whereas failure can sometimes&#xA;  be attributed to chance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So basically by &quot;motivational explanation&quot; they refer to is the posited existence of a &quot;psychic payoff of satisfaction or embarrassment&quot; in addition to the concrete/monetary one. In my view, the existence of a &quot;psychic payoff of satisfaction or embarrassment&quot; could also be a called a &quot;[more] emotionally charged decision&quot;.&#xA;There's been rivers of papers on the role of emotion in decision making, e.g. see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115043&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lerner et al. (2015)&lt;/a&gt; for a review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way (and as an aside), there's a newer paper in this area by &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.sjdm.org/10/10201/jdm10201.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Klein et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; saying that Heath &amp;amp; Tversky basically confounded two effects:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to the competence hypothesis (Heath &amp;amp; Tversky, 1991), this pattern derives from favorable perceptions of one’s competence. In most past tests of the competence hypothesis, ambiguity is confounded with personal controllability and the source of the ambiguity (e.g., chance vs. missing information). We unconfound these factors in three experiments and find strong evidence for independent effects of both ambiguity aversion and competence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Klein et al. seem very careful not to call controllability anything else... or advance any hypotheses for what's behind it, but there's one older paper by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1521/jscp.1996.15.1.9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harris (1996)&lt;/a&gt; saying&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Evidence that perceived controllability is associated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;optimistic bias&lt;/a&gt; is reviewed. There is sufficient evidence that people are optimistically biased about&#xA;  negative events they perceive to be controllable. More work is needed to establish&#xA;  whether this is also true of positive events. There is evidence also that people often&#xA;  hold beliefs of their personal superiority on control-related dimensions. More&#xA;  experimental studies testing hypotheses about the mechanisms linking perceived&#xA;  control and optimistic bias are required. Future work should also expand the&#xA;  sophistication with which control is treated conceptually and empirically and the range of potential mechanisms examined&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority#Self-esteem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's article on illusory superiority&lt;/a&gt; says that &quot;Illusory superiority's relationship with self-esteem is uncertain&quot; (and does cite some studies in support of this statement).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also interesting that perceived controllability affects quite a few other things, including neural pain response; see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1315-04.2004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salomons (2004)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And back to the general question: affect and emotion are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.public.iastate.edu/~ekkekaki/pdfs/ekkekakis_2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not exactly the same thing&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Core Affect. This term is defined as a &quot;neurophysiological&#xA;  state consciously accessible as a&#xA;  simple primitive non-reflective feeling most evident&#xA;  in mood and emotion but always available to&#xA;  consciousness&quot; (Russell &amp;amp; Feldman Barrett, 2009,&#xA;  p. 104). Examples of core affect include pleasure&#xA;  and displeasure, tension and relaxation, energy&#xA;  and tiredness. A person experiences core affect constantly,&#xA;  although the nature and intensity of affect&#xA;  vary over time. Core affect can be a component&#xA;  of emotions and moods (defined next), but it can&#xA;  also occur in pure, or isolate, form. For example,&#xA;  according to Russell (2003), &quot;pride can be thought&#xA;  of as feeling good about oneself. The 'feeling good'&#xA;  is core affect and the 'about oneself' is an additional&#xA;  (cognitive) component&quot; (p. 148). As explained next,&#xA;  this qualifies pride as an emotion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since what Heath &amp;amp; Tversky talk about (motivation-wise) is basically an increase/decrease in feeling good about oneself (via satisfaction or embarrassment), technically I could have said &quot;[core-]affectively charged decision&quot; (instead of &quot;emotionally charged&quot;) but that sounds really like a mouthful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, even the broader class of affective phenomena has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2396787/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;disputed as being distinguishable from cognition&lt;/a&gt;, although this I think is a minority view. For a broader discussion of alternative viewpoints see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2366118/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;On the interdependence of cognition and emotion&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We open the article by discussing three classic views for the independence of affect. These are (i) the affective independence hypothesis, that emotion is processed independently from cognition, (ii) the affective primacy hypothesis, that evaluative processing precedes semantic processing, and (iii) the affective automaticity hypothesis, that affectively potent stimuli commandeer attention and evaluation is automatic. We argue that affect is not independent from cognition, that affect is not primary to cognition, nor is affect automatically elicited. The second half of the paper discusses several instances of how affect influences cognition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4986920/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Mechanisms of motivation–cognition interaction&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which details the way motivation has been studied in psychology, which is to say in a somewhat fragmentary way:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The preceding sections highlighted the differences in how motivation is defined and investigated in various subfields. In animal behavioral neuroscience, the emphasis is on learning and conditioning processes, using primary incentives (food, liquid, and sexual stimuli) and measuring simple behaviors (physiological reflexes, response rates, and stimulus preferences). In social and personality psychology, the emphasis is on the pursuit of temporally extended goals involving high-level incentives (power, achievement, and affiliation) and assessing self-reported beliefs and goal striving behaviors. In cognitive neuroscience and adolescent developmental research, the emphasis is on neural representations of incentive value, typically using monetary rewards, and assessing how these modulate effortful cognitive processing. Finally, in cognitive-aging research, there is an emphasis on emotion–cognition interactions, using affectively valenced stimuli and measuring attentional and memory biases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unlike the cognitive/affective case, I have not seen a detailed discussion where motivation and cognition are contrasted... except this 1980s article: &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/tetlock/vita/Philip%20Tetlock/Phil%20Tetlock/1977-1983/1980%20Attribution%20Bias%20On%20Inconclusiveness%20of%20Cognition%20Mo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Attribution bias: On the inconclusiveness of the cognition-motivation debate&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Basically, there the cognitive perspective is taken to mean information processing on the problem alone, whereas the motivational perspective allows for other variables such as self-esteem. I think it's in this paradigm that Heath and Tversky phrased their contrast of cognition vs motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-18T14:21:39.620" LastActivityDate="2017-12-18T14:21:39.620" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9502" CreationDate="2017-12-17T16:55:53.863" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;em&gt;extinction&lt;/em&gt; the patient may be able to get attention to an object in the contralesional field if it is the only salient object. If there is a competition from another object the patient won't draw attention toward the contralesional field (opposite side of the lesion; generally right parietal lobe).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Simultagnosia&lt;/em&gt; is described as the inability to perceive more than one object at a time in each visual field. It is consequence of bilateral damage to the parietal lobe&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E. Bruce Goldstein-Sensation and Perception-Wadsworth (2010)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T16:55:53.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18675" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-17T19:14:37.803" Score="1" ViewCount="161" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not a biologist. Not even related to science, however I read a lot of popular psychology stuff, plus read some info about antidepressants and a question tortures me :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Antidepressants arise amount of serotonin in blood in short period of time. However, you should take antidepressants for quite a long period of time so that it took effect. Up to 1-4 months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I heard there is no explanation about this fact. On the one hand we know that serotonin affects our mood, on the other hand for some reason we cannot fix our mood by just increasing its level straight away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question is: is there any explanation of this, and what I (as a non-scientist) am wondering more about is that why then we feel better after consuming such things as chocolate, sugar etc, which indirectly might increase serotonin level? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plus, why we cannot consume large amounts of L-tryptophan for example? If I overdose tryptophan nothing scary happens, while if I overdose prozak or zoloft, I can end up with coma probably.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of pop psychology articles talking about hormones, however I suspect that trying to change the level of hormones by some actions (which are advised by the articles, I don't know, starting from eating sweeties and ending with doing sports) won't change it much. I know that there should be some &quot;normal&quot; values of serotonin in blood (ng/mL). But I don't believe that if I go to sauna and eat snickers it will increase this level drastically :) Nevertheless I'll feel better. While if I take antidepressants and they will indeed increase the level, I won't feel happy right away. Why so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17852" LastActivityDate="2018-03-18T00:20:08.917" Title="Relation of serotonin level and mood/depression" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18676" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18675" CreationDate="2017-12-17T19:44:18.167" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You say that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Antidepressants [a]rise [the] amount of serotonin in blood in short period of time. However, you should take antidepressants for quite a long period of time so that it took effect. Up to 1-4 months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I heard there is no explanation about this fact. On the one hand we know that serotonin affects our mood, on the other hand for some reason we cannot fix our mood by just increasing its level straight away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some studies which suggest effect after the first week. E.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2211759/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Early Onset of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Antidepressant Action: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt; (2006):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pooled estimates of treatment effect on depressive symptom rating scales were calculated for weeks 1 through 6 of treatment. In the primary analysis, the pattern of response seen was tested against alternative models of onset of response. The primary analysis incorporated data from 28 randomized controlled trials (n=5872). A model of early treatment response best fit the experimental data. Treatment with SSRIs rather than placebo was associated with clinical improvement by the end of the first week of use. A secondary analysis indicated an increased chance of achieving a 50% reduction in Hamilton Depression Rating Scale scores by 1 week (relative risk, 1.64; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-2.25) with SSRI treatment compared with placebo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They actually suggest a logarithmically increasing treatment response:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/T5ytL.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/T5ytL.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also a very similar study a year before: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15704999/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Is there a delay in the antidepressant effect? A meta-analysis.&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; (2005):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The time course of improvement on active medication and placebo was nearly identical, as 60.2% and 61.6% of the improvement that occurred on active medication and placebo, respectively, took place during the first 2 weeks of treatment. Drug-placebo differences were not only present but were most pronounced during the first 2 weeks of treatment and diminished in a stepwise fashion thereafter. A series of subanalyses confirmed that this early drug-placebo separation was clinically observable and represented a true drug effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think there are some practical difficulties with collecting data more than weekly in large trials. Also, a small increase is not likely to be noticed in everyday clinical practice (non-trial).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SSRI effectiveness has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/antidepressants-do-they-work-or-dont-they/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mired in some controversy&lt;/a&gt; though, with a lot of the trials being (obviously) sponsored to some extent by drug companies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And eating sweets will increase your serotonin, as will smoking (nicotine) for instance. The problem with using these as anti-depressants is how much you'd have to consume and for how long to get the same effect as from a SSRI. Quoting &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8697046&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Brain serotonin, carbohydrate-craving, obesity and depression&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Serotonin-releasing brain neurons are unique in that the amount of neurotransmitter they release is normally controlled by food intake: Carbohydrate consumption--acting via insulin secretion and the &amp;quot;plasma tryptophan ratio&amp;quot;--increases serotonin release; protein intake lacks this effect. This ability of neurons to couple neuronal signaling properties to food consumption is a link in the feedback mechanism that normally keeps carbohydrate and protein intakes more or less constant. However, serotonin release is also involved in such functions as sleep onset, pain sensitivity, blood pressure regulation, and control of the mood. Hence many patients learn to overeat carbohydrates (particularly snack foods, like potato chips or pastries, which are rich in carbohydrates and fats) to make themselves feel better. This tendency to use certain foods as though they were drugs is a frequent cause of weight gain, and can also be seen in patients who become fat when exposed to stress, or in women with premenstrual syndrome, or in patients with &amp;quot;winter depression,&amp;quot; or in people who are attempting to give up smoking. (Nicotine, like dietary carbohydrates, increases brain serotonin secretion; nicotine withdrawal has the opposite effect.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;WebMD has fairly accessible &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/depression/features/craving-carbs#2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article on the latter&lt;/a&gt;, which says among other things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers at Rush University Medical Center in Chicago found that carb cravers who have a mildly depressed mood seem to be self-medicating. They studied women who were overweight and had a history of carb cravings. They gave them a choice between a protein-rich beverage or a carb-rich one. They found that when the women reported being in the worst moods, they picked the carb beverage more often than the protein one. In addition, the carb drink improved their mood better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T23:39:08.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18677" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18680" CreationDate="2017-12-17T21:38:16.520" Score="-1" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I mean like if there would be a room in which we are spending most of the day working, sleeping etc. This room would be filled with eyes/faces drawing and painting on walls. Treat it like room from horror movies, something like this:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/VI9cMXb.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;wall painting example&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would spending a lot of time in that kind of room change our personality/mood? In some way influence us? I don't mean it like getting used to watching horrors, but changing without 'us noticing'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in other way around can room filled with happy images like smiles, i dont know stuff like this , can make us more 'happy'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17853" LastActivityDate="2017-12-18T01:22:07.960" Title="What if we would fill room with face drawings? Would that change us?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2017-12-18T12:37:02.867" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18679" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-17T23:11:24.860" Score="2" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;Besides chemical medications that are prescribed that can increase the level of dopamine, and other important neurotransmitters in the brain. What is the most effective natural treatment method for ADD, and ADHD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9075" LastActivityDate="2018-01-18T20:01:41.557" Title="What is the most effective treatment for ADD and ADHD that excludes chemical prescriptions from a doctor?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18680" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18677" CreationDate="2017-12-17T23:44:20.417" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Specific to your questions, I am not aware of any research on connection between &quot;face&quot; pattern and mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But of course, changing surroundings will have an affect. There are number of papers on how color affects mood and productivity of workers. For example, in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nancy_Kwallek/publication/232444027_Effects_of_office_interior_color_on_workers&amp;#39;_mood_and_productivity/links/0deec52e9833b10a61000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Impact of Three Interior Color Schemes on Worker Mood and Performance Relative to Individual Environmental Sensitivity&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The findings on mood definitely suggest that color scheme alone may impact mood states in accordance with previous findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is worth noticing that human brain (as well as simpler animals) has great capacity for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;habituation&lt;/a&gt;: ability to &quot;get used&quot; to non-threatening stimuli. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7712" LastEditorUserId="7712" LastEditDate="2017-12-17T23:51:13.407" LastActivityDate="2017-12-17T23:51:13.407" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18681" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18679" CreationDate="2017-12-18T00:50:26.477" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not much seems to work; psychotherapy appears questionable when the patients are re-evaluated by someone else. The only thing with a minor but generally applicable effect is free fatty acid supplementation, although the effect may be so minor as to have no clinical value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, most of these findings come from a meta-analysis (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23360949&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sonuga-Barke 2013&lt;/a&gt;) published in a psychiatry journal...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two different analyses were performed. When the outcome measure was based on ADHD assessments by raters closest to the therapeutic setting, all dietary (standardized mean differences=0.21-0.48) and psychological (standardized mean differences=0.40-0.64) treatments produced statistically significant effects. However, when the best probably blinded assessment was employed, effects remained significant for free fatty acid supplementation (standardized mean difference=0.16) and artificial food color exclusion (standardized mean difference=0.42) but were substantially attenuated to nonsignificant levels for other treatments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CONCLUSIONS:&#xA;Free fatty acid supplementation produced small but significant reductions in ADHD symptoms even with probably blinded assessments, although the clinical significance of these effects remains to be determined. Artificial food color exclusion produced larger effects but often in individuals selected for food sensitivities. Better evidence for efficacy from blinded assessments is required for behavioral interventions, neurofeedback, cognitive training, and restricted elimination diets before they can be supported as treatments for core ADHD symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23450282&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;editorial&lt;/a&gt; that accompanied this paper had this pull-out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Behavioral treatments have been&#xA;demonstrated to be helpful for children&#xA;with co-occurring disorders and&#xA;symptoms, although this blinded&#xA;analysis did not show efficacy for core&#xA;ADHD symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it's worded that way because a prior meta-analysis (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19131150&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fabiano 2009&lt;/a&gt;) using less stringent criteria (no blinging required) found (of course) that behavioral interventions work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding food colorants, only about 8% of ADHD children are estimated by a different meta-analysis (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4321798/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nigg 2012&lt;/a&gt;) to be affected/sensitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a meta-analysis of diet interventions &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28121994&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pelsser 2017&lt;/a&gt; was quite skeptical of most stuff:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering the small average ESs [effect size] PUFA [poly-unsaturated fatty acid] supplementation is unlikely to provide a tangible contribution to ADHD treatment, while further research is required for AFC [artificial food color] elimination before advising this intervention as ADHD treatment. The average FFD [Few Foods Diets] ES is substantial, offering treatment opportunities in subgroups of children with ADHD not responding to or too young for medication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the cool new thing is FFD now. Since the last paper is freely available... I won't say much more, except that it may take a year to permute food choices until the right few foods are determined. They do say in the (body of the) paper that (owing to this time-scale issue):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;large-scale implementation of the few-foods approach would not be a realistic recommendation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have to wonder why that didn't make it into the abstract.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-12-18T01:12:07.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18682" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18677" CreationDate="2017-12-18T01:22:07.960" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is probably too broad of a question, but looking at &quot;cute&quot; stuff improves concentration, apparently (and I'm saying that because it's only based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0046362&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014904&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;two&lt;/a&gt; studies), where&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cute objects are assumed to be characterized by baby schema. This is a set of features that are commonly seen in young animals: a large head relative to the body size, a high and protruding forehead, large eyes, and so forth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-12-18T01:22:07.960" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18683" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-18T07:08:04.317" Score="1" ViewCount="491" Body="&lt;p&gt;Watch the youtube below. Look at the superhuman powers of Michael Jackson to make his audience cry. These audience are strangers to Michael Jackson. There is no close relationship between them other than they paid for his ticket.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eeWVoRUJhdY&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eeWVoRUJhdY&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have watched Michael Jackson several times on Youtube and I have never shed a tear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychology behind the powers of superstars like Michael Jackson and Beatles to induce crowd crying? There is no sob stories being told. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17855" LastEditorUserId="17855" LastEditDate="2017-12-18T12:37:16.840" LastActivityDate="2017-12-24T18:03:59.527" Title="What is the psychology behind the mass crying of the crowds at superstar music concerts?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18684" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-18T13:33:39.537" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm starting to pick off sub-topics from &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/questions/4498/is-serotonin-conclusively-linked-to-depression&quot;&gt;this omnibus question&lt;/a&gt;, which I think it's &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/222735/can-i-ask-only-one-question-per-post&quot;&gt;too broad to answer properly/directly in the SE format&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, let's start with one of the claims there:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lowering people's serotonin levels does not change their mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do we know, experimentally, about the effect(s) on mood of lowering serotonin in humans? And (yeah) although asking too many questions in one is a bad idea, in this case we would have to consider at least three scenarios to get a decent picture (because depression, for instance, is known to have a genetic/heritable vulnerability/component):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lowering serotonin in otherwise healthy volunteers, with no history of depression&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lowering serotonin in subjects with a history of depression&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lowering serotonin in SSRI (or similarly) medicated patients&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Potentially, we could try to matrix the type of subjects with the type of intervention, although at the moment I can recall only one intervention that could (ethically) be used: depletion of tryptophan (which is serotonin precursor) via competition from other amino acids. (Selective) neurotoxins, which are used in some animal studies, being a rather obvious no-no in live human subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And to the extent that one can address this concisely (if not perhaps suggest/ask a different question), what are the methodological limitations of such experiments? One that I can think of is that since antidepressants need a bit of time to build up their effects to clinically detectable mood changes, perhaps the same time-related issue holds in the opposite direction, i.e. how long serotonin depletion lasts potentially could matter for the mood outcome of such experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-18T13:53:35.533" LastActivityDate="2017-12-18T13:53:35.533" Title="Lowering people's serotonin levels does not change their mood?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;mood&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18685" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18692" CreationDate="2017-12-18T15:50:04.040" Score="4" ViewCount="403" Body="&lt;p&gt;A recent &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2014.30&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2014) study&lt;/a&gt; in cell cultures has found that tianeptine is a mu-opioid receptor (MOR) agonist (and [mentioning for completeness] delta opioid receptor agonist as well, albeit weaker). It's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3594542/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;been generally proposed&lt;/a&gt; that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The strong rewarding effect of MOR agonists likely contributes to the reported success of the ‘opioid depression cure’.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So are there reports of tianeptine addiction? Has its addictive potential been studied in more detail?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-18T16:12:33.417" LastActivityDate="2017-12-19T13:59:18.223" Title="Is tianeptine addictive?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18686" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-18T22:58:23.717" Score="1" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;A recent study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-10541-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baek et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt; found that depressed patients with a history of suicide attempt(s) were exhibiting risk and loss aversion much more so than the general population does. (Note that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;loss aversion&lt;/a&gt; is used here in the narrow sense from behavioral economics &quot;people's tendency to prefer avoiding losses to acquiring equivalent gains: it's better to not lose \$5 than to find \$5&quot;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also known that some people persist in relationships with abusive partners, and a substantial proportion of these [self-]justify such choices &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rapereliefshelter.bc.ca/learn/resources/abused-women-still-see-partners-dependable&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;by seeing some redeeming quality in their abusive partner&lt;/a&gt;. So, in a sense, the victims are averse to losing some (perceived) good, even though the cost for holding onto that might be really high. And now my question is whether such people would exhibit risk or loss aversion in the behavioral economics sense, i.e. are there studies like the aforementioned one by Baek but on victims of abuse who persist in their costly relationship?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-12-18T22:58:23.717" Title="Risk aversion and/or loss aversion in partner-abuse victims who persist in their relationship with the abuser?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18687" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-18T23:37:43.623" Score="3" ViewCount="2217" Body="&lt;p&gt;Plane &amp;amp; Pilot have &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.planeandpilotmag.com/article/a-deadly-sense-of-euphoria&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an article saying&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Altitude-chamber tests have shown that as oxygen deprivation increases, some victims experience a sense of increasing well-being, even euphoria, while they’re losing the ability to function in a thoughtful, coordinated manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it's not too clear from that article how many people experience euphoria from oxygen deprivation. I'm pretty sure the loss of cognitive function is 100%, eventually, even though the dose/concentration might vary with the subject. But does everyone experience euphoria before that happens or does it happen just to some individuals with a certain vulnerability? &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/kUfF2MTnqAw?t=108&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This video&lt;/a&gt; suggests not everyone experiences euphoria, and if that's so what's the prevalence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Optionally (i.e. if it's easy to answer based on the same source(s) for my main question), are there any proposed/studied pathways by which this euphoric consequence of oxygen deprivation might come about? And is it relevant to anything else, say to the &quot;choking game&quot; that some children (unfortunately) practice, or to asphyxiophilia/hypoxyphilia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-21T09:26:30.723" LastActivityDate="2020-10-15T07:14:47.070" Title="Euphoria from oxygen deprivation" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18689" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18706" CreationDate="2017-12-19T05:33:57.530" Score="3" ViewCount="383" Body="&lt;p&gt;For some time now, I have been looking up information on narcissism; however, &lt;strong&gt;I have never found information on the type of friends narcissists have.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research tends to show results about &lt;code&gt;narcissistic friends&lt;/code&gt; which is not what I am trying to figure out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So what is known about the types of friends narcissists have?&lt;/strong&gt; I know that there tend to be different types of narcissists and they will probably have different types of friends, but there must be some kind of generalizations and specializations about friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17864" LastActivityDate="2017-12-21T07:44:01.920" Title="What type of friends do narcissists have?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18690" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18666" CreationDate="2017-12-19T10:00:40.967" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;V1 can be recruited for visual imagery, but it is not strictly needed for imagery to occur, and it is not sufficient in itself to allow for visual imagery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Visual imagery is a complex and broad topic of research. It's in fact a big pain in visual prosthetic research. In this area of research it's often nice to show those fancy pics of deafferented visual areas in the brain to light up after having been deprived of visual activation for years. Then you find those seemingly strikingly activated visual regions by your awesome visual prosthetic, to be shot to pieces later by critical referees that believe it may just as well be that your subjects have been imagining stuff. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, visual imagery depends on much of the same structures in the visual system as seeing by itself. The retina, being considered part of the central nervous system, and the end organ of the visual system is not involved as it only delivers input by sensing light. Hence the optic nerve is not involved either. After that we have the brain stem and strikingly, already the LGN in the brain stem has been shown to be activated by imagery. And not surprisingly then, V1, being the output location of the LGN, is activated too &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9858377&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Chen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1998)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, activation of these regions does not mean they are necessary for imagery to occur. Because imagery follows the visual neural path pretty much in reverse, it is the higher association areas in the brain that are most crucial for this process to occur. Indeed, visual imagery has been shown to occur in people with large trauma-related defects in V1 nearly obliterating the occipital cortex &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00415-011-6299-z&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bridge &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2012)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meta analyses of various studies has delivered a potential reconciliation of these opposing findings. V1 recruitment may depend on the specific &lt;strong&gt;type of imagery&lt;/strong&gt;, and specifically that detailed imagery is more dependent on V1 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9781461458784-c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-1445711-p174675732&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ganis, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00415-011-6299-z&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bridge &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurol&lt;/em&gt; (2012) &lt;strong&gt;259&lt;/strong&gt;: 1062–70&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9858377&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neuroreport&lt;/em&gt; (1998); &lt;strong&gt;16&lt;/strong&gt;(16): 3669-74&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9781461458784-c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-1445711-p174675732&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ganis, Visual Mental Imagery, Springer Link (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4179723/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Urbanski &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Frontiers Integr Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;:74&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6GLP3.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6GLP3.png&quot; alt=&quot;visual system&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Visual system. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4179723/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Urbanski &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-19T10:08:34.253" LastActivityDate="2017-12-19T10:08:34.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18691" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-19T12:23:32.913" Score="3" ViewCount="360" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was intrigued by the observation that high levels of narcissism tend to be associated with an increase in &quot;flip-flopping&quot; between grandiosity and self-doubt/vulnerability, e.g as stated in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5601176/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jauk et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Specifically, clinical observations show that patients diagnosed with narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), a pathological form of narcissism, display co-occurring or oscillating states of grandiosity and vulnerability (Pincus and Lukowitsky, 2010). Recent systematical investigations confirm that this is particularly true for individuals identified as grandiose narcissists, who display episodes of vulnerability (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26986960/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gore and Widiger, 2016&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This made me try to draw a parallel with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/bipolar-disorder/index.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bipolar disorder&lt;/a&gt;. Alas it doesn't look like the relationship has been studied much with respect to bipolarity as the core feature. What I mean by that is that I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2849176/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper contrasting mania with (mostly grandiose) narcissism&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As hypothesized, tendencies toward both narcissism and hypomania related to elevations on measures of affective and goal dysregulation. In addition, hypomania tendencies were related to higher impulsivity, but that association did not appear for narcissistic tendencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Buy maybe I've missed some relevant literature in my quick search. So is there more to be said about bipolar disorder and narcissism, beyond the correlation that mania draws with grandiosity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-12-19T12:23:32.913" Title="Bipolar narcissism?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18692" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18685" CreationDate="2017-12-19T13:59:18.223" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The internet is flooded with anecdotal reports of 'Tian' relating to the drug's addictive potential after recreational use, for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.biopsychiatry.com/tianeptine-addict.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/Nootropics/comments/43fp7z/my_experience_with_tianeptine_and_a_year_long/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qdDGGQyxL6I&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. Often, though, these reports come from people already addicted to other illicit drugs. Notably, tianeptine is used for rehab purposes, just like the partial opioid agonist naloxone. So anecdotal reports can be misleading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scientific reports however also indicate the drug's addictive potential. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drug-abuse-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vadachkoria &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; report&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Supposedly, Tianeptine, in contrast to other anti-depressants, stimulates release of neurotransmitter dopamine in nucleus Accumbens, that probably determine[s the] addictive potential of this drug.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drug-abuse-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Addiction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; can be defined as a syndrome characterized by compulsive substance abuse. In a more verbose &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drug-abuse-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;definition&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Addiction is defined as a chronic, relapsing brain disease that is characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences.† It is considered a brain disease because drugs change the brain—they change its structure and how it works. These brain changes can be long-lasting, and can lead to the harmful behaviors seen in people who abuse drugs&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is generally accepted that the antidepressant drugs do not cause addiction. However, tianeptine, among some other antidepressants do have addictive potential &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dusunenadamdergisi.org/ing/fArticledetails.aspx?MkID=992&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Lapsekili &amp;amp; Yavuz, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dusunenadamdergisi.org/ing/fArticledetails.aspx?MkID=992&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lapsekili &amp;amp; Yavuz, &lt;em&gt;J Psychiatry Neurol Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;27&lt;/strong&gt;: 81-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drug-abuse-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vadachkoria &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Georgian Med News&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;174&lt;/strong&gt;:92-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-12-19T13:59:18.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18693" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19831" CreationDate="2017-12-19T18:34:27.440" Score="5" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although without a doubt discussed in professional circles for a long time before, the definition of mental disorder has been recently brought to the limelight by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2017/2/10/14551890/trump-mental-health-narcissistic-personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trump narcissism debate&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Everyone has a personality,” &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Frances&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[Allen] Frances&lt;/a&gt; says. “It’s not wrong to have a personality; it’s not mentally ill to have a personality. It’s only a disorder when it causes extreme distress, suffering, and impairment.” [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gartner — who has a PhD and treats patients in a private practice — wholeheartedly disagrees with Frances’s position. “The thing about people with personality disorders … they don’t have distress related to their disorder; they cause distress in other people,” he says. “They’re in complete denial about the nature of their illness or even having an illness.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not going to ask here what is your take on the controversy because that would be primarily opinion based. What I want to know is &lt;strong&gt;whether any surveys have been conducted of psychiatrists or psychologists on this issue, i.e. on where to draw the line with respect to harm/distress&lt;/strong&gt;. Asking them this will not violate any ethics rules, I think. (I know where the DSM letter stands; for others' convenience here are links to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3101504/table/T1/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-IV's&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iep.utm.edu/mental-i/#SH1c&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5's version&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T05:10:45.507" Title="Is there a survey regarding the meaning of distress in the definition of mental disorder?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;definition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18694" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18679" CreationDate="2017-12-19T19:14:18.890" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that things like aerobic exercise and mindfulness meditation can help alleviate some of the symptoms of ADHD. Aerobic exercise, in particular, helps increases many of the neurotransmitters involved in ADHD such as dopamine. Mindfulness meditation helps strengthen executive function and can be a good strategy for regulating emotions and behaviors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.russellbarkley.org/factsheets/ADHD_EF_and_SR.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.russellbarkley.org/factsheets/ADHD_EF_and_SR.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2920" LastActivityDate="2017-12-19T19:14:18.890" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18695" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-19T20:03:54.020" Score="2" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;HSP's are often very sensitive persons for all kind of sensories, but are there any experiments that they can feel EM-waves or are more affected by them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11358" LastActivityDate="2017-12-19T22:28:43.010" Title="Is there evidence or indication that highly sensitive people (HSP) can feel elektromagnetic waves?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18696" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="587" CreationDate="2017-12-19T20:10:12.750" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm just gonna point out that in the DSM-5 there's a new distinction (in general) between a paraphilia and a paraphilic disorder. While nothing else changed in the operational definition given in the manual, in DSM-5 the formerly known pedophilia (of DSM-IV) is now called pedophilic disorder. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/.../Practice/DSM/APA_DSM-5-Paraphilic-Disorders.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;official change notice&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the case of pedophilic disorder, the notable detail is what wasn’t revised in the new manual. Although&#xA;  proposals were discussed throughout the DSM-5 development process, diagnostic criteria ultimately&#xA;  remained the same as in DSM-IV TR. Only the disorder name will be changed from pedophilia&#xA;  to pedophilic disorder to maintain consistency with the chapter’s other listings).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the guy who was apparently in charge of this, Ray Blanchard, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/01/dsm-pedophilia-mental-disorder-paraphilia_n_4184878.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;said specifically&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If you take [an] individual who has a very strong erotic attraction for children, but who has never acted on it, who never would act on it, who agrees that society’s prohibition of adult child sexual interactions should be in place, do you want to say this individual has a mental disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the DSM-5 position is not that pedophilia is a &quot;sexual orientation&quot;, but that it might not always be a disorder either... just a paraphilia (with the new definition thereof). The latter is defined in DSM-5 as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A]ny intense and persistent sexual interest other than sexual interest in genital stimulation or preparatory fondling with phenotypically normal, physically mature, consenting human partners.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/20/3/202&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;review-ish article&lt;/a&gt; concludes (on the classification issue) by saying that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Paraphilias occupy an uneasy place in psychiatric nosology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And also note that the American Psychological Association disagreed with the Psychiatric one by saying &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2013/10/pedophilia-mental.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;explicitly in a 2013 press release&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The American Psychological Association maintains that pedophilia is a mental disorder;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9882-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Seto's paper&lt;/a&gt; (pointed out by Artem) says that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;pedophilia can be viewed as a sexual age orientation based on the more limited evidence available regarding its age of onset, associations with sexual and&#xA;  romantic behavior, and stability over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note however that word 'age' is key here in the distinction he makes later:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But what about the legal and social implications? In particular, what impact might there be in conceptualizing pedophilia&#xA;  as a sexual age orientation, based on empirical evidence, akin to&#xA;  sexual gender orientation such as heterosexuality or homosexuality?&#xA;  For example, there are anti-discrimination laws or policies&#xA;  that specifically mention ‘‘sexual orientation’’ as grounds for&#xA;  redress. The makers of these laws and policies surely had&#xA;  sexual&#xA;  gender orientation in mind, not sexual age orientation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So basically his answer is that calling pedophilia a sexual orientation is unacceptable in society, because of the widespread use of &quot;sexual orientation&quot; referring only to gender orientation, the consequences of which (sexual acts) are lawful (well, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/news/world-25927595&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in most of the world&lt;/a&gt;), whereas acting on pedophlia impulses breaks the law almost everywhere, and this is unlikely to change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM-5 apparently did (for a brief time) describe in one place (a discussion section) pedophilia as a sexual orientation, however this was described as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/813669&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an error that was fixed in November 2013&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The phrase &quot;sexual orientation&quot; was used erroneously in the discussion section about pedophilia in the recently released fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a press release, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) notes that the correct terminology is &quot;sexual interest&quot; and that it will correct the error in the manual's electronic version and in the next print edition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Sexual orientation is not a term used in the diagnostic criteria for pedophilic disorder, and its use in the DSM-5 text discussion is an error,&quot; said the organization in its statement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The APA adds pedophilic disorder is a &quot;paraphilia&quot; and not a sexual orientation. Other paraphilic disorders included in the manual include exhibitionistic disorder, sexual sadism disorder, and fetishistic disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It surely didn't help the Psychiatric Association's image that the discovery of the error was &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/entry/pedophilia-sexual-orientation_n_4183482&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;apparently made public by an evangelical Christian magazine&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-19T21:12:39.703" LastActivityDate="2017-12-19T21:12:39.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18697" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18695" CreationDate="2017-12-19T21:36:41.647" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As of 2009 &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/52978-electromagnetic-hypersensitivity-cause-unclear.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;apparently not&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Rubin's 2009 paper, he looked at studies analyzing symptoms and investigating triggers in more than 1,000 people who reported having electromagnetic hypersensitivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He concluded in the paper that &amp;quot;repeated experiments have been unable to replicate this phenomenon under controlled conditions.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be that Wi-Fi isn't the culprit, but that something else is to blame for people's symptoms, Rubin said. A number of health and environmental conditions, different for each individual, could be responsible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another factor at play could be the &amp;quot;nocebo effect,&amp;quot; in which a person's belief that exposure to EMF triggers symptoms actually causes the real symptoms to appear, even if no exposure occur has occurred, he added.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless of whether Wi-Fi &amp;quot;allergies&amp;quot; are real, the suffering certainly is, Rubin said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I think I tracked down the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19681059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;actual paper&lt;/a&gt; that is talking about; it's been reasonably summarized by the press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I honestly expected researchers to stop bothering after that, but I found some &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29125197&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 experiments&lt;/a&gt;, which were also negative:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the double-blind trials, no significant difference in symptom severity or exposure detection was found for any of the participants between the two conditions. Belief of exposure strongly predicted symptom severity score for all participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the latter experiments, they really went out of their way to remove possible non-response causes, including testing people in their usual places where they reported the problems (using portable equipment), taking into account the history of their complaints, i.e. using equipment that was as close as possible to the sources the subjects claimed to be sensitive to, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeated_measures_design#Counterbalancing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;counterbalancing&lt;/a&gt; for time of day and time on task etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-12-19T22:28:43.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18699" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12583" CreationDate="2017-12-20T04:27:04.143" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dodson distinguishes &quot;RSD&quot; from social anxiety in that the latter begins as an anticipatory fear and is generally lessened upon social interaction whereas the RSD flare-ups begin as in-the-moment perceptions of an important social rejection and have emotional consequences that unfold from there. (See &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.additudemag.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/12_19_17-Dodson-Webinar-Slides.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this slideshow&lt;/a&gt; and accompanying video.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not believe that the sensitivity would result from social isolation. I am not sure we know that social isolation prevails for people with ADHD, but Dodson and the Dr. below believe that rejection sensitivity does. You'll find any number of studies indicating the strong evidence for genetic influence on ADHD in families (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3449233/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.additudemag.com/is-adhd-hereditary-yes-and-no/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;that&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.genome.gov/10004300/adhd-study-general-information/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the other&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While Dodson seems to be the only one to use this term with ADHD, Gabor Mate, in his book &lt;em&gt;Scattered&lt;/em&gt;, makes basically the same connection between ADHD and intense pain on perception of attachment rejection. He even goes so far as to suggest that hypersensitivity is the &lt;em&gt;actually&lt;/em&gt; genetic component that predisposes certain infants/children to develop ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17870" LastActivityDate="2017-12-20T04:27:04.143" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18700" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18798" CreationDate="2017-12-20T04:45:44.060" Score="3" ViewCount="144" Body="&lt;p&gt;I heard a podcast about a study (I think it was Radiolab or similar) that found that people are viewed as more likable after they reveal a weakness or a shortcoming, but the effect only occurs if they have established that they are competent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is that study? The podcast said it is influential and well known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the podcast, a professor told a story about how when he was a graduate student made a fool of himself in front of his PhD advisor and he joked that he did it on purpose to improve his likebility and she retorted that he hadn't yet established himself as competent. I remember hearing it in late 2014. Any help enormously appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17871" LastEditorUserId="17871" LastEditDate="2017-12-20T13:40:06.700" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T08:50:09.543" Title="Study on likability, weakness, and competence?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18701" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-20T05:52:02.427" Score="0" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a research article aimed for popular audience, whose bibliography contains:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;3 works on borderline personality disorder&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1 works on language (Hirsh, David, and Paul Nation. “What Vocabulary Size Is Needed to Read Unsimplified Texts for Pleasure?” Reading in a Foreign Language 8, no. 2 (1992): 689–96.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1 vignette and poem book relating to the above topics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the correct umbrella term covers those topics, so that I can tag them in my BibTeX file?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2017-12-20T05:52:02.427" Title="What is the term covering psychology disorders and language acquiring?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18702" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18703" CreationDate="2017-12-20T08:19:03.107" Score="3" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is unclear to me how people in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychophysics&lt;/a&gt; are trained. Are they psychologists, or physicists, or physicians, or biologists, or physiologists? Or can they be any of those?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What if someone doing psychophysics (according to his own accord) is making statements about biological pathology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is Psychophysics currently a credible scientific field?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17872" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-20T10:06:54.317" LastActivityDate="2017-12-20T23:33:45.273" Title="How are people working in psychophysics trained?" Tags="&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18703" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18702" CreationDate="2017-12-20T09:48:35.743" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Psychophysics is a multidisciplinary field featuring people with a Physics, Psychology, Medicine and/or Biology background. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;OK, here follows a lot of personal account to illustrate where psychophysicists may come from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Traditionally, psychophysics is a part of &lt;strong&gt;Psychology&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do a lot of psychophysics and I'm a &lt;strong&gt;Biologist&lt;/strong&gt; by training (MSc), but learned psychophysics during a postdoc. My supervisor teaching me psychophysics was a &lt;strong&gt;physicist&lt;/strong&gt; (MSc) who acquired their skills during their PhD (in visual sciences).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My current supervisor is a physicist by training (MSc), but has done heaps of psychophysics as part of his post-grad &lt;strong&gt;Audiology&lt;/strong&gt; training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of my psychophysics colleagues are in fact physicists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-20T11:13:10.410" LastActivityDate="2017-12-20T11:13:10.410" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18704" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18700" CreationDate="2017-12-20T14:48:38.970" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not convinced the effect is even true in general, and appears to be false in job/task-related contexts particularly when the boss does the disclosure; according to a recent paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is generally believed that self-disclosure has positive effects, particularly for relationships; however, we predict&#xA;  and find negative effects in the context of task-oriented relationships. Across three laboratory experiments, we&#xA;  find that both task-relevant (Study 1) and task-irrelevant (Studies 2 and 3) weakness disclosures, made by a&#xA;  higher (versus peer) status coworker during an interdependent task, negatively affected the receiver’s perception&#xA;  of the discloser’s status and consequently undermined the discloser’s influence, encouraged task conflict, and led&#xA;  to lower relationship quality with the discloser. Peer status disclosers did not trigger these negative responses.&#xA;  We find support for perceived vulnerability as the proposed psychological process (Study 3). Specifically, higher&#xA;  (but not peer) status disclosers experience a status penalty after weakness disclosures because these disclosures&#xA;  signal vulnerability, which violates the expectations people have for higher (but not peer) status coworkers.&#xA;  These findings provide insight into the effects of self-disclosing weakness at work and the ways in which high&#xA;  status employees may inadvertently trigger their own status loss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.09.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Doi link&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://daneshyari.com/article/preview/5035295.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;free full-text&lt;/a&gt; from one of the authrors.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What this study (alas) didn't address is whether a low-status peer would be seen in a more positive light by a higher-status one after a disclosure, like in your last paragraph. So we don't seem to have experimental evidence on whether &quot;sucking up&quot; by (more or less machiavellian) disclosures or even faking less competence (as to diminish perceived threat) works as intended. I suppose the latter is quite contextual. In a hierarchy where the lower status individual could conceivably take the place of the higher status individual (say in a military junta or an &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=jEyhz3cpH00C&amp;amp;pg=PA207&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;apparatchik system&lt;/a&gt;) feigning a less threatening attitude (via some but not complete incompetence) perhaps does work. I'm having doubts that feigning partial incompetence does much good to a subordinate in a context where the high-status individual does not see any direct threat to his position (like when hiring a contractor for a non-core task). But this is just me theorizing. More empirical research is needed, as the saying goes. In general, other forms of &quot;sucking up&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://theconversation.com/heres-what-coworkers-think-when-you-suck-up-to-your-boss-62408&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;do seem to work through&lt;/a&gt;, with the caveat that while &quot;sucking up&quot; may have a positive effect on the relationship with the boss, it's also likely to have a negative effect on the relationship(s) with same-status peers/colleagures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="17939" LastEditDate="2017-12-23T06:32:08.863" LastActivityDate="2017-12-23T06:32:08.863" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18705" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18702" CreationDate="2017-12-20T23:33:45.273" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Through necessity. I recently started working in Dr. Sohee Park's lab at Vanderbilt University processing the psychophysiology data generated during the Virtual reality social skills training game for both the patients who have schizophrenia and the control subjects. My personal background is a double major in computer engineering and in neuroscience and I definitely have the experience using Matlab and python/dlang/whatever else to process data and ti write scripts for preprocessing data. That being said, even though I understand how one takes an input signal and filters it and process it by FFT pull out the relevant frequency domain information, there was a lot of learning why the particular methods and constants where used and what each signal and the extracted fearures actually mean. Likewise, the methods for processing the relevant features using machine learning are also new to me. To be good at research you have to be able to constantly learn new skills as you need them to get things done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10964" LastActivityDate="2017-12-20T23:33:45.273" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18706" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18689" CreationDate="2017-12-21T07:44:01.920" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since I don't think this question should be closed with no answers, here's a brief summary: most of the research (never mind the popsci articles, which far outnumber actual research on this) seem to focus on the profile/personality of intimate partners who &quot;fall&quot; for narcissists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.03.032&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Haslam and Montrose (2015)&lt;/a&gt; after surveying a British sample of young females (18-28 years old) say that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Females value different traits in short-term and long-term partners. [...] &#xA;  Females with greater mating experience and those desiring marriage were more attracted to the narcissistic male personality. The narcissistic personality, whilst having many negative qualities, possesses qualities associated with status and resource provision. These traits are desirable in short and long-term mating contexts. Despite future long-term mating desires which are unlikely to be achieved with a narcissistic male and possession of substantial mate sampling experience, females view the narcissistic male as a suitable partner: a testament to the success of the narcissistic personality in facilitating short-term mating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While this doesn't say much about the personality of the narcissists' potential mates, it does say something about their goals (aspriging for status and resource provision).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study on speed dating by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.2040&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jauk et al. (2016)&lt;/a&gt; found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Across both sexes, narcissism was positively associated with mate appeal for short- and long-term relationships. Further analyses indicated that these associations were due to the shared variance among narcissism and extraversion in men and narcissism and physical attractiveness in women, respectively. In women, psychopathy was also positively associated with mate appeal for short-term relationships. Regarding mating preferences, narcissism was found to involve greater choosiness in the rating of others' mate appeal (but not actual choices) in men, while psychopathy was associated with greater openness towards short-term relationships in women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again not much is said directly about the personality of the partner, but something is said about what they saw valuable in narcissists (extraversion, looks).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On non-intimate but long-term relationships, the OP himself found &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167216629114&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maaß et al. (2016)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results showed that the friends' similarity in narcissism significantly predicted similarity in all Big Five domains. For the general Big Five similarity as well as extraversion, the effect of narcissism similarity was stronger for male than female or mixed friends. Similarity in psychopathy and Machiavellianism significantly predicted all domains except for openness and extraversion, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And that's basically summarized in the paper's title &quot;Narcissists of a Feather Flock Together&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2017-12-21T07:44:01.920" CommentCount="4" CommunityOwnedDate="2017-12-21T07:50:45.507" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18707" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18687" CreationDate="2017-12-21T09:18:37.580" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Given the fact that literature on hypoxia consistently report euphoria as a symptom, my conclusion is that the two are correlated strongly and is not confined to a small subset of susceptible people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Personally I know only of the effects of oxygen on the central nervous system under conditions of increased oxygen pressure, as for example encountered by scuba divers at depths greater than standard recreational diving. In that case it is called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;oxygen intoxication&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; or oxygen toxicity (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4925834/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chawla &amp;amp; Lavania, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;, characterized by &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;visual changes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;tinnitus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;irritability, anxiety, confusion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;vertigo.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypoxia &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sherri_Ferguson/publication/258050767_Cognition_at_altitude_Impairment_in_executive_and_memory_processes_under_hypoxic_conditions/links/57a1103408aeef35741b7e9b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Asmaro, Mayall &amp;amp; Ferguson, 2013)&lt;/a&gt; can indeed lead to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Euphoria and feelings of well-being&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Acute anxiety, irritability &amp;amp; confusion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;confusion, loss of consciousness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors however only qualitatively analyzed their group of test subjects on these subjective mind states and describe quantitative statistics only on psychophysical tests. The latter were indeed significant, showing that hypoxia leads to changes in performance on a variety of tasks in most, and probably all subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To proceed to your question - hard numbers on the prevalence of feelings of euphoria are difficult to find, yet credible reports that mention it as a symptom are abundant. For example, the self-asphyxial risk-taking behavior (SARTB) you mention is known to lead to euphoria and is thought to be one of the motivations behind the 'game' &lt;a href=&quot;http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/25939/1/221477_PubSub2971_Griffiths.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Griffiths, 2015&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4680200/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Busse &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact that hypoxia is a general term for a range of blood oxygenation levels, and the complexity of the cerebral cortex, variability in susceptibility is to be expected. For example, hyperoxic effects depend strongly on the altitude (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, partial oxygen pressure) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4925834/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chawla &amp;amp; Lavania, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4925834/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Asmaro, Mayall &amp;amp; Ferguson, 2013&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4680200/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Busse &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Arch Dis Child&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;100&lt;/strong&gt;(12): 1106–14&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4925834/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chawla &amp;amp; Lavania, &lt;em&gt;Med J Armed Forces India&lt;/em&gt; (2001); &lt;strong&gt;57&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 131–3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/25939/1/221477_PubSub2971_Griffiths.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Griffiths, &lt;em&gt;Education and Health&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;33&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 54-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-10-15T07:14:47.070" LastActivityDate="2020-10-15T07:14:47.070" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18708" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18727" CreationDate="2017-12-21T10:13:44.380" Score="2" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;A couple of months ago my wife and I found out we were having a little girl and needed to start thinking seriously about picking some names. After going through a dictionary of names we narrowed it down a (long) shortlist. Interestingly almost every single name on one of the various '&lt;a href=&quot;http://metro.co.uk/2017/11/30/these-are-the-top-100-uk-baby-names-of-2017-7120428/?ito=cbshare&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Top Baby Names UK 2017&lt;/a&gt;' lists happened to appear on our shortlist. 8 out of the top 10 names below appeared on our list.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm assuming that this isn't coincidence and it's probably very common, hence the popularity of the names. What I struggle to understand is where the influence comes from. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't read celebrity magazines. I don't have lots of friends with children. None of these names are family tradition. I've never even met people with some of these names and some I've only met who are 80+ years old. Ava being a good example of that, it turns out for the last ten years, completely unbeknownst to me, every woman and her dog have been named Ava.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is influencing our preferences and why does this convergence happen?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17881" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-23T18:54:17.833" LastActivityDate="2018-06-04T19:25:05.517" Title="Baby Names and the Hive Mind" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18709" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6483" CreationDate="2017-12-21T13:49:52.627" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Summary: From the few papers I've looked at, microtransaction-based games tend to work as suspected/designed. That is, games which rely on frustration to get the player to spend money (like Candy Crush) tend to obtain money from players with low tolerance for frustration; games which are more related to gambling (like &quot;social casino&quot; games) tend to get money from players who score high on gambling-problem scales and so forth. There are probably not enough high spenders in such games to reflect their behavior in the (unweighted) average player. There's one cluster-analysis paper suggesting that the motivations of the high-spenders (and thus possibly other parts of their psychological profile) are different than those of the average spender. But I think the research on that is too limited to draw firm conclusions on this aspect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found one paper specifically about Candy Crush, &lt;a href=&quot;http://markhancock.ca/pmwiki/uploads/Main/ieee-gem2014_submission_56.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Self-Control in Casual Games:&#xA;The relationship between Candy Crush Saga™ players’ in-app purchases and self-control&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our study reveals that the amount players spend on in-app purchases&#xA;  is correlated with lower levels of self-control. On the other&#xA;  hand, purchases and self-control levels were not significantly&#xA;  correlated with the amount of time people play, game addiction,&#xA;  or problem video game playing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in a game where the microtransaction are mainly a way to speed-up the game (a fairly typical freemium design), the people that pay are those with poor self-control who get crushed by the game's non-paying pace and repetitiveness. Self-control was measured in this paper in a uniform manner using the (highly cited/used) Self-Control Scale (SCS) from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15016066&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tangney et al.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;The authors also quote a couple of free-form responses for additional insight/confirmation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'm trying really hard not to spend money on games. I did it&#xA;  a few times after being stuck for weeks because I was frustrated&#xA;  but I'm trying not to do it again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am feeling really frustrated because I am having trouble&#xA;  getting past this level. I know that if I buy the fish boosters,&#xA;  then I would have an easier time of getting past this level. I&#xA;  am seriously contemplating hitting the buy now option on my&#xA;  ipad to purchase the boosters. I get frustrated with myself&#xA;  and disgusted at the game turn it off, and then go to play&#xA;  farm hero saga instead, which is similar to candy crush but it&#xA;  is a lot less difficult to spend money on it because it is easier&#xA;  to play.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a more recent (2016) paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27363690&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Who Spends Money to Play for Free? Identifying Who Makes Micro-transactions on Social Casino Games (and Why).&quot;&lt;/a&gt; limtited alas to &quot;social casino&quot; games like &lt;a href=&quot;https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=air.com.playtika.slotomania&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Slotomania&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results showed that social casino gamers who engaged in micro-transactions reported significantly higher levels of impulsivity, reward sensitivity and problem gambling severity, but not competitiveness. In terms of motivation to make micro-transactions, desire to extend play was endorsed most frequently, followed by a desire to access additional features, chasing lost credits, and to speed up play. Lastly, among participants who made micro-transactions, reward sensitivity predicted making micro-transactions to chase lost credits. These results suggest the personality make-up of social casino gamers is important to understand who is likely to make micro-transactions as well as their motivation to do so-information that could prove useful for regulation of the industry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in numerical detail, the difference between spenders and non-spenders:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fmt20.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fmt20.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results in this study confirm gambling-like addiction behavior as predictor for spending. The results may not fully generalized to other types of microtransaction games (e.g. where players more obviously compete with each other), but some seem consistent with the designer's intention in this particular game. I had never heard of &quot;buying back your virtual credits&quot; before, but apparently people spend money on that too. Perhaps a clever (or--depending on your point of view--unscrupulous) way to tap into &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;loss aversion&lt;/a&gt;. Or maybe just a way of extending play in this type of game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors were quite reserved in their abstract; the breakdown of motives for various microtransaction incentives was close to statistical significance in quite a few other cases, e.g. impulsivity predicting the need to speed up the game had p=0.07; perhaps a better powered study would find some of these significant as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NwGdJ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NwGdJ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some reference links for the measures used: &lt;a href=&quot;https://learn.problemgambling.ca/eip/assessment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PSGI&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23148649&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BIS-Brief&lt;/a&gt; for impulsivity, Smither and Houston's &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164492052002016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Competitiveness Index&lt;/a&gt;, whereas &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reward sensitivity was measured using two face valid items anchored at 1 (strongly&#xA;  disagree) and 7 (strongly agree), ‘‘I play social casino games in order to win large sums of&#xA;  virtual credits’’ and ‘‘I don’t find social casino games to be rewarding [reverse coded].’’&#xA;  Higher scores indicated greater sensitivity to rewards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And there's yet another 2016 also on &quot;social casino&quot; games (with a similar title too!): &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.5.2016.031&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Who Pays to Play Freemium Games? The Profiles and Motivations of Players Who Make Purchases Within Social Casino Games&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which did a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cluster analysis&lt;/a&gt; to find that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A cluster analysis revealed distinct subgroups of paying players; these included more frequent moderate spenders who made purchases to avoid waiting for credits and to give gifts to friends as well as less frequent high spenders who made purchases to increase the entertainment value of the game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of note is that there was no statistical difference in income or education between these groups. But these groups were still a substantial proportion of the sample; total sample was 521; of these 261 had ever made a purchase and the two aforementioned clusters had 67 (moderate but frequent) and 52 (high but infrequent) spenders. I think neither of these clusters captured the actual &quot;whales&quot; who are probably an even smaller group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are more concrete numbers from the industry itself, but these are not in peer-reviewed publications. According to a &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.archive.org/web/20160826193301/https://home.tapjoy.com/blog/top-personas-free-play-mobile-gamers-treat/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tapjoy report&lt;/a&gt; discussed &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.adweek.com/digital/infographic-whales-account-for-70-of-in-app-purchase-revenue/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in Adweek&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Whales, defined as the top 10% of an app's spenders, account for 70% of the app's revenue from in-app purchases and for 59% of its total revenue (which additionally includes advertising). Whales &quot;make approximately 7.4 in-app purchases per month, for a median average revenue per paying user (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average_revenue_per_user&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ARPPU&lt;/a&gt;) of $335.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The rest of paying players make 1.75 in-app purchases per month, and have a median ARPPU of $17.94. But in contrast to this substantial monetary difference, the time spent in game is not that different: a median of 33 days compared to 40 days for whales.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ad-tapping customers had an ARPPU of only $3.38.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;91% of users were non-spending.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also interesting that spenders aren't that impulsive with their first purchase; the (average or median?) &quot;time for spenders to make their first in-app payment is 16.3 days&quot;. This was based on Tapjoy’s &quot;Personalized Monetization Platform&quot;, so it's presumably aggregate across multiple types of games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason why I detailed these is that the clusters from the previously mentioned academic study don't quite mesh with this industry-reported data. So I suspect there may be substantial variability depending on the game, how you cluster the data etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-21T15:43:58.960" LastActivityDate="2017-12-21T15:43:58.960" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18711" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-20T22:44:12.280" Score="6" ViewCount="164" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently have been trying to look into whether or not white noise works as a means to block out external sounds so I can concentrate. However, I want to know whether it actually impairs studying and reading. I do not care if it has no benefit, as long as it has no negative effects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am trying to block out the sounds of my brother through the walls when he is playing his xbox. As I am hyper-sensitive to noise and any abrupt noises what so ever throw me out of my concentration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17509" OwnerDisplayName="Novantix" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2017-12-23T00:59:23.520" LastActivityDate="2017-12-23T00:59:23.520" Title="Does white noise impair studying, reading, recall/memory or learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18712" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18711" CreationDate="2017-12-21T00:59:16.290" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cogneurosociety.org/whitenoise_bunzeck/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/memory-medic/201706/does-white-noise-help-you-learn-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;studies&lt;/a&gt; that suggest that unstructured background noise, including white noise, may actually improve studying and recall. The benefits are unclear and likely person-dependent, but there is at least no obvious bad effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bottom line: sounds like a safe strategy for you to try.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="jakebeal" LastActivityDate="2017-12-21T00:59:16.290" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18713" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-21T17:09:03.477" Score="3" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given a list of points with arousal and valence rankings, what is the best way of showing them on a circumplex model, given that they are already tagged with 1 out of 7 selected emotions, are they best plotted as a scatter plot with colors (should they also have lines connecting them to the &quot;idea&quot; locus) how should any groupings and variances be interpreted (knowing nothing about the data ahead of time) and what tools exist to do this already that do not need to be created from near scratch (there is no circumplex plot built into matlab)? Also, are there known absolute coordinates for any existing model as to where the labels go?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10964" LastActivityDate="2017-12-21T17:09:03.477" Title="How does on one create a circumplex model (multiple answers)?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18714" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18715" CreationDate="2017-12-21T18:42:00.383" Score="52" ViewCount="16201" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let’s say that two or more babies/infants from the age of 0 were put in an environment without the affection of adults to teach them how to speak. Would the babies after 13 or so years develop their own language? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's assume that someone or something would take care of the babies, giving them food and water and so on, but never speak to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17886" LastEditorUserId="434" LastEditDate="2017-12-23T00:54:49.877" LastActivityDate="2020-05-11T22:12:53.227" Title="If babies were isolated, would they develop their own language?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18715" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18714" CreationDate="2017-12-21T19:38:44.907" Score="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question would require an experiment that cannot ethically be conducted, but it is interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has an article on historical attempts at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_deprivation_experiments#In_history&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;language deprivation experiments&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An experiment allegedly carried out by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II&#xA;  in the 13th century saw young infants raised without human interaction&#xA;  in an attempt to determine if there was a natural language ...&#xA;  &quot;foster-mothers and nurses to suckle and bathe and wash the children,&#xA;  but in no ways to prattle or speak with them ... But he laboured in&#xA;  vain, for the children could not live without clappings of the hands,&#xA;  and gestures, and gladness of countenance, and blandishments.&quot; ... &#xA;  James IV of Scotland was said to have sent two children to be raised&#xA;  by a mute woman isolated on the island of Inchkeith, to determine if&#xA;  language was learned or innate. The children were reported to have&#xA;  spoken good Hebrew ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While these experiments had the advantage of a lax ethical environment, they also had a major disadvantage of poor methodology, and the accuracy of their documentation is very questionable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are quite a few documented cases of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_child&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;feral children&lt;/a&gt;, but none that I'm aware of who were raised together so as to have had an opportunity to develop language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most compelling case for the innateness of language development that I'm aware of is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaraguan_Sign_Language&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nicaraguan sign language&lt;/a&gt; (ISN):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a sign language that was largely spontaneously developed by deaf&#xA;  children in a number of schools in western Nicaragua in the 1970s and&#xA;  1980s. It is of particular interest to the linguists who study it,&#xA;  because it offers a unique opportunity to study what they believe to&#xA;  be the birth of a new language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These children were in fact raised as normal children, but were language isolated, with no contact with other deaf children until school age.  Some variables not well controlled for here include that they were exposed to the concept of language, were aware that other people communicated with each other, and already had a proto-language (mimicas).  Nonetheless, they appeared to develop a proper structured language fairly quickly upon being introduced to each other, without any apparent support or encouragement from adults, who were entirely unfamiliar with any sign language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are similar examples of isolated sign-language development, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Sayyid_Bedouin_Sign_Language&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ABSL&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha%27s_Vineyard_Sign_Language&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;MVSL&lt;/a&gt;, but the problem with all of them is that the actual level of language isolation is not well controlled for, and hence not clear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-12-23T18:18:46.307" LastActivityDate="2017-12-23T18:18:46.307" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18716" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18714" CreationDate="2017-12-22T03:18:09.217" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;While no cases of complete isolation of a group of children seem to exist, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioglossia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;idioglossia&lt;/a&gt; (language invented and spoken by only one person or very few people) in twins is well documented and appears to be amplified by social isolation, as the sad cases of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_and_Jennifer_Gibbons&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;June and Jennifer Gibbons&lt;/a&gt; aka &quot;Silent Twins&quot; and the &quot;San Diego twins&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poto_and_Cabengo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Poto and Cabengo&lt;/a&gt; illustrate. The effect appears to be bidirectional though, i.e. a sort of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_feedback&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive feedback&lt;/a&gt; effect is causing a cycle in which more isolation leads to more reliance on idioglossia which in turn fosters more isolation from the rest of society. (For the latter see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/thg.2013.83&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hayashi et al.&lt;/a&gt; for instance.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, in the case of twin idioglossia the children do not truly invent the very notion of language. Note however that the same can be said about child-developed sign languages like the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaraguan_Sign_Language&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nicaguan Sign Language&lt;/a&gt; (NSL): adults still occasionally communicate with such children in a more primitive, ad-hoc sign language, and surely that happens before such children met each other in school etc., so the very idea of a sign language cannot be said to have been invented by these deaf children on their own, but they surely developed a much more sophisticated (and unique) sign language on their own. A qualitative difference between NSL and twin idioglossia is that in the NSL case the adults' (sign) language is more primitive. In this respect however, the parallel is not that different from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/messeas/handouts/pjcreol/node1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;distinction between creole and pidgin&lt;/a&gt;. The latter is more primitive language of the parents, while the former is a more grammatically sophisticated version usually evolved by their children and later descendants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, languages spoken by few people like twin languages and even those more widely spoken like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_language&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pirahã&lt;/a&gt; (and this includes sign languages of this kind like NSL) have one sure thing in common: there are bitter disagreements between linguists as to their features. The Wikipedia articles on Pirahã or document NSL those controversies well enough. For twin ideoglossic languages, while some researchers like Bakker &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3434134&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;have claimed high prevalence&lt;/a&gt; and gone to some lengths to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.slate.com/articles/life/twins/2011/08/dugon_haus_you_dinikin_duah.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;describe their features&lt;/a&gt;, other researchers like &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000900009272&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dodd and McEvoy&lt;/a&gt; have argued that such languages basically don't even exist (or if they do are extremely rare), being mostly phonological disorders that make them hard for us to comprehend, but that twins sharing the same genes share the same disorder, so they learn to undestand each other, while we can't do it that easliy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So (insofar) not much in the way of firm conclusions can be inferred from these with respect to the development of languages that most people speak. And probably not that much can be inferred from them with respect to what would happen in a group of children in total isolation either...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2017-12-23T18:23:19.987" LastActivityDate="2017-12-23T18:23:19.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18718" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-22T08:18:22.520" Score="3" ViewCount="3206" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some meta-analytic evidence that stimulants increase the IQ test scores of ADHD children by 2 to 7 points (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054708322996&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jepsen et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;). &#xA;Although giving stimulants to non-ADHD children may be unethical, I'm still wondering if there is improvement in IQ test score in children (or adults) who do not meet the criteria for an ADHD diagnosis. An additional motivation for asking this is that a study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-330&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tsai et al. (2013)&lt;/a&gt; found that the IQ test score improvement from methylphenidate &quot;had no correlation with the decrement of ADHD symptoms.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Jepsen, J. R. M., Fagerlund, B., &amp;amp; Mortensen, E. L. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054708322996&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Do attention deficits influence IQ assessment in children and adolescents with ADHD?&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of Attention Disorders, 12(6), 551-562.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Tsai, C. S., Huang, Y. S., Wu, C. L., Hwang, F. M., Young, K. B., Tsai, M. H., &amp;amp; Chu, S. M. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-330&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Long-term effects of stimulants on neurocognitive performance of Taiwanese children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder&lt;/a&gt;. BMC psychiatry, 13(1), 330.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-06-06T08:45:55.053" LastActivityDate="2018-07-18T16:41:05.327" Title="Do stimulants increase the IQ tests score for everyone?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;cognitive-enhancement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18719" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18718" CreationDate="2017-12-22T09:15:36.563" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;IQ in ADHD sufferers indeed increases with the treatment of stimulants, such as methylphenidate &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1994.tb11811.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Meyes &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1994)&lt;/a&gt;. This is thought to rely on the attention-narrowing effect of stimulants, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, they cause the &#xA; easily distracted ADHD child to focus better on the IQ task &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2FBF02578400.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Aman, 1996)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is an interesting question indeed whether such an effect also plays a role in healthy controls. Indeed it does, at least according to one study, where a control population was subjected to amphetamine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amphetamine improves performance on &lt;strong&gt;spatial working memory&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;Stroop tasks&lt;/strong&gt; and enhances &lt;strong&gt;language production&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092099640500006X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Barch &amp;amp; Carter, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;. The authors did, however, not measure performance on full blown IQ tests.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2FBF02578400.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aman, &lt;em&gt;J Development Phys Disabil&lt;/em&gt; (1996); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 347-65&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092099640500006X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barch &amp;amp; Karter, &lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia Res&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;77&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 43-58&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1994.tb11811.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meyes &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;DMCN&lt;/em&gt; (1994); &lt;strong&gt;36&lt;/strong&gt;(12): 1099–107&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2017-12-22T09:15:36.563" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18720" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-22T09:45:47.820" Score="2" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we are somehow able to record and store all the neural connection in the brain of a child and also the brain of the same individual when he is old will there be difference between the two ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the brain capable to destroy and create neural networks (neurons) on its own, namely to store, process and retrieve memories? Or does it uses a fixed network instead, &lt;em&gt;i.e.,&lt;/em&gt; the network which each individual is born with )?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the brain does create new networks, can you please provide a link to the resource where I can read this from ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17909" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-22T14:07:18.963" LastActivityDate="2017-12-22T14:07:18.963" Title="Does the brain's architecture change while growing up?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18720" CreationDate="2017-12-22T10:01:07.287" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain continues to reorganize throughout life. The process is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.stanford.edu/group/hopes/cgi-bin/hopes_test/neuroplasticity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroplasticity&lt;/a&gt;. Among other things (and as proof) it is what allows people to recover from stroke (or traumatic brain injury). Neuroplasticity does slow down in the really old age, which also makes recovery from stroke more difficult for the elderly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For even more details (than the prvious link) see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3956134/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Old Dogs Learning New Tricks: Neuroplasticity Beyond the Juvenile Period&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-22T10:19:06.030" LastActivityDate="2017-12-22T10:19:06.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18722" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18720" CreationDate="2017-12-22T10:03:52.917" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The brain is a highly dynamic organ that changes constantly through life. During adulthood, there is a general decline in the number of cells. Memory formation is generally thought to be regulated through synaptic connections rather than at the whole-neuron level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;First of all, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aging_brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;aging results in a steady decline of the number of nerve cells&lt;/a&gt;, so the 'architecture' of the brain changes dramatically regardless its function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, memories and other dynamic processes in the brain are typically controlled by altering &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synaptic connectivity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and not so much at the level of the whole-neuron. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thirdly, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23292211&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuronal regeneration&lt;/a&gt; is confined to but a few areas in the brain, for example the hippocampus where it may, or may not be directly involved in memory formation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But yes, the brain does dynamically control the synaptic connectivity and notably the synaptic strength of synapses. As Fizz here correctly states, that is called neuroplasticity. Intensive use of certain synaptic connections may result in synaptic strengthening,for example by &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;long-term potentiation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14715912&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Lynch, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. Reversely, abandoned connections may be downregulated through &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;long-term depression&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A general reference work best suited for your basic question would really be a general Neuroscience text book, such as the following online work:   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10799/?term=purves&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds). &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;. 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2001&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or for something more up-to-date, yet not online, the bible of Neuroscience:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://neurology.mhmedical.com/book.aspx?bookID=1049&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kandel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds.). &lt;em&gt;Principles of Neural Science&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14715912&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lynch, &lt;em&gt;Physiol Rev&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;84&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 87-136&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-22T10:09:59.363" LastActivityDate="2017-12-22T10:09:59.363" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18723" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18743" CreationDate="2017-12-22T13:04:52.507" Score="9" ViewCount="344" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some good answers about testing individual's intelligence, and about mathematics side of the IQ scale, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/10298/17912&quot;&gt;e.g&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When current IQ tests are developed, the median raw score of the norming sample is defined as IQ 100 and scores each standard deviation (SD) up or down are defined as 15 IQ points greater or less,[2] although this was not always so historically. By this definition, approximately two-thirds of the population scores between IQ 85 and IQ 115, and about 5 percent of the population scores above 125.[3][4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I wanted to ask though, is the organizational/&quot;political&quot; side of establishing the parameters of the test, the &quot;calibration&quot; procedure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Who (organization/person/entity) establishes or updates the coefficients which make the average test score for given age to correspond to IQ of 100, and the standard deviation increments of 15?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Who is the test group: how is the tested population providing the raw data for establishing the above selected? (in particular, how to avoid selection bias: people &lt;em&gt;wanting&lt;/em&gt; to take IQ tests, because they are (rightly) expecting getting good result and thus bragging rights of high IQ; people of low IQ avoiding the expected effort, frustration and shame).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How does that look on the international landscape; are the coefficients established &quot;per nation&quot; and computed by national organizations, or are they global, or some other form yet?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17912" LastActivityDate="2019-07-04T11:20:51.610" Title="Procedures behind establishing the IQ scale" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;publication-process&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18727" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18708" CreationDate="2017-12-23T02:34:52.983" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are probably a number of factors at play here. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One important contribution to the &quot;snowballing&quot; of trends like this is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;mere exposure effect&lt;/a&gt; by which things we encounter repeatedly become more attractive to us just because of their familiarity (this is also the logic that underlies ad campaigns that just put the brand or logo all over the place without bothering to associate any particular messaging with it --- just hoping to increase the number of times people see it). Notice how similar the list of names you have are to each other. Repeated sounds (the &quot;ia&quot; ending, the use of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;nasals&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_consonant&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;liquids&lt;/a&gt; like &quot;l&quot; and &quot;m&quot; in place of harsher stop consonants like &quot;t&quot; or &quot;p&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You (and everyone else) has been encountering names with these components, and these names in particular, increasingly over the last couple years, which make them seem more and more attractive to you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17939" LastActivityDate="2017-12-23T02:34:52.983" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18729" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-23T05:52:29.437" Score="1" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;If women are better than men at reading thoughts and emotions by looking at eyes, because they are born for this, then is there a way to make a man to be as sensitive as women? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it similar to language acquisition? Even when it is impossible for a non-native speakers to know all vocabulary that a native one posses, at least they can learn to the point that native ones can't really differentiate who's who in daily conversations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a related but might contradicted example, when having sex, it might be useful to touch on the right spots at the right time. According to my counselor, heterosexual persons who have switched to homosexual tend to stay homosexual because the same gender partner knows what to do more. So while a woman might be satisfied more by another woman, a man can also be satisfied more by a man too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://mobile.abc.net.au/news/2017-06-15/women-better-than-men-reading-thoughts-and-emotions/8618120?pfmredir=sm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Women better than men at reading thoughts and emotions by looking at eyes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hirsh, D. &amp;amp; Nation, P. What Vocabulary Size Is Needed to Read Unsimplified Texts for Pleasure? Reading in a Foreign Language 8, 689–96 (1992).&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2017-12-25T02:58:05.550" LastActivityDate="2017-12-25T02:58:05.550" Title="Is there a way for a man to be as sensitive as women in understanding other's thoughts and emotions?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18731" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18732" CreationDate="2017-12-23T06:27:51.960" Score="2" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know more about art, music, psychology, and cognition. Since they are related to each other, I'd like to read a book with a topic covering those. Bonus if it's for beginners. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-03-17T08:40:54.223" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T13:46:01.677" Title="Are there any introductory books about the relationship between art and psychology/cognition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18732" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18731" CreationDate="2017-12-23T07:13:14.667" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Sacks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oliver Sacks&lt;/a&gt; has an excellent and very approachable book on the topic (psychology/cognition + music in particular, less art in general): &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicophilia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Musicophilia&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17939" LastActivityDate="2017-12-23T07:13:14.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18734" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-23T11:06:22.157" Score="9" ViewCount="221" Body="&lt;p&gt;A study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2012.06.001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;White et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt; using a large UK sample  concludes that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this cohort, high childhood IQ was related to illegal drug use in adulthood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this does not refer to habitual use, but to have ever having tried illegal drugs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Preliminary analyses revealed that, at the 42-year follow-up, the use of drugs in the past 12 months was rare [...] We therefore used assessments of the lifetime prevalence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same paper of White cites another UK study &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.2006.048215&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Batty et al. (2007)&lt;/a&gt; in which &lt;em&gt;regular&lt;/em&gt; smoking and &lt;em&gt;heavy&lt;/em&gt; alcohol consumption ware negatively correlated with childhood IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this type of finding, namely positive correlation of IQ with what I'd call experimental drug use [I think the medical term is drug abuse], but negative correlation of IQ with heavy/regular use [which I think is called dependency or addiction] generalizable across countries? Or [if this is far too ambitious to ask] at least reproducible in other countries?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if so, are there other confounding variables that might explain some of it better, e.g. openness to experience for ever having tried an illegal drug?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-24T21:24:16.220" LastActivityDate="2019-07-23T01:14:34.190" Title="Childhood IQ and pattern of drug use in adulthood" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18737" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18739" CreationDate="2017-12-24T09:21:17.487" Score="1" ViewCount="243" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question goes back to &lt;a href=&quot;https://twitter.com/JuliaHass/status/943517409322913795&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this tweet&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Julia‏ @JuliaHass&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just learned that elephants think humans are cute the way humans think puppies are cute (the same part of the brain lights up when they see us) so pack it in, nothing else this pure and good is happening today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/40275/do-elephants-see-humans-the-same-way-humans-see-puppies&quot;&gt;skeptics stack exchange post about the tweet refers to elephants&lt;/a&gt;, but I'm interested in a general answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17872" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-12-25T14:06:44.370" Title="Which possible methods can be used to determine if a certain part of the brain is active?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18739" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18737" CreationDate="2017-12-24T12:36:53.197" Score="1" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;PET (positron emission tomography) will measure glucose consumption, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2147116&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2147116&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;fMRI will measure changes in blood flow, or more precisely measuring the blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) response. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/brain-metrics/what_does_fmri_measure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/brain-metrics/what_does_fmri_measure&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I'm being a bit simplistic here, as with PET you can measure a lot of different things (like activation of circuits depending on specific neurotransmitters) depending on the tracer used. Here's a table from the book &lt;em&gt;PET and SPECT in Neurology&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AeUqB.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AeUqB.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The downside is that PET has &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Functional_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lower spatial resolution than fMRI&lt;/a&gt; and substantially lower temporal resolution, meaning chnages over time are hard to pick up with PET. If you care about quick changes, then MEG or EEG are the fastest, but you have solve a difficult &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4614-7320-6_529-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inverse problem&lt;/a&gt; to figure out where the changes came from, which requires making quite a few assumptions to get a (unique) solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And let me add (for infotainment purposes) &lt;a href=&quot;http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/neuroskeptic/2013/08/30/fmri-killed-the-radiotracer/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;[f]MRI Killed The Radiotracer&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-25T14:06:44.370" LastActivityDate="2017-12-25T14:06:44.370" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18740" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18683" CreationDate="2017-12-24T18:03:59.527" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;From a study conducted by &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/499e/cd05b55b15065aeb0d9cd189ce7999c9d392.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salimpoor, Benovoy, et al.&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Music, an abstract stimulus, can arouse feelings of euphoria and craving, similar to tangible rewards that involve the striatal dopaminergic system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These results indicate that intense pleasure in response to music can lead to dopamine release in the striatal system. Notably, the anticipation of an abstract reward can result in dopamine release in an anatomical pathway distinct from that associated with the peak pleasure itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This helps explain the basis for people crying when they're listening to music. As for why this tends to occur in a concert environment - this could be partly related to Salimpoor et al.'s suggestion that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;composers and performers ... manipulate emotional arousal by violating expectations in certain ways or by delaying the predicted outcome (for example, by inserting unexpected notes or slowing tempo) before the resolution to heighten the motivation for completion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One could argue that live performances tend to have more unexpected sequences like these (if you've been to a concert or listened to a live track, you notice that the live show might have a different, unexpected musical arrangement).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, a plausible explanation would be that when you have many people packed into the same space experiencing the music (as opposed to listening to it alone or in a small group), the emotional reactions discussed above could be amplified. There doesn't appear to be much research backing this up specifically, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Salimpoor, V. N., Benovoy, M., Larcher, K., Dagher, A., &amp;amp; Zatorre, R. J. (2011). Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music. Nature Neuroscience, 14(2), 257-262. doi:10.1038/nn.2726&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17260" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-12-24T18:03:59.527" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18743" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18723" CreationDate="2017-12-25T11:11:51.930" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Due to fact, that I can´t give a comment, I will post an answer, that is not sufficient. However, I hope this might give you little more insight. Furthermore, my knowledge mainly builds on german IQ Tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.) Usually this is done by the institution/person etc., that has developed the IQ test. However, in some cases the parameters aren´t updated. So, you should always check for this. Especially in regard of very old IQ Tests and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flynn effect &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2.) First, the type of test-sample usually depends on the population, for which the IQ test is being developed (if you want an IQ test for intelligent people in their 20´s, you should go and try it at different universities). In case of Germany: a lot of IQ Tests usually take samples in different parts of Germany, with different demographic attributes. Usually people get paid for participating. Still, in most cases it is hard to sample a representative sample, due to fact that people with higher social status and intelligence tend to agree more easily in participating (“sadly”, you can´t force someone to take part). So, the aspects you have mentioned are indeed a huge problem, with which usually can´t be dealt perfectly. Sometimes people are told, that they won´t get feedback on their performance or only, if they wish to. As you might guess, this barely counters the problem. Furthermore, huge representative samples are expensive to gather. Therefore, the sad truth is, that in most cases it comes down to representative approximations (at least in Germany). These are the reasons why a lot of (german) IQ Tests are biased upwards (f.e. in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-S-T_2000R&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IST-2000R&lt;/a&gt; more people have been graduated from high School (=&quot;Abitur&quot;) than the average; this is even worse for the extended version - to counter that, the subsamples are weighted differently). Just as a little note: IQ tests for students are usually better normed, due to the fact, that they can be accessed more easily. &#xA;Long story short: Researchers often try to cope with selection bias, but often can´t really avoid it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3.) to be honest: I have no knowledge on the international landscape&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just as a little note: You will usually find more detailed information in the specific IQ manual. And: When you are using an IQ test, you should always think of whether or not your test-participant can be compared with the test-sample (you shouldn´t have any problems in comparing IQ performance of a 35 year old participant when the test-sample is representative for ages between 20-30, due to the fact, that the decrease in the average (fluid) intelligence from 20 to 35 is not that huge (as compared to the increase in the younger age, see f.e. Baltes (1997) Figure 3). But then of course, you can only make judgments relative to the (unrepresentative) test-sample, not to the whole population itself. This is also the reason, why i don´t really like statments like &quot;my IQ is ...&quot;, because such statements always depend on the test-sample and test itself, that was being used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An article, that is dealing (along with other aspects of the human development) with the development of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fluid and crystallized intelligence&lt;/a&gt; across the lifespan: Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory. &lt;em&gt;American psychologist&lt;/em&gt;, 52(4), 366-380.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15183" LastEditorUserId="15183" LastEditDate="2017-12-26T09:53:42.877" LastActivityDate="2017-12-26T09:53:42.877" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18744" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12603" CreationDate="2017-12-25T12:25:53.887" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's one somewhat obscure paper by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3339227/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Varambally et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt; that (apparently) says that dysarthria can be a part of the &quot;Neurological Soft Signs&quot; (NSS) of schizophrenia itself. They examined &quot;32 never-treated patients with schizophrenia&quot; vs healthy controls and found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A stepwise multiple discriminant analysis identified two &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Cooperative_Ataxia_Rating_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ICARS&lt;/a&gt; sub-scores to be significant (Kinetic sub-score and Dysarthria sub-score), which accounted for 78% classification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The broader topic of NSS in schizophrenia (either in patients or even in their relatives) has received a fair bit of attention, but the above is the only paper that mentioned dysarthria in this context. One potential problem that I see is that there isn't a commonly agreed way to measure NSS. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-11-139&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;One meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt; found that three studies used &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2710870&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NES&lt;/a&gt;, two used &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11042442&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SNE&lt;/a&gt;, and two the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.157.5.735&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rossi scale&lt;/a&gt;. I looked at these scales briefly and they don't seem to address dysarthria; it's possible that I've missed something and they call it something else...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is a bit vague (and given its age and one-time involvement of the asker it seems unlikely it will see clarification). The title seem to ask if medication can also cause dysarthria. Apparently, yes, there is one study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3018852/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Caroff et al. (2011)&lt;/a&gt; which does mention it as an extreme form of (antipshyctohic) drug-induced dystonia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dystonia is an acute, alarming involuntary movement disorder that can be painful and distressing, and erodes patient trust and compliance. It is characterized by briefly sustained or intermittent spasms or contractions of antagonistic muscle groups resulting in twisting and repetitive movements or postures. Drug-induced dystonia can affect any muscle group, but most commonly involves the head, neck, jaw, eyes and mouth resulting in spasmodic torticollis, retro- or anterocollis, trismus and dental trauma, forced jaw-opening or dislocation, grimacing, blepharospasm, tongue biting, protrusion or twisting, and distortion of the lips. It is not action or sensory stimulus dependent. More subtle signs, including muscle cramps or tightness of the jaw and tongue with difficulty speaking or chewing, may precede dystonia or occur alone. At the other extreme, dystonia may present as an oculogyric crisis or with other forced eye movements, or with &lt;strong&gt;dysarthria&lt;/strong&gt;, dysphagia and potentially lethal respiratory stridor if pharyngeal or laryngeal musculature is affected. Less frequently observed, dystonia may affect axial, truncal or limb movements occasionally leading to camptocormia, pleurothotonus (Pisa syndrome) or opisthotonus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same paper mentions that dysarthria may also occur in the more dangerous neuroleptic malignant syndrome, in which the more classic symptoms of hyperthermia and generalized rigidity also occur (and can be used for differential diagnosis.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's one other paper by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3004713/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mathews et al. (2005)&lt;/a&gt; about antipsychotic-induced movement disorders that I've looked at, but it doesn't mention dysarthria. From this I guess that it's a rather rare occurrence as a side-effect of antipsychotic medication. I didn't find anything more detailed about prevalence etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-25T13:46:25.787" LastActivityDate="2017-12-25T13:46:25.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18745" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5462" CreationDate="2017-12-25T12:42:05.130" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, I do think thinking without language is possible. A pretty simple example is the word 'perceive'. A person may perceive a lot many phenomena even if s/he doesn't know how to put it in words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me Leonardo Da Vinci seems to be a great thinker who used to think without language, evident by his ability to develop a fly-able sketch without accompanying language of aviation. This is to be understood in the context that every field of specialty has its own language and even then time and again there are prodigies who deny this language and add value to the specialty. If logic and proof is the language of Mathematics then Srinivas Ramanujan thought without that language thereby finding it difficult to provide proofs to his formulas and theorems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Language is basically a digitised construct of an analogous world. If one were to think based only on words , s/he might never be able to perceive the reality of the world. This is evident in Einstein's statement, “Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited to all we now know and understand, while imagination embraces the entire world, and all there ever will be to know and understand.” Here, Einstein might be seen referring to knowledge as known by language and words and imagination as an ability to think beyond these words. Einstein's inability or blessing to have not been able to speak till age of seven ( Edit: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.albert-einstein.org/article_handicap.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.albert-einstein.org/article_handicap.html&lt;/a&gt; ) might be reason behind his 'superpower' to look beyond words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To cite a more orientalist example, Indian meditative sages are supposed to have pretty sharp contemplative skills using mediation. (Edit : &lt;a href=&quot;http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/evidence-builds-that-meditation-230237&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/evidence-builds-that-meditation-230237&lt;/a&gt; ) As a personal experience, which most Indians can relate to, meditating on a situation is much more helpful than trying to fit it into the maze of language. ( Edit : can't cite a study to showcase experiences of people around me, but to me more precise I have had many teachers who would tell us to just meditate over a new concept if the words are enough, and it has helped many students including me)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17967" LastEditorUserId="17967" LastEditDate="2018-01-09T05:20:37.917" LastActivityDate="2018-01-09T05:20:37.917" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18746" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="46" CreationDate="2017-12-25T18:55:25.710" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my mind the dual-n-back (aka Jaeggi training) is still controversial. A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25102926&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;meta-analysis by Jaeggi and co-authors (2015)&lt;/a&gt; found in favor of their original paper, but others have gone on record to disagree with their conclusions,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26082279&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Melby-Lervåg &amp;amp; Hulme (2016)&lt;/a&gt; in particular who had conducted a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22612437&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;meta-analysis concluding the opposite in 2013&lt;/a&gt;; Jaeggi and co-authors &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26518308&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;disagree with that criticism&lt;/a&gt;, of course. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26082280&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dougherty et al. (2016)&lt;/a&gt; were also unconvinced of the meta-analysis of the Jaeggi group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/531S10a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2016 editorial in &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; on the state of affairs on this line of research, with the subheading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Conflicting results are expected in a young field, but what do you do when even the meta-analyses do not agree?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An empirical study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151817&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lawlor-Savage and Goghari (2016)&lt;/a&gt; published after those meta-analyses and which (according to its introduction) took methodological concerns outlined in the meta-analysis into consideration for its own experimental design, also failed to find improvements from dual-n-back. I'm not saying this is the last word on the issue, just that replication has proven difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I think it's somewhat premature to ask what else works like this, when we're not sure this works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-25T19:24:49.093" LastActivityDate="2017-12-25T19:24:49.093" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18747" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18748" CreationDate="2017-12-25T18:59:02.283" Score="2" ViewCount="317" Body="&lt;p&gt;How is the approximate volume occupied by a brain component calculated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, how would you know the approximate brain volume percentage of both &lt;em&gt;hippocampi&lt;/em&gt; or both parts of the striatum, or the cortices of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an application that I, as a non-neuroscientist could use to get such an estimation for a given part in the human brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17970" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-25T23:01:04.323" LastActivityDate="2017-12-25T23:01:04.323" Title="Calculating brain-part volume percentage?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18748" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18747" CreationDate="2017-12-25T22:54:29.340" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Magnetic resonance imaging can be used to calculate volumes of brain areas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A state-of-the-art method to determine volumes in brain tissue is by making use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MRI segments the brain into 3D pixels, called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/retronator-magazine/pixels-and-voxels-the-long-answer-5889ecc18190&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;voxels&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Voxel is derived semantically from the fusion of pixel and volume. Hence, each voxel has a certain volume and thus the number of voxels inside a certain brain area (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; the hippocampus) can be calculated yielding your desired volume measures (Fig. 1). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course you cannot do MRI in your attic, but you can search the internet for the right articles. Two leads are cited below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0DnFV.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0DnFV.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;voxels&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Brain divided into voxels by MRI. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.everythingzoomer.com/predicting-alzheimers/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Everything Zoomer&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29132939&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Andica &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neuroradiol&lt;/em&gt; (in press)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11881838&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aquartz &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2001);&lt;strong&gt;251&lt;/strong&gt;(6): 255-61&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2017-12-25T22:59:40.503" LastActivityDate="2017-12-25T22:59:40.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18749" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8955" CreationDate="2017-12-26T02:03:43.020" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The more you do something (whether you particularly &amp;quot;enjoy&amp;quot; it or&#xA;not) the more likely you are to build it up as a habit&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This simply is not the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;So in this regard, it can be addictive behavior in the same way a&#xA;&amp;quot;bad habit&amp;quot; can.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bad habits can not be &amp;quot;addictive&amp;quot;. That is not what either word means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1600904/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sleep deprivation leads to an alteration in brain function&lt;/a&gt; similar to that seen in &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10482346/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;drug use&lt;/a&gt;, and in particular, a &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2689437/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;heightened response&lt;/a&gt; to emotional stimuli, with an exaggeration of assessments of positive events, through heightened responses in the dopamine reward centers of the brain. This occurs through currently unknown mechanisms. Whether this then leads to long-term changes in function of dopamine reward circuitry is currently unknown, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17972" LastEditorUserId="24466" LastEditDate="2020-12-28T01:46:55.843" LastActivityDate="2020-12-28T01:46:55.843" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18750" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-26T11:14:08.050" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say there's neurogensis in a brain area that seems to &quot;allow&quot; it, like the Hipocampus, Striatum, and so forth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this neurogensis might be preceded in the apoptosis of scar cells, and then, in the same area where the scar cell was removed, the neurogenesis takes place?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The purpose of this question is to understand if neurogensis would generally be preceded by apoptosis of a scar cell, and the new neuron will replace the scar cell, virtually, in its exact location.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17970" LastActivityDate="2017-12-26T11:14:08.050" Title="Neurogensis in CNS invloves apoptosis of scar cells?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;neurogenesis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18751" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5462" CreationDate="2017-12-26T20:47:23.973" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It all depends on how you define &quot;language&quot; and &quot;thought&quot;. The way I define them (very broadly, really universally), neither can exist without the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Language is a component of thought, while thought produces language. Language and thought are so inter-dependent as to be virtually the same thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And at the social level, thought and language are commutative, so that at times one's language may serve to provoke others to think, while at other times one's thoughts may motivate one to express them in language, for purposes of communicating or sharing with others. And vice-versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Language and thought are also commutative on the personal, individual level, in that they help bridge the barriers between internal and external realities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perceptions on the other hand, are the mechanisms through which we gain the awareness we need to form thoughts and language. Neither thoughts nor language are possible without the ability to perceive on some level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in the order of primacy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Perception or sense&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Awareness (consciousness)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Generic Ideas and language, often equally irrational&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reasoned logic and logical language (with increasing complexity)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sound judgment or wisdom, and the ability to use language for good purposes (most complex)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I say &quot;primacy&quot; for this list, because &lt;em&gt;perception&lt;/em&gt; (or sense) is the foundation for all thought and language, at any level. People can and often do compensate for losses of perceptual ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update (I've been asked to provide references for the bases of my opinions). The following is from Stanford University's Center for the Study of Language and Information:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://The%20Language%20of%20Thought%20Hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Language of Thought Hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;What is the Language of Thought Hypothesis?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;LOTH is an empirical thesis about the nature of thought and thinking. According to LOTH, &lt;strong&gt;thought and thinking are done in a mental language&lt;/strong&gt;, i.e., in a symbolic system physically realized in the brain of the relevant organisms. In formulating LOTH, philosophers have in mind primarily the variety of thoughts known as ‘propositional attitudes’.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Epistemology of Visual Thinking in Mathematics&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;5.2 An evidential use of visual experience in proving&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Visual &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-visual-thinking/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;perception&lt;/a&gt; is used to tell in particular cases whether the rule thus expressed is correctly implemented...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We may distinguish two operations with respect to a given linguistic operation, in particular, a (declarative) sentence and its parts. The first operation is the analysis of the expression with the aim of understanding it, of grasping its meaning. &lt;em&gt;The second operation consists in investigations concerning the&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;factual&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;situation referred to by the given expression&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Its aim is the establishment of factual truth&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;em&gt;This operation is not of a purely logical, but of an&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://ia601600.us.archive.org/14/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.46380/2015.46380.Meaning-And-Necessity-A-Study-In-Semantics-And-Modal-Logic.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;empirical&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;nature&lt;/em&gt;...Thus, for every expression that we can understand, there is the question of meaning and the question of actual application; therefore the expression has primarily an intension and secondarily an extension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We shall define the term 'analytic' in such a way that it is applicable to all those sentences, and only those sentences, of Language II that are valid (true, correct) on the basis of logic and classical mathematics...The synthetic sentences are the (true or false) sentences about &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=3e3gAwAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA40&amp;amp;lpg=PA40&amp;amp;dq=l-determinate&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=7wQLK_7q2j&amp;amp;sig=lvcNw0AnID8_U8ZQKuytUp1-C90&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwi4-rKpypbaAhVRVWMKHUH6ByMQ6AEIPTAD#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=l-determinate&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;facts&lt;/a&gt;. An important point is that Language II includes descriptive symbols and hence also synthetic sentences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...language evolved in two stages, and its main purpose was not communication—to show that the ability to &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0465016197&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;think&lt;/a&gt; mathematically arose out of the same symbol-manipulating ability that was so crucial to the emergence of true language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, I have tried to show that thinking is enhanced by language. Even further, that conscious thought and logical mental processes are themselves a unique kind of language. Perception is the tool by which we prove ideas, whether true or false. Perception is also the tool by which we gain external information which is used in &lt;a href=&quot;https://socialresearchmethods.net/kb/dedind.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;deduction&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17978" LastEditorUserId="17978" LastEditDate="2018-03-31T13:39:59.643" LastActivityDate="2018-03-31T13:39:59.643" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18752" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10131" CreationDate="2017-12-26T23:25:57.070" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;My concern is that there are many therapies being broadly promoted without sufficient evidence of effectiveness and this one is calling itself 'evidence-based&quot;. I worry that time and resources are being invested and that clients are being promised amazing, if not unbelievable, benefits. Clients may not be sophisticated consumers and I would hate for them to be misled by such inflated claims. I believe that we have a duty to be skeptical before jumping on board the 'next best thing' bandwagon. After all, much harm has been done in the past by advocates of sham therapies (think 'the schizophrenogenic' mother and Bateson's 'double bind' theory of schizophrenia and therapies endorsed by Jay Haley et al).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taken directly from the ART website: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Accelerated Resolution Therapy  is a form of psychotherapy with roots in existing evidence-based therapies but shown to achieve benefits much more rapidly (usually within 1-5 sessions). Clients with depression, anxiety, panic attacks, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance abuse, sexual abuse and many other mental and physical conditions can experience remarkable benefits starting in the first session.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is surprising to me that this treatment - 'Accelerated Resolution Therapy' (ART) would even be recognized by SAMHSA [&lt;a href=&quot;https://nrepp.samhsa.gov/ProgramProfile.aspx?id=7#hide4]&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://nrepp.samhsa.gov/ProgramProfile.aspx?id=7#hide4]&lt;/a&gt; as an evidence-based treatment. The data on ART is limited to 1 small sample RCT in which ART was compared to an attentional placebo, not a credible alternative treatment. Standards promulgated by APA Divison 12 based on Chambless and Hollon (1998, p.8) require at least two well controlled studies be conducted- (one ideally independent of the original investigators)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;As is the case in research in general, replication is critical,&#xA;particularly replication by an independent investigatory team.&#xA;The requirement of replication helps to protect the field from&#xA;drawing erroneous conclusions based on one aberrant finding.&#xA;Replication by an independent team of investigators also provides&#xA;some protection against investigator bias or reliance on&#xA;findings that prove unique to a particular setting or group of&#xA;therapists. Thus, only when a treatment has been found efficacious&#xA;in at least two studies by independent research teams do&#xA;we consider its efficacy to have been established and label it&#xA;an efficacious treatment [highlighting added]. If there is only one study supporting&#xA;a treatment's efficacy, or if all of the research has been conducted&#xA;by one team, we consider the findings promising but&#xA;would label such treatments as possibly efficacious, pending&#xA;replication.&quot; (p.8)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As noted in the single RCT manuscript (Kip et al., 2013) itself:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;A limitation is that the ART intervention was not compared to an active psychotherapy regimen, such as PE. Thus, no direct comparison of treatment efficacy of ART versus current firstline treatments (PE, CPT, and EMDR) can be made. Second, by design, the AC group was not parallel in contact hours to the ART intervention. &quot; (p.1307)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is pretty limited evidence on which to promote a new treatment. It was also surprising to me that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the 'intervention' itself  can be delivered delivered in as little as 2-5 60-75 minute sessions [as little as 120 minutes of an active intervention!]; and &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the training and supervision of clinicians was limited as follows: &quot;Clinicians were trained in ART over 2 days using the ART manual and supervised practice.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is even more baffling that this intervention could be so highly effective with complex clients who have PTSD and multiple comorbid disorders. Here's what the ART website says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clients with depression, anxiety, panic attacks, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance abuse, sexual abuse and many other mental and physical conditions can experience remarkable benefits starting in the first session. (highlighting added)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;In ART, the eye movements are thought to be conducive to sorting out problems quickly through increasing the integration of activities in the left and right sides of the brain. These movements also seem to help the client process information by producing a deep feeling of relaxation. Yet ART is not hypnosis. and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, clients do not even have talk about their traumas or difficult life experiences with the therapist to achieve recovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[downloaded from &lt;a href=&quot;http://acceleratedresolutiontherapy.com/.]&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://acceleratedresolutiontherapy.com/.]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this seem like a reasonable explanation of a therapeutic mechanism to you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the fact that this was a small sample RCT compared against a non-credible attentional placebo, how do we know that these findings are not simply the result of positive investigator/clinician expectancies and essentially a placebo effect unrelated to any of the hypothesized mechanisms of treatment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is so attractive to belief that there are fast, easy and extremely effective treatments that require virtually no training or supervision vs. well-established treatments that are so difficult to master and deliver with fidelity and require intensive training and supervision [in the VA, clinicians might achieve competency in CBT if they complete a 3 day workshop combined with at least six months of weekly 90 minute supervision sessions on cases  with bi-weekly submissions of tapes rated on the CTS.]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did find the material on the ART website rather disturbing in terms of inflated claims of efficacy with testimonials from individuals to the effect that 1 hour of ART fully resolved their longstanding complex psychological problems when no previous therapies had been effective. If I made these types of claims on my website I would be in violation of the APA ethics code. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do have a personal 'iron in the fire' in the sense that I devote a lot of my time to training and supervising clinicians in CBT and it is a difficult , resource intensive and time consuming process to achieve competency as a CBT clinician, let alone to be able to treat highly complex patients with co-occurring illness. In my own daily therapy practice I try to adhere closely to good CBT practices and I strive to improve my efforts with results that periodically fall short of my high expectations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I look forward to seeing additional data on ART and it would be absolutely wonderful if additional studies-- controlled trials where ART is compared to a credible alternative therapy (CPT or PE) confirm these initial findings-- because this would be wonderful for patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the meantime, I worry that we are investing our time chasing mirages instead of investing in and delivering established effective evidence-based treatments to our patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17982" LastActivityDate="2017-12-26T23:25:57.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18753" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18651" CreationDate="2017-12-27T09:27:53.497" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a very short 10 item questionaire. The BFI-10 (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.02.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rammstedt &amp;amp; John, 2007&lt;/a&gt;). I have never used it on my own, but i just read through it quickly. Although it seems fairly acceptable. So, if you want to use it, you should definitely read the article carefully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding your question: I would answer a careful 'yes'. In some cases it is possible to achieve a very basic degree of accuracy with just using a few items. However, this highly depends on the way the test is constructed and the kind of construct you want to investigate. The broader your construct, the more items you will need in order to account for every facet appropriately (e.g. a very broad personality aspect like 'extraversion' vs. a specific facet like 'assertiveness'). Furthermore, the longer your test, the better the reliability will tend to be (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%E2%80%93Brown_prediction_formula&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spearman-Brown Formula&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To sum up: It depends on the situation whether or not a short questionnaire can be basically accurate. You should always check for it´s reliability and validity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rammstedt, B., &amp;amp; John, O. P. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.02.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of research in Personality, 41(1), 203-212.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15183" LastEditorUserId="15183" LastEditDate="2017-12-27T19:11:58.637" LastActivityDate="2017-12-27T19:11:58.637" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18754" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7816" CreationDate="2017-12-27T09:59:02.803" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect that it's rooted in primal responses to seeing a human being you are not expecting to see. This would in part explain the gender difference. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you've ever seen two cats unexpectantly try to walk past each other, you'll get the problem here: what if the 'unexpected other' perceives you as a threat and attacks you in self defence. For this reason, cats freeze, careful to to pass until they've asserted their dominance, say by arching their back to look bigger (because there is a decent chance they will be attacked).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With humans, we're social creatures. So we use our advanced social nature to communicate we are friendly. For this reason, women/some men give a nice smile, with warm bright eyes. This says 'I come in peace'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But men might still have a primal need to show he's not a threat, but also suggest willingness to fight back if attacked. Let's look at the thrown/smile for clues of this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-lips tightly pressed together. This indicates a strong desire to not show teeth. Showing teeth can be interpreted as aggressive.&#xA;-frowning is an assertive sign of discomfort. Not passive.&#xA;-shoulders tense up a little and head is loweres, making the shoulder area look bigger and stronger.&#xA;-eye contact is less direct than the 'female' version. Avoiding being aggressive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17985" LastActivityDate="2017-12-27T09:59:02.803" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18755" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18756" CreationDate="2017-12-27T10:54:46.113" Score="3" ViewCount="133" Body="&lt;p&gt;Over the last decade, Role Playing Games and Mobile Online Battle Arenas have been a dominating force in the video gaming industry, millions of people playing sometimes every day and often being quite passionate about their favorite game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing that strikes me when looking at the most successful of those games (not sure I'm allowed to say any names) is the recurring presence of &quot;class systems&quot;, ways to label characters and players with a specific set of abilities and roles.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of this are the classic &quot;warrior, mage, hunter, assassin...&quot; classes attributed to RPG characters or the the &quot;tank, support, damage dealer...&quot; roles that players in MOBAS take on in a team.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I find interesting is that players seem to like having a more or less defined role, class or play style in these systems.&#xA;One such example of this phenomena is the use of the pronoun &quot;a&quot; to refer to someone or oneself:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;      &quot;I am a mage player&quot;&#xA;      &quot;He is a [insert MOBA character name] main&quot; (main here means most played character)&#xA;      &quot;Where the heck is our support?&quot; (referring to the player playing in the support role)&#xA;      &quot;She is the best [insert MOBA character name] on the     EU server&quot;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Is there a psychological explanation to why people seem particularly attracted to these systems that &quot;label them&quot; in a way?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My hypotheses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;  - The discomfort of not fully knowing one's personnality and capabilities drive people to &quot;symplify their personnalities&quot; by endorsing specific roles in these games.&#xA;&#xA;  -  Players &quot;specialize &quot; themselves as a way to get singled out and feel special.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please tell me if there is something I can do to make the question better, this is my first time asking on this site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17986" LastEditorDisplayName="user17986" LastEditDate="2017-12-27T12:02:22.113" LastActivityDate="2017-12-27T17:21:53.557" Title="Psychological explanation for the success of &quot;class systems&quot; in video games" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18755" CreationDate="2017-12-27T17:21:53.557" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many explanations and counter examples for this phenomenon. Perhaps I can provide my two cents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kendrick et al pyramid&lt;/a&gt;, an updated pyramid of need, Status/Esteem seems to be reasonably applied to the class systems. Such systems allow the players to practice mastery, in other words, the need to feel competence. This is similar to your understanding of &amp;quot;specialize themselves to feel special&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, two players of healer/damage class may compare HPS/DPS&#xA;(Healing per second / Damage per second ) to see who is more&#xA;competent. Tanks see who understand the mechanics of the fight more&#xA;thoroughly. At this point, the goal shifts from defeating the boss to climbing the highest in the HPS/DPS meter. (this is similar to many sports, where players play for the stats).  This example applies to &amp;quot;World of Warcraft&amp;quot;, one of the earliest MMORPG that introduces the triangle system (tank, healer, damage). The class system provides a measure within the group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example would be &amp;quot;Guild Wars 2&amp;quot;, a game that has no class&#xA;system. Players heal, attack, and tank on their own even in a group&#xA;setting. The game is a relatively much relaxing game in comparison&#xA;with World of Warcraft, which has many hard core gamers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are way many other possible explanations on this aspect, but it might be hard to examine specific reasons because there is too much variation in the individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15202" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2017-12-27T17:21:53.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18757" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18643" CreationDate="2017-12-27T18:23:25.317" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure of the research on this one, but there are probably many reasons why. For one, it is like role-playing or perspective taking. One is not actually sadened but takes on the role of it. It can be an enjoyable, unique experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17989" LastActivityDate="2017-12-27T18:23:25.317" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18758" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18084" CreationDate="2017-12-28T04:11:17.530" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This frankly should have been asked on SO as it's 99% a programming question. There are a lot of things that can contribute to the &quot;spiky&quot; accuracy you've seen:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;language/runtime: Python is hardly a good idea for anything requiring real-time accuracy. It's an interpreted language with &lt;a href=&quot;https://rushter.com/blog/python-garbage-collector/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;garbage collection&lt;/a&gt;. The [re]assignments in your loop will (eventually) trigger that.  I've written once a Python GTK interface for a real-time device, but the code controlling the device was entirely in C, and nothing time-critical was done on Python side.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately, the C runtime dynamic memory allocations (which &lt;a href=&quot;https://dmalcolm.fedorapeople.org/presentations/PyCon-US-2011/MemoryUsage.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Python eventually relies on&lt;/a&gt;) are also &lt;a href=&quot;http://mil-embedded.com/articles/justifiably-apis-militaryaerospace-embedded-code/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not predictable in terms of timing&lt;/a&gt;, although this is probably not what you're seeing. For real-time software dynamic allocation is generally avoided.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;operating system: not running at high enough process/thread priority so you get occasionally preempted by other processes/threads.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;hardware/driver: USB sends packetized data at limited poll rate; &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=YCslDwAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA53&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;8ms (125 Hz)&lt;/a&gt; being the default for most input devices. Unless you can change the default, a PS/2 keyboard is typically faster; see table 2 in &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195452&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shimizu 2002&lt;/a&gt;; the worse standard deviation (SD) for response time seen there for a USB keyboard was around 10ms, which seems less than what you saw, so you're probably having additional issues. Only one PS/2 keyboard exceed 3ms SD (by a little).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the microcontroller (or possibly additional chips, &lt;a href=&quot;https://datasheets.maximintegrated.com/en/ds/MAX6816-MAX6818.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;e.g.&lt;/a&gt;) in your keyboard implement something called debouncing, which smoothes out the presses and releases to compensate for the mechanical characteristics of the keyboard's switches. Without this, you'll garbage presses as &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.community.dell.com/support-forums/laptop/f/3518/t/19328066&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in the case of some Dell laptops&lt;/a&gt; some years ago. Debounce applies both to key presses and releases. For most keyboards debounce will not be configurable or very easy to find out what the settings are. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From an engineering perspective, the first thing to ask how good of an accuracy do you actually need. And for a science perspective, what do you need this measurement for? Your question smacks of a big &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/66377/what-is-the-xy-problem&quot;&gt;xy problem&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-28T04:49:21.060" LastActivityDate="2017-12-28T04:49:21.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18759" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18643" CreationDate="2017-12-28T04:27:36.407" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=BeFM2zMAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;oi=ao&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maya Tamir's work&lt;/a&gt; probably sheds the most light here.  Her work suggests that we're not merely trying to avoid bad feelings and promote good ones.  Instead, we want to feel what's most &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;useful&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; to us.  We want to feel emotions that help us realize our goals (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www2.bc.edu/maya-tamir/download/Tamir_CDir_2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tamir, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).  If we think sadness has some positive behavioral value, then we'll try to upregulate it.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rumination is an extreme example of this kind of focus on negative feelings, where chronic ruminators share metacognitive beliefs about the positive value of focusing on negative feelings and thoughts (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/46015926/a_3A102396233239920160528-20379-1ovu8bh.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1514494820&amp;amp;Signature=iKfPZ6cce7CqX4hl2n5KoLl4GpE%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DAn_empirical_test_of_a_clinical_metacogn.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Papageorgiou &amp;amp; Wells, 2001&lt;/a&gt;).  They think that rumination helps them to understand their feelings and prevent future mistakes, even though it's ultimately maladaptive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastEditorUserId="7688" LastEditDate="2017-12-28T20:00:39.827" LastActivityDate="2017-12-28T20:00:39.827" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18760" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17454" CreationDate="2017-12-28T05:18:19.747" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If accuracy is important, perhaps try the GPL'd TScope, which is a C library; there's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16956104&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper about it (alas for old version)&lt;/a&gt; with a moderate number of citations. It's also maintained (&lt;a href=&quot;http://expsy.ugent.be/tscope5/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;current version is 5&lt;/a&gt;) and they have &lt;a href=&quot;http://expsy.ugent.be/tscope5/timer06_8c-example.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an example measuring keypress duration&lt;/a&gt;. It's easy enough to use as they pack everything you'd need on Windows, including a customized version of Notepad++ with shortcuts for compiling and running a program.  The odd thing is that the examples from the website seem missing from the 145Mb package, but they work compiled with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have any high-speed camera to test the accuracy, but from a quick test on myself, I didn't see any large deviations. Using a long-stroke PS/2 keyboard I get around 95ms press time (that seem on par with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3256245/figure/F4/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper you mentioned&lt;/a&gt;). With a short stroke USB keyboard , I get as low as 55ms, if I focus specifically on just making short strokes (and this does seem to come at the cost of reaction time, I need sorta &quot;prepare myself&quot; to make a really short stroke; in normal typing I'm still in the habit of pressing longer, even though this keyboard doesn't need it). Here's an example of the later:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/n97Dm.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/n97Dm.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-28T11:40:57.813" LastActivityDate="2017-12-28T11:40:57.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18763" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-28T11:02:37.087" Score="-1" ViewCount="1044" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know someone who is very dramatic, sometimes I think they create dramas because they need it in their life, I’ve heard of other people describe the same thing, is there a name for this type of behaviour &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17785" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T11:57:52.183" Title="Name of the psychological condition for someone who creates dramas because they need it in their lives" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18765" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18790" CreationDate="2017-12-28T14:44:11.483" Score="-2" ViewCount="235" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a Ph.D. candidate in molecular biology, I can handle science. But my mom and grandma are armchair experts in neuro-psycho-biology. What are 5 ways I can convince them holding vitamin cans and assessing their grasping arm strength will not tell them what ones to take or not to take?  I'm concerned about them overdosing on the vitamins that come in the heaviest bottles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're wondering exactly what I'm talking about, please see the second paragraph on &quot;claims&quot;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_kinesiology#Claims&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_kinesiology#Claims&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17991" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T22:19:36.683" Title="Give me 5 simple reasons why Applied Kinesiology is bogus" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2018-01-03T16:44:03.657" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18766" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18776" CreationDate="2017-12-28T18:26:26.690" Score="11" ViewCount="1243" Body="&lt;p&gt;The picture below represents the idea that fluid intelligence declines with age. Is this commonly accepted as true and established, even if fitness/learning levels do not decline? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/75KOa.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/75KOa.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18000" LastActivityDate="2019-05-01T07:34:51.737" Title="Is Fluid Intelligence Dropoff With Age an Established Fact?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18767" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-28T18:57:21.670" Score="4" ViewCount="127" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a neuroscience explanation for the behavior in the following experiment? Are there any papers or research conducted to find out why this differentiation happens?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Count the number of &lt;code&gt;F&lt;/code&gt;s in the following text in 15 seconds:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULTS OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF YEARS&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you found three &lt;code&gt;F&lt;/code&gt;s then you are a male.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source for this experiment can be found in &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hXN8U.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this image&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18001" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T16:26:00.380" Title="Why do male brains not detect extra &quot;F&quot;" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18768" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-28T21:43:44.443" Score="4" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading Deppe and Harackiewicz's (1996) article on self-handicapping and intrinsic motivation, which suggested that people who engaged in self-handicapping behaviors showed more interest in a task than those who didn't, logically because their pre-made &quot;excuse&quot; allowed them to enjoy the task without risking their self-views.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question I had for which I can't seem to find an empirical answer is whether engaging in self-handicapping behaviors actually reduces future effort and performance.  I can see it going either way.  On one hand once someone has self-handicapped, they might be free to show less effort, but on the other hand they might then be free to try harder because they aren't afraid of the labels that come with failure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone seen any articles that answer this question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18005" LastActivityDate="2017-12-28T21:43:44.443" Title="Does self-handicapping lead to lower future effort?" Tags="&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18772" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17674" CreationDate="2017-12-29T13:49:12.190" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can you suggest me better literature? Am I using the wrong concepts? Are the references provided above &quot;sufficient&quot;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend you take a step back and ask yourself &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; your question is, and perhaps more importantly, &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; it is you're asking it. Only then will you have a better idea of what you consider sufficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am not satisfied with these references. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unless I had the actual dataset, then I would find nothing satisfactory. This is because I am a weirdo. Depending upon your aims e.g. consultancy work versus PhD thesis versus simple report, perhaps you feel the same way as I do. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am an economist working in labour market issues. It is common in my field to divide jobs between those who are intensive in &quot;manual&quot; tasks and those who are intensive in &quot;cognitive&quot; tasks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nevertheless, if you are an economist, then I suggest your endpoint is not mechanical ability per se, but a far more pragmatic one: the prediction of job performance by cognitive ability.&lt;/strong&gt; In short, I suspect your actual question can be loosely restated as &quot;what is the predictive validity of cognitive ability and job performance among manual labour employees?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I am correct, then you are in luck: this is not a new question. There is good data regarding this matter from the United States Army, partly because they keep very good records, partly because cognitive ability is the basis of eligibility into various military roles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And you are correct: there is a non-linear relation between IQ and performance; IQ has a high correlation with cognitively demanding jobs (r = 0.80+), while it is far weaker in jobs that are less demanding cognitively demanding (r = ~0.30) e.g. truck driver.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless, IQ remains the best predictor of job performance. Let me dig up some references for you, but I would suggest you don't get distracted by the concept of &quot;other forms of intelligence&quot;. In the parlance of biological psychiatry, consider dexterity to be an endophenotype for success in living a successful life as a &lt;em&gt;manual labourer&lt;/em&gt; but one that does not fully reflect your endpoint of interest as an economist. This is not to say that I don't believe that they exist, but that as far as you're concerned, perhaps they're thoroughly irrelevant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;EDIT&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, are you actually interested in &lt;em&gt;mechanical ability&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I note that you reference one paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schmidt, F. L., &amp;amp; Hunter, J. (2004). General mental ability in the world of work: occupational attainment and job performance. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 86(1), 162.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having read this paper, I note that it reports IQ scores for various occupations. While I wouldn't say it's precisely what you are after, I would have thought that it's &lt;em&gt;very close in spirit&lt;/em&gt; to how I am interpreting your question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, it reports the following correlations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/S66TU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/S66TU.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These occupations are not relevant to your question, but reminiscent of the data that I anticipate you're looking for. So this begs the question: what precisely is your interest? Do you actually care about dexterity, or physical coordination, or do you view them as some meaningful intermediary to your actual interest in work-related outcomes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Be an innovator&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on the type of person you are, and how important the question is to you, you may wish to consider answering the question yourself. To be honest, if I &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt; wanted the data, and the data did not exist, I would not settle for anything less than this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, have you ever considered approaching a particular personnel selection company, or perhaps even better, industry stakeholder to conduct such a study themselves? Here, you would identify a nice, exemplar industry that is of particular interest to you, say, truck drivers, and obtain performance ratings of all the employees. As a pilot study (e.g. n = 20), you would then randomly select two samples, one from the the bottom quintile and one from the top quintile of job performers. Perhaps the bottom quintile would represent workers who have or are about to be fired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could then perform a computer adaptive test (CAT) of ability and get a fast and accurate estimate of IQ; if this is worth pursuing further, you would hope to see a robust difference in cognitive ability between the two groups. Adaptive testing applies item-response theory to get a more accurate measure of the latent construct (intelligence) than classic test theory because the questions that are presented to the subject are contingent on their running estimate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The benefit to the funder of this research is that they would have a financial incentive to predict job performance; as an economist, I am sure you can tell me the difference in productivity by way of $$$ the top performers earn a company relative to the average performers. Just remember, it may be illegal to hire someone based on IQ, but &quot;aptitude testing&quot; is acceptable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Job performance as a function of baseline cognitive ability&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, an interesting counter-claim to consider is that while there might be little correlation between cognitive ability and job performance in manual labour employment, there could certainly a floor level of ability required for performance . I must admit that I have not previously entertained such an idea, although it is certainly perfectly tenable:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WVP5X.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WVP5X.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cook, M., &amp;amp; Cripps, B. (2005). Psychological assessment in the workplace: A manager's guide. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2017-12-30T01:49:23.613" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T01:49:23.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18773" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7816" CreationDate="2017-12-30T03:12:30.867" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why do we do this so often?&#xA;  Are we hiding something? Is this some sort of a default expression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a psychological defense mechanism involving the conflict between the true feelings of the authentic self and the persona we believe protects ourselves or others from harm or pain. There are two opposing basic scenarios for this phenomenon:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The authentic self would naturally like to smile warmly and show true friendliness toward the person they encounter, but not knowing the person well, is afraid to either:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a) encourage too much social intimacy, too soon (i.e. appear overly friendly); or&#xA;b) unwittingly provoke anger or some other irrational behavior in some potentially unhinged individual; or&#xA;c) both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The authentic self really does not want to smile at all (is very sad about something, or doesn't really like the person they encounter), but makes a feeble attempt anyway, for the purpose of covering up 'negative' feelings because:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a) they don't want to negatively affect the other person; or&#xA;b) they don't want to talk about personal matters; or&#xA;c) they don't want to appear rude; or&#xA;d) any combination of the above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As implied in my opening paragraph, the persona is attempting to set or adjust physical, emotional, and/or psychological &lt;strong&gt;boundaries&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also the author of the question is quite right in suggesting that this type of defense mechanism generally works differently in men and women; because, many women tend to set boundaries for all of the above reasons, and then some.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer the germane questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It occurs more frequently in metropolitan areas, where we are more likely to encounter people we don't know very well.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yes, we are hiding something, but in this case for valid reasons.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It can be characterized as a sort of &quot;default expression&quot;, and that's a good way to describe it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17978" LastEditorUserId="17978" LastEditDate="2017-12-30T03:57:45.893" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T03:57:45.893" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18774" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18526" CreationDate="2017-12-30T05:54:31.183" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is the phenomenology of someone with severe depression effectively the same as someone with the Imposter Syndrome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes and no. Allow me to begin by stating that fundamentally, the two syndromes being compared in your question result from particular cultural and social pressures. It is revealing that Asians and Women, both fairly distinct cultural groups, reportedly score low on what really amounts to &lt;strong&gt;self-esteem&lt;/strong&gt;. Low self-esteem, in turn tends to produce anxiety and depression, and is strongly associated with Imposter Syndrome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, ADHD people suffer similar social pressures which are again deleterious to their self-esteem. It is also common knowledge that psychopaths have severe issues with ego, which probably involves self-esteem. Psychopathy is strongly associated with high rates of suicide among otherwise physically healthy people, which could indicate serious self-hatred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/14d1/cccd6387cc9d545980bfc398a36cd8c7ccfb.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/14d1/cccd6387cc9d545980bfc398a36cd8c7ccfb.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it appears that particular external social pressures may unfortunately become internalized, causing precipitously low self-esteem, major depression, and intense anxiety. People with Imposter Syndrome have terrible problems with identity / ego. They rarely feel worthy or deserving of love or any other social rewards (such as career success). They barely even feel like human beings, because psychologically they have become so dehumanized somehow along the way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many people, for various &lt;strong&gt;self-serving&lt;/strong&gt; reasons, are taught or conditioned by the general or dominant society to be extremely submissive, modest, humble, and -- &lt;strong&gt;selfless&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, people with strong self-serving bias are people whose sense of self or ego has rarely ever been trifled with, or who have been resilient enough or resourceful enough, to resist subjugation by the dominant society. Their self-esteem is fully intact. They know who they are, and feel an unshakable sense of pride in that knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in conclusion, the key to understanding the contrasting relationship between self-serving bias and Imposter Syndrome -- hinges on issues involving the development of Ego or Self. The problem is that some people &lt;strong&gt;identify themselves&lt;/strong&gt; with failure, shame, and disappointment -- rather than with success and praise or pride. They do so, because they have somehow been made to feel emotionally subhuman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the reason some people are able to resist that sort of emotional abuse, oppression, or deficit (thereby preserving the Self, while keeping their self-esteem intact), while others cannot -- may be partly due to differences in intelligence. I have noticed that very intelligent people tend to be genuinely self-confident (even if they try to be modest about it), compared to people of average or lower intelligence. And bottom line: intelligence is a valuable resource for mental health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17978" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T05:54:31.183" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18775" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18526" CreationDate="2017-12-30T06:17:37.563" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might as well ask how comes there's depression (or low self-esteem in general) if everyone has self-serving bias. The answer is that the self-serving bias is reduced in depressed individuals; see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(92)90129-D&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Greenberg et al.(1992)&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/528910&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alloy &amp;amp; Abramson (1979)&lt;/a&gt; for original investigations; the latter paper has some 2000+ citations in Google Scholar. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17366313&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Allan et al. (2007)&lt;/a&gt; do note that there have been some successes and some failures replicating the Alloy &amp;amp; Abramson experiments, so it's perhaps not a totally settled question. There's even a 2012 meta-analysis by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22717337&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moore &amp;amp; Fresco&lt;/a&gt;; quoting its abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The current investigation represents the first meta-analysis of the depressive realism literature. A search of this literature revealed 75 relevant studies representing 7305 participants from across the US and Canada, as well as from England, Spain, and Israel. Results generally indicated a small overall depressive realism effect (Cohen's d=-.07). Overall, however, both dysphoric/depressed individuals (d=.14) and nondysphoric/nondepressed individuals evidenced a substantial positive bias (d=.29), with this bias being larger in nondysphoric/nondepressed individuals. Examination of potential moderator variables indicated that studies lacking an objective standard of reality (d=-.15 versus -.03, for studies possessing such a standard) and that utilize self-report measures to measure symptoms of depression (d=.16 versus -.04, for studies which utilize structured interviews) were more likely to find depressive realism effects. Methodological paradigm was also found to influence whether results consistent with depressive realism were found (d's ranged from -.09 to .14).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you study self-serving bias in the general population you might not get enough depressed subjects in your sample to notice the heterogeneity of self-serving bias, particularly since the difference doesn't seem big.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I cannot give you any numbers on the change in self-serving bias in the impostor syndrome group relative to individuals unaffected by it (I could not find research on this specifically), I will point out some correlations between impostor syndrome and other psychometric measures linked to (depressive) psychopathology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327752JPA7802_07&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bernard et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; looked at how impostor syndrome related to Big Five personality factors and found that Neuroticism correlated fairly well (0.52 or 0.47 depending on the impostor scale used; 0.52 on a combined measure) as did conscientiousness (-0.31 on both scales; -0.38 combined). In a hierarchical regression model:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In Regression&#xA;  1, Neuroticism made a significant contribution accounting for 27% of the variance&#xA;  (p &amp;lt; .001), whereas Conscientiousness contributed just 3% (p &amp;lt; .01). When the order&#xA;  of entry was reversed in a second regression, Conscientiousness accounted for&#xA;  15% in a first step (p &amp;lt; .001), but Neuroticism accounted for another 15% in a second&#xA;  step (p &amp;lt; .001). As expected, the other three NEO–PI–R domain scales did not&#xA;  contribute to the prediction of IP, accounting for less than 1% of the variance. In&#xA;  other words, unconfounded by Conscientiousness, Neuroticism explained 15% of&#xA;  the variance of IP scores, whereas Conscientiousness unconfounded by&#xA;  Neuroticism explained 3%; the overlapping variance explained by both traits was&#xA;  thus 12%. In short, Neuroticism is the best predictor of IP scores, but Conscientiousness&#xA;  adds to the model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00184-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sonnak and Towell (2001)&lt;/a&gt; found a strong correlation of impostor syndrome with low self-esteem (on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenberg_self-esteem_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rosenberg scale&lt;/a&gt;) as well as with poorer mental health on the GHQ-12, which is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23206494&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mainly a measure of depressive symptoms&lt;/a&gt;. Correlated with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://paulineroseclance.com/pdf/IPscoringtest.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CIPS&lt;/a&gt; imposter scale, these two measures had r = -0.67 (self-esteem) and 0.33 (GHQ) respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-30T08:02:06.597" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T08:02:06.597" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18776" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18766" CreationDate="2017-12-30T08:23:23.860" Score="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are asking two very excellent questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Is the decline in fluid intelligence commonly accepted as true?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These days it seems generally accepted, that the trend is true. However, this hasn´t been the case a few yeas ago, e.g. see the introduction in Elsayed, Ismail, &amp;amp; Young (1980) for a little impression. The reason behind this is the limited comparability between different studies&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;due to different designs (longitudinal vs. cross sectional), that come with their own difficulties (f.e. longitudinal = drop out bias/survivorship bias, repetition bias; cross sectional = confounding of cohort and treatment effects - see Hofer &amp;amp; Sliwinski (2001) for more details about that).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;due to different intelligence tests, concepts and facets (= &amp;quot;how do we define fluid/ crystallized intelligence&amp;quot;), that have been used (e.g. some solely defined crystillized intellgence as vocublary, see Wang &amp;amp; Kaufmann,1993).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;of course there are many other aspects, that are not solely limited to the study of intelligence like small sample sizes, unrepresentative samples or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;publication bias&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, as I mentioned at the beginning: these days - after a huge discussion and a lot of studies - it seems fairly accepted, see Verhaeghen &amp;amp; Salthouse (1997) with a meta-analysis or Baltes (1996) for a review-like paper - Kaufman, Salthouse, Scheiber, &amp;amp; Chen (2016) could also be relevant. The main reason behind this seems to be a decline in processing speed and working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a large scale this seems to come from a general (biological) decline across the lifespan (see Baltes &amp;amp; Smith, 2004), which brings me to your second question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;... even if fitness/learning levels do not decline?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of studies, that  show, that physical activity and general fitness seems to have benificial effects on fluid intelligence. This seems to hold for every age (see Elsayed, Ismail, Young (1980) or Linde &amp;amp; Alfermann (2014)(an older sample)). The reasons behind this has not yet been clarified -&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;one can assume beneficial biological reasons like hightend blood circulation (see. Singh-Manoux, Hillsdon, Brunner, &amp;amp; Marmot, 2005)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;or the reduction of distress, which might enhance cognitive functioning.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would recommend you to read the introductions and discussions of the cited papers (if possible) for further information. However, (sadly) I don't know any studies explicitly investigating the development of fluid intelligence across the lifespan in regard of exercise/physical fitness (I just know, that exercise/fitness has a beneficial effect on fluid intelligence, but how exactly this has an impact on the decline is - for myself- unknown.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I would say, that there will be a decline in older age, which can be buffered by remaining exercising/a good level fitness, but not really stopped. There should still be a decline - at least at a smaller scale. Or as to say in the words of my professor: &amp;quot;it won´t get better&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course all assumptions count for the general/average case, not for a single person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mohamed Elsayed, A. H. Ismail, R. John Young; Intellectual&#xA;Differences of Adult Men Related to Age and Physical Fitness Before&#xA;and After an Exercise Program, Journal of Gerontology, Volume 35,&#xA;Issue 3, 1 May 1980, Pages 383–387&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hofer, S. M., &amp;amp; Sliwinski, M. J. (2001). Understanding ageing.&#xA;Gerontology, 47(6), 341-352.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wang, J. J., &amp;amp; Kaufman, A. S. (1993). Changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence across the 20-to 90-year age range on the K-BIT. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 11(1), 29-37.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Verhaeghen, P., &amp;amp; Salthouse, T. A. (1997). Meta-analyses of age–cognition relations in adulthood: Estimates of linear and nonlinear age effects and structural models. Psychological bulletin, 122(3), 231.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kaufman, A. S., Salthouse, T. A., Scheiber, C., &amp;amp; Chen, H. (2016). Age Differences and Educational Attainment Across the Life Span on Three Generations of Wechsler Adult Scales. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 34(5), 421-441.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory. American psychologist, 52(4), 366.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Baltes, P. B., &amp;amp; Smith, J. (2004). Lifespan psychology: From developmental contextualism to developmental biocultural co-constructivism. Research in human development, 1(3), 123-144.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Linde, K., &amp;amp; Alfermann, D. (2014). Single versus combined cognitive and physical activity effects on fluid cognitive abilities of healthy older adults: a 4-month randomized controlled trial with follow-up. Journal of aging and physical activity, 22(3), 302-313.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Singh-Manoux, A., Hillsdon, M., Brunner, E., &amp;amp; Marmot, M. (2005). Effects of physical activity on cognitive functioning in middle age: evidence from the Whitehall II prospective cohort study. American journal of public health, 95(12), 2252-2258.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15183" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T15:05:11.547" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18777" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18783" CreationDate="2017-12-30T12:05:30.460" Score="4" ViewCount="282" Body="&lt;p&gt;The method of &lt;strong&gt;transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)&lt;/strong&gt; involves the flow of electric charge from a positive electrode to a negative one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This method is not exactly a stimulation method because the current applied do not provoke neurons firing such as TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation), it just &lt;strong&gt;modulate&lt;/strong&gt; the level of excitability of neurons. &lt;strong&gt;How happens this modulation of excitability?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Precisely, my question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How that positive or negative current interferes with electric fields generated by neurons?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;references:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5127836/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Impact of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) on Neuronal Functions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="16144" LastEditDate="2017-12-30T12:25:20.590" LastActivityDate="2017-12-31T04:22:11.243" Title="How exactly does transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) work?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;tdcs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18778" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16420" CreationDate="2017-12-30T15:46:09.747" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR&lt;/strong&gt;: There's many studies which point to better mental health outcomes as a result of treatment, such as hormones and surgery, of transgender individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also important to consider that there's a range of gender identities and a range of treatments which are tailored to the individual.  There's a lot of factors to consider.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;WPATH Standards of Care&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best place to start would be the WPATH Standards of Care, available from www.wpath.org.  I'll quote from this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although  Harry  Benjamin  already  acknowledged  a  spectrum  of  gender nonconformity (Benjamin, 1966), the initial clinical approach largely focused on identifying who was an appropriate candidate for sex reassignment to facilitate a physical change from male to  female  or  female  to  male  as  completely  as  possible  (e.g.,  Green  &amp;amp;  Fleming,  1990;  Hastings,  1974).  This  approach  was  extensively  evaluated  and  proved  to  be  highly  effective.  Satisfaction rates across studies ranged from 87% of MtF patients to 97% of FtM patients (Green &amp;amp; Fleming, 1990), and regrets were extremely rare (1-1.5% of MtF patients and &amp;lt;1% of FtM patients; Pfäfflin, 1993). &lt;strong&gt;Indeed, hormone therapy and surgery have been found to be medically necessary to alleviate gender dysphoria in many people (American Medical Association, 2008; Anton, 2009; The World Professional Association for Transgender Health, 2008).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also worth noting that there's a range of treatments which are individualized:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Treatment is individualized: What helps one person alleviate gender dysphoria might be very different from what helps another person.&lt;/strong&gt; This process may or may not involve a change in gender expression or body modifications. Medical treatment options include, for example, feminization or masculinization of the body through hormone therapy and/or surgery, which are effective in alleviating gender dysphoria and are medically necessary for many people. &lt;strong&gt;Gender identities and expressions are diverse, and hormones and surgery are just two of many options available to assist people with achieving comfort with self and identity.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Example research papers&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's many research papers which compare mental health of transgender people before and after procedures.  For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a sample of 359 gender-dysphoric persons who completed &quot;several psychometric measures&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... during [cross-sex hormonal treatment], [gender-dysphoric persons (GDs)] &lt;strong&gt;reported a significant reduction of general psychopathology, depressive symptoms, and subjective GD, whereas social and legal indicators of GD showed a significant increase across time&lt;/strong&gt; ...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;Fisher et al., &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2016-1276&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cross-Sex Hormone Treatment and Psychobiological Changes in Transsexual Persons: Two-Year Follow-Up Data&lt;/a&gt;, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp;amp; Metabolism, 2016.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a sample of 61 participants who were surveyed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The present study suggests a positive effect of hormone therapy on transsexuals' QoL&lt;/strong&gt; after accounting for confounding factors. These results will be useful for healthcare providers of transgender persons but should be confirmed with larger samples using a prospective study design.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;Gorin-Lazard et al., &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.01082.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Is Hormonal Therapy Associated with Better Quality of Life in Transsexuals? A Cross‐Sectional Study&lt;/a&gt;, The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 2012.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, QoL = Quality of Life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a meta review for transgender men:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Multiple studies have shown the positive effect of gender affirming hormonal therapy and gender affirming surgery on quality of life of trans persons and several studies describe an increase in their psychological wellbeing.&lt;/strong&gt; In addition, satisfaction rates after gender affirming surgery are high and surgery is rarely regretted. However, as only one study has addressed cost-effectiveness of gender affirming treatment in trans men, further research is necessary.&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;Defreyne et al., &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/14737167.2017.1388164&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Healthcare costs and quality of life outcomes following gender affirming surgery in trans men: a review&lt;/a&gt;, Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics &amp;amp; Outcomes Research, 2017.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's many more I haven't listed; they can be found by searching PubMed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Johns Hopkins&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that Johns Hopkins have subsequently reaffirmed their stance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;We have committed to and will soon begin providing gender-affirming surgery as another important element of our overall care program, reflecting careful consideration over the past year of best practices and the appropriate provision of care for transgender individuals.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/lgbt-resources/correspondence/lgbt-community.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johns Hopkins Medicine's Commitment to the LGBT Community&lt;/a&gt;, October 7, 2016.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3234" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T15:46:09.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18779" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18734" CreationDate="2017-12-30T17:18:21.353" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, thank you bringing that White et al. (2009) paper to my attention -- I am currently accumulating a whole bunch of cohort studies focusing on cognitive epidemiology, or health outcomes associated with cognitive ability. Here I will share with you some of what I have collected so far with respect to drug-related outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is this type of finding, namely positive correlation of IQ with what I'd call experimental drug use [I think the medical term is drug abuse], &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my understanding, I do hear about similar findings from time to time, but this isn't where the research funding goes. You tend not to get research grants unless you can sell drugs = death and destruction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;negative correlation of IQ with [...] dependency&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, this is generally the case. Dependency, and other adverse health outcomes resulting from said depedency. Moreover, the relationship tends to be non-linear. The following data is from a cohort study of 1 million Swedish conscripts, with the health outcomes being the risk for hospital admission for various disorders including alcohol-related disorders and other substance-related disorders as a function of childhood intelligence. Obviously, the use of a hospital admission endpoint means that the disorder was on the more serious end of the disorder:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iqLvm.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iqLvm.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gale, C. R., Batty, G. D., Tynelius, P., Deary, I. J., &amp;amp; Rasmussen, F. (2010). Intelligence in Early Adulthood and Subsequent Hospitalization for Mental Disorders. Epidemiology, 21(1), 70–77. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181c17da8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181c17da8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's another one of a similar vein. This cohort study comprised 1.4 million Swedes, looking at &quot;substance-misuse events&quot; as a function of stanines (this is a way of grouping your cohort into nine groups, each comprising a 1 SD increment in ability).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How these guys defined &quot;substance-misuse events&quot; does warrant further clarification, however:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Substance misuse events were assessed with an omnibus&#xA;  measure combining information about alcohol- and drug-&#xA;  related criminal convictions, medical treatments and&#xA;  deaths. This measure, which has been used previously&#xA;  [10,26,27], captures a wide range of alcohol and drug re-&#xA;  lated negative outcomes but does not include all individ-&#xA;  uals with substance abuse, as many substance abusers&#xA;  are not registered in any medical or governmental registry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, you see that the risk is greatest in the the stanine with the lowest cognitive ability (estimated IQ &amp;lt;74), and the curve is non-linear:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/So6aB.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/So6aB.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Latvala, A., Kuja-Halkola, R., D’Onofrio, B. M., Larsson, H., &amp;amp; Lichtenstein, P. (2016). Cognitive ability and risk for substance misuse in men: genetic and environmental correlations in a longitudinal nation-wide family study. Addiction, 111(10), 1814–1822. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13440&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13440&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And last, but not least, some mortality data, again from the Swedes (n = 50,000). This one doesn't examine cognitive ability, but demonstrates that substance abuse and dependency, particularly in adolescence, seems to be a mediating factor in injury-related mortality. We also note that alcohol abuse as an adult also represents a significant risk:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VR1Rr.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VR1Rr.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stenbacka, M., Leifman, A., Dalal, K., &amp;amp; Jansson, B. (2011). Early predictors of injury mortality among Swedish conscripts: A 35-year cohort study. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 43(1), 228–234. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.014&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;generalizable across countries? Or [if this is far too ambitious to ask] at least reproducible in other countries?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can tell, the best data seems to come from the Scandinavian countries... no prizes for which country ranks #1. The whole problem with these sorts of studies is that you need to be organised and preferably have national conscription, meaning its simply untenable for most Western countries. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you dig around, the best studies will come from the Swedes, Danes, and Norwegians. And to a lesser extent, the Scots followed by perhaps the Unites States.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;And if so, are there other confounding variables that might explain some of it better, e.g. openness to experience for ever having tried an illegal drug?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good question. Perhaps high cognitive ability results in greater disposable income? Most of the drugs reported are reminiscent of the substances you would find floating around a nightclub, where people are queuing up at the toilets in order to snort lines of coke off a toilet seat. And amyl nitrite is very much a gay party scene drug. However, we also note that even after controlling for adult SES, the effect is attenuated but still remains. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Who knows -- perhaps getting totally fucking high from time to time is part of the normative human experience, while those with lower cognitive ability are too busy drinking the bad thoughts away with alcohol. It is, nevertheless, a great find :p&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2017-12-30T17:47:15.123" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T17:47:15.123" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18780" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-30T18:08:56.357" Score="5" ViewCount="187" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been trying to understand the position of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Hyman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Steve Hyman&lt;/a&gt; (a former NIMH director), who has been amply quoted in &lt;a href=&quot;https://qz.com/1162154/30-years-after-prozac-arrived-we-still-buy-the-lie-that-chemical-imbalances-cause-depression/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an recent article in Quartz&lt;/a&gt;, saying among ohter things that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There’s not “an iota of direct evidence” for the theory that a chemical imbalance causes depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I looked into Hyman's papers and I found a fairly cited (~500 in Google Scholar) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8561194&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper of his some 20 years ago in AJP&lt;/a&gt;, co-authored with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_J._Nestler&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eric J. Nestler&lt;/a&gt;, in which they propose that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;drug-induced neural plasticity [...] underlies the long-term actions of psychotropic drugs in the brain [...] Biological investigation in psychiatry has often focused too narrowly on synaptic pharmacology,&#xA;  especially on neurotransmitter turnover and neurotransmitter receptors. A paradigm is presented to help understand the long-term effects of psychotropic drugs, including&#xA;  the latency in onset of their therapeutic actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper further details that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Acute dosing of the antidepressants&#xA;  produces little in the way of subjective or&#xA;  behavioral effects (other than side effects). Initial doses&#xA;  of the antipsychotic drugs produce subtle motor effects&#xA;  or some degree of sedation, and initial doses of the&#xA;  stimulants produce euphoria and locomotor activation.&#xA;  However, substantial improvement in depressive or&#xA;  psychotic symptoms, or the development of addiction&#xA;  to psychostimulant drugs, occurs only if the drugs are&#xA;  taken at adequate dosage and with adequate frequency&#xA;  and chronicity. For example, depressive symptoms&#xA;  would not be expected to improve if an antidepressant&#xA;  were taken at too low a dose, only occasionally, or for&#xA;  too short a period of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We therefore conceptualize antidepressant-induced&#xA;  increases in synaptic serotonin or norepinephrine, antipsychotic-&#xA;  induced blockade of dopamine neurotransmission,&#xA;  and cocaine- and amphetamine-induced increases&#xA;  in synaptic dopamine as initiating events for longerterm&#xA;  changes in neural function. It is the adaptive response&#xA;  of the nervous system to adequate repeated perturbations&#xA;  mediated through these initial targets that&#xA;  produces the therapeutic responses to antidepressants&#xA;  or antipsychotic drugs or, in the case of the psychostimulants,&#xA;  addiction [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm somewhat familiar with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2211759/figure/F2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;slow, cumulative effect of monoamine antidepressants&lt;/a&gt; and with the mechanism of addiction. Hyman and Nestler can be probably be forgiven for not anticipating the &lt;a href=&quot;http://time.com/magazine/us/4876068/august-7th-2017-vol-190-no-6-u-s/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ketamine-as-fast-antidepressant fervor&lt;/a&gt; 20 years later. But what I want to ask here is: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the evidence that anti-psychotics also work in this delayed manner? Is it uncontroversially so?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-02T13:29:02.563" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T19:01:03.597" Title="Do antipsychotics have a delayed onset of action similar to (monoamine) antidepressants?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18781" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17894" CreationDate="2017-12-30T20:30:11.167" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's work backwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I don't currently have access to means to use transgenic orexin knockout mice as are mentioned in the article by Tsujino &amp;amp; Sakurai (though if anyone's used them before I'd be interested to know for the future)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just so we're on the same page: orexin knockout mice lack orexin receptors. Have you considered finding a highly selective orexin antagonist? Very loosely speaking, a good antagonist ought to instantiate the functional equivalent of the receptor knockout. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Orexin antagonists, especially those that block OX2 or both OX1 and OX2 receptors, clearly promote sleep in animals, and clinical results are encouraging: Several compounds are in Phase III trials. As the orexin system mainly promotes arousal, these new .... Orexin peptide knockout mice also seem to have severe sleepiness, with an inability to maintain long bouts of wakefulness during their active period (50, 51).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scammell, T. E., &amp;amp; Winrow, C. J. (2011). Orexin receptors: pharmacology and therapeutic opportunities. Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology, 51, 243-266.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So, I'm wondering if anyone is familiar with a substance/approach to determine the approximate amount or volume of intact orexin neurons of the hypothalamus in WT mice (for comparison between animals) using a staining technique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, there's a number of methods. One of the common methods is using Fos immunohistochemistry. A summary is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An immediate-early gene called c-fos will be expressed as a consequence of neuronal excitation. If you administer an orexin agonist, e.g. modafinil (actually perhaps something far more selective than that) or subject the mice to your orexin-activating intervention, then the neurons where that receptor is present ought to upregulate c-fos express when they fire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You then cut up your rat into fine slicies and apply a high-contrast stain that will bind to the c-fos protein... It's something to do with the antigen-binding site of the protein, but this is all very vague to me without a reference on hand. You then wash the rat slices. If performed correctly, the stain will remain where the c-fos has been expressed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You then spend many, many hours counting up the stained dots. You compare this against a control, and the difference allows you to reasonably infer where the orexin receptors are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following may help:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Estabrooke, I. V., McCarthy, M. T., Ko, E., Chou, T. C., Chemelli, R. M., Yanagisawa, M., ... &amp;amp; Scammell, T. E. (2001). Fos expression in orexin neurons varies with behavioral state. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(5), 1656-1662.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'm part of a large lab studying other conditions that share some symptoms with narcolepsy, and am interested in looking at orexin-producing neurons in our animal models…  So, I'm wondering if anyone is familiar with a substance/approach to determine the approximate &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what I don't get: why don't you ask your supervisor and say, &quot;yo, is anyone in our lab doing staining?&quot; -- maybe they are, maybe they aren't. If not, you ask your supervisor, &quot;who among your colleagues does staining?&quot; And they will know or know someone who knows. You then get in touch with said researcher. How it works is that you get taught the staining technique, and in exchange, they get free labour. Alternatively, if they're not down with that arrangement, you simply ask them that the next time they're doing staining, if you can drop by and just watch. It's a simple courtesy that they accommodate your request, and I guarantee you that you will learn far more in one afternoon than you could hope to on SE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastActivityDate="2017-12-30T20:30:11.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18782" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18221" CreationDate="2017-12-30T22:46:43.133" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Work in progress -&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is the relationship between the different types of working memory or short-term memory and other types of reasoning abilities (non-working memory reasoning tasks including verbal ability, numerical, spatial, etc.)? Are the different measures of short-term and working memory measuring approximately the same thing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is  a good question, but you are a funny person: say hello to &lt;em&gt;positive manifold&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept of the general factor of intelligence emerges from the observation that all cognitive tasks are positive correlated with one another, or display positive manifold. It's as though they're all &lt;em&gt;tapping into&lt;/em&gt; this invisible phlogiston, the general factor of intelligence/psychometric g. Perhaps the following puts it more succinctly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y6ePT.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Y6ePT.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From: Sternberg, R. J., &amp;amp; Kaufman, S. B. (Eds.). (2011). The Cambridge handbook of intelligence. Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there a relationship between these variables? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As above. The reason why WM is most predictive of academic achievement is essentially because it's thought that it's tapping into the general factor most.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Somebody who has a strong verbal working memory may generally… Or on the other hand, if somebody has a strong visual-spatial working memory they may generally perform well on intelligence tests on other types of visual-spatial tasks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you are saying &lt;em&gt;sounds&lt;/em&gt; perfectly cogent, but you are making one important assumption here that I don't necessarily agree with: that visuo-spatial WM and verbal WM are so thoroughly dissociable that one can have one that is stronger than the other in the way that I kick a ball real good with my right foot, but am a total ponce with my left foot. Although they are considered separate cognitive structures, I would anticipate that they're still very highly correlated in most people, individual differences notwithstanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a snippet I have found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SRjpH.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SRjpH.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, later in the same reference, there is an interesting chapter on individual differences in visuo-spatial WM ability. In it, the authors describe a sample comprising children with learning disabilities where the deficit could be characterised as High Verbal/Low Visuo-Spatial intelligence, and vice-versa. Under some circumstances, the abilities can be dissociated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4QbWf.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4QbWf.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From: Cornoldi, C., &amp;amp; Vecchi, T. (2004). Visuo-spatial working memory and individual differences. Psychology Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of course, there are many other factors that affect ability and learning. Working memory would be a small determinant but a determinant nonetheless. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, I disagree. Have you ever attempted to entertain a complicated concept comprising multiple components, only to have it &quot;fall out of your mind&quot; for lack of a better word? In order to process complicated concepts, you need to have some. Working memory is king, and all other abilities are subservient to it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How common is the occurance of individuals that have poor verbal working memory and high verbal reasoning scores on intelligence tests for example? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am going to make a bold a priori claim: it is simply not possible for this to occur. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To argue my point, consider what you are implying: suppose someone was reading a passage of text with a long sentence. If they had very low verbal WMC, what would happen is that the beginning of the sentence would decay before they got to the end; they could never hold the information in the fore of the mind sufficiently long enough to process it, prod it, and synthesise an idea. Likewise for a sophisticated verbal reasoning task; a complex reasoning item has multiple components that must be considered simultaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This reference describes it perfectly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jdXvd.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jdXvd.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From: Cowan, N. (2012). Working memory capacity. Psychology press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Effectively, what I am saying is that robust WMC is a necessary but insufficient component of verbal reasoning ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How about for visual-spatial working memory and non-working memory visual-spatial scores on intelligence tests?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm a little confused by this, but I think you're making the same analogy as above. Same deal. However, I will make the point that WMC would represent the bottleneck in cognitive resources that would predict performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having made this claim simply from first principles, let me dig up some evidence for my claims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-01-31T12:14:58.413" LastActivityDate="2018-01-31T12:14:58.413" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18783" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18777" CreationDate="2017-12-31T00:53:27.320" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure at what level of sophistication you expect this answer, but the basic theory of how tDCS works at a cellular level is that neurons oriented roughly parallel to the electric field lines suffer a (partial) depolarization of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon_hillock&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;axon hillock&lt;/a&gt; cell membrane when the dendrites of the neuron are oriented toward the anode of a constant electric field, and the a reverse effect (hillock membrane hyperpolarization) occurs when the dendrites are oriented toward the cathode. (&lt;em&gt;Niedermeyer's Electroencephalography&lt;/em&gt;, 6th ed., p. 1136) And on this basic theory, not much happens if the neuron is perpendicular to the electric field. Another way of saying the same thing (but more concisely) from &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2016.10.087&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lefaucheur et al.&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The primary effect of tDCS on neurons is a subthreshold shift of resting membrane potentials towards depolarization or hyperpolarization, depending on current flow direction relative to axonal orientation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The simple theory above applies to a cell in isolation. I'm even less sure I understand your detail question &quot;How that positive or negative current interferes with electric fields generated by neurons?&quot; In more sophisticated approaches, the cell shapes also affect the electric field influencing nearby cells; see for instance &lt;a href=&quot;https://jneuroengrehab.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12984-015-0061-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ye &amp;amp; Steiger&lt;/a&gt;. Ultimately, in a nonhomogenous medium like the brain, it's quite nontrivial to determine the local electric field orientation induced by some distant electrodes. To get a solution one needs to simulate the entire brain as done by &lt;a href=&quot;http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1741-2560/11/1/016002/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wagner et al.&lt;/a&gt; for instance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To verify that tDCS basically works like this (i.e. as a modulation, as you correctly observed) one can experimentally add another stimulus that can trigger neuronal activation, for instance TMS, and measure how much of this extra stimulus is required to obtain the same effect with and without tDCS. This was done for instance in the highly-cited study of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2270099/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nitsche and Paulus&lt;/a&gt;. They observed excitability changes of up to 40% using this method.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic theory doesn't quite explain everything relating to tDCS, in particular it doesn't explain why some effects persists for a time after the DC current is turned off; the extent of these effects is dependent on the current intensity and the duration of the stimulation. Nitsche and Paulus discuss some theories relating to this, mentioning that perhaps tDCS induces changes in the spontaneous discharge rate as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2017-12-31T04:22:11.243" LastActivityDate="2017-12-31T04:22:11.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18784" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2017-12-31T10:02:31.297" Score="4" ViewCount="1546" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a case of multiple personalities that is not a disorder? For some reason everything I found about &quot;multiple personality&quot; comes in a &quot;disorder&quot; form. Or is it a given that one mind can only have one personality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any information on cases where multiple personalities coexist in the mind of a single individual, without the adverse effects such as disassociation, memory loss or self harm, that is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; the product of a trauma?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I do not ask in the context of &quot;social context&quot; personality, but two distinct personalities that persist throughout different social settings. Also it might be worthy to note that even though they are vastly different in the way they perceive and react, there is no pronounced conflict or any adverse side effects as far as I can tell, if anything it appears to have a wide array of benefits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16359" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-02-05T11:42:50.140" LastActivityDate="2018-02-05T11:42:50.140" Title="Is there a case of multiple personalities that is not a disorder?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18788" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18789" CreationDate="2017-12-31T19:41:24.197" Score="2" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Context&lt;/strong&gt;: It is known that some pubs and the like usually offer free drinks for females. The owner of the place expects then that more males will come and pay for a drink for themselves because a considerable amount of females are already there, so that the payout for the owner is positive. To put another example, in some casinos, people get paid to play slots machine so that the sound of it and seen people getting money from it encourages other people to play slots machine as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there a precise term for that effect/social behavior? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I apologize if the question is not too narrow and I will happily make it more precise if it is required. Thank you (and happy new year!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18026" LastActivityDate="2018-01-01T04:14:26.887" Title="Precise term for a sort of social pressure" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18789" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18788" CreationDate="2018-01-01T00:53:15.700" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first practice (sometimes called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladies%27_night&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ladies' nights&lt;/a&gt; or similar) is &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1157&amp;amp;context=nlj&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a form of sex-based pricing&lt;/a&gt; and is seen by some as a form of commoditization&#xA; (aka &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;commodification&lt;/a&gt;) of women. It's &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1937977/ladies-nights-womans-right-cheap-drinks-or-reflection-deep-rooted&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;illegal in the UK and parts of US&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The casino design part of your question is mostly unrelated, although some casinos surely use even more blatant commodification of women as part of their strategy [for attracting men], &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1115&amp;amp;context=djglp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;such as skimpy outfits for their female employees&lt;/a&gt;. The things you ask about such having slots right in your face at the entrance &lt;a href=&quot;https://io9.gizmodo.com/how-casinos-use-design-psychology-to-get-you-to-gamble-1667182023&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;has been (traditionally) considered to be superior to empty entrance lobbies&lt;/a&gt; at attracting more bets, but it's not totally clear if that works by peer pressure, exposure or a combination. This type of (heavy) gaming casino design with machines everywhere starting from the entrance is also called &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0013916505283419&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Friedman-type&lt;/a&gt; after Bill Friedman who wrote a book-size document promoting it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recent studies such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0013916509341791&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Finlay et al. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; found however that creating a playground atmosphere is what encourages most bets from most people, simply because they spend more time in the casino. This type of casino design was promoted by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Thomas_(designer)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Roger Thomas&lt;/a&gt; although the playground name for it apparently came from an academic, &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02283207&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;David Kranes&lt;/a&gt;. Interestingly the crowding (of people) in this type of playground casino design is reduced compared to the traditional &quot;gaming&quot; one. Apparently this gets women to bet more than they had planned, but has little effect on men; quoting from the Finlay (2009) study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Relative to a densely crowded casino (high information load), a sparsely&#xA;  crowded casino (low information load) was more harmful for females who&#xA;  reported higher levels of intention to gamble beyond planned levels in the less&#xA;  crowded condition. For males, at-risk intention was not affected by crowding.&#xA;  For both genders, crowding had no significant impact on restoration and pleasure.&#xA;  Tuan (1977) characterized crowding as “an awareness that one is observed”&#xA;  (p. 60). A sparsely crowded gambling venue may increase gambling intentions&#xA;  among females because they feel unobserved. This release from inhibition is&#xA;  not characteristic of males. Loo (1978) indicated that female adults tend to&#xA;  react more positively to a dense crowd than do males. Females are more inclined&#xA;  to be cooperative which is conducive to a dense crowd. In contrast, males are&#xA;  more inclined to be competitive which will be enhanced with a dense crowd. &#xA;  These results suggest that females should be counseled to avoid gambling in&#xA;  relative isolation. Note that in the case of crowding, a high information load is&#xA;  protective for females.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-01T04:14:26.887" LastActivityDate="2018-01-01T04:14:26.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18790" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18765" CreationDate="2018-01-01T03:03:27.907" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is more than 5 reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Tests/ak.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Applied Kinesilogy a Fraud&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some findings that point to Applied Kinesiology being fraudulent:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Three practitioners testing eleven subjects made significantly different assessments; their diagnoses of nutritional deficiencies did&#xA;  not correspond to the nutrient levels obtain by blood serum analysis;&#xA;  and that the responses to nutrient substances did not significantly&#xA;  differ from responses to placebos [10].&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Another study found no effect from administering the nutrients &quot;expected&quot; to strengthen a muscle diagnosed as &quot;weak&quot; by AK&#xA;  practitioners [11].&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Researchers who conducted an elaborate double-blind trial concluded that &quot;muscle response appeared to be a random phenomenon [12].&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Another study showed that suggestion can influence the outcome of muscle-testing. During part of this experiment, college students were&#xA;  told that chewing M&amp;amp;M candies would give them instant energy that&#xA;  would probably make them test stronger. Five out of nine did so [13].&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Four AK practitioners tested seven patients were extremely sensitive to wasp venom. Altogether, 140 muscle tests were done to see&#xA;  how the patients responded to preparations of venom or salt water in a&#xA;  bottle. If the test were valid, the venom bottles should result in&#xA;  &quot;strong&quot; reactions and the salt-water bottles should produce &quot;weak&quot;&#xA;  test reactions. However, the practitioners were unable to identify&#xA;  which bottles contained which [14].&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Several chiropractors were tested at a medical office while under unblinded and blinded conditions. During the volunteers could resist&#xA;  downward pressure when a drop of glucose was placed on their tongue&#xA;  but could resist when fructose was administered. The the arm tests&#xA;  were repeated using substances in coded test tubes so that the&#xA;  volunteer, the chiropractors, and the onlookers could not tell which&#xA;  solution being applied to the volunteer's tongue. When the code was&#xA;  revealed, There was no connection between ability to resist and&#xA;  whether the volunteer was given the &quot;good&quot; or the &quot;bad&quot; sugar [15].&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[10] Kenny JJ, Clemens R, Forsythe KD. Applied kinesiology unreliable for assessing nutrient status. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 88:698-704, 1988.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[11] Triano JJ. Muscle strength testing as a diagnostic screen for supplemental nutrition therapy: a blind study. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics 5:179-182, 1982&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[12] Haas M and others. Muscle testing response to provocative vertebral challenge and spinal manipulation: a randomized controlled trial of construct validity. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics 17:141-148, 1994.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[13] Applied kinesiology - Double-blind pilot study. Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry 45:321-323, 1981.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[14] Ludtke R and others. Test-retest-reliability and validity of the kinesiology muscle test. Complementary Therapy in Medicine 9:141-145, 2001.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[15] Hyman R. The mischief-making of ideomotor action. by ideomotor action. The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine, Fall-Winter issue, 1999. Republished on Quackwatch, Aug 26, 2003.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastEditorUserId="11556" LastEditDate="2018-01-03T22:19:36.683" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T22:19:36.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18791" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-01T05:29:00.187" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a firm believer of the principle of free-will, but wanted to see if there was any examples(or case examples) of people knowingly doing things against their own will.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that we can be pressured to do things and make hard choices, but the choice is still that of the individual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can a person do things they know they are not willing to do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18029" LastActivityDate="2018-01-02T04:35:49.820" Title="Can a person do things against their own will and be conscious of it at the same time?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;free-will&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2018-01-02T21:41:38.027" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18792" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-01T18:07:25.213" Score="1" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is known that Guilford coined the term, but the concept is much older. What did people in Freud's time call it? Genius? innovation? Something else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18032" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-04T09:01:51.230" LastActivityDate="2018-01-04T10:56:09.743" Title="What was creativity called before the 1950s, i.e. before Guilford coined the term?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18793" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18791" CreationDate="2018-01-02T02:02:34.393" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can a person do things against their own will and be conscious of it at the same time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can a person do things they know they are not willing to do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a little tricky to answer without parsing it as follows: &lt;em&gt;can someone's earnestly stated desires be different to the desires implied by their actions?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Phrasing your question this way is important because what someone wants is unknowable: people could be lying to themselves, or lying to us, or simply lacking the insight to fully understand the motivations underpinning their behaviour. The intent behind a behaviour is even more unknowable: it can only be inferred from observation. Thus, although we presume that a dog eats because its hungry, and drinks water because it's thirsty, we need to be careful in recognising that while this is certainly a reasonable inference, nonetheless it is still only an inference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am sure you will also find some very rare syndrome that is sexier e.g. alien claw hand or similar, but conceptually I would suggest drug addiction is the best example of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although not immediately apparent, the phenomenology of the drug-taking behaviour is very reminiscent of what you're describing. The two core features of addiction are craving and compulsion -- the latter is of relevance to your question. At its core, compulsive drug-taking behaviour is a decoupling of an earnestly stated (or believed) desire and action that suggests something entirely to the contrary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a firm believer of the principle of free-will, but wanted to see if there was any examples(or case examples) of people knowingly doing things against their own will.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typically, drug addicts will consciously state that they do not want to consume drugs, but that they are lead to do so by some uncontrollable compulsion. That is, they continue to consume drugs despite the clear acknowledgement that it is no longer in their interests to do so and conveying an earnest desire to not consume drugs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that we can be pressured to do things and make hard choices, but the choice is still that of the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept of drug addiction creates problems for proponents of free will: if addiction is a choice, then so are the harms. The moral culpability of the addict came be framed in either two ways:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Deviancy.&lt;/em&gt; The drug addict values the wrong things. They belong in prison.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Weakness.&lt;/em&gt; The drug addict has the same values as us, but is too weak-willed to pursue/obtain/keep them. In recognising their weakness, they deserve help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, to reconcile the concept of addiction as choice (free will) versus addiction as disease (addiction) those in the literature will attempt to describe the initial use of drugs as a volitional act, but one which becomes less and less &lt;em&gt;freely chosen&lt;/em&gt; over time. The adaptive changes that are observed in the brain with repetitive drug administration i.e. addiction support are generally used to argue this point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-02T04:35:49.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18794" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-02T05:08:11.383" Score="6" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studying the link between mental illness and violence seems a sure way to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;get attention from the mass media, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;contradict some other study, and not necessarily one published that long ago.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A pretty old review (and not in some high impact venue) by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1525086/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stuart (2003)&lt;/a&gt; seems to me to still hold water 15 years later with respect to a few general observations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definitive statements are difficult to make and it is equally possible to find recent literature supporting the conclusions that the mentally ill are no more violent, they are as violent, or they are more violent than their nonmentally ill counterparts. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of the significant methodological challenges faced by researchers in this field, the nature of this association remains unclear. For example, violence has been difficult to measure directly, so that researchers have often relied on official documentation or uncorroborated selfreports. The prevalence of violence has been demonstrated to differ dramatically depending on the source. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it goes on to talk about confounders as the perennial problem of epidemiological studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stuart also highlights a (highly cited) US-sample study of the &amp;quot;no-link&amp;quot; variety (at least if substance-abuse is controlled for), &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9596041/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Steadman et al. 1998&lt;/a&gt; ... and I certainly found some newer ones myself, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19188537&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elbogen &amp;amp; Johnson (2009)&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://ftp.iza.org/dp6577.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anderson et al. 2012&lt;/a&gt;, just to mention some picked up by the press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, the Oxford group of Fazel has been publishing study after study on European samples including on &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lanpsy/PIIS2215-0366%2814%2900128-X.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sweden (2015)&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;or &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.05.016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UK, Finland and Netherlands (2017)&lt;/a&gt; that do find a link between depression and violence... and these have also been picked up the press. There are older studies in Scandinavian countries which concur; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8639031/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hodgins et al. (1996)&lt;/a&gt; for instance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is this a trend? And (the really tough question) is there a meta-analysis of such studies that does moderator analysis (e.g. by meta-regression) to determine which study parameters matter most with respect to the finding? Is it the case that the Europeans are less violent overall so that the &amp;quot;inherent&amp;quot; violence of the mentally ill &amp;quot;stands out&amp;quot; in Europe but &amp;quot;gets lost in the noise&amp;quot; of the higher society violence in the US? (It certainly is the case the US is more violent than Sweden.) Or is it some other factor that is dominant, e.g. is depression more conductive to violence than other forms of severe mental illness (makes sense to ask since 2 of 3 US studies I've looked at aggregate severe mental illnesses — SMIs). To give you an example of the kind of meta-analysis I'm hoping to find, for ADHD prevalence it seemed that there might be geographical differences between US and Europe, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17541055&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;but they turned out to be methodological&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a paper by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21359532&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Van Dorn et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt; reanalyzing the same data as Elbogen &amp;amp; Johnson, and coming to a European-style conclusion of a link between SMI and violence. The difference in methodology came down (in this case) to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;important is spatio-temporal contiguity (i.e., the causal factor must be&#xA;spatially near the effect).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So merely lifetime SMI prevalence wasn't a good predictor but recent symptoms (within 12 months) were. That and the fact that the control group of Elbogen &amp;amp; Johnson apparently was not clean enough (of substance abusers) apparently tipped the scales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But Eblogen didn't quote concede the field, and in a &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2167702615619363&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2016 study&lt;/a&gt; on the exact same data (using 12 months window this time) but with more attention to confounders... found again in favor of their original findings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mediation analyses informed by the &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800052-6.00001-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;I3&#xA;model&lt;/a&gt; revealed&#xA;that the positive association between SMI and violence&#xA;was by and large indirect. Statistically controlling for&#xA;impellance and disinhibition completely wiped out any&#xA;positive relationship between SMI and violence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is somewhat similar result to what Anderson et al. (2012) obtained on different data after controlling for impulsivity and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_preference&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;present orientation&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; (using just two simple questions for these two factors!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T15:28:09.907" Title="(Why) Do US studies of violence and mental illness tend to report no link but European studies seem to find one?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18798" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18700" CreationDate="2018-01-02T17:02:57.563" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thank you all for your responses. I found the answer independently - I was looking for the &lt;em&gt;Pratfall Effect&lt;/em&gt; described in &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03342263&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elliot Aronson's 1966 paper &quot;The effect of a pratfall on increasing interpersonal attractiveness&quot; in Psychonomic Science&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper's abstract reads:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An experiment was performed which demonstrated that the attractiveness&#xA;  of a superior person is enhanced if he commits a clumsy blunder; the&#xA;  same blunder tends to decrease the the attractiveness of a mediocre&#xA;  person. We predicted these results by conjecturing that a superior&#xA;  person may be viewed as superhuman and, therefore, distant; a blunder&#xA;  tends to humanize him and, consequently, increases his attractiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More information on the Pratfall Effect can be found here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratfall_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychologyarchive.blogspot.com/2015/12/pratfall-effect.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Archive&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Aronson, E., Willerman, B., &amp;amp; Floyd, J. (1966). &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03342263&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The effect of a pratfall on increasing interpersonal attractiveness.&lt;/a&gt; Psychonomic Science, 4(6), 227-228.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17871" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-01-03T08:50:09.543" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T08:50:09.543" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18799" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-02T17:38:43.610" Score="8" ViewCount="1049" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not an expert in neuroscience but always read about information that seems conflicting to me. On one side I hear that the idea of single brain functions localized in specific brain areas is incorrect since everything is processed globally and on the other side I come up permanently with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.learningsuccessblog.com/infograph/brain-hierarchy?utm_source=dlvr.it&amp;amp;utm_medium=fbgroup&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;such kind of depictions of the brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/62sj8.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/62sj8.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone tell me how far this is correct or incorrect? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18045" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-02T19:05:19.657" LastActivityDate="2018-01-04T15:55:13.807" Title="Is this brain map scientifically correct?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18800" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-02T22:40:02.557" Score="3" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do the terms &quot;task-&lt;em&gt;positive&lt;/em&gt; network&quot; and &quot;task-&lt;em&gt;based&lt;/em&gt; network&quot; refer to the same thing, such as the Fronto-Parietal Control Network (FPCN), as distinct from the task-negative networks such as the Default Mode Network (DMN); or do the terms refer to two different types of brain networks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question arose to me after having read Fischmeister et al. 2016 (&quot;Self-similarity and recursion as default modes in human cognition&quot;), a paper that contrasts the roles of the DMN and FPCN, each seen as archtypes of the task-negative and task-positive (task-based??) networks respectively. However, there are other papers that also seem to employ the two terms interchangeably, while yet others appear to use only one or another - which is why I thought the question might be worth raising in this forum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="6446" LastEditDate="2018-01-04T11:27:14.397" LastActivityDate="2018-01-04T11:27:14.397" Title="Task-based vs task-positive networks" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18801" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7855" CreationDate="2018-01-02T22:42:22.363" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The computer analogy fails on several counts. Most notably, the status of a &quot;bit&quot; in a computer system is completely determined at any one time by the running program. Neurons and synapses are quantum entities, whose state at any one time is a superposition. Both neurons and synapses are living things, to some extent acting independently. Each &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;synapse&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is a quantum nanocomputer, vastly more powerful than any existing computer and performing a &quot;calculation&quot; that cannot, even in principle, be carried out by a computer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://diaryofachristianskeptic.blogspot.ca/2018/01/the-synapse-as-quantum-nano-computer.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://diaryofachristianskeptic.blogspot.ca/2018/01/the-synapse-as-quantum-nano-computer.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18047" LastActivityDate="2018-01-02T22:42:22.363" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18802" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18799" CreationDate="2018-01-02T23:04:34.593" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The diagram is a somewhat simplistic representation of brain functions, but it is accurate. The diagram given shows the primary areas that complete the actions listed. However, the entire brain is connected and communicates with itself extensively, so it isn't like the occipital lobe is the only brain region active when you see something. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, when you see an object, it is first processed in the occipital lobe as this is where the primary visual cortex is located. However, after the actual image itself has been processed, signals are sent to other brain regions for further interpretation. So if you see an angry dog running at you, the signal will begin in your occiptal lobe to process the visual image itself, but signals will then be sent to the temporal lobe to create an emotional response and to the frontal lobe to begin defensive motor activity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On one side I hear that the idea of single brain functions localized in specific brain areas is incorrect since everything is processed globally and on the other side I come up permanently with such kind of depictions of the brain&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While these two explanations may seem conflicting, they are both somewhat correct. The diagram shows where primary processing of each task takes place, but it takes global communication to accomplish many of the complex tasks carried out by the brain. If there is a disconnect between the occipital lobe and parts of the temporal lobe, you will still be able to see just fine but may not have an emotional reaction to what you see. Vision is technically intact, but the full visual experience is damaged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just remember that diagrams like the one shown show you primary processing locations, but signals are sent between many brain regions to accomplish the full range of tasks carried out by the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further reading on the topic, this website offers a longer but still easy to understand explanation of current findings in brain connectivity: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/40855-brain-connections-no-neuron-is-an-island.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.livescience.com/40855-brain-connections-no-neuron-is-an-island.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&#xA;Kolb, B. &amp;amp; Whishaw, I. Q. (2009). &lt;em&gt;Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology: Sixth Edition&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Worth Publishers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17143" LastEditorUserId="17143" LastEditDate="2018-01-02T23:19:50.297" LastActivityDate="2018-01-02T23:19:50.297" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18803" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18763" CreationDate="2018-01-02T23:30:42.813" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally this would be a histrionic personality type.  More information can be found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/histrionic-personality-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18048" LastActivityDate="2018-01-02T23:30:42.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18804" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-02T23:39:23.323" Score="0" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a post titled &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.lesserwrong.com/posts/XKfQF73YnyMRiRf9a/willpower-depletion-vs-willpower-distraction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Willpower Depletion vs Willpower Distraction&lt;/a&gt; the claim is made that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Basically, for a while some researchers believed that willpower&#xA;  depletion &quot;is&quot; glucose depletion in the prefrontal cortex, but some&#xA;  more recent experiments have failed to replicate this, e.g. by finding&#xA;  that the mere taste of sugar is enough to &quot;replenish&quot; willpower faster&#xA;  than the time it takes blood to move from the mouth to the brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that claim representative of the knowledge we have from studies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T12:53:00.887" Title="Does the taste of sugar replenish willpower?" Tags="&lt;willpower&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18805" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18804" CreationDate="2018-01-03T03:02:35.137" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what you mean to ask here, but there is a recent (2016) meta-analysis by &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616654911&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vadillio, Gold and Osman&lt;/a&gt; just on the topic of glucose and willpower. Abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The idea behind ego depletion is that willpower draws on a limited mental resource, so that engaging in an act of self-control impairs self-control in subsequent tasks. To present ego depletion as more than a convenient metaphor, some researchers have proposed that glucose is the limited resource that becomes depleted with self-control. However, there have been theoretical challenges to the proposed glucose mechanism, and the experiments that have tested it have found mixed results. We used a new meta-analytic tool, p-curve analysis, to examine the reliability of the evidence from these experiments. We found that the effect sizes reported in this literature are possibly influenced by publication or reporting bias and that, even within studies yielding significant results, the evidential value of this research is weak. In light of these results, and pending further evidence, researchers and policymakers should refrain from drawing any conclusions about the role of glucose in self-control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not too far in its conclusions from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4115664/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2014 meta-analysis on the mere existence of ego/willpower depletion&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Vadillo et al. use &lt;a href=&quot;http://p-curve.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;p-curves&lt;/a&gt;, the interpretation of their result is somewhat subjective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mp02d.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mp02d.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is their interpretation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results of our analyses suggest that the relationship&#xA;  between glucose levels and self-control behaviors might&#xA;  be unreliable. Figure 1 shows that the key p values of the&#xA;  19 studies included in the present analyses follow a surprisingly&#xA;  flat distribution. This is exactly the pattern of&#xA;  results that one would expect to find if those results were&#xA;  false positives. These results remain unchanged regardless&#xA;  of whether glucose-rinsing studies are included or&#xA;  excluded from the sample.&#xA;  These results may not come as a complete surprise&#xA;  given the empirical challenges to the glucose hypothesis&#xA;  suggested by failed replications (Job et al., 2013; Kelly&#xA;  et al., 2015; Lange &amp;amp; Eggert, 2014; Lange et al., 2014) and&#xA;  theoretical critiques regarding its biological plausibility&#xA;  (Kurzban, 2010; Osman, 2014). Furthermore, a detailed&#xA;  analysis of the seminal article suggesting the glucose&#xA;  hypothesis showed that the number of significant findings&#xA;  reported in that article was too large, given the low&#xA;  power of each study (Schimmack, 2012). In other words,&#xA;  the results were too good to be true (Francis, 2012).&#xA;  Nevertheless, the findings from the present study are a&#xA;  surprise in the context of the wide acceptance of the&#xA;  glucose hypothesis in general scientific research and its&#xA;  popularity, as evidenced by the number of citations of&#xA;  Gailliot et al. (2007) in the literature and the continued&#xA;  influence of this hypothesis in recent reviews on ego&#xA;  depletion (e.g., Baumeister, 2014; Baumeister &amp;amp; Alghamdi,&#xA;  2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is worth noting that, as with any other statistical test,&#xA;  p-curve analysis is not a flawless indicator of bias (Bishop&#xA;  &amp;amp; Thompson, 2016; Bruns &amp;amp; Ioannidis, 2016; Lakens,&#xA;  2015). Our results suggest that, on average, these studies&#xA;  have little or no evidential value, but they do not allow&#xA;  us to determine whether the significant results are due to&#xA;  publication bias, selective reporting of outcomes or analyses,&#xA;  p-hacking, or all of these. It is not impossible that&#xA;  some of these studies are exploring small but true effects&#xA;  and that their evidential value may be diluted by the&#xA;  biases that pervade the rest of the studies. Perhaps future&#xA;  research will show that glucose does play a role in egodepletion&#xA;  effects, but our conclusions are based on the&#xA;  analysis of the extant literature in this area. Thus, our&#xA;  contribution must be seen as an additional piece of information&#xA;  in the wider context of attempts to verify the reliability&#xA;  of the glucose model of ego depletion. Note that&#xA;  the kind of biases explored in the present study are prevalent&#xA;  in other (but not all) areas of psychological research&#xA;  (e.g., Bakker, van Dijk, &amp;amp; Wicherts, 2012) and that low&#xA;  reproducibility is not exclusively a problem of psychological&#xA;  research (Camerer et al., 2016; Errington et al.,&#xA;  2014). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The meta-analysis had a special category for glucose-rinsing studies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Glucose-rinsing studies examine the impact of simply&#xA;  rinsing one’s mouth with a glucose solution&#xA;  before exerting self-control (Hagger &amp;amp; Chatzisarantis,&#xA;  2013; Lange &amp;amp; Eggert, 2014; Molden et al., 2012;&#xA;  Sanders, Shirk, Burgin, &amp;amp; Martin, 2012). Results&#xA;  from these studies suggest that the signal of glucose&#xA;  from the mouth to the brain is sufficient to&#xA;  neutralize the ego-depletion effect. This mechanism&#xA;  is consistent with the results of the ingestion&#xA;  manipulations but suggests that the effect does not&#xA;  depend on a metabolic explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's the full table of studies included, which included an indicator column for whether the study was rinsing-only:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tR0ha.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tR0ha.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there's no separate p-curve just for the rinsing studies. You can probably make one yourself though...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually I just did that with the 8 studies in the &quot;yes&quot; column:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hKcB9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hKcB9.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/A8pcQ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/A8pcQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that they've changed the test somewhat since that meta-analysis was published.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The meta-analysis did note that whether the rinsing studies were added or removed made no difference on the p-curve testing of the rest. And from my graph you can kinda see why: ignoring the 0% bins, the rinse group has roughly the same shape as the whole group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-03T12:53:00.887" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T12:53:00.887" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18763" CreationDate="2018-01-03T10:14:32.103" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a recent (2016) paper&lt;/a&gt; that proposed seemingly the first specialized scale for measuring this trait (which they call NFD = need for drama):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clinicians have studied individuals who engage in clinically relevant&#xA;  dramatic behaviors and labeled them with borderline or histrionic&#xA;  personality disorders (BPD and HPD, respectively). Borderline personality disorder is defined by impulsivity,&#xA;  self-harming behaviors, chaos and instability in interpersonal&#xA;  relationships, and feelings of victimization; and HPD is defined by extreme&#xA;  sensitivity to criticism, excessive attention seeking, and need for&#xA;  approval from others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Whereas BPD and HPD offer a framework for understanding dramatic&#xA;  personalities, they may not be the most effective for examining&#xA;  dramatic personalities in samples that are not clinically relevant; and&#xA;  may not be suitable as predictors of work-related performance and&#xA;  counterproductive work behaviors (Guenole, 2014). A compound personality&#xA;  trait, such as NFD, is more suitable to assess individuals within&#xA;  work environments. Furthermore, whereas BPD and HPD have a troubled&#xA;  history as sex-biased diagnoses that may be unsuitably applied to&#xA;  organizational and social research questions, we hypothesize that NFD&#xA;  is prevalent equally in men and women in the population and that our measure of NFD is suitable for non-clinical research&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that both HPD and BPD belong to the so-called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_B_personality_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;dramatic&quot; cluster (B) of persnoality disorders&lt;/a&gt;. Also, there has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20728002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;criticism of the HPD construct&lt;/a&gt;, particularly in that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19008729&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;it overlaps BPD too much&lt;/a&gt;, but HPD was nonetheless kept in DSM-5... and this basically a decision of the board of trustees, which overruled their own working group that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23187088&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;had agreed&lt;/a&gt; to the deletion of HPD. Also interesting is that an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23013338&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;independent survey&lt;/a&gt; of personality disorder experts had found HPD the lowest validity (if we go by the &quot;very valid&quot; ranking) of all DSM-IV personality diagnoses, but nonetheless they saw it as valid enough to be kept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/40Dwa.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/40Dwa.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IhCRn.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IhCRn.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moving on to the new kid, NFD, its compound aspect refers to three subscales:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interpersonal manipulation (IPM)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Impulsive outspokenness (IO)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Persistent perceived victimhood (PPV)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And they correlated their NFD measure with the big 5 personality factors&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7d82V.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7d82V.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and with a host of other scales, in particular a measure of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dark triad&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/A6qEV.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/A6qEV.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The also found that there was no bias for either sex in the samples they used to validate their NFD scale. But they did not correlate with clinical scales for either BPD or HPD, leaving that for future research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Time will tell if this NFD scale will see adoption by other researchers. If you want to use their terminology &quot;high NFD individual&quot; would be the scientifically sounding term, or maybe just 'high drama' individuals. Given their finding that men and women are equally prone to this... the received term &quot;drama queen&quot; seems somewhat inappropriate (sexist).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-03T11:57:52.183" LastActivityDate="2018-01-03T11:57:52.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18809" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-03T17:33:10.193" Score="3" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am asking participants some questions on a form. I have to know which kind of memory they are using when answering these questions. I am having difficulty deciding this. Is there any special technique to determine this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, consider these questions :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is your name Majid?&lt;/em&gt; &#xA;Is the memory used semantic or episodic? I know that most probably everyone would say semantic because there is no event being recalled, but I am not sure if remembering own's name is possible without recalling an event.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is your hair black?&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;This one is only available while thinking of a memory, but like the last one it could be semantic too.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Do you know how to ride a bike?&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;This one could be semantic or episodic because I might recall an event of riding a bike and then answer.  Or it could even be procedural memory as I might simulate riding a bike and then say, &quot;Yes&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am trying to figure out how do I assign each question one or more of the memory types?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am using the memory types introduced by Squire in 2004.&#xA;The picture is from &lt;em&gt;Fundamentals of Cognitive Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; by Bernard Baars.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9miai.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9miai.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Fundamentals of Cognitive Neuroscience by Bernard Baars&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18052" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-16T17:53:44.040" LastActivityDate="2018-06-16T17:53:44.040" Title="How to detect which memory is being used when answering a yes or no question?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;&lt;procedural-memory&gt;&lt;episodic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18811" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18792" CreationDate="2018-01-04T01:04:26.170" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me open this by saying that it's not clear to me that Guilford coined the term, as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=creativity&amp;amp;year_start=1900&amp;amp;year_end=1960&amp;amp;corpus=15&amp;amp;smoothing=3&amp;amp;share=&amp;amp;direct_url=t1%3B%2Ccreativity%3B%2Cc0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google n-gram viewer shows use well before 1950&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gtMlt.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gtMlt.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud wrote an essay on &lt;a href=&quot;http://gbelic.org/courses/representation-language/readings/freud-creativewritersanddaydreaming.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;creative writers (and day-dreaming) in 1908&lt;/a&gt; but he does not talk of creativity as a noun/concept in itself at least in the English translation. Likewise Jung wrote a fair bit about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=hmwd2LyeLCAC&amp;amp;pg=PA68&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;creative impulse&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, but like in the case of Freud he doesn't seem much concerned how comes people are creative but just why they start to manifest it outwards as art. Another similar term Jung used was the &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=-fSOAgAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA171&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;creative fire&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. At my level of understanding, the reason for this lack of concern in the psychoanalytic tradition is that they explained (away) the source of the creative process as the unconscious. And once they get to the unconscious as the ultimate explanation, all effort for further understanding what goes under that seems to stop, and the their efforts are directed at understanding the manifestations of the unconscious. It's a bit like saying that you can't understand God, but you can study his works. I'm probably exaggerating that, but part of the issue surely is methodological; Jung and Freud did not apply (or even outright rejected) a systematic scientific method.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The stated motivation of Guilford's work on creativity was that he thought the IQ tests were only good at discriminating elementary school performance, but not good for discriminating what he called &quot;creative potential&quot;. In &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1967-10453-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Creativity: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow&quot;&lt;/a&gt; Guilford credits Catharine Patrick with the first experimental studies of creativity; she wrote several papers from 1935 to 1941 with &quot;Creative thought&quot; in their title. Guilford says Patrick attempted to systematically test the anecdotal evidence of Graham Wallas (1926) related in his book titled &quot;The art of thought&quot;. There doesn't seem to be an on-line record of Patrick's earliest (1935) paper on the topic. Her 1937 &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1937.9917525&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Creative thought in Artists&quot;&lt;/a&gt; and 1941 paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.2307/1417802&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Whole and Part Relationship in Creative Thought&quot;&lt;/a&gt; are available on-line. Neither paper uses &quot;creativity&quot; as a term in their text, so in this narrow sense Guilford was the first to use the term in the nascent field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-01-04T01:04:26.170" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18812" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-04T01:31:36.263" Score="3" ViewCount="552" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the sprit of &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8364/is-there-anything-in-freudian-psychoanalytic-theory-that-is-scientifically-sound&quot;&gt;Is there anything in Freudian psychoanalytic theory that is scientifically sound?&lt;/a&gt; I want to ask the same question about the works of Carl Jung, because I know even less about them. Wikipedia has &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung#Legacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a short paragraph about his legacy&lt;/a&gt;, which is mostly about how cited he was (and that does not, alas, entail much how correct his ideas ultimately were), which mentions MBTI as a concrete offshoot of Jung's ideas. I know MBTI was mostly superseded as personality theory. In an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/cui-bono/201603/are-scores-the-mbti-totally-meaningless&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;blog discussing the latter matter&lt;/a&gt;, John A. Johnson (prof of psychology at Penn State) says of the wider Jungian works&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Jung's scientifically dubious ideas about archetypes, alchemy, synchronicity, the collective unconscious, the paranormal, and so forth are irrelevant to his theory of psychological types. Jung's theory of types gave us the concepts of introversion and extraversion, which modern, scientific personality psychologists are perfectly happy to use today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this mostly summarize Jung's legacy? I know there have been entire books on his works like &lt;em&gt;The Handbook of Jungian Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, but I don't want to read all that to come to a conclusion. Also it seems that book has a single review in the &lt;em&gt;Journal of Analytical Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, which looks like an in-house thing; nevertheless the review (by psychoanalyst Joseph Reppen) says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although psychology is one of the most popular American majors, Freud,&#xA;  Jung, and depth psychology are rarely present or are marginalized in introductory&#xA;  psychology texts. As one colleague remarked to me, if Freud gets a page, Jung&#xA;  gets a paragraph. And that paragraph probably includes a short comment about&#xA;  extrovert-introvert–case closed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which kinda mirrors what Johnson wrote, but with a bitter tone. The rest of the review is book-oriented, but Reppen seems to me to fail to make a clear case what else is important, legacy-wise in Jung's work.  So, are there other reasonably concise takes on Jung's scientific legacy? And do they agree or disagree with Johnson's take on that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-04T02:03:35.107" LastActivityDate="2018-01-04T02:03:35.107" Title="Scientific legacy of Carl Jung (and of analytical psychology)?" Tags="&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18813" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13027" CreationDate="2018-01-04T03:22:14.067" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a more speculative than I usually post here, but here it goes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Based on his works, I'd describe Jung more as a philosopher of mind than an actual psychologist in the modern meaning of the word (although perhaps that observation applies more widely to &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt; of Jung's contemporary colleagues) in that he very seldom formulated simple and directly testable hypotheses. Nor was Jung  much [if ever] concerned with &lt;em&gt;systematic&lt;/em&gt; empirical validation of his ideas. But also note that &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/19409052.2014.921226&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;there's substantial disagreement whether Jung can be considered a philosopher&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In, particular, it doesn't look like Jung formulated his ideas about thinking in the nowadays terms of cognitive functions. If we consider the amorphous way in which Wikipedia structures &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungian_cognitive_functions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Jungian cognitive functions&quot;&lt;/a&gt; as a reflection of Jung's work (as opposed to the lack of editorial skill of some wikipedians), that page clearly mixes personality factors (types) with distinctions between cognitive processes that aren't the same kind of &quot;types&quot; in more recent research.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jung was also much less read than Freud, particularly in the US. So when Freud  said something remotely relevant to a research topic, people usually don't fail to notice... but that doesn't seem to be the case with Jung.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If one is inclined to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindsight_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;read the future&quot;&lt;/a&gt; into some of Jung's essayistic pieces,  then in only a few minutes, I did find a couple of his sayings as potentially anticipating interesting developments in cognitive psychology, in particular from the behavioral economists' camp (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/feb/16/daniel-kahneman-thinking-fast-and-slow-tributes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kahneman&lt;/a&gt; etc.) In particular:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungian_cognitive_functions#Thinking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia quotes&lt;/a&gt; Jung as saying &quot;The faculty of directed thinking, I term 'intellect'. The faculty of passive, or undirected, thinking, I term 'intellectual intuition'.&quot; Did that anticipate &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dual process theory&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Carl_Jung&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikiquote quotes Jung&lt;/a&gt; as saying &quot;...the relatively unconscious man driven by his natural impulses because, imprisoned in his familiar world, he clings to the commonplace, the obvious, the probable, the collectively valid, using for his motto: 'Thinking is difficult. Therefore, let the herd pronounce judgement.'&quot; He is clearly talking about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_mentality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;herd mentality&lt;/a&gt; here, another topic that became the locus of interest of behavioral economists.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;[same source]: &quot;We should not pretend to understand the world only by the intellect; we apprehend it just as much by feeling. Therefore, the judgment of the intellect is, at best, only the half of truth, and must, if it be honest, also come to an understanding of its inadequacy.&quot; Of course many works on various kinds of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotional biases&lt;/a&gt; (affecting cognition) have been written since then.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-04T04:19:00.373" LastActivityDate="2018-01-04T04:19:00.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18814" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18809" CreationDate="2018-01-04T06:39:32.983" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It depends&lt;/strong&gt; whether the answers are well known facts. If I know well my name, the color of my hair and whether I can ride a bike then semantic memory is used to answer these questions. If I have a doubt whether I can ride a bike, then I may use other types of memory like episodic or even procedural to come up with an answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I may use episodic memory to answer a specific question today, but if I have to answer the same question tomorrow I will probably use semantic memory because it has become a general fact that is stored in semantic memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Semantic memory&lt;/a&gt; reflects our knowledge of the world around us, hence&#xA;  the term 'general knowledge' is often used. It holds generic&#xA;  information that is more than likely acquired across various contexts&#xA;  and is used across different situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2018-01-04T06:39:32.983" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18816" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18792" CreationDate="2018-01-04T10:56:09.743" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The premise of this question is mistaken. As early as 1875, A W Ward referred to Shakespeare's &quot;poetic creativity&quot;. (Source: Oxford English Dictionary, under &quot;creativity&quot;). That was eight decades before the 1950s and two decades before J P Guilford was born.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user18059" LastActivityDate="2018-01-04T10:56:09.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18818" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8606" CreationDate="2018-01-04T11:04:47.657" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Summary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Don't just give &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; reason. a certain type of &quot;grating&quot; reason (as explained in 2nd half of my post) has been shown to backfire and be worse than none. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A syntactically correct but semantically (fairly) meaningless reason could be classified as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_likelihood_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;peripheral route to persuasion&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. In low stakes situations, a vacuous (but not grating) reason may work better than none, but as the stakes increase so does the scrutiny applied to the reason.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me start by elaborating on  experiments mentioned by Arnon Weinberg (because I think some of the details are necessary before trying to conclude from the perspective of later works):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually Wikipedia doesn't detail the Xerox experiment well enough. The actual result was a bit more complicated: for small favors (in which the requester had fewer [actually 5] pages to copy than the recipient of the request [who had 20]) it made no difference whether the reason given was non-informative (&quot;placebic&quot;) or real/plausible. But when the favor was &quot;big&quot; (the requester had more copies [20] to make than the recipient [who had 5]), the reason given did make a difference... and in fact giving a &quot;placebic&quot; reason was no better than no reason at all for big favors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Mc61n.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Mc61n.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also (contra to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8606/always-give-a-reason-why-how-to-describe-this-subject-area#comment17589_8607&quot;&gt;what Ana said&lt;/a&gt;) in the xerox experiment the reasons were terse, either bare request &quot;Excuse me, I have 5 (20) pages.&#xA;May I use the xerox machine?&quot; or +&quot;because I have to make copies&quot; (&quot;placebic&quot;) or +&quot;because I'm in a rush&quot; (&quot;real&quot;). I think that Cialdini’s logic for always giving a reason is that in this experiment giving a reason was not worse than giving none (in any scenario), but also keep in mind that &quot;not worse&quot; does not equal &quot;always better&quot;; giving a &quot;placebic&quot; reason for a big favor didn't work (but also didn't hurt).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that in the Milligram subway experiment the reason given was worse than &quot;placebic&quot; though. In the xerox experiment you cannot really refute the &quot;placebic&quot; reason &quot;because I have to make copies&quot; with respect to the use of the xerox (you can't [easily] make copies otherwise). So while it may sound weird it's not that grating (to me). On the other hand in the Milligram subway experiment, the reason was &quot;I can't read my book standing up&quot; which is something that most people can mentally refute as probably fake right away... But this is just me theorizing. It would be nice if someone redid one of the experiments with 4 arms for the argument given: none, implausible, neutral/repetition, and plausible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the (very highly cited ~8K cites in GS, ~10x the Xerox experiment) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uni-muenster.de/imperia/md/content/psyifp/aeechterhoff/wintersemester2011-12/vorlesungkommperskonflikt/petty_cacioppo_elm_advaexpsocpsy_buchkapitel1986.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion&quot;&lt;/a&gt; of Petty and Cacioppo (1986), giving a &quot;placebic&quot; argument would probably be classified as a &lt;strong&gt;peripheral route to persuasion&lt;/strong&gt;. They note (actually it's one of their &quot;postulates&quot;) that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As motivation and/or ability to process arguments is decreased, peripheral cues become relatively more important determinants of persuasion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By peripheral cues they mean among other things repetition (Trump being a good recent example, heh), distraction etc. I guess a &quot;placebic&quot; reason counts as a form of distraction. But also note that in the Xerox experiment the placebic reason is also a form repetition &quot;I need X because I need X&quot;, alhouth with a slightly different formulation for the 2nd X.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Petty and Cacioppo actually discuss the Xerox experiment of Langer on p. 159, remarking after summarizing it that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.3.600&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Folkes (1985)&lt;/a&gt; provided a partial replication of this effect. In two field studies using the inconsequential request (making five copies), respondents were equally willing to comply whether the request containing the valid or the placebic reason. In a thind study, however, the subjects were asked to guess how they would respond to the requests and to &quot;think carefully before answering&quot;. When instructed to think before responding, the valid reason produced significantly more anticipation of compliance than the placebic reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore!! Folkes pretty much did what I hoped someone would do, and also tested with an obnoxious reason:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although providing a partial replication of Langer et al.(1978), Folkes takes issue with Langer's assertion that the placebic information is processed &quot;mindlessly&quot;. Folkes argues that if the reasons are processed automatically under low consequences conditions, then a poor reason should as effective as a valid one. However she found a that a poor reason (e.g. &quot;because I don't want to wait&quot;) was significantly less effective than a valid or placebic one under low consequence conditions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the conclusion is: &lt;strong&gt;don't just give &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; reason&lt;/strong&gt;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure from which book of Cialdini the give-any-reason advice came. If it's from his 1984 &lt;em&gt;Influence&lt;/em&gt;, then that could not have covered research that was published (a year) later. Cialdini has a 2001 book with the same title but a different subtitle though; hopefully that's more up-to-date, but I haven't checked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's the actual data from Folke:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZvZC6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZvZC6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All requests were small in the Falke experiments (4 or 5 pages to copy) and also took place at two different locations; her experiment 2 was in the UK, the rest in the US. In Falke's experiments 1-3, she attempted to directly replicate (the small favor) experiment of Lange but with varying questions. Only in experiment 4 were the subjects instructed to think carefully before deciding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason why Falke calls the grating reasons &quot;controllable&quot; is based on the level of volitional control (of the requester) implied in the reason:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Attribution research suggests that one distinction&#xA;  between good and bad excuses is in&#xA;  perceived controllability. An excuse can suggest&#xA;  one is compelled to perform an action&#xA;  or imply volitional control (Weiner, 1980).&#xA;  Lack of control mitigates responsibility for a&#xA;  transgression more than volitional control.&#xA;  Thus, when people ask favors for reasons&#xA;  they cannot control, their requests are more&#xA;  frequently complied with than when reasons&#xA;  for the requested favor are controllable&#xA;  (Barnes, Ickes, &amp;amp; Kidd, 1979; Weiner, 1980).&#xA;  In the copying machine paradigm, requests&#xA;  to go first because of controllable reasons&#xA;  (e.g., &quot;because I don't want to wait&quot;) should&#xA;  be complied with less—they do not mitigate&#xA;  responsibility for needing the favor. When a&#xA;  person lacks control over the reason for wanting&#xA;  to go first (e.g., &quot;because I feel really&#xA;  sick&quot;), compliance should be greater.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, Petty and Cacioppo also distinguish some personality factors affecting the result, in particular what they call &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;need for cognition&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Individuals that rated higher on a self-reported measure for this factor had (objectively) more polarized attitudes on an argument than individuals who scored low on this measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-06T09:45:39.987" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T09:45:39.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18819" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-04T11:38:46.443" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Franklin_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ben Franklin effect&lt;/a&gt; as uncontroversial as wikipedia makes it to be? It states that once we grant someone a favor we're even more inclined to grant them subsequent favors. As far as I can tell from Wikipedia the effect was experimentally tested (under rigorous conditions) maybe 3 times. If the effect always holds, how comes we (eventually) dislike &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.skidmore.edu/~pdwyer/e/eoc/help_vampire.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;help vampires&lt;/a&gt;? Is there a liking curve that goes up and then down with the number of favors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-04T12:07:27.753" LastActivityDate="2018-01-04T12:07:27.753" Title="Ben Franklin effect: mkay, what about help vampires?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18822" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-04T20:10:15.033" Score="4" ViewCount="355" Body="&lt;p&gt;In his book &lt;em&gt;The Power of Habit&lt;/em&gt;, Charles Duhigg refers to some study from the University of Western Ontario:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;STEP THREE: ISOLATE THE CUE&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About a decade ago, a psychologist at the University of Western Ontario tried to answer a question that had bewildered social scientists for years: Why do some eyewitnesses of crimes misremember what they see, while other recall events accurately? (...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She wondered if researchers were making a mistake by&#xA;focusing on what questioners and witnesses had said, rather than how&#xA;they were saying it. She suspected there were subtle cues that were&#xA;influencing the questioning process. But when she watched videotape&#xA;after videotape of witness interviews, looking for these cues, she&#xA;couldn’t see anything. There was so much activity in each interview –&#xA;all the facial expressions, the different ways the questions were&#xA;posed, the fluctuating emotions – that she couldn’t detect any&#xA;patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So she came up with an idea: She made a list of a few elements she&#xA;would focus on – the questioners’ tone, the facial expressions of the&#xA;witness, and how close the witness and the questioner were sitting to&#xA;each other. Then, she removed any information that would distract her&#xA;from those elements. She turned down the volume on the television so,&#xA;instead of hearing words, all she could detect was the tone of the&#xA;questioner’s voice. She taped a sheet of paper over the questioner’s&#xA;face, so all she could see was the witnesses’ expressions. She held a&#xA;tape measure to the screen to measure their distance from each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And once she started studying these specific elements, patterns leapt&#xA;out. She saw that witnesses who misremembered facts usually were&#xA;questioned by cops who used a gentle, friendly tone. When witnesses&#xA;smiled more, or sat closer to the person asking the questions, they&#xA;were more likely to misremember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, when environmental cues said “we are friends” – a&#xA;gentle tone, a smiling face – the witnesses were more likely to&#xA;misremember what had occurred. Perhaps it was because, subconsciously,&#xA;those friendship cues triggered a habit to please the questioner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the importance of this experiment is that those same tapes had&#xA;been watched by dozens of other researchers. Lots of smart people had&#xA;seen the same patterns, but no one had recognized them before. Because&#xA;there was too much information in each tape to see a subtle cue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once the psychologist decided to focus on only three categories of&#xA;behavior, however, and eliminate the extraneous information, the&#xA;patterns leapt out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whole chapter is available here &lt;a href=&quot;http://charlesduhigg.com/how-habits-work/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How Habits Work&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you know guys where I can find this study? In it not listed in notes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18062" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T13:33:21.017" Title="Eyewitness testimony study from Power of Habit" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18823" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-05T00:18:20.273" Score="1" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like to put ketchup on my pork chops but my wife gets mad that I do this before I taste her pork chops. We had a discussion about why she would be upset and that I just add the ketchup without first tasting the dish. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My View: I obviously dont feel its a big deal to add to something I was going to eat anyway and it did not reduce the amount I enjoyed it, if anything it made it better for me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Her View: Was that it was rude to the cook and incorrect etiquette to modify the food in anyway that was served to a person. She believes that you should not modify the food in anyway during the meal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scenario 1: You get a burger at your friends BBQ and you put ketchup and mustard on the burger. No one is offended in anyway. (she agrees to this one) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scenario 2: You go to Gordon Ramsey's burger restaurant and he serves you a burger made by him. I am sure the burger is good, but I still like to eat burgers with ketchup and mustard on it. (she thinks this is ultimately rude)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We would like to know if the scenario, occasion and or formality of the meal dictates the etiquette in which the eater is supposed to follow some unspoken eating rules or is this just a difference of opinions that are conflicting with a personal taste preference? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not ignoring the persons feelings, but are they presumptuous in that someone should eat the food they were given the way you dictated it to them? Or should they be free to eat and enjoy the meal the way they would like (still enjoying the meal). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please help with any feedback!  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18066" LastActivityDate="2018-01-05T00:18:20.273" Title="Why would someone be offended if you season your food before eating it?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2018-01-06T19:34:17.687" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18825" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14082" CreationDate="2018-01-05T03:59:51.900" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me supplement Alice's nice answer with a few more points. Regarding &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;there are antidepressants that do not enhance serotonin but suppress it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That seems to be &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianeptine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tianeptine&lt;/a&gt;; it is often brought up such discussions as &lt;em&gt;the&lt;/em&gt; counterexample to SSRIs being &quot;real&quot; anti-depressants. More &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/tp201430&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent research&lt;/a&gt; on tianeptine suggests it acts on the opioid receptors... and that's not a new line of antidepressant treatment, but rather an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3594542/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;old one&lt;/a&gt;, potentially sharing &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/18685/is-tianeptine-addictive&quot;&gt;the same addiction risks&lt;/a&gt; as other opioid-acting medications (e.g. painkillers).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which brings us to the next point&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are some that do nothing to serotonin at all, but their therapeutic effects are all the same, according to Hirsch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Surely there are; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bupropion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bupropion&lt;/a&gt; is a more widely used (at the least in the US) anti-depressant that is not an obvious SSRI. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So the effect is independent of the chemical composition. That means the chemical imbalance theory is wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's basically jumping to conclusions (and more than once). The effect is not &lt;em&gt;totally&lt;/em&gt; independent of the chemical composition of the medication. An alternative conclusion is that depression, which is diagnosed based on a checklist of symptoms, is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3188778/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;heterogeneous disease&lt;/a&gt; with multiple causes producing somewhat similar symptoms (which, by the way, don't all have to be present to get a diagnostic). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually almost every individual neurotransmitter that is suspect to be involved in depression, including serotonin, but also catecholamines (norepinephrine and dopamine) have been subjected to experimental manipulation typically via dietary changes (in live humans). You can read more details &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/a/40311/29579&quot;&gt;in my answer on skeptics&lt;/a&gt;, but the main pattern seems to be that while we can't cause healthy individuals to get (majorly) depressed by lowering the aforementioned neurotransmitters, in previously depressed individuals (and to a lesser extent in their relatives) such interventions that lower these neurotransmitters do produce more significant mood changes; the most significant changes are seen in patients who are taking exactly the medication that the diet intervention counteracts. (see e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386945-6.00012-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kumar et al.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also current anti-depressants are only &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181893/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;30% to 60%&lt;/a&gt; effective (depending who reviews the evidence and more importantly whether substituting medications [several times] counts etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what to conclude from this? The most sensible conclusion to me is that not everything is understood about the neurochemistry of depression, but surely concluding that neurotransmitters are not involved is rubbish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Almost every researcher who works in this field has some favorite hypothesis that explains better the current non-quite-satisfactory simple explanations based on one neutrotrasmitter or antoher, e.g. a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2721780/#S2title&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2008 review in &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Krishnan and Nestler said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is now thought that acute increases in the amount of synaptic monoamines induced by antidepressants produce secondary neuroplastic changes that are on a longer timescale and involve transcriptional and translational changes that mediate molecular and cellular plasticity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I doubt that's the ultimate word on the topic (all such narrative reviews have their biases when it comes to the less investigated aspects, no matter how prestigious the venue or the author), but it's clear that the &quot;brighter bulbs&quot; keep looking for more satisfying answers than the monoamine hypothesis (this what's called in the mass media &quot;chemical imbalance&quot;). I think any ultimately useful answer has to account for how the current antidepressants work... which is by acting on neurotransmitters, which in turn does alleviate depression (better than placebo) in some people but alas does not in quite a few others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What Krishnan and Nestler favor is another fairly circulated notion (but not so much in the mass media!) that a final common pathway for depression exists. But alas, the case is far from being closed on that. Here are a few textbook paragraphs that contrast diabetes (another heterogeneous disease) with depression, which also gets to this final-common-pathway issue, as well as the difficulty in distinguishing cause from effect with individual neurotransmitter systems:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Researchers have compared MDD [major depressive disorder] to other&#xA;  chronic, heterogeneous diseases such as diabetes&#xA;  mellitus (Krishnan &amp;amp; Nestler, 2008), which, like&#xA;  MDD, is projected to increase in prevalence in the&#xA;  coming decades. [...] Like depression, diabetes can present&#xA;  with a variety of symptoms, such as polyuria, polydipsia,&#xA;  polyphagia, as well as with cardiovascular,&#xA;  digestive, and nervous system dysfunction. Unlike&#xA;  MDD, however, these symptoms are a product of&#xA;  a known molecular basis of the disease: a deficit&#xA;  in the production or utilization of insulin. The&#xA;  involvement of insulin—due to the lack of the hormone&#xA;  or to failure of its intended signaling—represents&#xA;  a final common molecular pathway (FCMP)&#xA;  in diabetes that unites the involvement of disparate&#xA;  physiological systems. This FCMP has allowed&#xA;  researchers to begin to use powerful animal models&#xA;  to understand the symptoms, risk factors, and&#xA;  complications of this disorder. In addition, the&#xA;  identification of insulin and the pancreatic ß-cells&#xA;  involved in insulin production have led to dramatic&#xA;  improvements in the prevention and treatment&#xA;  of diabetes. At this point, however, an FCMP is&#xA;  absent in the study of MDD; presently, there is no&#xA;  neurobiological equivalent in depression of insulin&#xA;  from ß-cells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Over the past few decades, many molecular&#xA;  systems have been implicated in depression. [...] Because of the wide array of molecular&#xA;  systems that are disrupted in MDD, or in which&#xA;  disruption leads to depression, it has been difficult&#xA;  for researchers and clinicians to cleanly link molecular&#xA;  and behavioral systems. Investigators have&#xA;  noted limitations with all these single-system theories&#xA;  of MDD; indeed, to date, there is no known&#xA;  single molecule that is both necessary and sufficient&#xA;  to explain all the varied combinations of symptoms&#xA;  that can be present in individuals diagnosed with&#xA;  MDD. Genetic studies of MDD, too, have not&#xA;  been definitive in determining consistent risk loci,&#xA;  due to heterogeneity, environmental factors, and&#xA;  nosological limitations (Shyn &amp;amp; Hamilton, 2010). Even evidence of successful antidepressant action&#xA;  is not sufficient to demonstrate the primacy of the&#xA;  targetted molecular system in the pathophysiology&#xA;  of MDD. In fact, some researchers have argued&#xA;  that anomalies in traditional molecules implicated&#xA;  in the pathophysiology of MDD, like monoamines&#xA;  or glutamate, are unlikely to be at the etiological&#xA;  core of depression (Krishnan &amp;amp; Nestler, 2010). This&#xA;  difficulty disentangling the causal links between&#xA;  symptoms profiles and molecular systems has historically&#xA;  led to simplifications and misconceptions&#xA;  of the neurobiology of depression (Lacasse &amp;amp; Leo,&#xA;  2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A primary challenge for investigators is differentiating&#xA;  between molecules that are disrupted&#xA;  as a consequence of depression and molecules&#xA;  that, when disrupted, are involved in the etiology&#xA;  of MDD. Demonstrating that a particular&#xA;  molecule—for example, a metabolite of a neurotransmitter—&#xA;  is up- or down-regulated in MDD&#xA;  is not sufficient to claim that disruption in this&#xA;  molecule causes MDD. Even when molecules&#xA;  can be causally linked to depression, the heterogeneity&#xA;  of this disorder prevents researchers from&#xA;  linking that molecule to all forms of MDD. For&#xA;  example, showing that interferon alpha (IFN-)&#xA;  can cause MDD is not equivalent to proving that&#xA;  IFN- underlies all cases of the disorder. Indeed,&#xA;  whereas some molecular systems may be strongly&#xA;  associated with one particular domain of impairment&#xA;  (e.g., dopamine and deficits in motivation&#xA;  and behavior), the effects of other molecular systems,&#xA;  like norepinephrine, may be less specific.&#xA;  Adding to this complexity is the fact that MDD is&#xA;  a moderately heritable disorder (Levinson, 2009)&#xA;  in which preexisting vulnerabilities interact with&#xA;  stressful life events to increase risk for initial and&#xA;  recurrent depressive episodes in a manner similar&#xA;  to the kindling model of epileptogenesis (Kendler,&#xA;  Thornton, &amp;amp; Gardner, 2000). Moreover, different&#xA;  symptoms and symptom clusters in MDD are&#xA;  inherited at different rates. For example, sleep and&#xA;  appetite disruption have higher heritability estimates&#xA;  than does psychomotor retardation (Jang,&#xA;  Livesley, Taylor, Stein, &amp;amp; Moon, 2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reproduced from Chen and Gotlib &quot;Molecular Foundations of the Symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder&quot; in &lt;em&gt;The Oxford Handbook of Molecular Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, OUP 2015&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-05T06:33:23.647" LastActivityDate="2018-01-05T06:33:23.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18827" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13342" CreationDate="2018-01-05T08:25:15.290" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is something called &quot;advance organizer&quot;, that traces back to Ausubel (1960). It is some kind of overview, in which a short summary is given and (more important), in which the following  topic is connected to prior knowledge (= Associations are being activated). In that sense it activates schemes, in order to assimiliate the new knoweldge to the old one or to accomodate/correct the prior knowledge. So, to be useful, advance organizers should have certain features:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Connections between the following topic and prior knowlege&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Catch the attention of the student&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Be concret, insted of abstract&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;F.e. Before teaching equations the teacher could give the analogy of a scale. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a scientific perspective it is known, that advance organizers can have supportive effects on learning and retention (see f.e. Luiten, Ames &amp;amp; Ackerson, 1980)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luiten, J., Ames, W., &amp;amp; Ackerson, G. (1980). A meta-analysis of the effects of advance organizers on learning and retention. American Educational Research Journal, 17(2), 211-218.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15183" LastActivityDate="2018-01-05T08:25:15.290" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18828" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18871" CreationDate="2018-01-05T09:35:23.673" Score="2" ViewCount="367" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hansen and hansen proposed the &lt;strong&gt;anger superiority effect:&lt;/strong&gt; threatening faces pop out of crowds, perhaps as a result of a preattentive, parallel search for signals of direct threat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20141311&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pinkham (2010)&lt;/a&gt; demonstrated that we are faster when we have to spot an angry face than the happy one (below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0o6tS.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0o6tS.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Can we really establish that we have an anger superiority effect?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Angry faces and non-angry faces differ for too many features...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can we attribute this result (angry faces faster detected) to anger-related features, when so many other features (not necessarily related to anger) are different?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;references&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3397866&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hansen &amp;amp; Hansen, 1988&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="16144" LastEditDate="2018-01-07T15:44:36.990" LastActivityDate="2018-01-10T09:19:50.320" Title="Is detection of angry faces more efficient in humans?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18829" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18832" CreationDate="2018-01-05T11:48:19.217" Score="3" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the current research/industry standard on measuring mental workload using objective measurements (e.g. EEG, eye-tracking)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you have any suggestions for specific tools and techniques? &#xA;Are there combinations of physiological measurements one should consider?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18071" LastActivityDate="2018-01-05T15:04:05.683" Title="What is the best unobtrusive and objective method to measure mental workload?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;workload&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18830" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13342" CreationDate="2018-01-05T12:35:45.653" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, an overview chapter helps for most people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An overview chapters allows the reader to develop a stronger associative network, for instance this read:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sowa, J. F. (2006). Semantic networks. Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering the importance that one is able to &lt;em&gt;connect the dots&lt;/em&gt; while learning math, facilitating the development of the associative network is beneficial for learning. This effect is further elevated by visual learners.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can suggest you these:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presmeg, N. C. (2006). Research on visualization in learning and teaching mathematics. Handbook of research on the psychology of mathematics education, 205-235.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gilbert, J. (2005). Visualization: A metacognitive skill in science and science education. Visualization in science education, 9-27.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For less visual learners, or those too lazy to appreciate the overview pages, I personally believe it will not reduce learning or provide any other harm for that matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18071" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-05T12:35:45.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18831" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18784" CreationDate="2018-01-05T13:12:31.947" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, this is mostly a technicality (but then so is the DSM definition of any mental disorder). The DSM allows for a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative_disorder_not_otherwise_specified&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DDNOS&lt;/a&gt;; actually in DSM-5 that would be OSDD &quot;Other Specified Dissociative Disorder&quot; diagnosis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This category applies to presentations in which symptoms characteristic of a dissociative&#xA;  disorder that cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or&#xA;  other important areas of functioning predominate but do not meet the full criteria for any of&#xA;  the disorders in the dissociative disorders diagnostic class. The other specified dissociative&#xA;  disorder category is used in situations in which the clinician chooses to communicate&#xA;  the specific reason that the presentation does not meet the criteria for any specific dissociative&#xA;  disorder. This is done by recording “other specified dissociative disorder” followed&#xA;  by the specific reason (e.g., “dissociative trance”).&#xA;  Examples of presentations that can be specified using the “other specified” designation&#xA;  include the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Chronic and recurrent syndromes of mixed dissociative symptoms: This category&#xA;  includes identity disturbance associated with less-than-marked discontinuities in&#xA;  sense of self and agency, or alterations of identity or episodes of possession in an individual&#xA;  who reports no dissociative amnesia.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[more types follow but are not relevant here]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So OSDD type 1 would include any cases of multiple personalities/identities without dissociative amnesia, so in this (DSM) sense you can't have your cake and eat it, i.e. multiple personalities/identities would always be a disorder, albeit with not-so-obvious name, assuming the extent of these personalities/identities is sufficient to be deemed clinically relevant (by the diagnostician). For reference, the brief DID definition (without all the usual caveats of the full def such as not being caused by drugs or other medical conditions, but being clinically relevant in terms of distress/impairment etc.) is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dissociative identity disorder is characterized by a) the presence of two or more distinct personality states or an experience of possession and b) recurrent episodes of amnesia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So clearly if (b) is dropped from DID resulting in OSDD type 1, we're left with what you're asking for (again as long as it's clinically relevant distress/impairment, not caused by drugs or other medical issues etc. These are common verbiage caveats added to most definitions of disordes in the DSM.) So then this is pretty much an issue &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/18693/is-there-a-survey-regarding-the-meaning-of-distress-in-the-definition-of-mental&quot;&gt;what is clinically relevant distress/impairment so that a cluster of symptoims is a disorder&lt;/a&gt;. There is only one additional, unusual caveat added to DID in DSM-5 (and this would apply to OSDD as well):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Note: In children, the symptoms are not better explained by imaginary playmates or other fantasy play.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the topic of prevalence and presentation, a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4579511/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2014 review&lt;/a&gt; notes &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Chronic complex DD [dissociative disorders] include dissociative identity disorder (DID) and the most common form of dissociative disorder not otherwise specified (DDNOS, type 1), now known as Other Specified Dissociative Disorders (OSDD, type 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The most common type of DDNOS, which has been replaced in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5, called other specified dissociative disorder (OSDD), is typically found to be the most prevalent DD in general population and clinical studies with a prevalence rates up to 8.3% in the community reviewed in [...]. Across general population studies, the most severe DD, dissociative identity disorder (DID) has a prevalence of approximately 1% and has been found in .4 – 14% of psychiatric inpatients and outpatients, depending on the sample [...]. Most DDNOS/OSDD patients are similar in presenting symptoms, history, clinical course, and treatment response to DID patients, so DDNOS/OSDD is combined with DID here [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many clinicians and lay people believe that DID presents with dramatic, florid personality states with obvious state transitions (switching). These florid presentations are likely based on media stereotypes, but actually occur in only about 5% of DID patients [...]. The vast majority of DID patients have subtle presentations characterized by a mixture of dissociative and PTSD symptoms embedded with other symptoms such as posttraumatic depression, substance abuse, somatoform symptoms, eating disorders, personality disorders, and self-destructive and impulsive behaviors [...]. A classic presentation includes a history of multiple treatment providers, numerous serious suicide attempts resulting in repeated hospitalizations, and good medication trials typically with limited or no benefit [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although the media and public are often overly fascinated with DID dissociated self-states, the complex symptomatic presentation of DID receives more clinical attention from trained clinicians [...]. Under-recognition of DID is common because the most obvious and pressing aspect of a patient’s clinical presentation may be one of the many comorbid disorders (e.g., severe mood disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], eating disorder, substance abuse, BPD), or the pseudopsychotic symptoms related to the overlap and intrusions of self-states into consciousness. This overlapping influence of self-states causes “passive influence” phenomena or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Schneider#First-rank_symptoms_in_schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schneiderian first rank symptoms&lt;/a&gt;, which are more common in DID than overt, obvious “switching” of states. DID patients experience more first rank symptoms than do individuals with schizophrenia, with the exception of thought broadcasting or audible thoughts [...]. Intrusions into consciousness may be partially excluded from consciousness (e.g., hearing voices of states, thought insertion/withdrawal, “made” actions/impulses) or fully excluded from consciousness (e.g., time loss, fugues, disremembered behaviors; [...]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yeah, weirdly, the otherwise specified DDs are much more common than the &quot;flagship&quot; DID... and (thus) the transitions between personalities/identities are mostly non-abrupt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And finally whether DDs can occur without trauma, the DSM-5 says yes, but also acknowledges that DDs commonly occur after trauma:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The dissociative disorders are frequently found in the aftermath of trauma, and many&#xA;  of the symptoms, including embarrassment and confusion about the symptoms or a desire&#xA;  to hide them, are influenced by the proximity to trauma. In DSM-5, the dissociative disorders&#xA;  are placed next to, but are not part of, the trauma- and stressor-related disorders, reflecting&#xA;  the close relationship between these diagnostic classes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And going back to the review for some empirical quantification:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Epidemiological studies have found that mood, somatoform, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse are commonly associated with antecedent trauma, as well as PTSD [...]. These disorders are also common co-morbidities of patients with chronic complex DD [...]. For example, in a prospective treatment study of DID and dissociative disorder not otherwise specified (DDNOS) patients, 89% also had PTSD (n = 242), 83% had a mood disorder (n = 226), 50% had an anxiety disorder other than PTSD (n = 136), 30% had an eating disorder (n = 81), 22% had a substance abuse/dependence disorder (n = 61), and 22% had a somatoform disorder (n = 59).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But you have to keep in mind that a study like the last one is restricted to subjects who are seeking treatment, so they experience one or more distressing symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, I'm guessing your question might have been motivated by a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/vdxgw9/when-multiple-personalities-are-not-a-disorder-400&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vice article&lt;/a&gt; that has a similar title to your question, but which is mainly talking about the &quot;multiplicity community&quot; whose members are appanretly not distessed by their experiences. Likewise there's a &quot;Plural Activism&quot; movement, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://pluralvoices.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Issue1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mission statement of which is apparently&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Plural Activism will bring public awareness to&#xA;  the fact that multiples, no matter their origin,&#xA;  are able to live healthy, successful lives&#xA;  without integration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So that goes back to what I was saying about psychiatrists (and their studies) mostly seeing people who are distressed. Quoting from Vice:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The multiplicity community insists on being seen as healthy—even normal. This is our reality, they argue. Why are you imposing your reality onto us? Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)—and its controversial precursor, Multiple Personality Disorder—are terms roundly rejected by the community, and most of them don't feel that they belong in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) at all. It's not that they don't believe people can suffer from DID (or, more broadly, Dissociative Disorder Not Otherwise Specified [DDNOS]). They just don't accept that they suffer from it. To them, all those with DID/DDNOS are multiple, but not all multiples are DID/DDNOS. Contrary to what a DID/DDNOS diagnosis implies, multiples want everyone in their system to be seen as people. Not fragments, alters, or personalities, but distinct individuals who happen to be inhabiting the same physical body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The multiplicity community's history with the MPD/DID/DDNOS labels is complicated, and full of contention,&quot; says Falah Liang [an exponent of this community]. &quot;There's a lot of resentment towards psychiatry for pathologizing what is seen as simply a neurological difference like being left-handed, for painting multiplicity as freaks and invalids, and for pushing integration as a necessary 'cure' that all multiplicity must undergo.&quot; On the flip side, the anonymous psychologist I spoke to expressed mild resentment at the idea of healthy/empowered multiplicity distracting from people who actually need a DID diagnosis. &quot;People with DID need to be recognized, as it's a genuine disorder,&quot; she said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dr. Max Krucoff, a neurosurgery resident at Duke University Medical Center, would be the first to acknowledge the potential slipperiness of DSM diagnoses. &quot;Most medical diagnoses are defined by a pathophysiology—something identifiable, anatomic,&quot; he says. &quot;Psychiatric diagnoses have no known underlying cause. I can't take a biopsy of somebody's brain and look at it under a microscope and say, 'You have Multiple Personality Disorder.'&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Still, the controversial term &quot;disorder,&quot; he says, is a means to an end: effective treatment for those who want and/or need it. &quot;If people aren't hurting anybody or dangerous to anybody or asking for help, there's no reason to go looking for them and treating them,&quot; he says. &quot;Everybody's on a spectrum, and what's considered a psychiatric illness is often evolving. If you feel like you're sick, if you feel like you need help, then doctors may be able to label you with a disorder only so they can figure out a good way to treat and help you.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I was going to say that no academic publications have looked at this multiplicity community, but I'm glad to be proven wrong, there's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5468408/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 paper&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;Multiplicity: An Explorative Interview Study on Personal Experiences of People with Multiple Selves&quot; mostly exploring the on-line communities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results: Multiplicity is discussed on Twitter, Tumblr, Google+ and several other personal websites, blogs, and forums maintained by multiples. According to the study's estimates, there are 200–300 individuals who participate in these forums and believe they are multiple. Based on the six interviews, it appears that multiples have several selves who are relatively independent of each other and constitute the personality's system. Each “resident person” or self, has their own unique behavioral pattern, which is triggered by different situations. However, multiples are a heterogeneous group in terms of their system organization, memory functions, and control over switching between selves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Conclusions: Multiplicity can be placed along a continuum between identity disturbance and dissociative identity disorder (DID), although most systems function relatively well in everyday life. Further research is needed to explore this phenomenon, especially in terms of the extent to which multiplicity can be regarded as a healthy way of coping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a few more details relating to antecedent trauma (or lack thereof), &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Typically, multiples use their unique terminology to refer to common experiences, for example, “system” (which is the term used to refer to themselves, i.e., a system of persons), “resident persons” (or “alters,” who are alternative personalities sharing the body), “fronting” (when one resident person takes control over the behavior in a particular moment or period of time) and “host” (the original personality, often the one who has been present from birth). [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Most systems do not report amnesic barriers or recall traumatic events, and they insist that their multiplicity is something they were born with. Many of them call this healthy or a natural state of identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Multiples are a heterogeneous group. According to their posts, their triggers, how they switch between resident persons and the way they organize real-life behaviors differ greatly from one system to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A recurring topic on forums is the gender identity of multiples. Many multiples experience transgender issues and gender dysphoria because their residents have different genders and sexual preferences. There are many similarities between multiplicity and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) rights activism. Multiplicity uses many of the terms that the LGBTQ community uses, such as “coming out,” which means “revealing themselves” to the outside world as a multiple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first 3 vignettes (interviews) in the paper do involve antecedent trauma (two of them quite clearly) or report switching being somewhat stress-related. The 4th vignette is perhaps an example where trauma is not involved, but it does involve autism. The 5th vignette is perhaps the one with the least co-morbidity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“I'm the host. I'm agender, because I don't like to be identified by gender. We've decided, it's better that I talk because I've been here the whole time,” a 22-year-old female voice introduced herself. She lives in a small town with family and currently studies psychology in college. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The system started about seven years ago, when the body was 15 years old. “We are not traumagenic; it just happened,” she stated. “In the very beginning, there were only two people who argued. One day I woke up and felt as if someone was possessing me. First I thought that I was losing my mind. It was crazy.” Then, a couple of months later, another person switched in, but it did not communicate with her. A little later, someone else came in and established order. Then, more switched in. There are fairly original members, and there are other ones who gradually showed up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Her parents know about the system, but they have never met other members. “My mum asked me if I wanted to kill her,” she stated. Her teachers do not know about her system because she would never allow switching in the classroom. She talked to professionals, and they do not think it is a problem; they see it as a sort of help. Given that she has not had trauma or amnesia, they do not believe it is DID. She added, “It isn't interfering with my life now. On the contrary, it is helpful.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-06T01:31:04.730" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T01:31:04.730" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18832" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18829" CreationDate="2018-01-05T15:04:05.683" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are different parameters you can use, but as the question is not clear what exactly you want to do , I think with EEG and Task Load Index (TLI) you are good to go.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Task load index (TLI) is the so called engagement-index  and  is &#xA;  defined  by  two  formulas,  TLI1  and  TLI2. However, these indices&#xA;  were calculated as follows:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FQ9Ji.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FQ9Ji.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;where Pθ and Pα denote the theta- and alpha-band power, respectively.&#xA;  Pθ,Fz and Pθ,AFz are the theta activities of Fz and AFz electrodes&#xA;  respectively. The θ (theta) activity was calculated by averaging the&#xA;  power spectrum of the θ frequency range (4-7.5 Hz). Similarly, Pα,Pz&#xA;  and Pα,CPzPOz are the α (alpha) activities of Pz and the pool of CPz&#xA;  and POz electrodes, respectively. The α activity was calculated by&#xA;  averaging the power spectrum of the α frequency range (8- 12.5)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This section is exactly quoted from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226865851_The_Assessment_of_Heart_Rate_Variability_HRV_and_Task_Load_Index_TLI_as_Physiological_Markers_for_Physical_Stress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18052" LastActivityDate="2018-01-05T15:04:05.683" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18835" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16944" CreationDate="2018-01-06T10:01:10.447" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Briefly looking at an article summarizing Cialdini's viewpoints (&amp;quot;The Science and Practice of Persuasion&amp;quot;, 2001, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.influenceatwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Cornell-HotelRestAdminQrtly.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;free pdf&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-8804(02)80030-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doi link&lt;/a&gt;), he does not include threats of punishment under &amp;quot;authority&amp;quot;. By &amp;quot;authority&amp;quot;, Cialdini means the status of the influencer, such as being recognized as an expert on the subject-matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I can tell, in his book, Cialdini barely tackles punishment directly. The most detailed passage dealing with punishment (as a strategy) seems to be one one child rearing, and even this occurs in a footnote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The occurrence of the Romeo and Juliet effect should not be interpreted&#xA;as a warning to parents to be always accepting of their teenagers’&#xA;romantic choices. New players at this delicate game are likely to err&#xA;often and, consequently, would benefit from the direction of an adult&#xA;with greater perspective and experience. In providing such direction,&#xA;parents should recognize that teenagers, who see themselves as young&#xA;adults, will not respond well to control attempts that are typical of&#xA;parent-child relationships. Especially in the clearly adult arena of mating,&#xA;adult tools of influence (preference and persuasion) will be more&#xA;effective than traditional &lt;strong&gt;forms of parental control (prohibitions and&#xA;punishments)&lt;/strong&gt;. Although the experience of the Montague and Capulet&#xA;families is an extreme example, heavy-handed restrictions on a young&#xA;romantic alliance may well turn it clandestine, torrid, and sad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So he does include punishment at least under &amp;quot;parental control&amp;quot;... which I don't know where exactly it fits in Cialdini's ontology. Cialdini's book is very narrative with a lot of anecdotes, but he does not engage in a lot of systematization (beyond the chapter-level one which you've mentioned in your question). But from that passage he does seem to consider persuasion as &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; encompassing punishment. This is a fairly purist view, as I further detail below from the (review) perspective of other authors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are correct that other authors (in contrast) do consider punishment as form of persuasion, particularly in legal contexts. Quoting the &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-punishment/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SEP page on legal punishment&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, an obvious and crucial question faces any such justification of punishment as a communicative enterprise. Censure can be communicated through a formal conviction in a criminal court; or it could be communicated by some further formal denunciation issued by a judge or some other representative of the legal community, or by a system of purely symbolic punishments which were burdensome only in virtue of their censorial meaning. It can, of course, also be communicated by ‘hard treatment’ punishments of the kinds imposed by our courts — by imprisonment, by compulsory community service, by fines and the like, which are burdensome independently of their censorial meaning (on ‘hard treatment’, see Feinberg 1970): but why should we choose such methods of communication, rather than methods that do not involve hard treatment (see Christie 1981: 98–105)? Is it because they will make the communication more effective (see Falls 1987; Primoratz 1989; Kleinig 1991)? But why is it so important to make the communication effective — and is there not a serious danger that the hard treatment will conceal, rather than highlight, the moral censure it should communicate (see Mathiesen 1990: 58–73)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One sort of answer to this question explains penal hard treatment as an essential aspect of the enterprise of moral communication itself. &lt;strong&gt;Punishment, on this view, should aim not merely to communicate censure to the offender, but to &lt;em&gt;persuade&lt;/em&gt; the offender to recognise and repent the wrong he has done, and so to recognise the need to reform himself and his future conduct, and to make apologetic reparation to those whom he wronged.&lt;/strong&gt; His punishment then constitutes a kind of secular penance that he is required to undergo for his crime: its hard treatment aspects, the burden it imposes on him, should serve both to assist the process of repentance and reform, by focusing his attention on his crime and its implications, and as a way of making the apologetic reparation that he owes (see Duff 2001, 2011; see also Garvey 1999, 2003; Tudor 2001; Bennett 2008; for a sophisticated discussion see Tasioulas 2006). This type of account faces serious objections (see Bickenbach 1988; Ten 1990; von Hirsch 1999; Bagaric and Amarasekara 2000; von Hirsch and Ashworth 2005, ch. 7): in particular that it cannot show penal hard treatment to be a necessary aspect of a communicative enterprise which is still to respect offenders as responsible and rational agents who must be left free to remain unpersuaded; that apologetic reparation must be voluntary if it is to be of any real value; and that a liberal state should not take this kind of intrusive interest in its citizens’ moral characters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From that I gather that it is controversial whether punishment can be considered true persuasion though, i.e. some other authors disagree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect that in psychological terms, those who argue for punishment as persuasion are behaviorists, in that they don't care what's going on in the mind of the punished as long as the desired outcome (e.g. non reoffending) happens. On the other hand, cognitivists would probably argue that if the outcome does not also include the target internalizing/adopting the viewpoint (that is being communicated) then it is not actual persuasion, but mere compliance-- a sort of machiavellian behavior basically. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.flashcardmachine.com/com-318-exam1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An exam flashcard&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between persuasion and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compliance_gaining&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;compliance gaining&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Persuasion is a change in attitudes, beliefs and values whereas compliance gaining is focused on changing behavior, getting someone to do what you want.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's probably based on some intro 101 book. The research monograph by Seiter and Gass (&lt;em&gt;Perspectives on Persuasion&lt;/em&gt;) has a three-page table with definitions of persuasion by various authors... and they don't really agree.  Seiter and Gass have their own view (of course):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our position is that many of the definitional vagaries can be clarified, if not resolved. by&#xA;focusing on two considerations. The first is whether a given scholar or researcher is attempting&#xA;to define &amp;quot;pure&amp;quot; persuasion- what Simons (1986) and O'Keefe (1990) have labeled&#xA;&amp;quot;paradigm&amp;quot; cases of persuasion-versus all of persuasion, including its periphery.&#xA;which we term &amp;quot;borderline&amp;quot; cases of persuasion, By pure persuasion. we refer to clear-cut&#xA;cases on which almost all scholars in communication and related disciplines would agree.&#xA;As examples. nearly everyone would include a presidential debate, a television commercial.&#xA;or an attorney's closing remarks to a jury as instances of persuasion.&#xA;Other instances. though, lie closer to the boundary of what we normally think of as&#xA;persuasion. Not everyone would agree that a derelict's mere appearance &amp;quot;persuades&amp;quot; passersby&#xA;to keep their distance. Nor would everyone agree that when city planners install&#xA;speed bumps on a street where speeding is common. they are &amp;quot;persuading&amp;quot; motorists to&#xA;slow down. Such cases are less clear-cut. Much of the disparity in definitions. then. is&#xA;rooted in the fact that some scholars and researchers are concerned with &amp;quot;pure&amp;quot; persuasion.&#xA;whereas others are concerned with borderline cases as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Comparing this summary with the passage from Cialdini's book I cited in the beginning, it seems clear enough to me Cialdini was/is preferring (or at least implicitly using) a &amp;quot;pure&amp;quot; definition of persuasion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seiter and Gass also have a textbook (with a similar title but less research oriented), which repeats their view form their monographs, augmented with a pretty illustration (well, the illustration is present in the monograph as well):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FeLEc.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FeLEc.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see the &amp;quot;coercive&amp;quot; form of persuasion, which would include punishment (or at least the threat thereof) is in the borderline bin/area. And in the textbook they further drive that point with a cartoon:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rU1C4.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rU1C4.png&quot; alt=&quot;mobster holding a gun to someone's head&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;accompanied by an elaboration that coercion and persuasion lie on a continuum, and that pure forms are rarely encountered in everyday life experiences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;we would suggest that  most influence attempts we encounter in daily life include both persuasive and coercive elements. Rarely in life is one free to make a a completely unfettered choice. There are almost always strings attached. This is particularly true of face-to-face encounters. If a  friend asks to borrow 20 bucks, we can say &amp;quot;no,&amp;quot; but there may be relational consequences for declining.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rarely, too, are influence attempts completely coercive. For example, holding a gun to another person's head would seem to be an obvious example of coercion. We readily admit that this situation is &lt;em&gt;primarily&lt;/em&gt; coercive. But what if the victim doesn't believe the gun is loaded? Or what if the victim thinks the threatener is bluffing? To be successful, a thread--even a threat of violence--must be perceived as credible. Thus, even in what might see like a clear-cut case of coercion there are persuasive elements at work. And conversely, even in what appear to be cut-and-dried cases of persuasion, there may be coercive features operating. In out view, the isn't so much &lt;em&gt;whether&lt;/em&gt; a situation is persuasive or coercive as &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; persuasive or coercive the situation is. [emphasis in original].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T04:43:43.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18836" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-06T14:16:25.247" Score="2" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;The paper by Fischmeister et al. 2016 (Cortex) analysed fMRI task-related connectivity patterns, for two tasks that relied vs did not rely on recursive reasoning. Namely, they found &quot;increased connectivity within Default Mode Network (DMN) related brain areas during the representation of recursion, while non-recursive representations yielded increased connectivity within the Fronto-Parietal Control-Network&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This sounds to me a lot like a Psychophysiological Interactions (PPI) analysis, although the authors do not identify it as such. PPI can be defined as a technique that &quot;identifies brain regions whose activity depends on an interaction between psychological context (the task) and physiological state (the time course of brain activity) of the seed region&quot; (O’Reilly et al., 2012)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could anyone explain whether the analysis reported in Fischmeister et al. is in a fact (a flavour of) PPI, and if not, how exactly it differs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T14:16:25.247" Title="(Flavours of) Psychophysiological Interactions" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18837" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13547" CreationDate="2018-01-06T16:41:01.977" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the sake of &quot;Hail Mary&quot; answers: there's a recent &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/nc/niw013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2016) paper by Ruch et al.&lt;/a&gt; claiming unprecedented results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Subliminal influence did not significantly decay if probed after 25 versus 15 min. This is unprecedented evidence of the longevity and impact of subliminal messages on conscious, rational decision-making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could try to replicate their experiment(s).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-06T17:03:18.640" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T17:03:18.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18838" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5728" CreationDate="2018-01-06T18:00:20.880" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The only thing that presently qualifies for a &quot;test of innate personality&quot; is to sequence the subject's genome and look for genes (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SNPs&lt;/a&gt; actually) with known relevance for personality. However, since it turned out that personality is just as polygenic as psychiatric disorders (quite in contrast to what some hoped 20 years ago), meaning many genes of small effect add up, you can't just point to one gene or another and proclaim &quot;Evrika!&quot;. Instead, the best known method currently is to compute a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygenic_score&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;genomic profile risk scoring&lt;/a&gt; (PRS). (There's more than one way to do this.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it so happens that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuroticism&lt;/a&gt; is (presently) the best studied trait in this respect (for rather obvious reasons; your motivation for asking this in relation to depression is also that of many researchers, given the high economic cost of depression for society.) But even for neuroticism the results are not that great, and hardly of any clinical value. For instance; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27067015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one 2016 study by Smith et al.&lt;/a&gt; study could predict 1% of neuroticism variance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a study published in &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-017-0013-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dec. 2017 study by Luciano et al.&lt;/a&gt; could predict 2.79% of neuroticism and 0.8% of current depression status (it's oddly not mentioned in its abstract, just in the full text.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the largest study (sample) and the best result to date is from &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/184820&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nagel et al.&lt;/a&gt; who could predict 4.2% of of neuroticism. (This study has yet to appear in a peer-reviewed publication, but it has been cited by some reviews already, e.g. by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29152902&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sanchez-Roige et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But interestingly enough, even though the prediction power is low, one can use such scoring to study how the genes and environment interact. This was done in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28335623&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 study by Domingue et al.&lt;/a&gt; looking longitudinally at the depression (symptoms) score of old subjects before and after the death of their spouse, and correlating with the polygenic risk scores (three different such scores, but I only reproduce two below; the third one looked the same).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mH5gK.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mH5gK.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subjects here are stratified in high an low risk groups by one standard deviation of the polygenic score (up or down) from the mean. Alas, despite the cool graphs and statistically significant prediction by polygenic scores of the depression difference between groups at interesting points in time, the clinical relevance is basically zero. In the authors' own words:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clinically, genetic&#xA;  testing based on current knowledge is unlikely to be useful&#xA;  in planning for or managing bereavement. Effect sizes in our&#xA;  study were too small to be useful for predicting outcomes of&#xA;  individual patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some fundamental limitations the way the polygenic scores are currently computed, stemming from the way the sequencing is done (GWAS); basically only additive effects of SNPs can be accounted for. This excludes both rare variations in genes, and some generic mechanisms (dominance, epistasis) from consideration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-06T18:41:06.493" LastActivityDate="2018-01-06T18:41:06.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18840" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-06T22:58:35.787" Score="1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am following a class where we have just learned about so-called neural fields (the prof called them recurrent neural networks and said they are used to model large populations of real neurons). Now we received homework to get to know the method using a simulation, but we got stuck at the last question, about the usefulness of a certain behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are our guidelines:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Reset the field; make sure it can memorise one bump. &#xA;Give two equal inputs &amp;lt; 15 degrees apart. Reduce until the activity level forms one concave signal (so not like in the picture below).&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This all works. As soon as the difference goes below 10, the bump changes from the signal below to a concave one, just as the input signal does. However, then we get the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;In what situation would such behaviour be useful?&lt;/em&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And we're sort of stuck there. Is there someone who could point us into the right direction? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Picture of neural field. The green line is the input signal, the red line is the output, the blue line is the neural field activity. The x-axis is the position in degrees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1sAxk.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1sAxk.png&quot; alt=&quot;Picture of neural field. The green line is the input signal, the red line is the output, the blue line is the neural field activity. The x-axis is the position in degrees&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18080" LastEditorUserId="18080" LastEditDate="2018-01-07T13:06:27.497" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T13:06:27.497" Title="Neural field application question" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;model&gt;&lt;homework&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18841" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-06T23:05:57.427" Score="3" ViewCount="269" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found that many authors of machine learning papers, that employ the &lt;em&gt;Hebbian learning&lt;/em&gt; rule, refer to the &lt;strong&gt;biological plausibility of it&lt;/strong&gt;, as one of the arguments to use it instead of the well known back-propagation algorithm&#xA;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/67d3/93763869e67874f61b4f13b95ae847e55e55.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Whittington &amp;amp; Bogacz, 2017&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;a href=&quot;http://eplex.cs.ucf.edu/papers/pugh_alife14.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt; Pugh, Soltoggio, &amp;amp; Stanley, 2014&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4538293/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Burms, Caluwaerts, &amp;amp;&#xA;Dambre, 2015&lt;/a&gt;) (&lt;em&gt;I imagine the same argument is used for other biologically plausible algorithms&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But why, in actual fact, is biological plausibility important in the first place?&#xA;Why do so many sources qoute such argument, and what are the advantages of biological plausibility, when related to machine learning applications?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched a lot, but haven't really seen anyone answer this specifically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18081" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-07T03:13:12.250" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T03:13:12.250" Title="Why is Biological plausibility in Machine Learning important?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18841" CreationDate="2018-01-07T00:44:41.447" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;They're mentioning biological plausibility, because they think biological constraints are important for intelligent systems. Also, biologically constrained systems could be easily applied to understanding the brain. Whether biological plausibility is important or not to developing intelligent systems and understanding the brain is a matter of debate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On one hand, there's the argument that since the brain is the only form of intelligence we know, we should probably imitate it to develop intelligent systems. Also, at the same time, we would learn to understand the brain!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, there's the often-repeated argument that we did not get airplanes from imitating birds, but from understanding the principles of aerodynamics. In turn, the principles of aerodynamics were then applied to bird wings and feathers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For better introduction to this debate applied to understanding the brain and creating scalable intelligence, try reading &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tops.12133/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marr's Attacks: On Reductionism and Vagueness&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Eliasmith et al. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T00:44:41.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18843" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6451" CreationDate="2018-01-07T02:58:10.063" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not very related insofar, unfortunately. While the original inspiration for artificial neural networks (ANN) was biological, most of the subsequent progress in ANNs for what is called &quot;machine learning&quot;, which is usually concerned with optimizing some function, came from mathematical insights that were not based in biology; quoting &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncom.2016.00094/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marblestone et al.(2016)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The artificial neural networks now prominent in machine learning were, of course, originally inspired by neuroscience (McCulloch and Pitts, 1943). While neuroscience has continued to play a role (Cox and Dean, 2014), many of the major developments were guided by insights into the mathematics of efficient optimization, rather than neuroscientific findings (Sutskever and Martens, 2013). The field has advanced from simple linear systems (Minsky and Papert, 1972), to nonlinear networks (Haykin, 1994), to deep and recurrent networks (LeCun et al., 2015; Schmidhuber, 2015). Backpropagation of error (Werbos, 1974, 1982; Rumelhart et al., 1986) enabled neural networks to be trained efficiently, by providing an efficient means to compute the gradient with respect to the weights of a multi-layer network. Methods of training have improved to include momentum terms, better weight initializations, conjugate gradients and so forth, evolving to the current breed of networks optimized using batch-wise stochastic gradient descent. These developments have little obvious connection to neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marblestone (who is an AI researcher) and colleagues do argue (in fact this is the point of their article) that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;however, that neuroscience and machine learning are again ripe for convergence&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their list of arguments is fairly long and I'll certainly not do them justice here, but for instance they cite a recent paper proposing to explain that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hebbian plasticity&lt;/a&gt; is a form of optimization:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Often these types of local self-organization can also be viewed as optimizing a cost function: for example, certain forms of Hebbian plasticity can be viewed as extracting the principal components of the input, which minimizes a reconstruction error (&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1511.09468&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pehlevan and Chklovskii, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marblestone et al. dedicate a substantial amount of their paper reviewing fairly recent work that has attempt to pinpoint backpropagation (a key method for ANN's success in optimization) in the brain. The list of hypotheses how backpropagation might happen in the brain is pretty long, alas, so I won't review them here; I'm just pointing to a few papers and talks &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VIRCybGgHts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hinton (2016)&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/100797/CBMM-Memo-036.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liao (2015)&lt;/a&gt; that examine how backpropagation is (or isn't) related to biological neworks or which even propose biologically inspired alternatives to be used in ANNs, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/pdf/1411.6191.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Balduzzi (2014)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another issue that Marblestone et al. cover in depth is how cost functions might be represented in the brain. And this meshes in with how memories and goals are represented in the brain. This is obviously a vast area of research. Since the deep biology papers are generally beyond my pay grade, I'll just point to&#xA;a recent paper (highlighted by Marblestone) proposing that a &quot;Naïve Utility Calculus&quot; underlies much of &quot;Commonsense Psychology&quot;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27388875&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jara-Ettinger et. al (2016)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T02:58:10.063" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18844" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12583" CreationDate="2018-01-07T05:22:18.873" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might want to look at&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Bondü, R. &amp;amp; Esser, G. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry (2015) 24: 185. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0560-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0560-9&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors found fairly compelling evidence of a latent construct of rejection sensitivity associated with ADHD in a large (&gt;1200) German sample of adolescents. This existed independently of another interesting construct, justice sensitivity, which is also higher in young people with ADHD. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to whether or not there is an overlap between rejection sensitivity and what Donald Klein described in 1979, it is possible. However, it seems that many authors from the 1980s onward have believed that Klein's groups were probably people with Borderline Personalities or a variety of bipolar spectrum problems. Klein seems to have found good treatment results with MA0-inhibitors, which are often used off-label for ADHD. So, perhaps he was unknowingly tapping into a subgroup of ADHD patients.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18082" LastEditorUserId="8982" LastEditDate="2018-04-02T06:07:56.330" LastActivityDate="2018-04-02T06:07:56.330" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18845" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15342" CreationDate="2018-01-07T06:47:42.397" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is actually  whole field dedicates for this: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive linguisitics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cognitive linguistics (CL) an interdisciplinary branch of linguistics, combining knowledge and research from both psychology and linguistics. It describes how language interacts with cognition, &lt;strong&gt;how language forms our thoughts&lt;/strong&gt;, and the evolution of language parallel with the change in the common mindset across time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T06:47:42.397" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18846" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8036" CreationDate="2018-01-07T08:11:58.137" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, obviously it's called non-verbal thought, and its most researched sub-topic appears to be visual thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, questions like &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/questions/2302/are-questions-about-what-research-in-neuroscience-has-been-done-welcome-to-the-c&quot;&gt;are there papers about X&lt;/a&gt; are frowned upon when the choice of answers is large, as it happens to be in this case, but I'll still point out one recent paper, &lt;a href=&quot;https://evlab.mit.edu/sites/default/files/documents/Amit_et_al_2017_NI.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amit et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, using neroimmaging which has an interesting (even if somewhat obvious) hypothesis  at the end of its abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Humans rely on at least two modes of thought: verbal (inner speech) and visual (imagery). Are these modes&#xA;  independent, or does engaging in one entail engaging in the other? [...] &#xA;  An asymmetry was observed between inner speech and visual imagery. In particular, inner speech&#xA;  was engaged to a greater extent during verbal than visual thought, but visual imagery was engaged to a similar&#xA;  extent during both modes of thought. Thus, it appears that people generate more robust verbal representations&#xA;  during deliberate inner speech compared to when their intent is to visualize. However, they generate visual&#xA;  images regardless of whether their intent is to visualize or to think verbally. One possible interpretation of these&#xA;  results is that visual thinking is somehow primary, given the relatively late emergence of verbal abilities during&#xA;  human development and in the evolution of our species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some linguists, particulary those who support the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;strong Sapir–Whorf hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; (which posists that language determines thought) will probably be livid after reading this paper... I for one am a little skeptical of the generalizability of Amit's findings because of the limited set of experiments his group performed. I'm quite curious what neuroimaging has to say about the brain activation of mathematicians who work in really abstract areas of mathematics; do they also have visual aids popping in their head all the time during their work? And what about the congenitally blind? It's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/people-cured-blindness-see&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;known&lt;/a&gt; they have a capacity for mental imagery, but that it is more limited than that of the non-blind. What's the brain activation pattern when the congenitally blind think?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if the above sounds too abstract, Laura Otis &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/rethinking-thought/201602/new-look-visual-thinking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;has a blog entry&lt;/a&gt; with some vignettes of how some people self-describe their visual thinking process. She also cites some published studies supporting the idea that there is not just one mode of visual thinking, i.e. there is heterogeneity in &quot;visual thinking styles&quot;; this claim is mostly based on the work of Maria Kozhevnikov and her colleagues e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16248335&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2005&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20081157&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2010a&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20887982&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2010b&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I'm not sure to what extent producing music counts as thought, but a neuroimaging study of musicians who improvise interactively as form of musical dialogue (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088665&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Donnay et al. 2104&lt;/a&gt;) found activation in syntactic but not in semantic areas of the brain regions responsible for processing language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-07T10:01:26.027" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T10:01:26.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18847" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-07T11:26:06.100" Score="2" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose that a little kid found him/herself in a traumatic situation at an age of which he or she has no conscious memories (let's say between 1 and 3 years old). For example, the kid was put in a situation where the little one experienced a lot of fear (of course you can ask if a very young kid can experience fear, but I can assure you it can). Maybe its mother wasn's paying attention to him/her while it was playing on the beach and a &quot;mad dog&quot; (who maybe was treated badly by his/her boss while being a puppy) attacked the poor one, while at the same time a police car with its siren on maximum volume was driving along the boulevard near the beach. Our kid grows older and when old enough he/she notices that every time it hears the loud sound of a police car's siren a feeling of &quot;unusual&quot; (I mean, everybody gets a little frightened when hearing the siren's sound, though less in the city than someone who never heard the sound before high fear comes bubbling up (I found myself in a very stressful situation when I was a kid of which I can remember nothing; I know this because my mother told me). The question is somewhat similar to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/11013/how-can-we-be-formed-by-our-childhoods-environment-if-we-dont-remember-much-of&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; one but certainly not a duplicate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, is there a way to determine if the story I told can be true and, if so, can we find out what the traumatic event was (assuming that no one told you, as my mother did; this is, by the way, the reason I know almost certainly that the story can be true)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastActivityDate="2018-01-08T04:06:48.227" Title="How can we determine if a traumatic event in our youngest days can influence our present behaviour?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18794" CreationDate="2018-01-07T15:22:36.317" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been away from here for a while as I have been concentrating on my University studies, however, I have just come back and boy have I come back at an opportune moment.  Your question showed a lot of research whilst being put together and this is an interesting topic of discussion as I have been discussing the subject of mental illness and violence myself with a couple of friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you pointed out, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1525086/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Heather Stuart stated&lt;/a&gt; that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Definitive statements are difficult to make and it is equally possible to find recent literature supporting the conclusions that the mentally ill are no more violent, they are as violent, or they are more violent than their nonmentally ill counterparts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I have seen, I would agree with you that this still stands today as a response to your question.  The thing is, I have not seen an article which gives a definitive answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is interesting to read the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.05.016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 study on the FBC, RADAR and ALSPAC datasets&lt;/a&gt; you provided.  The thing to note with this study is that although&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the additional sensitivity analyses, we also adjusted for other factors including parental criminality, conduct disorder, and maltreatment where data were available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;what about information regarding maltreatment etc. which was not available?  Those children who were subjected to undocumented external factors, which could affect their behaviours, would have been excluded from the adjustments and therefore, the statistics presented &lt;strong&gt;may&lt;/strong&gt; be inaccurate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another point to make is that as the datasets seem to be based on self disclosures of violence, this, along with other issues raises all sorts of questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would ask how the relevant studies defined violence when asking for the disclosures.  How were the questions put forward?  What was included in their definition of violence?  Was verbal and/or mental abuse considered to be violence or was the scope restricted to just physical violence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could be one reason why there is a discrepancy between US studies and European studies.  Another possibility is, were there cultural differences in play?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The differences in all the studies you pointed out using the Elbogen &amp;amp; Johnson data highlights the complexity of such a study.  What mental illnesses were covered in the studies?  Were any of the mental illnesses a result of (or made worse by) substance abuse, and if so, what is the prevalence of this factor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There could also be all sorts of problems with interpretation of the data.  @ArnonWeinberg shows an example of &lt;strong&gt;possible&lt;/strong&gt; misinterpretation of data when referencing Sweden as &lt;em&gt;the rape capital of the world&lt;/em&gt;.  (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thelocal.se/20170221/why-sweden-is-not-the-rape-capital-of-the-world&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;See here for what I am — and possibly also what Arnon is — referring to&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are so many questions which seem hard to answer with what I have seen and these sort of questions may not be able to be answered in a full meta analysis involving all studies on the mentally ill as this may end in a great deal of speculation.  However, a full meta analysis of all studies in all age groups could point these flaws out and lead to a more thorough study which would iron out those wrinkles.  I personally would look forward to seeing one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T15:22:36.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18849" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18847" CreationDate="2018-01-07T16:01:51.090" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is an interesting question, there is a lack of data to answer with certainty, but some comments can be made about the development of fear, phobias and vital events:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The consequences or effects in the present of such events would be the result of learning, conditioning, those processes would depend on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The degree of importance that the event had, that is, characteristics such as the intensity of the stimulus and interpretation (causal attributions, control, possibility of restitution, etc.), if it is an event that is estimated may affect the survival of the individual, it will be considered as a vital event of the utmost importance. If the event produces a state of alarm or significant anxiety or if the event or related events or effects last for a considerable time.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Conditional situations or situations similar to the event, in psychology are commonly labeled as generability. In general, it is expected that there will be a conditioning to all of the characteristics of the situation. For psychologists it is usually more convenient to study &lt;strong&gt;adverse events&lt;/strong&gt; and not just cases of phobias or fear. For example dog phobias can focus on a specimen of certain characteristics, however, a certain degree of emotional reaction or anxiety or fear to all dogs is expected. The event (main) and its characteristics must be studied, the scope of the generability and the &lt;strong&gt;intensity&lt;/strong&gt; of the stimulus to the different specimens or similar members or similar situations.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A person can develop a specific phobia without having any &lt;strong&gt;direct&lt;/strong&gt; experience. The person could learn the phobia by &lt;strong&gt;vicarian&lt;/strong&gt; learning (for example, a person could develop a phobia based on observing effects on other people). In addition to dealing with fear or adverse emotional reactions it is maintained that people can learn by learning these reactions by &lt;strong&gt;social&lt;/strong&gt; learning.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can we determine if a traumatic event in our younger days can influence our current behavior?&#xA;If you do not remember the event, the effects on your current behavior would come from the process of vicarious and social learning, that is, in your current behavior you would be conditioned by the information you have received about those events with the attribution (extra) that they are about yourself. In the supposed case of your mother (or other relatives who experienced the event and remembered) the expected effect would be much greater.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T16:01:51.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18850" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15342" CreationDate="2018-01-07T16:06:36.260" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Blue&quot; exists in a &lt;em&gt;context&lt;/em&gt; of blue. If the mind presented itself with the linguistic expression (word) &quot;blue&quot; at every perception of the colour blue, then the world is limited to the expression. The context of blue-ness (the experience at 10 fathoms below the surface of the sea), and the complexity of expressions incorporating blue-ness is Wittgenstein's point. The richness of blue-ness and language comes from the unlimited ways to which it (a concept/perception) may be referred or expressed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Language development in children as an indicator of social advantages would support this view of the merits of richness for setting limits to a world... &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wiley.com/en-gb/Language+and+Social+Disadvantage:+Theory+into+Practice-p-9780470019757&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Language and Social Disadvantage: Theory into Practice&lt;/a&gt;, or &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797615581493&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Contribution of Early Communication Quality to Low-Income Children’s Language Success&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of the origin of the colour.. Why would the word &quot;blue&quot; be necessary if the colour was imperceptible? Perhaps this is an ease-of-use linguistic negation. For example: blue replaced the &quot;not red&quot;, &quot;not crimson&quot; naming scheme - a world limited by nouns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18084" LastEditorUserId="18084" LastEditDate="2018-01-08T20:43:03.900" LastActivityDate="2018-01-08T20:43:03.900" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18851" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17820" CreationDate="2018-01-07T16:40:10.320" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would not call it a mainstream concept but it was discussed in some mainstream sources. However, there's a divergence in meaning; some old Commonwealth medical/psychiatry papers mostly use it to denote having someone inappropriately committed to a mental institution... whereas the broader notion you ask about is found in more recent sources and of more marginal impact factor. Furthermore, the original British concept has been re-labeled &quot;tertiary gain of illness&quot; in the US.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/7465707&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1981 &quot;seminal&quot; paper&lt;/a&gt; (by Calef and Weinshel)&#xA;you mention is in psychoanalytical journal, which would immediately give me pause as to its validity/acceptance (unless you're in France). However the Wikipedia page cites an &lt;a href=&quot;https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/588872&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;older paper by Lund &amp;amp; Gardiner, 1977&lt;/a&gt;, which is just a case report though, but in a mainstream psychiatry journal, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Journal_of_Psychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;British Journal of Psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;. Abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A case of paranoid psychosis in an elderly female is reported in which recurrent episodes were apparently induced by the staff of the institution where the patient was a resident. The issues raised by this case are discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The actually seminal paper (cited in the previous one) is Barton &amp;amp; Whitehead (1969) &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(69)92133-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The gas-light phenomenon&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Lancet,i,1258-60. but this was also case report (two actually).&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancet&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Lancet&lt;/a&gt;, as you probably know, is a mainstream medical journal (not just psychiatric).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another paper in the Br. J. Psych is Smith and Sinanan, 1972, The `Gaslight Phenomenon' Reappears A Modification of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganser_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ganser Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.120.559.685&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.120.559.685&lt;/a&gt; starts with:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 1969 Barton and Whitehead reported two&#xA;  cases in which there were definite plots to&#xA;  remove an unwanted and restricting relative&#xA;  by securing admission to a mental hospital, and&#xA;  one case of an old lady admitted to a mental&#xA;  hospital following induced faecal incontinence.&#xA;  The old lady was considered a nursing home&#xA;  nuisance and she was given purgatives regularly.&#xA;  Inevitably she had some &quot;accidents&quot; and these&#xA;  were used as an excuse for removing her to&#xA;  hospital. They labelled such attempts 'The&#xA;  Gaslight Phenomenon', inspired by Patrick&#xA;  Hamilton's play Gaslight which was first&#xA;  produced in London in 1939 and later formed&#xA;  the basis for a film. Their survey of the&#xA;  literature uncovered few recent reports of such&#xA;  manipulations.&#xA;  Without the emphasis of Barton and White&#xA;  head's report the following cases might have&#xA;  passed unnoticed. We feel that it is time to&#xA;  stress again the presence of this phenomenon,&#xA;  and, as this report shows, it is not unique to&#xA;  psychiatric hospitals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And they also discuss a couple of cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But nevertheless these paper have few citations, using the Google Scholar count &#xA;30 for the 1969 one. So while it was discussed, it was seldom so. It's true that the 1981 paper seems to have more citations (57) but in my experience GS undercounts for the older papers and overcounts the newer ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Searching for the &quot;gaslight&quot; term in pubmed returns around 10 papers (a couple of which are clearly false positive) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=gaslight&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=gaslight&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=gaslighting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=gaslighting&lt;/a&gt; only 3 hits. Hence my conclusion: discussed in mainstream sources, but seldom, so not a mainstream term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that the sources from the Commonwealth (there is a paper from Canada as well &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7093877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7093877&lt;/a&gt;) use gaslight phenomenon/syndrome, while all 3 hits in pubmed for &quot;gaslighting&quot; are from US authors (and 2 surely are psychoanalytical, including the paper you found.) I find it a little odd that there no hits in any US psychiatry journals; perhaps US psychiatrists called the notion something else... or they did not find worthwhile discussing. Actually, one US (VA) psychiatrist, Dansak, who is citing Barton and Whitehead, proposed to call the concept... &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0010440X73900382&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;tertiary gain of illness&quot;&lt;/a&gt; and he (unlike the British) applied a psychoanlitic lens:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;PSYCHIATRISTS recognize that their patients acquire certain gains from&#xA;  their emotional problems. The gains were originally defined by Sigmund&#xA;  Freud as the primary and secondary gains of illness.’ The primary gain is an&#xA;  intrapsychic gain which the patient obtains as a result of his symptoms, i.e..&#xA;  a defense against and a reduction of anxiety. The secondary gain is an interpersonal&#xA;  or social advantage attained by the patient as a consequence of his&#xA;  illness In each case, it is noted, the patient is the one who “benefits.”&#xA;  An intriguing variation of the problem of secondary gain is mentioned by&#xA;  Ross’ in his discussion of the “traumatic neuroses” and their relation to compensation.&#xA;  He gives an example in which “the wife of an injured breadwinner&#xA;  may have gone to work while her husband was incapacitated, contributing to the&#xA;  shift in the family equilibrium. This shift may further a regression in which he&#xA;  becomes like a child or a substitute mother in the home, dependent on his wife.&#xA;  or retaliating for her assumption of his role. The wife may then push for compensation&#xA;  to reduce her own load.” This illustration presents the notion that&#xA;  someone other than the patient may seek or achieve gains from the patient’s&#xA;  illness. In this particular example the gain would be some form of financial&#xA;  compensation that would allow the wife to stop working, hire a maid. etc.&#xA;  The author proposes that gains sought or attained from a patient’s illness by&#xA;  someone other than the patient be called the tertiary gain of illness. Furthermore,&#xA;  though the above example highlights the tertiary gain to the wife of the&#xA;  husband’s acquiring compensation for his injury, all tertiary gains are not&#xA;  financial. The following case will demonstrate another type of tertiary gain, that&#xA;  of expelling the patient from his family. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[case details]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In keeping with the&#xA;  frame of reference of the patient and his illness, the writer proposes to define&#xA;  this phenomenon, where someone other than the patient gains from the latter’s&#xA;  illness, as the tertiary gain of illness.  [...] Recent reports in the British literatures have discussed examples of this under the heading of the “Gaslight Phenomenon.” &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also worth noting is that the concept discussed in the medical journals is narrower than what Wikipedia proposes, and it's usually just about having someone committed to a mental institution in inappropriate circumstances. I'm not sure about psychoanalytical papers, I'm not really in a mood to read them now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28746802&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 hit on &quot;gaslight&quot;&lt;/a&gt; in pubmed  (from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Advanced_Nursing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;J. Adv. Nurs.&lt;/a&gt;) has a quite different tint:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Conduct in our nursing workplaces remains a curious contrast of overt statements&#xA;  about quality, collegiality and community accompanied too often with the opposite (Cassell&#xA;  2011, Lampman et al. 2009, MacKay et al. 2008, Twale &amp;amp; De Luca 2008). Known as&#xA;  gaslighting (Sarkis 2017), misalignment of words with actions serves to deny or justify&#xA;  bullying and harassment in a language of legitimacy. This behavior includes verbal and non-&#xA;  verbal actions, from overt aggression to subtle but ongoing undermining via institutional&#xA;  means, including: unfair allocation of work and roles, assignment of heavier teaching loads,&#xA;  unfair performance evaluations, and denial of opportunity (Gloor 2014, Cleary et al. 2016).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it's possible the notion adopted in the US came by a different route (not the British psychiatry journals), which might explain the different connotation as well as the small number of citations for the British papers. The &quot;Sarkis S. (2017)&quot; reference in that 2017 paper alas is just a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/here-there-and-everywhere/201701/11-warning-signs-gaslighting-in-relationships&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PT blog&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dorpat writes in his 2007 book &quot;Crimes of Punishment: America's Culture of Violence&quot; (p. 179):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Like the psychoanalysts Victor Calef and Edward Weinshel, I have adapted&#xA;  a broad definition of gaslighting, one that includes not just those who are made&#xA;  psychotic by it, but a wider range of victims. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A mild and naive form of gaslighting may be carried out by psychotherapists&#xA;  and others who are unaware that they are gaslighting, and who may also be unaware of the harmful effects of what they are doing. I gave examples of psychotherapists and psychoanalysts who were gaslighting&#xA;  patients and did not realize it. [citing his older book mentioned in the other answer]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I suppose Calef and Weinshel are responsible for broadening the notion, which might explain the number of citations they've got (57 in Google Scholar).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that when applied to therapists this gaslighting clearly falls under &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iatrogenesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;iatrogenesis&lt;/a&gt;... and iatrogenesis in therapy &lt;a href=&quot;http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/208/3/210&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;has been discussed aplenty&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally (I hope!) &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00922429?&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gass and Nichols (1988)&lt;/a&gt; talk about gaslighting in the context of extramarital affairs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The worst part, Harry, is the lying.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;I'm not lying; you're just imagining things.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Such conversations become a vicious part of the interaction between&#xA;  some husbands and wives. The husband gaslights or distorts&#xA;  reality in an effort to convince his spouse that she is crazy, that what&#xA;  she is perceiving is not happening. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They don't cite any other paper for their use of the term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-07T18:38:47.107" LastActivityDate="2018-01-07T18:38:47.107" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18855" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-08T06:36:58.430" Score="3" ViewCount="176" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been trying to find out what the (human) electrotactile frequency range is. Since this is a much more experimental method (and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uta.fi/sis/tie/hui/schedule/HUI2013-3-tactile-applications.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more unpleasant&lt;/a&gt;) than the traditional vibrotactile method, the research is more limited. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;E.g.,&lt;/em&gt; for vibrotatctile I could find in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frobt.2015.00038/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sonar and Paik (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The mechanoreceptors responsible for vibrotactile sensation are the rapidly adapting (RA) and Pacinian corpuscle (PC) receptors with perceptible frequencies ranging from 3 to 100 and 100 to 400 Hz, respectively (Choi and Kuchenbecker, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually that seems to contain a typo or misquote of the paper they cite, which puts the PC at 10-500 Hz:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GRe4N.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GRe4N.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyhow, for electrotactile I could only find what some researchers have used in some of their devices, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://tcnl.bme.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/2007-Okpara-NE-BMES-4x4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Okpara et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Based on our prior unpublished work, the four levels of frequency were set at 100, 35, 15 and 10 Hz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That suggests a lower range perhaps of only 10-100 Hz. But is that the full range range that can be felt using electrotactile stimulation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's been suggested to me that it may be exactly the same as for vibrotactile, but a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uta.fi/sis/tie/hui/schedule/HUI2013-3-tactile-applications.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;set of slides&lt;/a&gt; comparing various methods says about electrotactile:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stimulate receptors and nerve endings with electric charge passing through the skin&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since there's some suggestion it may bypass receptor (in part), perhaps the results can be different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the frequency range of electrotactile stimulation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T13:18:14.283" LastActivityDate="2018-04-09T12:38:34.733" Title="What is the frequency range of electrotactile stimulation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18857" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="109" CreationDate="2018-01-08T07:58:51.050" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am one of the core developers of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.labvanced.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.labvanced.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, a very new and probably the most advanced online platform for creating, sharing, and conducting professional behavioral experiments. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;There is a complete visual interface, so no need to program a single line of code, but still you can still write if statements, while loops, and asynchronous loadings etc. In fact any arbitrary logic, presenting video, audio, text and many more elements is possible, at the same time ensuring spatially and temporally very precise presentation in fullscreen mode.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;From a data-recording perspective we allow, recording of any mouse and keyboard events, voice recording via microphone and eye and face tracking via webcam. We also offer automated text translations to over 50 languages, and have integrated crowdsourcing capabilities (mTurk etc.) to millions of participants worldwide. &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Finally all experiments can run online in the browser or locally on your computer / in your lab, and you can simple start by using one of our over 50 experimental templates on &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.labvanced.com/expLibrary.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.labvanced.com/expLibrary.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;br&gt;&#xA;Most importantly there is a &lt;strong&gt;free version&lt;/strong&gt; of our software and we are currently working to &lt;strong&gt;open source the source code on github&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;Just check it out at &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.labvanced.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.labvanced.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have any more quesiton, feel free to write me message.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18095" LastActivityDate="2018-01-08T07:58:51.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18859" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4503" CreationDate="2018-01-08T12:25:11.407" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found one &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19522782&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2009 review by Snyder and Anderson&lt;/a&gt; that attempted to answer your question, i.e. whether external coercion makes a difference in therapy outcomes. From its sheepish abstract, you can probably guess that no firm conclusion can be drawn. The review is narrative, not systematic, although they do split their discussion by field of intervention: domestic violence, child abuse, incest, and substance abuse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas most of the papers cited in there fall in two categories: those that (like your question) cast doubt on the outcomes from a theoretical perspective, or are empirical papers that don't directly compare voluntary to mandated therapy outcomes, but rather present correlational evidence why mandated therapy is a good idea. For example, in the case of domestic abuse, the number of abusive incidents is inversely correlated with the length of stay (number of sessions) in therapy. And--so the logic goes--it's better to have the batterer stay in therapy for longer no matter how that's achieved. But there's not a single paper cited in that section that directly evaluated the contrast you want (mandatory vs self-initiated). The same can be said for child abuse and incest, areas in which there's hardly any self-initiated therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Only in the area of substance abuse there are some direct contrast papers, but most are of rather low quality and varying methodology and thus have fairly contradictory results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While some outcome research reports that mandated clients did better than voluntary&#xA;  clients (Chopra, Preston, &amp;amp; Gerson, 1979; Dunham &amp;amp; Mauss, 1982), others (Smart, 1974)&#xA;  report that voluntary clients fared better. The majority, however, have found similarly beneficial outcomes for both groups (Anglin, Brecht, &amp;amp; Maddahian, 1989; Brecht, Anglin, &amp;amp; Wang,&#xA;  1993; De Leon, 1988; Flores, 1983; Freedberg &amp;amp; Johnston, 1978; Hubbard et al., 1989;&#xA;  McGlothlin, 1979; Watson, Brown, Tilleskjor, Jacobs, &amp;amp; Pucel, 1988). Illustrative of these findings&#xA;  was a study by Anglin et al. (1989), who found that outcomes (length of stay in treatment,&#xA;  posttreatment gains) did not differ for addicts with legally coerced versus voluntary treatment&#xA;  entry. They suggested that given these findings, it made little sense to promote a social policy&#xA;  that allowed drug-dependent individuals to choose when to enter treatment and when to leave.&#xA;  Instead, a less costly and more efficient process would be to implement a more externally constraining&#xA;  system that does not rely on the individual’s fluctuating motivational state. In a literature&#xA;  review covering up to the year 2000, Miller and Flaherty (2000) concluded that the&#xA;  preponderance of the literature confirms the efficacy of mandated addiction treatment and that&#xA;  coercion helped motivate clients to comply with treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The inconsistent findings that have emerged in this literature may be due to the fact that&#xA;  outcome research in the area of substance abuse treatment has suffered from various methodological&#xA;  shortcomings (Howard &amp;amp; McCaughrin, 1996; Rotgers, 1992; Shearer, 2000). These&#xA;  include differences in outcome measures (e.g., measuring recidivism rates rather than client&#xA;  drinking levels, measuring employee job performance rather than level of substance use) and&#xA;  differences in comparison groups (e.g., comparing young, mandated, relatively healthy individuals&#xA;  with voluntary, older, chronic addicts). Differences may also be due to definitional inconsistencies&#xA;  as to what constitutes a mandated client (De Leon, 1988; Rotgers, 1992), addicts’&#xA;  personal characteristics that affect response to treatment (such as the existence of personality&#xA;  disorders), or variations in treatment plans (Anglin et al., 1989). Others point to the inevitable&#xA;  problem of lack of control groups and random assignments (Howard &amp;amp; McCaughrin, 1996)&#xA;  and selection or recruitment bias (Dunham &amp;amp; Mauss, 1982). As it is virtually impossible to&#xA;  secure random assignment to treatment conditions, any quasi-experimental design which is&#xA;  implemented will be unable to definitively determine which effects on the outcome variable are&#xA;  due to treatment effects, rather than preexisting differences in the groups such as severity of the&#xA;  drinking problem, age, education, or social class. Finally, others point out that treatment programs&#xA;  vary widely and thus program sources of variance obscure the measurement of treatment&#xA;  effectiveness for legally referred clients (Inciardi, 1994).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In what has been described as one of the only research studies that has tried to address&#xA;  many of these methodological problems, and ‘‘probably the best designed and executed study&#xA;  of coercion and treatment outcome to date’’ (Rotgers, 1992), Walsh et al. (1991) compared&#xA;  results of three treatment options for employees referred by their employee assistance plan for&#xA;  alcohol problems (compulsory inpatient; mandatory Alcoholics Anonymous [AA] meetings&#xA;  only; or voluntary option to do either). The employees were randomly assigned to these treatment&#xA;  programs and followed for 2 years. All three groups were found to have improved in&#xA;  terms of job functioning and reduced drinking, with the inpatient clients faring the best. As the&#xA;  employer could back up the referral to treatment with firing if drinking continued, the researchers&#xA;  opined that clients’ motivation for succeeding in the more intensive inpatient condition&#xA;  might have been confounded with employer coercion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research shows that length of time in treatment affects outcome, and mandated clients do&#xA;  appear to remain in treatment longer than voluntary clients (De Leon, Melnick, &amp;amp; Tims, 2001;&#xA;  Goldsmith &amp;amp; Latessa, 2001; Leukefeld &amp;amp; Tims, 1988; Satel, 2000). In an interesting study, Dunham&#xA;  and Mauss (1982) compared the differential rates of alcoholism treatment success rates for courtmandated&#xA;  and voluntary clients in a community alcoholism treatment center, statistically controlling&#xA;  for pretreatment differences. Clients were divided into four groups: self-referrals, informal&#xA;  agency (AA, physician) referrals, driving while impaired (DWI; court) referrals, and other&#xA;  legal⁄ court referrals. While it was found that certain socioeconomic traits had a powerful impact on&#xA;  outcome (i.e., no prior treatment experience, active employment, education, not dependent on social&#xA;  assistance, stable marriage and family life), type of referral was a stronger predictor of outcome.&#xA;  The more coercion that was applied, the better the outcome. Treatment success was greater for&#xA;  those referred from the justice system than those attending voluntarily. The success rate for DWI&#xA;  clients was almost double that of voluntary clients (43% vs. 22%). The authors concluded that the&#xA;  certainty of the consequences for noncompliance with treatment for the DWI clients, and their having&#xA;  the most to lose (as they had the best occupations, highest education, etc.), was an important&#xA;  factor. Dehmel, Klett, and Buhringer (1986) also found that more socially integrated clients (e.g.,&#xA;  employed, stable home, and family life) had a greater likelihood of completing treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And ultimate reason posited for this is that time in therapy seem to beat other considerations, allowing even a voluntary kind of self-motivation to emerge:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the research literature suggests that what mandated clients&#xA;  may lack in terms of initial motivation may be more than compensated for by their tendency to&#xA;  stay in treatment longer than their voluntary counterparts, allowing time for intrinsic motivation&#xA;  to develop and therapeutic techniques to take effect. Length of time in treatment affects outcome,&#xA;  and mandated clients appear to remain in treatment longer than their voluntary counterparts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We have found no research to date that has examined whether the strength of the [therapeutic] alliance&#xA;  or the mandated versus voluntary referral status is more predictive of outcome. This&#xA;  would seem to be a topic worthy of investigation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But perhaps for substance abuse (the only area where apparently there's enough research for the contrast you want) it does seem to look like &quot;time in therapy trumps everything else&quot; (with the caveat that it may be mediated by actually building a therapeutic alliance...) at least based on this review, which being a narrative one has non-trivial potential for bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-08T12:30:41.683" LastActivityDate="2018-01-08T12:30:41.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18860" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-08T13:34:22.803" Score="6" ViewCount="588" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a single notion in the cognitive sciences for &quot;unconscious memory&quot;? For example a in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://news.northwestern.edu/stories/2015/08/traumatic-memories-hide-retrieve-them&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2015 Northwestern University press release&lt;/a&gt;, we find that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Scientists retrieve unconscious memories&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Could lead to new treatment for patients with repressed traumatic memories &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So this is basically talking about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repressed_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;repressed memories&lt;/a&gt; (in humans, as the motivation) and also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/state-dependent_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;state-dependent memory&lt;/a&gt;, as what they &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nn.4084&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;actually studied&lt;/a&gt; in mice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, in a different area of research &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.journals.elsevier.com/cortex/featured-articles/unconscious-memories-affect-language-learning&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;we hear that&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The brain’s unconscious memories of patterns are likely to be partly responsible for some children struggling to learn to talk. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this the same notion as any of the previous two? Looking briefly at &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2013.10.011&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the paper&lt;/a&gt; it seems like it's talking about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;procedural memory&lt;/a&gt; instead (correct me if I'm wrong).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how many (sufficiently) different notions of &quot;unconscious memory&quot; are there in the (contemporary) science literature? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-08T14:06:50.137" LastActivityDate="2018-01-09T11:03:35.337" Title="What does &quot;unconscious memory&quot; mean?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18862" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-09T01:29:08.203" Score="5" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that, generally, when a neuron dies, the vacated, empty space will form a scar in the form of an astrocyte. Basically, the astrocyte thus replaces that neuron.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why then are there empty spaces around the hippocampus and striatum that aren't filled with astrocytes? I am talking about the same spaces where adult neurogenesis might occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are these spaces left empty? Are they &quot;waiting&quot; for possible adult neurogenesis and therefore don't get filled in with astrocytes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A better question might be &quot;&lt;strong&gt;How does the CNS distinguish between types of empty spaces inside it?&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17970" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-22T10:18:39.720" LastActivityDate="2018-03-22T10:20:48.027" Title="Why are empty spaces around hippocampus and striatum not filled with astrocytes?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurogenesis&gt;&lt;hippocampus&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18863" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-09T03:13:01.223" Score="5" ViewCount="275" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any experiments in humans where despite episodic-memory amnesia they still preserve (associative) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;fear conditioning&lt;/a&gt; developed during the episode/event that is lost from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;episodic memory&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm hoping maybe it was tested in someone like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaison#Amnesia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Henry Molaison&lt;/a&gt; whether someone could develop fear conditioning but not remember how they've got it, i.e. a form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_amnesia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;source amnesia&lt;/a&gt; but for [fear] conditioning rather than the usual notion of source amnesia for some [declarative memory] knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia does mention that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Experiments involving &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repetition_priming&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;repetition priming&lt;/a&gt; underscored Molaison's ability to acquire implicit (non-conscious) memories, in contrast to his inability to acquire new explicit semantic and episodic memories (Corkin, 2002). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, looking myself at that paper, it seems all experiments (mentioned there) were done with semantic priming rather any form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779643000083&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;affective priming&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-09T04:21:41.473" LastActivityDate="2018-04-10T07:02:02.077" Title="Episodic-memory amnesia preserving fear conditioning" Tags="&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;episodic-memory&gt;&lt;amnesia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18865" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16599" CreationDate="2018-01-09T05:42:38.320" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think, I have found an answer, more or less. There is a person called Sam Vaknin, who published a book called &quot;Malignant self-love&quot;. Even though Vaknin is not an academic himself, the book does contain references to more recent studies.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14788" LastActivityDate="2018-01-09T05:42:38.320" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18866" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8947" CreationDate="2018-01-09T06:46:01.410" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Difference between 'need' and 'want' is pretty dynamic. However, the difference can be appreciated by answering a simple question, 'What if you don't get what you say you need/want?' If the absence of a particular thing creates a void in your life, then it's 'needed', else if its absence creates a manageable unease then it's only 'wanted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The dynamic nature can be appreciated by a simple example. Telephone was a want, or some say a luxury in India back in 1980s, but today it's a need, or a necessity. Internet connectivity is somewhere between a need and want in India, but Canada has declared it as a 'right', that is, it has become a need in Canada.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Historically speaking, individual and species survival was the only need in paleolithic age, however with neolithic revolution, a permanent shelter became a need, and with the rise of civilizations, surplus food became a need because people needed to be free to carry out secondary and tertiary activities. Hence, the difference between 'need' and 'want' is based on historical, social, psychological, cultural and technological context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marketing people exploit these parameters to convert their product just from being a 'want' to being a 'need'. In corporate world they call it 'customer education'. Colgate advertisements told Indians in 1990s that salt can injure gums and therefore we shall use the tooth-paste instead of salt,converting a want into a need; fast-forward to 2015, the advertisements are asking if our tooth-paste contains salt, creating more want of a product which has already become a need! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17967" LastActivityDate="2018-01-09T06:46:01.410" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18867" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8947" CreationDate="2018-01-09T09:03:23.290" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research in neuroscience allowed to distinguish two concepts: &quot;liking&quot; and &quot;wanting&quot;. Berridge and colleagues distinguished two different brain mechanisms for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;By injecting a tiny droplet of amphetamine drug in the &lt;strong&gt;nucleus accumbens (dopamine system)&lt;/strong&gt;, they noted an increase of the incentive salience that cues trigger for their reward &lt;em&gt;without altering other components of desire or reward.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Experimentally, they also found that the generation of pleasure “liking” is more restricted neurochemically: opioid stimulation but not dopamine stimulation in some limbic strutures can enhance “liking”, whereas “wanting” is enhanced by both.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research suggest that liking and wanting belongs to two different pathways mediated by opioid and dopamine circuits.&#xA;This distinction between liking and wanting could lead to ambivalent processes individuals could like what they do not want and want what they do not like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To conlude, according to Berridge there are different &lt;strong&gt;&quot;hedonic hotspots&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; in the brain that, according to the types of valences of the external stimuli, may modulate different processes such as: wanting, liking and 'needing'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yEiII.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yEiII.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2813042/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wanting and Liking: Observations from the Neuroscience and Psychology Laboratory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2018-01-09T09:03:23.290" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18868" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18860" CreationDate="2018-01-09T11:03:35.337" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although we usually refer to &lt;em&gt;memory&lt;/em&gt; to describe our ability to consciously remember past experiences, in neuroscience this term is also used to incorporate unconscious influences of our past on our &lt;em&gt;current perceptions and actions&lt;/em&gt;.&#xA;In other words, sometimes/in some instances, we are not aware of the influences of our past on our way to remember things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These unconscious influences on our current behaviour depend on what&#xA;  has been called &lt;strong&gt;implicit memory&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;nondeclarative memory&lt;/strong&gt; that&#xA;  can exist in individuals with damage to the &lt;em&gt;hippocampal memory&#xA;  system&lt;/em&gt; (centre of declarative or explicit / conscious memory).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This example is often made: if you try to describe how you learned to drive a stick-shift car,it is likely that you wouldn't do a good job of consciously reconstructing the chain of sequences that allowed you to learn how to drive a stick-shift car... Nevertheless, your behaviour would be a clear indication of you training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Memory is not a single entity but consists of multiple processes or systems&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DcvGc.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DcvGc.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1841694835&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional memory across the lifespan Elizabeth A. Kensinger&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2018-01-09T11:03:35.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18870" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18863" CreationDate="2018-01-10T04:32:54.437" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a sort of partial answer, but since it's too much to add to the question itself... a more encompassing question would be whether fear conditioning can occur without awareness of the conditioning event happening at all. I suppose an affirmative answer to the latter implies the answer is also &quot;yes&quot; to my question because forgetting the association event doesn't seem any more restrictive than not learning (into episodic memory) about it in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the jury seems to still be out on whether unaware conditioning can happen in humans. Some initial (and highly cited) studies answered the question affirmatively, but later studies cast doubt on the results because the level of awareness for the stimuli used seem to vary with the individual. (In other words, there was heterogeneity in awereness in the original studies; for a completely different reason, I've looked into what happens in such a case and asked &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/315917/is-this-heteroskedasticity-or-a-cautionary-tale-about-arbitrary-p-values-or&quot;&gt;what the phenomenon is called on cross-validated&lt;/a&gt;, but with not very satisfying answers insofar) From a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15831401&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2005 review by Pessoa&lt;/a&gt;, which summarized the research up to then:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does the processing of emotional stimuli depend upon awareness?&#xA;  Two influential neuroimaging papers, both of which&#xA;  appeared in 1998, reported that responses in the human&#xA;  amygdala occur in the absence of visual awareness.&#xA;  Awareness was manipulated by employing backward&#xA;  masking, as introduced by Esteves and Ohman in&#xA;  a behavioural paradigm. In one study, fearful faces were&#xA;  shown for 33 ms and were immediately replaced by a&#xA;  neutral ‘mask’ face that was presented for 167 ms.&#xA;  Subjects were naive as to the stimulus conditions, which&#xA;  included masked fearful and masked happy faces. Stronger&#xA;  responses were observed in response to fearful rather&#xA;  than happy faces (both masked by neutral faces), even&#xA;  though, upon subsequent debriefing, subjects did not&#xA;  report seeing any emotional faces. In another study,&#xA;  Morris et al. combined backward masking with classical&#xA;  conditioning to investigate responses to perceived&#xA;  and non-perceived angry faces. Although the participants&#xA;  did not report seeing the masked angry stimuli (angry&#xA;  faces were shown for 30 ms and followed by a neutral&#xA;  mask that was shown for 45 ms), the contrast of conditioned&#xA;  and non-conditioned masked angry faces activated&#xA;  the right amygdala. Recent studies have also gathered&#xA;  evidence for unaware processing by the amygdala For instance, Glascher and&#xA;  Adolphs showed that in normal controls, but not in&#xA;  patients with amygdala lesions, arousal ratings correlated&#xA;  with skin conductance responses for both subliminal&#xA;  (unaware) and supraliminal (aware) conditions (see Glossary).&#xA;  Together with the important earlier work by&#xA;  Ohman and colleagues, these results have strengthened&#xA;  the view that emotional processing occurs independently&#xA;  of conscious awareness. In general, a&#xA;  stimulus that is shown for about 30 ms before masking&#xA;  is considered to be at the ‘threshold’ for awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, a recent study by Phillips et al. did not&#xA;  observe any response in the amygdala during unaware&#xA;  conditions. The authors compared aware conditions, in&#xA;  which target faces (fearful or disgusted) were shown for&#xA;  170 ms and followed by a mask that was shown for 100 ms,&#xA;  with unaware conditions, in which target faces were&#xA;  shown for 30 ms and, again, followed by a mask that&#xA;  was shown for 100 ms. Unlike prior studies, however,&#xA;  no differential responses were observed in the amygdala&#xA;  in association with fearful faces in the unaware condition&#xA;  (or in the anterior insula for unaware disgusted faces).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A crucial issue in the assessment of awareness is the&#xA;  criteria used to determine whether a participant is aware&#xA;  or unaware of a stimulus. According to ‘objective’&#xA;  criteria, unaware perception occurs when a subject’s&#xA;  performance in a ‘forced-choice’ task is at chance. Under&#xA;  such conditions, behavioral effects of unaware stimuli&#xA;  (e.g. faster reaction time to undetected fearful faces),&#xA;  as well as the associated fMRI signals, constitute correlates&#xA;  of unaware perception. According to ‘subjective’&#xA;  criteria, unaware perception occurs when subjects report&#xA;  that they are unable to perform the task better than by&#xA;  chance (independent of their actual objective performance).&#xA;  Although some of the previous studies used&#xA;  forced-choice objective methods, they did not assess&#xA;  performance in a manner that is independent of response&#xA;  bias on an individual-by-individual basis [...]. This is important because in the face of weak, noisy signals, subjects might indicate that they do not detect&#xA;  target stimuli and thus appear to be unable to detect them&#xA;  reliably. A recent behavioral study by Pessoa et al. &#xA;  addressed these issues by analyzing performance by way&#xA;  of signal detection methods. The authors varied the&#xA;  duration (17, 33 and 83 ms) of which a target face (fearful,&#xA;  happy or neutral) was shown before being immediately&#xA;  replaced by a neutral-face mask (which was shown for&#xA;  116, 100, and 50 ms, respectively, such that the target plus&#xA;  mask lasted 133 ms in each case). The subject’s task was&#xA;  to report explicitly whether or not a fearful face was&#xA;  presented in each trial, and also to rate their confidence&#xA;  in this decision. Although some subjects only reliably&#xA;  detected the fearful targets that were shown for 83 ms,&#xA;  36% of the participants were able to detect both the 33 ms&#xA;  and 83 ms targets. Remarkably, some subjects could even&#xA;  detect fearful faces that were shown for 17 ms before&#xA;  masking. These results demonstrated that participants&#xA;  differ widely in their sensitivity to fearful faces (Figure 1).&#xA;  Moreover, the results revealed that even very brief&#xA;  (17 ms) stimuli can be incompletely masked, consistent&#xA;  with another recent study [Maxwell and Davidson]. The findings by Pessoa&#xA;  et al. also raise the possibility that the discrepancy&#xA;  between the results of Phillips et al. nd those of&#xA;  prior studies might be caused, at least in part, by variability&#xA;  in sensitivity among individuals, which may be&#xA;  related to anxiety levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HWnE0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HWnE0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if there's a more recent review than this perhaps with different conclusions following newer experiments. The fact that the review was written by someone who also contributed primary research in the &quot;cast doubt&quot; direction casts a little doubt (in my mind) on its objectivity... But the above surely illustrates the difficulty in conducting studies related to awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-10T04:40:46.930" LastActivityDate="2018-01-10T04:40:46.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18871" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18828" CreationDate="2018-01-10T09:19:50.320" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure there's totally indisputable evidence on this, but I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28878060&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a newer (2017) paper by Bayet et al.&lt;/a&gt; with infant subjects, but with fear rather than anger as the emotion tested (vs. happy), and (more importantly) using a different methodology (and IMHO better) because instead of different faces (in a crowd), they used the same face but mixed with noise, e.g. for fear [but for illustrative purposes only, see blow why]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/638nl.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/638nl.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They actually tried to determine which facial features enabled easier detection, eyes or mouth by mixing noise preferentially in that region (the resutling images were validated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_similarity#Multi-Scale_SSIM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SSIM&lt;/a&gt;, so there were four series of stimuli prestented (whith varying level of noise in each series).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each of the face stimuli were presented in differents tests to the infant subjects; each test consisted of a noise-mixed face vs pure noise (two images on screen) and a camera was used to record the infant's reactions. The film was then analyzed to determine several measures of reaction, which were in turn used to calculate measures of face detection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two different measures of face detection were ultimately derived: A simple one based on percentages of total looking time [PTLT] and a more complex psychometric measure, the methodology of which is pretty involved (and thus perhaps a weak point of this paper):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A multivariate measure of face detection was derived by classifying&#xA;  trials as ‘face is on the left’ or ‘face is on the right’. The&#xA;  rationale for this metric is similar to the idea of ‘double psychophysics’&#xA;  [48]: if one can reliably guess on which side of the screen&#xA;  the face was presented by looking at the infant’s behaviour, then&#xA;  it can be inferred that the infant is discriminating between the&#xA;  presence of a face or noise. We implemented this idea computationally&#xA;  using MVPA [42] to locate the side of presentation of the&#xA;  face (left or right) on each trial based on (i) PTLT to the left,&#xA;  (ii) number of looks to the left, (iii) number of looks to the right,&#xA;  (iv) duration of first look to the left, (v) duration of first look to&#xA;  the right, (vi) median duration of looks to the left, (vii) median&#xA;  duration of looks to the right, and (viii) direction of first look&#xA;  (left or right). Durations were log-transformed [56]. Continuous&#xA;  measures were z-scored within-subject. Measures were chosen&#xA;  a priori given the visual preference of infants for faces [57].&#xA;  PTLT to the right is equal to 100% minus PTLT to the left, and&#xA;  thus did not need to be included. Trials from all participants&#xA;  were pooled to maximize the number of training examples, and&#xA;  a logistic regression algorithm (a common classifier for MVPA)&#xA;  was repeatedly trained on all trials except one and tested on the&#xA;  trial that was left-out (leave-one-out cross-validation). Forward&#xA;  sequential feature selection was implemented inside each crossvalidation&#xA;  loop (see electronic supplementary material, table S2&#xA;  for results on the full dataset). This procedure led to locating&#xA;  the face side for each trial in a way that reflects generalization.&#xA;  We used logistic regression because it provides log-odds, a&#xA;  direct, criterion-free, continuous measure of evidence for each&#xA;  response (‘face is on the left’ versus ‘face is on the right’)—as&#xA;  opposed to accuracy, a binary measure dependent on a decision&#xA;  criterion. Raw evidence (log-odds for the right versus left side)&#xA;  was pooled to derive correct evidence (log-odds for the correct&#xA;  versus incorrect side) as a multivariate measure of face versus&#xA;  noise discrimination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The overall results of their analysis look like this (one row for each detection measure):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oLWI0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oLWI0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their interpretation of results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychometric curves of the PTLT to the face side revealed&#xA;  a significantly lower threshold for the Fearful eye+ face condition&#xA;  (44.41  ± 1.98% face signal; [...]; figure 3a) than for the Happy eye- face&#xA;  condition (difference: 5.20 +/- 2.62% face signal, 95% CI&#xA;  [0.001 0.103]), but not the other conditions ([...] figure 3a), across all age&#xA;  groups. [...]&#xA;  A similar result was found when applying psychometric&#xA;  curve modelling to the correct multivariate face versus&#xA;  noise discrimination evidence; the face detection threshold&#xA;  for the Fearful eye+ condition (44.07 ± 2.14% face signal;&#xA;  [...] figure 3c) was&#xA;  significantly lower than the detection threshold for the&#xA;  Happy eye- condition (increase in threshold: 7.90  ± 2.52%&#xA;  face signal, 95% CI [0.030 0.128]) but not the other conditions&#xA;  (Wald confidence intervals, alpha = 5%; [...]; figure 3c)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Similar models were used to estimate the difference in&#xA;  threshold between the Fearful eye- condition and other conditions,&#xA;  or between the Happy eye+ condition and other&#xA;  conditions (electronic supplementary material, tables S5–S8).&#xA;  Results are summarized in figure 4. &lt;strong&gt;Overall, psychometric&#xA;  curve modelling of infant looking data revealed face detection&#xA;  thresholds at about 44% signal, with an increase of&#xA;  about 5% signal in threshold for Happy eye- condition&#xA;  compared to the Fearful eye+ condition, and intermediate&#xA;  thresholds for Happy eye+ and Fearful eye- conditions&#xA;  depending on whether PTLT alone (figure 4a) or correct&#xA;  multivariate discrimination evidence (figure 4b) was used&#xA;  as a measure of face versus noise detection.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To clarify whether these differences in detection&#xA;  thresholds reflected a main effect of facial expression, a&#xA;  main effect of eye visibility, or an interaction between the&#xA;  two, and to test for an effect of age, we conducted further&#xA;  analyses focused on the linear portion of the psychometric&#xA;  curves corresponding to trials around the fitted detection&#xA;  thresholds (40–50% signal). [...; figure 3b,c,e,f I'm omitting all the chi-square stats]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results were mixed when considering PTLTs for the&#xA;  face side alone, as the effect of face emotion was restricted&#xA;  to 3.5-month-olds on this measure. However, correct discrimination&#xA;  evidence, a more comprehensive multivariate&#xA;  measure inclusive of PTLTs and other aspects of looking&#xA;  behaviour (e.g. first look) revealed a detection advantage for&#xA;  fearful faces compared to happy faces across all age groups&#xA;  (i.e. it did not significantly interact with age).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FOL4E.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FOL4E.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this doesn't answer the question whether the effect holds &lt;em&gt;in a crowd&lt;/em&gt; (or any non-laboratory setting, or if applies to anger etc.) The authors themselves say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Future research should determine&#xA;  whether the readiness to detect fearful faces (compared to&#xA;  happy faces) in infancy generalizes to naturalistic settings&#xA;  beyond the laboratory. Comparing detection of fearful&#xA;  versus angry versus sad faces will also clarify whether the&#xA;  effect applies just to threat-relevant stimuli (anger and fear)&#xA;  or more generally to negative novel expressions (fear,&#xA;  anger, and sadness).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-01-10T09:19:50.320" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18872" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-10T09:37:35.483" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to LeDoux’s model (1996) we have specialized pathways for processing emotional cues. Pourtois, Schettino and Vuilleumier (2013) offer a neural model of &lt;strong&gt;how emotional signals capture attention&lt;/strong&gt;. In their model, amygdala is not only able to respond to relevant cues, it also have a role in orienting attention towards emotional stimuli (with the assistance of other brain areas). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;In other words, human beings don’t attend emotional stimuli in the same way they attend other objects.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any experimental data explaining how this preference for emotional stimuli develops from infancy to childhood?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22373657&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pourtois et al 2013 &quot;Brain mechanisms for emotional influences on perception and attention: what is magic and what is not.&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="16144" LastEditDate="2018-01-12T11:27:09.637" LastActivityDate="2018-01-12T11:27:09.637" Title="Longitudinal studies on: how attention to emotional stimuli develops from infancy to childhood?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18873" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-10T11:13:40.697" Score="0" ViewCount="245" Body="&lt;p&gt;What about the type of imagination which medicine calls hallucinations? Is it a great gift or a curse for those who sense extremely? Is imagination a mild form of hallucinating? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18112" LastEditorUserId="18112" LastEditDate="2018-01-10T11:32:27.220" LastActivityDate="2018-01-10T20:12:01.027" Title="What type of imagination is responsible for hallucinations?" Tags="&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18875" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18873" CreationDate="2018-01-10T16:51:32.050" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are certainly some anecdotal stories that hallucinations (as part of psychosis) occured in highly creative people e.g. van Gogh or in the families of some creative people, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/blogs/confusing-psychosis-imagination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;such as the story of James Joyce's daugher&lt;/a&gt;. But that's anecdotal evidence. I tried to find whether some (psychometric) measure of imagination correlates with hallucinations, but not much luck with that insofar. [And that's not because such measures of imagination don't exist at all; some &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4612655/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;have been proposed&lt;/a&gt;. I'll update this part if I find something relating them to hallucinatons.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I could find out is that hallucinations are correlated with a confusion between imagination and (actual) perception, both &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18444716&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visually&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14613682&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;auditory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a slightly more positive note, the propensity for hallucinations was also associated with &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/how-hallucinations-emerge-from-trying-to-make-sense-of-an-ambiguous-world&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a better pattern matching ability&lt;/a&gt; in some visual tests with highly confusing images, but this was only when exposed to the full image before, i.e. a form of bias toward prior knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the above aren't so surprising given that a lot of normal people &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1707489&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(about half it seems)&lt;/a&gt; hallucinate in sensory deprivation experiments. A somewhat similar situation was observed in people who &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7578664&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;experienced hallucinations as a side-effect of higher doses of tricyclic antidepressants&lt;/a&gt;, namely that their hallucinations occured when background noise was low. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_release_hallucinations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Charles Bonnet syndrome&lt;/a&gt; is anohter case of reduced stimuli; Oliver Sacks has a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/oliver_sacks_what_hallucination_reveals_about_our_minds&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;talk at TED about it&lt;/a&gt;. So if anything, hallucinations are associated with not enough perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note however that there's a rich tradition in philosophy of discussing imagination and hallucinations together. E.g. there's a MIT Press book titled &#xA;&lt;em&gt;Hallucination: Philosophy and Psychology&lt;/em&gt; with quite a few &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?redir_esc=y&amp;amp;id=_bwtAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;q=imagination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hits inside for &quot;imagination&quot;&lt;/a&gt; So it's quite possible I've missed some relevant issue. Do note as a caveat that one of the papers (by K. Farkas) in that book mentioned early on that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The notion of hallucination most commonly discussed in philosophy is somewhat&#xA;  different from the notion used in psychology or psychiatry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise there's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDPI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Humanities&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; paper that &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3390/h3020132&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;discusses them together&lt;/a&gt;. (Despite the dubious venue in which it was published, it is cited by papers in more reputable journals, so perhaps worth a read--but it's 50 pages, so don't expect me to do it.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-10T20:12:01.027" LastActivityDate="2018-01-10T20:12:01.027" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18876" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18723" CreationDate="2018-01-10T17:15:28.107" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was never working on developing intelligence tests, but as much as I have read and heard from my professors, could be stated in the short words considering international comparision of the results: For every test you are going to make, you should at first align at some theory of intelligence, according to which you are going to make the questions. Tnen, you give a bunch of these question to the sample. Acoording to their answers, you coose the questions on acording to their difficulty that some are so easy that almost everybody will be able to resolve them, some should be of the average difficulty and some very difficult. &#xA;Than, you should calculate how many of these question should be in order to enable that the results of some population would take shape of the normal curve. &#xA;Than you make that the aritmetic mean of this curve is marked with IQ 100, and one standard deviation of 15 IQ points. That is how is calculated. Of course you should assign to the arithmetic mean a value of 200, but it could be sligthly comlplcated for calculation. &#xA;So, if you take the samples for each test from one state, as is usually done, than the results could not be compared among the members of diferent staes. However, if you could take the sample from several states, the results should be compared between these states. &#xA;There is one problem considering the state which is known as cultural influence. The question whether the items could be choosen in a way that culture where people live are not influencing how . Than you can think of other possible generalziation of this problem, where people may live into the same country but be influenced by different things, or people who live in the distant countries but use internet may become one specific sample.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More about test you could read in Spearmans books, which are available on the internet. I would recommand you from several reasons, apart that I like them and find them very easily for reading. One of them is that he is one of the first who developed theories of the intelligence after which are made the first tests. I have also found, I think in one of his books, but I am not apsolutery sure, the referece towards Galton paper when he introduced normal curve. Unfortunately I have not yet found it, so if you, or someone else find this paper, I would like to ask you to send me if possible. And that paper would give you the full answer on your question (considering the Bell's curve)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18114" LastActivityDate="2018-01-10T17:15:28.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18877" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18880" CreationDate="2018-01-10T17:31:06.533" Score="6" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is sort of an inverse of &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/1110/can-one-understand-emotions-yet-not-feel-them&quot;&gt;this other question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To explain what I am looking for, I had this experience when I was a teenager that a much older friend (who wanted me to feel as part of a group of people my age) took me to a party with quite a few other teenagers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People at the party seemed nice and friendly but after being there just a minute or so I got an uncomfortable feeling and wanted to leave. It could be that this feeling surfaced when that friend told me that he was going to leave me and pick me up later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He was not very happy about me wanting to leave as well but at that time I was not able to articulate to him how I felt. Also because I had not felt that feeling in earlier situations (likely because I had not had much social interaction in groups like that before) that feeling just seemed weird to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many years later when I was pondering on that memory and realized that the uncomfortable feeling I had was simply a feeling of being intimidated (most likely about the social situation). I did also realize that this probably could have been minimized by some preparation (he had not told me in advance that there was this party going on where he wanted to drop me off).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, my question is about this aspect of feeling something but not being able to articulate what it was. Is there a formal name for this phenomenon in psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7368" LastEditorUserId="7368" LastEditDate="2018-01-23T01:03:40.347" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T01:03:40.347" Title="Does psychology have a name for emotions that a person can feel but cannot name?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18879" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-11T04:23:29.573" Score="6" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;We're told by a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.express.co.uk/life-style/life/669528/calm-your-anxiety-and-panic-attacks-with-power-breathing-technique-new-video&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big Think Mind Hack video&lt;/a&gt; (carried by some tabloids) that 1:2 inhale:exhale breathing technique is better than just &lt;a href=&quot;http://time.com/4718723/deep-breathing-meditation-calm-anxiety/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;slow, deep breathing for calming yourself&lt;/a&gt;. Is there systematic empirical evidence that one technique of slow/deep breathing (this 1:2 one or another) is superior to just less specific ways of slow/deep breathing for dealing with panic attacks or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited_symptom_attack&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;lesser versions&lt;/a&gt; thereof or more generally calming oneself?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-01-16T14:21:22.993" Title="Is a more specific breathing technique better than just slow, deep breathing for calming oneself?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18880" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18877" CreationDate="2018-01-11T06:26:31.430" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term used for recognizing emotions is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.cy/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=16&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiKo_LmnM_YAhUIp6QKHTY5BYU4ChAWCEYwBQ&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scn.ucla.edu%2Fpdf%2FAL(2007).pdf&amp;amp;usg=AOvVaw1KiqxXEmMgcPTiEmwPQU7q&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;affect labeling&lt;/a&gt; (also know as emotions labelling). The act of labelling an emotion requires similar cognitive mechanisms used for labelling a cat or a dog (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Concept&lt;/a&gt;). Like any other concept learning, affect labeling requires training and experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Labelling emotions is very importand beacuse it can help &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/sweet-emotion/201408/why-labeling-emotions-matters&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;regulate emotions&lt;/a&gt; effectively. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This impoverished emotional labeling is, in turn, associated with&#xA;  deficits regulating those emotions (see Vine &amp;amp; Aldao, 2014). In other&#xA;  words, the less aware we are of our emotions, the less likely we are&#xA;  to figure out how to best regulate them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this &lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2016/11/3-ways-to-better-understand-your-emotions&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; you can find some practical advice how to better understand your emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2018-01-11T06:26:31.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18883" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-11T14:23:51.447" Score="0" ViewCount="1780" Body="&lt;p&gt;OK, you might have to bare with me on this one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept that someone might influence another, even through suggestions, has never once sat comfortably with me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Across the internet people seem to be in two camps about hypnosis – those who have no idea what hypnosis is and portray it as blatant mind control, and those that reckon they understand what it is, saying that people under hypnosis have complete control and can reject suggestions if they do not agree with them – if this were entirely true, you wouldn’t be able to induce hypnosis on unsuspecting victims in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I feel that the truth lies somewhere in between.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While it is true that people can reject suggestions in hypnosis, it appears to me that this can be simply bypassed through a correct strategy of wording suggestions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By wording suggestions that avoid evoking conflict with the subject’s belief system, a hypnotist can make the subject feel like the hypnotist’s interests are enjoyable and relaxing, even if the subject wouldn’t ordinarily consent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the suggestion&#xA;“The deeper you go, the better you feel, the better you feel, the deeper you go” followed by&#xA;“every step deeper you go, you feel 10x more comfortable with the words I say” - helps the subject to believe that following the hypnotist’s instructions is the right thing to do, even if it doesn’t follow their moral code (and why should they care, they feel really really good because they are following the instructions).&#xA;The first suggestion focuses on going deeper, and the second uses that deepening loop as a lever to strengthen the suggestibility of the subject. After extended suggestion and deepening, does this not allow for more ‘edgy’ suggestions because the subject is more comfortable with the words that the hypnotist says?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It’s often commented by hypnotists that a patient can wake up at any point if they do not feel comfortable with the suggestions, but the whole key to hypnosis is creating comfort and using that comfort to embed suggestions. Most people are looking to relax and enjoy themselves. If a hypnotist associates doing something illicit with relaxation and joy, I foresee the patient being easily manipulated, which in laymen terms, is brainwashing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was demonstrated by Derren brown, whereby he uses hypnosis to compel a man to shoot a target on command (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90xfZJQzAhc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90xfZJQzAhc&lt;/a&gt;). (the patient meanwhile completely oblivious to the fact that he is being trained to assassinate someone, only believing that he is shooting an inanimate target)&#xA;Furthermore, cases such as (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/11/15/ohio-lawyer-hypnotized-six-female-clients-then-he-molested-them/?utm_term=.aadcde7accb1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/11/15/ohio-lawyer-hypnotized-six-female-clients-then-he-molested-them/?utm_term=.aadcde7accb1&lt;/a&gt;) show that men have taken advantage of women under hypnosis, leaving the women memory less and confused only to find out they were under hypnosis from a lucky police investigation. Essentially, is this not the definition of mind control?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if hypnosis is not as simple as: “you are now hypnotised, now kill this person/have sex with me”, is this principle not still the same through carefully worded suggestions, manipulation and making the person believe what they are doing is desirable? (as Darren Brown proves can be done)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If such manipulation is possible, then HOW is this not discussed with more criticism?&#xA;And, probably more importantly, HOW can anyone trust a hypnotherapist if they have the ability to slowly word their way around your belief system one suggestion at a time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After-all, what are we but animals without a personalised belief system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the above, how close is hypnosis truly to the infamous 'mind control' that it is depicted as in pop culture? And why is this always overlooked by hypnotherapists when discussing hypnosis? Have I missed something? Is Derren Brown, the world famous hypnotist a fraud?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18124" LastActivityDate="2018-01-12T06:25:55.947" Title="How is hypnosis not mind control?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;persuasion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="15" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18884" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18883" CreationDate="2018-01-11T15:55:00.840" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since I vaguely remember a similar question not that long ago, let me use this one to quote from one the few peer-reviewed papers (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/doi:10.1038/s41562-017-0119&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doi link&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/pdf/1610.04134.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;preprint pdf&lt;/a&gt;). that discusses the notion of &quot;mind control&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mind control is a common plot device in many genres of fiction.&#xA;  Its ubiquity is perhaps unsurprising: the prospect of&#xA;  the explicit, full control of the mind evokes alluring and&#xA;  startling possibilities. Fictional mind control often takes implausible&#xA;  forms: telepathy, magical interventions, and nefarious schemes of&#xA;  authoritarian organizations. In more biologically inspired plot lines,&#xA;  mind control is delivered by devices implanted in the subject’s brain,&#xA;  as depicted in The Matrix: these devices manipulate neurophysiological&#xA;  processes resulting in a change of mental state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In reality, mind control encompasses numerous means for&#xA;  influencing the mind. These include effects mediated through the&#xA;  senses. Sense-mediated effects can include positive influences, such&#xA;  as updating one’s beliefs based on presented evidence, or nudging&#xA;  someone to make healthy decisions via environmental manipulation.&#xA;  They can also be more insidious, as in the case of propaganda&#xA;  or brainwashing. Beyond social and environmental means, mind&#xA;  control can also result from direct neural stimulation. Neural stimulation&#xA;  can include subtle modulation via pharmacological agents&#xA;  or more direct manipulations with brain stimulation that result in&#xA;  neural discharges. The last few decades have seen a steady increase&#xA;  in the use of implanted devices to assist individuals with major&#xA;  mental disorders. The ubiquitous nature of social forms of control&#xA;  and increasing prevalence of neural devices motivates important&#xA;  questions about the control of brain processes and, by extension,&#xA;  mental functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So as you can see other things qualify as (partial) mind control just as well, deep brain stimulation, rRTMs etc., as well less invasive ones, propaganda etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[-much later, the paper talks about ethics-]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Insofar as mind control has been and will be undertaken in&#xA;  experimental and clinical contexts, four basic principles of medical&#xA;  and research ethics apply: non-maleficence, beneficence, justice,&#xA;  and autonomy. Adhering to these principles is a first step toward&#xA;  ensuring that efforts to guide the mind enhance human welfare&#xA;  without violating human rights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it's less of matter of means than of context and motives what is unacceptable mind control. Think for a sec how is indoctrination different from psychotherapy, for instance. And regarding &quot;HOW can anyone trust a hypnotherapist if they have the ability to slowly word their way around your belief system one suggestion at a time?&quot; The latter doesn't require hypnosis. You can ask exactly the same question about psychotherapy. That's why stuff like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/impromptu-man/201206/sex-patients-revisited&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sex with patients&lt;/a&gt; is prohibited by codes of ethics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And since I've not talked at all about hypnosis above let me say that traditionally the literature about hypnosis (at least the one with therapeutic bend), emphasizes that people cannot be made to do anything they don't want to under hypnosis. Typical of this is the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American_Mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sci Am Mind&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; magazine article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nature.com/scientificamericanmind/journal/v16/n2/box/scientificamericanmind0605-46_BX1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt; &quot;The Truth and the Hype of Hypnosis&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=N_GBMhhGsbkC&amp;amp;pg=PT105&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;quoted in some textbooks&lt;/a&gt; for the received wisdom that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;(if you think) People who are hypnotized lose control of themselves. (the reality is) Subjects are perfectly capable of saying no or terminating hypnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencealert.com/there-s-more-evidence-for-how-hypnosis-can-mess-with-our-sense-of-control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent (2017) research by Lush et al.&lt;/a&gt;  does indicate that thre's perhaps an objective measure of a &quot;feeling of involuntariness&quot; in hypnosis subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using an established test designed to measure self-agency – the sense that our own actions are actually down to us – participants were shown to be more likely to feel their movements were involuntary after hypnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The actual metric of self-agency relied on measuring &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22240158&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intentional binding&lt;/a&gt;. Quoting &lt;em&gt;New Scientist's&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newscientist.com/article/2125645-best-evidence-yet-that-hypnotised-people-arent-faking-it/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;description of the experiment&lt;/a&gt; (as the most concise I found):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lush’s team asked 18 people who were highly susceptible to hypnotism to sit in front of a very accurate clock and do a task repeatedly where they pressed a button, triggering a beep after 250 milliseconds, in three different circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If their finger was pulled down involuntarily – by an attached string – they perceived the period before the beep as 176 milliseconds. If the string wasn’t pulled and they chose when to press the button, they experienced it as 91 milliseconds – showing intentional binding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But if they pressed the button due to a post-hypnotic command, they perceived it as 156 milliseconds – closer to the involuntary state than the voluntary one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“This feeling of involuntariness is a key element of the hypnotic experience,” says David Spiegel of Stanford University.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A somewhat similar &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28704734&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2017) study by another&lt;/a&gt; research team (published a few months later), but which has the advantage of using a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatment_and_control_groups&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;control group&lt;/a&gt; (but the disadvantage of not doing actual hypnosis):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Here we tested the proposal that distorted volition during response to suggestions arises from poor metacognition pertaining to the sources of one's control. Highly suggestible and control participants completed a motor task in which performance was reduced through surreptitious manipulations of cursor lag and stimuli speed. Highly suggestible participants did not differ from controls in performance or metacognition of performance, but their sense of agency was less sensitive to cursor lag manipulations, suggesting reduced awareness that their control was being manipulated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since these studies are too new to have been covered by a review, if I may inject my own interpretation here, it does look like hypnosis works as a &quot;double whammy&quot; in highly suggestible individuals: not only to do they start with a lower metacognition of self-agency, but this is further lowered by hypnosis itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, recent &quot;revival&quot; research in hypnosis &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25242255&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;has confirmed&lt;/a&gt; that LSD enhances&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotic_susceptibility&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypnotic susceptibility&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;and a new finding is that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23083914&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rTMS can also do the same&lt;/a&gt;. You should be very worried now :0&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seriously, I mean to show by this that there's a continuum of &quot;mind control&quot; and while hypnosis surely is an interesting phenomenon in that regard, it's not &lt;em&gt;the&lt;/em&gt; &quot;OMG mind control&quot;... especially because when hypnosis is used to boost some other psychotherapeutic intervention, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/18886/is-hypnosis-enhanced-therapy-more-efficacious-than-its-non-hypnotic-counterpart&quot;&gt;it doesn't seem that impressive&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, some &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5679347/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(again) 2017 research&lt;/a&gt; found that hypnotic sugestibility correlated with some psychiatric disorders (lifetime diagnosis) as well as the subjects' current mood:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The passing rate of the SHSS:C ‘Moving hands apart’ item was higher in bipolar I patients than in controls, whereas for ‘Mosquito hallucination’ the rate was lower. The passing rates of ‘Mosquito hallucination’ in controls, ‘Arm rigidity’ in bipolar I, and ‘Age regression’ in bipolar II predicted the respective MDQ [Mood Disorder Questionnaire] scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although published in a reputable-enough journal (&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioMed_Central&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BMC&lt;/a&gt; Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;), the study was conducted in a Chinese university hospital (although &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhejiang_University_School_of_Medicine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;according to Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; it's an &quot;elite&quot; medical shool), so perhaps more research is needed before drawing firm conclusion on associations between mental illness (or mood) and hypnotisability. While the paper did Bonferroni-correct their multiple comparisons, I could not find anything in it about the medication status of the subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thers's also a &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/cns0000053&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2015 Australian study&lt;/a&gt; comparing some schizophrenic experiences with hypnosis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Passivity phenomena in schizophrenia are characterized by a sense of diminished&#xA;  agency. [...] Our aim was first to investigate sense of agency&#xA;  and clinical symptoms in schizophrenia, both classic passivity phenomena and more&#xA;  general positive symptoms; and second, to contrast the agentive experiences of patients&#xA;  with a previously tested sample of 370 nonclinical, hypnotized participants. Twenty-six&#xA;  patients with schizophrenia completed ratings of classic passivity phenomena and of&#xA;  involuntariness associated with a particular experience of agency alteration. [...] Patients reported considerable levels of involuntariness for both body-related&#xA;  and thought-related symptoms. Overall involuntariness ratings from patients were&#xA;  similar to those of high hypnotizable participants in hypnosis. These results indicate&#xA;  altered sense of agency is associated with a range of experiences in schizophrenia, not&#xA;  just classic passivity phenomena. Moreover, the experience of altered agency in&#xA;  schizophrenia was similar to that seen in hypnosis, suggesting that hypnotic analogues&#xA;  may be a useful way to test theories of passivity-like phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This probably fits with the theory that most psychiatric disorders lie on a spectrum, with subclinical features seen in the healthy population. The &quot;spectrum of self-agency awareness&quot; (if I may coin a term for this notion) is rarely talked about though... although a quick search found a paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01278/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;discussing it in autism&lt;/a&gt;; no mention of hypnosis in that paper though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-12T06:25:55.947" LastActivityDate="2018-01-12T06:25:55.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18885" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18890" CreationDate="2018-01-11T18:38:21.403" Score="3" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the &quot;Principles of Neural Science&quot; 5th edition in the discussion about electrical synapses it says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;During excitatory synaptic transmission at an electrical synapse, voltage-gated ion channels in the presynaptic cell generate the current that depolarizes the postsynaptic cell. Thus these channels not only depolarize the presynaptic cell above the threshold for an action potential but also generate sufficient ionic current to produce a change in potential in the postsynaptic cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To generate such a large current, the presynaptic terminal must be big enough for its membrane to contain many ion channels. At the same time, the postsynaptic cell must be relatively small. This is because a small cell has a higher input resistance (Rin) than a large cell and, according to Ohm's law (V = I x Rin), undergoes a greater voltage change in response to a given presynaptic current (I).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I get that Ohm's law states this, but what is really going on? Why should the resistance encountered by charge as it is moving through gap-junctions from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic cell affect the voltage (electrical potential) across the membrane of the postsynaptic cell with its environment. Once the charge gets to the postsynaptic cell, it seems like it should no longer be affected by the resistance it encountered along the way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18125" LastActivityDate="2018-01-12T13:37:04.997" Title="Why does a higher post-synaptic cell resistance lead to a higher voltage change when current is applied?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18886" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-11T19:21:06.863" Score="3" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a farily upvoted question hene (and so are answers to it) on whether &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/4473/does-hypnotherapy-hypnosis-in-any-form-for-any-type-of-disorder-work&quot;&gt;&quot;Does hypnotherapy/hypnosis, in any form, for any type of disorder, work?&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. To me, that's a pretty weak and confusing question to ask. You can interpret it as &quot;is hypnotherapy better than no therapy&quot;, which is quite a different question than &quot;does hypnosis enhance (or not) another therapy, i.e. is hypnotherapy better than (a similar enough) non-hypnotic therapy&quot;. The latter question is in some sense superior because it tries to isolate whether hypnosis is worth the hassle when you can also do without. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the studies I could find on this latter contrast are not as clear-cut as one would like. An &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7751482&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1995 meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt; on various conditions reported that hypnosis significantly improved outcomes, but a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8698944&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;re-analysis a year later&lt;/a&gt; of just the obesity subset showed that the initially reported meta-analytical conclusion critically hinged on one study that was an outlier in terms of the effect size it reported; upon exclusion of that study the overall result lost statistical significance. Furthermore this re-analysis found numerical errors in the original one. From this, it's unclear to me whether the conclusion of the 1995 meta-analysis is tenable for any illnesses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22655330/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2012 review of CBT vs CBH&lt;/a&gt; for anxiety disorders could not really come to a conclusion and called for more research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So--my question is--is there an illness for which hypnosis unequivocally enhances treatment outcomes compared to a similar enough non-hypnotic therapy? By unequivocally here I mean at least a review based on several studies deemed of reasonable quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-10-27T00:37:29.883" Title="Is hypnosis-enhanced therapy more efficacious than its non-hypnotic counterpart?" Tags="&lt;hypnosis&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18888" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-12T01:57:16.080" Score="5" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is fairly common knowledge that smiles are contagious is this also true when people are exposed to ascii/emoji smiles? ie. :) , ☺ , &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OyOFW.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OyOFW.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By contagious I mean making a person feel happier and more likely to smile themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8526" LastActivityDate="2018-01-12T06:36:06.603" Title="Are emoji smiles also contagious?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18889" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18888" CreationDate="2018-01-12T06:36:06.603" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yes.&lt;/strong&gt; Emoji smiles are contagious just like real human smiles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17470919.2013.873737?journalCode=psns20#.VLadY2TF871&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this study&lt;/a&gt; suggest the brain activity observed when people look at emojis is the same when we look at real faces, and subsequently mimicry and emotion contagion follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We presented 20 participants with images of upright and inverted&#xA;  faces, emoticons and meaningless strings of characters. Emoticons&#xA;  showed a large amplitude N170 when upright and a decrease in amplitude&#xA;  when inverted, the opposite pattern to that shown by faces. This&#xA;  indicates that when upright, emoticons are processed in&#xA;  occipitotemporal sites similarly to faces due to their familiar&#xA;  configuration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, a more &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/111/24/8788.full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;general study&lt;/a&gt; for on-line expressed emotions demostrated emotion contagion similar to face to face comunication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We show, via a massive (N = 689,003) experiment on Facebook, that&#xA;  emotional states can be transferred to others via emotional contagion,&#xA;  leading people to experience the same emotions without their&#xA;  awareness. We provide experimental evidence that emotional contagion&#xA;  occurs without direct interaction between people (exposure to a friend&#xA;  expressing an emotion is sufficient), and in the complete absence of&#xA;  nonverbal cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2018-01-12T06:36:06.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18890" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18885" CreationDate="2018-01-12T13:24:47.600" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you consider the electrical synapse a simple &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RC_circuit#Series_circuit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;series RC circuit&lt;/a&gt;, with the resistance in the synapse and the capacitor as the postsynaptic cell, then you are correct that the value of R only changes the charge time for the capacitor (from a DC source, but not it's final voltage (at t = infinity). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nshUA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nshUA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;($\tau = RC$)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, this model is too simplistic for the electrical synapse because you also have losses (discharge) to the outside of the cells. Image from the book:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/H4SCH.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/H4SCH.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a more realistic circuit is created with extra (parallel) resistors below for the extracellular discharge. Note what happens when the 2nd resistor (discharge of postsynaptic cell to inter-cellular space) is introduced in the circuit (switch closed): the voltage charge on capacitor drops significantly. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iXuml.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iXuml.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You basically have to &quot;beat&quot; or minimize this voltage drop, and one way to do this is to have a lower series resistor (another is of course a higher isolation [i.e. resistor] from the intercellular space). When the synapse resistance is 10 times lower than in the previous circuit, the voltage drop on the synapse is much lower, and so the voltage on the capacitor is higher, even with the switch closed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PtXT1.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PtXT1.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can play with the circuit &lt;a href=&quot;http://tinyurl.com/yakvpalz&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;; it's set for the first set of resistor values; you need to right-click on a resistor and pick &quot;edit&quot; to change it's value; I could have added another switch and resistor to achieve that change for the synapse... but I didn't want to complicate the circuit conceptually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-12T13:37:04.997" LastActivityDate="2018-01-12T13:37:04.997" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18893" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18895" CreationDate="2018-01-12T19:21:44.790" Score="5" ViewCount="383" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of this study that was linked during an argument:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289616302975&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Sex differences in brain size and general intelligence (g)&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;and this question &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8583/gender-differences-in-iq-among-undergraduate-psychology-students&quot;&gt;Gender differences in IQ among undergraduate psychology students&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, do men, on average, have a higher general intelligence score? And if yes, why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18139" LastEditorUserId="7632" LastEditDate="2018-01-13T17:41:18.400" LastActivityDate="2018-01-13T17:41:18.400" Title="Do men, on average, have a higher general intelligence score?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18894" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-12T20:03:08.633" Score="3" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;Today I had a talk with a friend who told me that according to him, it is possible to &quot;destroy&quot; someone's ability to do math for his entire life by taking the person at age 5, telling him something totally wrong (for instance that the digits used in the decimal enumeration system are in order something like 8, 5, 4, 9, 2, 3, 0, 6, 1, 7 and calling them respectively &quot;three&quot;, &quot;seven&quot;, &quot;one&quot;, &quot;six&quot; and so on) so that once the wrong information has been assimilated in the long-term memory it would be impossible for the person to correct and &quot;overwrite&quot; something that has been learned by heart.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this example is an exaggeration, but I was wondering whether this would explain some difficulties people have who write hundreds of times the same mathematical errors like (a+b)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=a&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+b&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, and other stuff like this, even after many mathematical teachers explain to them that they are wrong. My assumption here is that the &quot;correct&quot; way had not yet reached the long term memory, so it would have done less harm than in the first situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you agree with this idea or has it been challenged by cognitive studies? &#xA;Is there something specific to mathematics here? I'd be very happy with more readings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18138" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-06-17T18:46:56.177" LastActivityDate="2018-06-17T18:46:56.177" Title="Memorization of incorrect math facts" Tags="&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18895" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18893" CreationDate="2018-01-13T08:25:20.393" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a Wikipedia page with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence#Current_research_on_general_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a lot of related studies&lt;/a&gt;. Among other things we find out there that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 2004 meta-analysis by Richard Lynn and Paul Irwing published in 2005 found that the mean IQ of men exceeded that of women by up to 5 points on the Raven's Progressive Matrices test.[...] Lynn's findings were debated in a series of articles for Nature.[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This new (2017) study you ask about was conducted by a group whose fist author has recently &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/unique-everybody-else/201603/race-sexual-permissiveness-and-questionable-science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;co-authored papers with Lynn&lt;/a&gt;. And not surprisingly, the way they construct their &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; in the 2017 paper is quite similar to Lynn's, i.e. fairly substantially loaded the progressive matrices test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Rnhjq.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Rnhjq.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So perhaps their ultimate result is not surprising in this respect, i.e. it seems a replication of older research in a newer sample. On the other hand, the 2017 reports statistically significant differences on practically on all factors (some in the opposite direction)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eZdbj.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eZdbj.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I can tell, this is quite unprecedented... so we'll see what reactions it triggers from other researchers in the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In previous work Lynn has been accused of basing his conclusions on convenience (and thus non-representative) samples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this 2017 paper, the authors state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the HCP data still have a&#xA;somewhat restricted age-range (22 to 37 years), the sample is demographically&#xA;diverse and can be considered a more population-representative&#xA;sample compared to that of Burgaleta et al. (2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;More representative&amp;quot; is not necessarily representative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also mention that another recent study published in the same journal, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2016.06.007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Illiescu et al. 2016&lt;/a&gt; who claim nationally representative samples for Romania found for instance much fewer differences on the progressive matrices test... limited to a small age window which interestingly overlapped substantially with the HCP sample age group:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wysPB.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wysPB.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not too clear if this is due to not enough power for the other sub-samples or there's a small age effect that appears and then vanishes... or it could be just spurious (these tests are non-corrected for multiple comparisons). Iliescu et al. do say that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The p-values reported in Tables 1–6 are not corrected for multiple comparisons. When using Bonferroni adjustments none of the comparisons are significant. The interpretations therefore focused on effect sizes. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that diversity and volume of the data, and the fact that some of&#xA;the compared samples (age × sex) are small, we have conducted a&#xA;meta-analysis for each category of scores, for each of the 6 tests.&#xA;Table 7 presents these results. &lt;strong&gt;The only two scores with a significant&#xA;(though small) effect are the Raven (d=0.11, p &amp;lt; 0.01), and the Performance&#xA;subscore of the SON-R (d=0.12, p &amp;lt; 0.01), both in favor of males.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;In the case of the SON-R, medium heterogeneity is signaled by the data:&#xA;Q(5)=10.01, p &amp;lt; 0.10, I2=50.04, i.e. 50% of the total variability in this&#xA;set of effect sizes are due to between-subsamples variability (true heterogeneity).&#xA;In the case of the Raven scores, heterogeneity is not present:&#xA;Q(22) = 21.34, ns., I2 = 0.00; i.e. all variability in effect size&#xA;estimates is due to sampling error within subsamples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lmfMs.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lmfMs.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So Iliescu et al. also found an overall difference in progressive matrices which doesn't seem to vary with age, but not much else. I'm too sure about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SON-tests&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SON&lt;/a&gt; but it looks somewhat similar with progressive matrices in some respects (it's a non-verbal test).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And researchers have tried to pinpoint what type of questions on the progressive matrices test cause the sex differences typilcally reported, with some hypoteses &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.intell.2006.06.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;failing replication&lt;/a&gt;. A &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2008.04.004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2008 review-ish paper&lt;/a&gt; said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, the identification of APM performance&#xA;dimensions based on information processing continues to&#xA;be an open question and is likely to remain intractable&#xA;without experimental manipulations of important variables&#xA;related to the construction of the items and to the test as a&#xA;whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1027/1614-0001/a000241&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;another 2017&lt;/a&gt; study which found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Visuospatial ability was found to significantly contribute to performance on the RPM, over and above fluid ability, supporting the contention that visuospatial ability is involved in RPM performance. No sex differences were found in this relationship, although sex differences in visuospatial ability may explain sex differences in RPM scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Time will tell if this can be replicated or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise there's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093104&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2014 study&lt;/a&gt; in a Chinese university students sample which found no sex difference in a progressive matrices test&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mean CRT scores were (66.13±3.13) for males and (66.40±3.05) for females. No significant gender difference (P&amp;gt;0.05) in CRT scores was found between females and males.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But nonetheless using neuroimaging proposed that men and women have different brain activation patterns on such tests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite a large number of behavioral studies that demonstrated gender differences in Raven’s Matrices reasoning ability, no neural evidence supported this difference. In this study, voxel-based morphometry (VBM) was used in an attempt to uncover the gender-specific neural basis of Raven’s Matrices reasoning ability as measured by the combined Raven’s Matrices test (CRT) in 370 healthy young adults. The behavioral results showed no difference between males and females. However, the VBM results showed that the relationship between reasoning ability and regional gray matter volume (rGMV) differed between sexes. The association between CRT scores and rGMV in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (associated with visuospatial ability) was significantly greater in males than in females, whereas the reverse was true for the inferior frontal cortex (relating to verbal reasoning ability) and the medial frontal cortex (engaged in information binding) where the association was greater in females. These findings suggest that males and females use differently structured brains in different ways to achieve similar levels of overall Raven’s Matrices reasoning ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I think this question is pretty much in the air still.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-16437-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 study&lt;/a&gt; I find interesting did not report sex differences (either way) but did propose that participants (of both sexes) use two different enough brain regions to solve the varying problems on the progressive matrices test, namely that there might be different visuospatial and verbal-analytic intelligences (possibly correlated, of course):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent studies revealed spontaneous neural activity to be associated with fluid intelligence (gF) which is commonly assessed by Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices, and embeds two types of reasoning: visuospatial and verbal-analytic reasoning. With resting-state fMRI data, using global brain connectivity (GBC) analysis which averages functional connectivity of a voxel in relation to all other voxels in the brain, distinct neural correlates of these two reasoning types were found. For visuospatial reasoning, negative correlations were observed in both the primary visual cortex (PVC) and the precuneus, and positive correlations were observed in the temporal lobe. For verbal-analytic reasoning, negative correlations were observed in the right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and temporoparietal junction, and positive correlations were observed in the angular gyrus. Furthermore, an interaction between GBC value and type of reasoning was found in the PVC, rIFG and the temporal lobe. These findings suggest that visuospatial reasoning benefits more from elaborate perception to stimulus features, whereas verbal-analytic reasoning benefits more from feature integration and hypothesis testing. In sum, the present study offers, for different types of reasoning in gF, first empirical evidence of separate neural substrates in the resting brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more on this latter issue see my answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/18846/9769&quot;&gt;a related question here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-13T10:50:54.733" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18898" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-13T15:19:06.357" Score="3" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed, by chance, but I would very easily remember a phone number, if it has some digits symmetry, e.g. &quot;540 045&quot; (and mind you, I have very hard time memorizing numbers in general). At the same time, I have noticed that commercial companies would you use special phone numbers, using digits repetition, e.g. &quot;67 67 67&quot;, in order to make them easier to memorize - but I can't say I would memorize a phone number in that format easier than in the &quot;symmetrical format&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I acknowledge though, that the &quot;repetition format&quot; is still better than any other format with no particular pattern.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, my question is: is it universally valid among people that &quot;symmetrical formats&quot; are the easiest to memorize and if so, what could be the explanation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastActivityDate="2018-01-13T15:19:06.357" Title="Memorising phone numbers with symmetrical digit arrangement (e.g. 321 123)" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;numerical-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18899" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-13T16:28:40.570" Score="2" ViewCount="309" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have this impression that if you ask respondents in a survey, questions such as &quot;do you like the item X/ person X&quot; or &quot;which one of the two variations do you like more&quot;, or &quot;what in particular would you like about the item X/ person X&quot;, etc, you would get a lot of bias and rationalizations. That is, &quot;say vs think vs do&quot; would be extremely disparate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time, I would expect negative questions such as &quot;is there something you dislike about the item X&quot; or &quot;could you list top three shortcomings of the item X/ person X&quot;, etc, to render quite objective responses; I would expect strong consistency between what respondents would say compared to what they actually think or feel and then compared to what they would actually do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Of course, I exclude some extreme cases of social desirability.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that I am speaking about my subjective impressions, based on my personal limited observations, I would like to ask, is there such a pattern indeed and if so, how could it be possibly explained?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastActivityDate="2018-01-15T10:07:17.703" Title="Bias in survey questions based on either positive or negative wording" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18900" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-13T16:44:23.450" Score="2" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I mean tests that try to measure &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;system 1 and system 2&lt;/a&gt; performance separately, but more than &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2011/12/kahneman-quiz-201112&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;short lists of trick questions&lt;/a&gt; which unfortunately &lt;a href=&quot;http://evonomics.com/please-not-another-bias-the-problem-with-behavioral-economics/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;seem&lt;/a&gt; to make the bulk of the empirical work in this dual-process area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can see that measuring system 2 might be more difficult because it usually requires background in math etc., which usually are outside the purview of pure IQ testing...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I'm aware that widely used IQ tests like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale#WAIS-III&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WAIS have subscales&lt;/a&gt; like verbal vs non-verbal (aka &quot;performance&quot;--confusing name if you ask me) which are futher subdivided into fine-grained tasks-oriented measures like working memory or picture completion (to pick some examples). But it's unclear to me how these would &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;load&lt;/a&gt; into a system-1 or system-2 paradigm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-13T17:09:24.787" LastActivityDate="2018-01-13T17:09:24.787" Title="Are there dual-process IQ tests?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18901" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18894" CreationDate="2018-01-13T17:48:57.083" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The idea that long term memory cannot be ever changes is absolutely wrong, for sure some thing that is learnt and practice for a long time while being a child has a difficulty to change after while, but it is not impossible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About learning you have to know that we have different kind of learning disabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Specific learning disorder is a developmental disorder that begins by school-age, although it may not be recognized until later. It involves ongoing problems learning key academic skills, including reading, writing and math.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These patient usually can learn about everything but for specific type they have a difficulty learning. Based on what their difficulty is, they might get different treatment. Diagnoses is not also easy in some cases, for example patient who has difficulty learning math might be because of his difficulty reading text so if you try teaching math only by images and art and symbols he can learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;reference &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/specific-learning-disorder/what-is-specific-learning-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18052" LastActivityDate="2018-01-13T17:48:57.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18902" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-13T19:45:57.797" Score="4" ViewCount="210" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14728927&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Parsons et al. (2004)&lt;/a&gt; found that the widely reported sex difference in performance in the pen-and-paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_rotation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mental rotation test&lt;/a&gt; could not be reproduced in a virtual environment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The visuospatial ability referred to as mental rotation has been shown to produce one of the largest and most consistent sex differences,&#xA;  in favor of males, in the cognitive literature. The current study utilizes both a paper-and-pencil version of the mental rotations test (MRT)&#xA;  and a virtual environment for investigating rotational ability among 44 adult subjects. Results replicate sex differences traditionally seen&#xA;  on paper-and-pencil measures, while no sex effects were observed in the virtual environment. These findings are discussed in terms of task&#xA;  demands and motor involvement. Sex differences were also seen in the patterns of correlations between rotation tasks and other neuropsychological&#xA;  measures. Current results suggest men may rely more on left hemisphere processing than women when engaged in rotational tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since VR is much more prevalent now has this result been replicated? And/or is there more insight (say from neuroimaging) on the difference between pen-and-paper and the VR version?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-16T21:43:53.647" LastActivityDate="2018-02-15T22:14:51.467" Title="Mental rotation test in a virtual environment" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18903" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-13T20:49:20.140" Score="7" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am quoting a good overview from a Quora member about the reasons why people stutter when exposed to stress:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...The underlying physiological basis of why stress provokes stuttering&#xA;has been addressed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://jslhr.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1778933&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Weber &amp;amp; Smith, (1990)&lt;/a&gt;. It shows that speaking&#xA;increases autonomic activity (elevated blood flow, increased heart&#xA;rate, sweating) and that this sympathetic arousal was correlated with&#xA;increased stuttering behaviors in stutterers. Interestingly, the&#xA;sympathetic arousal of stutterers was found not to be outside the&#xA;range of controls. The authors bring up several hypotheses as to why&#xA;sympathetic activity may deteriorate speech fluency in stutterers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Increased autonomic activity has been associated with &lt;strong&gt;irregular&#xA;breathing&lt;/strong&gt;, which may affect speaking;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Release of the &lt;strong&gt;stress hormone adrenalin&lt;/strong&gt; may induce &lt;strong&gt;muscle tremor&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;spasms&lt;/strong&gt; that can affect speech production;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sympathetic regulation of &lt;strong&gt;afferent control of the&#xA;sensitivity of sensory receptors&lt;/strong&gt; (muscle spindles and&#xA;mechanoreceptors) in the &lt;strong&gt;oralmotor, laryngeal and respiratory system&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;may affect speech motor processes;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;gain of reflex arches&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;(feedback) involved in the &lt;strong&gt;musculature engaged in speech&lt;/strong&gt; may be&#xA;modulated such that speech fluency is negatively impacted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, clinical research in this field is not that advanced and good evidence on human studies is yet to be seen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is whether we already know compounds whose mechanisms can &lt;strong&gt;in theory&lt;/strong&gt; help to deal or ameliorate these pathological process in stutterers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18145" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T12:58:55.590" Title="How to counteract the deterioration of speech in stutterers by targeting sympathetic arousal?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;pathology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18904" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15272" CreationDate="2018-01-13T20:57:08.877" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Chemical synapses can be bidirectional, especially in invertebrates:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2984356&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2984356&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://elifesciences.org/articles/16962&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://elifesciences.org/articles/16962&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18146" LastActivityDate="2018-01-13T20:57:08.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18905" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18907" CreationDate="2018-01-13T21:33:48.433" Score="3" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it normal for the perception of odors to change over time? I mean the same odors, like the smell of a snack with the same formula as before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17351" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T19:41:05.347" Title="Does the perception of odors change over time?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18907" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18905" CreationDate="2018-01-14T12:24:26.963" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;An interesting question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It depends how you interpret &quot;perception&quot;. Using its most common definition, following cognitive information processing theories, then yes. The perception of odors changes of over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This reference is comprehensive about the issue. Specifically about external factors and internal factors (e.g. individual's earlier experiences) on perception (Shiffrin and Schneider, 1977). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A question to pursue could be if there are certain differences among odors that makes some of them more or less susceptible for &lt;em&gt;change in perception over time&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can further argue that, even if the odor has the same molecules (formula), a person's capabilities of detecting all the molecules will change over time (deterioration), hence changing the perception of the odor over time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shiffrin, R. M., &amp;amp; Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory. Psychological review, 84(2), 127.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18071" LastEditorUserId="18237" LastEditDate="2018-01-23T19:41:05.347" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T19:41:05.347" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18908" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-14T16:08:00.227" Score="3" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find out to what extent mere detection of faces (i.e. determining that something is a face, as opposed to recognition of specific individuals) is favored in the central vision vs peripheral vision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally the answer should be in terms of areas of brain activation, but I realize this might be too ambitious (given the review I've looked at), so merely in terms of experimentally determined perception would an acceptable answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To reiterate, I'm talking about mere detection that something is a face, not identifying/recognizing that a certain face is someone in particular (or even deriving less specific attributes like inferring their affect). Whether face detection and recognition are really separate processes I'm not sure, but some neuroscientists have proposed that they are, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629401&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tsao and Livingstone&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most basic aspect of face perception is simply detecting the presence of a face, which requires the extraction of features that it has in common with other faces. The effectiveness and ubiquity of the simple T-shaped schematic face (eye, eye, nose, mouth) suggest that face detection may be accomplished by a simple template-like process. Face detection and identification have opposing demands: The identification of individuals requires a fine-grained analysis to extract the ways in which each face differs from the others despite the fact that all faces share the same basic T-shaped configuration, whereas detection requires extracting what is common to all faces. A good detector should be poor at individual recognition, and vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another reason why detection and identification should be separate processes is that detection can act as a domain-specific filter, ensuring that precious resources for face recognition (e.g., privileged access to eye movement centers (Johnson et al 1991)) are used only if the stimulus passes the threshold of being a face. Such domain-specific gating may be one reason for the anatomical segregation of face processing in primates (it is easier to gate cells that are grouped together). A further important benefit of preceding identification by detection is that detection automatically accomplishes face segmentation, i.e., isolates the face from the background clutter, and can aid in aligning the face to a standard template.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, whether it is really the case that detection is independent of recognition doesn't matter much to me for in this question: I want to know if mere detection is favored in central vision and to what extent the detection changes as the stimulus moves towards the periphery of vision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, it looks like not much is known about where face detection happens in human brains because the best known area that activates when looking at faces is the FFA (fusiform face area)... but this region is also overlapping the one for central vision. Quoting from the same source as above:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although face-specific fMRI activation can also be seen in the superior temporal sulcus (fSTS) and in part of the occipital lobe (the “occipital face area”, OFA), the most robust face-selective activation is consistently found on the lateral side of the right mid-fusiform gyrus, the “fusiform face area” or FFA (Kanwisher et al 1997) (Figure 6). The fact that this part of the brain is activated selectively in response to faces indicates that activity in this region must arise at or subsequent to a detection stage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, the FFA is fairly closely associated with central vision. This idea is derived from where the fusiform face area (FFA) is located. Quoting a review of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1857737/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kanwisher (2006)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although it is not clear what is so special about this region of the fusiform gyrus that the FFA apparently has to live here, one intriguing clue comes from reports that face-selective cortex also responds more strongly to central than peripheral visual stimuli (even non-faces; &lt;a href=&quot;http://cvcl.mit.edu/SUNSeminar/Levy_centerperiph_NN01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Levy et al. 2001&lt;/a&gt;). This fact may suggest that face-selective regions reside in centre-biased cortex either because it has computational properties necessary for face processing, or because we tend to foveate faces during development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it's not too clear from this how much face detection actually happens in the peripheral vision. There's gotta be some level of detection that causes us to foveate faces (even just during development). So, to [re]state my question once again, to what extent is peripheral vision worse (than the central vision) at merely detecting faces?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-14T21:06:51.147" Title="To what extent is face-detection achieved in peripheral vision?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18910" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18899" CreationDate="2018-01-15T10:07:17.703" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think your examples can be explained with the Anchoring bias (aslo know as focalism).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Anchoring or focalism is a cognitive bias that describes the common&#xA;  human tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information&#xA;  offered (the &quot;anchor&quot;) when making decisions. During decision making,&#xA;  anchoring occurs when individuals use an initial piece of information&#xA;  to make subsequent judgments. Once an anchor is set, other judgments&#xA;  are made by adjusting away from that anchor, and &lt;strong&gt;there is a bias&#xA;  toward interpreting other information around the anchor&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A theory that explains anchoring is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring#Selective_accessibility&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;selective accessibility&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;selective accessibility proposes that when given an anchor, a judge&#xA;  (i.e. a person making some judgment) will evaluate the hypothesis that&#xA;  the anchor is a suitable answer. Assuming it is not, the judge moves&#xA;  on to another guess, but not before accessing all the relevant&#xA;  attributes of the anchor itself. Then, when evaluating the new answer,&#xA;  the judge looks for ways in which it is similar to the anchor,&#xA;  resulting in the anchoring effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Anchoring is a type of priming. The following extract is from &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.cy/books?id=eAKIcDmhBuEC&amp;amp;dq=brain%20bugs&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjLyJqG3NnYAhXL16QKHT3jAK4Q6AEIJTAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain Bugs&lt;/a&gt; by Dean Buonomano :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GFeQe.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GFeQe.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below is the definition of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;priming&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Priming is a technique whereby exposure to one stimulus influences a&#xA;  response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or&#xA;  intention. For example, the word NURSE is recognized more quickly&#xA;  following the word DOCTOR than following the word BREAD. Priming can&#xA;  be perceptual, semantic, or conceptual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2018-01-15T10:07:17.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18912" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18879" CreationDate="2018-01-15T16:43:48.300" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Any anxiety — and especially with Panic Attacks — can often &lt;strong&gt;but not always&lt;/strong&gt; lead to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperventilation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hyperventilation&lt;/a&gt;.  Steady, slow breathing will prevent it, whilst also helping to relieve the anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst looking into the answer to your question, there are a few resources out there discussing the best techniques for dealing with hyperventilation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003071.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MedlinePlus.gov&lt;/a&gt; mentions that hyperventilation creates a low level of carbon dioxide in your blood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The low levels of Carbon Dioxide is the basis of the paper bag technique which you may have heard about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is the traditional practice to treat acute hyperventilation (thought to be due to anxiety) by having patients rebreathe the carbon dioxide using a brown paper bag.  However, there are reports that there are cases in which this treatment, incorrectly applied to patients who were &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxemia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypoxemic&lt;/a&gt; or had &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/myocardial-ischemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20375417&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;myocardial ischemia&lt;/a&gt;, resulted in death. (Callaham, 1989)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This will be the reason why &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/using-a-paper-bag-to-control-hyperventilation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD states&lt;/a&gt;, although the technique is useful, that you must not use a paper bag if:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You have any heart or lung problems, such as coronary artery disease, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD, emphysema), or a history of deep vein thrombosis, stroke, or pulmonary embolism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or if you are at a high altitude [above 6000 ft (1829 m)].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, MedlinePlus states in the same article linked above that the heart or lung problems mentioned by WebMD can be medical causes of hyperventilation and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Emotional causes include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Anxiety and nervousness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Panic attack&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Situations where there is a psychological advantage in having a sudden, dramatic illness (for example, somatization disorder)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Stress&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/tc/hyperventilation-home-treatment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD in another article&lt;/a&gt; states that breathing exercises help to deal with hyperventilation and suggests to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Breathe through pursed lips, as if you are whistling, or pinch one nostril and breathe through your nose. It is harder to hyperventilate when you breathe through your nose or pursed lips, because you can't move as much air.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Slow your breathing to 1 breath every 5 seconds, or slow enough that symptoms gradually go away.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MedlinePlus.gov also has a detailed explanation of &lt;a href=&quot;https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000053.htm#section-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pursed Lip Breathing&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for studies on effective long term treatments, Alicia Meuret of Southern Methodist University in Dallas &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/9204-stave-panic-deep-breath.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;led a study&lt;/a&gt; pitting Cognitive Therapy against &lt;a href=&quot;https://medicalxpress.com/news/2010-12-treatment-panic-anxiety-video.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CART (Capnometry-Assisted Respiratory Training)&lt;/a&gt;.  After some searching, I found the Meuret's manuscript on the National Institutes of Health website (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3327286/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meuret, et al. 2010&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apparently, according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/9204-stave-panic-deep-breath.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the LiveScience article linked above&lt;/a&gt;, Meuret said,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Panicking people are often told to calm down and &quot;take a deep breath,&quot; Meuret said. But for someone hyperventilating during a panic attack, deep breathing is a bad idea. That's because hyperventilation happens when people breathe so quickly and deeply that they expel an unusually high amount of carbon dioxide, which in turn causes symptoms like dizziness and numbness. Those symptoms tend to make people feel like they're suffocating, so they breathe quicker and deeper, further exacerbating the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CART, was developed to systematically change &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypocapnia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypocapnia&lt;/a&gt; in patients with Panic Disorder through a brief, tightly controlled 4-week training program that uses immediate feedback via a portable &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/capnometer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;capnometer&lt;/a&gt;.  Here is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/AcQsJnLBWpE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;video showing the capnometer in use&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Callaham, M. (1989) &lt;em&gt;Hypoxic hazards of traditional paper bag rebreathing in hyperventilating patients&lt;/em&gt; Annals of Emergency Medicine 18(6): pp. 622—628&lt;br&gt;&#xA;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2499228&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2499228&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0196-0644(89)80515-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0196-0644(89)80515-3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meuret, A. E., Rosenfield, D., Seidel, A., Bhaskara, L. and Hofmann, S. G. (2010) &lt;em&gt;Respiratory and Cognitive Mediators of Treatment Change in Panic Disorder: Evidence for Intervention Specificity&lt;/em&gt; Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(5): pp. 691—704&lt;br&gt;&#xA;PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3327286/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3327286&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0019552&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/a0019552&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-01-16T14:21:22.993" LastActivityDate="2018-01-16T14:21:22.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18913" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18917" CreationDate="2018-01-15T21:58:01.800" Score="-1" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen a lot of research on concentration or focus in the short term. But what about concentration and focus in the long term? For example, if I set a goal to write a novel over the course of 4 years, what factors go into predicting my ability, willingness, and interest in finishing that novel? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17811" LastActivityDate="2018-01-16T08:16:28.617" Title="Research on improving long term focus" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;&lt;goals&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2018-01-17T10:33:56.590" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18914" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18918" CreationDate="2018-01-16T03:26:05.017" Score="1" ViewCount="3788" Body="&lt;p&gt;My child, 5 years old girl recently talked to herself about she just changed to new school in front of mirror. It was alone and she just talked to herself on mirror. Is it psychologically normal condition or what should parents do about it?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18163" LastActivityDate="2018-01-17T01:33:03.220" Title="Psychological behavior of talking alone in front of mirror." Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18913" CreationDate="2018-01-16T08:16:28.617" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Duckworth's [research on] &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grit_(personality_trait)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;grit&lt;/a&gt; would probably qualify; she defined grit as perseverance/persistance combined with passion...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However as grit is currently measured, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27845531&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;grit doesn't seem&lt;/a&gt; all that different from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conscientiousness&lt;/a&gt;, which is a much more established measure. Duckworth herself admits we should probably go back to drawing board for measuring passion; see her &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2016/05/25/479172868/angela-duckworth-responds-to-a-new-critique-of-grit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;closing remarks&lt;/a&gt; on NPR: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;She said she's currently thinking about revising her &quot;grit scale,&quot; her basic experimental tool, specifically the questions about passion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-01-16T08:16:28.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18918" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18914" CreationDate="2018-01-16T08:42:30.367" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;By itself, a single incident like this, or even a habit of talking to oneself in the mirror, doesn't qualify as a mental disorder, in the opinion of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.icliniq.com/qa/schizophrenia/is-talking-to-myself-in-front-of-the-mirror-a-symptom-of-schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one psychiatrist&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a bit more background on the research in this area, there's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/08/smarter-living/benefits-of-talking-to-yourself-self-talk.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NYT article&lt;/a&gt;. Alas it doesn't get into children... and children to have more behavior that few adults have, like imaginary friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the contents of the external self-talk is probably more important than the mere fact she does it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The introductory part of &lt;a href=&quot;https://library.down-syndrome.org/en-us/research-practice/online/2008/parent-carer-ratings-self-talk-behaviour-adults-down-syndrome-canada-united-kingdom/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an article focused on self-talk in Down syndrome&lt;/a&gt; mentions that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-talk or talking out loud to oneself (also referred to as 'private speech') is a common behavior in young children and plays an important role in the development of higher-level thinking and self-directional skills. Developmentally, children engage in self-talk to coordinate their actions and thoughts. During focused goal-directed activities, self-talk/private speech systematically becomes more selective in 4-year-old children than in 3 year olds[1]. By the age of 6 or 7 years, most children stop talking out loud to themselves and develop an internal dialogue when working out problems or challenging tasks[2].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In certain situations, people engage in self-talk (either positive or negative) during periods of stress or conflict or to motivate themselves. Negative self-talk has been found to increase during levels of affective stress in children and adolescents with anxiety and depression[3,4]. Studies of the use of self-talk in people engaged in exercise and competitive sports have found that exercisers and athletes use self-talk as a positive, motivating behavior to enhance their performance[5,6,7]. Few studies have been conducted on self-talk behavior in people with intellectual disabilities. Self-talk has been a common observation by parents of children and adults with Down syndrome[8,9]. It was postulated that self-talk is an important aspect of the thought processes of people with Down syndrome when they are working out difficult situations, expressing feelings, and entertaining themselves[10]. No association was found between self-talk/private speech and behavior problems, communication difficulties, or social isolation. However, self-talk in adults with Down syndrome has sometimes been incorrectly considered to be hallucinatory behavior [11,12].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-17T01:33:03.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18919" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18920" CreationDate="2018-01-16T16:47:14.760" Score="2" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently learn something about world memory championship and I am considering to embark on some training. But I would like to know if the skills trained and learn from world memory championship are transferable? Like improving IQ, improving imagination capability, improving &quot;innate memory power&quot; (meaning that your memory improves even when not applying techniques)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18166" LastActivityDate="2018-01-16T21:20:29.770" Title="Are the skills trained and learn from world memory championship transferable?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18920" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18919" CreationDate="2018-01-16T18:51:40.623" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Improvements will be limited to likewise tasks (memorizing stuff). Quoting &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/blog/brain-training-only-makes-you-better-at-brain-training&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/blog/brain-training-only-makes-you-better-at-brain-training&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A just-released meta-analysis (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616635612&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Melby-Lervag, Redick, &amp;amp; Hulme, 2016&lt;/a&gt;) reviewed the literature on transfer effects in working memory training. Working memory is a key aspect of cognition, because a reasonable assumption is that an improved ability to temporarily store and manipulate information in the brain would lead to wide-ranging cognitive benefits. In other words, if anything could lead to far transfer, it would be effective working memory training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results, though, are disappointing for brain training fans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Working memory training demonstrated no far transfer effects. Important real-world skills like verbal ability, word decoding, and arithmetic were completely unaffected by training programs. There was, however, some “intermediate transfer,” where tasks that shared stimuli or methods with the training tasks improved slightly with training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wsATy.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wsATy.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a sort of meta-story to this meta-analysis, which points out that publication bias, methodological problems, and some sketchy control groups can explain individual studies that do find strong effects. So, even the near- and intermediate-transfer effects may be due to a number of factors that have nothing to do with genuine brain improvement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the figure, k = number of studies. &amp;quot;Treated controls&amp;quot; means the control group also received some kind of sham training, in order to minimize the gains from placebo effect on the actual treatment/training group. The observation form the last paragraph is based on &lt;a href=&quot;http://p-curve.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;p-curve&lt;/a&gt; analysis of the studies. Alas the studies with treated controls (group B in the figure below) are also those with a more anomalous p-curve, indicating potential publication bias etc., whereas the &amp;quot;A&amp;quot; group (untreated controls) doesn't show this anomaly, but these studies are weaker methodologically in a different (control-group related) way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/B3mOB.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/B3mOB.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I should also mention that the people behind dual &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-back#Dual_n-back&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;n-back training&lt;/a&gt; (Jaeggi's group) conducted &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0967-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;their own meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt;, and they stick by their claim that memory training boosts fluid intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And here's a summary of meta-analyses in this area... till 2016 from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28116702&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;yet another one by Soveri et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hrNe9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hrNe9.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also do their own meta-[re]analysis (but only of n-back)...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bnFtx.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bnFtx.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that they use a different (and perhaps more standard) terminology of active/passive control group but it has the same meaning as treated/untreated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They ultimately conclude:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In sum, in the present meta-analysis, the only notable transfer&#xA;effect is seen to untrained n-back tasks. Despite the fact&#xA;that the transfer effects to the other domains are also statistically&#xA;significant, they can be considered very small. This is&#xA;because an effect size of 0.2 means that only approximately&#xA;1% of the variance of the dependent variable (e.g., score on a&#xA;Gf task) can be explained by which group (training or control&#xA;group) the participant belongs to. The practical significance of&#xA;such effects can thus be questioned (see also Melby-Lervåg &amp;amp;&#xA;Hulme, 2016).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-16T21:20:29.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18922" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18902" CreationDate="2018-01-16T21:58:29.273" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found a fairly recent redo of the &quot;classic&quot; mental rotation by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1541931215591399&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Foroughi et al (2015)&lt;/a&gt; which also reproduced the &quot;classic&quot; results (unlike the study in my question):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many studies have found gender differences in mental rotation ability in young adults when completing mental rotation tests on paper and pencil (e.g., Peters et al., 1995; Vandenberg &amp;amp; Kuse, 1978). Two previous studies have been unable to replicate these findings when testing mental rotation ability inside of a virtual environment (Parsons et al., 2004; Rizzo et al., 2001). We created a new virtual mental rotation test (VMRT) based on a full, validated test of mental rotation ability (MRT-A; Peters et al., 1995) that 128 participants (79 females) completed while wearing an Oculus Rift DK1. Our data replicate previous findings of paper and pencil tests of mental rotation ability: men scored approximately one standard deviation higher (d = .90) than women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's worth noting that the study of Parsons (and also Rizzo, which I didn't know about) both used  ImmersaDesk 3D, but more importantly they differed in methodology from &quot;classics&quot; (pen-and-paper) in that in Parsons' or Rizzo's version wasn't a multiple-choice test, but just a speed of rotation test:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Additionally, in both studies, a base stimuli&#xA;  was presented and then replaced with a working&#xA;  stimuli. The dependent variable in these studies was&#xA;  the time it took to successfully rotate the working&#xA;  stimuli to correctly match the base stimuli.&#xA;  However, most of the traditional mental rotation&#xA;  tasks showing the gender effect use a comparison based&#xA;  test where a base stimuli is presented&#xA;  simultaneously with multiple working stimuli that&#xA;  may or may not match the base stimuli.(e.g., Peters&#xA;  et al., 1995; Vandenberg &amp;amp; Kuse, 1978). In these&#xA;  studies, participants must then identify which&#xA;  stimuli are correct (i.e., accuracy). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After stating their result is in contrast to Parsons' they comment/repeat that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;there are many possible reasons for the differences in results.  First, we replicated a full, validated test of mental rotation (i.e., MRT-A). Additionally, we scored our test for accuracy whereas Rizzo and&#xA;  colleagues (2001) and Parsons and colleagues (2004) measured the time to rotate a working stimulus to match a base stimuli. Second, we used a&#xA;  newer technology (i.e., Oculus Rift DK1) that may &#xA;  have had a higher quality or fidelity facilitating&#xA;  performance on the test. Third, the generation of&#xA;  participants in our study may be more familiar with&#xA;  technology (e.g., smart phones, tablets, etc.) as a&#xA;  whole now that technologies are ubiquitous.&#xA;   Future research should be directed at&#xA;  determining whether scores on the VMRT are&#xA;  predictive of performance on tasks inside of VE,&#xA;  namely tasks tapping spatial ability.  For example,&#xA;  studies have shown new surgeons benefit from&#xA;  simulated VE training (e.g., Seymour, 2008;&#xA;  Seymour et al., 2002). Visuospatial skills are&#xA;  necessary to successfully interact and complete such&#xA;  tasks; thus, it would be interesting to determine&#xA;  whether scores on the VMRT predict performance&#xA;  on a simulated surgery task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, they reproduced the classic result by more faithfully sticking to the classic paradigm (multiple choice answer) in the virtual version. But it's also not clear how this impacts spatial skills the more usual ways they are used in a virtual environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-01-16T21:58:29.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18924" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-17T01:00:53.953" Score="6" ViewCount="1844" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schizophrenia.com/earlysigns.htm#&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schizophrenia.com states&lt;/a&gt; that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Replaying or rehearsing conversations out loud- i.e. talking to yourself [is a] (very common sign) [of schizophrenia].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at the site it's not clear who edits it (or what their credentials are)... so is this claim supported by research, i.e. is talking to oneself loudly a very common sign of schizophrenia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And is it so irrespective of the content of the talk? E.g. talking to &quot;oneself&quot; as if having a conversation with an imaginary person [different than oneself] seem somewhat different to me (and indicative of hallucinations) in contrast with clearly self-directed self-talk, e.g. as described in the first paragraph of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/08/smarter-living/benefits-of-talking-to-yourself-self-talk.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a NYT article&lt;/a&gt; of someone wondering out loud in a supermarket. Or is it simply the case that so few people talk to themselves loudly so that the group (of loud self-talkers) is dominated by those who have schizophrenia? (About &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/schizophrenia/auditory-hallucinations-psychiatric-illness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;75% of people with schizophrenia experience auditory hallucinations&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I &lt;a href=&quot;https://library.down-syndrome.org/en-us/research-practice/online/2008/parent-carer-ratings-self-talk-behaviour-adults-down-syndrome-canada-united-kingdom/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;also found&lt;/a&gt; that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-talk [and by this the article means loud] and behavior rituals were found to be common behavioral features in adults with Down syndrome, and in most instances, were not a sign of a psychiatric disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then the number of people with Down syndrome is only about 1/12 of those with schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-01-17T01:38:29.373" LastActivityDate="2018-01-19T09:39:19.013" Title="Is talking to oneself loudly a very common sign of schizophrenia?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18926" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-17T18:57:57.223" Score="5" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia describes &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive behavioral therapy&lt;/a&gt; by saying&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CBT focuses on the development of personal coping strategies that target solving current problems and changing unhelpful patterns in cognitions (e.g. thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes), behaviors, and emotional regulation.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, even before coinage of the term CBT various therapists where using some techniques that could influence personal coping strategies.&#xA;That leaves the question about whether those therapists were also doing CBT without them knowing or whether CBT is defined in a way that only certain techniques count as CBT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is the term defined?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-04-23T11:16:50.757" Title="What criteria decides whether a technique is CBT?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18927" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18926" CreationDate="2018-01-17T19:22:31.833" Score="5" Body="&lt;h2&gt;What is CBT?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I stated in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17325/7604&quot;&gt;my answer to a previous question on CBT&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;h3&gt;The basic concept of CBT&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) was developed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_T._Beck&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aaron Temkin Beck&lt;/a&gt;, and as mentioned before, CBT is a combination of behaviourism and behaviour therapy, and cognitive theories and their application in therapeutic settings (Reeves, 2013).  CBT helps to change how you think, hence the word &lt;em&gt;Cognitive&lt;/em&gt;, and what you do, hence the word &lt;em&gt;Behaviour&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A difficult life situation, relationship or practical problem can lead to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Altered thinking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Altered emotions and feelings&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Altered behaviour&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Altered physical feelings or symptoms&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Things can happen the other way too.  Any of the above alterations can lead to a difficult life situation, relationship or practical problem (Royal College of Psychiatrists, n.d.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;CBT works by trying to get the client to think about a situation in a more helpful way in order to move forward using more helpful behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, if the therapist is looking to help a client to use more helpful behaviours by getting them to think about their situation in a more helpful way, then the therapist is using a form of CBT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reeves, A., 2013. &lt;em&gt;An Introduction to Counselling and Psychotherapy: From Theory to Practice&lt;/em&gt;. London: SAGE Publications Ltd..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Royal College of Psychiatrists, n.d. 5 Areas Assessment. [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/healthadvice/treatmentswellbeing/cbt/5areas.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/healthadvice/treatmentswellbeing/cbt/5areas.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 5 May 2017].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-01-17T19:22:31.833" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18929" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18930" CreationDate="2018-01-18T02:06:43.360" Score="3" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are all the physical symptoms of anxiety caused by adrenaline. By physical symptoms I mean the muscle tension chest tightness and high blood pressure. I guess if thats true then anxiety and anger are the same at least physiologically well are they? If not what is the chemical responsible for the physical symptoms of anxiety&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17815" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T02:03:44.370" Title="physical symptoms of anxiety" Tags="&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18930" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18929" CreationDate="2018-01-18T09:25:16.353" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, they are actually similar, and they can be thought as two extremes of the same continuum. Many &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2766521/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;studies&lt;/a&gt; (here's a review by Lang and McTeague)suggest that the psychophysiological reactivity in the anxiety spectrum disorder is threat-related.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long Answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ohman&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19930253&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2009)&lt;/a&gt; noted how predator-prey relationship is asymmetrical because there’s a larger pressure on prey than on predators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Failure in defense against a predator determines the end of reproductive potential of prey animals. A hunting failure does not preclude future breeding. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This simple asymmetry implies that prey animals are evolutionarily shaped to &lt;em&gt;exaggerate caution&lt;/em&gt; and avoidance of danger and this may provide a biological foundation for human anxiety disorders. In prey-predator race, prey arms became a strong capacity to associate subtle cues (smell, sounds) to the presence of a predator before its actual appearance. Learning to identify subtle signs is likely to be an evolutionary prepared ability, in the sense that very little environmental input is required.&#xA;Therefore, from an evolutionary point of view, the organisms which learned to fear environmental threats faster had a survival and reproductive advantage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;LeDoux&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_E._LeDoux&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2000)&lt;/a&gt; proposed a model according to which we have preferential pathways to encode emotional stimuli and particularly threat stimuli. The &lt;strong&gt;Thalamo-Amygdala pathway&lt;/strong&gt; is a very fast road that brings the information to the amygdala (which extrapolates emotional contents from the stimuli) bypassing the cortex. It is a subcortical pathway which allows us to orient the attention toward the stimulus and to prepare our organism for responding (by sending of information from the amygdala to the brainstem which controls physiological responses).&#xA;This &quot;quick and dirty&quot; pathway (dirty because it brings raw information that has to be integrated with the information from the cortices)is in common for fear and anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Of snakes and faces: an evolutionary perspective on the psychology of fear.&lt;/em&gt; Ohman (2009)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The anxiety disorder spectrum&lt;/em&gt; Lang and McTeague (2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_E._LeDoux&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LeDoux's model&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2018-01-18T09:25:16.353" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18932" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-18T11:30:32.993" Score="1" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a brain z-score image wich is the result of some test. The image is in the SPM space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can I perfrom a ROI analisis of different zones? And obtain some statistics for each place. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18188" LastActivityDate="2018-01-18T11:30:32.993" Title="ROI analysis of a Z-Score map" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-02-01T23:34:06.957" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18933" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18934" CreationDate="2018-01-18T14:28:20.163" Score="1" ViewCount="506" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know if there is an established psychology term for this pattern of behavior:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A person does something, an action&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;That something becomes known to one or more people, and the action is seen as negative&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;(Optional) The person verbally acknowledges doing the negative action&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The person then denies ever doing the negative action (a falsehood)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Donald Trump makes a remark that indicates he grabs women by their genitalia nonconsensually&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A recording of Trump making this remark is published&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trump acknowledges that it was him making this statement&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trump eventually denies that he ever said this, and that it was made up &quot;fake news&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a succinct term that describes this pattern. Psychology has other terms to describe complex behavior such as &quot;projection&quot; and &quot;codependency&quot;. So is there a known term for the above pattern?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My opinion is that these terms apply to elements of this pattern: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaslighting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gaslighting&lt;/a&gt;, lying, manipulation, and reframing. But these terms do not describe the behavior pattern overall. Something that strikes me about this pattern is how it erodes one's sense of reality, almost in an Orwellian sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18189" LastEditorUserId="18189" LastEditDate="2018-01-18T15:44:45.063" LastActivityDate="2018-01-20T07:00:25.907" Title="What is the psychological term for reframing that uses false statements?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;deception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18934" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18933" CreationDate="2018-01-18T14:41:48.933" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I think you are referring to '&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-deception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;self-deception&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;', or '&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_deception_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interpersonal deception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-deception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self-deception&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a process of denying or rationalizing away the relevance, significance, or importance of opposing evidence and logical argument. Self-deception involves convincing oneself of a truth (or lack of truth) so that one does not reveal any self-knowledge of the deception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-deception is not simply an erroneous thought, as the acquisition and maintenance of the false belief is &lt;strong&gt;intentional&lt;/strong&gt; not accidental. Self-deceivers apparently must (1) hold contradictory beliefs, and (2) intentionally get themselves to hold a belief they know or believe truly to be false. Therefore, it is related to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_deception_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interpersonal deception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, where people intentionally let &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;others&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; to believe something, while knowing or believing truly that that is not true (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/self-deception/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford University&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Interpersonal deception theory (IDT) attempts to explain how individuals handle actual (or perceived) deception at the conscious or subconscious level while engaged in face-to-face communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-01-18T14:41:48.933" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18924" CreationDate="2018-01-18T16:05:25.217" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before I answer this question, I would like to point out that at the bottom of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schizophrenia.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schizophrenia.com&lt;/a&gt; is a disclaimer, and part of it says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;No health information on Schizophrenia.com, including information about herbal therapies and other dietary supplements, is regulated or evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration and therefore the information should not be used to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease without the supervision of a medical doctor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schizophrenia.com/diag.php#common&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;their write-up on the DSM diagnostic criteria&lt;/a&gt;, it seems that they are taking about the diagnosis criterion of &lt;strong&gt;Disorganised Speech&lt;/strong&gt; within the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnostics and Statistics Manual (DSM)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bit after the brackets:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;these are also called &quot;word salads&quot;. Ongoing disjointed or rambling monologues - in which a person seems to talking to himself/herself or imagined people or voices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is their own annotation to what is in DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HxyNb.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HxyNb.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;DSM-IV Criteria&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The key point is the bit where they say that the talking is &quot;ongoing disjointed or rambling monologues&quot;.  Just talking to yourself is not necessarily disorganised speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;WebMD describes disorganised speech in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/schizophrenia/tc/types-of-schizophrenia-topic-overview&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;their schizophrenia page&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;They may act silly and giggle for no apparent reason. They often make up words and sentences that make no sense to other people. And they often don't show facial expressions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Examples of disorganized speech include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Making up words (neologisms). For example: &quot;I'm going to the park to ride the wallywhoop.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Rhyming words (clang speech). For example: &quot;Deck the halls with boughs of holly, folly, polly, dolly, hello Dolly, want a lollipop?&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Saying sentences that make no sense to other people (word salad). For example: &quot;Give paper floor me school hop bus.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Repeating exactly what someone else has said (echolalia).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another point of note is that whether following DSM-IV or the latest edition — DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) — disorganised speech on its own is not enough to diagnose schizophrenia.  It would have to accompany at least one more item from Criteria A, plus there are also Critera B through to F to meet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association, 1994. &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition)&lt;/em&gt;. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association, 2013. &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th Edition)&lt;/em&gt;. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-01-19T09:39:19.013" LastActivityDate="2018-01-19T09:39:19.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18937" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-19T02:18:11.573" Score="2" ViewCount="257" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm having trouble wrapping my head around cognitive, psycholinguistic, and behaviorist learning acquisition methods in the context of second language acquisition. I don't really understand their differences or how to identify which one is being used. From what I understand, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive: Sequencing grammatical forms in a syllabus for individualized learning. There is some innate learning mechanism that facilitates learning, so it is better for teachers to focus on &quot;inputs&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Shoebottom, P. (n.d.). An introduction to the work of Stephen Krashen. Retrieved January 19, 2018, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/krashen.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/krashen.htm&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psycholinguistic: Links between instruction and its effect upon learners are crucial. Instruction should promote form-meaning &quot;mappings&quot; (providing a format to draw the learner's attention to the target form-meaning mappings)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Psycholinguistics. (2018, January 16). Retrieved January 19, 2018, from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Behavioral: Learning occurs through repeated process with assessment of successful learning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Behaviorism. (n.d.). Retrieved January 19, 2018, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.funderstanding.com/theory/behaviorism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.funderstanding.com/theory/behaviorism/&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If, for example, I gave an assignment to students that asked to convert french words to english.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g.&#xA;La piscine -&gt; ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would this be a psycholinguistic approach? If I increase the number of questions and frequency, would this not be a behaviorist approach? Can anybody clarify the differences and give examples. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18194" LastEditorUserId="18194" LastEditDate="2018-01-19T16:26:02.927" LastActivityDate="2018-01-19T16:26:02.927" Title="What are the differences between Cognitive, Psycho-linguistic, and Behavioral approaches to learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18939" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-19T04:37:57.587" Score="2" ViewCount="519" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the tasks that can be employed to measure cognitive control of an individual (proactive and reactive control). I have read about &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236868333_Dual_mechanisms_of_cognitive_control_in_bilinguals_and_monolinguals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;AX-CPT task&lt;/a&gt; [1]. In this task, they use letters. But I am looking for a non-linguistic task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How about the use of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;antisaccade task  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;double step task  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;stop-signal task  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;go/no-go task?  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we use these tasks to measure proactive and reactive inhibition? If so, how do we do that? I am looking for a task that uses eye-tracking method. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any papers that measure proactive and reactive inhibition and how they are employed using these tasks? Especially, studies comparing monolinguals and bilinguals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Also, I wanted to know how we can manipulate the antisaccade task to measure both proactive and reactive inhibition.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &quot;Dual mechanisms of cognitive control in bilinguals and monolinguals&quot; by Morales et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18197" LastEditorUserId="18197" LastEditDate="2018-01-23T05:28:39.470" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T05:28:39.470" Title="Cognitive control tasks" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18945" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13824" CreationDate="2018-01-20T01:33:59.280" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;So far, we're still missing some interesting cases in your answers. Izhikevich has developed a strikingly simple model that covers the following, including several inhibition-induced action potentials, and there are specific cells that have been discovered matching these behaviors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KkOYR.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KkOYR.gif&quot; alt=&quot;http://www.izhikevich.org/publications/figure1.gif&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(taken from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.izhikevich.org/publications/whichmod.htm#izhikevich&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.izhikevich.org/publications/whichmod.htm#izhikevich&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;M) Rebound spike (as has been mentioned)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;N) Rebound bursting&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;O) Threshold variability&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;S) Inhibition-induced spiking&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;T) Inhibition-induced bursting&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also Noteworthy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;K) Resonators, if I recall, can be frequency responsive to inhibitory signals&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;P) Bistable, again, if I recall, bistable neurons can be switched with inhibitory signals&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His textbook &lt;em&gt;Dynamical Systems in Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; (and I'm sure several papers, or references) goes through the names of specific cells, for these, such as: Stellate Cells of Entorhinal Cortex exhibit rebound spikes and Spiny Projection Neurons of Neostriatum exhibit bistability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11038" LastActivityDate="2018-01-20T01:33:59.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18946" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18933" CreationDate="2018-01-20T07:00:25.907" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer depends on the individuals mental status. If one is simply speaking without much thought or regard for being factual, well that can be labeled many different things. The psychological term for when one gets &quot;triped&quot; up in inaccurate statements and then tries to cover up by making further and most often equally false statements is; &lt;strong&gt;confabulation&lt;/strong&gt;. Hope this helps. Walt&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18207" LastActivityDate="2018-01-20T07:00:25.907" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18947" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18967" CreationDate="2018-01-20T09:36:12.163" Score="2" ViewCount="337" Body="&lt;p&gt;Behaviorism separates itself from other psychological views in that it doesn't care about the psyche.  Rather, it focuses on how the mind behaves, how outside factors can manipulate it, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given this, I'm led to believe it is a form of functionalism.  Both don't seem to care about what the mind really is deep down, and they focus more on the practical results that can be achieved.  Is this correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18209" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T09:10:47.173" Title="Is Behaviorism a type of Functionalism?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18951" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-21T07:28:27.397" Score="1" ViewCount="218" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many of the antiseizure I'm aware of are described as having the potential for behavior altering side-effects. I am curious about this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there something about the chemistry of the brain that frequently makes anticonvulsants also psychoactive? Does it have to be this way?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OR&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Maybe the anticonvulsant drug profiles are like this because much more money is invested in R&amp;amp;D for psychoactive drugs used in psychology than is invested in R&amp;amp;D for epilepsy drugs. And, during the R&amp;amp;D process the anticonvulsant property of a drug is discovered as being the &lt;em&gt;side effect&lt;/em&gt; of the drugs whose main property is psychoactivity. And this might be why the anticonvulsants being sold are psychoactive?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Viagra was discovered during R&amp;amp;D into high blood pressure. Viagra &lt;strong&gt;does&lt;/strong&gt; lower high blood pressure. Viagra &lt;strong&gt;also&lt;/strong&gt; has a side effect. People take Viagra for the side effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, might it be like:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;During R&amp;amp;D into psychoactive drugs, Zonisamide was discovered to have the side effect of elevativing the seizure threshold. Zonisamide &lt;strong&gt;is&lt;/strong&gt; psychoactive. Zonisamide &lt;strong&gt;also&lt;/strong&gt; elevates the seizure threshold as a side effect. People take Zonisamide for the side effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it understood why anti-epileptic drugs are always mood altering? Is it chemical? a product of the R&amp;amp;D cycle? a simple correlation that a person with the disease might be more emotional?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18215" LastEditorUserId="18215" LastEditDate="2018-01-27T06:32:18.243" LastActivityDate="2018-01-27T06:32:18.243" Title="Are many anticonvulsants just coincidentally also psychoactive?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;&lt;epilepsy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18955" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-21T16:32:08.277" Score="2" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there studies looking at what influences the propensity for asking feeler questions, e.g. how much does personality (trait of some kind) influence this and how much does culture affect it? It seems to me like a good topic for twin studies...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In more detail, what I'm talking about is this supposed &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2010/05/askers-vs-guessers/340891/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;ask vs guess&amp;quot; dichotomy&lt;/a&gt; (which I syspect is probably more of a contiuum in reality):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some families, you grow up with the expectation that it's OK to ask for anything at all, but you gotta realize you might get no for an answer. This is Ask Culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Guess Culture, you avoid putting a request into words unless you're pretty sure the answer will be yes. Guess Culture depends on a tight net of shared expectations. A key skill is putting out delicate feelers. If you do this with enough subtlety, you won't even have to make the request directly; you'll get an offer. Even then, the offer may be genuine or pro forma; it takes yet more skill and delicacy to discern whether you should accept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-21T16:32:08.277" Title="Culture and/or personality influences on asking feeler questions" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18956" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-21T18:24:03.613" Score="4" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to The &lt;a href=&quot;https://contextualscience.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Association for Contextual Behavioral Science&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://contextualscience.org/act&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Acceptance and Commitment Therapy&lt;/a&gt; (ACT) has a &lt;a href=&quot;https://contextualscience.org/state_of_the_act_evidence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;vast database of empirical evidence showing it's benefits&lt;/a&gt;. Based on this evidence, it seems that this type of therapy should be the primary option for people who struggle with any problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is seemingly illogical to me. After all, if this therapy has no drawbacks, as it seems, I don't see why it wouldn't it be used for everything. Are there any empirically based claims showing the drawbacks of ACT therapy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18226" LastEditorUserId="18226" LastEditDate="2019-01-03T18:33:20.337" LastActivityDate="2019-01-03T18:33:20.337" Title="Is there any significant empirical evidence showing drawbacks of ACT therapy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18957" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-22T03:27:24.440" Score="2" ViewCount="384" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are some ways to avoid the Jingle-Jangle fallacies when it comes to choosing a form of measurement in psychology research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18230" LastEditorUserId="18230" LastEditDate="2018-01-22T19:07:30.487" LastActivityDate="2018-01-22T19:07:30.487" Title="How to prevent falling for Jingle-Jangle fallacies?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18959" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18956" CreationDate="2018-01-22T14:13:24.400" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;After significantly more research, with help from the comments I have found the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/crdweb/ShowRecord.asp?LinkFrom=OAI&amp;amp;ID=12009103867&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;According to The University of York&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Acceptance and commitment therapy was more effective than control conditions across several disorders, but there was no evidence that it was more effective than established treatments.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically, they state: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;[A]cceptance and commitment therapy was of statistically significant benefit for depression (two RCTs), physical health (five RCTs), and other mental health conditions (seven RCTs), but not for distress conditions (four RCTs).&quot; &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; &quot;When all trials were combined (regardless of comparison or duration of follow-up), acceptance and commitment therapy was significantly more effective than control conditions&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This evidence points to ACT being equally as effective as established therapies, but ineffective on distress conditions. As Fizz pointed out in the comments, the biggest issue with ACT and other third-wave CBTs is that they are over hyped as miracle solutions despite little empirical evidence showing they are more effective than already established methodology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18226" LastEditorUserId="18226" LastEditDate="2018-01-22T16:22:43.170" LastActivityDate="2018-01-22T16:22:43.170" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18960" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-22T17:36:57.497" Score="7" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a lab manager looking to design a placebo experiment in a behavioral lab with a medical doctor. I believe our study needs to be credible and professional. I'd appreciate any recommendations on details of placebo manufacturer or retailer, type of pill bottle to use, how to create brochures of information about the purported effect of the placebo pill. Info on points of methodology is also appreciated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18233" LastEditorUserId="18233" LastEditDate="2018-10-30T17:05:28.173" LastActivityDate="2018-10-30T17:05:28.173" Title="How can I run a placebo medication pills study? Practical advice needed" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="18961" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18962" CreationDate="2018-01-22T20:11:03.867" Score="3" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;During interactions with people, I've noticed that it seems like certain people have a habit of admitting uncertainty and a willingness to admit error. There doesn't appear to be a clear group that I could bucket them into (like scientists, conservatives, etc.), but these people seem to be a minority.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After thinking about why people might bias against admitting they were wrong, I couldn't come up with a good reason. It would almost seem better for an organism to admit a mistake and learn from others, than stick to something that might actually be wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an innate human bias against admitting you are wrong/uncertain? If so, has any research been done on why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9942" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T01:53:48.340" Title="Is there an innate human bias against admitting you are wrong or uncertain?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-02-01T23:33:50.937" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18962" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18961" CreationDate="2018-01-22T20:45:47.100" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's surely a combination of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-serving_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-serving bias&lt;/a&gt; and avoiding &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt;. I'm not sure it there's a more specific name for it that has wide acceptance. It's been variously called &lt;a href=&quot;http://scienceblogs.com/cortex/2008/10/13/the-certainty-bias-1/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;certainty bias&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://socialpsychonline.com/2016/07/certainty-confidence-opinions-psychology/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;feeling of certainty&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/anger-in-the-age-entitlement/201312/love-and-the-illusion-certainty&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;illusion of certainty&quot;&lt;/a&gt; etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-01-22T20:45:47.100" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18963" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18961" CreationDate="2018-01-23T01:53:48.340" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, admitting that you are wrong can be extremely uncomfortable. Majority of the time. We, humans, project guilt onto others to maintain viable self-image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychological Projection Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can think about your action/sentence as an independent sub-personality that is loosely connected to you. If you admit that you are wrong you are basically killing a part of yourself, which is, of course, uncomfortable process - it requires a lot of strength to actually do it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a wonderful quote by Friedrich Nietzsche:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The strength of a person's spirit would then be measured by how much 'truth' he could tolerate, or more precisely, to what extent he needs to have it diluted, disguised, sweetened, muted, falsified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, it is extremely uncomfortable for our psyche to simultaneously holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Dissonance Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18242" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T01:53:48.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18964" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18929" CreationDate="2018-01-23T02:03:44.370" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd recommend reading about &lt;code&gt;fight or flight&lt;/code&gt; response in human beings and animals. And also brain area called &lt;code&gt;Amygdala&lt;/code&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fight or Flight Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amygdala Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that fear and anger are very similar when it comes down to physiology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18242" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T02:03:44.370" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18965" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16941" CreationDate="2018-01-23T02:29:55.783" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe there are some minor differences, for example, WebMD Article states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A key difference between a psychopath and a sociopath is whether he has a conscience, the little voice inside that lets us know when we’re doing something wrong, says L. Michael Tompkins, EdD. He's a psychologist at the Sacramento County Mental Health Treatment Center.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A psychopath doesn’t have a conscience. If he lies to you so he can steal your money, he won’t feel any moral qualms, though he may pretend to. He may observe others and then act the way they do so he’s not “found out,” Tompkins says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A sociopath typically has a conscience, but it’s weak. He may know that taking your money is wrong, and he might feel some guilt or remorse, but that won’t stop his behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I've read somewhere (I believe it was Theodore Millon's book) that psychopathy is more about nature and sociopathy is more about nurture. In other words, psychopaths are born the way they are, while sociopaths acquire severe trauma that makes them the way they are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This also goes along nicely with psychopaths being more calm and able to manipulate, while sociopaths are more impulsive and irritable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18242" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T02:29:55.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18966" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18960" CreationDate="2018-01-23T09:02:14.763" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This might seem a bit random at the moment, but if you run a 15 minutes personality test on a placebo group you'll be to have a better understanding how it works, so it might help with the methodology and overall conclusion.It might also help the process: a person is likely to cooperate if they believe that you genuinely care. Doing and analyzing test for each subject might come handy for gaining that trust.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I strongly believe that people who have trust in authority are likely to be treated successfully with the placebo. Just like faith healing, but 'modern' one. (No data to back it up, unfortunately.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18242" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T09:02:14.763" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18947" CreationDate="2018-01-23T09:10:47.173" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia article @Fizz provided in the comments&lt;/a&gt;, it does say that Functionalism is different to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Behaviourism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;because it is only concerned with the effective functions of the brain, through its organization or its &quot;software programs&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The full explanation of why it is different is that Behaviourism is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and other animals. It assumes that all behaviors are either &lt;strong&gt;reflexes produced by a response to certain stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history&lt;/strong&gt;, including especially reinforcement and punishment, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words it looks at how people's current and past experiences affect the person's mood and behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Functionalism states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;mental states (beliefs, desires, being in pain, etc.) are constituted solely by their functional role – that is, they have causal relations to other mental states, numerous sensory inputs, and behavioral outputs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Comparing the human brain to the computer whilst trying to explain this philosophy, the Wikipedia article points out that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;brains are physical devices with neural substrate that perform computations on inputs which produce behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where Behaviourism just looks at the initial stimuli and resulting behaviours, Functionalism looks at the brain functions and tries to explain &lt;strong&gt;how&lt;/strong&gt; behaviours manifest themselves in reaction to the information the brain receives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T09:10:47.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18968" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-23T11:04:09.310" Score="1" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the concensus (if there is one) in modern psychology regarding the well-known dubious belief that the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_rectangle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Golden Rectangle&lt;/a&gt; is the rectangle that is most aesthetically pleasing to any given individual (as opposed to other rectangles - say ones with simple side ratios such as 1:2)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have only been able to find a few papers on this topic, but all of them were from the 19th and 20th centuries. I would like to know what &lt;em&gt;modern psychology&lt;/em&gt; has to say about this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user18246" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T11:47:08.040" Title="What is the consensus on the Golden Rectangle?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18969" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18968" CreationDate="2018-01-23T11:47:08.040" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A quick search found a &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0038506&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2015 paper&lt;/a&gt; titled &quot;Time to let go? No automatic aesthetic preference for the golden ratio in art pictures.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The golden ratio is a frequently studied topic in many scientific disciplines, and, in psychology, it has been proposed as being a (universal) law governing aesthetic preferences. Empirical evidence for the golden ratio is equivocal and typically demonstrated through explicit (i.e., conscious, deliberate) evaluations using direct measurement methods (e.g., surveys). Here, we examined whether the golden ratio reflects an automatically elicited preference using the Implicit Association Test. We used real art images, with the foreground object presented in the golden ratio as well as either in the center (Studies 1 and 2) or ¾ ratio (Study 3). Both explicit and implicit evaluations did not reveal a clear preference for the golden ratio over other ratios. A possible preference for the golden ratio does not seem to be automatically elicited and may, rather, be driven by art expertise. This again calls into dispute the universality of a preference for the golden ratio.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So based on this it's disputable, at the very least, that the golden ratio is as pleasing as the received wisdom claims. I could not find something like a meta-analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-01-23T11:47:08.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18972" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-23T18:57:24.827" Score="1" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that I can solve some simple systems of linear equations in my head by visualizing the terms and moving them. But if I don't concentrate enough, it gets blurry quite fast.&#xA;In the same way, I can remember some structure of an algorithm, a mathematical proof or a speech, but not with details. In the same way, I tend to forget the first elements if I add new ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel that, by saying that, I mix at least two things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what I have heard as a &quot;mind limit&quot;, around 3 or 4 elements anyone can process at the sale time, or recognize visually without counting them&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;memory, which you can theoretically train to store large amounts of elements&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What can be trained, and how, to be able to process more elements at the same time? Even if there's a hard mind limit, is it possible to make playing mentally with N elements much clearer, and how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6476" LastActivityDate="2018-01-24T07:15:12.987" Title="Is it possible to raise the complexity of what you can mentally process?" Tags="&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18973" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19104" CreationDate="2018-01-23T21:37:20.887" Score="3" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;As noted in a previous question, hallucinogenics, such as psilocybin, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/17840/4397&quot;&gt;have been used to treat depression with some success&lt;/a&gt;. Chronic pain is affected somewhat by a top-down process from the brain, as shown in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23532434&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurofeedback treatment via EEG&lt;/a&gt;. Have hallucinogenics been shown to be an effective treatment for chronic pain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-02-17T08:34:37.230" Title="Do hallucinogenics affect chronic pain?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18972" CreationDate="2018-01-24T06:13:06.507" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the answer you are looking for is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;chunking&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A chunk is defined as a familiar collection of more elementary units&#xA;  that have been inter-associated and stored in memory repeatedly and&#xA;  act as a coherent, integrated group when retrieved (Tulving &amp;amp; Craik,&#xA;  2000). It is believed that individuals create higher order cognitive&#xA;  representations of the items on the list that are more easily&#xA;  remembered as a group than as individual items themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The repeated exposure unconsiously creates chunks of many elements that are stored in long term memory, which are retreived as whole units in the working memory. In this case the limit is 3-4 chunks, each composed of many elements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is sometimes possible though, if needed, to consiously decompose the chunk into its elements in working memory, but in this case only 3-4 items of the decomposed chunk can be active in the working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2018-01-24T06:13:06.507" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18972" CreationDate="2018-01-24T07:15:12.987" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Deep mastery of concepts improves intuition, which may improve the speed at which information is processed or manipulated, and increase the complexity of the information which can be manipulated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastActivityDate="2018-01-24T07:15:12.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18976" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-24T08:00:26.793" Score="4" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am 42 and doing software developer since 20 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since several years I know that talking about a problem helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I can't find a an easy solution myself I talk to a team mate or ask at a site like stackoverflow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often it is enough to speak about it (or write the question). If I do this, I often find the solution myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to find a matching term (from &#xA;psychology or neuroscience) for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question: How do you call this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have links to related studies, please leave a comment. Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13175" LastEditorUserId="13175" LastEditDate="2018-01-25T07:40:23.643" LastActivityDate="2018-09-07T12:05:50.777" Title="Talking about a problem helps (software developing)" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18978" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17877" CreationDate="2018-01-24T13:16:34.203" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Main causes of Apathy&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are 2 main ways that Apathy can manifest itself, and that is either through a mental health condition, or a physical medical condition. (APA, 2013 p. 682) (&lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F00-F09&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IDC-10 Code: F07&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will list some mental health causes and physical causes below, but the main way of dealing with the apathy would depend on the cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Treatment for apathy&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way to treat apathy would be to treat the &lt;strong&gt;root cause&lt;/strong&gt;, where possible, through psychotherapy, psychiatric help and/or other agency support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I emphasised &lt;strong&gt;root cause&lt;/strong&gt; because where the initial cause found may be substance abuse for example, the substance abuse can be attributed to a different cause (the root cause) which could be a parent-child relationship problem or trauma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Where apathy persists after treatment&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If apathy remains after successful treatment of the root cause(s), then the problem will most likely lie with motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could look at the question on here about &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/16742/theories-of-human-motivation&quot;&gt;Theories of Human Motivation&lt;/a&gt; for information, or just look at various motivational courses, exercises and activities &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.planetofsuccess.com/motivationtechniques/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;such as these activities&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Breakdown of Main Causes of Apathy&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Mental health causes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not a full list, but includes,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Separation Axiety Disorder&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When separated from major attachment figures, children with separation anxiety disorder may exhibit social withdrawal, &lt;strong&gt;apathy&lt;/strong&gt;, sadness, or difficulty concentrating on work or play.&lt;br&gt;(APA, 2013 p. 192)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Major Depressive Disorder&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In major depressive disorder, the individual may avoid leaving&#xA;  home &lt;strong&gt;because of apathy&lt;/strong&gt;, loss of energy, low self-esteem, and anhedonia. (APA, 2013 p. 221)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neurocognitive Disorders (NCDs) such as Delirium&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Delirium is often associated with a disturbance in the sleep-wake cycle....The individual with delirium may exhibit emotional disturbances, such as anxiety, fear, depression, irritability, anger, euphoria, and &lt;strong&gt;apathy&lt;/strong&gt;. (APA, 2013 p. 600)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Behavioral-Variant Major or Mild Frontotemporal NCD&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;present with &lt;strong&gt;varying degrees of apathy or disinhibition&lt;/strong&gt;. They may lose interest in socialization, selfcare, and personal responsibilities, or display socially inappropriate behaviors. (APA, 2013 p. 615)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Physical Problems Causing Mental Health Problems&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not a full list, but includes,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Inhalant Intoxication&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This can create&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clinically significant problematic behavioral or psychological changes (e.g., belligerence, assaultiveness, &lt;strong&gt;apathy&lt;/strong&gt;, impaired judgment) (APA, 2013 p. 538)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Opioid Intoxication&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This can create&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clinically significant problematic behavioral or psychological changes (e.g., initial euphoria &lt;strong&gt;followed by apathy&lt;/strong&gt;, dysphoria, psychomotor agitation or retardation, impaired judgment) that developed during, or shortly after, opioid use. (APA, 2013 p. 546)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Other toxic, metabolic, traumatic, neoplastic, or infectious disorders that impair brain function and cognition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Numerous neurological and other medical conditions may produce the clinically significant behavioral or psychological changes (e.g., belligerence, assaultiveness, &lt;strong&gt;apathy&lt;/strong&gt;, impaired judgment) that also characterize inhalant intoxication. (APA, 2013 p. 540)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Major or Mild NCD due to Traumatic Brain Injury&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;may be accompanied by disturbances in emotional function&#xA;  (e.g., irritability, easy frustration, tension and anxiety, affective lability); personality changes (e.g., disinhibition, &lt;strong&gt;apathy&lt;/strong&gt;, suspiciousness, aggression); physical disturbances (e.g., headache, fatigue, sleep disorders, vertigo or dizziness, tinnitus or hyperacusis, photosensitivity, anosmia, reduced tolerance to psychotropic medications); and, particularly in more severe TBI, neurological symptoms and signs (e.g., seizures, hemiparesis, visual disturbances, cranial nerve deficits) and evidence of orthopedic injuries. (APA, 2013 p. 625)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders&lt;/em&gt; (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-01-24T13:16:34.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18979" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-24T15:46:16.127" Score="3" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm planning an event-related fMRI-experiment to investigate the difference in processing natural and computer-generated expressions. For this, we recorded videos of 4 different actors posing  fearful and neutral expressions which last 3 seconds each and will compare them to computer-generated videos of fearful and neutral expressions. This was planned as 4 different conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We noted now that the videos/expressions we recorded are of different emotional intensity (preliminary subjective ratings). Meaning some natural fearful expressions seem to be less emotionally intense than other natural fearful expressions and some artifical fearful expressions seem to be less emotionally intense than other artificial expressions. In general, artificial fearful expressions seem to be less emotionally intense than natural fearful expressions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we run the fMRI experiment as planned and contrast for example BOLD response to natural fearful expressions with BOLD response to artificial fearful expressions, how would the different emotional intensities of the videos affect the results?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We do not have enough videos to form a further &quot;emotional intensity condition&quot; and model the influence of the emotional intensity ratings in subsequent analyses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18256" LastEditorUserId="18256" LastEditDate="2018-01-25T07:48:46.163" LastActivityDate="2018-01-25T07:48:46.163" Title="How do different emotional intensity ratings within a condition influence the comparison across different conditions in an event-related fMRI task?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18292" CreationDate="2018-01-25T03:30:26.910" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;That's a great question. I've wondered about this myself, given that some forms of meditation - particularly those that aim to exclusively focus on a particular object - seem to be the antithesis of creative thinking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an article by meditation teacher, Michael Taft, that cites some of the research into focused-attention vs open-monitoring methods of meditation. It supports the statements in your updated post, that open-monitoring methods can  support increased creativity. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://wisdomlabs.com/meditation-makes-innovative/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://wisdomlabs.com/meditation-makes-innovative/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18264" LastActivityDate="2018-01-25T03:30:26.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18982" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18976" CreationDate="2018-01-25T06:53:10.753" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can think two reasons why talking about a problem helps :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Explaining your knowledge can reveal gaps and bugs&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following extract is from the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.cy/books?id=k2CJDQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;dq=smart%20thinking%20art%20markman&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjKpfjEwPLYAhWCKlAKHeYBDYsQ6AEIJTAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smart Thinking&lt;/a&gt; by Art Markman :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/S2HbZ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/S2HbZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Talking about a problem changes its mental representation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our &lt;a href=&quot;http://sourcesofinsight.com/we-change-when-we-change-our-mental-representation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mental representation&lt;/a&gt; is the ideas, concepts, stories, theories,&#xA;  and skills that make up how we internalize something in our mind. &#xA;  Gardner writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Generically, mind change entails the alteration of mental&#xA;  representations.  All of us develop mental representations quite&#xA;  readily from the beginning of life.  Many such representations are&#xA;  serviceable, some have notable charm, others are misleading or flatly&#xA;  wrong.  Mental representations have a content:  we think of these&#xA;  contents as ideas, concepts, skills, stories, or full-fledged theories&#xA;  (explanations of the world).  These contents can be expressed in words&#xA;  — and in a book, that medium is customarily used.  However, nearly all&#xA;  contents can be expressed in a variety of forms, media, symbol&#xA;  systems: these systems can be exhibited publicly as marks on a page&#xA;  and can also be internalized in a ‘language of the mind’ or a&#xA;  particular ‘intelligence.’”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mere fact of trying to formulate our thinking into speech, changes its representation (&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/download/1826/1598&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;see this article&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2018-01-25T06:53:10.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18984" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18976" CreationDate="2018-01-25T13:23:32.563" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, first of all, let's briefly discuss the process of thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lone, silent thinking is the internalization of words taught to you at a very young age. Clinical literature suggests that if you miss learning period you cannot learn it anymore. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_child&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feral Child Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Speculation:&lt;/strong&gt; Based on this, I strongly believe that understanding words and speaking came earlier in our evolutionary process than thinking. This posits the idea that we're better at discussing things in social settings than thinking them internally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, writing obviously came later than understanding words, speaking words and thinking, however, it is a bit different than thinking. When you are writing you externalize something within and actually look at it, which entirely changes the perception of the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, to further my point. As I mentioned above, thinking is the internalization of a conversation and it is really hard to think properly because it requires you to activate different parts of your personality that can actually argue/communicate as you would in a normal conversation. Technically speaking in order to think properly you need to create a cognitive dissonance otherwise it is going to be confirmation bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also useful to bring in terms such as subconscious and conscious. Carl Jung thought that those two exist 'in different dimensions'. You can attribute symbolic and metaphorical aspects of your psyche to the subconscious, while the verbal aspect of your mind is conscious. In other words, there is a difference between unarticulated and articulated knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unarticulated knowledge is somewhat subconscious, so you do not have full access to it, however, if you manage to articulate it - you gain full access. Thinking is a quick process and thoughts might slip away while writing is slower and you actually perceive, correct yourself and rectify the issues as you go through. (Same applies to the communication except there are two or more heads instead of one.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18242" LastActivityDate="2018-01-25T13:23:32.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18985" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-25T14:19:20.827" Score="2" ViewCount="268" Body="&lt;p&gt;the 16 basic desires theory states that saving/collecting is intrinsically motivated. (Steven Reiss)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but monetary incentives usually fall under extrinsic motivation.&#xA;if you spend less you have more money so its like earning more...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or does it depend what you are saving the money for?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;im trying to classify the motivation of online-pirates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18270" LastActivityDate="2018-01-25T14:19:20.827" Title="is saving money intrinsic or extrinsically motivated?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2018-02-28T09:55:21.367" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18986" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-25T19:10:37.430" Score="3" ViewCount="696" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wbwLZ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wbwLZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was reading this slide provided by my prof. of Affective Neuroscience.&#xA;I've read that appraisal is considered a constitutive component of emotion by most of the actual theories.&#xA;Appraisal is defined as the cognitive act to evaluate the potential impact that an external stimulus may have on me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can you provide an example of automatic appraisal?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2018-02-01T23:53:46.267" Title="Can you give an example of automatic appraisal process?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18987" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-25T19:11:59.673" Score="1" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a programmer by profession. In the course of my daily routine, I observe that I'd have to frequently &quot;wait&quot; for the computer to do something, before I can continue with my work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empirically, I'd say that I'd have to interrupt myself in such fashion every 10 minutes. These frequent interruptions stress me out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is any one aware of any scientific study that measures the impact on such interruptions on an individual's stress levels?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18275" LastActivityDate="2018-01-25T19:11:59.673" Title="Programmer: Effects of pauses on stress" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18988" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="18989" CreationDate="2018-01-25T22:11:40.683" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I once heard that we tend to have some perception bias : we tend to think that a behavior by a minority of a minority group is in fact the representation of the majority of this minirity group.&#xA;Classical example would be that we tend to think that people from another state drive badly. This would come due to the fact that when we see a car driver behaving badly on the road, we will see the license plate from another state and that would ´stick’ better in our memories. And from there, we would generalize that people from that region are bad drivers as we don’t check the license plate of good drivers.&#xA;Is there such a thing? If so, is there a term/denomination for such perception bias?&#xA;I hope that I was clear enough as English is not my primary language&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18276" LastActivityDate="2018-01-26T06:02:53.383" Title="Perception: thinking a minority behavior in a minority group is the majority of said group" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18988" CreationDate="2018-01-26T06:02:53.383" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the term you are looking is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-group_homogeneity#A_self-categorization_theory_account&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;out-group homogeneity&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The out-group homogeneity effect is one's perception of out-group&#xA;  members as more similar to one another than are in-group members, e.g.&#xA;  &quot;they are alike; we are diverse&quot;. ... Perceivers tend to have&#xA;  impressions about the diversity or variability of group members around&#xA;  those central tendencies or typical attributes of those group members.&#xA;  Thus, outgroup stereotypicality judgments are overestimated,&#xA;  supporting the view that out-group stereotypes are&#xA;  overgeneralizations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2018-01-26T06:02:53.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18990" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21118" CreationDate="2018-01-26T16:53:54.273" Score="3" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;The only words in Chinese that I know are &quot;Ni How&quot; (hello) and &quot;she she&quot; (thank you). And the only words I know in Japanese are &quot;Domo arigato Mr. Roboto&quot; (thank you very much Mr. Roboto). Yet I am able to tell the difference between when a person is speaking Chinese and when a person is speaking Japanese.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How am I able to do this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9286" LastActivityDate="2018-11-11T07:50:01.213" Title="How am I able to distinguish between Chinese and Japanese when I don't speak either language?" Tags="&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18991" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-27T08:13:12.877" Score="0" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not looking for anything all-inclusive, as I am aware that such a list would be impossible. Perhaps some introductory books on psychoanalysis (such as works by Freud) would be good, as well as any compilation of case studies, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18283" LastActivityDate="2018-01-27T15:23:08.940" Title="Informative texts on psychoanalysis?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18992" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18991" CreationDate="2018-01-27T09:20:09.190" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe you're looking for this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.valas.fr/IMG/pdf/Freud_Complete_Works.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.valas.fr/IMG/pdf/Freud_Complete_Works.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18242" LastActivityDate="2018-01-27T09:20:09.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18993" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19535" CreationDate="2018-01-27T09:48:08.793" Score="3" ViewCount="1317" Body="&lt;p&gt;A person with schizophrenia sees a door become open, while in reality it's closed. What would he see when he tries to pass through the door? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bumps into an invisible obstacle.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;He sees the door become closed just before he tries to pass.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;He opens the door himself just before passing through it, but his brain meticulously ignores his action or alters his memory so that he thinks the door was already open.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17351" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-19T08:31:28.787" LastActivityDate="2018-04-19T23:47:37.127" Title="The interactions between hallucinations and reality in people with schizophrenia" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18994" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18991" CreationDate="2018-01-27T15:23:08.940" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are new to Psychoanalysis, you cannot go far wrong with starting by having a look at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.freud.org.uk/education/topic/76249/what-is-psychoanalysis-is-it-weird/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4-part YouTube Video Series put together by the Freud Museum of London&lt;/a&gt; along with their article which gives an outline on Freud's Theories &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.freud.org.uk/education/topic/10567/subtopic/10571/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Are Freud's Theories All About Sex?)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading Freud's Complete Works as suggested by @GogaVachnadze could be heavy going if you are just starting off but will give a complete understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the excellent book of articles edited by Dr. Joseph Reppen, PhD. called Beyond Freud: A Study of Modern Psychoanalytic Theorists.  It was published by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://theipi.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IPI (International Psychotherapy Institute)&lt;/a&gt; and is available free from their website at &lt;a href=&quot;https://freepsychotherapybooks.org/psychoanalysis/product/40-beyond-freud-a-study-of-modern-psychoanalytic-theorists/category_pathway-17&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://freepsychotherapybooks.org/psychoanalysis/product/40-beyond-freud-a-study-of-modern-psychoanalytic-theorists/category_pathway-17&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-01-27T15:23:08.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18996" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19001" CreationDate="2018-01-27T22:38:31.410" Score="4" ViewCount="2306" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I have understood, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;availability heuristic&lt;/a&gt; means that things that are &quot;available&quot; in one's cognition (one has thought recently) are prone to influence one's perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Priming&lt;/a&gt; has been explained as that the word 'doctor' is recognized more frequently than 'bread' after a word 'nurse'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find that in this sense priming would be a subcategory of availability or vice versa. ('doctor' is recognized more frequently when 'nurse' is available in one's cognition)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why did &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1738360&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman introduce&lt;/a&gt; availability instead of sticking with priming? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Tversky, A., &amp;amp; Kahneman, D. (1974). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1738360&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases.&lt;/a&gt; science, 185(4157), 1124-1131.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18287" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-01-30T13:47:06.183" LastActivityDate="2018-01-30T13:47:06.183" Title="What's the relationship between priming and availability heuristic?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="18998" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-28T09:42:48.580" Score="0" ViewCount="183" Body="&lt;p&gt;My friend said something about that people get older than 50 loose the ability to think creatively and formulate new ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a saying like “stuck in his ways” and people say the “older you get the harder it is to change” &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a thing? If it is there a scientific name for it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17785" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-01-28T16:00:01.180" LastActivityDate="2021-04-27T17:36:39.887" Title="Is it true that old people loose the ability think creatively/ formulate new ideas" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18996" CreationDate="2018-01-28T13:23:41.203" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychological Priming and Availability Heuritic are both concepts within Social Psychology and Behavioural Psychology.  Although I can see where you are trying to make a link here, and there could be times where both are at play, &lt;strong&gt;Psychological Priming is different to Availability Heuristic&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Psychological Priming&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Priming is a nonconscious form of human memory concerned with perceptual identification of words and objects. It refers to activating particular representations or associations in memory just before carrying out an action or task. For example, a person who sees the word &quot;yellow&quot; will be slightly faster to recognize the word &quot;banana.&quot; This happens because yellow and banana are closely associated in memory. Additionally, priming can also refer to a technique in psychology used to train a person's memory in both positive and negative ways.&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/priming&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Doing some research on the history, the idea first took hold in 1932 with a book called &lt;em&gt;Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Remembering.html?id=WG5ZcHGTrm4C&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bartlett, 1932&lt;/a&gt;) and the first demonstration of Priming was in 1971 within experiments by E. F. Loftus, J. F. Juola and R. C. Atkinson's (Colins &amp;amp; Loftus, 1975) [See also - &lt;a href=&quot;https://prezi.com/ep5dwcwbq2dl/the-history-of-priming&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The History of Priming (Vogel, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A couple of other good examples of Psychological Priming, different to the yellow banana above, was provided in an article by Jesse Marczyk Ph.D. in Psychology Today (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/pop-psych/201701/the-adaptive-significance-priming&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marczyk, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Priming can affect perceptions about the world&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[H]olding a warm drink (instead of a cold one) can lead you judge other people as more caring and generous; a finding that falls under the umbrella of embodied cognition. Why would such a finding arise? If I understand correctly, the line of thought is that holding a warm drink activates some part of your brain that holds the concept &quot;warm;&quot; as that concept is tied indirectly to personality (e.g., &quot;He's a really warm and friendly person&quot;), you end up thinking the person is nicer than you otherwise would. Warm drinks prime the concept of emotional warmth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[See also: &lt;a href=&quot;http://johnnyholland.org/2011/03/how-your-coffee-mug-controls-your-feelings-what-you-can-do-about-it&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This article in Johnny Holland&lt;/a&gt; for more examples]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Priming on a behavioural level instead of a perceptual one&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[R]esearch on &lt;a href=&quot;http://popsych.org/tilting-at-the-windmills-of-stereotype-threat&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;stereotype threat&lt;/a&gt; suggests that if you remind women of their gender before a math test (in other words, you're priming gender), they will tend to perform worse than women who were not primed because the concept of &quot;woman&quot; is related to stereotypes of &quot;being worse at math.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[See also: &lt;a href=&quot;http://uk.businessinsider.com/power-posing-researcher-rejects-life-hack-2016-9&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Power Poses&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://popsych.org/i-find-your-lack-of-theory-and-replications-disturbing&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elderly Prime Effects on Walking Speed&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Availability Heuristic&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater &quot;availability&quot; in memory, which can be influenced by how recent the memories are or how unusual or emotionally charged they may be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One good example for this can be found in an article by Jamie Madigan Ph.D. in Psychology Today (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mind-games/201304/the-availability-heuristic-is-always&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Madigan, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this example, with people who have always lived in areas where their internet connection is reliable, the availability heuristic influences their decision-making, belief, and behavioral bias with regard to internet connection in other areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Orthy's estimation of the number of people who have stable Internet connections and who should thus &quot;#dealwithit&quot; is probably influenced by the availability heuristic. Or rather, the UNavailability heuristic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Madigan went on to say,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The availability heuristic is an old mental foible that I've written about before, and the short version is that the easier it is to remember of examples of something, the more prevalent, frequent, or large we think it is. But interestingly, the opposite is also true: will tend to think something is less prevalent or less frequent when it's harder to remember examples of it. Various things make an event or a condition easier to remember, but they often include experiencing it ourselves, having seen it recently, or knowing someone who has.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My favorite example of this (un)availability heuristic is a hack created by University of California Los Angeles professor Craig Fox (2006) to boost his student class evaluations. Before completing the evaluation forms, Fox asked half the students to suggest 2 ways to improve the class (an easy task), then asked the other half to suggest 10 ways to improve it (a much harder task). Those who go quickly got stumped on the road to coming up with 10 improvements gave Fox higher course evaluation ratings than the others. Why? Because they misinterpreted the difficulty of recalling so many flaws as evidence that there were few flaws at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bartlett, F. C. (1935). &lt;em&gt;Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt; Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Collins, A. M., &amp;amp; Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, 82(6), pp. 407—428.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.82.6.407&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0033-295X.82.6.407&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fox, C. (2006). The availability heuristic in the classroom: How soliciting more criticism can boost your course ratings. &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.sjdm.org/vol1.1.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Judgment and Decision Making&lt;/em&gt;, 1(1)&lt;/a&gt;, pp. 86—90.&lt;br&gt;Free PDF available at:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.sjdm.org/jdm06020.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Society for Judgment and Decision Making&lt;/a&gt; and&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5140605_The_availability_heuristic_in_the_classroom_How_soliciting_more_criticism_can_boost_your_course_ratings&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Cannot find DOI&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Madigan, J. (2013). &lt;em&gt;The Availability Heuristic Is Always On&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mind-games/201304/the-availability-heuristic-is-always&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/mind-games/201304/the-availability-heuristic-is-always&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marczyk, J. (2017). &lt;em&gt;The Adaptive Significance of Priming&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/pop-psych/201701/the-adaptive-significance-priming&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/pop-psych/201701/the-adaptive-significance-priming&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology Today (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;Priming&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/priming&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/priming&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vogel, R. (2014). &lt;em&gt;The History of Priming&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://prezi.com/ep5dwcwbq2dl/the-history-of-priming&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://prezi.com/ep5dwcwbq2dl/the-history-of-priming&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-01-28T13:23:41.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19003" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18998" CreationDate="2018-01-28T14:48:50.450" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question of whether it is true (or not) that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;old[er] people [in general] loose the ability think creatively or formulate new ideas&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;would lead to a very opinion based answer and therefore it is not a fit for this site.  Not everyone behaves or thinks in the same way.  However, where this is true of those who &lt;strong&gt;are&lt;/strong&gt; in this situation, there are several possible names for it and they tend to be &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive biases&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.  There is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declinism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Declinism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The belief that a society or institution is tending towards decline. Particularly, it is the predisposition to view the past favourably (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rosy retrospection&lt;/a&gt;) and future negatively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rosy Retrospection&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The remembering of the past as having been better than it really was.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_justification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;System justification&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The tendency to defend and bolster the status quo. Existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged, sometimes even at the expense of individual and collective self-interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_quo_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Status Quo Bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An emotional bias; a preference for the current state of affairs. The current baseline (or status quo) is taken as a reference point, and any change from that baseline is perceived as a loss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Choice-supportive bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a self-justifying manner retroactively ascribing one's choices to be more informed than they were when they were made.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-01-28T14:48:50.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19004" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-28T16:13:31.083" Score="1" ViewCount="173" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems intuitive to me that there is some kind of stress when one is put in an unfamiliar place (There's probably effect on cognitive abilities too). However, I can't find any paper in psychology which discusses that potential relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18295" LastActivityDate="2018-11-21T17:33:23.080" Title="Is there any research about effect of unfamiliar environment on stress?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19005" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-28T17:57:00.833" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pheromone#Humans&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pheromones&lt;/a&gt; are thought to be the biological underpinning of the social behaviour. They have been extensively studied in animals. Pheromones are &lt;strong&gt;chemical factors&lt;/strong&gt; that trigger a social response in members of the same species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are there few studies in the human-literature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia pose the problem of &lt;em&gt;&quot;the need for cleanliness and odorlessness in human participants&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a real experimental problem? &lt;strong&gt;Are there further limitations?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2018-01-28T17:57:00.833" Title="Why are there few studies in the literature regarding human's pheromones?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;social-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19007" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19008" CreationDate="2018-01-29T08:38:50.290" Score="4" ViewCount="2323" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been trying to understand the difference between drowsiness/sedation and sleepiness. The only article I was able to find that partly answers my question is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ipnos.com/blog/difference-sedation-sleep/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The difference between sedation and sleep&quot; on ipnos.com&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have experienced both, and they feel distinctly different. Sleepiness feels like a drive, but drowsiness/sedation feels like a state. My personal experience has been that sleeping when drowsy/sedated does not relieve the drowsiness/sedation, but sleeping when sleepy resolves the sleepiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Back to the question: &lt;strong&gt;what is the neurological/neurobiological/psychopharmacological difference between sleepiness and drowsiness/sedation, and why does sleep resolve the one but not the other?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16774" LastEditorUserId="16774" LastEditDate="2018-01-30T09:57:41.483" LastActivityDate="2018-01-30T10:15:44.463" Title="Difference between drowsiness/sedation and sleepiness" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19007" CreationDate="2018-01-29T10:59:48.280" Score="5" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Sedation&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a forced state of drowsiness or sleep and as indicated in your Ipnos link, it will not necessarily help with drowsiness or sleepiness brought about due to problems with your &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;circadian rhythm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sedation&lt;/a&gt; is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the reduction of irritability or agitation by administration of sedative drugs, generally to facilitate a medical procedure or diagnostic procedure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Drowsiness and Sleepiness&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The terms drowsiness, sleepiness and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnagogia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypnagogic period&lt;/a&gt; are often used to describe the same thing in the general domain, but but in the scientific domain there are important neurophysiological and psychophysiological differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Hypnagogic period&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the neurophysiological and psychophysiological transition period from the wake to sleep state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Drowsiness&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the state of the transition period from the wake to sleep state &lt;strong&gt;that can be objectively measured&lt;/strong&gt;, for example, by EEG (please see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/10166-014&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hori et al., 1994&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typical tests that describe the quality and quantity of the drowsyness are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_Sleep_Latency_Test&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT)&lt;/a&gt; and Maintenance of Wakefulness Test (MWT) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2424234&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Doghramji et al., 1997&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Sleepiness&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the &lt;strong&gt;subjective state of the subject/patient&lt;/strong&gt;. It can also be qualified and quantified, but only by rating scales such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.stanford.edu/~dement/sss.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS)&lt;/a&gt;, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.britishsnoring.co.uk/sleep_apnoea/epworth_sleepiness_scale.php&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS)&lt;/a&gt; (See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/1798888&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johns, (1991)&lt;/a&gt;), the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/2265922/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Åkerstedt &amp;amp; Gillberg, 1990&lt;/a&gt;), etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Åkerstedt, T., &amp;amp; Gillberg, M. (1990).  Subjective and objective sleepiness in the active individual, &lt;em&gt;The International Journal of Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 52(1-2): pp. 29–37)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3109/0020745900899424&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3109/0020745900899424&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/2265922/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2265922&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Doghramji, K., Mitler, M. M., Sangal, R. B., Shapiro, C., Taylor, S., Walsleben, J., Belisle, C. Erman, M. K., Hayduk, R., Hosn, R., O’Malley, E. B., Sangal, J. M., Schutte, S. L., &amp;amp; Youakima, J. M. (1997). A normative study of the maintenance of wakefulness test (MWT), &lt;em&gt;Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology&lt;/em&gt; 103(5): pp. 554–562.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-4694(97)00010-2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0013-4694(97)00010-2&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2424234&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC2424234&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hori, T., Hayashi, M., &amp;amp; Morikawa, T. (1994). Topographical EEG changes and the hypnagogic experience. In R. D. Ogilvie &amp;amp; J. R. Harsh (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Sleep onset: Normal and abnormal processes&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 237-253).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/10166-014&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/10166-014&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Johns, M. W. (1991). A new method for measuring daytime sleepiness: the Epworth sleepiness scale, &lt;em&gt;Sleep&lt;/em&gt; 14(6): pp. 540-545&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/14.6.540&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1093/sleep/14.6.540&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/1798888&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1798888&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-01-30T10:15:44.463" LastActivityDate="2018-01-30T10:15:44.463" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19009" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19004" CreationDate="2018-01-29T11:57:43.227" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found the following&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.420220608&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Older people's cardiac responses as indicators of stress in familiar and unfamiliar environments (Lewis &amp;amp; Phillips, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Padilla, A. M., Alvarez, M., &amp;amp; Lindholm, K. J. (1986). Generational status and personality factors as predictors of stress in students. &lt;em&gt;Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 8(3), 275-288.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.420220608&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/dev.420220608&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;stressful events center on loss of familial and cultural ties as well as on relative discomfort in an unfamiliar social environment&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lewis M. J. &amp;amp; Phillips J. E. (2012). Older people's cardiac responses as indicators of stress in familiar and unfamiliar environments. &lt;em&gt;Psychophysiology&lt;/em&gt;, 49(4): pp. 478-483&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01321.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01321.x&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22176515&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;22176515&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-06T16:22:39.080" LastActivityDate="2018-03-06T16:22:39.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19011" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-30T02:29:39.977" Score="2" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it known why certain information cant be retained by some people even  when it's important to do so? I've read that our ability to remember things   is based on every memory accessed before, priority, interest in the subject,   etc. So why doesn't it always work when you need it to? Like the time/date of   meetings, birthdays, names of co-workers, items you know will be on a test  later. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the flip side, is it known what mechanism it is that gives a person  (like myself) the ability to remember the same things when generally speaking   it's not something they normally can do with any accuracy? Without really  trying I have little trouble remembering appointment dates/times but ask me   what day something happened a couple weeks ago and i've got nothing.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope thats not too much at once. thanks very much&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18307" LastActivityDate="2018-01-30T02:29:39.977" Title="why can't we override memory priority?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19013" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19036" CreationDate="2018-01-30T14:09:09.967" Score="4" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;I find myself doing a work on criminal psychology, I understood that recidivism rates were registered by government agencies although it seems not to be that way (some projects were famous in the past but I do not think they developed). If any of those projects were developed, I would be grateful for information on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, if someone on the site knows the most famous articles or works developed on the subject, I would be grateful if you could indicate references to me, since I may not be handling those documents due to the publication dates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-01-30T14:45:40.760" LastActivityDate="2018-02-03T16:23:59.223" Title="Country records about criminal recidivism rates" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;forensic-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19014" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-30T15:13:35.207" Score="3" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;On a site that people can vote on others' posts (like Stack Exchange sites), I believe people tend to be affected by the current vote score (and for Stack Exchange, if the user has enough reputation, the current vote counts as well) before they cast a vote, or even more, before they decide to whether cast a vote. A typical case is illustrated by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/TheoryOfReddit/comments/4gul4w/the_psychology_of_downvoting/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Reddit post&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I tend to upvote people who have been downvoted out of sympathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The linked Reddit post already contains part of the answer but it's more like a subjective discussion so I am not satisfied with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can somebody elaborate on what effects can take place in this process? What is effect on the final vote count/score if we consider it as a whole? Are there any known terminology or models to describe this behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am new to psychology so any hint will be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/4566/why-do-people-make-rants-on-meta-stack-exchange-sites&quot;&gt;Why do people make rants on Meta Stack Exchange sites?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18313" LastEditorUserId="18313" LastEditDate="2018-01-30T16:03:04.333" LastActivityDate="2018-02-01T06:20:49.927" Title="How is the effect of current vote scores on people's votes interpreted in psychology?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;internet&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19016" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-01-31T14:41:11.943" Score="4" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Question&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After taking a long final exam, people often report feeling like the world is moving in slow motion. I've heard this exam effect jokingly called &amp;quot;zombie feeling&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;brain-fog&amp;quot;. I describe the effect as strong desire to stare with a blank mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Background&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on answers from this question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/q/839/238&quot;&gt;https://biology.stackexchange.com/q/839/238&lt;/a&gt; the amount of energy the brain uses doesn't really change when awake. So what could this effect be caused by?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could it be caused by an exhaustion of certain nutrients, like Vitamin B12 or D?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="201" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-02-02T05:58:03.977" Title="What is an explaination for the light-headed and slow-motion feeling after a long hard mental exam?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19018" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19413" CreationDate="2018-02-01T00:20:12.803" Score="1" ViewCount="142" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Context&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27498135&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tracking cognitive processing stages with MEG: A spatio-temporal model&#xA;of associative recognition in the brain&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Borst et. al., MEG is used to show the existence of discrete stages during the test-phase of an associative recognition task, as shown in the figure below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pTl3L.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pTl3L.png&quot; alt=&quot;activities and time taken&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the step labeled &quot;Recollection&quot;, does an input of a Re-Paired Foil word pair cause the recollection of a Target?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Explanation of task&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During the study phase, a set of paired words are given. Such as (&lt;code&gt;A+B&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;C+D&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;E+F&lt;/code&gt;). During the test phase, the subject must distinguish whether they have seen a pair before. A pair that has previously been studied, such as &lt;code&gt;A+B&lt;/code&gt;, is referred to as a Target. Pairs that have not previously been studied, such as &lt;code&gt;B+F&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;A+Z&lt;/code&gt; are called Foils. &lt;code&gt;A+Z&lt;/code&gt; is a Novel Foil because it is composed of a word was not studied, while &lt;code&gt;B+F&lt;/code&gt; is a Re-Paired Foil because it is composed of words seen during the study phase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-04-05T22:42:41.363" Title="Does associative recognition retrieve target when given re-paired foil?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19019" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-01T01:27:00.387" Score="3" ViewCount="207" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have used a Cumulative Gaussian function to fit the data I got from a 2AFC experiment. &lt;strong&gt;How can I calculate the point of subjective equality using the Palamedes toolbox for matlab or the psignifit toolbox?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It is a crowding experiment aimed to find which distance of target from flankers produces the strongest crowding effects. The flankers will always be gabors with horiz orientation and the target will have some tilt from the horiz (4 tilt levels). The conditions are: baseline, in which only the target appears, 1st experimental, in which the target and the flankers appear with distance x1 and the 2nd experimental in which the target appears with the flankers in distance x2.&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;In every trial I will have one of the tilt levels for the target (presented with the method of contant stimuli) and the participant will have to reply if the target is tilted CW or CCW with respect to the horizontal axis. For my analysis I will store for every tilt level the percent of the trials for which the reply was “CW” and I will plot this data as a function of tilt level. So the y axis must be from 0 to 1. In these data I want to use the max likelihood criterion to fit a normal cdf and find the discrimination threshold and std error of that threshold&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18326" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-02T09:38:13.933" LastActivityDate="2018-02-02T09:38:13.933" Title="PSE with Palamedes or Psignifit" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19020" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19016" CreationDate="2018-02-01T06:07:36.347" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuro.hms.harvard.edu/harvard-mahoney-neuroscience-institute/brain-newsletter/and-brain-series/sugar-and-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain fuel&lt;/a&gt; is glucose, the long hard mental exam consumes most glucose available, and the result is poor cognitive function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Glucose, a form of sugar, is the primary source of energy for every&#xA;  cell in the body. Because the brain is so rich in nerve cells, or&#xA;  neurons, it is the most energy-demanding organ, using one-half of all&#xA;  the sugar energy in the body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Brain functions such as thinking, memory, and learning are closely&#xA;  linked to glucose levels and how efficiently the brain uses this fuel&#xA;  source. If there isn’t enough glucose in the brain, for example,&#xA;  neurotransmitters, the brain’s chemical messengers, are not produced&#xA;  and communication between neurons breaks down. In addition,&#xA;  hypoglycemia, a common complication of diabetes caused by low glucose&#xA;  levels in the blood, can lead to loss of energy for brain function and&#xA;  is linked to poor attention and cognitive function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mental effort drops glucose levels as reported by the study &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/3991112/Mental_effort_blood_glucose_and_performance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mental effort, blood glucose and performance&lt;/a&gt;, below an extract :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Work from our group and elsewhere has explored the link between blood&#xA;  glucose and cognitive performance.Here data are presented showing that&#xA;  a high level of mental effort is associated with a measurable drop in&#xA;  blood glucose levels. ‘Mental effort’ describes situations where energy&#xA;  is mobilised to meet cognitive goals. Reduced blood glucose has been&#xA;  reported in a number of such circumstances, including where&#xA;  computational demands of a task are relatively high (e.g. Serial&#xA;  Subtractions), during high processing loads (e.g. the Bakan task) and&#xA;  during response inhibition (e.g. the Stroop word-colour task).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2018-02-02T05:58:03.977" LastActivityDate="2018-02-02T05:58:03.977" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19022" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19014" CreationDate="2018-02-01T06:20:49.927" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you can find an answer from the field of social psychology. The most relevant theory is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_proof&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social proof&lt;/a&gt;, the tendency to immitate the behavior of other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Social proof (also known as informational social influence) is a&#xA;  psychological and social phenomenon where people assume the actions of&#xA;  others in an attempt to reflect correct behavior in a given situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Social proof is one type of conformity. When a person is in a&#xA;  situation where they are unsure of the correct way to behave, they&#xA;  will often look to others for clues concerning the correct behavior.&#xA;  When &quot;we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an&#xA;  ambiguous situation is more accurate than ours and will help us choose&#xA;  an appropriate course of action&quot;, it is informational social&#xA;  influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2018-02-01T06:20:49.927" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19023" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-01T10:00:02.483" Score="4" ViewCount="1764" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gestalt Psychology maintains that we perceive a whole from parts, and that we fill in missing gaps.  The &quot;whole&quot; we perceive is more than the sum of parts we perceive - it also involves what our minds add in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given this, is the concept of a &quot;face&quot; a result of Gestalt psychology on our minds?  All that's on the face are eyes, ears, a mouth, and a nose.  Yet we combine all these parts (which objectively seem discrete from each other) and come up with the concept of a face (the &quot;whole&quot; in this example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this kind of reasoning correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18209" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-01T10:43:25.533" LastActivityDate="2019-07-15T10:36:36.837" Title="Due to Gestalt Psychology, is the face an illusion?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;&lt;gestalt-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19024" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19023" CreationDate="2018-02-01T10:37:15.173" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dependent on your definition of an illusion, there is truth in your claim. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dictionary.com/browse/illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;definition of an illusion&lt;/a&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A] perception, as of visual stimuli (optical illusion) that represents what is perceived in a way different from the way it is in reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then - what &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; reality? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off, Bach-y-Rita famously proclaimed, '&lt;em&gt;We don't see with our eyes, we see with our brains&lt;/em&gt;' &lt;a href=&quot;http://discovermagazine.com/2003/jun/feattongue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Abrams &amp;amp; Winters, 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. The reason he said that is that everything we perceive is generated within our brain; it's a synthesis of visual information (photons) flowing from the photoreceptors in the eye (rods &amp;amp; cones) to the visual cortices. For instance, color and shape are mere reflections of brain activity. Colors do not exist - the brain synthesizes them by combining information from three classes of photoreceptors, each sensitive to another peak wavelength.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, the rabbit hole goes a lot deeper than the Gestalt Principles. The retinal image is actively completed by the brain (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/mind-the-gap/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ramachandran &amp;amp; Ramachandran, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;. There are two relatively large gaps in each of our retinae, namely the place where the optic nerve head leaves the retina, called the optic disc, or the blind spot. No sensations, and hence no conscious perceptions can be generated by these regions which are devoid of photoreceptors. Yet, we do not notice those gaps in the visual field, because the brain interpolates what it guesses might be there in the visual field and actively fills up the empty spaces in the conscious image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a consequence of this, people suffering from retinal degeneration might not even notice it, only when they start hitting street signs and bump stuff from the table. Even then, they often do not perceive the patchy dead regions in their retinae, instead, they know there must be a gap, because they are hitting things. The brain simply fills the gaps such that they are not noticeable in the visual percept. Nonetheless, entire road signs or entire crystal bowls or glasses on the table might be erased, as the brain simply extends the table image in our minds.      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://discovermagazine.com/2003/jun/feattongue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Abrams &amp;amp; Winters, &lt;em&gt;Discover&lt;/em&gt;, June 2003&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/mind-the-gap/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ramachandran &amp;amp; Ramachandran, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, April 2005&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-01T20:00:47.617" LastActivityDate="2018-02-01T20:00:47.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19026" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-01T18:58:29.373" Score="4" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question concerns the mathematics of multiple-stratum models, about which I've not found much that's quantitative, so excuse my inventing my own notation to explain my thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In models such as Cattell-Horn-Carroll, intelligence components are arranged in, say, 3 to 4 strata. I'm going to invert the usual numbering of these strata so I can summarise my current understanding of these models, regardless of the total number of strata. In other words:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm putting $g$ on its own in &quot;Stratum 1&quot;. (I realise it's usually in stratum III in a 3-stratum model.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stratum 2 components are then functions of $g$ and noise terms; for example, they might be approximated in factor analysis as $x_i=l_i g +\varepsilon_i$.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stratum 3 components are expressed in terms of stratum 2 components in a similar way, viz. $y_j=l_{ji}x_i+\eta_j=l_{ji}l_i g+l_{ji}\varepsilon_i+\eta_j$ with implicit summation over repeated indices. (I think you can see now why I've inverted the stratum order.) The noise term will still be Normal if the $\varepsilon_i$ and $\eta_j$ are Normal and independent. That's a big if, mind.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We can repeat this in a fourth stratum if the model calls for it (as for example occurs in g-VPR), viz. $z_k=m_{kj}y_j+\theta_k=m_{kj}l_{ji}l_i g+m_{kj}l_{ji}\varepsilon_i+m_{kj}\eta_j+\theta_k$.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is this: what distinguishes the contents of the various strata? In the above linear special case the $x_i,\,y_j,\,z_k$ all have essentially the same form, a multiple of $g$ plus a noise term (and a more complicated model would still have them each reduce to a noisy function of $g$). My suspicion is that stratum delineation comes down to nesting non-linear transformations and/or noise terms that don't have &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stable_distribution&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;stable&lt;/a&gt; distributions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18332" LastActivityDate="2018-03-04T18:52:05.607" Title="Multiple-stratum intelligence models" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19027" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13399" CreationDate="2018-02-01T19:14:32.590" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer is yes. Non-synaptic plasticity exists as you can read in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5341470_Non-synaptic_neuronal_mechanisms_of_learning_and_memory_in_gastropod_molluscs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Non-synaptic neuronal mechanisms of learning and memory in gastropod molluscs&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Benjamin et al. and &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs11055-014-9975-5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Compartmentalization of Non-Synaptic Plasticity &#xA;in Neurons at the Subcellular Level&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Nikitin and Balaban.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the effect of hormones such as cortisol may also have an effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Non-synaptic mechanisms of regulation and plasticity play a very important role in the brain and its ability to learn in many aspects and at different scales. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A single cell can suffer internal modification that will modify eletrophysiological properties. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Variations of concentration of elements in the CSF also have an effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Glia also plays an important role. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the brain is a very complex system with a lot of interdependent mechanisms of adaptation, regulation and plasticity. Synapse is just one aspect of it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18311" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-06-17T18:46:16.717" LastActivityDate="2018-06-17T18:46:16.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19028" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18986" CreationDate="2018-02-01T23:53:46.267" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;We make automatic &quot;appraisals&quot; in more or less every waking moment.  We are constantly predicting the potential allostatic consequences of external input and behaving accordingly (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-017-0069&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). Importantly, most appraisals are non-conscious and aren't at all specific to emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, the automaticity of your appraisals relies on the extent and precision of your prior experience (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://000ev39.myregisteredwp.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/3661/2016/10/Whatever-next_-Predictive-brains-situated-agents-and-the-future-of-cognitive-science.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).  If you are used to seeing snakes attack humans, then your appraisal about the danger of snakes will likely be quite fast. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, there are virtually infinite examples of an automatic appraisal.  Automaticity depends on your prior experience and the precision of incoming sensory input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7688" LastActivityDate="2018-02-01T23:53:46.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19029" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19371" CreationDate="2018-02-02T00:15:38.340" Score="5" ViewCount="3257" Body="&lt;p&gt;The internet seems to be in complete agreement that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Conditioned_taste_aversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conditioned taste aversion&lt;/a&gt; is an example of classical (Pavlovian) conditioning. My (admittedly limited) understanding of classical conditioning is that it's a process in which two stimuli are paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes. I'm having trouble spotting what those stimuli are in this case. This seems more like operant conditioning, in which unpleasant consequences (the symptoms) mold behavior by causing us to associate the taste of that food with those symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I misunderstanding operant/classical conditioning? Am I overcomplicating things?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18333" LastEditorUserId="18333" LastEditDate="2018-02-02T01:06:47.960" LastActivityDate="2018-03-31T03:40:49.707" Title="Why is conditioned taste aversion an example of classical conditioning (rather than operant)?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19030" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19029" CreationDate="2018-02-02T14:21:59.293" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The conditioning of aversion to taste is part of learning studies in which there is an association between food and flavors with positive reactions such as food preferences or satiety and negative reactions such as lack of appetite, gastric discomfort, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, it has been shown that patients with gastric discomfort acquire aversion to food, or patients (who have received prior chemotherapy) are averse to food when going to receive new sessions (chemotherapy usually causes nausea).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is usually considered a &lt;strong&gt;classic conditioning learning&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, foods that are neutral or independent stimuli before learning, produce conditioned responses (after the learning process), for example nausea, so foods are conditioned stimuli that produce conditioned responses (conditioned responses never they are exactly the same as the responses of the absolute stimulus).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not only stimuli (foods or flavors) can produce a conditioned response but also events (such as being close to another session of chemotherapy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stimuli &gt; CR&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Events &gt; CR&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is why in general it is considered classic conditioning, since the person (or animal) can not control the consequences with their behavior as it occurs in instrumental learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If for example you are thinking about the learning process of a person who tastes a food (with control over being able to try that food for the first time) and the food does not like it, in that case it is evidently &lt;strong&gt;instrumental learning&lt;/strong&gt;. Of course, in relation to food learning, not everything is classical conditioning. &lt;strong&gt;The fundamental thing is to handle the concepts of analysis of the types of conditioning&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is essential to read the section on Learning to taste aversion in the book by &lt;strong&gt;Michael Domjan. Principles of learning and behavior.&lt;/strong&gt; Pages 72 to 74 in the 3 edition. It is interesting to review the studies indicated in this section.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2018-02-02T14:21:59.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19031" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-02T17:58:01.190" Score="4" ViewCount="477" Body="&lt;p&gt;I find it hard to explain why we turn pale when we fear but red when we are angry. In both emotions adrenaline is released which if I am not mistaken cause vasoconstriction in vessels going to the head. As such I would expect to be pale during anger instead of red. So what is causing causing the difference in color in the two emotions. It seens that in anger blood vessels dilate while in fear they constrict, I thing this contradicts that in both emotions adrenaline is released.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17815" LastActivityDate="2018-10-31T21:09:25.617" Title="Why pale when we fear and red when we are angry" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19032" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19026" CreationDate="2018-02-02T18:34:31.560" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are making two mistakes, one in relation to the identification of the factors or what they represent (and factor analyzes have to be studied a lot by correlations with the tasks that each factor represents). And two, the relationships between the factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You do not take into account that each factor would represent very different abilities or processes (for example, the closing speed and the sequential reasoning is very different), the factors can be independent of this way, there does not have to be a linear relationship and in case if correlation exists, &lt;strong&gt;it will be correlation for a specific task&lt;/strong&gt;, which leads me to indicate that it is proposing wrong relationships about completely different abilities or processes. This should clarify and is the model to start studying the factorial analysis: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;x1 = a1.F1 + a2.F2 ... + b1.S1 + c1.E1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;x2=...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;x3=...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;x1 (score on the task of a specific person) = a1 (factorial weight of common factor). F1 (common factor) + a2.F2 .... + b1 .S (specific factor) + c (factorial weight of the error factor) + E1 (error)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(In the majority of analyzes, an error for a specific factor is not studied)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2018-02-02T18:34:31.560" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19023" CreationDate="2018-02-03T14:34:12.610" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gestalt is a German word without a direct translation into English. (Reeves, 2013) The Oxford English Dictionary states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gestalt is a noun in Psychology, meaning “an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts”, with a 1920s origin in German, literally meaning “form, shape”. (OED, n.d.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With “formation and destruction cycle” theories within Gestalt Therapy, if for example there is a gap in memory of events due to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dissociation&lt;/a&gt; (mental flight in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fright/flight/fight/freeze/fawn response&lt;/a&gt;, also described as mental detachment from the event) during a traumatic event, the person affected and their mind will try to fill in the gaps in order to reach the end goals of &lt;strong&gt;completion&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;withdrawal&lt;/strong&gt;.  Problems can lay in the way these gaps are filled as wrong information can lay there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gestalt therapy uses techniques to bring the person into the present rather than the past or projected future (Hess, 2007), helping the person to reach completion and withdrawal without the need to force the memories of the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Explaination&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Note&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Although &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Perls&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frederick (Fritz)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Perls&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Laura Perls&lt;/a&gt;, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;founders of Gestalt Therapy&lt;/a&gt; in the 1940s and 50s, had worked with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Goldstein&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kurt Goldstein&lt;/a&gt;, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism, the extent to which &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gestalt Psychology&lt;/a&gt; influenced Gestalt Therapy is disputed. On the one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term &quot;Gestalt&quot; to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the gestalt psychologists would object to it; (Wysong, 1982 p.12) on the other hand Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein's work. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gestalt.org/barlow.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barlow, 1981&lt;/a&gt;) Therefore, although recognising the historical connection and the influence, most gestalt psychologists emphasise that gestalt therapy is not a form of gestalt psychology. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology#Gestalt_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;History&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The concept of gestalt was first introduced in philosophy and psychology in 1890 by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_von_Ehrenfels&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Christian von Ehrenfels&lt;/a&gt; (a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;David Hume&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johann Wolfgang von Goethe&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Immanuel Kant&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hartley_(philosopher)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;David Hartley&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mach&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ernst Mach&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Wertheimer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Max Wertheimer&lt;/a&gt;'s unique contribution was to insist that the &quot;gestalt&quot; is perceptually primary, defining the parts it was composed from, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts, as von Ehrenfels's earlier &lt;em&gt;Gestalt-Qualität&lt;/em&gt; had been&lt;sup&gt;[citation needed]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Early 20th century theorists, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Koffka&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kurt Koffka&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Wertheimer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Max Wertheimer&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wolfgang Köhler&lt;/a&gt; (students of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Stumpf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carl Stumpf&lt;/a&gt;) saw objects as perceived within an environment according to all of their elements taken together as a global construct. This 'gestalt' or 'whole form' approach sought to define principles of perception—seemingly innate mental laws that determined the way objects were perceived. It is based on the here and now, and in the way things are seen. Images can be divided into figure or ground. The question is what is perceived at first glance: the figure in front, or the background.&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology#Origins&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Key Principle of Gestalt Therapy&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The key principle of Gestalt is that you need to examine the relationship between your inner world and external world; and how that relationship changes. (Reeves, 2013)  Are the two worlds in balance?  In other words, do you have a healthy contact with your environment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One concept within the key principle is the “formation and destruction cycle”.  The cycle goes from sensation, to awareness, to energy, to action, to full contact, to completion, to withdrawal and then back to sensation.  Where the contact is destructive, the aspects of destruction are referred as ‘Contact Boundary Disturbances’.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Formation and destruction cycle – Expanded by me from Reeves (2013)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/sLoaQ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/sLoaQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;Formation and destruction cycle&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Gestalt model of therapy integrates humanistic with psychodynamic theories, and this is where the psychodynamics come in.  Not only can you compare some of the disturbances to Freudian ego-defence mechanisms, but you are actually analysing what is happening within the client whilst trying to help them to reintegrate their &lt;strong&gt;self&lt;/strong&gt; with &lt;strong&gt;the environment&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can help the client to work out where the gaps in memory are, and why &lt;strong&gt;they think&lt;/strong&gt; it is important to fill those gaps.  The aim is then to &lt;strong&gt;help the client to work out&lt;/strong&gt; that it isn't important, and that what is more important is the here and now.  How is the battle to find these answers affecting the here and now and how can it affect the future?  Then you allow the client to work out a way to accept that they are &lt;strong&gt;not necesarily&lt;/strong&gt; going to know everything as it was blocked for a reason (to protect the client as part of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fright/flight/fight/freeze/fawn response&lt;/a&gt; during the traumatic event).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barlow, A. R. (1981). Gestalt-Antecedent Influence or Historical Accident. &lt;em&gt;The Gestalt Journal&lt;/em&gt;, 4(2): pp. 35—54.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gestalt.org/barlow.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.gestalt.org/barlow.htm&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;No DOI or PMID found&lt;/strong&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hess, E. (2007). &lt;em&gt;Gestalt Therapy&lt;/em&gt;. [Video file] Produced by University of Texas.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZbOAdMdMLdI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZbOAdMdMLdI&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OED. (n.d.) &lt;em&gt;Definition of Gestalt&lt;/em&gt;. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/gestalt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/gestalt&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reeves, A. (2013). &lt;em&gt;An Introduction to Counselling and Psychotherapy: From Theory to Practice&lt;/em&gt;. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wysong, J. (1982). &lt;em&gt;An Oral History of Gestalt Therapy&lt;/em&gt; Highland, NY: The Gestalt Journal Press&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-02-03T14:34:12.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19034" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19031" CreationDate="2018-02-03T15:38:04.353" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The 5F response (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fright/flight/fight/freeze/fawn&lt;/a&gt; response) to threats is responsible for both situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response#Reaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;among other reactions&lt;/a&gt;, the 5F response causes the following: [emphasis mine]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and :&lt;sup&gt;[13]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Acceleration of heart and lung action&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Paling or flushing, or alternating between both&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal action to the point where digestion slows down or stops&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;General effect on the sphincters of the body&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Liberation of metabolic energy sources (particularly fat and glycogen) for muscular action&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dilation of blood vessels for muscles&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Citations&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  [13] Henry Gleitman, Alan J. Fridlund and Daniel Reisberg (2004). Psychology (6 ed.). W. W. Norton &amp;amp; Company. ISBN 0-393-97767-6.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Pale face when in fear&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During periods of threat, the amygdala and hyppocampus within the brain can initiate &quot;flight&quot; within the 5F response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:&lt;sup&gt;[14][15]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Increased blood flow to the muscles activated by diverting blood flow from other parts of the body.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Increased blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugars, and fats in order to supply the body with extra energy.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The blood clotting function of the body speeds up in order to prevent excessive blood loss in the event of an injury sustained during the response.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Increased muscle tension in order to provide the body with extra speed and strength.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Citations&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  [14] Stress Management for Health Course. &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://stresscourse.tripod.com/id11.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Fight Flight Response&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Retrieved 19 April 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[15] Olpin, Michael. &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.weber.edu/molpin/healthclasses/1110/bookchapters/stressphysiologychapter.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Science of Stress&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Weber State University.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the muscles in the arms and legs etc. need more blood to operate effectively, the increase in blood flow to the muscles is obtained through &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vasodilation&lt;/a&gt; of blood vessels leading to those muscles, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasoconstriction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vasoconstriction&lt;/a&gt; of blood vessels leading to areas of the body which are in less need of blood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diversion of some of the blood from the facial area will remove the colour from the skin in that area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Red face during anger&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 5F response, and resulting Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation is responsible for this too.  This time with a &quot;fight&quot; response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Within a few seconds, your pupils grow large, your heart beats faster, and blood vessels all over your body widen, to increase blood flow. This allows more blood to reach your muscles, providing them with more oxygen, and preparing them for action — whether that’s putting up a fight, or running away,” &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/eEg3JAOYsw0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;explains Aranda&lt;/a&gt;. “As a result of all this, the vessels in your face also widen, allowing more blood to flow in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Scientists are still learning what, if any, evolutionary function this response — known as flushing — might have, especially because humans seem to be the only animal that has it.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“It’s likely that this redness has been useful in helping us communicate our emotions. When your face turns red, the people around you have a better idea of how you’re feeling — which helps you socially.”&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://sparkonit.com/2016/04/02/face-turns-red-angry-embarrassed-nervous-stressed-fearful/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-03T17:00:22.727" LastActivityDate="2018-02-03T17:00:22.727" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19035" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-03T16:08:05.160" Score="3" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lamotrigine is an antiepileptic drug used to treat seizures. Off-label, it is used to treat a variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders. Judging from Google Scholar, lamotrigine continues to be the subject of active research: both on the neuroscience end to elucidate its mechanism of action, and on the clinical end to investigate its efficacy in treating disorders beyond its approved usage for seizures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are interesting statements in the literature regarding the neuroprotective effects of lamotrigine, for example: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... several studies have investigated&#xA;  LTG’s neuroprotective effects in models related to the toxic&#xA;  effects of glutamatergic agents. &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.lww.com/psychopharmacology/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=2003&amp;amp;issue=10000&amp;amp;article=00011&amp;amp;type=abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Like the other mood stabilizers lithium and valproate, &#xA;  LTG also has neuroprotective properties but its exact mechanisms remain poorly defined. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S1461145712000429&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are additional, supporting studies cited within the previous two references. I believe this bibliography, though of course not exhaustive, is at least representative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is this: What on earth is the &lt;em&gt;relevance&lt;/em&gt; of these statements for real-life scenarios involving humans? Neurodegeneration is a relatively common occurrence in human populations, resulting from such diverse sources as toxins, physical injuries to the head, and aging. Based on what is known so far about the involved neurological mechanisms, could lamotrigine potentially protect against neurodegeneration in any of these cases?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One particular case that came to mind is neurodegeneration due to binge drinking. I have heard that neuronal cell loss in this case has been hypothesized to arise from glutamatergic mechanisms, which could be relevant for lamotrigine since lamotrigine is thought to suppress release of glutamate. On the other hand, this article calls into question the glutamatergic explanation for alcohol-induced brain damage:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the mechanism [for binge-drinking induced brain damage]&#xA;  is not directly related to glutamate neurotoxicity. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ALC.0000113416.65546.01&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another case that occurred to me is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesic_shellfish_poisoning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;amnesic shellfish poisoning&lt;/a&gt;, an illness caused by the neurotoxin domoic acid, which has a strong affinity for glutamate receptors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not an expert in neuroscience and/or pharmacology, so I have limited ability to take 1) the theoretical understanding of lamotrigine's mechanism of action, and 2) the theoretical understanding of various neurodegenerative disorders; and make some hypothesis about a possible neuroprotective effect, if any.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it likely that lamotrigine could have neuroprotective effect against the two illnesses mentioned above? Or are there other examples? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18339" LastActivityDate="2018-02-03T16:08:05.160" Title="Are there any practical implications for the purported neuroprotective effects of lamotrigine?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19036" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19013" CreationDate="2018-02-03T16:23:59.223" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Seena Fazel and Achim Wolf published an article titled &lt;em&gt;A Systematic Review of Criminal Recidivism Rates Worldwide: Current Difficulties and Recommendations for Best Practice&lt;/em&gt; (Fazel &amp;amp; Wolf, 2015) and the article concluded that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recidivism data are currently not valid for international comparisons. Justice Departments should consider using the reporting guidelines developed in this paper to report their data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The references section of this article also lists articles, reports and statistics available including an article on &quot;the prediction of criminal and violent recidivism among mentally disordered offenders&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;UK Statistics&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Ministry of Justice (part of the UK Government), produces regular statistical reports on reoffending rates within the UK.  The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/proven-reoffending-statistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Government Collection of &lt;strong&gt;Proven Reoffending&lt;/strong&gt; Statistics&lt;/a&gt; contains quarterly reports for periods covering January 2009 through to March 2016 — the last report covering &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/proven-reoffending-statistics-january-2016-to-march-2016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;January 2016 to March 2016&lt;/a&gt; is dated 25&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; January 2018.  Without comparing reports from that date with older reports against this article, I cannot say whether the recommendations were followed by the UK Government.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;US Statistics&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) collects criminal history data from the FBI and state record repositories to study recidivism patterns of various offenders, including persons on probation or discharged from prison.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The latest study of state prisoners estimated the recidivism patterns of about 400,000 persons released from state prisons in 30 states in 2005. The findings from the 2005 study cannot be directly compared to those from BJS's previous prisoner recidivism studies due to changes in the demographic characteristics and criminal histories of the U.S. prison population, an increase in the number of states in the study, and improvements made to the quality and completeness of the nation’s criminal history records since the mid-1990s. BJS has also used criminal history records to examine the recidivism of persons placed on federal community supervision in 2005.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In addition to recidivism statistics based on criminal history records, BJS collects administrative data through the Annual Surveys of Probation and Parole to examine the rate at which offenders are at risk of being incarcerated for a new offense or for violating the conditions of their supervision.&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=tp&amp;amp;tid=17&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fazel, S., &amp;amp; Wolf, A. (2015). A Systematic Review of Criminal Recidivism Rates Worldwide: Current Difficulties and Recommendations for Best Practice. &lt;em&gt;PLoS ONE&lt;/em&gt;, 10(6):e0130390.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130390&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1371/journal.pone.0130390&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4472929/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC4472929&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-02-03T16:23:59.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19037" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-03T20:28:57.363" Score="2" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;(After having read Piaget, I'm not sure if this could be considered pre-exercise, or not.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pre-exercise through symbolic assimilation could be alternately described as imitating a mode of being in behavior so as to increase the Child's understanding of said role, and to prepare them for such a role when they reach adulthood. It is pre-exercise precisely for this finalistic preparatory nature. An example; a child caring for a doll, like her mother would, is pre-exercise of the maternal instinct. Acting as such in order to assimilate to the role that she doesn't yet fully comprehend on a conceptual level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18342" LastActivityDate="2018-02-03T20:28:57.363" Title="Is this an accurate/correct example of pre-exercise? If not, what are some examples?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19038" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19117" CreationDate="2018-02-04T02:08:02.993" Score="2" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is my (layman's) understanding that a domestic cat learns to meow in a specific tone (I've even read that it can resemble a human baby crying) in order to get the owner's attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless of the factual accuracy of this specific claim (which is referenced &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/news-blog/the-manipulative-meow-cats-learn-to-2009-07-13/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/5556-cats-control-humans-study-finds.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and was even challenged in &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/27885/did-cats-evolve-meowing-in-order-to-manipulate-humans&quot;&gt;Skeptics.se&lt;/a&gt;), the fact is that an attention-seeking cat's meowning can be really unsettling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, speaking as a layman - and to give a practical example -, when I'm trying to concentrate on something and my cat meows two or three times (even at a great distance), it is more than enough to disrupt my attention completely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(More context - can be skipped)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My strategy to deal with this has been mixed: Sometimes I'll ignore&#xA;  him for a moment - which is incredibly hard; sometimes (if it won't&#xA;  stop) I'll yell (not too loud, but very firmly): STOP. And it works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As of lately I've been interested in dealing with the root cause.&#xA;  Precautions have been taken to assure that the cat is getting enough&#xA;  food, water, grooming, and indeed, enough attention.* I've been&#xA;  struggling to not scream (because a) it makes me feel bad, and b) it&#xA;  sure reinforces the cat's behavior).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(*) &lt;em&gt;While this could be debated, because one would think that&#xA;  the cat wouldn't meow if he didn't need to, I'm quite sure he's&#xA;  getting at least the most attention I can provide. From my research it&#xA;  should be more than enough. And it is enough for my _other_ cat, as a&#xA;  matter of fact.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(End &quot;more context&quot;)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be pragmatic, while the cat's behavior cannot be effectively resolved, it is of my utmost interest to learn if &lt;strong&gt;the owner&lt;/strong&gt; can &quot;recondition&quot; him/herself not to be bothered by the sound of the meowning so much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if a person can be made to simply &quot;observe&quot; the distressing sound, like a Zen Master observes the sound of the wind rustling the leaves of a tree, without her brain generating an immediate distress signal like it does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, maybe, some tones are just &quot;hardwired&quot; to always trigger such reaction, no matter how much cognitive effort a person puts in?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10098" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T16:20:44.510" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T16:20:44.510" Title="Is it possible to condition oneself to not be bothered by distressing sounds?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19040" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-04T14:42:43.040" Score="0" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I meet a person who doesn't feel a sense of recognition. When for example forgetting a name, and you give them a few choices, they can tell you whether one of the choices feels &quot;right&quot; through a corresponding bodily sensation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is it called when a person can't feel such a sense of recognition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastActivityDate="2018-02-08T17:43:19.713" Title="How is at called when a person can't feel the sense of recognition?" Tags="&lt;terms&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19041" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16920" CreationDate="2018-02-04T15:31:12.347" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Natural language understanding systems can be based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_representation_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;discourse representation&lt;/a&gt; theories, which represent the meaning of English sentences as first-order logical predicates. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempto_Controlled_English&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Attempto Controlled English&lt;/a&gt; is one example of a natural language understanding system that relies on discourse representation theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, there are several implementations of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~ml/publications/area/77/learning_for_semantic_parsing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;semantic parsers&lt;/a&gt; that convert natural-language texts into formal representations of their meanings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18347" LastActivityDate="2018-02-04T15:31:12.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19043" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-05T05:31:21.577" Score="4" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking to detect blink events in real-time single channel EEG. Classification of a moving window of samples to determine whether a blink artifact exists requires feature extraction (except when using deep learning, I am not experienced enough for this). What features would be useful to extract from a window of approx. 50-200 samples of time series data for detecting a blink event. The blink event can be easily seen in the below picture:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/X0rtH.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/X0rtH.png&quot; alt=&quot;Blink event in EEG data&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18349" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T06:04:10.673" Title="Features for blink detection in real-time single channel EEG" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19044" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19065" CreationDate="2018-02-05T15:34:26.990" Score="8" ViewCount="1006" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading &lt;em&gt;Thinking, Fast and Slow&lt;/em&gt; by Daniel Kahneman and I came across the following text:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Remote Association Test has more to tell us about the link between cognitive ease and positive effect. Briefly consider the two triads of words:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$\text{sleep mail switch}\\\text{ salt deep foam}$$&lt;/span&gt; You could not know it of course, but measurements of electrical activity in the muscles of your face would probably have shown a slight smile when you read the second trial, which is coherent (&lt;em&gt;sea&lt;/em&gt; is the solution). This smiling reaction to coherence appears in subjects who are told nothing about common associates; they are merely shown a vertically arranged triad of words and instructed to press the space bar after they have read it. The impression of cognitive ease that comes with the presentation of a coherent triad appears to be mildly pleasurable in itself. The evidence that we have about good feelings, cognitive ease, and the intuition of coherence is, as scientists say, correlational but not necessarily causal. Cognitive ease and smiling occur together, but do the good feelings actually lead to intuitions of coherence? Yes, they do. The proof comes from a clever experimental approach that has become increasingly popular. Some participants were given a cover story that provided an alternative interpretation for their good feeling: they were told about music played in their earphones that &amp;quot;previous research showed that this music influences the emotional reaction of its individuals&amp;quot;. This story completely eliminates the intuition of coherence. The finding shows that the brief emotional response that follows the presentation of a triad of words (pleasant if the triad is coherent, unpleasant otherwise) is actually the basis of judgments of coherence. There is nothing here that system 1 cannot do. Emotional changes are now expected, and because they are unsurprising they are not linked causally to the words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Kahneman refers to the automatic and intuitive way of thinking as system 1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My Question:&lt;/strong&gt; Why does the adding of the cover story in this experiment show that good feelings lead to intuitions of coherence (that there is a causal relation)? I find this conclusion rather strange. I'm probably mistaken but it seems to me that Kahneman is saying: the fact that there was no intuition of coherence when these participants were expecting to respond emotionally to music, shows that there is a causal relation between the good feelings and the intuition of coherence. Why would this make sense?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18351" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-11-10T19:42:23.233" Title="How does this experiment prove a causal relation between coherence and good feelings?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19045" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-05T17:09:12.283" Score="4" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone point me to a source for this study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There was a group, in which a dominant person established a belief in&#xA;  a false statement by speaking with high confidence. The group still&#xA;  believed in the false statement even after that person had left the&#xA;  group. Newcomers to the group accepted the false statement through&#xA;  normative social influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read about that either by Kaneman, Ariely, Chabris/Simons or maybe Thaler but can't find the passage anymore. And is this still valid?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not talking about the story with the apes, the banana and the ladder by the way - I know that never happened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18354" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-02-07T13:09:35.093" LastActivityDate="2018-02-09T16:06:11.970" Title="False statement by a dominant person in a group survives even if that person leaves the group" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19047" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-06T07:46:22.190" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Background&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm planning an event-related fMRI-experiment to investigate the difference in processing natural and computer-generated facial emotion expressions. My supervisor and I are discussing different task instructions for the scanning session (see below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two often applied task instructions involve:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Passive processing of facial emotion expressions&lt;/strong&gt; Subjects are instructed to passively attend to the stimuli shown, no motor response or judgement required&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;incidental processing of facial emotion expressions&lt;/strong&gt; For instance, subjects are required to press a button in case an inverted face appears (in 10% of all cases for example)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As we do not have a MRI-compatible response box available, &lt;strong&gt;I prefer the passive processing task instruction&lt;/strong&gt;, even though possible attention interferences may emerge as we cannot &amp;quot;control&amp;quot; cognitive processes of the subjects while scanning. &lt;strong&gt;My supervisor prefers the incidental processing&lt;/strong&gt; because of these possible attention interferences and suggests subjects may answer with a hand signal. For me it will be impossible to track those hand signals because of the room setup and I am bothered about reviewers criticizing that we implemented a task that we were unable to control and report. Furthermore, I'm worried that the hand movements may interfere with the image quality as subjects are moving. My supervisor rejects all those arguments as sustaining attention of the subjects is the strongest argument for him and he thinks reviewers will criticize that if we implement a passive task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How to implement an incidental task with low cognitive demands without a response box?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We discarded a recognition task after the scan (e.g. have you seen this picture before?) or a counting task during the scanning session (e.g. how many female faces?), as the cognitive load may be too high during the scanning session.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18256" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-02-07T13:07:18.690" Title="How to implement an incidental processing task without a fMRI-compatible response box?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19049" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-07T00:15:57.790" Score="3" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a common symptom that men are unable to wee in public, for example in the urinals in a bar. This is sometimes called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/shy-bladder-syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;shy-bladder syndrome&lt;/a&gt; as far as I know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this condition known to have physiological grounds, or is it a psychological issue? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18369" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-08T10:34:42.430" LastActivityDate="2018-02-08T10:34:42.430" Title="Can't use the urinal when next to someone. Is this psychological?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19050" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19049" CreationDate="2018-02-07T00:25:44.957" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is this a psychological issue for me?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depends: is there any other common factor that makes you unable to urinate? If not, then it's probably psychogenic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's very common. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Paruresis (Psychogenic Inhibition of Micturition): cognitive behavioral formulation and treatment&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Paruresis is a condition characterized by difficulty or inability to urinate in situations where others are present, or may soon be present. Despite knowledge that paruresis can significantly impact on occupational functioning, social functioning, and quality of life, there exists a paucity of research into effective treatments. Although cognitive conceptualizations have been advanced for other anxiety disorders, there has not been a comprehensive cognitive behavioral model of paruresis. This article presents a revised cognitive and behavioral conceptualization of paruresis, drawing on empirical evidence from other anxiety disorders. Using this conceptualization, a cognitive-behavioral intervention strategy is outlined, with clear targets for cognitive and behavioral strategies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt; Boschen, M. J. (2008). Paruresis (psychogenic inhibition of micturition): cognitive behavioral formulation and treatment. &lt;em&gt;Depression and Anxiety&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;25&lt;/em&gt;, 903-912. &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.20367/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.20367/full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-07T08:49:47.553" LastActivityDate="2018-02-07T08:49:47.553" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19055" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-08T12:39:35.170" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have one brain image from a single patient. I have a set of normal pateints. Both, single patient and normal patients are normalised to an SPM template and the NMI space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also have a brain atlas (AAL Atlas) in nii format.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need to compute the Z-Scores for each region of the patient. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which is the simplest procedure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18188" LastActivityDate="2018-02-08T12:39:35.170" Title="Compute single patient Z-Scores from atlas anatomical zone" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19056" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19059" CreationDate="2018-02-08T14:06:16.997" Score="0" ViewCount="1246" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to investigate the issue with money getting lost form peoples wallets in a shared flat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are 4 suspects for being a thief of the money. Some of the suspects have been affected as well - the money was stolen from them. This complicates the issue, cause I believe, from the psychological point of view, some people may report that their money were stolen from them as well, just to get out of the picture. The question is - is there a psychological approach as to how to find the person behind this? Are there any methods how can one lead the conversation with the whole group to slowly navigate a thief to confess directly or indirectly through guiding questions or perhaps some bluffing? Are there signs of behaviour to look for when leading the discussion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18382" LastActivityDate="2018-02-08T17:17:29.843" Title="Catching a thief in a closed circle of people" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-02-09T09:37:38.373" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19058" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19044" CreationDate="2018-02-08T16:37:21.577" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would not be surprised if the testers did do some initial testing and came to the conclusion that knowing what the test was measuring affected the results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, the music story is just a misdirection layer added to attempt to prevent bias in the measurements because a participant &quot;figured out&quot; what is being measured. If the participant were told to do the exact same thing without some sort of cover story then some, if not many, would figure out what was going on because &quot;figuring out&quot; the purpose of something one is participating in would be a natural tendency. If instead, the testers could get the participant to focus on why is the music important instead of the words then it increases the chance that what is being measured is really the emotional affect of reading the words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="216" LastActivityDate="2018-02-08T16:37:21.577" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19059" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19056" CreationDate="2018-02-08T17:17:29.843" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;One way to get at this is to use the &quot;guilty knowledge&quot; test. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_detection#The_control_question_test_and_the_guilty_knowledge_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_detection#The_control_question_test_and_the_guilty_knowledge_test&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this test, you would need to first find out exactly how much money was reported stolen, and from whom. Then you would ask each suspect a combination of &quot;true&quot; questions and &quot;false&quot; questions. A true question contains only true details of the incident, while a false question contains some false details of the incident.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say Tom, Dick, and Harry claim to have had 10, 12, and 20 dollars stolen from them respectively. If Tom did it, he is lying about his amount, so during his turn, you would ask him ``Did you steal 12 from Dick and 20 from Harry, for a total of 32 dollars?'' You would also ask him some &quot;false&quot; versions of the question, e. g., &quot;Did you steal 11 dollars from Dick and 2 dollars from Harry, for a total of 13 dollars?&quot; You would then see if he reacted differently to the &quot;true&quot; version of the question compared to the &quot;false&quot; version of the question. If he does, then it could be due to him knowing how much was stolen, and that would be evidence he was the one who stole it. You could enhance the effect by monitoring heart rate (perhaps with a phone app) throughout the questioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this to work, it must be the case that you and the thief both know the exact amount stolen, but that none of the victims know this information because they haven't talked to each other. The thief would know because s/he stole it, and you would know from surveying everyone and adding it all up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, you can find out when each person's money went missing, where the wallet was located during each theft, and what denominations the bills were. Include these details in your &quot;true&quot; questions, and change them in your &quot;false&quot; questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even then, this is an unreliable test to implement on your own, so there's no guarantee it would work. Most likely you're out of luck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18385" LastActivityDate="2018-02-08T17:17:29.843" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19061" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19040" CreationDate="2018-02-08T17:30:39.023" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several conditions associated with a disconnect between the feeling of recognizing something, the ability to name something, the ability to react to something appropriately, etc. called agnosias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: See also &quot;capgras delusion&quot;, which is possibly a more extreme version of what you're describing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capgras_delusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capgras_delusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18385" LastEditorUserId="18385" LastEditDate="2018-02-08T17:43:19.713" LastActivityDate="2018-02-08T17:43:19.713" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19062" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1535" CreationDate="2018-02-08T19:11:44.473" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In reference to your first question, not a lot of published standards, I suggest some &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lyonsmorris.com/MetaA/appendix1.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;standard guideline on my site&lt;/a&gt;, but that's just that, suggestions. You might want to check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cochrane.org/what-is-cochrane-evidence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Cochrane Collaboration&lt;/a&gt; though they have produced a set of standards for use in health care related meta-analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also may want to check an early-ish study by Shadish et al (1997) as an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shadish, William, R., Matt, George, E., Navarro, Ana, M., Single, Gregory, Crits-Christoph, Paul, Hazelrigg, Anthony, J., Lyons, Larry C., et al., (1997). Evidence that therapy works in clinically representative conditions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 355-65.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18386" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-02-08T19:44:40.080" LastActivityDate="2018-02-08T19:44:40.080" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19063" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18144" CreationDate="2018-02-08T19:21:33.690" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hunter and Schmidt offer a a set of procedures to correct range restriction, these are included in many packages based on their meta-analytic methodology, here are some relevant references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/75e8/97a797dc876b785042dfd8ac4023a5fc85df.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/75e8/97a797dc876b785042dfd8ac4023a5fc85df.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/peps.12122/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/peps.12122/abstract&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6644262_Correcting_for_indirect_range_restriction_in_meta-analysis_Testing_a_new_meta-analytic_procedure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6644262_Correcting_for_indirect_range_restriction_in_meta-analysis_Testing_a_new_meta-analytic_procedure&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;mypages.iit.edu/~morriss/siop2009/Le09.ppt&#xA;mypages.iit.edu/~morriss/siop2005/Oswald05.doc&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/5063_Hunter_Chapter_3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/5063_Hunter_Chapter_3.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://utsa.influuent.utsystem.edu/en/publications/implications-of-direct-and-indirect-range-restriction-for-meta-an&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://utsa.influuent.utsystem.edu/en/publications/implications-of-direct-and-indirect-range-restriction-for-meta-an&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;hth,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;larry&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18386" LastActivityDate="2018-02-08T19:21:33.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19065" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19044" CreationDate="2018-02-09T04:34:26.527" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This excerpt refers to an experiment described in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699930802420745&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Topolinski &amp;amp; Strack (2009)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18650104&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Topolinski &amp;amp; Strack (2009)&lt;/a&gt;, and is part of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37796003_A_fluency-affect_intuition_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;series of experiments&lt;/a&gt; that used a variety of different methods to demonstrate the causal relation between affect and coherence, of which only 1 is described above, so even if it isn't convincing by itself, a lot of additional evidence would need to be questioned to thwart the conclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This particular experiment uses a popular paradigm developed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1984-12290-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schwarz &amp;amp; Clore (1983)&lt;/a&gt; (which in turn is based on a previous experiment by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1974-32359-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zanna &amp;amp; Cooper (1974)&lt;/a&gt;; for reviews see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229068295_How_do_I_feel_about_it_Informative_functions_of_affective_states&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schwarz &amp;amp; Clore (1988)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229067930_Feelings_and_Phenomenal_Experiences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schwarz &amp;amp; Clore (1996)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266330418_Feelings-as-Information_Theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schwarz (2012)&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misattribution_of_arousal#Experiment:_influence_on_confidence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;), that has been used many times to demonstrate a causal relation between affective experience and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intuition&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;metacognition&lt;/a&gt;.  The premise behind this experimental paradigm is that once an affective experience is attributed to a particular cause, it is no longer used as information for subsequent judgments.  This assumption has been demonstrated in many experiments, but contrast it with &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2005-13299-002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Payne et al (2005)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1989-39895-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Allen et al (1989)&lt;/a&gt; who report that attempts to correct misattribution failed in their studies, suggesting that affective experience information can be reused in some circumstances.  Luckily, this latter possibility does not impact the experiment in question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors of this experiment propose a detailed mechanism for how subjects make judgments of coherence: As the word triad is read, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_fluency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;processing fluency&lt;/a&gt; (cognitive ease, or the rate that the words are processed) causes an affective response (subtle smiling reaction), that subjects become aware of, and attribute to subsequent intuitive judgments (such as coherence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This particular experiment tests the hypothesis by manipulating subjects to misattribute the affective response (to background music).  Thus, if affect does not inform coherence judgments, then misattributing it to another source should have no effect on results.  On the other hand, if affect does cause coherence judgments, then attributing affective response to another cause should eliminate it as a source of information for coherence judgments, resulting in poorer performance.  The control group listened to the same music, and was also directed to misattribute something to it, but it was fluency rather than affect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6eJhC.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6eJhC.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results of the experiment indeed demonstrated that once subjects reattribute positive affect to background music, they no longer use it for coherence judgments, and this results in a significant reduction of correct responses, leading to the conclusion that affect is an important indicator (cause) of coherence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-02-09T21:32:22.983" LastActivityDate="2018-02-09T21:32:22.983" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19070" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-10T08:46:28.997" Score="7" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neurogenesis is one of the most fascinating subjects to discuss. However, &lt;strong&gt;it seems like scientific community has difference of opinion about whether neurogenesis is possible or not in adult humans&lt;/strong&gt;. The aim of my question is to gain insights about whether neurogenesis in adult humans is possible or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to an article presented in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-birth-of-a-brain-cell-witnessing-neurogenesis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scientific American &quot;The Birth of a Brain Cell: Scientists Witness Neurogenesis&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, Mirjana Maletic-Savatic, an assistant professor of neurology at Stony Brook University in New York State, &lt;em&gt;claims that neurogenesis is possible&lt;/em&gt;. Her study is based on brain imaging and suggests that scientists &quot;witnessed&quot; neurogenesis and the birth of new brain cells in adult human brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, on the other hand, there is a Californian study, reported on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencenews.org/article/study-casts-doubt-whether-adult-brain-hippocampus-makes-new-cells&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in ScienceNews &quot;Study casts doubt on whether adult brain’s memory-forming region makes new cells&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, that &lt;em&gt;claims that neurogenesis in adult humans does not exist&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Analyzing the study contradiction&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These two studies contradict each other. One may try to reconcile these two studies by claiming that humans only produces new cells in only certain parts of the brain but not in other parts of the brain, including hippocampus. Hippocampus may not be able to produce more brain cells, but other parts of the brain may generate new brain cells. However, this explanation and the above mentioned study &lt;em&gt;directly&lt;/em&gt; contradicts another study that was published by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dev.biologists.org/content/140/12/2548&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Berg D.A. et al., 2013&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;active adult neurogenesis is confined to two distinct locations: the&#xA;  subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles in the forebrain;&#xA;  and the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus (DG) in the&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;hippocampus&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can see that the &lt;em&gt;Californian study contradicts the other study clearly when it comes to studying and analyzing neurogenesis in the hippocampus&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;The question&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This theory and the &lt;em&gt;Californian study&lt;/em&gt; does not explain why people who suffer from memory loss in some parts of their lives regain memory and perform much better on memory tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If the hippocampus does not make new brain cells, then how do people regain memory by eating the right diet and exercising? Is neurogenesis possible in the hippocampus region of the brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Berg, D. A., Belnoue, L., Song, H., &amp;amp; Simon, A. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dev.biologists.org/content/140/12/2548&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurotransmitter-mediated control of neurogenesis in the adult vertebrate brain.&lt;/a&gt; Development, 140(12), 2548-2561.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17840" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-02-12T12:24:34.700" LastActivityDate="2018-02-12T13:21:50.603" Title="Study claims that human brain does not produce new brain cells?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neurogenesis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19071" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-10T11:32:04.243" Score="1" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have run a study on a group of 158 individuals to see if a teaching intervention can change their perceptions of scientists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before the intervention, all the children in the study were asked to choose 6 words to describe a scientist. This data collection was repeated at the end of a 5-week intervention, and then again 3 months after the intervention was complete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have begun processing the data and have categorised all the words that the children have used. When I look at the data for the cohort I can see that there has been a change in the types of words used to describe scientists (Pre 128 children used one stereotypical word, post this dropped to 67 and 64 in follow-up). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What statistical tests should I use to demonstrate the significance of these changes? All the data is tracked so I have individual data on the change of language use for each participant, I also have data for the group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18405" LastActivityDate="2018-02-10T16:26:20.920" Title="Calculating statistical significance in behaviour change" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19072" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-10T14:20:00.157" Score="1" ViewCount="688" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have come across a lot of discussions where people end up calling belief a choice. Of course, I always ask them to believe that it's not, and they can't. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it might help if I have a better psychological argument, or if there is psychological theory and evidence that says that belief is a choice, I would like that too. Theories could be about the nature of how beliefs are constructed in the brain, how the brain and body respond to stimuli which attack the beliefs, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Clarification&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not asking for opinion on free will or anything like that. I am asking for &lt;strong&gt;scientific&lt;/strong&gt; theory and evidence, on the ability to actively change one's own beliefs, cognitive defense mechanisms against belief change, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10625" LastEditorUserId="10625" LastEditDate="2018-02-12T14:15:58.213" LastActivityDate="2018-02-12T14:15:58.213" Title="Is belief a choice?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" ClosedDate="2018-02-12T05:44:41.770" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19073" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19071" CreationDate="2018-02-10T16:26:20.920" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/113602/test-if-two-binomial-distributions-are-statistically-different-from-each-other&quot;&gt;This answer&lt;/a&gt; should provide a reasonable discussion of how to compare the two results for statistical significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have n1 = n2 = n3 = 158. We have p1 = 128/158, p2 = 67/158, and p3 = 64/168. Just run the hypothesis test on each pair to see if there is a significant shift.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is a bigger issue here. This question should have been answered before you started collecting data. The first thing you should be doing is coming up with your theory to test. Then you design your experiment. And only then should you be collecting the data, unless your goal is just to collect large amounts of data for future theory testing, which does not seem to be the case here (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicProposals/wiki/practices&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Best Research Practices&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10625" LastActivityDate="2018-02-10T16:26:20.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19074" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9629" CreationDate="2018-02-10T20:04:56.437" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found the following — all mention van Norden, (1975):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chang, A.-C., Lutfi, R., Lee, J., &amp;amp; Heo, I. (2016). &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2331216516664343&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Detection-Theoretic Analysis of Auditory Streaming and Its Relation to Auditory Masking&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Hearing&lt;/em&gt;, 20&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1177/2331216516664343&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/2331216516664343&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5029798/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC5029798&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research on hearing has long been challenged with understanding our exceptional ability to hear out individual sounds in a mixture (the so-called cocktail party problem). Two general approaches to the problem have been taken using sequences of tones as stimuli. The first has focused on our tendency to hear sequences, sufficiently separated in frequency, split into separate cohesive streams (auditory streaming). The second has focused on our ability to detect a change in one sequence, ignoring all others (auditory masking). The two phenomena are clearly related, but that relation has never been evaluated analytically. This article offers a detection-theoretic analysis of the relation between multitone streaming and masking that underscores the expected similarities and differences between these phenomena and the predicted outcome of experiments in each case. The key to establishing this relation is the function linking performance to the information divergence of the tone sequences, &lt;em&gt;DKL&lt;/em&gt; (a measure of the statistical separation of their parameters). A strong prediction is that streaming and masking of tones will be a common function of &lt;em&gt;DKL&lt;/em&gt; provided that the statistical properties of sequences are symmetric. Results of experiments are reported supporting this prediction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Krogholt Christiansen, S., &amp;amp; Oxenham, A. J. (2014). &lt;a href=&quot;http://asa.scitation.org/doi/10.1121/1.4872300&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Assessing the effects of temporal coherence on auditory stream formation through comodulation masking release&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America&lt;/em&gt;, 135(6): pp. 3520—3529.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4872300&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1121/1.4872300&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4048442/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC4048442&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recent studies of auditory streaming have suggested that repeated synchronous onsets and offsets over time, referred to as “temporal coherence,” provide a strong grouping cue between acoustic components, even when they are spectrally remote. This study uses a measure of auditory stream formation, based on comodulation masking release (CMR), to assess the conditions under which a loss of temporal coherence across frequency can lead to auditory stream segregation. The measure relies on the assumption that the CMR, produced by flanking bands remote from the masker and target frequency, only occurs if the masking and flanking bands form part of the same perceptual stream. The masking and flanking bands consisted of sequences of narrowband noise bursts, and the temporal coherence between the masking and flanking bursts was manipulated in two ways: (a) By introducing a fixed temporal offset between the flanking and masking bands that varied from zero to 60 ms and (b) by presenting the flanking and masking bursts at different temporal rates, so that the asynchronies varied from burst to burst. The results showed reduced CMR in all conditions where the flanking and masking bands were temporally incoherent, in line with expectations of the temporal coherence hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Winkler, I. &amp;amp; Schröger, E. (2015) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093934X15001054&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Auditory perceptual objects as generative models: Setting the stage for communication by sound&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Brain and Language&lt;/em&gt; 148(1): pp. 1—22&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2015.05.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.bandl.2015.05.003&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26184883&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;26184883&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Communication by sounds requires that the communication channels (i.e. speech/speakers and other sound sources) had been established. This allows to separate concurrently active sound sources, to track their identity, to assess the type of message arriving from them, and to decide whether and when to react (e.g., reply to the message). We propose that these functions rely on a common generative model of the auditory environment. This model predicts upcoming sounds on the basis of representations describing temporal/sequential regularities. Predictions help to identify the continuation of the previously discovered sound sources to detect the emergence of new sources as well as changes in the behavior of the known ones. It produces auditory event representations which provide a full sensory description of the sounds, including their relation to the auditory context and the current goals of the organism. Event representations can be consciously perceived and serve as objects in various cognitive operations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-11T00:12:32.637" LastActivityDate="2018-02-11T00:12:32.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19075" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17867" CreationDate="2018-02-11T01:23:21.830" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/a/648/43717&quot;&gt;An answer to the same question in Skeptics.SE&lt;/a&gt;, states that the scientific community is heavily divided on the subject and no clear consensus has been reached.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The information on Wikipedia has been updated with a new article since the Skeptics answer, but the result has not changed.  &lt;strong&gt;ALL linked articles below have links to further reading backing the claims&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A common hypothesis is that playing violent video games increases aggression in young people. Various studies claim to support this hypothesis. Other studies find no link. Debate among scholars on both sides remains contentious and, as of yet, no clear consensus has been reached either for or against effects, whether positive or negative.&lt;br&gt;(Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_controversies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2005, the APA even got involved and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/about/policy/interactive-media.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;released an official statement&lt;/a&gt; referencing numerous articles backing their claims, saying:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;there appears to be evidence that exposure to violent media increases feelings of hostility, thoughts about aggression, suspicions about the motives of others, and demonstrates &#xA;  violence as a method to deal with potential conflict situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some scholars however suggested that the APA's policy statement ignored discrepant research and misrepresented the scientific literature. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://onmediatheory.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/four-respond-to-228-responding-to-apa.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bowman, 2014&lt;/a&gt;)(&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-04752-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ferguson, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 2015, the American Psychological Association released another review (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pi/families/review-video-games.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA, 2015&lt;/a&gt;) that found that violent video games caused aggressive behavior, with Mark Appelbaum, the chair of the task force that conducted the review, saying that &quot;the link between violence in video games and increased aggression in players is one of the most studied and best established in the field.&quot; The same review found insufficient evidence of a link between such video games and crime or delinquency. However, controversies erupted over the task force conclusions, with concerns about perceived conflicts of interest among task force members, and methodological limitations of their review. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newsweek.com/apa-video-games-violence-364394&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wofford, 2015&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA. (2015) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pi/families/review-video-games.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Technical Report on the Review of the Violent Video Game Literature&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; [PDF Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pi/families/review-video-games.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/pi/families/review-video-games.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bowman, N. (2014) &lt;a href=&quot;http://onmediatheory.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/four-respond-to-228-responding-to-apa.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;UPDATE: Four Respond to 228, Responding to the APA: Dissent Within the Academy Regarding Media Violence (#ECA14 Panel)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://onmediatheory.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/four-respond-to-228-responding-to-apa.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://onmediatheory.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/four-respond-to-228-responding-to-apa.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ferguson, C. J. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030597&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Violent video games and the Supreme Court: Lessons for the scientific community in the wake of Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist, 68&lt;/em&gt;(2), 57-74.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030597&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/a0030597&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wofford, T. (2015) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newsweek.com/apa-video-games-violence-364394&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;APA Says Video Games Make You Violent, but Critics Cry Bias&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.newsweek.com/apa-video-games-violence-364394&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.newsweek.com/apa-video-games-violence-364394&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-02-11T01:23:21.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19070" CreationDate="2018-02-11T05:06:01.560" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The hippocampus does make new brain cells, especially after aerobic exercise; there is an overwhelming amount of evidence for this claim&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Erickson, Voss, et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.11.007&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Firth, Stubbs, et al., 2017&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1101/lm.030635.113&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Patten, Sickmann, et al., 2013&lt;/a&gt;). I was unable to find the California study published or peer-reviewed anywhere, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abstractsonline.com/pp8/#!/4376/presentation/33887&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the abstract presented at the conference&lt;/a&gt; contained no indication of the sample size used in the study or a justification for why those specific types of neurons were studied. &lt;strong&gt;Therefore, it is unclear whether this single study was correctly conducted&lt;/strong&gt;, and the article discussing the abstract is appropriately cautious about interpreting the results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's many different reasons why this study might contradict the scientific literature on hippocampus. One might have to do with a neurogenesis marker they used, doublecortin (DCX). One study notes that DCX levels may be dependent on specific brain regions and can be affected by age, although this is uncertain (&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1159%2F000362917&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Balthazart and Ball, 2014&lt;/a&gt;). Another study also warns that DCX reading levels should be interpreted with caution because they can exist at relatively high levels outside of neurogenesis (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0059269&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kremer, Jagasia, et al., 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17260" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-12T13:21:50.603" LastActivityDate="2018-02-12T13:21:50.603" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19078" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19072" CreationDate="2018-02-11T08:55:26.707" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, I don't think belief is a choice. A belief is simply your interpretation of reality and your interpretation is not something you choose.Your reality and consequently your beliefs are simply the conclusions you come up with after cognitively processing some information. For example I simply cannot believe that I am the president of the United States no matter how hard I try. This is because when I process what is real and what is not, then it becomes clear to me that I am not the president. I can lie to myself as much as I want that I am the president but I will never be able to truly believe it. People tend to think that by lying yourself you can believe anything, however this in not true. In order to believe something you must really be able to interpret it as the reality. For example people who give the advise &quot; believe in yourself&quot; is really nonsense.Believing in yourself and your capaabilities is not something you can choose, In order to believe in yourself and your capabilities you must really prove it to yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17815" LastEditorUserId="17815" LastEditDate="2018-02-11T09:12:27.710" LastActivityDate="2018-02-11T09:12:27.710" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19079" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16150" CreationDate="2018-02-11T11:21:02.880" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is that there is no such mental disorder as &lt;em&gt;schlemielism&lt;/em&gt; and the characteristics of a &lt;em&gt;schlemiel&lt;/em&gt; described in &lt;em&gt;Games People Play&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ericberne.com/games-people-play&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Berne, 1964&lt;/a&gt;) are part of Eric Berne's description of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transactional Analysis (TA)&lt;/a&gt; and how it comes into play in life and within therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As an arbitrary categorisation of human behavior lacking in empirical evidence, TA is often considered a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pseudoscience&lt;/a&gt; and a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pop psychology&lt;/a&gt; fad. (RationalWiki, 2016)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more about Pseudoscience within Psychology, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248/7604&quot;&gt;this meta post&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pc4OAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA61&amp;amp;dq=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PA61#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hansson, S. O. (1996)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Schlemiel&lt;/em&gt;, as pointed out by both you in your question and within comments by others, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlemiel&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;is a Yiddish term meaning &quot;unlucky bungler&quot; or &quot;chump&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, or fool.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more on these games, there are some videos on ericberne.com (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ericberne.com/videos&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Berne, 1966&lt;/a&gt;) from a 1966 &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Educational_Television&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Educational Television&lt;/a&gt; broadcast in which Dr. Eric Berne was interviewed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Background&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Developed in the late 1950s by Eric Berne (1958), Transactional Analysis (TA) is mainly &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;humanistic&lt;/a&gt;, but is an integrative method of therapy combining &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodynamics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychodynamic&lt;/a&gt; and humanistic approaches. On the difference between TA and other theories, Eric Berne said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I think most other therapies . . . talk about thinking and feeling. Our question to the patient is not what do you think or how do you feel, but what are you going to do about it? (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ericberne.com/videos&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Berne, 1966&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In TA, the concept is that interactions – transactions – between different people in a given situation when communicating with each other, can be different and changing; and using TA you can analyse these transactions to give you and insight into what is happening.  The philosophy behind TA is that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;People are ‘OK’&lt;/strong&gt; – We may not like or agree with other’s behaviour, but we can accept them as worthy individuals.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;People can think&lt;/strong&gt; for themselves and it is there responsibility to do so.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;People make decisions that decide their destiny and these decisions can change&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;TA in action&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst practicing TA, there are four theoretical foundations to look at individually&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ego States&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There are structural and functional ego states (Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2015).&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Structural&lt;/strong&gt; – Parent/Adult/Child&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Functional&lt;/strong&gt; – Controlling Parent/Nurturing Parent/Adult/Free Child/Adapted Child&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Parent is an exteropsyche or exteropsychic state (e.g. identificatory), adult is a neopsyche or neopsychic state (e.g. data-processing), and child is an archaeopsyche or archaeopsychic state (e.g. regressive) (Berne, 2015).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scripts&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;On-going psychological processes, in which meaning is given to life experiences&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Transactions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;Exchanges between two or more people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Games&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;Emotional and relational patterns learnt in childhood re-enacted as adults without adult awareness, such as ‘See What You Made Me Do’ or ‘Why Don’t You – Yes But…’ (Berne, 1964)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No.4 here is what we are talking about with the question on &lt;em&gt;schlemiel&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although Berne defined transactions long before he published &lt;em&gt;Games People Play&lt;/em&gt;, his description of transactions in Games is the most easily understood:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The unit of social intercourse is called a transaction. If two or more people encounter each other… sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some other indication of acknowledging the presence of the others. This is called transactional stimulus. Another person will then say or do something which is in some way related to the stimulus, and that is called the transactional response. (Berne, 1964)(Berne Calcaterra, n.d.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr. Thomas Harris stated in &lt;em&gt;I’m OK – You’re OK&lt;/em&gt; that in Transactional Analysis,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;we have found a new language of psychology. (Harris, 1995)(Berne Calcaterra, n.d.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The Game of 'Schlemiel'&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ericberne.com/games-people-play/schlemiel/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;described in ericberne.com with the following&lt;/a&gt; — numbers representing the transaction number and W and B representing each person in the game (White and Black):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The moves in a typical game of “Schlemiel” are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;1W. White spills a highball on the hostess’s evening gown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;1B. Black (the host) responds initially with rage, but he sense (often only vaguely) that if he shows it, White wins. Black therefore pulls himself together, and this gives him the illusion that he wins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;2W. White says “I’m sorry.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;2B. Black mutters or cries forgiveness, strengthening his illusion that he wins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;3W. White then proceeds to inflict other damage on Black’s property. He breaks things, spills things and makes messes of various kinds. After the cigarette burn in the tablecloth, the chair leg through the lace curtain and the gravy on the rug, White’s Child is exhilarated because he has enjoyed himself in carrying out these procedures, for all of which he has been forgiven, while Black has made a gratifying display of suffering self-control. Thus both of them profit from an unfortunate situation, and Black is not necessarily anxious to terminate the friendship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The breakdown of this game scenario is that All the way through the game, &lt;strong&gt;White&lt;/strong&gt; is in the structural ego state of &lt;strong&gt;child&lt;/strong&gt; and Black initially entered either as &lt;strong&gt;child or parent&lt;/strong&gt; with the rage response, but then quickly adjusted to &lt;strong&gt;adult&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both can be seen to have won the first 2 transactions of the game, as well as the 3rd transaction.  However, depending on your standpoint, with the 3rd transaction, White could be seen to have won whilst Black has lost because he/she hasn't controlled the child within White.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berne Calcaterra, N. (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;Transactional Analysis - ericberne.com&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ericberne.com/transactional-analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ericberne.com/transactional-analysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berne, E. (1958). Transactional analysis: A new and effective method of group therapy. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;, 12(4): pp. 735—743.&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13583264&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;13583264&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berne, E. (1964). &lt;em&gt;Games People Play: The Psychology of Human Relationships&lt;/em&gt;. London: Penguin Books Ltd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berne, E. (1966). &lt;em&gt;Games People Play – The Theory Video&lt;/em&gt;. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ericberne.com/videos&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ericberne.com/videos&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berne, E. (2015). &lt;em&gt;Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy: A Systematic Individual and Social Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;. United States: Martino Fine Books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harris, T. (1995). &lt;em&gt;I’m OK – You’re OK&lt;/em&gt;. London: Arrow Books Ltd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hansson, S. O. (1996). Defining Pseudoscience and Science In:&lt;em&gt;Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem&lt;/em&gt; Pigliucci &amp;amp; Boudry (Eds.) Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;RationalWiki (2016) &lt;em&gt;Transactional Analysis&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Transactional_Analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Transactional_Analysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short, F. &amp;amp; Thomas, P. (2015). &lt;em&gt;Core Approaches in Counselling and Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;. Hove: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-11T11:28:24.647" LastActivityDate="2018-02-11T11:28:24.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19081" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-13T02:17:45.600" Score="0" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a hypothesis that if you prime people with self-image or social-image concerns, they will behave less anti-socially and more prosocially. For example, they litter less, they discriminate less against racial minorities, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any such studies examining this? If not, how can I prime people with self-image or social-image concerns?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15225" LastActivityDate="2018-02-13T06:09:14.030" Title="Priming people with self-image/social-image concerns" Tags="&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19082" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-13T02:24:04.877" Score="5" ViewCount="378" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on Paul Watzlawick et al.'s work in Brief Therapy, Giorgio Nardone &amp;amp; Paul Watzlawick (2005) developed specific protocols for treatment for several distinct psychological disorders, such as panic, phobia, anxiety, OCD, eating disorders etc., which is referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.centroditerapiastrategica.com/pubblicazione/brief-strategic-therapyphilosophy-techniques-and-research/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BST - Brief Strategic Therapy (Nardone model) &lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard anecdotal evidence that BST is superior to other forms of psychotherapy (mainly CBT - cognitive-behavioral-therapy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Superiority was unspecified in the above conversation, but could be defined as one or more of the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;quantitatively greater reduction of symptoms measured as difference between a pre- and a post-treatment test score&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;greater persistence of symptom reduction over time&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;comparable symptom reduction while more economic (fewer sessions)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;comparable symptom reduction while effective at a greater number of test subjects&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was able to find &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042814000068&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one comparative study&lt;/a&gt; specific to treating BED (binge eating disorder) and obesity (Pietrabissa et al. 2013, see link above)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the results of studies on the efficacy of BST in comparison to other models of therapy - mainly regarding the most common clusters of diagnosis?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nardone, G. &amp;amp; Watzlawick, P. (2005). &lt;em&gt;Brief Strategic Therapy: Philosophy, Techniques, and Research&lt;/em&gt;. Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson Inc. ISBN: 978-0765702807&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pietrabissa, G., Manzoni, G. M., Ceccarini, M. &amp;amp; Castelnuovo, G. (2014). A Brief Strategic Therapy Protocol for Binge Eating Disorder. &lt;em&gt;Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences&lt;/em&gt;. 113. 8–15. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Giada_Pietrabissa/publication/260213091_A_Brief_Strategic_Therapy_Protocol_for_Binge_Eating_Disorder/links/53e493530cf21cc29fc91245/A-Brief-Strategic-Therapy-Protocol-for-Binge-Eating-Disorder.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.005&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18421" LastEditorUserId="18421" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T13:41:53.927" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T13:41:53.927" Title="How does Brief Strategic Therapy (Nardone model) compare to other psychotherapies in efficacy?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19083" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19081" CreationDate="2018-02-13T06:09:14.030" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your hypothesis is true, priming can affect human behavior in many different ways. Specifically pro-social behavior can be encouraged by simply displaying an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1686213/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;image of a pair of eyes&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We examined the effect of an image of a pair of eyes on contributions&#xA;  to an honesty box used to collect money for drinks in a university&#xA;  coffee room. People paid nearly three times as much for their drinks&#xA;  when eyes were displayed rather than a control image. This finding&#xA;  provides the first evidence from a naturalistic setting of the&#xA;  importance of cues of being watched, and hence reputational concerns,&#xA;  on human cooperative behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also in a similar &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3855385/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; the following results are found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We also found that&#xA;  images of watching eyes reduced littering, although contrary to&#xA;  previous findings this was only when there were larger numbers of&#xA;  people around. With regard to our central aim, we found no evidence&#xA;  that litter on the ground interacted non-additively with images of&#xA;  eyes to induce increased littering behaviour. Our data therefore&#xA;  support the hypothesis that images of eyes induce more pro-social&#xA;  behaviour, independent of local norms. This finding has positive&#xA;  implications for the application of eye images in combating&#xA;  anti-social behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastActivityDate="2018-02-13T06:09:14.030" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19085" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-13T14:29:05.197" Score="2" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm planning an &lt;strong&gt;event-related fMRI-experiment&lt;/strong&gt; to investigate the difference in processing natural and computer-generated facial emotion expressions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've seen a lot of studies that synchronize the scan acquisition with stimulus presentation. &lt;strong&gt;Is synchronization between the scanner and the stimulus presentation necessary for every trial or is it enough if the scanner and the presentation are synchronized for the first trial?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is asked assuming that trials are jittered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Background&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a Matlab script to present my stimuli and I've decided on the acquisition parameters (see below). I'll have to start the stimulus presentation with Matlab over a button press after a few dummy scans, as the scanner is not equipped with a synchronization box that tracks the scanner pulses and conveys them to my stimulus delivery computer. So, my presentation is only synchronized with the first scanner impulse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;stimuli&lt;/strong&gt; will be presented according to the following parameters and in the following order:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fixation cross for 600-800ms (length randomly varying in 25 ms steps)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Video for 3 seconds (length not varied, but video type (natural or computer-generated) is randomized)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Blank screen for 3-5 seconds (length randomly varying in 250 ms steps)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Acquisition parameters&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;TR = 1.7s, TE = 30ms&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Whole brain acquisition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Voxel size 3x3 mm, slice thickness = 3.9mm&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18424" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-02-15T16:58:21.560" LastActivityDate="2018-02-15T16:58:21.560" Title="Is synchronization between the MRI scanner and the stimulus presentation necessary for every trial?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19086" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-13T18:11:07.870" Score="7" ViewCount="227" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research and practice in psychotherapy has been deeply influenced by two different approaches:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the &lt;strong&gt;Empirically Supported Treatments (ESTs)&lt;/strong&gt; movement, due to the development of Evidence Based Medicine (EBM) attitude in the mental health field, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the &lt;strong&gt;Common Factors perspective&lt;/strong&gt;, and the importance of common factors in the explanation of the therapeutic process.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These two different approaches are well described by Terence Tracey et al. (2003):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One view is that each model of therapy has distinctive effects on clients. This assumption of distinctiveness leads naturally to the inference that some models are more effective than others with particular client types&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A  competing and perhaps complementary view is that different theoretical approaches are comparably effective” (p. 401).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ESTs can be tested with randomised controlled clinical trials (Herbert,  2003; Morrison,  Bradley, &amp;amp; Westen, 2003);, however there is a growth of studies about the “Common Factors” perspective confirming the notion that all therapies are equally effective — the so-called “&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodo_bird_verdict&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dodo Bird Verdict&lt;/a&gt;” (Luborsky et al., 2004; Luborsky &amp;amp; Singer, 1975).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is emphasis on the economic factors in play when looking at Evidence Based Medicine, and the current &quot;gold standard&quot; seems to be CBT, not just for anxiety disorders (Otte, 2011), but for &lt;strong&gt;everything&lt;/strong&gt;. Yet, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17325&quot;&gt;there are shortfalls with CBT&lt;/a&gt; and some say that the efficacy was artificially inflated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I can understand the standpoint of those who push for scientific scruitiny of psychotherapeutic approaches, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248&quot;&gt;as can be seen in Psychology.SE meta&lt;/a&gt; I am also a defender of approaches which have been denounced as purely pseudoscientific and therefore invalid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from what I covered in my answer in meta, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pc4OAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA61&amp;amp;dq=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PA61#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sven Hansson's revision of his definition of pseudoscience&lt;/a&gt; (Hansson, 1996), are there other arguments, &lt;strong&gt;for and against&lt;/strong&gt;, each side of the debate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hansson, S. O. (1996). Defining Pseudoscience and Science In:&lt;em&gt;Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem&lt;/em&gt; Pigliucci &amp;amp; Boudry (Eds.) Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pc4OAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA61&amp;amp;dq=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PA61#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Readable in Google Books&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Herbert, J. D. (2003). The science and practice of empirically supported treatments. &lt;em&gt;Behavior Modification&lt;/em&gt;, 27(3), 412—430.&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12841591&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;12841591&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445503027003008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/0145445503027003008&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luborsky, L. et al. (2004). &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.870.4669&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The dodo bird verdict is alive and well — mostly&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice&lt;/em&gt;, 9, 2—12(Free PDF).&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.9.1.2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1093/clipsy.9.1.2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luborsky, L., &amp;amp; Singer, B. (1975). Comparative studies of psychotherapies. Is it true that &quot;everyone has won and all must have prizes&quot;? &lt;em&gt;Archives of General Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 32(8), 995—1008.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760260059004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760260059004&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Morrison, K. H., Bradley, R. &amp;amp; Westen, D. (2003). The external validity of controlled clinical trials of psychotherapy for depression and anxiety: a naturalistic study. &lt;em&gt;Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice&lt;/em&gt;, 76(Pt 2), 109—132.&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12855059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;12855059&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1348/147608303765951168&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1348/147608303765951168&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otte, C. (2011). Cognitive behavioral therapy in anxiety disorders: current state of the evidence. &lt;em&gt;Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; 13(4), 413—421.&lt;br&gt;PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3263389/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3263389&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christian_Otte2/publication/221776051_Cognitive_behavioral_therapy_in_anxiety_disorders_Current_state_of_the_evidence/links/00b495226ced4a96be000000/Cognitive-behavioral-therapy-in-anxiety-disorders-Current-state-of-the-evidence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt; &amp;amp; &lt;a href=&quot;https://archive.org/details/pubmed-PMC3263389&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Archive.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tracey, T. J. G., Lichtenberg, J. W., Goodyear, R. K., Claiborn, C. D. &amp;amp; Wampold, B. E. (2003). Concept mapping of therapeutic common factors. &lt;em&gt;Psychotherapy Research&lt;/em&gt;, 13(4), 401—413.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/ptr/kpg041&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1093/ptr/kpg041&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-08-24T07:51:26.027" LastActivityDate="2020-09-20T16:01:01.210" Title="Validity of the &quot;Common Factors&quot; perspective" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19087" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6540" CreationDate="2018-02-13T18:14:58.803" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Would like to disagree with &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/6553/21&quot;&gt;anongoodnurse's answer&lt;/a&gt; when it states that &lt;em&gt;&quot;there are no indications of a CSF fluid pump&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CSF fluid is affected by cardiovascular pulse wave in the rhythmic brain motion during the systolic expansion. But the respiratory rhythm plays the most significant role in the CSF movement and was shown to be diminished in flexor dominant individuals (respiratory muscle memory abnormal contraction-sympathetic tone). Couple this with occlusion of the central canal associated with subluxation of the vertebrae, diminished Vasomotor waves (THM) associated with autonomic nervous system weakness, and you get CSF stasis, which lead to abnormal degenerative disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The clinical assessment of CSF stasis is associated with vertebral subluxation and can be corrected thru chiropractic adjustments, lymphatic drainage techniques, 12 seconds breathing technique and yoga.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Whedon, J. M., &amp;amp; Glassey, D. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2842089/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cerebrospinal fluid stasis and its clinical significance.&lt;/a&gt; Alternative therapies in health and medicine, 15(3), 54.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18427" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-02-14T10:04:05.837" LastActivityDate="2018-02-14T10:04:05.837" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19091" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19102" CreationDate="2018-02-14T16:34:46.947" Score="1" ViewCount="273" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading on n-back's non-transferable working memory training, but if it's just used as a method of measuring the subject's working memory is it a good measurement? Personally, I have a poor working memory, easily forgetting what I was just speaking, how the arguments arrive at certain point, what I was just thinking that is important like a few seconds ago. Currently I've been playing n-back from time to time, and I am stuck on dual 3-back forever, never really able to pass through dual 4-back. Typically I don't have a habit of remembering stuff because I can always look up from search engines, and I take digital notes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17938" LastActivityDate="2018-02-16T18:33:33.387" Title="Is there any correlation between n-back level and short-term memory?" Tags="&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19094" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-15T08:54:32.167" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is registered. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the limitations for individuals and other business wishing to utilise the MBTI without a license to do so. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18445" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2018-02-23T15:50:55.777" LastActivityDate="2018-02-23T15:50:55.777" Title="How are commercial psychometric instruments or content protected legally?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2018-02-16T22:56:59.347" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19096" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-15T14:11:14.983" Score="2" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;em&gt;The Idiot Brain: A Neuroscientist Explains What Your Head is Really Up To&lt;/em&gt;, Dean Burnett write that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;the average IQ of a population is 100. Without exception. If someone says, “The average IQ of [country x] is only 85,” then this is wrong. It's basically the same as saying, “ The length of a meter in [country x] is only 85 cm”; this is logically impossible, and the same is true for IQ.&quot; &lt;sup&gt;(cf &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.fr/books?id=-Nr_CwAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PT83&amp;amp;ots=BRVE7r7D0E&amp;amp;dq=idiot%20brain%20iq%20country&amp;amp;pg=PT83#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=the%20average%20IQ%20of%20a%20population%20is%20100.%20Without%20exception.%20If%20someone%20says,%20%E2%80%9CThe%20average%20IQ%20of%20%5Bcountry%20x%5D%20is%20only%2085,%E2%80%9D%20then%20this%20is%20wrong.&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://books.google.fr&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is misleading. He is right to write that the average IQ of a population is 100 (as explained &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/10297/is-the-average-iq-still-100&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). But it doesn't imply that it's &quot;wrong&quot; to say that “The average IQ of [country x] is only 85,”. If one takes the whole word population as the population then one can then calculate the average IQ of the people in a particular country. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then if it's how countries' IQ are measured, why so &lt;a href=&quot;https://iq-research.info/en/page/average-iq-by-country&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;few&lt;/a&gt; countries have an IQ above 100? There is only 15 countries with an average IQ of 100 or above (the max is 108), and so many countries are below 100, the lowest being 59. Even with China (representing about 20% of the world population) pulling the world average IQ closer to 100, the countries' IQ given on that page are not coherent with an aveage wold IQ of 100. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how are the countries IQ measure? My question isn't about why the average IQ of a population is always 100 but about the discrepancies between countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18449" LastEditorUserId="18449" LastEditDate="2018-02-16T16:18:13.770" LastActivityDate="2018-02-16T16:18:13.770" Title="How can a country's IQ be different of 100, if the average IQ of a population is always 100?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-02-16T22:56:09.813" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19102" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19091" CreationDate="2018-02-16T18:33:33.387" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;-back performance correlates with short-term memory capacity as measured by standard tests. However, there is no standard implementation of the &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;-back task, which is why the literature is fairly inconsistent. Because it is not administered in a standardized fashion, it is not a good &lt;strong&gt;test&lt;/strong&gt; that is comparable between studies. However, it is often used in working memory &lt;strong&gt;training&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://englelab.gatech.edu/2013/redick-lindsey-2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is a paper that is critical of the &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;-back task. To be fair, although there is scientific consensus that there is insufficient evidence that &quot;brain training&quot; is effective, this is a publication from one of the more skeptical (which is a good thing) research groups. In this regard my example is somewhat biased, but I am open to discussing other perspectives. The group has also published some quite excellent criticism of how training experiments are not always well-designed, but I digress...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In cognitive training, it is important to distinguish between tasks that are optimized for testing and tasks that are optimized for training. A test task should optimally not vary in performance. The &lt;strong&gt;retest reliability&lt;/strong&gt; should be high, while a training task should optimally improve performance over time and induce neuroplasticity in a consistent manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is still open what makes a training task efficient. Some suggestions have been made, but criticized to an equal degree. One such concept is adaptive tasks. This describes when a task adapts the difficulty to the user depending on the user's previous performance. In summary, different &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;-back tasks vary in design and thus may vary in efficiency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problems of far and near transfer remain. Sometimes a battery of different tasks are administered simultaneously, but in such cases it becomes more difficult to attribute improvement on performance to specific tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastActivityDate="2018-02-16T18:33:33.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19103" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19111" CreationDate="2018-02-17T03:52:02.370" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can psychological abuse in the past lead to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthline.com/health/chronic-pain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;long term physical pain in the present&lt;/a&gt;?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pain will usually become less severe as the injury heals, but what about pain not resulting from physical injury?  How does that happen and how can it be sorted out?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18461" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-18T07:35:09.780" LastActivityDate="2018-02-18T08:44:00.963" Title="Can a person be subjected to long term physical pain as a result of psychological abuse" Tags="&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19104" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18973" CreationDate="2018-02-17T08:34:37.230" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/hallucinogens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;According to the National Institute for Drug Abuse&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some hallucinogens interfere with the action of the brain chemical serotonin, which regulates:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;mood&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;sensory perception&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;sleep&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;hunger&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;body temperature&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;sexual behavior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;muscle control&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Other hallucinogens interfere with the action of the brain chemical glutamate, which regulates:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;pain perception&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;responses to the environment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;emotion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;learning and memory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/1757-1626-2-9391&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Morphine is a hallucinogenic&lt;/a&gt; and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://beta.nhs.uk/medicines/morphine/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Morphine is used to treat chronic pain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The NHS has also provided proof &lt;strong&gt;with links to articles&lt;/strong&gt; that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/news/medication/proof-opiates-are-useful-for-chronic-back-pain-lacking/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;opiates are useful for chronic pain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other hallucinogenics known to help with pain include &lt;a href=&quot;http://hallucinogens.com/peyote/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Peyote&lt;/a&gt; (unreferenced)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-02-17T08:34:37.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19105" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-17T11:41:53.087" Score="0" ViewCount="173" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do twin studies overestimate heritability (for instance by putting the interaction between environment and genome under the label &quot;heritable&quot;)? If so why? Would you have any research papers to point me to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16466" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T16:29:23.063" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T16:29:23.063" Title="Do twin studies overestimate heritability?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;twin-study&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19106" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-17T12:24:18.797" Score="0" ViewCount="192" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have troubles understanding epigenetic: to me it seems like the study of environmental factors that change the expression rate of some genes. Therefore, it seems that it is the study of environment/genome interaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it a correct interpretation or is my reasoning flawed? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you so much in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16466" LastActivityDate="2018-02-18T06:47:29.183" Title="Is epigenetic the study of environment/genome interaction?" Tags="&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19108" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19106" CreationDate="2018-02-17T18:47:53.353" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Epigenetics is the study of how genes are expressed. The expression of a gene is influenced by a lot of things, and environment is generally the source of those things. Everything from what you eat, what you come into contact with, and what you do influences what genes are activated and silenced. So yes, you're correct in thinking that epigenetics is the study of environment/genome reaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18464" LastActivityDate="2018-02-17T18:47:53.353" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19109" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-18T01:12:49.420" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would start it with a word &quot;Laziness&quot;. I actually have realized that every task will not finish if I do not start do it, and I always trigger my motivation by thinking there will be big consequence if I keep postpone it. But, what is wrong with me? every time I start to do my task (assignments) I am getting sleepy, bored, and in few minutes I would grab my phone to chit chat with people or watching YouTube. I have tried to avoid my phone by asking my friend to hide it from me, but it did not work much, I just watched movie in my laptop. Come on, I cant ask my friend to hide my laptop too, my assignments are there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was happening for 6 years, and I just can not accept it. Actually, The assignment is not out of my ability, sometime I could do my assignments in few hours for several days, but without any reason I lost that spirit again. What is wrong? how can I deal with it? and why it happens on me while some other people could just control their self easily? is there any scientific explanation for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It perhaps the most stupid wrong placed question you have ever found, but I need your help, indeed. If you ever experience the similar thing, please share.. Thank you&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18466" LastEditorUserId="18466" LastEditDate="2018-02-18T01:22:29.813" LastActivityDate="2018-02-18T01:22:29.813" Title="Why is it hard to do a task while actually you can do it?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-02-20T12:27:45.950" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19110" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19106" CreationDate="2018-02-18T06:47:29.183" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene function, from parent to offspring, that do not involve changes in the DNA sequence. (Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the original sense of this definition, epigenetics referred to all molecular pathways modulating the expression of a genotype into a particular phenotype. Over the following years, with the rapid growth of genetics, the meaning of the word has gradually narrowed. Epigenetics has been defined and today is generally accepted as &quot;the study of changes in gene function that are mitotically and/or meiotically heritable and that do not entail a change in DNA sequence. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2791696&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dupont, 2009&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term &quot;epigenetic&quot; has also been used in developmental psychology to describe psychological development as the result of an ongoing, bi-directional interchange between heredity and the environment. (Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics#Developmental_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics#Psychology_and_psychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Within Psychology and Psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;, epigenetics covers areas of early life stress, addiction, anxiety, depression and fear conditioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1083968&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Caspi et al. (2003)&lt;/a&gt; demonstrated that in a robust cohort of over one-thousand subjects assessed multiple times from preschool to adulthood, those who carried one or two copies of the short allele of the serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism exhibited higher rates of adult depression and suicidality when exposed to childhood maltreatment compared to long allele homozygotes with equal early life stress exposure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One study suggested that traumatic experiences might produce an epigenetic signal that is capable of being passed to future generations. Mice were trained, using foot shocks, to fear a cherry blossom odour and the investigators reported that the mouse offspring had an increased aversion to this specific odour. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3594&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dias &amp;amp; Ressler, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Addictions can arise from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcriptional&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;transcriptional&lt;/a&gt; and neuroepigenetic mechanisms. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3111&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robison &amp;amp; Nestler, 2011&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is caution to be made however, when looking at literature on epigenetics. Some literature has been found to be pseudoscientific as some authors have made unfounded claims that a person's genes and health can be manipulated by mind control. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/epigenetics-it-doesnt-mean-what-quacks-think-it-means&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gorski, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, several criticisms were reported on the Dias &amp;amp; Ressler study, including the study's low statistical power as evidence of some irregularity such as bias in reporting results (Francis, 2014). The authors also did not indicate which mice were siblings, and treated all of the mice as statistically independent:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The statistical tests in the paper, both for the behavioral measurements as well as for the size of the M71 glomeruli , use as n, number of samples, the number of F1 and F2 individuals. This would be fine if the individuals were actually independent samples. However, they arise from a presumably small number of FO males. The numbers of FO males are not given in the paper. This is a major concern given that there is a lot of variability in the levels of expression of olfactory receptors in these mice that might be inheritable. As an example, for Figure 1a, the authors compared 16 F1-Ace-C57 mice with 13 F1-Home-C57 mice and find a p value of 0.043, with 27 degrees of freedom . But these 29 mice could have been originated from a very small number of FO mice. The actual n that should be used for the statistics in the whole paper are not the individual number of F1 or F2, but it should be the number of founding F0, for both groups. So the actual p values are larger than reported. Without the information about the size of the F0 populations used in each figure panel, it is hard to interpret the results. (Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24292232#cm24292232_1390&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PubMed Comment by Gonzalo Otazu&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Caspi, A. et al. (2003). Influence of Life Stress on Depression: Moderation by a Polymorphism in the 5-HTT Gene. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; 301(5631), 386–389&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1083968&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1126/science.1083968&lt;/a&gt;. PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12869766&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;12869766&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dias B. G. &amp;amp; Ressler, K. J. (2013). Parental olfactory experience influences behavior and neural structure in subsequent generations. &lt;em&gt;Nature Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; 17, 89–96&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3594&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/nn.3594&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dupont C., Armant D. R. &amp;amp; Brenner C. A. (2009). Epigenetics: definition, mechanisms and clinical perspective. &lt;em&gt;Seminars in Reproductive Medicine&lt;/em&gt; 27 (5): 351–357. DOI:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0029-1237423&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1055/s-0029-1237423&lt;/a&gt; PMCID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2791696&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2791696&lt;/a&gt; PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19711245&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;19711245&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Francis, G. (2014). Too Much Success for Recent Groundbreaking Epigenetic Experiments. &lt;em&gt;Genetics&lt;/em&gt; 198(2), 449–451&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.114.163998&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1534/genetics.114.163998&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gorski, D. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/epigenetics-it-doesnt-mean-what-quacks-think-it-means&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Epigenetics: It doesn’t mean what quacks think it means&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Science-Based Medicine&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/epigenetics-it-doesnt-mean-what-quacks-think-it-means&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/epigenetics-it-doesnt-mean-what-quacks-think-it-means&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Robison, A. J. &amp;amp; Nestler, E. J. (2011). Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction. &lt;em&gt;Nature Reviews Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;. 12(11), 623–637.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3111&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/nrn3111&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3272277&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3272277&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21989194&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;21989194&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-02-18T06:47:29.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19111" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19103" CreationDate="2018-02-18T08:44:00.963" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The subject area regarding this question is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosomatic_medicine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychosomatic disorders&lt;/a&gt; and problems like what you describe can be difficult to deal with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all it is imperative that &lt;strong&gt;all physical and neurological causes of the pain are ruled out, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropathic_pain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuropathic problems&lt;/a&gt;, through medical examinations and tests&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychosomatic medicine involves diverse specialties including psychiatry, psychology, neurology, internal medicine, surgery, allergy, dermatology and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoneuroimmunology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychoneuroimmunology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whenever any physical pain arises without physical injury, &lt;strong&gt;it is important to see your doctor&lt;/strong&gt; to get the source of the pain checked out.  If you jump to the conclusion that it is all psychological without seeing your doctor first, you could cause serious problems now and further along in time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is possible that it could be psychological, but &lt;strong&gt;only if medical examinations and tests have found no physical cause and the source is not anything but &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthcareers.nhs.uk/explore-roles/psychological-therapies/differences-between-psychology-psychiatry-and-psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological or psychiatrical&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a diagnosis is made that the pain is psychological, it doesn't mean that the pain is &quot;all in your head&quot;.  The pain being felt is very real and in some cases can be debilitating.  You cannot just tell yourself it isn't real in order to stop the pain from being felt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the pain has a psychological cause, then therapy will be needed to deal with it.  The therapy will enable you to discuss the issues affecting you and enable you to live your life the best you can.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the problem is not psychological, although psychological therapy will not deal with the pain, therapy can also help with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britishpainsociety.org/people-with-pain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pain management&lt;/a&gt; if the problem has been a long term problem and causing stress, depression, anxiety or other psychological problems.  There are also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/pain-management/guide/pain-management-alternative-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;complementary therapies&lt;/a&gt; which may help with both psychological and non-psychological problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-02-18T08:44:00.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19112" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19136" CreationDate="2018-02-18T14:43:25.300" Score="10" ViewCount="590" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Background to my question on SOTPs&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/national-offender-management-service&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NOMS&lt;/a&gt; is the UKs National Offender Management Service, which is now called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/her-majestys-prison-and-probation-service&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Her Majesty’s Prison and Probation Service&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.justice.gov.uk/offenders/before-after-release/obp&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the UKs official website on Offender Behaviour Progammes (OBPs)&lt;/a&gt; run by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.justice.gov.uk&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Her Majesty’s Ministry of Justice&lt;/a&gt;, it states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is growing international evidence that the type of cognitive-behavioural techniques that NOMS accredited programmes apply are the most effective in reducing offending behaviour; evidence Fact Sheets are available from Interventions Unit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trying to find these fact sheets is difficult, but a document titled &lt;em&gt;Suitability for Accredited Interventions&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/259175/annex-sotp-programmes.doc&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NOMS, 2010&lt;/a&gt;) has the following on page 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wT9ax.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wT9ax.png&quot; alt=&quot;SOTPs&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A number of offenders are either diagnosed with Personality Disorder or present complex needs linked to their risk. The degree of complexity may prevent them from engaging fully with a shorter programme or may make shorter interventions inadequate. In this instance, a referral should be considered for a Democratic Therapeutic Community (DTC).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Participation in a DTC can occur at any point during the sentence, depending on the needs of the offender. Some will benefit from completing shorter programmes, such as ETS/TSP first to support responsivity and engagement in the DTC. Other offenders may find the therapeutic community approach can prepare and support participation in future high-intensity offence-focussed interventions, if applicable. DTCs currently exist in the Category B and C closed prison estate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Further information on DTCs can be found at Appendix D.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Appendix B (Page 45) covers all the tyes of SOTP in detail&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Appendix D (Page 65) states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Democratic Therapeutic Communities (DTCs) (Custody)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Democratic TCs provide a living-learning intervention for offenders whose primary criminogenic risk factors need to be targeted whilst simultaneously addressing psychological and emotional disturbance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is followed by details of the risk assessments required, including a&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sexual Offences Attitude Questionnaire (Hogue &amp;amp; OBPU) (for male sex offenders only)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and the questionnaire&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;can be used independent of whether the victim or victims were male or female, adult or child. (Hogue, 1994)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;My Question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from what I mentioned above, I found the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;a study (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233199281_Sexual_offenders%27_treatment_experience_A_qualitative_and_quantitative_investigation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wakeling, et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;) covering UK SOTPs by &lt;strong&gt;evaluating participants’ experiences&lt;/strong&gt; using both qualitative and quantitative methods.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;The authors state that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;SOTP staff from the establishments conducted the interviews, most of whom were involved within treatment delivery. Participants’ responses may therefore have been more positive than they would have been if an&#xA;  independent party had interviewed them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anthony_Beech/publication/8958723_Evaluation_of_a_National_Prison-based_Treatment_Program_for_Sexual_Offenders_in_England_and_Wales/links/0f3175304ffd3a8663000000/Evaluation-of-a-National-Prison-based-Treatment-Program-for-Sexual-Offenders-in-England-and-Wales.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beech, et. al. (1998)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;strong&gt;again used offender questionnaires&lt;/strong&gt;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Two approaches were used to evaluate treatment impact. The first approach examined the extent to which treated child abusers showed statistically significant changes in their levels of denial, pro-offending attitudes, and social competency/acceptance of accountability. Using this approach it was found that both shorter (80 hours) and longer treatment groups (160 hours) were effective in producing statistically significant reductions in these areas&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The second, and more sophisticated, analysis considered to what extent the child abusers had, by the end of treatment, a ‘treated’ profile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Are there any studies which evaluated effectiveness using data on reoffending rates?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study on Californian programmes (&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11194-005-1212-x#citeas&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marques, et al. 2005&lt;/a&gt;) states that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The study was a randomized clinical trial that compared the reoffense rates of offenders treated in an inpatient relapse prevention (RP) program with the rates of offenders in two (untreated) prison control groups. No significant differences were found among the three groups in their rates of sexual or violent reoffending over an 8-year follow-up period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Has there been any further evaluation, and is this the same with the UK SOTPs and the rest of the US?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beech, A. et al. (1998). &lt;em&gt;Evaluation of a National Prison-based Treatment Program for Sexual Offenders in England and Wales&lt;/em&gt;. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 18(7), 744—59&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260503253236&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/0886260503253236&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hogue, T. (1994). Sexual offence information questionnaire: assessment of sexual offenders' perceptions of responsibility, empathy and control. In: &lt;em&gt;Rights and Risks: the application of forensic psychology&lt;/em&gt;. British Psychological Society, Leicester, pp. 68-75&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract available only - PDF RESTRICTED to Repository Staff, University of Lincoln&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/2844/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/2844/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marques, J.K. et al. (2005) Effects of a Relapse Prevention Program on Sexual Recidivism: Final Results From California’s Sex Offender Treatment and Evaluation Project (SOTEP). &lt;em&gt;Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment&lt;/em&gt; 17(1), 79–107&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11194-005-1212-x&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s11194-005-1212-x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NOMS. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/259175/annex-sotp-programmes.doc&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Suitability for Accredited Interventions&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; [Word Document]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/259175/annex-sotp-programmes.doc&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/259175/annex-sotp-programmes.doc&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wakeling, H. et al. (2007) Sexual offenders' treatment experience: A qualitative and quantitative investigation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Sexual Aggression&lt;/em&gt; 11(2), 171—186&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600412331321323&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/13552600412331321323&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-21T08:07:24.707" LastActivityDate="2020-02-19T19:17:54.677" Title="Are Sex Offender Treatment Programmes (SOTPs) effective?" Tags="&lt;criminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19114" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19105" CreationDate="2018-02-19T04:08:19.400" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems likely that some percentage of twin studies would fail to account for all the systematic environmental variables that connect their twins. In this case, the effects of these variables would still cause a correlation, which would be attributed to heritability. &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/monitor/apr04/second.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A second look at twin studies&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Lea Winerman discusses examples of these types of variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3643" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T16:28:39.467" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T16:28:39.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19115" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6419" CreationDate="2018-02-19T09:48:03.733" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Mimicking action potentials is possible, but not the most practical approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In general, stimulation of neural tissues occurs through placing electrodes in the vicinity of the target tissue and applying short current pulses, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; think cardiac pace makers, cochlear implants, retinal implants &lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/7032046/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Rao &amp;amp; Chiao, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;, as well as &lt;a href=&quot;https://physioworks.com.au/landing/ems-electrical-muscle-stimulation-machines.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;muscle stimulators&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long-term electrical stimulation of tissues in humans are accomplished by means of biphasic pulses, such that one phase reverses the current injected by the other. Such alternative current stimuli are called charge-balanced pulses, and are used because direct current (DC) stimulation may damage neural tissues &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24161948&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bahmer &amp;amp; Baumann, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;. In animals and short-term applications other asymmetric and unbalanced pulse shapes may be applied. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, external electrical stimuli induce electric fields such that neurons are depolarized and start firing their own action potentials. Mimicking action potentials doesn't make much sense therefore. It is a more straightforward approach to activate the system externally and let things develop physiologically thereafter to maintain normal neuronal processing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But of course, in the end you could stick a needle electrode inside neurons and attempt to mimic the voltage changes over time like that in an action potential train, for example through the application of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_clamp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;voltage clamp&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; techniques. Nonetheless, I would rather stick to state-of-the-art applications and apply external biphasic pulse trains and leave the details to the neuronal tissue.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24161948&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bahmer &amp;amp; Baumann, &lt;em&gt;Hear Res&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;306&lt;/strong&gt;:123-30&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/7032046/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rao &amp;amp; Chiao, &lt;em&gt;IEEE Microwave Magazine&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;16&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 54-64&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T19:42:32.990" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T19:42:32.990" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19116" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18125" CreationDate="2018-02-19T11:00:20.160" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The spatial resolving capacity of the visual system is called visual acuity, namely the ability of the eye to see fine detail. There are various ways to measure and specify visual acuity, depending on the type of acuity task used. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Visual acuity is limited by&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;diffraction, &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;aberrations and &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;photoreceptor density in the eye. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;photoreceptor density&lt;/strong&gt; allows a resolution that by far exceeds the limitations imposed by the other two. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diffraction of light is an important factor limiting acuity. This is caused by optical limitations of the eye, mainly the light scattering by the cornea and other structures (Fig. 1). Raleigh’s criterion is used to calculate the resolution of the eye for stimuli that are degraded by the optics of the eye: two points or lines are just resolved if the peak of the point spread function lies on the first trough of the other point spread function (Fig. 2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aberrations also are an important source of image degradation on the retina. These include the well known spherical aberrations that lead to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.flei.com/blog/difference-between-near-and-farsighted/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;near- and far sightedness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, as the retinal image becomes out of focus. These can be corrected well with glasses and lenses &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Berrio &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2010)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other sources that affect acuity are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The size of the pupil; Large pupils reduce diffraction, but aggravate aberrations of the eye. A small pupil reduces optical aberrations, but resolution will be diffraction limited. Therefore, a mid-size pupil of about 3 - 5 mm is optimal as a compromise between diffraction and aberration limitarions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Illumination: photopic vision allows the cones  to operate and that yields higher acuities than rod-mediated vision &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kallioniatis &amp;amp; Luu (2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For the same reasons the area of the retina stimulated affects acuity - the cones are clustered in the center of the retina, called the fovea. Foveal acuity is much higher than peripheral vision &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kallioniatis &amp;amp; Luu (2012)&lt;/a&gt;.   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Time of exposure of the target causes adaptation. If the cones are adapted to the timulus, they may become less responsive and acuity drops &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kallioniatis &amp;amp; Luu (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eye movements degrade visual acuity as a stable retinal image is needed &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kallioniatis &amp;amp; Luu (2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kallioniatis &amp;amp; Luu, Visual Acuity. In: &lt;em&gt;The Organization of the Retina and Visual System&lt;/em&gt;, 2012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Berrio &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;JOV&lt;/em&gt; (2010); 10(14)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/j5Idm.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/j5Idm.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;optics&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Resolution limit eye. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kallioniatis &amp;amp; Luu (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VVJxM.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VVJxM.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Reigheigh criterion. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/visual-acuity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kallioniatis &amp;amp; Luu (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T11:00:20.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19117" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19038" CreationDate="2018-02-19T11:31:26.993" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Meditation may be key to block out distracting noise. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;One study has shown that during meditation, expert meditators with over 19,000 h of meditation experience show less brain activations in regions associated with discursive thoughts and emotions (prefrontal regions, basal ganglia, and subthalamic nuclei), and more activation in regions related to response inhibition and attention (ventral prefrontal cortex and intraparietal lobule). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors used neutral (restaurant background noise), positive (cooing baby) and negative sounds (a screaming lady).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, meditation is probably not the conditioning training you are after for use in everyday life, but since the question has been silent I thought to start off with this lead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/104/27/11483.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brefczynski-Lewis &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;104&lt;/strong&gt;(27): 11483-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T15:51:45.860" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T15:51:45.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19118" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18855" CreationDate="2018-02-19T12:13:55.347" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Stimulus frequency does not matter too much for electrical neural stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The frequency of electrical stimulation does not need to be in the same ball park as the physiological stimulus impinging normally on a tactile skin receptor. This, because the normal route of stimulation is bypassed and the axons can be activated directly &lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/40255164/index.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1519045881&amp;amp;Signature=mS%2BIFLFaVy6riPwub0OPX52upZU%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DTactile_Feeling_Display_using_Functional.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kajimoto &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1999)&lt;/a&gt;. In contrast, physiological tactile stimulation typically involves the deformation of a specialized dendritic region of a mechanoreceptors (Fig. 1). The effectiveness of mechanoreception depends highly on the physical properties of the dendritic sensory region in terms of responsiveness to various stimuli, including frequency selectivity, as you nicely illustrate in your answer. For electrical stimuli, all the dendritic mechaoreceptive selectivities are simply bypassed and pretty much &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; electric stimulus will do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To give an example: a single jolt of direct-current electricity from a 9 Volt battery evokes a clear tactile sensation on the tongue. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wicab.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BrainPort&lt;/a&gt; device, which is a sensory substitution device that aims to provide visual function to blind patienbts, relies on electrical stimulation of the tongue to provide the user with tactile images of the field of view as recorded by a head-mounted camera. The BrainPort uses a pulse rate of 200 Hz, which clearly electrically stimulates the tongue &lt;a href=&quot;https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/somatosensation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Danilov &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2007)&lt;/a&gt;. Hence, whether you provide a single jolt, or a continuous pulse train of 200 Hz doesn't really matter for perception, at least as far as I know. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/somatosensation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Danilov &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;J Vestib Res&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;17&lt;/strong&gt;(2-3): 119-30&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/40255164/index.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1519045881&amp;amp;Signature=mS%2BIFLFaVy6riPwub0OPX52upZU%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DTactile_Feeling_Display_using_Functional.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kajimoto &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;ICAT&lt;/em&gt; 1999&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/34cTA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/34cTA.png&quot; alt=&quot;skinRs&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Skin receptors. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/somatosensation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lumen&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-09T12:38:34.733" LastActivityDate="2018-04-09T12:38:34.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19120" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2018-02-19T12:18:31.647" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The CBT model is based on the combination of the basic principles from behavioral and cognitive psychology.  The tag is meant for questions focusing on the CBT model of therapy. If your question involves only one of &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/thought&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;thought&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;thought&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/beliefs&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;beliefs&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;beliefs&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/attitudes&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;attitudes&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;attitudes&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/behavior&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;behavior&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;behavior&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/emotion&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;emotion&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/memory&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;memory&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;memory&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/attention&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;attention&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;attention&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/language&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;language&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;language&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/decision-making&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;decision-making&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;decision-making&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/perception&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;perception&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;perception&lt;/a&gt;, then use the associated specialized tag instead of CBT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T12:18:31.647" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T12:18:31.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19121" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2018-02-19T12:18:31.647" Score="0" Body="For questions focusing on therapies to develop personal coping strategies that target solving of current problems and changing unhelpful patterns in cognitions (e.g. thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes), behaviors, and emotional regulation.  If your question involves only one of thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, behavior, emotion, memory, attention, language, decision-making, or perception, then use the associated specialized tag instead of CBT." OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T12:18:31.647" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T12:18:31.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19122" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2018-02-19T12:46:30.397" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions focusing on jargon, acronyms, abbreviations and scientific or non-scientific terms used within psychology and neuroscience.  If your question involves names of &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/mental-disorders&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;mental-disorders&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;mental-disorders&lt;/a&gt; then use the associated specialized tag instead of terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T12:46:30.397" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T12:46:30.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19123" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2018-02-19T12:46:30.397" Score="0" Body="For questions focusing on jargon, acronyms, abbreviations and scientific or non-scientific terms used within psychology and neuroscience.  If your question involves names of mental-disorders then use the associated specialized tag instead of terms." OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T12:46:30.397" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T12:46:30.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19124" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2018-02-19T12:58:38.823" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions focusing on memory loss caused by brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma.  This is different to forgetfulness.  If your question involves &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/forgetfulness&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;forgetfulness&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;forgetfulness&lt;/a&gt; or specific disorders such as &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/alzheimer&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;alzheimer&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;alzheimer&lt;/a&gt;'s disease then use the associated specialized tag instead of amnesia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T12:58:38.823" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T12:58:38.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19125" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2018-02-19T12:58:38.823" Score="0" Body="For questions focusing on memory loss caused by brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma.  This is different to forgetfulness.  If your question involves forgetfulness or specific disorders such as Alzheimer's Disease then use the associated specialized tag instead of amnesia. " OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T12:58:38.823" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T12:58:38.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19126" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2018-02-19T13:16:33.717" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This tag is for questions about the scientific study of the nature, extent, management, causes, control, consequences, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the individual and social levels. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field in both the behavioral and social sciences, drawing especially upon the research of sociologists, psychologists, philosophers, psychiatrists, social anthropologists, as well as scholars of law.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is different to the confusingly named &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/forensic-psychology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;forensic-psychology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;forensic-psychology&lt;/a&gt; which is off-topic on this site.  (&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2322/7604&quot;&gt;see this meta post&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T13:26:55.550" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T13:26:55.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19127" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2018-02-19T13:16:33.717" Score="0" Body="For questions about the scientific study of the nature, extent, management, causes, control, consequences, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the individual and social levels. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field in both the behavioral and social sciences, drawing especially upon the research of sociologists, psychologists, philosophers, psychiatrists, social anthropologists, as well as scholars of law." OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-19T13:16:33.717" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T13:16:33.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19129" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-19T16:42:09.993" Score="1" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Daniel Kahneman (&lt;em&gt;Thinking, Fast and Slow&lt;/em&gt;), we have two types of thinking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;I. fast, instinctive and emotional&#xA;II. slower, more deliberative, and more logical&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found interesting Kahneman's &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/CjVQJdIrDJ0?t=1h9s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;remark&lt;/a&gt; that IQ score represents a person's &lt;strong&gt;System II&lt;/strong&gt; ability (it does not measure &lt;strong&gt;System I&lt;/strong&gt; nor the subject's ability to apply them appropriately).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I &lt;em&gt;assume&lt;/em&gt; that it is possible to prioritize the &lt;strong&gt;System I&lt;/strong&gt; early on in one's life because it is a fast way to the end.&#xA;(Example: In elementary/high school Maths, many tasks can be solved somewhat intuitively since they are simple reoccurring problems. And instead of real deep understanding of the rules, the problems can be solved by application of problem-solving patterns. This applies especially to situations when competition is promoted, thus speed is rewarded.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, Is it possible (how?) to (re)train oneself to apply more of the &lt;strong&gt;System II&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18478" LastEditorUserId="18478" LastEditDate="2018-02-20T09:38:09.347" LastActivityDate="2018-02-20T09:38:09.347" Title="systems of thinking - how to relearn" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19130" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19129" CreationDate="2018-02-19T21:08:19.800" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;2) Yes, I think so. If you think of your systems as a pattern recognizer, and continuously exposing it to more complex patterns and associated solutions, you can literally invoke your system 2 more easily, for example, in higher level math, you can prove properties and theorems in certain way that is efficient and effective, which depends on experiences to know what's the best method. Proving is certainly an act of system 2, it's complex and logical. Another example, meditation can be used to identify negative thoughts, once you recognize that you are being bothered by your own thoughts, you can immediately ignore them, this takes training of recognizing the pattern and let your system 2 focus your attention on other more important things than the negative thoughts brought up by your system 1. One more example is recognizing your own logical fallacies and cognitive biases. The key is to know the existence of the patterns, repeatedly recognize patterns, and correct/solve the patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17938" LastActivityDate="2018-02-19T21:08:19.800" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19132" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19208" CreationDate="2018-02-20T21:17:47.260" Score="6" ViewCount="1330" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been researching learned helplessness lately, an idea that seems to be responsible for much of the negative behavior observed in humans. Basically, the idea is that once repeatedly exposed to an inescapable pain, a subject learns to accept the pain even when it becomes avoidable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was first described by Martin Seligman who observed such behavior in dogs, who, upon being placed in a box that would shock them at random times and then moved to a box where the shock could be escaped by jumping over a barrier, refuse to even attempt to jump the barrier to escape, whereas dogs that could stop the shock in the first box with a lever would easily jump the barrier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all my research, however, it seems that the &quot;learned helplessness&quot; could only be unlearned by manually moving the dogs' legs to simulate the behavior to overcome the obstacle. However, in humans, such helplessness situations are often very abstract, for example the idea that no matter how hard one works they will never be able to escape debt, or pay their taxes. In such cases, &quot;manually moving people's legs&quot; is anywhere from extremely impractical to impossible. Does this mean that human learned helplessness is most cases is insurmountable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How in the case of abstract helplessness conditions can human learned helplessness be escaped?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12897" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2021-02-03T15:27:44.443" LastActivityDate="2021-02-03T15:27:44.443" Title="How does one escape learned helplessness?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;learned-helplessness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19133" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5854" CreationDate="2018-02-21T00:12:26.350" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Daytime conscious experiences come from our sensory organs. At any given moment, these organs split the incoming information between millions of neurons which then transport the info back to the brain. The info is processed in the sensory cortices, and then REASSEMBLED. This explains your &quot;divided&quot; experiences during the day. At night the conscious dream experiences come from memory where most of the information is already reassembled (consolidated). THAT is, I believe the difference.The other difference is in the attention we pay to the experiences. During the day whatever we pay the most attention to- is remembered best. At night, we are not making conscious attentional choices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18494" LastActivityDate="2018-02-21T00:12:26.350" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19134" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-21T05:38:13.400" Score="1" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been trying to understand how &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_truth_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;illusory truth&#xA;effect&lt;/a&gt; creates problems for Software Engineers. I have found research on &#xA;the effects of other cognitive biases (e.g. representativeness, availability, etc.) have on Software Development, but none of them mention anything about illusory truth effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does any such research exist? Can anyone guide me?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18495" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-02-22T00:44:35.913" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T00:44:35.913" Title="Cognitive Bias, illusory truth effect: its effects on Software Engineers" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19135" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19142" CreationDate="2018-02-21T11:51:39.740" Score="2" ViewCount="3388" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been wondering if there was such a thing as developing some kind of physical or psychological dependence on things that relieve pain. While we often hear about opioid addiction, which is primarily physical, I wonder if someone could psychologically be hooked on using something like lidocaine to numb every bruise or injury they get, just to numb the pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did hear that cocaine was once used as an anaesthetic, but it was also physically addicting.&#xA;This makes me wonder if physical withdrawal and hunger cravings are similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18499" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-22T12:09:15.537" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T12:38:49.833" Title="Can you get addicted from using topical or local anaesthetics to ease pain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19136" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19112" CreationDate="2018-02-21T13:30:14.607" Score="10" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sex offending is high in the public consciousness, but people should know that the treatments offenders receive in prisons and secure hospitals lack evidence of efficacy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h199&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ho, 2015&lt;/a&gt;), and ineffective treatment of sex offenders fails victims as a recent report (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/impact-evaluation-of-the-prison-based-core-sex-offender-treatment-programme&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mews, Bella &amp;amp; Purver, 2017&lt;/a&gt;) highlights worse risk rather than lower after treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The recent widespread publicity surrounding well known public figures who have been accused or convicted of sex offenses&lt;sup&gt;examples: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/media/2014/jun/26/jimmy-savile-sexual-abuse-timeline&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/may/30/rolf-harris-sexual-abuse-jury-discharged-after-failing-to-reach-verdict&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/dave-lee-travis-found-guilty-of-indecent-assault-9751085.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; has indelibly etched sex offending into the UK public’s consciousness. Sex offending is not a new phenomenon. However, what is new is the revelation of these offenders’ profiles, their positions of influence, and the sheer number and duration of these offenses, which were perpetrated and undetected for so long. Even though many high profile cases have been classed as “historical offenses” many victims still experience consequences (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h199&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ho, 2015&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Sex Offender Treatment Programme (SOTP) is the standard psychological talking therapy used in prisons and secure psychiatric hospitals in England and Wales since 1991. Mostly in groups, offenders follow a syllabus (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h199&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ho, 2015&lt;/a&gt;) that includes discussions about healthy relationships, triggers for sex offending, thinking styles, effects on victims, emotional management, and intimacy skills. The “core” group meets for six months (86 group sessions) and the “extended” group for an additional four months. After these sessions, if offenders have kept out of trouble they stand a better chance of early release from prison. Certainly, parole board hearings place some weight on offenders having completed “treatment” when considering whether to release them on licence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In response to David Ho's review paper, Dr. Jamie Walton, employed in HM Prison Service and a current Treatment Manager of the Core Sex Offender Treatment Programme (SOTP) within a regional Treatment Management team at the time, said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We believe that Ho’s conclusion is premature. Claiming that treatment is ineffective in the absence of consistent high quality evidence to support such a claim does not accurately convey the state of affairs in the field. Only through increasing the rigor of studies in the field together with efforts to identify the influence of residual bias on outcomes of interest can progress occur.&lt;br&gt;(Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h199/rapid-responses&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BMJ Rapid Responses&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No evidence from academic or policy research has shown that the treatment programme significantly reduces sexual reoffending (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007507.pub2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dennis, et al. 2012&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-004-6466-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lösel &amp;amp; Schmucker. 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.1818&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ho &amp;amp; Ross. 2012&lt;/a&gt;).  Also, there was a damning report put together by HM Ministry of Justice &lt;strong&gt;Analytical Services&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/impact-evaluation-of-the-prison-based-core-sex-offender-treatment-programme&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mews, Bella &amp;amp; Purver, 2017&lt;/a&gt;), which highlighted that sexual reoffending rates are 2% higher after SOTP treatment and Child image reoffending rates are 1.6% higher indicating worse risk rather than lower after treatment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;binary reoffending rates&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt; over an average 8.2 year follow up period  were mostly similar between the matched treatment and comparison groups (see Table A.8, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/623876/sotp-report-web-.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A151%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2C68%2C771%2C0%5D&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parsimonious model&lt;/a&gt;&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt;). The only statistically significant differences emerged on the following outcomes:&lt;sup&gt;25&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Sexual reoffending:&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt; the reoffending rate for the treatment group was 2.0pp higher than the matched comparison group (10.0% vs. 8.0%);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Child image reoffending: the reoffending rate for the treatment group was 1.6pp higher (4.4% vs. 2.9%).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt; Proportion of offenders who committed at least one reoffence during the follow-up period&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sup&gt; 24&lt;/sup&gt; See &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/623876/sotp-report-web-.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A151%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2C68%2C771%2C0%5D&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Annex C&lt;/a&gt; for a description of the methods used to develop the parsimonious and less parsimonious models.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sup&gt; 25&lt;/sup&gt; Propensity score matching was performed in Stata with &lt;em&gt;psmatch2&lt;/em&gt; (Leuven and Sianesi, 2003). Although the statistical significance calculations in &lt;em&gt;psmatch2&lt;/em&gt; do not take account of the fact that the propensity scores themselves are estimated, very similar results were obtained using 95% CIs generated by bootstrapping, which does take account of propensity score estimation.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt; Unless otherwise stated, the sexual reoffending measure used in this report includes all sexual offences except breaches&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aMotU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aMotU.png&quot; alt=&quot;Table A.8&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The frequency of reoffending&lt;sup&gt;27&lt;/sup&gt; outcomes were also mostly equivalent between the matched groups (see Table A.9, parsimonious model), with statistically significant differences emerging only for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Sexual reoffending: the matched treatment group had 0.15 more reoffences per offender than the matched comparison group (0.59 vs. 0.45).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Adult other: the matched treatment group had 0.02 more reoffences per offender than the matched comparison group (0.04 vs. 0.02). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Non-sexual: the matched treatment group had 0.27 fewer reoffences per offender than the matched comparison group (0.98 vs. 1.25). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Non-sexual non-violent: the matched treatment group had 0.27 fewer reoffences per offender than the matched comparison group (0.92 vs. 1.19). This seems to ‘drive’ the above difference in the overall non-sexual frequency of reoffending.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sup&gt;27&lt;/sup&gt; The number of reoffences per offender during the follow-up period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/q7lC4.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/q7lC4.png&quot; alt=&quot;Table A.9&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;More can be found in:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forde, R. A. (2017). &lt;em&gt;Bad Psychology: How Forensic Psychology Left Science Behind&lt;/em&gt;. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dennis, J. A. &amp;amp; Khan, O., Ferriter, M., Huband, N., Powney, M. J. &amp;amp; Duggan, C. (2012). Psychological interventions for adults who have sexually offended or are at risk of offending. &lt;em&gt;Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews&lt;/em&gt; 12(1).&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007507.pub2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/14651858.CD007507.pub2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ho, D. K. (2015). Ineffective treatment of sex offenders fails victims. &lt;em&gt;British Medical Journal&lt;/em&gt; 350.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h199&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1136/bmj.h199&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25627560&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;25627560&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ho, D. K. &amp;amp; Ross, C. C. Cognitive behaviour therapy for sex offenders: too good to be true? &lt;em&gt;Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health&lt;/em&gt; 22(1), 1—6.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.1818&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/cbm.1818&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lösel, F. &amp;amp; Schmucker, M. (2005).The effectiveness of treatment for sexual offenders: a comprehensive meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Criminology&lt;/em&gt; 1(1), 117—46.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-004-6466-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s11292-004-6466-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mews, A. Bella, L. D. &amp;amp; Purver, M. (2017). Impact evaluation of the prison-based Core Sex Offender Treatment Programme [Free PDF]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/623877/sotp-report-print.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/623877/sotp-report-print.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-12-29T09:53:09.197" LastActivityDate="2019-12-29T09:53:09.197" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19139" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19151" CreationDate="2018-02-21T22:34:05.810" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the Temporal difference learning algorithm (TD-learning), an agent seeks to predict the total value of future rewards that will be received during the current trial. The agent updates the prediction as the trial progresses, based on conditioned stimuli (CS) that have been seen so far. Specifically, the prediction is calculated as a weighted sum of the intensities of past CS presentation. At time $t$, the prediction is calculated as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$v(t) = \sum_{z=0}^t w(z)u(t-z)$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where $v(t)$ is the prediction at time $t$, $u(t)$ is the CS intensity at time $t$, and $w$ is an array of weights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: why are we summing the terms $w(z)u(t-z)$, rather than $w(z)u(z)$, i.e. why isn't each weight associated with the CS strength at a particular time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Thanks to user honi's reply, I subsequently understood that each element of the weight array is associated with an elapsed time since seeing the CS. For example, $w(3)$ is the weight given to the CS strength experienced three units of time ago.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Original phrasing of the question: I am reading Theoretical Neuroscience by Dayan and Abbot, and I am confused by the use of $w(t)$ in equations (9.6) and (9.7). In the former, it is a window function (linear filter) and in the latter it is the weight function. Is this (a) an unfortunate use of the same name for two different things, or (b) is the weight function really used as a linear filter to calculate $v(t)$?]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4217" LastEditorUserId="16918" LastEditDate="2018-02-24T21:20:41.510" LastActivityDate="2018-02-24T21:20:41.510" Title="In TD learning, is the weight function used as a linear filter?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19140" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8575" CreationDate="2018-02-22T00:42:49.007" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627310001960?via%3Dihub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frontal Cortex and the Discovery of Abstract Action Rules&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by David Badre, Andrew S. Kayser, and MarkD'Esposito:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the rostro-caudal axis of frontal cortex support rule learning at&#xA;  higher levels of abstraction. Moreover, these results indicate that&#xA;  when humans confront new rule learning problems, this rostro-caudal&#xA;  division of labor supports the search for relationships between&#xA;  context and action at multiple levels of abstraction simultaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They found this by contrasting fMRI signals collected while the subject performed two tasks, one requiring a hierarchical, abstract rule and one requiring a flat, basic mapping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T00:42:49.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19141" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19135" CreationDate="2018-02-22T10:19:04.627" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I've been wondering if there was such a thing as developing some kind of physical or psychological dependence on things that relieve pain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes. However:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You need to be careful about your use of the word pain: opioids are analgesics, they relieve the subjective experience of pain. They're addictive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lignocaine is a local anaesthetic: it prevents &lt;em&gt;nociception&lt;/em&gt; or the sensory input that indicates the presence of a noxious stimulus. This in turn renders the relief of any pain unnecessary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More broadly, however, I was going to suggest that people can become addicted to unpleasant things, not because the unpleasant this is pleasant per se, but because the removal of said unpleasantness is relieving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A little tangential, but may be worth a read: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.10.011&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Are nonpharmacological induced rewards related to anhedonia? A study among skydivers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While we often hear about opioid addiction, which is primarily physical, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is where you've lost me. While opioid dependency is definitely characterised by physical features e.g. withdrawal syndrome, I think it's very inaccurate to consider it purely a &quot;physical&quot; dependency. If this were the case, then following a prolonged period of abstinence, there would be no concern of relapse -- the once dependent individual has no &quot;physical addiction&quot; to opioids to speak of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you would like to know the difference between &quot;physical&quot; dependency to opioids and &quot;physical and psychological&quot; dependency to opioids, I would suggest the following treatment schedule:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Take the OTC medication loperamide, which is an opioid agonist that cannot cross the BBB. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;1 week washout&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Take heroin every 8 hours for two weeks&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;1 week washout&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Report back if you noticed a difference between heroin and loperamide.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I wonder if someone could psychologically be hooked on using something like Lidocaine to numb every bruise or injury they get just to numb the pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, but not for the reasons you are thinking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Local anaesthetics act locally, and are the functional equivalent of a reversible lesion to the nerves they are acting on. Anything that an individual finds pleasant can become &quot;addicting&quot;, but with respect to lignocaine, it's prudent to note that if it were addictive, it would have nothing to do with any action centrally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I did hear that cocaine was once used as an anaesthetic, but it was also physically addicting. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cocaine is still used in ENT surgery, as it is an highly effective vasoconstricting agent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Its addictive properties, however, are largely thought to be limited to the &quot;psychological&quot; space. Yes, I state that in full appreciation for the above regarding physical. This is not to say that an individual does not have &quot;physical symptoms&quot; e.g. tiredness, but that these symptoms have a locus somewhere in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This makes me wonder if physical withdrawal and hunger cravings are similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One concept in neuroscience/neuropsychology is the &lt;em&gt;somatic marker hypothesis&lt;/em&gt; by Dimasio, which proposes that our behaviours/decisions are effectively guided by somatic, or physical sensations that are strongly linked to our emotions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, the body's need for food would instantiate a physiological state of discomfort that drives us behaviourally to seek food. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, the body's need for more IV heroin, would evince its own set of &quot;somatic markers&quot; likely to guide one's own behaviour towards the acquisition of more intravenous heroin. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geb.2004.06.010&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The somatic marker hypothesis: A neural theory of economic decision&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Modern economic theory ignores the influence of emotions on&#xA;  decision-making. Emerging neuroscience evidence suggests that sound&#xA;  and rational decision making, in fact, depends on prior accurate&#xA;  emotional processing. The somatic marker hypothesis provides a&#xA;  systems-level neuroanatomical and cognitive framework for&#xA;  decision-making and its influence by emotion. The key idea of this&#xA;  hypothesis is that decision-making is a process that is influenced by&#xA;  marker signals that arise in bioregulatory processes, including those&#xA;  that express themselves in emotions and feelings. This influence can&#xA;  occur at multiple levels of operation, some of which occur&#xA;  consciously, and some of which occur non-consciously. Here we review&#xA;  studies that confirm various predictions from the hypothesis, and&#xA;  propose a neural model for economic decision, in which emotions are a&#xA;  major factor in the interaction between environmental conditions and&#xA;  human decision processes, with these emotional systems providing&#xA;  valuable implicit or explicit knowledge for making fast and&#xA;  advantageous decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2018-02-22T10:49:22.717" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T10:49:22.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19142" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19135" CreationDate="2018-02-22T10:30:31.933" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Basing an answer strictly on the DSM-V criteria, local anesthetics &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt;, purely hypothetically, be associated with a mild form of addiction. But realistically, I think it is unlikely that a person (ab)using a topical anesthetic will ever be medically diagnosed as having a substance abuse disorder.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I think the question hinges on the definition of [drug] &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drug-abuse-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;addiction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The APA addresses &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.buppractice.com/node/12351&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;addiction in DSM-V&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; by the following criteria (entered in shortened form for brevity):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A minimum of 2-3 criteria is required for a &lt;strong&gt;mild substance use&#xA;  disorder&lt;/strong&gt; diagnosis, while 4-5 is moderate, and 6-7 is severe [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Taking the opioid in larger amounts and for longer than intended&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Wanting to cut down or quit but not being able to do it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Spending a lot of time obtaining the opioid&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Craving or a strong desire to use opioids&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Repeatedly unable to carry out major obligations at work, school, or home [...]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Continued use despite [...] social or interpersonal problems [...]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Stopping or reducing important social, occupational, or recreational activities [...]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Recurrent use of opioids in physically hazardous situations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Consistent use of opioids despite [...] physical or psychological difficulties [...]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;[Development of t]olerance [...]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;[Development of w]ithdrawal [symptoms]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast to opiates, &lt;a href=&quot;https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01929343&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;lidocaine has no rewarding or addictive properties&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. As a result, lidocaine can be used systemically and on a long-term basis for the treatment of chronic pain &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5561441/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Yousefshahi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2017)&lt;/a&gt;. In fact, lidocaine, has equally effective anelgesic effects in people addicted to opioids as in normal controls &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4231267/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hashemian &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2013)&lt;/a&gt;. Because lidocaine is a local anesthetic without central effects, and taken together with above findings, we can safely rule out the occurrence all of the criteria except, perhaps, the first three. Those first three may be, at least hypothetically, possible when topical or systemic application relieves some sort of untolerable pain. Given that meeting 3 criteria meets the definition of a mild substance abuse disorder (mild addiction), I wouldn't rule addiction to topical anesthetics out completely. It does seem unlikely, though.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cocaine has strong addicitve effects, because of it's pronounced effects in the central nervous system - it is associated with strong feelings of reward and euphoria. It rapidly induces tolerance as well as dependence; a school book example of a substance of abuse. Lidocaine is a cocaine derivative that still exhibits its anelgesic properties, without its psychoactive component &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20001286&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Small, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4231267/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hashemian &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Emerg Trauma Shock&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;7&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 301–4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20001286&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Small, &lt;em&gt;Subst Use Misuse&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;44&lt;/strong&gt;(13): 1888-98&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5561441/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yousefshahi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Anesth Pain Med&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;7&lt;/strong&gt;(3): e44732&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-02-22T12:38:49.833" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T12:38:49.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19143" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17770" CreationDate="2018-02-22T15:44:05.537" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are almost there.  The 5F (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fright/flight/fight/freeze/fawn&lt;/a&gt;) response to threats is an unconscious reflex which &lt;strong&gt;in brief&lt;/strong&gt; follows as &lt;strong&gt;Threat → Fear → Response&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With classical conditioning, this occurs when an unconditioned response (an unlearned reflex response e.g. salivation) is turned into a conditioned response (a learned reflex response) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;).  Therefore a conditioned response of fear would be consciously created initially through &lt;strong&gt;stimulus → fear → learned threat&lt;/strong&gt;, which after successful conditioning will change to the normal unconscious 5F response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The 5F (fright/flight/fight/freeze/fawn) response to threats&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see from the info-graphic below, The 5F (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fright/flight/fight/freeze/fawn response&lt;/a&gt;) to threats, is initiated from &lt;strong&gt;Threat → Brain Receiving Signals → Brain Reacts (Fright) → Cortisol and Adrenaline is released → Physical Reactions occur (see quote below) from the release of hormones → Bodily response (Fight, Flight, Freeze or Fawn)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UTm0g.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UTm0g.png&quot; alt=&quot;Fight Flight Response&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;(Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response#Reaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH. The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system. The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose. Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response. Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Acceleration of heart and lung action&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Paling or flushing, or alternating between both&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal action to the point where digestion slows down or stops&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;General effect on the sphincters of the body&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Liberation of metabolic energy sources (particularly fat and glycogen) for muscular action&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Dilation of blood vessels for muscles&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Inhibition of the lacrimal gland (responsible for tear production) and salivation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Dilation of pupil (mydriasis)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Relaxation of bladder&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Inhibition of erection&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Auditory exclusion (loss of hearing)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Disinhibition of spinal reflexes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Shaking.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;All of this occurs without conscious thought&lt;/strong&gt; as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflex_arc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;analysis of the signal doesn't takes place until after action has been taken&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Classical Conditioning&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With classical conditioning (also known as &lt;strong&gt;Pavlovian&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;respondent conditioning&lt;/strong&gt;), this occurs when an unconditioned response (an unlearned reflex response e.g. salivation) is turned into a conditioned response (a learned reflex response) after&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Usually, the conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a tuning fork), the unconditioned stimulus is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of food) and the unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response (e.g., salivation).&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A conditioned response of fear would initially be consciously created through &lt;strong&gt;stimulus → unpleasant sensation&lt;/strong&gt; maybe this will have to occur 2 - 3 times or more before the next stage which is &lt;strong&gt;learnt fear → learned threat&lt;/strong&gt;, which after successful conditioning will change to the normal unconscious 5F response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T15:44:05.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19144" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6520" CreationDate="2018-02-22T16:42:35.517" Score="2" Body="&lt;h2&gt;For print (Generally)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In his book Cashvertising, Drew Eric Whitman cites a 1986 study of fonts (printed on paper) that found only 12 percent of participants effectively comprehended a paragraph set in sans-serif type versus 67 percent who were given a version set in serif typeface ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a test of three different fonts, two serifs (Garamond and Times New Roman) and one sans serif (Helvetica), he found&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;66 percent were able to comprehend Garamond;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;31.5 percent Times New Roman, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;12.5 percent Helvetica&lt;br&gt;(out of a total of 1,010,000 people surveyed).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.awaionline.com/2011/10/the-best-fonts-to-use-in-print-online-and-email&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;On screen (Generally)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several observations can be made regarding the examined font types. First, no significant differences in reading efficiency were detected between the font types at any size. There were, however, significant differences in reading time. Generally, Times and Arial were read faster than Courier, Schoolbook, and Georgia. Fonts at the 12-point size were read faster than fonts at the 10-point size. In addition, a font type x size interaction was found for the perception of font legibility. In general, however, Arial, Courier, and Georgia were perceived as the most legible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For font attractiveness, Georgia was perceived as being more attractive than Arial, Courier, and Comic, while Times was perceived as more attractive than Courier. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://usabilitynews.org/a-comparison-of-popular-online-fonts-which-size-and-type-is-best&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bernard, et al. 2002&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;But it is not that simple&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dyslexia sufferers can have different requirements.  Most of the recommendations come from associations for people with dyslexia and they agree in using sans-serif fonts. The British Dyslexia Association recommends&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use Arial, Comic Sans or, as alternatives to these, Verdana, Tahoma, Century Gothic, and Trebuchet&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Most users prefer dark print on a pale background but colour preferences vary&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Avoid green and red/pink as these are difficult for colour-blind individuals. &lt;br&gt;(British Dyslexia Association, 2012).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Also&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://webaim.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebAIM&lt;/a&gt; also has articles and resources for those with accessibility in mind&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bernard, M. et al. (2002). &lt;em&gt;A Comparison of Popular Online Fonts: Which Size and Type is Best?&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;strong&gt;Wichita State University Software Usability and Research Laboratory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://usabilitynews.org/a-comparison-of-popular-online-fonts-which-size-and-type-is-best&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://usabilitynews.org/a-comparison-of-popular-online-fonts-which-size-and-type-is-best&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;British Dyslexia Association. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Dyslexia style guide&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/common/ckeditor/filemanager/userfiles/About_Us/policies/Dyslexia_Style_Guide.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/common/ckeditor/filemanager/userfiles/About_Us/policies/Dyslexia_Style_Guide.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-02-22T16:42:35.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19145" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-22T16:47:13.117" Score="4" ViewCount="758" Body="&lt;h3&gt;TL;DR What does double bookkeeping mean? +1 for sharing stories about your Tappy&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tappy (Talbott) has always been a tad odd, but who'd blame him, right? The guy took a whole bunch of tropane delieriants, then locked everyone out of his apartment, flipping out for reasons unknown, then in all the chaos, seriously cut an artery on the side of his head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, Tappy tells me that one term he picked up from his $350/hr psychiatrist is the concept of &amp;quot;doublebookkeeping&amp;quot; ... My impression is that it has to do with&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/double_bookkeeping&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;From wiki&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Double Bookkeeping.&lt;/strong&gt; The tendency, among those who experience delusions, to perceive reality and the delusions as both being real, while remaining unbothered by the discrepancy or inconsistencies between the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Isn't this description the same as the concept of reality testing? You may have weird things go on all around you, but it's not so much as &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;aliens are inserting thoughts into my mind&lt;/em&gt; as it is just merely a more open-minded approach to one's phenomenology: &amp;quot;It would appear &lt;em&gt;as&lt;/em&gt; though...&amp;quot; &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;aliens are doing this to me&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, within the context of psychistry, mental-health, or psychology, how might one interpret the term doublebookkeeping?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does it relate, if even only thematically, to the actual accounting concept of of double-entry bookkeeping?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;My alternative interpretation is that it means &amp;quot;take the raw crazy inside your head&amp;quot; (&amp;quot;insanity&amp;quot;), run it through a cultural appropriateness filter, process, shake, dress it up for mainstream consumption, and then release: hello outsanity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Or, do you reckon Tappy lied to me just to sound cool?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-03-11T10:59:23.813" Title="In psychiatry, what does double-bookkeeping mean?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19150" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19160" CreationDate="2018-02-23T00:10:17.340" Score="3" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rkRbebvoYqI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synesthetic person, also known as a synaesthete&lt;/a&gt;, see sounds even when that person is actually blind? If so how does the brain interpret a picture without a vision?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18509" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-24T13:56:46.917" LastActivityDate="2018-02-24T16:06:28.413" Title="Synesthesia hearing to see" Tags="&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19151" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19139" CreationDate="2018-02-23T01:15:04.363" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;They are the same in the two equations.  See equation 9.3:  v = w*u.  w and u are bolded in that equation to indicate that they are vectors.  In equation 9.3, they are vectors of simultaneously presented stimuli, but you can apply the same equation if u is a vector of a single stimulus over time and w are the weights of each time step of that stimulus.  Indeed, a linear filter is simply a way to weight different time steps of a time-varying input.  Note that v in equation 9.3 is a single value, whereas v in equation 9.6 is a function of t, i.e. it has a different value at each time point depending on what part of u is currently occurring. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2018-02-23T01:15:04.363" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19154" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-23T20:45:17.170" Score="1" ViewCount="391" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, having skimmed some studies on split-brain patients, it makes me wonder about the whole &quot;left-brain/right-brain&quot; dichotomy that made its rounds in public perception some time ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure how much of that is really good science, but it looks like there's some real truth to the different sides taking on different roles and cognitive abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing in particular I wonder about now, is can you map Carl Jung's concept of Anima (I'll refer to the Anima, but what I have to say applies to Animus, as well) onto the right half of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jung's idea of Anima was essentially the male brain's mental image of &quot;the typical woman&quot;. Thus it would posses typically feminine traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the right half of the brain is associated with creativity, emotional response to (ie, recognizing) faces, and is more typically &quot;feminine&quot;, would it be possible to devise an experiment with MRI to see if invoking the anima fires more neural activity on the right half of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Say, have a subject describe &quot;the typical woman&quot; and watch activity, have them describe &quot;the typical man&quot; and some other controls to also invoke creativity and see how the neural activity compares? See if when men don a dress, their right-brain fires more activity than if they just don any other unfamiliar clothing (a hospital gown or a robe are gender-neutral but may also be unfamiliar enough to control for that part alone)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a very roundabout way of asking, but hopefully the questions kind of highlight the underlying question; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in terms of Jungian Psychology, is it reasonable to hypothesize that you could split the hemispheres of the brain into &quot;persona&quot; and &quot;Anima&quot; as &quot;left&quot; and &quot;right&quot;? (and perhaps reversed for Persona and Animus)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interesting thing is that this leads to a testable hypothesis perhaps some people here already know the answer to: Is there any link between gender dysphoria and right-brain dominance? If there is, that would seem to support that hypothesis that the left hemisphere generally takes the masculine identity and the right houses the Anima (in general, though I would expect if the Anima exists as a largely separate neural network (or combined set of networks) that it would probably at least share a little activity on the left hemisphere).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18526" LastEditorUserId="18526" LastEditDate="2018-02-23T21:09:52.030" LastActivityDate="2018-03-22T10:05:51.147" Title="Jung's Anima and Neurological Basis in Split-Brain Patients; Left-Persona and Right-Anima" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19156" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-23T23:23:32.373" Score="2" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do memories ever cease to exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, did the memories I had 20 years go (which I can't remember) disappear? If a machine that could access and show memories existed, could it bring back those 20 year old memories, or are they gone for ever? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18529" LastActivityDate="2018-02-23T23:23:32.373" Title="Do memories cease to exist?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-02-28T09:51:46.073" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19158" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-24T11:08:02.087" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;Tamar Gendler proposed &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pgrim.org/philosophersannual/pa28articles/gendleraliefbelief.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a distinction between the concept of &quot;belief&quot; and &quot;alief&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, &quot;belief&quot; being the more commonly held, intuitive conception of a certain type of propositional attitude and &quot;alief&quot; being a more subconscious or &quot;primitive&quot; mental state. She argues that, for example, while someone might have a belief that standing on top of a glass floor above the Grand Canyon is safe, they usually have a more primitive alief that they are very high above the ground and it is not safe for them to be standing there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since her proposal of the distinction, has there been any neuroimaging or other neuroscientific techniques implemented in a study to outline if there is a neuro-physiological difference between belief and alief? She argues that alief usually involves behavioral response patterns (anxiety being the example used in the Grand Canyon example) but has there been any research done to show any other distinctions between the neurological processes that play a role in belief? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14559" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-24T16:13:18.353" LastActivityDate="2018-02-24T16:13:18.353" Title="Has there been any substantive neuroimaging done to study Gendler's belief/alief distinction?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19159" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-24T13:25:08.753" Score="3" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read a book about sensory perception in ASD from Olga Bogdashina(Sensory Perceptual Issues in Autism and Asperger Syndrome, Second Edition).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She reffer to some kind of filter in sensory inputs, but Whats Is exacly that filter ? How it can be dameged in persons with autism? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18509" LastEditorUserId="18509" LastEditDate="2018-03-07T08:43:24.853" LastActivityDate="2018-03-07T11:21:05.303" Title="Filter of perception" Tags="&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19160" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19150" CreationDate="2018-02-24T15:40:05.717" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In order for your 2 questions to be answered I have taken each question in turn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Can a synaesthete see sounds even when that person is actually blind?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bbe9/4df8e45b9ad5693867cae6ac623182f8bbeb.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Steven &amp;amp; Blakemore (2004)&lt;/a&gt;, there seems to be 2 forms of visual synaesthesia which blind people can experience.  That is &lt;strong&gt;Coloured-Braille synaesthesia&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;strong&gt;Coloured-hearing synaesthesia for letters, numbers, and words (including time-related words)&lt;/strong&gt; This is also known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia#Chromesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chromesthesia&lt;/a&gt; (see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Wikipedia Article&lt;/a&gt;).  All quotes below are from Steven &amp;amp; Blakemore's study article, and there is one point of note with the study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The synaesthesia described by our subjects is most likely idiopathic (ie of early onset, as opposed to acquired after blindness) because all of them report having had synaesthesia for as long as they can remember (ie from prior to the onset of blindness). Furthermore, three of the six subjects have one or more first-degree relatives who are sighted and have synaesthesia (suggesting a genetic aetiology for the phenomenon)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't come across any study where people blind from birth can experience synaesthesia, yet it doesn't mean it cannot happen.  The question then of course would be how the colours could be relayed to someone studying the case as the person blind from birth would not have any colour references to go by.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Coloured-Braille synaesthesia&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is where the blind person sees colours whilst reading Braile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One subject, JF, reports experiencing coloured Braille. For JF, the tactile sensation of each Braille character immediately evokes a synaesthetic impression of an array of tiny coloured dots, &quot;like an LED display&quot;, corresponding to the Braille character. However, he does not see colours when he feels other textures or objects with his fingers, nor when he touches dots arranged in shapes or spatial arrangements not related to Braille.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Coloured-hearing synaesthesia (also known as *Chromesthesia* or sound-to-colour synesthesia&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is where heard sounds automatically and involuntarily evoke an experience of colour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;All six of our subjects have coloured hearing for words relating to time (throughout this paper, 'time' refers to days of the week and months of the year, but not to hours, minutes, or seconds). Some have coloured hearing for all words and many have coloured hearing for spoken letters and numbers. Furthermore, several subjects also see these percepts as vague shapes, forming spatially localised patterns in their &quot;mind's eye&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coloured-hearing synaesthesia seems to be different in each of the cases in Steven &amp;amp; Blakemore's study, including how with JF,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When JF moves his eyes or head from left to right, his colours remain stable in space, but if he rotates his whole body, the array of colours moves with him. Hence the synaesthetic phantoms are body-centred, not oculocentric or head-centred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would recommend reading this study article as I found it interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;How does the brain interpret a picture without a vision?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that synaesthetes see colours because the visual cortex is stimulated by the sensation which triggered it. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bbe9/4df8e45b9ad5693867cae6ac623182f8bbeb.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Steven &amp;amp; Blakemore, 2004&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a single-subject fMRI study, Aleman and colleagues (2001) reported significant activation of human striate cortex when a synaesthete experienced illusory colours in response to hearing words. An earlier positron emission tomography (PET) study, however, had shown activation of visual-association cortex but not primary visual cortex in coloured-word synaesthesia (Paulesu et al 1995). Nunn et al (2002) recently supported this conclusion with their finding that cortical areas thought to be involved specifically in colour analysis (V4/V8), but not earlier visual areas, are activated when coloured-hearing synaesthetes listen to spoken words. Despite some differences in these results, it seems clear that parts of the visual cortex are activated when synaesthetes experience spurious visual sensations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As long as there is no damage to the visual cortex, if other conditions are set for it within the brain connections, all that is needed is the correct stimulation within the visual cortex for colours to be seen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sadato et al (1996), using PET, demonstrated that the visual cortex is activated when (non-synaesthetic) late-blind subjects read Braille, and others have reported activity in visual areas during non-Braille tactile discrimination in the blind (Büchel et al 1998; Burton et al 2002). Not only was primary visual cortex activated during Braille reading in the blind, but extrastriate cortex was also activated, including areas in the fusiform gyrus with Talairach coordinates corresponding to V4, which normally processes colour vision in sighted subjects (Burton 2003; Burton et al 2002). Again, this unusual visual cortical activation appears to be functionally significant, since TMS of the primary visual cortex has been shown to disrupt the ability to read Braille (Cohen et al 1997; note that TMS of V4 is not currently feasible), and it might somehow account for the fact that tactile acuity is enhanced in blindness (Goldreich and Kanics 2003)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Steven M. S., &amp;amp; Blakemore C. (2004). Visual synaesthesia in the blind. &lt;em&gt;Perception&lt;/em&gt; 33(7), 855-68&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15460512&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;15460512&lt;/a&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1068/p5160&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1068/p5160&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free PDF&lt;/strong&gt; available from &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bbe9/4df8e45b9ad5693867cae6ac623182f8bbeb.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;semanticscholar.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References in quotes from Steven &amp; Blakemore (2004)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Aleman A, Rutten G-J M, Sitskoorn M M, Dautzenberg G, Ramsey N F, 2001 &quot;Activation of striate cortex in the absence of visual stimulation: an fMRI study of synesthesia&quot; &lt;em&gt;NeuroReport&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;12&lt;/strong&gt; 2827—2830&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Büchel C, Price C, Frackowiak R S, Friston K, 1998 &quot;Different activation patterns in the visual cortex of late and congenitally blind subjects&quot; &lt;em&gt;Brain&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;121&lt;/strong&gt; 409—419&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Burton H, Snyder A Z, Conturo T E, Akbudak E, Ollinger J M, Raichle M E, 2002 &quot;Adaptive changes in early and late blind: a fMRI study of Braille reading&quot; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Neurophysiology&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;87&lt;/strong&gt; 589—607&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Burton H, 2003 &quot;Visual cortex activity in early and late blind people&quot; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;23&lt;/strong&gt; 4005—4011&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cohen L G, Celnik P, Pascual-Leone A, Corwell B, Faiz L, Dambrosia J, Honda M, Sadato N, Gerloff C, Catala M D, Hallett M, 1997 ``Functional relevance of cross-modal plasticity in blind humans&quot; &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;389&lt;/strong&gt; 180—183&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Goldreich D, Kanics I M, 2003 &quot;Tactile acuity is enhanced in blindness&quot; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;23&lt;/strong&gt; 3439—3445&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nunn J A, Gregory L J, Brammer M, Williams S C R, Parslow D M, Morgan M J, Morris R G, Bullmore E T, Baron-Cohen S, Gray J A, 2002 &quot;Functional magnetic resonance imaging of synesthesia: activation of V4/V8 by spoken words&quot; &lt;em&gt;Nature Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt; 371—375&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Paulesu E, Harrison J, Baron-Cohen S, Watson J D, Goldstein L, Heather J, Frackowiak R S, Frith C D, 1995 &quot;The physiology of coloured hearing: A Positron Emission Tomography activation study of coloured-word synaesthesia&quot; &lt;em&gt;Brain&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;118&lt;/strong&gt; 661—676&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sadato N, Pascual-Leone A, Grafman J, Ibanez V, Deiber M P, Dold G, Hallett M, 1996 &quot;Activation of primary visual cortex by Braille reading in blind subjects&quot; &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;380&lt;/strong&gt; 562—568&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-24T16:06:28.413" LastActivityDate="2018-02-24T16:06:28.413" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19161" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17429" CreationDate="2018-02-25T04:39:23.627" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider, a &lt;em&gt;normal IQ score&lt;/em&gt; falls between the range 85-115 which is approximately 70% of the population (and only 15% of people have an IQ of 115 or above), while an &lt;em&gt;extended average IQ range&lt;/em&gt; tends to encompass those between 80-119 which is &quot;x&quot;% of the population. In order to qualify for the &lt;em&gt;International High IQ Society&lt;/em&gt;, one must have an IQ of 125 or above, while entry into &lt;em&gt;Mensa&lt;/em&gt; (a High IQ organization that represents the upper 2% of the population) requires an IQ of 2 standard deviations above average (or 130 and above). For the lower end of the bell curve, this will be explored later on in the post (as well as a more proper breakdown of the rest of the distribution).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Now, what do these numbers mean?&lt;/em&gt; That is, in principle, what can one do with a 100 IQ? It turns out, many studies have been done linking average IQ scores to completion of College Majors, SAT scores, and GRE (set aside the problematic elements for a moment, of which we can explore later). As for College Majors, studies have revealed a strong correlation for between those who go far into/complete specific college majors and IQ. The breakdown is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Top End of Spectrum&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Physics &amp;amp; Astronomy (133)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Mathematical Sciences (130)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Philosophy (129)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Materials Engineering (129)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Economics (128)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Chemical Engineering (128)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Other Engineering (128)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Mechanical Engineering (126)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bottom End of Spectrum&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Administration (107)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Home Economics (106)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Special (106)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Student Counseling (105)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Early Childhood (104)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Social Work (103)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to attend College and be successful, it was found that an IQ of 110-115 is standardly required. Now, if a person with a 110-115 IQ attempted to be a Physics &amp;amp; Astronomy major, it has been found that they would quickly run into trouble and likely have to drop out (or fail out) early on. However, they would be successful at other college majors, some of which were listed previously. Then, an individual with a 100 base IQ has been shown to not (currently) be able to attend college successfully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To put this in practical terms, lets take the example of those with an IQ 2 standard deviations from the norm in the adult population (2% of the population), or Physics &amp;amp; Astronomy combined with Mathematical Sciences Majors (closely followed by Philosophy and certain Engineering Majors, but we will limit our discussion to those past the threshold). This indicates that if we took a random sampling of 100 adults, approximately 2 would have a mind currently capable of the &quot;brain power&quot; necessary to do Complex Analysis or Statistical Mechanics (which is in-line with Senior level Physics or Math major cognitive abilities). As for what a 110 IQ would look like in practical terms, such a person would (currently) struggle tremendously to get a Political Science degree if they were able to attain it at all (IQ 120), while they would be able to get a degree in Business (114), Education (110), ect. See list here for more details: &lt;a href=&quot;https://thetab.com/us/2017/04/10&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://thetab.com/us/2017/04/10&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, IQ links to Standardized Tests such as the SAT and GRE are quite interesting as well--let us proceed with investigating the case of SAT scores. We will use the 1600 score standard (Note: a link to conversions between 2400 to 1600 score standards will be provided under Sources if one were curious). Consider, a score of 925 on the SAT (is claimed) to translate to a base 100 IQ. Here is an outline mapping out key points on the Bell Curve:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;IQ, SAT, Meaning&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;55, 400, Trainable Moderate Mental Retardation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;66, 525, Mild Mental Retardation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;75, 630, Borderline Mental Retardation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;87, 775, Dull&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;100, 935, Average&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;113, 1100, Bright&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;120, 1200, Very Bright&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;130, 1310, Extremely Bright&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;141, 1445, Briliant&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;151, 1575, Very Brilliant&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For convenience, a few figures converted to the 2400 point scale (conversion chart here- &lt;a href=&quot;https://blog.prepscholar.com/new&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://blog.prepscholar.com/new&lt;/a&gt;... ):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;IQ, SAT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;75, 820&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;87, 1020&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;100, 1260&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;113, 1510&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;120, 1670&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;130, 1840&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;141, 2070&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;151, 2340&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Note: There are various IQ scales, some reach to numbers higher well higher to this, this is a Standard Scales, others could be used with similar (though varying in extent) results]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Follow this link to find an IQ Reference Table which outlines IQ ranges and typical corresponding abilities: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.easycalculation.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.easycalculation.com/&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below is a transcription of the outline (IQ range, Category, Typical Ability):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;0-24&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Profound Mental Retardation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Limited or no ability to communicate, eat, bath, dress and toilet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;25-39&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Severe Mental Retardation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Limited ability to communicate, eat, bath, dress and toilet. No academic skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;40-54&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moderate Mental Retardation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some independent self-help skills and very basic academic skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;55-69&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mild Mental Retardation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually able to dress/bath independently and can do simple jobs. Elementary school academics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;70-79&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Border Line&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;May live independently with difficulties. Can perform simple and repetitive jobs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;6&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;80-89&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Low Average&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can complete vocational education and live independently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;7&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;90-109&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Average&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can complete high school graduation and college with difficulty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;8&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;110-119&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;High Average&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typical level of college graduates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;9&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;120-129&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Superior&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typical level of persons with doctoral degrees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;10&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;130-144&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gifted&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Capable of understanding highly, complex academic material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;11&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;145-159&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Genius&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;intellectual ability and capable of looking beyond known facts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;12&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;160-175&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extraordinary genius&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extraordinary talent like Albert Einstein&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;www.jstor.org.pitt.idm.oclc.org/stable/40064304?pq-origsite=summon&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/12/04/why-should-sats-matter/the-sat-is-a-good-intelligence-test&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/12/04/why-should-sats-matter/the-sat-is-a-good-intelligence-test&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://open.lib.umn.edu/intropsyc/chapter/9-1-defining-and-measuring-intelligence/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://open.lib.umn.edu/intropsyc/chapter/9-1-defining-and-measuring-intelligence/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;open.lib.umn.edu/intropsyc/chapter/9-2-the-social-cultural-and-political-aspects-of-intelligence/&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;open.lib.umn.edu/intropsyc/chapter/9-4-chapter-summary/&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18214" LastEditorUserId="18214" LastEditDate="2018-02-25T21:56:48.883" LastActivityDate="2018-02-25T21:56:48.883" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19164" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19170" CreationDate="2018-02-25T07:39:59.883" Score="0" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why am I sometimes extremely astonished &lt;strong&gt;with no reason&lt;/strong&gt; when I doze, especially I am really exhausted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I am tired and doze, I am sometimes stunned so suddenly that my whole body shakes and punches things in front, messing evrything placed in front of me. (e.g. a cup with cocoa drink, pencilcase which was open.. etc , about twice a year)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any scientific reason for it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18480" LastEditorUserId="18480" LastEditDate="2018-03-01T00:23:09.810" LastActivityDate="2018-03-01T00:23:09.810" Title="Why am I sometimes astonished when I doze" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-02-28T09:51:53.723" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19165" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19168" CreationDate="2018-02-25T10:01:06.437" Score="2" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for the most reliable and widely used tests for attention measurement in autistic persons. Can anybody help me to find such tests? I have read about some IQ tests including DAS, WASI and their sub-tests, however I didn't find any related sub-test to attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18539" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-02-25T15:55:25.760" LastActivityDate="2018-02-25T16:48:07.010" Title="Test to evaluate attention in Autism" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19168" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19165" CreationDate="2018-02-25T16:48:07.010" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;You don't say what language you want the tests to be in, so I'm assuming English.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the book &lt;em&gt;Evidence-Based Assessment in ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder)&lt;/em&gt;, author Kenneth J. Aitken &quot;describes and analyses a wide range of available Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) assessment measures&quot;. The chapter on &quot;Attention&quot; lists the following tests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conners' Continuous Auditory Test of Attention (CATA)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conners' Continuous Performance Test II - Third Revision (CCPT 3)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;d2 Test of Attention (d2)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sustained Attention to Response Test (SART)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Test of Everyday Attention (TEA)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA-Ch)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Test for Variables of Attention - 8th Edition 2015 (TOVA-8.2)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book also explains what kind of attention each test assesses, why the test is useful in relation to Autism, and research findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may want to check your local university or public library to look into a copy of that book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many widely used, valid, and reliable tests of attention that an experienced clinician or researcher can use to assess attention in a patient with Autism. Just open any recent handbook or textbook on either attention or Autism and see what measures they use and describe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18541" LastActivityDate="2018-02-25T16:48:07.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19170" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19164" CreationDate="2018-02-25T17:25:00.293" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you are awake, the muscles in your body are always at least a little tense to keep your body in your current position. Even when you lie down (while awake) you will usually not be completely relaxed, but holding yourself &quot;in place&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you begin to fall asleep, your muscles relax, and depending on the position you were in, part of your body will follow gravity and begin to sink from the &quot;tense&quot; wakeful position into a relaxed posture. Your body notices this involuntary movement of your body parts (you may even dream of a falling sensation or some movement) and startle you awake, often with a sudden countermovement to &quot;catch&quot; what your subconscious perceives to be a dangerous &quot;fall&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you fall asleep at your desk, as you seem to do, you may well knock over something on the table in front of you, when your arms jerk forward to prevent you from falling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It happens to all of us, except that most of us go to bed to sleep ;-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18541" LastActivityDate="2018-02-25T17:25:00.293" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19173" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-26T10:49:32.217" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on clinical data collected using different brain imaging, researchers build a mathematical model of the activity of the human brain like the hemodynamic model (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10988040&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Friston, 2000&lt;/a&gt;) that describes the changes in blood flow and blood oxygenation during brain function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we need to build and calibrate models and what is the main impact and significance of constructing and identification of the models that describe the human brain function in neuroscience field?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Friston, K.J., Mechelli, A., Price, C.J., &amp;amp; Turner, R. (2000). Nonlinear responses in fMRI: the Balloon model, Volterra kernels, and other hemodynamics. &lt;em&gt;NeuroImage&lt;/em&gt;, 12(4), 466—77.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2000.0630&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1006/nimg.2000.0630&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10988040&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10988040&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18550" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-02-26T16:51:46.420" LastActivityDate="2018-02-26T16:51:46.420" Title="Why we construct and estimate human brain models?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-04-17T09:15:01.213" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19174" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16870" CreationDate="2018-02-26T15:43:20.147" Score="5" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Quick (short answer)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, Calhoon did not account for genetic diversity in his experiments outlined in your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Full answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading the article you mentioned, Calhoun (1962) started with wild Norway Rats, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_rat&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;also referred to as&lt;/a&gt; common rats, brown rats, street rats, sewer rats, or Hanover rats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I confined a population of wild Norway rats in a quarter-acre enclosure. 'With an abundance of food and places to live and with predation and disease eliminated or minimized, only the animals' behavior with respect to one another remained as a factor that might affect the increase in their number. There could be no escape from the behavioral consequences of rising population density. By the end of 27 months the population had become stabilized at 150 adults. Yet adult mortality was so low that 5,000 adults might have been expected from the observed reproductive rate. The reason this larger population did not materialize was that infant mortality was extremely high. Even with only 150 adults in the enclosure, stress from social interaction led to such disruption of maternal behavior that few young survived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then he turned to a domesticated albino strain of the Norway rat under more controlled circumstances indoors, and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The data for the present discussion come from the histories of six different populations. Each was permitted to increase to approximately twice the number that my experience had indicated could occupy the available space with only moderate stress from social interaction. In each case my associates and I maintained close surveillance of the colonies for 16 months in order to obtain detailed records of the modifications of behavior induced by population density.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is very little genetic variation in brown rats (Ness, et al. 2012), no matter where in the world you collect them (Ness, 2013). Therefore, apart from the fact that the article was discussing data on a &lt;strong&gt;domesticated albino strain&lt;/strong&gt; of the Norway rat, all the experiments mentioned used brown rats.  There were no black rats, mole rats, or any other kinds of rat used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Calhoun, J.B. (1962). Population density and social pathology. &lt;em&gt;Scientific American&lt;/em&gt;, 206, 139—48.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ness, R. W., Zhang, Y.-H., Cong, L., Wang, Y., Zhang, J.-X., &amp;amp; Keightley, P. D. (2012). Nuclear Gene Variation in Wild Brown Rats. G3: Genes|Genomes|Genetics, 2(12), 1661—1664.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.112.004713&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1534/g3.112.004713&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3516487/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3516487&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ness, R. (2013). Genetic diversity of wild brown rats [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://sites.utm.utoronto.ca/ness/blog/01182016-1515/genetic-diversity-wild-brown-rats&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://sites.utm.utoronto.ca/ness/blog/01182016-1515/genetic-diversity-wild-brown-rats&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-02-26T15:43:20.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19180" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-27T22:09:48.970" Score="4" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;In some programming languages type of variable goes before it's name.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In another - name goes first and then type.&#xA;For example if I declare string:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;code&gt;String s = &quot;some string&quot;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Or&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;code&gt;val s: String = &quot;some string&quot;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Which version loads brain less and allow easier think about problem ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18570" LastActivityDate="2018-02-27T22:09:48.970" Title="Which is easier for human perception: type of variable before or after its name?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19184" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-28T13:54:07.613" Score="4" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of people are writing that Facebook and other social media sites cause users to be addicted by serving up well timed dopamine kicks in response to interactions. I was searching for any sort of formal proof for this claim like a study of some sort but havent found anything. Is such a claim even provable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18578" LastActivityDate="2018-02-28T13:54:07.613" Title="Facebook dopamine kick - any proof?" Tags="&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19185" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-02-28T21:12:43.673" Score="1" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;This picture summarizes &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospect_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;prospect theory&lt;/a&gt; by Daniel Kahneman. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9AQ0i.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9AQ0i.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;prospect theory plot&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at the gains part: The slope of the graph is getting smaller. I can understand this: If I own a million, then adding 100 euro's isn't as impactful as when I own only 1 euro.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is about the losses part: Here also the slope of the graph is getting smaller away from the reference point. This implies that if someone would either lose 100 euro or have a 50% chance of losing 200 euro, he would go for the gamble and become risk seeking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But to me this doesn't make intuitive sense for two reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If I am loss-averse, which I am, then why would I take a gamble with my second 100 euro's? I would look at it as if I already lost 100 euros and then I can take the gamble of 50% of winning 100 euro or 50% losing another 100 euro. Since I am loss-averse I would not take the bet.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Let's say I only own 200 euro in total: in that case I would definately want to hold on to my last 100 euro, since then I can at least pay for the rent. In other words, the utility of my last 100 euro is way bigger than the utility of my second-last 100 euro. But this is not represented in the slope.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone explain to me why according to Kahneman the slope of the losses-part diminishes away from the reference point?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16744" LastEditorUserId="16744" LastEditDate="2018-02-28T23:06:09.743" LastActivityDate="2018-03-01T08:05:32.257" Title="Intuition behind loss quadrant of prospect theory" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19187" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19185" CreationDate="2018-03-01T08:05:32.257" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Prospect theory states that people make decisions based on the potential value of losses and gains rather than the final outcome, and that people evaluate these losses and gains using certain heuristics (risk potentials) - &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospect_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you look at Prospect theory graphs, you need to remember that it is all about &lt;strong&gt;perceived potentials&lt;/strong&gt;. (Perceived potential gains/losses against the perceived potential value).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's look at the logic to start with. If the potential value of the prospective task is negative, &lt;strong&gt;it is perceived&lt;/strong&gt; that the outcome result has a higher potential to be negative (loss); and the opposite is true also.  If the potential value of the prospective task is positive, &lt;strong&gt;it is perceived&lt;/strong&gt; the outcome result has a higher potential to be positive (win or gain).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now with the logic in place, more potential loss perceived will result in a perceived potential of a more negative outcome and more potential gain perceived will result in a perceived potential of higher gains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The line crosses the $0,0$ $x,y$ axes because it is perceieved that a zero potential value will result in zero loss or gain and the potential losses increase as you move nagatively away from the $0,0$ reference point, and the losses diminish as you move positively away from the $0,0$ reference point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you also have to factor the probability of win or lose into the equation.  With low expactation of any gains (low perceived value) it doesn't matter if you win or lose, it is perceived that you are going to lose overall.  With high expectation of gains, (high perceived value), you need to have a win in order to achieve the gain perceived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you also rotate the graph, you get this&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PU8l1.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PU8l1.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;original graph rotated&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-03-01T08:05:32.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19190" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-01T20:29:44.783" Score="4" ViewCount="873" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read in some websites that the percentage of the cortex devoted to processing visual information is from 30-66% with some claiming even 90%. And compared to that, only about 3% is dedicated to hearing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only source I've found stating something similar is from &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9394(57)90012-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sells &amp;amp; Fixott (1957)&lt;/a&gt; where 50% of the&#xA;neural tissue is devoted to vision and almost two-thirds of the&#xA;electrical activity of the brain is devoted to vision when the eyes are open.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't found anything related to hearing though. Does anyone know of a paper where this is discussed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sells, S.B. &amp;amp; Fixott, R. S. (1957). Evaluation of Research on Effects of Visual Training on Visual Functions. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Ophthalmology&lt;/em&gt; 44(2), 230—236&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9394(57)90012-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0002-9394(57)90012-0&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13911" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-03-02T18:14:06.567" LastActivityDate="2019-09-12T15:03:05.433" Title="Proportion of cortex dedicated for vision and hearing" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19193" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19194" CreationDate="2018-03-03T02:02:36.933" Score="2" ViewCount="2132" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading &quot;Thinking Fast &amp;amp; Slow,&quot; by Daniel Kahneman. At the end of Chapter 9, he introduces the &quot;Affect Heuristic,&quot; a concept introduced by &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7f12/9787664da49795bc3ecd517c86b31d17bac7.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paul Slovic&lt;/a&gt; that effectively states that people let their likes and dislikes determine their beliefs about the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Isn't this just an extension of confirmation bias - e.g. that people look for confirming evidence when evaluating ideas? It seems obvious that if you like something or dislike a concept, you'll search for evidence to affirm your preexisting position. For example - if I was a conservative and I learned of a bill introduced by a liberal politician, I'd naturally make the assumption that the bill is misguided and search for evidence to confirm that assumption (and vice-versa).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the difference between them? I'm having trouble defining the &quot;Affect Heuristic&quot; clearly in my mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18593" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-03T07:52:12.770" LastActivityDate="2018-03-07T10:59:25.503" Title="What's the difference between Confirmation Bias and the Affect Heuristic?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19194" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19193" CreationDate="2018-03-03T09:07:18.757" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favour, and recall information in a way that confirms pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WikiPedia&lt;/a&gt;; Plous, 1993)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The affect heuristic is a mental shortcut that allows people to make decisions, and solve problems quickly and efficiently, in which current emotion - fear, pleasure, surprise, etc. - influences decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In other words, it is a type of heuristic in which emotional response, or &quot;affect&quot; in psychological terms, plays a lead role. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WikiPedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or in the words of Slovic,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As used here, ‘‘affect’’ means the specific quality of ‘‘goodness’’ or ‘‘badness’’ (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2005.04.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Slovic, et al. 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They can sound similar, and in a way they can be; but generally they are different.  With confirmation bias, I would be looking for something to back up a belief I &lt;em&gt;“know”&lt;/em&gt; is correct, while I may or may not like this belief, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;it is the only correct answer!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is different to the affect heuristic, where I don’t like the proposition put forward by others and so I am going to look for evidence to back the ideas I like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;--Edit for further clarification after comment--&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could say&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You can search for evidence to confirm something is right if you believe it's right, and you can search for evidence to confirm something is wrong if you believe it's wrong&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and that is true.  That would be Confirmation Bias if you are searching purely for evidence to prove your &lt;strong&gt;belief based on what is known&lt;/strong&gt;.  Let's look at the difference in another way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Scenario where there are two opposing points of view ($X$ and $Y$).&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$X$ has a conclusion based on plenty of evidence which is corroborated by many unbiased studies.&lt;br&gt;$Y$ has a conclusion which is also based on plenty of studies which corroborates each other.&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;However&lt;/strong&gt;, there were flaws in some studies and others were biased due to undeclared financial interests with some participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;When there is no bias&lt;/strong&gt;, you are completely open minded and you would be taking an unbiased viewpoint on the evidence presented, therefore it would be fair to assume that $X$ is true and $Y$ is false.  When looking for more evidence, you are looking for evidence for and against both $X$ and $Y$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;When there is &lt;em&gt;Pure&lt;/em&gt; Confirmation Bias, you totally accept&lt;/strong&gt; $X$ being true, and it fits with your beliefs and way of life, and when looking for more evidence, you are looking to strengthen that truth with more evidence to back $X$ and more evidence to refute $Y$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;When there is Confirmation Bias with Affect Heuristics&lt;/strong&gt;, this can be where you don't like viewpoint $X$ because it doesn't fit with your beliefs.  You can accept $X$ being true, but there is the counteracting wish for $Y$ to be true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There can be affect heuristics involved when looking for any strong counteracting evidence, yet you are still accepting that $X$ is true, so whilst looking for counteracting evidence, you are also looking for evidence confirming $X$.  You could be forgiven for thinking that this is unbiased research, but it is not unbiased, because you wish for $Y$ to be true as you have a vested interest in $Y$ but you also accept $X$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;When there are &lt;em&gt;pure&lt;/em&gt; Affect Heuristics, you cannot accept&lt;/strong&gt; $X$ as true because of your beliefs, or because it adversely affects your way of life, and when looking for more evidence, you are looking for evidence to back $Y$ and plenty of evidence to refute $X$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plous, S. (1993). &lt;em&gt;The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making.&lt;/em&gt; New York: McGraw-Hill p.233&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E., MacGregor, D. G. (2007). The affect heuristic. &lt;em&gt;European Journal of Operational Research&lt;/em&gt; 177(3),1333–1352&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2005.04.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.ejor.2005.04.006&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-07T10:59:25.503" LastActivityDate="2018-03-07T10:59:25.503" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19196" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6351" CreationDate="2018-03-03T13:04:59.837" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Preamble&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, I would like to point out that hypnosis, and therefore hypnotherapy, is generally considered pseudo-scientific within the scientific community and therefore this question can be classed as off-topic here by some.  However, there are trained and licensed hypnotherapists who share the same question on whether or not to use hypnotherapy on patients diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.time-to-change.org.uk/blog/hypnotherapist-mental-health-discrimination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Leach, 2013&lt;/a&gt;), so I will provide some background to my answer with some research available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Is hypnotherapy suitable for Bipolar Disorder?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Switches into mania have been observed in unipolar and bipolar depressed patients following physical treatments as well as cognitive therapy. Such a phenomenon has not been observed with hypnotherapy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2972454/pdf/IJPsy-36-34.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Suresh &amp;amp; Srinivasan, 1994 - Introduction&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suresh &amp;amp; Srinivasan studied the possibility of hypnotherapy being used to help Bipolar Disorder with a patient suffering from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysthymia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dysthymic Disorder&lt;/a&gt; (now called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/persistent-depressive-disorder-dysthymic-disorder.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Persistent Depressive Disorder&lt;/a&gt;) which is less acute and severe than major depressive disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Three sessions of hypnotherapy were given over a period of one week. Ventilation of her negative self evaluations and use of positive suggestions to improve her self esteem and ego strength was done during each session under first stage of hypnosis. Neither deep level of hypnosis nor hypnoanalysis was attempted. After the initial sessions, the patient was instructed to practice self-hypnosis once a day using an audio cassette with a recording of the last session by the therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A point to note with this study is that &lt;strong&gt;hypnotherapy was advised for the patient as she did not prefer drug therapy&lt;/strong&gt; and there were major problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;At the end of one week she presented with a cheerful mood and improved self-esteem, confidence and energy with no depressive symptoms. Her child was concurrently treated and had by then returned to school. Self-hypnosis was continued and ten days later her spouse brought her with symptoms of sleeplessness, irritability with a tendency to be aggressive and disinhibited, excessive talk, ideomotor pressure and grandiose ideation. Clinical examination showed the presence of a Manic disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Following recovery from this episode in two weeks with antipsychotics, she was advised not to practice self-hypnosis. However, this was not heeded and a week later there was reemergence of manic symptoms requiring increase in the dose of antipsychotics. Subsequently, it was ensured that she did not practice self-hypnosis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suresh &amp;amp; Srinivasan noted that as deep hypnosis or hypnoanalysis was carefully avoided, the manic reaction could not be viewed as a manifestation of nonspecific psychotic disorganisation which is known to occur if hypnotherapy is too deep and uncontrolled (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1962.03050240013003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Auerbach, 1962&lt;/a&gt;); and the precipitation of mania by hypnotherapy supports the evidence that this therapy can be useful in depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although Psychotherapy using hypnosis is known to be helpful in mild depression if &lt;strong&gt;light hypnosis and simple positive suggestions&lt;/strong&gt; are applied (Ambrose &amp;amp; Newbold, 1980), I would contest this last statement by Suresh &amp;amp; Srinivasan, by pointing out that antipsychotics were prescribed at the time of mania being present, and therefore you cannot say that it was the hypnotherapy which precipitated mania.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The bottom line - Talk to your doctor&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a trained and accredited hypnotherapist myself, the bottom line is that hypnotherapists are told in accredited training that they &lt;strong&gt;must not&lt;/strong&gt; provide hypnotherapy to those diagnosed with a psychosis or certain types of personality disorder, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hypnotherapy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;as it could make your condition worse&lt;/a&gt;. (&lt;strong&gt;See also, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbt230&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurosis vs psychosis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;)  Another golden rule is that anyone who is looking to embark on hypnotherapy when they are diagnosed with any mental health condition should obtain doctor's permission first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ambrose, G. &amp;amp; Newbold, G.(1980). &lt;em&gt;A Handbook of Medical Hypnosis, 4th edition&lt;/em&gt;. London: Bailliere Tindall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Auerbach, A. (1962). Attitudes of Psychiatrist to the use of hypnosis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of American Medical Association&lt;/em&gt;, 180(11), 917—921.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1962.03050240013003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/jama.1962.03050240013003&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leach, H. (2013). &lt;em&gt;My experience of mental health discrimination as a hypnotherapist&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.time-to-change.org.uk/blog/hypnotherapist-mental-health-discrimination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.time-to-change.org.uk/blog/hypnotherapist-mental-health-discrimination&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suresh, T. R., &amp;amp; Srinivasan, T. N. (1994). Mania following hypnotherapy. &lt;em&gt;Indian Journal of Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 36(1), 34—35.&lt;br&gt;PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2972454/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC2972454&lt;/a&gt; [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2972454/pdf/IJPsy-36-34.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-03-03T13:04:59.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19197" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15915" CreationDate="2018-03-03T13:41:20.717" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.03.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jauk et al. (2013)&lt;/a&gt; talks about the relationship between intelligence and creativity whilst &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1996.0013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;King, et al. (1996)&lt;/a&gt; talks about the the relationship between the 5-factor model and creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;4.2. Personality predictors of creative potential&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When performing separate multiple regression analyses in samples of lower and higher intelligence, we found that openness to experiences predicts creative potential in the subsample above the threshold whereas conscientiousness is negatively related to creative potential in the lower IQ range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While it is well documented that that there exists a positive association between openness and creative potential (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18341234&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Batey &amp;amp; Furnham, 2006&lt;/a&gt;; Feist, 2010; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1996.0013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;King et al., 1996&lt;/a&gt;), the present result points to an interaction between intelligence and openness: High creative potential is not possible with a low level IQ; but once the intelligence threshold is met, openness may explain to some extent whether the required cognitive disposition is actually turned into high creative potential (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.03.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jauk, et al. 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Batey M., Furnham A. (2006). Creativity, intelligence, and personality: A critical review of the scattered literature. &lt;em&gt;Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs&lt;/em&gt;. 132(4) 355–429.&lt;br&gt;PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18341234&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;18341234&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feist G.J. (2010). The function of personality in creativity: The nature and nurture of the creative personality. In: Kaufman J.C., Sternberg R.J., editors. &lt;em&gt;The Cambridge handbook of creativity&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Cambridge University Press;  pp. 113–130.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jauk, E., Benedek, M., Dunst, B., &amp;amp; Neubauer, A. C. (2013). The relationship between intelligence and creativity: New support for the threshold hypothesis by means of empirical breakpoint detection. &lt;em&gt;Intelligence&lt;/em&gt;, 41(4), 212–221.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.03.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.intell.2013.03.003&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;King L. A., Walker L. M. &amp;amp; Broyles S. J. (1996). Creativity and the five-factor model. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality&lt;/em&gt;. 30(2), 189–203.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1996.0013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1006/jrpe.1996.0013&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-03-03T13:41:20.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19198" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10453" CreationDate="2018-03-03T14:43:19.380" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A quick Google search reveals a list of computer-based cognitive testing software. Apparently, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cogstate.com/clinical-trials/computerized-cognitive-assessment/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cogstate computerized cognitive tests&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;have been used in hundreds of clinical trials––guiding decision-making for safety and efficacy across many indications and all phases of development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cambridgecognition.com/products/cognitive-research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CANTAB Connect Research&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is the world’s most validated, precise and reliable research software providing sensitive digital measures of cognitive function for all areas of brain research. Delivering leading neuroscience through our secure cloud platform, CANTAB Connect Research is an efficient and easy-to-use system providing insights into behaviours, underlying brain circuits and neurochemical systems and measurement of digital cognitive biomarkers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-03-03T14:43:19.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19200" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-03T21:46:08.053" Score="1" ViewCount="365" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am just curious about this one:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, anorexia nervosa does not affect seeing others, so they don't see others as fat. They are reportedly seeing others in a realistic way. While I don't have experience with AN, it sounds understandable for me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I have heard of &quot;thinspiration&quot;, i.e. people showing others their thinness and inspiring others to get thin, too. This reportedly encourages people to continue with losing weight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each of those phenomena sound understandable alone. However, I don't understand those two together, maybe I misunderstand something: If they judge other people accurately and only misjudge themself, how can seeing someone utterly this make them wanting to be thinner?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that feelings and rational thinking might be in conflict with each other*, but this is not enough for me to understand those two phenomena together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*) I have some experience with conflicts between rational thinking and feelings due to emetophobia, so I can think out of bounds of pure rationality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18600" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-03T23:19:45.060" LastActivityDate="2018-03-07T13:59:06.690" Title="Seeing others with anorexia nervosa vs. &quot;thinspiration&quot;" Tags="&lt;feeding&gt;&lt;eating-disorders&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19201" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14083" CreationDate="2018-03-04T01:15:22.230" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Supposing that by &quot;laziness&quot; you just mean behaviours etc. apparently identical to avolition, then  the difference is, assuming we call &quot;avolition&quot; a symptom of an &lt;em&gt;illness&lt;/em&gt;, that &lt;strong&gt;avolition is &lt;em&gt;out of the control of the sufferer&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, unlike laziness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's if we do agree that illness is out of a sufferers control, at least more so than their other behaviours. That is Fulford's 1989 attractive definition of illness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;failures of action that are beyond the abilities of a person&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Naturalism in the Philosophy of Health, p72&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether or not we call that &quot;cognitive&quot;, as you ask in the question, may be less interesting than asking how we &lt;em&gt;know&lt;/em&gt; that something is out of our control (presumably via introspection), and how it can be (presumably just biological if the mind is the brain).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fulford, K. W. M. (1989). Moral theory and medical practice. Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Giroux, E. (2016). &lt;em&gt;Naturalism in the Philosophy of Health: Issues and Implications&lt;/em&gt;. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29091-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/978-3-319-29091-1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-06T17:02:11.400" LastActivityDate="2018-03-06T17:02:11.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19203" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-04T05:55:24.357" Score="3" ViewCount="274" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is believed that when we are under stress our skeletal muscles tense up. However I am unable to explain why.Emotional stress is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system which has effects only on smooth muscles. However skeletal muscles are controlled by the somatic nervous system, so I was wondering what are some theories that explain tension on skeletal muscles?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17815" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-06T14:33:33.427" LastActivityDate="2018-03-06T14:33:33.427" Title="How does emotional stress cause skeletal muscle rigidity?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19204" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1795" CreationDate="2018-03-05T09:37:38.560" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;To start my post with a cliche - correlation (between raphe activity and movement) does not imply causality. More importantly, the complete absence of the raphe nucleus does not negate movement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Although I cannot disprove your hypotheses, I do wish to express a word of caution (6 years after your post :-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can I reverse this statement to say that movement indicates DRN activity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be careful with this statement. Activity in the raphe nucleus is positively correlated with behavioral arousal, yes &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/jn.00507.2009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ranade &amp;amp; Mainen, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. Further, raphe activity is thought to be related to the level of tonic motor activity associated with gross motor activity and repetitive, central pattern generator mediated responses &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959438897801419&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Jacobs &amp;amp; Fomal, 1997)&lt;/a&gt;. Yet, to couple these findings in reverse, and state that one can measure raphe activity through movement detection is tricky. Importantly, there are hosts of studies &lt;strong&gt;where the raphe nucleus was ablated and animals still showed (quite normal) motor activity&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042812000626&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ghaderi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2012)&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I would like to examine the pattern of movement over night and compare it to the feeling of well being in subsequent days. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been shown that successful treatment of depression results in an increase of motor activity. As depression is strongly linked to serotonin signaling this may be an interesting side track. However, increased motor activity was only found for day-time level of movements; clinical improvement was not reflected by night-time measurements. In case of depression, it is thought that activity in the frontal lobe is associated with motor impairments in depression and is related more top dopamine transmission than&lt;br&gt;&#xA;serotonin &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3109/15622970701403081?needAccess=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Todder &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. Indeed, the motor system is regulated more directly through dopaminergic neurons (think Parkinson).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;what are your thoughts on the train of thought above? Is there any merit to the hypothesis? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think there is merit, but using movement detection with an iphone app, and thinking that a correlation between movement and serotonin signalling implies a causal relation between raphe activity and movement is dodgy. You have to prove this first, either by a solid literature search or through experimental investigation and find support for your hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042812000626&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ghaderi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Procedia - Social Behav Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;32&lt;/strong&gt;: 403-10&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959438897801419&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jacobs &amp;amp; Fomal, &lt;em&gt;Curr Opinion Neurobiol&lt;/em&gt; (1997); 7(6): 820-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/jn.00507.2009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ranade &amp;amp; Mainen, &lt;em&gt;J Physiol&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;102&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 3026-37&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3109/15622970701403081?needAccess=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Todder &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;World J Biol Psych&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;10&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 276-84&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-05T19:20:06.423" LastActivityDate="2018-03-05T19:20:06.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19206" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2018-03-05T12:53:31.210" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This tag is meant for questions focusing on eating disorders. If your question involves only one of &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/body-dysmorphia&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;body-dysmorphia&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;body-dysmorphia&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/phagophobia&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;phagophobia&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;phagophobia&lt;/a&gt; then use the associated specialized tag instead of eating-disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-05T12:53:31.210" LastActivityDate="2018-03-05T12:53:31.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19207" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2018-03-05T12:53:31.210" Score="0" Body="For questions focusing on the eating disorders such as anorexia, bulimia and binge eating disorder (BED)." OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-05T12:53:31.210" LastActivityDate="2018-03-05T12:53:31.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19208" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19132" CreationDate="2018-03-05T19:27:42.267" Score="6" Body="&lt;h2&gt;History&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Martin E. P. Seligman, has written extensively on the nature, etiology, and significance of learned helplessness, and in 1975, he broadened the scope of learned helplessness from animal behaviour to a wide variety of human behaviours, including reactive depression, stomach ulcers, voodoo deaths, and child development, then in 1978, he criticised and reformulated his hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The old hypothesis, when applied to learned helplessness in humans, has two major problems: (a) It does not distinguish between cases in which outcomes are uncontrollable for all people and cases in which they are uncontrollable only for some people (universal vs. personal helplessness), and (b) it does not explain when helplessness is general and when specific, or when chronic and when acute. A reformulation based on a revision of attribution theory is proposed to resolve these inadequacies. (Seligman,&amp;nbsp;1978)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seligman then went on to rectify these deficiencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Problem (a): universal vs. personal helplessness&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Universal Helplessness&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suppose a child contracts leukemia and the father bends all his resources to save the child's life. Nothing he does, however, improves the child's health. Eventually he comes to believe there is nothing he can do. Nor is there anything anyone else can do since leukemia is incurable. He subsequently gives up trying to save the child's life and exhibits signs of behavioral helplessness as well as depressed affect. This example fits the specifications of the old learned helplessness hypothesis. The parent believed the course of the child's disease was independent of all of his responses as well as the responses of other people. We term this situation &lt;em&gt;universal helplessness&lt;/em&gt; (Seligman,&amp;nbsp;1978).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the same paper, Seligman considered universal helplessness to be &lt;strong&gt;externally attributed&lt;/strong&gt;. Situations where people believe that neither they nor relevant others can solve the problem are instances of universal helplessness according to the 1978 hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Personal helplessness&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suppose a person tries very hard in school. He studies endlessly, takes remedial courses, hires tutors. But he fails anyway. The person comes to believe he is stupid and gives up trying to pass. This is not a clear case of uncontrollability according to the old model, since the person believed there existed responses that would contingently produce passing grades although he did not possess them. Regardless of any voluntary response the person made, however, the probability of his obtaining good grades was not altered. We term this situation &lt;em&gt;personal helplessness&lt;/em&gt; (Seligman,&amp;nbsp;1978).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the same paper, Seligman considered personal helplessness to be &lt;strong&gt;internally attributed&lt;/strong&gt;. Situations in which people believe they cannot solve solvable problems are instances of personal helplessness according to the 1978 hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Flow of events leading to helplessness&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 5 steps towards helplessness was outlined in Seligman's 1978 paper (Page 52 - bold emphasis mine).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Objective&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; non-contingency&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Perception&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of present &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; past non-contingency&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Attribution&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; for &lt;strong&gt;present or past&lt;/strong&gt; non-contingency&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Expectation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of &lt;strong&gt;future&lt;/strong&gt; non-contingency&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Symptoms&lt;/em&gt; of helplessness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Objective noncontingency is predicted to lead to symptoms of helplessness only if the expectation of noncontingency is present (Seligman, 1975 &amp;amp; 1978).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pre-1978, Seligman's model was vague in specifying how perception that events are non-contingent (past or present) was transformed into an expectation that events will be non-contingent in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our reformulation regards the attribution the individual makes for noncontingency between his acts and outcomes in the here and now as a determinant of his subsequent expectations for future noncontingency. These expectations, in turn, determine the generality, chronicity, and type of his helplessness symptoms. In the context of this general account of the role of attribution in the production of symptoms, the distinction between universal and personal helplessness can now be clarified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cognitive and motivational deficits occur in both personal and universal helplessness. Abramson (1977) has demonstrated this empirically while showing that lowered self-esteem occurs only in personal helplessness (Seligman,&amp;nbsp;1978).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Problem (b): general vs. specific helplessness, and chronic vs. acute helplessness&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When helplessness deficits occur in a broad range of situations, they are called them &lt;em&gt;global&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;general helplessness&lt;/em&gt;; when the deficits occur in a narrow range of situations, they are called &lt;em&gt;specific helplessness&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some helplessness deficits may last only minutes and others may last years. Helplessness is considered to be &lt;em&gt;chronic&lt;/em&gt; when it is either long-lived or recurrent and &lt;em&gt;transient&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;acute&lt;/em&gt; when short-lived and non-recurrent (Seligman,&amp;nbsp;1978).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Your Question - How can human learned helplessness be escaped?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seligman, in his 1978 paper touched on this in a number of ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The subject is presented with an unsolvable problem, tested on a second solvable task, and finally debriefed. The subject is told that the first problem was actually unsolvable and therefore no one could have solved it. Experimenters in human helplessness studies seem to believe that telling a subject that no one could solve the problem will cause helplessness deficits to go away. The prior discussion suggests that convincing a subject that his helplessness is universal rather than personal will remove self-esteem deficits suffered in the experiment (Seligman,&amp;nbsp;1978).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He also outlined some general observations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Those who typically attribute their failures to general, stable, and internal factors will be more prone to general and chronic helplessness depressions with low self-esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Beck (1967) argued similarly that the pre-morbid depressive is an individual who makes logical errors in interpreting reality. For example, the depression-prone individual overgeneralises; a student regards his poor performance in a single class on one particular day as final proof of his stupidity.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Boys and girls have been found to differ in attribution styles, with girls attributing helplessness to lack of ability (global, stable) and boys to lack of effort (specific, unstable) (Dweck,&amp;nbsp;1976).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Therefore, the therapeutic implications of the reformulated hypothesis can now be schematized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seligman went on to state that depression is most far reaching when&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;the estimated probability of a positive outcome is low or the estimated probability of an aversive outcome is high,&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Change the estimated probability of the outcome. Change the environment by reducing the likelihood of aversive outcomes and increasing the likelihood of desired outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;the outcome is highly positive or aversive,&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Make the highly preferred outcomes less preferred by reducing the aversiveness of unrelievable outcomes or the desirability of unobtainable outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;the outcome is expected to be uncontrollable,&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Change the expectation from uncontrollability to controllability when the outcomes are attainable. When the responses are not yet in the individual's repertoire but can be, train the appropriate skills. When the responses are already in the individual's repertoire but cannot be made because of distorted expectation of response-outcome independence, modify the distorted expectation. When the outcomes are unattainable, this does not apply.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;the attribution for this uncontrollability is to a general, stable, internal factor.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Change unrealistic attributions for failure toward external, unstable, specific factors, and change unrealistic attributions for success toward internal, stable, global factors. The model predicts that depression will be most far-reaching and produce the most symptoms when a failure is attributed to stable, global, and internal factors, since the patient now expects that many future outcomes will be noncontingently related to his responses. Getting the patient to make an external, unstable, and specific attribution for failure should reduce the depression in cases in which the original attribution is unrealistic. The logic, of course, is that an external attribution for failure raises self-esteem, an unstable one cuts the deficits short, and a specific one makes the deficits less general&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 1983, learned helplessness was also proposed as a model for the emotional numbing and maladaptive passivity sometimes following victimisation. Victims may learn during the victimisation episode that responding is futile&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If this learning is represented as a general expectation of helplessness, then subsequent deficits may occur in situations unrelated to the original situation in which the victimization occurred. The victim’s causal interpretation of the victimization episode may partly determine the chronicity and generality of these deficits, and the involvement of self-esteem. (Peterson&amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;&amp;nbsp;Seligman,&amp;nbsp;1983). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on Seligman's findings, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Therapy&lt;/a&gt; might be beneficial as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Therapy may consist of testing the assumptions which one makes and looking for new information that could help shift the assumptions in a way that leads to different emotional or behavioral reactions. Change may begin by targeting thoughts (to change emotion and behavior), behavior (to change feelings and thoughts), or the individual's goals (by identifying thoughts, feelings or behavior that conflict with the goals).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abramson, L. (1977). Universal versus personal helplessness: An experimental test of the reformulated theory of learned helplessness and depression. &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beck, A. T. (1967) &lt;em&gt;Depression: Clinical, experimental and theoretical aspects&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Hoeber.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dweck, C. (1976). Children's interpretation of evaluative feedback: The effect of social cues on learned helplessness. &lt;em&gt;Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development&lt;/em&gt;, 22(2), 105-109.&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/23083956&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/23083956&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Peterson, C., &amp;amp; Seligman, M. E. (1983). Learned helplessness and victimization. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Social Issues&lt;/em&gt;, 39(2), 103—116.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1983.tb00143.x&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1540-4560.1983.tb00143.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seligman, M. E. P., &amp;amp; Maier, S. F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 74(1), 1—9.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024514&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0024514&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seligman, M. E. P., Maier, S. F., &amp;amp; Geer, J. H. (1968). The alleviation of learned helplessness in the dog. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Abnormal Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 73(3, Pt.1), 256—262.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0025831&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0025831&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seligman, M. E. P., &amp;amp; Groves, D. (1970). Non-transient learned helplessness. &lt;em&gt;Psychonomic Science&lt;/em&gt;, 19(3), 191—192.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03335546&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3758/BF03335546&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seligman, M. E. (1972). Learned helplessness. Annual review of medicine, 23(1), 407—412.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.me.23.020172.002203&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1146/annurev.me.23.020172.002203&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4566487&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;4566487&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seligman, M. E. P. (1974). Depression and learned helplessness. In R. J. Friedman &amp;amp; M. M. Katz (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;The psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research&lt;/em&gt;. Oxford, England: John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). &lt;em&gt;Helplessness: On depression, development, and death&lt;/em&gt;. San Francisco: Freeman&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seligman, M. E. P., Abramson, L. Y., &amp;amp; Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned Helplessness in Humans: Critique and Reformulation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Abnormal Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 87(1), 49—74&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49&lt;/a&gt; Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ef52/775276f83a46162a9b364335d9ee5ee73b99.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Semantic Scholar&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-03-05T19:27:42.267" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19209" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19145" CreationDate="2018-03-05T22:40:50.670" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think &quot;double bookkeeping&quot; here refers to the practice of some unethical accountants of keeping two sets of accounting books - one with the &quot;real&quot; numbers for day-to-day use and one with the &quot;show&quot; numbers that are available for auditors, attorneys, etc. to view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, a patient who is engaged in &quot;double bookkeeping&quot; could be, in essence, keeping two sets of &quot;books&quot; in their minds, with those &quot;books&quot; being world-views or understandings of reality. One book might compartmentalize the &quot;delusional&quot; ideas (with the rational ideas stored in the other book), or delusional ideas might be apportioned among the books in such a way that each book is internally consistent (e.g. Book 1 says space aliens ate my brain, but there are no Crab People, while Book 2 says that there are Crab People who are controlling the House of Representatives and who are holding my brain hostage on Saturn but that my brain was not, in fact, eaten, and Crab People come from Memphis, not space).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13656" LastEditorUserId="13656" LastEditDate="2018-03-06T19:52:41.880" LastActivityDate="2018-03-06T19:52:41.880" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19212" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7968" CreationDate="2018-03-06T08:44:12.737" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The definition of problem solving can be different between researchers and regions of the world for various reasons. Frensch &amp;amp; Funke (2014) stated that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;researchers adopt definitions that they perceive as useful, that is, that are consistent with their beliefs, knowledge and theoretical goals. A definition can therefore be neither static, nor commonly accepted. Rather, for any domain of research, a number of meaningful definitions co-exist.  In the area of problem-solving research, the current theoretical goals are different for North American and European researchers. The primary goal adopted by many North American researchers is to understand task performance and learning in natural knowledge domains.  The primary goal adopted by many European researchers, in contrast, is to understand how people deal with complex, novel task situations.  Because the theoretical goals differ for the two traditions, the definitions that have been adopted differ as well. Consequently, the two traditions are not  concerned with the same phenomenon, and any comparison of research findings runs the risk of being meaningless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reasons for their statement is given in the whole section of the book (pages 13-19), which is &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=O-ZHAwAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;readable via the Google Books website&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to &lt;strong&gt;try&lt;/strong&gt; to come up with an integrated definition, they came up with the definition of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;overcoming barriers between a given state and a desired goal state by means of behavioural and/or cognitive multistep activities (page 18).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frensch, P. A., &amp;amp; Funke, J. (2014). Definitions of Problem Solving: The European Approach. In: &lt;em&gt;Complex problem solving: The European perspective&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Psychology Press. pp. 13-19&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-06T08:49:26.447" LastActivityDate="2018-03-06T08:49:26.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19213" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19203" CreationDate="2018-03-06T10:48:49.417" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The stress response included norepinephrine release, in turn increasing blood pressure. This may cause muscle tension.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What an interesting question. To my surprise, I couldn't find convincing causal explanations, linking emotional stress and muscle tension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one study, study participants were exposed to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/stress-body.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotional stress&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The authors found a positive correlation between &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/test_procedures/neurological/electromyography_92,P07656&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;muscle (EMG) activity&lt;/a&gt; and blood pressure. They also found a significant positive correlations between stress and norepinephrine (NE) release. The latter plays an important&#xA;role in blood pressure homeostasis and is released during stress as part of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HPA axis response&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. These results seem to indicate that stress results in NE release, followed by increase in blood pressure (this is a known stress response). The increase in blood pressure could then lead to muscle tension. However, as the authors explain, the results do not explain whether these associations represent the effect of a general underlying factor (e.g., psychological arousal) or a more direct interdependence of blood pressure and muscular tension. In other words, a correlation was found, but no causal relationships can be deduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&amp;amp;sid=eee9e747-4018-4694-a0b6-fd78734623fa%40pdc-v-sessmgr01&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lundberg &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;International J Behav Med&lt;/em&gt; (1994); &lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 354-70&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-03-06T10:48:49.417" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19214" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5898" CreationDate="2018-03-06T15:10:14.747" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;According to a study dating 6 years back, the incidence rate of anorexia nervosa was stable over several decades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;According to a review paper published in 2012, the overall incidence rate of eating disorders, including anorexia, was stable over the previous decades.  However, there was an increase found in the high risk-group of 15–19 year old girls, but that might have been due to earlier detection of anorexia nervosa cases or an earlier age at onset &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3409365/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Smink &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that the tendency nowadays is a moving away from the stereotypical barbie-sized waistlines I reckon above study is a valid source of information, as I do not expect the number of anorectic people to be soaring.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, while there are hosts of studies linking mass media and stereotyped ideal bodily proportions, a review study puts these findings in a different spot light. While the authors recognize mass media and eating disorders are linked, they question the size of the &lt;em&gt;impact&lt;/em&gt; mass media has on these disorders. They did this by studying the correlation between social media versus negative body image and disordered eating in females &lt;a href=&quot;https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.1.9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Levine &amp;amp; Murnen, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.1.9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Levine &amp;amp; Murnen, &lt;em&gt;J Soc Clin Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;28&lt;/strong&gt;: 9-42&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3409365/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smink &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Curr Psychiatry Rep&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;14&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 406–14&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-07T08:45:46.430" LastActivityDate="2018-03-07T08:45:46.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19215" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6163" CreationDate="2018-03-06T18:22:58.963" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You talk about the challenge of the variability in EEG data formats --- While I am (unfortunately) not aware of a standard EEG data format, there are attempts to standardize the way that EEG data could be shared:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Brain Imaging Data Structure (&lt;a href=&quot;http://bids.neuroimaging.io/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BIDS&lt;/a&gt;) tries to clarifying the structure of directories and meta data necessary when sharing neuro-imaging data. BIDS started out for MRI data (with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://nifti.nimh.nih.gov/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIfTI format&lt;/a&gt; as a standard data format) and so far it is not completely specified for EEG data (partly, because there is no standard data format yet).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is an ongoing process to make an &lt;a href=&quot;https://docs.google.com/document/d/1ArMZ9Y_quTKXC-jNXZksnedK2VHHoKP3HCeO5HPcgLE/edit#heading=h.4k1noo90gelw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;extension to BIDS for EEG&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDITS:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://otik.uk.zcu.cz/bitstream/11025/17896/1/vanek_thesis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thesis&lt;/a&gt; related to diversity of EEG data formats&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.10.025&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Journal article&lt;/a&gt; about a further attempt at specifying a standard format (though for all neuro data)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17605" LastEditorUserId="17605" LastEditDate="2018-03-14T10:51:49.373" LastActivityDate="2018-03-14T10:51:49.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19216" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-06T20:48:40.100" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MA93G.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MA93G.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;EEG was taken inside an fMRI, including ECG, EXG and eye tracking system.&#xA;Sampling rate was 5000 Hz. Sync box was used. &#xA;After running Brain Product Analyzer gradient artifact removal (using markers from the fMRI for each volume, and after removal- down sampling to 250 Hz.)- one could still identify high frequency &quot;ripples&quot; (high frequency oscillations) which ruined the CB cleaning.&#xA;I planned to add some low pass or some other filter to get rid of these, and before performing the filter checked the spectrum of the noise and found the high frequency noises shown below.&#xA;Any idea what causes these? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18616" LastActivityDate="2018-03-07T20:38:16.993" Title="EEG in fMRI: High frequency &quot;deltas&quot; in EEG after gradient artifact removal" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19145" CreationDate="2018-03-07T08:48:53.733" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Within Psychiatry and psychology, Double Bookkeeping, also known as Double Entry Bookkeeping is &lt;strong&gt;not quite the same as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-entry_bookkeeping_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;double entry bookkeeping within accountancy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.  Within Psychiatry and Psychology, it refers to the tendency, among those who experience delusions, to perceive both the reality and the delusions as being real. &lt;strong&gt;There are discrepancies or inconsistencies between the two within psychiatry which the affected person may not be bothered about&lt;/strong&gt;, whereas within accountancy, the two entries made in different parts of accounts records are there to reconcile the records and ensure &lt;strong&gt;there are no&lt;/strong&gt; discrepancies or inconsistencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example Accountancy Double Bookkeeping&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main accounts ledger may have a record of a transaction paying $100.00 towards a dept to &lt;em&gt;Debt and Renters Ltd.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meanwhile another entry will be made in the debts record for &lt;em&gt;Debt and Renters Ltd.&lt;/em&gt; stating that &lt;strong&gt;on the same date in the main ledger&lt;/strong&gt;, \$100.00 has been taken off the debt, with the running balance remaining being $100.00 less than previous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All records reconcile, showing no discrepancies or inconsistencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In psychiatry and psychology&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Swiss psychiatrist and eugenicist, Eugen Bleuler in &lt;em&gt;Dementia Praecox or the Group of Schizophrenias&lt;/em&gt; (his 1911 seminal study, translated from German into English in 1950 by Joseph Zinkin) said on pages 56:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is especially important to know that these patients carry on a kind of “double-entry bookkeeping” in many of their relationships. They know the real state of affairs as well as the falsified one and will answer according to the circumstances with one kind or the other type of orientation—or both together. This last is especially frequent in mis(-)recognizing people: the physician “is now here as Dr. N.,” at other times he becomes the former lover.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this, &quot;Dr. N.&quot; is both a former lover and their physician whilst in reality, Dr. N. was never their lover.  Without the ability to carry out reality checking efficiently, they can refer to either or both as being true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In accounts ledgers terms&lt;/strong&gt; there are two entries in the person's main record within the mind recording the facts concerning Dr. N. without a strong second record to refer to regarding the person's past lovers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jeneen Interlandi, wrote in The New York Times Magazine (2012)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While we waited for the doctor to evaluate him, my father did what mental health professionals refer to as double-bookkeeping. He remembered most of what transpired earlier in the day but still believed he was in the hospital to have his pacemaker checked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bleuler, E. (1950). Dementia praecox or the group of schizophrenias. Oxford, England: International Universities Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interlandi, J. (2012). When My Crazy Father Actually Lost His Mind - New York Times Magazine&lt;br&gt;Accessible from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/24/magazine/when-my-crazy-father-actually-lost-his-mind.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/24/magazine/when-my-crazy-father-actually-lost-his-mind.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;See also&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bortolotti, L., &amp;amp; Broome, M. R. (2012). Affective dimensions of the phenomenon of double bookkeeping in delusions. &lt;em&gt;Emotion Review&lt;/em&gt;, 4(2), 187-191.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911430115&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/1754073911430115&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carruthers, B. G., &amp;amp; Espeland, W. N. (1991). Accounting for rationality: Double-entry bookkeeping and the rhetoric of economic rationality. &lt;em&gt;American journal of sociology&lt;/em&gt;, 97(1), 31-69.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230304253_12&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1057/9780230304253_12&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-11T10:59:23.813" LastActivityDate="2018-03-11T10:59:23.813" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19219" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-07T11:45:05.657" Score="3" ViewCount="429" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is well known that loud noises can lead to hearing problems such as temporary hearing loss or tinnitus (ringing in the ears) and even permanent hearing loss. But this is the first time scientists have been able to identify damages to nerve cells as a result of noise exposure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The research allows us to understand the pathway from exposure to loud noises to hearing loss. Dissecting the cellular mechanisms underlying this condition is likely to bring a very significant healthcare benefit to a wider population. The work will help prevention as well as progression into finding appropriate cures for hearing loss&quot;, said the lead researcher Dr. Martine Hamann, from the University of Leicester in the UK. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hear-it.org/loud-music-damages-nerves-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hear-it.org, 2014&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Listening to tailor-made notched sound or notched music reduces tinnitus loudness and &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/9481/what-are-the-brain-regions-related-to-tinnitus-shown-in-this-figure&quot;&gt;tinnitus-related auditory cortex activity&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0911268107&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Okamoto, et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Maladaptive auditory cortex reorganization may contribute to the generation and maintenance of tinnitus. Because cortical organization can be modified by behavioral training, we attempted to reduce tinnitus loudness by exposing chronic tinnitus patients to self-chosen, enjoyable music, which was modified (“notched”) to contain no energy in the frequency range surrounding the individual tinnitus frequency. After 12 months of regular listening, the target patient group (&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = 8) showed significantly reduced subjective tinnitus loudness and concomitantly exhibited reduced evoked activity in auditory cortex areas corresponding to the tinnitus frequency compared to patients who had received an analogous placebo notched music treatment (&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = 8). These findings indicate that tinnitus loudness can be significantly diminished by an enjoyable, low-cost, custom-tailored notched music treatment, potentially via reversing maladaptive auditory cortex reorganization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bF6X7.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bF6X7.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;(Image Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.appbrain.com/app/tinnitus-therapy-tunes/eu.medical.android.ttt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Notched Music Therapy App for Android&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;--Update--further information found--&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hear-it.org website at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hear-it.org/loud-music-damages-nerves-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paged linked above&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Loud music played on earphones causes hearing loss by having a similar effect on nerves as multiple sclerosis, research finds. The research shows that noise levels above 110 decibels strip insulation from nerve fibers carrying signals from the ear to the brain. Loss of the protective coating, called myelin, disrupts electrical nerve signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking for the source, it seems to be coming from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/loud-music-on-headphones-causes-deafness-by-having-a-similar-effect-on-nerves-as-ms-8091683.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Von Radowitz's article within The Independent newspaper (2012)&lt;/a&gt;, stating that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Loud music played on earphones causes deafness by having a similar effect on nerves as multiple sclerosis (MS)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With both articles mentioning Dr. Martine Hamann from the University of Leicester, I found that she was involved with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/npb/people/dr-martine-hamann/publications&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;three studies in that year&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article which seems to be related is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1116981109&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pilati, et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt;, which states within the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Here we investigate mechanisms contributing to excitability changes in the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) shortly after exposure to loud sound that produces hearing loss. We show that acoustic overexposure alters synaptic transmission originating from the auditory and the multisensory pathway within the DCN in different ways. A reduction in the number of myelinated auditory nerve fibers leads to a reduced maximal firing rate of DCN principal cells, which cannot be restored by increasing auditory nerve fiber recruitment. In contrast, a decreased membrane resistance of DCN granule cells (multisensory inputs) leads to a reduced maximal firing rate of DCN principal cells that is overcome when additional multisensory fibers are recruited. Furthermore, gain modulation by inhibitory synaptic transmission is disabled in both auditory and multisensory pathways. These cellular mechanisms that contribute to decreased cellular excitability in the central auditory pathway are likely to represent early neurobiological markers of hearing loss and may suggest interventions to delay or stop the development of hyperactivity that has been associated with tinnitus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following is also in the article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Acoustic overexposure (AOE):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;induces hearing threshold elevations (shifts of hearing&#xA;thresholds of 20–30 dB sound pressure level were observed for frequencies above&#xA;the frequency used during the AOE protocol),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;decreases fusiform cell excitability,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;down-regulates auditory nerve (AN) and multi-sensory (MS) synaptic transmission to fusiform cells (FCs)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;reduces FC maximal firing rate upon AN stimulations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;decreases the number of myelinated AN fibres in the cochlea&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;reduces FC maximal firing rate upon MS input stimulation and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;decreases granule cell membrane resistance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;disables FC gain control by inhibitory synaptic transmission&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Auditory Nerve stimulations&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rJa1d.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rJa1d.png&quot; alt=&quot;article fig.1 B&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;AN stimulations (25 V, 0.3 Hz) trigger smaller Excitatory post-synaptic potentials after AOE (blue)). Membrane potential was −70 mV. Histogram summarizes excitatory post-synaptic potential amplitudes measured at similar stimulating voltages in unexposed (25 ± 4 V, &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = 4) and exposed conditions (28 ± 2 V, &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = 6). * &lt;em&gt;P&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; 0.05,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tFBTH.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tFBTH.png&quot; alt=&quot;article fig.1 C&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In unexposed condition (black), AN stimulations (40 V, 0.3 Hz) trigger action potentials in a FC (membrane potential of −60 mV). After AOE (blue), AN stimulations (40–45 V, 0.3 Hz) fail to trigger action potentials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Multisensory stimulations&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XpKpZ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XpKpZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;article fig.1 E&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;MS stimulations (15 V, 0.3 Hz) trigger smaller excitatory post-synaptic potentials after AOE (blue). Membrane potential was −70 mV. Histogram summarizes excitatory post-synaptic potential amplitudes measured at&#xA;  similar stimulating voltages in unexposed (16 ± 1 V, &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = 8) and exposed conditions (19 ± 2 V, &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = 6). ** &lt;em&gt;P&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; 0.01: unpaired t tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PrALf.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PrALf.png&quot; alt=&quot;article fig.1 F&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In unexposed condition (black), MS stimulations (20 V, 0.3 Hz) trigger action potentials in a FC (membrane potential of −60 mV). After AOE (blue), higher stimulation voltages (25 V, 0.3 Hz) are required to trigger an action potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not having a background in neurology, I am wondering if altered synaptic transmission originating from the auditory and the multisensory pathway within the DCN equates to brain damage or is the altered synaptic transmission caused by information received from the damaged cochlea?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In other words, has it really been found that the cause of Tinnitus is brain damage which can be repaired through playing sounds or music with a &quot;notch&quot; in specific frequency spectrums?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hear-it.org (2014) &lt;em&gt;Loud music damages the nerves in the brain&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hear-it.org/loud-music-damages-nerves-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.hear-it.org/loud-music-damages-nerves-brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Okamoto, H., Stracke, H., Stoll, W., &amp;amp; Pantev, C. (2010). Listening to tailor-made notched music reduces tinnitus loudness and tinnitus-related auditory cortex activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(3), 1207-1210.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0911268107&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1073/pnas.0911268107&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pilati, N., Ison, M. J., Barker, M., Mulheran, M., Large, C. H., Forsythe, I. D., ... &amp;amp; Hamann, M. (2012). Mechanisms contributing to central excitability changes during hearing loss. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 109(21), 8292-8297.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1116981109&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1073/pnas.1116981109&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Radowitz J. V. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Loud music played on headphones causes deafness by having a similar effect on nerves as multiple sclerosis (MS) - The Independent&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/loud-music-on-headphones-causes-deafness-by-having-a-similar-effect-on-nerves-as-ms-8091683.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/loud-music-on-headphones-causes-deafness-by-having-a-similar-effect-on-nerves-as-ms-8091683.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14807" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-11T15:05:09.957" LastActivityDate="2018-03-11T16:31:25.353" Title="Is Tinnitus a result of brain damage?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19220" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19200" CreationDate="2018-03-07T13:59:06.690" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my reading, I believe that anorexics can see others in the same way as us or they can also see other anorexics as normal.  It seems that anorexics don't necessarily hallucinate rolls of fat or other shape differences between healthy and overweight or obese people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10040555&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thomas et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt; describes the case of ‘Ms A’, who described herself as having ‘3% of full vision’: she could detect only high contrast, some colour, and large shapes under optimal conditions, but otherwise nothing at all. Her anorexia began at age nine, with obsessive-compulsive disorder predating its onset, and anorexia and depression being formally diagnosed at age 14. When she was first admitted to a residential treatment programme, aged 19, Ms A denied the seriousness of her low body-weight (BMI 15.9) and didn’t manifest the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK49317&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological criterion for anorexia&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, even though underweight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, she said that she refused food in order to provide a sense of ‘containment, safety, and control’ through the practice of self-restriction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Talking about her disturbed body image, Ms A described typical features of anorexia in the sighted, including checking behaviours, body avoidance (e.g. avoiding tight clothing), and comparisons with others. As she put it, ‘I do all of the checking, but without the eyes’. She, like other blind sufferers from anorexia, used tactile body checking – feeling for bony protrusions in face, ribcage, spine, and hips, and assessing how tight her clothes felt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This might mean that in anorexia, vision and touch lend themselves equally readily to involvement in the kinds of distortions that are characteristic of anorexia: over-generalisation (this part of my thigh looks/feels big, therefore I’m fat), and all-or-nothing thinking (either I can see/feel every rib clearly or I’m fat) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hunger-artist/201212/seeing-and-not-believing-in-anorexia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Troscianko, 2012&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this borne in mind, thinspiration could exacerbate the problem if they compare their bone protrusions with the photos shown.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Eating Disorders: Core Interventions in the Treatment and Management of Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa and Related Eating Disorders. Leicester (UK): British Psychological Society (UK); 2004. (NICE Clinical Guidelines, No. 9.) Appendix 17, Diagnostic criteria for eating disorders. Available from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK49317&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK49317&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thomas, J. J., Weigel, T. J., Lawton, R. K., Levendusky, P. G., &amp;amp; Becker, A. E. (2012). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of body image disturbance in a congenitally blind patient with anorexia nervosa. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 169(1), 16—20.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10040555&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10040555&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22223010&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;22223010&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Troscianko, E. T. (2012). Seeing and (Not) Believing in Anorexia - PsychologyToday&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hunger-artist/201212/seeing-and-not-believing-in-anorexia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/hunger-artist/201212/seeing-and-not-believing-in-anorexia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-03-07T13:59:06.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19216" CreationDate="2018-03-07T19:56:29.457" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;These seem to be simply gradient artifact remnants- Brain products analyzer didn't fully clean them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking over the spectrogram of another EEG before the gradient artifact removal- it seems as if this noise is merely leftovers of the gradient artifact caused by the fMRI system (noticed that these spikes were greatly reduced by the brain vision analyzer gradient artifact cleaner, but in some cases- this transform left much noise in these frequencies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18616" LastEditorUserId="18616" LastEditDate="2018-03-07T20:38:16.993" LastActivityDate="2018-03-07T20:38:16.993" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19228" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-08T14:56:25.167" Score="2" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a hypothesis that humans are better able to identify the largest (or smallest) in a set of objects, compared to their ability to identify an average object, i.e. the one closest to the mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone tested response times or accuracy of people given a collection of objects or shapes, when the subjects are asked to identify the most extreme object, as opposed to the object that best represents the &quot;average&quot; object?  Or for a set of numbers, are people faster and/or more accurate at identifying the largest number as opposed to the one closest to the mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18638" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-03-09T18:43:33.090" LastActivityDate="2018-03-09T18:43:33.090" Title="Ability to identify an &quot;average&quot; vs a maximum (or minimum)?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19229" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19242" CreationDate="2018-03-08T19:17:39.743" Score="5" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I went to my local marijuana dispensory, since recreational use of it is legal, they told me that when I first use it, I might get paranoid. When I read this word in context, I imagined somebody being afraid of getting caught. So, wouldn't you be paranoid if you didn't want other family members knowing that you smoked weed? Or, would this feeling or emotion be sharpened by THC?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18499" LastActivityDate="2018-03-11T06:49:56.523" Title="What exactly does paranoid mean in terms of psychoactive drugs?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19230" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19229" CreationDate="2018-03-08T23:59:19.523" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studies have shown that strong doses of THC can significantly increase paranoid thinking. See the article, &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbu098&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How Cannabis Causes Paranoia: Using the Intravenous Administration THC to Identify Key Cognitive Mechanisms Leading to Paranoia&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Freeman et al. for a more authoritative reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this large study of intravenous THC (&lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, Volume 41, Issue 2, 1 March 2015, Pages 391–399), it was definitively&#xA;  demonstrated that the drug triggers paranoid thoughts in vulnerable&#xA;  individuals. The most likely mechanism of action causing paranoia was&#xA;  the generation of negative affect and anomalous experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And, certainly, anxiety over people “finding out” you are doing something that can be perceived as wrong or inappropriate can lead to paranoia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastEditorUserId="11556" LastEditDate="2018-03-09T20:13:46.107" LastActivityDate="2018-03-09T20:13:46.107" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19231" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19233" CreationDate="2018-03-09T03:41:00.417" Score="3" ViewCount="528" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that  alcohol negatively influences a driver's ability to drive. Governments typically combat this by making drunk driving illegal, and use the concentration of alcohol in breath or blood as the definitive measure as to whether a crime has been committed or not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this sense - alcohol in the blood/breath is merely a proxy for impairment, but one that is quite reliable - when one is drunk they're going to show alcohol in the blood stream, this is able to be accurately measured.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other ways a driver can be impaired as well - quite commonly through sleepiness/fatigue, but also other drugs, or distraction (driving while texting), or emotional distress. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The prospect of 'drugged driving' comes up quite commonly in discussions about legalising cannabis. Where there is a reliable test of alcohol impairment - it's not quite the same for cannabis and other drugs - the problem being that saliva tests can show the presence of the drug long after the person has sobered up. A blood test might be viable - but that's perhaps not practical, in terms of getting a cop to administer to a driver. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With fatigue, it's even more problematic - there's no drug to detect at all. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In light of this - has any general impairment test - that perhaps tests reaction times or some other metric, that can be administered at a roadside, been developed? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastEditorUserId="8810" LastEditDate="2018-07-12T22:54:33.983" LastActivityDate="2018-07-12T22:54:33.983" Title="Does a general impairment test exist, that specifically would be useful for the context of driving?" Tags="&lt;reaction-time&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19231" CreationDate="2018-03-09T14:47:59.247" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based in Madison, Wisconsin, CTC &amp;amp; Associates provides technical communications services for the transportation sector, and together with the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT), &lt;a href=&quot;http://dotapp7.dot.state.mn.us/projectPages/pages/projectDetails.jsf?id=35917&amp;amp;type=DOCUMENT&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;they put together a report&lt;/a&gt; on how to monitor driver fatigue:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;to serve as a synthesis of pertinent completed research to be used for further study and evaluation by MnDOT. This [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dot.state.mn.us/research/TRS.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transport Research Synthesis (TRS)&lt;/a&gt;] does not represent the conclusions of either CTC &amp;amp; Associates or MnDOT. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dotapp7.dot.state.mn.us/projectPages/pages/projectDetails.jsf?id=35917&amp;amp;type=DOCUMENT&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MnDOT, 2015&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following (apart from ESS - see below) are &lt;strong&gt;some&lt;/strong&gt; of the studies presented in the MnDOT report.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;In-vehicle Technologies&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2009.12.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Balkin, et al. (2011)&lt;/a&gt; talks about technologies which can detect or predict driver fatigue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Technologies that objectively detect or predict operator fatigue may be used to effectively complement or even supplant organizational or regulatory approaches. Over the past decade and a half, there have been considerable advances in relevant technologies, including onboard devices that monitor drivers’ state or level of performance as well as devices that predict fatigue in advance of a work cycle or trip.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/34394&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barr, Popkin and Howarth (2009)&lt;/a&gt; also reviews and discusses unobtrusive, in-vehicle, real-time drowsy driver detection and fatigue monitoring/alerting systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The study focuses on recent developments in two areas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Mathematical models that predict operator alertness and performance at different times. Factors&#xA;  involved in the assessment include the amount of sleep obtained or missed, circadian factors (the 24-&#xA;  hour cycle of physical, mental and behavioral changes) and workload.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Vehicle-based monitoring technologies that assess behavioral characteristics of the driver such as eye&#xA;  gaze, eye closure, head position and movement, and heart rate.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Roadside and other Out-of-vehicle technologies&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Fitness for Duty&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale [KSS] (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3109/00207459008994241&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Åkerstedt &amp;amp; Gillberg, 1990&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2006.03.011&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaida, et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;) and there is the Epworth Sleepiness Scale [ESS] (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/14.6.540&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johns, 1991&lt;/a&gt;).  Both are self-report scales, frequently used in studies measuring subjective sleepiness, that measure the individual’s drowsiness.  The KSS is a 9-point verbally anchored scale going from ‘extremely alert’ to ‘extremely sleepy–fighting sleep’, whereas the ESS uses a 4-point scale from &lt;em&gt;never doze&lt;/em&gt; to &lt;em&gt;high chance&lt;/em&gt; of dozing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://epworthsleepinessscale.com/about-the-ess/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS)&lt;/a&gt; (named after &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.epworthsleepcentre.com.au/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Epworth Sleep centre in Melbourne, Australia&lt;/a&gt;) is used by doctors here in the UK to point toward the possibility of sleep disorders such as Sleep Apnoea. You can see an example PDF of the questionnaire at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.whh.nhs.uk/_store/documents/epworthsleepinessscale.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Warrington and Halton NHS Hospitals website&lt;/a&gt;. It is a self-evaluation questionnaire devised to determine general sleepiness &lt;strong&gt;observed by the individual&lt;/strong&gt; based on usual chances of dozing off or falling asleep while engaged in eight different activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not wishing to add any validity to the system, I thought I would mention that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.optalert.com/news/roadside-fatigue-or-drowsiness-testing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Optalert talks about&lt;/a&gt; a testing system they developed themselves and are promoting, called the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.optalert.com/news/dr-johns-drowsiness-detection-technology-pharmaceutical-industry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johns Drowsiness Scale (JDS)&lt;/a&gt;.  It was developed by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.optalert.com/news/a-lifes-work&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Optalert’s Founding Director, and developer of ESS, Dr Murray Johns&lt;/a&gt;, and comparing it to ESS, and Blood Alcohol Concentration Readings, they say that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;With 30 Per Cent Of Road Fatalities Attributed To Drowsy Driving, At Optalert We Believe The Johns Drowsiness Scale (JDS™) Will, In The Near Future, Become As Important As Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) Readings. (Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.optalert.com/jds-vs-bac&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;JDS vs BAC - Optalert&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst assessing the use of a simple balance task for assessing fitness for duty, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2011.09.030&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sargent et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt; states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;results indicate that postural balance may be a viable tool for assessing fatigue associated with time of day, but may not be useful for assessing fatigue associated with extended hours of wake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Roadside Testing&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A pilot study was conducted (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2013.09.015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Forsman, et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;) and it states that the method put together for the pilot...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;further developed, may provide a drowsiness test for roadside surveillance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further Reading&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;MnDOT. (2015) &lt;em&gt;Monitoring Motor Vehicle Driver Fatigue&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;Retrievable form &lt;a href=&quot;http://dotapp7.dot.state.mn.us/projectPages/pages/projectDetails.jsf?id=35917&amp;amp;type=DOCUMENT&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dotapp7.dot.state.mn.us/projectPages/pages/projectDetails.jsf?id=35917&amp;amp;type=DOCUMENT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plus Chapters 9 &amp;amp; 10 of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. (2016). &lt;em&gt;Commercial Motor Vehicle Driver Fatigue, Long-Term Health, and Highway Safety&lt;/em&gt;. Washington (DC): National Academies Press&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.17226/21921&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.17226/21921&lt;/a&gt; NBK: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK384966/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;384966&lt;/a&gt; [&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK384966/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK384966.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Åkerstedt, T., &amp;amp; Gillberg, M. (1990). Subjective and objective sleepiness in the active individual. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 52(1-2), 29-37.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3109/00207459008994241&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3109/00207459008994241&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2265922&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2265922&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Balkin, T. J., Horrey, W. J., Graeber, R. C., Czeisler, C. A., &amp;amp; Dinges, D. F. (2011). The challenges and opportunities of technological approaches to fatigue management. &lt;em&gt;Accident Analysis &amp;amp; Prevention&lt;/em&gt;, 43(2), 565-572.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2009.12.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.aap.2009.12.006&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barr, L., Popkin, S., &amp;amp; Howarth, H. (2009). &lt;em&gt;An evaluation of emerging driver fatigue detection measures and technologies&lt;/em&gt; (No. FMCSA-RRR-09-005). United States: Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration.&lt;br&gt;Retreivable at &lt;a href=&quot;https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/34394&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/34394&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Johns, M. W. (1991). A New Method for Measuring Daytime Sleepiness: The Epworth Sleepiness Scale. &lt;em&gt;Sleep&lt;/em&gt;, 14(6), 540-545.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/14.6.540&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1093/sleep/14.6.540&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forsman, P., Pyykkö, I., Toppila, E., &amp;amp; Hæggström, E. (2014). Feasibility of force platform based roadside drowsiness screening–A pilot study. Accident Analysis &amp;amp; Prevention, 62, 186-190.&lt;br&gt; DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2013.09.015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.aap.2013.09.015&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kaida, K., Takahashi, M., Åkerstedt, T., Nakata, A., Otsuka, Y., Haratani, T., &amp;amp; Fukasawa, K. (2006). Validation of the Karolinska sleepiness scale against performance and EEG variables. Clinical Neurophysiology, 117(7), 1574-1581.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2006.03.011&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.clinph.2006.03.011&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MnDOT. (2015) &lt;em&gt;Monitoring Motor Vehicle Driver Fatigue&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;Retrievable form &lt;a href=&quot;http://dotapp7.dot.state.mn.us/projectPages/pages/projectDetails.jsf?id=35917&amp;amp;type=DOCUMENT&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dotapp7.dot.state.mn.us/projectPages/pages/projectDetails.jsf?id=35917&amp;amp;type=DOCUMENT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;TRSs are also searchable at &lt;a href=&quot;http://dotapp7.dot.state.mn.us/projectPages/pages/homepage.jsf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dotapp7.dot.state.mn.us/projectPages/pages/homepage.jsf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sargent, C., Darwent, D., Ferguson, S. A., &amp;amp; Roach, G. D. (2012). Can a simple balance task be used to assess fitness for duty?. &lt;em&gt;Accident Analysis &amp;amp; Prevention&lt;/em&gt;, 45, 74-79.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2011.09.030&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.aap.2011.09.030&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-03-09T14:47:59.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19235" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-09T19:57:22.303" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've studied that alcohol impairs the functioning of the limbic system, slows functioning of the prefrontal cortex, which alters judgement and reason, and damages neurons leading to memory failure, death, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Noting certain people seem to portray similar stereotypes drunk what determines what personality you have when intoxicated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it a liberated version of more natural expression, free of stress?&#xA;A certain part of the limbic system damaged?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14927" LastActivityDate="2018-03-09T19:57:22.303" Title="What determines inebriated personality?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19236" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19253" CreationDate="2018-03-09T20:44:36.980" Score="22" ViewCount="10651" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems far too spread out to me. Why do we pause mid-conversation and wait seven days? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When my car needed repair after an accident, the bodyshop spent 25 man-hours on repair. They did that over the course of one week, which is good because my car is essential for my life. I can't function without it. But if my car had needed therapy, it would've taken 25 weeks (almost six months) to get fixed. I'd have taken my dangerously broken car to them and had them start checking damage, only to say &quot;times up&quot; an hour later and boot me out the door to use my broken car for another week.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mental health is more complex and also more immediately essential to a person. Why then do we work on it at such a slow pace?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've tried researching alternatives, and other than checking into full-time inpatient care, the other option is to find a therapist who can schedule more than one appointment per week, which is very rare. The therapists that have more than one open slot in their schedule at any time are the least well-regarded online. The well-reviewed ones have wait-lists to get a single appointment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that some therapy is a 'maintenance' model, where the patient only needs to talk about what happened since last session, but what about patients who have a long history to unpack, or are in the middle of a crisis? Why do we apply the weekly appointment model to those cases?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why have therapists adopted this model? What is the rationale and history that led to it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18653" LastActivityDate="2020-10-20T17:46:21.490" Title="Why is almost all therapy done as one-hour sessions weekly?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19237" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="699" CreationDate="2018-03-10T07:01:30.263" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Also, consider lab.js. It's Javascript-based, so no downloads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://felixhenninger.github.io/lab.js/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lab.js&lt;/a&gt; is a tool for constructing browser-based studies built for (but not limited to) the social and cognitive sciences. Studies can be assembled using a graphical builder, or through code. In either case, lab.js takes care of study presentation, response collection and data storage, while providing the greatest possible flexibility with regard to study design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="118" LastActivityDate="2018-03-10T07:01:30.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19240" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1190" CreationDate="2018-03-10T21:34:27.590" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems apparent that generating and hearing self-directed speech during discriminatory listening would inhibit said discrimination. This is because auditory processing of self-directed speech and audio processing in discriminatory listening would have to compete for resources in decoding auditory information, leading to poorer decoding of the already low-quality muffled audio. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If on the other hand the self-directed speech is performed only in-between the trials of discriminatory listening, then this competition for auditory-decoding resources no longer occurs.  In this case, I expect that the self-directed speech would effectively prime cognitive resources that are involved in discriminating the source of the muffled speech. This, then, would result in improved discriminatory performance. At least that would be my initial hypothesis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18658" LastActivityDate="2018-03-10T21:34:27.590" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19241" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-11T01:52:00.357" Score="1" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’m writing a thesis about alexythimic levels based on emo-stroop test results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What could be a good age rate sample? What would be the reason to say I will exclude subjects younger and older than X? Is it easily argued with some already published works? I have read similar works and no one are giving reasons about their selected age range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18660" LastEditorUserId="18660" LastEditDate="2018-03-11T09:19:59.427" LastActivityDate="2018-03-11T09:19:59.427" Title="How can I argue the year range for a sample?" Tags="&lt;sampling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19242" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19229" CreationDate="2018-03-11T06:49:56.523" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When I read this word in context, I imagined somebody being afraid of getting caught. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that in the context of Marihuana, and modern parlance, the phenomenology of what we might call &quot;paranoia&quot; is more akin to an exaggerated anxious-preoccupation with matters that one might otherwise not concern themselves with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So, wouldn't you be paranoid if you didn't want other family members knowing that you smoked weed? Or, would this feeling or emotion be sharpened by THC?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think both. I know people who think that by paying attention to the emotions or concerns that are sharpened under the influence of Marihuana, they will gain some sort of insight into their own underlying preoccupations. In other words: you will only be paranoid of family members knowing you have consumed Marihuana if this was always floating around in your mind. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;when I first use it, I might get paranoid. When I read this word in context, I imagined somebody being afraid of getting caught. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my native Australia, Marihuana is an illegal and dangerous narcotic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, supposing during my College days, before I got right with God, one of the Jazz musicians in my group pulled some out some leaves that he had dried earlier that day. And he rolled it and we smoked it just like you would an ordinary cigarette.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I was crossing the road as the traffic lights were red. And all of a sudden I became self-conscious of the way in which I was walking and started feeling foolish and odd. And I started developing a concern that all people sitting in their cards, waiting for the lights to turn green, were watching me walking and knew I was walking strange. Which meant that they knew I was tripping on Marihuana. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know, you tell me: is that paranoid, or social anxiety, or self-consciousness? Or Is it some deeper, profound insight into the thoughts that may have been floating around all along, just below my conscious awareness? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or was I just really high, confused as fuck, and looking for something to eat at 2 a.m. in the morning? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastActivityDate="2018-03-11T06:49:56.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19243" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19231" CreationDate="2018-03-11T07:34:31.867" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In light of this - has any general impairment test - that perhaps tests reaction times or some other metric, that can be administered at a roadside, been developed? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes. I believe it is called the Standardised Field Sobriety Test (SFST). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, I'm quite serious -- read over your question, and consider whether a well-administered field sobriety test has utility as a &quot;general impairment test&quot; in things other than alcohol intoxication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It involves the administration of a short battery of attentional, cognitive and behavioural tasks, whose results possess a degree of sensitivity and specificity in a number of risk factors for motor vehicle accidents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following reference identifies some parts of the SFST that are sensitive to sleep deprivation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.01813.x/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep Deprivation Does Not Mimic Alcohol Intoxication on Field Sobriety Testing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Abstract:  Previous research shows that sleep deprivation (SD)&#xA;  produces cognitive impairment similar to that caused by alcohol&#xA;  intoxication. Individual studies suggest that SD also causes deficits&#xA;  in motor skills that could be mistaken for intoxication. Consequently,&#xA;  SD often is used as a defense when an impaired driver is charged with&#xA;  driving while intoxicated. Twenty-nine adult subjects participated in&#xA;  two test sessions each, one after a full night’s rest and the other&#xA;  after wakefulness of at least 24 h. Subjects consumed prescribed&#xA;  amounts of alcohol during each session. Law enforcement officers&#xA;  conducted field sobriety tests identical to those with which a driver&#xA;  would be assessed at roadside. Researchers also measured clinical&#xA;  responses of visual function and vital signs. The presence and number&#xA;  of validated impairment clues increase with increasing blood alcohol&#xA;  concentration but not with SD. Thus, SD does not affect motor skills&#xA;  in a manner that would lead an officer to conclude that the suspect is&#xA;  intoxicated, unless intoxication also is present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being well-rested, for example, will increase your pupil size substantially.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hIUrr.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hIUrr.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Governments typically combat this by making drunk driving illegal, and use the concentration of alcohol in breath or alcohol as the definitive measure as to whether a crime has been committed or not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Huh? The crime is the BAC itself. However, I get what you're saying. BAC predicts something that is reliably associated with car accidents, so BAC itself is used as a proxy even if that &quot;something&quot; e.g. poor coordination is absent entirely. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;With fatigue, it's even more problematic - there's no drug to detect at all. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The overarching premise here, however, is that the only &quot;weapon&quot; to prevent fatigue-based accidents is through the use of a police-man's truncheon. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, are you concerned with fatigue, or hours since last having slept? Realistically, it is not possible to detect fatigue in the way that you are thinking. You could detect someone who &quot;most certainly has not slept in the past 100 hours&quot; but fatigue alone is a far more nuanced matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2018-03-11T08:00:58.853" LastActivityDate="2018-03-11T08:00:58.853" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19244" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-11T09:24:36.713" Score="0" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to take the Token Test&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there some website where I can take the test for free?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, is there some simple guide to how the test works so I can re-create it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user18663" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-17T09:13:43.213" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T09:13:43.213" Title="How can I take the Token Test?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19249" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-11T19:39:11.040" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let us consider the following clinical vignette:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 61 y/o male presents complaining of migraines on the order of 2 or 3 times a month. When he gets them, the only thing that helps to mitigate them is a combination of Sumatriptan 100mg and Tramadol 37.5/325 . Given the patient's background, He asks you &quot;I was hoping to commence treatment with an SNRI like Effexor or Cymbalta but I am concerned about Serotonin Syndrome when I get a migraine.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on best practice and current evidence, how legitimate are the patient's concerns?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18670" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-12T17:29:54.200" LastActivityDate="2018-03-12T17:29:54.200" Title="Polypharmacy involving sumatriptan, tramadol and serotoninergic antidepressants and risk of serotonin syndrome" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-03-11T22:59:18.210" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19252" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-12T11:09:14.087" Score="3" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, I was just wondering - who can be attributed as originating the idea of a &quot;construct&quot; in psychology? Does the general concept of an epistemic &quot;construct&quot; feed directly into the way the term is used in psychological measurement and psychometrics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess is that the idea of a &quot;construct&quot; originated with Piaget. Is this correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18679" LastActivityDate="2018-03-12T13:43:03.420" Title="The origin of the term &quot;construct&quot; in the cognitive sciences" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19236" CreationDate="2018-03-12T12:44:29.343" Score="12" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Q1 — Your Main Question — Why is almost all therapy done as one-hour sessions weekly?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The studies&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two studies attempted to observe the effects of session frequency in routine practice of psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Both relied on retrospective evaluations by patients after completing therapy, and on naturalistic data regarding session frequency and dose. Each was asked to rate his or her recovery in therapy, including decrease in symptom distress and increasein morale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both studies indicated a relationship between the frequency of sessions and patients’ perceptions of recovery, where patients being seen only once a week had less positive perceptions of their experience than patients being seen two times a week or more. In fact, positive perceptions of recovery were incrementally related with the frequency of sessions, with once a week indicating the least amount of recovery, twice a week somewhat more, and three times a week the most recovery in therapy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/00030651990470031001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freedman, Hoffenber, Vorus, &amp;amp; Frosch, 1999&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jan_Carlsson2/publication/12217712_Varieties_of_long-term_outcome_among_patients_in_psychoanalysis_and_long-term_psychotherapy_-_A_review_of_findings_in_the_Stockholm_Outcome_of_Psychoanalysis_and_Psychotherapy_Project_STOPPP/links/59e5ad26aca272390edfe19b/Varieties-of-long-term-outcome-among-patients-in-psychoanalysis-and-long-term-psychotherapy-A-review-of-findings-in-the-Stockholm-Outcome-of-Psychoanalysis-and-Psychotherapy-Project-STOPPP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sandell et al., 2000&lt;/a&gt;). This provides some evidence that patients’ perceptions of their own recovery may be affected positively by increased session frequency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1080/713869616&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A follow-up study to Sandell et al. (2000)&lt;/a&gt; found an interaction effect in long-term follow-up (i.e., 3 years, with measures taken each year) between duration and frequency, where outcome was better among the low frequency/low duration group and among the high frequency/high duration group (&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1080/713869616&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sandell, Blomberg, &amp;amp; Lazar, 2002&lt;/a&gt;). These findings illustrate the potentially complex relationship between session frequency and other parameters, including the number of sessions and duration of the course of treatment; ultimately, they indicate that session frequency seems to be related not only to immediate perception of therapy, but to long-term outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;So what is this telling us?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Twice weekly or more sessions may gain quicker results in perception, but in the long term, it is doing the client a disservice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The frequency of sessions helps balance cost, intensity, and emotional containment (&lt;a href=&quot;https://drgaryseeman.com/getting-the-most-out-of-psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Seeman, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).  Therapy can be emotionally intense and someone may learn many things (about themselves and what they are dealing with) in session. More time in session can raise an amount of information which can be difficult to absorb mentally and emotionally, and this is what &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1080/713869616&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sandell, Blomberg, &amp;amp; Lazar (2002)&lt;/a&gt; was starting to realise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;High frequency/high duration therapy as indicated by Sandell, Blomberg, &amp;amp; Lazar would be very costly, and, from my experience as a therapist who as part of training has had to undergo therapy too, would not be as beneficial as low frequency/low duration therapy.   With high frequency/high duration therapy, the client is not necessarily fully assimilating the information at their own pace, and, the chances are, the therapist is guiding too much on how to interpret the information raised in session. Low frequency/low duration therapy is about pacing your therapy, and the fact that therapy does not just happen in the room.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The time outside the room enables the client to assimilate the information which has been discussed in session at their own pace.  Depending on the form of therapy, the therapist may even set some &quot;homework tasks&quot; outside of the session &lt;strong&gt;which are optional, but may help with assimilation processes&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being weekly, it will be recent enough that session continuity will be maintained.  Any longer in duration between sessions runs the risk of continuity problems as what was discussed can be hard to remember to a certain degree, and the flow of conversation and therapy can be upset slightly, affecting rapport.  There may be times when you may wish to cancel a scheduled appointment with your therapist because you are finding things too difficult.  That is fine as long as you give the pre-agreed notice to your therapist.  Late cancellations can incur cancellation charges with most therapists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is part of therapy in some cases to want to skip a session once in a while, and as long as there are not too many cancellations, your therapist will understand and can pick things up when you return, whilst examining with you what made things difficult.  If there are a lot of cancellations, questions will be raised as to whether you are ready for therapy. &lt;strong&gt;in order for therapy to work, the client needs to be ready for it&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clients immersed in intense emotional or life changes may see their therapist twice a week or more often to help keep them be emotionally centered and assist them in activating coping skills (&lt;a href=&quot;https://drgaryseeman.com/getting-the-most-out-of-psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Seeman, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;however, once things have reached a certain point, it is better for the client to revert to once-weekly sessions for reasons already pointed out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Q2 — Why do we pause mid-conversation and wait seven days?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the idea of conversations being cut mid-way because of the end of session, a good therapist will manage the session and enable as smooth an ending as possible.  Although sessions booked will be an hour long, the typical “therapy hour” is 45 to 50 minutes.  In some situations a therapist may offer longer sessions. For instance, a couple in therapy may find themselves just getting into a long-needed conversation. Added time may help them maintain the momentum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 10 to 15 minute difference with the &quot;therapy hour&quot; enables therapy to be closed as smoothly as possible giving time for the client to transition from therapy session to life outside the room.  When you are approaching the end of the therapy hour, your therapist should be mindful of that and work towards a smooth closure of the session in order for the client not to be &quot;left dangling with no support&quot; after just talking about something very emotional without some kind of closure for the time being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further Reading&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For tips on how to get the most out of Psychotherapy, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://drgaryseeman.com/getting-the-most-out-of-psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the webpage by Gary Seeman, PhD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information about what makes therapy work, see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Duncan, B. L., Miller, S. D., Wampold, B. E., &amp;amp; Hubble, M. A. (2010). &lt;em&gt;The heart and soul of change: Delivering what works in therapy&lt;/em&gt;. American Psychological Association.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/12075-000&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/12075-000&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freedman, N., Hoffenberg, J. D., Vorus, N., &amp;amp; Frosch, A. (1999). The effectiveness of psychoanalytic psychotherapy: The role of treatment duration, frequency of sessions, and the therapeutic relationship. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association&lt;/em&gt;, 47(3), 741-772.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/00030651990470031001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/00030651990470031001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sandell, R., Blomberg, J., Lazar, A., Carlsson, J., Broberg, J., &amp;amp; Schubert, J. (2000). Varieties of long-term outcome among patients in psychoanalysis and long-term psychotherapy: A review of findings in the Stockholm outcome of psychoanalysis and psychotherapy project (STOPP). &lt;em&gt;The International Journal of Psychoanalysis&lt;/em&gt;, 81(5), 921-942.&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;No working DOI available&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;[&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jan_Carlsson2/publication/12217712_Varieties_of_long-term_outcome_among_patients_in_psychoanalysis_and_long-term_psychotherapy_-_A_review_of_findings_in_the_Stockholm_Outcome_of_Psychoanalysis_and_Psychotherapy_Project_STOPPP/links/59e5ad26aca272390edfe19b/Varieties-of-long-term-outcome-among-patients-in-psychoanalysis-and-long-term-psychotherapy-A-review-of-findings-in-the-Stockholm-Outcome-of-Psychoanalysis-and-Psychotherapy-Project-STOPPP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12217712_Varieties_of_long-term_outcome_among_patients_in_psychoanalysis_and_long-term_psychotherapy_-_A_review_of_findings_in_the_Stockholm_Outcome_of_Psychoanalysis_and_Psychotherapy_Project_STOPPP]&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12217712_Varieties_of_long-term_outcome_among_patients_in_psychoanalysis_and_long-term_psychotherapy_-_A_review_of_findings_in_the_Stockholm_Outcome_of_Psychoanalysis_and_Psychotherapy_Project_STOPPP]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sandell, R., Blomberg, J., &amp;amp; Lazar, A. (2002). Time matters: On temporal interactions in long-term follow-up of long-term psychotherapies. &lt;em&gt;Psychotherapy Research&lt;/em&gt;, 12(1), 39-58.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1080/713869616&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/713869616&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seeman, G. (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;Getting the Most Out of Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://drgaryseeman.com/getting-the-most-out-of-psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://drgaryseeman.com/getting-the-most-out-of-psychotherapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-15T08:02:08.630" LastActivityDate="2018-03-15T08:02:08.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19254" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-12T12:54:39.120" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Somewhere in the the past I saw a study talking about a type of ape that raises it's young in creches, unlike chimpanzees which at most carefully choose occasional babysitters. The study made the case that the apes with young in creches had more mirror neurons, and learned though mimicry more easily than chimpanzees, despite lower overall intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Haven't been able to find the study and it seems there are now some divergences in opinion about the function of mirror neurons. What I would really like to know is, is there evidence around child-rearing environments and mirror neuron development, and the impact of that in adult behaviour? In humans or across species is fine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18668" LastActivityDate="2018-03-12T12:54:39.120" Title="Mirror neurons in different ape &amp; child rearing" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19255" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19252" CreationDate="2018-03-12T13:43:03.420" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term &quot;construct&quot; means:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a scientific theory, particularly within psychology, a &lt;em&gt;hypothetical construct&lt;/em&gt; is an explanatory variable which is not directly observable. For example, the concepts of &lt;em&gt;intelligence&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;motivation&lt;/em&gt; are used to explain phenomena in psychology, but neither is directly observable. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The earliest reference I can find to the term &quot;construct&quot; is from Clark L. Hull (1943) pp. 21—22&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In some cases there may be employed in scientific theory a whole series of hypothetical unobserved entities; such a series is presented by the hierarchy of postulated physical entities: molecule, atom, and electron,the molecule supposedly, being constituted of atoms and the atom in its turn being constituted of electrons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A rough parallel to this chain of hypothetical entities from the physical sciences will be encountered in the present system of behavior theory. For the above reasons the subject of symbolic constructs, intervening variables, or hypothetical entities which are not directly observable requires comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Despite the great value of logical constructs or intervening variables in scientific theory, their use is attended with certain difficulties and even hazards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Reference&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hull, C. L. &lt;em&gt;Principles of behavior&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Appleton-Century, 1943 [&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://s-f-walker.org.uk/pubsebooks/pdfs/Principles%20of%20Behavior%20-%20Clark%20Hull.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-03-12T13:43:03.420" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19257" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-12T16:01:01.967" Score="3" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/B00282MRU4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The Talent Code,&quot;&lt;/a&gt; the author makes this statement:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What's the simplest way to diminish the skills of a superstar talent? The answer: don't let them practice for a month. Causing skill to evaporate...only requires that you stop a skilled person from systematically firing his or her circuit [and continuing to grow myelin] for a mere thirty days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, later in the book there is this statement:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Myelin wraps—it doesn't unwrap. Like a highway-paving machine, myelination happens in one direction. Once a skill circuit is insulated, you can't un-insulate it (except through age or disease).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Assuming these are both true&lt;/em&gt;, how do they coexist? If a neural circuit is not getting un-insulated in a month of no practice, why can't the performer resume at their previous level of skill?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18681" LastActivityDate="2019-04-21T10:13:49.370" Title="If demyelination doesn't typically occur, what happens when a musician doesn't practice for a month?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;training&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19263" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19266" CreationDate="2018-03-14T09:43:45.763" Score="4" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read in an article recently:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study identified that kids growing up without fathers had a higher proportion of people developing depression, increased tendency towards anger and a higher probability of committing criminal acts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm doing some research on the effects of divorce on children and I'm interested in getting this paper as a footnote. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;What is the study that identified that kids growing up without fathers were angrier and more depressed?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastActivityDate="2018-03-14T18:04:40.890" Title="What is the study that identified that kids growing up without fathers were angrier and more depressed?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19264" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-14T11:21:19.847" Score="2" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;As part of a neuroplasticity training program a subject has to perform in various Stroop Effect tests. Such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Color to color names&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Animal to animal names&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Position of a word within a square&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Number of words within a square&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the subject performs perfect in all tests, and is extremely fast, has no problem whatsoever to perform in this test (meaning that responses are equally fast as if colors/symbols matches their words/positions), what does that tell us about the subject's brain or neurology? What is its meaning in relation to cognitive functioning and what are some real-life implications that can be derived from such a performance in this test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18690" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-14T23:10:32.137" LastActivityDate="2018-03-14T23:10:32.137" Title="What does it mean one performs perfect and quickest Stroop tests?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19265" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3428" CreationDate="2018-03-14T17:41:57.623" Score="5" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Masturbation in men or women does not negatively affect cognitive processes&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I pointed out in &lt;a href=&quot;https://health.stackexchange.com/q/11458&quot;&gt;another question in Health.SE&lt;/a&gt;, masturbation was a diagnosable psychological condition until DSM II in 1968 (Ley, 2014), and the American Medical Association consensually declared masturbation as normal in 1972 (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1094-5725&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Planned Parenthood Federation of America, 2003&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Historically, masturbation was discouraged for a variety of reasons including the thought that it lead to mental health problems.  However, that was disproved.  A lot of the history is talked about in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.plannedparenthood.org/uploads/filer_public/8e/f5/8ef53e54-2fcb-4f92-933e-59fa0a09285b/masturbation_11-02.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Planned Parenthood Federation of America's White paper (2002)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The abstract of &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J056v14n02_02&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coleman, E. (2003)&lt;/a&gt; states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research on masturbation has indicated that, contrary to traditional beliefs, masturbation has been found to be a common sexual behavior and linked to indicators of sexual health. While there are no general indicators of ill health associated with masturbation, it can be powerfully negative or positive for many individuals. As an example, it is widely used in sex therapy as a means of improving the sexual health of the individual and/or relationship. Promoting masturbation as a means of a public health strategy for sexual health is highly controversial; however, there are arguments and evidence that suggest that this may be an important part of any public health approach to improving sexual health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst POIS and PCT/PCD mentioned by @AlexStone exists, these problems are not actually a result of masturbation.  Whilst the causes of POIS and PCT/PCD are unknown, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postorgasmic_illness_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;some doctors hypothesise&lt;/a&gt; that POIS is caused by an auto-immune reaction, such as an allergy to the males' own semen (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrurol.2011.17&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Farley, 2011&lt;/a&gt;; Waldinger MD, 2016; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/news/665820/posts&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reuters Health, 2002&lt;/a&gt;) Other doctors suspect a hormone imbalance as the cause. While other causes have been proposed as well, none of the proposed causes seem to fully explain the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With PCT/PCD, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-coital_tristesse&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; states that some doctors prescribe serotonin reuptake inhibitors, such as fluoxetine, to treat PCT. After two weeks, people reported that, &quot;while sex was less intensely pleasurable, no emotional crash followed.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coleman, E. (2003). Masturbation as a Means of Achieving Sexual Health. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Psychology &amp;amp; Human Sexuality&lt;/em&gt; 14(2-3): pp 5-16&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J056v14n02_02&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1300/J056v14n02_02&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Farley SJ (2011). Sexual dysfunction: Postorgasmic illness syndrome. &lt;em&gt;Nature Reviews Urology&lt;/em&gt;. 8(3): 121.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrurol.2011.17&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/nrurol.2011.17&lt;/a&gt;. PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21513019&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;21513019&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ley, D. J. (2014). &lt;em&gt;The Myth of Sex Addiction&lt;/em&gt;. Rowman &amp;amp; Littlefield. p. 12.&lt;br&gt;ISBN: 978-1-4422-1305-0.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Planned Parenthood Federation of America (2002). &lt;em&gt;White Paper: Masturbation —&#xA;From Stigma to Sexual Health&lt;/em&gt; [Free PDF]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.plannedparenthood.org/uploads/filer_public/8e/f5/8ef53e54-2fcb-4f92-933e-59fa0a09285b/masturbation_11-02.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.plannedparenthood.org/uploads/filer_public/8e/f5/8ef53e54-2fcb-4f92-933e-59fa0a09285b/masturbation_11-02.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Planned Parenthood Federation of America (2003). &quot;Masturbation: From myth to sexual health&quot;. Contemporary Sexuality. Mount Vernon, IA: American Association of Sex Educators, Counselors, and Therapists. 37 (3): v. ISSN &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1094-5725&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1094-5725&lt;/a&gt;. OCLC &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37229308&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;37229308&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;&quot;Finally, the American medical community pronounced masturbation as normal in 1972 American Medical Association publication, Human Sexuality (Rowan, 2000)&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reuters Health (2002). &lt;em&gt;Dutch Doctor Identifies Post-Orgasmic Syndrome&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/news/665820/posts&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/news/665820/posts&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Waldinger MD (2016). Post-Orgasmic Illness Syndrome. In: Levine S, Risen CB, Althof SE. &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Clinical Sexuality for Mental Health Professionals (3rd ed.)&lt;/em&gt;. Routledge. p. 380.&lt;br&gt;ISBN: 978-1-3175-0745-1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-03-14T17:41:57.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19266" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19263" CreationDate="2018-03-14T18:04:40.890" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2518247/Growing-father-permanently-alter-BRAIN-Fatherless-children-likely-grow-angry-turn-drugs.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A report in the Daily Mail in 2013&lt;/a&gt; had the headline:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Growing up without a father can permanently alter the BRAIN: Fatherless children are more likely to grow up angry and turn to drugs&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dr Gabriella Gobbi, who carried out the research with colleagues at the medical faculty at McGill University in Canada, said: &lt;em&gt;‘This is the first time research findings have shown that paternal deprivation during development affects the neurobiology of the offspring.’&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2518247/Growing-father-permanently-alter-BRAIN-Fatherless-children-likely-grow-angry-turn-drugs.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spencer, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After some searching, &lt;strong&gt;I believe the source article is:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bambico, F. R., Lacoste, B., Hattan, P. R., &amp;amp; Gobbi, G. (2013). Father absence in the monogamous California mouse impairs social behavior and modifies dopamine and glutamate synapses in the medial prefrontal cortex. &lt;em&gt;Cerebral Cortex&lt;/em&gt;, 25(5), 1163-1175.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht310&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1093/cercor/bht310&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and the research was &lt;strong&gt;carried out on California mice&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The role of the father in psycho-affective development is indispensable. Yet, the neurobehavioral effects of paternal deprivation (PD) are poorly understood. Here, we examined the behavioral consequences of PD in the California mouse, a species displaying monogamous bonding and biparental care, and assessed its impact on dopamine (DA), serotonin (&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;-HT), and glutamate (GLU) transmission in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). In adult males, deficits in social interaction were observed, when a father-deprived (PD) mouse was matched with a PD partner. In adult females, deficits were observed when matching a PD animal with a non-PD control, and when matching 2 PD animals. PD also increased aggression in females. Behavioral abnormalities in PD females were associated with a sensitized response to the locomotor-activating effect of amphetamine. Following immunocytochemical demonstration of DA, &lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;-HT, and GLU innervations in the mPFC, we employed in vivo electrophysiology and microiontophoresis, and found that PD attenuated the basal activity of low-spiking pyramidal neurons in females. PD decreased pyramidal responses to DA in females, while enhancing responses to NMDA in both sexes. We thus demonstrate that, during critical neurodevelopmental periods, PD leads to sex-dependent abnormalities in social and reward-related behaviors that are associated with disturbances in cortical DA and GLU neurotransmission.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spencer, B. (2013) Growing up without a father can permanently alter the BRAIN: Fatherless children are more likely to grow up angry and turn to drugs. In: Daily Mail [Online]&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2518247/Growing-father-permanently-alter-BRAIN-Fatherless-children-likely-grow-angry-turn-drugs.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2518247/Growing-father-permanently-alter-BRAIN-Fatherless-children-likely-grow-angry-turn-drugs.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-03-14T18:04:40.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19269" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-15T07:56:32.490" Score="2" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Observation:&lt;/strong&gt; After living 10 month in India me and other exchange students (subjectively) rated the attractiveness of Indians far higher than at the beginning of the stay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hypothesis:&lt;/strong&gt; It (evolutionarily) makes sense to initially have a low attraction to strangers (&amp;lt;-&gt; &quot;do not fall in love with the enemy&quot;), but to have a mechanism that lets the perceived attractiveness of people in your surroundings increase over time (&amp;lt;-&gt; &quot;procreate within new peer group&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; Is there a known psychological/biological effect that lets the attractiveness of humans with other ethnic background increase over time when living within this ethnic group?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18699" LastActivityDate="2018-03-15T07:56:32.490" Title="Does the percieved attraction of peers change significantly when living in a foreign culture?" Tags="&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-04-18T13:52:09.907" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19270" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-15T10:44:32.373" Score="3" ViewCount="165" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that deprivation of a father affects development of children - and leads to them being angrier and more depressed as an adult:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;‘This is the first time research findings have shown that paternal deprivation during development affects the neurobiology of the offspring.’ (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2518247/Growing-father-permanently-alter-BRAIN-Fatherless-children-likely-grow-angry-turn-drugs.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spencer, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The research article this was based on was: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Bambico, F. R., Lacoste, B., Hattan, P. R., &amp;amp; Gobbi, G. (2013). Father absence in the monogamous California mouse impairs social behavior and modifies dopamine and glutamate synapses in the medial prefrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 25(5), 1163-1175.&#xA;  DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht310&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1093/cercor/bht310&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So there must be a corresponding study of development changes without a mother. What are the corresponding effects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;What is the corresponding study about the effects of growing up without a mother?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4338" LastActivityDate="2018-03-15T10:44:32.373" Title="What is the corresponding study about the effects of growing up without a mother?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19271" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19277" CreationDate="2018-03-15T20:11:09.467" Score="3" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;One way to model a neuron which adapts to input current is an Adaptive LIF [1]. In this model, the input current is subtracted by $n$, which changes with $dn=\frac{-n}{\tau_n}dt$ [2] and $n$ is incremented by $\text{inc}_n$ every time the neuron spikes. $\tau_n$ can be considered as the Adaptation Time constant, given it affects how quickly the adaptation state decays to zero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What ranges of $\frac{-n}{\tau_n}$ have been found in biology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Koch, Christof. Biophysics of Computation: Information Processing&#xA;       in Single Neurons. Oxford University Press, 1999. p. 339&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/nengo/nengo/blob/v2.7.0/nengo/neurons.py#L485&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nengo Neural Simulator code&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-03-16T21:09:50.477" Title="How long can neuron adaptation last?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19272" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-15T21:56:56.940" Score="0" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;If it is used, how is it used? Where is it used? Which countries are using?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18445" LastActivityDate="2018-03-16T05:24:18.627" Title="Are psychometrics used in the public sector?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-03-19T01:52:59.043" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19273" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19272" CreationDate="2018-03-16T05:24:18.627" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The wide majority of companies have different tests to measure different cognitive and personality features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all IQ (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intelligence quotient&lt;/a&gt;) - is a total score derived from several standardized tests designed to assess human intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It helps filter applicants before even meeting them. (IQ is the highest predictor of educational and work success)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, there are personality tests. Imagine you're looking for a lawyer. A lawyer preferably should be very emotionally stable and argumentative. In psychometric language, this can be measured with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big Five Personality Test&lt;/a&gt; - Low agreeableness and low neuroticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are cooler psychometric tests that are in essence better than Big Five Personality, but they are not commonly used, because of their length or difficulty of analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm going to list my personal favorite psychometrics here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millon_Clinical_Multiaxial_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bo_Bach/publication/293769328_The_Alternative_DSM-5_Model_for_Personality_Disorders_Validity_and_Clinical_Utility_of_the_Pathological_Personality_Traits_Criterion/links/56bb12b008ae0a6bc95616a8/The-Alternative-DSM-5-Model-for-Personality-Disorders-Validity-and-Clinical-Utility-of-the-Pathological-Personality-Traits-Criterion.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this psychometrics are more useful for clinical/forensic settings rather than Human Resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18242" LastActivityDate="2018-03-16T05:24:18.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19275" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-16T13:25:16.923" Score="2" ViewCount="330" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's imagine an experiment. We will tell N normal people that they need to act randomly in the Rock–paper–scissors game (in this game Game Optimal Strategy is to choose an action with uniform probability 1/3). &#xA;Two question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How close to uniformly randomness can we expect each person to act? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;More important question. Will this be a stationary distribution or it will change over the time if there will be a lot of trials?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(People in the experiment can't use any kind of external random generators&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13071" OwnerDisplayName="Brans Ds" LastEditorUserId="17308" LastEditDate="2018-03-17T16:43:21.177" LastActivityDate="2018-05-09T00:09:36.483" Title="Can people act randomly?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-05-09T01:54:40.457" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19271" CreationDate="2018-03-16T21:09:50.477" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;An Adaptive LIF is just one approximation of a biological learning rule. It is not a model for how biology actually works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most-studied biological learning rule is long-term potentiation in the hippocampus, though similar processes occur elsewhere including neocortex. &quot;LTP&quot; can come in shorter or longer forms, but the longest forms of LTP are potentially permanent. The processes for maintaining this permanence are referred to as &lt;em&gt;maintenance&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;consolidation&lt;/em&gt;. Some of the longer lasting forms of LTP have been shown to last weeks to years (for example, see Abraham et al., 2002). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At that point, any 'adaptation' is just as well thought of as additional plasticity, because living neurons are constantly getting input and adjusting synaptic weights. Depression is just as important in biological circuits as is potentiation, and depressed circuits can atrophy completely, effectively being permanently lost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All nervous connectivity is due to some sort of plasticity at some point in development, and some of those connections will persist throughout the lifetime of the organism. However, synapse weights are constantly being updated in a living system. It isn't really appropriate to think of any certain weight as being permanent, while also not appropriate to think of any arbitrary synapse as possessing an adaptation time constant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abraham, W. C., Logan, B., Greenwood, J. M., &amp;amp; Dragunow, M. (2002). Induction and experience-dependent consolidation of stable long-term potentiation lasting months in the hippocampus. Journal of Neuroscience, 22(21), 9626-9634.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Collingridge, G. L., Peineau, S., Howland, J. G., &amp;amp; Wang, Y. T. (2010). Long-term depression in the CNS. Nature reviews neuroscience, 11(7), 459.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Malenka, R. C., &amp;amp; Nicoll, R. A. (1999). Long-term potentiation--a decade of progress?. Science, 285(5435), 1870-1874.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lynch, M. A. (2004). Long-term potentiation and memory. Physiological reviews, 84(1), 87-136.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-03-16T21:09:50.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19278" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-17T12:08:43.137" Score="2" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want spend some time reminiscing about the past and I want to go deep. Upon Googling techniques on how to help memory recall I ran into an old fact I had forgotten about (ironically). The fact is that with every iteration of a memory reconstruction the memory is altered because it is open to suggestion. Of course tissues are plastic and they will change with time and use. I wanted to ask whether it is possible to do a recall in manner that conserves the integrity of the memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18718" LastEditorUserId="18718" LastEditDate="2018-03-18T00:15:23.600" LastActivityDate="2018-03-18T00:15:23.600" Title="Is it possible to recall old memories without altering them?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19279" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-17T14:53:32.900" Score="3" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let’s say you flip a coin three thousand times. If it comes up heads two thousand times, I think it’s safe to say that people will assume this is a rigged coin in spite of the fact that each outcome is equally likely. Closer to the middle, the line gets less certain. Some people would consider 1550/1450 a genuine outcome whereas others wouldn’t. Is there research that has attempted to measure the crossover point here? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I’m looking for some study that has presented people with “random” data, such as coin flips or die rolls, and asked them if they think it was “rigged” or not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17308" LastActivityDate="2018-03-17T14:53:32.900" Title="Is there research that estimates when people think something supposedly random is rigged?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19284" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-17T22:07:54.377" Score="4" ViewCount="204" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any conversion tricks or strategies to talk an individual with schizophrenia out of their delusions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose one has a friend who is delusional, and the friend believes there is a conspiracy going on against him. Although the extent e.g. people and time required to orchestrate such a conspiracy would be impossible, this person does not think of it as such. Complicating matters is the fact that this person declines to take antipsychotics, precisely because he believes this is what his enemies would like him to do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How might one talk this person out of their delusions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastEditorUserId="7672" LastEditDate="2020-01-02T17:29:32.543" LastActivityDate="2020-01-02T17:29:32.543" Title="Can individuals with schizophrenia be talked out of their delusions?" Tags="&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19286" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-17T23:09:31.500" Score="5" ViewCount="378" Body="&lt;p&gt;Meditation seems to be one of the top techniques recommended nowadays for self-development (e.g. McGonigal, K. 2011). For people who want to overcome &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;behavioural addictions&lt;/a&gt; (i.e. any &quot;&lt;em&gt;addiction that involves a compulsion to engage in a rewarding non-drug-related behavior – sometimes called a natural reward&lt;/em&gt;&quot;, such as food, sex, masturbation, pornography, gambling, internet, video games, nail biting, compulsive skin picking, compulsive hair pulling, etc.):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which meditation techniques (e.g. mindfulness, Vipassana, Yoga, Zazen, TM, Kundalini, etc.) are the most recommendable, according to state-of-the-art Psychology and Neuroscience?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Additionally, given the fact that an average layman cannot afford going full-time monk, what would be a recommendable frequency of the practice (in terms of minutes/hours per day) to see palpable results in a reasonable time?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is a single meditation technique enough to overcome behavioral addictions? Or would it better to practice multiple meditation techniques at the same time? Or maybe different meditation techniques for different situations? For instance, are there any special meditation techniques to handle &lt;strong&gt;strong, compulsive urges&lt;/strong&gt; in the presence of &lt;strong&gt;addiction cues/triggers&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is meditation as a whole enough, or would one need to complement it with other non-meditative practices or measures? For example, positive affirmations, hypnosis, or maybe going to a therapist, exercising, sleeping 8+ hours, etc. I'm just throwing some ideas around.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McGonigal, K. (2011). &lt;em&gt;The willpower instinct: How self-control works, why it matters, and what you can do to get more of it.&lt;/em&gt; Penguin Books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18631" LastEditorUserId="18631" LastEditDate="2018-03-22T12:00:41.337" LastActivityDate="2019-05-02T08:04:37.560" Title="Best meditation techniques to overcome Behavioral Addictions?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19288" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-18T20:15:55.473" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we consider neurons nodes and connections between them edges, are cycles (from graph theory) are possible in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To put it another way, would the signal generated from &lt;code&gt;neuron1&lt;/code&gt; be able to travel around in a circuit of other neurons and come back to activate &lt;code&gt;neuron1&lt;/code&gt; again? Or is this generally not possible because &lt;code&gt;neuron1&lt;/code&gt; would still be recovering/re-potentiating?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If yes, as a programmer I would expect this to be the mechanism by which contiguous experience would be possible (ie. the main event loop of an application). Any studies/field/reseachers you could point me to for further research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18730" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-03-18T21:08:59.227" LastActivityDate="2018-03-18T21:08:59.227" Title="Are cycles possible in circuits of neurons?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-03-20T16:13:28.463" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19290" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19288" CreationDate="2018-03-18T21:07:32.980" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are tons of cycles in the brain. The study of how the brain uses these cycles are used for computation is called Theoretical Neuroscience. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/tagged/theoretical-neuroscience?page=1&amp;amp;sort=votes&amp;amp;pagesize=15&quot;&gt;Browsing the tag on this website&lt;/a&gt; is one way to become introduced to those ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, these loops are framed in different ways in &quot;How to Build a Brain&quot; by Chris Eliasmith. Loops involving a population node connecting to itself are considered to be memories. Longer loops, such as the basal-ganglia$\rightarrow$thalamus$\rightarrow$cortex loop could be considered analogous to the &quot;main event loop&quot; of a program, but with a few caveats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-03-18T21:07:32.980" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19294" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-19T11:13:50.140" Score="1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been a lot of studies of meditation, but my understanding is a lot of it is put out by journals that have an invested interest in meditation &quot;working&quot; by whatever metric. Is there an overview of the literature that attempts to curate the things that we're most sure of? I'm looking for a meaty tertiary source, rather than say, a meta analysis. Ideally, I'd like something like a textbook regarding its effects and evidence thereof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18735" LastEditorUserId="18735" LastEditDate="2018-03-19T18:58:17.900" LastActivityDate="2018-03-19T18:58:17.900" Title="Comprehensive Overview of the Literature regarding Meditation" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19295" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19304" CreationDate="2018-03-19T12:57:02.530" Score="1" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’m looking for resources about the relaxation training component of CBT. I had a professor who spent a good deal of time on it in class, but I’m no longer attending that school and he’s notoriously unresponsive to email. I’m looking for anything about the technique as used in cognitive-behavioral therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our professor did mention &lt;em&gt;The Relaxation Response&lt;/em&gt;, a book published in the ‘70s, was the basis for the type he was teaching about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17308" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-03-20T15:56:11.127" LastActivityDate="2018-03-20T15:56:11.127" Title="Resources about relaxation training as used in CBT" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19298" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19301" CreationDate="2018-03-19T15:18:24.710" Score="5" ViewCount="338" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find some research - or at least a professional analysis - on the concept of naming your negative self-talk so that you can &quot;take away its power&quot; - that is, separate it from yourself and dismiss it.  I've also heard this referred to as &quot;naming your fear.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, an actor might name his negative self-talk &quot;the critic&quot; so that he can dismiss those thoughts as being &quot;just the critic running his mouth.&quot;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example (and the one that I'm specifically curious about) is in software engineering, where there's a lot of talk about &quot;imposture syndrome,&quot; which in this context is just a fancy way of describing the common experience of feeling like you're underqualified for the job you're doing.  Giving it such a formal name has the added benefit of being &quot;proof&quot; that it's an irrational fear - that is, &quot;Even qualified people are afraid that they're underqualified, so me thinking that I'm  underqualified doesn't mean that it's true.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The specific questions that I'm trying to answer are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a name for this kind of technique?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have there been any studies done on this technique?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Specifically relating to the &quot;imposture syndrome&quot; example, how is this different from hypochondria?  And,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any related concepts that I might want to take a look at?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18738" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-10T07:37:25.933" LastActivityDate="2018-09-10T16:44:32.903" Title="Word for naming your negative self-talk to overcome it" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19301" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19298" CreationDate="2018-03-19T17:57:54.273" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are talking about is the powerful technique of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compartmentalization_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Compartmentalisation&lt;/a&gt;.  As highlighted in the Wikipedia link I provided here, &lt;strong&gt;normally speaking&lt;/strong&gt; (emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Compartmentalization is a &lt;strong&gt;subconscious&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological defense mechanism&lt;/a&gt; used to avoid &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt;, or the mental discomfort and anxiety caused by a person's having conflicting values, cognitions, emotions, beliefs, etc. within themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Compartmentalization allows these conflicting ideas to co-exist by inhibiting direct or explicit acknowledgement and interaction between separate compartmentalized self states (Leary&amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;&amp;nbsp;Tangney, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.6.1036&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carolin Showers (1992)&lt;/a&gt; described compartmentalisation as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the tendency to organize positive and negative knowledge about the self into separate, uniformly valenced categories (self-aspects). As long as positive self-aspects are activated, access to negative information should be minimized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;however, you can consciously compartmentalise negative thoughts, feelings etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to hypochondria in your question, compartmentalisation can be extremely difficult for hypochondriacs, as can they have trouble separating personal health facts from false perceptions of their personal health (see Illness Anxiety Disorder in DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/professional/psychiatric-disorders/somatic-symptom-and-related-disorders/illness-anxiety-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merck Manual&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/F01-F99/F40-F48/F45-/F45.21&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ICD-10 code F45.21&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of concepts directly and indirectly related to compartmentalisation, so that part of your question is too broad to answer fully here.  However as a start, you could look at secondary trauma (also called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_traumatization&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;vicarious trauma&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Compartmentalisation is often employed, for example, by people within the emergency services (fire officers, paramedics, police officers, coastguard etc.) in order for them to concentrate on the immediate task whilst temporarily isolating themselves from their emotions. Problems can come later for these people if they do not deal with their compartmentalised emotions afterwards during debriefing or clinical supervision sessions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When studying primary and secondary trauma in medical emergency personnel, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765611431834&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jane Shakespeare-Finch (2011)&lt;/a&gt; described this as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;adaptive compartmentalizing of emotion during a scenario in which focus on the patient is paramount.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. (5th Edition)&lt;/em&gt;. Washington, DC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leary, M. R., &amp;amp; Tangney, J. P. (Eds.). (2011). &lt;em&gt;Handbook of self and identity&lt;/em&gt;. Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shakespeare-Finch, J. (2011). Primary and secondary trauma in emergency personnel. &lt;em&gt;Traumatology&lt;/em&gt;, 17(4), 1-2.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765611431834&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/1534765611431834&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Showers, C. (1992). Compartmentalization of positive and negative self-knowledge: Keeping bad apples out of the bunch. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 62(6), 1036-1049.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.6.1036&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-3514.62.6.1036&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-19T18:25:12.453" LastActivityDate="2018-03-19T18:25:12.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19302" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-19T18:38:33.420" Score="1" ViewCount="584" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for quantitative research on the correlation between the five dimensions in OCEAN psychometric models. Would appreciate any references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18582" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-04-09T05:32:45.987" LastActivityDate="2018-04-09T05:32:45.987" Title="What are the correlation between the Big 5 (OCEAN) dimensions of personality?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19303" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19306" CreationDate="2018-03-19T22:15:18.533" Score="4" ViewCount="1548" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing some reading on said topics, but I struggle to really make a difference between them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've gathered that logical fallacies are flaws in reasoning, or arguments that serve poorly to arrive at the truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive distortions are our mind convincing us of something that isn't true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So couldn't logical fallacies be said also to be convincing us of something that isn't true, in the case where they are unintentional? I can see several instances where there is no real difference. Take for example the distortion of emotional reasoning (I feel X, therefore X must be true). Why is this not a logical fallacy given the logical reasoning within the parentheses?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18742" LastActivityDate="2018-03-20T12:08:11.237" Title="What's the difference between cognitive distortions and logical fallacies?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19304" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19295" CreationDate="2018-03-20T07:58:10.220" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I mentioned previously in the comments, there are a wide range of relaxation techniques which can be used within CBT.  Having not read the book mentioned, I looked it up and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/heart-and-soul-healing/201303/dr-herbert-benson-s-relaxation-response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;found how the relaxation technique was described in the book&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From this I can tell you that the technique you have been taught is called Progressive Muscle Relaxation [PMR] (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1300/J137v13n03_04&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McCallie, Blum, &amp;amp; Hood, 2006&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PMR involves the process of feeling the muscles in your body relax starting from one end of the body to the other, noticing the difference in sensation whilst also listening to your slow deep breathing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can obtain plenty of free or paid for PMR scripts (also known as screeds) through searching on Google.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McCallie, M. S., Blum, C. M., &amp;amp; Hood, C. J. (2006). Progressive muscle relaxation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment&lt;/em&gt;, 13(3), 51-66.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1300/J137v13n03_04&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1300/J137v13n03_04&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-20T08:11:40.120" LastActivityDate="2018-03-20T08:11:40.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19305" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18862" CreationDate="2018-03-20T09:32:11.800" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Glial scarring is due to brain damage. Brain damage results in molecular signals to be released that attract glial cells. Spaces in the brain present during development are not characterized by signalling molecules associated with trauma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The key here is that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glial_scar&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;glial scar formation&lt;/a&gt; follows damage to the brain, and is associated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_healing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;healing processes in the brain&lt;/a&gt;, including those occurring after ischemic stroke &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3936028/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Huang &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2014)&lt;/a&gt; and physical trauma (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/04/100427171804.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Society for Neuroscience, 2010&lt;/a&gt;). Brain damage results in the release of inflammatory proteins that signal glia to form scar tissue (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3669736/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Patel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; (2013)&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many vacant spaces in the brain (Fig. 1), most notably the four &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventricular_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ventricles&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. These spaces are there from birth, and are actually formed within the first few weeks after conception. Because there are no signals involved from brain trauma, and these structures should be there, the glial system does not get signals to invade these areas and fill them up with glial scar tissue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that glial cells have little to do with neurogeneration; glia is not nervous tissue.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OwPMq.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OwPMq.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;ventricles&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Brain ventricles. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.anatomynote.com/human-anatomy/nerves-system/brain-ventricular-anatomy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anatomy Note&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3936028/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Huang&lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Int J Med Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 344–8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3669736/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Patel &lt;em&gt;el al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Int J Physiol Pathophysiol Pharmacol&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 73–90&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-22T10:20:48.027" LastActivityDate="2018-03-22T10:20:48.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19306" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19303" CreationDate="2018-03-20T12:08:11.237" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The two concepts can seem similar, but they are different.  When trying to understand the difference for the first time it can be complicated and I hope I can put it across effectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Cognitive distortions&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are simply ways that our mind convinces us of something that isn’t really true (&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/lib/15-common-cognitive-distortions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Grohol,&amp;nbsp;2017&lt;/a&gt;). These inaccurate thoughts are usually used to reinforce negative thinking or emotions — telling ourselves things that sound rational and accurate, but really only serve to keep us feeling bad about ourselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, a person might tell themselves, “I always fail when I try to do something new; I therefore fail at everything I try.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Logical Fallacies&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr. L. Kip Wheeler of Carson-Newman University in Jefferson City, TN &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/fallacies_list.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;says that these are&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;statements that might sound reasonable or superficially true but are actually flawed or dishonest. When readers detect them, these logical fallacies backfire by making the audience think the writer is (a) unintelligent or (b) deceptive. It is important to avoid them in your own arguments, and it is also important to be able to spot them in others' arguments so a false line of reasoning won't fool you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One example is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straw_man&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Strawman Fallacy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A straw man is a common form of argument and is an informal fallacy based on giving the impression of refuting an opponent's argument, while actually refuting an argument that was not presented by that opponent. One who engages in this fallacy is said to be &quot;attacking a straw man&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The typical straw man argument creates the illusion of having completely refuted or defeated an opponent's proposition through the covert replacement of it with a different proposition (i.e., &quot;stand up a straw man&quot;) and the subsequent refutation of that false argument (&quot;knock down a straw man&quot;) instead of the opponent's proposition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://yourlogicalfallacyis.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Your Logical Fallacy Is&lt;/a&gt; — a microsite of the not-for-profit organisation &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.schoolofthought.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;schoolofthought.org&lt;/a&gt; — describes a strawman fallacy as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  After Will said that we should be nice to kittens because they’re fluffy and cute, Bill says that Will is a mean jerk for wanting to be mean to poor defenseless puppies. Everyone loudly boos Will, drowning out his protests that&#xA;  this isn’t what he said at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Reconciling the two concepts&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They can seem to merge into each other in some respects at time, especially when you look at the logical fallacy called &lt;strong&gt;the gambler's fallacy&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Believing that ‘runs’ occur to statistically independent phenomena such as roulette wheel spins.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  Red had come up six times in a row on the roulette wheel, so Jen knew that it was close to certain that black would be next up. Suffering an economic form of&#xA;  natural selection with this thinking, she soon lost all of her savings. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://yourlogicalfallacyis.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Your Logical Fallacy Is&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could be forgiven for thinking it may be a cognitive distortion, as in a sense it could be, but it is a logical fallacy because it is a &lt;strong&gt;false statement of fact&lt;/strong&gt; which is &lt;strong&gt;believed to be true&lt;/strong&gt;.  If it was a pure cognitive distortion, it would be a &lt;strong&gt;false belief&lt;/strong&gt; which is &lt;strong&gt;believed to be true&lt;/strong&gt;.  Now, again reading this back myself it can sound the same, but think of it this way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;false statement of fact (logical fallacy)&lt;/strong&gt; is a statement often echoed by many people around within the social circle.  It is a statement believed to be true because the statement was generally made by someone else and it was believed to be true as &lt;strong&gt;logic dictates it to be true&lt;/strong&gt;.  If you was to think about the logic and examine the evidence, the fallacies can be brought into the open and destroyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;false belief (cognitive distortion)&lt;/strong&gt; can be the same, but primarily will be a belief only held by the person holding the cognitive distortion.  It is a statement believed to be true because the statement was generally built up in the mind of the person holding the cognitive distortion and it was believed to be true as &lt;strong&gt;past experience dictates it to be true&lt;/strong&gt;.  If logic was allowed to take over, the cognitive distortion could be destroyed in time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;How can you avoid cognitive distortions and logical fallacies within yourself?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One way you can avoid them is to apply &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam%27s_razor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Occam's Razor&lt;/a&gt;.  This has been termed as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[with] other things being equal, simpler explanations are generally better than more complex ones (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam%27s_razor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and this is an interpretation of William Ockham's principle:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;non sunt multiplicanda entia praeter necessitatem&quot;&lt;/em&gt; [i.e., &quot;don't multiply the agents in a theory beyond what's necessary.&quot;] (&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/logic_occam.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wheeler,&amp;nbsp;n.d.&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wheeler expanded on this with an explanation and said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;to phrase it in modern terms, &quot;Don't speculate about extra hypothetical components if you can find an explanation that is equally plausible without them.&quot; All things being equal, the simpler theory is more likely to be correct, rather than one that relies upon many hypothetical additions to the evidence already collected. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/logic_occam.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wheeler,&amp;nbsp;n.d.&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6dluwVks444&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jesse Richardson (2014)&lt;/a&gt; who states that you need to think for yourself and not take for granted everything you are told to think.  So if you combine what both William Ockham and Jessie Richardson points out, it seems you can't go far wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further Reading&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beck, A. T. (1976). &lt;em&gt;Cognitive therapies and emotional disorders&lt;/em&gt;. New York: New American Library.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burns, D. D. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Feeling good: The new mood therapy&lt;/em&gt;. New York: New American Library.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leahy, R. L. (2017). &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Therapy Techniques, Second Edition: A Practitioner’s Guide&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McKay, M. &amp;amp; Fanning, P. (2016). &lt;em&gt;Self-Esteem: A Proven Program of Cognitive Techniques for Assessing, Improving, and Maintaining Your Self-Esteem&lt;/em&gt;. New York: New Harbinger Publications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wheeler, L. K. (n.d.) &lt;em&gt;Logical Fallacies&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/fallacies_list.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/fallacies_list.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Grohol, J. (2017). 15 Common Cognitive Distortions. &lt;em&gt;Psych Central&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/lib/15-common-cognitive-distortions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psychcentral.com/lib/15-common-cognitive-distortions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Richardson, J. (2014). How to think, not what to think &lt;em&gt;TEDx Brisbane&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6dluwVks444&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6dluwVks444&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wheeker, L. K. (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;Occam's Razor: A Useful Tool in Logic&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/logic_occam.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/logic_occam.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-03-20T12:08:11.237" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19307" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-20T17:22:07.990" Score="1" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am running a quasi-experiment with English proficiency as a factor (native speakers=9, ESL speakers=10)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just completed a pilot and fully plan to conduct the intervention as closely to the pilot's procedures as possible--I am measuring the same DVs. I was hoping I could use the pilot as a &quot;control group&quot; of sorts to talk about the characteristics of the groups before intervention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I have to change a few things in the procedure. For example, a lot of the ESL students did not understand my instructions, so I plan to display the instructions using graphics instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is: can I still use the pilot results to compare with post-intervention results, even if the procedures are not identical?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18746" LastActivityDate="2018-03-20T17:22:07.990" Title="Quasi-experiment: If I change some procedures from my pilot experiment, can I still compare post-intervention results to the pilot results?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19309" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19317" CreationDate="2018-03-21T09:19:18.650" Score="5" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a research internship I am running psychological experiments online. As it takes a while until the experiment is done (meaning that enough people participated, so that a sufficient sample size is reached), I could already look at the data and run a few analyses with that incomplete data set. This way I could already see a trend in what the final result might be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any methodological reasons that would speak against that? For example, am I biasing myself in this way? Or is there any other reason this could be considered bad research practice?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18756" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-22T08:57:24.130" LastActivityDate="2018-03-23T19:16:20.610" Title="Should I look at the data of an experiment before the dataset is complete?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19310" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19154" CreationDate="2018-03-21T16:04:04.213" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps a more useful way of looking at these concepts is to consider anima in terms of the hindbrain, which takes sensory inputs from both the body and external stimuli and creates a virtual model strongly colored by memories ( with associated feelings) and our conditioning. This model is then &quot;presented&quot; to the forebrain as images + feelings. Animus could be seen then as associated with the forebrain, which analyzes this information and determines what actions to take.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, such a way of thinking degenderizes the concepts, so won't support your hypothesis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Solms and Turnbull have written about the neuroscience (Solms &amp;amp; Turnbull 2011) [among others], and James Hillman's &quot;Anima: An Anatomy of a Personified Notion&quot; is a good source on anima and animus. Hillman agrees that psychology should not pretend to be an objective science as the realm of the psyche eludes traditional methods of scientific study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Solms, M., &amp;amp; Turnbull, O. H. (2011). What is neuropsychoanalysis?.  &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychoanalysis&lt;/em&gt;, 13(2), 133-145.&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/15294145.2011.10773670&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/15294145.2011.10773670&lt;/a&gt; [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261621332_What_Is_Neuropsychoanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free PDF Available&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18757" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-22T10:05:51.147" LastActivityDate="2018-03-22T10:05:51.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19312" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19315" CreationDate="2018-03-21T16:37:26.733" Score="2" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.helpguide.org/articles/parenting-family/attachment-issues-and-reactive-attachment-disorders.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an article on Reactive Attachment Disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's what I know so far&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reactive&lt;/strong&gt; means to react in response to something. Action = reaction.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attachment&lt;/strong&gt; is the act of bonding or connecting with another human or object.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disorder&lt;/strong&gt;, something that is not normal by way of what society thinks as normal.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's what I do not know. Does RAD mean that someone is too emotionally attached to someone or something, and when that person or thing is gone, they react, sort of like grief?&#xA;Or, does it mean that the person cannot trust oneself to connect or bond with others for fear of something bad happening as a result of that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18499" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-03-22T02:25:48.533" LastActivityDate="2018-03-22T02:25:48.533" Title="What's a simple definition for reactive attachment disorder?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19313" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19309" CreationDate="2018-03-21T17:40:57.220" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an important question! This practice (&quot;optional stopping&quot; if you stop collecting data based on your early analyses, or &quot;peeking&quot; if you continue collecting data) is considered a bad idea nowadays. It's a &quot;researcher degree of freedom&quot;--a practice that, in the long run and averaged across the field, appears to (empirically) result in high false-positive rates. It's a form of exploratory analysis, and although EA isn't bad in and of itself, optional stopping/peeking can predispose researchers to chase significance for trends they see in their data, perhaps by selectively excluding certain observations, dropping their a priori hypotheses, ignoring their a priori power analyses, etc...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, consider running a power analysis. (I recommend &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gpower.hhu.de/en.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;G*Power&lt;/a&gt;, which is freely downloadable). I advise to perform a power analysis &lt;em&gt;before&lt;/em&gt; you start collecting data, determine the total N that you'll shoot for, and don't peek at your data until you've hit that. It's effectively &quot;blinding&quot; yourself, much in the way that medical researchers might use double-blind studies to ensure the reliability of their findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Check out this paper for a longer discussion of researcher degrees of freedom: &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797611417632&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797611417632&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15297" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-22T10:39:17.463" LastActivityDate="2018-03-22T10:39:17.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19315" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19312" CreationDate="2018-03-21T22:37:07.797" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The beginnings of theories based on attachment regarding long and short term interpersonal relationships is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Attachment Theory&lt;/a&gt; which was started by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bowlby&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Bowlby&lt;/a&gt;.  Attachment Theory is primarily applied to studies in relationships concerning children, even though it was &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_in_adults&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;expanded in the 80's to include adults&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In attachment theory, as highlighted in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.helpguide.org/articles/parenting-family/attachment-issues-and-reactive-attachment-disorders.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the link you provided&lt;/a&gt;, attachment is not just &lt;em&gt;&quot;the act of bonding or connecting with another human or object&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. &#xA; It is the &lt;strong&gt;deep connection established&lt;/strong&gt; between a child and caregiver (parent, grandparent, foster parent...).  When there are problems because attachments have not been made, it is called an attachment disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reactive Attachment Disorder is an Attachment Disorder resulting from a reaction to past experiences which were not ideal for the child.  Some examples given amongst others on the link you provided are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A baby cries and no one responds or offers comfort.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A baby is hungry or wet, and they aren’t attended to for hours.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No one looks at, talks to, or smiles at the baby, so the baby feels alone.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main thing is that no matter how detached or insecure a child seems, or how frustrated or exhausted a caregiver may feel at trying to connect, attachment disorders can be repaired. With patience and perseverance, caregivers can help the affected child feel safe and secure and able to develop healthy, meaningful, and loving relationships.  It just takes time with the right comfort and support provided to the child.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good book I can recommend on the subject of attachment disorders is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shemmings, D. &amp;amp; Shemmings, Y. (2011). &lt;em&gt;Understanding Disorganized Attachment: Theory and Practice for Working with Children and Adults&lt;/em&gt;. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Synopsis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Disorganized attachment, the most extreme form of insecure attachment, can develop in a child when the person who is normally meant to protect them is a source of danger. This usually leads to 'fear without solution' and the effects can be lasting and damaging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This book is a comprehensive and accessible text on disorganized attachment. It outlines what it is, how it can be identified and the key causes, including neurological, biochemical and genetic explanations. Factors that contribute to disorganized attachment are covered including unresolved loss and trauma, and the behaviour of caregivers. The authors also discuss evidence-based interventions to help families and carers as well as how to work with adults to prevent or minimize its occurrence. To root the theory in practice and to illustrate real-life examples of disorganized attachment case vignettes are included.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;With an authoritative research base, this accessible text will be invaluable to practitioners and academics in the fields of social care, psychology, counselling and allied health professions as well as undergraduate and postgraduate students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-03-21T22:45:30.947" LastActivityDate="2018-03-21T22:45:30.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19316" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19322" CreationDate="2018-03-22T07:01:04.913" Score="0" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;This might be the wrong place or way to ask this question but I'll give it a shot. It could be more related to literature but it does deal with a form of character or personality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Nathaniel Hawthorne's &quot;Young Goodman Brown&quot;, the &quot;protagonist&quot; wakes up from a dream (or vision, maybe even reality) of all his religious towns folk members taking part in blatant evil deeds. The next morning, his perception of everyone changes to the point he (not exactly) distrusts everyone because of what he saw and eventually dies lonely due to his callous nature. Nathaniel made this in order to warn against this type of action or character trait but what is a term for this, this trait? This callous behavior due to an imperfect/changed perspective? Is it a combination of terms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18761" LastActivityDate="2018-03-23T18:15:59.080" Title="What would be the Term for this Character Trait?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19309" CreationDate="2018-03-22T08:51:45.930" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;From an ethical standpoint, not including interim evaluations may be bad practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I will start off with a more extreme case than in your question example, just for illustrative purposes, namely that of a &lt;em&gt;clinical intervention study&lt;/em&gt;. If it appears that the treatment group (say, experimental medicine &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt;, instead of the standard of care treatment &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;) features substantially, if not significantly, more cases of serious adverse advents, or even deaths, that may (or may not) be related to treatment &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt;, the &lt;strong&gt;ethical best thing to do&lt;/strong&gt; is put the study on hold until things are sorted out. This, to prevent any possibility of further physical harm caused by the experimental treatment. This happens quite regularly and should be followed by a report paper stating the results and a discussion on the best way to proceed this research, if applicable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a more &lt;em&gt;experimental setting&lt;/em&gt; it may also be &lt;strong&gt;ethically best practice&lt;/strong&gt; to evaluate preliminary data, as possible experimental design flaws, unexpected results (weird outcomes or artifacts in, say, left-handed people) or confounding factors may become apparent, and timely adjustments to the experimental protocol can be made. Why is this ethically correct? Because you may be subjecting people to a flawed experimental paradigm and wasting many hours of otherwise more productive time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The case provided by the other answerer, where the experiment is stopped, while prior statistical power analysis was done, &lt;em&gt;that&lt;/em&gt; is malpractice. Conversely, adding more subjects &lt;em&gt;post hoc&lt;/em&gt; based on 'near-significance' is also questionable practice. But this is more related to what you do with the experimental interim data. In my opinion, they should be critically evaluated, but not so much on effect size, but rather on feasibility, correctness and validity - basically to sanity-check the study proceedings.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-23T19:16:20.610" LastActivityDate="2018-03-23T19:16:20.610" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19318" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19319" CreationDate="2018-03-22T12:42:28.047" Score="2" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a pilot study we want to give participants 3 different problems. Those come in two versions, one (supposedly) easier than the other. Participants will randomly be assigned one version of the problems. The goal is to compare the performance on each version of each of the problems. What might be problematic however, is that if it is true that one version is easier, giving some participants three times the easy version and others three times the hard version might affect their motivation. The participants with the difficult problems might get more exhausted and demotivated and will possibly not try as hard on each problem that follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One solution would be to randomize the assignment for each problem independently, so that participants might receive two times the easy version and one time the harder one, or any other combination. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a methodological standpoint, would that be recommendable? Could the observations still be considered independent when comparing the two conditions? Or is there any other way to circumvent that problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18756" LastEditorUserId="18756" LastEditDate="2018-03-22T13:31:14.313" LastActivityDate="2018-03-22T19:07:59.717" Title="Is it recommendable to put participants in different conditions across trials?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19319" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19318" CreationDate="2018-03-22T19:07:59.717" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends on what you care to investigate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do you care what happens when one person gets two hard questions as compared to someone who gets two easy ones?&lt;/strong&gt; If so, record it for analysis. If not, control for it by ensuring that each participant receives the same number of easy and difficult problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do you care if there are ordering effects?&lt;/strong&gt; If so, record that data for analysis. If not, then control for it by ensuring that each participant gets a set of questions classified in the same order. E.g., standardize on EASY-HARD-EASY, and randomly assign problems of each classification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18769" LastActivityDate="2018-03-22T19:07:59.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19320" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-23T00:38:35.353" Score="1" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any practices or habits that one can employ, either frequently or on a daily basis, to train one's mind to equanimously observe (be aware of) compulsive urges or cravings, without giving in to them / acting them out?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can this skill be developed in a general sense, applicable to all types of urges/cravings, or does one need to train a different, tailored technique to handle each type of urge/craving individually?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18631" LastEditorUserId="18631" LastEditDate="2018-03-26T11:46:03.193" LastActivityDate="2018-03-27T21:40:39.107" Title="Can the mind be trained to equanimously observe compulsive urges/cravings (without giving in / acting out)?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19309" CreationDate="2018-03-23T16:58:14.847" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;gjacob is correct that optional stopping is a common research degree of freedom, and one that has a considerable and unfortunate intuitive basis. Yet, depending on the context of your research, AliceD's concerns are also important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is, however, a middle ground between not checking at all, and p-hacking: sequential analysis. There is a Bayesian version of sequential analysis, which I can update if that's your statistical paradigm, but I'm assuming you're wanting to conduct interim analyses using null-hypothesis significance testing, so that's what I'll focus on here. Lakens (2014) provides a nice overview of this practice. In essence, you take the level of $\alpha$ you want to maintain over your &quot;peeks&quot; (e.g., $\alpha$ = .05), and distribute that total $\alpha$ over the number of peeks you want to take along your total sampling process. Then, if $p$ is lower than this distributed $\alpha$ at any of your peeks, you can reject the null at $\alpha$ = .05, and you won't have inflated your Type I error rate like you would have with generic optional stopping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a &lt;em&gt;little&lt;/em&gt; more complicated than how I'm presenting here--and there are a number of methods for distributing your total $\alpha$--but not by much. If you can wrap your head around a bonferroni correction, it's a very similar technique. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lakens, D. (2014). Performing high‐powered studies efficiently with sequential analyses. &lt;em&gt;European Journal of Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 44(7), 701-710.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12840" LastActivityDate="2018-03-23T16:58:14.847" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19322" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19316" CreationDate="2018-03-23T18:15:59.080" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nathaniel made this in order to warn against this type of action or&#xA;  character trait but what is a term for this, this trait?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that Nathaniel is presenting a powerful indictment against individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD). He is not saying that one should ostracise the Borderline, but that one ought to proceed with caution when choosing to becoming entangled in the lives of those with BPD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the &quot;protagonist&quot; wakes up from a dream (or vision, maybe even&#xA;  reality) of all his religious towns folk members taking part in&#xA;  blatant evil deeds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly, the Borderline is experiencing the phenomenon of dream-reality confusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01393/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dream-reality confusion in borderline personality disorder: a theoretical analysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper presents an analysis of dream-reality confusion (DRC) in relation to the characteristics of borderline personality disorder (BPD), based on research findings and theoretical considerations. It is hypothesized that people with BPD are more likely to experience DRC compared to people in non-clinical population. Several variables related to this hypothesis were identified through a theoretical analysis of the scientific literature. Sleep disturbances: problems with sleep are found in 15–95.5% of people with BPD (Hafizi, 2013), and unstable sleep and wake cycles, which occur in BPD (Fleischer et al., 2012), are linked to DRC. Dissociation: nearly two-thirds of people with BPD experience dissociative symptoms (Korzekwa and Pain, 2009) and dissociative symptoms are correlated with a fantasy proneness; both dissociative symptoms and fantasy proneness are related to DRC (Giesbrecht and Merckelbach, 2006). Negative dream content: People with BPD have nightmares more often than other people (Semiz et al., 2008); dreams that are more likely to be confused with reality tend to be more realistic and unpleasant, and are reflected in waking behavior (Rassin et al., 2001). Cognitive disturbances: Many BPD patients experience various cognitive disturbances, including problems with reality testing (Fiqueierdo, 2006; Mosquera et al., 2011), which can foster DRC. Thin boundaries: People with thin boundaries are more prone to DRC than people with thick boundaries, and people with BPD tend to have thin boundaries (Hartmann, 2011). The theoretical analysis on the basis of these findings suggests that people who suffer from BPD may be more susceptible to confusing dream content with actual waking events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The next morning, his perception of everyone changes to the point he&#xA;  (not exactly) distrusts everyone&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a classic Borderline trait: A pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterized by alternat­ing between extremes of idealization and devaluation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;dies lonely due to his callous nature. This callous behavior due to an&#xA;  imperfect/changed perspective?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, the loneliness is due to the Borderline's &lt;em&gt;Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment.&lt;/em&gt; Ironically, it is through this effort to escape their aloneness that the Borderline dies alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastActivityDate="2018-03-23T18:15:59.080" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19323" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19325" CreationDate="2018-03-24T04:20:26.597" Score="0" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm studying about perception in psychology. My teacher has an example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an experiment, the researcher gives two groups a photo of one person. To Group 1, researcher says &quot;This is a scientist&quot;, group 1 usually reacts &quot;He has a bright and intelligent face, great mind are shown on his eyes&quot;. To group 2, researcher says &quot;This is a murder&quot;, group 2 usually reacts &quot;He had a dangerous face, he seems angry all the time&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do you explain that using perception in psychology? does that experiment truly exist? Is there any real similar experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone tells me it's because of &quot;Confirmation Bias&quot;. It's the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. I doubt it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18780" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-03-25T00:37:05.840" LastActivityDate="2018-03-25T07:43:31.133" Title="Why do people have different opinions about an object when they are given different information about that object?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19325" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19323" CreationDate="2018-03-24T12:47:48.277" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a tendency to want a named response. Such as 'confirmation bias' - a bit as if confirmation bias were a thing, like a computer processor. But it is not. &#xA;It also may be useful to notice that &lt;strong&gt;nothing in the world can be perceived directly&lt;/strong&gt;. The image of your teacher is put together in your brain based on your perception and past experiences; if you develop prosopagnosia you will not perceive the teacher's face any more. Even the surface of the table you touch is not perceived directly, appreciation of the rough wooden surface is the result of synthesis of perceptions and memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore the photo of the person in your experiment is appreciated through  your &lt;strong&gt;priors/givens&lt;/strong&gt; and you will find what you are (unconsciously) looking for. You can call it a particular bias, however many of them have been described and they overlap. For example you could view this one as perceptual priming or you could consider this an anchoring effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Snyder, J. S., Schwiedrzik, C. M., Vitela, A. D., &amp;amp; Melloni, L. (2015). How previous experience shapes perception in different sensory modalities. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00594&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00594&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Damasio, A. (2004). Looking for Spinoza (New Ed edition). London: Vintage.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lyons, J. (2017). Epistemological Problems of Perception. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2017). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/perception-episprob/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/perception-episprob/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Priming (psychology). (2018, March 17). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Priming_(psychology)&amp;amp;oldid=830901864&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Priming_(psychology)&amp;amp;oldid=830901864&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6151" LastEditorUserId="6151" LastEditDate="2018-03-25T07:43:31.133" LastActivityDate="2018-03-25T07:43:31.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19326" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19320" CreationDate="2018-03-24T13:03:00.067" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is - yes. There is nothing impossible, save for the theoretical idea of perfect balance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally speaking you will be training your mind (i.e. yourself) not just your brain. The desired state of &quot;still and equanimous&quot; appears to be used as opposite to anxious. The potential cravings accompanied by anxious states are just too many to require one response per one type of craving, but you are on to something with this specificity - wanting a drink is not quite the same as wanting a sweetie.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There will be 2 components - one is the more &lt;strong&gt;general response&lt;/strong&gt; - where you will recognise you are anxious. Hopefully you will also realise what you are anxious about (could it be rejection by a potential partner, could it be a bailiff's letter, or something less threatening?). The more &lt;strong&gt;specific component&lt;/strong&gt; could use imagery - try to remember how you felt when you had the &quot;sweetie&quot; before (as a rule you will be craving something quite familiar to you). If you can successfully recall the state after you had consumed the &quot;sweetie&quot; in the past it very often will be helpful in deciding - do I really want to &quot;eat&quot; this now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6151" LastEditorUserId="6151" LastEditDate="2018-03-27T21:40:39.107" LastActivityDate="2018-03-27T21:40:39.107" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19327" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19320" CreationDate="2018-03-24T13:29:17.727" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the article &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/110/34/13971&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brief meditation training induces smoking reduction&lt;/a&gt;&quot; one kind of mediation-training reduced smoking by 60% while a control group (relaxation training) showed no such effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Integrative body-mind training (IBMT) is a form of mindfulness meditation that involves body relaxation, mental imagery, and mindfulness training accompanied by selected music background. Cooperation between the body and the mind is emphasized in facilitating and achieving a meditative state. The trainees concentrated on achieving a balanced state of body and mind guided by an IBMT coach and a compact disc. The method stresses no effort to control thoughts but, instead, a state of restful alertness that allows a high degree of awareness of body, mind, and environment.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other relevant references:&#xA;Tang YY, et al. (2007) Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(43):17152–17156.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tang YY, et al. (2009) Central and autonomic nervous system interaction is altered by short-term meditation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106(22):8865–8870.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tang YY, et al. (2010) Short-term meditation induces white matter changes in the anterior cingulate. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107(35):15649–15652.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tang YY, Lu Q, Fan M, Yang Y, Posner MI (2012) Mechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109(26):10570–10574.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tang YY (2009) Exploring the Brain, Optimizing the Life (Science Press, Beijing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18785" LastActivityDate="2018-03-24T13:29:17.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19330" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16830" CreationDate="2018-03-25T07:53:00.330" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most recent reviews have been fairly decisive on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse#Effects&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;negative impact of child sexual abuse&lt;/a&gt; in general (though noting much variability in outcomes), but uncertain as to the specific effect of age of onset (hebephilia vs pedophilia):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/014521349290011F&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beitchman et al (1992)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The existing literature on the long-term sequelae of child sexual&#xA;  abuse is reviewed. The evidence suggests that sexual abuse is an&#xA;  important problem with serious long-term sequelae;&#xA;  ...&#xA;  The relation between age of onset of abuse and outcome is still&#xA;  equivocal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8426874&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kendall-Tackett et al (1993)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A review of 45 studies clearly demonstrated that sexually abused&#xA;  children had more symptoms than nonabused children, with abuse&#xA;  accounting for 15-45% of the variance. ... Research is insufficient to&#xA;  permit any conclusions about whether early versus late age of onset is&#xA;  more likely to lead to greater symptomatology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11235837&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paolucci et al (2001)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A meta-analysis of the published research on the effects of child&#xA;  sexual abuse (CSA) was undertaken ... The analyses provide clear&#xA;  evidence confirming the link between CSA and subsequent negative&#xA;  short- and long-term effects on development. There were no&#xA;  statistically significant differences on ds when various potentially&#xA;  mediating variables such as ... age when abused ... were assessed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735809001093&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maniglio (2009)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fourteen reviews, including more than 270,000 subjects from 587&#xA;  studies, were analyzed. There is evidence that survivors of childhood&#xA;  sexual abuse are significantly at risk of a wide range of medical,&#xA;  psychological, behavioral, and sexual disorders. ... the results of&#xA;  this systematic review do not confirm suspicions that ... age when&#xA;  abused ... influence the outcomes of child sexual abuse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So at this time, there is no reason to believe that hebephilia is any different from pedophilia in terms of impact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One notable exception is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rind_et_al._controversy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rind et al (1998)&lt;/a&gt; review, that pointed out some methodological problems with prior research, notably that subject populations are typically non-randomized - they rely on clinical and legal populations who expectedly report negative outcomes.  However, more recent research has attempted to address this issue using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_study&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;population studies&lt;/a&gt;, and comes to the same conclusions, for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/206025&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nelson et al (2002)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... general population studies have confirmed findings from these&#xA;  samples including increased risk for psychiatric illness ... and other&#xA;  adverse outcomes ... associated with self-reported CSA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good survey techniques in such population studies attempt to control for factors such as stigma (as mentioned in the question), by asking independently about child sexual abuse and potential adverse outcomes, rather than asking victims to self-assess those outcomes.  Nonetheless, there may be additional factors to consider, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_grooming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;grooming method&lt;/a&gt;, cooperation level, perception of harm, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-03-25T07:53:00.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19331" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19284" CreationDate="2018-03-25T08:25:04.543" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You need to understand that their experience is highly &lt;strong&gt;emotionally significant&lt;/strong&gt; for them. Not necessarily in a good way, but it is. For affected people it feels true - it &quot;&lt;em&gt;is true&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. What medications tend to do - they dampen the affective significance, among other things, and people in time become more able to be in touch with ordinary reality. By definition delusions are &quot;unshakeable beliefs&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that - it is known that there are possibilities of treatment without medications, or at least minimising their use. They tend to involve group and community based psychological interventions over long time. Scandinavian countries (e.g.  Norway) do a lot of work in that regard. From my colleagues I have also heard that medication use is less in India - but the family ties and family member availability seem greater hence it becomes more of a group intervention. The model is that many family members in a loving way provide information that conflicts with the delusional content.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.isps.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.isps.org/&lt;/a&gt; - a reputable organisation for psychological and social approaches to psychosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this shows you to not expect a solution that you might be able to effect on your own. The psychotic experience can be very disturbing and you may be in for something that you do not expect when trying &quot;to talk this person out of their delusions&quot;. Often you can become a part of the delusion - which then lessens credibility of what you say in the person's eyes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good luck&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. Of course - we can have a different picture in illicit drug induced psychosis - by definition psychosis should abate soon after drugs are out of the system. It happens however that with recurrent drug use people develop psychosis that does not abate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6151" LastActivityDate="2018-03-25T08:25:04.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19332" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5526" CreationDate="2018-03-25T19:52:22.477" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question body emphasizes the question whether Domhoff's neurocognitive theory of dreams is &lt;em&gt;reliable&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reliability&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is  &lt;em&gt;the &quot;consistency&quot; or repeatability of research measures&lt;/em&gt;. So, a theory cannot be reliable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think OP (since offsite) meant to ask for the theory's &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_(statistics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;validity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, being the &lt;em&gt;extent to which a concept, conclusion or measurement is well-founded and corresponds accurately to the real world&lt;/em&gt;. This interpretation also matches the question title better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2001-00749-002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Domhoff (2001)&lt;/a&gt; bases his theory on findings in patients with brain injuries, showing that lesions in different areas have differential effects on dreaming. In addition, only 20–30% of REM period awakenings in children aged up to 9 years lead to dream reports and dreams of children under age 5 yrs are bland and static in content. Thirdly, Domhoff showed that dream content is repetitive and continuous with waking conceptions and emotional preoccupations. Based on these findings, Domhoff says that dreaming is best understood as a &lt;strong&gt;developmental cognitive achievement&lt;/strong&gt; that depends upon the maturation and maintenance of a specific network of forebrain structures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Domhoff's theory opposed the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.macalester.edu/projects/UBNRP/Website_REM_Sleep/dreamActivationSynthesis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;activation-synthesis theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; theory, which was coined by Hobson &amp;amp; McCarley. They showed that the brain stem was activated during REM sleep. Their theory suggests that during REM sleep, random brain activation produces dreams. The theory has since been developed, as more and more is understood about REM sleep. Hobson has explicitly argued against Domhoff's theory, stating that Domhoff bases his theory on a '&lt;em&gt;misreading of the neurobiological literature and an individualistic view of dream psychology&lt;/em&gt;' &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2005-02950-002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hobson, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the end, theories try to explain observations, and at this point, as far as I can see, both theories may have value. &lt;em&gt;Personally&lt;/em&gt;, the activation-synthesis theory seems more plausible and &lt;strong&gt;less complicated&lt;/strong&gt;, and hence the most &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/phylogenetics_08&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parsimonious&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; of the two. But admittedly, I'm not a dream expert.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/H2QwP.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/H2QwP.gif&quot; alt=&quot;activ synthesis&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.macalester.edu/projects/UBNRP/Website_REM_Sleep/dreamActivationSynthesis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MacAlister College&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2001-00749-002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Domhoff. &lt;em&gt;Dreaming&lt;/em&gt; (2001); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;(1), 13-33&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2005-02950-002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hobson, &lt;em&gt;Dreaming&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;15&lt;/strong&gt;(1), 21-29&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-26T11:19:39.877" LastActivityDate="2018-03-26T11:19:39.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18993" CreationDate="2018-03-26T12:02:01.100" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately hallucinations of visual type seldom occur with schizophrenia. When visual hallucinations occur in schizophrenia or more frequently (but still uncommon) in other disorders they are rather unlike a simulation of the current world - e.g. a closed door becoming open in the room. In addition patient in a hallucinatory state is very affectively taken by the experience and often is just afraid to move. Further - the only way to know would be to ask the patient as to what happened, but given that this kind of event is very rarely, if at all, happening, there is no answer because - how can you set up an experiment. Therefore this question, interesting though it may be, is just of speculative value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good article about the topic is:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/121.10.1819&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;M Manford  F Andermann, &lt;strong&gt;Complex visual hallucinations&lt;/strong&gt;. Clinical and neurobiological insights. Brain, Volume 121, Issue 10, 1 October 1998, Pages 1819–1840&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6151" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-19T08:15:31.060" LastActivityDate="2018-04-19T08:15:31.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19336" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-27T07:49:59.770" Score="1" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading the book &quot;A New Foundation for Representation in Cognitive Brain Science -  Category Theory and the Hippocampus&quot; by Jaime Gómez-Ramirez (a terrible book, if you ask me).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On p. 164 the author introduces the product of two objects in a category. I.e. the product of two objects $A$ and $B$ in a category $\mathcal C$ is another object $P$ equipped with two morphisms $p_1: P\rightarrow A$ and $p_2: P\rightarrow B$ such that for any pair of morphisms $x_1: X\rightarrow A$ and $x_2: X\rightarrow B$ there is a unique morphism $h$ making the figure commute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2lXpS.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2lXpS.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author goes on to say that the main characteristic of a product is that the constituents are retrievable via the projections. The following example is given: Let $W_A$ and $W_B$ be two walls that the delimit the maze a rat is moving in. After reaching both walls, the rat would develop the concept of a middle point $P$. This middle point $P$ corresponds to the categorial product $P=W_A \times W_B$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I struggle to make sense of this. If the walls, or more generally, any location in the maze, are objects in a category, then what are the arrows (morphisms)? My first guess is: paths. Translated into the maze-world: There is a &quot;concept&quot; $W_A \times W_B$ that gives me paths from each wall to the middle $P$. And given any point $X$ in the maze there is a unique path $X\rightarrow P$ from $X$ to $P$.&#xA;This interpretation doesn't make sense at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second guess is that the walls $W_A, W_B$ are not actual locations in space, but the rat's concepts of these walls. But it is still unclear, what the arrows between concepts are supposed to be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a way to make sense of this? Specifically, what exactly is this &quot;maze-category&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt; Because to me, so far, this is just half-baked, abstract nonsense jibber jabber.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any pointers to more substantial literature would be greatly appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18813" LastEditorUserId="18813" LastEditDate="2018-03-28T03:48:33.560" LastActivityDate="2020-05-07T19:28:02.293" Title="Rat between two walls viewed as a product in a category" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19338" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18034" CreationDate="2018-03-27T12:04:54.997" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This picture in her talk (which is very good, by the way) refers to the study about &lt;strong&gt;amygdala hyperreactivity&lt;/strong&gt; - see below. Essentially the picture shows &lt;code&gt;fMRI&lt;/code&gt; scan differences between  controls and borderline patients when looking at &lt;code&gt;neutral&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;happy&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;sad&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;fearful&lt;/code&gt; faces. Neutral faces and fixation point were used to transition between the exposure blocks to the emotional faces. Authors state the study points towards the role of greater amygdala activation in borderline patients being a key component to their emotional vulnerability in context of disturbed interpersonal relationships. To put it very simply - borderline patients' amygdala response (i.e. mostly - fear) is more sensitive. The speaker does not talk about the above picture in particular; it rather serves as a general illustration for her presentation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Donegan, N. H., Sanislow, C. A., Blumberg, H. P., Fulbright, R. K., Lacadie, C., Skudlarski, P., … Wexler, B. E. (2003). Amygdala hyperreactivity in borderline personality disorder: implications for emotional dysregulation. Biological Psychiatry, 54(11), 1284–1293. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00636-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00636-X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition I found a good overview article on neuroimaging in borderline patients:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lis, E., Greenfield, B., Henry, M., Guilé, J. M., &amp;amp; Dougherty, G. (2007). Neuroimaging and genetics of borderline personality disorder: a review. Journal of Psychiatry &amp;amp; Neuroscience, 32(3), 162–173.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6151" LastEditorUserId="6151" LastEditDate="2020-01-15T17:04:33.750" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T17:04:33.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19339" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3171" CreationDate="2018-03-27T12:12:05.197" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer that I recently discovered is that humans have a number of mental adaptations to environmental challenges, as described by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evolutionary Psychology&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/denis_dutton_a_darwinian_theory_of_beauty&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This TED talk on beauty&lt;/a&gt; describes how most &quot;beautiful&quot; landscape paintings share common traits, like looking down a valley with wildlife, a water source AND gravitational advantage (as if looking down from a tree).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The explanation given is that gravitational advantage (being higher) helps evade predators and spot them as they approach. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From looking at these adaptations, it appears that there's neural circuits in the human brain which can recognize height and prefer it in some amount (as in sitting in a tree), but feel aversion towards it in greater amounts (staring down a cliff). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastActivityDate="2018-03-27T12:12:05.197" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19340" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-27T13:57:37.980" Score="2" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the restriction of range formula if you don't know the standard deviation of the unrestricted group is? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, you run a selection process, 1st stage is a cognitive ability test and as a result you would not know the standard deviation of the population. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18816" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-05-22T00:28:05.497" LastActivityDate="2018-12-04T17:04:42.330" Title="What is restriction of range correction formula when you don't know standard deviation of unrestricted group?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19341" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-27T18:57:58.707" Score="2" ViewCount="674" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone has almost all of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, and no positive symptoms of schizophrenia whatsoever, is that enough to be diagnosed with a mental disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that a diagnosis of schizophrenia is not possible with only negative symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user18817" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-27T19:49:32.537" LastActivityDate="2018-03-27T19:49:32.537" Title="What is the diagnosis when someone suffers only from negative symptoms of schizophrenia?" Tags="&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19342" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19341" CreationDate="2018-03-27T19:11:56.363" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Many people in the general populace suffer one or more negative symptoms that are associated with schizophrenia, but are not diagnosed with a mental illness whatsoever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Indeed, for a &lt;a href=&quot;https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288259-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;diagnosis of schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt;, negative symptoms alone are not enough. According to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, (DSM-5)&lt;/a&gt;, to meet the criteria for diagnosis of schizophrenia, the patient must have experienced at least 2 of the following symptoms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Delusions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hallucinations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Disorganized speech&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Disorganized or catatonic behavior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Negative symptoms&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4351950/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Werbeloff &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2015)&lt;/a&gt; note that, similar to psychotic experiences, negative symptoms are common in the general population, namely between 20–22%. The vast majority of these people &lt;strong&gt;do not manifest a clinically diagnosed psychiatric disorder&lt;/strong&gt;. Negative symptoms do appear to be associated with the development of schizophrenia later in life, and to other non-psychotic disorders. However, neither negative symptoms nor psychotic experiences alone predicted later schizophrenia in their study. It was only the combined presence of both strong positive psychotic experiences and negative symptoms together that showed a statistically significant risk for later schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4351950/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Werbeloff &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;PLoS One&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;10&lt;/strong&gt;(3): e0119852&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-27T19:17:46.013" LastActivityDate="2018-03-27T19:17:46.013" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19343" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-27T20:34:57.833" Score="5" ViewCount="652" Body="&lt;p&gt;In various movies, most recently &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsane_(film)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Unsane (2018)&lt;/a&gt;, a scenario is painted in which a healthy person gets committed and trapped in an insane asylum and the caretakers there are more or less indifferent to whether she is actually sane or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the movie she &quot;voluntarily&quot; commits herself by signing a form, so presumably she will not be afforded the protections some states give to involuntarily committed people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this scenario realistic in the United States? Can a person who &quot;voluntarily&quot; commits themself, be turned into a medicated prisoner with no recourse for freeing themself?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12982" LastActivityDate="2018-04-07T13:03:44.397" Title="Is getting trapped in an asylum a realistic scenario?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19345" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19343" CreationDate="2018-03-28T09:53:11.137" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think in current times this is hardly possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has happened in the late 1800's that a &lt;a href=&quot;http://mentalfloss.com/article/29734/ten-days-madhouse-woman-who-got-herself-committed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sane person gets themselves admitted&lt;/a&gt; purposefully in a New York mental institution in order to reveal the poor conditions in which the admitted people have to live.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recent cases have been listed by popular sources &lt;a href=&quot;http://listverse.com/2015/07/24/10-crazy-cases-of-people-wrongfully-committed-to-insane-asylums/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;such as this one&lt;/a&gt; on the internet. Given the questionable reputation of such sites, it is hard to say in as how far they reflect reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A cursory search on Google Scholar (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &quot;admission+of+healthy+individuals+in+mental+ institutions) yields no relevant hits, other than those pertaining to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/health/health_services/mental_health/admission_to_a_psychiatric_hospital.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;involuntary admissions&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, admissions of folks against their own will. There the debate starts whether people should be admitted in institutions against their will, and when it is deemed necessary for their own good, or for the safety of others. That, however, is a discussion outside the scope of this question though.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-28T10:23:35.293" LastActivityDate="2018-03-28T10:23:35.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19346" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19349" CreationDate="2018-03-28T10:16:40.300" Score="2" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm aware the site does not accept self-help questions, but I think this one can be answered in a situation-independent way. So&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible for someone to exaggerate mild displeasure (justfiable or unjustifiable through social norm) as personal threats? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;And what does it mean?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18824" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-28T14:15:21.313" LastActivityDate="2018-03-28T19:04:20.003" Title="Diagnosis for consistently preceiving mild displeasure as personal threats?" Tags="&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19347" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19343" CreationDate="2018-03-28T11:12:31.620" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes and no.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It depends a lot on the legislation of a country. For example, in Germany, if you are admitted &lt;em&gt;involuntarily&lt;/em&gt; by social workers, the police or doctors, you must see a judge in the following 48 hours after your admission. Furthermore, you may not be treated or kept in mental care against your will if a judge has not ruled so. Meaning if you are admitted involuntarily, there must be pretty strong evidence suggesting that you actually need to be admitted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it does look quite different if you admit yourself voluntarily: In the year 1973, Rosenhan conducted a experiment, investigating how voluntarily admitted pseudo patients are treated in closed mental care institutions. He wrote a paper about it, called &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/179/4070/250&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;On being sane in Insane Places&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; Let me cite some passages from a summary of the study, published on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dowellwebtools.com/tools/lp/Bo/psyched/13/On-Being-Sane-in-Insane-Places&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dowellwebtools.com&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Rosenhan] put together a team of eight perfectly healthy and sane &amp;quot;pseudo patients&amp;quot; [...] to have themselves committed in one of several psychiatric hospitals across the United States.  In order to make this experiment work, the pseudo patients had to lie about [...] the fact that they heard a voice in their heads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Immediately after admission, the pseudo patients acted normally [...] while discreetly taking notes for the experiment.  They could not be released without staff corroboration of their sanity, which took from 7 to 52 days [...] to get.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the pseudo patients were eventually discharged, none of them were seen as normal, but all with &amp;quot;schizophrenia in remission.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenhan_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Searching for it on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; reveals that there is a second part to Rosenhan's study which is even more interesting:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second part of his study involved an offended hospital administration challenging Rosenhan to send pseudopatients to its facility, whom its staff would then detect. Rosenhan agreed and in the following weeks out of 250 new patients the staff identified 41 as potential pseudopatients, with 2 of these receiving suspicion from at least one psychiatrist and one other staff member. In fact, Rosenhan had sent no pseudopatients to the hospital.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The core of your question can be answered with no: It's very unlikely for a person to be kept in mental care for a very long time without showing actual symptoms of a mental disorder. If you read Rosenhan's study carefully, you will find a passage that says that other patients got suspicious of the pseudo patients as they seemed &amp;quot;too normal&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During the first three hospitalizations, when accurate counts were kept, 35 of a total of 118 patients on the admissions ward voiced their suspicions, some vigorously. &amp;quot;You're not crazy. You're a journalist, or a professor [referring&#xA;to the continual note-taking]. You're checking up on the hospital.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, sooner or later, someone would raise a concern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless, it is not unrealistic to be kept in mental healthcare for a shorter duration even though you show no symptoms or whatsoever. Rosenhan explains this as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hospital itself imposes a special environment in which the meanings of behavior can easily be misunderstood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But before storming off now, saying that mental healthcare institutions can't diagnose properly, it's important to note that I couldn't find any replication of Rosenhan's study in our time, nearly 50 years later, and that his pseudo patients wanted to be admitted. The fact that they stopped showing symptoms right after they were admitted would probably leave anyone wondering what is going on, meaning that most would make closer and longer observations. (Why did he stop showing symptoms? Maybe a new disorder appeared?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conclusion: His findings don't necessarily have to hold true nowadays (at least to the extent he found), but it may be helpful to take them into account.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18825" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-03-28T11:12:31.620" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19349" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19346" CreationDate="2018-03-28T13:02:12.310" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Paranoid personality disorder and social anxiety disorder come to mind.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Perhaps you are after &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/paranoia/#.WruRKIiuyUk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paranoia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which is thinking and feeling as if you are under threat even though there is no (or very little) evidence that you are. Paranoid thoughts can also be described as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/schizophrenia/guide/delusional-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;delusions&lt;/a&gt;. Paranoid thoughts can be exaggerated suspicions, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;., someone made a negative comment about you once, and one inflates that rather irrelevant remark to a full-blown hate campaign. &#xA;Thanks to r0berts' commentary below, I wish to add that, according to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_(2000)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-IV-TR&lt;/a&gt;, paranoia in itself is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; a diagnosis. Instead, it is diagnosed in the form of paranoid personality disorder, paranoid schizophrenia (a subtype of schizophrenia), or the persecutory type of delusional disorder. paranoid personality disorder may be what you are after in specific:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/disorders/paranoid-personality-disorder/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Paranoid personality disorder&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is generally characterized by a&#xA;  pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of others. Sufferers often&#xA;  believe that other people’s motives are suspect or even malevolent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psycom.net/paranoid-schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paranoid schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt; is characterized by predominantly positive symptoms of schizophrenia, including delusions and hallucinations. Without going into detail, schizophrenia is probably not what you are after.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/schizophrenia/guide/delusional-disorder#1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;persecutory type of delusional disorder&lt;/a&gt; believe that they (or someone close to them) are being mistreated, or that someone is spying on them or planning to harm them. Likely also not what you are after.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another disorder that comes to mind is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/guide/anxiety-disorders#1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anxiety disorder&lt;/a&gt;, and specifically &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/guide/anxiety-disorders#1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;social anxiety disorder&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, or social phobia. This is&#xA;  characterized by overwhelming worry and self-consciousness about&#xA;  everyday social situations. You fixate about others judging you or on&#xA;  being embarrassed or ridiculed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-28T19:04:20.003" LastActivityDate="2018-03-28T19:04:20.003" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19350" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-28T14:54:27.950" Score="-1" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a how-to to prove reincarnation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And secondly, I would like to lessen bad action from the previous life. And how do I do that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18666" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-05T12:21:41.930" LastActivityDate="2018-04-05T12:22:35.313" Title="Is there a robust method to prove the existence of reincarnation?" Tags="&lt;self&gt;&lt;religion&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;&lt;death&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19351" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4553" CreationDate="2018-03-28T17:18:50.790" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;what about&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kay, S. R.: 1982, ‘Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: Critical Analysis of Validation Studies with the Defining Issues Test’, International Journal of Psychology 17, 27–42.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abstract&#xA;This paper evaluates studies that have used the Defining Issues Test for validating Kohlberg's theory of moral stage development. Although this test was introduced to overcome inadequacies with Kohlberg's procedure, it too encounters serious methodological and conceptual difficulties. Its limitations include truncation of the stages and age range assessed. The validation studies, both cross‐sectional and longitudinal, have used a correlational design and confounded age with other variables. Threats to internal and external validity obviate support claimed for Kohlberg; moral reasoning thus measured seems a function of education, IQ, direct moral training, and cultural values rather than maturation. Nor is the stage model upheld by longitudinal data, which fail to reveal sequential stepwise change and belie occasional regression. Attempted redefinition of the stage concept to salvage these data has not rescued Kohlberg's proposal, which remains to be validated empirically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18828" LastActivityDate="2018-03-28T17:18:50.790" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19352" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19353" CreationDate="2018-03-28T18:38:55.023" Score="2" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;A psychiatrist once told me to avoid eating bone marrow because it could contain prions that could cause dementia. However, I haven't been able to find any studies that confirm this. Could this happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18829" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-28T19:35:18.340" LastActivityDate="2019-09-11T16:52:53.503" Title="Is it possible to develop dementia by eating bone marrow?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19353" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19352" CreationDate="2018-03-28T19:34:42.697" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might be referring to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Fact-Sheets/Creutzfeldt-Jakob-Disease-Fact-Sheet&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (CJD). It is transmitted through exposure to brain tissue and spinal cord fluid from infected individuals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;CJD is characterized by rapidly &lt;strong&gt;progressive dementia&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The leading scientific theory at this time maintains that CJD and the other &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/bloodproducts/tse/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;transmissible spongiform encephalopathies&lt;/a&gt; (TSEs) are caused by a type of protein called a prion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CJD is indeed caused by prions: proteins that occur in both a normal form, which is a harmless protein found in the body’s cells, and in an infectious form, which causes disease. The harmless and infectious forms of the prion protein have the same sequence of amino acids, but the infectious form of the protein takes a different folded shape than the normal protein. Sporadic CJD may develop because some of a person’s normal prions spontaneously change into the infectious form of the protein and then alter the prions in other cells in a chain reaction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Fact-Sheets/Creutzfeldt-Jakob-Disease-Fact-Sheet&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIH Fact Sheet&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/bloodproducts/tse/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WHO&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-03-29T08:13:30.430" LastActivityDate="2018-03-29T08:13:30.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19355" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-29T00:11:50.530" Score="2" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose I want to practice my calculus. Has a study been conducted which shows a difference between setting a goal like: '&lt;em&gt;I will study calculus for one hour&lt;/em&gt;' and '&lt;em&gt;I will study chapter 3 from my calculus textbook&lt;/em&gt;' in terms of completion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does one method have a higher failure rate than the other? Does one have a higher chance to begin the task?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18830" LastEditorUserId="18830" LastEditDate="2018-03-29T20:41:26.193" LastActivityDate="2018-03-29T20:41:26.193" Title="Is there a difference in time based goals and achievement goals?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;&lt;goals&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19356" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-29T01:44:13.210" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I think, I generally think in words (in English primarily, though sometimes in Russian). Essentially, I speak to myself in my mind, and ask questions and formulate plans. However, sometimes I think without words; I am still thinking with my conscious and not doing something out of instinct. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: I am being given a choice between two apples. I will usually think to myself, &quot;I think I have tasted this apple recently and it was horrible,&quot; and choose the other one. Or, I might take a moment to decide which one tastes better, but without talking to myself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am fairly confident that I have been told from some people that they never think in words. Is this possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What other ways are there to think? Do some people think in images? (With the apple example, they would maybe visualize a couple images of them biting into the apple, of a similar apple they have seen, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, perhaps, do some people think in scents? I do not imagine how this would work, because when I attempt to recall a scent or taste, I cannot recall it exactly; rather I think about whether it is good or bad, about when I enjoy it and with what, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How would all this work on the neurological level? I am no professional in this area, but a suggestion is that thought in words happens in the section of the brain responsible for speech, and thought without words happens in the subconscious. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sidenote: When I do math, I also think the names of the numbers or signs in my head, unless it is one I just invented. I know some people do not. This slows me down a lot in math, but also allows me to understand more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sidenote #2 (Edit): This question is asking about all the ways to think (this is the difference between it and the linked questions), and is looking primarily at personal experience-based answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18820" LastEditorUserId="18820" LastEditDate="2018-03-29T20:42:27.467" LastActivityDate="2018-03-29T20:42:27.467" Title="What ways are there to think?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2018-04-05T07:56:06.263" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19360" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-29T12:08:28.317" Score="3" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;Last weekend, at least in Germany, the clock got switched from 2:00 AM to 3:00 AM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today I found a few articles, that suggest, that the daylight-saving has a big impact on people. &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797616678437?journalCode=pssa&amp;amp;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Judges punish harder&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.europeanreview.org/article/14306&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;myocardial infarction rises&lt;/a&gt; after daylight saving. I've found those articles in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.zeit.de/wissen/gesundheit/2018-03/schlafforschung-sommerzeit-zeitumstellung-uhrzeit-muedigkeit-schlaf/seite-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, which is a trustworthy German newspaper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is it, that just one hour of delay, has such a big impact on us? Me and most people I know, heavily change their sleeping habits on the weekends anyway. As for me, I stay up 2-4 hours later than usual, which is why I can't believe, that 1 hour makes such a difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most people can sleep long on weekends anyways, so there shouldn't even be one hour of sleep missing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are those articles maybe drawing the wrong conclusions and connecting two things that might be correlated, but not linked?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/17017/what-is-the-effect-of-daylight-saving-time-on-attentiveness-and-productivity&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; SE question is related, but rather holds the information that I already got from the linked newspaper article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sidenote: Since sleep mainly happens in our brain I posted this in psychology &amp;amp; neuroscience, I hope this is correct. If it rather belongs in Biology please let me know. I also couldn't find any more tags than &quot;sleep&quot;. If you can think of more feel free to tell me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18835" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-04-13T07:42:02.627" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T07:42:02.627" Title="Why does daylight-saving have such a big impact on us and weekends don't?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19365" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17865" CreationDate="2018-03-30T00:35:45.460" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Related studies you might find interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2001-00201-003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Confirmation bias in sequential information search after preliminary decisions: An expansion of dissonance theoretical research on selective exposure to information.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The authors provide evidence that the increase in confirmation bias under sequential presentation is caused by heightened commitment due to the participants' increased focusing on their decision&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psy2.ucsd.edu/~mckenzie/nickersonConfirmationBias.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias, as the term is typically used in the psychological literature, connotes the seeking or interpreting of evidence in ways that are partial to existing beliefs, expectations, or a hypothesis in hand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=cognitive+dissonance+confirmation+bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; has many more too, but you'll probably have to filter a bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9942" LastEditorUserId="16570" LastEditDate="2019-06-17T23:13:55.440" LastActivityDate="2019-06-17T23:13:55.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19366" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-30T00:47:35.977" Score="1" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose I want to borrow an item, such as a phone charger from someone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of directly asking them, &quot;Could I borrow a charger?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I first ask this question: &quot;Do you have a charger?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The act of asking a question of fact (whether they have the item or not) will make them more willing to lend you the item.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a term or explanation for this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this related or similar to the Ben Franklin effect and Anchoring effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18842" LastActivityDate="2018-04-07T00:31:58.757" Title="Preconditioning before asking a favor" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19367" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-30T05:03:29.737" Score="4" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nikolas Cruz, now widely known as the shooter responsible for killing 17 students in Parkland, Florida and injuring another 17, is according to both &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cnn.com/2018/03/29/us/nikolas-cruz-prison-fan-mail-trnd/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CNN&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sun-sentinel.com/local/broward/parkland/florida-school-shooting/fl-reg-nikolas-cruz-prison-love-letters-20180327-story.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sun Sentinel&lt;/a&gt; receiving piles of love letters from young girls around the country.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What psychological phenomena would explain this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12897" LastActivityDate="2018-03-30T05:03:29.737" Title="Why are young girls writing love letters to the Parkland shooter?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;love&gt;&lt;attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19370" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17352" CreationDate="2018-03-31T01:02:05.237" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;See my comment above, but it is possible to assume that B acquires the same reward value as the original reward, so B can then be treated as a reward, which in turn brings A closer to the reward event (now at time B). Does that make sense? In other words, the addition of B allows the reward value to accrue to B and thus brings A closer to reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11306" LastActivityDate="2018-03-31T01:02:05.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19371" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19029" CreationDate="2018-03-31T03:40:49.707" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an excellent question. The difference between Classical conditioning (also called Pavlovian conditioning) and operant (instrumental) conditioning is subtle for the new student, but can be quite profound when fully appreciated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pavlovian conditioning is learning a response that you have no control over. In this context, a conditioned taste aversion (CTA) might be produced by mildly poisoning a rat after it eats watermelon for the first time. Or you might suffer food poisoning after eating a watermelon. The CS is the watermelon. The usual response to watermelon is licking lips and paws, and savouring the sweet flavour - any rat version of yum you can think of. However after poisoning (where the US is usually denoted by the poisoning method, e.g. weak lithium chloride injections), the new response is gaping, retching and avoiding the now yucky flavour. In people who get food poisoning, we know the actual flavour of the food changes from pleasant to revolting, and can even elicit retching and vomiting. This response won't change even if you tell the person the next watermelon is fresh and sweet. In other words, the subject of the CTA cannot change their response (yucky flavour/retching) to the CS at will. This obviously creates a problem when a CTA is produced as a side-effect of medical treatment such as chemotherapy. Which is why people on chemo will often only be fed very bland and boring foods (to reduce the chance of a CTA). Even telling the person the chemo is causing the nausea is not sufficient to change their opinion of the foods they ate shortly before they felt sick. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By contrast, instrumental conditioning is learning a response you have control over. E.g., training a rat to press a lever for watermelon (or a person buying watermelon from the grocer). In this case you or the rat has control over the action (lever pressing or shopping at the grocer). So after a rat is convinced to press a lever for sweet juicy watermelon, if the rat gets poisoned by the watermelon then it will simply stop pressing the lever. Here the instrumental response to a CTA is 'avoidance'. Just as you would stop shopping at a grocer who previously sold you a bad watermelon. If however the owner of the grocery changed, you might be happy to resume shopping for watermelon there. Note that while you may no longer avoid shopping for watermelon, your Pavlovian response to the bad watermelon might still be intact - i.e., you might retch when you first bite into the fresh watermelon you just bought. This can obviously create odd situations where animals will work for food they do not want.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whenever experimental psychologists are faced with a learned response they don't understand, one of the first things they will do is ask whether the response is Pavlovian or instrumental. The classic way to test this is with an omission schedule. Under an omission schedule, the reward is removed if the animal makes the response. If the animal continues to make the response, then the response is clearly not under instrumental control. If you look up some of Anthony Dickinson's work on this subject, you will discover many weird and wondrous examples of this distinction, especially in his incentive learning research. A lot of behaviour we think of as instrumental, is probably Pavlovian - e.g., a dog approaching a food bowl when he hears the can opener. One place to start is Dickinson, 1981, Conditioning and associative learning, British Medical Journal, 37 (2), 165-168&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11306" LastActivityDate="2018-03-31T03:40:49.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19372" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10330" CreationDate="2018-03-31T04:25:04.023" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The contingency of an event (A) can be expressed as the probability of A given another event (B) less the probability of A in the absence of B. So if the probability of A given B is 100%, then A is certain, given B. i.e., P(A|B) = 1. However if the probability of A given the absence of B (~B) is also 100%, then A is also certain without B. i.e., P(A|~B) = 1. In this case, B would have no detectable impact on the overall probability of A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus the contingency of A is given by P(A|B) – P(A|~B) = ∆P&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the above example, ∆P = 0, since P(A|B) = 1 and P(A|~B) = 1. Zero represents the fact that B has no detectable impact on the occurrence of A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If however P(A|B) &gt; P(A|~B) then the contingency (∆P) will be positive, that is greater than 0. In this case, A is considered (somewhat) contingent on B. I say somewhat because P(A|B) could be 1 and P(A|~B) could be 0.99 so ∆P = .01, or P(A|~B) could be as low as 0 so ∆P = 1. These cases where ∆P &gt; 0 represent the fact that B has some positive impact on the occurrence of A. That is, B makes A more likely to happen, and even certain when ∆P = 1. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The contingency could also be negative if P(A|B) &amp;lt; P(A|~B). When this happens, ∆P &amp;lt; 0 (i.e., negative) and this represents the case when B lowers (or prevents) the occurrence of A. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rescorla (1968) Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 66, p4 was the first to make this connection to animal learning and Pavlovian condiitoning. He found that rats will be afraid of a light if it has a positive contingency with shock (i.e., it predicts that shock is more likely to occur), while rats will feel safe if a light has a negative contingency with shock (i.e., the light predicts that shock is less likely to occur). The implications have been discussed at length for how we (and animals) learn about the causal structure of our environment - see Maier &amp;amp; Seligman (1976) Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 105, p3-46 for implications for instrumental conditioning, and Rescorla (1988) American Psychologist, 43, p151-160 for a good overview.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11306" LastActivityDate="2018-03-31T04:25:04.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19373" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19382" CreationDate="2018-03-31T14:38:48.723" Score="4" ViewCount="244" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a non-psychologist reading some papers from psychology. I keep seeing the term &quot;norming experiment&quot; (e.g. &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cvcl.mit.edu/Papers/KonkleOliva_CogSci07.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Normative Representation of Objects: Evidence for an Ecological Bias in Object Perception an&#xA;d Memory&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Konkle and Oliva). What do psychologists or neuroscientists mean by a &quot;norming experiment&quot;? It seems like the idea is to see which presentations of a stimulus  are preferred to others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18852" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-04-02T06:13:07.437" LastActivityDate="2018-04-02T06:13:07.437" Title="What is a &quot;norming experiment&quot;?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19374" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-03-31T14:52:03.830" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies of conditioning and neuroplasticity being used to bring back empathy to psychopaths?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18631" LastEditorUserId="18631" LastEditDate="2018-03-31T21:46:11.147" LastActivityDate="2018-03-31T21:46:11.147" Title="Can someone who is born a psychopath acquire empathy through conditioning and neuroplasticity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19375" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19392" CreationDate="2018-03-31T22:12:17.863" Score="4" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;From a neuroscientific standpoint, what are the most effective ways to develop empathy, love and compassion for others? For example, in the Buddhist lore there are some meditations targeted at cultivating these emotions, such as metta (loving-kindness) and karuna (compassion), but I admit my complete ignorance regarding the current position of Neuroscience with respect to these techniques (or any other techniques for that matter).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18631" LastActivityDate="2020-04-22T12:03:33.613" Title="From a neuroscientific standpoint, what are the most effective ways to develop empathy, love and compassion for others?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;love&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19378" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19513" CreationDate="2018-04-01T06:14:36.580" Score="2" ViewCount="184" Body="&lt;p&gt;As of 2018, is it possible to induce pleasure in humans by some intervention like sending electrical signals? I've read that it's been done on mice. If not, it's quite imaginable that it will become possible in the near future. What would be the neurological implications of such intervention, other than addiction? I mean what would happen to the brain if we force the brain to stay in an orgasm-like or ecstasy state for several minutes? What are the possible adverse effects or damages? Of course that we know very little yet, but I appreciate to get some insights on how pleasure works, and if there really are pleasure centers in the brain that can be easily manipulated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17351" LastActivityDate="2018-04-16T17:19:29.923" Title="How much pleasure can brain endure?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19381" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19384" CreationDate="2018-04-01T16:33:33.730" Score="3" ViewCount="335" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a typical multi-polar neuron, an axon has multiple axon terminals that can connect to another neuron's dendrites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there cases where an axon connects to dendrites of &lt;strong&gt;multiple&lt;/strong&gt; neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18864" LastActivityDate="2018-04-02T06:09:20.057" Title="Can an axon connect to dendrites of multiple other neurons?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19382" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19373" CreationDate="2018-04-01T19:58:47.360" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, a norming experiment is an experiment looking to establish what (if any) is the perceptual norm for a given stimulus, i.e. the level of the stimulus that appears neutral. In the paper you referenced, the stimuli are the size(s) of various objects, and the subjects were instructed to pick for each object a size that appeared neither too big nor too small, thus psychologically &quot;just right&quot; or neutral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, quoting from &lt;a href=&quot;https://wolfweb.unr.edu/~mwebster/assets/pdfs/WebsterSPIE2007.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;another paper&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many sensory dimensions are thought to be represented relative to a norm, which itself appears psychologically neutral&#xA;  or unbiased. In vision, classic examples of these norms include “white” in the perception of color, or “static” in the&#xA;  perception of motion. Norms have also been implicated in the representation of higher-level stimulus attributes. Thus&#xA;  current models of face perception assume that faces are represented by their “identity trajectories” relative to a&#xA;  prototype or average face [...]. Such diverse examples suggest that norms may in fact be central to most perceptual&#xA;  judgments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-04-01T19:58:47.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19384" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19381" CreationDate="2018-04-01T22:30:51.120" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sure, look at the &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/370/1666/20140309&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;connectome of &lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; for example: URB (circled in red) has synaptic connections to IL1, RIC and also to CEP (which also synapses back to URB, showing that cycles in the connectome are possible). Likewise RIS (circled in blue) has synaptic connections to at least 4 different neurons (in this map) and a couple more off-map.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VZi5b.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VZi5b.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(click to enlarge)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-04-01T22:30:51.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19385" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19381" CreationDate="2018-04-02T06:09:20.057" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the central nervous system, I think it would be safe to say that most neurons make connections (through their axons) with the dendtrites of multiple downstream neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;http://bme2.aut.ac.ir/~towhidkhah/MotorControl/Notes/Cerebellum-Vahdat/Book/fulltextservice/ct%7B06b9ee1beed594190674f1983457a7dd32af6a0d5a4c9892~49/da6c42ff7.gif.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cerebellum&lt;/a&gt;, the parallel fibers pass through and makes connections with many Purkinje neurons. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;This was recently very beautifully demonstrated in a paper where they filled individual axons in V1 and traced their connections to multiple cortical areas. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/03/180328143253.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Science Daily&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nature26159&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nature Article&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18785" LastActivityDate="2018-04-02T06:09:20.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19390" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-02T15:49:01.897" Score="1" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm new to this site so I may mess up here and there with the question process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need to come up with an interactive exercise for a class to demonstrate cognition. The problem is, I find cognition to be very complex and I have trouble thinking of one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some ideas I currently have in mind are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Telling the class some false facts or showing them some fake news and having them debate which is real.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Something along the lines of a slot machine where extravagant sounds and lights play when you win something, however, nothing happens when you lose. Showing how we are more likely to remember the extravagant sounds/lights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) Asking the class to describe to me an object. Then ask the class to describe the same object to me without the use of certain words and concepts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am very clueless on this matter (cognition) so any help would be appreciated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18877" LastActivityDate="2018-04-02T16:57:36.493" Title="What is a effective and interactive exercise to demonstrate cognition to a class" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19390" CreationDate="2018-04-02T16:57:36.493" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would recommend something like the Invisible Gorilla! This is a classic demonstration from Simons &amp;amp; Chabris (1999) that demonstrates the selectivity of attention. Demonstrating &quot;cognition&quot; is a bit broad, but this is a famous example of the ways in which cognitive processes select, omit, and process information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Video of the illusion (with instructions) here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo&amp;amp;feature=youtu.be&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo&amp;amp;feature=youtu.be&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NPR story discussing the experiment/illusion in simple terms: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126977945&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126977945&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15297" LastActivityDate="2018-04-02T16:57:36.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19392" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19375" CreationDate="2018-04-02T17:16:13.623" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm including some relevant papers below, but one important thing to note abot this whole compassion/Buddhism/neuroscience discussion is that &lt;em&gt;neuroscience may not necessarily have the most to say about developing empathy/love/compassion (ELC),&lt;/em&gt; especially as compared to &quot;real-world,&quot; social psychological, or behavioral measures linking prosocial behavior to certain practices like mindfulness/metta/etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do I mean by that? Consider: let's say we throw people in an fMRI and demonstrate, quasi-experimentally, that increased BOLD response in area &lt;em&gt;K&lt;/em&gt; of the brain predicts increased ELC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's then say that we then have a sample group engage in metta practices for six months, and afterward they demonstrate increased ELC (as measured, perhaps, by scales, charity donations, patience--whatever!). If we then threw those people in an fMRI and they &lt;em&gt;didn't&lt;/em&gt; demonstrate increased BOLD response in area &lt;em&gt;K&lt;/em&gt;, we wouldn't really be able to say that they don't have increased ELC, just because the &quot;neuroscience&quot; doesn't suggest so. All of our applied measures of ELC--sending money to charity, being more patient with their kids, etc.--would still suggest that they effectively built ELC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, neuroscience can &lt;em&gt;support&lt;/em&gt; existing associations between certain practices and ELC, but it would be difficult to use neuroscience as the independent arbiter of any causal links between ELC and certain practices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, to your question: you may find these papers and discussions helpful:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Klimecki et al., &lt;em&gt;Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after&#xA;compassion and empathy training&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4040103/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4040103/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;From the abstract: &quot;In response to videos depicting human suffering, empathy training, but not memory training (control group), increased negative affect and brain activations in anterior insula and anterior midcingulate cortex—brain regions previously associated with empathy for pain. In contrast, subsequent compassion training could reverse the increase in negative effect ... We conclude that training compassion may reflect a new coping strategy to overcome empathic distress and strengthen resilience.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Note that one implication of the distinction between empathy/compassion training is that empathy training may incline us to feel &lt;em&gt;self-concern&lt;/em&gt; in the presence of others suffering, which is distinct from the &lt;em&gt;other-directed&lt;/em&gt; concern associated with compassion training. I could, from a theoretical perspective, feel complete empathy for your pain but have no motivation to alleviate it; in contrast, to feel compassion is, in some ways, to be concerned with or care about alleviating your suffering. The Buddhist monk Mathieu Ricard has explored this distinction: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.matthieuricard.org/en/blog/posts/empathy-and-the-cultivation-of-compassion&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.matthieuricard.org/en/blog/posts/empathy-and-the-cultivation-of-compassion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A discussion of recent findings on the neuroscience of compassion from UCB's Greater Good research center: &lt;a href=&quot;https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/three_insights_from_the_frontiers_of_the_mind&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/three_insights_from_the_frontiers_of_the_mind&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In sum: yes, meditation training can augment activity in brain areas associated with a whole host of positive traits/emotions--compassion, connectedness, etc. Note again though that demonstrating increased activity in a brain area previously associated with a positive thing is not necessarily the same as causing an increase in that positive thing. Neuroscience has a far ways to go before we can off-the-cuff describe all geographic brain activity in terms of its real-world and experiential consequences.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, here's the &quot;recommended reading&quot; all in one PDF from a 2016 seminar at Harvard Med School on meditation practice and neuroscience. Not all of it is directly related to compassion, but the sum takeaway (for me, at least), is that yes, mindfulness can cause (not just predict) reductions in stress, increases in positive affect, and increases in compassion. (The inter-correlations between some of those measures--like self-compassion and how we treat others--can make exact causal chains hard to suss out, but I believe the overall pattern of results is strong). &lt;a href=&quot;https://hms.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/assets/Harvard%20Now%20and%20Zen%20Reading%20Materials.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://hms.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/assets/Harvard%20Now%20and%20Zen%20Reading%20Materials.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stevens and Woodruff's book, &lt;em&gt;The Neuroscience of Empathy, Compassion, and Self-Compassion&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.elsevier.com/books/the-neuroscience-of-empathy-compassion-and-self-compassion/stevens/978-0-12-809837-0&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.elsevier.com/books/the-neuroscience-of-empathy-compassion-and-self-compassion/stevens/978-0-12-809837-0&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To be honest, I haven't read this, but it's a recent edition of their book, and they're both respected psychologists at Northern Arizona State University. If you're looking for a longer exploration of all the recent literature on compassion and neuroscience, this may be up your alley.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;///&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additional papers on compassion training:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Weng et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://centerhealthyminds.org/assets/files-publications/WengCompassionAssociationForPsychologicalScience.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://centerhealthyminds.org/assets/files-publications/WengCompassionAssociationForPsychologicalScience.pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Compassion trainees were instructed to evoke feelings of compassion while silently repeating compassion-generating phrases.&quot; (NOTE: these trainees also engaged in a version of metta practice, so that clouds the non-meditative results).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Results: more altruistic behavior post-compassion training, more activation in brain areas associated with compassion (that's a broad way to put that, apologies--I'm not a neuroscience specialist).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jazaieri et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs10902-012-9373-z.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs10902-012-9373-z.pdf&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Participants did &quot;Compassion Cultivation Training,&quot; described as such: &quot;Each class includes: (a) pedagogical instruction with active group discussion, (b) a guided group meditation, (c) interactive practical exercises related to the specific step of the week...and (d) exercises designed to prime feelings of open-heartedness or connection to others, either through reading poetry or through reflecting on inspiring stories.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;So, unfortunately, the CCT does involve some metta/meditative practices and thus doesn't serve as a perfect comparison to meditative practice--but it includes other exercises as well, perhaps suggesting that even the non-meditative activities contribute to the cultivation of ELC.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Results: &quot;...CCT resulted in significant improvement in [compassion]. Specifically, CCT completers reported reductions in fear of compassion (for others, from others, and for self) and an increase in self-compassion. These findings suggest that not only is the absence of compassion worth investigating but also one’s fear of compassion...&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, both of those papers utilize some meditative practices as part of their compassion training, rendering it difficult to parse out exactly what features of the training best served to increase compassion. However, it seems reasonable to assume that, at a minimum, the non-meditative aspects of the compassion training in each case at least did not &lt;em&gt;hurt&lt;/em&gt; participants' compassion, and probably enhanced it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15297" LastEditorUserId="15297" LastEditDate="2018-04-03T16:58:44.657" LastActivityDate="2018-04-03T16:58:44.657" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19394" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1600" CreationDate="2018-04-03T15:19:28.507" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting question and when you said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;when we drive to work every morning we don't sometimes remember the details because we do it so often we chunk those details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;you are talking about two different phenomena.  They are &lt;strong&gt;chunking&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;autopilot&lt;/strong&gt;.  As for the theory that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;pattern recognition is rewarded with a release of endorphins&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't been able to find anything to confirm this, however I may have found a possible source to the theory that pattern recognition can lead to the release of other reward chemicals in the brain, which can only be &lt;strong&gt;very loosely&lt;/strong&gt; linked with the other two phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Chunking&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within psychology, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chunking&lt;/a&gt; is a method used for remembering things&lt;/strong&gt; rather than &quot;switching into autopilot&quot; to carry out learned tasks automatically without conscious awareness.  Rather than chunking a recognised pattern, we are employing chunking &lt;strong&gt;by producing&lt;/strong&gt; recognised patterns which can be used later on to remember something needed in the future.  We are breaking the item to be remembered into chunks and remembering the chunks with the patterns created.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The phenomenon of chunking as a memory mechanism can be observed in the way individuals group numbers and information in the day-to-day life. For example, when recalling a number such as 12101946, if numbers are grouped as 12, 10 and 1946, a mnemonic is created for this number as a day, month and year. Similarly, another illustration of the limited capacity of working memory as suggested by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;George Miller (1956)&lt;/a&gt; can be seen from the following example: While recalling a mobile phone number such as 9849523450, we might break this into 98 495 234 50. Thus, instead of remembering 10 separate digits that is beyond the &quot;seven plus-or-minus two&quot; memory span, we are remembering four groups of numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Autopilot&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has been studied quite extensively and one study on this (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00356&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hyman Jr, et al. 2014&lt;/a&gt;) talked about how it is possible to drive home and have no conscious awareness during or after the trip. See also, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mental-mishaps/201404/the-dangers-going-autopilot&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ira Hyman (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the introduction it was highlighted that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are two broad categories of possible explanations. One possible explanation is that people were aware of the road and obstacles during the drive, but immediately forgot those features. Alternatively, driving without awareness may represent a form of inattentional blindness, in which objects that pass through the focal point of vision do not enter awareness (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(75)90019-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neisser and Becklen, 1975&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03198284&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Becklen and Cervone, 1983&lt;/a&gt;; Mack and Rock, 1998; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1068/p281059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simons and Chabris, 1999&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01455-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simons, 2000&lt;/a&gt;). People may use visual information to guide the control of actions, but may not devote attention to objects. Without attention, people may fail to bind features into objects (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(80)90005-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Treisman and Gelade, 1980&lt;/a&gt;; Wolfe, 2007) and thus may fail to become aware of the things they pass when driving or walking. This second possible explanation would be consistent with the theoretical claim that visual information follows two pathways after low level visual processing (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-2236(92)90344-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goodale and Milner, 1992&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.11.016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jeannerod and Jacob, 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2010.10.014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Westwood and Goodale, 2011&lt;/a&gt;). One pathway is the dorsal pathway which uses visual information to guide action, enabling someone to grab an object or navigate around obstacles. The other pathway is the ventral pathway leading to object recognition and conscious awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Pattern recognition and release of endorphins&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a book called &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Your-Money-and-Your-Brain/Jason-Zweig/9780743276696&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Your Money and Your Brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; by Jason Zweig (2008) and &lt;a href=&quot;http://awmfinancial.com/uncategorized/dopamine-and-pattern-seeking-and-your-investments/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Michael Angelucci (2011)&lt;/a&gt; provided some insights from the book, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dopamine is a chemical that sends energy throughout the brain and turns motivation into actions. Dopamine is so powerful that a rat will starve to death rather than turn away from dopamine. Lay an MRI scan of a cocaine addict about to get a fix next to that of a person who thinks he is about to win money and they are virtually the same. We also know this about dopamine and rewards: dopamine is strongest when a reward is unexpected. That getting what you expected does not produce dopamine, and if the expected reward does not show up then the dopamine dries up. We also know that if the reward is big enough, dopamine seems to have a memory. This last point is huge. Investors who have received a large reward will experience a dopamine release if a pattern similar to the winning pattern is observed. This may result in the investor taking actions that are not sound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is being said here is that with addictions comes patterns of behaviour which has rewards.  Your remember how you was rewarded by certain behaviour patterns and so you strive to gain those rewards again by repeating that behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might see patterns within stock markets or within casino games (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19306&quot;&gt;Gambler's Fallacy within my answer to another question&lt;/a&gt;).  You might get lucky one or two times and win using the pattern, increasing dopamine levels (a reward chemical within the brain) and this enforces the fallacy that the pattern exists and you commit it to memory for later use.  But the pattern does not actually exist and therefore when employed later on it fails.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversely to the endorphin effect proposed in your question, in this situation, the pain of losing and the stress of trying to find out how this could have happened, will increase endorphin levels and the principal function of endorphins is to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorphins&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inhibit the transmission of pain signals&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Angelucci, M. (2011). &lt;em&gt;Dopamine and Pattern Seeking and Your Investments&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://awmfinancial.com/uncategorized/dopamine-and-pattern-seeking-and-your-investments/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://awmfinancial.com/uncategorized/dopamine-and-pattern-seeking-and-your-investments/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Becklen, R., and Cervone, D. (1983). Selective looking and the noticing of unexpected events. &lt;em&gt;Memory &amp;amp; Cognition&lt;/em&gt; 11(6), 601–608.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03198284&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3758/BF03198284&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6669028&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;6669028&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goodale, M. A., and Milner, A. D. (1992). Separate visual pathways for perception and action. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Neurosciences&lt;/em&gt; 15(1), pp 20–25.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-2236(92)90344-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0166-2236(92)90344-8&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1374953&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1374953&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hyman, I. (2014). The Dangers of Going on Autopilot. &lt;em&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mental-mishaps/201404/the-dangers-going-autopilot&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mental-mishaps/201404/the-dangers-going-autopilot&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hyman Jr, I. E., Sarb, B. A., &amp;amp; Wise-Swanson, B. M. (2014). Failure to see money on a tree: inattentional blindness for objects that guided behavior. &lt;em&gt;Frontiers in psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 5(1), 356.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00356&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00356&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jeannerod, M., and Jacob, P. (2005). Visual cognition: a new look at the two-visual systems model. &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychologia&lt;/em&gt; 43(2), pp 301–312.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.11.016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.11.016&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15707914&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;15707914&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mack, A., and Rock, I. (1998). &lt;em&gt;Inattentional Blindness&lt;/em&gt;. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, 63(2), pp 81-97.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0043158&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reproduced in webpage format with author's permission at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/730/1/miller.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cogprints.org/730/1/miller.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neisser, U., and Becklen, R. (1975). Selective looking: attending to visually specified events. &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Psychology&lt;/em&gt; 7(4), pp 480–494.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(75)90019-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0010-0285(75)90019-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simons, D. J., and Chabris, C. F. (1999). Gorillas in our midst: sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events. &lt;em&gt;Perception&lt;/em&gt; 28(9), pp 1059–1074.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1068/p281059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1068/p281059&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10694957&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10694957&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simons, D. J. (2000). Attentional capture and inattentional blindness. &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences&lt;/em&gt; 4(4), pp 147–155.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01455-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01455-8&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10740279&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10740279&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Treisman, A. M., and Gelade, G. (1980). A feature-integration theory of attention. &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Psychology&lt;/em&gt; 12(1), pp 97–136.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(80)90005-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0010-0285(80)90005-5&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7351125&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;7351125&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Westwood, D. A., and Goodale, M. A. (2011). Converging evidence for diverging pathways: neuropsychology and psychophysics tell the same story. &lt;em&gt;Vision Research&lt;/em&gt; 51(8), pp 804–811.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2010.10.014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.visres.2010.10.014&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20951156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;20951156&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wolfe, J. M. (2007). Guided search 4.0: current progress with a model of visual search. In: &lt;em&gt;Integrated Models of Cognitive Systems, ed. W. Gray&lt;/em&gt; (New York: Oxford University Press), pp 99–119.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zweig, J. (2008). &lt;em&gt;Your Money and Your Brain: How the New Science of Neuroeconomics Can Help Make You Rich.&lt;/em&gt; New York, NY: Simon &amp;amp; Schuster&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-04-03T15:19:28.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19395" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8512" CreationDate="2018-04-03T16:39:34.623" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;eustress&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; was coined by endocrinologist &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Selye&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hans Selye&lt;/a&gt;, consisting of the Greek prefix &lt;em&gt;eu-&lt;/em&gt; meaning &quot;good&quot;, and &lt;em&gt;stress&lt;/em&gt;, literally meaning &quot;good stress&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes%E2%80%93Dodson_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Yerkes–Dodson law&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; which is an empirical relationship between arousal and performance dictating that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The curve diagram you provided in your question is a rehashing of the Yerkes–Dodson law curve (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.920180503&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yerkes&amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;&amp;nbsp;Dodson,&amp;nbsp;1908&lt;/a&gt;) — See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1155/2007/60803&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diamond, et al. (2007)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This version is the most common version and often incorrectly cited in text books (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes%E2%80%93Dodson_law#/media/File:HebbianYerkesDodson.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Your question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any ways to measure that you are within these limits of eutress in that curve?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well detection of peak eustress levels would be practically impossible and one person's eustress levels can be very different to another person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9QYNd.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9QYNd.png&quot; alt=&quot;revised version of Spector’s (1998) model of stress&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940310502412&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Le Fevre, et al's (2003)&lt;/a&gt; revised version of Spector’s (1998) model which incorporates all three tenets drawn from the literature on occupational stress&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Selye's concept of eustress or “good stress” appears to be largely ignored in the literature, while the Yerkes Dodson Law is illustrated as a model for management practice. We suggest that the meaning assigned to the word stress has shifted from Selye's original formulation, and that this shift, in conjunction with the use of the Yerkes Dodson Law leads to inappropriate management of stress in organizations.  We conclude that the concept that some stress is good and enhances performance should be rejected in favour of more useful and accurate concepts (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940310502412&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Le&amp;nbsp;Fevre,&amp;nbsp;et&amp;nbsp;al.&amp;nbsp;2003&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Le Fevre et al. (2003) also says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From the point of view of the individual, it is only they themselves who can manage, through perception and interpretation, to what degree they experience their organisational environment, including its demands and resources, as distress or eustress. They are themselves responsible for their eustress or distress. As such, it is the individuals’ responsibility and choice to reflect on, and manage their interpretation of the stressors inherent in their occupation, and to endeavour to make interpretations that increase eustress and decrease distress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;From the management standpoint, it seems to us that a key contribution of management lies in assisting employees to experience the stressors of the workplace as eustress. First, when employees can be supported to make positive interpretations of their environment, support should be given. This may necessitate investment in coaching and a variety of related personal development interventions. Second, when demand and resources can be modified to reduce stressors identified by employees as distress, then management should seek to address these stressors. Management should not assume that any particular stressor is experienced as eustress or distress but should rather engage in understanding the employees’ experience of the stressor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diamond, D. M., Campbell, A. M., Park, C. R., Halonen, J., &amp;amp; Zoladz, P. R. (2007). The temporal dynamics model of emotional memory processing: a synthesis on the neurobiological basis of stress-induced amnesia, flashbulb and traumatic memories, and the Yerkes-Dodson law. &lt;em&gt;Neural plasticity&lt;/em&gt;, Vol. 2007.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1155/2007/60803&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1155/2007/60803&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Le Fevre, M., Matheny, J., &amp;amp; Kolt, G. S. (2003). Eustress, distress, and interpretation in occupational stress. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Managerial Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 18(7), pp 726-744.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940310502412&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1108/02683940310502412&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spector, P.E. (1998), A control theory of the job stress process. In: &lt;em&gt;Cooper, C.L. (Ed.), Theories of Organizational Stress&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp 153-169.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yerkes, R. M., &amp;amp; Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit‐formation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of comparative neurology&lt;/em&gt;, 18(5), pp 459-482.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.920180503&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/cne.920180503&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-04-03T17:10:53.963" LastActivityDate="2018-04-03T17:10:53.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19396" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19925" CreationDate="2018-04-03T22:10:44.703" Score="8" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;Oprah.com &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.oprah.com/spirit/how-to-make-the-right-decision-how-to-decide/all&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;says&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It turns out, though, that for most people there is no such thing as a purely rational self. Decision making is intrinsically linked to our emotions, so much so that when a person suffers damage to her orbitofrontal cortex—a part of the brain just behind the eyes that's strongly involved in processing emotions—she can lose her decision-making ability entirely. (We're talking any decision, like which day to schedule a doctor's appointment or whether to use a blue or black pen.) &quot;If it weren't for our emotions,&quot; says science writer Jonah Lehrer, author of &lt;em&gt;How We Decide&lt;/em&gt;, &quot;reason wouldn't exist at all.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this really so? Lab experiments on humans on this would certainly be unethical, so I suspect Lehrer might be talking about some nature-did-the-experiment-for-us case (Phineas Gage style). Is anyone familiar with the details, e.g. from Lehrer's book or elsewhere?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-06-06T07:43:50.450" Title="Are emotions needed to make decisions?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19397" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19399" CreationDate="2018-04-04T06:05:34.933" Score="2" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need to preface this by saying I know next to nothing about this topic, so if the question is built on wrong premises, feel free to address that in an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From and related to: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/12416/&quot;&gt;What is the psychological term for disregarding correct but unwanted information?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(...) people strive for internal consistency even at the expense of truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is &lt;strong&gt;why?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there mechanisms on the neuron-level that resist the rewiring of the brain? By rewiring I mean avoiding a certain cost to changes in the thought-process or to the acquiring of new information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And from an evolutionary perspective, how helpful is the 'internal consistency' if thought of as a built-in protection of sorts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18890" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-04T08:29:25.723" LastActivityDate="2018-04-04T13:41:06.143" Title="Why do brains prefer internal consistency?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19398" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19343" CreationDate="2018-04-04T08:12:08.477" Score="4" Body="&lt;h1&gt;It all boils down to the Duty of Care&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Duty of Care&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The duty of care is the responsibility of a mental health professional to protect patients and others from foreseeable harm. If a client makes statements that suggest suicidal or homicidal ideation, the clinician has the responsibility to take steps to prevent harm where reasonably practicable, and if necessary, initiate involuntary commitment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same goes when a person has been assessed as suffering from one or more severe mental health conditions which has a high chance of resulting in any other physical harm to the individual or others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Voluntary Commitment&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Getting committed either voluntarily or involuntarily is not straight forward.  In both the US and here in the UK, you can't just go into a hospital, sign a form and then be taken in as a mental health patient.  You can go into a hospital and ask to be committed, but you need to be assessed in order for the committal to be accepted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Involuntary Commitment&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With voluntary committal, you are free to discharge yourself by signing a discharge form and leave at any time, however, if &lt;strong&gt;at any time&lt;/strong&gt; it is deemed that you would be a danger to yourself or others, the voluntary committal &lt;strong&gt;can&lt;/strong&gt; change to involuntary committal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Aside from an unscrupulous group of psychiatrists&lt;/strong&gt; it is practically impossible to trap a mentally healthy person in a psychiatric unit against their will.  For a person to be held against their will, it needs the co-ordinated efforts of more than one psychiatrist.  Where it happens that a mentally healthy individual is held against their will, there is possible legal redress and the psychiatrists involved could have their practice licenses removed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;In the US&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Voluntary Committal&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As pointed out by psychiatrist, Scott Alexander, in his &lt;a href=&quot;http://slatestarcodex.com/2018/03/22/navigating-and-or-avoiding-the-inpatient-mental-health-system/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Slate Star Codex post&lt;/a&gt;, you are not guaranteed admission to a psychiatric unit on a voluntary basis just because you want it. You might be turned down if the psychiatrist thinks you aren’t sick enough to need it, or if your insurance refuses to pay for it. Insurance companies are very reluctant to pay for hospitalisations unless there is a clear risk involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Involuntary Committal&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The laws governing this seems to differ depending on which state you are in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In California&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;According to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=5150&amp;amp;lawCode=WIC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lanterman-Petris-Short Act&lt;/a&gt; (Section 5150 of the California Welfare and Institutions Code)&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When a person, as a result of a mental health disorder, is a danger to others, or to himself or herself, or gravely disabled, a peace officer, professional person in charge of a facility designated by the county for evaluation and treatment, member of the attending staff, as defined by regulation, of a facility designated by the county for evaluation and treatment, designated members of a mobile crisis team, or professional person designated by the county may, upon probable cause, take, or cause to be taken, the person into custody for a period of up to 72 hours for assessment, evaluation, and crisis intervention, or placement for evaluation and treatment in a facility designated by the county for evaluation and treatment and approved by the State Department of Health Care Services.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In Florida&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;According to the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.leg.state.fl.us/Statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&amp;amp;Search_String=&amp;amp;URL=0300-0399/0394/0394PARTIContentsIndex.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Florida Mental Health Act&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A person may be placed in involuntary inpatient placement for treatment upon a finding of the court by clear and convincing evidence that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(a) He or she is mentally ill and because of his or her mental illness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;1.a. He or she has refused voluntary placement for treatment after sufficient and conscientious explanation and disclosure of the purpose of placement for treatment; or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;b. He or she is unable to determine for himself or herself whether placement is necessary; and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;2.a. He or she is manifestly incapable of surviving alone or with the help of willing and responsible family or friends, including available alternative services, and, without treatment, is likely to suffer from neglect or refuse to care for himself or herself, and such neglect or refusal poses a real and present threat of substantial harm to his or her well-being; or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;b. There is substantial likelihood that in the near future he or she will inflict serious bodily harm on himself or herself or another person, as evidenced by recent behavior causing, attempting, or threatening such harm; and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(b) All available less restrictive treatment alternatives which would offer an opportunity for improvement of his or her condition have been judged to be inappropriate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;In the UK&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The whole issue of committal, voluntary and involuntary, is governed by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1983/20/contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mental Health Act 1983&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2007/12/contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mental Health Act 2007&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Involuntary Committal in the UK&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be involuntarily committed (also known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/legal-rights/sectioning/about-sectioning/#three&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sectioned&lt;/a&gt;), it needs to be founded on the written recommendations in the prescribed form of &lt;strong&gt;two registered medical practitioners, including in each case a statement that in the opinion of the practitioner&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The individual is suffering from mental disorder of a nature or degree which warrants the detention of the patient in a hospital for assessment (or for assessment followed by medical treatment) for at least a limited period; and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The individual ought to be so detained in the interests of his own health or safety or with a view to the protection of other persons. (See Sections 2 and 3 of the Mental Health Act 1983)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;For voluntary committal in the UK&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It needs to appear to &lt;strong&gt;the registered medical practitioner or approved clinician in charge of the treatment of the patient&lt;/strong&gt; that an application ought to be made under Section 5(2) of the Mental Health Act 1983, for the admission of the patient to hospital, he or she may furnish to the managers a report in writing to that effect; and in any such case the patient may be detained in the hospital for a period of 72 hours from the time when the report is furnished. By which time the patient should be assessed by the two registered practitioners prescribed in Section 2 of the Act.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-04-07T13:03:44.397" LastActivityDate="2018-04-07T13:03:44.397" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19399" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19397" CreationDate="2018-04-04T08:27:28.643" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Cognitive dissonance arises because people want to protect their world-view or self-concept. Even people well versed in science may deny the facts in favor of false beliefs.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The question spans three levels of grossly different arenas of research:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Why so people strive for internal consistency [] at the expense of truth?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This is a matter of Psychology and perhaps even Philosophy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;[What are the] mechanisms on the neuron-level that resist the rewiring of the brain?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This steps all the way down to cellular and molecular neurophysiology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;[What is the selective advantage] from an evolutionary perspective?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This ramps the question to an evolutionary time scale&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll take a bash at this question from a more Psychological approach, mainly because the other two angles do not seem fruitful to me as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rewiring (Neurophysiology) is a term often used in terms of gross plastic changes in the brain, such as that occur during intensive training (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; when folks learn to juggle), or after a stroke.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Evolutionary reasons seem far-fetched. The development of higher cognitive processes may have aided in our rise to domination. For example, the forging of social structures and accompanying cultural development may have be the foundation to the cross-generational transfer of intelligent tool-making and so forth. Such complex behaviors spanning millions of years may have led to other behaviors like the denial of facts. Such behavior may not be evolutionary beneficial, but a collateral development. You have to realize not every feature is perfect. On the contrary. The regenerative power of many a cell in the body allows for wound healing, but also gives rise to cancer. Aggressive immune systems defends us during our life against countless enemies, including cancer cells, but when going haywire it leads to devastating auto-immune diseases like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/autoimmune-diseases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multiple sclerosis&lt;/a&gt;. Likewise, intelligent behaviors may result in aberrant thought processes, like believing and holding on to something as to be true it, while the facts challenge that idea. Now why does that happen?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Psychological approach seems most feasible. Denial of scientific facts to support ones own aberrant world views has been in the news a lot of late, sadly - Trumping the truth! &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/science-denial-versus-science-pleasure/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Shermer, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;. Shermer says &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A]ntiscience attitudes are formed in very narrow cognitive windows—those in which science appears to oppose certain political or religious views.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For Republicans, the more knowledge they have about climate science the less likely they are to accept the theory of anthropogenic global warming []. People with more knowledge only accept science when it doesn't conflict with their preexisting beliefs and values [].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another of his excellent columns, Shermer &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/science-denial-versus-science-pleasure/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2017)&lt;/a&gt; names a list of more examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Creationists [] dispute the evidence for evolution in fossils and DNA because they are concerned about secular forces encroaching on religious faith. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Antivaxxers distrust big pharma and think that money corrupts medicine, which leads them to believe that vaccines cause autism despite the inconvenient truth that the one and only study claiming such a link was retracted and its lead author accused of fraud. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The 9/11 truthers focus on minutiae like the melting point of steel in the World Trade Center buildings that caused their collapse because they think the government lies and conducts “false flag” operations to create a New World Order. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Climate deniers study tree rings, ice cores and the ppm of greenhouse gases because they are passionate about freedom, especially that of markets and industries to operate unencumbered by restrictive government regulations. Obama birthers desperately dissected the president's long-form birth certificate in search of fraud because they believe that the nation's first African-American president is a socialist bent on destroying the country.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term here was launched after the description of a UFO cult that predicted the arrival of the mother ship Shermer &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/science-denial-versus-science-pleasure/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2017)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When that failed to arrive at the appointed time, instead of admitting&#xA;  error, members of the group sought frantically to convince the world&#xA;  of their beliefs, and they made “a series of desperate attempts to&#xA;  erase their rankling dissonance by making prediction after prediction&#xA;  in the hope that one would come true.” Festinger called this &lt;strong&gt;cognitive&#xA;  dissonance&lt;/strong&gt;, or the uncomfortable tension that comes from holding two&#xA;  conflicting thoughts simultaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/science/cognitive-dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[T]he mental conflict that occurs when beliefs or assumptions are contradicted by new information. The unease or tension that the conflict arouses in people is relieved by one of several defensive maneuvers: they reject, explain away, or avoid the new information; persuade themselves that no conflict really exists; reconcile the differences; or resort to any other defensive means of preserving stability or order in their conceptions of the world and of themselves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive dissonance - why &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/science-denial-versus-science-pleasure/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Shermer, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because [the facts] threaten[] their worldview or self-concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Science denial, for example is not typically rooted in blanket anti-science attitudes. Instead, people's denial of scientific evidence is based on motivations other than finding truth, such as protecting their social identity. It appears that the more science-literate people are, the more strongly they hold to their beliefs — even if those beliefs are incorrect. So it hasn't anything to do with education. It's about ones owns beliefs and holding on to them (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/57590-why-americans-deny-science.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Live Science&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Referencess&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-to-convince-someone-when-facts-fail/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shermer, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, January 2017&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/science-denial-versus-science-pleasure/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shermer, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, January 2018&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-04T13:41:06.143" LastActivityDate="2018-04-04T13:41:06.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19400" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-04T12:32:06.470" Score="3" ViewCount="350" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading a news article about increasing IQ and one psychologist wrote&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many of the changes in IQ are correlated to changes in schooling. One way that school increases IQ is to teach children to &quot;taxonimize,&quot; or group things systematically instead of thematically. This kind of thinking is rewarded on many IQ tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/36143-iq-change-time.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.livescience.com/36143-iq-change-time.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does taxonomise mean here? And does anyone know what specific study they are talking about?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18892" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-04T14:46:05.910" LastActivityDate="2018-04-04T14:46:05.910" Title="What does 'Taxonimize' mean here?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19401" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-04T14:20:13.677" Score="1" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I was a student I used to notice that towards supper time, whenever I would go from my quiet study space to a place where people were talking, it people started to tell in my quiet space, i would get hungry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, I have tried the TalkBack feature on my Android device, and found, that whenever I am lying in bed, time with my stomach, and not feeling hungry, after turning TalkBack on and using it, my hunger level peaks to 100% excruciating hunger, after just five minutes of using TalkBack.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On average I can hear mild sounds in my room throughout the day and they don't bother me, (with just one or two mild exceptions, which might induce a very feather-light hunger feeling towards the evening).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also have a generic form of misophonia whereby generic noises trigger distress, or even when pleasant, tend to alter it modify my thoughts, while some mild ones seem to pleasantly accompany or suggest or improve my thought performance in some respects in some situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I have never analyzed the hunger component before formally in a post (especially with relationship to this Android TalkBack feature).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, is there a technical name for the form of extreme sound-induced-hunger I describe?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Hunger can also be induced by medication, but that's another issue).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18893" LastActivityDate="2018-04-04T17:54:28.260" Title="Name of sound-induced-hunger condition" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19402" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-04T15:09:22.757" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I once heard of a rule/law/number that described any group sufficiently large enough will have &quot;bad&quot; people in it. It is most often used to describe how online communities will have to deal with trolls once they get popular enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can not seem to find it again, does anyone know what this is?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18894" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-04-06T04:51:10.517" LastActivityDate="2018-04-06T04:51:10.517" Title="What is the rule that describes sufficiently large groups will have bad actors?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19403" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19401" CreationDate="2018-04-04T17:54:28.260" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably not. The closest thing I am aware of is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/v44/acr_vol44_1021143.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mayor et al (2016) [The Effect of Chronic Dieting Goals on Auditory Perceptual Biases]&lt;/a&gt; where they &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;propose the existence of “wishful hearing,” which establishes that ambient product sounds can be perceived as more spatially proximal when more desirable and thus lead to increased purchase intentions and consumption. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2018-04-04T17:54:28.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19404" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19488" CreationDate="2018-04-04T19:47:08.177" Score="4" ViewCount="366" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not much to add to the title- what is the currently accepted &quot;best&quot; test of fluid intelligence? How was it determined to be the best?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18000" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T01:02:02.370" Title="What is the Golden Standard of Testing Fluid Intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19405" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19411" CreationDate="2018-04-04T21:17:59.700" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have just started reading about the SPA (semantic pointer architecture) and wondering how it relates to deep learning concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10073" LastActivityDate="2018-04-05T17:51:46.300" Title="How does SPA relate to deep learning concepts?" Tags="&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19407" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-05T06:28:46.700" Score="3" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading &lt;em&gt;The Neuropsychology of Attention&lt;/em&gt; (2014) by Ronald A. Cohen, published by Springer. In Chapter 3 (&lt;em&gt;Cognitive Psychology of Attention: Foundations&lt;/em&gt;), page 30-31, under the subheading &lt;em&gt;Removing the Bottleneck&lt;/em&gt;, the book provides a short account of Neisser's attempt to remove role of the attention filters in filter theories and instead, replace it with the concept of &quot;schema&quot;.&#xA;The statement in question, appears in this paragraph:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Schema models, as articulated by Neisser, emphasize the role of the perceiver in selecting information in the environment and deﬁne attentional focus as a function of schema. Much of Neisser’s critique of ﬁltering makes semantic rather than functional distinctions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would appreciate any and all help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17324" LastActivityDate="2018-04-05T09:47:54.657" Title="What is meant by this line, &quot;Much of Neisser’s critique of ﬁltering makes semantic rather than functional distinctions&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19409" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19407" CreationDate="2018-04-05T09:47:54.657" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadbent%27s_filter_model_of_attention&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Filter theory&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.instructionaldesign.org/concepts/attention.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;see this also&lt;/a&gt;), specified that we could only attend to one input at a time (serial processing of stimuli as opposed to parallel processing, whereby you can attend to many stimuli at the same time), and this was originally put forward by Broadbent in 1959. The theory suggested that stimuli can be filtered based upon physical attributes, prior to full processing by the perceptual system.  The fact that there is the filter in place, in turn leads to some stimuli not raising attention. Plus, filter theory proposed that attention has a limited capacity due to the fact that you can only process one stimulus at a time.  This is where the bottleneck is, as you will be bombarded with lots and lots of stimuli and you can only process one of them at a time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neisser (1967) outlined a two-process theory that explained how much the filter affects attention (and hence consciousness). According to Neisser's theory, both the properties of the stimuli as well as semantic factors (language or logic), play a role in attention. Neisser argues for a constructive view of cognition in which perception is shaped by existing knowledge and hence attention is influenced by experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So therefore, when Cohen states that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Much of Neisser’s critique of ﬁltering makes semantic rather than functional distinctions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;he is stating that Neisser is, in most of his theory, purely making logical distinctions within filter theory rather than functional ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I interpret this to mean that, Neisser added the function of logic (through knowledge and previous experience) along with language, to the function of the stimulus filter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Broadbent, D. (1958). &lt;em&gt;Perception and Communication&lt;/em&gt;. London: Pergamon Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neisser, U. (1967). &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Psychology&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Appleton-Century-Croft.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-04-05T09:47:54.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19410" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19350" CreationDate="2018-04-05T11:06:11.540" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;You are confusing belief or faith with a hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Instead of a methodological answer, this question might, perhaps arguably, be tackled better from a slightly more philosophical angle. Let's go through the relevant terminologies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/belief&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Belief&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An &lt;strong&gt;acceptance&lt;/strong&gt; that something exists or is true, especially one &lt;strong&gt;without&#xA;  proof&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A related term is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/faith&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;faith&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[F]irm &lt;strong&gt;belief&lt;/strong&gt; in something [often in a &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.valenciacollege.edu/drogers/factopinion/belieffact3.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;religious&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; context] for which there is &lt;strong&gt;no proof&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/topic/reincarnation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reincarnation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is a &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Religious belief&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And henceforth it cannot be (dis)proven. By contrast, scientific hypotheses can be disproven through &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/significance-tests-one-sample/more-significance-testing-videos/v/hypothesis-testing-and-p-values&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypothesis testing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. A &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/science/scientific-hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; being &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[An] idea that proposes a tentative explanation about a phenomenon or a narrow set of phenomena observed in the natural world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reincarnation has not been observed in the natural world. Instead, it is based on faith in religious belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-05T12:22:35.313" LastActivityDate="2018-04-05T12:22:35.313" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19411" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19405" CreationDate="2018-04-05T17:51:46.300" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Deep Learning (which is now supposed to be called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.facebook.com/yann.lecun/posts/10155003011462143&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Differentiable Programming&lt;/a&gt;?) is a means of doing inference over a set of data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SPA is a Vector Symbolic Architecture (VSA) implemented using Holographic Reduced Representations (HRR). That is to say, sparse vectors represent symbols and there is a set of operations that can be used to combine them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consequently, SPA can be used as a sort of prior for Deep Learning to provide constraints on the representation it's learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, SPA could be used to represent the output of a visual system, which would then be used by other symbolic systems. In the case of Spaun, Deep Learning is used in the vision system to map images onto known symbols. These known symbols can then be manipulated in ways that would be impossible for Deep Learning to perform. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19431268&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rapid Variable Creation&lt;/a&gt; used for solving &lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/rasmussen2011.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Raven's Progressive Matrices&lt;/a&gt; is impossible for Deep Learning to perform without any structural priors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-04-05T17:51:46.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19413" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19018" CreationDate="2018-04-05T22:42:41.363" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is being described in the original question is called Recall-to-Reject Processing. In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11105517&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Associative recognition: a case of recall-to-reject processing&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Rotello and Heit provides evidence this retrieval of an older memory for comparison with the newer probe, rather than retrieving nothing, does indeed happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To show this, they ran three experiments. Experiment 1 dealt with word pairs similarly to the experiment cited in the original post. Experiment 2 test on both word pairs and individual pairs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results of Experiment 1 show accuracy was higher for newer pairs than for re-arranged pairs. Consequently, one can infer that Recall-to-Reject had a harder time with re-arranged pairs due to interference [1]. The same occurred in Experiment 2, but additionally showing interference with words similar to those studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They summarize the result in their conclusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Recall-to-Reject Processing] makes a distinctive prediction about the ability of subjects to discriminate completely new test stimuli from stimuli that are new but similar to studied materials. Specifically, the similar test foils should be increasingly rejected, relative to a baseline of completely new items, late in processing (i.e., after information from the recall component of recognition becomes available). The data from Experiments 1 and 2 are consistent with that prediction: We did find that rearranged pairs were increasingly rejected, relative to new pairs, after about 1,000 msec.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it should be noted this is quite an old paper and an updated reference would be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] There's also some sort of trend happening with lags, but this isn't really necessary to understand for this answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-04-05T22:42:41.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19414" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-06T01:48:34.260" Score="5" ViewCount="215" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm familiar with terms and concepts like cognitive dissonance, confirmation bias, conformism and belief systems (a political term).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to learn more about what some might call an &quot;awakening.&quot; For example, imagine a person going through life only vaguely aware of things like &quot;Big Brother,&quot; government corruption and conspiracy. Suddenly, an event(s) or observation(s) triggers a realization that at least some of these rumors are true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This person finds himself desperately searching for answers while simultaneously struggling with the need to cling to cherished beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do psychologists have a term for such an awakening and/or the ensuing trauma that can accompany it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be especially helpful if you could mention any psychologists who have studied it, books written about it, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastActivityDate="2018-04-10T05:35:53.953" Title="Term for Sudden Change in Beliefs" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19422" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-06T17:31:11.073" Score="5" ViewCount="1551" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between problem solving and intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All I know is that the tower of hanoi is thought of as a problem solving test, perhaps due to its lack of automation, I don't know. I'd assume that &quot;intelligence&quot; is broader, measured by iq tests and reflected in skills etc..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it just that intelligence is &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/145/what-is-the-difference-between-solving-a-problem-and-acquiring-a-skill&quot;&gt;learnt&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2018-04-08T04:06:21.150" LastActivityDate="2018-09-04T13:00:47.900" Title="What is the difference between problem solving and intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19423" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19414" CreationDate="2018-04-06T21:30:12.587" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_religious_conversion#Classic_paradigm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Sudden conversion&quot;&lt;/a&gt; probably covers at least a subset of what you seem to have in mind. Sudden conversion has been studied in the psychology of religion, as early as psychology has been around basically; I found an article (which is reviewing a book of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_Prince&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Morton Prince&lt;/a&gt; on the topic) published in &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2005-13083-003&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; in 1907&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-04-06T21:35:28.197" LastActivityDate="2018-04-06T21:35:28.197" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19424" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19366" CreationDate="2018-04-06T21:39:46.227" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The effect you ask about could very well be seen as an example of the Ben Franklin effect, also known as the foot-in-the-door phenomenon.&#xA;In your example, replying to the question &quot;Do you have a charger?&quot; would be interpreted as a small favor which is then followed by the bigger favor of lending the item.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beaman, A. L., Cole, C. M., Preston, M., Klentz, B., &amp;amp; Steblay, N. M. (1983). Fifteen Years of Foot-in-the Door Research. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, 9(2), 181-196.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167283092002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/0146167283092002&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18916" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-04-07T00:31:58.757" LastActivityDate="2018-04-07T00:31:58.757" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19426" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-07T02:15:23.917" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may not be the right place for this question.  If you think it belongs on another forum, please point me there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My daughter has been into the “slime” craze for the past two years or so (she is now 14).  She makes several batches of slime a month.  She loves to play with slime.  She loves to watch YouTube videos of people playing with slime.  She sends pictures of her slime to her friends.  She wants me to touch her slime (I don’t like to because it is cold and slimy, ha, and it sticks to me, because she says I don’t know how to handle it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just started to wonder, the other day, why so many people, mostly young teen girls, are so infatuated with slime.  Is there some weird, psychological implication here?  Sexual, maybe?  Am I not touching her enough?  Or is it nothing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18845" LastActivityDate="2018-04-07T02:15:23.917" Title="Is there any negative social or psychological implication of the current “slime” preoccupation of teenagers (mostly girls)?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;&lt;touch&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2018-04-17T09:14:50.603" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19428" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-07T03:56:56.677" Score="9" ViewCount="948" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in Evolutionary Psychology and the male perception of female beauty. One of the ideas I'm trying to investigate is the correlation between female fertility and her attractiveness. A figure I heard several times is that at around age 25 females are the most fertile and thus most attractive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to verify this experimentally. It seems to me like a simple experiment would be to present an observer with a lineup of photos of the same woman at different ages. Everyone has photos at different ages, but I'm looking for the one where the posture and facial expressions are controlled, as to reduce variation due to factors other than age. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is - &lt;strong&gt;Are there posture controlled lineups of the photos of age progression from 15 to 50 that I can use for such experiment?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This image is from a video of a woman aging, but it has no age indication. I'm looking for something with shorter age gaps (15-16-17-18-...50). It seems one of the relevant search terms is &quot;age progression&quot; are there others?&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bKpyN.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bKpyN.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="953" LastEditorUserId="953" LastEditDate="2018-04-08T04:03:18.723" LastActivityDate="2020-01-06T16:31:05.633" Title="Does female attractiveness correlate with age progression?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19429" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-07T06:30:13.873" Score="6" ViewCount="482" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the shadow in shadow work theorised by Carl Jung refer to things we absolutely do not know about ourselves or just the parts of our personality we keep hidden?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it is hidden in our subconscious, how can we bring it out?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18921" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-05-28T08:42:32.310" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T08:42:32.310" Title="What is the shadow?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19430" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19429" CreationDate="2018-04-07T09:13:00.150" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;I would first like to point out that according to some, Jungian psychology is considered pseudoscientific and therefore off-topic here.  However, as a lot of psychology cannot be measurable currently within the conventional field of science, and as Jungian psychology is still followed by many therapists, it is considered by others to be on-topic.  This seems still open to debate though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;What is the Jungian Shadow?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia gives a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;good outline on the Jungian Shadow&lt;/a&gt; and its difference to the Freudian version of the shadow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Jungian psychology, the &quot;shadow&quot;, &quot;Id&quot;, or &quot;shadow aspect/archetype&quot; may refer to either an unconscious or subconscious aspect of the personality which the conscious ego does not identify in itself, or even the entirety of the unconscious/subconscious, i.e., everything of which a person is not fully conscious. In short, the shadow is the &quot;dark side&quot; as opposed to being in the light of the conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because one tends to reject or remain ignorant of the least desirable aspects of one's personality, the shadow is largely negative. There are, however, positive aspects that may also remain hidden in one's shadow (especially in people with low self-esteem, anxieties, and false beliefs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because the shadow is in the subconscious/unconscious you can be ignorant of it as you are not conscious of it.  Sometimes the &quot;shadow&quot; can make itself known (see the second part of my answer) and therefore at that time you are conscious of that part of the shadow.  You can choose to ignore it and repress it back to your subconscious or you can acknowledge it and deal with it, assimilating it into your conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might have a hidden talent which is repressed by anxieties or self-esteem issues for example, or you may have biases within your thoughts or actions which you are unconsciously aware of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The shadow personifies everything that the subject refuses to acknowledge about himself (Jung, 1968 p.284).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;If it is hidden in our subconscious, how can we bring it out?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We cannot always &quot;bring it out&quot;.  It will manifest itself by itself.  The shadow can appear in dreams or when the person projects it onto another person (Papadopoulos, 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can try to become aware of your &quot;shadow&quot; by being consciously aware of your thoughts, feelings and actions; and where necessary, analysing them either by finding out if your thoughts and feelings are founded on your own or by speaking about your concerns with a trusted person or therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The books within the references may help more with this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jung, C. G. (1968) &lt;em&gt;The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious&lt;/em&gt; Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free PDF copy available&lt;/strong&gt; at &lt;a href=&quot;https://archive.org/download/collectedworksof91cgju/collectedworksof91cgju.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://archive.org/download/collectedworksof91cgju/collectedworksof91cgju.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Papadopoulos, R. K. (Ed.). (2006). &lt;em&gt;The handbook of Jungian psychology: Theory, practice and applications.&lt;/em&gt; New York, NY: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-04-07T09:36:50.550" LastActivityDate="2018-04-07T09:36:50.550" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19431" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19441" CreationDate="2018-04-07T10:03:16.553" Score="8" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the advantages/disadvantages of using all 30 facets (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEO PI-R; Costa &amp;amp; McCrae, 1992&lt;/a&gt;) in a multiple regression versus only using the facets that you have a hypothesis for?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see that the vast majority of research always includes all 30 facets, but I don't quite understand the added value of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Costa, P. T., Jr., &amp;amp; McCrae, R. R. (1992). &lt;em&gt;Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO PI-R™) and NEO five-factor inventory (NEO-FFI): Professional manual&lt;/em&gt;. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18922" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-04-11T07:51:47.020" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T07:51:47.020" Title="What are the benefits of using all 30 personality facets in multiple regressions compared to just including hypothesised facets?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19432" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19378" CreationDate="2018-04-07T10:19:22.070" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Luckily there are not one but several brain areas that when stimulated call for repeat stimulation. That is a way how one can define &lt;strong&gt;pleasure&lt;/strong&gt;, by the way. If stimulation of an area makes animal to want more it is pleasurable. If not - the animal will avoid the mechanism that triggers the stimulus - that defines an aversive stimulus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the 7 affective system model (where the areas in mammalian brain have been identified) the systems producing wanting repeat stimulation would be SEEKING, PLAY, LUST, CARE and those of avoidance would be FEAR, RAGE, SEPARATION ANXIETY. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to what happens to animals whose brain sites are overstimulated - they certainly can die and have died in experiments. Brain is a delicate biological system and overstimulating an area electrically is no better than doing this with street drugs. Brain needs to maintain its own balance in order to enable us to make sense of the world. The first problem would be &lt;em&gt;'cheating the brain'&lt;/em&gt; in addition to the second problem - damaging the brain physically through effects of drugs or electrodes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly your query is about 'ease' of manipulation. &lt;strong&gt;Not easy&lt;/strong&gt; at all. The said brain areas have been identified in humans (who are another kind of mammals) needing surgery for epilepsy when it is often necessary to map brain areas by &lt;em&gt;brief&lt;/em&gt; stimulation. Then there are experimental treatments using deep brain stimulation - for Parkinson's disease and rarely treatment resistant depression. They are complex and involved procedures, way more complicated than stimulating an 'ecstasy' centre. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best way of interacting with the brain remains through it's natural interface - language, visual and other sensory stimuli. IMHO this will stay so for a long time. I hope that one can see a dose of optimism in this state of affairs though ;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Some references:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Burgdorf, Jeffrey, and Jaak Panksepp. ‘The Neurobiology of Positive Emotions’. Neuroscience &amp;amp; Biobehavioral Reviews 30, no. 2 (2006): 173–187.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;J. Panksepp. Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. Oxford University Press, 1998.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Panksepp, Jaak. ‘Affective Neuroscience of the Emotional BrainMind: Evolutionary Perspectives and Implications for Understanding Depression’. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 12, no. 4 (December 2010): 533–45.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Berridge, Kent C. ‘Pleasures of the Brain’. Brain and Cognition 52, no. 1 (June 2003): 106–28.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;‘Psychotherapy Is The Biological Treatment’. Medscape. April 2018. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/893720&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/893720&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6151" LastEditorUserId="6151" LastEditDate="2018-04-07T12:20:00.797" LastActivityDate="2018-04-07T12:20:00.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19435" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-07T14:51:36.870" Score="0" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Taking the definition of language a symbolic way to represent an object, is there any explanation for its origin? Is it dependent of any part of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scientific info about this issue will be welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17136" LastActivityDate="2018-04-08T02:26:51.457" Title="neurolinguistics: origin of language" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19437" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19435" CreationDate="2018-04-08T02:26:51.457" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The origin of language may be as much structural as cerebral. I think the key words are &lt;strong&gt;larynx&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;hyoid bone&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I included a link below, but you should really compare several sources, because there are a lot of details, and science's understanding of human evolution is constantly evolving itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, there's genetic evidence that all living humans are descended from a single African male sometimes called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p4AwIkzut48&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scientific Adam&lt;/a&gt;.&quot; No one knows exactly what made this individual so special, but there's speculation that he might have been the first to really master language. But that might be nothing more than speculation, and I'm just throwing it in as an anecdote. Lots of stuff has been written on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe language is linked with a certain part of the brain, but I don't know any specifics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ancient-origins.net/human-origins-science/origins-human-language-one-hardest-problems-science-003610&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Origins of Human Language: One of the Hardest Problems in Science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. I might add that archaeological evidence suggests that modern humans (&lt;em&gt;Home sapiens&lt;/em&gt;) made far greater use of symbols, including art, than Neanderthals did. This is believed to derive from the fact that our species had more advanced language skills, which translated into a better grasp of symbolism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastActivityDate="2018-04-08T02:26:51.457" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19438" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19451" CreationDate="2018-04-08T07:40:27.857" Score="5" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Describing the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Whale_(game)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blue Whale Challenge&lt;/a&gt;, an online phenomenon where participants perform tasks with the final task being suicide, we have the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.achalbhagat.com&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr Achal Bhagat&lt;/a&gt;, a psychiatrist in Delhi, told the BBC he had not encountered a single Blue Whale case, although he speaks to young people every day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;People join narratives to explain their experiences&lt;/strong&gt;,&amp;quot; said Dr Bhagat, adding that is possibly why some children have said they participated in the rumoured challenge despite there being no proof of its existence.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;Aparna Alluri, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-40960593&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Why is 'Blue Whale' hysteria gripping India?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, BBC News, Delhi, 2017&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't understand what &amp;quot;people join narratives to explain their experiences&amp;quot; means, and how its relevant to the context.  It seems to imply that people are making up they've participated in a Blue Whale Challenge (i.e., they join the narrative) because of some (unstated) events in their lives.  The quote also indicates it holds more generally, i.e., it's not only true for the Blue Whale Challenge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;: What does it mean for someone to &amp;quot;join narratives to explain their experiences&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3234" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T14:03:10.150" Title="What does it mean for someone to &quot;join narratives to explain their experiences&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19439" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-08T08:48:00.817" Score="2" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2lJQ9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2lJQ9.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I often see this kind of picture, claiming the strict lateralization of brain functions. Is this valid? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, what happens to left-handed individuals? Are their cognitive functions also switched around?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, I thought that analytical skills reside mostly in the prefrontal cortex, irrespective whether it's left or right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9214" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-09T09:09:45.583" LastActivityDate="2018-04-09T09:09:45.583" Title="Are cognitive functions strictly divided in the left and right hemispheres?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2018-04-09T08:50:48.783" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19440" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-09T00:08:52.533" Score="2" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since I was little I realized that when you close your eyes when being in a car and the car turns in a street to the side, you perceive the car turning more in one direction than it actually does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this effect have a name? Is it an example of some well known effect? If so, what is it and where can I learn more about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14178" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-11T20:15:27.963" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T20:15:27.963" Title="Is the effect related to shutting your eyes when a car is turning well known?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19441" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19431" CreationDate="2018-04-09T05:22:56.207" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wrote a paper that focuses on this question (Anglim &amp;amp; Grant, 2014; pre-print is &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/g8kbj/download&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/g8kbj/download&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, if you're interested in estimating how well facets predict an outcome, then you should include all facets as predictors. Likewise, if you want to estimate the incremental prediction of facets over domains (e.g., 30 facets over the Big 5), then you should include all domains in the domain regression model and all facets in the facet regression model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're doing research, then presumably, you don't know which facets predict the outcome. Therefore, it's an empirical question which do predict.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important point is that you use an estimator that corrects for biases when including many predictors. A reasonable approach is to use adjusted r-squared, although when you have 30 facets, large samples help a lot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also have more recent primer that is designed to be fairly accessible (Anglim &amp;amp; O'Connor, 2018, see preprint &lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&lt;/a&gt; )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want more detail, post further questions in the comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anglim, J., &amp;amp; Grant, S. L. (2014). Incremental criterion prediction of personality facets over factors: Obtaining unbiased estimates and confidence intervals. Journal of Research in Personality, 53, 148-157. &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/g8kbj/download&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/g8kbj/download&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anglim, J., &amp;amp; O'Connor, P. (2018). Measurement and Research Using the Big Five, HEXACO, and Narrow Traits: A Primer for Researchers and Practitioners. Australian Journal of Psychology. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-04-09T05:22:56.207" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19442" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19302" CreationDate="2018-04-09T05:32:15.750" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;My answer to the question on evidence for the GFP provides numerous references on the correlations between the Big 5:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/2015/what-is-the-support-for-a-global-personality-factor/2019#2019&quot;&gt;What is the support for a global personality factor?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The key bit of the answer is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;van der Linden et al 2010&lt;/strong&gt; extend the work of Musek (2007) by presenting a meta-analysis of Big 5 intercorrelation matrices&#xA;   in order to assess the evidence for a General Factor of Personality.&#xA;  Table 2 shows the meta-analytic average scale intercorrelations for the big 5 measures included in the meta-analysis. It shows how across a wide range of measures and measurement procedures, the Big 5 scales moderately intercorrelate. The average absolute unadjusted correlations between the Big Five was 0.23. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PX6rA.png&quot; alt=&quot;big 1 personality correlations - meta analysis van der linden&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also check out other work discussing higher-order factors (typically one or two factor models). These imply a correlation between the Big 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quote my own primer on the Big 5 (Anglim &amp;amp; O'Connor, 2018: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Researchers have posited one and two factor higher-order models of personality suggesting that the Big Five may not be the broadest meaningful level of personality analysis (Anusic, Schimmack, Pinkus, &amp;amp; Lockwood, 2009; Digman, 1997; Musek, 2007; Veselka et al., 2009). Notably, a single, broad factor (termed the General Factor of Personality; GFP) has been proposed to account for meaningful trait variance at the highest level (e.g., Musek, 2007), although see various critical perspectives (Davies et al., 2015; De Vries, 2011; Revelle &amp;amp; Wilt, 2013) .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, you could check out those references for further background on one and two-factor models. Such papers will generally also discuss the structure of correlations between the Big 5 and arguments for and against why they are meaningful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anglim, J., &amp;amp; O'Connor, P. (2018). Measurement and Research Using the Big Five, HEXACO,&#xA;and Narrow Traits: A Primer for Researchers and Practitioners. Australian Journal of Psychology. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;van der Linden, D., te Nijenhuis, J., &amp;amp; Bakker, A. B. (2010). The general factor of personality: A meta-analysis of Big Five intercorrelations and a criterion-related validity study. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(3), 315-327.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-04-09T05:32:15.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19443" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18247" CreationDate="2018-04-09T05:38:36.590" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I quite like Saucier &amp;amp; Srivastava (2015). They provide a very nice overview of the evidence for different trait models. They give you a good overview of how factor analysis and lexical studies relate to the Big 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can see my own attempt at providing a primer on the Big 5 and trait measurement at Anglim &amp;amp; O'Connor, 2018. You could look at some of the following key references from that paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the most influential basis for a Big Five came from Goldberg (1981, 1990) who conducted factor analyses on comprehensive sets of trait adjectives. Over multiple studies Goldberg found support for the “Big Five” factors of personality. Strong support for a five-factor model was also obtained in various studies by McCrae and Costa (1987) who repeatedly found five dimensions across instruments and observers (self and peer- reports). On balance, lexical studies along with studies using large questionnaires tend to support the idea that personality can broadly be described using the Big Five dimensions of personality (Condon, 2017; Costa &amp;amp; McCrae, 1995; Markon, Krueger, &amp;amp; Watson, 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anglim, J., &amp;amp; O'Connor, P. (2018). Measurement and Research Using the Big Five, HEXACO, and Narrow Traits: A Primer for Researchers and Practitioners. Australian Journal of Psychology. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Saucier, G., &amp;amp; Srivastava, S. (2015). What makes a good structural model of personality? Evaluating the Big Five and alternatives. Handbook of personality and social psychology, 3, 283-305. &lt;a href=&quot;http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~sanjay/pubs/structmodpersonality.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~sanjay/pubs/structmodpersonality.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-04-09T05:38:36.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19444" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18651" CreationDate="2018-04-09T05:47:02.887" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If your aim is to measure the Big 5 only, then perhaps 4 or 5 items per factor will give you a rough idea. If you're planning on publishing the research, then I'd strongly encourage you get at least 8 items per factor. The IPIP website has a range of options for measuring the Big 5 with different length inventories: &lt;a href=&quot;http://ipip.ori.org/newMultipleconstructs.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://ipip.ori.org/newMultipleconstructs.htm&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;There are many other Big 5 instruments available including the BFI and BFI 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you need full facet-level measurement (i.e., the 30 facets), then I'd encourage you to use the full length instrument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-04-09T05:47:02.887" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19445" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-09T08:20:42.310" Score="5" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;E-S theory explains the social and communication issues seen in autism and Asperger syndrome in connection, on the one hand, to delays and deficits in empathizing . The strengths in assimilating narrow areas of interest, on the other hand, involve an intact or even superior skill in systemizing (Baron-Cohen, 2002 , 2008 , 2009 ; Lawson, Baron-Cohen, &amp;amp; Wheelwright, 2004 ).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Pathological Altruism (Page 346). Oxford University Press.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, people with high AQ (Autism Spectrum&#xA;Quotient) should perform well in EFT (Embedded Figures Test) test &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition-cit.php?term=Embedded+Figures+Test+%28EFT%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, a study (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.143&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Valla et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;) has revealed that, the intercorrelation coefficient between AQ and EFT is negative (-0.192 for women, -0.093 for men). Same goes for the relation between RMET and EFT (-0.011 for women, -0.167 for men). Further meta-analysis found similarly incoherent results (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01539.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jolliffe &amp;amp; Baron‐Cohen, 1997&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen educators making the assumption that people with high social intelligence are not supposed to be good at spatial tasks. Even Simon Baron-Cohen indicates that figuring out embedded patterns is a systemizing skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Empathizers are more interested in people — what they feel and why they think what they think. Systemizers are people who like to figure out the rules embedded in systems such as car engines, train time-tables, dance routines, or stamp collections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Pathological Altruism (Page 347). Oxford University Press.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we treat Valla's experiment as an anomaly or a proof that social skills (or lack of it thereof) do not necessarily dictate systemizing or spatial abilities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Valla, J. M., Ganzel, B. L., Yoder, K. J., Chen, G. M., Lyman, L. T., Sidari, A. P., ... &amp;amp; Belmonte, M. K. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.143&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;More than maths and mindreading: sex differences in empathizing/systemizing covariance.&lt;/a&gt; Autism Research, 3(4), 174-184.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Jolliffe, T., &amp;amp; Baron‐Cohen, S. (1997). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01539.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Are people with autism and Asperger syndrome faster than normal on the Embedded Figures Test?&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(5), 527-534.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11614" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-04-09T15:06:15.017" LastActivityDate="2018-04-09T15:06:15.017" Title="Negative correlation between AQ score and EFT score" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19447" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19452" CreationDate="2018-04-09T13:07:51.063" Score="5" ViewCount="238" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any disease that prevents a person from being angry? As a reference, the resection of the amygdala reduces feelings of fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;web links&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://abcnews.go.com/Health/MindMoodNews/woman-iowa-damaged-amygdala-shows-fear/story?id=12404875&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ABC news on damage to the amygdala reducing fear&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cptsd.org/forum/index.php?topic=378.0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anecdotal report on inability to feel anger&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.transformationalwriting.co.uk/blog/angerwhy-dont-some-people-get-angry-when-they-need-to&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lack of expression of anger&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18480" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-10T13:47:22.753" LastActivityDate="2018-04-10T14:03:49.990" Title="Is there any disease that prevents a person from being angry?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;pathology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19449" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19414" CreationDate="2018-04-10T05:27:29.447" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depending on the situation and reaction you might call it a mental or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_crisis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Existential Crisis&quot;&gt;existential crisis&lt;/a&gt;. While possibly not exactly relevant, theories on mental crises (Erik Erikson, while focus is on psychological development the concept of &quot;age&quot; is shifting) provide a wide variety of articles and books might be helpful, I leave references out as the situation itself and possible useful research would be better defined by you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, I've seen the term &quot;paradigm shift&quot; used to describe a personal drastic shift in beliefs without focus on the psychological ramifications. Unfortunately I can't find proper references other than a uncited note in Wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18948" LastEditorUserId="18948" LastEditDate="2018-04-10T05:35:53.953" LastActivityDate="2018-04-10T05:35:53.953" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19451" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19438" CreationDate="2018-04-10T08:31:23.137" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there is &lt;em&gt;nothing formal&lt;/em&gt; psychiatry or psychology related about the psychiatrist's use of language when saying 'people join narratives to explain their experiences'. What he is saying is that people tend to link causally various narratives/stories they have heard of to generate an explanation without much evidence of there being an actual causal link. The joined up narratives then make an appealing sense of things having been explained. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason why explanations are appealing is clear upon reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Whale_(game)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Whale_(game)&lt;/a&gt; - there is a very disturbing event - suicide by young people, then there is something of an explanation which seems to make some sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;See also:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Causal relatedness and importance of story events&lt;/em&gt;; Tom Trabasso, Linda L Sperry&#xA;Journal of Memory and Language: Volume 24, Issue 5, October 1985, Pages 595-611&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-596X(85)90048-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-596X(85)90048-8&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6151" LastActivityDate="2018-04-10T08:31:23.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19452" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19447" CreationDate="2018-04-10T12:36:48.273" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Brain damage is typically associated with increased expression of anger and aggressive behavior. I wasn't able to find &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; paper reporting lack of anger expression after brain damage. Great question!  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Assuming you are after symptoms associated with brain damage, I have put my efforts into writing up an answer on brain trauma and anger. To strat with your example of the amygdala - indeed, removal of the amygdala (amygdalectomy) has been used to treat extreme feelings fear. Damage to the amygdala reults in deficits in facial emotion recognition. Specifically they have impaired recognition of expressions of fear and guilt and trustworthiness. These findings suggest that the amygdala has a critical role in face emotion processing &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3055516/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Elliott &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2011)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anger is thought to be mediated by the medial amygdaloidal areas that connect to the medial hypothalamus via the stria terminalis, and from there to the dorsal half of the periaqueductal gray. Aggression (the expression of anger) evoked by stimulation of the amygdala is dependent on the functional integrity of the medial hypothalamus and the periaqueductal gray. However, aggression evoked by stimulation of the periaqueductal gray is not dependent on the functional integrity of the amygdala. The amygdala-hypothalamus-periaqueductal gray is thought to mediate reactive aggression &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3260787/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Blair, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, it seems that a likely candidate for the obliteration of feelings of anger is the periaqueductal gray. Does damage or removal of this structure reduces feelings of anger? Lesions in this area of the brain have been associated with loss of speech in humans &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.lww.com/neuroreport/Abstract/1999/03170/Complete_mutism_after_midbrain_periaqueductal_gray.4.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Esposito &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 1999)&lt;/a&gt;, reduced fear in rats &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/17/9/3364.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Lonstein &amp;amp; Stern, 1997)&lt;/a&gt;, and upon complete destruction it resulted in a limp inertness in cats &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1943-01049-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bailey &amp;amp; Davis, 1943)&lt;/a&gt;. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/17/9/3364.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lonstein &amp;amp; Stern (1997)&lt;/a&gt; paper reports that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Periaqueductal gray] lesioned rats &lt;strong&gt;attacked a strange male twice as often&lt;/strong&gt; as controls did, which is suggestive of reduced fearfulness. These results extend the known roles of the PAG [periaqueductal gray] in [] defensive behaviors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, removal of PAG actually increases aggressive behavior (reduces fear), rather than decreasing aggressive behavior! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, I wasn't able to find &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; study that reports on brain damage that results in a reduction of anger expression. Indeed, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://synapse.org.au/information-services/anger-angry-outbursts-after-a-brain-injury.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain damage is often related to increased feelings of anger&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and there the track record is extensive   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1943-01049-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bailey &amp;amp; Davis, *Proc Soc Exp Biol Med (1942); &lt;strong&gt;51&lt;/strong&gt;: 305-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3260787/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blair, &lt;em&gt;Wiley Interdiscip Rev Cogn Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 65–74&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3055516/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elliott &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychopharmacology&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;36&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 153–82&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.lww.com/neuroreport/Abstract/1999/03170/Complete_mutism_after_midbrain_periaqueductal_gray.4.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Esposito &lt;em&gt;et all&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;NeuroReport&lt;/em&gt; (1999); &lt;strong&gt;10&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 681–5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/17/9/3364.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lonstein &amp;amp; Stern, &lt;em&gt;J&lt;/em&gt; Neurosci (1997); &lt;strong&gt;17&lt;/strong&gt;(9): 3364-78&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-10T14:03:49.990" LastActivityDate="2018-04-10T14:03:49.990" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19453" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-10T14:32:41.837" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;In his book &quot;Sapiens - a Brief History of Humankind&quot;, Harari argues that the biochemistry of &quot;happiness&quot; in any person can only move within bounds, dictated by genetics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He also argues that happiness only improves momentarily when objective circumstances improve, and only e.g. a degenerative disease or permanent physical pain can result in lasting change. This seems to be widely accepted and is backed by numerous studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could not, however, find any studies supporting his statement that events such as the agricultural revolution had no lasting impact on humankind's objective happiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any scientific studies on the biochemistry of happiness of generations that lived before and after major historic events like the cure of a disease that affected large parts of the studied community?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whats psychology's take on human happiness throughout history?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please suggest edits, as I am no expert on any of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18953" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-10T14:35:17.130" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T15:10:47.603" Title="Do major historic events have a lasting impact on humankind's objective happiness?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19454" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2018-04-10T14:37:54.103" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology, happiness is a mental or emotional state of well-being which can be defined by, among others, positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy.&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; Happy mental states may reflect judgements by a person about their overall well-being.[2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Since the 1960s, happiness research has been conducted in a wide&#xA;  variety of scientific disciplines, including gerontology, social&#xA;  psychology, clinical and medical research and happiness economics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page on Happiness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-10T14:37:54.103" LastActivityDate="2018-04-10T14:37:54.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19455" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2018-04-10T14:37:54.103" Score="0" Body="For questions pertaining to happiness, a mental or emotional state of well-being which can be defined by, among others, positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy. " OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-10T14:37:54.103" LastActivityDate="2018-04-10T14:37:54.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19456" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2018-04-10T14:42:43.623" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pathology is the medical specialty concerned with the study of the nature and causes of diseases. It includes topics like diagnostic testing, monitoring of chronic diseases, genetic research, blood transfusion technologies, and post-mortem investigations including autopsies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.rcpa.edu.au/About/What-is-Pathology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;RCPA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-10T14:42:43.623" LastActivityDate="2018-04-10T14:42:43.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19457" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2018-04-10T14:42:43.623" Score="0" Body="For questions pertaining to pathologies. Pathology can be defined as the medical specialty concerned with the study of the nature and causes of diseases." OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-10T14:42:43.623" LastActivityDate="2018-04-10T14:42:43.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19458" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-10T15:36:06.703" Score="3" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am starting a graduating project that is an interactive software for learning programming with an animated interface. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be more specific, it's a software that should help students learning how to write simple programs in a programming language called &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt;. Learning &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt; at the beginning has its own benefits, so it's featured at many programming disciplines at universities, at least where I live. But there are some details in its syntax that may be obscure for beginners and lead to many errors and, therefore, it's an obstacle to focus on the 'big picture' of a problem, on the essence of a given solution. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roughly anyone who is learning programming needs to deal with frustration, but I think that the issues I mentioned make things worse. Additionally, the software that is traditionally used for writing and running code is aesthetically poor (I remember how difficult it was to look to that screen for so long when I was a beginner). The result is that many students have a very negative feeling about programming. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I decided to create a software that, along with some other features, is friendly on its visual aspect. One of the main features is that it allows to hide obscure elements, making an instruction simpler. Anytime, it's possible to expand that instruction and the obscure elements would change it's color, one by one, while some other elements would be colored and animated to indicate that there's a relationship envolved. That's the basic idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many years ago, in 2005, my Calculus teacher, that used to like to speak about the way we learn things, mentioned a discovery about the importance of color and movement in the learning process. I heard a similar thing on the famous &lt;strong&gt;TED Talk from Ken Robinson&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity#t-1149434&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Do schools kill creativity?&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. I never searched about it before, but the impression I have is that all these scientific conclusions broke with some formal and strict way of education.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need a good article about this importance of visualization, colors and movement for two reasons. First, I think my teacher, that supervises my project, doesn't think all the 'fancy stuff' I proposed really have utility. Maybe, because, for my surprise, he wasn't aware about the discoveries I mentioned. Second, there's a formal procedure to submit the project and I need some reference to endorce it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found only books about this subject. Off course, it would be nice to read some of it, but for now I really need an article to start the project.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18955" LastEditorUserId="18955" LastEditDate="2018-04-17T16:07:27.357" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T16:07:27.357" Title="Importance of colors in learning process?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19460" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-10T22:44:43.630" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that the title is not really clear. That's because I don't know what i'm searching for, unfortunately.&#xA;Let me explain with an example:&#xA;Yesterday i was watching a youtube video , more precisely a lecture from MIT. Looking through the comments i found out that the professor from that lecture studied computer science at the University of Waterloo. I have never heard about the University of Waterloo before (until yesterday). &#xA;Today, while checking my emails i was surprised to see that i got a suggestion to read an answer to a question : &quot;How valuable is the University of Waterloo's computer science program? &quot;&#xA;I know that with computers may not be so mysterious since they know what content we see on the internet and may use it for making suggestions.&#xA;The thing is that these kind of situations occur really often even without technological &quot;help&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&#xA;Some time ago my sister told me about neutron stars. It was fascinating.&#xA;The next day, during a lecture, my physics professor used neutron stars as an example for a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had never heard about neutron stars before my sister told me about them and i was shocked to hear my professor that day. I haven't heard about those stars since then.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or even everyday things: there is a song you didn't listen to for a very long time. Let's say a year. One day you think about that song. Some hours later you hear it playing randomly in a tv show you are watching.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is : do these situations have a name ? &#xA;It happens so often that i already gave it a name but i would like to know if there is some official version&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do they have an explanation from a psychological point of view or they are just fortunate coincidences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18958" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-11T14:24:13.947" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T14:24:13.947" Title="Is there an explanation for concepts or situations that are repeated within a short amount of time?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-04-11T15:19:04.350" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19462" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19458" CreationDate="2018-04-11T03:38:40.927" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You asked for&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;an article that discusses the latest discoveries about how visualization, specially colors and moving images are important in the process of learning.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;...&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;It would be nice to know about a good book about it, but for now I need to start the project and I need an article in first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is one free open access article by Lindelani Mnguni (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4000355&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2014&lt;/a&gt;) which funnily enough has a book reference in the quote I am putting below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Chunking&quot;&lt;/a&gt; is the name given to a technique used to remember things learnt, and Mnguni's article discusses how visualisation helps with chunking, along with the idea that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;there are at least four main factors that determine how humans “chunk” information, namely, closure, proximity, similarity and simplicity. The &lt;em&gt;closure&lt;/em&gt; principle suggests that the mind tends to complete figures even in cases where information is missing. The principle of &lt;em&gt;proximity&lt;/em&gt; (also referred to as the principle of &lt;em&gt;contiguity&lt;/em&gt;) suggests that when visual features are placed closer to each other, they are perceived as a unit (Mullet and Sano 1995). According to the &lt;em&gt;similarity&lt;/em&gt; principle, items that have commonalities such as shape, size, colour, texture and orientation are often grouped as belonging together (Mullet and Sano 1995). Finally, according to the &lt;em&gt;simplicity&lt;/em&gt; principle, items are grouped together according to symmetry, regularity and smoothness. All these principles reflect the behaviour of the cognitive system towards new visual information that has been perceived. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4000355&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mnguni, 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to moving images, Mnguni also points out that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;McClean et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.04-07-0047&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2005&lt;/a&gt;) present evidence showing that student retention of content material in biology education is improved when such content is presented via a lecture coupled with the animations and when an animation is used as an individual study activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McClean et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.04-07-0047&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2005&lt;/a&gt;) is also available free.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McClean, P., Johnson, C., Rogers, R., Daniels, L., Reber, J., Slator, B. M., ... &amp;amp; White, A. (2005). Molecular and cellular biology animations: development and impact on student learning. &lt;em&gt;Cell Biology Education&lt;/em&gt;, 4(2), 169-179.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.04-07-0047&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1187/cbe.04-07-0047&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1103718&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC1103718&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15917875&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;15917875&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mnguni, L. E. (2014). The theoretical cognitive process of visualization for science education. &lt;em&gt;SpringerPlus&lt;/em&gt;, 3(1), 184&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-3-184&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1186/2193-1801-3-184&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4000355&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC4000355&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24790828&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;24790828&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mullet, K., &amp;amp; Sano, D. (1994). &lt;em&gt;Designing visual interfaces: Communication oriented techniques&lt;/em&gt;. New Jersey: Prentice Hall&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-04-12T23:36:17.900" LastActivityDate="2018-04-12T23:36:17.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19464" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-11T07:44:47.973" Score="5" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm conducting a meta-analysis of the relationship between male sexual dimorphism (masculinity) and mating/reproductive success. I'm converting all effect sizes to r and I'm a bit unsure of how to go about converting Kendall's τ. Gilpin (1993) has a table for conversion from τ to r, but those values are approximations and I'd like to be a little more specific. Is Kendall's formula (r = sin (.5πτ)) the best way to do it?&#xA;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gilpin, A. R. (1993). Table for conversion of Kendall's Tau to Spearman's Rho within the context of measures of magnitude of effect for meta-analysis. Educational and psychological measurement, 53(1), 87-92.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18962" LastEditorUserId="18962" LastEditDate="2018-04-11T09:23:10.453" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T09:23:10.453" Title="Converting Kendall's τ to r for meta-analysis" Tags="&lt;meta-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19465" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10336" CreationDate="2018-04-11T07:45:32.033" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, females score higher on neuroticism and psychology students are predominantly female.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some young adult norms that I've seen in the NEO-PI-3 test manual, females score about two-thirds of a standard deviation higher on neuroticism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience at the undergraduate level, about 70% to 85% of students are females. For example, in my most recent paper using a third-year Australian undergrad psych sample (n = 393), we had 79% females (Horwood &amp;amp; Anglim, 2018, JHB).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe also that neuroticism declines with age ( e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2562318/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2562318/&lt;/a&gt; ) and psychology students as with other university students tend to be 18 to 25 or so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'd have to look a little further to see whether there are differences after controlling for age and gender differences; i.e., whether there's a deeper reason for any differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-04-11T10:14:43.283" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T10:14:43.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19468" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18144" CreationDate="2018-04-11T10:43:21.173" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Meta-analysis is a tool that is applied across a wide range of disciplines, especially those involving human subjects. In general, meta-analyses aim to sample all relevant studies that have been conducted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some fields, the norm is to use undergraduate students (especially psychology students). Many psychology programs have a research participation pool; so for a lot of basic lab based research (e.g., cognitive psychology, social psychology), this represents a convenient sample. Note of course, that other disciplines will use other samples. Organisational psychology researchers often use samples of employees from organisations. Developmental psychologists study children. Social science researchers often rely on large scale panel surveys. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recently, online samples are becoming particularly popular. This includes online convenience samples as well as paid samples. In particular, Mechanical Turk is particularly popular in the United States, but other platforms such as prolific exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, the choices that researchers make about sample are driven by many factors: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;convenience/resources&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;discipline expectations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;interests in generalisation (some researchers are mainly interested in generalising to their own culture)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;where the researchers have traditionally come are from (e.g., most researchers in psychology come from the U.S., followed by UK/Europe/Australasia)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;relevance of sample to research question (e.g., sometimes a convenience sample is fine; other times you really need a representative sample); in basic science, it's often fine, but if you're doing organisational or clinical research, you'll generally want a relevant org or clinical sample.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in short, this phenomena is going to vary a lot across research questions. And in some cases it's probably not going to matter much; in other cases it will.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, there is often a trade-off between convenience and rigour. For example, most researchers who measure job performance would love to have a rigorous objective measure of objective performance, but it's much easier to get self-report. So you'll often find that meta-analyses will be summarising studies that have opted for one point on the convenience/rigour trade-off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meta-analysts can and do  perform moderator analyses if they think a particular factor might be relevant to the meta-analytic finding (e.g., whether the sample are undergraduate students or not).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T10:43:21.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19469" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17433" CreationDate="2018-04-11T10:59:32.577" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not aware of any such initiatives. But it would be great to see.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I think I/O psychology has been a bit less proactive in engaging with the open science approach than some disciplines of psychology. More generally, many researchers are silent on the issue of licences for their scales. Thus, it can be ambiguous about what you are allowed to do with a scale, say, that you find in a published journal article. Furthermore, many scales in organisational psychology are explicitly free to use for research purposes are not free for commercial purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T10:59:32.577" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19471" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-11T12:09:59.420" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can anyone suggest studies looking at the number of times participants have to hear something in order to believe something is true? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;e.g. if participant A says something to X they may not believe it, but if A B C and D say the same thing to X then they will? &#xA;Is there an equilibrium at which a subject may start to believe what is being said, or that X number of reports strongly indicates a probability an event took place. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18968" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T12:09:59.420" Title="Cognitive psychology and tipping point of believing a fact." Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-04-12T07:55:12.413" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19472" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19460" CreationDate="2018-04-11T14:14:57.833" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The repeated encounter of a word or object after just having been introduced to it is linked to the frequency illusion, also called the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It may be an example of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#Frequency_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frequency illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The illusion in which a word, a name, or other thing that has recently come to one's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterward&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also referred to as the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon, colloquially described as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[T]he phenomenon where one stumbles upon some obscure piece of information—often an unfamiliar word or name—and soon afterwards encounters the same subject again, often repeatedly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also related to things like buying a &lt;a href=&quot;https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/baader-meinhof-phenomenon.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brand new car that was just newly released and suddenly it pops up all around the neighborhood&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Frequency Illusion is thought to be the result of two psychological processes:  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2681259/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;selective attention&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (noticing things that are salient to us, disregarding the rest) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2681259/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Yantis, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (looking for evidence that supports a hypothesis and disregarding counterevidence). source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.stanford.edu/~zwicky/LSA07illude.abst.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford University&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2681259/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yantis, &lt;em&gt;Curr Dir Psychol Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;17&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 86–90&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T14:14:57.833" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19475" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19440" CreationDate="2018-04-11T20:14:21.067" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In general, sensory systems are not well equipped to perform absolute estimations of a stimulus level, especially since they adapt to the ambient level of stimulation, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, their baseline is re-set continuously. Nonetheless, the vestibular system is quite well capable of estimating the degrees of rotation, as shown in blindfolded subjects that were rotated along the vertical axis.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Rotation initiated by an object you are sitting or standing on is sensed by the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1948576-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibular_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;vestibular system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The visual system is the most accurate, as it immediately senses a change in the visual scene. When the eyes are closed, only the vestibular organ is functional.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Movement in the horizontal plane is sensed by the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/883956-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;semicircular canals&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in the inner ear (Fig. 1). One fundamental principle in sensory organs in general is that they operate on a relative scale. In other words, sensory systems excel in &lt;em&gt;comparing&lt;/em&gt; two stimulus intensities. They are, however, poorly equipped to provide an &lt;em&gt;absolute measure&lt;/em&gt; of stimulus intensity. How bright is bright? Only through experience does one know the absolute value of a stimulus. I'm in the hearing sciences, and I can pretty well tell what the absolute stimulus level is of a stimulus between 20 and 70 dB. But that's only because I spent hours and hours providing well-defined stimuli to study subjects. If you ask me how bright a certain flash of light is, I surely can't tell you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's more - sensory systems adapt quickly &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3501690/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Webster, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. For example, if you keep on moving in circles then the sensory end organs in the semicircular organs (hair cells and associated vestibular nerve) adapt and become less responsive to the ongoing stimulus &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3060364/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(St. george &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. However, short circular movements in a car are typically short accelerations and decelerations, which are pretty well encoded by the vestibular system. Indeed, blindfolded subjects do pretty well in regaining their original position when rotated about a head-centered vertical axis. It is not until adaptation comes into play that things start to deteriorate. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3060364/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(St. george &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2011)&lt;/a&gt;.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3060364/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;St. george &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Physiol&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;589&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 843–53&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3501690/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Webster, &lt;em&gt;F1000 Biol Rep&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;: 21&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3tTj3.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3tTj3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;inner ear&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Inner ear. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://img.medscapestatic.com/pi/meds/ckb/80/25180.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MedScape&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T20:14:21.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19477" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10855" CreationDate="2018-04-11T20:46:16.867" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that it is a definitional issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the first definition of Asperger's I got with a Google search:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;a developmental disorder related to autism and characterized by higher than average intellectual ability coupled with impaired social skills and restrictive, repetitive patterns of interest and activities.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that this is very close to the definition Asperger himself used to try to understand the cluster of individuals with similar traits that fit that description (although I don't think he made the connection to autism that we now have).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, to say that people who are &quot;characterized with higher than average intellectual ability&quot; have high IQ's is pretty much a tautology, isn't it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18974" LastActivityDate="2018-04-11T20:46:16.867" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19481" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19483" CreationDate="2018-04-12T06:47:27.353" Score="7" ViewCount="2866" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently reading Dr. Richard Haier's book &lt;em&gt;The Neuroscience of Intelligence&lt;/em&gt; and I am a little confused about the g-factor. Note that I have no education in psychology outside of general ed courses at university.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have two questions regarding the g-factor.  What confuses me is for one, he does not go into technical detail about how the g-factor is calculated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He does include this illustration:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WMtaE.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WMtaE.png&quot; alt=&quot;g-factor&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here we see that 15 mental tests are taken in groups of 3, where each group is correlated to a certain factor. So tests 1-3 are for reasoning, 4-6 for spatial ability, and so on.  These factors then correlate to the g-factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering what is the methodology used to find the correlations between the tests and factors/factors and the g-factor? For example, I don't quite understand how they measure the correlation between the test and the factor given that the factor is abstract (ie. reasoning). I hope what I am asking makes sense. I am not asking how to perform linear regression or calculate Pearson's r. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My second question is about the statement in the book: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;Different mental abilities are not independent. They are all related to each other and the correlations among mental tests are always positive.... It strongly implies that all the factors derived from individual tests have something in common, and this common factor is called the general factor of intelligence.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wouldn't this imply that all of the factors are multicollinear and make it difficult to distinguish which factors are most significant? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18979" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-04-12T07:47:32.433" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T00:41:07.160" Title="How is the g-factor of intelligence calculated?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19483" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19481" CreationDate="2018-04-12T07:47:02.507" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;PCA or EFA&lt;/strong&gt;: A standard approach to calculating a g factor would be to use principal components analysis (PCA) or exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Basically, you administer a broad battery of cognitive ability measures. Then you use these tests as variables in a PCA or EFA. This will partition the variance in the tests into a set of uncorrelated factors. The first factor will be the factor that explains the most variance in the tests. It is this first factor that represents &quot;g&quot;. Typically, each test will &quot;load&quot; (or correlate) with this first factor, some tests more than others. The first factor will capture something that is common across most or all of the tests. I.e., it is g, for general factor, that measures cognitive ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An empirical finding is that almost all tests of specific cognitive abilities correlate with the general factor. And typically, the loadings are fairly substantial. I.e., the first factor is quite substantial relative to second and subsequent factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Confirmatory factor analysis&lt;/strong&gt;: It seems that what you present is a confirmatory factor analysis. This is a variant on exploratory factor analysis. Basically, you specify which observed variables load on latent factors and all other possible loadings are constrained to zero. More specifically, this is a higher-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). It is higher-order because, there are two-levels of latent factors. I.e., tests load on domain-specific latent factors (e.g., reasoning, spatial ability), and these domain specific latent factors load on g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The CFA estimation procedures will find the parameter estimates that best model the data (i.e., the covariance/correlation structure of the tests).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in this case, we see that all the tests load fairly well on their domains (i.e., &gt; .70) and all the domains load on g (&gt; .65), although reasoning and spatial ability load a little stronger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, multivariate statistics training in psychology (typically presented at postgraduate level and sometimes latter undergraduate-level) will cover these statistical techniques. Here's Bill Revelle's notes that cover some psyhometric theory: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.personality-project.org/r/book/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.personality-project.org/r/book/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Wouldn't this imply that all of the factors are multicollinear and make it difficult to distinguish which factors are most significant?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;That's why researchers often focus more on g (i.e., the general factor). But yes, you are in a sense correct. Of course, you can still do multiple regression and such with correlated predictors; you can then look at things like semi-partial correlations to look at the unique prediction of any one domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-04-13T00:41:07.160" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T00:41:07.160" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19485" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16144" CreationDate="2018-04-12T16:21:38.917" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;See the article by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journal.media-culture.org.au/0512/03-shouse.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shouse, E. (2005), &quot;Feeling, emotion, affect.&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Affect is the basic element in non (or more than) representational theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Shouse, E. (2005). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journal.media-culture.org.au/0512/03-shouse.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feeling, emotion, affect.&lt;/a&gt; M/c journal, 8(6), 26.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18983" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-04-12T18:30:27.513" LastActivityDate="2018-04-12T18:30:27.513" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19486" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-12T22:10:31.183" Score="5" ViewCount="595" Body="&lt;p&gt;Charles Murray (in his book, &quot;The Bell Curve&quot;) reported that there are real differences between the mean IQ scores of different racial groups. He also points out that IQ variation within said groups is greater than the variation between the groups. I'm struggling to reconcile these two statements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If by &quot;real differences&quot;, he means statistically significant differences between group averages--doesn't that entail the variation is greater between groups than within them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, isn't the statistical test for inter-group mean differences (e.g. ANOVA) based on a comparison of the variances within vs between groups?--(if the inter-group variance is comparatively large enough, this constitutes a statistically significant difference between the groups?) &#xA;If not, then what does it mean to say that the groups are significantly different from eachother? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18986" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-04-13T00:55:01.653" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T01:33:45.113" Title="What does it mean statistically for there to be significant differences in average IQ scores between racial groups?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19487" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19486" CreationDate="2018-04-13T00:38:59.010" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Statistical significance in this context is determined by:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the underlying size of the group differences, &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the group sample sizes, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;your threshold for statistical significance (traditionally .05).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if there were very small group differences, if you had a large sample size (say 1000s of people from each race doing an intelligence test), then you would be highly likely (i.e., high statistical power) to find a significant group difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, Murray's point is not  about statistical significance. I.e., it's not about ruling out the null hypothesis. Observed  differences in intelligence test scores are often fairly large, and this is a heavily studied area with very large sample sizes. So ruling our the null-hypothesis is not a problem. The differences in a given study are statistically signifiant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Murray's point is about translating the quantitative differences in group means into something that is linguistically meaningful. There are various ways of doing this. For variables that are intrinsically meaningful, we often talk about the raw scales (e.g., you could talk about the gender pay gap in dollars earned per year or you could compare races in height using centimetres or inches).&#xA;However, in psychology, we often have scales that lack intrinsic meaning, which leads to the use of standardized measures of effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most common standardized measure of group differences is often labeled Cohen's d. I.e., it is the difference between group means in terms of the standard deviation. So for example, IQ scores have a standard deviation of 15. So if one group has a mean of 110 and another has a mean of 95, then that's a cohen's d of 1.0 (i.e., (110 - 95) / 15 = 1.0). Rules of thumb have been proposed based on an examination of the psychological literature which suggests that .2 is small, .5 is medium, and .8 is large in terms of an effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From memory, some observed differences in intelligence test scores between races are in that 0.8 to 1.2 range (see for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence:_Knowns_and_Unknowns#Group_differences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IQ knowns and unknowns&lt;/a&gt;). So by conventional rules of thumb for effect size, this would be labelled a large effect or a large group difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this is not a finding of mere academic interest. This finding can have profound negative consequences for people's lives. Specifically, the fear is that this finding will reinforce negative stereotypes and that people in the group that tends to scores lower on IQ tests will be given fewer opportunities in life (e.g., education, work, immigration, political policy, etc.). And that the finding would support bigotry. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, there is a real danger that people will rely on a group stereotype rather than judging a person on their merits. For example, it is reasonable to hire a person for a job because they show the most aptitude for the job based on measures of the competence and experience. It is unreasonable to hire a person because they come from a racial group that happens to on average perform better on the job.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Murray uses an alternative index of effect size to say that between group variance is less than within-group variance. Thus, if you do a regression with group as the predictor variable, then only when you explain more than 50% of variance will group explain more variance than there is variance within groups. I think you need a cohen's d of 2.0 to get 50% of variance explained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a simulation in R:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;x &amp;lt;- data.frame(group = &quot;a&quot;, dv = rnorm(100000,0,1))&#xA;y &amp;lt;- data.frame(group = &quot;b&quot;, dv = rnorm(100000,2,1))&#xA;df &amp;lt;- rbind(x, y)&#xA;fit &amp;lt;- lm(dv ~ group, df)&#xA;summary(fit)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, I'm simulating data for two groups and their group means differ by two standard deviations and the result is 50% of variance explained (and 50% variance unexplained; i.e., within group variance):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Coefficients:&#xA;              Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(&amp;gt;|t|)    &#xA;(Intercept) -0.0007719  0.0031664  -0.244    0.807    &#xA;groupb       1.9974176  0.0044780 446.050   &amp;lt;2e-16 ***&#xA;Multiple R-squared:  0.4987,    Adjusted R-squared:  0.4987 &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, a group difference of 2.0 is very large.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002182.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here's another article&lt;/a&gt; that talks about different indexes for group differences (Table 1 is particularly interesting).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in general, Murray is presumably making the point that even though group differences are fairly large by conventional standards, there are many people in the lower scoring group that score higher than the higher scoring group. So please don't use this finding to stereotype or marginalize people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Follow-up&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You asked in the comments:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Given the group differences, is it technically accurate to say that a randomly selected individual of a lower scoring group is more likely to have a lower score than a randomly selected individual of a higher scoring group? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, that is accurate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer that question see Table 1 &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002182.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Probability that person from experimental group will be higher than person from control, if both chosen at random (=CLES)&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;no group differences: 50% chance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;0.5 SD difference: 64% chance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1 SD difference (i.e., what has sometimes been found historically for some race IQ differences): 76% chance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;2 SD difference: 92% chance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-04-13T01:33:45.113" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T01:33:45.113" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19488" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19404" CreationDate="2018-04-13T01:02:02.370" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You'll find an answer here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence#Measurement_of_fluid_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence#Measurement_of_fluid_intelligence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As it mentions, Raven's Progressive Matrix is a popular option that has been shown to load highly on both g and Gf (fluid intelligence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of gold standard, it is probably preferable to have a battery of measures that are relevant to Gf and take some composite of these. For example, the WAIS performance subscales.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, a good measure of fluid intelligence would be inferred from its correlations with other measures. It should also have good reliability and other validity properties. Specifically, when administered in a large battery of cognitive ability measures, a factor analysis should indicate that the test loads highly on a factor that looks like fluid intelligence (i.e., that other measures of fluid intelligence load on). There's more to it than that, but perhaps a starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T01:02:02.370" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19489" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6540" CreationDate="2018-04-13T04:52:10.377" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;When from what I've viewed first hand through my formal study working with NANOG, SOX2, &amp;amp; OCT4 Trinity Factor mediation of a Non Canonical Wnt pathway in lineage regression morphology of simple columnar enterocyte to migratory Mesenchymal pluripotent transitory state, has shown me how incredibly novice &amp;amp; crude each our methods, modes of understanding are, as well as the utter bred naivety amounting in those who truncate &amp;quot;truths&amp;quot; of an already ineptly defined material in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Greater science forever uproots the lies within our yet &amp;quot;greatest&amp;quot; truths, &amp;amp; does so as an auraborus inevitability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Brinker, T., Stopa, E., Morrison, J., &amp; Klinge, P. (2014). [A new look at cerebrospinal fluid circulation.][1] Fluids and Barriers of the CNS, 11(1), 10.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18988" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-01-29T14:08:15.190" LastActivityDate="2021-01-29T14:08:15.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19490" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19438" CreationDate="2018-04-13T14:03:10.150" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it sits somewhere in between &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201312/the-psychology-scapegoating&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scapegoating&lt;/a&gt; (assigning the blame to another person or less often some other force) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hot-thought/201002/does-everything-happen-reason-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;everything happens for a reason&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;. It's a basic psychological need to find causality, especially for upsetting things in life. There is in fact no shortage of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/attribution-theory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attribution theories in psychology&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_(psychology)#Covariation_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;covariation&lt;/a&gt; (same causes leading to same effects) sits fairly highly among them. So if one heard that X commited suicide because of the Blue Whale, and then Y commits suicide and someone else mentions Blue Whale... However, in this case it's probably more appropriate to quote another media &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.prindlepost.org/2017/05/moral-panic-blue-whale-game/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article on the Blue Whale moral panic&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;French anthropologist René Girard famously studied how moral panics ultimately derive in scapegoating. Whenever a society goes through difficult times, there is the tendency to unfairly blame an individual or a particular group for all the troubles. The collective animosity builds against these scapegoats, and very frequently, they are either killed or exiled, as an attempt to put an end to the crisis. This is the psychological mechanism at work in lynchings and purges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...] The Blue Whale designers, whoever they may be, are scapegoats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Blue Whale moral panic is far from being the first in its kind. The idea that some media product (a song, a movie or a videogame) has the power to drive mindless kids to kill themselves is quite ancient. The first version of this cultural trope goes back all the way to the 14th Century, with the famous Piper of Hamelin story. According to this legend, a piper was hired to rid a town of its rats; the piper played a melody that drove the rats away; the townspeople refused to pay, and as revenge, the piper played a melody that made the kids mindlessly walk into a river, thus being drowned. The Piper of Hamelin story is clearly fantasy, well suited for the credulous medieval mentality. The Blue Whale story seems to be along the same lines, and unfortunately, the same credulous and paranoid mentality is at work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Listening to a song or playing an internet game will not make anybody commit suicide, unless that person already had previously strong suicidal ideation. In that case, alleged instigators such as Blue Whale or Judas Priest would be scapegoats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T14:03:10.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19492" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19453" CreationDate="2018-04-13T14:46:01.350" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depends what you mean by &quot;objective happiness&quot;. If we use the term in the way that it's used by Kahneman etc., meaning that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the special conditions of the clinic or laboratory it is sometimes possible to&#xA;  obtain continuous or almost continuous reports of experienced utility from patients or&#xA;  experimental subjects. Continuous measures are of course impractical for the&#xA;  measurement of objective happiness over a period of time. Sampling techniques must be&#xA;  used to obtain a set of values of moment-utility that adequately represents the intended&#xA;  population of individuals, times and occasions. For example, a study of the objective&#xA;  happiness of Californians should use a sample of observations that reflects the relative&#xA;  amounts of time spent on the freeway and in hot tubs. Techniques for sampling times&#xA;  and occasions have been developed in the context of Experience Sampling Methodology&#xA;  (ESM) (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Stone, Shiffman and DeVries, 1999).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's hard to imagine getting such data retrospectively from ancient or even just past populations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ref quoted: Kahneman, D. (2000). Experienced utility and objective happiness: A moment-based approach. In D. Kahneman &amp;amp; A. Tversky (Eds.), Choices, values and frames (pp. 673-692). New York: Cambridge. University Press and the Russell Sage Foundation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, diet and/or physical trauma &lt;a href=&quot;https://anthropology.si.edu/writteninbone/writing_bone_biographies.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;leave a bone recod&lt;/a&gt; for archeologists to study. Alas I'm not aware of neurochemistry of past populations being ammenable to study (other than comparative studies across current species, e.g. humans vs apes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-04-13T15:10:47.603" LastActivityDate="2018-04-13T15:10:47.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19493" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14042" CreationDate="2018-04-13T19:19:38.233" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;While the available R packages for EEG do not seem to support the EGI eeg data format (see Robin Kramer's comment), you might want to try &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.martinos.org/mne/stable/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MNE-Python&lt;/a&gt; as a free and open alternative to any EEG toolbox implemented in Matlab.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MNE-Python does support the &lt;a href=&quot;https://martinos.org/mne/dev/manual/io.html#importing-eeg-data&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EGI eeg data format&lt;/a&gt; among many others. Furthermore, there are several comprehensive &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.martinos.org/mne/stable/auto_examples/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;examples&lt;/a&gt; to get you started.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17605" LastEditorUserId="17605" LastEditDate="2018-04-14T07:34:59.987" LastActivityDate="2018-04-14T07:34:59.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19494" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16831" CreationDate="2018-04-13T20:59:48.450" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quoting from one paper, which doesn't say all that much:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The experience of nakedness under the gaze of others is highly diverse, and&#xA;  important background differences will affect the relative comfort with which one&#xA;  might strip in front of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cover, R. (2003). &lt;a href=&quot;https://is.muni.cz/el/1423/jaro2016/SOC584/um/Cover.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The naked subject: Nudity, context and sexualization in contemporary culture&lt;/a&gt;. Body &amp;amp; Society, 9(3), 53-72. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1357034X030093004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/1357034X030093004&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And from one of the few studies of nudists in the US, back when this was more common over there (that is 1964):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Among changes reported by nudists were “less concern&#xA;  with appearance,” “reduced anxiety,” “more benevolence,” and “less inhibition.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Casler, L. (2010). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1964.9919569&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Some Sociopsychological Observations in a Nudist Camp: A Preliminary Study&lt;/a&gt;, The Journal of Social Psychology, 64:2, 307-323&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fairly similar findings from a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nude_psychotherapy#1960s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nude group therapy&lt;/a&gt; &quot;marathon&quot; (24hrs session):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Nudity apparently facilitates group interaction in a marathon. 17 of 20 participants felt that the factor of nudity increased their ability to open up to each other emotionally and to achieve a greater degree of authenticity and transparency. The group integrated and seemed to become therapeutically functional more rapidly than clothed marathon groups&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bindrim, P. (1968). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0088684&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A report on a nude marathon: The effect of physical nudity upon the practice of interaction in the marathon group&lt;/a&gt;. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research &amp;amp; Practice, 5(3), 180-188&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a pretty interesting discussion contrasting the German and UK cultural differences in how sexuality relates to social nudity is found in &#xA;Smith, G., &amp;amp; King, M. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2008.08.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Naturism and sexuality: Broadening our approach to sexual wellbeing&lt;/a&gt;. Health &amp;amp; place, 15(2), 439-446.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-04-14T11:47:11.217" LastActivityDate="2018-04-14T11:47:11.217" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19495" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-14T18:42:45.450" Score="3" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the phenomenon of &quot;subjective consciousness&quot; or &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;qualia&lt;/a&gt;&quot; formally captured or defined by any state-of-the-art Theoretical Model in Neuroscience? If so, can you share a brief summary of such formalization and references for further reading?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18631" LastActivityDate="2018-04-14T18:42:45.450" Title="Is the phenomenom of “subjective consciousness” or “qualia” formally captured by any state-of-the-art Theoretical Model in Neuroscience?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;qualia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19497" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10238" CreationDate="2018-04-15T01:10:30.850" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The mindfulness stress buffering account (Creswell, Lindsay, 2014) suggests that mindfulness practice  buffers acute stress reactivity, therefore it has more impact on health outcome of a high-stress group than a low-stress group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Creswell, J. D., &amp;amp; Lindsay, E. K. (2014). How Does Mindfulness Training Affect Health? A Mindfulness Stress Buffering Account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(6), 401–407. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414547415&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414547415&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastActivityDate="2018-04-15T01:10:30.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19499" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-15T09:57:54.807" Score="2" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't been in cognitive sciences for long, but in my work I have noticed a curious pattern: Individuals who overwhelmingly attribute the responsibility of their own actions to external causes, accuse others of behavioral patterns that represent the same patterns that they themselves do not accept to be guilty of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or maybe it's the other causal direction; they see others being guilty of certain behavioral patterns and subconsciously start behaving in the same ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: A patient who sees sexual predators in most men, sometimes in very subtle behavioral traits, accuses her partners of not respecting her decisions, of reversal of guilt, etc. However in the process of the accusation, she is unable to accept her partners' decisions (&quot;He doesn't want to continue the relationship, but he doesn't care that I want to&quot;), is uncompromising (Does not accept to establish a basis of communication) and blames them for her lack of communication (&quot;I should not have to always be able to show you what I don't want, it is your responsibility to know.&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am interested in is; is there science on this that confirms my observation, or even a name or field of research for it? If yes, are there explanations on why this paradoxical attribution of responsibility happens?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19008" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-04-17T11:19:26.700" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T11:19:26.700" Title="Bias of finding others guilty of own shortcomings" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19500" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-15T14:06:17.290" Score="3" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;For my Bachelor thesis I need an fMRI dataset in order to look for causal relationships. I want to be able to confirm my work, so the causal relationships should already be known. Therefore, ideally the dataset would involve very simple visual tasks, like viewing vertical and horizontal stripes. It should have at least 20 Participants and 30 trials per task. It should also be randomized, so the participant doesn't know what they are going to see next. Does anyone have an idea? I've been searching forever and haven't even come close to a dataset which fulfills my criteria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18551" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-04-15T16:11:04.683" LastActivityDate="2018-04-15T16:11:04.683" Title="Task-based fMRI dataset with very simple task (e.g. view stripes)" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19504" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-16T05:18:33.680" Score="0" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose we conducted an experiment that found that the color red makes people depressed and the color blue makes people happy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now suppose we found out that when looking at a red object, person A sees red but person B perceives blue. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would the conclusions of the experiment still apply?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My take would be that the results would still apply, just that they apply to different definitions and it would be just a matter of semantics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19012" LastActivityDate="2018-04-16T12:37:23.627" Title="What would the effect on psychology experiments be if we found out that one person sees blue if another sees red?" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19505" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-16T05:54:08.107" Score="2" ViewCount="219" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://mialab.mrn.org/software/gift/publications/2002_HBM_Driving.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Calhoun et al, 2002&lt;/a&gt;, on the application of ICA to fMRI on page 4, ICA data is mapped to the different regions in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Brain Activation Maps&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JGWKi.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JGWKi.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My specific question here is that when we have got results of ICA in the form of spatially Independent components, then how are those data mapped to the brain activation region?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also using visualization How do we know that which component is task related that is there must be some default component for a particular activity. For example If a person is doing some activity like seeing a picture and his/her fMRI is being done then how based on ICA when we got say 30 component we would see that which component is related to that activity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My Understanding&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those template brain regions have spatial locations like x,y coordinates so these ICA components would be somehow transformed to coordinate system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Calhoun, V. D., Pekar, J. J., McGinty, V. B., Adali, T., Watson, T. D., &amp;amp; Pearlson, G. D. (2002). &lt;a href=&quot;http://mialab.mrn.org/software/gift/publications/2002_HBM_Driving.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Different activation dynamics in multiple neural systems during simulated driving.&lt;/a&gt; Human brain mapping, 16(3), 158-167.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19014" LastEditorUserId="19014" LastEditDate="2018-04-17T07:44:04.520" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T07:44:04.520" Title="Visualization of ICA (Independent component analysis) results to the brain spatial regions" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19506" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15806" CreationDate="2018-04-16T07:17:10.400" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;VSauce mentions this experiment in &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/ixQbCXLUUj8?t=564&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Why Do We Kiss?&quot; at 9m 24s in&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Topál, J., Miklósi, Á., Csányi, V., &amp;amp; Dóka, A. (1998). &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0735-7036.112.3.219&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Attachment behavior in dogs (Canis familiaris): a new application of Ainsworth's (1969) Strange Situation Test.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of comparative psychology, 112(3), 219.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19015" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-04-16T08:08:43.507" LastActivityDate="2018-04-16T08:08:43.507" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19508" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19504" CreationDate="2018-04-16T09:58:10.800" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;While the &lt;a href=&quot;https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Organic_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Map%3A_Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/28%3A_Photochemistry/28.5%3A_The_Sensation_of_Color&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sensation of color&lt;/a&gt; is well defined, the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-viii-gabac-receptors/color-perception/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;perception of color&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is indeed &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20120209-do-we-all-see-the-same-colours&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;shrouded in ambiguity&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/csh/csh04/Articles/Brainard-01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Brainard, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;. There are no colors, just electromagnetic radiations that oscillate in different frequencies in the frequency domain. Our brains interpret those various wavelengths as color.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now on to your experiment: if you find a statistical difference and you later find out that a group of people perceive the color blue as red and &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;, the first thing you want to do is control for that population and take them out from the data set. Then you can compare the 'true seers' with the 'reversed seers' and see if they are statistically different in their emotional response. If yes, you'd better split them and analyze them separately. If not, a pooled analysis is fine, perhaps you can add the normal or inverse perception as a co-factor, dependent on the exact analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then, perhaps, the most important question here is - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/21275-color-red-blue-scientists.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; would you find out what a person &lt;em&gt;actually perceives&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;?    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cns.nyu.edu/csh/csh04/Articles/Brainard-01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brainard, Int. Encyclopedia Social &amp;amp; Behavioral&#xA;Sciences, Smelser &amp;amp; Baltes (eds.), Pergamon Press, Amsterdam&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-16T12:37:23.627" LastActivityDate="2018-04-16T12:37:23.627" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19510" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-16T12:18:53.560" Score="2" ViewCount="209" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many resources on the web that discuss &lt;strong&gt;correlations between the personality of an individual and their preferred shapes or colors&lt;/strong&gt;.  To give just one example of each&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://listening2leaders.com/shape-quiz-learn-colleagues/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://listening2leaders.com/shape-quiz-learn-colleagues/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/Choosing/colour-personality.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/Choosing/colour-personality.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions here are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The second of the two links above is from an academic source.  Are there extended experimental, peer-reviewed, studies that establish the validity of such correlations?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;From my own empirical observations I know that such correlations do indeed work though they are not not quite as clear cut as these articles make them out to be.  Are there any studies that look at both color and shape preferences at the same time?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found that one very good use to combine shape + color preferences is to weed out deliberately misleading responses.  Take the following example&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We have the shapes - square, circle, triangle and squiggle&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;we have the colors - red, yellow, orange, green, blue, white and black&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interpolating between the ideas proposed in the two links I have quoted above a &quot;Triangle&quot; personality is far more likely to be a &quot;Red&quot;, &quot;Orange&quot; or &quot;Yellow&quot; personality than say a &quot;Blue&quot; one.  This could be used to assign a weighting to user responses in order to reduce the likelihood of invalid conclusions being drawn from deliberately misleading responses to the &quot;my favorite shape&quot; question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sounds plausible but once again I would like to know if there is any published research on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19016" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-20T14:35:14.037" LastActivityDate="2018-04-26T15:57:13.217" Title="Establishing personality from shape AND color preferences" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19513" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19378" CreationDate="2018-04-16T16:58:35.900" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As of 2018, is it possible to induce pleasure in humans by some intervention like sending electrical signals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, it is possible and has been done, typically as DBS (Deep Brain Stimulation) for various disorders: OCD and depression are a few examples where the brain are stimulated induced pleasure. (Synofzik, Schlaepfer &amp;amp; Fins 2012)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding &quot;How much&quot;... How much until what? Death? Brain damage? Subjective &quot;that's enough&quot;? &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Habituation&lt;/a&gt;? Realize that most of what you ask is definitely unethical as an experiment (on humans, which is your focus) in this century. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an ethics discussion I stronly suggest the aforementiond paper paper by Synofzik, Schlaepfer &amp;amp; Fins &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/21507740.2011.635633&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;How Happy Is Too Happy? Euphoria, Neuroethics, and Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens&quot;&lt;/a&gt; which has been the subject of interest for popsci press (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/03/pleasure-shock-deep-brain-stimulation-happiness/556043/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;article in &lt;em&gt;The Atlantic&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few points paraphrased from the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the euphoria was a result of deep brain stimulation (DBS) treatment for OCD (obsessive-compulsive disorder) performed in the anterior&#xA;limb of the internal capsule and the nucleus accumbens region (ALIC-NA).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The pleasure experienced is voltage dependant. However, patients also reported being overstimulated when the voltage was too high and expressed that as some kind of discomfort either somewhat physical &quot;that's too much&quot;, or more psychological concern such as that they felt &quot;unrealistically good”.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Habituation to the pleasure elicited by this type of DBS reportedly does occur, and pretty quickly, on the order of minutes. This is somewhat surprising given that they also mention the classic experiment of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.127.3294.315&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Olds (1958)&lt;/a&gt;, in which mice kept engaging thousands of times in behavior that rewarded them with brief shocks to the brain's &quot;pleasure center&quot;. I'm guessing there's something either in the biology or in the protocol that causes faster habituation in humans, but the paper is not clear on what that is.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-04-16T17:19:29.923" LastActivityDate="2018-04-16T17:19:29.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19515" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19516" CreationDate="2018-04-16T23:33:47.693" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;The benefits of eating dinners with your family are documented in &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15289253&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Correlations between family meals and psychosocial well-being among adolescents&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Eisenberg et al. However, is there evidence that this applies also applies to other family-like communities? For example, are the benefits to coworkers or friends cohabiting eating together on a regular basis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-04-16T23:58:50.550" Title="Benefits of social eating outside of family units" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19516" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19515" CreationDate="2018-04-16T23:58:50.550" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term I was looking for was &quot;commensal meals&quot;. Indeed, the benefits of commensality are seen in:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Firefighters, wherein commensality correlated with measures of effectiveness [1].&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The general population of Thailand, wherein commensality correlated with happiness [2]. However, from quickly reading the paper, it's unclear whether this applies as strongly for families as it does for unmarried people.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Seniors in Japan, wherein commensality is associated with &quot;subjective health, food diversity and food intake frequency&quot; [3].&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I didn't find anything relating specifically to room-mates, which seems like a relevant demographic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08959285.2015.1021049&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eating Together at the Firehouse: How Workplace Commensality Relates to the Performance of Firefighters&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Kniffin et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4802060/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Health, Happiness and Eating Together: What Can a Large Thai Cohort Study Tell Us?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Yiengprugsawan et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12603-016-0805-z&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eating together is associated with food behaviors and demographic factors of older Japanese people who live alone&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Ishikawa et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-04-16T23:58:50.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19517" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-17T02:48:15.150" Score="1" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm just curious if authority influence, even if a little, carries over to areas in which the authority is not an expert.  Like a doctor giving advice about fashion or best kind of car to buy, etc.  Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19024" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T02:48:15.150" Title="Any studies on authority influence in non-expertise area? (e.g., police captain giving medical advice)?" Tags="&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19518" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19458" CreationDate="2018-04-17T08:33:39.613" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19462/21&quot;&gt;Chris' answer is relevant&lt;/a&gt;, but possibly digging more into psychology literature than needed for the given question. Note that the articles Chris links to do not state that 'by default' using colors and animations improves learning. Instead, what they indicate is that &lt;em&gt;they can be put to good use&lt;/em&gt; if you take into account how the mind processes colors, spacing, and animations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How to put colors, layout, and animations to good use&lt;/strong&gt;, is what a big part of &lt;em&gt;human factors&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;human-computer interaction&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;design&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;user experience&lt;/em&gt; courses teach you. These fields (which also have academic publications) have already processed some of the relevant knowledge of psychology for you and have translated it into &lt;em&gt;implications for design&lt;/em&gt;, typically distilled as &lt;em&gt;design principles&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;heuristics&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With your given question in mind, the following set of principles seem relevant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personally, I really like &lt;a href=&quot;http://userexperienceexperience.blogspot.dk/2009/11/design-heuristics-by-wicken-gordon-liu.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wicken's 13 principles of display design&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0131837362&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wickens et al, 1998&lt;/a&gt;). Unfortunately, a book. But these principles are widely cited historically. I believe much of this is based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gestalt psychology&lt;/a&gt;, which is an important resource to read up on in its own right.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A colleague of mine recently linked me to &lt;a href=&quot;https://lawsofux.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;'Laws of UX' (lawsofux.com)&lt;/a&gt;, which provides a pictographic overview of other (and overlapping) 'laws' to keep in the back of your mind when designing your application.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to your concrete project, definitely &lt;a href=&quot;http://worrydream.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;have a look at what Bret Victor has been doing&lt;/a&gt;. His main premise is that computing systems should be much more interactive. He applied this specifically to programming in his article, &lt;a href=&quot;http://worrydream.com/#!/LearnableProgramming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Learnable Programming&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Interactivity (which also seems to be reflected in some of the features you shortly describe) might be much more important than 'just' improving the visual appeal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Wickens, C. D., Gordon, S. E., Liu, Y., &amp;amp; Lee, J. (1998). &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0131837362&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An introduction to human factors engineering.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T08:33:39.613" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19519" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18554" CreationDate="2018-04-17T08:51:01.380" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The recent literature shows mounting evidence for beneficial effects of music on cognitive abilities. The big 'but' in the issue is how specific those effects are and whether they will hold up in longitudinal studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Great question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your citations provided reach back to 2006 so I thought to limit this answer using recent articles only. Overall, the beneficial effects of musical training seems quite overwhelming. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A number of papers, including reviews have shown that in &lt;strong&gt;kids&lt;/strong&gt; learning to play a musical instrument&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Raises their IQ &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13423-016-1196-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Protzko, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Enhances musically relevant auditory skills &lt;a href=&quot;https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/nyas.13606&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Habibi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2018&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Enhances working memory (but not other outcome measures) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02303/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Guo &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2018)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;strong&gt;general adult population&lt;/strong&gt; review reports conclude that musical training&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Enhances cognitive skills spanning executive control to creativity, albeit sometimes limited to the auditory domain &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02023/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Benz &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is correlated with positive outcomes on cognitive ability &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0733464817751198&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Schneider &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2018)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, in &lt;strong&gt;the elderly&lt;/strong&gt; musical training has been shown to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Better attention, episodic memory and executive functions &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13607863.2017.1328481&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Mansens &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2016)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, virtually all review studies conclude that more data is needed, especially from carefully controlled &lt;strong&gt;longitudinal studies&lt;/strong&gt;. Many papers are retrospectively organized, and many studies find benefits on some outcome measures, but not all. Indeed, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3101523/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hille &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2011)&lt;/a&gt; say: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is no longer the question whether or not musical training is associated with [better] cognitive abilities, because there is growing evidence that it is. An unresolved issue however, is the nature and specificity of the link.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, many primary research articles focus &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; on auditory tasks, and not on others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02023/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Benz &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Front Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02303/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Guo &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (2018)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13607863.2017.1328481&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Habibi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Annals NY Acad Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2018)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3101523/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hille &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Adv Cogn Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;7&lt;/strong&gt;: 1–6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13607863.2017.1328481&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mensens &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Aging &amp;amp; Mental Health&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13423-016-1196-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Protzko, &lt;em&gt;Developmental Rev&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;46&lt;/strong&gt;: 81-101&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0733464817751198&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schneider &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Appl Gerontology&lt;/em&gt; (2018)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-21T08:17:30.163" LastActivityDate="2018-04-21T08:17:30.163" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19520" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19244" CreationDate="2018-04-17T09:13:16.603" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are different varieties of the Token Test (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0101-60832011000300003&amp;amp;script=sci_arttext&amp;amp;tlng=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moreira (2011)&lt;/a&gt;). Several of them using physical tokens are explained pretty well and can likely be me made at home (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tokentest.eu/en/examples&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). I wasn't able to find free digital versions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0101-60832011000300003&amp;amp;script=sci_arttext&amp;amp;tlng=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moreira, &lt;em&gt;Rev psiquiatr clín&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;38&lt;/strong&gt;(3)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T09:13:16.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19521" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19499" CreationDate="2018-04-17T11:18:46.093" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your first paragraph, in particular, reminds me of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;'fundamental attribution error'&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the fundamental attribution error (FAE), also known as the&#xA;  correspondence bias or attribution effect, is the claim that in&#xA;  contrast to interpretations of their own behavior, people place undue&#xA;  emphasis on internal characteristics of the agent (character or&#xA;  intention), rather than external factors, in explaining other people's&#xA;  behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T11:18:46.093" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19522" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-17T12:11:14.070" Score="2" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a Development Economist, I recently get interested in &lt;strong&gt;time preference&lt;/strong&gt; reading several insightful economic papers (Godoy 1998, Godoy 2001, Holden et al 1998, Holden 2013, Galor and Ozak 2015). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently looking for more bibliography on &lt;strong&gt;time preference&lt;/strong&gt; and especially on &lt;strong&gt;the factors that can explain heterogeneity in time preference for individuals from a given population&lt;/strong&gt;. If anyone of you know any research paper on the factors explaining within population variation in time preference I will be happy to read your comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I plan to do is to assess whether, within a given population, individuals whose ancestors faced adverse historical event (such as forced migration (i.e. forced village relocation) during colonial times, around 70 years ago) exhibit today higher levels of time preference compared to their peers not affected by such event. The channel would be that such behavior, due to forced migration that uprooted former generations, transmitted through &lt;em&gt;culture&lt;/em&gt; from one generation to the other. &#xA;In an agrarian economy, these differences in time preference would translate today in different investment behavior (such as decision to fallow land). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Godoy 1998 &quot;The role of tenure security and private time preference in Neotropical Deforestation&quot; Land Economics, Vol 74, No.2 May 1998 pp 162-170&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Godoy 2001 &quot;Tenure security, private time preference, and use of resources among lowland Bolivian Amerindians&quot; Ecological Economics 38 (2001) 105-118&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Holden et al 1998 &quot;Poverty, market imperfections and time preferences: of relevance for environmental policy?&quot; Environment and Development Economics 3 (1998) 105-130&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Galor and Ozak 2015 &quot;The Agricultural Origins of Time Preference&quot; Working paper&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19025" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-04-18T09:29:59.223" LastActivityDate="2018-04-18T09:29:59.223" Title="The impact of adverse historical event on individual time preference" Tags="&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19523" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-17T15:35:49.710" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider the question &quot;Name as many animals as you can.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An average person could no doubt list off about 20-30 animals without repetition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is odd seeing as we have a 7-9 item maximum short term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theory would suggest that as soon as we got to animal 10 we would start repeating the same animals without realising it. Whereas of this is plainly not what a person does. We sort of know &quot;I've already said that one&quot;. Even though we wouldn't be able to repeat the whole list back.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a limit to this kind of memory? How many animals can a human list off until they forget whether or not they have named a certain animal? Is it time based or number based? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It feels like we're marking off different neurons in the brain when we say them. So we don't say them again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T17:19:45.267" Title="How many items in a list can a human create without repetition?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19523" CreationDate="2018-04-17T17:19:45.267" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recalling items from short term memory is a very different task from creating a list of all unique items. There are a number of strategies for recalling items from short term memory without repeating, you can remember all the items in the list in a random order and all the items you have recalled or you can remember all the items in a fixed order and where you are in the list. When creating a list of unique items you need to create a rule, remember this rule and the number of items you have recalled. The list itself is in long term memory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if you are name as many numbers as you can without repetition, you could say the positive integers 1, 2, 3, ..., N. Equally valid would be the even positive integers 2, 4, 6, 2N. You could also list the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, ..., $\frac{\phi^n-(-\frac{1}{\phi})^n}{\sqrt{5}}$ or if you know them the digits of $\pi$ 3, 1, 4, 1, .... In all of these cases there is a limit to how far you can get since you need to remember the number of items you have given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Numbers are obviously easier to create rules for than animals, but for animals you could do something like ant, bat, cow, dog, eel, fly, ..., zho, anoa, bear, cuis, deer, ..., zobo, addax, bison, camel, dingo, ..., zebra, ...  I am not sure how far one can really go with this rule, but it will get you pretty far &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2018-04-17T17:19:45.267" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19525" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-18T02:38:44.503" Score="4" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;What does it mean &quot;with control for differences in factors&quot; in the sentence :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Several studies used cross-sectional analyses to detect a positive relationship between the prevalence of gun ownership at the neighbourhood, county, regional or state level and homicide rates, with control for differences in factors associated with homicide (e.g., urbanization, race/ethnicity, unemployment, poverty, crime, and alcohol use).&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What did they do to those factors when they &quot;control&quot; them ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The full report can be found here, if that helps for context: &lt;a href=&quot;https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301409&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301409&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does that mean that they took in consideration all those factors (urbanization, race/ethnicity, poverty, etc.)  in the method to minimize the impact those factors have in the results of the factor that matters the most to homicide rates in  this study, in this case gun ownership? If so, how can it be done? An illustrative example is enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19031" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-04-20T01:32:24.557" LastActivityDate="2018-04-20T01:32:24.557" Title="What does it mean to &quot;control for differences in factors&quot; when looking at gun ownership and homicide rates?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;criminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19526" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-18T09:14:21.023" Score="4" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a recent accepted and highly up voted answer by one of our respected users, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/10996/21&quot;&gt;psychological projection as a defense mechanism was brought forward as the relevant terminology/explanation of what the OP was looking for&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to wikipedia, the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection#cite_note-2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological projection&lt;/a&gt; seems to have originated from psychoanalysis. &#xA;Within research, much of Freud's work is now considered pseudoscience, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2242/21&quot;&gt;to the degree that we even had a discussion on whether or not questions on psychoanalysis should be allowed on this site&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Since Freud, has the concept of psychological projection carried over into modern science?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does additional evidence obtained by modern science mostly support or oppose this concept?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2018-04-23T06:37:53.727" Title="With psychological projection originating in psychoanalysis, is the concept currently considered valid?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;projection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19527" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18554" CreationDate="2018-04-18T10:36:52.913" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just a few comments. The sample size in that study was quite small (&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = 144) and there were four conditions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few fundamental principles of psychology suggest that learning an instrument would not increase IQ in any meaningful way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Within a given society, IQ is heavily influence by genetics, and generally not readily attributable to individual environmental interventions&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, almost no variance is attributed to shared family environment. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Broad fundamental traits like intelligence require massive interventions to change&lt;/strong&gt;. Simple interventions to improve IQ have rarely proved successful, although some evidence suggests that the difference between those in impoverished versus enriched adopted environments and the difference between people who did and did not miss out on a year of education might be in the ball park of 3-5 IQ units, but even there some people argue that the effects aren't there or are not lasting. The point is that even massive interventions as dramatic as fundamentally changing a child's academic environment only has small effects on IQ. For example, the Flynn effect shows that in many populations IQ has been increasing across generations. The causes of this are somewhat unknown, but we might say that for example a 3 point IQ increase over 25 years might be result of a range of fundamental changes related to nutrition, medical care, pregnancy habits, parenting principles, and educational practices. This all suggests that simple interventions like learning an instrument would not be enough to change IQ, or if there was a change, it would be tiny (e.g., like 0.5 IQ units), and certainly not in the 3+ units reported in the study.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Transfer from skill acquisition is narrow&lt;/strong&gt;. Presumably, practicing an instrument would teach a lot about how to play that instrument, and would yield other generalisable skills around pitch perception, rhythm, reading music, and so on. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-18T13:49:59.077" LastActivityDate="2018-04-18T13:49:59.077" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19528" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-18T15:32:42.283" Score="5" ViewCount="647" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an excerpt from &lt;a href=&quot;https://terrytao.wordpress.com/career-advice/theres-more-to-mathematics-than-rigour-and-proofs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;There’s more to mathematics than rigour and proofs&lt;/a&gt; of Terrence Tao:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The “pre-rigorous” stage, in which mathematics is taught in an informal, intuitive manner, based on examples, fuzzy notions, and hand-waving. The emphasis is more on computation than on theory. This stage generally lasts until the early undergraduate years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The “rigorous” stage, in which one is now taught that in order to do maths “properly”, one needs to work and think in a much more precise and formal manner. The emphasis is now primarily on theory; and one is expected to be able to comfortably manipulate abstract mathematical objects without focusing too much on what such objects actually “mean”. This stage usually occupies the later undergraduate and early graduate years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The “post-rigorous” stage, in which one has grown comfortable with all the rigorous foundations of one’s chosen field, and is now ready to revisit and refine one’s pre-rigorous intuition on the subject, but this time with the intuition solidly buttressed by rigorous theory. The emphasis is now on applications, intuition, and the “big picture”. This stage usually occupies the late graduate years and beyond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this have any stance in the context of cognitive science? &lt;a href=&quot;https://matheducators.stackexchange.com/questions/13955/why-do-the-stages-of-rigorousness-have-specific-timestamps/13958?noredirect=1#comment34721_13958&quot;&gt;A comment&lt;/a&gt; in Mathematics Education says that this idea can't be broaden in other fields/jobs in any level of academic, since:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tao is using the word rigor in a way that's fairly narrow and specific to math. Namely, rigor means proving every statement one makes or uses, in full detail, from some list of axioms. One cannot rigorously work on cars, any more than one can rigorously eat one's dinner. It also does not make sense to talk about &amp;quot;post-rigorous&amp;quot; in the context of solving geometry exercises, because &amp;quot;rigorous&amp;quot; doesn't mean being good at something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I still don't understand this. Sure, it does not make sense to say &amp;quot;eat dinner rigorously&amp;quot;, but it is possible for a good cook to know the hidden ingredients, the recipe or the taste of it by just looking and smelling the food, and I think this is equivalent to &amp;quot;proving every statement one makes or uses, in full detail, from some list of axioms&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how is this phenomenon described rigorously in cognitive science?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-04-25T05:49:29.627" Title="How do Terence Tao's &quot;three stages of rigorousness&quot; relate to cognitive science?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19529" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20954" CreationDate="2018-04-18T15:38:52.940" Score="6" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;If neurons fire due to an intracellular influx of positive ions, why are the negative electrodes in tDCS felt more strongly than the others? For example, see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3026574/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reducing Procedural Pain and Discomfort Associated with Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by McFadden et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19033" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-18T21:27:17.990" LastActivityDate="2018-10-19T22:42:38.940" Title="Why does cathodal tDCS (negative) produce sensation, while anodal tDCS (positive) does not?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;pain&gt;&lt;tdcs&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19530" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19526" CreationDate="2018-04-18T18:24:12.043" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several important aspects to your question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly it would be good to know what you would understand by &lt;code&gt;modern science&lt;/code&gt;. Psychoanalysis is clearly outside the range of physics, mathematics or computer science. If you look deeper into it - so is an awful lot, if not all, of positivistic psychologies (especially when applied to psychological therapies) that are currently considered a valid field of study at university level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What psychoanalysis is first and foremost, in my opinion, it is a &lt;strong&gt;clinical discipline&lt;/strong&gt;. Psychoanalysis is not something that you can learn from books or Wikipedia; there is not even such a thing as a universally recognised textbook of psychoanalysis. But there are such textbooks in biochemistry, physics and mathematics. Furthermore - writings from various psychoanalytic authors tend to look at similar presentations to a significant extent differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence the answer to your question is rather complicated. The concept of &lt;strong&gt;projection&lt;/strong&gt; is alive and well within the field. It is part of the language of psychoanalysis; language that is being used to describe human experience and as such &lt;strong&gt;it has a clear face validity&lt;/strong&gt;. It is a term often also used within psychiatry and in practice of non-psychoanalytic psychologies. On the other hand presence or absence of the phenomenon of projection is equally clearly a subjective decision. Here your expectations of what modern science is are important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly I would like to mention that &lt;strong&gt;insights from biology and neuroscience do matter&lt;/strong&gt;. They are very important and do add to our understanding of human brain and mind. But as for practical aspects of psychological therapies of any kind that I know of they are relevant mostly as a tool for triangulation between biological descriptions and psychological. When I first started in this rather complicated field I had an expectation of the  great importance of neuroscience to the practice of psychological therapies. The insights are important, of course, but &lt;strong&gt;not really for the practice&lt;/strong&gt; except as far as they change what the therapist thinks of the human condition. At least for now and, sadly, I cannot see it being more than that for the next decades. And please do not get me wrong I firmly believe that psychoanalysis itself would benefit from more research, perhaps especially on the information that is provided by the patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One could say then, of course, does this &lt;em&gt;archaic&lt;/em&gt; practice of psychoanalysis or therapies derived from it matter? Well, it does matter a lot, the moment you or your relative develop serious enough psychological problems to think that life is not worth living or you feel trapped in problems that just seem to hit you again and again. Depending on your predilection you may seek phrmacological help and/or psychological. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of references I could offer several kinds: there are studies about what kind of psychological therapies professionals choose for themselves; there are  outcome studies for various psychological therapies. Then there are articles directly on the subject of psychoanalysis as a scientific theory. None could however provide a direct and valid answer to your question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that your question is sparked by Arnon &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/users/7001/arnon-weinberg&quot;&gt;Weinberg&lt;/a&gt;'s answer to the question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/10993/is-there-a-term-that-describes-the-behaviour-of-a-person-which-transfers-persona/10996#10996&quot;&gt;Is there a term that describes the behaviour of a person which transfers personal problems to other people and tries to solve them there?&lt;/a&gt; That question describes a clinically defined problem and Weinberg's answer is clinically valid. I think it may be relevant to direct also to the famous stackoverflow answer that starts with: &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/questions/1732348/regex-match-open-tags-except-xhtml-self-contained-tags?page=1&amp;amp;tab=votes#tab-top&quot;&gt;You can't parse [X]HTML with regex&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6151" LastEditorUserId="6151" LastEditDate="2018-04-23T06:37:53.727" LastActivityDate="2018-04-23T06:37:53.727" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19531" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19529" CreationDate="2018-04-18T20:48:46.057" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;My best answer: Although the cathode contains negative charge, ions that it influences initially only live in the extracellular space. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurons are largely regulated by the voltage &lt;em&gt;difference&lt;/em&gt; between inside and outside the cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the cathodal electrode makes the extracellular space more and more negative, it follows that the intracellular space &lt;em&gt;relative&lt;/em&gt; to the outside becomes more positive. This leads to increased firing and sensation at the cathodal electrode.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After about 60 seconds of tDCS, the sensation fades. The neurons have grown accustomed to a new default level of positive ions relative to surrounding electrons. The internal space has adopted more electrons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, a follow-up question would be why anodal stimulation is often associated with activation.  Of that, I am not sure. Additionally, wouldnt there be firing associated with removal of the anodal electrode if this theory were true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19033" LastActivityDate="2018-04-18T20:48:46.057" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19534" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-19T02:44:02.123" Score="2" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is generally accepted that humans are the only intelligent species on the earth.  I would submit that due to our proclivity to destroy the habitat that gives rise to our existence: we are the only unintelligent species on the planet.  I am interested to know whether environmental questions are included in IQ tests.  I suspect that there aren't or that they are grossly under-represented. This would further support my thesis.  I tried doing a Google search but no luck. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18325" LastActivityDate="2018-05-02T23:02:39.617" Title="What percentage of questions on Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV 23 deal with environmental issues and climate change?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18993" CreationDate="2018-04-19T08:13:59.630" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Visual hallucinations in psychotic disorders like schizophrenia are typically not simple transformations of an inanimate lifeless object into another state. They are not a car turning upside down, or a door suddenly opening. Instead, they are often '&lt;em&gt;de novo&lt;/em&gt;' images or scenes, with religious and frightening content and just beyond grasp. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;What are &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Hallucinations_in_Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual hallucinations&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in the psychotic spectrum? In general visual hallucinations are &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Visual sensory perceptions in the absence of external stimuli &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mdedge.com/psychiatry/article/64512/schizophrenia-other-psychotic-disorders/hallucinations-common-features-and&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ali, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Visual hallucinations (VHs) in psychosis are often life-sized, detailed, and solid. Important for your question - &lt;strong&gt;They are projected either just beyond the reach of individuals, or further away.&lt;/strong&gt; They are often images of people, faces, animals, objects, or events. Common are visions with frightening content (bugs, dogs, snakes, distorted faces), and these are linked to distress. Notably, visions of God, angels, the devil, saints, and fairies are common. Also worthwhile to realize is that they are often aware others do not perceive it &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4141306/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Waters &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2014)&lt;/a&gt;. For example, I heard a person anecdotally speak in front of our class (more than a decade ago, how time flies) about themselves featuring horns on their head when they would look in the mirror. These horns made them look like the devil in the mirror, which evoked strong feelings of distress. They did'n tell this explicitly, but I'm sure when they would feel on their heads, they wouldn't feel anything (combined tactile-visual hallucinations are, afaik, extremely rare, if existing at all). Instead, they interpreted their hallucinations as something religious, as something threatening and dangerous to themselves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To place the other answer into perspective: visual hallucinations occur in 16% to 72% of schizophrenics, at some point in the course of their illness (&lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/490379&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goodwin &amp;amp; Rosenthal (1971)&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mdedge.com/psychiatry/article/64512/schizophrenia-other-psychotic-disorders/hallucinations-common-features-and&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ali, (2016)&lt;/a&gt;) and their impact should not be underestimated &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schres-journal.com/article/S0920-9964(10)00598-0/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Oorschot &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2010)&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mdedge.com/psychiatry/article/64512/schizophrenia-other-psychotic-disorders/hallucinations-common-features-and&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ali, &lt;em&gt;Curr Psych&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;10&lt;/strong&gt;(11): 22-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/490379&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goodwill &amp;amp; Rosenthal, &lt;em&gt;Arch Gen Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (1971); &lt;strong&gt;24&lt;/strong&gt;(1):76-80&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schres-journal.com/article/S0920-9964(10)00598-0/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oorschot &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia Res&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;117&lt;/strong&gt;;(2-3): 307&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4141306/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Waters &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Schizophr Bull&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;40&lt;/strong&gt;(S4): 233–45&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-19T12:35:14.357" LastActivityDate="2018-04-19T12:35:14.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19536" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-19T09:44:30.917" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in learning how best to learn a fine motor skill, in this case, playing a musical instrument. Presumably there are more or less effective ways to go about it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Possible factors that I can think of include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Practice schedule. e.g. how often? how long? time of day? how long does it take for the neural changes to occur? does it happen during rest?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Practice structure. e.g. include breaks? how long between breaks? how long should each break be? how many breaks?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Practice speed. e.g do something slowly first? how slowly? for how long? when to increase speed?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Practise focus. Are there things that are worth specifically directing attention to?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Non practise elements. Are there things that can be done outside of practising that help, e.g. visualisation? other exercises?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I appreciate that this is many questions rolled up into one, but my main point is how do I go about learning how best to learn fine motor skills, ideally outside of a teaching institution. Is there a good book on the subject? What even is the name of this subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14862" LastActivityDate="2018-04-20T15:43:45.470" Title="Resources for learning how best to learn fine motor skills" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19539" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-19T14:55:58.623" Score="5" ViewCount="752" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a background in physics and has enough knowledge in Fourier analysis, group &amp;amp; representation theory, projective geometry, complexity theory, and dynamical systems theory. What introductory textbooks on mathematical psychology should I read?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-04-20T01:35:15.537" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T07:42:03.707" Title="What are good introductory books on mathematical psychology?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19540" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19539" CreationDate="2018-04-19T16:27:01.900" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hold a Bachelor's in Applied Mathematics and, for my Master's in Neuroscience, I have used mainly the classic one from Kandel &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.br/books?id=s64z-LdAIsEC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Principles of Neural Science&lt;/a&gt;. With regard to Mathematical Psychology I would suggest &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.br/books?id=_dbFBgAAQBAJ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oxford Handbook on Computational and Mathematical Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="60" LastEditorUserId="60" LastEditDate="2018-04-19T16:44:13.527" LastActivityDate="2018-04-19T16:44:13.527" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19542" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19539" CreationDate="2018-04-19T19:26:39.113" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I really like &lt;a href=&quot;https://bayesmodels.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://bayesmodels.com/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;There's also a lot of fun you can have at &lt;a href=&quot;http://probmods.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://probmods.org/&lt;/a&gt; that feeds into a bunch of current cognitive modeling work, see also &lt;a href=&quot;http://agentmodels.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://agentmodels.org/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might enjoy &quot;Complex probabilistic inference: From cognition to neural computation&quot; by Samuel Gershman and Jeffery Beck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the background you describe, you probably want to jump straight into the deep end and get stuck into some journal articles pretty quickly. If you can find a BBS (Behavioral and Brain Sciences) target article close to your interests you'll get an instant overview from a diverse group of commentators, it's an awesome format. &quot;Trends in cognitive sciences&quot; also aims for pretty readable overviews (and they're a lot shorter!). You'll probably have to narrow down your focus a little to get mileage out of either of them though, 'mathematical psychology' is pretty broad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-04-19T19:26:39.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19544" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19528" CreationDate="2018-04-19T19:43:07.397" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/mathematics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mathematics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is the&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;abstract science of number, quantity, and space, either as abstract concepts (pure mathematics), or as applied to other disciplines such as physics and engineering (applied mathematics)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive sciences&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the interdisciplinary, scientific studies of the mind and its processes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that mathematics is a way to achieve something, to put it bluntly, it's a tool. A tool to, for example, model certain brain processes. Further,  math is an abstract tool; cognitive sciences is an applied science. Cognitive sciences can use math to accomplish its goals. By contrast, math can never use Cognitive Sciences to prove anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you say that rigor means &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[an] emphasis [on] theory; comfortably manipulat[ing] abstract mathematical objects without focusing too much on what such objects actually “mean&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think one can study the mind without focusing on what it means. Instead, studying the mind is often done exactly to try to find out how it works and what certain findings mean! Now - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Scientific+rigor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scientific rigor&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in general&lt;/strong&gt; means&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the quality of being believable or trustworthy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Scientific+rigor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;maths it has a specific meaning&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;logical validity or accuracy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in terms of semantics the answer is that it is indeed a matter of meaning. Rigor can mean a lot of things, which is different across disciplines. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-04-19T19:43:07.397" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19545" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18993" CreationDate="2018-04-19T23:47:37.127" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hallucinations by schizophrenics are not determined by the space around them and self asserted by the content of the world around them as a certainance to there observation. The belief  in the hallucination is strenuous to the response of there association within the real world and is a product of there delusion in there mind which is separate to the physical world but is as equally valid what separates a schizophrenic and someone who is not is belief in there observation and it's concurrence which equally from the dawn of time Aristotle Plato Socrates has never been able to be proved to be certain of any perception that it's subject to. The problem with hallucination and delusion is it needs a clear definition in order to judge the negation and tell me this has anyone ever come to a complete answer and unquestionable definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had a doctor ask me are you suffering from any delusions or hallucinations and I candidly responded well no as far as I can tell which responded in a chortle from him lol&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15141" LastActivityDate="2018-04-19T23:47:37.127" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19546" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19525" CreationDate="2018-04-20T01:31:40.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are various ways of controlling for other other factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably the most common is to include these control variable as additional variables in whatever statistical model you are running.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, you could run a multiple regression predicting homicide rate from gun ownership on a set of neighbourhoods. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could then run another regression model that included all the control variables. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In both models you would get a coefficient for the effect of gun ownership on homicide rate. However, in the one with control variables, it would be statistically adjusted for the effect of these other variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are lots of debates about how best to control for other factors and which factors to include. But that's the general idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-04-20T01:31:40.417" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19547" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19539" CreationDate="2018-04-20T02:14:43.050" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I also like &lt;a href=&quot;https://bayesmodels.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://bayesmodels.com/&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I posted the question on twitter, you could &lt;a href=&quot;https://twitter.com/JeromyAnglim/status/987142575134982144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;check out the responses&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Joachim Vandekerckhove suggested: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lewandowsky, S., &amp;amp; Farrell, S. (2010). Computational modeling in cognition: Principles and practice. Sage Publications. &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1412970768&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.amazon.com/Computational-Modeling-Cognition-Principles-Practice/dp/1412970768&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edgar Kausel suggested the following classic that is still good to read:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Coombs, C. H., Dawes, R. M., &amp;amp; Tversky, A. (1970). Mathematical psychology: An elementary introduction.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Daniel Litted mentioned his list that includes over 15 recommendations&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/list/show/121661.Best_Mathematical_Psychology_Books&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.goodreads.com/list/show/121661.Best_Mathematical_Psychology_Books&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the first few:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kDbqp.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kDbqp.png&quot; alt=&quot;top mathematical psychology books&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-04-20T07:08:10.640" LastActivityDate="2018-04-20T07:08:10.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19548" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19528" CreationDate="2018-04-20T07:59:47.420" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can recognise similar processes in psychological science as a researcher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Throughout your life you generate a lay theory of how people work and how human psychology works. The source of all these beliefs are complex and generally not well understood by people.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;When you study psychological science, you learn about measurement, statistics, research methodology. You also get exposed to various theories. Gradually, you are training in how to reason about how psychological knowledge is generated. This can involve many different things (e.g., how to interpret a t-test or factor analysis; how to judge a measurement instrument; how to critically evaluate a research design). The focus on these detailed steps can make it difficult to see the big picture.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;But if you spend enough time updating your theories of human psychology based on a rigorous understanding of methods and the theories that such methods support, you can, in theory, begin to operate intuitively with this knowledge, to generate expectations and novel hypotheses.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I think this is just an example of the idea that a true expert needs to have learnt the rules in order to effectively break the rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-04-20T07:59:47.420" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19551" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-20T11:30:28.337" Score="0" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some controversial laws and taboos in different societies. I will start with examples so you can better undestand what I will say and ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example 1.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sexual consent laws.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine a situation where both minor (not virgin and knowing what sex is) and adult want to have sex with each other. But laws say adult must be punished for doing that. Whatever they do they either are unsatisfied or live with fear of being punished (at least adult does).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example 2.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Incest taboos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Same as previous but the only fear comes from being punished by parents (as usually minors only are involved in incest) and treated as &quot;wrong&quot; people by society. Again if they don't do it they feel themselves unsatisfied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Example 3.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Drug laws.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This one is not even about interpersonal interaction and I am not talking even about minors. Yes, there are countries where some drugs (considered not too harmful) are not banned. But there are countries (and majority of them) where even weak drugs are banned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not talking about those who have drug addiction (this one is a controversial term, though).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I consider a person:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Being aware of possible consequences.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Having a desire to experience it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again they have a choice to do it illegally or not to do it. Both choices can have different outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In given cases we might see that the choices are either unsatisfaction or fear. From my intuitive point of view they may result in neuroses and even justify irrational behaviour thus making people less rational in everyday life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is there any &lt;em&gt;research&lt;/em&gt; that answers my question formed in the topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-13T07:30:11.243" LastActivityDate="2018-05-13T07:30:11.243" Title="Do laws and taboos affect personality in destructive ways?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19552" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-20T12:42:08.950" Score="2" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know it has shown in the literature that autism disorder affects brain network connectivity based on rs-fMRI data (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2014.12.013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Plitt,&amp;nbsp;Barnes,&amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;&amp;nbsp;Martin,&amp;nbsp;2015&lt;/a&gt;). They have local over-connectivity but long-distance underconnectivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does ASD affect dynamic of brain networks, such that has an impact on the temporal analysis? What about its effect on frequency analysis?&#xA;I wanted to have a whole brain, multilayer brain network analysis of autism disorders and wanted to know which one is better to build my multilayer model based on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plitt, M., Barnes, K. A., &amp;amp; Martin, A. (2015). Functional connectivity classification of autism identifies highly predictive brain features but falls short of biomarker standards. NeuroImage: Clinical, 7, 359-366. &#xA;doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2014.12.013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.nicl.2014.12.013&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19058" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-04-24T12:14:03.690" LastActivityDate="2018-04-24T12:14:03.690" Title="Temporal and frequency analysis of brain network to study autism disorders" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19553" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19510" CreationDate="2018-04-20T13:45:48.330" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question made me think instantly of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouba/kiki_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kiki/Bouba&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; effect. This effect is seen when people are to ascribe the name Kiki to point shapes and and Bouba to rounded shapes (Fig. 1); the overwhelming majority calls the star Kiki and the blob Bouba. One hypothesis is that Bouba is associated with the round shape because a more rounded shape is made by our mouths when Bouba is said. The mouth is more angular shaped when we say &quot;Kiki.&quot; Additionally, &quot;K&quot; is a harder-sounding letter than &quot;B.&quot; Those who use the modern Latin alphabet may also be visually swayed: the written letters &quot;K&quot; and &quot;B&quot; are sharp and rounded, respectively (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bring-science-home-bouba-kiki-effect/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scientific American, November 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Follow-up studies on this effect have revealed that people &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Associate between femaleness and round shapes, and maleness and sharp shapes. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;associate adjectives previously judged to be either descriptive of a figuratively 'round' or a 'sharp' personality with names containing either round-or sharp-sounding phonemes, respectively. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors conclude that sound symbolic associations extend to existing lexical stimuli, and that form and meaning are non-arbitrarily mapped &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279031939_Beyond_The_BoubaKiki_Effect_The_BobKirk_Effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Pexman &amp;amp; Sidhu, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279031939_Beyond_The_BoubaKiki_Effect_The_BobKirk_Effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pexman &amp;amp; Sidhu, &lt;em&gt;Canadian J Exp Psych&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;68&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 253-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/v5Pes.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/v5Pes.png&quot; alt=&quot;KikiBouba&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Kiki and Bouba - which is which? source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouba/kiki_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-26T15:57:13.217" LastActivityDate="2018-04-26T15:57:13.217" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19554" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19536" CreationDate="2018-04-20T15:43:45.470" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the search term you're looking for is 'skill acquisition', but it's a super broad area. There's relevant stuff in memory, second language acquisition, sports science, and teaching surgeons surgery... it's all over the place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a pretty sizeable literature looking just at music specifically, one review article that hits a few of the points you mentioned is this one:&#xA; Hallam, S., Rinta, T., Varvarigou, M., Creech, A., Papageorgi, I., Gomes, T., &amp;amp; Lanipekun, J. (2012). The development of practising strategies in young people. Psychology of Music, 40(5), 652-680.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The references (and the people citing it) are probably as useful or maybe more useful than the specific results they present, although those are interesting too!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want something more pop-sci and readable with a bit of a human story The Art of Learning by Josh Waitzkin is a nice one. It's a personal story, not a scientific study, but not everything has to be an RCT, gotta generate hypotheses from some life experience first, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think you might find that the main take-homes are pretty common sense... feedback is important, get lots of it and get it as close to real-time as possible, distributed practice schedules are better than cramming, and 'chunking' is super important, so focus on learning sensible `atoms', automatize them, and then combine them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this answer only really scratches the surface of a huge area but anyway I hope it helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-04-20T15:43:45.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19555" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17310" CreationDate="2018-04-20T16:09:55.897" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Tempo should be an objective parameter in music. The same piece is heard differently at higher tempo than in lower tempo. This is sensible if you accept an Aristotelian perspective of music, whereby music is an attempt to represent something real (could be a person's emotions or natural sounds). The key in your question seems to be &quot;not experienced enough&quot;. Such a musician can lose focus of the real, intended character behind the piece (if we follow the same Aristotelian perspective). He is likely to focus on short term aspects such as: Grasping the current melodic pattern or focus on his own ability to perform the piece. Focusing on your grasp of melody will make you tend to play faster since your fascination will come from the melody itself, and not from what it represents, or could represent. If you are interested in pushing your ability to perform, like many beginners are (for good reason), you might still tend towards a faster pace since it is simply more challenging neurologically, and might boost the so called &quot;muscle memory&quot;. &#xA;In any case, altering the tempo is altering the piece, and no skillful music performer is supposed to do that against the composer's wish!&#xA;My own experience is both from playing and composing, even though I have only been doing the latter for quite some time now. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19060" LastActivityDate="2018-04-20T16:09:55.897" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19557" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-20T16:39:48.367" Score="2" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;Don't touch the red button, or don't touch that chocolate cake while I'm gone. Why is it that we most likely will touch them anyway? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14188" LastActivityDate="2018-04-22T13:43:17.640" Title="Why we do what we aren't allowed to do" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19558" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-20T21:48:21.080" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Excessive sugar, like Pepsi, is considered harmful. However, I am wondering if it could be helpful if taken by a victim of stroke during or immediately after a stroke, or somewhat after a stroke? My heuristic reasoning is partly that the brain likes energy in the form of sugar, and so if animals have evolved a method to ameliorate a loss of blood supply to a part of the brain, then that method probably needs energy, and needs to be provided quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19062" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-22T21:39:23.720" LastActivityDate="2018-04-22T21:39:23.720" Title="Stroke amelioration" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;pathology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19559" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19558" CreationDate="2018-04-20T22:00:13.987" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you have an ischemic stroke, the oxygen-rich blood supply to part of your brain is reduced. With a hemorrhagic stroke, there is bleeding in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During an ischemic stroke, brain cells die of a lack of oxygen. Nutrient supply is indeed cut off as well, but the most acute threat to neurons is lack of oxygen. Because if their high activity, they need a continuous supply of oxygen. Bathing them in Pepsi cola won't stop them from suffocating. Note that they can switch to other fuel sources than glucose and hence nutrient supply isn't the critical factor. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During a hemorrhagic stroke there is pressure buildup in the brain and subsequent mechanical damage. Also here, pepsi coke won't relieve the damage done. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Last but not least, digesting food takes a lot of time. Oxygen deprivation kills neurons in minutes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/stroke/tc/stroke-what-happens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-20T22:05:37.470" LastActivityDate="2018-04-20T22:05:37.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19560" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18554" CreationDate="2018-04-21T05:13:07.003" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.11.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one 2017 meta-analysis by Sala and Gobet&lt;/a&gt; which is probably superior methodologically to the few non-systematic reviews found by AliceD. I say &quot;probably&quot; because the meta-analysis includes quite a few not-directly-IQ transfers, e.g. to math. Nevertheless, they do describe IQ transfers separately... and overall Cohen's d they found for that is basically equal to Schellenberg's... 0.35.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of note that among the studies on music training and IQ (besides Schellenberg 2004) there's:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-013-0574-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one successful replication in Iran&lt;/a&gt;: H. Kaviani, H. Mirbaha, M. Pournaseh, O. Sagan&#xA;Can music lessons increase the performance of preschool children in IQ tests?&#xA;Cognitive Processing, 15 (2014), pp. 77-84&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X09344378&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one successful replication in Israel&lt;/a&gt; (for disadvantaged children).  A. Portowitz, O. Lichtenstein, L. Egorova, E. Brand,&#xA;&quot;Underlying mechanisms linking music education and cognitive modifiability&quot;,&#xA;Research Studies in Music Education, 31 (2009), pp. 107-128, &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neither of these had an active control group (unlike Schellenberg 2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0255761411431399&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one failed replication in Australia&lt;/a&gt;: N.S. Rickard, C.J. Bambrick, A. Gill&#xA;&quot;Absence of widespread psychosocial and cognitive effects of school-based music instruction in 10-13-year-old students&quot;,&#xA;International Journal of Music Education, 30 (2012), pp. 57-78.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter did have active controls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a few other papers (mostly pre-2004) subtests of which were used in the meta-analysis in the intelligence section, but the above two were the only more-or-less full-scale replication attempts I could find.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the issue of publication bias, the meta-analysis did not find one, but this is for the whole shebang, there was no separate test for each dependent variable (like just for IQ).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors of this meta-analysis do note (in sections 4.1-4.2) that the observed IQ improvements failed to translate into academic achievements in other areas... with math being the closest thing were something was observed (Cohen d = 0.17).  Their conclusion is less optimistic than the interpretation others have given (pretty much to the same numbers/studies):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results of this meta-analysis fail to support the hypothesis that music skill transfers to cognitive or academic skills in the general population of children and young adolescents. Together with previous findings in psychology and education, these results suggest a sobering conclusion: when the potential occurrence of far-transfer is tested rigorously, the results are often, if not always, disappointing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eye of the beholder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-04-21T05:13:07.003" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19561" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-21T07:39:30.167" Score="2" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I took a WAIS IV and got a 128(SD15), but I have a somewhat large spread between Verbal(129) and Performance (122). The numbers may be off by 1 point or so. This was taken in a country and language where the average IQ is 106. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I took the non-verbal IQ test administered by the &quot;International Society for Philosophical Inquiry&quot; and passed. This means that I have an IQ that is over 145 (SD15). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which of these is my actual IQ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18928" LastActivityDate="2018-04-22T16:31:19.843" Title="I have two different IQs; which one is the real one?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5095" CreationDate="2018-04-21T11:28:34.607" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The book Theories of Meaningfulness of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Narens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Louis Narens&lt;/a&gt; deals with Erlanger program, which is the connection between group theory and projective geometry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2018-04-21T11:28:34.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19563" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10353" CreationDate="2018-04-21T18:14:06.013" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The real issue is equivalence of groups. As Josh implies above, it is a game of probabilities when randomly assigning to groups, but it is considered very improbable that non-equivalence of groups will occur through random assignment when the number of assignments is relatively high (no less than 30 per group). So in an independent groups (between subjects) design, random assignment is used to balance out the nuisance variables such that all groups are about equally likely to have the advantages and disadvantages of whatever individual differences the participants bring to each group. Repeated measures (within subjects) designs, on the other hand, rarely get mentioned in this context because they create &quot;groups&quot; that are identical. Because the same participants are used in all conditions, equivalence is ensured (ignoring possible carryover effects that might result from exposure to earlier conditions). So, apart from carryover, the next concern is whether the sample is representative of the population to which the researcher wishes to generalize. In other words, equivalence of groups is an internal validity concern for between subjects designs, whereas the concern for repeated measures designs is external validity (is the sample representative of the population). Of course external validity is only a concern if generalization is important to the study (which isn't always the case).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19068" LastActivityDate="2018-04-21T18:14:06.013" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19565" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19577" CreationDate="2018-04-21T23:06:56.733" Score="2" ViewCount="898" Body="&lt;p&gt;Every once in a while I decide to play Phase Shift (very similar to Guitar Hero). I might go weeks or months between plays, but when I return, I often break a high score within the first few songs I play, even on songs I've played tens of times before. After about half an hour of play, my skill seems to drop off and I get average to low scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me it appears that practice in the distant past (&gt; 1 week) increases skill, while practice in the immediate past (&amp;lt; 1 hour) decreases skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any proposed explanation for this effect? Are there studies that measure it, and if so, what activities were used?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't play any musical instruments, so I'm also curious if this happens for real music as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19072" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-23T08:27:20.463" LastActivityDate="2018-04-23T12:12:06.733" Title="Why do I perform better at rhythm games after a long period of not playing?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;video-games&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19566" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16085" CreationDate="2018-04-22T05:25:45.850" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This isn’t a literature answer but a qualitative clarification. “Nice guy” is a conflation between two distinctly-separate behavioral patterns:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Passively begging for approval points via virtue-signalling in order to become her most favored suitor. This signals weakness, insecurity and/or cowardice because the male lacks thr courage to take action, risk rejection or be vulnerable by making his intentions clear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Being kind, generous or gallant without expectation or necessity, as a king banking social capital and goodwill with his subjects as a demonstration of his abundant power and good character to lead and provide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly, these are two vastly-different approaches that should be considered entirely different strategies. One is genuine, while the other is wishful and deceptive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, considerations of how much sexual (genetic) vs. social/status (partner) value is demonstrated in order to elicit various respect and/or attraction responses. For example, males with mostly sexual value but little partner value will quickly gain mating opportunities, whereas low sexual value but high partner value males will be expected to invest much more time, money and energy before mating opportunities and be held to higher behavioral standards than the former group. Social value only demonstrated males without enough sexual or status value will be friend-zoned. Too high of status men also risk friend-zoning to protect her ego, ie auto-rejection. High sexual value men may also be initially pseudo-rejected, but it’s unlikely that a female would pass on an opportunity to gain superior biological father genes considering the time and energy commitment risks involved in child-rearing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19075" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-16T01:19:12.270" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T01:19:12.270" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19568" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-22T13:59:16.047" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;When panazep did not work to reduce anxiety in me the psychiatrist prescribed lupizep. Since both contained the same ingredients Paroxetine and Clonazepam in the same amount I asked the doctor about the difference between them but he could not tell much about it. All he said was that in lupizep the molecules were joined with another technology. Can some one give a detailed answer please ? Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17994" LastActivityDate="2018-04-22T13:59:16.047" Title="Difference between panazep and lupizep" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19561" CreationDate="2018-04-22T16:31:19.843" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually both these scores are telling you the same thing. They can both be interpreted as Very Good Results, and any finer level of detail is chasing noise. Some minimal google scholar searching suggests that WAIS correlates with itself somewhere between .7 and .9, and that a correlation of .8 across different kinds of test is considered 'very good'. This means discrepancies of the size you describe are not super rare. There's another factor working against you too, because you're in the tail of the distribution, and those agreement numbers are overall! The test-retest consistency &lt;em&gt;inevitably&lt;/em&gt; gets worse as you get out into the tails.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a nice longer discussion here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://slatestarcodex.com/2017/09/27/against-individual-iq-worries/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://slatestarcodex.com/2017/09/27/against-individual-iq-worries/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Key quotes:&#xA;&quot;...population averages of thousands of IQ estimates [are] valuable and useful research tools. It just means you shouldn’t use it on &lt;em&gt;yourself&lt;/em&gt;.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;...even if you avoid the problems mentioned above and measure IQ 100% correctly, it’s just not that usefully predictive.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;After investing so much work debunking IQ denialists, I feel like this is really – I don’t know – diluting the brand. But I actually think it’s not as contradictory as it looks... If you really understand the idea of a statistical predictor&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-04-22T16:31:19.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19571" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-22T16:45:32.183" Score="3" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder what is the negative of having many possibilities. I sometimes find my self stagnate in some process when it comes to decision making. An the more opportunities I have the more I struggle. Are there studies, books, articles comprising this phenomenon? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19079" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-04-24T08:48:16.090" LastActivityDate="2018-04-29T10:49:52.573" Title="Why does having many options harm decision making?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19572" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-22T19:48:27.970" Score="2" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any meta-analyses reporting the correlations of g (IQ, general mental ability) with:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Honesty-Humility (e.g. in HEXACO model). &#xA;I know Conscientiousness (of Big Five) generally has zero correlation with IQ. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Critical thinking, rationality, thinking biases.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wisdom. As operationalized by researchers like Judith Glück. There are several scales for measuring Wisdom such as the Berlin model.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19081" LastEditorUserId="19603" LastEditDate="2018-11-14T09:17:19.803" LastActivityDate="2018-11-14T09:17:19.803" Title="Correlation of g and Honesty, Rationality, etc?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19573" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19576" CreationDate="2018-04-22T23:46:07.913" Score="7" ViewCount="212" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly, I would say that this question is probably beyond current knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I would like to hear the latest theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given an input &quot;Can you name as many animals as you can until I say 'stop'?&quot; to a human.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the person giving the question is seen as an authority or someone we want to please (or not displease) then we would decide to comply and answer the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then we would somehow have to convert it into a small program such as the pseudo-code:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;DO:&#xA;  $X = FIND Z WHERE Z IS OF_TYPE &quot;ANIMAL&quot;&#xA;  IF CHECK $X IS_TYPE &quot;ANIMAL&quot;:&#xA;     SAY $X&#xA;  IF HEAR &quot;STOP&quot; THEN STOP&#xA;LOOP&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I assume we don't really run programs like this in our brains. So what exactly does happen? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I do the experiment on myself. I hear these animal names popping into my conscious as if from no-where. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's as if the simple desire to answer the question together with hearing the question (or perhaps saying it to one's self) is enough to trigger the answers to be recalled from long-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't consciously have to convert the question into any kind of &quot;brain programming language&quot;. So if my brain is doing this, it's doing it automatically. (And perhaps sometimes wrongly, hence why something not an animal might pop into the brain.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do the current theories say that the English sentence itself is the sort of scripting language of the brain or does it translate it into something else (maybe non-linear)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2020-05-09T05:34:25.963" Title="How does the brain generate answers to questions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19574" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-23T00:00:22.863" Score="2" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Dog.&quot;&#xA;&quot;Dog!&quot;&#xA;&quot;Dog?&quot;&#xA;We know the first is a statement. The second a warning maybe. And the third a question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like facial expressions for emotions. Are there universal human facial expressions or voice modulations that show when we are asking a question? Or naming something. Or giving a warning. I imagine being able to distinguish these 3 things would be quite important for our ape-like ancestors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, do we share these with apes? When we try and teach apes words do we use things like pointing and intonation? Can they understand this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2018-04-23T00:00:22.863" Title="Are there universal facial expressions for asking questions?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2018-08-13T14:36:44.490" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19575" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19571" CreationDate="2018-04-23T01:25:01.763" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problems presented by having too many choices are defined at the personal level by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overchoice&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Overchoice&lt;/a&gt; and at the organization level as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_paralysis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Analysis Paralysis&lt;/a&gt;. However, they both cover the same idea, wherein too many choices overwhelm a person's decision making process as each alternative is considered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-04-23T01:25:01.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19576" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19573" CreationDate="2018-04-23T01:42:05.590" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;The task you're referring to is called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_fluency_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Verbal Fluency Test&lt;/a&gt;. In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/kajic2017a.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Biologically Constrained Model of Semantic Memory Search&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Kajic et al. wherein a neural model of this task is described.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The model assumes words were previously encoded with relations between them according to lived experience. Consequently, the words are represented as N-dimensional vectors with relations between vectors constructed into a neural associative memory. As each word is selected from the question, a memory saves the words retrieved and uses those retrieved words to inhibit the memory so it doesn't repeat itself. This control flow is shown in the diagram below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lReg6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lReg6.png&quot; alt=&quot;control flow diagram&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As shown in the paper, this approach matches human data pretty well, but only if you use word-associations taken from &lt;a href=&quot;http://w3.usf.edu/FreeAssociation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free Association Norms&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Open research questions include where the word encodings came from in the first place and how to make this model match human data better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-18T15:49:08.233" LastActivityDate="2018-06-18T15:49:08.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19577" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19565" CreationDate="2018-04-23T08:27:08.400" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Long-term memory formation (consolidation) takes weeks, or even years. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Unfortunately my observations haven't been published yet, but an interesting thing I see with listening tests in noise is that people are systematically performing better when they come in a week later for a re-test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I'll add some background information about &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.human-memory.net/types.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;types of memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; as a general answer (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most relevant type here is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/long-term-memory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;long-term memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. There are a number of sub-types but one is most relevant for your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-procedural-memory-2795478&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;procedural memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444626196000136&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Pitel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is defined as the memory system in charge of the encoding, storage,&#xA;  and retrieval of the procedures (rather than episodes) that underlie&#xA;  motor, visuospatial, or cognitive skills &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It includes such arbitrary matter of understanding the test (listen and repeat sentences / play a game) and other when subjects perform a certain task for the first time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now an important part of long term memory is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;consolidation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123705099000759&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Miller, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;, which is &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Memory consolidation is defined as a time-dependent process by which recent learned experiences are transformed into long-term memory, presumably by structural and chemical changes in the nervous system (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consolidation stabilizes memories after initial acquisition. Synaptic consolidation is the same as long-term potentiation and occurs within the first few hours after learning. Systems consolidation is the process where hippocampus-dependent memories become independent over a period of &lt;strong&gt;weeks to years&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After a while of playing and being past your peak, you may simply get tired, bored, or loose focus for other reasons, which reduces performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Miller, Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference&#xA;(2008); &lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;: 53–3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444626196000136&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pitel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Handbook of Clinical Neurology (2014); &lt;strong&gt;125&lt;/strong&gt;: 211-25&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ciBED.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ciBED.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;memories&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Types of memory. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.human-memory.net/types.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Human Memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="19072" LastEditDate="2018-04-23T12:12:06.733" LastActivityDate="2018-04-23T12:12:06.733" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19578" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4886" CreationDate="2018-04-23T13:04:47.487" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It is mainly aberrant activity in the higher sensory association areas that is linked to hallucinations.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Brain imaging studies of hallucinations come in 2 flavors: “state” and “trait”. State studies are so-called symptom-capture studies, where subjects signal the start and end of a hallucination. During this window, the brain activity is recorded and compared with the resting state. Trait studies compare people with hallucinations to those that do not &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/41/1/223/2526450&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ford &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A state study suggested modality-dependent activation of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/assn_cor.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;association sensory cortices&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; during auditory, visual, and multisensory hallucinations (Fig. 2). However, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Primary+sensory+cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;primary-sensory-cortex&lt;/a&gt; recruitment&lt;/strong&gt; was &lt;strong&gt;not systematic&lt;/strong&gt; and was shown to be only associated with increased &lt;strong&gt;vividness of the hallucinatory&lt;/strong&gt; experiences &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/23/5/1108/801449&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Jardri &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2013)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/41/1/223/2526450&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ford &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia Bulletin&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;41&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 223–32&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/23/5/1108/801449&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jardri &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Cerebral Cortex&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;23&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 1108–17&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CpNc2.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CpNc2.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;brain&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Brain areas involved n sensory processing. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://impremedia.net/motor-ociation-cortex-function/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Impremedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rvxKA.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rvxKA.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;images&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2.  fMRI analysis of the hallucinatory experience in 20 adolescents with brief psychosis disorder. (a) The bilateral ASCs activated during hallucinations: the cuneus (Cun), lingual (LG), and fusiform (FG) gyri during visual hallucinations; the anterior insula (Ins), inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), inferior parietal lobule (IPL), and superior temporal gyrus (STG) during auditory hallucinations. (b) An overlapping visualization of the auditory (purple), visual (green), and cross-modal (orange) components superimposed on a bilateral and flattened cortical mesh. OTJ and STS were activated during audiovisual hallucinations (AV, see Table 2). Activity in the STS was specific to multisensory hallucinations, whereas the OTJ presented a variable organization with overlaps between voxels responding to A, V, and AV inputs. Figure and legend source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/23/5/1108/801449&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jardri &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2013)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-23T18:36:56.680" LastActivityDate="2018-04-23T18:36:56.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19579" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-23T13:32:24.980" Score="2" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am new to fMRI field. In many fMRI studies like &lt;a href=&quot;http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/jnnp/76/1/11.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This Study&lt;/a&gt; a voxel wise comparison is made across subjects and controls . As we know that  dataset in fMRI in the form of 3D matrix like &lt;strong&gt;Subjects  x TimePoints  x Voxels&lt;/strong&gt;   that is on each person we have bunch of time points and on each time points we have voxel values as voxel is unit of measurement in bold signal in the brain that is brain is divided into small cubicle voxels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My specific question No.1&lt;/strong&gt; is that if we have a dataset consisting of 20 control and 15 subjects  with 5000 voxels and 200 time points on all persons then we will have two 3D matrices in following form&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For Subjects:&lt;/strong&gt;   15 x 200 x 5000&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For controls:&lt;/strong&gt;     20 x 200 x 5000&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now how voxel wise comparison would be made between two subjects as these datasets are not balanced in persons or first dimension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My specific question No.2&lt;/strong&gt; is that how regions are compared between those two group like this has been done on page 2(13). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My Understanding&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For question No.1 my understanding is that a single matrix is made for each group by reducing the person(subject/control) dimension that is we will have two 200 x500 matrices average over individuals in each matrix and then the voxel wise comparison will be made using t test in any two voxel as each voxel will have 200 time points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For question No.2 my understanding is that for a typical brain area like &quot;Right thalamus&quot; A group of voxel called cluster like 147 as used in the paper is organized and then voxel vectors are formed for both groups averaged over individuals like out of 147 voxel vector a typical voxel vector will have 200 values and that will be compared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;lastly some times the volumes are reported in the specific brain region like &quot;Right thalamus&quot; in cc and again my question is that how theses volumes are computed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I am totally messed up here and need guidance here in my understanding ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19014" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-23T20:06:46.053" LastActivityDate="2018-04-23T20:06:46.053" Title="Voxel wise comparison (Voxel Based Morphometry or VBM) across subjects in fMRI studies" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19580" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-23T17:03:32.923" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;My significant other has described to me how he has always been the good child who received 4.0 in school, went to the marines was honorably discharged and always do things for his family. He says some of his family members have taken things from him without his permission while he was overseas and not return or replace them.  When he tries to address them no one wants to address the issue, so when he gets angry they make him feel as if he doesn't have a right to his anger.  Now that we are together I feel he transfers these angry feelings towards me.  I try to express that I understand his anger and try not to take anything from him without his permission or I even try to replace things if I have done something to his possessions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19091" LastActivityDate="2018-04-23T17:03:32.923" Title="What is it called when I a person transfers his angry towards another person, instead of the person that cause and anger?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-04-24T08:47:28.253" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19582" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19864" CreationDate="2018-04-23T17:46:41.527" Score="5" ViewCount="783" Body="&lt;p&gt;My current survey has a number of blocks. Each of those blocks contains a bunch of questions, each on their own page with a page break, and each with an associated timing question to limit time spent filling it out. I'd like to randomize the order of these questions, but not randomize the order of the timing questions. Right now, if I just randomize the entire block, the timing questions will get shuffled too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially my blocks look like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;---- (page break)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;timing question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;quiz question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;timing question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;quiz question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;timing question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;quiz question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;---- etc..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the above example, I'd like to randomize the order of questions 2, 4, and 6.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any suggestions on how to do this? Previously when this has been asked it has been suggested to put the questions into blocks and then randomize the order of the blocks, as in here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/16930/how-to-randomise-order-of-survey-items-in-qualtrics-where-some-items-have-to-app&quot;&gt;How to randomise order of survey items in Qualtrics where some items have to appear together?&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not really a workable solution for me - it would result in a really unwieldy number of blocks and a very hard to modify and upkeep survey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19094" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-05-05T16:56:58.563" Title="How do you randomize within a Qualtrics form without breaking timing?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19586" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17825" CreationDate="2018-04-24T13:09:02.030" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The cartoon graphics showing mount stupid seem to be exaggerated, popular-scientific representations, and should, as far as I can see, be regarded as schematics to illustrate a more subtle effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;From what I can find, the cartoons you provide are exaggerated and simplified versions depicting the more pronounced examples of the Dunning-Kruger effect like in Fig. 1 where subjects performed a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wason_selection_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wason task&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167487013000949&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Schlösser &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2013)&lt;/a&gt;. The mountain is somewhat visible here, especially in panel B where the raw scores are plotted. There the subjective performance increases monotonically, while the perceived score in the poorest quartile is above the second, which resembles the peak you are referring to. However, this is one of the most pronounced samples I could find and it may well be caused by variance, as other graphs in that same paper, other sources you provide above &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.avaresearch.com/files/UnskilledAndUnawareOfIt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kruger &amp;amp; Dunning, 1999)&lt;/a&gt; don't show this peak. Similarly, plots in &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8226/22ed711dfc0f63a232f31ac3163fb3cb8b55.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunning (2011)&lt;/a&gt; are less pronounced at this point.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EQ3y4.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EQ3y4.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Mountain of Stupid&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Actual versus perceived performance on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wason_selection_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wason task&lt;/a&gt;. Dotted line represents where perceived performance should lay according to the Krajč–Ortmann model. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167487013000949&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Schlösser &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2013)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8226/22ed711dfc0f63a232f31ac3163fb3cb8b55.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunning, &lt;em&gt;Advances Exp Soc Psych&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;44&lt;/strong&gt;: 247-96&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.avaresearch.com/files/UnskilledAndUnawareOfIt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kruger &amp;amp; Dunning, &lt;em&gt;J Personality Social Psych&lt;/em&gt; (1999); &lt;strong&gt;77&lt;/strong&gt;(6): 121-34&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167487013000949&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schlösser &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Economic Psych&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;39&lt;/strong&gt;: 85-100&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-24T13:20:55.403" LastActivityDate="2018-04-24T13:20:55.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19587" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-24T13:52:48.960" Score="3" ViewCount="522" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wish to know what fMRI data looks like after preprocessing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My Understanding&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that fMRI is MRI in time dimension that is we have repeated scans of brain volume. A voxel is a unit if measurement in fMRI because BOLD signal is measured on a typical voxel in different regions of the brain using gradient of the High frequency signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example if we have fMRI scans say of D ADHD patients, V voxels and T time points in a fMRI study then how the fMRI data after pre-processing would be arranged in a matrix form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we assume that it is organized in D x V x T then we have a 3D scan of each brain on a time dimension. Since each 3D scan consists of voxels in the brain, and voxels are cubes that have 6 values around them, then where are those 6 values? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If a voxel is a cube, does it have a single value, or 6 potentially different values on each face? I know voxels have coordinates like that in the MNI coordinate system.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19014" LastEditorUserId="19123" LastEditDate="2018-04-26T01:27:43.707" LastActivityDate="2018-04-26T01:27:43.707" Title="What does fMRI data look like after pre-processing?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19588" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-24T13:58:26.270" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does aging effect performance at maths and science? Clearly, it effects intelligence as measured by iq tests. But I wondered, is that reflected in e.g. mathematicians invariably doing their best work when younger?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2018-04-24T13:58:26.270" Title="How does aging effect performance at maths and science?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19590" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19587" CreationDate="2018-04-24T14:47:39.830" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://mriquestions.com/origin-of-mr-signal.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MRI signal&lt;/a&gt; is a small electrical current induced in the receiver coil by the precession of magnetization during resonance, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, a manifestation of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Faraday's Law of Induction&lt;/a&gt;, wherein a changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a nearby conductor. The &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood-oxygen-level_dependent_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BOLD response&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; often used in fMRI measures the hemodynamic response, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the relative levels of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin that can be detected on the basis of their differential magnetic susceptibility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As any digital signal, there are limits to the &lt;strong&gt;resolution of fMRI&lt;/strong&gt;, and is dependent on a number of factors &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.intechopen.com/books/advanced-brain-neuroimaging-topics-in-health-and-disease-methods-and-applications/a-practical-guide-to-an-fmri-experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kashou, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;, including the field of view (x- and y- directions) and the slice thickness (z-direction). Multiplying the x, y and z sizes results in the total voxel size (Fig. 1). each voxel has 1 value, namely its respective BOLD response signal value. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.intechopen.com/books/advanced-brain-neuroimaging-topics-in-health-and-disease-methods-and-applications/a-practical-guide-to-an-fmri-experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kashou, A Practical Guide to an fMRI Experiment, Intech Open Science (2013)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lkXDb.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lkXDb.png&quot; alt=&quot;voxels&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Time series of fMRI. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://leanpub.com/principlesoffmri/read&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Principles of fMRI&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-25T19:57:08.027" LastActivityDate="2018-04-25T19:57:08.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19591" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-24T15:44:34.417" Score="2" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a way to measure what neurotransmitters (and in what amount) are present in a person via blood or other method? I feel like if such information was available there could be experiments regarding the tracking and treatment of many mental disorders, but most specifically Bipolar Disorder. For example, if there could be an established &quot;norm&quot; of neurotransmitter levels you could then find the levels a person has and alter them via a mixture of drugs and monitor the levels periodically. This wouldn't require MRI imaging because you wouldn't be tracking when the neurotransmitters were triggered but the levels, the triggering/action potentials would be changed through cognitive behavioral and dialectal behavioral therapy. This is a alight ramble but i would appreciate any thoughts or insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19110" LastActivityDate="2018-04-25T13:11:03.583" Title="experimental tracking and treating bipolar disorder" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19597" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19591" CreationDate="2018-04-25T12:48:11.747" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not from a pure field of neuroscience so I did a bit of research. (Part put in bold by me is the bit which pertains to Bipolar Disorder (BPD))&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Simon_Young3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simon N Young&lt;/a&gt; of McGill University in Montréal, Quebec, Canada said in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/post/Why_do_we_measure_neurotransmitters_in_urine_and_blood_serum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While catecholamines and serotonin in the blood and urine are not derived from the brain sometimes, for reasons that are not known, they do reflect brain levels. For example, urinary dopamine is low in Parkinson's disease (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.133.3465.1706-a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barbeau, Murphy &amp;amp; Sourkes, 1961&lt;/a&gt;) even though urinary dopamine levels are thought to be derived mainly from dopamine formation in the kidney. However, urinary dopamine is not a diagnostic test for Parkinson's disease. &lt;strong&gt;There are many papers that measured serotonin related compounds in blood or plasma in psychiatric disorders and there is evidence that sometimes there can be a correlation between blood, or plasma, and brain measures (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(93)90237-W&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yan, et. al. 1993&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Lundbeck Institute's Brain Explorer website explains that studies of serotonin receptors show &quot;substantial evidence for the role of serotonin in patients with bipolar disorder.&quot; Research about serotonin and the way it is metabolized indicates a reduced concentration of serotonin metabolites in bipolar disorder patients (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livestrong.com/article/239135-effects-of-serotonin-on-bipolar-disorder/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quick Google Scholar search for &quot;bipolar disorder and serotonin&quot; produces a list of many studies including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.09.017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;López-Figueroa, et al. (2004)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.58.6.539&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mundo, et al. (2001)&lt;/a&gt; and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4000256&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rees et al. (1997)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the bit I do know a bit about, treatment for problems with serotonin levels include SSRIs — Fluoxetine, Paroxetine or Sertraline for example — which work by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ssri-antidepressants/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;increasing serotonin levels in the brain&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barbeau, A., Murphy, G. F., &amp;amp; Sourkes, T. L. (1961). Excretion of dopamine in diseases of basal ganglia. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 133(3465), 1706-1707.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.133.3465.1706-a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1126/science.133.3465.1706-a&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13686753&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;13686753&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;López-Figueroa, A. L., Norton, C. S., López-Figueroa, M. O., Armellini-Dodel, D., Burke, S., Akil, H., ... &amp;amp; Watson, S. J. (2004). Serotonin 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, and 5-HT2A receptor mRNA expression in subjects with major depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. Biological psychiatry, 55(3), 225-233.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.09.017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.09.017&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mundo, E., Walker, M., Cate, T., Macciardi, F., &amp;amp; Kennedy, J. L. (2001). The role of serotonin transporter protein gene in antidepressant-induced mania in bipolar disorder: preliminary findings. Archives of general psychiatry, 58(6), 539-544.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.58.6.539&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/archpsyc.58.6.539&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rees, M., Norton, N., Jones, I., McCandless, F., Scourfield, J., Holmans, P., ... &amp;amp; Redman, K. (1997). Association studies of bipolar disorder at the human serotonin transporter gene (hSERT; 5HTT). Molecular psychiatry, 2(5), 398.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4000256&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/sj.mp.4000256&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yan, D., Urano, T., Pietraszek, M. H., Shimoyama, I., Uemura, K., Kojima, Y., ... &amp;amp; Takada, A. (1993). Correlation between serotonergic measures in cerebrospinal fluid and blood of subhuman primate. &lt;em&gt;Life sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 52(8), 745-749.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(93)90237-W&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0024-3205(93)90237-W&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7680408&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;7680408&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-04-25T13:11:03.583" LastActivityDate="2018-04-25T13:11:03.583" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19598" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25965" CreationDate="2018-04-26T04:00:49.120" Score="4" ViewCount="342" Body="&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0393337693&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Intelligence and How to Get It: Why Schools and Cultures Count&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=p6oqxCteIyAC&amp;amp;pg=PA8&amp;amp;lpg=PA8&amp;amp;dq=%22must+follow+is+set+up+by+the+two+figures+in+the+top+row+of+the+left+panel%22&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=t1fwpXpUtM&amp;amp;sig=owVV67GTIDVeKQjZI_ZBv-h_iDY&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiUluWT_9baAhVC9YMKHeopCLcQ6AEIJzAA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pp. 7-8&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xz9e3.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xz9e3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;  The example that the problem-solver must follow is set up by the two figures in the top row of the left panel. The figure at the left in the bottom row then specifies what has to be transformed in order to solve the problem. The six figures on the right correspond to the answer alternatives. The solution of the problem requires you to notice that the figure in the upper left of the left panel is a diamond and the figure in the upper right is a square. This tells you that the answer has to be a square. Then you must notice that the bottom half of the upper diamond is divided into two, with the left portion in black. The fact that the left half of the figure on the right is also black tells you that the corresponding portion of the square on the bottom right must match the corresponding portion in the lower left diamond-that is, the entire bottom half must be black. Then you notice that to make the top right figure, one of the bars has been removed from the top left diamond while symmetry of the bars has been preserved. This establishes that you must remove one of the bars of the square at the bottom while preserving symmetry. Now you know that the correct answer must be the square at the bottom right of the answer panel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;My attempt&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/trxsh.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/trxsh.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Between #1 and 2, 2 orange lines remain, the blue is removed, and nothing is added. So in #3, the 2 orange lines remain. #3 has no blue middle line that can be removed. So how can the right answer be #5, where the green line has been added to #3?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-09-12T08:11:47.473" Title="Raven Progressive Matrix: why's my chosen square wrong?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19600" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19605" CreationDate="2018-04-26T05:09:29.213" Score="5" ViewCount="267" Body="&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0393337693&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Intelligence and How to Get It: Why Schools and Cultures Count&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (2009). p. 49.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;  We have every reason to believe that these sorts of visual exercises actually improve fluid-intelligence skills and the executive functions that underlie them, including working memory and control of attention. Researchers have shown, for example, that video-game players can attend to more things at once than can nonplayers. Video-game players can also ignore irrelevant stimuli more effectively than nonplayers and can see objects in a broader visual field than nonplayers. To make sure that what they have observed of computer-game players is not just a self-selection effect (with the fluid IQ hotshots being the ones most likely to play computer games in the first place), the researchers had non- players learn a game—&lt;strong&gt;Medal of Honor [emboldening mine]&lt;/strong&gt;—that they thought would teach the attention-control skills of their video-game players, and had other nonplayers play a computer game that the researchers did not believe would be capable of teaching attention control, namely, Tetris. Subjects played the computer games for an hour a day for ten days. At the end of the period, Medal of Honor players did better on the attention-control tasks than did Tetris players. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Exclude Medal of Honor that's already cited overhead. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastActivityDate="2018-04-29T00:07:11.470" Title="Which computer video games can improve intelligence, barring Medal of Honor?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19601" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8021" CreationDate="2018-04-26T07:23:56.707" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neurons are extraordinarily expensive to make, maintain, and use (Laughlin et al, 1998; Stone 2018).  Half of a child's energy budget, and a fifth of an adult's budget, is required just to keep the brain ticking over (Sokoloff, 1989; Levy and Baxter, 1996). For both children and adults, half the brain's energy budget is used for neuronal information processing, and the rest is used for basic maintenance (Attwell et al, 2001). The high cost of using neurons accounts for the fact that only 2-4\% of them are active at any one time (Lennie, 2003). I suspect that, &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Py8Ow.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Py8Ow.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;if all neurons could be active at the same time then the enormous amounts of energy required would probably result in cooking the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Attwell, D and Laughlin, SB. An energy budget for signaling in the grey matter of the brain. J Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 21(10):1133–1145, 2001.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Laughlin, SB, de Ruyter van Steveninck, RR, and Anderson, JC. The metabolic cost of neural information. Nature Neuroscience, 1(1):36–41, 1998.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lennie, P. The cost of cortical computation. Current Biology, 13:493–497, 2003.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Levy, WB and Baxter, RA. Energy efficient neural codes. Neural Computation, 8(3):531–543, 1996.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sokoloff, L. Circulation and energy metabolism of the brain. Basic Neurochemistry, 2:338–413, 1989.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stone, JV. Principles of Neural Information Theory:  Computational Neuroscience and Metabolic Efficiency. Sebtel Press (published 8th June 2018).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19126" LastActivityDate="2018-04-26T07:23:56.707" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19602" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19606" CreationDate="2018-04-26T07:26:56.300" Score="4" ViewCount="240" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was involved in a discussion where somebody had asked if others had thoughts of doing risky things during their manic episodes. Two people commented, including myself. I worried that only relying on a specific set of guidelines established by the diagnostic and Statistical Manual on Mental Disorders fifth edition could lead to disastrous consequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say somebody came into a psychiatrist's office. The person has previously read the DSMV and understands the criteria. That person played their cards right to convince the psychiatrist to diagnose them with Bipolar Disorder, when in truth that person might not likely have it at all. Instead, their true motive would have been to get free benzos so they could space out and get high.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other end of the spectrum, some people have been misdiagnosed, leading to unwanted and unnecessary medications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For both of these situations, why can't blood tests and other physical and objective means be used to insure that neither party is in doubt? You can't lie on a blood test or magneto encephalogram, so why not this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18499" LastEditorUserId="18499" LastEditDate="2018-04-28T12:37:22.687" LastActivityDate="2021-04-13T20:04:24.317" Title="Why aren't any advancements being made in physically diagnosing Bipolar and other psychiatric disorders?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19603" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19598" CreationDate="2018-04-26T13:00:42.697" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the text you provide explains, there is a flow of thinking involved:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;diamond-diamond / square - ? (answer: square - you got that one right)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;bottom half becomes filled (you got that one too)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;one stripe removed above &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All this added yields the picture at the bottom right. You didn't notice, interpret or actioned on the stripe removal, perhaps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-04-27T05:21:17.570" LastActivityDate="2018-04-27T05:21:17.570" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19605" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19600" CreationDate="2018-04-27T05:48:09.623" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0609-6&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; by Shams, Foussias, et al. (2015) gives a good meta-analysis of studies that have been conducted on the effects of video games on intelligence. Some games described as improving cognition were:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Super Mario 64&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Significant increase in gray matter volume in the right HC, right DLPFC, and bilateral cerebellum in the video game group compared to the control group&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Tetris&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Puzzle game group improved in attention and visuo-spatial ability&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Starcraft&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;The Sims 2&lt;/strong&gt; (female subjects):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Games that emphasize rapid switching between multiple information sources led to a significant increase in cognitive flexibility&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's many other games covered in this paper, displaying a variety of cognitive and neuroanomatical changes in subjects who played them regularly for a somewhat extended period of time (typically 1-2 months).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;A number of structural imaging studies have found that video game play can alter brain structure, especially gray matter volume. These studies have typically analyzed a particular video game or video game type. The most commonly studied category in the last few years has been complex strategy games such as &lt;strong&gt;Super Mario 64&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;Space Fortress&lt;/strong&gt;...&quot; (emphasis added by me)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shams, T. A., Foussias, G., Zawadzki, J. A., Marshe, V. S., Siddiqui, I., Müller, D. J., &amp;amp; Wong, A. H. (2015). The Effects of Video Games on Cognition and Brain Structure: Potential Implications for Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Current Psychiatry Reports, 17(9). doi:10.1007/s11920-015-0609-6&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17260" LastActivityDate="2018-04-27T05:48:09.623" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19606" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19602" CreationDate="2018-04-27T16:03:43.800" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short Answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Science is hard, brains are complicated, and the premises of your question that there is not work being done or advancements in this area is false.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Longer Answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no known specific cause of bipolar disorder (as for many other psychological disorders). There is no simple statement like &quot;bipolar disorder happens when you are low on XYZ so let's test for XYZ.&quot; Bipolar disorder and many others are in fact &lt;em&gt;defined&lt;/em&gt; by the DSM based on &lt;em&gt;symptoms&lt;/em&gt; - diagnosing them in another way is not the gold standard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, you seem to be implying especially in your comment &quot;why isn't one being developed&quot; that this isn't an active area of research. &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C50&amp;amp;q=%22bipolar+disorder%22+%22biomarker%22&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;It is - a helpful search term for you will be 'biomarker'&lt;/a&gt;; Google Scholar returns 4,480 results since 2017 for (&quot;bipolar disorder&quot; &quot;biomarker&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, all of the suggested biomarkers are some combination of A) Not specific (i.e., are positive for other conditions), B) Not sensitive (i.e., are negative for people that do have bipolar disorder), C) Expensive or invasive (i.e., not really worth doing if they have issues with A and B), or highly dependent on other individual factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-04-27T16:03:43.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19608" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19602" CreationDate="2018-04-27T21:42:23.120" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I could be wrong, since I'm not a doctor and all, but it's my understanding based on about ten years of studying issues like bipolar disorder online that to be diagnosed with bipolar disorder, as well as other disorders, like OCD, people merely need to have a set of symptoms, which disrupt their lives sufficiently, which hopefully respond to certain kinds of treatment (and of course, they probably need to be diagnosed in order for them to officially have it). This, as opposed to a &lt;em&gt;specific&lt;/em&gt; physiological and/or genetic condition that causes or might cause the symptoms. It's not like strep throat where you can test for bacteria for a &lt;em&gt;definitive&lt;/em&gt; diagnosis. There could be infinite causes of bipolar disorder as I understand it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, any tests that could diagnose it might miss a plethora of cases, and many of the people diagnosed by those tests might manage their condition perfectly already (which means they don't have bipolar disorder).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's my understanding that the aim of such tests would be to assist doctors in making a good diagnosis rather than to replace the doctor's decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless, there could be other conditions with symptoms similar to bipolar disorder, which do have a definitive underlying cause: e.g. vitamin B12 deficiency. I guess it's probably up to the doctor to decide if the individual also has bipolar disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, I'm not saying bipolar disorder is all in one's head. At least some of the symptoms are physiological (such as how patients tend to get more manic if they take anti-depressants). I'm sure a lot of doctors use that criteria to help them diagnose the condition already. While I don't know another condition that would match that issue, it's possible there is one. However, just because symptoms are physiological doesn't mean they always have the same cause, which means they could have different methods of diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, all that being said, while I still think a definitive test is possible, a new way of testing would perhaps be needed. A blood test isn't going to tell you behaviors or how well a person is managing their symptoms, or if the person is using good coping mechanisms that might cause them to not need a diagnosis. A blood test may tell you things that predispose people to behaviors and symptoms, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wrote this answer before I read Bryan Crause's (I just read it). So, sorry that I repeated some of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19142" LastEditorUserId="19142" LastEditDate="2018-04-28T02:14:23.960" LastActivityDate="2018-04-28T02:14:23.960" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19609" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-28T06:38:54.677" Score="3" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see a very common trend in how every mobile game is being designed and advertised on the market. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The common features are (not limited to):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very cartoony graphics (big heads small bodies)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Characters standing on the side of every presentation screenshot&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Overblown attitude of characters, characters show very exaggerated  facial expressions whether it be angry or classy.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very simplistic captions and feature descriptions like &quot;choose your weapon&quot;,  &quot;kill your enemy&quot;, &quot;build your empire&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Flashy graphics with colourful and glowing stuff, often exaggerated to the levels that its visually overwhelming&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently clueless how such marketing and design appeal to anyone? Is it aimed at children (by eventually making their parents pay for in game purchases)? Personally for me its quite repulsive, but since every other game is following it they must be doing something right? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14543" LastEditorUserId="25157" LastEditDate="2020-08-13T21:38:17.247" LastActivityDate="2021-05-10T23:04:35.450" Title="What's the psychological concept behind mobile game design and marketing?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;neuromarketing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19610" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-28T08:19:32.420" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have observed this and felt very uncontrollable. Whenever I see some text (in a language that I know) I start reading automatically. I don't see them as some curves... With intense focus I could perceive it as curves like drawings....&#xA;What might be the reason behind it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16097" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-04-29T05:44:15.943" LastActivityDate="2018-04-29T05:44:15.943" Title="Why is it hard to not read some text" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19612" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19600" CreationDate="2018-04-29T00:07:11.470" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a general point, many foundational principles of psychology suggest that  playing individual computer games will not improve intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning tends to be fairly localised. Near transfer also happens (i.e., where there are common elements between one task and another task; e.g., playing one 3d shooter helps you play other 3d shooters).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, changing broad and complex traits such as as human intelligence, presumably requires complex and long-term interventions (e.g., like the fundamental structure of education).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any correlations between video game playing and intelligence could be explained by third-variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If video game playing has an effect on intelligence, it is likely to be very small. And it would presumably it would be dose dependent, where presumably, it would be more about a long period of playing diverse games that would yield any effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, more localised effects on specific cognitive abilities seem more conceivable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the Shams et al (2015) article mentioned in @optimizedp is interesting. That said, this is a difficult topic to study, and the vast majority of research in the area is underpowered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-04-29T00:07:11.470" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19613" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19571" CreationDate="2018-04-29T04:12:18.623" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several perspectives that you can take in understanding your (and others) difficulties in making decisions when there are a lot of options. You could think like a psychologist, in terms of the psychological processes involved e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret_(decision_theory)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Regret Theory&lt;/a&gt;. Or you could think like an economist in terms of strict assumptions about the desirability of different options and how they relate to one another e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_cost&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Opportunity Cost&lt;/a&gt;. Really, there are so many different ways you could approach this that it's hard to give specific books or papers you could read. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, though, the key problems with making a decision when there are many options is the increased difficulty in making the &quot;best&quot; choice (which is often the goal) and also the fact that when one makes a decision about one option, one has to give up on the other options. When there are more options, there is more given up by making a choice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19148" LastActivityDate="2018-04-29T04:12:18.623" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19615" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-29T07:36:26.497" Score="0" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;One common set of beliefs that I time and time again find wrong are the 'cultural norms' that are taught to people as if to make them more educated about differences in behaviors across cultures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In Asia, it is often believed by Western-educated individuals that averting eye gaze is a show of respect. On the contrary, it is naturally a human instinct that eye contact will serve to establish emotional bonds between people. Without eye contact, people will lose a lot of the natural opportunity to connect between people. In this sense, eye contact is inherently not differently understood depending on culture, but rather a common language hard-wired into our neurological anatomy. It is also wrong how people think prolonged eye gazes are rude in Asia only -- it is rude in America as well. Nobody likes to get stared at, whatever the intentions. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;So it follows that if an adequate eye gaze is indeed understood as an affront, then it is the necessity to preserve hierarchy that is preventing meaningful connections being made between persons of differing hierarchies. In my country, South Korea, there is a lot of discussion of how the society as a whole lacks communication -- between political factions and individuals in the family. No wonder! Compounding the problem is the fact that hierarchy and language are also correlated -- the honorific system is extremely complicated compared to any other Western language. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In the same way, Asian hierarchical culture is not a difference, but more often than not a problem. It is a genuine hindrance to democratic ways of life. When often western modes of behavior, like the fact that it is okay to walk out of a lecture hall, or put legs atop of a college style desk-chair combo, or to address professors by their name, are arguably examples of when liberty goes too far, there is in Asia, the contrasting draconian rules on the other side of the spectrum. Ageism -- the belief that age translates to authority, is one of them. Most companies prize experience over education -- unless the experienced are also well-educated. An attachment to external validations, like credentials, are super important. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;To refer to the book &quot;The Geography of Thought&quot;, therein the author makes a distinction between the 'weak dialectic' versus the 'linear logic' that Westerners use. I think this is less a cultural difference as it is the result of the Enlightenment and the formal logic developed by specific Enlightenment figures. The book argues that Asians who are expatriates or who have a PhD use linear logic more heavily. This already serves to prove that logic is borne out of a different intellectual history, rather than simply being a product of culture. In other words, intellectual styles are the result of a specific process that was unique to the Western world. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18928" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-02T19:50:59.187" LastActivityDate="2018-05-03T08:43:02.823" Title="Why is cultural understanding often wrong?" Tags="&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;anthropology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19617" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-29T10:03:47.713" Score="1" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to read some books about the effects of childhood experiences on the adult life. For an example, somewhere I read that adult males who had an aggressive father they are usually not aggressive (because they find it repulsive and inhumane), and also, they are not able to show anger in the proper dose when needed. The example may not be accurate but I hope I conveyed what I mean.&#xA;I have a PhD (not in neuroscience or psychology) so I think I can manage even a bit more academic oriented books. However, it would be nice to have some books suitable to average layman person too. &#xA;It would be nice someone could read such a book and by comparison to themselves realize that some trait of them is not actually normal and should be fixed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4420" LastActivityDate="2018-11-21T16:52:44.623" Title="What are some books about the effect of childhood experiences on adult life?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19618" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19571" CreationDate="2018-04-29T10:49:52.573" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I myself found a paper dealing with 3 studies that all together answered my personal question. It's the studies of Iyengar, S. S. und Lepper, M. (2000), which point out that having many opportunities can harm decision making and can even lead to dissatisfaction after making the decision.&#xA;I actually can't say how trustworthy this studies are, since I'm not from this subject, but they correspond to my own experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19079" LastActivityDate="2018-04-29T10:49:52.573" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19619" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19617" CreationDate="2018-04-29T12:17:40.207" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is open to opinion, however, I cannot see how you can go wrong with buying the book &lt;em&gt;Life-Span Human Development&lt;/em&gt; by Sigelman &amp;amp; Rider &lt;strong&gt;(now in its 8th edition)&lt;/strong&gt; mentioned in @Chris' answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/17210&quot;&gt;What happens to someone missing teenage years of development?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14807" LastActivityDate="2018-04-29T12:17:40.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19622" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-29T17:46:41.493" Score="5" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to report statistical findings after quantitative data analysis in APA format. Is there a guide on this? I've not been able to find any.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm using SPSS but I'm sure it would be similar in SData and R.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19101" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-05-01T09:29:52.797" LastActivityDate="2018-05-01T09:29:52.797" Title="Is there a guide on exactly how to report outputs (regression, anova, correspondence analysis) in APA?" Tags="&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;regression&gt;&lt;apa-style&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19624" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19628" CreationDate="2018-04-30T03:05:36.707" Score="5" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;Now and then, the image from each eye is so different from the other that it seems the brain has trouble combining them into a coherent image. You can create this situation by putting a hand or sheet or paper in front of one eye, then moving it about an inch away. If you open one eye at a time, you see the obstruction with one and what it obstructs with the other. If you keep both eyes open, you see a composite where the obstruction appears translucent or transparent in parts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been curious about this phenomenon. Is there a name for it? Is it clear why the brain handles it this way, producing a seemingly impossible object, and not some other way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17900" LastEditorUserId="17900" LastEditDate="2018-04-30T19:22:26.830" LastActivityDate="2018-04-30T19:22:26.830" Title="When your two eyes disagree sharply" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19626" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19622" CreationDate="2018-04-30T06:17:52.500" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You should get the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com.au/search?q=apa+style+manual+pdf&amp;amp;oq=apa+style+manual+pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA Style Manual (currently in the 6th edition)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Chapter 5 describes the effective use of graphic elements in text. It provides readers with guidance on which graphic element is best suited to the data being delivered as well as detailed instruction on table and figure preparation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has lots of examples of how to report individual statistics and how to present common analyses in tabular form (e.g., group differences, correlation matrices, regression models, multilevel models, SEM results, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For less common analyses, you can often use the tables provided in the manual as a a starting point. You may also like to search the literature for example publications. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-04-30T06:17:52.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19628" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19624" CreationDate="2018-04-30T16:24:49.910" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binocular_rivalry&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Binocular rivalry&lt;/a&gt; refers to a situation where you present different images to each eye (often in the context of an experiment, although you also point out some quick 'at home' ways to achieve this), and your perception switches between what each eye observes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This phenomenon is related to other forms of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistable_perception&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;bistable/multistable perception&lt;/a&gt;, one of the most famous examples of which is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necker_cube&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Necker Cube&lt;/a&gt; but there are many many examples. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's hard to answer your question about why this is the case, but I think it's helpful to think about what the purpose of the brain is: making a model of the world for you to act in. It doesn't really make sense for the world to be in two different states simultaneously. Your brain is constantly making perceptual decisions that translate observations into a model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make just a toy example for why you may want to select a single model rather than trying to incorporate both forms of information simultaneously, imagine you are some animal trying to catch a flying insect. One eye suggests the insect is in one part of space; the other eye suggests a slightly different part of space. You can reach to only one of the two spaces. You are more likely to be successful if you choose one of the targets (at least you have a 50/50 chance), whereas if you used some other strategy like an average of the two positions, you would miss every time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a lot of literature focusing on the role of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=attention+in+binocular+rivalry&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;attention in binocular rivalry&lt;/a&gt; as well as other aspects. It's probably beyond the scope of SE to provide a full review, but hopefully this is enough information for you to do some of your own further research on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-04-30T16:24:49.910" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19630" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-04-30T18:13:39.423" Score="3" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the fundamental operations in image neural networks is the operation of convolution, where a filter slides across the receptive field, activating on particular features. This is incredibly useful because it allows us to recycle filters, without having to train neurons on each piece of the receptive field. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like such an operation is mechanically impossible &lt;em&gt;within&lt;/em&gt; the human visual cortex. From the paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3306444/pdf/nihms352068.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How does the brain solve visual object recognition - DiCarlo, et. al.&lt;/a&gt;, &#xA;the brain opts to instead use a massive amount of neurons in each layer, most of which are redundant in that many neurons detect the same feature at different locations. This is clearly unscalable to apply everywhere, so only about 10% of the visual field concentrates these neurons. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, we &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; have the ability to perform convolutions by moving our eyes. So in effect, we can jitter our eyes thereby applying the same neurons to different parts of the scene infront of us. I would think that this, combined with short-term memory can help us process images. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suppose I force a subject to focus their eyes on the&#xA;  center of some common object (e.g. a car), such that the object is&#xA;  within the center 10% of our visual field. Are there situations where&#xA;  the brain is &lt;em&gt;unable&lt;/em&gt; to process what the object is, &lt;em&gt;without&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;  jittering our eyes? Said another way, how much visual processing are we able to do without any physical movement of our eyes or head?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in understanding this question because I'm not convinced that even the massive amount of neurons in the visual cortex are sufficient for visually parsing the object. Whereas by (even slightly) shifting the object in our vision, the combined featurizations from each location would significantly reduce the computational complexity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9052" LastEditorUserId="9052" LastEditDate="2018-04-30T19:14:43.653" LastActivityDate="2018-04-30T19:14:43.653" Title="Convolutional Operations in the Visual Cortex" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 3.0" />
  <row Id="19633" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19602" CreationDate="2018-05-02T04:50:30.123" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because it's not as easy at it may seem.&#xA;There is no direct biological distinguishment of any kind in such a case.&#xA;It's like some prefer red, some prefer blue, some like both equally. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to link this condition to any bio-chemical causes, very long term studies would be needed and the persons with Bipolar Disorder will likely not volunteer for such studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not excluded that a very long term study may find a bio-chemical distinguishment unique to these individuals but that did not happened yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related references (There are probably hundreds of references. Here's a few): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Semeniken, K. R., &amp;amp; Dudás, B. (2012). Bipolar Disorder: Diagnosis, Neuroanatomical and Biochemical Background. In Clinical, Research and Treatment Approaches to Affective Disorders. InTech.&lt;br&gt;Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.intechopen.com/download/pdf/30151&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.intechopen.com/download/pdf/30151&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Biochemistry and neuropathology of bipolar disorder by Professor Wayne Drevets (Video)&lt;br&gt;Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dnalc.org/view/2084-Biochemistry-and-neuropathology-of-bipolar-disorder.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.dnalc.org/view/2084-Biochemistry-and-neuropathology-of-bipolar-disorder.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Biochemistry of Bipolar Disorder by Doctor Ellen Leibenluft (Video)&lt;br&gt;Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dnalc.org/view/2356-Biochemistry-of-Bipolar-Disorder.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.dnalc.org/view/2356-Biochemistry-of-Bipolar-Disorder.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Manji, H. K., Quiroz, J. A., Payne, J. L., Singh, J., Lopes, B. P., Viegas, J. S., &amp;amp; Zarate, C. A. (2003). The underlying neurobiology of bipolar disorder. &lt;em&gt;World Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 2(3), 136.&lt;br&gt;PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1525098/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC1525098&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16946919&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;16946919&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Biochemistry Features Of Bipolar Disorders And Advanced Nutrient Therapies by William J. Walsh, PhD, FACN (Webinar Video)&lt;br&gt;Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://ibpf.org/article/biochemistry-features-bipolar-disorders-and-advanced-nutrient-therapies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://ibpf.org/article/biochemistry-features-bipolar-disorders-and-advanced-nutrient-therapies&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19135" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-03T14:54:48.290" LastActivityDate="2018-05-03T14:54:48.290" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19615" CreationDate="2018-05-02T18:25:44.777" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a little difficulty understanding your question. are you asking why do we percieve slightly different behaviors as culturally different? I would say that for me cultural difference is a continuum or degree rather than difference. For example, as you wrote, prolonged eye contact is rude everywhere, but how much is acceptable might be different. Also for me the source of difference doesn't make it not culturally different. Every cultural difference comes from a source, socio-economic, geographic, historical etc. The different intellectual developments led to some cultural differences at least that's my opinion. Of course we can discuss if we should focus on differences or similarities among human groups. I would say should we choose between. I hope that was what you were asking.&#xA;P.C: to be honest, I was thinking about my own experiences and observations but when you think about one of the most popular theories about culture, Hofstede's four dementional theory, sees cultures in a continuem of four dementions (tolerence for uncertainty, individuality-collectivity, masculanity-feminaty, power of distance)(Hofstede, 1983).  It is not some cultures avoid uncertainty or seek it, but that some cultures/social groups avoid uncertainty or seek it more than other cultures/social groups for example. &#xA;Hofstede, G. (1983). National cultures in four dimensions: A research-based theory of cultural differences among nations. International Studies of Management &amp;amp; Organization, 13(1-2), 46-74.         &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19165" LastEditorUserId="19165" LastEditDate="2018-05-03T08:43:02.823" LastActivityDate="2018-05-03T08:43:02.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19638" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-02T19:45:04.940" Score="3" ViewCount="229" Body="&lt;p&gt;In looking at a &lt;a href=&quot;https://twitter.com/talyarkoni/status/811426206176387076&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;post&lt;/a&gt; on twitter from a somewhat well-known psychologist Tal Yarkoni, he references a paper which lists multiple sets of competing theories in Psychology that have not been resolved.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is interesting to me and related to my question on selecting &quot;the most well supported&quot; among competing theories of generalized anxiety disorder &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19631/theory-of-generalized-anxiety-disorder&quot;&gt;(link)&lt;/a&gt;.  But, I could see this being related in other areas, such as procrastination research where psychologists with different focuses explain the phenomena differently (as elaborated in this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pKyHX0zqynk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;video.)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an aspiring research scientist, I am curious &lt;strong&gt;what it takes today to resolve competing theories in Psychological science?&lt;/strong&gt;  I read that it may take a joint research paper between the authors of the differing theories with conditions of what defines sufficient evidence, but certainly there must be another way, because some authors may be deceased, unavailable, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, &lt;strong&gt;why might these disputations, it seems like there are 13 of them (26 theories in total), some dating back to the 50s, still be unresolved today?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this question should be germane to the topic, because in a meta post &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/questions/2115/are-questions-about-replicability-open-science-and-meta-science-on-topic&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, the moderator agrees that meta-science posts are fair questions for this site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11695" LastEditorUserId="11695" LastEditDate="2018-05-02T23:45:23.140" LastActivityDate="2018-05-02T23:45:23.140" Title="In general, how does one resolve two competing theories in Psychology?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19640" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19534" CreationDate="2018-05-02T20:11:48.377" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your environmental issue is more a matter of philosophy than intelligence, as it is determined mainly subjectively by views and beliefs, driven by ideologies. It's not what the current, more objective definition is of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thinktonight.com/WISC_IV_subtests_s/331.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intelligence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, standard IQ tests consist mainly of more objective questions on things like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Block Design&lt;/strong&gt;, that measures an individual’s ability to analyze and synthesize an abstract design and reproduce that design from colored plastic blocks; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Similarities&lt;/strong&gt;, that measures logical thinking, verbal concept formation and verbal abstract reasoning;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Digit Span&lt;/strong&gt;, measuring short-term auditory memory and attention;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Picture Concepts&lt;/strong&gt;, to measure categorical, abstract reasoning;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Coding&lt;/strong&gt;, that measures visual-motor dexterity, associative nonverbal learning, and nonverbal short-term memory;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thinktonight.com/WISC_IV_subtests_s/331.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;etc etc etc&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I, personally, totally agree with you that smart people care about the future, the harsh reality is that people totally ignorant, and even baldly dismissive of the global impact of man, causing the 6&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; mass extinction (&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Holocene&lt;/em&gt; extinction&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;) and all, can still score highly on the intelligence scale on the currently accepted outcome measures of IQ [no explicit political examples due to my position as moderator here].   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-02T23:02:39.617" LastActivityDate="2018-05-02T23:02:39.617" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19641" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19638" CreationDate="2018-05-02T22:31:01.510" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Almost every pair of theories on that list sets up a false dichotomy.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not an issue of one theory over another; at issue is how much different explanations apply to different circumstances. There is at least some evidence for each possibility that is not explained away by the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Resolving these dichotomies in favor of one theory or the other is probably not a worthwhile pursuit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, many papers are published that are greatly informative on some of these issues, and in fact if you had scrolled down just a bit on your own link or followed up a bit, you would find that the original author of the table presented in that tweet has an updated list (though several years old now) that mentions several such papers: &lt;a href=&quot;https://faculty.washington.edu/agg/pdf/PPS_2012_supplement.Unresolved_controversies.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://faculty.washington.edu/agg/pdf/PPS_2012_supplement.Unresolved_controversies.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I especially like this footnote from that link, which I think strongly supports my answer (emphasis mine): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;b This controversy is treated as unresolved by some researchers, but the recent article by Smith&#xA;  and Grossman (2008) has argued, using brain imaging evidence, for “multiple systems of category&#xA;  learning”, which suggests &lt;strong&gt;a controversy resolution in the form treating multiple theories of the nature of&#xA;  category representations as valid&lt;/strong&gt; in distinguishable domains of application.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In general, how does one resolve two competing theories in Psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, one resolves the existence of competing theories by testing cases where one theory or the other better explains an experimental result and attempts to resolve the conflict by finding mediating factors that prefer one theory over the other (or some entirely separate theory that may explain all or part of the data).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is usually an incremental, iterative process, not something that is resolved in one key work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Greenwald, A. G. (2012). There is nothing so theoretical as a good method. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(2), 99-108.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-05-02T22:59:31.287" LastActivityDate="2018-05-02T22:59:31.287" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19642" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-03T05:19:36.663" Score="2" ViewCount="188" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I'm transplanted with, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, Stephen Hawking's brain, would I start to think like him, or would I remain to think like me? On which, &quot;thinking&quot; ability depends , is it the physical structure of brain or any non physical thing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19185" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-03T09:38:12.273" LastActivityDate="2018-05-09T23:39:28.453" Title="Are thoughts transferred along with a brain during a brain transplantation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19643" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19642" CreationDate="2018-05-03T09:31:44.003" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Human brain transplants have never been performed, so any answers to what will happen are mere speculations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Whole-head transplants have been performed on animals, the first reports go back to the 1970's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3821155/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Canavero, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;. The practice is still pursued today (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cns.12422&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ren &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt;). Up until now, however, it has not been done in humans, and likely it never will be (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/brain-flapping/2017/nov/17/no-there-hasnt-been-a-human-head-transplant-and-may-never-be-sergio-canavero&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Guardian&lt;/a&gt;). This, because of medical limitations &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3821155/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Canavero, 2013)&lt;/a&gt; as well as ethical considerations &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21507740.2017.1392386&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Wolpe, 217)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The biggest problem medically is the re-connection of the thousands of spinal neurons linking the brain to the rest of the body &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3821155/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Canavero, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;. Further, immune responses and immediate cell death due to oxygen depletion may all further hamper the process. Nonetheless, certain groups envision it will be at one time possible in humans &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3821155/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Canavero, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same limitations as with head transplants discussed above apply for a brain transplant. The thing is that with a whole-head transplant the major arteries can be quickly connected to feed the brain. With a brain transplant this also becomes a major bottle neck, making it even more difficult. Transplanting a head can be done with relative ease by sacrificing the donor and straight away stitch it to the beheaded recipient. A brain transplant needs even more steps. The big advantage of a head transplant is also that  the brain, being within its own cephalon, still connects to the cranial nerves (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.resuscitationjournal.com/article/0300-9572%2875%2990043-X/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;White et al, 1975&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3821155/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Canavero, &lt;em&gt;Surg Neurol Int&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;(S1): S335–S42&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cns.12422&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ren &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;CNS Neurosci Therapeutics&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;(8): 615-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.resuscitationjournal.com/article/0300-9572%2875%2990043-X/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;White et al. &lt;em&gt;Resuscitation&lt;/em&gt; 1975;&lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;,197-210&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21507740.2017.1392386&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wolpe, &lt;em&gt;AJOB Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;(4)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Further reading&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/a/28572/9943&quot;&gt;Is brain transplantation possible?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-06T19:49:22.647" LastActivityDate="2018-05-06T19:49:22.647" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19644" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19648" CreationDate="2018-05-03T17:41:50.347" Score="0" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there research on how long it takes an &quot;average&quot; person to memorize a piece of information?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Say a word or a license plate. Something along the lines of: &quot;Given a license plate, and 100 repetitions of said license plate, 95% of all people are expected to remember it in 24 hours, 80% in 48 hours, etc&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18000" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-05-07T12:34:33.530" LastActivityDate="2018-05-07T12:37:20.643" Title="Long-Term (Not WM) Memory Norms" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19647" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-04T00:55:43.027" Score="3" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to state-of-the-art Psychology research, what are the most successful techniques to cope with / overcome the emotional aversiveness experienced when one is faced with tasks outside one's comfort zone?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18631" LastEditorUserId="18631" LastEditDate="2018-05-04T13:49:22.873" LastActivityDate="2018-05-04T13:49:22.873" Title="Most successful techniques to cope with emotional aversiveness when faced with tasks outside comfort zone?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;procrastination&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19648" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19644" CreationDate="2018-05-04T16:22:50.543" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. A lot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A possible place to get started is the wiki page for Ebbinghaus, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus#Contributions_to_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;skip to &quot;Contributions to memory&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ebbinghaus's work is kind of dated, like 1885 kind of dated, but the point is the discussion there will give you some handy search terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, I think &quot;forgetting curve / learning curve&quot; on google scholar will get you where you're going faster than searching for 'memory'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question seems to suggest you're most interested in individual differences? Usually people study aggregates, because individuals are so noisy (Ebbinghaus famously did it with one participant, ramping up the number of trials instead, but his methodology wouldn't really fly today). One study that argues against that and does drill down to individuals is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmp.2010.08.009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Avarell &amp;amp; Heathcote (2011)&lt;/a&gt;. Their stimuli are short words. Not sure if that's quite what you're after, but might be worth a shot?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If basic research into memory is what you want though there's an embarrassment of riches out there. Good luck!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Averell, L., &amp;amp; Heathcote, A. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmp.2010.08.009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The form of the forgetting curve and the fate of memories.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 55(1), 25-35.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-05-07T12:37:20.643" LastActivityDate="2018-05-07T12:37:20.643" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19649" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19650" CreationDate="2018-05-05T03:23:23.077" Score="4" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;I saw a video in which four adults were led into a room with a digital counter on the wall (see below), and a collection of random objects on the floor: small boxes, hand tools, stuffed animals, random things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subjects were instructed to make the counter increment to 229, 230, 231, etc, but they weren't told exactly how. Their only clue was that they must move the objects around, and move their bodies around, and if they did it correctly, the counter would increment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subjects tried many things, but it seemed very complicated. Every once in a while it would work, but they couldn't figure out what they had done. Their movements became more and more elaborate, and comical, and it would work sometimes, but never consistently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After 30 minutes or so, the researchers explained to the subjects that the counter had been set to increment randomly. The subjects only &lt;em&gt;believed&lt;/em&gt; they had control, and it led them to engage in complex, ritual-seeming behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't remember where I saw the video. Hoping to find it again, I would like to know if there is a name for this type of experiment, a category name, something I can google to find the video again, or anything like it. I've tried quite a few search terms to no avail: &quot;magical thinking&quot;, &quot;illusion of control&quot;, &quot;rain dance&quot;, &quot;causation and ritual&quot;, and similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QZQar.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QZQar.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;digital counter&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19195" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-05T22:31:46.550" LastActivityDate="2018-05-08T16:04:34.113" Title="Experiments demonstrating irreligious people spontaneously developing superstitious rituals?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19649" CreationDate="2018-05-05T07:18:02.790" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In accordance with @ArnonWeinberg's comment, I think &lt;strong&gt;superstition&lt;/strong&gt; is the term you are after. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Superstition&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1948-04299-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Skinner (1948)&lt;/a&gt;) is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A]ny belief or practice that is considered irrational[.] [F]or example [ a belief that] arises from ignorance, a misunderstanding of science or causality, a positive belief in fate or magic, or fear of that which is unknown. &quot;Superstition&quot; also refers to religious beliefs or actions arising from irrationality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I may, in fact, have found a video fragment of the one you are looking for, using @ArnonWeinberg 's clue in the comments. I searched for &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Skinner+Superstition+experiment+In+Humans+Video&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And found this &lt;a href=&quot;https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=tI_x5r-qPkY&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;this awesome video&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. I had a good laugh, thanks! Pigeons, a bowl of fish, and a group of funny people trying to find meaning in chaos. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1948-04299-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Skinner, &lt;em&gt;J Exp Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (1948), &lt;strong&gt;38&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 168-72&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-08T16:04:34.113" LastActivityDate="2018-05-08T16:04:34.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19651" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19655" CreationDate="2018-05-05T10:26:59.930" Score="5" ViewCount="226" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have got a few examples::&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For instance when someone buys something and it turns out that it wasn't worth it, and this person tries to convince himself that he made a good choice or that the product he bought is actually worth it (he cannot accept that he lost money in that process). That might be at the cinema when the movie is bad and you stay until the end because you've paid for it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The other example is when someone made something which is likely to end badly, but the fact he began to follow this way lets him prefer to make an error later than go back on it immediately.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that both are the same. I learnt the term for this phenomenon in a philo/psycho course at school a few years ago, I think the term is similar to &quot;heuristic of loss&quot;, or maybe &quot;bias of loss&quot;, but my search engine doesn't know that, so it is likely to be something else. It is possible that I mix up terms and concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19199" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-05-07T11:55:39.693" LastActivityDate="2018-05-07T23:10:27.617" Title="Term for when the more you invest yourself in something, the less you agree to drop it" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19654" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19651" CreationDate="2018-05-05T18:53:32.337" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I guess you might be looking for &lt;a href=&quot;https://conversionxl.com/blog/cialdinis-principles-persuasion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;commitment principle&lt;/a&gt; in social psychology? I think I have heard about it in only social relationships so far but why not? according to this prinsiple, we are likely to commit in our relationships. It is harder to turn back from an action after you started.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19165" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-07T09:09:31.270" LastActivityDate="2018-05-07T09:09:31.270" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19655" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19651" CreationDate="2018-05-06T05:50:14.527" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not certain this is what you are thinking about, but this sounds a lot like the idea of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunk_cost&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;sunk costs&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which is a form of loss aversion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sunk costs means that you tend to overvalue the effort you have already put in to something (time, money, etc), and often are willing to put in &lt;em&gt;more effort&lt;/em&gt; to try to rescue what you already put in, even though the additional investment (again: time, money, etc) is not worth it. Often people make poor decisions (financial, relationship, etc) because they feel like they have &quot;put too much in&quot; to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A related concept is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Endowment effect&lt;/a&gt; (first mentioned in another answer by JoaoBotelho). Like sunk costs, some of the endowment effect can be explained by loss aversion, though some experiments have also shown a smaller &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere_ownership_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mere ownership effect&lt;/a&gt; which is not also explained by loss aversion. These effects describe how people tend to put more value on things they own or have some relationship to (for example, an object held versus an object at a distance) versus things they do not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-05-07T23:10:27.617" LastActivityDate="2018-05-07T23:10:27.617" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19656" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19651" CreationDate="2018-05-06T07:50:24.847" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's an extension of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Endowment effect&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology and behavioral economics, the endowment effect (also known as divestiture aversion and related to the mere ownership effect in social psychology&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;) is the hypothesis that people ascribe more value to things merely because they own them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19204" LastActivityDate="2018-05-06T07:50:24.847" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19657" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19705" CreationDate="2018-05-06T08:08:22.660" Score="3" ViewCount="401" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/learning-approaches-associations-with-typical-intellectual-engagement-intelligence-and-the-big-five(d16c5563-d9c8-4061-885c-28dc8e380f2e).html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;research on learning approaches&lt;/a&gt; and the big five personality traits, and was wondering if anyone can recommend existing research on the &lt;strong&gt;most effective learning methods for each personality type&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this even a thing? Is there proof that some learning techniques can be better for some types of personalities than others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19204" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-12T17:19:28.740" LastActivityDate="2018-05-14T06:37:53.213" Title="Research on teaching / learning methods for personality types" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19662" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19674" CreationDate="2018-05-06T19:26:55.927" Score="8" ViewCount="7633" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is Maslow's hierarchy of needs really accurate at labeling sex as a physiological &quot;need&quot;? If so, would that mean that single/celibate people cannot live self-actualized lives unless they have some sort of sexual outlet (e.g. masturbation)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18631" LastActivityDate="2019-08-13T16:49:14.877" Title="Is Maslow's hierarchy of needs really accurate at labeling sex as a physiological &quot;need&quot;?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19664" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19666" CreationDate="2018-05-07T06:50:27.400" Score="5" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any recognized terms for conditions that stem from or are the result of exposure to  psychopathic behavior (by another person) that are distinct from those that might have predisposed the individual to it or made them more vulnerable to it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, something like a &quot;post psychopath stress disorder&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would not have to be an official diagnosis, it's the only applicable tag I could find.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19214" LastEditorUserId="19214" LastEditDate="2018-05-09T03:10:20.107" LastActivityDate="2018-05-09T03:10:20.107" Title="Named conditions that are the result of exposure to psychopathic behavior of another person?" Tags="&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19666" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19664" CreationDate="2018-05-07T08:51:42.143" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Environmental psychological conditions&lt;/a&gt; (conditions triggered by an event arising from another person's actions or other event external to the person) will have the same name irrespective of whether they might have been predisposed to it, more vulnerable to it, or neither.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is very broad as there are many different conditions which can arise, which actually can be any condition within the spectrum of environmental psychological disorders. There is no such disorder as &quot;Post Psychopath Stress Disorder&quot; but psychological conditions can include Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, Anxiety, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_traumatization&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vicarious Trauma&lt;/a&gt;.  There can be many others arising from the physical and/or mental actions of the psychopathic individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-05-07T08:51:42.143" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19667" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19664" CreationDate="2018-05-07T08:53:20.257" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hink there is not a term for such situation. comorbidity is the condition that one person has more than one psychological disorder diagnosis.  It might cover the condition but as far as I know, it doesn't talk about the relationship between more than one disorder. There might be many reasons for comorbidity, two disorders can as you said, lead to each other or have similar byological dispositions. most of people with psychological disorders have more than one diagnosis. There are many discussions about comorbidity and it's implications on effectiveness of our diagnostic tools. for reference, I found this article by Kendall and Clarkin(1992): &#xA;Kendall, P. C., &amp;amp; Clarkin, J. F. (1992). Introduction to special section: Comorbidity and treatment implications. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(6), 833.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;If you are talking about interacting with someone with a disorder, some behaviours such as violence by a person with a disorder can lead to PTSD but although I don't know it for sure, it won't be different from any PTSD? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19165" LastEditorUserId="19165" LastEditDate="2018-05-07T13:05:20.343" LastActivityDate="2018-05-07T13:05:20.343" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19671" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-07T18:03:39.003" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a heavy reader, but my reading is limited primarily to non-fiction and scientific material. I find that my speed is becoming a real hinderance and is starting to discourage consumption. Comprehension and recall are excellent; speed is the bottleneck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;I'm not seeking to &quot;speed read&quot; (skim, etc.), but rather to improve my intake rate while maintaining comprehension.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I read I find that I have at least two primary difficulties (probably more, but these are what I mainly notice):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I vocalize what I read. This of course greatly slows me down (&lt;em&gt;perhaps this helps in comprehension, but I can't believe it does entirely since the mind can process data more rapidly in a visual fashion&lt;/em&gt;). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I find myself lost in thought sometimes both about the material AND&#xA;occasionally other things.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's clear that if I could eliminate these two issues I could dramatically increase my speed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any specific techniques available to help in these areas, perhaps especially in eliminating vocalization?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps there are other areas of improvement as well that could help, while reading such material. Any techniques or studies that have proven helpful in establishing good reading behavior and habits?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9605" LastActivityDate="2018-05-07T18:03:39.003" Title="Improving reading speed for complex material for already high comprehenders by eliminating mental vocalization?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19672" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19662" CreationDate="2018-05-08T00:58:54.670" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on all the energy spent on courting and mating, both in the human and animal world, I would say yes. There is also the argument that &amp;quot;survival&amp;quot; of humans as a species depends on sex (reproduction), which would make it a physiological need. Of course there is a gray line as sex also fulfils the need for love and affection, which is not at the base of the pyramid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know of research on &amp;quot;how long can a man or a woman live without sex&amp;quot;. I understand it must be different for each one of us, same as the needs for sleep or food. Although not scientific, interviews to clients of prostitutes describe sex as a need:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the past six months I've been separated from my missus and I've only had sex three times. Women would think, &amp;quot;So what?&amp;quot; But men need it more. I think it's just part of nature. If you don't have sex for a while you sort of blow up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Ian, 30, factory worker&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/apr/08/gender.uk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conversations in a Brothel (2002)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Please note that the need for sex is not only affecting men, the statement above is just an opinion from an interviewed client.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interviews to prostitutes and brothel managers have similar descriptions when interviewed on why US Sailors needed so much female and sexual attention:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;A lot of it was stress, they'd been in the war zone,&amp;quot; Ms Kenworthy said.&#xA;&amp;quot;And they were a lot more agitated sexually because they'd been at sea too long.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/05/02/1019441406441.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source (2002)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19204" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-05-08T00:58:54.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19673" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19642" CreationDate="2018-05-08T17:09:25.777" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming we could do a human brain trransplant and it wouldn't damage too much the recipient body or the donated brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The body that is currently called &quot;your body&quot;, when it woke up, would wake up with Stephen Hawking's (or whoever's) thoughts and memories, though he may be in different &quot;moods&quot; than he normally is in because now he would also have your endocrine system (your glands), which would affect his brain function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's because our best model of how mental activity occurs is it's the brain that stores style of thinking, skills, memories and other types of mental content. This is in contrast, to, say, Aristotle's view that the brain was merely an organ for cooling the blood. Furthermore, &lt;em&gt;specific&lt;/em&gt; brains--in terms of structure and function--give rise to &lt;em&gt;specific&lt;/em&gt; sets of mental content. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What's the evidence for the idea that the brain is the location of mental function and that the structure and functionality of a particular brain dictates the mental content generated by that brain?&lt;/strong&gt; A great deal indeed, but here is a smattering of evidence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Damage to the brain causes obvious changes to mental function. One good examples of this is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Agnosia-Information-Page&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stroke&lt;/a&gt;, in which specific areas of the brain are destroyed. This can leave a person with a very specific mental deficit, such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Agnosia-Information-Page&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inability to recognize specific classes&lt;/a&gt; of objects, faces, or words. But there are many other ways for the brain to be changed, and along with it, personality or thinking. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.theneuroethicsblog.com/2012/09/return-of-pedophilic-brain-tumor.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tumors&lt;/a&gt; may have been responsible for sexually deviant behavior. On the positive side, a traumatic brain injury may have &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/45349-brain-injury-turns-man-into-math-genius.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;turned a man into a math genius&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Temporary changes to brain biochemistry, such as alcohol intoxication, hypoglycemia, hypercapnia (too high carbon dioxide), etc., all cause obvious and usually reliably reversible changes in mental function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are essentially unending examples, either in humans or animal models, that show that brains underlie mental function and that specific brains give rise to specific minds (for some non-spiritual definition of &quot;a mind&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6642" LastEditorUserId="6642" LastEditDate="2018-05-09T23:39:28.453" LastActivityDate="2018-05-09T23:39:28.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19662" CreationDate="2018-05-08T18:31:45.803" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a trickier multi-part question to adjudicate than you might think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is Sex A &quot;Need&quot; (Physiological or Otherwise)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definitions of &quot;Needs&quot;, &quot;Motives&quot;, etc., are dime-a-dozen. Though I don't necessarily agree with all the ingredients, I like how well explicated the criteria by Baumeister and Leary (1995) are, according to whom a fundamental need should: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;produce effects readily under all but adverse conditions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;have affective consequences&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;direct cognitive processing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lead to ill effects (such as on health or adjustment) when thwarted&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;elicit goal-oriented behavior designed to satisfy it (subject to motivational patterns such as object substitutability and satiation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;be universal in the sense of applying to all people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;not be derivative of other motives&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;affect a broad variety of behaviors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;have implications that go beyond immediate psychological functioning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me, sex meets several of these criteria (e.g., it clearly directs affect and cognition, is universal-ish [asexuality notwithinstanding, a point a return to in a moment], but is questionable for a couple that, in my opinion, are crucial for bona fide &quot;need&quot;-status. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, it is not clear that thwarting of sexual desire leads to ill effects. Here, Baumeister and Leary (1995) are referring to big-ticket consequences, not affective tiddlywinks. In their words: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A motivation can be considered to be fundamental only if health, adjustment, or well-being requires that it be satisfied. Also, motivations can be sorted into wants and needs, the difference being in the scope of ill effects that follow from nonsatisfaction: Unsatisfied needs should lead to pathology (medical, psychological, or behavioral), unlike unsatisfied wants. (p. 498) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And while it is true that sexual frequency is positively associated with well-being, the benefits eventually &quot;level out&quot; (Muise et al., 2016), and there is not a clear link between a &quot;lack&quot; of sex and more serious medical or psychological pathology. And when one considers the occasional medical/mental health costs of engaging in sex (e.g., Meier, 2007), or the considerable efforts people go to to sometimes conceal their sexual activity (e.g., Olson &amp;amp; García-Moreno, 2007), it's not at all clear that engaging in sex is always a plus for mental or physical well-being. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also debatable whether the &quot;need&quot; for sex is it's own drive, or rather, derivative of other bona fide need-status motives. Take Meston and Buss's (2007) work on identifying reasons (over 250!) people give for engaging in sex. And when you look at their list of Top 50 endorsed reasons (many of which are similar for men and women), many of them seems to be about other drives/motives that may be more fundamental (e.g., social, relational, growth-oriented, etc.,). This issue spills over into the &quot;ill effects&quot; discussion as well; even in situations where a lack of sex co-occurs with more serious pathology, it's difficult to decisively isolate the pathology as a byproduct of the lack of sex, specifically, as opposed to deficits in other fundamental needs (e.g., belonging/security). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Tl;dr: sex is probably better thought of as a strong, widely-shared &quot;want&quot;, rather than a bona fide &quot;need&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Need-Status Notwithstanding, Is Sexual Desire Primarily Physiological?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sexual desire is surely physiologically driven to some non-zero extent. The association between physiological indicators (e.g., hormones like testosterone) and sexuality, however, is often a lot more complicated than the neat linear stories we like to tell (e.g., &quot;Men have stronger sexual desire because they have more testosterone!&quot;). An exhaustive review of this complexity would be overwhelming, but the work by Sari van Anders (e.g., her 2012 review + study) would be a good place to start. There's also plenty of evidence for non-physiological contributors to feelings of desire, such as those that are relational (for reviews, see Mikulincer &amp;amp; Shaver, 2007,  Muise et al., 2018, to name a few).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Tl;dr: Sexual desire (need or not) is determined by both physiological and non-physiological factors alike&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Need- and Physiological-Status Notwithstanding, Is Sex Needed for Self-Actualization?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably not, but the state of the world makes it very difficult to cleanly appraise this. Looking at self-actualization in asexually-idenfitying folks would initially seem the clearest route to testing this claim, and if you took note of some of the mental health challenged faced by that community (e.g., Yule et al., 2013), you might be tempted to conclude that there was evidence that sex is needed for self-actualization. The problem, however, is that there is pretty clear evidence that asexually-identifying individuals are targets of prejudice and discrimination (e.g., MacInnis &amp;amp; Hodson, 2002), and so just as--if not more--likely that their mental health challenges are the result of chronic stigmatization of their identities/sexual orientation (which is currently the way that experts like Yule and Brotto and their colleagues conceptualize asexuality vs. alternatives conceptualizations [e.g., a sexual dysfunction], based on their research, see Brotto et al., 2014; Brotto &amp;amp; Yule, 2017)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;tl;dr: Evidence currently challenges the construal of asexuality as a disorder, and mental health problems in asexual communities cannot be divorced from the broader social context in which these communities are routinely stigmatized--all of which is indirect evidence that it is premature (if not entirely mistaken) to argue that sex is needed for self-actualization&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumeister, R. F., &amp;amp; Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;117&lt;/em&gt;(3), 497-529.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brotto, L. A., &amp;amp; Yule, M. (2017). Asexuality: Sexual orientation, paraphilia, sexual dysfunction, or none of the above?. &lt;em&gt;Archives of Sexual Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;46&lt;/em&gt;(3), 619-627.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brotto, L. A., Yule, M. A., &amp;amp; Gorzalka, B. B. (2015). Asexuality: An extreme variant of sexual desire disorder?. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Sexual Medicine&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;12&lt;/em&gt;(3), 646-660.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MacInnis, C. C., &amp;amp; Hodson, G. (2012). Intergroup bias toward “Group X”: Evidence of prejudice, dehumanization, avoidance, and discrimination against asexuals. Group Processes &amp;amp; Intergroup Relations, 15(6), 725-743.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meier, A. M. (2007). Adolescent first sex and subsequent mental health. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Sociology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;112&lt;/em&gt;(6), 1811-1847.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meston, C. M., &amp;amp; Buss, D. M. (2007). Why humans have sex. &lt;em&gt;Archives of Sexual Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;36&lt;/em&gt;(4), 477-507.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mikulincer, M., &amp;amp; Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York, NY: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Muise, A., Maxwell, J. A., &amp;amp; Impett, E. A. (2018). What theories and methods from relationship research can contribute to sex research. The Journal of Sex Research, 55(4-5), 540-562.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Muise, A., Schimmack, U., &amp;amp; Impett, E. A. (2016). Sexual frequency predicts greater well-being, but more is not always better. &lt;em&gt;Social Psychological and Personality Science&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;7&lt;/em&gt;(4), 295-302.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Olson, R. M., &amp;amp; García-Moreno, C. (2017). Virginity testing: a systematic review. &lt;em&gt;Reproductive Health&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;14&lt;/em&gt;(1), 61.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;van Anders, S. M. (2012). Testosterone and sexual desire in healthy women and men. &lt;em&gt;Archives of Sexual Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;41&lt;/em&gt;(6), 1471-1484.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yule, M. A., Brotto, L. A., &amp;amp; Gorzalka, B. B. (2013). Mental health and interpersonal functioning in self-identified asexual men and women. &lt;em&gt;Psychology &amp;amp; Sexuality&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;4&lt;/em&gt;(2), 136-151.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12840" LastActivityDate="2018-05-08T18:31:45.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19675" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-08T19:08:11.957" Score="2" ViewCount="269" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does pattern recognition come under spatial IQ, or is spatial IQ only to do with mental rotations and visualising?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17107" LastActivityDate="2018-05-09T02:06:06.197" Title="Is pattern recognition a measure of spatial IQ?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19676" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19275" CreationDate="2018-05-09T00:09:36.483" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A nice psychology article (media article) that provides answers to your question can be found at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-blame-game/201504/the-surprising-psychology-rock-paper-scissors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. I will try to summarize briefly based on this article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How close to uniformly randomness can we expect each person to act?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The short answer is no. As explained in the article, on the first round of Rock-Paper-Scissors it is less likely that a randomly selected person will choose paper over scissors or rock. Moreover, as two people play many rounds of Rock-Paper-Scissors together, they tend to not play randomly but adjust their selections based on whether they won or lost. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Will this be a stationary distribution or it will change over the time if there will be a lot of trials?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many definitions of stationary, but a &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/pdf/1404.5199.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; mentioned in the above article found cyclical behavior which would violate some of the definitions of stationary. However, this might still fit into some definitions of stationarity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I'm unaware of a particular article which addresses the question of wide-sense stationary in this game, I would be surprised if this were found in Rock-Paper-Scissors played between humans. There is an interplay of affective (emotional) and rational decision making that tends to be influenced by the actions of human opponents. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be less surprised if this were found when a human plays a computer, especially if they knew the computer was playing completely randomly. People play different strategies in games played Human vs. Human as opposed to Human vs. Computer (e.g. the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12805551&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ultimatum Game&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19148" LastActivityDate="2018-05-09T00:09:36.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19675" CreationDate="2018-05-09T02:06:06.197" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not a complete answer, but you might want to look at the most widely accepted framework for organising cognitive abilities: The Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattell%E2%80%93Horn%E2%80%93Carroll_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattell%E2%80%93Horn%E2%80%93Carroll_theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this model speeded rotation is situated under visual processing. &#xA;But you'd have to check what is meant by perceptual speed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2c6df.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2c6df.png&quot; alt=&quot;subset of cattell horn carroll&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my thesis, I measured Cube Comparison (which is a kind of mental rotation task) along with several common measures of perceptual speed (speed of comparing, sorting numbers, and finding numbers in a set) and I found that cube comparison tended to load on both perceptual speed and general ability factors.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/8035/7/anglim-2011-skill-acquisition-phd-thesis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cogprints.org/8035/7/anglim-2011-skill-acquisition-phd-thesis.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1csFF.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1csFF.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-05-09T02:06:06.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19679" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-09T04:48:45.417" Score="0" ViewCount="449" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CL1Yc.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CL1Yc.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I saw it at first she did rotate to the right. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With some mental effort I could make her rotate either way in half rotations where it looks like she dances not rotating in my minds eye, but I can only hold that until she starts to rotate either way again. After a few minutes it looked like her leg twisted one way and her body the other. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would a person see if their brain is equally balance without a dominant side? What does it say when a person has the inability to only see a rotation? &#xA;Does this test have any basis if you are left or right brained? Does switching the direction from mental practice of build any part of your brain when you get to a point where you can do it more freely?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this picture identify anything about cognitive abilities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17827" LastEditorUserId="17827" LastEditDate="2019-03-10T02:51:01.467" LastActivityDate="2019-03-10T02:51:01.467" Title="Is quick left brain vs right brain test fake?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19682" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19679" CreationDate="2018-05-09T15:34:33.590" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Without references, you state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this picture if you noticed her rotating clockwise you are right&#xA;  brain dominant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We discourage asking questions on this site (or in science in general) which are based on unverified/referenced premises. However, given that this is a very common notion found online, I will try to answer your question by first helping you rephrase it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; have asked is something along the lines of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I have read online articles (e.g., on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.learning-mind.com/left-vs-right-hemisphere-of-the-brain-which-dominates-you/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;learning-mind.com&lt;/a&gt;) which claim that if you perceive the&#xA;  figure in the following image rotate clockwise it means you are right&#xA;  brain dominant and when you see her rotating counterclockwise it means&#xA;  you are left brain dominant. However, the mechanism behind this is not&#xA;  well explained. How does this test work and what exactly does it imply?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This figure is known as the 'Spinning Dancer' and there is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_Dancer&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a wikipedia article on it&lt;/a&gt;. The wikipedia entry states that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In popular psychology, the illusion has been incorrectly&lt;a href=&quot;https://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/left-brain-right-brain-and-the-spinning-girl/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[6]&lt;/a&gt; identified&#xA;  as a personality test that supposedly reveals which hemisphere of the&#xA;  brain is dominant in the observer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They link to &lt;a href=&quot;https://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/left-brain-right-brain-and-the-spinning-girl/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEUROLOGICAblog, &quot;Left Brain – Right brain and the Spinning Girl&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which explains that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.news.com.au/perthnow/story/0,21598,22492511-5005375,00.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This news article&lt;/a&gt;, like many others, ignores the true source of this&#xA;  optical illusion and instead claims it is a quick test to see if you&#xA;  use more of your right brain or left brain. This is utter nonsense,&#xA;  but the “right-brain/left brain” thing is in the public consciousness&#xA;  and won’t be going away anytime soon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, they explain what is actually going on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The spinning girl is a form of the more general spinning silhouette&#xA;  illusion. The image is not objectively “spinning” in one direction or&#xA;  the other. It is a two-dimensional image that is simply shifting back&#xA;  and forth. But our brains did not evolve to interpret two-dimensional&#xA;  representations of the world but the actual three-dimensional world.&#xA;  So our visual processing assumes we are looking at a 3-D image and is&#xA;  uses clues to interpret it as such. Or, without adequate clues it may&#xA;  just arbitrarily decide a best fit – spinning clockwise or&#xA;  counterclockwise. And once this fit is chosen, the illusion is&#xA;  complete – we see a 3-D spinning image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case you have specific questions on what 'hemispheric dominance' is and how we &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; determine it, the article (to my understanding, correctly) mentions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We also do have hemispheric dominance, but that determines mostly your&#xA;  handedness and the probability of language being on the right or the&#xA;  left. There is also often asymmetry for memory, with some being right&#xA;  or left hemisphere dominant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm certain you can find more scientific sources on this by googling (I would recommend &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;q=hemispheric+dominance&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;), or by looking on this site. At the time of writing, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/search?q=hemispheric+dominance&quot;&gt;we have 12 search results on 'hemispheric dominance'&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2018-05-09T15:34:33.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19687" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19688" CreationDate="2018-05-10T12:39:19.787" Score="2" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think we all experience this phenomenon once in a while, and I am experiencing it right now. It's the feeling that whatever word one tries to say it seems to be wrong (for them) or confusing (for the listeners), and would require a period of time to think out the right word that they have already known. If severed, it can lead to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustration&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frustration&lt;/a&gt;, but it's not really about feeling insecurity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the word for that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-05-12T04:09:22.153" LastActivityDate="2018-11-30T06:58:22.623" Title="What is the term for the &quot;knowing what you think but can't explain it&quot; phenomenon?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19688" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19687" CreationDate="2018-05-10T12:39:19.787" Score="3" Body="&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_block&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mental block&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A mental block is an uncontrollable suppression, or repression of painful or unwanted thoughts/memories. Also can be an inability to continue or complete a train of thought, as in the case of writer's block. In the case of writer's block, many find it helpful to take a break and revisit their topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also check out &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.macmillandictionary.com/thesaurus-category/british/forgetful-and-forgetfulness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a list of synonyms and related words for &amp;quot;forgetful and forgetfulness&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-05-17T10:15:53.160" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19690" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-10T16:46:48.560" Score="1" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;Evidence presented in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L90R6PtxFKE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this video&lt;/a&gt; suggests that, statistically, rich people are more likely to be jerks than people with less money. How could this tendency be curbed, especially with regards to rich kids?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19250" LastActivityDate="2018-05-11T09:07:25.083" Title="Encouraging Kindness in Rich People?" Tags="&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;&lt;altruism&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19692" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19690" CreationDate="2018-05-11T04:47:57.233" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The tendency can be altered by proper education.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, that evidence is mostly correct. Rich kids today think they are better than the rest because they can use money in many situations the others can't. That way, they think that they are superior. Further, parents unfortunately encourage and support this type of behavior. The kids become arrogant and will practically learn less than the others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rich kids do end up instantly getting many thing way too easy, while the others struggle years to get them and this creates multiple problems: individually, they will not be able to properly act in a situation where they can't bribe they way out of; collectively, overall, the society evolves towards inferiority in this manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19135" LastActivityDate="2018-05-11T04:47:57.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19694" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19690" CreationDate="2018-05-11T08:55:20.137" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting question as it has been of the opinion of many people around me that people who drive certain cars or are in a particular job or social status are selfish and don't care about anyone but themselves and maybe a little about those in their own circle of people.  But is this true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;TLDR - It seems to be true from studies presented, however there may be exceptions&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For context, we need to define 'jerks' and 'rich' within the studies and the YouTube video you linked to (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L90R6PtxFKE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;AppSCIENCE, 2018&lt;/a&gt;) had the studies and reports linked to it — NPR (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.npr.org/2018/01/23/579976635/the-power-hour&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2018&lt;/a&gt;), Piff, et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118373109&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2012&lt;/a&gt;), Roberts &amp;amp; Zarracina (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vox.com/2015/6/16/8790357/rich-people-jerks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2015&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;plus others&lt;/strong&gt; — which backed their claims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Rich (Definition)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roberts &amp;amp; Zarracina (2015) linked to the YouTube video talks of rich people being those who are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;at or near &quot;the 1%&quot; in wealth with an average income of $1M per year or more&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;some others would define it as someone who is substantially more financially well off and can include some below the top 1%.  My answer is based on this definition (see Social class, or socioeconomic status (SES) below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Jerk (Definition)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/jerk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Oxford Living Dictionary&lt;/a&gt; defines Jerk as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A contemptibly foolish person&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;whilst the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Jerk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Urban Dictionary&lt;/a&gt; says &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Jerks are selfish, manipulative bas****ds&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but Piff, et al. (2012) linked to with the YouTube video talked about:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;how social class is associated with unethical behavior, or actions that harm others and are illegal or morally objectionable to one's community&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;with Social class, or socioeconomic status (SES) being:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;an individual's rank vis-à-vis others in society in terms of wealth, occupational prestige, and education (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.586&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adler et al. 2000&lt;/a&gt;)(&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411414654&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kraus, Piff, &amp;amp; Keltner, 2011&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and there is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.macses.ucsf.edu/research/psychosocial/subjective.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MacArthur scale of subjective SES&lt;/a&gt; which was used by Piff et al. (2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The evidence&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piff, et al. (2012) conducted 7 studies for their report&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In studies 1 and 2, upper-class individuals were more likely to break the law while driving, relative to lower-class individuals. In follow-up laboratory studies, upper-class individuals were more likely to exhibit unethical decision-making tendencies (study 3), take valued goods from others (study 4), lie in a negotiation (study 5), cheat to increase their chances of winning a prize (study 6), and endorse unethical behavior at work (study 7) than were lower-class individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roberts &amp;amp; Zarracina (2015) covered the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/rich-californians-youll-have-to-pry-the-hoses-from-our-cold-dead-hands/2015/06/13/fac6f998-0e39-11e5-9726-49d6fa26a8c6_story.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Washington Post story&lt;/a&gt; about water restrictions imposed in the wake of California's drought, and how wealthy people were reacting to them, along with research by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592714001595&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gillens &amp;amp; Page (2014)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S153759271200360X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Page, Bartels, &amp;amp; Seawright (2013)&lt;/a&gt; which were studying the political viewpoints of the elite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Washington Post story quoted a wealthy Californian resident to have said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I think we’re being overly penalized, and we’re certainly being overly scrutinized by the world,&quot; said Gay Butler, an interior designer out for a trail ride on her show horse, Bear. She said her water bill averages about $800 a month.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It angers me because people aren’t looking at the overall picture,&quot; Butler said. &quot;What are we supposed to do, just have dirt around our house on four acres?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;when talking about the fact that everyone had the same limit on water usage.  Defending the amount of water she and her neighbors &quot;need&quot; for their vast estates she also said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You could put 20 houses on my property, and they’d have families of at least four. In my house, there is only two of us,” Butler said. So “they’d be using a hell of a lot more water than we’re using.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Possible exceptions&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other side of the spectrum, Rancho Santa Fe resident Randy Woods was feeling burdened by his lush landscape and opted to downsize. The 60-something chief executive of a biotech company moved a year ago from a two-acre estate — replete with two waterfalls, two Jacuzzis, a swimming pool and an orchard — to a condo in the tiny core of town known as “the Village.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Woods said some of his friends would like to do the same, largely to cut down on their bloated water bills. But they have encountered an unforeseen obstacle, he said: The drought has dampened demand for large estates in San ­Diego County.  Another friend, Woods said, has seen the value of his nine-acre plot plummet from 30 million US Dollars to 22 million US Dollars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question with those who are choosing not to sell because of drops in property value is, &lt;strong&gt;is this greed at play?&lt;/strong&gt;  You could say that when you can still get $22M and therefore still live comfortably; plus Piff et al. (2012) states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mediator and moderator data demonstrated that upper-class individuals’ unethical tendencies are accounted for, in part, by their more favorable attitudes toward greed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piff, et al. (2012) also highlights:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;significant philanthropy displayed by such individuals as Bill Gates and Warren Buffet&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but the cynics would say that these people are motivated purely by self-interest rather than acting for honourable or unselfish reasons.  (They are doing it to look good and say &quot;look at how thoughtful I am&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also likely to be instances of lower-class individuals exhibiting unethical tendencies, as research on the relationship between concentrations of poverty and violent crime indicates (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sampson, Raudenbush, &amp;amp; Earls, 1997&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adler, N. E., Epel, E. S., Castellazzo, G., &amp;amp; Ickovics, J. R. (2000). Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy, White women. &lt;em&gt;Health psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 19(6), 586.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.586&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.586&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;AppSCIENCE (2018). Are Rich People Worse Humans? (YouTube Video)&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L90R6PtxFKE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L90R6PtxFKE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gilens, M., &amp;amp; Page, B. I. (2014). Testing theories of American politics: Elites, interest groups, and average citizens. &lt;em&gt;Perspectives on politics&lt;/em&gt;, 12(3), 564-581.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592714001595&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1017/S1537592714001595&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kraus, M. W., Piff, P. K., &amp;amp; Keltner, D. (2011). Social class as culture: The convergence of resources and rank in the social realm. &lt;em&gt;Current directions in psychological science&lt;/em&gt;, 20(4), 246-250.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411414654&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/0963721411414654&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NPR (2018). The Power Hour - Hidden Brain: A Conversation About Life's Unseen Patterns (Podcast)&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.npr.org/2018/01/23/579976635/the-power-hour&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.npr.org/2018/01/23/579976635/the-power-hour&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Page, B. I., Bartels, L. M., &amp;amp; Seawright, J. (2013). Democracy and the policy preferences of wealthy Americans. &lt;em&gt;Perspectives on Politics&lt;/em&gt;, 11(1), 51-73.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S153759271200360X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1017/S153759271200360X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;Free PDF from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/%7Ejnd260/cab/CAB2012%20-%20Page1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;James N. Druckman, Department of Political Science, Northwestern University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piff, P. K., Stancato, D. M., Côté, S., Mendoza-Denton, R., &amp;amp; Keltner, D. (2012). Higher social class predicts increased unethical behavior. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 109(11), 4086-4091.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118373109&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1073/pnas.1118373109&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roberts, D. &amp;amp; Zarracina, J. (2015). Rich people are jerks, explained &lt;em&gt;Vox&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vox.com/2015/6/16/8790357/rich-people-jerks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.vox.com/2015/6/16/8790357/rich-people-jerks&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., &amp;amp; Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 277(5328), 918-924.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1126/science.277.5328.918&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-11T09:07:25.083" LastActivityDate="2018-05-11T09:07:25.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19696" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-11T12:51:53.547" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's assume that I have a datasheet looking like that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Patient Electrode  Task Theta power&#xA;1       1          1    0.5&#xA;1       2          1    0.8        &#xA;1       3          1    0.1&#xA;1       4          1    0.9&#xA;...&#xA;1       1          2    0.3&#xA;1       2          2    0.9        &#xA;1       3          2    0.4&#xA;1       4          2    0.3&#xA;...&#xA;2       1          1    0.2&#xA;2       2          1    0.7        &#xA;2       3          1    0.3&#xA;2       4          1    0.4&#xA;...&#xA;2       1          2    0.6&#xA;2       2          2    0.7        &#xA;2       3          2    0.8&#xA;2       4          2    0.8&#xA;...&#xA;3       1          1    0.0&#xA;3       2          1    0.3        &#xA;3       3          1    0.2&#xA;3       4          1    0.8&#xA;...&#xA;3       1          2    0.2&#xA;3       2          2    0.5        &#xA;3       3          2    0.1&#xA;3       4          2    0.9&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have for example 20 patients, each of the patient has 128 electrodes recorded from one experiment with 2 categories. So data for the patients (for example this theta power on each electrode) are INDEPENDENT, because the data are from different people, and from only one run of the experiment. But on the other hand the data regarding electrodes from each patient are DEPENDENT, all electrodes share a bit of common signal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kind of statistical tests we can use to check the difference in for example this theta power between the task no. 1 and no.2? How to take care of this dependancy/independancy in neuroscience data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19256" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-11T13:15:28.610" LastActivityDate="2018-05-11T13:15:28.610" Title="Statistic analysis on EEG data - how to deal with it properly?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19697" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21015" CreationDate="2018-05-11T14:48:48.927" Score="8" ViewCount="514" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a 1st-level fMRI analysis, it is unclear to me what the t-test performed for each voxel is actually comparing. I've seen this being described in one of two different ways:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The t-test estimates how well the model (HRF curve convoluted with the design) fits the data (BOLD signal), in other words is a measure of the goodness of this fit.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The t-test compares the BOLD signal to a baseline.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess both of these can be conceptualized as one-sample t-tests, but it's unclear if the two comparisons would in fact be equivalent, or if different types of t-tests are used in different situations, with the two cases given above being but two examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="6446" LastEditDate="2018-05-12T08:17:38.663" LastActivityDate="2018-10-29T10:49:48.023" Title="In fMRI analyses, what is the t-test actually comparing?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19698" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-12T00:55:39.260" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;In research studies, it is common to compensate the participant for their time/effort by giving them monetary compensation. Is there any research on whether the amount someone is paid for participating in a study affects their level of engagement during that study?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19264" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-12T15:17:26.470" LastActivityDate="2018-05-12T15:17:26.470" Title="Participant compensation and engagement in online studies" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19699" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-12T05:54:11.280" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Awhile back, I picked up &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Modeling&lt;/em&gt; by Thad A. Polk (published in 2002 by MIT Press - and yes, before anyone points it out, I do realize that that's probably somewhat out of date at this point given its age). I found that I was somewhat confused by it, though. What is the appropriate background for this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd give a little more of my personal background for context, but I'm not looking for personalized advice so much as a general explanation of what kinds of things (beyond an &quot;ordinary&quot; introduction to cognitive psychology) would be helpful to understanding this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15009" LastEditorUserId="15009" LastEditDate="2018-05-14T03:10:14.470" LastActivityDate="2018-05-14T03:10:14.470" Title="What is an appropriate background for cognitive modeling?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19701" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-12T10:48:08.080" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I would kindly like to ask for literature on the role of:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;em&gt;Overcoming extreme experiences (suffering - psychological, physical, etc. -, fear, etc.), in personal development&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sports psychology in personal development&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19263" LastEditorUserId="19263" LastEditDate="2018-05-13T18:15:30.307" LastActivityDate="2018-05-13T18:15:30.307" Title="Role of extreme experiences in psychological development" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19702" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-12T13:23:50.637" Score="7" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;While trying to find research articles within the realm of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosynthesis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychosynthesis&lt;/a&gt;, I have been looking at the &quot;collective unconscious&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Hkubj.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Hkubj.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Image Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Psychosynthesis-egg-diagram_color.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia Commons&lt;/a&gt; - (&lt;a href=&quot;https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;CC BY-SA 3.0&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lower Unconscious&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Middle Unconscious&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Higher Unconscious&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Field of Consciousness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conscious Self or &quot;I&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Higher Self&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Collective Unconscious&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conducting a Google Scholar search for &quot;collective unconscious&quot; I stumbled on an article by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.02.021&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dinan, et al. (2015)&lt;/a&gt; which states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Gut microbes are part of the unconscious system influencing behavior.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Microbes majorly impact on cognitive function and fundamental behavior patterns.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Disorganisation of the gut microbiota can negatively impact on mental health.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Psychobiotics are probiotics with a potential mental health benefit.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;they also talk about bidirectional communication between gut microbes and the brain occuring via a number of routes including the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X), the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and cytokines produced by the immune system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Bacteria also have the capacity to generate many neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. For example, certain &lt;em&gt;Lactobacillus&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Bifidobacterium&lt;/em&gt; species produce gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA); &lt;em&gt;Escherichia&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Bacillus&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Saccharomyces&lt;/em&gt; spp. produce norepinephrine (NE); &lt;em&gt;Candida&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Streptococcus&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Escherichia&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Enterococcus&lt;/em&gt; spp. produce 5HT; &lt;em&gt;Bacillus&lt;/em&gt; produces dopamine (DA); and &lt;em&gt;Lactobacillus&lt;/em&gt; produces acetylcholine (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.201100024&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lyte, 2011&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003726&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lyte, 2013&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0812874106&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikoff et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;). Some probiotics can modulate the concentrations of opioid and cannabinoid receptors in the gut epithelium (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1521&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rousseaux et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;). However, how this local effect occurs or translates to the anti-nociceptive effects seen in animal models of visceral pain is currently unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is &lt;strong&gt;can poor mental health affect the bidirectional communication between gut microbes and the brain, and can consuming products containing probiotics be used to help with mental health problems?  If so, will consuming products containing probiotics when well cause mental health problems?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dinan, T. G., Stilling, R. M., Stanton, C., &amp;amp; Cryan, J. F. (2015). Collective unconscious: how gut microbes shape human behavior. &lt;em&gt;Journal of psychiatric research&lt;/em&gt;, 63, 1-9.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.02.021&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.02.021&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lyte, M. (2011). Probiotics function mechanistically as delivery vehicles for neuroactive compounds: microbial endocrinology in the design and use of probiotics. &lt;em&gt;Bioessays&lt;/em&gt;, 33(8), 574-581.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.201100024&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/bies.201100024&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb2f/1d5955c719fb56dddb0b0feb56d06f6501db.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Semantic Scholar&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lyte, M. (2013). Microbial endocrinology in the microbiome-gut-brain axis: how bacterial production and utilization of neurochemicals influence behavior. &lt;em&gt;PLoS pathogens&lt;/em&gt;, 9(11), e1003726.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003726&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1371/journal.ppat.1003726&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rousseaux, C., Thuru, X., Gelot, A., Barnich, N., Neut, C., Dubuquoy, L., ... &amp;amp; Ouwehand, A. (2007). Lactobacillus acidophilus modulates intestinal pain and induces opioid and cannabinoid receptors. &lt;em&gt;Nature medicine&lt;/em&gt;, 13(1), 35.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1521&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/nm1521&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikoff, W. R., Anfora, A. T., Liu, J., Schultz, P. G., Lesley, S. A., Peters, E. C., &amp;amp; Siuzdak, G. (2009). Metabolomics analysis reveals large effects of gut microflora on mammalian blood metabolites. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the national academy of sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 106(10), 3698-3703.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0812874106&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1073/pnas.0812874106&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-06-07T15:02:50.283" Title="Probiotics and Mental Health" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19703" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-12T14:00:48.377" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering. &lt;strong&gt;Would it be possible to stimulate an individuals sense of group by gamification?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For those who don’t know, gamification is a method of making a game out of the mundane. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&#xA;If you earn a badge for every time you correct something on StackExchange. Would that be a good enough ‘reward’ for most people to keep doing it and not giving up after some time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19206" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-12T16:33:24.793" LastActivityDate="2018-05-12T16:33:24.793" Title="Can gamification lead to better group cooperation?" Tags="&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2018-05-16T22:46:49.253" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19704" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-12T16:57:35.420" Score="2" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm struggling to understand the meaning of the term associative memory in the context of Hopfield networks. I'm not sure if associative learning is the same thing or a different thing. In associative learning, you have two unrelated items and you learn to associate one item with the other. In a hopfield network you have a partial pattern then you can retrieve the full pattern. How is this associative learning? Or are associative learning and associative memory different things?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19272" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-12T20:29:22.007" LastActivityDate="2018-05-12T20:36:16.037" Title="Why is the hopfield network a model of associative memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19705" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19657" CreationDate="2018-05-12T17:07:01.163" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Starting with the most recent and working backwards, there are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Specifically Big 5&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Von Stumm, S., &amp;amp; Furnham, A. F. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Learning approaches: Associations with Typical Intellectual Engagement, intelligence and the Big Five.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences&lt;/em&gt;, 53(5), 720-723.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.014&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Learning approaches, i.e. students’ learning strategies and motives, predict academic performance but it is not clear how much variance they share with intelligence and personality. Here, the relationship of the Big Five personality traits, intelligence, and Typical Intellectual Engagement (TIE) with deep, achieving and surface learning was explored in a sample of 579 British undergraduate students. A structural equation model showed that (a) intelligence was negligibly associated with learning approaches; (b) TIE was strongly related to all three types of learning approaches; (c) deep learning shared the greatest amount of variance with TIE, while (d) achieving learning was best explained by Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Conscientiousness. Only 25% of the variance in surface learning was accounted for by intelligence and personality. Thus, personality traits and learning approaches share much variance but not enough to dismiss either construct as redundant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Komarraju, M., Karau, S. J., Schmeck, R. R., &amp;amp; Avdic, A. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.019&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Big Five personality traits, learning styles, and academic achievement.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Personality and individual differences&lt;/em&gt;, 51(4), 472-477.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.019&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.019&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Personality and learning styles are both likely to play significant roles in influencing academic achievement. College students (308 undergraduates) completed the Five Factor Inventory and the Inventory of Learning Processes and reported their grade point average. Two of the Big Five traits, conscientiousness and agreeableness, were positively related with all four learning styles (synthesis analysis, methodical study, fact retention, and elaborative processing), whereas neuroticism was negatively related with all four learning styles. In addition, extraversion and openness were positively related with elaborative processing. The Big Five together explained 14% of the variance in grade point average (GPA), and learning styles explained an additional 3%, suggesting that both personality traits and learning styles contribute to academic performance. Further, the relationship between openness and GPA was mediated by reflective learning styles (synthesis-analysis and elaborative processing). These latter results suggest that being intellectually curious fully enhances academic performance when students combine this scholarly interest with thoughtful information processing. Implications of these results are discussed in the context of teaching techniques and curriculum design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Busato, V. V., Prins, F. J., Elshout, J. J., &amp;amp; Hamaker, C. (1998). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00112-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The relation between learning styles, the Big Five personality traits and achievement motivation in higher education.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Personality and individual differences&lt;/em&gt;, 26(1), 129-140.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00112-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00112-3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  In his dissertation, Vermunt [Vermunt, J. D. H. M. (1992). Leerstijlen en sturen van leerprocessen in het hoger onderwijs. (Learning styles and guidance of learning processes in higher education). Amsterdam/Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger] postulated four different learning styles: a meaning directed, a reproduction directed, an application directed and an undirected style. Aim of this project is to investigate the relation between these learning styles, the big five personality traits and achievement motivation. Subjects were about 900 university students. Extraversion correlated positively with the meaning directed, reproduction directed and application directed learning style. Conscientiousness was associated positively with the meaning, reproduction and application directed learning style, and negatively with the undirected learning style. Openness to experience correlated positively with the meaning and application directed learning style, and negatively with the undirected learning style. Besides, it was found that neuroticism correlated positively with the undirected learning style and negatively with the meaning and reproduction directed learning style. Agreeableness was associated positively with the reproduction and application directed learning style. Positive correlations were found for achievement motivation with the meaning, reproduction and the application directed learning style, and a negative one with the undirected learning style. Regression analyses confirmed these patterns. Although there was some systematic overlap for the four learning styles with personality variables and achievement motivation, the conclusion is that it certainly makes sense to measure these three groups of variables separately in educational settings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Other personality type research&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vincent, A., &amp;amp; Ross, D. (2001). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1108/09696470110366525&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Personalize training: determine learning styles, personality types and multiple intelligences online&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;The Learning Organization&lt;/em&gt;, 8(1), 36-43.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1108/09696470110366525&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1108/09696470110366525&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Training can be personalized using online resources to determine an individual’s learning preferences and personality characteristics. This study provides an overview of learning style, personality types, and multiple intelligences theories; lists and describes selected testing instruments available on the Internet; and provides strategies for teaching and learning, considering different learning styles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, A. (1991). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341910110302&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Personality types, learning styles and educational goals.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Educational Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 11(3-4), 217-238.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341910110302&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/0144341910110302&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Attempts to broaden conceptions of learning styles to represent more adequately individual differences in motivation/emotion, as well as cognition, are limited by a paucity of relevant theory. Personality theories should, but do not, provide a satisfactory conceptual framework for this endeavour. In an attempt to remedy this situation, a new personality typology is outlined which, it is argued, provides a coherent system within which to construe and conduct research upon learning styles. The implications of the theory for educational goals, couched in terms of learning styles, also are discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-05-12T17:07:01.163" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19706" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19704" CreationDate="2018-05-12T20:36:16.037" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;An &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/15469/4397&quot;&gt;Associative Memory is a synonym for Content Addressable Memory&lt;/a&gt; or a memory which stores the result of associative learning, wherein an input item is learned to be associated with an output item.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Hopfield network is a type of associative memory, wherein an input item (including partial, noisy representations of the original trained/encoded item) is an associated to a the ideal representation of the trained/desired/encoded input item.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further discussion of Hopfield networks, I recommend look at the question &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/15744/4397&quot;&gt;What&amp;#39;s the difference between a Hamming and Hopfield network?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-05-12T20:36:16.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19707" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-12T22:10:47.907" Score="0" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://bravetheworld.com/2016/02/23/jobs-standards-high/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;certain blogger claims&lt;/a&gt; that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[if you] Work a shitty job, it builds character [nonetheless].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious if there are any academic studies relating to this issue. Of course one needs to consider the definition of job carefully in this case: does prostitution count for instance (it's legal in some countries), or does drug dealing, i.e. are we talking about income, legal income or just doing work; what if it's unpaid work, e.g. volunteering? It would be really nice if some study went to such extents to distinguish between these in relation to the outcome..., but I'll settle for more generic descriptions of &quot;job&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also one would have consider what exactly &quot;build character&quot; translates into (psychologically speaking)... enhancing self-esteem, or something else I haven't thought of just yet. But I'll leave this aspect fairly open as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-15T07:11:34.970" LastActivityDate="2020-03-18T20:24:55.230" Title="Does getting any job (no matter how demeaning) builds up one's character?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19708" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-12T22:13:05.510" Score="3" ViewCount="407" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/9728/how-do-moral-judgments-change-for-older-adults/9745#9745&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; answer, there are some kind of points used for moral reasoning. Therefore, I'm interested now, how the amount of points given for reasoning? Is there some kind of ideal moral theory used for it, or is it just how consistent the reasoning is or what?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastActivityDate="2019-03-23T20:13:12.213" Title="How moral reasoning is measured?" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19709" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19707" CreationDate="2018-05-12T22:48:39.983" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll gladly accept a more elaborate answer, but on a quick search I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://news.osu.edu/news/2016/08/22/lousy-jobs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a news release for study titled&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lousy jobs hurt your health by the time you’re in your 40s&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it's referring to mental health mostly. The data/sample is from a longitudinal study of 6,300 Americans (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Longitudinal_Surveys&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NLSY79&lt;/a&gt;). And the study's finding are that job dissatisfaction correlated pretty strongly with poor[er] mental health outcomes on five separate measures: depression, sleep problems, excessive worry, being diagnosed with emotional problems, and overall test of mental health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it looks like in this case &quot;building character&quot; by taking a &quot;shitty job&quot; translates to mental health problems  being built... although one has to be a little concerned with reading causation where it might be just correlation. After all, job dissatisfaction might stem from the same genes that make one prone to depression. I'm not sure this study succeeded in separating cause from effect...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-05-12T22:48:39.983" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19710" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4630" CreationDate="2018-05-13T01:14:19.107" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don’t really have much in the way of scientific evidence for combining the two. I have, however, information from personal experience that many therapists tend to combine the two approaches with varying effects. I think the combination can be useful if a particular case conceptualisation is chosen and diverse techniques are utilized. (I believe this is called technical eclecticism). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example, a disorder I have struggled with, Social anxiety Disorder. The CT model (1)of the disorder claims that it is maintained by maladaptive cognitions about performance on social situations and the social cost of social failure. These maladaptive cognitions lead to increased anxiety which triggers behavioral avoidance of uncomfortable situations which only maintains the anxiety. Based on this model, cognitions have to be modified in order for behavior to be changed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to ACT however (2), anxiety is maintained by a constant struggle with thoughts and feelings, and attachment to the literal meaning of thoughts and desire to avoid negative emotions. Thus behavioral avoidance is an extension of the desire to avoid negative experiences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One therapist I had resolved the differences by focusing on the similarity - the behavioral component. My social anxiety was conceptualized as being maintained by behavioral avoidance. Thus, my thoughts and feelings were seen as barriers to countering that avoidance. In order to remove these barriers, she used cognitive restructuring and defusion as tools depending on the type of thought. In my experience, cognitive restructuring was most useful if there was a side of the issue that was being ignored or if i really believed the maladaptive thoughts. I found that defusion was most helpful for thoughts that hindered me even though I knew that they were untrue or that there was no way of knowing if they were true. For example, I often believed that my friends secretly did not like me and were not telling me this. The cognitive therapy approach is to label this thought as a distortion - mind reading - and attempt to come to a conclusion that can be logically come to based on the available evidence. I found this to be absolutely useless with the thought - because I was certain it was mind reading but it still held power over me. Defusion helped me to modify the power of the thought since I could not modify it. Over time, I discovered that it was helpful to me to do cognitive restructuring first to reduce the believability of a thought and then defuse the thought if I knew the logical truth but could not really believe it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another therapist I had helpfully illustrates the conflict with using diverse case conceptualisation.  This therapist both suggested that using coping statements (realistic facts that could counter negative thoughts) was helpful and trying to decipher the real facts of a situation while in it was unhelpful which is very contradictory. He also used both ACT and CT conceptualisation in the most confusing ways. For example, he advised that mindfulness exercises not be utilized as ways to reduce anxiety but to reduce experiential avoidance  (an ACT concept) yet he conceptualized exposures in the CT way, which stresses habituation and fear reduction rather than engaging in scary activities for valued living (ACT). He also stressed the importance of aiming for behavior change rather than having less anxiety (an ACT concept) yet he rated the subjective levels of distress while engaging in a task and considered an exposure a success once the distress had fallen. I think the problem was that he had taken a standard CBT social anxiety group therapy and thrown in ACT case conceptualisation without removing the elements from CBT that do not fit with the ACT approach.  I was lucky that I had discovered how to use the differing strategies with the previous therapist I had. Otherwise, I would have been very confused. I don’t think any of the techniques would have negated each other - just that it would have been difficult for me to decide which technique was useful in which situation. This therapist was mostly helpful for me in teaching me the empirically supported social anxiety exposures - which happens to be largely the same for both therapies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an interesting side note, I later discovered I have Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder which affects me mostly when I have to sustain effort or attention on something I don’t want to do. For this problem, I have found CT to be useless because it involves telling me to do experiential experiments and to notice that I can do things well even if I have no motivation (3). The thing for me is that I know that but I still really don’t want to do the task and just won’t. Working with the second therapist in this issue was helpful because an ACT conceptualisation completely fit with the problems. And, since CBT doesn’t have a well-established protocol for ADHD, I did not have the same problems with a CBT protocol filtering in to an ACt therapy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Clark, D. M. &amp;amp; Wells, A. (1995). A cognitive model of social phobia. In R. Heimberg, M. Liebowitz, D. A. Hope, &amp;amp; F. R. Schneier (Eds.), Social phobia: Diagnosis, assessment and treatment. (pp. 69–93). New York: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dalrymple K. L., and Herbert J. D. (2007) Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Generalized Social Anxiety Disorder: A Pilot Study     Behavior Modification Vol 31, Issue 5, pp. 543 - 568&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445507302037&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445507302037&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Saulsman, L., &amp;amp; Nathan, P. (2008). Put Off Procrastinating. Perth, Western Australia: Centre for Clinical Interventions.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19274" LastEditorUserId="19274" LastEditDate="2018-05-13T08:18:36.627" LastActivityDate="2018-05-13T08:18:36.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19711" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19716" CreationDate="2018-05-13T01:40:53.037" Score="6" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is coming out of a couple points of confusion after I learned about about NMDA receptors' role in LTP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I got the impression that after AMPA receptors were activated enough, which depolarizes the cell, that nearby NMDA receptors will allow Na and Ca to come into the cell. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is it the local membrane potential, around those receptors that matter for a given voltage-gated NMDAR to open up? Or is there no such thing as 'local membrane potential', and the whole cell body is about the same amount of negative or positive voltage? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If there's no such thing as 'local membrane potential', does it matter if the AMPA receptors are activated or if other receptors are activated? Does a single neuron usually respond to more than one type of excitatory neurotransmitter? If so, couldn't the activation of any receptor that results in cell depolarization eventually cause NMDAR to open up? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19275" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-14T08:27:22.693" LastActivityDate="2018-05-15T15:24:58.657" Title="Does NMDA-receptor activation depend on neighboring AMPA-receptor activity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;ltp&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19714" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19701" CreationDate="2018-05-13T16:21:43.613" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;after a quick search on the second topic i was able to find the following:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://hastebin.com/osokoniwed.erl&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://hastebin.com/osokoniwed.erl&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;not sure if all this literature is relevant, reason why i am asking. then on the hand of resilience psychology i found this &lt;a href=&quot;https://hastebin.com/rebojuxeke.erl&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://hastebin.com/rebojuxeke.erl&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19263" LastEditorUserId="19263" LastEditDate="2018-05-13T18:14:47.700" LastActivityDate="2018-05-13T18:14:47.700" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19715" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19708" CreationDate="2018-05-13T17:50:31.450" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It really depends on your theory.  If you can write measurement of morality in google scholar you would find many morality theories and attempts to measure it such as (Ziv, 1976). Most theories, as far as I know, use stories and evaluate children's responces to those theories. I'm not aware of any scale to measure moral development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, one of the most commonly used theory of moral development is Kohlberg's stage based moral development theory (Kohlberg, 1971). In that article, although I have not read fully, Kohlberg talks about some stories he used to measure moral development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course there are many critiques to this stage based measurement of moral development. (Bandura 2014) can guide you on current theories. I haven't read any of those articles but they seem to be good starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bandura, A. (2014). Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In Handbook of moral behavior and development (pp. 69-128). Psychology Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kohlberg, L. (1971). Stages of moral development. &lt;em&gt;Moral education&lt;/em&gt;, 1, 23-92.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ziv, A. (1976). Measuring aspects of morality. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Moral Education&lt;/em&gt;, 5(2), 189-201.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19165" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-15T07:21:54.647" LastActivityDate="2018-05-15T07:21:54.647" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19716" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19711" CreationDate="2018-05-14T01:32:54.530" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there most certainly is &quot;local membrane potential&quot;.  There are two major levels of compartmentalization in dendritic processing.  For one, most excitatory synapses occur onto &quot;spines&quot;, which have a somewhat segregated environment from the rest of the dendrite.  The spine neck has been estimated to have a resistance of up to 1GOhm, although measurements are very difficult, so discussion spans orders of magnitude.  The other level of compartmentalization is that different dendritic branches can function somewhat independently.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is actually extremely important that there be &quot;local membrane potential&quot; and that AMPA receptors only activate neighboring NMDA receptors.  That is because Ca2+ coming through NMDA receptors leads (through many steps) to LTP (long-term potentiation) at that synapse.  We want LTP to be synapse-specific (only the activated synapse should be strengthened).  This requires that NMDA currents be specific to the synapse that had the AMPA current.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has an excellent article on this subject: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendritic_spine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendritic_spine&lt;/a&gt;.  See especially &quot;Modeling spine calcium transients&quot; for discussion of the extent to which NMDA mediated Ca2+ transients are local.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2018-05-15T15:24:58.657" LastActivityDate="2018-05-15T15:24:58.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19717" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19657" CreationDate="2018-05-14T06:37:53.213" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Chris has a nice answer which touches on some of the literature linking Big 5 personality and learning styles to academic performance. &#xA;I'll reiterate that, yes, there is a meta-analytic literature that shows modest correlations between self-rated personality and academic performance (e.g., grades). e.g., see Poropat (2009). E.g., conscientiousness helps; openness also helps (although openness can sometimes be a rough proxy for self-rated intelligence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More broadly, the general conclusion of the learning styles literature is that adapting pedagogical strategy to learning styles is not effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My sense of the literature is that prior knowledge and domain specific motivations are the more important things to incorporate when customising education.&#xA;And that in most cases, it's better to focus on main effects of teaching approach  than to focus on the interaction effect of learning style or personality with teaching approach. To put it another way: invest your energy in working out good ways to teach people in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Rererences&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Poropat, A. E. (2009). A meta-analysis of the five-factor model of personality and academic performance. Psychological bulletin, 135(2), 322.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-05-14T06:37:53.213" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19718" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19719" CreationDate="2018-05-14T08:53:25.733" Score="5" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any phrase/term to describe the opposite of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironic_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;White Bear principle&lt;/a&gt; (also known as ironic process principle)? &#xA;I'm looking for a word to describe the process where something eludes you the more you try to think of it (or remember it). I think I may have come across a term to describe this phenomenon but I'm not sure if such a phrase/term exists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19284" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-14T09:17:17.000" LastActivityDate="2018-11-17T16:09:16.300" Title="Opposite of White Bear principle?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19719" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19718" CreationDate="2018-05-14T09:14:32.623" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.news.ucsb.edu/2013/013593/overthinking-can-be-detrimental-human-performance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Over-thinking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://qz.com/113458/want-to-remember-something-forget-it/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Unconscious recall of information&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; can be more effective than conscious recall of that same information. Disruption of the activity of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsolateral_prefrontal_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dorsolateral prefrontal cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (by TMS) improved image-recall in healthy subjects (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.news.ucsb.edu/2013/013593/overthinking-can-be-detrimental-human-performance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UC Santa Barbara&lt;/a&gt;). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is associated with executive functions including working memory and selective attention &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780128001059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Lehner &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2016)&lt;/a&gt;. The effect over paying too much attention in an attempt to remember something has been referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://qz.com/113458/want-to-remember-something-forget-it/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;over-thinking&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780128001059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lehner &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Genomics, Circuits, and Pathways in Clinical Neuropsychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Elsevier (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="19284" LastEditDate="2018-11-17T16:09:16.300" LastActivityDate="2018-11-17T16:09:16.300" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19724" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-14T23:43:18.560" Score="5" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;My five year old daughter asked me why we can't repeat the same word ad infinitum. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have never thought about it before but she is right. Most people when given the task of saying a word, almost any word, will sooner or later get tongue tied and merge the syllables. It is not just boredom. You could bounce a ball until tired but then I guess there is a longer gap between bounces. If you reduce the time gap then we mess that up, too. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But saying a word is a simple thing and yet it is almost impossible to repeatedly say the word correctly. After 15 repetitions you start saying rubbish and need a break but it is not due to fatigue. Anyone with any thoughts?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19290" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-07-07T07:52:38.137" LastActivityDate="2018-07-07T07:52:38.137" Title="Why do humans fail to correctly repeat the same word over and over again?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19725" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19728" CreationDate="2018-05-15T08:08:04.987" Score="4" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm stuck with the definition of the Covariance in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_test_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;classical test theory&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (CTT) framework:&#xA;In CTT it is assumed that for two items:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$X = \tau_x + \epsilon_x$&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$E(X) = \tau_x$  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$Y = \tau_y + \epsilon_y$&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$E(Y) = \tau_y$  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From these assumptions it follows that:&#xA;$Cov(X,Y) = E[(\tau_x+\epsilon_x)*(\tau_y+\epsilon_y)] - E(\tau_x+\epsilon_x)*E(\tau_y+\epsilon_y)$&#xA;$= E(\tau_x\tau_y) - E(\tau_x)E(\tau_y) $&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$= Cov(\tau_x,\tau_y)$ &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried to come to the same conclusion using a slightly different approach:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$Cov(X,Y) = E((X-E(X))(Y-E(Y))$&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$=E((\tau_x+\epsilon_x-\tau_x)*(\tau_y+\epsilon_y-\tau_y))$&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$=E(\epsilon_x*\epsilon_y)$  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As $E(\epsilon_x) = 0$ the following terms should be equivalent:    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$E(\epsilon_x*\epsilon_y) = E[(\epsilon_x - E(\epsilon_x))*(\epsilon_y - E(\epsilon_y))] = Cov(\epsilon_x, \epsilon_y)$  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the conclusion drawn from my approach contradicts with the first conclusion I assume that there is a flaw in my math. Unfortunately I seem to be unable to identify my mistake. Can someone point me to it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19293" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-15T10:26:04.133" LastActivityDate="2018-05-16T07:39:12.720" Title="Classical test theory: Covariance of two variables" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19727" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-15T16:45:37.197" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question is whether learning at &quot;supernatural&quot; speeds has been studied, in particular in relation to content retention and what are some research papers on this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clarify, one example of this would be watching lectures on youtube at 2x the &#xA;regular speed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My hypothesis (as someone completely external to psychology!)  is that there is an improvement, for the following reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;there's no time to be distracted since there are no gaps in the presentation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the voice of the teacher sounds very robotic and non-human, which helps to stay alert&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It just &lt;em&gt;feels&lt;/em&gt; like taking a shortcut, so one is much more willing to put up with a 5min of videos rather than the original 10m.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I think this has to with the fact that they are shorter than the origianls. If the videos were 5' each to begin with this point would be nullified.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19299" LastEditorUserId="19299" LastEditDate="2018-05-18T17:00:36.180" LastActivityDate="2018-05-18T17:00:36.180" Title="Has the optimal learning speed been studied?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19728" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19725" CreationDate="2018-05-15T22:52:09.863" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not myself use classical test theory, but from a statistical point of view the answer to this should be straightforward. The answer is that you are right, and that the first solution is wrong. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An early indication that the first formula is incorrect is that a :&#xA;$$&#xA;Cov(\tau_{x},\tau_{y}) = 0&#xA;$$&#xA;because $\tau_{x}$ and $\tau_{y}$ are constants (I assume $\tau_{x}$ and $\tau_{y}$ are constant in your question because your equations state that they are expected values, which are always constant). The formula above holds because constants can't covary with one another. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To show you are the one who is correct, we need to dig a little bit deeper. One basic &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covariance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;property of covariance&lt;/a&gt; is, for $X$, $Y$ random variables and $a$, $b$ constants:&#xA;$$&#xA;Cov(X+a, Y+b) = Cov(X,Y)&#xA;$$&#xA;Intuitively, adding a constant to a random variable doesn't affect its linear relationship with another random variable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your particular example, if I understand correctly, $\epsilon_{x}$, $\epsilon_{y}$ are random variables, and $\tau_{x}$, $\tau_{y}$ are fixed constants. Plugging these into the above formula, &#xA;$$&#xA;Cov(\epsilon_{x} + \tau_{x}, \epsilon_{y} + \tau_{y}) = Cov(\epsilon_{x}, \epsilon_{y})&#xA;$$&#xA;And of course, using the notation in your question, $X$ = $\tau_{x}$ + $\epsilon_{x}$= $\epsilon_{x}$ + $\tau_{x}$ and $Y$ = $\tau_{y}$ + $\epsilon_{y}$= $\epsilon_{y}$ + $\tau_{y}$. Therefore, using the variables from your question,&#xA;$$&#xA;Cov(X,Y) = Cov(\epsilon_{x}, \epsilon_{y})&#xA;$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19148" LastActivityDate="2018-05-15T22:52:09.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19730" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-16T02:08:56.517" Score="1" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know this will probably be closed for being broad, but I think it certainly has an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the criteria for something to be considered a mental disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does a disorder need to be observable physiologically? Or is behavior/perception that is far from the norm enough?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19253" LastActivityDate="2018-05-16T14:35:01.290" Title="Criteria for Something to be Considered a Mental Disorder" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;definition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19732" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19730" CreationDate="2018-05-16T04:28:54.100" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not just a broad question, it also differs depending on the specific person holding a specific orientation working at a specific clinical/academic setting. For a DSM-V discussion, see &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3101504/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What is a Mental/Psychiatric Disorder? From DSM-IV to DSM-V&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Stein et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19305" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-16T14:35:01.290" LastActivityDate="2018-05-16T14:35:01.290" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19733" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19725" CreationDate="2018-05-16T07:39:12.720" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thank you very much for your insightful comment. I think I know now the source of the problem. On the lecture slides I took the first approach from, it would have been necessary to disentangle the the true value of the population $\tau_{pop}$ (defined as the expected value of the mean of all $X_i$) and the true value of a person $i$ $\tau_{i}$ in that population. If you do that, you come to the right solution:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$X_i = \tau_{x_i}+\epsilon_{x_i}$ and $E(X_i) = \tau_{x_i}$&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$X_{x_{pop}} = \tau_{x_{pop}}+\epsilon_{x_{pop}}$ and $E(X_{x_{pop}}) = \tau_{x_{pop}}$  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the above equations are equivalent for Y.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;For computing the Covariance one would be using the individual values $X_i$ and $Y_i$ and the means in the populaiton $X_{pop}$ and $Y_{pop}$. It follows:   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$Cov(X,Y) = E[(X_i-E(X_{pop}))(Y_i-E(Y_{pop}))]$&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$ = E[(\tau_{x_i}+\epsilon_{x_i}-\tau_{x_{pop}})*(\tau_{y_i}+\epsilon_{y_i}-\tau_{y_{pop}})]$&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$ = E(\tau_{x_i}\tau_{y_i})+E(\tau_{x_i}\epsilon_{y_i})-E(\tau_{x_i}\tau_{y_{pop}}) + E(\epsilon_{x_i}\tau_{y_i})+E(\epsilon_{x_i}\epsilon_{y_i})-E(\epsilon_{x_i}\tau_{y_{pop}})-E(\tau_{x_{pop}}\tau_{y_i})-E(\tau_{x_{pop}}\epsilon_{y_i})+E(\tau_{x_{pop}}\tau_{y_{pop}})$&#xA;As the error terms are assumed to be uncorrelated with each other and the true values in CTT:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$= E(\tau_{x_i}\tau_{y_i})-E(\tau_{x_i}\tau_{y_{pop}})-E(\tau_{x_{pop}}\tau_{y_i})+E(\tau_{x_{pop}}\tau_{y_{pop}})$&lt;br&gt;&#xA;$= E[(\tau_{x_i}-\tau_{x_{pop}})(\tau_{y_i}-\tau_{y_{pop}})]$  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the expected covarance of $X$ and $Y$ is only determined by the covariance of the true values $\tau_x$ and $\tau_y$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19293" LastActivityDate="2018-05-16T07:39:12.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19736" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19742" CreationDate="2018-05-17T06:31:59.837" Score="4" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many of the studies that I have read or participated in, I have seen that they show a blank screen between two stimuli. For example, in a study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2167702617731379&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cohen et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, a training paradigm was used where a flanker task was shown, followed by a blank screen for (1000 - Reaction Time) ms, followed by an emotional or neutral image. I've cited this study just as an example, but I've seen similar blank screens in many other studies. My question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the reason for showing the blank screen?&lt;/strong&gt; What would have happened if they showed the emotional/neutral image right after the flanker task?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One reason I can think of is that it is shown to keep the starting point of different stimulus constant between different participants. Is there any other reason? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8220" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-17T19:46:00.573" LastActivityDate="2018-05-18T00:37:23.690" Title="Reason for Inter-stimulus-Interval in psychology studies" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19737" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6538" CreationDate="2018-05-17T06:55:53.783" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Excellent observations. Read my article online &#xA;The Dream as Posthypnotic &#xA;Command&#xA;Here is the Abstract&#xA;The posthypnotic command is issued in deep hypnosis when a subject’s brainwaves are in theta mode of 4-7 cycles per second. This is the same frequency that the dream state features. It suggests that dreaming and deep hypnosis are equivalent states.  The word hypnosis, meaning a condition of sleep, suggests that the ancients understood this equivalence. &#xA;    When a subject in deep hypnosis is commanded to execute a certain task at a given time after ‘waking up’, the subject will do so at exactly the designated time. When asked for a reason for his action, the answer will never be correct, for while under hypnosis he was asked by the hypnotist to forget the command. But the subject will certainly have a perfectly rational explanation no matter how absurd the order may have been. &#xA;    This is precisely the case when we are asked to give an explanation for any action we have executed. If my hypothesis is right, our answer to the same question is equally wrong, yet perfectly rational. Indeed, while we have no idea where our motivation arises and where our ideas come from, we are in the same position of darkness as the hypnotised subject. &#xA;    My research in dreams has convinced me that dreams are the source of our inspiration and motivation. Evidence for this comes from creative people who have received ideas from their dreams or have been presented with solutions by them to their problems. Famous scientific discoveries have been made with the help of dreams by Thomas Edison, Kekulé, Otto Loewi and Elijah Howe, for instance. Among the men of creative writing Robert Louis Stevenson stands out, for he deliberately invoked his dreams to provide him with new plots for stories. But he also suspected that the honing and reworking of his dream plots was also done for him by his “Brownies and Little People” of the night. &#xA;    Like the posthypnotic suggestion, the dream has a timing device determining when a dream or part of it should manifest in waking time. Perhaps the most convincing evidence for this is Michael Barnsley’s twenty-year nightmare that taunted him to put the wires of a matrix in order. Since he had no idea of what the matrix was supposed to do, he was naturally unable to solve the problem posed to him. The nightmare only ceased after he met Benoit Mandelbrot who had by then invented a computer program for fractal math, a program that provided all the necessary information for Barnsley to understand the dream that ended the nightmares by providing him with the solution of the confused wires of the dream matrix. This dream gave him the circuitry that led to the invention of image compression software. &#xA;    The wet dream, which occurs at the end of the night of dreams and is a heightened sexual state, indicated by morning erections, shows that the sexual content of the dream forces the dreamer, who by then is free of the nightly muscle inhibitors, to act it out. This leads us to surmise that the sexual aspect of the dream tends to manifest on the dream day. A thorough investigation of this circumstance proved the inference right. This led me to devise a test of the dream’s power to compel us to execute its content. It entails the interpretation of the sexual meaning of the dream and making a prediction on account of it. The corresponding manifestations verify my theory.&#xA;    I found support in my view that dreams were posthypnotic commands in the experimentations of Professor Libet, who found that our decisions were made unconsciously up to half a second before we became conscious of them. They demonstrate that our decisions are made unconsciously. There is no better explanation of this process than the dream. In short, the subjects tested by Libet would have dreamt the experiments ahead of time, thus providing them with the appropriate dream memory. It was this that determined the unconscious choices &#xA;of the experimentees, registering half a second before becoming conscious fact. &#xA;The somnambulist provides another factor that supports the hypothesis that dreams are posthypnotic commands. He, like the wet dreamer, is in a state of reduced muscle inhibition and is consequently free to act out his dreams. I realise that there is considerable controversy with regard to the causes of sleepwalking. But the difference between the wet dreamer and the somnambulist is minimal. Indeed, why would the dream state be constrained by muscle inhibition if it were not for the prevention of acting out what the dreamer experiences? Clearly somnambulism is a most illustrative case of dreams being posthypnotic commands. There can be little doubt that the dream is very much a posthypnotic command, signalling that our life is in the hands of a Master Hypnotist of infinite capacity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19316" LastActivityDate="2018-05-17T06:55:53.783" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19740" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19736" CreationDate="2018-05-17T19:38:03.263" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot access the paper due to the paywall, and admitteldy, I am not familiar with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eriksen_flanker_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flanker Task&lt;/a&gt;, but I am with the closely related &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stroop task&lt;/a&gt;. Anyway, the between-trial times may substantially affect the results, because the conflict effect of flanker interference decreases with repeated testing, especially following incongruent/conflict conditions in what is known as the Gratton Effect &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4208397/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Blais &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2014)&lt;/a&gt;. Hence, the method of the cited study (1 second - reaction time) standardizes the inter-stimulus interval, which is apparently a major player in subject performance in a Flanker task (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eriksen_flanker_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wiki page&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4208397/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blais &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;: 1207)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-17T19:43:29.360" LastActivityDate="2018-05-17T19:43:29.360" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19741" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19781" CreationDate="2018-05-17T21:17:20.583" Score="3" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on reaction time data. I want to fit the data with an ex-wald model but I only found one paper which interpreted the fitting with S. But I don't know S. Are there any ways to fit the RT data with R, python or Matlab?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19322" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T06:42:37.203" Title="How to fit an ex-wald distribution model with R?" Tags="&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19742" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19736" CreationDate="2018-05-17T23:09:57.437" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you've ever tried doing an experiment with no inter-stimulus interval (ISI), you know from first-hand experience that it makes a difference in several ways:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If the task is about reaction times, you don't really have time to prepare. I.e. there is an attention-based interference effect. For Flanker tasks, Stroop tasks, go-nogo tasks, etc., you want to measure the optimal performance and hence you add ISI to reduce the interference. In other tasks, you set a short ISI exactly because of the interference effect, e.g. in some conditions of Conner's Continuous Performance Test, on Vigilance tasks to keep challenging attention (see e.g.McCormack, 1958), etc. Low ISIs are also quite useful for Task-Induced Stress.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There are other carry-over effects than a reduced/biased attention. For example, repetition priming is substantially reduced for longer ISI's (e.g., Ferrand, 1996). If you are not studying repetition priming, such effects constitute noise or a confounder, so you want to reduce it by having reasonable ISIs.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;With ISI=0, the next stimulus appears to be caused by your response, so it feels like your key stroke &quot;belongs&quot; to the new stimulus rather than the previous. This can be confusing.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5130" LastEditorUserId="5130" LastEditDate="2018-05-18T00:37:23.690" LastActivityDate="2018-05-18T00:37:23.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19744" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19687" CreationDate="2018-05-18T11:19:12.140" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TOT:&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tip of the tongue phenomenon&lt;/a&gt;. There are several hypotheses to explain it and some neuroimaging has been done as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19324" LastActivityDate="2018-05-18T11:19:12.140" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19745" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19764" CreationDate="2018-05-18T12:45:39.353" Score="7" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_oscillation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural oscillation - Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neural oscillations are commonly studied from a mathematical framework and belong to the field of &quot;neurodynamics&quot;, an area of research in the cognitive sciences that places a strong focus upon the dynamic character of neural activity in describing brain function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodynamics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychodynamics - Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychodynamics, also known as psychodynamic psychology, in its broadest sense, is an approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience. It is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I was watching &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23831764-500-swirling-wall-of-moving-patterns-represents-our-thoughts/?utm_term=Autofeed&amp;amp;utm_campaign=Echobox&amp;amp;utm_medium=SOC&amp;amp;utm_source=StackExchange#link_time=1525826213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this artwork&lt;/a&gt;, I didn't know about neurodynamics and thought that it was completely about psychodynamics, because I thought the emergence and dissipation of the waves in the artwork were about consciousness and subconsciousness. This thought is strengthened in &lt;a href=&quot;https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-28/april-2015/misleading-juxtaposition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this letter&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mental awareness and ‘I’ emerge as a secondary phenomenon from the primary stream of thinking-in-movement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know psychodynamics is regarded as pseudoscience for the lack of evidence, but it's still useful enough for some specific psychological disorders. And as neurodynamics is about oscillation and psychodynamics was inspired from thermodynamics, if we can find the link between the two in physics (which they should), then we will see the link between the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So does neurodynamics have any relation to psychodynamics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Related: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/19992/12937&quot;&gt;Is there a difference between physiological stimulations and psychological stimulations?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-06-24T16:51:20.617" LastActivityDate="2018-12-27T12:55:48.383" Title="Does neurodynamics have any relation to psychodynamics?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19747" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17182" CreationDate="2018-05-18T14:33:51.607" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A serious answer exists to a sort-of-related question though, you can track the &quot;energy budget&quot; of the brain and see how much glucose/oxygen it's burning. 'Number of decisions' might be a silly way to talk about it, but [metabolic] brain effort can be quantified and it does make sense to ask how high it is and how much it changes over the course of a day. There are lots of studies comparing the level of activity associated with some task with resting-state activity: you could take the size of the difference for some reference task (it's gonna be small) and work out a plausible range for the amount of time the brain spends working at least that hard over the course of a normal day.&#xA;There's a quick fact-collection on this stuff here (2002): &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/99/16/10237&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.pnas.org/content/99/16/10237&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-05-18T14:33:51.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19749" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-18T21:04:30.907" Score="5" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have data from children and their parents on their humor styles (using the Humor Styles Questionnaire by Martin (2003)).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For the adult version:&lt;/strong&gt; It's a 32-item measure, with 4 subscales for each humor style (Affiliative, Aggressive, Self-Defeating, and Self-Enhancing) so there's 8 items for each subscale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For the children's version:&lt;/strong&gt; There are 24 items, with 4 subscales so 6 items per humor style. The items for the children are on a 4-point scale and the parents are on a 7-point scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Research Question:&lt;/strong&gt; I want to assess whether children share humor styles with their parents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kind of test would help me find out if children have the same humor styles as their parents?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Martin, R. A., Puhlik-Doris, P., Larsen, G., Gray, J., &amp;amp; Weir, K. (2003). Individual differences in uses of humor and their relation to psychological well-being: Development of the Humor Styles Questionnaire. &lt;em&gt;Journal Of Research In Personality&lt;/em&gt;, 37(1), 48-75. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00534-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00534-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19330" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-05-21T06:22:55.383" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T06:22:55.383" Title="How to statistically test whether parents and children share similar humor styles?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19751" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-19T03:03:46.283" Score="4" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know how to run multiple regressions (SMR, HMR, and MMR) in SPSS but I'm still a little vague on when it's appropriate to use each of them to achieve the best and most parsimonious result. (SPSS being the mathematical software, SMR being standard multiple regression, HMR being hierarchical multiple regression, and MMR being moderated multiple regression, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f8n3Kt9cvSI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SMR and SPSS are further explained in this video&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pkM4nXvP5Bo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hierarchical multiple regression in this video&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychologicalstatistics.blogspot.com.au/2007/10/introduction-to-moderated-multiple.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;moderated multiple regression in this blog post&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;e.g. in a case where I want to see the impact of social anxiety, and sense of humour on life satisfaction, I hypothesise that both social anxiety and sense of humour will be individually associated with life satisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When controlling for age, gender and anxiety, participants high in sense of humour will have higher life satisfaction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, when excluding variables of age and gender, I predict that the negative association between anxiety and life satisfaction will be stronger for those with low sense of humour ratings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel that for most of these questions, the answers could be found using an SMR, and the last question, with an MMR, but is there a simpler and more parsimonious way to do this? Can I gather the data for the first few questions from the MMR analysis, for example?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19333" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-22T00:17:29.603" LastActivityDate="2018-05-22T00:17:29.603" Title="When to use standard versus moderator regression techniques for the most parsimonious approach?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;regression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19752" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-19T04:01:22.257" Score="5" ViewCount="303" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's widely claimed that hypnosis is a state of highly focused attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I've also seen many claims that the hypnotic state is about accessing the subconscious mind directly, essentially &quot;bypassing&quot; consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However there lies a dissonance; all the material I ever read about focus (mostly from Daniel Goleman and Leonard Mlodinow) indicates that focus is a conscious phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone please clarify?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10098" LastActivityDate="2018-05-19T14:13:00.977" Title="Is hypnosis really concentration/focus?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19753" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-19T07:48:44.513" Score="1" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;h1&gt;The Dream&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today I had a dream. I was in class where I and my classmate were chosen to be examined. Once seated in front of the teacher we got our questions. She accidentally saw mine and made a funny remark about it. I did not get it at first and so I just smiled in a general way. Since in real life she is used to me getting her jokes she immediately explained it to me. Only then did I understand it and had a good laugh.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;The Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can I not get a joke made de facto by myself (even though on behalf of someone else) in a dream?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user19334" LastEditorDisplayName="user19334" LastEditDate="2018-06-15T14:35:32.783" LastActivityDate="2018-06-15T14:35:32.783" Title="How can I not get a joke in my dream?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2018-07-03T08:07:59.293" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19755" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19753" CreationDate="2018-05-19T10:13:21.667" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It maybe the joke was the dream-equivalent of a MacGuffin, a fuzzy, unimportant placeholder that wasn’t materialized into actual language, and that the point of the scene was to experience awkwardness, embarrassment, inferiority or exclusion that others had the upper-hand with in-group knowledge unavailable to the subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would fit that what seems real in a dream isn’t necessarily real... that the idea of certainty came from the dream while waking up, but the actual content of that certainty likely never existed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19075" LastActivityDate="2018-05-19T10:13:21.667" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19752" CreationDate="2018-05-19T10:27:45.623" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would model it as an extreme, prolonged version of captivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The conscious mind goes on a tea break when there is loud, rhythmic music with  synchronized  light effects, stimulus that overwhelms the mind so it likely gives up trying to process it at a high level, and instead “goes along” with it... dancing,&#xA;etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dissecting when someone becomes highly-attracted to someone else.. external distractions are eliminated, perception of time slows down, the sympathetic nervous system activates strongly to record the event long-term, the superego and most of the ego fall silent and whatever happens at the focus basically goes in to the mesmerized essentially verbatim as they perceived it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Shaky speculation land:&lt;/strong&gt; Maybe the evolutionary psych purpose could be allowing true-believer followers to experience unquestionably loyal to their cult leader? Or a mate to another mate. Even a mentor to mentee. ¯\_(ツ)_/¯ &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19075" LastActivityDate="2018-05-19T10:27:45.623" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19757" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-19T10:44:36.457" Score="2" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies not funded by friends or beneficiaries of EMDR that prove it helps with a strong p-value?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19075" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T03:13:30.637" Title="Does EMDR legitimately treat any condition?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19761" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-19T12:37:19.340" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;all I have is anecdotal experience,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cloud.google.com/text-to-speech/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;try it out yourself&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find any published study,&#xA;was anything published about that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17118" LastActivityDate="2018-05-19T12:37:19.340" Title="is low pitched machine synthesized speech easier to comprehend at high rates?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;speech-comprehension&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19762" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19752" CreationDate="2018-05-19T14:13:00.977" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer lies in what is known of the conscious, unconscious and the presconscious parts of the mind, with &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/993&quot;&gt;preconscious is the scientific name for the subconscious&lt;/a&gt;, however, for the purposes of this answer and because of how the theory of hypnosis is put together, I will refer to the preconscious as the subconscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I was learning about the basis of hypnosis in formal training, I was taught to visualise the mind as the following diagram&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3pAqX.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3pAqX.png&quot; alt=&quot;CCF diagram from my training notes&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Image: CCF diagram from my training notes&lt;/strong&gt; - the &quot;memories and belief system&quot; part of the diagram is the subconscious part of the mind.  The CCF (the orange part of the diagram) is the filter between the conscious and subconscious parts of the brain. It compares a new situation with our memories, belief system and morals.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Formation of our beliefs and morals&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Internal and external influences form our belief system which is stored in our subconscious mind.  External influences involve things within our environment.  Internal influences involve things we ‘know’ to be true.  I said ‘know’ because what we believe to be true and what is actually true, correlates with the things we have learnt during our lives.  Our belief systems are built from the moment we are born.  Our external influences such as what we have seen, touched, tasted, smelt and heard, help us to learn things whilst a baby.  Listening to words and speech patterns from our parents help us to learn our language including names for objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As we get older and start to be able to wander around and explore our environment our parents tell us things such as “Don’t touch that it’s hot” or “Don’t eat that or you will be ill”.  We were told that the grass is green and the sky is blue.  Cultural influences start playing a role too such as the idea that pink is a girls colour and blue is for boys, Barbie dolls are for girls and action men are for boys.  We took those ideas on as literal truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As we got older, experiences begin to confirm some of those ideas.  Some got hurt by the heat of a cup of tea.  Some got ill from trying the berries we were told not to eat. In these ways we had a model of the world confirmed and constructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of those beliefs were absolutely correct, we tested the ideas and had them confirmed by outside sources. Some beliefs may have been left untested but nevertheless all the beliefs in turn developed what many call the, Conscious Critical Faculty (CCF) (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.selfhypnosis.com/the-conscious-critical-faculty&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Watts, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The CCF (the orange part of the diagram) is the filter between the conscious and subconscious parts of the brain. It compares a new situation with our memories and belief system and morals.  Everything stored in the subconscious is essential for your survival.  If the CCF encounters something which goes against the belief systems or morals, stored in the subconscious, it throws the idea out and the belief systems remains intact and life can continue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what if there are falsehoods stored in the belief system?  Phobias can develop and other damaging effects can take place.  This part of the belief system can be built by other people who are unfortunately basing their information on their own belief systems.  These in turn were given to them by people who formed their own belief systems.  What can we do about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take a situation where comments from adults, taught someone when they are a child, that they are selfish, unattractive or lacking intelligence.  Once these ideas have taken hold it is very difficult to try and change these beliefs at a conscious level and remove them from the subconscious mind as the CCF will take over and reject opposing beliefs.  This can be damaging to the confidence and opportunities in that persons adult life.  This is why it’s so easy to give advice but so difficult for some others to take it even when you know it is correct.  For a more effective way of doing this, we need to bypass the Conscious Critical Faculty in order for the correct belief system to be accepted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a number of ways that new information can be pushed past the CCF. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.somersethypnotherapy.com/articles-by-John-Burns/beating-barriers-to-change.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Burns, 2009&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Repetition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shock&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hypnosis&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Repetition&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Selfishness and altruism, attractiveness and unattractiveness, intelligence and lack of intelligence etc. taught as a child or later instilled in adult life is often a result of repetitive comments.  The same goes for trust and distrust in certain people or animals.  How this happens is for example:-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A belief that no man can be trusted is put to you on a repetitive basis&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This is usually backed up by other people’s actions.  Maybe a man disappointed you in the past&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The concept or belief becomes part of your belief system because no one in your circle of friends can give you an opposing concept or belief to compare it to&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This in turn affects the way you act towards men&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This then causes some men to react in a way which can be perceived to reinforce your belief&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Repetitive affirmations and confirmations over time can rectify falsehoods in belief systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Shock&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shock that someone may experience as a result of a traffic accident for example, can induce unhesitating acceptance of thoughts and beliefs. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.somersethypnotherapy.com/articles-by-John-Burns/beating-barriers-to-change.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Burns, 2009&lt;/a&gt;)  If the thought is given where someone says “that looks bad, I bet that hurts” then of course they will become extremely aware of the pain and in turn may develop a severe aversion to getting into a car again.  Other traumas can have similar effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look at someone suffering from the trauma of war, rape or sexual assault, this trauma will lodge the memory of what happened straight in the subconscious and develop either conflicting belief systems which cause more problems, or immediately alter the belief system completely.  Counselling sessions can dredge up those painful memories and the resulting shock induced can open the client to opposing thoughts and beliefs which can help to correct the faulty belief system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Hypnosis&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypnosis is a natural state of mind where acceptable selective thinking is established, concentration is enhanced and the Conscious Critical Factor is bypassed, opening the subconscious mind to suggestion.  With the subconscious mind open to suggestion without interference by the CCF, therapy will be able to work more quickly (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.selfhypnosis.com/the-conscious-critical-faculty&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Watts, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;) by installing correcting belief systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hypnotic state can be induced by reading, carrying out a repetitive task or listening to a hypnotherapist’s hypnotic induction routine.  Watching television can induce a hypnotic state which helps to explain how effective on-screen advertising can be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burns, J., 2009. &lt;em&gt;Beating the barriers to making life changes&lt;/em&gt;. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.somersethypnotherapy.com/articles-by-John-Burns/beating-barriers-to-change.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.somersethypnotherapy.com/articles-by-John-Burns/beating-barriers-to-change.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watts, T., n.d. *The Conscious Critical Faculty. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.selfhypnosis.com/the-conscious-critical-faculty&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.selfhypnosis.com/the-conscious-critical-faculty&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-05-19T14:13:00.977" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19763" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19749" CreationDate="2018-05-19T15:01:39.523" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure about my answer but  first of all, to have comparable variables, I think you need to divide children's scores to 4 and their parent's to 7. As far as I understood you want to understand if two groups (parents and children) have similar humor styles. I think you can do 2*4 mixed anova to solve this problem. Your parent and child variables can be within factor because they are paired with each other. Your sub-categories can be between factor. In the results, first, you need to look if age influences the humor score. If it did you can say that they have at least some diffirences in some categories. Then you can check the interaction. If there is no interaction between age and style, parents and their children are certainly different. If there is a interaction, you can look in which categories age doesn't differ significantly from each other. And you can say in ... category parents and children have similar humor styles and in ... they differ from each other significantly. &#xA;I hope that I could express myself clearly.            &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19165" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-19T16:01:01.007" LastActivityDate="2018-05-19T16:01:01.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19764" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19745" CreationDate="2018-05-19T15:24:52.137" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe I can see where the confusion lies when comparing the interesting artwork with psychodynamic theory.  The artwork you linked uses Neurological data to form images, whereas you may be getting confused with the famous &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/rorschach-test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rorschach test&lt;/a&gt; otherwise known as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rorschach_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Inkblot test&lt;/a&gt;, and how the inkblot images are interpreted by the viewer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Fw5HP.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Fw5HP.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many psychologists in the United Kingdom do not trust its efficacy and it is rarely used, however, it is used by some mental health organisations such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavistock_and_Portman_NHS_Foundation_Trust&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tavistock Clinic&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01l0kch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BBC, 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The artwork with the &quot;emergence and dissipation of waves&quot; is using neurodynamic data and the Rorschach test is a psychodynamic test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neurodynamics&lt;/strong&gt; relates to, or involves the dynamics of communication between different parts of the nervous system (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/neurodynamic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;) and the earliest document I can find relating to it is an unclassified document held by the DTIC (US Defence Technical Information Center) (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/256582.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rosenblatt, 1961&lt;/a&gt;).  Shacklock (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9406(05)67024-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1995&lt;/a&gt;) also talks about neurodynamics in the realm of physiotherapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychodynamics&lt;/strong&gt;, as stated in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodynamics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia article you linked&lt;/a&gt;, is about the dynamic relations between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the two are not related, and in fact are very different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A combination of the 2 sets of theories can be seen to be &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/neuropsychodynamics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuropsychodynamics&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; as in &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0740-5472(90)90034-N&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Miller (1990)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BBC (2012). &lt;em&gt;Dr Inkblot&lt;/em&gt; BBC Radio 4&lt;br&gt;Review available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01l0kch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01l0kch&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, L. (1990). Neuropsychodynamics of alcoholism and addiction: Personality, psychopathology, and cognitive style. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment&lt;/em&gt;, 7(1), 31-49.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0740-5472(90)90034-N&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0740-5472(90)90034-N&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/2179572&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2179572&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rosenblatt, F. (1961). &lt;em&gt;Principles of neurodynamics. perceptrons and the theory of brain mechanisms&lt;/em&gt; (No. VG-1196-G-8) DTIC [Unclassified PDF]&lt;br&gt;Available from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dtic.mil/docs/citations/AD0256582&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.dtic.mil/docs/citations/AD0256582&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shacklock, M. (1995). Neurodynamics. &lt;em&gt;Physiotherapy&lt;/em&gt;, 81(1), 9-16.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9406(05)67024-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0031-9406(05)67024-1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-21T10:32:50.880" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T10:32:50.880" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19757" CreationDate="2018-05-19T15:56:48.157" Score="6" Body="&lt;h2&gt;TLDR: EMDR seems to be equally efficacious to other therapies.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Davidson &amp;amp; Parker, (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d703/9ab57fabe1a3b0aee33bf558b95cf228700c.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2001&lt;/a&gt;) conducted a meta-analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), a controversial treatment suggested for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other conditions, was evaluated in a meta-analysis of 34 studies that examined EMDR with a variety of populations and measures. Process and outcome measures were examined separately, and EMDR showed an effect on both when compared with no treatment and with therapies not using exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli and in pre–post EMDR comparisons. However, no significant effect was found when EMDR was compared with other exposure techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rothbaum, Astin, &amp;amp; Marsteller, (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d5cd/abbee19ef9886327fd77be0587e6826842d6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2005&lt;/a&gt;). Looked at EMDR with Rape Victims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This controlled study evaluated the relative efficacy of Prolonged Exposure (PE) and Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) compared to a no‐treatment waitlist control (WAIT) in the treatment of PTSD in adult female rape victims (&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = 74). Improvement in PTSD as assessed by blind independent assessors, depression, dissociation, and state anxiety was significantly greater in both the PE and EMDR group than the WAIT group (&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = 20 completers per group). PE and EMDR did not differ significantly for change from baseline to either posttreatment or 6‐month follow‐up measurement for any quantitative scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seidler, &amp;amp; Wagner, (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706007963&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2006&lt;/a&gt;) conducted another meta-analytic study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The superiority of one treatment over the other could not be demonstrated. Trauma-focused CBT and EMDR tend to be equally efficacious. Differences between the two forms of treatment are probably not of clinical significance. While the data indicate that moderator variables influence treatment efficacy, we argue that because of the small number of original studies, little benefit is to be gained from a closer examination of these variables. Further research is needed within the framework of randomized controlled trials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Davidson, P. R., &amp;amp; Parker, K. C. (2001). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): A meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of consulting and clinical psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 69(2), 305.&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-006X.69.2.305&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-006X.69.2.305&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11393607&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;11393607&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free PDF:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d703/9ab57fabe1a3b0aee33bf558b95cf228700c.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d703/9ab57fabe1a3b0aee33bf558b95cf228700c.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rothbaum, B. O., Astin, M. C., &amp;amp; Marsteller, F. (2005). Prolonged exposure versus eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) for PTSD rape victims. &lt;em&gt;Journal of traumatic stress&lt;/em&gt;, 18(6), 607-616.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20069&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/jts.20069&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;FREE PDF:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d5cd/abbee19ef9886327fd77be0587e6826842d6.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d5cd/abbee19ef9886327fd77be0587e6826842d6.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seidler, G. H., &amp;amp; Wagner, F. E. (2006). Comparing the efficacy of EMDR and trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of PTSD: a meta-analytic study. Psychological medicine, 36(11), 1515-1522.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706007963&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1017/S0033291706007963&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-21T03:13:30.637" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T03:13:30.637" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19766" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-19T23:20:51.333" Score="3" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems really odd to me that anxiety medication can work, because I can't understand how a medication can alter a feeling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that the idea of anxiety medication is to alter neurotransmitters and activity in certain areas of the brain in order to change how a person experiences anxiety. For example for someone who experiences anxiety an ideal medication (very informally) would be a medication reducing activity of amygdala.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I find very odd about this approach is that I don't believe feelings are just chemicals, i.e it dosen't make sense to me that altering some neurotransmitters in the brain can have a psychological impact on a person but only a physiological. I don't understand how someone can fear a something (for example a spider) and altering its brain chemistry and activity can make someone not feeling afraid of a spider.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So does anxiety medication have impact only on the physiological symptoms of anxiety?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17815" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-20T22:02:58.927" LastActivityDate="2018-05-20T22:02:58.927" Title="Why does anxiety medication work?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19767" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19769" CreationDate="2018-05-20T02:53:45.557" Score="5" ViewCount="201" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;em&gt;The Forbidden Keys to Persuasion&lt;/em&gt;, Blair Warren discusses seven “&lt;strong&gt;hidden addictions&lt;/strong&gt;”: the need to feel needed; the need for hope in difficult situations; the need for a scapegoat (to believe our problems are the fault of someone or something else); the need to be noticed and feel understood; the need to know things others don’t; the need to be right; and the need to feel a sense of power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another author commented,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is by no means a definitive list. It is just one author’s way of&#xA;  organizing and categorizing our most potent and insatiable desires.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm simply looking for a way to correlate this with psychology. &lt;strong&gt;What's the best technical term for &quot;hidden addiction&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt; I'd ultimately like to compile a more complete list of these &quot;hidden addictions,&quot; something I can do more easily if I know the correct terminology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this is something that's probably covered in Psych 101 - which I took 150 years ago - but I can't think of the correct term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastActivityDate="2018-05-24T18:14:59.417" Title="Technical term for &quot;hidden addictions&quot;" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19768" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19767" CreationDate="2018-05-20T05:31:30.803" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You'll have to buy his books, go to his seminars, maybe book a series of private  sessions, and then maybe you'll find out what he's talking about. That's how (what I call) the neo-Freudians work. Let me quote from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.evertefarnell.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/blairwarreninterview.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an interview with him&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The idea of hidden addictions refers to the exploitation of a series of drives that govern&#xA;  our behavior usually without our awareness. The drives to which I refer aren’t the drives&#xA;  most people think of such as the pursuit of love, sex or money. Though I agree we have&#xA;  such drives and they clearly play a large role in our behavior, I think there are other,&#xA;  more basic, less noble drives that are of much more value and interest to the persuader.&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;Teaching these drives, or hidden addictions, is a large part of my work with clients so I’m&#xA;  not going to simply list them here. However, I will say they focus largely on the&#xA;  maintenance of our self-image and the models we have developed to explain reality to&#xA;  ourselves. In other words, they have to do with the way we see not only the world, but&#xA;  our role in it. When these hidden addictions are met, we automatically have a deep&#xA;  feeling of satisfaction and comfort.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Blather, blather, don't forget to pay for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-05-20T05:31:30.803" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19769" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19767" CreationDate="2018-05-20T08:35:04.133" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/healthy-body/addiction-what-is-it/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Addiction&lt;/a&gt; is defined as not having control over doing, taking or using something to the point where it could be harmful to you.  Often it can start with a habit but then it becomes an addiction because there is a &lt;strong&gt;compulsion&lt;/strong&gt; to continue the habit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Addiction is most commonly associated with gambling, drugs, alcohol and nicotine, but it's possible to be addicted to just about anything&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of these addictions listed by Warren (the need to feel needed, the need for hope in difficult situations, the need to be noticed and feel understood, the need to know things others don’t, and the need to be right) can be classed as compulsions which can lead to a diagnosis of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ocd/what-is-obsessive-compulsive-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)&lt;/a&gt; and the others (the need for a scapegoat (to believe our problems are the fault of someone or something else) and the need to be right) are covered by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive biases&lt;/a&gt; such as confirmation bias as you thought. The need to feel a sense of power can be covered by both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many people have focused thoughts or repeated behaviors. But these do not disrupt daily life and may add structure or make tasks easier. For people with OCD, thoughts are persistent and unwanted routines and behaviors are rigid and not doing them causes great distress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of &lt;strong&gt;needing to be right&lt;/strong&gt;, you can have the need but it may not interfere with your life.  Where someone challenges you and the need is so strong that it stops you doing anything until you confirm that you are correct about something, then it is an addiction which can also be a part of OCD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that Warren has legitimately created a category of behaviour which fits the bill of addiction as these behaviours can indeed be habit formations leading to addiction. The thing to remember with these are that all of them are compulsive thoughts and behaviours but not all of them can lead to OCD diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-20T08:51:59.827" LastActivityDate="2018-05-20T08:51:59.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19770" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9380" CreationDate="2018-05-20T10:19:27.750" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is one for &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/cytadela8/trypophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trypophobia Image Detector - Browser Plugin using Deep Learning&lt;/a&gt; (repo: &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/cytadela8/trypophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://github.com/cytadela8/trypophobia&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/trypophobia/tryponet_set2.tar.gz&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Download the data set v2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; prepared in 2017-09&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note: The provided images may be or not be subjected to copyright. By downloading the data set you agree to use it only for research purposes.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;6.5k&lt;/strong&gt; trypophobia triggering images obtained from:&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;6k&lt;/strong&gt; Reddit (/r/trypophobia) - using &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/voussoir/reddit.git&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Prawtimestamps by voussoir&lt;/a&gt;, wget and &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/4pr0n/ripme&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ripme by 4pr0n&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;546&lt;/strong&gt; Google images (keyword: trypophobia) - using own scrapper&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;10.5k&lt;/strong&gt; neutral images obtained from Google images using own scrapper:&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;10k&lt;/strong&gt; by supplying it 5k randomly chosen words from &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/dwyl/english-words&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; english dictionary and downloading 2 images per word&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;192&lt;/strong&gt; with &lt;em&gt;bushes&lt;/em&gt; keyword (introduced in v2 to eliminate false positives for greenery)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;181&lt;/strong&gt; with &lt;em&gt;grass&lt;/em&gt; keyword (since v2)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;98&lt;/strong&gt; with &lt;em&gt;forest&lt;/em&gt; keyword (since v2)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Full disclosure: it was prepared by two of my mentees. I also used it in &lt;a href=&quot;https://brainhackwarsaw.github.io/#trypophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Detecting trypophobia triggers&lt;/a&gt; project at the Aspects of Neuroscience hackathon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, you may want to look up &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trypophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;trypophobia&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia entry before using any image search.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28" LastEditorUserId="28" LastEditDate="2018-05-20T10:24:32.907" LastActivityDate="2018-05-20T10:24:32.907" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19775" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19778" CreationDate="2018-05-20T15:39:34.507" Score="4" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/15730/12937&quot;&gt;How do certain individuals, like Quang Duc, develop the ability to remain calm when enduring significant nociceptive pain?&lt;/a&gt;, one answer says that it was the high level of cortisol that numbing his pain. But that's numb, not &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calmness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;calm&lt;/a&gt;. I don't think calmness can happen during stressful situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to check that answer, can calmness happens during the fight-flight response?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-21T05:05:55.313" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T17:11:54.297" Title="Can calmness happen during the fight-flight response?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19776" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16269" CreationDate="2018-05-21T00:30:40.563" Score="9" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Biological Plausibility of Back-Prop&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, the algorithm of back-prop (BP) isn't biologically plausible. However, there are other means which involve propagating the error through multiple layers of neurons in a feed-forward network which are biologically plausible. But before we evaluate these substitutions, let's review why back-prop isn't biologically plausible [1]:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;1. Weight Transport Problem&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BP uses the same weights for forward-pass and backward error propagation. But synapses are uni-directional.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;2. Derivative Transport Problem&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The derivative of each neuron is used to modulate the error signal in BP. Additionally, the derivative is propagated through each layer. How this derivative calculated by neurons and then propagated, is unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;3. Linear Feedback Problem&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The BP feedback path is linear, but neurons aren't linear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;4. Spiking Problem&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurons spike. BP is defined for rates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;5. Timing Problem&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The BP error signal is expected to propagate instantaneously. Calculations and signal transmission in the brain do not happen instantaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;6. Target Problem&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most applications of BP rely on many examples with given labels, but where do those labels come from?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Replacements for Back-Prop&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most replacements for back-prop solve a subset of these problems, however none of them see to solve all of them. In &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/12819&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spiking Deep Neural Networks: Engineered and Biological Approaches to Object Recognition&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, a method is constructed using &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/tagged/nef&quot;&gt;the NEF&lt;/a&gt; that solves all problems except for the Target Problem. This means there are no replacements for BP that work for all cases where BP is applied, which is to be expected given this is what usually happens when biological plausibility is emphasized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Beyond Back-Prop&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it should be noted that there is more than back-propagation through fully-connected networks involved in Deep Learning. Specifically, the are a number of different architectures used, such as Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;CNNs aren't biologically plausible due to their reliance on weights being exactly equal across multiple locations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;RNNs rely on Back-Propagation Through Time (BPTT), of which there is currently no biologically plausible analogue [2].&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This confusion between Deep Learning, neural network architectures and back-prop is reason that Yann LeCunn is trying to get people to adopt the term &quot;Differentiable Computing&quot; instead of &quot;Deep Learning&quot;. At which point, the question must shift from &quot;Is Deep Learning biologically plausible?&quot; into &quot;What aspects of Differentiable Computing are biologically plausible?&quot; Which is much harder to answer, but at least we have a better question than when we started!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Summarized from Eric Hunsberger's PhD Thesis &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/12819&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spiking Deep Neural Networks: Engineered and Biological Approaches to Object Recognition&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] That being said, there are other means of learning (supposedly) biologically plausible recurrent neural network weights (&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/17393/4397&quot;&gt;FORCE training&lt;/a&gt;, Conceptors), however they don't resemble BPTT in any way. The discussion of these methods is outside the scope of this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-11-13T14:52:26.543" LastActivityDate="2018-11-13T14:52:26.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19777" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-21T02:26:29.790" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, a lot of antipsychotics are chemically similar to serotonin, and at least partially trigger certain types of serotonin receptors.  Is there any evidence to suggest that, because of their chemical similarity, they can be absorbed into the neuron via reuptake?  Meaning, that this agonist could be recycled and continuously partially trigger the specific serotonin receptors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, possibly more likely, has there been any evidence to suggest this can happen with non-selective agonists?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19348" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T02:26:29.790" Title="Can reuptake absorb a selective or non-selective agonist?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19778" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19775" CreationDate="2018-05-21T04:43:04.867" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;With looking at the possibility of calmness during stress and trauma, you only have to look at the situation with rape victims and soldiers witnessing severe traumatic events who dissociate (Ellert, et al. 2011)(Waller, et al. 2001) during the event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dissociation is a psychological defence mechanism (Cardeña, 1994) which helps the person to get through the situation with as little harm as possible.  Think about it like throwing a switch on conscious awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst some define dissociation as a combination of 2 distinct psychological mechanisms (Brown, 2006), the psychobiological mechanism of dissociation is little understood; but, when someone is dissociated from the event, the detachment of conscious awareness from the event can make the person appear very calm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brown, R. J. (2006). Different types of “dissociation” have different psychological mechanisms. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Trauma &amp;amp; Dissociation&lt;/em&gt;, 7(4), 7-28.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1300/J229v07n04_02&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1300/J229v07n04_02&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cardeña, E. (1994) The domain of dissociation. In: &lt;em&gt;Dissociation: Clinical and theoretical aspects&lt;/em&gt;, Edited by: Lynn, S. J. and Rhue, J. W. 5–31. New York, NY: Guildford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ellert R. S. Nijenhuis PhD &amp;amp; Onno van der Hart PhD (2011) Dissociation in Trauma: A New Definition and Comparison with Previous Formulations, &lt;em&gt;Journal of Trauma &amp;amp; Dissociation&lt;/em&gt;, 12(4), 416-445.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2011.570592&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/15299732.2011.570592&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Waller, G., Hamilton, K., Elliott, P., Lewendon, J., Stopa, L., Waters, A., ... &amp;amp; Hargreaves, I. (2001). Somatoform dissociation, psychological dissociation, and specific forms of trauma. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Trauma &amp;amp; Dissociation&lt;/em&gt;, 1(4), 81-98.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1300/J229v01n04_05&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1300/J229v01n04_05&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-04T17:11:54.297" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T17:11:54.297" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19779" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19749" CreationDate="2018-05-21T06:19:49.207" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming the data are dyadic (i.e., one child per parent), you would probably focus on correlating child scores with parent scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopefully, you have a sense of how the child and parent scales align. Hopefully, they are designed to measure equivalent constructs albeit with different items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact that you've used different scales is a potential confound. Presumably, the are good reasons for this given that the humour of children and adults is expressed quite differently. But that's something, you'll have to reason through in terms of measurement and theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact that the scales have different numbers of items and response options is mostly irrelevant. As soon as you start using different items, then you've essentially got different variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although not relevant to you, more commonly, data involving dyads involves using the same instruments. e.g., husbands and wive both completing the same measure of big 5 personality. In that case, you can do lots of things, like comparing descriptive statistics, ICCs, and other values. David Kenny has lots of resources in that case on dyadic data analysis: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.davidakenny.net/dyad.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.davidakenny.net/dyad.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T06:19:49.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19780" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19751" CreationDate="2018-05-21T06:28:09.690" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You write: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When controlling for age, gender and anxiety, participants high in sense of humour will have higher life satisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is standard regression. Predictors that are control variables are the same as any other predictors, it's just that their inclusion in the model is mostly there to facilitate a desired interpretation of a focal predictor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Also, when excluding variables of age and gender, I predict that &lt;strong&gt;the negative association between anxiety and life satisfaction will be stronger for those with low sense of humour ratings&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here you have described a moderation hypothesis.&#xA;i.e., in regression terms, you might express it like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;lifesat ~ anxiety * humour&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, technically, you have not assigned anxiety or life satisfaction a particular status as the outcome variable. Whether you &quot;exclude age and gender&quot; is irrelevant to the status of the hypothesis as a moderation hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You ask specifically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I feel that for most of these questions, the answers could be found using an SMR, and the last question, with an MMR, but is there a simpler and more parsimonious way to do this? Can I gather the data for the first few questions from the MMR analysis, for example?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Don't be afraid to run several regression models. Ultimately, a moderator regression is simply a model with an interaction term. Adding predictors generally alters the regression coefficients for other predictors (an exception would be for orthogonal variables, such as in experiments).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T06:28:09.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19781" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19741" CreationDate="2018-05-21T06:42:37.203" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This seems promising. I haven't used it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heathcote, A. (2004). Fitting Wald and ex-Wald distributions to response time data: An example using functions for the S-PLUS package. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, &amp;amp; Computers, 36(4), 678-694.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tascl.org/uploads/4/9/3/3/49339445/26_.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.tascl.org/uploads/4/9/3/3/49339445/26_.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It does include s-plus code in a supplement to the journal article:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758%2FBF03206550&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758%2FBF03206550&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often S-plus can be used in R, sometimes with some adjustments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T06:42:37.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19783" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19789" CreationDate="2018-05-21T16:38:26.167" Score="2" ViewCount="1018" Body="&lt;p&gt;Abraham Maslow's original hierarchy of needs placed self-actualization at the very top of the list. As I understand it, self-actualization can be roughly defined as realizing one's full potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet the percentage of people who achieve self-actualization is theoretically less than 5% (probably closer to 1%). Maslow himself listed about a dozen people who, in his opinion, could be considered examples of self-actualization, including Abraham Lincoln.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time, I haven't met many people who really pushed themselves to their full potential. Apathy and Xbox seems to be the norm nowadays.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So we can think of self-actualization as an awesome goal, but is it really a &quot;need&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To put it another way, have any studies been done on the psychological damage inflicted on people who failed to self-actualize? People obviously get depressed when they fail to get a great job or blossom into a professional athlete. Could such &quot;failure-based depression&quot; qualify self-actualization as a need?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not familiar with the psychological community's definition of &quot;need,&quot; so let's just say I'm referring to a need as opposed to a &quot;want.&quot; We might think of a need as something that's necessary for a person's mental health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, to put it another way, does self-actualization really merit being included with the other needs in Maslow's hierarchy, such as safety and social connections? Feelings of vulnerability and loneliness can drive people to suicide, but how many people who haven't self-actualized drown their sorrows in a bottle of beer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastEditorUserId="10155" LastEditDate="2018-05-21T18:07:29.837" LastActivityDate="2018-05-22T15:32:23.233" Title="Is self-actualization really a need?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19786" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4498" CreationDate="2018-05-21T21:23:11.043" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Now I didn't read the whole discussion beforehand, just skimmed through it. &#xA;Maps.org /Yale Uni is doing quite a bit interesting research on the topic, having better results than any existing antidepressants could dream of. Psilocybin/ LSD/ DMT/ MDMA could be far out to read up on, but psychedelics/ empathogens may be the future answer to a part of the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you check out the Cochrane library on LSD, they also show a significant effect on the global brain communication after intake, which may be beneficial to reset the &quot;loops&quot; that the depressed/ dysfunctional/ addictive brain is in. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also like the &quot;Deep Rest&quot; (ref: Jim Carrey?) interpretation of depression. It comes to tell your body to take some time off, de-stress, process known or unknown traumas and to find who you are and your purpose here on earth -whatever that may be. Most people don't have time to get to know themselves today, so they rather work long hours to fit into the majority of well adjusted misfits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me, I get energy from learning new things at my own pace, finding new subjects of digging into, sharing and discussing knowledge and philosophy, helping people where I can ++. Many places pay people who doesn't even truly care, or care for the wrong reasons, to do these things. But now we're over to worldbuilding. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Follow the money, and you are on the right path to the wrong solution. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19354" LastActivityDate="2018-05-21T21:23:11.043" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19787" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-21T21:38:28.297" Score="5" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has research shown that keeping information in short-term memory, like two words or two numbers, make planning and completing a physical task more difficult?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19356" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-22T00:08:11.113" LastActivityDate="2018-05-22T00:08:11.113" Title="Research showing short-term memory interferes with motor planning" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;&lt;multi-tasking&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19788" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8947" CreationDate="2018-05-22T15:24:46.787" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19674&quot;&gt;@jsakaluk's excellent, well supported answer&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19662/is-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-really-accurate-at-labeling-sex-as-a-physiologica&quot;&gt;Is Maslow&amp;#39;s hierarchy of needs really accurate at labeling sex as a physiological &amp;quot;need&amp;quot;?&lt;/a&gt; gave a good rundown of the definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Definitions of &quot;Needs&quot;, &quot;Motives&quot;, etc., are dime-a-dozen. Though I don't necessarily agree with all the ingredients, I like how well explicated the criteria by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baumeister and Leary (1995)&lt;/a&gt; are, according to whom a fundamental need should: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;produce effects readily under all but adverse conditions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;have affective consequences&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;direct cognitive processing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;lead to ill effects (such as on health or adjustment) when thwarted&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;elicit goal-oriented behavior designed to satisfy it (subject to motivational patterns such as object substitutability and satiation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;be universal in the sense of applying to all people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;not be derivative of other motives&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;affect a broad variety of behaviors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;have implications that go beyond immediate psychological functioning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumeister, R. F., &amp;amp; Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, 117(3), 497-529.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7777651&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;7777651&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-05-22T15:24:46.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19789" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19783" CreationDate="2018-05-22T15:32:23.233" Score="4" Body="&lt;h1&gt;TLDR: Self-actualisation is the goal of Maslow's Theory, not a need&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Needs&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as the needs are concerned, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19674&quot;&gt;@jsakaluk's excellent, well supported answer&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19662/is-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-really-accurate-at-labeling-sex-as-a-physiologica&quot;&gt;Is Maslow&amp;#39;s hierarchy of needs really accurate at labeling sex as a physiological &amp;quot;need&amp;quot;?&lt;/a&gt; gave a good rundown of the definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Definitions of &quot;Needs&quot;, &quot;Motives&quot;, etc., are dime-a-dozen. Though I don't necessarily agree with all the ingredients, I like how well explicated the criteria by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baumeister and Leary (1995)&lt;/a&gt; are, according to whom a fundamental need should: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;produce effects readily under all but adverse conditions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;have affective consequences&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;direct cognitive processing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;lead to ill effects (such as on health or adjustment) when thwarted&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;elicit goal-oriented behavior designed to satisfy it (subject to motivational patterns such as object substitutability and satiation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;be universal in the sense of applying to all people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;not be derivative of other motives&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;affect a broad variety of behaviors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;have implications that go beyond immediate psychological functioning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-actualization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Self-Actualisation&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We need to determine what self-actualisation actually is.  Maslow described it as follows: (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow,&amp;nbsp;1943&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This term, first coined by Kurt Goldstein (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/10021-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1939&lt;/a&gt;), is being used in this paper in a much more specific and limited fashion. It refers to the desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in inventions. It is not necessarily a creative urge although in people who have any capacities for creation it will take this form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The clear emergence of these needs rests upon prior satisfaction of the physiological, safety, love and esteem needs. We shall call people who are satisfied in these needs, basically satisfied people, and it is from these that we may expect the fullest (and healthiest) creativeness (Kardiner,&amp;nbsp;1941). Since, in our society, basically satisfied people are the exception, we do not know much about self-actualization, either experimentally or clinically. It remains a challenging problem for research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow's hierarchy&lt;/a&gt; is visually put together as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.svg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Image Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikimedia Commons&lt;/a&gt; Under Creative Commons &lt;a href=&quot;https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CC BY-SA 3.0&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and to attain the sixth level or stage: self-actualisation, is &lt;strong&gt;the goal&lt;/strong&gt; of Maslow's Theory, &lt;strong&gt;not a need&lt;/strong&gt;.  Take away any of the levels below self-actualisation, and you will not reach the top goal. And as stated by Maslow (1943) — see above — and in the &lt;strong&gt;TLDR summary&lt;/strong&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/5580&quot;&gt;@NickStauner's answer&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/169/does-evidence-support-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs&quot;&gt;Does evidence support Maslow&amp;#39;s Hierarchy of Needs?&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One sequence can't fit all (it didn't claim to), but it makes sense in general, and so do the exceptions, and so do other motive models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow himself said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Though, in principle, self-actualization is easy, in practice it rarely happens (by my criteria, certainly in less than 1% of the adult population.  For this, there are many, many reasons at various levels of discourse, including all of the determinants of psychopathology that we not know. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Toward-a-Psychology-of-Being/Abraham-H-Maslow/9781627932745&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;also, the fact that &quot;most of us function most of the time on a level lower than that of self-actualization&quot; he called it the &lt;em&gt;psychopathology of normality&lt;/em&gt;. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/180676.Ego_Development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Loevinger, 1976&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumeister, R. F., &amp;amp; Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, 117(3), 497-529.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7777651&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;7777651&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goldstein, K. (1939). &lt;em&gt;The organism: A holistic approach to biology derived from pathological data in man&lt;/em&gt;. Salt Lake City, UT: American Book Publishing.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/10021-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/10021-000&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kardiner, A. B. R. A. M. (1941). &lt;em&gt;The Traumatic Neuroses of War&lt;/em&gt;, New York: Paul B. Hoeber.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Loevinger, J. (1976) &lt;em&gt;Ego Development: Conceptions and Theories (Jossey-Bass Behavioral Science Series)&lt;/em&gt;. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, 50 (4), 370–96.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0054346&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;FREE via&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow, A. H. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Toward a psychology of being&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Toward-a-Psychology-of-Being/Abraham-H-Maslow/9781627932745&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simon and Schuster&lt;/a&gt; [eBook].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-05-22T15:32:23.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19791" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-23T06:51:50.160" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone please tell me how negative rewards or punishments are processed in the human brain? Do we have a separate segment to process positive and negative reward and are the positive and negative rewards processed in the same fashion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19360" LastActivityDate="2018-05-23T06:51:50.160" Title="Negative Rewards(punishment) processing in Human Brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19792" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13531" CreationDate="2018-05-23T10:51:13.463" Score="1" Body="&lt;h1&gt;TLDR: All humanistic psychologists helped to shape todays overall humanistic personality theory &quot;(e.g. Allport, Frankl etc.)&quot;&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to enable a full grasp of the subject, I need to go over a few things, and to a degree, I am revisiting a few areas I covered in other answers to questions.  In fact, mentioning Gordon Allport in your question made me find something out which changes a few things in my past research.  You got an upvote from me with that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;First, a bit of history&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I pointed out in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8539/why-has-behaviourism-fallen-out-of-favour&quot;&gt;Why has behaviourism fallen out of favour?&lt;/a&gt;, there are what is known as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.angelfire.com/oz/robyn/threeforces.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3 forces of psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Behavioural Theory (First Force) – (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Core-Approaches-Counselling-Psychotherapy-Short/dp/0415745144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2014, p. 203&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Psychodynamic Theory (Second Force) – (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Core-Approaches-Counselling-Psychotherapy-Short/dp/0415745144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2014, p. 139&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Humanistic Theory (Third Force) – (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Core-Approaches-Counselling-Psychotherapy-Short/dp/0415745144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2014, p. 79&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although there is now talk of a possible fourth force such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://prezi.com/jvhh3da_f1_c/the-four-forces-of-psychology-sv/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multicultural Psychology&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://Transpersonal%20Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transpersonal Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The humanistic approach is said to have been fully developed in the 1950s through a meeting between Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Clark Moustakas; and the underpinning philosophy of humanistic thinking is that, in the view of Maslow (1968, p. 10), psychoanalysis attends to the ‘sick’ half of therapy – disorder and treatment – whilst humanistic therapy tends to the ‘healthy’ half – growth, potential and self-actualisation. (Reeves, 2013).  However, the discussion regarding Humanistic Psychology was started a lot earlier than that by Gordon Allport in 1930 (see below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humanistic models of approach include (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/humanistic.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Counselling Directory, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Existential Therapy&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gestalt Therapy&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_givens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human Givens Psychotherapy&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person-centered_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Person-Centred Therapy (PCT)&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosynthesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychosynthesis&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reality Therapy&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution-focused_brief_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Solution-focused Brief Therapy&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transactional Analysis (TA)&lt;/a&gt;, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpersonal_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transpersonal Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the founders of the above therapies (including Eric Berne) helped form Humanistic Psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As my first link indicated, Behaviourism hasn't completely fallen out of favour. Due to the work of Carl Rogers, there has been some shift, although not a complete shift, away from the rigidity of the Psychodynamic approach towards the Humanistic approach to therapy and Behaviourism has also started to gain more of the spotlight again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The key concepts of Person-Centred Counselling, Transactional Analysis and Gestalt Therapy are three of the most widely practiced. (Reeves, 2013)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.dmu.ac.uk/drhiles/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. David R. Hiles&lt;/a&gt; of De Montfort University, Leicester, England, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psy.dmu.ac.uk/drhiles/HPpioneers.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Pioneers of Humanistic-Existential Psychology&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Carl Jung (1875-1961)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Carl Jung is possibly one of the most important figures in psychology, and yet he remains controversial. For many psychologists he is little more than a historical curiosity. Someone who worked with Freud in the early days of the founding of psychoanalysis, and then went his own way, founded his own school of psychology, became rather eccentric, and is worthy of only the most cursory of mentions in introductory text books. To other psychologists, he is possibly the most complete psychologist that there has ever been.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Rollo May (1909-1994)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rollo May, the distinguished existential psychologist and existential psychotherapist, was a co-founder of the Humanistic Psychology movement. He was an outspoken critic of his contemporaries, and was largely responsible for integrating the humanistic and existential traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Maslow was a major American psychologist, a visionary, an inspired thinker, who radically altered the course of development of the discipline of psychology. Born in New York, he was educated at the University of Wisconsin, where he studied primate behaviour under Harry Harlow and Clark Hull. He returned to New York in 1935 by accepting a research position with Edward Thorndike at Columbia University. Through his contact with the New School for Social Research, near Greenwich Village, he came to know and study with:- Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney of the psychoanalytic school; Kurt Goldstein, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka of the Gestalt school of thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frederick (Fritz) Perls, the founder of Gestalt psychology, is also on the list (see below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Carl Rogers (1902-1987)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rogers pioneered the development of client-centred therapy. A major figure in the history of psychology, with a basically optimistic view of humankind, he was a co-founder of the Humanistic Psychology movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;James Bugental (1915- )&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;James Bugental is an important figure in the early development of humanistic psychology, and in the practice of a humanistic approach to psychotherapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Erich Fromm (1900-1980)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Erich Fromm was a German psychoanalyst and social theorist, who always saw himself as neo-Frudian in orientation, but who many regard as having occupied a key position on the periphery of the humanistic movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Roberto Assagioli (1888-1974)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Assagioli was an Italian psychiatrist and founder of Psychosynthesis. He trained as a psychoanalyst and was a member of the Freud Society in Zurich. He withdrew from membership as he became discontented with a lack of consideration with the growth of human potential by Freud and his followers, and during the 20's and 30's began to develop his own theory and methods. Only in the 50's and 60's was his work recognized outside of Italy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Frederick (Fritz) Perls (1893-1970)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Perls was a Freudian trained psychoanalyst, the founder of Gestalt therapy, and a charismatic figure. Born in Berlin, he received his M.D. from Frederich Wilhelm University, and then received a psychoanalytic training with Wilhelm Reich as his analyst. He met many of the key founders of Gestalt psychology (Kohler, Wertheimer, Lewin) and worked as Kurt Goldstein's assistant. He went to South Africa in 1934, where he set up the Institute of Psychoanalysis, and met Jan Smuts, the inventor of the term &quot;holism&quot;. Moving to the USA in 1946, with his wife he set up the New York Institute of Gestalt Therapy in 1952.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Viktor Frankl (1905-1997)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Frankl saw that each person's suffering is unique, and opportunity for growth lies in the way the person bears their suffering. Logotherapy is an attempt to implement that insight in a therapeutic context. Frankl had been strongly influenced by the existential philosophers, Heidegger and Jaspers, and began to develop a philosophy of his own. As the titles of his many popular books suggest, Logotherapy is concerned basically with meaning, the will to meaning, the unheard cry for meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;And a few others&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Gordon Allport (1897–1967)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You mentioned Gordon Allport in your question and yet he is not mentioned by Dr. David R. Hiles, or Reeves above, which is interesting because it is argued that the term &quot;humanistic psychology&quot; was first coined by Gordon Allport in 1930 (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167891313002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DeCarvalho, 1991&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/104438943001100407&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Allport, 1930&lt;/a&gt;) under the subheading of 'A new Science Needed' said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My points, I fear, have been arbitrarily chosen and rather dogmatically presented.  In no other way, however, is it possible to illustrate in a short time the thesis of this paper, namely that a deliberate formulation of a science of personality is not only a necessary but an altogether possible task.  It is mere laziness to insist that knowing people is an art, and therewith to dismiss the subject.  If knowing people is an art, it seems to be an art which, like medicine, can be formulated and communicated, and which can and should be included within a new and broader type of &lt;em&gt;humanistic psychology&lt;/em&gt; (p.127, italics added)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DeCarvalho states that you can find similar statements in all of Allport's major works and particularly in the 1960s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ignorance of Allport's use of the term &lt;em&gt;humanistic psychology&lt;/em&gt; is symbolic of a larger ignorance of Allport's contribution to the humanistic current in American psychology: This omission occurs not only in the texts of the history and systems of psychology, but unfortunately also among humanistic psychologists themselves.....Allport was a well-known personality theorist and perhaps the most prestigious thinker of the early and mid-20th century psychological world who championed the humanistic movement in psychology in the earliest stages. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167891313002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DeCarvalho, 1991&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Allport, G. W. (1930). Some guiding principles in understanding personality. &lt;em&gt;The family&lt;/em&gt;, 11(4), 124-128.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/104438943001100407&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/104438943001100407&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free PDF&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/104438943001100407&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/104438943001100407&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Counselling Directory (n.d.) &lt;em&gt;Humanistic Therapies&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/humanistic.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/humanistic.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 16 February 2017].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DeCarvalho, R. J. (1991). Gordon Allport and humanistic psychology. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Humanistic Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 31(3), 8-13.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167891313002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/0022167891313002&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow, A. (1968). &lt;em&gt;Toward a Psychology of Being&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Van Nostrand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reeves, A. (2013). &lt;em&gt;An Introduction to Counselling and Psychotherapy: From Theory to Practice&lt;/em&gt;. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short, F. &amp;amp; Thomas, P. (2015) &lt;em&gt;Core Approaches in Counselling and Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;. Hove: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-23T16:22:45.810" LastActivityDate="2018-05-23T16:22:45.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19793" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8803" CreationDate="2018-05-23T12:22:36.333" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the American Academy of Pediatrics the following is stated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sex is a biological construct, what is real&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Attributes that characterize biological maleness and femaleness including:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Chromosomes&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hormones&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Anatomy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Gender is a social construct, or 'man-made'&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Attitudes and feelings that a given culture associates with a persons biological sex such as:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gender expression&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gender roles and behavioirs&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gender identity&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This Varies by time and culture&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not able to identify to what degree the AAP's views are accepted or rejected by other organizations.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/solgbt_webinar_transition_garofalo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;, slide 7, from the AAP&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Reference (Best attempt available for now)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Garofalo, R. (2013). Understanding Gender Nonconformity in Childhood and Adolescence&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Webinar Video&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aamc.org/initiatives/diversity/449804/aap2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.aamc.org/initiatives/diversity/449804/aap2.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Free Original Source PDF&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/solgbt_webinar_transition_garofalo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/solgbt_webinar_transition_garofalo.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Source PDF Bibliography [Free PDF]&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pedsuniversity.org/Portals/2/biblios/Garofalo_Gender_biblio.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.pedsuniversity.org/Portals/2/biblios/Garofalo_Gender_biblio.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19363" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-24T14:47:48.727" LastActivityDate="2018-05-24T14:47:48.727" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19795" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-23T13:08:24.250" Score="2" ViewCount="331" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before I pose my question, here are some statements from a slideshow on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/solgbt_webinar_transition_garofalo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Understanding Gender Nonconformity in Childhood and Adolescence&amp;quot; by Robert Garofalo&lt;/a&gt;, attributed to the Children's Hospital of Chicago, and hosted by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). They officially support affirming gender change in children, however there is a group of pediatricians who actively reject that position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to this slideshow, gender is a social construct (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/solgbt_webinar_transition_garofalo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;page 7&lt;/a&gt;), which &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;[v]aries by place, time period&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next I'd like to list the slideshow's listed side effects and irreversible effects of hormone therapy. Pages 39-41 show the side effects of testosterone therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Irreversible Effect of Testosterone Therapy&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lower voice pitch&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased hair growth (arms, legs, chest, ab)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mustache/beard growth&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Male pattern hair loss (temples, crown) and possibly baldness&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Genital Changes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Genital changes (clitoral&#xA;growth and vaginal&#xA;dryness/fragility)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fertility?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Side Effects/Risks: Testosterone&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased cardiovascular risk&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased weight&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Decreased HDL, Increased Triglycerides&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased BP&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased insulin resistance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hepatotoxicity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mood changes: irritability, aggression&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Headaches&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Acne&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Polycythemia&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theoretical risk: breast/endometrial cancer&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given these side effects, on what medical basis do health professional support this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a person doesn't like themselves they get help with their self-value.  They learn the valuable things about their unique identity and also identify why they began to devalue themselves and deal with those root issues. People with phobia's are taught to manage and improve their phobia, not embrace it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My point is not to compare one disorder to another, but to show that regardless of the type of disorder that the standard treatment is not acceptance, but rather to reveal deeper issues and otherwise manage and overcome the disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gender Dysphoria is treated categorically different, but there has been no new category defined on which to base that decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this is a sensitive topic and has many personal stories, but I'd like to focus on the professional medical position and reasoning for that position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19363" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-01-09T09:11:55.730" Title="On what basis do professionals who recognize gender dysphoria support risky and permanent medical intervention for those seeking gender re-assignment?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19797" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10751" CreationDate="2018-05-23T13:31:29.857" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;According to the American Association of Pediatrics Gender is a socially determined identity.  Gender is based on how a person feels specifically as it relates to how the society that person lives in believes that biological sex should act.  Each individual is unique, so each person's Gender should be considered unique, and each society in history has had different standards for Gender roles.  So, this topic is very subjective, yet real since so many are engulfed in it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What this means is that if a person grew up alone their gender would perfectly match their biological sex because there are no preconceived notions or expectations on that person.  The Gender issue has increased as a problem as society puts expectations on people that doesn't match their own personal expectations for their biological sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Doxology&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The pressure and conflict from this clash of societal will and personal will have resulted in something called Gender Dysphoria.  Because Gender is changing term based on person, place, and time and complicated by other social and emotional issues most attempts to discuss the topic end up in ideological conflict instead of caring and personal discussion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sex is a biological construct, what is real&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Attributes that characterize biological maleness and femaleness including:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Chromosomes&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Hormones&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Anatomy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Gender is a social construct, or 'man-made'&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Attitudes and feelings that a given culture associates with a persons biological sex such as:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gender expression&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gender roles and behavioirs&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gender identity&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This Varies by time and culture&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not able to identify to what degree the AAP's views are accepted or rejected by other organizations.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/solgbt_webinar_transition_garofalo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;, slide 7, from the AAP&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19363" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-24T04:16:18.570" LastActivityDate="2018-05-24T04:16:18.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19798" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9737" CreationDate="2018-05-23T13:46:12.197" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You asked a good question and I want to help clarify technical information in the hopes of everyone who discusses this topic doing so more clearly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To put it more simply: how does someone know that they were born as&#xA;  the wrong gender?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question itself displays a misunderstanding of terms.  When we all learn the terms and understand how they relate to each other we can really start to come together on this very polarizing topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on the American Psychiatric Association which is documented on my answer &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8803/what-are-the-meanings-of-the-word-gender/19793#19793&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, the following defines Gender and Sex:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gender is a man made social construct that changes with time and place.&#xA;Sex is the biological reality of a person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on these definitions it is technically impossible for a person to know they were born as the wrong gender for 2 reasons:&#xA;You are born with a sex.  Second, gender identity is changing by social norms at any given time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I propose to you that an answer of sorts to your question is this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are all born a biological sex and that there is inherently nothing wrong or missing in what we were born with.  As unique individuals we grow in a society/culture which is also unique in how they expect a biological sex to act.  The Gender Dysphoric person has negative experiences which cause emotional and psychological stress which can have the outward expression of one wishing to no longer be identified with the Social Gender identity of the Biological Sex they were born as.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This problem is purely a man made problem as the internal feelings of a biological male/female do not match the expectations of what the population around that person have.  This mismatch, when strongly negative or complicated by mental disorders, causes a reaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to note that based on these definitions that the reaction of Gender Dysphoria is mismatched with the actual problem.  The true problem is Gender which is social.  Gender Dysphoria is medically treated on a Sex/Biological level.  There is a great divide in the understanding and acceptance of this issue as it applies to the real definition of terms and impact on people's lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Added Reference link.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/solgbt_webinar_transition_garofalo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/solgbt_webinar_transition_garofalo.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19363" LastEditorUserId="19363" LastEditDate="2020-01-08T23:24:24.877" LastActivityDate="2020-01-08T23:24:24.877" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19799" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18082" CreationDate="2018-05-23T14:08:09.253" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on my research through the APA Gender is a subjective term, so the 'Dysphoria' of how a persons feels about being one biological sex and how the current society feels that biological sex should be are both changing standards which are unique based on experience, place, and time.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a factual representation of the APA (who supports Gender Dysphoria), yet classifies gender as a social construct.  At the very least we should try to understand that technical assessments of the difference between two changing and subjective points are not easily done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my answer is, that while there are tests that are used for this topic as the first answer states, that these are highly subjective and to date there are no scientific factors and assessments to measure this classification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scientific tests in my mind would include technical baselines for brain or other biological markers which become standardized over time.  Brainwave activity, identified genes are two such options, which currently do not exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19363" LastActivityDate="2018-05-23T14:08:09.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19801" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19858" CreationDate="2018-05-23T16:42:07.697" Score="0" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been pondering Maslow's famous hierarchy of needs and wondered where &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Escapism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;escapism&lt;/a&gt; fits in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's more of a personal need than a type of social connection, but it doesn't really align itself with esteem/significance. So it appears to me that it could merit its own category.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone give me a general idea of the importance of escapism based on studies? Am I correct in classifying it as a &quot;need,&quot; and that depriving a person of their fantasies or other forms of escapism would have a significant impact?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastActivityDate="2018-05-30T21:22:51.753" Title="Escapism in the Hierarchy of Needs" Tags="&lt;needs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19802" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19837" CreationDate="2018-05-23T18:01:56.377" Score="0" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm pondering the nature and relationship of several things that I think are at least loosely related: fun, rest/relaxation and escapism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They are all things that might be loosely described as &quot;humanistic;&quot; things that you associate with happiness. They might also be described as &quot;fringe needs;&quot; we have to take care of more important things before we go into leisure mode. (However, rest is an exception, as we can hardly stay sane without sleep.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is there a collective term for these things? Or can they be placed in some kind of category that separates them from more familiar needs, such as security, social connections and esteem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T08:24:15.117" Title="Collective term for fun, relaxation and escapism" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19803" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19919" CreationDate="2018-05-23T21:57:26.387" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm curious what research there is about when/how people decide to stop evaluating or gathering evidence, and actually begin executing on an action, and how the order of information presented could therefore effect conclusions. Most of the articles I've found on this so far are related to premature closure in the area of medical diagnoses specifically -- i.e. when people make a diagnosis prematurely. However, it seems like this must be researched in psychology as well- I think I'm just missing the key terms to look at to find it. Any suggestions/idea of the research would be very helpful!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19094" LastActivityDate="2018-06-12T08:05:12.660" Title="What research is there on how people go from examining/gathering evidence to executing on a decision?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19804" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-24T04:37:28.213" Score="0" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know what the branches of neuroscience, cognitive science, psychology, and psychiatry related to what happens when the tongue touches and other possible related mouth sensors, touch, or come into touch, with food, in the mouth, possibly interacting, with saliva and salivary glands and allocation, the back of the tongue and the back part of the hard palate or soft palate, the uvula, and swallowing and interaction with the tongue while swallowing and peristalsis through the throat, other than the feeling one gets when food is being digested by the stomach, gallbladder, and bowls, and related cognitive processes and psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Also, what are the food and sense of taste disorders described in the DSM V?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What are the interactions of attachment theory with these processes?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18893" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-24T10:15:39.377" LastActivityDate="2018-05-24T10:15:39.377" Title="Names of branches of neuroscience and related fields dealing with hunger, taste, attachment, and digestion, and their relationship to other perception" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19805" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19804" CreationDate="2018-05-24T08:39:43.210" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer / Intro&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This question is (superbly) broad, and I've merely attempted to try to give some pointers, without even trying to be complete in any way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I would like to know what the branches of neuroscience, cognitive science, psychology, and psychiatry related to what happens when the tongue touches...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuroscience: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurophysiology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurophysiology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive science: &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-science/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;theoretical neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychology: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychophysics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychiatry: ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Health sciences: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Otorhinolaryngology&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of disorders, &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/8416824&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hummel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; (2014)&lt;/a&gt; say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These functions reflect the complaints of patients with smell and taste disorders: Patient complaints include loss of “fine taste”, inability to detect the odour of a partner or child, and the occurrence of, for example, food poisoning. &lt;strong&gt;In general the value of these senses is only recognised when they are lost.&lt;/strong&gt; It is assumed that about 5% of people exhibit functional anosmia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/brain/anosmia-loss-of-smell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anosmia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; being:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the loss of the sense of smell, either total or partial. It may be caused by head injury, infection, or blockage of the nose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of psychiatric illness I'm moving into unfamiliar territory, but there seems to be mention in the literature of a correlation between taste dysfunction and psychiatric disorders &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/8416824&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Mott &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1993)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3341581/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hummel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;GMS Curr Top Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Surg&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;10&lt;/strong&gt;: Doc04&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/8416824&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mott &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Dental Clinics North Am&lt;/em&gt; (1993); &lt;strong&gt;37&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 33-71&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-05-24T10:14:06.673" LastActivityDate="2018-05-24T10:14:06.673" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5878" CreationDate="2018-05-24T11:43:04.003" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;STUBBORNNESS is one of seven basic character flaws or “dark” personality traits. We all have the potential for stubborn tendencies, but in people with a strong fear of change, Stubbornness can become a dominant pattern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like all character flaws, stubbornness involves the following components:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1  Early negative experiences&#xA;  2  Misconceptions about the nature of self, life or others&#xA;  3  A constant fear and sense of insecurity&#xA;  4  A maladaptive strategy to protect the self&#xA;  5  A persona to hide all of the above in adulthood&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19364" LastActivityDate="2018-05-24T11:43:04.003" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19809" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19857" CreationDate="2018-05-24T12:04:24.737" Score="4" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to track down a research paper that I have lost the details for. Any help tracking it down would be very, very welcome!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It described an experiment where a US college showed prospective students a promotional video with one of two narration tracks: one which said that all students are welcome; and another where various minority groups were specifically said to be welcome. I seem to recall that the video itself, which showed a variety of students, was the same for both groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results showed that students from those minority groups rated the video that singled out demographic groups as &lt;em&gt;less welcoming&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The conclusion was that by singling out demographics as needing to be welcomed separately, this made people feel different and therefore less welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19369" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-05-30T19:43:52.660" LastActivityDate="2018-05-30T19:43:52.660" Title="Paper finding that explicitly welcomed minorities felt less welcome" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19812" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19767" CreationDate="2018-05-24T18:14:59.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is far more to be said about both addiction and bias. Essentially I disagree with Warren's theories (I have not read the book) at least as they seem to be based on the old Freudian principle of drive theory, which, in effect, was a very Newtonian notion of hydraulics as applied to human motivation and reduced (ad absurdam) humans to machine-like entities. It also denied any higher motivation than performance, and strongly reinforced the idea of separateness and isolation in what Alan Watts called &quot;the skin encapsulated ego.&quot; One may find oneself habituated to almost anything. Using the term &quot;addiction&quot; simply pejoratizes human activities, and is biased (that word again!) in therms of an ostensible clinical view (based initially on the ostensibly august opinions of the &quot;Fathers of Psychiatry&quot; and exponentialized since, gaining political and social power by being aligned with the psychopharmaceutical industry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19372" LastActivityDate="2018-05-24T18:14:59.417" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19814" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19842" CreationDate="2018-05-25T14:57:23.320" Score="2" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;Any studies as to whether internet groups create even more groups, ideologues and &quot;separation&quot; than pre-internet?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I've speculated that in the internet age we may be seeing even more &quot;groups opposed to each other&quot;, &quot;groups based on exclusivity&quot; etc. But I wonder if it's just my perception or whether there's some science to back it up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15494" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-25T16:26:26.453" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T19:20:33.643" Title="Any studies as to whether internet groups create even more groups, ideologues and &quot;separation&quot; than pre-internet?" Tags="&lt;internet&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19815" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3748" CreationDate="2018-05-25T15:10:41.773" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Baron-Cohen&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simon Baron-Cohen&lt;/a&gt; developed a relevant tool for this question: the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism-spectrum_quotient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;autism-spectrum quotient&lt;/a&gt; (AQ).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A test is available &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology-tools.com/autism-spectrum-quotient/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the abstracts of two papers of Baron-Cohen et al.:   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1005653411471&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Males and Females, Scientists and Mathematicians&lt;/a&gt;&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;: Currently there are no brief, self-administered instruments for measuring the degree to which an adult with normal&#xA;  intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum. In&#xA;  this paper, we report on a new instrument to assess this: the&#xA;  Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Individuals score in the range 0–50.&#xA;  Four groups of subjects were assessed: Group 1: 58 adults with&#xA;  Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autism (HFA); Group 2: 174&#xA;  randomly selected controls. Group 3: 840 students in Cambridge&#xA;  University; and Group 4: 16 winners of the UK Mathematics Olympiad.&#xA;  The adults with AS/HFA had a mean AQ score of 35.8 (SD = 6.5),&#xA;  significantly higher than Group 2 controls (M = 16.4, SD = 6.3). 80%&#xA;  of the adults with AS/HFA scored 32+, versus 2% of controls. Among the&#xA;  controls, men scored slightly but significantly higher than women. No&#xA;  women scored extremely highly (AQ score 34+) whereas 4% of men did so.&#xA;  Twice as many men (40%) as women (21%) scored at intermediate levels&#xA;  (AQ score 20+). Among the AS/HFA group, male and female scores did not&#xA;  differ significantly. The students in Cambridge University did not&#xA;  differ from the randomly selected control group, but scientists&#xA;  (including mathematicians) scored significantly higher than both&#xA;  humanities and social sciences students, confirming an earlier study&#xA;  that autistic conditions are associated with scientific skills. Within&#xA;  the sciences, mathematicians scored highest. This was replicated in&#xA;  Group 4, the Mathematics Olympiad winners scoring significantly higher&#xA;  than the male Cambridge humanities students. 6% of the student sample&#xA;  scored 32+ on the AQ. On interview, 11 out of 11 of these met&#xA;  three or more DSM-IV criteria for AS/HFA, and all were studying&#xA;  sciences/mathematics, and 7 of the 11 met threshold on these criteria.&#xA;  Test—retest and interrater reliability of the AQ was good. The AQ is&#xA;  thus a valuable instrument for rapidly quantifying where any given&#xA;  individual is situated on the continuum from autism to normality. Its&#xA;  potential for screening for autism spectrum conditions in adults of&#xA;  normal intelligence remains to be fully explored.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12110-007-9014-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mathematical Talent is Linked to Autism&lt;/a&gt;&quot;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;: A total of 378 mathematics undergraduates (selected for being strong&#xA;  at “systemizing”) and 414 students in other (control) disciplines at&#xA;  Cambridge University were surveyed with two questions: (1) Do you have&#xA;  a diagnosed autism spectrum condition? (2) How many relatives in your&#xA;  immediate family have a diagnosed autism spectrum condition? Results&#xA;  showed seven cases of autism in the math group (or 1.85%) vs one case&#xA;  of autism in the control group (or 0.24%), a ninefold difference that&#xA;  is significant. Controlling for sex and general population sampling,&#xA;  this represents a three- to sevenfold increase for autism spectrum&#xA;  conditions among the mathematicians. There were 7 of 1,405 (or 0.5%)&#xA;  cases of autism in the immediate families of the math group vs 2 of&#xA;  1,669 (or 0.1%) cases in the immediate families of the control group,&#xA;  which again is a significant difference. These results confirm a link&#xA;  between autism and systemizing, and they suggest this link is genetic&#xA;  given the association between autism and first-degree relatives of&#xA;  mathematicians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;: Is the AQ of a mathematician high (in average) because of his/her activity? Or was it high before? Or, was it slightly high before and then increased by the activity?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I discovered that in the following extract of the book on Grigori Perelman by Masha Gessen &quot;Perfect Rigor: A Genius and the  Mathematical Breakthrough  of the Century&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;More than forty years after Hans Asperger, a British psychologist&#xA;  named Simon Baron-Cohen came to study autism and Asperger’s syndrome&#xA;  and figured out several things that seem to me to be very useful in&#xA;  understanding Grigory Perelman. First, Baron-Cohen suggested that the&#xA;  autistic brain was lopsided in a particular way. Where a neuronormal&#xA;  brain has the ability to both systemize and empathize, the autistic&#xA;  brain might be excellent at the former but is always lousy at the&#xA;  latter - causing Baron-Cohen to dub the autistic brain “the extreme&#xA;  male brain.” Baron-Cohen defined systemizing as “the drive to analyze&#xA;  and/or build a system (of any kind) based on identifying&#xA;  input-operation-output rules” and theorized that great systemizers&#xA;  might be at increased risk for autism. When he tested this theory on a&#xA;  population of Cambridge University undergraduates, it turned out that&#xA;  the mathematicians among them were three to seven times more likely&#xA;  than other students to have a diagnosis of an autistic condition.&#xA;  Baron-Cohen also developed the AQ, or the autism-spectrum quotient,&#xA;  test, which he administered to adults with Asperger’s or&#xA;  high-functioning autism as well as to randomly selected controls and&#xA;  Cambridge students and winners of the British Mathematical Olympiad.&#xA;  The correlation between math and autism and/or Asperger’s was proved&#xA;  again: mathematicians scored higher than other scientists, who scored&#xA;  higher than students in the humanities, who scored roughly the same as&#xA;  the random controls. I took the AQ test too when Baron-Cohen e-mailed&#xA;  it to me, and scored as high as Baron-Cohen would probably expect a&#xA;  former math-school student to score, which is very high. Grigory&#xA;  Perelman, as far as I know, never took the AQ test and certainly&#xA;  cannot be diagnosed by someone who has not talked to him, though after&#xA;  I spent an hour on the phone describing Perelman to Baron-Cohen, the&#xA;  famous psychologist volunteered to fly to St. Petersburg to evaluate&#xA;  the famous mathematician - who sounded so very much like many of his&#xA;  clients - thus joining the long list of people who had volunteered&#xA;  help that Perelman did not welcome.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Had Baron-Cohen chosen Russian rather than British mathematicians as his subjects, the results would probably have been either the same or even more clearly pronounced. After all, Russian mathematical prodigies are often grouped with others of their kind in environments that are especially tolerant of their particular brand of weirdness. The tradition of forgiving mathematicians their autistic rudenesses dates back as far as anyone can remember. Many memoirs of Kolmogorov cite his peculiar manner of walking away in midconversation, demonstrating both his utter disregard for social convention and his pragmatic approach to socializing, which is typical of Aspergians: once he had received the information he sought, he had no further use for communication. In one instance, Kolmogorov, then a dean at Moscow University, was accosted in a hallway by a man who said repeatedly, “Hello, I am Professor Such-and-Such.” Kolmogorov did not answer. Finally, the professor said, “You do not recognize me, do you?” Responded Kolmogorov: “I do, and I realize that you are Professor Such-and-Such.” In the Aspergian world, conversations are exchanges of information, not exchanges of pleasantries. Most of Kolmogorov’s students cited another of their teacher’s typically Aspergian traits: what they called his “temper” and what were actually frightening episodes of apparently uncontrollable rage. That Kolmogorov’s marked social problems did not impair his career is a measure of&#xA;  the degree to which a sort of Aspergian culture was built into the larger Russian culture of mathematics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This extract should be balanced with the following extract coming from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ams.org/notices/201101/rtx110100056p.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Book Review for &lt;em&gt;Notices of the AMS&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Donal O’Shea:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gessen argues that the people who surrounded Perelman sheltered him&#xA;  from ordinary reality, allowing him to mistakenly believe that the&#xA;  world is as he thinks it should be. This elaborate narrative is&#xA;  totally conjectural—Gessen has no evidence about what Perelman&#xA;  believes. Undaunted, she goes on to diagnose Perelman with a&#xA;  full-blown case of Asperger’s syndrome. I simply don’t know enough to&#xA;  evaluate these claims and am entirely unconvinced.  Everyone agrees&#xA;  that Perelman lives simply, so why not  make  the  simpler  assumption&#xA;  that  he  wants privacy and does not want to be encumbered with  fame&#xA;  or money? Perelman’s recent refusal of the million-dollar Clay&#xA;  Millennium award suggests this, particularly since the Clay Institute&#xA;  made it clear that Perelman would not have to participate in any&#xA;  public ceremony.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Even putting aside the evidentiary questions, I&#xA;  found the second half of the book offensive. I felt uncomfortable &#xA;  reading  about  a  living  individual   who wishes to remain out of&#xA;  public sight. Publicly diagnosing someone with a serious psychological&#xA;  disorder  without  consultation  seems  ethically questionable,  not &#xA;  to  mention  presumptuous. Doing any sort of mathematics requires&#xA;  precision, careful  attention  to  meaning,  and  concentration.&#xA;  Gessen’s  account  of  British  psychiatrist  Simon Baron-Cohen’s &#xA;  autism-spectrum  quotient  test, and  the  purported  strong &#xA;  correlation  between   high-functioning autism and mathematical&#xA;  ability in  a  test  population,  runs  dangerously  close  to&#xA;  medicalizing precisely these traits. Gessen’s presumption does not end&#xA;  with psychiatric expertise. She opines freely on Perelman’s work,&#xA;  characterizing  it  as  solving  the  “very,  very  complicated&#xA;  olympiad problem” into which she has Hamilton casting Thurston’s&#xA;  geometrization conjecture. She cavalierly ranks top mathematicians in&#xA;  descending order from those who open new fields by posing questions &#xA;  no  one  has  thought  to  ask  (such  as Poincaré and Thurston) to&#xA;  those who devise ways to answer those questions (such as Hamilton) to&#xA;  the bottom of the top, those poor souls (such as Perelman)  who  take &#xA;  the  last  steps  in  completing proofs.  Mathematicians  will  easily&#xA;  discern  the depth  of Gessen’s  mathematical  ignorance,  but others&#xA;  will not, and it is depressing to see Perelman’s  inspiring &#xA;  achievement  and  powerful  new ideas reduced to psychobabble:&#xA;  “Speaking of the imaginary four-dimensional space, he referred to&#xA;  things that could and could not occur ‘in nature’. In essence, he&#xA;  [Perelman] was able to do in mathematics  what  he  had  tried  to  do&#xA;  in  life:  grasp  at once all the possibilities of nature and&#xA;  annihilate everything  that  fell  outside  that  realm - castrati&#xA;  voices, cars, anti-Semitism, and any other uncomfortable singularity.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3200" LastEditorUserId="3200" LastEditDate="2018-05-26T13:12:15.050" LastActivityDate="2018-05-26T13:12:15.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19816" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-25T15:48:17.547" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot find statistics about how many supposed alien &quot;UFO abductees&quot; have sleep paralysis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find statistics about how many alien abductees were hypnotized before concluding that they were abducted by aliens (because of the &quot;buried&quot; memories). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find statistics about what emotions alien abductees associate with being abducted(good? bad?). What types of religious beliefs do those people in the study have?spiritual, christian, hells?,enlightenment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find statistics about how many &quot;alien abductees&quot; don't have religious beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19379" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-25T16:19:20.140" LastActivityDate="2018-05-25T16:19:20.140" Title="Correlations with alien abduction experiences" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-05-31T11:27:16.993" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19818" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-25T20:08:51.547" Score="3" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;In other words, even though there may be two distinct neural circuits which process separate forms of information in the same type of brain matter (i.e. cerebral cortex processing language in one area and planning in another area) can gene expression differences be found between such distinct and separate neural circuits, despite being in the same type of brain matter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16827" LastActivityDate="2018-06-28T16:12:54.420" Title="Do separate neural circuits express separate genes in the same type of brain matter?" Tags="&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19819" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19824" CreationDate="2018-05-25T21:55:22.167" Score="8" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a project we did a small survey, one of the questions was about the following scenario.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Last week the lottery was won by a ticket with the numbers x x x, this week you can make one choice. Pick a ticket with the numbers from last week or pick one that is different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More then 95% of the persons we asked answered they took different numbers as reasoning they give that its unlikely that the same numbers win in a row.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mathematically it has the same odds but why are we not seeing this as logic?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19381" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-26T01:58:58.210" LastActivityDate="2018-05-27T18:06:53.467" Title="Lottery question, why do we people think this is logic?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19820" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7736" CreationDate="2018-05-25T23:53:18.533" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rstudio-pubs-static.s3.amazonaws.com/292892_6ade8ffdbd8344209a6b14de2a045ab0.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Andero Uusberg actually compiled a bunch of Affective Image Databases&lt;/a&gt; and has some useful graphics visualizing how they compare. Some of these have been mentioned above but I include the full set to show completeness and associated metadata. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oQuLq.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oQuLq.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://csea.phhp.ufl.edu/Media.html#topmedia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Affective Picture System (IAPS)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M., &amp;amp; Cuthbert, B.N. (2008). International affective picture system (IAPS): Affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual. Technical Report A-8. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.&#xA;Pictures: 1196&#xA;Categories: Multiple, from furniture to complete scene, wide range of semantic categories.&#xA;Normative ratings: Valence, arousal, and dominance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.affective-sciences.org/en/home/research/materials-and-online-research/research-material/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Geneva affective picture database (GAPED)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dan-Glauser, E. S., &amp;amp; Scherer, K. R. (2011). The Geneva affective picture database (GAPED): a new 730-picture database focusing on valence and normative significance. Behavior Research Methods, 43(2), 468-477. doi: 10.3758/s13428-011-0064-1&#xA;Pictures: 730&#xA;Categories: spiders, snakes, and scenes that induce emotions related to the violation of moral and legal norms (human rights violation or animal mistreatment). Positive and neutral pictures were also included.&#xA;Normative ratings: Valence, Arousal, external norm and internal norm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://lobi.nencki.gov.pl/research/8/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nencki Affective Picture System (NAPS)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marchewka, A., Zurawski, L., Jednoróg, K., &amp;amp; Grabowska, A. (2014). The Nencki Affective Picture System (NAPS): Introduction to a novel, standardized, wide-range, high-quality, realistic picture database. Behavior research methods, 46(2), 596-610.&#xA;Pictures: 1356&#xA;Categories: people, faces, animals, objects, and landscapes&#xA;Normative ratings: Valence and arousal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://lobi.nencki.gov.pl/research/8/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Erotic subset of Nencki Affective Picture System (NAPS-ERO)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wierzba, M., Riegel, M., Pucz, A., Lesniewska, Z., Dragan, W. L., Gola, M., … &amp;amp; Marchewka, A. (2015). Erotic subset for the Nencki Affective Picture System (NAPS ERO): cross-sexual comparison study. Frontiers in psychology, 6, 1336.&#xA;Pictures: 200&#xA;Categories: opposite-sex couple (50), male couple (50), female couple (50), male (25) and female (25)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Normative ratings: Valence and arousal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://lobi.nencki.gov.pl/research/8/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Set of Fear Inducing Pictures (NAPS-SFIP)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Michalowski, J. M., Drozdziel, D., Matuszewski, J., Koziejowski, W., Jednoróg, K., &amp;amp; Marchewka, A. (2016). The Set of Fear Inducing Pictures (SFIP): Development and validation in fearful and nonfearful individuals. Behavior Research Methods, 1-13.&#xA;Pictures: 886&#xA;Categories: Spiders, bugs, blood injection, fearful social exposure, angry faces&#xA;Normative ratings: Fear, arousal and valence&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.benedekkurdi.com/%23oasis#!portfolio/project-5.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Open Affective Standardized Image Set (OASIS)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kurdi, B., Lozano, S., &amp;amp; Banaji, M. R. (2016). Introducing the Open Affective Standardized Image Set (OASIS). Behavior research methods, 1-14.&#xA;Pictures: 900&#xA;Categories: Animal, Object, Person, Scenery&#xA;Normative ratings: Valence and arousal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.klinische-psychologie-und-neuropsychologie.uni-mainz.de/forschung/emopics/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional Picture System (EmoPicS)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wessa, M., Kanske, P., Neumeister, P., Bode, K., Heissler, J., &amp;amp; Schönfelder, S. (2010). EmoPics: Subjective and psychophysiological evaluations of new imaging material for clinical-bio-psychological research. Journal of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Supplement, 1/11, 77.&#xA;Pictures: 378&#xA;Categories: Diverse social situations animals, and plants&#xA;Normative ratings: Valence, excitement and complexity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neurosciences.univ-fcomte.fr/pages/fr/menu4761/outils/apd.old-17499.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Besançon Affective Picture Set-Adolescents (The BAPS-Ado)= The Attachment Picture Database (APD)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Szymanska, M., Monnin, J., Noiret, N., Tio, G., Galdon, L., Laurent, E., … &amp;amp; Vulliez-Coady, L. (2015). The Besançon Affective Picture Set-Adolescents (the BAPS-Ado): Development and validation. Psychiatry research, 228(3), 576-584.&#xA;Pictures: 93&#xA;Categories: Distress, comfort, joy-complicity and neutral&#xA;Normative ratings: Valence, Arousal and dominance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uam.es/gruposinv/ceaco/EmoMadrid.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EmoMadrid emotional pictures database&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EmoMadrid affective picture database (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.uam.es/CEACO/EmoMadrid.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.uam.es/CEACO/EmoMadrid.htm&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;Pictures: 700&#xA;Categories:&#xA;Normative ratings: Valence and arousal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cla.auburn.edu/psychology/military-affective-picture-system/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Military Affective Picture System (MAPS)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dretsch, M., Thiel, K., Born, S., Goodman, A. M., &amp;amp; Katz, J.S. (2013). Military Affective Picture System (MAPS) [Picture Repository]. Unpublished instrument. Auburn University.&#xA;Pictures: 240&#xA;Categories: Military&#xA;Normative ratings: Valence, dominance, and arousal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://infolab.stanford.edu/~wangz/project/imsearch/Aesthetics/APS15/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Image Stimuli for Emotion Elicitation (ISEE)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hanjoo Kim, Xin Lu, Michael Costa, Baris Kandemir, Reginald B. Adams, Jr., Jia Li, James Z. Wang and Michelle G. Newman, ``Development and Validation of the Image Stimuli for Emotion Elicitation (ISEE),’’ Association for Psychological Science Annual Convention, poster, New York City, May 2015.&#xA;Pictures: 10 696&#xA;Categories: Pictures with emotional label and categorization from Flickr&#xA;Normative ratings: valence, arousal, dominance, and likeness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hdl.handle.net/10481/41499&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Open Library of Affective Food (OLAF)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miccoli, L., Delgado, R., Guerra, P., Versace, F., Rodríguez, S., &amp;amp; Fernández-Santaella, M.C. (2016). “Affective Pictures and the Open Library of Affective Foods (OLAF): Tools to Investigate Emotions toward Food in Adults.”. PLOS ONE, DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0158991&#xA;Pictures: 95&#xA;Categories: Food&#xA;Normative ratings: pleasure, arousal, dominance, and food craving&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://zenodo.org/record/167037#.WLSvWRLyto4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The DIsgust-RelaTed-Images (DIRTI)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Haberkamp, A., Glombiewski, J. A., Schmidt, F., &amp;amp; Barke, A. (2017). The DIsgust-RelaTed-Images (DIRTI) database: Validation of a novel standardized set of disgust pictures. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 89, 86-94.&#xA;Pictures: 240&#xA;Categories: food, animals, body products, injuries/infections, death, and hygiene&#xA;Normative ratings: disgust, fear, valence, and arousal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8253" LastActivityDate="2018-05-25T23:53:18.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19822" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19825" CreationDate="2018-05-26T21:41:18.027" Score="1" ViewCount="5124" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I found a lot of articles about the facts why death in dream wakes us up, like that our brain doesn't know what happens after death, or because of the adrenaline and so on... I had two dreams in my life where I didn't wake up after being killed. I only remember one of them where I have been chased by a woman (the killer) and I was running, I was so nervous and scared and then she caught me and took me somewhere with some indians keeping telling me &quot;It is going to be ok/cool/alright&quot; and I was tied, I noticed the axe she was holding, it was so scary, and then she cut off my head. No awakening. I saw indians taking my body somewhere else, the woman came to me and I told her &quot;It is ok, as you said&quot; and I was so satisfied, filled with a feeling like Why was I scared?/It is absolutely alright... and the dream continued, but nothing special happened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19389" LastActivityDate="2019-04-05T14:56:07.973" Title="Why didn't I wake up after dying in a dream?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2019-04-05T16:34:37.813" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19823" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19819" CreationDate="2018-05-27T01:07:45.867" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The mathematical calculation of probability as an independent event will be the same but while people will make a decision it is influenced by past memory. It is day to day experience of people that in a random event it is highly unlikely and almost imposssible for same numbers to come in a lottery. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here people will calculate the odds as dependent event. So that is not the logic or is the logic whichever way you put it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user18971" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-27T18:06:53.467" LastActivityDate="2018-05-27T18:06:53.467" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19824" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19819" CreationDate="2018-05-27T07:15:06.487" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is a variation of a classical fallacy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The gambler's fallacy, also known as the Monte Carlo fallacy or the&#xA;  fallacy of the maturity of chances, is the mistaken belief that, if&#xA;  something happens more frequently than normal during a given period,&#xA;  it will happen less frequently in the future. It may also be stated as&#xA;  the belief that, if something happens less frequently than normal&#xA;  during a given period, it will happen more frequently in the future. (Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WikiPedia&lt;/a&gt;)   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact that the number was advertised as having been a winning number makes it salient to the respondent, just as if it would have won multiple times in a row. So, judging through the fallacy above, the number is less likely to win again. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We rarely judge mathematically or logically if we are not prompted or educated to do so, we rely judgements on heuristics instead. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19391" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-27T18:03:54.830" LastActivityDate="2018-05-27T18:03:54.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19825" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19822" CreationDate="2018-05-27T07:40:09.047" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;We still don't know much about dreams, and researching them is, at the most, a volatile kind of attempt to do science. It would be interesting what the statistics in the papers you read were based on, but the subject itself of those researches would be very unscientific because:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;you cannot compare the &quot;being dead in a dream&quot; condition to any other condition that opposes it (not being dead in a dream doesn't count, if you look at it, as it means every other dream, and that is a lot of alternate conditions that might or might not wake you up equally)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;you rely on &quot;subjective&quot; and hazy accounts of the event, hardly on a MRI scan or anything plausible (how would you choose specifically the subjects and situations where that specific type of dream occurs)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To put it bluntly, the answer to your question is: because the science in those papers you read was, most probably, questionable if not downright bad. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19391" LastActivityDate="2018-05-27T07:40:09.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19826" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19818" CreationDate="2018-05-27T08:03:46.833" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, I am revisiting your question as asked by community, and I discover I misunderstood it initially: you didn't say neurons process information, you said neural circuits do. And that distinct neural circuits process separate forms of information. Well, that is inexact. There are several types of neurons, adapted to create neural circuits able to process motor, sensory and a combination of the two. Here's a jolly picture of some of them &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/neurons_intro/neurons_intro.php?modGUI=232&amp;amp;compGUI=1826&amp;amp;itemGUI=3155&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;from here&lt;/a&gt;   : &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IWJ3U.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IWJ3U.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your question itself, it is quite confusing, at least at the level of knowledge of the brain we have at the moment: Do separate neural circuits express separate genes? We hardly know the surface of how the brain works, we consider a great improvement in science the fact that the psychotic spectrum gene pool &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/6671&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;has been somewhat mapped&lt;/a&gt; . &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, to somewhat answer your question, for example,  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/114798&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;there is a gene&lt;/a&gt;  that is sometimes (not always) involved in Tourette syndrome and has been studied. The main idea is that &quot;The SLITRK1 protein probably plays a role in the development of nerve cells, including the growth of specialized extensions (axons and dendrites) that allow each nerve cell to communicate with nearby cells. &quot; Now, Tourette's  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/102/37/13307.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;might be associated with Altered parvalbumin-positive neuron distribution in basal ganglia&lt;/a&gt;, which could be either the result of SLITRK1 gene mutation, or some other gene. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let us put it this way: we do not have genes that suddenly create a third arm or a second heart, so we shouldn't have genes that suddenly create the wrong kind of neurons in the wrong region of the brain (I suppose that's what you mean by &quot;type of brain matter&quot;, region of the brain, as neurons are generally all on the same level of the brain matter). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My best hunch, judging by the research I presented above, is that gene mutations might &lt;em&gt;encourage or discourage&lt;/em&gt; the development of the type of neurons you'd expect in certain areas, which improves or disables the ability to process this or that type of information. Same as above, expressions of the genes involved in making this or that protein or physiological process that favors development of neurons in very specific areas of the brain - will also influence the way or intensity we process information with that specific region of the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But - and it's a revelation I had myself while documenting this answer - &lt;strong&gt;genes do not express or suppress neuron development directly.&lt;/strong&gt; The brain is what it is, and has the same format , if you will, no matter whose you dissect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Genes influence metabolic and general physiologic process that are &lt;em&gt;also&lt;/em&gt; part of the brain development. Your brain regions will process better or poorer due to the types of proteins that trigger development for the neurons, neurotransmitters that control the electric flow through the etc involved in the matter. Neural cells are hard-coded. Their development and functioning aren't.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19391" LastEditorUserId="19391" LastEditDate="2018-06-28T16:12:54.420" LastActivityDate="2018-06-28T16:12:54.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19827" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19835" CreationDate="2018-05-27T14:57:10.233" Score="4" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have two independent variables (age and gender) and one dependent variable (the results of a questionnaire using a Likert scale).&#xA;I'm trying to see whether age and/or gender have an effect on the results of the questionnaire. All participants answered the same questionnaire. Is this a mixed factorial design or a within groups design?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19395" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-05-27T16:19:35.653" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T19:56:00.600" Title="Which experimental design is this? Factorial vs within groups" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19828" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-27T16:11:13.210" Score="3" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/15733/12937&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;, it is said that pain signals can be numbed by dissociating through detachment (a psychological effect). On the other hand, in the article &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://christofkoch.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/cr-brain-buddha-13.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Brain of Buddha&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Christof Koch, it seems that a high intensity of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gamma wave&lt;/a&gt; can also relief the pain (a neurotic effect).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So does dissociation/detachment associates with gamma wave? The Kock's paper doesn't mention anything about the dissociation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-05-28T13:24:30.057" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T13:24:30.057" Title="Is dissociation/detachment associated with gamma wave?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;pain&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19829" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15730" CreationDate="2018-05-27T16:24:55.193" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[H]ow does one reliably reach this state &quot;on-demand&quot; and how does one maintain it during the endurance of significant nociceptive pain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that activating the gamma wave on-demand is the key to withstand the pain. But how? No one knows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Koch, &lt;a href=&quot;https://christofkoch.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/cr-brain-buddha-13.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Brain of the Buddha&lt;/a&gt;, American Scientific, 2013: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gamma activity in these monks is the largest seen in nonpathological conditions and 30 times greater than in the novices. The more years the monks had been practicing meditation, the stronger  the  (normalized)  power  in  the gamma band. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/bWbLuHi.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Related: &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XlQ5a.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XlQ5a.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-07-03T12:59:09.507" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T12:59:09.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19831" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18693" CreationDate="2018-05-27T19:38:45.337" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;When it comes to any surveys on how mental health is assessed, you can't go &lt;strong&gt;far&lt;/strong&gt; wrong with looking at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 2010, the APA launched a unique Web site to facilitate public and professional input into DSM-5. All draft diagnostic criteria and proposed changes in organization were posted on www.dsm5.org for a 2-month comment period. Feedback totaled more than 8,000 submissions, which were systematically reviewed by each of the 13 work groups, whose members, where appropriate, integrated questions and comments into discussions of draft revisions and plans for field trial testing. After revisions to the initial draft criteria and proposed chapter organization, a second posting occurred in 2011. Work groups considered feedback from both Web postings and the results of the DSM-5 Field Trials when drafting proposed final criteria, which were posted on the Web site for a third and final time in 2012. These three iterations of external review produced more than 13,000 individually signed comments on the Web site that were received and reviewed by the work groups, plus thousands of organized petition signers for and against some proposed revisions, all of which allowed the task force to actively address concerns of DSM users, as well as patients and advocacy groups, and ensure that clinical utility remained a high priority. (Source:&amp;nbsp;Page&amp;nbsp;8&amp;nbsp;of&amp;nbsp;DSM-5)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My copy of DSM-5 has the following definition for Mental Disorder:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Sewb5.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Sewb5.png&quot; alt=&quot;DSM 5 Definition of a Mental Disorder&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice that it said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mental disorders are usually associated with significant distress &lt;strong&gt;or disability&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So therefore, Allen Frances was only slightly incorrect with what he said as there can be social or occupational disabilities without distress, but then based on the findings of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1857317/pdf/nihms18536.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Miller at al (2007)&lt;/a&gt;, John Gartner was also wrong.  An example is that Narcisistic Personality Disorder has &quot;weak but significant&quot; relation with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/intrapersonal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intrapersonal&lt;/a&gt; distress (Miller,&amp;nbsp;et&amp;nbsp;al.&amp;nbsp;2007).  However, in defense of John Gartner is the fact that;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the strongest impairment associated with NPD is the distress or “pain and suffering” experienced not by the narcissist but by his or her significant others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, J. D., Campbell, W. K., &amp;amp; Pilkonis, P. A. (2007). Narcissistic personality disorder: Relations with distress and functional impairment. Comprehensive psychiatry, 48(2), 170-177.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2006.10.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.comppsych.2006.10.003&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1857317/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC1857317&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free PDF:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1857317/pdf/nihms18536.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1857317/pdf/nihms18536.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-05-28T05:10:45.507" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T05:10:45.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19834" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19429" CreationDate="2018-05-28T03:44:11.550" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;for the definition of &quot;the shadow&quot; we firstly go throw the basic difference between Jung and Freud which is the collective unconscious or the storehouse of memories inherited from the common ancestors of the whole human race which contains the archetypes that we could define it as emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning. one of those archetypes we have is the &quot;shadow&quot; exactly defined as a prehistoric fear of wild animals, which represents the animal side of the human nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19397" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T03:44:11.550" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19835" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19827" CreationDate="2018-05-28T06:43:00.190" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let us see first what it is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Not a within subjects design.&lt;/strong&gt; To be an within subjects experiment, you need a repeated measure, something that you would test for each individual multiple times. E.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this experiment, subjects diagnosed as having attention deficit disorder were each tested on a delay of gratification task after receiving methylphenidate (MPH). All subjects were tested four times, once after receiving one of the four doses. Since each subject was tested under each of the four levels of the independent variable &quot;dose,&quot; the design is a within-subjects design and dose is a within-subjects variable&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Not a factorial design.&lt;/strong&gt; For factorial designs, you need an interaction between different levels of your independent variables, which is not the case with age and gender. One might argue that your third variable might have levels that interact with the independent variables, but that is not an independent variable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the end of the day, you will have to look at your design this way: each combination of gender and age variables is a separate group of people, and you are testing the same variable on 3(male)+3(female)=6 or 4(male)+4(female)=8 groups of people, depending on how many age groups you are taking in consideration. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is a between subjects design. For a study, not an experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I looked up the best explanation for it on several websites, &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinestatbook.com/2/research_design/designs.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; is the clearest I could find, which ended up being my source: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19391" LastEditorUserId="19391" LastEditDate="2018-05-28T19:56:00.600" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T19:56:00.600" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19836" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7784" CreationDate="2018-05-28T07:21:47.780" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There might be a simple answer to that,involving a cognitive ability essential for survival: &lt;strong&gt;pattern recognition&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In psychology and cognitive neuroscience, pattern recognition describes a cognitive process that matches information from a stimulus with information retrieved from memory.&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_recognition_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; Pattern recognition occurs when information from the environment is received and entered into short-term memory, causing automatic activation of a specific content of long-term memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Source:&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_recognition_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WikiPedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We simply do not have many non-rounded numbers memorised, so when we recognise a big, rounded number, we tend to celebrate the fact. That is simply how our brain  is wired, to recognise patterns and feel comfortable with easily identifiable ones rather than with irregular figments of reality (or numbers, in this case).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another element to that is the fact that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recognizing patterns allow us to predict and expect what is coming. The process of pattern recognition involves matching the information received with the information already stored in the brain. Making the connection between memories and information perceived is a step of pattern recognition called identification. Pattern recognition requires repetition of experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words and specifically in this case, it is not easy to predict what is after 19675 at a glance, as we hardly recognise the number, but it is easier to predict what follows  after 20000. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly enough, this specific oddity of our brain is being used in marketing. Have you ever gotten annoyed at the 2.99 or 2.98 price tags? Your brain has to make an effort to round it to 3 instead of rounding it to 2, because you recognise 2 easier in that sequence (it's there) whereas to get to 3 you would have to pay attention to the calculation while going through the shopping list and making sure the kid doesn't knock the toy stand over.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19391" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T07:21:47.780" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19837" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19802" CreationDate="2018-05-28T08:24:15.117" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not believe that there is an actual term that encompasses the three, but if you look at the functions they fulfil, you will find that they tend to give you a &quot;break&quot; from the stimuli that memory is repeatedly exposed to and allow the brain to process those stimuli from memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My thoughts on it are: re-processing information that was processed before, trying again to find the patterns and bring the information you are exposed to onto consciousness is hard work that the brain shouldn't have to do. Instead, the same stimuli can be brought from memory and processed as such during lack of exposure.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only scientific thing that comes to my mind is a thing that comes from imagery of the visual cortex during significant activities (memorising a picture) versus non-significant activities (like being exposed to a blank picture instead of repeating the significant picture). It is called &lt;strong&gt;refreshing&lt;/strong&gt;. More about it, for the scientifically-minded, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3213859/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In laymen terms, at times of non-exposure to the real stimuli your brain will automatically expose you to self-made renditions of those stimuli. This particularity of the brain involves complex cognitive functions, of which visual imagery is just an example. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This might be an assumption and an over-generalising of the findings in the paper quoted here, but it might also be true that all the terms you mentioned in your question (fun, relaxation and escapism),can be linked to periods of time of non-exposure to the stimuli that need refreshed, aka. brought to memory by a cognitive representation rather than by repeated exposure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, the big difference between my proposed term and the terms you used is the fact that, scientifically, attentional refreshing has only been  proven for stimuli that the brain was exposed to moments ago. For complex pieces of information and longer periods of time, it would be hard to measure the effect that non--exposure has, because of the nature of the experiments we are now conducting in cognitive and neuro psychology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19391" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T08:24:15.117" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19838" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18731" CreationDate="2018-05-28T13:46:01.677" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_psychology#Introductory_reading&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;introductory reading&lt;/a&gt; section in the Wikipedia page of music psychology has a lot of suggestions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T13:46:01.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19839" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-28T15:33:30.633" Score="0" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has there been any research comparing the cognition of people born via C-section to people born vaginally? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During a vaginal birth, the baby's head is pressured and deforms somewhat in order to make it through. Hypothetically, this could cause some minor brain damage which would be avoided by C-section birth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3454" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T15:47:02.587" Title="Cognition of people born by C-section vs born ordinarily?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19841" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19839" CreationDate="2018-05-28T15:47:02.587" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if there has been any research on this, but there is reason to doubt that such research would yield any meaningful results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You would need to control for a large number of things to address your question. For example, people born by C-section are people who have access to medical care. Those people have money, which is associated with education and opportunities, both of which are associated with IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, a C-section is medical intervention for when something goes wrong. The things that lead to C-sections (such as improper positioning of the baby before birth, compromising oxygen supply) can lead to brain damage. C-sections generally are associated with many more complications than healthy vaginal births.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing to consider is that vaginal birth would be a poor evolutionary solution for human reproduction if it lead to significantly lower intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be much less surprised if the opposite of your hypothesis turned out to be true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18385" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T15:47:02.587" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19814" CreationDate="2018-05-28T19:20:33.643" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The literature you are looking for is regarding group polarisation in the Internet era (with &quot;polarisation&quot; being the main research keyword here). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are supporters of your idea as well, most notably  Eli Pariser (2011) and Cass Sunstein (2001, 2009, 2017) and studies that show polarisation on the Internet. That being said: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, when comparisons are made between offline and online sources, studies find similar levels of segregation. Figure 1, taken from Gentzkow and Shapiro (2011), shows that segregation across website visits is smaller than segregation across national newspapers, but larger than segregation across local newspapers. Halberstam and Knight (2016) examine political networks on Twitter and find similar levels of segregation in the Twitter political networks as in offline political networks. Furthermore, while suggestive, segregation across information sources on the internet is neither necessary nor sufficient for the internet to increase polarisation.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Oyeuv.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Oyeuv.png&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 1&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://voxeu.org/article/internet-social-media-and-political-polarisation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The internet, social media, and political polarisation&quot; - Levi Boxell, 2017&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you are on the right track, your question was thought of before and the keyword &quot;polarisation&quot; might lead your research about it in more depth than this quick answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19391" LastActivityDate="2018-05-28T19:20:33.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19844" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-29T02:29:53.757" Score="1" ViewCount="285" Body="&lt;p&gt;By good, I mean three things:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Accepted by professional doctors/psychologists/psychiatrists.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has supporting research.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has an established norm and can tell you where you are relative to the average.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are the tests I found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TEST 1&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mindcrowd.org/consent&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mindcrowd.org/consent&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to be an actual medical test - it displays 12 pairs of words and then shows one word from the pair, the user is expected to type the second word. The test seems to be at least associated with some doctors (team: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mindcrowd.org/#team&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mindcrowd.org/#team&lt;/a&gt;) working on Alzheimer's research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TEST 2&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.memorylosstest.com/free-working-memory-tests-online/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.memorylosstest.com/free-working-memory-tests-online/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just some digit span test - shows you a series of numbers and has you remember them. It seems like this is an acceptable way to test WM given:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;thus, the digit span task is a common component of many IQ tests,&#xA;  including the widely used Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).&#xA;  Performance on the digit span task is also closely linked to language&#xA;  learning abilities; improving verbal memory capacities may therefore&#xA;  aid mastery of a new language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/browse/memory/test/digit-span&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/browse/memory/test/digit-span&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but then there is this quote (tl:dr; Number spans can be gamed to achieve absurdly high results):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, memory span can be expanded dramatically - in one case to 80&#xA;  digits - by learning a sophisticated mnemonic system of recoding rules&#xA;  by which substrings of 5 to 10 digits are translated into one new&#xA;  chunk. In December 2015, Lance Tschirhart entered the Guinness Book of&#xA;  World Records for memorizing a sequence of 456 digits spoken aloud at&#xA;  the rate of one per second at the World Memory Championship in&#xA;  Chengdu, China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cogpsych.2004.02.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cogpsych.2004.02.001&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TEST 3&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;http://opencoglab.org/memtest1/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://opencoglab.org/memtest1/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Same as the digit span, except with convoluted images. Imo, this test is flawed because the images are fairly complex and don't necessarily represent a single, familiar &quot;unit&quot;. The flaw is in the fact that WM tests are supposed to measure how many &quot;units&quot; of data you can keep in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, which of these tests are best, is there anything better? If there isn't, what's a good test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My end goal is to get a decent approximation of my overall WM to see if training improves it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS, I did see this post &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/18126/in-the-digit-span-test-why-do-some-strategies-work-and-others-dont&quot;&gt;In the digit span test, why do some strategies work and others don&amp;#39;t?&lt;/a&gt;, which links to (&lt;a href=&quot;http://pebl.sourceforge.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://pebl.sourceforge.net/&lt;/a&gt;), but I have no basis for evaluating the validity of those tests either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit 2: A day in, I found a similar question here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/1670/how-to-reliably-measure-working-memory-capacity&quot;&gt;How to reliably measure working memory capacity?&lt;/a&gt; I don't believe it to be a duplicate because I am looking for online tests. The third answer down is pretty good though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18000" LastEditorUserId="18000" LastEditDate="2018-05-29T20:36:30.043" LastActivityDate="2018-05-29T20:36:30.043" Title="What is a Good Working Memory Test Online (or overall if none)?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19845" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17865" CreationDate="2018-05-29T10:48:48.873" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you look at the definitions, you realise that you don't need the research for explaining the relationship between the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive dissonance is the direct (emotional, if you will) result of holding two opposing beliefs at the same time:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the field of psychology, cognitive dissonance is the mental&#xA;  discomfort (psychological stress) experienced by a person who&#xA;  simultaneously holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or&#xA;  values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias is the attempt to &quot;twitch&quot; information opposing to your beliefs so as to not generate a conflict in your cognition, so that it doesn't generate the discomfort that we just defined as cognitive dissonance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information&#xA;  in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To say that confirmation bias's use is to avoid cognitive dissonance is something that derives from the definition of both.We do indeed avoid holding two opposing beliefs at the same time to avoid the psychological distress caused by it. No need to scientifically prove that.  Furthermore, saying that cognitive dissonance is one explanation for Cognitive Bias seems to be an understatement of the above. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Easiest simile is, if you define the symbol &quot;1&quot; as representing one item of anything and the symbol &quot;0&quot; as representing no item at all, you do not have to prove that you can represent adding one item to nothing by the symbol &quot;1&quot;. It's a working convention you simply accept. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19391" LastActivityDate="2018-05-29T10:48:48.873" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19846" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19872" CreationDate="2018-05-29T11:39:00.913" Score="1" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was researching social cues and stumbled upon &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00197/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;, which concludes that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;results suggest that implicit learning is context-dependent and can be influenced by the cue type, e.g., social and object cues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, that is not surprising at all, the findings that learning is context-dependent, meaning that relevant social cues improve it. However, what if the subject has to learn how to react to social cues? Say we are talking about individuals that for various reasons, (let's say, social isolation growing up or as one symptom of a disorder or other) do not know how to react to most social cues, or to more complex ones? How do you train them, given that, as adults, exposure in a cvasi-controlled environment (like school) is not possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess my question is: &lt;strong&gt;In adult learning, would it be possible to train people to understand or react to social cues, taking into account that you need to make the training context-dependent? *&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19391" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T05:52:42.797" Title="Training adults on how to react to social cues." Tags="&lt;training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19847" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-29T11:58:21.187" Score="6" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;How scientifically valid is the idea that the subconscious recognises, interprets and processes symbols? By &quot;symbols&quot; I mean representations of one thing using another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The context is the article &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/in-flux/201301/the-inner-language-the-subconscious&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Inner Language of the Subconscious&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Brenner in Psychology Today. I'm reading of attempts to coax certain behaviours/thought processes or eliminate bad habits by means of communicating directly with the subconscious, and I wanted to know if this is legitimate thinking or pseudoscientific claptrap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16550" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-04T23:25:54.640" LastActivityDate="2018-06-04T23:25:54.640" Title="Subconscious response to symbols" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19848" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19883" CreationDate="2018-05-29T13:33:26.447" Score="2" ViewCount="379" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am very new to this type of neuroscience research and I am trying to do some automatic artifact detection. I am having trouble understanding how I should work with my data. I have data recorded from 20 electrodes on my EEG. The outputs are all in microVolts and are recordings for only one person doing eye blinking during the recording. My question is, now that I have the data from the 20 electrodes, how would I do PCA or ICA analysis on them? Like should I apply sklearn (from python) PCA or ICA option to the whole matrix, meaning to the whole data of the 20 electrodes, at once or should I apply these options to the measurements from one electrodes at a time and then combine them? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks so much for your help and let me know if more specificity in the question is needed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19408" LastActivityDate="2018-06-02T10:55:54.983" Title="Doing PCA and ICA analysis on EEG data with 24 channels" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19852" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19847" CreationDate="2018-05-30T12:27:03.170" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can start by checking out research on subliminal messaging. To summarize, subliminal messaging works to some degree, but it is much less effective than superliminal communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, will showing a dark gray coke bottle silhouette, so dark that you don't even know you're seeing it, in the momentary blank screen between movie previews cause people to decide to go buy a soda? It will probably influence a couple people, but not as many as would be influenced by just replacing the blank screen with a big, bright, picture of a coke, with the Coca-cola logo and condensation dripping down the glass. I say this because the benefits of conventional advertisements are well-established, but the effects of subliminal marketing are in doubt (Karremans et al., 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, there is evidence that you can &quot;prime&quot; someone with subliminal information. Priming, though, is more about getting people to recognize something more quickly later than it is about getting them to change their behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To your question, Greenwald has studied the effectiveness of subliminal messaging for self-help, and found it to be ineffective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Refs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Greenwald, A. G. (1992). New Look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed. American Psychologist, 47(6), 766.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Karremans, J. C., Stroebe, W., &amp;amp; Claus, J. (2006). Beyond Vicary’s fantasies: The impact of subliminal priming and brand choice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(6), 792-798.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18385" LastEditorUserId="18385" LastEditDate="2018-05-30T20:15:36.990" LastActivityDate="2018-05-30T20:15:36.990" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19853" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-30T16:24:47.807" Score="3" ViewCount="299" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading about Hermann Ebbinghaus. He became interested in experimental psychology which led him to conduct memory experiments on himself which then resulted in the publication of his book: &quot;Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology&quot; in 1885.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He discovered the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. How did he do so? I'm aware that he had a list of 2300 &quot;nonsense syllables&quot; to memorize but I have no idea what his process was like. Did he play with different intervals for the review of the material? Things like that. Is the process explained in the book? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to look at the details to see the connection between his work and the now available software employing spaced repetition algorithms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19417" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-08-01T20:34:42.590" LastActivityDate="2019-12-31T00:03:00.387" Title="How did Hermann Ebbinghaus conduct memory experiments on himself?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;&lt;encoding&gt;&lt;spaced-repetition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19855" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-30T16:35:35.157" Score="1" ViewCount="435" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe firmly that people who feel appreciated/loved/valued will (generally) experience all kinds of benefits for themselves and the people around them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Think about:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Being more healthy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Experience more happiness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perform better at work&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Being more kind to others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know what science says about the effects of people feeling appreciated, loved, valued, or things of that nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anybody recommend some sources? I would be interested in anything that is related, but mostly things that are backed up by science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19419" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T16:34:45.610" Title="What does science say about feeling appreciated/loved/valued?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19857" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19809" CreationDate="2018-05-30T19:38:05.887" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the description provided (if accurate) should be enough to find the paper, unless it is not available online, or is only available in a different language.  Sometimes authors of books and certain review papers will reference unpublished research, so it may have come up in that context.  Or it may not exist at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results described are in line with what diversity training guides often recommend, for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.omi.wa.gov.au/CapacityBuilding/Documents/Educational/World_difference.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do&lt;/strong&gt; talk about everybody’s differences. Teaching about cultural differences must be inclusive of all people, at all times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Don’t&lt;/strong&gt; single out particular groups, such as ‘ethnic groups’.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, such materials rarely provide references to support recommendations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This area of research falls under &quot;multiculturalism vs colorblindness&quot; - the question of whether it is best to highlight differences between groups, or to ignore them.  A &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0963721418766068&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent review (2018)&lt;/a&gt;, that also references 3 other recent comprehensive reviews, echoes the findings of over 25 years of research (eg, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00091383.1993.9940617?journalCode=vchn20&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;earlier review (1993)&lt;/a&gt;) that the multicultural approach is generally superior across a wide variety of outcome measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, there are certainly many ways in which attempts to foster diversity &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/spc3.12203&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;can go wrong&lt;/a&gt;, and can be &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-19890-008&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;more clearly refined&lt;/a&gt;.  Perhaps singling out specific groups, as suggested by some training guides, is one of those pitfalls (for a similar example, see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1948550614527625&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;minority spotlight effect&lt;/a&gt;).  It would be interesting to see a study that addresses this question directly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-05-30T19:38:05.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19801" CreationDate="2018-05-30T21:22:51.753" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;After doing more research and based on another discussion(s) on this forum, I'll attempt to answer this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It sounds like escapism doesn't rank really high on most psychologists' radar. In addition, the hierarchy of needs has largely fallen out of favor, making my question irrelevant for some. There's also the problem of defining &quot;escapism&quot; in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One could include the need for privacy under escapism. The rigors of prison include a dehumanizing lack of privacy. In the case of torture (e.g. Guantanamo), prisoners' minds can be further manipulated to prevent other forms of escapism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one wanted to create a more comprehensive hierarchy of needs than Maslow's, escapism could certainly deserve its own spot alongside social connections and esteem. Or perhaps escapism and esteem could be grouped together as &quot;individual needs,&quot; as opposed to social connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though people can obviously survive and even thrive in the absence of social connections, escapism is something we all carry with us. For example, most people daydream, which could be considered a form of escapism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see privacy as the polar corollary of social connections - everyone needs a balance of social influences and privacy. I see escapism as a separate phenomenon that largely overlaps with privacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10155" LastActivityDate="2018-05-30T21:22:51.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19859" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-31T02:11:13.710" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;During the last times I've been quite interested in the phenomena of &lt;em&gt;transference&lt;/em&gt;, which in the context of teaching means transference of knowledge. More than anything, the change of times mainly because of technology have made the classroom an outdated place. Suppose all of you can see that, primarily if you teach. There might be strategies to apply and I'm not secure about where to find them. Now this 'strategies' may be off-topic here so I have a very related and on-topic issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There has been studies from psychology of &lt;a href=&quot;http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Transfer_of_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;transference&lt;/a&gt;, which we can closely relate to &lt;em&gt;learning&lt;/em&gt;. I'm looking for some review or scientifical study about how to increase this transference, this learning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There might be also neuroscience studies (I know about some studies on how to increase attention for example)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any answer or link to possible answer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17136" LastEditorDisplayName="user17136" LastEditDate="2018-05-31T07:33:47.650" LastActivityDate="2018-05-31T07:33:47.650" Title="How to increase transference on the classroom" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19861" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-31T12:04:51.063" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;E.g. Could writing with your left hand increase creativity? Especially if the left hand is the non-dominant one. Could placebo effect also play a significant role?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17399" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T05:37:54.420" Title="Is there any theory supporting the idea that writing with your non-dominant hand is beneficial?" Tags="&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-06-08T19:25:42.663" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19862" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19866" CreationDate="2018-05-31T12:53:44.640" Score="3" ViewCount="178" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there psychological explanations for people being drawn to neo-nazism or other bad ideologues?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since surely the people are not believing in them for no reason. But what is it that they try to achieve through such ideologues? Are these people &quot;sane&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or perhaps e.g. their &quot;superior race&quot; beliefs mean that their ideologue is &quot;rational&quot; in the sense that they feel that they belong to the superior race and other races ought to be discarded in order for only the superior race to flourish?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15494" LastActivityDate="2018-06-02T14:57:12.607" Title="Are there psychological explanations for people being drawn to neo-nazism or other bad ideologues?" Tags="&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19864" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19582" CreationDate="2018-05-31T22:15:55.823" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've since completed this survey, so I thought that I would update with what I ended up doing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it turns out to not be possible to do randomization in an easy way when timing questions are involved, based on a review of online resources and talking to Qualtrics support. Timing questions simply don't support Qualtrics randomization, and there is not an advanced option to get around this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the end, I used the following solution:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1 - I divided each of my questions into a separate block which consisted of the timing question, the multiple choice question, and a feedback display. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2 - Instead of randomizing fully, I created 10 manual counterbalance conditions. I determined 10 different arrangements of my 8 questions that it seemed very unlikely that order effects would hurt my survey. For example, questions 1-8 in order, reverse order, and then shuffled randomly 8 additional times.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3- In my case, with 8 questions to randomize,  I used the web services to randomly generate a number from 1-10, and then used a series of &quot;if&quot; statements which would trigger a conditional branch based on the random number, and then display the questions in a set order. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For my use case this ended up being the best solution I could find. Manually and fully randomizing all blocks would have required 8! = 40,000+ different conditions. Even using a script to generate a .qsf file with this survey design would not work -- in my testing Qualtrics crashed whenever I tried to run a survey of this size. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For those with fewer questions, programmatically creating a text file (either qsf or advanced text) may be a viable option. I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://gist.github.com/ctesta01/d4255959dace01431fb90618d1e8c241&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this link describing how to read qsf files in R&lt;/a&gt; and this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.qualtrics.com/support/survey-platform/survey-module/survey-tools/import-and-export-surveys/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;explanation of import and exporting surveys&lt;/a&gt; helpful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'm going to accept this answer as I believe it's the most comprehensive response to my question possible, but if an editor disagrees and would prefer it remain open feel free to revert)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19094" LastActivityDate="2018-05-31T22:15:55.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19865" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-05-31T23:13:52.587" Score="6" ViewCount="197" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the idea of the growth mindset a person is more likely to successfully change, when they believe that change is possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To what extend does that apply to depression? Is a person who believes that it's possible to overcome their depression more likely to overcome it then a person who believes that there's no hope overcoming their depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="625" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T08:24:04.470" Title="Is a person who believe that their depression is curable more likely to overcome it?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19866" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19862" CreationDate="2018-05-31T23:45:17.367" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a few questions here which are related:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/15610/how-does-peoples-sense-of-right-and-wrong-affect-their-behavior&quot;&gt;How does people&amp;#39;s sense of right and wrong affect their behavior?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/17650/any-research-on-brains-processes-involved-in-evil-actions&quot;&gt;Any research on brain&amp;#39;s processes involved in evil actions?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will try and put some time aside to build a more full answer with references, but to give a starter, there are a lot of studies on this subject starting with conformity studies such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milgram Experiment&lt;/a&gt; (here is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Obedience_%281965%29.webm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;documentary on the experiment&lt;/a&gt;) and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford Prison Experiment&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://zimbardo.socialpsychology.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Philip Zimbardo&lt;/a&gt; who was in charge of the Stanford Prison Experiment wrote the book &lt;em&gt;&quot;The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil&quot;&lt;/em&gt; and led a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_on_the_psychology_of_evil&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;talk on his research&lt;/a&gt; on the subject including other examples, but the biggest one for me was turned into a movie in Germany called Die Welle, and in English under the name &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1063669&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Wave&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The movie covered the true story of an experiment with a group of school children who wanted to understand the very same question you are asking, not believing it could happen today.  Things turned nasty and out of control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Teacher, Ron Jones's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Third_Wave_(experiment)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Third Wave&quot; experiment&lt;/a&gt;, which took place at a Californian school in 1967 was put together to explain how the German population could accept the actions of the Nazi regime during the Second World War. He founded a totalitarian, strictly-organized &quot;movement&quot; with harsh punishments that was led by him autocratically. The intricate sense of community led to a wave of enthusiasm not only from his own students, but also from students from other classes who joined the program later. Jones later admitted to having enjoyed having his students as followers. To eliminate the upcoming momentum, Jones aborted the project on the fifth day and showed the students the parallels towards the Nazi youth movements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/prTib.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/prTib.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Cubberley Catamount Vol. 11, No. 14 (April 1967)&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Image: Cutting of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cubberleycatamount.com/Content/66-67/Catamount%20Pages/V11No14/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Klink (1967)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these studies and experiments provide strong proof that the risk of full Nazi style regimes can return on a national level given the right circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Klink, B. (1967). 'Third Wave' presents inside look into Fascism. &lt;em&gt;Catamount&lt;/em&gt;, 11(14), 3&lt;br&gt;Retrieved at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cubberleycatamount.com/Content/66-67/Catamount%20Pages/V11No14&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.cubberleycatamount.com/Content/66-67/Catamount%20Pages/V11No14&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;See Also&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lessonplanmovie.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lesson Plan Movie&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;The documentary by the students and teacher of “The Third Wave” (aka “The Wave”)&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lessonplanmovie.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.lessonplanmovie.com&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://libcom.org/history/the-third-wave-1967-account-ron-jones&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Teacher, Ron Jones' account of the experiment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://libcom.org/history/the-third-wave-1967-account-ron-jones&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://libcom.org/history/the-third-wave-1967-account-ron-jones&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-02T14:57:12.607" LastActivityDate="2018-06-02T14:57:12.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19867" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17886" CreationDate="2018-06-01T04:59:47.800" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In plain English. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piaget uses symbolism to mean the use of symbols as in words, objects, images, behaviors, mannerisms...things that tend to be concrete or can conjure concrete images in ones mind. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, think of the image of a gif of a man scratching his nose. That image is full of symbols. If you were to create a movie scene based on that info, I'd be easy to visualize it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Piaget uses abstract thinking to describe the type of thinking that involves the manipulation of ideas, engages the imagination and makes creative thinking possible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if you're asked to start a discussion about constructing a theory on globalization or discuss the meaning of democracy or that of human rights... you'd engage in abstract thinking. These are ideas. Abstractions. At this stage a person can weave in and out of abstract ideas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19432" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T04:59:47.800" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19870" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19862" CreationDate="2018-06-01T05:29:02.790" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can look at a number of theories that can explain why people find neonazism seductive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schizophrenia- meaning they're delusional. &#xA;Social Bond theory- who they respect and bond with&#xA;Attachment theory- bonded with a White supremacist caretaker &#xA;Belongingness- the need to belong&#xA;The idea of manifest destiny and the historical oppression of minorities among others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll edit when I can think of more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19432" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T05:29:02.790" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19871" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19861" CreationDate="2018-06-01T05:37:54.420" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. It is beneficial. There is physical evidence. And it also can play a role in terms of plasticity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19432" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T05:37:54.420" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19872" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19846" CreationDate="2018-06-01T05:52:42.797" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. The first step in teaching others to recognize and how to respond to social cues is to help them learn self-awareness. They need to become aware of how they feel and naturally respond to stimuli. People with ASD often struggle with having a detached look of themselves- ToM. That too someone can overcome through self-awareness. Google scholar self-awareness and social competence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19432" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T05:52:42.797" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19875" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12361" CreationDate="2018-06-01T06:14:06.260" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For those who need it PRN, prescribe it based on when they'll need it. How sensitive a person is to medication in general should be considered. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19432" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T06:14:06.260" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19876" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19865" CreationDate="2018-06-01T10:16:48.283" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let us look at the neurological aspect of depression:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There appears to be a complex series of areas of the brain implicated&#xA;  in the pathophysiology of depression although limited overlap was&#xA;  found across imaging paradigms. This included a network of regions&#xA;  including frontal and temporal cortex as well as the insula and&#xA;  cerebellum that are hypoactive in depressed subjects and in which&#xA;  there is increase in activity with treatment.&#xA;  (Source:&lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hbm.20426&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt; Fitzgerald, 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, what does this mean? All we can safely draw from this is that when looking at depression neurologically we are looking at traces of &lt;strong&gt;hypoactive&lt;/strong&gt; activity in the brain. In psychological terms, that can be traceable as delayed answers to reaction-type tasks (Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/000169189400024B&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Azorin, 1995&lt;/a&gt;), lack of interest, negative outlook on life and reality. &#xA;To come back to your question and reformulate it: is having a positive outlook on your own illness a sign that you are more likely to get out of depression? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer is yes. Looking at the data, having a positive outlook on &lt;em&gt;anything&lt;/em&gt; means that your brain is starting to activate more (aka be hypoactive in fewer areas or less hypoactive overall), so your chances to overcome the illness are stronger. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, the catch 22 is, if you have a positive outlook on your depression, is that really depression? What if you are suffering from, say, Schizoaffective Disorder Bipolar type and you &lt;em&gt;expect&lt;/em&gt; to have depression after a manic state, you feel bad, but instead of depression you have only negative symptoms of your illness? (avolition etc) You are not technically depressed, as your reactions to stimuli and your outlook on life and your own illness might be unaffected, but that's not to say you feel better, so you will be a counter-example for the above theory. Likewise, you can feel suicidal for a number of reasons except depression, but report yourself as being depressed and be a counter-example for the theory that expectations of a good outcome are most likely a predictor of depression being on its way to remission. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am trying to say is, the answer to your question is yes, definitely, if the illness is typical depression, the ability to expect positive outcomes should be a predictor of remission. However, the neuroimaging tests that would confirm the theory are usually administered to test effects of medication, rarely for effects of therapy alone, so it would be hard to prove this regarding therapy alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depression is hard-coded in our system just like fear, and it would be hard to identify, measure or even generate the effects of therapy without medication to first stabilise the brain activity. After the patient is medicated and somewhat stabilised, you can give them positive insights on anything, including their own ilness, and you will be right to think that those insights are useful to get them out of depression, as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19391" LastEditorUserId="19391" LastEditDate="2018-06-01T10:51:33.303" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T10:51:33.303" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19877" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-01T12:58:52.387" Score="2" ViewCount="624" Body="&lt;p&gt;It would seem to me that it would be hard for a single person to manipulate a mentally stable into thinking they have schizoid problems. One might quickly become suspicious if the supposed delusions are only tied to a single acquaintance. But for people who are already slightly schizophrenic, it would be much easier to exaggerate their symptoms. Aside from cases of actual intentional gaslightings, schizophrenic people may tend to be paranoid and form beliefs that they are manipulated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All that is slightly different from the more common situation where a schizophrenic person thinks he is lied to by psychiatrist, psychotherapist or another mental health worker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research on the schizophrenic people believing they were &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaslighting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gaslighted&lt;/a&gt; by friends, family or another acquaintances? Or at least some case notes or the mental health workers speaking about that issue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19433" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-02T14:17:19.803" LastActivityDate="2019-07-01T20:31:23.207" Title="Do schizophrenics tend to believe they were gaslighted?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19878" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19862" CreationDate="2018-06-01T16:12:10.237" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Milgram style conformity and Zimbardo's prison both relied pretty heavily on authority figures. A different mechanism is explored by the minimal group paradigm: people just seem predisposed to form in-groups and out-groups on the flimsiest pretexts. Although it's a different mechanism, in real life they're not independent. Zimbardo's work could be interpreted as an exercise in creating pretexts for this kind of arbitrary-group-formation tendency. (Although Milgram really was all about authority figures)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This perspective suggests that members of even the most incomprehensible ideologies (insert your own examples here) are basically held together by exactly the same sort of community-forming mechanisms that work well for creating other more positive/constructive cohesive communities (insert your own examples here)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a recent review of this sort of thing here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0a1f/7c2330ae9c85ad13b2a374c0ed21e4ace4d3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0a1f/7c2330ae9c85ad13b2a374c0ed21e4ace4d3.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T16:12:10.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19880" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19855" CreationDate="2018-06-01T16:34:45.610" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A broad question with an even broader scientific literature speaking to it; I'll highlight a few of the major &quot;camps&quot; with key references that you can follow up with if you find them interesting:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Without any particular theoretical allegiance, Baumeister &amp;amp; Leary (1995) argue that the need to belong is a fundamental human motivation. You can read a bit more about what they argue this classification implies in my answer to another question &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19662/is-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-really-accurate-at-labeling-sex-as-a-physiologica/19674#19674&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. Baumeister (1991) also describes belong alongside other core &quot;meanings&quot; of life in his book (which I found an interesting read). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Supporters of an &lt;strong&gt;attachment theory&lt;/strong&gt; perspective (e.g., Mikulincer &amp;amp; Shaver, 2007a) argue that establishing a sense of relational &lt;em&gt;security&lt;/em&gt;--the feeling that others can and will be there for you in times of need, and are generally well-intentioned--corresponds to better emotion regulation, social relationships, and more pro-social behavior (see Mikulincer &amp;amp; Shaver, 2007b, for a review).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;From an &lt;strong&gt;existential psychology&lt;/strong&gt; perspective (see Solomon et al., 1999), humans have a unique awareness of their inevitable mortality, which they respond to in a number of ways in an attempt to preserve their symbolic selves (Burke et al., 2010). Close relationships are theorized to serve as one of these sources of existential security (see Hart et al., 2005), and existential security in turn has been linked to health (Goldenberg &amp;amp; Arndt, 2008) and interpersonal relationships (Greenberg et al., 1990). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;strong&gt;self-determination theory&lt;/strong&gt; (see Ryan &amp;amp; Deci, 2000), &lt;em&gt;relatedness&lt;/em&gt; is one of three core human needs. When these basic needs (the others include &lt;em&gt;competence&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;autonomy&lt;/em&gt;) are met, people are more intrinsically motivated, and experience benefits to their mental health, and well-being, as well as in many applied areas (e.g., work, education, etc.,). &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Finally, according to some clinical perspectives (e.g., Rogers, 1992), clients need to feel &lt;em&gt;unconditional positive regard&lt;/em&gt; from their therapists in order for therapy to be successful.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumeister, R. F. (1991). &lt;em&gt;Meanings of life&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baumeister, R. F., &amp;amp; Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;117&lt;/em&gt;(3), 497-527.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burke, B. L., Martens, A., &amp;amp; Faucher, E. H. (2010). Two decades of terror management theory: A meta-analysis of mortality salience research. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Review&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;14&lt;/em&gt;(2), 155-195.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goldenberg, J. L., &amp;amp; Arndt, J. (2008). The implications of death for health: A terror management health model for behavioral health promotion. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;115&lt;/em&gt;(4), 1032-1053.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Rosenblatt, A., Veeder, M., Kirkland, S., &amp;amp; Lyon, D. (1990). Evidence for terror management theory II: The effects of mortality salience on reactions to those who threaten or bolster the cultural worldview. J&lt;em&gt;ournal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;58&lt;/em&gt;(2), 308-318.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hart, J., Shaver, P. R., &amp;amp; Goldenberg, J. L. (2005). Attachment, self-esteem, worldviews, and terror management: evidence for a tripartite security system. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;88&lt;/em&gt;(6), 999-1013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mikulincer, M., &amp;amp; Shaver, P. R. (2007a). &lt;em&gt;Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mikulincer, M., &amp;amp; Shaver, P. R. (2007). Boosting attachment security to promote mental health, prosocial values, and inter-group tolerance. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Inquiry&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;18&lt;/em&gt;(3), 139-156.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rogers, C. R. (1992). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;60&lt;/em&gt;(6), 827-832.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ryan, R. M., &amp;amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;55&lt;/em&gt;(1), 68-78.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., &amp;amp; Pyszczynski, T. (1991). A terror management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews. In &lt;em&gt;Advances in experimental social psychology&lt;/em&gt; (Vol. 24, pp. 93-159). Academic Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12840" LastActivityDate="2018-06-01T16:34:45.610" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19882" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19885" CreationDate="2018-06-01T22:08:27.467" Score="0" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe it's understood what type of voice I'm refering to, but for context I'm linking this youtube video where that type of voice is clearly heard:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hfms-v6G7n8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hfms-v6G7n8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do people in general find such type of voice funny?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastActivityDate="2018-06-02T15:09:36.323" Title="Why do we find high pitched voices funny?" Tags="&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19883" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19848" CreationDate="2018-06-02T10:55:54.983" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, I would recommend working with a domain specific (EEG) and established analysis package of your choice. You mentioned python, so I would advise you to check out &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.martinos.org/mne/stable/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MNE-Python&lt;/a&gt;. There is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.martinos.org/mne/stable/auto_tutorials/plot_artifacts_correction_ica.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tutorial&lt;/a&gt; regarding eyeblink detection/correction/rejection from EEG data that you could work through.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your general question, ICA and PCA are typically done on the complete data matrix, i.e., each row of the data matrix is a channel and each column is a sampled timepoint (values in microvolts).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17605" LastActivityDate="2018-06-02T10:55:54.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19884" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19043" CreationDate="2018-06-02T11:12:03.887" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The EEG signature of eye blinks is typically visible for about 200ms of data. When you want to move a window of 50 to 200 samples, I assume that your sampling frequency is 1000Hz (you should specify this in your next question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A classical feature for eye blink detection is the &lt;em&gt;peak-to-peak amplitude&lt;/em&gt;, which is the absolute difference of the maximum amplitude and the minimum amplitude of the EEG within your window. Another feature could be the variance within your EEG window.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pseudocode:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;peak_to_peak_amp = abs(window.max() - window.min())&#xA;variance = var(window)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that both of these features are rather unspecific to eye blinks and will have a hard time to distinguish blinks from other peaks in the data. For this reason, the methods are often combined with filtering of the data and converting the amplitudes in microvolts to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_score&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;z-scores&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For reading I suggest chapter 6 in the canonical book by Steven Luck: &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/introduction-event-related-potential-technique-second-edition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17605" LastEditorUserId="17605" LastEditDate="2018-07-03T06:04:10.673" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T06:04:10.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19885" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19882" CreationDate="2018-06-02T11:49:00.090" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Two things come to mind for me.. First, at a very basic level, things that are perceptually salient capture our attention (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11994752&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Corbetta &amp;amp; Shulman, 2002&lt;/a&gt;), and this is obviously important for understanding our environment and assessing changes for threats (e.g.). In the video you linked, you have that perceptual salience and it's also in an animated and clearly exaggerated fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second thing that comes to mind is the voices that older children and adults make when communicating with infants. This sort of speech seems to serve an attentional/affective function (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22225130&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gauthier &amp;amp; Shi, 2011&lt;/a&gt;), and research suggests that this sort of speech is actually a reflection of the infant's own communication styles (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/15250000802188719&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smith &amp;amp; Trainor, 2008&lt;/a&gt;). Obviously, we might use such a voice because it sounds funny to them and we might get the infant to laugh. Who knows whether we intrinsically find it funny (if so, why?), or whether we learn to laugh at it as infants. It could well be that we simply come hardwired to interpret a perceptually salient &lt;em&gt;and non-threatening&lt;/em&gt; social stimulus like that to be amusing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Corbetta, M., &amp;amp; Shulman, G. L. (2002). Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. &lt;em&gt;Nature reviews neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 3(3), 201.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn755&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/nrn755&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11994752&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;11994752&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gauthier, B., &amp;amp; Shi, R. (2011). A connectionist study on the role of pitch in infant-directed speech. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America&lt;/em&gt;, 130(6), EL380-EL386.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1121/1.3653546&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1121/1.3653546&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22225130&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;22225130&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, N. A., &amp;amp; Trainor, L. J. (2008). Infant-directed speech is modulated by infant feedback. &lt;em&gt;Infancy&lt;/em&gt;, 13(4), 410-420.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/15250000802188719&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/15250000802188719&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19436" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-02T15:09:36.323" LastActivityDate="2018-06-02T15:09:36.323" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19888" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19912" CreationDate="2018-06-02T15:09:29.067" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;I posted &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/questions/50639613/fitting-equal-variance-signal-detection-model-to-roc-data-in-python&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; in the programming forums but think I might get some answers if I post here as well... hope that's ok.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to follow the steps in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47386959_How_to_fit_models_of_recognition_memory_data_using_maximum_likelihood&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; to reproduce the excel table shown, but for some reason I'm unable to reproduce the 'estimated' values on the right hand side of the sheet, despite correctly calculating c for each of the six levels. I'm confused as to how the author arrived at those values, so I would appreciate if anyone could point out what's going on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19436" LastActivityDate="2018-06-04T21:40:57.310" Title="Fitting equal-variance signal detection model to ROC data" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19889" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-02T17:58:34.463" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for examples of stimuli that has been shown to cause sadness in humans in a controlled environment as opposed to the neurological basis or evolutionary reason for sadness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17811" LastEditorUserId="17811" LastEditDate="2018-06-05T04:51:49.777" LastActivityDate="2018-06-19T15:32:09.590" Title="What are examples of stimuli that we know cause a grief or sadness reaction in humans?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19890" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19917" CreationDate="2018-06-02T18:26:52.813" Score="1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do social classes hang more with the same social class?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, how &quot;reasonable&quot; phenomenon this is?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15494" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-06-05T20:07:48.823" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T20:41:34.543" Title="Do social classes hang more with the same social class?" Tags="&lt;sociology&gt;&lt;social-desirability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19891" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-02T19:45:44.680" Score="6" ViewCount="232" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read everywhere that the prefrontal cortex is not fully developed until about the mid twenties, but everyone's brain develops differently. Is it possible for a teens prefrontal cortex to be significantly more developed than it should be at this age?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19438" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-03T18:35:04.303" LastActivityDate="2018-06-03T18:35:04.303" Title="Variation in prefrontal cortex development" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19893" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-02T20:56:06.587" Score="1" ViewCount="250" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people are notorious for &quot;going off on extended tangents,&quot; meaning: in any conversation they are prone to expound at length on subjects of personal interest &lt;em&gt;without regard for the interest of, or relevance to, other listeners or participants&lt;/em&gt;.  Is there a term for this behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To refine the question: I am curious not about general rambling (which can manifest itself in many ways, and is probably a consequence of many different pathologies), but more specifically about such behavior manifest by people who are &quot;high-functioning&quot; and intelligent, and where the exposition (when it begins) is relevant to the conversation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I have seen this sort of behavior frequently among people with high-functioning ASD when a conversation touches on a special interest.  It is something of a trope: The geek who everyone knows is going not going to stop talking about, say, trains, and once he gets started will not be derailed from the subject by any hint or attempt by others to bring the conversation back on track.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not asserting that the behavior as described is only manifest in individuals with ASD (although if it is, or is particular to a few recognized conditions, that would be noteworthy).  I'm more curious as to whether the behavior itself has a clinical name or association.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19439" LastActivityDate="2018-06-06T00:06:53.377" Title="Term for a disposition to ramble on special interests in conversation?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;pathology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19896" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19901" CreationDate="2018-06-03T05:06:48.280" Score="11" ViewCount="485" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Mechanism/Neurological subsection of the Wikipedia article &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savant_syndrome#Neurological&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Savant Syndrome&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Savant syndrome results from damage to the left anterior temporal lobe, an area of the brain key in processing sensory input, recognizing objects and forming visual memories.[citation needed] Savant syndrome has been artificially replicated using transcranial magnetic stimulation to temporarily disable this area of the brain.(16)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and reference (16) links to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Snyder, A. (2009). Explaining and inducing savant skills: privileged access to lower level, less-processed information. &lt;em&gt;Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 364(1522), 1399-1405. doi:  &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0290&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1098/rstb.2008.0290&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article describes experimental work &lt;em&gt;earlier than 2009&lt;/em&gt; in which savant-like skills were &quot;artificially induced by low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess is that almost ten years on induced savantism would have been explored further &lt;em&gt;experimentally&lt;/em&gt; and either 1) refuted, or 2) more thoroughly proven and potential explanations tested with more complex experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has either happened?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/518/19214&quot;&gt;this substantial answer&lt;/a&gt; from 2012.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19214" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-06-06T01:12:46.963" LastActivityDate="2020-10-25T07:45:21.330" Title="Has &quot;induced savantism&quot; been further explored beyond Snyder 2009?" Tags="&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;&lt;tms&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19897" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19891" CreationDate="2018-06-03T08:49:15.797" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the last 20 years or so, a growing amount of neuroimaging research has demonstrated that adolescence is a period of continued brain growth and change, challenging longstanding assumptions that the brain was largely finished maturing by puberty (&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.stanford.edu/class/cs379c/archive/2013/suggested_reading_list/supplements/documents/GieddetalNN-99.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Giedd,&amp;nbsp;et&amp;nbsp;al.&amp;nbsp;1999&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt1d34r7w2/qt1d34r7w2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sowell,&amp;nbsp;et&amp;nbsp;al.&amp;nbsp;1999&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/21/22/8819.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sowell,&amp;nbsp;et&amp;nbsp;al.&amp;nbsp;2001&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jahonline.org/article/S1054-139X(09)00251-1/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johnson,&amp;nbsp;et&amp;nbsp;al.&amp;nbsp;2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several major morphological and functional changes occur in the human brain during adolescence (&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.stanford.edu/class/cs379c/archive/2013/suggested_reading_list/supplements/documents/GieddetalNN-99.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Giedd,&amp;nbsp;et&amp;nbsp;al.&amp;nbsp;1999&lt;/a&gt;), and the maturation of the adolescent brain is influenced by (among other things) heredity, environment, nutritional status, sleep patterns, and sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone), which play a crucial role in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelin&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;myelination&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3621648/pdf/ndt-9-449.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Arain,&amp;nbsp;et&amp;nbsp;al.&amp;nbsp;2013&lt;/a&gt;).  Full development and maturation of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;prefrontal cortex&lt;/a&gt; is generally believed to occur at roughly 25 years old, however, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Thompson13/publication/10933611_Mapping_cortical_change_across_the_lifespan/links/564f004408aeafc2aab33ed0.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sowell,&amp;nbsp;et&amp;nbsp;al.&amp;nbsp;(2003)&lt;/a&gt; found a subtle increase in grey matter density until age 30, which remained stable until a steep decline in later decades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A detailed study is required in order to determine the exact biomarkers involved, as well as the intricate influence of diet, drugs, sex, and sleep on the maturation of the adolescent brain as discussed briefly in this report (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3621648/pdf/ndt-9-449.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Arain,&amp;nbsp;et&amp;nbsp;al.&amp;nbsp;2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite the fact that brain development may be done by our 30s, it doesn’t mean that someone with a fully developed brain cannot change it. There is considerable evidence to suggest that we can still change our own brains with a process called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroplasticity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Our brains are constantly adapting to our environment, experiences, and other inputs to which it is exposed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Arain, M., Haque, M., Johal, L., Mathur, P., Nel, W., Rais, A., ... &amp;amp; Sharma, S. (2013). Maturation of the adolescent brain. &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment&lt;/em&gt;, 9, 449.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S39776&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.2147/NDT.S39776&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3621648/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3621648&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23579318&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;23579318&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3621648/pdf/ndt-9-449.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3621648/pdf/ndt-9-449.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., ... &amp;amp; Rapoport, J. L. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. &lt;em&gt;Nature neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 2(10), 861.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/13158&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/13158&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10491603&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10491603&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.stanford.edu/class/cs379c/archive/2013/suggested_reading_list/supplements/documents/GieddetalNN-99.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://web.stanford.edu/class/cs379c/archive/2013/suggested_reading_list/supplements/documents/GieddetalNN-99.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Johnson, S. B., Blum, R. W., &amp;amp; Giedd, J. N. (2009). Adolescent maturity and the brain: the promise and pitfalls of neuroscience research in adolescent health policy. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(3), 216-221.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.05.016&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.05.016&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2892678/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC2892678&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19699416&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;19699416&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jahonline.org/article/S1054-139X(09)00251-1/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.jahonline.org/article/S1054-139X(09)00251-1/pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Holmes, C. J., Jernigan, T. L., &amp;amp; Toga, A. W. (1999). In vivo evidence for post-adolescent brain maturation in frontal and striatal regions. &lt;em&gt;Nature neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 2(10), 859.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/13154&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/13154&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10491602&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10491602&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt1d34r7w2/qt1d34r7w2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt1d34r7w2/qt1d34r7w2.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Tessner, K. D., &amp;amp; Toga, A. W. (2001). Mapping continued brain growth and gray matter density reduction in dorsal frontal cortex: Inverse relationships during postadolescent brain maturation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 21(22), 8819-8829.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-22-08819.2001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-22-08819.2001&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11698594&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;11698594&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/21/22/8819.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/21/22/8819.full.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sowell, E. R., Peterson, B. S., Thompson, P. M., Welcome, S. E., Henkenius, A. L., &amp;amp; Toga, A. W. (2003). Mapping cortical change across the human life span. &lt;em&gt;Nature neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 6(3), 309-315.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1008&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/nn1008&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Thompson13/publication/10933611_Mapping_cortical_change_across_the_lifespan/links/564f004408aeafc2aab33ed0.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul_Thompson13/publication/10933611_Mapping_cortical_change_across_the_lifespan/links/564f004408aeafc2aab33ed0.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-03T08:57:56.900" LastActivityDate="2018-06-03T08:57:56.900" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19899" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12361" CreationDate="2018-06-03T13:17:26.783" Score="-1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding also is that the drugs effect different people differently, and so finding the right dose of the right specific drug is an exercise of 'finding what works'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is - how should a medical practitioner determine when and by how much to change a patient's medication schedule?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think you've answered your own question: titration of dose i.e. slow, incremental changes in dose until desired therapeutic response is achieved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best way to understand it is terms of pharmacokinetics: if a drug has a linear dose-response curve, then we can anticipate a slightly higher dose will result in a slightly greater therapeutic effect, and a slightly greater increase in side-effects. The point of titrating the dose is to either stop when one reaches a ceiling effect i.e. increasing the dose won't have any improvement in symptoms, because it will only increase the side-effects, which haven't reached a ceiling yet,.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is essentially true for all psychiatric drugs, and the same rationale applies to all pharmacotherapies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regards to ADHD, my understanding is that severity of symptoms does not predict the dose of psychostimulants required. So the psychiatrist will typically hand a patient a bottle of amphetamine, some dosing instructions, and tell them to sort it out themselves over the course of a few weeks. The whole point with the use of psychostimulants for ADHD is that its mediated by dopaminergic hypofrontality. But if one goes overshoots the  therapeutic window, then it will result in worse cognitive functioning, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-03T13:17:26.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19900" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-03T14:09:24.883" Score="3" ViewCount="144" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a framework (question types) to estimate the political belief of participants. The survey will then be given to people from different parts of the world, but mostly occidental.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082131&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The 12 Items Social and Economic Conservatism Scale (SECS)&lt;/a&gt; (Everett, 2013) is pretty good but it only measures conservatism. In my knowledge it also was not used in large-scale survey such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;European Social Survey&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.europeanvaluesstudy.eu&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;European Value Study&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/wvs.jsp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The World value survey&lt;/a&gt; making the result not comparable to the global population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_compass&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Political Compass&lt;/a&gt;, but the test is very long and not documented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My target is to be able to place peoples on a two-dimensional scale, with very few questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dOFo9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dOFo9.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everett, J. A. (2013). The 12 items social and economic conservatism scale (SECS). &lt;em&gt;PloS one&lt;/em&gt;, 8(12), e82131. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082131&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1371/journal.pone.0082131&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19443" LastEditorUserId="19443" LastEditDate="2018-06-04T13:31:47.077" LastActivityDate="2018-06-04T13:31:47.077" Title="Individual political belief test (Social and Economic Conservatism/Liberal)" Tags="&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19901" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19896" CreationDate="2018-06-03T14:58:40.877" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are no other studies I can find where TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) was used in the same way, but there is a paper mentioning &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1399.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Snyder (2009)&lt;/a&gt; whilst discussing safety and other ethical considerations required regarding neural enhancement using noninvasive brain stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318205d50d&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hamilton, et al. (2011)&lt;/a&gt; said the following about &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1399.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Snyder (2009)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(References re-numbered for formatting purposes and converted to APA style)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Finally, one set of cognitive skills in which the role of TMS and tDCS has been especially controversial is the unmasking of so-called savant-like abilities. Snyder&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; argued that inhibition of the left anterior temporal lobe (LATL) with brain stimulation interferes with semantic networks that normally impose top-down constraints on human perception—in short, making conception play a diminished role in perception. These investigators suggest that suppressing the LATL increases access to less-processed information, improving performance in perceptual abilities on tasks such as drawing, proof-reading, numerosity judgment,&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; and other cognitive processes in which conceptual knowledge biases performance.&lt;sup&gt;3,4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Snyder, A. W., Mulcahy, E., Taylor, J. L., Mitchell, D. J., Sachdev, P., &amp;amp; Gandevia, S. C. (2003). Savant-like skills exposed in normal people by suppressing the left fronto-temporal lobe. &lt;em&gt;Journal of integrative neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 2(2), 149-158.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219635203000287&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1142/S0219635203000287&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://howieswebs.ipage.com/pdf/savantskills.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://howieswebs.ipage.com/pdf/savantskills.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Snyder, A. (2009). Explaining and inducing savant skills: privileged access to lower level, less-processed information. &lt;em&gt;Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 364(1522), 1399-1405.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0290&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1098/rstb.2008.0290&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1399.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1399.full.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gallate, J., Chi, R., Ellwood, S., &amp;amp; Snyder, A. (2009). Reducing false memories by magnetic pulse stimulation. &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience letters&lt;/em&gt;, 449(3), 151-154.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2008.11.021&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.neulet.2008.11.021&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.centreforthemind.com/publications/FalseMemories160109.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.centreforthemind.com/publications/FalseMemories160109.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Oliveri, M., Romero, L., &amp;amp; Papagno, C. (2004). Left but not right temporal involvement in opaque idiom comprehension: A repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation study. &lt;em&gt;Journal of cognitive Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 16(5), 848-855.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1162/089892904970717&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1162/089892904970717&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Costanza_Papagno/publication/8506415_Left_But_Not_Right_Temporal_Involvement_in_Opaque_Idiom_Comprehension_A_Repetitive_Transcranial_Magnetic_Stimulation_Study/links/09e4150b4c7a9f03be000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Costanza_Papagno/publication/8506415_Left_But_Not_Right_Temporal_Involvement_in_Opaque_Idiom_Comprehension_A_Repetitive_Transcranial_Magnetic_Stimulation_Study/links/09e4150b4c7a9f03be000000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the safety of TMS, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318205d50d&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hamilton, et al. (2011)&lt;/a&gt; said the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are known and possibly unknown safety concerns associated with noninvasive brain stimulation. The most important safety risk associated with TMS is the risk of inducing seizures. Since the introduction of published safety parameters for the use of rTMS, the incidence of induced seizure is exceptionally rare. All current evidence indicates that tDCS is extremely safe; its main safety risks are mild headache and a mild burning or itching sensation under the electrodes. Given the newness of these methodologies, one caveat is that not much is known about the chronic effects of either magnetic or electrical brain stimulation. Future studies may reveal unsuspected side effects and risks that are more serious than those associated with some conventional methods of behavioral cognitive manipulation (e.g., psychotherapy)&lt;strong&gt;....&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is quite a bit more on the safety and other ethical considerations, which I will leave you to read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hamilton, R., Messing, S., &amp;amp; Chatterjee, A. (2011). Rethinking the thinking cap: Ethics of neural enhancement using noninvasive brain stimulation. &lt;em&gt;Neurology&lt;/em&gt;, 76(2), 187-193.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318205d50d&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1212/WNL.0b013e318205d50d&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-06-03T14:58:40.877" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19903" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9394" CreationDate="2018-06-04T00:54:43.280" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity#ADHD_stimulants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This section from the Wikipedia page on Neuroplasticity&lt;/a&gt; indicates (emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reviews of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MRI&lt;/a&gt; studies on individuals with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHD&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ADHD&lt;/a&gt; suggest that the&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;long-term treatment&lt;/strong&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attention deficit hyperactivity disorder&lt;/a&gt; (ADHD)&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;with stimulants&lt;/strong&gt;, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphetamine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;amphetamine&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylphenidate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;methylphenidate&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;decreases&#xA;  abnormalities in brain structure and function&lt;/strong&gt; found in subjects with&#xA;  ADHD, and improves function in several parts of the brain, such as the&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudate_nucleus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;right caudate nucleus&lt;/a&gt; of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_ganglia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;basal ganglia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following studies are cited as reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01786.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meta‐analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects&lt;/a&gt; (Frodl &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; 2012)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/1485446&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meta-analysis of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Studies of Inhibition and Attention in Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Exploring Task-Specific, Stimulant Medication, and Age Effects&lt;/a&gt; (Hart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K 2013)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801446&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Effect of Psychostimulants on Brain Structure and Function in ADHD: A Qualitative Literature Review of MRI-Based Neuroimaging Studies&lt;/a&gt; (Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; 2013)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had a quick read on these papers and they do not appear to isolate Vyvanse (lisdexamfetamine) specifically. The one from 2012 doesn't even mention it; the other two address both methylphenidate and lisdexamfetamine. Each paper has their own limitations, for instance, standardization concerning comorbid conditions, age, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I can understand, long-term use of ADHD stimulants &lt;em&gt;in individuals with ADHD&lt;/em&gt; (this is important) does not appear to be associated with brain damage, but rather the opposite, they appear to promote &quot;normalization&quot; of certain structural deficiences. Not &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; deficiences, though (i.e. effects visible on the right anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) but not on the left ACC).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper from Spencer &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; cites another - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2670101/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Potential adverse effects of amphetamine treatment on brain and behavior: a review&lt;/a&gt; (Berman, Steven M. &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; 2009). I didn't have a chance to look into that just yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10098" LastEditorUserId="10098" LastEditDate="2018-06-27T21:40:19.883" LastActivityDate="2018-06-27T21:40:19.883" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19904" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12485" CreationDate="2018-06-04T09:07:31.523" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;ADD is the term commonly used to describe symptoms of inattention, distractibility, and poor working memory. ADHD is the term used to describe additional symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity. Both are included in the medical diagnosis of ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1980-1989, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)&#xA;1997, Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder ADHD&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15959" LastActivityDate="2018-06-04T09:07:31.523" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19906" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1886" CreationDate="2018-06-04T11:50:41.353" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand ADHD is a standard term, but I'm still a bit suspicious that it's not a useful one; Psychiatry doesn't seem like the most reliable field&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Okay, I know this is going to sound weird, but I think ADHD is another name for &lt;em&gt;hypofrontality-mediated unfulfilled potential&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ADHD as &amp;quot;unfulfilled potential&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although it is characterised by a dysregulation of executive function, if you look at the diagnostic criteria for ADHD, it's all about a functional impairment. Diagnosis is based on the presence of symptoms, but regardless of the combination of symptoms with which someone presents, it's the following criterion in the DSM-V that's necessary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or &lt;strong&gt;reduce the quality&lt;/strong&gt; of, so­cial, academic, or occupational functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, one can be performing extremely well academically, have a high IQ, and still have ADHD. This is not to say that individuals with ADHD aren't typically poor-performing, but there's nothing precluding someone from being a high performer and still fulfilling the diagnostic criteria for ADHD:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder a valid diagnosis in the presence of high IQ? Results from the MGH Longitudinal Family Studies of ADHD (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01735.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Antshel et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Background:  The aim of this study was to assess the validity of diagnosing attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in high IQ children and to further characterize the clinical features associated with their ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Methods:  We operationalized giftedness/high IQ as having a full scale IQ ≥120. We identified 92 children with a high IQ who did not have ADHD and 49 children with a high IQ that met diagnostic criteria for ADHD who had participated in the Massachusetts General Hospital Longitudinal Family Studies of ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results:  Of our participants with ADHD and a high IQ, the majority (n = 35) met criteria for the Combined subtype. Relative to control participants, children with ADHD and high IQ had a higher prevalence rate of familial ADHD in first‐degree relatives, repeated grades more often, had a poorer performance on the WISC‐III Block Design, had more comorbid psychopathology, and had more functional impairments across a number of domains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions:  Children with a high IQ and ADHD showed a pattern of familiality as well as cognitive, psychiatric and behavioral features consistent with the diagnosis of ADHD in children with average IQ. These data suggest that the diagnosis of ADHD is valid among high IQ children.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I note that you won't find any literature on unfulfilled potential. Instead, if you parse the above diagnostic criterion carefully, you'll see it: what precisely does the DSM-5 criterion of &amp;quot;reduced quality of academic functioning&amp;quot; mean but some inability to fulfill one's potential with regards to schooling?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ADHD as hypofrontality&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding hypofrontality, this has to do with the view of biological psychiatry that ADHD is mediated by dopaminergic hypofrontality. There is an attempt to map the symptoms to a particular neural substrate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781420048414&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fisher &amp;amp; Beckley (1998)&lt;/a&gt; is a little old, but characterises the general view:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is not the end of the whole story. If the brain messengers&#xA;dopamine and norepinephrine have an impact on the frontal area of the&#xA;brain, and the hypofrontality creates the higher-level-thinking&#xA;disorder of ADD or ADHD, then wouldn't it also affect the other&#xA;thinking areas of the brain that use these same neurotransmitters?&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Hypofrontality defines the lack of dopamine and norepinephrine&#xA;primarily in the frontal area of the brain.&lt;/strong&gt; However, the effect can&#xA;also be seen in the parietal area of the brain. This defines the basis&#xA;for the anatomical differences between the two subtypes of ADD: ADHD&#xA;and ADD without hyperactivity (ADD). &lt;strong&gt;It has been found through both&#xA;clinical research and studies of medication that ADD without&#xA;hyperactivity is more closely related to the parietal area of the&#xA;brain and the neurotransmitter nore­pinephrine, while ADHD is found to&#xA;more related to the frontal area or processes and the neurotransmitter&#xA;dopamine.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more recent paper, which refers to the role of D1 dopamine receptors in hypofrontality. However, it focuses more on the role on noradrenaline via a2-adrenoceptors (both dopamine and noradrenaline are catecholamines):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neurobiology of Executive Functions: Catecholamine Influences on Prefrontal Cortical Functions (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.019&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Arnsten &amp;amp; Li, 2005&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The prefrontal cortex guides behaviors, thoughts, and feelings using representational knowledge, i.e., working memory. These fundamental cognitive abilities subserve the so-called executive functions: the ability to inhibit inappropriate behaviors and thoughts, regulate our attention, monitor our actions, and plan and organize for the future. Neuropsychological and imaging studies indicate that these prefrontal cortex functions are weaker in patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and contribute substantially to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomology. Research in animals indicates that the prefrontal cortex is very sensitive to its neurochemical environment and that small changes in catecholamine modulation of prefrontal cortex cells can have profound effects on the ability of the prefrontal cortex to guide behavior. &lt;strong&gt;Optimal levels of norepinephrine acting at postsynaptic α-2A-adrenoceptors and dopamine acting at D1 receptors are essential to prefrontal cortex function.&lt;/strong&gt; Blockade of norepinephrine α-2-adrenoceptors in prefrontal cortex markedly impairs prefrontal cortex function and mimics most of the symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, including impulsivity and locomotor hyperactivity. Conversely, stimulation of α-2-adrenoceptors in prefrontal cortex strengthens prefrontal cortex regulation of behavior and reduces distractibility. Most effective treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder facilitate catecholamine transmission and likely have their therapeutic actions by optimizing catecholamine actions in prefrontal cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My simplistic understanding is that when there is hypofrontality, psychostimulants will improve the signal:noise ratio in the prefrontal cortex, thereby addressing the dysregulation in executive function seen in ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cynical answer the question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADHD is the label given to someone who is impulsive, unmotivated and bad at school and whose symptoms improve when they're given psychostimulants. This isn't a statement about whether or not ADHD does or doesn't exist, it's a statement about how its currently diagnosed and treated, hence my use of the term &lt;em&gt;hypofrontality-mediated unfulfilled potential&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Antshel, K. M., Faraone, S. V., Stallone, K., Nave, A., Kaufmann, F. A., Doyle, A., ... &amp;amp; Biederman, J. (2007). Is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder a valid diagnosis in the presence of high IQ? Results from the MGH Longitudinal Family Studies of ADHD. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 48(7), 687-694.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01735.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01735.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Arnsten, A. F., &amp;amp; Li, B. M. (2005). Neurobiology of executive functions: catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical functions. &lt;em&gt;Biological psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 57(11), 1377-1384.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.019&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.019&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fisher, B. C., &amp;amp; Beckley, R. A. (1998). &lt;em&gt;Attention deficit disorder: Practical coping methods&lt;/em&gt;. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-12T10:08:23.450" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19907" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-04T13:52:52.733" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering what the best EEG recording montage is to use for recording of electrically evoked somatosensory evoked potentials after median nerve stimulation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19450" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-06-05T08:02:11.207" LastActivityDate="2018-06-05T08:02:11.207" Title="Somatosensory evoked potentials" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19908" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9394" CreationDate="2018-06-04T14:31:01.407" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one was to take a 30mg dose once a day for 50+ years, would it damage brain function at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You ask a very good question, but I'm going to rephrase it for you: Is the chronic administration of low doses of methylphenidate (Ritalin), amphetamine (Adderall) or methamphetamine (Desoxyn) neurotoxic in humans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;High doses of methylphenidate are neurotoxic&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;High doses of amphetamine are neurotoxic&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;High doses of methamphetamine are neurotoxic&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But despite being biologically plausible, very little research exists on whether long-term administration of these drugs in low doses is neurotoxic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This topic is poorly understood for the number of people knowing the answer would be relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Evidence of neurotoxicity in non-human primates&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To date, I've only been able to find a couple papers examining this very topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In non-human primates, there's evidence to suggest that that chronic low doses of amphetamine could be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/content/315/1/91.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Amphetamine Treatment Similar to That Used in the Treatment of Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Damages Dopaminergic Nerve Endings in the Striatum of Adult Nonhuman Primates&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pharmacotherapy with amphetamine is effective in the management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), now recognized in adults as well as in children and adolescents. &lt;strong&gt;Here we demonstrate that amphetamine treatment, similar to that used clinically for adult ADHD, damages dopaminergic nerve endings in the striatum of adult nonhuman primates.&lt;/strong&gt; Furthermore, plasma concentrations of amphetamine associated with dopaminergic neurotoxicity in nonhuman primates are on the order of those reported in young patients receiving amphetamine for the management of ADHD. These findings may have implications for the pathophysiology and treatment of ADHD. Further preclinical and clinical studies are needed to evaluate the dopaminergic neurotoxic potential of therapeutic doses of amphetamine in children as well as adults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with the above study is that it was led by a researcher called Ricaurte, who screwed up when he reported in 2002 that a single recreational dose of MDMA is neurotoxic. He had to later retract his findings when he learned that that the drug bottles were mislabeled and they'd accidentally administered methamphetamine instead. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/02/science/research-on-ecstasy-is-clouded-by-errors.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversely, there's also evidence to suggest that that low doses of amphetamine aren't neurotoxic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1087054706295605&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Literature Review: Update on Amphetamine Neurotoxicity and Its Relevance to the Treatment of ADHD&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Objective:&lt;/em&gt; A review of amphetamine treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was conducted, to obtain information on the long-term neurological consequences of this therapy. &lt;em&gt;Method:&lt;/em&gt; Several databases were accessed for research articles on the effects of amphetamine in the brain of laboratory animals and ADHD diagnosed individuals. &lt;em&gt;Results:&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;In early studies, high doses of amphetamine, comparable to amounts used by addicts, were shown to damage dopaminergic pathways. More recent studies, using therapeutic regimens, appear contradictory. One paradigm shows significant decreases in striatal dopamine and transporter density after oral administration of “therapeutic” doses in primates. Another shows morphological evidence of “trophic” dendritic growth in the brains of adult and juvenile rats given systemic injections mimicking “therapeutic” treatment. Imaging studies of ADHD-diagnosed individuals show an increase in striatal dopamine transporter availability that may be reduced by methylphenidate treatment.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Conclusion:&lt;/em&gt; Clarification of the neurological consequences of chronic AMPH treatment for ADHD is needed. (J. of Att. Dis. 2007; 11(1) 8-16)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Summary&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's very little evidence either way. It's possible. Personally, I &lt;em&gt;really&lt;/em&gt; think this needs to be examined in more detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-28T17:24:00.683" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19909" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-04T15:56:34.237" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are known attempts to correlate the personality of an individual with their choice of a color or a shape - something which I have asked about &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19510/establishing-personality-from-shape-and-color-preferences&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and am using in an app that I am delveoping.  I am now starting to ask myself whether there are any formal studies that attempt to correlate common food choices with personality.  I have come across a few useful ideas by simply googling for &quot;food choice and personality&quot;.  e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Keller &amp;amp; Siegrist (2015)&lt;/a&gt;. and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.consumerhealthdigest.com/general-health/food-choices-and-eating-habits-says-your-personality.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zayed (n.d.)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, neither of those articles to my mind comes close to being a formal study of the subject.  In the context of my own app I am wondering whether I can augment its understanding of its user by adding - to an existing list of personality acquisition questions - a request to select from, say, images that show&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A burger&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An apple&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A chocolate bar&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A chili pepper&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that I am using many other personality assessment measures I would imagine that even without any known prior art on the subject I will in due course be able to glean something useful from an answer here.  However, I would be most grateful to anyone who might be able to point me to any formal, peer-reviewed studies on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keller, C., &amp;amp; Siegrist, M. (2015). Does personality influence eating styles and food choices? Direct and indirect effects. &lt;em&gt;Appetite&lt;/em&gt;, 84, 128-138.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.003&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25308432&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;25308432&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zayed, A. (n.d.) &lt;em&gt;What Your Food Choices and Eating Habits Say about Your Personality?&lt;/em&gt; Retreivable from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.consumerhealthdigest.com/general-health/food-choices-and-eating-habits-says-your-personality.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.consumerhealthdigest.com/general-health/food-choices-and-eating-habits-says-your-personality.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19016" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-05T14:37:49.467" LastActivityDate="2018-06-05T14:37:49.467" Title="Correlationships between food choice and personality" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-07-03T08:07:31.243" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19911" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18708" CreationDate="2018-06-04T19:25:05.517" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It really is quite amazing. As others have said most of this is most likely do to exposure. For instance, characters in TV stories often see spikes in their name afterwards. I don't think people are naming their child after the character, but the name starts to subconsciously stick with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, after Violet was one of the characters in The Incredibles the name took off for years: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.babynameinstitute.com/Names/Girl/Violet.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.babynameinstitute.com/Names/Girl/Violet.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19452" LastActivityDate="2018-06-04T19:25:05.517" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19912" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19888" CreationDate="2018-06-04T20:49:08.260" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The cross posting make it hard to answer, but I would rather the points here ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from not running on my machine (something about &lt;code&gt;convert_to_proportions&lt;/code&gt; that I don't care to debug or understand) the code &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/questions/50639613/fitting-equal-variance-signal-detection-model-to-roc-data-in-python&quot;&gt;you posted&lt;/a&gt; seems conceptually correct. Looking at an abridged version of the code&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;### Input the signal and noise values&#xA;## &quot;sure signal&quot;, &quot;likely signal&quot;, &quot;guess signal&quot;, ... ... &quot;sure noise&quot;&#xA;signal = [1230, 496, 358, 272, 215, 165]&#xA;noise = [111, 216, 349, 540, 625, 895]&#xA;&#xA;# cumulate them&#xA;csignal, cnoise = np.cumsum(signal), np.cumsum(noise)&#xA;&#xA;# convert them to proportions and correct so that all but the last elements will never equal 1&#xA;propsignal = convert_to_proportions(csignal)&#xA;propnoise = convert_to_proportions(cnoise)&#xA;&#xA;# calculate d' for all, except for the last element which is always 1.&#xA;d_primes = [get_d_prime(i[0], i[1]) for i in zip(propsignal[0:-1], propnoise[0:-1])]&#xA;&#xA;# calculate c in the same way&#xA;cs = [get_c(i[0], i[1]) for i in zip(propsignal[0:-1], propnoise[0:-1])]&#xA;&#xA;#estimate the noise and signal curves. &#xA;#*** This is where my numbers disagree with those in the paper.&#xA;estimated_noise = [stats.norm.cdf(-c) for c in cs]&#xA;estimated_signal = [stats.norm.cdf(np.mean(d_primes) - c) for c in cs]&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;you do not actually need to calculate &lt;code&gt;cs&lt;/code&gt;. I suggest instead just do&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;cs = np.arange(-10, 10, 0.01)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This way cs varies over the entire range of interest and makes a smooth curve and you avoid issues from interpolating between the points. When you do this, the fitted curve passes very close to the third data point, but in the manuscript the fitted curve passes very close to the fourth data point. The discrepancy between the paper and your plot seems to arise from&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;stats.norm.cdf(np.mean(d_primes) - c)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It turns out that &lt;code&gt;np.mean(d_primes)&lt;/code&gt; is very close to &lt;code&gt;d_primes[2]&lt;/code&gt; (i.e., the $d^\prime$ associated with the third category). If we replace the offending line with&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;stats.norm.cdf(d_primes[3] - c)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;everything seems to line up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a conceptual standpoint, I think that &lt;code&gt;d_primes[3]&lt;/code&gt; is the best estimate of $d^\prime$ since that corresponds to the division between possible signal and possible noise on the 6 point rating scale. That said, there may be a method for which &lt;code&gt;np.mean(d_primes)&lt;/code&gt; is the best choice. It is also worth noting that the numbers in the excel table in the paper do not match the figure in the paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, if you want to get the numbers in the table, use &lt;code&gt;np.mean(d_primes)&lt;/code&gt;, but if you want the figure to match use &lt;code&gt;d_primes[3]&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2018-06-04T21:40:57.310" LastActivityDate="2018-06-04T21:40:57.310" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19914" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-05T11:21:12.373" Score="3" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;The organization I belong to studies indigenous populations through primarily survey research. One study for example aims to identify the relationship between culture and the evaluation of odors. We are looking for a statistical procedure that can be used to compare a larger amount of individuals. Some records were measured directly on individuals, while others were measured by a group spokesman. In the case of groups, however, individuals should be &quot;downscaled&quot; in order to be able to compare these data records with the data sets of individuals measured. The group speakers of a group are not always the same people from a particular group, but different people can respond on behalf of the group. The group size can vary within the measurement. A mean number of group size, ratio between man and woman and age is estimated per questionnaire/measurement (data set). Due to the difficulties collecting data in indigenous contexts, this is the only way we found to be possible. We are looking for a statistical method that can compare individual survey responses, if some were measured individually, and others were measured as a group (from which we need to extract individual responses).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19457" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T14:41:01.490" Title="What statistics can compare individual survey responses &amp; others that were measured as a group (from which we need to extract individual responses)?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19915" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19914" CreationDate="2018-06-05T14:22:12.757" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sounds like you're looking for a hierarchical model. You might find some joy in  BDA, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/book/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/book/&lt;/a&gt; (in particular, chapter 5)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quickly get some idea if this sort of thing is right for you, you could check out this blog-post on one particular example here &lt;a href=&quot;http://andrewgelman.com/2014/01/21/everything-need-know-bayesian-statistics-learned-eight-schools/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://andrewgelman.com/2014/01/21/everything-need-know-bayesian-statistics-learned-eight-schools/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether this will work for you also depends quite a bit on what you want to ask (what does 'identify the relationship' mean?) and the target audience. If you do head over to Cross Validated (strongly recommended!) make those things as clear as possible in your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-06-05T14:22:12.757" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19916" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-05T19:10:41.570" Score="3" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which tasks induce the &lt;em&gt;strongest&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error-related_negativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;error-related negativity&lt;/a&gt;? I'm trying to build a classifier that measures &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EEG signals&lt;/a&gt; to detect when a subject observes an error being committed by another subject. It seems to me that the strength of the ERN may vary depending on the task, so I would like to create an experiment that evokes a signal that is as strong as possible. Has such a comparison between the strengths of the ERN elicited by various tasks been studied?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3328124/table/T1/?report=objectonly&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Table 1&lt;/a&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3328124/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; paper seems relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9125" LastEditorUserId="9125" LastEditDate="2018-06-21T20:22:52.777" LastActivityDate="2018-06-21T20:22:52.777" Title="Inducing error-related negativity" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;event-related-potential&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19890" CreationDate="2018-06-05T19:34:41.657" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we take &quot;social class&quot; to mean income/wealth as it's most commonly the case in the West today, then there's even an academic term for the uncommon friendships across such classes, namely &quot;income-bridging&quot;. As for their occurence, let me quote you from &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0038038515594975?&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper by Léna Pellandini-Simányi&lt;/a&gt; (which happens to survey Hungarian society, but I think it easily generalizable across the Western world):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many of the income-bridging friendships are between former classmates whose class position diverged, yet who kept&#xA;  their old friendship alive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me tell you from personal experience that this is 100% the case for me, if we take the &quot;income-bridging&quot; to mean a tenfold difference in income. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also from the same paper on Hungary, this interesting bit regarding the socialist past:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;During socialism, status-bridging friendships were not more frequent in&#xA;  Hungary than in capitalist societies, contrary to the image of an egalitarian and open society promoted by political public discourse. [... However] It is important to note that these [socialist-era] studies measured class by education and working position, omitting income.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last part kinda reminds me of joke/advice along the lines of: don't get a PhD to impress your friends, once you get a PhD most of your friends will have one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-06-05T19:48:59.850" LastActivityDate="2018-06-05T19:48:59.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19919" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19803" CreationDate="2018-06-05T20:33:02.027" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's possible that there is no sharp threshold between information gathering and acting. A recent paper by Piantadosi exploring that possibility, and citing a ton of (admittedly more conventional/mainstream) work on decision boundaries is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alonso-Diaz S, Cantlon JF, Piantadosi ST (2018) A threshold-free model of numerosity comparisons. &lt;em&gt;PLoS ONE&lt;/em&gt; 13(4): e0195188. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195188&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1371/journal.pone.0195188&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-12T08:05:12.660" LastActivityDate="2018-06-12T08:05:12.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19920" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19893" CreationDate="2018-06-05T20:38:43.943" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the term you're looking for describing the nature of the interests is &amp;quot;obsessive&amp;quot;. Quoting from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ambitiousaboutautism.org.uk/understanding-autism/behaviour/obsessions-and-special-interests&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a presentation aimed the general public&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why so obsessive? Exactly why special interests, obsessions and autism tend to go together is still not very well understood. However, if you look at the key characteristics of autism, it does make a certain sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To begin with, autism is associated with ‘rigid’ thinking. This sounds quite judgemental, but another way to say it would be to say that people with autism tend to be more all-or-nothing than most people: something is either absolutely not interesting or absolutely fascinating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This can be an oversimplification, but people with autism do tend to think in fewer shades of grey. When applied to favourite subjects, this can turn an interest into a passion, or an obsession.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And from a more DSM-ish perspective (that is not presupposing a common cause) that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29082426&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;is stated&lt;/a&gt; as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research suggests that anxiety disorders and OCD are highly prevalent in individuals with ASD. However, the significant overlap of ASD features with anxiety and OCD symptomology makes differential diagnosis of these disorders particularly challenging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the autism literature, the term &amp;quot;obsession&amp;quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10789283&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;is used&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;to indicate strong, repetitive interests, even if this is not accompanied by anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter paper also has a survey of the content of obsessions in children with autism spectrum conditions, in case you're interested. (Generally speaking, such obsession tend to be more object- rather than people-oriented in subjects with autism.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind that the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/smashing-the-brainblocks/201610/the-thin-line-between-passion-and-obsession-part-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;distinction between a &amp;quot;passion&amp;quot; and an &amp;quot;obsession&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; can be a bit value-laden, and not just when talking about autism, but also in the wider context of perfectionism etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An alternative term with practically the same meaning as &amp;quot;obsessive&amp;quot; [interests] is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5667845/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;circumscribed interests&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;. I don't read enough autism literature to tell you if this or &amp;quot;obsessive&amp;quot; is the more prevalent term used. It's probably wise to search for both. It doesn't seem like the terminology has settled. The DSM is not terribly helpful in this respect because it discusses/titles the notion together with behaviors, more precisely using the term(s) Restricted and Repetitive Behaviours and Interests (RRBIs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally the &amp;quot;rambling&amp;quot; part of your question relates more to &lt;a href=&quot;https://health.clevelandclinic.org/what-is-and-is-not-autism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social deficits&lt;/a&gt; present in autism, so what you're asking for is a combination of terms/notions rather than just one. In fact these two dimensions (social deficits and RRBIs) are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4780436/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;considered definitory for autism&lt;/a&gt;... so the umbrella term you're looking for (for someone rambling about their very narrow interests) is basically... &amp;quot;autistic&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be nice if there were a term for some subset of A (social deficits) + some subset of B (RRBis) features, but I doubt you'll find a term so specific given the state of the literature I've looked at. So if &amp;quot;autistic&amp;quot; comes off as too broad, the precise answer is that there isn't a specific term for what you're asking... unless you want to coin/combine existing terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's rather hard to even find a technical term just for the autistic rambling (regardless of subject). I did find an informal term for this used by autistic persons themselves, which has been reproduced in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=KXFGDwAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PT70&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychiatry monograph&lt;/a&gt;, namely &amp;quot;data dump&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paradoxically, when patients do eventually begin to talk, they can soon switch into a speech-like monologue that is difficult to interrupt or halt, and may seem rambling. (Often they are also quite self-conscious about how much they are digressing and 'wasting [your] time'.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being autistic means being slow to notice non-verbal cues from another person [i.e. from you the doctor] that signal to them [the patient], 'it's my turn to say or ask something now'. It is as as if they have been silently building up their in their minds a long and very detailed account of their lives, which is suddenly released. Some on the autism spectrum refer to this using the computer analogy of 'data dump' (there is no humorous intent here). Attempts to interrupt this flow can produce irritated reactions. This is not anger (although expression of anger can occur suddenly). A common complaint of people on the autism spectrum is that interruptions are hugely problematic--in more extreme cases the only way to resume is to start over at the beginning. Equally, they are sometimes aware of this. 'I know I talk on too much, but I just don't know when to stop, the way other people seem to know with its time to give way'. [sic]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So... if we were to coin a combined term for precisely what you are asking for... &amp;quot;obsessive interest data dump&amp;quot; (more informally) or &amp;quot;circumscribed-interest speech-like monologue&amp;quot; (somewhat more formally) would be the term combo I'd use. And that's for the action itself; for the [pre]disposition to it; prepend that word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally the notion of perseveration &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/perseveration&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defined as&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the continuation or recurrence of an experience or activity without the appropriate stimulus&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;does seem to apply to the [socially uncalled for] &amp;quot;data dump&amp;quot; as well, but perseveration is a slightly broader term, so &amp;quot;perseverative speech/discourse on fixated interest&amp;quot; seems more precise... although there are at least some &lt;a href=&quot;https://depts.washington.edu/dbpeds/Screening%20Tools/DSM-5%28ASD.Guidelines%29Feb2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5 guidelines on autism&lt;/a&gt; using the terms &amp;quot;perseveration on a specific topic&amp;quot; (under criterion B3) and &amp;quot;preservative speech&amp;quot; (criterion B1), and it seems they suggest the former (rather than the latter) for what you ask about. (criterion B3). Note however that &amp;quot;failure of normal back&#xA;and forth conversation through reduced sharing of interests&amp;quot; including &amp;quot;One‐sided conversations/monologues/tangential speech&amp;quot; is under criterion A1... and (all three) A's and two B's are required for a diagnosis under DSM-5; and they also suggest to &amp;quot;avoid using the exact same behavioral exemplar to satisfy two criteria.&amp;quot; (In general, meeting the DSM-5 criteria for autism is more difficult than for DSM-IV-TR; furthermore, the tightened criteria also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1697260016300217&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;results in greater OCD comorbitidy.&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-06T00:06:53.377" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19922" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19896" CreationDate="2018-06-06T02:43:37.413" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sort of. Snyder togher with Chi have published &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2012.03.012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper in 2012&lt;/a&gt; in which they claim to have obtained a fairly similar result using tDCS to vastly improve the odds of solving the nine-dot problem, which certainly strengthens their case (although not as much as if this were replicated by others). The abstract of the latter paper doesn't quite let on how related their two studies are, but in the discussion the authrors emphasize that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Importantly, our paradigm for brain stimulation is unlike other&#xA;  attempts for enhancing cognition [...] in that we did not aim&#xA;  to enhance an existing ability by exciting a specific brain region&#xA;  associated with that ability. Instead, our stimulation protocol aims&#xA;  to mirror left hemisphere inhibition together with right hemisphere&#xA;  facilitation, a condition that characterizes some individuals&#xA;  with extraordinary savant like skills [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They further their point that unusual brain functioning might indeed be the mechanism facilitating the solution to the nine-dot problem with a case report in which the sole participant who did solve the problem sans tDCS aid turned out to have had a brain injury. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wired.com/2012/07/unlock-inner-savant/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2012 piece in Wired&lt;/a&gt; (covering mainly the latter paper) which is a bit ambivalent whether Snyder's results (in general) could be replicated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It sounds like a Michael Crichton plot, but Snyder, of the University of Sydney, Australia, says he wouldn’t be surprised to see a prototype of the creativity cap within a couple of years. His research suggests that brain stimulation improves people’s ability to solve difficult problems. But Snyder's interpretation of his findings remains controversial, and the science of using brain stimulation to boost thinking is still in its early stages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;I think it’s a bit of a minefield,&quot; said psychologist Robyn Young of Flinders University in Australia, who has tried to replicate Snyder’s early experiments. &quot;I’m not really sure whether the technology is developed that can turn it into a more accurate science.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Snyder’s earlier studies used magnetic, rather than electrical, stimulation to try to elicit savant abilities. One study showed a change in artistic ability, while another found improved numerosity, the ability to precisely estimate a large number of objects without counting them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But as of yet, not many of Snyder’s studies have been replicated. Australian psychologist Robyn Young did a study in 2004 that examined the effect of magnetic stimulation on savant-type skills such as drawing, memory, mathematics and calendar calculating. In five out of 17 subjects, some improvement was observed, but most of the findings weren't statistically significant. A follow-up study failed to show any effect of the stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Young thinks the idea of improving cognition with brain stimulation is plausible, but &quot;there were so many variables involved,&quot; she said, such as where to stimulate and how long the effect lasts, that she dropped the work to pursue other research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So apparently the Snyder studies are difficult to replicate, methodologically... and there doesn't seem to be much interest. Bummer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-06-06T02:59:12.397" LastActivityDate="2018-06-06T02:59:12.397" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19923" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-06T03:55:11.793" Score="3" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came across this online paper, entitled &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.chronos.msu.ru/old/EREPORTS/gruber_subjective.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Subjective Time vs. Proper (Clock) Time&lt;/em&gt; by Ronald P. Gruber, Stanford University&lt;/a&gt;, in which the following statement can be found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The shorter the latency of the person’s response or the more bits (or chunks) a person processes during a time period, the faster is the person’s information-processing rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Information-processing rate would decrease with age, and account for the common feeling of time moving by faster in later decades of life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other important factor in the subjective measure of time would be the cummulative items of information processed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) subjective time is based upon the overall information-processing rate, and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) the subjective experience of life’s duration is related to if not based upon the total information processed (cumulative uncertainty).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if there have been any serious studies on the topic, but in trying to comprehend what the paper is saying two things come to mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The healthy awake human mind is constantly &amp;quot;thinking,&amp;quot; and often in a chaotic, random way, influenced by incessant visual, auditory and other external stimuli, as well as loose associative chains moving forwards (future) and backwards (past). This process is effortless, and at many points slips into a semi-conscious level, barely detectable. It tends to recur, be interrupted, and wander far away from its point of origin; a random walk or &amp;quot;scattered thoughts.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;However, when effort, concentration or interest in a challenging mental activity focuses the mind, a structure arises within the featureless fabric of thoughts, forming nodes of &amp;quot;achievement&amp;quot;, such as solving a problem, or understanding a concept, achieving a milestone, etc. The mind is again prone to the same types of distractions; however, these nodes of convergence become an internal metronome. Let's call this type of thinking &amp;quot;recurrent concentration.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is the preponderance of these second &amp;quot;states of mind&amp;quot; in people that opt to further their education with challenging courses, write a book, or teach a difficult topic (as examples of demanding tasks) that introduces the punctuation marks in the otherwise effortless flow of conscience. By doing so, an internal clock is awoken, and the passage of time slows down - an internal structure with compartments is created with its own architecture and distinct spaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here would be an illustration of the two types of &amp;quot;thinking&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DruDs.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DruDs.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice that this has nothing to do with Daniel Kahneman's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dual process theory&lt;/a&gt;. Rather it acknowledges the teachings in Zen, or in Mindfulness Theravada Buddhist meditation regarding the existence of a &amp;quot;monkey mind&amp;quot; that wanders off all the time, and needs to be gently reminded to focus. See, for instance Fig.25 on page 111 of &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=t9Q-ZlOohNEC&amp;amp;pg=PA108&amp;amp;lpg=PA108&amp;amp;dq=nen-action&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=5k0waivSWq&amp;amp;sig=Mai9AYmZ9oeL4Vnk4KKn5vgpbMc&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwia_byU0b_bAhXLhlQKHZR5Ao4Q6AEILjAB#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=nen-action&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zen Training: Methods and Philosophy by Katsuki Sekida&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0n4tI.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0n4tI.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, there would be an apparent contradiction only at a superficial level: engaging in effort-full activities would sharpen our concentration at the expense of our perception of the passage of time (&amp;quot;being in the zone&amp;quot;); yet it would be the decision to initially engage in something new, and the subsequent intermediate and ultimate achievements resulting from directed mind focus on challenging tasks that would leave a biographic mark in the person, effectively highlighting a particular period, and creating texture in the passage of time. It would, hence, become conscious only in retrospect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, this take would be more along the lines of cumulative information along a biography, and in particular, &amp;quot;challenging&amp;quot; periods of acquiring information with effort, and less dependent on the more neuronal or biological processing rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the status of research on the topic of subjective perception of time as accelerating towards later decades of an individual, and in particular, in connection to my thoughts expressed above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19464" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-06T18:16:06.363" Title="Acceleration of subjective time with age" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-06-15T05:21:26.583" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19923" CreationDate="2018-06-06T04:31:39.237" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that from an experimental perspective, the subjective passage of time being faster in later life is somewhat true, but not as simple as the above, and only on a decade-scale, not a minute/hour/day-scale. The results tend to depend on the methodology; in particular using metaphors may produce different results than using a Likert scale. Also even this weak effect of age appears to cap around the age of 50. Furthermore being under time pressure (presently or during the period in question) significantly skews the answers (towards faster passage). So it's a pretty complex topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Refs &amp;amp; further reading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/mind-guest-blog/why-does-time-fly-as-we-get-older/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why Does Time Fly as We Get Older?&lt;/a&gt;, Sci Am&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2015/12/30/10690560/time-speed-accelerate-age-new-year&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why time seems to speed up as we get older&lt;/a&gt;, Vox&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-06-06T04:31:39.237" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19925" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19396" CreationDate="2018-06-06T07:43:50.450" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Phineas Gage style indeed (is that a precursor to Gangnam style?) - ironically (referring to one large iron rod), Phineas Gage's accident is believed to have entirely removed his OFC, as well as parts of his PFC.  Though Gage likely suffered some mental changes, his recovery was a far cry from any sweeping &quot;lose his decision-making ability entirely&quot; diagnosis, even with injuries more extensive than just the OFC, so I think we can safely rule out the statement above without resorting to unethical experimentation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This misconception may have originated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage#Somatic_marker_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Antonio Damasio&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Antonio Damasio, in support of his somatic marker hypothesis (relating&#xA;  decision-making to emotions and their biological underpinnings), draws&#xA;  parallels between behaviors he ascribes to Gage and those of modern&#xA;  patients with damage to the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala. But&#xA;  Damasio's depiction of Gage has been severely criticized ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In neuroscience, this type of error is called a &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627311009895&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reverse inference&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  For example, if we find that a particular region of the brain is active when subjects experience an &quot;emotion&quot;, we can't then conclude that it always means subjects are experiencing that &quot;emotion&quot; when it is active.  That brain region may have other functions besides that emotion, many other brain regions may be involved in experiencing that emotion, and different regions may be involved in different contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, in modern emotion traditions, the distinction between emotion and cognition in general &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01134.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tends to be blurry&lt;/a&gt;, to the extent that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn2317&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some popular emotion models&lt;/a&gt; argue that the two cannot feasibly be separated.  In other words, depending on your preferred model, &quot;emotion&quot; may refer to all cognition (the entire brain), so &lt;strong&gt;the answer to your question would be ... yes?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I don't know anything about Jonah Lehrer's book, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_We_Decide&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia says&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On March 1, 2013, following revelations that Lehrer has been caught in&#xA;  numerous falsifications in his œuvre of writings, Houghton Mifflin&#xA;  Harcourt announced the book was taken &quot;off sale&quot; after an internal&#xA;  review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-06-06T07:43:50.450" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19926" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-06T10:36:50.417" Score="3" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am Computer Engineer, but i feel strong partiality towards Jungian Psychology. I would like to find the Analysis research book on Carl Jung about &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Process of Individuation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shadow&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I seem to know the books written by Jung himself, However, I need some advanced, and in-depth book regarding interpreting above subject. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19469" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-08T21:56:03.343" LastActivityDate="2018-06-08T21:56:03.343" Title="Carl Jung Psychology Analysis Book" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19927" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19931" CreationDate="2018-06-06T11:50:37.260" Score="4" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychology is unique among other medical sciences in that it cannot ask test participants to like, prefer or support something. As such a vast body of psychological studies are purely observational and can find correlation but not causation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example if there is a link between self-awareness and empathy, how to test if being more empathetic increases self-awareness, being more self-aware increases empathy, or, let's say, level of some hormone control both and they are otherwise independent of each other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Problem&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's compare those two situations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A study found that people who eat a lot of sugar are fat. How researchers can test whether &lt;strong&gt;a)&lt;/strong&gt; eating sugar makes people fat &lt;strong&gt;b)&lt;/strong&gt; being fat makes people eat more sugar or &lt;strong&gt;c)&lt;/strong&gt; both sugar consumption and body fat are influenced by the same external factor?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A study found that people who like yellow color are more likely to be psychopaths. How researchers can test whether &lt;strong&gt;a)&lt;/strong&gt; liking yellow turns people into psychopaths &lt;strong&gt;b)&lt;/strong&gt; being a psychopath makes people like yellow &lt;strong&gt;c)&lt;/strong&gt; being a psychopath and liking yellow are both influenced by the same external factor?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In first scenario the answer is easy - split test subjects into two groups, force one group to restrict sugar intake and monitor their weight, help second group lose weight and monitor their sugar intake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In second - I cannot find the answer. Because psychology generally concerns itself with what people are as opposed to what they do, the standard approach in medicine described above cannot be utilized. Researchers can't force someone to like yellow, neither can they turn someone into a psychopath.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When researchers find a statistical correlation between character traits or preferences, how do they test whether there is a causal relationship between those characteristic, if traits cannot be adjusted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19468" LastActivityDate="2018-06-11T10:32:34.507" Title="What techniques can be used to differentiate between correlation and causation?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19928" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-06T13:33:17.273" Score="4" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;For our fMRI study we want to present videos of 3 seconds duration. The videos have &lt;strong&gt;different frame rates:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;48 videos were recorded with 50 fps&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;16 videos were recorded with 25fps&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;64 videos were recorded with 30 fps&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm now faced with the problem that the videos are not presented for 3 seconds.&lt;/strong&gt; The videos are either extended or shortened:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;48 videos (50 fps): extended  (maximum extension between +6ms to&#xA;+10ms)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;16 videos (25 fps): shortened (maximung shortening between -17ms and&#xA;-20ms)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;64 videos (30 fps): shortened (maximung shortening between -17ms and&#xA;-20ms)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this reason I assumed that the problem is caused by the different frame rates of the videos. But then I discovered that the extent of the extended or shortened presentation is changing from presentation to presentation and independent of the videos. So for example: Video1 is presented for 3006ms instead of 3000ms during the first presentation. During the next presentation Video1 is presented for 3008ms instead of 3000ms and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another problem is the presentation of a blank screen between each stimulus. It is set to range between 3000ms and 5000ms in varying steps of 250ms. Here I noticed an extended presentation ranging from +16ms up to 30 ms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Any ideas what might cause this timing deviation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does this have to do with the hardware of the stimulus presentation&#xA;computer?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The refresh rate of the stimulus presentation computer is set to 60Hz. The computer is connected to a projector for the fMRI measurements (but the timing deviations do also occur when I present the stimuli full screen on the stimulus presentation laptop).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19470" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-06T15:08:59.630" LastActivityDate="2018-06-06T15:08:59.630" Title="Timing accuracy in presentation of videos with different frame rates (with COGENT)" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19931" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19927" CreationDate="2018-06-06T18:52:31.623" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no statistical test for distinguishing mere correlation from causation. It has to come from ulterior (model) considerations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, a common way is to design a new experiment, called a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_control&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;controlled study&lt;/a&gt;, in which [based on ulterior model considerations] you change something in some but not all the items/subjects observed. This is basically what you describe (propose to do) in your situation 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have no way whatsoever to change/adjust anything, then you are stuck so to speak; there's no way to go beyond &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_study&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;observational studies&lt;/a&gt;. In practice, researchers come up with an idea of what causes what and try to &amp;quot;eliminate&amp;quot; (or rather account for) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confounding&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;confounders&lt;/a&gt;--what you call an &amp;quot;external factor&amp;quot;. There are various degrees of statistical sophistication at which you can do this, e.g. the so called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_analysis_(statistics)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;path analysis&lt;/a&gt;. However, coming up with a complete list of confounders is hopeless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A science in which by necessity many or most studies are observational is called an observational science (duh). Psychology is not the only science where you find a lot of observational studies. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.joeroe.eu/blog/2016/08/27/does-archaeology-have-a-reproducibility-crisis/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Archeology, geology, epidemiology or astronomy&lt;/a&gt; are other, perhaps more exterme examples. In general, a science being (mostly) observational entails that it's more difficult to replicate the results of studies findings... but some contend that this state of affairs is something people got used to... so the so-called &amp;quot;replication crisis&amp;quot; has mostly to do with controlled rather than observational studies. Quoting from the previous link:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/shhVs.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/shhVs.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But Peng also describes his own field, epidemiology, in the top left of the chart, as having largely been spared the reproducibility crisis, even though it is as theoretically rudderless as medicine or psychology (or archaeology). His contention is that in fields that rely on experimentation, breeds an unreasonable expectation that the results of single experiments (if well-designed and statistically validated) are true. Meanwhile, observational sciences, which are accustomed to the fact that they have little control over their observations and that single results may well be wrong, have already learned the core lesson of the reproducibility crisis: don’t trust that that isn’t replicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact some of the most controversial results in psychology have both a theoretical (albeit not deeply so) basis and rely on controlled rather that observational studies, e.g. the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_depletion&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego depletion&lt;/a&gt; hypothesis, which is roughly that sugar restores willpower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-11T02:41:09.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19933" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-07T06:12:47.410" Score="1" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we read a sentence we don't &quot;pay attention to&quot; each letter and the structure of each letter and the placement of the letter and color and lighting and all that. We just &quot;end up with&quot; the &lt;em&gt;meaning&lt;/em&gt; of the sentence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a computational perspective, you would parse the sentence into &quot;tokens&quot;, convert those tokens into a tree of nouns and verbs and such, resolve the ambiguities, etc. All of this process requires a lot of &lt;em&gt;data structures&lt;/em&gt;. That is, you need trees pointing to strings, and trees pointing to other trees, etc. This could create dozens of intermediate data structures. In the end you want a final data structure with the meaning. But now we have all these intermediate structures we don't really need anymore. What is needed is some sort of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;garbage collection&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I'm wondering how the brain deals with this. How the brain &quot;loses&quot; or &quot;forgets&quot; or &quot;discards&quot; the intermediate information when parsing a sentence (or interpreting other visual or auditory information). Wondering how it knows to not permanently store that information, which would end up overcrowding our brain quickly. Wondering how it &quot;ends up with&quot; the final appropriate data structure. At least at a high level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7611" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-07T13:22:34.320" LastActivityDate="2018-06-07T13:22:34.320" Title="How the Brain Does Garbage Collection in Real Time" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2018-07-03T08:08:47.383" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19935" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19961" CreationDate="2018-06-07T13:44:10.280" Score="4" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are some science-based strategies that could slow down dementia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, do cognitive demanding tasks like solving crosswords, playing with the Rubic's cube, chess, or perhaps stuff like gardening help against dementia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user19477" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-06-08T19:28:25.053" LastActivityDate="2018-06-13T04:42:30.243" Title="What science-based strategies can slow down dementia?" Tags="&lt;alzheimer&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19936" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19953" CreationDate="2018-06-07T14:38:09.170" Score="0" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a writer. In every book about writing fiction there are some recommendations, which I need to remember during the process of writing. Examples of best practices may include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In every scene, it is necessary to describe where the characters are, what they look like (incl. how they are dressed), what time is it, plus information that competing media cannot replicate (smells -- books compete with movies and describing smells is one way to make a book more immersive than a movie).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Balance of description and action: Two paragraphs of description, then something must happen.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You cannot just tell what happens like a journalist. Instead, you need to paint a picture by using metaphors and comparisons.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are scientifically proven strategies to memorize long list of items (best practices in this case)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know I could do a giant checklist of text improvement processes and go through it while editing every chapter. I already tried that and it didn't work that well. There were over a hundred methods from different books, organized by writing stage (ideation, plotting, writing first draft, editing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm using &lt;a href=&quot;https://apps.ankiweb.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anki&lt;/a&gt; to increase my vocabulary (I'm not an English native speaker) and would like to have something similar for lists of best practices. However, Anki isn't really suitable for this purpose because it trains your ability to give correct answers to questions (not remember a set of best practices at a certain stage of writing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/1895/memorizing-sets-of-items&quot;&gt;another question&lt;/a&gt; the use of flash cards was suggested. If I understand it correctly, this method requires me to create a flash card with following data:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question: What things do you need to do at the beginning of chapter design phase?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Define the event that the chapter is describing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Write down the beat sheet.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Find on the Internet the images of places and objects that are featured in this chapter.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Write down the goals of the chapter.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is fine, if the list of items is relatively small. But what if there are 40 or 100 things that I can do at the beginning of a phase (chapter design in this case) and I want to remember them all without a checklist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/1378/what-does-the-literature-suggest-about-the-optimal-strategy-for-quickly-memorizi&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; suggests attaching emotions to the things I want to memorize. I probably could invent some stories to memorize. But I still don't feel like this is the &quot;full solution&quot; (even if I invent stories that trigger my emotions for every of the 100 best practices, I am still not sure that I will remember them all).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user19477" LastActivityDate="2018-06-11T14:25:47.850" Title="What are science-based methods to memorize large sets of best practices?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19937" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19941" CreationDate="2018-06-07T19:55:31.913" Score="6" ViewCount="205" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder if there are any official guidelines on how to act in case of an attempted suicide as a civilian (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt; trained in first aid, but untrained in rescue, mental health &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;)?  How should a regular person react in order to prevent the suicide attempt? Obviously -&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;By not endangering myself&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;By calling 911 (or a local equivalent)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;being the obvious first steps. However, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/first-aid/suicidal-thoughts-treatment&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD as an example&lt;/a&gt; is pretty bland about the rest one can do. I have also learned that keeping them talking and asking open questions about the suicide thoughts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there must be some official guidelines (that I just couldn't find).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;I should point out that this is not about suicide prevention, put about what to do when one witnesses a suicide attempt (so the plan has already been made and is currently starting to be put into action, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt; the patient is already standing on the roof-top about to jump or starting to take other means of committing suicide&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17413" LastEditorUserId="17413" LastEditDate="2018-06-07T20:46:58.220" LastActivityDate="2018-06-08T11:19:34.240" Title="Are there official guidelines to provide &quot;mental first aid&quot; to people attempting suicide?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19938" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-08T04:32:06.180" Score="2" ViewCount="172" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read many papers on concepts, but their tests are sparsely described or abstractly mentioned. I want to test for classic, prototype and exemplar theories. How do you approach the problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some publications I've read:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;===========&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; A Generalization of Hebbian Learning in Perceptual and Conceptual &#xA; Categorization&#xA; Family resemblance : Internal structure of categaries&#xA; Categorization of Natural Objects&#xA; Reclaiming Concepts&#xA; Categories, Concepts, Fuzzy Sets, and Logical Deduction&#xA; Principals of Categorization&#xA; Basic objects in natural categories&#xA; Concept and conceptual structure&#xA; http://www.foundalis.com/res/poc/PrinciplesOfCognition.htm&#xA; https://www.iep.utm.edu/concepts/#H3&#xA; .... and many more.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;most of them are from Eleanor Rosch, ..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading also the big book on concepts&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;this seem to be informative :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Category norms: An updated and expanded version of the&#xA;Battig and Montague (1969) norms&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lcs.pomona.edu/HewlettCognitiveScience/resources/assets/CategoryNorms2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.lcs.pomona.edu/HewlettCognitiveScience/resources/assets/CategoryNorms2004.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19456" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-10T12:41:33.867" LastActivityDate="2018-06-27T18:17:10.730" Title="How to design psychology tests for concept formation?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19941" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19937" CreationDate="2018-06-08T10:49:08.380" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a good question as according to the World Health Organisation (WHO), close to 800,000 people die due to suicide every year, which is one person every 40 seconds. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suicideprevent/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WHO, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;)  Calling the emergency services via 911 (or a local equivalent) is the first thing you should do when discovering someone is about to attempt suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Emotional First Aid (EFA)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first time I heard about any kind of &quot;mental first aid&quot; was around 2010 when some training courses on &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.emotionalfirstaid.co.uk/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional First Aid (EFA)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; were made available, run for 6 three and a half hour sessions over a 6 week period.  Built on a foundation of systemic thinking and humanistic principles, EFA seeks to dispel the myth that mental health means mental illness; and so EFA was designed to help a child or young person experiencing emotional distress, before any professional help is sought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Other Training&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As members of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.iasp.info/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Association for Suicide Prevention (IASP)&lt;/a&gt;, there are also formal training courses run by Samaritans (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.samaritans.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UK&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.samaritansusa.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;USA&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Psychological First Aid (PFA)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an informal approach to learning about the subject, there is a guide for field workers written and provided in many languages by the World Health Organisation (WHO) through their &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/mental_health/mhgap/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP)&lt;/a&gt; called &lt;em&gt;Psychological first aid: Guide for field workers&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/mental_health/publications/guide_field_workers/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WHO, 2011&lt;/a&gt;).  The guide is not specifically aimed at suicide prevention. It is aimed at providing guidance for Psychological First Aid for any possible reason, and therefore, the guidance can be followed whilst dealing with suicidal people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Some Key Points (Among Others)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The prime responsibility you have is for your own personal safety&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;Helping the suicidal person should never endanger your own personal safety.  If you get seriously injured whilst trying to help, you are not being helpful and it could add to the list of reasons the suicidal person may carry through with it.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychological first aid (PFA) is is not counselling or psychotherapy&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;so you don't need to be trained in any of the related mental health fields. Even if you are trained in any related mental health fields, you are not to treat it as counselling or psychotherapy.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Don’t force help on people, and don’t be intrusive or pushy.&lt;/strong&gt; (WHO, 2011)&lt;br&gt;One of the things which some people might think they should do is to insist that they stay with the suicidal person and force them to talk. Not only is this going against their human rights, but someone who is suicidal because they feel they are not in control of their own lives can be pushed into carrying through with their suicide attempt with this approach.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Make it clear to them that even if they refuse help now, they can still access help in the future&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;If they refuse and ask you to leave them alone, you can say that you will stay nearby and if they change their mind, just call out and you will be there.  The fact that you are there can be enough support.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Be aware of and set aside your own biases and prejudices.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;You may have strong beliefs which may affect how you feel about that person once they tell you something.  You need to be mindful that you can inadvertently display the fact that you don't approve of something which can be detrimental to the process.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;After it is over, be sure to look after yourself&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;br&gt;Dealing with suicidal people can lead to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_traumatization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vicarious Trauma&lt;/a&gt;.  Be aware of how you are feeling and how the incident has affected you.  Seek emotional help for yourself where needed too.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is a strong chance you may be in the situation where you have a suicidal person you need to help, I would recommend at least reading the WHO guide for field workers, however it may be more beneficial to undertake some form of formal training in Psychological First Aid either through the Samaritans or a similar organisation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;WHO. (n.d.) &lt;em&gt;Mental Health - Suicide Data&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;br&gt;Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suicideprevent/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suicideprevent/en/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;WHO. (2011). &lt;em&gt;Psychological first aid: Guide for field workers&lt;/em&gt;. Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.who.int/mental_health/publications/guide_field_workers/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.who.int/mental_health/publications/guide_field_workers/en/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-08T11:19:34.240" LastActivityDate="2018-06-08T11:19:34.240" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19943" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-09T09:19:45.780" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~dunbarlab/pubpdfs/dunbarAnal2000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Analogical Paradox: Why Analogy Is So Easy In Naturalistic Settings, Yet So Difficult In The Psychological Laborator&lt;/a&gt;, Dunbar says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Analogy is one of the first cognitive tools that they use when reasoning about  these  unexpected findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some other authors would argue that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/7711871-surfaces-and-essences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;analogy is the core of &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; thinking&lt;/a&gt;. But anyway, what are the other &quot;first cognitive tools&quot; that we have?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2018-06-09T09:19:45.780" Title="What are the other &quot;first cognitive tools&quot; beside analogy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19944" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-09T13:14:04.220" Score="1" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm in the middle of researching emotional models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've come across the PANA model and there are nice mappings out there of emotional words to various points on the PANA plane—the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ps120q.org/mood-meter/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Mood Meter&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, for instance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any similar mappings of emotional words to the 3-dimensional PAD model?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15768" LastActivityDate="2018-06-09T13:14:04.220" Title="Mapping concrete emotions to the PAD model" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;model&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19948" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20134" CreationDate="2018-06-10T18:01:40.593" Score="3" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently read the book, &#xA;Violent Mind, The 1976  Psychological Assessment of Ted Bundy&quot; : Dr. Al Carlisle. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the book Dr. Carlisle mentions that Ted&#xA;Bundy went into trance like states during his killing sprees. Bundy would later explain that he couldn't recall specific details of his killings and how he would feel instant remorse thereafter. Bundy went on say that even though he felt remorseful and disturbed for what he did, he would repeat the same violent patterns, killing more. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found it fascinating how the brain can go into these trance like states for some of these killers, as if it overrides their cognitive empathy, guilt. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a scientific term similar to &quot;trance&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19499" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-11T13:11:15.253" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T13:30:30.067" Title="Term for Trance During Violent Episodes" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19951" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19927" CreationDate="2018-06-11T06:50:23.150" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/users/9769/fizz&quot;&gt;Fizz&lt;/a&gt;'s &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19927/what-techniques-can-be-used-to-differentiate-between-correlation-and-causation/19931&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; that &lt;em&gt;&quot;there is no statistical test for distinguishing mere correlation from causation&quot;&lt;/em&gt; is &lt;strong&gt;wrong&lt;/strong&gt;. There is. It's called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granger_causality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Granger causality test&lt;/a&gt;. It's basically a test for correlation across time, which is what a causal relation essentially is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Granger causality test is a statistical hypothesis test for determining whether one time series is useful in forecasting another, first proposed in 1969. Ordinarily, regressions reflect &quot;mere&quot; correlations, but Clive Granger argued that causality in economics could be tested for by measuring the ability to predict the future values of a time series using prior values of another time series. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granger_causality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As long as you're able to observe the phenomena you're attempting to ascertain causality separated in time, you can test whether the forerunning phenomenon is a good statistical forecast of the subsequent phenomenon. Whether we fully understand the mechanics of how the former causes the latter or not is immaterial to them being in a causal relation, and, in fact, any such explanation is just a breakdown of one such lagged correlation into a series of correlations between intervening steps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more on the Granger causality test see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Granger, C. W. (1969). Investigating causal relations by econometric models and cross-spectral methods. &lt;em&gt;Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society&lt;/em&gt;, 37(3), 424-438. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/1912791&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.2307/1912791&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1c68/05d6029f56b49041f7578ad4a412a0327953.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1c68/05d6029f56b49041f7578ad4a412a0327953.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19504" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-11T10:32:34.507" LastActivityDate="2018-06-11T10:32:34.507" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19953" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19936" CreationDate="2018-06-11T14:25:47.850" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;We, as human beings, are generally not able to MEMORIZE that quantity of information. I suggest there are two ways to approach this issue:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Remembering WHERE information is as opposed to what information there is.&#xA;This works with top-notch scientists and I am particularly fond of this strategy. For example, instead of remembering the parts of the neuron, you could remember where you wrote them down or how you can quickly find those out and you can refer back to those. Or, in your example, instead of remembering what you have to describe, you could remember where your checklist or notes are regarding that and just look it up every time. Now, all you have to remember is that only certain information goes into the description and where you can look that up. (similar to chunking as mentioned by one of the previous replies)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Experience -&gt; Incorporating that much information can be done easily only if you have deliberately practised it A LOT. The more information there is, the more practice you need. By the sounds of it - you may need a lot if there are so many rules. I would assume, much like the scientific work I am involved it, at one point it will become second nature to you and you will feel when something is not described or written well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize that these two points do not address your question directly: Generally if you want to remember a long list of items it all boils down to the strength of the connections you build. Build your own associations. In one incredible study, for example, an undergraduate long-distance runner managed to increase his memory span from 7 (which is the average) to 79 digits (in some cases this could also be chunks which can increase the amount of remembered information) after 230 hours of deliberate practice (1h a day 3-5 days/week). He did that by &quot;recoding&quot; long strings of numbers into associations - e.g. 3492 -&gt; 3 minutes 49.2 seconds near world record mile time; 1944 -&gt; near WWII end and so on (Ericsson, Chase &amp;amp; Faloon, 1980). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it is possible to remember that amount of information but I strongly discourage you to do so as it would limit the amount of creative work you can accomplish in the meantime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. Just as an example of how effective 2) is -&gt; In order for me to recall that study I remember that a lot of hours of deliberate practice increase working memory recall span and I remembered that there was a case study. Then in order to remember exactly what the study was, I recalled where it must be (Somewhere in my Memory-related notes) and so that I can sort through them quickly I recalled that there was something with WWII and recoding strategies. I managed to find it within 30-45 seconds among A LOT of notes!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope that helps. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19507" LastActivityDate="2018-06-11T14:25:47.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19954" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-11T18:46:10.203" Score="1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;My son is a sophomore in high school and the only field he seems interested in for college is psychology because he wants to help people. I'm trying to figure out the best way to help him make an educated decision on what college might give him the best chances for starting his career. I figure that if we know what he specifically would like to focus on as a discipline post graduation, I could help him get to a list of great colleges/universities offering him a step up in that specialty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a series of questions/guide/webpage/book that might help us figure out the specialty that he would most enjoy? Any advice on this would be welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19508" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-06-24T03:09:47.333" LastActivityDate="2018-06-24T03:09:47.333" Title="How to advise a high school student about choosing a university to study psychology?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19957" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19963" CreationDate="2018-06-12T15:42:15.360" Score="2" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that many people assume that consultants know more than they themselves do and/or more than their team does.  That is, when a team is stuck on a problem, some people believe that a consultant can figure it out even without knowing that consultant. True, more heads might help, but I've also seen teams who believe everything a consultant says, especially at the beginning of the relationship yet scrutinize the people they work with.  Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read about the &lt;strong&gt;halo effect&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, which contains the statement, &quot;The halo effect is a type of immediate judgement discrepancy, or cognitive bias, where a person making an initial assessment of another person, place, or thing will assume ambiguous information based upon concrete information.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would suggest to me that any concrete information can bias someone when filling in the ambiguous information.  However, reading more about the halo effect, it seems mainly focused on how people &lt;em&gt;look&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my questions are, what goes on in people's minds to create the belief that a consultant knows best when they don't have evidence to believe so?  Is it a bias?  If so, which one?  Or just human behaviour?  Something else?  Does it depend on the situation?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19515" LastActivityDate="2018-06-13T12:33:51.887" Title="Is the belief that a consultant knows more than the team a form of cognitive bias?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;halo-effect&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19959" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-13T02:18:03.747" Score="2" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;At the neuroscience level, what are thoughts? I mean, are they just electrical synapse through the brain in a recognizable patterns? if so, How are those electrical pulses originated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19520" LastActivityDate="2018-06-13T02:18:03.747" Title="What are the thoughts?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2018-06-13T08:20:51.973" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19960" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-13T04:39:01.950" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the top contributions from neuroscience to artificial intelligence and viceversa? How much progress has been made from the interaction between these two fields? Is there a formal research area dedicated to the study of topics in the intersection between AI and neuroscience, with papers being published and maybe conferences being held periodically?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18631" LastActivityDate="2018-06-13T18:44:53.643" Title="What are the top contributions from neuroscience to AI and viceversa? How much progress has been made from the interaction between these two fields?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19961" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19935" CreationDate="2018-06-13T04:42:30.243" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends on the disease that causes dementia. Dementia is a syndrome that has many causes. Some of them are treatable, such as metabolic/infectious diseases. Some are primary degenerative diseases of the nervous system, such as Alzheimer disease, Pick disease, and Huntington disease. Most diseases in the first category are treatable, many are curable. But most diseases in the second category are usually not amenable to treatment. They progress slowly but relentlessly despite any treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding non-pharmacologic treatments, including cognitive training or cognitive rehabilitation, they seem to have some roles in the management of dementia (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h369&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;H C Kales&lt;/a&gt;)   but not have spectacular effects and still be inconclusive in improving or maintaining cognitive and functional performance of people with dementia (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2572644/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnosis and Treatment of Dementia&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2018-06-13T04:42:30.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19963" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19957" CreationDate="2018-06-13T08:52:47.130" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, this &lt;em&gt;could be&lt;/em&gt; a cognitive bias. Quite clearly, a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consultant&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;consultant&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;em&gt;expected&lt;/em&gt; to be more knowledgeable about the specific topic they were hired to consult on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A consultant (from Latin: consultare &quot;to deliberate&quot;) is a&#xA;  professional who provides expert advice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consultants are &lt;em&gt;supposed&lt;/em&gt; to be experts in their field, and as a result they carry some authority. Therefore, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;authority bias&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; comes to mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Authority bias is the tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the&#xA;  opinion of an authority figure &lt;strong&gt;(unrelated to its content)&lt;/strong&gt; and be more&#xA;  influenced by that opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bolded addendum in between parentheses is important. As long as based on the content the consultant brings to the table you respect their opinion, there is no cognitive bias (no irrationality); they are simply doing a good job.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, not all 'consultants' are experts per se. In software development specifically, I have the impression 'consultancy' has almost become synonymous with 'temporary hire'. Newly grads often get hired straight out of school in consultancy firms. In such cases, there might be a cognitive bias at play, when it is not the contributed content which is evaluated (as you outline in your answer), but merely the title the consultant carries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2018-06-13T08:52:47.130" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19964" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-13T09:04:13.187" Score="3" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am planning an fMRI experiment which looks at similarity of human brain activation when prompted with known words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The goal of the experiment is to compare the similarity of activation with predictions made by a model. To get a good comparison, we would ideally want an even spread of similarity between stimulus words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a potential issue with using the same model to select stimuli of a range of predicted similarities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the analysis will not make presumptions about similarity of words other than what is shown from the data, so we should avoid circular analysis &lt;a href=&quot;http://individual.utoronto.ca/MSL/papers/Kriegeskorte_09_Circular_analysis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kriegeskorte et al, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;. The model predictions don't influence data analysis until the final comparison between observed and predicted similarities in activation. It still feels intuitively like there might be an issue of false findings through the stimulus selection, but I cannot find/verbalize an actual problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An alternative would be to use existing literature to identify a word list with an even spread of similarity between words. But as our model is of course based on that literature, in practice this would result in a very similar list of words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19377" LastActivityDate="2018-06-13T09:04:13.187" Title="Is it an issue to use a model for stimulus selection, when the same model is later tested against fMRI data based on those stimuli?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19965" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19969" CreationDate="2018-06-13T12:20:26.210" Score="2" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19961/19477&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/users/19332/user287279&quot;&gt;user287279&lt;/a&gt; wrote that dementia may have different causes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can I find out what causes dementia of someone? For example, what tests (like blood or urine tests) can they take to confirm or refute hypotheses why they are getting dementia? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user19477" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-06-13T13:44:19.727" LastActivityDate="2018-06-14T04:51:12.340" Title="How can I find out why a person gets dementia?" Tags="&lt;alzheimer&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19966" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19954" CreationDate="2018-06-13T17:42:49.937" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychology can be roughly summarised as the study of human behaviour. To figure out where your interest lies in the field, you have to figure what aspect of human behaviour you want to understand and how you want to understand it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you want to know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How people solve problems? That’s Cognitive Psychology.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How we can model how people solve problems with a computer? That’s Cognitive Modelling.&#xA;etc…&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of fields and they aren’t mutually exclusive. To get started, you may want to browse the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/tags&quot;&gt;tags of this site&lt;/a&gt; or look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia outline of the Psychology topic&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Side note:&lt;/strong&gt; Wanting to help people isn't the best reason to want to study psychology. There a much more effective ways of reducing suffering in the world. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://80000hours.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;80,000 Hours&lt;/a&gt; for further information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-06-13T17:42:49.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19960" CreationDate="2018-06-13T18:44:53.643" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a really close correspondence between &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_scene_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Auditory Scene Analysis&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_auditory_scene_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Computational Auditory Scene Analysis&lt;/a&gt;. If you tried to build a speech recognition system, especially for use in noisy environments, while ignoring what we know from auditory psychophysics, physiology, and anatomy, I would guess that you would not get too far. The things we have learned from CASA have lead to better hearing aids and cochlear implants, which in turn have taught us about the auditory system, which of course leads to further improvements in CASA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bregman has a nice summary (along with conferences) on his &lt;a href=&quot;http://webpages.mcgill.ca/staff/Group2/abregm1/web/asacasa.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;webpage&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2018-06-13T18:44:53.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19969" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19965" CreationDate="2018-06-14T04:51:12.340" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As there are several diseases and conditions that can mimic dementia and as there are many possible causes of dementia, in order to avoid unnecessary investigations, the diagnosis of dementia and of the cause have to be done methodologically. The best way is to meet a neurologist to do this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First to diagnose whether someone has dementia, a clinical history of his/her symptoms, especially those related to memory, speech, cognitive functions, behavior, and functional performances, and a mental state exam, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini%E2%80%93Mental_State_Examination&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;MMSE&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0084224/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;MMSE in elderly perople&lt;/a&gt;, have to be taken. This step will tell whether or not the person has dementia or whether the person has other conditions such as benign forgetfulness, mild cognitive impairment, or depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next, if the person has dementia, the cause of dementia can be diagnosed by the following steps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Clinical history and physical examination. In some overt cases, this step alone can diagnose the cause of dementia, such as clinical pictures of brain tumor, chronic meningitis, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Fact-Sheets/Creutzfeldt-Jakob-Disease-Fact-Sheet&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;CJD&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Imaging, such as CT scan, MRI scan, and PET scan. This can diagnose some diseases right away, such as brain tumor, normal pressure hydrocephalus, and Alzheimers's disease.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Laboratory tests, such as thyroid function tests, blood calcium level, and vitamin B12 level. These tests can diagnose &lt;a href=&quot;https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000683.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;metabolic causes of dementia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Other tests, such as lumbar puncture to examine the cerebrospinal fluid, Electroencephalography, and brain biopsy. This may have to be done in some cases. They can diagnose some difficult diseases such as neurosyphilis, CNS lymphoma, cerebral vasculitis, and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which investigations in 2.- 4. are to be done first depend on the clinical picture in 1. and subsequent investigations may be needed later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2018-06-14T04:51:12.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19970" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-14T07:20:17.223" Score="2" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am relatively new to the realm of fMRI modality and the project that I am working on requires me to find the number of clusters in healthy and schizophrenic fMRI images by generating the Default Mode Network (DMN) t-maps. Is there any software available that exclusively allows me to do this? If not, is there a pipeline that I can follow in order to generate the t-maps? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19531" LastActivityDate="2018-06-14T07:20:17.223" Title="How to identify the Default Mode Network in fMRI images?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19972" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-14T11:19:57.203" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there an accepted test/scale/measurement/etc that can be used to measure how much of a 'victim mentality' the subject has?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19535" LastActivityDate="2018-06-14T11:19:57.203" Title="Is there a psychological scale/measurement that can be used to determine how much of a 'victim mentality' the subject has?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2018-06-20T22:11:37.580" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19973" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19975" CreationDate="2018-06-14T19:24:15.770" Score="2" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many more things than I previously thought can be considered addiction, so I was wondering whether an addiction is always bad&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19539" LastActivityDate="2018-06-14T23:30:26.830" Title="Are there any types of good addiction" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19974" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-14T20:11:33.890" Score="5" ViewCount="353" Body="&lt;p&gt;I watched a TedX Talk that called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tEPEHpgK09Q&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;The surprising secret that solves your problems quickly&quot;&gt;&quot;The Surprising Secret of Solving Problems Quickly&quot;&lt;/a&gt; by Collins Key, about 3 problems that most greatly hinder our ability to solve intriguing problems. These 3 problems are Misconception, Assumption, and Expectation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Misconception&lt;/em&gt;, as he explains, is when we misunderstand a certain part of a problem because of how we are used to seeing it or because of how it is presented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Assumption&lt;/em&gt; is when we assume something about part of the solution that we have little reason to assume, but it seems to us as if we do have reason to assume this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Expectation&lt;/em&gt; is when we expect the solution to go in a certain direction, thus stopping us from thinking in other directions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you do not understand the exact differences between the three in this context, please watch the Ted Talk. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: How can these complications be eliminated? How can we check to make sure we have no misconceptions? How can we block ourselves off from assuming something? And how can we &quot;mindblank&quot; ourselves enough to not expect anything, without entirely blocking off our thinking process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18820" LastActivityDate="2021-02-14T20:04:35.427" Title="How can we get rid of the problems of misconception, assumption, and expectation?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19973" CreationDate="2018-06-14T23:30:26.830" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I pointed out in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/19767/7604&quot;&gt;Technical term for &amp;quot;hidden addictions&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, the term &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/healthy-body/addiction-what-is-it/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;addiction&lt;/a&gt; is defined as &lt;strong&gt;not having control&lt;/strong&gt; over doing, taking or using something &lt;strong&gt;to the point where it could be harmful to you&lt;/strong&gt;. Often it can start with a habit but then it becomes an addiction because there is a &lt;strong&gt;compulsion&lt;/strong&gt; to continue the habit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can continue with your daily life without carrying out a task which is habit, but if you are addicted to doing it you have a feeling of necessity to do it otherwise you cannot function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Addiction is most commonly associated with gambling, drugs, alcohol and nicotine, but it's possible to be addicted to just about anything&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer your question, there can be good habits but there are no good types of addiction as they affect your life to the point where you &quot;cannot live&quot; without the addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-06-14T23:30:26.830" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19976" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19981" CreationDate="2018-06-15T12:43:03.183" Score="0" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for resources of reliable research in psychology. I mean 'reliable' in the following two senses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Replicability&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems more and more of the famous effects that I, as a psychology-curious layman, learned about by watching intro psych lectures or in popular media fail replication. It starts to seem like anything one believes to know about psychology is as likely as not to be false. As a layman it is quite difficult to track down all of the possible effects and replications thereof. Is there some resource which tracks the replication status of psychological research and collects the different effects which are reproducible (and which aren't)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: I was able to find the following which is actually pretty close to what I was looking for. This is not a complete list but it is the kind of thing that I am after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/fgjvw/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/fgjvw/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this through the links in the accepted answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/893/are-there-any-journal-articles-in-psychology-that-have-promoted-and-discussed-re/896#896&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; SE question, which was suggested by a commenter below. However, now the comment is gone for some reason so I cannot give credit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. &quot;Bi-partisanship&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some areas of psychology are politically charged. Things like gender, race, intelligence, etc.,  are understandably controversial. It seems that often professional psychologists fall down on either side of a given issue, each insisting that it was settled by the scientific community long ago in their favour. As a layman, this is rather frustrating to make sense of. Is there some &quot;common ground&quot; resource which tracks the research that all sides agree on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10778" LastEditorUserId="10778" LastEditDate="2018-06-19T12:50:24.133" LastActivityDate="2018-06-19T12:50:24.133" Title="Resources for reliable psychology research" Tags="&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;reliability&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19978" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-17T06:11:18.073" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a 2x2 factorial, is it appropriate to look at an interaction at the second-level, group analysis (e.g., using SPM) and define this as an ROI to restrict follow-up main effect contrasts? Or is this an example of a circular, non-independent analysis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19549" LastActivityDate="2018-06-17T06:11:18.073" Title="fMRI ROI analysis: independence" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19979" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-17T06:27:51.247" Score="5" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;News of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Assistant&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google AI assistant&lt;/a&gt; (or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cnet.com/how-to/what-is-google-duplex/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Duplex&lt;/a&gt;) being used to place phone calls to people in such a way that the human would not know they are speaking with AI was a little unsettling, and Google has announced they will address this by having the AI-driven, interactive robo-caller (for lack of a better word, if you know one please suggest it!) introduce &quot;itself&quot; as such. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question addresses this or similar scenarios when one is confronted by human-like AI presenting cues that it is artificial, and yet including verbal affections that are specifically intended to sound human (e.g. 'um, okay...') rather than a machine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncanny_valley&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;uncanny valley&lt;/a&gt; is usually applied to visual stimuli, but considering the degree to which AI and realistic human-like speech can be readily generated and transmitted, I'm wondering if the uncanny valley concept &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; apply or be extended to aural stimuli as well. Also curious if this avenue has ever been explored in published research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One problem with my question might be in calling the uncanny valley a concept, rather than a phenomenon associated with visual stimuli by definition. If that's the proper way to think about it, perhaps I should be asking if there is an &lt;em&gt;aural analog&lt;/em&gt; to the uncanny valley instead?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19214" LastEditorUserId="19214" LastEditDate="2018-11-09T02:09:57.380" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T02:09:57.380" Title="Does the uncanny valley phenomenon apply to aural stimuli as well as visual? Addressed by research?" Tags="&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19976" CreationDate="2018-06-17T20:09:32.623" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;'psychology' is too big for this in general. But lots of people do care a lot about replication and there have been some nice many-labs efforts to asses the state of replicability across the field. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000178&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Klein, et al. (2014)&lt;/a&gt;. was one attempt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study is taking the usual logic of inference about a population (in this case 'effects') from a small sample, so it has the usual problem of leaving uncertain how representative the sample is of the population. For what it's worth, I think their results suggest that the size of possible 'partisanship' bias mentioned in this question is small relative to 'some effects are small and unreliable but people chase them anyway'. Of course, science media may be choosing which of these leprechaun-chasing exercises they want to report on in a partisan way, but that's a different question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, there is NO common ground analogous to the standard model in physics. Although many smart people have tried, as of 2018 it's still the wild west out there. The linked project certainly isn't a common-ground reference, its scope is modest (ie realistic) and it's just one of a small family of similar studies, eg see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4716&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Open Science Collaboration (2015)&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4078993/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ioannidis, et al. (2014)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ioannidis, J. P., Munafo, M. R., Fusar-Poli, P., Nosek, B. A., &amp;amp; David, S. P. (2014). Publication and other reporting biases in cognitive sciences: detection, prevalence, and prevention. &lt;em&gt;Trends in cognitive sciences&lt;/em&gt;, 18(5), 235-241.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2014.02.010&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.tics.2014.02.010&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4078993/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC4078993&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4078993/pdf/nihms579109.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4078993/pdf/nihms579109.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Klein, R. A., Ratliff, K. A., Vianello, M., Adams Jr, R. B., Bahník, Š., Bernstein, M. J., ... &amp;amp; Cemalcilar, Z. (2014). Investigating variation in replicability: A “many labs” replication project. Social psychology, 45(3), 142.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000178&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1027/1864-9335/a000178&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2014-20922-002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2014-20922-002.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;Updated 2017: &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/wx7ck/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/wx7ck/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Open Science Collaboration. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 349(6251), aac4716.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4716&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1126/science.aac4716&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/447b3/download?format=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/447b3/download?format=pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-18T15:19:56.990" LastActivityDate="2018-06-18T15:19:56.990" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19983" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19984" CreationDate="2018-06-17T23:41:38.760" Score="10" ViewCount="447" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I am a computer programmer or computer engineer, and am interested in comparing the brain to a classical computer in some way.  How well does this comparison hold up?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a general introduction to the computer/brain metaphor and its practical limitations.  Similar questions on this forum include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/1946/7001&quot;&gt;Difference between parallel processing done by human brain and by computers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/19573/7001&quot;&gt;How does the brain generate answers to questions?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/8646/7001&quot;&gt;What is the data structure used by the brain to store data?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/12642/7001&quot;&gt;How is information stored in the brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/19933/7001&quot;&gt;How the Brain Does Garbage Collection in Real Time&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/12252/7001&quot;&gt;How does a human classify or cluster data?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/15478/7001&quot;&gt;Human brain v/s computer: speed comparison?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/12886/7001&quot;&gt;Does the brain have a &amp;#39;debugging mode&amp;#39;?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/8021/7001&quot;&gt;Why can&amp;#39;t we use 100% of the brain in a certain moment?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/12923/7001&quot;&gt;Is it possible to increase the capacity of human brain like “Lucy”?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/12813/7001&quot;&gt;In what ways do our brains use compression?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/12406/7001&quot;&gt;How many possible states does a brain have?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/17463/7001&quot;&gt;What is the capacity of the human brain?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-12-23T20:08:41.950" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T19:17:17.763" Title="The computer model of the brain" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19984" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19983" CreationDate="2018-06-17T23:41:38.760" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question's reference to a classical computer refers to a &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Turing Machine&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; style of computation, also known as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge-based_systems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;knowledge system&lt;/a&gt;, in which decisions and possible results are pre-programmed using if-statements, loops, and other logical constructs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, most modern computer programmers and engineers are at least somewhat familiar with neural networks, used for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;machine learning&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Artificial neural networks (ANNs)&lt;/a&gt; are loosely based on the way the brain (a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_neural_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;biological neural network&lt;/a&gt;) works.  If you want to use your computing background to understand the brain, then I recommend learning about neural networks instead.  If you already have some understanding of neural networks, then think about how Siri or Watson work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While neural networks can certainly be thought of as storing data, executing algorithms, parallel processing, and having memory and speed measurements, they are conceptually very different from classical computers, and generally uninstructive to compare. In particular, the &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;von Neumann&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; architectural style of modern computers does not have an analog in the brain (there is no separation between areas that compute and areas that store memories, for example). If you are still interested in such a comparison, then many of the questions listed above already have great answers, so check them out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in modeling the brain using a classical computing methodology, then check out &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACT-R&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ACT-R&lt;/a&gt;, a popular architecture for modeling the brain using a modular, knowledge-based system (also see this &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/14064/7001&quot;&gt;forum question&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Artificial neural networks are not a perfect model for biological neural networks either, and if you are interested in the difference, then see this &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/7880/7001&quot;&gt;forum question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2020-12-19T19:17:17.763" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T19:17:17.763" CommentCount="2" CommunityOwnedDate="2018-06-30T23:54:02.590" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19987" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-18T07:42:56.647" Score="4" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for ways to decrease cognitive load (or increase cognitive capacity) in an online survey. The subjects in the survey need to make an investment decision. They will see an innovative product and they have to decide if they would invest in this product. When they have a high cognitive load they tend to make wrong decisions and invest in products that are not profitable. I want to manipulate the cognitive load to see if the subjects stop investing in unprofitable products and only invest in the profitable ones. I found examples on how to increase the cognitive load (e.g. give them less time to decide or let them memorize a number while they make the decision) but not on how to decrease it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought about forcing the subject to think about the decision they have to make by giving them a minimum time (e.g. they can't continue to the next question for 60 seconds). The problem is, that I can't find a paper where they used this in an online survey. I would like to have something that proofs that this way works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example is in the paper &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4063894/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The effect of cognitive load on decision making with graphically displayed uncertainty information&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Allen et al. The authors let the subjects memorize an 8 digit-number in the high cognitive load condition and in the low cognitive condition the subjects had no memorizing task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my case I want to especially decrease the cognitive load and not just give one group a task to increase their cognitive load and do nothing with the second group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19556" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-18T15:37:43.403" LastActivityDate="2018-06-18T15:37:43.403" Title="How can I manipulate (decrease) cognitive load in an online survey?" Tags="&lt;cognitive&gt;&lt;cognitive-load&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19991" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19976" CreationDate="2018-06-18T14:58:36.403" Score="3" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Short answer&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no &lt;strong&gt;official&lt;/strong&gt; database I can find that collects the different effects proposed in psychology and track how they replicate.  However, reputable psychology papers are published in professional journals and are re-examined all the time with meta-analyses and further research, also published in professional journals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Professional psychologists, psychiatrists and therapists are required to maintain an up-to-date knowledge of psychological research as part of their professional codes of conduct and ethics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Long Answer&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Replicability&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to &lt;em&gt;replicability&lt;/em&gt; within your question, if I am not mistaken, you are referring to finding the demarcation between science and pseudoscience within psychology as referred to by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Karl Popper&lt;/a&gt;, in his book &lt;em&gt;The Logic of Scientific Discovery&lt;/em&gt; (1959)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to first of all point out that although there is a lot of argument which states that a large proportion of psychology is non-scientific, I would direct you to &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pc4OAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA61&amp;amp;dq=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PA61#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Hansson,%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sven Ove Hansson (2013)&lt;/a&gt; who argues the fact that in order for any research in psychology to be non-scientific (pseudoscientific) it has to be non-scientific when &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201601/the-is-psychology-science-debate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a PsychologyToday article (2016)&lt;/a&gt; points out that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;psychology was defined by the application of scientific method(s) and psychologists conduct valuable research and have developed some key insights into animal behavior, cognition, consciousness, and the human condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would also point you to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248&quot;&gt;my extensive answer on the subject in meta&lt;/a&gt; which you can read alongside other's viewpoints.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&quot;Bi-partisanship&quot;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for &lt;em&gt;&quot;Bi-partisanship&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, I would argue that &lt;strong&gt;professional&lt;/strong&gt; psychologists, psychiatrists and therapists &lt;strong&gt;do not&lt;/strong&gt; fall down on either side of a given issue as intimated in your question. Whilst there are a select few, &lt;strong&gt;those who do are unprofessional&lt;/strong&gt; as they are prejudicial and therefore do not abide by professional codes of conduct and ethics, which include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;American Psychological Association (APA) Code of Conduct&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (APA, 2017)&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...Psychologists are aware of and respect cultural, individual, and role differences, including those based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status, and consider these factors when working with members of such groups. Psychologists try to eliminate the effect on their work of biases based on those factors, and they do not knowingly participate in or condone activities of others based upon such prejudices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Clause 22a-h of the Good Practice section&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;of the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/media/3103/bacp-ethical-framework-for-the-counselling-professions-2018.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Ethical Framework for the Counselling Professions&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (BACP, 2018)&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol start=&quot;22&quot;&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;We will respect our clients as people by providing services that:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;a.&lt;/strong&gt; endeavour to demonstrate equality, value diversity and ensure inclusion for all clients&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;b.&lt;/strong&gt; avoid unfairly discriminating against clients or colleagues&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;c.&lt;/strong&gt; accept we are all vulnerable to prejudice and recognise the importance of self-inquiry, personal feedback and professional development&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;d.&lt;/strong&gt; work with issues of identity in open-minded ways that respect the client’s autonomy and be sensitive to whether this is viewed as individual or relational autonomy&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;e.&lt;/strong&gt; challenge assumptions that any sexual orientation or gender identity is inherently preferable to any other and will not attempt to bring about a change of sexual orientation or gender identity or seek to suppress an individual’s expression of sexual orientation or gender identity&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;f.&lt;/strong&gt; make adjustments to overcome barriers to accessibility, so far as is reasonably possible, for clients of any ability wishing to engage with a service&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;g.&lt;/strong&gt; recognise when our knowledge of key aspects of our client’s background, identity or lifestyle is inadequate and take steps to inform ourselves from other sources where available and appropriate, rather than expecting the client to teach us&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;h.&lt;/strong&gt; are open-minded with clients who appear similar to ourselves or possess familiar characteristics so that we do not suppress or neglect what is distinctive in their lives. challenge assumptions that any sexual orientation or gender identity is inherently preferable to any other and will not attempt to bring about a change of sexual orientation or gender identity or seek to suppress an individual’s expression of sexual orientation or gender identity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Delivering a Service section&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/code-of-ethics/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;National Counselling Society (NCS) Code of Ethical Practice&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (NCS, 2018).&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;All Practitioners undertake to:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Work in ways that promote client autonomy and well-being and that maintain respect and dignity for the client.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Demonstrate a fully developed, professional awareness of diversity issues; and specifically not permit considerations of religion, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, marital status, age, disability, politics or social standing to adversely influence client treatment. (See Appendix B)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Appendix B: Conversion (Reparative) Therapy&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  We take the view that the practice of conversion therapy has no place in the modern world.  It is unethical and harmful and not supported by evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Conversion Therapy is the term for therapy that assumes certain sexual orientations or gender identities are inferior to others, and seeks to change or suppress them on that basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sexual orientations and gender identities are not mental health disorders, although exclusion, stigma and prejudice may precipitate mental health issues for any person subjected to these abuses. Anyone accessing therapeutic help should be able to do so without fear of judgement or the threat of being pressured to change a fundamental aspect of who they are.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The Society respects sexual diversity as part of our approach to diversity, equalities and social responsibility.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The Society does not consider homosexuality, bisexuality, transsexual and transgendered states, or asexuality to be pathologies, mental disorders or indicative of developmental arrest. These are not ‘symptoms’ to be treated by counsellors in the sense of attempting to change or remove them. Counsellors must at all times respect the best interests of their clients.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Practitioners must recognise the limits of their practice, training and experience in issues of sexuality and if necessary refer the client to an experienced therapist for specific help.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;If a practitioner’s personal, theoretical or religious beliefs mean that they are unable to work in a non-judgmental way with a lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender client, or one who identifies as asexual, the client should be referred to another therapist.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;No member should offer counselling that seeks to change sexual orientation or influence gender identity (SOCE, reparative, conversion or reorientation therapy, or similar therapies by other names).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Counselling should not be offered that seeks to eliminate or reduce same sex attraction in clients.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Please contact the Society for further information if necessary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Clause 22a-h of the Good Practice section of the BACP Ethical Framework for the Counselling Professions, and Appendix B of the NCS Code of Ethical Practice follows the UK Council for Psychotherapy (UKCP) &lt;em&gt;Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on Conversion Therapy in the UK&lt;/em&gt;, signed by many professional registering bodies, including the NCS, BACP, NHS, The British Psychological Society, and the Royal College of General Practitioners (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/about-ukcp/public-policy/conversion-therapy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UKCP, 2017&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;To summarise&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst there is no official database that would collect the different effects proposed in psychology and track how they replicate, reputable psychology papers are published in professional journals and are re-examined all the time with meta-analyses and further research, also published in professional journals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA (2017). &lt;em&gt;Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/ethics/code&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/ethics/code&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free PDF&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/ethics-code-2017.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/ethics-code-2017.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BACP (2018). &lt;em&gt;Ethical Framework for the Counselling Professions&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/ethics-and-standards/introducing-the-new-ethical-framework-2018&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/ethics-and-standards/introducing-the-new-ethical-framework-2018&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Free PDF&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/media/3103/bacp-ethical-framework-for-the-counselling-professions-2018.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.bacp.co.uk/media/3103/bacp-ethical-framework-for-the-counselling-professions-2018.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hansson, S. O. (2013). Defining pseudoscience and science. In: Pigliucci, M. &amp;amp; Boudry, M. (Eds.) &lt;em&gt;The philosophy of pseudoscience&lt;/em&gt;, Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press. pp. 61-77.&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fully Readable in: &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pc4OAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA61&amp;amp;dq=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PA61#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Hansson,%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Books&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; at &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pc4OAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA61&amp;amp;dq=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PA61#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Hansson,%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pc4OAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA61&amp;amp;dq=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PA61#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Hansson,%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;f=false&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NCS (2018) &lt;em&gt;Code of Ethical Practice&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/code-of-ethics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/code-of-ethics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Audio Copy:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/zSjS0B7-sao&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/zSjS0B7-sao&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Copies in braille or large format available as required:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/equal-opportunities/accessibility/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/equal-opportunities/accessibility/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Popper, K. R. (1959) &lt;em&gt;The Logic of Scientific Discovery&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Routledge&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PsychologyToday article (2016) &lt;em&gt;The “Is Psychology a Science?” Debate&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at:&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201601/the-is-psychology-science-debate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201601/the-is-psychology-science-debate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UKCP (2017). &lt;em&gt;Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on Conversion Therapy in the UK.&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/about-ukcp/public-policy/conversion-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/about-ukcp/public-policy/conversion-therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/UKCP-Memorandum-of-Understanding-on-Conversion-Therapy-in-the-UK.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/UKCP-Memorandum-of-Understanding-on-Conversion-Therapy-in-the-UK.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-18T15:33:54.000" LastActivityDate="2018-06-18T15:33:54.000" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19992" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="19995" CreationDate="2018-06-18T16:26:01.300" Score="4" ViewCount="593" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I understand, &lt;strong&gt;physiological stimulation&lt;/strong&gt; (or &lt;em&gt;stimulus&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;sensation&lt;/em&gt;) &quot;refers to sensory excitation, the action of various agents or forms of energy (stimuli) on receptors that generate impulses that travel through nerves to the brain (afferents)&quot;, while &lt;strong&gt;psychological stimulation&lt;/strong&gt; (or &lt;em&gt;conceptualized stimulation&lt;/em&gt;) involves cognitive process like perception, reasoning, emotion, experience. However, reading the Wikipedia page of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stimulation&lt;/a&gt;, I feel like the two concepts are the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are they the same or different? I guess we can say that psychological stimulation &lt;strong&gt;is&lt;/strong&gt; physiological stimulation because it can explain (or be explained by) these phenomenons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brainwaves are combinations of harmonic oscillators range from 0.5 to 700 Hz&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;, when some people can literally see an orange triangle in space when they hear a trumpet&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, how does this energy change in the brain related with perception, reasoning, emotion, experience?  Is there any experiment that support or against this?&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;FYI: Physically, when the oscillators aren't &lt;a href=&quot;https://dsp.stackexchange.com/q/47970/31713&quot;&gt;aligned&lt;/a&gt;, the wave will not jump:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/6PBWgOd.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&#xA;&lt;sub&gt;But if they are aligned, the wave will jump:&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/wfwF6AX.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Related:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/19745/12937&quot;&gt;Does neurodynamics have any relation to psychodynamics?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/20075/12937&quot;&gt;Why do brains oscillate within specific frequency ranges?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.stackexchange.com/q/400943/41634&quot;&gt;Is there a relation between large-scale oscillations and small-scale oscillations?&lt;/a&gt; in Physics&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-06-30T10:14:43.463" LastActivityDate="2018-06-30T10:14:43.463" Title="Is there a difference between physiological stimulations and psychological stimulations?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19993" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20001" CreationDate="2018-06-18T16:36:27.287" Score="3" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently completing my undergraduate research thesis on self-affirmations measured with anxiety. I am trying to see if the self-affirmation task reduces anxiety after. I found the Brief Anxiety Scale and am trying to find out what it is best used with, but my search of articles has not made the uses clear to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For what is the scale best used? Are there different scales that might instead be recommended for my research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you in advance to anyone who can provide assistance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19558" LastEditorUserId="19558" LastEditDate="2018-06-20T13:36:50.150" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T13:36:50.150" Title="Uses of the Brief Anxiety Scale" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19995" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19992" CreationDate="2018-06-18T20:32:58.363" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychology and physiology are at different &lt;em&gt;levels of explanation&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;levels of analysis&lt;/a&gt;. The answer depends entirely on how you view the relationship between such levels and in particular &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_mental_causation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(mental) causality&lt;/a&gt; within and between levels. As this is still heavily debated, this &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;metaphysical&lt;/a&gt; consideration is a precursor for giving a more specific answer to your question. Some options:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;physicalist&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;reductionist&lt;/a&gt; answer is probably the simplest: they are the same thing, only physical stimulation is the only real one! According to this view, Psychology is an (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphenomenon&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;epiphenomenal&lt;/a&gt;) abstraction which is entirely &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_realizability&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;realized&lt;/a&gt; by lower levels. Therefore, there can only be psychological stimulation in the presence of physical stimulation, but the latter may occur without the former being &lt;em&gt;intrinsic&lt;/em&gt; to that. As an example, you present a snake to the subject to elicit psychological fear, but the physical stimulation (photons tranduced by the retina and the pressure transduced by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutaneous_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cutaneous receptors&lt;/a&gt; in the skin) is a necessity for this to happen. If you count neuronal activity as physical self-stimulation, then fearful memories could be cast in the same language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Others try to keep the relationship between levels less well defined. For example, if you align more with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergentism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;emergentism&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetic_naturalism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;poetic naturalism&lt;/a&gt;, or the like, you acknowledge the underlying physical reality, but you want to keep the &lt;em&gt;causal language&lt;/em&gt; such as &quot;the snake made him fearful&quot; within a given level of analysis rather than crossing levels. So the answer to your question is that there IS no difference, but you better act as if there is because you'll miss something or get confused if you don't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;dualist&lt;/a&gt;, of course, would hold that physical stimulation and psychological stimulation can (at list in principle) occur in its own right. Usually, they have great difficulties answering the very question you pose, and even though most people in their day-to-day lives tend to think dualistically (as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;intuitive psychologists&lt;/a&gt;), very few defend dualism in academia nowadays.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other positions as well, and each of the above has many branches. But the above should give some search terms to get acquainted with the heavy players in the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5130" LastEditorUserId="5130" LastEditDate="2018-06-18T20:41:48.913" LastActivityDate="2018-06-18T20:41:48.913" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19996" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19974" CreationDate="2018-06-19T00:30:35.340" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I seem to have realized/learned part of the answer: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For assumptions: the trick is not blocking what you assume; rather the inverse. Most assumptions are implicit. By making them explicit (consciously formulating them) they become more noticeable and open for scrutiny. Enter, rationality and science!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, when solving a problem, you should realize and highlight any assumptions you might have, and then ridicule them (point out to yourself why or why not they hold).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Expectations: this is slightly more challenging (and more vague), but similarly to assumptions, you should analyze which direction you expect the solution to go in and formulate a few other possible hypotheses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Misconceptions: the solution to this I do not fully understand yet, but maybe one should try to fiddle around with the problem and try to present it in a different way. (For example, with the candle problem, you can rearrange the elements. With a math problem, you can rephrase it or shift the expressions.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18820" LastActivityDate="2018-06-19T00:30:35.340" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19998" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-19T05:56:18.080" Score="-2" ViewCount="454" Body="&lt;p&gt;My professor told me to collect data for the states we want to to use to control the movement of our robot i.e., thinking, meditation and other emotional or physical states using an Emotiv EEG headset which I don't have at the moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any alternative software for acquiring and visualizing these signals without the need for headset right now? How many samples need to be taken for the training of the neural set or any other classifier? What sampling rate and which file format must these samples need to be saved?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any online free simulator for analyzing the data and map it’s working on a simulated robotic object? Which embedded hardware is ideal for the project Arduino or Raspberry Pi for a 32 bit Windows 7 operating system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What online tutorials, research papers and books would assist in taking this project to completion and creating artificial neural networks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19561" LastEditorUserId="4116" LastEditDate="2018-09-21T05:09:06.643" LastActivityDate="2018-09-21T05:09:06.643" Title="Brain computer interface Final year project" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2018-09-22T17:03:03.613" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="19999" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19998" CreationDate="2018-06-19T07:27:34.033" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is lot of way to create BCI, (SSVEP, VEP, imaginary movement, brain state, etc...). In your case it seems to be with brain states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You should first know what kind of information you will extract from your signal. In this case you will need to extract different band of frequencies (alpha, beta, gamma, theta, etc...). To do that, you can use calculate spectrum based on Fourrier transform, or use wavelet... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then you will need to classify this different states, using clustering or machine learning techniques (ANN, naives bayes, PCA, SVM, etc...). &#xA;You should have a 'training' dataset, where you have extracted information with state label. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then you create a 'mapping' where for each detected state, and you get an activation of your effector (robot)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend you to use python, where you have lot of library available for signal processing, and machine learning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Good luck !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18311" LastActivityDate="2018-06-19T07:27:34.033" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20000" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-19T09:10:32.807" Score="8" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know about the common concept of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook_(music)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;'musical hook'&lt;/a&gt;: a &lt;em&gt;&quot;short riff, passage, or phrase, that is used in popular music to make a song appealing and to 'catch the ear of the listener'.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia article mentions how it is studied in marketing research, and provides two links to websites of organizations which study the 'hook' (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hookedonmusic.org.uk/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;'Hooked on music'&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://hooked.humanities.uva.nl/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;'Hooked!'&lt;/a&gt;). However, I am not interested in marketing research and the two websites linked to as 'scientific research', at a glance, do not provide any insight into the research they are conducting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this concept studied within the field of psychology or neuroscience? Is there any domain-specific terminology used to refer to what makes music appealing or 'catch the ear of the listener'? I would like to start reading into this literature but currently do not know what to search for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T05:22:18.077" Title="How are musical hooks defined/studied in psychology?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19993" CreationDate="2018-06-19T12:54:45.180" Score="4" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Short Answer&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Brief Anxiety Scale is one of many Pychometric Rating Scales (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1028000/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tyrer, et al. 1984&lt;/a&gt;) used to assess necessary Routine Outcome Measures (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/media/2355/bacp-cyp-prn-toolkit-for-collecting-routine-outcome-measures.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BACP, 2016&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300600702331&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harmon et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022238&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lambert and Shimokawa, 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2012.698918&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simon et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The scale which is recommended for your research will depend on your reseach requirements.  Some scales are quick to complete as they are shorter than others, but longer ones can provide more detail where you feel they are needed.  You need to assess for yourself which scale suits the requirements and then use the one most appropriate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;More Detailed Answer&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Routine Outcome Measures&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;After gaining informed consent from the client&lt;/strong&gt;, it is a good idea to obtain routine outcome information and devise outcome measures:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;before any therapy begins,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;after each session, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;after therapy ends&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;because Routine outcome measures support the therapeutic process by enabling the therapist and the client to monitor progress (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/media/2355/bacp-cyp-prn-toolkit-for-collecting-routine-outcome-measures.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BACP, 2016&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300600702331&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harmon et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022238&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lambert and Shimokawa, 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2012.698918&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simon et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;), and can play an important role in measuring service quality and lead to improvements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You especially need to implement Routine Outcome Measures when dealing with severe anxiety as your duty of care to your client extends outside the therapy room as far as reasonably practicable. Post-therapy measures may need to include post therapy talks to calm the client at the end of the session if they are particularly anxious due to something which they have brought forward towards the end of the session.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Pychometric Rating Scales for Anxiety&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The rating of anxiety is a long-established psychometric exercise and there are more than 20 instruments available (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1028000/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tyrer, et al. 1984&lt;/a&gt;).  There are &lt;em&gt;subject completed scales&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;observer completed scales&lt;/em&gt;. The authors of these scales emphasise that &lt;strong&gt;they are not diagnostic instruments&lt;/strong&gt; and should only be used with patients who are diagnosed as having anxiety states. However, in clinical practice anxiety is often mixed with other emotions and it is difficult, if not impossible, to separate the anxiety element (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.144.1.78&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tyrer, 1984&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Subject Completed Rating Scales&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These rating scales take the form of questionnaires which the client in therapy would fill in.  The Brief Anxiety Scale (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1028000/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tyrer, et al. 1984&lt;/a&gt;) is one of these rating scales suitable for recording anxious symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patient Health Questionnaires (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.phqscreeners.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spitzer, et al., n.d.&lt;/a&gt;) can also be used for rating scales in order to form a basis for devising outcome measures.  All of the questionnaires can be used but the GAD-7 questionnaire — a 7 question sheet — is designed specifically for anxiety.  These come with an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.phqscreeners.com/sites/g/files/g10016261/f/201412/instructions.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;instruction manual&lt;/a&gt; on how to interpret the results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Observer Completed Rating Scales&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These rating scales take the form of questionnaires which the therapist would fill in as a record for future reference.  One observer scale for anxiety is the Hamilton Rating Scale for Anxiety (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1959.tb00467.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hamilton, 1959&lt;/a&gt;). However, Hamilton did not consider the scale to be in its final state and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.141.5.518&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Snaith,&amp;nbsp;et&amp;nbsp;al.&amp;nbsp;(1982)&lt;/a&gt; modified the scale, which afterwards only contains six items.  Other observer scales for anxiety include the Buss Rating Scale (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0048964&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Buss, et al. 1955&lt;/a&gt;) and the Anxiety Status Inventory (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(71)71479-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zung, 1971&lt;/a&gt;) but they have never achieved the popularity of the Hamilton Rating Scale for Anxiety (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1028000/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tyrer, et al. 1984&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Which scale might be recommended for your purposes?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The scale which is recommended for your purposes will depend on your requirements.  Some scales are quick to complete as they are shorter than others and may be more beneficial due to the short time needed to complete them.  Would it seem to be too laborious to the client? But on the other hand longer ones can provide more detail where you feel they are needed.  You need to assess for yourself which scale suits the requirements and then use the one most appropriate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BACP (2016). &lt;em&gt;Children and Young People Practice Research Network (CYP PRN): A toolkit for collecting routine outcome measures&lt;/em&gt; [PDF] Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/media/2355/bacp-cyp-prn-toolkit-for-collecting-routine-outcome-measures.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.bacp.co.uk/media/2355/bacp-cyp-prn-toolkit-for-collecting-routine-outcome-measures.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Buss, A. H., Wiener, M., Durkee, A., &amp;amp; Baer, M. (1955). The measurement of anxiety in clinical situations. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consulting Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 19(2), 125-129. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0048964&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0048964&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hamilton, M. A. X. (1959). The assessment of anxiety states by rating. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Medical Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 32(1), 50-55. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1959.tb00467.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.2044-8341.1959.tb00467.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harmon, S. C., Lambert, M. J., Smart, D. M., Hawkins, E., Nielsen, S. L., Slade, K., &amp;amp; Lutz, W. (2007). Enhancing outcome for potential treatment failures: Therapist–client feedback and clinical support tools. &lt;em&gt;Psychotherapy research&lt;/em&gt;, 17(4), 379-392. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300600702331&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/10503300600702331&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lambert, M. J., &amp;amp; Shimokawa, K. (2011). Collecting client feedback. &lt;em&gt;Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;, 48(1), 72. DOI: 10.1037/a0022238 PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jose_Garrido13/post/the_cooperation_between_empathy_and_congruence_in_the_therapeutic_relationship/attachment/59d6365fc49f478072ea42e3/AS:273673120878601@1442260164528/download/Norcross_evidence-based_therapy_relationships.pdf#page=23&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jose_Garrido13/post/the_cooperation_between_empathy_and_congruence_in_the_therapeutic_relationship/attachment/59d6365fc49f478072ea42e3/AS:273673120878601@1442260164528/download/Norcross_evidence-based_therapy_relationships.pdf#page=23&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simon, W., Lambert, M. J., Harris, M. W., Busath, G., &amp;amp; Vazquez, A. (2012). Providing patient progress information and clinical support tools to therapists: Effects on patients at risk of treatment failure. Psychotherapy research, 22(6), 638-647. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2012.698918&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/10503307.2012.698918&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lambert_Michael/publication/236664707_Effects_of_providing_patient_progress_feedback_and_clinical_support_tools_to_psychotherapists_in_an_inpatient_eating_disorders_treatment_program_A_randomized_controlled_study/links/0c96051969ab0c091b000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lambert_Michael/publication/236664707_Effects_of_providing_patient_progress_feedback_and_clinical_support_tools_to_psychotherapists_in_an_inpatient_eating_disorders_treatment_program_A_randomized_controlled_study/links/0c96051969ab0c091b000000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Snaith, R. P., Baugh, S. J., Clayden, A. D., Husain, A., &amp;amp; Sipple, M. A. (1982). The clinical anxiety scale: an instrument derived from the Hamilton anxiety scale. &lt;em&gt;The British Journal of Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 141(5), 518-523. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.141.5.518&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1192/bjp.141.5.518&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spitzer, MD, R. L., Williams, J. B. &amp;amp; Kroenke, MD, K. (n.d.) Patient Heath Questionnaire (PHQ) Screeners. [Online] Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.phqscreeners.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.phqscreeners.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tyrer, P. (1984). Classification of anxiety. &lt;em&gt;The British Journal of Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 144(1), 78-83. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.144.1.78&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1192/bjp.144.1.78&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter_Tyrer/publication/16504411_Classification_of_anxiety/links/54a52c1b0cf267bdb906ff78/Classification-of-anxiety.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter_Tyrer/publication/16504411_Classification_of_anxiety/links/54a52c1b0cf267bdb906ff78/Classification-of-anxiety.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tyrer, P., Owen, R. T., &amp;amp; Cicchetti, D. V. (1984). The brief scale for anxiety: a subdivision of the comprehensive psychopathological rating scale. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 47(9), 970–975. PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1028000/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC1028000&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1028000/pdf/jnnpsyc00125-0082.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1028000/pdf/jnnpsyc00125-0082.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zung, W. W. (1971). A rating instrument for anxiety disorders. &lt;em&gt;Psychosomatics&lt;/em&gt;, 12(6), 371-379. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(71)71479-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0033-3182(71)71479-0&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-19T17:46:16.457" LastActivityDate="2018-06-19T17:46:16.457" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20003" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20011" CreationDate="2018-06-19T14:58:19.917" Score="6" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;From wikipedia article &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_motivation_and_hormones&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sexual motivation and hormones&lt;/a&gt;, it is said that testosterone/estrogen, oxytocin and vasopressin are stimulating sexual behaviour. But I'm wondering if any of these hormones are linked with physically intimate non-sexual behaviour, like hugs, kisses and cuddles. Also, is there any link through them with having pleasure from these activities?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research on that and are there gender (sex?) differences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-19T21:14:06.043" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T12:03:10.377" Title="What hormones stimulate non-sexual intimate behaviour?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20004" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19889" CreationDate="2018-06-19T15:24:20.773" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I m not sure how much of sadness images are covered under it but perhaps you could have a look at IAPS ( International Affective Picture Series) . They seek to make media for specifically inducing desired affective states in research work including images , audios and videos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://csea.phhp.ufl.edu/media.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://csea.phhp.ufl.edu/media.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps you could have a look into Mood Inducing Procedures ( MIP) used to induce both positive and negative affects in a laboratory setting . &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19563" LastEditorUserId="19563" LastEditDate="2018-06-19T15:32:09.590" LastActivityDate="2018-06-19T15:32:09.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20005" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20000" CreationDate="2018-06-19T22:48:35.403" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looking into the term &lt;em&gt;earworms&lt;/em&gt; lead me to the following answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you search &lt;em&gt;earworms&lt;/em&gt; into Google Scholar, at the top of the list is 3 papers, after which the rest seem to be about corn earworms.  The papers are &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1348/000712609X479636&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beaman &amp;amp; Williams (2010)&lt;/a&gt; followed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2011.28.4.425&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Halpern &amp;amp; Bartlett (2011)&lt;/a&gt; which is then followed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735611418553&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Williamson, et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was the last paper which lead me to the term &lt;em&gt;Involuntary Musical Imagery&lt;/em&gt; and the paper was in &lt;em&gt;Psychology of Music&lt;/em&gt; which lead me to the field of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Music Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;or the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;psychology of music&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, [which] may be regarded as a branch of both psychology and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;musicology&lt;/a&gt;. It aims to explain and understand musical behavior and experience, including the processes through which music is perceived, created, responded to, and incorporated into everyday life (Tan, et al.2010; Thompson, 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Searching Google Scholar for &lt;em&gt;Involuntary Musical Imagery&lt;/em&gt; leads you to much more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beaman, C. P., &amp;amp; Williams, T. I. (2010). Earworms (stuck song syndrome): Towards a natural history of intrusive thoughts. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 101(4), 637-653. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1348/000712609X479636&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1348/000712609X479636&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/5755/1/earworms_write-upBJP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/5755/1/earworms_write-upBJP.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Halpern, A. R., &amp;amp; Bartlett, J. C. (2011). The persistence of musical memories: A descriptive study of earworms. &lt;em&gt;Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal&lt;/em&gt;, 28(4), 425-432. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2011.28.4.425&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1525/mp.2011.28.4.425&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/download/45162267/The_Persistence_of_Musical_Memories_A_De20160428-27955-1tiomp.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.academia.edu/download/45162267/The_Persistence_of_Musical_Memories_A_De20160428-27955-1tiomp.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tan, S., Pfordresher, P., &amp;amp; Harré, R. (2010). &lt;em&gt;Psychology of Music: From Sound to Significance&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Psychology Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thompson, W. F. (2015) Music, Thought, and Feeling: Understanding the Psychology of Music, 2nd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Williamson, V. J., Jilka, S. R., Fry, J., Finkel, S., Müllensiefen, D., &amp;amp; Stewart, L. (2012). How do “earworms” start? Classifying the everyday circumstances of Involuntary Musical Imagery. &lt;em&gt;Psychology of Music&lt;/em&gt;, 40(3), 259-284. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735611418553&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/0305735611418553&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.doc.gold.ac.uk/~mas03dm/papers/Williamson_etal_Earworms_POM_2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.doc.gold.ac.uk/~mas03dm/papers/Williamson_etal_Earworms_POM_2012.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-06-19T22:48:35.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20006" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-19T23:51:38.583" Score="3" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;We all say things we later regret during the day. Why does it often happen that at night, just before going to sleep, our brains bring those memories back and even make us lose sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19566" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-06-20T06:47:25.180" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T06:47:25.180" Title="Why do we think about things we regret we said before going to sleep at night?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20007" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20000" CreationDate="2018-06-20T05:22:18.077" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that you are a perfect reader of this book:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.elizabethmargulis.com/on-repeat/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;On Repeat: How Music Plays the Mind&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;What is it about the music you love that makes you want to hear it again?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Why do we crave a &amp;quot;hook&amp;quot; that returns, again and again, within the same piece?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;And how does a song end up getting stuck in your head?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On Repeat offers the first in-depth inquiry into music's repetitive nature, focusing not on a particular style, or body of work, but on repertoire from across time periods and cultures. Author Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis draws on a diverse array of fields including music theory, psycholinguistics, neuroscience, and cognitive psychology, to look head-on at the underlying perceptual mechanisms associated with repetition. Her work sheds light on a range of issues from repetition's use as a compositional tool to its role in characterizing our behavior as listeners, and then moves beyond music to consider related implications for repetition in language, learning, and communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5281aa16e4b042587831d610/t/5281b3a2e4b0f7fd724d22e6/1384231920518/OnRepeatCover.jpeg?format=750w&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T05:22:18.077" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4117" CreationDate="2018-06-20T09:20:00.467" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a book dedicates only for that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.elizabethmargulis.com/on-repeat/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;On Repeat: How Music Plays the Mind&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;What is it about the music you love that makes you want to hear it again?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Why do we crave a &amp;quot;hook&amp;quot; that returns, again and again, within the same piece?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;And how does a song end up getting stuck in your head?&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On Repeat offers the first in-depth inquiry into music's repetitive nature, focusing not on a particular style, or body of work, but on repertoire from across time periods and cultures. Author Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis draws on a diverse array of fields including music theory, psycholinguistics, neuroscience, and cognitive psychology, to look head-on at the underlying perceptual mechanisms associated with repetition. Her work sheds light on a range of issues from repetition's use as a compositional tool to its role in characterizing our behavior as listeners, and then moves beyond music to consider related implications for repetition in language, learning, and communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5281aa16e4b042587831d610/t/5281b3a2e4b0f7fd724d22e6/1384231920518/OnRepeatCover.jpeg?format=750w&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T09:20:00.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20009" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-20T09:45:57.690" Score="1" ViewCount="231" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am thinking about it from the evolutionary perspective. For nudity, I thought that maybe nude bodies may be associated with a higher probability of infection and diseases due to exposed parts. I also thought that maybe there's a social reason such that it's considered a better social status to be dressed; as an indicator of wealth and security. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then when you think about it, it's not necessarily nudity that is frowned upon, it's the exposure of private parts. Considering that our reproductive organs are also used to dispose bodily waste, it makes sense to associate some sort of negative emotion with them. But then again, why would female breasts be considered indecent? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, when it comes to sex, clothed intercourse is still considered shameful. Sex is not only considered as a private activity, but also as a sin by lot many religions; it's also associated with morality. Gluttony, also being a function of our greed and bodily pleasure, doesn't receive the same amount of repulsion as does sex. Wouldn't it make more sense for the society to promote sex considering that it increases the probability of the continuation of our species?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19567" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T09:45:57.690" Title="When and how did public nudity and sex become shameful and unacceptable?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-06-21T08:24:08.653" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20010" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-20T10:40:57.143" Score="4" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;In an app I am creating I am profiling user behavior in a multitude of different ways.  One of the techniques I would like to use is track the imagery they interact with to get a handle on their current mood.  The imagery uses an internal tagging nomenclature that indicates various aspects of the image one of which is the key feeling it is intended to trigger.  The feelings I am using are something along the lines of&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Health, Desire, Hunger, Comfort, Indulgence, Relief, Peace, Relaxation, Nurture, Creativity, Excitement&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To provide a context here is a clutch of images (not the actual ones I am using)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rMfX4.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rMfX4.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My intent here is to attempt to build up a corpus of knowledge regarding the moods of the user and the way they vary over time and space based on what types of imagery they interact - in the sense of tap on to engage with the asssociated content - with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I use a large range of profiling techniques most of which have a firm basis in published research.  And then every once in a while I think of an idea such as this one &quot;all on my own&quot;.  Which brings me to my question - is there any scientific literature on the subject that reduces feelings triggered by images to a core list?  Having such a list would assist me in tagging the imagery I use in the app.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have researched the subject on Google, ResearchGate and Elsevier but come up with nothing useful.  This could be in part because I am searching for the wrong terms - I am afterall, a mere IT guy who is blundering into psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found useful information in resources such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://iconicfox.com.au/2017/07/27/colour-in-branding-infographic/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt;.  Whilst I appreciate the insights and sense that they are talking sense there is very little by way of referenced research to back up what is claimed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19016" LastEditorUserId="19016" LastEditDate="2018-06-22T18:46:17.893" LastActivityDate="2018-06-22T18:46:46.603" Title="Is there a &quot;base set&quot; of feelings used to classify images?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;imagery&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20011" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20003" CreationDate="2018-06-20T11:45:19.483" Score="5" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I'm wondering if any of these hormones are linked with physically intimate non-sexual behaviour, like hugs, kisses and cuddles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kissing is a little messy because it could be characterised as sexual behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, oxytocin does has a far more broader role in pro-social and affiliative behaviour than just sexual activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's one reference. It also seems to suggest a stronger role of oxytocin in women than males:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000170341.88395.47&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Effects of Partner Support on Resting Oxytocin, Cortisol, Norepinephrine, and Blood Pressure Before and After Warm Partner Contact&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Objective: We examined whether the magnitude of plasma oxytocin (OT), norepinephrine (NE), cortisol, and blood pressure (BP) responses before and after a brief episode of warm contact (WC) with the spouse/partner may be related to the strength of perceived partner support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Methods: Subjects were 38 cohabiting couples (38 men, 38 women) aged 20 to 49 years. All underwent 10 minutes of resting baseline alone, 10 minutes of WC together with their partner, and 10 minutes of postcontact rest alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results: &lt;strong&gt;Greater partner support (based on self-report) was related to higher plasma oxytocin in men and women across the protocol before and after WC.&lt;/strong&gt; In women, higher partner support was correlated with lower systolic blood pressure (SBP) during solitary rest after WC but not before. Also, higher OT in women was linked to lower BP at baseline and to lower NE at all 4 measurements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conclusion: &lt;strong&gt;Greater partner support is linked to higher OT for both men and women; however, the importance of OT and its potentially cardioprotective effects on sympathetic activity and BP may be greater for women.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ABP = ambulatory blood pressure; BMI = body mass index; BP = blood pressure; CVD = cardiovascular disease; DBP = diastolic blood pressure; HPA = hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal; HR = heart rate; IV = intravenous; MI = myocardial infarction; NE = norepinephrine; OT = oxytocin; SBP = systolic blood pressure; SNS = sympathetic nervous system; SRI = Social Relationships Index; WC = warm contact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And another:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.11.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;More frequent partner hugs and higher oxytocin levels are linked to lower blood pressure and heart rate in premenopausal women&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In animals, ventral stroking for &amp;gt;5 days increases oxytocin (OT) activity and decreases blood pressure (BP), but related human studies are few. Thus, relationships between self-reported frequency of partner hugs, plasma OT and BP levels were examined in 59 premenopausal women before and after warm contact with their husbands/partners ending with hugs. Higher baseline OT before partner contact was associated with lower BP and heart rate, and met criteria to be a partial mediator of the lower resting BP shown by women reporting more frequent hugs (P &amp;lt; 0.05). OT levels during post-contact stress were unrelated to hugs or BP. Menstrual cycle phase did not influence any OT measure. &lt;strong&gt;Thus, frequent hugs between spouses/partners are associated with lower BP and higher OT levels in premenopausal women;&lt;/strong&gt; OT-mediated reduction in central adrenergic activity and peripheral effects of OT on the heart and vasculature are pathways to examine in future research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, other transmitter systems are involved in what we might characterise as &lt;em&gt;affectionate behaviour&lt;/em&gt;. the opioid system has a role in both humans and non-human primates:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In non-human primates:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4530(93)90027-I&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Opioid receptor blockade reduces maternal affect and social grooming in rhesus monkeys&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seven lactating female rhesus macaques, housed in social groups, were administered with low doses (0.5 mg/kg) of the opioid antagonist naloxone when their infants were 4, 6, 8, and 10 weeks old. A control group received saline. &lt;strong&gt;Mothers receiving naloxone were involved in less grooming with other group members, and were less protective towards their infants. By infant-age week 8 they also groomed their infants less, while other monkeys groomed the infants more. Other behavioural measures of mother-infant interactions were not altered.&lt;/strong&gt; With time, from infant-age week 6 onwards, some short-lived dysphoric conditioned drug responses to naloxone became apparent, although these were not correlated with the decline in social interaction. These results are interpreted in terms of possible interference of naloxone with maternal affect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And humans:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.05.063&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social touch modulates endogenous μ-opioid system activity in humans&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In non-human primates, opioid-receptor blockade increases social&#xA;grooming, and the endogenous opioid system has therefore been&#xA;hypothesized to support maintenance of long-term relationships in&#xA;humans as well. Here we tested whether social touch modulates&#xA;opioidergic activation in humans using in vivo positron emission&#xA;tomography (PET). Eighteen male participants underwent two PET scans&#xA;with [11C]carfentanil, a ligand specific to μ-opioid receptors (MOR).&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;During the social touch scan, the participants lay in the scanner&#xA;while their partners caressed their bodies in a non-sexual fashion. In&#xA;the baseline scan, participants lay alone in the scanner. Social touch&#xA;triggered pleasurable sensations and increased MOR availability in the&#xA;thalamus, striatum, and frontal, cingulate, and insular cortices.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Modulation of activity of the opioid system by social touching might&#xA;provide a neurochemical mechanism reinforcing social bonds between&#xA;humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-20T12:03:10.377" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20013" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20014" CreationDate="2018-06-20T15:35:56.607" Score="5" ViewCount="776" Body="&lt;p&gt;Over in Health.SE, &lt;a href=&quot;https://health.stackexchange.com/a/16650&quot;&gt;@faustus provided a couple of references to papers&lt;/a&gt; which suggest the use of Botulinum toxin A (BTA) - otherwise known as botox - to treat depression — &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1559621&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Magid, et al. (2015a)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.botoxfordepression.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Finzi-and-Rosenthal-Journal-of-Psychiatric-Research-80-2016-93-96-2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Finzi &amp;amp; Rosenthal, (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1559621&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Magid, et al. (2015a)&lt;/a&gt; states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a single treatment of BTA in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glabella&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;glabellar region&lt;/a&gt; can produce a strong reduction in the symptoms of major depression&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Nz4sS.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Nz4sS.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Improvement in BDI score.&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Figure:&lt;/strong&gt; Improvement in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck_Depression_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;BDI score&lt;/a&gt;. The figure shows absolute reduction in the BDI scores (14.3 vs. 5.1±standard error of the mean) from the baseline to the primary end point 6 weeks thereafter in the combined sample (n=134) for the BTA (n=59) and the placebo group (n=75), respectively.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;whilst &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.botoxfordepression.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Finzi-and-Rosenthal-Journal-of-Psychiatric-Research-80-2016-93-96-2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Finzi &amp;amp; Rosenthal, (2016)&lt;/a&gt; states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In an initial case series, one of us (EF) injected BT into the frown of ten depressed patients, eight of whom went into remission after one treatment (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.botoxfordepression.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/BotoxDepressionPilotStudyMay2006.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Finzi and Wasserman, 2006&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3756121/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Finzi, 2013&lt;/a&gt;). The study was limited by its small size, lack of controls, and lack of blinding. In three subsequent randomized, double blind and placebo controlled trials, we and other researchers have found response rates of 50—60% in major depression, with about one third of patients going into remission (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.01.027&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wollmer et al. 2012&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://pedroschestatsky.com.br/_files/view.php/download/material/92/54163c0e50f27.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Finzi and Rosenthal, 2014&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.13m08845&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Magid et al. 2014&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e267/0a6f79588df0b5339959e0976393d68856fe.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2015b&lt;/a&gt;). BT showed antidepressant effects both when used as an ancillary treatment and by itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, they then go on to say&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How might injecting BT into the corrugator muscle influence the emotional brain? FMRI imaging has shown that subjects who received BT injections into their frown muscles had amygdala that were less responsive to negative stimuli (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhn104&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hennenlotter et al. 2009&lt;/a&gt;). Recent work has confirmed that amygdala activity in response to angry faces was decreased when the frown muscles were paralyzed by BT injection. Furthermore, amygdala activity returned to its original inducible state after the effects of the BT injection had worn off, confirming that BT reversibly severed afferent feedback from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrugator_supercilii_muscle&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;corrugator muscle&lt;/a&gt; to the amygdala (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/2045-5380-4-11&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kim et al. 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;With the decrease in amygdala activity in response to angry faces, am I correct in thinking that this could have a detrimental effect with regard to the flight/flight response in potentially dangerous situations?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finzi, E. (2013). Antidepressant effects of botulinum toxin A: scientific rationale. &lt;em&gt;Journal of psychiatry &amp;amp; neuroscience: JPN&lt;/em&gt;, 38(5), E29. PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3756121/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3756121&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finzi, E., &amp;amp; Rosenthal, N. E. (2014). Treatment of depression with onabotulinumtoxinA: a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial. &lt;em&gt;Journal of psychiatric research&lt;/em&gt;, 52, 1-6. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.11.006&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.11.006&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finzi, E., &amp;amp; Rosenthal, N. E. (2016). Emotional proprioception: treatment of depression with afferent facial feedback. &lt;em&gt;Journal of psychiatric research&lt;/em&gt;, 80, 93-96. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.06.009&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.06.009&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finzi, E., &amp;amp; Wasserman, E. (2006). Treatment of depression with botulinum toxin A: a case series. &lt;em&gt;Dermatologic Surgery&lt;/em&gt;, 32(5), 645-650. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-4725.2006.32136.x&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1524-4725.2006.32136.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hennenlotter, A., Dresel, C., Castrop, F., Ceballos-Baumann, A. O., Wohlschläger, A. M., &amp;amp; Haslinger, B. (2008). The link between facial feedback and neural activity within central circuitries of emotion—New insights from Botulinum toxin–induced denervation of frown muscles. Cerebral Cortex, 19(3), 537-542. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhn104&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1093/cercor/bhn104&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kim, M. J., Neta, M., Davis, F. C., Ruberry, E. J., Dinescu, D., Heatherton, T. F., ... &amp;amp; Whalen, P. J. (2014). Botulinum toxin-induced facial muscle paralysis affects amygdala responses to the perception of emotional expressions: preliminary findings from an ABA design. &lt;em&gt;Biology of mood &amp;amp; anxiety disorders&lt;/em&gt;, 4(1), 11. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/2045-5380-4-11&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1186/2045-5380-4-11&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Magid, M., Reichenberg, J. S., Poth, P. E., Robertson, H. T., LaViolette, A. K., Kruger, T. H., &amp;amp; Wollmer, M. A. (2014). Treatment of major depressive disorder using botulinum toxin A: a 24-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of clinical psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 75(8), 837-844. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.13m08845&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.4088/JCP.13m08845&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Magid, M., Finzi, E., Kruger, T. H. C., Robertson, H. T., Keeling, B. H., Jung, S., ... &amp;amp; Wollmer, M. A. (2015a). Treating depression with botulinum toxin: a pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials. &lt;em&gt;Pharmacopsychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 25(06), 205-210. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1559621&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1055/s-0035-1559621&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Magid, M., Finzi, E., Kruger, T. H. C., Robertson, H. T., Keeling, B. H., Jung, S., ... &amp;amp; Wollmer, M. A. (2015b). Treating depression with botulinum toxin: a pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pharmacopsychiatry, 48(6), 205-210. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1559621&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1055/s-0035-1559621&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wollmer, M. A., de Boer, C., Kalak, N., Beck, J., Götz, T., Schmidt, T., ... &amp;amp; Sönmez, D. (2012). Facing depression with botulinum toxin: a randomized controlled trial. &lt;em&gt;Journal of psychiatric research&lt;/em&gt;, 46(5), 574-581. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.01.027&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.01.027&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-06-21T03:17:29.427" Title="Use of Botulinum toxin A (botox) to treat depression and its effect on fight/flight repsonse" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;pharmacopsychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20014" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20013" CreationDate="2018-06-21T03:17:29.427" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the decrease in amygdala activity in response to angry faces, am I correct in thinking that this could have a detrimental effect with regard to the flight/flight response in potentially dangerous situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, but like everything in neuroscience, it's probably more complicated that that. Working back from first principles, the same could be said of other antidepressant treatments:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.10.015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Antidepressant Drug Treatment Modifies the Neural Processing of Nonconscious Threat Cues&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Background&lt;/em&gt; The amygdala is believed to play a key role in processing emotionally salient, threat-relevant, events that require further online processing by cortical regions. Emotional disorders such as depression and anxiety have been associated with hyperactivity of the amygdala, but it is unknown whether antidepressant treatment directly affects amygdala responses to emotionally significant information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Methods&lt;/em&gt; The current study assessed the effects of 7 days administration of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), citalopram, on amygdala responses to masked presentations of fearful and happy facial expressions in never-depressed volunteers using blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging. A double-blind, between-groups design was used with volunteers randomized to 20 mg/day citalopram versus placebo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Results&lt;/em&gt; Volunteers receiving citalopram showed decreased amygdala responses to masked presentations of threat compared with those receiving placebo. Citalopram also reduced responses within the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) specifically during the fear-relevant stimuli. These neural differences were accompanied by decreased recognition of fearful facial expressions assessed after the scan. By contrast, there was no effect of citalopram on the neural or behavioral response to the happy facial expressions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Conclusions&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;These results suggest a direct effect of serotonin potentiation on amygdala response to threat-relevant stimuli in humans.&lt;/strong&gt; Such effects may be important in the therapeutic actions of antidepressants in depression and anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe perceiving the world as less threatening is precisely what depressed people need in their lives. However, there may be something more interesting at play with respect to botox. In the papers you cite, these all have to do with interpretation of facial expressions. For example, in Hennenlotter et al. 2009:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp252&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Link between Facial Feedback and Neural Activity within Central Circuitries of Emotion—New Insights from Botulinum Toxin–Induced Denervation of Frown Muscles&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Afferent feedback from muscles and skin has been suggested to influence our emotions during the control of facial expressions.&lt;/strong&gt; Recent imaging studies have shown that imitation of facial expressions is associated with activation in limbic regions such as the amygdala. Yet, the physiological interaction between this limbic activation and facial feedback remains unclear. To study if facial feedback effects on limbic brain responses during intentional imitation of facial expressions, we applied botulinum toxin (BTX)–induced denervation of frown muscles in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging as a reversible lesion model to minimize the occurrence of afferent muscular and cutaneous input. We show that, during imitation of angry facial expressions, reduced feedback due to BTX treatment attenuates activation of the left amygdala and its functional coupling with brain stem regions implicated in autonomic manifestations of emotional states. &lt;strong&gt;These findings demonstrate that facial feedback modulates neural activity within central circuitries of emotion during intentional imitation of facial expressions.&lt;/strong&gt; Given that people tend to mimic the emotional expressions of others, this could provide a potential physiological basis for the social transfer of emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the mechanism of action of botox involves facial proprioception and there's a reduced amygdalar response to angry or fearful facial expressions, I would speculate that this involves mirror neurons in some manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without the administration of botox, an interesting experiment would be examine the threat perception of facial expressions in people with a forced grin. We would also predict that threat perception is still present when other threatening stimuli are used e.g. handgun. I'm sure it's been done by someone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-21T03:17:29.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20015" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-21T12:39:41.213" Score="2" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I'm trying to sleep but still awake, I sometimes get dream-like thoughts. I still twist and turn in bed, consciously moving (thus not sleeping) and hearing sounds in the room, but these thoughts are definitely dream-like in the sense that they're usually quite random.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: I'm walking in a park, talking to a someone about a specific subject, seeing flowers, trees, whatever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At one point I realise this and consciously 'say' to myself: &quot;if I want to, this entire train of thought is completely gone&quot;. Right after thinking this, the 'dream' is almost completely erased. I generally still do know the general subject (I'm in a park), but everything else is completely gone. I try and I try to remember the rest, but none if it comes back. I cannot even recall the fact that - in this example - I was talking to someone (let alone who) and what scenery I was surrounded with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any name for this mechanism? It always confuses me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19576" LastActivityDate="2018-06-21T12:39:41.213" Title="I can sometimes 'erase' an active thought - how does that work?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-07-03T08:07:37.467" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20016" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20019" CreationDate="2018-06-21T20:14:40.197" Score="5" ViewCount="360" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just ran out of a large shipment of NEO-FFI booklets, so I went to order more from PARinc. This shipment has lasted since 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that the original version of the NEO-FFI that I was using (from 2003) is now out of print and has been updated with the NEO-FFI-3. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is anyone aware of the differences between the two versions? I can't really find much information on the change between the two, so I assume they're not significantly different?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19582" LastActivityDate="2018-06-22T08:56:40.970" Title="NEO-FFI vs. NEO-FFI-3: What's the difference?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20018" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20024" CreationDate="2018-06-22T04:04:40.370" Score="4" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General idea&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to see what characteristics of human thinking  are present on animals and protohumans. In other words, how our thought depends on previous forms of intelligence  (because of evolution and particularly that of brain structure, I suppose).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background and problem&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some days ago someone said on the streets:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Measuring means comparing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it became clear to me that comparison is fundamental for the way we relate to the world, for the way we think and see he world. Why A is bigger\taller\better that B?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way we relate through the world is by analogy.  Analogy and for extension metaphor are on the beginnings of language; comparison between one thing or another seems also ancestral. So there are two ways of thinking that might be identified with animals thinking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The question&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are those ways of thinking present in earlier human beings or monkeys? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't expect a complete answer but some help for me to start. Links\recommendations of videos, essays, papers orr short books are very welcome. (I don't believe in long texts, I apologise for this)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17136" LastEditorDisplayName="user17136" LastEditDate="2018-06-22T20:12:55.597" LastActivityDate="2018-06-22T21:18:51.077" Title="What forms of human thinking are present on animals and protohumans?" Tags="&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20019" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20016" CreationDate="2018-06-22T08:44:58.353" Score="4" Body="&lt;h2&gt;First a bit of background for those who may not know what NEO-FFI is...&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) is a shortened version of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI)&lt;/a&gt; now in its 3rd edition (NEO-PI-3). Both inventories were first published in 1985 and now the NEO-FFI is also in its 3rd edition as of 2005 (NEO-FFI-3).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NEO-FFI-3 measures the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Big 5&quot; personality traits&lt;/a&gt; (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness), comprises 60 items and is designed to take 10 to 15 minutes to complete; by contrast, the NEO-PI-3  takes 45 to 60 minutes to complete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both NEO-PI and NEO-FFI were originally developed for use with adult men and women without overt psychopathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Now onto the question of difference between the 2nd and 3rd editions&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latest revision of the NEO-FFI involved the replacement of 15 of the 60 items to improve readability and psychometric properties.  The revised edition is now thought to be more suitable for younger individuals and is also thought to have a stronger factor structure and increased reliability (McCrae &amp;amp; Costa, 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further reading, see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sigmaassessmentsystems.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/NEO-Research-Bibliography.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEO research bibliography&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McCrae, R. R., &amp;amp; Costa, P. T., Jr., (2010). &lt;em&gt;NEO Inventories: Professional manual.&lt;/em&gt; Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-22T08:56:40.970" LastActivityDate="2018-06-22T08:56:40.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20021" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-22T16:13:16.330" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I have been experimenting a bit with pshycadelics nothing too much , I did lsd twice in a period of 3 months , inbetween i have done mdma once.&#xA;Two weeks after my last use of lsd I started noticing something very weird going on in my head ...&#xA;As i searched everything about Lsd side effects in a long term I found out that i have got disorganized thinking , it ussualy happens  when Im super exhausted , it ussualy happens in a middle of the night , the weirdest thing about all of this is that i randomly wake up after an hour and half of my sleep and then the disorganized thinking happens ,It lasts for 5 to 10 mins ..smoking a ciggarete helps a lot , at least it helps with my panic , i can not develop a single straight though and somehow i tend to get stuck to one stupid thought n i just loop around it untill the whole thing wears off , after the certain time i forget what the thing i was thinking about was and i can not remember it , how serious this whole thing is and can it get worse , right now i m not that scared when it happens i just live thru it and i even started handling it good , it happened 3 times in two weeks , so its not that often ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i am definetly done with drugs but should i seek help or shuld i just wait few months and see if it actually is from lsd cuz in that case it should just stop &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19591" LastActivityDate="2018-06-22T16:13:16.330" Title="How serious is my case and should I get help?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-06-23T12:15:27.180" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20023" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20010" CreationDate="2018-06-22T18:46:46.603" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am pleased to see the interest that this question has aroused.  I have eventually managed to find one scientific article on the subject - &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.imageemotion.org/machajdik_hanbury_affective_image_classification.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.imageemotion.org/machajdik_hanbury_affective_image_classification.pdf.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which provides me with a decent starting point.  I would be most grateful to pointers to any other research in the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19016" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-22T18:46:46.603" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20024" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20018" CreationDate="2018-06-22T21:07:10.480" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Animal brains, especially mammals', are quite similar to humans. So far, attempts to define what makes human cognition &quot;different&quot; in some way have been for the most part a failure - the goal posts continue to be pushed. What seems to remain is a suggestion that human brains are especially socially-focused, and that humans have a uniquely developed ability to understand, plan, and simulate how others may be thinking (for example: Adolphs, R. (2003). Cognitive neuroscience: Cognitive neuroscience of human social behaviour. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4(3), 165.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, we don't even need to look to apes, primates, or even mammals, to see cognitive abilities of the types that you mention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, at least some birds are capable of quite a lot. As far as easily digestible material, there is a NOVA program on animal minds. I have only seen the bird episode, so I cannot speak to the others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/nature/inside-animal-minds.html#animal-minds-birds&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/nature/inside-animal-minds.html#animal-minds-birds&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although for the made-for-TV format a lot of the details are omitted for the sake of brevity, the program attempts to test the hypothesis that birds are capable of some advanced behaviors that are not attributable to simple memorization or repeated tasks. These include the ability to solve novel puzzles, and to learn hierarchical relationships of the form: X&gt;Y and Y&gt;Z therefore X&gt;Z. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some others from a variety of species:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Monkeys learning the value of tokens:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Addessi, E., Crescimbene, L., &amp;amp; Visalberghi, E. (2007). Do capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) use tokens as symbols?. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 274(1625), 2579-2585.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Basic arithmetic in chimpanzees:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rumbaugh, D. M., Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., and Hegel, M. T. (1987). Summation in the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. Behav. Process. 13, 107–115.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A paper and further discussion on generalization of a learned rule in birds:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kamil, A. C. &amp;amp; Jones, J. J. 1997. The seed-storing corvid&#xA;Clark’s nutcrackers learns geometric relationships&#xA;among landmarks. Nature, 390, 276–279. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biegler, R., McGregor, A. &amp;amp; Healy, S. D. 1999. How do&#xA;animals ‘do’ geometry? Animal Behaviour, 57, F4–F8&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kamil, Alan and Jones, Juli E., &quot;How do they, indeed? A reply to Biegler et al.&quot; (1999). Avian Cognition Papers. 12.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/biosciaviancog/12&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/biosciaviancog/12&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Macaques recognizing themselves in the mirror&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rajala, A. Z., Reininger, K. R., Lancaster, K. M., &amp;amp; Populin, L. C. (2010). Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) do recognize themselves in the mirror: implications for the evolution of self-recognition. PloS one, 5(9), e12865.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Monkeys reject unequal pay&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brosnan, S. F., &amp;amp; De Waal, F. B. (2003). Monkeys reject unequal pay. Nature, 425(6955), 297.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I could go on and on - these are just a few examples, not necessarily the best or most current ones. What you will see that all these works share is that it is very difficult to probe animal behavior, because it is often difficult to rule out alternative strategies as we impose our own cognitive biases on animal behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, it seems very unlikely that most of the higher-order cognitive skills humans possess are in any way unique to humans. Some specifics like the exact structure of human language are probably fairly specialized, but other social animals also have forms of language, it may just not be as complex or developed as human language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll close with what I find to be a couple cartoons that are highly insightful in this area of research:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smbc-comics.com/comic/2013-01-25&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.smbc-comics.com/comic/2013-01-25&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smbc-comics.com/comic/humans-are-amazing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.smbc-comics.com/comic/humans-are-amazing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smbc-comics.com/comic/humans-are-special&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.smbc-comics.com/comic/humans-are-special&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-06-22T21:18:51.077" LastActivityDate="2018-06-22T21:18:51.077" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20025" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20026" CreationDate="2018-06-23T08:09:45.340" Score="2" ViewCount="142" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is the scenario:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A man and a woman meet at a conference. During a small talk, the man says &quot;I will try to determine the sport you played by looking at your body type.&quot; Then he backs up, looks at the woman from the top to the bottom and says &quot;you probably played tennis.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After the event, the woman says that she was objectified and avoids the man for the rest of the conference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Is the behavior of the man an example of objectification?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Is the behavior of the man an example of sexual objectification?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) Was the man's behavior sexist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help/comment/opinion would be greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19595" LastActivityDate="2018-06-23T13:41:30.230" Title="Is this an example of objectification?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20026" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20025" CreationDate="2018-06-23T13:41:30.230" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the answer to your questions is, yes, probably, and almost definitely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Not necessarily, but likely yes. &quot;I will try to guess what sport you played based on your body type,&quot; is essentially turning a person into a guessing game. The fact that he is doing it based on the person's body (i.e., their concrete form and not their feelings or personality) only makes this more apt a description for what he's doing. Whether the person wants to be objectified (which is doubtful in this case) is a different matter.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It depends on his internal motivations and feelings. Did he do it because it excited him sexually at all? If so, then yes, of course it is sexual objectification. I suppose it could also be the case that he wasn't sexually motivated, but she interpreted it as sexually motivated. Strictly speaking I guess you could say that he wasn't sexually objectifying her in that case, but in another sense, it should be recognized that a man looking a woman up and down and then commenting on her body is suggestive enough that the man's intent is not the only factor in whether his objectification could at least be interpreted as sexual. That is, if he wants to later claim that it wasn't sexual, I think the burden of proof is on him.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Probably. If he says things like this to women only, then it was definitely sexist. Even if he says things like this to men just as frequently, he failed to recognize that his comments are made in a societal context of which he is a part, and cannot be interpreted separately from that context. It is (or should be) well known that the history of women in the workplace is fraught with men commenting on women's bodies in an unprofessional if not outright sexual and harassing manner. In that context, there is simply no way for a man to randomly comment on the body of a woman he just met at a conference and claim that it's appropriate. He ought to recognize how it sounds, and that it understandably sounds much different to a woman than it does to a man.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18385" LastActivityDate="2018-06-23T13:41:30.230" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20027" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20032" CreationDate="2018-06-23T20:06:48.150" Score="1" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Disclaimer: I'm not well educated in this field, just a random curious person.  I don't know anything about neural repair save that it happens while we sleep.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyways, the question is pretty simple: &lt;strong&gt;Does neural repair result in firing neurons?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps a damaged neuron being healed sometimes misfires, perhaps the little road workers that go around fixing neurons sometimes bump into things nearby and knock something loose, perhaps the processes of repairing leaves a bunch of neuro transmitters just floating in that area.. any of these could be a &lt;em&gt;reason for &lt;strong&gt;yes&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;em&gt;reason for &lt;strong&gt;no&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; might be &quot;We've studied where brain repair occurs, and where neurons are firing and there is no relation.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any solid speculation is nice too, as long as it's offered with a grain of salt.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm really just looking for something better than &quot;no clue.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19596" LastEditorUserId="19596" LastEditDate="2018-06-23T20:38:02.363" LastActivityDate="2019-01-08T16:07:26.733" Title="Does the act of neural-repair fire off neurons?" Tags="&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20028" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-24T02:56:14.467" Score="6" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1) Is there any set of rules that human beings or, more generally, other sentient living beings know a priori before any learning process?&#xA;In other words, do sentient living beings always were born knowing some causal relations about the world?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, a newborn baby may not know that walking from a high place in direction of an edge may result on him falling due to gravity. Maybe he doesn't even know that he can move its arms and he only learns that after performing fortuitously an impulse that generates such action. Maybe he doesn't even know that he must breath in order to survive and he only learns that after feeling the discomfort and pain caused by the lack of oxygen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a disclaimer, I'm excluding here tautological logical syllogisms such as the principle of non contradiction and other axioms of logic. I'm also excluding here any synthetic a priori knowledge that can be derived from these (if you believe in synthetic a priori).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2) In the positive case, how complex can these causal relations be (maybe a measure or an undeniably remarkable complex a priori knowledge)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm particularly interested in a priori knowledge about normative judgements mainly related to social mores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19597" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-25T22:12:56.773" Title="Do we know a priori any rules about the world?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20032" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20027" CreationDate="2018-06-24T15:02:53.240" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Question: Does neural repair result in firing neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a difficult question. Because a repair occurs when and where there is a damage. If there are abnormal firings of neurons, it will be difficult to sort out which one is the cause. It is also possible that both cause the firings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is no evidence that the majority of repairs, which are the repairs to maintain healthy cellular structure and functions and which occur ubiquitously all the time in the nervous system in the normal condition, cause abnormal neuronal firings. For example, there is no evidence that abnormal brain waves, seizure activities, or abnormal neurological symptoms occurr in normal people because of these normal repairs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, all that can be concluded for now is that the majority of repairs, which occur in the normal condition, do not cause abnormal neuronal firings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more, please refer to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Martino, G., Pluchino, S., Bonfanti, L., &amp;amp; Schwartz, M. (2011). Brain regeneration in physiology and pathology: the immune signature driving therapeutic plasticity of neural stem cells. &lt;em&gt;Physiological reviews, 91&lt;/em&gt;(4), 1281-1304. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00032.2010&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1152/physrev.00032.2010&lt;/a&gt; pcmcid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3552310&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3552310&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-01-08T16:07:26.733" LastActivityDate="2019-01-08T16:07:26.733" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12146" CreationDate="2018-06-24T17:03:40.890" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Is it really the case that children are showing brand preference, preferring one brand over others when presented options, because of a specific affinity for that brand?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to research, it does seem that way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A longitudinal study of 20 years (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0046667&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Guest, 1964&lt;/a&gt;) found that brand preferences originally expressed during the ages of 7–18 correlated with brand usage reported 20 years later, with the average amount of agreement between 1941 preferences and 1961 use being 23%. Guest concluded that early childhood experiences exert considerable influence upon later brand purchasing behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Your belief that such children aren't showing a brand preference, but are simply not familiar with the other products.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.10015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ji (2002)&lt;/a&gt; whilst talking about the effects of brands such as Barbie and McDonalds on children, pointed out that parents, mass media and peers do play a part in it all:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Parents&lt;/em&gt; are probably the most instrumental in teaching children basic rational aspects of consumption, such as satisfying basic consumer needs in the marketplace (Riesman, Glazer, &amp;amp; Denny, 1956), understanding price–quality relationships (&lt;a href=&quot;https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED099901.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moore &amp;amp; Stephens, 1975&lt;/a&gt;), handling money wisely (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/1125902&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marshall &amp;amp; Magruder, 1960&lt;/a&gt;), and shopping for different qualities among products (Ward, Wackman, &amp;amp; Wartella, 1977). Although parents are considered the primary socialization agents of children, no other agent of consumer socialization has received more attention (in the literature) than the &lt;em&gt;mass media&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/6286/volumes/v11/NA-11&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moschis, 1987&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Deborah_John/publication/24099029_Consumer_Socialization_of_Children_A_Retrospective_Look_At_Twenty-Five_Years_of_Research/links/02e7e52bb53593d1a7000000/Consumer-Socialization-of-Children-A-Retrospective-Look-At-Twenty-Five-Years-of-Research.pdf?origin=publication_detail&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John, 1999&lt;/a&gt;). Through massmedia, including both advertising and editorial/program content (&lt;a href=&quot;http://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/quillin/oguinn%20shrum%20role%20of%20television%20in%20construction%20reality%201997.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;O’Guinn &amp;amp; Shrum, 1997&lt;/a&gt;), children may learn about new brands and products (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/208717&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goldberg, Gorn, &amp;amp; Gibson, 1978&lt;/a&gt;), how to use products and who uses them (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1978.tb01658.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Atkin, 1978&lt;/a&gt;), realities and beliefs about them (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Renee_Florsheim/publication/24098404_The_Effects_of_Commercials_for_Adult_Products_on_Children/links/5925cee3aca27295a8f054a7/The-Effects-of-Commercials-for-Adult-Products-on-Children.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gorn &amp;amp; Florsheim, 1985&lt;/a&gt;), and preferences for them (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/208683&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gorn &amp;amp; Goldberg, 1977&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;em&gt;Peers&lt;/em&gt; also have input to children’s consumer socialization process. Studies show that young people learn the symbolic meaning of goods or expressive elements of consumption from their peers (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/208923&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moschis &amp;amp; Moore, 1982&lt;/a&gt;). In addition, peers play an important role in the development of children’s preference for stores (McNeal, 1964), products (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02722335&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hawkins &amp;amp; Coney, 1974&lt;/a&gt;), brands of selected products (&lt;a href=&quot;http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/6286/volumes/v11/NA-11&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moschis, Moore, &amp;amp; Stanley, 1983&lt;/a&gt;), and things to collect (&lt;a href=&quot;http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/7928/volumes/v23/NA-23&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baker &amp;amp; Gentry, 1996&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing is, a great deal of people do stick with what they know, and you could say this is in part due to people's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort_zone&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;comfort zones&lt;/a&gt;.  Whether this phenomenon is the cause of people favouring certain brands is open to opinion.  What is definite is that 100s of billions of dollars in business expenditure is spent looking at how they can use leverage such as television advertising, product design and even packaging, to encourage people to buy their product (&lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/@moonstorming/how-advertising-has-become-an-agent-of-social-change-148aa0ef303a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scheybani, 2015&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/1983/11/better-marketing-at-the-point-of-purchase&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quelch &amp;amp; Cannon-Bonventre, 1983&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/itv-channel-4-sky-unite-champion-tv-advertising-face-online-threat/1456482&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spanier, 2018&lt;/a&gt;).  As well as with children, this affects adult behaviour, which as pointed out by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.10015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ji (2002)&lt;/a&gt;, is passed onto children who in turn influence their peers through peer pressures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Your title question: Do children really show brand preference at age 2?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.10015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ji (2002)&lt;/a&gt; wrote (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why Study Children’s Relationships with Brands?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Studying the child–brand relationship phenomenon has its practical&#xA;  implications. First, children consume a wide range of products from the&#xA;  time they are born. For example, parents use J&amp;amp;J baby powder on their&#xA;  babies, feed them with Gerber baby food, and cover them with Huggies&#xA;  diapers. &lt;strong&gt;At around age two, children begin to eat their first solid food,&#xA;  often cereal (Cole &amp;amp; Cole, 1996), and develop relationships with certain&#xA;  brands, such as Cheerios, that may last a lifetime.&lt;/strong&gt; As children grow&#xA;  older, they not only consume more brands such as McDonalds’ food and&#xA;  Barbie dolls through the purchases of their parents, but also begin to&#xA;  make purchases using their own income (McNeal, 1999). &lt;strong&gt;In all, children&#xA;  consume a wide range of brands and these early experiences may serve&#xA;  as definite influences on their choices in adulthood (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0055390&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Guest, 1942&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Atkin, C. K. (1978). Effects of drug commercials on young viewers. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Communication&lt;/em&gt;, 28, 71–79. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1978.tb01658.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1460-2466.1978.tb01658.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baker, S. M., &amp;amp; Gentry, J. W. (1996). Kids as collectors: A phenomenological study of first and fifth grade. In K. P. Corfman &amp;amp; J. G. Lynch (Eds.), Advances in consumer research (Vol. 23, pp. 132–137). Minneapolis, MN: Association for Consumer Research.&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/7928/volumes/v23/NA-23&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/7928/volumes/v23/NA-23&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cole, M., &amp;amp; Cole, S. R. (1996). &lt;em&gt;The development of children (3rd ed.)&lt;/em&gt;. New York: W. H. Freeman&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goldberg, M. E., Gorn, G. J., &amp;amp; Gibson, W. (1978). TV messages for snack and breakfast foods: do they influence children's preferences?. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consumer Research&lt;/em&gt;, 5(2), 73-81. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/208717&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1086/208717&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gorn, G. J., &amp;amp; Florsheim, R. (1985). The effects of commercials for adult products on children. Journal of consumer research, 11(4), 962-967. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/209030&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1086/209030&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Renee_Florsheim/publication/24098404_The_Effects_of_Commercials_for_Adult_Products_on_Children/links/5925cee3aca27295a8f054a7/The-Effects-of-Commercials-for-Adult-Products-on-Children.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Renee_Florsheim/publication/24098404_The_Effects_of_Commercials_for_Adult_Products_on_Children/links/5925cee3aca27295a8f054a7/The-Effects-of-Commercials-for-Adult-Products-on-Children.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gorn, G. J., &amp;amp; Goldberg, M. E. (1977). The impact of television advertising on children from low income families. Journal of Consumer Research, 4(2), 86-88. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/208683&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1086/208683&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Guest, L. P. (1942). The genesis of brand awareness. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Applied Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 26(6), 800. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0055390&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0055390&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Guest, L. (1964). Brand loyalty revisited: A twenty-year report. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Applied Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 48(2), 93. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0046667&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0046667&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hawkins, D., &amp;amp; Coney, K. (1974). Peer influences on children’s product pref-&#xA;erences. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Academy of Marketing Science&lt;/em&gt;, 2, 322–330. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02722335&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/BF02722335&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ji, M. F. (2002). Children's relationships with brands:“True love” or “one‐night” stand?. &lt;em&gt;Psychology &amp;amp; Marketing&lt;/em&gt;, 19(4), 369-387. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.10015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/mar.10015&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John, D. R. (1999). Consumer socialization of children: A retrospective look at twenty-five years of research. &lt;em&gt;Journal of consumer research&lt;/em&gt;, 26(3), 183-213. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/209559&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1086/209559&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Deborah_John/publication/24099029_Consumer_Socialization_of_Children_A_Retrospective_Look_At_Twenty-Five_Years_of_Research/links/02e7e52bb53593d1a7000000/Consumer-Socialization-of-Children-A-Retrospective-Look-At-Twenty-Five-Years-of-Research.pdf?origin=publication_detail&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Deborah_John/publication/24099029_Consumer_Socialization_of_Children_A_Retrospective_Look_At_Twenty-Five_Years_of_Research/links/02e7e52bb53593d1a7000000/Consumer-Socialization-of-Children-A-Retrospective-Look-At-Twenty-Five-Years-of-Research.pdf?origin=publication_detail&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marshall, H. R., &amp;amp; Magruder, L. (1960). Relations between parent money education practices and children's knowledge and use of money. &lt;em&gt;Child Development&lt;/em&gt;, 253-284. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/1125902&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.2307/1125902&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McNeal, J. U. (1964). &lt;em&gt;Children as Consumers, Marketing Study Series No. 9.&lt;/em&gt; Austin, TX: Bureau of Business Research The University of Texas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McNeal, J. U. (1999). &lt;em&gt;Kids market: Myths and realities.&lt;/em&gt; Ithaca, NY: Paramount&#xA;Market.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moore, R., &amp;amp; Stephens, L. (1975). Some communication and demographic determinants of adolescent consumer learning. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consumer Research&lt;/em&gt;,&#xA;2, 80–92. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/208619&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1086/208619&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moschis, G. P., &amp;amp; Moore, R. L. (1982). A longitudinal study of television advertising effects. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consumer Research&lt;/em&gt;, 9(3), 279-286. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/208923&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1086/208923&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moschis, G., &amp;amp; Moore, R. L., &amp;amp; Stanley, T. (1983). An exploratory study of brand loyalty development. In T. Kinner (Ed.), Advances in consumer research (Vol.11, pp. 412–417). Chicago: Association for Consumer Research.&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/6286/volumes/v11/NA-11&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/6286/volumes/v11/NA-11&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;O'Guinn, T. C., &amp;amp; Shrum, L. J. (1997). The role of television in the construction of consumer reality. &lt;em&gt;Journal of consumer research&lt;/em&gt;, 23(4), 278-294. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/209483&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1086/209483&lt;/a&gt; PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/quillin/oguinn%20shrum%20role%20of%20television%20in%20construction%20reality%201997.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/quillin/oguinn%20shrum%20role%20of%20television%20in%20construction%20reality%201997.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quelch, J., &amp;amp; Cannon-Bonventre, K. (1983). Better Marketing at the Point of Purchase. &lt;em&gt;Harvard Business Review&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/1983/11/better-marketing-at-the-point-of-purchase&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://hbr.org/1983/11/better-marketing-at-the-point-of-purchase&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Riesman, D., Glazer, N., &amp;amp; Denny, R. (1956). &lt;em&gt;The lonely crowd: A study of the changing American character&lt;/em&gt;. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scheybani, O. How advertising has become an agent of social change. &lt;em&gt;Medium&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/@moonstorming/how-advertising-has-become-an-agent-of-social-change-148aa0ef303a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://medium.com/@moonstorming/how-advertising-has-become-an-agent-of-social-change-148aa0ef303a&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spanier, G. (2018). ITV, Channel 4 and Sky unite to champion TV advertising in face of online threat. &lt;em&gt;Campaign Live&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/itv-channel-4-sky-unite-champion-tv-advertising-face-online-threat/1456482&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/itv-channel-4-sky-unite-champion-tv-advertising-face-online-threat/1456482&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ward, S., Wackman, D., &amp;amp; Wartella, E. (1977). &lt;em&gt;How children learn to buy: The development of consumer information processing skills&lt;/em&gt;. Beverly Hills, CA:&#xA;Sage Publications, Inc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-25T08:23:03.027" LastActivityDate="2018-06-25T08:23:03.027" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20035" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12348" CreationDate="2018-06-24T21:35:55.640" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Brief periods of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somniloquy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sleep-talking&lt;/a&gt; (somniloquy), mostly gibberish, are quite common, particularly in children.  It is not typically useful to call something a &quot;disorder&quot; unless it is causing a problem.  Aside from disturbing others, sleep-talking is rarely problematic by itself, but in combination with other &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasomnia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parasomnias&lt;/a&gt; (behaviours that indicate arousal during sleep) may be symptomatic of a more concerning sleep disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sleep-talking while dreaming is most often associated with REM sleep.  However, note that not all sleep-talking happens while dreaming, and both dreaming and sleep-talking may also occur during &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasomnia#Non-rapid_eye_movement_(NREM)_parasomnias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;transitions from non-REM sleep&lt;/a&gt; to waking state (partial arousal).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;REM sleep normally involves a loss of voluntary muscle movement, referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep#Muscle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;REM sleep atonia&lt;/a&gt;, that prevents dreamers from physically interacting with their dreams:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When the body shifts into REM sleep, motor neurons throughout the body&#xA;  undergo a process called hyperpolarization: their already-negative&#xA;  membrane potential decreases by another 2–10 millivolts, thereby&#xA;  raising the threshold which a stimulus must overcome to excite them.&#xA;  Muscle inhibition may result from unavailability of monoamine&#xA;  neurotransmitters (restraining the abundance of acetylcholine in the&#xA;  brainstem) and perhaps from mechanisms used in waking muscle&#xA;  inhibition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The process involved with REM sleep motor inhibition is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18385312&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;complex&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2706901/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not fully understood&lt;/a&gt;, but presumably, a deviation from or malfunction in this process may result in temporary partial loss of atonia, or partial arousal during non-REM sleep, that can trigger sleep-talking.  Causes of such anomalies include medication, alcohol and drugs, illness, genetics, mental disorders, and stress.  Of course, partial arousal can also be triggered by external stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When associated with more complete loss of atonia, and occurring nightly or even multiple times a night, sleep-talking while dreaming is a common symptom of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep_behavior_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;RBD&lt;/a&gt;, a sleep disorder in which patients act out their dreams.  As RBD is itself potentially a symptom of a degenerative neurological disorder, significant chronic loss of atonia, including vivid sleep-talking, particularly in the elderly, would be more concerning than sleep-talking on its own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-06-24T21:35:55.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20037" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-24T23:13:58.963" Score="1" ViewCount="213" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently picked up a Rubik's Cube, intending to refine my ability to mentally work with three-dimensional representations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it seems there are two ways of solving the Cube: just play and play and seek patterns on your own, &lt;em&gt;or&lt;/em&gt; memorize some algorithms which teach you to efficiently solve the puzzle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neither seems satisfactory, since both only incidentally will provide practice on 3D visualization, but without any guidance to focus my effort more forcefully on that aspect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I'm trying to improve my 3D visualization skill via the Rubik's Cube. I believe that would be the same cognitive skill that is tested as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mental_Rotations_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vandenberg and Kuse Mental Rotations Test&lt;/a&gt;, although if there are distinctions, I'd be happy to learn about them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there's research that indicates &lt;em&gt;other&lt;/em&gt; ways spatial reasoning can be practiced and improved, I'd appreciate that as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone have any recommendations, or pointers offsite?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19603" LastEditorUserId="19603" LastEditDate="2018-07-09T04:26:18.700" LastActivityDate="2018-07-09T04:26:18.700" Title="Rubik's Cube and building 3D visualization abilities" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20038" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16714" CreationDate="2018-06-25T02:41:12.677" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wrote Vexed Texts a long time ago. Since then I have asked the same question and found no research on it, so I did my own research as my doctoral thesis. You can find the results if you want to in my published thesis (I received my PhD from Victoria University in Wellington New Zealand). The title is: &lt;a href=&quot;http://hdl.handle.net/10063/1290&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Effect of Illustrations on the Ability of Children to Draw Inferences while reading Narrative Texts.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-25T05:46:52.283" LastActivityDate="2018-06-25T05:46:52.283" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20039" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2018-06-25T07:14:35.060" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This tag is to be used when questioning the scientific validity or (pseudo)scientific status of a given theory.  Where relevant, the theory tag such as &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/freud&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;freud&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;freud&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/psychoanalysis&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;psychoanalysis&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;psychoanalysis&lt;/a&gt; etc. should be used alongside this tag for complete coverage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-25T07:14:35.060" LastActivityDate="2018-06-25T07:14:35.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20040" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2018-06-25T07:14:35.060" Score="0" Body="This tag is to be used when questioning the scientific validity or (pseudo)scientific status of a given theory.  Where relevant, the theory tag such as [freud], [psychoanalysis] etc. should be used alongside this tag for complete coverage." OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-25T07:14:35.060" LastActivityDate="2018-06-25T07:14:35.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20041" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-25T11:50:07.597" Score="1" ViewCount="282" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whereabouts in the brain gets triggered/switched on when an addictive substance is ingested/taken. I'm doing an addiction study with a couple of colleagues and would like some help with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19607" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-25T16:01:23.453" LastActivityDate="2018-06-27T12:02:16.667" Title="Brain and General Sections" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20045" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20041" CreationDate="2018-06-25T17:49:57.900" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends on the type of addictive substances (i.e., opioid, amphetamine, LSD, etc). Different types bind to different sets of receptors of neurotransmitters (i.e., dopamine, serotonin, GABA, etc.) in the nervous system. And different receptors have different distribution in the nervous system. So the affected regions are different for different addictive substances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The easy-to-read, entry-level references that you can use are probably &lt;a href=&quot;https://americanaddictioncenters.org/central-nervous-system/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;How Drugs Affect the Brain and Central Nervous System&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drugs-brain&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Drugs and the Brain&lt;/a&gt;. For in-depth references, you can search for the literature on each specific drug at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/guide/literature/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NCBI&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2018-06-25T17:49:57.900" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20047" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20028" CreationDate="2018-06-25T21:08:33.730" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a pretty popular research topic!&#xA;One good place to start might be with the work of Spelke, she's all over this.&#xA;Try this: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nNq_a_wgdgQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nNq_a_wgdgQ&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you prefer written words, this paper is a nice broad overview, although note the 2007 publishing date, there's been a fair bit of work since then.&#xA;Spelke, Elizabeth S., and Katherine D. Kinzler. &quot;Core knowledge.&quot; Developmental science 10.1 (2007): 89-96.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-06-25T21:08:33.730" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20049" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-25T23:03:08.560" Score="7" ViewCount="1898" Body="&lt;p&gt;In an older, now deleted answer to another question, it's been said that classical conditioning is a posited mechanism for fetish development. A bit more googling found &lt;a href=&quot;https://io9.gizmodo.com/pavlovs-pervs-1500110923&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a popsci article&lt;/a&gt; claiming something similar:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the 1970s, scientists wanted to know if they could condition a sexual reflex in men. First they got volunteers and hooked them up to a device that measured tumescence. Then they showed the men slides. The sequence of slides was always the same - naked women, and then boots. Naked women, and then boots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After some time, the scientists were pleased to see that the men responded to pictures of boots without ever seeing the naked women. Some of the men even showed response to sandals and high heels. They managed to instill fetishes in human beings. It would be interesting to see how deeply the fetishes &amp;quot;took.&amp;quot; Was it specific to time and place, or did the scientists engineer a lifelong fetish in people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the article lacks further details on the studies (e.g. actual citations of the papers), and I do wonder if the studies withstood scrutiny over time (methodology, replication, etc.) There are good reasons to be bit skeptical of random &amp;quot;studies from the 1970s&amp;quot; in this area, e.g. see a &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/18478/what-happened-to-self-administered-aversion-therapy-with-a-rubber-band-in-parti&quot;&gt;related question&lt;/a&gt; on of mine on self-administered aversive therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1wc177zt&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;One 2004 review&lt;/a&gt; suggests that you can't &amp;quot;normalize&amp;quot; people this way (conditioning):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be noted that, as previously mentioned, there have been clinical&#xA;treatments based on the notion of pairing a CS with masturbation to enhance&#xA;responding to normative sexual stimuli, but with little long-term success (for&#xA;review see Laws &amp;amp; Marshall, 1991b).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So that rather casts doubt of the conditioning theory of fetish development too, but are there more recent experiments arguing for it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-11-07T12:36:30.337" Title="Fetish development through classical conditioning?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20050" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18251" CreationDate="2018-06-26T01:14:17.453" Score="2" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Summary&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think Hawkins' terminology tends to be not as precise as it should be. I guess that's the root cause of this question as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The impression that Hawkins says computers or neural networks will never be able to perform certain tasks which are routine for the human brain may be due to his lack of precision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Details&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You write (in a comment):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I have the impression, that he sees computers and ANNs as somehow the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's not my impression&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;, so I'll answer two questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Regarding Hawkins' statements about artificial neural networks&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Regarding Hawkins' statements about &quot;computers&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Regarding Hawkins' statements about artificial neural networks&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In chapter 2, &quot;Neural Networks&quot;, pp. 23-39, Hawkins talks about a certain kind of artificial neural networks (mainly pp. 24-29).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He's mostly talking about very simple ANNs. See p. 25:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Most neural networks consisted of a small number of neurons connected in three rows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is true that there are a lot of tasks that such simple ANNs can't do (or can't do well), but of course that's not true for more complex ANNs. I think the problem here is that Hawkins' doesn't always make this distinction clear enough, although he says on p. 28:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I don't want to leave you with the impression that all neural networks are of the simple three-layer variety. Some researchers have continued to study neural networks of different designs. Today the term neural network is used to describe a diverse set of models, some of which are more biologically accurate and some of which are not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe the following quote on p. 32 could be interpreted such that he actually &lt;em&gt;did&lt;/em&gt; foresee some developments after 2004:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In recent years, belief in the importance of feedback, time, and prediction has been on the rise. But the thunder of AI and classical neural networks kept other approaches subdued and underappreciated for many years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Regarding Hawkins' statements about &quot;computers&quot;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In chapter 4, &quot;Memory&quot;, pp. 65-84, (which contains p. 70ff you mentioned) he does &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; talk about artificial neural networks, but about &quot;computers&quot;. He doesn't specify exactly what he means, but I guess it's roughly &quot;machines that work mostly like current computers&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On p. 67, he says that even &quot;the largest parallel computer imaginable can't solve&quot; certain tasks that the brain can solve. I think that's wrong, but since it's not quite clear what he means by &quot;computer&quot;, I'm not sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some or most of Hawkins' claims may be correct, but that depends on what he means by &quot;computers&quot; or &quot;neural networks&quot;, and he doesn't always make that clear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Footnotes&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; For example, this quote on p. 24 seems to imply that he does see a difference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A neural network is unlike a computer in that it has no CPU and&#xA;  doesn't store information in a centralized memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19616" LastEditorUserId="19616" LastEditDate="2018-06-26T01:21:52.960" LastActivityDate="2018-06-26T01:21:52.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20053" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12125" CreationDate="2018-06-26T04:32:07.390" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;The secret life of Walter Mitty&quot; i'd say.&#xA;This movie presents splendidly a person who seems to have clear  attention deficits without hyperactivity (which would be typical for a subtype of the syndrome or he overcame it with adoloscence.)&#xA;Additionally he seems to tend to hyperfocus for his work and develops incredible passion for the things he does aside of extensive daydreaming. Both nicely illustrated with a hardly realistic journey and definitely unrealistic associations of his mind while outstanding characters realize his attention is elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The movie does not label him with any diagnosis but it struck me how much this character displays features of the nonhyperactive subtype of add.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19620" LastActivityDate="2018-06-26T04:32:07.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20054" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20056" CreationDate="2018-06-26T06:59:26.267" Score="5" ViewCount="457" Body="&lt;p&gt;As one reads the psychology literature (e.g. social psychology), it seems to me, and I hope I'm not wrong, that such a discipline is highly dependent on quasi experiments (correct me if I'm wrong please).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, one is most likely to read &quot;we carried out the experiment/study with N participants... etc.&quot;, and never &quot;we carried out the quasi-experiment with N participants... etc.&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is, there seems to be systematic avoidance of declaring the name of the design. One has to use a kind of induction from experience to discover the design procedure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1 - Why?... I'm a naive undergraduate and I need to know what is the design in a clear and declarative manner that doesn't confuse me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2 - What is the official reporting procedure for reporting quasi experiments in APA (if such a procedure exists)?... Do I need to report the details of the design? and if so, how much details?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19624" LastEditorUserId="19624" LastEditDate="2018-06-26T08:52:26.940" LastActivityDate="2018-06-27T05:32:18.890" Title="How to report a quasi-experiment in APA?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;publication&gt;&lt;apa-style&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20055" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20059" CreationDate="2018-06-26T07:46:40.310" Score="4" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read about a study where they found that people who were forced to keep a smile-like face were reportedly happier than those who were forced to stay in a frown-like a face. Similarly, could onions induce sadness by forcing one to cry?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-06-26T16:48:52.170" LastActivityDate="2018-06-26T16:48:52.170" Title="Can you get sad by sniffing onions, just like you can get happy by forcing yourself to smile?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20056" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20054" CreationDate="2018-06-26T09:38:05.357" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The distinction between experiment and quasi-experiment is often made in undergraduate psychology courses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, the term quasi-experiment is used to identify studies that fall short of a controlled experiment in some respect:&#xA;e.g., pre-existing groups;  allocation of participants to groups in a non-random way. In some cases, repeated measures experiments are labelled as quasi-experimental especially if they confound order with condition, especially simple pre-post designs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The purpose of the term &quot;quasi-experimental&quot; is to highlight that there are potential confounds to causal inference that would not be present in a controlled experiment (e.g., time effects, pre-existing group differences, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, more generally, an experiment typically refers to doing something in the world and observing the effect. In this sense, experiments are also sometimes distinguished from purely observational studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in general, researchers should generally not use term &quot;experiment&quot; to describe an observational study. However, &quot;quasi-experiments&quot; can be labelled experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to come back to your question: how do you know whether a study is an experiment or a quasi-experiment? You have to read about the design and see whether the conditions for a controlled experiment are satisfied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, as you progress in your psychology education, you may find that you use more nuanced descriptions of studies than simply &quot;quasi-experimental&quot;. For example, you might describe a study as a simple pre-post repeated measures design. Or you might say that it compared a treatment and control group using pre-existing groups. The point is that these descriptions are more informative than simply saying &quot;quasi-experimental&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of reporting procedures for quasi-experiments in APA style, I think as above, this question does not entirely make sense. There are a variety of different types of quasi-experiments. For each type, there would be common things to report. For example, in simply describing your design, you will say what are between and within subjects factors and how participants were allocated or not allocated to groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might find these APA reporting standards useful: &quot;Reporting Standards for Research in Psychology&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/pubs/authors/jars.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/pubs/authors/jars.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This APA Task Force article also describes many of these issues quite clearly around how to report methods:&#xA;Wilkinson (1999) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/amp-54-8-594.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/amp-54-8-594.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-06-27T05:32:18.890" LastActivityDate="2018-06-27T05:32:18.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20058" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20055" CreationDate="2018-06-26T12:07:08.287" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;No&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Onions produce the irritant &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syn-Propanethial-S-oxide&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;syn-propanethial-S-oxide&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. It stimulates the eyes' &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/tear-glands-and-tear-ducts/img-20008059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lachrymal glands&lt;/a&gt; and thereby stimulate the release tears (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/onion.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Library of Congress&lt;/a&gt;). The watering of the eye is hence the consequence of a physical irritant and has nothing to do with emotions whatsoever. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anecdotally spoken, chopping onions agitates me more than it makes me sad, as I can't see what I'm doing through the tears while I'm hungry :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-06-26T12:07:08.287" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20059" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20055" CreationDate="2018-06-26T12:09:22.137" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume you're referring to the experiment by &lt;a href=&quot;http://datacolada.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Strack-et-al-1988-cartoons.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Strack, Martin, and Stepper (1988)&lt;/a&gt; in which people rated a cartoon as funnier when they had to hold their face in a smile shape by gripping a pencil in their teeth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has been applied to negative affect by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699939208409689&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Larsen, Kasimatis, and Frey (1992)&lt;/a&gt; who had participants furrow their brows during an activity. Golf tees were attached to their eyebrows such that furrowing the brow caused the tips of the tees to touch together. Participants showed more negative emotion in the brow furrowing condition (in which they were instructed to keep the tips of the tees touching).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both studies, however, hypothesize that the effects are due to facial expression, specifically, to sensations of activating the muscles associated with positive or negative emotions. In the onion paradigm that you propose, it is unclear which (if any) emotion-relevant muscle activations would happen in conjunction with eye irritation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nobody that I know of has studied whether eye irritation or production of tears (independent of the accompanying facial expressions associated with sadness) will lead to an increase in sadness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A competing theory might be that since crying can be cathartic, tear production might make people feel better rather than worse. However the research support for crying and catharsis is mixed and depends heavily on the context of the crying &lt;a href=&quot;https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.10.1165&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bylsma, Vingerhoets, &amp;amp; Rottenberg, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://datacolada.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Strack-et-al-1988-cartoons.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Strack &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., J Personality Social Psych (1998); &lt;strong&gt;54&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 768-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699939208409689&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Larsen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Cognition and emotion (1992); &lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 321-338&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.10.1165&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bylsma &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., J Social and Clinical Psych (2008), &lt;strong&gt;27&lt;/strong&gt;(10): 1165-1187&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18385" LastEditorUserId="18385" LastEditDate="2018-06-26T12:40:17.417" LastActivityDate="2018-06-26T12:40:17.417" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20060" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20084" CreationDate="2018-06-26T15:52:18.630" Score="1" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a documented name for the phenomenon of repeated social interruptions. It's something I've discussed with others who seem to share the observation that often, when one is alone in a public space, others will consistently run into them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One example is in single stall bathrooms. This is one that I've discussed with others, to much amusement: it seems that whenever I find an unattended public restroom, even in a secluded space away from population, more often than not someone will approach and knock within seconds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another would be driving along a typically empty road late at night, and having someone follow every single turn you take up until you get home, where they turn around and go from whence you both came, making seemingly no sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, this is a cognitive bias of some sort and likely not truly indicative of some social behavior. It reminds me of the spotlight effect, but the spotlight effect is defined as heightened self awareness, no? This seems to happen regardless of that, like there are people just waiting around to stumble upon oneself at the most inopportune times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paranoia might be one word for it, but talking with others anecdotally, it seems like most people have had this thought before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19632" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-06-26T20:42:15.890" LastActivityDate="2018-06-29T07:02:01.493" Title="Is there a name for the phenomenon of perceived repeated interruption?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20063" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-27T00:51:47.320" Score="4" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20022/what-is-the-name-of-the-phenomenon-that-a-thing-must-be-named-in-order-to-unders/20062#20062&quot;&gt;recent question&lt;/a&gt; here has highlighted a fairly common cliché in entertainment: a purported inability to identify/pinpoint the source of one's fears or anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology there's an somewhat accepted phenomenon of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexithymia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;alexithymia&lt;/a&gt;, the &quot;inability to identify and describe emotions in the self&quot;. But is it really the case that one can identify the emotion as fear or anxiety but not be able to identify its source? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And yes, I'm aware of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.03.011&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;fear of the unknown&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, but the unknown (as a concept) is an identifiable source in that case; I'm not asking about that. What I'm asking about is whether the following scenario can happen in some case of psychological or neurological condition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Patient: Doctor, I'm very afraid!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Doctor: What are you afraid of?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Patient: I don't know!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-06-27T01:00:54.707" LastActivityDate="2018-06-27T15:39:30.433" Title="Is there evidence for people being afraid of something they cannot pinpoint?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20066" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16501" CreationDate="2018-06-27T07:53:40.357" Score="10" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence of malleability of fluid intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In the downward direction, definitely yes.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many ways you can directly pull fluid intelligence downwards. Things like being exposed to much lead, suffering from iodine deficiency (especially a developing fetus during pregnancy, see e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15734706&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Qian et al, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;), or by not getting decent nutrition. Anything that interferes with a healthy development of the brain might be implicated in intelligence. Similarly, you could presumably push intelligence downward by directly harming the brain (Brain lesions, anyone?). Fluid intelligence also lowers with ageing &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289616302161&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Whitley et al, 2016)&lt;/a&gt;, and so anything that slows down the ageing process may also have an effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next, let's consider the more interesting question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides avoiding decreases in fluid intelligence, can we push it up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;&lt;strong&gt;There does not seem to be a reliable way of increasing intelligence known (as of yet), perhaps except for one.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here we have to turn to Richard Haier, the editor-in-chief of the journal &lt;em&gt;Intelligence&lt;/em&gt;, as he has written extensively on this topic. Perhaps disappointingly, we refer to his article &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00034/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Increased Intelligence is a Myth (So Far)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. The title says it all. He goes into details with the difficulties of establishing increased intelligence. You need to show that you're not just raising test scores, but actually something that transfers over to general intelligence. He also goes into further detail regarding the topic of increasing intelligence in his book &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/110746143X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Neuroscience of Intelligence&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To truly appreciate the difficulty of increasing intelligence, you really need to understand the history of methods being suggested. This also helps you develop a healthy amount of scepticism -- you should not believe any method without a substantial amount of evidence backing it up. What has been suggested to increase intelligence? First, the Mozart effect. Meta-analyses show no convincing effect especially when you consider the evidence of publication bias &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289610000267&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Pietschnig et al, 2010)&lt;/a&gt;. The second craze was memory training as you've already noted. Again, not convincing &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1745691616635612&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Melby-Lervåg et al, 2016)&lt;/a&gt;. Similarly, chess training has been suggested as a way of improving intelligence, but the results are not great &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29276344&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sala &amp;amp; Gobet, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;. Now the craze is video games, although it suffers from many of the same methodological issues: (very) small sample sizes, and probably publication bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While people can cite all kinds of studies showing increases in intelligence, the real question is really whether these can withstand hard scientific scrutiny.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is likely not impossible to raise intelligence. Haier suggests some plausible ways of increasing intelligence in his book, but no massive evidence yet. Currently there does not seem to be a very convincing way of increasing intelligence...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;&lt;strong&gt;...Perhaps except for one way?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Education has been suggested as a candidate for improving intelligence. There is a question whether education really increases general intelligence or just specific skills &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4445388/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ritchie, Bates, Deary, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;, but currently education is the best bet &lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/kymhp/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ritchie &amp;amp; Tucker-Drob, Preprint 2017)&lt;/a&gt;. Ritchie and Tucker-Drob report the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Education appears to be the most consistent, robust, and durable method yet to be identified for raising intelligence.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, even here we should withhold some scepticism. First, it may simply be increases of specific skills. Secondly, the fadeout effect is pervasive in psychological research of intelligence. Intelligence increases do not seem to last. For example, massive programs such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_Start_(program)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Head Start&lt;/a&gt; showed some initial increases in intelligence measurements, but this boost eventually fades out &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015.10.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Protzko, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like Head Start, other programs have been created with the purpose of increasing school performance. For example, the Bill &amp;amp; Melinda Gates Foundation program &lt;em&gt;Gates Effective Teaching Initiative&lt;/em&gt; did &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2242.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not see the benefits it hoped&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It might also be hypothesized that expensive private schools would improve the intelligence of the pupils (beyond regular schools). It is well known that pupils of these private schools show higher average scores, but the question is: is it because of the schools? These schools are also highly selective; the pupils attending these expensive private schools are not representative of the general population. This has been tested in at least one large sample. They found that after controlling for factors involved in prior pupil selection, there remained no statistical difference &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41539-018-0019-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Smith-Woolley,..., Kovas, Plomin, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;. In other words, they found that expensive private schools did not demonstrate improvements in intelligence beyond what ordinary schools did.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, all of this goes back to Arthur Jensen's infamous 1969 paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://hepgjournals.org/doi/10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7?code=hepg-site&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which made intelligence research controversial if it wasn't already. He concluded already back then that teaching intervention did not show noticeable improvements. Jensen's opening line in his long paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Compensatory education has been tried and it apparently has failed.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So currently, &lt;em&gt;if&lt;/em&gt; education can increase intelligence it does not appear to be through teaching intervention, but simply through longer education.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summary&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Many methods for increasing intelligence have been suggested. They tend to not withstand proper scientific scrutiny.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Therefore, it is important to have some healthy scepticism to suggested methods, and accept them only when a high evidential threshold has been reached.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Currently, the most backed up way of increasing intelligence is through longer education. However, even here it is not certain, and more research is needed to understand the relationship between education and intelligence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19533" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T08:09:09.273" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20068" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20041" CreationDate="2018-06-27T11:48:54.580" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whereabouts in the brain gets triggered/switched on when an addictive substance is ingested/taken.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Irrespective of their particular pharmacology, the one thing that all drugs of addiction have in common is that they will all converge onto a single common neural substrate, the &lt;strong&gt;mesolimbic dopamine pathway&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The mesolimbic pathway has dopamineric projections from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other projections from the VTA to the frontal lobe, but the mesolimbic pathway is between VTA and nucleus accumbens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0WTiY.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0WTiY.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This pathway is also called the &amp;quot;reward pathway&amp;quot; of the brain and is why dopamine is commonly associated with &amp;quot;pleasure&amp;quot;. However, thinking about things this way is very misleading because it's thought that the mesolimbic pathway has less to do with pleasure or reward, and more to do with the salience of stimuli e.g. food or sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The involvement of this common pathway in all drugs of addiction has influenced the thinking of addiction as a disorder of &lt;strong&gt;incentive salience&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Briefly, administration of a drug of addiction will activate the mesolimbic pathway, imbuing the drug and any associated cues, with salience. With repeated exposure to the drug, a peculiar phenomenon will occur. Even though the user might subjectively report tolerance to the drug, there will be greater activation of the mesolimbic pathway than the first time they had taken the drug. The process of increased responsiveness to the same drug dose after repeated dosing is referred to as &lt;strong&gt;receptor sensitisation&lt;/strong&gt; and may reflect the process by which use of a drug transitions to addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;Incentive Sensitization Theory of Addiction&lt;/strong&gt; was proposed in 1993:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-0173(93)90013-P&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of addiction&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper presents a biopsychological theory of drug addiction, the ‘Incentive-Sensitization Theory’. The theory addresses three fundamental questions. The first is: why do addicts crave drugs? That is, what is the psychological and neurobiological basis of drug craving? The second is: why does drug craving persist even after long periods of abstinence? The third is whether ‘wanting’ drugs (drug craving) is attributable to ‘liking’ drugs (to the subjective pleasurable effects of drugs)? The theory posits the following.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) Addictive drugs share the ability to enhance mesotelencephalic dopamine neurotransmission.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) One psychological function of this neural system is to attribute ‘incentive salience’ to the perception and mental representation of events associated with activation of the system. Incentive salience is a psychological process that transforms the perception of stimuli, imbuing them with salience, making them attractive, ‘wanted’, incentive stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3) In some individuals the repeated use of addictive drugs produces incremental neuroadaptations in this neural system, rendering it increasingly and perhaps permanently, hypersensitive (‘sensitized’) to drugs and drug-associated stimuli. The sensitization of dopamine systems is gated by associative learning, which causes excessive incentive salience to be attributed to the act of drug taking and to stimuli associated with drug taking. It is specifically the sensitization of incentive salience, therefore, that transforms ordinary ‘wanting’ into excessive drug craving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(4) It is further proposed that sensitization of the neural systems responsible for incentive salience (for ‘wanting’) can occur independently of changes in neural systems that mediate the subjective pleasurable effects of drugs (drug ‘liking’) and of neural systems that mediate withdrawal. Thus, sensitization of incentive salience can produce addictive behavior (compulsive drug seeking and drug taking) even if the expectation of drug pleasure or the aversive properties of withdrawal are diminished and even in the face of strong disincentives, including the loss of reputation, job, home and family. We review evidence for this view of addiction and discuss its implications for understanding the psychology and neurobiology of addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-27T12:02:16.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20070" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-27T14:50:47.457" Score="3" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it correct to say that, when making inferrence on the results of an experiment, using a random-effects (RFX) rather than a fixed-effects (FFX) model merely makes the results &lt;em&gt;more generalisable&lt;/em&gt;, as the quote below (from the fMRI study by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/29/8/2477.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Leaver et al., 2009&lt;/a&gt;) seems to suggest?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Random-effects models attempt to remove intersubject variability,&#xA;  thereby making the results obtained from a limited sample more&#xA;  generalizable to the entire population (Petersson et al., 1999). Thus,&#xA;  we used random-effects models in our analyses. In a single instance,&#xA;  we additionally considered results of a fixed-effects model, in which&#xA;  intersubject variability is not removed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These authors later make the claim that those brain areas identified with the RFX analysis are more reliably/consistently involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd have thought that, with FFX, it is not the case that the results are simply &quot;less&quot; generalisable, but instead that they simply do NOT allow generalisation in quite the same way, since you are not accounting for the sampling noise added by the &lt;em&gt;random&lt;/em&gt; selection of subjects to the sample. In other words, that there is a step jump rather than a gradual increase in reliability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthemore, in my mind, this sounds like a fallacy somehow comparable to making inferrence on p-values that were not corrected for multiple comparisons: it's not that the corrected values are &quot;more reliable&quot; against false positives, it's simply that the uncorrected ones are UNreliable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this analogy (or some other one) apply here, when using FFX (and not RFX) for sample-to-population inference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastActivityDate="2018-06-27T14:50:47.457" Title="Ability of fixed-effects analyses to enable generalisation of results" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;causal-inference&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20074" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19938" CreationDate="2018-06-27T18:17:10.730" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's no one good answer to this unfortunately, the question is too broad. Seems like you have made a decent start, here are two more quite different methods-focused references to add to your reading that might help:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Divjak, Dagmar, and Antti Arppe. &quot;Extracting prototypes from exemplars What can corpus data tell us about concept representation?.&quot; (2013): 221-274.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lee, Michael D., and Wolf Vanpaemel. &quot;Exemplars, prototypes, similarities, and rules in category representation: An example of hierarchical Bayesian analysis.&quot; Cognitive Science 32.8 (2008): 1403-1424.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-06-27T18:17:10.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20075" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20086" CreationDate="2018-06-27T18:31:48.043" Score="9" ViewCount="282" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do brains oscillate within specific frequencies? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have two specific questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the physiological mechanisms which generate the oscillations within these very frequencies? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What would go wrong if the frequencies were magically changed? I very strongly assume that this would go badly rather quickly, but I'd like to have a little more detailed information.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19500" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-06-30T12:56:01.893" LastActivityDate="2018-06-30T12:56:01.893" Title="Why do brains oscillate within specific frequency ranges?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20076" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-28T00:42:03.483" Score="8" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;As of late I've been coming across a lot of people online who are convinced that, without much (or any) formal training and often without any collaboration, they have solved a major unsolved problem in the quantitative sciences. They are incredibly attached to the correctness of their solution. They often talk about their god-like cognitive abilities and act as if the scientific community is dogmatic (One guy said he has a &quot;vulcan-like&quot; mind, which I thought was hilarious). Often their &quot;quantitative&quot; theory doesn't even have any real math in it, and they almost never make any experimental predictions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As someone who has and probably will continue to tutor kids in math and science, I'd like to know what kinds of events at what stage of development lead people to this insane level of hubris and confirmation bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some requested examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d4CSexk5b1Q&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This youtuber&lt;/a&gt; thinks he's proven the Collatz conjecture and other famous problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/user/felixschallercom/videos&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This youtuber&lt;/a&gt; solves a bunch of made up problems in fluid dynamics and has a few uncontrolled experiments on video to demonstrate the effectiveness of his model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1457538709&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This guy&lt;/a&gt;. . .thinks he has a theory of everything. . .he wrote &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.academia.edu/17289258/The_Theory_of_Everything..._What_Took_So_Long&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;an article&lt;/a&gt; basically bashing the physics community for not having come up with his theory. I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Is-Scott-S-Gordon-a-hack&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; Quora post about him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many examples are people my age (undergrad) who have approached me in real life and, once we discover a common interest in quantitative science, they start throwing around technobabble about a &quot;major&quot; problem that they've contrived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a pretty good example of the pretentiousness exhibited by these people in the stack exchange posts linked in the comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19649" LastEditorUserId="19649" LastEditDate="2018-06-29T00:26:56.293" LastActivityDate="2018-07-01T11:15:57.787" Title="Is there any research on what causes a pseudo-scientific mindset?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20078" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-28T05:09:17.897" Score="4" ViewCount="258" Body="&lt;p&gt;The cingulate cortex plays a significant role in mediating cognitive influences on emotion (&lt;a href=&quot;https://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/jnp.23.2.jnp121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stevens, Hurley, &amp;amp; Taber, 2011&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lower-than-normal activations within cingulate cortex have been reported for several conditions in which emotional numbing and/or suppression of emotions are common symptoms. For example, a metaanalysis of functional neuroimaging in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) found reduced activation in both sACC and aMCC during fear conditioning (&lt;a href=&quot;https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Etkin, &amp;amp; Wager, 2007&lt;/a&gt;). The authors proposed that reduced activation in sACC may indicate impairment in emotion-regulation and fear-extinction, whereas the reduced activation in aMCC may relate to reduced experience of negative emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question surrounding this is related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19903&quot;&gt;the fact that&lt;/a&gt; (Answer provided in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/9394&quot;&gt;Do ADHD drugs harm the brain?&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Long-term use of ADHD stimulants &lt;em&gt;in individuals with ADHD&lt;/em&gt;] appear to promote &quot;normalization&quot; of certain structural deficiences. Not &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; deficiences, though (i.e. effects visible on the right anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) but not on the left ACC).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst this is a great answer to the initial question, it is difficult for me to pick apart from a neuropsychological basis.  Would there be significant improvements to ADHD symptoms with the “normalisation” of the ACC or would there still be significant problems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, are there differences in function between the left and right ACC?  Plus, if there is little &lt;strong&gt;or no&lt;/strong&gt; improvement in the left ACC, would the right ACC take over the functions of the left or would the left affect the right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Etkin, A., &amp;amp; Wager, T. D. (2007). Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(10), 1476-1488.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stevens, F. L., Hurley, R. A., &amp;amp; Taber, K. H. (2011). Anterior cingulate cortex: unique role in cognition and emotion. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences&lt;/em&gt;, 23(2), 121-125.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.23.2.jnp121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1176/jnp.23.2.jnp121&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/jnp.23.2.jnp121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/jnp.23.2.jnp121&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-06-29T11:12:51.550" LastActivityDate="2018-06-29T11:12:51.550" Title="ADHD and the Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20081" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20085" CreationDate="2018-06-28T16:02:19.317" Score="6" ViewCount="276" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have any studies been done on the inheritability of different mental abilities such as short-term-memory, long term memory and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many studies, if at all, seem to rely on an over-all IQ. This seems extremely wide-ranging when mental abilities can be made of so many different parts. Someone with a good memory may not have good reasoning skills etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example if a man has a short term memory able to memorise 10 numbers at a time and a woman has a short-term-memory able to memorise 5 numbers at a time. How many numbers could their children memorise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I seem to remember a documentary about the extraordinary memories of `native' Australians compared to their European descended compatriots. So this seems one piece of evidence that memory ability can be inherited. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2018-06-29T10:47:08.520" Title="Is short term memory ability inherited?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20082" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-29T03:06:00.680" Score="7" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a graduation speech to the University of Texas, Naval Adm. William H. McRaven made the following statement:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;If you make your bed every morning you will have accomplished the first task of the day. It will give you a small sense of pride and it will encourage you to do another task and another and another.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case further context is needed, the full transcript of this speech can been seen at the following link:  &lt;a href=&quot;https://news.utexas.edu/2014/05/16/mcraven-urges-graduates-to-find-courage-to-change-the-world&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://news.utexas.edu/2014/05/16/mcraven-urges-graduates-to-find-courage-to-change-the-world&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have also found that completing a simple task can &quot;get you going&quot;, and imagine this quite a widespread observation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a result I wondered:  Does anyone know if a formal name for this general phenomenon exists?  Eg &quot;The McCraven Effect&quot;?  Or if it could be considered as an example of a broader principle, eg &quot;Task motivation bias&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19659" LastActivityDate="2018-07-01T03:01:32.997" Title="Is there a name for the idea that completing a simple task increases the likelihood of completing further tasks?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20083" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20075" CreationDate="2018-06-29T05:14:27.667" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’m interested in this matter too. I’m not an expert on this subject but, as far as I understand, brain oscillations seem to be essential in the functioning together of a large number of neurons: to not to cancel out each other information and to unite their information into one coherent information. And there seem to be oscillation generators for various rhythms in the brain. That’s as far as I can answer you here. There is a lot of literature on brain oscillations, you can search for them at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;NCBI&lt;/a&gt;. A few articles that may be interesting to you are the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...It is known that individual neurons are not capable of executing complex cognitive operations in isolation, and instead must form functional networks with other neurons, and so synchronous neuronal activity is thought to be relevant to cognition…. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4890574/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rhythms of the hippocampal network&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rhythms are a prominent signature of brain activity. Their expression is correlated with numerous examples of healthy information processing and their fluctuations are a marker of disease states. Yet, their causal or epiphenomenal role in brain function is still highly debated... &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5056821/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;When brain rhythms aren’t “rhythmic”: implication for their mechanisms and meaning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hippocampus, a structure required for many types of memory, connects to the medial prefrontal cortex, an area that helps direct neuronal information streams during intentional behaviors. Increasing evidence suggests that oscillations regulate communication between these two regions. Theta rhythms may facilitate hippocampal inputs to the medial prefrontal cortex during mnemonic tasks and may also integrate series of functionally relevant gamma-mediated cell assemblies in the medial prefrontal cortex…. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3578407/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oscillations and hippocampal–prefrontal synchrony&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2018-06-29T05:14:27.667" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20084" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20060" CreationDate="2018-06-29T07:02:01.493" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would classify this as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;cognitive bias&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Specifically, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;selection bias&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Selection bias is the bias introduced by the selection of individuals, groups or data for analysis in such a way that proper randomization is not achieved, thereby ensuring that the sample obtained is not representative of the population intended to be analyzed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are 'every day' actions you describe. They are not very memorable. In contrast, when encountering such interruptions during these otherwise 'normal' actions they become more memorable and stick with you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consequently, this then leads to a selection bias: only the interrupted actions come to mind immediately. If you were to systematically count how many times this occurs it would be less frequent than it seems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2018-06-29T07:02:01.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20085" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20081" CreationDate="2018-06-29T10:39:14.097" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Have any studies been done on the inheritability of different mental abilities such as short-term-memory, long term memory and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the most replicated findings of behavioral genetics is that &lt;em&gt;all psychological traits show significant and substantial genetic influence&lt;/em&gt;, however not 100% genetic influence &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4739500/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Plomin et al, 2016)&lt;/a&gt;. So yes, short term memory has a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;heritability&lt;/a&gt; of larger than zero, but smaller than one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many studies, if at all, seem to rely on an over-all IQ. This seems extremely wide-ranging when mental abilities can be made of so many different parts. Someone with a good memory may not have good reasoning skills etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is certainly true that it is possible to have good memory and low reasoning ability (The most extreme being some &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savant_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;savants&lt;/a&gt;, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Peek&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kim Peek&lt;/a&gt;). However, abilities are positively correlated. Therefore, high ability X makes it statistically more likely that the individual is higher in ability Y as well, for practically any cognitive abilities X and Y (Certainly for memory and reasoning). This was discovered more than a century ago &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/1412107?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Spearman, 1904)&lt;/a&gt;. Although the increased likelihood may only be modest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example if a man has a short term memory able to memorise 10 numbers at a time and a woman has a short-term-memory able to memorise 5 numbers at a time. How many numbers could their children memorise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are multiple reasons why you couldn't predict in any exact manner the short term memory abilities of the child. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, while heritability is larger than zero, it is also smaller than one. In other words, not &lt;em&gt;only&lt;/em&gt; genetic differences are responsible for differences in short term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, the genetics are not even determined in a &lt;em&gt;unique&lt;/em&gt; way from the parents. Said in another way, you cannot predict the exact genetic makeup of a child from its parents' DNA. It depends on how the recombination of the mother's and father's genes. The most obvious demonstration of this is that biological siblings do not have identical DNA. Therefore, even &lt;em&gt;if&lt;/em&gt; short term memory was 100% heritable (It isn't), you still wouldn't be able to exactly predict the short term memory of the child just from knowing the parents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The most you could say is statistical. Parents with better short term memory will, on &lt;em&gt;average&lt;/em&gt;, have children with better short term memory.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I seem to remember a documentary about the extraordinary memories of `native' Australians compared to their European descended compatriots. So this seems one piece of evidence that memory ability can be inherited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you're getting into a socially sensitive topic of population differences in cognitive abilities. I don't know what documentary you've watched. Personally, I haven't seen the evidence that native Australians have extraordinary memory abilities. Of course, I would be open to see such evidence. However, one thing to note is that &lt;em&gt;even if&lt;/em&gt; native Australians showed high ability in memory, that fact in itself does not prove that the difference is due to genetic differences. Memory is only partially heritable. It could simply be that due to whatever environmental or social cause that they showed enhanced memory. Of course, I'm not saying that it is impossible either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19533" LastEditorUserId="19533" LastEditDate="2018-06-29T10:47:08.520" LastActivityDate="2018-06-29T10:47:08.520" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20086" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20075" CreationDate="2018-06-29T18:13:50.793" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are brain oscillations?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it is first important to recognize what brain oscillations refer to: they are small, somewhat localized fluctuations in voltage that are often measured by EEG (electroencephalogram), though they can also be measured inside the skull or inside the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of these oscillations are also seen in the membrane potentials of individual neurons. Fast oscillations, like gamma oscillations, can also be seen in membrane potentials but are best associated with spiking activity. The cause of the skull-measured oscillations is the coordinated activity of many many neurons acting in concert. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why certain frequencies?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many brain oscillations are created by coupling of excitation and inhibition. The gamma oscillation, for example, is most associated with interactions between excitatory neurons and particular inhibitory neurons called fast-spiking and/or parvalbumin-positive cells. The frequency of the gamma oscillation is due to the time constants and conduction times between the reciprocal circuitry between excitatory cells and fast-spiking cells. If you were to maintain the same activity, but change these time constants, the gamma frequency would change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other frequencies may be slower because they involve circuits over a longer distance, such as interactions between thalamus and cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the slowest oscillations, called delta oscillations, come about due to long periods of high and low activity, sometimes called &quot;UP&quot; and &quot;DOWN&quot; states or &quot;ON&quot; and &quot;OFF&quot; periods. Oscillations are often nested within each other, referred to as cross-frequency coupling, or more specifically often phase-amplitude coupling. During the &quot;DOWN&quot; phase of a slow delta oscillation, amplitude in higher frequencies is low because there is little spiking activity; during the &quot;UP&quot; phase the amplitude in higher frequencies increases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the &lt;em&gt;purpose&lt;/em&gt; of brain oscillations?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;We don't know.&lt;/em&gt; There are many theories that certain oscillations are important for certain functions, but most of the evidence for these theories is either theoretical or correlational. In very general terms, slower oscillations tend to be associated with rest whereas higher frequency oscillations are associated with active processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, gamma oscillations are possibly involved in 'binding' different types of information across different cortical areas: synchronous gamma activity could be the way a brain region primarily processing sounds can associate that information with a brain region primarily processing the visual object producing that sound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also possible that many oscillations are simply epiphenomena: they &lt;em&gt;result&lt;/em&gt; from particular types of activity, rather than being the &lt;em&gt;cause&lt;/em&gt; of certain functions. Gamma, for example, seems to increase simply whenever overall neuronal activity increases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that there is really no way to study an oscillation independent of the rest of the brain activity: anything that would impact an oscillation is necessarily going to be influencing neural activity in other ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably the best evidence for an actual functional role of brain oscillations is in phase coding in the theta band (and associated gamma oscillations), best-studied in the navigational networks of the hippocampus in rodents. The timing of spikes relative to the phase of an ongoing oscillation can carry more information than the spikes in solitude: the oscillation provides a reference signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What happens if brain oscillations were to magically change?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It sort of depends on what the mechanism of the magic is: you could certainly change oscillations by doing extreme things like stopping all neuronal activity: that would go quite badly. Epileptic seizures are a more naturally-occurring but similarly damaging example of oscillations gone wrong. Absence epilepsy is of particular interest since the mechanisms are a bit more complex than grand mal seizures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, you can also &quot;magically&quot; change oscillations as simply as closing your eyes: increases in alpha power are well-known to occur when you just briefly close your eyes. Changes in brain oscillations are a normal part of brain function: oscillations are very different during sleep and wake, for example. The amplitude and frequency of certain oscillations can be modulated by how alert or attentive you are. Depending on the specific type, anesthetic agents tend to produce brain oscillations that are at least qualitatively similar to sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also correlations between different oscillation patterns and psychological diseases or disorders. People with schizophrenia show different patterns of gamma activity than non-schizophrenics, for example. However, it is unclear if it makes sense to think about oscillation differences as &lt;em&gt;causal&lt;/em&gt; versus as a &lt;em&gt;symptom&lt;/em&gt;. Autism, for example, is associated with reduced synchrony over long distances in the brain. This reduced synchrony is thought to be due to differences in connectivity. Depending on your perspective, you could highlight the change in synchrony as an important feature, or you could treat it as a symptom of the underlying difference in connectivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summary, Conclusions, and Caution&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain oscillations are a key window to understanding nervous function, especially in humans where they can be recorded more easily than any other type of neuronal activity. However, we need to be careful about thinking about oscillations as specific entities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oscillations in one frequency band could come about by completely different mechanisms in different situations. Changes in oscillations measured outside the skull can reflect changes in synchrony over long distances rather than changes in local oscillatory activity in individual columns. As an analogy, consider ripples in a pond: the amplitude of the ripples might tell you a bit about the size of an object that disrupted the water's surface, but if that's all you have you can't know whether the object came initially from above or below the surface, whether it was a bird, fish, or rock, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many papers are published that tie oscillations to certain states, conditions, or diseases, and these can be pathways to understanding but they are unlikely to directly identify underlying mechanisms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the references below, I've tried to use review articles where possible that are fairly digestible without too much additional information. In particular, I bolded a couple that I think are great starting points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bazhenov, M., Timofeev, I., Steriade, M., &amp;amp; Sejnowski, T. J. (2002). Model of thalamocortical slow-wave sleep oscillations and transitions to activated states. Journal of neuroscience, 22(19), 8691-8704.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Buzsáki, G., &amp;amp; Wang, X. J. (2012). Mechanisms of gamma oscillations. Annual review of neuroscience, 35, 203-225.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cohen, M. X., Elger, C. E., &amp;amp; Fell, J. (2008). Oscillatory activity and phase–amplitude coupling in the human medial frontal cortex during decision making. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 21(2), 390-402.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goldman, R. I., Stern, J. M., Engel Jr, J., &amp;amp; Cohen, M. S. (2002). Simultaneous EEG and fMRI of the alpha rhythm. Neuroreport, 13(18), 2487.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harris, K. D., Henze, D. A., Hirase, H., Leinekugel, X., Dragoi, G., Czurkó, A., &amp;amp; Buzsáki, G. (2002). Spike train dynamics predicts theta-related phase precession in hippocampal pyramidal cells. Nature, 417(6890), 738.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hasselmo, M. E., Bodelón, C., &amp;amp; Wyble, B. P. (2002). A proposed function for hippocampal theta rhythm: separate phases of encoding and retrieval enhance reversal of prior learning. Neural computation, 14(4), 793-817.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kwon, J. S., O'donnell, B. F., Wallenstein, G. V., Greene, R. W., Hirayasu, Y., Nestor, P. G., ... &amp;amp; McCarley, R. W. (1999). Gamma frequency–range abnormalities to auditory stimulation in schizophrenia. Archives of general psychiatry, 56(11), 1001-1005.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Lisman, J. E., &amp;amp; Jensen, O. (2013). The theta-gamma neural code. Neuron, 77(6), 1002-1016.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Steriade, M., McCormick, D. A., &amp;amp; Sejnowski, T. J. (1993). Thalamocortical oscillations in the sleeping and aroused brain. Science, 262(5134), 679-685.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tallon-Baudry, C., &amp;amp; Bertrand, O. (1999). Oscillatory gamma activity in humans and its role in object representation. Trends in cognitive sciences, 3(4), 151-162.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Uhlhaas, P. J., &amp;amp; Singer, W. (2006). Neural synchrony in brain disorders: relevance for cognitive dysfunctions and pathophysiology. Neuron, 52(1), 155-168.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-06-29T18:26:35.633" LastActivityDate="2018-06-29T18:26:35.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20088" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-06-30T02:48:49.960" Score="0" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anecdotally, there are reports of varenicline causing agression, but larger studies tended towards the finding of no effect over controls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This got me into thinking about possible genetic polymorphisms that are implicated in aggression. Varenicline acts as a partial agonist of α4β2-nicotinic receptors -- maybe if you did a study of a prison population, you'd find those some polymorphism in this receptor among those incarcerated for a violent crime? (There isn't).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;More broadly, are there any good candidate genes implicated in aggression/violence?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-20T10:09:50.957" LastActivityDate="2018-11-20T10:09:50.957" Title="What genetic polymorphisms are linked to aggression or violence?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;&lt;nicotine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20089" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20082" CreationDate="2018-07-01T02:49:03.867" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It would be nice if more systematic sources were found on this topic, but since you mainly inquire about terminology here, I think the closest term is &lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2011/05/the-power-of-small-wins&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;small win&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether they are trying to solve a major scientific mystery or simply produce a high-quality product or service, everyday progress—even a small win—can make all the difference in how they feel and perform. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Through exhaustive analysis of diaries kept by knowledge workers, we discovered the progress principle: Of all the things that can boost emotions, motivation, and perceptions during a workday, the single most important is making progress in meaningful work. And the more frequently people experience that sense of progress, the more likely they are to be creatively productive in the long run.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether making your bed in the morning counts or not as a &amp;quot;small win&amp;quot; depends however on what interests you in life, personality factors, and so forth, so while making your bed may be a motivating &amp;quot;small win&amp;quot; for the army types, I wouldn't bet it's like that for everyone (although other things may be). I suspect that many routine chores that can be &amp;quot;outsourced&amp;quot; if you have enough money (like cooking food, driving etc.) many not be that motivating for a number of people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Amusingly enough I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/brain-candy/201208/make-your-bed-change-your-life&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a survey about bed making&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a survey of 68,000 people by Hunch.com, 59 percent of people don’t make their beds. 27 percent do, while 12 percent pay a housekeeper to make it for them. Here’s what disturbed me: 71 percent of bed makers consider themselves happy; while 62 percent of non-bed-makers admit to being unhappy. Bed makers are also more likely to like their jobs, own a home, exercise regularly, and feel well rested, whereas non-bed-makers hate their jobs, rent apartments, avoid the gym, and wake up tired. All in all, bed makers are happier and more successful than their rumple-sheeted peers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since these factors show correlation but not causation, this does not mean that non-bed-makers can’t be happy and successful, but the odds are stacked against them. And it makes sense, since an organized environment can positively impact our mental state—and given it only takes 30 seconds, it could lend a small sense of accomplishment at the very start of the day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-01T03:01:32.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20091" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20076" CreationDate="2018-07-01T03:49:22.763" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;s&gt;I'm alas not aware of systematic studies on cause of the pseudo-scientific mindset... &lt;/s&gt;But knowing some people who are inclined to that as well as believing some conspiracy theories... I suspect these two share some common causes. It's a lot easier to find science &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3694217/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;articles about the latter&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One posci article lists some of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/2016/jan/26/why-people-fall-for-pseudoscience-and-how-academics-can-fight-back&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the usuals suspects&lt;/a&gt; regarding the pseudo-scientific mindset:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;distrust of scientists/academics (goes well with those inclined to believe conspiracy theories)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and closely related, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunning-Krueger effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;various cognitive biases, including&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clustering_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;clustering illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;selection bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and once some of those take hold, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;money or other personal gains, although this isn't necessarily a true mindset, it just looks the same in may contexts, so can be hard to differentiate by an outside observer (let's not get to fMRI studies about detecting lying)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see the putative causes can be pretty diverse...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It turns out there &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844017321795&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;are some studies&lt;/a&gt; (and they generally support the above theorizing), for instance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;pre-existing paranormal beliefs were associated with an increased likelihood of students finding paranormal reports scientific, believable and credible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dagnall et al. (2007) suggested that while belief in the paranormal in undergraduate students is not necessarily associated with weakness in probabilistic reasoning, it is more strongly related to weaknesses associated with their understanding of randomness and misunderstanding of chance factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also mostly as a response to uhoh, an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/science-versus-pseudoscience-educating-the-public-via-bookstore-project&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NSF survey&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of the 1,574 [US] adults that were surveyed, only one-third understood and could accurately describe the scientific process. Many Americans also agreed with a variety of pseudoscientific beliefs such as the existence of UFOs (30 percent), astrology (40 percent), and psychic powers (60 percent).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That was in 2003. I doubt things have gotten better in the age of alt-facts. In fact, researchers studying the campaign of Marine Le Pen (MLP), &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.parisschoolofeconomics.eu/docs/barrera-rodriguez-oscar-david/ssrn-id3004631.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;found&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;that alternative facts are highly&#xA;persuasive: voters exposed to MLP rhetoric move their policy conclusions and voting&#xA;intensions toward MLP. Fact checking does nothing to undo these effects despite improving&#xA;factual knowledge of voters. Being exposed only to official facts also backfires&#xA;on voting intentions, as it increases political support for MLP, although to a smaller&#xA;extent than alternative facts, despite moving posteriors about facts toward the truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To me that sound similar to some the findings about how pseudoscience gets adopted by some.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-01T11:15:57.787" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20092" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-01T04:17:40.753" Score="3" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;The BBC News article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-44371572&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hi-tech dreamcatcher defeats sleep amnesia&lt;/a&gt; mentions a recent talk by &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.adamjhh.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adam Haar Horowitz&lt;/a&gt; and then describes some limited tests of an apparatus called Dormio at the MIT media lab, that detects when an individual is in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnagogia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypnagogia&lt;/a&gt; and then initiates interaction with a &amp;quot;social robot&amp;quot; rather than another person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interactions can include &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;verbal&amp;quot; prompting and suggestions by the robot!&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Dormio gadget is connected to a smartphone app or robot, which speaks word prompts to the subject as they slip into deeper sleep. These words can be used to influence their dreams or to knock them back into lighter sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;We have found that in the subjects we tested, those words reliably entered the hypnagogic dreams as dream content,&amp;quot; said Mr Horowitz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;After this slight wake-up, we initiate a conversation about dream content with users via the Jibo social robot and record anything that is said, as hypnagogic amnesia is reported and we don't want people forgetting their useful ideas.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After this conversation, the system lets users drift back towards sleep, interrupting again when the biosignals suggest they are falling into deep sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;This is done repetitively to intercept dreams and extract dream reports,&amp;quot; said Mr Horowitz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The BBC article notes some skepticism:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Antonio Zadra, a psychology professor at the University of Montreal, believes that dreams are designed to be forgotten.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;We spend six years of our lives dreaming, of which we only remember a small sliver. If we were meant to be remembering more, that would be a colossal waste of time,&amp;quot; he said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;as well as a bit of foreboding by Horowitz himself:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mr Horowitz admits there are ethical questions that need to be thought about before engaging with this enigmatic part of our daily routine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;How much of yourself do you want to access?&amp;quot; he ponders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;How much power do you want to have there? How much do you want to be careful about messing with your own biosignals?&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea of letting your own potentially internet-connected smartphone interact with you &lt;em&gt;in your sleep&lt;/em&gt; (during hypnagogia), while Siri, Cortana, Alexa, or even hackers may be running at the same time just seems slightly frightening to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there may be various guidelines and even regulations that apply to scientific medical research, this is MIT's media lab, and the indirect results  could include someone selling a gizmo you buy on Amazon and connect to your phone and then go to sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; Based on current understanding and ethical principles regarding interactions between sleeping subjects and human researchers or experimental apparatus, what would areas of ethical or safety concerns be about allowing a phone to interact with sleeping subjects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19214" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T02:09:03.970" Title="What would be areas of ethical or safety concerns with a smartphone app interacting with people sleeping?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20076" CreationDate="2018-07-01T05:04:14.003" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can relate a small academic exercise more than several decades ago, though it wasn't published.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An individual had made contact with some physics undergraduates about some theories he'd like to discuss with the chairman of the physics department. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After some time considering the situation, the chairman decided that a teaching moment was within reach and arranged for a small informal meeting with the individual and about a dozen physics undergraduates in a classroom in the physics building. After about 30 minutes of discussion where laborious calculations and elaborate drawings that showed a great deal of time and effort had been put into this research, it reached its final conclusion that the number pi was in fact equal to 3. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The room was fairly quiet, the individual was thanked and treated with respect throughout by all, including the chairman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The undergraduates had an informal discussion later and concluded that people who work hard to try to understand the world can be quite serious, earnest, and may work in a way quite similar to how other individual researchers (rather than collaborations) work. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Combining the lesson I learned that day with decades of reading about researchers with ideas that were soundly rejected for decades, until they were discovered to be important and even sometimes completely correct, I would propose that there may not be a lot of &quot;sound&quot; research on the &quot;pseudo-scientific mindset&quot; because it is problematic to even define &quot;pseudo-science&quot; or objectively distinguish between it and &quot;real science&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This follows @FrankHubeny's &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20076/is-there-any-research-on-what-causes-a-pseudo-scientific-mindset/20093#comment37807_20076&quot;&gt;comment&lt;/a&gt; which includes a link to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry for &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-science/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Science and Pseudo-Science&lt;/a&gt;, and calls into question the premise that a &quot;pseudo-scientific mindset&quot; is a useful term to begin with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19214" LastEditorUserId="19214" LastEditDate="2018-07-01T05:22:40.757" LastActivityDate="2018-07-01T05:22:40.757" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20095" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19983" CreationDate="2018-07-01T08:38:50.673" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This line of thought actually represents the current state of the art in scientific approaches to the brain. Before we discovered electricity and that (peripheral) neurons conduct electricity, one analogy or explanation suggested that the mind worked through hydraulic action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is therefore possible that we have to abandon this analogy, if we find a better one. For now, we give it explanatory power. However, we do know that the brain circuitry is very different from a computer. At the same time, neurons have discrete outputs, which can be represented in binary (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/FitzHugh-Nagumo_model#Absence_of_all-or-none_spikes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;all-or-none&lt;/a&gt;). (But there is also non-spiking neurons with a more continuous &quot;analog&quot; response.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suggested readings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-science/#RepCom&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computational-mind/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Philosohpy of Mind: Computationalism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Chinese_room_argument&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A classical argument against computationalism: The Chinese Room Argument&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastEditorUserId="3258" LastEditDate="2018-07-31T12:42:48.770" LastActivityDate="2018-07-31T12:42:48.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20096" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-01T11:28:33.610" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I´m writing an essay about the ToM in animals. My Problem is that there are a few hints of ToM in animals but there are also some interferences. I tried to set up a conclusion which uses Morgan's Law about cognition [1] and the language experiments with apes and sign language which show no language reproduction (Gardner &amp;amp; Gardner (1975)). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is how are these two areas connected and what are the criteria of ToM? I can´t find a paper that mentions this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]: In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14886" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-07-02T10:22:51.973" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T10:22:51.973" Title="Differences in Cognition, Theory of Mind and their criteria" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20097" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-01T13:35:00.517" Score="5" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the average number of different people one sees daily affect one's ability to recognize faces? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Compare a person who lives in a crowded city (and thus sees many different faces daily) with a person who lives in a small community like a village and sees few people daily (all of them familiar). Based on this alone would the general ability to recognize faces be different? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any research done on this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19674" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-07-04T07:56:13.667" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T07:56:13.667" Title="Is there a relation between the ability to recognize faces and the number of people one meets daily?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20098" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20111" CreationDate="2018-07-01T14:38:19.447" Score="5" ViewCount="539" Body="&lt;p&gt;OCD is a chronic mental health disorder. It is a major handicap when trying to lead a normal life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But are there any positive effects of having the disorder? Is there any such thing as high functioning OCD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T21:53:27.987" Title="Are there any benefits to having Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20099" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20106" CreationDate="2018-07-01T17:51:03.897" Score="1" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;In terms of computer science, a programming runtime like JavaScript can be assumed to have 1 thread, or &lt;em&gt;one thing to focus on&lt;/em&gt; at a time. The processor moves sequentially through instructions, essentially focusing on one instruction at a time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have multiple processors (like a laptop might have 4 or 8), then theoretically you can focus on 4-8 things at one time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, I am wondering how many things the brain can &quot;focus&quot; on at one time simultaneously. That is, how many &quot;processors&quot; it has to process information sequentially. I am not sure if the brain even works similar to this, but wanted to ask anyways just in case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, we might have a list of todos in the &quot;back of our mind&quot;, a &quot;few current todos&quot; we are &quot;actively&quot; working on. Then at the same time we are minimally aware of the environment so we can hear surprising noises and react quickly to them (for example), so there is a processor available for emergencies (so to speak). So there is at least 2, the active one and the passive polling one. But if there is our &quot;active&quot; task, then what we have lingering in our thoughts might be a secondary focus/processor, so perhaps there a third processor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7611" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-02T08:49:59.850" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T19:37:49.743" Title="The number of things we can focus on at once" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20106" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20099" CreationDate="2018-07-02T08:48:53.177" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You already seem to be making the difference between a point of focus, versus &quot;things in the back of ones mind&quot;. I think that's quite apt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Different authors have come up with different theories about this subject. I think it's a difficult question but I'll just give my hunch, supported by a (very) few papers that supports that view. Note, that there's a large body of literature on the topic, particularly on Working memory &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/working-memory-how-you-keep-things-ldquo-in-mind-rdquo-over-the-short-term/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Burmester, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;. Working memory is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[T]he ability to hold and manipulate information in mind, over brief intervals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an overview article, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3797978/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oberauer (2013)&lt;/a&gt; claims that working memory is, as you already exemplify, often explained in terms of physical metaphors such as information flow or information containers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A popular &lt;a href=&quot;http://scienceblogs.com/developingintelligence/2007/03/27/why-the-brain-is-not-like-a-co/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scientific blog&lt;/a&gt; gives a nice list of problems with the computer versus brain metaphor, most notably:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Brains are analogue; computers are digital&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The brain uses content-addressable memory (memories lead to recall of related memories, called association)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The brain is a parallel machine; computers are modular and serial&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Short-term memory is not like RAM&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Unlike computers, processing and memory are performed by the same components in the brain&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, in general, it is thought that focused attention can hold up to about four independent chunks, or as little as a single chunk, dependent on the theory as well as on the task at hand. You can imagine that more complex tasks 'consume' more 'processing power'. Indeed, a simple 2-digit recall task seems to rely on the two digits being reproduced in parallel &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3797978/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Oberauer, 2013)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In sentence reproduction during active listening, it seems that attention focus switching is necessary, as subjects need to switch their focus of attention momentarily away from ongoing language processing to memory retrieval. In other words, more complex tasks seem to be more serially controlled &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hindawi.com/journals/cdr/2014/450734/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Finney &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2014)&lt;/a&gt;.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3797978/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oberauer, &lt;em&gt;Front Hum Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;7&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;em&gt;673&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/working-memory-how-you-keep-things-ldquo-in-mind-rdquo-over-the-short-term/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Burmester, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, June 2017 issue&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hindawi.com/journals/cdr/2014/450734/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Finney &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Child Developm Res (2014); 20734&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-02T19:37:49.743" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T19:37:49.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20107" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15302" CreationDate="2018-07-02T12:05:28.817" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Just like Mendel's ideas have been proven by the existence of DNA, Hebbian learning can be explained by STDP. That doesn't make Mendel's or Hebb's teachings obsolete.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;STDP is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10878/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;long-term synaptic potentiation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10899/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depression&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; governed by the timing of pre- and post synaptic cell firing. STDP depends on certain “critical windows” for spike timing. This critical window is on the order of tens of milliseconds &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3395004/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Dan &amp;amp; Poo, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. STDP is known for quite some time, but is by far a more novel idea than the idea of Hebbian learning posed in the 1940's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3395004/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Markram &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. Hebbian learning has been popularly described as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[&quot;C]ells that fire together, wire together.” In other words, if things keep happening more or less simultaneously, you may assume that there is a common cause for the firing. More importantly, if one of the cell is active systematically just slightly before another, the firing of the first one might have a causal link to the firing of the second one and this causal link could be remembered by increasing the wiring of connections, a notion we call synaptic plasticity. In short, timing matters because it may indicate causality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Hebbian learning is mediated by STDP&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Thus STDP may explain how Hebbian learning may come to exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But Markram &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. caution: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...this is not to say that STDP has been a panacea for all problems&#xA;  neuroscientific. Clearly cells that fire together wire together, there&#xA;  is no doubt about that, so the coming of STDP has not rendered the&#xA;  classical literature obsolete by any means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, Hebbian learning is more of a theoretical construct whereas STDP provides a neurophysiological explanation. Just like Mendel's ideas have been proven by the existence of DNA, and Darwin's ideas by a since buildup of fossil records, Hebbian learning has been explained by STDP, but that doesn't make Darwin nor Mendel's teachings obsolete. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3395004/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dan &amp;amp; Poo, &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;44&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 23-30&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3395004/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Markram &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Synaptic Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;: 2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-03T06:59:50.017" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T06:59:50.017" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20108" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18780" CreationDate="2018-07-02T13:27:47.683" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There seem to be multiple studies generally pointing to a delay of clinical antipsychotic action of these drugs, typically between a week and two weeks (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22167144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zedkova &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; (2011)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4076925/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mousavi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2013)&lt;/a&gt;). However, there is evidence that antipsychotics may start working after a day, or even within a few hours after starting the meds. See for an interesting review &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1413955/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Agid &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2006)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From reading these papers my understanding is that a lot of it depends on where the researcher puts the threshold of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/aboutcer/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;clinical effectiveness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and which outcome measure is used to define that effectiveness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1413955/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Agid &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Psychiatry Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;31&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 93–100&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4076925/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mousavi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Res Pharm Pract&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 138–44&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22167144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zedkova &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neuro Endocrinol Lett&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;32&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 667-70&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-02T19:01:03.597" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T19:01:03.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20109" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10477" CreationDate="2018-07-02T14:17:48.443" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stroke&lt;/a&gt; results in impaired blood flow. A lack of blood supply to the brain results in prolonged &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_hypoxia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cortical hypoxia&lt;/a&gt;, cells die. Neuronal cells have a relatively high background metabolism, for example because of their reliance on ion pumping that costs energy. A lack of oxygen can kill a cell and therefore deplete the brain of thousands and thousands of neurons after a serious stroke. Depletion of certain areas of the brain of cells will reduce the output to other areas, and decrease the input to that area. Moreover, epileptic foci may appear, resulting in epileptic discharges in the brain, referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://acphospitalist.org/archives/2017/05/poststroke-epilepsy.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;post-stroke seizures&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Upon recovery, gross rearrangements may occur in the brain, alongside gross changes in cellular activities throughout the affected areas, due to the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.speech-therapy-on-video.com/brainplasticity.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain's plasticity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, if the oxygen depletion is short, I don't see any reason why there should be gross changes in neuronal behavior after recovery. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T14:17:48.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20110" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10477" CreationDate="2018-07-02T15:39:10.710" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Question: &lt;strong&gt;Why are there long-term consequences to temporary deprivation of oxygen?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not all cases of temporary deprivation of oxygen have long-term consequences. It depends on how long the O2 deprivation period is. If it’s just no more than a few minutes, like when you hold your breath, it’s ok. But if it’s longer than that, irreversible damage may occur:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;“Approximately 20% of the oxygen consumed by the human body is used by the brain. The greater part of this oxygen is used to produce the ATP required to maintain the membrane potentials necessary for electrical signaling with synaptic and action potentials &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22958818&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harris et al., 2012&lt;/a&gt;. In many vertebrates, including adult humans, interruption of the oxygen supply to the brain for more than a few minutes leads to irreversible neurological damage, including neuronal death.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3966918/#R46&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Larson J, et al&lt;/a&gt;”&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of people who suffered cardiac arrests but had fast and effective CPRs and regained circulations and oxygenation in time recovered completely with no long-term consequences. Sadly, there are a lot of people, too, who were not revived in time and suffered long-term consequences (which can vary from mild to severe) or even brain death. It all depends on the duration of hypoxemia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: For the question of “&lt;strong&gt;How does oxygen deprivation affect neural activity?&lt;/strong&gt;”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a recent comprehensive review here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5618563/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This review&lt;/a&gt; aims at summarizing the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying hypoxia and hyperoxia in brain and cerebral tissue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="19332" LastEditDate="2018-07-02T16:09:45.617" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T16:09:45.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20111" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20098" CreationDate="2018-07-02T19:15:14.123" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing that OCD correlating with conscientiousness is probably an advantage. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26260933&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2015 study by Inchausti et al.&lt;/a&gt; that made this finding had other anxiety disorders as controls. I don't know if that difference still holds vs the general population... An older paper (Samuels et al., 2000) found negatively in this direction. As summarized in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12375729&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rector et al. (2002)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To our knowledge, examination of the FFM [five factor model] in OCD has occurred only recently in a single&#xA;epidemiological study (Samuels et al., 2000). Participants with a lifetime diagnosis of OCD were&#xA;compared with community participants without a lifetime history of OCD and matched on gender,&#xA;race, and age. Patients with OCD were found to score higher on neuroticism (all facets) and lower&#xA;on extraversion (i.e. assertiveness facet only) versus community controls. In addition, participants&#xA;with OCD were found to be less agreeable, although no differences were observed on the domains&#xA;of openness and conscientiousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rector et al. themselves did a fairly complicated study in which they found that OCD patients (surprisingly) had below average conscientiousness (compared to non-ill controls) but this turned out to mirror the patients' level of depression; while a simple F-test between groups was statistically significant, a MANOVA with the depression score as covariate was not. The graph below is kinda suggestive of that because the conscientiousness subscores for OCD and major depression look pretty similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BxyBZ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BxyBZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rector et al. did not exclude OCD patients with comorbid depression (or vice-versa), which explains well enough the above because:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the ECA study (Reiger&#xA;et al., 1988) 31.7% of OCD patients were diagnosed as having a co-morbid MDD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which kinda makes it difficult to get meaningful results from such studies... do we (only) care what the personality advantages/traits of those OCD but without depression are? Etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19110399&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2009 study on perfectionism and OCD by Wu and Cortesi&lt;/a&gt; found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;content conceptualized as &amp;quot;adaptive&amp;quot; perfectionism showed no correlation with any obsessive-compulsive symptoms&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the paper explains there's however disagreement in the literature whether it is appropriate to distinguish maladaptive vs adaptive perfectionism (this paper obviously takes the view that the distinction makes sense).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/lib/what-ocd-feels-like-being-absolutely-uncertain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some blogs&lt;/a&gt; that assert that OCD is correlated with higher IQ. But while looking into this I found a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/09/170918123541.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;press release&lt;/a&gt; for recent (2017) meta-analysis to the contrary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is not associated with a higher intelligence quotient (IQ), a myth popularized by Sigmund Freud, according to researchers at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU), Texas State University and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study, published in the Neuropsychology Review, is believed to be the first analysis of existing data on the link between IQ and OCD sufferers verses the general population. The authors tracked the origins of the myth to the French philosopher, physician and psychologist Pierre Janet in 1903, but it was Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, who popularized the hypothesis in 1909.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Although this myth was never studied empirically until now, it is still a widely held belief among mental-health professionals, OCD sufferers and the general public,&amp;quot; says Dr. Gideon Anholt, a senior lecturer in BGU's Department of Psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The researchers conducted a meta-analysis of all the available literature on IQ in OCD samples versus non-psychiatric controls (98 studies), and found that contrary to the prevailing myth, OCD is not associated with superior IQ, but with normative IQ that is slightly lower compared to control samples. The authors suggested that the small reduction in IQ scores in OCD sufferers may be largely attributed to OCD-related slowness and not to intellectual ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The popular misconception about OCD has been further promoted by TV programs like &amp;quot;Monk,&amp;quot; which show an individual with OCD using his superior intelligence to solve challenging mysteries. Yet, such beliefs about OCD may facilitate the misconception that there are advantages associated with the disorder, potentially decreasing one's motivation to seek professional help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28864868&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;actual meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Across studies, small effect sizes were found for FSIQ and VIQ, and a moderate effect size for PIQ, exemplifying reduced IQ in OCD. However, mean IQ scores across OCD samples were in the normative range. Moderator analyses revealed no significant moderating effect across clinical and demographic indices. We conclude that, although lower than controls, OCD is associated with normative FSIQ and VIQ, and relatively lowered PIQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise there are popsci assertions (e.g. the aforementioned blog) that OCD correlates with creativity. It wasn't too hard to find &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2013.05.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a study&lt;/a&gt; that supports at least some of that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OCD was unrelated to the self-rating [of creativity] but was correlated with the Biographical Inventory of Creative Behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And interestingly this study also found OCD correlating positively with conscientiousness. I personally don't see the correlation with BICB they found as significant because there's no mention of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_comparisons_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;correcting for multiple comparisons&lt;/a&gt; and there are well over 20 comparisons made:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bzYa8.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bzYa8.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with studying creativity with statistics is that there hasn't been a widely accepted test for creativity. I remember trying to answer here a question on the link between schizophrenia and creativity (let me see if I can find the link). The results were all over the place depending on what measure of creativity was used. And due to the varied measures, no luck in finding a meta-analysis. Even for disorders much more popularly associated with creativity, e.g. bipolar or schizophrenia, there are serious methodological concerns which prompt &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/jun/08/new-study-claims-to-find-genetic-link-between-creativity-and-mental-illness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;continued skepticism&lt;/a&gt; in some (but not all) researchers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-02T21:53:27.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20112" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19865" CreationDate="2018-07-03T08:24:04.470" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is a person who believes that it's possible to overcome their depression more likely to overcome it then a person who believes that there's no hope overcoming their depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer depends on many factors; and if therapy is received, as with all mental health conditions, it also depends on the form of therapy the depressed client receives and the rapport between client and the therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CBT is often the go to form of therapy within &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.england.nhs.uk/mental-health/adults/iapt/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IAPT services&lt;/a&gt; advocating for therapies which they can easily measure outcomes.  However, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17325&quot;&gt;as pointed out in my answer on the limitations of CBT&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are a fair few factors which can prevent CBT from becoming effective, and a trained and certified CBT practitioner will be able to assess the suitability of CBT. If they operate ethically, they will not go ahead with providing CBT to someone who it would not benefit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of the biggest factors which doesn't allow CBT to work is that if the client is not willing or &lt;strong&gt;able&lt;/strong&gt; to challenge their thoughts and behaviours, then CBT will not be effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are articles covering the effect of positive expectations creating positive outcomes.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770572&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scheier &amp;amp; Carver (1993)&lt;/a&gt; pointed out that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People who see desired outcomes as attainable continue to strive for those outcomes, even when progress is slow or difficult.  When outcomes seem significantly unattainable, people withdraw their effort and disengage themselves from their goals.  Thus, people's expectations provide a basis for engaging in one or two very different classes of behavior; continued striving versus giving up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Belief that your depression can be cured will help by a considerable margin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is evidence consistent with the suggestion of the cognitive model of depression that certain negative cognitions can produce and maintain the state of depression. There is also good evidence that depressed mood affects the relative accessibility of positive and negative cognitions. Thus, negative cognitions appear to produce depression, and, conversely, depression increases the probability of just those cognitions which will cause further depression. This reciprocal relationship between depression and cognition may form the basis of a vicious cycle which will perpetuate and intensify depression. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6402(83)90013-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Teasdale, 1983&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.41.3.325&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Owen Lightsey (1994)&lt;/a&gt; also looked at &lt;em&gt;positive automatic thoughts&lt;/em&gt; (PATs) as a &quot;stress buffer&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is it possible that positive automatic thoughts (PATs) may similarly protect against depression? Such a finding could have considerable clinical significance. Cognitive therapies tend to focus on elimination of negative cognitions and on replacing maladaptive beliefs with adaptive beliefs (e.g., Beck et al., 1979); there is little focus on PATs per se. If PATs are found to uniquely buffer the effects of stress, straightforward training in generation of PATs could help to confer resilience&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later in the article he pointed out that things can be a little complicated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results for the overall sample confirmed the hypothesis that PATs predict future happiness: Higher frequency of pre-existing PATs was associated with greater future happiness. This finding suggests that PATs have an impact not only on immediate well-being, as suggested by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.216&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goodhart (1985)&lt;/a&gt;, but also on future well-being. Contrary to hypotheses, however, the overall PATs x Stressful Event interaction did not predict either depression or happiness. Unexpectedly, a subtype of PATs — PATs about social self-worth — behaved in a manner consistent with a stress buffer role: The interaction of PATs about social self-worth with stressful events predicted unique variance in depression, above the variance accounted for by other Factor x Stress interactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It won't necessarily mean you are doomed if you feel there is no end to your mental health problems; it just means it will take longer to help you. All depression can be dealt with effectively and successfully given enough time and proper support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., &amp;amp; Emery, G. (1979). &lt;em&gt;Cognitive therapy of depression&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goodhart, D. E. (1985). Some psychological effects associated with positive and negative thinking about stressful event outcomes: Was Pollyanna right?. &lt;em&gt;Journal of personality and social psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 48(1), 216. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.216&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.216&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lightsey, O. R. (1994). &quot; Thinking positive&quot; as a stress buffer: The role of positive automatic cognitions in depression and happiness. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Counseling Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 41(3), 325. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.41.3.325&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-0167.41.3.325&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scheier, M. F., &amp;amp; Carver, C. S. (1993). On the power of positive thinking: The benefits of being optimistic. &lt;em&gt;Current directions in psychological science&lt;/em&gt;, 2(1), 26-30. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770572&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770572&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Teasdale, J. D. (1983). Negative thinking in depression: Cause, effect, or reciprocal relationship?. &lt;em&gt;Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy&lt;/em&gt;, 5(1), 3-25.  DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6402(83)90013-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0146-6402(83)90013-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T08:24:04.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20113" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10082" CreationDate="2018-07-03T09:35:16.070" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I haven't found scientific literature on it. Non-scientific sources generally do seem to acknowledge that the passive voice radiates authority.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;To answer the question if there's scientific research on this topic - I wasn't able to find anything of value on an, admittedly, quite cursory Google Scholar search. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, given the high element of subjectivity in 'finding a text sounding authoritative', I think this question may be more suitable for &lt;a href=&quot;https://writing.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;Writing.SE&lt;/a&gt;. However, since the question is heavily upvoted, and since it does indeed touch on the Psychological Sciences, I'll give my two-cents worth based on two non-scientific, non-peer-reviewed book quotes and a regular website entry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinewritingtraining.com.au/2015/06/when-to-use-the-active-voice/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Online Writing Training&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of the main reasons why the passive voice gets such a bad name is that many [] writers overuse it to make their writing seem more formal and &lt;strong&gt;authoritative&lt;/strong&gt;. The result is often turgid, difficult-to-read prose. Take this example&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lebrun Jean-luc says in his book &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/8156#t=toc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scientific Writing 2.0: A Reader And Writer's Guide&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[The] passive voice [] give[s] the paper a more authoritative disembodies voice,...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a last example, William M. Vatavuk states in his book &lt;a href=&quot;http://maktaba.ku.ac.ke/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=52249&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marketing Yourself with Technical Writing: A Guide for Today's Professionals&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Maybe technical writers feel that  that the passive voice is more formal, more professional sounding, and that it gives their writing a more authoritative ring...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that last quote is important: people feel that way, but it's entirely a subjective thing; some may find the passive voice boring, others may regard it as authoritative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-03T14:28:54.877" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T14:28:54.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20115" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20117" CreationDate="2018-07-03T11:10:46.060" Score="18" ViewCount="7155" Body="&lt;p&gt;The last several years in my country there has been a string of fraud that involves people, claiming to be police, asking citizens to contribute large sums of money to aid &quot;police investigation&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cases persist even though news about it is all over the place, leading me to presume that the whole operation might be targeting people that suffer from a specific mental condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I was a child, there was this kid that you could trick literally any number times in a row, the same thing, in a sequence, just seconds apart, and it would fall for it each and every time. This memory leads me to presume that there is indeed such a condition, and that the aforementioned fraud operation targets people with that condition, so I was wondering if this kind of behavior is studied and documented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; The answers so far focus on trust, which is understandable, since I did say &quot;gullible&quot;, and it is an omission of my own that I didn't mention it in the initial post, but in many of those cases there is also an element of intimidation immediately prior to the request to &quot;help catch the criminals&quot;, which probably plays a significant psychological role too, slightly expanding the context beyond just &quot;unconditional unfounded trust&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16359" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-01-26T19:37:45.050" LastActivityDate="2019-01-26T19:37:45.050" Title="Is there a mental condition that makes people unconditionally gullible?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;trust&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20117" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20115" CreationDate="2018-07-03T13:26:35.303" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/news/2011/04/17/severe-gullibility-a-warning-sign-of-dementia/25397.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurodegenerative diseases cause extreme gullibility&lt;/a&gt;, in particular Alzheimer &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the scientists were able to determine which parts of the brain govern a person’s ability to identify sarcasm and lies.  The images revealed the associations between the deteriorations of particular parts of the brain and the inability to detect insincere speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“These patients cannot detect lies,” said UCSF neuropsychologist Dr. Katherine Rankin, a member of the UCSF Memory and Aging Center and the senior author of the study. “This fact can help them be diagnosed earlier.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The frontal lobes are strongly associated with complex, higher-order human thinking; thus being unable to detect a lie is only one of several ways the disease may manifest itself. Early symptoms may include any number of differences in behavior, including acting out in socially inappropriate ways or experiencing fundamental shifts in beliefs — changing political views or religions, for example. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As such brain-damage related phenomena, sometimes accidental or neurodevelopmental versions are found, but they are usually rarer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the latter, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-7750(01)80007-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Greenspan et al. (2001)&lt;/a&gt; have proposed that gullibiltiy be considered a defining characteristic of mental retardation, but their proposal is not mainstream:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recent efforts to redefine mental retardation (MR) have been based on the belief&#xA;  that invented scientific criteria, e.g., IQ and adaptive behavior, are insufficient to&#xA;  diagnose a disorder which over the centuries was diagnosed on the basis of intuitive&#xA;  prototypes (Greenspan, 1997). In this chapter, we argue that a central aspect of the&#xA;  MR prototype which has been largely overlooked in recent conceptualizations is&#xA;  a tendency toward unusual credulity and gullibility. In our view, it is credulity and&#xA;  gullibility, as much or more than deficiencies in daily living skills, which cause&#xA;  people with MR (and, for that matter, other forms of cognitive impairment) to be&#xA;  viewed as &quot;disabled&quot; and, perhaps, in need of protections such as conservatorship&#xA;  arrangements. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their evidence (in that paper) is mostly in form of case report series rather than more systematic. A more systematic study was conducted by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361310365070&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sofronoff et al. (2011)&lt;/a&gt; on children with Asperger syndrome (AS). This choice of subjects had the advantage that IQ effects could be separated from social intelligence. Sofronoff et al. had devised a &quot;Social Vulnerability Questionnaire&quot; (fairly PC name) some 4 years prior, and it turned out they could even distinguish between gullibility and credulity using their instrument, a distinction inspired from Greenspan's ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Constructs related to deficits in social intelligence are credulity and&#xA;  gullibility. Greenspan, Loughlin and Black (2001) defined credulity as ‘a&#xA;  tendency to believe something, usually a highly questionable statement or&#xA;  claim, despite scanty evidence’ (p. 102) and gullibility as ‘a vulnerability&#xA;  to being tricked or manipulated’ (p. 102). The authors stated that the two&#xA;  constructs are very closely related in that the presence of credulity invariably&#xA;  leads to a gullible outcome and that, while a tendency to be trusting&#xA;  may generally be a good and stable attribute, survival in the social world&#xA;  requires an ability to discriminate those occasional situations where&#xA;  compliance or agreement may result in an adverse outcome. The authors&#xA;  state that low social intelligence and specifically high credulity and gullibility&#xA;  may lie at the heart of poor social outcomes for children and adults&#xA;  with AS (Greenspan et al., 2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cAzAE.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cAzAE.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Table 1 shows the items&#xA;  and their factor loadings after rotation. The two factors relate to getting&#xA;  tricked into things or bullied (factor one) and believing others’ statements to their own detriment (factor two). A Pearson’s correlation revealed the two&#xA;  factors were moderately correlated with one another, r = .519, suggesting&#xA;  that while related they are different enough to be two distinct factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However despite this statistical feat, the number of Asperger's children who were outright identified as gullible as fairly low, around 11% of the sample; credulity was more widespread at 23%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OPVtC.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OPVtC.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that the SVS questionnaire invited examples from the respondents (parents)  in order to substantiate their Likert scale choices, the authors could illustrate with some snippets:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Other areas that were mentioned by more than&#xA;  10% of parents included credulity or deception:‘believes everything other kids say,&#xA;  even if it’s wrong’ and ‘has watched TV and insisted that we buy something because the&#xA;  salesmen said “you must buy this”’; [...]&#xA;  and gullibility ‘today J threw a girl’s hat on the school roof because another child told him&#xA;  to’ and ‘told to jump in the school fish pond’.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2018.02.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2018 paper by Seward et al.&lt;/a&gt; was rather skeptical of Sofronoff et al.'s claim of two clear factors in children; they could not replicate the finding using a different questionnaire:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Specifically, the first factor (gullibility) contained&#xA;  victimisation items and the second factor contained&#xA;  both credulity and gullibility items. Consequently, these&#xA;  findings raise doubt as to whether the two-factor conceptualisation&#xA;  of social vulnerability described by Greenspan&#xA;  et al. (2001) is applicable to children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The two-factor&#xA;  conceptualisation of social vulnerability (i.e., credulity and&#xA;  gullibility) proposed by Greenspan et al. (2001) did not&#xA;  emerge in the current study, even when a two-factor solution&#xA;  was forced, despite having items clearly representing&#xA;  both credulity and gullibility and a large sample with considerable&#xA;  variability. Rather, our results indicate that credulity&#xA;  and gullibility are part of the same factor, suggesting that&#xA;  the theoretical conceptualisation of social vulnerability&#xA;  described by Greenspan et al. (2001) is not applicable to&#xA;  children. It is possible that, for children, social vulnerability&#xA;  is a unitary construct, and that as individuals develop,&#xA;  the construct becomes more complex and delineates into&#xA;  two factors (credulity and gullibility) as seen in older adults&#xA;  (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/08946566.2011.584049&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pinsker et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt;). Further research conducted across the&#xA;  lifespan will be required to determine if this is in fact the&#xA;  case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However Seward et al. did find something else of interest (again proposed by Greenspan) namely that gullibility/credulity wasn't the same thing as general weakness in social skill altogether:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Furthermore, the weak negative relationship between parent&#xA;  reports of social vulnerability and prosocial behaviour&#xA;  indicates that being socially vulnerable is not simply having&#xA;  a lack of social skills, providing support for discriminant&#xA;  validity. This is consistent with Greenspan et al. (2001)&#xA;  who suggested that poor social skills are likely to contribute&#xA;  to (but are not the same thing as) being deceived&#xA;  or cheated&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding William's syndrome; the actual systematic research on this looks somewhat limited to me. Wikipedia does indeed claim that they are unusually trusting... but what the actual papers citedy say is...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aaiddjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1352/0895-8017(1999)104%3C0158:RBPPIW%3E2.0.CO;2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dykens &amp;amp;  Rosner&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Interest in other were seen as well in the Help Others domain, with both the Williams and Prader-Willi groups showing &quot;strong desires to help others&quot; and being &quot;very happy when others do well&quot;. The Williams syndrome group, however was singularly high in the item &quot;feels terrible when others are hurt&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1987.tb00212.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Udwin et al.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;overanxious to please and constantly seeking reassurance of satisfactory progress (34%)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aaiddjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1352/0895-8017(1997)102%3C0045:BAEDII%3E2.0.CO;2?code=aamr-site&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Einfeldad et al.&lt;/a&gt; don't actually have any findings of their own in this respect, but cite &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7864042&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gosh an Pankau&lt;/a&gt; for &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;higher levels of indiscriminate friendliness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One can presumably manipulate people with Williams by playing this card... I guess this qualifies as gullible to some degree, although perhaps not as credulity. All the papers cited in Wikipedia on this are pretty old (all predate Greenspan's 2001) so maybe it's a matter of terminology. Greenspan et al. offer some commentary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reis (1998), in a study of young adult women with Williams&#xA;  syndrome--a chromosomal disorder associated with mild or borderline MR---&#xA;  found that virtually 100% of them had been sexually abused by male peers or&#xA;  workers. Dykens (1998), confirming this finding, has attributed it to the extreme need to please which is an aspect of the Williams syndrome behavioral phenotype.&#xA;  While such affective and motivational factors undoubtedly are very important (see&#xA;  the multidimensional model depicted in Fig. 1), it should not be assumed that&#xA;  social-cognitive factors, such as credulity, are irrelevant. There is considerable&#xA;  research (Dykens &amp;amp; Hodapp, 1998; Rourke, 1995) suggesting that social deficits&#xA;  in people with various syndromes are typically more significant than their academic&#xA;  deficits. Furthermore, the tendency to think of social competence primarily in terms&#xA;  of agreeableness may blind observers to the very real social intelligence deficits&#xA;  of individuals (such as most people with Williams syndrome) who are extremely&#xA;  affable and verbally facile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WI5cD.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WI5cD.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And about the news stories... scamming the average person by phone is easy enough without access to health records and the like. The Bulgarian cases reminded me of the Taiwanese located in Spain or even Kenya &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-39294773&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scamming mainland Chinese&lt;/a&gt; with a scheme in which a caller pretend to be police asking for help. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For contrast, Greenspan in his 2009 book has a vignette of someone with Williams syndrome... and it's much more extreme... most people can't be convinced to leave their home and sleep under a bridge:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Larry’s need for support [from a neighborhood association] stemmed from his extreme gullibility, and the&#xA;  threat that this posed on numerous occasions to his wellbeing. Specifically,&#xA;  Larry—who lived alone—was very lonely, and he tended to befriend homeless&#xA;  people living on the street. He would give them keys so that they could use&#xA;  his bathroom or sleep in his apartment, would agree to give them money&#xA;  (when he barely had enough to make it through the month), and was even&#xA;  persuaded, until someone intervened, to run off to live under the boardwalk at&#xA;  Coney Island with one of his homeless friends. Aside from the costs to Larry&#xA;  (such as having his meager possessions repeatedly ripped off ), the presence&#xA;  of these strangers in the building—many of them with criminal backgrounds&#xA;  or severe mental illness—was very upsetting to Larry’s neighbors, who feared&#xA;  both physical damage to the building (e.g., a shower left running in Larry’s&#xA;  apartment caused major water damage) and for their own safety. Thus, the&#xA;  decision by Larry’s neighbors to create a “circle of friends” was motivated not&#xA;  only out of affection for him but also because they saw it as an alternative to&#xA;  his eviction (which had been considered at one time) and as a way to protect&#xA;  themselves and Larry from his own gullibility, a gullibility that reflected his&#xA;  cognitive limitations as well as his strong social neediness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, older people are apparently &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.futurity.org/older-adults-financial-fraud-1155172/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more susceptible&lt;/a&gt; to scams:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“When emotionally aroused, either excited or frustrated, older adults may be more susceptible to being victimized by scammers than are younger individuals,” says Ian H. Gotlib, professor of psychology and author of a new &lt;a href=&quot;http://longevity3.stanford.edu/fraud-issue-brief/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;report&lt;/a&gt; from the Center on Longevity at Stanford University.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This gives a much &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.stetson.edu/law/academics/elder/ecpp/media/update-why-the-elderly-02-11-2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;simpler&lt;/a&gt; way for scammers to profile their targets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies show that the elderly – individuals aged 60 and over – are targeted more frequently&#xA;  by financial fraud and scams than other age groups. A recent MetLife Study of Elder and&#xA;  Financial Abuse found that in 2010, $2.9 billion (yes, that’s billion with a B) was stolen from the&#xA;  elderly through financial fraud, scams, and exploitation. Additionally, research conducted by the&#xA;  Federal Trade Commission found that 80% of telemarketing scam victims are over the age of 60. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-03T20:15:38.880" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T20:15:38.880" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20118" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9557" CreationDate="2018-07-03T14:21:53.197" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Sub-vocalization can also be detected during cognitive demanding tasks other than reading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;As far as I can see, most literature acknowledges sub-vocalizing as being only detectable by measuring the electrical nerve activity that drive the speech organs (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5970156/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Parnin (2011)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://magicspeedreading.com/subvocalization/nasa.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NASA Research&lt;/a&gt;). When people perform complex tasks, these sub-vocal utterances can be recorded as electrical signals sent to the tongue, lips, or vocal cords, and these can be detected. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sub-vocalizing has been mostly described in terms of reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022537180906283&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; Slowiaczek &amp;amp; Clifton, 1980)&lt;/a&gt;. Nonetheless, more recent literature also associates and acknowledges sub-vocalization when people perform mental tasks that claim a lot of mental processing, such as software programming (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5970156/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Parnin (2011)&lt;/a&gt;, so the answer to your question is yes, it also occurs during thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, as a side note, stutterers sub vocalize more slowly, reflecting the fact that indeed much of the same mechanisms are at work during sub-vocalization as during normal speech &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2273890&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bosshardt, 1990)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2273890&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bosshardt, &lt;em&gt;J Speech Hear Res&lt;/em&gt; (1990); &lt;strong&gt;33&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 776-85&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5970156/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Parnin, &lt;em&gt;IEEE 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; International Conference on Program Comprehension&lt;/em&gt; (2011)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022537180906283&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;J Verbal Learning Verbal Behav (1980); &lt;strong&gt;19&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 573-82&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-08-01T08:43:58.363" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T08:43:58.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20119" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20115" CreationDate="2018-07-03T15:14:01.387" Score="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Worldbuilding may have beaten you to this: &lt;a href=&quot;https://worldbuilding.stackexchange.com/a/99881/15591&quot;&gt;https://worldbuilding.stackexchange.com/a/99881/15591&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Williams Syndrome&lt;/a&gt; is not, strictly-speaking a purely mental condition. It is &quot;caused by a genetic abnormality&quot; and commonly leads to problems &quot;with teeth, heart problems, especially supravalvular aortic stenosis, and periods of high blood calcium&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, Williams Syndrome &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; lead to incredible levels of gullibility. People suffering from the condition are easy to mislead and trick, due to their universal friendliness (even to total strangers). An example from one of the WB-cited stories was that WS people are known to over-draft their bank accounts buying lunch for their coworkers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your specific case, it would be easy to tell if WS were involved, since it is associated with a very distinct set of facial features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11743" LastEditorUserId="11743" LastEditDate="2018-07-03T15:46:53.780" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T15:46:53.780" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20120" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2045" CreationDate="2018-07-03T15:51:34.247" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thought can be trained like any other skill, by means of practice and persistence and gradual increase in the challenge until you peak. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a universal trade-off between bandwidth and latency, or throughput and delay if you will, that also applies to thinking. Fast thought cannot really go all that deep, it is basic and superficial. If you want to be able to rapidly present complex ideas or problem solutions, the only way is to be prepared in advance, though a far slower and gradual thought process. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a common misconception that routine thought is tad amount to practicing thought. Routine thought can at best maintain the current level, but usually it gradually drops it. It doesn't make you any better of a thinker than occasional running to catch the bus makes you a better runner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And finally, be forewarned to the downsides of losing the &quot;happiness of the dumb&quot;. Not that being more intelligent necessarily means being unhappy, it just means you can no longer be happy about many of the basic things, as they are no longer able to hit the now elevated level of &quot;rewarding&quot;, instead appearing dull and unsatisfying. There is another common misconception that more intelligent people are intrinsically more unhappy, but those are people not quite intelligent enough to figure out that they simply need new and more meaningful things to be happy about and expect to get gratification from the stuff that used to work before the increase in intellect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16359" LastEditorUserId="16359" LastEditDate="2018-07-03T16:34:04.503" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T16:34:04.503" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20121" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20123" CreationDate="2018-07-03T17:04:55.963" Score="3" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read a description of this phenomenon in a book (can't remember which one). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, if a problem is presented in a dry, academic format, it's MUCH more difficult to solve than a problem presented in a real-world format.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The example from the book was something like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Problem presented in academic format&lt;/strong&gt; - 10% of people are able to solve it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have 3 cards. One side of each card has letters, the other side has numbers. 2 cards are showing - one shows an A, the other shows a 3. How many cards do you have to turn over in order to figure out if all of the numbers are even?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Problem presented in real-world format&lt;/strong&gt; - 95% of people are able to solve it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are 3 people in a bar. One of them is drinking a coke. Another one is a senior citizen. How many people's ID's do you need to check, to see if they're of legal drinking age?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This isn't exactly right, but it was along these lines. You'd remember if you read it as well, it was a very striking and very believable difference in people's ability to solve the exact same problem (logically) but just in different formats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can somebody remind me of where I found this, and what it's called, maybe the book it came from or something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19690" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T19:42:58.193" Title="Research on how problem, presented in practical, real world format, is solved much more easily?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20123" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20121" CreationDate="2018-07-03T19:42:58.193" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pretty sure you're talking about the Wason selection task, and the bar variation is generally attributed to Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (1992).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wason_selection_task&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wason_selection_task&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-07-03T19:42:58.193" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20124" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-03T22:31:53.640" Score="5" ViewCount="2780" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone please clarify for me the difference between valence and sentiment? I am from a computer science background. In our literature they seem to be used in the same sense. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Currently I am doing some natural language processing where I estimate both valence and sentiment using two separately established lexicon data sets. Surprisingly, for my data, the valence and sentiment scores are very different. Are they really the same?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The definition of valence as given &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/18258/definition-of-valence-arousal-and-dominance&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; seems very similar to sentiment (intuitively). &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4329/d5fcfbecdd362d315bdfb73ceba5fb1a6221.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; valence is defined as one aspect of sentiment (referring to a publication by Russell, 1979). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19696" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-07-04T07:55:53.593" LastActivityDate="2018-08-05T18:01:58.180" Title="Difference between valence and sentiment" Tags="&lt;arousal&gt;&lt;sentiment-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20125" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20137" CreationDate="2018-07-04T06:33:35.517" Score="2" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was thinking on how environment conservation efforts might be enhanced or enforced and I was reflecting that people have to develop a colective conscience that would allow them to spend extra time and work for the good of the community and for the future generations, and not necessarily for an immediate benefit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question I keep asking myself is whether people are actually capable of this mindset. Are there any documented cases in history where a society has altruistically created or conserved something exclusively for the benefit of next generations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An good example of such behavior would be the following: the inhabitants of a region discover a deposit of gold and instead of going full force with the extraction, they rationalize thinking that the gold might benefit their children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I regard building cities as a method for the aim of satisfying day to day needs and art as a mean to not be forgotten.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can this type of altruistic behavior propagate even in a society that doesn’t meet the best quality of life standards and where most members are not highly educated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19701" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-07-04T07:17:28.897" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T08:06:07.767" Title="Are societies capable of sacrificing time and energy exclusively for the benefit of future generations?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20126" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-04T07:44:24.660" Score="0" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that the so-called brain training games like Lumosity &lt;a href=&quot;http://fortune.com/2017/07/10/brain-games-research-lumosity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doesn't work&lt;/a&gt;. But is there any exercise ( mental or physical) that I can do or medicine pills that I can take, that are proven to be able to improve one's learning ability? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to be able to learn fast, and I want to learn so that I can learn even faster!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am aware that if one does a cognitive task/exercise continuously, one will get better at that task specifically, but this is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; what I am looking for. I want the benefits of the exercise to spill over to learning ability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Addendum:&lt;/strong&gt; I found out what I was initially interested to ask: which is whether &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/16501/4535&quot;&gt;it is possible to improve one's &lt;em&gt;fluid intelligence&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4535" LastEditorUserId="4535" LastEditDate="2018-07-04T08:33:03.423" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T10:02:18.617" Title="Is it possible to enhance one's learning ability?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-07-05T09:22:46.893" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20127" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20126" CreationDate="2018-07-04T11:33:13.510" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interventions which try to make a person 'smarter' in pretty much any sense of the word don't really work. In particular, methods very rarely show any spillover effects whatsoever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, what can work is the application of &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1529100612453266&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;good learning techniques&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most people trying to learn stuff tend to highlight, reread, summarise, or try fancy mnemonics. These usually don't work very well and are more likely to make you think that you know what you're doing than actually facilitate understanding. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What people generally don't do but what does work are distributed practice, spaced learning, practice testing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19500" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T11:33:13.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20128" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20126" CreationDate="2018-07-04T12:03:07.797" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot cite peer-reviewed research, but at the very lest from my own quest for knowledge, practice (unsurprisingly) and increase in scope seem to work out pretty well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Increase of scope being beneficial might have to do with reality being subject to a small set of basic underlying principles, so ultimately even seemingly unrelated topics of knowledge are eventually revealed to converge. So at some point you begin to see the parallels, and gain the ability to apply them to understand things better and easier. The gradual revealing of a previously obscure &quot;big picture&quot; if you will.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has been the approach of some of the most prominent thinkers in human history, such as Leonardo da Vincci, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton just to name a few, Renaissance Men a.k.a polymaths. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Granted, polymathism limits the distance you can cover in any particular direction, but that only impedes pioneering. Spreading competence into several fields exponentially boosts the overall volume in which you can understand and apply knowledge. Seeing things from several different conceptual perspectives is far more useful than any amount of detail in seeing things from a single perspective. That is not to say that pioneering is not important, just that it doesn't really happen unless you are naturally gifted in that direction, which if you were you'd definitely know by the time you reach adolescence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The so-called &quot;brain training&quot; cannot possibly result in ability you don't already have, just the improvement of what you already have. Like... you can't train math if you don't already know math, merely improving automated knowledge. What really matters in terms of enhancing learning ability is expanding your conceptual mind, and that involves the acquisition of new concepts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due to how the brain works, especially the chemical reward-punishment system, leaning is far from a pleasant process,  the brain acts to reinforce that which it already contains, and to prevent that which it doesn't, indiscriminate as to whether the information is harmful or beneficial, so the most important thing is to be persistent, even when it doesn't seem like it yields results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another big impedance to learning is actually attempting to acquire knowledge as formulated by others. People's minds are fairly unique, that which works for one may not necessarily work for someone else. But also, if we don't have common terms we wouldn't be able to understand one another. So it is important to find a solution to this problem. Being 100% individualistic doesn't work, neither does being 100% conformant, because that's just memorizing, not understanding. I find it important to understand things in your own conceptual idioms, and then map the knowledge to what is already established. I suspect the opposite may work just as well for certain individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16359" LastEditorUserId="16359" LastEditDate="2018-07-05T10:02:18.617" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T10:02:18.617" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20129" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12620" CreationDate="2018-07-04T12:08:41.257" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It has been argued that infants are born with an ability to recognize,  distinguish and even operate on small numbers.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Speaking from experience (n = 2 :-) toddlers learn to count, first of all. That means they know 2 comes after 1, 3 after 2 &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;. In conjunction, we read them stories, like the very hungry caterpillar that graphically shows how, consecutively, the little critter starts eating holes in 1 apple, 2 pears, 3 plums and so forth, after which the caterpillar turns into a butterfly (Fig. 1). So there's the element of a growing and developing critter (time) eating more and more pieces of fruit (size). Meanwhile the parent will count the ever growing number of fruit out loud. These kinds of books are highly appealing to 2-year olds in my experience. My 3-year old can count, and has a reasonable idea of what it means. My 5-year old can perform simple mathematical operations, and will have a reasonable idea that 2+2 is less than 4+4. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So much for the anecdotal evidence - In the literature it has been argued that infants are born with an ability to recognize and distinguish among ones, twos, and threes, and can even operate on very small numbers, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, recognize that one object added to another makes two - all before they develop verbal-based counting competencies. It may in fact go so far that infants are innately born with counting principles, allowing them to count nonverbally &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arthur_Baroody/publication/232576354_The_Development_of_Young_Children&amp;#39;s_Early_Number_and_Operation_Sense_and_its_Implications_for_Early_Childhood_Education/links/55f08e2c08ae199d47c2173d/The-Development-of-Young-Childrens-Early-Number-and-Operation-Sense-and-its-Implications-for-Early-Childhood-Education.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Baroody &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2005)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This information leads me to believe that all the effort (us) parents put into reading the '&lt;em&gt;Very Hungry Caterpillar'&lt;/em&gt; is more to associate language to mathematics, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, to provide the lexicon to talk about math, rather than to educate them on maths &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/85xfC.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/85xfC.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Hungrycaterpillar&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig.1. Graphical content of '&lt;em&gt;The Very Hungry Caterpillar&lt;/em&gt;'. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://littlefolkvisuals.com/products/eric-carle-the-very-hungry-caterpillar&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Little Folk Visuals&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arthur_Baroody/publication/232576354_The_Development_of_Young_Children&amp;#39;s_Early_Number_and_Operation_Sense_and_its_Implications_for_Early_Childhood_Education/links/55f08e2c08ae199d47c2173d/The-Development-of-Young-Childrens-Early-Number-and-Operation-Sense-and-its-Implications-for-Early-Childhood-Education.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The development of young children's early number and operation sense and its implications for early childhood education. In B. Spodek &amp;amp; O. N. Saracho (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;Handbook of research on the education of young children&lt;/em&gt; (187-221). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-04T19:22:18.040" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T19:22:18.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20130" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18903" CreationDate="2018-07-04T12:50:58.697" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first line treatment for stuttering (I'm a stutterer myself) is speech therapy. Such therapies generally focus on helping stutterers to learn ways to minimize stuttering when they speak, such as by speaking more slowly, regulating their breathing, or gradually progressing from single-syllable responses to longer words and more complex sentences. Most of these therapies also help address the anxiety a person who stutters may feel in certain speaking situations (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/stuttering#treated&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIH&lt;/a&gt;). Anxiety management has especially worked well for me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No drug therapy is currently approved against stuttering. I also don't know of any drug that targets the sympathetic nervous system. Having said that, there are a few interesting drugs investigated in clinical trials so far:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dopamine-blocking medications against bipolar disorder, Tourette’s Disorder and Schizophrenia have been found to be effective in reducing the symptoms of stuttering (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://westutter.org/what-is-stuttering/resources/pharmaceuticals-for-stuttering/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NSA&lt;/a&gt;). Their side effects, however, don't seem to weigh up against their effectiveness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagoclone&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pagoclone&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, a GABA-agonist used as anxiolytic has shown some effectiveness, but not enough to warrant it to be marked as anti-stutter therapy (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.stammering.org/speaking-out/article/pagoclone-disappointing-news&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BSA&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-04T12:58:55.590" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T12:58:55.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20131" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20132" CreationDate="2018-07-04T13:16:25.140" Score="3" ViewCount="1488" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tnu.ethz.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/Publications/2018/Horvath_Szucs_Csukly_Sakovics_Stefanics_2018.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Horvath &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2018)&lt;/a&gt; mention that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The disappearance of posterior dominant alpha rhythm and the diffuse&#xA;  slowing in AD (alzheimer disease) are easily detectable EEG signs for the experienced&#xA;  eyes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does diffuse slowing mean in this context? I tried searching it up online but I only found papers that take its meaning for granted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;1. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tnu.ethz.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/Publications/2018/Horvath_Szucs_Csukly_Sakovics_Stefanics_2018.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Horvath, A., Szucs, A., Csukly, G., Sakovics, A., Stefanics, G. and Kamondi, A., 2018. EEG and ERP biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease: a critical review. Frontiers in bioscience (Landmark edition), 23, pp.183-220&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19708" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-04T13:44:55.710" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T13:44:55.710" Title="What does &quot;diffuse slowing&quot; mean in the context of EEG and Alzheimer's?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;alzheimer&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20131" CreationDate="2018-07-04T13:41:30.763" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1140530-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Medscape&lt;/a&gt; defines &lt;a href=&quot;https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1140530-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;diffuse&lt;/a&gt; as &lt;strong&gt;generalized&lt;/strong&gt;, in the context of EEG. Generalized means activity recorded across large portions of the cortex. This opposes &lt;strong&gt;focal&lt;/strong&gt; patterns, that occur locally. In turn this is reflected in generalized epilepsy and focal epilepsy. Generalized epilepsias are characterized by gross paroxysmal activity across the cortex, associated with a loss of consciousness. Focal epilepsy is localized in the cortex and stays restricted to one hemisphere and is not associated with a loss of consciousness.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK390357/#_pt6_s1_&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Britton &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2016)&lt;/a&gt; explain &lt;strong&gt;generalized and focal slowing&lt;/strong&gt; in the EEG as follows: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The two main types of slowing are focal and generalized slowing. As&#xA;  previously discussed, generalized background slowing in the theta and&#xA;  delta frequency ranges is a normal finding on EEG when it represents&#xA;  developmental slowing [] or the evolution of drowsiness and sleep activity. However, when there is intermittent or persistent focal slowing seen consistently over one head region, or persistent, unvarying, and unreactive focal or generalized slow wave activity in a vigilant adult patient, this slow wave activity should be considered pathologic and indicates&#xA;  corresponding focal or generalized cerebral dysfunction or both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK390357/#_pt6_s1_&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Britton &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. The Abnormal EEG. In: St. Louis &amp;amp; Frey (eds). &lt;em&gt;Electroencephalography (EEG): An Introductory Text and Atlas of Normal and Abnormal Findings in Adults, Children, and Infants&lt;/em&gt;. Chicago: American Epilepsy Society; 2016&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-07-04T13:41:30.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20133" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16170" CreationDate="2018-07-04T15:43:05.713" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;TL;DR&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The story is not that clear cut. The hyposthesis is possible, however the incidence levels of Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) has risen over the years.  Speculation might say that the higher IQ averages would indicate that the average severity of FAS has decreased, but I cannot find any study to back that up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Full answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that in order to answer this question you need to look at the framework of your question and the whole question centres on IQ (Intelligence Quotient) and Fetal Alcohol Syndome.  So let's break this up into the 2 components.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;IQ (Intelligence Quotient)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Intelligence Quotient&lt;/a&gt; is a total score derived from several standardised tests designed to assess human intelligence, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;human intelligence involves&lt;/a&gt; the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, apply logic, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, comprehend ideas, plan, solve problems, make decisions, retain information, and use language to communicate. Intelligence enables humans to experience and think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A baby exposed to alcohol in the womb may have learning difficulties such as problems with thinking, speech, maths or memory (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/foetal-alcohol-syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NHS, 2017&lt;/a&gt;) — all needed for high intelligence — and foetal alcohol syndrome is a type of foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), the name for all the various problems that can affect children if their mother drinks alcohol in pregnancy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/facts.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CDC, 2018&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CDC (2018) also states that a person with an FASD might have:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Difficulty with attention&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Poor memory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Difficulty in school (especially with math)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learning disabilities&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Speech and language delays&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Poor reasoning and judgment skills, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intellectual disability or low IQ&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With all this in mind, it is possible that with lower incidences of FAS due to lower numbers of drinking pregnant mothers, comes higher average IQ numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The following studies looked at this hypothesis&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;FAS and corresponding IQ levels&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1999.tb00518.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Riikonen, R., Salonen, I., Partanen, K., &amp;amp; Verho, S. (1999). Brain perfusion SPECT and MRI in foetal alcohol syndrome.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Eleven  children  with  a  diagnosis  of  FAS  (six  boys  and  five&#xA;  girls), with a mean age of 8.6 (range 3 to 13) years, participated in the study. &lt;strong&gt;[...]&lt;/strong&gt; Tests showed moderate learning disability in two children (IQ 40 and 46, respectively) (subjects 2 and 11) and mild learning disability (IQ 68 to 85) or normal intelligence (IQ &gt;85) in the others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(78)80420-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Streissguth, A. P., Herman, C. S., &amp;amp; Smith, D. W. (1978). Intelligence, behavior, and dysmorphogenesis in the fetal alcohol syndrome: A report on 20 patients.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a sample of 20 patients with the fetal alcohol syndrome, ages 9 months to 21 years, the average IQ was 65, with a range of 16 to 105; 60% of the patients had IQ's more than two standard deviations below the mean. The sample included patients who ranged in severity of dysmorphogenesis from mild to severe. The severity of the dysmorphic features was related to degree of mental deficiency; children with the most severe manifestations of FAS had an average IQ of 55, whereas children with lesser manifestations had an average IQ of 82. All children were growth deficient for height and/or head circumference, but in this study only height was significantly correlated with IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Incidence levels of FAS&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0892-0362(95)00005-C&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Abel, E. L. (1995). An update on incidence of FAS: FAS is not an equal opportunity birth defect.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a previous survey (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1991.tb00553.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Abel &amp;amp; Sokol, 1991&lt;/a&gt;), the incidence of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) in the Western world was estimated at 0.33 cases per 1,000 live born, with a higher incidence among low SES/ African Americans than among middle-high SES/Caucasians. That eariier survey was based on 15 prospective studies of general obstetric populations appearing for prenatal care. Since that analysis, there has been almost a two-fold increase in such studies, allowing for a more up-to-date estimate of the incidence of this anomaly and a clearer perspective of at-risk populations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The incidence of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is now estimated at 0.97 cases per 1,000 live births in the general obstetric population and 4.3% among “heavy” drinkers. The general incidence is more than 20 times higher in the United States (1.95 per 1,000) compared to Europe and other countries (0.08 per 1,000). Within the United States, the incidence at sites characterized by low socioeconomic status, and African American or Native American background are about 10 times higher (2.29 cases per 1,000) compared to sites with a predominant middle/upper SES and Caucasian background (0.26 per 1,000). Based on racial background, the number of pregnant women in the U.S. giving birth to FAS children is 2,043 per year; if based on socioeconomic status, the number is slightly higher 2,366. Although race and SES are confounded in the U.S. studies, an examination of U.S. and European studies suggests that the major factor associated with FAS is low SES rather than racial background.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/41991432&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Habbick, B. F., Nanson, J. L., Snyder, R. E., Casey, R. E., &amp;amp; Schulman, A. L. (1996). Foetal alcohol syndrome in Saskatchewan: unchanged incidence in a 20-year period.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Despite major initiatives in public and professional education about foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) in Saskatchewan in the last 20 years, its incidence rate has not fallen. The rate was 0.515 per 1,000 live births in 1973-1977 and 0.589 in 1988-1992.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The story is not that clear cut. The hyposthesis is possible, however the incidence levels of Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) has risen over the years. Speculation might say that the higher IQ averages would indicate that the average severity of FAS has decreased, but I cannot find any study to back that up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abel, E. L., &amp;amp; Sokol, R. J. (1991). A revised conservative estimate of the incidence of FAS and its economic impact. &lt;em&gt;Alcoholism: Clinical and experimental research&lt;/em&gt;, 15(3), 514-524. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1991.tb00553.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1530-0277.1991.tb00553.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abel, E. L. (1995). An update on incidence of FAS: FAS is not an equal opportunity birth defect. &lt;em&gt;Neurotoxicology and teratology&lt;/em&gt;, 17(4), 437-443. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0892-0362(95)00005-C&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0892-0362(95)00005-C&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CDC (2018). &lt;em&gt;Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs)&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/facts.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/facts.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Habbick, B., Nanson, J., Snyder, R., Casey, R., &amp;amp; Schulman, A. (1996). Foetal Alcohol Syndrome in Saskatchewan: Unchanged Incidence in a 20-year Period. &lt;em&gt;Canadian Journal of Public Health / Revue Canadienne De Sante'e Publique&lt;/em&gt;, 87(3), 204-207. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/41991432&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/41991432&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8771927&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;8771927&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NHS (2017). &lt;em&gt;Foetal alcohol syndrome&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/foetal-alcohol-syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/foetal-alcohol-syndrome&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Riikonen, R., Salonen, I., Partanen, K., &amp;amp; Verho, S. (1999). Brain perfusion SPECT and MRI in foetal alcohol syndrome. &lt;em&gt;Developmental Medicine &amp;amp; Child Neurology&lt;/em&gt;, 41(10), 652-659. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1999.tb00518.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1469-8749.1999.tb00518.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Streissguth, A. P., Herman, C. S., &amp;amp; Smith, D. W. (1978). Intelligence, behavior, and dysmorphogenesis in the fetal alcohol syndrome: A report on 20 patients. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of pediatrics&lt;/em&gt;, 92(3), 363-367. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(78)80420-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0022-3476(78)80420-X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-05T13:28:38.910" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T13:28:38.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20134" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19948" CreationDate="2018-07-04T17:11:42.697" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;The hypothesis&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ted Bundy went into trance like states during his killing sprees&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is an anecdotal observation which can be true or it may be false.  If we are to be considering it to be true, you could say that what is being described is a &lt;strong&gt;severe&lt;/strong&gt; pathological form of dissociation or compartmentalisation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I covered the idea of compartmentalisation in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19298/word-for-naming-your-negative-self-talk-to-overcome-it&quot;&gt;totally unrelated question&lt;/a&gt; whereby;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Compartmentalisation is often employed, for example, by people within the emergency services (fire officers, paramedics, police officers, coastguard etc.) in order for them to concentrate on the immediate task whilst temporarily isolating themselves from their emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Compartmentalisation is a form of dissociation in a sense because &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19778&quot;&gt;dissociation is&lt;/a&gt; a psychological defence mechanism (Cardeña, 1994) which helps the person to get through the situation with as little harm as possible. The difference between compartmentalisation and dissociation is that when you are compartmentalising, you are very much aware of what you are doing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;So in conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is being described fits the description of dissociation but it would have to be a &lt;strong&gt;severe&lt;/strong&gt; pathological form of dissociation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If Ted Bundy did have &lt;strong&gt;real&lt;/strong&gt; empathy, dissociation would have helped him to disconnect from conscious reasoning and empathy with what he was doing.  During the state of dissociation, you can appear to be in a trance because you are &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19778&quot;&gt;&quot;throwing a switch on conscious awareness&quot;&lt;/a&gt; so that you cannot connect with the event alone at any time after the event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cardeña, E. (1994) The domain of dissociation. In: &lt;em&gt;Dissociation: Clinical and theoretical aspects&lt;/em&gt;, Edited by: Lynn, S. J. and Rhue, J. W. 5–31. New York, NY: Guildford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-05T13:30:30.067" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T13:30:30.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20135" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20142" CreationDate="2018-07-04T20:47:04.423" Score="7" ViewCount="498" Body="&lt;p&gt;After watching a fairly engaging 2016 &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0uJIPZfwZFU&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;TEDx talk titled &quot;Psychopaths and three reasons why we need them&quot;&lt;/a&gt; I was hoping to read more systematic/traditional research output from its author, Armon Tamatea. But looking through &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.waikato.ac.nz/php/research.php?mode=show&amp;amp;skin=fass&amp;amp;author=tamatea&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;his publications list&lt;/a&gt; I was rather disspointed there wasn't anything obvious since that talk. So, in my vague summary of the talk (I didn't take notes), he mentioned that psychopaths have some useful traits, including &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;coolness under pressure&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;being good at spotting vulnerabilities in people or organizations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;superficial charm that can oil the social machinery in many occasions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and probably some I've missed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see there's a pretty similar talk &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wVZO1jQUHXU&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Your Friendly Successful Psychopath&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which makes reference to &lt;a href=&quot;http://wisdomofpsychopaths.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Wisdom of Psychopaths&lt;/a&gt;, but I'm not familiar with the book... but a summary in The Guardian &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/oct/07/wisdom-of-psychopaths-kevin-dutton-review&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;goes like&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dutton's book at any rate supports the idea that to thrive a society needs its share of psychopaths – about 10%. It not only shows the value of the emotionally detached mind in bomb disposal but also the uses of the psychopath's ability to intuit anxiety as demonstrated by, for example, customs officials. Along the way his analysis tends to reinforce the idea that the chemistry of megalomania which characterises the psychopathic criminal mind is a close cousin to the set of traits often best rewarded by capitalism. Dutton draws on a 2005 study that compared the profiles of business leaders with those of hospitalised criminals to reveal that a number of psychopathic attributes were arguably more common in the boardroom than the padded cell: notably superficial charm, egocentricity, independence and restricted focus. The key difference was that the MBAs and CEOs were encouraged to exhibit these qualities in social rather than antisocial contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of the one more clearly identified research, the analogy with the CEOs sounds a bit doubtful to me in view of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqBPZR63vfA&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;research of Fred Kiel finding the opposite being true&lt;/a&gt;, i.e. psychopathic-like CEO traits producing negative outcomes in business. So, yeah, I'm curious of the meta-analytical status of such claims, assuming there's enough research for review-like works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there some systematic research that finds there [or other potentially desirable traits] are really more common in psychopaths?&lt;/strong&gt; Of course for some of the traits one needs to ask &quot;advantageous for who?&quot; or &quot;in what context?&quot;, because they may be advantageous in the short run for the self, but might harmful for society/others, so there may be negative consequences for the self in the long run as a result. So I'm guessing a more sophisticated question would be if there's some kind of &lt;strong&gt;evolutionary stable strategy&lt;/strong&gt; that favors a percentage of psychopathic traits...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-05T09:09:00.983" LastActivityDate="2019-09-28T03:17:48.950" Title="Are there advantages of psychopathic traits?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;criminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20136" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19539" CreationDate="2018-07-05T07:42:03.707" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Narens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Louis Narens&lt;/a&gt; has a theory of meaningfulness based on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/q/6489/157643&quot;&gt;axiom of choice&lt;/a&gt; and Erlanger program, which is a unification between projective geometry and group theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a review on the whole field: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2651093/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mathematical Psychology: Prospects For The 21st Century: A Guest Editorial&lt;/a&gt;, J Math Psychol. 2008 Oct; 52(5): 269–280. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T07:42:03.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20137" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20125" CreationDate="2018-07-05T07:51:05.427" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Yes  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Consider the following organizations solely acting for preservation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.worldwildlife.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WWF&lt;/a&gt; for example attempts to conserve Wildlife and &lt;a href=&quot;http://wwf.panda.org/our_work/oceans/solutions/protection/protected_areas/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marine Parks&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.unesco.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UNESCO&lt;/a&gt; protects cultural properties&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One way they do this is by outreach to local communities and educate them on the value of stretches of land. For example see &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How the &lt;a href=&quot;https://e360.yale.edu/features/mexican_fish_poachers_push_endangered_porpoise_to_brink_vaquita_gulf_of_california&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;local (poor) community fishermen&lt;/a&gt; are approached to save the vaquita (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-last-ditch-attempt-to-save-the-world-rsquo-s-most-endangered-porpoise/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nicholls, 2017&lt;/a&gt;)  (in an admittedly futile attempt, as there are about 14 left)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://epicureandculture.com/sustainable-farming-in-the-amazon-rainforest/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sustainable coffee and cacao production&lt;/a&gt; by local farmers in the sensitive Amazone Bassin&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, I don't know if this is what you're after, but of course communities can be put to work for the greater cause. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Further, as others have pointed out, this is borderline ontopic here imo, but it is an interesting and hot issue nonetheless.&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-last-ditch-attempt-to-save-the-world-rsquo-s-most-endangered-porpoise/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nicholls, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, April 2017)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-05T08:06:07.767" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T08:06:07.767" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20138" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20135" CreationDate="2018-07-05T08:31:06.883" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Despite common belief, being a psychopath doesn’t necessarily mean that you’re a criminal, let alone a serial killer like Hannibal Lector. The characteristics of psychopaths are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ruthlessness; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fearlessness;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mental toughness;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Charm;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Persuasiveness;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lack of conscience and empathy. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Combined with a violent personality and low intelligence, these characteristics will culminate in a dangerous psychopath. However, when this person is intelligent and peaceful, it becomes a different story. Then you’re more likely to make a killing in the market rather than anywhere else. Marked positive psychopath traits are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Assertiveness; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not procrastinating;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Positive focus;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not taking things personally;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not sensitive to mistakes, even if they’re to blame;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Insensitive to pressure. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those kinds of characteristics aren’t just important in the business arena, but also in everyday life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a national survey in the UK, some professions tended to score particularly high on the psychopath scale:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Navy seals;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Surgeons (not doctors per se).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above characteristics apply a great deal to these people. Surgeons should not blame themselves if a patient dies. Military personnel shouldn't be thinking about the well-being, or the poor family of an enemy in their vizier. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-pros-to-being-a-psychopath-96723962/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Crawford, Smithsonian Magazine, 2012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-05T09:09:46.577" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T09:09:46.577" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20140" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1548" CreationDate="2018-07-05T09:39:24.803" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question seems to ask for reviews; well, a Google Scholar search on... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;one-shot + game + review&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...yields:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Credibility and Policy Convergence in a Two-Party System with Rational Voters &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/1811177?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Alessina, 1988)&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Game-theoretic analysis of cooperation among supply chain agents: Review and extensions &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377221706007806&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Nagarajan &amp;amp; Sošić, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Game theory and human evolution: A critique of some recent interpretations of experimental games &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040580905001668&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hagen &amp;amp; Hammerstein, 2006)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Review: Game theory of public goods in one-shot social dilemmas without assortment &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022519311003171&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Archettia &amp;amp; Scheuring, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...among a host of other hits (65k+), so enough out there!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040580905001668&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hagen &amp;amp; Hammerstein (2006)&lt;/a&gt; provides a critical review that seems to be matching your 'bonus' question (you're going to upvote my answer twice? :-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/1811177?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alessina, &lt;em&gt;American Econom Rev&lt;/em&gt; (1988); &lt;strong&gt;78&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 796-805&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022519311003171&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Archettia &amp;amp; Scheuring, &lt;em&gt;J Theor Biol&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;299&lt;/strong&gt; (2012); 9-20&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040580905001668&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hagen &amp;amp; Hammerstein, &lt;em&gt;Theor Pop Biol&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;69&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 339-48&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377221706007806&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nagarajan &amp;amp; Sošić, &lt;em&gt;Eur J Operat Res&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;187&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 719-45&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-05T13:03:55.973" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T13:03:55.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20142" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20135" CreationDate="2018-07-05T10:29:52.250" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;While the term &lt;em&gt;Psychopath&lt;/em&gt; is often employed in common usage along with &quot;crazy&quot;, &quot;insane&quot;, and &quot;mentally ill&quot;, according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_D._Hare&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;criminal psychologist, Robert Hare&lt;/a&gt;, there is a distinction between those with psychosis and psychopathy (Hare, 1999).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Something to bear in mind though, is that no psychiatric or psychological organisation has sanctioned a diagnosis titled &quot;psychopathy&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WikiPedia, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;), yet assessments of psychopathic characteristics are widely used in criminal justice settings in some nations and may have important consequences for individuals. In psychology and psychiatry, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) written by the American Psychological Association (APA) and International Classification of Diseases (ICD) written by the World Health Organisation (WHO) introduced the alternative and more accepted diagnoses of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA, 2013&lt;/a&gt; p.659) and dissocial personality disorder (DPD) (&lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F60.2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WHO, 2010&lt;/a&gt;) which is also covered in ICD-11 under &lt;strong&gt;6D10 Personality disorder&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3A%2F%2Fid.who.int%2Ficd%2Fentity%2F941859884&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WHO, 2018&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Antisocial personality disorder is a pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA, 2013&lt;/a&gt; p.645).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Picking apart the Guardian's review (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/oct/07/wisdom-of-psychopaths-kevin-dutton-review&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adams, 2012&lt;/a&gt;) mentioned in the question talking about the book &lt;em&gt;The Wisdom of Psychopaths&lt;/em&gt; (Dutton, 2013; &lt;a href=&quot;http://wisdomofpsychopaths.com&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wisdom of Psychopaths, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;) the idea that they would be the only ones who can have an&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;emotionally detached mind in bomb disposal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;would brand all bomb disposal teams as psychopathic. The same could be said for doctors, nurses and paramedics dealing with medical emergencies, yet they &quot;detatch&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19301/7604&quot;&gt;through the use of compartmentalisation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Compartmentalization is a &lt;strong&gt;subconscious&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F60.2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological defense mechanism&lt;/a&gt; used to avoid &lt;a href=&quot;https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3A%2F%2Fid.who.int%2Ficd%2Fentity%2F941859884&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt;, or the mental discomfort and anxiety caused by a person's having conflicting values, cognitions, emotions, beliefs, etc. within themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Compartmentalization allows these conflicting ideas to co-exist by inhibiting direct or explicit acknowledgement and interaction between separate compartmentalized self states (Leary&amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;&amp;nbsp;Tangney, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.6.1036&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carolin Showers (1992)&lt;/a&gt; described compartmentalisation as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the tendency to organize positive and negative knowledge about the self into separate, uniformly valenced categories (self-aspects). As long as positive self-aspects are activated, access to negative information should be minimized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly the&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;psychopath's ability to intuit anxiety as demonstrated by, for example, customs officials&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;could also brand doctors and therapists as psychopathic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Whilst questions like this opens up a good debate on psychopathy&lt;/strong&gt;, I also believe that just like the above, the idea of psychopaths in business hierarchy is open to opinion.  I have also heard of the idea that there are narcissists in high ranking positions within organisations (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/5128-narcissists-tend-leaders.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Live Science, 2008&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These opinions form interesting debates as psychopathy may become accepted in more branches of psychology other than criminal psychology. It may also shape the criminal psychology viewpoint.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA (2013). &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: 5th Edition (DSM–5)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dutton, K. &lt;em&gt;The Wisdom of Psychopaths&lt;/em&gt;. London: Arrow Books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hare, R. D. (1999). &lt;em&gt;Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths Among Us&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Guilford Press. p. 22.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leary, M. R., &amp;amp; Tangney, J. P. (Eds.). (2011). &lt;em&gt;Handbook of self and identity&lt;/em&gt;. Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Live Science (2008). &lt;em&gt;Narcissists Tend to Become Leaders&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/5128-narcissists-tend-leaders.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.livescience.com/5128-narcissists-tend-leaders.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Showers, C. (1992). Compartmentalization of positive and negative self-knowledge: Keeping bad apples out of the bunch. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 62(6), 1036-1049.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.6.1036&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-3514.62.6.1036&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;WHO (2010). &lt;em&gt;International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10): 2010 Version&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/I&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/I&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;WHO (2018). **International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 11th Revision (ICD-11)* [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f941859884&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f941859884&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;WikiPedia (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;Psychopathy&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wisdom of Psychopaths (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;Are you a Psycopath?&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://wisdomofpsychopaths.com&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://wisdomofpsychopaths.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-05T10:29:52.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20147" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-06T08:17:48.043" Score="0" ViewCount="229" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;PURPOSE&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) To find out if there is evidence in favor of one of Hebb's claim. In is book &quot;The Organization of Behavior&quot; he claimed that cell assemblies are the physiological foundation of thought. According to Sebastian Seung, in his book &quot;Connectome: How The Brain's Wiring Makes Us Who We Are&quot;, a  &lt;strong&gt;thought&lt;/strong&gt; is an association of ideas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there evidence that support Hebb's claim?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) In addition to (1) I want to know in which other ways Hebb has contributed to neuroscience. I have provided some examples below. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So, please leave links to research papers that support any other claim he has made.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BACKGROUND&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Organization of Behavior&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;The Organization of Behavior - A Neuropsychological Theory&quot;, by D.O. Hebb, is one of the classics in the field of neuroscience, as you may know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hebb wondered about the nature of thought, and how ideas might be represented in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He was puzzled as to why the intelligence of some individuals remained intact after brain surgeries, where  a large part of their brain was destroyed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In his book, it is suggested, that these high IQ scores were &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;due to a conceptual development which brain damage does not easily reverse.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given these observations, Hebb asked:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;... what is a concept physiologically ...?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which then prompt Hebb to claim that &lt;strong&gt;cell assemblies&lt;/strong&gt; were the physiological basis of a concept/thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there any scientific evidence that support that the cell assembly is the basis of thought/a concept?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;HEBB'S CONTRIBUTION TO NEUROSCIENCE&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of his ideas have been confirmed; for example, in &quot;Biological Psychology&quot;,Breedlove, Watson, Rosenzweig, teach that memory storage requires neuronal remodeling. This finding is grounded on Hebb's observation, which was confirmed by Kelso and Brown, 1986, that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Ensembles of neurons, or &lt;strong&gt;cell assemblies&lt;/strong&gt;, linked via synchronized activity of these &lt;strong&gt;Hebbian synapses&lt;/strong&gt;, could then act together to store memory traces.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above observation is related to the maxim:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;cells that fire together wire together.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hebb's hypothesis about how synaptic connections grow stronger or weaker in response to experience gave rise to the idea of Hebbian synapses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Hebbian synapse is a synapse whose strength depends on its effectiveness in driving the postsynaptic cell; for example, cells during visual deprivation do not fire together; consequently, they do not drive the postsynaptic cells. In turn, the synapses get weaker, i.e., less sensitive.&#xA;In contrast, if cells are stimulated by the visual field, cells fire together, driving postsynaptic cells. This in turn strengths synapses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;REFERENCES&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biological Psychology: An Introduction to Behavioral, Cognitive, and Clinical Neuroscience, Sixth Edition, Breedlove&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Organization of Behavior - A Neuropsychological Theory, Hebb&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Connectome: How The Brain's Wiring Makes Us Who We Are, Sebastian Seung&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user19721" LastEditorDisplayName="user19721" LastEditDate="2018-07-10T13:02:38.730" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T13:02:38.730" Title="What is the neurophysiology of a thought?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20148" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-06T19:34:57.340" Score="4" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've repeatedly come across the claim that brain dynamics operate near the edge of chaos, but usually they do not give any useful sources on how we actually know this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm also aware that there are theoretical models that such dynamics are optimal in terms of information transfer, memory storage, etc and I find it plausible that evolution would try to get us somewhere in that region to the extent possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what precise evidence do we have from brain measurements or realistic brain models that the dynamics are actually near the edge of chaos?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19500" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T11:03:47.307" Title="Brain Dynamics at the Edge of Chaos" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;dynamic-systems&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20150" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5275" CreationDate="2018-07-07T16:20:51.907" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: This is formally known as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hard problem of consciousness&lt;/a&gt; - if you can figure it out, then you'll probably win a Nobel Prize:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The hard problem of consciousness is the problem of explaining how and&#xA;  why we have qualia or phenomenal experiences—how sensations acquire&#xA;  characteristics, such as colors and tastes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this problem assumes that &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;qualia&lt;/a&gt;&quot; are valid constructs, which is not universally accepted (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/10483/7001&quot;&gt;another question&lt;/a&gt; for more on that).  All variants of functionalism (including behaviorism, physicalism, and computationalism) have this problem if they accept qualia as valid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;what if we replace a computer with a man (with a large lifespan) meticulously&#xA;following the algorithm on paper. Would his computations somehow give&#xA;rise to consciousness within a brain simulated on paper?&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ironically, the term &quot;computer&quot; used to refer to a man.  There was a time when &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_computer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;computers&lt;/a&gt;&quot; were people who ... computed.  Alan Turing referred to such &quot;computers&quot; processing symbols on &quot;tape&quot; (paper spools) when he described computing machines in his highly prescient papers on artificial intelligence and machine learning in the first half of the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-room/#2.2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper machines&lt;/a&gt;&quot; led philosopher Ned Block to formulate the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chinese Nation&lt;/a&gt; thought experiment (1978):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suppose that the whole nation of China was reordered to simulate the&#xA;  workings of a single brain (that is, to act as a mind according to&#xA;  functionalism). Each Chinese person acts as (say) a neuron, and&#xA;  communicates by special two-way radio in the corresponding way to the&#xA;  other people. The current mental state of the China brain is displayed&#xA;  on satellites that may be seen from anywhere in China. The China brain&#xA;  would then be connected via radio to a body, one that provides the&#xA;  sensory inputs and behavioral outputs of the China brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this differs from John Searle's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_room&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chinese Room&lt;/a&gt; argument, that focuses on whether the system &quot;understands&quot;, while the Chinese Brain experiment focuses on whether the machine gives rise to phenomenology (qualia).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;We know that a computer is a computational device, and it is running a complex&#xA;neural network that corresponds to a human-like mind, but the Universe doesn't&#xA;“know” it. It is our interpretation of what is happening.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Speaking of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Searle#Artificial_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Searle&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... informational processes are observer-relative: observers pick out&#xA;  certain patterns in the world and consider them information processes,&#xA;  but information processes are not things-in-the-world themselves.&#xA;  Since they do not exist at a physical level, Searle argues, they&#xA;  cannot have causal efficacy and thus cannot cause consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this argument is by no means universally accepted (&lt;a href=&quot;https://philpapers.org/rec/ENDSSA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://era.library.ualberta.ca/items/ef7ef8bf-9f6d-4e0c-8f79-53450e9e4874&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Why couldn't processes inside the Sun correspond to some computation (albeit in&#xA;a non-straightforward way) which corresponds to a mind? By that logic, there&#xA;could be infinitely many minds, all experiencing some sorts of qualia,&#xA;“encoded” in different ways in all processes in the world.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has been termed the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315643670-14&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;triviality argument&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  There are 4 well-known examples in the literature: Hinck's pail, Searle's (WordStar) wall, Putnam's rock, and Chalmers clock and dial. These philosophers argue that - far from needing a Sun - everyday objects such as walls, rocks, and pails of water have sufficient complexity to encode computationally conscious states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar concept is a &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann_brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boltzmann brain&lt;/a&gt;&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a self-aware entity that arises due to extremely rare random&#xA;  fluctuations out of a state of thermodynamic equilibrium. ... in many&#xA;  existing theories about the Universe, human brains in the current&#xA;  Universe appear to be vastly outnumbered by Boltzmann brains in the&#xA;  future Universe who, by chance, have the exact same perceptions that&#xA;  we do ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Philosophers often use such thought experiments to argue by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reductio ad absurdum&lt;/a&gt;.  However, just because something seems absurd or doesn't make sense, doesn't necessarily mean that it's false (take for example, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger%27s_cat&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schrödinger's cat&lt;/a&gt; thought experiment), so this type of argument has limitations when applied to a mystery such as consciousness.  The reality is that we don't know how or if machines can come to possess consciousness (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/10551/7001&quot;&gt;another question&lt;/a&gt; for more on that).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-12-17T19:17:28.737" LastActivityDate="2018-12-17T19:17:28.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20151" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20147" CreationDate="2018-07-07T18:00:26.267" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Hence, my question: Is there any scientific evidence that support that the cell assembly is the basis of thought/a concept?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4228116/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thinking in circuits&lt;/a&gt; reviews this matter in detail, and its references can provide more related scientific evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Question: What is the neurophysiology of a thought?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the following papers can provide some current information about the neurophysiology of thought:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(13)00122-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1.How neurons make meaning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4598639/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2.Brain Networks and Cognitive Architectures&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4874898/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3.Language and thought are not the same thing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2018-07-07T18:00:26.267" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20152" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-07T18:45:50.387" Score="1" ViewCount="2947" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is greater ability to write well i.e. analysis of books/literature/research papers associated with higher I.Q. scores? &#xA;Statistically speaking, is writing ability normally distributed like I.Q. is?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user19731" LastActivityDate="2018-07-07T20:14:29.890" Title="Is writing ability associated with IQ or intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20153" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-07T19:01:53.930" Score="5" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francine_Patterson&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. Francine Patterson&lt;/a&gt; taught a modified form of sign language to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koko_(gorilla)#Use_of_language&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koko, a western lowland gorilla&lt;/a&gt;. Much media attention has been focused on Koko, especially after her death, and Patterson herself published several papers on Koko's use of language and cognition. I'm wondering if similar research has been performed with independent researchers and subjects. I am aware that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_(gorilla)#Use_of_language&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koko taught another gorilla Michael&lt;/a&gt; language, but he died in 2001. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have there been any experiments to replicate or test Patterson's publications, claims, and/or discoveries related to Koko's use of language and cognition?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has anyone compiled a study of these experiments' as a group?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19732" LastActivityDate="2018-07-07T19:01:53.930" Title="Other studies of animals with sign language" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20154" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20152" CreationDate="2018-07-07T19:14:43.460" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The second question (normality) is somewhat easier to answer because it depends less on the exact measures used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;reading and writing abilities are normally distributed in the general education framework.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meaning for people who are actually schooled and tested (in the US for the above &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4063364/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt;). The sample for the above was &quot;316 boys and girls who were assessed annually in grades 1 through 4&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the first question (association between IQ and writing ability), the qualitative answer is obviously going to be yes. There is even &lt;a href=&quot;http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1964/CS1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one proposal&lt;/a&gt; to use samples of written text to estimate the writer's IQ!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The primary focus of this research is to introduce a&#xA;  method of measuring an individual’s IQ by analyzing&#xA;  the vocabulary in said individual’s writing. In this&#xA;  paper, we show that the ratio of SAT words in a&#xA;  dataset of writing samples is roughly normally&#xA;  distributed, though with an obvious left skew. We go&#xA;  on to show a method that can be used to calculate an&#xA;  individual’s IQ with this ratio and provide samples&#xA;  with measured accuracy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas, the claim isn't terribly well supported because the IQ was self-reported for the sample they used to test their assumption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Found a study relating to &lt;a href=&quot;https://jurnal.stainkediri.ac.id/index.php/jeels/article/view/331&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2nd laguage acquisition&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The result of this study revealed that IQ made significant contribution in predicting reading comprehension (23.42%) and writing achievement (16.08%). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have the full text, and the abstract isn't terribly clear, but presumably the amount of langauge education was standardized somehow... otherwise this result makes little sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a more &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/48495/1/Torkildsenetal_2015_Reading_and_writing.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;elaborate study&lt;/a&gt; (primary language) there are various intermediate factors affecting the various measures of writing quality... but most of these intermediate factors correlated with non-verbal IQ as well:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Mx201.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Mx201.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JacS6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JacS6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As shown in Table 3, there were moderate correlations between the scores on the&#xA;  cognitive background tests, except for the measure of attention in dichotic listening&#xA;  which did not correlate significantly with any of the other variables. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While the narrative product measures were significantly correlated with a number of&#xA;  cognitive abilities, the narrative process measures were only correlated with reading&#xA;  and spelling skills (see Table 6). Children with better reading and spelling abilities&#xA;  made more online revisions than their peers. Moreover, children who were good&#xA;  spellers transcribed faster than their peers. The cognitive measure of selective&#xA;  attention was significantly associated with the ability to use capitalization and&#xA;  punctuation in writing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] Although narrative macrostructural quality was correlated with a number of cognitive measures, only oral language skills and spelling were significant&#xA;  predictors in the final model, implying that the other measures did not significantly add to the model’s prediction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-07T20:14:29.890" LastActivityDate="2018-07-07T20:14:29.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20155" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-08T01:54:05.967" Score="2" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Congressional Institute (a US Republican think tank) has &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.conginst.org/?report=congressional-institute-report&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2015 report&lt;/a&gt; stating that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Millennials were highly protected in childhood by a fortress of youth safety initiatives, which they took as evidence that they were truly valuable. This protection has translated into risk aversion in their young-adult lives: Millennials are avoiding the stock market and real estate, turning away from entrepreneurship, and are trying to plan for the long term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above is mostly an indirect inference, which may well confuse cause and effect. The recession may have caused some of the observed effect via lack of money. But it's also possible that a combination of developmental and later environmental condition have truly affected the psychological inclination toward risk taking of the generation graduating in the midst of the recession. After all, people do suffer &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negativity_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;negativity bias&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did find something else (and from a less political source) that might support the inference as well, namely two surveys found that millennials are apparently &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/capital/story/20170713-why-the-millennial-stereotype-is-wrong&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;less likely to switch jobs&lt;/a&gt; than Gen-Xers. (Generally, &lt;a href=&quot;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2977217&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more risk-averse persons switch jobs less often&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;British think tank the Resolution Foundation reported in February that only one in 25 UK millennials was switching jobs each year during their mid-twenties. Members of the preceding generation, known as Generation X, were found to be twice as likely to keep switching employers at the same age – a good thing for them, financially speaking. Job-hopping tends to come with a pay rise of about 15% with each move, as well as the opportunity for workers to learn new skills and determine which kind employers are a good fit for them. Meanwhile, pay rises for those who stay with one company for the long term have dwindled to almost nothing, according to the Resolution Foundation report.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In April, the Pew Research Center, a non-partisan “fact tank” based in Washington, DC, published similar findings, drawn from US Department of Labor data. The report found that American workers aged 18 to 35 were just as likely to stick with their employers as their older counterparts in Generation X were when they were young adults. And among those with college degrees, millennials were found to have longer track records with their employers than Generation X workers did when they were the same age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But millennials may have done that because fewer jobs were available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“The economic evidence is pretty clear,” says Laura Gardiner, senior policy analyst at the Resolution Foundation and one of the authors of the report on UK millennials’ decreasing job mobility. “Young people have always changed jobs more than older people, but it’s definitely the case that the rate of mobility has fallen – for young people particularly quickly, although it’s fallen for everyone.” [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neither report gives concrete answers about why job mobility has decreased among young people. Richard Fry, a senior researcher at Pew, wrote in his summary of the data on Pew’s Fact Tank blog, that it may be “due to a dearth of opportunities to get a better job with a different employer.” Gardiner, meanwhile, points out that young people may be less willing to take risks having come of age during the financial crisis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my question is whether are any systematic studies that more directly (e.g. via questionnaires or lab-based experiments) try to assess whether millenials have higher risk aversion than previous generations had at a corresponding age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also an interesting side question here, which does however have an answer. Namely whether (self-reported) risk-aversion is time-varying (and how much). &lt;a href=&quot;https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00965549v2/document&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;One study&lt;/a&gt; says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the question could be asked as to whether the financial&#xA;and macro shocks a person faces over his lifetime modify his risk aversion. Our empirical&#xA;analysis provides evidence that risk aversion is composed of a time-variant&#xA;part and shows that the variation cannot be ascribed to measurement error or noise&#xA;given that it is related to income shocks. Taking into account the fact that there&#xA;are time-variant factors in risk aversion, we investigate how often it is preferable to&#xA;collect the risk aversion measure in long panel surveys. Our result suggests that the&#xA;best predictor of current behavior is the average of risk aversion, where risk aversion&#xA;is collected every two years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that it has been more than that since the start of the last recession, I guess the average risk aversion of millennials could be well estimated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-08T03:03:23.343" Title="Are millenials more risk-averse than prior generations were (at the same age)?" Tags="&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20156" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-08T03:47:54.140" Score="0" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Up to the number twelve it is simply a case of learning a sequence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;one, two, three, ...,twelve&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From 13..19, it's adding the word &quot;teen&quot; after a number but sometimes with certain changes e.g. &quot;thirteen&quot; instead of &quot;threeteen&quot; and &quot;fifteen&quot; instead of &quot;fiveteen&quot;. (He even may make this mistake of &quot;nineteen, tenteen, eleventeen...&quot; at first).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then we must learn that &quot;after nineteen comes twenty&quot;. Next 21-29 is just the word &quot;twenty&quot; followed by a single digit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then we must learn &quot;after twenty-nine comes thirty&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next(?) we are taught to count in tens &quot;ten, twenty,...&quot; (the next being like the teens by with &quot;-ty&quot; instead of &quot;-teen&quot;.) And we learn that &quot;after ninety comes a hundred.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now this tricky part (in my opinion) the child learns (or is told?) that &quot;after twenty-nine comes thirty&quot;, &quot;after thirty-nine comes forty&quot;. From this clever child deduces that &quot;after forty-nine comes fifty&quot;.&#xA;Maybe the child gets stuck on &quot;ninety-nine&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then the child is able (in principle) to count to a hundred and perhaps even further once it realises that the next numbers you just say &quot;a hundred and&quot; and start from the beginning until you get to 199.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there much research done into this? What I'm particularly interested in is which bits are taught, which bits are learned through imitation and which bits are deduced. I am trying to write a program that can imitate this learning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastEditorUserId="10332" LastEditDate="2018-07-08T17:13:40.960" LastActivityDate="2018-07-08T17:13:40.960" Title="How do children learn the grammatical rules of counting?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20157" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-08T08:01:25.333" Score="0" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are you allowed to talk during digit span tests, e.g. saying the numbers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just occurred to me I'd be a lot better at it if I could.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2018-07-08T08:01:25.333" Title="Are you allowed to talk during digit span tests?" Tags="&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20158" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-08T08:59:34.940" Score="5" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to understand the basal ganglia better. In particular, I want to understand the role of the corticostriatal brain circuitry for non-motor functions, including emotion and cognition.&#xA;I have found some recent review papers that provide solid overviews e.g. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Haber, S. N. (2016). Corticostriatal circuitry. &lt;em&gt;Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 18(1), 7–21. PCMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4826773/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC4826773&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shipp, S. (2017). The functional logic of corticostriatal connections. &lt;em&gt;Brain Structure and Function&lt;/em&gt;, 222(2), 669-706. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-016-1250-9&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s00429-016-1250-9&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a more comprehensive textbook would be ideal - are there any introductory textbooks that cover the basal ganglia and the corticostriatal brain circuitry in detail?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19735" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-08T10:19:13.970" LastActivityDate="2018-07-08T10:45:53.510" Title="What introductory textbook is available about the corticostriatal brain circuitry?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20159" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20158" CreationDate="2018-07-08T10:45:53.510" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although my formal training involved an element of neuroscience, it was not heavy on neuroscience so I am not aware of any specific neuroscience textbooks.  However, another article you may be interested in is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mathai, A., &amp;amp; Smith, Y. (2011). The Corticostriatal and Corticosubthalamic Pathways: Two Entries, One Target. So What? &lt;em&gt;Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 5, 64&lt;/em&gt;. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2011.00064&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3389/fnsys.2011.00064&lt;/a&gt; pcmcid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3149683/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3149683&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just like the two articles you linked to, this article is also open access, therefore, free to view or download as PDF without a paywall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The basal ganglia receive cortical inputs through two main stations – the striatum and the subthalamic nucleus (STN). The information flowing along the corticostriatal system is transmitted to the basal ganglia circuitry via the “direct and indirect” striatofugal pathways, while information that flows through the STN is transmitted along the so-called “hyperdirect” pathway. The functional significance of this dual entry system is not clear. Although the corticostriatal system has been thoroughly characterized anatomically and electrophysiologically, such is not the case for the corticosubthalamic system. In order to provide further insights into the intricacy of this complex anatomical organization, this review examines and compares the anatomical and functional organization of the corticostriatal and corticosubthalamic systems, and highlights some key issues that must be addressed to better understand the mechanisms by which these two neural systems may interact to regulate basal ganglia functions and dysfunctions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-08T10:45:53.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20161" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-08T17:08:57.497" Score="3" ViewCount="144" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is a cell assembly?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;em&gt;Principles of Neural Science&lt;/em&gt; Eric Kandel, and colleagues wrote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;After this strengthening has occurred, a group of three neurons that are strongly coupled by excitatory synapses form a cell assembly (Figure E–5C). Neuroscientists generally use this term rather imprecisely. One must look to mathematical models of networks for more precise definitions, which generally have some- thing to do with the presence of strong mutual excita- tory interactions within a group of neurons. The word “assembly” emphasizes that the group did not initially exist but was constructed through the strengthening of the synapses of the neurons in the group, which in turn was caused by the simultaneous activation of the neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In [1] the cell assembly is defined as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A large group of cells that tend to be active at the same time because they have been activated simultaneously or in close succession in the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sebastian Seung in [2] defines the cell assembly like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the neurons are excitatory and are mutually connected by synapses into a structure known as a &lt;em&gt;cell assembly&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hence, my question&lt;/strong&gt;;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the best evidence, if any, for the cell assembly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]: Breedlove, Watson, Rosenberg, &lt;em&gt;Biological Psychology 6th Edition&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2]: Seung, &lt;em&gt;Connectome - How the Brain's Wiring Makes Us Who We Are&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user19721" LastEditorDisplayName="user19721" LastEditDate="2018-07-21T05:49:06.340" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T07:03:21.860" Title="Is there any evidence for the cell assembly?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20166" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-09T21:19:57.380" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a graduate student in the Electrical Engineering Program currently working on my thesis and I have to figure out how to train synaptic weights in an Artificial Neural Network either analogously or digitally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone suggest some base papers that I can read to get started on this and how I can proceed. Would really appreciate it. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19742" LastActivityDate="2018-07-09T21:19:57.380" Title="Training adjustments of synaptic Weights" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2018-07-13T22:04:18.483" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20168" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11065" CreationDate="2018-07-10T05:40:30.287" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I don't like referring to something so unpleasant and uncomfortable by such a silly name. Is there a proper medical term for this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the literature, they're referred to as &lt;strong&gt;shock-like paresthesias&lt;/strong&gt; and less commonly, &lt;strong&gt;Lhermitte's sign&lt;/strong&gt; (pronounced Ler-meets). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the phenomenology of Lhermitte's sign is a little bit different to brain zaps and is typically seen in multiple sclerosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/026988119801200311&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The SSRI discontinuation syndrome&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$&#xA;\require{color}&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}Sensory\text{ }abnormalities.\text{These include paraesthesia (i.e.}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{tingling) and numbness, also described with TCA discon-}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{tinuation but less prominent, and brief ’electric shock-like’}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{sensations which appear unique to SSRI and venlafaxine}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{termination (Louie et al., 1996). The shocks may be}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{experienced as ’electrical sensations’ (Rosenstock, 1996)}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{running through the head, upper body, arms or legs or as}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{intense internal sensations within the head, for example a}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{’slamming’ within the head (Mallya et al., 1993), a ’whooshing}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{noise’ or a ’rush’ one could ’almost hear’ (Berlin, 1996).}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{Sometimes they are exacerbated by movement, particularly of}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{the head, and are associated with brief bursts of dizziness}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{(Frost and Lal, 1995). Ellison’s (1993) description of bursts of}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{dizziness as a ’jolt’, ’rush’, ’shock’, or ’buzz’ also suggests an}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{overlap between shocks and dizziness.} \colorbox{yellow}{Coupland et al. (1996)}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\colorbox{yellow}{regarded the shocks as a severe form of paraesthesia and}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\colorbox{yellow}{emphasized that they were distinct from anything patients had}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\colorbox{yellow}{experienced before.}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{Shocks have occurred following discontinuation from}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{sertraline (Rosenstock, 1996), paroxetine (Frost and Lal,}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{1995; Dominguez and Goodnick, 1996), fluoxetine (Berlin,}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\text{1996) and fluvoxamine (Mallya et al., 1993).} \colorbox{yellow}{Reeves and}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\colorbox{yellow}{Pinkofsky (1996) reported a paroxetine discontinuation}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\colorbox{yellow}{reaction in which shocks were consistently elicited by neck}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\colorbox{yellow}{flexion. They proposed that the sensations constituted}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\colorbox{yellow}{Lhermitte’s sign i.e. a neurological sign that usually indicates}\\&#xA;\hspace{0.5cm}\colorbox{yellow}{spinal cord disease.}\\&#xA;$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2018-07-10T08:51:24.173" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T08:51:24.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20169" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20161" CreationDate="2018-07-10T06:16:46.900" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EVIDENCE FOR THE CELL ASSEMBLY&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea of the cell assembly is grounded on the following 3 principles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The neurophysiological basis of a concept is the cell assembly, ie population coding.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The neurons in a cell assembly continuously fire even after environmental stimulus ceases.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Learning gives rise to cell assemblies through the interaction between presynaptic and postsynaptic synapses.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;NOTE&lt;/strong&gt; I will briefly talk about the first two principles; however, there is evidence for all 3.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EVIDENCE FOR PRINCIPLE 1&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;em&gt;The Organization of Behavior&lt;/em&gt; Hebb observed that brain surgery did not affect intelligence. Given this he proposed that the cell assembly was the neurophysiology basis for a concept. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The studies that support this principle show this; different neurons get activated in response to the same feature, but, unless the neurons function collectively, an object is not identified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16760916&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Averbeck 2006)&lt;/a&gt; reports that individual neurons count for little; as an example, he mentions the visual cortex. He says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;visual discrimination in the primary visual cortex (V1) is much more accurate than would be predicted from the responses of single neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EVIDENCE FOR PRINCIPLE 2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Principle 2 could explain why a stimulus triggers a memory. Consider this example from Seung, &lt;em&gt;Connectome&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It's a fine spring morning, and you are walking down the street on the way to work. You catch the scent of flowers; within a few steps the smell becomes overpowering. You're not yet conscious of the magnolia blooming at the side of the road, but all of the sudden you're transported far away. You remember standing next to a magnolia tree, outside the red brick house of your first sweetheart. He is holding you in his arms. You feel shy and embarrassed. A plane is flying overhead, and you hear his mother calling for you to come have a glass of lemonade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He then goes on to explain why this might happen:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How do these connections trigger the recollection of your first kiss? Since the neurons are assumed excitatory, the activation of the &quot;magnolia neuron&quot; excites the other neurons in the cell assembly to become active.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since &lt;strong&gt;neurons in a cell assembly continuously fire even after the stimulus ceases&lt;/strong&gt; you remain thinking about your first kiss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Principle 2 is supported by the following studies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11223461&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Funahashi 2001)&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10899218&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Assad 2000)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This post is not great, but I hope it helps someone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user19721" LastEditorDisplayName="user19721" LastEditDate="2018-07-28T07:03:21.860" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T07:03:21.860" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20171" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12170" CreationDate="2018-07-10T13:40:49.510" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I really recommend &lt;em&gt;Hallucinations&lt;/em&gt; by Oliver Sacks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this book, Oliver Sacks defines hallucination as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;percepts arising in the absence of any external reality--seeing things or hearing things that are not there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, a hallucination mimics  perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Implanted-electrode studies&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies have shown that if the region of the brain involved in the perception of faces is abnormally activated, individuals may hallucinate faces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, if the region of the brain employed in reading is activated, it may give rise to hallucinations of letters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user19721" LastEditorDisplayName="user19721" LastEditDate="2018-07-10T23:07:05.817" LastActivityDate="2018-07-10T23:07:05.817" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20172" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10270" CreationDate="2018-07-10T15:31:07.170" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read recently in the book &amp;quot;meet your happy chemicals&amp;quot; that the hormones of puberty are neurochemicals that cause your neurons to connect and myelinate more easily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will presume that you're referring to brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) which is involved in neurogenesis and neuroplasticity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is true have any studies been done to see if injecting those same hormones into the body of an adult enables a similar rate of accelerated learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may want to look into &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.everpharma.com/portfolio/neurology/cerebrolysinr/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cerebrolysin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; which is an injectable preparation of fractionate porcine brain. Essentially they take pig brains, spin them in a centrifuge and extract the heavy fraction that contains the neuropepties, including BDNF.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Enclosed is some of the research. There &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; evidence that Cerebrolysin facilitates neurogenesis and neuroplasticity, but to my knowledge, does not promote learning or cognitive performance in healthy individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Properties of Cerebrolysin&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a brief summary Cerebrolysin's effects on the brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cerebrolysin (Cbl) is the only drug available for clinical use containing active fragments of important neurotrophic factors. The active fragments are small neuropeptides which cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and mimic the action of endogenous neurotrophic factors such as BDNF, GDNF, CNTF and NGF and others. The neurotrophic action of the Cbl helps in the survival of neurons and prevents the cell death. In addition, several reports suggest that Cbl induces neuroprotection when there is a damage of the brain and also induce neurogenesis. These two actions (neuroprotection and neurogenesis) maintain... In addition, recent reports suggest that Cbl increases synaptic communication by increasing dendritic arborization as well as the number of dendritic spines in cortical regions such as PFC and hippocampus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Flores, G., &amp;amp; Atzori, M. (2014). The potential of cerebrolysin in the treatment of schizophrenia. &lt;em&gt;Pharmacology &amp;amp; Pharmacy&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;5&lt;/em&gt;, 691–704. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4236/pp.2014.57079&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.4236/pp.2014.57079&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Pharmacotherapy in Alzheimer's disease&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's one on Alzheimer's disease:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cerebrolysin is a neuropeptide preparation mimicking the action of&#xA;endogenous neurotrophic factors. Positive effects of Cerebrolysin on&#xA;β-amyloid- and tau-related pathologies, neuroinflammation,&#xA;neurotrophic factors, oxidative stress, excitotoxicity,&#xA;neurotransmission, brain metabolism, neuroplasticity, neuronal&#xA;apoptosis and degeneration, neurogenesis and cognition were&#xA;demonstrated in experimental conditions... &lt;strong&gt;The clinical efficacy of Cerebrolysin in Alzheimer's disease&#xA;was evaluated in several randomized, double-blind, clinical trials,&#xA;showing consistent benefits on global clinical function and cognition,&#xA;improvements in behavior at high doses, and minor effects on daily&#xA;living activities in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's&#xA;disease, as well as in subgroups of moderate to moderately severe&#xA;patients.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alvarez, X. A., &amp;amp; Fuentes, P. (2011). Cerebrolysin in Alzheimer’s disease. &lt;em&gt;Drugs of Today&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;47&lt;/em&gt;, 487. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1358/dot.2011.47.7.1656496&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1358/dot.2011.47.7.1656496&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main problem with all the studies with Cerebrolysin or other candidate drugs is that even though the study findings may be statistically significant the effect sizes are nothing to write home about. Though granted, to some, even incremental benefit is better than no benefit at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Recovery from stroke&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This one demonstrates efficacy in recovery of motor control following stroke:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cerebrolysin is a neuropeptide preparation with neuroprotective and neurorestorative effects. Combining Cerebrolysin&#xA;treatment with a standardized rehabilitation program may have a&#xA;potential synergistic effect in the subacute stage of stroke. This&#xA;study aims to evaluate whether Cerebrolysin provides additional motor&#xA;recovery on top of rehabilitation therapy in the subacute stroke&#xA;patients with moderate to severe motor impairment...&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;In the stroke patients with severe motor&#xA;impairment, the Cerebrolysin group exhibited significantly more&#xA;improvement in motor function compared with the placebo group.&lt;/strong&gt; Effects of Cerebrolysin were demonstrated as restricted&#xA;increments of corticospinal diffusivity and as recovery of the&#xA;sensorimotor connectivity... The combination of standard rehabilitation therapy with Cerebrolysin treatment in the subacute stroke has shown additional benefit on motor recovery and plastic changes of the corticospinal&#xA;tract in patients with severe motor impairment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chang, W. H., Park, C., Kim, D. Y., Shin, Y.-I., Ko, M.-H., Lee, A., … Kim, Y.-H. (2016). Cerebrolysin combined with rehabilitation promotes motor recovery in patients with severe motor impairment after stroke. &lt;em&gt;BMC Neurology&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;16&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-016-0553-z&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-016-0553-z&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Recovery from traumatic brain injury&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it seems to improve recovery from TBI as well:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of death and&#xA;disability for which there is currently no effective drug therapy&#xA;available. Because drugs targeting a single TBI pathological pathway&#xA;have failed to show clinical efficacy to date, pleiotropic agents with&#xA;effects on multiple mechanisms of secondary brain damage could&#xA;represent an effective option to improve brain recovery and clinical&#xA;outcome in TBI patients... &lt;strong&gt;Compared to standard medical care alone&#xA;(control group), both doses of Cerebrolysin were associated with&#xA;improved clinical outcome scores at 10 days post-TBI in mild patients&#xA;and at 10 and 30 days in moderate and severe cases. A dose-dependent&#xA;effect of Cerebrolysin on TBI recovery was supported by the&#xA;dose-related differences and the significant correlations with&#xA;treatment duration observed for outcome measures&lt;/strong&gt;... In&#xA;conclusion, the results of this large retrospective study revealed&#xA;that early Cerebrolysin treatment is safe and is associated to&#xA;improved TBI outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Muresanu, D., Ciurea, A., Gorgan, R., Gheorghita, E., Florian, S., Stan, H., … Alvarez, A. (2015). A Retrospective, Multi-Center Cohort Study Evaluating the Severity- Related Effects of Cerebrolysin Treatment on Clinical Outcomes in Traumatic Brain Injury. &lt;em&gt;CNS &amp;amp; Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;14&lt;/em&gt;, 587–599. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2174/1871527314666150430162531&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.2174/1871527314666150430162531&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-11T06:45:57.960" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20173" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-10T21:51:22.197" Score="-2" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I mean recorded data of multiple Neurons with multi-electrode. I need this data as the input for my experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19749" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-12T08:21:09.873" LastActivityDate="2018-07-12T08:21:09.873" Title="Does anybody know a source having multi-electrode (several channels) recorded data of multiple Neurons (I prefer real data not artificial)?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20175" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16269" CreationDate="2018-07-11T01:54:52.097" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;While a backpropagating action potential can presumably cause changes in the weight of the presynaptic connections, there is no simple mechanism for an error signal to propagate through multiple layers of neurons, as in the computer backpropagation algorithm. However, simple linear topologies have shown that effective computation is possible through signal backpropagation in this biological sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From wikipedia&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_backpropagation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_backpropagation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a matter of time and more precise research. I am sure that this is the main clue&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19752" LastActivityDate="2018-07-11T01:54:52.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20176" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20199" CreationDate="2018-07-11T02:43:32.550" Score="5" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;It occurs to me that all meditation/mindfulness practice starts with focusing attention on breathing by either counting breaths or simply feel the sensation of the airflow &#xA;(Baer, 2003). Eventually, this focusing attention on breathing is likely to induce deep, slow breathing, which can slow down the heart rate and calm down the nervous system. Is there any meditation practice starting with a different form other than focusing on breathing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical psychology: Science and practice, 10(2), 125-143.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="7138" LastEditDate="2018-07-11T19:13:26.877" LastActivityDate="2018-07-13T22:43:19.713" Title="Are there any types of meditation/mindfulness intervention not starting with breathing exercises?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20177" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-11T12:51:41.020" Score="8" ViewCount="3831" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm 16 years old and a year ago I got obsessed about IQ. I took a Raven IQ test and scored 115. Then during the autumn and winter of last year I took some more IQ tests using RPM and scored 126 on almost all of them. I took the Raven IQ test again in January of this year. I scored 126 on it. I wasn't convinced. So I researched the most accurate online IQ test and found the Norwegian Mensa Practice test took it and scored 128. A couple months after that I took the Mensa Denmark practice test formerly known as iqtest.dk. I scored IQ 121 on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it because I took so many Raven IQ tests my score is so high? Does that mean that my IQ isn't in the 120's? Where would you put my Non-Verbal/Spatial IQ? Also I'm planning to take the WAIS next year and don't know what to do. I want my scores to be 100% true and not at all inflated. Would this affect it? And if so how can I change that? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: Just wanted to add that I didn't get feedback on the correct answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19758" LastEditorUserId="19758" LastEditDate="2018-07-16T17:50:29.813" LastActivityDate="2019-01-08T05:28:20.687" Title="Does practicing Ravens Progressive Matrices tests inflate your IQ score?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20180" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-11T19:18:49.563" Score="10" ViewCount="18351" Body="&lt;p&gt;Going by Hull's drive-reduction theory, as stated in &lt;em&gt;Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, by Ciccarelli, 4th edition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A need is a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism. When an organism has a need, it leads to a psychological tension as well as a physical arousal that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension. This tension is called a drive (Hull, 1943). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the abstract of Mahatoo's (1989) paper, &quot;Motives must be Differentiated from Needs, Drives, Wants: Strategy Implications&quot;, the following is stated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a suggested model, motives are suggested as the specific motivational element that directs the consumer′s drive towards a particular response. Thus while needs generate the response tendency, motives determine the specific behavioural action. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm inferring from these two sources of information is that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;strong&gt;Need is a physiological/psychological requirement&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;strong&gt;Drive is what propels the organism to eliminate imbalance&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) &lt;strong&gt;Motive is the course of action the organism takes when faced with a drive.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of point 3 could be the instance where a recuperating substance abuse addict feels the drive to relapse, they may not with the help of proper clinical intervention if their motive is to achieve sobriety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: Am I correct? If not, I would appreciate it if you could post the correction, both for the differences and the example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17324" LastEditorUserId="17324" LastEditDate="2018-07-11T19:23:51.033" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T15:03:59.640" Title="What is the difference between a need, a drive, and a motive?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20181" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-11T19:32:57.717" Score="4" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociosexual_orientation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;According to wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sociosexual orientation, or sociosexuality, is the individual difference in the willingness to engage in sexual activity outside of a committed relationship. Individuals with a more restricted sociosexual orientation are less willing to engage in casual sex; they prefer greater love, commitment and emotional closeness before having sex with romantic partners. Individuals who have a more unrestricted sociosexual orientation are more willing to have casual sex and are more comfortable engaging in sex without love, commitment or closeness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociosexual_orientation#Individual_differences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;page&lt;/a&gt; suggests there are many connections with others traits. But there is no info on parenting traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do individuals with less restricted sociosexual orientation on average have weaker parental instincts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By parental instincts I mean the desire to have and grow children, the ability of being better parents, etc. This may mean that individuals who want to have more sexual partners are also more inclined to have children and are worse in doing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any study confirming or rejecting it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-12T08:24:17.097" LastActivityDate="2018-09-19T19:51:23.713" Title="Connection between sociosexual orientation and parental instincts?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20183" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20173" CreationDate="2018-07-12T02:15:33.147" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://crcns.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://crcns.org&lt;/a&gt; has several openly available datasets with recordings from many different brain areas.  Each recording will likely have multiple simultaneously recorded neurons.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2018-07-12T02:15:33.147" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20184" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20186" CreationDate="2018-07-12T04:20:17.377" Score="3" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know exactly what primate specie is considered to be out ancestor. But the next question regards them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming that in the beginning *we considered true the remnants of many trial &amp;amp; error tests, the question is straightforward:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we have some specific neural processes similar to primates - for example those involving:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Simple comparisons*,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;analogies**&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;you may add another?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we go even deeper in the animal's kingdom and find those similarities? How deep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any research study (paper) or essay is welcomed. I don't pretend a complete answer but some guidelines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;* like &quot;what is bigger A or B?&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;** like &quot;if A is like they maybe B too&quot;.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17136" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-12T09:08:56.590" LastActivityDate="2018-07-12T18:35:27.057" Title="What are the neurological similarities between humans and primates?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;anthropology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20185" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-12T05:38:20.697" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Upon researching this question I realized that there are many graduate programs in quantitative psychology, but not too many for mathematical psychology. If you know of any universities that offer graduate degrees specializing in mathematical psychology please include it in your answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19764" LastActivityDate="2018-07-12T05:38:20.697" Title="What is the difference between mathematical psychology and quantitative psychology?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2018-07-13T22:04:01.593" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20186" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20184" CreationDate="2018-07-12T08:44:08.067" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Primate brains are considered to be highly similar to ours. In terms of their structure, it's more appropriate to look for the differences than the similarities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, you're asking for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_skill&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive skills&lt;/a&gt; and these are mediated by cortical structures, and especially the higher association areas. This is exactly where the similarities are starting to break down, as the cortex, and hence &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-has-human-brain-evolved/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;higher order processing has rapidly expanded&lt;/a&gt; in human evolution. Notably, the surface area of the cortex has greatly expanded in humanoids through a progressive increase in the number of gyri and sulci ('wrinkles') in the cortical surface. A greater cortical surface correlates with higher cognitive abilities in humans (Fig. 1). This is what sets us apart. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/primate-cognition-59751723&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cognition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; being &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[T]he ability to interpret and connect information that is perceived in the world and to then apply this personal knowledge adaptively to future situations and problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While humanoids have exceptionally well-developed cognitive skills, non-humanoid primates do have been shown to exhibit quite sophisticated cognitive capabilities as well. In a review article, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/primate-cognition-59751723&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hopper &amp;amp; Brosnan (2012)&lt;/a&gt; state that primates have been shown to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Recall serial lists of images&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Select purpose-specific tools and save them for later&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Manufacture purpose-specific tools, demonstrating an understanding of causal relations and physical properties&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have intricate social interactions and are known to interact with and manipulate other group members &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/primate-cognition-59751723&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hopper &amp;amp; Brosnan. Nature Education Knowledge (2012); &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;(8): 3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Iewzb.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Iewzb.png&quot; alt=&quot;human vs chimp brain&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. human brain (top) and chimp brains (bottom) are very similar. Especially the cortex is larger in humans. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tes.com/lessons/WmxSHY-4aykCfA/brain-inquiry-project&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tes Teach - Brain Project&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-12T18:35:27.057" LastActivityDate="2018-07-12T18:35:27.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20187" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-12T12:21:03.870" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Apologies in advance if this isn't supposed to be here, I'm new, just let me know where to post it and I'll delete and post elsewhere!&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if there's a condition or name or something along those lines for a person who is, for want of a better word, fascinated by matte surfaces/objects/items? My SO is drawn to them and we were just wondering if there's a name for it or if it's just a &quot;thing&quot; so to speak?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've met a lot of people who enjoy different surface textures and so on but I've never met anyone as fascinated by matte surfaces as my SO is - he thoroughly enjoys rubbing/feeling my matte phone case, he always comments and complements when I wear a matte lipstick and he will always comment on how nice the finish is on something painted with matte paint to give you a few examples. If what has taken his attention (a case for something, my lipstick, a surface of any given type etc.) isn't matte, there is no comment from him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm just curious to see if this is a thing or if it's just him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance for any help!!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note this causes no problems or anything between us, it's literally just my curiosity has gotten the better of me and I couldn't find anything about it on Google. Also if anyone could point out what tags to use it would be much appreciated.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19765" LastActivityDate="2018-07-12T12:21:03.870" Title="Is there a name for being obsessed with matte surfaces/objects/items?" Tags="&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20188" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-12T14:01:16.943" Score="2" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've spent some time trying to search for this but my lack of knowledge limits my ability to find any information about this subject. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know someone who constantly sees another city as a &quot;Grass is Greener&quot; and will pack up and move about every eight months. This behavior of &quot;loose-footing&quot; that I'm trying to describe meets the 4 D's of Psychopathology: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Deviance&lt;/strong&gt;: Moving to another town for an unacceptably bad reason that someone of their intelligence wouldn't accept if they heard it from someone else.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Distress&lt;/strong&gt;: Forgoing valuable social and capital assets that causes hardship after the move. Feelings of loneliness after losing touch of newly created friendships before the move. Constant anxiety of not moving to a new city when they think they find a better one.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dysfunctional&lt;/strong&gt;: The person is in complete denial of the behavior trend and after moving to a new city will spend resources in material or non material assets that reflect an intention to not move again. Like signing a two-year lease or selling or buying a car or a city parking space. Or quitting a Top-100 University after two years and a 4.0GPA in engineering that gave them a full-ride, because of a unacceptably poor reason.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Danger&lt;/strong&gt;: These self-imposed hardships give the person chronic depression and a danger to harm themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm only talking about this when it is pathological. I am assuming this is common, but I'm unsure of how common it is as I can't find any info about it. Hence the motivation for the  question.  I'm not referring to a cultural group or a nomad as being pathological.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One could say that this is just depression and/or anxiety and while that is true. I would imagine that this behavior is unique or common enough to deserve its own study of this trend, its origins or treatment strategies. For example growing up with derelict parents or maybe moving too often during childhood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="201" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-14T05:32:55.073" LastActivityDate="2018-07-14T06:11:21.723" Title="Has there been any studies of pathological &quot;nomad-ness&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20192" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20194" CreationDate="2018-07-13T10:08:34.553" Score="4" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thanks to Berne, there is an plethora of &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_People_Play_(book)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;games people play&lt;/a&gt;&quot; between people based on pattern analysis of social interaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, is there a comparable approach to analysis of psychological projections in social interactions, to name, list and describe them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freudian Psychological Projection: &quot;humans defend themselves against their own unconscious impulses or qualities (both positive and negative) by denying their existence in themselves while attributing them to others.&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16114" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-13T13:43:58.133" LastActivityDate="2018-07-13T14:56:38.540" Title="Thesaurus for types of psychological projections" Tags="&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;meta-analysis&gt;&lt;freud&gt;&lt;projection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20193" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12191" CreationDate="2018-07-13T13:42:23.217" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What Kahneman means is that these are nothing but comparisons, or metaphors, to indirectly explain cognitive processing. Neither you nor I have physically seen these two systems exist, BUT the existence of such systems may be implicated through neural representations. Kahneman has used economic metaphors (concept of resources and their allocation) in his capacity model of attention (1973). (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following excerpt from John B. Best's &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, fifth edition (2) , might help. Here, he talks about the rationale behind using a metaphor (the information-processing or computer metaphor) in cognitive psychology:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because the information-processing viewpoint is necessarily abstract, why use it to study cognitive processes, especially when it might be possible to study the underlying neural processes directly? In other words, the students seem to suggest that we simply cut to the chase and study neural processes themselves. What stops us? Information-processing theories might argue that an abstract analysis is necessary because of discoverability problems at the neural level. It's true that specific relationships may always be discoverable between specific neural activities or locations, and particular cognitive or mental events... Despite this reservation, however, cognitive psychologists working in the information-processing tradition maintain that there are no guarantees that a general, discoverable neural representation inevitably underlies all specific cognitive events.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR:&lt;/strong&gt; It's a metaphor, an indirect comparison to how cognitive processes occur, for ease of understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) There has been considerable debate regarding whether the concept of using strict, dichotomous systems is a good way to represent cognitive processing and why and how dual-process theories like Kahneman's fail in some aspects. Highly recommend reading some of the highlighted points in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Melnikoff/publication/323998611_The_Mythical_Number_Two/links/5abfc3700f7e9bfc045beb90/The-Mythical-Number-Two.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Mythical Number Two&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; by Melnikoff and Bargh (2018), published in &lt;em&gt;Trends in Cognitive Sciences&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) An edition of the book is available to borrow on archive.org and you may find this quoted text in the first introductory chapter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17324" LastEditorUserId="17324" LastEditDate="2018-08-14T16:00:10.023" LastActivityDate="2018-08-14T16:00:10.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20194" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20192" CreationDate="2018-07-13T14:56:38.540" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Preamble&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before I go into my answer, I should point out that where the theory of psychological projection originated from Sigmund Freud, his theories are considered by many as pseudoscientific. More can be read in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248&quot;&gt;my answer to this in meta&lt;/a&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Definition of Projection&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological defence mechanism&lt;/a&gt; whereby beliefs, attitudes or other negative aspects from ourselves or the environment are attributed to others or other aspects of our environment (Reeves, 2013).  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totem_and_Taboo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Totem and Taboo&lt;/a&gt; by Sigmund Freud (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41214/41214-h/41214-h.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freud, 1913&lt;/a&gt;) contained his major thinking on the role of projection (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/00754177608254963&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hurry, Novick, &amp;amp; Novick, 1976&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To list all possible forms of projection would be too broad for this site as it would fill a fairly thick book to do so with ample description.  Below I will outline some examples which are on the WikiPedia pag linked in the question and alongside those examples will be references to books which you are free to read to gain more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Examples of Projection&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Victim blaming&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;The victim of someone else's actions or bad luck may be offered criticism, the theory being that the victim may be at fault for having attracted the other person's hostility (Bingham &amp;amp; Tamarkin, 1985).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Projection of marital guilt&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;Thoughts of infidelity to a partner may be unconsciously projected in self-defence on to the partner in question, so that the guilt attached to the thoughts can be repudiated or turned to blame instead, in a process linked to denial.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bullying&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;A bully may project his/her own feelings of vulnerability onto the target(s) of the bullying activity. Despite the fact that a bully's typically denigrating activities are aimed at the bully's targets, the true source of such negativity is ultimately almost always found in the bully's own sense of personal insecurity and/or vulnerability. Such aggressive projections of displaced negative emotions can occur anywhere from the micro-level of interpersonal relationships, all the way up through to the macro-level of international politics, or even international armed conflict (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldcat.org/title/man-and-his-symbols/oclc/224253&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jung &amp;amp; von Franz, 1964&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Projection of general guilt&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;Projection of a severe conscience[26] is another form of defense, one which may be linked to the making of false accusations, personal or political (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldcat.org/title/man-and-his-symbols/oclc/224253&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jung &amp;amp; von Franz, 1964&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Projection of hope&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;Also, in a more positive light, a patient may sometimes project his or her feelings of hope onto the therapist (&lt;a href=&quot;https://garethstack.com/2017/10/30/book-review-further-learning-from-the-patient-the-analytic-space-and-process-by-patrick-casement/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Casement, 1990&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bingham, J. &amp;amp; Tamarkin, N. (1985). &lt;em&gt;The Pursuit of Health: Your Mind, Your Body, Your Relationships &amp;amp; Your Environment&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Walker Press&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Casement, P. (1990). &lt;em&gt;Further Learning from the Patient: The Analytic Space and Process&lt;/em&gt;. Hove, UK: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hurry, A., Novick, J. &amp;amp; Novick, K. K. (1976). Freud's concept of projection. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Child Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;, 4(2), 75-88. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/00754177608254963&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/00754177608254963&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud, S. (1913). &lt;em&gt;Totem and Taboo: Resemblances Between the Psychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics&lt;/em&gt; Translated by A. A. Brill, 1919 London: George Routledge &amp;amp; Sons Limited&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jung, C. G. &amp;amp; von Franz, M-L. (1964) &lt;em&gt;Man and his symbols&lt;/em&gt;. Garden City, N.Y. : Doubleday&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reeves, A. (2013). &lt;em&gt;An Introduction to Counselling and Psychotherapy: From Theory to Practice&lt;/em&gt;. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-13T14:56:38.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20195" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20188" CreationDate="2018-07-13T17:23:40.393" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you're talking pathological, the behavior you mention may be &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/10/28/bipolar-disorder-10-subtl_n_775236.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;related to bipolar disorder&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“They can be quite distractible and may start a million things and never finish them,” says Don Malone, M.D., the director of the Center for Behavioral Health and chair of the Department of Psychiatry at Cleveland Clinic in Ohio.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't found any actual clinical vignettes of people moving around in the pattern you mention (I only did a quick search though), but starting projects with great élan, which may include relocation, and never finishing them because depression kicks in sounds like a plausible scenario.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also since you mention &quot;spend resources in material or non material assets that reflect an intention to not move again&quot;... &lt;a href=&quot;https://abcnews.go.com/Health/millionaire-ed-bazinet-hospitalized-bipolar-disorder-manic-spending/story?id=15638053&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;spending sprees&lt;/a&gt; are somewhat common of during [hypo]mania.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keep in mind that diagnosing someone without meeting them is quite risky and considered downright unethical in some professional societies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-07-13T17:23:40.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20196" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-13T17:54:16.227" Score="5" ViewCount="3023" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was googling for something like why some people don't like to touch velvet, and the top hit was &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/haptodysphoria&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/haptodysphoria&lt;/a&gt; where it's defined as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An odd, disagreeable sensation felt by certain people when handling peaches, velvet or other fuzzy surfaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but there are zero hits on that term in pubmed. So is this phenomenon of dislinking to touch some materials something more seriously studied under some other terminology? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-13T18:20:09.500" LastActivityDate="2020-09-22T20:35:57.320" Title="Is &quot;haptodysphoria&quot; an urban legend or is there another term under which this studied?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20197" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20196" CreationDate="2018-07-13T18:10:53.970" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apparently &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0129968&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;sensory over-responsivity&quot; is a more widely used term&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sensory over-responsivity, a subtype of sensory modulation disorder, is characterized by extreme negative reactions to normative sensory experiences. Individuals vary widely in their reactions to sensory stimuli, with some children and adults reporting aversive, even painful, responses to contact with everyday objects and exposure to everyday sounds. Some people find the sound of vacuum cleaners or sirens highly aversive, and some children fuss about stiff new clothes and labels sewn inside collars. They may dislike being lightly touched or vigorously protest brushing their teeth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No mention of velvet though in that article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-13T18:25:19.913" LastActivityDate="2018-07-13T18:25:19.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20198" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18572" CreationDate="2018-07-13T20:50:05.037" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This ENIGMA study did not assess brain abnormalities at an individual level. Rather, it examined if the volumes of a range of subcortical brain structures differed between patients with schizophrenia and healthy control subjects at the group level, using a meta-analytic approach. The term &quot;brain abnormalities&quot; might be misleading in this context: The study was not about the type of brain abnormalities that would be detectable by a neuroradiological exam (for a study focusing on this, see Sommer et al, 2013, Schizophrenia Bulletin, doi: 10.1093.schbul.sbs037). It is therefore not possible to determine the percentage of patients who had brain abnormalities from the study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19735" LastActivityDate="2018-07-13T20:50:05.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20199" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20176" CreationDate="2018-07-13T22:43:19.713" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can use key words (“body scan” combined with “meditation”) to get specific studies. Dr. Jon Kabat-Zinn’s book (titled &quot;&lt;em&gt;Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness&lt;/em&gt;”) describes this body-scan meditation and also you should be able to get youtube videos on it. Although it is typically described for lying down position, it can be done sitting or even standing. &#xA;I found the following study by doing a quick web search – there could be newer studies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ditto, B., Eclache, M., &amp;amp; Goldman, N. (2006). Short-term autonomic and cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan meditation. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 32(3), 227-234.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Walking meditation is also very good if one tends to fall asleep when meditating. Here’s a study that has used walking meditation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prakhinkit, S., Suppapitiporn, S., Tanaka, H., &amp;amp; Suksom, D. (2014). Effects of Buddhism walking meditation on depression, functional fitness, and endothelium-dependent vasodilation in depressed elderly. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 20(5), 411-416.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here’s ‘soles of the feet’ meditation – again, there could be newer references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Singh, N. N., Wahler, R. G., Adkins, A. D., Myers, R. E., &amp;amp; Mindfulness Research Group. (2003). Soles of the feet: A mindfulness-based self-control intervention for aggression by an individual with mild mental retardation and mental illness. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 24(3), 158-169.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another meditation technique is to be simply aware of sounds, etc., that come and go without getting entangled in thoughts – this is called choiceless awareness and this meditation is also described in the book of Kabat-Zinn I mentioned earlier. &#xA;Here’s a reference for that as well:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brewer, J. A., Worhunsky, P. D., Gray, J. R., Tang, Y. Y., Weber, J., &amp;amp; Kober, H. (2011). Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(50), 20254-20259.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19763" LastActivityDate="2018-07-13T22:43:19.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20200" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-14T06:08:16.973" Score="2" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know a study in 2011 showed activation on the ventromedial PFC (part of the reward system that lights up when we see something we want, like chocolate) when opinions of others were shown. I'm assuming it activated upon learning the opinions of the others because it anticipated a reward following agreement with the group. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know Matz and Wood (2005) published a study showing cognitive dissonance following differing opinions from group members, motivating a change of beliefs to resolve it. Do you know of any studies showing a neurological reward following agreement with others? I'm probably searching using the wrong keywords, but I can't seem to find anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd assume there is at least research showing a neurological reward when social media posts get likes or supportive comments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19777" LastActivityDate="2018-07-14T06:08:16.973" Title="Is there a study indicating a neurological reward for agreeing with group beliefs?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;social&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20201" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20188" CreationDate="2018-07-14T06:11:21.723" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although not a clinical diagnosis for mental disorder, the term &lt;em&gt;Residential Instability&lt;/em&gt; brings up many articles discussing psychological problems associated with it in Google and Google Scholar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cotton, B. P. &amp;amp; Schwartz-Barcott, D. (2016). Residential Instability Among Low-Income Families: A Concept Analysis. &lt;em&gt;Archives of Psychiatric Nursing&lt;/em&gt; 30(2): 257-261. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2015.11.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.apnu.2015.11.006&lt;/a&gt; pmid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26992880&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;26992880&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Residential instability is relatively common among low-income families and is associated with a host of negative outcomes, especially for children and adolescents. Psychiatric nurses, especially those in the advanced practice role, observe the consequences of residential instability within the clinical setting. Yet, to-date, the concept is somewhat vague and its essential meaning and definition remain unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-14T06:11:21.723" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20202" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-14T08:08:52.347" Score="3" ViewCount="290" Body="&lt;p&gt;The very popular Russian blog author evo_lutio gives examples of three defence mechanisms, which she describes as &quot;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://evo-lutio.livejournal.com/591726.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gnomes&lt;/a&gt;, or rather gnome-like pointed hats we put on our counterparts to explain their desinterest to us&lt;/em&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, the first example is compared to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20190605143029/https://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2015/12/21/names-of-the-seven-dwarfs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Dopey&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; character, so that we believe our partner to be not able to understand our value until we explain it to him/her in detail, &quot;&lt;em&gt;to help giving us what we need&lt;/em&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is how (and if) does this relate with &quot;official&quot; psychological terms; first I had an impression it is a projection but it's of course not because it is not recognition of own weakness in the partner; I guess it has something to do with narcisstic defence mechanisms, maybe sort of cognitive distortion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16114" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2019-06-12T03:28:34.857" LastActivityDate="2020-09-10T00:52:17.207" Title="Which term is meant in this example of defence mechanism?" Tags="&lt;definition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20203" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-14T11:24:01.730" Score="3" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am writing an allegation letter to obtain funds to enroll in an activity for personal development, although the frame in which I ask for the finds is in &quot;transversal activities related to research career&quot;. I am a PhD Student. The response to the first letter I wrote asking for funds states that the activity I requested is too related to personal growth. So I am writing the allegation to say that professional growth goes together with personal growth, that they are inseparable, for example, in creative mental estates. So, can anyone help me by pointing to scientific articles that correlate both? Or, if my supposition is wrong, articles that prove that I am wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11463" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-14T13:35:05.597" LastActivityDate="2018-07-14T13:35:05.597" Title="Scientific articles linking personal-professional growth" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20204" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20203" CreationDate="2018-07-14T13:32:29.063" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a difference between &lt;em&gt;personal development&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;professional development&lt;/em&gt;, although they can cross over each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Personal development&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This can be achieved through&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/15869&quot;&gt;clinical supervision&lt;/a&gt; which is &lt;strong&gt;separate and completely different to line-management but necessary for effective line-management&lt;/strong&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;self-awareness through self-reflection and self-evaluation,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;counselling where required&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Professional Development&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is achieved through continuing training and learning, which is recognised by your governing body as training and learning which forms part of CPD (Continuous Personal Development).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Training and learning opportunities may range from formal classes and distance learning, perhaps working towards a qualification, to informal learning experiences, such as conferences, workshops, peer discussion groups, volunteering, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some governing bodies award &quot;CPD Points&quot;, for example, 1 hour of CPD may count as 1 point of CPD for the year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following are examples of CPD (not exhaustive):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Keeping up-to-date with current research and new books in your area of work&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Expanding your knowledge outside your area of work (only if you intend on expanding the area of your work)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Organising further training, where relevant or to update existing skills.&#xA;Some of this can cross over into personal development where the knowledge and learning gained helps towards this.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Minimum CPD Required&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The minimum required depends on your governing body so if you do not know, get in contact with them or you could lose your license to practice if you fail to meet the requirements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP), for example, expects all members to gain 30 hours of CPD per year as a minimum (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/membership/registered-membership/guide-to-cpd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BACP, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;) and the requirement forms &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/ethics-and-standards/ethical-framework-for-the-counselling-professions/working-to-professional-standards/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;part of their ethical framework&lt;/a&gt; everyone has to follow as a member of BACP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BACP (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;CPD Guidance for registered members&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retreived from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/membership/registered-membership/guide-to-cpd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.bacp.co.uk/membership/registered-membership/guide-to-cpd&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-14T13:32:29.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20205" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20202" CreationDate="2018-07-14T15:56:02.227" Score="2" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Preamble&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before I go into my answer, I should point out that where the psychoanalytical theory of psychological defence mechanisms originated from Sigmund Freud, his theories are considered by many to be pseudoscientific. More can be read in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248&quot;&gt;my answer to this in meta&lt;/a&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;TL;DR&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;Gnomes&lt;/em&gt; concept in the LiveJournal Blog does not fit any definition of the defence mechanisms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Psychological Defence Mechanisms&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychoanalytic theory, defence mechanisms are psychological strategies brought into play by the unconscious mind to manipulate, deny, or distort reality in order to defend against feelings of anxiety and unacceptable impulses and to maintain one's &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20130204225215/http://info.med.yale.edu/psych/3s/self_schema.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-schema&lt;/a&gt; or other schemas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Saul McLeod (2009)&lt;/a&gt; provided a list of all of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological defence mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; put together by Sigmund Freud.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RR4dg.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RR4dg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Freudian Defence Mechanisms&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These have &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)&lt;/a&gt; number &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?name=Defense%20Mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;F01.393&lt;/a&gt;, and if you look at the MeSH Tree Structures for F01.393, these are expanded providing the following (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIH, 2018&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Acting Out&lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000184&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt; [F01.393.047]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Denial (Psychology)&lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003717&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt; [F01.393.200]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Displacement (Psychology)&lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004208&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt; [F01.393.246]&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cathexis &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002409&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.246.250]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scapegoating &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012539&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.246.500]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fantasy&lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005201&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt; [F01.393.351]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learned Helplessness &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006380&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt; [F01.393.398]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Identification (Psychology) &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007062&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.446]&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gender Identity &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005783&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.446.250]&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Femininity &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D057227&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.446.250.500]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Masculinity &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D057228&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.446.250.750]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Perceptual Defence &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010467&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.628]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Procrastination &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000075682&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.661]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Projection &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011385&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.693]&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scapegoating &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012539&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.246.500]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rationalization &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011908&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.746]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Regression (Psychology) &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012043&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.784]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Repression, Psychology &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012094&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.821]&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Repression-Sensitization &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012095&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.821.645]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sublimation, Psychological &lt;a href=&quot;https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013359&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[F01.393.898]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;A Different Take on Defence Mechanisms in LiveJournal Blog (&lt;a href=&quot;https://evo-lutio.livejournal.com/591726.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evolution, 2017&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taken from the question, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&amp;amp;sl=ru&amp;amp;tl=en&amp;amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fevo-lutio.livejournal.com%2F591726.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an English translation is available here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In her blog, Evolution explained...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gnomes, or rather dwarf caps, are such psycho-protection that people use to explain themselves the indifference of a partner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stupid, Stesnyasha and Bednyasha, remember?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Not only women, but also men like to put such a cap on the figure of an interesting person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why is this done?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Around then, why do people wear crowns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When one wants to get something from a person, but he does not give (usually love, recognition, approval, respect, in general food for self-esteem), it is necessary to extract something from it, for which the crowns and caps are used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You need to wear a crown (imagine yourself powerful and significant) on your figure, and put a stupid cap on the figure of a person (imagine him stupid and dependent) and then from the height of his greatness, considering the defectiveness of the second, to help him give you what you want to take.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This does not fit any definition of the defence mechanisms developed by Freud, or expanded in MeSH.  What is being described here is domestic abuse through manipulation and coersion via demoralisation of the significant other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evolution (2017). &lt;em&gt;Gnomes&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from:&lt;br&gt;Russian Original: &lt;a href=&quot;https://evo-lutio.livejournal.com/591726.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://evo-lutio.livejournal.com/591726.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;English Translation: &lt;a href=&quot;https://translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&amp;amp;sl=ru&amp;amp;tl=en&amp;amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fevo-lutio.livejournal.com%2F591726.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://translate.google.co.uk/translate?hl=en&amp;amp;sl=ru&amp;amp;tl=en&amp;amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fevo-lutio.livejournal.com%2F591726.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McLeod, S. A. (2009). &lt;em&gt;Defense mechanisms&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NIH (2018). &lt;em&gt;Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nlm.nih.gov/mesh&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nlm.nih.gov/mesh&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-14T16:14:37.017" LastActivityDate="2018-07-14T16:14:37.017" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20206" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-14T17:32:00.090" Score="3" ViewCount="311" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a chapter on motivation in the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-41291-2_4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Pädagogische Psychologie&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, I read that Schaffner and Schiefele say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Allerdings werden Zielorientierungen als kognitiv repräsentierte und&#xA;  bewusste Merkmale verstanden, sodass sie dem extrinsischen&#xA;  Leistungsmotiv näher stehen als dem intrinsischen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(&lt;em&gt;English translation based on Google Translate&lt;/em&gt;)&#xA;  However, goal orientations are understood as cognitively represented and conscious features, so that they are closer to the extrinsic performance motive than to the intrinsic one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the term 'extrinsic motive' was mentioned in just one sentence, I do not fully understand what it means. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do know that we might make the distinction between implicit and explicit motives and that the awareness of the motive is a crucial factor in this scenario. But is there a justification to call cognitively represented features of which we are aware extrinsic motives? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19532" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-07-16T17:31:51.730" LastActivityDate="2018-07-18T07:32:32.463" Title="What are extrinsic motives?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;goals&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20207" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20211" CreationDate="2018-07-14T18:49:54.653" Score="3" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I've started reading dynamical systems in neuroscience by izhikevich and was fascinated by the subject. I would like to pursue PhD in computational neuroscience after my masters. Is it worth to choose this area as my Phd topic? or will it lead me to dead end? If possible can some one suggest the leading researchers/labs working in this direction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8452" LastEditorUserId="8452" LastEditDate="2018-07-15T02:20:46.470" LastActivityDate="2018-07-15T13:18:50.700" Title="What extent is non linear dynamics and chaos helpful to study brain function?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20208" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20202" CreationDate="2018-07-15T10:59:07.387" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Honestly it's horribly unclear to me what the source is talking about... but it may be that it's just a convoluted way of talking about stereotyping. And yes, the latter is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.magonlinelibrary.com/doi/abs/10.12968/bjom.2002.10.9.10609&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;considered a defence mechanism&lt;/a&gt; even if not in the classical Freudian theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, let's read more of the blog, alas via machine translation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is also the cap of Stesnyashi. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is another imaginary flaw that you endow those who do not do what you want. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stesnyasha, in contrast to Foolish understands how to. But it can not. Because he is shy. He is not sure that you need his investments, so he does not invest. He is a dwarf unsure of himself, his self-esteem is low, especially when he looks down at the grandeur of your crown. Therefore, it must be supported, encouraged and encouraged to active behavior. He wants to, but he does not say anything. We must explain that you do not mind that you are happy with his investments. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This especially applies to &quot;feminine men.&quot; They are always capricious, so their mother brought up. Moreover, if they live in a geyrope, you yourself know what kind of manners there are, there all the men are like women, and just a little bit of a snot is chewing. With them you need to be active, generous, do not ask for too much and often invest yourself. Then they will open their shell and trust you. But you need to prove to them their reliability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would honestly summarize all this with one word: drivel of the special kind known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Pseudopsychology#Psychobabble_and_you:_Pop_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychobabble&lt;/a&gt;... or more explicitly: an attempt to invent (just 3?) personality types based on stereotypes... from a children's tale. (Which of the seven dwarves was the &quot;feminine man&quot; anyway? The shy one, Bashful?) Maybe something is lost in [machine] translation, but I doubt it's enough to substantially change the meaning of all of that blog entry. I've read in a question here that an MBTI variant was popular in the Soviet Union, but this blog is way below that. Yet from other parts of the blog I get the impression that the author may be deriding such stereotyping, but it's not terribly clear if that's his only intent:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pay attention, that on no one imagined foolish caps, you need a priori respect for people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People are not stupid you, not weak and do not need your navigators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anything, this fairly upvoted question is a good example of what questions not to ask here: obscure texts in foreign languages, perhaps bordering actual psychology, perhaps not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-15T14:38:35.627" LastActivityDate="2018-07-15T14:38:35.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20209" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20177" CreationDate="2018-07-15T11:25:47.497" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, practice even as simple &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4226176/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;retest improves scores in matrices-like tests&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Raven’s APM scores increase significantly on repeated testing without any targeted training (e.g., Bors &amp;amp; Vigneau, 2003; Bors &amp;amp; Forrin, 1995; Denney &amp;amp; Heidrich, 1990).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bors DA, Vigneau F. The effect of practice on Raven’s advanced progressive matrices. Learning and Individual Differences. 2003;13(4):291–312.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bors DA, Forrin B. Age, speed of information processing, recall, and fluid intelligence. Intelligence. 1995;20(3):229–248.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Denney NW, Heidrich SM, Training effects on Raven's progressive matrices in young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. Psychol Aging. 1990 Mar; 5(1):144-5.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not surprised by this finding because the number of conceptually different problems in such matrices tests is limited. They questions are all basically variations on a few base patterns. The latter part is claim from memory, but I've read it somewhere besides my own observation; let me find where. (Also, I should try to quantify the improvement retest gives.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find the original place where I've read about the structure of Raven's, but I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ecpa11.lu.lv/files/Pachova_Rendl.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;newer research&lt;/a&gt; that found improvement in restest in particular problem types:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wJ1Tg.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wJ1Tg.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The (small) sample here was of 13-year olds... so this should be pretty relevant to your age. On the other hand, I'm not sure how much the finding extends (quantitatively) to adults. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.10.009&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Some researchers&lt;/a&gt; went as far as explaining the Flynn effect by this kind of better rule-based inference underlying retest improvement in Raven's:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We present a new model of the Flynn effect. It is proposed that Flynn effect gains are partly a function of the&#xA;  degree to which a test is dependent on rules or heuristics. This means that testees can become better at solving&#xA;  ‘rule-dependent’ problems over time in response to changing environments, which lead to the improvement&#xA;  of lower-order cognitive processes (such as implicit learning and aspects of working memory). These in&#xA;  turn lead to apparent IQ gains that are partially independent of general intelligence. We argue that the Flynn effect&#xA;  is directly analogous to IQ gains via retesting, noting that Raven's Progressive Matrices is particularly sensitive&#xA;  to both the effects of retesting and the Flynn effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a bit more from the paper itself:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The biggest Flynn effect gains have been recorded on tests of fluid intelligence,&#xA;  in particular the Raven's Progressive Matrices (five-seven&#xA;  points per decade; Flynn, 1987, 2007, 2009). The smallest gains typically&#xA;  occur on measures of crystallized knowledge (Jensen, 1998a). It must&#xA;  be noted that not all measures of IQ show long-term gains. For example,&#xA;  purely psychophysical elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs), such as inspection&#xA;  and reaction times, show no Flynn effect (Nettlebeck &amp;amp;&#xA;  Wilson, 2004; Silverman, 2010). [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Studies by Verguts et al. (1999) and Verguts and De Boeck (2002)&#xA;  [...] have found&#xA;  that in experiments, participants do repeatedly reapply a small number&#xA;  of rules when attempting to solve RPM-type items. The rule induction&#xA;  process seems to be characterized by the sequential sampling of rules,&#xA;  each of which have a certain probably of being resampled (Verguts&#xA;  et al., 1999). Furthermore, the speed with which individuals are able&#xA;  to sample and induce rules is strongly related to prior task exposure&#xA;  (Verguts &amp;amp; De Boeck, 2002).&#xA;  These studies indicate that narrower abilities matter in solving&#xA;  RPM items, and that furthermore, reliance upon these narrow abilities&#xA;  increases with increasing test experience. This is consistent&#xA;  with the phenomenology of both retesting and Flynn effects [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Verguts, T., De Boeck, P, &amp;amp; Maris, E. (1999). Generation speed in Raven's Progressive Matrices&#xA;  Test. Intelligence, 27, 329–345.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Verguts, T., &amp;amp; De Boeck, P. (2002). The induction of solution rules in Raven's Progressive&#xA;  Matrices Test. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 14, 521–547.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing I've read one the Verguts' papers, or at least something else citing their results (in the past).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-15T11:53:35.100" LastActivityDate="2018-07-15T11:53:35.100" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20210" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20206" CreationDate="2018-07-15T11:36:37.257" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the key distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is not the &lt;em&gt;awareness&lt;/em&gt; of the motive, but the &lt;em&gt;locus of origin&lt;/em&gt; of the motive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are very much aware of intrinsic motives. For example: Hunger- Going without food for a long time makes us hungry, a state we are aware of, and we consume food. The act of consuming food when hungry is intrinsically motivated, and emerges from &lt;em&gt;within&lt;/em&gt; us, without the effect of any external agent. However, Ryan and Deci's self-determination theory (SDT) did not mention (as far as I know) intrinsic motives as being connected to a physiological need. SDT's intrinsic motives were connected to psychological needs, in doing activities which were enjoyable in themselves, unconnected to an external reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you have mentioned, we are also aware of our extrinsic motives, for example, motivation to work a 9-to-5 job to earn money to buy food which satiates hunger, a primary need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My interpretation is that since extrinsically motivated activities are oriented towards an external goal and since &quot;goals are cognitive&#xA;representations of what individuals are trying to accomplish and their purposes&#xA;or reasons for doing the task&quot; (3), hence the authors are stating that extrinsic motives have cognitive representations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My conflict is that granted, extrinsic motivation is goal-oriented but isn't intrinsic motivation also goal-oriented? For example, mastery in a task if often considered to be intrinsically motivated. Does that not mean the mastery=goal? As you will see from the table of motivational terms in (4) (see &lt;em&gt;Garcia and Pintrich, 1996&lt;/em&gt; in the table), intrinsic motives are also goals, according to many behavioural scientists. That would make intrinsic motives to also be cognitively represented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quoting (3),&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In their discussion of the accessibility of motivational constructs, Murphy and Alexander really raise two issues; one concerns the consciousness or cognitive accessibility of motivational constructs and the other concerns the accuracy of individuals’ reports of their motivation. From an achievement goal theory perspective, the issue of cognitive consciousness or accessibility is not as major a problem as it may be for models that assume there are some ‘‘deeply-held, pervasive motives, needs, or drives’’ to use Murphy and Alexander terms (this issue). Goal theory assumes that goals are cognitive representations of what individuals are trying to accomplish and their purposes or reasons for doing the task. As such, they are inherently cognitive and assumed to be accessible by the individual; they are not unconscious motives as in psychodynamic theory, nor are they deeply held needs or motives as in some models of motivation (cf. Deci &amp;amp; Ryan, 1985; McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, &amp;amp; Lowell, 1953; Murray, 1938). In fact, the metaphor of ‘‘excavating’’ deeply held motives or needs and bringing them to the ‘‘surface’’ or into the ‘‘light’’ of day through various methods such as projective tests or intensive psychotherapy is not really applicable to achievement goal theory. In contrast, the discussion of goal constructs ﬂows from the general cognitive revolution in psychology and goals are assumed to be internal, cognitive representations or knowledge structures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, I don't understand why only extrinsic motives have been given a cognitive representation and not intrinsic motives, in the text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I highly recommend you to go through (3) and (4), since this seems to be a matter of confusion regarding how motivational constructs are defined. There has been considerable debate regarding the definitions of motivational constructs and what concepts they encompass. The quoted line in the question seems to be a result of this very dilemma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;References:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;em&gt;Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, Ciccarelli, fourth edition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;a href=&quot;http://ccdf.ca/ccdf/NewCoach/english/ccoachb/issue_b1c_basics.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://ccdf.ca/ccdf/NewCoach/english/ccoachb/issue_b1c_basics.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.371.211&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pintrich, P. R. (2000). An achievement goal theory perspective on issues in motivation terminology, theory, and research. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 92-104.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4) &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.anitacrawley.net/Resources/Articles/Murphy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Murphy, P. K., &amp;amp; Alexander, P. A. (2000). A motivated exploration of motivation terminology. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 3-53.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17324" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-07-18T07:32:32.463" LastActivityDate="2018-07-18T07:32:32.463" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20211" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20207" CreationDate="2018-07-15T12:59:55.067" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since this an active and relatively new area of research, nobody can tell you for certain where it will lead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether it will &quot;dead end&quot; is perhaps the wrong way to think about it too. All lines of research have their limits, and when those limits are reached, those researchers who found the limits are often the ones best equipped to move on to the next &quot;thing&quot;. If you choose to study it and it turns out to be a less productive area than you had hoped, you will still have learned a large set of useful skills that you can apply to other methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the usefulness of brain dynamics, the short answer is they have their place and are very promising in certain areas of behavioral science. In particular, coordination and motor control appear to be very well suited to these models. A small but growing body of scientists believe dynamics is the next big thing in cognitive science, though it is still unclear whether this is the case. It sounds like you already have a good primer on the utility of nonlinear dynamics for computational neuroscience with what you're reading. For a more general discussion of their promise and potential for other areas of cognitive science, and a proposal that dynamical systems can essentially &lt;em&gt;replace&lt;/em&gt; computational neuroscience, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/radical-embodied-cognitive-science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chemero (2011)&lt;/a&gt;. For a concise criticism of the approach see &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1756-8765.2011.01164.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wagenmakers, van der Mass, and Farrell (2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/radical-embodied-cognitive-science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;: Chemero, A. (2011). Radical embodied cognitive science. MIT press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1756-8765.2011.01164.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;:&#xA;Wagenmakers, E. J., van der Maas, H. L., &amp;amp; Farrell, S. (2012). Abstract Concepts Require Concrete Models: Why Cognitive Scientists Have Not Yet Embraced Nonlinearly Coupled, Dynamical, Self‐Organized Critical, Synergistic, Scale‐Free, Exquisitely Context‐Sensitive, Interaction‐Dominant, Multifractal, Interdependent Brain‐Body‐Niche Systems. Topics in Cognitive Science, 4(1), 87-93.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18385" LastEditorUserId="18385" LastEditDate="2018-07-15T13:18:50.700" LastActivityDate="2018-07-15T13:18:50.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20212" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20229" CreationDate="2018-07-15T15:15:38.873" Score="6" ViewCount="186" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read from several sources that in the leaky integrate-and-fire model of a single neuron resistor (leakage) and capacitor (membrane potential) are arranged in parallel. Look at the following RC circuit, taken from the book &lt;a href=&quot;http://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/Ch1.S3.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuronal Dynamics&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jJgOe.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jJgOe.png&quot; alt=&quot;RC circuit&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The cell membrane acts like a capacitor in parallel with a resistor&#xA;  which is in line with a battery of potential $u_{rest}$.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I think capacitor and resistor are arranged in series. Can anybody please explain why it is said that they are arranged in parallel?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19785" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-07-16T11:06:06.353" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T20:19:59.463" Title="Parallel arrangement of capacitor and resistor in leaky integrate-and-fire model" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20215" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-16T00:56:21.547" Score="7" ViewCount="541" Body="&lt;p&gt;A customer buys X from &quot;brand A&quot; and has positive experience with it. &quot;Brand A&quot; also sells Y. Now the customer things it is good to buy Y because of his/her positive experience with buying X from brand A and that since it was good, buying Y from brand A should also be good. They bought Y because of association. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would be the name of the psychological process or cognitive bias that lead the customer to buy Y ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19791" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-07-16T15:15:57.380" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T15:15:57.380" Title="What is the name of the bias that associate a thing as good because it has a relation to another good thing?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20216" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20212" CreationDate="2018-07-16T02:45:18.847" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The resistor is the conductance of the ion channels in the membrane.  The capacitor is the membrane itself, which acts as a capacitor (a non-conductive center sandwiched between electrically active materials).  There are two ways for &quot;current&quot; to flow between the outside and inside of the cell.  One is through ion channels (the resistor), and one is for charges to collect on one side of the membrane and to push charges away from the other side of the membrane (the capacitor).  These are in parallel, as they are independent ways for electrical activity on one side of the membrane to affect electrical activity on the other side of the membrane. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T02:45:18.847" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20215" CreationDate="2018-07-16T03:39:06.423" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect#Branding&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Halo Effect&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The halo effect is a ... cognitive bias, where a person making an&#xA;  initial assessment of another person, place, or thing will assume&#xA;  ambiguous information based upon concrete information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The term halo effect is used in marketing to explain customer bias&#xA;  toward certain products because of favorable experience with other&#xA;  products made by the same company. ... A notable example is the manner&#xA;  in which the popularity of Apple’s iPod generated enthusiasm for the&#xA;  corporation's other products.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T03:39:06.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20220" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-16T05:34:59.363" Score="3" ViewCount="2507" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has a pretty non-informative page as to the nature of the (US) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Services_Vocational_Aptitude_Battery#Armed_Forces_Qualification_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Armed Forces Qualification Test&lt;/a&gt; (AFQT) as it mostly talks of results ranges etc. What I could descipher from there is it that it has three (or maybe four, depending on how one counts) [sub]parts, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Arithmetic Reasoning (AR) – 30 questions in 36 minutes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mathematics Knowledge (MK) – 25 questions in 24 minutes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Verbal Expression (VE)= (WK)+(PC)&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Word Knowledge (WK) – 35 questions in 11 minutes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Paragraph Comprehension (PC) – 11 questions in 22 minutes&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The formula for computing an AFQT score is: AR + MK + (2 x VE).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That sounds a bit like SAT... and a quick search found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/81482/1/wp965.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one paper&lt;/a&gt; that talks of &quot;cognitive skills as measured by the AFQT&quot;. (SAT is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-perfect-score-project/201107/is-the-sat-iq-test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pretty well correlated&lt;/a&gt; with IQ.) So, to what extent does AFQT correlate to more traditional IQ [sub-]scores?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2020-09-02T03:40:09.203" LastActivityDate="2020-09-02T03:40:09.203" Title="To what extent does AFQT correlate with IQ?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;military-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20221" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20220" CreationDate="2018-07-16T05:52:57.897" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;An answer is found in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/MG265/images/webG1471.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an official memo, albeit from 1980&lt;/a&gt;, where&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the correlation of AFQT with WAIS (no version specified) was stated as 0.8 based on a Army &quot;fact sheet&quot; from 1965; the details of the comparative test could not be found&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;an Air Force comparison found (in 1974) that the correlation (again with WAIS, no version specified) for white enlistees was (again) 0.8 but 0.77 for black enlistees.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(This ~0.8 is actually about the same as the correlation of IQ tests with SAT.) I don't know if the AFQT is still the same as back then.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A official-looking 2006 &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nrcs.k12.oh.us/Downloads/ASVAB%20CONCORDANCE%20TABLES.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;concordance/translation table of AFQT score with SAT scores&lt;/a&gt; can also be found, although it's rather summary; it doesn't mention a correlation coefficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-16T06:30:16.130" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T06:30:16.130" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20222" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20177" CreationDate="2018-07-16T07:58:23.560" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A general principle is that skill transfer is domain specific and based on common elements. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if you've learnt something about the Raven's items, I would expect improvement and skill acquisition transfer to be ordered from greatest to least as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;doing the actual Raven's test with the exact same items again&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;doing other versions of Raven's using different item sets&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;doing other tests based on similar matrix-style abstract reasoning items&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;doing other tests measuring abstract reasoning using other item styles&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you've only studied Raven items, then I doubt you'll get much transfer to the broad array of item-types included in other measures of intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, practice effects (especially, item specific practice effects) tend to decline over time. For example, if you wait six months, a year, or more, then practice effects will generally be less of a concern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@Fizz also provides references and arguments to support the claims that Raven's may be particularly predisposed to practice effects given the inherently small number of item types and patterns. This can be contrasted, for example, with measures of verbal ability such as advanced vocabulary items which would take serious study to obtain score improvements across item sets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Practice effects will also generally be amplified if you have actively studied the items or otherwise obtained feedback on correct answers. Perhaps this explains practice effects on the Ravens in that often people will get intrinsic feedback from the test about whether a response seems correct which allows some test-takers to infer rules about the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in short, experience with the Raven's might bias subsequent Raven's test scores. But if you move away from matrix-style abstract reasoning measures, then transfer effects are unlikely to be an issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T07:58:23.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20223" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20224" CreationDate="2018-07-16T09:01:57.477" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name of the problem to explain how the neural activation for &quot;red circle and a blue triangle&quot; is different from &quot;blue circle and red triangle&quot;? Just activating the neurons for &quot;red&quot;, &quot;blue&quot;, &quot;circle&quot;, &quot;triangle&quot; is not enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19794" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-16T15:57:58.247" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T15:57:58.247" Title="Name of association phenomenon" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20223" CreationDate="2018-07-16T11:40:04.427" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Representing the relation between objects + their attributes in neurons is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Binding Problem&lt;/a&gt;. The Wikipedia article I've linked to is a bit questionable at the moment, so you may want to read the paper &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://compneuro.uwaterloo.ca/publications/crawford2015.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biologically Plausible, Human-Scale Knowledge Representation&lt;/a&gt;&quot; instead. In the paper, the authors describe different ways of encoding symbols and their relation in neurons, using the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/tagged/nef&quot;&gt;NEF&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/tagged/spa&quot;&gt;SPA&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper shows how populations of neurons can represent vectors and symbols can be defined as vectors. Relations between symbols can be defined as operations on these symbols carried out by connection weights between populations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the scenario in the original post could be represented as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$V = BLUE*CIRCLE + RED*TRIANGLE$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where each word is it's own N-dimensional vector, $+$ is vector addition and $*$ is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_convolution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;circular convolution&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further discussion of this model can be found in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/5738/4397&quot;&gt;this StackExchange answer&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T11:40:04.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20225" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20256" CreationDate="2018-07-16T11:43:30.807" Score="4" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I'm looking for a paper that explicitly quantifies the ROI an employer would likely derive if personnel selection involved intelligence testing and only those +2 SD in cognitive ability were hired.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a correlation between IQ and job performance, ranging from .20s for low complexity jobs and .50 for high complexity jobs. Hardly unity (r = 1.00) but regardless, it's still considered to be the best predictor of job performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A number of years ago as an undergrad I read a paper discussing the economic rationale of an employer administering an IQ test and only selecting candidates who scored +2 SD above the mean. From the pool of candidates remaining, the employer would then interview for the best candidate as per usual. The author's thinking was along the following lines:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Suppose you had a group of employees who you were paying an annual salary of \$100,000 and their productivity was normally distributed between say, \$100,000 - \$300,000 (mean = $200,000).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;By selecting those who are +2 SD in cognitive ability, the employer would increase the chances that those who are hired will return them closer to $300,000 per year. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Total economic gain = Number of employees x Increased return ($) x Duration of tenure &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This topic is relevant to a publication I'm preparing and I've been racking my brain trying to find it. For the life of me I simply cannot find it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this ring a bell for anyone? Ideally, I'd like the specific one that I'm mentioning, but failing that, something in a similar vein. Essentially: suppose you hired only those &gt;130 IQ -- regardless of the rightfulness/wrongfulness of doing so, what I want to know is what the $ amount benefit to the employer would be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="19533" LastEditDate="2018-07-21T22:20:53.810" LastActivityDate="2018-07-21T22:20:53.810" Title="Paper discussing economic rationale of IQ-based hiring practices" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;selection-recruitment&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20226" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3801" CreationDate="2018-07-16T12:40:53.410" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reminds me of (one side of) the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunning–Kruger effect&lt;/a&gt;, where &quot;people of high ability incorrectly assume that tasks that are easy for them are also easy for other people.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19795" LastEditorUserId="19795" LastEditDate="2018-07-17T10:11:19.783" LastActivityDate="2018-07-17T10:11:19.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20228" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20662" CreationDate="2018-07-16T15:46:48.793" Score="4" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given that there is a single player game, let's say, Tetris. I play the game for 5 days and my friend is also playing the game for 5 days. At the end of the 5 days we would like to see who has the highest score and that person wins some prize.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it better that we see the scores of our opponent and try to better it, or is better that I do not see my friend's score and focus on just constantly beating my own score?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which of the 2 scenarios is likely to yield the higher score at the end of the 5 days? And why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm doing some research on gamification and how competition can help us progress a skill. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19800" LastActivityDate="2018-09-11T15:04:26.913" Title="Is there research to prove that humans achieve more when challenging ourselves or when we challenge others?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20229" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20212" CreationDate="2018-07-16T20:05:51.287" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see your confusion is caused by $u_{rest}$. Indeed that diagram is somewhat confusing because $u_{rest}$ is not the main source relative to which to consider the topology of the circuit. The main source is actually a current source designated by $I(t)$ in your diagram. With respect to that source R and C are in parallel. If that's not convincing enough, consider &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5557947/figure/Fig2/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;another (information) source&lt;/a&gt; which presents a different (but still leaky) integrate and fire model, sans a $u_{rest}$: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/92G2u.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/92G2u.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the latter diagram, $I_{dc}$ is the equivalent of $I(t)$ in yours. In the alternative circuit, the firing actually comes from a voltage-controlled switch, which is indeed in series with the RC circuit (to the left of it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-16T20:19:59.463" LastActivityDate="2018-07-16T20:19:59.463" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20230" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-17T00:04:27.013" Score="5" ViewCount="759" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17465/17199&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt; humans have enough memory to store 300 years of TV shows. However, of course, it is disputable, as storage system would be completely different from storing TV shows (videos) on von Neumann-like computer. Probably, the resolution of human brain is higher as well. Therefore it's really hard to put an actual duration, but we know it's finite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is it known what would happen after running out of this memory? Does it just rewrites the old information? Does the brain really needs to be completely filled with information in order for this mechanism come into effect or is it happening constantly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastActivityDate="2021-03-13T12:12:55.430" Title="What would happen to the human brain after running out of memory?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20232" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20312" CreationDate="2018-07-17T14:31:18.590" Score="4" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found an interesting study called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224943991_A_Comparison_of_Family_Functioning_Life_and_Marital_Satisfaction_and_Mental_Health_of_Women_in_Polygamous_and_Monogamous_Marriages&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Comparison of Family Functioning, Life and Marital Satisfaction, and Mental Health of Women in Polygamous and Monogamous Marriages&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Al-Krenawi et al. It is about the negative impact of polygamy on numerous aspects of the wifes' wellbeing. As an erstwhile physicist I understand statistics, but the terminology in psychology and psychiatry is totally new for me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to ask about the precise meaning of the word &quot;attitudinal in &quot;attitudinal acceptance&quot;. The context is the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Previous research suggests that education and attitudinal acceptance of polygamy are inversely correlated...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Google search returns a plethora of scientific articles, but so far I haven’t spotted a definition. The general definition of &quot;attitudinal&quot; from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/attitudinal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Webster&lt;/a&gt; reads:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;relating to, based on, or expressive of personal attitudes or feelings&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and seems to suggest that any acceptance would be attitudinal. Thus, I believe it must carry a specific meaning in psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19803" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-17T15:18:14.880" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T17:18:27.643" Title="Meaning of &quot;attitudinal acceptance&quot;" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20230" CreationDate="2018-07-17T18:09:09.100" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I’m not sure that there is an answer to this question in the literature, and I doubt that we’ve ever studied cases of “running out of memory”.&lt;/strong&gt;  But it’s an interesting question, so I’ll venture to answer it.  &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;However, my answer, at best, will be just an assumption based on current knowledge and based on similar situations in other cognitive functions. Yet, I hope that it will give some ideas regarding this question&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/strong&gt; Or, better yet, other people will provide more comments and ideas that improve this answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We may never have seen cases of “running out of memory”, but we all certainly have encountered situations that we run out of our abilities to do something, such as to break our own sport records, to learn to speak a foreign language, and to memorize as many digits as we can in a single glance. What does the brain do when it encounters situations that it runs out of its abilities? The answer is it adapts itself by the process called neuroplasticity (ref 1, ref 2). Although, generally, our abilities will improve to some degree, this neuroplastic adaptation takes time and does not guarantee that it will be successful (e.g., we may never be able to break the Olympic running records ourselves or to remember 1,000 digits in a single glance) because we all have biological limits. What does the brain do when it reaches those limits? From observations, I think it just accepts the limits and does nothing more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From this, it is logical to think that if anyone really runs out of memory, the first thing that the brain does will probably be not rewriting the old memory but modifying its memory synapses  because it has the ability to form new memory form modifying its memory synapses (ref 3, ref 4, ref 5). But after some time, it may reach its ability to further modify its synapses for new memory, what happens then? Does it rewrite the old memory? I have no references to answer this question, but I doubt that it does. To rewrite the old memory means to destroy the previous structure of synapses that hold the old memory and build the new structure of synapses to hold the new memory. The brain will end up having the same amount of memory but wasting its resource to do that. Is it worth it? Also, there are technical issues such as which old memory to be erased, how to locate the scattered synapses that hold the to-be-erased memory, and how to dismantle those synapses. Perhaps it’s best to just accept its limits and do nothing more as in the other situations above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4026979/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adult Neuroplasticity: More Than 40 Years of Research&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“&lt;strong&gt;Today it is generally accepted that the adult brain is far from being fixed. A number of factors such as stress, adrenal and gonadal hormones, neurotransmitters, growth factors, certain drugs, environmental stimulation, learning, and aging change neuronal structures and functions. The processes that these factors may induce are morphological alterations in brain areas, changes in neuron morphology, network alterations including changes in neuronal connectivity, the generation of new neurons (neurogenesis), and neurobiochemical changes.&lt;/strong&gt; Here we review several aspects of neuroplasticity and discuss the functional implications of the neuroplastic capacities of the adult and differentiated brain with reference to the history of their discovery.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4392917/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Changes in plasticity across the lifespan: Cause of disease and target for intervention&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“&lt;strong&gt;We conceptualize brain plasticity as an intrinsic property of the nervous system enabling rapid adaptation in response to changes in an organism's internal and external environment.&lt;/strong&gt; In prenatal and early postnatal development, plasticity allows for the formation of organized nervous system circuitry and the establishment of functional networks. &lt;strong&gt;As the individual is exposed to various sensory stimuli in the environment, brain plasticity allows for functional and structural adaptation and underlies learning and memory.&lt;/strong&gt; We argue that the mechanisms of plasticity change over the lifespan with different slopes of change in different individuals.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3367555/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Synapses and Memory Storage&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“&lt;strong&gt;We now understand in considerable molecular detail the mechanisms underlying long-term synaptic plasticity and the importance that such plastic changes play in memory storage, across a broad range of species and forms of memory.&lt;/strong&gt; One surprising finding is the remarkable degree of conservation of memory mechanisms in different brain regions within a species and across species widely separated by evolution. However, although it is now clear that long-term synaptic plasticity is a key step in memory storage, it is important to note that a simple enhancement in the efficacy of a synapse is not sufficient to store a complex memory. Rather, changes in synaptic function must occur within the context of an ensemble of neurons to produce a specific alteration in information flow through a neural circuit.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4632668/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Corticohippocampal Circuit, Synaptic Plasticity, and Memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“&lt;strong&gt;Synaptic plasticity serves as a cellular substrate for information storage in the central nervous system.&lt;/strong&gt; The entorhinal cortex (EC) and hippocampus are interconnected brain areas supporting basic cognitive functions important for the formation and retrieval of declarative memories. Here, we discuss how information flow in the EC–hippocampal loop is organized through circuit design. We highlight recently identified corticohippocampal and intrahippocampal connections and how these long-range and local microcircuits contribute to learning. This review also describes various forms of activity-dependent mechanisms that change the strength of corticohippocampal synaptic transmission. &lt;strong&gt;A key point to emerge from these studies is that patterned activity and interaction of coincident inputs gives rise to associational plasticity and long-term regulation of information flow. Finally, we offer insights about how learning-related synaptic plasticity within the corticohippocampal circuit during sensory experiences may enable adaptive behaviors for encoding spatial, episodic, social, and contextual memories&lt;/strong&gt;.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3855019/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Learning to learn – intrinsic plasticity as a metaplasticity mechanism for memory formation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Use it or lose it” is a popular adage often associated with use-dependent enhancement of cognitive abilities. Much research has focused on understanding exactly how the brain changes as a function of experience. &lt;strong&gt;Such experience-dependent plasticity involves both structural and functional alterations that contribute to adaptive behaviors, such as learning and memory&lt;/strong&gt;, as well as maladaptive behaviors, including anxiety disorders, phobias, and posttraumatic stress disorder.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-18T05:17:21.197" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20234" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-17T20:00:41.493" Score="1" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the scientific term or psychological term for visualizing a phenomenon, news or event in history or in daily life from both perspective. For example some event that happened in your country or a war your country fought, the basic sentiment of most people will be in support of their country or military but if you want to put forward a case both in favor and against of that war without following the general emotional consensus in your country what that would be called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17616" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-18T08:54:35.210" LastActivityDate="2018-07-18T08:57:19.337" Title="Whats analysis of both sides is called in psychology?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20235" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20247" CreationDate="2018-07-17T21:57:17.387" Score="2" ViewCount="532" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am asking this question because I recently observed something within myself:-&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think I used to be a Borderliner plus Bipolar. I was very sensitive, and slightest of events will either induce mania in me or will just thrash me into severe depression and low self-esteem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But since I am taking a certain medication, I have observed that I am now not experiencing above mentioned behavior within me. I am much more resilient to criticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19370" LastActivityDate="2018-07-19T17:29:33.267" Title="Is low self-esteem, a brain chemical imbalance problem, rather than a personality defect, and can't be fixed by any amount of counselling/self-help?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20236" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-17T22:45:31.527" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need help with my data analysis.&#xA;I am using a non-validated translated questionnaire in my survey. The purpose of it is not to validate the measure in a different language and its construct validity, I only translated it for the purpose of my study. Still, I am obligated to test the construct validity of the questionnaire and the problem is the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I run the &lt;strong&gt;principle axis extraction with oblique rotation&lt;/strong&gt;, I initially get 2 factors-two of the items load very poorly on the 1st factor (zero corrleations), and some have small values of 0.3, but also correlate with the second one. Majority loads on the first factor and the MAP test also gives me a reason to extract only one factor. If I run the principle axis extraction &lt;strong&gt;without any rotation&lt;/strong&gt;-it only suggests me to remove one item, based on the correlations with the factor, not two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is-can I decide to extract a &quot;fixed number of factors&quot; and extract only one after concluding that MAP test gives me a better solution? The second question is-if I do so, am I allowed to only remove that 1 item that it offers me to remove after extracting 1 factors and ignore the almost zero loadings in the initial EFA with oblique rotation of the second item? The other problem with removing too many items is that it messes my variance too much. It is in my interest to keep as many items as possible, but only the mentioned one I think I must remove (the second one I am not sure whether I must).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you so much for your response, I am really stuck because of this problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19806" LastActivityDate="2018-07-17T22:45:31.527" Title="Is it okay to use &quot;fixed number of factors&quot; in EFA after contradicting results from MAP test and eigenvalues?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20237" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18718" CreationDate="2018-07-18T08:18:37.337" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not about IQ as a whole alas, but I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20416377/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2010 systematic review &amp;amp; meta-analysis &quot;Modafinil and methylphenidate for neuroenhancement in healthy individuals: A systematic review&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, apparently the only systematic one to date on methylphenidate in healthy subjects:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The term neuroenhancement refers to improvement in the cognitive, emotional and motivational functions of healthy individuals through, inter alia, the use of drugs. Of known interventions, psychopharmacology provides readily available options, such as methylphenidate and modafinil. Both drugs are presumed to be in widespread use as cognitive enhancers for non-medical reasons. Based on a systematic review and meta-analysis we show that expectations regarding the effectiveness of these drugs exceed their actual effects, as has been demonstrated in single- or double-blind randomised controlled trials. Only studies with sufficient extractable data were included in the statistical analyses. &lt;strong&gt;For methylphenidate an improvement of memory was found, but no consistent evidence for other enhancing effects was uncovered.&lt;/strong&gt; Modafinil on the other hand, was found to improve attention for well-rested individuals, while maintaining wakefulness, memory and executive functions to a significantly higher degree in sleep deprived individuals than did a placebo. However, repeated doses of modafinil were unable to prevent deterioration of cognitive performance over a longer period of sleep deprivation though maintaining wakefulness and possibly even inducing overconfidence in a person's own cognitive performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somewhat similarly, there's another more recent (2014) review of methylphenidate &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S1461145713001594&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Cognitive effects of methylphenidate in healthy volunteers: a review of single dose studies&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (MPH), but its methodology is limited to &quot;effective study percentage&quot; (i.e. not fully meta-analytical):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The studies reviewed here show that single doses of MPH improve cognitive performance in the healthy population in the domains of working memory (65% of included studies) and speed of processing (48%), and to a lesser extent may also improve verbal learning and memory (31%), attention and vigilance (29%) and reasoning and problem solving (18%), but does not have an effect on visual learning and memory. MPH effects are dose-dependent and the dose–response relationship differs between cognitive domains. MPH use is associated with side effects and other adverse consequences, such as potential abuse. Future studies should focus on MPH specifically to adequately asses its benefits in relation to the risks specific to this drug.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one is willing to consider modafinil in this class of drugs (some have &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4297708/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;labelled it &quot;atypical DAT-inhibitor&quot;&lt;/a&gt;), then there's a newer &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26381811&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2015 review &quot;Modafinil for cognitive neuroenhancement in healthy non-sleep-deprived subjects: A systematic review&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We found that whilst most studies employing basic testing paradigms show that modafinil intake enhances executive function, only half show improvements in attention and learning and memory, and a few even report impairments in divergent creative thinking. In contrast, when more complex assessments are used, modafinil appears to consistently engender enhancement of attention, executive functions, and learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All reviews primarily point to memory effects (in the short term, laboratory tests), although the last review (modafinil-only) has more mixed results in that regard. The other potential effects of MPH on IQ like speed of processing, are less convincing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I was asking about IQ here, the long-term effects analyzed in the second review raise interesting questions about the mediating mechanism for the broader enhancement effects like learning (these &quot;neuroenhancers&quot; being popular as &quot;study drugs&quot;). There's a different &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054715591849&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;line of research&lt;/a&gt; indicating that stimulants may affect motivation even more than mere cognition, even for &quot;healthy&quot; individuals, although apparently only in some sub-groups... which raises other interesting questions (sub-clinical attention problems, personality factors, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually, the authors is this last line of research have conducted their own (2015) meta-analysis of MPH and amphetamine: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25591060&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Prescription Stimulants' Effects on Healthy Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, and Episodic Memory: A Meta-analysis.&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The present meta-analysis was&#xA;  conducted to estimate the magnitude of the effects of methylphenidate and amphetamine on cognitive&#xA;  functions central to academic and occupational functioning, including inhibitory control, working memory,&#xA;  short-term episodic memory, and delayed episodic memory. In addition, we examined the evidence for&#xA;  publication bias. Forty-eight studies (total of 1,409 participants) were included in the analyses. &lt;strong&gt;We found&#xA;  evidence for small but significant stimulant enhancement effects on inhibitory control and short-term&#xA;  episodic memory. Small effects on working memory reached significance, based on one of our two analytical&#xA;  approaches. Effects on delayed episodic memory were medium in size. However, because the effects on long-term&#xA;  and working memory were qualified by evidence for publication bias, we conclude that the effect of&#xA;  amphetamine and methylphenidate on the examined facets of healthy cognition is probably modest overall.&lt;/strong&gt; In&#xA;  some situations, a small advantage may be valuable, although it is also possible that healthy users resort to&#xA;  stimulants to enhance their energy and motivation more than their cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Its results are mostly in line with previous conclusions (memory being the main aspect improved), however it emphasized that effect size is small (for short-term effects), and it also found publication bias for long-term effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After writing that, I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01852&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;another 2015 review&lt;/a&gt; which mostly summarizes what I said by going over those meta-analyses, but emphasizes memory effects and doesn't dig much the motivation explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I found a 2017 RCT on chess performance (which is reasonably &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/09/160913124722.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;correlated with IQ&lt;/a&gt;, at least for non-top players) and psychostimulants. The results of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.01.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this study&lt;/a&gt; are not straightforward:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study investigated whether performance in chess – a competitive mind game requiring highly complex cognitive skills – can be enhanced by methylphenidate, modafinil or caffeine.  In a phase IV, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 39 male chess players received 2×200 mg modafinil, 2×20 mg methylphenidate, and 2×200 mg caffeine or placebo in a 4×4 crossover design. They played twenty 15-minute games during two sessions against a chess program (Fritz 12; adapted to players’ strength) and completed several neuropsychological tests. Marked substance effects were observed since all three substances significantly increased average reflection time per game compared to placebo resulting in a significantly increased number of games lost on time with all three treatments. Treatment effects on chess performance were not seen if all games (n=3059) were analysed. Only when controlling for game duration as well as when excluding those games lost on time, both modafinil and methylphenidate enhanced chess performance as demonstrated by significantly higher scores in the remaining 2876 games compared to placebo. In conjunction with results from neuropsychological testing we conclude that &lt;strong&gt;modifying effects of stimulants on complex cognitive tasks may in particular result from more reflective decision making processes. When not under time pressure, such effects may result in enhanced performance. Yet, under time constraints more reflective decision making may not improve or even have detrimental effects on complex task performance.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quite an interesting conclusion: to me it suggests that modafinil and MPH enhance &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-armed_bandit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;exploitation rather than exploration&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-18T16:41:05.327" LastActivityDate="2018-07-18T16:41:05.327" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20238" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20234" CreationDate="2018-07-18T08:52:12.480" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As highlighted in the comments, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2374&quot;&gt;not all observations necessarily &lt;strong&gt;need&lt;/strong&gt; a term in psychology&lt;/a&gt;, but there is a term for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapy plans will often involve getting the client to try to look at their situation (past or present) in a different context. Some people would call this &quot;wearing other peoples shoes&quot;, or in other words they might say &quot;if I were in their shoes...&quot;, and some will call it looking at it from another person's viewpoint or perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more accepted term you are after is Emotional Intelligence (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.educationforhealth.net/article.asp?issn=1357-6283;year=2016;volume=29;issue=3;spage=186;epage=194;aulast=Bertram;type=2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bertram, et al.  2016&lt;/a&gt;), also known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional quotient (EQ) and Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EIQ)&lt;/a&gt;, yet I dislike the terms involving intelligence because it insinuates that those who find difficulty with looking at certain people's points of view are not as intelligent as others who can.  Yet this is not necessarily the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional Intelligence involves the capability of individuals to recognize their own emotions and those of others, discern between different feelings and label them appropriately, use emotional information to guide thinking and behaviour, and manage and/or adjust emotions to adapt to environments or achieve one's goal(s) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199534067.001.0001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coleman, 2008&lt;/a&gt;),&#xA; and Jeremy E. Sherman, PhD. calls it Empathic Intelligence (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/ambigamy/200905/empathic-intelligence-put-yourself-in-their-shoes-unlace-yours&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sherman, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bertram K., Randazzo J., Alabi N., Levenson J., Doucette J. T., &amp;amp; Barbosa, P. (2016). Strong correlations between empathy, emotional intelligence, and personality traits among podiatric medical students: A cross-sectional study. &lt;em&gt;Education for Health&lt;/em&gt;, (29)3, 186. &lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4103/1357-6283.204224&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.4103/1357-6283.204224&lt;/a&gt;, PMID &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/28406102&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;28406102&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Colman, Andrew (2008). &lt;em&gt;A Dictionary of Psychology&lt;/em&gt; (3 ed.). Oxford University Press.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199534067.001.0001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1093/acref/9780199534067.001.0001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sherman, J. (2009). Empathic Intelligence: To put yourself in their shoes, unlace yours. &lt;em&gt;PsychologyToday&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/ambigamy/200905/empathic-intelligence-put-yourself-in-their-shoes-unlace-yours&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/ambigamy/200905/empathic-intelligence-put-yourself-in-their-shoes-unlace-yours&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-18T08:57:19.337" LastActivityDate="2018-07-18T08:57:19.337" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20239" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-18T10:43:41.233" Score="3" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there formal studies relating chess performance (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elo_rating_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ELO&lt;/a&gt;) and IQ? I found a proposed &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jlevitt.dircon.co.uk/iq.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Levitt equation&lt;/a&gt; (also mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;https://thechessworld.com/articles/healthpsycology/chess-rating-and-iq-score-correlation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;thechessworld&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Elo ~ (10 x IQ) + 1000&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there some systematic evidence to back this formula, and/or propose a better one, and how well do such regressions fit, i.e. what's their goodness of fit (R), or alternatively stating this last part: how well does ELO (or some equivalent measure) correlate with IQ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Regarding the question linked: this one is not even remotely a duplicate. The other question asks if playing chess can &lt;em&gt;improve&lt;/em&gt; IQ. (and the answer seems to be no.) None of the answers there even talk how much IQ affect chess performance. The answer to my question is a qualified yes, by the way. Just think of the limit case where IQ were &quot;set at birth&quot;, and your chess performance depended 100% just on IQ. You could still play chess all day and your IQ wouldn't change.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-18T22:32:54.217" LastActivityDate="2018-07-18T22:32:54.217" Title="Chess performance and IQ" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;chess&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20241" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20261" CreationDate="2018-07-18T18:47:41.990" Score="4" ViewCount="485" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a fan of Psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know what &quot;pseudo debility&quot; is. Unfortunately, I don't know what it means in English. This is my free translation from Russian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've encountered the terms &quot;pseudo debility&quot; and &quot;digital dementia&quot; on resources that popularize science. But I still haven't found a generally accepted definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &quot;pseudo debility&quot; is the simplification and flattening of delirium in the modern world. In the past, delirium was more saturated, unique and striking imagination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Who invented and studied it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Links&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://newtonew.com/school/digital-amentia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Цифровое слабоумие: кто на самом деле глупеет от гаджетов?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wGB_z3mt_wI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Псевдодебильность и слабоумие общества. Андрей Курпатов на QWERTY&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The video above refers to such authors as &lt;a href=&quot;https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manfred_Spitzer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Manfred Spitzer&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://sites.google.com/site/compernolleconsulting3/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Theo Compernolle&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manfred_Spitzer#Digitale_Demenz&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Digitale Demenz&lt;/a&gt; is a book by &lt;a href=&quot;https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manfred_Spitzer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Manfred Spitzer&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19755" LastEditorUserId="19755" LastEditDate="2018-07-24T07:43:44.227" LastActivityDate="2019-04-12T12:44:21.697" Title="What are a digital dementia and a pseudo debility?" Tags="&lt;definition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20245" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-19T12:50:54.173" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;The facial expression is: 2C+6+12+24A (Facial Action Coding System)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find out what expression and emotion this represents. Also if anybody knows a site which lists more than the universal expressions and their Facial Action Coding representation, that would be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the closest expression I can find; note but it doesn't express 2C: &lt;a href=&quot;https://imgur.com/a/Xmdeylu&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://imgur.com/a/Xmdeylu&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19814" LastActivityDate="2018-07-19T12:50:54.173" Title="What emotion/sensory feeling is this?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20247" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20235" CreationDate="2018-07-19T14:36:20.943" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Low self-esteem can be the result of severeal things, implying depression and other mental disorders, past experiences (harassement for example). We &lt;strong&gt;can&lt;/strong&gt; &quot;fix&quot; low self-esteem through non-drug therapy, but sometimes we &lt;strong&gt;can't&lt;/strong&gt;. There is no fixed answer, it varies from person to person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My personnal experience :&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;I am a schizoaffective and asperger person, for me, self-esteem is something really instable because of depressive/hypomaniac phases and schizophrenic symptoms. It is not something that I can control, except with high medication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources and readings :&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://annals-general-psychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2832-2-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Low self-esteem and psychiatric patients: Part I – The relationship between low self-esteem and psychiatric diagnosis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://healthyselfesteem.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/low-self-esteem-aggression.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Low Self-Esteem Is Related to Aggression, Antisocial Behavior, and Delinquency&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/2095720?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-Esteem and Adolescent Problems: Modeling Reciprocal Effects&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19816" LastEditorUserId="19816" LastEditDate="2018-07-19T17:29:33.267" LastActivityDate="2018-07-19T17:29:33.267" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20248" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8451" CreationDate="2018-07-19T14:46:26.027" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wordnik.com/words/iconoclast&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;iconoclast&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;n.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  One who attacks and seeks to overthrow traditional or popular ideas or institutions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The previous answer covers various forms of reasoning on a larger scale. It can also be something much simpler, like being burned by popular trends, or finding that mainstream culture doesn't suit you (more unique individuals, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8978" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-20T06:56:35.550" LastActivityDate="2018-07-20T06:56:35.550" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20250" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-19T21:45:58.707" Score="2" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I have a sentence: &lt;code&gt;Hence this option is free of abundance bias&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've made up the phrase &quot;abundance bias&quot; and I want to replace it with the proper scientific term. What is the exact term that would denote that the option will account for all subtleties and won't be biased towards stuff that happens to be more common? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like for example, if a doctor sees 100 patients with X and someone who has Y (which has symptoms similar to X) comes in. The doctor fails to consider any subtleties that might make it different from X and just diagnoses X. This doctor has the &quot;abundance bias&quot; because the X was more common. You could say it's actually confirmation bias but that'll be when the doctor diagnoses based on his subjective experience and personal judgement rather than X being more widespread.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what is the right scientific term that would mean the same thing as &quot;abundance bias&quot;? Basically, the cognitive bias that arises when a particular thing is perceived to be much more common than the rest and hence it is considered to be the only case and the rest is disregarded/not considered&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19817" LastEditorUserId="19817" LastEditDate="2018-07-19T21:59:48.353" LastActivityDate="2018-07-19T22:21:56.493" Title="What is the bias that arises because a thing is way more common than the rest?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20251" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20250" CreationDate="2018-07-19T22:14:57.343" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; refers to &quot;regressive bias&quot; though I admit I have never heard the term used, defined as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A certain state of mind wherein high values and high likelihoods are overestimated while low values and low likelihoods are underestimated&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in addition to not recalling this term's use before, I also did not find it used in quite that context in the majority of results on Google Scholar for &quot;regressive bias&quot; - so I would use it only with caution (and probably not at all in the context you refer to) and along with your own definition if at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also possibly refer to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Default_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;default effect&lt;/a&gt; although this mainly refers to a default &lt;em&gt;action&lt;/em&gt; rather than a default conclusion, one could argue these are one and the same (i.e., if the default diagnosis for the symptom is X).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;availability heuristic&lt;/a&gt; is also relevant. Although this bias is normally focused on recency of exposure, surely the most common diagnoses would be most 'available' simply because it is encountered more often, whereas it is unlikely that the doctor has recently experienced disease Y. Of course, once they do encounter someone with Y, the availability heuristic would suggest that in the future they will be more likely to diagnose or at least consider Y when X is more likely based on simple probability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-07-19T22:21:56.493" LastActivityDate="2018-07-19T22:21:56.493" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20252" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-20T00:15:21.867" Score="3" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;At a recent rock concert, I noticed that the &quot;headliner&quot; is almost always preceded by several bands whose job it is to &quot;warm up the crowd,&quot; and that during those &quot;opener acts,&quot; the crowd does indeed transition from a sort of &quot;cold&quot; to &quot;warm&quot; state, i.e. will dance more, jump around more, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During an act, the band seems to (in my experience) open with one or two energetic songs, follow up with a slower song, then play more energetic songs, in a series. This doesn't exactly follow the model of act to act transitions - wherein the &quot;hottest act&quot; is saved for last. Instead, it's more of a &quot;wave.&quot; In short, there seems to be a contradiction in the planning of a concert between how the whole concert is planned, and how a single band's tracklist is planned. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This made me wonder: &lt;strong&gt;Does anybody have any evidence or analysis for the best way to set up a tracklist for a live performance?&lt;/strong&gt; &quot;Best&quot; being &quot;getting the most positive reaction from the crowd,&quot; or &quot;getting the most energetic reaction for the greatest period of time&quot; from the crowd, &quot;live performance&quot; being an event where presumably the goal of the performer would be an energetic reaction from the crowd, such as a rock, metal, EDM concert etc. Asking around people that play shows, the answers seem to be mostly &quot;common sense&quot; or intuitive - &quot;let people rest, then give them anxiety with a quick beat, then drop the bass,&quot; that sort of thing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found a pre-phd thesis on emotional responses to bass drops in EDM, which analysis the in-song emotional responses people feel. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://dj.dancecult.net/index.php/dancecult/article/download/451/457&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf&lt;/a&gt;) This led me to a great deal of papers and articles arguing that &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=0&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,5&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;cites=11210826485039831379&amp;amp;scipsc=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;yes indeed humans have an emotional reaction to music&lt;/a&gt;, which is not quite what I'm looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further searches around terms like &quot;concert, planning, setlist&quot; mostly yield results about concert safety or music education. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/092575359400033Y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;One article&lt;/a&gt; looked into the different &lt;em&gt;types&lt;/em&gt; of crowds, which might be helpful, but it seems to mostly focus on managing those crowds safely, rather than managing their enjoyment of a show.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/0807.2466&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; does analyse Grateful Dead setlists, but mostly to compare listening styles at concerts vs listening events, so still isn't quite a &quot;model&quot; or hypothesis on a good way to establish a setlist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19818" LastEditorUserId="19818" LastEditDate="2018-07-23T00:54:41.780" LastActivityDate="2018-07-23T00:54:41.780" Title="Is there a model for designing a tracklist to get the most engaged reaction from a crowd at a rock concert?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20253" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20270" CreationDate="2018-07-20T08:17:42.163" Score="5" ViewCount="269" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whilst trying to think of non-chemical/hormonal causes of low self-esteem when reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/20235&quot;&gt;Is low self-esteem, a brain chemical imbalance problem, rather than a personality defect, and can&amp;#39;t be fixed by any amount of counselling/self-help?&lt;/a&gt;, I have been considering Body Dysmorphia Disorder (BDD).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst it is a mental disorder in its own right, I have been thinking that BDD can cause depression due to the constant upset caused by the feelings concerning the body, but not the other way round; yet &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd/causes-of-bdd/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the UK mental health charity, Mind, states&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;No one knows exactly what causes BDD. However, recent research suggests that there are a number of different risk factors that could mean you are more likely to experience BDD, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;abuse or bullying&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;low self-esteem&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;fear of being alone or isolated&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;perfectionism or competing with others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;genetics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;depression or anxiety&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I am asking here specifically about depression&lt;/strong&gt; because for the other reasons in MINDs list such as perfectionism or bullying, anxiety could cause BDD in my thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With &lt;em&gt;risk not necessarily meaning cause&lt;/em&gt;, in order for the risk to be quantified, there needs to be indication from studies and past clients that depression led to BDD rather than the other way round, and yet I am not convinced of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What studies are available which indicate that depression can cause BDD rather than the other way round?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-22T08:20:45.443" LastActivityDate="2019-06-06T07:02:32.450" Title="Depression Causing Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20254" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20255" CreationDate="2018-07-20T09:59:47.023" Score="-1" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone thinks a lot about their future like what are they going to do 1 year down the line or how will the live the rest of their lives and some of these ideas can be really extreme like taking a vow of celibacy in their thoughts. Can they end up over-burdening themselves and if yes then what could be the possible solution to it. Also what are the symptoms of such a man/woman?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user19823" LastEditorDisplayName="user19823" LastEditDate="2018-07-20T10:20:31.520" LastActivityDate="2018-07-20T13:19:06.557" Title="Is it possible to over burden yourself?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20255" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20254" CreationDate="2018-07-20T13:19:06.557" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As indicated in my comment, it is possible to &quot;overburden&quot; yourself, and there are different degrees of effects from overburdening depending on severity and timescales.  Any overburden with enough time can lead to burnout (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/high-octane-women/201311/the-tell-tale-signs-burnout-do-you-have-them&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carter, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).  Other names for burnout include &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_breakdown&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;mental breakdown&quot; or &quot;nervous exhaustion/breakdown&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.  Another form of burnout, but essentially the same thing is Compassion Fatigue (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/high-octane-women/201407/are-you-suffering-compassion-fatigue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carter, 2014&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Definition of Burnout&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burnout is a state of chronic stress that has led to extreme physical and emotional exhaustion, which in turn can lead to cynicism, detachment, and feelings of ineffectiveness and lack of accomplishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/high-octane-women/201311/the-tell-tale-signs-burnout-do-you-have-them&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carter (2013)&lt;/a&gt; has given a good rundown of the problem, but I would suggest subsituting the section header &lt;strong&gt;Signs of Ineffectiveness and Lack of Accomplishment&lt;/strong&gt; with &lt;strong&gt;Feelings of Ineffectiveness and Lack of Accomplishment can lead to...&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Prevention/Remedy for Burnout&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This can be a huge subject, but to narrow it down in a nutshell, as burnout is caused by chronic stress, the only way to prevent it or remedy it is to do whatever relieves stress for you and incorporate it into your day, &lt;strong&gt;every day&lt;/strong&gt;.  Burning the candle at both ends along with the midnight oil every day is going to lead to burnout.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carter, S. B. (2013). The Tell Tale Signs of Burnout ... Do You Have Them? &lt;em&gt;PsychologyToday&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/high-octane-women/201311/the-tell-tale-signs-burnout-do-you-have-them&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/high-octane-women/201311/the-tell-tale-signs-burnout-do-you-have-them&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carter, S. B. (2014). Are You Suffering from Compassion Fatigue?:&#xA;What to do when showing compassion feels like a burden &lt;em&gt;PsychologyToday&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/high-octane-women/201407/are-you-suffering-compassion-fatigue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/high-octane-women/201407/are-you-suffering-compassion-fatigue&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-20T13:19:06.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20256" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20225" CreationDate="2018-07-20T19:27:56.973" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe I know which paper you're referring to. My guess is the widely cited &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1998-10661-006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schmidt &amp;amp; Hunter (1998)&lt;/a&gt; paper. The paper summarizes 85 years of practical and theoretical implications of research in personnel selection. To see that they address what you're asking for, here is a quote from the paper&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If a superior worker is defined as one whose performance (output) is at the 84th percentile (that is, 1 SD above the mean), then a superior&#xA;  worker in a lower level job produces 19% more output than an&#xA;  average worker, a superior skilled worker produces 32% more&#xA;  output than the average skilled worker, and a superior manager&#xA;  or professional produces output 48% above the average for those&#xA;  jobs. These differences are large and they indicate that the payoff&#xA;  from using valid hiring methods to predict later job performance&#xA;  is quite large.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then later they state&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;At one extreme, if an organization must hire all who&#xA;  apply for the job, no hiring procedure has any practical value.&#xA;  At the other extreme, if the organization has the luxury of hiring&#xA;  only the top scoring 1%, the practical value of gains from selection&#xA;  per person hired will be extremely large. But few organizations&#xA;  can afford to reject 99% of all job applicants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a more recent paper on the subject has been published. That's the &lt;a href=&quot;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2853669&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schmidt, Oh &amp;amp; Shaffer (2016)&lt;/a&gt;, which summarizes 100 years of practical and theoretical implications of research in personnel selection. This paper is an update on the former, so you may as well just look only at this latest one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19533" LastEditorUserId="19533" LastEditDate="2018-07-20T20:35:24.843" LastActivityDate="2018-07-20T20:35:24.843" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20257" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20275" CreationDate="2018-07-20T22:46:03.100" Score="2" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to learn factor analysis and I thought it would be a good idea to try and very poorly &quot;mimic&quot; the computation for IQ scores with a dataset of dummy values as a way to &quot;learn by example&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To start off, this is what I intend to do, and I don't know if this methodology is correct or not: I have the loadings for that factor determined. Now that I have the loadings, I want to generate a score for each of the samples. That will leave me with a population of scores that I can then standardize around a mean of 100. From there I would plot a normal distribution. Whenever I get a new sample, I can then generate a score for it and see where it falls on the distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To get my results, I am using Python's Sklearn library, specifically the &lt;code&gt;FactorAnalysis&lt;/code&gt; class. I noticed that the &lt;code&gt;FactorAnalysis&lt;/code&gt; class has a &lt;code&gt;score_samples()&lt;/code&gt; method. The output score for each sample is the log-likelihood of the sample.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some of the questions I have:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is my approach in generating a distribution based on the samples' factor scores flawed? How do they do it in practice?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is the log-likelihood of a sample even an appropriate score to use? (If not, what alternative ways are there to score a sample?)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I have gone ahead and generated the scores using the &lt;code&gt;score_samples()&lt;/code&gt; method for all the samples, but they range between -4 and -49. Is there a reason they would be negative?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If you are only looking for 1 latent factor, is it good practice to set the number of factors to 1 or should you leave it unspecified anyways? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the loadings if I leave set the number of factors to 1:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;            Factor 1&#xA;variable 1  0.082558&#xA;variable 2  0.107940&#xA;variable 3  0.199645&#xA;variable 4  0.612495&#xA;variable 5  0.623707&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the loadings if I do not specify the number of factors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;             Factor 1   Factor 2   Factor 3  Factor 4  Factor 5       &#xA;variable 1   0.263914   0.426346  -0.012893   -0.0       0.0&#xA;variable 2   0.297078   0.415269  -0.002193    0.0      -0.0&#xA;variable 3   0.243590  -0.005131   0.085178   -0.0      -0.0&#xA;variable 4   0.487537  -0.224135  -0.019501   -0.0      -0.0&#xA;variable 5   0.484462  -0.248173  -0.008902    0.0       0.0&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18979" LastEditorUserId="18979" LastEditDate="2018-07-21T03:48:19.497" LastActivityDate="2018-07-23T08:06:38.560" Title="Questions on Interpreting Factor Analysis Results and Scores" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20259" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20253" CreationDate="2018-07-21T05:02:43.237" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;TLDR version: it appears depression-as-a-risk-factor-for-BDD hasn't actually been studied, so the quoted UK NGO claims might stem from a blurring of risk factors and comorbidity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's start by recalling what risk factor &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.samhsa.gov/capt/practicing-effective-prevention/prevention-behavioral-health/risk-protective-factors&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;actually means&lt;/a&gt; (it does not mean cause): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Risk factors are characteristics at the biological, psychological, family, community, or cultural level that precede and are associated with a higher likelihood of negative outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So support the quoted passage in your question, one would only have to show that depression (from whatever cause) can happen before BDD in some individuals. If someone is predisposed to &quot;go off the deep end&quot; because of their body, they could possibly do that for any other perceived insufficiency in themselves (like thinking they're not being smart enough). The criteria to BDD &lt;a href=&quot;https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/diagnosis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;are extremely specific&lt;/a&gt;, only a preoccupation with physical appearance counts; if someone ruminates or obsesses or over their (perceived) lack of intelligence, that doesn't qualify for BDD. With this in mind, depression being a risk factor for BDD doesn't so improbable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas, I came up empty for an actual longitudinal study where depression got worse before BDD... but I did find &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2786172/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one close enough&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We found several significant longitudinal associations between BDD and the comorbid disorders we examined. The association was strongest for depression. Time-varying associations showed that improvement in BDD and major depression were closely linked in time, with significant associations in both directions: improvement in major depression predicted BDD remission, and improvement in BDD predicted major depression remission. This finding suggests that the same etiologic processes contribute to both BDD and major depression in some subjects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason they could only talk of improvements (and not deterioration) is that this study had a treatment-based time frame. So there's wasn't much in the way of naturalistic observation sans treatment. That would probably require a much longer time scale... and I'm not convinced someone could get funding for that... especially since it raises ethics questions like observing depression getting worse in some patients but not doing anything about it, just so BDD aggravation could be observed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, the common sense logic (that you had) that depression might usually come after BDD, turns out to be supported by this study (well, again based on remission):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;in our sample depression may be largely secondary to BDD for many subjects, as a substantial proportion remitted from major depression following BDD remission. Conversely, after remission of depression, BDD tended to improve but less markedly. Our findings additionally suggest that BDD is not simply a symptom of depression. If it were, BDD would be expected to remit around the time of depression remission and during subsequent months. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frankly, I suspect that the NGO page in question might have simply confused (or amalgamated) risk factors with comorbidity. I'm saying this because a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocrd.2015.06.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2015 research&lt;/a&gt; paper notes that very little is know about risk factors for BDD. According to that paper, the only things which have been investigated as risk factors for BDD being:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;perceived teasing about general appearance&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;emotional, physical, or sexual abuse or neglect resulting in poor&#xA;attachment and body shame&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;a genetic predisposition for a need for symmetry or order&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;being excessively self-conscious about appearance changes during adolescence&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my conclusion from all this: it sounds somewhat plausible that depression is a risk factor for BDD (based on the common etiology [in some people] hypothesis), although it doesn't seem to have been formally/directly investigated, and the reverse occurence of events (BDD first, then depression) sounds a bit more common/likely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-22T08:50:55.497" LastActivityDate="2018-07-22T08:50:55.497" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20260" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-21T06:04:09.880" Score="2" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which states of mind that are classified as mental illnesses might be a natural and useful part of our brains?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, some evolutionary biologists have suggested that some types of depression are a natural consequence of losing a fight for dominance. i.e. In order for the loser to fit into the social pecking order he must have feelings of low self worth. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there other types of &quot;mental illnesses&quot; that might be natural and useful? (By &quot;natural&quot; I simply mean evolutionary selected for.) And that if this illness was cured for all human beings it would in fact damage the social fabric of society?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example. A phobia of spiders. Most people would agree that this is not a mental illness but a common trait of most humans. A phobia of trees is probably not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2018-07-21T06:04:09.880" Title="Which mental illnesses are probably natural?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-07-27T08:25:04.043" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20261" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20241" CreationDate="2018-07-21T09:11:32.233" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Digital dementia&quot; seems to be (from de.wiki link) an idiosyncratic (and pejorative) term used to describe a high dependence on portable electronics like smartphones, notebooks. See e.g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/why-smartphone-dependence-is-ravaging-a-generation_us_599b7493e4b0ac90f2cba962&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Why Smartphone Dependence Is Ravaging a Generation&quot;&lt;/a&gt; obviously from an alarmist proponent of this phenomenon, or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone_overuse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Mobile phone overuse&quot;&lt;/a&gt; on Wikipedia for a more neutral perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;the more general term seems to be &lt;a href=&quot;http://ssrc.ie/blog/2018/01/23/the-impact-the-overuse-of-technology-has-on-humans-and-the-environment/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;overuse of technology&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Calling it &quot;dementia&quot; probably relates to an influential article (discussed in the previous link) titled &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Is_Google_Making_Us_Stupid%3F&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Is Google Making us Stupid?&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Another pejorative term is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wsj.com/articles/no-your-children-arent-becoming-digital-zombies-1444400129&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;digital zombie&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the absence of sources you provided, I don't know what &quot;pseudo debility&quot; might be, but based on your def &quot;simplification and flattening of delirium in the modern world&quot; it doesn't sound terribly related to &quot;digital dementia&quot; in the sense used by Manfred Spitzer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-21T09:31:24.947" LastActivityDate="2018-07-21T09:31:24.947" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20262" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-21T16:12:58.170" Score="1" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;In theory, a female who is above average should reject most advances because they can afford to wait until they are approached by a male of high value. Whereas a female of low attractiveness can not afford to reject most advances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But how does a female gauge here own attractiveness in the first place?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would make sense is that in the fist few years of adult life a female should simply reject all advances. A process of simply collecting statistical data on her own attractiveness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then females who are approached at a low level during this period would become more easily approachable whereas females who are approached at a high level would become more stand-offish. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does any of this correspond to reality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2018-07-22T02:07:14.023" Title="How does a female measure her own attractiveness?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20263" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10701" CreationDate="2018-07-21T20:48:56.903" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/r3gYB.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/r3gYB.png&quot; alt=&quot;Herrnstein&amp;#39;s Syllogism&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Herrnstein's Syllogism&lt;/em&gt;, as shown above, comes from the 1971 article written for &lt;em&gt;The Atlantic&lt;/em&gt; by psychologist Richard Herrnstein &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theatlantic.com/ideastour/education/herrnstein-excerpt.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Herrnstein, 1971)&lt;/a&gt;. It argued that while socioeconomic status of individuals may be caused by various factors, one of those factors must be differences in inherited genetics. The article ignited a big controversy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a personal note, I must admit that I don't quite understand the controversy (Well, at a scientific level). It was already accepted by most psychologists in the 1970s that general intelligence was a heritable trait. Further, it was accepted that general intelligence statistically predicted success in education as well as in professional life. Therefore, it should not be surprising if genetic differences acting on intelligence would not be distributed evenly across the social environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will first deal with the premises. Is general intelligence heritable? Then I will merge the two next premises. Does intelligence predict mobility in success and social standing? I will also look directly at the conclusion of the syllogism. Do differences in genetics that influence differences in intelligence vary as a function of socioeconomic status?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Was Herrnstein's conclusion scientifically justified back then? That could be argued, but ultimately it doesn't matter. Today we have much more evidence available. We can now directly look at molecular genetics that is known to influence intelligence. As I will show, the best current evidence absolutely supports Herrnstein's conclusion. This does not mean that intelligence is everything, or that genetics is everything, but that it is a part of the story.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Heritability of Intelligence&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is intelligence, educational success and similar variables partly heritable traits? In fact, this is not even questioned by the relevant experts anymore. From a landmark &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/news/intelligence-research-should-not-be-held-back-by-its-past-1.22021&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; editorial (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, I quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;it’s well established and uncontroversial among geneticists that together, differences in genetics underwrite significant variation in intelligence between people.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an expert review on five findings regarding genetics and intelligence, the first noted finding is the heritability of intelligence &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/mp2014105&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Plomin &amp;amp; Deary, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question remains: how do we know that intelligence is partly heritable? &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_genetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quantitative genetics&lt;/a&gt; is a field which attempts to address such questions. In particular, methods have been developed that attempt to estimate aggregate genetic influence &lt;em&gt;without finding the influence of particular genetic variants&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most highly used method for humans is the &lt;strong&gt;twin study&lt;/strong&gt;. Identical twins are more genetically similar than fraternal twins. Identical twins also tend to be more similar than fraternal twins on various variables such as facial similarity, height, and even on psychological variables. From this increase in genetic similarity coupled with the increase in phenotypic similarity, an estimate of heritability can be calculated. This method can be extended to compare not just similarities between twins, but in general siblings of all kinds, cousins and more in &lt;strong&gt;pedigree studies&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, based on a massive Dutch birth cohort a team of researchers estimated a heritability of educational achievement of 85% &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2017.00160/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Schwabe et al, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another method is the &lt;strong&gt;adoption study&lt;/strong&gt;. This method compares the correlations of children with their adoptive parents and with their biological parents. Based on this an estimate of heritability is calculated. Adoption studies show substantial genetic influence on intelligence &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10519-007-9142-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(McGue et al, 2007)&lt;/a&gt;. One of the most powerful variants of the adoption study is a study that compares the similarity of &lt;strong&gt;identical twins separated at birth and reared apart.&lt;/strong&gt; For example, the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart found a very high heritability estimate &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/250/4978/223.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bouchard et al, 1990)&lt;/a&gt;. Identical twins are highly similar in intelligence regardless of whether they are reared together or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are classical methods of estimating heritability, yet more and newer methods have been developed. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome-wide_complex_trait_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Genome-wide Complex Trait Analysis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (GCTA) estimates narrow-sense heritability by directly quantifying the chance genetic similarity of unrelated strangers and comparing it to their measured similarity on a trait. A study of approximately 20,000 individuals found a substantial heritability of general intelligence with this method &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-017-0005-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hill et al, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;. In general, based on this finding and all the other findings together, one can conclude that genetic similarity is a better predictor of similarity in intelligence than environmental similarity is. For example, identical twins reared apart are much more similar than adoptees raised together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are far more studies one could cite, and other lines of evidence. For example, inbreeding has been shown to lower intelligence, and this effect is larger the higher degree the inbreeding is &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0109585&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Fareed &amp;amp; Afzal, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;. This should only be viewed as a snippet of the evidence from which researchers conclude that it is &quot;uncontroversial&quot; that genetics influence intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing is to estimate the aggregate genetic effect; another thing entirely is to find the actual genetic variants at play. This is done using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome-wide_association_study&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;genome-wide association studies&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (GWAS). It has been found that intelligence is a highly polygenic trait, meaning that it is influenced of &lt;em&gt;many&lt;/em&gt; genes each of very small individual effect. This means that huge sample sizes are required to unlock the individual variants that affect the trait. However, in the last few years, GWA studies have found many variants affecting intelligence, see e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-018-0152-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Savage et al, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;. By aggregating the effects of many of the variants thought to affect the trait one gets a &lt;strong&gt;polygenic score&lt;/strong&gt;, such that a higher polygenic score is associated with higher average intelligence. Of course, most of the genetic variants have yet to be found, and hence only a moderate portion of the variance in intelligence can be captured directly by molecular genetics currently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Practical Implications of Intelligence Differences&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be difficult to establish causal effects in the life sciences. Does a correlation between higher pay and higher intelligence mean that higher pay causes higher intelligence? Or how about vice versa? Or is a third variable at play? One of the best ways of providing causal evidence is through &lt;strong&gt;longitudinal studies&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, measure the intelligence of a sample at age 11 and see if that predicts later success.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Higher intelligence longitudinally predicts &lt;strong&gt;higher grades&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, a meta-analysis of 240 independent samples with 105,185 participants finds that intelligence is a very strong predictor of school grades &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289615001269&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Roth et al, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. In a massive longitudinal study of 70,000+ English children the association between intelligence measured at age 11 and educational achievement later was tested. Educational achievement was calculated as a general factor of GCSE results and they found a strong correlation of 0.81 between measured intelligence and educational achievement &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289606000171&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Deary et al, 2007)&lt;/a&gt;. Studies that attempt to break down whether teachers, schools, or individual student factors matter most for student educational success find that individual factors account for the vast majority of the variance &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/spanish-journal-of-psychology/article/education-and-intelligence-pity-the-poor-teacher-because-student-characteristics-are-more-significant-than-teachers-or-schools/F73D9839D7E1398C33A117CB37E084E8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Detterman, 2016)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;General intelligence has been found to be a big predictor of &lt;strong&gt;job success&lt;/strong&gt;, especially in jobs of higher complexity &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289697900143&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Gottfredson, 1997&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2853669&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schmidt, Oh &amp;amp; Shaffer, 2016)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;General intelligence longitudinally predicts &lt;strong&gt;financial well-being&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mdpi.com/2079-3200/5/2/11&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Furnham &amp;amp; Cheng, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;. A large-scale longitudinal analysis showed that intelligence affected &lt;strong&gt;salary growth&lt;/strong&gt; whereas socioeconomic background primarily affected starting salary &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289611000237&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ganzach, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. Intelligence predicts &lt;strong&gt;upward socioeconomic mobility&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pewtrusts.org/~/media/legacy/uploadedfiles/pcs_assets/2012/empreportsupward20intergen20mobility2008530pdf.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(PEW Upward Intergenerational Economic Mobility in the United States)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Individuals tested and assessed to be gifted at young age longitudinally predicts &lt;strong&gt;profound achievements academically and professionally&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797616644735&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Makel et al, 2016)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Highly intelligent individuals are much more likely to &lt;strong&gt;become inventors&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nber.org/papers/w24110&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Aghion et al, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;. This study found that intelligence &lt;em&gt;&quot;matters more than all family background variables combined&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We already know that intelligence is highly heritable, and hence these effects are expected to be partly due to genetic differences. Yet, some posit that these effects may be due to some socioeconomic variables that are not controlled for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Testing this hypothesis is possible with &lt;strong&gt;within family sibling analysis&lt;/strong&gt;. By restricting studies to only look at the outcomes of intelligence differences between siblings who are raised together, one can establish that these effects are not due to different rearing environments. In fact, restricting analyses to siblings only slightly changes the associations &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/3083428&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Murray, 2002)&lt;/a&gt;. The study on the origins of inventors mentioned above similarly does a brother-only comparison, and they conclude &lt;em&gt;&quot;This suggests that these coefficients capture an effect of IQ on the probability of inventing which is largely independent of unobserved family background&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Herrnstein's Conclusion: Societal Stratification of Genetics&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking the two previous sections together, I don't see a plausible way in which it would not be the case that genetic variants influencing intelligence would distribute unevenly across socioeconomic lines. However, today we have far more direct evidence in the form of molecular genetics. As I already alluded to in the section on genetic influence on intelligence, we now know many variants influencing intelligence. From the DNA of an individual person one can then sum up the effects of the variants into a &lt;strong&gt;polygenic score&lt;/strong&gt; associated with that individual. Indeed, as I will show, these polygenic scores have been show to predict various outcomes and have been shown to not be distributed evenly (which is exactly Herrnstein's conclusion in other words).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One cause of increased genetic stratification is &lt;strong&gt;assortative mating&lt;/strong&gt;. Assortative mating is when couples are more similar than random strangers. In fact, intelligence is the psychological variable that has the highest degree of assortative mating &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/mp2014105&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Plomin &amp;amp; Deary, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. This has not just been found at the phenotypic level, but also at a genetic level. In a study of 24,662 spousal pairs a team of researchers found a genetic correlation of educational attainment between spousal pairs of 0.654 &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-016-0016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Robinson, ..., Visscher, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;. Since intelligence is heritable, assortative mating of intelligence/educational attainment makes it even more likely that intelligent parents pass on genes that are associated with increased intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a large sample, a team of researchers showed that &lt;strong&gt;spousal pairs where both were university educated had children with higher polygenic scores&lt;/strong&gt; than pairs where only one or none were university educated. Furthermore, &lt;strong&gt;polygenic scores predicted educational mobility&lt;/strong&gt;. Children of educated parents who went on to become highly educated themselves had higher polygenic scores than children who did not become educated like their parents. On the other hand, children of non-educated parents who went on to become educated, unlike their parents, had higher polygenic scores than children who, like their parents, did not become educated &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0956797617707270&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ayorech et al, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is well known that students of some schools do better on average than students of other schools. But the question remains: is it because of the schools? Studies already referenced earlier showed strong evidence that individual factors account for the largest amount of variance. In a large sample of students from different types of schools, a team of researchers found that indeed students do better in more expensive private schools. However, once they controlled for various pre-selection factors there remained no statistical difference. In other words, they did not find evidence that it was &lt;em&gt;because&lt;/em&gt; of the schools that the students did well, but rather the schools had &lt;em&gt;selected&lt;/em&gt; students who already were good. But furthermore, they found that &lt;strong&gt;differences in exam performance between the schools mirrored the genetic differences between them&lt;/strong&gt;. That is, they found that pupils attending expensive selective schools had higher polygenic scores on average &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41539-018-0019-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Smith-Woolley et al, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence has been shown to predict later wealth as shown in the previous section. However, whether this is partly due to genetics can be tested directly be examining whether &lt;strong&gt;polygenic scores predict later wealth&lt;/strong&gt;. A large sample study examined exactly this and they concluded that &lt;em&gt;&quot;genetic endowments linked to educational attainment strongly and robustly predict wealth at retirement&quot;&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nber.org/papers/w24642&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Barth et al, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, do longitudinal studies show that polygenic scores predict upward social mobility? A major study on this was recently published. They took data from &lt;em&gt;five&lt;/em&gt; samples of more than 20,000 individuals and showed that &lt;strong&gt;polygenic scores predicted longitudinal socioeconomic mobility&lt;/strong&gt;. In sibling-analyses the sibling with higher polygenic score was more likely to be upwardly mobile. Not only that, &lt;strong&gt;individuals of lower socioeconomic status had lower average polygenic scores&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2018/07/03/1801238115&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Belsky et al, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;.  That is a validation of Herrnstein's conclusion in modern words: namely that differences in social standing is partly due to genetic differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I have shown, there is more than a little evidence that Herrnstein's premises and conclusion were correct. However, this does not mean that intelligence or genetics is all that matters. Many of the studies above, and others like them, also show effects of non-genetic origin. However, to suggest that genetics is &lt;em&gt;part&lt;/em&gt; of the explanation is scientifically justified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19533" LastEditorUserId="19533" LastEditDate="2018-07-23T07:20:47.570" LastActivityDate="2018-07-23T07:20:47.570" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20266" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20262" CreationDate="2018-07-22T01:12:15.420" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;From p. 207 of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Miller_(psychologist)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Geoffrey Miller&lt;/a&gt; (2001). The mating mind: how sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature. Anchor Books. ISBN 0-385-49517-X&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In our research on mate search strategies, colleague Peter&#xA;  Todd and I found that a rule we call &quot;Try a Dozen&quot; performs as&#xA;  well as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;37 percent rule&lt;/a&gt; under a wide range of conditions. Try&#xA;  a Dozen is simple: interview a dozen possible mates, remember&#xA;  the best of them, and then pick the very next prospect who is&#xA;  even more attractive. You do not have to estimate the total&#xA;  number of potential mates you will encounter in your&#xA;  reproductive lifetime; you only have to bet that you will meet at&#xA;  least fifty or so. Humans seem to follow something like the Try a&#xA;  Dozen rule: we get to know a number of opposite-sex friends&#xA;  during adolescence, fall in love at least once, remember that&#xA;  loved one very clearly, and tend to marry the next person who&#xA;  seems even more attractive. Each individual is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;satisficing&quot;&lt;/a&gt;-&#xA;  looking for someone who is pretty good and good enough, rather&#xA;  than the absolute best they could possibly find. But at the&#xA;  evolutionary level, these satisficing rules impose sexual selection&#xA;  that is almost as strong as the most complicated, perfectionist&#xA;  decision strategy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also turned up a 1998 review by Miller and Todd &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/sites/default/files/attachments/95822/mate-choice-turns-cognitive.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Mate Choice Turn Cognitive&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which does get to mating strategies in its final pages, best summarized by:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bpBxi.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bpBxi.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By sampling a much smaller number of&#xA;  prospects initially, say a dozen, one can actually attain a&#xA;  higher expected mate value than the 37% rule delivers (although&#xA;  a lower chance of finding the very highest-valued&#xA;  prospect), with much lower search costs and a much lower&#xA;  risk of being stuck with a low-value mate[64,65] (Fig. 3).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  More importantly, the ‘secretary problem’ ignores the&#xA;  problem that a prospect you desire may reject you. This&#xA;  mutual choice constraint makes the search much harder[64,65].&#xA;  Game-theory models of ‘two-sided matching’ address these&#xA;  complexities[61] directly, and propose various search strategies&#xA;  which guarantee that a population reaches a ‘stable matching’:&#xA;  a pairwise assortment of individuals where no individual&#xA;  would prefer to be mated with someone else who would also&#xA;  prefer to be mated with them. However, two-sided matching&#xA;  models typically assume strict monogamy (no ‘extra-pair&#xA;  copulations’), complete information and exhaustive preferences:&#xA;  everyone has complete, consistent, transitive&#xA;  preferences across all possible prospects that they encounter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;61&quot;&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Roth, A.E. and Sotomayor, M.A.O. (1990) Two-sided Matching: a Study&#xA;  in Game-theoretic Modeling and Analysis, Cambridge University Press&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;64&quot;&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Todd, P.M. (1997) Searching for the next best mate, in Simulating&#xA;  Social Phenomena (Conte, R., Hegselmann, R. and Terna, P., eds),&#xA;  pp. 419–436, Springer-Verlag&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;65&quot;&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Todd, P.M. and Miller, G.F. Heuristics for mate search, in Simple&#xA;  Heuristics that Make us Smart (Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P.M. and the ABC&#xA;  Research Group), Oxford University Press (in press)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yeah, the problem is not that simple (as optimal stopping) if one considers mating a game (in the sense of game theory). I haven't yet looked at the latter line of research... but it's a whole book. The idea seems centered on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stable_marriage_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stable marriage problem&lt;/a&gt;. An optimal algorithm also involves a number of rounds, with rejection and &quot;maybe&quot; answers; from Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;In the first round, first a) each unengaged man proposes to the woman he prefers most, and then b) each woman replies &quot;maybe&quot; to her suitor she most prefers and &quot;no&quot; to all other suitors. She is then provisionally &quot;engaged&quot; to the suitor she most prefers so far, and that suitor is likewise provisionally engaged to her.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;In each subsequent round, first a) each unengaged man proposes to the most-preferred woman to whom he has not yet proposed (regardless of whether the woman is already engaged), and then b) each woman replies &quot;maybe&quot; if she is currently not engaged or if she prefers this guy over her current provisional partner (in this case, she rejects her current provisional partner who becomes unengaged). The provisional nature of engagements preserves the right of an already-engaged woman to &quot;trade up&quot; (and, in the process, to &quot;jilt&quot; her until-then partner).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;This process is repeated until everyone is engaged.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, Miller and Todd cleary don't think this stable marriage problem is too relevant for reality. Unfortunately, by the time of their review (which is now two decades old), there's wasn't much else proposed that was taking into account the mutual-choice aspect of mating and the &quot;satisficing&quot; nature of human choice in general (that Miller and Todd favor).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-22T02:07:14.023" LastActivityDate="2018-07-22T02:07:14.023" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20267" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-22T03:09:30.850" Score="2" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;As an employer who interviews engineering candidates, I'm interested in using the state of the art findings in psychometrics/psychology to predict which candidates are the most likely to be successful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm aware of is IQ and conscientiousness/industriousness are both very important and well evidenced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any other strong indicators that I can use in a practical way to filter candidates?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19831" LastActivityDate="2018-07-22T03:09:30.850" Title="Predicting workplace performance of job applicants?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-07-28T12:29:11.437" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20268" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20269" CreationDate="2018-07-22T10:36:19.923" Score="2" ViewCount="411" Body="&lt;p&gt;I stumbled upon this fact but I can't seem to understand the websites that are trying to explain it. I could only understand &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia's explanation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This psychological effect is often used in the cinema, where an actor will be shown apparently looking at himself or herself in the mirror. What viewers see is different from what the actor sees, because the camera is not right behind the actor, but the position of the actor is often chosen so that his or her image is nicely framed in the mirror for the camera.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but I don't think my understanding is sufficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So correct me if I'm wrong but, the idea is that, contrary to our quick assumptions, Venus isn't actually admiring herself in the mirror but she's actually looking at the viewer (me)? Am I right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm just wondering why all the other websites are talking about mirror angles, like how she actually would not be able to see her face (really?) and there's one saying that Venus' face is actually between me (the viewer) and the mirror, uhhh what? So does that mean she's actually painting herself? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm so confused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19833" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-22T10:40:57.690" LastActivityDate="2018-07-22T11:21:32.610" Title="Venus effect explained in greater detail?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20269" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20268" CreationDate="2018-07-22T11:21:32.610" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Venus Effect is just as you understand it.  The painting the effect is referring to is depicting the woman admiring herself in the mirror, when in fact, if you study it properly you will see that she would not be able to see herself in the mirror, but she wuld be able to see the artist (or you) as the viewer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look at the diagrams I put together below, you will see from the first diagram how the venus effect works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5zNMF.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5zNMF.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Venus Effect - Venus viewed by the viewer&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Image 1:&lt;/strong&gt;  The Venus Effect in play.  The viewer can see Venus, but there is no way Venus can see herself, when in fact she can see the viewer in the mirror.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wzFeM.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wzFeM.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;No Venus Effect&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Image 2:&lt;/strong&gt;  The Venus Effect is not in play.  The viewer cannot see Venus, Venus can see herself, and she cannot see the viewer&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-22T11:21:32.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20270" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20253" CreationDate="2018-07-22T12:35:05.460" Score="2" Body="&lt;h2&gt;TL;DR:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one study I found, major depression preceded onset of BDD in 22% of cases  (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1613797&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gunstad &amp;amp; Phillips, 2003&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;More Complete Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2786172&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phillips &amp;amp; Stout (2006)&lt;/a&gt; linked in the answer by @Fizz, they state that (emphasis added)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our findings additionally suggest that &lt;strong&gt;BDD is not simply a symptom of depression&lt;/strong&gt;. If it were, BDD would be expected to remit around the time of depression remission and during subsequent months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also highlighted in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2786172&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phillips &amp;amp; Stout (2006)&lt;/a&gt; was the fact that a double-blind cross-over study in BDD found that the SRI clomipramine reduced depressive symptoms more than the non-SRI antidepressant desipramine; this finding suggests that depression was secondary to BDD (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.56.11.1033&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hollander et al., 1999&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Phillips &amp;amp; Stout's study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[D]uring the 3 months after remission of major depression, BDD persisted for most subjects, with fewer than 30% of subjects attaining full remission from BDD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To add to this, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1613797&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gunstad &amp;amp; Phillips (2003)&lt;/a&gt; had this to say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[O]ur finding that major depression usually began after BDD may simply reflect the fact that major depressive disorder typically begins in the mid-20s, whereas BDD usually begins in the early to middle teenage years. An alternative explanation is that major depression may reflect depressive symptoms and demoralization as a secondary complication of BDD. Although it cannot be determined whether one disorder causes another, our clinical impression is that the major depression that so frequently co-occurs with BDD is often due to BDD; however, this does not always appear to be the case. Indeed, in this study major depression preceded onset of BDD in 22% of cases. It is also worth noting that onset of social phobia usually preceded onset of BDD, as would be expected based on social phobia’s usual age of onset. This suggests that in this study, “primary” social phobia was differentiated from the marked social anxiety typically caused by BDD, which would be expected to begin at the time of, or after, onset of BDD. It is sometimes difficult clinically to differentiate primary social phobia from social anxiety secondary to BDD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gunstad, J., &amp;amp; Phillips, K. A. (2003). Axis I Comorbidity in Body Dysmorphic Disorder. &lt;em&gt;Comprehensive Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 44(4), 270–276.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-440X(03)00088-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0010-440X(03)00088-9&lt;/a&gt; PCMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1613797&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC1613797&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1613797/pdf/nihms12699.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1613797/pdf/nihms12699.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hollander, E., Allen, A., Kwon, J., Aronowitz, B., Schmeidler, J., Wong, C., &amp;amp; Simeon, D. (1999). Clomipramine vs desipramine crossover trial in body dysmorphic disorder: selective efficacy of a serotonin reuptake inhibitor in imagined ugliness. &lt;em&gt;Archives of General Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 56(11), 1033-1039.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.56.11.1033&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/archpsyc.56.11.1033&lt;/a&gt; PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10565503&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10565503&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Phillips, K. A., &amp;amp; Stout, R. L. (2006). Associations in the Longitudinal Course of Body Dysmorphic Disorder with Major Depression, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, and Social Phobia. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Psychiatric Research&lt;/em&gt;, 40(4), 360–369.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.10.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.10.001&lt;/a&gt; PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2786172&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC2786172&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2786172/pdf/nihms92762.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2786172/pdf/nihms92762.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-22T12:35:05.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20272" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-22T18:36:49.750" Score="0" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Up until a certain age a child learns through observation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there comes a point when a child can learn new concepts by simply having them explained by an adult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This age is kind of like when the child becomes &quot;programmable&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What age is this? And how many words does a child know at this stage?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what age can a child be taught algorithms? Like &quot;To do this, you first do this. Then if this happens, do this.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what age can a child teach other people algorithms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-23T07:34:16.047" LastActivityDate="2018-07-23T07:34:16.047" Title="At what age is a human child able to learn through the spoken word alone?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20273" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-22T23:57:49.117" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Had a very crazy and intense dream last night where I swapped between different stages of dream depth which actually also included dreaming about the actual place where I was sleeping within a dream within my dream.&#xA;I was really confused when I woke up about which stage was real and which wasn't. Somehow it made me wonder if it is possible to get stuck within your own dreams and getting into a state of vegetativeness by yourself this way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19839" LastActivityDate="2018-07-25T17:42:36.880" Title="Is it possible getting into vegetative state by yourself?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2018-07-26T05:33:48.013" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20274" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20286" CreationDate="2018-07-23T07:04:04.413" Score="1" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that people on top of the social hierarchy have (at least in developed countries) 30 or more years average life expectancy , more stable marriages, happier life and so on. So my question is for people who managed to get from the bottom to the top, what is their expected divorce rate, life expectancy and so on. It is more like the bottom or more like the top. Any research would help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14778" LastActivityDate="2018-07-26T11:00:22.777" Title="People who climb the social hierarchy" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20275" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20257" CreationDate="2018-07-23T08:06:38.560" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is my approach in generating a distribution based on the samples' factor scores flawed? How do they do it in practice?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this somewhat difficult to follow. But in general, you should be able to approximate a set of test scores using a multivariate normal distribution where the covariance matrix implies positive correlations between all tests. Some might be larger and some smaller, but the idea is that all ability tests are correlated. And general mental ability can be estimated as the first unrotated factor that results from such tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is the log-likelihood of a sample even an appropriate score to use? (If not, what alternative ways are there to score a sample?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This sounds more like how you evaluate a model. E.g., how you evaluate a factor analytic solutions. &#xA;In general, factor saved scores will be a weighted composite of the scores on the  component tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In R, you can use &lt;code&gt;factanal&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;factanal(x, factors, data = NULL, covmat = NULL, n.obs = NA,&#xA;         subset, na.action, start = NULL,&#xA;         scores = c(&quot;none&quot;, &quot;regression&quot;, &quot;Bartlett&quot;),&#xA;         rotation = &quot;varimax&quot;, control = NULL, ...)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See the &lt;code&gt;scores&lt;/code&gt; argument. There are a few different methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I have gone ahead and generated the scores using the score_samples() method for all the samples, but they range between -4 and -49. Is there a reason they would be negative?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know Python. But in general, factor saved scores are typically quantified in such a way that they are z-scores (e.g., mean = 0, sd = 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If you are only looking for 1 latent factor, is it good practice to set the number of factors to 1 or should you leave it unspecified anyways?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You need to either extract only one factor or ensure that you apply no rotation to the extract factors. Without a rotation, the first factor will be equivalent to just one factor. If you rotate, variation will be partitioned across the extracted factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-07-23T08:06:38.560" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20276" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9389" CreationDate="2018-07-23T12:32:00.480" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard two theories related to genetics. Mental traits are massively polygenic (many genes with tiny effects). Men (XY) do not have a duplicate X chromosome like women (XX), which means that mutations to an X chromosome that disrupt typical gene expression can affect men more than women, driving variance in mental scores. The second theory is related to the fact that individual men are less likely to pass on their genes than individual women. Counter-intuitively, most of our ancestors are women. Men may have evolved a riskier genetic strategy that produces more high and low cognitive scores in phenotypes. Consider that men also take more risks. This is a behavioral outcome that may have emerged from the same selection pressure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bell_Curve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bell_Curve&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1444791877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.amazon.com/Intelligence-That-Matters-Stuart-Ritchie/dp/1444791877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-07-23T12:32:00.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20280" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-23T17:29:35.220" Score="2" ViewCount="222" Body="&lt;p&gt;So we know that repeated withdrawal from GABAeric substances like alcohol and benzodiazepines will cause kindling and worsen future withdrawal symptoms. Also, it appears that withdrawal from alcohol is responsible for most of the brain damage, since binge drinkers have more brain damage than alcoholics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wouldn't it be possible then, to take a long acting benzodiazepine or slowly sip alcohol throughout the next day to taper off and therefore mitigate the risk from this? The benzo route seems more effective because the half life of alcohol is fairly low and withdrawal will most likely occur when sleeping. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could not find any studies about this. Is there any evidence to support this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh22-1/25-34.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh22-1/25-34.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17316" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-26T07:38:02.160" LastActivityDate="2018-07-26T07:38:02.160" Title="Can tapering reduce the risk of sedative kindling and brain damage?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20281" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-23T17:40:26.160" Score="3" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that memory is neither purely associationist (fully connected graph with weights) nor purely hierarchical (tree). What structure does biological evidence point towards? I'm interested in the mathematical representation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19846" LastActivityDate="2020-07-06T17:00:35.120" Title="How is memory structured (from a modeling perspective)?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20285" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-24T18:32:14.727" Score="0" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if anyone could help me define my observation, in order to read some literature on the subject. I have some Cog. Psych. background but have never encountered this during my studies. It is a social, behavioral and a cognitive phenomenon, that I have observed reading the news and political forums. Every time N Korea is mentioned, people start talking about how hungry their nation is, and make jokes about Kim's weight. Almost every time a popular topic appears on the news regarding the subject, these kinds of posts can be seen. I can provide many examples, if necessary. It is always different individuals with the same kinds of replies/responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there anything I can read to inform myself about this phenomenon ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: as pointed out, not all observations/phenomena need a term.  However, I do need some references to read more about it, so I am not completely lost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19853" LastEditorUserId="19853" LastEditDate="2018-07-24T18:53:15.410" LastActivityDate="2018-07-30T21:25:07.497" Title="Need to define observation/phenomenon in order to study it, same replies to same political topics, different individuals" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20286" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20274" CreationDate="2018-07-25T13:42:43.907" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you want the term Life Course Social Mobility. Try searching for it and the outcomes of interest, e.g., life expectancy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.health.org.uk/blog/climbing-social-mobility-ladder-where-does-health-fit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Climbing the social mobility ladder: where does health fit in?&lt;/a&gt; on &quot;The Health Foundation&quot; blog by Hannah Jones.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/569410/Social_Mobility_Commission_2016_REPORT_WEB__1__.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[The UK] Social Mobility Commission&lt;/a&gt; also touched upon the idea that health and wellbeing play a role in an individual’s social circumstances and, thus, their mobility. For example, the report concluded that those in social housing are less likely to find employment as they are more likely to have a mental health condition, disability or other health condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Heller, R. F., McElduff, P., &amp;amp; Edwards, R. (2002). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.325.7356.134&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Impact of upward social mobility on population mortality: analysis with routine data.&lt;/a&gt; Bmj, 325(7356), 134.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;16% of the reduction in deaths between 1970–2 and 1991–3 among men in England and Wales was attributable to increases in the proportion of men in higher social classes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is difficult to summarize across many different outcomes, and it also depends on a) the starting and ending classes as well as b) the life stage when the transition occurs and c) the speed of the transition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I think the question as originally phrased, whether they appear more like the bottom or the top, cannot be answered in the general case. It is generally going to be in-between.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-26T11:00:22.777" LastActivityDate="2018-07-26T11:00:22.777" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20287" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20281" CreationDate="2018-07-25T15:41:27.530" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The structure of memory depends on what you're trying to model. Since there are many types of memory, this question is almost too broad. So instead of giving you a systematic review, I'll give a quick tour of some models I know which should give you a starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;List memorization appears to be modeled by a combination of neuron weight updates and integrators saving symbols modeled as vectors. See &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/13498&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An Integrated Model of Context, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memory&lt;/a&gt;&quot; by Jan Gosmann.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Task/procedural memory has been modeled as a stack-like data-structure while still representing the symbols as vectors. See &quot;A scaleable spiking neural model of action planning&quot; by Blouw et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spatial memory is weirder and seems to be best modeled as a function space. See &quot;Vector-based navigation using grid-like representations in artificial agents&quot; by Banino et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Visual memory has some nice models too, but I don't know them that well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-27T22:24:14.447" LastActivityDate="2018-07-27T22:24:14.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20288" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-25T16:31:58.387" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say I have a go/no-go task and my output data includes 3 parameters: &#xA;average reaction time, variance of reaction time, and number of errors.&#xA;I want to composite all of the parameters into a single index score. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the best way to do it? All of the parameters are equally important to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19858" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-07-26T15:55:58.137" LastActivityDate="2018-07-26T15:55:58.137" Title="What's the best way to calculate an index score based on reaction time, variance and accuracy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20289" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-25T17:40:22.230" Score="1" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;In many countries it is expected that a man should ask a woman on a date. But in some other countries (Scandinavia, or the Wodaabe tribe in Africa) it seems to be the other way round (or at least the other way round is acceptable.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have noticed that when alcohol is involved women are more likely to approach men (apparently alcohol increases the level of testosterone in women).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus psychologically speaking, is this a cultural norm or something innate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, mathematically speaking, it seems that it is better that only one gender does the asking. At least most &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mathematical models&lt;/a&gt; assume this. But is this decided biologically or culturally?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(And are there animals that differ in this regard?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2018-07-25T17:40:22.230" Title="Is it just a cultural norm that men approach women for dates rather than the other way round?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20291" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-26T04:48:33.860" Score="4" ViewCount="6232" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given such a sentence by a Test of English as a Foreign Language textbook,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mental disorder include psychosis and neurosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I googled and found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-psychosis-and-neurosis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a page&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In introduction, the pages says,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychosis and neurosis are terms used to describe mental conditions. Sometimes these words are used &lt;strong&gt;interchangeably&lt;/strong&gt; to refer to the same condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Only what I clearly could deduct from the page is psychosis is brought about particularly by the use of alcohol and illicit use of drugs and their withdrawal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could anyone support me to distinguish these two symptoms more clearly ( and hopefully in a simpler way? )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19738" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-07-27T14:39:44.997" LastActivityDate="2020-01-12T11:36:50.400" Title="What is the difference between psychosis and neurosis?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;&lt;freud&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20292" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20288" CreationDate="2018-07-26T05:48:17.103" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This overlaps a lot with these two questions: So check them out&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/1722/52&quot;&gt;How to measure group differences incorporating reaction time / accuracy trade-off?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/660/how-to-analyze-reaction-times-and-accuracy-together&quot;&gt;How to analyze reaction times and accuracy together?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding some specifics of your question, reaction time variance will often be strongly correlated with reaction time mean. So in routine measures of individual differences where speed is the main focus, it may be sufficient to focus on mean reaction time and accuracy. E.g., mean reaction time possibly with some sort of penalty for errors (see the above answers).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are wanting to get very precise, then there are a range of modelling approaches that may be relevant (e.g., this question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/1773/52&quot;&gt;LBA and diffusion models&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regards to go-no-go, I believe there are fairly standardised procedures for scoring such tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-07-26T08:17:42.860" LastActivityDate="2018-07-26T08:17:42.860" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20293" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-26T07:48:41.037" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've found many working memory tests online, but they all use either the digits 0-9, or the alphabet. Is there a working memory test that lets one choose the characters?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ex.:&#xA;If I input the characters: 0 1 2 3&#xA;then the test will output random sequences only containing those 4 characters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19863" LastActivityDate="2018-07-26T07:48:41.037" Title="Are There Any Customizable Working Memory Tests?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20294" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20291" CreationDate="2018-07-26T08:10:07.337" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Psychosis can result in a loss of a sense of reality. Neurosis leaves the person suffering in contact with the here and now. Further, &lt;em&gt;neurosis&lt;/em&gt; is an old term and was used as an umbrella term. Now its use has declined and rather more specific diagnoses are used.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; - Psychosis is according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=5110&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Medicine Net&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A] mental illness that markedly interferes with a person's capacity to meet life's everyday demands. [It is] a thought disorder in which reality testing is grossly impaired. Symptoms can include [hallucinations, such as] seeing, hearing, smelling, or tasting things that are not there; paranoia; and delusional thoughts. [...] Psychosis can occur as a result of brain injury or disease, and is seen particularly in schizophrenia and bipolar disorders. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neurosis is according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=9972&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Indiana University&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A] disturbing psychological disorders that still let the sufferer remain in contact with reality. This term plays a central role in Freudian psychoanalysis. In Freud's theory &quot;neurosis&quot; means &quot;a personality or mental disturbance not due to any known neurological or organic dysfunction [brain or body problem]&quot; (Reber, 1985). Freud used it as a label for a group of related symptoms of psychological problems that are distressing and painful. &lt;strong&gt;Unlike psychoses, which are psychological disorders that severely distort reality, neuroses leave physical, psychological and social reality intact.&lt;/strong&gt; According to Freud, neuroses reflect poorly resolved unconscious emotional conflicts, which lead to psychological defense mechanisms that attempt to protect the person from consciously experiencing these conflicts but result in the observed behavioral and psychological symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neurosis takes many different forms, including&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;anxiety disorders: excessive severe worrying.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;phobias: abnormally intense fears with no objective cause.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;obsessive-compulsive disorders: repetitive acts, such as repeatedly checking whether doors are locked, oven is turned off, etc.;&#xA;  repetitive handwashing and intense concern about &quot;germs,&quot; etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;hysterical disorder (not the everyday meaning of intense over-excitement), such as: conversion disorder: psychological problem&#xA;  showing up as a &quot;physical&quot; disorder that cannot be result from&#xA;  physical pathology (e.g., &quot;glove anesthesia&quot; is apparent lack of pain&#xA;  perception from the hand, which cannot happen as a result of damage to&#xA;  the nervous system). dissociation disorders: multiple personalities&#xA;  (real cases are much rarer than the &quot;celebrety cases&quot; that reflect the&#xA;  intense interest people have in this peculiar condition);&#xA;  depersonalization in which a person no longer feels &quot;real&quot; and feels&#xA;  that his/her experiences are not real, to the point of feeling an arm&#xA;  or a leg is abnormally small or not even a part of one's own body.&#xA;  Factitious disorders: physical symptoms, such as dizziness, rash,&#xA;  vomiting, fever, etc., and psychological symptoms, such as&#xA;  hallucinations and memory loss, that turn out to be under the&#xA;  sufferer's control.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the term neurosis has fallen out of favor, and that the subtypes mentioned above are taking hold. In general, Freudian analysis has lost its hold on in psychiatry. Now neurosis is divided into finer pieces, like panic disorder, social anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorder (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/sunday-review/where-have-all-the-neurotics-gone.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NY Times&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-07-26T08:10:07.337" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20296" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20291" CreationDate="2018-07-26T12:53:00.997" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Definition of &lt;em&gt;Neurosis&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today, &lt;em&gt;neurosis&lt;/em&gt; (plural: &lt;em&gt;neuroses&lt;/em&gt;) is a class of functional mental disorders involving chronic distress but neither delusions nor hallucinations (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As well as other theories, neuroses play a central role in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freudian psychoanalysis&lt;/a&gt; (whereby all of Freud's theories are considered by many to be pseudoscientific. More can be read in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248&quot;&gt;my answer to this in meta&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the term &lt;em&gt;neurosis&lt;/em&gt; was coined by the Scottish doctor &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cullen&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;William Cullen&lt;/a&gt; in 1769 to refer to &quot;disorders of sense and motion&quot; caused by a &quot;general affection of the nervous system.&quot; Cullen used the term to describe various nervous disorders and symptoms that could not be explained physiologically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to C. George Boeree, professor emeritus at Shippensburg University, the symptoms of neurosis as described today may involve:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... anxiety, sadness or depression, anger, irritability, mental confusion, low sense of self-worth, etc., behavioral symptoms such as phobic avoidance, vigilance, impulsive and compulsive acts, lethargy, etc., cognitive problems such as unpleasant or disturbing thoughts, repetition of thoughts and obsession, habitual fantasizing, negativity and cynicism, etc. Interpersonally, neurosis involves dependency, aggressiveness, perfectionism, schizoid isolation, socio-culturally inappropriate behaviors, etc. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; &amp;amp; &lt;a href=&quot;http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/genpsyneurosis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boeree, 2002&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for any declination of use for the term &lt;em&gt;neurosis&lt;/em&gt; mentioned by @AliceD in his answer, although people are not generally labelled as suffering from a neurosis or even a psychosis, &lt;em&gt;neurosis&lt;/em&gt; is as pointed out, an umbrella term for a range of mental health problems &lt;strong&gt;and is different to &lt;em&gt;psychoses&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; — another umbrella term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact the current version of the &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5&lt;/a&gt;) talks of &lt;em&gt;neurotic disposition&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;neuroticism&lt;/em&gt; within certain mental health problems, e.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Behavioral inhibition and neurotic disposition (i.e., negative affectivity [neuroticism] and anxiety sensitivity) are closely associated with agoraphobia but are relevant to most anxiety disorders (phobic disorders, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder). Anxiety sensitivity (the disposition to believe that symptoms of anxiety are harmful) is also characteristic of individuals with agoraphobia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The terms &lt;em&gt;neurosis&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;neurotic&lt;/em&gt; are also used in the ICD-10 &lt;a href=&quot;http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2016/en#/F40-F48&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2016) Chapter V F40–48&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Definition of &lt;em&gt;Psychosis&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;em&gt;psychosis&lt;/em&gt; (plural: &lt;em&gt;psychoses&lt;/em&gt;), as mentioned before, is an unberella term for a range of mental health problems.  A psychosis is an abnormal condition of the mind that results in difficulties telling what is real and what is not. Symptoms may include false beliefs and seeing or hearing things that others do not see or hear. Other symptoms may include incoherent speech and behavior that is inappropriate for the situation (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; &amp;amp; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/raise/raise-questions-and-answers.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIMH, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From your research, you deduced that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;psychosis is brought about particularly by the use of alcohol and illicit use of drugs and their withdrawal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Use of alcohol and illicit use of drugs and their withdrawal does not only create psychoses, but can instead cause a neurotic mental health conditions such as anxiety or depression (&lt;a href=&quot;https://americanaddictioncenters.org/withdrawal-timelines-treatments/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;American Addiction Centers&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Sometimes, mental health problems can cross the devide both ways between &lt;em&gt;Neuroses&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Psychoses&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cxQQp.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cxQQp.png&quot; alt=&quot;Neuroses and Psychoses&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Table put together in my notes whilst training&lt;br&gt;* Although BPD, Bipolar Disorder and PTSD are generally neuroses, they can involve psychotic episodes in some cases.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychotic episodes in PTSD can involve flashbacks (the sense of being back at the traumatic event) through hallucinations affecting touch, taste, smell, sound and sight either affecting one of the senses or a combination of them. Bipolar clients (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/bipolar-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mind, 2018&lt;/a&gt;) can experience visual or auditory hallucinations.  &lt;strong&gt;Note: I have just noticed webpage linked to at Mind has been updated since I wrote my training notes and the link here is kept for completeness of information on Bipolar Disorder.&lt;/strong&gt;  Information on psychotic episodes can be found by clicking the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/bipolar-disorder/bipolar-moods-symptoms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bipolar moods and symptoms&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; link on the page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychotic symptoms can include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;delusions, such as paranoia&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;hallucinations, such as hearing voices&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Not everyone with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder experiences psychosis, but some people do. It's more common during manic episodes, but can happen during depressive episodes too. These kinds of experiences can feel very real to you at the time, which may make it hard to understand other people's concerns about you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(See our pages on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/psychosis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychosis&lt;/a&gt; for more information.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Boeree, C. G. (2002). A Bio-Social Theory of Neurosis. &lt;em&gt;Shippensburg University&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retreived from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/genpsyneurosis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/genpsyneurosis.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mind, 2018. Bipolar Disorder. [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retreieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/bipolar-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/bipolar-disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NIMH (n.d.). RAISE Questions and Answers. &lt;em&gt;NIMH&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retreived from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/raise/raise-questions-and-answers.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/raise/raise-questions-and-answers.shtml&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-28T04:27:56.310" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T04:27:56.310" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20297" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-26T19:37:49.007" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do some people in hostage and/or kidnapping situations end up identifying with their captors, and vice versa? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there certain triggers or aspects of the situation that make it more or less likely to occur?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19583" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-07-27T08:21:01.983" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T10:13:58.137" Title="Why do some people bond with their captors and vice versa?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20298" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-26T19:38:10.527" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quite often, I find myself conforming to typical psychological principals, and exhibiting predictable behavior based on external stimuli. However, upon better research of the psychology behind past decisions that I've made, I become more likely to involve psychology theory in future decisions of the same kind. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But knowing the psychology behind typical decision making processes invariably changes the decision process you experience. It would seem that psychologists should be able to operate in a perfectly logical manner, however, as the saying often goes &quot;All therapists are nuts!&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's here I feel that traditional psychoanalysis fails. How can you apply psychology and analyze patterns in the thought process of a person if that person is versed enough in psychology to avoid traditional fallacies and pitfalls?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be especially interested to see any psychoanalysis studies done purely on psychologists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19869" LastActivityDate="2018-07-27T15:32:01.073" Title="Does psychology lose it's validity when the subject is versed in psychology?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20300" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-26T20:58:09.333" Score="1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read about several models in &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=eVhFe7kAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. Jeff Bray&lt;/a&gt;’s unpublished article (&lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/10107/1/Consumer_Behaviour_Theory_-_Approaches_%26_Models.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bray, 2008&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know which of them has proven to have the better predicting ability? I mean, which of them holds more evidence of predictability so far? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not want to  be reading wild theories with little scientific grounding and it would be helpful is someone with the expertise on the subject could tell me which has more evidence grounding it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The models of which the paper speaks are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consumer decision model. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theory of buyer behavior. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theory of reasoned action. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theory of planned behavior. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, I'm not asking for explanation. I am asking which holds better evidence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Reference&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bray, J. P. (2008). Consumer behaviour theory: approaches and models. &lt;em&gt;Unpublished&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/10107/1/Consumer_Behaviour_Theory_-_Approaches_%26_Models.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/10107/1/Consumer_Behaviour_Theory_-&lt;em&gt;Approaches&lt;/em&gt;%26_Models.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19301" LastEditorUserId="19301" LastEditDate="2018-07-30T16:26:13.947" LastActivityDate="2018-07-30T16:26:13.947" Title="Which model of Consumer Behavior has proven to have better predictive ability for complex products?" Tags="&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2018-07-28T12:28:56.667" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20302" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-27T04:17:44.767" Score="1" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;You hear stories about cults and the like brainwashing people all the time. How do they psychologically break people down so that they'll join up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19583" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-01T12:07:51.630" LastActivityDate="2019-04-01T12:07:51.630" Title="How do cults indoctrinate people?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-08-13T12:10:33.517" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20297" CreationDate="2018-07-27T15:06:08.163" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are describing is a condition popularly known as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stockholm Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;. It should be noted that very little research has been conducted into this condition, and it has not been classified as a disorder. However, very briefly, Stockholm Syndrome leads to a hostage developing an emotional bond with their captor, where they sympathize with them and form positive feelings towards them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is believed that this syndrome is a coping mechanism (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17464728&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cantor C, Price J&lt;/a&gt;), a result of spending intimate time with their captor where they are subjected to abuse. The captives are in an incredible amount of stress and typically lose the ability to think rationally and reasonably. Their primary motive is to survive, and this instinct leads them to develop defense mechanisms. Hatred, in this situation, would not be productive, and obedience is the only way to survive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is believed that &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/fbi/stockholm_syndrome.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3 aspects&lt;/a&gt; make it more likely for the syndrome to develop:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long duration of time spent together&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spending a longer duration of time with their captors leads the&#xA;hostages to believe that their captors truly will not kill them. They&#xA;believe that the captors are their friends and they will get out of&#xA;this messy situation together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intimate and continual contact between the captor and the hostage&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to ensure that they do not anger their captor in order to escape violence at their hands, the focus of the captives is on obedience and pleasing their captors, for which they try to get to know their captors during the period of their captivity. This 'humanizes' their captors. Moreover, the captives want to make sure that their feelings do not appear fake, and eventually begin believing that they are genuine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Small acts of kindness&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During the course of the captivity, if the captor shows an unexpected&#xA;act of kindness, or simply chooses to not behave violently, it may&#xA;lead the captive to become affectionate towards their captor. In a&#xA;situation where a person is made to fear for their life, this small&#xA;act can be seen as merciful on the captor's part.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Women are said to be more likely to develop Stockholm Syndrome. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://violentadegen.ro/wp-content/uploads/Loving-to-Survive-Graham.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Graham, Dee L. R.&lt;/a&gt;) Societal conditions lead the women to be afraid of male violence. This fear encourages them to engage in actions that would please the male, and bond with them to survive. Similarly, the captives bond with their captors and attempt to please them to survive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lesser known condition is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_syndrome#Lima_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lima Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;, where the abductors develop sympathy towards their captives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned in the beginning, these conditions are still widely contested and much more research is required.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19874" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T10:13:58.137" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20304" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20298" CreationDate="2018-07-27T15:32:01.073" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two different traditions referenced in this question, psychoanalysis and decision making. If by psychoanalysis you mean the tradition of Freud and Jung, my understanding is that it didn't survive first contact with evidence-based practice and is now mainly of historical interest. Maybe some surviving approaches claim their roots in this, I'm not sure, I don't know much about the clinical side of psych.&#xA;I do know a little bit about decision making though, the other half of this question, and there knowing the psychology makes surprisingly little difference to people's decisions. You can learn to recognize a base-rate-neglect style question and memorize the answers to the CRT, which will put you in the minority ~20% who tend to get these kinds of questions right, but mostly decision biases are as compelling as perceptual illusions: even knowing that it's an illusion doesn't stop you from seeing the illusion in most cases.&#xA;The reason why is probably the same for both! Just like the visual illusions, it looks like many decision-illusions are not so much a flaw in the system as an artifact of how people deal with uncertainty efficiently and effectively using limited resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more on this you might enjoy Kahneman's 'Thinking fast and slow' or Ariely's 'Predictably irrational'. These don't directly address the 'studies on psychologists' thing, but do give lots of examples of hard-to-unsee effects that most definitely persist after reading about them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-07-27T15:32:01.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20305" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20306" CreationDate="2018-07-28T06:50:07.290" Score="2" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;In art and literature, the adults are usually depicted as having a trapped child in their hearts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://d25in8q9uizcdd.cloudfront.net/app/uploads//files/uploads/ff-orig-2_main.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The child is pure and naive, but is trapped in the adult body who is struggling to survive. I think this would simply be called as repression, and maybe in extreme case it can lead to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/dissociative-identity-disorder-multiple-personality-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dissociative identity disorder&lt;/a&gt;? I think to give a satisfactory answer literature studies should also be included.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T08:08:42.060" Title="How is &quot;the innermost child&quot; framed in psychology?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20306" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20305" CreationDate="2018-07-28T08:08:42.060" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are talking about is mentioned in psychology to be the “&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_child&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inner child&lt;/a&gt;”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/evil-deeds/200806/essential-secrets-psychotherapy-the-inner-child/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Inner Child Therapy&lt;/a&gt; is used within many different forms of therapy.  The inner child is often characterized as a subpersonality within the framework of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosynthesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychosynthesis&lt;/a&gt; or may also be seen as a central element surrounded by subpersonalities. Virtually every talk therapy approach acknowledges and ascribes some meaning to the inner child, but in some cases they use a different label.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_Family_Systems_Model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Internal Family Systems Therapy (IFS)&lt;/a&gt; has expanded the concept considerably in recognizing that there isn't just one inner child subpersonality, but many.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Inner child therapy has been designed to help those who, as children, have been hurt by the adults and circumstances around them. They may have been hurt, not just by major, easily recognised traumas such as physical or sexual abuse or death of, or abandonment by, a parent, but also by the daily drip drip traumas such as neglect, rejection, criticism, humiliation, bullying, denial or confusion. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/counsellor-articles/inner-child-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Christopher, 2016&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Christopher, J. (2016). &lt;em&gt;Inner child therapy&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retreived from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/counsellor-articles/inner-child-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/counsellor-articles/inner-child-therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T08:08:42.060" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20308" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12247" CreationDate="2018-07-28T12:56:12.300" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/20296&quot;&gt;some neuroses can involve psychotic episodes&lt;/a&gt;, it depends on the cause of the psychotic behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Longer Answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looking at the difference between neuroses and psychoses, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/20296&quot;&gt;although BPD, Bipolar Disorder and PTSD are generally neuroses, they can involve psychotic episodes in some cases&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, with Bipolar Disorder (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/bipolar-disorder/bipolar-moods-symptoms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mind, 2018&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychotic symptoms can include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;delusions, such as paranoia&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;hallucinations, such as hearing voices&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Not everyone with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder experiences psychosis, but some people do. It's more common during manic episodes, but can happen during depressive episodes too. These kinds of experiences can feel very real to you at the time, which may make it hard to understand other people's concerns about you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychotic episodes in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) can involve flashbacks (the sense of being back at the traumatic event) through hallucinations affecting touch, taste, smell, sound and sight either affecting one of the senses or a combination of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once the PTSD or Bipolar Disorder has been resolved through the relevant treatment required, the psychotic effects will not return as the underlying cause has been sorted, and the person will &quot;go back to their pre-psychosis self&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the psychosis is a &quot;pure&quot; psychosis such as Schizophrenia, the problem cannot be cured, but the psychosis can be managed with medication and psychiatric help (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schizophrenia.ca/faq.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schizophrenia Society of Canada, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).  Schizophrenia requires lifelong treatment, even when symptoms have subsided (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/schizophrenia/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20354449&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mayo Clinic, 2018&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Minimizing the impact of the illness depends mainly on early diagnosis and, appropriate psychosocial treatment and medication.  One problem with this is that people with schizophrenia sometimes lack insight into their illness, and therefore do not see the need for medication or other mental health help. Also, medication sometimes has unpleasant side effects and this may discourage individuals from continuing to follow their prescription.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mayo Clinic (2018). Schizophrenia Diagnosis &amp;amp; Treatment[Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/schizophrenia/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20354449&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/schizophrenia/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20354449&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mind (2018). Bipolar Mood Symptoms [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/bipolar-disorder/bipolar-moods-symptoms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/bipolar-disorder/bipolar-moods-symptoms&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schizophrenia Society of Canada (n.d.). Frequently Asked Questions [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.schizophrenia.ca/faq.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.schizophrenia.ca/faq.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T12:56:12.300" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20309" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16473" CreationDate="2018-07-28T15:05:45.323" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There &lt;strong&gt;was&lt;/strong&gt; a follow-up to &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.179.4070.250&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rosenhan (1973)&lt;/a&gt;.  The whole study was revisited by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.2.215&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scribner (2001)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The present study is a replication of sorts, modified to suit the contemporary, postdeinstitutionalization state of mental health care. The findings suggest that a significant shift has occurred in mental health care since 1973. At the time of the original study by Rosenhan (1973), the troubling issue was the ease with which people could receive an unwarranted diagnosis and unnecessary treatment for a nonexistent mental disorder. In today's mental health care environment, the troubling issue is the difficulty involved in obtaining treatment that is warranted for conditions that are present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). On being sane in insane places. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;, 179(4070), 250-258. DOI:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.179.4070.250&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1126/science.179.4070.250&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scribner, C. M. (2001). Rosenhan revisited. &lt;em&gt;Professional Psychology: Research and Practice&lt;/em&gt;, 32(2), 215. DOI:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.2.215&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0735-7028.32.2.215&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T15:05:45.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20310" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10605" CreationDate="2018-07-28T15:26:23.400" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some research which may help is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fingelkurts, A. A., Fingelkurts, A. A., Rytsälä, H., Suominen, K., Isometsä, E., &amp;amp; Kähkönen, S. (2007). &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/hbm.20275&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Impaired functional connectivity at EEG alpha and theta frequency bands in major depression&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Human brain mapping&lt;/em&gt;, 28(3), 247-261. DOI:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20275&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/hbm.20275&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Peniston, E. G., &amp;amp; Kulkosky, P. J. (1991). &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://charleston.braincoretherapy.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/PENISTON-PTSD.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alpha-theta brainwave neurofeedback for Vietnam veterans with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Medical Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;, 4(1), 47-60.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saxby, E., &amp;amp; Peniston, E. G. (1995). &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/1097-4679(199509)51:5%3C685::AID-JCLP2270510514%3E3.0.CO;2-K&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alpha‐theta brainwave neurofeedback training: An effective treatment for male and female alcoholics with depressive symptoms&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Journal of clinical psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 51(5), 685-693.&lt;br&gt;DOI:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199509)51:5%3C685::AID-JCLP2270510514%3E3.0.CO;2-K&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/1097-4679(199509)51:5%3C685::AID-JCLP2270510514%3E3.0.CO;2-K&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T15:26:23.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20311" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12173" CreationDate="2018-07-28T16:25:12.160" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that it is possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/special-reports/introduction-treatment-resistance-psychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Norman Sussman, MD (2017)&lt;/a&gt; discusses pharmacological and non-pharmacological causes of treatment resistance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Treatment resistance is addressed in the latest edition of the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1451100477&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[Kaplan and Sadock's] Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; as follows: “Some patients fail to respond to repeated trials of medication. No single factor can explain the ineffectiveness of the various interventions in these cases. Strategies in these cases include the use of drug combinations, high-dose therapy, and use of unconventional drugs. Limited evidence is available on the comparative success rates associated with any given strategy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1451100477&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sadock et al., 2017&lt;/a&gt;).” This Special Report on treatment resistance provides expert guidance on how to treat patients who are still unresponsive after multiple unsuccessful attempts at intervention for some common mental disorders. ADHD, PTSD, panic disorder, and bipolar disorder are especially difficult to treat successfully, for a number of reasons...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sadock, B. J., Sadock, V. A., &amp;amp; Ruiz, P. (2017). &lt;em&gt;Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; 10th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams &amp;amp; Wilkins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sussman, N. (2017). Treatment Resistance in Psychiatry. &lt;em&gt;Psychiatric Times&lt;/em&gt; 34(11) Special Report Retrieved&amp;nbsp;from:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/special-reports/introduction-treatment-resistance-psychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/special-reports/introduction-treatment-resistance-psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T16:25:12.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20312" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20232" CreationDate="2018-07-28T17:18:27.643" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;For more context, the passage in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224943991_A_Comparison_of_Family_Functioning_Life_and_Marital_Satisfaction_and_Mental_Health_of_Women_in_Polygamous_and_Monogamous_Marriages&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Al-Krenawi &amp;amp; Graham (2006)&lt;/a&gt; reads as follows on page 12.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Previous research suggests that education and attitudinal acceptance of polygamy are inversely correlated (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/41603608&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Heaton &amp;amp; Hirschl, 1999&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00123-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maziak et al., 2002&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/23029820&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nevadomsky, 1991&lt;/a&gt;); other findings are less conclusive (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/23029820&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nevadomsky, 1991&lt;/a&gt;). The Bedouin-Arab community is in a massive state of transition, part of which includes higher attainment for youth. Respondents in monogamous marriages therefore may have had greater opportunity for education; and the potential for less acceptance of polygamy may be modestly influential on the cohort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My interpretation is that research indicated by 3 papers suggests that where education is high, acceptance of polygamy is low, and where education is low, acceptance is high.  &lt;strong&gt;The acceptance is shown through attitude&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @ArnonWeinberg pointed out, &quot;attitude&quot; would normally refer to &quot;expressed attitude&quot; measured via a survey or interview or similar report.  In this case it was questionnaires.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Questionnaires were structured; data collectors were present during the interview, completed the questionnaire forms with the respondent and, for those with limited reading or writing skills, the researchers read to the respondent and filled in the questionnaire according to the given responses (pages 7—8).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heaton, T., &amp;amp; Hirschl, T. A. (1999). The trajectory of family change in Nigeria. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Comparative Family Studies&lt;/em&gt; 30(1), 35-55. Retrieved&amp;nbsp;from&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/41603608&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/41603608&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Al-Krenawi, A., &amp;amp; Graham, J. R. (2006). A comparison of family functioning, life and marital satisfaction, and mental health of women in polygamous and monogamous marriages. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Social Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 52(1), 5-17. DOI:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/00207640060061245&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/00207640060061245&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maziak, W., Asfar, T., Mzayek, F., Fouad, F. M., &amp;amp; Kilzieh, N. (2002). Socio-demographic correlates of psychiatric morbidity among low-income women in Aleppo, Syria. Social science &amp;amp; medicine, 54(9), 1419-1427. DOI:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00123-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00123-X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevadomsky, J. (1991). Attitudes of Nigerian students toward marriage and family relationships. &lt;em&gt;International Journal of Sociology of the Family&lt;/em&gt;, 21(2), 201–212. Retrieved$nbsp;from&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/23029820&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/23029820&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-28T17:18:27.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20314" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-28T22:12:14.770" Score="1" ViewCount="678" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in the phenomenon of people getting sexually aroused while studying science (math, physics, etc.). In particular, I've heard from a friend who's a psychologist, that it could be an extremely rare side effect of some antidepressants. I did a quick search but haven't found any articles on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be grateful if you could point me to the relevant literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19544" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-07-29T11:52:18.147" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T12:02:48.953" Title="Sexual arousal when studying science" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2018-08-02T02:29:42.480" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20315" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20317" CreationDate="2018-07-28T23:39:16.247" Score="4" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a war veteran who has/had PTSD, I've noticed in myself a desire to maintain a level of anxiety and stress closer to what I was used to. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You've probably also heard/seen this type of behavior from other veterans who engage in High Risk Behavior after separation from service.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've also known former incarcerated individuals and PhD graduates who do the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an official term for this behavior? Further reading on the topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19884" LastActivityDate="2018-07-29T11:42:49.510" Title="Is there a term for the desire to maintain a level of anxiety?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20316" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20318" CreationDate="2018-07-29T08:55:54.177" Score="3" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to emphasize that I'm not referring to the intense mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), but instead just 10-20 minutes of daily mindfulness meditation (MM), perhaps guided by a smartphone app.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's usually claimed that MM leads to improvements in the prefrontal cortex (enhanced focus, working memory etc.) and the amygdala (reduced depression, anxiety, stress etc.).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read recent studies claiming that mindfulness meditation is no more effective than watching a documentary, is counterproductive at work etc. (Some of these studies may have been context-specific.) Anecdotally, I've done MM myself on-and-off for several years and didn't notice any significant improvements in the areas listed above.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due to publication bias, p-hacking, the reproducibility crisis etc. and my own personal experience, I'm skeptical that MM does anything significant (noticeable changes) and/or lasting (after the meditation, during the day).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a large-scale, pre-registered replication effort to support the benefits of 'casual' MM (i.e., not the more intense MBCT)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastActivityDate="2018-07-29T13:57:33.770" Title="Is there any strong empirical support that &quot;casual&quot; (10-20 minutes per day) mindfulness meditation leads to lasting cognitive improvements?" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20315" CreationDate="2018-07-29T11:42:49.510" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;With &quot;normal&quot; risk taking related to &quot;thrill seekers&quot; what you could be talking about can be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sensation Seeking&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/pubs/books/4317124.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zuckerman, 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Risky behavior can be an expression of a normal, genetically influenced personality trait, sensation seeking. Its expression in risky behaviors such as extreme and risky sports, vocations, substance abuse, unsafe sex, and crime, among others, is the topic of this fascinating and accessible book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disinhibition&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinhibition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;), which is a lack of restraint manifested in disregard for social conventions, impulsivity, and poor risk assessment.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of PTSD (or other mental health problems) causing the behaviour, it is &lt;strong&gt;Negative Urgency&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2705930&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cyders &amp;amp; Smith, 2008&lt;/a&gt;), which is the tendency to engage in rash action in response to extreme negative affects (experiences of negative emotions, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/media/Media,366009,en.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;poor self-esteem and/or poor self-concept&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2705930&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cyders &amp;amp; Smith (2008)&lt;/a&gt; believe there is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;striking circumstantial evidence that positive and negative urgency play an important role in adolescence. It seems likely that the normative adolescent experience involves a developmentally limited increase in levels of urgency, and also that there are important individual differences in the urgency traits during these years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study conducted by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-13-00241&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;James, Strom &amp;amp; Leskela (2014)&lt;/a&gt; looked at the risk-taking behaviours and impulsivity among veterans with and without PTSD.  They also compared the results with those who not only suffered PTSD, but also mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[A] 42-item scale developed for the study permitted the assessment of a wide range of behaviors that are not captured in existing risk-taking measures but tend to be common and problematic among veterans (e.g., risky driving practices). Items were derived from a review of relevant literature.  Participants reported how frequently they engaged in each of the behaviors using a 5-point &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Likert-type scale&lt;/a&gt; ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). Total scores range from 0 to 63. In addition to the total score, scores on four subscales (substance abuse, aggression, risky sexual practices, and thrill seeking) were also evaluated &lt;strong&gt;[...]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As expected, the co-occurring PTSD + mTBI group endorsed significantly more risk-taking behaviors and Negative Urgency than the control group and significantly more risky substance use, aggressive behavior, and Negative Urgency than the mTBI group. An identical pattern was found for the PTSD group compared to the control group and the mTBI group. Counter to expectations, the co-occurring PTSD + mTBI group did not endorse significantly more impulsivity and risk-taking behaviors than the PTSD group. That is, individuals with PTSD, regardless of TBI status (i.e., PTSD; PTSD + mTBI), tended to engage in more risky behaviors and more impulsive behaviors in the context of negative affective states than controls and those with mTBI only. The control group and mTBI group did not significantly differ from each other. Across all four groups, thrill-seeking behaviors were the most frequently reported risk-taking behaviors. There were no group differences in Sensation Seeking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not surprising, considering the nature of PTSD and its effects, the study also found other highly problematic behaviours&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Notably, both theoretical and empirical works also link disinhibition, or the highly related construct of impulsivity, to suicide-related behaviors. In the present study, the PTSD groups (i.e., PTSD, PTSD + mTBI) were not only characterized by greater levels of the Negative Urgency facet of impulsivity and risk-taking behaviors than the mTBI and control groups but were also more likely than the control group to have thought about suicide and purposely driven a vehicle into another object. Thus, premorbid disinhibition may place people on a track toward later involvement in risky or other highly problematic behaviors that ultimately result in psychopathological and self-destructive outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(See also, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2705930&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cyders &amp;amp; Smith (2008)&lt;/a&gt; about urgency and psychopathology)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Due to risks involved with Negative Urgency, therapy needs to be sought with regard to this too.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Therapy Available&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When receiving psychological help for PTSD, it is best to highlight the fact that you have a desire to maintain a level of anxiety and stress closer to what you are now used to compared to the past.  That way, the best form of help can be ascertained via your therapy provider.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your therapist may be able to incorporate therapy for this using the same techniques they use for your PTSD, or they may tweak the sessions to incorporate other techniques such as Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) or Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT; see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marsha_Linehan/publication/19580590_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder_Theory_and_Method/links/553076c80cf20ea0a06f7fb8/Dialectical-Behavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder-Theory-and-Method.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Linehan, 1993&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marsha_Linehan/publication/6124095_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder/links/599ce0290f7e9b892bb003d9/Dialectical-Behavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lynch, et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One main focus of DBT is teaching individuals to respond adaptively to the experience of extreme emotional states, referred to in this treatment as Distress Tolerance Skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cyders, M. A., &amp;amp; Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based Dispositions to Rash Action: Positive and Negative Urgency. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, 134(6), 807–828. PMCID:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2705930&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC2705930&lt;/a&gt; DOI:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/a0013341&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;James, L. M., Strom, T. Q., &amp;amp; Leskela, J. (2014). Risk-taking behaviors and impulsivity among veterans with and without PTSD and mild TBI. &lt;em&gt;Military medicine&lt;/em&gt;, 179(4), 357-363. DOI:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-13-00241&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.7205/MILMED-D-13-00241&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Linehan, M. (1987). Dialectical-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder: Theory and Method. &lt;em&gt;Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic&lt;/em&gt;, 51(3), 261—276&lt;br&gt;Free ResearchGate PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marsha_Linehan/publication/19580590_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder_Theory_and_Method/links/553076c80cf20ea0a06f7fb8/Dialectical-Behavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder-Theory-and-Method.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marsha_Linehan/publication/19580590_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder_Theory_and_Method/links/553076c80cf20ea0a06f7fb8/Dialectical-Behavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder-Theory-and-Method.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lynch, T. R., Trost, W. T., Salsman, N., &amp;amp; Linehan, M. M. (2007). Dialectical behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder. &lt;em&gt;Annual Review of Clinical Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 3, 181-205. DOI:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095229&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095229&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;Free ResearchGate PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marsha_Linehan/publication/6124095_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder/links/599ce0290f7e9b892bb003d9/Dialectical-Behavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marsha_Linehan/publication/6124095_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy_for_Borderline_Personality_Disorder/links/599ce0290f7e9b892bb003d9/Dialectical-Behavior-Therapy-for-Borderline-Personality-Disorder.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-29T11:42:49.510" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20318" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20316" CreationDate="2018-07-29T13:57:33.770" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following is the empirical support I can find&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Beauchemin, J., Hutchins, T. L., &amp;amp; Patterson, F. (2008). Mindfulness meditation may lessen anxiety, promote social skills, and improve academic performance among adolescents with learning disabilities. &lt;em&gt;Complementary Health Practice Review&lt;/em&gt;, 13(1), 34-45. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1533210107311624&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/1533210107311624&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tiffany_Hutchins/publication/244918853_Mindfulness_Meditation_May_Lessen_Anxiety_Promote_Social_Skills_and_Improve_Academic_Performance_Among_Adolescents_With_Learning_Disabilities/links/53d2a88f0cf220632f3ca89c.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All outcome measures showed significant improvement, with participants who completed the program demonstrating decreased state and trait anxiety, enhanced social skills, and improved academic performance. Although not directly assessed, the outcomes are consistent with a cognitive-interference model of learning disability and suggest that mindfulness meditation decreases anxiety and detrimental self-focus of attention, which, in turn, promotes social skills and academic outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Moore, A., &amp;amp; Malinowski, P. (2009). Meditation, mindfulness and cognitive flexibility. &lt;em&gt;Consciousness and cognition&lt;/em&gt;, 18(1), 176-186. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2008.12.008&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.concog.2008.12.008&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.colby.edu/cogblog/files/2014/05/Moore-Malinowski-2009-.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall the results suggest that attentional performance and cognitive flexibility are positively related to meditation practice and levels of mindfulness. Meditators performed significantly better than non-meditators on all measures of attention. Furthermore, self-reported mindfulness was higher in meditators than non-meditators and correlations with all attention measures were of moderate to high strength. This pattern of results suggests that mindfulness is intimately linked to improvements of attentional functions and cognitive flexibility. The relevance of these findings for mental balance and well-being are discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z., &amp;amp; Goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: Evidence of brief mental training. &lt;em&gt;Consciousness and cognition&lt;/em&gt;, 19(2), 597-605. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/download/39616081/Mindfulness_meditation_improves_cognitio20151102-1793-1onmb2t.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our findings, with naïve participants learning mindfulness techniques by means of a brief training format, are consistent with those that have been reported for adept meditators. Four days (20 min/day) of MM training was effective in signifi- cantly increasing mindfulness scores in comparison to an active control group. Our brief MM training protocol promoted sig- nificant effects on several cognitive tasks that require sustained attention and executive processing efficiency (Symbol Digit Modalities Test, verbal fluency, and the hit runs on n-back task). However, no specific benefits from MM training were found with many of the mood scales, the forward and backward digit span or speed on the n-back task. It is important to note that the groups did not differ at baseline on any of the measures and had no prior meditative experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Chiesa, A., Calati, R., &amp;amp; Serretti, A. (2011). Does mindfulness training improve cognitive abilities? A systematic review of neuropsychological findings. &lt;em&gt;Clinical psychology review&lt;/em&gt;, 31(3), 449-464. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.003&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.003&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.477.2159&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[T]he results of the present review provide preliminary support for the notion that MMPs could provide significant benefits on several measures of cognition which seem specific for the phase of meditation training under investigation. However, further higher quality studies focusing on more standardized MMPs are needed to replicate available findings, to more deeply explore the effects of mindfulness training on further domains of cognition and to reduce discrepancies of findings deriving from systematic differences in mindfulness protocols.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-29T13:57:33.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20319" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20331" CreationDate="2018-07-29T22:34:35.403" Score="0" ViewCount="5237" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does sleeping on the floor have similar neurotransmitter effects, as sleeping under a weighted blanket might? Psychiatrically, would it be expected that a person having PTSD would find similar results sleeping under a weighted blanket as they do when they sleep on the floor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Could sleeping on the floor actually be a subconscious attempt at regulating neurotransmitters or possibly even to promote better REM sleep?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many views on the interplay of different neurotransmitters and hormones, (dopamine, serotonin, etc.), and PTSD, anxiety, depression, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a lot of consensus on how weighted blankets seem to help alleviate these symptoms, providing that sense of security. They also seem to be used a lot by parents of children with Autism, Aspergers, and ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a variety of theories why people with PTSD sleep on the floor, could a valid rival hypothesis be a neurotransmitter affect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To be in a position to respond to threats more effectively.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To askew comforts, and lavishness, in view of self-worth.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The sense of security and being &amp;quot;grounded&amp;quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Article linking sleeping on the floor with hypervigilance: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.starr.org/research/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd-reactions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Reactions&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16619" LastEditorUserId="16619" LastEditDate="2020-08-04T21:42:00.830" LastActivityDate="2020-08-04T21:42:00.830" Title="Why might sleeping on the floor alleviate PTSD symptoms?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20322" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-30T02:49:12.793" Score="6" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;For most people, if their partner cheated on them with another person they would feel devastated. But is there any evidence that this is biologically innate behaviour or if it is a socially learned behaviour. As in, society says that partners are not supposed to cheat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You often hear about hippie communes and suchlike where people share there partners more. But then again you hear that sometimes these fail because of innate human jealousy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And there are some societies that are polygamous or polyandrous and they don't seem to have these problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the way a human can find out about cheating is through communication by language. There is no analog of this in the animal kingdom which makes it slightly different. Although language could conjure up an image which would be similar to what a lesser animal might react to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2018-09-27T12:43:47.580" Title="Is feeling bad about being cheated on innate or learned behaviour?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20323" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20357" CreationDate="2018-07-30T04:29:49.990" Score="1" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is in the neurology/neuroscience rather than the psychology aspect of this site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to check the limits of visibility of a (presumably green) LED at large (kilometer) distance, and I'm assuming that modulation of intensity (blinking) or position (&quot;wiggling&quot;) would make the same brightness noticeable at larger distances than a steady, stationary point of light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My options are to vary the frequency and duty cycle of the pulses, and to alternately flash two different LEDs separated by a large enough distance that the point would appear to &quot;wiggle&quot; or move slightly either left/right, or up/down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurologists and human visual processing researchers have studied the limits of visual detection of stimuli for quite a long time, and so the body of work is quite large and therefore beyond my scope of understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Might there be a &lt;em&gt;best frequency&lt;/em&gt; or range of frequencies for blinking or &quot;wiggling&quot; that the human vision system might be most sensitive to? I'm just guessing that it might be somewhere near the range of 1 Hz to 10 Hz, but I'm just guessing without any scientific basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as separation for the &quot;wiggle&quot; what might a &lt;em&gt;best separation&lt;/em&gt; or range of separations that might be most noticeable? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An answer that points me to the underlying physiological phenomenon that I should read further about would be just as acceptable as numbers with supporting links. Because I'm not so familliar with the neurology of vision, I can't judge beforehand which way to cast the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Possibly helpful for context or background are my previous questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.stackexchange.com/q/282106/83380&quot;&gt;How to make a green LED as visually bright as a 0 magnitude star?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://electronics.stackexchange.com/q/325949/102305&quot;&gt;How can I estimate the optical power that a single-color LED generates?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19214" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T22:05:48.800" Title="Human vision detection of faint blinking or moving point of light, guidelines for sensitivity versus frequency" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20329" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-27T18:15:13.727" Score="7" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We know adenosine receptors A1 &amp;amp; A2 subtypes physically increase in the basal ganglia with prolonged caffeine exposure over the period of about 1-2 weeks, &lt;strong&gt;but at what rate do they return to normal&lt;/strong&gt; (downregulate)? &lt;em&gt;Id est&lt;/em&gt;, what is the extinction rate of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downregulation_and_upregulation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;upregulated&lt;/a&gt; adenosine receptors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Background&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you take coffee daily, you no longer get a boost from it after about a week, but rather, you're just staving off the harsh withdrawal symptoms, not to mention over time it will physically change your brain &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3392208?dopt=Abstract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;to have more adenosine receptors&lt;/a&gt; i.e., &quot;sleepiness receptors&quot;. (Ramkumar V et al, J Clin Invest 82:242-247)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://lifehacker.com/5585217/what-caffeine-actually-does-to-your-brain&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1995 study suggests&lt;/a&gt; that humans become tolerant to their daily dose of caffeine—whether a single soda or a serious espresso habit—somewhere between a week and 12 days. And that tolerance is pretty strong. One test of regular caffeine pill use had some participants getting an astronomical 900 milligrams  (9 cups of coffee) per day, others placebos—found that the two groups were nearly identical in mood, energy, and alertness after 18 days. The folks taking the equivalent of nine stiff coffee pours every day weren't really feeling it anymore. They would feel it, though, when they stopped.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;You start to feel caffeine withdrawal anywhere from 12 to 24 hours after your last use. That's a big part of why that first cup or can in the morning is so important—it's staving off the early effects of withdrawal.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Caffeine, the natural pesticide of bright red coffee berries, creates an emergency response in your body to fight it off (pooping, peeing, and adrenaline). It inherently doesn't give you energy or focus, but the adrenal side effect does. Studies show that people who have coffee 7 days in a row no longer receive any energy or focus benefits. At that point their brain has been sufficiently altered with new adenosine receptors that they are just at their baseline behavior. They found this was true with any caffeine amount, from 1 to 10 cups of coffee. The exception is after 10 cups is it just starts frying your brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;You might think all of this probably takes a while, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://youarenotsosmart.com/2010/02/22/coffee/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;it takes about seven&lt;/a&gt; days to become addicted to caffeine. Once addicted, you need more and more coffee to get buzzed as your brain gets covered in receptor sites. &quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Sources&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Life Sciences Volume 36, Issue 24, 17 June 1985, Pages 2347-2358&#xA;Caffeine tolerance: Behavioral, electrophysiological and neurochemical evidence&#xA; Dorothy T.Chou Sukur Khan Jesse Forde Kenneth R. Hirsh&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/002432058590325X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/002432058590325X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Robertson D, Wade D, Workman R, Woosley RL, Oates JA. Tolerance to the humoral and hemodynamic effects of caffeine in man. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 1981;67(4):1111-1117.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC370671/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC370671/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Multiple components of the A1 Adenosine Receptor-Adenylate Cyclase System are Regulated in Rat Cerebral Cortex by Chronic Caffeine Ingestion.&quot; (Ramkumar V et al, J Clin Invest 82:242-247.) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3392208?dopt=Abstract&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3392208?dopt=Abstract&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://lifehacker.com/5585217/what-caffeine-actually-does-to-your-brain&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://lifehacker.com/5585217/what-caffeine-actually-does-to-your-brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youarenotsosmart.com/2010/02/22/coffee/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youarenotsosmart.com/2010/02/22/coffee/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Effects of chronic caffeine on brain adenosine receptors: Regional and ontogenetic studies&quot; (Paul J.Marangos, Jean-Philippe Boulenger, Jitendra Patel)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0024320584902078&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0024320584902078&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19922" OwnerDisplayName="Jonathan" LastActivityDate="2018-07-30T14:38:16.657" Title="The brain physically changes with regular coffee consumption, but at what rate does it return to normal?" Tags="&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20331" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20319" CreationDate="2018-07-30T15:38:57.030" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why might sleeping on the floor alleviate PTSD symptoms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question: Does sleeping on the floor have similar neurotransmitter effects, as sleeping under a weighted blanket might? Psychiatrically, would it be expected that a person having PTSD would find similar results sleeping under a weighted blanket as they do when they sleep on the floor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a lot of consensus on how weighted blankets seem to help alleviate these symptoms, providing that sense of security. They also seem to be used a lot by parents of children with Autism, Aspergers, and ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could sleeping on the floor also be related to this, possibly because of the firmness and sense of security felt from being on the floor? (Even if physically uncomfortable.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No. Don't connect those very different studies and use it as a basis for a conclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article you reference mentions the word &amp;quot;floor&amp;quot; 3 times, twice to mention that 2 children sleep on the floor and the third time the author writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Children who sleep on the floor instead of their bed after a trauma do so because they fear the comfort of a bed will let them sleep so hard that they won’t hear danger coming.&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is the claim, of proponents of weighted blankets, that they: reduce movement, let you feel as if you are being held, and thus promote better sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/02/cnn-underscored/weighted-blanket-shop/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What's the deal with weighted blankets?&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The thought is that this weight mimics the pressure of being held, which helps release anxiety to let you fall asleep faster. Some studies, including a 2015 one &amp;quot;Positive Effects of a Weighted Blanket on Insomnia&amp;quot; from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jscimedcentral.com/SleepMedicine/sleepmedicine-2-1022.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Journal of Sleep Medicine and Disorders, back this up&lt;/a&gt; (.PDF). The research found that weighted blankets did in fact provide a &amp;quot;beneficial calming effect&amp;quot; for those suffering from insomnia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case one it is the decision of a few children that they won't sleep as well, in the second case it is businesses that want to sell weighted blankets to cause you to sleep better. Opposites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References on beds such as Wikipedia's &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed#Ancient_history&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bed&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; webpage or Mattress Mart's &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mattressmart.ca/History-of-the-Bed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;History of the Bed&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; ;) attribute the invention of the bed as a means to increase comfort. One must also consider &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_ulcer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pressure ulcers&lt;/a&gt; caused by insufficient padding and reduced movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Comparing misread articles, few in number, and extending it to other unreferenced articles and ailments &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_psychology#Methodology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;isn't a supported basis&lt;/a&gt; on which to advance a theory on psychology involving biological, behavioral, cognitive and social &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology#Major_schools_of_thought&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;disciplines&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prior to 3600 BC &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed#History&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mankind did without&lt;/a&gt; bedding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_world#Early_humans&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;History of the world - Early Humans&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest living relatives of modern humans, Homo sapiens, evolved around 4.6 to 6.2 million years ago. Anatomically modern humans arose in Africa about 200,000 years ago, and reached behavioural modernity about 50,000 years ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the reasoning of your theory and extension of those two prior paragraphs one would conclude that prior to 5620 years ago there were no PTSDs, it is the modern bed that is a contributing factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19897" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-30T15:38:57.030" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20335" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-30T19:58:59.127" Score="3" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/sPFmKu2S5XY?t=13m49s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this video&lt;/a&gt;, Dr Russel Barkley states the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I can put electrodes all over your face and I can ask you to cite your&#xA;  Canadian pledge of allegiance in your mind. You still move your face.&#xA;  The muscle movements are so small that they're inperciptible to you&#xA;  and to others. But they're measurable. The human face is moving any&#xA;  time you engage in verbal thought. So is your larynx, by the way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am having a hard time locating a source for this though, and have never heard of it. Does anyone know if this is true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19903" LastActivityDate="2018-07-30T19:58:59.127" Title="Are facial muscles activated in verbal thought?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-08-01T23:32:19.383" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20336" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-30T21:13:21.463" Score="3" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have no doubt that some (aggressive) medication will definitely work in cutting people's anger-outburst potential. But is the usual CBT-based anger management class effective? There's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-22264123&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2013 BBC article&lt;/a&gt; which says the systematic evidence isn't too convincing, although (of course) practitioners say it works if the patient has enough commitment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, most doubt seem to be whether such class-based approach can affect real-life &quot;heat of the moment&quot; events/outburst. So what does the scientific evidence on this look like? Are there substantial well-designed studies on this, are there enough studies for meta-analyses etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-07-30T22:06:15.873" LastActivityDate="2018-07-30T22:06:15.873" Title="Is CBT-based anger management effective?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20337" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20285" CreationDate="2018-07-30T21:25:07.497" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I doubt there's anything deeper than a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meme&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;meme&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stereotyping&lt;/a&gt; at play here. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://knowyourmeme.com/memes/hungry-kim-jong-un&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://knowyourmeme.com/memes/hungry-kim-jong-un&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On December 23rd, the &quot;Kim Jong-Un is Hungry&quot;[4] single topic blog launched on the microblogging site Tumblr with the tagline &quot;He's always thinking about food. For himself… not for his people.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-07-30T21:25:07.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20339" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-30T23:21:26.690" Score="5" ViewCount="1111" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On May 27, Dr. William Reid, a court-appointed psychiatrist who&#xA;  interviewed Holmes for a total of about 22 hours, testified that&#xA;  Holmes was mentally ill but legally sane, diagnosing him as having&#xA;  schizotypal personality disorder, which is characterized by&#xA;  constricted behavior and difficulties relating to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Holmes_(mass_murderer)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;From Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other interviews and articles I have read, Holmes told psychiatrists that he had always had homicidal thoughts, in childhood they were to do with killing everyone via nuclear weapons, but progressed to more realistic scenarios (serial killing or gun rampage) as he got older. (This was contained in the recently unsealed psychiatric evaluation released by the court). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: does schizotypal personality disorder explain lifelong homicidal ideation / obsession, or predisposition to same? If not, why does James Holmes' psychiatric evaluation (both court-appointed and otherwise) fail to address the source or origin of his self-confessed homicidal tendencies (even speculatively)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such attempted explanation would seem to have had high intrinsic value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19908" LastEditorUserId="19908" LastEditDate="2018-08-01T12:48:39.900" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T12:48:39.900" Title="Does James Holmes diagnosis of schizotypal personality disorder indicate a predisposition for mass murder?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20339" CreationDate="2018-07-31T01:03:04.480" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;So the question is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;does schizotypal personality disorder explain lifelong homicidal ideation / obsession, or predisposition to same?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizotypal_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schizotypal personality disorder&lt;/a&gt; does include paranoid ideation among its symptoms. Paranoid ideation has been linked to homicidal behavior in &lt;a href=&quot;https://ps.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ps.45.2.127&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some studies&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patients who reported homicide attempts could be distinguished from patients with no homicidal behaviors by the presence of other aggressive behavior such as suicidal ideation and suicide attempts by themselves and their family members and by elevated current measures of interpersonal sensitivity, hostility, and paranoid ideation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to whether it's enough to &amp;quot;explain&amp;quot; such behavior... that's a tricky question as it depends on what you mean by &amp;quot;explain&amp;quot;. If you interpret &amp;quot;explain&amp;quot; as &amp;quot;makes it more likely&amp;quot;, a psychiatrists would say yes. If you interpret &amp;quot;explain&amp;quot; as &amp;quot;excuses in the eyes of the law&amp;quot;, a jurist would say no.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insanity#Legal_use_of_the_term&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;According to Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; (which does not cite any ref for this)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most courts accept a major mental illness such as psychosis but will not accept the diagnosis of a personality disorder for the purposes of an insanity defense&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note however that the distinction between personality disorders and the rest (formerly axis I) has been abolished in DSM 5. So this is an area of fairly recent changes in psychiatric thinking. I don't know how courts will react (or maybe some have done so already) in reaction to this change in the DSM. N.B. you'll probably want to read &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3811091/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3811091/&lt;/a&gt; for more on the criminal law and personality disorders; it's written in 2013 (so after the adoption of DSM-5), but doesn't mention any cases where the new categorizatoin has influenced criminal-law decisions. I guess it was still too early for that. See also &lt;a href=&quot;http://jaapl.org/content/42/2/141.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://jaapl.org/content/42/2/141.long&lt;/a&gt; which is more focused on the DSM-5 change. From the latter is worth quoting:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM-5 contains an expanded Cautionary Statement of explicit relevance to forensic psychiatry. It states in part that, “In most situations, the clinical diagnosis of a DSM-5 mental disorder … does not imply that an individual meets legal criteria for the presence of a mental disorder or a specified legal standard… .” It goes on to state that, “a diagnosis does not carry any necessary implications regarding the … individual's degree of control over behaviors that may be associated with the disorder” (Ref. 3, p 25).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So again a psychiatrist's view and a the law's view are different. Note than in mostly non-US (but still English-law-based) jurisdictions, there's a notion of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diminished_responsibility&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;diminished responsibility&lt;/a&gt;, often applied in cases of mental illness contributing to a crime. The US law use of this notion of diminished responsibility appears very limited; it seems to be used mostly in California (but not in Colorado where Holmes was tried.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And since we're talking serial killers with psychotic tendencies it's probably worth recalling the case of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3619172/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Breivik and Norwegian law&lt;/a&gt;. It's hard to summarize that case here since it's an entire saga with front-page disagreements on the diagnosis etc., as well as peculiarities of the Norwegian law with respect to mental illness definitions. But in the case of Breivik, just like in that of Holmes, there was no agreement among psychiatrist what his diagnosis should be. In Breivik's case the court ultimately accepted the personality disorder diagnosis rather than an axis I diagnosis proposed by some psychiatrists. In the case of Holmes the alternative diagnosis &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.foxnews.com/us/2015/07/27/doctor-who-found-james-holmes-sane-says-mental-illness-caused-him-to-attack.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;was schizoaffective disorder&lt;/a&gt;, offered by another court-appointed psychiatrist. Given the difference in law between Colorado and Norway, it's less relevant what Holmes' actual diagnosis was; in Norway a psychotic disorder automatically qualified as incompetence to stand trial, but not in Colorado, where the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%27Naghten_rules&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;M'Naghten test&lt;/a&gt; (telling right from wrong) applies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And coming back to the meaning of &amp;quot;explain&amp;quot;, the latter psychiatrist who examined Holmes said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Metzner, who diagnosed Holmes with schizoaffective disorder, said he did not think Holmes went on his rampage to get notoriety or because of his longstanding hatred of mankind, which he described in a spiral notebook. Instead, Metzner said, Holmes' actions were &amp;quot;directly related&amp;quot; to delusions that killing people would increase his self-worth.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&amp;quot;I can come up with no other explanation for what he did,&amp;quot; Metzner said.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Holmes knew what he was doing was illegal and that others would think it was wrong, Metzner reiterated in response to questions from District Attorney George Brauchler. The prosecutor brought up Holmes' statement that he did not want to date someone because he did not want anyone to be featured in news coverage as the girlfriend of a mass killer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And paralleling the Berivik case, the judge &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-shooting-denver/second-psychiatrist-concludes-colorado-cinema-gunman-was-sane-idUSKBN0OO2J720150608?irpc=932&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;didn't dig this&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Judge] Samour ordered a second evaluation after he found Metzner’s report was “incomplete and inadequate.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And regarding some of the subsequent questions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it likely that such ideation could be kept secret for one's whole life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schizotypal personality disorder also has among symptoms a &amp;quot;reduced capacity for close relationships&amp;quot; usually manifested as &amp;quot;lack of close friends&amp;quot;. So that makes it more likely such individuals will not have many people they could talk to about their weird ideas, so they may not get noticed until it's too late.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/real-life/news-life/psychiatrists-handwritten-notes-on-batman-killer-james-holmes-two-months-before-he-shot-12-people-dead/news-story/04b8101f9e6872808e95aeadd3c6a3ff&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;unsealed notes of Dr. Fenton and Ms. Roath&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Holmes had been referred to Dr Fenton by University of Colorado social worker Margaret Roath in March 2012, who noted it was “hard to interview him as he would just start and take a long time to answer”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“When I asked him about other symptoms, he said he did not want to say as I would have to report him. He says he wants to kill other people, but no one in particular and has never done anything to harm others,” Roath noted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A note of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder was accompanied by the description that “(Holmes) has problems concentrating, eats OK, does not have crying spells and does not have thoughts of suicide.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an email to Dr Fenton to see him “soon if possible”, Ms Roath described Holmes was the “most anxious guy I have seen”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Most concerning is that he has thoughts of killing others people, though I do not think he is dangerous,” she said, adding Dr Fenton would see him as it “might be best to keep him in the system”. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In her notes, Dr Fenton expressed concern over Holmes’s homicidal thoughts but his lack of a willingness to address specifics with her. He told her if she revealed more details she would “lock him up.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those in charge of his courses has told her of his “extremely awkward” social interactions and “odd comments”, but “neither had heard of him making threatening remarks”, she noted in a June client summary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A background check had revealed no weapons permits, she said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“At this point. James is … intermittently functioning at a psychotic level,” Dr Fenton wrote.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But she concluded he “does not currently meet criteria for a mental health hold”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“He is not gravely disabled and has no evidence of suicidal ideation. Longstanding homicidal ideation but denies any specific targets and there is no current evidence he is angry at the grad school (or anyone else).”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She noted that while Holmes had made hostile remarks to her and another psychiatrist, he had not made threats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LR6Rq.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LR6Rq.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Captioned: &amp;quot;Psychiatric notes released to public. This one, a mental status exam, by Dr Fenton&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So your (2nd) question becomes mostly hypothetical in view of this. Also, whatever obscure statement he may have made to a friend about &amp;quot;floodgates&amp;quot; pale in comparison to the more direct statements made to mental health professionals before the murders, although had a professional heard those, they might have seen it as a sign he was going to act. We can only speculate at this point what some professional might have done corroborating all the evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an aside, Fenton was &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/15/psychiatrist-who-treated-_n_2481457.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sued in 2013 by some victims' relatives&lt;/a&gt;. Fenton &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/04/james-holmes-psychiatrist-definitely-told-authorities-he-was-dangerous/316608/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;did warn someone on the campus police&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The documents show Fenton went to University of Colorado police officer Lynn Whitten and informed her that Holmes confessed homicidal thoughts to her and that he was a danger to the public, &amp;quot;per her requirement,&amp;quot; the documents say. Whitten responded &amp;quot;by deactivating Holmes' key-card access to secure areas of University of Colorado medical campus buildings,&amp;quot; the Denver Post writes. Fenton also told Whitten that Holmes had &amp;quot;stopped seeing her and had begun threatening her via text message,&amp;quot; the documents state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a bit more of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://eu.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/09/02/james-holmes-university-records/71603148/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;campus-level story&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Holmes started seeing Fenton in 2012 to help with his social anxiety. He soon confided that he was having thoughts about killing people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His last visit was June 11, 2012. By then he had already amassed an arsenal of weapons and body armor and was meticulously planning his attack on a packed showing of a new Batman movie. But all Holmes told Fenton and another psychiatrist, Robert Feinstein, was that he had failed a key exam and was dropping out of the neuroscience program.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Holmes &amp;quot;left in a huff,&amp;quot; Fenton told Whitten, whom she called the same day. She was concerned because Homes had told her &amp;quot;I want to kill as many people as possible,&amp;quot; and she wondered if he was nearing a psychotic break, according to the documents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though he had &amp;quot;constant homicidal thoughts,&amp;quot; Fenton told Whitten, he had never revealed specific targets or plans. But Whitten wrote in her notes that &amp;quot;Holmes indicated to Fenton that he liked thinking about it.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fenton was alarmed enough to violate Holmes' health privacy rights and call his mother, Arlene. But Fenton did not tell Arlene Holmes about her son's homicidal obsession, instead mentioning that he'd dropped out of school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The documents show that Fenton found Holmes' mother's reaction reassuring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She left a voicemail for Whitten: &amp;quot;It's pretty good news on our guy James. It sounds like he's always been like this. I've talked to his mom, she and the dad are kind of putting some quiet support in place. They've got my number in case they need anything.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She concluded: &amp;quot;So, anyway, I think we've got everything in place for now, so if something else comes up I'll let you know.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Arlene Holmes testified during the trial that Fenton didn't return her calls seeking more information. Fenton chose not to detain Holmes because she felt he was &amp;quot;on the borderline&amp;quot; and didn't think it would help, she told Whitten, according to the documents provided by the university.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About the same time, Fenton called University of Colorado professor Sukumar Vijayaraghavan, head of the neuroscience program, about Holmes, according to documents provided by prosecutors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;James had told her (Fenton) he did not think he would make a mark on the world with science so he could blow up people and become famous,&amp;quot; Vijayaraghavan told Aurora police after the shooting. Vijayaraghavan said he then called Whitten, who told him &amp;quot;action would be taken immediately.&amp;quot; She said she had suspended his student ID and &amp;quot;police are aware of the situation and are keeping an eye on the whole thing.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After the shooting, Whitten told Aurora police she &amp;quot;discussed Holmes&amp;quot; with her sergeant and checked with others on the status of his withdrawal from the university.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The university said in a statement that its faculty and staff acted responsibly. Campus police officer Lynn Whitten, who was not named in the lawsuit, has since retired. Her attorney, Tom Rice, said she did all that she could with the limited information she had, none of which gave her reason to believe Holmes was an imminent danger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From this one can guess that the civl lawsuit against Fenton didn't get far &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-shooting-denver-idUSBRE9331A520130405&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;because&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under Colorado law, mental health professionals cannot be held liable in civil suits for failing to predict a patient’s violent actions unless it involves a “serious threat of imminent physical violence against a specific person or persons.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I was right on the money, the lawsuit against Fenton &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pressreader.com/usa/the-denver-post/20180703/281526521803196&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;was dismissed&lt;/a&gt; in 2016.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-07-31T16:43:05.620" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20341" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-31T06:32:52.453" Score="3" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;The orientation association area gives us a sense of our body in time and space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would it be like without this part of the brain assuming everything else works normally?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the brain separate itself from the totality of everything? Can the person maneuver in the environment? Can the person know &quot;he/she&quot; exists without this tactile sense of separation and ability to identify? Can the person understand &quot;life/death&quot; without this separation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19912" LastActivityDate="2018-07-31T06:32:52.453" Title="What might be the daily experience of someone who does not have an orientation association area?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20342" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-07-31T07:10:41.063" Score="-1" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;Similar to the question &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/17721/how-to-use-a-quest-staircase-in-2-afc&quot;&gt;How to use a QUEST staircase in 2-AFC&lt;/a&gt;”. I also have a question about using QUEST. In fact, I too tried to find an answer in&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychophysics: A Practical Introduction by Kingdom &amp;amp; Prins; Experimental Design by Cunningham &amp;amp; Wallraven; Visual Psychophysics by Lu &amp;amp; Dosher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I found a script of QUEST, it is just for the detection task, where the threshold is always the upper threshold. I want to study also the lower threshold in the discrimination task. Is anyone can give me some hints?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19913" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-07-31T08:29:00.600" LastActivityDate="2020-12-12T09:22:25.263" Title="How to use QUEST in a discrimination task" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;matlab&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20343" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20353" CreationDate="2018-07-31T14:44:29.290" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone explain to me the difference between the structure of an empirical study in psychology and its conception? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My interpretation is so far that structure means the test arrangement and conception the basic concept of how the study is designed. Would you agree?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19532" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-08-02T02:20:21.533" LastActivityDate="2018-08-02T02:28:44.627" Title="What is the difference between the structure and the conception of an empirical study in psychology?" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20345" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13612" CreationDate="2018-07-31T21:58:22.937" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How could AlphaGo create that novel move? Is it really a new creation or is it just a product of a machine?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer is that it is a new creation which is a product of the intelligence programmed into the computer software.  The move was not conceived by any human, therefore it was new and it was created by the software.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example can be found if you look at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://foldingathome.org/category/neurological-diseases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;computer folding project&lt;/a&gt;.  Computers are creating new models of protein structures through the use of many computers around the world, and these folded structures tell researchers what role they play in all sorts of diseases throughout the body, including the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They are working things out a lot faster than any human can and you cannot say anything other than the fact that these computers are creating new things.  Things unknown to humans prior to their creation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-07-31T21:58:22.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20346" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-01T00:24:22.633" Score="2" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lifehacker &lt;a href=&quot;https://lifehacker.com/5585217/what-caffeine-actually-does-to-your-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;says&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A 1995 study suggests that humans become tolerant to their daily dose of caffeine—whether a single soda or a serious espresso habit—somewhere between a week and 12 days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They don't link the actual study or give any more detail on it. I suspect it might be pretty useless since the dose was apparently left to the user. But maybe the rest of world has missed this one important study...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3777290/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a recent review&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although complete tolerance does not occur at low doses, tolerance to some of the effects of caffeine can occur after chronic administration of very high doses of the drug (i.e., 750–1200 mg/day).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;cited from&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Juliano LM. Ferré S. Griffiths RR. Saitz R. The pharmacology of caffeine. In: Ries R.K., editor; Fiellin D.A., editor; Miller S.C., editor; Principles of Addiction Medicine. Fourth. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams &amp;amp; Wilkins; 2009. pp. 159–178.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I checked the latter book, which has something like 2 paragraphs on the topic, with about 8 citations, but none of the papers cited there is from 1995, nor does the book support the idea that any dose will cause tolerance (in fact it says almost exactly the same thing as the paragraph quoted above.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my question is: can anyone locate the 1995 study Lifehacker mentions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T00:24:22.633" Title="Caffeine any-dose tolerance study" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20348" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20355" CreationDate="2018-08-01T02:16:49.367" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given MEG is an approximation of neuronal spiking, are there any models that associate the spiking of simulated neurons to an MEG signal? Ideally, this would be a model with some amount of behaviour (mapping to an output, such as a motor action), but purely biological models are fine too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-08-01T16:49:29.393" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T16:58:28.130" Title="MEG from simulated neurons" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;meg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20350" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-01T08:31:49.297" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mind has the ability to visualize something dangerous to keep the body safe, I would like to know are humans naturally built in such a way or do we learn to do so as we grow? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found that visualization of a scenario that is fearful will make the mind fear and vice versa when you visualize something nice. But the purpose of this question is to find out what makes the mind visualize fear as most of the non-voluntary action that happens in the mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19916" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-08-02T11:26:42.233" LastActivityDate="2018-08-02T11:26:42.233" Title="is the mind naturally conditioned to visualize the worst case to keep the body safe?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20351" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20314" CreationDate="2018-08-01T11:54:55.550" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108697&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Higgins, et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; linked to in the comments states that sexual dysfunction is a common side effect of antidepressants, particularly of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRIs) and serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRIs) medications.  The reason from what the article points out is that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sex is more than a physical act. It also includes emotional and psychological dimensions. The normal sex cycle consists of four successive phases: desire, arousal, orgasm, and resolution. These phases are facilitated by the interplay of neurotransmitters, hormones, and peptides. Different classes of antidepressants impact on all phases of the sexual response cycle to varying degrees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The details pertaining to each class of antidepressant are summarised in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108697/table/t1-dhps-2-141&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Table 1 in the article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Switching from SSRIs&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003382.pub3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Taylor, et al. (2013)&lt;/a&gt; reported that switching from sertraline to nefazodone was significantly less likely to result in re-emergence of the sexual dysfunction and was not associated with any worsening depression. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatrist.com/jcp/article/Pages/2001/v62s03/v62s0305.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zajecka (2001)&lt;/a&gt; suggests that nefazodone, bupropion, and possibly mirtazapine have minimal or no negative impact on sexual functioning. However, individual responses to this strategy may vary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Firstly, the sexual dysfunction may recede but the depressive illness reasserts itself. Secondly, the change of medication may result in other associated side effects which may be more debilitating as they are present throughout the client’s day, not just when they want to have sex. Thirdly, the client who has experienced both the depression and the sexual dysfunction may feel that a ‘little’ depression is preferable to sexual dysfunction (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108697&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Higgins, et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Higgins, A., Nash, M., &amp;amp; Lynch, A. M. (2010). Antidepressant-associated sexual dysfunction: impact, effects, and treatment. &lt;em&gt;Drug, Healthcare and Patient Safety&lt;/em&gt;, 2, 141–150. DOI:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2147/DHPS.S7634&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.2147/DHPS.S7634&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;PMCID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108697&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3108697 &lt;strong&gt;(Full Text Accessible for Disabled)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108697/pdf/dhps-2-141.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108697/pdf/dhps-2-141.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taylor, M. J., Rudkin, L., Bullemor‐Day, P., Lubin, J., Chukwujekwu, C., &amp;amp; Hawton, K. (2013). Strategies for managing sexual dysfunction induced by antidepressant medication. &lt;em&gt;The Cochrane Library&lt;/em&gt; 5. DOI:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003382.pub3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/14651858.CD003382.pub3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zajecka, J. (2001). Strategies for the treatment of antidepressant-related sexual dysfunction. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 62, 35-43. PMID:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11229451&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;11229451&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14807" LastEditorUserId="14807" LastEditDate="2018-08-01T12:02:48.953" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T12:02:48.953" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20352" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20354" CreationDate="2018-08-01T12:07:56.260" Score="-3" ViewCount="2632" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it &lt;em&gt;strange&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;categorically bad&lt;/em&gt; to say things that shock others knowingly, and enjoy their reaction? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a close friend who partakes in such behavior, and I want to understand his motivation a bit better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Some context&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am not speaking about an attention aspect, per se, since this satisfaction from saying &quot;shocking things&quot; would be usually in a personal relationship context, whether that be friendship, intimate, or familial. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the idea stems from &lt;em&gt;hurting others as a coping mechanism?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Further, the satisfaction is not sexual at all, but merely a satisfaction from the reaction to whatever was said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently investigating this idea, as I have seen my friend partake in such behavior, and often at that. This behavior is private, so I am doubtful that it is for attention. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19924" LastActivityDate="2018-08-08T07:23:38.107" Title="Saying things to shock others" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2018-08-08T07:55:11.400" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20353" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20343" CreationDate="2018-08-01T14:35:39.033" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The word &lt;em&gt;Empirical&lt;/em&gt; means (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Based on, concerned with, or verifiable &lt;strong&gt;by observation or experience&lt;/strong&gt; rather than theory or pure logic. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/empirical&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oxford English Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;relying on experience or observation alone often without due regard for system and theory — an empirical basis for the theory — and capable of being verified or disproved &lt;strong&gt;by observation or experiment&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/empirical&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merriam-Webster&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/387972/is-empirical-evidence-different-from-evidence#comment914487_387972&quot;&gt;One comment over in english.SE&lt;/a&gt; states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could, eg, use some mathematical theorem as &amp;quot;evidence&amp;quot;, based purely on the fact that it's been &amp;quot;proven&amp;quot; mathematically, without any sort of practical test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order for Psychology to be scientific, it needs to have empirical evidence to back it up, and this is where the problem lies with some people.  As pointed out, if you stick to hard and fast rules on what constitutes a science, then most psychology will be considered pseudoscientific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The top voted answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/12111/is-psychology-a-science&quot;&gt;Is psychology a science?&lt;/a&gt; states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clinical psychology is not technically a science, but an applied science, or in other words, a technology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are a &amp;quot;hard scientist&amp;quot;, you will have problems with some aspects of psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14807" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T14:35:39.033" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20354" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20352" CreationDate="2018-08-01T15:53:11.477" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I understand the question correctly, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/obesely-speaking/201411/excessive-attention-seeking-and-drama-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; might interest you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To break it down, it suggests that actions taken out to seek attention are a coping mechanism that have their roots in early neglect by the family. Since attention is an important social need, if it is not readily available as a child, the brain wires itself to go to extreme lengths to receive it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case you mentioned, saying inflammatory things to enjoy a reaction fulfills that need for attention. According to the article, this releases endorphins that reduce the anxiety that accompanies not receiving adequate attention. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19874" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T15:53:11.477" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20355" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20348" CreationDate="2018-08-01T16:49:20.177" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Techniques that measure brain activity at a distance such as EEG and MEG measure spiking activity very poorly and indirectly. Instead, these techniques primarily measure &lt;em&gt;synaptic currents&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Synaptic currents of course originate in some way from spiking activity, however:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Synaptic currents may not occur in the vicinity of the spiking cells&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The amplitude of synaptic currents depends on the current state of the cells impinged upon&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Synaptic currents of different types in the same area can cancel each other out&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Phase, polarity, and geometry can lead to a complex inverse problem at the sensor that has an infinite number of solutions.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, by making some rather strong assumptions, one can attempt to solve this inverse problem. Higher frequency EEG/MEG activity is more closely associated with spiking activity, and therefore most appropriate for attempting to localize spiking rather than other types of activity. See for example David and Friston 2003.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also add that although the current agreement seems to be that EEG/MEG primarily come from synaptic currents, because synaptic currents do originate ultimately from some sort of spiking, EEG/MEG signals can correlate well with spiking activity measured with depth electrodes (for example Whittingstall &amp;amp; Logothetis, 2009). It's just likely that the correlation is indirect, mediated through synaptic potentials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Buzsáki, G., Anastassiou, C. A., &amp;amp; Koch, C. (2012). The origin of extracellular fields and currents—EEG, ECoG, LFP and spikes. Nature reviews neuroscience, 13(6), 407.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;David, O., &amp;amp; Friston, K. J. (2003). A neural mass model for MEG/EEG:: coupling and neuronal dynamics. NeuroImage, 20(3), 1743-1755.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whittingstall, K., &amp;amp; Logothetis, N. K. (2009). Frequency-band coupling in surface EEG reflects spiking activity in monkey visual cortex. Neuron, 64(2), 281-289.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-08-01T16:58:28.130" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T16:58:28.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20356" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20342" CreationDate="2018-08-01T18:55:25.870" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;QUEST is one method of measuring thresholds. There are lots of other procedures including method of constant stimuli, modified up-down staircases, PEST, and ZEST. Each has their own set of requirements and own set of assumptions. &#xA;If, as you say in the comments, you want to define the JND as the (25% threshold + 75% threshold)/2, then QUEST is probably not the procedure you want to use. The QUEST procedure is designed to optimally find the parameters of a psychometric function. While these parameters can give you the information you want, it is not necessarily the optimum procedure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As it sounds like you are just learning, you may be better off with the method of constant stimuli. You present stimuli at a variety of levels, record if the answer was correct/incorrect, fit a psychometric function and then read off the values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T18:55:25.870" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20357" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20323" CreationDate="2018-08-01T22:05:48.800" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to check the limits of visibility of a (presumably green) LED at large (kilometer) distance, and I'm assuming that modulation of intensity (blinking) or position (&amp;quot;wiggling&amp;quot;) would make the same brightness noticeable at larger distances than a steady, stationary point of light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to 'do the math' Wikipedia provides this webpage on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuation_coefficient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attenuation coefficient&lt;/a&gt;, that allows you to calculate intensity versus distance in a medium.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your belief that green is most easily visible, that's not strictly true since the human eye has four photoreceptors each &lt;em&gt;tuned&lt;/em&gt; to a different frequency, but a slightly different frequency of monochromatic light that was slightly brighter would be perceived as the same color.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is wide spectrum light acting on different photoreceptors that is &lt;strong&gt;interpretated by the brain&lt;/strong&gt; as being the seeing of a particular color. It's not &lt;em&gt;what&lt;/em&gt; you see, it's what you (unconsciously) &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; you see. It's the addition of wide spectrum light between the frequencies of 498 and 534 nm &lt;strong&gt;acting on two photoreceptors&lt;/strong&gt; that gives the impression that &lt;strong&gt;one&lt;/strong&gt; color is brighter, when in fact it's a range, monochromatic light wouldn't be brighter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Wikipedia: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell#Humans&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human photoreceptors&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pFkCU.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pFkCU.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Photoreceptors&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The photoreceptor proteins in the three types of cones differ in their sensitivity to photons of different wavelengths (see graph). Since cones respond to both the wavelength and intensity of light, the cone's sensitivity to wavelength is measured in terms of its relative rate of response if the intensity of a stimulus is held fixed, while the wavelength is varied. From this, in turn, is inferred the absorbance.[15] The graph normalizes the degree of absorbance on a hundred-point scale. For example, the S cone's relative response peaks around 420 nm (nanometers, a measure of wavelength). This tells us that an S cone is more likely to absorb a photon at 420 nm than at any other wavelength. &lt;strong&gt;If light of a different wavelength to which it is less sensitive, say 480 nm, is increased in brightness appropriately, however, it will produce exactly the same response in the S cone. So, the colors of the curves are misleading. Cones cannot detect color by themselves; rather, color vision requires comparison of the signal across different cone types.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you would want to use 4 different LEDs of 420, 498, 534, and 564 nm each to maximally stimulate each photoreceptor. You &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;could&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; &lt;em&gt;just&lt;/em&gt; use a 'white' light with a green filter but that isn't efficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see from the graphic, assuming no color blindness (which you probably want to consider) each photoreceptor is equally sensitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Wikipedia's webpage: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision#Physiology_of_color_perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Color vision - Wavelength and hue detection&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;In very low light levels&lt;/strong&gt;, vision is scotopic: light is detected by rod cells of the retina. Rods are maximally sensitive to wavelengths &lt;strong&gt;near 500 nm&lt;/strong&gt;, and play little, if any, role in colour vision. In brighter light, such as daylight, vision is photopic: light is detected by cone cells which are responsible for colour vision. Cones are &lt;strong&gt;sensitive to a range of wavelengths&lt;/strong&gt;, but are most sensitive to wavelengths &lt;strong&gt;near 555 nm&lt;/strong&gt;. Between these regions, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopic_vision&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mesopic vision&lt;/a&gt; comes into play and both rods and cones provide signals to the retinal ganglion cells. The shift in colour perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the Purkinje effect&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The perception of &amp;quot;white&amp;quot; is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colours of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of colour receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, and blue, or just a pair of complementary colours such as blue and yellow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;That&lt;/strong&gt; is how the simplified explanation: &amp;quot;green is brighter&amp;quot; comes about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/s67zd.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/s67zd.png&quot; alt=&quot;Brightness versus wavelength&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Photopic relative brightness sensitivity of the human visual system as a function of wavelength (luminosity function).&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having decided upon using a wide spectrum light with a filter &lt;strong&gt;or&lt;/strong&gt; four separate LEDs of a particular frequency we come to flash rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Way too slow leaves a lot of 'off time' which saves power but might make it less noticeable (though speed of travel is also a consideration, lighthouses flash slowly and ships travel slowly).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moderately fast and you run the risk of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosensitive_epilepsy#Signs_and_symptoms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;photosensitive epilepsy&lt;/a&gt; (PSE), in particular &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermittent_photic_stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;red light at 4 Hz is most likely to affect 1 in 3000 people&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Continuous light is power inefficient and not attention grabbing, how well would a distant green light with a background of tall trees be seen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Physiologically amber is the color chosen to avoid red green or blue and is common for stobe lights used on warning signs. Amber is not 'calming blue', 'stimulating / annoying red' nor 'overabundant green'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ca/books?id=-UpgOXdYEOYC&amp;amp;pg=PT492&amp;amp;lpg=PT492&amp;amp;dq=%22Flashing%20Caution%22%20%22Type%20C%20Panel%22&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=4ft8Cu_3xZ&amp;amp;sig=oy68ndU2kB_Zu6Qz8a04wR0xri8&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=2ahUKEwiTndmryczcAhWcCTQIHdyRBAAQ6AEwB3oECAgQAQ#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices: Inserts Only&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;, by the Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration is worth a look.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The approved, presumably well tested by many Standards over many years, road sign is designed and described this way in North America:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jyqpe.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jyqpe.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Road Construction Warning&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These demo videos: &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WQhW26-a3pY&amp;amp;list=PL-vqWZQjsXk2bToXkn4v831byGiDzlJyP&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feniex Industries - Flash Patterns&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; show that ready-made devices with a wide range of preset flash patterns in various color combinations can be &lt;strong&gt;extremely&lt;/strong&gt; attention grabbing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Choosing a ready made strobe light will save the time and cost of designing your own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19897" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-01T22:05:48.800" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20358" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20343" CreationDate="2018-08-02T02:28:44.627" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As has been touched on in the comments to this answer, &quot;structure&quot; and &quot;conception&quot; are not precisely defined terms in psychology. They do have meaning, but researchers will differ in how they conceptualise them.&#xA;This would be my interpretation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Structure of a psychological study&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The structure of a study sounds broadly synonymous with the &quot;method&quot;. I.e., all the details of how data was collected and potentially how it was analyzed. That said, &quot;structure&quot; does suggest something more general. I.e., often we think of the structure as the broad elements on which the details sit. From this perspective, the design of the study and possibly the measures hint more at structure. For example, is it longitudinal or cross-sectional? If it is an experiment, how many between and within subjects factors are there? Was there random allocation to groups, etc.? What was the order of measures? These are all features that you might use to describe the broad structure of a study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Conception of a psychological study&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conception, in this context, generally refers to the process by which a study comes into existence. I.e., how does the research go from having no study to have a study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many ways of doing this. One approach is to read the literature, identify a gap or topic of importance, come up with a research questions, and consider practical and useful study design that might contribute knowledge about that research question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other times, you might be working in an established paradigm, and the methodology itself might be tightly linked to the research questions that you choose to explore. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-08-02T02:28:44.627" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20359" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-02T10:13:31.890" Score="1" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think IQ and fluid intelligence are interrelated enough that I can use them interchangeably. I was wondering if on an individual level, if it was possible that ones IQ can jump a certain amount of points in their early twenties? I know this is not the &quot;general&quot; trend at a group level, but I was just wondering if it was biologically possible since we know the brain is still developing in ones early twenties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19929" LastEditorUserId="19929" LastEditDate="2018-08-02T11:13:34.640" LastActivityDate="2018-08-02T11:13:34.640" Title="Is it possible, on an individual level, that someones fluid intelligence can &quot;spike&quot; in ones early twenties?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20362" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-02T16:51:47.327" Score="4" ViewCount="247" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a survey I would like to find out the correlation between different factors based on the personal dimension &quot;being more emotional vs. rational&quot;.&#xA;Are there any known studies with items that could be used to differentiate between those two personalities or validated items in general about this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19933" LastActivityDate="2018-08-03T08:47:28.497" Title="How to ask in a survey for emotional vs. rational personality" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20363" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20371" CreationDate="2018-08-02T17:15:58.047" Score="7" ViewCount="301" Body="&lt;p&gt;When people entering anechoic chambers, logically there is a sensation of silence because relatively speaking, the sound levels are much lower compared to some normal baseline&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/young-people-close/201706/when-people-appear-have-no-feelings&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;when there is emotional numbness&lt;/a&gt; there isn't a feeling of emotions nor there is an awareness that there isn't a feeling of emotion and the person will struggle to describe or comprehend emotion adjectives&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also for some people in anesthetics, they shared about what it is like to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/What-does-it-feel-like-to-lose-consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;feel the consciousness is fading&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these caused me to become curious on what the literature know about the neuroscience such as brain activity when subjects experience these feelings like feeling numb, feeling empty, feeling consciousness is fading, or all at the same time. Unfortunately neither my neuroscience professors are aware of something similar in the literature, nor intense googling on google scholar found any brain activity studies when people felt numb or something stronger&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the technical name for all these seemly neutral emotions and (lack of) sensations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any known famous papers or literature that study the neuroactivity when subjects are experiencing these emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15458" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-01-14T22:29:02.440" Title="Is there any neuroscience research on the emotion of feeling nothing?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20365" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20367" CreationDate="2018-08-02T20:21:22.333" Score="3" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &quot;A Large-Scale Model of the Functioning Brain&quot; by Eliasmith et al., Spaun 1.0 was able to perform 8 distinct cognitive tasks:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Copy Drawing&lt;/strong&gt;: Given a randomly chosen handwritten digit, Spaun should produce the same digit written in the same style as the handwriting.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Digit recognition&lt;/strong&gt;: Given a randomly chosen handwritten digit, Spaun should produce the same digit written in its default writing.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;N-arm bandit task&lt;/strong&gt;: Spaun should perform a three-armed bandit task, in which it must determine which of three possible choices generates the greatest stochastically generated reward. Reward contingencies can change from trial to trial.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;List memory&lt;/strong&gt;: Given a list of any length, Spaun should reproduce it.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Counting&lt;/strong&gt;: Counting. Given a starting value and a count value, Spaun should write the final value (that is, the sum of the two values)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question answering&lt;/strong&gt;:  Given a list of numbers, Spaun should answer either one of two possible questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i. What is in a given position in the list?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ii. Given a kind of number, at what position is this number in the list?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Rapid variable creation&lt;/strong&gt; Given example syntactic input/output patterns (e.g., 0 0 7 4 → 7 4; 0 0 2 4 → 2 4; etc.), Spaun should complete a novel pattern given only the input (e.g., 0 0 1 4 → ?)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fluid Induction&lt;/strong&gt; Spaun should perform a syntactic or semantic reasoning task that is isomorphic to the induction problems from the Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) test for fluid intelligence&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &quot;Spaun 2.0: Extending the World’s Largest Functional Brain Model&quot; by Xuan Choo, it is written:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The final Spaun 2.0 model consists of approximately 6.6 million&#xA;  neurons, can perform 12 cognitive tasks, and has been demonstrated to&#xA;  reproduce behavioural and neurological data observed in natural&#xA;  cognitive agents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What novel cognitive tasks does Spaun 2.0 add? Reading the thesis, I've only been able to identify:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Adaptive arm control&lt;/strong&gt;: Given a force field applied to Spaun's arm, Spaun should adapt to the force and continue to be able to draw in spite of the changing environment dynamics.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stimulus matching task&lt;/strong&gt;: Given an example image from ImageNet, match other images of the same categories.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypothetically, instruction following could be considered as a task, but it seems like more of a meta-task, since it defines how Spaun can combine tasks to create new tasks without any architecture changes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-08-02T22:49:08.320" Title="What tasks is Spaun 2.0 able to perform?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;nef&gt;&lt;spa&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20366" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10076" CreationDate="2018-08-02T22:03:04.053" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is best to learn meditation/mindfulness by attending an ongoing class – for example, the MBSR-8 week course. That way, these types of issues are resolved as soon as they arise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Breath meditation is a hard meditation for a person to learn at the beginning. Therefore, I suggest first doing Loving-Kindness Meditation [reference: Zeng, Xianglong et al.(2015).“The Effect of Loving-Kindness Meditation on Positive Emotions: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Frontiers in Psychology 6:1693.]. If you take a look at some of the individual studies listed in this review, you will be able to understand how this meditation is carried out – basically, it is a method of extending compassion towards yourself and all others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, another strategy (for a person who has a hard time meditating) is to do physical yoga, where one attempts to focus attention on the movements without drifting into thoughts. Afterwards, one can gradually train the mind on mindfulness – such as mindfulness of body sensations (before progressing into mindfulness of the breath). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Training the mind has been compared to taming a wild animal – so, one would expect it to drift a LOT – however, each time it drifts, one can bring it back, but this needs to be done with a lot of self-compassion and with “&lt;em&gt;gentleness and kindness&lt;/em&gt;” – this is how one makes progress in the practice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simply setting aside time and practising itself is considered a positive thing and noticing that the mind has drifted when it has drifted is also a positive thing. So, congratulate yourself for trying, and not for achieving! If you focus on 'trying,''achieving' will come gradually... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19763" LastActivityDate="2018-08-02T22:03:04.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20367" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20365" CreationDate="2018-08-02T22:49:08.320" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Counting task numbers in Spaun becomes somewhat meaningless due to it's instruction following capabilities. However, the missing task was the &lt;strong&gt;stimulus response task&lt;/strong&gt;, wherein given an image from ImageNet, classify it according to it's given identifier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastActivityDate="2018-08-02T22:49:08.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20369" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20362" CreationDate="2018-08-03T08:30:46.030" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that Helen Fisher, who is a love researcher, has developed a four factor personality model where two of the factors are quite relevant to your question. See (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4522611/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fisher &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2015&lt;/a&gt;) for some general information regarding the personality model. The two factors that are relevant to your question are called (1) analytical/tough-minded, and (2) Prosocial/empathetic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will now show a few of the questions that load on the two factors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Analytical/Tough-minded:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I pursue intellectual topics thoroughly and regularly&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Debating is a good way to match my wits with others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am intrigued by rules and patterns that govern systems&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am more analytical and logical than most people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am able to solve problems without letting emotion get in the way&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When making a decision, I like to stick to the facts rather than be swayed by people’s feelings&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Prosocial/Empathetic:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I like to get to know my friends’ deepest needs and feelings&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I highly value deep emotional intimacy in my relationships&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Regardless of what is logical, I generally listen to my heart when making important decisions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;After watching an emotional film, I often still feel moved by it several hours later&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I am very sensitive to people’s feelings and needs&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I feel emotions more deeply than most people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.helenfisher.com/downloads/articles/artcledigit_ratioFINALPAID.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fisher &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2010&lt;/a&gt;) for the rest of the questions. She has also conducted some research on the neural correlates of these personality types which might be of interest, see (&lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0078734&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brown &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing you may look at is the empathy and systemizing quotient, see for example (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4553147/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Groen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2015&lt;/a&gt;). I believe the idea was originally developed by Simon Baron-Cohen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is far from a comprehensive answer, and I don't know how solid and well-established the research it. However, it may be a helpful starting point for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;References:&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Fisher, Island, Rich, Marchalik, Brown (2015). Four broad temperament dimensions: description, convergent validation correlations, and comparison with the Big Five. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4522611/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01098&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Fisher, Rich, Island, Marchalik (2010). The second to fourth digit ratio: A measure of two hormonally-based temperament dimensions. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886910003338&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.paid.2010.06.027&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Brown, Acevedo, Fisher (2013). Neural Correlates of Four Broad Temperament Dimensions: Testing Predictions for a Novel Construct of Personality. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0078734&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1371/journal.pone.0078734&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Groen, Fuermaier, Den Heijer, Tucha, Althaus (2015). The Empathy and Systemizing Quotient: The Psychometric Properties of the Dutch Version and a Review of the Cross-Cultural Stability. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4553147/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s10803-015-2448-z&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19533" LastEditorUserId="19533" LastEditDate="2018-08-03T08:47:28.497" LastActivityDate="2018-08-03T08:47:28.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20370" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13612" CreationDate="2018-08-03T12:01:11.077" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's not a product of a mechanical device anymore! Yes, it's the result of calculations of a cluster of machines, but the complexity of the group is in no way similar to what we used to know as machines. It's more complex by orders of magnitudes. In a way, you could say the brain is also mechanical since it's a group of neurons and a neuron is close to mechanical. But when the number of neurons is so large, the group is no longer similar to an individual. This is also what happens to the deep learning cluster of machines. It's already super machinery. It's like a human body is no longer similar to a cell. So there is creativity in AlphaGo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, you could argue that mathematically there is a best strategy for Go. Knowing this strategy could lead to victory over any opponent, if not draw, including AlphaGo and world champions. So there is not creativity in any game. All is brutal calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19941" LastActivityDate="2018-08-03T12:01:11.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20371" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20363" CreationDate="2018-08-03T13:33:09.100" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are talking about 3 different phenomena here (emotional numbness, fading consciousness through medical anaesthesia, and silence within anechoic chambers).  As your title &lt;strong&gt;seems to indicate&lt;/strong&gt; you are actually asking about emotional numbess, I will base my answer on that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional numbess has been talked about, although not in the same context, in the answers to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19775/can-calmness-happen-during-the-fight-flight-response&quot;&gt;Can calmness happen during the fight-flight response?&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/15730/how-do-certain-individuals-like-quang-duc-develop-the-ability-to-remain-calm-w&quot;&gt;How do certain individuals, like Quang Duc, develop the ability to remain calm when enduring significant nociceptive pain?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dissociation is the phenomenon&lt;/strong&gt; involved with emotional numbess as well as physical numbness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst some define dissociation as a combination of 2 distinct psychological mechanisms (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1300/J229v07n04_02&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brown, 2006&lt;/a&gt;), the psychobiological mechanism of dissociation is little understood; but, when someone is dissociated from the event, the detachment of conscious awareness from the event can make the person appear very calm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person can start to dissociate when a topic of discussion starts which that person is not comfortable with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dissociation is a psychological defence mechanism (Cardeña, 1994) which helps the person to get through the situation with as little harm as possible. Think about it like throwing a switch on conscious awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neuroscience within dissociation is discussed extensively within &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0757-y&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krause-Utz, et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dissociation is a complex heterogeneous phenomenon. It has been defined as a “disruption of and/or discontinuity in the normal, subjective integration of one or more aspects of psychological functioning, including – but not limited to – memory, identity, consciousness, perception, and motor control”. This definition implicates a wide range of psychological symptoms (e.g., depersonalization, derealization, emotional numbing, and memory fragmentations) and somatoform symptoms (e.g., analgesia) &lt;strong&gt;[...]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Up to now, the precise neural/neurobiological underpinnings of dissociation remain elusive. Yet, a growing number of neuroimaging studies in DDD, DID, and D-PTSD have implicated dissociative symptoms in altered brain structure and function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of information in the article regarding altered brain structure and function; and reading it will give the full details, but as a snippet:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aside from functional alterations, several studies reported structural abnormalities in clinical samples with high trait dissociation, although these structural findings are still quite heterogeneous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In depersonalization disorder, reduced gray matter volumes (GMV) in right thalamus, caudate, and cuneus, and increased GMV in the left dorsomedial PFC and the right somato-sensoric regions were observed . As abovementioned, these areas have been implicated in dissociation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In DID, reduced volumes in the amygdala and hippocampus and parahippocampus were found, although discrepant findings of normal amygdala and hippocampal volumes compared to healthy controls were also reported. Smaller hippocampal volumes may be related to early life trauma: the hippocampus has a high density of glucocorticoid receptors and is highly sensitive to a heightened release of the stress hormone cortisol—therefore, chronic traumatic stress may lead to cell damage in this area. Smaller hippocampal volumes were also found in healthy individuals with childhood trauma, who did not develop a disorder. Reduced hippocampal volumes in PTSD may therefore stem from a history of trauma rather than specific to the diagnosis. In a recent study, comparing PTSD patients with versus without dissociative subtype, no significant group differences in amygdala, hippocampus, and parahippocampus volumes were observed. Yet, patients with D-PTSD showed increased GMV in right precentral and fusiform gyri and reduced GMV in right inferior temporal gyrus. Severity of depersonalization and derealization was positively correlated with GMV in the right middle frontal gyrus. Another study in PTSD found positive associations between trait dissociation and GMVs in medial/lateral PFC, orbitofrontal, temporal polar, parahippocampal, and inferior parietal cortices—brain regions associated with emotion regulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brown, R. J. (2006). Different types of “dissociation” have different psychological mechanisms. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Trauma &amp;amp; Dissociation&lt;/em&gt;, 7(4), 7-28. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1300/J229v07n04_02&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt; 10.1300/J229v07n04_02&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cardeña, E. (1994) The domain of dissociation. In: Dissociation: Clinical and theoretical aspects, Edited by: Lynn, S. J. and Rhue, J. W. 5–31. New York, NY: Guildford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Krause-Utz, A., Frost, R., Winter, D., &amp;amp; Elzinga, B. M. (2017). Dissociation and alterations in brain function and structure: implications for borderline personality disorder. &lt;em&gt;Current psychiatry reports&lt;/em&gt;, 19(1), 6. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0757-y&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s11920-017-0757-y&lt;/a&gt; pcmcid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5283511&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC5283511&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14807" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-03T13:42:13.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20372" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20375" CreationDate="2018-08-03T14:26:51.590" Score="8" ViewCount="6131" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;B.F. Skinner&lt;/a&gt; has been quoted all over the place on the internet (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://psychologydegreeguide.org/bf-skinner/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychologyDegreeGuide&lt;/a&gt;) to say&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Give me a child and I'll shape him into anything&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am starting to think he didn't as I am yet to find a reference to where he said it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The nearest I have found is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select — doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. (Watson, 1925, p. 82)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-source-of-Skinners-famous-quote-Give-me-a-child-and-Ill-shape-him-into-anything&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robert Charles Lee, BSc (Hons) Psych &amp;amp; Stats, 1981, Univ. of London&lt;/a&gt; states that it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;seems to have come from a TV interview in the 1960s and reused in an Open University (UK) programme in the 1970s and '80s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have yet to find this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Did Skinner really say this?  If so, where?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watson, J. B. (1925). &lt;em&gt;Behaviorism&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Norton.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14807" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-08-03T15:07:21.890" LastActivityDate="2019-07-20T19:58:24.370" Title="&quot;Give me a child...&quot; Quote from Skinner?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20373" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20379" CreationDate="2018-08-03T17:06:56.063" Score="3" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there standard mental health tests available online with score interpretations? For example, if someone was interested in getting a grasp on their mental condition before seeing a psychologist/psychiatrist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17351" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-08-04T19:26:52.107" LastActivityDate="2018-08-04T19:26:52.107" Title="What are the standard mental health tests that are available online?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20375" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20372" CreationDate="2018-08-03T19:25:43.213" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Skinner never said anything like this. Unfortunately his work towards a &lt;em&gt;science&lt;/em&gt; of behavior is often misunderstood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See Mike Samsa’s blog post &lt;a href=&quot;http://thelastbehaviorist.blogspot.com/2012/11/misunderstanding-behaviorism.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Misunderstanding Behaviorism&quot;&gt;Misunderstanding Behaviorism&lt;/a&gt; for a good explanation of Skinner’s philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6937" LastActivityDate="2018-08-03T19:25:43.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20376" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20372" CreationDate="2018-08-03T22:21:34.043" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I also think it's false that Skinner really said it (exactly like that), and even if he said it offhand verbally, it's almost certain he didn't put it in writing in that form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My argument is that the 4-gram &quot;shape him into anything&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=shape+him+into+anything&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doesn't show in n-gram viewer&lt;/a&gt;, which means there are very few books containing it... according to the help. If you try &quot;give me a child&quot; you'll get an n-gram as there are plenty of books containing that 4-gram.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;amp;hl=ro&amp;amp;q=%22shape+him+into+anything%22&amp;amp;lr=lang_en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;book search&lt;/a&gt; (instead of n-gram) for the phrase &quot;shape him into anything&quot; returns only 10 books or so. 3 or 4 of these attribute it to Skinner, one reservedly, which is a psychology textbook. The other books are on the margins of psychology (philosophy etc.) so they likely propagate hearsay. None of the books containing that phrase is a biography of Skinner, and there are some book-length biographies of him. Also none of the books say or cite where he might have said or written it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The exact same result (no n-gram, few books) also applies to the 4-gram &quot;child and I'll shape&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a related trivia, some of the books that hit &quot;give me a child&quot;, have it for &quot;give me a child until he is seven, and he is mine for life,&quot; attributed to unnamed Jesuits, but other books cast doubt on veracity of the attribution. I'm mentioning this because one book drew a connection between what Skinner supposedly said and what Jesuits supposedly said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for a passage that ideatically comes close to that and we know Skinner wrote... here's one &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in SEP&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Skinner protests that “it is in the nature of an experimental analysis of human behavior that it should strip away the functions previously assigned to autonomous man and transfer them one by one to the controlling environment” (1971, p. 198).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read a few more pages from Skinner's Science and Human Behavior (195X). The passage I quoted is actually quite representative of Skinner's pretty convoluted writing style. The hypothesis that he would have written anything in a more direct fashion seems pretty unlikely. I don't know how he spoke...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-04T16:13:35.783" LastActivityDate="2018-08-04T16:13:35.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20377" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20380" CreationDate="2018-08-04T03:06:18.757" Score="4" ViewCount="198" Body="&lt;p&gt;The BBC's article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20180722-cracking-indias-mystifying-nod-code&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cracking India's mystifying nod code&lt;/a&gt; is an interesting read and contains the paragraph:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, there is more to the Indian head wobble than just a cultural quirk passed through the generations. In renowned cultural scientist Geert Hofstede’s exhaustive research on cultural norms across different countries, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/india/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;India scored 77 on the dimension of Power Distance&lt;/a&gt; – the extent to which people expect and accept power inequalities within their own society – compared to a world average of 56.5. This high score indicates a deep respect for hierarchy and limited scope for disagreement with those considered superior in any way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and links to the website hofstede-insights.com where one can compare countries (cultures?) I've spent over a decade in the US and Taiwan each for example, and certainly the following comparison using the tool on that website rings true per my personal experience:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4bqIS.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4bqIS.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The terms &quot;dimensionality&quot; and &quot;distance&quot; have meanings to me in mathematics and physics, but I'm not familliar how they might be used in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstede%27s_cultural_dimensions_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could someone help me understand the terms &quot;dimensionality&quot; and &quot;distance&quot; in the current context, using language accessible to one not familliar with the field, Hofstede's work, or formal psychology in general?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does &quot;the extent to which people expect and accept power inequalities within their own society&quot; sum it up completely, or do &quot;dimensionality&quot; and &quot;distance&quot; carry more meaning than just &quot;extent of expectation and acceptance&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19214" LastActivityDate="2018-08-04T06:07:56.470" Title="What does &quot;dimensionality of power distance&quot; mean?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20379" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20373" CreationDate="2018-08-04T05:10:27.190" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's no &quot;standard&quot; on-line test for mood disorders. The only standard one is [semi-]structured evaluation (e.g. SCID-5) by a mental health professional.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With that disclaimer aside, there are some screening tools designed to be self-rated, e.g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;mania&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_Disorder_Questionnaire&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MDQ&lt;/a&gt;, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.integration.samhsa.gov/images/res/MDQ.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;free as PDF/paper form at SAMHSA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a patient version of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Mania_Rating_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;YMRS&lt;/a&gt; is also available: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology-tools.com/young-mania-rating-scale/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;e.g. on psychology-tools.com&lt;/a&gt; although Wikipeida says it has an high false positive rate in younger people.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altman_Self-Rating_Mania_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Altman Self-Rating Mania Scale&lt;/a&gt; e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology-tools.com/test/altman-self-rating-mania-scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;also on psychology-tools.com&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;depression and anxiety&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_Health_Questionnaire&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PHQ&lt;/a&gt; a suite of tests developed by Pfizer, officially avaialble at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.phqscreeners.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.phqscreeners.com/&lt;/a&gt; There are different tests actually for depression and generalized anxiety; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHQ-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PHQ-9&lt;/a&gt; is for depression; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_Anxiety_Disorder_7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GAD-7&lt;/a&gt; for the latter). They can also be found elsewhere, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.integration.samhsa.gov/clinical-practice/GAD708.19.08Cartwright.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GAD-7 on SAMHSA&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Home/GetFileByID/218&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PHQ-9 on USPSTF&lt;/a&gt;; psychology-tools.com has both of them: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology-tools.com/test/phq-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;phq-9 there&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology-tools.com/test/gad-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gad-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Epidemiologic_Studies_Depression_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CES-D&lt;/a&gt; for depresion found on &lt;a href=&quot;http://cesd-r.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cesd-r.com/&lt;/a&gt; but also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.outcometracker.org/library/CES-D.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;elsewhere (older version)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zung_Self-Rating_Depression_Scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale&lt;/a&gt; e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology-tools.com/test/zung-depression-scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;on psychology-tools.com&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology-tools.com/zung-anxiety-scale/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale&lt;/a&gt; in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology-tools.com/test/zung-anxiety-scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the same place&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;for anxiety there exist more specialized tests/screeners, depending on the kind suspected, e.g. social anxiety or phobias, but I don't want to go into a full list. See resources at the end of the answer if you're looking for those.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And here's a more extended disclaimer from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck_Depression_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one of those&lt;/a&gt;, which applies to all:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The BDI suffers from the same problems as other self-report inventories, in that scores can be easily exaggerated or minimized by the person completing them. Like all questionnaires, the way the instrument is administered can have an effect on the final score. If a patient is asked to fill out the form in front of other people in a clinical environment, for instance, social expectations have been shown to elicit a different response compared to administration via a postal survey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and from another (PHQ page actually):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The influence of these biases can mitigated by following up with a structured or semi-structured interview, the gold standard for diagnostic assessment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnostic_classification_and_rating_scales_used_in_psychiatry#Anxiety&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;longer list of tests on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, not all of which might be on-line presently. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.outcometracker.org/library/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.outcometracker.org/library/&lt;/a&gt; is an alternative list of printed questionnaires; not sure how long it will be there.  Also these are not all designed to be self-rated; the instruction at top of which page will give clue in that respect. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology-tools.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psychology-tools.com/&lt;/a&gt; is the most on-line-oriented of these collections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-04T07:40:48.057" LastActivityDate="2018-08-04T07:40:48.057" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20380" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20377" CreationDate="2018-08-04T05:31:10.870" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hofstede has developed a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstede%27s_cultural_dimensions_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cultural dimensions theory&lt;/a&gt; to compare countries, which uses factor analysis to assign values across 6 dimensions of culture. &#xA;These dimensions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Power Distance Index&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Individualism vs Collectivism&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Masculinity vs Femininity&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Uncertainty Avoidance Index&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Long Term Orientation vs Short Term Orientation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Indulgence vs Restraint&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's all their seems to be when it comes to defining the term 'dimension': a measurable aspect of a situation. As for power distance, as you have already quoted as &quot;&lt;em&gt;the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally&lt;/em&gt;&quot;, basically means how readily the people of the culture accept hierarchies and inequalities of power. A larger power distance would imply a wider gap between people at different levels of the hierarchy, and greater acceptance of this gap with lesser questioning or asking for justifications. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19874" LastEditorUserId="19874" LastEditDate="2018-08-04T06:07:56.470" LastActivityDate="2018-08-04T06:07:56.470" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20382" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-04T08:42:45.333" Score="1" ViewCount="149" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &quot;S&quot; in SCID officially stands for &quot;Structured&quot; as in Structured Clinical Interview for DSM. But as far as I can tell for the last three editions (5, IV and III), non-official sources (research papers etc.) often refer to it as a &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-structured_interview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;semi-structured interview&lt;/a&gt;. e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.appi.org/products/structured-clinical-interview-for-dsm-5-scid-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[0]&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Deborah_Glasofer/publication/302432474_Structured_Clinical_Interview_for_DSM-IV_SCID/links/58fa1fca4585152edeceb1d0/Structured-Clinical-Interview-for-DSM-IV-SCID.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.columbiapsychiatry.org/research/research-areas/services-policy-and-law/structured-clinical-interview-dsm-disorders-scid-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/a&gt; / &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.columbiapsychiatry.org/research/research-areas/services-policy-and-law/structured-clinical-interview-dsm-disorders-scid-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1637252&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[4]&lt;/a&gt; etc. The first link [0] is actually APA's own publishing blurb for SCID-5. The last one [4] is Spitzer et al. (1992) paper on SCID for DSM-III... which has over 4,000 citations in Google Scholar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why is there this discrepancy between the name (as fully spelled out) and content of the SCID?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find it even more baffling after reading the introductory section of Spitzer et al., which emphasizes that SCID was designed from the get-go as semi-structured in opposition to previous [completely] structured interviews that were being advanced by others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The major contribution of DSM-III was its inclusion of&#xA;  specified diagnostic criteria for virtually all of the mental&#xA;  disorders. This made possible, at about the same time as&#xA;  the publication of DSM-III, the development of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS). The DIS was designed for use by lay&#xA;  interviewers with 1 week of intensive training. Although&#xA;  originally developed for use in the Epidemiologie Catchment Area Study in which the cost of employing clinically&#xA;  trained interviewers would have been prohibitive, it has&#xA;  been used by investigators in a large number of nonepidemiologic&#xA;  studies.&#xA;  In the presidential address at the 1983 annual meeting of&#xA;  the American Psychopathological Association, titled &quot;Are&#xA;  Clinicians Still Necessary?&quot; one of us (R.L.S.) discussed the&#xA;  potential limitations of the DIS in clinical research. Without questioning the advances embodied in the DIS, it was&#xA;  argued that the most valid diagnostic assessment still required the skills of a clinician with experience in evaluating a range of psychopathology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unlike a lay interviewer&#xA;  administering a completely structured interview, such as&#xA;  the DIS, an experienced clinician can tailor an interview by&#xA;  phrasing questions to fit the subject's understanding, asking additional questions that clarify differential diagnosis,&#xA;  challenging inconsistencies in the subject's account, and&#xA;  judging whether the subject's description of an experience&#xA;  conforms to the intent of a diagnostic criterion. This is&#xA;  particularly true in the diagnostic evaluation of subjects&#xA;  with psychotic symptoms who have little insight and&#xA;  present with a complicated story from which the interviewer must discern the symptom profile. For these&#xA;  reasons, two of us (R.L.S. and J.B.W.W.) started work on a&#xA;  clinical assessment procedure that would not only be&#xA;  linked to DSM-III but would incorporate several features&#xA;  not present in previous clinical diagnostic instruments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So was the naming of the SCID a case of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embrace,_extend,_and_extinguish&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;embrace and extend&quot;&lt;/a&gt; the concept of &quot;structured&quot; interview? I couldn't find the answer in Spitzer et al...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-04T09:12:10.143" LastActivityDate="2018-08-04T09:12:10.143" Title="Why does SCID call itself &quot;Structured&quot; when by many accounts it's semi-structured?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;&lt;dsm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20384" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20372" CreationDate="2018-08-04T14:34:46.183" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The 1958 &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=N0kTAAAAIAAJ&amp;amp;q=%22Skinner&amp;#39;s%20view,%20as%20Israel%20presents%20it%22&amp;amp;dq=%22Skinner&amp;#39;s%20view,%20as%20Israel%20presents%20it%22&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiS6NfCztPcAhVMSq0KHYbDCOkQ6AEIJzAA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Humanist&lt;/a&gt; says: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Skinner's view, as Israel presents it, is that human beings can be molded — and happily molded — into anything &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article also refers to an epic debate between Skinner and Carl Rogers at a 1956 American Psychological Association meeting.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19953" LastEditorUserId="19953" LastEditDate="2018-08-05T13:33:17.207" LastActivityDate="2018-08-05T13:33:17.207" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20385" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-04T19:28:32.507" Score="2" ViewCount="839" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm running an experiment and am suspecting that competitive people may respond differently to experimental treatments compared to non-competitive people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To determine whether a person has a competitive personality, I'm thinking of surveying and asking questions such as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;My friends would describe me as a competitive person.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;I would describe myself as a competitive person.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Even when there is no monetary reward, I will seek to surpass others when doing a task.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would these be good measures of competitiveness? What other questions could I use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15225" LastActivityDate="2018-08-07T12:51:22.723" Title="Survey questions to test competitiveness" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20390" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-05T02:37:49.507" Score="4" ViewCount="3916" Body="&lt;p&gt;The left and right hemispheres of the brain are connected by a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum. Ambidextrous, left handers and cross-dominant people have symmetrical brains as opposed to right handers, who have larger left hemispheres. Cross-dominant, lefties and ambidextrous people also have a stronger corpus callosum which lends itself to better communication between the two hemispheres. It seems like better communication between hemispheres would be an evolutionary benefit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I am curious as to why a symmetrical brain would have a higher rate of mental illness than a right handed/left brained person, as reported in this news release by Imperial College London: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/81322/mixed-handed-children-more-likely-have-mental/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mixed-handed children more likely to have mental health, language and scholastic problems, say researchers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19860" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-20T22:32:51.300" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T00:14:27.027" Title="Why is a cross-dominant/ambidextrous brain more susceptible to mental illness?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20385" CreationDate="2018-08-05T07:18:48.317" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's probably better to see if any validated indexes/tests exist, and some do e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0013164492052002016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0013164492052002016&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Despite its relevance to a wide variety of situations, competitiveness is a personality characteristic that has not been widely studied. Although some research in need for achievement, sports psychology, experimental social psychology, and personality assessment has approached the topic of competitiveness, few studies have provided a clear definition of the construct or a psychometrically-sound way of measuring it. This paper clarifies the conceptual definition of competitiveness and introduces a 20-item scale called the Competitiveness Index. Study 1 focuses on the validity and reliability of the measure; Study 2 reports the results of an exploratory factor analysis of the Competitiveness Index which yielded three factors: (a) Emotion, (b) Argument, and (c) Games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it's 1990's paper with only ~100 citations or so, so not a blockbuster. You should also look at which papers cite it, to see if anything better has been developed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also I found a follow-up/companion paper by same reserch group, published nearly at the same time as the previous paper (this one has fewer citations) &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(92)90030-S&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(92)90030-S&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Little research has been devoted to the study of competitiveness as a personality trait. The Competitiveness Index (CI), developed by Smither and Houston (in press, Educational and Psychological Measurement), is a 20-item structured personality instrument that responds to this problem. This study explored the validity of the CI by investigating both the internal and external validity of the measure. The CI was completed by 255 subjects (158 nurses and 97 attorneys). A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to assess the stability of the CI's factor structure across different population samples. In addition, a logistic discriminant analysis was performed to evaluate the CI's ability to differentiate between individuals in a competitive occupation (attorney) and a less competitive occupation (staff nurse). The results provide support for both the internal and external validity of the CI. The findings from the confirmatory factor analysis indicate that the factor structure of the CI is consistent across different population samples. The results of the discriminant analysis demonstrate that the CI can differentiate between individuals in more and less competitive occupations. Future research directions and possible applications of the CI are discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if need something briefer, &lt;a href=&quot;https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/10996800/tost%2Cgino%2Clarrick_power%2Ccompetitiveness_OBHDP_2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a much more recent paper (2012)&lt;/a&gt; citing the previously mentioned work did this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Competitiveness. To measure competitiveness, we modified the competitiveness index&#xA;  scale suggested by Houston and colleagues (see Houston, Farese, &amp;amp; La Du, 1992; Smither &amp;amp;&#xA;  Houston, 1992) so that we could capture state competitive mindset. The scale included the&#xA;  following items: 1) Right now, I think that competing against an opponent would be enjoyable&#xA;  and 2) Right now, I think that keeping score is important when playing games. The two items&#xA;  were correlated at r=.73, p&amp;lt;.001, which corresponds to $\alpha$=.84 (M=4.95, SD=1.42).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-05T07:32:49.603" LastActivityDate="2018-08-05T07:32:49.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20393" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19422" CreationDate="2018-08-05T12:10:48.020" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, intelligence (as a notion in psychology) is a theoretical &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;construct&lt;/a&gt;... with numerous definitions. Wikipedia's article on intelligence &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence#Definitions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lists a lot of them&lt;/a&gt;. Just going with the fist one there (which comes from an op-ed signed by many intelligence researchers), intelligence is defined as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, &lt;strong&gt;solve problems&lt;/strong&gt;, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—&quot;catching on,&quot; &quot;making sense&quot; of things, or &quot;figuring out&quot; what to do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, at a theoretical level, problem solving is seen a specific (but pretty important) aspect of intelligence. In practice, the way intelligence is usually tested in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IQ tests&lt;/a&gt;, involves solving some types of problems (assuming a generous defintion of &quot;problem&quot;). Which essentially entails &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operationalization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;operationalizing&lt;/a&gt; intelligence. It's &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/what-do-iq-tests-test-interview-with-psychologist-w-joel-schneider/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fair to say IQ tests test some specific types of problem solving&lt;/a&gt;. Of course the hope is that these correlate well enough with &quot;problem solving anything&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have also been some definitions proposed in psychology literature for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;what &quot;problem solving&quot; should mean&lt;/a&gt;. I'm not sure any of them has gained enough acceptance to be worth mentioning here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ tests are however not the only investigated paradigm covering problem solving. There's a lesser known one that talks about &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015.09.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CPS (&quot;complex problem solving&quot;)&lt;/a&gt;, proposed in one definition to be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“(…) the successful interaction with task environments that are dynamic&#xA;  (i.e., change as a function of the user's interventions and/or as&#xA;  a function of time) and in which some, if not all, of the environment's&#xA;  regularities can only be revealed by successful exploration and integration&#xA;  of the information gained in that process.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However it's not terribly clear how that is different from the theoretical notion of intelligence. What is different is how [C]PS is operationalized, i.e. the tests used to measure it... and that actually affects the level of correlation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This theoretical ambiguity is reflected in empirical findings on the&#xA;  relation between CPS and intelligence. Multiple early studies indicated&#xA;  that, while performance in CPS tasks varied tremendously among individuals,&#xA;  psychological assessments of general intelligence were unable&#xA;  to explain this variability (Brehmer, 1992; Rigas &amp;amp; Brehmer, 1999).&#xA;  Kluwe,Misiak, and Haider (1991) summarized 11 of these early studies&#xA;  on the relation between CPS and intelligence and concluded that most&#xA;  of them failed to show a close relation between intelligence scores&#xA;  and CPS performance measures. This led several researchers to suggest&#xA;  CPS to be a cognitive construct mostly independent from intelligence&#xA;  (Putz-Osterloh, 1985). Rigas and Brehmer (1999) summarized this&#xA;  view in the different-demands hypothesis. To explain the weak correlations&#xA;  that researchers observed between measures of general intelligence&#xA;  and CPS performance, this hypothesis suggests that CPS tasks&#xA;  demand the performance of more complex mental processes than intelligence&#xA;  tests [and they mean IQ tests] do, such as the active interaction with the problem to acquire knowledge on the problem environment, which, in turn, results&#xA;  in low empirical correlations between the constructs. &#xA;  [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In reaction to these problems, Funke (2001) introduced Linear Structural&#xA;  Equation systems (LSE) and Finite State Automata (FSA) as formal&#xA;  frameworks that allowfor the description of underlying task structures.&#xA;  Both of these frameworks enabled the creation of single complex systems [SCS],&#xA;  which are independent of any semantic embedment (Greiff,&#xA;  Fischer, Stadler, &amp;amp;Wüstenberg, 2014) as they only specify an underlying&#xA;  system that can be clad in multiple semantic contexts.&#xA;  In particular, the LSE formalism has been widely adopted by CPS research&#xA;  and has led to the development of a considerable number of single&#xA;  complex systems (e.g., Multiflux, Kröner, 2001; FSYS,Wagener, 2001).&#xA;  In a further advancement, after Leutner, Klieme, Meyer, and Wirth&#xA;  (2004) had used a combination of two single complex systems for measuring&#xA;  CPS, Greiff, Wüstenberg, and Funke (2012) used the LSE framework&#xA;  for the development of the multiple complex systems (MCS;&#xA;  Greiff et al., 2014) approach, which was featured in the Program for International&#xA;  Student Assessment (PISA) 2012, the arguably most important&#xA;  large-scale assessment worldwide. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The comprehensive answer to the question on the relation between&#xA;  CPS and intelligence however, appears to depend on the&#xA;  operationalization of CPS.Whereas themoderator analyses did not indicate&#xA;  significant differences between measures of general intelligence&#xA;  and measures of reasoning in respect to their relation to measures of&#xA;  CPS, there are substantial differences inmean effect sizes found for studies&#xA;  using different operationalizations of CPS. The smallest average effect&#xA;  size for the relation of CPS and intelligence was found for classical&#xA;  measures of CPS, M(g) = .339, followed by single systems based on&#xA;  LSE, M(g) = .471. CPS scores gained from MCS tests are related most&#xA;  strongly to intelligence, M(g) = .585 [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, unlike classical measures of CPS or SCS, current MCS tests&#xA;  do not feature some highly complex elements of problem solving such&#xA;  as the recognition and handling of time-delayed effects. Thus, the cognitive&#xA;  demands posed by MCS tests are likely to be relatively closer to&#xA;  those posed by intelligence measures. Following the different-demands&#xA;  hypothesis (Rigas &amp;amp; Brehmer, 1999), this might be causing the high correlations&#xA;  of intelligence and CPS scores obtained from MCS tests. In&#xA;  order to test this hypothesis, it would be necessary to develop MCS&#xA;  tests that feature highly complex elements while simultaneously maintaining&#xA;  high levels of reliability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bottom line is that there are problem solving abilities not entirely captured in basic IQ tests. Whether that tells us anything about &quot;intelligence&quot; vs &quot;problem solving&quot; is a matter of how one construes these notions theoretically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also asking if &quot;Is [it just that] intelligence [is] learnt?&quot; is a pretty different question, and I will not devote too much space to that here to that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course intelligence (as usually measured, IQ) develops over time in adolescence, and according to some empirical stuedies &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3258640/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the more schooling a child has, the better the outcome for IQ tests as well&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this raises the question: what allows one to learn (better)? The answer, according to some is that there's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/1041608089900095&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;no distinguishable factor between intelligence and learning ability&lt;/a&gt;. So basically, the question is circular in this view: you learn (better) because you are (more) intelligent, which make you (even more) intelligent. And that seems a &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/what-do-iq-tests-test-interview-with-psychologist-w-joel-schneider/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pretty widely held view&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, if we think of IQ as prediction devices, there is no better predictor of future learning than past learning. Furthermore, past learning does not just predict future learning—it often enables it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But that hinges on the definition of intelligence as being this whole encompassing thing, which includes learning ability. Just going back to the opening definition of intelligence, but emphasizing a different portion of it should be enough to illustrate this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, &lt;strong&gt;learn quickly and learn from experience&lt;/strong&gt;. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—&quot;catching on,&quot; &quot;making sense&quot; of things, or &quot;figuring out&quot; what to do&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would make a good separate question whether learning ability and problem solving (rather than intelligence) can be substantially differentiated in cognitive tests... and whether assuming such a testing separation is possible, are the results highly correlated anyway?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-05T12:19:02.597" LastActivityDate="2018-08-05T12:19:02.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20394" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-05T15:19:46.807" Score="1" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;Earlier, I was having a discussion with my co-worker. We were talking about the hottest women in Hollywood and we had some different opinions. My co-worker thought that Angelina Jolie was one of the hottest women to walk the planet where-as I never even thought she was pretty. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Don’t get me wrong, I’m sure Angelina Jolie is perfectly fine, I’ve just never found her very attractive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I’ve been pondering this question for awhile. What are the psychological differences between us men that cause us to be attracted to different types of women?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19960" LastActivityDate="2018-08-06T07:54:55.133" Title="Why are some of us attracted to certain women while others are not" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20395" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20124" CreationDate="2018-08-05T15:47:21.503" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basically, in the context of this research, &quot;sentiment&quot; can mean the same thing as &quot;valence&quot; if the analysis is unidimensional; that is &quot;valence&quot; is the usual &quot;sentiment&quot; analyzed. Otherwise &quot;sentiment&quot; can have a broader meaning, with &quot;valence&quot; being just one dimension of &quot;sentiment&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for why the two lexicons come with different valence values, that's a methodological question for the natural language processing community (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://ai.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;https://ai.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt;) or even better, the author of the papers. What is obvious to me just from the web page is that the first &quot;sentiment&quot; lexicon has &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Association scores: binary (associated or not)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;whereas the 3-dimensional one with valence as one dimension has scores between 0 and 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/t6zt1.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/t6zt1.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the context you have it, &quot;sentiment&quot; just refers to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentiment_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sentiment analysis&lt;/a&gt;, an endeavour in NLP (natural language processing) that most psychologists are probably completely oblivious to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The previously linked Wikipedia page explains that &quot;sentiment analysis&quot; is an umbrella term for a fairly broad class of analyses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Generally speaking, sentiment analysis aims to determine the attitude of a speaker, writer, or other subject with respect to some topic or the overall contextual polarity or emotional reaction to a document, interaction, or event. The attitude may be a judgment or evaluation (see appraisal theory), affective state (that is to say, the emotional state of the author or speaker), or the intended emotional communication (that is to say, the emotional effect intended by the author or interlocutor).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://saifmohammad.com/WebDocs/NRC-Sentiment-JAIR-2014.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A paper&lt;/a&gt; accopmpanying the data you mentioned defines it as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sentiment Analysis involves determining the evaluative nature of a piece of text. For example, a product review can express a positive, negative, or neutral sentiment (or polarity). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which is the most common instance of &quot;sentiment analysis&quot; in my experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as the psychology of &quot;sentiments&quot; goes, general terms used in psychology (and psychiatry) in this area are: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1166902&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mood, affect, emotion and (sometimes) feeling.&lt;/a&gt; I will not detail these here, because it's not what you are asking for (they all have Wikipedia pages). Only the first two (mood affect) have somewhat more scientific definitions but &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychnews.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/pn.38.19.0048b&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;there's still a great deal of confusion over them&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I were to propose a cross-field linkage, &quot;sentiment analysis&quot; tries to infer affect (and sometimes perhaps even mood) from text. In fact there is a notion in psychology of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_display&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;affect display&lt;/a&gt;, which is basically just the manifestation of affect that can be seen or read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for &quot;valence&quot;, it is indeed a specific concept as used in that data page you link in a comment. From a &lt;a href=&quot;http://saifmohammad.com/WebDocs/acl2018-VAD.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;companion paper&lt;/a&gt; they wrote&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Russell (1980, 2003) showed&#xA;  through similar analyses of emotion words that&#xA;  the three primary independent dimensions of&#xA;  emotions are valence or pleasure (positiveness–&#xA;  negativeness/pleasure–displeasure), arousal&#xA;  (active–passive), and dominance (dominant–&#xA;  submissive). He argues that individual emotions&#xA;  such as joy, anger, and fear are points in a&#xA;  three-dimensional space of valence, arousal, and&#xA;  dominance. It is worth noting that even though&#xA;  the names given by Osgood et al. (1957) and&#xA;  Russell (1980) are different, they describe similar&#xA;  dimensions (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.levenswerken.eu/flash/pleasure_arousal_dominance.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bakker et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So &quot;valence&quot; is indeed referring to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12529060&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Russel's core affect&lt;/a&gt; framework as you suggest. However, looking at Bakker et al. as well as Russel's own paper, he doesn't seem to use the word &quot;valence&quot;, preferring &quot;pleasure&quot; instead. I'm not sure who came up with &quot;valence&quot; for &quot;pleasure&quot;; from Bakker, I see not even Osgood used that term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also Russell's (2003) conceptualization seems two dimensional. In his own words:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Core affect is a pre-conceptual primitive process, a neurophysiological state,&#xA;  accessible to consciousness as a simple non-reflective feeling: feeling good or&#xA;  bad, feeling lethargic or energised. There is something it is like to feel core&#xA;  affect. Its presence in consciousness varies from being focal to peripheral to&#xA;  out of sight. A structural description of core affect is an empirical matter,&#xA;  and I have proposed a circumplex with the two underlying dimensions&#xA;  of pleasuredispleasure and activationdeactivation (Russell, 1980, 2005;&#xA;  Yik, Russell, &amp;amp; Steiger, 2008). Although two-dimensional, core affect is,&#xA;  subjectively, a single feeling. That is, the two dimensions combine in an&#xA;  integral fashion to form one unified feeling. Pleasure and arousal combine to&#xA;  form the single feeling of ecstasy, for example. An analogy is the sensation of&#xA;  a specific colour, such as the red of the autumn leaf outside my window. The&#xA;  dimensions of hue, saturation, and brightness combine in an integral fashion&#xA;  to form one unified sensation of any particular colour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Bakker's illustration of that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/up8Sa.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/up8Sa.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I looks like the 3rd dimension (dominance, not shown aboce) came &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02686918&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;from Mehrabian&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;valence&quot; has a somewhat broader meaning in psychology&lt;/a&gt; that is reasonably close to the way it is used above by the author of those NLP lexicon studies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Valence, as used in psychology, especially in discussing emotions, means the intrinsic attractiveness/&quot;good&quot;-ness (positive valence) or averseness/&quot;bad&quot;-ness (negative valence) of an event, object, or situation. The term also characterizes and categorizes specific emotions. For example, emotions popularly referred to as &quot;negative&quot;, such as anger and fear, have negative valence. Joy has positive valence. Positively valenced emotions are evoked by positively valenced events, objects, or situations. The term is also used to describe the hedonic tone of feelings, affect, certain behaviors (for example, approach and avoidance), goal attainment or nonattainment, and conformity with or violation of norms. Ambivalence can be viewed as conflict between positive and negative valence-carriers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said this, it looks like few(er) psychology researchers actually use this term. The definition quoted right above originates in a book by Dutch psychologist &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nico_Frijda&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nico Frijda&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-05T18:01:58.180" LastActivityDate="2018-08-05T18:01:58.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20396" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17415" CreationDate="2018-08-05T22:18:40.963" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are TWO main categories of meditation [&lt;em&gt;Reference: Lutz, A., Slagter, H. A., Dunne, J. D., &amp;amp; Davidson, R. J. (2008). Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation. Trends in Cognitive Science, 12, 163-169.&lt;/em&gt;]. One is ‘focused attention meditation’ and this meditation practice is mainly used to calm the mind (note that the mind has the habit of constantly roaming to all types of thoughts: this attribute is sometimes referred to as the “monkey mind”). Many religions have meditation practices that calm the mind – this practice (Rosary) would be an example. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other type of meditation is referred to as ‘open monitoring meditation.’ Here, one is attentive moment by moment to anything that occurs in experience – this meditation is used to develop wisdom (this method is found in Buddhist teachings, where it is typically known as “vipassana”). Mindfulness meditation generally falls into this category, although mindfulness of breath is a calming meditation practice [&lt;em&gt;Reference:Karunamuni, N. (2015). The Five-Aggregate Model of the Mind. SAGE Open, 5 (2)&lt;/em&gt;]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19763" LastActivityDate="2018-08-05T22:18:40.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20397" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-06T02:35:31.237" Score="4" ViewCount="128" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found some papers on the variance of male preference for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness#Facial_features&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;feminine&quot; women faces&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.07.012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Men report stronger attraction to femininity in women's faces when their testosterone levels are high&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv077&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Men’s Preferences for Female Facial Femininity Decline With Age&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter is not terribly surprising given that testosterone level declines with age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case one wonders, the latter paper also gives a brief description how the facial &quot;femininity&quot; is operationalized in terms of&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;facial features such as higher cheekbones, a rounder forehead, smaller chin and nose, and rounder eyes (Farkas, 1987). The aggregate differences between women and men in this combination of facial features are often referred to as “facial femininity” (Little et al., 2011)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably the most interesting paper (that I found) in this line of research &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/srep33545.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;has these elaborate findings&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;preference for feminine faces was not only influenced by sibling age and sex, but also [...] fatherhood modulated this preference. Men with sisters had a weaker preference for femininity than men with brothers, highlighting a possible effect of a negative imprinting-like mechanism. What is more, fatherhood increased strongly the preference for facial femininity. Finally, for fathers with younger sisters only, the more the age difference increased between them, the more femininity preference increased. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also there's a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/111/40/14388&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Western-culture association with the preference&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After glancing at those papers, I have some &quot;obvious&quot; questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;is this preference also affected by bisexual orientation, i.e. do bisexual men report a less strong preference for &quot;feminine&quot; women faces?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;is this preference also affected by dominance/submission-preference in a BDSM-type relationship?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Yeah, asking two questions in one is somewhat frowned upon, but these seem related enough and a review paper might answer them both.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-06T11:28:35.073" LastActivityDate="2020-06-17T05:41:35.990" Title="Does male preference for feminine women faces vary with bisexual orientantion and/or (BDSM) submisiveness?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20398" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20394" CreationDate="2018-08-06T07:54:55.133" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I've been pondering this question for awhile. What are the psychological differences between us men that cause us to be attracted to different types of women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume that neither of you actually knows that woman, so the only &quot;type&quot; of person she could be to either of you is an actress (along with her other attributes: mother of 6 children, special envoy for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), humanitarian, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People often put someone on a pedestal for various reasons, and redefine their preferences later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps she has done something that your friend admires and that increases his opinion of her, while doing nothing to actually increase her attractiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article: &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://iheartintelligence.com/2016/05/03/attractive-women/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10 Highly Attractive Traits In Women (That Have Nothing to Do With Looks)&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (which is hardly a definitive and reliable source) explains a few things that are probably relevant to an answer: kindness, positivity and sense of humour, passionate about her pursuits, confidence, emotional responsibility, decisiveness, her own sense of style, gentleness - not that you've seen her on her 'bad days', it's really a matter of perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia (another non-expert) has a well thought out webpage and a section on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness#Female_physical_attractiveness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;female attractiveness&lt;/a&gt;. It lists &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica_Alba&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jessica Alba&lt;/a&gt; as proportional to the most attractive features:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yHywr.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yHywr.png&quot; alt=&quot;Jessica Alba&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;A study by the University of Toronto found that specific ratios in the female human face correlated with attractiveness. The distance from pupil to pupil was 46% of the distance of the width of the face (from inside edge of ear to inside edge of ear). The distance between midpoint of eyes to midpoint of mouth was 36% of the length of the face from the chin to the hairline. Researchers found that ideal measurements, in proportion to the overall size of the face, were close to the average of all female profiles.&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The website &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.morphthing.com/celebrity/2421-Jessica-Alba-and-Angelina-Jolie&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MorphThing&lt;/a&gt; has closeups of each of them, and a mock-up of their faces combined:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gB79H.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gB79H.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Jolie and Alba - Morph&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're friend comes back with, &quot;Oh yeah, I didn't mean Angelina Jolie, I meant Jessica Alba&quot; - well that's another thing that happens. I know females whom are better looking than either of them, not as accomplished but 'better looking'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Both of them are 40 and have a few children from other men, so I'm going to pass. I know females whom appear quite beautiful but make a lot of mistakes, covering for them wouldn't be worth the trouble.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree with you that your friend could have picked someone else. The wikipedia link provides many links to various studies as well as mentioning that beyond 'general traits' that opinions differ in different parts of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is older than &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus_de_Milo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aphrodite of Milos&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite_of_Knidos&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aphrodite of Knidos&lt;/a&gt;. So the answer is not &quot;opinion based&quot; the best explanation seems to be that the layperson seems to believe that they can look at facial features and body appearance, from that they can make a judgment about fertility; that being the deciding factor based on genetic selection. I (we) believe that some people are not so skillful as others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19897" LastActivityDate="2018-08-06T07:54:55.133" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20399" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-06T08:06:08.763" Score="1" ViewCount="3049" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any research on brain waves when on Psilocybin Mushrooms or LSD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19967" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-08-22T17:27:59.440" LastActivityDate="2018-08-22T17:27:59.440" Title="Brain Waves and Psilocybin Mushroom" Tags="&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;psychedelics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-08-21T18:56:38.273" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20400" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-06T11:54:04.087" Score="2" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;While I was searching for articles on the correlates of attraction to female &quot;feminine&quot; faces I ran into some non-academic discussions on the attraction that some men apparently have for muscular women, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Why-am-I-attracted-to-girls-who-are-very-muscular&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;on quora&lt;/a&gt; or on &lt;a href=&quot;https://forum.bodybuilding.com/showthread.php?t=4316883&amp;amp;pagenumber=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bodybuilding.com forms&lt;/a&gt;, where some of the folk opinion (fairly predictably) was that such men are &quot;closet homo&quot; etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm at a loss how to search for any academic works on this topic, i.e. what's some terminology used; is there any academic research on this phenomenon at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a related matter, there is some academic research on the nature of visual preferences of bisexual males, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22875715&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;using swimsuit images&lt;/a&gt;, but only typical male/female images were used in that paper, not anything more &quot;in-between&quot;, e.g. in terms of muscularity (or facial features). It's also quite easy to find reseach on the culturally-expected phenomenon &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sex-muscles1/women-drawn-to-men-with-muscles-idUSEIC04599320070710&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;women drawn to men with muscles&quot;&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/fitness-exercise/news/20000810/attraction-to-muscular-men&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;articles trying to limit/disprove that&lt;/a&gt;. There's an article in theconversation.com &lt;a href=&quot;https://theconversation.com/why-do-we-find-muscular-women-wildly-perplexing-21846&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Why do we find muscular women wildly perplexing?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; but it doesn't even acknowledge the phenomenon that some men apparently are attracted to muscular women; it just rails against cultural standards etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a case Wikipedia having surprisingly little google juice, on the 5th page of google results; I discovered its article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_worship&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;muscle worship&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which does contain some Latin-ish (how else) academic terms: sthenolagnia (=&quot;sexual arousal from displaying strength or muscles&quot;) and cratolagnia (&quot;arousal from strength&quot;). But these terms can simply refer to the &quot;worship&quot; participants fitting culturally-expected roles; I did find there that it's supposedly very prevalent among gay men, but there's no citation to back that up, and in any case it isn't what I was looking for. A similarly uncited statement is that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many other sites are oriented towards straight men who enjoy worshipping female bodybuilders and other fit, muscular women, either virtually or by arranging for in-person sessions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ok, no academic took interest in this phenomenon, ever?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-06T12:43:19.850" LastActivityDate="2018-08-06T12:43:19.850" Title="Any academic research/term for (some) men's preference for muscular female bodies?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20401" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14005" CreationDate="2018-08-06T16:50:00.207" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I doubt this has been studies as you ask, i.e. effect on learning. Most of the literature seems to hammer/contrast the effects on learning of multiple-choice vs constructed-response exams, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3433302/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3433302/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been more limited investigations of 3 vs 4/5 choice in tests. One &#xA;meta-analysis from 2005 titled &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3992.2005.00006.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Three Options Are Optimal for Multiple-Choice Items: A Meta-Analysis of 80 Years of Research&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Multiple‐choice items are a mainstay of achievement testing. The need to adequately cover the content domain to certify achievement proficiency by producing meaningful precise scores requires many high‐quality items. More 3‐option items can be administered than 4‐ or 5‐option items per testing time while improving content coverage, without detrimental effects on psychometric quality of test scores. Researchers have endorsed 3‐option items for over 80 years with empirical evidence—the results of which have been synthesized in an effort to unify this endorsement and encourage its adoption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This meta-analysis has about 300 citations in Google Scholar, so at least people took notice. I don't know how well received its conclusions were. Wikipedia's page &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_choice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multiple choice&lt;/a&gt; doesn't even mention this paper, but the page is rather sparse in citations anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did find one newer study &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20053488&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2010&lt;/a&gt; (citing the meta-analysis), which confirmed its conclusions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Overall, three-option items perform equally as well as four-option items. Since three-option items require less time to develop and administer and additional options provide no psychometric advantage, teachers are encouraged to adopt three-option items as the standard on multiple-choice tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-9-40&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;another one from 2009&lt;/a&gt;, roughly confirming it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The low frequency of items with three functioning distractors in the four-option items in this study suggests that teachers have difficulty developing plausible distractors for most MCQs. Test items should consist of as many options as is feasible given the item content and the number of plausible distractors; in most cases this would be three. Item analysis results can be used to identify and remove non-functioning distractors from MCQs that have been used in previous tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In these papers, the reason why 3-item MC tests are often just as good has mostly to do with who makes the exam (and the time spend developing it) rather than than who takes it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, there's &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0265532212451235&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2012 paper&lt;/a&gt; on listening tests (evaluated with MCs), which somewhat disagrees:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mean test scores of the three-option tests were significantly higher than those of four- and five-option tests. While no difference was found in mean item discriminations across the three different test formats, reliability coefficients showed inconsistent patterns depending on the number of options and test versions. One possible interpretation of the low correlations among the scores of three test formats is that items with different numbers of options tap into skills other than listening. The findings suggest that statistically, three options may or may not be optimal depending on the point of view taken – from that of the test score users, or from that of the test stakeholders. Test developers must consider multiple statistical, affective, and contextual factors in determining the optimal number of options. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was supposedly a high-stakes exam, according to the paper title, namely the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_Scholastic_Ability_Test_(South_Korea)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CSAT&lt;/a&gt;. Of the post-2005 papers, this last one has the most substantial literature and arguments review, so it's worth reading its first 4-5 pages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-06T17:02:16.050" LastActivityDate="2018-08-06T17:02:16.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20402" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20403" CreationDate="2018-08-06T20:42:27.937" Score="1" ViewCount="155" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think anyone is born to hate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe people learn to hate by the direct effect of the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to know where exactly inside one's brain this hatred emerges and affects a person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19969" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-08-07T00:11:01.437" LastActivityDate="2018-08-07T00:11:01.437" Title="Where is hatred born inside our brains?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20403" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20402" CreationDate="2018-08-06T21:05:46.247" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From fMRI study,  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2569212/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Neural Correlates of Hate&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Viewing a hated face resulted in increased activity in the medial frontal gyrus, right putamen, bilaterally in premotor cortex, in the frontal pole and bilaterally in the medial insula. We also found three areas where activation correlated linearly with the declared level of hatred, the right insula, right premotor cortex and the right fronto-medial gyrus. One area of deactivation was found in the right superior frontal gyrus. The study thus shows that there is a unique pattern of activity in the brain in the context of hate. Though distinct from the pattern of activity that correlates with romantic love, this pattern nevertheless shares two areas with the latter, namely the putamen and the insula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is only a study in which hated faces were seen, so really it measures more than merely were hatred &amp;quot;is born&amp;quot;, or it might not even catch that at all. It's not too clear how one could find that out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3526729/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Another paper&lt;/a&gt; has it more concisely as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the so-called ‘hate circuit' involving the superior frontal gyrus, insula and putamen&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's interesting in this latter paper is that this circuit was apparently &amp;quot;uncoupled&amp;quot; by depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although it's veering off-topic, the authors of the latter paper have offered a less techincal interpretatoin of their finding &lt;a href=&quot;https://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/04/health/depressed-brains-hate-differently/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in the mass media&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;We were a bit shocked when we first saw these results,&amp;quot; says lead researcher Jianfeng Feng, a professor of computer science at the University of Warwick who specializes in biology. Feelings of self-hatred are a common feature of depression, he explains, so one would expect those feelings to also be more intense when directed toward other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, it's as if the brains of depressed people hate incorrectly. The brain disruptions the researchers observed could be a sign that people with depression have an impaired ability to cope with -- and learn from -- social situations in which they feel hate, Feng says. This may explain why they often turn emotions such as hatred and anger inward, instead of handling them in more constructive ways, he adds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing to keep in mind that the &amp;quot;hate circuit&amp;quot; was labelled so after a narrow task (viewing hated images), which might not cover all the ways humans can hate.  If the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20807326&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;studies on love&lt;/a&gt; (which are more numerous) are a good analogy, &amp;quot;different types of love involve distinct cerebral networks, including those for higher cognitive functions such as social cognition and bodily self-representation&amp;quot;. Although surely interesting, this line of research (on hate) is pretty much in its infancy (in my opinion).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, one cannot be certain a brain area is &lt;em&gt;necessary&lt;/em&gt; for a certain function (say hate) just from brain imaging. One needs to &amp;quot;mess&amp;quot; with the brain area in question, which is usually unethical, except in rare cases, e.g. epilepsy patients who have had electrodes implanted. (I suggest you watch Kanwisher &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/nancy_kanwisher_the_brain_is_a_swiss_army_knife&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TED talk on this for more explanations&lt;/a&gt;.) In the case of the &amp;quot;hate circuit&amp;quot; no such evidence has been found yet, and history of neuroscience shows that it can take a really long time to have a confirmation like that for any association found by immaging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-06T22:00:44.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20404" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20406" CreationDate="2018-08-06T22:48:33.700" Score="2" ViewCount="442" Body="&lt;p&gt;Using this simple R code, I have performed a factor analysis on my dataset:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;factanal(df, factors = 6, scores = &quot;regression&quot;, rotation = &quot;varimax&quot;)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have now found significant factors that I want to keep. I also have chosen to generate scores using the &quot;regression&quot; argument. I'm still not clear on all the steps &lt;code&gt;factanal&lt;/code&gt; uses to provide the scores, but after some digging, I found that the &quot;regression&quot; argument does use what is known as Thomson's regression to generate some score. That score then seems to be turned into a z-score given all the scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So here is the question:  Let's say that some new data comes in and I want to be able to give it a score as well. This new data happens to be one individual sample (the equivalent of one row of a new dataset).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a proper way to give an individual sample a score or must the scores be generated on a population basis? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18979" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-08-07T03:26:10.553" LastActivityDate="2018-08-08T00:14:52.390" Title="Generating a factor score for additional data using R and factanal" Tags="&lt;regression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20405" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20399" CreationDate="2018-08-06T23:41:32.507" Score="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Best start here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00020/full#h5&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The entropic brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs (2014)&lt;/a&gt;. And then here is some more current literature worth exploring:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/109/6/2138/tab-figures-data&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural correlates of the psychedelic state as determined by fMRI studies with psilocybin (2012)&lt;/a&gt;.  Additionally:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/38/15171/tab-figures-data&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Broadband Cortical Desynchronization Underlies the Human Psychedelic State (2013)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psilocybin reduced spontaneous cortical oscillatory power from 1 to 50&#xA;  Hz in posterior association cortices, and from 8 to 100 Hz in frontal&#xA;  association cortices. Large decreases in oscillatory power were seen&#xA;  in areas of the default-mode network. Independent component analysis&#xA;  was used to identify a number of resting-state networks, and activity&#xA;  in these was similarly decreased after psilocybin. Psilocybin had no&#xA;  effect on low-level visually induced and motor-induced gamma-band&#xA;  oscillations, suggesting that some basic elements of oscillatory brain&#xA;  activity are relatively preserved during the psychedelic experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qJBM4.gif&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qJBM4.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321742460_Connectome-harmonic_decomposition_of_human_brain_activity_reveals_dynamical_repertoire_re-organization_under_LSD&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Connectome-harmonic decomposition of human brain activity reveals dynamical repertoire re-organization under LSD (2017)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... Fig. 2h demonstrating the energy difference between LSD and PCB&#xA;  conditions ... For both effects, increased energy of high frequencies&#xA;  and decreased energy of low frequencies, the differences between each&#xA;  pair of conditions were found to be significant (p &amp;lt; 0.01 ...). ...&#xA;  Taken together, our results reveal that LSD increases the total energy&#xA;  of brain activity and expands the repertoire of active brain states &#xA;  by significantly increasing the activity of high frequency brain&#xA;  states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PIv6y.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PIv6y.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19962" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-08-07T04:35:03.757" LastActivityDate="2018-08-07T04:35:03.757" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20406" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20404" CreationDate="2018-08-07T03:20:17.557" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wrote the following function that takes the fit object returned by &lt;code&gt;factanal&lt;/code&gt; and new data that you provide (e.g., a data frame or matrix with identical variable names), along with the original data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;score_new_data &amp;lt;- function(fit, new_data, original_data) {&#xA;    means &amp;lt;- sapply(original_data[,row.names(fit$correlation)], mean)&#xA;    sds &amp;lt;- sapply(original_data[,row.names(fit$correlation)], sd)&#xA;    z &amp;lt;- as.matrix(scale(new_data[,row.names(fit$correlation)], &#xA;                         center = means,&#xA;                        scale = sds))&#xA;    z %*% solve(fit$correlation, fit$loadings)&#xA;}&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So for example, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;bfi &amp;lt;- na.omit(bfi)&#xA;variables &amp;lt;- c(&quot;A1&quot;, &quot;A2&quot;, &quot;A3&quot;, &quot;A4&quot;, &quot;C1&quot;, &quot;C2&quot;, &quot;C3&quot;, &quot;C4&quot;)&#xA;data &amp;lt;- bfi[,variables]&#xA;fit &amp;lt;- factanal(data, factors = 2, scores = &quot;regression&quot;, rotation = &quot;varimax&quot;)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a typical factor analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And now supply some new data along with the fit of the factor analysis and the original data:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt; score_new_data(fit, data[1:5, ], data)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it generates the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt; score_new_data(fit, data[1:5, ], data)&#xA;         Factor1    Factor2&#xA;61623  1.4937101  0.1714941&#xA;61629 -0.8927227 -1.7240081&#xA;61634 -0.4091523 -0.1982590&#xA;61640  0.4855813 -1.1968676&#xA;61661 -1.2631737  0.6817574&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer here provides additional details: &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/a/4146131/180892&quot;&gt;https://stackoverflow.com/a/4146131/180892&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look at the code for &lt;code&gt;factanal&lt;/code&gt; you can also learn more about what the regression method of scoring involves:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;  Lambda &amp;lt;- fit$loadings # lambda are the loadings&#xA;  zz &amp;lt;- scale(z, TRUE, TRUE) # matrix of data is z standardized&#xA;  # cv is correlation matrix&#xA;  sc &amp;lt;- zz %*% solve(cv, Lambda)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-08-08T00:14:52.390" LastActivityDate="2018-08-08T00:14:52.390" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20409" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20416" CreationDate="2018-08-07T07:42:19.823" Score="0" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I sleep, I can see some phenomenon as a dream. After some days or months or years that phenomenon happens in my life and forthwith my mind reminds me of that earlier dream that I saw. There are simple things such as for example getting down &lt;code&gt;pen from my hand&lt;/code&gt; like wise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My problem is how can this happen? I have heard this happens to others also. What kind of situation is this in the mind? Is it normal or abnormal?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19975" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-08-07T17:52:59.183" LastActivityDate="2018-08-07T17:52:59.183" Title="My Mind Shows Me My Future" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2018-08-27T19:15:13.453" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20411" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20385" CreationDate="2018-08-07T12:51:22.723" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Good answer above by Fizz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, consider what other well-studied traits are similar. Here's a long list: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sjdm.org/dmidi/All_Scales.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.sjdm.org/dmidi/All_Scales.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It sounds to me like some items from the Big Five could overlap. For example, in these facets (each would have multiple items):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extraversion: Assertiveness (forceful), Activity (energetic), Excitement-seeking (adventurous)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conscientiousness: Dutifulness (not careless), Achievement striving (thorough)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and the opposite of this one:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Agreeableness: Modesty (not showing off)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;see &lt;a href=&quot;http://fetzer.org/sites/default/files/images/stories/pdf/selfmeasures/Personality-BigFiveInventory.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://fetzer.org/sites/default/files/images/stories/pdf/selfmeasures/Personality-BigFiveInventory.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also see a different taxonomy called the HEXACO, which has a whole trait called Honesty-Humility (presumably, you want to track scored on the Humility part)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;hexaco.org/&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-07T12:51:22.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20412" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-07T13:02:46.740" Score="2" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard &lt;a href=&quot;http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/brain-re-wires-itself-after-damage-246049&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stories/reports&lt;/a&gt; that if a certain part of the brain (taking care of certain functions) is damaged other parts take over the function of the damaged part.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intuitively this could mean 2 things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;We are not using the brain to its full capability.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The performance of the brain will take a hit due to other brain centers taking over the functionality of the damaged center.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me the first one does not make sense since evolutionary selection makes sure we are endowed with the most efficient systems. So what is happening exactly when brain centers get damaged?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17151" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-08-13T12:05:11.620" LastActivityDate="2018-08-13T12:05:11.620" Title="Performance of a damaged brain" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20416" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20409" CreationDate="2018-08-07T16:50:41.083" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a phenomenon called &lt;a href=&quot;https://curiosity.com/topics/deja-reve-is-even-weirder-than-deja-vu-curiosity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;déjà rêvé&lt;/a&gt;, the French for &amp;quot;already dreamed&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you've ever felt like you predicted something in a dream, you might have felt it wise to keep that feeling to yourself so that others don't think you're as out-there as an ancient oracle. Well, good news: you don't need to be so secretive about your psychic dreams. They're actually a well-documented phenomenon called déjà rêvé — but they don't actually mean you can see the future. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to a new study that looked back on the medical reports of epileptic patients from 1958 to 2015, déjà rêvé experiences are common after electric brain stimulation, a pretty standard treatment method for epileptic symptoms. It suggests that the &amp;quot;already dreamed&amp;quot; feeling is the result of something happening physiologically in the brain, and that in turn could point to a better understanding of how dreams work.  [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you experience déjà rêvé, take comfort in knowing that it's totally normal — the feeling is just a harmless quirk of your brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And there's is actually a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/imp/jcs/2017/00000024/F0020007/art00008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 paper&lt;/a&gt;, on the occurrence in the general population; it looks like it happens to most peple at least some times:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deja reve ('already dreamed') has been hypothesized as a cause for various forms of déjà experience. With deja reve one has the distinct impression that the uncanny familiarity one is sensing has come from a preceding dream, but one not usually remembered until the experience is taking place. In this exploratory investigation, 2,492 respondents filled out online questionnaires in which they were queried about the incidence of their deja reve experiences, about dream frequency, and about their attitudes to dreams. The Big Five personality factors were also measured using a separate, standardized questionnaire. &lt;strong&gt;Nearly 80% claimed to have had such experiences&lt;/strong&gt; and the associated frequencies are presented. Age was negatively correlated with the incidence and there was little gender dependence. The results of the Big Five personality factors are also presented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies of déjà rêvé aren't very numerous however. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brainstimjrnl.com/article/S1935-861X(18)30079-2/fulltext&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;new study&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; mentioned in that first popsci article distinguishes déjà-rêvé from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9j%C3%A0_vu&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;déjà vu&lt;/a&gt; (basically déjà-rêvé elicits some specific dream/memory content, not mere impression of having seen something before) and proposes a further sub-classification:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Déjà-rêvé appears to be different from déjà-vu—the two must not be confused. By construction, all déjà-rêvé episodes we collected had content, which is not the case for déjà-vu. Furthermore, déjà-vu and déjà-rêvé never involved the same bipolar contacts in the instances when both could be induced by EBS [electric brain stimulation] in the same patient. These results are critical since they support the idea that déjà-rêvé is a true phenomenon, different from déjà-vu.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, déjà-rêvé is a generic term for distinct entities: recollection of a specific and detailed dream similar to an episodic memory, reminiscence of a vague dream or elements of dream(s) which feels familiar, and finally experiences that resemble or feel like what happens during dreams. Explicit content with mental imagery referring to a previous dream exists in the first two types, but the exactness of the details and contextual elements vary. In the third type, the content of the experience is not at the foreground, but the subject has the feeling of a known sensation or a state of consciousness similar to night dreaming. Only the first two types should be called déjà-rêvé, while the last type should be referred to as “dreamy state”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also discuss why  déjà-rêvé is apparently not simply a hallucination, basically because of the association of the phenomenon with electrode placement in memory- and dream-related brain regions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be disputed that we cannot be sure that déjà-rêvé (episodic-like or familiarity-like) are linked to true previous dreams. EBS could simply produce a random combination of visual and auditory elements, creating phantasmagoric and unrealistic experiences similar to dreams. However, EBS-inducing déjà-rêvé were all located in the temporal lobes, although extratemporal brain areas were commonly stimulated [4]. They were also exclusively induced by medial temporal lobe EBS in our database. Thus, like other subtypes of experiential phenomena, specific locations of EBS seem to correlate with déjà-rêvé subtypes. This suggests it is improbable the déjà-rêvé we reported here are pure hallucinations, otherwise patients would have reported similar phenomena after stimulation of other brain areas. Furthermore, the brain regions implicated in déjà-rêvé include structures involved in long-term memory (especially in episodic memory and familiarity processes) [27, 28, 29], in memory formation during sleep [29], in normal dreaming [30,31] and probably in dream recall [32].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-07T17:33:16.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20417" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-07T18:22:23.390" Score="6" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember[ed] reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24571219&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a story&lt;/a&gt; on a brain-inspired integrated mechanism for energy-delivery and cooling in (experimental) new computer chips:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The human brain packs phenomenal computing power into a tiny space and uses only 20 watts of energy - an efficiency IBM is keen to match.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Its new &quot;redox flow&quot; system pumps an electrolyte &quot;blood&quot; through a computer, carrying power in and taking heat out. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The human brain is 10,000 times more dense and efficient than any computer today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;That's possible because it uses only one - extremely efficient - network of capillaries and blood vessels to transport heat and energy - all at the same time.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But as with other biology-inspired stuff, neural networks in particular, what ultimately becomes useful in computer science/engineering may not be that closely related to the way biology actually works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what I want to ask here is: are there some detailed mass-and-heat flow analyses for how the brain (of humans or even of other mammals) is actually cooled? How is most of the heat exhausted from the brain? Is it really thorough blood, and then globally through the whole body? Or is mostly a more local process at head level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I managed to find something about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://bioheat.umbc.edu/files/2015/07/Chapter2_2007.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;importance of blood for cooling&lt;/a&gt;, but only at whole-body level:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The second influence of the blood flow is that it can enhance heat&#xA;  dissipation from the inside of the body to the environment to maintain a normal body temperature.&#xA;  Theoretical study has shown that if the heat produced in the central areas of the body at rest&#xA;  condition could escape only by tissue conduction, the body temperature would not reach a steady&#xA;  state until it was about 80°C. A lethal temperature would be reached in only 3 hours. During exercise,&#xA;  our body temperature would have typically risen 12°C in 1 hour if no heat were lost by&#xA;  blood flow. Maintaining a core temperature of 37°C during thermal stress or exercise in the body&#xA;  is achieved by increasing the cardiac output by central and local thermoregulation, redistributing&#xA;  heat via the blood flow from the muscle tissue to the skin, and speeding the heat loss to the environment&#xA;  by evaporation of sweat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So from that I suspect blood is surely important for cooling the brain as well, but still some questions remain, e.g. where does most of the heat from the brain get dumped by the blood? In more layman's terms: is the rest of the body necessary as a radiator for the brain, or is the skull enough for that purpose?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks to &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00186829&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper&lt;/a&gt; cited by AliceD on biology.SE, I also found some anatomical considerations from about two decades ago... which seem to not be very conclusive:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Selective brain cooling (SBC) is understood as a natural&#xA;  mechanism that enables mammals to maintain their brain&#xA;  temperature below the temperature of the rest of the&#xA;  body during states of hyperthermia (Baker 1979). [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The question whether SBC also operates in humans, who&#xA;  lack cranial retia mirabilia, has led to an interesting controversy.&#xA;  For some authors (Brengelmann 1987) the copious&#xA;  and constant arterial blood flow to the brain appears&#xA;  sufficient to cool the brain under all conditions. Others&#xA;  (Cabanac 1993) concede that this concept may be correct&#xA;  for the conditions at normothermia, but they propose that&#xA;  an additional brain-directed cooling mechanism becomes&#xA;  effective during hyperthermia. These authors draw attention&#xA;  to vascular arrangements in humans, which permit&#xA;  effects comparable to SBC in &quot;rete species&quot;. Cabanac&#xA;  (1993) points to several sites of intimate thermal contact&#xA;  between the arterial and the cooler venous blood, e.g.,&#xA;  the internal carotid in the carotid canal, where the artery&#xA;  is tightly surrounded by the venous plexus caroticus and&#xA;  thereafter immersed in the cavernous sinus, and the vertebral&#xA;  arteries surrounded by a plexus of veins where&#xA;  they course through the transverse foramina (see our Fig.&#xA;  14). Furthermore, Cabanac refers to the high cooling capacity&#xA;  of the skin of the head (particularly rich in sweat&#xA;  glands), whence venous blood, cooled by sweat evaporation,&#xA;  flows via emissary veins towards the brain in hyperthermic&#xA;  situations (Caputa et al. 1978; Cabanac and&#xA;  Brinnel 1985; Deklunder et al. 1991; Hiroshita et al.&#xA;  1991). An additional loss of heat occurs in the upper airways&#xA;  (Cabanac 1993), including the paranasal sinuses. A&#xA;  direct conductive skin-brain heat exchange has also been&#xA;  considered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2004.08.079&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;decade-later paper by Caputa&lt;/a&gt; still noted that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The existence of effective SBC in humans has not been&#xA;  proven directly because brain temperature has never&#xA;  been recorded in healthy subjects exposed to hyperthermic&#xA;  conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-07T19:34:57.400" LastActivityDate="2018-08-08T02:04:29.403" Title="How is the brain cooled?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20418" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20417" CreationDate="2018-08-07T19:54:10.060" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my conclusion (so far):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Blood flow is important for cooling the brain (as well as the core of the body). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4720747/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;One review&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Cerebral blood flow] CBF is most critical for maintaining and stabilizing the thermal environment of the brain. Under normal conditions, cerebral tissue beyond 2–3 cm from the cortical surface remains unaffected by changes in ambient temperature surface without simultaneous temperature changes in the perfusing blood (Stone et al., 1997). Core brain temperature is generally higher than body temperature; with blood temperature in the jugular vein higher than in the carotid artery (Nunneley and Nelson, 1994), CBF primarily contributes to heat removal from brain tissue. &#xA;  The superficial parts of the brain, however, are much more susceptible to the ambient temperature and may be cooler than arterial blood, particularly in neonates and infants (Iwata et al., 2014). Primate studies demonstrated that shifts in temperature, 5–7°C on either side of the neutral zone (28 and 32°C), did not affect deep brain structures, while superficial sites and CSF of the basal subarachnoid space were reported to change (Hayward and Baker, 1968). CBF, therefore, is critical in maintaining intracranial thermal homeostasis by reducing temperature in the deep brain but sometimes increasing temperature in the superficial brain (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24907512/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Iwata et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frankly I'm surprised that apparently no paper has tried to estimate the amount of heat removed from the skull just by the jugular vein, since there's a difference in temperature with the carotid artery, and the blood flow is known as well. This could be a decent first-order approximation of how much the rest of the body acts as a radiator for the head. On the other hand, there's something else that has been studied intensely... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In many non-human mammals and birds there's evidence for a mechanism that allows the brain to be cooler than the rest of the body. This mechanism, called SBC (selective brain cooling) has actually several flavors, but all seems to involve just head-level &quot;radiators&quot; like the nose. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SvNp2.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SvNp2.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BPSkA.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BPSkA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was no direct evidence (as of 2004) that SBC exists/works in humans, although some speculation based exist based anatomical considerations... as well as experimental analogy with extreme body temperatures observed across species:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Actually, artiodactyls, which have the most&#xA;  effective mechanism of SBC, are able to tolerate&#xA;  extremely high body temperatures. Taylor (1970) has&#xA;  shown that heat stressed and water deprived Grant’s&#xA;  gazelles are able to maintain rectal temperature at&#xA;  46.5C for as much as 6 h with no observable ill effects.&#xA;  Surprisingly, rectal temperatures as high as 46.5C&#xA;  (Khogali and Mustafa, 1984) and 47.0C (Hart et al.,&#xA;  1982) have been recorded also in humans who survived&#xA;  heat stroke. If SBC were absent, such high temperatures&#xA;  would be inevitably lethal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All SBC info from above and images from &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Michał Caputa &quot;Selective brain cooling: a multiple regulatory mechanism&quot;, &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2004.08.079&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2004.08.079&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Until 2-3 years it seems there was no way to measure/image brain temperature in a similar way to how blood flow is. But that has changed with the introduction or MR thermometry, which is non-invasive method. One of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ajnr.org/content/ajnr/early/2017/01/26/ajnr.A5059.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent papers&lt;/a&gt; on this notes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Brain thermoregulation remains an enigmatic process reflecting&#xA;  the complex interplay of metabolism and cerebrovascular&#xA;  perfusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although not trying to answer systemic &quot;where the heat goes&quot; questions, the paper has some interesting findings, namely that after a stroke brain temperature (in monkeys) raises above systemic temperature. That finding raises more questions than it answers with respect to brain thermoregulation mechanisms, but here is the eye candy of MR thermoimaging:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/do96P.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/do96P.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper goes into some detail into hypotheses of why this raise happens, how much it contributes to stroke propagation etc., but there aren't any firm answers. What is clear is that the brain can lose its ability to thermoregulate, relative to the body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-08T02:04:29.403" LastActivityDate="2018-08-08T02:04:29.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20419" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-07T21:56:58.423" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a patient scores say 2 standard deviations less than expected at arithmetic, then how reliably can we claim the same of WM or FSIQ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that the mean score for arithmetic, for the population (people who suffer from schizophrenia), is more or less the same as mean WM and FSIQ scores (around 85).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume the answer is just not very reliably at all, but I'm curious. However, it would be useful to gauge the reliability of doing so, just because arithmetic is much more often tested than anything approaching FSIQ or even WM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2018-08-07T21:56:58.423" Title="Can we generalise from loss of ability at arithemtic to pre morbid iq?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20423" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-08T08:23:13.790" Score="3" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;The example I have in my research is that both conditions show greater amplitude and latency in the parietal electrode sites than in the occipital ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure how meaningful this is for my research question, which is primarily concerned with how processing of the two conditions potentially differs (spoiler: no effects of condition!). The effect of electrode sites does not interact with anything, so is just the case that there is greater activity in the parietal sites - can I argue something about the processing involved in both conditions based on this finding?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9853" LastActivityDate="2018-11-23T20:55:29.517" Title="How do I interpret an effect of electrode position in ERP research?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;event-related-potential&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20424" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-08T22:08:13.740" Score="0" ViewCount="492" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I’ve been trying to get a better understanding for the cause and mechanism of the placebo effect. A friend suggested that the placebo effect is a form of cognitive bias, but I’ve had trouble finding evidence for this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19994" LastActivityDate="2018-08-09T07:51:39.080" Title="Is the placebo effect a form of cognitive bias?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-08-27T19:15:39.430" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20425" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-09T00:54:59.217" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are things that we cannot imagine because they are impossible (like a solution to Russell's set theory, since it is impossible to reach that solution because it is illogical.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some months ago, discussing with a user in this site, he said that although no one has reached that notion, it could be the case that someone in the future could achieve it, but he did not know the topic well enough to make any meaningful conclusion. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://chat.stackexchange.com/transcript/73718/2018/2/28&quot;&gt;https://chat.stackexchange.com/transcript/73718/2018/2/28&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe someone here could help me&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So could we develop a notion of conceivability that would allow us to imagine all of these things? Even all things that do not exist or cannot exist or are impossible like a solution to Russell's set problem or a thing that is illogical but at the same time is logical or inventing a new logic (or illogic) system...etc? What would be needed to reach such notion of conceivability? A change in the laws of physics? Or just biological evolution in our brains??&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19071" LastEditorUserId="19071" LastEditDate="2018-08-09T15:14:34.423" LastActivityDate="2018-08-10T15:14:41.447" Title="Could we develop a notion of conceivability that would allow us to imagine impossible/inconsistent/illogical things?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20427" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-09T06:19:40.027" Score="3" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Guardian headlines  on 28 Nov 2017: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/apr/19/brain-scans-reveal-mind-opening-response-to-psychedelic-drug-trip-lsd-ketamine-psilocybin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Psychedelic drugs induce 'heightened state of consciousness', brain scans show&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Healthy volunteers who received LSD, ketamine or psilocybin, a compound found in magic mushrooms, were found to have more random brain activity than normal while under the influence, according to a study into the effects of the drugs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers at the University of Sussex and Imperial College, London, measured the activity of neurons in people’s brains as the drugs took hold. Similar measurements have shown that when people are asleep or under anaesthetic, their neurons tend to fire in a more predictable way than when they are awake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“What we find is that under each of these psychedelic compounds, this specific measure of global conscious level goes up, so it moves in the other direction. The neural activity becomes more unpredictable,” said Anil Seth, a professor of neuroscience at the University of Sussex. “Until now, we’ve only ever seen decreases compared to the baseline of the normal waking state.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The research, published in the journal Scientific Reports, appears 74 years to the day after the Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman went on the world’s first LSD trip.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After the Guardian article just gets into a long expose of Hoffman's experience. But it does seem to identify one of the authors a bit later on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Robin Carhart-Harris, a researcher at Imperial College who took part in the study, said the sudden increase in randomness in brain activity appeared to reflect a deeper and richer conscious state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“People tend to associate phrases like ‘a higher state of consciousness’ with hippy speak and mystical nonsense. This is potentially the beginning of the demystification, showing its physiological and biological underpinnings,” he said. “Maybe this is a neural signature of the mind opening.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;N.B. a quick search found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MZIaTaNR3gk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a TEDx talk by Carhart-Harris&lt;/a&gt; on the topic, but it seems older than this study. Also an older (2014) headline: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/dr-robin-carhart-harris-is-the-first-scientist-in-over-40-years-to-test-lsd-on-humans-and-youre-next-9667532.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Dr Robin Carhart-Harris is the first scientist in over 40 years to test LSD on humans - and you're next&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I have some questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can anyone locate this Scientific Reports study?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has there been any more skeptical commentary on it? Or is there (silent) agreement that it really proves psychedelics induce a heightened state of consciousness?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on a photo credit to Muthukumaraswamy in that Guardian article, I found a 2016 paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.02.010&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Increased Global Functional Connectivity Correlates with LSD-Induced Ego Dissolution&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; co-authored by many, including Muthukumaraswamy and Carhart-Harris, but it was in &lt;em&gt;Current Biology&lt;/em&gt;, and the finding don't quite match, although they are somewhat related;&#xA;the focus of this paper is a bit different &amp;quot;ego dissolution&amp;quot; etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a paper in Scientific Reports published around a month before the Guardian article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-13282-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression: fMRI-measured brain mechanisms&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, on which Carhart-Harris is lead author, but it doesn't ever mention consciousness--except in the title of a [self-]citation (from 2014)... &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;The entropic brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which was later (2016) &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00423&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;commented upon by David Papo&lt;/a&gt;. But I don't see the &amp;quot;heightened&amp;quot; claims in either of these... however they do debate the&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“entropic brain hypothesis” [which] holds that the quality of conscious states depends on the system's entropy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which might be the same thing; I'll have to read these in detail to figure that out. Still, is there a Sci. Rep. paper with additional evidence as the Guardian article seems to suggest?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-09T07:31:58.503" Title="Study purportedly proving psychedelics induce a &quot;heightened state of consciousness&quot;" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;psychedelics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20428" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20424" CreationDate="2018-08-09T07:51:39.080" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is not terribly clear since it can be just an issue of categorizing the placebo effect in a philosophical sense as a &quot;cognitive bias&quot; for some broad meaning of the latter. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3146959/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;But...&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some have argued that neuroimaging technologies such as functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) can help determine whether placebo effects are independent of response bias (27). For example, one team of researchers has reported that placebo responses occur in pain-related areas of the brain during the time of stimulation and not only during assessment (28), while other researchers have shown that spinal cord mechanisms are involved with placebo analgesia (29). These experiments seem to indicate that at least some of the observed effect of placebo in an experimental setting is independent of response bias; however, they cannot rule out the hypothesis that some of the observed clinical effect is due to response bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Response_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;response bias&lt;/a&gt;, whith which the placebo effect is contrasted above, is a specific [cognitive] bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-08-09T07:51:39.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20429" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-09T09:12:27.823" Score="2" ViewCount="122" Body="&lt;p&gt;I Wanted to know whether there has been any research on mbti and disc personalty mapping and the correlations between them.If so can anyone link to some research papers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19999" LastActivityDate="2018-08-09T09:12:27.823" Title="DISC vs MBTI personality types research" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20430" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20412" CreationDate="2018-08-09T09:47:47.937" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To the question &quot;what is happening exactly when brain centres get damaged?&quot;. The answer is: When any tissue, including neural tissue, in the body gets damaged, the body will try to repair them. The process of reparation involves many distinct processes, such as the process to get rid of the damaged tissue and the process to regenerate new tissue. But compared with other tissues, such as skin, mucosa, and connective tissue in general, neural tissue has a much more limited capability to regenerate, yet it is not zero. Also, in the nervous system, neural plasticity, which is the adaptation of other neural tissue to perform the function that is impaired or lost, plays the role in the process of reparation too. The following articles may help explain this matter in more details: ref1 and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3552310/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 2&lt;/a&gt;,  and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jnms/82/1/82_4/_pdf/-char/en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref3&lt;/a&gt;. And some animal studies of neural plasticity: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2734108/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref4&lt;/a&gt; and ref&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3162127/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="19332" LastEditDate="2018-08-09T10:20:57.163" LastActivityDate="2018-08-09T10:20:57.163" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20431" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-09T11:07:28.123" Score="3" ViewCount="2634" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apparently DISC (dominance, inducement, submission, and compliance) is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DISC_assessment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;kind of personality test&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When/where is it used and how does it correlate with Big Five?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-08-09T15:00:57.583" Title="DISC correlation with Big Five personality" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20432" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20431" CreationDate="2018-08-09T11:10:58.347" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1054970.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jones and Hartley (2013)&lt;/a&gt;, it's a test seldom mentioned in textbooks, but &quot;used extensively in industry&quot;, more precisely in business organizations. Thee same paper also provides cross-correlation with Big Five factors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VRSL3.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VRSL3.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the names in the left column of this table are a bit unusual (&quot;left factors&quot;), they are (in this order)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the opposite of Extraversion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the opposite of Openness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the opposite of Agreeableness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conscienscouness (not negated)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the opposite of Neuroticism&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also the Wikipedia descriptions of &quot;DISC&quot; factors don't quite agree with Jones and Hartley, which give them as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Drive/Dominance (D) – task-oriented, fast-mover, bottom-line-oriented&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Influence (I) – people-oriented, energetic, desire popularity and praise&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Steadiness (S) – very people and family-oriented, motivated by loyalty and security, slower-moving&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Compliance/Conscientiousness (C) – task and detail-oriented, wants all information, slower-moving&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The correlations are pretty weak, but some &quot;conclusions&quot; are amusing: to be &quot;stable&quot; (i.e. non-neurotic in Big Five terms) one needs to be steady/submissive (and not dominant/driven) and the opposite goes for &quot;tough-minded&quot;, or otherwise put, being agreeable looks (again) like being submissive/steady and not dominant. Being &quot;closed minded&quot; is correlated with being steady/submissive and not being good at influencing/inducing other people. And an introvert is &quot;compliant&quot; (??) and again not good at influencing other people. These &quot;conclusions&quot; don't make a lot of sense to me, except maybe the last one...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-09T15:00:57.583" LastActivityDate="2018-08-09T15:00:57.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20433" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20459" CreationDate="2018-08-09T15:57:41.940" Score="3" ViewCount="1121" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering whether converting someone's memory into digital data is possible or not. It may sound ridiculous. However, if chance is not 0 then what kind of studies might be used? What kind of theories and facts can be used to make convert someone's memory into digital data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just watched these two videos and now I am even more excited thinking about it.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqKTdIZIBfU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqKTdIZIBfU&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Te6VFZeaADY&amp;amp;index=2&amp;amp;list=PLzCrlK3-4PXyOs4nuDpYSTScUYFJt3L4l&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Te6VFZeaADY&amp;amp;index=2&amp;amp;list=PLzCrlK3-4PXyOs4nuDpYSTScUYFJt3L4l&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;(Second video starts at 7:56)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you very much&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17262" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T21:52:55.733" Title="Converting human's memory into digital data" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20434" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-09T18:35:24.187" Score="3" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;During language acquisition a child can learn 20 words a day. What would happen if the parent decided to lie to the child during this time so that whenever the child said &quot;what that?&quot; the parent made up a random word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would this permanently stay in the child's mind forever? Or would the child just learn the &quot;real&quot; word from everyday speech?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an aside, for years I thought the word &quot;modest&quot; meant the opposite of what it means. Because it is only ever said sarcastically. As in &quot;wow, your &lt;em&gt;sooooo&lt;/em&gt; modest!&quot; And that's just one word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2018-08-10T10:48:39.977" Title="What happens if you lie to a child during language acquisition?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20435" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20434" CreationDate="2018-08-09T20:29:35.687" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;You would need a conspiracy of many people to prank a child with this kind of thing, because kids are really good at tracking the information value of sources. If you give a different random word every time they'll discount you as an information source, if you give the same random word every time they'll learn it... and use it only with you (more or less, but increasingly so with age/experience.) See &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.12.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Birch et al. (2008)&lt;/a&gt; for more details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also have fun with the literature on early bilingualism, which is basically this situation, right? Kids are &lt;em&gt;phenomenal&lt;/em&gt; at this. See for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12420&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liberman et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Birch, S. A., Vauthier, S. A., &amp;amp; Bloom, P. (2008). [Three-and four-year-olds spontaneously use others’ past performance to guide their learning.][] Cognition, 107(3), 1018-1034.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Liberman, Z., Woodward, A. L., Keysar, B., &amp;amp; Kinzler, K. D. (2017). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12420&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Exposure to multiple languages enhances communication skills in infancy.&lt;/a&gt; Developmental science, 20(1), e12420.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-08-10T10:48:39.977" LastActivityDate="2018-08-10T10:48:39.977" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20436" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20440" CreationDate="2018-08-09T20:47:53.307" Score="4" ViewCount="778" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that there is a similar question about &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/9542&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But my question is different. In fact I'm talking about teenagers and I'm asking the causes of this fact, not if there is a correlation with narcissism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, I've noticed that social network users are mostly female  (I mean, people who post more selfies are girls). And in my school almost every girl (500 girls) posts selfies. Why? Why do they need it? Furthermore their photos are strange, they usually pose in a weird way. Here are some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://goo.gl/images/3QHMgM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;First&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://goo.gl/images/THicGc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Second&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, why do girls post much more than guys?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20003" LastEditorUserId="20003" LastEditDate="2018-08-12T08:03:14.680" LastActivityDate="2018-08-12T08:03:14.680" Title="Why do teenagers take so many selfies?" Tags="&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-08-21T18:59:16.520" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20437" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20449" CreationDate="2018-08-10T00:48:39.370" Score="2" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to investigate the ability of a group of students to learn programming concepts in one hour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The students are grouped by ages: 6 - 17.&#xA;The tasks are divided into concept and type. Each concept has example tasks, to correct code, to copy code and to write code without help.&#xA;I measure the number of tasks completed and the time elapsed in each one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the best way to analyze this data? And to represent them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wanted to compare the performance of students by age and gender.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VT4dp.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VT4dp.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I draw a simple bar chart with the means of the tasks performed correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the experiments have different durations and much dispersion. There is some more reliable statistical method than analyzing only the mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not an expert in the subject and neither in statistics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20004" LastEditorUserId="20004" LastEditDate="2018-08-13T20:25:04.083" LastActivityDate="2018-08-14T11:54:14.657" Title="Study on the learning of programming concepts in pre-university students" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20438" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20425" CreationDate="2018-08-10T15:14:41.447" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a serious science of the theoretical limits of representation / information processing in CS, in complexity theory &amp;amp; computability theory. You can pull some of that stuff across to cognitive science, the question 'what level of the complexity hierarchy does language sit at' has a decent track record of productivity, it's not totally crazy to ask the same thing of cognition in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me, there's a satisfying answer in &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/sicp/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/sicp/index.html&lt;/a&gt;, although if you start at the beginning, it takes a little while to get there. In the lecture videos, it's the bit where he puts on the wizard hat. Because if you're going to answer a question as profound as this one, it's best to wear a cool hat when you do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not the only answer, some folks believe in literal quantum cognition, so you could go chat to them too. They're kinda fringe at the moment, and I'm not a subscriber, but they are very smart people and the only game in town if you want think about going beyond Church-Turing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-08-10T15:14:41.447" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20440" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20436" CreationDate="2018-08-12T00:27:38.667" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question you link to has an answer which says: &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/toxic-relationships/201804/understanding-the-mind-narcissist&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;narcissism&lt;/a&gt; in US men&amp;quot; which is quite a different category than what you ask here. Selfie-ism or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/home/search-results?g=bfa3c4bc-8cb0-48cc-94b8-636a933facf1&amp;amp;Page=1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Selfitis&lt;/a&gt; is not a disorder, or by default narcissistic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do [female] teenagers take so many selfies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Statista, on their webpage &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.statista.com/chart/10046/selfies-are-all-about-appearance/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Selfies Are All About Appearance&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;, reports on a Georgia Institute of Technology study of 2.5M Instagram selfies titled: &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM17/paper/view/15692&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Selfie-Presentation in Everyday Life: A Large-Scale Characterization of Selfie Contexts on Instagram&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; (ICWSM 2017), by Julia Deeb-Swihart, Christopher Polack, Eric Gilbert, and Irfan Essa, that out of those whom do take selfies the percentages are 59% female and 41% male.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm asking the causes of this fact, not if there is a correlation with narcissism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not all about appearance, only 52%; with 14% family, friends and pets, 13% about ethnicity or nationality, 7% travel, 5% health and fitness, with the remaining 9% falling into other categories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the appearance category the reasoning is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Most: Comments, compliments and likes. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_disclosure&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;World Disclosure&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Confirmation: I am wearing properly applied makeup, and have great clothes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Look: Where I am, what I have, where I go, whom I know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Georgia Tech study: &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.news.gatech.edu/2017/06/21/selfies-we-love-how-we-look-and-were-here-show-you&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Selfies: We Love How We Look and We’re Here to Show You&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; offers these graphs showing the most popular selfie type and who shares the most selfies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eMtx6.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eMtx6.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Most popular type&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5OBJG.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5OBJG.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Who shares their selfies&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;As you can see the belief that teen age girls share the most selfies is not correct.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is the skew of the search engines that produces this belief, it not supported by studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore their photos are strange, they usually pose in a weird way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See the result of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=females%20selfies&amp;amp;prmd=ivns&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;tbo=u&amp;amp;source=univ&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwil4YTni-HcAhU3HTQIHfs7Bk8QsAQICw&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;using Google to search for &amp;quot;female selfies&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; - the results are not particularly different than the two examples you provided, nor would I describe them as weird. See the Selfie Explorer Tool (after the next paragraph) for an analysis of poses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While not directly part of the question the website SuggestMe has a webpage regarding the travel aspect: &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://suggestme.com/press&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tourists and locals love taking selfies in London&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; showing the top 10 most popular cities, places, and places per city. Establishing &lt;em&gt;proof&lt;/em&gt; that one is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/worldly&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;worldly&lt;/a&gt;, sophisticated, versed in the ways of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://selfiecity.net/selfiexploratory/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Selfie Explorer Tool&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; at &lt;a href=&quot;http://selfiecity.net/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;SelfieCity&lt;/a&gt; allows you to generate requests for specific types of selfies based on attributes such as demographics, pose, features, or mood. It also shows which types are more prevalent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A NYTimes article: &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://nypost.com/2017/11/11/the-real-reason-men-hate-women-taking-selfies/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The real reason men hate women taking selfies&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; offers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;There are few harmless actions that seem to infuriate guys more than young women taking selfies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it is mostly young women who have been snapping pictures of their faces and posting them to Instagram since the social-media platform’s inception in 2010. In 2014, a survey by photography app Selfiecity revealed that in New York, 23-year-old females take the most selfies and 62 percent of selfies are taken by women. (That’s still less than in other cities — in Moscow, for instance, 82 percent of selfies depict female faces.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking pictures of yourself is an action that harms precisely zero people, but you wouldn’t know that the way some people respond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Male journalists regularly rail against the practice. ... There’s a fairly common refrain in these pieces that selfie takers are “narcissistic,” despite the fact that a 2017 study from Brigham Young University indicated that’s not generally true. As Alicia Eler points out in her new book “Selfie Generation” (Skyhorse Publishing), “Generally, it’s men telling women that they are narcissists for selfie-ing.” She further remarks that “young women are simultaneously told that their self-worth depends on their appearance, but they are referred to as ‘vain’ and ‘narcissistic’ if they post selfies, which are all about appearance.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology Today has an article: &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/positively-media/201401/get-over-selfie-shame&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Get Over Selfie Shame!&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; as does a NYTimes article: &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://nypost.com/2017/11/11/the-real-reason-men-hate-women-taking-selfies/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The real reason men hate women taking selfies&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; and Snopes: &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/selfie-service/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rumor: The American Psychiatric Association has classified the taking of 'selfies' as a mental disorder&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; disagreeing with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://acountrydoctorwrites.wordpress.com/2010/02/08/snap-diagnosis/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;snap diagnosis&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important problem to acknowledge is the so-called &amp;quot;Snapshot Dysmorphia&amp;quot; a term coined by Drs. Susruthi Rajanala, Mayra Maymone, and Neelam Vashi, in &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamafacialplasticsurgery/article-abstract/2688763&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Selfies — Living in the Era of Filtered Photographs&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;, where people visit plastic surgeons with selfies that have been adjusted by filters using a program such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facetune&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Facetune&lt;/a&gt; and expect to receive surgery to look like their more perfect self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The danger of taking selfies has prompted even the &lt;a href=&quot;https://mvd.ru/safety_selfie&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Russian government's Interior Ministry to offer a &amp;quot;Safe Selfie&amp;quot; guide&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;Safe Selfies&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your health and your life is more valuable than millions of likes in social networks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia is concerned about the increasing number of traumatizations and even deaths when trying to make a unique self. Each of these cases could be prevented. For this purpose, the Memorandum &amp;quot;Safe Self&amp;quot; was created in the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, designed to draw attention, primarily to young people, to this problem. We tried visually, in the form of pictograms, to depict the most traumatic cases of creating selfies, thereby to warn citizens against unjustified risk for the sake of a memorable frame.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a person tries to take a picture of himself - his attention is distracted, his balance is lost, he does not look around and does not feel danger. Do SELFI, making sure that you are in a safe place and your life is not threatened!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We hope that our initiative will be supported in all regions, will support young people, adults and children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://media.mvd.ru/files/application/652459&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Download PDF version of Reminder&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PDNmc.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PDNmc.png&quot; alt=&quot;Russian Ministry of the Interior - Selfie Safety Guide&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19897" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-12T00:27:38.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20442" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20443" CreationDate="2018-08-12T17:56:31.840" Score="5" ViewCount="257" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why does having a nice view from your window make you happy? (As in people ask for a hotel room with a nice view).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could this be replicated by simply having a large TV screen showing a view?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What views make people the happiest/saddest?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-29T16:16:31.017" LastActivityDate="2018-08-29T16:16:31.017" Title="Why do views make you happy?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;environmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20443" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20442" CreationDate="2018-08-13T05:35:24.633" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Nice&quot; window views do improve well-being, but with &quot;nice&quot; meaning &quot;nature&quot; mostly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The most consistent finding in the literature is that people prefer natural rather than built or&#xA;  urban views from windows. Windows with views of nature were found to enhance work and well-being&#xA;  in a number of ways including increasing job satisfaction, interest value of the job, perceptions of selfproductivity,&#xA;  perceptions of physical working conditions, life satisfaction, and decreasing intention to quit&#xA;  and the recovery time of surgical patients. However, the access to a view did not improve the&#xA;  performance of students or actual productivity of office workers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and later&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The preference of people for natural over built or urban views is one of the earliest and most consistent findings in the window literature [numerous citations].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Kelly M. J. Farley and Jennifer A. Veitch (2001) &lt;a href=&quot;https://nparc.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/view/fulltext/?id=ca18fccf-3ac9-4190-92d9-dc6cbbca7a98&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;A Room With A View: A Review of The Effects of Windows on Work and Well-being&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And apparently art works of nature do have some effect as well, but I don't know the exact level of substitutability (beyond &quot;real is better&quot;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But perhaps the quickest and cheapest way to reap the benefits of biophilia – albeit not the most effective – is to install artworks showing natural scenes. Browning cites a 2008 study in which office workers were put in a room with closed curtains, with a garden view or with a flat-screen TV with the same dimensions and view as the window. After they received a stressor, the blood pressure and heart rate of those volunteers with the real view dropped the fastest and lowest, followed by those with the simulated view. “Both real nature and representations of nature suffice,” Browning explains, but “real is better.” &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ioshmagazine.com/article/office-wellbeing-desk-view&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ioshmagazine.com/article/office-wellbeing-desk-view&lt;/a&gt; which unfortunaltely doesn't have a references list, so I couldn't locate that study right away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for why people like nature better, an evolutionary theory (quoting again from Farley and Veitch) is that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In summary, Ulrich’s (1983) psychoevolutionary theory suggests that acquiring a capacity for&#xA;  restorative responding to certain unthreatening natural contents and configurations had important&#xA;  advantages for humans during evolution. These included rapid attenuation of stress responses following&#xA;  threatening encounters, and fostering recharge of physical energy. In fact, Ulrich (1983), argued that&#xA;  modern humans are biologically prepared to quickly and readily acquire restorative responses with&#xA;  respect to unthreatening natural settings, but have no such preparedness for most urban or built contents&#xA;  and configurations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was criticized by others though (for incompleteness etc.), and as with many such evolutionary explanations of psychological phenomena, it's hard to test. And the critics propose instead:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In contrast to Ulrich (1983) and Ulrich et al., (1991), R. Kaplan and S. Kaplan (1989) proposed&#xA;  the Attention Restoration Theory (ART) arguing that recovery from directed attention fatigue (restoration&#xA;  of effectiveness) could be accomplished by using modes of attending that required no effort. For these&#xA;  authors, James’ (1892) concept of involuntary attention partially explained the preference of many people&#xA;  for natural rather than urban views. Natural environments, they argued, are restorative because the&#xA;  involuntary attention (or fascination) they engender requires no effort on the part of the perceiver. In this way, natural scenes are advantageous to human health because they provide an opportunity for recovery&#xA;  from mental fatigue. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_restoration_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ART&lt;/a&gt; proposes four factors that affect the restorative properties of a view:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fascination&lt;/strong&gt;, as the ability of an environment to generate awe in people; the amount of awe can give the directed attention a rest as it appears the involuntary attention in its place. &lt;strong&gt;Being away&lt;/strong&gt;, a feeling that can be in objective or subjective form, as a person can be far away from a location or let his or her mind let go from everyday life and worries. &lt;strong&gt;Extension&lt;/strong&gt; [aka extent], referring to the connection between each element found in an environment; the feeling of being able to travel through the environment in order to look for information it provides to the observer. &lt;strong&gt;Compatibility&lt;/strong&gt;, characteristics found in an environment that meet the preferences and goals of a person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.2000.0179&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some empirical evidence&lt;/a&gt; that the Kaplans may be mostly correct, except for &quot;being away&quot; being &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.rug.nl/staff/e.m.steg/palsstegsierovanoudenhovendevelopment.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;two things actually&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Laumann et al. (2001) found a five factor structure in their data&#xA;  gathered with the RCS, largely in line with the four factor structure as&#xA;  proposed by Kaplan and Kaplan (1989). However, the being away&#xA;  factor split into two factors: a physical component (referred to as&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;novelty&lt;/strong&gt;), and a psychological component (referred to as &lt;strong&gt;escape&lt;/strong&gt;). This&#xA;  finding seems plausible, because Kaplan and Kaplan’s definition of&#xA;  being away also has two components: a physical component (being in&#xA;  different setting than usual), and a psychological component (being&#xA;  able to escape from unwanted distractions and reminders of your&#xA;  daily obligations). So, the distinction between the two being away&#xA;  components is plausible both theoretically and empirically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This five factor model has been mostly confirmed in subsequent research, e.g. by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.08.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pals et al. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; but not all factors seem to come up in some contrasts; most doubt being about compatibility. And there has been further investigation from that group on &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065332&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;how fascination actually works&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-13T18:49:33.477" LastActivityDate="2018-08-13T18:49:33.477" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20449" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20437" CreationDate="2018-08-14T09:09:18.600" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you want to report the dispersion, add some &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_bar&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;error bars&lt;/a&gt;, or better do a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_plot&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;box plot&lt;/a&gt;, or even &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin_plot&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;violin plot&lt;/a&gt;, but the latter require understanding of less introductory concepts (for tuning purposes). For a non-graphical presentation of e.g. age by task (and by gender as well), see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingency_table&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;contingency table&lt;/a&gt;. These can be nested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to know if there are significant differences between the groups, read about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-test#Multiple-comparison_ANOVA_problems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;F-test&lt;/a&gt;. If want to test diffrences between individual tasks, you can do that too (e.g. t-test), but you have to worry about adjusting for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_comparisons_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multiple comparisons&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will not go into further details because this board is unsuitable for giving you a stats 101 education. And so is Wikipedia, by the way; its articles on such topics are generally too technical for the mere practitioner of statistics. It's best you talk to someone who has had at least that stat 101 level of education, although it would be better with someone who at least [still] practices statistics on some level. All else failing, read an intro textbook of applied statistics; or see coursera for a free class etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You should also learn how to use a software package that does all of these, e.g. R or SPSS. Depending how good you are at programming you may find one or the other easier. With software like these, you can also easily do plot arrays that basically iterate over a covariate's (e.g. gender) level (i.e. values). There's no standard name for these, R calls them &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cookbook-r.com/Graphs/Facets_(ggplot2)/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;facets&lt;/a&gt;; SPSS calls them &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.unige.ch/ses/sococ/cl/spss/graph/panelplots.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;panel plots&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-08-14T11:54:14.657" LastActivityDate="2018-08-14T11:54:14.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20451" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5509" CreationDate="2018-08-14T12:53:51.870" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;My biggest Problems with studies like the Okcupid...they only allow for members 18+. So you end up with data skewed a bit higher than would probably be norm. Also with the social stigma of finding someone attractive underage, if the person is aware they would say NO. Also men in their 20's tend to want a girl they can take drinking so that it is somewhere they are familiar/comfortable with and of course, drunk girls are easier (not condoning in any way just saying it happens)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard of these studies too. And they get buried from search engines with these new &amp;quot;studies&amp;quot;&#xA;On I heard came up with 15 and one was 16.&#xA;The 16 one I know a place you can find it: The documentary are all men Pedophiles&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://watchdocumentaries.com/are-all-men-pedophiles/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://watchdocumentaries.com/are-all-men-pedophiles/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At 5:28 he quotes a guy, who did the pathological studies. And the whole thing is full of the kind of general info you might be looking for.&#xA;I would just give you the guy's name but it's foreign, being spoken by someone with a mild accent. I just have no idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20037" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-04-29T15:05:01.353" LastActivityDate="2021-04-29T15:05:01.353" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20453" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-14T19:14:01.780" Score="2" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;Three examples would be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone who makes an expensive purchase, and even when they are met with objective facts stating why it was a inferior purchase, they continue to sing it's praise.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone who blindly follows and defends their political party affiliation, even when confronted with facts showing why it's a bad affiliation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone who commits to a lifestyle choice, and even when confronted with facts showing why it's a bad choice, they refused to believe it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know an all encompassing term might be cognitive bias, but I was hoping for specific terminologies to the three types of biases above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20040" LastActivityDate="2018-08-14T20:38:21.907" Title="Do other forms of bias have their own terminologies, similar to &quot;Stockholm Syndrome&quot;?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20454" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20453" CreationDate="2018-08-14T20:38:21.907" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia even has a list&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone who makes an expensive purchase, and even when they are met with objective facts stating why it was a inferior purchase, they continue to sing it's praise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is related to the endowment effect and sunk costs fallacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone who blindly follows and defends their political party affiliation, even when confronted with facts showing why it's a bad affiliation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone who commits to a lifestyle choice, and even when confronted with facts showing why it's a bad choice, they refused to believe it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are both fairly closely related, and there are several types of bias that could contribute to either - you'd have to have more information about what led to that bias, as you are sort of describing the 'symptoms' rather than causes. Conservativism bias, confirmation bias, bandwagon effects, social comparison biases, selective perception, reactance, and more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I would also encourage you to be wary of the many forms of bias that cloud your judgment of others, as well. If you are perceiving people as being part of a 'bad affiliation' or making a 'bad choice' you should consider that your own biases may cause you to discount the reasons for those decisions. You may value different things than they do, and those differences in values may or may not be related to cognitive bias per se, but also simply individual differences in personality, life experience, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-14T20:38:21.907" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20458" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-15T00:23:33.167" Score="4" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems surprisingly hard to pin down what moral outrage actually involves. It's easier to say &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ejsp.434&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;what it isn't&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, moral outrage—anger at the&#xA;  violation of a moral standard—should be distinguished from personal anger at being harmed and&#xA;  empathic anger at seeing another for whom one cares harmed. Across a preliminary experiment and a&#xA;  main experiment, both designed to manipulate the appraisal conditions for these three forms of anger,&#xA;  we found evidence of personal anger and empathic anger, but little evidence of moral outrage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is basically: &lt;strong&gt;what is known about personality correlates of moral outrage?&lt;/strong&gt; Below are some musings of my own:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing some level of extroversion might be needed to &lt;em&gt;express&lt;/em&gt; it, but it might even depend on how that outrage is expressed, e.g. online or in a rally or face-to-face etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's even less clear to me what would correlate (personality wise) with just &lt;em&gt;feeling&lt;/em&gt; such an outrage (keeping in mind the non-trivial distinctions from the quote). Possibly the close-mindedness from Big Five (opposite of openness) plays a role, but it's unclear to me if it's universally relevant. E.g. outrage at bigotry could have the exact opposite personality correlates to outrage at unconventional behavior. Maybe the humility/honesty in the HEXACO model has some correlation as well, e.g. with outrage at theft of aggrandisement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And apparently I'm not the only one to think &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/apr/03/moral-outrage-public-anger-reasons&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;something like that&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;outrage is driven by differing conceptions of what is just. For example, a recent Super Bowl ad featuring a Latino mother and young daughter making the long journey from Mexico to the United States – only to be confronted by a border wall – elicited very different responses of outrage. That’s because those who see the exclusion of immigrants as unjust and those who see maintaining a strict border as justified share a common desire to promote what they see as moral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, maybe I'm wrong to assume there are any universal correlates in the current personality models. If that's the case, are there more specific personality facets proposed for correlating with &quot;moral outrage&quot;? Something like a strong sense of having a &quot;moral compass&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the previous link:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our work highlights a third motive that is based on people’s desire to view themselves as morally upright people. Threats to one’s moral self-image have been shown to elicit unpleasant feelings of guilt that can motivate efforts to restore a positive view of oneself. This is commonly expressed by issuing an apology or making amends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So maybe feeling moral outrage is actually related to Neuroticism? That seems a bit simplistic to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-15T00:52:10.577" LastActivityDate="2018-08-15T00:52:10.577" Title="What are the personality correlates of moral outrage?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20459" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20433" CreationDate="2018-08-15T03:48:23.527" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am wondering whether converting someone's memory into digital data is possible or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not today, but it is an active area of research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One non-profit foundation, headed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;computational neuroscientist&lt;/a&gt; Dr. Randal A. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randal_A._Koene&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koene&lt;/a&gt; (see also his &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.randalkoene.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;personal website&lt;/a&gt;), that is working in this field is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.carboncopies.org/team-1/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carbon Copies&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr. Koene, in collaboration dozens of others and the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neurodynamics.nl/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research&lt;/a&gt; (CNCR) (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jvanpelt.nl/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2nd link&lt;/a&gt;) has developed simulation software called Netmorph:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;NETMORPH is a simulation environment for the developmental generation of 3D large-scale neuronal networks with realistic neuron morphologies. In NETMORPH, neuronal morphogenesis is simulated from the perspective of the individual growth cone. For each growth cone in a growing axonal or dendritic tree, its actions of elongation, branching and turning are described in a stochastic, phenomenological manner. In this way, neurons with realistic axonal and dendritic morphologies, including neurite curvature, can be generated. Synapses are formed as neurons grow out and axonal and dendritic branches come in close proximity of each other.&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, Wikipedia has a webpage on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_uploading&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mind Uploading&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophysiology#Extracellular_recording&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Extracellular Recording&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ability to make direct electrophysiological recordings from populations of neurons requires multiple parallel recording channels and high sampling rates (&gt;10KHz) in order to properly characterize &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;action potentials&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Electrodes can be placed on the scalp to record &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography#Mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;electroencephalograms&lt;/a&gt; (EEGs), but that is only the summation of the synchronous activity of thousands or millions of neurons that have similar spatial orientation. There are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridgeneurotech.com/silicon-probes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;64 channel neural probes&lt;/a&gt; available to record the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential#Process_in_a_typical_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;action potentials&lt;/a&gt; (APs) of individual neurons, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron#Connectivity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the human brain has around a hundred billion&lt;/a&gt; of them:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The human brain has a huge number of synapses. Each of the 10$^{11}$ (one hundred billion) neurons has on average 7,000 synaptic connections to other neurons. It has been estimated that the brain of a three-year-old child has about 10$^{15}$ synapses (1 quadrillion). This number declines with age, stabilizing by adulthood. Estimates vary for an adult, ranging from 10$^{14}$ to 5 x 10$^{14}$ synapses (100 to 500 trillion). [Source: &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://n.neurology.org/content/64/12/2004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Do we have brain to spare?&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (Jun 27 2005), by David A. Drachman].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It may sound ridiculous. However, if chance is not 0 then what kind of studies might be used? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Less than &quot;ridiculous&quot;, less than possible too. You would need to install a trillion probes or find a means to externally measure with sufficient resolution, and make low error and low noise measurements. Still it's possible to measure very tiny portions of the human brain, or much smaller brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/journals/neurophotonics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurophotonics&lt;/a&gt; can be combined with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoencephalography#Source_localization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;magnetoencephalography&lt;/a&gt; (MEG) to derive a means to obtain high resolution measurements simultaneously over a much larger area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What kind of theories and facts can be used to make convert someone's memory into digital data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can make digital and analog recording of a small section of the brain today, &lt;em&gt;playing it back&lt;/em&gt; into another brain or interpreting the information is another matter entirely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even identical twins do not have identical genetics (due to copy error or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080215121214.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;copy number variation&lt;/a&gt; (CNV)) or identical brains, see Psychology Today's article: &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/the-superhuman-mind/201211/identical-twins-are-not-genetically-identical&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Identical Twins Are Not Genetically Identical&lt;/a&gt;. In addition to recording the information you would need to remap from where it was read to where it was written, much like creating an .ISO file from a CD and burning it to a new disk; a procedure some people find challenging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;National Geographic's YouTube channel has a video titled: &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7_drJyNMXbw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Geographic Live! - Mapping the Brain | Nat Geo Live&lt;/a&gt;&quot; which provides a more in-depth yet accessable explanation, as does the TEDx Talk's channel video titled: &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ecvv-EvOj8M&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human brain mapping and brain decoding. | Jack Gallant | TEDxSanFrancisco&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More advanced than the EEG and the functional magnetic resonance imaging or functional MRI (fMRI), which measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow, is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoencephalography#Source_localization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;magnetoencephalography&lt;/a&gt; (MEG) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_neuroimaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;functional neuroimaging&lt;/a&gt; technique. Even state of the art equipment has limited resolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See the Scientific America article about Nature's publication: &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-massive-global-effort-maps-how-the-brain-is-wired/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Massive Global Effort Maps How the Brain Is Wired&lt;/a&gt;&quot; (Oct 2 2015) which discusses the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.humanconnectomeproject.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human Connectome Project&lt;/a&gt; where by the end of the project they will have amassed a petabyte's (10$^{15}$) worth of pictures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;HCP collaborators worked with Siemens Healthcare in Erlangen, Germany, to soup up a standard MRI scanner. It generates a 3-tesla magnetic field—comparable to that in standard machines—but can control the field more precisely. MRI scanners use gradients of magnetic fields to aim at parts of the brain, and the stronger gradient of the HCP machine offers faster imaging and better resolution. That creates more-detailed images of axon bundles. A version of their machine is now available commercially, known as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthcare.siemens.com/magnetic-resonance-imaging/3t-mri-scanner/magnetom-prisma&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MAGNETOM Prisma&lt;/a&gt; (an MRI).&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ctf.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CUlUh.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;CFT CMEG 275&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$\text{CFT CMEG 275}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19897" LastEditorUserId="19897" LastEditDate="2018-08-24T16:02:16.343" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T16:02:16.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20460" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20461" CreationDate="2018-08-15T06:07:06.290" Score="0" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Under which formal category does the following condition fall?: the condition of experiencing frequent and compulsive urges to pick one's nose searching for any possible perceived imperfections (be they wet snot, dry snot and even scabs) in order to remove them or &quot;smooth them out&quot; by means of scratching, in a sort of endless pursuit for a sensation of perfect smoothness within one's nose (endless because the sensation of perfect smoothness is never quite achieved and usually the scratching itself leads to bleeding and scabs which paradoxically become the fuel for future nose picking sessions, in an endless cycle). Likewise, are there any formal treatments to cure this particular condition? How effective are these treatments? Are there any studies on this? References are very welcomed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18631" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-15T06:57:42.160" LastActivityDate="2018-08-15T08:19:29.670" Title="Is there a formal name for the compulsive and recurrent urges to pick one's nose in order to remove perceived imperfections?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;compulsive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20461" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20460" CreationDate="2018-08-15T07:02:19.547" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excoriation_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Excoriation disorder&lt;/a&gt; (ED) formerly known as dermatillomania, and more popularly as Skin Picking Disorder (SPD): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a mental disorder characterized by the repeated urge to pick at one's own skin, often to the extent that damage is caused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The status as a separate disorder is somewhat controversial, because of high comorbidity:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There has been controversy over the creation of a separate category in the DSM-5 for excoriation (skin picking) disorder. Two of the main reasons for objecting to the inclusion of excoriation disorder in the DSM-5 are: (1) that excoriation disorder may just be a symptom of a different underlying disorder, e.g. OCD or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BDD&lt;/a&gt;, and (2) that excoriation disorder is merely a bad habit and that by allowing this disorder to obtain its own separate category it would force the DSM to include a wide array of bad habits as separate syndromes, e.g., nail biting and &lt;strong&gt;nose-picking&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your case seems to be one of those overlapping ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5604737/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 neuroimaging study&lt;/a&gt; which concludes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;data offer partial support for the view that sub-cortical structures contribute to the pathophysiology of SPD, both supporting its categorization as an OC-Related Disorder in DSM-5 and suggesting that there exists a pathophysiological difference between SPD and OCD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has a lot to say about various treatments even though&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Knowledge about effective treatments for excoriation disorder is sparse despite the prevalence of the condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The usual suspects have been tried: SSRIs, anti-psychotics, anticonvulsants, glutamatergic agents (used to treat drug addictions) etc. As well cognitive-behavioral psychotherapies. It's not clear from there what might be most effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia aside, there's been a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocrd.2013.02.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;preliminary meta-analysis&quot;&lt;/a&gt; published in 2014, but its &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/crdweb/ShowRecord.asp?LinkFrom=OAI&amp;amp;ID=12013022819&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;review at CRD notes&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Authors' conclusions:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Both pharmacological and psychological interventions appeared to be effective in reducing the severity of pathological skin picking; psychological interventions could have a larger effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;CRD commentary:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The authors did not report a quality assessment, so it is difficult to know how reliable the results of the individual studies were. Many of the studies had designs prone to bias. Details about the comparator interventions, in the studies with control groups, were not reported. Given the heterogeneity across the studies, the limited reporting of study details and the unknown quality of the included studies, it seems inappropriate that the results were statistically synthesised, particularly for pharmacological and psychological interventions, for pathological skin-picking severity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I wouldn't put too much stock on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4930073/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more recent (2016) meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt; has basically the same conclusions; this one was not reviewed at CRD, but it relies basically on the same small number of studies. Its conclusions were similar to the &quot;preliminary&quot; one: psychotherapy seems to work better than medication based on the limited data available. It only looked at SSRIs and lamictal for medication though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27007062&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2016 RCT on N-acetylcysteine&lt;/a&gt;, published in a high-impact journal, concluding:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;N-acetylcysteine [NAC] treatment resulted in significant reductions in skin-picking symptoms and was well tolerated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The result was &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5325313/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fairly unsurprising&lt;/a&gt; given that NAC was previously found effective for trichotillomania (TTM -- hair pulling) as well; both studies with NAC were conducted by the same research group. But there were a few more interesting comments on those papers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In striking contrast with what we know about OCD, SSRIs&#xA;  have not been proved to be superior to placebo in TTM&#xA;  treatment. As for ED, the evidence regarding the efficacy of&#xA;  SSRIs is still scarce. &lt;strong&gt;So far, there are no US Food and Drug&#xA;  Administration–approved treatments for ED&lt;/strong&gt; and TTM. The&#xA;  divergent results of the trials testing either SSRIs or NAC for&#xA;  ED/TTM and OCD suggest that treatments may not be used interchangeably&#xA;  between OCD and related disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In addition, results from genetic studies also suggest&#xA;  that the neurobiology of pathological grooming may not be&#xA;  necessarily related to OCD. It had been demonstrated that&#xA;  Sapap3 knockout mice groomed themselves excessively.&#xA;  However, using family-based association analyses, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19051237&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bienvenu&#xA;  et al&lt;/a&gt; found that variation within the human equivalent of&#xA;  the Sapap3 gene appeared associated with ED/TTM, but not&#xA;  with OCD.&#xA;  The conflicting results regarding the efficacy of NAC for&#xA;  ED/TTM and OCD, in addition to the findings of translational&#xA;  studies, suggest that the neural basis of repetitive behaviors&#xA;  observed in patients with these disorders might not be the&#xA;  same. So far, similarities between ED/TTM and OCD do not&#xA;  seem to go beyond the characterization by repetitive behaviors&#xA;  and some degree of familial aggregation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(But note that this last statement appears somewhat incorrect in view of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5604737/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 neuroimaging study&lt;/a&gt;--some overlap with OCD seems to exist after all.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NHS Choices also has consumer-oriented page on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/skin-picking-disorder/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Skin picking disorder&#xA;&quot;&lt;/a&gt; which doesn't say much I haven't told you already except for some behavioral tips. YMMV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-15T08:19:29.670" LastActivityDate="2018-08-15T08:19:29.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20462" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16144" CreationDate="2018-08-15T11:32:43.983" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0512/03-shouse.php/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shouse (2005)&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feelings are personal, emotions are social and affect is prepersonal. In other words, feelings are how we understand and label our sensations, based on our own experiences. Emotions are how we project these socially (through facial expressions etc.) Emotions can therefore be manipulated to fit with social norms. Affect is more abstract and is the 'non-conscious experience of intensity' felt through the body, before we name and categorise it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0512/03-shouse.php/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shouse. Feeling, Emotion, Affect. M/C Journal 8.6 (2005)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20048" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-08-15T12:09:35.773" LastActivityDate="2018-08-15T12:09:35.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20464" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20465" CreationDate="2018-08-15T15:04:52.337" Score="3" ViewCount="240" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any way I can work out what stage Kohlberg would claim I was operating at? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do refer, when thinking about what is best, permissible, etc., to laws and other people's opinions, punishment etc., but not as conclusive judgments on what is right or wrong etc., only as one aspect of how to try to make that judgment myself. And while my actual judgments I would claim apply to anyone, not just myself, they are also provisional, and subject to revision, reappraisal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With some exceptions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My happiness is often more valuable than other's, maybe just because I'm especially well set to work on that. Likewise I wouldn't be obliged to martyr myself for any reason, e.g. to save a million lives, though I would say the same of anyone. And certain actions are always and unequivocally wrong, for anyone, they are that heinous. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think enough and loosely enough about morality to say that I'm probably post conventional, and perhaps that's all that really does matter. But I wondered if I could learn more!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2018-08-15T16:31:40.510" Title="How does Kohlberg's moral reasoning work, can I measure it myself?" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20465" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20464" CreationDate="2018-08-15T15:53:40.830" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;That can't be answered with one particular stage &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;because&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that people frequently demonstrate significant inconsistency in their moral judgements.[26] This often occurs in moral dilemmas involving drinking and driving and business situations where participants have been shown to reason at a subpar stage, typically using more self-interest driven reasoning (i.e. stage two) than authority and social order obedience driven reasoning (i.e. stage four).[26][27] &lt;strong&gt;Kohlberg’s theory is generally considered to be incompatible with inconsistencies in moral reasoning.&lt;/strong&gt; [...]  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sfu.ca/psyc/faculty/krebs/publications/Toward%20a%20More%20Pragmatic%20Approach%20to%20Morality.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krebs and Denton&lt;/a&gt; have also attempted to modify Kohlberg’s theory to account for a multitude of conflicting findings, but eventually concluded that the theory is not equipped to take into consideration how most individuals make moral decisions in their everyday lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that Wikipedia also mentions that some tests have been developed based on Kohlberg’s theory anyway, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defining_Issues_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DIT&lt;/a&gt; (presumably averaging reasoning over a number questions), so you could try to take some of those tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I can tell from their description(s), the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ethicaldevelopment.ua.edu/about-the-dit.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DIT tests&lt;/a&gt; only involve abstractly reasoning about some scenarios that don't involve sellf-interest of the test-taker, so they don't quite seem to address the criticism, and they probably won't capture your exceptions in that area either, e.g &quot;My happiness is often more valuable than other's&quot;. Krebs and Denton found that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-serving_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-serving bias&lt;/a&gt; affects most people when it comes to moral judgements:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-serving biases. In contrast to the third-person moral judgments&#xA;  evoked by Kohlberg’s test, most real-life moral judgments are made in the first person and second person. As examples,&#xA;  people say such things as “I was wrong; I should never have done&#xA;  that” and “You should do your share.” Krebs and Laird (1998)&#xA;  found that first-person moral judgments made by participants&#xA;  about transgressions they had committed were significantly more&#xA;  lenient than the third-person judgments they made about transgressions&#xA;  committed by others, especially when others’ transgressions&#xA;  were committed against them&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-15T16:31:40.510" LastActivityDate="2018-08-15T16:31:40.510" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20468" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-16T08:08:05.497" Score="3" ViewCount="486" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lots of different areas of study appropriate common-language terms as jargon words with a specific meaning in the context of that particular field, but the names of the Big 5 personality traits have always bothered me. They appear to be rather prejudicial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, scoring high on Agreeableness &lt;em&gt;sounds&lt;/em&gt; like it should be a good thing to an uninformed person. But from a psychological perspective, highly agreeable people often allow themselves to be taken advantage of, and tend to be emotional doormats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Openness is another one that is confusing. Nobody wants to believe they are closed-minded. But in reality, a person who scores low in Openness is consistent, cautious, and deliberate in their actions, which is not a bad thing at all in many circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Language has a tendency to bias our thinking in certain ways, and one would think this would be more of a problem in psychology than in other sciences.  Other sciences either borrow obscure words from other languages or they make up new ones to avoid terms that are culturally or linguistically loaded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since there is a growing body of evidence that the Big 5 are more innate than learned, and since each dimension is a scale on which either extreme is considered a bad thing, it would seem to me that we'd want to use less partisan names for those traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why aren't the descriptors more neutral in tone?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20056" LastActivityDate="2019-05-20T10:04:34.957" Title="Why don't the Big 5 personality traits have more neutral names?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20469" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-16T11:14:46.067" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are cognitive biases &quot;hardcoded&quot; into our brain or learned?&#xA;And have they evolved over time e.g. more cognitive biases could emerge evolutionally?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16114" LastActivityDate="2018-08-16T13:39:14.703" Title="Cognitive biases ontogenesis" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20470" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-16T12:07:56.330" Score="2" ViewCount="254" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently analysing some eye tracking data which I recorded in the lab.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For my fixation density maps I calculate tables showing the number of times participants made a fixation at a specific coordinate on the screen.&#xA;I then filter them with a gaussian filter (with the matlab function imgaussfilter), however I am not sure how to choose sigma sensibly. I would like to adapt to a paper I based my experiment on. In the paper they used a '2D circular Gaussian Kernel with 0.5° full width at half maximum'. I am not fully sure what this means. Does degree mean visual degree? How can I transfer this to my analysis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Best regards,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anna&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20059" LastActivityDate="2018-09-17T19:55:37.557" Title="How do I choose the correct sigma when applying a Gaussian filter to a fixation density map?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;matlab&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20471" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20469" CreationDate="2018-08-16T13:39:14.703" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Either, depending on the bias.&#xA;For example, the Müller-Lyer illusion could well have some significant learned aspects (how much is debated). Categorical perception of phonemes is a kind of bias, I guess, that's definitely mostly learning. At the other end of the spectrum supposedly 'irrational' context effects in decision making have been observed in slime molds, those are probably universal (so they're probably also adaptive).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general it's probably not very useful to split cognition into 'biases' and 'the rest'. Maybe think of cognition as a memory system (with some flaws and a salience-not-probability weighting scheme) a reasoning/decision system (with limited resources and high time pressures) a perceptual system (facing a fundamentally underspecified problem) etc etc... the 'biases' are not really distinct processes. From that framing the question is hard to answer. If you singled out a particular bias, probably someone here could tell an evo story about how it came to be though! Maybe even a plausible one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-08-16T13:39:14.703" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20473" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-16T19:40:07.283" Score="4" ViewCount="204" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any reason why chunking the digit span test would not help, and what is the average score without chunking? By chunking I mean any rehearsal besides saying the numbers one time as they appear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I asked a similar question already:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/18329/does-the-digit-span-test-draw-on-any-executive-functions-besides-working-memory&quot;&gt;Does the digit span test draw on any executive functions besides working memory, if &amp;quot;chunking&amp;quot; is not used?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just intrigued why chunking might not work as well (and it's trivial that it won't always work as well), or not at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2018-08-29T03:25:23.007" LastActivityDate="2018-08-29T03:25:23.007" Title="Is there any reason why chunking the digit span test would not help" Tags="&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20474" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20470" CreationDate="2018-08-16T20:28:28.350" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, they almost certainly mean visual degrees. I presume you know how to calculate visual angles at the distance of your display and how to transform your eye tracked data to that coordinate system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Full width at half maximum (FWHM) means just what the individual words say: for a Gaussian filter, there are going to be two points on either side of the center that are half of the maximum height of the Gaussian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you mention authors writing &lt;em&gt;2D circular Gaussian Kernel with 0.5° full width at half maximum&lt;/em&gt; they mean that the width of their kernel defined this way is 0.5 degrees (or more specifically, the diameter is 0.5 degrees, because they are talking about a 2D circular kernel).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kernel widths can also be described as &quot;half-width at half-maximum&quot; which would be half of the FWHM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bn6JK.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bn6JK.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See Wikipedia for a bit more: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_width_at_half_maximum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Full width at half maximum&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To know what sigma to use, you will need to know how the units of your tracking measurements relate to visual degrees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-09-17T19:55:37.557" LastActivityDate="2018-09-17T19:55:37.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20476" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-16T23:00:24.290" Score="2" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading &quot;Principles of Neural Information Theory&quot; by James V Stone and in section 3.5 he says that the distribution of firing rates (of a single neuron) is generally assumed to be approximately Gaussian. He proceeds to give a mathematical argument for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we measure the activity during a period of $T$ seconds over intervals $\Delta t$, there are $N=T/\Delta t$ possible positions for spikes to occur. The probability of $n$ spikes occurring  this period is&#xA;$$p(n)=\frac{N!}{n!(N-n)!}P^nQ^{N-n}$$&#xA;Where $P$ is the probability fo a spike occurring and $Q$ is the probability of a spike not occuring. If $N$ and $T$ increase while firing rate $r$ stays constant, $p(n)$ approaches the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson_distribution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Poisson distribution&lt;/a&gt;. If $T$ is held constant then a simple change of variables can be used to obtain a distribution for firing rate. If $N$ is large and $P$ is small, apparently this distribution is approximated by a Gaussian distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't really understand this derivation. It would be nice if someone could provide an in-depth version of the argument with all steps full fleshed-out. I'm particularly confused about how one goes from p(n) to a Poisson distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19649" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T15:54:19.257" Title="Why is the distribution of mean firing rates assumed to be Gaussian?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20480" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20521" CreationDate="2018-08-17T05:19:09.613" Score="0" ViewCount="1778" Body="&lt;p&gt;Something about falling in love seems to make people very possessive about their significant other. This happens even though sharing is almost universally acknowledged as an act of kindness and regarded positively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example suppose Alice is married to Bob, and Charlie is their friend (genders don't matter; I'm only using these names because they correspond to A, B and C in the alphabet). If Charlie wants to borrow from Bob:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a vacuum cleaner, Bob will likely say &quot;sure&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alice for a one-night stand (and Alice is willing), Bob will likely say &quot;no way&quot;, and might even get violent with Charlie and / or threaten divorce if Alice goes ahead.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oddly, if Bob refuses to share the vacuum cleaner, outsiders will generally perceive his behavior negatively, but the reverse applies to Bob not agreeing to share Alice. Most outsiders will approve of Bob's stand, which sounds contradictory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we encourage sharing but discourage infidelity? The only thing I can think of is sexually transmitted diseases - if Bob allows Alice to have a tryst with Charlie, she could become infected with something that she later passes to Bob. But there're many ways to have protected sex these days, so this doesn't seem like a valid reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've not been able to find anything on Google about this - all the results treat different issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19017" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-23T18:59:43.260" LastActivityDate="2018-08-23T19:03:43.050" Title="Why are we so possessive of our significant others?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20481" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20513" CreationDate="2018-08-17T08:07:22.860" Score="4" ViewCount="349" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently wrote &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/d33tah/strokes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an open-source application&lt;/a&gt; that lets you practice Chinese writing and the decisions I made about its inner workings were related to my theories of how human memory works. I'm not sure which facts specifically are relevant, so I'll explain it all in context (scroll down to the the &quot;question&quot; section if you don't believe it's relevant):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The goal of the application is to help user remember the writing of Chinese characters and their pronunciation. The assumption is that the user would input a set of Chinese characters, most of which are non-trivial to write with aid, let alone from memory. Moreover, there is the concept of stroke order which is useful to remember: each character is made of strokes which should be written in a specific shape, position and order. This makes it pretty complex. I heard that the way Chinese people cope with learning this is that they repeat writing of each character 1000 times, but I believe this is not the best use of time, given the number of characters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way my program works is that for each input character, user is taught each stroke four times - 1) alone, 2) with all strokes introduced so far, 3) in context and 4) in context but with no aid -- like in this example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rB8Gb.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rB8Gb.png&quot; alt=&quot;example output of my program&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this example, user is exposed to first four digits in Chinese and should fill in the highlighted strokes, as well as ones already introduced. In each fourth tile, user is expected to fill in all already introduced strokes with no aid, forcing them to focus on geometry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, tiles are split into groups that have thicker borders. After introducing the first two characters, there is a special group of tiles at the end of second and beginning of third line: it is blank and contains a pronunciation hint. The user is expected to try to recall the character and write it in its entirety in those tiles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the part I have a question about: the goal of those specific tiles is to try to get the user to try to recall the characters hoping they eventually land in long-term memory, which should already not be in the working memory because it usually takes more than five minutes to write two characters. Then user is expected to practice next two characters and the drill repeats. Then, user is expected to recall all four characters introduced so far, as shown in the graphic above. This pattern repeats and for characters ABCDEFGH would look like following - hopefully you can deduce how it works:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;A&#xA;B&#xA;AB&#xA;C&#xA;D&#xA;CD&#xA;ABCD&#xA;E&#xA;F&#xA;EF&#xA;G&#xA;H&#xA;EFGH&#xA;ABCDEFGH&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I showed it to a person interested in psychology and she immediately said: &quot;this reminds me of spaced repetition&quot;! I read about this and also found SuperMemo, and a program that implements it: Anki flashcards. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that both those programs are based on a formula that prognosticates if the user has already memorized a certain item; with that, they assign relative importance to review this item. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there another statistical model of human memory I could use for my application that doesn't have this requirement, but - for example - assumes an &quot;average person&quot; and a certain expected probability that this character will be at a given time remembered?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20062" LastEditorUserId="4116" LastEditDate="2018-08-21T16:20:54.530" LastActivityDate="2018-08-23T13:39:49.420" Title="Is there a non-interactive alternative to the concept of SuperMemo/spaced repetition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20485" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-18T16:15:04.483" Score="5" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am NOT asking whether people can experience two inconsistent emotions &quot;at the same time&quot;. Clearly this can happen, e.g. when people have &quot;mixed feelings&quot; about something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm interested in, is whether emotions are strictly and purely a &quot;global&quot; phenomenon, or a &quot;local&quot; one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;hypothesis 1&lt;/strong&gt;: emotions are global. Whenever any single brain experiences a set of emotions $X$ at time $t$, then for every region of the brain, that region is influenced by all emotions in $X$ (insofar as that region can be influenced by that emotion at all).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;hypothesis 2:&lt;/strong&gt; emotions can be local. Whenever any single brain experiences a set of emotions $X$ at time $t$, then it may sometimes be that one brain region is only influenced by a subset of emotions in $X$, and another region only influenced by a different subset. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A very extreme example would be that the left hemisphere experiences fear and grief, while the right hemisphere experiences joy and relief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This particular example seems way too extreme to me, but I am wondering whether a far less extreme version of this might be possible. &lt;strong&gt;Can two different brain regions receive two different emotional signals at any point in time?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ps. I am obviously not a neuroscientist and I probably am making conceptual and terminological errors. Please be charitable, and address the question I intended to ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13372" LastActivityDate="2018-08-20T16:21:24.283" Title="Are emotions local or purely global? Can there be two inconsistent emotions in different parts of the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20486" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9433" CreationDate="2018-08-18T17:06:58.437" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://skepticalscience.com/docs/Debunking_Handbook.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Debunking Handbook&lt;/a&gt; provides an excellent guide to construct a myth-debunking article. The message that impacts me most is to &lt;strong&gt;focus on the fact, not the myth.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aYi2C.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aYi2C.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dI7fa.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dI7fa.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is to increase the familiarity with the fact rather the myth, but for those who take the myth as their worldview, giving any counter-argument will only lead to by misunderstood or distorted, because it threatens their core beliefs and identity. They will cherrypick the information by selectively seek out which pieces that bolster their views (confirmation bias). In this case, it's best to focus the effort to the undecided majority, rather than the unswayable minority. However, if the message must be sent directly to them, it should couple with self-affirmation (make the person feel good), or be framed in a less threatening way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;My view&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I think sugarcoating is no difference than cherrypicking. Let's say that person A is actually more correct than person B, but just a single moment that A considers themself as knowing better, then they are also in the same position of B, and sooner or later it's their turn to cherrypick B's words, despite how hard A tries to keep an opened mind. As long as A still worry about elucidating B, then they cannot be &lt;em&gt;mindful&lt;/em&gt; about what B says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we are locked in our own perspective, then we need to &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;transform&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; our perspective first. Putting ourselves into other's shoes is easier said than done, but when the perspective transformation can be visualized, then it will be &lt;strong&gt;fun&lt;/strong&gt;. If both sides can see the fun from it, then each of them will be &lt;em&gt;mindful&lt;/em&gt; in the topic, and the conversation will be &lt;em&gt;joyful&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have two articles that explains my ideas in details:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://lyminhnhat.com/2018/07/16/1-making-concrete-analogies-and-big-pictures/?utm_source=Stack%20Exchange&amp;amp;utm_medium=answer&amp;amp;utm_campaign=The%20Sphere&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Making concrete analogies and big pictures&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://lyminhnhat.com/2018/07/16/2-straightforwardness-fearlessness-and-improvisation-how-to-find-the-fresh-perspective/?utm_source=Stack%20Exchange&amp;amp;utm_medium=answer&amp;amp;utm_campaign=The%20Sphere&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Straightforwardness, Fearlessness and Improvisation: How to find the fresh perspective?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for your reading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-18T17:06:58.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20488" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19707" CreationDate="2018-08-18T22:58:04.253" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suppose much depends on what one means by &quot;building character&quot;; if it's increasing self-esteem, then the answer is probably no, as you've already pointed out.  But I don't think that's what most people mean by building character.  So what is it?  Certainly you'll learn &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; from having a demeaning job, because you'll learn something from just about anything; also, it is likely to lower your expectations, so you might be more excited about any given other job and value the money you earn more (see for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.businessinsider.com/lessons-i-learned-as-a-janitor-2015-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;).  So it's probably possible to adjust the definition of &quot;building character&quot; until it's mostly true.  But after twisting the definition too far, it's unclear that &quot;building character&quot; is a desirable thing to do, so it doesn't offer much in the way of advice for life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Incidentally, it has been argued that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3801184/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;most work in the US is actually fulfilling&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20070" LastEditorUserId="20070" LastEditDate="2018-08-21T12:15:39.820" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T12:15:39.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20489" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-19T02:45:57.387" Score="1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found an interesting &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1989.9711697&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1989 study&lt;/a&gt; by van Ijzendoorn [negatively] correlating the level of moral judgment, measured using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kohlberg dilemmas&lt;/a&gt;, with some measure of authoritarianism and another of ethnocentrism:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although much has been written about the moral basis of authoritarianism,&#xA;  empirical research on the relationship between moral judgment level and&#xA;  authoritarian and ethnocentric attitudes has been sparse. In this study, I hypothesized&#xA;  that higher levels of moral judgment are related to anti-authoritarian and antiethnocentric&#xA;  attitudes, whereas lower moral levels predict the presence of authoritarian&#xA;  and ethnocentric opinions. Dutch university students (n = 126) and high school&#xA;  students (n = 88) completed the Sociomoral Reflection Objective Measure (SROM)&#xA;  and scales for authoritarianism and ethnocentrism. Results in the two samples converge:&#xA;  Moral judgment level indeed appears to be related to authoritarianism in the&#xA;  expected direction and—to a lesser extent—to ethnocentrism äs well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have these findings (either for authoritarianism or ethnocentrism) been confirmed in other studies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(The ethnocentrism scale used by van Ijzendoorn seems pretty obscure; it was only published in Dutch. He used a Dutch version of Adorno's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-scale_(personality_test)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;F scale&lt;/a&gt; for authoritarianism.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Values_Survey&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;World Values Survey&lt;/a&gt; nowadays:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Much of the variation in human values between societies boils down to two broad dimensions: a first dimension of “traditional vs. secular-rational values” and a second dimension of “survival vs. self-expression values.”&#xA;  On the first dimension, traditional values emphasize religiosity, national pride, respect for authority, obedience and marriage. Secular-rational values emphasize the opposite on each of these accounts. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That seems to suggest that in such more &quot;traditional&quot; societies, people would &quot;fail&quot; the Kohlberg dilemmas more often. Is that actually the case? (This would be an indirect way to confirm van Ijzendoorn's findings.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-19T04:06:11.213" LastActivityDate="2018-08-19T04:06:11.213" Title="Is the negative correlation between (higher) moral judgement and authoritarianism and/or ethnocentrism confirmed?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;replication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20491" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-19T11:22:59.440" Score="2" ViewCount="157" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to build an experiment that: (1) present Instructions, (2) plays a list of sounds from a text file and (3) says Goodbye. I have problem on (2) which for the moment is built with an inline script object. I cannot hear any sounds when I run the experiment. The sound files (22KHz, 24bit, MONO) are located on the same folder as the experiment file. I am using E-prime 2.0 Professional. &#xA;I would be grateful to you if you could give me some advice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;** The Text File **&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Weight  Nested  Procedure   Sound&#xA;1       BlockProc   S2B.wav&#xA;1       BlockProc   S1B.wav&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;** The inline code **&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;BlockList.LoadMethod = ebLoadMethodFile&#xA;BlockList.Filename = &quot;sounds.txt&quot;&#xA;BlockList.Load&#xA;BlockList.Reset&#xA;Set BlockList.TerminateCondition = Cycles(1)&#xA;Set BlockList.ResetCondition = Samples(BlockList.Deletion.Count)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have also attached a print screen of the Experiment &amp;amp; text file.&#xA;Thank you very much for your time. Any help will be very much appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DJ2c2.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DJ2c2.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20072" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-19T11:53:34.797" LastActivityDate="2018-08-19T11:53:34.797" Title="E-prime: Inline script to present sounds from a text file" Tags="&lt;software&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20493" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20497" CreationDate="2018-08-19T12:36:09.757" Score="3" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;BACKGROUND. I’m writing a paper on the role of similarity in the theories of concept empiricism developed by the British Empiricists Locke, Berkeley, and Hume, and how the idea of context effect from modern cognitive psychology could be used to better understand these theories. The basic idea I’d like to develop in my paper is that similarity is contextual, relative to a frame of reference, and this can explain how a general abstract idea (on Locke’s theory of abstraction) or a set of similar ideas held together in the mind that are called up by awareness of an exemplar (on Berkeley and Hume’s theory of general ideas) can be formed from particular instances none of which are identical: while not identical, they are similar to each other in a certain context, relative to a certain frame of reference, and thus can be classified together by the mind (e.g. scarlet and crimson are not identical but are similar to each other, in context, relative to aquamarine; or mammals are all different from each other but similar to each other relative to birds; or birds and mammals are different but relative to plants are similar. Etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;QUESTION. I am unfamiliar with cognitive psychology and the literature on context effect. Where can I find recent papers on context effect? What is the best way to go about finding references, especially with experimental data, on context effect? I am aware of a paper which discusses context effect very well (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.idi.ntnu.no/~agnar/CBR%20papers/Tversky-FeaturesOfSimilarity.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tversky, A. (1977). Features of similarity. Psychological review, 84, 327-352&lt;/a&gt; doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.4.327&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0033-295X.84.4.327&lt;/a&gt;). However, I’d appreciate any help I could get on finding more recent work on this phenomenon, preferably (but not necessarily) which further develops or supports Tversky.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20074" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-08-21T06:38:45.450" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T14:00:25.990" Title="Where can I find recent research on the role of context effect in perception of similarity?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20494" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15380" CreationDate="2018-08-19T14:08:24.180" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect that the reason he considers it unmotivated is that he would like to see a theory that can explain the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hard problem(s) of consciousness&lt;/a&gt;.  In that final paragraph where he argues that the theory is unmotivated, he points out that (in his opinion) IIT seems to do nothing to explain why there is something &lt;em&gt;it is like&lt;/em&gt; to be conscious from a subjective viewpoint (i.e., &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;qualia&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My two cents is that I can see Searle's point; it is not clear how IIT would explain these aspects even if it is otherwise completely successful.  On the other hand, calling it &quot;unmotivated&quot; seems a bit unfair; perhaps it would still be useful for other purposes, for example judging whether patients in a hospital are (likely to be) conscious.  A more reasonable claim would be that it is not well motivated by trying to resolve the hard problems of consciousness, but may be well motivated by other goals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20070" LastActivityDate="2018-08-19T14:08:24.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20495" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12759" CreationDate="2018-08-19T18:06:55.587" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think it is important here to be clear about what John is really capable of doing.  If all he is able to do is manipulate the axioms of S &lt;em&gt;correctly&lt;/em&gt;, this actually does not get him very far, for at least two reasons.  (This is also why theorem proving computer programs have significant limitations.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Suppose we give John a specific theorem P of S and ask him to prove P. Can he do it?  Not necessarily.  There is a set of logical steps based on the axioms that proves P, so it seems within John's reach.  But one problem here is that of &lt;em&gt;computational complexity&lt;/em&gt;.  If John proceeds by just, in an undirected fashion, trying to derive new facts of S from the axioms in the hope of eventually arriving at P, the number of paths that he can go down will increase exponentially and it may take longer than the lifetime of the universe for him to arrive at the result.  Master mathematicians in the field of S, on the other hand, have sharp intuitions about what is likely to be an &lt;em&gt;effective&lt;/em&gt; path to a proof of P.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Mathematicians do more than resolving previously specified open problems.  They also try to generate important new problems.  A mathematician who is not very good at formal proofs may nevertheless make a significant contribution by correctly conjecturing a very interesting result (even if someone else needs to prove it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) and 2) overlap somewhat; for example, a master mathematician may conjecture a lemma L in S that is extremely useful for proving P.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If John is not able to do 1) and 2), then it's not clear he is really very skilled at S.  If he is, then it seems that maybe he isn't so different from Lucy after all; somewhere he has the right intuitions.  Maybe Lucy is more consciously aware of her intuitions, perhaps leading into a discussion about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;what it is like&lt;/a&gt; to experience those intuitions.  But many of the intuitions of master mathematicians don't come from conscious processing; certain ways of proceeding just &lt;em&gt;feel right&lt;/em&gt; to them but they can't necessarily explain why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20070" LastActivityDate="2018-08-19T18:06:55.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20496" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20485" CreationDate="2018-08-20T14:48:48.280" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two assumptions in this question it may be useful to make explicit. First, there's an assumption that words like &quot;emotion&quot; or &quot;motivation&quot; have meaning at different levels of analysis like organs, neurons, atoms, etc. If when we say emotion we mean the subjective experience, it's not at all clear that meaning exists at the neuronal level. This is related to a grand paradox (below), but even if we backed off from that, connecting subjective with objective creates thorny problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, the question sort of implies that cognitive functions are carried out by limited areas. This is looking less and less true; there is some evidence for specialized functions, but in general most complex operations (including emotion) are influenced from a complex forward-and-backward activation-and-inhibition cascades in multiple areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_specialization_(brain)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_specialization_(brain)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experience of emotions appear caused by / related to / influenced by complex cascades of activity across the brain. It's not clear that the words we use to describe the feelings map onto such neuronal activation/inhibition patterns, but even if they did, there's no reason to assume that such patterns of neuronal activation wouldn't co-occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;tl;dr: Yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="19843" LastEditDate="2018-08-20T16:21:24.283" LastActivityDate="2018-08-20T16:21:24.283" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20497" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20493" CreationDate="2018-08-20T14:53:51.147" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;A classic reference in this space is Goodman (1972) &quot;Problems and projects&quot;, which develops exactly this idea that similarity is poorly defined unless you specify in what respect. From your description, you might also enjoy Barsalou's (1983) &quot;Ad-hoc categories&quot;, which emphasizes how much coherent groupings depend on context. These are not exactly recent, but you should turn up some relevant stuff by looking for recent papers that cite these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a few different lines of work building on Tversky's results. The most prominent problem with that account is the combinatorial explosion you get out of conjunctive features. The relations between features are also important to people, but considering relations as just another kind of feature explodes the number of features you have to consider in an utterly horrifying way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably the most direct solution is to consider structured representations that assign roles to features and judge similarity by the goodness-of-fit of a mapping between these structured representations. If you had to pick one entry-point to this literature, it'd probably be Gentner &amp;amp; Markman (1997). &quot;Structure mapping in analogy and similarity&quot;, but again, if you look for work citing this you'll get stuff up to this year, it's an ongoing project. Goldstone has also done a bunch of work in this area, check out Goldstone &amp;amp; Son (2005). &quot;Similarity&quot; in the Oxford handbook of thinking and reasoning for a nice review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's probably the most popular/well known approach, but these folks are not the only game in town. There's a more or less independent angle of attack from people interested in Bayesian property induction. Try Tenenbaum, J. B., &amp;amp; Griffiths, T. L. (2001). &quot;Generalization, similarity, and Bayesian inference.&quot; This is a BBS paper, so you'll see commentary from all kinds of positions there. Again, search-citing-articles is your friend for the most recent work in this line.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Getting more out into the fringes (where the really fun stuff happens) you could also consider things like transformational similarity (Hahn, U., Chater, N., &amp;amp; Richardson, L. B. (2003). &quot;Similarity as transformation&quot;) or the quantum cognition account (Pothos, E. M., Busemeyer, J. R., &amp;amp; Trueblood, J. S. (2013). &quot;A quantum geometric model of similarity&quot;). Don't be turned off by the word 'quantum', the math is quantum but these folks have their feet firmly on the ground. I think you'll enjoy the intro section to this paper, it's the most recent and engages most directly with the idea of context and frames of reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this is the kind of thing you were after!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Full refs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goodman, N. (1972). Problems and projects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barsalou, L. W. (1983). Ad hoc categories. Memory &amp;amp; cognition, 11(3), 211-227.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gentner, D., &amp;amp; Markman, A. B. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. American psychologist, 52(1), 45.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goldstone, R. L., &amp;amp; Son, J. Y. (2005). Similarity. In The Oxford handbook of thinking and reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tenenbaum, J. B., &amp;amp; Griffiths, T. L. (2001). Generalization, similarity, and Bayesian inference. Behavioral and brain sciences, 24(4), 629-640.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hahn, U., Chater, N., &amp;amp; Richardson, L. B. (2003). Similarity as transformation. Cognition, 87(1), 1-32.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pothos, E. M., Busemeyer, J. R., &amp;amp; Trueblood, J. S. (2013). A quantum geometric model of similarity. Psychological Review, 120(3), 679.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastEditorUserId="18720" LastEditDate="2018-08-21T14:00:25.990" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T14:00:25.990" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20498" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20819" CreationDate="2018-08-20T21:12:48.327" Score="3" ViewCount="1142" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for the &lt;em&gt;International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ)&lt;/em&gt; as per ICD-11 proposals, but I can not find it. It was previously called &lt;em&gt;the&#xA;ICD-11 Trauma Questionnaire (ICD-TQ)&lt;/em&gt;. Can someone help me?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20078" LastEditorUserId="20078" LastEditDate="2018-08-20T22:31:36.590" LastActivityDate="2018-09-30T08:50:39.757" Title="Help to find the International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ)" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12759" CreationDate="2018-08-20T21:14:05.150" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some master mathematicians have written on the process of mathematical invention and on some methods of plausible reasoning in mathematics.&#xA;Here are some references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jacques Hadamard. An Essay on the Psychology of Invention in the&#xA;Mathematical Field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;George Polya. Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I: Induction&#xA;and Analogy in Mathematics. Princeton University Press, 1954.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;George Polya. Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II: Patterns&#xA;of Plausible Inference. Princeton University Press, 1954.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Henri Poincaré. “Intuition and Logic in Mathematics”. In: La valeur de la&#xA;science. Available here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Extras/Poincare_Intuition.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Extras/Poincare_Intuition.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also find some interesting papers by David Tall, whose field of research is mathematical thinking: &lt;a href=&quot;http://homepages.warwick.ac.uk/staff/David.Tall/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://homepages.warwick.ac.uk/staff/David.Tall/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As suggested by present, in these paper you can find little on symbolic manipulation and a lot on how to approach new and complex mathematical problems with analogy, intuition, and other similar cognitive tools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20082" LastActivityDate="2018-08-20T21:14:05.150" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20500" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20519" CreationDate="2018-08-20T22:28:24.830" Score="2" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Snkvr.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Snkvr.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The box-plot above represents the number of programming tasks performed correctly in 30 minutes during an experiment by me. Each box represents an age group:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;p1 = 6 - 7 years old&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;p2 = 7 - 8 years old&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;p6 = 11 - 12 years old&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;s1 = 12 - 13 years old&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;s2 = 13 - 14 years old&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;b1 = 16 - 17 years old&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;b2 = 17 - 18 years old&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I see the results, I am surprised by the difference between p4, p5 and p6.&#xA;The set of tasks was almost identical by age. The only difference is that by increasing the age they have some less start tasks.&#xA;I think it may be due to the ability of reading comprehension and motor development ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there more factors that can influence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/y85jc.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/y85jc.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5sDHg.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5sDHg.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9Mbyr.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9Mbyr.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AKKAP.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AKKAP.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20004" LastEditorUserId="20004" LastEditDate="2018-08-22T21:49:43.117" LastActivityDate="2018-08-23T09:48:29.327" Title="What can be the causes of the difference in performance?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20501" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20390" CreationDate="2018-08-20T22:53:25.740" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is still a little broad...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the issue of corpus callosum (CC) and mental illness, it's not clear that this follows the same pattern as ambidexterity. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/122.1.99&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Highley et al. (1999)&lt;/a&gt; found that there &lt;em&gt;fewer&lt;/em&gt; fibers in CC of women with schizophrenia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A reduction in the total number of fibres in all regions of the corpus callosum except the rostrum was observed in female schizophrenic patients (P = 0.006; when controlling for brain weight, P = 0.053). [...]  With age, all subregions of the corpus callosum except the rostrum showed a significant reduction in cross-sectional area (P = 0.018) and total fibre number (P = 0.002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also found &quot;little change in the males&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8GMfu.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8GMfu.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/81322/mixed-handed-children-more-likely-have-mental/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;press release&lt;/a&gt; you linked does &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; mention corpus callosum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So whatever common factor drives ambidexterity and mental illness, it doesn't seem a simple as the (higher) number of fibers in CC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, cross-dominance is a broader concept when it comes to the brain; the press release doesn't mention this term either. Even though Wikipedia considers it synonymous with mixed-handedness, one can have a cross-dominant vision but not cross-dominant handedness, for example. And in fact some of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2004.04.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more recent research&lt;/a&gt; has pointed out to different correlations with mental illness of these various types dominance, e.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The rate of left or mixed-footedness, eye dominance, and any anomalous lateralization, but not handedness, discriminated between those who developed schizophrenia spectrum disorders and those who did not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course they might not have had enough statistical power to detect it (for handedness.) But also a mini-review of prior work on this in the same paper points to somewhat contradictory conclusions, even for handedness, but still says that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The preponderance of evidence, however, supports the hypothesis that&#xA;  schizophrenia patients are more often left or mixedhanded compared to controls. Left or mixed-handedness in schizophrenia may indicate abnormalities in&#xA;  neurological structure or functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly this issue of failing to detect the effects of dominance in handedness has been encountered before:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several cohort studies have measured childhood&#xA;  laterality as it relates to later risk for schizophrenia&#xA;  (e.g., Crow et al., 1996; Cannon et al., 1997). Crow&#xA;  et al. investigated handedness in the National Child&#xA;  Development Survey, a study assessing all individuals&#xA;  born in the United Kingdom during a single week&#xA;  in 1958. Mothers of children who later developed&#xA;  schizophrenia were more likely to rate their children&#xA;  as ambidextrous at age 7 as compared to mothers of&#xA;  children who did not develop schizophrenia. Additionally,&#xA;  children who eventually developed schizophrenia&#xA;  were less strongly right-handed than controls&#xA;  at age 11.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cannon et al. (1997) studied laterality in a total&#xA;  population of 5362 children born in England, Scotland,&#xA;  and Wales during one week in March 1946.&#xA;  Results indicated that at age 11, children who later&#xA;  developed schizophrenia showed a significant excess&#xA;  of mixed-eye dominance as compared to the remainder&#xA;  of the cohort. The authors failed, however, to&#xA;  detect a significant difference in hand preference&#xA;  between children who later developed schizophrenia&#xA;  and children who did not. Nevertheless, Cannon et al.&#xA;  interpreted their eye dominance findings as an indication&#xA;  that lateralization might play a role in the&#xA;  pathogenesis of schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in the genomic age, some genetic candidates correlating with both lateralization and some mental illnesses &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26921480&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;have been identified&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Common polymorphisms in the gene PCSK6, whose protein product mediates the development of brain and body asymmetry through the NODAL pathway, have recently been associated with handedness in three studies, making it a key candidate gene for understanding the developmental and expression of human lateralization. We tested the hypothesis that the PCSK6 VNTR polymorphism rs1053972 influences the expression of handedness and aspects of dimensional schizotypy and autism. For a sample of 709 healthy individuals, rs1053972 genotype was significantly associated with categorical measures of handedness, and with dimensional handedness in subsets of the population with high schizotypy and magical ideation or a lack of strong right-handedness. Both findings showed evidence of stronger or exclusive effects among females, compared to males. Genotypes of PCSK6 also showed significant sex-limited associations with magical ideation, a component of positive schizotypal cognition measured using the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire, and total autism score, measured using the Autism Spectrum Quotient. These results partially replicate previous studies on effects of PCSK6 rs1053972 genetic variation on handedness phenotypes, link the PCSK6 gene with the dimensional expression of neurodevelopmental conditions in healthy individuals, and show that associations of this gene with handedness and psychological phenotypes exhibit evidence of sex-limited effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the mechanisms by which PCSK6 causes lateralization are somewhat understood, the paper says nothing about how it might cause any of the mental illnesses mentioned. So it looks like researchers don't have any clue beyond the observation that [lack of] lateralization is a risk factor for mental illness... except for...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004507&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;One theory&lt;/a&gt; that's been advanced (prior to any genomic knowledge):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;T. J. Crow suggested that the genetic variance associated with the evolution in Homo sapiens of hemispheric dominance for language carries with it the hazard of the symptoms of schizophrenia. Individuals lacking the typical left hemisphere advantage for language, in particular for phonological components, would be at increased risk of the typical symptoms such as auditory hallucinations and delusions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004507&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2009 paper&lt;/a&gt; that has Crow among its authors claims to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;show for the first time how the deficit of lateralization in the schizophrenic brain is specific for the phonological component of language. This loss of hemispheric dominance would explain typical symptoms, e.g. when an individual's own thoughts are perceived as an external intruding voice. The change can be interpreted as a consequence of “hemispheric indecision”, a failure to segregate phonological engrams in one hemisphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study wasn't cited much, so I'm not sure how conclusive its evidence was considered by others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A year later, a paper (in a more prestigous journal) &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq313&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;concluded&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As language lateralization was not significantly reduced in the non-psychotic individuals with auditory verbal hallucinations, a direct relationship between auditory verbal hallucinations and decreased language lateralization can not be established at present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-21T00:14:27.027" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T00:14:27.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20502" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20481" CreationDate="2018-08-21T01:19:53.653" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;So basically [for me] this question is whether there exists a learning model informed by the structure and usage of the Chinese writing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer is yes, see for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5051716/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Loach &amp;amp; Wang (2016)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question we address is the optimum order in which Chinese characters should be learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two orders that make intuitive sense: in order of usage frequency, from high to low, and in order of network hierarchy, starting with primitives and building up compound characters using components that have already been learned. The first of these follows directly from the goal of the learner but the second merits further discussion. In general terms, the desirability of learning characters in hierarchal order follows from a broad principle of human cognition, that mastery of a complex system rests on mastery of the relevant features of its sub-components [14, 15]. This applies to Chinese characters if one assumes that it is productive to treat them as a complex system rather than as a set of unrelated symbols to be learned by rote. A number of experimental studies indicate that this assumption is valid. They show that orthographic awareness is of critical importance to skilled native readers and in learning to read by both Chinese children and second language learners [16–22]. These also show that orthographic awareness is present whether or not it is taught explicitly and, among learners, that the extent of the awareness is correlated with performance [23]. We consider learning characters in order of hierarchy to be desirable because we infer that a learning order that explicitly reflects orthographic principles is more likely to generate accurate and productive orthographic awareness in students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is, however, necessarily a tension between learning by usage frequency and learning by hierarchy, because frequency is only weakly correlated with character complexity. [...] Learning characters in order of frequency would therefore often mean learning characters before their components had been learned, whereas learning them in order of hierarchy would often mean learning rarer characters in advance of more common ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When devising a learning order one can choose either of the extremes, of frequency or hierarchy, or attempt to find a balance between them in which some common characters are learned in advance of their components. One previous approach that searched for such a balance was a network theory-based approach by Yan et al. [24]. They demonstrated that an algorithmically-optimized, balanced order can be substantially more efficient than one that follows frequency. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The tension between frequency and hierarchy is a dominant consideration in determining the learning order but it is not the only one. Small-scale character-to-character patterns are also known to be important, especially for encouraging orthographic awareness [25–27]. Patterns can be chosen to emphasize the logic of character construction, by introducing components directly before their compounds, or to emphasize the functional role of components, by presenting their compounds in sets. These patterns are often found in human-curated orders, and especially in books on learning Chinese characters (for example, those of Heisig and Richardson [28, 29]). They embody sound educational principles, which can be understood in terms of Marton’s &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/activity/education/learning-study/variation-theory/index.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;variation theory&lt;/a&gt; [30–33]. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our algorithm is built on the fundamental assumption that hierarchal orders are the pedagogically desirable way to accumulate usage frequency and we search among this subset of orders for the one that is most efficient. The algorithm is implemented using the conceptual framework of network theory, within which we conceive the network of Chinese characters as a directed analytic graph [34]. The nodes in the graph represent characters and the edges represent the structural relationships between them. We devise a measure of node centrality that relates each character’s usage frequency to the effort required to learn it, and order the characters by this measure to provide a first approximation to the optimal learning order. We then sort this list into topological (hierarchal) order using an algorithm designed to minimally disturb the starting order. The algorithm can be applied to any scheduling task where nodes have intrinsic differences in importance and must be visited in topological order.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at the quantitative evaluation section of this paper though, the prior work of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069745&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yan et. al&lt;/a&gt; seems &amp;quot;good enough&amp;quot; though, and it might less work to implement. I don't know if either of that is suitable for your application or not, as it might require you to redesign it from the ground up. (Also, beware that I can't write in Chinese myself.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T01:31:05.857" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20503" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3694" CreationDate="2018-08-21T13:57:56.467" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A similar feeling is described by Poincaré and Hadamard about the mathematical invention. For instance, Poincaré recounts:&#xA;&quot;&lt;em&gt;I turned my attention to the study of some arithmetical questions apparently without much success [...]. Disgusted with my failure, I went to spend a few days at the seaside, and thought of something else. One morning, walking on the bluff, the idea came to me, with [...] the [...] characteristics of brevity, suddenness, and immediate certainty.&lt;/em&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find their studies in the book and the paper mentioned below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jacques Hadamard. An Essay on the Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field, &lt;a href=&quot;https://press.princeton.edu/titles/5896.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://press.princeton.edu/titles/5896.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Henri Poincaré. “Mathematical creation”. The Monist, Volume 20, Issue 3, 1 July 1910, Pages 321–335, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/monist/20.3.321&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1093/monist/20.3.321&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20082" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T13:57:56.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20504" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20509" CreationDate="2018-08-21T14:13:14.673" Score="2" ViewCount="246" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was looking at this &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-functioning_autism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-functioning_autism&lt;/a&gt; and it said that. Aspergers is also closely related to high functioning autism but it is also not recognized anymore. Does this mean that neither of them are a &quot;thing&quot; anymore? Would diagnosing someone with either of these labels be inaccurate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20087" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T23:01:11.537" Title="Why isn't high functioning autism recognized by the DSM-5 or the ICD-10?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20476" CreationDate="2018-08-21T15:54:19.257" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The distribution is not Gaussian, it's Poisson, as noted in your question. However, outside of certain edge cases (e.g. when there are very few spikes, or very few trials), a Poisson Distribution with rate parameter $\lambda$ looks very like a Gaussian with both mean and variance equal to $\lambda$ (standard deviation $= \sqrt{\lambda}$). This is useful, because if you treat the distribution as a Gaussian, you can apply methods such as the t-test or linear regression, without being too far wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's some R code that shows the correspondance between the Poisson and the Gaussian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;library(tidyverse)&#xA;x = seq(0, 30, 1) # Possible spike counts&#xA;poisson.density = dopois(x, 10)&#xA;gaussian.density = dnorm(x, 10, sqrt(10))&#xA;d = data.frame(x = x, Poisson=poisson.density, Gaussian=gaussian.density) %&amp;gt;%&#xA;  gather(Distribution, Density, -x)&#xA;ggplot(d, aes(x, Density, color=Distribution, linetype=Distribution)) +&#xA;  geom_path() +&#xA;  theme(legend.position=c(1,1), legend.justification=c(1,1)) +&#xA;  labs(x='Spike count')&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wZmD6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wZmD6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4124" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T15:54:19.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20506" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20524" CreationDate="2018-08-21T17:49:42.103" Score="2" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do typos happen?&#xA;Why do we sometimes type the same word right, and sometimes wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the same reason, why does a player of Flappy Bird for instance crash at pipe 138? Why not any of the 137 other pipes, and why not any later?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18152" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-08-24T07:39:45.057" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T08:03:54.153" Title="Why do errors such as typos happen?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;human-error&gt;&lt;typing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20508" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20504" CreationDate="2018-08-21T20:30:26.007" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;High-functioning autism along with Asperger's syndrome were both subsumed by Autism Spectrum Disorder in the DSM-5 in 2013.  The Autism Society has &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.autism-society.org/what-is/aspergers-syndrome/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a good page on the distinctions and history&lt;/a&gt; of these various diagnoses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2946" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T20:30:26.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20504" CreationDate="2018-08-21T22:13:36.190" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Asperger's being &quot;subsumed&quot; in DSM-5 is not the whole story. There's indeed a new DSM-5 coding for the severity of the disorder. But applying the DSM-5 actual clinical criteria results in fewer people being diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorders, and the reduction is more significant for the mild versions (such as Asperger's):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 2014 mini-review looking at 12 &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40489-014-0033-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;papers concluded&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The application of DSM-5 diagnostic criteria resulted in an approximately one third reduction in Autism Spectrum Disorders. The reduction was approximately two thirds for mild forms of Autism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yeah, the DSM-5 take (intentional or not) is that a lot of &quot;Aspies&quot; don't have a level of dysfunction that raises to the (DSM-5) bar of a mental *disorder *.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However in an astute form of politicking, people with an existing Asperger's diagnosis were &quot;grandfathered in&quot; by the DSM-5. From the same review:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The American Psychiatric Association partially acknowledged&#xA;  the exclusion of mild forms of ASD when the added&#xA;  rider to the diagnostic criteria was that “Individuals with a&#xA;  well-established DSM-IV diagnosis of autistic disorder,&#xA;  Asperger’s disorder, or pervasive developmental disorder not&#xA;  otherwise specified should be given the diagnosis of autism&#xA;  spectrum disorder”, but this approach to diagnosis of autismis&#xA;  strange. It enables individuals who previously were diagnosed&#xA;  with ASD to continue to be eligible for services, but results in&#xA;  two odd consequences. First, consider two individuals with&#xA;  identical symptoms who meet DSM-IV criteria for ASD, one&#xA;  of whom was diagnosed before the publication of DSM5 and&#xA;  one diagnosed after: The first will be diagnosed with ASD and&#xA;  eligible for services, but the second will not. The second&#xA;  consequence is that the meaning of the DSM5 term ASD is&#xA;  obfuscated as it refers to different entities using the same term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-016-0070-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2016 meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt; confirms the effect of stricter criteria (using twice as many studies as the 2014 review):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our meta-analysis measured the percentage of people with an ASD diagnosis from the DSM-IV or DSM-IV-TR obtaining an ASD diagnosis from the DSM-5. All 24 studies identified indicated a reduction in the number of people with a DSM-IV or DSM-IV-TR ASD diagnosis being eligible for a DSM-5 ASD diagnosis, a 35 and 37 % reduction respectfully. Our meta-analysis also showed that those with a DSM-IV-TR or DSM-IV diagnosis of PDD-NOS were the least likely to qualify for a DSM-5 ASD diagnosis at 26 and 47 % followed by 55 and 19 %, respectfully of people with Asperger syndrome, and 80 and 87 %, respectfully of people with an autism diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more recent &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2942-y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2017) study&lt;/a&gt; on Australian children (where the use of DSM is mandated by certain government programs) found that DSM-5 did seem to stop to the previously increasing trend in rising autism diagnoses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;De-identified data for 32,199 children aged under 7 years between 2010 and 2015 was utilised. [...] The incidence of autism increased from 2010 to 2013, and then plateaued to 2015. A significant trend-relative reduction in the number of children registered to receive autism-specific funding was evident post 2013, suggesting the more stringent DSM-5 criteria may have curbed the trend of increasing diagnoses over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for why the DSM-5 removed the separate criteria (including Asperger's), quoting from the last paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These previously distinct diagnostic&#xA;  categories were removed in light of empirical data&#xA;  that questioned the reliability and validity of these subtypes&#xA;  (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1031-x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Daniels et al. 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.148&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lord 2012&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15055363&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Macintosh and Dissanayake&#xA;  2004&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-012-0327-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mahjouri and Lord 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether this was the right thing to do or not... it depends who you ask. Asperger's diagnosis definitely has its supporters, at least one of whom even &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1839-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;predicted its return&lt;/a&gt; in the next version of the DSM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-21T23:01:11.537" LastActivityDate="2018-08-21T23:01:11.537" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20511" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-22T03:03:43.287" Score="4" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;About 90% of all people are right handed. About 10% of people are left handed. So why has left handedness persisted for so long throughout human evolution? Why does it stick around? What are the best psychological/neuroscience theories we have?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19860" LastActivityDate="2018-08-22T03:03:43.287" Title="Why are there still left handed people?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20512" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20658" CreationDate="2018-08-22T06:50:42.157" Score="2" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I observed I best memorize information when I actively compile it into meaningful hierarchy. That encompasses creating PowerPoint presentations, explaining the topic to someone or writing summaries. I think my active contribution is what matters here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a while, I used the term &lt;em&gt;social memory&lt;/em&gt; but I've learned it refers rather to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;obervational learning&lt;/a&gt;. So is there a term for it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-11T08:31:56.337" LastActivityDate="2018-09-11T08:47:24.493" Title="What is the learning/memory type which requires active contribution called?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20513" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20481" CreationDate="2018-08-22T16:09:34.480" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Spaced repetition is based off the forgetting curve. Each review per day strengthens the memory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JIDQD.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JIDQD.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both Anki flashcards and SuperMemo also utilize the Leitner (box) system: &#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leitner_system_animation.gif#/media/File:Leitner_system_animation.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Leitner_system_animation.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Leitner system animation.gif&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;(Animation by &lt;a href=&quot;//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Zirguezi&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;User:Zirguezi&quot;&gt;Zirguezi&lt;/a&gt; - CC0.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other freeware, such as Cram or Quizlet, do not have these enhanced features. They're more for the quick and dirty academic game. The material is only meant to linger for a semester or two. Then it essentially becomes lost in the abyss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, that's not quite the same breakdown for learning how to &lt;em&gt;write&lt;/em&gt; Chinese characters correctly. Using the metaphor that the brain is a muscle: It flexes more when writing. See &lt;a href=&quot;http://psyedu.org.cn/qguan/%E4%B8%AA%E4%BA%BA%E7%BD%91%E9%A1%B5%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF/%E5%8F%91%E8%A1%A8%E8%AE%BA%E6%96%87B-C/2012/B-4Guan%20Perfetti%20et%20al-2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Writing Strengthens Orthography and Alphabetic-Coding Strengthens Phonology in Learning to Read Chinese&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  Writing is more active than reading. The more senses engaged the better. SuperMemo and Anki have algorithms based primarily from &lt;em&gt;seeing&lt;/em&gt; the information. (Granted, Anki does have the feature where you can write directly on the application.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the end of the day there still is a hierarchy based on the user's &quot;history&quot; with the each item. (Also, easier material or material with less chunks will strengthen, therefore lengthen the time until subsequent review.) &lt;strong&gt;Memory has a natural atrophy. There is no avoiding this&lt;/strong&gt; (aside from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthymesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;abnormal exceptions&lt;/a&gt;). Think of normal brains as having a half-life, a natural rate of decay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer you directly: There are only a few ways: brute repetition, spaced repetition, chunking and the Leitner system. Your app involves repetition with chunking. You could improve from there with different combinations of the current design with spaced repetition and the Leitner system. EDIT: You can approximate a rough spaced-repetition interval, but this will depend on if the user actually completes the worksheet in one sitting and how serious they keep up a consistent practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, different users will have different obligations and habit forming tendencies. Having added functions, will improve user's experience. For example, a tag feature in Anki allows users to study only cards with the same tag. This is useful for, say, having an exam come up involving a large deck. I recommend sifting though &lt;a href=&quot;https://apps.ankiweb.net/docs/manual.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anki's user manual&lt;/a&gt; for more ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Bonus&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I actually was developing my own Android app based on using spaced repetition to remember larger bodies of information (opposed to simple flashcards). The spacing effect for memory is &lt;strong&gt;roughly triple the time&lt;/strong&gt; (immediately again, 3 min, 9 min, 30 min, 90 min, etc). Needless to say, I put that project on the backburner. However, there is a similar &lt;a href=&quot;https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.pianopracticeassistant.ppa&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;app for memorizing music pieces&lt;/a&gt;. (I am not involved, no kickbacks.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4116" LastEditorUserId="4116" LastEditDate="2018-08-23T13:39:49.420" LastActivityDate="2018-08-23T13:39:49.420" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20514" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20578" CreationDate="2018-08-22T18:59:41.243" Score="8" ViewCount="733" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have you ever listened to music and it gives you &quot;chills?&quot; This response is called a &quot;frisson,&quot; a french word meaning &quot;to shiver.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I want to access certain emotional and inspirationally charged visualisations I get frissons that I can create or stop at will. I practice this exercise when I need a quick energy/mood boost. It feels very calming and relaxing, as if pure wave-like energy is ebbing and flowing - pulsating throughout my body. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$(1)$ What percentage of people experience frissons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$(2) $ What percentage of people can create frissons at will?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia says about this topic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Frisson (French for 'shiver') is a sensation somewhat like shivering, usually caused by stimuli other than cold. It is typically expressed as an overwhelming emotional response combined with piloerection (goosebumps). Stimuli that produce a response are specific to the individual.&#xA;  Frisson is of short duration, usually no more than 4–5 seconds, usually pleasurable.[1] Typical stimuli include loud passages of music and passages that violate some level of musical expectation.[2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Found this article about &quot;voluntary piloerection:&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.inverse.com/article/42005-goosebumps-control-voluntary-piloerection&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.inverse.com/article/42005-goosebumps-control-voluntary-piloerection&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19860" LastEditorUserId="19860" LastEditDate="2018-08-23T01:10:23.073" LastActivityDate="2020-10-16T17:30:06.297" Title="Frissons on demand" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20515" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-23T01:16:29.657" Score="0" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read in the The Economist &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.economist.com/europe/2018/05/03/anti-semitism-in-europe-may-not-in-fact-be-rising&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;that&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;in most countries, anti-Semitism rises or falls in concert with nationalism and identity politics. David Feldman of the Pears Institute notes the importance of “competitive victimhood”, in which claims of oppression by Jews, Muslims and other groups step on each others’ toes. Dariusz Stola, head of the Polin Museum of Polish Jewish History, says the same is true in Poland, where the national story is one of victimisation by Germany and Russia. It is more accurate, he thinks, to see anti-Semitism as part of a general wave of chauvinist sentiment since the migrant crisis of 2015; levels of hostility to Muslims, gays and Roma have risen too. Says Mr Stola: “Xenophobia is not selective.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since most observational studies on this are going to have trouble with confounders, are there any controlled experiments of inducing some level of xenophobia and measuring its &quot;halo effect&quot; against out-groups not specifically targeted (by the experimental message)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-08-23T01:16:29.657" Title="To what extent is xenophobia not selective?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20519" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20500" CreationDate="2018-08-23T09:48:29.327" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are those reliable differences? Without knowing what confidence intervals you plotted it's difficult to estimate visually (95%? ±1 SD?), but I wouldn't be surprised that there are no statistically significant performance differences between those levels. Keep in mind that if this test emerged only after seeing the data, rather than a priori based on theory, then that changes how to interpret the significance of such tests and makes them less trustworthy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;HARKing: Hypothesizing After the Results are Known &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327957pspr0203_4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327957pspr0203_4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main finding seems to be an increase with age, possibly non-linear. Thresholding could be due to the task complexity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-08-23T09:48:29.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20520" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-23T10:53:36.583" Score="2" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;Regarding the famous MBTI test, I am confused about how stable are the four indicators?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As of my experience, most people are certain whether they are introverted or extroverted. For the other three indicators, however, for some people it differs a lot for short-term and long-term actions. For example, I know a lot of people who are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Extremely &lt;strong&gt;XNFP&lt;/strong&gt; for short-time actions (e.g. what to do for tonight). They procrastinate a lot and do stuff based on their feelings.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;but at the same time are extremely conservative and &lt;strong&gt;XSTJ&lt;/strong&gt; for important life decisions (e.g. choosing a career, finding a research topic, etc.). Their such decisions are almost accurate and based on logical reasoning.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How could we effectively use MBTI interpretations for such people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20097" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-30T10:45:04.127" LastActivityDate="2018-08-30T10:45:04.127" Title="What if MBTI differs a lot for short-term and long-term lifestyle?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20521" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20480" CreationDate="2018-08-23T18:28:11.793" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The big hot potato here is the evolutionary hypothesis that men are more sexually jealous whereas women are more emotionally jealous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Contrast &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1207%2FS15327957PSPR0702_102-128&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harris (2003)&lt;/a&gt; totally dissing it (but also giving a nice summary of it, which is why I'm quoting it first):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The specific innate modular theory of jealousy hypothesizes that natural selection shaped sexual jealousy as a mechanism to prevent cuckoldry, and emotional jealousy as a mechanism to prevent resource loss. Therefore, men should be primarily jealous over a mate's sexual infidelity and women over a mate's emotional infidelity. Five lines of evidence have been offered as support: self report responses, psychophysiological data, domestic violence (including spousal abuse and homicide), and morbid jealousy cases. This article reviews each line of evidence and finds only one hypothetical measure consistent with the hypothesis. This, however, is contradicted by a variety of other measures (including reported reactions to real infidelity). A meta-analysis of jealousy-inspired homicides, taking into account base rates for murder, found no evidence that jealousy disproportionately motivates men to kill. The findings are discussed from a social-cognitive theoretical perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harris (of course) has her preferred counter-theory (as the last quoted sentence suggests; more on that in a moment). The contrast I want to make on the evolutionary issue is with &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0409-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frederick and Fales (2016)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One hypothesis derived from evolutionary perspectives is that men are more upset than women by sexual infidelity and women are more upset than men by emotional infidelity. The proposed explanation is that men, in contrast to women, face the risk of unwittingly investing in genetically unrelated offspring. Most studies, however, have relied on small college or community samples of heterosexual participants. We examined upset over sexual versus emotional jealousy among 63,894 gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual participants. Participants imagined which would upset them more: their partners having sex with someone else (but not falling in love with them) or their partners falling in love with someone else (but not having sex with them). Consistent with this evolutionary perspective, heterosexual men were more likely than heterosexual women to be upset by sexual infidelity (54 vs. 35 %) and less likely than heterosexual women to be upset by emotional infidelity (46 vs. 65 %). This gender difference emerged across age groups, income levels, history of being cheated on, history of being unfaithful, relationship type, and length. The gender difference, however, was limited to heterosexual participants. Bisexual men and women did not differ significantly from each other in upset over sexual infidelity (30 vs. 27 %), regardless of whether they were currently dating a man (35 vs. 29 %) or woman (28 vs. 20 %). Gay men and lesbian women also did not differ (32 vs. 34 %). The findings present strong evidence that a gender difference exists in a broad sample of U.S. adults, but only among heterosexuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what's the (alternative) social-cognitive theoretical perspective? Based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_jealousy#Evolutionary_psychology_perspective&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's summary&lt;/a&gt; (since Harris' own is waaay too long):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The social-cognitive perspective proposes the transactional model of jealousy, which can be used to explain why there may be differences in the degree to which individuals experience sexual jealousy within genders, as well as between genders. This model examines how three variables – (1) arousability, (2) commitment and, (3) insecurity – moderate jealousy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Individual differences in sexual jealousy are determined by the difference in levels of physiological arousal: individuals who are easily aroused have more intense jealous reactions, than those with lower physiological arousal.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Commitment refers to the degree of dedication a person has in the relationship: the more committed a person is to a relationship, the greater the threat of loss, which leads to greater feelings of jealousy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Insecurity refers to the perceived level of commitment of the partner: if we perceive our partner to be uninvolved or disinterested in the relationship, we feel more insecure.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The degree to which these factors are experienced together determine the intensity of sexual jealousy felt by an individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia's summary seems mostly based on Erber, R., &amp;amp; Erber, M. W. (2016). Intimate relationships: Issues, theories, and research. New York, NY: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter book actually has a chapter (TLDR) and the cheat-sheet at the end lists more theories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Prototype model defines jealousy as a subtype of anger&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• Cognitive appraisal approaches contend that jealousy is a bona fide&#xA;emotion&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• Bringle’s (1991) transactional theory of jealousy proposes that it arises&#xA;from the interplay between the individual and the situation&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• Cognitive motivational approaches emphasize attributions and how we&#xA;think about jealousy-provoking situations&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• The SEM [self-evaluation maintenance] approach focuses on the interaction between rival characteristics&#xA;and the jealous person’s self-evaluation&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• Attachment model of jealousy predicts the intensity and frequency of&#xA;jealous reactions based on attachment type&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-23T19:03:43.050" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20522" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17339" CreationDate="2018-08-23T19:59:53.903" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a precursor, even if a stringent sleep schedule is absolutely followed, one still needs to practice other good sleep hygiene habits: avoiding blue light (or using a filter for screens), exercising regularly, eating healthy and attaining an overall equanimous mood (lack of distress). That, among other non-ideal factors, such as sleep disturbances could also result in a poor nights sleep. But the question was stated as if in a 'perfect vacuum.' Non-idealities are overlooked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, I am going off the aforementioned assumptions about religiously going to bed at 10:45 and waking at 6:30 every day--including weekends. Let's say this person could sleep for nine hours (9:15 TIB), and we can safely assume that an adequate nights sleep is 7:45 TIB. In other words, this person can be high-functioning on 7.5 hours of sleep (five phases).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;→ &lt;strong&gt;Is it better to wait until 12:15?&lt;/strong&gt; (Either way, 6:30 wakeup for work stays constant.) One deviant day--does it matter? When will the sleep debt be relinquished? Honestly, I didn't find any research remotely about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's go out on a limb, and say it doesn't matter given the ideal-vacuum conditions. Then how many deviations, say, twice a week--do matter? How many will lead to partial sleep deprivation? Still, the answer is &lt;strong&gt;unknown&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I emailed sleep researchers from U.W. Madison and Stanford: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Going to sleep in the middle of a phase versus &quot;catching&quot; the next phase (with less sleep) for one night&lt;/code&gt; (subject)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hello Professor _______,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I have question for you about making a bedtime choice, a deviation,&#xA;  from a consistent sleep schedule: For an average adult, in general, if&#xA;  one knows they will wake up in the middle of a cycle--is it better to&#xA;  go to bed later?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Scenario1&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Get home late, and ready to be in bed at 11:15 PM. Must wake at 6:30&#xA;  for work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Scenario2&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Get home late, later, and ready to be in bed at 11:45 PM. Must wake at&#xA;  6:30 for work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The first is 30 minutes late. The second is 60. Let's say for this&#xA;  person that we can safely assume that an adequate nights sleep is 7:45&#xA;  TIB. In other words, this person can be high-functioning on exactly&#xA;  7.5 hours of sleep (while following a consistent sleep/wake routine).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;→ Is it better to wait until 12:15?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] I ask this question because I follow the routine above. I&#xA;  deviate 1-2 times a month, and either way usually take a nap before&#xA;  3PM to follow, but persistently wonder which is the ideal choice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Prof. Responses&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hi Adam, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is not easy answer, I do not know of direct evidence&#xA;  for one schedule over the other;  you are the best judge;  try the&#xA;  different schedules and  decide which one works for you (i.e. you feel&#xA;  better and you are “ready” to go) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It may be that they are very&#xA;  similar; in any case, it is dangerous to assume 7 or 8 hours is what&#xA;  YOU  need &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Inter individual variability is huge, this is why each&#xA;  person is the best judge&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;~ C.C.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Adam,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, there is no good answer. The data for waking up in the&#xA;  middle of a cycle is sparse and doesn't offer good conclusions (the&#xA;  only reasonable one is that if it makes you feel better to wake up at&#xA;  the end of a cycle, that's probably a good thing). There are some&#xA;  circadian consequences of bouncing around a sleep onset time too much,&#xA;  with greater variability in onset time leading to more difficulty&#xA;  initiating sleep (and probably some other changes as well, though less&#xA;  well documented). Me, I'd stick with the earlier bed time that is&#xA;  closer to standard bedtime and get the extra sleep...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;~ J.Z.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Going Further&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assess your ideal amount of sleep by taking a 'sleep vacation.' Over a two-week period, keep your consistent bedtime, but don't wake up with an alarm clock. Log. (See &lt;a href=&quot;http://healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/need-sleep/what-can-you-do/assess-needs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/need-sleep/what-can-you-do/assess-needs&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do you objectively analyze your sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are two commonly used methods to assess sleep, Actigraphy&#xA;  and Polysomnography. Actigraphy is a non-invasive method of&#xA;  monitoring sleep and involves wearing wrist activity monitors, which&#xA;  are devices worn like a wristwatch that continuously record body&#xA;  movement (usually stored in 1-min epochs). [...] Actigraphy is useful for&#xA;  understanding sleep patterns as it is non-invasive and relatively&#xA;  easy to collect data over significant periods of time (commonly two&#xA;  weeks of monitoring).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The second method is Polysomnography (PSG) which is a sleep&#xA;  study in which body functions such as EEG, eye movements,&#xA;  muscle activity and cardiac activity are measured. PSG provides&#xA;  information on sleep staging and is considered the “gold standard”&#xA;  for assessing sleep quality and quantity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;~ Sports Science Exchange (2013) Vol. 26, No. 113, &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/376d/232aedc232c608f29f588043d8fcb5bafe3d.pdf#page=2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;page 2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;→ DIY: &lt;a href=&quot;https://sleepjunkies.com/features/the-ultimate-guide-to-sleep-tracking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://sleepjunkies.com/features/the-ultimate-guide-to-sleep-tracking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Additional Resources&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://web.archive.org/web/20180823193325/http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.874.577&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Phase Relationships between Sleep-Wake Cycle and Underlying Circadian Rhythms in Morningness-Eveningness&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.med.upenn.edu/uep/assets/user-content/documents/Van_Dongen_Dinges_SRS_Bull_7_3_2001.pdf#page=2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Modeling the Effects of Sleep Debt: On the Relevance of Inter-Individual Differences&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extra&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://faculty.ist.psu.edu/vhonavar/Papers/BIBM2017_YE.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://faculty.ist.psu.edu/vhonavar/Papers/BIBM2017_YE.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4116" LastEditorUserId="4116" LastEditDate="2018-09-05T14:03:42.663" LastActivityDate="2018-09-05T14:03:42.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20506" CreationDate="2018-08-24T07:20:49.377" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Multiple factors are in play that affect error making. Cognitive load is an important element that increases the chance of making errors. Other factors are the presence of distraction, levels of stress or level of vigilance.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It's a matter of chance. In psychophysics, the field of research I'm spending most of my time in at the time of this writing, models subject responses with psychometric curves. These curves represent the correct rates as a function of the level of the physical stimulus presented (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, it shows that at high enough stimulus levels the %correct score increases steadily, up to the point where the response is correct for all the trials. In the figure % seen is plotted, for example in a test where image brightness (gamma correction) is varied on a computer screen and the subject is asked if a stimulus is seen yes or no. The characteristic that is mostly reported in such an experiment is the 50% correct point, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the steepest point in the curve. This means that the subject was correct in 50% of the trials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, back to your question - if one not plots intensity, but task difficulty on the x-axis, a similar plot is obtained. Think, for example, speech recognition in noise - when the signal-to-noise ratio increases, %correct will increase. Or, consider a task where cognitive load is slowly decreased, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the task is made easier and easier - then at a certain point the %correct response will also approach 100% (time constraints). Thus, when you are typing, you're typing a lot of characters per minute as you're in a hurry to meet that deadline. And you're thinking about the problem and the solution of the assignment you're working on behind your laptop (cognitive load), your roommates are talking (distraction), and all the while the cat keeps on nestling herself on top of your keyboard (distraction). You might have been working all-nighters, which increases sleepiness that reduces your cognitive abilities overall. These conditions increase mental load and promote incorrect responses (incorrect key strokes) and hence increase the number of typos you make.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If your assignment's deadline was only 3 months from now, and you were already well on your way and you've set yourself the goal of writing one sentence per hour, you wouldn't make any typos at all, because you can look at the keyboard and find every single individual key before pressing it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a matter of cognitive load. Which responses go wrong is all a matter of chance. As Fig. 1 shows, it's a matter of chance that overall results, after many repeats, in a nice psychometric curve. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/u3MmA.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/u3MmA.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;psychometric curve&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig.1. Psychometric curve. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11513/figure/ch24psych1.F13/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kalloniatis &amp;amp; Luu C (2005)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11513/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kalloniatis &amp;amp; Luu Principles of Vision. In: Kolb H, Fernandez E, Nelson R, editors. Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System [2005]. Salt Lake City (UT): University of Utah Health Sciences Center&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-08-24T08:03:54.153" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T08:03:54.153" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20526" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-24T09:34:05.223" Score="2" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;Would there be any open fMRI datasets available that specifically analyse a subjects emotional state? The objective is to apply deep learning methods to categorise subjects emotional state based on the fMRI images. Raw or processed data would be fine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20108" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T09:34:05.223" Title="fMRI datasets for emotion states" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20527" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4439" CreationDate="2018-08-24T11:00:30.990" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another useful source might be research that manipulates group membership, especially to create totally new groups. If membership alone is the mechanism for these effects, then we'd expect ingroup favoritism even with novel, manipulated groups. And that's what is found. Tajfel's work, and follow-ups, show that individuals quickly and easily categorize people by group membership, and then use that membership to determine cognitions and behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_group_paradigm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_group_paradigm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T11:00:30.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20528" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13044" CreationDate="2018-08-24T14:31:57.760" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;No provocative experiment needed. Some of the major taxonomies within personality psychology have well-validated measures for honesty, and have been used in massive samples that could already address this question. I would start by doing a search on Google Scholar for those measures and the types of success you mention. E.g.,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honesty-humility_factor_of_the_HEXACO_model_of_personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honesty-humility_factor_of_the_HEXACO_model_of_personality&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice that the trait most often associated with success is Conscientiousness, which may include an aspect of honesty:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T14:31:57.760" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20529" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9520" CreationDate="2018-08-24T14:35:51.553" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to the descriptions of these particular students, at the site mentioned above by Kate Gladstone and also shown a bit in the documentary (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Elliott&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Elliott&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might consider what's known from the broader set of studies using this type of manipulation. This rich literature is valuable for your question because the Blue eyes/Brown eyes study was more a demonstration than a study and has not been repeated much (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_group_paradigm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_group_paradigm&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-08-25T05:41:38.360" LastActivityDate="2018-08-25T05:41:38.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20530" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10889" CreationDate="2018-08-24T14:39:16.753" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a research psychologist working with moral foundations theory and messaging and I haven't seen these particular questions addressed. But you maybe interested to see work that uses different framed messages with these 'trigger words' in different populations (e.g., by political orientation) and measures outcomes, e.g.,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Moral Roots of Environmental Attitudes - Feinberg &amp;amp; Willer&#xA;  journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797612449177&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T14:39:16.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20531" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4903" CreationDate="2018-08-24T14:43:52.247" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, I would have said the opposite: there's a robust literature on familiarity driving liking, even with non-social stimuli like shapes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is also true with people. There may be some kind of an effect whereby people who are familiar and then separated bicker less after the break than before, but I haven't seen this studied. I'd suggest you look at terms like conflict in close relationships for psychological research, e.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Simpson, J. A., Rholes, W. S., &amp;amp; Phillips, D. (1996). Conflict in close relationships: An attachment perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(5), 899-914.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.5.899&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.5.899&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T14:43:52.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20532" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4702" CreationDate="2018-08-24T14:54:23.327" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sternberg's Triangular theory is certainly well-known. The field you want to dig into more is called 'close relationships'. Here's an accessible treatment of other common theories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Summary of psychological theories of love &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/in-love-and-war/201208/love-decoded&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/in-love-and-war/201208/love-decoded&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This gives a good theoretical overview using many different approaches:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;More abstract positioning of theories of relationships and attachment with relation to other fields &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wwnorton.com/college/psych/intimate-relationships/ch/03/summary.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.wwnorton.com/college/psych/intimate-relationships/ch/03/summary.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's another I learned about in grad school: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Bem - Exotic Becomes Erotic: Interpreting the Biological Correlates of Sexual Orientation&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1023/A:1002050303320&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doi.org/10.1023/A:1002050303320&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="19843" LastEditDate="2018-08-25T08:12:50.317" LastActivityDate="2018-08-25T08:12:50.317" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20534" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-24T16:02:38.690" Score="2" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if this is on topic here, but, there's a common phrase 'You can't teach an old dog new tricks'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is commonly used as an observation about human behaviour, in that you can expect people to continue behaving they way they have behaved in the past. But the phrase is specifically derived from the idea that if a dog isn't trained by the time its old, it's very difficult to then train it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is - is there good data available about the comparative  neuroplasticity of dogs, and other animals, and humans? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8810" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-25T08:05:32.597" LastActivityDate="2018-08-25T08:05:32.597" Title="Can you teach an old human new tricks?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-09-05T20:28:11.550" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20535" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-24T20:15:51.620" Score="1" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does neuroscience explain the following optical illusion? Look at tiles. You will see spots of shadow near all corners. The shadow will be missing from some corners very near the center of your attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the brain has ganglia that detect horizontal and vertical edges as well as more complex edges. They work best with high contrast edges. That's all I know right now that might be relevant. Thanks in advance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Zza8M.png&quot; alt=&quot;tiles&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ogluE.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;tiles in a bathroom&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20112" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T21:29:38.030" Title="Why do we see shadows in the following black-and-white optical illusion?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20536" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20535" CreationDate="2018-08-24T21:29:38.030" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looks like these are variations on the Hermann grid illusion, wiki page here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the wiki page notes, the first-pass explanation of this was lateral inhibition, but this is not really 100% satisfactory. &#xA;There's a nice quick walk-through of the old explanation and the problems with it here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://web.mit.edu/bcs/schillerlab/research/A-Vision/A15-2.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://web.mit.edu/bcs/schillerlab/research/A-Vision/A15-2.htm&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;A journal paper version of this stuff from the same lab is:&#xA;Schiller, P. H., &amp;amp; Carvey, C. E. (2005). The Hermann grid illusion revisited. Perception, 34(11), 1375-1397.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T21:29:38.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20537" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-24T21:30:39.497" Score="4" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the central challenges in understanding pro-environmental behavior is measurement. Currently, most researchers (including myself) lean on self-report of behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a brainstorm. What kinds of pro-environmental behaviors might be realistically measured by researchers? I think there's room for more creativity. I'd love to hear some ideas. For example, recycling bins have been measured at the curb for weight (time-consuming), electrical meters have been read by students (time-consuming), household water usage has been measured by partnering with a water district (long-term negotiation due to privacy).... there are also laboratory tasks such as recycling, donation, and turning out the lights, but these are lower-quality measures because they only occur once.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's room here for more creativity. What other pro- or anti-environmental behaviors can be observed by researchers in the real world or in an online survey? I'm looking for a brainstorm, not a literature review. I work in this area and know the key papers well. Thank you for any suggestions!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="19843" LastEditDate="2018-08-29T12:52:12.883" LastActivityDate="2018-08-29T12:52:12.883" Title="What pro- or anti-environmental behaviors are feasible to measure objectively rather than with self-report?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20538" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20433" CreationDate="2018-08-24T21:52:55.733" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rob's answer is good: lots of detail on current research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is meant by memory? Nearly all of the operations of the brain are based on or involve retrieving previous states of physiology or activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a more fundamental problem that remains unresolved: if the exact pattern of activation of your neurons were instantiated in another form, silicon or otherwise, would there be a conscious experience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_in_a_vat&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_in_a_vat&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suppose some future technology might be able to operate a non-conscious memory store to retrieve data, but that's much less interesting... to me, at least.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-08-24T21:52:55.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16024" CreationDate="2018-08-25T09:32:15.810" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I can tell, the common theme is that &quot;vibration&quot; is involved in both of them. But that's where the similarities seem to stop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hartley formulated specific hypotheses such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pleasure is the result of moderate vibrations, pain of vibrations so violent as to break the continuity of the nerves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which we now know it's &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2333&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not exactly&lt;/a&gt; how these sensations are differentiated, but actually wasn't a bad prediction given the scientific knowledge at the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand Hartley postulated these vibrations to be transmitted by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ether&lt;/a&gt;, which of course we now know does not exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtubule&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Microtubules&lt;/a&gt; are real, but whether quantum vibrations in them have anything to do with consciousness is another matter. As far as I know there's no convincing evidence for it. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction#Criticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Orch OR article on Wikipedia discusses some theoretical criticism as well.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-25T09:42:32.370" LastActivityDate="2018-08-25T09:42:32.370" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20540" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-25T10:23:22.443" Score="3" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;There &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15159679&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;was a study published&lt;/a&gt; in &lt;em&gt;Neuro Endocrinology Letters&lt;/em&gt; by Dr. Ethan Russo in 2004 that says many diseases being treated with cannabis correlate with an “endocannabinoid deficiency”, but I cannot read the study or find any more information about this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there other studies that can confirm or deny this? Or are there strong or weak arguments in Russo’s study that can help us understand whether it’s a valid theory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13908" LastEditorUserId="13908" LastEditDate="2018-08-25T10:43:58.327" LastActivityDate="2018-08-26T14:41:17.133" Title="Is Dr. Russo’s “endocannabinoid deficiency” a valid theory?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20542" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="488" CreationDate="2018-08-25T13:05:00.697" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;To add to yamad's answer (which is pretty good), for about a decade, the way pain was thought to lower the effect of rewards is by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonic_(physiology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tonic&lt;/a&gt; release of dopamine; in contrast, pleasure/reward triggers &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2556904/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;phasic&lt;/a&gt; release of dopamine. If you want an (imperfect) electrical analogy, the tonic release is the &quot;DC&quot; level and phasic are transients or spikes on top of that. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2333&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;More correctly&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tonic dopamine activity refers to the level of&#xA;  extrasynaptic dopamine that is present at a&#xA;  steady-state concentration in the extracellular&#xA;  space. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Importantly, tonic&#xA;  dopamine levels regulate the responsiveness of&#xA;  the phasic dopamine system to salient&#xA;  environmental cues: high tonic dopamine&#xA;  attenuates phasic dopamine release whereas&#xA;  low tonic dopamine facilitates phasic dopamine&#xA;  firing. The level of tonic dopamine in the limbic&#xA;  striatum is in turn modulated by corticostriatal&#xA;  and hippocampal afferents and homeostasis&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Increased tonic dopamine is known to result from prolonged stress or pain, a&#xA;  mechanism that might have evolved to ensure rest and low activity levels during injury.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And among the refs cited in support of that is a (pretty highly cited) experiment of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12897785&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Floresco et al. (2003)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;we report dissociable regulation of dopamine neuron discharge by&#xA;  two separate afferent systems in rats; inhibition of pallidal afferents selectively increased the population activity of dopamine&#xA;  neurons, whereas activation of pedunculopontine inputs increased burst firing. Only the increase in population activity increased&#xA;  ventral striatal dopamine efflux. After blockade of dopamine reuptake, however, enhanced bursting increased dopamine efflux&#xA;  three times more than did enhanced population activity. These results provide insight into multiple regulatory systems that&#xA;  modulate dopamine system function: burst firing induces massive synaptic dopamine release, which is rapidly removed by&#xA;  reuptake before escaping the synaptic cleft, whereas increased population activity modulates tonic extrasynaptic dopamine&#xA;  levels that are less influenced by reuptake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That was the view circa 2008. A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4866581/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2016 review&lt;/a&gt; paints a fairly different picture (citing only post-2009 primary studies for this update):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recent studies suggest that dopamine neurons in the VTA [ventral tegmental area] and SN [substantia nigra] form a heterogeneous population tuned to either (or both) aversive or rewarding stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The heterogeneity of dopamine neurons in response to aversive and rewarding stimuli suggests that they serve unique functional roles. Cells activated by reward and inhibited by punishment are well suited to code motivational valence, whereas neurons activated by both rewarding and punishing stimuli are likely to code motivational salience [stimulus awareness]. Neurons coding motivational valence [whether the stimulus is positive or negative in value] would provide a signal for reward seeking, evaluation, and value learning, in line with current theories on the role of dopamine in reward processing. In contrast, neurons coding motivational salience would provide a signal for detection and prediction of highly important events independent of valence, pursuant to dopamine's role in salience processing. These distinct aspects of dopamine neurotransmission might be neuroanatomically separate: dopaminergic neurons coding motivational valence have been found more commonly in the ventromedial SN and lateral VTA with projections to nucleus accumbens [NAc] shell, whereas neurons coding motivational salience are more often reported in the dorsolateral SN with projections to the nucleus accumbens core.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5LfI6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5LfI6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's anybody's guess if this is the correct/complete picture. Time will tell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The primary evidence for this updated view seems mostly based (in order of the number of citations) on 3 papers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Matsumoto and Hikosaka, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2739096/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Two types of dopamine neuron distinctly convey positive and negative motivational signals&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, Nature 2009; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brischoux et al., &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0811507106&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Phasic excitation of dopamine neurons in ventral VTA by noxious stimuli&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, PNAS 2009&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lammel et al., &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3112473/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Projection-specific modulation of dopamine neuron synapses by aversive and rewarding stimuli&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, Neuron 2011&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One open problem remains though: how are pain and pleasure balanced by the brain? For example, we expect that an organism could tolerate mild pain in order to reap a reward. Where is this balancing decision made? A tentative answer comes from the authors of the aforementioned review, who in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw173&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;newer (2017) empirical study&lt;/a&gt; found that the decision area in this case is the medial orbitofrontal cortex:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jKafo.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jKafo.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas this latter study used monetary rewards, so it's not terribly clear how well its result applies to lower species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And on a really interesting [for me] research side, in some species dopmamine signaling not only alters behavior but induces morphological changes in response to the environment; examples include both &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3992878/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;predator (e.g. Echinoid larvae)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4614769/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;prey (e.g. Daphnia)&lt;/a&gt; changing their morphology in reaction to prey/predators via dompamine-mediated pathways. Although not obviously related to predator/prey behavior, but to the wider environment; dopamine &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.06.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mediates myopia (eye growth) in humans and other species&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I only focused on the highlighted question at the end of the questotion-body. Your title question is actually substantially broader.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just with respect to the rewarding side: liking and wanting are thought to have substantially different neurobiological circuitry, cf. the [highly cited] review of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2756052/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Berridge et al. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; (whose closely related work Kaj's answer indicated).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similarly extensive line of work exists with respect to pain (i.e., the aversive side), e.g. see Baliki and Apkarian (2015) &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.06.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Nociception, Pain, Negative Moods, and Behavior Selection&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-26T06:54:24.913" LastActivityDate="2018-08-26T06:54:24.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20543" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20560" CreationDate="2018-08-25T13:09:55.457" Score="-1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Death from laughter seems like a possible way to die, either by heart failure or asphyxiation according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_from_laughter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why doesn't the brain have a mechanism to stop a person from laughing if it has reached lethal levels? If I witness a person laughing to death, can knocking them out save them from dying?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4140" LastActivityDate="2018-08-28T11:14:32.683" Title="Does the brain have a mechanism to protect from death by laughter?" Tags="&lt;humour&gt;&lt;death&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20544" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20555" CreationDate="2018-08-25T22:58:35.943" Score="0" ViewCount="433" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some modern activities exploit the primitive mammalian reward areas in the brain. They include immediate access to social media, video games, music, sugar, pornographic material, gambling etc. Worse, excessively engaging in these activities without inhibition may enhance the neuroplasticity of the reward centers (and undermine the plasticity of areas involved in self-control, including the anterior cingulate cortex), thus leading to long-term changes of higher reward tolerance, lower self-regulatory abilities, and other exacerbating effects. Unfortunately, most worthwhile work (e.g., proactive learning, writing, thinking about new mechanisms and concepts etc.) usually doesn't offer nearly as much dopaminergic stimulation in the mammalian reward centers of the human brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Next to the obvious mindfulness-based interventions (e.g., being aware of the moment and noting the emotional occupation) and cognitive behavioral therapy based approaches (CBT), what interventions have proven to be effective or are likely to be effective for the use case below (*)?&lt;/strong&gt; References to support these techniques are welcome. Perhaps some techniques from the substance abuse literature has some application. The main focus of this question mostly deals with the following situation:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(*) An adult is currently engaging in the addictive task and wishes to context-switch to the productive task. Additionally, the person is aware that the current (addictive) task offers a lower expected utility than the productive task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="3379" LastEditDate="2018-08-26T21:42:13.783" LastActivityDate="2019-05-16T16:10:46.137" Title="Beyond CBT and MBI, what are effective behavioral interventions for modern lifestyle addictions during their engagement?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20545" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9593" CreationDate="2018-08-26T10:14:27.667" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Regarding reducing one's anxiety, a &quot;meta-analytic review&quot; by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037913&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cheng et al. (2014)&lt;/a&gt; published in a fairly high-impact venue suggests that coping flexibility is the stuff that matters... when it comes to coping outcomes, of course. (As the joke goes, madness is doing the same thing and expecting different results.) What exactly coping flexibility is isn't so easy to pin down, but apparently some conceptions of that notion are better than others:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Researchers have conceptualized coping flexibility in diverse ways: as a broad coping repertoire, a well-balanced coping profile, cross-situational variability in strategy deployment, a good strategy–situation fit, or the perceived ability to cope with environmental changes. [...] Studies adopting the perceived ability or strategy–situation fit conceptualization yielded moderate effect sizes, whereas those adopting the broad repertoire, balanced profile, or cross-situational variability conceptualization yielded small effect sizes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The notion of strategy–situation fit seems largely derived from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive-affective_personality_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CAPS theory&lt;/a&gt;. For a more recent (quantitative) work of that kind see e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027770&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kato (2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The meta-analysis by Cheng et al. also identified a small role played by individualism (and age):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In addition, the positive link between coping flexibility and psychological adjustment was stronger in samples from countries lower (vs. higher) in individualism and samples with higher (vs. lower) average ages. Individualism and age explained 10% and 13% of the variance, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Cheng et al. also conducted a quantitative analysis of publication bias for the set of studies they considered and concluded that &quot;publication bias is not a concern&quot;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coping_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;coping&lt;/a&gt; is basically reducing your own stress, which is not the same thing as achieving some externally set goal (e.g. meeting society's expectation in some regard). I'm not sure what research has to say with respect to &quot;willpower&quot; strategies for the latter. Clearly if one considers unreasonable goals in some societies (e.g. eliminating homosexuality) probably no such &quot;willpower&quot; strategy is going to work. It would be more interesting how less incongruent goals fare; from &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12093&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koestner et al. (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;research has begun to show that support for&#xA;  autonomy facilitates goal progress, whereas more directive&#xA;  forms of support appear to be less consistently helpful, or even&#xA;  unhelpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a substantial body of work on the effects of goal setting. I'm not incredibly familiar with it, but one highly cited line of work by Locke and Latham (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8721.2006.00449.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2006 update&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_setting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia page on it&lt;/a&gt;) finds that setting high bars is better than &quot;best effort&quot; approaches as far as achievements go.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a substantial body of work on conflicting goals, e.g. see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/497548&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fishbach and Dhar (2005)&lt;/a&gt;, but such research doesn't seem to involve ranking strategies. Note that reducing your own anxiety and achieving some externally imposed goal may well be conflicting goals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-26T10:49:49.243" LastActivityDate="2018-08-26T10:49:49.243" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20546" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17775" CreationDate="2018-08-26T11:15:19.903" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a recent negative study: Bergwerff et al. (2016) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4777504/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;No Tryptophan, Tyrosine and Phenylalanine Abnormalities in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder&quot;&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study is the first to explore AAA metabolism in children with ADHD using a well-defined and relatively large sample. We found that AAA deficiencies are not related to ADHD. The results do not support treatment with AAA supplements in children with ADHD. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also reviews prior work on defficiency:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Thus far, five case-control studies have been published on AAA blood concentrations in individuals with ADHD [21–25]. Three studies, of which two describing the same sample [21, 22], reported lower plasma concentrations of tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine in ADHD [21–23]. The other two studies, however, showed increased concentrations of free tryptophan in ADHD [24] and a trend towards increased serum concentrations of tryptophan in children with ADHD [25]. All five studies are limited by non-standardized assessments of ADHD and small sample sizes (ranging from N = 12 to N = 48), and therefore further research into the availability of AAAs in ADHD is warranted. [thus their own study.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After their negative finding Bergwerff et al. do mention however that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We found a relatively high odds ratio of 2.2 for being diagnosed with ADHD when having low phenylalanine concentrations, but this result just escaped conventional levels of significance. Therefore, our study does not definitively rule out that low phenylalanine concentrations are present in (a subgroup of) children with ADHD. For instance, it might be that only children with severe deficiencies in executive functioning have decreased phenylalanine concentrations, as an altered dopamine functioning in the prefrontal cortex and the striatum is thought to impair executive functions, including sustained attention and interference control in ADHD [8, 67]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And they also reviewed treatments with supplementation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The hypothesis that AAA concentrations are related to ADHD symptoms is the basis for a number of depletion and supplementation studies. Depletion of dietary tryptophan was found to impair sustained attention in adults with ADHD [30], and to weaken behavioural inhibition in hostile children with ADHD [31]. Supplementation with tryptophan, on the other hand, resulted in a decrease of ADHD symptoms in children with ADHD [32]. Tyrosine supplementation decreased ADHD symptoms in adults with ADHD [33], but showed no effects on behavioural functioning in children with ADHD [32]. Phenylalanine supplementation in adults with ADHD caused a decrease of restlessness and an increase on the ability to concentrate at trend level [34], but in children no effects were reported for phenylalanine supplementation on ADHD symptoms [35]. However, also these depletion and supplementation studies are limited by non-standardized assessments of ADHD and small sample sizes (ranging from N = 10 to N = 20), as well as the lack of control groups, hampering conclusions regarding the relation between AAAs and ADHD. Therefore, there is a need of further research to support the hypothesis that AAA concentrations may contribute to the expression of ADHD symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So evidence for AAA supplementation effectiveness for treating ADHD is insofar of low quality; and there are contradictory findings (to put it mildly) on the actual AAA deficiencies in ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And regarding L-theanine, there's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22214254&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a study, Lyon et al. (2011)&lt;/a&gt; on sleep quality in ADHD. Which is probably the way they &quot;salvaged&quot; not observing much else in terms of improvements. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00291070&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2006) registration info&lt;/a&gt; for that trial had loftier goals to &quot;examine the effects of L-theanine (an amino acid found in green tea) on the behavior, cognitive performance and sleep quality of boys with ADHD.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried to find a more systematic (or even meta-analytic) review of supplements in ADHD, but not much with that. It looks like most research on ADHD and diet is on restrictions (i.e. what not to eat), and even that area is full of controversy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-26T12:09:29.943" LastActivityDate="2018-08-26T12:09:29.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20548" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20540" CreationDate="2018-08-26T14:41:17.133" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd say it is a low-impact theory. The original (2004) paper in which this was proposed has around 60 citations in Google Scholar. That's pretty low for a paper like this (if the theory were influential). For contrast a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10775018&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2000 paper on the monoamine hypothesis for depression&lt;/a&gt; (which is far from being the first paper proposing it) has around 460 citations and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10775017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;another one&lt;/a&gt; on the same topic from the same year [probably a theme issue in that journal] has 440, again according to Google Scholar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been some reappraisals of endocannabinoid deficiency theory, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://europepmc.org/abstract/med/24977967&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in 2014 by different authors&lt;/a&gt; but in the same &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroendocrinology_Letters&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;low-impact publication&lt;/a&gt; (IF &amp;lt; 1) as the original proposal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The initial propomotor of this theory has published &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5576607/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;his own reappraisal in 2016&lt;/a&gt;, but I can't even find the impact factor of this latter venue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, deficiency in a given neurotransmitter has failed to satisfactorily explain any single widespread psychiatric disorder. For depression and the monoamines (serotonin etc.) at least here are experimental protocols to test the hypotheses (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3756112/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ATD&lt;/a&gt;), but the results &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/40309/is-depression-caused-by-chemical-imbalances&quot;&gt;are fairly mixed&lt;/a&gt;. Briefly looking at the 2016 paper on endocannabinoid deficiency theory,  I'm not even seeing an experimental way to test it like that. So it looks like the evidence is more circumstantial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-08-26T14:41:17.133" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20549" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18605" CreationDate="2018-08-26T14:52:09.520" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Negative thoughts in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy are both a cause and a consequence in depression. In fact if these thoughts are produced by &lt;strong&gt;schemes&lt;/strong&gt; this theory considers as a specific factor of vulnerability that predisposes to depression in certain events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all we should consider the considerations in terms of &lt;strong&gt;schemes&lt;/strong&gt; in depression, there are different theories in depression that address schemes: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Behavioral Cognitive Therapy. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Emotion-Focused Therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Emotional Schema Therapy. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness to avoid recurrence in depression.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All these therapies consider schemas in a central way and there are important &lt;strong&gt;subtleties&lt;/strong&gt; in the consideration of such schemes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fundamental thing in Behavioral Cognitive Therapy is that the processing from these schemes is a key factor in the maintenance of depression. Also the Focused Therapy in Emotions considers dysfunctional schemes in the maintenance of the depression however, although it considers them necessary, it does not consider them sufficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Document with some contents about schemes in Emotion-Focused Therapy:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307869346_Affective_Change_in_Psychodynamic_Psychotherapy_Theoretical_Models_and_Clinical_Approaches_to_Changing_Emotions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307869346_Affective_Change_in_Psychodynamic_Psychotherapy_Theoretical_Models_and_Clinical_Approaches_to_Changing_Emotions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Document with some information about schemes in Emotional Schema Therapy:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thrivetraining.info/wp-content/uploads/CPI-18-A-Model-of-Emotional-Schemas.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.thrivetraining.info/wp-content/uploads/CPI-18-A-Model-of-Emotional-Schemas.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Document that you cite, prepared in &lt;strong&gt;1981&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.380.5119&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.380.5119&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Later&lt;/strong&gt;, Peter Lewinsohn formulated his theory of depression (Lewinsohn, Hoberman, Teri and Hautzinger, &lt;strong&gt;1985&lt;/strong&gt;).&#xA;Lewisohn postulates that &lt;strong&gt;environmental factors&lt;/strong&gt; are primarily responsible for depression, although there would be &lt;strong&gt;cognitive mediating factors&lt;/strong&gt;. The main mediating variable is the increase of self-consciousness, transient and situational state of self-focusing or amount of attention that a person directs towards himself instead of towards the environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2018-08-26T14:52:09.520" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20550" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-26T23:33:11.217" Score="2" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;What does a psychological evaluation consist of for pre-teens and adolescents?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I work with a child who has been abused (physically and emotionally) who is having suicidal ideations with one parent, but is also having problems with the &quot;good&quot; parent who is also supposedly making them feel like they don't like the other parent (which I don't think is actually true). The authorities have come in and determined that the child needs a &quot;psychological evaluation&quot; and I'm trying to understand what's going on here. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20125" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-29T16:39:55.567" LastActivityDate="2018-09-20T21:11:02.470" Title="What is a &quot;psychological evaluation&quot; for kids?" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20551" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-27T02:22:27.527" Score="1" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;TLDR at bottom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So from my knowledge(correct me if I'm wrong) there is no evidence to suggest that we can improve general intelligence. But what about improving skills/intuition in specialized fields like programming or mathematics? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I went through this course on coursera called Learning how to learn by Barbara Oakley(engineering professor) who suggests the following to quickly learn new subjects: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pomodoro technique 25 minutes study 5 min break&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eliminate Distractions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do not neglect memory training. Recalling what you have studied is a great way to learn.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Practice and consistency. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cramming is bad - it takes time to 'build neural chunks' as she says. I wasn't sure if this was based off of actual science or just conceptual. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not like method 1 at all from my experience. Often times when I am going through technical textbooks and I have a timer randomly go off on me at 25 minutes in the session, I find myself jumping from my seat and my productivity wanes. However, timers at around 45 minutes(where my brain seems to slow down) does not have this kind of effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But in Cal Newports Deep Work book, he suggests:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Absolutely no distractions. Even delete social media from your life. Isolation can be a very ideal way of achieving deep levels of focus &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Be consistent.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do not tap in to willpower&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use 'rituals' to turn the deep work mode on. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my experience, point 1 has severely reduced my ADHD symptoms and as a result my productivity has greatly improved. But even then, I still wonder to myself how much validity there are to these two professors approaches? Neither are neuroscientists, cognitive scientists, or psychology professors. I want to know if there is some kind of research, evidence(strong or weak), that there are more effective approaches to learning a specific field at a much faster pace. I have also read summaries of 'Peak' by Anders Erikson who is an apparent authority in this topic but I still haven't found anything eye opening. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Basically, is it possible to learn a subject at a much faster pace through the use of different studying techniques such as mnemonics, spaced repetition, etc.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20127" LastActivityDate="2018-08-27T06:36:43.747" Title="Are there researched approaches to learning a subject more quickly?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20553" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18237" CreationDate="2018-08-27T05:07:17.007" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is the &lt;strong&gt;10 KHz signal&lt;/strong&gt; (the &lt;strong&gt;maximum frequency&lt;/strong&gt; of the signal is 10 KHz):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4t7v4.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4t7v4.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if we sample the signal at 5 KHz and 10 KHz, the signal will look like &#xA;as shown below (the brown points):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yC3S0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yC3S0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is clear that we can't get any &lt;strong&gt;useful information&lt;/strong&gt; from the sampled signal. &#xA;Now, to get some information about the signal, Nyquist said that we must sample the signal at least &lt;strong&gt;2*max signal frequency&lt;/strong&gt;. Now, here are the signals sampled at the &lt;strong&gt;Nyquist frequency&lt;/strong&gt; and more than it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FgRci.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FgRci.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be seen that by sampling at the Nyquist rate, we can get the frequency information about the signal. However, to faithfully reconstruct the signal, we have to increase the sampling rate even more. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more details please visit &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gaussianwaves.com/tag/sampling-theorem/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.gaussianwaves.com/tag/sampling-theorem/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20129" LastEditorUserId="20129" LastEditDate="2018-09-02T07:34:12.303" LastActivityDate="2018-09-02T07:34:12.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20554" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20551" CreationDate="2018-08-27T06:36:43.747" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is pretty vague and broad, but the most researched techniques, according to a reasonably recent (and highly cited) review, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunlosky et al. (2013)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/b7PBz.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/b7PBz.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It looks like distributive practice (spreading out activities over time, the opposite of cramming, I guess) and practice testing (i.e. trying to apply what you've learned) get the highest generalizability ranking. The techniques that get a moderate rating are somewhat related to these two (interleaved practice: alternating the types of activities involved), self-explanation (being aware of the steps during problem solving) and elaborative interrogation (somewhat related to the previous one: explaining [oneself] why some statements are true based on the previously learned concepts). Mnemonics, mental imagery, summarization, highlighting or re-reading were ranked low in overall utility. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But even for the high utility techniques some questions remain (that's why they're tagged with P-I for instance):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For instance, self-explanation&#xA;  received a P-I rating for criterion tasks because the&#xA;  available evidence is positive on one dimension (generalizability&#xA;  across a range of criterion tasks) but is insufficient on&#xA;  another key dimension (whether the benefit of self-explanation&#xA;  generalizes across longer retention intervals). As another&#xA;  example, rereading received a Q-I rating for criterion tasks&#xA;  because evidence for the effectiveness of this technique over&#xA;  long retention intervals is qualified (i.e., under some learning&#xA;  conditions, it does not produce an effect for longer retention&#xA;  intervals), and insufficient evidence is available that is relevant&#xA;  to its effectiveness across different kinds of criterion&#xA;  tasks (e.g., rereading does boost performance on recall tasks,&#xA;  but little is known as to its benefits for comprehension). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll have to read the full for details as it's too much material to summarize here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I can't say if the findings still hold for special groups like ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-08-27T06:36:43.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20555" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20544" CreationDate="2018-08-27T08:30:43.663" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Alas there's not much in the way of interventions that can curb impulsivity on the spot. Quoting from a somewhat dated but widely cited review, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11691682&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moeller et al., 2001&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of the operant therapies used in treating individuals&#xA;  with impulsive-related disorders, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingency_management&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;contingency management&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;  procedures have received the most clinical and research&#xA;  attention. Contingency management involves the&#xA;  use of predetermined positive or negative consequences&#xA;  to reward or punish (and thus deter) the occurrence of a&#xA;  target behavior. [...] &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reinforcement and response cost contingencies have&#xA;  been used in reducing impulsive behaviors in children. In&#xA;  the classroom, token economy systems have proven to be&#xA;  an effective short-term method for reducing disruptive behavior&#xA;  and promoting on-task, academic behavior (89, 90).&#xA;  Outside the classroom, the efficacy of contingency management&#xA;  procedures has not been demonstrated, and such&#xA;  procedures are generally considered to be impractical in&#xA;  home settings (91). Furthermore, recent studies have&#xA;  shown that contingency management procedures produce&#xA;  smaller gains than stimulants like methylphenidate, and&#xA;  gains engendered by contingency management treatment&#xA;  do not persist once reinforcement is terminated (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8326053&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;92&lt;/a&gt;). Thus,&#xA;  generalization and maintenance continue to be central&#xA;  problems in using these behavioral reinforcement systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I quoted mostly the parts relating to ADHD since this seems to be the actual interest behind your question. And nothing on adult ADHD was mentioned in that review (only studies in contingency management in substance abuse in adults were mentioned in that review.) There's a fairly interesting &lt;a href=&quot;https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02266784&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ongoing trial&lt;/a&gt; on contingency management in smoking cessation in subjects with and without ADHD; quoting from the design: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The investigators hypothesize that prior to a quit attempt, smokers with ADHD will exhibit significantly lower levels of intrinsic motivation to quit, and equal or higher levels of extrinsic motivation to quit compared to smokers without ADHD. [...] investigators hypothesize that smokers with ADHD will exhibit relatively less readiness for change than smokers without ADHD. [...] The investigators hypothesize that the CM [contingency management] intervention will result in relatively greater change in extrinsic motivation to quit versus intrinsic motivation to quit, and that this effect will be more pronounced among ADHD smokers. [...] The investigators hypothesize that overall motivation to quit (intrinsic and extrinsic) and readiness for change will be significantly influenced by the CM intervention versus treatment as usual among ADHD smokers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results haven't been published; they're scheduled for 2019. One &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/tps0000062&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;very, very small trial&lt;/a&gt; was completed by another group on this same topic&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The prevalence of smoking among individuals diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is twice as high as the general smoking population. The aim of this study was to test the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of delivering a smartphone-based contingency management (CM) smoking cessation intervention with 3 adults diagnosed with ADHD. Using a multiple-baseline design, participants (N = 3) used their smartphones to upload 2 daily videos showing themselves measuring their carbon monoxide (CO) levels (abstinence was defined as CO ≤4 ppm). Monetary vouchers, redeemable for gift cards, were used to reinforce smoking abstinence during tapering, treatment, and thinning phases that lasted up to 28 days. During a 1-week follow-up meeting, participants provided 1 CO sample that was not rewarded. Preliminary results demonstrated that participants decreased their exhaled breath CO relative to baseline (from a mean of 24 ppm at baseline to a mean of 6 ppm during treatment). Participants rated the smartphone application as effective, convenient, and easy to use. Results suggest that a smartphone-based CM intervention is both feasible and acceptable for initiating smoking abstinence among individuals diagnosed with ADHD. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a related note to these two latter studies, there have been conlficting results whether methylphenidate &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3189423/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;does&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4145471/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doesn't&lt;/a&gt; increase smoking in subjects with ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One more &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.09.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interesting observation&lt;/a&gt; (which, unfortunately, does not seem to have resulted in any particular treatment approaches) is that anxiety is correlated with more impulsivity in bipolar, ADHD, and other kinds of high-impulsivity disorders:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Further, children and adolescents diagnosed with&#xA;  disruptive behavior disorders (ADHD, ODD, conduct&#xA;  disorder), conditions characterized by impulsiveness,&#xA;  often present with co-occurring anxiety disorders; for&#xA;  example, in a meta-analysis of community-sample&#xA;  based studies of comorbidity of diagnoses among&#xA;  children and adolescents, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10102726&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Angold, Costello, &amp;amp; Erkanli&#xA;  (1999)&lt;/a&gt; found that the median odds ratio for the&#xA;  association between ADHD and anxiety disorders&#xA;  was 3.0 (2.1–4.3) and for CD/ODD and anxiety&#xA;  disorders was 3.1 (2.2–4.6). Thus, while our study&#xA;  did not include an assessment of behaviorally disinhibited&#xA;  temperament, prior literature supports the&#xA;  proposition that anxiety may particularly influence&#xA;  impulsivity in individuals with an underlying predisposition&#xA;  toward behavioral disinhibition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also worth mentioning perhaps is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.111&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent (and very large) epidemiological study&lt;/a&gt; on the overlaps of ADHD, anxiety, and bipolar (alas without a separate measure of impulsivity):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We examined the relationship between ADHD, anxiety disorders and bipolar disorder in a birth cohort of 2,409,236 individuals born in Denmark between 1955 and 1991. [...]&#xA;  Over 37,394,865 person-years follow-up, 9250 onsets of bipolar disorder occurred. The incidence rate of bipolar disorder was 2.17 (95% CI 2.12–2.19) in individuals with no prior diagnosis of ADHD or anxiety, 23.86 (95% CI 19.98–27.75) in individuals with a prior diagnosis of ADHD only, 26.05 (95% CI 24.47–27.62) in individuals with a prior diagnosis of anxiety only and 66.16 (95% CI 44.83–87.47) in those with prior diagnoses of both ADHD and anxiety. The combination of ADHD and anxiety increased the risk of bipolar disorder 30-fold (95% CI 21.66–41.40) compared with those with no prior ADHD or anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly the link between anxiety and ADHD isn't strong considering the known genetic factors (from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aap8757&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mega study published in Science&lt;/a&gt; this summer), although the genetic link of ADHD with bipolar is significant and so are the genetic links of ADHD with major depression (MDD) (which is even stronger), and of anxiety with depression. Also OCD is (genetically) linked with bipolar but not with ADHD. (Schizophrenia is genetically well-linked to almost everything psychiatric except the anxiety disorders.) Research into genetic causes of most psychiatric disorders can be considered in its infancy through (genetic factors can currently explain only a small fraction of the variance in disorder incidence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MhLpH.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MhLpH.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Yes, I know this is a fairly large divagation from the topic of the question.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-27T11:02:40.603" LastActivityDate="2018-08-27T11:02:40.603" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20556" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-27T10:06:45.420" Score="2" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://adhd-meditatieofmedicatie.nl/images/Meppelink%20-%20Mindfulness%20training%20for%20Childhood%20ADHD.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meppelink et al. (2016)&lt;/a&gt; note that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The effectiveness of mindfulness training for children&#xA;  and adolescents with ADHD has been demonstrated&#xA;  by a number of studies; however, research in&#xA;  this field is limited by a lack of randomised controlled&#xA;  clinical trials with large samples, standardised formats&#xA;  of mindfulness training and objective measures.&#xA;  Further assessment of mindfulness training for childhood&#xA;  ADHD is, therefore, needed. A randomised controlled&#xA;  trial, which compares mindfulness training for&#xA;  ADHD with methylphenidate, is currently being conducted&#xA;  in the Netherlands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has this resulting study been published since then?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-09-20T20:43:55.930" Title="Dutch RCT of mindfulness therapy vs methylphenidate in ADHD" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;mindfulness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20557" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-27T11:09:43.000" Score="3" ViewCount="1879" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aap8757&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mega study&lt;/a&gt; on the genetic correlations of psychiatric (and neurological) disorders published in Science this summer has one interesting non-correlation: between anxiety disorders and PTSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MhLpH.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MhLpH.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are the two (anxiety disorders and PTSD) correlated epidemiologically though? If so, is there a good explanation for the lack of genetic correlation? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T10:38:11.980" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T10:38:11.980" Title="Correlation between anxiety disorders and PTSD" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20558" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20473" CreationDate="2018-08-27T19:30:10.083" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know the effectiveness of chunking depends on (1) test speed and (2) amount of practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At low speed simple techniquest benefit almost everyone a little, even with virtually no practice. Quoting from &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(82)90014-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dempster and Zinkgraf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Recently, in fact, evidence has been found that questions the validity of the assumption&#xA;  that chunking plays a role in digit-span variance. In one experiment,&#xA;  Lyon (1977) presented 12-item digit sequences to adult subjects for whom conventional&#xA;  digit-span estimates were available, and instructed them to think of each&#xA;  successive group of three digits as a three-digit number. The important result was&#xA;  that subjects with high spans (average = 8.3) benefited just as much from the chunking&#xA;  instructions as those with low spans (average = 6.1). Thus, prompting all subjects to&#xA;  impose a common structure on the lists did not produce the convergence of the two&#xA;  groups that would be expected if chunking was the source of differences between&#xA;  subjects in the high- and low-span groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, it does seem plausible that the temporal characteristics of&#xA;  the digit-span task (rapid presentation rate and single trial) simply allow little opportunity&#xA;  for chunking, unless the individual is exceptionally adept at creating&#xA;  chunks (Hunt &amp;amp; Love, 1972, pp. 248-250), or has received an extended period of&#xA;  practice (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a084754.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ericsson, Chase, &amp;amp; Faloon, 1980&lt;/a&gt;; Gates &amp;amp; Taylor, 1925; Martin &amp;amp;&#xA;  Fernberger, 1929). For such an individual, chunking can be a highly successful&#xA;  strategy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;extended practice&quot; mentioned there involves associative techniques not merely chunking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-08-27T19:30:10.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20559" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-27T19:48:41.710" Score="6" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia's page on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive load&lt;/a&gt; starts with&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In cognitive psychology, cognitive load refers to the effort being used in the working memory. Cognitive load theory differentiates cognitive load into three types: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The page does not seem well written because it quickly gets to odd specifics like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;High cognitive load in the elderly has been shown to affect their center of balance.&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-9230(02)00770-0&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;[5]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that first quote a good definition or is too narrow? Is cognitive load really all about working memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-27T19:49:48.600" LastActivityDate="2018-08-27T19:49:48.600" Title="Definition of cognitive load" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;definition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20560" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20543" CreationDate="2018-08-28T07:54:34.010" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain does regulate body functions towards a homeostasis that keeps the organism alive, including starting breathing again if the person is holding their breath, or losing consciousness and slowing breathing again if the person is hyperventilating. The Wikipedia article includes many cases that look speculative. Cardiovascular events like infarction (heart attack) can occur for many reasons, some structural and long-term even if there is a proximate trigger like excessive laughter. So to your first question: It does; to the second, that seems like a poor therapy at best, but sure, is likely to interrupt laughter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Background on cardiovascular disorders: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cardiovascular-disease/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cardiovascular-disease/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Homeostasis - Wikipedia&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&amp;quot;Homeostasis is the state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things. This dynamic state of equilibrium is the condition of optimal functioning for the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance, being kept within certain pre-set limits (homeostatic range).&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Over-breathing: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperventilation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperventilation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-08-28T11:14:32.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20561" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20564" CreationDate="2018-08-28T19:16:36.350" Score="4" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've looked at these &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20250/what-is-the-bias-that-arises-because-a-thing-is-way-more-common-than-the-rest&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/1688/what-is-the-name-of-the-effect-whereby-socialising-in-a-group-reinforces-group-b&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8614/what-is-the-name-of-a-cognitive-bias-by-which-existing-facts-are-tailored-to-fit&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt; and I don't think they answer my question fully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say it's election time and I'm on the fence about who to vote for. I see some survey on the news and seeing party A has more vote intentions, it tends to sway my decision towards party A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Closer to home, I see a question or answer on SE and I may feel swayed to vote +1 or -1 if there are pre-existing votes that have been cast. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would this phenomenon be called (if there is a name for it other than simple influence or conformity)? Also, can there be a bias for going against what the current trend is? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4364" LastEditorUserId="4364" LastEditDate="2018-08-28T19:48:01.343" LastActivityDate="2018-08-28T21:29:02.007" Title="What is the name of the phenomenon that would make me choose A over B because I was influenced by a trend?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20537" CreationDate="2018-08-28T19:17:05.433" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is barely on-topic here (as it's more of an economics question), but &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55834-7_1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kurisu (2016)&lt;/a&gt; says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This chapter provides an overview of pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs). There is no catchall definition or way to categorize PEBs; therefore, I propose various definitions and ways to categorize PEBs. Two main definitions for PEBs are shown here: purpose oriented and fact oriented. [...] I summarize behaviors proposed by various environmental agencies and present a list of 200 PEBs. In the list, the main classification is based on the major targets for reduction, such as greenhouse gases, air pollutants, water pollutants, resource consumption, and disturbance of nature, with 12 categories under the main targets, which are standard in many places. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the whole list is obviously too long to give here, here's an examples table &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/v6FJS.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/v6FJS.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kurisu also notes at least two government lists, one by the UK in Annex A of &lt;a href=&quot;https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/69278/pb13574-behaviours-annexes-080110.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;A Framework for Pro-Environmental Behaviours&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which has something like 30 PEBs and one by the US' EPA, &lt;a href=&quot;https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/www3/epahome/home.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;At Home and in the Garden&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. (There's was also a Japanese one &quot;Challenge 25&quot;, which is a dead link.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas Kurisu doesn't have a chapter on objective measures (only has one on subjective surveys and one on [objective] life-cycle assessment). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there's &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.09.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a (2014) meta-analysis comparing declared with actual PEBs&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do self-reports match objective behavior? We performed a meta-analysis to quantify the association&#xA;  between self-reported and objective measures of proenvironmental behavior, and to evaluate the&#xA;  moderating influence of two socio-demographic and seven methodological moderators. Data from 6260&#xA;  individuals or households, involving 19 measures of association in 15 studies, revealed a positive and&#xA;  nominally large (Cohen, 1988) effect size (r = .46). However, this means that 79% of the variance in the&#xA;  association between self-reported and objective behavior remains unexplained, which is especially&#xA;  troubling given the environmental context. We conclude that although this effect size is conventionally&#xA;  large, it is functionally small for testing theory and devising intervention campaigns, possibly leading&#xA;  researchers to draw misleading conclusions about the usefulness of theories that employ self-reports to&#xA;  predict objective behavior. These findings highlight a crucial need for research that strengthens the&#xA;  validity of self-reports for well-defined types of environmental behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What could be useful from this paper is its list of studies that have performed actual PEB measurements (see their table 1). Alas this isn't too encouraging or creative; there are only two dozen studies or so in that table, and most measured stuff that's easy to measure: energy usage or recycling behavior. Of these, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1026//0012-1924.47.2.88&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaiser (2001)&lt;/a&gt; probably has the most extensive list in a single study, with 14  PEBs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-28T19:47:29.903" LastActivityDate="2018-08-28T19:47:29.903" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20563" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-28T19:19:36.590" Score="1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if anyone knows about a study where people were given a placebo, then told over and over that it was addictive and would have terrible trouble coming off of it. It would be nice if these studies involved a brain scan as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't want to complicate this post, so I won't give my reason for asking this, but if you're interested I'll add it to the comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20141" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-28T22:37:20.437" LastActivityDate="2018-08-29T21:22:59.373" Title="Study about addiction to placebo" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20564" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20561" CreationDate="2018-08-28T20:03:19.550" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwagon_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bandwagon effect&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The bandwagon effect is a phenomenon whereby the rate of uptake of beliefs, ideas, fads and trends increases the more that they have already been adopted by others. In other words, the bandwagon effect is characterized by the probability of individual adoption increasing with respect to the proportion who have already done so. As more people come to believe in something, others also &quot;hop on the bandwagon&quot; regardless of the underlying evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the reason why you were not completely happy with the other questions you found (mostly on social pressure) is that there's perhaps not a single source of &quot;bias&quot; for the bandwagon effect. Depending on the actual phenomenon studied, social pressure or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_cascade&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;information cascades&lt;/a&gt; make more sense as an explanation for a given instance of the bandwagon effect. At least with respect to SE voting patterns, probably the latter makes a bit more sense. The two causes are probably not mutually exclusive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-08-28T20:18:08.090" LastActivityDate="2018-08-28T20:18:08.090" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20568" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20563" CreationDate="2018-08-28T22:36:38.707" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not aware of a more systematic study, but I'm aware of some (old) case reports, best summarized in this 1978 &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.135.8.1000b&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1-para letter-to-the editor&lt;/a&gt; (of AJP):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;SIR: I would like to comment on the interesting paper ‘‘&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.134.3.327&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A&#xA;  Note on the Addictive Personality: Addiction to Placebos”&#xA;  by Ira Mintz, M.D.&lt;/a&gt; (March 1977 issue). Dependence on placebo&#xA;  might not be rare. As far as I know, I published the first&#xA;  case report nine years ago (1). Similar descriptions by Czech&#xA;  authors followed (2, 3). Dr. Mintz’ patients and my patient&#xA;  were schizophrenic, but the other patients never have been&#xA;  psychotic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;REFERENCES&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Vinar O: Dependence on a placebo: a case report. Br J Psychiatry&#xA;  115:1189-1190, 1969&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Boleloucky Z: A contribution to the problem of placebo dependence:&#xA;  case report. Activ Nerv Super(Prague) 13:190-191, 1971&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Honzak R, Horackova E, Culik A: Our experience with the&#xA;  effect of placebo in some functional and psychosomatic disorders.&#xA;  Activ Nerv Super(Prague) 14:184-185. 1972&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-08-29T21:22:59.373" LastActivityDate="2018-08-29T21:22:59.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20571" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6546" CreationDate="2018-08-29T12:55:45.510" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Also consider more fundamental personality differences such as Conscientiousness, &quot;...the personality trait of being careful, or vigilant. Conscientiousness implies a desire to do a task well, and to take obligations to others seriously. Conscientious people tend to be efficient and organized as opposed to easy-going and disorderly. They exhibit a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; they display planned rather than spontaneous behavior; and they are generally dependable.&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be measured along with other major personality factors in the Big Five Inventory (BFI): &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~johnlab/bfi.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~johnlab/bfi.htm&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-08-29T12:55:45.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20572" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-29T13:37:49.070" Score="3" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came across this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-does-the-brain-need-s/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; which states that brain takes about 20% of the body's energy. This is quite a lot compared to its size. Somewhere I read that even if this is a lot, this must be an absolute requirement otherwise by the theory of evolution, such high energy requirement brains would already have been eliminated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is we know evolution is never stationary, so what is the recent trend (last 4000-5000 years) in the usage of brain energy? To me only 2 cases are possible (in an evolutionary stable sense):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We are evolving to require less brain power for the same functionality, but the size of functionality remains same (i.e. we are able to think the same thing with same power requirement).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We are evolving to require more brain power for the same functionality, but the size of functionalities increase(i.e. we are now able to think the bigger things but the power requirement increases).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I might be wrong in the above 2 statements or it may seem redundant, but I am drawing parallels to IC's here in a broader sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also can these generalisations be extended to the evolution of animal brain also?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any kind of speculative answer based on logic would also be nice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17151" LastEditorUserId="17151" LastEditDate="2018-08-31T11:00:09.250" LastActivityDate="2018-08-31T11:00:09.250" Title="How is the human brain evolving?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20578" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20514" CreationDate="2018-08-30T18:39:33.377" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apparently voluntary piloerection is extremely rare amongst the popoluation. Only about 35 people out of about 7.6 billion people in the world have been confirmed to exhibit voluntary piloerection in the scientific literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For piloerection in general, only 2/3 of the population exhibit this trait.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As is stated in the abstract of the cited source below (which discusses voluntarily controlled piloerection), the ability correlates with personality traits of openness to new experiences, and highly emotionally developed parts of the brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Compared to previously collected samples, participants reported significantly higher openness to experience, and absorption in response to aesthetic situations. These preliminary findings suggest that this rare and unusual physiological ability has strong emotional and personality correlates.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://peerj.com/preprints/26594/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://peerj.com/preprints/26594/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19860" LastActivityDate="2018-08-30T18:39:33.377" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20580" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-31T07:01:49.300" Score="4" ViewCount="132" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read with some interest and amusement the following &lt;a href=&quot;https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.5.764&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;first-hand account (2006)&lt;/a&gt; on the confusion surrounding the DSM-IV meaning of &amp;quot;dependence&amp;quot; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of us (C.O.) was a member of the committee who attended every one of the [DSM] committee meetings throughout the 1980s. There was good agreement among committee members as to the definition of addiction, but there was disagreement as to the label that should be used. The proponents of the term “addiction” believed that this word would convey the appropriate meaning of the compulsive drug-taking condition and would distinguish it from “physical” dependence, which is normal and can occur in anyone who takes medications that affect the CNS. Those who favored the term “dependence” felt that this was a more neutral term that could easily apply to all drugs, including alcohol and nicotine. The committee members argued that the word “addiction” was a pejorative term that would add to the stigmatization of people with substance use disorders. &lt;strong&gt;A vote was taken at one of the last meetings of the committee, and the word “dependence” won over “addiction” by a single vote.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Experience over the past two decades has demonstrated that this decision was a serious mistake. The term “dependence” has traditionally been used to describe “physical dependence,” which refers to the adaptations that result in withdrawal symptoms when drugs, such as alcohol and heroin, are discontinued.&lt;/strong&gt; Physical dependence is also observed with certain psychoactive medications, such as antidepressants and beta-blockers. However, the adaptations associated with drug withdrawal are distinct from the adaptations that result in addiction, which refers to the loss of control over the intense urges to take the drug even at the expense of adverse consequences. For example, research has shown that when opiates are administered to a naive animal, adaptation begins to occur after the first dose so that the second dose has a discernibly decreased effect from the first. After several days of taking the medication, abrupt cessation produces a withdrawal syndrome varying with the duration of treatment and the dose level. This is an expected pharmacological response, and although it may occur among addicts, it is quite distinct from compulsive drug-seeking behavior. &lt;strong&gt;This has resulted in confusion among clinicians regarding the difference between “dependence” in a DSM sense, which is really “addiction,” and “dependence” as a normal physiological adaptation to repeated dosing of a medication. The result is that clinicians who see evidence of tolerance and withdrawal symptoms assume that this means addiction, and patients requiring additional pain medication are made to suffer.&lt;/strong&gt; Similarly, pain patients in need of opiate medications may forgo proper treatment because of the fear of dependence, which is self-limiting by equating it with addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors are now in the planning stages for DSM-V. There will be careful reviews of the criteria, but in the case of substance use disorders, the medical world drastically needs a change in labeling. &lt;strong&gt;Addiction is a perfectly acceptable word. It is used by the American Society of Addiction Medicine, the American Association of Addiction Psychiatrists, the American Journal on Addictions, and the oldest journal in the field, simply known as Addiction. It is clear that any harm that might occur because of the pejorative connotation of the word “addiction” would be completely outweighed by the tremendous harm that is now being done to the patients who have had needed medication withheld because their doctors believe that they are addicted simply because they are dependent.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what (if anything) has DMS-5 done with respect to the dependence/addiction terminology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-03T16:26:33.820" Title="&quot;Dependence&quot; in DSM-5" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;dsm&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20581" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-08-31T13:35:51.983" Score="0" ViewCount="221" Body="&lt;p&gt;My experiment is a naming task, in which participants name pictures and their vocal responses are recorded and the onset of vocalization. The data I am dealing with are reaction times in ms and accuracy ( correct answers in percentages. I did the analysis of reaction times and what is left is the accuracy data in which I need your valued help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, just to explain what I have done so far:&#xA;Each subject has an average score results for four conditions: Condition A, scored 10/15 , B 9/15, C 6/15 , and D 7/15. I transferred the discrete numbers into percentages and intended to use a mixed anova as I have One independent variable with two levels and two dependent variables with two level each. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1- Do I have to run a normality test for these data? the data size is over 30?&#xA;2- what if they were not normally distributed? what should I do?&#xA;3- Is transferring data into percentage right or wrong? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20168" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-03T14:56:37.613" LastActivityDate="2018-09-03T14:56:37.613" Title="how to statistically analyse accuracy data (psycholinguistics)" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psycholinguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20582" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20581" CreationDate="2018-08-31T14:24:53.857" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sounds interesting!&#xA;Transferring counts into percentages definitely loses some information: 1/2 is not the same evidence as 100/200, but the difference is lost as a percentage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ANOVA is pretty popular, but as you note in the question it can have problems.&#xA;Because you have the classic linguistics/psych use-case of non-independent data (ie grouped by participant), you probably want to jump on the mixed effects model bandwagon if you possibly can. I hear it's all the rage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some justification/motivation here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jaeger, T. F. (2008). Categorical data analysis: Away from ANOVAs (transformation or not) and towards logit mixed models. Journal of memory and language, 59(4), 434-446.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And R package to do the heavy lifting for you here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/glmm/vignettes/intro.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/glmm/vignettes/intro.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sounds like you have the binomial-input case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-08-31T14:24:53.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20584" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20601" CreationDate="2018-09-01T02:27:28.040" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, do color blind people only able to perceive experienced colors through synesthesia? E.g. if a person both has synesthesia (like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme-color_synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;grapheme-color synesthesia&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;chromesthesia&lt;/a&gt;) and some kind of color blindness (say, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_blindness#Protanopia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;protanopia&lt;/a&gt;, when individual can't experience &quot;red&quot; color) will all his/her synesthetic experiences be tied to the colors experienced? Or can synesthesia make a person feel &quot;new&quot; color (or any other experience)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastActivityDate="2018-09-03T16:15:13.750" Title="Is synesthesia tied to experience?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20585" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20586" CreationDate="2018-09-01T02:43:11.733" Score="2" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe no person is born a criminal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then why do some people have compunctious guilt after a wrongdoing even when they were raised in an unhealthy family and some people have no guilt at all even when they were raised in a healthy family?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why this guilt discrepancy in human beings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19969" LastActivityDate="2018-09-01T09:21:22.940" Title="Why this guilt discrepancy in human beings?" Tags="&lt;human-error&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20586" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20585" CreationDate="2018-09-01T08:48:13.093" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lack of guilt &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3937069/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;is related&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychopathy&lt;/a&gt;, although there could be other reasons for it, e.g. ideological self-justifications, like breaking a law you don't agree with. Psychopathy is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2242349/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;partially inheritable&lt;/a&gt;, which means the genetically-unexplained variance is usually attributed to enivronmetal differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The propensity for guiltlessness is part of a narrower trait (of psychopathy) called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callous_and_unemotional_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;callous-unemotional traits&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, and these can be identified around the age of 7, according to one (fairly cited) study of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00393.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Viding &#xA; et al. (2005)&lt;/a&gt;. Although the abstract of this paper is a bit... abstract, its intro is a bit more insightful what it is talking about:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;‘Mark does not feel guilty if he has done something&#xA;  wrong, he does not show feelings or emotions, and he&#xA;  is rarely helpful if someone is hurt.’ This description&#xA;  of one of the 7-year-old children (name changed) in&#xA;  our twin study captures the core emotional impairment&#xA;  of individuals with psychopathy. Psychopathy&#xA;  in both childhood (psychopathic tendencies) and&#xA;  adulthood involves both affective-interpersonal&#xA;  impairment (callous-unemotional traits; e.g., lack of&#xA;  empathy, lack of guilt, shallow emotions) and overt&#xA;  antisocial behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-01T09:21:22.940" LastActivityDate="2018-09-01T09:21:22.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20587" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-01T11:22:41.237" Score="2" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;Readiness Potential (RP) has been obviously discovered before Lateralized Readiness Potential (LRP). I wonder, is simple RP still used for something today? Is the LRP preferable over RP because of more precise localization of the effect / component?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17021" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-09-14T16:29:49.420" LastActivityDate="2018-09-14T16:29:49.420" Title="Readiness Potential vs. Lateralized Readiness Potential in ERP" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;event-related-potential&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20588" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-01T18:25:14.043" Score="1" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;The graph attached has a logarithmic line, but I can't figure out why. &#xA;Does anyone have any potential justifications with respect to neuroscience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zQ0LE.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zQ0LE.png&quot; alt=&quot;Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20172" LastEditorUserId="20178" LastEditDate="2018-09-02T21:35:53.557" LastActivityDate="2018-09-02T21:35:53.557" Title="Why does the graph have a logarithmic shape? That is, why does the increase rate in %/hr decrease over time?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20591" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20588" CreationDate="2018-09-02T08:13:05.113" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems more like the equation which describes the charge of capacitors (among other phenomenons):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$$y = 1 - e^{-x}$$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wCuTV.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wCuTV.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This function converges to $1$. The property of this function is that it gets closer to $1$ multiplicatively, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the distance of the function from $1$ at $x = 1$, $x = 2$, $x = 3$ is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$x = 1$: distance = $e^{-1} ≈ 0.36788^1$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$x = 2$: distance = $e^{-2} ≈ 0.36788^2$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;$x = 3$: distance = $e^{-3} ≈ 0.36788^3$&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interpretation is that, just like exponential function gets bigger quickly, this function get closer to $1$ quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The image you linked describes the Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve. The meaning of the orange functions is that, after a repetition, you gradually forget learned notions over time. After each repetition, the lower end of the quantity of things you remember increase time by time, until you remember almost everything you learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20178" LastActivityDate="2018-09-02T08:13:05.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20593" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20588" CreationDate="2018-09-02T14:34:48.937" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A really satisfying answer would need a full account of what memory is and how forgetting happens, and the full story on that does not exist yet. But there's been some pretty solid progress since Ebbinghaus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first step towards an answer would be to nail down exactly what shape that curve is.&#xA;There's a careful look in:&#xA;Averell, L., &amp;amp; Heathcote, A. (2011). The form of the forgetting curve and the fate of memories. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 55(1), 25-35.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the TLDR version is that the first-pass description of the shape as logarithmic is pretty ok, there's a power-law rule for forgetting. Interestingly the asymptote doesn't seem to be zero! So some elements of memory seem to be effectively permanent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why and how that works is a bit of a mystery. Averell and Heathcote cite &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Arshavsky,Y.I.(2006). The seven sins of the Hebbian synapse: can the hypothesis of synaptic plasticity explain long-term memory consolidation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;as discussing possible biological mechanisms for the results they found about the shape of the function, so that might be a nice place to start. But I don't think that's the last word on this! It's an ongoing research question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-09-02T14:34:48.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20597" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-02T22:41:38.467" Score="1" ViewCount="340" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bell_Curve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bell curve&lt;/a&gt; is useful for many different branches of science, business, and economics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ is something that defines a person's intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is that Bell curve or Gaussian distribution can fit all the IQs exactly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it naturally given or God-given or what that it should be so Mathematically?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stephen Hawking and Einstein had the IQ 160.&#xA;Bill Gates 170&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IxSPg.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/IxSPg.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19969" LastEditorUserId="19969" LastEditDate="2018-09-02T23:22:07.877" LastActivityDate="2018-09-02T23:22:07.877" Title="How is that Bell Curve can fit all the existing IQs exactly on the graph?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-09-05T17:30:16.583" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20598" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20581" CreationDate="2018-09-03T14:37:28.657" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The comment by @steveLangsford is good. Also, you should always make a habit of checking normality of your statistical tests have it as an assumption. If they are not normal, you can adjust your analyses or use transformations. If they are unmanageably non-normal, the original tests can't be interpreted anyway. Ideally, these decisions and their criteria would be settled before you see the actual data. But it's normal to just transparently disclose what you decided and when in terms of analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-09-03T14:37:28.657" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20599" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2018-09-03T14:57:26.797" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions on the relationships between linguistic behaviour and psychological processes, including the process of language acquisition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-03T14:57:26.797" LastActivityDate="2018-09-03T14:57:26.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20600" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2018-09-03T14:57:26.797" Score="0" Body="For questions on the relationships between linguistic behaviour and psychological processes, including the process of language acquisition." OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-03T14:57:26.797" LastActivityDate="2018-09-03T14:57:26.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20601" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20584" CreationDate="2018-09-03T16:15:13.750" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can synesthesia make a person feel &quot;new&quot; color (or any other experience)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer &lt;strong&gt;may be&lt;/strong&gt; yes. You can find this quote “V. S. Ramachandran and E. M. Hubbard (in their 2001 PRSL paper) described a partially colorblind man with letter-color synesthesia who said that when synesthetically stimulated, he saw colors he had never seen with his eyes—he called these “Martian colors.” Ramachandran and Hubbard subsequently found that “the Martian color effect” might occur in noncolorblind synesthetes as well.” from several websites, such as &lt;a href=&quot;http://psych.colorado.edu/~ketels/Musicophilia2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this site&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.coursehero.com/file/p3qci9u/This-in-itself-makes-musical-keys-absolutely-distinctive-for-him-G-sharp-minor/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this site&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I can’t find the original paper of V. S. Ramachandran and E. M. Hubbard. So, it’s impossible to verify the finding. Also, I can’t find any other reports of such a patient in the literature or any report of non-colorblind synesthetes who experienced “the Martian color effect” either. So, personally, I think this finding and the speculation that “the Martian color effect” might occur in non-colorblind synesthetes as well needs more confirmation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, is there evidence that a person who is color-blind since birth can experience a color that he/she has never experienced before? Will his/her cortical color perception areas, which have never generated the missing color perception, able to generate it when given appropriate stimuli, such as from the eyes after gene therapy that restores the missing cone function in the retina? The answer from animal experiments is yes (for example see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5733843/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ref1&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245628052_Gene_therapy_treatment_of_color_blindness_in_adult_primates&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ref2&lt;/a&gt;). So, potentially, a colorblind brain can still generate a color percept that it has never generated before, when given appropriate stimuli. Theoretically, then, synesthesia may be able to make a person feel “new” color he/she has never felt before if it can deliver appropriate stimuli to the color perception areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2018-09-03T16:15:13.750" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20602" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20580" CreationDate="2018-09-03T16:26:33.820" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To me, the copy of DSM-5 follows the idea put forward by proponents of the term “addiction” in the meetings mentioned in your quote whereby&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;proponents of the term “addiction” believed that this word would convey the appropriate meaning of the compulsive drug-taking condition and would distinguish it from “physical” dependence, which is normal and can occur in anyone who takes medications that affect the CNS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the second page of the preface to DSM-5 (page xlii), the following is stated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Restructuring of substance use disorders for consistency and clarity&lt;/strong&gt;. The categories of substance abuse and substance dependence have been eliminated and replaced with an overarching new category of substance use disorders—with the specific substance used defining the specific disorders. &amp;quot;Dependence&amp;quot; has been easily confused with the term &amp;quot;addiction&amp;quot; when, in fact, the tolerance and withdrawal that previously defined dependence are actually very normal responses to prescribed medications that affect the central nervous system and do not necessarily indicate the presence of an addiction. By revising and clarifying these criteria in DSM-5, we hope to alleviate some of the widespread misunderstanding about these issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The section on &lt;strong&gt;Substance Use Disorders&lt;/strong&gt; is within the section titled &lt;strong&gt;Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders&lt;/strong&gt; which starts on page 481.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The substance-related disorders encompass 10 separate classes of drugs: alcohol; caffeine; cannabis; hallucinogens (with separate categories for phencyclidine [or similarly acting arylcyclohexylamines] and other hallucinogens); inhalants; opioids; sedatives, hypnotics, and anxiolytics; stimulants (amphetamine-type substances, cocaine, and other stimulants); tobacco; and other (or unknown) substances. These 10 classes are not fully distinct. All drugs that are taken in excess have in common direct activation of the brain reward system, which is involved in the reinforcement of behaviors and the production of memories. They produce such an intense activation of the reward system that normal activities may be neglected. Instead of achieving reward system activation through adaptive behaviors, drugs of abuse directly activate the reward pathways. The pharmacological mechanisms by which each class of drugs produces reward are different, but the drugs typically activate the system and produce feelings of pleasure, often referred to as a &amp;quot;high.&amp;quot; Furthermore, individuals with lower levels of self-control, which may reflect impairments of brain inhibitory mechanisms, may be particularly predisposed to develop substance use disorders, suggesting that the roots of substance use disorders for some persons can be seen in behaviors long before the onset of actual substance use itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[...]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The substance-related disorders are divided into two groups: substance use disorders and substance-induced disorders. The following conditions may be classified as substance-induced: intoxication, withdrawal, and other substance/medication-induced mental disorders (psychotic disorders, bipolar and related disorders, depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, sleep disorders, sexual dysfunctions, delirium, and neurocognitive disorders).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-03T16:26:33.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20609" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20557" CreationDate="2018-09-04T16:44:45.173" Score="2" Body="&lt;h1&gt;TLDR&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM-5 recognises the epidemiology of anxiety within PTSD, and the reason for the lack of genetic correlation is the fact that in PTSD, the anxiety is exogenous (environmental) rather than endogenous (biological via genes or other means).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;The debate&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM-5, is the current version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders written by the American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20557/correlation-between-anxiety-disorders-and-ptsd#comment38891_20557&quot;&gt;As highlighted by Fizz&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;surprisingly, it looks like [the classification of PTSD] is not just a naming issue. It looks like there was a big brouhaha about moving PTSD out of anxiety disorders in DSM-5 (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5371751&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pai, Suris, &amp;amp; North 2017&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Changes to the diagnostic criteria from the DSM-IV to DSM-5 include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the relocation of PTSD from the anxiety disorders category to a new diagnostic category named “Trauma and Stressor-related Disorders”,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the elimination of the subjective component to the definition of trauma,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the clarification and tightening of the definitions of trauma and exposure to it,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the increase and rearrangement of the symptoms criteria, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;changes in additional criteria and specifiers.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people even question the validity of such a diagnosis (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119389&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Summerfield, 2001&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Summary points&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;A psychiatric diagnosis is not necessarily a disease&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Distress or suffering is not psychopathology&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Post-traumatic stress disorder is an entity constructed as much from sociopolitical ideas as from psychiatric ones&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The increase in the diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder in society is linked to changes in the relation between individual “personhood” and modern life&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An editorial in the &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; commented that it was rare to find a psychiatric diagnosis that anyone liked to have but post-traumatic stress disorder was one (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.7.963&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Andreasen, 1995&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;The History&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;War Cowardice&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In World War One, the executions of 306 British and Commonwealth soldiers took place (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-one/the-western-front-in-world-war-one/world-war-one-executions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trueman, 2015&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwone/shot_at_dawn_01.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Taylor-Whiffen, 2011&lt;/a&gt;). Such executions, for crimes such as desertion and cowardice, remain a source of controversy with some believing that many of those executed should be pardoned as they were suffering from what later called shell shock, even during World War 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Between 1914 and 1918, the British Army identified 80,000 men with what would now be defined as the symptoms of shellshock. There were those who suffered from severe shell shock. They could not stand the thought of being on the front line any longer and deserted. Once caught, they received a court martial and, if sentenced to death, shot by a twelve man firing squad. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-one/the-western-front-in-world-war-one/world-war-one-executions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trueman, 2015&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Shell Shock&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Shell shock - now called post-traumatic stress disorder - was first recognised in print by Dr Charles Myers of the British Psychological Society in 1915. By the end of the war the army had dealt with more than 80,000 cases. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwone/shot_at_dawn_01.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Taylor-Whiffen, 2011&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Britain was not alone in executing its own soldiers. The French are thought to have killed about 600. The Germans, whose troops outnumbered the British by two to one, shot 48 of their own men, and the Belgians 13. In 2001, 23 executed Canadians were posthumously honoured by their government, and five troops killed by New Zealand's military command also recently won a pardon. Not one American or Australian soldier was executed, but the Americans often used humiliation as a punishment for desertion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;PTSD&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The US &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/ptsd-overview/ptsd-overview.asp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Center for PTSD&lt;/a&gt; covers the start of PTSD being a diagnosis within the DSM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The risk of exposure to trauma has been a part of the human condition since we evolved as a species. Attacks by saber tooth tigers or twenty-first century terrorists have probably produced similar psychological sequelae in the survivors of such violence. Shakespeare's Henry IV appears to meet many, if not all, of the diagnostic criteria for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), as have other heroes and heroines throughout the world's literature. The history of the development of the PTSD concept is described by Trimble (1985).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 1980, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) added PTSD to the third edition of its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) nosologic classification scheme (APA, 1980). Although controversial when first introduced, the PTSD diagnosis has filled an important gap in psychiatric theory and practice. From an historical perspective, the significant change ushered in by the PTSD concept was the stipulation that the etiological agent was outside the individual (i.e., a traumatic event) rather than an inherent individual weakness (i.e., a traumatic neurosis). The key to understanding the scientific basis and clinical expression of PTSD is the concept of &quot;trauma&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;DSM-III&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Page 236 states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, Chronic or Delayed&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  The essential feature is the development of characteristic symptoms following a psychologically traumatic event that is generally outside the range of usual human experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The characteristic symptoms involve reexperiencing the traumatic event; numbing of responsiveness to, or reduced involvement with, the external world; and a variety of autonomic, dysphoric, or cognitive symptoms.&#xA;  The stressor producing this syndrome would evoke significant symptoms of distress in most people, and is generally outside the range of such common experiences as simple bereavement, chronic illness, business losses, or marital conflict. The trauma may be experienced alone (rape or assault) or in the company of groups of people (military combat). Stressors producing this disorder include natural disasters (floods, earthquakes), accidental man-made disasters (car accidents with serious physical injury, airplane crashes, large fires), or deliberate man-made disasters (bombing, torture, death camps). Some stressors frequently produce the disorder (e.g., torture) and others produce it only occasionally (e.g., car accidents). Frequently there is a concomitant physical component to the trauma which may even involve direct damage to the central nervous system (e.g., malnutrition, head trauma). The disorder is apparently more severe and longer lasting when the stressor is of human design. The severity of the stressor should be recorded and the specific stressor may be noted on Axis IV (p. 26).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The current (DSM-5) definition of PTSD (under Specific Phobia: Differential Diagnosis within the Anxiety section of DSM-5)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If the phobia develops following a traumatic event, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) should be considered as a diagnosis. However, traumatic events can precede the onset of PTSD and specific phobia. In this case, a diagnosis of specific phobia would be assigned only if all of the criteria for PTSD are not met (APA, 2013 p.202)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trauma- and stressor-related disorders include&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;disorders in which exposure to a traumatic or stressful event is listed explicitly as a diagnostic criterion. These include reactive attachment disorder, disinhibited social engagement disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), acute stress disorder, and adjustment disorders. Placement of this chapter reflects the close relationship between these diagnoses and disorders in the surrounding chapters on anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, and dissociative disorders. (APA, 2013 p.265)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychological distress following exposure to a traumatic or stressful event is quite variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In some cases, symptoms can be well understood within an anxiety- or fear-based context. It is clear, however, that many individuals who have been exposed to a traumatic or stressful event exhibit a phenotype in which, rather than anxiety- or fear-based symptoms, the most prominent clinical characteristics are anhedonic and dysphoric symptoms, externalizing angry and aggressive symptoms, or dissociative symptoms. Because of these variable expressions of clinical distress following exposure to catastrophic or aversive events, the aforementioned disorders have been grouped under a separate category: trauma- and stressor-related disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;See also: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Psychiatrists/Practice/DSM/APA_DSM-5-PTSD.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5 info. sheet on PTSD&lt;/a&gt; (Free PDF)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;So, to your question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are the two (anxiety disorders and PTSD) correlated epidemiologically? If so, is there a good explanation for the lack of genetic correlation?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DSM-5 recognises the epidemiology of anxiety within PTSD, and the reason for the lack of genetic correlation is the fact that in PTSD, the anxiety is exogenous (environmental) rather than endogenous (biological via genes or other means).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Andreasen, N. C. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder: psychology, biology, and the manichaean warfare between false dichotomies. &lt;em&gt;The American journal of psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 152(7), 963–965. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.7.963&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.7.963&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA (1980). &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders&lt;/em&gt;, (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA (2013). &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders&lt;/em&gt;, (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pai, A., Suris, A. M., &amp;amp; North, C. S. (2017). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the DSM-5: Controversy, Change, and Conceptual Considerations. &lt;em&gt;Behavioral Science&lt;/em&gt;, 7(1), 7. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3390/bs7010007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/bs7010007&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Summerfield, D. (2001). The invention of post-traumatic stress disorder and the social usefulness of a psychiatric category. &lt;em&gt;BMJ : British Medical Journal&lt;/em&gt;, 322(7278), 95–98. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.322.7278.95&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.322.7278.95&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taylor-Whiffen, P. (2011) Shot at Dawn: Cowards, Traitors or Victims? &lt;em&gt;BBC History&lt;/em&gt; [Online] Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwone/shot_at_dawn_01.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwone/shot_at_dawn_01.shtml&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trimble, M. D. (1985). Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: History of a concept. In C.R. Figley (Ed.), &lt;em&gt;Trauma and its wake: The study and treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Brunner/Mazel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trueman, C. N. (2015). World War One executions. &lt;em&gt;The History Learning Site&lt;/em&gt; [Online] Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-one/the-western-front-in-world-war-one/world-war-one-executions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-one/the-western-front-in-world-war-one/world-war-one-executions/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-09-04T16:44:45.173" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20611" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20629" CreationDate="2018-09-04T21:13:49.767" Score="2" ViewCount="157" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can the experience of movement when mentally visualizing the network/structure of the code of a complex application, and the information that flows through the network as a programmer be a kind of synesthesia experience, or is there something else at play? Movement akin to being drawn in different directions or tilting forward, as a result of experiencing the structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20190" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-07T11:12:33.333" LastActivityDate="2021-04-25T15:52:43.510" Title="Kinetic synesthesia evoked by abstract thoughts?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20612" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-05T12:55:53.243" Score="1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for any information that shows the number of hours of CBT per week a child with autism, anxiety, and ADHD should be receiving.  Mostly looking for a range.  Prefer in NJ but will review any case studies done.  Also looking for case studies about therapy and multiple children in the household with developmental disabilities receiving therapy services.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have three children with autism, ADHD, and anxiety.  My children receive limited services through PerformCare in our state.  Each child receives four hours per week.  These hours include an array of rehabilitation an/or habilitation services delivered face to face as a defined set of interventions by clinically licensed or certified practitioners. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.performcarenj.org/pdf/provider/clinicalcriteria/intensive-in-home-services.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.performcarenj.org/pdf/provider/clinicalcriteria/intensive-in-home-services.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.  Originally they were approved for 12 hours per child.  Then Performcare came in and said they were reducing their hours to 4 per week without a titration plan.  Their explanation was that they approved the number of hours by mistake.  I filed an appeal and am now in litigation pro se.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am trying to respond to a motion where their attorney is saying the max amount of intensive in-home clinical and therapeutic services my child can receive are 4 hours per week. They have provided some information about information overload for a child but I am trying to advocate for my son's services.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After cutting the hours they were used to receiving my family went through a terrible regression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20192" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-09-06T09:19:51.223" LastActivityDate="2018-09-06T09:19:51.223" Title="Cognitive Behavior Therapy intensive in home clinical and therapeutic services model" Tags="&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-09-06T10:38:18.053" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20613" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20620" CreationDate="2018-09-05T19:10:59.950" Score="1" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume I'm not the first person to think about this, but I find this idea very useful, and if it works it would really be a major breakthrough (IMO, more important than getting to space).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Animals already have their own &quot;kind-of-language&quot;, but it is based more on feelings, moods, and whatever the sounds/body-language naturally inspire, and not on abstract thought.&#xA;Given that there are primates capable of using sign language, I am left to believe that the barriers preventing animals from learning to speak are not simply their smaller brains, but their inability to pronounce the letters of most human languages and the lack of incentive or a good teacher (human parents are the equivalent language-teacher for the human-baby)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The scenario I though of would be the following (I used chimps as an example, but you can replace it with other animals if you wish):&#xA;A group of world-class language-scientists develop a language with words and letters that can be easily pronounced by chimps. The language could even be constructed to be a very &quot;beginner&quot; language, to ease the learning process, as long as it keeps its properties of being able to express various thoughts and ideas.&#xA;    A few people then spend a some years to learn and practice this language until they can speak it more or less fluently, and adopt a baby chimp (or more) to raise, like a human baby.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are, of course, a lot of details left to discuss. The &quot;parent&quot; should probably form a close bond with the chimp, so that it trusts them and pays attention to them. Luck is also a factor, as maybe only some current chimps would be able to pass this experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In summary, my question is:&lt;/strong&gt; Are there currently any species likely to be able to learn a language specifically made for them? And if yes, is there nobody researching this? I want to talk with my cat!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in your thoughts about this, and in any useful information you might have regarding this subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17256" LastActivityDate="2018-09-06T08:22:51.747" Title="Can't we teach other intelligent animals &quot;complex&quot; languages?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20614" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-05T20:39:14.950" Score="1" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is agreed that Autism Spectrum disorders / Aspergers etc cannot be 'cured'; they can be managed with coping strategies, and suppressed with medicines, but not solved at the root level.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;[Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.autism.org.uk/about/what-is/asd.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;autism is not an illness or disease and cannot be cured&quot;]&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are amazing positive changes available to people through Neuro Linguistic Programming or Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (and many others)...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;[Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cognitive-behavioural-therapy-cbt/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the NHS&lt;/a&gt;, plus do I really have to supply proof that talking - without drugs - can help some people make behavioural changes?!]&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;...but I worry that certain autistic traits are so embedded in the brain that large changes would not be accessible to those on the spectrum.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how do those with autism know &lt;strong&gt;how hard to push themselves&lt;/strong&gt; to improve skills that the rest of the population find easier? E.G. Someone might find that endless hours of effort can help them overcome a pedantic obsession of control/detail... but any time spent trying to halt their adherence to routine is a wasted effort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a way to tell which traits are worth battling, and which are unsolvable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what about people on the borderline (self-diagnosed, or appearing very autistic in some areas but not in others). Are their unwanted traits more easily solvable just because they do not have the full set of symptoms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20196" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-06T09:26:30.830" LastActivityDate="2018-09-06T12:52:35.643" Title="Can a borderline-autistic adult force themselves to improve?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;neuro-linguistic-prog&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20615" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-05T20:41:52.967" Score="3" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;Once upon a time I read an article (or perhaps study/paper - I don't know) regarding different brain activity when referring to / thinking about different people: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your close people, like family &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Your not-so-close people, like friends or the keeper of the shop you usually go to &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;People you don't know like, say, politicians and celebrities&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a chance that I read just crap from the internet (again) [&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt;: I struggled trying to find the article on google but couldn't], but I'd like to know if there is any reliable source for that claim (a peer-reviewed-and-not-yet-dismissed paper, say).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any reliable source (peer-reviewed &amp;amp; non-dismissed research paper - you all understand this matter better than me) regarding that topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11310" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-09-05T21:33:10.450" LastActivityDate="2018-09-07T12:19:08.717" Title="Are there detectable differences in brain activity when thinking about people of different degrees of closeness?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20616" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-05T21:18:17.823" Score="3" ViewCount="2240" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm really confused because it seems to me these terms overlap to some extent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychosomatic disorder&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;psychosomatic&lt;br&gt; adj.&#xA;  1. of or pertaining to a physical disorder that is caused or notably influenced by emotional factors.&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Psychosomatic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;American Heritage Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;psychosomatic&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  1. (Psychology) of or relating to disorders, such as stomach ulcers, thought to be caused or aggravated by psychological factors such as&#xA;  stress&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Psychosomatic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Collins English Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;somatoform disorder (called somatic symptom disorder since DSM-V)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;denoting physical symptoms that can not be attributed to organic&#xA;  disease and appear to be of psychic origin. &lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/somatoform&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Miller-Keane&#xA;  Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied&#xA;  Health&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;denoting physical symptoms that cannot be attributed to organic&#xA;  disease and appear to be psychogenic.&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://Dorland&amp;#39;s%20Medical%20Dictionary%20for%20Health%20Consumers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dorland's Medical&#xA;  Dictionary for Health Consumers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In both cases these terms seem to be used for physical symptoms which rather than being attributed to physical conditions, are based on mental factors, ie., psychogenic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, three of these definitions are framed in terms of &quot;thought to be caused by psychological factors&quot;, &quot;appear to be of psychic origin&quot; and &quot;appear to be psychogenic.&quot; Given that these three terms imply cause is not known with certainty they are idiopathic, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;idiopathic&lt;br&gt; adj.&lt;br&gt; Of, relating to, or designating a disease&#xA;  having no known cause.&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thefreedictionary.com/idiopathic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;American Heritage Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From looking at these two meanings of psychosomatic disorder and somatoform disorder, am I mistaken in perceiving them the same way, or at least confusingly almost the same thing? One says &quot;relating to disorders ... thought to be caused or aggravated by psychological factors&quot; and the other says &quot;denoting physical symptoms ... (that) appear to be of psychic origin.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could someone clarify what the differences are in light of the definitions, which seem quite the same to me?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20197" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-06T07:48:13.643" LastActivityDate="2020-01-09T06:39:00.650" Title="Relationship and differences between psychosomatic, somatoform and idiopathic disorders" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20617" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20618" CreationDate="2018-09-05T21:37:02.200" Score="-2" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a computer science student. I am trying to do my project in &lt;strong&gt;personality judgement&lt;/strong&gt; with &lt;strong&gt;multiple questions&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My idea is to make a &lt;strong&gt;software&lt;/strong&gt; that asks &lt;strong&gt;multiple questions&lt;/strong&gt; from a user and then as a result tell them what type of personality they have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it is quite hard for me to work on personality judgement with questionnaire. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20198" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2018-09-06T05:52:59.793" LastActivityDate="2018-09-06T13:16:40.337" Title="How to measure personality using an internet questionnaire?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2018-09-21T14:22:33.220" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20618" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20617" CreationDate="2018-09-06T05:59:05.177" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, your question suggests that you need to do a lot more reading. It sounds like you need an adviser who knows at least the basics about personality measurement. Perhaps you need to collaborate with a personality researcher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you simply want to administer a personality test and provide feedback to participants, this is fairly straightforward for a personality researcher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a wide range of personality tools that are in the public domain.&#xA;You could look, for example, at some of the measures listed on the IPIP website: &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/newMultipleconstructs.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ipip.ori.org/newMultipleconstructs.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look up the literature on these measures, you might be able to get some basic norms that could inform feedback. Equally, after you have administered a particular test to participants you could develop local norms used to inform feedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also take a few online measures that provide feedback to get a few ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hexaco.org/hexaco-online&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://hexaco.org/hexaco-online&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.personal.psu.edu/~j5j/IPIP/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.personal.psu.edu/~j5j/IPIP/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-09-06T05:59:05.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20619" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20616" CreationDate="2018-09-06T07:47:46.230" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is purely all about terminology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Somatic&lt;/em&gt; means &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dictionary.com/browse/somatic&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;of the body; bodily; physical.&lt;/a&gt; whereas the &lt;em&gt;psycho&lt;/em&gt; part of &lt;em&gt;psychosomatic&lt;/em&gt; refers to the fact that the somatic problem (symptom or disorder) is created through psychological means (with no medical evidence of a physical problem e.g. broken bone and/or torn ligaments).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www2.hawaii.edu/~heiby/overheads_classification.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Symptom&lt;/strong&gt; refers to an observable behaviour or state, whilst &lt;strong&gt;disorder&lt;/strong&gt; refers to a cluster of symptoms.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Somatoform&lt;/em&gt; refers to a physical symptom that cannot be attributed to organic disease and appears to be psychogenic (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dictionary.com/browse/somatic&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers, 2007&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Somatoform &lt;strong&gt;disorder&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; refers to a set of psychosomatic symptoms (somatoforms) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5798205&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smith &amp;amp; Józefowicz, 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Idiopathic, as you pointed out is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of, relating to, or designating a disease having no known cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further clarification&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychosomatic is a word describing a somatoform.  A psychological problem is a somatised (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3074701&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Al Busaidi, 2010&lt;/a&gt;), and therefore is producing the experience of somatic symptoms, which are in fact psychogenic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a medical problem is considered &lt;em&gt;idiopathic&lt;/em&gt;, the issue of whether it is somatic or psychosomatic is not determined. It &lt;strong&gt;cannot be both &lt;em&gt;psychosomatic&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;idiopathic&lt;/em&gt; at the same time&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Al Busaidi, Z. Q. (2010). The concept of somatisation: a cross-cultural perspective. &lt;em&gt;Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal&lt;/em&gt;, 10(2), 180. Pubmed: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3074701&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3074701&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers. (2007). Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/somatoform&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/somatoform&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, J. K., &amp;amp; Józefowicz, R. F. (2012). Diagnosis and treatment of somatoform disorders. &lt;em&gt;Neurology: Clinical Practice&lt;/em&gt;, 2(2), 94-102. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1212/CPJ.0b013e31825a6183&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1212/CPJ.0b013e31825a6183&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-06T09:16:51.363" LastActivityDate="2018-09-06T09:16:51.363" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20620" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20613" CreationDate="2018-09-06T08:22:51.747" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many researchers into animal language have presented results of studies as evidence of linguistic abilities in animals. Many of their conclusions have been disputed (Jannedy, Poletto, &amp;amp; Weldon, 1994; Wallman, 1992).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is now generally accepted that apes can learn to sign and are able to communicate with humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Smithsonian Institution &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/six-talking-apes-48085302/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;talked about apes communicating&lt;/a&gt; and the following are YouTube videos of a gorilla communicating through sign language&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/SNuZ4OE6vCk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Conversation With Koko&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/I9I_QvEXDv0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koko signing with Robin Williams (with translation in subtitles)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jannedy, S., Poletto, R., &amp;amp; Weldon, T. L. (Eds.). (1994). &lt;em&gt;Language files: materials for an introduction to language &amp;amp; linguistics&lt;/em&gt;. Ohio State University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wallman, J. (1992). &lt;em&gt;Aping Language&lt;/em&gt;. Cambridge University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-06T08:22:51.747" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20621" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-06T09:14:56.270" Score="2" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;There seems to exist a phenomenon where being aware of one's feelings gives us power over them. I have seen this in everyday life, but the strongest piece of evidence I've seen is from a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZcDLzppD4Jc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;talk by UCLA Psychology professor Dan Siegel&lt;/a&gt; who talks about his research putting people in brain scanners and getting them to name their emotions, and he says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If you can get her left brain to name the emotion, her left brain will&#xA;  squirt soothing neurotransmitters into her lower brain&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: why do we have this mechanism? Do we have any idea how it evolved and what sort of evolutionary pressures or environments led to it? (Should I be asking Siegel himself? :P)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20199" LastActivityDate="2018-09-06T09:14:56.270" Title="Why does &quot;name it to tame it&quot; work from an evolutionary psychology perspective?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20624" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-06T18:28:10.333" Score="3" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's suppose I trained my dog to touch a button and win a prize in random sequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I want to make this behavior become extinct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the fastest way:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Not allow my dog to see the button for a time, after that the dog will see the button but not react.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Allow him to touch the button indefinitely until my dog stops.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7290" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-06T18:48:49.127" LastActivityDate="2018-09-07T03:38:29.197" Title="What is the fastest way to make an intermittent reinforced behavior become extinct?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20625" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-06T19:10:50.973" Score="2" ViewCount="7159" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone explain the main differences in an easy to understand way between gestalt therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which is better suitable in which situations? I read some articles online but I still don't have a clear picture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20204" LastEditorUserId="1259" LastEditDate="2020-01-23T06:10:35.030" LastActivityDate="2020-01-23T06:10:35.030" Title="What are the main differences between gestalt therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;&lt;gestalt-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20627" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-07T00:53:18.160" Score="3" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do neuroscientists define current/current densities in artificial neural networks? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume I have some deep network and I would like to study its dynamic/evolution in time during the training session what kind of model are there to study the flow?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe there is some information I can extract from the PDE's of back-propagation? or some evolution of the Graph &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$G=(V,E)$&lt;/span&gt; in time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14851" LastEditorUserId="14851" LastEditDate="2018-09-24T11:26:25.660" LastActivityDate="2018-09-24T11:26:25.660" Title="How to define &quot;current&quot; in artificial neural network?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20628" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20624" CreationDate="2018-09-07T03:38:29.197" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The fastest way to extinct any behavior is negative reinforcement. But except few specific cases (e.g. self-biting), it's pretty much unethical. Regarding your 2 hypotheses: hypothesis 2 is the classical extinction paradigm. It will first get worse: the animal will repeatedly, almost obsessively, touch the button hoping for a reward. But it will eventually fade away (think weeks for total extinction though). Hypothesis 1 is hard to predict. I'm quite sure the dog will press the button if it remembers it (even after durations longer than in hypothesis 2). But it will probably fade away very quickly. In any case, this would avoid distress and confusion the animal would experience when pressing the button and not getting rewards. Whether it is faster or not is honestly anyone's guess and would presumably depend on how long you trained your dog, how big were the rewards he got and how memorable the button is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2018-09-07T03:38:29.197" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20629" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20611" CreationDate="2018-09-07T11:11:23.877" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;No.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The definition of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.synesthete.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is generally as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a perceptual condition of mixed sensations: a stimulus in one sensory modality (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, hearing) involuntarily elicits a sensation/experience in another modality (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; vision). Likewise, perception of a form (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, a letter) may induce an unusual perception in the same modality (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; a color).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most common form of synesthesia is thought to be colored hearing: sounds, music or voices seen as colors. Most synesthetes report that they see such sounds internally, in &quot;the mind's eye.&quot; Only a minority see visions as if projected outside the body, usually within arm's reach (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/mar01/synesthesia.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the discussions I've had with peers in that field reported to work with people that see letters and numbers to have a particular color. Indeed &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/brain/what-is-synesthesia#1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt; reports that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of the most common responses [of synesthetes] is to see letters, numbers, or sounds as colors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, I think that synesthesia often (but see the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/mar01/synesthesia.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA site&lt;/a&gt;) manifests itself through relatively 'simple' visuals brought about by relatively 'simple' stimuli. The number '4' appears to be green &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;. In contrast, the highly cognitive complex associations you are envisioning seem unlikely to occur. Further, synesthesia is mostly coupled to the senses of vision and hearing, and not to motor functions. So, to answer your question, no I don't think so. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-07T22:44:28.230" LastActivityDate="2018-09-07T22:44:28.230" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20630" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-07T11:31:20.993" Score="5" ViewCount="334" Body="&lt;p&gt;Certain groups perform worse on IQ tests than other. How do psychologists ensure that those differences aren't purely related to differing levels of education between those groups?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do we know that IQ is a real phenomenon, and not just a purely social factor based on level of intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20208" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-07T12:34:42.470" LastActivityDate="2018-09-07T18:49:46.347" Title="How do psychologists ensure they are measuring innate intelligence and not just education?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20631" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18976" CreationDate="2018-09-07T12:05:50.777" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found this related Wikipedia article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber_duck_debugging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber_duck_debugging&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rubber duck debugging&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In software engineering, rubber duck debugging or rubber ducking is a&#xA;  method of debugging code. The name is a reference to a story in the&#xA;  book The Pragmatic Programmer in which a programmer would carry around&#xA;  a rubber duck and debug their code by forcing themselves to explain&#xA;  it, line-by-line, to the duck.[1] Many other terms exist for this&#xA;  technique, often involving different inanimate objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many programmers have had the experience of explaining a problem to&#xA;  someone else, possibly even to someone who knows nothing about&#xA;  programming, and then hitting upon the solution in the process of&#xA;  explaining the problem. In describing what the code is supposed to do&#xA;  and observing what it actually does, any incongruity between these two&#xA;  becomes apparent. More generally, teaching a subject forces its&#xA;  evaluation from different perspectives and can provide a deeper&#xA;  understanding. By using an inanimate object, the programmer can try&#xA;  to accomplish this without having to interrupt anyone else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13175" LastActivityDate="2018-09-07T12:05:50.777" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20632" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20615" CreationDate="2018-09-07T12:19:08.717" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This domain is extensively explored as a &quot;self-referential processing&quot;&#xA;The largest difference between self vs. non-self is higher activation for self-relatad activation of medial posterior and frontal regions &#xA;(e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://davidcjohnson.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/self-ref-vs-valence.png?w=694&amp;amp;zoom=2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://davidcjohnson.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/self-ref-vs-valence.png?w=694&amp;amp;zoom=2&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;Those two regions are part of the Default Mode Network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the most prominent researchers is Georg Northoff: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.ca/citations?user=-w-9zOQAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://scholar.google.ca/citations?user=-w-9zOQAAAAJ&amp;amp;hl=en&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;You can check his reviews and found references to many additional studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17021" LastActivityDate="2018-09-07T12:19:08.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20633" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20627" CreationDate="2018-09-07T12:24:00.127" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In artificial neural networks currents are not involved, other than those flowing &lt;em&gt;in silico&lt;/em&gt; in your pc. Instead, those currents are represented by weighted mathematical functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Artificial neural networks as applied in machine learning (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://machinelearningmastery.com/what-is-deep-learning/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;deep learning&lt;/a&gt;) perform stuff like automatic feature extraction from raw data, also called feature learning. These models are algorithms that have little to do with the basic physiology of neurons. Hence, current/current density is not a matter of interest. It's the coupling between elements that matters, namely which cells couple to which cells and how strong that interaction is (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A given node [(Fig. 1)] takes the weighted sum of its inputs, and&#xA;  passes it through a non-linear activation function. This is the output&#xA;  of the node, which then becomes the input of another node in the next&#xA;  layer. The signal flows from left to right, and the final output is&#xA;  calculated by performing this procedure for all the nodes. Training&#xA;  this deep neural network means learning the weights associated with&#xA;  all the edges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://towardsdatascience.com/applied-deep-learning-part-1-artificial-neural-networks-d7834f67a4f6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Towards Science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, there is no current involved, only weighted functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TL8Ix.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TL8Ix.png&quot; alt=&quot;ANN&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Artificial neural network. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://towardsdatascience.com/applied-deep-learning-part-1-artificial-neural-networks-d7834f67a4f6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Towards Science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-13T09:09:44.523" LastActivityDate="2018-09-13T09:09:44.523" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20634" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20630" CreationDate="2018-09-07T12:28:07.763" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Any intelligence test will be designed for a certain target population. That target population's score is set at an index of 100 for the standard IQ test. The same test applied to people from a different cultural background, or other socioeconomic status may yield numbers that are unreliable, as they my not understand the question (albeit knowing the answer), or they may lack the vocabulary, or even interest altogether.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;IQ is highly dependent on education; For instance, an illiterate person cannot perform an IQ test at all. And indeed, education can generally affect IQ scores (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/ije/article/39/5/1362/802787&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dear &amp;amp; Johnson, 2010&lt;/a&gt;). Further, IQ tests are Western constructs and do not apply in many other cultures. So IQ tests are anything but objective. They only apply validly to compare people with a certain educational background. Bush people in the outbacks of Africa may not use numbers at all, but instead may rely on 'one', 'two', perhaps' three' and 'many'. They may be highly intelligent, we simply cannot assign a number to it, simply because they don't care about numbers, geometry, classifications, logic, and other standard components of IQ tests. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/monitor/feb03/intelligence.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA&lt;/a&gt; says rightfully &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Researchers of cultural differences in intelligence &lt;strong&gt;face a major challenge&lt;/strong&gt;, however: balancing the desire to compare people from various cultures according to a standard measure with the need to assess people in the light of their own values and concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/ije/article/39/5/1362/802787&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dear &amp;amp; Johnson, &lt;em&gt;Int J Epidemiol&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;39&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 1362–9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-07T18:49:46.347" LastActivityDate="2018-09-07T18:49:46.347" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20635" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20630" CreationDate="2018-09-07T15:26:46.990" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a research psychologist. I don't agree with some of the assertions by @AliceD above. A lot of the disagreement on this topic is about what we mean when we say intelligence, so it would be helpful to define what you mean by IQ. To a psychologist, IQ refers to a specific measure, not the general construct of intelligence. Certainly the use of measure matters a lot:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Discussion of what intelligence means across cultures: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/monitor/feb03/intelligence.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/monitor/feb03/intelligence.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The original IQ tests such as the Stanford-Binet were more culturally dependent, similar to the infamous SAT question about a 'regatta', which is a term that certain income and ethnic groups learn about more frequently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, for decades cognitive scientists measure intelligence with diverse methods, many without words at all (so there's less room for some types of bias). Performance on these tasks all correlate positively in populations, and are taken to indicate a stable underlying trait: g for general intelligence. Education improves g, but not very much! About 1 IQ point per year of education, or ~1/15th a standard deviation per year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The biggest effects on g are genetic mutations, lead exposure, malnutrition, stuff like that. All g outcomes are complex interactions between genes and environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Accessible, affordable, brief book of the research that addresses many misunderstandings: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Intelligence-That-Matters-Stuart-Ritchie/dp/1444791877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Intelligence-That-Matters-Stuart-Ritchie/dp/1444791877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About the original question, if one measures education and g separately, one can see whether variation in one is due to variation in the other. That's how psychologists assess independence. These are reliably linked, but only weakly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-09-07T15:26:46.990" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20636" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-07T18:42:17.980" Score="2" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;To be honest, I don't know how bullies' systems work in the US or other western countries, but I think everywhere is similar. I will describe some &lt;em&gt;pattern&lt;/em&gt; I noticed in bullying and the question is &lt;strong&gt;what psychology knows about the reasons of this specific pattern&lt;/strong&gt;. The pattern is when a bully in the street starts assault on a prey, he starts by conversation, usually, by asking something. And sometimes there is no &quot;right answer&quot; and aim is just to beat the prey. Why the bully doesn't start straightforward from beating the prey? Here, I am not talking about the bullies whose aim just to take money or something valuable, but about the bullies who want to beat the prey despite everything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In answers, I hope to find some research papers where this question is covered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20210" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-09-08T18:59:44.937" LastActivityDate="2018-09-08T18:59:44.937" Title="Bully psychology" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-09-11T18:34:09.207" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20638" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-07T23:29:05.507" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;How can someone get rid of a belief that he thinks is not true, but at the same time he still suffers guilt whenever he is not acting in accord with that belief?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an example that I made up to explain what I mean:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine a child that was raised on the fact that he was not allowed to make loud noises by either turning the TV volume too loud or by any other means, otherwise the neighbors in the apartment building might complain and call the police. Let's say that he's now a grown man who lives in a large house on a large piece of land, however, he still experiences guilt whenever he makes any loud noise. He is fully conscious of the fact that his guilt is irrational and there is no problem with making a loud noise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18170" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-09-08T00:13:00.270" LastActivityDate="2018-09-08T00:13:00.270" Title="How can one get rid of a subconsciously persistent belief?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-10-12T19:46:36.260" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20639" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-08T08:10:12.710" Score="-1" ViewCount="437" Body="&lt;p&gt;In quantum physics, there is a topic on something called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrocausality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retrocausality&lt;/a&gt;, which addresses whether the future can affect the present and whether the present can affect the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of deja vu and dreams, are they the result of future information being transferred to the present/past?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually, I'm wondering whether psychology and quantum physic are related in any way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20214" LastEditorUserId="2949" LastEditDate="2018-12-24T16:11:46.307" LastActivityDate="2018-12-24T16:11:46.307" Title="The relationship on deja vu, dream and retrocausality?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20641" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20642" CreationDate="2018-09-08T18:18:51.150" Score="3" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose that we want to find the &quot;largest level&quot; of a random noise that can safely be added to an image such that the resultant noisy image cannot be distinguishable from the original noise-free image. For this purpose, we design the following subjective experiment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let I be the reference (noise-free) image. We first add a high level of noise to I to get a noisy image J. We then display I and J side by side, and ask a user to reduce the level of the noise in J gradually using a slider until he/she cannot distinguish between the reference image and the noisy image. The resultant level is then considered as the largest level of imperceptible noise for I.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But do you think that this experiment is technically sound? Also, can we use an adaptive procedure like QUEST to find the desired threshold/noise level? What do you think?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20220" LastActivityDate="2018-09-13T22:24:32.057" Title="Finding largest level of imperceptible noise in an image" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20642" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20641" CreationDate="2018-09-08T20:06:24.707" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are describing two classical psychophysical techniques. The first one is called matching: you try to perceptually match stimulus J to stimulus I. The problem I can see here is that under the level of noise for which the two images are indiscriminable (called absolute threshold), any value would be a match, so that's an ambiguous task. There is another technique where you would ask your observer to press a button when she first notices a difference between the two images while the noise is slowly increasing. You alternate with trials where the observer reports when she cannot perceive a difference between the two images while the noise is slowly decreasing (these values will be different because of perceptual hysteresis). Then you take the average of these values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second technique is called a 2-alternative forced choice task. It's the technique used by most psychophysical studies today. There are different ways you could implement it but the simplest would be to ask your observer which of 2 images displayed simultaneously (or successively) contains noise. Then you can indeed use an adaptive technique such as QUEST, a fixed-step staircase or any of the hundreds of staircases that exist to find the threshold at which your observer is N% correct (N being an arbitrary value you fix in advance).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A last technique could be useful. If you want to find not only the threshold at which your observer can perceive noise but the entire function that links noise level to perceived &quot;noisiness&quot;, then you could use Maximum Likelihood Difference Scaling. See the paper below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any psychophysics textbook would do, this a very good one:&#xA;Kingdom, F. A., &amp;amp; Prins, N. (2010). Psychophysics: A practical introduction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MLDS technique:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2192635&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2192635&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastEditorDisplayName="user17122" LastEditDate="2018-09-13T22:24:32.057" LastActivityDate="2018-09-13T22:24:32.057" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20643" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-09T01:53:44.373" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that when I sleep during the daytime (even if it's for as little as 5 minutes), later on that night I won't simply fall asleep normally. I'll begin to fall asleep aware of the entire gradual process, and eventually I'm placed into a lucid world. The entire process is enforced by accepting the sleep paralysis and just going with it, which is usually accompanied by this weird pressure-like sensation within my ears. However that dream state only lasts for a good of 3 or so minutes and then I wake back up, only to fall asleep again... this time normally. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20222" LastActivityDate="2018-09-09T01:53:44.373" Title="How come sleeping during the day induces lucid dreaming and sleep paralysis later on at night?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-09-09T19:44:32.610" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20644" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19298" CreationDate="2018-09-09T11:01:50.497" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not believe compartmentalization  is the answer to the original question. The original question is about naming, identifying, not separating which is compartmentalization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two people can have exactly the same knowledge and one can compartmentalize and the other cannot.  The fallout of that is that one person may have more anxiety than the other  as they are not as adept at resolving the cognitive dissonance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the answer to the original question is “distinguishing” – formalizing, giving identity, objectifying. When something is objectified it can now have be assigned characteristics which allow a decision to be made about it’s framing, compartmentalization, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The feeling of inadequacy, imposter syndrome, is the fallout of not being able to objectify ones role, their subjective being. A plumber is never “really&quot; a plumber In the same way that a pebble stays a pebble until it’s not pebble anymore (perhaps it was crushed into powder). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Plumber&quot; is the name of their role at the moment (which speaks to the description, and value in self-therapy, of &quot;acting&quot; that was previously mentioned.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since that role can always change a person can never actually know who they &quot;really are&quot; because they really are not anyone (any one, any single) person. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As there is no way to objectify oneself to oneself then who a person “really is“ is unknown which can result in anxiety (imposter, fraud).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19555" LastEditorUserId="19555" LastEditDate="2018-09-10T16:44:32.903" LastActivityDate="2018-09-10T16:44:32.903" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20645" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-09T18:42:27.110" Score="5" ViewCount="277" Body="&lt;p&gt;I keep hearing that &quot;*Heroine is &lt;em&gt;so&lt;/em&gt; addictive the very first dose is enough to get you hooked on it*&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I have a hard time believing any substance could do that to you.&#xA;But I could believe people spreading that idea to discourage people from consuming it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now obviously, I have zero desire to test that hypothesis myself. :P&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still, I'm curious. Does anybody know papers that shed some light on this matter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20226" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-09T19:40:34.730" LastActivityDate="2018-09-10T02:35:55.393" Title="How addictive is Heroine?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20646" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-09T19:28:07.387" Score="1" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a friend who experienced a cannabis induced psychosis about 5 years ago. He was on seroquel for about 4 years. However, since seroquel caused intense side effects, he decided to stop it cold turkey 8 months ago. At first he had very bad symptoms, which got weaker and weaker for 4 months. However, after 8 months abstinence, his psychotic symptoms returned in full force.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why would the return of the psychotic symptoms take 8 months to return after abstinence from the drug? What does that tell us?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17467" LastActivityDate="2018-09-09T19:28:07.387" Title="Why would psychotic symptoms return 8 months after stopping seroquel instead of immediately?" Tags="&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-09-09T19:44:02.910" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20645" CreationDate="2018-09-09T19:39:58.787" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Addicition is defined as: &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;repeated involvement with a substance or activity, despite the substantial harm it now causes, because that involvement was (and may continue to be) pleasurable and/or valuable&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. The 'repeated involvement' basically excludes any drug from a diagnosis of addiction after first-time use. Addiction is a behavioral dependence characterized by repeated and prolonged abuse. So because of the criteria needed to be medically 'addicted', a one-time drug use cannot lead to a diagnosis of addiction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This question is a matter of definition. The question hinges on the use of the term 'addiction'. Addiction is diagnosed as such using the following criteria: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Impaired control&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social impairment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Risky use&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pharmacological indicators (tolerance and withdrawal) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Impaired control&lt;/strong&gt; may be evidenced in several different ways, namely 1) using for longer periods of time than intended, or using larger amounts than intended; 2) Wanting to reduce use, yet being unsuccessful doing so; 3) Spending excessive time getting/using/recovering from the drug use; 4) Cravings that are so intense it is difficult to think about anything else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Social impairment&lt;/strong&gt; is related to the addiction being defined as &lt;strong&gt;repeated involvement with a substance or activity, despite the substantial harm it now causes, because that involvement was (and may continue to be) pleasurable and/or valuable&lt;/strong&gt;. Social impairment is one type of substantial harm (or consequence) caused by the repeated use of a substance or an activity. For example, people may continue to use despite problems with work, school or family/social obligations. This might include repeated work absences, poor school performance, neglect of children, or failure to meet household responsibilities. Addiction may also be indicated when someone continues substance use despite having interpersonal problems because of the substance use. This could include arguments with family members about the substance use, or losing important friendships because of continued use. In addition, important and meaningful social and recreational activities may be given up or reduced because of substance use. A person may spend less time with their family, or they may stop playing golf with their friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Risky Use&lt;/strong&gt;; the key issue of this criterion is the failure to refrain from using the substance despite the harm it causes, as addiction may be indicated when someone repeatedly uses substances in physically dangerous situations. For instance, using alcohol or other drugs while operating machinery or driving a car. Some people continue to use addictive substances even though they are aware it is causing or worsening physical and psychological problems. An example is the person who continues to smoke cigarettes despite having a respiratory disorder such as asthma or COPD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pharmacological indicators&lt;/strong&gt;: Tolerance and Withdrawal. For many people, tolerance and withdrawal are the classic indicators of advanced addiction. As such, these are particularly important concepts. This criterion refers to the adjustment the body makes as it attempts to adapt to the continued and frequent use of a substance. Tolerance occurs when people need to increase the amount of a substance to achieve the same desired effect. Withdrawal is the body's response to the abrupt cessation of a drug, once the body has developed a tolerance to it. The resulting cluster of (very unpleasant and sometimes fatal) symptoms is specific to each drug. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person needs to meet at least 2 of these criteria to be diagnosed with a substance-use disorder. The severity of addiction is determined by the number of criteria met. In any of the criteria a matter of prolonged use is characteristic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.asam.org/resources/definition-of-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;craving&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is also included in the criteria list.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amhc.org/1408-addictions/article/48502-the-diagnostic-criteria-for-substance-use-disorders-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ASAM&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amhc.org/1408-addictions/article/48502-the-diagnostic-criteria-for-substance-use-disorders-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Horvath &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., AMHC (2017)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-09T19:48:01.037" LastActivityDate="2018-09-09T19:48:01.037" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20648" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-09T20:52:27.517" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;When performing EEG, a number of electrodes are placed on the scalp to measure the electric potential difference between those locations and a reference. In the unipolar configuration, the reference is often the signal on another electrode (and is common to all measurement electrodes) or an average of the all measurement electrodes. In the bipolar configuration, the reference is specific to each measurement electrode (and is often another electrode located nearby). For examples, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/86zIa3pGM50&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5479869/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For the unipolar configuration, why can't we just use Earth ground as our reference instead of having a reference electrode or performing an average of measurements on all the electrodes?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For the bipolar configuration, if the electrodes are too close to each other, wouldn't we measure very low voltages since much of the signal appearing on one electrode would also be picked up by the other?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13000" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-09T22:04:50.030" LastActivityDate="2018-09-09T22:04:50.030" Title="Reference signal when measuring EEG" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20648" CreationDate="2018-09-09T22:04:18.197" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For the unipolar configuration, why can't we just use Earth ground as&#xA;  our reference instead of having a reference electrode or performing an&#xA;  average of measurements on all the electrodes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ground has a different function than the reference. The reference is the electrode that the voltage is recorded against; a voltage is a potential difference so you need two electrodes. The ground is used for common mode rejection. The primary purpose of the ground is to prevent power line noise from interfering with the small biopotential signals of interest (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.biopac.com/knowledge-base/ground-vs-reference-for-eeg-recording/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biopac&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For the bipolar configuration, if the electrodes are too close to each&#xA;  other, wouldn't we measure very low voltages since much of the signal&#xA;  appearing on one electrode would also be picked up by the other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes. The smaller the distance, the better the rejection of unwanted signals. But with that, you're also risk to throw away the baby with the bath water. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-09-09T22:04:18.197" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20651" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20645" CreationDate="2018-09-10T02:35:55.393" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;The United Nations World Drug Report 2013 estimated that approximately 16.5 million people worldwide aged 15 or older used heroin or opium. Of these users, approximately 23% are estimated to develop opioid dependence.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is from the introduction section of Hser, Y. I., Evans, E., Grella, C., Ling, W., &amp;amp; Anglin, D. (2015). Long-term course of opioid addiction. Harvard review of psychiatry, 23(2), 76-89.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They cite:&#xA;United Nations Office on Drug and Crime. World drug report 2013. Vienna: UNODC, 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;amp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anthony JC, Warner LA, Kessler RC. Comparative epidemiology of dependence on tobacco, alcohol, controlled substances, and inhalants: basic findings from the National Comorbidity Survey. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 1994; 2: 244–68.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are various factors that push that probability up or down, sex, age, personality factors, circumstantial factors, some people would have a higher probability, some lower. But the base-rate probability is roughly 1 in 4. For perspective, it's worse odds than Russian roulette (1 in 6), but better odds than unprotected sex leading to an unplanned pregnancy (somewhere around 1 in 3, depending on various things). If you're comfortable with the folk-wisdom of either &quot;Russian roulette will kill you&quot; or &quot;sex leads to pregnancy&quot; you should also be comfortable with the statement &quot;heroin will get you hooked&quot;. Sure, they're all approximations, but not terribly misleading ones. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-09-10T02:35:55.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20652" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-10T04:47:50.557" Score="4" ViewCount="644" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you google &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;IQ gap race&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and open the google images, you will see many diagrams showing the differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wWbXk.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wWbXk.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I went on some IQ test pages, and I noticed that the test includes mathematical questions, that have nothing or less to do, with IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is:&#xA;if your school you went to is bad, you will have less knowledge after leaving it. For example solving a mathematical question formulated in an IQ test. You cannot solve, but others will be able to solve, because they dealt with it in school, and you didn't. But the real IQ is the same.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what I am asking is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;does a non-knowledge based, or knowledge corrected IQ test exist, and what are its results per race?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20157" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2019-11-11T00:32:21.727" LastActivityDate="2019-11-11T00:32:21.727" Title="Does a non-knowledge based, or knowledge corrected IQ test exist, and what are its results per race?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="24" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20653" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20654" CreationDate="2018-09-10T05:56:03.213" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Previous research lends support to the view that the &lt;strong&gt;negative affect component&lt;/strong&gt; of well-being is strongly associated with neuroticism and that &lt;strong&gt;positive affect component&lt;/strong&gt; has a similar association with extraversion. This research also supports the view that positive emotions—central components of well-being—are not merely the opposite of negative emotions, but are independent dimensions of mental health that can, and should be fostered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emphasis mine. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/hrqol/wellbeing.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9886" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-10T07:51:10.073" LastActivityDate="2018-09-10T07:58:03.503" Title="What does &quot;affect component&quot; mean in this article on well-being?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20654" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20653" CreationDate="2018-09-10T07:58:03.503" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the CDC page you linked states,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Well-being integrates mental health (mind) and physical health (body) resulting in more holistic approaches to disease prevention and health promotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mental health and physical health are the 2 main components to well-being, and both these components have components within them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mental health will have &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellmind.com/positive-affect-and-stress-3144628&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;positive affects&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;negative affects&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; as 2 of its components.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-09-10T07:58:03.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20657" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-11T03:32:17.500" Score="5" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;What happens in the brain that allows you access to a memory previous unavailable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example I forgot the name of someone I've known for years. Two weeks later, without notice, &quot;Diana&quot; popped up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why was it not accessible when I found I couldn't remember?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What was the chemistry that occurred that allowed it to happen later?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Secondarily, is this the same breakdown in dementia and alzheimer's? That is, a breakdown of the 'search memory' mechanism? Or is that the memories themselves are 'losing coherence.') &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19555" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-11T08:48:20.197" LastActivityDate="2018-09-11T12:11:56.450" Title="What happens in the brain that allows access to a previous unavailable memory?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20658" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20512" CreationDate="2018-09-11T08:30:42.227" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This type of engaged learning is referred to as active learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In contrast to the traditional, mostly passive ways of teaching (one-way lecturing), nowadays there's a trend to &lt;a href=&quot;https://cei.umn.edu/active-learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;active learning&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Active learning is any approach to instruction in which all students are asked to engage in the learning process. Active learning stands in contrast to &quot;traditional&quot; modes of instruction in which students are passive recipients of knowledge from an expert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/mbe.12117&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Markant &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; (2016)&lt;/a&gt; explain in a review article that active learning leads to better outcomes than passive forms of instruction. They summarize that the opportunity to control the information while learning leads to improved memory. Mechanisms involved in this effect include the formation of &lt;strong&gt;sensorimotor associations&lt;/strong&gt;, adaptive selection of material and metacognitive monitoring. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Active control over a learning situation results in large areas of the brain being recruited and interconnected during active exploration (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/news/2010/12/06/how-active-learning-improves-memory/21563.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psych Central&lt;/a&gt;). For example, active exploratory behavior during the observation of objects enhances memory recall &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21102449&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Voss &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2011)&lt;/a&gt;, resulting in enhanced activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the cerebellum and the hippocampus is higher and more coordinated after active learning (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://news.illinois.edu/view/6367/205467&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Illinois News Bureau&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/mbe.12117&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Markant &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;  Mind, Brain, and Education Society (2016); &lt;strong&gt;10&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 142-52&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21102449&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Voss &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Nat Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;14&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 115-20&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-11T08:47:24.493" LastActivityDate="2018-09-11T08:47:24.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20660" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-11T11:38:43.397" Score="7" ViewCount="6314" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uFC14AZNq5I&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this YouTube video by The Blaze&lt;/a&gt; it is claimed that Ted Cruz has &quot;audiographic&quot; memory. He does seem to have quite a good memory based on videos I've seen of him, but I'm not sure if Glenn Beck is exaggerating and I can't find the Wall Street Journal article he's referring to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidetic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;eidetic memory&lt;/a&gt; (photographic memory):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... is an ability to vividly recall images from memory after only a&#xA;  few instances of exposure, with high precision for a brief time after&#xA;  exposure, without using a mnemonic device.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there something similar for audio exposures and recall? Audiographic memory does not seem an academic term. Is this phenomenon discussed in academia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20150" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-10-19T10:11:13.943" LastActivityDate="2020-10-13T07:38:19.730" Title="Is there an audio equivalent of eidetic memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20661" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20657" CreationDate="2018-09-11T12:11:56.450" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;These kinds of research questions are interesting, but notoriously hard to investigate empirically, because:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You need human subjects that are able to provide complex feedback, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, you can't use invasive, long-term recordings in animals;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You need subjects to undergo long-term experiments, as your example indicates in the order of weeks, for &lt;em&gt;one single measurement&lt;/em&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You need subjects that experience this regularly and frequently;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You need a way of faithfully time-stamping the exact moment of recall and somehow establish a procedure to grasp what's happening inside the brain against a variable, uncontrolled background.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In essence, it's next to impossible to find out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is, however, a large body of literature around memory recall in general, including detailed imaging studies, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/205540&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Heckers &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (1999)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/21/6/2186.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hall &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2001)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11028&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liu &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2012)&lt;/a&gt; and I'm sure there will be much overlap between spontaneous and deliberate memory recall.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/205540&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Heckers &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Arch Gen Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (1999); &lt;strong&gt;56&lt;/strong&gt;(12): 1117-23)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/21/6/2186.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hall &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2001); &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;(6): 2186-93&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11028&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liu &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;484&lt;/strong&gt;: 381–5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-09-11T12:11:56.450" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20662" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20228" CreationDate="2018-09-11T15:04:26.913" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally, being observed raises performance on simple tasks and can hinder performance on complex tasks: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_facilitation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_facilitation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For trivia, notice that the experiment widely regarded to be the first in social psychology was of observed vs. unobserved cycling. Being watched made people cycling faster: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/Social-Facilitation.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.simplypsychology.org/Social-Facilitation.html&lt;/a&gt; excerpt:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;According to Cottrell (1968), it’s not the presence of other people that is important for social facilitation to occur but the apprehension about being evaluated by them. We know that approval and disapproval are often dependent on others’ evaluations and so the presence of others triggers an acquired arousal drive based on evaluation anxiety.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-09-11T15:04:26.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20664" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20652" CreationDate="2018-09-12T17:21:14.067" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, such a completely knowledge-free test has not been devised. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fluid intelligence&lt;/a&gt; (a component of IQ tests) is probably the closest thing to the claim of being &quot;knowledge-free&quot;, but it isn't quite so. As typically measured, e.g. using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Raven's progressive matrices&lt;/a&gt; one still needs to have some clue what the test is talking about in terms patterns etc. And prior exposure to similar test &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4226176/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;makes a difference (see Hayes et al. 2015)&lt;/a&gt; in test results, i.e. there's a learning effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the US, where most such race-intelligence research is conducted, there's still a racial group difference on fluid intelligence tests (e.g. Raven's) in the usual test settings, although some evidence suggests it depends how the test is interpreted by the takers &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16834521&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;may matter, e.g. Brown &amp;amp; Day (2006)&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study addresses recent criticisms aimed at the interpretation of stereotype threat research and methodological weaknesses of previous studies that have examined race differences on Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM). African American and White undergraduates completed the APM under three conditions. In two threat conditions, participants received either standard APM instructions (standard threat) or were told that the APM was an IQ test (high threat). In a low threat condition, participants were told that the APM was a set of puzzles and that the researchers wanted their opinions of them. Results supported the stereotype threat interpretation of race differences in cognitive ability test scores. Although African American participants underperformed Whites under both standard and high threat instructions, they performed just as well as Whites did under low threat instructions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A slightly more recent &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0012702&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;meta-analysis (Nguyen &amp;amp; Ryan 2008)&lt;/a&gt; still found an effect though&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For minorities, moderately explicit stereotype threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and subtle cues: ds = |.64|, |.41|, and |.22|, respectively; explicit removal strategies enhanced stereotype threat effects compared with subtle strategies: ds = |.80| and |.34|, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas most such meta-analytic research does not isolate just one type of IQ testing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ testing under stereotype threats is still a pretty controversial area of research in itself, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28795832&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ziegler (2017)&lt;/a&gt; and reply by &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-33752-002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nguyen &amp;amp; Ryan&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-09-12T17:21:14.067" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20665" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20639" CreationDate="2018-09-12T18:47:42.957" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Déjà vu and dreaming are closely related to memory and memory formation. However, they have nothing to do with future events. The brain cannot recall what it never has processed in the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Déjà vu is thought to be related to the tip-of-the-tongue feeling, in the sense that it is a memory phenomenon. It can occur when someone encounters a scenario that’s similar to an actual memory, but they fail to recall the memory. In other words, it's not an actual memory but an erroneous retrieval of &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; memory, if you like (sources: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/news/2018/03/05/is-deja-vu-real-or-just-a-feeling/133334.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychCentral&lt;/a&gt; &amp;amp; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newscientist.com/article/2101089-mystery-of-deja-vu-explained-its-how-we-check-our-memories/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;New Scientist&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/guide/dreaming-overview#1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dreams&lt;/a&gt; are basically stories and images our mind creates while we sleep. It has been proposed that dreams reflect biological processes of long-term memory consolidation. Consolidation strengthens the neural representations of recent events (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, their memories) and embeds these new memory fragments into older, existing memories. This also maintains the stability of existing memory representations in the face of subsequent experiences &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534695/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Payne &amp;amp; Nadel, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. In sleeping rodents, for example, neurons in the hippocampus fire in patterns remarkably similar to those recorded during a previous maze-running session—almost as if the animals replay the experience in their sleep (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2010/04/dreams-linked-better-memories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Science Magazine&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, déjà vu and dreaming are indeed closely related to memory, and memory formation. However, they have nothing to do with future events. The brain cannot recall what never has perceived in the past. Hence, déjà vu experiences and dreams have nothing to do with what the future may bring, other than cases of pure coincidence.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534695/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Payne &amp;amp; Nadel, &lt;em&gt;Learn Mem&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;(6): 671–8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-09-12T18:47:42.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20666" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-13T10:16:27.087" Score="2" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/31285/are-men-genetically-programmed-to-seek-multiple-sexual-partners-more-than-women/42241?noredirect=1#comment184726_42241&quot;&gt;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/31285/are-men-genetically-programmed-to-seek-multiple-sexual-partners-more-than-women/42241?noredirect=1#comment184726_42241&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I saw this question on skeptic stackexchange.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone says obviously yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reasoning is that men have cheap sperm and females have expensive eggs. Hence, most males, in most species, will have the male seeking multiple sexual partners than women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, what would be good reliable sources?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this obvious?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought the idea that men seek quantity is like the central term of evolutionary psychology in sexual selection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9214" LastActivityDate="2018-09-13T10:16:27.087" Title="Are men genetically programmed to seek multiple sexual partners more than women?" Tags="&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20667" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20587" CreationDate="2018-09-13T11:58:07.427" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Lateralized Readiness Potential can be considered a later component of a more generalized Readiness Potential, i.e., an LRP would develop out of an RP. As such, RPs can be interesting if you want to determine the earliest point in time at which a movement plan &quot;gets worked on&quot; in the motor cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For reference, I recommend reading these sources and I hope you will be able to find your way around the paywall:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-319-64373-1_8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Predicting Motor Intentions with Closed-Loop Brain-Computer Interfaces&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/113/4/1080.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The point of no return in vetoing self-initiated movements&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17605" LastActivityDate="2018-09-13T11:58:07.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20669" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-13T18:19:08.053" Score="2" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;Picture this scenario:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You are a student enrolled in a large class&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You arrived slightly late to the class, so you are sitting at the back of the class&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You raise your hands to ask the teacher a question. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;As you speak, you observe that the entire class turn their body sideways to look at you, even the students who are sitting in the front row. You feel self-conscious&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JFDQ0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JFDQ0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Three thoughts are now going through your mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What are &quot;ears&quot; for, again?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It must be really uncomfortable and awkward to twist your body like that.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What is the incurred &quot;loss&quot; if the other students did not look at you and simply listened?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can some expert chime in the reasoning as to why students have to look at you when they are listening?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could this be some sort of form of peer pressure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could the act of looking help to localize the sound (or synthesize the information) in some way? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do we look so we can prejudge? For example, if we see that the asker/speaker is another professor, we pay more attention to the question as it might be more sophisticated than asked by a student.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6730" LastEditorUserId="6730" LastEditDate="2018-09-13T18:29:46.477" LastActivityDate="2018-09-16T13:41:52.377" Title="In a class room setting, why do people look at you when you are asking a question?" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20670" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20716" CreationDate="2018-09-13T18:36:30.730" Score="0" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently came to realize something which happened almost 10 years back, which I didn't realized then, but upon recollecting the past events I went in to PTSD. But the persons who where involved in that incident didn't consider it to be a big issue. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my questions are, How long after the incident will PTSD happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what incidents can be categorized as an traumatic incident ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What situations might cause a PTSD for a person ?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20250" LastEditorUserId="20250" LastEditDate="2018-09-14T09:12:14.687" LastActivityDate="2018-09-19T18:48:04.290" Title="situations might cause a PTSD" Tags="&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20671" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20669" CreationDate="2018-09-13T21:23:27.113" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, your ears are shaped in a way that is optimized for sound sources in front of you, so it could be that. But my non-expert bet is that probably they're using gaze to signal that they're paying attention. The signal is not just to you &quot;I'm following what you're saying&quot; but to everyone else as well, &quot;hey, check out what's going on over there&quot; creating joint attention that coordinates the group in thinking about your question. This might be uncomfortable for you (although it's probably a compliment that you're worth paying attention to), but the general mechanism of having super-obvious cues to attention and a predisposition to follow them to create joint attention is a very effective way of coordinating social behavior. This is so fundamentally human that most people take it for granted, but that doesn't stop academics from studying it. You could maybe try something like &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pfeiffer, U. J., Vogeley, K., &amp;amp; Schilbach, L. (2013). From gaze cueing to dual eye-tracking: novel approaches to investigate the neural correlates of gaze in social interaction. Neuroscience &amp;amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(10), 2516-2528. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brooks, A. M. M. R. (2017). Eyes wide shut: The importance of eyes in infant gaze-following and understanding other minds. In Gaze-Following (pp. 229-254). Psychology Press. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...if you really want a deep-dive into this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-09-13T21:23:27.113" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20672" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18470" CreationDate="2018-09-13T21:57:18.357" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because people do not see the parallels between the candy and any other dividing issue. People, just like Twix are neither left nor right when created. It is through labeling that divisions are made. So while left and right Twix are still just Twix, a difference in labeling makes them seem different to those that bestow the labels. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20252" LastActivityDate="2018-09-13T21:57:18.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20673" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-14T13:00:54.653" Score="0" ViewCount="234" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there anything that can be done to support a person that was raised without any love from their parents? Does it help to make them feel loved, or does rather that core hurt need to be tackled? In other words, can love from friends and relatives reduce the hurt, or does the issue need to be confronted directly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20258" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-17T13:01:06.010" LastActivityDate="2018-09-17T13:01:06.010" Title="How to help an adult that has grown up, but was unloved by their parents?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-10-01T16:25:14.537" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20676" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20673" CreationDate="2018-09-14T15:14:52.780" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Past issues are hard to tackle.  They become wired in the brain and can manifest into feelings of helplessness, depression, fear, anger etc.  Feeling unloved as a child can also lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy where you believe that being 'unloved' is part of your identity.  And because you have to be consistent with this identity, you may never really accept love or praise from someone who is genuine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But no amount of love from someone else is going to resolve this issue!  The solution is to love yourself and to be a parent to yourself.  Get in touch with that inner child and tell it you love him/her.  Make praising yourself and loving yourself familiar.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most important relationship you should have is with yourself.  When you start to love yourself you become open to feeling loved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to solve this issue, I would do two things.  Firstly, I would get in touch with that feeling of feeling unloved and rejected, however painful it might be, and I would apply the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0C1liEFCZm4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Havening technique&lt;/a&gt; repeatedly until the pain has eased significantly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HzMXtu93iQI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marisa Peer&lt;/a&gt;, understand that feeling unloved or rejected as a child develops a belief, and therefore feeling of not being good enough.  So the next thing to do is to persevere with this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;repeat every day before you go to sleep, in the shower, brushing your teeth, before you wake up, put it on your phone alerts, phone screen saver, and even write it on your mirrors at home:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;I am enough.  I have always been enough, and I will always be enough.&quot;&#xA;&quot;I like myself, I matter, I love myself.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Repeat these statements until you have deeply accepted them at a subconscious level.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You see you can't hold a feeling of being unloved and rejected and a feeling of being enough at the same time!  But by communicating with yourself in a different way, it will change the way you feel about yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It will take time, but it will work.  You can't change the memories of the past but we can change how we feel.  In your case, we can use the past as a catalyst for change and learn to become your own parent and friend and learn to make praising yourself a habit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Peace &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17334" LastEditorUserId="17334" LastEditDate="2018-09-14T15:26:02.183" LastActivityDate="2018-09-14T15:26:02.183" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20678" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20713" CreationDate="2018-09-15T18:44:21.157" Score="2" ViewCount="189" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure on which platform to ask this question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to exchange emotional energy between two bodies via acts of goodwill? Two examples of acts of goodwill are: Help someone with their groceries, and buy someone a thoughtful gift. Is it possible that in these examples, both bodies gain emotional energy, which both bodies can store and then have the ability to dispatch subsequently to other bodies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Science has proven that doing an act of goodwill for someone else benefits both parties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what if the human network stopped doing acts of goodwill? Would the network suffer in some way? For example, I do know that babies die if they are not held. What if all bodies in the network lost the ability to do acts of goodwill to another? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would all the babies die? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, that would be very dangerous to society, because we would all go extinct. So shouldn't we be looking into this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Thanks to the late great David Hawkins, MD, Ph.D., we have proof that emotions have measurable energy and can either foster or negate actual cell life. Dr. Hawkins’s groundbreaking work, as explained in his book Power vs. Force, shows how a person’s log level--the measurable energy level in their magnetic field--increases as that person experiences more positive emotions. Hawkins’s most interesting finding was that cells actually died when the log level was below 200, where the emotions of scorn, hate, anxiety, shame, regret, despair, blame, and humiliation reside. So it’s key to regulate and manage our emotional state, not just for our overall well-being (and that of those around us) but also for our physical health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.forbes.com/sites/christinecomaford/2018/06/02/emotions-have-energy-what-energy-are-you-sending/#579d0b512545&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.forbes.com/sites/christinecomaford/2018/06/02/emotions-have-energy-what-energy-are-you-sending/#579d0b512545&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19860" LastEditorUserId="19860" LastEditDate="2018-09-15T22:17:32.733" LastActivityDate="2020-05-03T10:37:04.733" Title="Emotional energy exchange between bodies?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20680" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-15T22:17:23.190" Score="0" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I am having trouble understanding how repetition compulsion works with the unconscious. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From all my reading online and from my textbook there is nothing (or at least nothing I have found) on how it plays with the unconscious. To my understanding, it is just an unconscious urge. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone explain it to me or even just give me a link to a source where it is explained? I can't find one. Thank you for any help. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20269" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-09-16T06:07:06.497" LastActivityDate="2018-09-16T06:07:06.497" Title="How does repetition compulsion work with the unconscious?" Tags="&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20682" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20684" CreationDate="2018-09-16T04:14:54.360" Score="1" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind#References&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Theory of mind&lt;/a&gt; is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge, etc.—to oneself, and to others, and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So am I correct in saying that for a dyadic relationship, there are 2 &quot;theories of mind&quot;, and for a group of $n$ person, there would be &lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/q/331383/157643&quot;&gt;$n^2-n$&lt;/a&gt; &quot;theories of mind&quot;? I understand a system of inferences is properly called as &quot;theory&quot;, but when so many people has different theory it loses the universal connotation as commonly used in &quot;theory of planned behavior&quot; or &quot;theory of gravitation&quot;. Should it better be named as &quot;theory-forming of other's minds&quot;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-09-17T13:58:41.653" LastActivityDate="2018-09-17T13:58:41.653" Title="Why is the theory of mind named as such?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20683" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20669" CreationDate="2018-09-16T12:24:51.117" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gaze goes a bit beyond merely focusing on the source of sounds. I think it's fair to say that not everyone is going to do this all the time. Context and the person(s) involved &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4685525/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;matter&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Decades of research into the use of gaze in natural interactions [...] shows how gaze can signal attentiveness, competence and social dominance. This means that gaze can be a positive, neutral or negative cue, depending on the context. Direct gaze can be used to regulate conversation shifts [...] and to signal social interest [...]. Prolonged gaze or staring leads to avoidance behaviours [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So really interesting or dumb questions are more likely to get a head turn. And the participants doing the head turns are more likely to be those really interested or at least not socially shy. Also, long exchanges with the podium speaker are more likely to get that either because the exchange could be really interesting or perceived as really boorish. In that latter case a long gaze is a form of peer pressure to shut up and let the podium speaker continue; or maybe just let the rest of the students leave the amphitheater if this is an end-of-class question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since you're from Japan, I tried to find if there's a cultural difference with Europe or US on this issue specifically (gazing at someone asking questions in class or other large audience)... but I couldn't find anything particular insofar. In general, it is known that gaze behavior is culture-related to some extent, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://europepmc.org/articles/pmc2613330&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Japanese tend to gaze less at someone (compared to Canadians) when answering a question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another interesting issue would be how many students initiate this type of gaze and how many are simply respond (follow) the gaze of others... The two are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00226/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;distinct processes&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Whereas first elements of RJA [Responding Joint Attention] are already evident at 6 months of age, IJA [Initiating Joint Attention] does not emerge before the second year of life (Mundy and Newell, 2007; Mundy et al., 2007). Chimpanzees followed the experimenters gaze on a frequent basis but did not try to initiate JA (Tomasello and Carpenter, 2005). Interestingly, differential development of both RJA and IJA can be observed in brain systems from childhood to adulthood (Oberwelland et al., 2016), as well as during atypical development in disorders such as autism (Oberwelland et al., 2017). In autism, IJA is typically more impaired than RJA and emerges much later than in typical development (Mundy, 2003). These empirical findings clearly point toward separate underlying cognitive systems of RJA and IJA (Mundy and Newell, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-16T13:41:52.377" LastActivityDate="2018-09-16T13:41:52.377" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20684" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20682" CreationDate="2018-09-16T14:15:16.773" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably because it was &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00076512&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defined as&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An individual has a theory of mind if he imputes mental states to himself and others. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this paper we speculate about the possibility that the chimpanzee&#xA;may have a &amp;quot;theory of mind,&amp;quot; one not markedly different&#xA;from our own. In saying that an individual has a theory of mind,&#xA;we mean that the individual imputes mental states to himself and&#xA;to others (either to conspecifics or to other species as well). A&#xA;system of inferences of this kind is properly viewed as a theory,&#xA;first, because such states are not directly observable, and second,&#xA;because the system can be used to make predictions, specifically&#xA;about the behavior of other organisms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since this definition entails that roughly the same &amp;quot;theory&amp;quot; applies to all minds from a given organism's point of view, I don't see why your proposal(s) would be useful. And as far as I know neither did the thousands of papers citing that seminal work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want an alternative terminology that is reasonably widely,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Mental+State+Reasoning&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0&amp;amp;as_vis=1&amp;amp;oi=scholart&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;mental state reasoning&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; is a good candidate... but it is somewhat narrower in that some research &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.044198&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;distinguishes between decoding and reasoning&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-16T14:36:12.960" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20685" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-16T14:58:15.357" Score="2" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19120412&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kovács (2009)&lt;/a&gt; reported that bilingual children were better at solving a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind#False-belief_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;false belief task&lt;/a&gt; critical to the fully developed theory of mind (ToM).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has this study been replicated or criticized by others? I.e. is it uncontroversial that bilingualism accelerates ToM development?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-09-16T14:58:15.357" Title="Is theory of mind formation accelerated by bilingualism?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20686" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-16T17:10:29.757" Score="1" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does similar writing style in small texts such as on Twitter or long texts such as articles/novels tell us anything about similarity between &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;thinking process&quot;  &lt;em&gt;OR&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;personality&quot;   &lt;em&gt;OR&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;writing preferences&quot; etc., &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;of the writers?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some instances we can be sure about such correlation, for example persons who like to use abbreviation(short-form), e.g. nite(“night”) or abbreviation(acronym), e.g. lol (“laugh out loud”), or emoticons in short-texts like tweets, are hesitant to write long words(I couldn't find any research on this , but this is being said after a small survey by me and also this deduction seems trivial). Of course, there can be a number of reasons for some preferred writing style like role of culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly can we say something about relation between the people who follow similar writing style? By similar writing style, I meant following kind of things,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;short-text : use of emoticon vs writing emotion in plain text&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;short-text : use of Non-dictionary slang, e.g. that was well mint vs “that&#xA;was very good”&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;long-text and short-text : preference to adjectives than combination of verb and adverb&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any resource throwing light in this direction in a scientific way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20263" LastEditorUserId="20263" LastEditDate="2018-09-21T10:57:27.130" LastActivityDate="2018-09-21T10:57:27.130" Title="Does similar writing style tell us the writers are similar with respect to some measure/perspective?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;&lt;psycholinguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20688" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-14T09:28:29.027" Score="2" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read a lot about people who are good memorizing images (visual type memory), music, words, numbers, etc. but I have never read a lot about &lt;strong&gt;how&lt;/strong&gt; all these things are &quot;saved&quot; in our brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not trying to understand the biological part, that is far away from my competences, I am talking more about a more general layer, like &lt;em&gt;what we actually memorize?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will start from an example: what do we &quot;save&quot; when we remember an image?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do we memorize all the &quot;pixels&quot; as a computer would?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="aster94" LastActivityDate="2018-09-16T20:40:26.660" Title="How does the brain’s visual memory work?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20689" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-17T05:26:14.973" Score="5" ViewCount="3578" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am familiar with desensitization. For example, if you are afraid of driving, driving every day will eventually reduce your fear, desensitizing you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But today I came across another concept, that of sensitization.  I looked up the wiki article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sensitization&lt;/a&gt;, which says at the end,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sensitization may also contribute to psychological disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, panic anxiety and mood disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So which is it then? What determines whether repeated exposure to something sensitizes someone or desensitizes them? With the example of PTSD, for instance, should not repeated exposure to war actually desensitize people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I searched google scholar but could not find a paper that discusses both sensitization and desensitization.  Mostly discuss the latter, in terms of reducing fears.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Appreciate any references or books that might help me understand this.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20273" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-19T14:24:33.603" LastActivityDate="2018-10-08T20:44:22.463" Title="What determines whether sensitization or desensitization occurs?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20690" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-17T09:28:45.490" Score="2" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;On &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Can-dreams-predict-the-future&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quora&lt;/a&gt; there is a discussion that dreams can predict the future. I have experienced the feeling that things happening to me in real-life had occurred in my dreams, before these events actually happened. Can dreams predict the future? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20214" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-17T10:50:30.057" LastActivityDate="2018-09-17T12:42:43.997" Title="Can dreams predict the future?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-10-01T16:25:57.683" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20691" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20690" CreationDate="2018-09-17T10:48:17.043" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dreams cannot predict the future.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Likely you are referring to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9j%C3%A0_vu#D%C3%A9j%C3%A0_r%C3%AAv%C3%A9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Deja reve&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; ('already dreamed'), which has been hypothesized to be &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/imp/jcs/2017/00000024/f0020007/art00008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Schredi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2017)&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...the distinct impression that the uncanny familiarity one is&#xA;  sensing has come from a preceding dream, but one not usually&#xA;  remembered until the experience is taking place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deja reve are reported by Schredi &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt; to occur in nearly 80% of the population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/guide/dreaming-overview#1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dreams&lt;/a&gt; are representations of past experiences (re-)generated is our minds creates while we sleep. It has been proposed that dreams reflect biological processes of long-term &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;memory consolidation&lt;/a&gt;. Consolidation strengthens the neural representations of recent events (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, their memories) and embeds these new memory fragments into older, existing memories. This also maintains the stability of existing memory representations in the face of subsequent experiences &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534695/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Payne &amp;amp; Nadel, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. In sleeping rodents, for example, neurons in the hippocampus fire in patterns remarkably similar to those recorded during a previous maze-running session—almost as if the animals replay the experience in their sleep (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2010/04/dreams-linked-better-memories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Science Magazine&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, dreams are related to memories and memory formation. However, they have nothing to do with future events. The brain cannot recall what never has perceived in the past. Hence, déjà vu experiences and dreams have nothing to do with what the future may bring, other than cases of pure coincidence.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534695/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Payne &amp;amp; Nadel, &lt;em&gt;Learn Mem&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;(6): 671–8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/imp/jcs/2017/00000024/f0020007/art00008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shredi &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Consciousness Studies&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;24&lt;/strong&gt;:(7-8): 155-62&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-17T12:42:43.997" LastActivityDate="2018-09-17T12:42:43.997" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20692" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20639" CreationDate="2018-09-17T19:42:29.067" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Actually, I'm wondering whether psychology and quantum physic are related in any way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's no conclusive evidence insofar that quantum processes play a distinctive role in brain, although some hypothesis &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quantamagazine.org/a-new-spin-on-the-quantum-brain-20161102/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;or another&lt;/a&gt; typically relating qubits (or entanglement) to consciousness seems to endure on the fringes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that retrocausality is fringy even without involving the brain, as in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrocausality#Quantum_physics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not being&lt;/a&gt; strictly necessary to formulate entanglement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-09-17T19:42:29.067" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20694" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-17T20:14:25.640" Score="1" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is this study/article scientifically valid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://news.berkeley.edu/2012/08/22/intense-prep-for-law-school-admissions-test-alters-brain-structure/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://news.berkeley.edu/2012/08/22/intense-prep-for-law-school-admissions-test-alters-brain-structure/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20280" LastEditorUserId="20280" LastEditDate="2018-09-17T22:02:26.877" LastActivityDate="2018-09-17T22:11:27.683" Title="Cognitive Effects of studying for the LSAT?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20695" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20689" CreationDate="2018-09-17T21:01:32.600" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The terminology in this area can be a source of confusion because sensitization is not usually meant as the opposite of desensitization but of habituation. &lt;a href=&quot;https://blumsteinlab.eeb.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/104/2017/05/Blumstein_2016_AnimBehav.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;E.g., Blumstein (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People have written about habituation, a process that leads to decreased responsiveness to a stimulus, as&#xA;  well as its counterpart, sensitization, or an increased responsiveness to a stimulus, for over 2000 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what's desensitization then? Well...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_desensitization&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Systematic desensitization&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374348-0.00008-2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;basically&lt;/a&gt; an extinction procedure for (assumed) previously &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;conditioned stimuli&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Behavior therapy employs interventions based on classical and operant conditioning. An early example is Wolpe’s (1954) systematic desensitization in which patients are taught progressive relaxation techniques and then are systematically exposed to stimuli that elicit fear while in a relaxed state. Because the relaxation response is incompatible with anxiety, it weakens the learned association between a stimulus and an anxiety response. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And desensitization is often taken to mean the roughly the same as the systematic one, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://smartech.gatech.edu/bitstream/handle/1853/19831/clay_andrea_w_200712_mast.pdf.txt?sequence=2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clay (2007)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Desensitization is generally described as a process by which the active pairing of a positive reinforcer with a negative event causes the negative event to slowly lose its ability to adversely influence behavior (Chance, P., 2003). This active process is also called counter-conditioning. Systematic desensitization has been used successfully to treat human phobias, such as fear of flying, fear of public speaking, and fear of spiders, and has also been used to reduce the intensity of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in veterans of the Vietnam War (Chance, P., 2003). For animals, a similarly competing response could be eating. Using competing responses to interfere with a fearful response is an integral part of the systematic desensitization process as defined by Wolpe (1958, as cited by Callen, E.J., &amp;amp; Boyd, T.L., 1990).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To add to this confusion, some mean by sensitization only the conditioned version, &lt;a href=&quot;https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/biological-basis-of-learning/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;e.g.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sensitization occurs when a reaction to a stimulus causes an increased reaction to a second stimulus. It is essentially an exaggerated startle response and is often seen in trauma survivors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this is actually not that wrong, because unlike for habituation, it's hard to come up with many examples of &lt;em&gt;unconditioned&lt;/em&gt; sensitization, e.g. what does Blumstein give (for both)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Habituation is a process that leads to decreased responsiveness&#xA;  to a stimulus with repeated presentation and is often adaptive in&#xA;  that it makes it less likely that individuals will respond to harmless&#xA;  stimuli. Found throughout the animal kingdom, some plants have&#xA;  also been shown to habituate (Jensen, Dill, &amp;amp; Cahill, 2011). However,&#xA;  habituation may also have consequences. Aesop recognized&#xA;  the consequences of habitation 2500 years ago when he noted that&#xA;  the boy who cried wolf would ultimately be ignored when he&#xA;  needed help to fend off a real wolf.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Habituation's counterpart is sensitization--the increased&#xA;  responsiveness to a stimulus with repeated presentation. Sensitization&#xA;  may be adaptive if it helps animals avoid potentially risky or&#xA;  costly situations. Being sensitized to the sound of bees may help&#xA;  elephants avoid getting their sensitive trunks stung (sensu King,&#xA;  Douglas-Hamilton, &amp;amp; Vollrath, 2007), and may help allergic&#xA;  humans avoid an anaphylactic reaction. But it too may be costly. For&#xA;  instance, while drug addiction is usually thought to involve some&#xA;  degree of tolerance to drugs, indeed, it also involves sensitized&#xA;  responses that can be used diagnostically because greater salience&#xA;  is attached to the drugs and drug-associated cues (Steketee &amp;amp;&#xA;  Kalivas, 2011). Living without risk is impossible (Sagarin et al.,&#xA;  2010), and the public may become sensitized to real or manufactured&#xA;  threats repeated by the press (e.g. consider the U.S. government&#xA;  assertions that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction, or the&#xA;  American response to Ebola cases being treated in the United States&#xA;  in September--November 2014). Over-reacting to risk can lead to&#xA;  costly foreign policy mis-steps and costly public health responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somewhat more interesting examples are given by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3920081/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Çevik (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The signal value of a stimulus is correlated with its potential to support responsiveness, which for a given set of physical parameters depends largely on the history of non-associative learning, i.e., habituation and sensitization for the stimulus. Habituation refers to the reduction in the probability or amplitude of responding that is observed upon inconsequential stimulus repetition. For example, repeated delivery of an odor at constant inter-stimulus-intervals (ISI) would eventually lead to the habituation of the response that is initially triggered by the odor. I say eventually, because depending on the parameters of the stimulation protocol (e.g., odor concentration, frequency of odor presentation), a temporary increment in responsiveness might initially be observed. If, however, an appetitive gustatory stimulus (e.g., sugar) is repeated with the same ISI, depending again on the concentration of sugar, frequency of stimulation, and the physiological state of the organism, this protocol is likely to result in an increment in the probability of responding, i.e., sensitization. Finally if odor and sugar are paired instead of being presented separately, the standard paradigm for Pavlovian conditioning would ensue, where the two stimuli would now be termed conditioned (CS) and unconditioned stimuli (US), respectively. Hence, associative learning can be suggested to entail an evasion from habituation for the CS as it signals the arrival of a sensitizing event, the US, and a conditioned response (CR) would then be triggered during the CS in anticipation of the US.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And he actually proposes some general rules:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;habituation might be the default fate for most stimuli in the absence of top-down modulation (although see Horn and Hinde, 1970 for examples of non-habituating reflexes). [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the likelihood of habituation, i.e., the inability of a perceivable stimulus to control behavior is higher for distal stimuli, whereas the likelihood of sensitization is higher for stimuli that come into direct contact with the body to activate gustatory and/or mechanoreceptors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although his rules are derived from research on flies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitization&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki sensitization page&lt;/a&gt; you mention doesn't talk of PTSD as far as I can tell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I know of PTSD research in this area, it involves conditioned stimuli, e.g. a fairly cited paper in this line, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10895567&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Orr et al.&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Differential conditioning was assessed in 15 medication-free individuals meeting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) criteria for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and 18 trauma-exposed individuals who never developed PTSD (non-PTSD). Conditioned stimuli (CSs) were colored circles, and the unconditioned stimulus was a &quot;highly annoying&quot; electrical stimulus. Individuals with PTSD had higher resting heart rate (HR) and skin conductance (SC) levels and produced larger SC orienting responses. During conditioning, the PTSD group showed larger differential SC, HR, and electromyogram responses to the reinforced vs. nonreinforced stimuli (CS+ vs. CS-) compared with the non-PTSD group. Only PTSD participants continued to show differential SC responses to CS+ vs. CS- during extinction trials. Results suggest that individuals with PTSD have higher sympathetic nervous system arousal at the time of conditioning and are more conditionable than trauma-exposed individuals without PTSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that paper, PTSD patients were harder to de-condition or &quot;desensitize&quot; to use your terminology (see the sentence about extinction in the abstract I quoted above); PTSD patients also showed increased responses (compared to controls) to conditioned stimuli after conditioning took place, although as far as I can tell they were not easier to &quot;sensitize&quot;/condition, at least in that experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interaction between conditioned and unconditioned exposures to a stressful stimulus is fairly complex (even in animal [models]) and assumed to be of importance in PTSD. It's been known for a long time &lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0035964&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Rescorla, 1974)&lt;/a&gt; that giving stronger unconditioned footshocks to rats increases their conditioned response to moderate footshock. So this is a kind of sensitization when conditional and unconditional effects interact. A &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/bne0000033&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;more recent line of work&lt;/a&gt; on this interaction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rats presented with a single session of repeated&#xA;  painful footshocks normally express a robust and persistent&#xA;  associative fear of the training context (Gale et al., 2004; Poulos&#xA;  et al., 2009), whereas subsequent new fear learning to a single&#xA;  footshock of the same intensity becomes sensitized to a newly&#xA;  trained context or a tone (Rau et al., 2005). We call this phenomenon&#xA;  stress-enhanced fear learning (SEFL). Pharmacologically&#xA;  induced (NMDA antagonism) and naturally occurring (preweaned&#xA;  pups) amnesia of the repeated footshock context fail to disrupt this&#xA;  sensitized fear learning (Rau et al., 2005; Long &amp;amp; Fanselow, 2012;&#xA;  Poulos et al., 2013). These results suggest that prior exposure to a&#xA;  repeated footshock stress, independent of a contextual fear memory,&#xA;  enhances subsequent fear learning when footshock intensity is&#xA;  held constant. Further evidence that stress influences future learning&#xA;  and does not produce its effect by generalization between the&#xA;  stress and conditioning contexts is that SEFL only occurs when the&#xA;  stress occurs prior to the one-trial fear conditioning (Rau et al.,&#xA;  2005). [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;SEFL would be a particularly problematic component of posttrauma behavior if intense&#xA;  stress results in substantial fear conditioning under conditions that would not normally support conditioning.&#xA;  Therefore, we determined if SEFL occurred when the conditioning shock was substantially&#xA;  milder than the SEFL-inducing shock. The results indicate that exposure to a sensitizing regimen of shock&#xA;  can convert a mild footshock that normally does not support measurable levels of fear conditioning into&#xA;  one that causes substantial learned fear. Moreover, as the intensity of single footshock increases, so does&#xA;  the capacity of the prior stressor to contribute to the sensitization of fear responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-17T21:54:15.410" LastActivityDate="2018-09-17T21:54:15.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20696" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20694" CreationDate="2018-09-17T22:11:27.683" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The study you refer to shows that a measure of brain white matter connectivity, called diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) shows increases in structural connectivity between brain areas that have been previously implicated in reasoning and other brain functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The news article goes on to make additional claims, not made in the paper, that this result means studying for the LSAT improves reasoning overall. The study itself does not make that claim, and they did not test reasoning besides measuring LSAT performance. Therefore, you cannot conclude from this work that studying for the LSAT improves performance on anything besides the LSAT, only that studying is sufficient to make detectable changes in brain structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would certainly say it is plausible that studying one set of tasks, like studying for the LSAT, would cause improvement in related skills (certainly this assumption is the basis of a whole lot of pedagogy), but that certainly doesn't mean it is the &lt;em&gt;best&lt;/em&gt; way to improve or that it is special compared to other types of study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note also that the participants in the study were involved in a &lt;em&gt;particular training program&lt;/em&gt; and the results may not generalize to other forms of LSAT preparation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a side note, it is always important to read original research articles before taking news at face value. Even the researchers quoted in a news article may not approve of how exactly they were quoted. The news process is subject to sensationalization and the qualifying language that scientists frequently use may not reach the final edits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mackey, A. P., Whitaker, K. J., &amp;amp; Bunge, S. A. (2012). Experience-dependent plasticity in white matter microstructure: reasoning training alters structural connectivity. Frontiers in neuroanatomy, 6, 32.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-09-17T22:11:27.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20698" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20686" CreationDate="2018-09-18T00:17:29.403" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;To me the most obvious similarity factor would be culture/schooling. And that also creates a large confounder for the things you ask about (personality etc.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A bit of searching did find &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F073953298100200203&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper from 1981 by Ruffner &amp;amp; Burgoon&lt;/a&gt;, but it has very few citations. It also uses a pretty antiquated personality test (the Omnibus Personality Inventory). The climax of the paper is predicting various stylistic aspects using personality and education aspects:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FDsKY.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FDsKY.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-09-18T00:17:29.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20704" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-18T03:18:07.117" Score="2" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's apparently a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4401609/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fairly contested&lt;/a&gt; research area of bilingualism being neuroprotective against cognitive decline in old age, such as dementia. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the main points for and against this hypothesis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-18T08:02:49.800" LastActivityDate="2018-09-18T08:02:49.800" Title="Bilingualism and cognitive decline (or dementia risk)" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20705" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-18T18:00:45.033" Score="4" ViewCount="228" Body="&lt;p&gt;How would rejection from both parents affect a child? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How would they act? what would their personality be like? And the most important question of all: What would help them get rid of or at least lessen these effects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20284" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-09-19T08:59:46.127" LastActivityDate="2020-10-19T09:01:05.610" Title="What are the effects of rejection from both parents on a child?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20706" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-18T22:05:02.270" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is my claim, or what I [mis?]understood:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypothalamus is well-known for its role in homeostasis (self-regulation including, but not limited to, temperature/energy) and also reactions / stimuli like fear, fighting, hunger (which we could refer as the primitive needs, say), and it aims to appear (prosencephalon needs more divisions) in the 5th week of pregnancy (in the neural tube).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I read from several scattered sources in the www, like &lt;a href=&quot;https://med.unne.edu.ar/sitio/multimedia/imagenes/ckfinder/files/files/Carrera-Medicina/BIOQUIMICA/hhh.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://medlineplus.gov/spanish/ency/article/002398.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this one regarding pregnancy&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_tube&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what I'm asking for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like a reference telling, if any, relationships and evolution between the primitive/embryonic process of homeostasis and the fears / survival instinct we experience when we... fear something considering, if available, different degrees of responses since the 5th week of pregnancy AND... say, the first months (or first year) of already-born baby.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd expect here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;That my claim is wrong, undecidable, irrelevant, or with few elements there being true, and WHY / to what extent.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reliable source(s) describing this evolution.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11310" LastActivityDate="2018-09-19T01:02:33.357" Title="How is the relationship between hypothalamus and homeostasis &amp; fear and how does it evolve across human development stages?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20707" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20706" CreationDate="2018-09-19T01:02:33.357" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;TLDR: the hypothalamus is involved in fear processing, but not in the way you think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has a decently sourced &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus#Fear_processing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article on the hypothalamus&lt;/a&gt; and it does play some role in fear processing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear processing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The medial zone of hypothalamus is part of a circuitry that controls motivated behaviors, like defensive behaviors.[29] Analyses of Fos-labeling showed that a series of nuclei in the &amp;quot;behavioral control column&amp;quot; is important in regulating the expression of innate and conditioned defensive behaviors.[30]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Antipredatory defensive behavior&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Exposure to a predator (such as a cat) elicits defensive behaviors in laboratory rodents, even when the animal has never been exposed to a cat.[31] In the hypothalamus, this exposure causes an increase in Fos-labeled cells in the anterior hypothalamic nucleus, the dorsomedial part of the ventromedial nucleus, and in the ventrolateral part of the premammillary nucleus (PMDvl).[32] The premammillary nucleus has an important role in expression of defensive behaviors towards a predator, since lesions in this nucleus abolish defensive behaviors, like freezing and flight.[32][33] The PMD does not modulate defensive behavior in other situations, as lesions of this nucleus had minimal effects on post-shock freezing scores.[33] The PMD has important connections to the dorsal periaqueductal gray, an important structure in fear expression.[34][35] In addition, animals display risk assessment behaviors to the environment previously associated with the cat. Fos-labeled cell analysis showed that the PMDvl is the most activated structure in the hypothalamus, and inactivation with muscimol prior to exposure to the context abolishes the defensive behavior.[32] Therefore, the hypothalamus, mainly the PMDvl, has an important role in expression of innate and conditioned defensive behaviors to a predator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social defeat&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, the hypothalamus has a role in social defeat: Nuclei in medial zone are also mobilized during an encounter with an aggressive conspecific. The defeated animal has an increase in Fos levels in sexually dimorphic structures, such as the medial pre-optic nucleus, the ventrolateral part of ventromedial nucleus, and the ventral premammilary nucleus.[36] Such structures are important in other social behaviors, such as sexual and aggressive behaviors. Moreover, the premammillary nucleus also is mobilized, the dorsomedial part but not the ventrolateral part.[36] Lesions in this nucleus abolish passive defensive behavior, like freezing and the &amp;quot;on-the-back&amp;quot; posture.[36]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just based on that it's easy overemphasize the importance of the hypothalamus in fear processing; it's actually not that central. If you want the popsci version, then the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;amygdala&lt;/a&gt; gets the center stage in regulating fear. From a review of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25991441&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Neuronal circuits for fear and anxiety&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SB9iA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/SB9iA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't see why the homeostasis circuitry would be involved in fear processing (as you propose), and as far as I can tell, it isn't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-19T01:02:33.357" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20708" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-19T01:19:30.947" Score="4" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reason for asking question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking to see if there is any good empirical evidence or study that shows or suggests that studying former logic or maybe informal logic would actually improve skills at logical reasoning (using deductive or inductive reasoning)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a study I found but I know nothing about how to assess the validity or interpreting results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/bitstream/2134/21445/5/InglisPME40RR.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/bitstream/2134/21445/5/InglisPME40RR.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this an accepted method of testing on this topic or is there a more accepted test? If you could also explain the results to answer my question I would appreciate it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20280" LastEditorUserId="20280" LastEditDate="2018-09-21T23:07:20.480" LastActivityDate="2018-09-21T23:07:20.480" Title="Will studying formal logic improves logical reasoning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20709" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-19T03:55:46.223" Score="1" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;In 2002, a man named &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/45349-brain-injury-turns-man-into-math-genius.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jason Padgett&lt;/a&gt; was mugged and suffered a concussion. Now he sees the world through geometric shapes, and he is basically a mathematical genius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a neuroscientist was to examine Padgett’s brain, could they see what is causing his brain to behave this way, and replicate it for other humans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13908" LastActivityDate="2018-09-19T03:55:46.223" Title="Can Jason Padgett’s head injury be replicated?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;&lt;replication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-09-21T14:35:38.603" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20711" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-19T11:49:44.913" Score="4" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is anything known how effective is &quot;non-focused&quot; learning. For example when I am focused on something else (watching TV, doing work in the office) while listening to language learning material (words and phrases and their translations for example). Or playing scales on your guitar while watching TV (okay, seem to be more invovled then merely listening, but I guess you get the idea).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is there anything known about that, or any studies on that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;EDIT&lt;/em&gt;: I do not have found any studies, mainly because I do not know what to search for, googling terms like &quot;non-focused learning&quot;, &quot;passive learning&quot;, &quot;distractive learning&quot; do not give anything useful. I have a minor in psychology and if I see a study I can relate it to what I am looking for, but I am not a researcher in psychology. So this question came up out of curiosity of my own (and to be honest, its quite practical if possible to learn something by &quot;not even trying&quot; to say in lax language). I know about the 10k rule of expertise, and they always talk about &quot;deliberate practice&quot;, obviously the kind of practice I am looking for is not deliberate, but maybe someone asked if its still beneficial, even if on a much smaller scale. I would suspect that it is not difficult to design studies for it, just let people perform some task, tell them its the main task, then do some distraction in the background (which is the supposed learning content, melodies, words whatever). Then afterwards (obviously to the surprise of the subject) ask question about that your let it perform a task to access gained knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20288" LastEditorUserId="20288" LastEditDate="2018-09-19T14:16:14.147" LastActivityDate="2018-09-20T03:31:45.977" Title="Effectiveness of &quot;non-focused&quot; learning" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;multi-tasking&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20713" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20678" CreationDate="2018-09-19T16:18:16.523" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would not consider David Hawkins to be a credible source. His PhD was from a degree mill that was shut down by court order. He has been flagged by the Cult Education Institute and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Tests/ak.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quackwatch&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional energy is not quantifiable in a physical sense. Most studies on the subject use a proxy for physical well-being such as vagal tone &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797612470827&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kok et al., 2013)&lt;/a&gt; or corrugator EMG/galvanic skin response/etc. &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9280.00320&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Witvliet et al., 2001)&lt;/a&gt;. The general consensus of these studies are that forgiveness and pro-social behavior do lower both perceived (patient-described) and physiological markers of stress. That is, that being a pro-social person seems to be actually healthy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of emotional neglect leading to poor health, the most infamous experiments were performed by psychologist &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Harlow/love.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harry Harlow&lt;/a&gt;, which he reported in &quot;The Nature of Love&quot; in 1958. His experiments focused primarily on maternal bonding, demonstrating that infant monkeys will most often choose the comfort of a mother-monkey effigy over food. These studies do seem to indicate that there is something crucial about positive socio-emotional contact that promotes well-being in primates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many psychologists and social neuroscientists are researching the effects of pro-social behavior, neglect, and stress. There are scientific journals dedicated to the subject (&lt;em&gt;viz.&lt;/em&gt; Child Abuse &amp;amp; Neglect).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in the question of why everyone doesn't stop behaving in a cooperative manner, there are many papers on the subject. Researchers are indeed looking into the matter:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Behavioral economists want to understand how collaboration builds economic societies. That is, the balance between pro-social behavior and selfishness that drives economics. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513898000154&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bowles &amp;amp; Gintis, 1998&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sociologists and social policy researchers want to understand the societal effects of neglect, abuse, and cooperation in order to understand the dynamics of large groups of people and to design better policies to improve the well-being of those societies (and the people in them). (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdf/10.1257/0002828043052187&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frey &amp;amp; Meier, 2005&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Evolutionary biologists, psychologists, and social neuroscientists want to understand the biological mechanisms that underlie pro-social behavior and its effects on reproduction and survival. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201195&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lukas et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt;) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167268103002257&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frey &amp;amp; Meier, 2004&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Synthetic biologists and microbiologists are attempting to understand how colonies of bacteria solve these problems in the microbiome, in order to survive and propagate.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Bowles, S., &amp;amp; Gintis, H. (1998). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513898000154&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The moral economy of communities: Structured populations and the evolution of pro-social norms.&lt;/a&gt; Evolution and Human Behavior, 19(1), 3-25.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Frey, B. S., &amp;amp; Meier, S. (2004). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167268103002257&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pro-social behavior in a natural setting.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Economic Behavior &amp;amp; Organization, 54(1), 65-88.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Frey, B. S., &amp;amp; Meier, S. (2005). &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdf/10.1257/0002828043052187&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social Comparisons and Pro-Social Behavior.&lt;/a&gt; American Economic Review,(forthcoming).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Harlow, H. F. (1958). &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Harlow/love.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The nature of love.&lt;/a&gt; American psychologist, 13(12), 673.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Kok, B. E., Coffey, K. A., Cohn, M. A., Catalino, L. I., Vacharkulksemsuk, T., Algoe, S. B., ... &amp;amp; Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797612470827&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How positive emotions build physical health: Perceived positive social connections account for the upward spiral between positive emotions and vagal tone.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological science, 24(7), 1123-1132.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Lukas, M., Toth, I., Reber, S. O., Slattery, D. A., Veenema, A. H., &amp;amp; Neumann, I. D. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201195&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The neuropeptide oxytocin facilitates pro-social behavior and prevents social avoidance in rats and mice.&lt;/a&gt; Neuropsychopharmacology, 36(11), 2159-2168.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Witvliet, C. V. O., Ludwig, T. E., &amp;amp; Laan, K. L. V. (2001). &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9280.00320&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Granting forgiveness or harboring grudges: Implications for emotion, physiology, and health.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological science, 12(2), 117-123.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20290" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2020-05-03T10:37:04.733" LastActivityDate="2020-05-03T10:37:04.733" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20715" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20705" CreationDate="2018-09-19T18:33:22.310" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The psychological theory most commonly used to describe these sorts of situations is &lt;strong&gt;Parental Acceptance-Rejection Syndrome&lt;/strong&gt;. Most of this research was pioneered by &lt;a href=&quot;https://hdfs.uconn.edu/person/ronald-p-rohner/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ronald P. Rohner&lt;/a&gt; at the University of Connecticut.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best book on the subject is probably &lt;em&gt;New perspectives on family. The warmth dimension: Foundations of parental acceptance-rejection theory&lt;/em&gt; by R. Rohner (1986).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some highlights from his research&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0145213480900071&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rohner &amp;amp; Rohner, 1980&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example evidence shows that the effects of parental rejection and&#xA;emotional abuse are not limited simply to individual personality and&#xA;behavior disorders, but they reach into such abstract domains as the&#xA;religious beliefs of a people, their art, music, and other expressive&#xA;behaviors. There now seems to be little doubt that the results of&#xA;parental rejection as well as the mechanisms which produce or distort&#xA;parental warmth work uniformly throughout our species, regardless of&#xA;differences in race, nationality, time or other limiting conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main difficulty that a child who has experienced total parental rejection will have is an inability to give or receive love. Specifically, because the child has not learned strategies for how to emotionally and socially process unconditional positive regard, they will be at a significant disadvantage should it appear in their life, much like how a child who never learned French will have difficulty learning it as an adult. Children in this scenario tend to hide their emotions. They will, in many cases, cease to try to get affection from people who are important to them. Emotional attachments will inevitably be constrained by emotional constriction, or defensiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond a certain point, the dependency response may be extinguished or&#xA;transformed. The seriously rejected child has not learned how to give&#xA;love, because he has never known a loving parent after whom he can&#xA;model his own behavior, and for reasons described below, even though&#xA;he craves affection he has difficulty accepting it. In order to&#xA;protect himself from more emotional hurt, the rejected child tends to&#xA;wrap his emotions in cotton, to encyst his emotions. Ultimately he may&#xA;stop trying to get affection from the people who are important to him.&#xA;That is, dependency responses disappear. Thus the rejected child&#xA;becomes emotionally insulated, unable to freely and openly form warm,&#xA;lasting, intimate relations with others. His attachments tend to be&#xA;troubled by emotional constriction or defensiveness, and in extreme&#xA;cases the rejected child may become apathetic or emotionally bland or&#xA;flat. In addition, as a result of the grave psychological damage&#xA;brought about by rejection, the rejected child is inclined to have&#xA;less tolerance for stress and he is therefore likely to be less&#xA;emotionally stable than those who were accepted as children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Children who are allowed to express anger without recrimination generally prefer that mode to becoming withdrawn. Totally-rejected children who find violence as an outlet will usually exploit it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The rejected child is especially likely to become hostile, aggressive,&#xA;or passive-aggressive if rejection takes the form of parental&#xA;hostility. Under these conditions he is provided with an aggressive&#xA;model to emulate, and thus his own aggressive responses may intensify.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Children who experience total rejection generally see the supernatural, if they believe in it, as a hostile, terrifying force. This includes perceptions of religion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, rejection is experienced, and processed, similarly across all races, nationalities, times, or limiting conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of how to overcome such trauma:&#xA;Abusive parents tend to live in isolation themselves, cut off from an effective network of friends, family, or other community support. It is sadly quite common for abusive parents to simply be overwhelmed, either with too many children, too little emotional, social, or financial support, or a terrible combination of many of these factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social workers and clinical psychologists are best equipped to handle patients who suffered from such abuses. Providing social services, both physical, tangible benefits (food, shelter, education, healthcare) and intangibles (companionship, romantic love, open and honest communication) do a great deal to help someone who has been abused. The best strategy is unconditional positive regard. That is, to accept and love without judging or feeling a need to dissect, rehash, or understand. This is a sort of ego-less interaction that can be very draining on the provider.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order for the patterns of behavior that develop from systematic abuse to be ameliorated, the subject must be treated kindly consistently for a long period of time so that the defensive habits can be unlearned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20290" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-10-19T09:01:05.610" LastActivityDate="2020-10-19T09:01:05.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20716" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20670" CreationDate="2018-09-19T18:48:04.290" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the clinical definition, PTSD is a psychological disorder that develops in some people after a trauma. Interestingly, not every traumatized person develops chronic (ongoing) or acute (short-term) PTSD, nor has every person who develops PTSD gone through a dangerous event. The 'trauma' in the name can refer to events as diverse as hearing about a traumatic event from another person or seeing it on TV, or the death of a loved one (even if you weren't there).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most important parts of diagnosing any mental illness are (a) is it causing suffering (either to the patient or other people), (b) it is statistically significant (is it unusual for the culture of the patient). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of PTSD, it is enough that they are suffering for the clinician to look further. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PTSD usually occurs within 3 months of the incident, but some people develop symptoms after more than a year. Most people recover within 6 months, but others have long-term chronic symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be diagnosed, a patient must have a constellation of varied symptoms. The ICD-10 and the DSM-5 describe the most common diagnostic criteria used today. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best plan for a clinician is generally to develop a holistic outlook that takes into account the dynamics of the patient's case rather than to try to pigeonhole the patient into diagnostic criteria. Someone who experienced a traumatic event and has residual anxiety and depression may or may not be diagnostic with PTSD. PTSD, under the DSM-5 criteria, must include one re-experiencing symptom, one avoidance symptom, two arousal and reactivity symptoms, and two cognition and mood symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the treatment most commonly indicated for PTSD is anti-depressants/sleep aids and psychotherapy, which are also the treatments for many other mental illnesses, the particular diagnosis is less important than the welfare of the patient. PTSD patients can also benefit from exposure therapy and cognitive restructuring. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The US &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Institute of Mental Health&lt;/a&gt; has a good introductory article on the subject. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20290" LastActivityDate="2018-09-19T18:48:04.290" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20717" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20181" CreationDate="2018-09-19T19:51:23.713" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's not much research on this, but one study I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1474704916673840&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kruger (2017)&lt;/a&gt; found no significant relationship between parenting effort and the usual measure of sociosexuality (SOI):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vkCBm.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vkCBm.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2018-09-19T19:51:23.713" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20719" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20711" CreationDate="2018-09-19T20:36:34.547" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this is a somewhat controversial area of research. On &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cbsnews.com/news/distractions-make-learning-harder/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one hand&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants were asked to predict the weather after receiving a repeated set of cues. During part of the learning, researchers added a second task where participants had to keep a running mental count of high tones that they heard, thus adding an element of distraction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results showed that when doing single-task learning, the brain used the region associated with declarative memory, while the habit memory region was associated with dual-task learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The dual-task learning did not affect the participants' ability to predict weather at the time, but it reduced their knowledge about the task during a follow-up session later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/distraction-is-good-for-learning-sometimes/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the other&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologists know that the things we learn in one context might not be remembered in another. Famously, investigators once showed that words learned while scuba diving are easier to recall underwater than on dry land. Now Brown University psychologists suggest something similar happens with distraction. The researchers trained 48 people to hit a computer-screen target using a wonky touch pad—tracing up, for example, might move the cursor diagonally—and later evaluated them on their ability to quickly hit the mark. During both training and the test, participants were randomly selected to do a distracting second task: counting letters on a screen. Those distracted during just one phase performed poorly when tested, but those who had done the letter-counting task during both training and testing performed just as well as those who had trained and been tested without distractions, according to the results published in February in Psychological Science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The consensus remains that distraction is typically bad for learning, the scientists explain. But if you anticipate a distracting testing or performance environment, try to mimic those distractions as you study or practice to avoid being caught off guard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So distractors are generally bad, but not always.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's even more controversy whether background music &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/03055690220124551&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;helps&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-6-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doesn't&lt;/a&gt; with school activities or learning other stuff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-19T20:36:34.547" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20711" CreationDate="2018-09-20T03:31:45.977" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the past, I have ran into something similar while just looking for self help links related to attention deficit disorder. While I am unable to find the exact explanation I saw, I believe it was related to split-attention or selective attention. The bit I saw described the mechanisms in the brain involved in filtering information. While attempting to relocate what I had seen previously, I found an article that might be related to your inquiry: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3375497/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The role of selective attention on academic foundations: A cognitive neuroscience perspective&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20293" LastActivityDate="2018-09-20T03:31:45.977" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20722" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-20T09:59:36.763" Score="0" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;for i=1:length(subjects)&#xA;    EEG = pop_loadset([sub_name{i},'.set'],folder);&#xA;    for k = 1:length(EEG.event)-1&#xA;        disp(k);&#xA;        if strcmp(EEG.event(k).type,con1)&#xA;            k = k+1;&#xA;            if strcmp(EEG.event(k+1).type,con2)&#xA;                rt = EEG.event(k+1).latency-EEG.event(k).latency;&#xA;            end&#xA;        end&#xA;    end&#xA;end   &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20295" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-24T08:39:17.183" LastActivityDate="2018-09-24T08:39:17.183" Title="I want to find event1 in my EEG data, followed by event2 and then extract reaction time between them" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20723" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20725" CreationDate="2018-09-20T10:29:53.067" Score="3" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seems to considerable debate regarding the output of psychological research lacking&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a) appropriate, rigourous statistical treatment of data&#xA;b) replicability&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a second year undergrad psych student, it's one of my biggest fears that my future research might be marred by my lack of knowledge in the above two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What I am asking for in this post:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like reading suggestions in the form of journals, blogs, textbooks or even specific paper/articles that may lead me to other resources.  My aim is to develop a sound background in stats/methodology to avoid making embarrassing errors. I feel like it's important to mention my current mathematical level so that suggestions may be easier to make: I'm comfortable with univariate calculus and basics of differential equations, introductory probability theory and high school (done in South Asia) algebra and geometry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extra:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have read &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19976/resources-for-reliable-psychology-research&quot;&gt;this post on psychology.stackexchange&lt;/a&gt; regarding replicability and found it to be helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please let me know if I must edit this post in order to receive fruitful answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17324" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-09-02T19:56:05.133" Title="Recommended resources (journals, blogs, etc) for nurturing a background of statistical/methodological rigour in behavioural science research?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20725" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20723" CreationDate="2018-09-20T14:55:06.037" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are various loosely-defined 'camps' among reform-minded methodologists, so you probably want to try to follow a representative of each.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Andrew Gelman is a prominent landmark in this area, and runs a really nice frequently-updated blog at statmodeling.stat.columbia.edu with frequent paper critiques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The JASP crew also have a blog, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bayesianspectacles.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.bayesianspectacles.org/&lt;/a&gt; which is a bit on the aggressive side, but JASP is great and it'll point you to things like the recent 'redefine statistical significance' paper, which will give you plenty to talk about if you run into a methods guru on their coffee break.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also enjoy &lt;a href=&quot;http://daniellakens.blogspot.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://daniellakens.blogspot.com/&lt;/a&gt; and the author Daniel Lakens has a Coursera MOOC on this sort of thing. To be sure, there are a ton of good stats MOOCS, just this one happens to be by a psychologist with similar concerns to you :-)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a short list but I think it cuts across the camps I'm aware of (I'd love to know more about the camps in methodology myself, maybe some other StackExchange folks have some pointers!) My impression is that at minimum you should try to read someone who solves their problems with parameter estimation and cares about S and M errors (Gelman, Kruschke), someone who solves their problems with model selection and cares about Bayes Factors (EJ Wagenmakers 2018 &quot;Bayes factor design analysis&quot; maybe?), and someone who is happy to be frequentist so long as you're super careful about the interpretation (Lakens, I think? Or, like, most of statistics? Efron's awesome feats of bootstrapping are a great antidote to Wagenmakers' extreme takedowns of everything frequentist).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my particular corner of psychology, Stan is taking over the world, if that's interesting to you you might get some good mileage out of &lt;a href=&quot;http://elevanth.org/blog/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://elevanth.org/blog/&lt;/a&gt; I reckon upwards of 20 people recommended the 'rethinking' textbook to me, and they were right! It's pretty great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastEditorUserId="18720" LastEditDate="2019-09-02T19:56:05.133" LastActivityDate="2019-09-02T19:56:05.133" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20726" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20556" CreationDate="2018-09-20T20:43:55.930" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is the protocol study referred to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s12888-016-0978-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s12888-016-0978-3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The trial only remained in a planned state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.trialregister.nl/trialreg/admin/rctview.asp?TC=4206&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.trialregister.nl/trialreg/admin/rctview.asp?TC=4206&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For people interested in mindfulness in ADHD I would like to mention the main evidences &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;(I HAVE ORDINATED BY DATE)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zylowska, L., Ackerman, D., Yang, M., Futrell, J., Horton, N., &amp;amp; Hale, T. et al. (2007). Mindfulness Meditation&#xA;Training in Adults and Adolescents With ADHD: A Feasibility Study. Journal Of Attention Disorders, 11,&#xA;737-746.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smalley, S. L., Loo, S. K., Hale, T., Shrestha, A., McGough, J., Flook, L., &amp;amp; Reise, S. (2009). Mindfulness and attention deficit hyperactivity&#xA;disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(10), 1087-1098.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Singh, N. N., Singh, A. N., Lancioni, G. E., Singh, J., Winton, A. S., W., &amp;amp; Adkins, A. D. (2010). Mindfulness training for parents and their children&#xA;with ADHD increases the children's compliance. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(2), 157-166.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;van de Weijer-Bergsma, E., Formsma, A., de Bruin, E., &amp;amp; Bögels, S. (2011). The Effectiveness of Mindfulness&#xA;Training on Behavioral Problems and Attentional Functioning in Adolescents with ADHD. Journal Of&#xA;Child And Family Studies, 21, 775-787.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;van der Oord, S., Bögels, S., &amp;amp; Peijnenburg, D. (2011). The Effectiveness of Mindfulness Training for Children with&#xA;ADHD and Mindful Parenting for their Parents. Journal Of Child And Family Studies, 21, 139-147.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carboni, J. A., Roach, A. T., &amp;amp; Fredrick, L. D. (2013). Impact of mindfulness training on the behavior of elementary students with attentiondeficit/&#xA;hyperactive disorder. Research in Human Development, 10(3), 234-251.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mitchell, J., McIntyre, E., English, J., Dennis, M., Beckham, J., &amp;amp; Kollins, S. (2013). A Pilot Trial of Mindfulness&#xA;Meditation Training for ADHD in Adulthood: Impact on Core Symptoms, Executive Functioning, and&#xA;Emotion Dysregulation. Journal Of Attention Disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edel, M., Holter, T., Wassink, K., &amp;amp; Juckel, G. (2014). A Comparison of Mindfulness- Based Group Training and&#xA;Skills Group Training in Adults With ADHD: An Open Study. Journal Of Attention Disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schoenberg, P., Hepark, S., Kan, C., Barendregt, H., Buitelaar, J., &amp;amp; Speckens, A. (2014). Effects of mindfulnessbased&#xA;cognitive therapy on neurophysiological correlates of performance monitoring in adult attentiondeficit/&#xA;hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Neurophysiology, 125, 1407-1416.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bueno, V., Kozasa, E., da Silva, M., Alves, T., Louzã, M., &amp;amp; Pompéia, S. (2015). Mindfulness Meditation Improves&#xA;Mood, Quality of Life, and Attention in Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Biomed&#xA;Research International, 2015, 1-14. doi:10.1155/2015/962857&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Haydicky, J., Shecter, C., Wiener, J., &amp;amp; Ducharme, J. M. (2015). Evaluation of MBCT for adolescents with ADHD and their parents: Impact on&#xA;individual and family functioning. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(1), 76-94.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Janssen, L., Kan, C. C., Carpentier, P. J., Sizoo, B., Hepark, S., Grutters, J., &amp;amp; Speckens, A. E. (2015). Mindfulness based cognitive therapy&#xA;versus treatment as usual in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). BMC Psychiatry, 15(1), 216.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lo, H. H., Wong, S. Y., Wong, J. Y., Wong, S. W., &amp;amp; Yeung, J. W. (2016). The effect of a family-based mindfulness intervention on children with&#xA;attention deficit and hyperactivity symptoms and their parents: design and rationale for a randomized, controlled clinical trial (Study&#xA;protocol). BMC Psychiatry, 16(1), 65.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2018-09-20T20:43:55.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20727" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20550" CreationDate="2018-09-20T21:11:02.470" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, they must assess whether intervention is necessary in a episode of acute crisis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychiatryonline.org/pb/assets/raw/sitewide/practice_guidelines/guidelines/suicide.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psychiatryonline.org/pb/assets/raw/sitewide/practice_guidelines/guidelines/suicide.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subsequently, the evaluation that must be carried out by an expert aims to determine the psychological impact in the present, if it is advisable to follow up and that possible implications would take place in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/assessment.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/assessment.aspx&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastActivityDate="2018-09-20T21:11:02.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20625" CreationDate="2018-09-21T00:39:36.360" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a very elementary and basic way Cognitive Behavioral Therapy focuses on mental &lt;strong&gt;schemas&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;behavior modification techniques&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema_(psychology)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the formulation of the case the professional analyzes how attitudes, behavioral dispositions, behavior and the interpretations of all this are related to the different problems and disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find numerous information about this so I will try some differentiations of Gestalt therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would emphasize first that Gestalt therapy maintains a greater link with therapies close to &lt;strong&gt;emotions&lt;/strong&gt; or where a therapy must have special consideration of emotional processes, this feature is easy to see at first, and in his theory some develop principles to analyze emotions, his theory considers what, how, why of those emotions, in this way become important &lt;strong&gt;goals&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;objectives&lt;/strong&gt; that represent important factors of emotional and behavioral change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some features commented very briefly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Awareness&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;responsibility&lt;/strong&gt; (initially could be considered similar to locus of control): The immediate &lt;strong&gt;holistic experience&lt;/strong&gt; is considered, this means that are considered perceptions, sensations, feelings, thoughts and wishes or intentions, it is about going a little further beyond simple words or superficial conversations, it is about what the person thinks and does but also about what they feel, how they perceive certain situations or how they interpret them.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Concept of &lt;strong&gt;self&lt;/strong&gt; (this theory of Rogers is well known: self-worth, self-image, ideal-self) considering a holistic perspective or integrated cognitive but emotional, motivational and relational or social system, which perceives, evaluates, experiences and that is related to behavioral tendencies and manifest behavior about the environment. For example, not only what is done but what is wanted to do or intentions or make small changes to the behavior are considered.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The attention to the &lt;strong&gt;present moment&lt;/strong&gt; is prioritized, the professional and the client during the sessions work in a direct way with the problems, not with the words about the problem, that is, in therapy they working all the aspects involved in the problem while the problem manifests.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;therapeutic relationship&lt;/strong&gt; style close to Client-Centered Therapy, for example working from a style where the professional only directs to the client in front of a style of authoritarian expert.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, it is very important to highlight the evidences of Gestalt Therapy that are sometimes ignored as in the case of humanistic-experiential therapies and there is also an important publication bias, one of the most important documents from which follow the evidences of this therapy is this chapter released or freely accessible:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/110659465.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/110659465.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Elliott, R., Watson, J., Greenberg, L.S., Timulak, L., &amp;amp; Freire, E. (2013). Research on humanistic-experiential psychotherapies. In M.J. Lambert, Bergin &amp;amp; Garfield's Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (pp. 495-538). New York: Wiley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15923" LastEditorUserId="15923" LastEditDate="2018-09-21T11:21:32.380" LastActivityDate="2018-09-21T11:21:32.380" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20730" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-21T04:37:27.627" Score="1" ViewCount="185" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like the most popular theory among philosophers and neuroscientists who believe in free will is something called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/dont-delay/201106/free-wont-it-may-be-all-we-have-or-need&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;free won’t&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. This basically means that we cannot &lt;em&gt;will&lt;/em&gt; what we want to will, but we have the power to &lt;em&gt;veto&lt;/em&gt; a thought that our brain has produced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would mean that a person who is about to murder another person should have the power to veto pulling the trigger- but if they don’t, then they should be held morally responsible because they didn’t use their &lt;em&gt;free won’t&lt;/em&gt; power. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, I don’t think about murdering people, but I might be a weirdo. &lt;strong&gt;Do most people want to murder other people, but they use their &lt;em&gt;free won’t&lt;/em&gt; to refrain- so that they should be praised for their &lt;em&gt;self-control&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13908" LastActivityDate="2018-09-23T02:51:19.937" Title="Do most people want to murder?" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;free-will&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20732" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-21T09:37:23.260" Score="0" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been to dance lessons. They only taught partner dancing and cobtra dancing. No solo dancing was taught at all. In Sweden where I'm from solo dancing is kind of unpopular. In music on the other hand you have both solo and ensemble being popular.&#xA;What are some psychological theories that speak about this in some way or another? And what theories are generally accepted as scientific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20304" LastActivityDate="2018-09-21T12:43:02.143" Title="Why is solo dancing not as popular as contra and partner dancing?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-09-22T16:26:01.153" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20735" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20732" CreationDate="2018-09-21T12:43:02.143" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Should be something associated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtship_display&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Courtship Display&lt;/a&gt;. Not entirely sure if this explains entire thing fully. There might be some other factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18242" LastActivityDate="2018-09-21T12:43:02.143" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20736" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-21T13:05:31.560" Score="1" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;The mesolimbic dopamine pathway is a common neural pathway upon which rewards converge AKA the pleasure pathway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I am trying to find a comparable pathway in the brain for pain -- is there such a thing? Ideally, one where a probe could be inserted and stimulated to induce intractable pain in the victim. Is there anything reminiscent of the mesolimbic pathway but for pain, perhaps with some sort of somatosensory mapping? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you never thought about using Deep Brain Stimulation to torture someone before? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2018-09-23T07:21:37.473" LastActivityDate="2018-09-23T07:21:37.473" Title="Is there a region of the brain that mediates pain in a manner reminiscent of the mesolimbic pathway?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20737" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20730" CreationDate="2018-09-21T13:21:36.050" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very interesting question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that there are many both conscious and unconscious factors that determine destructive behavior. The conflict between the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;id and super-ego (mediated by ego)&lt;/a&gt; can, at some level, be understood as a conflict between needs and social norms. Murder seems to be universally accepted as &quot;bad behavior&quot; so it must be coded both on the conscious and unconscious level in our psyche, therefore, I assume the wide majority of people try to combat destructive impulses with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanisms#Vaillant&amp;#39;s_categorization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defense mechanisms.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a set of questions you can toy with:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When would your evolutionary ancestor murder someone?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When is it okay to murder someone? Why?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What behavioral and mental changes you'd have to undergo to become&#xA;the evilest person you know of?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jordan Peterson does quite a good job describing what leads to resentfulness and how can it manifest itself in the world in his &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL22J3VaeABQD_IZs7y60I3lUrrFTzkpat&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;biblical series.&lt;/a&gt; / Short clip about him &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3R-56Xo3qwE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;discussing hell.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jungian concept - &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shadow&lt;/a&gt; - is also an attempt to articulate evil aspects of a human being which is worth exploring. Especially because Jung stressed the importance of getting to known your own shadow. In other words, incorporating the evilest aspects of your personality and learning how to live with it properly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the things that are common among rape victims and soldiers who develop PTSD is the naivety and inexperience prior to the accident of evil. Peterson and other psychologists hypothesized that PTSD can be a shock effect upon realization of the depth of the evil within self or within another human being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on this, I'd say that almost all people have thought about murdering someone at least once, however, have stopped / didn't behave destructively. I'd go further and say that the wide majority of people at a certain point of their lives have fantasized about murdering someone and enjoyed that fantasy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on my personal experience and practice, I'd say murder impulses, desires and fantasies are a very good self-improvement tool that one can use to understand the deep nature of their own personality. Murder correlates with some aspects of our personality. Assumption #1: those personality traits (for example narcissistic features) have to do with the evolutionary survival patterns that can, in some sense, be useful. However, there must be a trigger behind extremes - assumption #2: those triggers are subtle and very hard to notice. So, if one can trace the link between feature and trigger they can improve their lives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18242" LastActivityDate="2018-09-21T13:21:36.050" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20738" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20740" CreationDate="2018-09-21T14:17:34.917" Score="2" ViewCount="205" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/20676/9769&quot;&gt;fairly recent answer here&lt;/a&gt; offering havening as a therapy has only upvotes. But a quick internet search found a rather brief and contested &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havening&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt; alleging havening is pseudo-scientific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what's the status of this technique/therapy in psychology? E.g are there meta-analyses showing that it's effective? And how is the quality of primary research assessed in this area? E.g. is the sub-field reasonably free of publication bias (which nowadays is also assessed in the better-off meta-analyses)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-21T14:29:53.710" LastActivityDate="2018-09-21T15:26:12.670" Title="Is &quot;havening&quot; pseudo-scientific or effective?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20739" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20736" CreationDate="2018-09-21T15:03:51.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on the most recent (all post-2009) research, it seems to be the same general pathway, just with different gradients in the same areas of the brain. From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4866581/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Taylor et al. (2016)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent studies suggest that dopamine neurons in the VTA [ventral tegmental area] and SN [substantia nigra] form a heterogeneous population tuned to either (or both) aversive or rewarding stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The heterogeneity of dopamine neurons in response to aversive and rewarding stimuli suggests that they serve unique functional roles. Cells activated by reward and inhibited by punishment are well suited to code motivational valence, whereas neurons activated by both rewarding and punishing stimuli are likely to code motivational salience [stimulus awareness]. Neurons coding motivational valence [whether the stimulus is positive or negative in value] would provide a signal for reward seeking, evaluation, and value learning, in line with current theories on the role of dopamine in reward processing. In contrast, neurons coding motivational salience would provide a signal for detection and prediction of highly important events independent of valence, pursuant to dopamine's role in salience processing. These distinct aspects of dopamine neurotransmission might be neuroanatomically separate: dopaminergic neurons coding motivational valence have been found more commonly in the ventromedial SN and lateral VTA with projections to nucleus accumbens [NAc] shell, whereas neurons coding motivational salience are more often reported in the dorsolateral SN with projections to the nucleus accumbens core.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5LfI6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5LfI6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The primary evidence for this updated view seems mostly based (in order of the number of citations) on 3 papers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Matsumoto and Hikosaka, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2739096/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Two types of dopamine neuron distinctly convey positive and negative motivational signals&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, Nature 2009;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brischoux et al., &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0811507106&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Phasic excitation of dopamine neurons in ventral VTA by noxious stimuli&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, PNAS 2009&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lammel et al., &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3112473/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Projection-specific modulation of dopamine neuron synapses by aversive and rewarding stimuli&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, Neuron 2011&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The part of your question that probably confused Alice and also confuses me a little is that you also ask (in your final paragraph) about somatosensory mapping. The latter doesn't generally involve tracing any pathways beyond the sensory areas of the brain, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29519481&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;e.g. for macaques&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/a1ikZ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/a1ikZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also such maps are not totally fixed as there is some use-dependent plasticity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-21T15:50:50.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20740" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20738" CreationDate="2018-09-21T15:17:34.760" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, I am not familiar with this therapy. There seems to be 251 hits on Scholar (excluding citations and patents) at the time of this writing with a search for &quot;Havening Technique'. Of these 251, there seems to be one single journal article from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gursimran_Thandi/publication/284023276_Impact_of_a_Single-Session_of_Havening/links/564afeec08ae127ff98776be/Impact-of-a-Single-Session-of-Havening.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gursimran &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2015)&lt;/a&gt;. The publisher of this 'journal', &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt; the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hsj.gr/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Health Science Journal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://imedpub.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Insight Medical Publishing&lt;/a&gt;) is listed on &lt;a href=&quot;https://beallslist.weebly.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baell's list&lt;/a&gt; and hence a suspected &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_open-access_publishing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;predatory publisher&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, this Havening technique can safely be considered as a technique that has not been described in the scientific literature. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;I am deliberately leaving out the reference to the paper, as I regard it a source, not a reference&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-21T15:26:12.670" LastActivityDate="2018-09-21T15:26:12.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20741" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20749" CreationDate="2018-09-21T15:43:55.320" Score="3" ViewCount="230" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering, can someone become addicted to the absence or the removal of a negative stimulus? Normally, addiction is associated with pleasure-inducing drugs, like opiates and amphetamines as notorious examples. These compounds induce massive release of dopamine in the limbic system, ultimately leading to addiction. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.asam.org/resources/definition-of-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Addiction is a collection of behaviors&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Addiction is characterized by &lt;strong&gt;inability to consistently abstain&lt;/strong&gt;,&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;impairment in behavioral control&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;craving&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;diminished recognition of&#xA;  significant problems with one’s behaviors and interpersonal&#xA;  relationships&lt;/strong&gt;, and a &lt;strong&gt;dysfunctional emotional response&lt;/strong&gt;. Like other&#xA;  chronic diseases, addiction often involves cycles of relapse and&#xA;  remission.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is known that training can be assisted by positive reinforcement (well done! here's a candy), or by negative reinforcement (wrong! here's an electroshock). Can addiction be caused by either? In other words, suppose someone is constantly aware of something unpleasant (pain, itching, unwanted perceptions such as tinnitus (ringing in the ears), negative emotions or thoughts) &lt;strong&gt;can the removal/lessening of such a stimulus lead to an addiction of the means to remove it?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the sake of the question I think it is sufficient to focus the question on one (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;craving&lt;/em&gt;), or several of the symptoms, as existing studies, if any, may have focused on only one or few of the symptoms of addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short: &lt;strong&gt;are there studies on the addiction to the absence / removal of a negative stimulus&lt;/strong&gt;?    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;This question was fueled by the comments to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20736/is-there-a-region-of-the-brain-that-mediates-pain-a-la-mesolimbic-pathway&quot;&gt;an earlier question&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-21T18:54:38.807" LastActivityDate="2018-09-22T06:14:38.970" Title="Can addiction develop to the absence of a normally present negative stimulus?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20742" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-21T16:18:02.607" Score="5" ViewCount="238" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20736/is-there-a-region-of-the-brain-that-mediates-pain-a-la-mesolimbic-pathway&quot;&gt;recent question&lt;/a&gt; here  asked about (mostly) how pain and pleasure are differentiated in pathways involving reward/aversion cues. But there was some confusion as to what the question really wanted to ask as it also mentioned &amp;quot;somatosensory mapping&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A reasonably different but also good question is how are pleasure and pain decoded before it gets to any feedback/reinforcement pathways, i.e. how are pain and pleasure distinguished in the somatosensory cortex. This discussion probably involves considering the way such stimuli are transmitted/encoded from the peripheral nervous system, (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/exd.12639&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lloyd, et al. 2015&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The skin senses serve a discriminative function, allowing us to manipulate objects and detect touch and temperature, and an affective/emotional function, manifested as itch or pain when the skin is damaged. Two different classes of nerve fibre mediate these dissociable aspects of cutaneous somatosensation: (i) myelinated A-beta and A-delta afferents that provide rapid information about the location and physical characteristics of skin contact; and (ii) unmyelinated, slow-conducting C-fibre afferents that are typically associated with coding the emotional properties of pain and itch. However, recent research has identified a third class of C-fibre afferents that code for the pleasurable properties of touch - c-tactile afferents or CTs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To keep answers to this question reasonably short, let's ask just how is tactile pleasure distinguished from (tactile) pain in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lloyd, D. M., McGlone, F. P., &amp;amp; Yosipovitch, G. (2015). Somatosensory pleasure circuit: from skin to brain and back. &lt;em&gt;Experimental dermatology&lt;/em&gt;, 24(5), 321-324. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/exd.12639&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/exd.12639&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;Free Full Text: &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/exd.12639&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/exd.12639&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/exd.12639&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/exd.12639&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-12-17T21:12:45.953" Title="How are tactile pleasure and pain differentiated in the somatosensory cortex?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20743" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20750" CreationDate="2018-09-21T17:05:00.973" Score="2" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do people find fascination in a tabloid magazine, paparazzi magazine, gossiping or whether prince and kings are dating or not or if actors, actresses, singers having any scandalous affairs or not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find gossiping similar to character assassination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no business in their lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what's the psychological reason for the fascination with gossiping or scandalous life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19969" LastActivityDate="2018-09-22T15:25:38.567" Title="What's the psychological reason for the fascination with gossiping or scandalous life?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;compulsive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20744" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-21T18:04:42.923" Score="3" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;So here's a question from a newbie. I read somewhere that emotional pain can last as long as 20 minutes. Anything painful you feel beyond that is just a result of overthinking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well whatever it is, why does it effect our overall being so much? We feel that actual clenching pain in our heart like it will stop beating any minute. The pain is that strong. Our sleep and eating patterns get disturbed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why? It's just an emotion. Why can't our bodies seem to differentiate between emotional pain and physical hurt? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20259" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-09-22T06:20:08.680" LastActivityDate="2018-09-22T06:20:08.680" Title="Why does emotional pain sometimes feels like physical pain?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-09-22T17:07:55.287" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20745" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20741" CreationDate="2018-09-21T18:45:07.047" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this involves more a discussion of what addiction is (or how it's conceptualized) rather than anything about the neuroscience of rewards and aversion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it's uncontroversial that &quot;typical&quot; humans can &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00128&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;experience both appetitive and aversive conditioning  (Andreatta and Pauli, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. However, the issue is that addiction is not merely that, e.g. your definition mentions &quot;diminished recognition of significant problems with one’s behaviors and interpersonal relationships&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A recent study &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5107334/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Myers et al., 2017)&lt;/a&gt;  of addicts on methadone maintenance found that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On the initial training phase, both groups performed similarly on learning to obtain reward, but as memory load grew, the control group outperformed the addicted group on learning to avoid punishment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to suggest that people who are addicted don't just like some reward excessively, but perhaps (more interestingly) also fail to dislike enough the negative (aversive) effects of that stimulus. (This is not necessarily the most clear-cut study, because the addicts were not drug-free.) But if you want the dual of this notion inversing the roles of reward and aversion, it would have to be people who don't get enough reward from a positive stimulus, so the dual of addiction in this sense would be &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/anhedonia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anhedonia&lt;/a&gt;. And not surprisingly anhedonia is a result of exposure to too much aversive stimuli, e.g. it's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.10.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;feature of PTSD (Olson et al., 2017)&lt;/a&gt;. But my take is also a bit simplistic, because anhedonia is also exhibited by drug addicts &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3089992/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;particularly in withdrawal (Hatzigiakoumis et al., 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the question update&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In other words, suppose someone is constantly aware of something unpleasant (pain, itching, unwanted perceptions such as tinnitus (ringing in the ears), negative emotions or thoughts) can the removal/lessening of such a stimulus lead to an addiction of the means to remove it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we exclude the obvious physical-dependence drugs like opioids, we're still left with a notion of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(04)00824-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;medication overuse headache&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, which apparently can be caused by aspirin or acetaminophen:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In order to emphasise the&#xA;  regular intake of drugs as the basis of this form of headache,&#xA;  the new name “medication-overuse headache” (MOH) has&#xA;  now been introduced into the International Headache&#xA;  Society’s classification from 2004. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is now substantial evidence that all drugs used for the&#xA;  treatment of headache can cause MOH in patients with&#xA;  primary headache disorders. The use of drugs that lead to&#xA;  chronic MOH varies substantially from country to country&#xA;  and is influenced by cultural factors. In many patients it is&#xA;  difficult to identify a single causal substance, because 90% of&#xA;  patients take more than one compound at a time and each&#xA;  component of antimigraine drugs might induce headache.&#xA;  This has been shown even for substances such as aspirin and&#xA;  paracetamol.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(As you probably know, even aspirin or acetaminophen have potential negative effects, e.g. bleeding or kidney damage, respectively).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And while it may seem that MOH has nothing to do with addiction, some have suggested otherwise, e.g. a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5741367/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more recent (2017) review&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In line with the concept that patients with MOH share similar characteristics to persons with addiction [&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2010.05.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cupini, 2010&lt;/a&gt;], some authors have suggested that mechanisms involved in dependence processes also apply to MOH [&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awh691&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fumal, 2006&lt;/a&gt;].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously this is not quite a settled piece of science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond medication for intrinsic pain, you'd have to consider torture and what people would do gain relief from that. Apparently &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/the-lay-scientist/2010/nov/04/2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;almost anything&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ali Soufan, a former FBI special agent with considerable experience interrogating al-Qaeda operatives, pointed out in Time that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;When they are in pain, people will say anything to get the pain to stop. Most of the time, they will lie, make up anything to make you stop hurting them. That means the information you're getting is useless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;He isn't alone in this assessment – a number of former intelligence people have expressed similar views, and his words are echoed by the US Army Training Manual's section on interrogation, which suggests that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;…the use of force is a poor technique, as it yields unreliable results, may damage subsequent collection efforts, and can induce the source to say whatever he thinks the interrogator wants to hear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Surely saying anything is some kind of &quot;impairment in behavioral control&quot; (from the definition of addiction you gave), but it would be hard to find [published] scientific studies on torture nowadays (and I'm not talking about studies on after-effects).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-21T20:12:20.740" LastActivityDate="2018-09-21T20:12:20.740" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20749" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20741" CreationDate="2018-09-22T06:05:21.090" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short, the answer to your question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;can someone become addicted to the absence or the removal of a negative stimulus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is most definitely yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst &lt;strong&gt;not intended to be used as “diagnostic criteria”&lt;/strong&gt; for determining if addiction is present or not, the characteristics of addiction provided through the American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) are widely present in most cases of addiction, and gives an outline of the mechanism required for what you could be talking about, and therefore your hypothesis definitely has legs.  You only have to look at alcoholism as an example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mechanism works through positive reinforcement, which as you put it, &lt;em&gt;&quot;Well done! here's a candy&quot;&lt;/em&gt; in which the &quot;candy&quot;, as you will see below, can be pain relief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same ASAM link you gave also points out that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Addiction is a primary, chronic disease of brain reward, motivation, memory and related circuitry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although experimental studies have produced mixed results, there has been a long-standing belief in the analgesic properties of alcohol and a meta-analysis of controlled experimental studies conducted by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2016.11.009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thompson et al. (2016)&lt;/a&gt; found that alcohol has the ability to provide a sense of relief from pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Alcohol resulted in a small increase in pain threshold.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A moderate-large decrease in pain ratings was also observed.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Higher blood alcohol content is associated with greater analgesia.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Analgesic effects may contribute to alcohol dependence in those with persistent pain.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alcohol is also a big problem amongst many seeking help from severe stress, depression and/or anxiety through &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2705930&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;negative urgency&lt;/a&gt; which is correlated with greater &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/caudate-nucleus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;caudate nucleus&lt;/a&gt; activity to alcohol cues (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.10.036&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chester, et al. 2016&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is because, as pointed out by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-381431-9.00003-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sharot (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The caudate nucleus is one of the major targets for the brain’s dopaminergic system (Wise &amp;amp; Rompre, 1989). Dopamine is a principal neuromodulator for reward learning and reward-seeking behaviour (Bayer &amp;amp; Glimcher, 2005; Belin &amp;amp; Everitt, 2008; Schultz, 2001). In particular, dopamine is suggested to signal predictions of rewards, and errors in such prediction–providing a learning signal when predictions do not align with outcomes (Montague, Hymann &amp;amp; Cohen, 2004; Schultz, 2001, 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Through the dependency on the false friend called Alcohol, there is the &lt;strong&gt;inability to consistently abstain&lt;/strong&gt; from seeking relief from pain (emotional or physical) which is &lt;strong&gt;part&lt;/strong&gt; of the &lt;strong&gt;impairment in behavioural control&lt;/strong&gt;.  The feelings of escape from physical pain or the emotional attachment to life's hardships, after a while, can lead to &lt;strong&gt;craving&lt;/strong&gt; for the same feeling, either to remove the returning pain, or to prevent its return.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Diminished recognition of significant problems with their behaviours and interpersonal relationships&lt;/strong&gt; forms another part of the &lt;strong&gt;impairment in behavioural control&lt;/strong&gt; and can arise from this constant &quot;need&quot; for an alcoholic drink, and &lt;strong&gt;dysfunctional emotional responses&lt;/strong&gt; develop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chester, D. S., Lynam, D. R., Milich, R., &amp;amp; DeWall, C. N. (2016). Craving versus control: Negative urgency and neural correlates of alcohol cue reactivity. &lt;em&gt;Drug and alcohol dependence&lt;/em&gt;, 163, S25-S28. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.10.036&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.10.036&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sharot, T. (2012). Chapter 3 - Predicting Emotional Reactions: Mechanisms, Bias and Choice. In R. Dolan &amp;amp; T. Sharot (Ed.), Neuroscience of Preference and Choice (pp. 53-72). Academic Press doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-381431-9.00003-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/B978-0-12-381431-9.00003-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thompson, T., Oram, C., Correll, C. U., Tsermentseli, S., &amp;amp; Stubbs, B. (2017). Analgesic effects of alcohol: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled experimental studies in healthy participants. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Pain&lt;/em&gt;, 18(5), 499-510. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2016.11.009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.jpain.2016.11.009&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-22T06:14:38.970" LastActivityDate="2018-09-22T06:14:38.970" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20750" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20743" CreationDate="2018-09-22T14:52:47.053" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Only evolutionary psychology seems to have something to say about the &amp;quot;why&amp;quot; here. And (somewhat predictably) the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gossip#Evolutionary_view&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypothesis advanced&lt;/a&gt; has something to do with social information in ever larger groups:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Dunbar's evolutionary theories, gossip originated to help bond the groups that were constantly growing in size. To survive, individuals need alliances; but as these alliances grew larger, it was difficult if not impossible to physically connect with everyone. Conversation and language were able to bridge this gap. Gossip became a social interaction that helped the group gain information about other individuals without personally speaking to them. It enabled people to keep up with what was going on in their social network. It also creates a bond between the teller and the hearer, as they share information of mutual interest and spend time together. It also helps the hearer learn about another individual’s behavior and helps them have a more effective approach to their relationship. Dunbar (2004) found that 65% of conversations consist of social topics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dunbar (1994) argues that gossip is the equivalent of social grooming often observed in other primate species. Anthropological investigations indicate that gossip is a cross-cultural phenomenon, providing evidence for evolutionary accounts of gossip.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;FYI: depending who you ask, &lt;a href=&quot;https://theconversation.com/gossip-is-a-social-skill-not-a-character-flaw-51629&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;it's a social skill and not a character flaw&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When disparaging gossip, we overlook the fact that it’s an essential part of what makes the social world tick; the nasty side of gossip overshadows the more benign ways in which it functions. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the workplace, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2012.07.002&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;studies have shown&lt;/a&gt; that harmless gossiping with one’s colleagues can build group cohesiveness and boost morale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the flip side, the awareness that others are likely talking about us can keep us in line.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies of California cattle ranchers, Maine lobster fishers and college rowing teams confirm that gossip is used in a variety of settings to hold individuals accountable. In each of these groups, individuals who violated expectations about sharing resources or meeting responsibilities became targets of gossip and ostracism. This, in turn, pressured them to become better members of the group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, lobstermen who didn’t respect well-established group norms about when and how lobsters could be harvested were quickly exposed by their colleagues. Their fellow lobstermen temporarily shunned them and, for a while, refused to work with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Belgian psychologist &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uantwerpen.be/en/staff/charlotte-debacker/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Charlotte de Backer&lt;/a&gt; makes a distinction between strategy learning gossip and reputation gossip.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, de Backer discovered that our interest in celebrities may feed off of this [latter] thirst for learning life strategies. For better or for worse, we look to celebrities in the same way that our ancestors looked to role models within their tribes for guidance. [...] From an evolutionary standpoint, “celebrity” is a recent phenomenon, due primarily to the explosion of mass media in the 20th century. Our ancestors, on the other hand, found social importance in the intimate details of everyone‘s private life, since everyone in their small social world mattered. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Additionally, in a highly mobile, industrial society] Because of the familiarity we feel with celebrities, they can serve an important social function: they may be the only “friends” we have in common with new neighbors and coworkers. They’re shared cultural touchstones that facilitate the types of informal interactions that help people become comfortable in new surroundings. Keeping up with the lives of actors, politicians and athletes can make a person more socially adept during interactions with strangers and even offer inroads into new relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I.e., it's a matter of degree and content whether it greases the wheels of society enough to make them spin well (rather than slip).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A couple of peered-reviewed refs for the latter quote (from that research group):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;De Backer, C., Nelissen, M., Vyncke, P., Braeckman, J. &amp;amp; McAndrew, F. (2007). Celebrities: From Teachers to Friends. A Test of Two Hypotheses on the Adaptiveness of Celebrity Gossip. Human Nature, 18(4), 334-354. (IF2007: 1.814)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;De Backer, C. J., Larson, C., Fisher, M. L., McAndrew, F. T., &amp;amp; Rudnicki, K. (2016). When Strangers Start to Gossip: Investigating the Effect of Gossip on Cooperation in a Prisoner’s Dilemma Game. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 1-10.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40806-016-0063-7&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;latter paper&lt;/a&gt; concludes that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;gossip may spark initial relations, yet is insufficient to ignite a social bond sustained by cooperative action among complete strangers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26181311&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the former&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Learning Hypothesis explains interest in celebrity gossip as a by-product of an evolved mechanism useful for acquiring fitness-relevant survival information. The Parasocial Hypothesis sees celebrity gossip as a diversion of this mechanism, which leads individuals to misperceive celebrities as people who are part of their social network. Using two preliminary studies, we tested our predictions. [...] In support of the Learning Hypothesis, age proved to be a strong predictor of interest in celebrities. In partial support of the Parasocial Hypothesis, media exposure, but not social isolation, was a strong predictor of interest in celebrities. The preliminary results support both theories, indicate that across our life span celebrities move from being teachers to being friends&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-22T15:25:38.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20751" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20792" CreationDate="2018-09-22T14:59:42.497" Score="6" ViewCount="103" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.free-range-humans.com/choices/feelings/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; by Marianne Cantwell, in the middle of the article, she quotes Jonah Lehrer's book &lt;em&gt;How We Decide&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“When a person is drawn to a specific item on the menu or a particular&#xA;  romantic prospect, the mind is trying to tell him that he should&#xA;  choose that option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It has already assessed the alternatives – this analysis takes place&#xA;  outside of conscious awareness – and converted that assessment into&#xA;  positive emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The world is full of things and it is our feelings that help us choose&#xA;  among them.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How correct is this statement from the perspective of psychology and neuroscience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20317" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-09-27T08:40:24.133" LastActivityDate="2018-09-27T09:19:03.620" Title="Does the subconscious mind communicate its analysis through emotions?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20753" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20730" CreationDate="2018-09-22T15:38:03.577" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;[Just addressing your title question:] supposedly so, but there isn't a lot of data on this. One of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Buss&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;David Buss&lt;/a&gt;' students has this in his &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/16c0/71b24e9fc2848b3c930c1401c56b4ee95c7d.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PhD thesis&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;participants from the Austin&#xA;  community completed a survey instrument that asked a series of questions about their&#xA;  most memorable fantasy of killing someone else. Seventy-six percent of women and 91&#xA;  percent of men reported having at least one homicidal thought in their lifetime. The&#xA;  person both men and women most frequently thought of killing was an intrasexual rival.&#xA;  The majority of homicidal fantasies involved the murder of someone who was not a&#xA;  genetic relative. Men were significantly more likely than women to have a murder&#xA;  fantasy triggered by a romantic partner’s infidelity. Women were more likely than men&#xA;  think of killing a rival who damaged their sexual reputation. These and other findings&#xA;  were predicted in advance by Homicide Adaptation Theory [HAT] (Buss &amp;amp; Duntley, under&#xA;  review). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can probably tell, their angle is evolutionary psychology; they don't care about any free will debates, it seems. I could easily find &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.06.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a criticism of HAT by Durrant (2009)&lt;/a&gt;, which cites several works of Duntley and Buss on this; the latest cited in there being:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Duntley, J. D., &amp;amp; Buss, D. M. (2008). The origins of homicide. In J. D. Duntley, &amp;amp; T. K.&#xA;Shackelford (Eds.), Evolutionary forensic psychology: Darwinian foundations of crime&#xA;and law (pp. 41−64). Oxford: Oxford University Press&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more recent paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2016.1259540&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reynolds &amp;amp; McCrea (2017)&lt;/a&gt; summarizes a few of the older studies on prevalence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, there is a paucity of&#xA;  research on homicide fantasies, with most of&#xA;  the research historically focused on criminals&#xA;  or the pathological [...] This tells us little about the psychology&#xA;  process of homicide in typical individuals.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(93)90019-E&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kenrick and Sheets (1993)&lt;/a&gt; conducted&#xA;  two studies with college students as subjects&#xA;  to address just this limitation. In the first&#xA;  study, participants were asked about their&#xA;  most recent homicide fantasy, and in the second&#xA;  study participants were asked about their&#xA;  homicide fantasies in several contexts.&#xA;  Results indicated that the majority of participants&#xA;  did have at least one fantasy, with&#xA;  males recalling more homicide fantasies&#xA;  (e.g., 73% vs. 66% in Study 1), and males&#xA;  reporting longer and more detailed fantasies.&#xA;  Results were interpreted as supporting evolutionary&#xA;  explanations for homicide like the byproduct&#xA;  hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(2000)26:3%3C225::AID-AB2%3E3.0.CO;2-R&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Crabb (2000)&lt;/a&gt; also found that homicide&#xA;  thoughts were common in normal&#xA;  undergraduates. Crabb investigated homicidal&#xA;  thoughts and the weapons used in these fantasies.&#xA;  Similar to Crabb, Kenrick and Sheets&#xA;  (1993) explicitly asked undergraduates questions&#xA;  concerning their thoughts about killing&#xA;  someone. Replicating previous research, most&#xA;  participants admitted to a homicide fantasy.&#xA;  Results also indicated that homicide fantasies&#xA;  were preceded by a threatening interpersonal&#xA;  event and involved weapons like firearms, knives,&#xA;  and clubs, rather than weapons like hands&#xA;  and feet. The evidence was interpreted as supporting&#xA;  the existence of evolved psychological&#xA;  mechanisms able to associate material–cultural&#xA;  implements, like firearms, with aggressive&#xA;  actions and to rehearse this through fantasy.&#xA;  These studies are important as they demonstrate&#xA;  that homicide fantasies are common and&#xA;  unlikely the result of pathological processes.&#xA;  Furthermore, they support evolutionary explanations&#xA;  for homicide like the by-product hypothesis&#xA;  and homicide adaptation theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reynolds &amp;amp; McCrea's study tried to elicit subjects to spontaneously think of murder by providing them with some typical contexts in which murders occur, but they weren't terribly successful at this: less than 5% of participants reported such cued homicidal thoughts, although many more reported violent thoughts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-23T02:51:19.937" LastActivityDate="2018-09-23T02:51:19.937" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20754" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20557" CreationDate="2018-09-22T17:11:00.843" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually, epidemiological studies are not as clear-cut, showing some overlap/comorbidity &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.01.017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spinhoven et al. (2014)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Prevalence of 5-year recency PTSD among anxiety and depressive disorders was 9.2%, and comorbidity, in particular with major depression, was high (84.4%). Comorbidity was associated with female gender, all types of childhood trauma, neuroticism, (low) extraversion, and symptom severity. Multivariable significant risk factors (i.e., female gender and child sexual and physical abuse) were shared among anxiety and depressive disorders. Our results support a shared vulnerability model for comorbidity of anxiety and depressive disorders with PTSD. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2eYUX.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/2eYUX.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my mind, it's somewhat of an open question whether the generic studies are lacking in this respect (overlap) or if diagnostic criteria are too blurry used in practice. The authors of this study however seem to incline toward the latter in their discussion/conclusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our study results have some clinical implications in showing that PTSD is common in unselected persons with anxiety&#xA;  and depression. In spite of this finding, outpatient mental health and primary care professionals do not consistently apply&#xA;  a trauma perspective focused on diagnosis and treatment of PTSD (Zimmerman &amp;amp; Mattia, 1999). This lack of application&#xA;  may be because PTSD is very frequent a comorbid condition, and therapists often treat depressive or other anxiety disorders&#xA;  first. Thus, they may not be aware of the comorbid PTSD or wait to see whether treating trauma-related symptoms remains&#xA;  necessary in a later phase of treatment. Other reasons may be the resistance of the patient to talk about their traumatic&#xA;  experiences and resistance of the treatment staff in treating the sequelae of trauma (Jacobson &amp;amp; Richardson, 1987). Without&#xA;  sufficient knowledge about PTSD, or a strategy for regularly focusing on trauma,treatment staff may allow a more established&#xA;  diagnosis to come to the forefront (Al-Saffar, Borga, &amp;amp; Hallstrom, 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The older review of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20728&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Collimore et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt;, focused just on the overlap of PTSD with social anxiety [disorder] (SA[D]), notes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) are frequently comorbid among veteran and community samples. Several studies have demonstrated significant comorbidity between trauma, PTSD, and social anxiety (SA), and a growing number of studies have explored the nature of this association. Although a diagnosis of either PTSD or SAD alone can result in significant impairment in social and occupational functioning, these difficulties are often magnified in persons suffering from both disorders. [...] we describe possible explanatory models of the co‐occurrence, with a specific focus on the shared vulnerability model. [...] we describe additional factors—guilt, shame, and depressive symptoms—that may help to explain the co‐occurrence of PTSD and SA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1tDCH.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1tDCH.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So despite the [current] lack of genetic evidence, a shared vulnerability is not entirely flown out of the window. Actually the latter review has something more specific to say about that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Behavioral genetic evidence of a moderate genetic&#xA;  overlap between PTSD and other commonly co-occurring&#xA;  conditions also exists, including major depressive&#xA;  disorder, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and&#xA;  substance use disorder.[47–50] Only one behavioral genetic&#xA;  study has examined whether aspects of PTSD and SAD&#xA;  share a genetic component. We&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6HpO9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt; explored whether&#xA;  socially related fears (i.e. the fear of socially observable&#xA;  arousal symptoms) and risk for trauma shared a genetic&#xA;  component in a subsample of twin pairs (n = 191).&#xA;  Although socially related fear was influenced by both&#xA;  genetic and environmental factors, trauma exposure was&#xA;  best explained by environmental factors. Given that&#xA;  genetic correlations can only be computed between two&#xA;  variables that are influenced by genetic factors, we were&#xA;  unable to compute the genetic correlation between&#xA;  socially related fear and trauma exposure; however, earlier&#xA;  research has shown that exposure to assaultive trauma may&#xA;  be influenced by genetic and environmental factors.[34]&#xA;  Future research may clarify whether PTSD (and not only&#xA;  trauma exposure) shares a genetic component with SA and&#xA;  other socially related fears.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6HpO9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;: Collimore KC, Asmundson GJG, Taylor S, Jang KL. Socially&#xA;  related fears following exposure to trauma: environmental and&#xA;  genetic influences. J Anxiety Disord 2009;23:240–246. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.07.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.07.006.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  [34]: Stein MB, Jang KL, Taylor S, Vernon PA, Livesley WJ. Genetic&#xA;  and environmental influences on trauma exposure and posttraumatic&#xA;  stress disorder symptoms: a twin study. Am J&#xA;  Psychiatry 2002;159:1675–1681, doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.10.1675&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1176/appi.ajp.159.10.1675&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  [47]. Chantarujikapong SI, Scherrer JF, Xian H, et al. A twin study of&#xA;  generalized anxiety disorder symptoms, panic disorder symptoms&#xA;  and post-traumatic stress disorder in men. Psychiatry Res&#xA;  2001;103:133–145.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  [48]. Fu Q, Koenen KC, Miller MW, et al. Differential etiology&#xA;  of posttraumatic stress disorder with conduct disorder and&#xA;  major depression in male veterans. Biol Psychiatry 2007;62:&#xA;  1088–1094.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  [49]. Scherrer JF, Xian H, Lyons MJ, et al. Posttraumatic stress&#xA;  disorder; combat exposure; and nicotine dependence, alcohol&#xA;  dependence, and major depression in male twins. Compr&#xA;  Psychiatry 2008;49:297–304.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  [50]. Xian H, Chantarujikapong SI, Scherrer JF, et al. Genetic and&#xA;  environmental influences on posttraumatic stress disorder,&#xA;  alcohol and drug dependence in twin pairs. Drug Alcohol&#xA;  Depend 2000;61:95–102.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only other paper cited there that's clearly about anxiety disorders is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11549402&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chantarujikapong&lt;/a&gt;'s twin study:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder (PD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) often co-occur. [...]&#xA;  Genetic model fitting was performed to estimate the magnitude of genetic and environmental contributions to the lifetime co-occurrence of GAD symptoms, PD symptoms and PTSD. The liability for GAD symptoms was due to a 37.9% additive genetic contribution common to PD symptoms and PTSD. Liability for PD symptoms was due to a 20.7% additive genetic contribution common to GAD symptoms and PTSD, and a 20.1% additive genetic influence specific to PD symptoms. Additive genetic influences common to symptoms of GAD and PD accounted for 21.3% of the genetic variance in PTSD. Additive genetic influences specific to PTSD accounted for 13.6% of the genetic variance in PTSD. Remaining variance for all three disorders was due to unique environmental factors both common and specific to each phenotype. These results suggest that these disorders each have etiologically distinct components and also have significant genetic and unique environmental contributions in common.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OjgGD.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OjgGD.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6HpO9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6HpO9.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on this twin study it looks like there should be some shared genetic factors between GAD/PD and PTSD; it seems that they haven't identified in terms of actual genes though. Note that that this does not imply the disorders are not distinct (just like any of the other known gene overlaps [in the Science study] don't imply that.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-22T17:39:48.853" LastActivityDate="2018-09-22T17:39:48.853" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18960" CreationDate="2018-09-22T20:32:06.483" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ethical procedures are specific to your country and even differ between universities and sometimes even per department. Of course you know everything about the Declaration of Helsinki, being immersed in the city of its origins (you seem to (have) be(en) affiliated to the University of Helsinki). You seem to be located in NY now, but I'm unsure to your affiliation. So I started wandering on the sites of the uni of Helsinki and the New York University for some information. But note you should look into the local requirements yourself (although your study has likely long since started :-)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, you need to find out the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.helsinki.fi/en/ethical-review-board-in-the-humanities-and-social-and-behavioural-sciences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IRB&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nyu.edu/research/resources-and-support-offices/getting-started-withyourresearch/human-subjects-research/how-to-apply.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; for NY) you will be dealing with, often operating under a university, or affiliated hospital. These folks can tell you anything you need to know. Here is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://med.nyu.edu/research/office-science-research/clinical-research/resources-researchers-study-teams/human-research-regulatory-affairs/nyu-school-medicine-institutional-review-boards&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;site of the IRB&lt;/a&gt; with all the specifics you need to submit an IRB proposal to NY Uni. Note that the best thing is for specifics such as pill bottles and placebos is to talk to the IRB, or try to find investigators that have done such a thing recently in your neighborhood.  For example, there's a study from &lt;a href=&quot;https://thorax.bmj.com/content/72/1/13.info&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Segal &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; (2017)&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Randomised, double-blind, &lt;em&gt;placebo-controlled trial&lt;/em&gt; with azithromycin selects for anti-inflammatory microbial metabolites in the emphysematous lung&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;that was conducted by the New York University School of Medicine and by the looks of it it is exactly the thing you are planning to do. These guys can likely help you out, and reading the papers and related ones may help you as well. For example the linked paper says in the Methods: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Both placebo and AZM were prepared in an opaque capsule by the NYU pharmacy...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, the NYU pharmacy, apparently, assists in these kinds of matters - the place to go!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://thorax.bmj.com/content/72/1/13.info&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Segal &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Thorax&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;72&lt;/strong&gt; :13-22&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-09-22T20:32:06.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20757" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20722" CreationDate="2018-09-22T22:41:22.753" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing you are using Matlab. Your code is mainly sound, but a few comments:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;don't use &quot;i&quot; or &quot;j&quot; as they are function names in Matlab.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;don't change the value of a for loop variable inside the loop.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is you code, corrected:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;for sub=1:length(subjects)&#xA;    EEG = pop_loadset([sub_name{sub},'.set'],folder);&#xA;    trial = 0;&#xA;    for eve = 1:length(EEG.event)&#xA;        if strcmp(EEG.event(trial).type,con1)&#xA;            trial = trial+1;&#xA;            trialonset(trial) = EEG.event(trial).latency;&#xA;        elseif strcmp(EEG.event(trial).type,con2)&#xA;            trialoffset(trial) = EEG.event(trial).latency; &#xA;        end&#xA;    end&#xA;    rtlist{sub} = trialoffset-trialonset;&#xA;end&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2018-09-22T22:41:22.753" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20758" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20769" CreationDate="2018-09-22T23:12:44.713" Score="3" ViewCount="136" Body="&lt;p&gt;Caffeine &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cochrane.org/CD009281/SYMPT_caffeine-analgesic-adjuvant-acute-pain-adults&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;is used an adjuvant&lt;/a&gt; in over-the-couner pain medication, e.g. added to paracetamol &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspirin/paracetamol/caffeine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;and/or&lt;/a&gt; aspirin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A brief look at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page on caffeine&lt;/a&gt; doesn't indicate any analgesic effect of caffeine itself. So, what mechanism/pathway allows it to attain this adjuvant effect for pain relief?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-23T02:55:32.040" LastActivityDate="2018-09-24T08:37:32.330" Title="How does caffeine work as an analgesic adjuvant?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20761" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20770" CreationDate="2018-09-23T06:52:04.770" Score="2" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given there are two psychological concepts A and B that are considered to be independent/orthogonal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would the following empirical results proof the opposite? If not why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first experiment A is the independent variable with two conditions: high and low A.&#xA;B is identically induced in both conditions and measured as the dependent variable.&#xA;In the high A condition high B is measured. In the low A condition low B is measured.&#xA;The second experiment is analog to the first one, except with A and B reversed: in the high B condition high A is measured, and in the low B condition low A is measured.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References to papers that use similiar arguments would be very helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11381" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-24T09:02:41.017" LastActivityDate="2018-09-24T09:33:40.943" Title="What is an empirical proof that two concepts are not independent/orthogonal?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20763" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-23T16:55:48.933" Score="2" ViewCount="162" Body="&lt;p&gt;After reading a bit about qualia and hard problem of consiousness, I came up to theoretical solution. The reason why we have this problem is because we can imagine. We can imagine an object visible to us as red being green, for example. Green fire. Even if we never saw it in the reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But how do we imagine? How do those images have properties named by people as qualia? I can imagine a blue cube or a red cube, or a red sphere, and visual periphery is not involved here, I can do it with closed eyes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What parts of our brain are responsible for imagination? How does the brain &quot;give&quot; qualia (form, color, smell, etc.) to images? What differs in my brain when I imagine a red cube from when I imagine a blue cube? And are qualia stored in our memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastActivityDate="2018-09-23T19:57:26.713" Title="How do we imagine? How do images have qualia?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;qualia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20765" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-23T17:51:31.553" Score="2" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;[ &lt;em&gt;I am unsure if this is the correct site to ask this question&lt;/em&gt; ]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; &#xA;I am a HS student, currently studying IT and personally I focus on the field of software (programming) and of course where there is programming there are problems which require you to have the skills to solve problems that occur. So I wanted to improve my skills by trying to solve problems and I've been doing some on &lt;a href=&quot;http://hackerrank.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hackerrank&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, whenever i try to solve a problem which is difficult to me and that I'm not capable of understanding it, I begin &quot;&lt;em&gt;overheating&lt;/em&gt;&quot;, literally. This keeps me from taking further steps to learn about the problems and different ways to approach to the solution. Basically, I feel  like a moron and stop working on the problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;my question to you is, why do I &quot;overheat&quot; (body temp. increases) when i try to solve problems that are difficult to me?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is it because I don't have a goal which motivates me hard enough or am I just... a moron ? &lt;br&gt;Is there are way to &quot;turn off&quot; this overwhelming feeling?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After some more research i've come across this article which I believe could be the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mybrainsolutions.com/library/2014/04/breaking-down-the-feeling-of-overwhelmed/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; to my question (not sure).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17012" LastEditorUserId="17012" LastEditDate="2018-09-23T19:36:57.023" LastActivityDate="2018-09-23T22:19:23.170" Title="Body temperature increasing when trying to solve difficult problems" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20766" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20763" CreationDate="2018-09-23T18:06:28.820" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is hardly settled science, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4310722/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; with some empirical support is that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Visual mental imagery and perception share similar cortical representations (Cichy et al., 2012; Kosslyn, 2005; Pylyshyn, 2003). It has been proposed that, &lt;strong&gt;while brain forward connections convey information from the outside world, backward connections might have a dominant role during the forming of mental images in the absence of external bottom-up inputs&lt;/strong&gt; (Ganis and Schendan, 2008; Ishai et al., 2000; Kalkstein et al., 2011; Kosslyn, 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more theoretical speculation on the neural basis of qualia you could read &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2017.00022&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Orpwood (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, although by his own admittance, his ideas (at least in the past) were not terribly clearly presented. He does discuss a theoretical example of olfactory qualia. (I'm mentioning this because you said in the comments that you want to go beyond visual ones.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that some neuroscientists &lt;a href=&quot;https://thecentralsulcus.wordpress.com/2014/02/04/philosophers-corner-the-role-of-qualia-in-neuroscience/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;think&lt;/a&gt; the problem of qualia is ill-posed, in that it is intrinsically dualist:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Typically, qualia are defined by four characteristics. Qualia are private, meaning they cannot be known unless they are experienced through the first-person perspective. Qualia are intrinsic, which indicates that they are self-sufficient and independent of other items in experience. Qualia are also ineffable, signifying that the experience of qualia cannot be sufficiently conveyed through words alone. Finally, qualia are immediately accessible through consciousness, which means that knowledge of qualia is direct and certain, as opposed to knowledge of the physical world, which is indirect and logically deduced.  [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This definition, unfortunately, leads us down a murky path towards dualism, a philosophical position which asserts that there are two kinds of real substances: the physical substance out of which the universe is composed, and the non-physical substance out of which the mind is composed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since you &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20606/is-there-any-theory-explaining-differences-in-word-concept-understanding-among-d&quot;&gt;asked&lt;/a&gt; in the past about the private conceptions of word meanings (as a barrier to common sense), that kinda has the same problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we just stick to qualia as brain processes/representation, regarding pain-related words, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199658&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;for example&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Language is more than a mere medium when it comes to share our pain experiences. In fact, it has been shown that processing pain-related words is associated with enhanced activation of part of the neural circuitry underlying physical pain experiences. [citing four references in support]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Richter M, Eck J, Straube T, Miltner WH, Weiss T. Do words hurt? Brain activation during the processing of pain-related words. Pain. 2010 Feb;148(2):198–205. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19846255&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pmid:19846255&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Richter M, Schroeter C, Puensch T, Straube T, Hecht H, Ritter A, et al. Pain-related and negative semantic priming enhances perceived pain &#xA;  intensity. Pain Res Manag. 2014 Mar-Apr;19(2):69–74. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24716197&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pmid:24716197&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gu X, Han S. Neural substrates underlying evaluation of pain in actions depicted in words. Behav Brain Res. 2007 Aug 6;181:218–23. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17512615&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pmid:17512615&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Osaka N, Osaka M, Morishita M, Kondo H, Fukuyama H. A word expressing affective pain activates the anterior cingulate cortex in the human brain: an fMRI study. Behav Brain Res. 2004 Aug 12;153:123–127. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15219713&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pmid:15219713&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is somewhat analogous to the issue of V1 involvement in visual imagery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-23T19:57:26.713" LastActivityDate="2018-09-23T19:57:26.713" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20767" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20765" CreationDate="2018-09-23T20:35:05.733" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &quot;overheat&quot; (flushing of the skin) you experience is a common-enough reaction to stress, part of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012589762-4/50051-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fight-or-flight response&lt;/a&gt;. It's not uncommon for people to experince it &lt;a href=&quot;https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/study/exam-stress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;during exams&lt;/a&gt;; generally exam/test axniety is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.11.048&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;related&lt;/a&gt; to both internal and external factors (or perception thereof)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Self-esteem was a significant and strong predictor of test anxiety. Perceived difficulty of the test and the high-stakes nature or consequences of the test was also related to higher test anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's beyond the scope of this site to suggest individualized treatments, but generally  you may want to read about anxiety disorders and panic attacks, more specifically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although there are vast amounts of academic publications about the measurement and the effects of test anxiety, the amount of publications trying to assess coping strategies appears a lot more limited. E.g. I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://castle.eiu.edu/edjournal/Spring_2011/Effects_deep_breathing.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a small study about relaxation techniques, Larson and Rose (2011)&lt;/a&gt;, which found them effective on reducing the anxiety, but ultimately having no impact on test resuts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although I usually recommend Wikipedia as a good first read on many topics, their article on test anxiety is pretty bad, especially in the treatment section, with a heavy emphasis on medication... almost entirely sourced from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf_Group&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a poor-quality site&lt;/a&gt;. That's in sharp contrast for instance with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/stress-anxiety-depression/coping-with-exam-stress/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NHS' take&lt;/a&gt; on the matter, which makes virtually no mention of medication. Even the (US) Mayo clinic for instance &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/generalized-anxiety-disorder/expert-answers/test-anxiety/faq-20058195&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doesn't place&lt;/a&gt; much emphasis on medication for test anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what I discovered in the last two paragraphs turns out is also reflect in others' conclusions e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/testanx.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UCLA's  Center for Mental Health in Schools&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a 2013 review, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21660&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;von der Embse, Barterian, and Segool (2013)&lt;/a&gt; concluded that “there are few studies&#xA;  that have examined test-anxiety interventions with elementary and secondary school students.&#xA;  However, techniques including biofeedback, behavior therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, priming&#xA;  competency, and mixed approaches have demonstrated promising results.” While medication also&#xA;  is discussed, it is not the preferred treatment and, if prescribed, is to be used in conjunction with&#xA;  psychological interventions &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthyplace.com/anxiety-panic/anxiety-and-children/test-anxiety-in-children&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Tracy, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alas this UCLA source/quote is focused on pre-university education and tests. However the paper of von der Embse pointed to an older meta-analysis that didn't have this narrower focus, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F01430343030243004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eregne (2003)&lt;/a&gt;, which concluded that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The treatment of test anxiety has been quite successful in reducing the test anxiety level of clients. The most effective treatments appear to be those that combine skill-focussed approaches with behaviour or cognitive approaches. Individually conducted programs, along with programs that combined individual and group counselling formats, produced the greatest changes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And this older paper (whose primary studies were almost exclusively aimed at university students) has a fairly detailed assessment of the effectiveness of various types of interventions (although I personally wonder if there was enough statistical power for each kind to draw such definitive conclusions):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Test anxiety reduction groups was&#xA;  categorized into 21 different interventions. The observed differences&#xA;  among these interventions were significant. Type of the intervention&#xA;  was related to the effectiveness of the intervention. Behavioural treatments&#xA;  included systematic desensitization, relaxation training, anxiety&#xA;  management training, hypnosis and other behavioural treatments such&#xA;  as modelling and extinction. Systematic desensitization and other&#xA;  behavioural techniques were found to be effective, E+ = 0.90 and E+ = 1.01&#xA;  respectively. Relaxation training alone and hypnotherapy were&#xA;  moderately effective, E+ = 0.50 and E+ = 0.52 respectively. Although&#xA;  Hembree’s (1988) meta-analytic study supported the effectiveness of&#xA;  relaxation training, this finding has been contradicted in the literature.&#xA;  Among cognitive therapies, cognitive restructuring produced the&#xA;  largest effect size (E+ = 1.11). However, rational-emotive therapy and&#xA;  other cognitive techniques produced moderate effect sizes, E+ = 0.54 and&#xA;  E+ = 0.48 respectively. These findings are also consistent with previous&#xA;  studies (DiTomasso, 1980; O’Bryan, 1986; Thompson, 1987). These&#xA;  interventions may be effective on the emotionality and ‘worry’ components&#xA;  of the test anxiety construct as proposed by Spielberger and Vagg (1995).&#xA;  The result of this meta-analysis indicate that effectiveness of cognitive&#xA;  therapies increased when they were combined with skill-focussed&#xA;  techniques. This finding is consistent with O’Bryan’s (1986) metaanalytic&#xA;  study. Clients may increase their sense of readiness and their&#xA;  confidence level by learning different study and test taking skills.&#xA;  Cognitive behavioural interventions were found to be small to moderately&#xA;  effective in reducing test anxiety. This contradicts the findings of the&#xA;  studies conducted by DiTomasso (1980) and Gambles (1994).&#xA;  Study skills training alone had a small effect size (E+ = 0.28). This&#xA;  indicates that test anxiety cannot be explained by a learning deficit&#xA;  model which indicates the lack of effective study skills and test taking&#xA;  skills. While cognitive and behavioural treatment techniques focus on&#xA;  relieving symptoms of test anxiety that interfere with an individual’s&#xA;  ability to perform well or be comfortable in testing situations, other&#xA;  researchers have conceptualized test anxiety as a result of a deficit of&#xA;  knowledge, training, ability to study, or test-taking skills. These theorists&#xA;  suggest that improving an individual’s skills in these areas will result in&#xA;  improved performance and comfort. Results of this meta-analysis indicate&#xA;  that this may not necessarily be the case. Study skills training when&#xA;  measured by test anxiety show only small and moderate effect sizes&#xA;  (E+ = 0.28, E+ = 0.43, E+ = 0.45). These results indicate that subjects&#xA;  treated with study skills training have only moderate improvement&#xA;  when compared with individuals who receive no treatment. However, a&#xA;  trend is indicated for significant improvement when study skills training&#xA;  is combined with cognitive or behavioural interventions. One of the&#xA;  significant findings of this study is that effectiveness of behavioural or&#xA;  cognitive interventions is increased whenever they are combined with&#xA;  study skills training.&#xA;  Although a number of interventions have been suggested and tested in&#xA;  test anxiety reduction, an integrated approach, utilizing various strategies&#xA;  in combination, is likely have special value. Such a combined program&#xA;  might include such components as: (1) applicable information about&#xA;  studying and test taking skills; (2) opportunity to observe someone take&#xA;  tests, or test-like problems; (3) increasing self-monitoring and practice&#xA;  self-control especially of behaviour and thought in test-taking situations;&#xA;  (4) practice in attending to the task in hand, attentional training and&#xA;  (5) learning how to relax under test specific conditions.&#xA;  Modality. The test anxiety reduction programs which were done with&#xA;  groups and individuals together produced larger effect sizes (E+ = 0.84);&#xA;  second, the group format had an effect size of (E+ = 0.67). The individual&#xA;  format had the smallest effect size (E+ = 0.34). Most of the intervention&#xA;  programs (83 percent) were conducted in the group format. It is highly&#xA;  likely that clients in groups can get other students’ perceptions and get&#xA;  alternative solutions to their problems. They may see that they are not&#xA;  the only person who has problems related to test anxiety; they may gain&#xA;  therapeutic benefit in group formats and easily transfer it into their&#xA;  daily lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also his (&quot;E+&quot;) measure of effect size is based on Hunter and Schmidt (1990) methodology, which itself has been criticized by some for allegedly inflating effect sizes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-23T22:19:23.170" LastActivityDate="2018-09-23T22:19:23.170" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20769" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20758" CreationDate="2018-09-24T08:37:32.330" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rd.springer.com/article/10.2165/00002018-200124150-00004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zhang (2001)&lt;/a&gt; reports that the analgesic activity of caffeine is due to &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a blockade of peripheral pro-nociceptive actions of adenosine;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the activation of the central noradenosine, pain-suppressing pathways;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;stimulation of the central nervous system with subsequent actions on pain perception;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;inhibition of PG (prostaglandine) E&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; synthesis, just like the primary mechanism of paracetamol and caffeine by blocking the COX enzyme; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;disinhibition of inhibitory adenosine actions on central cholinergic nerve terminals, leading to increased acetylcholine release and activation of cholinergic mechanisms involved in analgesia;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lastly, caffeine-induced changes in mood may help in in pain relief.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concerning the direct COX inhibitory action (which highly surprised me, personally) - Aspirin-like drugs act on the catalytic site of the COX enzyme. Paracetamol is believed to act at a different site, such as the peroxidation site of COX, while caffeine may block synthesis of the COX-2 protein, probably at the transcriptional level,thereby leading to enhanced COX-2 inhibition. Caffeine is a nonselective antagonist of adenosine A1 and A2 receptors. Adenosine A2a receptors induce intracellular signalling events that cause an upregulation of the COX-2 gene and the release of PGE2 in rat microglia, which is antagonized by caffeine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rba/v62n3/en_v62n3a11.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tavares &amp;amp; Sakata (2012)&lt;/a&gt; also provide an interesting review on the analgesic effects of caffeine, without it being used in conjunction with other medications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rba/v62n3/en_v62n3a11.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tavares &amp;amp; Sakata, &lt;em&gt;Rev Bras Anestesiol&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;62&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 387-401&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://rd.springer.com/article/10.2165/00002018-200124150-00004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zhang, &lt;em&gt;Drug Safety&lt;/em&gt; (2001); &lt;strong&gt;24&lt;/strong&gt;(15): 1127–42&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-09-24T08:37:32.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20770" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20761" CreationDate="2018-09-24T09:02:07.083" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since the data show a two-way dependence (low A -&gt; low B, hi A -&gt; hi B and the reverse) this would prove the variables are not independent, as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Linearly independent, orthogonal, and uncorrelated are three terms used to indicate lack of relationship between variables. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254330622_Linearly_Independent_Orthogonal_and_Uncorrelated_Variables&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rodgers &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, The American Statistician (1984); &lt;strong&gt;38&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 133-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-24T09:33:40.943" LastActivityDate="2018-09-24T09:33:40.943" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20773" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2018-09-24T14:04:02.640" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This tag is to be used when asking about the combination of &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neuroscience&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;neuroscience&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/criminology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;criminology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;criminology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-24T14:04:02.640" LastActivityDate="2018-09-24T14:04:02.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20774" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2018-09-24T14:04:02.640" Score="0" Body="This tag is to be used when asking about the combination of neuroscience and criminology." OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-24T14:04:02.640" LastActivityDate="2018-09-24T14:04:02.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20775" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2018-09-24T14:09:19.473" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This tag is to be used when asking about the combination of &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/neuroscience&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;neuroscience&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/criminology&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;criminology&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;criminology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-24T14:09:19.473" LastActivityDate="2018-09-24T14:09:19.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20776" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2018-09-24T14:09:19.473" Score="0" Body="This tag is to be used when asking about the combination of neuroscience and criminology." OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-24T14:09:19.473" LastActivityDate="2018-09-24T14:09:19.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20778" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-24T17:46:59.590" Score="2" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;I posted the issue to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://discourse.psychopy.org/t/psychopy-to-egi-netstation-connection-error/5396/4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychoPy forum&lt;/a&gt; already, but was wondering if I could get more input from StackExchange. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I’m having difficulty establishing connection between the Psychopy running testing machine and the machine with the actual netstation installed. I numbered the summary questions at bottom!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have the basic following code below, but I’m assuming I am inputting a wrong IPv4 address or port number for the net station.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;from __future__ import absolute_import, division, print_function&#xA;from psychopy import locale_setup, sound, gui, visual, core, data, event, logging,     clock&#xA;from psychopy.constants import (NOT_STARTED, STARTED, PLAYING, PAUSED,&#xA;                            STOPPED, FINISHED, PRESSED, RELEASED, FOREVER)&#xA;import numpy as np  # whole numpy lib is available, prepend 'np.'&#xA;from numpy import (sin, cos, tan, log, log10, pi, average,&#xA;               sqrt, std, deg2rad, rad2deg, linspace, asarray)&#xA;from numpy.random import random, randint, normal, shuffle&#xA;import os  # handy system and path functions&#xA;import sys  # to get file system encoding&#xA;&#xA;# Setup for EGI &#xA;import egi.simple as egi # for testing purposes&#xA;#import egi.simple as egi&#xA;ms_localtime = egi.ms_localtime # gives local time in ms &#xA;ns = egi.Netstation() &#xA;ns.connect('ipv4 address of the testingmachine ', 'port number of netstation machine') # change/ check by Network Utility?&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I get the following error:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;File &quot;/Users/abc/Documents/PsychoPy/cfv/cfv_egi.py&quot;, line 281, in ns.BeginSession() &#xA;&#xA;File &quot;/Users/abc/Documents/PsychoPy/cfv/egi/simple.py&quot;, line 799, in       BeginSession self._socket.write( message ) &#xA;&#xA;File &quot;/Users/abc/Documents/PsychoPy/cfv/egi/socket_wrapper.py&quot;, line 58, in write self._connection.write( data )&#xA;AttributeError: Socket instance has no attribute '_connection' 6.9777 WARNING &#xA;When I change the port to another one with a server, it gives me the below:&#xA;&#xA;Traceback (most recent call last): File    &#xA;&quot;/Users/abc/Documents/PsychoPy/cfv/cfv_egi.py&quot;, line 281, in ns.BeginSession() &#xA;&#xA;File &quot;/Users/abc/Documents/PsychoPy/cfv/egi/simple.py&quot;, line 804, in BeginSession return self.GetServerResponse() &#xA;&#xA;File &quot;/Users/abc/Documents/PsychoPy/cfv/egi/simple.py&quot;, line 783, in GetServerResponse &#xA;raise Eggog( &quot;unexpected character code returned from server: '%s'&quot; % (code, ) ) &#xA;egi.simple.Eggog: unexpected character code returned from server: 'R'&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So summarizing my question,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is it correct that I am supposed to input the IPv4 address of the NetStation machine?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How do I figure out what port number I need to input? Do I use the port numbers listed from using “Network Utility” app in the mac?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;When running the psychopy code that makes me connect to the machine, what needs to be setup in the Netstation computer? ie. do I need to have netstation software running?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you. Any help or pointers would be appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20337" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-25T08:52:33.610" LastActivityDate="2018-09-25T08:52:33.610" Title="Connection problem with PsychoPy to EGI netstation for EEG experiment" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20779" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13044" CreationDate="2018-09-25T03:22:52.753" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To add to the existing answer, honesty-humility is a major factor in the HEXACO framework of personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a comprehensive list of papers using the HEXACO framework here organised under a wide range of headings:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://hexaco.org/references&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://hexaco.org/references&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My sense of the literature is that honesty-humility in the HEXACO framework is related more to ethical behaviour and lower levels of deviant behaviour (e.g., counterproductive work behaviours, criminality, deviance, etc.), as well as lower levels of self-interest and egotism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think it has a major direct relationship with success and achievement, at least empirically. But I haven't reviewed the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Theoretically, deviant behaviour would often reduce life success. Getting fired, damaging your reputation, going to prison, getting expelled from school, and so on. However, also, some degree of self-interest may also assist in personal achievement. Furthermore, it may just be that it's not the most relevant dimension of personality: i.e., conscientiousness and abilities are probably more related to achievement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2018-09-25T03:22:52.753" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20781" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20783" CreationDate="2018-09-26T01:46:14.677" Score="-2" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;A psychology professor of mine said that anyone who believes themselves to be of only average intelligence is likely suffering from depression or another mental illness that impacts their self-esteem. Is there any source that would corroborate this claim?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17308" LastActivityDate="2018-09-26T20:00:15.940" Title="Are people who believe they are of average intelligence mentally ill?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20782" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-26T03:44:08.123" Score="-1" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was listening to a podcast about personality tests and I heard someone mention a test that phonetically sounded like it was called &quot;Max C.&quot; Looking this up yields no answers. I've also tried a few similar-sounding words, but no dice. Does anyone know of which test this is and what its &lt;em&gt;actual&lt;/em&gt; name is?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20125" LastActivityDate="2018-10-10T15:37:10.127" Title="Which personality test has a name that sounds like &quot;Max C?&quot;" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20783" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20781" CreationDate="2018-09-26T04:01:41.137" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00232-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Studies show&lt;/a&gt; that the overestimation of one's intelligence is both gender and culture/country dependent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know of any studies which tried to relate the over/under-estimation of one's intelligence (in measurable terms, rather than generic statements like &quot;I'm stupid&quot;) to depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is one &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mdpi.com/2079-3200/6/1/1/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent (2017) study&lt;/a&gt; in older adults that found a self-reported measure of cognitive abilities to be a stronger predictor of (Big Five) personality than of actual cognitive abilities. Fairly predictably, the correlations were with  Extraversion (positively), Openness to Experience (positively) and Neuroticism (negatively). Although not reporting it in its abstract, a slightly &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.040&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;older (2012) study, Jacobs et al.&lt;/a&gt; also found a (negative) correlation between neuroticism and self-reported fluid IQ (but not for two other kinds: visual and comprehension-knowledge).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/z80hZ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/z80hZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As it's fairly well known, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2167702615618162&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroticism predicts depression (and anxiety)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personality traits also correlate with each other though, and the estimate of one's IQ also correlates with the measured IQ. So, Jacobs et al. also regressed the relationship between self-estimated and measured IQ on the personality traits that looked promising. And alas in this model, Neuroticism failed to predict anything in addition what extraversion and agreeableness did (that probably explains why Neuroticism is not mentioned in their abstract.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Pcidg.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Pcidg.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their discussion section, Jacobs et al. chalk this off to their sample having a fairly restricted range of IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-26T20:00:15.940" LastActivityDate="2018-09-26T20:00:15.940" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20785" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-26T05:42:42.723" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scenario:&lt;/strong&gt; Given there are results from two factorial experiments that show a two-way dependency between two variables A and B. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Details:&lt;/strong&gt; In the first experiment A is the independent variable with two conditions: high and low A. B is identically induced in both conditions and measured as the dependent variable. In the high A condition, high B is measured. In the low A condition, low B is measured. The second experiment is analog to the first one, except with A and B reversed: in the high B condition high A is measured, and in the low B condition low A is measured.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; What can be reasoned or assumed about the relationship between the two variables A and B, and why? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References to example papers would be excellent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11381" LastActivityDate="2018-09-26T17:39:13.677" Title="How can two-way dependencies in factorial designs be interpreted?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20790" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20785" CreationDate="2018-09-26T15:36:23.423" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the full-generality land of arbitrary A and B, the 'details' section of the question gives the grand total of all the conclusions that can be drawn here. What you have is that when A was fixed to be high, B was observed to be high, when B was fixed to be high, A was observed to be high etc etc, and this is the complete total of things you know about A and B. Full-generality land is super harsh. You can observe an arbitrarily large number of points falling on an exact line and full-generality land will insist that the true function might bounce around like a roller-coaster that just happens to pass through the points you've observed. Full generality-land doesn't have to make sense. In full-generality land, fixing A at 0.1 units higher than you did in this experiment might cause the value of B to plummet, or turn into a turkey dinner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reality tends to make a lot more sense than full-generality land, except when brains or quantum particles are involved. Some things you might know in reality:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The units A and B are measured in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether A and B are smoothly-varying or can contain discontinuities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether A or B have ceiling/floor caps, and maybe where they are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether the 'fixing' intervention is likely to be monotonic in its effects on A, B, or both (this is a big one, and it's quite likely that you do know this).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 'causal depth' you plausibly care about (A and B are both caused by X might be interesting, that A and B are both products of the big bang probably not, how far you want to ride that train is domain specific)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That some particular theory of A and B is incompatible with A and B being high simultaneously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All these things would give you some traction to move beyond the bare-bones statement of the exact results you observed, which is all full-generality land will let you do. Full generality land won't even let you claim that you'd get the same results from the exact same experiment performed tomorrow. Full-generality land has the attitude normally associated with honey badgers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's definitely a version of your argument that makes sense. If you have five blind people arguing over whether an elephant is a snake or a wall or a bit of rope, firing a starter's pistol so the elephant runs away is an excellent experiment. Under the theory that an elephant is five different things it is vanishingly unlikely that they will all run in exactly the same direction. Observing that they do all go in the same direction at the same speed should cause the blind scientists to propose a bunch of strongly-connected elephant theories. Only this argument is inductive not deductive, so it requires you to supply a hypothesis space. It's always possible that there were five animals who all ran in the same direction, to make the inductive argument it's critical to guess how likely that scenario is. If you do the experiment in a narrow valley there might acutally only be one direction it's possible to run in. If you do the experiment out in the open plain there's 360 degrees of freedom and coincidences are much more inductively compelling. In the real world, you almost always have some information about the landscape, making results of the kind decribed here strong ones. But you stripped all of that information out to ask the question! Reducing the variables to A and B brings you into full-generality land, where nothing is certain. Maybe you are standing in a narrow valley. Maybe you're underwater. Who knows?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is possible to operate in full-generality land despite its Dadist tendencies, sometimes you can get away with some impressively weak assumptions. Try these:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dunn, J. C., &amp;amp; James, R. N. (2003). Signed difference analysis: Theory and application. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 47(4), 389-416.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pearl, J (2014). Probabilistic reasoning in intelligent systems: networks of plausible inference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastEditorUserId="18720" LastEditDate="2018-09-26T17:39:13.677" LastActivityDate="2018-09-26T17:39:13.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20791" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20782" CreationDate="2018-09-26T21:17:09.613" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could be &quot;[maximum] Conscientiousness,&quot; one of the core traits in the Big Five [personality index]. The Big Five traits are the best-known personality models in modern academic psychology, and frequently referred to by their initials (O C E A N).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="19843" LastEditDate="2018-10-10T15:37:10.127" LastActivityDate="2018-10-10T15:37:10.127" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20792" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20751" CreationDate="2018-09-26T21:26:16.610" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, there's not complete agreement in psychology nor neuroscience: you can find support for most any imaginable position. But in terms of the consensus of recent peer-reviewed work, here are some thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“When a person is drawn to a specific item on the menu or a particular romantic prospect, the mind is trying to tell him that he should choose that option.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a false dichotomy here between a person's motivation and some external (?) agent called &quot;the mind&quot;. Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors emerge from biological and cognitive processes, and if you dig into those operations there is no level that reveals a separate agent. See this link for a related theory called the Homunculus &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homunculus#Terminological_use_in_modern_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homunculus#Terminological_use_in_modern_science&lt;/a&gt; , or chapter 2 of the book, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/18774981-waking-up&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Waking Up&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Sam Harris, for a deeper dive into agentic selves in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;It has already assessed the alternatives – this analysis takes place outside of conscious awareness – and converted that assessment into positive emotion.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There were early reports of complex weighing of alternatives by unconscious minds by Dijksterhuis and others, but the higher-quality recent replication attempts suggest these claims were overblown. The unconscious mind may or may not be able to do basic arithmetic. That's the current level: nothing so fancy as suggested here. Recent coverage of this replication: &lt;a href=&quot;https://retractionwatch.com/2017/05/08/can-math-unconsciously-replicators-prominent-2012-study-doubts/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://retractionwatch.com/2017/05/08/can-math-unconsciously-replicators-prominent-2012-study-doubts/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The world is full of things and it is our feelings that help us choose among them.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is true, but is already well known. Feelings, thoughts, and motivations operate together to urge our organisms towards desired outcomes and away from unwanted outcomes. Here's an article that goes into more depth on how the body (including our mind) pursues desired states: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00332747.1955.11022996&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00332747.1955.11022996&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-09-27T09:19:03.620" LastActivityDate="2018-09-27T09:19:03.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20793" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20806" CreationDate="2018-09-27T00:08:56.410" Score="1" ViewCount="200" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, personally I'm quite irritable. It's not hard to irritate me and I swear either through an inner voice or whisper very often, but not out-loud. That does not happen very often. This is hardly likely due to some temporal cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But at the same time it seems there are people who are less irritable. How much of this is due to nature and how much is due to nurture? Are there any studies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-09-27T05:33:37.717" LastActivityDate="2018-09-28T08:01:49.987" Title="Nature vs. nurture in irritability?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20794" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-27T04:55:04.600" Score="1" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does a confidence rating included in a post task measure the likelihood of correctness to the answer or likelihood of occurrence of an event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To give an example: participants are given a picture of clouds and they are provided with the binary question if they think it might start raining; the answer is thus either a '&lt;em&gt;yes&lt;/em&gt;' or a '&lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt;'. Then they have to give an estimate of how confident they are of their decisions on a rating scale that indicates how confident they were; for example they might say '&lt;em&gt;70%&lt;/em&gt;'.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does the confidence rating reflect their estimate of likelihood of rain, or rather the likelihood that the choice is correct?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20348" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-09-27T19:06:29.547" LastActivityDate="2018-09-28T14:25:37.807" Title="Confidence rating in cognitive experiments" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20795" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20793" CreationDate="2018-09-27T07:30:50.533" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You will have to investigate quite a few factors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There must be a genetic/epigenetic factors to this because we know that personality trait &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroticism&lt;/a&gt; has genetic and environmental factors.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;You should also investigate into stress - &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(biology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;biological&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_stress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological&lt;/a&gt; stress.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Investigating theories of psychological development can also come in handy, especially, Freudian theories.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my personal view, I think a combination of genetic and environmental factors should play role in shaping irritability tolerance, however, additionally environment plays a role of stressor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, you should have genetics, epigenetics and upbringing as a predictors of general irritability. Immediate state of being can also have influence, but stressor is like a trigger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18242" LastActivityDate="2018-09-27T07:30:50.533" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20796" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-27T08:23:57.710" Score="3" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a philosophy student but I'm also interested in philosophy of mind, a field that overlaps issues in psychology and neuroscience these days. This passage is taken from a similar multidisciplinary book but this particular passage is mentioning various neuroimaging techniques. I have difficulty understanding what is meant by the embolden phrase. I am not sure whether &amp;quot;within and between&amp;quot; has a technical or simply a semantic/grammatical significance. In either case I remain confused. And hence I was not sure which site if at all is appropriate for asking clarification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within page 17 of the book &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6gS_LcIjFMsC&amp;amp;pg=PA17&amp;amp;lpg=PA17&amp;amp;dq=The%20third%20development%20was%20the%20advent%20and%20maturation%20of%20the%20functional%20neuroimaging%20technologies%20mentioned%20in%20the%20Introduction,%20which%20enable%20us%20to%20observe%20directly,%20without%20opening%20up%20the%20skull%20,%20the%20activity%20of%20the%20working%20human%20brain.%20Two%20principal%20classes%20of%20such%20methods%20are%20currently%20available,%20although%20others%20are%20under%20development&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=HnHDT48W8D&amp;amp;sig=AouT_AEeyP9JlGq1DVY84eqWOzY&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=2ahUKEwiElaLC4drdAhWKDMAKHTPVCP0Q6AEwAHoECAEQAQ#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=The%20third%20development%20was%20the%20advent%20and%20maturation%20of%20the%20functional%20neuroimaging%20technologies%20mentioned%20in%20the%20Introduction%2C%20which%20enable%20us%20to%20observe%20directly%2C%20without%20opening%20up%20the%20skull%20%2C%20the%20activity%20of%20the%20working%20human%20brain.%20Two%20principal%20classes%20of%20such%20methods%20are%20currently%20available%2C%20although%20others%20are%20under%20development&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Irreducible Mind: Toward a Psychology for the 21st Century&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; by Kelly, et al. (2007), it says...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The third development was the advent and maturation of the functional&#xA;neuroimaging technologies mentioned in the Introduction, which enable&#xA;us to observe directly, without opening up the skull , the activity of&#xA;the working human brain. Two principal classes of such methods are&#xA;currently available, although others are under development.12 The&#xA;first provides measures of the electric and magnetic fields directly&#xA;generated by neuroelectric activity in populations of suitably located&#xA;and oriented cortical neurons (electroencephalography [EEG]; magnetoencephalography [MEG]).&#xA;The second provides measures of hemodynamic or metabolic consequences&#xA;of neural activity such as local changes of blood flow, glucose&#xA;consumption, or blood oxygenation (especially positron emission&#xA;tomography [PET]; and functional magnetic resonance imaging [fMRI]).&#xA;All these technologies are complex and expensive, and &lt;strong&gt;they tend within&#xA;and between classes to have complementary strengths and weaknesses&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;(see, e.g., Nunez &amp;amp; Silberstein, 2000; Toga &amp;amp; Mazziotta, 1996; Wikswo,&#xA;Gevins, &amp;amp; Williamson, 1993). Together, they undoubtedly constitute a&#xA;major methodological advance for cognitive neuroscience. Indeed,&#xA;scarcely an issue now goes by of any cognitive neuroscience journal&#xA;that does not contain one or more papers featuring images outfitted&#xA;with colored spots identifying regions of &amp;quot;significant&amp;quot; brain&#xA;&amp;quot;activation&amp;quot; produced by some stimulus or task.13&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I first posted the passage to esl and english.se but the answers I got were not definitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An answerer on esl.se told me it may have to do with &lt;a href=&quot;http://onlinestatbook.com/2/research_design/designs.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;within-subject and between-subject experiment methods&lt;/a&gt; or convey a similar meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On english.se I was told it could simply be the common phrasal verb &amp;quot;tend to&amp;quot; with &amp;quot;within and between&amp;quot; breaking it up as a parenthetical clause with commas missed. That is it can be rewritten as &amp;quot;they tend, within and between classes, to have...&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In either case I don't know what &amp;quot;classes&amp;quot; the author is talking about. Are these classes of the imaging devices he enumerates? This latter question could be quite technical. Still excuse me if this was not the right question for this site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kelly, E. F., Kelly, E. W., Crabtree, A., Gauld, A., &amp;amp; Grosso, M. (2007). &lt;em&gt;Irreducible mind: Toward a psychology for the 21st century&lt;/em&gt;. Plymouth, UK: Rowman &amp;amp; Littlefield.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20341" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-27T14:47:42.777" Title="What does &quot;they tend within and between classes&quot; mean in 'The Irreducible Mind'?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20797" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20805" CreationDate="2018-09-27T10:22:24.003" Score="3" ViewCount="160" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_argument&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Knowledge argument&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mary is a brilliant scientist who is, for whatever reason, forced to investigate the world from a black and white room via a black and white television monitor. She specializes in the neurophysiology of vision and acquires, let us suppose, all the physical information there is to obtain about what goes on when we see ripe tomatoes, or the sky, and use terms like &quot;red&quot;, &quot;blue&quot;, and so on. She discovers, for example, just which wavelength combinations from the sky stimulate the retina, and exactly how this produces via the central nervous system the contraction of the vocal cords and expulsion of air from the lungs that results in the uttering of the sentence &quot;The sky is blue&quot;. [...] What will happen when Mary is released from her black and white room or is given a color television monitor? Will she learn anything or not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paul's Chuchland &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia#Paul_Churchland&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;answer is&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to Paul Churchland, Mary might be considered to be like a feral child. Feral children have suffered extreme isolation during childhood. Technically when Mary leaves the room, she would not have the ability to see or know what the color red is. A brain has to learn and develop how to see colors. Patterns need to form in the V4 section of the visual cortex. These patterns are formed from exposure to wavelengths of light. This exposure is needed during the early stages of brain development. In Mary's case, the identifications and categorizations of color will only be in respect to representations of black and white.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But can't I really see new color if I never experienced some mixture of wavelengths prior? I thought that the person who saw only 90% of spectrum for the whole life still would gain new experience when seeing something from remaining 10%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know cone cells are responsible for color perception. They are located on retina of eyes. Most people have three of them, but there can be more or less. Signals from them travel to parvocellular cells and to koniocellular cells. It's not clear how color is processed there, as far as I am aware. Then signals travel to visual cortex from there. And V1 is said to be the most influential part of visual cortex. But I am not sure how V4 is responsible for color perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there scientific support for his claim? Or instead, is there scientific support for the opposite?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastEditorUserId="17199" LastEditDate="2018-09-27T14:42:20.507" LastActivityDate="2018-09-28T00:52:24.643" Title="Is Paul's Churchland claim about qualia supported by science?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20799" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20796" CreationDate="2018-09-27T14:47:42.777" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is kinda unclear so I'm not sure my reading is the correct one. But for me the two classes are the electric/magnetic class of imaging techniques and the hemodynamic/metabolic class of imaging techniques, and each class has multiple methods within it. It's a world that looks like this: {[EEG,MEG],[PET,fMRI]}. Within a single class, the multiple methods have complementary strengths and weaknesses, at the same time, the two classes have complementary strengths and weaknesses relative to each other. Within a class, you can be looking at the same type of information but have different trade-offs in terms of temporal and spatial resolution, or image quality and expense, depending on the method. Between classes, you're looking at fundamentally different types of information, so you get a different (complementary) picture of the brain's activity.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Squashing both of those contrasts down into one sentence, you have &quot;they tend within and between classes to have complementary strengths and weaknesses&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-09-27T14:47:42.777" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20803" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20804" CreationDate="2018-09-27T21:05:01.857" Score="1" ViewCount="805" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the following I have 4 questions which I think are too interleaved to separate into 4 different posts. I hope it's not a duplicate, but I didn't find here similar posts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding (as a layman, based on few non-professional books and some googling) is that the current &quot;state of the art&quot; regrading the age-old question in the title, is essentially as following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For pretty much any reliable measurement researchers could come up with (in relation to cognitive capabilities, personality traits, interests, confidence, success, etc), 100% of the variance could be attributed to heredity and nonshared-environment (typically in approximately 50-50 split between the two), and effectively 0% of the variance is attributed to shared-environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My impression is that the research is vast, the data is ample, and the conclusions are overwhelmingly consistent and accepted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My first intermediate question: is the above description correct? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, that trichotomy, as I understand it, goes like this: by &quot;heredity&quot; people refer to anything identical twins that grow separately share (so mainly genetic and epigenetic factors), by &quot;nonshared-environment&quot; people refer to anything identical twins that grow together do not share (specific social interactions, different life experience, etc), and by &quot;shared environment&quot; people refer to the things non-sibling that grow together share (same parents and family, same home, same neighborhood, same school, same lifestyle etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My second intermediate question: is this description correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, it basically means that a pair of identical twins that grew up together, is indistinguishable from a pair of identical twins that grew up separately, and that a pair of any two random people is indistinguishable from any two non-sibling that grew up in the same home with the same parents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In shorts, sharing home does not make people more similar, with respect to most reliably measurable properties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My third intermediate question: are there any notable exceptions? Known traits whose variance is meaningfully explained by the shared-environment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My forth and last question: Is the socioeconomic status of the family is part of the shared-environment? It seems as it should be (if my description above is not too-wrong), but then it implies that it has no effect on anything other than the future socioeconomic status of the children. Is this really case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do things like the neighborhood and schools quality have no intrinsic effect (e.g. on intelligence, inclination to violence, occupational aptitude, religiousness, etc)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20355" LastActivityDate="2018-09-27T21:37:47.353" Title="Nature vs. Nurture" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20804" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20803" CreationDate="2018-09-27T21:19:07.267" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually, you are misunderstanding twin studies when it comes to shared vs. non-shared environments. These are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11893281&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defined&lt;/a&gt; only in terms of outcomes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The environmental influences on personality are divided&#xA;  into two main types in the behavior genetic literature: “shared” versus “nonshared” environment. In typical behavior&#xA;  genetic studies, actual measures of environmental&#xA;  factors are not obtained, but influences are inferred from&#xA;  the outcome pattern of observed similarities between subjects.&#xA;  Plomin, DeFries, et al. (2001; pp. 378–379; p. 300)&#xA;  define shared environment as “environmental factors responsible&#xA;  for resemblance between family members” or “family&#xA;  resemblance not explained by genetics”, and nonshared&#xA;  environment as “environmental influences that contribute&#xA;  to differences between family members” or “variance not&#xA;  explained by genetics or by shared family environment”. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is important to note that the distinction&#xA;  between shared and nonshared environment is made solely&#xA;  in terms of outcome, i.e., if an environment has the effect&#xA;  of making siblings more similar, it is defined as a shared&#xA;  environment, and if an environment has the effect of&#xA;  making siblings more different, it is defined as a nonshared&#xA;  environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But your confusion is common enough&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Not only textbook authors, but even reports from behavior&#xA;  genetic studies oscillate between the outcome-based&#xA;  shared/nonshared distinction, and the causal-event-based&#xA;  variety. A recent description of the nature of “shared environment”&#xA;  is given by Reiss et al. (2000) in their book from&#xA;  the well known NEAD (Nonshared Environment and&#xA;  Adolescent Development) twin and sibling study, in&#xA;  explaining the results of minimal influence of “shared environment”&#xA;  (p. 68): “This analysis tells us that the major&#xA;  environmental influences on adolescents’ proneness to&#xA;  anxiety must be different for sibs in the same family. This&#xA;  rules out a number of influences, such as the family social&#xA;  class or the level of parents’ anxiety, all of which are &lt;em&gt;shared&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;  by siblings in the same family.” According to the definition&#xA;  of “shared environment” this interpretation is incorrect&#xA;  when it comes to siblings living in their original family,&#xA;  since two siblings perfectly well can have different&#xA;  responses to a parent’s anxiety. Such gene-environment&#xA;  interaction would be accounted as a nonshared environmental&#xA;  effect in many commonly used behavior genetic&#xA;  models, in which nonshared environment incorporates&#xA;  interaction effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this in mind however&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results of many heritability studies of the Big Five personality&#xA;  dimensions show that most of the environmental&#xA;  influence is attributable to nonshared environment. [As defined in the first quote].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that since (according to the review of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10668351&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Turkheimer and Waldron&lt;/a&gt;) Plomin's group work was seminal, it makes sense to refer to defer to their definitions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In what may have been the most influential article ever written&#xA;  in the field of developmental behavior genetics, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00055941&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Plomin and&#xA;  Daniels (1987)&lt;/a&gt; reviewed evidence that a substantial portion of the&#xA;  variability in behavioral outcomes could not be explained by the&#xA;  additive effects of genotype or the environmental influences of&#xA;  families. They suggested that this residual term, which they called&#xA;  the nonshared environment, had been neglected by environmentally&#xA;  oriented researchers who assumed that the most important&#xA;  mechanisms of environmental action involved familial variables,&#xA;  like socioeconomic status and parenting styles, that are shared by&#xA;  siblings raised in the same home and serve to make siblings more&#xA;  similar to each other. Indeed, Plomin and Daniels argued, once&#xA;  genetic relatedness has been taken into account, siblings seem to&#xA;  be hardly more similar than children chosen at random from the&#xA;  population.&#xA;  An important indicator of the influence of Plomin and Daniels'&#xA;  (1987) article is that an entire field of empirical research was&#xA;  generated in an attempt to answer the question posed in its title:&#xA;  Why are children in the same family so different? The content of&#xA;  this research was strongly influenced by Plomin and Daniels,&#xA;  building on earlier theoretical work by &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.apa.org/journals/dev/17/5/517.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rowe and Plomin (1981)&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;  who suggested that the causes of outcome differences among&#xA;  siblings were to be found in differences in the environments they&#xA;  experienced. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-27T21:37:47.353" LastActivityDate="2018-09-27T21:37:47.353" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20805" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20797" CreationDate="2018-09-27T22:11:52.293" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Read &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_argument#The_neural_basis_of_qualia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;further down to&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The neural basis of qualia&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;V.S. Ramachandran and Edward Hubbard of the Center for Brain and Cognition at UCSD argue that Mary might do one of three things upon seeing a red apple for the first time:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Mary says she sees nothing but gray.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;She has the &quot;Wow!&quot; response from subjectively experiencing the color for the first time.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;She experiences a form of blindsight for color, in which she reports seeing no difference between a red apple and an apple painted gray, but when asked to point to the red apple, she correctly does.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;They explain further: &quot;Which of these three possible outcomes will actually occur? We believe we've learned the answer from a colorblind synesthete subject. Much like the theoretical Mary, our colorblind synesthete volunteer cannot see certain hues, because of deficient color receptors. However, when he looks at numbers, his synesthesia enables him to experience colors in his mind that he has never seen in the real world. He calls these &quot;Martian colors.&quot; The fact that color cells (and corresponding colors) can activate in his brain helps us answer the philosophical question: we suggest that the same thing will happen to Mary.&quot;[21]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it is possible to see in your mind colors you've never seen in reality, due to defective receptors. But it's possible that synesthesia in this subject caused some pathways to form that do not exist in someone who never experienced any color even even due to &quot;fake&quot; inputs like synesthesia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One fairly recent &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22507663&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2012) fMRI study&lt;/a&gt; on a late-blind synaesthete found that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The colour area hOC4v was engaged when the synaesthetic experience included colour. These results confirm the continued recruitment of visual colour cortex in this late-blind synaesthetes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it's technologically possible to determine/confirm when color &quot;perception&quot; in the brain is occurring in the blind. All it would take now is a subject for whom the order of events is reversed (born blind, but acquired/induced synesthesia.) The last paper notes however that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is known that differences in the functional&#xA;  neuroanatomy of sighted and early-blind subjects reflect predominantly early recruitment of visual cortical areas for&#xA;  tactile [...] and auditory stimulation [...], and during&#xA;  verbal [...], and memory processing&#xA;  [...]. However, in late-blind individuals, visual cortical areas seem to retain some aspects of their&#xA;  original specificity. For instance, tactile perception of motion and faces activates visual cortical areas previously involved in&#xA;  analysis of equivalent visual stimuli [...]. And in a late blind synaesthete (the subject of the&#xA;  present report), both striate and extrastriate visual areas appeared to be engaged in the synaesthetic perception of coloured&#xA;  and spatially located concurrents [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it's not a foregone conclusion that the early- or congenitally-blind could still/even experience synaesthetic color.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2018.02.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;One 2018 study (Dell'Erba et al.)&lt;/a&gt; on the subjective experiences of a congenitally-blind man on psychedelic drugs reported that these include &quot;synesthetic hallucinations&quot;, but of the tactile kind, and the complete absence of visual hallucinations, in line with their (previously reported) absence from the congenitally blind in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Harlow#Monkey_studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harlow-type&lt;/a&gt; experiment in monkeys (for the development of color vision in a black-and-white environment) might barely clear ethics boards nowadays. However, monkeys with natural [partial] color blindness can get the &quot;full version&quot; though gene therapy, suggesting that at least the color machinery in the brain, if developed for two colors/sensors, can quickly accommodate three &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.technologyreview.com/s/415339/color-blind-monkeys-get-full-color-vision/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;thereafter&lt;/a&gt;. This result however (besides the coolness of gene therapy) isn't terribly surprising on a phenomenological level, given the reports of synesthesic &quot;martian colors&quot; in the color blind humans. (More interestingly, giving mice three-colored vision &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4208712/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doesn't work as well&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Much more interesting for our discussion is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5733843/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;achromatopsia and its (genetic) treatments&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Achromatopsia is a rare (1 in 30,000 to 80,000) congenital visual condition characterized by diminished or absent cone photoreceptor function. Patients have severely reduced visual acuity (~20/200), nystagmus and photophobia. Causative autosomal recessive mutations affect genes of the cone phototransduction cascade, CNGA3, CNGB3, GNAT2, PDE6H, PDE6C, [...] or the transcription factor ATF6. A subset of patients have unidentified causative mutations. Patients typically show complete cone function loss, as shown by absent cone-isolating electroretinogram (ERG) recordings. An incomplete phenotype occurs more rarely, but is not clearly correlated to the underlying mutation. Achromatopsia affects all three classes of photoreceptor and hence, by definition, relates to genes that are expressed in all cone subtypes, as listed above. Conversely, blue monochromatism, tritanopia, and red-green color blindness (deuteranopia and protanopia) are caused by mutations in genes specific to certain subtypes of cone photoreceptors; an important difference to achromatopsia. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A well reported achromatopsia population lived on the South Pacific island of Pingelap. A genetic bottleneck following Typhoon Lengkeki in 1775 created a founder effect and over 10 percent of the island population had complete achromatopsia. The story is notably recorded in The Island of the Colorblind by the neurologist and author, Oliver Sacks. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;phase I clinical trials to treat achromatopsia using an AAV vector to deliver CNGA3 have already started in Germany (NCT02610582), CNGA3 in the USA and Israel (NCT02935517), CNGB3 in the USA (NCT02599922), and CNGB3 in the UK (NCT03001310) [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are in the wake of partially successful animal knockout models &amp;amp; treatments thereof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Carvalho et al. (2011) explored the therapeutic age window for gene therapy in achromatopsia. A mouse model caused by a premature stop codon was rescued with human CNGB3 transgene packaged in an AAV8 capsid. The use of a cone arrestin promoter fragment resulted in universal expression in all cone subpopulations, an alternative solution to the use of the ubiquitous CBA promoter. The subretinal vector rescued retinal function, as tested by ERG, at a range of ages, but again there were poor visual responses in mice treated at later ages. This confirmed that there is an optimal therapeutic window at a younger age. The limited benefit at later ages may be a result of slow retinal degeneration in this model or amblyopia. Cone outer segment abnormalities have also been noted in achromatopsia animal models and it has been shown that regenerating the outer segments with intravitreal ciliary neurotrophic factor just before achromatopsia gene therapy may improve the responses significantly in older Cngb3 deficient mice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The treatments were also successful for serendipitous &quot;models&quot; found in some sheep (age of the animals is not discussed in this latter context, alas):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Two serendipitous discoveries of day blindness in unrelated Awassi sheep flocks in Israel yielded two new large-animal models of Cnga3 achromatopsia. Both models—a premature stop codon and a missense mutation—were rescued using the same human PR2.1-CNGA3 vector described by Komaromy et al. (2010). As expected, photopic ERG was restored. Treated animals were also able to use the restored cone function to navigate a maze in photopic conditions. A mouse Cnga3 transgene also provided a similar rescue effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors of this review generally conclude/speculate that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The implications for human achromatopsia gene therapy are that the treatment will most likely need to be applied in early childhood to be maximally effective. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The [four human] trials are designed to initially test the safety profile in adult patients, but three of the trials plan to include patients as young as 6 years in later groups. By comparing older and younger patients, the trials will examine differences in integrated functional cone rescue between age groups. If the pattern observed in the animal trials holds true, there may be a difference in benefit due to patient age at time of treatment. Such a difference may arise from reorganization of cortical pathways or foveal hypoplasia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the one other therapeutic trial registered for achromatopsia (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01648452), six CNGB3 achromatopsia patients received intraocular implants that released Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor (CNTF). CNTF provides neuroprotection to rod and cone photoreceptors in degenerative retinal disease. Concurrent treatment with intravitreal CNTF in a canine model of CNGB3 achromatopsia potentiated gene therapy rescue. CNTF improved ERG rescue in older animals, overcoming a notable inability of gene therapy alone to benefit most dogs over 1 year of age. Limited evidence suggested that CNTF pre-treatment de-differentiated the cone photoreceptors by elongating the outer segments to facilitate CNGA3/B3 tetrameric protein assembly. As mentioned above, in the CNTF only trial, no functional improvement in cone function occurred. There are no current plans to include CNTF pre-treatment in any of the registered human gene therapy trials. This discussion may be reignited if the early trials show difficulty in rescuing cone function in older patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the aforementioned (ongoing as of mid-2017) human trials should have interesting things to say about human color vision development in the absence of all three color &quot;sensors&quot;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-28T00:52:24.643" LastActivityDate="2018-09-28T00:52:24.643" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20806" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20793" CreationDate="2018-09-28T02:07:11.387" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Irritability is a pretty broad concept. Various aspects/measures of it have shown various degrees of heritability. For example, just in one twin study (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9024950&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coccaro, 1997&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To determine the degree of genetic and environmental influences on assessments of aggression and irritability in male subjects, the &amp;quot;Motor Aggression&amp;quot; subscales of the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI) were mailed to 1208 male twins in the Vietnam Era Twin Registry. Data from monozygotic 182 and 118 dizygotic twin pairs were available and were analyzed using model-fitting procedures. Three of the four BDHI subscales demonstrated significant heritability of a nonadditive nature: 40% for Indirect Assault, 37% for Irritability, and 28% for Verbal Assault. Additive genetic variance accounted for 47% of the individual differences for Direct Assault. Nonshared, but not shared, environmental influences contributed to explaining the variance in the model, with estimates ranging from 53% (Direct Assault) to 72% (Verbal Assault). Because some of these BDHI scales have been shown to correlate with indices of central serotonin function, it is possible that impulsive aggression, as reflected by these scales, is heritable in men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a study from the genomic era &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/tp2017212&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Riglin, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;, alas only on irritability in children:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Severe irritability is one of the commonest reasons prompting referral to mental health services. It is frequently seen in neurodevelopmental disorders that manifest early in development, especially attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, irritability can also be conceptualized as a mood problem because of its links with anxiety/depressive disorders; notably DSM-5 currently classifies severe, childhood-onset irritability as a mood disorder. Investigations into the genetic nature of irritability are lacking although twin studies suggest it shares genetic risks with both ADHD and depression. We investigated the genetic underpinnings of irritability using a molecular genetic approach, testing the hypothesis that early irritability (in childhood/adolescence) is associated with genetic risk for ADHD, as indexed by polygenic risk scores (PRS). As a secondary aim we investigated associations between irritability and PRS for major depressive disorder (MDD). Three UK samples were utilized: two longitudinal population-based cohorts with irritability data from childhood (7 years) to adolescence (15–16 years), and one ADHD patient sample (6–18 years). Irritability was defined using parent reports. PRS were derived from large genome-wide association meta-analyses. We observed associations between ADHD PRS and early irritability in our clinical ADHD sample and one of the population samples. This suggests that early irritability traits share genetic risk with ADHD in the general population and are a marker of higher genetic loading in individuals with an ADHD diagnosis. Associations with MDD PRS were not observed. This suggests that early-onset irritability could be conceptualized as a neurodevelopmental difficulty, behaving more like disorders such as ADHD than mood disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that since polygenic risk scores currently only cover a small fraction of the heritability found in twin studies (for almost any psychiatric/psychological issue/construct), genomic results are rather tentative. Usually the presence of a gene overlap means something, but the absence of a genetic overlap can simply mean there hasn't been enough data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And Riglin point out to a recent review &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4927461/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vidal-Ribas (2016)&lt;/a&gt; of which they are aware they cannot explain genomically. The latter found/concluded that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;irritability forms a distinct dimension with substantial stability across time, and that it is specifically associated with depression and anxiety in longitudinal studies. Evidence from genetic studies reveals that irritability is moderately heritable, and its overlap with depression is explained mainly by genetic factors. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The genetic contribution to the variation of irritability is approximately 30% to 40% in both adults and adolescents. This is close to the heritability estimates for depression and anxiety. Genetic influences on irritability increase slightly over time in males and decrease in females, and unique (as opposed to shared) environmental factors explain most of the remaining (non-genetic) variance in both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I highly suggest reading this review if you're unfamiliar with the psychiatric approach to irritability because it has a good, detailed background on that (including the substantial changes in DSM-5, which were applied only to children though.) And since the focus on irritability as separate entity is pretty new in psychiatry, the authors of this review note for instance that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably the main limitation in the study and treatment of irritability so far is the lack of high-quality measures. Most of the measurement of irritability has been done with instruments created ad hoc, that is, through extracting items from existing scales or interviews that were not intended primarily to measure irritability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, the heritability data on adults they cited from Coccaro (1997) with which I started this answer, whereas for adolescents (as you probably guessed by now), there are newer studies available; the data cited on the latter in the review is from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3660701/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stringaris (2012)&lt;/a&gt; and there's more specific longitudinal data in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4407138/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Savage (2015)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-28T03:03:03.727" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20807" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-28T07:14:52.170" Score="2" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to carry out a behavioural experiment that involves humans classifying a very simple image into one of two classes and there is no right or wrong answer. For the question of the study it is important that each image is classified by a different human (more or less). In other words: each human would only be presented an image once (or at least only a few times) and in total more than 100.000 humans would be involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes it difficult to use e.g. MTurk, as each &quot;task&quot; would only take &amp;lt; 10sec and the payout would be 5ct / image at best. Human-in-the-loop services such as scaleapi.com or figure-eight.com are usually based on a few thousand workers, meaning that each human would likely see many images. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The optimal service would be a kind of CAPTCHA system that is open to research experiments. I also vaguely remember there was a gaming company that sold in-game &quot;mini-games&quot; for crowdsourcing behaviour, but I am unable to find it. And suggestions are appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20358" LastActivityDate="2018-09-28T07:14:52.170" Title="How to crowdsource behaviour across &gt; 100.000 humans while each human only solves a very short task (&lt; 10 sec)" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;internet&gt;&lt;mechanical-turk&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20794" CreationDate="2018-09-28T07:56:42.817" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question you ask is at the heart of confidence judgments, i.e. whether they reflect objective truth or an observer belief of the truth. There is currently no answer to your question. All you can do is read the literature and please do experiments to give us an answer to this question. Start with:&#xA;Fleming &amp;amp; Frith (2014) The Cognitive Neuroscience of Metacognition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another paper very relevant to your question is:&#xA;Pouget, A., Drugowitsch, J., &amp;amp; Kepecs, A. (2016). Confidence and certainty: distinct probabilistic quantities for different goals. Nature neuroscience, 19(3), 366.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2018-09-28T07:56:42.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20809" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-28T13:42:22.937" Score="2" ViewCount="460" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm sorry for the length of this question, but to ask it I'll need to refer to two concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, we see the escalating trend to weed out any and all examples of even very minor negativity or aggression in words. Those are deemed unacceptable, addressees of such messages may be called 'victims', and telling people to 'grow a thicker skin' is explicitly declared a non-solution to the problem. Examples of this are many: StackExchange's new Code of Conduct, strict rules of communication Riot Games is trying to enforce in League of Legends, punishing people for jokes, firing employees for not being nice enough to their colleagues, etc etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is claimed that such policies are backed up by modern psychology:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One major mistake in this reasoning is &quot;unlike with sticks and stones, with words the addressees have the choice: to accept the message or to drop it&quot;. They do not, the message will be received and the emotional reaction will happen, emotions are not subject to conscious control. One can choose to &quot;get over it&quot;, but the same can be said of sticks and stones, so the real issue is the damage assessment. One reason for the new consensus is the undermining of folk misconceptions that heavily weigh physical damage over emotional one (as in the saying) by modern psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-- &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/55866/what-is-the-basis-of-the-belief-that-words-themselves-can-be-hurtful-and-verbal?noredirect=1#comment150979_55866&quot;&gt;@Conifold&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Humans are social creatures. If a grief stricken person can be consoled by words and interactions. Why would you not expect the opposite to be equally effective that is turning a happy person depressed and mentelly unwell? To say that people should just &quot;ignore it&quot; is to assign all blame to the victim but that's not fair and ignores everything we know about human behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-- &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/55866/what-is-the-basis-of-the-belief-that-words-themselves-can-be-hurtful-and-verbal?noredirect=1#comment150983_55866&quot;&gt;@Cell&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here I have to jump for a short while to the second concept... Monika and Marcin Gajda, in their book &quot;Rozwój. Jak współpracować z łaską&quot; (which is a Polish book on self-development that claims to be based on psychology and is written from an extensive Christian angle) introduces the concept of &quot;emotional sovereignty&quot;. It distinguishes five levels of this sovereignty:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Submission.&lt;/strong&gt; For example, if a bum insults me, I'll have the rest of my day screwed because I'll think how useless I must be that even a bum holds me in contempt.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Entering a symmetrical conflict.&lt;/strong&gt; Here I'll insult back the bum or even start physically fighting him to defend my good name.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ignoring aggressively.&lt;/strong&gt; Here, feeling superior to the bum, I'll walk away, maybe mumbling something silently to myself.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Assertiveness.&lt;/strong&gt; As described by modern psychology.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Merciful love.&lt;/strong&gt; Told you the book is written with an extensive Christian angle. Here, with no contempt, feelings of superiority, aggression, urges of vengeance, or anything of this sort on my side, I'll look at the bum with compassion, seeing how miserable he must be to behave that way.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book claims that people can - and should - work themselves from the lower levels to the higher levels, for their own good. Staying on the lower levels is harmful, also from the psychological point of view, for the people who stay there. Also the book claims that a person may be on different levels in relation to different people: for example, a person may be on the 5th level with regard to this exemplary 'bum', but on the lowest level with regard to one's own mother. (Important: This self-development is not supposed to include trying to control one's own emotions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And here is where the two concepts meet, at least in my mind. If such 'abusive' words and messages are treated as 'big deal', if growing a thicker skin is not to be advised, if, having received such messages, the correct action to take is deemed to be to report the offender to whoever is in charge of the community, if, as psychologists want, not attempting to stop receiving these messages is not respecting oneself enough… Then such beliefs and policies seem to me to hurt, rather than protecting, 'victims' of verbal abuse, because effectively they teach them to stay at the lower levels of emotional sovereignty. If, instead of attempting to cleanse the word of all verbal 'negativity', the emphasis was on empowering the addressees of such messages to be 'sovereign' over them, then the old adage that '&lt;em&gt;sticks and stones can break my bones, but words can never hurt me&lt;/em&gt;' would become true. On the other hand, the current emphasis of fighting the 'abusive' messages themselves seems to me to give the abusers the power to actually hurt the receivers of the verbal abuse: and that's a lot of power to place in improper hands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that my reasoning may be very well wrong, as the general consensus seems to be in the opposite. Then do both models not contradict themselves, regardless of whatever would seem to me to be the case? Or is Gajdowie's model of emotional sovereignty wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: Just to clarify: The precise point that is hard to reconcile for me is this one: It is impossible for the receiver of the 'abusive' messages to avoid being damaged by such messages (the quoted comments) vs it is possible (Gajdowie)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19207" LastEditorUserId="19207" LastEditDate="2018-09-28T23:39:34.710" LastActivityDate="2018-09-29T06:35:04.190" Title="What is the basis of the belief that modern psychology demonstrates that words themselves can be hurtful and verbal aggression should be wed out?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20810" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20794" CreationDate="2018-09-28T14:25:37.807" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If the question is &lt;em&gt;'Will it start to rain based on this cloud cover?&lt;/em&gt;' and the answer is a binary &lt;em&gt;'yes'&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;'no'&lt;/em&gt; and the subsequent question is &lt;em&gt;'How sure are you about that?'&lt;/em&gt;, then the answer to your question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does the confidence rating reflect their estimate of likelihood of&#xA;  rain, or rather the likelihood that the choice is correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is the latter: it reflects t&lt;strong&gt;he likelihood that the choice is correct&lt;/strong&gt;, because when they say &lt;em&gt;'no it will not rain'&lt;/em&gt;, with a confidence of 60%, then the chance it will rain is 40% and not 60%. Hence, it reflects the confidence they have in their answer.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-09-28T14:25:37.807" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20812" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-28T17:37:53.483" Score="3" ViewCount="169" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research &lt;a href=&quot;https://bigthink.com/errors-we-live-by/kahnemans-mind-clarifying-biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;says&lt;/a&gt; there is system 1 and 2 thinking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is how is system and and 2 thinking related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;unconcious mind&lt;/a&gt;?&#xA;Can we say for example system 1 thinking is unconcious mind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20362" LastActivityDate="2018-10-04T08:04:36.850" Title="System 1 and 2 thinking and unconcious" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20814" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20812" CreationDate="2018-09-29T02:41:51.510" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Carruthers_(philosopher)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Peter Carruthers&lt;/a&gt;  argues &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.philosophy.umd.edu/pcarruthers/The%20Fragmentation%20of%20Reasoning.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2014)&lt;/a&gt; that system 1 doesn't quite overlap with unconscious thinking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I shall argue that there is, indeed, a real, scientifically valid, distinction between a set of&#xA;  intuitive, unconsciously operating reasoning systems, on the one hand, and a reflective system&#xA;  whose operations are partly conscious, on the other. But I shall argue that this division fails to&#xA;  line up with many of the other properties generally associated with Systems 1 and 2. In&#xA;  particular, some intuitive systems can be slow, some can be controlled, and some can approach&#xA;  the highest normative standards; so the moniker «quick and dirty» is certainly inappropriate&#xA;  when applied to intuitive reasoning as such.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;a href=&quot;http://cms.unige.ch/fapse/EmotionLab/pdf/Coppin%20(2014).%20BBS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jonathan Evans (2014)&lt;/a&gt;, a dual-process theorist but also strong critic of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_thought_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UTT&lt;/a&gt;, writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is true&#xA;  that the distinction between conscious and nonconscious processing&#xA;  has been emphasised by some social psychologists (e.g.,&#xA;  Wilson 2002), but it is emphatically not the foundation for contemporary&#xA;  dual-process theories of reasoning and decision&#xA;  making. As a dual-process theorist, I have argued, in common&#xA;  with others, that the conscious/unconscious decision cannot be&#xA;  the basis for the dual-process distinction because it is too vague&#xA;  and fails to define the key central properties of dual processing&#xA;  (Evans &amp;amp; Stanovich 2013). I should also point out that in spite&#xA;  of defending the validity of much of the research that N&amp;amp;S criticise&#xA;  here, I have in common with them critiqued unconscious&#xA;  thinking theory and other strong assertions of the powers of intuition&#xA;  (see Evans 2010, Ch. 4). This is because dual-process theory&#xA;  confines powers of reflective reasoning – and with it the ability to&#xA;  deal with novel and difficult problems – to Type 2 processing.&#xA;  The case for dual process is in fact based not on the conscious/&#xA;  unconscious distinction but on the claim that there are two forms&#xA;  of cognitive processing which have distinctive properties and&#xA;  which reflect the operation of distinct cognitive and neural&#xA;  systems. Most of these properties are merely typical correlates,&#xA;  and few are defining features (Evans &amp;amp; Stanovich 2013). I agree&#xA;  with Stanovich that Type 2 processing is distinguished both by&#xA;  its cognitive resources (central working memory, correlation&#xA;  with measures of cognitive capacity) and by its ability to engage&#xA;  in cognitive decoupling and hypothetical thinking. The apparent&#xA;  link of dual-process theory with consciousness comes only from&#xA;  the fact that some of the items attended in working memory are&#xA;  available to verbal report. But using broader definitions of consciousness,&#xA;  I have argued in detail that both Type 1 and Type 2&#xA;  thinking have aspects that are conscious as well as unconscious&#xA;  (Evans 2010, Ch. 7).&#xA;  In conclusion, not only do I reject the authors’ presumption of&#xA;  conscious decision making, which I believe to be shakily founded&#xA;  on folk psychology, but I also contest their implication that the&#xA;  conscious/unconscious distinction is the basis for contemporary&#xA;  theories of dual processing in higher cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-29T02:47:43.283" LastActivityDate="2018-09-29T02:47:43.283" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20816" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20809" CreationDate="2018-09-29T03:25:51.840" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of your post is hard to follow and mixes a lot of topics. On the issue whether pain and social rejection have something in common, a highly-cited (2003) fMRI study &lt;a href=&quot;https://10.1126/science.1089134&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;found&lt;/a&gt; that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In summary, a pattern of activations very&#xA;  similar to those found in studies of physical&#xA;  pain emerged during social exclusion, providing&#xA;  evidence that the experience and regulation&#xA;  of social and physical pain share a&#xA;  common neuroanatomical basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise a &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/108/15/6270&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;newer (2011) study&lt;/a&gt; concludes that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;rejection&#xA;  and physical pain are similar not only in that they are both&#xA;  distressing—they share a common somatosensory representation&#xA;  as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An even more recent study (Woo, 2014) has &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms6380&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;challenged these&lt;/a&gt; though:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pain- and rejection-related representations are uncorrelated within regions thought to encode pain affect (for example, dorsal anterior cingulate) and show distinct functional connectivity with other regions in a separate resting-state data set (N=91). These findings demonstrate that separate representations underlie pain and rejection despite common fMRI activity at the gross anatomical level. Rather than co-opting pain circuitry, rejection involves distinct affective representations in humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since most of the &quot;hurtful&quot; words on SE are of the kind that lead the receiver to experience some level of exclusion (not being &quot;good enough&quot; to be part of the site[s] etc.)... it seemed appropriate to mention this. Of course you can make someone feel excluded while being perfectly polite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm less familiar with research on the effects of verbal abuse, but at least &lt;a href=&quot;https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.6.993&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one study found&lt;/a&gt; it has long-term negative consequences for some children. In fact there's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.fsu.edu/news/2006/05/22/invisible.scars/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more than one&lt;/a&gt; study with the same conclusions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if there are studies on the extent to which adults are just able to shrug off verbal abuse. But there certainly are books arguing for not tolerating it in the workplace, e.g. Bob Sutton's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_No_Asshole_Rule&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;No asshole&quot;&lt;/a&gt; series.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And despite what your Polish Zen psychologists would like the reality to be, it just doesn't work like that in practice. Verbal abuse does have some effect, even on people (e.g. nurses) who encounter it often. Granted the effect is not huge. On a scale of 0 (no reaction) to 6 (extreme feeling), the average effects of verbal abuse (on nurses) are &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2834.2004.00533.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reported below&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DOhXP.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DOhXP.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot more studies on the effects bullying, which combines verbal abuse with other behaviors. Actually a problem with work-related constructs including verbal abuse is that there's perhaps a bit too many of them. But there's a slightly narrower one that was studied namely incivility; from &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/job.689&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hershcovis (2011) &lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Incivility has recently emerged as one of the most studied variables in the workplace mistreatment [long list of citations]. It was defined by&#xA;  Andersson and Pearson (1999) as low intensity deviant acts such as rude and discourteous verbal and&#xA;  non-verbal behaviors enacted toward another organizational member with ambiguous intent to harm.&#xA;  This construct differentiates itself from other constructs on several dimensions. First, it is defined as a&#xA;  low intensity behavior. Andersson and Pearson explicitly argue that minor forms of mistreatment can&#xA;  have a significant impact on employee attitudes toward the organization. In contrast, most other&#xA;  mistreatment constructs are not defined in terms of their intensity, though intensity may be inferred by&#xA;  their definition or measurement. For example, bullying can be assumed to be of higher intensity than&#xA;  incivility because of its persistence and frequency.&#xA;  A second differentiating feature of incivility is the explicit statement that intent is ambiguous.&#xA;  Researchers in the workplace mistreatment literature have frequently debated the notion of intent. For&#xA;  instance, Neuman and Baron (2005) argued that when defining mistreatment from the perspective of&#xA;  the actor, intent is crucial. Otherwise, accidentally harmful behaviors such as being hurt by a dentist&#xA;  during a dental procedure may be considered aggressive. On the other hand, from a target’s perspective,&#xA;  perceived intent may be all that matters because victims will react based on their perception, whether or&#xA;  not their perception is accurate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, the effects of incivility were comparable with that of bullying in a work environment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1oWWi.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1oWWi.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/03634529509378997&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Infante (2009)&lt;/a&gt; points out that the negative effects of verbal aggresion have been seen in multiple contexts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Verbal aggression is message behavior which attacks a person's self-concept in&#xA;  order to deliver psychological pain (Infante &amp;amp; Wigley, 1986). Researchers in&#xA;  recent years have given considerable attention to verbal aggression in numerous&#xA;  contexts such as interpersonal, family, organizational, political, and intercultural.&#xA;  This research has been unequivocal in suggesting that verbal aggression is&#xA;  a highly destructive form of communication. For instance, it can result in violent&#xA;  crimes (Toch, 1969; Zillmann, 1979), it is a catalyst to interspousal violence&#xA;  (Infante, Chandler, &amp;amp; Rudd, 1989), it is associated with adolescents having&#xA;  problems when they are the victims of their parents' verbal aggression (Straus,&#xA;  Sweet, &amp;amp; Vissing, 1989), and it is a very negative factor in superior-subordinate&#xA;  communication (Infante &amp;amp; Gorden, 1991).  [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The types of verbally aggressive messages, derived deductively from theory&#xA;  and research, are: character attacks, competence attacks, background attacks,&#xA;  physical appearance attacks, maledictions, teasing, swearing, ridicule, threats,&#xA;  nonverbal emblems (Infante, 1987). However, other types also can be specified:&#xA;  blame, personality attacks, commands, global rejection, discontinuation, negative&#xA;  comparison, sexual harassment, and attacking the target's significant others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Continuation of verbal aggression after it is initiated, largely is due to reciprocity. People often feel compelled to return acts of aggression to save face&#xA;  and to discourage future attacks (Felson, 1978, 1982). Reciprocating verbal&#xA;  aggression can escalate tensions to the point of physical aggression (Berkowitz,&#xA;  1962, 1973). Even if reciprocity does not result in violence the destructiveness&#xA;  nevertheless is more than what would have occurred had one party not&#xA;  reciprocated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I.e. a tit-for-tat exchange or verbal aggression can result is what is nowadays &#xA;more colloquially called a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxic_workplace&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;toxic environment&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The&#xA;  research has focused on effects of verbal aggression in different communication&#xA;  contexts. Two basic effects are self-concept damage and aggression escalation.&#xA;  These can lead to reduced trust, relationship deterioration, and relationship&#xA;  termination in interpersonal communication. Organizational communication&#xA;  research has found that the verbally aggressive behavior of supervisors has&#xA;  negative effects (Infante &amp;amp; Gorden, 1985, 1987, 1991). Verbally aggressive&#xA;  subordinates are evaluated unfavorably by their supervisors (Gorden, Infante,&#xA;  &amp;amp; Izzo, 1988; Infante &amp;amp; Gorden, 1989). Family communication research has&#xA;  suggested that children may be harmed by their parents' verbal aggression&#xA;  (Straus et al., 1989). Other research suggests husbands of verbally aggressive&#xA;  wives are more depressed (Segrin &amp;amp; Fitzpatrick, 1992). Verbal aggression in a&#xA;  marriage is negatively related to marital satisfaction (Payne &amp;amp; Sabourin, 1990;&#xA;  Rancer, Baukus, &amp;amp; Amato, 1986). Several studies indicate verbal aggression&#xA;  sometimes leads to interspousal violence (Gelles, 1974; Infante et al., 1989;&#xA;  Straus, 1974). The use of verbal aggression in political communication has&#xA;  negative effects on source credibility (Downs, Kaid, &amp;amp; Ragan, 1990). A study&#xA;  which manipulated verbal aggression in an experiment suggests that the relationship&#xA;  with lowered source credibility is causal (Infante, Hartley, Martin, Higgins,&#xA;  Bruning, &amp;amp; Hur, 1992).&#xA;  It should be emphasized that the results of research have been remarkably&#xA;  consistent in suggesting that the effects of verbal aggression are negative,&#xA;  supporting the ethical stance that verbal aggression is a destructive form of&#xA;  communication that should be discouraged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Infante also discusses mitigation strategies, although the existence of these doesn't justify your point that verbal aggression is harmless:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Once verbal aggression does occur in a situation, basic concerns are how the&#xA;  effects can be neutralized and how escalation of aggression can be prevented. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[An] approach is based on symbolic interactionism and involves the&#xA;  strategies that victims may use to &quot;dismiss&quot; verbal attacks or render them&#xA;  ineffective (Wagner, 1980). Protecting self from abuse by manipulating symbols,&#xA;  according to this view, is one of the most highly developed functions of our&#xA;  symbol system. Wagner (1980) conceives of these as &quot;strategies of dismissal.&quot; He&#xA;  presents numerous strategies that the victim of an attack can use while interacting&#xA;  with the attacker or while interacting with self in order to restore the&#xA;  attacked self to a state of equilibrium. Some of these strategies are reviewed&#xA;  below (see Wagner, 1980, for a more complete discussion).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many dismissals of an attack rely upon finding an exception to the locus of&#xA;  attack. These can pertain to the situation of the attack, the victim, or the attacker.&#xA;  Dismissal strategies for the situation invoke misinformation (claim that the attack&#xA;  was based on incorrect information) or coercion (contend that the data which&#xA;  attacks self s judgment was obtained by coercion). Dismissals based on the victim&#xA;  involve one's conception of self and utilize the idea that the object of attack was&#xA;  not the &quot;true&quot; self. Some of these strategies are personal growth (maintain that the&#xA;  self characterized in the attack no longer exists because of change), the unconscious&#xA;  (agreeing with the unfavorable characterization by the attacker but&#xA;  claiming the matter is beyond personal control because the unconscious mind is&#xA;  responsible), and excuse (claim the behavior which suggests an undesirable self&#xA;  &quot;was not my fault&quot;). Strategies that focus on the attacker seek to derogate the&#xA;  source. These are based on ignorance (the attacker does not know what he/she is&#xA;  talking about), the dark side (the attack was motivated by lesser human tendencies&#xA;  to be jealous, envious, resentful, vicious, sadistic), and unacknowledged motives&#xA;  (the attacker has a hidden agenda).&#xA;  These strategies of &quot;dismissal&quot; seem aimed mainly at neutralizing the effect of&#xA;  verbally aggressive remarks so that the victim does not experience a sense of&#xA;  dissonance with self. This can be done to a considerable extent at the intrapersonal&#xA;  level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unlike your Christian-motivated book, Infante doesn't try to order these strategies. And these are just the purely self-oriented strategies. He spends even more space discussing (non-aggressive) communicative response strategies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also note that the paper Infante cites for dismissal strategies, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001872678003300901&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wagner (1980)&lt;/a&gt;, doesn't have much in the way of citations (in Google Scholar).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-29T06:35:04.190" LastActivityDate="2018-09-29T06:35:04.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20819" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20498" CreationDate="2018-09-29T13:43:07.520" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can find the ITQ at the following site that we've made for the scale:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.traumameasuresglobal.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.traumameasuresglobal.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20371" LastActivityDate="2018-09-29T13:43:07.520" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20821" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20825" CreationDate="2018-09-29T18:16:42.820" Score="6" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;Shrill notes are said to be &quot;high&quot;, and rumbles are said to be &quot;low&quot;.  Humans seem to metaphorically map frequency to the vertical axis, and in the cultures that I know of, high frequency is considered &quot;up&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is this a universal phenomenon? Are there any cultures that map it upside-down, or in a completely different way? (For example, smaller objects tend to produce higher pitches. Are there any cultures that say that a pitch is &quot;small&quot; instead of &quot;high&quot;?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does this convention pre-date the scientific understanding of sound waves?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If it is universal (or nearly so), is there any neurological hard-wiring that would cause that mapping?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20373" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-30T06:03:19.603" LastActivityDate="2018-09-30T07:56:10.423" Title="Is mapping sound frequencies to the vertical axis universal?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;audition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20822" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-29T18:50:40.477" Score="1" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I'm with my friends at some place doing something or talking about something, suddenly a thought comes to my mind that this present moment has already happened previously. But when I try to remember it, nothing's there, no memory at all. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone explain why ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15174" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-09-30T03:14:03.477" LastActivityDate="2018-09-30T03:14:03.477" Title="Why do we feel the present moment has already happened?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-10-02T20:55:30.470" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20824" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-30T03:44:00.087" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;As many of you, I'm trying to improve learning strategies. I've tried mnemotecnics, breaking study-time into small chunks, and going for a walk when stuck with maths, physics or chemistry problems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After seeing &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IlU-zDU6aQ0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Study Less Study Smart&lt;/a&gt; by Marty Lobdell I got more interested in the subject. He states these strategies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Study break&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reward system&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dedicated study area (Behavior Reinforcement)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rote memorization vs. Active learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sleeping (REM  Sleep)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taking notes (and expanding those)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Study from books (SQ3R = Survey,  Question,  Read,  Recite,  Review&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mnemonics (Acronyms, Coin Sayings, Interactive Images)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not really aware which learning strategies are confirmed by experiments, so what I'm looking for is the following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where can I start to read simple papers, reviews or essays on the science about learning and studying strategies? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17136" LastEditorUserId="19440" LastEditDate="2018-09-30T14:06:04.760" LastActivityDate="2018-09-30T14:06:04.760" Title="Scientific evidence about studying and learning strategies" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2018-10-01T18:04:37.230" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20825" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20821" CreationDate="2018-09-30T06:31:27.697" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans technically don't perceive frequencies, they perceive pitch. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_(music)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;According to Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the idiom relating vertical height to sound pitch is shared by most languages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;citing a 1930 article &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aruffo.com/eartraining/research/articles/pratt30.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;by Pratt&lt;/a&gt;, which in turn says that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stumpf has found that adjectives meaning high and low (or words closely related in meaning) have been applied to tones in almost every known language.[2]  But why should tones be characterized as high or low? Do these characteristics refer to differences in spatial height and depth? The answer to this second question has been almost without exception in the negative. A high tone does not mean a tone which is high in space. The phrase is merely figurative, and must be accounted for in terms of secondary criteria such as, e.g., the apparent localization of high vocal tones in the head and low ones in the chest.  The composer Berlioz makes sport of such explanations and reminds his readers that high and low tones for the pianist lie in the horizontal directions of right and left and that the violoncellist must reach downward to produce high tones, and suggests that those composers of opera who use descending passages for a person falling downstairs have stupidly transferred to the tones the arbitrary downward character of the printed notes on the staff. And yet Stumpf, convinced that there can be no intrinsic height and depth in tones, has felt obliged to argue that here again some associative mechanism, strangely obscure and elusive, has been at work. Even Wundt was forced to agree with Stumpf in calling these terms metaphorical when applied to tones [3], and most psychologists who have given the matter any thought have expressed similar views [4].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[2]:   C. Stumpf, Tonpsychologie, 1883, I, 192 ff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[3]:   W. Wundt, Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie, 1910, 11, 78.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[4]:   J. Redfield, Music: a Science and an Art, 1928, 42 ff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All these sources are pretty dated alas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are however some newer papers on this; e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5484432/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fernandez-Prieto et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt; which do qualify such statements, e.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Higher frequency and louder sounds are associated with higher positions whereas lower frequency&#xA;  and quieter sounds are associated with lower locations. In English, ‘‘high’’ and ‘‘low’’ are used to&#xA;  label pitch, loudness, and spatial verticality. By contrast, different words are preferentially used, in&#xA;  Catalan and Spanish, for pitch (high: ‘‘agut/agudo’’; low: ‘‘greu/grave’’) and for loudness/verticality&#xA;  (high: ‘‘alt/alto’’; low: ‘‘baix/bajo’’). Thus, English and Catalan/Spanish differ in the spatial&#xA;  connotations for pitch. To analyze the influence of language on these crossmodal associations, a&#xA;  task was conducted in which English and Spanish/Catalan speakers had to judge whether a tone&#xA;  was higher or lower (in pitch or loudness) than a reference tone. The response buttons were&#xA;  located at crossmodally congruent or incongruent positions with respect to the probe tone.&#xA;  Crossmodal correspondences were evidenced in both language groups. However, English&#xA;  speakers showed greater effects for pitch, suggesting an influence of linguistic background.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also cite an older review paper &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.casasanto.com/papers/Casasanto_Development_of_Metaphorical_Thinking_2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Cassanto, 2013)&lt;/a&gt; which highlights a similar studies (co-authored by Cassanto) on Dutch vs Farsi:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Like English, Dutch describes pitches as ‘high’ (hoog) or ‘low’ (laag),&#xA;  but this is not the only possible spatial metaphor for pitch. In Farsi, high&#xA;  pitches are ‘thin’ (nāzok) and low pitches are ‘thick’ (koloft). Dutch and&#xA;  Farsi speakers’ performance on non-linguistic pitch reproduction tasks reflects&#xA;  these linguistic differences (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797612457374&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dolscheid, Shayan, Majid, and Casasanto&#xA;  2013&lt;/a&gt;). Participants were asked to reproduce the pitch of tones that they&#xA;  heard in the presence of irrelevant spatial information: lines that varied in&#xA;  their height (height interference task) or their thickness (thickness interference task). Dutch speakers’ pitch estimates showed stronger crossdimensional&#xA;  interference from spatial height, and Farsi speakers’ from the&#xA;  thickness of visually presented stimuli. This effect was not explained by&#xA;  differences in accuracy, or in musical training. When trained to talk about&#xA;  pitches using Farsi-like metaphors (e.g. a tuba sounds thicker than a flute)&#xA;  for 20-30 minutes, Dutch speakers’ performance on the non-linguistic&#xA;  thickness interference task became indistinguishable from native Farsi&#xA;  speakers’. Experience using one kind of spatial metaphor or another in language&#xA;  can have a causal influence on non-linguistic pitch representations. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;infants as young as four months old are sensitive to the height-pitch mapping&#xA;  found in Dutch-speaking adults (but not in Farsi-speaking adults), and&#xA;  also to the thickness-pitch mapping found in Farsi-speaking adults (but not&#xA;  in Dutch-speaking adults; &lt;a href=&quot;http://hdl.handle.net/11858/00-001M-0000-000F-3E74-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dolscheid, Hunnius, Casasanto, and Majid 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&#xA;  There is no need, therefore, to posit that using linguistic metaphors causes&#xA;  people to construct these mappings de novo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A somewhat similar paper on infants, perhaps with stronger claims is from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.babylab.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2016/09/Walker_etal2010.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Walker et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stimulation of one sensory modality can induce perceptual experiences in another modality that reflect synaesthetic&#xA;  correspondences among different dimensions of sensory experience. In visual-hearing synaesthesia, for example, higher pitched&#xA;  sounds induce visual images that are brighter, smaller, higher in space, and sharper than those induced by lower pitched sounds.&#xA;  Claims that neonatal perception is synaesthetic imply that such correspondences are an unlearned aspect of perception. To&#xA;  date, the youngest children in whom such correspondences have been confirmed with any certainty were 2- to 3-year-olds.&#xA;  We examined preferential looking to assess 3- to 4-month-old preverbal infants’ sensitivity to the correspondences linking&#xA;  auditory pitch to visuospatial height and visual sharpness. The infants looked longer at a changing visual display when this was&#xA;  accompanied by a sound whose changing pitch was congruent, rather than incongruent, with these correspondences. This is&#xA;  the strongest indication to date that synaesthetic cross-modality correspondences are an unlearned aspect of perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cassanto and colleagues also develop a Hierarchical Mental Metaphors Theory (HMMT) according to which &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;correlational mental metaphors develop in two stages, the second of which may extend throughout the lifetime.&#xA;  The mental metaphors that adults typically use are specific instances&#xA;  of more general families of mappings. These families may be evident in&#xA;  behavior from infancy, and reflect regularities in humans’ experiences of&#xA;  the physical and social world, many of which may be universal. As children&#xA;  are exposed to peculiar aspects of their languages, cultures, or even their&#xA;  own bodies, certain mappings from a given source-target family become&#xA;  strengthened through repeated use, which weakens ‘sibling’ mappings as a&#xA;  consequence. The result is that people tend to think in language-specific,&#xA;  culture-specific, or body-specific mental metaphors: Relativity emerges&#xA;  from universals. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One prediction of HMMT is that specific source-target mappings&#xA;  should be easy to activate via linguistic training so long as they are members&#xA;  of one of the families of source-target mappings encoded in our minds&#xA;  (over phylogenetic or ontogenetic time) on the basis of observable sourcetarget&#xA;  correspondences in the world. Mappings that are not members of a&#xA;  pre-linguistically established family (and that do not reflect correlations in&#xA;  our experience) should be relatively hard to activate via training, because&#xA;  these mappings would need to be created, not just strengthened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a test of this prediction, Dutch speakers were trained to used a thickness-&#xA;  pitch mapping that is the reverse of the mapping found in Farsi, and in&#xA;  the natural world: thin=low and thick=high. These ‘reverse-Farsi’ trained&#xA;  participants received the same amount of training as the participants trained&#xA;  to use the Farsi-like mapping. Whereas Farsi-like training had a significant&#xA;  effect on participants’ nonlinguistic pitch representations, reverse-Farsi&#xA;  training had no effect (Dolscheid et al. 2013). Thus, brief linguistic experience&#xA;  caused participants to use the thickness-pitch mapping that reflects&#xA;  correlations between thickness and pitch in the world (and is evident in prelinguistic&#xA;  infants). Yet, the same amount of linguistic experience was not&#xA;  effective at instilling the opposite thickness-pitch mapping, which has no&#xA;  obvious experiential correlates, and is therefore not predicted to be among&#xA;  the pre-linguistically established space-pitch mappings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's referring to the same paper as the first citation in the previous quote. Oddly this experiment isn't summarized in the paper's abstract, but does appear in the paper (as Experiment 4). Cassanto has a &lt;a href=&quot;http://casasanto.com/papers/DolscheidShayanMajid&amp;amp;Casasanto_PsychScience.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;free pdf&lt;/a&gt; of that paper as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2014/04/02/1322705111.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2014 PNAS paper by Parise et al.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;proposes that the low-high pitch metaphor has a natural basis in the elevation of the sources of such sounds in nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-09-30T07:56:10.423" LastActivityDate="2018-09-30T07:56:10.423" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20826" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20498" CreationDate="2018-09-30T08:40:27.000" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would suggest going to the source which is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12956&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cloitre, et al. (2018)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ITQ is a brief, simply worded measure of the core features of PTSD and CPTSD. It is consistent with the organizing principles of the ICD‐11 to maximize clinical utility and international applicability through a focus on a limited but central set of symptoms. The measure is freely available and can be found in the body of this paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cloitre, M., Shevlin, M., Brewin, C. R., Bisson, J. I., Roberts, N. P., Maercker, A., ... &amp;amp; Hyland, P. (2018). The International Trauma Questionnaire: development of a self‐report measure of ICD‐11 PTSD and complex PTSD. &lt;em&gt;Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica.&lt;/em&gt; (In Press: September 2018) doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12956&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/acps.12956&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-09-30T08:50:39.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20827" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-30T08:28:50.687" Score="2" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to this article&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/ng.3869&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nature.com/articles/ng.3869&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;your intelligence as an adult is to 80 % determined by genetics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Despite the well-known difference in twin-based heritability for intelligence in childhood (0.45) and adulthood (0.80),&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are born with a strong predisposition for limited cognitive abilities, can you do something to improve the situation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Compare with more physical traits. To win a medal in the Olympic Games you probably need to have an outstanding predisposition for that specific sport BUT unless you have a very negative predisposition for something (such a limping and trying to be a marathon runner) you can by hard work become a &quot;good amateur&quot;, probably ending up in the top 10 %, and maybe even top 1 % or so, &quot;just&quot; by a lot of work. (However, top 1 % won't give you any medal on most regional or national championship so you are still a loooong way from the olympics).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is obvious what you need to do to achieve that: play a lot of tennis (if tennis is the sport you want to be a good amateur in) combined with some more generic weight and fitness training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you achieve similar results (top 1-10 %) with regards to your cognitive abilities with hard work? Why? Why not? How?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20378" OwnerDisplayName="hensti" LastActivityDate="2018-09-30T09:53:53.090" Title="Can you improve your intelligence by practising?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2018-10-01T20:06:57.473" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20829" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-30T14:12:05.900" Score="2" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;If the normal Xrays scans, despite the low amount of radiation (equivalent to a few hours of background radiation, can be sufficient to cause a burning sensation, then I wonder if the much higher dose of a CT head scan can cause some adverse cognitive effects?&#xA;Also, is it possible that the Xrays make the neurons fire at random?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20379" LastEditorUserId="20379" LastEditDate="2018-09-30T15:00:23.750" LastActivityDate="2018-09-30T15:00:23.750" Title="Can a CT scan have advserse cognitive effects on the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-09-30T22:29:50.047" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20831" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-09-30T16:58:37.400" Score="1" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been researching schizophrenia(sz) for a long while now, especially concerning the prodromal and ultra high risk(UHR) phases. Diagnostic criteria, symptom progression, remission rates, etc. But I haven't been able to find research of prodromal &quot;symptom wave&quot; patterns. In developed sz, psychosis and other symptoms exhibit a wave formation, waxing and waning. Is such a wave pattern present in some form as the disorder develops? If so, how long can a wave of 'downtime' versus more severe symptoms last?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also am having trouble getting a full understanding of the diagnostic criteria for prodromal and UHR, though UHR doesn't seem to be well-defined anyway. The symptom lists vary slightly per paper, but in only one have I seen any mention of sensory processing issues developing in prodrome, and PTSD-like hypervigilance seems to not be mentioned much. Are these symptoms not as common in prodrome? There are other symptoms(eye contact avoidance, social ability degradation, dissociation etc.) that I have the same question about but I don't want to get too long.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have other questions, but &lt;strong&gt;mainly I am looking for any sz specialist or someone experienced with sz willing to help me iron out these details with their experience&lt;/strong&gt;. I'd like to message them if possible. This matter is of personal concern to me. I haven't added any sources or detail because this question is more opening up the possibility for a correspondence, and it would take a long time to explain everything. It would be strictly objective and not related to therapy of any sort. I hope this question is not inappropriate for this forum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20380" LastActivityDate="2018-09-30T16:58:37.400" Title="Questions regarding schizophrenic prodromal progression" Tags="&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2018-10-18T21:25:00.790" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20838" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4814" CreationDate="2018-10-02T16:26:59.573" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another general possibility is a personality geared towards perfectionism, which is one of the components of Conscientiousness, one of the Big Five personality traits. Individuals who strive for perfect solutions may focus on trivial components. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar issue is described as maximizing vs. satisficing: does one take a &quot;good enough&quot; answer, or obsess about diminishing returns? This link explains the concept in psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/science-choice/201506/satisficing-vs-maximizing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/science-choice/201506/satisficing-vs-maximizing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-10-02T16:26:59.573" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20841" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-03T09:14:26.590" Score="2" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do experiments exist that show that reasoning is [or isn't] highly biased by emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for experiments showing that people perceive a situation differently depending on how they feel about the circumstances - for example, you estimate your chances of winning in a chess game lower than they are once you've lost the queen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20407" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-12-09T19:39:24.297" LastActivityDate="2018-12-09T19:39:24.297" Title="Emotion based reasoning experiments" Tags="&lt;intuition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20842" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-03T10:54:05.753" Score="2" ViewCount="261" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to David Funder, Douglas Kenrick proposed a revised version of Maslow's hierarchy from an evolutionary perspective (1). He said that human beings will strive to move from 1 to 7 in a pyramid. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Immediate physiological needs. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-protection. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Affiliation. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Status-esteem. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mate acquisition. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mate retention. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Parenting. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But my questions are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can we explain from an evolutionary perspective that some &quot;successful&quot; species, choose consciously to avoid parenthood at all? Does it conflict with the evolutionary perspective that every human would try to parenting? If not, how is it supposed to be interpreted? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) The personality puzzle by David Funder (2013), Chapter 13, page 452. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19301" LastActivityDate="2018-10-03T13:27:47.460" Title="How can be explained from an evolutionary perspective the fact that some successful people do not want to have children?" Tags="&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20843" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20842" CreationDate="2018-10-03T13:02:09.797" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before addressing your true question, I just want to say that you can find individuals with almost any characteristic, even non-adaptive ones. Variation can exist for many reasons including genetic (e.g. mutations), or non-genetic reasons such as developmental problems or other environmental causes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But back the true question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How can it be explained from an evolutionary perspective that some people have no desire to want children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Evolutionary psychologists do not perceive the brain to be a conscious fitness calculating machine. To address such a question, it is fundamental to understand the difference between &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximate_and_ultimate_causation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;proximate and ultimate causation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is true that humans who didn't have any children would, by definition, be less reproductively successful in the past. Therefore, you would expect traits that lead to not having children be slowly selected out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But you have to analyze this at the &lt;em&gt;proximate&lt;/em&gt; level: What caused people in the past to have children? It was not mainly people thinking &quot;I really want a child,&quot; rather it was people thinking &quot;I desire sex with that person.&quot; What I am getting at here is that it was &lt;em&gt;sex drive&lt;/em&gt;, rather than explicitly wanting children per se, that has been selected for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can often be helpful to compare us to other animals, especially animals who don't have as powerful cognitive faculties as us. Do you think that all other animals really think that &quot;they want a child,&quot; or do you think that by some strange mechanism two individuals are attracted to each other to copulate (It might be scent, visuals, strength, or anything really)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, I have simplified things substantially. Probably there have been many psychological traits that have been helpful for reproduction other than simply sex drive. Probably also social bonding, and perhaps even the &quot;desire for having children.&quot; However, my point here is that the desire to have children is not required, if another mechanism leads to people having children. However, it gets even more complex, because an infinitely strong sexual drive is not necessarily good, either. Being selective in who you mate with can be important as well for ultimate reproductive success.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How can we explain from an evolutionary perspective that some &quot;successful&quot; species, choose consciously to avoid parenthood at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a fundamental trade-off between how much effort and energy you invest in each offspring, and the number of offspring you have. If you have 10 children, you simply do not have as much time or resources to spend on each of them compared to if you had 2 children. This can lead to differences in how many of your offspring survive and eventually have their own offspring (Especially in conditions where resources are scarce). These differences in reproductive patterns were originally explored in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R/K_selection_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;r/K selection theory&lt;/a&gt; and now in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_history_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Life history theory&lt;/a&gt;. Ignoring parenthood has its benefits in that it allows for more offspring and investing less energy into each.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you may ask the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But what about after the child comes? For humans, if there is no one there to take care of the child, then it's guaranteed that the child will not survive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is clear that humans are a species where parenthood is important, because human infants are so helpless when born and for a long duration. Therefore, you would also expect it to have been selected for that people would invest time and resources in (i.e. to parent) the child when it shows up. You would probably expect this especially for women, because the child can survive without the father, but it is very difficult for it to survive without the mother (in the first few years, especially in ancient environments).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, in fact, it is very rare that mothers have no desire to protect or care for their offspring after having it. So rare that it does not conflict with the evolutionary perspective. We also know that certain hormones are important for developing &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_bonding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social bonds&lt;/a&gt; between the parent and offspring such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;oxytocin&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19533" LastEditorUserId="19533" LastEditDate="2018-10-03T13:27:47.460" LastActivityDate="2018-10-03T13:27:47.460" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20844" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20812" CreationDate="2018-10-03T15:18:30.667" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another classic distinction was given by Bargh in 1997 that helps show muddling (lack of clear overlap) between the dual-systems concept and how the unconscious is defined by psychologists: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unconscious cognition is more likely to be one or more: outside awareness, not intended, relatively fast, and difficult to control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1994-97751-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1994-97751-001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="19843" LastEditDate="2018-10-04T08:04:36.850" LastActivityDate="2018-10-04T08:04:36.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20850" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20890" CreationDate="2018-10-04T16:47:28.470" Score="0" ViewCount="561" Body="&lt;p&gt;Original EMDR therapy involved a subject with open eyes tracking a target that moves side to side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is now common for EMDR to use devices like electronic &quot;tappers&quot; to alternately stimulate the left and right sides of the subject's body, leaving the subject free to close his eyes and engage in visualizations related to the trauma being treated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, during wakeful visualizations with my eyes closed I often move my eyes in a manner similar to REM sleep.  I have tried a few sessions of EMDR and found it to be uncannily effective.  During closed-eye EMDR I sometimes find myself engaging in REM based on my visualizations, and other times find my eyes moving side to side in synchrony with the &quot;tappers.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: Are there any studies or theories that suggest eye movement in closed-eye EMDR is relevant to the efficacy of the therapy?  E.g., does it matter whether the closed eyes move side to side if there is some other bilateral stimulation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19439" LastActivityDate="2018-10-11T14:00:02.477" Title="Is eye movement important with eyes-closed EMDR therapy?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20854" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20855" CreationDate="2018-10-04T22:47:02.167" Score="2" ViewCount="1071" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have there been any researched paper or digital tests developed that test a persons alertness at a given point in time? By alert I mean having the reactions of a person who is not over-tired, intoxicated, with a disability that inhibits reaction time, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I didn't see my answer in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.optalert.com/news/dr-johns-drowsiness-detection-technology-pharmaceutical-industry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.optalert.com/news/dr-johns-drowsiness-detection-technology-pharmaceutical-industry&lt;/a&gt; . &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in a digital or paper test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20141" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-10-05T05:47:53.640" LastActivityDate="2018-10-05T06:22:44.317" Title="Tests for alertness" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20855" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20854" CreationDate="2018-10-05T03:29:03.800" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;TLDR version: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychomotor_vigilance_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PVT&lt;/a&gt; or the Mackworth clock test seems to have been most successful in the category of computer-based testing that doesn't require specialized (e.g. pupillometry) equipment. Mackworth's seems to lack standardization though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two tests also belong to different sub-categories, which highlights a need to refine the notion of alertness. PVT only &quot;discriminates&quot; against single class stimuli, only their timing is uncertain, so it's a detection task; the corresponding notion it supposedly measures been dubbed “intrinsic alertness” or “psychomotor vigilance”. Mackworth's discriminates between two classes of stimuli (i.e. it belongs to a wider go/no-go class of tasks); this is the typical/classical paradigm for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigilance_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;“vigilance”&lt;/a&gt; testing. Since 2004, the term &quot;vigilant attention&quot; has been proposed to encompass both detection and discrimination tasks; it has gained some traction in the literature. The proponents/adopters of this new term argue that &quot;vigilance&quot;, &quot;alertness&quot;, &quot;sustained attention&quot;, and &quot;arousal&quot; are/were not terribly well defined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subjective alertness (easily measured on a paper-based [self]-test) doesn't seem a good predictor of PVT &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151770&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Phillips et al., 2016)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackworth_Clock&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mackworth clock&lt;/a&gt; test appears to be most sensitive based on  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem.57.10.649&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Williamson and Feyer (2000)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This study shows that commonly experienced levels of sleep deprivation depressed performance to a level equivalent to that produced by alcohol intoxication of at least a BAC of 0.05%. At the end of periods of waking of 17–19 hours, performance levels were low enough to be accepted in many countries as incompatible with safe driving. The earliest effects were seen for the Mackworth clock test and the latest for the dual task, although there was relatively little variation across tests. Longer periods of sleep deprivation were equivalent to higher alcohol doses for all tests except the grammatical reasoning and memory and search tasks. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As expected, increasing concentrations of alcohol produced significant reductions in performance for most tests and measures. [...] The results show that the extent of loss of function varies between tests although there were consistent effects within different types of measures. At a BAC of 0.05% for example, response speed decreased by around 8%–15% for reaction time, dual task, Mackworth vigilance, and symbol digit tests corresponding to a slowing of around 45, 66, 136, and 182 ms respectively. Hand-eye coordination measures showed a similar overall decrement of around 10% at this BAC. Measures of overall test accuracy also showed significant decrements due to alcohol, especially the number of missed signals in the reaction time test, which increased by 200%, and the number of false alarm responses in the Mackworth test, which were more than 50% higher at a BAC of 0.05%. The number of correct responses in the Mackworth test and length of the recalled series in the spatial memory task also both decreased by about 13% at a BAC of 0.05%. Subjective ratings of tiredness also showed a significant linear decrement of 77% by a BAC of 0.05%. Two tests, grammatical reasoning and memory and search tests showed very little decrease in performance at a BAC of 0.05%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Snip para about effect BAC of 0.1%].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These results show that alcohol does not exert universal effects on all functions and the pattern of effects also differs between them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sleep deprivation also produced decrements in both performance and self rated alertness. As shown in table 5, sleep deprivation showed effects on a similar range of tests as did alcohol. [...] performance decrements occurred with increasing sleep deprivation for both speed and accuracy measures of the reaction time, dual task, tracking, and Mackworth tests and for the length of the recalled series for the spatial memory test. For example, between around 1900 and 0500 (corresponding to about 13–23 h sleep deprivation), reaction speed decreased by 57% for the Mackworth test, 9% for reaction time, 27% for dual task and 15% for symbol digit tests. Hand-eye coordination decreased by between 31% for the tracking component of the dual task and 26% for the tracking task alone. Accuracy also decreased markedly with sleep deprivation. The number of missed signals increased by more than 40% for the Mackworth test, by 187% for the reaction time test, and the number of false alarms increased by 200% for the Mackworth test. The symbol digit test only showed decrements for the speed measures but not the accuracy measure. The grammatical reasoning and memory and search tasks showed only relatively small decreases of around 5%–10% with increasing sleep loss for any measures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia shows a screenshot of a computerized version of the Mackworth clock, with this description:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Mackworth Clock is an experimental device used in the field of experimental psychology to study the effects of long term vigilance on the detection of signals. It was originally created by Norman Mackworth as an experimental simulation of long term monitoring by radar operators in the British Air Force during World War II.&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9wgSt.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; The device has a large black pointer in a large circular background like a clock. The pointer moves in short jumps like the second hand of an analog clock, approximately every second. At infrequent and irregular intervals, the hand makes a double jump, e.g. 12 times every 30 seconds. The task is to detect when the double jumps occur by pressing a button. Typically, Mackworth's participants would do this task for two hours.[2] The Mackworth Clock was used to establish one of the fundamental findings in the vigilance and sustained attention literature: the vigilance decrement, that is, signal detection accuracy decreases notably after 30 minutes on task. The test continues to be used today in vigilance research in various forms, including computer-displayed versions.[3]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's missing from Williamson and Feyer is a more detailed description of their tests, including the length of Mackworth clock; since they measured it repeatedly, I suspect they took a lot less than two hours for each round. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the press release you found, Optalert links to an earlier one claiming to be setting a (new) &quot;gold standard&quot; with their tech. But their tech requires eye-tracking goggles, so not quite fitting your simpler requirements. And it's far from being the only such product on the market, A &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2013.03.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2014 review by Dawson et al.&lt;/a&gt; lists and evaluates (just based on publications, it's not head-to-head test) more than two dozen competitors for continuous monitoring and about half-dozen for spot fitness testing. For the latter category, which is closer to what you ask for, they give this summary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9wgSt.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9wgSt.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll only quote you the part about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychomotor_vigilance_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PVT&lt;/a&gt; from the review because the next best candidate in that table (FIT) requires &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupillometry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pupillometry&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The psychomotor vigilance test&#xA;  assesses sustained attention and is currently the gold standard in&#xA;  fatigue detection. Individuals give a button-press response to visual&#xA;  stimuli on a computer screen over a 5- or 10-min period. Reaction&#xA;  time and ‘lapses’ (response time &gt;=500 ms) are measured. Several&#xA;  commercial versions of the PVT are available (e.g., PalmPVT, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.corware.com/Default.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.corware.com/Default.aspx&lt;/a&gt;; PVT-192: Ambulatory Monitoring,&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ambulatory-monitoring.com/pvt192.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.ambulatory-monitoring.com/pvt192.html&lt;/a&gt;). The PVT has&#xA;  consistently and reliably detected performance decrements resulting&#xA;  from sleep restriction, extended wakefulness or time-of-day effects&#xA;  across numerous industries, including rail, aviation, mining, and&#xA;  defence. Validation evidence is available for both the 5-min and&#xA;  10-min versions. However, PVT performance may not&#xA;  equate to poor driving performance, perhaps due to large individual&#xA;  differences in driving performance. Thus the PVT may be better used&#xA;  to predict fatigue-related driving incidents as part of a broader test&#xA;  battery. This possibility may be explored further through research&#xA;  comparing the PVT with driving performance. Cut-off scores that&#xA;  predict impaired driving performance have also not been established.&#xA;  Despite its promise, until ‘fail’ or ‘warning’ levels are established,&#xA;  this device is unlikely to be useful for commercial drivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if you're curios of conceptual comparison between PVT and Mackworth's, &lt;a href=&quot;https://essay.utwente.nl/69145/1/Klein%20Douwel_MA_BMS.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Douwel (2016) master thesis&lt;/a&gt; offers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To examine how attention is influenced during monotonous tasks, several vigilance&#xA;  tasks have been designed like the Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT; Lim &amp;amp; Dinges, 2008),&#xA;  the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_performance_task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Continous Performance Task&lt;/a&gt; (CPT; Rosvold, Mirsky, Sarason, Bransome, &amp;amp; Beck, 1956)&#xA;  and the Mackworth Clock Test (Mackworth, 1948). Each task and its measures have their&#xA;  shortcomings and limitations. The PVT involves the detection of an unwarned stimulus to&#xA;  which participants have to respond as fast as possible. A limitation is that the response to the&#xA;  same signal is used, so no distinction is made between critical and non-critical stimuli.&#xA;  Therefore it measures only the readiness for speeded responding to unwarned stimulation&#xA;  (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3627747/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Langner &amp;amp; Eickhoff, 2013&lt;/a&gt;). The CPT and Mackworth Clock test involve discrimination&#xA;  between target stimuli and non-target stimuli. Both stimuli appear intermixed in a constant&#xA;  sequential stream consisting of regular intervals at a fixed rate. Participants need to respond&#xA;  to targets and withhold a response to non-targets over prolonged periods of time. In general, the stream consists of more non-targets than targets and only the targets occur infrequently&#xA;  and unpredictable. What it measures is a person's sustained and selective attention. Like the&#xA;  PVT, this can be derived from the speed of responses, but also from the number of detected&#xA;  and missed targets and the number of discrimination errors made. A shortcoming is that most&#xA;  visual discrimination tasks contain stimuli-events at a regular and high rate. This does not&#xA;  quite resemble real working environments in which the event-rate is at a slower pace and&#xA;  stimuli occur irregular. Another shortcoming is that performance on the task is retrospective&#xA;  which does not serve the purpose of preventing accidents from happening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980009600858&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lichstein (2010)&lt;/a&gt; notes a lack of standardization for Mackworth's (virtually every paper till then used a different variant). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CPT (mentioned by Douwel) seems to have given rise mostly to ADHD tests, thus not necessarily tests of temporary fatigue but more of a long-term impairment. (There might be some variant for fatigue that I don't know about.) For a factor structure of one variant CPT (which seems to include both a long-term impairment factors and short-term vigilance) see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1087054708323019&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Egeland and Kovalik-Gran (2008)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, for a more detailed discussion of the received terminology in the field see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2865224/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oken et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;, e.g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Alertness is another term that overlaps with arousal but more specifically includes some cognitive processing. Some researchers use the terms phasic and tonic alertness (Nebes and Brady, 1993; Posner and Petersen, 1990). Phasic alertness relates to the orienting response (Sokolov, 1963) and tonic alertness will be used synonymously to vigilance and sustained attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2018-10-05T06:22:44.317" LastActivityDate="2018-10-05T06:22:44.317" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20856" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20859" CreationDate="2018-10-05T10:18:47.753" Score="3" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not a psychologist nor a psychiatrist, but I have the impression that research of therapeutic use of psychedelic drugs (MDMA, LSD, DMT, etc) is undergoing a revival and is very slowly being accepted by the medical establishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there introductory books covering this topic which are scientifically credible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20422" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-10-06T10:57:38.067" LastActivityDate="2019-03-18T06:42:24.383" Title="Popular science books introducing therapeutic use of psychedelic drugs" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;&lt;psychedelics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20857" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-05T12:15:56.583" Score="1" ViewCount="247" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tobii.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tobii&lt;/a&gt; sells both 'consumer' (Tobii eye tracking) and 'research' eye trackers (Tobii pro).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their help article &lt;a href=&quot;https://help.tobii.com/hc/en-us/articles/210251205-Can-I-use-a-Tobii-Eye-Tracker-for-research-purposes-&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Can I use a Tobii Eye Tracker for research purposes?&quot;&lt;/a&gt; they state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If you want to develop software for analytical purposes,&#xA;  post-processing or aggregation of eye tracking data across multiple&#xA;  users using an eye tracker from Tobii Tech, please contact the SDK&#xA;  Licensing team since you will need to obtain a special license to do&#xA;  so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the &lt;a href=&quot;https://developer.tobii.com/consumer-eye-trackers/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Developer zone&lt;/a&gt; they state: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tobii’s consumer eye trackers are primarily intended for personal&#xA;  interaction use and not for analytical purposes. Any application that&#xA;  stores or transfers eye tracking data must have a special license from&#xA;  Tobii.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They elaborate on this in &lt;a href=&quot;https://analyticaluse.tobii.com/?utm_source=developer.tobii.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Analytical Use of Eye Tracking Data&quot;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tobii distinguishes applications in two categories: Interaction Use and Analytical Use. Depending on the intended use of your application, you may need to apply for a specific license.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Beyond real-time interaction, knowing where we focus our attention&#xA;  brings value to a range of applications within behavioral research,&#xA;  usability testing, streaming of gaze data and even health assessments.&#xA;  These applications would involve transferring, storing and&#xA;  analyzing/aggregating the eye tracking data which is defined by Tobii&#xA;  as Analytical Use. For any application that store or transfer eye&#xA;  tracking data you must obtain a special Analytical Use license from&#xA;  Tobii.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What they are much less clear on is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do they introduce this separate licensing model? Surely, it has to do with pricing and the availability of Tobii pro eye trackers, but this still sounds like a very odd, hard to enforce, business model.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do they intend to enforce this? Can they sell a product and simply ask of buyers not to use it for a certain purpose?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How difficult is it to obtain a license? Does anyone have experience with this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the inherent limitations of the consumer level eye tracker compared to the professional eye trackers?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2018-10-05T12:15:56.583" Title="Can the consumer level Tobii Eye Trackers be used for research?" Tags="&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20856" CreationDate="2018-10-05T15:43:56.207" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although there may be books written, your best bet for reading up on a changing field is to read some recent review articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Google Scholar is a good place to find such articles, for example you can search for &quot;review psychedelic therapy&quot; or substitute in a particular drug of interest. You can also select a recent year range if you want the newest sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_ylo=2014&amp;amp;q=review+psychedelic+therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_ylo=2014&amp;amp;q=review+psychedelic+therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-10-05T15:43:56.207" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20859" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20856" CreationDate="2018-10-05T22:02:31.137" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, the psychedelic Renaissance/ third wave (as I've heard it being called) is steadily gaining momentum. I almost feel like mentioning How to Change Your Mind by Michael Pollan here is too obvious, but just to be safe, here's a &lt;a href=&quot;http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=EC0210460EA2835A5535BAC36FAF93CB&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;few&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.ca/Change-Your-Mind-Consciousness-Transcendence/dp/1594204225&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;links&lt;/a&gt; and a cultural &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brainpickings.org/2018/07/11/how-to-change-your-mind-michael-pollan/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;review&lt;/a&gt;. There is also an exhaustive summary on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.trippingly.net/lsd-studies/2018/5/15/how-to-change-your-mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trippingly.net&lt;/a&gt;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19962" LastEditorUserId="19962" LastEditDate="2019-03-18T06:42:24.383" LastActivityDate="2019-03-18T06:42:24.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20860" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-06T04:12:09.633" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Out of curiosity- I used to read a Wiki page of a scientist (sadly I don't remember the name) who were the developer of an agent-based model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diagram had another entity class named similar to &quot;locomotive&quot; and &quot;vehicle&quot; (they were using a &quot;coal cart&quot; image as representative)- acting as an in-betweener, transporting the data between classes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anyone knows the exact diagram and the theory- I'd be so happy about it- searching for hours- even checked 1.000 most used U.S.&amp;amp;U.K. surnames to recall the surname yet failed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20429" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-10-06T10:54:33.243" LastActivityDate="2018-10-06T10:54:33.243" Title="Trying to remember the name of an Agent-Based Model" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;agent-based-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20865" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-07T08:06:12.933" Score="4" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard that repeating a rumor by denying it only serves to reinforce the rumor. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/20141110142443-1967426-how-firms-should-fight-rumors/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/20141110142443-1967426-how-firms-should-fight-rumors/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Try to avoid reinforcing minor rumors by repeating them in order to deny them.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/200811/the-8-laws-rumor-spread&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/200811/the-8-laws-rumor-spread&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Even a denial can be a repetition of a rumor.&quot; (Just ask Senator John Kerry, whose 2004 presidential bid sunk thanks to whispers about his swift-boat service in Vietnam—even though most of the media stories were about how the rumors were false.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikihow.com/Stop-Rumors&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.wikihow.com/Stop-Rumors&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;If it was you who started the rumor in the first place, don't deny it. Instead of reacting to what others will think of you, admit what you did wrong out of character.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what about in cases where I told something about myself that was less than flattering, or even downright embarrassing, and am now regretting having said? Does the same principle -- repeat it in any way by denying, asking to keep silent about the matter etc... -- result in heightening the possibility that it will spread to other people, because of the effects of priming?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or is it the case that if I ask him/her specifically to not repeat the rumor, that he/she will more likely comply compared to if I kept silent about the matter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20437" LastEditorUserId="18928" LastEditDate="2018-10-09T13:27:46.267" LastActivityDate="2019-04-22T02:58:40.893" Title="Repeating a rumor that you started?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20867" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-07T22:36:53.353" Score="4" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;The school system as we know it, is &amp;amp; has been shaping students to fit the system which they live in and throughout this process, the students are forced to learn(mostly memorize) subjects which they do not have any interest in whatsoever and because of this they can't score high in school. It is as if our brains are trying to avoid information, which is out of interest, as much as possible. But when there's something in interest it is damn easy to collect and comprehend that information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's assume that you are a programmer and you are greatly amazed by that, you love solving problems and develop software, you read lots of documentations and contribute on other peoples projects without even having to worry about &quot;remembering&quot; what you're reading, everything is easily understood and there's no issue with that. But when you have to learn about politics and how the system works, it appears as cancer to your eyes because you have no interest in it, there's no will to collect that information and therefore you score low in that subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;now my question is: &lt;strong&gt;Why can't we learn what we don't like? (what we're not interested in?)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17012" LastActivityDate="2019-10-09T02:21:03.080" Title="Why can't we learn what we don't like?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20868" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-08T00:19:36.163" Score="5" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;How can &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impostor_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Imposter Syndrome&lt;/a&gt; be differentiated from actually possessing its symptoms? For example, one of the symptoms is the feeling that the person does not possesses extra intelligence, but that they have tricked their peers into such false perceptions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps either one is true, either they posses special skills in scamming the public, so to say. Or they have imposter syndrome, but how can one truly know? Especially after coming across the fact that descriptions of such states exist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, how do we differentiate &lt;em&gt;imposter syndrome&lt;/em&gt; from [one who feels like] an actual &lt;em&gt;imposter&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Please comment for clarifications&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20441" LastEditorUserId="20441" LastEditDate="2018-11-15T00:18:37.167" LastActivityDate="2018-11-15T00:18:37.167" Title="Differentiations of Imposter Syndrome" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20870" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-08T14:12:12.050" Score="1" ViewCount="215" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the impact of relative achievement in a topic on self-efficacy in that topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example I have the same self-efficacy in two subjects X and Y and sit tests in both. I get more questions right in X than Y, but I get given a higher grade in Y than X. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would my self efficacy be impacted more by the higher grade, or by the higher number of questions I get right. What would be the impact of the grade allocation be on self-efficacy in both subjects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g. Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122-147.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.2.122&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.2.122&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20415" LastEditorUserId="20415" LastEditDate="2018-10-09T08:02:53.417" LastActivityDate="2018-10-09T08:02:53.417" Title="relative achievement reinforcing views on self-efficacy" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20871" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20689" CreationDate="2018-10-08T20:44:22.463" Score="1" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Introduction to my answer&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subject of PTSD and its triggers is huge, and this answer is not an alternative, but &lt;strong&gt;an addition&lt;/strong&gt; to @Fizz's good answer to this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The causes of PTSD @Fizz talked about are through prolonged timeframes of trauma (sensitisation through &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fear conditioning&lt;/a&gt; coming into play over a long period of time). This can involve soldiers who have been in combat situations whereby they have constantly witnessed attrocities, but not necessarily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PTSD can also occur with hypersensitisation caused by a single instance of an initial sensitising event (ISE), again such as a particular event in combat, or through other physical violence with perceived or actual threat to life or physical wellbeing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Desensitisation will be the process involved to resolve the hypersensitisation effects caused by the ISE and subsequent neurological and biological reactions to the ISE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;So to your question in summary&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What determines whether repeated exposure to something sensitizes someone or desensitizes them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sensitisation doesn't just involve trauma leading to fear, but it can involve an ISE, or prolonged exposure to situations which leads to &lt;strong&gt;any irrational emotion&lt;/strong&gt;.  Disgust is one other example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Desensitisation is the complete opposite.  Desensitisation is where an event, or series of events, lowers inhibition towards something which would normally raise feelings of fear, disgust etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;More detail on what I am talking about&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Examples of single instances of ISE&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take a soldier in combat who is under constant heavy gunfire and &amp;quot;hell is raining down on everyone around them&amp;quot;.  Fellow soldiers in their troops are killed in the process, and &lt;strong&gt;maybe&lt;/strong&gt; they have come close themselves.  &lt;strong&gt;Maybe&lt;/strong&gt; they have lost a limb from a mortar bomb explosion.  This can be one ISE which on its own causes PTSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take a man/woman who is threatened with their life and raped at knife/gunpoint.  Again, this ISE alone can cause PTSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Initial Sensitising Events (ISEs)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hypnosisresearchinstitute.org/blog.cfm/2008/6/19/Change-Intial-Sensitizing-Event-and-Hypnosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The science behind ISEs&lt;/a&gt; is as follows&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a therapist I consider not only the how the memory (or gestalt) was encoded during a Initial Sensitizing Event (ISE), but what effect that the event had and has on the person both physiologically and mentally. If the event is traumatic enough to cause stress, the fight and flight defense mechanism will lead to increased cortisol flow, IL-6 fluctuations, and eventual adrenal fatigue. Mentally/Neurologically, dominant &amp;quot;brain maps&amp;quot; may be created, which perpetuate an overactive anterior cingulate (ACG), result in a continual looping (such as in PSTD) and create further mental dysfunction as the ACG will compete for energy resources (hemoglobin and oxygen, specifically).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's have a breakdown of what was said in the quote&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The fight and flight mechanism&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more in depth rundown on this (what I call the 5F response — fright/flight/fight/freeze/fawn) can be found in my answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/17770/understanding-fear-as-a-response-in-classical-conditioning&quot;&gt;Understanding fear as a response in classical conditioning&lt;/a&gt;, but in short, the 5F response is an unconscious reflex to &lt;strong&gt;perceived&lt;/strong&gt; threats, initiated from &lt;strong&gt;Threat → Brain Receiving Signals → Brain Reacts (Fright) → Cortisol and Adrenaline is released → Physical Reactions occur from the release of hormones → Bodily response (Fight, Flight, Freeze or Fawn)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UTm0g.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UTm0g.png&quot; alt=&quot;Fight Flight Response&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response#Reaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Adrenaline and Cortisol Release&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see within the infographic above, the brain initially processes the threat signal in the amygdala and then the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland secretes adrenocortictropic hormone (ACTH) which leads to cortisol and adrenaline release to enable a speedy escape if chosen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;IL-6 (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interleukin_6#Depression_and_major_depressive_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Interleukin 6&lt;/a&gt;) fluctuations&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on the Wikipedia link I provided, the epigenetic effects of IL-6 have been implicated in the pathology of depression. The effects of IL-6 on depression are mediated through the repression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the brain; DNMT1 (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNMT1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase 1&lt;/a&gt;) hypermethylates the BDNF promoter and reduces BDNF levels (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.4161/epi.3.2.6103&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sharma, et al. 2008&lt;/a&gt;). Altered BDNF function has been implicated in depression (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.10.013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hwang, et al. 2006&lt;/a&gt;), which is likely due to epigenetic modification following IL-6 upregulation (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.4161/epi.3.2.6103&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sharma, et al. 2008&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACG)&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ACG is responsible for detecting incongruences between expectation and perceived experience (&lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/30802208/06_Somerville_etal_NatNeuro_9.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1539023800&amp;amp;Signature=GAIYFQAcpFu%2FROSNYRt4MqfVnQI%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DAnterior_cingulate_cortex_responds_diffe.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Somerville, et al. 2006&lt;/a&gt;). Altered connectivity of the anterior cingulate cortex in depression, therefore, may cause altered emotions following certain experiences, leading to depressive reactions (&lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/30802208/06_Somerville_etal_NatNeuro_9.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1539023800&amp;amp;Signature=GAIYFQAcpFu%2FROSNYRt4MqfVnQI%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DAnterior_cingulate_cortex_responds_diffe.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Somerville, et al. 2006&lt;/a&gt;). This altered connectivity is mediated by IL-6 and its effect on epigenetic regulation of BDNF (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.4161/epi.3.2.6103&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sharma, et al. 2008&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Desensitisation&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This will be a slow process.  As @Fizz quoted,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Desensitization is generally described as a process by which the active pairing of a positive reinforcer with a negative event causes the negative event to slowly lose its ability to adversely influence behavior (Chance, P., 2003).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;also called counter-conditioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Desensitisation for PTSD whether caused through trauma over prolonged timeframes or one single instance of ISE, can be obtained through therapy of many different types.  Therapy may also be supported through medication to alleviate symptoms such as anxiety and depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CBT has been the go-to form of therapy within services linked to the program called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nice.org.uk/about/what-we-do/our-programmes/nice-advice/iapt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Improving Access to Psychological Therapies&lt;/a&gt; (IAPT), but it does have &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17325&quot;&gt;its limitations&lt;/a&gt;.  Whatever method of therapy is employed (CBT, REBT, Person Centred Therapy...), the therapy at some point will have to enable the person who is suffering from PTSD to re-evaluate their perceptions of what constitutes a threat to their personal safety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Initially, they will have to look at what startles them (what are their triggers), evaluate where those triggers came from and look at how they can form rational thought patterns when they arise again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example, a veteran of war.  When carying out routine patrols of hostile areas, they will have had to have a constant awareness of their surroundings, assessing who or what could consitute a threat.  Once they are suffering the severe effects of war, they could have a hightened sense of alertness which carries forward into civilian life at home outside of war.  If there is a sound of a car backfiring, in extreme cases, this can lead to a sudden reaction which can leave that person feeling very vulnerable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This war veteran will need to be able to immediately determine that they are not in a hostile situation and in fact the loud bang was just a car backfiring (desensitising against loud bangs to a safe and rational level).  It is likely that these situations (loud bangs) will not be the only trigger, and the others will need identifying and resolving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chance, P. (2003). &lt;em&gt;Learning and behavior&lt;/em&gt;, Fifth Edition. CA:Wadsworth Publishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hwang, J. P., Tsai, S. J., Hong, C. J., Yang, C. H., Lirng, J. F., &amp;amp; Yang, Y. M. (2006). The Val66Met polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic-factor gene is associated with geriatric depression. &lt;em&gt;Neurobiology of aging&lt;/em&gt;, 27(12), 1834-1837. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.10.013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.10.013&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sharma, R. P., Tun, N., &amp;amp; Grayson, D. R. (2008). Depolarization induces downregulation of DNMT1 and DNMT3 in primary cortical cultures. &lt;em&gt;Epigenetics&lt;/em&gt;, 3(2), 74-80. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4161/epi.3.2.6103&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.4161/epi.3.2.6103&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somerville, L. H., Heatherton, T. F., &amp;amp; Kelley, W. M. (2006). Anterior cingulate cortex responds differentially to expectancy violation and social rejection. &lt;em&gt;Nature neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 9(8), 1007. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1728&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/nn1728&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-10-08T20:44:22.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20874" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-09T11:04:00.043" Score="1" ViewCount="916" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is something that has always puzzled me about human behavior on online auction platforms. I am talking about a specific platform where you can sell almost any item you want with a starting bid and a fixed time until the auction ends. People then can place a bid at any time, thus increasing the current price. The current price is always last bid + 0.5 currency. When the auction ends the highest bidder gets the item for the current price, with a percentage going to the platform. E.g. if the starting bid is 1 currency and someone bids 50 currency, the price is at 1.5 currency, until someone else places another bid, e.g. 20 currency, which would push the price to 20.50 currency, with the first bidder still being in the lead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And that's exactly the crux. No one except the highest bidder knows what the highest bid is. People tend to place a bid, see it's not high enough and then increase their own bid in small currency steps, often going beyond what they originally were willing to pay. Also anyone who bids early risks that someone else tries to bid more than them, while when they bid late that chance is reduced, especially because there isn't any time for anyone to bid again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the platform this is good. For sellers this is good. For buyers, not so much. It's super irrational. They just drive the price up by bidding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If buyers would just wait till a few seconds before the auction ends, and then place exactly the highest amount they are willing to pay, the item would sell for less, and they wouldn't be drawn into a bidding war that escalates the amount they are willing to pay. Even if it slightly decreases their chance of getting the item, unless it's a super rare thing there are so many items from different sellers, it would still be rational to behave this way until they succeed on one of the items. If unsuccessful too often, they could then conciously decide to increase the amount they are willing to pay - to adjust to the market price, not escalate in a bidding war.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course the platform wouldn't profit as much then, but I doubt buyers behave this way out of charity for them. So the question is: &lt;strong&gt;Why are people behaving this way?&lt;/strong&gt; Are they really not aware of this? Do they not care? Is bidding to them just &lt;em&gt;fun&lt;/em&gt;? Is this in some way related to gambling?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I have asked this same question a few years ago on a Q&amp;amp;A in my native language, and the unanimous answer was: &lt;em&gt;&quot;Bidding is how that platform works, you obviously don't understand it,&quot;&lt;/em&gt; which leads me to believe that the answer is &lt;em&gt;people really are not aware,&lt;/em&gt; but I don't get &lt;em&gt;why not&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been selling items on a particular platform for over a decade and absolutely profited from this irrational behavior, but at the same time I am so confused by my fellow humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20455" LastActivityDate="2018-10-09T18:55:34.463" Title="Why do people bid on online auctions sooner than a few seconds before it ends?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2018-10-17T08:38:58.097" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20875" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-09T16:36:26.310" Score="2" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have in my circle a person that is a hypochondriac and harbors fears regarding things the person considers me an expert in. So I often get asked questions like: &quot;Can this make me sick?&quot;, &quot;Can it cause cancer used in this or that way?&quot; etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't always know how to react, should I try to placate the person's fear and gloss over certain potentially problematic corner cases, or should I go in-depth and explain every nook and cranny of the topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I usually go down into the weeds and try to explain in detail what would limit exposure and why. Sort of the &quot;teach a person to fish&quot; kind of approach. I consider this the most honest way. &#xA;But it sometimes seems, that all the person wants to hear is: Don't worry about it. Don't do &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;insert-commonly-known-worst-case&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; and you'll be fine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It honors me that I have so much trust put into my words, but sometimes I worry if I am doing the right thing. How can I support the professional treatment for this condition that person is already undergoing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Just to be clear: There is no real substantial danger to the person. The topic is commonly regarded as not entirely clear and sufficiently scary even to the non-diagnosed hypochondriac, but scientifically and morally it is completely ok to say, don't use it too much and don't worry about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20460" LastEditorUserId="20460" LastEditDate="2018-10-09T16:45:33.997" LastActivityDate="2018-10-09T16:45:33.997" Title="Do in-depth explanations help a hypochondriac?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20876" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20874" CreationDate="2018-10-09T18:55:34.463" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;One advantage of auctions, to the seller, is that buyers can get caught up in bidding wars and spend more than they intended to.  Any auction platform that gets paid by what the auction takes in is going to want or hope for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume you're referring to eBay-style auctions.  eBay encourages bidding frenzies.  If you bid on an item and are outbid, they will notify you and encourage you to bid more.  As the auction draws to a close, they will notify bidders who aren't currently in the lead.  They're hoping at least some bidders will think bidding is fun, and will think of winning the auction as succeeding.  The thrill may be that of gambling or similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't see any advantage in waiting for the last few seconds.  I decide how much I'm willing to pay for something, and enter that amount whenever.  The only way someone will find out how much I bid is to outbid me, and then I don't want to win the auction.  Trying to time my bid for the end of the auction would sometimes be very inconvenient.  If there's going to be a bidding frenzy at the end, the price will either go over mine or not, and I think it very unlikely that when I bid makes much difference in that.  It should be clear that I don't think bidding by itself is fun, and that I don't want to win the auction by paying more for an item than I value it, which as you've seen isn't the universal approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19970" LastActivityDate="2018-10-09T18:55:34.463" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20879" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-10T14:14:21.007" Score="4" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies, which shows that High IQ people are good or average or bad in problem solving/other professions? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Need to know that High IQ correlates to very good problem solving skills or not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20464" LastActivityDate="2018-10-10T14:14:21.007" Title="High IQ and problem solving" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;&lt;chess&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20882" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20868" CreationDate="2018-10-10T15:32:12.783" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like two measurements are needed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;em&gt;Perception of competence&lt;/em&gt;. This could be measured using self-report for large studies, or semi-structured interviews for individuals or small samples. For example, individuals could use semantic differential scales to rate global or specific aspects of quality at characteristics or tasks that are key to that activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;em&gt;Objective measurement of competence&lt;/em&gt;. This will be specific to the domain. I work in science, and there are increasing (although flawed) metrics to measure quality such as the H-index for publishing impact. One could also use a basket of other measures, and they could include subjective input like peer ratings. Similar studies have been run in personality psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an individual, it would be difficult to know whether an observed difference between 1) and 2) is meaningful (e.g., not due to chance). This would be easier in populations, where two distributions could be compared using a method like correlation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a less methodological note, many beliefs about the self are not strictly accurate. A general summary is that most beliefs about the self are MORE positive than they should be: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority&lt;/a&gt; However, people seem to underrate their abilities for rare tasks: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worse-than-average_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worse-than-average_effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The original post mentioned scamming others into a belief. Keep in mind that some qualities don't have precise scientific content, or are defined in a huge amount of conflicting ways (e.g., &quot;leadership&quot;), and so it would be difficult to objectively verify. That is, the imposter syndrome will be easier to verify for specific, concrete tasks and well-studied abilities (including intelligence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-10-10T15:32:12.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20884" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20914" CreationDate="2018-10-10T19:33:48.330" Score="2" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have just finished reading 'Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain' 3rd Edition, Bear et al. I am also planning on pursuing a neuroscience degree beginning fall 2019 and was wondering what other reading material I could use in preparation for such a degree. More specifically, I'm interested in computational neuroscience. What series of books is recommended to read for someone in my situation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20473" LastActivityDate="2018-10-14T01:44:59.513" Title="Reading material for graduate neuroscience program" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20887" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-11T07:03:32.263" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are people who react badly(paranoia/more severe anxiety) to weed/THC at risk for damaging effects to the brain compared to the general population? &#xA;  Does a certain type of brain chemistry/neuro disease get exacerbated from heavy THC usage contributing to substantial damage that is other wise not a problem? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apparently an one of my dad's uncle had some condition that was worsened by weed and essentially retarded him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11066" LastEditorUserId="11066" LastEditDate="2018-10-11T07:11:53.983" LastActivityDate="2018-10-11T07:11:53.983" Title="THC and the Brain damage" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20888" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-11T09:46:50.763" Score="4" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm teaching evidence-based practice and implementation science to midwifery students, i.e. how to evaluate research findings e.g. regarding new therapies and diagnostics and how to plan the implementation of new procedures into clinical practice. The question of how new procedures/guidelines can be implemented most successfully into an organization is obviously pretty complex and depends e.g. on the willingness of the co-workers to change their behaviour, but also on the organizational culture, leaders etc. Several models exist how implementations should be planned or evaluated (&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2014.11.012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Williams et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;), but I feel like the field is not very advanced in terms of theory building and the possibility to predict the success of implementation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume there exist a lot of similarities to 'implementation science' or whatever it is called in organizational psychology, i.e. I assume that there exists also research on how to implement new procedures/guidelines in private companies etc. What is a good starting point/literature review for this kind of research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Williams, B., Perillo, S., &amp;amp; Brown, T. (2015). &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2014.11.012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What are the factors of organisational culture in health care settings that act as barriers to the implementation of evidence-based practice? A scoping review.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Nurse education today, 35&lt;/em&gt;(2), e34-e41.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20480" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-10-11T13:59:17.023" LastActivityDate="2018-10-11T13:59:17.023" Title="Implementing new procedures / guidelines in companies" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20889" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20867" CreationDate="2018-10-11T12:14:23.707" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Its all in the experience. Lets say we are studying 6 subjects in school, there is a high chance that we are going to dislike some of them. No one excels in everything they come across. Its a blessing in disguise if you think about it. Its a way for our minds to filter what comes natural to us and what doesn't. I for one can totally relate with your example. Our mind is just not that good at working hard. When we are doing something that we love, we are not actually &quot;working&quot; or &quot;trying&quot;. We just do it hours after hours and keep indulging in that activity days after days, just because it feels natural and our mind doesn't have to work that hard on it. Past experience makes a huge difference too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20259" LastActivityDate="2018-10-11T12:14:23.707" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20890" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20850" CreationDate="2018-10-11T14:00:02.477" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The state of the art in EMDR research (if not yet in practice) supports a &quot;working memory&quot; (WM) explanation of the therapy that does not support earlier &quot;bilateral stimulation&quot; hypotheses of the method.  A particularly salient summary from M.A. van den Hout et al. in &lt;em&gt;Behaviour Research and Therapy&lt;/em&gt; 49 (2011) p.93:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Traditionally, during EMDR, eyes are moved horizontally. In line with&#xA;  the WM account, but in contrast to original explanations, moving eyes&#xA;  vertically is equally effective (Gunter &amp;amp; Bodner, 2008). Crucially,&#xA;  the same effects occur if WM is taxed during recall with&#xA;  non-eye-movement secondary tasks, like listening to a series of&#xA;  non-words (auditory shadowing; Gunter &amp;amp; Bodner, 2008), drawing a&#xA;  complex figure (Gunter &amp;amp; Bodner, 2008), or counting (Engelhard, van&#xA;  den Hout, &amp;amp; Smeets, 2011; van den Hout et al., 2010; Kemps &amp;amp; Tiggemann,&#xA;  2007). Tasks that are presumably hardly taxing, like simple finger&#xA;  tapping, do not have beneficial effects (van den Hout et al., 2001),&#xA;  while more complex tapping does (Andrade et al., 1997). Likewise,&#xA;  activating memories about a previously seen trauma film while playing&#xA;  taxing computer game reduced flashbacks in the week afterwards&#xA;  (Holmes, James, Coode-Bate, &amp;amp; Deeprose, 2009).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was backed up by correspondence with one of the authors who confirmed that in all their research protocols going back to at least 2000 research subjects &lt;em&gt;must&lt;/em&gt; keep their eyes open so the researchers can confirm compliance.  They have no evidence this reduces the effectiveness.  In fact, the WM model suggests this should &lt;em&gt;improve&lt;/em&gt; the effectiveness of the therapy vs. allowing subjects to close their eyes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19439" LastActivityDate="2018-10-11T14:00:02.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20892" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19236" CreationDate="2018-10-11T22:10:43.373" Score="0" Body="&lt;h1&gt;50 min&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The 50-minute hour was introduced by Freud for pragmatic reasons.&amp;quot; (Will, 2015)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Try organizing your work day in 67 minute segments. You'll have a hard time understanding where you are within a given segment when you look at a watch. If you organize your work day in 60 minute segments, the hand of the clock immediately shows you how much time you have left with your current patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A therapy session does not last a full hour to give the patient time to leave and the therapist time to answer calls, visit the restroom, and prepare himself mentally for the next patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recent therapy forms have introduced 45 minute sessions (to give the therapist more time for documentation), 90 minute sessions (for group therapy), 30 minute sessions (in hospital contexts), and open sessions without a fixed time span, but all irregular session lengths only work in contexts where the therapist does not treat one patient after another for the whole day each day, as a therapist does in a private practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One hour sessions are the most practical in a world where clocks are divided into hours and people think of time in hourly divisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;weekly&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Try to make appointments with patients every four days. You'll find that they will have huge organisational difficulties, because their workplace and their pivate lives are organized in weeks. Try to tell your boss that you need to leave an hour early every four days. It'll be much easier to convince him to leave one hour earlier every Friday.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the truth is that psychoanalysis requires a frequency of around four sessions per week, and even behavioural therapies often begin with two sessions per week and later reduce the frequency to as far as quarterly visits. Weekly sessions are common, but not in fact the only practice. Frequency is always attuned to the needs of the patient (or should be). In a psychiatric ward patients may have different kinds of psychotherapy multiple times every day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;pace&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Behavioral change takes time. Habits – and most problematic behaviour are a kind of &amp;quot;bad&amp;quot; habit – are stored as neuronal structures, and forcing your brain to disconnect a few thousand synapses and connect your neurons differently cannot be done in 25 consecutive hours, especially if the behaviour change is opposed by beliefs (many patients firmly believe that they cannot change), fears (many psychological disorders are in fact easy solutions to difficult problems), and the environment (often the people in the patient's life &amp;quot;support&amp;quot; their psychological problems through their behavior). It's much easier to stop smoking than to stop being depressed because you were sexually abused as a child – and most smokers who want to stop don't even manage that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Will, H. Forum Psychoanal (2015) 31: 267. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00451-015-0208-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00451-015-0208-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20482" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-10-11T22:10:43.373" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20893" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20867" CreationDate="2018-10-11T22:34:04.477" Score="3" Body="&lt;h1&gt;1&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some relation between what we are interested in and what we are good at. If people are bad at something, they usually lose interest in it and turn to other things. If you are good at something, you enjoy doing it and are &lt;em&gt;interested&lt;/em&gt; in it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interest, therefore, is a preditor of ability, and you are better at learning things that you can do, than you are at learning things that you cannot learn to do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;2&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning requires time, attention, and effort. If you are interested in something, you will (want to) spend more time, attention, and effort on it. If you aren't interested in something, you'll find every minute of it unpleasant, so you will limit the time you spend with it, not be as attentive, and not labour as hard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will also not think about it while you are not learning, you won't connect it to other interests and activities, and so on. In short, you won't &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;elaborate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a psychological theory, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_likelihood_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;elaboration likelihood model&lt;/a&gt;, that says that the processing of information will be more superficial when the motivation to process the information is low.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;3&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Doing something interesting is pleasurable, and everything in your mind and body works better if you are in a good mood. Hormones such as oxytocin, whose levels are higher when you are &amp;quot;happy&amp;quot; (and free of negative stress), have a positive effect on memory formation and retention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20483" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-10-11T22:34:04.477" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20894" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-11T23:05:38.307" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently doing a research in the attempt to detect onset sign of mental disorders through facial recognition. In order to do that, I would need training dataset which contains 1. Pictures 2. Diagnosis. Are there any open datasets that I could find/apply to? Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20484" LastActivityDate="2018-10-11T23:05:38.307" Title="Where can I find Data set for Machine Learning purposes?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;sampling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20897" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-12T06:22:41.043" Score="2" ViewCount="804" Body="&lt;p&gt;Okay, I have read &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8191/whats-the-difference-between-a-mental-disorder-and-a-bad-personality-trait&quot;&gt;this question and 2 answers&lt;/a&gt; and I don't believe these are the same questions.  It's not about legal status or the moral appropriateness of punishment by society.  And it's not about the neural basis of volition (and how that can get messed up, physically), I don't think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's more like why isn't some personality disorder (like narcissistic or borderline) simply considered a character flaw?  Like: that narcissist is arrogant and conceited and brags because he wants to be and likes it.  Or: that borderline is demanding and manipulative and hateful because she wants to be and it serves her.  So that is the first question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second question is how to relate with these troubled persons? When does one hold the other personally accountable for their decisions and actions and when does one go into treatment mode as a caregiver would a patient or a dependent loved one?  Caregiver is flawed human being with their own issues and not professional in any field related to psychology or mental health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, outside the domain of the law and criminal responsibility, how should a regular &quot;civilian&quot; or &quot;layperson&quot; relate to persons (immediate family, extended family, coworker, friend or acquaintance) with NPD or BPD?  When should a person treat the NPD or BPD as a selfish asshole (with moral judgement and sometimes disdain) and when as a sick or weak person that is perhaps just very needy (and/or difficult)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20488" LastActivityDate="2020-08-10T21:54:44.800" Title="What's the difference between flaws of character and a personality disorder?" Tags="&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20898" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20899" CreationDate="2018-10-12T06:55:58.780" Score="0" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am Computer Science student and studying Psychology as an elective. Now I was required to conduct a research on any topic. I chose: Negative Effects of Permissive Parenting Style on Youth of Pakistan. I am having difficulty in making Questionnaire (since I have very little experience about it). I want your expertise to know which approach is better. I have following two approaches of making questionnaire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First Approach:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Topic: Negative Effects of Permissive Parenting Style on Youth of Pakistan&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1-Do you think that permissive parenting style has negative effects on Pakistani youth?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2-Would you like to adopt permissive parenting style if you happen to become a parent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3-Do you think that permissive parenting is one of the reasons that Pakistani youth lacks self-discipline?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4-Do you think that the element of not listening to anyone, in Pakistani youth is because of their brought up by permissive parents?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5-Do you think that students of universities in Pakistan do not perform well in academics because they are not afraid of their parents' reaction on getting failed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;6-Do you think that parents should be friendly enough, so that their children do not hesitate to share any problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;7-Do you think that in Pakistan, permissive parenting should be encouraged?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;8-Do you think that blurred line between parents and children leads to domestic conflicts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;9-Do you think that children become creative in a restriction free environment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;10-Do you think that permissive parenting makes relationship with children conflict-free?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;11-Do you think that youth of Pakistan do not abide by rules because they are not enforced by any rule under the permissive environment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;12-Do you think that, in Pakistan, drugs is more often among the youngesters having permissive parents?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;13-Do you think that the parents being soft spoken, builds strong emotional understanding in children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;14-Do you think that under permissive environment, children will lack decision-making skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;15-Do you think that friendly environment in home teaches children social skills?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second Approach: What do you think about the following statements?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;⦁ Your parent really expect you to follow family rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;⦁ Your parent try to know where you go at night.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;⦁ Your parent know exactly where you are most afternoons after school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;⦁ When your parent tell you to do something, they expect you to do it immediately without any question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;⦁ Your parent get very upset if you try to disagree with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;⦁ It is a bad idea to question authority.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;⦁ A person must have clear long term goals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;⦁ You would rather do something beside studying during extra time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;⦁ If you like something, you want to have it no matter what.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;⦁ You have a healthy diet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first approach, direct questions with binary options are given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the second approach, first 5 questions are used to depict whether the subject is permissive or not. Next five questions are used to know what are the effects on permissive parenting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20487" LastActivityDate="2018-10-13T14:15:15.977" Title="Psychology Research, Questionnaire Help Needed" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20899" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20898" CreationDate="2018-10-12T08:19:47.800" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You said in your comments&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;my goal of research is to figure out actual possible effects. In second approach, effects are being tried to figure out from the audience. While in first approach, direct questions mentioning effects with binary options are asked. I think in that case, second approach is better. What would you have chosen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Opinion-based questions are off-topic here as we require questions which can be answered based on science rather than what individuals &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; is correct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to answer your question without opinion being involved, I am going to have to reflect it back to you in order for you to be able to determine the best approach &lt;strong&gt;for your needs&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, you need to ask yourself&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How can I work out the possible effects of permissive parenting via a questionnaire?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once you have your answer to that question you are almost there on deciding how your are going to approach the questions within the questionnaire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look at the questions in the first approach, with the exception of question 2, they all start with&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do you think....?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These questions are looking for your audiences opinion on permissive parenting.  You need to ask yourself if you can gain knowledge of the &lt;strong&gt;actual&lt;/strong&gt; effects of permissive parenting from these questions.  If you can, then great.  Go down that route and devise a list of questions which can give you the results.  If not, then look at another approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your second approach looks at what kind of parenting your audience may have had and then looks at their opinion on a range of things.  Will their opinion-based answers in the second half give you what you need to determine the possible effects of the parenting style they were brought up on?  If so, then that is the approach you need with your questionnaire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-10-12T08:19:47.800" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20901" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18446" CreationDate="2018-10-12T09:52:51.693" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In order to incentivize the desired behavior for your first point, you can do the following.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If the group that comes out second, gave the lowest (possible) grade to the group that came out first, the punishment is at follows &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;specify punishment here&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;. An alternative condition would be: If the first group received the lowest grading from the second group. This is more stricter, but also fairer. Maybe add some tolerance (e.g. 1 grade divergence is okay).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could try the same strategy for the second point, but that won't work. If the groups can't vote for themselves (as a group) and if we assume that the end result is a somewhat objective representation of the performance, the last group would give the second to last group the lowest grade. You could try the alternative of the first approach, though: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If the last group received, the worst grade from the second to last group and if that grade diverges by more than 1, then &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;specify punishment here&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, you could introduce this rule for all the ranks. First and second place, second and third, etc. But the groups would need more time then, also this assumes the performances of the groups vary to such extent that it is indeed possible to subjectively rank them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to have the groups assess them themselves, you could introduce a finite number of grades or classifications (e.g. top performer, medium performer). If the grades/classification can only be awarded a fixed amount of times, each participant will have a unique rank (relative to that group). The grade will probably not compare to group members of other groups (maybe if you weigh it with the group grade). It is possible to limit the number of possible grades to number of group members, or limit it to 2 or 3 (top, medium, bottom) and have multiple grading rounds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14558" LastActivityDate="2018-10-12T09:52:51.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20904" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20897" CreationDate="2018-10-13T02:40:20.460" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A personality flaw can be a trait or behaviour that is conscious and the person usually has control over it, whereas a personality disorder is a long enduring pattern of defensive behavior that lies outside of the persons control, because they are not are not aware of it. &#xA;A person with Borderline Personality Disorder will use splitting and projection to discharge bad feelings within themselves by seeing others as bad, uncaring or mean. While other times they will cling to relationships when the project the are good and loving.&#xA;A personality disorder consists of a long enduring pattern of behaviour, whereby the person has a distorted image of themselves and others, causing interpersonal difficutlites, which they have no conscious awareness about. A flaw means you can do something about it and it is less self-debilitating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counsellingservicemelbourne.com.au/personality-disorder-treatment/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.counsellingservicemelbourne.com.au/personality-disorder-treatment/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;www.counsellinginperth.com.au/personality-disorders/&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counsellingservicemelbourne.com.au/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.counsellingservicemelbourne.com.au/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20498" LastActivityDate="2018-10-13T02:40:20.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20905" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-13T07:40:38.130" Score="1" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since the generation of thoughts requires the coordination of various parts of the brain, how does the brain know which parts to activate to develop unique ideas? Does the brain randomly activate its various regions until it happens upon a unique thought? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the creation of unique, original, and creative ideas a function of the brain alone, or does the brain require an outside stimulus to engender creative or unique thinking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many instances of great thinkers arriving at groundbreaking ideas from mere observation of nature and society. For example, Einstein developed his equivalence principle by thinking about elevators (mundane, everyday machines).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in summary, does the brain need outside stimulation to think imaginatively, and how does the brain coordinate its different parts to generate unique ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20499" LastActivityDate="2018-10-13T14:24:37.557" Title="How does the brain create original thoughts?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-10-18T21:26:57.310" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20907" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20898" CreationDate="2018-10-13T14:15:15.977" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Questionnaries are usually created in the following way:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Experts come up with a series of questions based on their expert familiarity with the area they want to study (e.g. a group of therapists with long years of treating depressed persons sit together and consider which questions best reflect the symptoms their patients have shown), based on theories of the area (e.g. theories of what depressions is and how it affects those that suffer from it), and based on existing instruments (e.g. other questionnaires or measurements of depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The questions are then presented to a test group (e.g. patients with depression and healthy persons) and the results are compared to the results from existing measurements, to see how they compare.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_component_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A principal component analysis&lt;/a&gt; and other statistical analyses are conducted to find out whether some of the questions measure exactly the same aspect and can be deleted, whether it is a unified construct or consists of several subscales, and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The questionnaire is revised according to the results of the test runs and a representative sample of the population is tested to create &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normalization_(statistics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;norms&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The test is published and applied by other experts and reviews are published. Criticism is incorporated in revised editions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;tl;dr&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is impossible for anyone to say which of your two approaches is better without testing your questionnaire and verifying whether it measures what it is supposed to measure, e.g. by comparing results to those from existing instruments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20503" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-10-13T14:15:15.977" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20908" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20905" CreationDate="2018-10-13T14:24:37.557" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;To understand how the brain &quot;knows&quot; what to do, we can look at how children learn language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At first, children randomly create all kinds of sounds, including those that aren't part of the language(s) spoken in their environment. Parents and other people react to these sounds, repeating them, speaking their language, smiling, etc., and the children in turn react to these reactions to their sounds, learning which sound elicit which reactions (e.g. which sounds lead to a smile, which sounds are ignored, etc.), until they slowly begin to build a repertoire of sound and &quot;pre-words&quot; which give the most pleasurable results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With time, children learn to recognize parts of the language spoken in their environment and begin to emulate these sounds, learning their first words, and eventually to speak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what we have here is a brain creating random behavior (in this case with the speaking apparatus), and learning from the effects this behavior elicits in the environment which behavior leads to the desired results. Whatever happens in the brain when a desired result is achieved, is stored as the &quot;internal behavior of the brain&quot; to do to achive that result, e.g. what to say to get that ball.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20504" LastActivityDate="2018-10-13T14:24:37.557" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20910" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20897" CreationDate="2018-10-13T14:36:40.420" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a clear definition of what a personality disorder is. The Wikipedia article on Personality Disorders lists the criteria given in the DSM-5 and ICD-10. Take a look: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you don't understand those definitions, please edit your question accordingly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20506" LastActivityDate="2018-10-13T14:36:40.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20912" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-13T16:46:11.873" Score="6" ViewCount="309" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wanted to ask this question for a long time but couldnt find any thing to support my argument. Today i found this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talk/anil_seth_how_your_brain_hallucinates_your_conscious_reality#t-694887&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ted.com/talk/anil_seth_how_your_brain_hallucinates_your_conscious_reality#t-694887&lt;/a&gt;, where the speaker Anil seth  theoretize that our reality is just a hallucination. Exchange of information happens both ways inside and outside, i.e, we not only perceive the world around us but also actively generates it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perception is an active constructive process. To summarise, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hallucination is uncontrolled perception, then &#xA;Perception is controlled hallucination.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, If thats the case then how two people would agree on the same state of world?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20509" LastEditorUserId="2890" LastEditDate="2018-10-16T17:46:18.987" LastActivityDate="2020-07-28T13:37:18.877" Title="If reality is just hallucination, how come different people see same objects" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20914" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20884" CreationDate="2018-10-14T01:44:59.513" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's a rapidly developing field, so that some areas are incredibly well represented in the books to the point of being standard - like the neuronal dynamics (e.g. by Paninski, Naud, Kistner, Gerstner or e.g. by Izhikevich), some less, like neural coding (e.g. by Doia, Ishii, Pouget, Rao) and vision (e.g. by Rolls, Deco), some almost aren't, like motor control(?) or neuroanatomy(?), and some has yet to generate sufficient volume of theoretical work explaining  experimental data (before it can start condensating in textbooks), like. Maybe try &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trappenberg - Fundamentals of Computational Neuroscience 2ed&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's pedagogically sound, yet not exhaustive nor particularly long to get through. This will help to have an initial overview of some topics, and build some taste for further reading interest (as the book really tries hard to give you a primer on a variety of topics and methods, and gives references). It has some code examples that you may rewrite in you favorite language. In addition, you may benefit from free browsing of Scholarpedia for reviews written by active researchers, and form your own idea of what &quot;Computational Neuroscience&quot; is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3565" LastActivityDate="2018-10-14T01:44:59.513" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17738" CreationDate="2018-10-14T03:16:37.380" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You'd need to &quot;shut down arousal&quot; to give a causal dissociation of arousal and memory reactivation, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;E.g.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3174240/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3174240/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then you'd need to define what do you mean by &quot;memory activation&quot;, physiologically, and record there simultaneously with the above. This will introduce additional difficulty in a mouse due to its small size, -- depending on where do you want to record when looking for &quot;memory activation&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, you may try using a simpler to implement EEG screw to get the oscillations &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5802558/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5802558/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the above link is for a rat, and you'd have to confirm in the literature that you can get the gamma through an EEG screw in a mouse. Also consider that in conjunction with your search for the area where you want to record the gamma.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5333145/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5333145/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which itself is tied to the experimental design (task) that captures &quot;memory activation&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During training, and for validation you may employ a proxy for arousal in a form of pupil dilation. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3612940/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3612940/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;There you again need to confirm  if someone has successfully used this measure in a mouse (the link is for humans, and it's possible in rats too).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3565" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-10-19T08:59:06.570" LastActivityDate="2018-10-19T08:59:06.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17318" CreationDate="2018-10-14T05:24:50.967" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The current in the cells is ionic, and the electron motion is negligible. Yes, the increase of membrane potential to the specific threshold causes changes in the channels, which causes a spike. Let's look in more detail how to get to that threshold, before which the channels are closed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In depolarization, the membrane potential is increased, where membrane potential is a difference between voltage inside the cell and the voltage outside the cell (let's follow this convention). In the simplest case of extracellular DC microstimulation with a monopolar cathode, this would be a result of a decrease of extracellular voltage, and an increase of intracellular voltage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The passing current on the electrode is negative, this decreases the (extracellular) voltage, but with having less decrease further away from the electrode tip. Thus, it depends on a distance to the cell - if the cell is too far, then the current may identically affect both extracellular and intracellular voltages, without sufficiently affecting their difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the closer distance, however, we should also consider the resistance of the membrane. If it's so large that intracellular voltage is not directly affected by the current, we would still get different extracellular voltages at different sides around the cell (because voltage change is distance dependant as mentioned above, and the cell might be also sufficiently big). At different parts of membrane, the extracellular voltage would be different, but intracellular stay the same. The membrane will attempt to equilibrate, and increase it's intracellular voltage to average out the membrane potential that was made different at different sides by current application.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, with little membrane resistance, both the extracellular and intracellular voltages will change almost identically without needed affect on their difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus for a given current and a given distance(and a given cell size), we need &quot;the right&quot; membrane resistance so that the change provided by the current application is different extracellularly vs intracellularly. There should be a spatial gradient in extracellular voltage, but also a smaller spatial gradient in intracellular voltage. Then one part of membrane would be be depolarized, and another - hyperpolarized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is little gradient in intracellular voltage, even if with significant gradient in extracellular voltage, the resulting membrane potential will not be sufficiently different across membrane.  Since in practice we can control the current, and not the membrane size, resistance and distance to it - we want control for not having too much current (otherwise we'll have too little intracellular gradient because of current flow through the cell plasma), and not too little current (because of lack of current flow due to high resistance).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3565" LastEditorUserId="3565" LastEditDate="2018-10-14T05:49:26.640" LastActivityDate="2018-10-14T05:49:26.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20922" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24014" CreationDate="2018-10-15T08:12:45.167" Score="1" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;how to train our brain to always use left part for thinking &amp;amp; deciding things?&#xA;How do I not take emotional decisions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gb4WU.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gb4WU.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14690" LastEditorUserId="14690" LastEditDate="2018-10-16T06:31:26.207" LastActivityDate="2019-09-06T02:08:19.307" Title="how to train our brain to always use left part for thinking &amp; deciding things?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20923" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-15T09:47:16.947" Score="3" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;The amplitudes of motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) are often recorded as a measure of (change in) cortical excitability, after administering some form of non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS). In a typical scenario, magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used to deliver pulses to the motor cortex, and MEPs are recorded from e.g. the index finger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has never been clear to me why MEPs can not also be recorded in response to other forms of NIBS that also modulate cortical excitability, most notably electrical stimulation (tDCS). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2018.00469/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; paper seems to state this axiomatically, without really giving a reason:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Compared with tDCS, TMS provides a better spatial resolution; when&#xA;  used over the motor cortex, it also allows the quantiﬁcation of&#xA;  motor-evoked potentials (MEPs), a measure of the excitability of the&#xA;  motor system, which tDCS does not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any thoughts as to why it is that MEPs are not also prompted by tDCS?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastActivityDate="2018-10-15T16:49:27.140" Title="Recording motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) in response to transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)?" Tags="&lt;motor&gt;&lt;tdcs&gt;&lt;tms&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20925" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20923" CreationDate="2018-10-15T16:49:27.140" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Compared to TMS which is usually brief and high-intensity, tDCS stimulation protocols are fairly weak and long-duration. This protocol doesn't elicit MEPs by itself, because you need a stronger stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some studies (see references below), tDCS has been shown to modulate MEPs, but it is probed by using TMS to elicit the MEP, and comparing the evoked MEPs with and without tDCS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mechanistic idea is that tDCS is modulating neuronal thresholds, but you still need some sort of a &quot;kick&quot; to actually evoke a MEP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nitsche, M. A., &amp;amp; Paulus, W. (2000). Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation. The Journal of physiology, 527(3), 633-639.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nitsche, M. A., &amp;amp; Paulus, W. (2001). Sustained excitability elevations induced by transcranial DC motor cortex stimulation in humans. Neurology, 57(10), 1899-1901.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nitsche, M. A., Fricke, K., Henschke, U., Schlitterlau, A., Liebetanz, D., Lang, N., ... &amp;amp; Paulus, W. (2003). Pharmacological modulation of cortical excitability shifts induced by transcranial direct current stimulation in humans. The Journal of physiology, 553(1), 293-301.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-10-15T16:49:27.140" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20927" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20928" CreationDate="2018-10-15T20:02:37.017" Score="2" ViewCount="235" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the measurement have to be subconscious?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can measurement such as eye-tracking be counted as physiological measurement? (I thought it is because of its relatively subconscious nature until I saw &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.slideshare.net/InsideScientific/integrating-eye-tracking-data-with-physiological-measurements&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20522" LastActivityDate="2018-10-15T20:27:45.227" Title="How is the term &quot;physiological measurement&quot; defined?" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20928" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20927" CreationDate="2018-10-15T20:27:45.227" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Physiology&lt;/a&gt; is a very broad term that includes neuroscience:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Physiology is the scientific study of the functions and mechanisms&#xA;  which work within a living system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within the cognitive sciences, physiology typically refers to non-behavioral inputs and outputs of the nervous system (including parts of the brain), but &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysiology#Measures&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;physiological measures&lt;/a&gt; may include behavior:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Physiological responses also can be measured via instruments that read&#xA;  bodily events such as heart rate change, electrodermal activity (EDA),&#xA;  muscle tension, and cardiac output. Many indices are part of modern&#xA;  psychophysiology, including brain waves (electroencephalography, EEG),&#xA;  fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), electrodermal activity&#xA;  (a standardized term encompassing skin conductance response, SCR, and&#xA;  galvanic skin response, GSR), cardiovascular measures (heart rate, HR;&#xA;  beats per minute, BPM; heart rate variability, HRV; vasomotor&#xA;  activity), muscle activity (electromyography, EMG), electrogastrogram&#xA;  (EGG) changes in pupil diameter with thought and emotion&#xA;  (pupillometry), &lt;strong&gt;eye movements, recorded via the electro-oculogram&#xA;  (EOG) and direction-of-gaze methods&lt;/strong&gt;, and cardiodynamics, recorded via&#xA;  impedance cardiography.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-10-15T20:27:45.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20929" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20912" CreationDate="2018-10-16T11:35:07.487" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;code&gt;Anil Seth&lt;/code&gt;, in this talk, consciousness is an active construction process. In that view, for the subject to have an experience about world, physical signals from mind independent objects are processed by brain and a highly probabilistic mental content of the physical is experienced. Even though I mentioned objects, it could be material things and features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But our sensory abilities are not inherently cable of perceiving everything. The range of vision is &lt;code&gt;360-400 to 760-830nm&lt;/code&gt;. Similarly, for audition its &lt;code&gt;20Hz to 20,000Hz&lt;/code&gt;. There are other phenomena like aftereffects and adaptations, which too work along with perception. The information thus processed by sensory faculty is further compared with prior data that is stored in the brain and brain tries to come up with a decent construction of mind-independent objects. This experience can be called a controlled hallucination as there are other possibilities for such construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general organization and working pattern of typically developing humans brains are very similar, especially in the early processing of sensory signals. Similarly, the physical signals that it processes of mind-independent objects are also very similar. Given these two, it is highly likely that two people have similar experience, even though we cannot confirm it and can only say that we share a human like experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-problem/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_perception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2888317/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2888317/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4763133/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4763133/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2890" LastEditorUserId="2890" LastEditDate="2020-07-28T13:37:18.877" LastActivityDate="2020-07-28T13:37:18.877" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20930" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20912" CreationDate="2018-10-16T14:11:39.207" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Additionally, active construction of reality doesn't mean there are basic objective  reality. Usually our mind uses similar mechanisms to understand this basic reality.  our byological makeup, psychological processes and broad social context provides us basic assumptions, and other tools to understand what is going on in the world. usually what we perceive is outcome of our interpertation of that basic reality by byological psychological, social tools. We might see world differently Because of our byological, psychological social differences. However, those differences are not so big that we can not understand each other.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Referenses:&#xA; Burr, V. (2006). An introduction to social constructionism. Routledge.&#xA;Raskin, J. D. (2002). Constructivism in psychology: Personal construct psychology, radical constructivism, and social constructionism. American communication journal, 5(3), 1-25.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19165" LastActivityDate="2018-10-16T14:11:39.207" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20931" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-16T17:23:39.750" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/078177327X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaplan and Sadock's synopsis of psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clozapine. Clozapine (Clozaril) levels are trough levels determined in&#xA;  the morning before administration of the morning dose of medication. A&#xA;  therapeutic range for clozapine has not been established; however, a&#xA;  level of 100 mg/mL is widely considered to be the minimum therapeutic&#xA;  threshold. At least 350 mg/mL of clozapine is considered to be&#xA;  necessary to achieve therapeutic response in patients with refractory&#xA;  schizophrenia. The likelihood of seizures and other side effects&#xA;  increases with clozapine levels greater than 1,200 mg/mL or doses&#xA;  greater than 600 mg per day or both. Clozapine is a common cause of a&#xA;  leukopenia in psychiatry. When moderate to severe leucopenia develops,&#xA;  clozapine treatment must be interrupted, but patients may be retreated&#xA;  with clozapine in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is &quot;mL&quot; here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Sadock, B. J., &amp;amp; Sadock, V. A. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/078177327X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaplan and Sadock's synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry.&lt;/a&gt; Lippincott Williams &amp;amp; Wilkins.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20533" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-10-23T10:42:34.510" LastActivityDate="2018-10-23T10:42:34.510" Title="Unknown unit/mL" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;pharmacopsychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20933" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20931" CreationDate="2018-10-16T21:15:17.810" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;(edit, actually found the book text on Google books and paid a bit more attention to the context; the book is Kaplan &amp;amp; Sadock's Concise Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry by Sadock, Sadock, and Ruiz, and you can find the specific passage by &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=-PbZDQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PT95&amp;amp;lpg=PT95&amp;amp;dq=&amp;quot;levels+are+trough+levels+determined+in+the+morning+before+administration+of+the+morning+dose+of+medication&amp;quot;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;searching for the quoted text&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This book is talking about plasma concentrations of drugs. Based on the actual plasma concentrations for clozapine  with typical doses, this looks like just an error or typo: mL means milliliters, but these numbers would be more appropriate if they were in &lt;em&gt;nanograms&lt;/em&gt; rather than milligrams, milligrams is several orders of magnitude too high and well beyond the solubility of clozapine in water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-10-22T16:27:58.027" LastActivityDate="2018-10-22T16:27:58.027" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5634" CreationDate="2018-10-17T02:40:35.780" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wanted to comment on @Ana answer but I don't have the reputation. I wanted to add to her answer by adding that if you are doing a literature review on this topic the terms target-locked, stimulus-locked and cue-locked are often used interchangeably. Example of components that are extracted from this form of locking is the N2 and P3. Whereas the two most common response-locked ERP components are the ERN (Gehring et al 1993) and Pe. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also wanted to add that the majority of EEG systems (such as the dense array electroencephalographs from EGI) will take very precise measurements on when the stimulus is presented. Ergo, depending on the component you are trying to evaluate you will lock to either the stimulus or the response. &#xA;When these programs get out of sync it can be an absolute nightmare to find the source of the minute error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20539" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-10-17T08:34:39.673" LastActivityDate="2018-10-17T08:34:39.673" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20937" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="2029" CreationDate="2018-10-17T09:41:42.470" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is research showing that Black Cab taxi drivers while training with 'the knowledge' (2 months on a moped with an A-Z, learning every road/route in London) grew larger areas of brain grey matter concerned with memory. Therefore it cannot be fixed and fillable, neuroplasticity will grow more where required. Although this is not the reference I was referring to above, it is on the same lines. &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/hipo.20233&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/hipo.20233&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20490" LastActivityDate="2018-10-17T09:41:42.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20938" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20922" CreationDate="2018-10-17T09:57:18.440" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you are sadly asking for the impossible. Your primitive brain is in charge of decisions, because your survival in a dangerous situation still depends (as it did in early evolution) on your quickest reactions (jumping out of the way of a speeding car for instance). There isn't time for you to rationalise that it could be practical to remove yourself from the path of the car, you just need to jump, so fear (emotion) fuels your movement before your conscious brain is aware of needing a reaction. (Also explains why phobias seem so consciously irrational) There is research showing that your emotional decisions are made a split second before the conscious (rational) mind is even aware of the issue. Humans make emotional decisions, then provide rational justification for why those decisions were made. Here is one ref on these lines, though there are many more, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115043&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115043&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20490" LastActivityDate="2018-10-17T09:57:18.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20940" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-17T13:52:59.600" Score="5" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been wondering recently about the factors that affect the process of learning foreign languages. Specifically, whether early contact and experiences with a foreign language can have any impact on the ease of learning a foreign language later in life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that I am cable of learning foreign languages faster than others (not everyone, of course) and, on the other hand, I find it quite difficult to learning programming or math. What I am wondering about is whether this is because I started learning English when I was 8 years old and whether, at that young age, I was able to work out certain mechanisms or ways of copying and handling this kind of knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologists would probably say that some people have certain capabilities and others don't, which makes us so unique. What I would like to know is if there is any scientific way to prove/refute a relationship between early language experience with the ease of learning a language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20543" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2018-10-20T17:19:06.270" LastActivityDate="2018-10-20T17:19:06.270" Title="Early foreign language experience and ease of learning foreign languages" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20942" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-18T00:24:44.643" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to read up on some past studies that might’ve done something similar. Has anybody seen anything like this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, one picture depicts a woman with a large, distracting necklace. A question that follows is “what color nail polish was the woman wearing?” &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20549" LastActivityDate="2018-10-18T01:20:02.413" Title="I’m doing a research project requiring participants to look at a photo for ten seconds and then answer questions about small details in the photos" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20944" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20949" CreationDate="2018-10-18T03:12:55.110" Score="3" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in how memory is distributed in the brain. That inevitably leads one to think about grandmother cells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under my interpretation, a neuron (or a small ensemble) would classify as a grandmother cell, if it activates, without fail, whenever a specific stimulus is presented to a subject, over an extended period of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge, there is no evidence for the existence of such neurons, except some experiments that show the activation of specific neurons for a short period of time between trial sessions. The last part is important, because to my understanding grandmother cells are explicitly about long term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I look at most artificial neural networks however, the cells in the output layer usually exactly fit this definition. You can easily train a network to recognize pictures of your grandmother and consistently find the exact same cells active during evaluation whenever such a picture is presented. That's important for a computer of course, because it needs to have a consistent way of telling something is learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would be an important difference to the brain though, because one could argue that any system, involving grandmother cells and that has only a limited number of cells, eventually suffers from overfitting or at least very limited generality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this assessment fair? Is my definition wrong, somehow? Did I miss some evidence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="224" LastActivityDate="2018-10-18T16:05:19.797" Title="Is it fair to categorize the neurons in the output layer of artificial neural networks as grandmother cells?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20947" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-18T13:07:54.073" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read a paper on an experiment called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/1413454?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Feeling of Being Stared at&lt;/a&gt;&quot;, which investigates a concept which on Wikipedia is called the psychic staring effect. It was first investigated by psychologist Edward B. Titchener in 1898.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper consistently refers to the experimental subjects as &quot;reagents&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;In some of the experiments, the distance between the experimenter and&#xA;  reagent was varied for the purpose of...&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Page 3 of 6&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm unfamiliar with this term to refer to subjects, and I assume it's because this is an old paper from 1913. My guess would be that the word means something or something that reacts, and subjects are subjected to stimuli. Is anyone familiar with this term being used generally in experiments around this time period or even today? And if so, when it fell out of fashion and replaced with what we use now: &quot;subject&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20197" LastActivityDate="2018-10-18T14:45:26.333" Title="When did the old term experimental reagent become experimental subject?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20948" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20947" CreationDate="2018-10-18T14:45:26.333" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychological theory has often metaphorically used terminology from the technology or science of its time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud explains certain aspects of the psyche in terms of the steam engine, and psychologists of the late 20th century think of the brain in terms of computer science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your case Titchener and other psychologists of his time tried to grasp psychology in terms of chemistry: &quot;a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reagent&lt;/a&gt; is a substance which, because it has a capacity for certain reactions, is used to detect, examine, or measure other substances&quot; (Schultz, 2013, p. 88). Historians of psychology assess this term as evidence for the mechanistic view inherent in the structuralist approach to psychology. For Titchener, the human proband is a &lt;em&gt;recording instrument&lt;/em&gt; (Schultz, 2013, p. 88).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As psychology as a science has shifted to a new paradigm in the early 20th century, the term &lt;em&gt;reagent&lt;/em&gt; slowly fell out of use. The latest use in a psychological context that I'm aware of is in the late 1920s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Schultz, D. (2013). &lt;em&gt;A History of Modern Psychology&lt;/em&gt; (2nd ed). New York: Academic Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20557" LastActivityDate="2018-10-18T14:45:26.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20949" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20944" CreationDate="2018-10-18T16:05:19.797" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say it depends on what your goals are and what parts of the grandmother cell &quot;story&quot; you want to highlight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sure, the output layer is grandmother-like because it can represent single concepts&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are writing a classifier to identify objects, then in some ways, yes, the outputs of an ANN reflect &quot;grandmother&quot; cells in that they represent a single output concept/object. The way that a hypothetical grandmother cell in a real nervous system would be activated (as sort of a final step after perceiving all the sensory information seeing/hearing another person presents) would be analogous to how the output of an ANN is chosen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the outputs of a real nervous system are probably better identified as the motor plans: the goal in object recognition is to decide whether to fight or flee or do nothing at all. Similarly, if your ANN is trying to classify radiological images as &quot;cancer&quot; or &quot;no cancer&quot; these outputs don't really fit with the idea of a grandmother cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;But no, the grandmother cell is about more than that and the output layer of an ANN doesn't really fit&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A key element in the grandmother cell concept is that this cell is somehow connected to all the other subconcepts that make up the grandmother concept: the sound of her voice, the color of her hair, where she lives, etc. In real nervous systems these elements probably involve large ensembles of neurons organized into attractor networks, but even so, because the output layer of an ANN is just that, an output layer, it's really missing the major feature that makes a grandmother cell so key in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The studies you refer to that showed some evidence of grandmother-like cells are really just demonstrating a certain level of sparseness such that within a limited subset of experimental stimuli, those units were only activated by one or two of the inputs. In an ANN, these types of nodes would be better represented as units in some hidden layer. If I were to look for &quot;grandmother cell-like behavior&quot; to make comparisons between a real brain and an ANN, I would look for sparseness in the hidden layers rather than pointing to the output.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Summary&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, I would say that you could refer to grandmother cells in discussing ANN behavior, but I would be careful about taking the analogy too far or to assume that something true for a grandmother cell must therefore be true for a certain element of an ANN. However, I don't see a lot of value in doing so, and if I were teaching a course on the topic, I think I would avoid the comparison to avoid misinterpretation or confusion among the students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Connor, C. E. (2005). Neuroscience: Friends and grandmothers. Nature, 435(7045), 1036.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gross, C. G. (2002). Genealogy of the “grandmother cell”. The Neuroscientist, 8(5), 512-518.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kreiman, G., Koch, C., &amp;amp; Fried, I. (2000). Category-specific visual responses of single neurons in the human medial temporal lobe. Nature neuroscience, 3(9), 946.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quiroga, R. Q., Reddy, L., Kreiman, G., Koch, C., &amp;amp; Fried, I. (2005). Invariant visual representation by single neurons in the human brain. Nature, 435(7045), 1102.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quian Quiroga, R., &amp;amp; Kreiman, G. (2010). Postscript: About grandmother cells and Jennifer Aniston neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-10-18T16:05:19.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20950" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20951" CreationDate="2018-10-18T16:12:43.620" Score="6" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people don't like to go to the doctor because they are afraid of being diagnosed sick in medical examinations or being diagnosed exacerbated when they have an illness even they know if they don't treat the illness it will get worse. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A really large population of these kind of people exists, especially in Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it a subtype of hypochondria? Or it is another psychological abnormality or even is normal?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20558" LastActivityDate="2018-10-19T06:43:53.633" Title="Is &quot;not going to doctor because of fear of illness&quot; a psychological disorder?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20951" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20950" CreationDate="2018-10-18T19:17:45.463" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are describing is most likely &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avoidance_coping&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;avoidance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which in itself isn't a disorder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People are most likely afraid of the illness in itself, and so not going to the doctor means that they don't have to confront the possibility of having that illness. This avoidance is a &lt;em&gt;mechanism&lt;/em&gt; that maintains hypochondria or health anxiety (however you wish to call it) by &lt;em&gt;negative reinforcement&lt;/em&gt;: 'I don't go to the doctor, I'm not told if I'm sick or not, so I'm less anxious'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reduction in fear or anxiety is usually short lived and only makes it worst over time. This coping mechanism is not adaptive, and may aggravate health anxiety, but in itself, is not a disorder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.veale.co.uk/resources-support/public-information/health-anxiety/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;David Veale's website&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/~/media/CCI/Consumer%20Modules/Helping%20Health%20Anxiety/Helping%20Health%20Anxiety%20-%2007%20-%20Challenging%20Avoidance%20and%20Safety%20Behaviours.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Centre for Clinical Interventions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/in-practice/201303/why-avoidance-coping-is-the-most-important-factor-in-anxiety&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20561" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-10-19T06:43:53.633" LastActivityDate="2018-10-19T06:43:53.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20952" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-18T23:24:26.470" Score="2" ViewCount="332" Body="&lt;p&gt;I come from a computer science background and am just starting out in the area of analyzing brain imaging data (fMRI predominantly) and while going through some of the literature, I am kind of confused about the difference between a brain atlas and a brain parcellation? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are the two used interchangeably? Does one correspond to anatomical units and the other to functional units? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20563" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-10-19T13:25:47.523" LastActivityDate="2019-06-11T12:17:25.247" Title="What is the difference between an Atlas and a Parcellation?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20953" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20940" CreationDate="2018-10-19T00:59:52.197" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting question. Language development is a fascinating topic! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two types of language learning:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;1. Learning a natural language (a language that is learned without any conscious effort)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2. Learning a second-language&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nearly all babies learn a natural language and some may learn more than one (they are what we call, bilingual babies). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some critical periods for learning any languages and these vary depending on the aspects of language one looks at (syntax, semantics, etc...). (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3451048/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3451048/&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent research shows that the approximate critical period for learning a second language appears to be at around 17 years old. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027718300994&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027718300994&lt;/a&gt;) This does NOT mean that you will not be able to learn a second language after this, simply that it will be harder. Hence why it might have been easier for you to learn English at 8 years-old.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, depending on what languages you speak, it might be easier to learn some languages rather than others. For example, French and Spanish have very similar rhythms, phonemes, and are both romance languages, which would make it easier to learn one or the other, as long as you were fluent in one of them. However, it would be much harder for an English or French speaking person to learn Mandarin, because this tonal language is so different on many different aspects (for one, there are phonemes to which speakers of non-tonal languages are not sensitive, meaning that they cannot tell the difference between them). So yes, sometimes a language can be easy to learn, but at other times, it becomes much more complicated than having to learn a computer language. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for being better at learning languages because you are bilingual, that is a possibility, but again, within the limits mentioned above of the language you decide to learn. Someone who knows French and Spanish may find it very easy to learn Italian, but still extremely hard to learn Cantonese. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/life-bilingual/201506/can-second-language-help-you-learn-third&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/life-bilingual/201506/can-second-language-help-you-learn-third&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, psychologists do not agree on whether or not we have 'certain capabilities'. Many argue that anybody can become anything with the proper training and experience. Sure, as we grow, we become better in certain things, but you may find that by overcoming your preconceived ideas about yourself (ex: you are not good at learning computer languages), you can learn new things! I recommend reading &lt;em&gt;Peak&lt;/em&gt; by Anders Ericsson. In his book, he really highlights how all the 'experts' were not born with special talents, but learned everything thanks to deliberate practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20561" LastEditorUserId="20561" LastEditDate="2018-10-19T13:18:05.837" LastActivityDate="2018-10-19T13:18:05.837" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20954" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19529" CreationDate="2018-10-19T08:07:44.153" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The underlying mechanism(s) causing the differences between the effectiveness of anodic and cathodic neural stimulation are largely unknown.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;As far as I know, the exact difference between the effectiveness of cathodic versus anodic stimulation are largely unknown. For instance, in animals and humans, both anodic and cathodic pulses can evoke neural responses. In human cochlear implant users, the anodic phase is more effective than the cathodic phase. In contrast, in animals (guinea pigs, cats and ferrets) exactly the opposite is observed. The reason for this discrepancy is unclear &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27080654&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Machery &amp;amp; Cazals, 2016)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors in your linked article state &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3026574/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(McFadden, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We hypothesize that the mechanism behind this may be associated with a concentrated exiting of current from the scalp at the cathode.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This, honestly, makes little sense as that same current was injected at the anode, barred the electrode sizes were not different.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27080654&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Machery &amp;amp; Cazals, &lt;em&gt;Adv Exp Med Biol&lt;/em&gt; (2016); &lt;strong&gt;894&lt;/strong&gt;:133-42&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3026574/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McFadden &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Brain Stimul&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 38–42&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-10-19T22:42:38.940" LastActivityDate="2018-10-19T22:42:38.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20955" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1525" CreationDate="2018-10-19T08:43:16.987" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, the question is superbly broad and it would have faced closure if it would be asked at the time of this writing. Nonetheless, given the high number of upvotes I think it deserves an answer. Note that my answer is just a small bunch of behaviors associated with the NR3C1 gene, as based on a cursory Google Scholar search, using the terms '&lt;em&gt;NR3C1 + behavior&lt;/em&gt;'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;NR3C1 gene polymorphisms have been associated with &lt;strong&gt;alcohol and drug abuse&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/15835/Glucocorticoid%20Receptor%20(NR3C1)%20Gene%20Polymorphism%20Moderate%20Intervention%20Effects%20on%20the%20Developmental%20Trajectory%20of%20African-American%20Adolescent%20Alcohol%20Abuse.pdf?sequence=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Zen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2010)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;aggression&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28686058&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Li &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2017)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;suicide&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://behavioralandbrainfunctions.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12993-016-0104-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Park &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;NR3C1 hypermethylation has been associated with being &lt;strong&gt;bullied or lacking friends&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-018-0169-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Efstathopoulos &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2018&lt;/a&gt; and with &lt;strong&gt;PTSD&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/34/31/10274&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Vukojevic &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cry acoustics&lt;/strong&gt; in infants is associated with methylation pre-term &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00100/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sheinkopf &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-018-0169-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Efstathopoulos &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Translat Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2018); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;(121)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00100/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sheinkopf &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Behav Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28686058&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Li &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Genet Test Mol Biomarkers&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;(8): 497-505&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://behavioralandbrainfunctions.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12993-016-0104-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Park &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Behav Brain Functions&lt;/em&gt; (2016); &lt;strong&gt;12&lt;/strong&gt;:22&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/34/31/10274&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vukojevic &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;34&lt;/strong&gt;(31): 10274-84&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/15835/Glucocorticoid%20Receptor%20(NR3C1)%20Gene%20Polymorphism%20Moderate%20Intervention%20Effects%20on%20the%20Developmental%20Trajectory%20of%20African-American%20Adolescent%20Alcohol%20Abuse.pdf?sequence=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zhen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Prev Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-10-19T08:43:16.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20956" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-19T12:56:49.710" Score="5" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many people say porn is addictive, but the conversation around this sounds quite similar to the conversation around drugs -&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.yourbrainonporn.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.yourbrainonporn.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4600144/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4600144/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which hold that substance and not setting is the main driver of addiction.&#xA;In the Rat Park experiments the addictive power of morphine was negligible if the rats had a happy social scene instead of a blank cage to live in - see here for clever cartoon on it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.stuartmcmillen.com/comic/rat-park/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.stuartmcmillen.com/comic/rat-park/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brucekalexander.com/articles-speeches/rat-park&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.brucekalexander.com/articles-speeches/rat-park&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extrapolating from rats to people, is it possible that porn addiction is less to do with the 'substance' and more to do with the social setting of the user ?&#xA;(Note: there are critiques of flaws in rat park experiment but I don't know where to find them).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19151" LastEditorUserId="19151" LastEditDate="2018-10-20T21:27:35.887" LastActivityDate="2018-10-20T21:27:35.887" Title="Are the findings of the Rat Park experiments applicable to porn addiction?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20957" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18538" CreationDate="2018-10-19T15:48:41.567" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a comprehensive review that included 140+ primary research papers, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Petri_Laukka3/publication/10581244_Communication_of_Emotions_in_Vocal_Expression_and_Music_Performance_Different_Channels_Same_Code/links/00b7d5243f8cc929b9000000/Communication-of-Emotions-in-Vocal-Expression-and-Music-Performance-Different-Channels-Same-Code.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Juslin &amp;amp; Laukka (2003)&lt;/a&gt; explain that there is a close relationship between vocal expression of emotions and the musical expression of emotions. Indeed, music and speech have similar characteristics and therefore can illicit similar emotions (table 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3rGyP.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3rGyP.png&quot; alt=&quot;table&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Table 1. Commonalities of speech and music in emotional expression. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3rGyP.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;KTH Sweden&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_music#cite_note-Tramo-14&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; states that emotion is indeed linked with tonality in both music and speech: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The tones in music seem like a characterization of the tones in human&#xA;  speech, which indicate emotional content. The vowels in the phonemes&#xA;  of a song are elongated for a dramatic effect, and it seems as though&#xA;  musical tones are simply exaggerations of the normal verbal tonality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:724013/FULLTEXT01.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gramfors &amp;amp; Johansson, thesis KTH Sweden&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Petri_Laukka3/publication/10581244_Communication_of_Emotions_in_Vocal_Expression_and_Music_Performance_Different_Channels_Same_Code/links/00b7d5243f8cc929b9000000/Communication-of-Emotions-in-Vocal-Expression-and-Music-Performance-Different-Channels-Same-Code.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Juslin &amp;amp; Laukka, &lt;em&gt;Psych Bullet&lt;/em&gt; (2003); &lt;strong&gt;129&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 770–814&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-10-20T07:05:41.460" LastActivityDate="2018-10-20T07:05:41.460" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20958" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20956" CreationDate="2018-10-19T15:48:56.397" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a therapist working with patients suffering from all kinds of addictions – drugs, porn, computer games, social media, gambling, sex, etc. – the simple answer is that addictive behavior is influenced by:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;currenct life circumstances (Rat Park versus cages, if you want)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;personality (some people are more prone to addiction than others)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;life experiences (childhood abuse and other trauma)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, a person in a happy romantic relationship with a supportive network of friends and family working a satisfying job will most likely not become addicted to porn from masturbating to it every now and then, just as they won't become addicted to THC from smoking a joint on Saturday evenings, but the influence of these life circumstances do not protect someone from becoming addicted when they make traumatic experiences such as the death of a child or when their personality is &quot;addiction prone&quot; (e.g. high neuroticism, low conscientiousness, high impulsivity, high reward and threat sensitivities, and so on).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20568" LastActivityDate="2018-10-19T15:48:56.397" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20962" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-20T21:33:29.650" Score="0" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;In our everyday experience, and in both math and philosophy particularly, there exist some binary order in the sense that some statements can be classified as true or false. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this have a specific neural correlation in the brain (classifying a statement as either true or false)? Or in other words, is it possible to correlate the process of assigning true/false with some particular feature of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17136" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-10-23T08:37:00.660" LastActivityDate="2018-10-23T08:37:00.660" Title="Can logic be traced back to neurons?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20964" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-20T22:40:22.673" Score="5" ViewCount="349" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on a master's thesis in UX design that I might want to turn into a commercial project later on. The subject matter is use of Nonviolent Communication (NVC) in parenting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the research phase, as part of a screener, I want to get a sense of a person's parenting style. I've been looking for questionnaires on evaluating parenting styles and found the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16370893&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Parental Authority Questionnaire&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this questionnaire was made to be evaluated by children, not by the parents themselves. Is there an alternate questionnaire for them? Would I be able to use its questions in my screener? What are the regulations regarding using questions from a different questionnaire?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15768" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-10-29T09:21:15.873" LastActivityDate="2018-11-01T10:53:33.443" Title="Free-to-use parenting style questionnaire" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20965" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10701" CreationDate="2018-10-20T23:45:27.543" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Modern genetics does indeed confirm what Hernstein was arguing for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the nature vs nurture debate is a false dichotomy; here is a basic logical argument: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Either intelligence has a genetic component or intelligence is caused by the environment alone. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Down Syndrome is not caused by the environment alone. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, intelligence has a genetic component. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can guess, there is no division between genes and behavior, let alone brain structure, so this is why Professor Plomin, a professor of genetics, makes the case that genetic differences are responsible for most variation in psychological traits – things like personality and &lt;em&gt;cognitive abilities&lt;/em&gt;- in his most recent book entitled, &quot;Blueprint: How DNA Makes Us Who We Are.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20580" LastActivityDate="2018-10-20T23:45:27.543" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20966" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-21T07:14:56.697" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nociceptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A nociceptor is a sensory neuron that responds to damaging or&#xA;  potentially damaging stimuli by sending “possible threat” signals to&#xA;  the spinal cord and the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is a &quot;possible threat&quot; signal? And, how is it different from a &quot;real threat&quot; signal in terms of the way they are transmitted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20581" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-10-22T12:59:37.313" LastActivityDate="2018-10-22T22:19:18.130" Title="Nociceptor (possible threat signal)" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20962" CreationDate="2018-10-21T13:35:21.880" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Certainly some statements are either true or false. Either it rains or it doesn't. But when you think about many of these statements more carefully, the truth of these statements isn't really binary at all, or the binary fact is largely irrelevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using the weather example, for most people it is not very helpful to know that it doesn't rain when there is a hurricane or it's snowing, both of which wouldn't usually be considered &quot;not rain&quot; by someone who wants to know what to wear. So the answer to &quot;Does it rain?&quot; usually isn't &quot;No&quot;, but, for example, &quot;You should take your umbrella because it looks like it might rain later&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain also isn't binary. Axons do not either forward an electrical impulse or not, but impulses of different intensities or frequencies. Neurons are often not activated by impulses from a single synapse, but usually by multiple synapses. Synapses do not either send out transmitters or not, but different amounts of them. Functions aren't located in one area, but in multiple areas. And so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Logic and maths (and psychological theories) are &lt;em&gt;simplifications&lt;/em&gt; of a very complex reality. They provide simple solutions that often work (because life is flexible enough to adapt to a rigid approach), but just as often logic or mathematical (or psychological) approaches to deal with real problems are destined to fail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20582" LastActivityDate="2018-10-21T13:35:21.880" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20971" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-22T14:23:53.273" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;Freuds body of work not only provides a basis von clinical practice, but is also often quoted in social sciences and social philosophy. I recently came across a text that references Freuds concept of &lt;em&gt;Verneinung&lt;/em&gt; (Negation):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ein verdrängter Vorstellungs- oder Gedankeninhalt kann also zum Bewusstsein durchdringen, unter der Bedingung, dass er sich verneinen lässt. Die Verneinung ist eine Art, das Verdrängte zur Kenntnis zu nehmen, eigentlich schon eine Aufhebung der Verdrängung, aber freilich keine Annahme des Verdrängten. [...]. Mit Hilfe der Verneinung wird nur die eine Folge des Verdrängungsvorganges rückgängig gemacht, dass dessen Vorstellungsinhalt nicht zum Bewusstsein gelangt. Es resultiert daraus eine Art von intellektueller Annahme des Verdrängten bei Fortbestand des Wesentlichen an der Verdrängung.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A supressed element of thoughts or imaginations can surface in the conscious mind under the condition it can be negated. Negation is away of acknowledging the supressed, actually a repeal of the supression, but of course not an acceptance [...] By way of negation only one consequence of the supression is undone, that the content of the supressed does not become conscious. The result is a kind of intellectual acceptance of the supressed, while the supression mostly persists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verneinung_(Psychoanalyse)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;German text wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, translation mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now my question is, is this aspect of negation testable (=falsifiable) in some way? What where results of such tests, if any? Absent tests that would satisfy a positivist, is there a body of experience from clinical practice that supports (or not) this theory of negation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware that there's a lively debate about inhowfar psychoanalysis is  science or pseudoscience. Much of psychoanalysis is not falsifiable, but this specific aspect may be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3900" LastActivityDate="2018-10-22T16:32:09.587" Title="Is Freuds theory of negation testable and does it survive testing?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20972" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20971" CreationDate="2018-10-22T16:32:09.587" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The correct translation of &lt;em&gt;Verneinung&lt;/em&gt; in English is &lt;strong&gt;denial&lt;/strong&gt;. Roy Baumeister, Karen Dale, and Kristin Sommer (2002) have reviewed empirical evidence for (or against) seven of Freud's defense mechanisms and have found that &quot;denial [has] been amply shown in studies&quot;. You can read about the findings in detail in the article itself, which is currently avialable online &lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/30405130/baumesiter_roy_-_freudian_defense_mechanisms.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1540229355&amp;amp;Signature=Gr38mjKax%2FM5BIl%2BBZdHbiaxA8k%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DFreudian_Defense_Mechanisms_and_Empirica.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Baumeister, R. F., Dale, K., &amp;amp; Sommer, K. L. (1998). Freudian defense mechanisms and empirical findings in modern social psychology: Reaction formation, projection, displacement, undoing, isolation, sublimation, and denial. Journal of Personality, 66(6), 1081-1124. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00043&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/1467-6494.00043&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20589" LastActivityDate="2018-10-22T16:32:09.587" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20973" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20966" CreationDate="2018-10-22T22:19:18.130" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This statement on Wikipedia is merely intending to separate the agency of determining &quot;What is pain?&quot; from the nociceptors. Nociceptors can be activated by a number of stimuli that reflect possible damage (i.e., a possible threat): this could include signals released by cells that are actually damaged, it could include hot temperature, it could include certain types of pressure or touch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The decision about whether a particular stimulus is sufficiently threatening to warrant a response (which could include things like reflexes all the way up to the perceptual and emotional experience that we refer to as pain) is made in the spinal cord and brain. At the level of the nociceptor, &quot;possible threat&quot; and &quot;real threat&quot; aren't any different: the nociceptor is just reporting the possibility of the threat. The CNS makes a 'decision' about how to respond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This system is really no different than the other sensory systems, they all carry some information to the CNS which then interprets that information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-10-22T22:19:18.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20974" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-23T07:41:39.553" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of the people have their own imagination and most of them dream about many things and some time dream about those things which they have never seen, so how we will define the fact that why do we dream? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20595" LastActivityDate="2018-10-23T07:41:39.553" Title="Why do we dream?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-10-24T21:45:18.563" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20979" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17339" CreationDate="2018-10-24T15:21:06.323" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As your contacts have already pointed out, there is no research on this specific question. But from what I have observed (both in patients with sleep disorders with whom I have been working as well as in healthy subjects), it is most likely that someone who has been following the same bed and wakeup routine for a month or longer will wake up at their usual time regardless of where they are in their sleep cycle, if they go to bed at a different time only once.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And that's the whole point of regular bed and wakeup times in sleep hygiene: those routines remain relatively stable, once they have been established, even in times of stress or other – temporary! – interferences. Only when the sleep routine is consistently eroded (or the deviation from the regular bed time is large), will wakeup times begin to shift significantly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may notice that if you go to bed half an hour later than usual, that you wake up a little tired or a little on the late side of your usual range of wakeup times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I have noticed is that people who go to bed a little later than usual may find that they have trouble &lt;em&gt;falling asleep!&lt;/em&gt; Because when they remain awake beyond the point where their body had prepared them for sleep, their body will begin to rouse them again, &quot;thinking&quot; the person needs wakefulness. So it might actually take you until the next phase to fall properly asleep and you'll be sleeping rather restless until then, if you sleep at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this, as I said, is observation over a small sample and not generalizable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20611" LastActivityDate="2018-10-24T15:21:06.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20980" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20660" CreationDate="2018-10-24T20:50:59.220" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been doing some research and this is what I found so far. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, the memory of sounds is called &lt;strong&gt;echoic memory&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Echoic%2520Memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alley Dog; Echoic Memory Definition&lt;/a&gt;) and is a form of sensory memory. This means that by nature, it is short-term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I found an interesting wikipedia article, followed the source, and found that, in fact, it appears that &lt;strong&gt;eidetic memory&lt;/strong&gt; also includes remembering sounds! (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ca/books?id=VevXAQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA1099&amp;amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Taylor;  Encyclopedia of Human Memory; Superior Autobiographical Memory; p.1099&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;So it could be that there isn't a term for it because it is included in this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to '&lt;strong&gt;audiographic memory&lt;/strong&gt;', a thorough search leads me to thinking that indeed, it's not an academic term and is not researched or discussed as such. The only things I can find that use that word are of questionable validity (ex: &lt;a href=&quot;https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.fr/&amp;amp;httpsredir=1&amp;amp;article=2250&amp;amp;context=utk_chanhonoproj&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bates, Unconscious Processes, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some reason, the video link does not work for me, but I hope that this information makes things clearer for you! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other sources:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echoic_memory#cite_note-1&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia Page; Echoic Memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidetic_memory#cite_note-Taylor-9&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia Page; Eidetic Memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20561" LastActivityDate="2018-10-24T20:50:59.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20981" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-24T21:39:34.793" Score="3" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on some discussions over on another StackExchange forum site over a particular question about &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/30/well/family/parenting-the-fortnite-addict.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;user engagement vs. addiction&lt;/a&gt;, it was suggested that the question be posed on the Psychology and Neuroscience SE site because it seems to fall into this area of research and is appropriate for the experts in this field to provide an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question, phrased slightly differently for this forum:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There have been some recent press about the computer game Fortnite&#xA;  that has caused concern for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/30/well/family/parenting-the-fortnite-addict.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parents of children that are spending&#xA;  excessive time playing&lt;/a&gt; due to its seemingly addictive effect on&#xA;  players (many of whom are young children).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Digital designers working on games often aim to increase engagement using strategies like gamification. Assuming that engagement with an activity involves some similar behaviour to those exhibited in addiction, how are those behaviours measured over time to identify at risk users (e.g. problem gamblers)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, if engagement and addiction are completely different behaviours, what are the differences that allows you to distinguish one group from the other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2959" LastActivityDate="2018-10-24T21:39:34.793" Title="How is addiction distinguished from engagement when making a determination about a person's behaviour?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20983" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20993" CreationDate="2018-10-25T04:14:24.180" Score="6" ViewCount="379" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a newbie to psychophysics experiment, I have a small project to do visual field testing on healthy, adult, naive subjects. The experiment stimulus is a small sine grating (0.3 degree, 6 cycles/degree) embedded in one of 25 possible locations in a noise background picture (18 degree). The orientation of the grating, and the contrast of background noise is fixed, and I need to measure the sensitivity (d') at 25 locations given a series of (probably 3) grating contrasts, and a series of stimulus exposure time (50,100,200,300,400 ms). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a single trial, subject knows where the grating will be located, and maintains fixation at the center of noise background. Then the stimulus will be briefly presented (once in Yes/No and 2AFC, twice in 2IFC) for one of the stimulus exposure time, and subject need to judge whether the grating is present (Yes/No), or is located in which stimulus (2IFC and 2AFC). For a each unique combination of grating location, grating contrast and stimulus exposure time, I plan to do 16-20 repetitions to measure d'. So there are LOTS of trials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this should be a mature experiment, but I am stuck on choosing between the following 3 experiment paradigms. The major problem is the time required to complete the experiment. I have run pilot experiments on all of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;1-interval yes/no task. This task runs fast, but suffers from changing response bias. Is the response bias going to negatively affect d'? In signal detection theory, d' is insensitive to bias only when the variance of response to signal and signal+noise is equal. However, I don't know whether there is firm experimental evidence to support this.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;2AFC task. This task comes from a suggestion in textbook. Instead of presenting one cue of target location on each trial, I can present two cues that is symmetric around fixation point, and subject need to judge which cue location has the grating. The task assumes that human visibility map is central symmetric, and effectively cut the number of locations to half, so it runs even faster than the Yes/No task. However, it is rarely used in literature about visual field testing, what might be the potential drawback?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;2IFC task. I see many literatures doing this, but it is the slowest one (more than double of the time for Yes/No). What's worse, because the stimulus is brief presented, and the interval between them is short (400 ms), sometimes subjects report that they &quot;see the stimulus but forget which interval has it&quot;. So in some of our pilot data, the sensitivity at fovea is lower than in near-peripheral, because subjects had made an error. How do psychophysical researchers overcome the problem of subject error, and the problem of long, boring experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for any help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20616" LastActivityDate="2019-04-23T23:01:35.350" Title="Visual field testing: Choose between Yes/No, 2AFC, and 2IFC task?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20986" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-25T11:17:44.070" Score="5" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most descriptions of visual perception explain how our brains interpret incoming visual stimuli (via feature detection, monocular depth cues, etc.). They then assume that the same process works for interpreting drawings, by which I mean 2D illustrations of objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there seem to be some cultural differences in the way 2D images are interpreted: for example, the fact that less &quot;literate&quot;/&quot;developed&quot; cultures perform better with the Muller-Lyer illusion (as mentioned &lt;a href=&quot;https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2011/12/26/cultural-differences-in-cognitive-perception/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking this idea further, my parents, who lived in a rural area in India, knew one person who had never encountered pictures and couldn't interpret them. It wasn't in her culture. If one showed her a picture of a pig, she wouldn't be able to make out it was a pig, or even an animal. To her, it was just a set of lines on a sheet of paper. I know that story is anecdotal, and several things are unclear (such as whether it worked for photographs vs illustrations, etc.). However, my question is: Is this possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the ability to interpret drawings a universal one, or is it a skill that (most) people acquire the same way as language or writing? Is there any research on this topic I can read up on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20621" LastActivityDate="2018-10-25T11:17:44.070" Title="Is the perception of drawings an acquired skill?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20987" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20989" CreationDate="2018-10-25T12:19:34.150" Score="4" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider the following scenario: a rhesus monkey is being put under severe duress somehow (isolation, sense of physical threat, whathaveyou). It is desired that a behavior, like pressing a lever, is increased. Let's say administration of a CNS depressant as a reward is used to try to get this outcome. This could possibly be seen as positive reinforcement (due to euphoriant effects in themselves) &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; as negative reinforcement (because stress is being taken away). Is it possible to model both sides of this picture and is this done in practice?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20623" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-10-26T08:28:48.360" LastActivityDate="2018-10-26T08:28:48.360" Title="Is it possible to effect both positive and negative reinforcement through the same action?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20988" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20995" CreationDate="2018-10-25T17:05:12.190" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;People generally resist change, yet they have a desire for diversification.&lt;br&gt;Of course, both is possible. Just like the need of safety but the desire for new discoveries and adventures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what is the psychological explaination? Is there anything I misunderstood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18152" LastActivityDate="2018-10-26T14:02:51.563" Title="People do not like change, but need diversification? Is that not contradictive?" Tags="&lt;attitudes&gt;&lt;needs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20987" CreationDate="2018-10-25T17:26:29.927" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2755378/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the modern view&lt;/a&gt; of positive and negative reinforcement is that they are essentially synonyms. They are different ways of looking at the same thing, like describing a glass of water based on how full or how empty it is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this paper, we reconsider the issue from the perspective of 30&#xA;  years. However, we could not find new evidence in contemporary&#xA;  research and theory that allows reliable classification of an event as&#xA;  a positive rather than a negative reinforcer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement#Further_ideas_and_concepts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; as well:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Distinguishing between positive and negative can be difficult and may&#xA;  not always be necessary; focusing on what is being removed or added&#xA;  and how it is being removed or added will determine the nature of the&#xA;  reinforcement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-10-25T17:26:29.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20990" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20991" CreationDate="2018-10-25T17:40:08.493" Score="4" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627306009044&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, it states that &quot;Consistent with neuroimaging evidence suggesting that distinct circuits anticipate gain and loss,...&quot;&#xA;However in &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/315/5811/515&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, it states &quot;..., these results are consistent with the conclusion that losses and gains are coded by the same mechanism rather than by two separate mechanisms.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both papers are from reputable journals and well-cited. So why are there these two contradictory statements? Is it because the papers are in different contexts? (The statements themselves seem to be general statement though.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20522" LastActivityDate="2018-10-25T18:21:37.973" Title="Why some papers suggest that losses and gains are coded by the same mechanism while other suggest that distinct circuits anticipate gain and loss?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20991" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20990" CreationDate="2018-10-25T18:21:37.973" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Because we still don't know exactly how the brain works.&lt;/strong&gt; That's why we do research. If these authors knew the answer ahead of time, neither of them would have done the study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are research papers, they are showing findings that are consistent with different models. Maybe the real model is somewhere in between, maybe there are context-dependencies, maybe one measure was more sensitive than the other for a particular result, maybe statistical thresholds caused one paper to emphasize one circuit and another to emphasize another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other mediating effects like arousal and salience that can bias results; responses may not be linear so the degree of effect may be important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain regions can excite or inhibit other regions and those connections can be reciprocal, so it is often not clear if decreases in one area are causing or caused by increases in another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are more recent papers like Bartra et al 2013 (citation below) that have tried to compare these different studies, so that's a good place to start for further reading, but you will find that they still do not have a clear answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bartra, O., McGuire, J. T., &amp;amp; Kable, J. W. (2013). The valuation system: a coordinate-based meta-analysis of BOLD fMRI experiments examining neural correlates of subjective value. Neuroimage, 76, 412-427.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-10-25T18:21:37.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20992" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17522" CreationDate="2018-10-25T20:02:56.347" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because the too high expression will cause to lose specificity in the process of neural plasticity because it would make synapses too easy to make. Synapses that didn't should be made.&#xA;The trkb receptor will exist in lower ammounts too, it is a protective mechanism, I think.&#xA;The last thing that I can think it is the too easy LTP, that is stimulated by BDNF itself by interaction of TRKB with NA+ pumps&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20626" LastActivityDate="2018-10-25T20:02:56.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20993" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20983" CreationDate="2018-10-25T22:31:01.780" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am unsure as to the exact purpose of your experiment; the title seems to point toward a visual field test, whereas the question body seems to point to a visual acuity (VA) test? Are you interested in testing grating VA across the visual field? In the latter case, a subject needs to focus on a particular point and visual scanning is absolutely forbidden. The VA will be determined according to the last visible grating across a number of visual angles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On way or the other, I think you answered your question yourself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://dictionary.apa.org/yes-no-task&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;yes/no task&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is prone to bias, as the threshold to say 'yes' may change over time. It's also prone to investigator influence, as the % false-positive rate (which you should keep track of online) may exceed a certain threshold (often set at 25%). At that point the researcher should intervene and tell the subject to elevate their threshold, after which the data are likely substantially different from previous trials. However, it's fast, as only one stimulus per trial is needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have personally always used serial &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-alternative_forced_choice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2AFC&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; tests. A subject definitely needs time to do the test. As you say yourself, 400 ms inter-stimulus time is simply too short. I think I would opt for a presentation time of a few seconds, a downtime of at least a second, and then the second stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with the simultaneous 2AFC task is one of definition - if one stimulus is the target, then the other one is the no-stimulus. If they are up simultaneously, then isn't this identical to the yes/no task? The subject either perceives a grating, or not (yes/no). As &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-alternative_forced_choice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; states: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) is a method [where] the subject is presented with two alternative options, only one of which contains the target stimulus, and is forced to choose &lt;strong&gt;which one was the correct option&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A true 2AFC task is thus when they need to choose between A or B. That's only possible when doing it serially in your case as far as I can see, as a simultaneous task can basically be reduced to a yes/no task (they see the grating, or they don't).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-10-25T22:38:53.443" LastActivityDate="2018-10-25T22:38:53.443" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20995" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20988" CreationDate="2018-10-26T14:02:51.563" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Balancing a combination of 'sticking with what you know' and 'exploring new things' is optimal in a lot of environments. What the optimal balance is depends on a bunch of factors like your planning horizon, the distribution of good things in the world (common/rare &amp;amp; similar/dissimilar), and how you interact with them (reusable, like a shortcut, depleting, like a gold mine, or one-shot interaction like buying a house).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People are really surprisingly good at this! Fun search terms for google scholar might be &quot;explore/exploit tradeoff&quot; or &quot;multi-arm bandit problems&quot; [with humans]. But it's a big and complicated literature, actually I'd recommend starting with a popsci version, &quot;Algorithms to live by&quot; by Brian Christian and Tom Griffiths. I think you might enjoy it, it's a great book, very readable, and it goes into some detail on this question and a few of its near neighbors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2018-10-26T14:02:51.563" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20996" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="20998" CreationDate="2018-10-26T17:12:30.877" Score="5" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reference.com/science/brain-made-fat-95ce6711baa7fce6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; that stated that the human brain contains 60% fat. Is this fatty tissue structural building material? Or does it just serve as an energy source for the mitochondria? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since our body are also made out of 70% water, is there also a water in our brain? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the most important question I want to ask is: what percentage of the brain is actually a neuron? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20635" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-10-26T20:40:44.893" LastActivityDate="2018-10-26T20:40:44.893" Title="What is the human brain made of?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20998" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20996" CreationDate="2018-10-26T19:30:06.813" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain has a lot of a fatty substance called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/multiple-sclerosis/myelin-sheath-facts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;myelin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. It wraps around nerve fibers and enhances the speed of electrical communication between neurons (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainfacts.org/Brain-Anatomy-and-Function/Anatomy/2015/Myelin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain Facts&lt;/a&gt;), and increases transmission efficiency (Fig. 1). It is produced by supporting cells in the brain called &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain/brain-physiology/types-glia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;oligodendrocytes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Myelin is really just many wraps of membrane, and since neurons have long axons and dendrites, too, they also have a lot more membrane than if they were just spherical cells - all of this membrane is &quot;fat&quot; called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phospholipid&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;phospholipid&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now on to your questions -&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is this fatty tissue structural building material? Or does it just serve as an energy source for the mitochondria?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myelin and cell membranes are the most abundant fatty substances in the brain - they are structural fatty substances found around cells and neuronal axons, respectively, and they are not fuel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[I]s there also a water in our brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Every cell contains water, as nearly all biochemical reactions take place in a watery solution. An early report found the water content of neurons to be 55% &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3973594&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Saubermann &amp;amp; Scheid, 1985)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[W]hat percentage of the brain is actually a neuron?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scientific American performed a review on this and settles on a ratio of neurons : glia cells of 1:1 (although numbers of 10:1 have been reported). &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain/brain-physiology/types-glia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Glia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; are the brain's supportive cells and include the oligodendrocytes as mentioned above that produce the myelin &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/brainwaves/know-your-neurons-what-is-the-ratio-of-glia-to-neurons-in-the-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Jabr, 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6skCh.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6skCh.png&quot; alt=&quot;Myelin&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Schematic showing a myelin sheath around an axon. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/multiple-sclerosis/myelin-sheath-facts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; - &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/brainwaves/know-your-neurons-what-is-the-ratio-of-glia-to-neurons-in-the-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jabr, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt; (2012), June 2012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA; - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3973594&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Saubermann &amp;amp; Scheid, &lt;em&gt;J Neurochem&lt;/em&gt; (1985); &lt;strong&gt;44&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 825-34&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-10-26T20:13:54.387" LastActivityDate="2018-10-26T20:13:54.387" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="20999" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-26T21:52:28.810" Score="3" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm continuously being perplexed by psychological tests that display a lot of questions that don't seem to be able to be answered in a simplistic ways, but nevertheless simplistic answers are demanded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was subjected to such tests a few times in my life already. Each time the questions were a major challenge for me... until, out of necessity, I was stopping caring about the accuracy of the answers. Instead, I was giving rough estimations, feeling these estimations are almost meaningless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, I was once subjected to a test whether I was aggressive, submissive, assertive, or manipulative. The test contained questions like &quot;do I think cunning is an effective way to get what one wants&quot;? Do I think so? Yes, I think it is an effective way insofar people were able to trick me a few times in my life. Do I do this? I try not to and I don't even think I'm any good at it. Nonetheless, such questions clearly contribute to showing that I'm manipulative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an other example, let's take the &lt;a href=&quot;https://qst.darkfactor.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dark Factor test&lt;/a&gt;. We have here questions like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Most people deserve respect.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My problem with this questions is that, as far as I'm aware, there are many definitions of &quot;respect&quot;. How am I supposed to answer this question without knowing what definition of respect we're talking about?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The innate respect that, according to many moral theories, is an indefeasible privilege of every human being?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The respect that is defined as a person's trustworthiness or ability to perform their duty? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The respect that stems from fearing other person?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All 3 definitions entail radically different answers on my part, including an &quot;I don't know, I'm not strong enough in philosophy to be able to answer this&quot; in the first case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or another question. &quot;It is sometimes worth a little suffering on my part to help others in need.&quot; Is it? I believe yes. Can I? Sadly, rarely. Which of these two answers should I give?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another category are questions like these two: &quot;It’s wise to keep track of information that you can use against people later.&quot; and &quot;I feel sorry if things I do upset people.&quot; Here, however, my problems with these questions border critiquing the test itself, so I wonder if I'm not falling to the trap of arrogance. Namely, I have a feeling (maybe very wrong) that this test here treats what is not necessarily immoral as if it was. Is it wise to keep track of information that can be used against people later? In most circumstances likely no. But there are situations when this course of action is both necessary and perfectly ethical, I suppose: to protect oneself from these people anticipated unwarranted attacks. Do I feel sorry if I do things that upset other people? This depends on circumstances even more. If I win a sport match I'm likely to upset my opponents: does my attempts to win a fair game make my personality have dark traits? Escaping one's mother's overprotectiveness is likely to make her even more upset: but as far as I can tell, the psychologists' theories were that it is most healthy and necessary to do this. Nonetheless, I have a feeling that a positive answer to such a question would make one's personality darker in the results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could someone explain to me what's the point of such questions and how to answer them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19207" LastEditorUserId="19207" LastEditDate="2018-10-28T02:37:56.177" LastActivityDate="2018-10-28T05:53:25.563" Title="How to answer questions that don't seem to be possible to be answered on a Strongly disagree - Strongly agree scale and what's their point?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20660" CreationDate="2018-10-27T01:36:54.430" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As mentioned before the correct terminology for &quot;audiographic&quot; memory is &lt;strong&gt;Echoic&lt;/strong&gt;, however, &quot;audiographic&quot; isn't a bad term. This is because for auditory sensory input to be stored as long-term memories, the information must be visualized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A simple way to demonstrate is this goes as follows...&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Set a reminder for five minutes and make a sound. When the reminder goes off try to recall the sound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are to do this, you'll find that the sound that you recall is almost hollow in a sense. You'll know that you heard the sound, but you won't be recalling the actual sound, you're recalling the idea of it.  In other words, your brain, knowing you heard a sound will &quot;jot it down&quot; and later when it's asked what it heard it will &quot;expand&quot; the idea of audio out into your memory of sound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to Ted Cruz's case, it still appears he remembering the idea of the sound and the sound itself. I got that from the mention of transcripts. Ted is just remembering the ideas conveyed by the sound of speech with a high degree of accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The degree of accuracy Ted is able to accomplish while recalling conversations is due to a technique that is well known as &quot;Memory Palaces&quot;. This is also known as &lt;strong&gt;The Method of Loci&lt;/strong&gt; (link at the bottom). What is happening is Ted is memorizing the conversations by visualizing the conversation as a transcript and filing it away to be recalled later. I assume that this happens naturally for him, but you can train yourself to be able to do this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20638" LastActivityDate="2018-10-27T01:36:54.430" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21002" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21033" CreationDate="2018-10-27T09:39:30.943" Score="2" ViewCount="230" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire#Neuropsychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;page on desire&lt;/a&gt; has the following passage:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A 2008 study by the University of Michigan indicated that, while &lt;strong&gt;humans experience desire and fear as psychological opposites&lt;/strong&gt;, they share the same brain circuit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I feel that fear and disgust  are different. Former is what you can feel when there is something dangerous or risky. Latter is when you just perceive something like awful smell or flavor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, why and how fear and not disgust is the opposite of desire? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17199" LastEditorUserId="17199" LastEditDate="2018-12-16T17:10:20.287" LastActivityDate="2018-12-16T17:10:20.287" Title="Why fear is the opposite of desire and not disgust?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21005" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20999" CreationDate="2018-10-27T14:22:07.380" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can understand why you are perplexed. I really does seem like these sort of questions make it so that these tests can't be accurate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the tests have a lot of ambiguous questions, it is either going to inaccurate, or it doesn't matter how you answer. How can it not matter what you will answer? It's because they use a technique that palm readers use in &lt;strong&gt;Cold Reading&lt;/strong&gt;. It's called a &lt;strong&gt;Rainbow Ruse&lt;/strong&gt;. This is when a statement both reinforces a trait as well as the opposite of it. When personality tests aren't based on research, they typically use a modified version of a &lt;em&gt;rainbow ruse&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20638" LastActivityDate="2018-10-27T14:22:07.380" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21006" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-27T15:53:15.507" Score="1" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any single word for a person who shows more psychological projection (the defence mechanism of attribution of your own undesireable qualities to someone else) than a normal person? And is there a specific term for such condition?&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia link&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.everydayhealth.com/emotional-health/psychological-projection-dealing-with-undesirable-emotions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;everydayhealth.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me explain my question. A person showing extreme self importance is called a narcissist. So what do we call a person who shows extreme projections?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20643" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-10-28T09:13:09.757" LastActivityDate="2018-10-31T15:45:40.833" Title="Word for person showing psychological projection" Tags="&lt;projection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21007" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-27T16:41:11.927" Score="-1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I see your face today then I will recognize you if I see you tomorrow.&#xA;There must be something similar will happen in my brain for both incident, since the inputs to my body/brain is similar(at least some). So, that means the brain is clustering things/Inputs and I don't force the brain to cluster your face view, this happens automatically. Or may be the brain can calculate how much similar these two views of your face. anyway,may be I am completely wrong.  But the question is then how it does? and It applies for any type of sensor input to our brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;edit: yeah, it should be more specific. I am talking about neocortex.when some similar incident happens then similar regions in neocortex will active, but how does the brain calculates the similarities? it's like the brain can calculate the similarities between two groups of networks. And I trust this site more than others so I'll ask things here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20644" LastEditorUserId="20644" LastEditDate="2018-10-28T09:17:59.027" LastActivityDate="2018-10-28T18:21:11.747" Title="how does our brain knows the simialrities between anything?" Tags="&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21011" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21007" CreationDate="2018-10-28T05:07:45.293" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The brain has the abilities to do a lot of marvelous things: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It can convert electromagnetic waves that reach the eyes into spectacular visions of faces, people, trees, animals, houses, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It can convert vibrations in the air (sound waves) into the sounds of speech, music, screaming (for help), etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;it can convert contacts at the skin into the feeling of touch, vibration, pain, hot, cold, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It can create a language from arrangements of dots it sees (written languages) or sequences of sounds it hears (verbal languages).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It can store the information it receives in the form of memory and can retrieve it later when needed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It can mark the of danger or reward in the environment by creating emotion of fear or pleasure.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It can process signals it receives resulting in the complex thinking processes that can solve the encountered dangers/daily problems, complex mathematical/scientific problems, mysteries of the universe, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And many other things.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Face recognition is one of its abilities. It requires specialized neural circuits to do this function. These specialized circuits are located in specific areas of the brain, especially the FFA (Fusiform face area or fusiform gyrus), Superior temporal sulcus (STS), Anterior middle temporal gyrus (AMTG), prefrontal, and orbitofrontal cortex. Although the exact arrangement of the circuits and how they can recognize faces are still not fully understood yet, they are being studied in many centers. You can search for more information about this ability on the net by using the search words like “facial perception” or “brain facial recognition”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following references can be the starting point:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tsao DY, Livingstone MS. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629401/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mechanisms of face perception&lt;/a&gt; Annu Rev Neurosci. 2008;31:411-37.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dekowska M, Kuniecki M, Jaśkowski P. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ane.pl/linkout.php?pii=6827&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Facing facts: Neuronal mechanisms of face perception.&lt;/a&gt; Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars). 2008;68(2):229-52. PMID: 18511959&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some references for mathematical and logic operations of the brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Friedrich RM, Friederici AD.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3536745/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mathematical Logic in the Human Brain: Semantics&lt;/a&gt; PLoS One. 2013;8(1):e53699. PMID: 23301101 PMCID: PMC3536745 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053699.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Xie K, Fox GE, Liu J, Lyu C, Lee JC, Kuang H, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5108790/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain Computation Is Organized via Power-of-Two-Based Permutation Logic.&lt;/a&gt; Front Syst Neurosci. 2016 Nov 15;10:95. eCollection 2016. PMID: 27895562 PMCID: PMC5108790 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2016.00095&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tsien JZ.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4739135/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Principles of Intelligence: On Evolutionary Logic of the Brain.&lt;/a&gt; Front Syst Neurosci. 2016 Feb 3;9:186. doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2015.00186. eCollection 2015. PMID: 26869892 PMCID: PMC4739135 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2015.00186&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And for the function of the brain, which is very complex, you can read about it in many textbooks. But one reference that is available on the net (also available as books) is the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hse.ru/data/2011/06/22/1215686482/Neuroscience.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Purves D, Augustine GJ, David Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, Lamantia AS,‎ McNamara JO, Williams SM, editors.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Neuroscience. 3rd ed.&lt;/strong&gt; Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates Inc; 2004. ISBN-13: 9780878937257 ISBN-10: 0878937250.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="19332" LastEditDate="2018-10-28T18:21:11.747" LastActivityDate="2018-10-28T18:21:11.747" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21012" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20999" CreationDate="2018-10-28T05:53:25.563" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Really good question - I've had this exact conversation with a student.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's important to understand that mature scales are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_validity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;validated&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the fields of psychological testing and educational testing,&#xA;  &quot;validity refers to the degree to which evidence and theory support&#xA;  the interpretations of test scores entailed by proposed uses of&#xA;  tests&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting example is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_validity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;predictive validity&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on&#xA;  some criterion measure. ... predictive validity provides somewhat more&#xA;  useful data about test validity because it has greater fidelity to the&#xA;  real situation in which the test will be used. After all, most tests&#xA;  are administered to find out something about future behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the point of view of the developer of a psychometric test, what a subject might think of a question, how they interpret (or misinterpret) it, or what ambiguity it contains, is not as important as whether or not answers to the question contribute to the validity (especially predictive validity) of the test.  &lt;strong&gt;A question that seems meaningless to you, might actually be highly predictive (at least in general) of the criterion measure.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not always necessary for the developer to know &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; a question is predictive, only that it &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; predictive (provided other validation criteria are also met).  Scales in general are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_validity#Validation_process&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;developed using the scientific method&lt;/a&gt; - a survey you take that contains say, 20 questions, might originally have contained over 100 questions.  After testing the scale on an experimental group, researchers may discover that 20 of those questions provide 80-90% of the predictive power of the full test, and decide to shorten it.  Researchers cannot really know in advance which questions work best - that's what testing is for!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another interesting factor in psychometric testing is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_characteristics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;demand characteristics&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In research—particularly psychology—demand characteristics refers to&#xA;  an experimental artifact where participants form an interpretation of&#xA;  the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behavior to&#xA;  fit that interpretation. ... A possible reason for demand&#xA;  characteristics is the participant's expectation that he or she will&#xA;  somehow be evaluated and thus figures out a way to 'beat' the&#xA;  experiment to attain good scores in the alleged evaluation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, if you feel like your test score forms some evaluation of your character, then you might try to provide answers that you think will form a desirable evaluation, rather than an accurate one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is difficult to ascertain the value or purpose of a question in a test - some scales contain questions added for testing internal validity, specifically for detecting demand characteristics and other biases that may affect results.  For example, a test may contain 2 identical questions worded differently.  Different responses to these questions could indicate dishonesty, misinterpretation, inconsistency, or inattentiveness.  Bottom line: I wouldn't worry about what the point of a question is - don't over-think it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-10-28T05:53:25.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21013" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-28T07:25:59.510" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165027002001218&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, 10-25 subjects are enough for an fMRI study. &#xA;However, regarding EEG, it only mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0167876016301180?token=B76A66BE44AFD05464D8D19B5694F8F0062EC1BD3F884702B5BF8DD765343EDBF2F87C7E0188136B0E085C5EEC2D8DE2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; that some &quot;authors concluded that the relatively small sample sizes (average 20 subjects) in these studies are likely responsible for the inconsistent result&quot;. This paper did not give a recommendation of sample size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there a rule of thumb regarding how many subjects should be used for neuroscientific measurements in general? Are there papers regarding this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I am not currently designing an experiment, but writing a literature review regarding application of neuroscience. So I don't think I can conduct a power analysis as an answerer suggested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20522" LastEditorUserId="20522" LastEditDate="2018-10-28T08:24:56.440" LastActivityDate="2018-10-28T08:24:56.440" Title="Are there rule of thumb regarding sample size when neuroscientific measurements are used?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21014" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21013" CreationDate="2018-10-28T07:35:07.320" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The minimum sample size required to plausibly reject the null hypothesis depends not on the area of study (e.g. neuroscience), but on your study design and the statistical tests you perform.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you need to do is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(statistics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;power&lt;/a&gt; analysis. Questions regarding power analysis have been asked on &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/search?q=power%20analysis&quot;&gt;Cross Validated&lt;/a&gt;. You may want to read up on power analysis in your favourite statistics textbook and, if you have questions, ask them there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20651" LastActivityDate="2018-10-28T07:35:07.320" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21015" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19697" CreationDate="2018-10-29T10:49:48.023" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;coefficient&lt;/em&gt; is the measure of how strongly the given factor predicts the dependent variable, or in other words how much of the variance in the dependent variable can be explained by that factor. So the coefficient itself, and not the t-statistic of the coefficient, is a measure of what you're calling how well the model (or, more correctly, the regressor) fits the data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;t-statistic&lt;/em&gt; of the coefficient in a multiple regression is the statistical test of that coefficient, calculated as the coefficient divided by its standard error. So it would be most correct to say that this is a measure of how reliable the sample coefficient is, or how likely it is, given the coefficient we got, that the true coefficient is 0. But this is theoretically independent of the goodness of the fit, and you could have a very stable but small coefficient, which would get a high t-stat, or a large-on-average, but highly variable coefficient, which would receive a low t-stat. The results of the test will also, obviously, depend on your sample size and the degrees of freedom in your model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where the confusion might be is that the coefficient is more or less the same as a comparison to baseline, becuase the baseline is not (or shouldn't be) an explicit regressor in the model. A higher coefficient will mean, all else being equal, that the fit is better and/or that the effect is larger. But unless you're explicitly running a comparison of activation vs. baseline, this not what the coefficient actually means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can read more about this last issue here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/jdkent/tests_and_musings/blob/master/magnitude_and_delay_in_bold.ipynb?fbclid=IwAR3H-pvYmVQtMaDBzDAfexyNeuCUHHe6vuYLsV83l957rvHawv1bWJlaB9U&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://github.com/jdkent/tests_and_musings/blob/master/magnitude_and_delay_in_bold.ipynb?fbclid=IwAR3H-pvYmVQtMaDBzDAfexyNeuCUHHe6vuYLsV83l957rvHawv1bWJlaB9U&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10842" LastActivityDate="2018-10-29T10:49:48.023" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21020" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21024" CreationDate="2018-10-29T17:50:22.463" Score="2" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are lots of videos &amp;amp; audios for Guided Visualization for particular things like forest, beach, sky etc.. But what should I exactly search to get result for &quot;ReLive past Moment&quot;. Is there dedicated word in psychology?&#xA;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20663" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-10-30T00:33:00.583" LastActivityDate="2018-10-30T00:33:00.583" Title="Exact Medical situation name for Guided Meditation/Visualization to &quot;Re-live a moment&quot;" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21021" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21023" CreationDate="2018-10-29T20:32:04.173" Score="1" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a lot of places in psychology - for example in operant conditioning and in describing symptoms of psychological disorders - various things are described as &quot;positive&quot; and &quot;negative&quot;. Positive rewards/punishments or positive symptoms are things that are &lt;em&gt;added&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;given&lt;/em&gt; to an individual, whereas negative rewards/punishments or symptoms are things that are &lt;em&gt;taken away&lt;/em&gt; or that &lt;em&gt;disappear&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This terminology seems confusing - both the word &quot;positive&quot; and the word &quot;negative&quot; have other connotations in areas that psychology is concerned with, for example in describing mood. Using this particular terminology for things like the symptoms of psychological disorders, instead of less ambiguous words with more direct meanings like &quot;additive&quot; or &quot;subtractive&quot;, seems confusing. Is there a particular reason why the words &quot;positive&quot; and &quot;negative&quot; continue to be used in a scientific sense over such less ambiguous alternatives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20664" LastActivityDate="2018-10-30T01:02:34.690" Title="Terminology: why do psychologists use &quot;positive&quot; and &quot;negative&quot;?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21022" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21041" CreationDate="2018-10-29T22:07:16.713" Score="3" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen all those checklists of psychopathy traits, read many articles and watched several tutorials - they mention like dozens of characteristics, but never make it clear about the actual meaning of the word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is psychopathy the lack of emotion? Is it the lack of empathy? What's the most accurate definition of the term?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, a lot of things that I've seen are unclear and contradictory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A lot of explanations mention &quot;disregard to social norms&quot; as an intrinsic trait - but it clearly contradicts the trait of &quot;self-interest&quot;, because by committing crimes or disregarding norms they harm themselves just as much as they harm people around. That's exactly what some psychopaths respond to allegations that they are dangerous and may commit a crime: &quot;there's absolutely no reason or benefit of committing crime, so why would I do it?&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A lot of explanations mention &quot;superficial charm&quot;, while it's unclear how do you even measure that objectively and what does it have to do with mental disorders? Is the evaluating therapist just supposed to tick &quot;yes&quot; next to &quot;superficial charm&quot; if they personally were charmed by a psychopath, or what? And what does it even have to do with mental health: it's not like &quot;charm&quot; is an aura directly projected by brain.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's very unclear about impulsiveness, aggressiveness and impulsivity: some mention them as intrinsic traits of psychopathy, while others claim that they have nothing to do with it. It's also unclear how do they fit together with lack of emotional response or self interest, because they have nothing to do with each other or even contradict each other.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Things like &quot;manipulation&quot;, &quot;lack of realistic goals&quot; or &quot;disregard to safety&quot; seem like things that 90% of the population would qualify for, at least at some point. What exactly is so special about &quot;psychopathic&quot; disregard for safety that makes it stand out from the disregard rutinely demostrated by every chemistry freshman? Is it like they are incapable of understanding the very concept of safety, or what? Are they not only remorseless and aggressive, but also intellectually retarded? Does there exist a negative thing that psychopaths aren't?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, to the question of what psychopathy means, everyone says entirely different things, most of which either don't make sense or are self-contradictory. It seems like a blanket term for everything that's considered &quot;evil&quot; by society, but doesn't seem like a real mental disorder. Is it even one disorder, or a collective name for several unrelated disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only thing that I am clear about is that psychopathy is innate (in comparison to sociopathy, which is trauma-induced).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. I have scientific background, but I am not a psychologist - so it's possible that everything in psychology is as &quot;vague&quot;, and I just don't understand how does this area of science works (although, for example, bipolar disorder was clear enough to me).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20665" LastEditorUserId="20665" LastEditDate="2018-10-30T11:56:30.877" LastActivityDate="2020-03-09T21:03:05.627" Title="What is the proper definition of psychopathy?" Tags="&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21023" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21021" CreationDate="2018-10-29T22:15:12.200" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;They are used in conditioning because those terms were originally used by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Skinner&lt;/a&gt;, and after some shuffling around (&quot;negative reinforcement&quot; used to be used to describe what is now called &quot;punishment&quot; or more specifically &quot;positive punishment&quot;) became standard terms. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1285013/pdf/15693525.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dinsmoor (2004)&lt;/a&gt; covers a bit of the history and cites the relevant source literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia, that goes back earlier, to Bleuler who was also the first person to use the term &quot;schizophrenia&quot; in 1908 to describe the disease known by that name today. The 1908 use of schizophrenia was at a conference, but there are also published books and articles by him later that use the terms, I've included a reference to one from 1912 below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It isn't all that uncommon for scientific terms to differ from their lay usage; language is also mutable, so even carefully chosen terminology can drift away from the meaning in broader society. I'm not suggesting that is what happened in this case, but I just want to emphasize that it is typically more important to use terms consistently in science. Changing terminology that has been used for a long time is difficult, potentially confusing, and makes it harder to connect older literature to newer work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ashok, A. H., Baugh, J., &amp;amp; Yeragani, V. K. (2012). Paul Eugen Bleuler and the origin of the term schizophrenia (SCHIZOPRENIEGRUPPE). &lt;em&gt;Indian journal of psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, 54(1), 95. Available from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indianjpsychiatry.org/text.asp?2012/54/1/95/94660&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.indianjpsychiatry.org/text.asp?2012/54/1/95/94660&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bleuler, E., &amp;amp; White, W. A. (1912). The theory of schizophrenic negativism. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease&lt;/em&gt;, 39(1), 50-57, 133-139, 195-202, 274-279. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-191201000-00009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1097/00005053-191201000-00009&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dinsmoor, J. A. (2004). The etymology of basic concepts in the experimental analysis of behavior. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior&lt;/em&gt;, 82(3), 311-316. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.2004.82-311&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1901/jeab.2004.82-311&lt;/a&gt; pdf: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1285013/pdf/15693525.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1285013/pdf/15693525.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-10-30T01:02:34.690" LastActivityDate="2018-10-30T01:02:34.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21024" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21020" CreationDate="2018-10-30T00:13:28.857" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before I give the answer to your question, I must point out that pursuits into recalling past events through hypnosis etc. can lead to mixed results.  You can be lucky and gain true insight into a past event previously forgotten, but it cannot generally be relied upon in legal and forensic terms due to the risk of false memories being inadvertently implanted.  See &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/15788&quot;&gt;my previous answer to a similar question&lt;/a&gt; and also &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17246/7604&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term you are looking for is either&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;guided regression hypnosis, &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;memory recall therapy or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;memory recall training&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All involve trying to get you to recall one or more specific events in such detail that you can remember them clearly.  The problem is that these methods have been found through research to cause &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fmsfonline.org/?faq=faq&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;False Memory Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;.  Although as with many pieces of research, there are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.screamsfromchildhood.com/hoax_false_memory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;opponents to the idea&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-10-30T00:13:28.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21025" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-10-30T01:34:46.903" Score="4" ViewCount="413" Body="&lt;p&gt;Finasteride is a medication used to treat androgenetic alopecia (male pattern baldness) and enlarged prostates. Reported side effects include male breast enlargement, lowered sex drive, and headaches (among others). Additionally, there have been many anecdotal reports of &quot;brain fog&quot; and some reports of individuals unable to recall short-term memories.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finasteride blocks the conversion from testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by inhibiting 5α-Reductase type II and III. However, it can also have an effect on neurosteroids. From Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Neurosteroids like 3α-androstanediol (derived from DHT) and&#xA;  allopregnanolone (derived from progesterone) activate the GABA_A&#xA;  receptor in the brain; because finasteride prevents the formation of&#xA;  neurosteroids, it functions as a neurosteroidogenesis inhibitor and&#xA;  may contribute to a reduction of GABA_A activity. Reduction of GABA_A&#xA;  receptor activation by these neurosteroids has been implicated in&#xA;  depression, anxiety, and sexual dysfunction.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally to these secondary effects resulting from lowered DHT, finasteride itself also crosses the blood–brain barrier. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Beyond the reduction in GABA_A receptor activation, what effects does finasteride have on the brain (secondary via 5α-Reductase inhibition and lowered DHT, or directly, via crossing the blood-brain barrier) and what kind of functions are altered by it? In particular, is there any likely explanation for headaches, &quot;brain fog,&quot; and difficulty with short-term memory recall that some users report?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps some results of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453018305067&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this mouse model&lt;/a&gt; generalizes to human brains:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Finasteride treatment and its withdrawal induced neuroinflammation in&#xA;  hippocampus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although, the hippocampus is mostly responsible for long-term, rather than short-term, memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="3379" LastEditDate="2018-10-31T17:52:27.113" LastActivityDate="2018-10-31T17:52:27.113" Title="When someone consumes finasteride, what happens neurophysiologically and what mental functions / faculties are altered?" Tags="&lt;short-term-memory&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;medication&gt;&lt;testosterone&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21027" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21022" CreationDate="2018-10-30T18:49:42.257" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on psychopathy&lt;/a&gt; makes clear, there are different definitions of psychpathy – and in fact there are different definitions of every scientific concept –, depending on which scholar you consult. This is not a problem, as every scientific publication will make clear which definition it uses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The truth is that there is an ongoing discussion on what psychopathy is – and &lt;em&gt;if it exists at all!&lt;/em&gt; It is no accident that both the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Classification of Diseases&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;ICD-10&lt;/strong&gt;), which is the international standard diagnostic tool for medical and psychiatric conditions, and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSM-5&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;DSM-5&lt;/strong&gt;), which is the international standard diagnostic tool for psychological disorders, &lt;strong&gt;do not contain the diagnosis psychopathy&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20673" LastActivityDate="2018-10-30T18:49:42.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21030" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="129" CreationDate="2018-10-31T04:36:23.307" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm 33. I don't feel a bit like time is flying. I have aspergers. On the other hand, the was a YouTube video of a 29 year old who said that when he was a child, he lived in the moment and now, he feels like it's really rushing and he has anxiety about it. I have a tendency to do my own thinking from scratch which naturally buries my past in the sand. My awareness goes the other way. I have more awareness of the recent stuff. My childhood like doesn't stand out at all. Once when I went to the Church of the Transfiguration games night recently for the first time in the past year, it triggered another letting go of prior thought patterns and thinking again from scratch. Using slow thinking that just came to me, I remembered that the past did happen after all and was comparing my current thinking with earlier to see that I had let it go and started again. So my brain constructed the sensation that enough time went by for me to let it go and do it again and so eons of time had passed. After we started practicing social isolation, I adapted to it nice and easily like a young and inexperienced child who interprets what's going on right then from scratch. I'm like not thinking about when it's over. I don't have isolation fatigue a bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once I think in the past year, there was a girl who looked about 6 in a driveway drawing a picture with her mother. At first, I walked past, then I remembered it had said the word thank you and then saw and noticed that it could mean thank you for looking at my picture. So I came back and told them I saw and noticed that and then the mother was glad I had seen and noticed something interesting about it. I indeed was able to because the brain isn't hard wired and instead I do my own thinking from scratch and bury my past in the sand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once maybe about 2 months after a pancake supper, I had a dream that it was already the time of the next one and didn't like it because it didn't seem very long. Then when it actually was the time of it, I truly felt like it had been really long. My brain had changed enough so I didn't have a problem anymore. Now it may have been something like 5 years ago. Yet, I don't have a problem now. It's almost like I'm a reincarnation and don't have a problem with feeling like less time has passed because less time actually passed and the question is not how much time has passed but how far back your past goes. When I learned about events in our universe from billions of years ago, I felt like it was a new experience of my own. I guess maybe looked back at the buried in the sand past is no different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've sometimes had false memories in dreams where my past went totally differently than it did. One more recent case of a false memory in a dream was a very wierd one. In one dream, I was 70. I had a false memory that my recent past was different than it was and that what was going on now was so long ago that it was very buried in the sand and therefore didn't feel like time was rushing and so had no problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess it's cause I had already been thinking before about how although you feel like the present is fundamentally different from the past, what you're experiencing now actually is essentially the same as what you were experiencing then as long as you're a person who's brain continues doing its own thinking and burying the past in the sand and it's because you're doing your own thinking and naturally letting it get buried in the sand. If that's still what my brain is doing by 70, then technically, it will be essentially the same experience as what I'm experiencing now even though it won't feel that way because my interpretation of now will be distorted. So my brain was able to construct what it could be like when I'm 70. Maybe by then, the dream of it will be buried in the sand just like I felt like now was buried in the sand during the dream. However, I'm not thinking of this as being about a real existing time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10270" LastEditorUserId="10270" LastEditDate="2020-11-12T06:05:46.220" LastActivityDate="2020-11-12T06:05:46.220" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21031" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21032" CreationDate="2018-10-31T10:10:35.683" Score="0" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that the choice made by a subject in a choice task should be behavioral observation. But I am not sure about reaction time and memory, which is more about ability instead of intention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20522" LastActivityDate="2018-10-31T16:08:06.817" Title="Are reaction time and memory physiological measure or behavioral observation?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21032" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21031" CreationDate="2018-10-31T11:23:07.920" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It may help considering whether the phenomenon is under some  control by the participant. Pupil dilation is a physiological measure, but the speed at which I hit a key (reaction time) is a behavioral measure. Memory is a phenomenon. If you meant recall, recognition, or another memory retrieval task, how could you measure that physiologically? Memory is generally measured through (somewhat controlled) self-report. However, it could also be probed through less controllable, more automatic reactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="19843" LastEditDate="2018-10-31T16:08:06.817" LastActivityDate="2018-10-31T16:08:06.817" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21002" CreationDate="2018-10-31T11:28:21.703" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just because two phenomena (partially!) share brain architecture does not mean they are experientially similar or opposite. There is little understanding of how neuronal activity creates conscious experiences. There is a lot of controversy in taxonomies of emotion because it is not clear what the emotions are or how many there are. Also, note that psychologists tend to define emotion in a narrow way, in particular referencing how transitory it is compared to moods or personality traits: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, you feel disgust and fear are different: I anecdotally agree, some models of emotion agree, and they do not have the exact same neural correlates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Major theories of emotion generally classify emotions on two dimensions: approach vs. avoidance motivation, and pleasant vs. unpleasant. Fear and disgust are both avoid/unpleasant. Desire is in this sense the opposite of fear: approach/pleasant. An example of this model is explained here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification#Circumplex_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification#Circumplex_model&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="19843" LastEditDate="2018-10-31T16:11:45.793" LastActivityDate="2018-10-31T16:11:45.793" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21038" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21006" CreationDate="2018-10-31T15:45:40.833" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Projection is both normal (we all do it always) and (in excess) a symptom of many different psychological disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no name for such a person, as that symptom never occurs in isolation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not correct that extreme self-importance makes someone a narcissist. Again, extreme self-importance can be found in many different disorders, and narcissism has many additional symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20687" LastActivityDate="2018-10-31T15:45:40.833" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21040" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="158" CreationDate="2018-10-31T17:03:35.293" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is a proper scientific definition for insanity:  &lt;strong&gt;a disconnection from reality&lt;/strong&gt;.  If I say I'm a rabbit when it is clear to everyone else that I'm a human, I'm insane (presuming, for completeness that I'm not &lt;em&gt;acting&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, philosophers may argue on the use of the world &quot;reality&quot;, but let's stop right there -- it's a psychology SE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, there are so many pathologies extant in some of our present culture, insanity is practically the norm.  There are many misdiagnosed people because the doctors &lt;em&gt;themselves&lt;/em&gt; are disconnected from reality.  That's right.  They have no idea, for example, what life is like &quot;on the street&quot; because they've &lt;em&gt;never&lt;/em&gt; been homeless.   So, they are getting involved in complex and difficult social-economic dynamics in which they are not qualified &lt;em&gt;in any way whatsoever&lt;/em&gt;.  (I will argue that giving drugs to people on the street is an act of &lt;strong&gt;psychopathic&lt;/strong&gt; behavior, too.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But to get back to your question:  you cannot &lt;em&gt;prove&lt;/em&gt; that someone is sane or insane, because you've just broken and blurred a boundary between subject and object when trying to stick with an &lt;em&gt;objective&lt;/em&gt; definition (using the word &quot;prove&quot; implies either a closed logical system or a strictly empirical one).  Even &lt;em&gt;attempting&lt;/em&gt; to do so makes YOU the suspect of an insanity charge.  Doing so set you up for a State-sponsored type of abuse akin to Nazi Germany, since &lt;em&gt;sanity&lt;/em&gt; cannot ever simply be &lt;strong&gt;conformity&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1141" LastEditorUserId="1141" LastEditDate="2018-10-31T20:50:52.467" LastActivityDate="2018-10-31T20:50:52.467" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21041" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21022" CreationDate="2018-10-31T17:44:03.827" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, you need to delineate between two usages of the term &quot;psychopathic&quot;.  The popular one is as you defined, more or less.  The &lt;em&gt;clinical&lt;/em&gt; one can be found in the DSM of psychiatry.  It &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; include the following criteria:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;inability to empathize with others and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lack of remorse when their actions hurt someone else.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1141" LastActivityDate="2018-10-31T17:44:03.827" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21044" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20865" CreationDate="2018-11-01T04:40:11.640" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_truth_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Truth Effect&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Repetition makes statements easier to process relative to new,&#xA;  unrepeated, statements, leading people to believe that the repeated&#xA;  conclusion is more truthful. ... The illusory truth effect plays a&#xA;  significant role in such fields as election campaigns, advertising,&#xA;  news media, and political propaganda.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A seminal experiment is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232450862_Dissociation_of_Processes_in_Belief_Source_Recollection_Statement_Familiarity_and_the_Illusion_of_Truth&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Begg et al (1992)&lt;/a&gt;, in which subjects were presented with statements that they were told were false, but later rated them as truer than statements they were not previously exposed to.  Merely being exposed to statements makes them more familiar, and hence judged more true, and even being told that they are false does not counteract this effect of familiarity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recent studies have replicated these results with fake news stories.  For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://ejop.psychopen.eu/article/view/456&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Polage (2012)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... repeating false claims will not only increase their believability&#xA;  but may also result in source monitoring errors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;a href=&quot;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2958246&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pennycook et al (2017)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... even a single exposure increases subsequent perceptions of&#xA;  accuracy ... Moreover, this “illusory truth effect” for fake news&#xA;  headlines occurs despite a low level of overall believability, and&#xA;  even when the stories are labeled as contested by fact-checkers or are&#xA;  inconsistent with the reader’s political ideology. These results&#xA;  suggest ... that tagging such stories as disputed is not an effective&#xA;  solution to this problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is consistent with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief_perseverance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;belief perseverance&lt;/a&gt;.  The broader familiarity effect that causes illusion of truth is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_fluency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;processing fluency&lt;/a&gt; or cognitive ease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-04-22T02:58:40.893" LastActivityDate="2019-04-22T02:58:40.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21049" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20964" CreationDate="2018-11-01T10:53:33.443" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of parenting style questionnaires. Without knowing what dimensions of parenting style are of key interest, how long you want the questionnaire to be (e.g., trade-offs between validity, reliability with ease) and such, it's hard to recommend a particular one. You can see several from the parent perspective here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=parenting+style+questionnaire&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=parenting+style+questionnaire&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to regulations, you may need to contact the authors or journal about whether the scale is permissible for commercial use. I've only ever used scales for academic use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2018-11-01T10:53:33.443" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21055" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-02T13:48:31.337" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, would e.g. SCR (skin conductance response) or hormone level be considered to be &quot;neuroscientific measures&quot; according to general definition of neuroscience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20522" LastEditorUserId="20522" LastEditDate="2018-11-02T14:14:19.703" LastActivityDate="2018-11-12T16:53:58.427" Title="Would non-neural physiological insights be considered to be in the field of neuroscience?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21060" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-03T12:51:39.960" Score="1" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is time perception in dreams the same as time perception in waking life? There was an experiment that showed it was roughly true, (10 seconds in the dream is around 12 in real life), what causes this change in time perception? Also, why do people have dreams that seem to last weeks? Does the brain just skip over details?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Experiment: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3893623/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3893623/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20712" LastActivityDate="2018-11-03T12:51:39.960" Title="Time perception in dreams?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2018-11-04T19:07:01.817" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21062" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21105" CreationDate="2018-11-03T16:38:53.497" Score="4" ViewCount="242" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do you know of methods/tools/criteria used (in sociology, social psychology or occupational science) in order to evaluate how meaningful some particular work can be for a particular person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not asking what (in general) could make work meaningful, but whether some models/tools/lists of questions exist that can be used to measure someone's perception of his own work's meaningfulness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've come across a few tools such as the &quot;Meaningful Activity Wants and Needs Assessment&quot; (regarding life balance, more than occupational meaningfulness), &quot;WAMI Work and Meaning Inventory&quot;, and a few other tools aimed at assessing job satisfaction, work motivation, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if other formal models/tools could be suggested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20714" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-11-08T10:25:48.393" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T19:34:48.613" Title="What tools exist to measure work meaningfulness?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21063" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-03T19:06:38.417" Score="3" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lets say I have an equal variance SDT framework with an equal number of target present and target absent trials:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'=Z^{-1}(HR)-Z^{-1}(FAR)$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$C=\frac{Z^{-1}(HR)+Z^{-1}(FAR)}{-2}$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$ACC=\frac{HR+(1-FAR)}{2}$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$HR=$&lt;/span&gt; hit rate, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$FAR=$&lt;/span&gt; false alarm rate, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'=$&lt;/span&gt; sensitivity, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$C=$&lt;/span&gt; bias, and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$ACC=$&lt;/span&gt; accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I know the value of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$C$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$ACC$&lt;/span&gt;, how do I solve for &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$HR$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$FAR$&lt;/span&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To put it another way. In ROC space, I know my iso-bias curve and I know my iso-accuracy curve, and I want to know the coordinates where they intersect in terms of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$HR$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$FAR$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that I should take my equations for &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$C$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$ACC$&lt;/span&gt; in terms of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$HR$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$FAR$&lt;/span&gt;, and work them to give me &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$HR$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$FAR$&lt;/span&gt; in terms of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$C$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$ACC$&lt;/span&gt;, but I haven't managed to successfully untangle the inverse CDFs in order to do that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can rearrange the equation for &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$ACC$&lt;/span&gt;, to express &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$FAR$&lt;/span&gt; in terms of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$HR$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$ACC$&lt;/span&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$FAR=HR+1-2ACC$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then I can plug that into the equation for &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$C$&lt;/span&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$C=\frac{Z^{-1}(HR)+Z^{-1}(HR+1-2ACC)}{-2}$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And rearrange that a bit:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z^{-1}(HR)=-2C-Z^{-1}(HR+1-2ACC)$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then I could do this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$HR=Z(-2C-Z^{-1}(HR+1-2ACC))$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then I get stuck, because I'm not sure how to &quot;free&quot; the &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$HR$&lt;/span&gt; buried on the right-hand side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20716" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-04T20:42:50.527" LastActivityDate="2019-02-21T22:15:30.680" Title="Solving for HR and FAR, given ACC and C" Tags="&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21070" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-04T21:38:23.077" Score="3" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think I’ve came across a contradiction in relation to these two phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the one hand there is the following example: there was a vintage advert against pollution whereby a lot of people were shown littering as an example of negative behaviour. This was shown to be contra-effective, because showing certain negative behaviour to be commonly practiced actually made it look more acceptable and resulted in more people engaging in it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand there is the copycat effect whereby people would be encouraged to engage in certain behaviour because it is widely discussed (for example, sensational news about murder and suicide, or a novel or series/film about similar topics, resulting in people who had such tendencies imitating the said behaviours). It has been suggested that the way these topics are viewed could prevent people from engaging it the said behaviour (for example, emphasizing the grief of the victims’ relatives).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So does the way certain popular (widely practiced or widely discussed) negative behaviour is viewed actually effect whether or not it will be imitated by those who are prone to that behaviour (the first case suggests that it doesn't, the second case suggests that it does)? Or otherwise, in what way are those two effects different so that no contradiction arises?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I’m sorry for the lack of references; I read about these topics a long time ago and I’m not sure I can find the sources.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20727" LastActivityDate="2018-11-04T21:38:23.077" Title="Does the way a popular behaviour is discussed affect whether it would be imitated?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21071" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-04T23:13:56.490" Score="5" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently thinking about a project that would involve using a GSR sensor and an Arduino (Probably the &lt;a href=&quot;http://wiki.seeedstudio.com/Grove-GSR_Sensor/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Grove GSR Sensor&lt;/a&gt;) to measure Stress levels in a person. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It will not be a research project, but an art project instead. I want to build a device that shows my stress level with some LEDs as indicators. The idea is that I can walk around with it and when I approach people and talk to them the color changes because of my social anxieties. So it doesn't have to be accurate, but if it won't work at all, I might as well scrap the project.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In which ways would movement of the subject distort the readings?&lt;/strong&gt; Suppose the wearer has heightened physical activity, would the GSR sensor give any useful readings? And if so: any pointers on how to pull this off?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20729" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-06T17:13:51.800" LastActivityDate="2018-11-07T14:17:20.903" Title="Getting useful readings out of GSR sensors while moving?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21074" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21103" CreationDate="2018-11-05T19:22:57.863" Score="4" ViewCount="262" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrophilia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spectrophilia&lt;/a&gt;, is described by Wikipedia as the sexual attraction to ghosts or sexual arousal from images in mirrors, as well as the phenomenon of sexual encounters between ghosts and humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A quick and easy &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=spectrophilia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;search&lt;/a&gt; shows us that many people claim to have had these encounters, and seem completely convinced of their experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone walked into a psychiatrists office with these claims, (assuming they are seemingly normal otherwise, and have no history of mental illness), what would they most likely be diagnosed with? And what medicine might they be prescribed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Things we're assuming to be true:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ghosts aren't real.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20735" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T21:30:16.417" Title="Sex With Ghosts - Possible Clinical Diagnoses" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21076" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-06T13:28:01.877" Score="2" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;For instance a person who is racist wanting to hire black people because they want to project an image that they aren't racist. Or if they doesn't like obese people but still interacts with them to make it look like they actually like them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a term for that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20739" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-06T16:54:32.470" LastActivityDate="2018-11-08T08:56:16.070" Title="What is the term for doing things or behaviors that contrast to what you really feel?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21076" CreationDate="2018-11-06T15:08:54.957" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you describes may refer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_faith&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bad faith&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Some examples of bad faith include: a company representative who negotiates with union workers while having no intent of compromising; a prosecutor who argues a legal position that he knows to be false; an insurer who uses language and reasoning which are deliberately misleading in order to deny a claim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In his book Being and Nothingness, the philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre defined bad faith (French: mauvaise foi) as hiding the truth from oneself. The fundamental question about bad faith self-deception is how it is possible. In order for a liar to successfully lie to the victim of the lie, the liar must know that what is being said is false. In order to be successful at lying, the victim must believe the lie to be true. When a person is in bad faith self-deception, the person is both the liar and the victim of the lie. So at the same time the liar, as liar, believes the lie to be false, and as victim believes it to be true. So there is a contradiction in that a person in bad faith self-deception believes something to be true and false at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, that person can also have &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;implicit attitude&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;passive-aggressive&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;microaggression&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-11-07T02:51:46.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21078" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21076" CreationDate="2018-11-06T16:56:43.527" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not really a scientific term, but it instantly reminds me of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/british/keep-up-appearances&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;keeping up appearances&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To pretend that everything is good, for example with your marriage or your financial situation, even though you are having problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Their marriage was over, but they wanted to keep up appearances for&#xA;  the children.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-06T20:55:21.167" LastActivityDate="2018-11-06T20:55:21.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21079" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-06T17:10:20.427" Score="2" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, let's say someone uses X amount of heroin a week, and no more than Y a day. If somehow their arm is connected to a device that randomly (unpredictably, but within their &quot;waking leisure hours&quot;) administers heroin at no more than Y a day and X per week, would users feel as addicted or dependent on the substance? Or would the loss of control, not even necessarily being able to look forward to using the substance every day or at a certain time or after certain events or feelings, make it not nearly as satisfying or addictive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20742" LastActivityDate="2018-11-06T20:04:36.377" Title="To what extent is control over when a substance is used relevant to addiction?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21080" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21071" CreationDate="2018-11-06T17:11:01.610" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the general downside of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodermal_activity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;galvanic skin response&lt;/a&gt; (GSR) apply here. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodermal_activity#Possible_problems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; sums up a few confounding factors that affect the validity of GSR: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Temperature and humidity (affect the resistance of the skin and hence GSR);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Internal factors, such as medications and hydration;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Different locations of measurement on the body can lead to different responses; for example, the responses on the left and right wrists are driven by different regions of the brain, providing multiple sources of arousal. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Different body parts may have different sweat gland density &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Electrodermal responses are delayed 1–3 seconds.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My personal biggest issue with the method is the fact that the GSR depends so much on the temperature of the room and activity of the subject. However, my purpose for it is a quantitative one; your is more of a qualitative one as I understand it. If yes, then some variability may not be so problematic and you can counter the above drawbacks by &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Only do the experiment indoors in a climate controlled environment;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Calibrate the equipment on yourself and only use yourself as a subject and stay hydrated;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Always use the same location (fingers in case of your linked device);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Give your device some time to respond; so the (stress) situation has to be somewhat prolonged, and the response will be delayed.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do note that skin conductances are finicky. You can assure good contact by rubbing the skin with alcohol and a rough-surface pice of gauze. Make sure to apply some conductive paste. Measure the impedances regularly.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;FYI: I have chosen to use &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://imotions.com/blog/pupillometry-101/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pupillometry&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; as a measure of stress. It has its own drawbacks and issues (especially adaptational responses and baseline issues), but once it works, it's less prone to signal drift, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; because of impedance issues as with electrode-based methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below I've added a reference that lists an entire protocol for such measurements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5614368/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cartocci &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Vis Exp&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;126&lt;/strong&gt;: 55872&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-07T14:17:20.903" LastActivityDate="2018-11-07T14:17:20.903" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21081" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21079" CreationDate="2018-11-06T18:56:47.883" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a tough question to answer definitively. I won't address heroin specifically but rather drugs of abuse more generally since a lot of the addictive patterns are the same and heroin is less often studied in the lab.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not aware of studies that specifically use the protocol you are describing in human subjects; although you might be able to make some inference based on drug seeking behavior after hospital administration of opiates, for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in animal studies, drug sensitization protocols have been used where animals are given injections of some drug, and later are allowed to self-administer the drug. Typically, animals who were previously given injections of the drug are quick to develop self-administration habits compared to unexposed animals. It's hard to ask an animal what they &quot;feel&quot; and this may not be the same as &quot;feeling addicted/dependent&quot; but at least when they have an opportunity to self-administer they are more prone to take the opportunity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This effect is sensitive to the particulars of the experiment, though: Higher self-administration doses don't show the effect (because undosed animals also quickly develop a habit). Limited exposure tends to create less or absent sensitization. Sensitization effects tend to be easier to detect when animals have to work harder for subsequent doses in a progressive ratio paradigm; on a fixed ratio paradigm the differences are minor or non-existent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A great experiment to most directly address your question would be to dose one animal according to the self-administration patterns of another and compare them on addictive behaviors; however, one difficulty in such a comparison is that the animals that haven't been dosing themselves still need to learn &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; to dose themselves. I am not aware of a study that has done this but I hope if it has been done someone else can point it out!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ferrario, C. R., Gorny, G., Crombag, H. S., Li, Y., Kolb, B., &amp;amp; Robinson, T. E. (2005). Neural and behavioral plasticity associated with the transition from controlled to escalated cocaine use. Biological psychiatry, 58(9), 751-759.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lett, B. T. (1989). Repeated exposures intensify rather than diminish the rewarding effects of amphetamine, morphine, and cocaine. Psychopharmacology, 98(3), 357-362.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lorrain, D. S., Arnold, G. M., &amp;amp; Vezina, P. (2000). Previous exposure to amphetamine increases incentive to obtain the drug: long-lasting effects revealed by the progressive ratio schedule. Behavioural brain research, 107(1-2), 9-19.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mendrek, A., Blaha, C. D., &amp;amp; Phillips, A. G. (1998). Pre-exposure of rats to amphetamine sensitizes self-administration of this drug under a progressive ratio schedule. Psychopharmacology, 135(4), 416-422.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-11-06T20:04:36.377" LastActivityDate="2018-11-06T20:04:36.377" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21084" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-07T14:34:11.523" Score="5" ViewCount="509" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to have a test that would predict whether two people will get along (enjoy conversation and possibly become friends) if they try? The idea is simple: many people pass the test and then, by looking at results, we can find matches for potential friendship. However, I feel that it's not easy to implement if at all possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's obvious how to find shared interests, but I doubt it would be enough to find a match. So, the test should explore some personality characteristics. &lt;em&gt;The question is what should we test for and how to find matches based on results?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have education in psychology or something similar, and I couldn't find any relevant information. There are many articles regarding compatibility for romantic relationship, but that's not the same thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20750" LastEditorUserId="20750" LastEditDate="2018-11-08T18:13:54.330" LastActivityDate="2021-04-28T16:22:32.207" Title="How to test people's compatibility for friendship" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21087" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21088" CreationDate="2018-11-07T19:27:13.250" Score="0" ViewCount="158" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One possible reason would be because intelligent give humans, and only humans, evolutionary edge compared to their peers. Gorilla, for example, are strong because strength give Gorilla evolutionary edge. For our species, that's intelligence. But how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What evolutionary advantage does having high &quot;intelligence&quot; does to humans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My friend told me that the greatest benefit of intelligence is that we &quot;deceive&quot; others betters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that the main use of intelligent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deceiving others? Many of my mensa friends are honest. If anything I hate lies in any form except for jokes. Also we don't seem to have more children than normies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does having, say, high IQ help a person reproduce?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9214" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-07T21:24:27.113" LastActivityDate="2018-11-08T21:43:39.967" Title="Why are we the smartest species on the whole known universe?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;anthropology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21088" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21087" CreationDate="2018-11-07T21:16:00.070" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just finished a special issue on 'Humans - Why we're unlike any other species on the planet' (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/magazine/sa/2018/09-01/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, September 2018&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this issue, &lt;a href=&quot;https://risweb.st-andrews.ac.uk/portal/en/persons/kevin-neville-laland(4ae352f3-32ca-418e-9d07-9b8ee17e6183).html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kevin Laland&lt;/a&gt; has a paper (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-made-us-unique/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How we became a different kind of animal&lt;/a&gt;) and he nicely abstracts the answer to your question in your question title: &lt;em&gt;Why are we the smartest species on the whole known universe?&lt;/em&gt;, namely:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Human accomplishments derive from &lt;strong&gt;our ability to acquire knowledge from others&lt;/strong&gt; and to use that communal store of experience to devise novel solutions to life's challenges.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Other species innovate, too. Chimps open nuts with stone hammers. Dolphins use a tool to flush out hidden prey.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Our uniqueness has to do with a &lt;strong&gt;capacity to teach skills to others over the generations&lt;/strong&gt; with enough precision for building skyscrapers or going to the moon.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, relating to your question body's focus, &lt;em&gt;What [is the] evolutionary advantage [of] having [a] high &quot;intelligence&quot; [for]  humans?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that same special issue, &lt;a href=&quot;https://anthropology.columbian.gwu.edu/chet-sherwood&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chet C. Sherwood&lt;/a&gt; explains this question in his contribution &lt;em&gt;'&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/journal/v319/n3/full/scientificamerican0918-60.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Are we wired differently&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/em&gt; by saying:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Modern human brains are about threefold larger than those of our closest hominin acestors []. [T]he parts of the cerebral cortex involved in higher-order cognitive functions, such as creativity and abstract thinking, have become especially enlarged. These [...] association regions [...] are loci for language, toolmaking and imitation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, that last sentence couples the two papers nicely - we need that bigger brain to allow us to use language and imitation to be able to teach and learn, respectively. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your next question, regarding that &lt;em&gt;My friend told me that the greatest benefit of intelligence is that we &quot;deceive&quot; others betters&lt;/em&gt; - Now that is exactly what is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; the consensus as of now. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.uq.edu.au/profile/2356/thomas-suddendorf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thomas Suddendorf&lt;/a&gt;, again in that same special issue explains in his paper &lt;em&gt;'&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.uq.edu.au/profile/2356/thomas-suddendorf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Two key features created the human mind&lt;/a&gt;'&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why are we, and not gorillas, running the zoos? [...]. Research has revealed two distinct human features: complex scenario building and exchanging thoughts with others.Together these traits underlie critical human capacities such as language, culture., [and] &lt;strong&gt;morality&lt;/strong&gt; [...]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eva.mpg.de/psycho/staff/tomas/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Michael Tomasello&lt;/a&gt;, [yes, again that same issue], explains in his paper &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-origins-of-human-morality/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Origins of Human Morality - How we learned to put our fate in one another’s hands&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] [S]ituations of reciprocity can arise in which I scratch your back and you scratch mine and we both benefit in the long run.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While chimps may hunt together, when the bounty has been found and captured, the feeding is an individual matter. In contrast, humans have the tendency to take care for the group, and share food. Taking care of the group eventually pays itself of, as the group will take care of you. This is enhanced by the sense of morality, in which you will do no harm to others. If you do, you will be excluded from the group, and no one will scratch your back.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Seeds of human morality were planted some 400,000 years ago, when individuals began to collaborate in hunting-and-gathering exploits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/magazine/sa/2018/09-01/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Special issue of &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, September 2018&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-08T21:43:39.967" LastActivityDate="2018-11-08T21:43:39.967" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21089" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21087" CreationDate="2018-11-07T21:27:02.663" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The evolution of higher intelligence in hominids is an empirically difficult enough evolutionary question that (a) it might be better for biology.se and (b) any answer needs to be taken with a pinch of salt, but I'll give you a feel for it. By that I mean, &quot;watch the way multiple accidents of evolutionary history made evolution more favourable among our ancestors than most animals&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 2003 documentary &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walking_with_Cavemen#Episodes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Walking with Cavemen&lt;/a&gt; discussed one model of what happened to early hominids: a decline in African rainforest coverage c. 8 Mya led to arboreal primates evolving bipedalism for more efficient locomotion, and this meant hands no longer compromised between movement and tool usage. Hand-brain co-evolution would have involved a positive feedback, which may (or may not - always bear that in mind) be part of the reason for rapid brain growth among Australopithecines. The same documentary also discussed how subsequent climate change in Africa changed the ecosystem enough to provide new nutrition opportunities for early &lt;em&gt;Homo&lt;/em&gt; species, and how the move from North Africa to West Asia led to bamboo tools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence#Models&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;many models&lt;/a&gt; for what encouraged the evolution of higher intelligence in our ancestors, at various points in the past 5 Mya or so. The reason a trait is more favoured in one species than another comes down to unique cost-benefit analyses. Large brains are expensive, but the shift from a mostly herbivorous diet to one more reliant on meat, especially bone marrow (which only hominid tools could access), is part of why they were &quot;worth it&quot; in our genus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18332" LastActivityDate="2018-11-07T21:27:02.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21076" CreationDate="2018-11-08T07:54:31.033" Score="4" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there a term for that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest term I can think of relevant to psychology is the Freudian concept of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_formation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reaction formation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; the classic example being the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/29/opinion/sunday/homophobic-maybe-youre-gay.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gay homophobe&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-11-08T08:56:16.070" LastActivityDate="2018-11-08T08:56:16.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21095" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-09T09:10:16.380" Score="3" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I have moved this question over from ux.stackexchange in the hope that it is a better fit for this forum and will get a few answers&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a great deal of information that one can find on the web which discusses the emotional impact that typography can have on the viewer.  To name two recent relevant articles&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.crazyegg.com/blog/psychology-of-fonts-infographic/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.crazyegg.com/blog/psychology-of-fonts-infographic/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://thenextweb.com/dd/2017/03/31/science-behind-fonts-make-feel/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://thenextweb.com/dd/2017/03/31/science-behind-fonts-make-feel/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find myself wondering whether the broad conclusions presented in such articles has any validity when dealing with text in Arabic or in Indian or Far Eastern languages.  And then does the perception of typography for text presented in the latin alphabet change across cultures?  I have come across one study that is both interesting and relevant&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1670&amp;amp;context=etds&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1670&amp;amp;context=etds&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps there is someone on this forum who has studied these issues more thoroughly who might be able to comment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some very broad conclusions one can draw fro the Cornerstone study I mention above&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Common typefaces that have had a lot of exposure across the world are more likely to be perceived in the same way across cultures.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The cross cultural receptiveness to sans serif typefaces is more uniform than serif typefaces&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;While there can be broad agreement at the like/dislike level the evaluation of individual typeface traits - the author uses descriptors such as &quot;professional&quot; and &quot;friendly&quot; - can vary quiet markedly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Newer typeface innovations such as slab serif and geometric lead to greater difference in perception across cultures (this from the author's conclusion but I am unable to see where this was tested in the work in question)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19016" LastEditorUserId="19016" LastEditDate="2018-12-11T13:22:23.353" LastActivityDate="2018-12-11T13:22:23.353" Title="Linguistic &amp; cross-cultural perceptions of typography" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21098" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21101" CreationDate="2018-11-09T15:01:38.893" Score="4" ViewCount="651" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I understand, the optic nerve of each eye transmits information to both hemispheres of the brain. This is unlike other sensory and motor information, where (for example) the right hand is controlled by the left and vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most sources I read skip over this information or don't explain it clearly, but I found it stated this way in &lt;a href=&quot;https://open.lib.umn.edu/intropsyc/chapter/4-2-seeing/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Introduction to Psychology ebook&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://sites.psu.edu/clarep/2017/04/20/a-dominant-preference-eye-or-hand/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this blog post&lt;/a&gt; (quotes pasted below; scroll for it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I also read about split-brain experiments (such as those by Sperry and Gazzaniga) performed on patients who had undergone corpus calloscotomy, where the link between the two hemispheres of their brain was broken. Many of these experiments are vision-based, showing different visual stimuli to each eye and observing reactions in the corresponding hemisphere. But &lt;strong&gt;this assumes that the right eye transmits information only to the left, and vice versa&lt;/strong&gt;, which, according to the other two sources, does not seem to be the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking it further, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-superhuman-mind/201211/split-brains&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Psychology Today article&lt;/a&gt; mentions studies on hemispheric transfer, which showed that subjects could read text more efficiently when fed directly to the right-eye (∵ contralateral control), rather than going to the left eye and then having to be transferred to the left hemisphere for processing—again implying that vision follows the contralateral principle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Relevant quotes&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To avoid forcing people to follow through links, I've pasted the relevant quotes here. Feel free to skip past to my main question below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://open.lib.umn.edu/intropsyc/chapter/4-2-seeing/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Introduction to Psychology&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; ebook:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although the principle of contralateral control might lead you to expect&#xA;  that the left eye would send information to the right brain hemisphere&#xA;  and vice versa, nature is smarter than that. In fact, the left and&#xA;  right eyes each send information to both the left and the right&#xA;  hemisphere, and the visual cortex processes each of the cues&#xA;  separately and in parallel. This is an adaptational advantage to an&#xA;  organism that loses sight in one eye, because even if only one eye is&#xA;  functional, both hemispheres will still receive input from it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://sites.psu.edu/clarep/2017/04/20/a-dominant-preference-eye-or-hand/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The blog post&lt;/a&gt;, titled &lt;em&gt;A dominant preference: Eye or hand?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of my previous blog posts contained data confirming that a&#xA;  person’s preferred hand and foot often are aligned on the same side of&#xA;  the body. This is the case for both left- and right-handers.¹&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The neural wiring from eye to brain is more complex. Optic nerve&#xA;  fibers from one eye travel to both the right and the left hemispheres.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-superhuman-mind/201211/split-brains&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/em&gt; article&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A team of researchers from UC Santa Barbara, led by Gazzaniga,&#xA;  recently tested information transfer using MEG. Language is processed&#xA;  in areas of the temporal lobe on the left side of the head. When you&#xA;  read with your left eye, the information first ends up in the right&#xA;  hemisphere and must be transferred to the left hemisphere via the&#xA;  corpus callosum to be processed. To test the efficiency of the&#xA;  hemispheric transfer the researchers showed a randomized list of words&#xA;  and nonsense words to the left or right eye of a number of research&#xA;  participants. They then measured how effectively the subjects would be&#xA;  able to distinguish words from nonsense words. The study showed that&#xA;  subjects were significantly more efficient in determining the nature&#xA;  of the string of letters when the information was fed directly to the&#xA;  left hemisphere via the right eye. Apparently the brain has&#xA;  difficulties processing information that has had to travel long&#xA;  distances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;My question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming my first information is accurate, here's one explanation I can think of: each eye &lt;em&gt;usually&lt;/em&gt; sends information only to the opposite eye, but the optic nerve fibres travel to both hemispheres &lt;em&gt;in case&lt;/em&gt; one eye stops functioning, in which case the remaining eye begins transmitting to both hemispheres. That seems a bit of a stretch, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So, here's my question:&lt;/strong&gt; How do vision-based split-brain experiments account for the fact that the optic nerve reaches both hemispheres? Are there other properties of transmission that I'm not aware of (such as my hypothesis above)? Or is the assertion that the optic nerve transmits to both hemispheres simply false?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20621" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T22:17:48.217" Title="If the optic nerve transmits to both hemispheres, how do split-brain experiments work?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21099" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21074" CreationDate="2018-11-09T15:48:55.343" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is very much unlikely that someone would have this kind of delusion but be completely normal otherwise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People suffering from Delusional Disorder (F22.0), the only disorder with isolated delusions, usually have &quot;realistic&quot; delusions such as pathological jealousy, not hallucinations such as intercourse with a ghost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All disorders which could cause delusions such as sexual hallucinations usually cause other symptoms as well and these people are not usually otherwise &quot;normal&quot; at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, what you describe is not a psychological disorder that has been encountered as yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Historically, the belief in succubi and the conviction that one has been the victim of one are not a psychological disorder but an interpretation of real events (e.g. sleep paralysis) within the context of superstition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20778" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T15:48:55.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21100" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21084" CreationDate="2018-11-09T16:02:36.060" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no such thing as a test for compatibility in a friendship. There are measures for amity (that is, how much we feel someone &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; our friend), but no tests that predict whether two people would &lt;em&gt;become&lt;/em&gt; good friends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are tests that aim to test for compatibility in romantic relationships. These are based on theories about what makes romantic relationships work, and some of them are employed on certain online dating platforms. Some of these platforms (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.parship.at/forschung_neu/index.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Parship.de&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.edarling.de/forschung&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Edarling.de&lt;/a&gt;), conduct studies to test their &quot;scientific dating&quot; principles and publish them. What is interesting in this context is that while there are clear indications for what makes a majority of romantic relationships work, but psychologists have as yet been unable to predict what makes people &lt;em&gt;fall in love&lt;/em&gt;. So we know what would make them happy in the long term, but we don't know how to get them together. People fall in love for reasons that are very individual and cannot be systematized, yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In friendships, there are of course similar predictors as in romantic relationships, but since friendships are often much looser, friends spend very much less time with each other, and therefore don't need the same level of compatibility (because much incompatibility is compensated by less expectations and more time without each other), it is often enough for friends to share the same hobby, the same job, or live in the same neighborhood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you think of friendship as very intimate relationships with much sharing of emotions and thoughts, that is, of close &quot;best&quot; friends, then tests for romantic relationships would very likely cover aspects of these friendships as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20779" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-12-10T12:21:56.650" LastActivityDate="2018-12-10T12:21:56.650" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21098" CreationDate="2018-11-09T16:35:30.237" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some of those pop science articles might be simplifying a bit by saying the stimuli are provided to the &lt;em&gt;left or right eyes&lt;/em&gt;. In fact, they are actually presented to the &lt;em&gt;left or right visual field&lt;/em&gt; which is an important distinction. The left &lt;em&gt;visual field&lt;/em&gt;, from both eyes, goes to the right hemisphere, and vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The experimental paradigm is illustrated in Gazzaniga 1995:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/C6sHs.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/C6sHs.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0896627395902805&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gazzaniga, M. S. (1995). Principles of human brain organization derived from split-brain studies. Neuron, 14(2), 217-228.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will see that they go to great lengths to make sure the image stays in one visual field, tracking the eye movements and moving the image accordingly to prevent any &quot;peeking.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So no, these experiments don't depend on remodeling of the connections from the eyes to the different hemispheres, and you are correct that each eye sends some information to each hemisphere. However, that information is not complete: it is separated by visual field. Your &lt;a href=&quot;https://open.lib.umn.edu/intropsyc/chapter/4-2-seeing/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Intro to Psychology eBook shows this in Figure 4.2&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3fmKb.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3fmKb.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;red&quot; axons from each eye are on the right side of each retina, collect light from the left visual field, and travel to the right hemisphere. Vice versa for blue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T16:35:30.237" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21102" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21055" CreationDate="2018-11-09T16:59:10.113" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is increasing scientific evidence to incorporate other organ systems when considering the whole function of the nervous system. Neuroendocrinology, neurogastroenterology, and neuroimmunology are burgeoning fields of research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If for instance, you were interested in the effects of stress on neurodevelopment, you would likely want to be measuring cortisol levels in your animal model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you were performing a study on human fear response, you might want to record SCR in addition to other measures (EEG, fMRI, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The definition of neuroscience is intentionally broad. There are many biochemists, for instance, who are interested primarily in cell structure, stability, and the transport mechanisms within who study neural tissue specifically because neurons happen to be interesting cases (axons can be very long, how do nutrients and proteins get to where they need to be?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci 2013; 11(3): 107-117  &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.9758/cpn.2013.11.3.107&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.9758/cpn.2013.11.3.107&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ann Clin Biochem. 2017 May;54(3):308-322. doi: 10.1177/0004563216687335. Epub 2017 Mar 16&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;J Del Signore, Steven &amp;amp; Rodal, Avital. (2016). The membrane strikes back: phosphoinositide binding regulates Skywalker function. Nature Structural &amp;amp; Molecular Biology. 23. 956-957. 10.1038/nsmb.3313. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;J. Herzog, Josiah &amp;amp; Deshpande, Mugdha &amp;amp; Shapiro, Leah &amp;amp; Rodal, Avital &amp;amp; Paradis, Suzanne. (2017). TDP-43 misexpression causes defects in dendritic growth. Scientific Reports. 7. 10.1038/s41598-017-15914-4. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20290" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2018-11-12T16:53:58.427" LastActivityDate="2018-11-12T16:53:58.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21103" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21074" CreationDate="2018-11-09T17:07:55.300" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sleep paralysis can sometimes result in hallucinations corollary to the paralysis experience. Similarly, bipolar I and other psychotic disorders (viz. the schizophrenia spectrum) could produce vivid enough hallucinations and delusions, though in general, vivid visual hallucinations are quite rare.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is highly unlikely that someone who is describing these experiences is not experiencing any other symptoms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Standard treatment would depend primarily on what other issues the patient might be experiencing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the patient is experiencing dissociation and misinterpreting this as sex with ghosts for some reason, cognitive or dialectical behavior therapy would be the indicated treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the patient were agitated, or disoriented to time, place, or person, the psychiatrist would likely prescribe psychotherapy and an atypical antipsychotic (e.g. risperidone, brexipiprazole).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sharpless, Brian A., et al., Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2010; vol 66: pp 1292-1306.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bell, CC, et al., &quot; American J Psychiatry, 1986; vol 143: p 1484.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ranier Biobehavioral Institute: &quot;Sleep Paralysis.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mayo Clinic. &quot;Dissociative Disorders.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20290" LastEditorUserId="20290" LastEditDate="2018-11-09T21:30:16.417" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T21:30:16.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21104" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21125" CreationDate="2018-11-09T17:41:20.327" Score="3" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;Almost everybody has had an experience where someone asks them what their favorite book is, and they immediately forget every single book they have ever read. This infuriating consequence of attempting to dig into memory is mysterious enough by itself. Why does this happen? Why do our memories suddenly disappear when provoked?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?safe=strict&amp;amp;ei=AAbqW7aPM6qJ0wLmyKagDA&amp;amp;q=why%20do%20we%20forget%20stuff%20when%20someone%20asks%20for%20them&amp;amp;oq=why%20do%20we%20forget%20stuff%20when%20someone%20asks%20for%20them&amp;amp;gs_l=psy-ab.3..35i39.3763.3763..4055...0.0..0.84.84.1......0....1..gws-wiz.......0i71.Hn2J1z6Whof&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=why%20is%20it%20when%20someone%20asks%20us%20what%20our%20favorite%20book%20is%20we%20cannot%20remember%20it&amp;amp;oq=why%20is%20it%20when%20someone%20asks%20us%20what%20our%20favorite%20book%20is%20we%20cannot%20remember%20it&amp;amp;aqs=chrome..69i57.12492j0j1&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;, but the results don't provide a direct and suitable enough answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20780" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-11-13T17:16:25.017" LastActivityDate="2021-02-24T01:12:29.660" Title="Why do we forget what we try to remember?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21105" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21062" CreationDate="2018-11-09T19:34:48.613" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a bunch of them! For a great review of many definitions and measures of meaningfulness, see if you can get a copy of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320783289_A_Narrative_Evidence_Synthesis_of_Meaningful_Work_Progress_and_Research_Agenda&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Narrative Evidence Synthesis of Meaningful Work: Progress and Research Agenda&lt;/a&gt;. The authors are pretty responsive in my experience and will send you a copy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing to keep in mind, though, is that there are a bunch of different definitions of work meaningfulness. Everybody has their own approach, some are better than others (i.e., more likely to actually measure meaningfulness and not something related like engagement or intrinsic motivation), and there isn't really a consensus yet. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1069072711436160?casa_token=YskKrWhOPioAAAAA:fTu3Wrpj7t5qVZyIXQ8S5TJQ3rMEiVcZnL7tYc9zUPMmfO3rZOqdVTIVdt8ljoj0VmPijEN-BxZSx8w&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WAMI&lt;/a&gt; you mentioned is built by highly-regarded meaningfulness researchers, is very commonly used in studies of meaningfulness, and I think it's a great &quot;safe bet&quot; measure for getting overall work meaningfulness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you're looking to zoom-in a little and look at &lt;em&gt;sources&lt;/em&gt; of meaning (is it the challenge of your work that you find meaningful, or bonding with coworkers?) like those described in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191308510000067&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;On the meaning of work: A theoretical integration and review&lt;/a&gt;, then you might want to check out the &lt;a href=&quot;http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1059601112461578?casa_token=hNoEccCFNZIAAAAA:IQ1mwSpUGH4FQAzelM-BSmDWxGbXdbwm6BCGmfvA1WTUEcKXcmmKHJ9xrysiD10vuq_01rHKWE5L85M&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Comprehensive Meaningful Work Scale&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope that helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20785" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T19:34:48.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21106" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21098" CreationDate="2018-11-09T20:40:06.297" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Split brain subjects do not (necessarily) have to have an ablated &lt;em&gt;optic chiasm&lt;/em&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;You have to realize that the site where the right and left visual hemi-fields are split occurs in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://radiopaedia.org/articles/optic-chiasm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;optic chiasm&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. This structure is situated anatomically at a different location than the major highway between both hemispheres, namely the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cnsvp.stanford.edu/atlas/corpus_callosum.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (Fig. 1). Hence, your question...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How do vision-based split-brain experiments account for the fact that the optic nerve reaches both hemispheres? Are there other properties of transmission that I'm not aware of (such as my hypothesis above)? Or is the assertion that the optic nerve transmits to both hemispheres simply false?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...can be answered with the fact that split-brain subjects don't (necessarily) have their optic chiasm severed. And optic nerves do transmit to both cortices for sure (Fig. 2); each hemifield is projected to the same cortical region. This feature allows us to see depth, using binocular vision through a process referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binocular_disparity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;binocular disparity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lmxbY.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lmxbY.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;brain&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Mid-saggital section through the brain. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.studocu.com/en/document/university-of-birmingham/medical-science-and-society/lecture-notes/threats-and-defence-anatomy-week-2/1950648/view&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Studoku&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qc66o.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qc66o.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;visual pathway&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Visual pathway. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brainrecoveryproject.org/for-parents/brain-surgeries-to-stop-seizures/hemispherectomy/functional-outcomes/vision-hemispherectomy-occipital-lobectomy-tpo-disconnection/1420_optical_fields/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Brain Recovery Project&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-09T22:17:48.217" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T22:17:48.217" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21107" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1979" CreationDate="2018-11-09T21:25:11.187" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Akathisia is very difficult to handle. Sometimes akathisia responds to anxiolytic drugs such as benzodiazepines, propranolol, and even red wine. Amantadine, benztropine (for Parkinsonism) might also help. Mostly these are off-label prescriptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meditation, exercise, and de-stressing measures are certainly helpful on general principle, though the best way to eliminate akathisia (if it is drug-induced) is to taper down the dosage or take a different medication. Finding a medication that treats the symptoms and provides a quality of life improvement despite side-effects is the job of the physician. You can think of it as quality of life improvement from reduction of symptoms plus quality of life improvement from minimization of side-effects, of which akathisia is one of the most common and unpleasant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mdedge.com/psychiatry/article/89620/somatic-disorders/akathisia-restlessness-primary-condition-or-adverse-drug&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mdedge.com/psychiatry/article/89620/somatic-disorders/akathisia-restlessness-primary-condition-or-adverse-drug&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;King DJ, Burke M, Lucas RA. Antipsychotic drug-induced dysphoria. Br J Psychiatry 1995; 167:480–482.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Healy D, Farquhar G. Immediate effects of droperidol. Hum Psychopharm 1998; 13:113–120.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jones-Edwards G. An eye-opener. OpenMind 1998; September:12,13,19.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jones-Edwards G. On the receiving end. New Therapist 2000; 7:40–43.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Belmaker RH, Wald D. Haloperidol in normals. Br J Psychiatry 1977; 131:222–223.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kendler KS. A medical student’s experience with akathisia. Am J Psychiatry 1976; 133:454.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Healy D, Savage M (1998) Reserpine exhumed. Brit J Psychiatry 172: 376–378.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20290" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T21:25:11.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21108" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8601" CreationDate="2018-11-09T21:34:23.523" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research by Josef Parnas and others has resulted in the Examination of Anomalous Experience, a philosophical structure for examining cognitive disorders. The research, between philosophers, neuroscientists, and psychiatrists indicates commonalities of disordered thought, especially anomalous self-experience. The EASE is designed to be used as a treatment aid for educating psychiatrists on how to recognize and respond to patients attempting to explain their thought disorder symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://easenet.dk/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://easenet.dk/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Handest P, Parnas J. Clinical characteristics of first-admitted patients with ICD-10 schizotypal disorder. British J Psychiatry, 2005; 187 (Suppl. 48): 49-54.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moller P, Husby R. 2000, The initial prodrome in schizophrenia: searching for naturalistic core dimensions of experience and behavior, Schizophr Bull, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 217-32.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parnas J, Jansson L, Sass LA, Handest P. Self-experience in the prodromal phases of schizophrenia: A pilot study of first admissions. Neurology, Psychiatry and Brain Research. 1998; 6: 97-106.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sass L, Parnas J. Self, consciousness, and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 2003; 29/3: 427-444.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parnas J, Handest P, Sæbye D, Jansson L. Anomalies of subjective experience in schizophrenia and psychotic bipolar illness. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2003, 108:126-133.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parnas J, Handest P. Phenomenology of anomalous self-experience in early schizophrenia &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Comprehensive Psychiatry. 2003: 44 (2); 121-34.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parnas J, Bovet P, Licht D. (2005) Cluster A personality disorders: A review. In M. Maj, H. Aksiskal, JE Mezzich, A Okasha (eds.) Personality Disorders. WPA Series: Evidence and Experience in Psychiatry. Chichester, John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parnas J, Handest P. Troubles de la conscience de soi: importance pathogénique et clinique dans la schizophrénie debutante. Psychiatrie, Sciences Humaines, Neuroscience. 2005: 3 (suppl. 1) ; 17-29.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parnas J, Handest P, Jansson L, Sæbye D. Anomalies of Subjective Experience among First-admitted Schizophrenia Spectrum Patients: Empirical Investigation. &#xA;Psychopathology. 2005: 38; 259-267.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Skodlar B, Tomori M, Parnas J. Subjective experience and suicidal ideation in schizophrenia.Comprehensive Psychiatry. 2008, in press, avaiable online.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vollmer-Larsen A, Handest P, Parnas J. Reliability of measuring anomalous experience: the Bonn Scale for the Assessment of Basic Symptoms (BSABS). Psychopathology, 2007, 40; 345-348.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20290" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T21:34:23.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21111" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21084" CreationDate="2018-11-09T23:35:59.410" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I spent a short period studying and developing conflict and cooperation models, the resulting research was proprietary so I was hesitant to actually respond to this question as there is nothing I can think of to reference directly except maybe some of the implications of the robbers cave experiment (the utility of this experiment is disputed). That being said, I don't believe I ever found a &quot;test&quot; that would predict the likelihood that any two participants would be friends. However, our previously mentioned research found that one of the most important &lt;em&gt;indicators&lt;/em&gt;, not a test, but indicators, of potential friendship was not common interest, but common enemies or disagreements. though this answer may not be accepted as it does not meet standard requirements for acceptance, I felt that it was reasonable enough to mention if it helped point your search in the right direction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20772" LastActivityDate="2018-11-09T23:35:59.410" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21113" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-10T17:16:10.003" Score="2" ViewCount="309" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question of whether IQ is Normally distributed, or instead follows e.g. a Pearson type IV distribution, has been debated since at least the 1910s. The quotient- and deviation-based definitions give rise to very different eras in that debate, of course. (However, the distribution of an integer-valued IQ cannot be exactly Normal, even on a deviation-based definition.) A Normal distribution is uniquely characterised by its mean &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\mu$&lt;/span&gt; and standard deviation &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\sigma$&lt;/span&gt;. Its next two moments are the skew &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\gamma_1=0$&lt;/span&gt; and excess kurtosis &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\kappa_\text{excess}=0$&lt;/span&gt;. To disambiguate, I've defined&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$\gamma_1=\mathbb{E}\bigg(\tfrac{X-\mu}{\sigma}\bigg)^3,\,\kappa_\text{excess}:=\mathbb{E}\bigg(\tfrac{X-\mu}{\sigma}\bigg)^4-3.$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By contrast, a Pearson type IV distribution requires all four moments to be specified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While we can't literally prove &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\gamma_1=\kappa_\text{excess}=0$&lt;/span&gt; empirically, we can constrain such quantities. Have any empirical studies provided either upper or lower bounds on these moments of the IQ distribution (or something analogous such as another quantification estimating psychometric &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$g$&lt;/span&gt;), on either the quotient or deviation definition? In the interests of keeping this question appropriate to the site, I don't care what method of defining or measuring IQ was assumed in a particular study, so there's no need to take a stance on that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18332" LastActivityDate="2018-11-16T09:20:57.663" Title="Bounds on skew and kurtosis of IQ" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21114" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-10T20:46:04.897" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;The barcode on the package from the deli sticks to other items and gets slightly ripped. I then spend a lot of time at the checkout entering the barcode and entering it incorrectly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find 'Lebanese cucumbers' in the self checkout. Should I look for cucumber or Lebanese. It's under L, but listed, 'Cucumber Lebanese'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some things which I hadn't thought about. There are others where there may be a limitation in my perception. You could take this a step further and think about the people designing these products/systems. They didn't think about what can go wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In every activity, there are thousands of things which can go wrong. However, we rarely stop to consider the contingencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has this idea been considered in psychology? I am interested in references. Feel free to offer your opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you think the following is more relevant, can you provide any discussion/references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We do consider contingencies all the time.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Things don't go wrong.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Note that I can provide published counter examples for both these items.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20792" LastActivityDate="2018-11-10T20:46:04.897" Title="What prevents us from asking, 'What don't I know'?" Tags="&lt;human-error&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2018-11-20T20:43:02.833" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21115" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-10T22:06:42.943" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a question made of four aspects on addiction and dopamine neurobiology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1.&lt;/strong&gt; I'm currently wondering whether the addictive potential of social media can be quantified. I'm aware it probably depends on the individual, but I would think an estimate is possible; for example, hardcore drugs may be more objectively more addictive than a sugary snack. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2.&lt;/strong&gt; I'm also wondering if I'm correct in assuming that, in addiction, the diminution of dopamine receptors would render &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; activities (aside the addiction itself) less pleasurable. Is this the case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3.&lt;/strong&gt; Finally, I'm wondering if the availability of more receptors of dopamine would permit sustained release of this neurotransmitter over time. I.e. several short amounts of dopamine from natural sources would be more 'optimal' than a massive burst at one given time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;4.&lt;/strong&gt; Finally, I'm wondering if I'm completely off track given Berridge's 'wanting' versus 'liking' distinction, where dopamine mediates wanting and opioids mediate liking. Would pleasure here occur from opioids rather than dopamine?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17391" LastActivityDate="2018-11-10T22:06:42.943" Title="Social Media and General Addiction" Tags="&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2018-11-20T20:43:30.573" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21117" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21119" CreationDate="2018-11-11T07:24:26.907" Score="3" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found that currently the form of psychometric function assumes that the proportion correct lies between 0.5-1 given the range of stimulus level, but how to fit a psychometric function when the subject's performance never goes to 1 (and it is not because of lapse)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of how this situation can happen: suppose I want to study how stimulus presentation time affect a small target's visibility in a given peripheral visual field location by a 2AFC task. The target's feature is fixed throughout the experiment. I can imagine that with longer stimulus presentation time (like 1 ms vs. 200 ms), subject can make more correct responses, but because of the limit of peripheral vision, the correct response rate can never go to 100% even if you present the stimulus for a very long time. How can I fit a psychometric function (proportion correct ~ stimulus presentation time) to data like this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20616" LastEditorUserId="20616" LastEditDate="2018-11-11T08:48:36.337" LastActivityDate="2018-11-13T01:50:48.043" Title="Fit a psychometric function when the maximum is not 100% (not because of lapse)" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21118" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18990" CreationDate="2018-11-11T07:50:01.213" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Japanese is not very tonal, is spoken very fast, and has relatively few phonemes. Consonants are often followed by a vowel. Chinese on the other hand is highly tonal and is spoken relatively slowly, as information is encoded extensively in tone. They are almost complete opposites. There are also various phonemes that occur more often in one language than the other, and emphasis is very rare in Japanese (e.g. it's &quot;wa-ta-shi&quot;, never &quot;wa-TA-shi&quot;). It is also very regularly paced, with each syllable usually taking the same amount of time. Chinese varies the syllable lengths considerably.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Compare the following (romanized) Japanese&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;mou ichido itte morae masu ka&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;with the equivalent (romanized) Mandarin Chinese&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;qǐng zài shuō yíbiàn&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's clear that they are different languages, and that one is far more tonal than the other. These both mean the same things, asking the speaker to repeat what they had just said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18889" LastActivityDate="2018-11-11T07:50:01.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21119" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21117" CreationDate="2018-11-11T08:34:04.707" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. When you fit your psychometric function you try to maximize &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(X|\theta)$&lt;/span&gt;, with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt; your observations and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\theta$&lt;/span&gt; your parameters. When you assume 100% correct answers, you would typically assume that your psychometric function is &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Phi(s|\theta)$&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$s$&lt;/span&gt; being your stimulus value and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Phi$&lt;/span&gt; being a cumulative normal. More specifically &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Phi(s|\theta)=\frac{1}{\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}} e^{-\frac{(s-\mu)^2}{2\sigma^2}}$&lt;/span&gt;. Here &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\theta$&lt;/span&gt; is both the mean &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\mu$&lt;/span&gt; and the std &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\sigma$&lt;/span&gt;. To have a psychometric function that does not go to 100% correct, you just need to add a third variable to &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\theta$&lt;/span&gt;. It doesn't matter whether the observer's performance is limited by lapses or another factor, mathematically that's equivalent. Then you fit your data with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Phi'(s|\theta)=\frac{\lambda}{2}+(1-\lambda)\Phi(s|\theta)$&lt;/span&gt;. With &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\lambda$&lt;/span&gt; your lapse rate, assuming this lapse rate is symmetrical. You could add a 4th parameter if you have a good reason to assume the lapse rate is different near 0 and near 1 (then &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\theta=(\mu,\sigma,\lambda_{low},\lambda_{high})$&lt;/span&gt;). Also, you might run into issues because if you fit with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\lambda$&lt;/span&gt; unconstrained, you could get values higher than 1 or lower than 0. So when fitting it is helpful either to use a constrained algorithm (e.g. a quasi-Newtonian gradient descent, in Matlab that would be fmincon), or better to transform your parameter using a function that is bounded like the cumulative normal function itself. In other words, use &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Phi'(s|\theta)=(\frac{\Phi(\lambda_{low})}{2})+(1-\frac{\Phi(\lambda_{high})}{2})\Phi(s|\theta)$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is in facts recommended to always allow for a lapse rate, as you could misestimate the slope of your psychometric function when you do not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastEditorDisplayName="user17122" LastEditDate="2018-11-13T01:50:48.043" LastActivityDate="2018-11-13T01:50:48.043" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21120" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-11T12:58:16.250" Score="2" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intelligence is dependent on mental age and &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/ije/article/39/5/1362/802787&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;education&lt;/a&gt;. So how can an IQ test be performed to check the mental/intellectual capabilities in children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20796" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-12T12:57:58.803" LastActivityDate="2018-12-12T12:12:15.527" Title="How is intelligence in children measured?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21122" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-12T02:37:33.627" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am using a two-interval force choice (2IFC) task to estimate detection threshold and choose an appropriate signal level for my following experiment, by estimating sensitivity (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'$&lt;/span&gt;) for each signal level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since it is a 2IFC task with signal equally distributed on two intervals, I expect close-to-zero response bias and plan to estimate &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'$&lt;/span&gt; directly from proportion correct. After running experiment on 3 subjects (one complete 2500 trials, two complete 1250 trials), two of them show slight response bias (ratio of response to interval 1 vs. 2 is 0.91 and 1.12), but one subject shows large response bias (ratio of response to interval 1 vs. 2 is 0.53). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For the subject with large response bias, is it still valid to estimate &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'$&lt;/span&gt; from proportion correct anymore? And is it still valid to estimate &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'$&lt;/span&gt; directly from hit rate and false-alarm rate?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If I hope to let this subject to continue participating in this experiment, how should I let him/her to lower response bias? Directly telling him/her &quot;You have pressed key #1 too often, press key #2 more when you are not sure&quot;? Is it going to interfere the experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For future naïve participants, should I let them know do not bias toward one response too much before the start of experiment, or should I tell them only when they have made too much bias? If the latter case, how much bias is considered to be &quot;too much&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20616" LastEditorUserId="20616" LastEditDate="2018-11-12T02:46:42.997" LastActivityDate="2018-11-13T19:03:57.003" Title="How to control subject's response bias in 2-interval force choice task" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21124" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21120" CreationDate="2018-11-12T12:03:48.600" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are specific intelligence tests developed for children in different age ranges, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.iq-test-for-kids.com/kids-iq-test.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4 to 8+11 months&lt;/a&gt; years, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.iq-test-for-kids.com/p1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;9-16 years&lt;/a&gt;. The site mentions that their test &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...is a culture fair testing method. Test takers are equally assessed regardless of cultures, languages, backgrounds or education level. &#xA;  Also, the test duration is 30 minutes, which is well designed to not only suit children’s attention span but also generate precise results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I am not familiair with this website and cannot verify their claim that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our Phd-certified test was established in 2008. Nearly ten years since, the test has received approximately 16 million sittings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-11-12T12:03:48.600" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21125" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21104" CreationDate="2018-11-12T14:19:57.477" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are describing may be the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tip of the tongue&lt;/a&gt; (TOT) phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two major explanations for this: the direct-access view and the inferential view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;direct-access view&lt;/strong&gt;: the memory strength is just not strong enough to recall the item, but strong enough to trigger the recall&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;inferential view&lt;/strong&gt;: &#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It claims that TOTs aren't completely based on inaccessible, yet activated targets; rather they arise when the rememberer tries to piece together different clues about the word. &lt;strong&gt;Emotional-induced retrieval often causes more TOT experiences than an emotionally neutral retrieval&lt;/strong&gt;, such as asking where a famous icon was assassinated rather than simply asking the capital city of a state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second view is interesting, because frustration is an emotion by definition. So when you are frustrated for not remembering the word, your frustration by itself narrows down your ability to retrieve it. This loop goes on until you yell &quot;fuck it. I quit&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So while emotion plays an important role in memorizing a piece of information, it also may hindrance you to recall it back. But if you can devote a lot of cognitive resource (thinking it hard) without being frustrated, then you can still retrieve it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TOT is seemingly a very important topic in memory research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Sources:  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tip of the tongue&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_(memory)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Recall (memory)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-11-12T16:54:35.033" LastActivityDate="2018-11-12T16:54:35.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21126" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-12T14:34:26.893" Score="4" ViewCount="144" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concepts of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volition_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;volition&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_functions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive control&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivational_salience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motivational salience&lt;/a&gt;, seem quite similar. From the perspective of layman, they all seem to mean &quot;the extent to which your goals influence your behaviors&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, to psychologists, what is the difference? Or are they actually synonyms, even within psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What sparked the question was that it is almost as if &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multiple discovery&lt;/a&gt; has occurred, and different sets of scientists are studying the same thing without realizing it. I realize though that is rather implausible, since psychologists aren't dumb. Surely if they actually were the same thing, &lt;em&gt;someone&lt;/em&gt; would have noticed that besides me. So my conclusion is that there actually is some difference that I don't understand, or that they actually are the same, and psychologists know that, but they just haven't effectively communicated that yet (and so the three wikipedia articles should be merged).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just as an example, it appears that volition, self-control, and willpower are considered synonyms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7015" LastEditorUserId="7015" LastEditDate="2018-11-12T18:44:21.877" LastActivityDate="2018-11-12T23:46:36.920" Title="Volition v.s. Cognitive Control v.s. Motivational Salience" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;&lt;free-will&gt;&lt;willpower&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21130" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21126" CreationDate="2018-11-12T22:20:03.287" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would argue that they are not the same, but you are correct that there could be some overlap. I think you will also find that people in different schools of thought might prefer a particular term for philosophical reasons in some situations, and in others the terms are more clearly distinct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that &lt;em&gt;volition&lt;/em&gt; involves conscious decisions to do certain behaviors: that's it. In my experience, &quot;volition&quot; isn't often used in neuroscience and psychology, it comes up more often in philosophy. It may also be used in psychiatry but that is a field I am less familiar with. Similarly, self-control and willpower are not typically used in studies of the biological basis of behavior, except to relate to more colloquial discussions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cognitive control&lt;/em&gt; (see Miller, 2000 and Ridderinkhof et al., 2004) is similar but often involves &lt;em&gt;inhibition&lt;/em&gt; of some unwanted behavior. It often comes up in the context of addiction as something that is absent/lacking, or in suppressing attention to an otherwise distracting stimulus. Cognitive control is also used to refer to error detection and behavioral correction, keeping focus towards some future goal. The neural correlates of cognitive control are usually identified in the prefrontal cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Motivational salience&lt;/em&gt; (see Berridge &amp;amp; Robinson, 1998, Ventura et al., 2007, and Bromberg-Martin et al., 2010) is in many ways the opposite of cognitive control. Often, cognitive control is marshaled &lt;em&gt;against&lt;/em&gt; other salient motivations. For example, in addiction, you could say that there is a high motivational salience towards the rewarding features of a drug: in someone with an addiction, those salient rewards motivate future use of the drug. Suppressing motivational salience in order to achieve some other goal (for example, sobriety) requires cognitive control. The neural correlates of motivational salience are usually identified in the ventral striatum or amygdala.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berridge, K. C., &amp;amp; Robinson, T. E. (1998). What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience?. Brain research reviews, 28(3), 309-369.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bromberg-Martin, E. S., Matsumoto, M., &amp;amp; Hikosaka, O. (2010). Dopamine in motivational control: rewarding, aversive, and alerting. Neuron, 68(5), 815-834.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, E. K. (2000). The prefontral cortex and cognitive control. Nature reviews neuroscience, 1(1), 59.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ridderinkhof, K. R., Ullsperger, M., Crone, E. A., &amp;amp; Nieuwenhuis, S. (2004). The role of the medial frontal cortex in cognitive control. science, 306(5695), 443-447.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ventura, R., Morrone, C., &amp;amp; Puglisi-Allegra, S. (2007). Prefrontal/accumbal catecholamine system determines motivational salience attribution to both reward-and aversion-related stimuli. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(12), 5181-5186.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-11-12T23:46:36.920" LastActivityDate="2018-11-12T23:46:36.920" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21134" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21142" CreationDate="2018-11-13T17:24:02.537" Score="6" ViewCount="419" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any psychological models which do not presuppose the existence of the mind?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the same way that there are theories of physics which do not presuppose the existence of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminiferous_aether&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;luminiferous aether,&lt;/a&gt; is the sort of thing that I mean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Can&lt;/em&gt; there be, or is it impossible by definition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20814" LastEditorUserId="20814" LastEditDate="2018-11-13T20:06:32.100" LastActivityDate="2018-11-16T07:07:20.557" Title="Are there any significant alternatives to the theory that the mind exists?" Tags="&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21135" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21134" CreationDate="2018-11-13T18:13:52.843" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Theory of mind&lt;/a&gt; doesn't really &quot;presuppose&quot; a mind. Theory of mind is just a name for a particular cognitive capacity: the ability to know that &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; have a mental state and to realize that &lt;em&gt;others&lt;/em&gt; have a mental state, and that their mental state is not the same of yours. Calling this ability &quot;theory of mind&quot; might be a bit confusing because it sounds like it's a scientific theory, but it's not, it's just referring to an ability to theorize (make educated guesses) about the contents of other peoples' mental states. It could have been named something else (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20682/why-is-the-theory-of-mind-named-as-such&quot;&gt;Why is the theory of mind named as such?&lt;/a&gt; as well). Therefore, it doesn't really make any sense to think about &quot;alternatives&quot; to theory of mind, maybe just alternatives to the name of the ability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Theory of mind is really important to human social interactions, and impairments in theory of mind are part of the spectrum of social difficulties in autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As one example of how theory of mind works day-to-day, very young children who have not yet developed theory of mind have difficulty understanding that knowledge &lt;em&gt;they&lt;/em&gt; have is not &lt;em&gt;shared by everyone&lt;/em&gt;. If they see you hide a candy under one of two cups, they would be confused why someone else who wasn't in the room to see where the candy was hidden doesn't know which cup the candy is under (Frith and Frith, 2005, tell a similar story to explain theory of mind).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The nature of the mental state is not actually a part of the definition of theory of mind. You might be thinking of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;philosophy of mind&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frith, C., &amp;amp; Frith, U. (2005). Theory of mind. Current Biology, 15(17), R644-R645.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-11-13T18:13:52.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21136" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21122" CreationDate="2018-11-13T19:03:57.003" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For the subject with large response bias, is it still valid to estimate d′ from proportion correct anymore?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No. Within the signal detection theory framework, a 2I-2AFC paradigm is identical to a 1I-2AFC paradigm except that the decision variable Y in the 2I-2AFC paradigm is X2-X1 (difference between the observations on the first and second intervals). The effects of bias are the same and d' needs to account for any bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;And is it still valid to estimate d′ directly from hit rate and false-alarm rate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe. If all of the assumptions from the 1I-2AFC paradigm still hold, then with appropriately defined hits and false alarms (e.g., a hit is when the subject responds &quot;1&quot; when the signal in the first interval) and you account for the &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\sqrt(2)/2$&lt;/span&gt; improvement from having two intervals, then yes you can still calculate d'. That said, with typical assumptions, the 2I-2AFC paradigm results in distributions that are symmetric about zero and therefore we don't expect a response bias. I would be worried that with a non-zero bias that the subject is not behaving as assumed. If that is the case, d' does not really mean anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If I hope to let this subject to continue participating in this experiment, how should I let him/her to lower response bias? Directly telling him/her &quot;You have pressed key #1 too often, press key #2 more when you are not sure&quot;? Is it going to interfere the experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Correct answer feedback sometimes works, but not always. The effect of influencing the preferred response bias of a subject depends on the subject and experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For future naïve participants, should I let them know do not bias toward one response too much before the start of experiment, or should I tell them only when they have made too much bias? If the latter case, how much bias is considered to be &quot;too much&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This comes down to the experimental design. If possible, I would exclude the subject from the analysis. If you are looking at population statistics, you need to include everyone. If instead, you are interested in the best subjects, a subject with an odd bias is probably not worth your time of dealing with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2018-11-13T19:03:57.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21138" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-13T21:20:17.380" Score="1" ViewCount="241" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/brain-gain-a-person-can-instantly-blossom-into-a-savant-and-no-one-knows-why/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/brain-gain-a-person-can-instantly-blossom-into-a-savant-and-no-one-knows-why/&lt;/a&gt;, sometimes somebody suddenly becomes a savant. I don't know how it works. Since probably nobody knows the answer, I was wondering if somebody could give me a theory on how it happens that researchers determined were a reasonable theory. I believe some people already have theories on why Kim Peek's brain worked the way it worked so maybe it's a similar explanation to that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's my theory. I think everybody's brain is destined to have megasavant skills after enough time goes by and is slowly getting closer to it although their brain might be forgetting everything from more than 30 seconds before while they're part way there because it's the one and only true energetically favourable state of the brain, provided that other factors such as a change of the circulatory system in the brain caused by failing organs or the aging of individual brain cells doesn't occurr. I think a brain closely resembles a bounded 3D Conway's game of life and I have a reason to think it's probable that almost all of them are destined towards megasavant tendencies although they get low scores on an IQ test because they don't have one and only one way of thinking that matches a universal human intuition, but it's too long to describe here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that some day, the evolutionary learning laboratories will suddenly have the research results to start a self sustaining research technique with a complex state that's destined to continually rapidly self evolve into higher and higher complexity. Maybe a similar effect can happen to the brain of an individual human. I already feel like I'm very slowly and sluggishly getting closer to starting sudden savant syndrome which gives me optimism that it might some day happen to me. From what &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/15787/can-people-improve-their-memory-by-training-themselves-to-recall-previously-forg&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; says, I think that forgotten memories are still in the brain with the theoritical capability to recall them again after they were previously hopelessly forgotten, and people might stop being locked out of their account as a result. I also saw a YouTube video about somebody who got a seizure then could remember really well from then on but probably could not remember all those details from before the seizure. I feel like I'm recalling more fragments of my past than I could have before and recalling old ones is probably a more complex task than remembering really well from then on. Also, I used to not be one speck perfect pitch then over time, I started being able to correctly recall the pitch of something I heard a few hours earlier a bit more often and then after season 2 of the show &quot;The Worst Witch,&quot; I heard it's introduction a few more times and then for quite a while, I was perfect pitch for the introduction of the show &quot;The Worst Witch&quot; almost all the time. I think I was about 30 at that time. That appears to be a sign that I'm sluggishly getting closer to starting sudden savant syndrome. I'm saying all this not because an answer you help me improve my personal life but because I think the information about myself can help research on how sudden savant syndrome occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update: Some time after I posted this question, I look at the image with a hidden dog which appeared at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.illusions.org/dp/1-18.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.illusions.org/dp/1-18.htm&lt;/a&gt; or another image that was exactly the same and I saw the hidden dog right away. Once when I was a kid, I looked a picture with a hidden dog that I think was the same one and I couldn't find the dog at all. I believe I never looked at the image at all between those two times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10270" LastEditorUserId="10270" LastEditDate="2019-10-14T03:32:21.333" LastActivityDate="2019-11-13T17:03:15.440" Title="Why do some people undergo sudden savant syndrome?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21139" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21134" CreationDate="2018-11-13T21:35:03.080" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, depending on what &quot;mind&quot; means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common folk perception of the &quot;mind&quot; is that there is some sort of operator within the brain, a unified conscious homunculus. Instead, cognitive neuroscience informs us that the mind is a network of faculties — one of which is &lt;em&gt;consciousness&lt;/em&gt;. Most other faculties, such as memory, perception, use of language, etc., aren't problematic, but consciousness is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I may, I'll rephrase your question to &quot;Are there significant theories that deny the existence of consciousness&quot;, the answer is still, intriguingly, yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00500/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attention schema theory&lt;/a&gt;, developed by Michael S.A. Graziano. Very, very, simply, Graziano posits that what we think of as consciousness is nothing more that our ability to pay attention to what we are paying attention to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's inevitably a gross oversimplification. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attention_schema_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on AST&lt;/a&gt; provides more depth, as does Graziano's essay in the New York Times: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/12/opinion/sunday/are-we-really-conscious.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Are We Really Conscious?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. His 2013 book, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-992864-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Consciousness and the Social Brain&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, is an engrossing treatise on the theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19603" LastActivityDate="2018-11-13T21:35:03.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21142" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21134" CreationDate="2018-11-14T06:08:39.103" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The denial of mind is called Eliminative Materialism or &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illusionism_(consciousness)&amp;amp;redirect=no&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Illusionism&lt;/a&gt;&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Eliminative materialism is the claim that people's common-sense&#xA;  understanding of the mind (or folk psychology) is false and that&#xA;  certain classes of mental states that most people believe in do not&#xA;  exist. ... modern physicists are eliminativist about the existence of&#xA;  luminiferous aether. Eliminative materialism is the relatively new&#xA;  (1960s–1970s) idea that certain classes of mental entities that common&#xA;  sense takes for granted, such as beliefs, desires, and the subjective&#xA;  sensation of pain, do not exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although not denying the mind, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism#Varieties&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Methodological Behaviorism&lt;/a&gt; (or the Watson school), one of the more popular psychological approaches in the first half of the 20th century, rejects introspection as a useful methodology for studying it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Methodological behaviorism: Watson's behaviorism states that only&#xA;  public events (behaviors of an individual) can be objectively&#xA;  observed, and that therefore private events (thoughts and feelings)&#xA;  should be ignored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The modern behavior analysis that emerged from this school of thought, and is still very active today, remains based on a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_behaviorism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;logical behaviorism&lt;/a&gt; premise that the study of behavior should not reference the mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Logical behaviorism is a theory of mind that mental concepts can be&#xA;  explained in terms of behavioral concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-11-14T06:08:39.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21144" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21113" CreationDate="2018-11-14T13:08:53.157" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;One answer is that, since &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$g$&lt;/span&gt; does not really exist as a unidimensional biological entity (rather, it is a near infinite-dimensional soup of inherited DNA and accumulated life experiences), the question of its univariate distribution is moot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20817" LastActivityDate="2018-11-14T13:08:53.157" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21149" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21155" CreationDate="2018-11-16T05:06:49.037" Score="1" ViewCount="264" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am just beginning to learn psychology and came across concept of split brain. I was wondering if a person has only left eye working and has their corpus callosum cut, would they be effectively blind since the left brain won't receive any visual stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20831" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-16T15:14:48.610" LastActivityDate="2019-01-09T08:17:07.903" Title="Unilateral vision in split brain subjects" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21150" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21134" CreationDate="2018-11-16T07:07:20.557" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If “the mind” in your question means a non-material entity that exists in an animal and that can sense signals from the environment (see, hear, smell, etc.), operate the signals, resulting in various mental activities (thinking, solving problem, planning, remembering, recalling, etc.), and send signals to its effectors (hand, legs, lips, etc.) to respond to the environment, then the answer is yes. There is a physical theory (with scientific evidence and verifiable predictions) that proves that there is no need to presuppose the existence of something like a luminiferous ether or any other exotic entity to explain the mind and its existence – the mind is just the information-processing processes of the brain. The theory that proves this is &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;“The Basic Theory of the Mind”&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This theory also proves that qualia (i.e., what the color red is like, what the happiness is like, what the thinking is like, etc.) and consciousness (i.e., the awareness and experiences of what the color red is like, of what the happiness is like, of what the thinking is like, etc.) are also physical phenomena that need no exotic entities to account for – they are just signaling patterns and signaling states of neural processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other interesting concepts of this theory are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;…&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;6&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Because a neural process that performs a certain function without qualia occurring and a neural process that performs the same function with qualia occurring have different information in the processes, they require different signaling patterns. Therefore, they have different physical effects on other neural processes, at least from the different effects of different signaling patterns. Qualia thus have physical effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, because qualia induce the consciousness neural process to create conscious awareness and experiences of themselves and because the consciousness neural process is a physical process, qualia cause changes in a physical process and thus have physical effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be proved similarly that consciousness (conscious awareness and experiences) has physical effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The fact that qualia and conscious awareness and experiences of them occur in only the final-stage sensory perception and the highest-level cognitive and executive neural processes, which are the latest-evolved neural processes, and never occur in more primitive neural processes, such as the brainstem, cerebellum, and basal ganglia, indicates that they are results of nervous system evolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The fact that it took more than two billion years after life had appeared on earth and hundreds of millions of years after the nervous system had developed before neural processes that were advanced enough to create qualia and consciousness could emerge into existence also means that qualia and consciousness came into existence because of no other cause than evolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The fact that qualia and consciousness still exist today indicates that they have been selected to remain in the evolutionary process. This means that they must have effects that help increase the chance of survival of animals that have them. Qualia and consciousness thus are the evolved functions to help increase the chance of survival of animals, including humans, that have them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;….&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, it concludes that we (our minds with qualia and consciousness) are evolved physical entities to help increase the chance of survival of ourselves and our species and that you (your mind with qualia and consciousness) are here to help increase the chance of your own survival and your species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several other theories about consciousness and qualia but none directly answer your questions about the mind as this theory does. I list some of them here in case you are interested in reading more about this matter:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Block N. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/block/papers/Theories_of_Consciousness.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Comparing the major theories of consciousness.&lt;/a&gt; In: Gazzaniga MS, editor. The Cognitive Neurosciences (Chap 77). 4th ed., Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 2009:1111–1122.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kanai R, Tsuchiya N. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(12)00320-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Qualia.&lt;/a&gt; Current Biology. 2012 May;22(10):392–396.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Orpwood R. Neurobiological mechanisms underlying qualia. J Integr Neurosci. 2007 Dec;6(4):523-540.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Seager W. Theories of consciousness. An introduction and assessment. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge; 2016. ISBN 978-0-415-83409-4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-11-16T07:07:20.557" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21151" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21190" CreationDate="2018-11-16T08:36:49.980" Score="1" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am conducting a lexicon study asking people to classify words as being positive, negative, or neutral. It seems to be a very natural ability for us to perform such classifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The next step is for me to understand what makes a word (or an entity behind it in general) positive. There could be a variety of reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;(usefulness)&lt;/em&gt; highly effective, useful;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;(budget)&lt;/em&gt; reasonable price, discount;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;(comfort)&lt;/em&gt; cozy, comfortable shoes;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;(joy)&lt;/em&gt; tasty pie, pleasant sleep;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;(emotion)&lt;/em&gt; incredible adventure, happiness;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Naturally some words could fall into more than one category.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for some research on the topic to learn from.  Please advise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7108" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2018-11-24T06:17:52.040" LastActivityDate="2018-11-24T06:23:40.237" Title="What makes words (entities) positive or negative?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21152" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21113" CreationDate="2018-11-16T08:55:45.057" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are studies where higher order moments are analyzed. Just off the top of my head, see (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00096.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johnson, Carothers, Deary, 2008&lt;/a&gt;). The actual point of this study was to examine the Greater Male Variability Hypothesis (which the data was found to be strongly consistent with), however they also analyzed the distributions of ability more generally. They analyze the Scottish Mental Survey data, which tested essentially all children of Scotland of a given age. They find that the distribution is definitely unsymmetrical with more people below the mode. Here is the relevant part of the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... Clear analysis of the actual distribution of&#xA;  general intelligence based on large and appropriately&#xA;  population-representative samples is rare, however. Using&#xA;  two population-wide surveys of general intelligence in&#xA;  11-year-olds in Scotland, &lt;strong&gt;we showed that there were substantial&#xA;  departures from normality in the distribution,&#xA;  with less variability in the higher range than in the lower&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;  Despite mean IQ-scale scores of 100, modal scores were&#xA;  about 105... This is consistent with a model&#xA;  of the population distribution of general intelligence as a&#xA;  mixture of two essentially normal distributions, one reflecting&#xA;  normal variation in general intelligence and one&#xA;  reflecting normal variation in effects of genetic and environmental&#xA;  conditions involving mental retardation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See the study for further discussion around kurtosis and skewness. They also reference other studies you may find valuable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19533" LastEditorUserId="19533" LastEditDate="2018-11-16T09:20:57.663" LastActivityDate="2018-11-16T09:20:57.663" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21153" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24422" CreationDate="2018-11-16T09:24:25.080" Score="6" ViewCount="1238" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have just read about a visual effect called a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillating_scotoma&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scintillating scotoma&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many variations occur, but scintillating scotoma usually begins as a spot of flickering light near or in the center of the visual field, which prevents vision within the scotoma area. The affected area flickers but is not dark. It then gradually expands outward from the initial spot. Vision remains normal beyond the borders of the expanding scotoma(s), with objects melting into the scotoma area background similarly to the physiological blind spot, which means that objects may be seen better by not looking directly at them in the early stages when the spot is in or near the center.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]The visual anomaly results from abnormal functioning of portions of the occipital cortex at the back of the brain, not in the eyes nor any component thereof, such as the retinas.&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3RMyT.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt; This is a different disease from retinal migraine, which is monocular (only one eye).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a phenomenon that is believed to occur in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scintillating scotomas are most commonly caused by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortical_spreading_depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cortical spreading depression&lt;/a&gt;, a pattern of changes in the behavior of nerves in the brain during a migraine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That article is short and includes an &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Santos_E_et_al_Neuroimage_2014_.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;impressive looking GIF&lt;/a&gt; of an optical image of the brain showing a wave-like pattern of blood volume which seems to come from the YouTube video &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Td1EQ0WQAng&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spreading Depolarization viewed using IOS. Santos et al. Neuroimage 2014&lt;/a&gt; which links to Santos, E. et al. &lt;em&gt;Radial, spiral and reverberating waves of spreading depolarization occur in the gyrencephalic brain&lt;/em&gt; NeuroImage, 99, 1 Oct. 2014, pp244-255.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillating_scotoma&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; also says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Symptoms typically appear gradually over 5 to 20 minutes and generally last fewer than 60 minutes, leading to the headache in classic migraine with aura, or resolving without consequence in acephalgic migraine. Many migraine sufferers change from scintillating scotoma as a prodrome to migraine to scintillating scotoma without migraine. Typically the scotoma resolves spontaneously within the stated time frame, leaving no subsequent symptoms, though some report fatigue, nausea, and dizziness as sequelae.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't completely understand the language there; I am not sure if it means that scintillating scotoma is always associated with some kind of migraine, or if they also occur as isolated events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;QUESTION:&lt;/strong&gt; Why is it believed, or how is it known (if it is) that scintillating scotomas are caused by cortical spreading depression? Are these always related to some kind of migraine?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZIMgK.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZIMgK.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scintillating_scotoma_interpretation.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TAO2b.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TAO2b.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scintillating_scotoma.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3RMyT.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3RMyT.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fiOem.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fiOem.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Sources: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aura_ss.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ScintillatingScotoma3.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19214" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-11-10T15:45:37.883" Title="Are scintillating scotomas really caused by cortical spreading depression? If so, how is this known to be true?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21154" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-16T14:22:13.090" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a hypothetical PET study, my sample consists of a clinical population which exhibit brain hypermetabolism. I divide my sample into two homogenous groups. One receives a treatment whereas the other does not (control). My analysis is a 2 x 2 mixed factorial design with treatment  (receive treatment, doesn't receive treatment) as the between groups factor and treatment status (pretest, postest) as the within-subjects factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The treatment group complete a cognitive task which is expected to reduce the brain hypermetabolism to almost nothing but return to elevated hypermetabolism in up to 2 minutes. In other words, the cognitive task reduces the activity for a short amount of time but slowly the brain hypermetabolism will return to the elevated levels that distinguish our clinical sample. It is not known whether this regression to pretreatment levels will be linear or non linear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my design I compare group averages in brain hypermetabolism in the treatment vs. control group pretest and posttest. There should be no difference in our control group in the pretest and posttest stages, but there should be a significant difference in the treatment group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, is there a standard procedure for obtaining group averages on a linear function? If we know that the brain hypermetabolism returns in &amp;lt;2 minutes, should we average the value of the line across 2 minutes? 1 minute? At the participant level? At the group level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, instead of working out an average, should one calculate the slope of the lines in treatment vs. non-treatment conditions and compare these?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would much appreciate citations to handle such procedures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20836" LastEditorUserId="20836" LastEditDate="2018-11-16T15:34:52.453" LastActivityDate="2018-11-16T15:34:52.453" Title="Averaging a linear or nonlinear function treatment" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21155" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21149" CreationDate="2018-11-16T14:30:51.663" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;em&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/em&gt; is not necessary for low-level visual processing;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Both eyes project to both hemispheres; the left visual hemifield of both eyes is projected to the left hemisphere, the right hemifield to the right. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The site where the right and left visual hemifields are split occurs in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://radiopaedia.org/articles/optic-chiasm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;optic chiasm&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. This structure is different from the major highway between both hemispheres, namely the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://cnsvp.stanford.edu/atlas/corpus_callosum.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (Fig. 1). Hence, your question...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[I]f a person has only [functionality in the] left eye[,] and [..]their &lt;em&gt;corpus callosum&lt;/em&gt; [is severed], would they be effectively blind[,] since the left brain won't receive any visual stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...can be answered with &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, as both eyes will still transmit their input to the visual centers in the brain (Fig. 1). In fact, when one eye is not functional, the fieldof view will still be nearly complete, as both hemifields of the one remaining retina is projected to both cortices (Fig. 2). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The function that is effectively lost when there is only one eye left, is depth perception; the use of both eyes, and the fact that they are slightly offset, allows us to see depth, using binocular vision through a process referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binocular_disparity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;binocular disparity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lmxbY.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lmxbY.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;brain&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Mid-saggital section through the brain. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.studocu.com/en/document/university-of-birmingham/medical-science-and-society/lecture-notes/threats-and-defence-anatomy-week-2/1950648/view&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Studoku&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qc66o.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qc66o.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;visual pathway&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Visual pathway. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brainrecoveryproject.org/for-parents/brain-surgeries-to-stop-seizures/hemispherectomy/functional-outcomes/vision-hemispherectomy-occipital-lobectomy-tpo-disconnection/1420_optical_fields/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Brain Recovery Project&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-09T08:17:07.903" LastActivityDate="2019-01-09T08:17:07.903" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21156" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-16T21:02:57.463" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I come across papers that say things like &quot;if the new information is compatible with the schema, it is accepted&quot;.  I'm not clear on how schemata are represented by theorists in order to make this claim.  For instance, what does &quot;compatible&quot; mean?  What are the processes that are modeled by theorists that begin with &quot;new information&quot; and end with &quot;accepted&quot;?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17518" LastActivityDate="2018-11-16T21:02:57.463" Title="How are schamata represented in Cognitive Load Theory" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;cognitive-load&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21159" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6560" CreationDate="2018-11-17T16:02:51.067" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A sociopath merely doesn't care about others.  A psychopath isn't able to care because they are disconnected from reality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you really want to be sane, ditch the DSM and stop trying to categorize human beings, because that &lt;em&gt;itself&lt;/em&gt; tends towards psychopathy.  The only term that matters is &lt;strong&gt;insanity&lt;/strong&gt; and that can (should) be defined as a &quot;disconnection from reality&quot; (calling yourself a horse, when you're actually a human, for example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1141" LastActivityDate="2018-11-17T16:02:51.067" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21164" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-18T10:40:40.853" Score="2" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looking for the name of a phenomenon I've seen in many, including myself. When someone is bothered by a situation in their life, will openly complain about it, but won't or can't come up with an active solution to it. They appear to feel &amp;quot;stuck&amp;quot;. Nothing is ever done and the complaining continues. Even when the situation gets worse, it might still not trigger any reaction other than more complaining.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not think it's apathy since the person is clearly distressed by the situation. It seems more like perceived helplessness leading to total passivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the outside, it seems like the person just truly believes that waiting is the solution and that things will change and resolve on their own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the inside, it seems like it could originate from various sources, from an aversion to conflict to delusional optimism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, this does not apply to major issues like &amp;quot;hunger in the world&amp;quot; but rather very local and personal problems that, from an outside point of view, seem solvable... sometimes even only solvable by the person who's complaining.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Examples&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A project manager who always has issues with his projects (late, unfinished, not matching the needs of the customer) but never actively tries to change anything in the way it's done and usually blames external factors for the (partial) failure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person who keeps inviting two of her friends who can't stand each other, hoping that they'll get along... eventually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone whose job makes them miserable, maybe even suicidal, but who won't consider switching to another job as a possibility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;What I'm looking for&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it's a known and defined phenomenon, being able to put a name on it for further research would be great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If obvious literature exists on the topic, especially if it offers help to spot this state of mind and move past it, linking to it would be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20847" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-11-18T10:40:40.853" Title="How do you call this: Feeling stuck and passively waiting for a solution" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21165" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20088" CreationDate="2018-11-18T23:36:27.097" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had a similar experience 8 years ago, I felt rage that I have never felt before. The day I nearly punched the wall, I understood my completely uncharacteristic behaviour was induced by the drug. Then I asked everyone close if they had noticed recent changes in me, they had. I talked to my doctor and I weaned off of it, my behaviour returned to normal and now at nearly 50 years of age, this was the only such brief period of episodal rage I have ever experienced. It was intense, I've often thought of the poor souls who have comitted suicide and their loved ones who hypothesize the drug is to blame. I would believe it, given my experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am female, have the low MAOA activity gene (homozygous), I also possess 2 homozygous mutations in COMT genes, these affect (slow) degradation of neurotransmitters. I also possess mutations related to dopamine receptor inefficiency, decreased BH4 production (precursor to dopamine), and folate metabolism (precursor to BH4). I am naturally and consstently one of the most even tempered people I know, I have rarely even experienced PMS and my reproductive years will soon be over. Interestly, the MAOA mutation I have has been called the &quot;happiness&quot; gene for woman (not-so for men, infact it's the opposite). I have 2 copies, resulting in even more self-reported happiness in day to day life, which is true for me, but was not for my time on the drug when I had anger, aggression, and rage, like never before. Incidently, it did work for me in giving up the cigerettes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20851" LastActivityDate="2018-11-18T23:36:27.097" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21167" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21179" CreationDate="2018-11-19T17:07:42.020" Score="0" ViewCount="198" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we listen to a sad song, we may experience sadness ourselves.  Can this sadness lead to depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20856" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-11-20T09:27:36.013" LastActivityDate="2019-02-27T22:02:17.233" Title="Can listening to sad songs lead to depression?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21177" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19617" CreationDate="2018-11-21T16:52:44.623" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many books (both academic and non-academic) available on Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), a growing area of research focused on how traumatic childhood experiences affect health and well-being in later life. A quick search for ACEs on Google or Amazon will yield many results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20875" LastActivityDate="2018-11-21T16:52:44.623" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21178" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19004" CreationDate="2018-11-21T17:33:23.080" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may be interested in related research on how unfamiliar environments negatively affect sleep quality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)30174-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tamaki, M., Bang, J. W., Watanabe, T., &amp;amp; Sasaki, Y. (2016). Night watch in one brain hemisphere during sleep associated with the first-night effect in humans. Current biology, 26(9), 1190-1194.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This research has also received substantial popular press coverage, for example from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cnn.com/2016/04/21/health/poor-sleep-while-traveling/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CNN&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2016/04/21/474691141/half-your-brain-stands-guard-when-sleeping-in-a-new-place&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NPR&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20875" LastActivityDate="2018-11-21T17:33:23.080" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21179" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21167" CreationDate="2018-11-21T20:22:37.450" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are talking about clinical depression as an illness, the direct answer to your question is: I don't know. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was a study of the effect of different genres of music on how people felt (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27900748&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27900748&lt;/a&gt;). Note the participants only listened to the music for 15 minutes and the study in general is not that powerful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if you are talking about making people feel sad or low then maybe. There have been studies that show that negative ruminations can lower people's mood. My thinking is that if the songs lead to negative ruminations then yes it can depress your mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also some other research suggesting that &quot;sadness&quot; as a feeling can be felt helpful or pleasurable by some people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to distinguish between sadness and depression. The latter is a clinical diagnosis made by a professional that is generally constant in a person's life, the former is a feeling or emotion that is fluid and can change from one moment to another. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also an important question to think about is causation: is it really the songs leading to sadness or sadness leading to listening to these songs? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26257625&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26257625&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29094761&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29094761&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20877" LastEditorUserId="20907" LastEditDate="2018-11-27T19:40:48.627" LastActivityDate="2018-11-27T19:40:48.627" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21180" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21231" CreationDate="2018-11-21T21:01:53.507" Score="4" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am asking this question in the context of a U.S. (Massachusetts) psychologist performing IPA studies. The interviews will be conducted through Zoom mostly. The recorded interviews will be stored the only way they can be, which is digitally. Has anyone found a specific resource describing how psychologists have dealt with the confidentiality concerns of digital information storage? It used to be that the gold standard for double-locked storage of therapeutic records was to put them in a locked file cabinet or locked room in a locked building. Now that we have electronic records, what are people doing about that? Is it enough to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Put the electronic storage device (laptop, hard drive, flash drive, whatever) inside a locked room in a locked house?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Password protect the storage device, and put it in a locked building&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Password protect the storage device, and password protect the folder/file&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Something else?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what about files in the cloud? Is that a no-no, or is the password protection there sufficient for one of the locks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20878" LastEditorUserId="20878" LastEditDate="2018-11-25T20:30:31.563" LastActivityDate="2018-11-30T15:19:13.737" Title="What is the current gold standard in double locked storage of therapeutic records?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21181" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21183" CreationDate="2018-11-22T08:04:04.877" Score="3" ViewCount="359" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading Kandel's &quot;Principals of Neural Sciences&quot;. There the book sometimes refers to excitatory neurons as principal cells, and sometimes as pyramidal cells. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone tell me the difference? I mean, are there pyramidal neurons which are not projection neurons? And are there projection neurons which are not pyramidal?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9947" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-23T09:32:48.367" LastActivityDate="2018-11-26T10:05:28.340" Title="What is the difference between principal neurons and pyramidal cells?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21182" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21185" CreationDate="2018-11-22T16:54:56.043" Score="2" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;Buddhists are masters in observing what occurs on their minds, i.e what we call subjective as feelings, thoughts and more first-person stuff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They really seem to understand how inmaterial world works (it might be obvious to some of you), but they lack of a materialist point of view. For example, they can study feelings occurring on their minds and modify it, but do not have a clear idea regarding the brain-basis of those feelings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any reviews or essays discussing Buddhists' knowledge and how science can complement it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17136" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-09-14T15:44:37.990" LastActivityDate="2019-09-14T15:44:37.990" Title="Are there some discussions about Buddhism in science?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-science-of-religion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21183" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21181" CreationDate="2018-11-23T09:23:40.953" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;In the cortex, pyramidal cells and projection neurons can be used interchangeably, as both terms refer to the same cells.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;One way to classify neurons is based on their function. Two functionally distinctive types of neurons have been classified, namely &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Projection neurons, which send an axon out of the structure where their soma is located, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Intrinsic neurons, which make synapses only within the structure where their soma is located. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, projection neurons cover some distance, whereas intrinsic neurons act more locally. Projection neurons are also called principal cells, and intrinsic neurons are also called interneurons &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(04)00440-3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Masland, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the cortex, &lt;strong&gt;projection neurons are pyramidal neurons&lt;/strong&gt;, and account for approximately 80% of all cortical neurons &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/21181/what-is-the-diference-between-principal-neurons-to-pyramidal-neurons&quot;&gt;Han &amp;amp; Šestan, 2013&lt;/a&gt;. They often send their axons for long distances, sometimes out of the brain altogether &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(11)01198-5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beckers, 2011&lt;/a&gt;. They serve as both the sole output from and the largest input system to the cortex. Interneurons, in contrast, represent approximately 20% of all cortical neurons and form local synaptic connections (intrinsic) that play critical roles in shaping cortical network activity patterns &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/21181/what-is-the-diference-between-principal-neurons-to-pyramidal-neurons&quot;&gt;Han &amp;amp; Šestan, 2013&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the periphery, the term projection neuron is not used as far as I know. That doesn't mean there aren't neurons that cover great distances in the periphery; in fact, the longest axons in the human body are thought to be situated in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciatic_nerve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;sciatic nerve&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which runs from the base of the spinal cord to the big toe of each foot. However these cells are not referred to as projection neurons, but simply as spinal neurons.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(11)01198-5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beckers, &lt;em&gt;Curr Biol&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;(24): PR975&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/21181/what-is-the-diference-between-principal-neurons-to-pyramidal-neurons&quot;&gt;Han &amp;amp; Šestan, &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt; (2013), &lt;strong&gt;80&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 1103–05&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(04)00440-3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Masland, &lt;em&gt;Curr Biol&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;14&lt;/strong&gt;(13): R498&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-11-26T10:05:28.340" LastActivityDate="2018-11-26T10:05:28.340" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21185" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21182" CreationDate="2018-11-23T10:31:02.663" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wikipedia has a whole page for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_and_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Buddhism and science&lt;/a&gt; in specific and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion#Minimally_counterintuitive_concepts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive science of religion&lt;/a&gt; in general. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Alan_Wallace&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alan Wallace&lt;/a&gt;'s &lt;a href=&quot;https://smile.amazon.com/Buddhism-Science-B-Alan-Wallace/dp/0231123353&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Buddhism and Science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tricycle's &lt;a href=&quot;https://tricycle.org/magazine/scientific-buddha/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Scientific Buddha&lt;/a&gt;. Tricycle is a Buddhism-oriented magazine that is quite popular&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_and_Life_Institute&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mind and Life Institute&lt;/a&gt;. One of its founder is Dalai Lama, and it hosts &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindrxiv.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MindRxiv&lt;/a&gt; preprint. You can find many preprints in the field there&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mindfulness&lt;/a&gt; technique is widely used in therapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-01-27T15:31:14.953" LastActivityDate="2019-01-27T15:31:14.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21188" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20423" CreationDate="2018-11-23T20:55:29.517" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is quite vague, as it is unclear what the sample size is and whether OP is talking about an anecdotal experiment or the outcome of a well-powered statistical analysis. Moreover, there is mention of two conditions, but I fail to see what the difference is between the two.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming a normal sample size, I can say that the measured amplitudes of electrophysiological signals are often unreliable. This is due to a variety of factors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Impedances affect signal size, as high impedances reduce the measured potentials. Impedances can vary between subjects, but also between sessions within subjects, due to for example differences in the effectiveness of the scrubbing and whether enough conductive paste is used in case of EEG. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Impedance differences between active and reference electrode affect noise level. Noise may vary from day to day and even within a session due to interfering background electric fields.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast to amplitude, peak latencies are often far more reliable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it all depends on the power of your analysis. If there is truly a difference in amplitude, then you should look at the physiology involved in your task and see whether brain mechanisms can be involved. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2018-11-23T20:55:29.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21190" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21151" CreationDate="2018-11-24T06:23:40.237" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The classification of affect as positive (as in &quot;good&quot;) or negative (as in &quot;bad&quot;) is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;valence&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a large body of research regarding word valence, owing to interest from corporate communications and public messages, for example as delivered through social media.  To further address demand, &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.306.3881&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bradley &amp;amp; Lang (1999)&lt;/a&gt; developed a database of dictionary words and their valence scores, that is available for download.  More recently, such databases have been developed for dozens of languages, and the English database has been greatly expanded as well.  These databases often feature multiple dimensions of affect, but if you are not interested in them, then just look at valence and ignore the rest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With such databases in hand, it is possible to test how different factors predict word valence.  Many hypotheses have been tested, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17470218.2014.941296&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;word length&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26850056&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conjugations&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22956359?dopt=Abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;age of acquisition&lt;/a&gt;, etc.  A comprehensive review by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23404613&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Warriner et al (2013)&lt;/a&gt; lists a few more examples of correlations with lexical properties, such as smell, color, and motion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Most correlations that emotional ratings show with other semantic&#xA;  properties are weak to moderate, with the exception of correlations&#xA;  with variables that directly tap into emotional states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of particular note, and extensively studied in this field, are concreteness, imageability, context availability, and familiarity.  Familiarity for example, is a term that has to do with how well known and how common words are - common words tend to be rated more positively than uncommon ones.  This has to do with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mere-exposure effect&lt;/a&gt;, and more generally, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_fluency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;processing fluency&lt;/a&gt; (a.k.a. &quot;cognitive ease&quot;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fluency and familiarity have been shown to lead to the mere exposure&#xA;  effect. Research has found that repetition of a stimulus can lead to&#xA;  fluent processing which leads to a feeling of liking. ... Later&#xA;  research observed that high perceptual fluency increases the&#xA;  experience of positive affect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another good list of databases and research on concreteness, imageability, context availability, and familiarity can be found in &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13428-014-0552-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Riegel et al (2015)&lt;/a&gt;.  As I said, it's a big field, but hopefully this gets you started.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2018-11-24T06:23:40.237" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21200" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-25T19:51:15.727" Score="2" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is known that common (a.k.a. overt, flamboyant) narcissists rarely seek therapy on their own. However, there is an atypycal type of narcissism called “shy”, “covert” or “vulnerable“. They behave quite the contrary to the common overt type (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/akhtar2000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sandler et al., 2000&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if it is common for this type to seek long term psychotherapy (presumably psychoanalysis) to treat NPD specifically, not the comorbid symptoms like anxiety and depression. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wouldn't high motivation to treatment be in direct contrast with the diagnosis of severe NPD of covert type?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Sandler J., Michels R., Fonagy, P. (Eds.). (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/akhtar2000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Changing Ideas in a Changing World: The Revolution in Psychoanalysis&lt;/a&gt;-Essays in Honour of Arnold Cooper. Karnac Books.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13946" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-11-27T08:28:31.047" LastActivityDate="2018-11-27T08:28:31.047" Title="Do vulnerable/covert/shy narcissists seek therapy for NPD?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21201" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-26T01:31:05.363" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a college student. I read somewhere that people often assume that mental health issues do not get better, and that a person ends up seeing a psychiatrist forever. So I was wondering if there was a way to compare treatments for medical vs psychological issues. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like let's say we pick 10 common physical illnesses and 10 common psychological illnesses. And then look at best treatments for each. For instance, assume sinus infections are the top physical illness and depression is the most common mental illness. Further assume that the best treatment for depression is CBT, and for sinus infection is nasal corticosteroids. How would I go about comparing the effectiveness of  corticosteroids for sinus infections versus CBT for depression? Is there a particular number, some effect size, or something else that I can take from one research study and compare it to the other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for help or clarification. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20905" LastActivityDate="2018-11-27T15:10:42.560" Title="How to compare effectiveness of psychological treatment for psychological illness, versus medical treatment for medical illness?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21205" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21201" CreationDate="2018-11-27T03:03:04.260" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;You asked:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there a way to compare treatments for medical vs psychological issues?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say &lt;strong&gt;no&lt;/strong&gt; because we aren't looking to compare medical treatments to psychological treatments. It isn't possible to do so and there isn't any real world application for such a process, i.e., it doesn't tell us anything useful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question I think you're getting at is: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can we show that a treatment for a psychological disorder is effective at treating the psychological disorder, in the same way that we can see that a medication is effective in treating a physical disease/disorder? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to that question is absolutely! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we implement a treatment for a psychological disorder we are often hoping to reduce the &lt;strong&gt;symptoms&lt;/strong&gt; of that disorder, rather than finding a cure. When we are looking at the effectiveness of psychological treatments we are looking for a statistically significant difference in measured behaviours from before treatment to after treatment. Researchers in the paper linked below used 4 treatment conditions to (1) determine if treatments for depression were effective and (2) to compare the effectiveness of the treatments against each other (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810110013002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elkin et al., 1989&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The statistics can get very complicated when it comes to showing effectiveness of treatments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that it is extremely important to note that many psychological disorders are life long and many people can experience a wide range of symptoms that vary in intensity for their entire lives. So, to bring it back to your original question, psychological disorders don't have an easy 'cure' the way that some physical diseases/disorders do. Seeing a counsellor/therapist/psychologist for CBT Treatment does not have to mean having a life long relationship with a counsellor/therapist/psychologist. The treatment includes learning skills/tools to cope with your situation and if CBT is successful the person can end therapy whenever they have learned enough skills/tools to live a full and healthy life. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Elkin, I., Shea, M. T., Watkins, J. T., Imber, S. D., Sotsky, S. M., Collins, J. F., ... &amp;amp; Fiester, S. J. (1989). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810110013002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Institute of Mental Health treatment of depression collaborative research program: General effectiveness of treatments&lt;/a&gt;. Archives of general psychiatry, 46(11), 971-982.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20907" LastEditorUserId="20907" LastEditDate="2018-11-27T15:10:42.560" LastActivityDate="2018-11-27T15:10:42.560" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21206" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17284" CreationDate="2018-11-27T11:55:26.037" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since the 1970s, researchers have found out and known that genes make a contribution to the pervasive developmental disorder or autism when two identical twins have shared a similar condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the world progresses, scientists have found out the variety of genetic changes in the DNA that contribute to the autism spectrum.&#xA;However, genetics cannot be solely accounted for the risks of developing signs for autism spectrum.&#xA;There are various other factors involved as well,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A child being born to older parents&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Low birth weight and premature infants&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hormonal and metabolic imbalances&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fetal exposures to the medications such as valproic acid or thalidomide&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Exposure to heavy metals and environmental toxins&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fragile X syndrome and other inherited disorders&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Having an immediate family member with autism&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Working with &lt;strong&gt;Arizona Centers for Comprehensive Education and Life Skills&lt;/strong&gt;, I have realized children or adults with pervasive spectrum need distinctive care and affection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20917" LastActivityDate="2018-11-27T11:55:26.037" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21207" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-27T13:00:39.990" Score="2" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a &lt;strong&gt;Special Education Teacher at ACCEL&lt;/strong&gt;, behaviors of individuals with autism has been remarkably consistent over time with the help of ABA therapy services, which include pet therapy and individualized education program.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are your thoughts about pet therapy for this population? How is it proven to be beneficial?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20917" LastEditorUserId="20907" LastEditDate="2018-11-27T19:39:45.027" LastActivityDate="2019-08-31T01:42:24.877" Title="How will the pet therapy aid the child with autism?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21209" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-27T15:55:15.187" Score="4" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that polarity in a EEG signal is arbitrary, and a matter of convention, as clearly explained in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/16574/what-is-the-meaning-of-the-peak-polarity-in-eeg-data&quot;&gt;this past question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, assuming said conventions are well-followed, I wonder whether is there any intrinsic meaning at all to a particular ERP/component being described (as they often are in the literature) as either a &lt;em&gt;positivity&lt;/em&gt; or a &lt;em&gt;negativity&lt;/em&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems indeed that this aspect (voltage polarity) is a salient-enough feature of EEG components, that they are metonymically referred to by this very feature, e.g. &quot;this positivity is associated with cognitive process X&quot;, as if the component's sign was just as important as its latency and absolute-value amplitude (which are of course not arbitrary, and clearly meaningful).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some papers (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/089892905774597290&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koelsch et al 2005&lt;/a&gt;) seem to suggest that some cognitive tasks (e.g. perceiving some deviance in a stimulus) is only associated with one specific polarity, in this case negative:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(..)it is also possible that any kind of &lt;strong&gt;deviance-related negativity&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;  has an effect on linguistic syntax processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To sum up: is there any intrinsic meaning at all to be found in a ERP's polarity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="6446" LastEditDate="2018-12-10T16:34:53.450" LastActivityDate="2018-12-10T16:34:53.450" Title="Intrinsic relevance of ERP polarity: 'negativity' vs 'positivity'" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21213" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21182" CreationDate="2018-11-27T22:32:21.773" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another relevant book is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Buddhism_Is_True&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Why Buddhism is True: The Science and Philosophy of Meditation and Enlightenment&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by the science journalist Robert Wright. The focus is on Vipassanā Buddhism, especially on meditation. His bibliography is extensive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19603" LastActivityDate="2018-11-27T22:32:21.773" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21215" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-28T10:47:24.583" Score="-1" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard of many kind of depresssions. Depression is nothing but not letting our feelings outspoken . If we dont why it is said that the feelings stay inside and affect. Is it a solid particle like food not getting digested as we eat and urine when stays inside not letting out can cause serious problems. But feelings are intangible . Why is it going to affect us if we dont express it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20025" LastActivityDate="2018-11-29T05:09:06.550" Title="Is there medical term for depression?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20180" CreationDate="2018-11-29T04:58:44.213" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this context, motive does not refer to an overarching goal, but rather, a more immediate one. Judging from the excerpts you provided, here is an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) My body &lt;strong&gt;needs&lt;/strong&gt; nutrients in order to survive.&#xA;2) This need results in psychological and physiological discomfort, AKA a &lt;strong&gt;drive&lt;/strong&gt;: hunger.&#xA;3) As a result of my hunger, I order take-out. My &lt;strong&gt;motive&lt;/strong&gt; for doing this is that I want food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way I conceptualize the distinctions is that it goes need-&gt; drive -&gt; motive -&gt; resulting action. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20926" LastActivityDate="2018-11-29T04:58:44.213" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21219" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21215" CreationDate="2018-11-29T05:09:06.550" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;When discussing depression, it is sometimes necessary to distinguish between clinical depression (major depressive disorder, seasonal affective disorder, etc.) and everyday depression (feeling &quot;blue&quot;, sad).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The word depression gets thrown around a lot. We use it to describe feeling temporarily sad, which could indeed be the result of not sharing our feelings as you suggest. However, when we talk about depression as a disorder, there are many factors that go into a diagnosis. In addition to a depressed mood, the disorder includes persistent, debilitating sleep disturbances, changes in appetite, fatigue, and anhedonia (the inability to enjoy the things that once made us happy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's true that it can be helpful to share our feelings, and that everyone feels depressed now and then, but a diagnosis of depression is a more nuanced concept, and it usually requires a combination of therapy and medication in order to resolve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20926" LastActivityDate="2018-11-29T05:09:06.550" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21221" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-29T10:54:10.673" Score="1" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;When one is sleepy and one attempt's to work on something cognitively demanding, such as doing algebra in one's head, or trying to imagine a house's interior in detail, what causes the &quot;resistance&quot; to focus on such problems?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel like part of the problem is related to circadian rhythm, particularly with respect to cortisol as a vigilance heightener.  Surely there is more to this though.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20928" LastEditorUserId="20907" LastEditDate="2018-12-09T19:37:06.963" LastActivityDate="2018-12-09T19:37:06.963" Title="What causes the lack of focus due to sleep deprivation? What are the outcomes of this?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21223" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21224" CreationDate="2018-11-29T13:51:17.367" Score="2" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there animals with only excitatory neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure it is possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, maybe excitation/inhibition can become relative?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I however will be happy to read your opinion..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, are there animals with only glutamatergic neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9947" LastActivityDate="2018-11-29T17:53:52.270" Title="Are there animals with only excitatory neurons?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21223" CreationDate="2018-11-29T17:53:52.270" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not in any well-studied animal; for example, &lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt; certainly has both excitatory and inhibitory neurons. Even in animals with very simple and poorly understood nervous systems (for example, jellyfish) there are certainly inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters used, even though one could argue whether their nervous tissue cells are all that similar to neurons of more organized animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More broadly speaking, I think it is non-controversial to state that &quot;excitatory&quot; versus &quot;inhibitory&quot; communication between cells predates the development of nervous systems themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that neurotransmitters used vary across species, so although glutamate is a common excitatory neurotransmitter in vertebrates, that does not mean glutamate is a common excitatory neurotransmitter in other animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bargmann, C. I. (1998). Neurobiology of the Caenorhabditis elegans genome. Science, 282(5396), 2028-2033.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Martin, S. M., &amp;amp; Spencer, A. N. (1983). Neurotransmitters in coelenterates. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Comparative Pharmacology, 74(1), 1-14.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kass-Simon, G., &amp;amp; Pierobon, P. (2007). Cnidarian chemical neurotransmission, an updated overview. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular &amp;amp; Integrative Physiology, 146(1), 9-25.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-11-29T17:53:52.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21230" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-30T13:35:49.160" Score="3" ViewCount="525" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am struggling with translation of these two words into my language. In many studies, they measure connectedness (or how much people feel connected) or belongingness (as need to belong or sense of belongingness). I have been searching for definitions and based on my research of definitions and contexts (see below for examples) it can be concluded that it is the same thing. Is it correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Belongingness is the human emotional need to be an accepted member of&#xA;a group. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belongingness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belongingness&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social connectedness is defined as the sense of belonging and&#xA;subjective psychological bond that people feel in relation to&#xA;individuals and groups of others (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/302472164_Social_Connectedness_and_Health&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/302472164_Social_Connectedness_and_Health&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social connectedness, i.e. the experience of belonging and&#xA;relatedness between people (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220992602_Social_connectedness_Concept_and_measurement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220992602_Social_connectedness_Concept_and_measurement&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The study developed 2 measures of belongingness based on H. Kohut's (1984) self psychology theory. The Social Connectedness Scale and the Social Assurance Scale were constructed.....(&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1995-23687-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1995-23687-001&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6990" LastActivityDate="2018-11-30T13:35:49.160" Title="Belongingness vs Social Connectedness" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21231" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21180" CreationDate="2018-11-30T15:19:13.737" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot find a defined &amp;quot;Gold Standard&amp;quot; within the US, but there is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.waterstons.com/articles/achieving-the-gold-standard-in-information-security&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ISO27001:2013&lt;/a&gt; here in the UK and the European Union. More can be found from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.itgovernance.co.uk/iso27001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this IT Governance website&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also suggestion that you should also follow &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.iso.org/standard/61498.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ISO27018:2014&lt;/a&gt; if you are storing data in public cloud systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In absence of any defined &amp;quot;Gold Standard&amp;quot;, you can choose to follow these standards, and if you are not following the &amp;quot;Gold Standard&amp;quot;, you need to be able to justify your data protection procedures to any governing body who may be auditing you for compliance with their rules and regulations or when investigating any data breach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some say that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/04/18/protect_your_digital_enterprise_iso_27001_explainer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;just following a &amp;quot;Gold Standard&amp;quot; is not enough&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The one thing you should do is regularly review your procedures to ensure you are doing everything &lt;strong&gt;reasonably practicable&lt;/strong&gt; to ensure personally identifiable data is kept secure from unauthorised access. Do you have a copy of &lt;strong&gt;your&lt;/strong&gt; data protection policy and procedures which &lt;strong&gt;you personally follow and regularly review&lt;/strong&gt; and sign off as reviewed? If not, I would put one together and sign it off regularly at review as that would demonstrate your commitment to protecting client's personal information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One major key point you need to remember with data protection is that you must protect the data from unauthorised access &lt;strong&gt;at all points of access&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following is in response to your individual questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it enough to put the electronic storage device (laptop, hard drive, flash drive, whatever) inside a locked room in a locked house?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When reviewing your data protection policy and procedures, you should ask this question to yourself along with &lt;strong&gt;who has access to the keys to the locked room?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If &lt;strong&gt;anyone&lt;/strong&gt; not authorised to access the personal data has access to the keys then the answer in my view is that it is not enough. Otherwise, how are you going to prevent unauthorised access by others who have access to the keys to the locked room?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it enough to password protect the storage device, and put it in a locked building&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to locking the storage device in a building, that is covered in the previous question. &lt;strong&gt;Password protection can add further protection, but is it enough?&lt;/strong&gt; This goes with your 3rd question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it enough to password protect the storage device, and password protect the folder/file&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not straight forward to answer and will depend on many different factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.howtogeek.com/195430/how-to-create-a-strong-password-and-remember-it&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;password is strong&lt;/a&gt;, the storage device remains in the one room, and is always locked away when unattended then passwords will provide extra protection but will it be enough protection from theives who might break in and steal the storage device?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://support.microsoft.com/en-gb/help/4028713/windows-10-turn-on-device-encryption&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Windows 10 provides device encryption&lt;/a&gt;, but &lt;strong&gt;not Windows 10 Home&lt;/strong&gt; it needs to be Windows 10 Pro or Enterprise. Encryption will prevent data from being read if the harddrive was removed and transferred to another computer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is 3rd party software available for device encryption and each one is different to the other on strength of encryption, security and cost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are talking about files such as Microsoft Word documents or Excel files, you can password protect the file from being read, and in this case, Microsoft Office encrypts the file. If stored on an encrypted device, this double encrypts the file from access.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are things to think about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what about files in the cloud?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In response I would ask &lt;em&gt;Do you &lt;strong&gt;really&lt;/strong&gt; need to store the data in the cloud?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, then I would be &lt;strong&gt;very&lt;/strong&gt; picky as to what cloud service you choose to use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ask yourself:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Who can access your data in the cloud?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can the cloud service provider(s) access the data?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;I only know of one cloud service provider who has no access to your data. With them, the files are encrypted their end and if you forget your password, you have lost access to your data for good. There may be others but I don't know them if there are.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If the cloud service provider can access your data, what is their policy with regard to Privacy and Data Protection? Is it in line with yours? - Keep an up-to-date copy with your policy and procedures&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is the data encrypted in the cloud?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is the data transfer encrypted end-to-end when transferred between the cloud server and your storage device, and if so, how strong is that encryption?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are just some questions you will need to find the answers to, and there may be others you feel need addressing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Protection of digital data is not straight forward but if you think things through thoroughly and seek professional advice where needed you can devise a robust protection procedure which can be justified to any governing body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Links to sources provided in this answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.waterstons.com/articles/achieving-the-gold-standard-in-information-security&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.waterstons.com/articles/achieving-the-gold-standard-in-information-security&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.itgovernance.co.uk/iso27001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.itgovernance.co.uk/iso27001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.iso.org/standard/61498.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.iso.org/standard/61498.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/04/18/protect_your_digital_enterprise_iso_27001_explainer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/04/18/protect_your_digital_enterprise_iso_27001_explainer&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.howtogeek.com/195430/how-to-create-a-strong-password-and-remember-it&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.howtogeek.com/195430/how-to-create-a-strong-password-and-remember-it&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://support.microsoft.com/en-gb/help/4028713/windows-10-turn-on-device-encryption&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://support.microsoft.com/en-gb/help/4028713/windows-10-turn-on-device-encryption&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-11-30T15:19:13.737" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21232" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-11-30T15:31:26.963" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading up on directed connectivity estimates (e.g. Granger causality, DTF, dDTF) in an attempt to find a method that allows me to appropriately convert channel-wise connectivity estimates into an ROI representation of connectivity estimates. In the fMRI community, I know it is common practice to form some sort of ROI-representation of the data (e.g. averaging voxel activity w/in each ROI) PRIOR to deriving connectivity estimates. I would like to avoid this for my data (using ECoG datasets), and instead would like to appropriately convert the connectivity estimates that are derived from single channels into ROI-ROI connectivity summaries. So far, I have found very little, and would appreciate any tips/resources/methods for dealing with this problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9631" LastActivityDate="2018-11-30T15:31:26.963" Title="What methods exist for converting channel-wise directed (effective) connectiviy estimates to ROI-wise connectivity estimates?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;causal-inference&gt;&lt;ecog&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21233" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21292" CreationDate="2018-11-30T17:53:03.240" Score="0" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Below is just an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am from India and I remember that we were promised by our PM, Narendra Modi, that he would bring all the black money from Swiss banks and he will deposit around 15 lac INR into every Indian citizen's account. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like this, he made a lot of promises. He said &quot;good days will come&quot; in 2014 and most of these promises are have not yet been fulfilled, but still most of the people are highly impressed by him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that he is a good orator, but what I don't know is, what is the weakness of &quot;Being impressed and convinced and remain the same over the time&quot; is called? And why sometimes the realization takes time to come?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7375" LastEditorUserId="20907" LastEditDate="2018-12-08T10:37:57.850" LastActivityDate="2018-12-12T00:26:23.603" Title="What's that vulnerability/weakness of human psychology which is consciously/subconsciously utilized by politicians or people with authority/fame?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21237" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-01T23:59:29.553" Score="3" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is 'averageness' in the study of facial attraction ethnicity specific? I just always wondered whether the 'beauty' ideal of &quot;averageness&quot; is human wide, or is the average across some group or groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averageness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia defines averageness at the start of the article&lt;/a&gt; as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the physical beauty that results from averaging&#xA;  the facial features of people of the same gender and approximately the&#xA;  same age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In regards to culture&lt;/strong&gt; it is stated that: &lt;em&gt;&quot;[t]his principle transcends culture&quot;&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;&quot;[w]hile Europeans also rated average Hadza faces as attractive, the Hadza people expressed no preference for average European faces&quot;&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;&quot;[t]hese results suggest that the rules for extracting attractive faces are culture-independent and innate, but the results of applying the rules depend on the environment and cultural experience.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shouldn't the definition at the start of the article then read: &lt;em&gt;&quot;... from averaging the facial features of people of the same gender age &lt;strong&gt;and ethnicity&lt;/strong&gt;&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm just asking because the results would, I'm guessing, be quite different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2018-12-04T09:26:17.957" LastActivityDate="2018-12-04T09:26:17.957" Title="Is 'averageness' in the study of facial attraction ethnicity specific?" Tags="&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21241" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12899" CreationDate="2018-12-03T03:36:12.300" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This study investigated brain areas associated with ASMR. ts recent as well (2018)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6209833/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6209833/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20954" LastActivityDate="2018-12-03T03:36:12.300" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21243" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-03T19:31:38.733" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/01/business/why-trying-new-things-is-so-hard.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;New York Times op-ed&lt;/a&gt;, Sendhil Mullainathan (professor of economics at Harvard) laments that it is difficult to get people to try new things or experiment. He gives himself as an example, saying that it is difficult for him to try generic soda, even though the cost to him is low, and he drinks 2 liters of Diet Coke daily. However, his article has a relative lack of references to literature on past efforts to get people to try new things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What methods have been studied to get people to try new things/experiment (without forcing them)? What has worked, and what has been less successful?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15225" LastActivityDate="2018-12-03T19:33:33.453" Title="How to encourage people to experiment/try new things?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21246" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-03T21:39:51.827" Score="-1" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can stress affect short term memory? If one is overloaded with a lot of information, can their short term memory be affected?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20876" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-12-05T08:39:39.610" LastActivityDate="2018-12-05T08:39:39.610" Title="Can overload of information affect short term memory?" Tags="&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21247" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-04T00:52:03.593" Score="4" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen a lot of research on the effects of praise on the person receiving the praise.    I have not seen anything on the effects of praise on the person providing the praise.   Does such research exist?   If so, could someone provide a few references.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4077" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-12-04T09:07:14.490" LastActivityDate="2018-12-04T09:07:14.490" Title="Is there research on the effects of praise on the person giving the praise" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21250" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19340" CreationDate="2018-12-04T17:04:42.330" Score="1" Body="&lt;h1&gt;My Answer&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this scenario, the unrestricted group is the population of individuals who are in the selection process. For example, Held and Foley (1994, Table 3) &lt;a href=&quot;https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/116989/v18n4p355.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/116989/v18n4p355.pdf&lt;/a&gt; shows the consequences of different selection ratios on validity coefficient estimations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize, the unrestricted group is the entire pool of applicants who take your test. The restricted group is the ones who are selected based on your selection criteria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Alternative&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any cognitive ability test should have a manual, and that manual should contain validity information, including SD of the population. Many of them are normed in such a way as to make it simple (e.g., the SD of WAIS is 15, the SD of Stanford-Binet is 10). Obtain and use the values in the test manual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I don't think this should be done in practice. The population of concern here isn't all working-age adults in the world/region, the population is all working-age adults in the world/region who have applied to work at the organization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20964" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-12-04T17:04:42.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21254" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-05T04:33:25.037" Score="5" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;An article by Gunnar Bartsch of  Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, JMU started me on this line of inquiry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/sonstiges/meldungen/detail/artikel/wie-wir-andere-verstehen-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;original source&lt;/a&gt; is no longer available but has been reproduced at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160428094950.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ScienceDaily&lt;/a&gt; (Bartsch, n.d.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We generally accept the concept of Compassion Fatigue and Secondary Trauma as an individual choosing to over-do it with regard to empathy and hence the recommendation of better boundaries and self care. I have many studies...saying our Aspergers and ADHD kids have problem with social skills because of low empathy what if the kid falls at the high empathy end of the spectrum?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What research is being done in psychology and/or neuroscience regarding excessive empathy and altruism as a condition and the resulting adaptive behavior patterns? I want to know more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bartsch, G. (n.d.) Excessive empathy can impair understanding of others. &lt;em&gt;ScienceDaily&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160428094950.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160428094950.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20967" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-12-07T16:06:06.413" Title="Excessive empathy, social cues and adaptive behavior evaluation" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21255" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-05T07:24:30.703" Score="6" ViewCount="515" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8042962&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The experimental induction of depersonalization (DP) and derealization (DR) in panic disorder and nonanxious subjects (Miller, et al., 1994)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DP and DR induction procedures were the following: staring at a dot on the wall, staring in a mirror, and &lt;strong&gt;silent repetition of one's name.&lt;/strong&gt; (Miller et al., 1994)*.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If derealization can be induced by repeating ones own name, I'm wondering if repeating the phrase &amp;quot;I am me&amp;quot; causes derealization as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_satiation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Semantic satiation (also semantic saturation)&lt;/a&gt; is a psychological phenomenon in which repetition causes a word or phrase to temporarily lose meaning for the listener&amp;quot; or is it the state of hyper meta-cognition that makes everything seem foreign? Or maybe it's both?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, P. P., Brown, T. A., DiNardo, P. A., &amp;amp; Barlow, D. H. (1994). The experimental induction of depersonalization and derealization in panic disorder and nonanxious subjects. &lt;em&gt;Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32&lt;/em&gt;(5), 511-519. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90138-4&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0005-7967(94)90138-4&lt;/a&gt; pmid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8042962&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;8042962&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20970" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-12-06T11:24:17.437" Title="Can you self-induce a derealization episode?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21257" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21246" CreationDate="2018-12-05T08:37:24.100" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you look at overloading from overuse of directed attention then I would say yes, and I would say yes it does lead to fatigue and stress, which is why you need to redress with Attention Restoration Therapy (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989, &amp;amp; Kaplan, 1985). If we look at an extreme example of stress, PTSD, then I would say yes it affects our cognitive abilities (Richard S, Lazarus and Judith Blackfield Cohen, 1977; Dowhrenwend, 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20973" LastActivityDate="2018-12-05T08:37:24.100" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21258" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21508" CreationDate="2018-12-05T13:22:22.303" Score="6" ViewCount="267" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question arose out of the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/21254&quot;&gt;Excessive empathy, social cues and adaptive behavior evaluation&lt;/a&gt; whereby excessive empathy was considered to impair interpersonal relationships.  My question is asking if you can actually have too much empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Empathy&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;not to be confused with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;sympathy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within their frame of reference, that is, the capacity to place oneself in another's position (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1991.03470130111039&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bellet &amp;amp; Maloney, 1991&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When empathising, you can actually feel the emotions the client is feeling, and you need to be able to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19301&quot;&gt;compartmentalise&lt;/a&gt; these feelings by recognising that they are not yours to own.  They are not your feelings, they are the client's feelings. In the psychological fields, they are there to help you to recognise &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers#Incongruence&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;congruency&lt;/a&gt; within the client (is the feeling the client expresses, the feeling the client should have?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I pointed out in my comment in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/21254&quot;&gt;Excessive empathy, social cues and adaptive behavior evaluation&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the need to break away &lt;strong&gt;at times&lt;/strong&gt; is self-care&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The moment you take on the feelings your client has, this is the moment where you are not exercising self-care.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empathy is a necessity when working within the therapeutic environment and as &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1991.03470130111039&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bellet &amp;amp; Maloney (1991)&lt;/a&gt; points out, it is important within the field of medicine. Therefore, self-care is paramount to practitioner wellbeing within the relevant fields, as I highlighted in my answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19666&quot;&gt;Named conditions that are the result of exposure to psychopathic behavior of another person?&lt;/a&gt; to protect against instances of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_traumatization&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;vicarious trauma&lt;/a&gt; caused by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;environmental psychological conditions&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looking online, there is a PsychologyToday article (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/wander-woman/201704/can-you-have-too-much-empathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reynolds, 2017&lt;/a&gt;) which proposes that you &lt;strong&gt;can&lt;/strong&gt; have too much empathy but I have a problem following her train of thought on her hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;With empathy, you will feel their stress, anxiety, and anger in your body. You might feel their pain emotionally and physically. If you let these emotions sit in your body, your body and mind can be emotionally hijacked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unbridled empathy can lead to concentrations of the stress hormone cortisol, making it difficult to release the emotions. Taking on other people’s feelings so that you live their experience can make you susceptible to feelings of depression or hopelessness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this passage, there was a citation for:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Blaszczak-Boxe, A. (2017) Too much emotional intelligence is a bad thing. &lt;em&gt;Scientific American Mind&lt;/em&gt; [Online] Retreived from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/too-much-emotional-intelligence-is-a-bad-thing&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/too-much-emotional-intelligence-is-a-bad-thing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My argument to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/wander-woman/201704/can-you-have-too-much-empathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reynolds (2017)&lt;/a&gt; is that she is describing lack of self-care (lack of &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19301&quot;&gt;compartmentalisation&lt;/a&gt;), not excessive empathy, leading to mental health problems within the therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I missing something or can there be such a problem as &quot;excessive empathy&quot;?  If so, how much empathy is excessive and how would you be able to recognise this excess?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bellet, P. S., &amp;amp; Maloney, M. J. (1991). The importance of empathy as an interviewing skill in medicine. &lt;em&gt;Jama, 266&lt;/em&gt;(13), 1831-1832. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1991.03470130111039&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/jama.1991.03470130111039&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reynolds, M. (2017). Too Much Empathy?: When empathy breaks instead of builds trust. &lt;em&gt;PsychologyToday&lt;/em&gt; [Online] Retreived from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/wander-woman/201704/can-you-have-too-much-empathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/wander-woman/201704/can-you-have-too-much-empathy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-12-07T16:06:54.357" LastActivityDate="2019-10-23T15:07:27.523" Title="Can you really have &quot;excessive empathy&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;&lt;emotional-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21259" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21120" CreationDate="2018-12-05T16:18:24.173" Score="1" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Correction on Education&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;intelligence is dependent on ... education.&amp;quot; This is incorrect. Intelligence is a stable trait over time (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a4b1/f4760274c2e5194f19bcc6573d4884aae334.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gottfredson, 1998&lt;/a&gt;). The correlation between education and intelligence is that on average, people who attain higher levels of education have higher levels of intelligence (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90014-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gottfredson, 1997&lt;/a&gt;). We wouldn't expect someone with an IQ of 80 to be able to get a graduate  degree, for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Age&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Intelligence is dependent on age.&amp;quot; Correct, but needs clarification. Intelligence is measured on normed scales. So, an individual's intelligence only makes sense in the context of comparison to other individuals in the same cohort (e.g., adult, child) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00174.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Judge, et al., 1999&lt;/a&gt;). Because of this, difference scales are normed with different groups. Furthermore, with children, who have shorter attention spans and less world knowledge in comparison to adults, the type of items appropriate to measure intelligence may slightly differ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Measuring Cognitive Ability&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of this, special tests are developed and normed on the child population. The most prominent is likely the Wecshler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). It has been well-studied (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.10.3.285&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Canivez &amp;amp; Watkins, 1998&lt;/a&gt;), well-validated, and updated throughout the years (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jodene_Fine/publication/232489100_Higher_order_multisample_confirmatory_factor_analysis_of_the_Wechsler_Intelligence_Scale_for_Children--Fourth_Edition_What_does_it_measure/links/0912f512475c7c49ec000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Keith, et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;). There is also a Stanford-Binet for children, as well as several more. General cognitive ability is one of the more well-established constructs in the field of psychology, so there are several longstanding methods of measurement that have a ton of supporting evidence (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.148&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kuncel, et al., 2004&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Canivez, G. L., &amp;amp; Watkins, M. W. (1998). Long-term stability of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Third Edition. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Assessment, 10&lt;/em&gt;(3), 285-291. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.10.3.285&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/1040-3590.10.3.285&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life. &lt;em&gt;Intelligence, 24&lt;/em&gt;(1), 79-132. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90014-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90014-3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gottfredson, L. S. (1998). The general intelligence factor. &lt;em&gt;Scientific American Presents: Exploring Intelligence 9&lt;/em&gt;(4), 24-29. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a4b1/f4760274c2e5194f19bcc6573d4884aae334.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a4b1/f4760274c2e5194f19bcc6573d4884aae334.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., &amp;amp; Barrick, M. R. (1999). The big five personality traits, general mental ability, and career success across the life span. &lt;em&gt;Personnel psychology, 52&lt;/em&gt;(3), 621-652. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00174.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00174.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keith, T. Z., Fine, J. G., Taub, G. E., Reynolds, M. R., &amp;amp; Kranzler, J. H. (2006). Higher order, multisample, confirmatory factor analysis of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition: What does it measure. &lt;em&gt;School Psychology Review, 35&lt;/em&gt;(1), 108-127. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jodene_Fine/publication/232489100_Higher_order_multisample_confirmatory_factor_analysis_of_the_Wechsler_Intelligence_Scale_for_Children--Fourth_Edition_What_does_it_measure/links/0912f512475c7c49ec000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jodene_Fine/publication/232489100_Higher_order_multisample_confirmatory_factor_analysis_of_the_Wechsler_Intelligence_Scale_for_Children--Fourth_Edition_What_does_it_measure/links/0912f512475c7c49ec000000.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kuncel, N. R., Hezlett, S. A., &amp;amp; Ones, D. S. (2004). Academic Performance, Career Potential, Creativity, and Job Performance: Can One Construct Predict Them All? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 148-161. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.148&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.148&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20964" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-12-12T12:12:15.527" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21265" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21266" CreationDate="2018-12-07T02:51:39.650" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was confused reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4368894/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Another example has been described with the primary motor cortex,&#xA;  where the afferent axonal synaptic input (Figure 1) can be facilitated&#xA;  by anodal tDCS (Rahman et al., 2013), leading to the increase in motor&#xA;  evoked potentials&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I interpreted this as saying: a neuron had a greater effect on a downstream neuron because of tDCS, which ultimately lead to more MEP's.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was confused by the fact that the neuron is an &lt;em&gt;afferent&lt;/em&gt; neuron. Since efferent neurons relay signal to muscles I figured the activity of efferent neurons would be more important in the generation of MEP's. Is this not the case? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does greater activity in an afferent neuron lead to greater activity in an efferent neuron, which then leads to more MEP's?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19275" LastActivityDate="2018-12-07T04:33:27.177" Title="How does modulation of the activity of an afferent neuron lead to increase in MEP's?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;tdcs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21266" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21265" CreationDate="2018-12-07T04:33:27.177" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The passage you reference is talking about connections within the motor cortex in the brain. Afferent/efferent can be confusing terminology in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the periphery, the terms have clear meanings as you say: efferents go to muscles, afferents carry sensory information back to the CNS. No real controversy there. However, the meaning of &quot;efferent&quot; is just outwards/away from; afferent is the opposite, meaning towards. In the context of the periphery, we consistently use these terms in relation to the CNS: efferents go outwards relative to the CNS, afferents go towards. If the terms are used in the spinal cord, the convention is to relate to the brain: afferents are signals heading towards the brain, efferents are heading towards the spinal cord (and then likely to the muscles next).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within cortex, you're already in the brain, so it makes little sense to talk about afferents or efferents relative to the brain: we are already in the brain so neither makes sense unless you are talking about cells that specifically project outside the brain. Instead, we use the terms &lt;em&gt;with respect to whatever structure we are in&lt;/em&gt;. Confusingly, that means nearly every axon in the brain is simultaneously both an afferent and an efferent, it's all a matter of perspective. If you are studying thalamus, you could refer to efferents projecting to cortex; your friend studying neocortex could refer to afferents projecting from thalamus. They could be the very same axons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the Rahman et al 2013 paper that your link is referring to, they are talking from the perspective of &lt;em&gt;cells in motor cortex&lt;/em&gt;, and when they refer to &lt;em&gt;afferents&lt;/em&gt; they mean &lt;em&gt;axons projecting to a cell in motor cortex&lt;/em&gt;. Really, they almost could have dropped the word &quot;afferent&quot; and just said &quot;axon&quot; throughout the whole paper; probably the only reason they used the term is because they are &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; talking about descending axons leaving motor cortex headed towards the brainstem/spinal cord, they are talking about axons terminating on cells in cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rahman, A., Reato, D., Arlotti, M., Gasca, F., Datta, A., Parra, L. C., &amp;amp; Bikson, M. (2013). Cellular effects of acute direct current stimulation: somatic and synaptic terminal effects. The Journal of physiology, 591(10), 2563-2578.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-12-07T04:33:27.177" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21268" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-07T11:05:25.567" Score="0" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found a website which included the questionnaires of Exercise Motivation Inventory-2 with various languages (EMI-2; &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/~pes004/exercise_motivation/emi/emi-2.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/~pes004/exercise_motivation/emi/emi-2.htm&lt;/a&gt;) such as Arabic (  ), Brazilian (Guedes, Legnani, &amp;amp; Legnani, 2012), Dutch (  ), French (   ), German (  ), Italian (   ), Persian (   ), Polish (   ), Portuguese (    ), Spanish (Capdevila, 1999). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) How can I find out all the references in blanket.&#xA;2) alternatively, how to make quotation to indicate there are various languages available in EMI-2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks a lot&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20992" LastActivityDate="2018-12-07T14:43:59.667" Title="how to find out the references of various languages of EMI-2 (exercise motivation inventory-2)" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21269" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-07T11:33:42.493" Score="5" ViewCount="4660" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer: I am aware that this topic has the potential of becoming high political, but I have asked it nevertheless in order to receive some clarification on the subject. Please back all of your arguments with facts and studies. Please try and remain as neutral as possible in your comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr. Jordan B Peterson, a Professor of Psychology at the University of Toronto, a clinical psychologist claims (reference: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h02w5E7FGlY&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h02w5E7FGlY&lt;/a&gt;) that &quot;the IQ claims are more psycho-metrically rigorous than any other phenomenon that's been discovered by social scientists&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a quick googling would return many articles indicating that IQ tests do not accurately measure intelligence. It seems to me that these are radically opposing claims and I would like to ask if there is &lt;strong&gt;scientific agreement&lt;/strong&gt; either way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20993" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-12-07T13:26:48.410" LastActivityDate="2018-12-07T13:26:48.410" Title="How true are Jordan Peterson's claims on IQ tests?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21270" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21268" CreationDate="2018-12-07T14:43:59.667" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;For question 1 - How can I find out all the references in blanket.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This will be very difficult if you cannot read and understand the language yourself. If you can, then &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.co.uk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; can possibly be of help.&#xA;The problem comes when you don't understand the language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only one you can easily reference is the Spanish one as the APA reference was provided by the bangor.ac.uk website you referred to.  That is of course&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Capdevila, LL. (1999). &lt;em&gt;Actividad Física y Estilo de vida saludable&lt;/em&gt;. Terrassa: Cardellach, S.A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Searching &lt;code&gt;Agnieszka Zajac emi-2&lt;/code&gt; to find the Polish version in Google Scholar as an example gives one paper by Zajac and that is in English (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.archivespp.pl/uploads/images/2011_13_4/Zajac67_APP_4_2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zajac &amp;amp; Schier, 2011&lt;/a&gt;), yet it isn't a paper on a Polish version of EMI-2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Searching for just the name gives lots of papers in Polish, which without being able to understand the language, you cannot ascertain which one provides a Polish version of the EMI-2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You then have the alternative as asked in question 2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;how to make quotation to indicate there are various languages available in EMI-2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;For question 2&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This depends on the referencing style you prefer or are required to use.  Using the APA referencing style preferred here on this site you could provide the following&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Markland, D. (2007). &lt;em&gt;The Exercise Motivations Inventory: The EMI-2.&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/%7Epes004/exercise_motivation/emi/emi-2.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/~pes004/exercise_motivation/emi/emi-2.htm&lt;/a&gt; Non-English retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/%7Epes004/exercise_motivation/emi/foreign.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/~pes004/exercise_motivation/emi/foreign.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That way, the author's disclaimer is available whereby he points out that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I cannot guarantee the accuracy of the translations (because I don't speak the languages well enough, if at all!). Nor can I vouch for the psychometric properties of the translated versions. Authors' names are supplied and they may be able to provide information on the validity and reliability of their versions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zajac, A. U., &amp;amp; Schier, K. (2011). Body image dysphoria and motivation to exercise: A study of Canadian and Polish women participating in yoga or aerobics. &lt;em&gt;Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 4&lt;/em&gt;, 67-72. Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.archivespp.pl/uploads/images/2011_13_4/Zajac67_APP_4_2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.archivespp.pl/uploads/images/2011_13_4/Zajac67_APP_4_2011.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-12-07T14:43:59.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21273" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-07T22:08:29.053" Score="3" ViewCount="185" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand the task of a 2AFC test is to select one of the two stimuli presented (e.g. the stronger one), whereas in Yes-No test there is only one stimulus presented. But is it ok to ask a Yes-No question (e.g. was there a difference between A and B?) in a test with 2 stimuli? and can it still be called a 2AFC test? (Or is it valid to do Yes-No test with two stimuli?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am asking this with regard to a threshold test using a 2AFC transformed staircase  (2 down 1 up procedure). It'd be a lot easier for subject to respond whether there was a perceivable difference between two stimuli rather than having to choose the stronger one. As my main interest is to see just noticeable difference, which is stronger is not of a concern. However, I guess there must be a specific reason why one stimulus has to be chosen over the other in a 2AFC test (re bias and sensitivity?). And I wonder what would be the implication of using a Yes-No question instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many thanks in advance for your answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21000" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-09-02T19:40:47.653" LastActivityDate="2020-09-02T19:40:47.653" Title="Yes-No question in 2AFC staircase test" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21274" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21275" CreationDate="2018-12-08T11:33:30.063" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;A couple of months back I was reading an article about how politicians were asking to make decisions that are way beyond possible (name it unreasonable, unacceptable, illogical) just as a medium of getting extreme views to become (to be seen as) normal and/or acceptable. What is the name of this effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21003" LastEditorUserId="21003" LastEditDate="2018-12-08T11:42:28.790" LastActivityDate="2018-12-08T12:56:55.613" Title="Asking for illogical things to make extreme views normal?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21275" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21274" CreationDate="2018-12-08T12:56:55.613" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is a concept called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overton_window&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Overton Window&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. I finally found the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vox.com/2017/12/21/16806676/strikethrough-how-trump-overton-window-extreme-normal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;. It is not an effect though:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There’s a concept in political theory developed by Joseph P. Overton which suggests that there’s a “window” of acceptable ideas and policy proposals in public discourse. Everything inside the window is normal and expected, while everything outside the window is radical, ridiculous, or unthinkable. And Overton argued that the easiest way to move that window was to force people to consider ideas at the extremes, as far away from the window as possible. Because forcing people to consider an unthinkable idea, even if they rejected it, would make all less extreme ideas seem acceptable by comparison -- it would move the “window” slowly in that direction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21003" LastActivityDate="2018-12-08T12:56:55.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21276" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21290" CreationDate="2018-12-08T16:06:31.587" Score="7" ViewCount="410" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a biomedical sciences student who also minors in Mathematics, I am often amazed by some of my classmates who really appear to be born for Mathematics (with regards to both their abilities and passions). Is there any research from a psychology/neuroscience perspective that looks at how the brains of these exceptional individuals (or indeed someone who likes Mathematics) function differently to typical individuals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If indeed there is not systemic evidence showing their brains are different, is there a systematic way we can describe how they view the world differently from people not trained in Mathematics? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21004" LastEditorUserId="20907" LastEditDate="2018-12-09T06:14:44.563" LastActivityDate="2018-12-17T10:08:33.863" Title="How are the brains of mathematicians different from typical people?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21280" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21465" CreationDate="2018-12-09T14:11:11.210" Score="0" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any papers or textbooks comparing animal nervous system and human's ?&#xA;I'm most interested in &quot;higher&quot; animals such as mammals(Chimps, dogs etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21008" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T21:57:54.337" Title="Looking for text books comparing animal and human brain" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21281" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-10T08:32:12.017" Score="3" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any tests available that could quantify a personal development from child to adult if the development is more or less healthy and is not considered pathological?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm absolutely new to the psychology so the terminology could be wrong. What I'm looking for is to measure development features described in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantilism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia on Infantilism&lt;/a&gt; as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In a more general sense and in colloquial expressions - childlike behavior in adults, particularly lack of judgement and poor ability to make conclusions based on logical reasoning as well as actions driven more by immediate impressions and impulses rather than by rationale. Depending on degree of expression can range from mental disorder, to behavioral disorder or simply psychological makeup and personality trait of otherwise healthy person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21014" LastActivityDate="2018-12-10T08:32:12.017" Title="How to measure child to adult development quantitatively?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21282" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-10T10:44:49.040" Score="2" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a friend. They believe that God exists because they have experienced a large amount of 'perfect coincidences', or rather, events that are too perfect to be coincidences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kind of cognitive bias/fallacy is this? (They assure that it is not the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Availability Heuristic&lt;/a&gt; because they remember all coincidences that happened, even the unremarkable ones, but I am not inclined to believe this) Is it confirmation bias? Focusing effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21015" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T00:13:15.653" Title="Perfect events in a random world?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21283" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-10T14:44:35.873" Score="2" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I understand it, ERPs can be reliably identified only after the noise (inherent to EEG signals, regardless of the task used to evoke the response) has been largely removed, which is done by averaging across multiple repetitions. The ERP in that case is a recognisable-enough pattern in the EEG signal that it can be reliably pointed out in a graph of the averaged trials, for several electrodes, for instance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8EZkB.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8EZkB.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question #1: if the averaging method is trustworthy enough - assuming enough-many reptitions - to make noise components cancel each other out while leaving reliable effects still in, then why are other &lt;em&gt;non-zero&lt;/em&gt; sections of (ripples in) the EEG signal also not defined as ERPs, with some attached meaning (e.g. response to some cognitive task), since they have, after all, survived the same denoising procedure? &#xA;It would make sense to trust the EEG signal to really not reflect any effect when the intercept (y) is zero. However, in most EEG plots this seems to (very conveniently!) only happen at the t=0 point. The signal then becomes non-zero but only part of is acknowledged as an ERP, whereas the rest seems to be considered noise even though the plotted signal has been denoised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT: Question #2: why do such ERP plots - obtained by averaging across repetitions and across subjects - never (in my experience) show a confidence band to show the extent of that cross-repetition/-subject variability? Would that information not be of interest?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="6446" LastEditDate="2019-01-04T10:53:07.277" LastActivityDate="2019-01-04T10:53:07.277" Title="Amount of noise in (the recognisable definition of) an ERP" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21284" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21283" CreationDate="2018-12-10T15:45:20.110" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Averaging does not perfectly remove the noise. Assuming the signal is perfectly correlated across repetitions/sweeps/trials and the noise is independent, than doing from 1 to 2 sweeps will increase the SNR by 3 dB (i.e., decrease the noise by 1/2), Every doubling in the number of sweeps increases the SNR by 3 dB so that after 1024 sweeps the SNR has improved by at most 30 dB. This means that after averaging there is a minimum magnitude required for a peak/notch to be considered statistically reliable. Any ripples with smaller magnitudes are ignored since they are not statistically reliable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2018-12-10T15:45:20.110" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21285" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21273" CreationDate="2018-12-10T16:16:36.173" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lets introduce some notation. Lets &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$S_i$&lt;/span&gt;, with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$i = 1 ,2$&lt;/span&gt;, represents the different stimulus classes and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$R_j$&lt;/span&gt;, with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$j = 1, 2$&lt;/span&gt;, represents the different responses. In a &lt;em&gt;one-interval&lt;/em&gt; task&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^1$&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$S_1$&lt;/span&gt; is presented half the time and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$S_2$&lt;/span&gt; is presented half the time. In a typical two-interval task, stimulus &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$U_1 = &amp;lt;S_1,S_2&amp;gt;$&lt;/span&gt; is presented half the time and and  &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$U_2 = &amp;lt;S_2,S_1&amp;gt;$&lt;/span&gt; is presented the other half.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The responses &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$R_1$&lt;/span&gt;/&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$R_2$&lt;/span&gt; can be yes/no, a/b, up/down, or anything you want and it does not matter in either the one or two interval cases. In the two interval case, it is just as valid to ask &lt;em&gt;did the first interval contain the signal: YES -- NO?&lt;/em&gt; as &lt;em&gt;which interval  contained the signal: 1 -- 2?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With a transformed staircase, you might run into problems. It is not clear exactly what you are proposing to do. If you always present &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$U_1$&lt;/span&gt;, or present &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$U_1$&lt;/span&gt; half the time and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$U_2$&lt;/span&gt; the other half, then the response that causes you to increase the difference between &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$S_1$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$S_2$&lt;/span&gt; would always be &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$R_j$&lt;/span&gt; (with whatever &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$j$&lt;/span&gt; you arbitrarily choose based on your labeling of the responses). To get around this you could present some &lt;em&gt;catch trials&lt;/em&gt; with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$&amp;lt;S_1, S_1&amp;gt;$&lt;/span&gt; and maybe even some &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$&amp;lt;S_2, S_2&amp;gt;$&lt;/span&gt;, but what happens if you get unlucky and get a bunch of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$&amp;lt;S_1, S_1&amp;gt;$&lt;/span&gt; trials in a row. You will likely keep reducing the difference between &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$S_1$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$S_2$&lt;/span&gt;, but that is strange since the &lt;em&gt;signal&lt;/em&gt; level is not relevant in the catch trials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While you can probably get away with it, there are likely better procedures/methods (e.g., dual pair comparison)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^1$&lt;/span&gt; I study audition so am used to talking about temporal intervals while sometimes in vision multiple stimuli are presented across different regions of the visual field. From a signal detection vantage, it doesn't matter. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2018-12-10T16:16:36.173" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21286" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-10T16:31:52.513" Score="1" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example if I have a neuron cell that fires when I say the letter 'A' and is located at a specific place in my brain, will another person have that cell at the exact same place and will it fire when he/she says 'A'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21017" LastActivityDate="2018-12-10T17:07:30.483" Title="If a specific neuron is present in my brain, will it be present in another person's brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21287" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21286" CreationDate="2018-12-10T17:07:30.483" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, unless you are a &lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt; (or have a similarly simple nervous system), and even then maybe not quite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wild-type &lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt; has exactly 302 neurons and they are the same neurons in different members of the species. However, even then, learning can change their nervous system so that it isn't exactly identical in two individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mammals including humans, however, have brains that are much more shaped by experience and learning. Only the general structure is the same, and even that differs somewhat. It has even been shown that different parts of the brain can be different sizes in individuals with different occupations (see Maguire et al., 2000, for example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maguire, E. A., Gadian, D. G., Johnsrude, I. S., Good, C. D., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S., &amp;amp; Frith, C. D. (2000). Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(8), 4398-4403.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;White, J. G., Southgate, E., Thomson, J. N., &amp;amp; Brenner, S. (1986). The structure of the nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 314(1165), 1-340.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-12-10T17:07:30.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21290" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21276" CreationDate="2018-12-11T10:00:48.543" Score="5" Body="&lt;h3&gt;Psychology&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first major source I would go to is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://my.vanderbilt.edu/smpy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY)&lt;/a&gt;. It is a major longitudinal study following several cohorts of mathematically talented individuals. There are many publications regarding their interests, talents, life paths, achievements, et cetera. The study is headed by Camilla Benbow and David Lubinski.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you could only read one article describing their psychology, I would refer to Lubinski's review article of 100 years of findings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/vu-my/wp-content/uploads/sites/826/2013/02/03094405/Article-RER-Lubinski-2016-F-1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lubinski (2016). From Terman to Today: A Century of Findings on Intellectual Precocity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are many interesting publications from the study, and if you're interested I recommend further looking at their &lt;a href=&quot;https://my.vanderbilt.edu/smpy/publications/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;publications&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Historically, neuroscience as a field has suffered a lot from small sample size studies (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn3475&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Button, Ioannidis, et al (2013)&lt;/a&gt;), and only in recent years do we get really large scale studies. I personally don't know of any findings that compare mathematicians with non-mathematicians that have sufficient power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest thing I know of to what you're asking, is Richard Haier's book &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Neuroscience-Intelligence-Cambridge-Fundamentals-Psychology/dp/110746143X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&amp;amp;qid=1544522605&amp;amp;sr=8-1&amp;amp;keywords=richard+haier&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;The Neuroscience of Intelligence&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; which summarizes what we know and don't know about &quot;intelligent&quot; brains. He emphasizes that no single study is definitive, and that no story about the brain is simple. I recognize that just &quot;intelligence&quot; is not precisely what you asked, but I still think you would find it relevant to what you're curious about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19533" LastEditorUserId="19533" LastEditDate="2018-12-17T10:08:33.863" LastActivityDate="2018-12-17T10:08:33.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21292" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21233" CreationDate="2018-12-12T00:26:23.603" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that one of the reason people believe in those things is that they are those who prefer to give part of their lives into other people's hands rather than take care of it by themselves. In other words, they prefer to be given a fish instead of a rod so when they hear 'I will give you money' they just vote for them blindly believing this is going to happen. Other reasons might include the rule called 'birds of a feather flock together'. Some people are attracted to people who voice cenrtain opions to which they tend to incline. I would also agree with @user3169 who said that some people simply believe in people in positions of authorities and struggle to act against them. In order to dig into more details in this topic you might want to watch Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures available on YouTube.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20545" LastActivityDate="2018-12-12T00:26:23.603" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21293" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-12T12:41:46.273" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;Though similar to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/9688/why-does-weather-often-affect-mood&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt;, in my opinion the difference is large enough for my question to stand alone:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I observed that specific weather conditions affect my mood. That's rater trivial, sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Specific&quot; in this context means, any conditions which are similar to those which often happened around the place I grew up (Northern Germany, with sometimes rather bleak winters, a horizon far away and lots of wind). E.g., I really like it, when the wind blows in my face, though the sky may be grey and a slight drizzle is in said wind. When others curse the weather for being bleak and cold, I tend to be rather happy. My sister confirmed my observations for herself. To be honest, I also like summer days - as long as they're not stiffling hot and a slight breeze is going.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research on this topic, e.g. how weather similar to where you grew up affects your mood, whether this is a general phenomenon for all people or rather for people from specific areas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21031" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2018-12-12T17:58:18.653" LastActivityDate="2018-12-12T17:58:18.653" Title="Does childhood familiarity with weather patterns predict the influence of those patterns on mood?" Tags="&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21296" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21326" CreationDate="2018-12-13T04:28:20.103" Score="3" ViewCount="274" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in learning if there is any connection between System 1/System 2 thinking and ADHD. The former is a theory about the process underlying decision making, and the latter is a mental disorder. Thus defined, the two do not seem related. But there appear to be &lt;a href=&quot;https://mpmengaged.wordpress.com/2013/04/03/about-adhd-thinking-fast-and-slow/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;similar behavioral manifestations&lt;/a&gt; between the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;Do individuals with ADHD rely more on System 1 thinking?&lt;/strong&gt; Relatedly, I would also like to know if tests for ADHD (in particular &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tovatest.com/about-the-t-o-v-a/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;T.O.V.A.&lt;/a&gt;) are a valid means of measuring the extent to which an individual relies on System 1 thinking. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pointers to the relevant literature would be especially appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21040" LastEditorUserId="21040" LastEditDate="2018-12-13T13:47:21.480" LastActivityDate="2018-12-19T17:17:50.160" Title="System 1 thinking and ADHD" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21299" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21276" CreationDate="2018-12-13T16:14:15.227" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not aware of any comparative study between mathematicians and normal human but there is some research on professional mathematicians:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stanislas Dehaene has done some research on how the brain of professional mathematicians work, specifically a study suggestion that mathematical reasonings does not rely heavily on language:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pnas.org/content/113/18/4909.short&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.pnas.org/content/113/18/4909.short&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They have also compared humans and monkeys doing math:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982215007290&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982215007290&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, there is a work by Semir Zeki on how the mathematician's brain find beauty in math:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00068/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00068/full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21042" LastEditorUserId="21042" LastEditDate="2018-12-14T18:05:54.557" LastActivityDate="2018-12-14T18:05:54.557" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21301" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-13T20:16:02.763" Score="5" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's always impressive to listen to the professionalism of a commercial pilot communicating in a crisis situation, apparently remaining calm and in control in terrifying circumstances, with terrible responsibility. I imagine this occurs because (a) the industry does not promote those who panic to this position and (b) pilots practice a great deal in simulators, learning to cope with crisis calmly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I imagining correctly, here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To what extent can practice (b) overcome a deficiency in (a) a natural tendency to calmness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does practice at staying cool in one field (say, making decisions during play of a fast computer game) transfer to staying cool generally (say, being accosted by an aggressive stranger on the street)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8939/what-characterises-people-who-stay-calm-in-crisis-situations&quot;&gt;What characterises people who stay calm in crisis situations?&lt;/a&gt; and that does relate (a) to calmness in a crisis but I don't think it says anything about (b).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21044" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-12-22T21:08:49.673" LastActivityDate="2019-01-21T22:02:45.523" Title="Can one learn not to panic? How?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21303" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21304" CreationDate="2018-12-14T02:02:18.870" Score="1" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that several psychological studies purport to measure one thing, but once participants enroll, they end up measuring something completely different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I recently came across a study where participants were told that the study was meant to help create personalized nutrition and exercise programs. The participants were then given fake DNA test results and what was actually measured was their response to the placebo effect of the test results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the ethics of this? Don't such studies make it less likely that people will enroll in such studies in future and degrade the scientific endeavor in general? Is there no way for psychology to make progress without lying to unwitting study-participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21047" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2018-12-24T12:14:18.083" LastActivityDate="2018-12-24T23:37:56.357" Title="Is it ethical to deliberately provide incorrect information to participants in a psychological study?" Tags="&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21304" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21303" CreationDate="2018-12-14T04:06:33.277" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The whole point of these lies is to prevent participants from changing their answers because they want to please the researchers or convey their personal beliefs about a topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is typical to inform participants about the true purpose at the end of the study if this is possible. Other times, studies use purposefully vague language in describing the purpose. The point is to provide enough informed consent for participants to agree to the bounds of what a study will ask of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these decisions about study design are reviewed by an Institutional Review Board that is in charge of research ethics at an institution. &lt;strong&gt;Yes, these sorts of lies are ethical.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as your specific example, how would you expect a study testing placebo effects to work if you started the study by telling the participants &quot;This is a study about the placebo effect&quot;? - knowing it is a placebo ruins the whole idea of the placebo effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2018-12-14T04:06:33.277" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21307" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-15T07:10:01.403" Score="3" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you go on wikipedia or do a search on Google you can quickly find a bunch of articles on the importance of serotonin for impacting the efficacy of learning. Experiments have been run in mice for testing the rate they learn new tasks if 5ht2a is stimulated. There are also studies showing a high degree of correlation between high serotonin levels and high IQs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you go far back in history to Timothy Leary's time you find psychologists swearing by psychedelics improving IQ scores, and there is also the Spring Grove LSD experiments where researchers claimed LSD increases IQ scores. If you give someone antipsychotics it blocks 5ht2a, but as a result their thinking also becomes sluggish and processing speed scores on an IQ test decrease. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I get that the fact all psychedelics are illegal makes it fairly hard to study 5ht2a full and partial agonists. Would it not be possible to make a novel chemical hitting that receptor hard, without violating schedule 1? Any other reasons why that research has not been done other than government prohibitions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16348" LastActivityDate="2018-12-15T07:10:01.403" Title="Since we know the 5ht2a receptor impacts learning efficiency why has stimulating it not been tried for alleviating learning disabilities?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21309" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15705" CreationDate="2018-12-15T18:13:18.300" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Currently, I am working on various demonstration graphs of various spacing effect algorithms.  From the research it seems like two of the parameters exist to constrain the outputted values...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The parameters a and b are also assumed bounded between zero and one,&#xA;  and hence R(t) is similarly bounded, which must necessarily be the&#xA;  case as R(t) is a probability. Enforcing this bound is important as&#xA;  otherwise data fits can be inflated (see Navarro, Pitt, &amp;amp; Myung, 2004,&#xA;  for further discussion).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think Ebbinghaus' original function R(t) = e ^ -(t/s) (see this &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/5199/which-equation-is-ebbinghauss-forgetting-curve-and-what-do-the-constants-repres?rq=1&quot;&gt;thread&lt;/a&gt;) can more easily explain things.  t is time and s is the strength of the memory.  After every review, s increases.&#xA;If you plot this out, you see that if you increase s, the forgetting curve function flattens out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21059" LastActivityDate="2018-12-15T18:13:18.300" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21312" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-15T19:15:35.133" Score="2" ViewCount="186" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between &quot;Defensive attribution&quot; and the &quot;self-serving-bias&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both seem to involve a practice where one would attribute our failures to circumstances and our successes to ourselves...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16744" LastEditorUserId="16744" LastEditDate="2018-12-16T09:13:55.863" LastActivityDate="2018-12-16T09:13:55.863" Title="Defensive attribution vs Self-serving bias" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;attribution&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21313" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-16T10:11:19.697" Score="5" ViewCount="162" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I know about the autism spectrum, a lot of people who were diagnosed later in life (not during childhood) didn't &quot;seem autistic&quot; until adolescence or young adulthood. Of courses, they had symptoms all this time but it didn't become obvious until later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is that? Do you have some articles/youtube videos that I could read/watch to learn more about this (English or French)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21063" LastEditorUserId="21063" LastEditDate="2018-12-22T08:31:25.310" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T19:09:29.407" Title="Why does autism sometimes only visibly appear later in life?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21314" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-16T14:42:42.403" Score="3" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am about start a project on computational modelling of basal ganglia in the context of motor problems in Parkinson's disease. My background is mostly on computational side (and some neuroscience too) and I know relatively little about medicine. So I would like to extend my knowledge of the Parkinson-related medical science, so that I see not only separate puzzle pieces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could somebody suggest a recent book on Parkinsons's disease from medical perspective (and the more fundamental systems neuroscience it contains, the better)? I am more interested in motor symptoms and cognitive problems, as well as their treatments.&#xA;To emphasize, I am NOT looking for a book on computational approaches to BG/Parkinson's, I really want to know what neurologists think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have already posted &lt;a href=&quot;https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/questions/18212/reference-request-parkinsons-disease-book&quot;&gt;this question on medical SE&lt;/a&gt; but I was redirected here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14788" LastEditorUserId="14788" LastEditDate="2018-12-17T04:22:07.337" LastActivityDate="2018-12-17T04:22:07.337" Title="Reference request: Parkinson's disease book" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2018-12-22T08:54:53.770" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21315" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-16T16:02:59.383" Score="2" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the longest time, I had been thinking that the bias term used in the standard artificial neural network model (the ubiquitous one used in most machine learning implementations) can be interpreted as some kind of 'background' input, maybe similar to LFP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I had previously missed the perspective that the bias term can also be interpreted as a parameter of response selectivity. For instance, a ReLu activated horizontal line detector with 0 bias will fire weakly when given a vertical line input but a sufficiently large negative bias will prevent the detector from firing (which, in the case of a horizontal line detector probably is desirable).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, what would be the neural equivalent of bias and its modification mechanisms? Is the shape of the activation function known to be subject to any learning mechanisms at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21066" LastActivityDate="2020-01-22T16:01:05.123" Title="Is there a biological equivalent to the bias term used in artificial neural networks?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21316" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-16T22:42:08.740" Score="1" ViewCount="320" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thomas Schoenberger claims his 'Sophia Musik' (the Ultimate Baby CDs) hav many beneficial effects on the brain.  Are you aware of this prolific composer and have any advice regarding his musical claims? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21068" LastActivityDate="2018-12-17T23:49:29.300" Title="Composer Thomas Schoenberger's Sophia Musik effect on the brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21318" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21316" CreationDate="2018-12-17T05:17:10.330" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ok.  After some additional information has come to light in the comments - initially from @StevenJeuris and through further assistance from @Eff - things look a little different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although there was an accepted phenomenon called the &lt;em&gt;Mozart Effect&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/365611a0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rauscher, et al. 1993&lt;/a&gt;), the term &lt;em&gt;Schoenberger Effect&lt;/em&gt; was coined by Thomas Schoenberger himself and there are no studies I can find to back his claims.  The &lt;em&gt;Mozart Effect&lt;/em&gt; was debunked through a 16 year meta-analysis by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.03.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pietschnig, et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; and so the chances of the &lt;em&gt;Schoenberger Effect&lt;/em&gt; being valid are slim in my view.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thomas Schoenberger's blog article titled &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thomasschoenberger.com/blog/music-for-infants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Music for Infants&lt;/a&gt; states that he&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;was inspired to write music for infants with the birth of his son, Wolfgang. Schoenberger’s work for infants is composed in the style of musical compositions shown to stimulate the portion of the child’s brain associated with special skills such as music, mathematics, and chess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The CD cover image provided in the article describes the effect as the &lt;em&gt;Schoenberger Effect&lt;/em&gt; and claims to be endorsed by Stevanne Auerbach, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drtoy.com/about&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;also known as Dr. Toy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oMwNH.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oMwNH.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;music for infants CD&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at the &lt;em&gt;Schoenberger Effect&lt;/em&gt;, there is a Cision PRWeb article (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.prweb.com/releases/2002/12/prweb52834.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shaw, 2002&lt;/a&gt;) which links this term to the &lt;em&gt;Mozart Effect&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Back in 1993, U.C. Irvine professor Gordan Shaw started the trend when both He and Dr. Helen Raucher coined the term &amp;quot;Mozart Effect&amp;quot; to describe the powerful effect [certain] classical music has in neural development of infants and babies. Since then, &amp;quot;Mozart Effect&amp;quot; products have glutted the baby market, with most of these products having no connection with the actual research done by Raucher and Shaw.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/365611a0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rauscher, et al. (1993)&lt;/a&gt; for details on their study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further into Shaw (2002), he states that the Ultimate Baby CD became an underground best seller largely through word of mouth&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which lends credibility to the &amp;quot;Schoenberger Effect&amp;quot; phenomenon.  After all, if mother's swear by it's effects on their own children, there must be some type of reaction present. I listened to the Cd several times and was impressed with the &amp;quot;Bach meets Mozart&amp;quot; quality of the pieces. It's obvious that Schoenberger has tremendous talent as a melodic composer. It' also clear that something is going on with this music that separates it from the rest of the Mozart Effect products. This Cd appears to have some effect on babies. What exactly that effect is remains to be diagnosed by further scientific studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you couple this with, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.03.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pietschnig, et al. (2010)&lt;/a&gt; who said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[F]ormal tests yielded evidence for confounding publication bias, requiring downward correction of effects. The central finding of the present paper however, is certainly the noticeably higher overall effect in studies performed by Rauscher and colleagues than in studies performed by other researchers, indicating systematically moderating effects of lab affiliation. On the whole, there is little evidence left for a specific, performance-enhancing Mozart effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it seems that although there maybe anecdotal evidence for it's effects, the idea that music can have positive effects on infant neural development does not stand up to scientific scrutiny.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pietschnig, J., Voracek, M., &amp;amp; Formann, A. K. (2010). Mozart effect–Shmozart effect: A meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Intelligence, 38&lt;/em&gt;(3), 314-323. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.03.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.intell.2010.03.001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., &amp;amp; Ky, C. N. (1993). Music and spatial task performance. &lt;em&gt;Nature, 365&lt;/em&gt;(6447), 611. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/365611a0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/365611a0&lt;/a&gt; pmid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8413624&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;8413624&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shaw, F. (2002). &lt;em&gt;The mysterious &amp;quot;Schoenberger effect&amp;quot; Fact or fiction?&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.prweb.com/releases/2002/12/prweb52834.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.prweb.com/releases/2002/12/prweb52834.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-12-17T23:49:29.300" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21319" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21321" CreationDate="2018-12-17T07:52:48.723" Score="2" ViewCount="157" Body="&lt;p&gt;If cognitive memory is compared to computer memory, then is it possible to purposefully and permanently forget a specific memory, using known technologies and methodologies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21071" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-12-17T18:05:08.590" LastActivityDate="2018-12-18T13:28:23.120" Title="Is is possible to &quot;delete&quot; a memory permanently?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21319" CreationDate="2018-12-18T12:58:07.237" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is still much that is not completely understood about the process of memory and forgetfulness, and the following is what I have been able to find out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is understoood that physiologically, the establishment of long-term memory involves a process of physical changes in the structure of neurons (or nerve cells) and their synapses in the brain, through a process known as long-term potentiation (LTP). (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.human-memory.net/types_long.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mastin, 2018&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/long-term-potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Science Direct, 2018a&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short-term memory can become long-term memory through the process of consolidation, involving rehearsal and meaningful association (strengthening the physical structure of neurons and their synapses). Unlike short-term memory (which relies mostly on an acoustic, and to a lesser extent a visual, code for storing information), long-term memory encodes information for storage semantically (i.e. based on meaning and association).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The opposite to LTP is long-term depression (LTD) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800900-0.00003-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dharani, 2015&lt;/a&gt;), whereby the neuronal and synaptic structures are weakened, and forgetfulness develops, after a certain triggering activity. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/long-term-depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Science Direct, 2018b&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several forms of LTP and LTD classified by their mechanisms and their mode of induction (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-397032-9.00018-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hammond, et al. 2015&lt;/a&gt;), and LTD can be temporary or permanent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LTD synergistically functions with long-term potentiation (LTP) to generate a balanced, stable memory mechanism. Although LTP plays a major role in the associative type of learning that occurs in the hippocampus and neocortex, LTD is a major player in the error-driven learning that occurs in the cerebellar cortex. Recent studies have revealed complex signal transduction processes underlying LTD. In the long run, LTD may lead to a loss of synapses, or to preservation as silent synapses that have recently been found to prevail in the cerebellar cortex (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008045046-9.00807-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ito, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is it possible to purposefully and permanently forget a specific memory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems possible, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-397032-9.00018-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hammond, et al. (2015)&lt;/a&gt; discusses induction of LTD, however induction of LTD to forget a specific memory would be impossible at this present time that I can find.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dharani, K. (2015). Chapter 3 - Memory. &lt;em&gt;The Biology of Thought: A Neuronal Mechanism in the Generation of Thought–A New Molecular Model&lt;/em&gt; p.53-74. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800900-0.00003-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/B978-0-12-800900-0.00003-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hammond, C., Goaillard, J-M., Debanne, D. &amp;amp; Gaiarsa, J-L. (2015). Chapter 18 - Synaptic Plasticity. &lt;em&gt;Cellular and Molecular Neurophysiology (Fourth edition)&lt;/em&gt; p361-389. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-397032-9.00018-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/B978-0-12-397032-9.00018-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ito, M. (2009). Long-Term Depression: Cerebellum. &lt;em&gt;Encyclopedia of Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, p533-539. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008045046-9.00807-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/B978-008045046-9.00807-X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mastin, L. (2018). &lt;em&gt;Long-Term Memory&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retreived from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.human-memory.net/types_long.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.human-memory.net/types_long.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Science Direct (2018a). &lt;em&gt;Long Term Potentiation&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retreived from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/long-term-potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/long-term-potentiation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Science Direct (2018b). &lt;em&gt;Long Term Depression&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retreived from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/long-term-depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/long-term-depression&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-12-18T13:28:23.120" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21323" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6300" CreationDate="2018-12-18T15:41:57.973" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychedelic assisted therapy seems to shows surprising promise for this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/magazine/how-psychedelic-drugs-can-help-patients-face-death.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/magazine/how-psychedelic-drugs-can-help-patients-face-death.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1594204225&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.amazon.com/Change-Your-Mind-Consciousness-Transcendence/dp/1594204225/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&amp;amp;qid=1545147536&amp;amp;sr=8-3&amp;amp;keywords=how+to+change+your+mind&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21080" LastActivityDate="2018-12-18T15:41:57.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21325" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-18T19:15:00.227" Score="1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;To what class of optical illusions does the below image belong?  The diagonal lines are parallel, but because of the context, the longer of the two appears bent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z34DC.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z34DC.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21076" LastActivityDate="2018-12-20T23:57:01.317" Title="To what category of optical illusions does this image belong?" Tags="&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21326" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21296" CreationDate="2018-12-18T20:40:19.410" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there's very likely a connection between the two, but not a direct one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first difficulty will be visible when you dig into the literature on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dual Process Theory&lt;/a&gt; — that's the overarching theory that describes what is commonly referred to as System 1/System 2. The long list of descriptors in the table on that Wikipedia page will hint at the problem: variations on the theory have been used to explain so much that it has been difficult for researchers to agree on a neurological basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two good academic articles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keith Stanovich and Richard West coined the &quot;System 1/System 2&quot; term in a 2000 paper: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12031890_Individual_Differences_in_Reasoning_Implications_for_the_Rationality_Debate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Individual difference in reasoning: implications for the rationality debate?&lt;/a&gt; in Behavioral and Brain Sciences, which was accompanied by a broad response of peer comments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A dozen years later, Jonathan Evans and Stanovich wrote &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691612460685&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dual-Process Theories of Higher Cognition: Advancing the Debate&lt;/a&gt;. There are undoubtedly important papers which are more recent, but I think what you'll discover is that the theory, while useful, is controversial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The connection that bridges the two probably resides in &lt;em&gt;Executive Function&lt;/em&gt;. Just to pull a paragraph from &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2009.08.004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a paper&lt;/a&gt; that illustrates this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The dual-process theory suggests that less efficient dopamine-mediated&#xA;  reinforcement processes and deficient extinction of previously&#xA;  reinforced behavior may explain behavioral changes often described as&#xA;  poor executive functions or as response disinhibition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That invocation of a dual-process theory probably won't sound familiar to anyone whose exposure to the theory was by way of Kahneman's book, but you can see that the connection is via executive functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you amend your search to connections between Executive Function and ADHD, you'll hit pay dirt quite quickly. A good article to start with is Thomas Brown's &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11920-008-0065-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ADD/ADHD and Impaired Executive Function in Clinical Practice&lt;/a&gt; (2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it becomes fairly clear that there &lt;em&gt;probably&lt;/em&gt; is a connection: ADHD probably interferes with either or both of System 1 or System 2. But which, and how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Getting to your explicit question: &lt;em&gt;Do individuals with ADHD rely more on System 1 thinking?&lt;/em&gt; Since System 1 thinking is, broadly speaking, subconscious, the answer is probably not. Maybe a little. It seems more likely (to me) that ADHD shifts the focus of thinking in ways that, perhaps, disconnects some System 1 processing from the System 2 thinking which we might expect to have followed it, but that doesn't mean that less System 2 thinking is taking place. A very different hypothesis could assert that some System 1 process is degraded, leading to a larger amount of poorly directed System 2 thinking. There doesn't seem to be much research targeting this question yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With respect to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tovatest.com/about-the-t-o-v-a/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Test of Variables of Attention&lt;/a&gt;, note this text from the &quot;About&quot; page:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The duration of testing is a significant factor, since subjects who&#xA;  are older and more intelligent can compensate for mild or moderate&#xA;  attention problems for 5, 10, even 15 minutes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That word &quot;compensate&quot; should give you pause. Is it plausible that some automatic System 1 response is detecting attentional drift and correcting it? Or that, with age, some subjects will have compensated by consciously directing (System 2) themselves to refocus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 2013 blog post you link to is interesting, but appears to be a little haphazard. The blogger seems to believe that a fast or &quot;global thinker&quot; could trigger a false-positive for ADHD. I'd suggest looking into the research connecting ADHD and high IQ. There's not too much of it, but it is interesting. Two articles you might start with: &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1087054708326113&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Executive Function Impairments in High IQ Adults With ADHD&lt;/a&gt; (2009) (although the focus is on adults, not children) or &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1087054710370569&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Co-Occurrence of ADHD and High IQ&lt;/a&gt; (2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19603" LastEditorUserId="19603" LastEditDate="2018-12-19T02:13:18.187" LastActivityDate="2018-12-19T02:13:18.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21332" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-20T17:19:23.843" Score="1" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wanted to ask a question for a story I'm writing;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can a person with delusions completely acknowledge that they have delusions? For example, if someone claims that for a long time he believed certain crucial things about his life to be true (possible things, nothing bizarre; Like his parents being dead and then seeing them at home, him going to a certain school but the school doesn't exist and he actually went to an entirely different one etc.) and then was proven otherwise. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He has no fixations to his previous believes, he's completely open to the possibility of him not being able to differentiate reality (He was open the second he suspected something to be awry). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would he still fall under the delusional category? If not would it at least be considered an &lt;em&gt;unordinary&lt;/em&gt; case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21096" LastEditorUserId="20907" LastEditDate="2018-12-21T17:21:13.030" LastActivityDate="2018-12-27T06:43:01.450" Title="Can a person with delusions completely acknowledge their delusions" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21325" CreationDate="2018-12-20T23:30:18.007" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To what category of optical illusions does this image belong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This appears to be a modified &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hering_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hering illusion&lt;/a&gt; or rather it seems to rely on the same principle:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7dAAf.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7dAAf.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License: Wikipedia 2018.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are several possible explanations for why perceptual distortion&#xA;  produced by the radiating pattern. The illusion was ascribed by Hering&#xA;  to an overestimation of the angle made at the points of intersection.&#xA;  If true, then the straightness of the parallel lines yields to that of&#xA;  the radiating lines, implying that there is a hierarchical ordering&#xA;  among components of such illusion. Others have suggested that angle&#xA;  overestimation results from lateral inhibition in visual cortex,&#xA;  while others have postulated a bias inherent in extrapolating 3D angle&#xA;  information from 2D projections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The modification in the case of your example with the radiant part being at the corner where the vertical rises from the tip of the left hand parallel line.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hering_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hering_illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames_room&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ames room illusion&lt;/a&gt; for comparison of a superficially similar setup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4622" LastEditorUserId="4622" LastEditDate="2018-12-20T23:57:01.317" LastActivityDate="2018-12-20T23:57:01.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21334" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20639" CreationDate="2018-12-20T23:39:00.260" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Part 1&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'm wondering whether psychology and quantum physic are related in any way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One possible connection between psychology &amp;amp; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;quantum mechanics&lt;/a&gt; (QM; also known as quantum physics, quantum theory, the wave mechanical model, or matrix mechanics) is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_cognition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;quantum cognition&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Quantum cognition is an emerging field which applies the mathematical formalism of quantum theory to model cognitive phenomena such as information processing by the human brain, language, decision making, human memory, concepts and conceptual reasoning, human judgment, and perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1708.08250&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Preparing a (quantum) belief system&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In quantum cognition, the system of interest is the decision-maker’s mental representation of the world. It is represented by a cognitive state. This representation of the world is modelled as a quantumlike system so the decision relevant uncertainty is of non-classical (quantum) nature.  - pg.2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Part 2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When a reporter asked Asher if quantum teleportation could teleport the soul as well as the body, Asher answered, characteristically, “No, not the body, just the soul.” -&lt;a href=&quot;https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse599d/06wi/lecturenotes4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt; (pdf)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If at some point in the future we build &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyonic_antitelephone&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tachyonic antitelephones&lt;/a&gt; (or something equivalent), it might be &lt;em&gt;hypothetically&lt;/em&gt; possible to communicate backwards in time via déjà vu and dreaming since both are subjective (eg. &quot;déjà vu is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9j%C3%A0_vu&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;feeling&lt;/a&gt;&quot; &amp;amp; &quot;dreams are the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/dreaming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stories&lt;/a&gt; the brain tells during sleep&quot; - which is to say they are not objects in the sense that chairs or cars or other &lt;em&gt;physical&lt;/em&gt; things are). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user21099" LastActivityDate="2018-12-20T23:39:00.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21335" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-21T01:32:23.223" Score="2" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a multimedia artist who is interning in a human resources department of a casino resort. In the department we have daily meetings to discuss updates to both the orientation and the performance of the casino's employees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During the discussion I had an idea on maybe using psychometric ( big 5 ) testing for either helping in filtering out unfit candidates for certain positions or/and allocation of time or resources to certain to certain people or group's of people to help them in certain ways or identify problems as to improve the effectiveness of the staff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1: Can it be used in this way, or what other ways can HR use it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2: How to go about using it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3: Will it be effective?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4: Does there exists other companies that use psychometric testing or big 5 for there employees?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20280" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-05-11T06:42:11.213" LastActivityDate="2019-06-10T08:03:20.420" Title="Possible applications of the big five personality traits testing in human resource departments" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21337" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21332" CreationDate="2018-12-21T15:19:22.567" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer to your question &lt;em&gt;Can a person with delusions completely acknowledge their delusions&lt;/em&gt; is yes. But it depends. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are quite a few psychological disorders that have symptoms of delusion or hallucination. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bentall et al. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; took a look at the structure of paranoid delusions. They concluded that emotion related and cognitive processes are involved in paranoid delusions of participants. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that a more complex answer to your question is that in the way you have described, the delusions would likely have been attempted to be shattered by loved ones and other people that are involved in the person with delusions life. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hallucinations can be symptoms of many psychological disorders such as: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unipolar and Bipolar Affective Disorders (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1159/000284576&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Black &amp;amp; Nasrallah, 1989&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mood Disorders (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.1.1.40&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Signer, et al., 1989&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (ptsd) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10398560601083084&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scott et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article may be very helpful to your story, the authors discuss delusional thought among non clinical patients i.e., people with no discernible psychological disorder (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-006-0023-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freeman, 2006&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bentall, R. P., Rowse, G., Shryane, N., Kinderman, P., Howard, R., Blackwood, N., ... &amp;amp; Corcoran, R. (2009). The cognitive and affective structure of paranoid delusions: a transdiagnostic investigation of patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders and depression. &lt;em&gt;Archives of general psychiatry, 66&lt;/em&gt;(3), 236-247. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Black D. W. &amp;amp; Nasrallah A. (1989). Hallucinations and Delusions in 1,715 Patients with Unipolar and Bipolar Affective Disorders. &lt;em&gt;Psychopathology 22&lt;/em&gt;(1), 28-34. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1159/000284576&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1159/000284576&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freeman, D. (2006). Delusions in the nonclinical population&#xA; &lt;em&gt;Current Psychiatry Reports 8&lt;/em&gt;(3), 191-204. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-006-0023-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s11920-006-0023-1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scott, J. G., Nurcombe, B., Sheridan, J. &amp;amp; McFarland M. (2007) Hallucinations in adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder and psychotic disorder, &lt;em&gt;Australasian Psychiatry, 15&lt;/em&gt;(1), 44-48, DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10398560601083084&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/10398560601083084&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Signer, S. F., Cummings, J. L., &amp;amp; Benson, D. F. (1989). Delusions and mood disorders in patients with chronic aphasia. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 1&lt;/em&gt;(1), 40-45.&#xA;doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.1.1.40&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1176/jnp.1.1.40&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20907" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2018-12-27T06:43:01.450" LastActivityDate="2018-12-27T06:43:01.450" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21338" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-21T15:38:27.223" Score="1" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interference control requires  being able to inhibit irrelevant stimulI ie shift flexibily from something  you are doing and back into it in the presence of competing stimulus. Is it the same as Cognitive Flexibility? Or are they different?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21105" LastEditorUserId="20907" LastEditDate="2018-12-21T17:21:31.240" LastActivityDate="2018-12-21T17:21:31.240" Title="Are cognitive flexibility and interference control the same thing?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21339" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21338" CreationDate="2018-12-21T17:09:34.540" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interference control is the ability to suppress irrelevant information (Gazzaniga, Ivry &amp;amp; Mangun, 2014). For example, ignoring the sound of the dishwasher in the other room while you are watching a TV show. Cognitive flexibility is the ability to switch between thinking about two (or more) different concepts (Scott, 1962). Cognitive flexibility is further divided into task switching (an unconscious behaviour) and cognitive switching (a conscious behaviour). Interference control and cognitive flexibility are &lt;strong&gt;different&lt;/strong&gt; processes that are grouped under the wide range of functions associated with cognitive control. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B., &amp;amp; Mangun, G. R. (2014). Cognitive Neuroscience: The biology of the mind (4th Ed.) New York: W. W. Norton &amp;amp; Co.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scott, William A. (1962). Cognitive complexity and cognitive flexibility. &lt;em&gt;Sociometry. American Sociological Association&lt;/em&gt;. 25 (4): 405–414. doi:10.2307/2785779. JSTOR 2785779. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21106" LastActivityDate="2018-12-21T17:09:34.540" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21313" CreationDate="2018-12-21T17:38:12.700" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is important to remember when reading this question and answer is that Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) does not develop in adulthood, but symptoms can change for individuals over time because learning occurs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Symptoms of ASD come in all shapes and forms because this is a spectrum disorder and therefore people present somewhere on a spectrum, often referred to as from low functioning to high functioning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer the question directly, people who present symptoms later in life, as you say, often do present those symptoms in childhood but they aren't noticed by the adults in the child's life until it becomes a real problem for the individual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;As an example, interpersonal skills are learned during childhood. It is perfectly acceptable for children to be at slightly different stages during development with regard to interpersonal skills. Some children will be more advanced then others. Interpersonal skills can be difficult for people with ASD to grasp and so someone with high functioning Autism can take longer to develop these skills, if they are developed at all. So that would potentially not show up until later when the other kids have developed these skills and the child with undiagnosed ASD has not.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often, 30+ years ago, before we had more advanced treatments and assessments children would 'fall through the cracks' and be labeled as gifted, rather then as having high functioning ASD. This would explain why some people who are highly successful in adulthood are diagnosed in adulthood rather then childhood. People with high functioning ASD often have a savant type qualities, meaning they are very skilled in some specific area. &#xA;The diagnostic criteria (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM&lt;/a&gt;) has been amended over the years which would account for some adults being diagnosed now, as they may not have qualified before the DSM changed the criteria. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would be an interesting study to read to understand social interaction among children with high functioning ASD: &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10802-007-9156-x#citeas&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bauminger, N., Solomon, M., Aviezer, A. et al. J Abnorm Child Psychol (2008) 36: 135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9156-x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10803-006-0307-7#citeas&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; article discusses changing symptoms (Behavioural) in youth and adults with ASD. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1997-08927-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; might be a good book for you to read together a good understanding of ASD in development, which might give you a better understanding as to why people can go undiagnosed until adulthood. Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders, 2nd ed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, There are many reasons that someone might not be diagnosed until later in life, and autism is a spectrum which means people have many different symptoms that range on a vast scale. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bauminger, N., Solomon, M., Aviezer, A. et al. J Abnorm Child Psychol (2008) 36: 135. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9156-x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9156-x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shattuck, P.T., Seltzer, M.M., Greenberg, J.S. et al. J Autism Dev Disord (2007) 37: 1735. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0307-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0307-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20907" LastEditorUserId="20907" LastEditDate="2018-12-22T15:26:40.700" LastActivityDate="2018-12-22T15:26:40.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21343" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-22T17:05:41.480" Score="2" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am doing a research project for school, and I'm trying to investigate the effectiveness of inhaling lavender oil in reducing anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I plan to measure the strength of alpha wave activities, as it seems to be commonly accepted as an index for the level of relaxation/anxiety.  I may also measure the strength of gamma activity at the T3 location, for Oathes et al. have suggested that the increase in gamma power in that location is associated with worrying (&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biopsycho.2008.04.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biopsycho.2008.04.005&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(That being said, I know very little about EEG research and will ask about the details of conducting one in another post because this post is about the equipment)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are in a high school, though a fairly well-resourced one, so our budget isn't too big.  Ideally, I would like to obtain a research-grade EEG headset plus the related equipment (e.g. A/D converter) under 1000 dollars, at most 2000 dollars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what are some brands and models that might be suitable for my situation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think I might as well ask about the process of analyzing the raw signals here.  I've done some searching online, and many people recommended using EEGLAB, a toolbox for MATLAB.  So I plan to purchase a MATLAB student license and install the free toolbox.  Is that a good idea?  If so, do you have any recommendations for resources that I can use to learn about using this tool for data analysis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21112" LastEditorUserId="21112" LastEditDate="2018-12-24T03:03:56.233" LastActivityDate="2018-12-24T17:42:52.283" Title="EEG Equipment For High Schoolers?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21344" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-22T18:41:08.290" Score="1" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the key talking points I hear to disparage homosexuality is that it stems from &quot;a lack of a strong male figure&quot; or some variation of that, putting aside the obvious irrelevancy of argument. I still am curious, is there any truth to the idea that trauma is correlated with homosexuality? And if so, can someone elaborate on it ie. is it equal across both genders? Does it result in Bisexuality or Gay more often? etc&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-27T23:57:06.457" Title="Is there actually a correlation between emotional trauma and homosexuality" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21345" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21344" CreationDate="2018-12-22T19:06:37.367" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The widely accepted answer to this question is that homosexuality is not a choice but science has no concrete answer as to exactly why people are homosexual, heterosexual, or bisexual (or any other sexual orientations that one may identify with). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; page, Homosexuality, offers many great references and indicates that science has not definitive answer for what the 'cause' of homosexuality, only that it may be an interplay between generics, hormones, and environment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20907" LastActivityDate="2018-12-22T19:06:37.367" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21346" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-22T19:45:48.907" Score="6" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a book &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.panmacmillan.com/authors/richard-wiseman/59-seconds/9781447273370&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;59 seconds&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (section &amp;quot;Creating the perfect diary&amp;quot;), Richard Wiseman cited &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/download/40080257/Is_Talking_About_an_Emotional_Experience20151116-23182-1y9zytg.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zech &amp;amp; Rimé (2005)&lt;/a&gt; - I had impression that he suggests that according to that study talking about traumatic experiences (&amp;quot;the most negative upsetting emotional&#xA;event in their life, one they still thought about and still needed to talk&#xA;about.&amp;quot;) &lt;strong&gt;didn't&lt;/strong&gt; have a better effect than talking about a &lt;em&gt;typical day&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I right to assume he encourages &lt;strong&gt;to not talk&lt;/strong&gt; about problems? Because here is my contradiction: I think talking about problems can be useful solely because someone else may see a solution you didn't and suggest it to you. Isn't it? &lt;strong&gt;So why recommend not talking about problems?&lt;/strong&gt; Or am I misinterpreting the results of that study or what Wiseman said?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be completely fair here is his last quote: &amp;quot;So, if talking about negative experiences to a sympathetic but&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;untrained&lt;/strong&gt; individual is a waste of time, what can be done to help ease&#xA;the pain of the past?&amp;quot;. So maybe he is suggesting that talking about problems is useful however with a &lt;strong&gt;trained&lt;/strong&gt; individual? Still, untrained one could still see a solution to a problem you didn't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zech, E., &amp;amp; Rimé, B. (2005). Is talking about an emotional experience helpful? Effects on emotional recovery and perceived benefits. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Psychology &amp;amp; Psychotherapy: An International Journal of Theory &amp;amp; Practice, 12&lt;/em&gt;(4), 270-287. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.460&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/cpp.460&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21114" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-12-23T11:07:21.400" Title="Talking about emotional experience" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21347" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21343" CreationDate="2018-12-22T20:03:54.450" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;EEG systems are quite expensive and are far out of the budget you have outlined. There are four points to be made on this matter:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The most basic &quot;set&quot; I could find produced by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.biosemi.com/download/BioSemi%20Pricelist%202018.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biosemi&lt;/a&gt; costs $11,000 and this set doesn't include the caps and bands (electrodes) required for collecting data. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is also important that the location of this system be in a soundproof and electromagnetic safe room to ensure there is little interference in data collection.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is quite a lot of training required to properly conduct an EEG study and to test participants in a safe and ethical manner. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Analyzing raw EEG data is also not a simple feat. The level of statistics understanding and software knowledge required for this type of analysis is not usually obtained until graduate-level studies.    &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an aside, I am not sure that the question you have is worth the resources needed to test via EEG. For high school level research it would be best to conduct a behavioural study to measure the effects of lavender oil inhalation on anxiety symptoms. There are many available behavioural measures of anxiety that have been tried and tested in the scientific community. It is standard practice to begin with behavioural measures before moving to physiological measures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please note, there is great value in replicating studies. The scientific community often feels pressured to produce novel findings, as new and exciting results may lead to fame and a bigger pay cheque. It is paramount to scientific progress to replicate previous findings as often times novel findings are never replicated and therefore never subjected to &quot;fact checking&quot; (and could therefore not be replicable in the first place,  fluke findings do occur). Progress can only be made if we are constantly questioning what we think is right. It would be advisable for a high school level researcher to find a study related to the topic you are interested in and to replicate the methods used in that study in an attempt to find the same results as the original authors. Not only would this be more accessible to you at this level of education, but it will teach you valuable research skills and help improve your understanding of the questions you have.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21106" LastActivityDate="2018-12-22T20:03:54.450" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21348" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21301" CreationDate="2018-12-22T20:53:33.783" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe that there is a fundamental flaw in your scenario in that, pilots are not promoted to being a pilot from being something else. Pilots take intensive training courses that &lt;strong&gt;may&lt;/strong&gt; include simulation training and &lt;strong&gt;do&lt;/strong&gt; include many hours of practice in an actual aeroplane, under supervision of a trained instructor. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To more generally answer your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can one learn not to panic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, using behavioural training techniques we can train ourselves, or be trained by others, to respond to situations or stimuli in a different way than is our instinctive reaction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the situation you noted about pilots, a trained pilot will have all of the knowledge of how to deal with a situation that they may encounter and will have practiced this knowledge in an applied setting (an actual plane) many times, making the training become the pilots first response to a dangerous situation (Exposure Therapy, and  Repetitive Learning are some ways of doing this). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A novel situation can also be trained for. In your scenario, I would suspect that their training would include an emergency checklist type of activity that would then be repeated over and over so that it is ingrained in their memory and behaviours and will also become the pilots first response to a novel dangerous situation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How to learn not to panic is really all about training your brain to behave in a different way then its instincts tell it to, this may or may not mean that you totally remove the instinctive fear response. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20907" LastActivityDate="2018-12-22T20:53:33.783" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21349" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21343" CreationDate="2018-12-22T22:03:17.697" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lab grade EEG are outside of your budget, however there are available alternatives like Muse, Emotiv or the OpenBCI project which are affordable. With these headset you can get either the raw data or a summary of the signal. Muse software is also quite user friendly, see &lt;a href=&quot;http://developer.choosemuse.com/tools/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://developer.choosemuse.com/tools/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the quality of the signal won't be as good as lab EEG headsets, there is some papers showing that the signal is decent and not just noise -as I thought when the came out-, eg. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2017.00109/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2017.00109/full&lt;/a&gt; , &lt;a href=&quot;https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/7133005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/7133005&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, I agree with Shelby Howlett, trying to replicate a study is probably a great idea for this kind of project. It'd be very informative and a bit less of a headache to come up with the protocol and actually figuring out if you can get anxiety levels from the EEG signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update for the edit:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would strongly encourage you to go for an open source library instead of Matlab, it'd be better experience for learning some coding and it'll resonate more with the current Open Science spirit. There several available, the one I'm familiar with is: MNE, &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/mne-tools/mne-python&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://github.com/mne-tools/mne-python&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21042" LastEditorUserId="21042" LastEditDate="2018-12-24T17:42:52.283" LastActivityDate="2018-12-24T17:42:52.283" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21350" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21303" CreationDate="2018-12-24T03:22:35.363" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In addition to the previous answer, there's also a document called The Belmont Report which describes the ethical principles and guidelines for conducting research involving human subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oftentimes, it is listed out in the informed consent form that deception will be used in the study, and it is also required to give out an adequate debrief session, during which any deceptions used should be cleared up and the subjects may ask any questions pertaining to the study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21112" LastEditorUserId="21112" LastEditDate="2018-12-24T23:37:56.357" LastActivityDate="2018-12-24T23:37:56.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21352" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21356" CreationDate="2018-12-24T17:05:29.740" Score="1" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for the name of the following phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Image this situation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A teenager is riding a bus. He's thirsty. He has a water bottle in his bag, but he doesn't feel comfortable bringing it out and drinking because &quot;I'll look dumb&quot;. (Let's assume nobody else in the bus is drinking.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'd also like to know: (1) Are teenagers more susceptible to this?&#xA;(2) Does it have to do with self-esteem?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21123" LastActivityDate="2018-12-26T02:38:28.783" Title="Name this phenomenon: You're shy of doing X because nobody else around you does it" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21356" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21352" CreationDate="2018-12-26T02:38:28.783" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the term you are looking for is &lt;em&gt;social norm&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;peer norm&lt;/em&gt;, or &lt;em&gt;social expectation&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Distinguish from &lt;em&gt;peer pressure&lt;/em&gt;, which is a different phenomena, yet related.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many researchers have shown that teens are more susceptible to peer pressure (which implies the same for peer norms).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both relate to self-esteem, and while mostly mentioned as facilitators, there is research out there to show that people with low self-esteem are more susceptible to both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See, for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sumter, S.R., Bokhorst, C.L., Steinberg, L. and Westenberg, P.M., 2009. The developmental pattern of resistance to peer influence in adolescence: Will the teenager ever be able to resist?. Journal of adolescence, 32(4), pp.1009-1021.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zimmerman, M.A., Copeland, L.A., Shope, J.T. and Dielman, T.E., 1997. A longitudinal study of self-esteem: Implications for adolescent development. Journal of youth and Adolescence, 26(2), pp.117-141.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastActivityDate="2018-12-26T02:38:28.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21357" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4073" CreationDate="2018-12-26T08:07:44.737" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In at least one sense, your two conditions can be seen as contradictory: &lt;em&gt;literal&lt;/em&gt; thinking is intrinsically empirical in nature, and is not &lt;em&gt;overly complicated&lt;/em&gt;, at least from an analytic perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a famous story that illustrates this, involving the pioneering Soviet neuropsychologist &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Luria&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alexander Luria&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The uncompromising empiricism of traditional indigenous people may&#xA;  explain why they tend to be suspicious of abstract thinking. When the&#xA;  Russian psychologist Alexander Luria (1902–77) tried to test the&#xA;  reasoning skills of a nomadic people in central Asia, they refused to&#xA;  cooperate. For example, Luria gave one man the following information:&#xA;  ‘All bears in the North are white, and a friend who lives in the North&#xA;  has sent me a letter saying that he had seen a bear.’ He then asked&#xA;  the man what the colour of the bear was. The answer may be obvious to&#xA;  us, but the man replied: ‘How should I know? Ask your friend who saw&#xA;  the bear.’ Another man explained, ‘We always speak only of what we&#xA;  see; we don’t talk about what we haven't seen.’ &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=oqaTBQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA552&amp;amp;ots=9DikIT73ZA&amp;amp;pg=PA552#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;¹&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an aside, this development of increasing abstraction in thinking — away from the literal — as the technology and information densities of our societies have grown is one of the plausible explanations for the &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flynn Effect&lt;/a&gt; (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jan/06/cleverandcleverer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Guardian article&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;¹ &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=oqaTBQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA552&amp;amp;ots=9DikIT73ZA&amp;amp;pg=PA552#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Not the best of sources, but it’s an old and well-known story.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19603" LastActivityDate="2018-12-26T08:07:44.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21359" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6107" CreationDate="2018-12-26T09:18:48.543" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The original paper describing Patient HM is available online, and makes for fascinating reading: &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC497229/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scoville, W. B., Milner, B. 1957. Loss of&#xA;recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. &lt;em&gt;J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;. 1957 Feb; 20(1): 11–21.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC497229/pdf/jnnpsyc00285-0015.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Direct PDF)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From page 14:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This patient has even eaten luncheon in front of one of us (B.M.)&#xA;  without being able to name, a mere half-hour later, a single item of&#xA;  food he had eaten; in fact, he could not remember having eaten&#xA;  luncheon at all. Yet to a casual observer this man seems like a&#xA;  relatively normal individual, since his understanding and reasoning&#xA;  are undiminished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On page 15, the authors describe the group of subjects with &quot;Severe Memory Defects&quot;, which included Patient HM:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this category are those patients who since operation appear to&#xA;  forget the incidents of their daily life as fast as they occur. It is&#xA;  interesting that all these patients were able to retain a three-figure&#xA;  number or a pair of unrelated words for several minutes, if care was&#xA;  taken not to distract them in the interval. However, they forgot the&#xA;  instant attention was diverted to a new topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are plenty of other interesting aspects to this paper; I high recommend it.  But I don't see any reference to the &quot;thirty seconds&quot; which &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/users/46/bencole&quot;&gt;@BenCole&lt;/a&gt; found in Wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A followup paper on Patient HM — also well worth reading! — actually specifies that his memory can last indefinitely, yes, as long as he wasn't distracted. See &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627308010957&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Squire, Larry R. &quot;The legacy of patient HM for neuroscience.&quot; &lt;em&gt;Neuron&lt;/em&gt; 61.1 (2009): 6-9.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[…] H.M. had a remarkable capacity for sustained attention, including&#xA;  the ability to retain information for a period of time after it was&#xA;  presented. Thus, he could carry on a conversation, and he exhibited an&#xA;  intact digit span (i.e., the ability to repeat back a string of six or&#xA;  seven digits). Indeed, information remained available so long as it&#xA;  could be actively maintained by rehearsal. For example, H.M. could&#xA;  retain a three-digit number for as long as 15 min by continuous&#xA;  rehearsal, organizing the digits according to an elaborate mnemonic&#xA;  scheme. Yet when his attention was diverted to a new topic, he forgot&#xA;  the whole event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; we can infer is that there wasn't a theoretical limit for his attention, but the practical one was pretty severe. I don't recall specific details of how long the &quot;period of time&quot; was, or even how or whether it was explicitly tested, but since he undoubtedly couldn't remember that it was crucial for him to remain attentive, it would have been more of a test of the researchers' ability to keep him away from distraction, not of his own competence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more complete history of Patient HM is available at &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1878875015004337&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dossani, et al. &quot;The legacy of Henry Molaison (1926–2008) and the impact of his bilateral mesial temporal lobe surgery on the study of human memory.&quot; &lt;em&gt;World Neurosurgery&lt;/em&gt; 84.4 (2015): 1127-1135.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, but I'm afraid it isn't open access, so you'll need institutional access to ScienceDirect Journals. I found this detail quite impressive:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gabrieli et al. tested Molaison on several aspects of semantic memory,&#xA;  including understanding of the meaning, perception, and pronunciation&#xA;  of words, and showed that semantic memory acquired before the&#xA;  operation was normal compared with that encountered postoperatively.&#xA;  Molaison's inability to collect new semantic information did not&#xA;  affect his ability to carry normal conversations using the words he&#xA;  knew preoperatively. Molaison continued to have a sense of humor and&#xA;  understood complex sentences with ambiguous syntax. Longitudinal&#xA;  studies conducted over a period of 48 years showed consistency in&#xA;  scores obtained on four Wechsler subtests (Information,&#xA;  Comprehension, Similarities, and Vocabulary).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if you don't have access to that, here are links to three other public bios, found via an image search of Patient HM found in the above article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2359960/The-man-memory-left-lasting-impression-countless-neuroscientists-identified-details-life-revealed-woman-studied-decades.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Meet the man with no memory: Patient who became world-famous after&#xA;botched surgery wiped his ability to remember anything is finally&#xA;identified after his death&lt;/em&gt; from DailyMailUK, 2013.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/870517407&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Permanent Present Tense: The Unforgettable Life of the Amnesic&#xA;Patient, H. M.&lt;/em&gt;, a 2012 book by neuroscientist Suzanne Corkin.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.popsci.com/science/article/2013-05/who-was-hm-inside-mind-worlds-most-famous-amnesiac&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Who Was H.M.? Inside The Mind Of The Amnesiac Who Revolutionized&#xA;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; from Popular Science, 2003.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19603" LastActivityDate="2018-12-26T09:18:48.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21374" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21381" CreationDate="2018-12-29T06:23:57.827" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I cannot for the life of me find the exact date -- day, month, year -- for the original DSM-III publication. The Google Citation, Amazon info, APA page, and others only list 1980. Does anyone know? Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21166" LastActivityDate="2018-12-30T08:32:28.490" Title="Day and month of 1980 DSM-III publication" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;&lt;dsm&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21375" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="696" CreationDate="2018-12-29T08:54:47.947" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;An immediate effect comes to my mind, even though the description doesn't exactly describe the problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindsight_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hindsight bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hindsight bias, also known as the knew-it-all-along effect or creeping determinism, is the inclination, after an event has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it.[1][2] It is a multifaceted phenomenon that can affect different stages of designs, processes, contexts, and situations.[3] Hindsight bias may cause memory distortion, where the recollection and reconstruction of content can lead to false theoretical outcomes. It has been suggested that the effect can cause extreme methodological problems while trying to analyze, understand, and interpret results in experimental studies. A basic example of the hindsight bias is when, after viewing the outcome of a potentially unforeseeable event, a person believes he or she &amp;quot;knew it all along&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2018-12-29T08:54:47.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21376" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-29T11:52:12.473" Score="1" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a couple of times read articles saying something like &quot;If you have an IQ of 130 you can become a physician, high school math teacher or lawyer. If your IQ is 95 you can work at a kindergarten, as a waitress or taxi driver.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, these are just rough estimates combined with examples of potential careers and should be taken with a grain of salt. With that reservation made, is there any scientific research on this subject? What conclusions did they arrive at?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want better sources than popular science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20378" LastActivityDate="2018-12-29T11:52:12.473" Title="Cognitive ability and possible careers" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21377" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-29T14:42:06.410" Score="2" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin_Card_Sorting_Test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WCST&lt;/a&gt; a test of task switching rather than cognitive shifting?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_switching_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Task switching&lt;/a&gt; allows a person to rapidly and efficiently adapt to&#xA;  different situations. It is often studied by cognitive and&#xA;  experimental psychologists, and can be tested experimentally using&#xA;  tasks like the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_shifting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive shifting&lt;/a&gt; is the mental process of consciously redirecting&#xA;  one's attention from one fixation to another. In contrast, if this&#xA;  process happened unconsciously, then it is referred to as task&#xA;  switching. Both are forms of cognitive flexibility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm not understanding is, given e.g. the following screen&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zREJB.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zREJB.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the participant is not &lt;em&gt;consciously&lt;/em&gt; redirecting themselves? It seems quite easy to fulfill the task consciously, but its meant to be a measure of unconscious flexibility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To state the obvious, and how to do so deliberately: work out what properties the card has (colour, shape, number); then work out what these are (red, cross, two); then match these to the properties of another card (one red circle, four yellow crosses, two green stars) and try each of these until you get the right answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Surely it can be done consciously, then?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDITED to add that I took this test on a site, and, with the test in front of me had to sit it twice before realizing there were three, not two, card properties. Incidentally, my score was horrific. Baffling!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2019-07-03T08:46:12.780" LastActivityDate="2019-07-03T08:46:12.780" Title="Why is the WCST a test of task switching rather than cognitive shifting?" Tags="&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21378" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-29T21:39:11.057" Score="6" ViewCount="333" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't seem to wrap my head around how a bunch of organic transistors (neurons) could possibly produce a wave? What exactly is a brain wave? If you graph a brain wave what exactly would your X and Y axis represent? For example a sound wave is graphed with X axis being time and Y axis being pressure. If someone told me to recreate a brain wave and for this purpose gave me a bunch of neurons with complete and exact control of which neuron fires when how would I possibly create said wave?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21169" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2018-12-31T17:53:50.427" LastActivityDate="2020-06-21T14:34:38.230" Title="What exactly are the X and the Y axis of a brainwave?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21379" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21378" CreationDate="2018-12-30T01:09:40.043" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the general case of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EEG&lt;/a&gt;, the x-axis is time, and the y-axis is the voltage potential measured by an electrode placed on the scalp.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When others talk about &quot;brain waves&quot; they typically refer to oscillations visible in EEG electrode signals that have more power in a certain frequency range. For example, &quot;Alpha brain waves&quot; usually refer to EEG signals with maximum power in the range of 7-13 Hz. &quot;Gamma waves&quot; have frequencies &gt;30 Hz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The dominant theory of the origin of the waves is that they are the result of large populations of individual neurons firing action potentials in a synchronized fashion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if you had the ability to make, say, a 1,000 neurons near the surface of the scalp fire at the same time, a scalp electrode placed above those neurons should register a significant voltage potential deviation around the time of the trigger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2018-12-30T01:09:40.043" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21380" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-30T02:54:35.203" Score="2" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;The CDC has been rapidly increasing its estimate of children with autism for years. It's tripled in the past 15 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://www.autismspeaks.org/sites/default/files/2018_prevalence_graphic_hero.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has lead to a lot of speculation, including dramatic claims like vaccines causing autism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My physiology-major wife tells me that the enormous increase is likely simply increased awareness and alterations to its definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I never hear anything definitive. Even with changes to awareness, definition, etc., given that autism is a common, incurable, lifelong condition, isn't this is really easy to answer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Take a population sample.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Test for autism using chosen, fixed criteria.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Analyze how age correlates to the measured autism rate.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Okay, maybe not &quot;really easy&quot;, but as easy as other physiological population studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone done this and found the answer? Is actual autism prevalence increasing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21170" LastEditorUserId="21170" LastEditDate="2018-12-30T02:59:35.933" LastActivityDate="2018-12-30T02:59:35.933" Title="Is autism prevalence increasing?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2019-01-03T23:35:52.080" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21381" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21374" CreationDate="2018-12-30T08:32:28.490" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;At this present moment I cannot find full date information, but looking at &lt;a href=&quot;http://displus.sk/DSM/subory/dsm3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a copy of the DSM-III I have found&lt;/a&gt;, on the bottom of the 3rd page of the PDF it points out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;First Printing, February 1980&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Second Printing, May 1980&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2018-12-30T08:32:28.490" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21384" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21392" CreationDate="2018-12-30T19:58:04.070" Score="8" ViewCount="1290" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard this stated as a fact more times than I can keep track of, but I haven't been able to find papers that actually demonstrate this. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.05.016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; seems to be the most cited paper on the topic, but it just claims that maturity of the brain by age 25 is widely established, and cites a CDC paper (reference 5) that does not appear relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be more specific, I want to know&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What exactly do we mean when we say the brain is &quot;finished developing&quot;?&lt;/strong&gt; Is that when there are no more changes in volume of gray/white matter? Is it when synaptic pruning levels off?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the evidence for this?&lt;/strong&gt; What imaging modalities are used? What is the variance in the end-of-development timepoint?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm hoping to find a good paper that contains answers to these kinds of questions. My motivation for asking this is that I'm wondering whether this end of development is reflective of a deterministic biological process, or if it is a function of the environment (e.g. most people stop learning and meeting new people as much around 25).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16928" LastEditorUserId="16928" LastEditDate="2019-01-01T17:00:16.283" LastActivityDate="2019-01-02T17:52:42.253" Title="How do we know human brain development stops around age 25?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21385" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-31T00:45:06.513" Score="5" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;With 2019 right around the corner, I've been reading about forming successful habits. &lt;a href=&quot;https://lifehacker.com/form-better-habits-with-a-cue-routine-reward-system-1491492243&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Many&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:jyl3NqxflbUJ:https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2018/02/13/the-science-behind-adopting-new-habits-and-making-them-stick/%20&amp;amp;cd=3&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;ct=clnk&amp;amp;gl=uy&amp;amp;client=firefox-b-1-ab&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;non-academic&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://routineexcellence.com/psychology-of-habits-form-habits-make-stick/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sources&lt;/a&gt; (and Charles Duhigg's popular book &lt;a href=&quot;https://charlesduhigg.com/how-habits-work/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Power of Habit&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;) have advocated for pairing a cue with operant conditioning's positive reinforcement routine-reward method. For example, your alarm clock goes off (cue), you go for a jog (routine), you drink a fruit smoothie right after (reward).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to be a short-term and damaging solution because of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overjustification_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;overjustification effect&lt;/a&gt;, where external rewards irreversibly decrease intrinsic motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence suggesting that extrinsic rewards can successfully sustain habits in the long-term? &#xA;To be more specific, could extrinsic rewards be used for several years and still remain equally effective in supporting the desired habit, or would the extrinsic rewards eventually become less effective at reinforcing the desired habit, given how extrinsic rewards eventually decrease the potency of intrinsic motivation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20892" LastEditorUserId="20892" LastEditDate="2018-12-31T05:23:55.007" LastActivityDate="2018-12-31T05:23:55.007" Title="Can extrinsic rewards successfully sustain habits in the long-term?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21386" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21384" CreationDate="2018-12-31T09:26:38.393" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the book &lt;em&gt;The Naked Ape&lt;/em&gt; Desmond Morris (a zoologist and perhaps evolutionary psychologist) says that human brain stops developing when the skull is fully developed, which is around age 25. The reason the skull cannot fully developed until this age (as compared to other animals) is because if it is developed in the uterus of the mother, then she cannot gives birth the child, and thus both will die. The reason for this (as compared to other animals) is because human standing up, so the human female pelvis cannot open enough room to give birth a full-developed infant skull.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some evidences that he gives supporting this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Birthing in human is long and like torture, as compared to other animals. I've watched YouTube clips of giraffe's birth and chimpanzee's birth, and the babies are delivered under 5 minutes, and the mothers don't seem to have pain at all. (The giraffe continues to eat; the chimpanzee rolls around) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There exists &lt;strong&gt;no single&lt;/strong&gt; fossil for a full-developed infant skull, suggesting that any mutation would have definitely died&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some notes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;My memory may be distorted&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The book is a pop science book, and written in the 60s&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2018-12-31T09:26:38.393" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21387" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2018-12-31T16:18:51.693" Score="0" ViewCount="195" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to modern psychology why is the answer to the joke &quot;Why did the chicken cross the road?&quot; &quot;To get the the other side.&quot; Funny?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the relief theory, what are we relieved about?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could it be that the question invokes a feeling of stress when we don't know the answer? Do we fear that we shall have to expend a lot of energy in trying to work out the solution? Is it stressful having a question put to us which we can't answer? (Just like starting a new job where we don't know what we're doing?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or does the stress come from the fear that we will look stupid for being unknowledgeable about the answer to the question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are we then relieved by the answer? Is it because we are relieved that we don't have to expend new energy storing new information because we the information is already so obvious? (But this might not make sense as we do tend store jokes.) But we do not have to alter any of our existing information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or does the relief come from finding out that the questioner does not have superior knowledege to ourselves. And we laugh at how idiotic this person is. Like shadenfrauder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or... is the laugh a submissive behaviour that we acknowledge that we have been fooled by a greater wit and intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the modern take on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2019-01-03T15:15:32.343" Title="Why is the chicken crossing the road joke funny?" Tags="&lt;humour&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21392" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21384" CreationDate="2019-01-01T18:06:35.933" Score="8" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Based on a review by &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1121251109&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kolb et al, 2012&lt;/a&gt;, it seems that &quot;the brain is finished developing by 25&quot; refers to the point when synaptic pruning &lt;em&gt;in the cerebral cortex&lt;/em&gt; levels off, on average. However, the prefrontal cortex, the region most unique to humans and involved in executive function, develops in this way well into the third decade of life.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fn4QZ.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fn4QZ.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Time line of brain development in humans and rodents. B, birth.&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The above review cites a study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1105108108&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Petanjek et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt; that investigates synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex by looking at differences in dendritic spine density in tissue samples from autopsies of human subjects ranging in age from 1 week to 91 years. As seen in the figure below, significant pruning is still occurring even by age 40.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/80W4a.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/80W4a.png&quot; alt=&quot;The dendritic spine density plotted at the linear scale to illustrate the dynamics of changes occurring during the 100-y human lifespan. Regression curves fit the distribution of data from the basal dendrites.&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, a critical region of the human brain is definitely &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; finished developing by 25, or even 35.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for whether this process is biologically &quot;set in stone&quot;, I think it's fair to say that is still an open question. Looking at the second figure, there is quite a bit of variance and a relatively small sample size. Moreover, this was necessarily a cross-sectional study since we can only get postmortem tissue samples in human subjects. It is entirely possible that older subjects had more pruning because they lived in a less dynamic environment. Even if we could do longitudinal studies, the question of societal trends influencing learning environment would still remain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, there probably is some degree of biological determinism given that we observe similar trends in other mammals. However, as humans tend to have some of the most gene-environment interactions of all animals, and the prefrontal cortex is the most recently evolved brain region, we can only get limited information from studies in other animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the importance of the human brain development timeline to policy decisions (see paper cited in the question), I think it's fair to say these questions need more attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Kolb, B., Mychasiuk, R., Muhammad, A., Li, Y., Frost, D. O., &amp;amp; Gibb, R. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1121251109&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Experience and the developing prefrontal cortex.&lt;/a&gt; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 201121251.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Petanjek, Z., Judaš, M., Šimić, G., Rašin, M. R., Uylings, H. B., Rakic, P., &amp;amp; Kostović, I. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1105108108&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Extraordinary neoteny of synaptic spines in the human prefrontal cortex.&lt;/a&gt; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(32), 13281-13286.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16928" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-01-02T17:52:42.253" LastActivityDate="2019-01-02T17:52:42.253" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21396" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-02T17:53:54.880" Score="1" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been watching a lot of Jordan Peterson's videos on youtube recently. One of his themes is, that IQ is among the best studied metrics, with high predictability, validity and is generally believed to be a very real thing in psychology. He also mentions, that IQ can not be improved or trained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, whether I could improve my IQ (by that I mean the test score, not general intelligence), by simply studying for it, trying to learn about the different types of questions and how they are generally solved and by simply doing a bunch of tests and memorizing how to solve questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have done a few IQ tests online and at the beginning, I was very confused about everything, like from which direction to read the boxes and stuff like that. After doing a couple and seeing how it is done and reading explanations about the different questions I feel, that I am doing a lot better now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar to that, I was on a job interview once, where they asked riddles, presumably in order to assess IQ, without doing an IQ test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I knew some of the riddles and simply answered some of them by sheer memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Isn't it possible to increase your test score of an IQ test by simply studying? And if you can, what makes the tests really valid? And finally, if IQ was such a high predictor of intelligence, wouldn't most job interviews be geared towards assessing your IQ in a legal manner?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17467" LastActivityDate="2019-12-16T11:36:40.607" Title="Are IQ tests &quot;beatable&quot;?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21399" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21400" CreationDate="2019-01-02T20:39:18.630" Score="6" ViewCount="165" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that sensitivity (d') is typically calculated as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;d' = z(Hit Rates) - z (False Alarm Rates)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand this as the idea is to standardize both distributions, and to then calculate the z-score, which allows to calculate a distance within the same scale so to say.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is however very confusing to me is the visualization of the process.&#xA;I am using the following plots from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-les/psych/vision-laboratory/sdtintro.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;these slides&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bUjPn.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bUjPn.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) As in the plot above, d' is &lt;em&gt;always&lt;/em&gt; depicted as the difference of the means of the two distributions (of signal and noise, for instance). Say however that I find in my data that the Hit rate (or Hit probability) is 0.8 - I would think that now, I would need to find z(Hit = 0.8), would this not be to the right of the mean:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/c1ehu.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/c1ehu.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) In addition, I am am uncertain about the arrows associated with Z(CR) and Z(H) on panel A above. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For one, in my opinion, CR includes the entire area before the criterion. The arrow, however, associates Z(CR) with only the distance mean-criterion - why? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, if Z(X) refers to the cumulative probability density of variable X, Z(X) should be the entire density up to X. &#xA;In the case of Z(CR) in panel A,however, it seems that it is only the part from the mean of the noise distribution to criterion. So what does then the Z(..) notation mean in this context?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user21198" LastActivityDate="2019-01-03T18:51:34.387" Title="Understanding the concept behind d-prime" Tags="&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21400" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21399" CreationDate="2019-01-02T22:26:06.447" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First lets write down some math for the above figures assuming Gaussian distributions with means &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\mu_{n}$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\mu_{s}$&lt;/span&gt; both with a standard deviation of unity. In this case the probability of a detection is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$P_D=1/(\sqrt{2\pi})\int_{c}^{\infty}e^{-(x-\mu_{s})^2/2}dx$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and the probability of a false alarm is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$P_F=1/(\sqrt{2\pi})\int_{c}^{\infty}e^{-(x-\mu_{n})^2/2}dx$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and the normal deviates are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$Z_D=\Phi^\prime(P_D)$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$Z_F=\Phi^\prime(P_F)$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Phi^\prime(x)$&lt;/span&gt; is the inverse of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Phi(x)$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$\Phi(a)=1/(\sqrt{2\pi})\int_{-\infty}^{a}e^{-x^2/2}dx.$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also need to note that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$1/(\sqrt{2\pi})\int_{-\infty}^{c}e^{-(x)^2/2}dx+1/(\sqrt{2\pi})\int_{c}^{\infty}e^{-(x)^2/2}dx=1$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$\Phi(-x) = 1-\Phi(x).$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now using integration by substitution on &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P_D$&lt;/span&gt; and the above equalities  gives us&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$P_D=1/(\sqrt{2\pi})\int_{c-\mu_{s}}^{\infty}e^{-(x)^2/2}dx=1-1/(\sqrt{2\pi})\int_{-\infty}^{c-\mu_{s}}e^{-(x)^2/2}dx=1-\Phi(c-\mu_{s})=\Phi(\mu_{s}-c).$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can play the same mathematical games and get that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P_F=\Phi(\mu_{n}-c)$&lt;/span&gt; or that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z_D=\mu_{s}-c$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z_{CR}=c-\mu_{n}$&lt;/span&gt; (this one is a little trickier ...).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now on to your questions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) As in the plot above, d' is always depicted as the difference of the means of the two distributions (of signal and noise, for instance). Say however that I find in my data that the Hit rate (or Hit probability) is 0.8 - I would think that now, I would need to find z(Hit = 0.8), would this not be to the right of the mean:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This depends on what the means are. If the signal distribution has a mean of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$-100\sigma$&lt;/span&gt;, then &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z_{hit}$&lt;/span&gt; will likely be to the right of the mean, but if the signal distribution mean is &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$100\sigma$&lt;/span&gt; it will likely be to the left.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, I am am uncertain about the arrows associated with Z(CR) and Z(H) on panel A above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For one, in my opinion, CR includes the entire area before the criterion. The arrow, however, associates Z(CR) with only the distance mean-criterion - why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a direct result of the magic of the math above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-01-03T18:51:34.387" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21401" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21404" CreationDate="2019-01-03T00:07:23.707" Score="3" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any significance on how President Trump constantly spreads apart from each other his hands while talking? &lt;br&gt;I postulate that this falls under some sort of sub-conscious (or conscious) body language message. Though, I can’t put my finger on it, my speculation ranges from where it is at his disadvantage to those watching him. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, when I saw &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www-m.cnn.com/2019/01/02/politics/donald-trump-lonely-christmas-new-years/index.html?r=https%3A%2F%2Famp.cnn.com%2F&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this video&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; I was awakened to ask this question. The way he conducts himself there seems to be a hyper-version of whatever it normally means.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20441" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-03T08:06:48.633" LastActivityDate="2019-01-03T23:22:17.600" Title="Is there any significance to the way Trump spreads his hand from each other?" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;body-language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21404" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21401" CreationDate="2019-01-03T08:04:29.143" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The open palms are usually seen as a gesture of openness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I have &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17962/6983&quot;&gt;answered&lt;/a&gt; a &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/17961/what-is-the-meaning-of-trumps-thumb-and-index-pinch-when-he-speaks&quot;&gt;related question&lt;/a&gt;, and I will use the same source as I used there, namely an interesting &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.euronews.com/2016/08/25/what-does-donald-trumps-body-language-say-about-him&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interview from Euro News&lt;/a&gt; with two communication experts, Stevens and prof. Beattie. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They claim that the open-palms gesture (Fig. 1) is one of all-inclusiveness and openness. It is a sign saying ‘&lt;em&gt;look I’m an honest Joe&lt;/em&gt;’, and it might be a gesture of ‘&lt;em&gt;look, you the audience and I, we are in exactly the same boat.&lt;/em&gt;’ In other words, while acknowledging that Trump talks of himself a lot, Stevens and Beattie claim that he compensates these egocentric words with gestures that show that his emotions and the emotions of the public are aligned and so builds connections between him and his audience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HszUU.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HszUU.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;openpalms&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Trump's open palms. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MWLxMTC6p5g&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;YouTube&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.euronews.com/2016/08/25/what-does-donald-trumps-body-language-say-about-him&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Euo News article What does Donald Trump’s body language say about him by Charlotte Cullen&lt;/a&gt; (2016)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-03T23:22:17.600" LastActivityDate="2019-01-03T23:22:17.600" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21408" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21387" CreationDate="2019-01-03T15:15:32.343" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think, as you surmised, the joke isn't all that funny. I would consider the dynamics of the social interaction in which the joke was told as more important than the joke itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Laughter is as much a social phenomenon as an involuntary reaction to something humorous. Duchenne laughter is even correlated with increased pain tolerance, in addition to feelings of well-being (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1373&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1373&lt;/a&gt;). People may laugh or otherwise respond positively if they are seeking social or personal approval.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But as an example of an infamous anti-joke, the chicken-road question &quot;humor&quot; is probably the relief of stress caused by the knowledge that the answer is trivial and thus we are obviated of the need to seek a more clever answer that would render this more of a riddle. The expectation is that the answer is something clever, interesting, or non-obvious, and so when the punchline is revealed, we are relieved and also fooled. The relief comes from the realization that it's not actually important what we said because the joke was a trick and our intellectual status was never on the line.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may be interested in My Humorous Robot, a conference paper on human responses to an NAO robot telling jokes. The jokes range from actually funny to anti-jokes and human responses are statistically analyzed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;HRI '18 Companion of the 2018 ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction&#xA;Pages 193-194 &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=3177015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=3177015&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20290" LastActivityDate="2019-01-03T15:15:32.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21409" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-03T15:20:52.270" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you have found a fitting instrument that measures your interest and has been validated but is a bit too long, what can you do to shorten it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do you reduce the number of questions within a questionnaire/instrument not the variables? As in, are there any set procedures that one needs to follow. The questionnaire in queestion is the Academic Self-Regulated Learning Scale (Mango 2010). The aim is to reduce it 20 -25 questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21208" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2019-01-07T18:05:50.850" LastActivityDate="2019-01-07T18:05:50.850" Title="Is there a specified way to shorten the number of questions in an instrument/questionnaire?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21410" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-03T19:31:42.237" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is inspired by In Search of Memory by Eric Kandel where he references a study on long-term memory. I have searched for a study online which can answer my question, but have not been successful. Here is my question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the sensitive time period wherein the conversion of short-term memory into long-term memory takes place, what is the relationship or disruption which will occur in this conversion if the person is to study a different subject? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kandel quote's an experiment conducted by an individual to study the conversion from short term to long term memory. The person wanting to mitigate the influence of pre-established associations decides to memorize thousands of nonsensical 3 letter words such as PAX, AUT, etc... They come to the now well known conclusions: the primary loss of memory occurs in the first hours and tapers off over the course of days and weeks. Furthermore it is much better to study over several smaller sessions than one long sessions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A follow up study discovers there is a limit to the amount of short-term memory which can be converted into long-term memory at a single time, and it is sensitive to disruption. Two groups are requested to memorize a list of nonsensical words so they can recite them the next day. The first group is allowed to memorize the list and 2 hours later is presented with a second list. The second group is allowed to memorize the list, but is immediately presented with a second list. The first group succeeds in reciting the first list the next day, but the second group fails indicating the conversion had been oversaturated or disrupted. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However it is also mentioned in the book short-term memories and long-term memories are generally stored in the locations of the brain they are processed. This led me to wonder whether memorizing a completely different task would not of mitigated or altogether avoided the disruption. But for all I know this is completely wrong. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21209" LastEditorUserId="21209" LastEditDate="2019-01-04T04:00:22.167" LastActivityDate="2019-01-04T04:00:22.167" Title="Do categorically different short-term memories also compete for conversion into long-term memory?" Tags="&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21412" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-03T22:49:32.423" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I apologize for (possibly) violating the only rule that shows up when you're about to ask a question: ask questions that can be answered rather than discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I'm hoping this question might actually have an answer, or at least some consensus, in case the answer is &quot;no&quot; (not specifically in this site - I'm hoping perhaps the answer can be found in some official guideline of a relevant organization of professionals).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A little background: It seems I've been suffering from depression for at least 10 years. I've been in therapy for about 4 months (Weekly).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After coming to my scheduled session in tears (which for me is extreme), we talked about why I was crying.&#xA;My problems have to do with the fact that my current reality is about as far as it can be from what I've wanted to achieve all my life, which my therapist believes is impossible to achieve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've made it very clear to him that he has a lot more work to do before he can convince me that what I want is unreasonable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I left my therapy session, I began to process what we talked about, and I felt worse than I did coming into the session.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I can understand that doing anything else but discussing that subject and telling me that my goals are unreasonable would (probably, and at least in his opinion) do more harm than good, I can't help but wonder, especially since this isn't the first time he made me feel worse (well, only the second time I believe), if, in such a situation, one should seek another therapist, or to weather the storm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21212" LastActivityDate="2019-01-03T22:49:32.423" Title="Is it reasonable to leave a therapy session feeling worse?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2019-01-04T18:08:42.583" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21413" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-03T23:48:50.253" Score="2" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any psychology research into the validity of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6vheim_cube_of_emotion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lovheim cube of emotion&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aside from the original paper (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hugo_Loevheim/publication/51863789_A_new_three-dimensional_model_for_emotions_and_monoamine_neurotransmitters/links/5a983e97a6fdccecff0d21dd/A-new-three-dimensional-model-for-emotions-and-monoamine-neurotransmitters.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lovheim, 2012&lt;/a&gt;) and papers from computer sciences (the cube is being used for simulating emotions artificially), I can't find any papers backing up or expanding on its claims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lövheim, H. (2012). A new three-dimensional model for emotions and monoamine neurotransmitters. &lt;em&gt;Medical hypotheses, 78&lt;/em&gt;(2), 341-348. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.11.016&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.mehy.2011.11.016&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15768" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-01-04T07:20:24.410" Title="Lovheim cube research" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;model&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21414" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-04T02:24:18.507" Score="-1" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why is the first stage of sleep non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, and why does rapid eye movement (REM) not happen during this first stage, although we remain partially awake?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21214" LastEditorUserId="21214" LastEditDate="2019-01-06T23:37:29.310" LastActivityDate="2019-01-06T23:37:29.310" Title="NREM sleep and REM sleep" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21416" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-04T19:20:44.367" Score="1" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;Venlafaxine at low dosages strongly inhibits serotonin, at moderate dosages also norepinephrine and only high dosages it also inhibits dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ratio is the following.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;serotonin : norepinephrine : dopamine&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1 : 30 : 93&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2009/020151s054lbl.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;FDA data&lt;/a&gt; these are the percentages for side effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Libido decreased&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Placebo 75mg &lt;strong&gt;225mg&lt;/strong&gt; 375mg&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;1.1% 2.2% &lt;strong&gt;1.1%&lt;/strong&gt; 5.7%&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the results for other sexual dysfunctions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Abnormal ejaculation/orgasm&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Placebo 75mg &lt;strong&gt;225mg&lt;/strong&gt; 375mg&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;0.0% 4.5% &lt;strong&gt;2.2%&lt;/strong&gt; 12.5%&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Impotence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Placebo 75mg &lt;strong&gt;225mg&lt;/strong&gt; 375mg&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;0.0% 5.8% &lt;strong&gt;2.1%&lt;/strong&gt; 3.6%&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How would you explain the sudden drop of sexual dysfunctions at 225mg?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other questions to consider:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Would a lower dose (37.5mg or 25mg) have sexual side effects (SSE) similar to placebo?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What dose has the lowest rate of SSE?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the lowest effective dose with reasonably low SSE?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How would adding of NDRI (bupropione) influence SSE given an increased dosage of venlafaxine? (i.e. Could one afford higher doses&#xA;of venlafaxine with few SSE provided bupropion is taken&#xA;concomittantly?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13946" LastEditorUserId="13946" LastEditDate="2019-01-04T19:39:35.353" LastActivityDate="2019-01-04T19:39:35.353" Title="Why does venlafaxine have lower incidence of sexual dysfunctions at higher doses?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21418" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15222" CreationDate="2019-01-04T23:19:00.340" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Brain 'waves' by nature are EM waves, albeit very weak and in the range of 1-100hz, which for waves, is a very weak oscillating cycle in the hundreds per second. For comparison, a standard EM radio wave will oscillate in MHZ range at millions of cycles per second. That being said, the technicality is that any travelling electric current will generate a concurrent magnetic field, and be electromagnetic in nature. New research in Neuroscience is coming forward to better understand the electromagnetic aspect of brain waves. In the EM realm they are incredibly weak and without correct shielding from other EM radiation, pretty much impossible to detect. However, studies in mice have shown their brain to have an electric field that can help brain waves propagate, and any travelling electric current such as in neurons firing will be electromagnetic in nature because an electric current cannot exist without the accompanying magnetic field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21225" LastActivityDate="2019-01-04T23:19:00.340" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21419" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21414" CreationDate="2019-01-05T02:29:29.097" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few years back when I was doing my studies on this subject of SLEEP, I had some insights and this question gives me an opportunity to express them and I would put them in the form of a hypothesis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, the rapid eye movement does not happen during the first stage of sleep because it is not part of the “sleep mechanism” which the brain initiates to induce sleep, rather it is the outcome of the “waking mechanism” which the brain initiates.&#xA;The human brain initiates the sleep process by secreting some hormones, primary among them are GABA, melatonin and serotonin. The factors governing this secretion are in general the hour of the day, the bodily conditions and to some extent other environmental factors. Now when the sleep process has been initiated, a normal adult human being passes through the stages of NREM1, NREM2 and NREM(3&amp;amp;4) in his sleep cycle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, the brain has initiated a sleep process, so it has a duty to initiate a waking process also. When should it do that? For that, the brain simply follows a biological clock and after approximately 90 minutes of initiating a sleep process(in a normal adult human), it initiates a “waking process” which is marked by the secretion of some other chemicals, primary among them being the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and then allows the other factors to decide the future course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, after approximately 90 minutes of the first sleep cycle, there comes a transition phase where both the “sleep mechanism” and the “waking mechanism” of the brain are active, and it is a sort of a duel, a tussle between the hormones and chemicals of the two mechanism to outdo each other, to overpower each other or to gain the upper hand. The outcome of all this struggle is in the form of RAPID EYE MOVEMENT and the stirring of the memory cells of the brain which results in the observation of DREAMS during this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since generally at the end of the first sleep cycle the factors responsible for the “sleep mechanism” are very strong, the hormones responsible for “sleep mechanism” easily overpower the hormones of the “waking mechanism” and therefore after a short duration of REM sleep, another sleep cycle gets initiated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, approximately 90 minutes after the second sleep cycle of NREM sleep, the brain again starts the “waking mechanism” by secreting hormones. By this time, the body has already received more than three hours of sleep, and so the factors for inducing sleep are slightly weakened but are generally strong enough to continue the sleep process. So this time the tug-of-war between the sleep hormones and the waking hormones ensues for a little more duration of time than the earlier one when again there is REM sleep and then again, generally speaking the body of a normal adult human goes into the third sleep cycle of NREM sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in this cyclic manner when the factors for the “sleep mechanism” have weakened sufficiently, the “waking mechanism” of the brain overpowers it and the body is brought to the waking state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the REM sleep is caused by the “waking mechanism” of the brain, in the first stage of the sleep there is no question of having REM sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure if psychologists who are actively engaged in research work in this subject think along these lines, but I think this explanation does satisfactorily answer the question and any researcher on this subject is most welcome to verify this hypothesis.(&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sleep_Hypnogram.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sleep_Hypnogram.svg&lt;/a&gt;)   [Hypnogram showing sleep architecture from midnight to 6:30 am, with deep sleep early on. There is more REM (marked red) before waking. (Current hypnograms reflect the recent decision to combine NREM stages 3 and 4 into a single stage 3.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21214" LastActivityDate="2019-01-05T02:29:29.097" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21421" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21472" CreationDate="2019-01-05T06:30:14.997" Score="2" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the way orientation columns display selectivity for various edge orientations projected on the retina which is then repeated at various angles in a localised region of the cortex. I am wondering whether in an analogous fashion if any similar neuronal circuitry has been shown to represent variations in the surface slant at the region being projected onto the retina. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;By slant I mean a measure of the surfaces orientation away from co-planar with the visual focal plane.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps this information is extracted from binocular receptive fields?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it hasn't been found then I guess I'm also wondering if anyone has ever looked? and or how the depth information from binocular receptive fields is encoded/represented for further processing? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastEditorUserId="21227" LastEditDate="2019-01-05T22:05:11.303" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T17:55:42.420" Title="Is there any evidence for or against the existence of neurons that encode surface slant in vision?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21423" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-05T14:52:51.150" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;(I don't expect that it would do so as successfully as interventions that aim to do so directly, but:)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the outside, it seems CBT ignores the root causes of the issue, some may say building on sand (I'm pretty sure there's some such expression but I can't recall it)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, does CBT actually help resolve core issues (any belief/emotional response a clinical psychologist might see as detrimental to the psychological and/or physical health of his patient and from which the problems the therapist wishes to resolve likely stem) indirectly? Do we affect our core issues in order to resolve the conflict one might cause by creating a new behavior that is incompatible with said issues?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5006" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-01-06T11:16:29.273" LastActivityDate="2019-01-06T11:16:29.273" Title="Does CBT indirectly resolve core issues?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21424" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21425" CreationDate="2019-01-05T16:46:19.210" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;Have there been any studies done that test the reaction time to vision processing tasks with and without the benefit of binocular disparities? I have been wondering how much depth information (such as the jutting out of the nose on a face) contributes to visual processing and object encoding in the brain - or if the visual scene is treated like a diorama with 2D images placed at various depths. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My assumption is that if the 3D aspect of the scene components are important then the reaction times would vary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastActivityDate="2019-01-05T21:43:33.017" Title="Differences in reaction time on visual tasks with and without binocular disparity ques?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21425" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21424" CreationDate="2019-01-05T20:01:03.693" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to these three published studies I found below - reaction time is slower when depth disparity information is withheld, as to whether or not that extra information is actually encoded in the brain is still an open question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;This first paper by Young Lim Lee; Jeffrey A. Saunders used left and right eye rendered images of novel 3D shapes with and without binocular cues to time test subjects in discriminating whether two images were rotational views of the same object.  With a set of three experiments they concluded in all cases that the stereo information improved reaction times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2121292&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stereo improves 3D shape discrimination even when rich monocular shape cues are available&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The second paper by Darren Burke, Jessica Taubert, Talia Higman had test subjects view pairs of photographed human faces briefly through a stereoscope with and without stereoscopic information and were required to identify if it was the same or a different individual.  Results were that the subjects had faster reaction times and lower error rates when stereoscopic information was present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698907002040?via%3Dihub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Are face representations viewpoint dependent? A stereo advantage for generalising across different views of faces&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;And the third paper by Oliver ZJ, Cristino F, Roberts MV, Pegna AJ, Leek EC the test subjects were split into a mono and stereo groups before being required to memomrize a set of 3D objects and then determine amongst a series of test objects whether or not it was from the set. The test was conducted using a 3D stereo monitor and glasses with the images displayed either with complementary or identical images to either eye depending on the group while 128 channel ERP (event-related-potential) traces were recorded.  Results showed higher accuracy for the stereo group and while there was no statistics given for reaction times, the paper concludes with an analysis and discussion regarding the differences in ERP data collected from the two groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5896504/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stereo Viewing Modulates Three-Dimensional Shape Processing During Object Recognition: A High-Density ERP Study&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-01-05T21:43:33.017" LastActivityDate="2019-01-05T21:43:33.017" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21427" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12313" CreationDate="2019-01-07T09:49:40.403" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a type of Neuro-developmental condition whose signs can be seen during early childhood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADHD is related to &lt;strong&gt;hyperactive behavior, attention difficulties or difficulty in controlling behavior.&lt;/strong&gt; ADHD can affect an individual’s ability, whether at school or work depending on the symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually, the majority of individuals with ADHD tend to have problems with aggression and emotional control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anger outbursts individuals with ADHD are often &lt;strong&gt;excessive and explosive&lt;/strong&gt;. Some individuals may hyperfocus on their anger and frightened when they lose control and have difficulty understanding their outbursts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADHD is strongly associated with &lt;strong&gt;Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)&lt;/strong&gt; and can interfere with the successful treatment of ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a teacher at &lt;strong&gt;Accel Centre&lt;/strong&gt;, and there are a few students suffering from &lt;em&gt;hyperactive behavior&lt;/em&gt; while in the class.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This happens because many children and teenagers are unaware of being overly angry or otherwise they are unable to identify the origin of their anger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the flip side, many people with ADHD seem to only be able to focus their attention on something they enjoy doing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.childhealing.com/articles/adhd.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.childhealing.com/articles/adhd.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.myvmc.com/diseases/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-in-adults-adult-adhd/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.myvmc.com/diseases/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-in-adults-adult-adhd/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20917" LastActivityDate="2019-01-07T09:49:40.403" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21428" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12423" CreationDate="2019-01-07T10:59:07.783" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)&lt;/strong&gt; is a complicated diagnosis to understand and treat. A painful mix of &lt;strong&gt;emotional trouble, unstable relationships and self-destructive behavior&lt;/strong&gt;, including suicide attempts are associated with BPD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Experts have given a new name to BPD as Biosocial disorder. People who develop BPD are highly emotional, sensitive and reactive, more immediately and intensely than most people. And once a powerful emotion is triggered, it takes them longer to return to their emotional baseline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)&lt;/strong&gt; is a chronic condition which includes &lt;strong&gt;attention difficulties, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADHD is often seen in childhood persisting into adolescence and adulthood, which contributes to hyperactivity, low self-esteem, disturbed relationships and attention difficulties at school or work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In relation to anger, individuals with BPD report higher traits of aggression and hostility when provoked than individuals with ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, individuals with &lt;em&gt;BPD exhibit a higher state of anger and stress-dependent anger increase.&lt;/em&gt; In BPD patients, aggression and anger were positively correlated with emotion regulation deficits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being a Special Education Teacher at &lt;strong&gt;Accel Centre&lt;/strong&gt;, there are kids and adults with special needs education who require &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;vocational training for special needs&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; that helps them to develop social skills and anger management.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Reference: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5356413/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5356413/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20917" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-01-07T11:50:49.263" LastActivityDate="2019-01-07T11:50:49.263" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21429" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10782" CreationDate="2019-01-07T11:41:28.303" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a type of neurological developmental condition that affects in the childhood and can continue in adulthood.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a particular set of how the &lt;strong&gt;brain functions and related behaviors&lt;/strong&gt; of an individual with ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Children with ADHD are hyperactive, have trouble paying attention and unable to control their impulses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people with ADHD might have higher IQs, but assuming that there’s a correlation may be harmful because it can keep your child from getting the help they need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact is, intelligence and ADHD don’t go hand in hand.&#xA;ADHD can affect an individual’s ability, whether at school or work depending on the symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At times, everyday tasks can be quite difficult which can give off the impression that such an individual has a low IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At &lt;strong&gt;ACCEL&lt;/strong&gt;, a range of verbal, memory and problem-solving tests are carried out for special needs education. On the flip side, many people with ADHD seem to only be able to focus their attention on something they enjoy doing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289616303324&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289616303324&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20917" LastActivityDate="2019-01-07T11:41:28.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21430" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12485" CreationDate="2019-01-07T13:11:34.257" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)&lt;/strong&gt; or is it &lt;strong&gt;Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ADHD&lt;/strong&gt; is a neural development disability which can be related to the brain function and behavior of an individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Individuals with ADHD are hyperactive, have trouble paying attention and are unable to control their impulses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADHD is a brain disorder which can interfere with the daily task at home or work.&#xA;Both the terms ADD and ADHD refer to a syndrome found in both children and adults with visible characteristics by restlessness, hyperactivity or impulsiveness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few signs for individuals with ADHD can be seen as,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Lack of attention&lt;/em&gt;: Includes disorganization, problems staying on task, constant daydreaming, and not paying attention when spoken to directly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Impulsiveness&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Hyperactivity&lt;/em&gt;: Involves squirming, fidgeting, tapping, talking, and constant movement.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, &lt;strong&gt;Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)&lt;/strong&gt; is an outdated term used for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. This condition can vary from person to person and used to refer an individual who had trouble focusing on anything rather than being hyperactive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADD is a type of ADHD that doesn't involve constant movement and fidgeting. But it's a blurry distinction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been treating &lt;strong&gt;ADHD&lt;/strong&gt; and other &lt;strong&gt;vocational training for special needs&lt;/strong&gt; at &lt;strong&gt;Accel Centre&lt;/strong&gt; for the past 20 years and have realized that it is not a disability or deficit instead of a trait an individual can have with some positive and negative outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthline.com/health/adhd/difference-between-add-and-adhd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.healthline.com/health/adhd/difference-between-add-and-adhd&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/add-vs-adhd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/add-vs-adhd&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20917" LastActivityDate="2019-01-07T13:11:34.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21433" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-07T16:23:42.623" Score="4" ViewCount="290" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading &quot;Psychology by Sandra E. Hockenbury, 7th ed.&quot;. The question asked &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/1116/what-form-might-jungian-archetypes-take-in-the-brain/1179#1179&quot;&gt;What form might Jungian archetypes take in the brain?&lt;/a&gt; takes a deeper look at jungian archetypes but I am not able to understand the definition of the archetypes. The book defines the term as follow:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Contained in the collective unconscious are the archetypes, the mental images of universal human instincts, themes, and preoccupations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understood the term collective unconscious as the deepest part of psyche shared by all humans which contain our collective evolutionary history. The book goes on and give examples as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Common archetypal themes that are expressed in virtually every culture are the hero, the powerful father, the nurturing mother, the witch, the wise old man, the innocent child, and death and rebirth. Two important archetypes that Jung (1951) described are the&#xA;  anima and the animus—the representations of feminine and masculine qualities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's take one example &quot;powerful father&quot; it says that it is the mental image of human instinct. But at the same time he mentions &quot;collective unconscious&quot; but not everyone share the same image of father. I know that he proposed this example around 80 years before but still not all the humans have the same instinct or do we? What I am missing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21074" LastActivityDate="2020-08-26T23:55:32.913" Title="Basic Question on Jungian Archetypes" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21434" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-07T17:20:55.407" Score="3" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Freud humans are basically driven by sexual and aggressive instincts while famous humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers strongly disagreed with Freud and said the basic nature of human being is good, forward moving and sympathetic. Although, neither of them denied the opposite nature of human behaviour that they were claiming but they constantly focused on the word &quot;innate&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me the word innate itself seems so vague in terms of its scientific measurement. What is the current stand of modern psychologists on this question? How do they measure the innate nature of human? Or since, the question itself is so unclear that psychologists don't care anymore?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychology by Sandra E. Hockenbury, 7th ed.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21074" LastEditorUserId="21227" LastEditDate="2019-01-10T22:02:46.073" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T22:02:46.073" Title="How will anyone scientifically tell what is innate to humans?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;freud&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21437" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-08T01:06:46.183" Score="1" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was trying to use logical argument with a friend of mine recently, and found that she was missing my point and completely misunderstanding my position. So I wonder if there is something like dyslexia of reasoning/logic, a brain condition that makes people unable to understand and follow logical arguments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21245" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T12:38:53.820" Title="&quot;Dyslexia&quot; in reasoning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21438" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21437" CreationDate="2019-01-08T03:13:00.087" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;So let me start off by saying that the word dyslexia is a well-defined term describing a condition typically affecting the left angular gyrus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're looking for a biological condition that leaves a similar effect on reasoning, I'm afraid you've got in backwards. Humans are rational beings, but that doesn't mean we always, or even often, behave rationally. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, we're often driven by heuristics, rules of thumb, that helped us survive in the bush, but fail to accurately handle larger, more abstract problems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another issue is identity, there have been hundreds of books discussing group identity's powerful effect on our reasoning, but to distill it as much as possible:&#xA;let's say someone is an anti-pencil, for whatever reason they absolutely hate pencils, and there's a group of these pencil-hating buffoons. As they assimilate into this anti-pencil group, the pencil hatred starts to become part of their identity. Once it's part of their identity, attacking their beliefs head-on is futile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of helping them to see the fallacy of their ways, counterarguments are often perceived as a personal attack; akin to insulting your taste in music, clothes, or weight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are looking for ways to help, you're actually much better off inviting your pencil-hating friend to imagine what life must be like for pencil users.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/02/27/why-facts-dont-change-our-minds&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/02/27/why-facts-dont-change-our-minds&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ps:&#xA;If you want to know more about why, both biologically and sociologically, people can be so immune to rationality,I strongly recommend a book: Behave, by Dr. Sapolsky. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21246" LastActivityDate="2019-01-08T03:13:00.087" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21441" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21650" CreationDate="2019-01-08T13:17:57.383" Score="4" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellmind.com/why-your-therapist-is-not-your-friend-2330691&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Can Clients and Therapists Be Friends?&lt;/a&gt;, a therapist shouldn't be a friend because dual relationship will interfere the efficiency of the therapy, and the imbalance power formed in therapy will never fully disappear. However, would it be true in the opposite direction? That a friend does therapy to a friend? This time, the friend relationship comes first, so there will be no worry about the imbalance power. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think there are two scenarios:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The therapist-friend is just a friend with more knowledge, and the therapy is just a talk with more advice from one side&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The therapist-friend cannot become an authority that is necessary in certain cases (personality disorders, for example) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The person can also be a family member, a partner, a colleague, or even an acquaintance. The point is that the relationship is not formed in a professional therapeutic setting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-01-09T02:18:55.980" LastActivityDate="2019-02-11T15:35:39.443" Title="Can a friend become a therapist?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21444" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21462" CreationDate="2019-01-08T19:44:32.017" Score="0" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to reasonably guess the gender of a person from a &lt;strong&gt;random sample&lt;/strong&gt; of their writing (text, not handwriting)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How about from the contents of their speech (not including their voice, of course)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21047" LastEditorUserId="21047" LastEditDate="2019-01-08T19:50:24.387" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T21:14:52.200" Title="Can one reasonably guess the gender of a person from their writing/speech contents?" Tags="&lt;gender&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21445" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13165" CreationDate="2019-01-08T21:50:23.480" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A paper by Kaul et al. from 2010 suggest that meditation can indeed decrease the need for sleep. &lt;a href=&quot;https://behavioralandbrainfunctions.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1744-9081-6-47&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meditation acutely improves psychomotor vigilance, and may decrease sleep need&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quote from conclusions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These results suggest that meditation provides at least a short-term performance improvement even in novice meditators. In long term meditators, multiple hours spent in meditation are associated with a significant decrease in total sleep time when compared with age and sex matched controls who did not meditate. Whether meditation can actually replace a portion of sleep or pay-off sleep debt is under further investigation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastActivityDate="2019-01-08T21:50:23.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21446" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21433" CreationDate="2019-01-09T04:24:35.860" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;All this verbage, without a single answer. The archetypes are the forms with which we populate our psyches. They are only outlines. The context is filled in individually, and therefore differs individually. To use your example of &quot;father.&quot; We can all agree upon the existence of &quot;fatherness,&quot; the condition of being a father. Thus, the archetype &quot;Father&quot; arises. Yet, since we've all had different experiences of who and what that father is, and what he (to speak genetically) looks like, and how he acts, including those who have had an absent father, we fill in the archetype with that personal data. In brief, archetype equals form and is universal, context is personal and is unique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That's as concise as I can make it. I hope this solves your dilemma. For depth, go to Jung's Collected Works, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS, to Community: I am not interested in debating this definition, and even less interested in debating whether it should exist. Oh, come now!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21254" LastEditorUserId="21255" LastEditDate="2019-01-09T05:16:25.097" LastActivityDate="2019-01-09T05:16:25.097" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21448" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-09T08:34:56.910" Score="1" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been studying MCMI-iii test. Total 175 personality questions are present there. These questions have 2 options i.e. true or false. Based on that, person's personality get decided. Can anyone know how to calculate raw score and convert into base rate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched lot on internet, mcmi books, research paper, but formula is not given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help would be appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Following is the link for reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://images.pearsonclinical.com/images/pa/pdfs/mcmi3profile.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Link-1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20286" LastActivityDate="2019-01-13T09:24:22.393" Title="How to measure raw score and convert into base rate in MCMI-III personality test?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21449" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-09T13:26:05.790" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;We need to purchase a new speaker for audio ERP study, so the sound should be played in lowest possible latency with lowest possible jitter. I have seen quite a few suggestion on the OS/driver/sound card part, but it seems that there is less information about how to choose the proper speaker. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the common latency between the the time point when the sound card actually start sending out signal, and the time point when the speaker actually start vibrating? And are there any point that we should take care when choosing the speaker?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20616" LastActivityDate="2019-01-09T15:21:44.087" Title="What speaker is commonly used for low-latency audio stimulation" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21450" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21449" CreationDate="2019-01-09T15:21:44.087" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is generally an intervening stage between the sound card and the speaker, the amplifier. From the output of the amplifier to the speaker, there is an electrical signal traveling at like 0.01C that then drive the speaker via an electromagnet. The transmission and transduction time is essentially zero. Further, you can safely ignore any jitter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For powered speakers, or amplifiers, there are all sorts of models. Some might have some built in filtering that could introduce a delay, but it is probably negligible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-01-09T15:21:44.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21451" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-09T16:00:15.967" Score="0" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name of the complex of surrounding oneself with inferior (less talented) people to avoid being eclipsed or overcome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a vague memory that it was a Greek naming or one from classic literature, but I cannot conjure it up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21258" LastEditorUserId="2574" LastEditDate="2019-04-12T17:04:42.120" LastActivityDate="2019-04-12T17:04:42.120" Title="complex name - surrounding you with inferior (less talented) people" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21452" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13566" CreationDate="2019-01-09T17:37:02.260" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A bit of context&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In mammalian brains, a main neurotransmiter linked with reward is Dopamine. This molecule is produced in the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) and in the Substantia Nigra (SN).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a very famous study, Schultz recorded neurons in this two regions (at the time, we didn't really make the difference between them), and realised that the activity of these neurons was linked with reward. More precisely, neurons were coding for Reward Prediction Error, a feature that is implemented in Reinforcement Learning models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, some researchers decided to adress your question.&#xA;To do this, they used &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optogenetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;optogenetics&lt;/a&gt;, wich is a technique that permit you to modulate the activity of neurons with light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can read the paper here :&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4241115/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McNamara et al. Nat. Neurosci. (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are the main results ?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mice with increased dopamine neuron's activity had better performance in a spatial task. They were &lt;strong&gt;better&lt;/strong&gt; at learning a new maze. On top of that, the increased activity of VTA neurons induced a higher amount of specific oscillations (called Sharp Wave Ripples) in the Hippocampus, a structure important in spatial learning. We start to have strong evidence that this oscillations are important for memory, as disrupting them impair memory (see &lt;a href=&quot;http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/336/6087/1454.full.pdf?casa_token=46waUdZ4ix4AAAAA:uQx-QkLtUb0psXkYr-sqNOl5I9YJATVce9-gP-lXqyFn7orFpy6CfTvEFW4O_p7Jv6cI9N5kwwxPETU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jadhav et al. Science (2012)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.its.caltech.edu/~bi250c/papers/Girardeau-2009.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Girardeau et al. Nat. Neuosci. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; if you are interested in the subject)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this study was done in mice. Their is probably papers making a link between the activity of the VTA and learning using FMRi on humans, but I don't know the litterature enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21259" LastActivityDate="2019-01-09T17:37:02.260" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21453" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21451" CreationDate="2019-01-10T01:06:25.330" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could the OP be refering to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hubris&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hubris&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Typically, overconfidence led the hero to attempt to overstep the&#xA;  boundaries of human limitations and assume a godlike status, and the&#xA;  gods inevitably humbled the offender with a sharp reminder of his or&#xA;  her mortality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To the Greeks, hubris referred to extreme pride, especially pride and&#xA;  ambition so great that they offend the gods and lead to one's&#xA;  downfall. Hubris was a character flaw often seen in the heroes of&#xA;  classical Greek tragedy, including Oedipus and Achilles. The familiar&#xA;  old saying &quot;Pride goeth before a fall&quot; is basically talking about&#xA;  hubris.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superiority_complex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Superiority Complex&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunning-Kruger effect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4622" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T01:06:25.330" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21454" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21444" CreationDate="2019-01-10T01:59:31.963" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Guesswork is not what this site is about.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Statistical analysis of factors of &amp;quot;The Big 5&amp;quot; personality traits:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologistworld.com/personality/agreeableness-personality-trait&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Agreeableness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuroticism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Extraversion and introversion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientiousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conscientiousness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openness_to_experience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Openness to experience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;have been extensivley studied and are well understood in terms of the sex differences that emerge from biology, and also but less so from cultural differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be possible to design studies to research the various different modes and media of writing, given sufficient funding and analytical clout to do what you ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as this answerer can determine, no-one has yet given it much attention as it is a low-priority compared to the social issues that prevail in societies today. What you are asking would be considered trivial or &amp;quot;Blue Sky&amp;quot; research at best.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Guesswork:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Statistical analysis of many factors, correcting for others is (reductio) extended inductive reasoning, which is (reductio ad absurdum) guesswork.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Get the financial backing to gather a big enough (set of) sample(s) that you can leverage analysis out of (and the mental tools to bring it to order) and you're all set to make a &amp;quot;guess&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4622" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T02:41:22.027" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21455" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-10T04:56:05.453" Score="2" ViewCount="179" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have come across purely mechanical reasons that explain why children have piping/high pitched voices - length of trachea etc.  However, I find myself wondering whether there isn't a deeper evolutionary reason why the mechanics evolved that way.  Is there a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kinderschema&lt;/a&gt; type explanation for this?  I have attempted to find information on the subject and turned up nothing - perhaps because I am simply not searching for the right thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19016" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-03-13T17:05:19.160" LastActivityDate="2019-03-13T19:18:16.907" Title="Is there an evolutionary psychology explanation why children have high pitched voices?" Tags="&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21457" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21458" CreationDate="2019-01-10T16:06:38.617" Score="0" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been googling this for a few days now but haven't come across what I'm looking for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scenario&lt;/strong&gt;: A child has to learn how to identify species. When first learning, they might mistake a cat for a dog. They both have four legs and a tail. However, as they are shown more and more examples of cats and dogs, they build up a more detailed definition of what a dog is and what a cat is ... specifically by being shown many many examples (different examples at all ends of the spectrum ... big and small) of these two species. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was reading about this area of cognitive psychology a few years back (quite a few years back). I wanted to refresh and study up on this some and read what I can about it, but can't because I'm not googling the correct terminology. Any direction would be greatly appreciated. Thanks.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21266" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T18:49:29.423" Title="What is the term for learning to group objects" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21458" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21457" CreationDate="2019-01-10T18:40:32.667" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would suggest you start with the Wikipedia articles on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Categorization&lt;/a&gt; and more specifically &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Prototype theory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the Categorization article gives a number of branching points for you to drill down on and hone in and/or prime your thinking for further searches, the Prototype theory topic is where my mind went upon first reading your question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though the focus of prototype theory is on the shared artifact of language which you may or may not have been thinking of when you posed the question. I would expect any further reading you did on the topic to have plenty to say about the individual language user/learner also. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a follow up I also found the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.iresearchnet.com/developmental-psychology/cognitive-development/categorization/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;following article&lt;/a&gt; which is from the perspective of Developmental Psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastEditorUserId="21227" LastEditDate="2019-01-10T18:49:29.423" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T18:49:29.423" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21451" CreationDate="2019-01-10T20:03:02.927" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia page&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Narcissism is the pursuit of gratification from vanity or egotistic&#xA;admiration of one's idealised self image and attributes. The term&#xA;originated from Greek mythology, where the young Narcissus fell in&#xA;love with his own image reflected in a pool of water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to surrounding themselves with inferiors ... well at least in there own eyes they do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T20:03:02.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21461" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-10T21:13:36.453" Score="4" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off please keep in mind I am self-learning and am learning about this for fun, I have no end goal. I'm trying to make predictions about what I am learning implies or means, so I can ask better questions and clarify what I should learn/focus on learning.  I know I need to spend tons more time in understanding the physics and biology that we currently understand.  I'm looking for feedback that can help me either confirm my understanding or correct it and/or point me in directions that will help me better develop it so I can ask better questions in the future. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This assumes IIT is a valid theory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me IIT implies that consciousness not only requires integration, but in order to achieve integration the system must be dynamic and able to respond spatially to feedback within the system. As I understand it our neurons grow and die, they can move, they receive inputs from their connections but can also be influenced by molecules that make their way to them indirectly.  There is an end result of all the behavior of the neuron and that is the movement of electrons.  The molecules and cells surrounding the neurons, provide it the ability to release the action potential. Or the stored up energy that must reach a certain threshold in order for the neuron to fire.  This firing is what must be in harmony and certain firing patterns in theory results in conscious experience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if humans were to artificially generate consciousness as we experience it (using non-biological methods) this would require us to develop a system that can arrange and rearrange neurons or nodes spatially that can release action potentials of electrons(not sure I'm using correct terminology/physical process) in symphony.  The neurons would need to be able to change connection weights not only through internal inputs but also through external inputs, and not only by connected nodes. We would need to understand what causes neurons to grow along particular paths or make particular connections... I assume some of this is known or theorized about.  It also seems that certain parts of neuronal intelligence is crystallized or more or less unchanging where as other parts do change and use relationships between the unchanging or slow to change parts in conjunction with more dynamic components that allow for variation in abilities to connect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IIT seems to imply that conscious experience lies in certain configurations of the electron field (what happens beyond that is unclear) but that seems to be the end result of the actions that any particular group of neurons is taking.  I suppose not all, because it also serves the purpose of communication and coordination through out the body. It doesn't seem that synchrony in neuronal behavior coordinates chemical arrangements that would explain experience, but it does coordinate electrical fields as an end result. I'm trying to understand if that is a correct understanding whether that is one of the main outputs of neuronal firing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17845" LastEditorUserId="17845" LastEditDate="2019-01-11T00:50:41.460" LastActivityDate="2019-02-10T17:02:30.523" Title="Integrated Information Theory - If correct could humans create artificial consciousness?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21462" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21444" CreationDate="2019-01-10T21:14:52.200" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;While you are probably better to ask your question over at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://ai.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;AI Stack Exchange&lt;/a&gt; for more practical answers on how to accomplish the task, I would also suggest you could take a look into the topics on Wikipedia for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sociolinguistics&lt;/a&gt;, and also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_and_gender&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Language and gender&lt;/a&gt; for the underlying theories as to why Machine learning models are able to make guesses/predictions with upwards of 80% accuracy in trained models such as the following.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877050916326849&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Machine Learning Models of Text Categorization by Author Gender Using Topic-independent Features&lt;/a&gt; (86% accuracy - Russian corpus)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-54903-8_9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Investigating the Role of Emotion-Based Features in Author Gender Classification of Text&lt;/a&gt; (80% accuracy)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://aclweb.org/anthology/W11-0310&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gender Attribution: Tracing Stylometric Evidence Beyond Topic and Genre&lt;/a&gt; (85% accuracy)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to fully answer your question &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can one reasonably guess the gender of a person from their writing/speech contents?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is a 'reasonable guess' is not something I can define and is something you would wan't to think seriously about before using the predictions for anything of import to those you are labelling! However it would seem you can make a significantly better than random guess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T21:14:52.200" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21463" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8021" CreationDate="2019-01-10T21:38:05.320" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the problem with your question is that we don't &quot;use&quot; our brain. It appears that our brain have different patterns of activities, in different regions, at different times and, to the best of our knowledge, all this factors are what produce our perception of the environment, the reaction we have, and probably our thougths and identity (the &quot;we&quot; in your question). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since their is no &quot;we&quot; outside of the brain that can decide to activate or not any given region of the brain, their is not really an asnwer to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now your question could be reformulated to : &quot;&lt;strong&gt;why is the brain not activated at 100% at any given time&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By activation, we usualy talk about action potentials, wich are produced by neurons. This is considered to be the fundamental way of two neurons to transmit information to one another. &#xA;You can consider this action potentials as a binary code (although it is probably more complicated, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromodulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuromodulation&lt;/a&gt; for exemple). In this exemple, an action potential is a 1 and no action potential is a 0. If no neurons are firing, you only have 0, wich convey no information to other neurons (indeed, you can simplify this signal to 0 x the time elapsed). On the other hand, if every neurons are firing in the same time, you don't convey information too (this can be simplified by 1 x the time elapsed). The only way to convey information, and as you might have understood I am talking in an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;information theory&lt;/a&gt; way, is to produce a mix between zero and 1, wich is, in our exemple a serie of action potentials and no action potentials. &#xA;In you exemple, it would be like if in a CPU, every transistors were activated in the same time. You don't have any information conveyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An other exemple can be an assembly of persons in a room. If nobody talk, there is obviously no information conveyed. But if everyone is talking at the same time, they don't understand each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the brain, an activation of every neurons can happen in certain regions. It is called epilepsy, and it is not really functional.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So 100% activation is possible in the brain, but it is not efficient computationaly, as it does not produce information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21259" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T21:38:05.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21465" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21280" CreationDate="2019-01-10T21:57:54.337" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe what your looking for is a book on Comparative Neuroanatomy the only text book I could find in the field was:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/0471210056&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Comparative Vertebrate Neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation&lt;/a&gt; but you will find a number of web pages via google.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://canvas.brown.edu/courses/851434/pages/comparative-neuroanatomy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Comparative Neuroanatomy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastActivityDate="2019-01-10T21:57:54.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21466" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21437" CreationDate="2019-01-11T03:31:10.163" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt; is often a problem when trying to convince someone of your position.  Depending on the subject matter and how closely the position is held for the opposing party it can be very difficult to follow even logical well reasoned arguments.  The opposing party often has a framework of reality in which they make sense of various situations or concepts.  If a new concept doesn't fit within that framework there is often underlying reasons as to why the argument is unable to land. So until the deeper views are addressed you are arguing in vein. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example in order for something you postulate to be true, it may require the opposite party to reconcile other beliefs that are deeply held in a way that they are potentially unwilling to address, or see no reason to address due to unwanted stress or emotional distress in addressing the beliefs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively there are neurological deficits or disabilities that could make getting your point across more difficult, but at least from my experience it is often a case of Cognitive Dissonance.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17845" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-01-11T12:38:53.820" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T12:38:53.820" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21467" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12744" CreationDate="2019-01-11T16:31:09.810" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This should work:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;picture = expyriment.stimuli.Picture(&quot;/path/to/picture.jpg&quot;)&#xA;fixcross = expyriment.stimuli.FixCross()&#xA;picture.present(update=False)&#xA;fixcross.present(clear=False)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, you can first plot the fixation cross on top of the picture and then present it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;picture = expyriment.stimuli.Picture(&quot;/path/to/picture.jpg&quot;)&#xA;fixcross = expyriment.stimuli.FixCross()&#xA;fixcross.plot(picture)&#xA;picture.present()&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21274" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T16:31:09.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21468" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-11T16:47:20.370" Score="0" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's the scientific reason behind it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't quite figure out what's around me and it feels so soothing same as the effect of meditation. It feels like an enlightenment.(I feel like I'm connected to a higher deity)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21275" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T17:44:48.843" Title="Why do we sometimes(i often) go to trance while listening to music?" Tags="&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21469" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21461" CreationDate="2019-01-11T16:59:27.137" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;IIT implies that just about everything is 'conscious' (to a degree) in that you can measure its integrated information to say how conscious it is, while accepting that what we as humans typically describe as 'consciousness' is a very high value of this measure. That's sort of the whole point of the theory: having a definition of consciousness that starts from a more basic principle ('integrated information') rather than starting at &quot;humans are conscious&quot; without defining what it really means to be conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;High levels of integrated information are not easy to achieve with typical computers we use today, but nothing about the theory says it cannot be done. If you have a sufficient level of integrated information, we can call that consciousness based on IIT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IIT does not say anything about implementation of such a system, even though your question implies that it does (you could view this as either a weakness or a strength depending on your perspective); there are certainly ways to connect artificial systems dynamically without them needing to be neurons. It is true, however, that an individual neuron is far more complex than typical artificial instantiations of neurons, like the nodes of an artificial neural network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as your paragraph beginning &quot;&lt;em&gt;IIT seems to imply that conscious experience lies in certain configurations of the electron field&lt;/em&gt;&quot; I don't know what this means or where your got it; IIT doesn't say anything like this. IIT says that consciousness is what you get when you connect information to other information; for example, placing information you are measuring from the world right now in the context of your life's experience involves integrating information from your sensory systems with your memories. Computers can already achieve this to some degree, the part about human consciousness that is remarkable is just how deeply and rapidly (and automatically) these comparisons occur in parallel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Koch, C., &amp;amp; Tononi, G. (2008). Can machines be conscious?. Ieee Spectrum, 45(6).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T16:59:27.137" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21470" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21468" CreationDate="2019-01-11T17:44:48.843" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you take a look at this quick article: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/news/20150710/neuroscience-trance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Neuroscience Of Trance&lt;/a&gt; or the full published study the article refers to: &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/26/7/3116/1745376&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain Network Reconfiguration and Perceptual Decoupling During an Absorptive State of Consciousness&lt;/a&gt; scientists used fMRI to view what was going on in the brains of shamans as they either entered into a trance or purposefully stopped themselves from doing so while listening to drumming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the things they noted was a dampening of the sensory pathways - there theory being that while the drumming beat was the most prominent external stimulus, it's repetitive and predictable patterns allowed it to be gated out/ignored while its ongoing presence prevented reorienting to the usual random environmental distractions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would expect the music your listening to is doing more or less what the drumming does for the shamans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T17:44:48.843" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21471" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13525" CreationDate="2019-01-11T17:54:53.100" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A collection of classic EEG experiments implemented in Python and Jupyter notebooks. &#xA;Currently, all experiments are implemented for the Muse EEG device and using psychopy lib for stimulus presentation. &#xA;Classification is made offline though. But I'll post very soon an online tutorial: &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/NeuroTechX/eeg-notebooks/tree/master/notebooks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://github.com/NeuroTechX/eeg-notebooks/tree/master/notebooks&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21276" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T17:54:53.100" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21472" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21421" CreationDate="2019-01-11T17:55:42.420" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes there is evidence of the encoding of surface slant in the visual field&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/23/18/7117.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Disparity-Based Coding of Three-Dimensional Surface Orientation by Macaque Middle Temporal Neurons&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We now show that MT&#xA;contains robust, disparity-based signals regarding the 3-D orientation (tilt and slant) of planar surfaces. This tilt selectivity does&#xA;not result from vergence eye movements or subtle monocular&#xA;dot-density cues, and approximately one-half of MT neurons&#xA;respond more strongly to a tilted stimulus (i.e., a nonzero slant)&#xA;than to any frontoparallel stimulus of the same size (data not&#xA;shown). In addition, we show that the tilt preference of MT neurons is primarily independent of the mean depth and slant of the&#xA;surface, properties that may simplify the extraction of 3-D orientation signals from a population of MT neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/jn.00578.2011?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&amp;amp;rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&amp;amp;rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Representation of 3-D surface orientation by velocity and disparity gradient cues in area MT&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study demonstrates that single MT neurons signal 3-D surface orientation (tilt and slant) via selectivity for velocity and disparity gradients, and to a lesser degree, for texture gradients. Selectivity is similar in multiunit activity recorded simultaneously, suggesting that 3-D surface orientation tuning is clustered in MT. Tilt selectivity is generally enhanced when multiple gradient cues are presented together, indicating that MT may integrate cues to represent surface structure with greater fidelity. This occurs despite the fact that tilt preferences for disparity and velocity gradients are poorly correlated overall. In addition, we found that responses to the combined stimulus, which contains all three gradient cues, are well approximated by a linear weighted sum of responses to the individual cues, with disparity and velocity gradients weighted most heavily. This study provides the first systematic examination of neural integration of multiple gradient cues to surface orientation and suggests that area MT contains an early multicue representation of 3-D surface structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T17:55:42.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21473" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13525" CreationDate="2019-01-11T19:02:42.920" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can buy the &lt;a href=&quot;https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/building-experiments-in-psychopy/book253480#contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;book&lt;/a&gt; in particular Chapter 18: Building an EEG study. There is also the &lt;a href=&quot;https://discourse.psychopy.org/search?q=eeg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychoPy forum&lt;/a&gt; with 50+ questions about EEG. You could also go to the lead developers &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/tkedn/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;OSF page&lt;/a&gt; and steal some code there from his EEG experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-01-11T19:02:42.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21475" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-12T14:52:24.547" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;AFAIK default mode is important for our well being since as I am concerned one of its functions is to make sense of things we learned, experienced, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Default_mode_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is says default mode is active when person is at wakeful rest.&#xA;Also it says default mode &lt;strong&gt;is active&lt;/strong&gt; when person is &lt;strong&gt;not focused on the outside world&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: is default mode active when I am not focused on outside world, however, maybe internally thinking/concerned about some specific problems/issues?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21282" LastActivityDate="2019-01-12T14:52:24.547" Title="when is default mode active" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21476" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-12T13:23:28.107" Score="6" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Chapter 3 of his book &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/1501144316&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why We Sleep: Unlocking the Power of Sleep and Dreams&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, Matthew Walker explains &quot;time dilation in dreams&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One last temporal distortion deserves mention here—that of time&#xA;  dilation in dreams, beyond sleep itself. Time isn't quite time within&#xA;  dreams. It is most often elongated. Consider the last time you hit the&#xA;  snooze button on your alarm, having been woken from a dream.&#xA;  Mercifully, you are giving yourself another delicious five minutes of&#xA;  sleep. You go right back to dreaming. After the allotted five minutes,&#xA;  your alarm clock faithfully sounds again, yet that's not what it felt&#xA;  like to you. During those five minutes of actual time, you may have&#xA;  felt like you were dreaming for an hour, perhaps more. Unlike the&#xA;  phase of sleep where you are not dreaming, wherein you lose all&#xA;  awareness of time, in dreams, you continue to have a sense of time.&#xA;  It's simply not particularly accurate—more often than not dream time&#xA;  is stretched out and prolonged relative to real time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although the reasons for such time dilation are not fully understood,&#xA;  recent experimental recordings of brain cells in rats give tantalizing&#xA;  clues. In the experiment, rats were allowed to run around a maze. As&#xA;  the rats learned the spatial layout, the researchers recorded&#xA;  signature patterns of brain-cell firing. The scientists did not stop&#xA;  recording from these memory-imprinting cells when the rats&#xA;  subsequently fell asleep. They continued to eavesdrop on the brain&#xA;  during the different stages of slumber, including rapid eye movement&#xA;  (REM) sleep, the stage in which humans principally dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The first striking result was that the signature pattern of brain-cell&#xA;  firing that occurred as the rats were learning the maze subsequently&#xA;  reappeared during sleep, over and over again. That is, memories were&#xA;  being “replayed” at the level of brain-cell activity as the rats&#xA;  snoozed. The second, more striking finding was the speed of replay.&#xA;  During REM sleep, the memories were being replayed far more slowly: at&#xA;  just half or quarter the speed of that measured when the rats were&#xA;  awake and learning the maze. This slow neural recounting of the day's&#xA;  events is the best evidence we have to date explaining our own&#xA;  protracted experience of time in human REM sleep. This dramatic&#xA;  deceleration of neural time may be the reason we believe our dream&#xA;  life lasts far longer than our alarm clocks otherwise assert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.barnesandnoble.com/readouts/why-we-sleep-unlocking-the-power-of-sleep-and-dreams/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why We Sleep: Unlocking the Power of Sleep and Dreams – B&amp;amp;N Readouts&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If memories replay slower, then wouldn't that make dreams feel shorter (not longer)? &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Last-night-I-slept-for-8-5-hours-and-had-a-dream-that-lasted-for-a-month-It-was-full-of-incredible-images-and-interactions-I-woke-to-my-alarm-silenced-it-then-went-back-to-my-dream-for-a-week-before-waking-up-What-was-happening-in-my-brain/answer/Yohan-John&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yohan John writes on Quora&lt;/a&gt; that &quot;replays are typically much faster than actual experience.&quot; Now, that would make sense to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21294" OwnerDisplayName="ma11hew28" LastActivityDate="2019-01-12T21:10:29.633" Title="While dreaming, are memories replayed faster or slower?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-01-12T21:22:52.983" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21477" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21478" CreationDate="2019-01-13T05:52:36.117" Score="3" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;I  searched the internet about the difference but couldnt really understand it.I am not asking about the difference in the type of drugs used, Iam interested in the difference in the state of unconciousness.(Iam not sure whether &quot;getting high&quot; can be called unconcious.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21022" LastActivityDate="2019-01-13T08:30:17.610" Title="What is the difference between getting high( i.e. using alcohol or similar things) and getting unconcious using general anesthesia?" Tags="&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21478" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21477" CreationDate="2019-01-13T08:23:53.297" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer to what the difference between getting high and getting unconscious using general anaesthesia - It simply boils down to a matter of dosage levels and medical supervision!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And now to clarify ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you are put under general anaesthetic the attending anaesthesiologist will be administering possibly multiple drugs that work together to achieve the required effect of preventing you from moving your body, and your brain from being aware of whats happening to your body.&#xA;   The precise dosages and the timing of there administration are carefully chosen to ensure you stay blissfully unaware and immobile for the duration of the procedure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now compare that to you going out for a night on the town where ideally the only one administering any drugs is you (for better or worse) - barring any accidental overdoses from you pounding down a full bottle of spirits in one turn - the dosages you put in your system are thankfully just not in the same league as what you would receive on the operating table and so you just get high or obnoxious as apposed to getting into what is technically a medically induced coma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the major characteristics of that induced coma is that your body looses its protective reflexes and your at the mercy of the attending medical teem to prevent you from choking on your own tongue - when you hear of someone outside of a hospital dying from an overdose whether it be drug or alcohol, a lot of the time the cause of death isn't the toxicity but that same loss of protective reflexes that doesn't save them as they asphyxiate on there own tongue or vomit after slipping into a deep sleep (or coma).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastEditorUserId="21227" LastEditDate="2019-01-13T08:30:17.610" LastActivityDate="2019-01-13T08:30:17.610" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21480" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-13T10:55:27.710" Score="6" ViewCount="192" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some personality disorders are associated with a degree of &lt;strong&gt;emotional blindness&lt;/strong&gt; or coldness with narcissistic PD being such an example. I wonder whether there are drugs that - in addition to psychotherapy - aid in the process of learning to feel, express and cope with emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Particularly, I wonder if &lt;strong&gt;antidepressants&lt;/strong&gt; might be effective in this task. Serotonin ADs help to handle anxiety and depression and taken long-term might even heal things like social anxiety and generalized anxiety. Depression is also linked to somewhat reduced brain activity. The same holds for norepinephrine. Dopamine antagonists are also said to support the feelings of pleasure and motivation. The question is if these effects are permanent or tend to disappear or worsen upon discontinuation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, some ADs are believed to induce &quot;emotional flatness&quot; which would possibly hinder the process of healing through psychotherapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It is known that SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor)&#xA;  antidepressants, after taken for a while or taken one after another&#xA;  (if the doctor is trying to see what works), can cause what is called&#xA;  &quot;emotional blunting&quot;. In this instance, the individual in question is&#xA;  often unable to cry, even if he or she wants to. In other cases, the&#xA;  person may seem fully present but operate merely intellectually when&#xA;  emotional connection would be appropriate. This may present an extreme&#xA;  difficulty in giving or receiving empathy and can be related to the&#xA;  spectrum of narcissistic personality disorder.[1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know the amygdala is the part of the brain responsible for handling emotions. My question is if there are drugs that directly stimulate neuronal growth in amygdala to improve emotional processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Johnson, Stephen M (1987), Humanizing the Narcissistic Style, NY: Norton and Co., p. 125, ISBN 0-393-70037-2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13946" LastEditorUserId="13946" LastEditDate="2019-01-14T07:40:26.280" LastActivityDate="2019-03-23T10:37:27.840" Title="Can drugs support emotional developement in personality disorders?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21481" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-13T18:38:12.127" Score="4" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;Will my brain benefit from cardio equally if I exercise at the same intensity level for 12 10 minutes sessions as it would for one 120 minute session?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21287" LastActivityDate="2021-04-26T17:09:46.133" Title="Does total time exercising matter for cognition more than the time exercising continuously?" Tags="&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21482" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21523" CreationDate="2019-01-13T22:23:37.577" Score="4" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that some survival mechanisms working in us make the act of analyzing family members behaviour very difficult. We tend to perceive the family's behaviours as normal, even if there are not. In my experience, we must achieve a high level of detachment from the family to be able to think critically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is, what are our mechanisms that makes it so difficult to think objectively about family members' (aberrant) behaviours?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user21293" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-20T20:40:11.450" LastActivityDate="2019-01-20T20:40:11.450" Title="Why it is so difficult to think critically about family members behaviour?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21484" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21481" CreationDate="2019-01-14T02:03:06.887" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before giving my gut feeling as an answer in the final paragraph I'll first have to explain why I don't think the question can be answered in absolute terms (at least not without additional restrictions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To start with I'll remind you that our bodies don't just flick over to exercise mode but instead ramp up and down in response to the demands put on them. As a result to make a proper comparison between bursts and sustained exercise isn't as simple as multiplying there duration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we take our [calculated MHR][1] as a basic measure of exercise intensity then say a respectable level is 50% to 70% of MHR, the quickest we are going to be able to get into that heart rate zone is with an all out sprint (a very bad idea without warming up) at which point our heart rate will overshoot the mark (sometimes reaching well over 100% since the MHR calculators are pretty rough without doing a full fitness workup) and then drop and eventually settle on a rate after maybe 2 minutes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the more likely and sensible scenario  is that we will start exercising at what we feel is the correct intensity and our heart rate will eventually increase over the space of several minutes so that it may be 5 to 10 minutes before we get in the zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So while I completely understand where you are coming from with your question it is one that I see a way of testing experimentally - and so i will just give you my subjective answer in what follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the physiological changes in the brain ([such as increased blood flow, seratonin, BDNF][2]) would I believe happen toward the start of the exercise session and then your brain would adapt to the new exercise demands and stop producing extras of all those goodies leaving them to begin dissipating before you ended the session and for a duration of time after means you would be better off doing bursts of exercise throughout the day to keep triggering that brain response that re-releases the goods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastActivityDate="2019-01-14T02:03:06.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21486" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-14T12:36:43.997" Score="6" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gottman.com/blog/the-anger-iceberg/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Some sources&lt;/a&gt; claim anger is in fact a &quot;secondary emotion&quot; that hides other emotions behind it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this anecdotal / up to interpretation, or is there a strong body of evidence to support this claim?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21303" LastActivityDate="2019-01-14T12:36:43.997" Title="Is there evidence for anger being a &quot;secondary emotion&quot;?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21489" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-14T20:49:10.313" Score="0" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;To clarify a little further, I've read in different places that our brain could be composed of mini minds, that preform all sorts of actions.  Assuming this is valid I'd think that of these minds, some result in a composite or layering that results in our personality and an ultimate will that wins out to complete some action or decision, insomuch as a set of minds are inter-related in relation to some function.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm really just assuming from reading various articles and papers and some personal self reflection... but I'd imagine there is something to read in relation to this idea in some shape or form.... In other words I'm looking for more solid reading material, I'm not sure what I should be searching for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17845" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-01-15T16:08:59.830" LastActivityDate="2019-01-15T16:08:59.830" Title="What are existing theories on competing wills in the mind?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21490" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-14T21:51:06.130" Score="2" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can we think i.e. process the input data without relying on linguistic structures?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All knowledge between human is either spoken or written. When we see something, it contributes towards the construction of properties of the object seen. For example, when I see an image of red apple, I register an object which is an apple with a property of redness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now suppose a person comes and cuts the apple into two halves; I am basically witnessing the event of cutting the apple. To make any sense out of the visual, it is necessary to think (or process the input visual) that the apple has been cut. As you can see, this processing required usage of linguistic structures : cut, person, half, etc; these linguistic structures have been employed so as to be able to make a minimally acceptable sense (it is not sufficient to sense that something happened).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about intuition? When smart people get what they call as 'intuition', is it, in first place, constructed in their mind on linguistic platform? Or its source is something undefinable; only attempts are made to convey the phenomenon/intuition/idea using language?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An equivalent question can be framed as follows: Can every possible human thought be satisfactorily communicated using a given language i.e. a set of words?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21306" LastActivityDate="2019-01-14T21:51:06.130" Title="Do we think in language?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21491" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-15T01:34:30.527" Score="1" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a basic mathematical relationship between IQ and learning speed? ... such as linear, exponential, etc?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if some number of people with an approximate IQ of 100 (95-105) take X minutes to complete a task (lets also say plus-minus 5%), is there an expected average Y time people with an average 120 would need?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you cite the research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19555" LastActivityDate="2019-01-15T01:34:30.527" Title="Is there a basic mathematical relationship between IQ and learning speed?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21492" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21493" CreationDate="2019-01-15T01:53:18.900" Score="3" ViewCount="1039" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the medical term for semi-mindless activities to help reduce anxiety? ... such as gardening, mowing, cleaning... perhaps driving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recall that, maybe, the word asynchronous was part of the term &lt;strong&gt;* which based on present answers now seems less likely *&lt;/strong&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19555" LastEditorUserId="19555" LastEditDate="2019-01-15T12:37:57.700" LastActivityDate="2019-01-15T18:13:58.263" Title="What is the medical term for semi-mindless activities to help reduce anxiety? ... such as gardening, mowing, cleaning... perhaps driving" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21493" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21492" CreationDate="2019-01-15T06:17:25.960" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read it mentioned as &lt;strong&gt;grounding-&lt;/strong&gt; techniques or activities. Activities that pull you into the present, and, if possible, fulfill you by giving you the impression towards achieving a goal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20460" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-15T08:45:16.677" LastActivityDate="2019-01-15T08:45:16.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21494" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21492" CreationDate="2019-01-15T07:14:25.260" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have not been able to find any term, medical or non-medical, which includes the word &lt;em&gt;asynchronous&lt;/em&gt;, but to add to the answer by @user20460 there is the non-medical term &lt;em&gt;hobbies&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking part in hobbies and other interests is recommended to anyone who suffers from anxiety and/or depression because not only can it provide a distraction, but it can also alleviate boredom which in itself &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.anxaid.com/hobbies.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;can create or exacerbate anxiety&lt;/a&gt; - see also, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.doctorhalima.az/files/books/positive_thinking_books/beyond_boredom_and_anxiety_csikszentmihalyi_en_1518.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Csikszentmihalyi (2000)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As NoPanic.org &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nopanic.org.uk/keeping-stress-to-a-minimum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;points out&lt;/a&gt;, you should...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;do something that makes you happy. Every day should include a bit of ‘ME’ time. It may be losing yourself in a book, playing or listening to music or a self-pamper session. However busy life seems, you deserve that special time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). &lt;em&gt;Beyond boredom and anxiety&lt;/em&gt; (Vol. 721). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-01-15T08:45:40.523" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21495" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21492" CreationDate="2019-01-15T13:41:27.767" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are describing sounds a lot like aspects of Occupational Therapy (sometimes called Ergotherapy). Occupational therapy can include prescribed activity such as knitting (to meaningfully occupy your time) and is applied to a wide range of health related issues including anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a dictionary definition of Occupational Therapy &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/occupational%20therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/occupational%20therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And here is a link to a definition from the University of British Columbia &lt;a href=&quot;https://osot.ubc.ca/about/what-is-os-ot/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osot.ubc.ca/about/what-is-os-ot/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21313" LastEditorUserId="21313" LastEditDate="2019-01-15T18:13:58.263" LastActivityDate="2019-01-15T18:13:58.263" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21496" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21489" CreationDate="2019-01-15T14:50:01.733" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Two theories that can elaborate on your initial question would be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Norman and Shallice model on executive function. Specifically the component described as supervisory attentional system:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Norman, D. A., &amp;amp; Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action. In Consciousness and self-regulation (pp. 1-18). Springer, Boston, MA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Leon Festingers concept of cognitive dissonance:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Festinger, L. (1962). A theory of cognitive dissonance (Vol. 2). Stanford university press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user15909" LastActivityDate="2019-01-15T14:50:01.733" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21497" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21489" CreationDate="2019-01-15T15:59:39.530" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Instead of pointing you to existing theories, which is (1) too advanced for you to understand at the current level of knowledge, and (2) too focused so that you don't have a big picture, why don't we just suggest you to read a textbook about cognition? It will solve both problems at the same time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend the book &lt;strong&gt;Cognitive Psychology&lt;/strong&gt;, written by Strenberg, as the starting point. &lt;strong&gt;Cognition: Exploring the Science&lt;/strong&gt; (author: Reisberg) is also a good one. If you are like me, you will realize how to make the question clearer just after some first few pages of reading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2019-01-15T15:59:39.530" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21498" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-15T14:19:31.277" Score="5" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like kiwi. I don't like omelettes. I love berry pies, but I'm not a big fan of potato chips or pretzels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human taste preference is seemingly universal, with even young children able to identify foods that they like and dislike, and react appropriately, hungrily seeking the former and rejecting the latter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what evolutionary purpose does this serve? Is my dislike of potato chips and pretzels a sign that my body is somehow predisposed to excess sodium, and this distate for the food a compensation mechanism? Is my love of kiwi an indicator of some deficit, perhaps of vitamins C and K, or my more general preference for sour flavors (which tend to indicate acidity) a part of pH regulation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At its heart, does biological need or deficiency for particular components of a food explain personal preference for that foodstuff, and if not, is there research showing what does?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12897" OwnerDisplayName="TheEnvironmentalist" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-21T19:55:16.783" LastActivityDate="2019-01-21T19:55:16.783" Title="What benefit is responsible for human preference of one food over another?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21500" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8117" CreationDate="2019-01-16T01:32:05.260" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was searching for alternative when I fell on this post. Here are a few others&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/craddm/eegUtils&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;eegUtils&lt;/a&gt; , the same author has a blog that might be of interest to you for further reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://craddm.github.io/tags/eeg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also found &lt;a href=&quot;https://rdrr.io/cran/eegAnalysis/man/eegAnalysis-package.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;eegAnalysis&lt;/a&gt; but the last update was in 2014&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally for ERPs there is &lt;a href=&quot;https://cran.csiro.au/web/packages/erpR/erpR.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;erpR&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20539" LastEditorUserId="20539" LastEditDate="2020-09-21T14:22:40.330" LastActivityDate="2020-09-21T14:22:40.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21501" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-16T12:11:47.827" Score="2" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder if experiments in perceptual or cognitive psychology have been performed following these considerations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Standard experiment:&lt;/strong&gt; Present small numbers of simple items to a test subject, for the sake of specifity and simplicity as equal dots distributed inside a box:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LHAKq.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LHAKq.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NiZnC.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NiZnC.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess experiments testing which number of dots test subjects are able to tell without consciously counting have been performed, and that the mean number is something like &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$7$&lt;/span&gt; (the &quot;magic number&quot;). (The maximal number any test person was able to tell without consciously counting would be very interesting, too.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also guess that the magic number depends on the degree of evenness of the distribution of the dots (per test subject and on average).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the magic number will depend also on the &lt;strong&gt;speeds&lt;/strong&gt; of the dots. (The cases above assumed resting dots.) Two cases are to be distinguished:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Not the dots, but their entirety rotates (around the center of the containing box) with angular velocity &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$v_1$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Each dot moves independently and behaves like a billiard ball reflected at the borders of the box&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;with collision among dots &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;without collision among dots, in this case &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;all with the same speed &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$v_2$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;with slightly different speeds &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;with very different speeds &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All these cases give experimental setups and one might try to determine &quot;magic numbers&quot; depending e.g. on &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$v_1$&lt;/span&gt; (in case 1) or &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$v_2$&lt;/span&gt; (in case 2.2.1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is case 2.1:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KzeY9.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KzeY9.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what interests me even more is the question up to which number people can actually &lt;strong&gt;count&lt;/strong&gt; (not see at a glance) when asked to tell the number of some moving dots. This number will be greater than the magic numbers above - but how great? Check it out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jVLuy.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jVLuy.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OmfWb.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OmfWb.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone give a link to results related to the experimental setups I tried to describe? (Please forgive me, I'm not a learned psychologist or cognitive scientist, so my talk about experiments and so on may sound amateurish.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2019-01-16T16:17:24.927" LastActivityDate="2019-01-16T16:17:24.927" Title="How many moving objects can a person count (on average)?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21502" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21505" CreationDate="2019-01-16T15:34:21.827" Score="1" ViewCount="303" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which sub-field of psychology deals with differences in human intelligence? As in, what makes someone an intellectual genius? Or, maybe a bit more humbly, why are some people more intelligent than others? It would help if you could also mention some leading thinkers in this field (or any good resources to read more about these topics)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21321" LastActivityDate="2019-01-17T13:16:18.543" Title="What kind of psychologists study 'genius'?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21502" CreationDate="2019-01-17T12:30:47.917" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Which sub-field of psychology deals with differences in human intelligence? As in, what makes someone an intellectual genius?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Broadly speaking, the study of individual differences in psychology is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;differential psychology&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychometrics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Psychometrics&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is the study of psychological measurements, an extremely important part of intelligence research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Or, maybe a bit more humbly, why are some people more intelligent than others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subfield that has been most important in establishing why some people are more intelligent than others is probably &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioural_genetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;behavioural genetics&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. This field has been at the forefront of creating experimental designs that can give evidence for the causes of individual differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, these fields overlap. It can sometimes be difficult to difficult to say when something is research in field X or Y (And often not important exactly which field you would categorize it as).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It would help if you could also mention some leading thinkers in this field (or any good resources to read more about these topics)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many important researchers who study intelligence and why people differ intellectually. Here are a few examples of books that talk, in part, about why people differ in intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) &quot;Intelligence&quot; by Stuart Ritchie. This is a short introduction to intelligence research and is easy to read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) &quot;The Neuroscience of Intelligence&quot; by Richard Haier. This book is slightly longer, but is still fairly easy to read. This book focuses on the actual brain itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3) &quot;The &lt;em&gt;g&lt;/em&gt; Factor&quot; by Arthur Jensen. This is a more detailed and complex book. It's not as new as the others but is considered a classic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you're talking specifically about high intelligence then there are only a few leading researchers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been several leading figures if you go far enough back. All the way from Francis Galton to Lewis Terman to Julian Stanley. Two of the most important current researchers are David Lubinski and Camilla Benbow. They are leading the &lt;a href=&quot;https://my.vanderbilt.edu/smpy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY)&lt;/a&gt;, which is a longitudinal study of highly intelligent individuals. See the link for several publications from the study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I could give only a single article (on the subject of very high intelligence) for you to read, it would be the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/vu-my/wp-content/uploads/sites/826/2013/02/03094405/Article-RER-Lubinski-2016-F-1.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lubinski, D. (2016). From Terman to today: A century of findings on intellectual precocity. &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a review of the findings of the study of highly intelligent individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other researchers that are important, of course. One other I know who researches high intelligence and high achievement is Jonathan Wai, see his &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/finding-the-next-einstein&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;blog&lt;/a&gt; if you interested. I'm sure other people could refer to several other important researchers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19533" LastEditorUserId="19533" LastEditDate="2019-01-17T13:16:18.543" LastActivityDate="2019-01-17T13:16:18.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21507" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21451" CreationDate="2019-01-17T21:30:49.340" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's not greek, but... Wills classified this as a group behavior, and called it downward social comparison. The gist of the theory is that a person attempts to feel better about him-/herself by socializing and comparing with someone considered performing poorer in areas important to him/her.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90(2), 245-271. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user15909" LastActivityDate="2019-01-17T21:30:49.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21508" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21258" CreationDate="2019-01-17T23:00:00.750" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The risks of excessive empathy is sometimes conceptualized as &quot;compassion fatigue&quot; or &quot;vicarious traumatization&quot;. The problem is not necessarily considered an excess in empathy, it can also be described as an excess in work load. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What could be considered excessive is most likely individual, not unlike our capacity for handling other types of work, like lifting heavy loads or work long hours at the office, for instance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most reliable measurement i can think of is how much time a day we spend working as a therapist, for lack of better constructs. Another example for conceptualizing excessive empathy would be the prevalence of fatigue/secondary ptsd symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also i'd be curious to see how therapists ambitions/expectations on therapy outcome factors into the risk of compassion fatigue. I don't believe such research has been made.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More research is needed for sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://proqol.org/CS_and_CF.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://proqol.org/CS_and_CF.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user15909" LastActivityDate="2019-01-17T23:00:00.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21509" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-18T00:53:36.810" Score="0" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that our preferences and tastes help shape our behaviors and what activities we willingly engage in, but I also know that being faced with indecision is a common feature of the human experience. However, I wanted to know if there is a mental disorder classified in the DSM or elsewhere, where an individual's indecisiveness is so great that it prevents one from settling into an identity and determining what hobbies, interests, aesthetic preferences, etc. to pursue, and as such, causes a large amount of distress and significantly impacts said individual's life?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21329" LastActivityDate="2019-01-18T10:47:02.110" Title="Is there a mental disorder in which one is unable to determine personal preferences, and as a result, is a cause of great distress?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21510" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21509" CreationDate="2019-01-18T10:47:02.110" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no specific symptom criteria in DSM that matches your description. It’s a very general problem that can be conceptualized in a variety of ways. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest thing I can think of that resembles your description would be generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Dugas and Ladoceur claims in their research that the main underlying factor causing GAD is intolerance for uncertainty (IU), which - among several things - increases anxiety in decision making. IU paired with another factor for GAD - cognitive avoidance - causes tendencies to avoid difficult decisions completely, or dealing with decisions with excessive worry. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/11142548/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/11142548/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please bear in mind that proper assessment and diagnostic requires a face to face consultation with a licensed specialist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user15909" LastActivityDate="2019-01-18T10:47:02.110" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21512" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21517" CreationDate="2019-01-19T04:30:07.933" Score="2" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a device of some sort that could promote/guide/create exact connections between neurons? I wish there was a device that could get me PhD by just wearing it for a few months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21335" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-19T19:33:12.523" LastActivityDate="2019-01-19T20:59:16.683" Title="Can a device create/guide neuron connections between them?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21513" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-19T12:04:58.210" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;Orientation columns in the primary visual cortex are known to have (mostly) simple cells in layers 4 and 6, and (mostly) complex cells in layers 2,3 and 5. Orientation columns spanning an entire range of orientations (0-180 degrees) are “grouped” into ocular dominance columns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: Ocular dominance columns are monocular columns, corresponding either to the contralateral or the ipsilateral eye. Complex cells, however, are binocular. How do these two things go together?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user21198" LastActivityDate="2019-01-27T23:51:33.040" Title="How are ocular dominance columns monocular despite binocular complex cells?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21514" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21498" CreationDate="2019-01-19T12:48:45.137" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reasons why we do or do not like certain foods:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Taste&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I may want to eat foods &lt;em&gt;that taste pleasantly:&lt;/em&gt; chocolate, cakes, fried chicken and...sweet cabbage (?!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. Bowel regularity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I discover that whole-grain bread makes wonders to my bowel regularity, which &lt;em&gt;makes my stomach to feel good,&lt;/em&gt; which overweights a bit bitter taste of such bread in my mouth, so I start to like it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;3. Health concerns&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read that fast food may not be healthy, so I stop eating it and &lt;em&gt;start to feel better in general,&lt;/em&gt; and, with time, I will &lt;em&gt;actually&lt;/em&gt; stop liking fast food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;4. Nutrient deficiencies&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I have a period in which I eat very few plant foods, I'll start to crave things, like green salad. I believe, I can start craving foods that contain certain minerals and vitamins I'm missing (iron, potassium, vitamin C, protein...).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2491403/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salt&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4433288/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;craving&lt;/a&gt; may be due to low sodium diet or habitual high sodium diet, or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26833639&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;zinc deficiency&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2235907/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sugar craving&lt;/a&gt; may be due to need for immediate energy or due to addiction to sweet taste.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/507929&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Potato craving&lt;/a&gt; can be due to potassium deficiency (potatoes are high in potassium).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2748323/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The association between food cravings and consumption of specific foods in a laboratory taste test (PubMed, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;. According to the study, you may crave for a certain food just because you regularly eat it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4015153/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eating everything except food (PICA)&lt;/a&gt; can be due to iron or zinc deficiency.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;5. Medical conditions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3636818/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Addison's disease (adrenal insufficiency)&lt;/a&gt; is often associated with salt craving.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3407696/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Postprandial hypoglycemia (low blood sugar after meals)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4529377/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;diabetes mellitus type 1&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109725/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;heroin withdrawal&lt;/a&gt; can be associated with sugar craving.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;6. Beliefs&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can just &lt;em&gt;hear or believe&lt;/em&gt; that certain food is &quot;not good to eat&quot; or &quot;not good for me&quot; and, just because of this, I might find that food disgusting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;7. Genetics and environment&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Genetic and environmental factors can influence food preferences, especially in children and adolescents (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4962164/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PubMed, 2016&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;8. Depression&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depression can be associated with craving for foods high in carbohydrates and fats, such as chocolate and chips (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8697046&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PubMed, 1995&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In conclusion:&lt;/strong&gt; Nutrient deficiencies can be one of the factors for food preference. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-01-19T15:40:14.943" LastActivityDate="2019-01-19T15:40:14.943" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21515" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-19T16:55:28.397" Score="5" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflex&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reflex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus. A reflex is made possible by neural pathways called reflex arcs which can act on an impulse before that impulse reaches the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the magnitude, direction, etc. of this response evaluated somewhere in some type of neurons? Is there information processing in relation to, for this type of stimulus magnitude, it's evaluated which magnitude of response should be triggered by a neuron, or does the stimulus simple activate a neural pathway which activates a fixed response and the difference in the response is the result of how many neural pathways the stimulus activate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make an analogy, does reflexs work like turning several light switches for more or less light, or like inputing data into a program for different kind of responses?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13498" LastActivityDate="2019-01-19T16:55:28.397" Title="Do neurons involved in reflex movements process information or they just transmit a signal?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21517" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21512" CreationDate="2019-01-19T19:32:14.787" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can't get a PhD using an electronic device, that's the stuff for movies (Fig. 1). Plus, as I claim in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/users/6983/aliced?tab=profile&quot;&gt;my profile&lt;/a&gt;, there's a lot more to science than learning new material:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Behind the great achievements of a Gauss or an Einstein is in all&#xA;  cases a life devoted to contemplation, curiosity, collaboration and,&#xA;  perhaps most of all, hard work &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-quest-for-genius-in-einstein-s-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Burrell, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, to bring your question down to a more elementary level, there are concepts in development to guide neuronal growth toward certain targets, for example for use in &lt;a href=&quot;https://advancedbionics.com/com/en/home/about-cochlear-implants/what-is-a-cochlear-implant-system.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cochlear implants&lt;/a&gt; (CIs). CIs stimulate the inner ear in people with severe hearing impairment. A CI basically consists of an array of electrodes that is guided into the inner ear. Because the electrode contacts are situated relatively far from the target neurons (spiral ganglion cells making up the auditory nerve, see Fig. 2), scientists have been contemplating how to bring the source closer to the target. One way to (theoretically) do this is to coat the electrode array with a solution releasing neurotrophic factor(s), such as BDNF(&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5420760/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ramku &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2017)&lt;/a&gt;). These compounds are known to act as chemo-attractants that can stimulate and guide neural outgrowths.      &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NmoQU.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NmoQU.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Matrix&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Reaves learning Kunf Fu. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ej4.com/blog/3-out-of-5-trainers-are-not-morpheus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EJ4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fM7Gw.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fM7Gw.png&quot; alt=&quot;CI&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. CI. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312383271_Cortical_plasticity_in_cochlear_implant_users/figures?lo=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Debener (2016)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-quest-for-genius-in-einstein-s-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Burrell, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, September issue 2015&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312383271_Cortical_plasticity_in_cochlear_implant_users/figures?lo=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Debener, Cortical plasticity in cochlear implant users (2016). Thesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5420760/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ramku &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Open Access Maced J Med Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 121–5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-19T20:59:16.683" LastActivityDate="2019-01-19T20:59:16.683" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21519" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-20T00:08:24.143" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;The implicit Association test (IAT) measures your subconcious preference for white over black or the other way around. It does so by letting you do a task where you have to categorize black and white faces as quickly as possible. At the same time you have to categorize words that have a positive valence or have a negative valence. The test measures your bias by looking at the differences in reactionspeed when sorting words and faces to the left or right side of the screen. If you are faster when black faces are coupled with bad words and/or when white faces are coupled with positive words then you have a negative bias towards black people or a positive bias towards white people. To see if you have any bias you can take the test yourself here: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the washington post almost all white americans have a slight to strong negative bias to black people. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/12/08/across-america-whites-are-biased-and-they-dont-even-know-it/?noredirect=on&amp;amp;utm_term=.c9a384c22695&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/12/08/across-america-whites-are-biased-and-they-dont-even-know-it/?noredirect=on&amp;amp;utm_term=.c9a384c22695&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A score of under 0.35 means you have a slight preference for whites over blacks, a score between 0.35 and 0.65 a moderate preference and over 0.65 a strong preference according to the article. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Fmvue.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Fmvue.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can see that the states with the strongest bias are located in the southeast of America, but the scientists behind the project implicit website are not sure what is causing this effect. This made me wonder so i googled 'percentage of blacks per state' and this is the most relevant link:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Look at the map of America, darkest blue means 35 to 40% identify themselves as African american while whitest blue means less then 2% does. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0cWnB.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0cWnB.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appears that higher bias scores coincide with higher african american populations. In the north west where very few black americans live the bias score s among the lowest, whereas in the south east where black americans live the most the scores are very high.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What could be causing this? Personally i think it may have something to do with blacks being poorer on average then whites thus exposing them to more risk factors (dropping out of school, abusive parents etc) which along with poverty puts them at a greater risk of becoming a criminal then whites. Wanted criminals are occasionally featured on TV when the police asks the public for help. In areas with a high percentage of black criminals can thus be seen more often on TV. If white people keep getting exposed to the black face/criminal story combination on TV, then they eventually start to subconciously associate black people with criminal activity or some other negative Association. In the north west there are hardly any black people living so the chances of the white public seeing a criminal featured on local TV that happens to be black is very low. Thus people won't get 'trained' by local TV to associate dark skin color with criminals. But this is just my own theory. I just wanted to share what i found with you guys and i would love to get some answers on my question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21241" LastActivityDate="2019-01-20T00:08:24.143" Title="What could explain the apparent association between high IAT bias scores and percentage of black americans per state?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;racism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21520" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-20T02:32:44.637" Score="4" ViewCount="302" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neural adaptation is &quot;...a change over time in the responsiveness of the sensory system to a constant stimulus&quot;. The example given is placing your hand on the surface of a table. Eventually, you no longer sense your hand touching the table because your neurons have adapted to the stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Drug tolerance is &quot;...reduced reaction to a drug following its repeated use&quot;. This means that increased dosages are required to produce the same effect. I've been careful to state that the drugs I'm considering are psychoactive drugs, so their mechanism of action of is mostly within the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The missing link between these two concepts seems to be acclimatization. Acclimatization is &quot;the process by which the nervous system fails to respond to a stimulus, as a result of the repeated stimulation of a transmission across a synapse&quot;.  The article on neural adaptation states that acclimatization is the process by which neural adaptation is usually believed to occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is drug tolerance a form of neural adaption with the stimulus being whatever substance a subject repeatedly consumes? It's worth noticing that adaptation does not specify a direction of change in responsiveness. Therefore, assuming drug tolerance is a form of neural adaption, and if the effects of exposure to drugs become amplified rather than diminished, it too would be a form of neural adaptation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Links to sources in order of appearance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_adaptation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural adaptation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_tolerance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Drug tolerance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acclimatization_(neurons)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Acclimatization&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21339" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-21T19:53:57.670" LastActivityDate="2019-06-22T10:45:57.360" Title="Are neural adaptation and drug tolerance to psychoactive drugs related?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;&lt;adaptation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21521" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-20T17:59:24.437" Score="2" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most people like the smell of oranges.  You might say that the distribution of reactions to the smell of oranges &lt;a href=&quot;https://probabilityandstats.files.wordpress.com/2015/05/left-skewed1.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;leans to the right&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most people dislike the smell of sewage.  You might say that the distribution of reactions to sewage &lt;a href=&quot;https://probabilityandstats.files.wordpress.com/2015/05/right-skewed.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;leans to the left&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's more uncommon to come across examples of things which produce &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimodal_distribution#/media/File:Bimodal.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bimodal&lt;/a&gt; reactions (i.e., &quot;you either love it or you hate it&quot;).  The appreciation of raw oysters, Marmite, durian, or strong-smelling cheeses might be examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it seems that when it comes to reactions to other people, bimodal seems to be the norm rather than the exception.  A mere glance at the political news turns up a few divisive personalities.  People who support them really support them, and people who hate them really hate them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it's not just famous and outsized celebrity personalities.  Your neighbor Shirley might seem nice enough, but I'm sure you can find people in the world who really dislike her.  Rick at the office might be difficult and challenging to you, but there are people who love him dearly and see nothing but an angel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can speculate about all kinds of causative mechanisms, but right now, I'm just wondering if such a thing has been observed.  Are humans always split when evaluating the personality of another human?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21342" LastActivityDate="2019-01-20T17:59:24.437" Title="Are all personalities divisive?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21523" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21482" CreationDate="2019-01-20T20:39:04.960" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Millions of years of evolution have resulted in increased empathy towards family members.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I may be taking a big leap here, but I think the roots of the family-related tolerance may be ingrained in our very genes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an interesting article by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eva.mpg.de/documents/Nature/Tomasello_Origins_SciAmerican_2018_2638814.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tomasello (2018)&lt;/a&gt; he hypothesizes that collaboration was among the key features that resulted in the separation of the &lt;em&gt;homo&lt;/em&gt; lineage from the apes, starting around 2 mln years ago. Homo heidelbergensis (400k years ago) is believed to have actively collaborated when foraging for food. This collaboration became compulsory, as individuals became dependent on one another to obtain their daily food. Tomasello hypothesizes that morality and empathy were born out of this interrelationship, which helped to sympathize and help their partners. The partners learned to cooperate in hunting (one would chase, the other spear the animal). A &quot;we is greater than me&quot; kind of morality was born.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, 200k years ago, modern &lt;em&gt;homo&lt;/em&gt; was born, an era characterized by competition between small, closely knit groups for food and other resources This meant that members of such a group would have to collaborate and protect each other against invaders. Often (but not always) there would be kinship involved in these small groups ('tribes'). Tomasello continues that this collaboration eventually resulted in the development of culture, but that's outside the scope of this answer. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all I think I would conclude that millions of years of evolution have resulted in increased empathy towards family members.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eva.mpg.de/documents/Nature/Tomasello_Origins_SciAmerican_2018_2638814.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tomasello, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, September issue 2018&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-01-20T20:39:04.960" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21524" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-20T21:01:57.120" Score="0" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering of ways to enhance the brain. Couldn't we add a sort of substance to improve the brain? Will it somehow adapt? The brain should 'wire up' the new substance to the existing one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, the brain is just neural connections, so why just not add more connections? I mean, why not add more neurons, therefore enhancing the human mind, getting closer to answering questions like &quot;Does God exist?&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe modifying DNA to produce more neurons, making the brain bigger...?&#xA;In my opinion the future lies in enhancing the mind, what ways are there to do that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S - I'm only 16 y/o.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21018" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-21T10:24:09.407" LastActivityDate="2019-01-21T11:15:34.753" Title="Can the brain be enhanced by adding more neurons?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;cognitive-enhancement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21525" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-20T21:05:58.203" Score="4" ViewCount="390" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mlodinow has &lt;a href=&quot;http://leonardmlodinow.com/leonard-mlodiinow-books/elastic/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;book&lt;/a&gt; Elastic thinking, which sounds interesting and where he mentions bottom up processes/thinking; which he equates with elastic thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have watched numerous videos about it, and even read some sample chapters of the book - but to my surprise, it is still unclear to me what exactly he means by &lt;strong&gt;bottom up thinking&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One unclear quote from the book is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Elastic thought is where your new ideas come from. Imaginative, original, and non-linear, it is “bottom-up” thinking, in which insights percolate into the mind, seemingly from nowhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another unclear quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Elastic thinking is about stretching your mind and using ‘bottom up’ processing in the brain rather than the top down executive functions that drive analytical thinking&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone please bring &lt;strong&gt;some simple and concrete examples from daily life&lt;/strong&gt;, of what is bottom up thinking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ps. His book is based on research and says it is known term in science community, this elastic thinking/bottom up thinking, and hence my hope people here may know what is it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21345" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-01-21T06:22:39.377" LastActivityDate="2019-01-21T07:34:14.520" Title="Bottom up thinking - what is it?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21526" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21525" CreationDate="2019-01-21T06:46:07.930" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=xlbdBwAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA445&amp;amp;dq=info:Ij26NE3sflEJ:scholar.google.com/&amp;amp;ots=xX1Xxu8yS2&amp;amp;sig=UmmHWYeNPQByN_Lpm9I8_aFOhqI#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hutchinson, B. (2002)&lt;/a&gt;, an article in the book &lt;em&gt;Synergy Matters&lt;/em&gt; by Adrian M. Castell may help in understanding what is meant by &lt;em&gt;bottom up thinking&lt;/em&gt; and the opposite, &lt;em&gt;top down thinking&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[T]he  term  ‘top  down’  is  used to  describe an  approach  to  problem solving  where  the  problem  space  is  defined  first.  The  worldviews  of  the  participants are used  to  conceptualise  the  desired  state  of  the  proposed system.  Once  this  is achieved,  the  system  is  developed  within  this  boundary.  The  components,  or subsystems  are  derived  within  the  context  of  the  predefined  desired state. The  term  ‘bottom  up’  is  used  to  describe  an  approach  where  no  assumptions  are  made about the  boundary  of  the  problem  space.  The  behaviour  of  component  parts  are rationally  observed  to  determine  the  properties they  have.  Management  decisions, or system designs  are  then  based  on  the  observed  behaviour  of  components.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example given in the conclusions is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[I]nvestigating a system failure in bottom up mode would look for causes at the element level, or more precisely, at their interactions. The top down mode would tend to look at the overall system, and would put ‘blame’ on the system itself and how it functions, rather than emergent properties of system element interactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Think of it like a brick building.  You need to build it from the bottom up, with each brick being correctly placed to form the correct shape etc.  If the bricks are placed differently, you may get a different building, or maybe you will get the same building but badly constructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take the following as a more detailed example comparison...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a team of researchers working on a task and each member inputs their findings into a computer system which analyses the results and comes up with a conclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The program relies on accurate information from each team member entry but there was a slight error in a couple of entries producing an incorrect conclusion by the system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A top down thinker would blame the computer system analysing the results.  A bottom up thinker would analyse what the system was analysing and how, leading to them finding the real cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hutchinson, B. (2002). Bottom up thinking. In &lt;em&gt;Synergy Matters&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 445-450). Springer, Boston, MA. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47467-0_75&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/0-306-47467-0_75&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;Preview available in &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=xlbdBwAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA445&amp;amp;dq=info:Ij26NE3sflEJ:scholar.google.com/&amp;amp;ots=xX1Xxu8yS2&amp;amp;sig=UmmHWYeNPQByN_Lpm9I8_aFOhqI#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Books&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-01-21T07:34:14.520" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21527" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21524" CreationDate="2019-01-21T10:22:47.883" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll try to tackle this question from a developmental vantage point. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You hit the nail on the head by saying &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...the brain is &lt;strike&gt;just&lt;/strike&gt; neural connections...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Indeed, the power of the brain is based on the connectivity of its neurons. The number of connections is what counts, not just absolute neuronal numbers. In fact, &lt;strong&gt;more than 50% of neurons are lost during development&lt;/strong&gt;, as a result of limiting &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0000803.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;trophic support&lt;/a&gt; from the target tissue they are destined to innervate. This neuronal cell death facilitates proper connections in the nervous system. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ucl.ac.uk/child-health/research/developmental-biology-and-cancer-programme/cancer/jonathan-hams-research-group/mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;apoptotic cells&lt;/a&gt; are indeed unwanted in the nervous system, and apoptosis continues throughout life and is the central mechanism for the removal of surplus, unwanted, damaged or aged cells. &lt;a href=&quot;https://fn.bmj.com/content/77/3/F165&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Mazarakis, 1998)&lt;/a&gt;. Leaving them could result in aberrant functionality. For instance, it is claimed that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_synesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synesthesia&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; be linked to incomplete neural cell death in development, leading to aberrant connections between the senses. Many sysnesthetes for instance see certain numbers appear in specific colors. These cross-sensory associations are thought to be caused by faulty cell death between the respective sensory systems in the central nervous system (the brain).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In effect, adding neurons to an existing functioning brain is expected to lead to disruptive brain function, rather than improvement. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The practical limitations of injecting additional neurons are mountainous - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Where would you obtain viable neurons from? Stem cells?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In the case of stem cells there's a chance of  uncontrolled growth (cancer);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If the neurons don't come from a genetic identical individual there's the issue of immunological graft rejection;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How would you deliver the neurons to their appropriate position in the brain? Just drill a diffuse set of holes in the skull? How would you reach the deeper layers of the brain? How would you contain the neurons to the brain and prevent 'leakage' to unwanted sites in the body, such as the blood stream?        &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://fn.bmj.com/content/77/3/F165&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mazarakis, &lt;em&gt;Archives Disease Childhood&lt;/em&gt; (1997); &lt;strong&gt;77&lt;/strong&gt;:F165–F70&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-21T11:15:34.753" LastActivityDate="2019-01-21T11:15:34.753" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21528" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-21T16:11:38.840" Score="4" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I seem to recall reading an article some number of years ago on a study or set of studies that examined the impact that a story has on the interpretation of facial expressions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Something along the line of where different participants are told different stories about an event and then shown a picture of a facial expression and asked to describe what the person in the picture is feeling.  The study, as I vaguely recall it, examined how the interpretation of the facial expression changed based on the different stories given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this ring a bell?  My Google searches are turning up related topics but not this specifically.  I am not especially knowledgeable of the subject matter, which is hindering my ability to form a useful search, and I'd like to read more about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is a name for this effect, assuming there is such an effect, it would help me considerably in finding information on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would very much appreciate your consideration and suggestions.  Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21355" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-01-21T19:10:46.467" LastActivityDate="2019-01-21T19:10:46.467" Title="Recognizing facial expressions" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21530" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21520" CreationDate="2019-01-21T19:48:47.093" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/drug-tolerance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Drug tolerance&lt;/a&gt; can be generally defined as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A condition that occurs when the body gets used to a medicine so that either more medicine is needed or different medicine is needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tolerance to drugs can be produced by several different mechanisms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In the case of morphine or heroin, tolerance develops at the level of the cellular targets. Activation of opiate receptors triggers the inhibition of the enzyme adenylate cyclase. After repeated receptor activation, adenylate cyclase adapts so that the morphine can no longer cause changes in cell firing (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/teaching-packets/neurobiology-drug-addiction/section-iii-action-heroin-morphine/6-definition-tolerance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIH&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, stating that a single target is involved is definitely an oversimplification. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa28.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIH report on ethanol dependence&lt;/a&gt; gives an awesome comprehensive overview of the bewildering complexity behind this phenomenon, and I will only shortly sum up the different mechanisms stated there:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Functional Tolerance&lt;/strong&gt; develops due to brain adaptations that compensate for the alcohol. Chronic heavy drinkers show few obvious signs of intoxication even at blood alcohol concentrations (BAC's) that would otherwise be considered fatal. Examples of functional tolerance are the following:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Acute tolerance&lt;/strong&gt; can be observed within a single drinking session. Alcohol-induced impairment is greater when measured soon after beginning alcohol consumption than when measured later in the drinking session.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Environment-dependent tolerance&lt;/strong&gt; develops over several drinking sessions and is accelerated if alcohol administration is always in the same environment, for instance in the local pub. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Learned tolerance&lt;/strong&gt; develops by practicing a task while under the influence of alcohol. Rats develop tolerance faster in the context of maze walking when they have been when walking in a maze under influence for instance that practiced the task while under the influence of alcohol than rats practicing without prior alcohol administration. Likewise, people develop tolerance more rapidly if they practice a task while under influence, for instance on an eye-hand coordination task. w&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Environment-independent tolerance&lt;/strong&gt; needs larger doses. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Metabolic tolerance&lt;/strong&gt; results from a more rapid elimination of alcohol from the body and is caused by the upregulation of liver enzymes that metabolize alcohol. Enzyme activation increases alcohol degradation and reduces the time during which alcohol is active in the body, thereby reducing the duration of alcohol's intoxicating effects.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The metabolic tolerance is the easiest to comprehend, but the environmentally-dependent tolerance and learned tolerance, for instance, are definitely centrally mediated, but not just by one simple molecular mechanism, but by the interplay of complex neural networks governing complete and complex associations and tasks.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa28.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-01-21T19:48:47.093" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21531" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21533" CreationDate="2019-01-22T12:36:45.877" Score="2" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;The late &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Sagan&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. Carl Sagan&lt;/a&gt; is famous for many different contributions to both scientific research and science education.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One memorable line is discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://astronomy.stackexchange.com/q/29136/7982&quot;&gt;Are we really star-stuff from the interior of collapsing stars?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the video &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=93&amp;amp;v=zSgiXGELjbc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carl Sagan - 'A Glorious Dawn' ft Stephen Hawking (Symphony of Science)&lt;/a&gt; at about &lt;code&gt;01:30&lt;/code&gt; Dr. Sagan can be heard to say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“But the brain does much more than just recollect it inter-compares, it synthesizes, it analyzes, it generates abstractions. The simplest thought like the concept of the number one has an elaborate logical underpinning. The brain has its own language for testing the structure and consistency of the world.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This quote can also be found in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/978771-but-the-brain-does-much-more-than-just-recollect-it&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;goodreads&lt;/a&gt; and in the script of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/view_episode_scripts.php?tv-show=cosmos-carl-sagan&amp;amp;episode=s01e11&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Season 1, Episode 11&lt;/a&gt; of the TV show &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos:_A_Personal_Voyage&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cosmos&lt;/a&gt; circa 1980.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What might Dr. Sagan be referring to in the sentence &quot;The brain has its own language for testing the structure and consistency of the world.&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; Is this hypothetical &quot;language&quot; a way that information is exchanged between different parts of the brain? Is this concept part of some well known theory of brain function at the time? How is this viewed now, nearly forty years later?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A longer quote (from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/view_episode_scripts.php?tv-show=cosmos-carl-sagan&amp;amp;episode=s01e11&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;episode&lt;/a&gt;) for context:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The brain is a very big place in a very small space. Most of the books in the brain are up here in the cerebral cortex. Down there, in the basement of the brain are the functions that our ancestors mainly depended on for survival: Aggression, child rearing, sex the willingness to follow leaders blindly. Lots of things that we can still recognize in our lives today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of the higher brain functions some of them, like reading, writing, speaking seem to be located in particular places in the cerebral cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;On the other hand, each memory seems to be stored in many separate locales in the brain. Old memories are in lots of places. Here is one of my earliest memories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;(POURS LIQUID) MOTHER: That's a good boy.&#xA;    Lunch is almost ready.&#xA;    (CLICKS ON RADIO) (MUSIC PLAYS) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;That was a long time ago. But its imprint has not faded in the library of this brain. But the brain does much more than just recollect. It inter-compares. It synthesizes. It analyzes. It generates abstractions. The simplest thought, like the concept of the number one has an elaborate, logical underpinning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The brain has its own language for testing the world's structure and consistency.&lt;/strong&gt; But we never see the machinery of logical analysis only the conclusions. There is so much more that we must figure out than the genes can know. That's why the brain library has 10,000 times more information in it than the gene library. Our passion for learning is the tool for our survival. And unlike the musty bindings of our gene library in which hardly a word changes in a century the brain library is made of loose-leaf books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We're constantly adding new pages and new volumes. Emotions and ritual behavior patterns are built very deeply into us. They're part of our humanity. But they're not characteristically human. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many other animals have feelings. What distinguishes our species is thought. The cerebral cortex is, in a way, a liberation. We need no longer be trapped in the genetically inherited behavior patterns of lizards and baboons: Territoriality and aggression and dominance hierarchies. We are, each of us largely responsible for what gets put into our brains for what, as adults, we wind up caring for and knowing about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;No longer at the mercy of the reptile brain we can change ourselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Think of the possibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19214" LastEditorUserId="19214" LastEditDate="2019-01-22T22:11:30.890" LastActivityDate="2019-01-22T22:11:30.890" Title="What does &quot;The brain has its own language for testing the structure and consistency of the world.&quot; refer to?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21532" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-22T16:53:26.820" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading somewhere and found that there are various levels of stress depending on time. It said that when under stress for 30 mins, memory is not as efficient. So I have two questions here. A- Is this true and by how much is it lowered? B- Would a better form of testing have a test split into 30 min parts so that it is most fair?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4676409/pdf/nihms219890.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4676409/pdf/nihms219890.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would suggest reading Electrophysiology/neuronal activity on page 7 and looking at page 30.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21361" LastEditorUserId="21361" LastEditDate="2019-01-22T19:07:32.770" LastActivityDate="2019-01-24T16:11:07.790" Title="Stress vs. Testing" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21533" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21531" CreationDate="2019-01-22T20:05:07.367" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dr. Sagan is referring to the brain's ability to produce models of the world in order to test predictions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of psychology contemporary with Carl Sagan, he may have been referring to, in part, the theory of &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychologydictionary.org/schema/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;schemas&lt;/a&gt;. This is a general representation of a thing or idea that is used in classifying or identifying the thing or idea. In developmental psychology, the idea of Jean Piaget's schema might appear as a young child identifying all four-legged animals as &quot;doggies.&quot; As the child grows, they will begin to differentiate, and for example, know horse vs. dog (but might classify a zebra as a horse). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;language&quot; of the brain seems to be an emergent property of neuronal firing. When a neuron elicits an action potential, it produces a voltage pulse that (usually) travels down the axon. Neurons can stimulate each other when synapses are triggered by an action potential of the pre-synaptic neuron. This is a simplified explanation: there are also graded synapses that aren't action potential-triggered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr. Sagan might also have been thinking of the 1981 Nobel Prize-winning research by &lt;a href=&quot;https://charlesfrye.github.io/FoundationalNeuroscience/92vii/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hubel, Wiesel, and Sperry&lt;/a&gt;, whose mid-twentieth century research demonstrates how receptive fields for retinal neurons map onto the visual cortex. Retinotopic maps show how the brain putatively represents visual stimuli in the cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the early 1990s, researchers began investigating the &quot;neural code&quot; in earnest. A &lt;em&gt;rate code&lt;/em&gt; is the idea that information is carried in the particular firing rate of a neuron, that is, the mean number of action potentials per second. A &lt;em&gt;temporal code&lt;/em&gt; is when information is contained in the timing of spikes, not just the mean firing rate. &lt;a href=&quot;https://charlesfrye.github.io/FoundationalNeuroscience/47/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Charles Frye&lt;/a&gt; has a great explanation with citations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Symbolic processing in the brain is an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bu.edu/csn/home/csn-funding-onr-multidisciplinary-university-research-initiative-nsf-major-research-instrumentation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;active field of research&lt;/a&gt;. The problem can be approached from top-down neuropsychological assays, or from down-up electrophysiology. There is little doubt that symbolic processing is performed by neurons working in concert, though the exact mechanisms for all but the crudest processes are unknown. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some examples: Theoretical models [1, 2] have shown how layers of neurons with different properties can be used to filter or transform data. In addition, high-level models have demonstrated possible methods by which cognitive units comprised of one or more neurons can determine the solution to symbolic problems [3]. In addition, electrophysiological assays show how cells in the cortex of mammals &quot;record&quot; and represent physical data for use in navigation [4].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Gjorgjieva, Julijana &amp;amp; Drion, Guillaume &amp;amp; Marder, Eve. (2016). Computational Implications of Biophysical Diversity and Multiple Timescales in Neurons and Synapses for Circuit Performance. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 37. 44-52. 10.1016/j.conb.2015.12.008. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Shankar, K. H., and Howard, M. W. (2012). A scale-invariant internal representation of time, Neural Computation, 24, 134–193.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3] Hasselmo ME, Stern CE (2018) A network model of behavioural performance in a rule learning task. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 373 : 20170275. PMCID: PMC5832697. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bu.edu/hasselmo/HasselmoStern2018.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4] Hinman JR, Dannenberg H, Alexander A, Hasselmo ME. (2018) Neural mechanisms of navigation involving interactions of cortical and subcortical structures. J. Neurophysiol. 119(6):2007-2029. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bu.edu/hasselmo/HinmanHasselmo2016.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20290" LastActivityDate="2019-01-22T20:05:07.367" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21534" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-20T17:22:52.130" Score="5" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;The monoamine hypothesis postulates that the deficit of certain neurotransmitters is responsible for depression, and even that certain neurotransmitters are linked to specific symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If suppose serotonin deficit causes depression and antidepressants like TCAs causes increase in serotonin by decreasing uptake, it concludes to me that the increase in transmission via serotonergic receptors on post synaptic membrane alleviates depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is that how do antidepressants like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atypical_antidepressant&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;atypical antidepressants&lt;/a&gt; more specifically &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trazodone&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trazodone&lt;/a&gt; which acts as 5-HT&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; antagonist show their antidepressant action? And &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;TCAs&lt;/a&gt; also show such antagonism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the idea of increased serotonin to cause antidepressant action is not being satisfied here especially in this case of atypical antidepressant as the transmission is being blocked by serotonin receptor antagonistll.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21364" OwnerDisplayName="Sikander" LastActivityDate="2019-01-23T03:04:01.517" Title="How do serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors work as an antidepressant?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21539" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-24T08:31:08.337" Score="3" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen a research project, where the subjects were presented with shapes to classify in two categories. The shapes were 3D models, some that were &quot;pointy&quot; and some that were &quot;rounded&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The categories were labelled with two artificial words, one that subjects intuitively would classify as a &quot;pointy&quot; word, and the other a &quot;rounded&quot; word (only based on the configuration of consonants and vowels in the artificial word).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effect is called the &lt;strong&gt;bouba/kiki effect&lt;/strong&gt;. The article I seek used computer generated 3D models&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you give a reference to this project? (Home page or citation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="712" LastEditorUserId="712" LastEditDate="2019-01-25T13:16:42.287" LastActivityDate="2019-01-25T13:16:42.287" Title="Bouba/Kiki effect - computer-generated 3D shapes" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21548" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-25T00:48:00.557" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jaxmomsblog.com/home-lifestyle/friendship/toughen-up-ladies-criticism-is-not-a-personal-attack/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What I'm describing is also further explained in this post, written by and for women apparently.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can this behaviour be attributed to the whole gender? Is it a social construct or the outcome of biological differences? And can we generalise about men's behaviour towards criticism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;update: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/201711/the-truth-about-sex-differences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article is a great starting point&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;David P Schmitt:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A d value of +0.50 is considered &quot;moderate&quot; and indicates that 69 percent of men are higher than the average woman on a particular attribute. Sex differences in spatial rotation skills, certain mathematics abilities (3-dimensional geometry and calculus), and &lt;strong&gt;task-oriented leadership (focusing on accomplishing a group goal rather than maintaining harmony within the group) reside within this size range.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/80925/are-there-any-social-behavioural-differences-between-the-biological-sexes-in-hum&quot;&gt;Due to the anthropological nature of this question, I also asked a related question in Biology.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11542" LastEditorUserId="11542" LastEditDate="2019-02-03T17:40:35.067" LastActivityDate="2019-02-03T17:40:35.067" Title="Do women naturally form groups to defend themselves?" Tags="&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21555" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4491" CreationDate="2019-01-26T15:48:42.240" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is an example from recent IQ test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;    (start a timer set for 13 seconds ,once your ready with a paper and pencil) &#xA;Question 1.                11,14,8,53,7,48 &#xA;  Is the total of these numbers even ?&#xA;&#xA; (Set timer for 40 seconds this time)&#xA;Question             22, 4,19,8,67,16 &#xA;    Is the total odd?&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then there is no time limit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly with no time limit almost everyone could find the answer.&#xA;With the strict time, only a small percentage could solve the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The amount of time shows the method used.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A genius uses an larger mathicalcan truth (ex. An odd number of odds will always have an total which is odd) . The actual numbers don’t matter and never needs to add them, just count the odds.&#xA;      You can add numbers in your head when able to answer under 40 seconds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21397" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2019-01-30T23:31:52.930" LastActivityDate="2019-01-30T23:31:52.930" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21557" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-26T20:22:33.697" Score="3" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-les/psych/vision-laboratory/sdtintro.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here, page 5&lt;/a&gt; that d' (d-prime) does not vary with criterion (in contrast to hit rate for instance which does vary with criterion, and which can be a biased measure of a subject's perception).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if we think of a subject that always answers &quot;yes&quot; when asked if a stimuli was present, even if not, then clearly the subject has a very liberal criterion (a negative criterion in particular), and it will follow that her hit rate = 1 but also her false alarm rate = 1, leading to a sensitivity of zero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This also makes me wonder how sensitivity can be inferred independently from criterion. Let's assume that the subject has a d' = 1, i.e. their internal representation of signal and noise are distinct w.r.t. means of the distributions. However if the subject does chose to nevertheless use the very liberal criterion and always answer &quot;signal present&quot;, we will be only able to infer that their sensitivity equals zero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, criterion seems to clearly impact sensitivity. Hence, why are criterion and sensitivity often discussed as being independent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user21198" LastEditorDisplayName="user21198" LastEditDate="2019-01-27T11:34:04.137" LastActivityDate="2019-02-27T17:03:10.623" Title="Independence of criterion and d-prime (psychophysics)" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21558" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-27T09:27:05.383" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of computational cognitive scientists seem to be working on Neural nets (mostly vision scientists), Reinforcement learning (mostly decision making people) and Bayesian Inferences. I could hardly find anyone working on ACT-R. Is it still relevant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21321" LastActivityDate="2019-01-27T09:27:05.383" Title="Do people still use ACT-R?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;&lt;act-r&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21559" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21571" CreationDate="2019-01-27T13:18:49.590" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;A quick scan of search results seems to indicate that the highest density EEG systems on the market are limited to 256 channels such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://compumedicsneuroscan.com/product/neuvo-256-channel-eeg-erp-ep-amplifier/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuvo&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://compumedicsneuroscan.com/product/synamps-rt-256-channel-eeg-erp-ep-amplifier/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SynAmps&lt;/a&gt;, and others.&#xA;Is this an arbitrary limit (either due to system design or practicality of sensor placement) or is it perhaps a case of diminishing returns with any decreased sensor spacing not providing much in the way of additional information in the data points?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If not 256 channels then what would be an upper limit? Am I correct in assuming that the summation of electrical activity that is expressed at the scalp would be spatially quantized due the raised gyri on the brain surface (with any activity in the intervening sulci being masked)? Then again if that were the case would there still be benefit in having the extra spatial resolution running atop the contours of the gyri?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if a system consisting of a full mesh of electrodes would have merit as a project? &lt;em&gt;[this would be for those such as myself that due to either nature or grooming don't have to work around any hair on there scalp]&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastActivityDate="2019-01-28T16:48:52.873" Title="Is there an upper limit to the number of channels in an EEG system that would provide additional useful data points?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21561" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-27T18:52:23.643" Score="2" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is my experience that people who show passive aggressive behavior do not realize it or at least do not admit it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which leads me to the question whether passive-aggressive behavior can be controlled?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Or is passive-aggressive behavior a symptome of something else and therefore somewhat unconscious?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16449" LastActivityDate="2019-01-27T18:52:23.643" Title="Is passive-aggressive behavior conscious or unconscious?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21562" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-27T19:39:50.027" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hoping somebody can give me some real world numbers on the typical capabilities of 3T and 7T MRI machines in terms of there minimum voxel size (specifically in relation to there use in fMRI studies if that makes a difference)? The Wikipedia article on MRI gives a rather non committal range of 1mm to 5mm on a side, but I have been reading the term High-Resolution fMRI in a few places without any qualification being placed on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21227" LastActivityDate="2019-06-11T12:11:49.057" Title="Typical and minimum voxel sizes for various field strength MRI machines?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21563" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21564" CreationDate="2019-01-27T19:43:25.280" Score="0" ViewCount="353" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know where do I find the article that published this image?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AHTc6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AHTc6.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Appereantly it was created by a neuroscientist called Jason Cooperrider and it is the tractography of Temple Grandin's brain. But I am unable to find the full article&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21402" LastActivityDate="2019-01-27T21:11:20.853" Title="Article about DTI of Autistic Brain" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21564" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21563" CreationDate="2019-01-27T21:05:53.403" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The source of the image (which also appears &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/What-does-the-research-show-regarding-thinking-styles-of-people-with-high-functioning-autism-Asperger-syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/07/05/research-shows-three-distinct-thought-styles-in-people-with-autism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://sites.psu.edu/psych256fa17001/2017/12/15/blog-3/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) is the Walter Schneider lab at the University of Pittsburgh. They have a webpage about an episode of &lt;em&gt;60 Minutes&lt;/em&gt; that featured their research (including high density fiber tracking of Temple Grandin's brain) related to Grandin's book, &lt;em&gt;The Autistic Brain&lt;/em&gt;. The images can be found under FAQ #5 (&quot;You did an HDFT map of Temple Grandin’s brain – what did you see and what did you conclude?&quot;): &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lrdc.pitt.edu/schneiderlab/content/60-minutes-20120716.asp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.lrdc.pitt.edu/schneiderlab/content/60-minutes-20120716.asp&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The webpage is also available in PDF form here, where page 4 is identical to the graphic you posted: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lrdc.pitt.edu/schneiderlab/documents/TBI_early_draft_HDFT_FAQ_April_30_2013_Schneider_Lab_U_Pittsburgh.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.lrdc.pitt.edu/schneiderlab/documents/TBI_early_draft_HDFT_FAQ_April_30_2013_Schneider_Lab_U_Pittsburgh.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Fyi, I just found the source by searching for the caption text in Google.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15918" LastEditorUserId="15918" LastEditDate="2019-01-27T21:11:20.853" LastActivityDate="2019-01-27T21:11:20.853" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21565" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-27T21:46:56.733" Score="4" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in building a data visualization to learn more about the history of the DSM. (I'm inspired by &lt;a href=&quot;https://fathom.info/traces/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this visualization&lt;/a&gt; of the edit history of Darwin's &quot;Origin of Species&quot; by Ben Fry, as well as these &lt;a href=&quot;http://apsychoserver.psych.arizona.edu/JJBAReprints/PSYC621/Blashfield_etal_2014_ARCP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;journal&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://apsychoserver.psych.arizona.edu/JJBAReprints/PSYC621/Blashfield_etal_2014_ARCP.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;articles&lt;/a&gt; about DSM history.) &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eVLSS.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eVLSS.png&quot; alt=&quot;screenshot of Ben Fry&amp;#39;s visualization of Darwin&amp;#39;s &amp;quot;Origin of Species&amp;quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not being a psychologist or med student myself, is it a non-starter to try and obtain past texts in electronic form (i.e. as data)? Does anyone have suggestions of where to start looking/asking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21403" LastActivityDate="2019-01-27T21:46:56.733" Title="Where can I find the text of past DSM versions to visualize revision history?" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;&lt;dsm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21566" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21513" CreationDate="2019-01-27T23:51:33.040" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ocular dominance columns are not purely monocular, nor are simple cells purely monocular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simple and complex cells both exhibit a range of ocular preference, from preferring one to the other. See this figure from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1359523/pdf/jphysiol01247-0121.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hubel and Wiesel, 1962&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Q7JT5.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Q7JT5.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hubel, D. H., &amp;amp; Wiesel, T. N. (1962). Receptive fields, binocular interaction and functional architecture in the cat's visual cortex. The Journal of physiology, 160(1), 106-154.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-01-27T23:51:33.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21567" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-28T04:05:56.783" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_Island_(film)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shutter Island&lt;/a&gt; is a 2010 movie featuring Leonardo DiCaprio in the role of a delusional character who develops and lives an elaborate narrative to avoid facing a harsh truth following a traumatic event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the plot (spoiler alert below the hover-over block) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote class=&quot;spoiler&quot;&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt; the men responsible for his treatment allow him to play out his narrative, hoping that at the end, the subject will be able to recognize how absurd it is, thus &quot;coming out&quot; of it more easily, which eventually happens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in knowing whether this strategy has any basis in real-life psychology, hence my question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10098" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-01-29T12:29:40.893" LastActivityDate="2019-01-29T12:29:40.893" Title="Are there any documented cases of a delusion remitting when it is allowed to play out?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21557" CreationDate="2019-01-28T16:04:47.660" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mathematically, we can see that d' is independent of criterion, regardless of the criterion, by looking at the definition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$d' = Z_D - Z_F.$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is tempting to argue that: (1) When the criterion is negative infinity, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P_D$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P_F$&lt;/span&gt; are equal to unity. (2) When &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P_D$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P_F$&lt;/span&gt; are equal to unity, that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z_D$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z_F$&lt;/span&gt; are equal to infinity. (3) Therefore, when the criterion is negative infinity that d' is undefined since &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\infty - \infty \ne 0$&lt;/span&gt;. A better way of thinking about it is to keep c in the equations a little longer: &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z_D=(c - \mu_{signal})/\sigma$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Z_F=c - \mu_{no signal}/\sigma$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$d' = Z_D - Z_F = (c/\sigma - \mu_{signal}/\sigma) - (c/\sigma - \mu_{no signal}/\sigma) = (\mu_{signal} - \mu_{no signal})/\sigma$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the c's cancel out we don't have to worry about the pesky &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\infty - \infty$&lt;/span&gt; business.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An alternate way to see what is going on is to consider your statement&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However if the subject does chose to nevertheless use the very liberal criterion and always answer &quot;signal present&quot;, we will be only able to infer that their sensitivity equals zero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To see why this is wrong consider an estimation problem where you are trying to estimate upper and lower bounds on d' and c from a set of observations. Consider the case where we have N no signal trials resulting in N false alarms and M signal trials resulting in M hits. The upper bound depends of c depends on N and M as well as d' and we don't need to consider it here to make the point that &lt;em&gt;you can only infer that d' equal zero&lt;/em&gt; is wrong. The lower bound on c is the key thing to consider. The lower bound is negative infinity. If c is negative infinity the probability of observing at least N false alarms and and at least M hits, give N no signal trials and M signal trials, is equal to unity for all values of d'. Statistically speaking, there is a greater than 1-alpha chance of observing at least N false alarms and M hits regardless of d' when c is infinity. Therefore we cannot rule out, at any level of statistical confidence, any value of d'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-01-28T16:04:47.660" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21571" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21559" CreationDate="2019-01-28T16:48:52.873" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For EEG, mostly diminishing returns. Because the contacts themselves are relatively far from the neurons generating those signals, there is a lot of correlated signal on adjacent channels. Statistical methods like clustering are often used to treat signals of interest coming from multiple channels as just a single signal. Increasing the spatial sampling density just means more channels will be included in that cluster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There could be some improvement to SNR, but that would really only be helpful in the case of single bad contacts (effectively you are adding redundancy) and uncorrelated noise. It's also worth considering that more channels means more data to store and analyze which can increase processing time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also the practical issue that equipment for recording EEG can be quite expensive, so if a lab owns a 256-channel system, increasing the density to allow for 512 channels is a substantial investment. If most EEG labs' systems allow for no more than 256 channels to be recorded, there is little incentive to create commercially available caps that record more than 256 channels, which further makes it less likely for someone to upgrade to more than 256 channel recording, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you move recordings closer to the brain, like in ECoG, or with depth electrodes, much higher sampling densities are relevant, but in that case for human subjects placement will be based on clinical needs rather than some theoretical limit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as the contributions of sulci versus gyri to EEG signals, that's an active field of research and in summary &quot;it's complicated&quot;: a lot depends on which neurons in cortex are involved, and how spatial patterns of activity are organized. You can make general statements about, for example, EEG versus MEG, but otherwise you are just making claims about relative contributions. Increasing sampling density on the scalp will have little to no impact on which brain regions contribute most to the signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-01-28T16:48:52.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21572" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21573" CreationDate="2019-01-28T20:13:49.883" Score="3" ViewCount="201" Body="&lt;p&gt;In film, images are typically shown to us at around 24 frames per second, but modern sound files will often have 44100 or 48000 samples per second. &#xA;There's a threshold above ~12 fps where we will perceive successive frames as unified motion instead of individual pictures (c.f. phi phenomenon, persistence of vision, beta movement). But to get this unified experience in the auditory domain, we need a much higher &quot;framerate&quot;. Why is this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7569" LastActivityDate="2019-01-29T00:54:43.827" Title="for a persistent perceptual experience, why is video able to have a lower frame rate than audio?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21573" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21572" CreationDate="2019-01-28T22:10:44.680" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sound is pressure waves; young humans can hear (aka, detect pressure waves) up to about 20 kHz. To produce these high frequency waves with a speaker with a time-domain signal, it is necessary to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyquist_rate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;have a sampling rate at least 2x the highest frequency that will be represented&lt;/a&gt;. In practice, those very high frequencies aren't included in music, and definitely aren't included in speech, so ~44kHz is sufficient. There is a membrane inside the cochlea that is structured to vibrate at different frequencies along its length. At the higher frequencies, neurons don't actually respond to every sound wave, they respond to the &lt;em&gt;envelope&lt;/em&gt;, so it is possible to respond to frequencies much higher than the frequencies that neurons can even fire at.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vision depends on detection of photons. A photon hits a photosensitive molecule in a photoreceptor in the retina, which causes a chemical change. That changed chemical binds to a protein, which causes a cascade of events that ultimately causes a change in the release of a neurotransmitter. Vision is slow: the cascade in response to a single photon takes on the order of 100s of milliseconds. We can detect things a bit faster than that because the visual system responds to &lt;em&gt;changes&lt;/em&gt; so the slope of that response is a relevant feature, but overall this slow process means that light information is low-pass filtered. As long as a signal is sufficiently faster than this low-pass filter, differences between a frame-by-frame versus a smooth signal are mostly not noticed. However, it isn't true that 24 frames per second is a limit. Modern monitors often operate much faster, such as 60-144Hz, because these faster frame rates are important for perception of smooth motion at high speeds. Slower frame rates are sufficient when changes are small, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In nature, a lot of things vibrate a high frequencies into the 1000s of Hz, so there are good evolutionary reasons to detect high frequency sounds. However, very few things move at those speeds, and those that do are typically not behaviorally relevant (e.g., you don't need to see every sweep of an insect's wings to detect it as an insect).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-01-28T23:47:45.277" LastActivityDate="2019-01-28T23:47:45.277" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21574" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21572" CreationDate="2019-01-29T00:54:43.827" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have a full answer, but it might get things started...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are mixing up two concepts frame rate and sampling rate. In a video presented at 24 fps each frame, potentially, has a wide range of spatial frequencies. Typically the spatial frequencies are limited by the number of pixels, but you can low pass filter each frame to reduce the spatial frequencies (you will end up with a blurry picture). This spatial filtering has nothing to do with frame rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 44.1 kHz sampling rate in audio signals is more akin to the spatial frequencies of a picture/frame than the frame rate of a video. An example of audio frames would be something like decomposing the audio signal into a bunch of slices with the short time Fourier transform (STFT), setting each slice to have a constant spectrum (and phase???), and reconstructing. Reconstructing the signal from a modified STFT is non-trivial (cf., &lt;a href=&quot;https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1164317&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Griffin and Lim 1984&lt;/a&gt;). Given the difficulties in the process and the lack of an application, I am not sure anyone has really investigated how the duration of the slices affects things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-01-29T00:54:43.827" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21580" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-29T17:51:27.937" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to this article,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.who.int/whr/2001/media_centre/press_release/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mental disorders affect one in four people&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One in four people in the world will be affected by mental or&#xA;  neurological disorders at some point in their lives&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this statistics doesnt tell us how many people is having a mental disorder in the world right now. I would like to know this to be able to compare worldwide mental disorder statistics with regional mental disorder statistics or with statitics for people living in certain conditions, many times this statistics show how many people is having a mental disorder in the moment the statistics is made (not once in their lives) How many people have a mental disorder in the world at a same certain moment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I would like to use the tag &quot;mental disorders&quot; but it doesnt exist and I dont have the reputation to create it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13498" LastActivityDate="2019-01-29T17:51:27.937" Title="How many people have a mental disorder in the world at the same time?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21581" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="773" CreationDate="2019-01-29T19:41:13.540" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It could also be &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_snow&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual snow&lt;/a&gt;. I see 'visual static' even in bright lighting. Shot noise cannot explain visual static under bright lighting in which there are too many photons for statistical fluctuations in their detection to be perceived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21384" LastActivityDate="2019-01-29T19:41:13.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21583" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21585" CreationDate="2019-01-30T04:50:19.803" Score="3" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know this overlaps a lot of previously asked questions but:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that 'A photon hits a photosensitive molecule in a photoreceptor in the retina, which causes a chemical change. [...] Vision is slow: the cascade in response to a single photon takes on the order of 100s of milliseconds.' (&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/21572/for-a-persistent-perceptual-experience-why-is-video-able-to-have-a-lower-frame&quot;&gt;for a persistent perceptual experience, why is video able to have a lower frame rate than audio?&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) What is the longest amount of time a bright light can shine without it being visible to the human eye? (assume it goes from dark to bright to dark)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Would it make a difference if, at other times before and after the bright light, the light was on but dim?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would depend on the brightness of the light, and that even then it's almost impossible, as it would be to do with the number of photons hitting receptors, rather than how brief a period it happened. (I tried flashing a screen for 1/60th of a second and I could still see it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would also guess that the opposite - how long would a period of darkness or dim light have to last in between bright light in order for the brain to not register the darkness - would be much less time, certainly no more than 1/60th of a second. (I tried a 120Hz '3d' screen with glasses producing a 60Hz image).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21423" LastEditorUserId="21423" LastEditDate="2019-01-30T05:46:47.157" LastActivityDate="2019-01-30T16:13:32.947" Title="How quick a flash of light is invisible" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21584" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-30T15:16:42.177" Score="3" ViewCount="2077" Body="&lt;p&gt;No one in the Biology site seems to be answering this, so I thought I'd post it here as a last resort. I would really appreciate if you guys can take a look at it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what I have understood so far: &#xA;Neuroendocrine system involves &lt;strong&gt;neuroendocrine cells&lt;/strong&gt; (also known as neurosecretory cells) that receive nerve impulses by a &lt;strong&gt;sensory neuron&lt;/strong&gt; to release &lt;strong&gt;neurohormones&lt;/strong&gt; into the blood stream. Meanwhile, the endocrine system &lt;strong&gt;endocrine cells&lt;/strong&gt; that release your 'classic' &lt;strong&gt;hormones&lt;/strong&gt; into the blood stream when a &lt;strong&gt;receptor protein&lt;/strong&gt; senses a stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are my questions. You don't have to answer them in order, you can just provide an summary explanation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to the brain, are the neurosecretory cells located in&#xA;the hypothalamus or the posterior pituitary gland or both?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary gland classified as&#xA;    neuroendocrine glands and is the anterior pituitary classified as an&#xA;    endocrine gland?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If the posterior pituitary gland is indeed a neuroendocrine gland,&#xA;    is ADH and Oxytocin, which are both released by the posterior&#xA;    pituitary gland, classified as &quot;neurohormones&quot;, not just the classic&#xA;    hormones?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21425" LastActivityDate="2019-02-01T00:19:46.240" Title="What's the difference between the neuroendocrine system vs endocrine system?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21585" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21583" CreationDate="2019-01-30T16:13:32.947" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends on ambient light, but in darkness, humans can detect as few as several &lt;em&gt;photons&lt;/em&gt;, perhaps even down to a single photon (though all detection at these low levels is probabilistic - see Tinsley et al, 2016).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, this depends on the ambient light (ideal detection in darkness), and the number of photons. At this level of detection, it doesn't really make much sense to think about the duration of the signal: the duration can be infinitesimally brief as long as the intensity is enough to hit the retina with a few photons in the visible range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A flash of 'darkness' is much different. Introducing dark flashes to a signal that previously had no dark flashes will be perceived as a change in intensity; you can read about &lt;em&gt;contrast sensitivity&lt;/em&gt; to find these detection limits. The other attribute that is studied is the &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flicker_fusion_threshold&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;flicker fusion threshold&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; which is the frame rate at which a flicker (i.e., alternation of dark and light flashes) can be perceived. The exact frequency of the flicker fusion threshold varies with condition, so there is no single number I can give to answer that question (see Brindley et al, 1966 for some ranges), except to say that it is typically less than 60 Hz for still images and higher frequency for brighter light (that is, if the light is brighter, you detect flicker at higher frequencies) and higher frequencies for moving objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brindley, G. S., Du Croz, J. J., &amp;amp; Rushton, W. A. H. (1966). The flicker fusion frequency of the blue‐sensitive mechanism of colour vision. The Journal of physiology, 183(2), 497-500.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tinsley, J. N., Molodtsov, M. I., Prevedel, R., Wartmann, D., Espigulé-Pons, J., Lauwers, M., &amp;amp; Vaziri, A. (2016). Direct detection of a single photon by humans. Nature communications, 7, 12172.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-01-30T16:13:32.947" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21590" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-01-31T10:49:45.223" Score="3" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often come across people pointing out that the close relatives of someone who is thinking about committing suicide will grieve, as an argument against doing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I've noticed that it is often these precise close relatives that have a lot to do with someone experiencing stress, anxiety and all the related consequences (in trying to meet their expectations; assuming their fears, etc). So, although accepting such an argument as a valid reson against committing suicide at present, couldn't it actually make it worse for them in trying to cope with the underlying problems in the long run? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware that each case is different and I'm just sharing my thoughts as a layman, but I'd like to know what a professional would make out of this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21432" LastActivityDate="2019-02-01T07:15:08.120" Title="Is 'your mom will be sad' actually a good argument to pose to someone thinking of committing suicide?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21591" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21584" CreationDate="2019-01-31T13:17:11.030" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neuroendocrine systems&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/neuroendocrine-system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;can be defined as&lt;/a&gt; the sets of neurons, glands and non-endocrine tissues, and the neurochemicals, hormones, and humoral signals they produce and receive, that function in an integrated manner to collectively regulate a physiological or behavioral state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neuroendocrine system is the mechanism by which the hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, regulating reproduction, metabolism, eating and drinking behaviour, energy utilization, osmolarity and blood pressure. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroendocrinology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The central neuroendocrine systems serve as an interface between the brain and many of the peripheral endocrine systems. This chapter discusses the hypothalamic control of anterior pituitary systems regulating stress, basal metabolism, growth, reproduction, and lactation. Each of these systems involves one or more hypothalamic releasing or inhibiting hormones, released from hypothalamic neurons that terminate in the portal capillary vasculature that projects from the median eminence at the base of the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland. There, the hypothalamic hormones act upon subsets of anterior pituitary cells to regulate pituitary hormone release and downstream physiological functions. Other hypothalamic neuroendocrine cells control water/salt balance, and lactation/parturition, through the release of vasopressin and oxytocin from nerve terminals that arise in hypothalamus and project to the posterior pituitary gland. Together, these hypothalamic neuroendocrine functions enable the central nervous system to respond rapidly to internal or external environmental change, and to maintain a response through endocrine hormonal transducers. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385870-2.00038-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gore, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/endocrine-system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;endocrine system&lt;/strong&gt; is&lt;/a&gt; a group of glands and other structures that release internal secretions called hormones into the circulatory system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Endocrine organs are richly vascularized ductless organs that produce hormones. The epithelial cells of the organ secrete their hormone product directly into the bloodstream where, upon binding with specific receptors in target organs, cellular functions are affected. The endocrine systemincludes not only the endocrine glands (pineal, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal) but also single cells and small clusters of cells in the thorax and abdomen known as paraganglia. This chapter addresses the thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pituitary and pineal glands, and paraganglia. In addition to size differences, several features of endocrine tissues differ between rodents and humans, and often between rodents. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-415759-0.00058-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;La Perle &amp;amp; Dintzis, 2018&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question 1&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to the brain, are the neurosecretory cells located in the hypothalamus or the posterior pituitary gland or both?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurosecretory cells are found in the hypothalamus. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://courses.washington.edu/conj/bess/neuralreg/neuralreg.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two types of neurosecretory cells: magnocellular cells and parvocellular cells. Magnocellular cellsare large cells, having long axons that terminate in the neurohypophysis (also known as the posterior pituitary). Magnocellular cells release the hormones vasopressin and oxytocin to the general circulation; we will talk about the physiology of these hormones in Conjoint 403.  The parvocellular cells are small cells, with shorter axons that terminate at a capillary-rich bulge at the base of the hypothalamus known as the median eminence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question 2&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary gland classified as neuroendocrine glands...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...and is the anterior pituitary classified as an endocrine gland?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following is from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/the-pituitary-gland&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/the-pituitary-gland&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) comprises the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and &lt;strong&gt;is part of the endocrine system&lt;/strong&gt;. Despite its name, the posterior pituitary gland is not a true gland; rather, it is largely a collection of axonal projections from the hypothalamus that terminate behind the anterior pituitary gland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland, about the size of a pea, that sits in a small, bony cavity at the base of the brain whose secretions control the other endocrine glands and influence growth, metabolism, and maturation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the pituitary gland is known as the master endocrine gland, both of its lobes are under the control of the hypothalamus: the anterior pituitary receives its signals from the parvocellular neurons, and the posterior pituitary receives its signals from the magnocellular neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The anterior pituitary, also called the adenohypophysis, is a major organ of the endocrine system, and is the glandular, anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The anterior pituitary gland secretes 7 hormones: follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing horomone, adrenocorticotropic horomone, thyroid stimulating horomone, prolactin, endorphins, and growth hormone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The posterior pituitary gland does not synthesize any hormones.  Hormones known as posterior pituitary hormones are synthesized by the hypothalamus, and include oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also called arginine vasopressin or vasopressin (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4160-3206-9.10044-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liu, 2007&lt;/a&gt;). The hormones are then stored in neurosecretory vesicles (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herring_bodies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Herring bodies&lt;/a&gt;) before being secreted by the posterior pituitary into the bloodstream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to &lt;strong&gt;neurohormones&lt;/strong&gt; mentioned in question 3, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/neurohormone&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurohormones are&lt;/a&gt; hormones that are produced by neurosecretory cells and released by nerve impulses (e.g., norepinephrine, oxytocin, vasopressin).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the part which can be confusing. Whilst ADH and oxytocin are released from the posterior pituitary gland, which is an endocrine gland, the hormones are produced by neurosecretory cells within the hypothalamus and they are stored in and released from neurosecretory vesicles within the posterior pituitary gland. Therefore they are classed as neurohormones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gore, A. C. (2013). Neuroendocrine systems. In &lt;em&gt;Fundamental Neuroscience (Fourth Edition)&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 799-817). doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385870-2.00038-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/B978-0-12-385870-2.00038-X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;La Perle, K. M. D., &amp;amp; Dintzis, S. M. (2018). Endocrine system. In &lt;em&gt;Comparative Anatomy and Histology&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 251-273). Academic Press. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-415759-0.00058-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/B978-0-12-415759-0.00058-3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liu, K. D. (2007). Hyponatremia and Hypernatremia. In &lt;em&gt;Critical Care Secrets (Fourth Edition)&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 285-290). doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4160-3206-9.10044-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/B978-1-4160-3206-9.10044-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-02-01T00:19:46.240" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21592" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21590" CreationDate="2019-02-01T02:41:04.847" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;As with many mental health concerns, the situation for each individual is unique and therefore what we do and how we deal with the concern is also unique. Nothing said in this answer is a hard and fast rule, but are loose guidelines, for more information please check out these helpful links &lt;em&gt;(thanks to @ChrisRogers)&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.suicideinfo.ca/workshop/asist/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ASIST Suicide Intervention, for Canadian&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.samaritans.org/corporate/rail-suicide-prevention/suicide-prevention-training&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Suicide Prevention Training, for the UK&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.samaritansusa.org/programs.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Suicide Prevention Programs, for the US&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I often come across people pointing out that the close relatives of someone who is thinking about committing suicide will grieve, as an argument against doing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a true fact. Family and friends of people who have committed suicide do grieve for their lost loved one, and often will blame themselves for their death. Here is an interesting article briefly outlining what &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicaldaily.com/suicide-bereaved-self-destruct-371022&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;family can feel&lt;/a&gt; when a loved one dies from suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many reasons someone might give if they are thinking of killing themselves, and you are correct in your assumption that something like family pressures are one of them, (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/download/41706591/Reasons_for_staying_alive_when_you_are_t20160129-8269-1i67sk4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Linehan, et al, 1983&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Life Over Limb&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You asked:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although accepting such an argument as a valid reason against committing suicide at present, couldn't it actually make it worse for them in trying to cope with the underlying problems in the long run?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The short answer to this is yes, you could talk someone off the ledge with 'people will miss you' and yes it may make the overall depression worse in the long run.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two distinct situations that we can discuss:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A person actively carrying out their suicide plan&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A person who has suicidal thoughts but is not currently acting on them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first case, your goal as the person who is witnessing the attempted suicide is to save a life. The most important thing is to make sure that the person attempting to commit suicide is not able to complete it. A good analogy is, in a medical situation we save &lt;em&gt;life over limb&lt;/em&gt;. Which means that in the moment, if there is imminent risk of death, you do anything to save the life, even if it means cutting off a limb. We do the same thing with suicide intervention. In this case, the long run &lt;em&gt;doesn't matter&lt;/em&gt;, because if you don't save the life, there is no way to heal that persons depression/suicidal thoughts. This is what the ASIST and other suicide interventions teach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the second case, the goal is different. In this case the goal is to reduce the cause of the suicidal thoughts, Major Depressive Disorder is often (but not always) a diagnosis that produces suicidal thoughts. It would be the role of a counsellor and the client to determine the root cause of suicidal thoughts (ideations) and determine what the client can do to reduce those thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are right that if the root cause is family issues, mentioning those issues as a reason not to commit suicide during imminent threat of suicide could cause more long term issues. But I can not stress enough how important life over limb is, when it comes to imminent suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;couldn't it actually make it worse for them in trying to cope with the underlying problems in the long run?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, yes it could make it more difficult for that person to deal with the underlying issues, but if that person is not alive they can't deal with the underlying issues. (&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Life over Limb&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Linehan, M. M., Goodstein, J. L., Nielsen, S. L., &amp;amp; Chiles, J. A. (1983). Reasons for staying alive when you are thinking of killing yourself: the Reasons for Living Inventory. &lt;em&gt;Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 51&lt;/em&gt;(2), 276. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.51.2.276&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-006X.51.2.276&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20907" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-02-01T07:15:08.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21594" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10100" CreationDate="2019-02-01T08:22:56.587" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very broad question, as indicated in the comments.  There are many debates which theorists – and people in general – often disagree on. (Miller, 2010; Sigelman &amp;amp; Rider, 2012):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Goodness vs Badness of Human Nature&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Humans are innately good, bad or neither&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nature vs Nurture&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Genes, biology, and maturation vs experiences, learning and social influences&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Activity vs Passivity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Humans shape their environments vs environmental forces shape humans&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Continuity vs Discontinuity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Changes are gradual vs dramatically through life&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Universality vs Context Specificity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Development is similar between people and cultures vs considerable differences between people and cultures&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any study, discussion or other debate touching these subject areas creates controversy because many people disagree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You only have to look at the controversies surrounding the debate on what causes anyone to be murderous vs passive, homosexual vs heterosexual, high achievers vs low achievers...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller, P. H., 2010. Theories of developmental psychology. New York: Worth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sigelman, C. K. &amp;amp; Rider, E. A., 2012. Life-Span Human Development. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-02-01T08:22:56.587" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21601" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-02T18:34:49.510" Score="3" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/4564/is-photographic-memory-possible&quot;&gt;older post&lt;/a&gt;, @Beofett asked whether photographic memory (I don't really know if this is the correct term) was even possible...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me, &lt;strong&gt;photographic memory&lt;/strong&gt; is the impressing ability to remember things or events (such as colors, pictures, numbers, etc.) in great detail, i.e. being able to describe things you've seen or listened to in a very detailed way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know one girl in my class, who has doubtless the ability to remember a lot of things with a single look which I definitively find awesome!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the reason why I was asking myself, whether it's possible to develop and train this photographic memory and if so &lt;strong&gt;how&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: I've already done some research on the internet; however, I don't know if the webpage's sources are reliable or not, so I hope that the experts of this site can help;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21448" LastActivityDate="2019-02-04T21:31:13.007" Title="How to train/develop photographic memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21605" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21607" CreationDate="2019-02-03T21:19:09.163" Score="2" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;I once spent some time working on a dairy farm and it seems that one commonality between the cows is that they all have, let's say, quirks. but there was this one cow in particular who exhibited behavior of routinely remaining in precisely the same position every time she was going in to get milked. None of the other cows did this, and at one point the notion of autism struck me; I think it's something about the idea of repetitive behavior and the potential for a connection there. I'd like to know what you think and to be as expansive on this as possible. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21459" LastActivityDate="2019-02-04T15:42:06.213" Title="Does Asperger's syndrome exist in other animal species?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21607" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21605" CreationDate="2019-02-04T15:42:06.213" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is difficult to identify autism definitively in other species, especially since autism encompasses a very diverse group of people who have different experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, because there is so much interest in studying autism, researchers have developed models for autism in model organisms, specifically in mice, which share some of the diagnostic features of autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, it is at least plausible that any social animal could have some individuals that share traits associated with autism, although it is going to be a matter of opinion whether these traits &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; autism or just something similar (at least until the mechanisms are better understood). Likely a repetitive behavior alone is not sufficient as a diagnostic criteria, but it could be one out of several.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Silverman, J. L., Yang, M., Lord, C., &amp;amp; Crawley, J. N. (2010). Behavioural phenotyping assays for mouse models of autism. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(7), 490.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-02-04T15:42:06.213" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21608" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21612" CreationDate="2019-02-04T18:27:07.997" Score="0" ViewCount="179" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does becoming efficient in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://eu.rubiks.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cube&lt;/a&gt; help build your brain to be able to do other tasks better? What tasks and how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17827" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-02-04T20:05:05.707" LastActivityDate="2019-02-05T19:52:47.493" Title="Does the Rubik's Cube increase mental ability?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;cognitive-enhancement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21612" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21608" CreationDate="2019-02-05T19:52:47.493" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Don't know of any research on the Rubik's Cube specifically. I did find this (&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1505.00750&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://arxiv.org/abs/1505.00750&lt;/a&gt;) but it looks like it was a presentation given by a mathematician at a mathematics conference, and it doesn't look like any actual experiment was performed to test the things that are being claimed. So I wouldn't take it seriously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I would be surprised if practicing Rubick's Cubes actually did improve general cognitive function. Improving at specific tasks like brain-training apps usually doesn't improve general cognitive function (although evidence is still somewhat mixed), it makes you better at those tasks. Arguably, the mixed results can be explained by the fact that participants' performance will look &lt;em&gt;look&lt;/em&gt; like an improvement in general cognitive function if you measure it in a task similar to the one that was practiced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in short, my expectation would be that it would generalize to very similar tasks, if anything at all. However, no one's actually done it, so if you try it and get results it'd be publishable, and if you want to form your own opinion the literature to look at would be cognitive training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21477" LastActivityDate="2019-02-05T19:52:47.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21615" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21618" CreationDate="2019-02-06T01:29:56.257" Score="2" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness practice requires extensive concentration for a prolonged period of time (e.g., attending to breath/body sensation for above 5 minutes).  It is reasonable to assume that it might be challenging for people who are highly inattentive. However, mindfulness has been used as a health intervention for individuals with ADHD (with inattention as a symptom).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One recent review with 9 studies (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hkjot.2017.05.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lee et al., 2017&lt;/a&gt;) found that mindfulness is effective for adults with ADHD, yet it is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;unclear whether mindfulness-based intervention is effective for children and adolescence with ADHD due to limited studies available and the limitations of the study design in the reviewed studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the recent mindfulness studies involving children with ADHD? And is there any research on people with inattention only?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lee, C. S., Ma, M. T., Ho, H. Y., Tsang, K. K., Zheng, Y. Y., &amp;amp; Wu, Z. Y. (2017). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based intervention in attention on individuals with ADHD: A systematic review. &lt;em&gt;Hong Kong Journal of Occupational Therapy, 30&lt;/em&gt;, 33-41. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hkjot.2017.05.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.hkjot.2017.05.001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastEditorUserId="7138" LastEditDate="2019-08-07T18:47:30.687" LastActivityDate="2019-08-07T18:47:30.687" Title="Does mindfulness meditation work for highly inattentive individuals?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;mindfulness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21616" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-06T01:46:05.907" Score="4" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;Such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wpath.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;World Professional Association for Transgender Health&lt;/a&gt;, which involves a relative large group of professional for concluding about &lt;em&gt;Transgender&lt;/em&gt; protocols and studies, and somehow unrelated but such as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/Reports.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine&lt;/a&gt;, is there some neutral organization involving Systematic Reviews of studies concluding about the effects -rather positive and|or negative- about &lt;em&gt;Homoparental Adoption&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most comprehensive reference I have found is a paper from &lt;a href=&quot;https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&amp;amp;context=hdfs_pubs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schofield 2016&lt;/a&gt; which summarizes 81 studies. But this paper is still a single person document, which perfectly could be subject to an author bias. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21484" LastEditorUserId="21484" LastEditDate="2019-02-06T20:56:14.917" LastActivityDate="2019-02-06T20:56:14.917" Title="Homoparental Adoption Studies" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21617" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21616" CreationDate="2019-02-06T07:52:58.277" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a technical report by the Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health at the American Academy of Pediatrics (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.109.2.341&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Perin et al, 2002&lt;/a&gt;) which looks at all the scientific literature concerning homoparental upbringing, and they concluded that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The small and nonrepresentative samples studied and the relatively young age of most of the children suggest some reserve. However, the weight of evidence gathered during several decades using diverse samples and methodologies is persuasive in demonstrating that there is no systematic difference between gay and nongay parents in emotional health, parenting skills, and attitudes toward parenting. No data have pointed to any risk to children as a result of growing up in a family with 1 or more gay parents. Some among the vast variety of family forms, histories, and relationships may prove more conducive to healthy psychosexual and emotional development than others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also concluded that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although gay and lesbian parents may not, despite their best efforts, be able to protect their children fully from the effects of stigmatization and discrimination, parents’ sexual orientation is not a variable that, in itself, predicts their ability to provide a home environment that supports children’s development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perrin, E. C., &amp;amp; Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. (2002). Technical report: coparent or second-parent adoption by same-sex parents. &lt;em&gt;Pediatrics, 109&lt;/em&gt;(2), 341-344. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.109.2.341&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1542/peds.109.2.341&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-02-06T07:59:19.277" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21618" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21615" CreationDate="2019-02-06T08:38:06.467" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The most up-to-date research I can find at the moment specifically looking at children with ADHD is a systematic review and meta-analysis by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alyssa_Chimiklis/publication/325808735_Yoga_Mindfulness_and_Meditation_Interventions_for_Youth_with_ADHD_Systematic_Review_and_Meta-Analysis/links/5b89628aa6fdcc5f8b75a571/Yoga-Mindfulness-and-Meditation-Interventions-for-Youth-with-ADHD-Systematic-Review-and-Meta-Analysis.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chimiklis et al (2018)&lt;/a&gt;, and they point out that yoga, mindfulness and meditation should not be considered first-line interventions for ADHD but &lt;strong&gt;may&lt;/strong&gt; help and more research is needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considerable risk for bias was found across studies. Given significant methodological limitations of the literature, positive effect sizes found in studies should be interpreted with caution; these interventions should not be considered first-line interventions for ADHD. However, preliminary findings suggest yoga, mindfulness, and meditation may be beneficial for youth with ADHD, but extensive research is required to validate the efficacy of these interventions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chimiklis, A. L., Dahl, V., Spears, A. P., Goss, K., Fogarty, K., &amp;amp; Chacko, A. (2018). Yoga, mindfulness, and meditation interventions for youth with ADHD: Systematic review and meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Child and Family Studies&lt;/em&gt;, 1-14. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1148-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s10826-018-1148-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-02-06T08:38:06.467" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21624" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8117" CreationDate="2019-02-06T23:19:26.637" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the sake of completeness:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;eegkit, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/eegkit/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/eegkit/index.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For &quot;historical purposes&quot; perhaps the following could also be of interest, although development seems somewhat stagnant lately: &lt;a href=&quot;https://rdrr.io/cran/eegAnalysis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://rdrr.io/cran/eegAnalysis/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21495" LastActivityDate="2019-02-06T23:19:26.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21627" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-07T00:27:01.613" Score="2" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if there is any quantitative (or a least first-hand qualitative) evidence that relates the stability of chronic, invasive neural recordings with the use of skull screws versus a high-quality enamel echant and cement (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.parkell.com/c-b-metabond_3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.parkell.com/c-b-metabond_3&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;My use case is tetrode and silicon probe drive implants in rodents&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm asking because there is a huge variability in the quality of skull screw implantation in my field, the worst of which cause random A/P M/L bilateral lesions from animal to animal and therefore almost certainly affect experimental outcomes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21497" LastActivityDate="2019-02-07T00:27:01.613" Title="Are skull screws required for stable implants" Tags="&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21629" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-07T15:40:41.790" Score="3" ViewCount="314" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do psychologists measure malicious behaviour in humans? Is there a definitive definition of what constitutes malicious behaviour? Are there varying scales of malicious behaviour? Is it possible do conduct experiments where malicious behaviour can be reliably observed? E.g. is cheating in a competition against other humans considered malicious? If malicious behaviour is much further along the spectrum than this example, then how can you conduct such an experiment that remains ethical?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21502" LastActivityDate="2020-11-06T21:36:28.407" Title="How do psychologists measure malicious behaviour?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21630" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21629" CreationDate="2019-02-07T18:56:19.313" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Malicious behavior&quot; is not a term with a specific definition in psychology; if you search &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;&amp;amp;q=&amp;quot;malicious+behavior&amp;quot;+psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar for &quot;malicious behavior&quot; + psychology&lt;/a&gt; you receive relatively few results and I see no evidence that those papers are using it as a term, rather they use it as a &lt;em&gt;description&lt;/em&gt;, that is, the words are used simply in the context of their meaning in English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any single study that wishes to investigate malicious behavior would need to define it operationally for that specific study, and it would no doubt depend on the aims and subjects of the study. Malicious behavior in toddlers would almost certainly be defined differently than in adults; malicious behavior in the workplace would be defined differently than malicious behavior in the context of some psychiatric disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-02-07T18:56:19.313" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21633" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-08T03:38:17.807" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider a situation where you discover a new species and of organism. Using research methods of neuroscience or otherwise, how would you go about analyzing the nervous system and the brain of this organism? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I’d like to hear people’s approach to this hypothetical starting from non invasive methods like MRI, fMRI and CT scans all the way to invasive methods like neuroanatomical injections (fluorescence, radioactive tracers, etc) and physically viewing axonal connections and lengths. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20793" LastActivityDate="2019-02-08T03:38:17.807" Title="Using neuroscience to study a new organism" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2019-02-09T23:04:08.083" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21634" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21635" CreationDate="2019-02-08T10:49:43.803" Score="3" ViewCount="111" Body="&lt;p&gt;Example: Say Alice and Bob want to learn to pride a bike. Alice practices for an hour every day. Bob practices for 7 hours each saturday. They are both getting the same amount of practice. Which of them learns faster?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is about spaced vs mass learning with respect, specifically, to procedural memory. I have been able to find some research on spaced repetition of flash card memorisation, but that is declarative memory, which might be different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have any studies been done on this, to determine the optimal duration/spacing of practice sessions for procedural learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8087" LastActivityDate="2021-05-05T09:06:40.480" Title="Is practice more effective if spaced over time?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;procedural-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21635" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21634" CreationDate="2019-02-08T17:30:04.740" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are probably too many different possible variables here to make any broad declarations of which specific interval is most effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are &quot;between session&quot; improvements in procedural memory, which may result from consolidation of memory especially during sleep. There can also be between session decays as learned skills deteriorate over time. Optimizing the between session change is the key factor in optimizing time spent training vs improvement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hauptmann et al. 2005 found that in the specific context they tested, &quot;between session&quot; improvements were optimized when subjects stopped training at the point of saturation of learning. That is, they practiced in one session until they stopped seeing improvement during that session to optimize the total learning per time practiced. The specific amount of time spent training before saturation was not the same for all subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It isn't clear how broadly applicable this finding would be, and in the context of physically demanding tasks like sport there could easily be non-mental factors that dominate: for example, if your training saturates because you are injuring yourself, you may be physically limited in training rather than mentally limited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brashers-Krug, T., Shadmehr, R., &amp;amp; Bizzi, E. (1996). Consolidation in human motor memory. Nature, 382(6588), 252.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diekelmann, S., &amp;amp; Born, J. (2010). The memory function of sleep. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(2), 114.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hauptmann, B., Reinhart, E., Brandt, S. A., &amp;amp; Karni, A. (2005). The predictive value of the leveling off of within session performance for procedural memory consolidation. Cognitive Brain Research, 24(2), 181-189.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Karni, A., Tanne, D., Rubenstein, B. S., Askenasy, J. J., &amp;amp; Sagi, D. (1994). Dependence on REM sleep of overnight improvement of a perceptual skill. Science, 265(5172), 679-682.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-02-08T17:43:50.323" LastActivityDate="2019-02-08T17:43:50.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21636" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-09T09:46:10.990" Score="5" ViewCount="365" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently working on a project with a few students. It's an app that can test the big 5 personality test. The problem is, I am having trouble finding one that is under an open license and that we could use. We are currently using a free non-commercial use for research purposes, but we are starting to explore the possibility of using it commercially one day. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Please list even ones that we might have to pay for.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21515" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-02-12T07:37:46.683" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T00:45:06.600" Title="Is there a Big Five personality assessment under an open-commercial license?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21639" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21455" CreationDate="2019-02-10T10:01:42.883" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;High pitch sound is a shortwave vibration which travels longer distances than the low pitch sound. It also requires less energy to be produced. So it makes sense that children are able to scream long and loud enough to ask for help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21522" LastActivityDate="2019-02-10T10:01:42.883" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21641" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21661" CreationDate="2019-02-10T10:48:25.887" Score="4" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a snoring girlfriend. To interrupt her snoring, I make a sound similar to the very brief sound gas makes when opening a soda can or bottle (had a snoring brother, I know this technique works very well):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a recording of the slound:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://instaud.io/3hJH&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://instaud.io/3hJH&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Dot1A.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Dot1A.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes her snoring wakes me up in the middle of the night (eg 3AM), so I make that sound, and &lt;strong&gt;she immediately wakes up and asks me from a very clear and aware voice: &amp;quot;why did you just pshiiished me?&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The sound I make is around 150 ms long, so I don't understand how someone who is being awakened and transitioning from sleep into consciousness would have the ability to distinctively recognize it&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes she'll even complain that I interrupted a nice dream she was in, which leads me to believe her sleep level was quite deep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Can someone explain how a snoring/dreaming person can be awakened by a very brief sound (~ 150 ms long) and be able to distinctively recognize that sound as she transitions from sleep into consciousness?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21523" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-02-13T07:57:57.110" Title="How can someone asleep recognize a very brief sound?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21644" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-10T13:48:50.063" Score="5" ViewCount="714" Body="&lt;p&gt;Life is not a bed of roses. All of us feel moody sometimes due to failures in life. This is perfectly normal. However, depression is abnormal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does a person know if he needs to seek treatment for depression, given that it is hard for him to distinguish whether the moody emotions are normal or abnormal? What are some symptoms to look out for?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17855" OwnerDisplayName="user781486" LastActivityDate="2019-02-11T14:20:39.140" Title="How does a person know if he should seek treatment for depression since feeling moody is unavoidable?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21645" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-11T02:29:02.943" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say you see an actor playing someone insane, for the next few hours you feel kind of crazy too, especially if you are tired. You may feel annoyed and overwhelmed and mad for no reason, and kind of skwirmy for lack of better words. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a recognized phenomenon? If so, what’s it called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21531" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-02-17T18:51:26.027" LastActivityDate="2019-02-17T18:51:26.027" Title="What is the term for mimicking other behaviors?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2019-02-11T09:46:16.673" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21646" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21647" CreationDate="2019-02-11T10:12:53.740" Score="1" ViewCount="1669" Body="&lt;p&gt;Elizabeth Holmes CEO of Theranos is charged with massive fraud. I'm watching her interviews on YouTube from her rise to her fall. On YouTube comments sections, some people say she's a &lt;strong&gt;psychopath&lt;/strong&gt; and some say she's a &lt;strong&gt;sociopath&lt;/strong&gt;, usually without providing strong argument. Is it safe to say that she's got psychological disorder without any mental health investigation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21534" LastActivityDate="2019-02-11T10:49:23.260" Title="Is Elizabeth Holmes having a psychological disorder?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-02-11T18:50:14.120" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21646" CreationDate="2019-02-11T10:49:23.260" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Welcome to Psychology.SE! &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/questions/502/why-was-my-self-help-question-closed-as-off-topic&quot;&gt;For a number of reasons outlined in this meta post&lt;/a&gt; we can not, and will not, give advice for any individual. Therefore, if you was seeking advice for yourself or a friend, this question would be off-topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the reasons is that we cannot properly diagnose any psychological disorder here. The same will be said for the person in your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forde (2007) highlights the following concerning assessment techniques:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;reliability&lt;/strong&gt; means &#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the extent to which a test consistently measures the same thing, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;validity&lt;/strong&gt; is &#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the extent to which the test measures what it is intended to measure&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a test&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;cannot be valid if it isn't also reliable&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;any form of assessment &#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(and not just a traditional pencil and paper test) must be both valid and reliable, or it is useless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this in mind, you cannot say anyone has a psychological disorder without a valid and reliable method of diagnosis (Forde, 2017).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other situations where someone says someone has a psychological disorder, they can be situations where they are voicing &lt;strong&gt;possible but not confirmed&lt;/strong&gt; psychological disorders, &lt;strong&gt;which are personal opinions&lt;/strong&gt;, which cannot be taken notice of officially without the necessary valid and reliable assessment(s).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forde, R. A. (2017). &lt;em&gt;Bad Psychology: How Forensic Psychology Left Science Behind&lt;/em&gt;. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-02-11T10:49:23.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21648" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21644" CreationDate="2019-02-11T14:20:39.140" Score="5" Body="&lt;h2&gt;TLDR&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many people say they are feeling depressed when really they are just suffering from a low mood.  Andrew Solomon said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The opposite of depression is not happiness, but vitality. And it was vitality that seemed to seep away from me in that moment. Everything there was to do seemed like too much work. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/andrew_solomon_depression_the_secret_we_share&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Solomon, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This talk was about how depression affected him and his life, and is a good introduction to the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The type of depression will depend on diagnostic criteria (see &lt;strong&gt;Different types of Depression&lt;/strong&gt; below) but basically, depression is not just feeling sad.  &lt;strong&gt;When you are depressed, it is difficult to carry on with day-to-day life effectively for varying reasons, over a period of days or more&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Longer answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many grey areas in the assessment of depression, just like there are with some other mental health problems.  The main traditional diagnostic systems used are currently the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems - ICD-11 (&lt;a href=&quot;https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WHO, 2018&lt;/a&gt;), and a formal diagnosis using the ICD-11 classification system is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A [single] depressive episode is characterized by a period of almost daily depressed mood or diminished interest in activities lasting at least two weeks accompanied by other symptoms such as difficulty concentrating, feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt, hopelessness, recurrent thoughts of death or suicide, changes in appetite or sleep, psychomotor agitation or retardation, and reduced energy or fatigue (&lt;a href=&quot;https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3A%2F%2Fid.who.int%2Ficd%2Fentity%2F578635574&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ICD-11 6A70&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Recurrent depressive disorder is characterized by a history or at least two depressive episodes separated by at least several months without significant mood disturbance (&lt;a href=&quot;https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3A%2F%2Fid.who.int%2Ficd%2Fentity%2F1194756772&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ICD-11 6A71&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM-5 system requires match in at least five out of nine criteria for a diagnosis of major depression, although there are moves to improve the diagnostic procedures for mental disorders through systems such as HiTOP (&lt;a href=&quot;https://medicine.stonybrookmedicine.edu/HITOP/publications&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stony Brook Medicine, 2017&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000258&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kotov, et al., 2017&lt;/a&gt;).  However, one thing I think we can all agree on is that there are two different categories of depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Endogenous&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Depression resulting from internal, possibly biological influences, as a result of possible genetic factors, or reactions to chemical/hormonal imbalances; and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Exogenous&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Depression resulting from external influences in a person’s life, such as grief, loss or trauma.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Different types of Depression&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several types of depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Unipolar Depression&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The sufferer feels melancholic with no experience of any highs.  DSM-5 states that the criteria for diagnosis are the same as other forms of depression, however, the diagnosis is to be recorded with the specifier “with melancholic features” (p. 185).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bipolar Disorder (BPD)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There are Bipolar I and Bipolar II disorders, both with severity levels of mild moderate and severe, and DSM-5 considers BPD to be a bridge between schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders in terms of symptoms, family history, and genetics; so, DSM-5 has a separated Bipolar Disorders from depressive disorders (p. 123).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Suicide risk for Bipolar Disorders is 15 times greater than the general population, and may account for 25% of all completed suicides (p. 131), with a prevalence rate of 36.3% of attempts for Bipolar I and 32.4% for Bipolar II and in terms of genetics, the risk of suicide seems to be 6½ times higher among first-degree relatives (a person's parent, sibling, or child) of those diagnosed with Bipolar II compared to Bipolar I    (p. 138)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Major Depression (Major Depressive Disorder in DSM-5 (p. 160))&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Again, with severity levels of mild, moderate and severe, the module notes indicate that this is the most common form of depression.  Looking at DSM-5, diagnosis requires five (or more) of the diagnostic criteria to be present most of the day, nearly every day, during the same 2-week period.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Sufferers will feel down and uninterested in any activity external to them, and they are generally less motivated to deal with their basic needs.&#xA;Suicidal behaviour has a possibility of existing at all times and most completed suicides are not preceded by unsuccessful attempts, with an increased risk of completion within men, and those who are single or living alone (p. 167).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Mild Depression&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This sounds to be a separate disorder, with the sufferer still able to engage in life but finding their activities harder to do.  However, looking at DSM-5, the criteria to look for are the same as Major Depressive Disorder, with few, if any, symptoms in excess of those required to make a diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder (p. 162 &amp;amp; 188). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Atypical Depression&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DSM-5 classifies this as the same as all other depressive disorders, but must have a specifier of “with atypical features”.  DSM-5 goes on to say that Atypical Depression, compared to the past, does not connote an uncommon or unusual clinical problem as the term might imply.  The levels of hypersomnia required are defined as at least 10 hours of sleep per day including daytime napping (or at least 2 hours more than when not depressed) (p. 186).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Persistent Depressive Disorder (previously Dysthymia)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Looking at DSM-5, this is a diagnosis which would be given when depression in any form is suffered for most of the day, for more days than not, over the last 2 years (p. 168), and the module notes help with other aspects by indicating that sufferers may not be aware of the condition and just see it as part of life, whilst feeling unimportant, dissatisfied and scared.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychotic Depression&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DSM-5 states that the criteria is the same as other forms of depression, however, the diagnosis is to be recorded with the specifier&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;“with psychotic features”&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(delusions and/hallucinations are present, of which some are mood-congruent and some are mood-incongruent),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;“with mood-congruent psychotic features”&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(the content of all delusions/hallucinations are consistent with the typical depressive themes of personal inadequacy, guilt, nihilism…) or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;“with mood-incongruent psychotic features”&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(the content of all delusions/hallucinations are not consistent with the typical depressive themes of personal inadequacy, guilt, nihilism…) (p. 185).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This is depression which affects the sufferer during certain seasons.  In most cases, SAD affects people during the autumn and winter months where daylight hours are less, but less commonly, there can be affects during the summer months due to heat and/or humidity or body image issues etc. (WebMD, 2017)  DSM-5 requires this to be recorded the same as any other depression, but with the specifier “with seasonal pattern” (p. 187). This enables you to not diminish the severity of the depression based on the fact that it is just seasonal.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Postnatal Depression&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;DSM-5 requires this to be recorded the same as any other depression, but with the specifier “with peripartum onset” (p. 186).  This enables you to not diminish the severity of the depression based on the fact that it is a result of giving birth to a child.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There is a set of criteria laid out from page 171, with a requirement that the criteria must be met for most menstrual cycles that occurred in the preceding year and&#xA;in the majority of menstrual cycles, at least five symptoms must&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;be present in the final week before the onset of menses&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;start to improve within a few days after the onset of menses; and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;become minimal or absent in the week post-menses&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DSM-5 also talks about a depressive disorder which is specific to 7-18 year olds only, with onset before 10 years old, and that is &lt;strong&gt;Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder&lt;/strong&gt; (pp. 156-160).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association (2013). &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th Edition)&lt;/em&gt;. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kotov, R. et al., 2017. The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): A dimensional alternative to traditional nosologies. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126&lt;/em&gt;(4), pp. 454-477. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000258&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/abn0000258&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Solomon, A. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Depression, the secret we share — TED Talks&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/andrew_solomon_depression_the_secret_we_share&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ted.com/talks/andrew_solomon_depression_the_secret_we_share&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 8 June 2017].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stony Brook Medicine (2017). &lt;em&gt;The Hierarchical Taxonomy Of Psychopathology (HiTOP)&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://medicine.stonybrookmedicine.edu/HITOP/publications&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://medicine.stonybrookmedicine.edu/HITOP/publications&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[Accessed 23 May 2017].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;WHO (2018). ICD-11. [Online] &#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-02-11T14:20:39.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21649" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-11T14:29:21.857" Score="2" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/21648&quot;&gt;my answer&lt;/a&gt; to the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/21644/how-does-a-person-know-if-he-should-seek-treatment-for-depression-since-feeling&quot;&gt;How does a person know if he should seek treatment for depression since feeling moody is unavoidable?&lt;/a&gt;, I have pointed out that DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) talks about a depressive disorder which is specific to 7-18 year olds only, with onset before 10 years old, and that is &lt;strong&gt;Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD)&lt;/strong&gt; (pp. 156-160).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure what I think about this, as it could be seen to be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;oh, it’s just childhood/teenage tantrums which they will grow out of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other side to this being in the DSM is that it says in the note under criteria J on page 156, that &lt;strong&gt;DMDD cannot coexist with Oppositional Defiance Disorder (ODD) and individuals whose symptoms meet the criteria for both Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder and ODD should only be given the diagnosis of Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder&lt;/strong&gt;, however, doing this will indicate that the ODD aspects are a result of depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Page 159, under the heading of &lt;strong&gt;Oppositional defiant disorder&lt;/strong&gt;, says that &amp;quot;while symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder typically do occur in children with disruptive mood dysregulation disorder,&amp;quot; the mood symptoms of DMDD are relatively rare in children with ODD, and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;while most children whose symptoms meet criteria for disruptive mood dysregulation disorder will also have a presentation that meets criteria for oppositional defiant disorder, the reverse is not the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, page 159 agrees with page 156 which says DMDD cannot coexist with ODD, and says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, even for children in whom criteria for both disorders are met, only diagnosis of disruptive dysregulation disorder should be made.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why can children not suffer from ODD and have depression because they feel there are oppression attempts against them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association (2013). &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th Edition)&lt;/em&gt;. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-02-17T18:57:42.293" Title="Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder and Oppositional Defiance Disorder" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21441" CreationDate="2019-02-11T15:35:39.443" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article you linked to (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellmind.com/why-your-therapist-is-not-your-friend-2330691&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Holmes, 2018&lt;/a&gt;) is talking about both senarios.  The therapist must not be a friend before or during therapy sessions.  Dual relationships can interfere with the efficiency of the therapy due to the fact that it can create &lt;strong&gt;transference&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;counter-transference&lt;/strong&gt; issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Transference&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Transference as a psychological concept refers to the redirection of feelings about one individual to another individual (Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2015).&#xA;Another definition would be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Transfer of feelings originally experienced in an early relationship to other important people in a person’s present environment (Luborsky et al., 2008)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Transference is feelings about another person (including the therapist) being transferred (maybe acted out) towards the therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine a therapist, who is also a friend, says something which upsets the client unintentionally because &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(s)he shouldn't say that. (S)he is my friend!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is where the friendship can affect the client/therapist relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Counter-transference&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The term ‘counter-transference’ has been applied to a large number of psychological concepts in the therapeutic setting (Little, 1951)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Counter-transference refers to a specific unconscious attitude towards the client in response to transference from the client (objective transference – responding to&#xA;  transference from client)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Counter-transference refers to repressed elements of previous events leading to the&#xA;  displacement of past feelings from the source to the client (subjective transference&#xA;  – similar to transference in the client but acting in the opposite direction) (Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2015).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Counter-transference is feelings about another person (including the client) being transferred (maybe acted out) towards the client.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine something is said by the client, who is also a friend, which changes the therapist's view about that friend.  Maybe the revelation changes the dynamics within the friendship they have.  This can affect client/therapist relationship through both counter-transference (feelings about the revelation from the client being bounced back to the client) and transference (resulting feelings from the client being bounced back to the therapist).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dual relationships, no matter how and when they form cause big problems within ethics and efficacy of the therapy sessions, and therefore they are not to occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A friend (or family member) should never give therapy to another friend or family member.  If dual-relationships do form during sessions, this must be discussed immediately (or as soon as reasonably practicable) with the clinical supervisor in order for discussion to take place regarding signposting and transfer to another therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Little, M. (1951). Counter-transference and the patient’s response to it. In: Langs, R.J. (ed.) &lt;em&gt;Classics in psychoanalytic technique&lt;/em&gt;, pp. 143-151.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luborsky, E.B., O’Reilly-Landry, M. &amp;amp; Arlow, J.A. (2008) Psychoanalysis. In: Corsini, R.J. &amp;amp; Wedding, D. (eds) &lt;em&gt;Current Psychotherapies&lt;/em&gt;. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short, F. &amp;amp; Thomas, P. (2015). &lt;em&gt;Core Approaches in Counselling and Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;. Hove: Routledge&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-02-11T15:35:39.443" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21652" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-11T17:04:24.627" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do any case studies of right-hemisphere dominant individuals who have undergone a severance of the corpus callosum exist? Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21494" LastActivityDate="2019-02-11T17:04:24.627" Title="Have there been any right-hemisphere-dominant split-brain-patients?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2020-05-06T14:21:38.703" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21658" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-12T07:29:50.230" Score="1" ViewCount="141" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my understanding about cognitive psychology and social psychology, the whole route from when people meet new unknown thing to when they making judgement about it is like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;First people &lt;strong&gt;perceive&lt;/strong&gt; information about the subject&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Then they &lt;strong&gt;memorize&lt;/strong&gt; it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When they meet new information, they recall the old one to &lt;strong&gt;organize, categorize&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;re-categorize existing knowledge&lt;/strong&gt;, using logic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This may create &lt;strong&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/strong&gt;, and after a while they will &lt;strong&gt;solve this problem&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;After that, the decision is formed, and their &lt;strong&gt;attitudes&lt;/strong&gt; toward the subject is changed or strengthened&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But each topics are fragmented and studied by their owns (perception &amp;amp; attention, memory, knowledge representation, problem solving, attitude), not unifying in a single topic. For example, I notice a recurring theme in those topics, which I term as &quot;clearness&quot; and &quot;fadedness&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/kmK3w4d.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dual process theory&lt;/a&gt; and I think this is it. However I prefer the &quot;clearness – fadedness&quot; naming because it is more visual to me than &quot;system 1 – system 2&quot;. Anyway, the problem is that in that page I don't see how the interactions between two systems are discussed &lt;strong&gt;in its own term&lt;/strong&gt;. All I see is that it describes which specific process belong to which system, but when it needs to describe how the two systems interact with each other, specific models are used. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Here we see the convenience of the &quot;clearness – fadedness&quot; naming: we can say that a clearness fades away to become a fadedness, or a fadedness is unfaded and become a clearness. With &quot;system 1 – system 2&quot; we don't have the verbs and adjectives to describe it visually. Or perhaps because in our language there is no suitable word to describe the transformation of the systems, we don't have a model to describe its interactions?&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q:&lt;/strong&gt; What are the interactions between each system, described in its own term?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2019-02-12T07:29:50.230" Title="In the dual process theory, how are the two systems interact with each other?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;dual-process&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21659" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-12T11:06:42.553" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is anything (a term perhaps) in psychology which explains the quick backsliding or reverting into old, learned and familiar habits, ways, behaviour (traits), relapse-type situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How come we we're usually lose our grip of good and new habits so easily: (say exercising, eating healthy, consistent studying etc, keep our emotions under control et).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14188" LastActivityDate="2019-02-12T11:06:42.553" Title="Falling back/relapse how come?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21661" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21641" CreationDate="2019-02-12T14:53:21.560" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The auditory system remains active during sleep. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Filtering of sensory input during sleep is a recognized phenomenon and indeed the senses are typically lulled during sleep. This phenomenon is, at least partly, caused by thalamic gating. Thalamic gating is caused by the thalamus entering a state in which slow-wave activity disrupts or even blocks incoming sensory input &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21912835&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Coulon &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. However, the auditory system remains active during sleep and during the full sleep/wake cycle auditory stimulation will evoke responses in various parts of the central auditory system beyond the thalamus &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3844765/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Issa &amp;amp; Wang, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, when supra-threshold stimuli are intense enough, they invariably result in wakefulness. Auditory stimuli result in so-called K-complexes in the cortex, which are believed to be functional and specialized sensory responses during sleep &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1365-2869.1997.00031.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Velutti, 1997)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, when you ask...  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The sound I make is around 150 ms long, so I don't understand how&#xA;  someone who is being awakened and transitioning from sleep into&#xA;  consciousness would have the ability to distinctively recognize it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...the answer is that the auditory system is active enough to process and recognize the sound. Further, the typical modulation frequency of speech is about 4 Hz &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00096/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Leong &amp;amp; Goswami, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the typical syllable length is about 250 ms, meaning that sounds with a duration of 150 ms are long enough to be processed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21912835&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coulon &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Pflugers Arch&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;463&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 53-71&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3844765/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Issa 7 Wang, &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;28&lt;/strong&gt;(53): 14467–480&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00096/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Leong &amp;amp; Goswami, &lt;em&gt;Front Hum Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1365-2869.1997.00031.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Velutti, &lt;em&gt;J Sleep Res&lt;/em&gt; (1997); &lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;: 61–77&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-02-13T07:57:57.110" LastActivityDate="2019-02-13T07:57:57.110" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21662" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-12T22:46:59.393" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have conducted an experimental research last week. The research topic is about Influence of Voice Assistants on Satisfaction, Attitude and Purchase Behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had 46 participation in total and 23 participant for each control and experiment group. I add my conceptual framework in attachment. Each Factors has 4 items in the questionnaire. Questions were designed with 7 Point-Likert scale from 1 to 7 (ordinal).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore which tests do i need to run to get best results? What is the best test for comparing control and experiment groups? T-Test? KS-Test? Or what is the best test to understand the correlations between variables? Factor Analysis? Regression Analysis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which steps do i need to follow first? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm a bit confused and I don't know where to start and which steps to follow? I'd appreciate your helps. Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1r3ig.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1r3ig.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21546" LastActivityDate="2019-02-12T22:46:59.393" Title="Can anyone help me in choosing the suitable statistical analysis for my research?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21665" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-13T10:31:20.560" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example going for a walk in the woods right after the class sounds like a much better idea than to binge watch 5 Rick &amp;amp; Morty episodes... but why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In which way do your right-after-class activities affect your brain's ability to retain what you've just learned?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21553" LastEditorUserId="21553" LastEditDate="2019-02-15T15:53:26.300" LastActivityDate="2019-02-15T15:53:26.300" Title="In which way does what you do right after class affect knowledge retention?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21669" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21665" CreationDate="2019-02-13T21:29:18.653" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The reason you instinctively &lt;em&gt;feel&lt;/em&gt; that a walk in the woods is better than TV may be partially related to the schemas you've developed around both activities. You get the feeling that talking a walk is a more &quot;intellectual&quot; activity than TV because that's you expectation based on what you've heard, and your experiences of TV being a lazy activity for pleasure, not because TV inherently &quot;rots your brain&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, the other half of things is probably the answer you're looking for. Right after class, your memories of the lecture are still malleable and not yet incorporated into long-term memory. The Wikipedia article on this is a good place to start: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21477" LastActivityDate="2019-02-13T21:29:18.653" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21674" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-15T05:24:34.893" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/molecular-genetic-evidence-ptsd-heritability/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;genetics increase one's risk of PTSD&lt;/a&gt;, as well PTSD can be developed through vicarious trauma. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misophonia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Misophonia&lt;/a&gt; condition appears to have the following in common with PTSD;&#xA;Anger , muscle tension, feeling of stress, loss of concentration&lt;br&gt;&#xA;in reaction to specific sounds &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a parent has misophonia does that increase the risk for the child to develop the condition as well? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any known cases that both parent and child have misophonia ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't find research on whether it has been confirmed if misophonia is a stream of PTSD. Or if it has been confirmed if it is genetic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21566" LastActivityDate="2019-02-15T08:32:08.720" Title="Are there any cases of a person with misophonia for which the condition has been passed on to their child?" Tags="&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21675" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21674" CreationDate="2019-02-15T08:20:37.383" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Noise sensitivity aggregates in families and the estimate of heritability is 36% &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4918655/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Shepherd &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A popular scientific source states that misophonia is not caused by a traumatic event, but might as well be caused by (seemingly) harmless sounds in the past that become associated with stress responses. Both PTSD and misophonia are classified as classical conditioning, though, so there seem to be parallels there (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://misophoniainstitute.org/how-misophonia-develops/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Misophonia Institute)&lt;/a&gt;, but I don't think they misophonia is a form of PTSD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heritability of PTSD is approximately 30% in males, and in females it seems even higher &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3594801/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sartor &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2012)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3594801/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sartor &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Arch Gen Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;69&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 293–9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4918655/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shepherd &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Noise Health&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;17&lt;/strong&gt;(76): 165–71&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-02-15T08:32:08.720" LastActivityDate="2019-02-15T08:32:08.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21676" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-15T09:39:07.397" Score="3" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;The so called Thatcher-Illusion has been documented not  only on humans &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jneurosci.org/content/35/27/9872&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;but also in some monkeys&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I can't find literature clearing out if this effect only applies to face-recognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about familiar but non-face visual objects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps in other cases the illusion has a different name?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also seems related to the so called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_neural_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Picasso Problem&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811906001935?via%3Dihub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boutsen et al. (2006)&lt;/a&gt; seem to dig deeper but the paper has restricted access.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A proper answer should probably take into account the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusiform_face_area&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fusiform face area&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21257" LastEditorUserId="21257" LastEditDate="2019-02-18T11:01:21.823" LastActivityDate="2019-02-18T11:01:21.823" Title="Is the Thatcher Face Illusion only limited to face recognition?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21676" CreationDate="2019-02-15T19:14:30.487" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;According to a study by Boutsen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. Thatcherization of objects (houses in this study) did not reveal the Thatcher effect, while faces did.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The Thatcher-face illusion (Fig 1) is, in my opinion, not really an illusion. Instead, it is a phenomenon where in-congruent features are more apparent when observed in their normal everyday context and orientation. In Fig. 1, for example, ms Spears appears normal, but upside down in the left panel, while her face appears hugely distorted when the left panel is turned upside down. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question whether this also occurs in objects other than faces. According to a study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/45783318/j.neuroimage.2006.03.02320160519-25710-rpychr.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1550251565&amp;amp;Signature=7QYXUWO8yzMJX6oF04mQjaEMHE8%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DComparing_neural_correlates_of_configura.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boutsen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2006)&lt;/a&gt;, it doesn't. Boutsen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. manipulated images of faces and houses. Houses did not show effects of thatcherization. The authors discuss the why behind this finding and mention that a number of factors may explain the lesser salience in objects, namely a higher variability in the number of manipulated house features and  their perceptual salience or relevance. Because of their more stable feature structure and configuration, inversion of house elements was thought to be less salient with houses than with houses. Unlike the parts of a building, facial features are highly relevant to an observer to determine identity or expression, thereby rendering configural manipulations of buildings less disruptive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Frwjj.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Frwjj.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Spears&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Thatcher illusion of Britney&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WQBJa.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WQBJa.png&quot; alt=&quot;house&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Thatcherized face and house. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WQBJa.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boutsen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2006)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/45783318/j.neuroimage.2006.03.02320160519-25710-rpychr.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&amp;amp;Expires=1550251565&amp;amp;Signature=7QYXUWO8yzMJX6oF04mQjaEMHE8%3D&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DComparing_neural_correlates_of_configura.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boutsen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;NeuroImage&lt;/em&gt; (2006); &lt;strong&gt;32&lt;/strong&gt;: 352 – 67&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-02-15T19:14:30.487" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21678" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-16T15:03:41.563" Score="1" ViewCount="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;In practice, reduced interference control  looks like difficulties with screening out background noise, visual distractors etc. does this account for sensory sensitives found in e.g. ASD? Or is that a separate matter? Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21105" LastActivityDate="2019-02-16T15:03:41.563" Title="is interference control responsible for sensory sensitivities?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21679" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8989" CreationDate="2019-02-16T16:53:40.830" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question: Can the mind affect the physical brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;Scientists maintain that &quot;a physical action requires a physical cause&quot;. However, if I am in deep thought about my dead spouse, for example, and a tear comes to my eye, &lt;strong&gt;how is it that the mind (thought) can cause a physiological response (a tear)?&lt;/strong&gt; Does this not contradict the (physical) law of cause and effect?&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the way you ask, it seems that you believe that the mind is a non-physical entity, so when it (such as &lt;strong&gt;thought&lt;/strong&gt;) causes a physiological response (such as &lt;strong&gt;a tear&lt;/strong&gt;), it contradicts the (physical) law that “a physical action requires a physical cause”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This kind of belief that the mind is a non-physical entity – &lt;em&gt;an entity that is not made up from or is not part of physical entities such as mass, energy, or force and thus cannot react with physical entities with known physical laws&lt;/em&gt; – is called &lt;strong&gt;Dualism&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.iep.utm.edu/dualism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 2&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://fas-philosophy.rutgers.edu/zimmerman/Dualism.in.Mind.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 3&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 4&lt;/a&gt;). And you’re right, if this is true, it is not possible to explain, at least for now, how the mind can affect the physical brain. Several new hypotheses are needed to account for the nature of the mind, how it can affect the physical brain, how the physical brain can affect it, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if the mind is not a non-physical entity, it must be a physical entity such as mass, energy, or force, but &lt;strong&gt;what is it?&lt;/strong&gt; Because it’s not obvious that the mind is a physical entity (i.e., it’s not obvious that the mind is simply a mass, an energy, a force, etc.), if it is a physical entity, it must be a physical entity in a non-obvious form (otherwise we would have identified what it is already).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The next question is what physical entity in what form is the mind? This is still an inconclusive matter; no unanimously approved answer exists.  But one recently emerging interesting concept is like this. If you reflect on your mind, you’ll see that the mind is a highly dynamic, information-intensive entity (because your thoughts, visions, emotions, etc. are always changing, changing fast, and full  of information). Also, studies in cognitive neuroscience find that the activities of the mind are always associated with electromagnetic activities, which can be studied in the form of electroencephalography, electrocorticography, intracortical recording, magnetoencephalography, event-related potentials, etc. Moreover, the activities of the mind can be affected by electrical stimulation and magnetic stimulation. So, the entity that is the mind must have these properties, that is, it must be highly dynamic, information-intensive, must be associated with electromagnetic activities, and must be affected by electrical/magnetic stimulation too. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/new-page-1/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 5&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 6&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It’s obvious that mass, energy, and force in their usual forms do not have these properties. In their usual forms, they certainly are not always highly dynamic, information-intensive, and not all of them are associated with electromagnetic activities and affected by electrical/magnetic stimulation. If you study the brain carefully, you’ll find that the only physical entity in the brain that is always highly dynamic, information-intensive, always associated with electromagnetic activities, and always affected by electrical/magnetic stimulation is the neural signaling of the brain, which ceaselessly sends innumerable electrical/electrochemical signals among billions of nerve cells in the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the neural signaling is the entity that is very closely associated with the mind. If  no other entity is found to have the above properties of the mind as the neural signaling does (which, indeed, none has been found yet), it’s logical and inescapable to conclude that the mind is, in fact, the neural signaling of the brain. This possibility is strongly supported by the testable fact that anything that affects neural signaling alone (such as electrical/magnetic stimulation, and some selective neuro-pharmacologic agents) can affect the mind and that anything that affects something else but does not affect neural signaling does not have effect on the mind. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/new-page-1/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 5&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 6&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if the mind is the neural signaling itself, it can naturally affect the physical functions of the brain, without having to create new hypotheses to explain its effects. For example, &lt;strong&gt;in your question&lt;/strong&gt;, if the &lt;strong&gt;thought&lt;/strong&gt; is a neural signaling itself,  it will naturally be able to affect other functions of the brain by its signals and finally create a physical response, such as &lt;strong&gt;a tear&lt;/strong&gt;.  This is one of the physical explanations of what the mind is, whether it can affect the brain, and how it can affect the brain. It must be remarked here again that, although this concept is interesting and seems logical, it is not the standard view of the mainstream scientific community yet, and other physical explanations exist. You can find them by searching the term &lt;strong&gt;physicalism&lt;/strong&gt; (for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/physicalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 7&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5619037/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 8&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.physicalism.com/physicalism-discontents.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 9&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 10&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edited Summary:&lt;/strong&gt; I add the full info of the references at the end of the answer here so that they can be found in case the links break. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Calef S. &lt;strong&gt;Dualism and mind.&lt;/strong&gt; Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.iep.utm.edu/dualism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.iep.utm.edu/dualism/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Robinson H. &lt;strong&gt;Dualism.&lt;/strong&gt; Zalta EN, editor. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017 Edition). Retrieved 2018 May 02 from &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Zimmerman D. &lt;strong&gt;Dualism in the Philosophy of Mind.&lt;/strong&gt; Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2nd edition. 2005. p113-122. &lt;a href=&quot;http://fas-philosophy.rutgers.edu/zimmerman/Dualism.in.Mind.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://fas-philosophy.rutgers.edu/zimmerman/Dualism.in.Mind.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;strong&gt;Mind–body dualism.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ukachoke C. &lt;strong&gt;Chapter 1. Theorem I: The Mind is Part of the Functioning Brain.&lt;/strong&gt; In: The Basic Theory of the Mind. 1st ed, 2018. p 8-18. Charansanitwong Printing Co. Bangkok, Thailand. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/new-page-1/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://mindtheory.net/new-page-1/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ukachoke C. &lt;strong&gt;Chapter 2. Theorem II: The Mind is the Composite of All Information-processing Processes of the Brain.&lt;/strong&gt; In: The Basic Theory of the Mind. 1st ed, 2018. p 19-29. Charansanitwong Printing Co. Bangkok, Thailand. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-2/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Stoljar D. &lt;strong&gt;Physicalism.&lt;/strong&gt; Zalta EN, editor. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2017 Edition). &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/physicalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/physicalism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Giannetti E. &lt;strong&gt;The possibility of physicalism.&lt;/strong&gt; Dement Neuropsychol. 2011 Oct-Dec;5(4): 242–250. doi: 10.1590/S1980-57642011DN05040002. PMCID: PMC5619037. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5619037/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5619037/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gillett C, Loewer B, editors. &lt;strong&gt;Physicalism and its Discontents.&lt;/strong&gt; Cambridge University Press. 2001. Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN 0521801573 hardback. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.physicalism.com/physicalism-discontents.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.physicalism.com/physicalism-discontents.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;strong&gt;Physicalism.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="19332" LastEditDate="2019-02-17T12:13:49.463" LastActivityDate="2019-02-17T12:13:49.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21685" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16586" CreationDate="2019-02-17T23:09:43.093" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my idea i think identity is a kind of inherit.something that world gives you and you can not change it. for example you can not change your date of birth or where you born. i'm Iranian and being Iranian is one part of my identity. my birth day is another part of my identity.my parents gave me a name so it's another part of my identity. but personality is something that makes me unique. for example there is lots of people who born and live in same country and born same date i was born also lots of them has same name but non of them has my rules,demands,priorities,experiences,education and ... so non of them think and act like me.personalty is all those covers and masks i use on myself in community.this is my personalty. Maybe all i said was false. i just wanted to share my opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21585" LastActivityDate="2019-02-17T23:09:43.093" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21686" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-18T06:07:58.210" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working with The Virtual Brain (TVB) software and require SC and FC matrices as inputs. I have raw rs-fMRI data (T1-w and DTI). Can someone please suggest an end-to-end pipeline for pre-processing raw data and generating the SC and FC matrices?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have already tried working with &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/BrainModes/TVB-empirical-data-pipeline&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Empirical processing pipeline for TVB&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/ins-amu/scripts/wiki&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Surface and Connectivity Reconstruction Imaging Pipeline for TVB Simulations&lt;/a&gt;. But both of them are not working. The first one is meant to be run on a high-performance cluster using the SLURM job scheduler.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21586" LastActivityDate="2019-02-18T06:07:58.210" Title="How to generate Structural connectivity(SC) and Functional connectivity(FC) matrices from raw fMRI data?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21690" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21726" CreationDate="2019-02-19T09:21:15.670" Score="3" ViewCount="370" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering if someone could direct me to a longitudinal study examining IQ test scores over time. For example, testing a group of test subjects every 10 years from age 5 to age 65. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I am looking for such a study is I am interested to know what proof there is or is not that IQ is stable over time. It seems to me that it is accepted that IQ should be stable over a lifetime, but I haven't found any study that demonstrates this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we assume that IQ is the result of genetics and early childhood environment, then it follows that it should be stable over a lifespan, but I am looking for a study that demonstrates this through repeated IQ measurement over the lifespan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll just give a bit of background about what I understand about IQ below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;IQ is obviously not an exact measure. It's reasonable that a person's measured IQ could vary by around +/- 6 IQ points from their true IQ, therefore it is still a stable measurements if all IQ measurements over a lifespan are within a 12 point range.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brain damage such as catastrophic injury or regular alcohol abuse can permanently lower IQ.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;During adolescence there has been shown to be greater than normal fluctuation in IQ. I would suppose that, because IQ is a measure against age peers, the wide differences in maturation for individuals in the adolescent age range account for the fluctuations in IQ. However I would be interested to know if there were studies that showed children's IQs to have permanently raised or lowered during adolesence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If an individual has difficulty with an IQ test not related to raw intellegence, for example, if they have ADHD and therefore difficulty concentrating, then treating their issue may allow them to score higher on an IQ test than prior to treatment. In these cases it would seem that the condition masked their intelligence, and treatment did not improve their intelligence but allowed it to be measured more accurately. The same could probably be said of an individual for whom cultural biases in an IQ test (eg with verbal knowledge) worked against them.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21593" LastActivityDate="2019-03-09T01:16:00.753" Title="IQ Test stability longitudinal study" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21691" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-19T13:27:13.673" Score="1" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;How much time between 2 measurements is needed (at least / at most) to be called test-retest reliability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concrete casus:&#xA;I am planning a meta-analysis on reliability of various loneliness scales. We want to determine beforehand what time frame between measures we will consider.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, if the time between 2 measures is 2 years (such as in some longitudinal papers), we would consider this to be an indication of rank-order stability rather than test-retest reliability. This is a clear case, but what about 3 months? Or 1 month? Where should be the limit?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are looking for good resources to base our decision on, and would be glad with any advise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21596" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-03-18T09:02:07.050" LastActivityDate="2019-03-18T09:02:07.050" Title="What time range between 2 measures for test-retest reliability?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;reliability&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21693" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21698" CreationDate="2019-02-19T21:31:50.863" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a reference about the ability for sensory stimuli to generate separate evoked potentials in the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the maximum repetition rate for sensory evoked potentials?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18311" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-02-20T15:35:39.893" LastActivityDate="2019-02-20T15:35:39.893" Title="How fast can stimuli be administered for evoked potentials?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;&lt;evoked-potentials&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21694" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-19T23:36:31.513" Score="4" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the psychology/cognitive validity of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-pros-and-cons-of-Asperger-s-are-there-any-career-s-career-fields-that-are-advantageous-for-people-with-Aspergers-in-theory?ch=99&amp;amp;share=1052de25&amp;amp;srid=UYWXS&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this post reply for this question on Quora&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Most certainly, professions involving creating automation for processes that seem random. Hence, linguistics, computer science, mathematics, statistics, philosophy etc. All disciplines that have an inductive thought process. Therefore the careers which stem out of the aforementioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More importantly, tasks should not be repetitive in nature, for example in web development, using the same frameworks to use the same type of websites. Rather, one should focus on the possibility of making a general framework which automates the tasks.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20280" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-03T11:36:58.780" Title="Are there any career(s)/career fields that are advantageous for people with Asperger's in &quot;theory&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21698" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21693" CreationDate="2019-02-20T09:21:53.180" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;For &lt;a href=&quot;https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/836277-overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;auditory brain stem responses&lt;/a&gt; (ABRs) the click rate can be really high, as the auditory system is exceptionally fast, in the order of tens of stimuli per second (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/156055004X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rodriguez &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; (2010&lt;/a&gt;. This will still yield a good ABR. At around 40 ms, the transient ABR shifts toward a steady state response, in which peaks of the previous ABR start to overlap with the following &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/90a2/420ffb5a85e93a25a02ea6c073d3fd9ce82c.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Korczak &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2010)&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The visual system, however, is a lot more sluggisch and needs more time to recover from prior stimulation. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aao.org/bcscsnippetdetail.aspx?id=45cef5ac-2f4e-4b67-81ff-85f3fd02878c&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;VEP&lt;/a&gt;s are generally recorded at a few stimuli per second. The transition from a transient response to a steady state response occurs at around 6 - 10 Hz &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10853056_Click-evoked_ABR_at_high_stimulus_repetition_rates_for_neonatal_hearing_screening&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Fishman &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt; (2001)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10853056_Click-evoked_ABR_at_high_stimulus_repetition_rates_for_neonatal_hearing_screening&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fishman &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Electrophysiologic Testing&lt;/em&gt;, 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. FAAO&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/90a2/420ffb5a85e93a25a02ea6c073d3fd9ce82c.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Korczak &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Am Acad Audiol&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;23&lt;/strong&gt;: 146–70&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/90a2/420ffb5a85e93a25a02ea6c073d3fd9ce82c.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rodriguez &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Brazil J Otorhinol&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;76&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 96-101&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-02-20T13:48:27.373" LastActivityDate="2019-02-20T13:48:27.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21700" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-20T16:17:25.877" Score="3" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;Similar question here &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/16017/open-source-software-for-analyzing-electrodermal-activity&quot;&gt;Open-source software for analyzing Electrodermal activity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But with no R code answers provided, and the online EDA explorer appears to be unavailable now. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for code that takes the raw data and separates the tonic and phasic responses and identifies peaks and their properties. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21612" LastActivityDate="2019-02-20T16:17:25.877" Title="Does anyone have R code for analyzing skin conductance data?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21702" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21715" CreationDate="2019-02-20T21:05:17.710" Score="1" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a study in the adoption of new technology, my student and I are developing a questionnaire that will poll respondents on their opinions of what their colleagues would think about benefits/problems of adopting a particular technology. This is research in social science/business but not strictly psychology, and as we are not psychologists, we don't know the literature. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have psychologists investigated questions of the type &lt;em&gt;What do you think other people would think?&lt;/em&gt; We are not asking for a tutorial here, just a pointer where should we should start looking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21614" LastEditorUserId="21614" LastEditDate="2019-02-22T03:07:00.717" LastActivityDate="2019-02-23T10:09:45.120" Title="Questions of the type &quot;What do you think he/she would think?&quot;" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21703" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17359" CreationDate="2019-02-21T01:44:42.350" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thank you for your interesting question!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, there are three types of methods to process your EEG time-series data:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Time domain methods (e.g., regression, statistical analysis on your EEG time-series data, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Frequency domain methods (e.g., Fourier Transform)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Time-frequency domain methods (e.g., Short-Time Fourier Transform, Wavelet Transform, Gabor Transform, etc.) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%E2%80%93frequency_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may use &lt;code&gt;time-frequency methods&lt;/code&gt; to categorize or classify those states, if you will. It is very simple. Time-frequency methods transform your [1-D] time-series EEG data into a new [2-D] domain that you can see both time and frequency information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1-D] Frequency domain methods only return frequency information of your [1-D] EEG time signals, which means that your [1-D] time data will be lost in exchange for having [1-D] frequency data. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1-D] Time domain methods only return [1-D] time analysis of your EEG signals, which also cannot help you to capture the frequency information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;May I suggest you to use &lt;code&gt;Continuous Wavelet Transform&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;Discrete Wavelet Transform&lt;/code&gt; to do this job?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many tools/languages that might help you to do so: &lt;code&gt;MatLab&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;Python&lt;/code&gt;, and such. If you might have a programmer around you, s/he can probably help you in a few hours or a day to pass your [1-D] EEG time data through one of these [2-D] time-frequency methods and visualize the outputs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21615" LastEditorUserId="21615" LastEditDate="2019-02-22T05:49:34.690" LastActivityDate="2019-02-22T05:49:34.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21704" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-21T02:55:17.460" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I self track partly to optimize intelligence and productivity. Cognitive tests are good proxy of both. I tried all the tests in &quot;time of day&quot; experiment at &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quantified-mind.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;quantified-mind&lt;/a&gt; and many seem to test the same thing. I would like to select a smaller subset of them so that I am not retesting the same underlying abilities multiple times but ideally not miss any either. Are there any studies about correlation of such tests or even formal batteries that I could perform at home for little cost? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21602" LastActivityDate="2019-02-21T02:55:17.460" Title="Set of uncorrelated cognitive tests for self quantification and tracking" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21705" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21711" CreationDate="2019-02-21T12:04:40.020" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am searching for a paper where participants were confronted with a (female) person, who gave answers according to a computer algorithm. She had an earpiece that gave her the answers and was trained to simultaneously listen and speak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some participants thought that she was acting a bit off, but none recognized that they are talking to a computer. I think the aim of the study was some sort of turing test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope anyone can help me find it. I don't know how to look for it anymore...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21619" LastActivityDate="2019-02-22T18:09:22.607" Title="Looking for a paper: AI in human host" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21706" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21707" CreationDate="2019-02-21T16:00:02.157" Score="0" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work in UX (user experience) which involves a lot of psychological principles to various degrees and came across an interesting thought about bad experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question is,&lt;/strong&gt; is there some kind of common term or phrase for a person that remembers past negative situations more clearly than positive ones?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was thinking of the example of news reports about plane crashes. The percentage of negative incidents across the world is minute but since people only hear about the negative, this is how they perceive the majority. Therefore their memory of the bad news stories will outweigh their memory of their last successful flight. This can cause people to see air travel as dangerous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are probably better examples of this but I hope that makes sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21621" LastActivityDate="2019-02-21T16:24:08.007" Title="Term/phrase for remembering the negative over the positive" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21707" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21706" CreationDate="2019-02-21T16:24:08.007" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There isn't a name (that I am aware of at least) for a &lt;em&gt;person&lt;/em&gt; who has this experience, but the concept is referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negativity_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;negativity bias&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Negativity bias is a general phenomenon, though certainly individuals can vary as to how strongly they are influenced by negative rather than positive events/information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-02-21T16:24:08.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21708" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21063" CreationDate="2019-02-21T22:15:30.680" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I tried to do the math and got stuck. I asked for &lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/2988734/erf-function-and-solving-for-two-unknowns&quot;&gt;help at math.se&lt;/a&gt; and didn't get any further. My thinking is that it is not possible to write down a nice simple answer even though it is two equations and two unknowns, since system is not linear. When faced with math I cannot do, sometimes it is easier to just bring out the MATLAB hammer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;function [HR, FAR] = findHRFAR(c, acc)&#xA;    ACC = @(HR, FAR)(HR+1-FAR)./2;&#xA;    C = @(HR, FAR)(norminv(HR)+norminv(FAR))./2;&#xA;&#xA;    HR = fminbnd(@(HR)temp(HR, c, acc), 0, 1);&#xA;    [SSE, FAR] = temp(HR, c, acc);&#xA;&#xA;    [HR, FAR, C(HR, FAR), ACC(HR, FAR), SSE]&#xA;&#xA;    function [SSE, FAR] = temp(HR, c, acc)&#xA;        [FAR, SSE] = fminbnd(@(FAR)((c-C(HR, FAR)).^2)+...&#xA;            ((acc-ACC(HR, FAR)).^2), 0, 1);&#xA;    end&#xA;end&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It runs pretty fast, but ... the nested bounded optimization is ugly, and there may be a more efficient way to find the answer. I also don't see any reason this could not be done in Octave, Python, or any similar type program of your choice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-02-21T22:15:30.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21709" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-22T05:16:34.320" Score="0" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;These days people talk about the concept of mindfulness and how it can be used to relieve stress and help people to feel calmer, not to mention all the meditation and breathing exercises that are also considered helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been thinking about the analogy of doing exercises to prevent physical health problems such as obesity, diabetes and heart disease, and was wondering if somehow creative activities can also be used to prevent the onset of mental health issues and conditions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that people talk about using art therapy to treat patients with mental health conditions, but I am interested in applying the idea in a preventative rather than remedial manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A search on Google Scholar failed to turn up much research relevant to preventative application of creative activities to improving mental health and well-being of general public. I am interested in trialling a program to try and work on preventative measures and would like to know if there are any references or literature that could help with developing such a program.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2959" LastEditorUserId="2959" LastEditDate="2019-02-22T12:45:12.593" LastActivityDate="2019-02-22T12:45:12.593" Title="How can creative activities be used to prevent the development of mental health conditions?" Tags="&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21710" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-22T17:52:15.293" Score="4" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;Scoring the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEO-PI-R&lt;/a&gt; test results, as done for example in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.testcentral.ro/media/neopir-f-en-75E86LIN.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this document&lt;/a&gt;, involves converting an absolute score to a t-score. However, the conversion from absolute score to t-score (as can be seen in the document above and many others) seems to be always linear, i.e. &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t=\alpha*raw+\beta$&lt;/span&gt; for some values of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\alpha,\beta$&lt;/span&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the t-scores are normally distributed, such a linear conversion only makes sense if the raw scores are also normally distributed (and not e.g. skew in either direction). In a limited sample that I took, I noticed that some of the facets are not normally distributed, in the sense that they have a significant amount of skewness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this not a flaw in the scoring system? Or is there a (psychological) reason why we should not worry about this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21627" LastEditorUserId="21627" LastEditDate="2019-02-22T18:38:05.310" LastActivityDate="2020-07-17T02:07:25.710" Title="Are the raw scores of the NEO-PI-R normally distributed?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21705" CreationDate="2019-02-22T18:09:22.607" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Finally! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a news article explaining the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arstechnica.com/science/2015/05/human-ai-echoborgs-make-chatbots-more-real-but-still-fail-turing-test/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Echoborg&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;The research was done in 2015 by Kevin Corti and Alex Gillespi at the London School of Economics and Political Science. Published at Frontiers of Psychology: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00634&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00634&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21619" LastActivityDate="2019-02-22T18:09:22.607" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21712" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-22T18:37:41.537" Score="4" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Revised NEO Personality Inventory&lt;/a&gt;, one of the questions used to score C1 (&quot;Competence&quot;), is &lt;code&gt;35. I don't take civic duties like voting very seriously.&lt;/code&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is civic duty part used to measure a person's Competence? I can see how it fits under the broader label conscientiousness (C), but I fail to see its relevance for (C1) Competence. I would have expected it to count towards (C3) Dutifulness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21627" LastActivityDate="2019-02-22T18:37:41.537" Title="Why are civic duties part of Competence (C1) in the NEO-PI-R" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21715" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21702" CreationDate="2019-02-22T23:29:17.063" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;As an active participant in Cross Validated/SE, I know the importance of a question having an answer -- even an answer that kicks the can down the road -- so that visitors to the site can see that a question is not as hopeless as a message in a bottle, but rather aspires to be a shout from a tenement window, where you know that someone, somewhere will shout back. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Call it an echo, but I'm shouting back at myself. In topical area, my question regards organizational behavior, but the spirit of my question is game theoretic, and I think the body of literature I am searching for is in game theory in organziations -- every over-achiever's favorite sport! To that end, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5414.2003.02460.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zhu and Weynant (2003)&lt;/a&gt;, looks promising . . . ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And while it is only tangentially relevant, I think I might prime the pump of other responders by citing the most famous &lt;em&gt;what-do-you-think-he-thinks?&lt;/em&gt; problem of all time: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.brainteaserbay.com/brain-teaser/the-room-with-two-doors/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Room with Two Doors&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[OK, that was a spoiler, but really you should seek your chuckles elsewhere. We're doing research here! ;)  ]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Zhu, K., &amp;amp; Weyant, J. P. (2003). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5414.2003.02460.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Strategic decisions of new technology adoption under asymmetric information: a game‐theoretic model.&lt;/a&gt; Decision sciences, 34(4), 643-675.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21614" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-02-23T10:09:45.120" LastActivityDate="2019-02-23T10:09:45.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21716" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-23T08:44:49.167" Score="4" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm always amazed when the exceptional mathematical skills of some autistic-savant people hit the news. My question is: can they outperform a computer in problems which we believe too hard for even a computer to solve?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course I haven't heard that any of them could. But I'm not sure if that's because they fundamentally can't or just no one bothered to ask them right questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example if I ask:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sir, can you tell me which two integer numbers I need to multiply to&#xA;  get this huge number?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;30885595542097078048530024995687899997024041750973847393477559897447391573878575270082706367139186728487020986897882643061865394945737579541836152606087611656762824124167456134969494253726435638776260179938318355412387553479545957502637298284851360234398784003069626709425392069487597686079260312041858526437519290451126677173785415389420329825181564012716675865830263098249948022195474980538298331998208615558178711421936619071576025836780179671597012185469978359221693046590783292027645460672357953215860301121762021294392026714148819989367905598842533973708083447918228276991009085148912935055442293643589623179239&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any chance they can ever come up with a correct answer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be a world sensation if they could as the number above is the RSA 2048 bit SSL public key modulus of a website. Which is currently believed to be secure enough (no computers can break it in reasonable amount of time). And integer factorization is a know hard problem and the entire RSA cryptosystem depend on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9479" LastEditorUserId="9479" LastEditDate="2019-02-23T10:44:13.957" LastActivityDate="2019-02-23T11:17:24.047" Title="Can autistic savants beat computers in known computationally hard problems?" Tags="&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21717" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21716" CreationDate="2019-02-23T11:12:05.870" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;People easily solve cognition, but number crunching isn't what the brain's optimized for. Current generation hardware easily beat any savant at numbers due to their optimization and clock speed.&#xA;Look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.bitcoin.it/wiki/Hash_per_second&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://bitcoin.stackexchange.com/questions/59607/current-hash-rate-required-for-one-block&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; on hashing. The brain simply can't beat these things (trivial?), let alone with harder problems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user21633" LastEditorDisplayName="user21633" LastEditDate="2019-02-23T11:17:24.047" LastActivityDate="2019-02-23T11:17:24.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21718" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-23T18:15:51.087" Score="2" ViewCount="231" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have EEG data with 5 columns (1 per each electrode) and I need to denoise it and extract features from it using Python. I tried to find relevant packages but my search kept leading me to MNE which takes as input data in a format that I don't have. My data is in a pandas dataframe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;my questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do you denoise such dataset? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do you do feature extraction for it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21634" LastEditorUserId="19214" LastEditDate="2019-02-24T04:27:22.710" LastActivityDate="2019-07-16T05:12:08.447" Title="How do you denoise and extract features from EEG data with Python?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21722" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-24T20:19:54.530" Score="-1" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As metals are good conductors of electricity and they can be charged by the electrical activity of thoughts, why can't human thoughts be stored in metals?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why thoughts cannot be stored in the form of charges in the metal?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21641" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-02-26T15:27:47.820" LastActivityDate="2019-02-26T15:27:47.820" Title="Why can't human thoughts be stored in metals?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21726" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21690" CreationDate="2019-02-25T11:08:19.163" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some subtleties to this question which you may or may not realize. There are (at least) two similarly sounding questions, but they are actually quite different questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does an individual's general cognitive abilities change throughout life?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does the rank-order of a population's cognitive abilities change throughout life? In other words, if we test a population at one time and then again at another time, will those who scored highly on the first test also be the ones who score highly on the second test and vice versa?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to the first is trivially yes. An individual's brain is more powerful and has learned more when they are 22, then when they are 4, say. There is also reduction in cognitive abilities when people become elderly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second question is more interesting. For this I would refer first to the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deary et al (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00031-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The stability of individual differences in mental ability from childhood to old age: Follow-up of the 1932 Scottish Mental Survey&lt;/a&gt;. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://homepages.abdn.ac.uk/j.crawford/pages/dept/pdfs/Intelligence_2000_Stability_IQ.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pdf here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They conclude that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The correlation between Moray House Test scores at age 11 and age 77 was 0.63, which adjusted to 0.73&lt;/strong&gt; when corrected for attenuation of ability range within the re-tested sample. This, the longest follow-up study of psychometric intelligence reported to date, shows that mental ability differences show substantial stability from childhood to late life. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the rank-order of abilities within a population probably correlates &gt;0.7 with its rank-order six and a half decades later (age 11 to age 77).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another interesting study, which is new and I don't believe is published yet, is the following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Grønkjær et al. &lt;a href=&quot;http://programme.exordo.com/isir2018/delegates/presentation/72/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Associations between education and age-related cognitive changes in a 41-year follow-up study&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this Danish longitudinal study, they have them first tested at mean age 20, then again 41 years later at mean age 61. They report finding:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The mean change in BPP test scores was -2.94 (SD 5.60) and a &lt;strong&gt;retest correlation of 0.81&lt;/strong&gt; between the baseline and follow-up BPP scores was observed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These correlations are not quite in the 0.9-1.0 range, and hence we're certainly not seeing perfect stability. On the other hand, I don't think I know any quantitatively measured psychological trait which shows a greater longitudinal stability (in terms of rank-ordering) than general cognitive ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19533" LastEditorUserId="19533" LastEditDate="2019-02-25T11:17:51.423" LastActivityDate="2019-02-25T11:17:51.423" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21728" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19974" CreationDate="2019-02-25T16:02:34.347" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This might not be an answer you're looking for, but getting 'rid of a problem' as in Turing machines, is impossible due to the undecidable nature of functional equivalence. ie: There is no general way to say if an arbitrary program (Human) would do something or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halting_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halting_problem&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user21633" LastActivityDate="2019-02-25T16:02:34.347" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21722" CreationDate="2019-02-26T10:07:05.173" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, you mention 'metals'. What is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;metal&lt;/a&gt;?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In common speech, a metal is a shiny material that conducts electricity and heat well.   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In physics, a metal is regarded as a substance capable of conducting electricity at zero Kelvin. Many elements and compounds become metallic under high pressures, for instance iodine. Reversely, the metal sodium becomes a nonmetal at a pressure of just under two million times atmospheric pressure.   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In chemistry, nearly all elements (around 95 of the 118 elements in the periodic table, dependent on the definition used) are metals.   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In astrophysics the term metal is even more broad, referring to all elements in a star that are heavier than hydrogen and helium. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming you refer to the colloquial term of metals, then well-conducting materials are in fact useless to store information. In electronical memory &lt;a href=&quot;https://depts.washington.edu/matseed/mse_resources/Webpage/semiconductor/semiconductor.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;semiconductors&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; are used, because memory elements, like nerve cells, need an 'on' and 'off' state at room temperature. Well-conducting metals conduct electricity always, so it's hard to switch them off. Reversely, insulators don't conduct currents, as you can't switch them on. Semiconductors are therefore used, which are inermediate conductors (source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=4527&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UCSB&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Silicon (Si) is a prime example of a semiconductor. According to the Chemistry definition, Silicon isn't a metal at all, it's a metalloid, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, an element somehwere in-between metals and non-metal (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_-_The_Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/07._Periodic_Properties_of_the_Elements/7.6%3A_Metals%2C_Nonmetals%2C_and_Metalloids&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chemistry LibreTexts&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-02-26T11:06:34.197" LastActivityDate="2019-02-26T11:06:34.197" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21732" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-26T15:05:16.477" Score="3" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does one measure perception of time? And has it changed over the last century? My gut feeling says that people in the 50s &amp;amp; 60s found time to be passing slower compared to people in the present generation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Time perception also changes as we grow older. For older people it seems to pass more quickly than for the young.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20396" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-02-28T18:10:09.627" LastActivityDate="2020-08-22T13:11:01.817" Title="Has the perception of time changed over the last century? (e.g. 1960's vs. now)" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21734" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9143" CreationDate="2019-02-26T19:03:25.573" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In your example, you are describing social stress. I think you are right that social stress is mainly driven by reflective processes. Also, social stress without reflective processes sounds quite implausible to me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, we should keep in mind that stress can come from various sources, some of which are non-social. For example, one common way to induce stress in psychological experiments is to use a physiological (as opposed to a psychosocial) stressor. In the classic cold pressor test, participants are instructed to put their hand into ice water. This starts a stress reaction, as measureable for example by increases in cortisol. I think it's pretty safe to say that reflective processes are not the driving factor here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a review on different methods to induce stress in the lab, see for example:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181831/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181831/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21640" LastActivityDate="2019-02-26T19:03:25.573" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21735" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21736" CreationDate="2019-02-26T21:37:56.830" Score="2" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been teaching 3D design for a while, and i have noticed that a small group has decidedly hard time coping with rotation of the virtual camera. Unfortunately designing in 3D on a screen requires you to do quite a lot of mental rotation.&#xA;Instead would like to setup a test to see if a VR setup would alleviate the problem on a individual level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now i am aware of &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/18902/mental-rotation-test-in-a-virtual-environment&quot;&gt;this near duplicate&lt;/a&gt;, that says men score better. But its not entirely fair in this case, as many of the problem cases are male. In either case i am looking for what improvement can get done on a personal level by optimizing the tools to the user, notwithstanding the general trend of the masses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do begin to designing the test for measurement of improvement?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21658" LastActivityDate="2019-02-27T14:01:19.973" Title="Measuring improvement in 3D tasks" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21736" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21735" CreationDate="2019-02-27T14:01:19.973" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;How do [I] design [a] test for measurement of [3D rotation] improvement?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way to start is to define what you wish to measure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What needs to be mentally rotated? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why does it need mental rotation? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What goal needs to be reached by the task?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are the tasks a matter of correct or incorrect, or is it a graded measure?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Only then can you start thinking about the question proper, namely how performance can be measured. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-02-27T14:01:19.973" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21740" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-02-28T19:15:42.390" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know about Dunning-Kruger... where to put it bluntly, one overestimates oneself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a definition/name, to further research and reference in discussions with my peers, for a bias, that defines the following behavior:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The person A has knowledge X in a field Y.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The person estimates a problem in the field Y as being of complexity Z.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Though, another person - B, in the field Y, having knowledge greater than X, sees Z as a much lesser problem or not a problem at all. &#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Implying that it's not worth solving, or that solution to a greater problem automatically solves the lesser one.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, given that person B estimation is unbiased, therefore &lt;em&gt;objective&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I'm a software engineer with fair amount of experience and I can freely speculate (make educated guesses) about problems/solutions in fields outside of my immediate proficiency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If, given the knowledge I have, I would estimate a problem in this outside field as generally/&lt;em&gt;objectively&lt;/em&gt; BIG where people actually inside the field would not. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is the condition called? (Assuming it's already defined)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This somehow might be related to Confirmation bias, but I do not commit to action, I abstain from it, because I see it as much too complex for me to tackle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21671" LastEditorUserId="21671" LastEditDate="2019-02-28T19:21:45.240" LastActivityDate="2019-02-28T19:48:07.120" Title="Name for a condition where one with their limited knowledge thinks of a problem as bigger than it really is?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21741" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21740" CreationDate="2019-02-28T19:48:07.120" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can't provide you with a direct term that you are looking for. However, I think the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;level of confidence&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; comes close.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My reasoning is as follows: &lt;strong&gt;Experience&lt;/strong&gt;/knowledge increases &lt;strong&gt;task proficiency&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(1999)50:5%3C399::AID-ASI3%3E3.0.CO;2-L&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kuhlthau, 1999)&lt;/a&gt;. Proficiency affects the level of &lt;strong&gt;confidence&lt;/strong&gt;. Confidence, in turn, affects the perceived &lt;strong&gt;task complexity&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S074756320400038X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Chang, 2005)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(1999)50:5%3C399::AID-ASI3%3E3.0.CO;2-L&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kuhlthau, &lt;em&gt;JASIST&lt;/em&gt; (1999); &lt;strong&gt;50&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 399-412&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S074756320400038X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chang, &lt;em&gt;Computers Human Behav&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 713-28&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-02-28T19:48:07.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21747" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-02T15:30:51.940" Score="-1" ViewCount="256" Body="&lt;p&gt;Something very bizarre is consciousness, it is our ability to virtually feel things such as emotions and ability to control our thoughts and physical movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can also imagine a non-conscious being who does everything as a result of an equation just like modern computers or plants, which exist but it doesn't know that it exists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Religious people might believe that a supernatural object called SOUL might reside in the body! which allows it to feel from the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or perhaps the SOUL is consciousness itself, if we have to define consciousness by some physical entity does it not mean that, our consciousness is fake, everything I will do in my life is the result of the cosmic equation that made everything possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If consciousness is a firing of some neurons in a loop, which is nothing but atoms, how do we feel alive........&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21684" LastActivityDate="2019-03-02T19:38:24.427" Title="What is the exact chemical reaction that gives consciousness?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2019-03-02T20:01:04.363" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21748" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21747" CreationDate="2019-03-02T19:11:31.993" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The primary issue is defining what you mean by &quot;conciousness&quot;. Even from reading your attempts to do so in your question, one can see that this is quite difficult: does it mean self-awareness? intelligence? a &quot;soul&quot;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is impossible to determine a &quot;chemical reaction for consciousness&quot;, because there is no agreed upon definition of &quot;consciousness&quot; and how to measure it, or for most of the other terms used to define it such as &quot;self-awareness&quot; or &quot;intelligence&quot;. It's impossible to study the chemistry of something when you can't even define what it is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We generally can't break down complex psychological processes into simple chemical equations anyway. Psychology is an interplay between bio-chemical/physical processes, shared environmental factors, unique individual life history, social/cultural dynamics, etc. Any form of &quot;conciousness&quot; evolves as a collective result of all of these, and is not something that lends itself to simple formal representations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21686" LastEditorUserId="21686" LastEditDate="2019-03-02T19:38:24.427" LastActivityDate="2019-03-02T19:38:24.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21752" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-03T18:47:30.130" Score="1" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;As an economist I'm interested in what shapes personality and Indeed whether or not personality/traits change over time. For example, does personality change when placed in a high pressure environment, let's say a demanding job. Or does a demanding job attract those with a certain personality. I would have thought it would be a combination of the two. I presume significant life events would shape personality to some degree. Furthermore, is personality something that's formed in childhood or is it more biological. Is our personality always evolving? I apologize if this seems trivial! Economists are not renowned for their knowledge of Psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19543" LastActivityDate="2019-03-07T00:15:38.480" Title="Stability of Personality and Formation" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21753" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21788" CreationDate="2019-03-03T19:08:35.950" Score="7" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;The NMDA receptor is an ion channel and contributes to synaptic plasticity and memory. It is said that calcium ion flux through the receptor is critical for this mechanism. However, there are other ion channels that let calcium ions into the cell, how come they don't contribute to synaptic plasticity (to my knowledge)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21691" LastEditorUserId="21691" LastEditDate="2019-03-04T17:52:13.723" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T23:48:29.907" Title="How can different ion channels of the same type have different cell responses?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21754" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-04T15:52:49.337" Score="2" ViewCount="528" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Z760XNy4VM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;YouTube video&lt;/a&gt; summarizing his experiment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Over a number of years, the ethologist John B. Calhoun conducted over-population experiments on Norway rats (in 1958–1962) and mice (in 1968–1972). His studies describe the collapse in behavior which resulted from overcrowding. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_sink&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_sink&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● Calhoun, J.B. (1962). Population density and social pathology. Scientific American, 206, 139—48.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13494" LastEditorUserId="13494" LastEditDate="2019-03-05T14:33:02.273" LastActivityDate="2019-03-05T14:33:02.273" Title="Has the John Calhoun's &quot;Mouse Utopia experiment&quot; been replicated? If so where, if no, why?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21755" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-04T16:40:57.857" Score="2" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have a Psychology degree but would like to pursue it. I'm interested in academic related work, teaching and research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any way I could make a career change without taking another Bachelor's degree?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21696" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-03-07T07:13:05.333" LastActivityDate="2019-03-07T07:13:05.333" Title="How to pursue a Psychology career in academia from non-Psychology background?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13044" CreationDate="2019-03-04T16:45:36.240" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;(This answer your question only partially).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Honesty and success are made of many things. Quite a bunch of studies found interesting correlations between honesty and success at the collective/cultural level. (They measure the success in term of wealth, trust, quality of the institution, rights, etc.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just a sample to give an idea:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● Edward C. Banfield (1958) shows some correlation between many aspects of honesty and success (he wrote a book about it &lt;em&gt;The Moral Basis of a Backward Society&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● Arrow (1972) &amp;amp; Fukuyama (1995) found that the level of trust in a society strongly predicts its economic success.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● Guido Enrico Tabellini (an Italian economist) find that &quot;there is not just one institutional failure. Typically, the countries or regions that fail in one dimension also fail in many other aspects of collective behavior.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● Inglehart (1990, 1997) analyses of a broader range of societies, and argue that cultural values fundamentally drive economic performance and democratic stability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● Landes, D. S. (1998)  &amp;amp; Rogers D. found that people's value shape their wealth (they wrote a book: &lt;em&gt;The wealth and poverty of nations: why some are so rich and some so poor&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt; (you'll find many others in the references of their studies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● Banfield, E. C. (1958). with the assistance of Laura Fasano Banfield. The moral basis of a backward society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● Arrow, K. J. (1972). Economic welfare and the allocation of resources for invention. In Readings in industrial economics (pp. 219-236). Palgrave, London.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● Porta, R. L., Lopez-De-Silane, F., Shleifer, A., &amp;amp; Vishny, R. W. (1996). Trust in large organizations (No. w5864). National Bureau of Economic Research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● Tabellini, G. (2008). Presidential Address: Institutions and Culture. Journal of the European Economic Association, 6(2/3), 255-294. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/40282643&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/40282643&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;● Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, economic, and political change in 43 societies. Princeton university press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13494" LastEditorUserId="13494" LastEditDate="2019-03-05T14:50:15.740" LastActivityDate="2019-03-05T14:50:15.740" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21757" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-04T17:47:48.927" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introduction:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm somehow fascinated by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thoughtco.com/the-invention-of-velcro-4066111&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Velcro invention story&lt;/a&gt; because, as far as I can guess, Velcro would hardly have been invented if someone was looking for an elegant solution of this kind in per-meditated, logical manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's assume we had the explicit task of discovering a method for connecting two fabric surfaces in a way that they would hold tight while fastened and would be extremely easy to unfasten:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a) sticking by the &quot;theoretical&quot; approach, my personal starting points of thinking would be glue, magnets, vacuum, knobs, etc;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;b) the approach of exploring existing solutions in the fabric field or analogical fields - the &quot;innovation transfer&quot; approach, so to say - would lead us to the Velcro solution sooner or later, just the way it has actually happened - the inventor had loaned an idea seen in nature. But we must note he had not been explicitly looking for this solution then.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What bothers me, is that the first approach, while looking quite exhaustive, scientific and reliable, would hardly bring up such abstract, non-evident solution as the Velcro. Pure logic and reasoning are usually stem from more or less familiar concepts. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we are to base our reasoning on some &quot;synthetic&quot; concepts (or so called &quot;constructs&quot;) - that is, concepts which have not been observed in reality, but are supposed to possibly exist - we would spend a huge amount of time and energy describing those constructs, that we would hardly be able to actually proceed to thinking how they would be applied to our problem. It might be something like trying to do a series of very complex mathematical calculations in your mind alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, I'm wondering, is there is any special theoretical problem-solving approach has the potential to bring solution of the Velcro type?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastActivityDate="2019-03-04T17:47:48.927" Title="Reaching biomimicry solutions through pure reasoning alone" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21760" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21755" CreationDate="2019-03-05T02:22:56.780" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychology is a very broad field. While some subfields require a license  (e.g., clinical psychology), a huge number of undergraduate fields can prepare you for &lt;em&gt;academic related work, teaching and research&lt;/em&gt;. I know individuals with Bachelors in Math, Physics, BME, EE, CS, MechE, Statistics, Neuroscience, Biology, Chemistry, Sociology, Speech and Hearing, Music, and Education who have either gone on to get a PhD in Psychology or a faculty position in a Psychology Department.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a former faculty member in a Psychology department with an engineering background, I cannot think of any major I would turn away out of hand for a PhD position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-03-05T02:22:56.780" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21761" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3248" CreationDate="2019-03-05T17:08:39.393" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Trying to calculate with a sequence of colours is not any easier than calculating with a sequence of digits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are alternative explanations for the high prevalence of synesthesia in mathematical savants. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://molecularautism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2040-2392-4-40&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Synesthesia is common in autism.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Synesthesia is associated with increases in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nn1906&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;white matter connectivity&lt;/a&gt; which might contribute to savant abilities.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Synesthesia is associated with more vivid mental imagery, which could be used to visualize the sequence of steps in a calculation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although there is an association between grapheme colour synesthesia and enhanced memory ability, this association is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763412000760&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;also present for stimuli which do not trigger synesthesia&lt;/a&gt;. Therefore we cannot conclude that associating digits with colours will increase the number of digits that can be manipulated in working memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, some savants have more elaborate forms of synesthesia in which a two or three digit number has its own associations instead of being a combination of the associations for its constituent digits. In this case it is possible for the associations to directly benefit arithmetical ability by acting as a chunking strategy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21384" LastActivityDate="2019-03-05T17:08:39.393" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21762" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-05T17:36:20.300" Score="2" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0333102410378050&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A survey by Khalil et al. (2011)&lt;/a&gt; found that any aura lateralisation can be followed by any headache lateralization, although there was a tendency for headaches to be on the opposite side of the head from their preceding auras which was trending towards significance. On a few occasions I myself have experienced migraines, which always consist of an approximately bilaterally symmetric scintillating scotoma followed by a unilateral headache.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How might cortical spreading depression in &lt;strong&gt;both&lt;/strong&gt; hemispheres of the visual cortex result in pain on &lt;strong&gt;only one side&lt;/strong&gt; of the head? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Khalil, N. M., Nicotra, A., &amp;amp; Wilkins, A. J. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0333102410378050&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Asymmetry of visual function in migraine with aura: correlation with lateralisation of headache and aura.&lt;/a&gt; Cephalalgia, 31(2), 213-221.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21384" LastEditorUserId="21384" LastEditDate="2019-03-06T14:32:52.277" LastActivityDate="2019-03-06T14:32:52.277" Title="Why don't migraine headaches and auras consistently have opposite lateralisation?" Tags="&lt;lateralization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21763" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-05T18:00:00.723" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does blood pressure increase during a deliberate period of focus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My reason for formulating this hypothesis is personal experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A simple example is when I work, sitting, at the PC. Let's say I work 25-45 minutes. When I am working my breathing becomes more shallow and it's always through my nose. Then, when I've completed the work I usually, automatically, take a deep breath ... as I physically feel relieved it's over even if it's work I enjoy. Then I notice I am a tiny bit &lt;strong&gt;lightheaded&lt;/strong&gt; and, as I feel relieved, and I don't particularly want to get up, I usually have a desire to surf the web.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I'm wondering if &lt;em&gt;concentration causes blood pressure to increase, which then quickly reduces when I'm done with my task&lt;/em&gt;, which is causing this feeling I am describing as &lt;em&gt;lightheadedness&lt;/em&gt;. Alternatively is the blood pressure change related to the reduced breathing as I focus? ... is there such a thing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19555" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-03-06T10:16:29.827" LastActivityDate="2019-03-06T10:17:17.857" Title="Does blood pressure increase during deliberate period of focus?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21764" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-05T20:52:57.600" Score="0" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the relationship between IQ and brain processing speed/power linear, logarithmic or other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example lets say you two groups:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Random group of 25 people each with an IQ close to a 100 IQ (95 - 105 ... 5% difference).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Random group of 25 people each with an IQ close to a 150 IQ (142.5 - 157.5 ... 5% difference).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The individuals in each group have to solve one or more problems ... enough time required such that the testing time isn't so small as to introduce significant measurement error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets say the problems are such that there is confidence all participants can solve them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we average the time to complete the task of the 100IQ group vs the 150IQ group, sans outliers, would that average time more likely be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Linear, 50% faster (150 = 100 x 1.5)&#xA;2) logarithmic, 217% faster (log 150; base 10) = 2.71)&#xA;3) Other&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19555" LastActivityDate="2019-03-05T20:52:57.600" Title="Is the relationship between IQ and brain processing speed/power? Is it linear, logarithmic or other?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7804" CreationDate="2019-03-05T21:29:07.933" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is better to say remember.  It is actually impossible to comply with &quot;don't forget&quot; because in the time between the request and the eventual time you do the thing you were not supposed to forget, you will have forgotten about it many times.  You cannot retain that one item in the conscious part of your brain for all that time.  As soon as you forget the first time, you will already have failed the task of &lt;em&gt;not forgetting&lt;/em&gt;.  What matters is that you eventually remember.  It doesn't matter if you forget and remember fifty times, you still complied with the request to remember.  But you have failed to comply with the do-not-forget request (about fifty times).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21703" LastActivityDate="2019-03-05T21:29:07.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21766" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-06T08:12:45.603" Score="3" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to get my head around what questions I can expect to have answered about brain activity that cannot be answered by doing two separate EEG and fMRI experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am aware that fMRI records the BOLD signal and EEG records a collective electrical response from pyramidal neurons; so even if the first one provides good spatial resolution across the whole brain and the second one provides good time resolution for the exposed parts of the cortex (gyri), the two recording methods do not seem to be very complementary/symmetrical, in other words they do not measure the same quantities/qualities of the brain activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am unsure to what is the actual benefit of using them in combination in an experiment although I acknowledge that combined EEG-fMRI can perhaps address certain questions in a within-subject analysis but this is still a bit vague.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0447-12.2012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper by Huster et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt; helpful but if anyone has more suggestions/directions, that would be much more than welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Huster, R. J., Debener, S., Eichele, T., &amp;amp; Herrmann, C. S. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0447-12.2012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Methods for simultaneous EEG-fMRI: an introductory review.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Neuroscience, 32(18), 6053-6060.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21701" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-03-06T10:40:10.343" LastActivityDate="2019-03-06T10:40:10.343" Title="What can combined EEG-fMRI tell us about the brain activity that two separate EEG and fMRI experiments cannot?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21768" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-06T16:21:55.267" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we dream, does the brain create an artificial time for the dreams to take place in? As time in dreams can feel off sometimes. Are is this not possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20712" LastActivityDate="2019-03-06T16:21:55.267" Title="Can the brain create it's own artificial time?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-03-06T17:29:34.303" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21769" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-06T19:47:39.497" Score="1" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a special term describing the situation when somebody automatically expects other people's behaviour to be motivated by the same values that motivate his own?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, out of my personal observations, dishonest people expect other people to be dishonest, as well. Dishonest people would never truly believe the behaviour of honest and loyal people around them. Much in the same manner, they would never truly abhor being cheated - to them that is something natural and while unpleasant, it is not necessarily evil - just like you would dislike bad weather, but you would not attribute the quality of evil to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="2574" LastEditDate="2019-03-07T13:53:05.877" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T23:34:23.237" Title="Uncsoncious expectation of other people to be motivated by the same values as you" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;projection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21771" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21752" CreationDate="2019-03-06T23:22:18.663" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually some if not all of your question can be answered fairly succinctly by quoting from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4152379/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a fairly recent meta analysis&lt;/a&gt; cited in the Wikipedia page on the topic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The longitudinal stability of personality is low in childhood but increases substantially into adulthood. Theoretical explanations for this trend differ in the emphasis placed on intrinsic maturation and socializing influences. To what extent does the increasing stability of personality result from the continuity and crystallization of genetically influenced individual differences, and to what extent does the increasing stability of life experiences explain increases in personality trait stability? Behavioral genetic studies, which decompose longitudinal stability into sources associated with genetic and environmental variation, can help to address this question. We aggregated effect sizes from 24 longitudinal behavioral genetic studies containing information on a total of 21,057 sibling pairs from 6 types that varied in terms of genetic relatedness and ranged in age from infancy to old age. A combination of linear and nonlinear meta-analytic regression models were used to evaluate age trends in levels of heritability and environmentality, stabilities of genetic and environmental effects, and the contributions of genetic and environmental effects to overall phenotypic stability. &lt;strong&gt;Both the genetic and environmental influences on personality increase in stability with age. The contribution of genetic effects to phenotypic stability is moderate in magnitude and relatively constant with age, in part because of small-to-moderate decreases in the heritability of personality over child development that offset increases in genetic stability. In contrast, the contribution of environmental effects to phenotypic stability increases from near zero in early childhood to moderate in adulthood. The life-span trend of increasing phenotypic stability, therefore, predominantly results from environmental mechanisms.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(emphasis mine) And since the abstract is somewhat devoid of figures... later in the article the contributions are quantified:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Heritability tends to be high and accounts for the large majority of variance in infancy. Heritability declines substantially in early childhood and somewhat more slowly thereafter, resulting in roughly 40% of variance in personality attributable to genetic influences throughout adulthood. Environmentality displays the opposite pattern. Corrected for measurement error, environmentality shows a similar upward trajectory with a peak of accounting for over 40% of variance in personality. [...]  By midlife, genetic and environmental effects were found to contribute almost equally to phenotypic stability. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That half-and-half figure may be somewhat easy to misinterpret though. That's because environment doesn't necessarily mean present environment, i.e. someone's personality may be substantially affected by past events that are not easy to &quot;undo&quot; (counter-effect). More &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26619304&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent research&lt;/a&gt; has put the combined figure of stable influences affecting personality (e.g. genes, past environment, considered as a whole) to 83%. That sounds fairly consistent with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25822032&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;voluntary attempts at changing one's personality having relatively small effect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-03-07T00:15:38.480" LastActivityDate="2019-03-07T00:15:38.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21772" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21774" CreationDate="2019-03-07T05:01:21.077" Score="3" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;We all know about these two ways of learning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rote learning (by mechanically repeating something to remember it).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learning by understanding (by understanding the logic behind something).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I strongly believe, that one more way of learning exists - learning &lt;strong&gt;by feeling&lt;/strong&gt;. But do we have a term or some explanation for this type of learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;you can learn the formula for least-count of device by:&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;repeating it to remember it whenever required;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;understanding it to derive it whenever required;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;by feeling it, i.e. using the device for some time, to enable us to put that formula in our subconscious mind;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;(better example)&lt;/em&gt; in chemistry, we can learn the effect of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$NO_2$&lt;/span&gt; on benzene, the following ways:&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;repeating it;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;understanding its chemical nature, its structure and then concluding the results;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;by seeing examples of its reactions and feeling that that is its behavior, to happen like this.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21714" LastEditorUserId="2574" LastEditDate="2019-03-08T08:31:10.817" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T08:31:10.817" Title="Is there a proper name of learning by experience (i.e. feeling something subconsciously)?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21774" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21772" CreationDate="2019-03-07T09:13:44.987" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe what you are looking for is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacit_knowledge&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tacit knowledge&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tacit knowledge is the kind of knowledge that is difficult to transfer to another person by means of writing it down or verbalizing it. For example, that London is in the United Kingdom is a piece of explicit knowledge that can be written down, transmitted, and understood by a recipient. However, the ability to speak a language, ride a bicycle, knead dough, play a musical instrument, or design and use complex equipment requires all sorts of knowledge that is not always known explicitly, even by expert practitioners, and which is difficult or impossible to explicitly transfer to other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;With tacit knowledge, people are not often aware of the knowledge they possess or how it can be valuable to others. Effective transfer of tacit knowledge generally requires extensive personal contact, regular interaction and trust. This kind of knowledge can only be revealed through practice in a particular context and transmitted through social networks. To some extent it is &quot;captured&quot; when the knowledge holder joins a network or a community of practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another word that may suit your description is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition#Modern_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intuition&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge without proof, evidence, or conscious reasoning, or without understanding how the knowledge was acquired. Different writers give the word &quot;intuition&quot; a great variety of different meanings, ranging from direct access to unconscious knowledge, unconscious cognition, inner sensing, inner insight to unconscious pattern-recognition and the ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Instinct is often misinterpreted as intuition and its reliability considered to be dependent on past knowledge and occurrences in a specific area. For example, someone who has had more experiences with children will tend to have a better instinct about what they should do in certain situations with them. This is not to say that one with a great amount of experience is always going to have an accurate intuition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-03-08T03:53:20.763" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T03:53:20.763" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21775" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21769" CreationDate="2019-03-07T10:28:59.550" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think two close concepts are that of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;naïve realism&quot;&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_consensus_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;false consensus effect&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic idea of naive realism is very simple. You believe your beliefs to be true! That seems a bit silly, but we can create a concrete example. Let's say you think President Trump is a great president. You have some reasons for believing it, and you have faith in your own cognitive abilities to judge evidence and come to logical conclusions. Therefore, if someone disagrees with your they must either have bad information or have different values (i.e. be bad people since most of us think of ourselves as good people). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The false consensus affect seems a bit closer to what you describe. That people (in this case, you) &quot;overestimate the extent to which their opinions, beliefs, preferences, values, and habits are normal and typical of those of others (i.e., that others also think the same way that they do)&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18785" LastActivityDate="2019-03-07T10:28:59.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21776" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-07T15:43:08.737" Score="2" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm conducting research where participants come into a lab and complete a study entirely on a computer (about 10-15 minutes). This means that informed consent, instructions, manipulations, and measures are all completed on the computer and there is very little experimenter-participant interaction. The studies are mostly reading some text and answering questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware that there are many methods of assessing whether participants are paying attention, but when I use these methods I often find a large share of participants who aren't paying attention. Instead of just having to exclude these participants, I'd like to prevent this in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What strategies do you use to make online studies more engaging and encourage participants to pay attention?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20875" LastEditorUserId="20875" LastEditDate="2019-03-09T18:02:30.003" LastActivityDate="2019-03-09T18:02:30.003" Title="How do you encourage participants to pay attention while completing online studies?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21777" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21780" CreationDate="2019-03-07T17:15:07.040" Score="1" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not a psychology major, so forgive me if I'm misusing terms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So on an exam, we had a question about signal detection, and it defined a conservative person as someone who &lt;strong&gt;always&lt;/strong&gt; tend to reply negatively (&quot;no&quot;-s), rather than agree (&quot;yes&quot;-s).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe that this isn't correct. Consider the TSA for example, they are extremely liberal in the sense that they would screen you even when they have minimal suspicions about you. However, the percentage of people they screen is still very low, because the probability of the signal itself is very low.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you know any source in literature that could point out why that is wrong? Or maybe could you come up with a counter-argument that would make sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21719" LastEditorUserId="21719" LastEditDate="2019-03-09T13:59:55.663" LastActivityDate="2019-03-09T13:59:55.663" Title="conservative vs liberal: not related to rate of yes vs no" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21779" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21783" CreationDate="2019-03-07T20:45:13.883" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard people in games mention that the game is programmed so that when you really need an item the game will not give it to you. You only get items that you don't currently need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is BS and it's peoples minds playing tricks on them. What is the term for this kind of trick playing your brain does? It must be related to the awareness you have of a particular item when you need it and the anxiety associated with the situation every time you don't get it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21721" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T07:02:09.453" Title="Term for &quot;That feeling that in a game you don't get items that you really need&quot;" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21780" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21777" CreationDate="2019-03-08T00:35:32.210" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I said in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/6302/two-different-values-for-criterion-in-signal-detection-theory/8177#8177&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;, for these types of questions I really like &lt;a href=&quot;http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P094AgAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PP5&amp;amp;lpg=PP5&amp;amp;dq=%22detection+theory+a+user%27s+guide%22+lawrence+erlbaum&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=bcpb0yLd9Z&amp;amp;sig=sdnEW6z6b3DCYh_4dcEd6nd9Qug&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ei=sG8QVLffC4vkapvEgtgL&amp;amp;ved=0CEUQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22detection%20theory%20a%20user%27s%20guide%22%20lawrence%20erlbaum&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Detection Theory: A User's Guide&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Macmillan and Creelman. They consider 3 types of bias (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c$&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$c'$&lt;/span&gt;, and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\beta$&lt;/span&gt;) that differ in how they behave when the index of sensitivity &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d'$&lt;/span&gt; changes, but all three of their definitions agree with your professor that a conservative observer always replies &lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt; more often than &lt;em&gt;yes&lt;/em&gt;, regardless of the probability of a &lt;em&gt;signal&lt;/em&gt; being present. All three definitions also lead to the conclusion that the &lt;em&gt;ideal&lt;/em&gt; (maximum likelihood) observer is biased when the probability of a &lt;em&gt;signal&lt;/em&gt; being present is not equal to 0.5 (with the standard Gaussian distributions with equal variance assumptions). While it may be uncomfortable to you that the &lt;em&gt;ideal&lt;/em&gt; observer is &lt;em&gt;biased&lt;/em&gt;, this happens all the time in estimation. That said, Macmillan and Creelman defined three different biases, there is no reason we cannot define a fourth that behaves as you want it to ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suggest starting with Macmillan and Creelman's definition of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\beta$&lt;/span&gt;. They define &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\beta$&lt;/span&gt; to be equal to &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(x|S_2)/p(x|S_1)$&lt;/span&gt; where &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(x|S_1)$&lt;/span&gt; is the probability of observing &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x$&lt;/span&gt; given stimulus &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$S_1$&lt;/span&gt;. Within their framework, an unbiased observer has a &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\beta$&lt;/span&gt; of one. If we define &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\beta'$&lt;/span&gt; to be &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(S_2|x)/p(S_1|x)$&lt;/span&gt; and an unbiased observer as having a &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\beta'$&lt;/span&gt; equal to 1, then the ideal observer is unbiased. That seems like a nice result. In the case where &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(S_1)$&lt;/span&gt; is equal to &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(S_2)$&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\beta$&lt;/span&gt; is equal to &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\beta'$&lt;/span&gt;, so that is good too. When &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(S_1)$&lt;/span&gt; is less than &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p(S_2)$&lt;/span&gt; a conservative observer could say &lt;em&gt;yes&lt;/em&gt; more than &lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt;, which I don't like, but that is the case when we force the ideal observer to be unbiased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2019-03-08T12:29:15.103" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T12:29:15.103" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21781" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-08T04:46:00.740" Score="5" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sorry if this sounds at all like pretentious armchair theorizing(it basically is), but I have a question which I can't really figure out how to search. So, given the resemblance of the cerebellum to the brain as a whole, is it possible that the growth of the brain beyond the cerebellum arose from a mutation forcing the growth of a second, &quot;extra&quot; cerebellum? Again, feel free to downvote this into oblivion if it's either obvious or stupid. Sorry again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21494" LastActivityDate="2019-03-09T16:24:51.900" Title="Cerebellum question" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21783" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21779" CreationDate="2019-03-08T07:02:09.453" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sounds like an example of the availability heuristic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Availability heuristic: The process whereby judgments of frequency or probability are based on how readily pertinent instances come to mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You're more likely to notice when you don't get your way, which makes that event stand out to you. That combined with how people tend to not notice how frequently things &lt;strong&gt;do&lt;/strong&gt; go our way because there isn't a negative emotion associated with that experience (I would assume) could make it seem like the game is rigged. Then again, I don't know anything about video game design so it could be part of how it is programmed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21723" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T07:02:09.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21784" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-08T10:31:09.437" Score="2" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Dunning-Kruger Effect is the peculiar phenomenon wherein those with the lowest ability also have impaired metacognition, resulting in a peculiar overestimation of their ability e.g. stupid person who thinks they're a genius. This is known as miscalibration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The figure below characterises the matter perfectly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VmGay.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VmGay.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kruger, J., &amp;amp; Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one’s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 77, 1121–1134. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, to my understanding the Dunning-Kruger Effect tracks onto a wide variety of domains, not just intelligence. For example, the above paper looked at humour, grammar and reasoning ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question: Is there any literature relating to the Dunning-Kruger Effect and reasonableness or &lt;em&gt;soundness of judgement?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, I want to know if the most unreasonable people will also believe that they are actually very reasonable? I note that this has nothing to do with reasoning ability, but I am sure that there is an element to it as well. It does not need to be the Dunning-Kruger Effect, but something similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-03-08T16:00:02.870" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T16:00:02.870" Title="Is there any evidence that the Dunning-Kruger Effect applies to self-appraisals of soundness or reasonableness of judgement?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21786" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21781" CreationDate="2019-03-08T20:28:10.033" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have a clear and definitive answer to give to you but first you should have a look about brain development (from:&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/education/k12/brain-function&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/education/k12/brain-function&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bTXyA.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bTXyA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And to the function associated to cerebellum:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4346664/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4346664/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5243918/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5243918/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the number of neurons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776484/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776484/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And maybe have a look about difference between species :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.suzanaherculanohouzel.com/comparative-neuroanatomy/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.suzanaherculanohouzel.com/comparative-neuroanatomy/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It appear that cerebellum have specific function interacting with the rest of the brain. It present size variations between species from different branch of evolution....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18311" LastEditorUserId="18311" LastEditDate="2019-03-08T20:34:16.220" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T20:34:16.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21788" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21753" CreationDate="2019-03-08T23:48:29.907" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quibbling about other types of LTP (not mediated by NDMA receptors) aside, this is a good question, with a rather intricate answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically (NDMAR mediated) LTP is not merely activated by calcium, but rather by CaMKII, which essentially acts a sort longer-term chemical memory for calcium that was once &amp;quot;detected&amp;quot; in a spine. A couple of points quoted from a fairly recent &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4050655/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;review paper&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;[a] bulk calcium signal, when produced by depolarization of voltage-dependent calcium channels, is not sufficient to activate CaMKII.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;a calcium signal will stay largely within the activated spine. The next step in the long-term potentiation cascade is the binding of calcium to the four binding sites on calmodulin. Calcium-saturated calmodulin keeps calcium bound for ~1 ms, a long enough time for calmodulin to diffuse within the spine and to bind CaMKII, but too short a period of time to diffuse out of the spine. [...] CaMKII diffuses at a very slow rate (for CaMKII to exit spines may take many minutes), activated CaMKII is mostly localized to the activated spine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So basically a fast signal (calcium) gets converted into a (spatially) slow but locally persistent CaMKII signal (via calmodulin). As I understand it, anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-08T23:48:29.907" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21789" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21690" CreationDate="2019-03-09T00:51:43.937" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Eff basically has a good answer, but more recent studies, such as one published in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3672949/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nature 2011&lt;/a&gt; have some additional data with respect to the observed variation over time not being just random measurement error but partially explainable through changes in the volume of some brain areas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the absence of neurological insult or degenerative conditions, IQ is usually expected to be stable across lifespan, as evidenced by the fact that IQ measurements taken at different points in an individual’s life tend to correlate well. Nevertheless, strong correlations over time disguise considerable individual variation: for example a correlation coefficient of .7 (which is not unusual with verbal IQ) still leaves over 50% of the variation unexplained. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The changes in brain structure that correlated with changes in IQ allow us to explain some of the variance in terms of brain development. Specifically, 66% of the variance in Time 2 V[erbal]IQ was accounted for by Time 1 VIQ, a further 20% was accounted for by the change in grey matter density in the left motor speech region, with the remaining 14% unaccounted for. Similarly, 35% of the variance in Time 2 P[erformance]IQ was accounted for by Time 1 PIQ, with 13% accounted for by the change in grey matter density in the anterior cerebellum, leaving 52% unaccounted for. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further studies are required to determine the generalisability of this finding: for example, is the same degree of plasticity present throughout life or are the adolescent years covered by this study special in this regard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I find interesting about this study is that they were able to explain a lot more of the change in verbal IQ than performance (and thus full scale) IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if you're looking at the stability of IQ raw scores (as opposed to rank order), early adulthood is when this happens [with respect to rest of life], so age of 5 is way to soon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/T0nTE.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/T0nTE.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4069230/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt;, so larger circles show greater data weight &amp;amp; precision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-09T01:16:00.753" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21790" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-09T07:26:21.610" Score="-1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the methodological differences between a ‘constructed’ and a ‘standardized’ psychological test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was a question asked in the exam. Kindly help me understand the key differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21732" LastActivityDate="2019-03-12T03:43:46.360" Title="What are the methodological differences between a ‘constructed’ and a ‘standardized’ psychological test?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21792" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-09T13:21:42.193" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm from india, there are more than 3 crore cases pending in different courts of India&#xA;which is nearly impossible to solve in a limited period of time.. unless we use robot instead of a person.&#xA;I know it doesn't make any sense but is that possible to create an artificial intelligence that can consider all the aspects of law and give justice to all cases as a human?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21735" LastActivityDate="2019-03-09T13:21:42.193" Title="Can we use artificial intelligence in law?" Tags="&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-03-14T10:15:27.590" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21793" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-09T14:15:41.660" Score="2" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_free_will&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this wikidepia article&lt;/a&gt; has a list of experiments and discussion around free will in neuroscience. One thing it notes is that there aren't studies focused on long term decision making in relation to free will.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that so? Are there any bodies of studies related to free will when it comes to longer time frames?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21736" LastActivityDate="2019-03-09T14:15:41.660" Title="free will studies in long term decisoin making" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;free-will&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-03-10T11:46:04.770" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21794" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21781" CreationDate="2019-03-09T16:24:51.900" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hagfish, the most primitive vertebrates, do not appear to have a cerebellum, or if they do have one it is very primitive. Hagfish have most of the other structures found in vertebrate brains (including the telencephalon), so it is likely that the cerebellum actually evolved after the other five main brain regions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is possible that the dorsal cochlear nucleus, a region on the dorso-lateral surface of the mammalian brainstem, started out as an 'extra cerebellum'. Some fish and amphibians also have 'cerebellum like structures', such as the dorsal octavolateral nucleus. However, the cerebrum almost certainly did not evolve from the cerebellum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21384" LastActivityDate="2019-03-09T16:24:51.900" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21795" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-09T19:19:17.773" Score="3" ViewCount="219" Body="&lt;p&gt;Studies have shown significant reduction in seizures in babies to adults when taking marijuana. I would call that amazing but what does it do in improving cognitive abilities in normal people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anecdotal reports across the internet claim that marijuana consumption can aid in creative thinking. Why is that? Is it the Cannabidiol (CBD) a phytocannabinoid (bought over the counter where I live) or the Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) a cannabinoid (which is still a misdemeanor) that contributes to creativity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How can I do a controlled experiment or test to determine which chemical is giving me a mental advantage in creative thinking?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17827" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-12-29T08:33:15.660" LastActivityDate="2020-12-29T08:33:15.660" Title="How to test whether THC or CBD gives a mental boost?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21796" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21795" CreationDate="2019-03-09T19:43:06.190" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The only study I'm aware of is the following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cannabis increased verbal fluency in low creatives to the same level as that of high creatives. Cannabis increased state psychosis-like symptoms in both groups and the high creativity group were significantly higher in trait schizotypy, but this does not appear to be linked to the verbal fluency change. Acute cannabis use increases divergent thinking as indexed by verbal fluency in low creatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding whether THC or CBD causes an increase in creativity the authors note that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A few studies have attempted to objectively investigate whether cannabis increases creativity. Cannabis users produced more original (i.e. statistically infrequent) responses on an associative ability test when intoxicated with the drug compared to users given placebo (Block, Farinpour, &amp;amp; Braverman, 1992). Similarly, verbal fluency was significantly and dose-dependently improved by THC (the active ingredient in cannabis) compared with placebo in healthy volunteers given all treatments (Curran, Brignell, Fletcher, Middleton, &amp;amp; Henry, 2002). In contrast, Tinklenberg, Darley, Roth, Pferbhaum, and Koppel (1978) found that cannabis did not enhance scores in uniqueness, fluency, flexibility or elaboration during an object description task, considered to be a measure of creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810011002856&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schafer et al. 2012: Investigating the interaction between schizotypy, divergent thinking and cannabis use&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastEditorUserId="7672" LastEditDate="2019-03-09T19:50:50.467" LastActivityDate="2019-03-09T19:50:50.467" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21797" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-09T22:45:20.920" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Erich Fromm in his &lt;em&gt;The Sane Society&lt;/em&gt; (1955) argued that mental health should not be defined merely in terms of the person's harmony with his/her society. He believed that a society, as a whole, could be mentally ill. He said that all humans share a common human nature, with which some cultures are not in accordance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe that's the cause of the collapse of some civilizations in the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One big problem here is the complexity of human brain and human life which make predictions difficult. For example, in the 60s and the 70s a sexual revolution occurred in western countries. Psychologists today consider some sexual behaviors normal/healthy which were traditionally discouraged. But in comparison with the age of human civilization on earth, these changes in norms are very recent experiments, about the results of which we may not be able to be sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can see the same problem in economics, which is, in some sense, based on psychology. As an example, since the 80s neoliberalism has been the predominant economic theory in western countries, but now some big names in economics state that it is a failed experiment, causing many problems like deep inequality and the rise of populism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19429" LastEditorUserId="19429" LastEditDate="2019-03-09T23:04:22.727" LastActivityDate="2019-03-12T03:58:59.157" Title="How can psychologists define 'mental health' when we know quite little about complexities of human life?" Tags="&lt;sociology&gt;&lt;norms&gt;&lt;definition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2019-03-12T18:17:50.257" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21798" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-10T01:27:39.060" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm using the self-assessment manikin to measure valence, arousal and dominance. Valence and arousal is clear to all participants but with the concept of dominance a lot of participants are struggling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm explaining dominance in term of degree of control, i.e. on one side of the scale the participant is feeling completely controlled and influenced and on the other side  completely controlling and dominant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The participants have to chat with a chat application on a smartphone. Can somebody imagine a chat conversation where the participant is feeling dominant and one where the participant is not feeling dominant at all? I would like to give two such examples to the participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, is the term dominance in relation to an emotion or to an object? For example, during chatting is dominance always in relation to the person the participant is chatting with, i.e. how dominant the participant is feeling in relation to this person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8353" LastEditorUserId="8353" LastEditDate="2019-03-14T13:38:45.417" LastActivityDate="2019-03-14T13:38:45.417" Title="Definition of dominance (self-assessment manikin)" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;hci&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21800" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21805" CreationDate="2019-03-09T17:46:38.857" Score="4" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given the prevalence of negativity and sensationalism in the news, I suspect individuals are also varyingly susceptible to (worsening) mental health issues arising from prolonged exposure. Perhaps as reports of distant events accumulate as an overall negative impression of the person's environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research clearly shows that both nature and nurture play important roles in the genesis of psychopathology. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/William_Stone6/publication/7148280_Gene-environment_interactions_in_mental_disorders/links/02e7e5297ed2e0f607000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tsuang, et al. 2004&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any studies at all investigating the significance of news as part of that environment as a cause of mental disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tsuang, M. T., Bar, J. L., Stone, W. S., &amp;amp; Faraone, S. V. (2004). Gene-environment interactions in mental disorders. World Psychiatry, 3(2), 73.  pmcid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1414673&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1414673&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8588" OwnerDisplayName="CL22" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-11T14:25:30.117" Title="Link between reading news and deteriorating mental health?" Tags="&lt;environmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21801" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-10T19:35:47.550" Score="1" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose a person has a strong negative belief that whatever happens to his life is going to cause him a big turmoil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then this person interprets all events from the view of this belief. The result is a person who's constantly panic-stricken. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The next time some life event occurs in this person's life, and he/she automatically jumps to negative conclusions due to this belief, then what questions could I ask him so as to help him see that an event isn't as critical as he thinks it is?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3841" LastActivityDate="2019-03-10T19:35:47.550" Title="What questions can I ask someone to help them overcome the negative belief &quot;whatever happens to me is going to be a big turmoil&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2019-03-14T10:14:01.500" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21802" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-10T20:34:06.147" Score="2" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to use the &lt;a href=&quot;https://discovermyprofile.com/miniIPIP/introduction.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;20-item Mini-IPIP&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/MiniIPIPKey.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Donellan et al., 2006&lt;/a&gt;) in a study. The scoring key &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/MiniIPIPKey.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; suggests that I should:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Score each question from 1 to 5 (integers only)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Make sure to reverse the scoring for the - keyed questions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Add up the scores to get a score out of 20 in each category.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I convert this to a score out of 100 for each? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can't be as simple as multiplying by 5, since the linked website (where you can take the test) presents scores like 92%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find the scoring key in the original 2006 paper (this could be my idiocy) so I came here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21743" LastActivityDate="2019-03-10T20:34:06.147" Title="How to score 20 item Mini-IPIP?" Tags="&lt;ipip&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21804" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-11T10:48:25.613" Score="-1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am writing my thesis on how environmental psychology has influenced architecture and i am focusing on colour. I am looking for buildings that have been designed based on how colour affects the human psychology and physiology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21745" LastActivityDate="2021-03-31T09:02:10.247" Title="Are there contemporary buildings that have been designed based on colour psychology?" Tags="&lt;color&gt;&lt;environmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21805" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21800" CreationDate="2019-03-11T14:25:30.117" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was a talk on this topic at the 2019 Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP) conference. I haven't been able to find a published paper based on the study they presented, but the authors generally concluded that political engagement can be associated with significant mental, emotional, and social health costs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, Kevin; Hibbing, John; Hibbing, Matthew (2019). Friends, Relatives, Sanity and Health: The Psychological Costs of Politics. Presented at the annual conference of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP). Portland, OR.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Description&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using a nationally representative sample this study investigates the impact of political engagement on the psychological health of the American electorate. Results suggest that among large numbers of Americans politics is linked to stress, depression, various compulsive behaviors and even thoughts of suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20875" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-11T14:25:30.117" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21804" CreationDate="2019-03-12T03:36:07.523" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Restaurants such as Mc Donalds and In N Out use the red/ yellow color scheme as it is proven to induce hunger. Subway stations were fitted with blue lights in an effort to reduce suicides occurring within them and for reasons still undecided- it worked. I learned this from my ap psychology class recently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21750" LastActivityDate="2019-03-12T03:36:07.523" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21809" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21790" CreationDate="2019-03-12T03:43:46.360" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A standardized test is one that is given in a consistent manner and yields the same, valid, results each time. Students are administered the test in the same environment and given the same amount of time. A constructed test would then be the opposite; takers are given different amounts of time, administered the test in different environments and evaluated differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21750" LastActivityDate="2019-03-12T03:43:46.360" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21810" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21797" CreationDate="2019-03-12T03:58:59.157" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although you are correct in thinking, mental health is not defined merely by what others feel, it is a lot more personal. If I am understanding your question correctly, you believe that mental health is based on predictions. While predictions are necessary for defining a lesser known disorder, ones such as major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder are quite common and have been so for long enough that diagnosing them is relatively easy. In addition, it can be widely agreed upon that behavior such as suicide and self-harm are abnormal. A persistent change in mood is another indicator of a cognitive error. Lastly, hallucinations and delusions are also clearly indicative of an underlying problem. All of these symptoms must be present without the use of drugs, obviously. Any other behavior or thought pattern that interferes with daily life and/or is societally unacceptable should be a reason for alarm. These symptoms are clear and require no similar cases to diagnose an &quot;issue with mental health&quot; Aside from common, well-known disorders, evidence of other cases must be present in order to label such as a specific disorder. What I cannot prove are the disorders that are few and far between, and seem highly implausible. Regardless, if one seems &quot;different&quot; for an extended period of time and does not seem to be improving, it would be wise to seek help. Hope this makes sense, it was a fun question to answer;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21750" LastActivityDate="2019-03-12T03:58:59.157" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21811" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-12T08:02:55.500" Score="0" ViewCount="240" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Please note:&lt;/strong&gt; I do not hold a degree. This system is based on experience and self-testing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I developed a self-regulation system that allows for the manipulation of sensations where they occur in the body. I'd love to get my idea out into the public, but was cautioned against potential liability. As such I am wondering whether this system has any scientific merit. Secondly, if the idea has merit, where do I start?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Overview&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This system has two main applications: the immediate self-regulation of emotions, and the self-regulation of other bodily sensations, such as pain and other discomforts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Emotions&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We start with the assumption that the brain monitors the body for physiological changes (emotion), and then maps those changes to a specific emotion-related feeling, as noted by neurologist Antonio Damasio in this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/feeling-our-emotions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scientific American article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we can call a specific set of physiological changes that form an emotion an emotional ‘profile’, then the system is used to interrupt one or more physiological features of the profile. This causes the profile to collapse and the emotion-related feeling to dissipate with immediate effect. It is achieved using techniques (e.g. a body-internal micro action) inherent to the system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience this system does not rely on reasoning or any form of rationale, nor breathing techniques or meditation. It is non-intrusive and less susceptible to self-sabotage since the techniques are largely functional / mechanical in nature. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A further benefit of this system is that it allows for the generation of a general sense of positivity as well as specific positive emotions without requiring any specific internal or external stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Applications&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I’ve used this system for the past five years to self-regulate emotions. These include run of the mill emotions, such as anger, despondency, sadness, and fear. It has also been used to successfully alleviate / eliminate the physiological features of stress, depression and anxiety. In all instances results are instantaneous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Health&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One accidental discovery associated with this system is its health applications. One aspect of the system is a functional or ‘mechanised’ positivity that can be applied anywhere in the body. When applied to pain or other bodily discomforts, the discomforts tend to lessen in intensity, or immediately vanish. I suspect that it also actively promotes the body’s natural healing ability where it is applied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Applications&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have successfully used this system to address the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Random aches and pains &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inflammation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wounds&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Flu symptoms&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Suspected nerve damage (Morton’s neuroma / metatarsalgia)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Rotator cuff damage&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pulled muscles&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stomach ailments&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be noted that results in this instance range from immediate to the morning following application. Multiple applications are required with the more serious anomalies, however with marked improvement following each application.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have also tested this system by allowing an anomaly to progress without any interference – specifically, instances of suspected nerve damage and inflammation. In most cases the discomfort only increased. A sudden application of the functional positivity resulted in alleviated discomfort and a U-turn towards healing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21752" LastEditorUserId="21752" LastEditDate="2019-03-12T14:50:23.517" LastActivityDate="2019-03-12T23:06:54.967" Title="I have developed a self-regulation system that allows change at the physiological level. Does it have any merit?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21812" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-12T16:04:13.347" Score="2" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;I come from a Computer Science and professional User Experience (UX) Design background and I'll soon be starting an MSc conversion course in Psychology. My interest is to understand human behaviour and principles of psychological research so that I can apply them in the context of UX, particularly when it comes to people with disabilities and accessibility in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What definitive resources on this topic and more specifically on dementia and memory loss in adults through childhood trauma should I be aware of? And why those ones?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21744" LastEditorUserId="21744" LastEditDate="2019-05-28T22:08:15.530" LastActivityDate="2019-05-28T22:08:15.530" Title="How to prepare when entering the field of Psychology from a professional UX background?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;hci&gt;&lt;aging&gt;&lt;alzheimer&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21814" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21811" CreationDate="2019-03-12T23:06:54.967" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not going to answer the question I think you want answered: whether your system has merit. Instead, I'm going to answer a related question that I think you actually need answered: How do you determine if a therapeutic approach is effective?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ultimately, this sort of question can only be answered with a clinical trial&lt;/strong&gt;. In a clinical trial, your approach will be tested against other approaches or placebo approaches to look for differences in outcomes. In order to do a clinical trial, you need to get the permission of an appropriate regulatory body in order to enroll subjects and continue. &lt;strong&gt;Doing anything else is unethical.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to get this permission, you need some credibility in the field. For this sort of project, that would probably start with either having some sort of degree or certification as a clinical psychologist or therapist, or recruiting people with those credentials to help you with your study. &lt;em&gt;If you don't think your idea is worth this effort, your idea is not worthwhile.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the way to getting this education, you will learn about existing strategies that are used, which will help you to refine and consider your own terminology. Maybe you think you've invented something new but find that it already exists under a term you didn't know. Maybe you find someone else has already studied something similar and found no effect. Maybe you find that your idea is really a novel improvement to something already used in practice. Learning these things will help you to frame your idea. &lt;em&gt;If you don't think your idea is worth this effort, your idea is not worthwhile.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to go in more depth along this way of thinking, the next step would be a research degree, most likely a PhD. The training for a PhD will teach you how to approach these ideas scientifically, to look through the literature, and just generally to go deeper into a topic than you would in a clinical position. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that there are many many many people that go down this path and put a lot of effort into their work: there aren't really any easy answers left. It's a lot of work to find positive results. You probably won't start researching your own ideas, but rather expanding incrementally on the work of others. At that point, you will have enough credibility and background knowledge to test new hypotheses. You might find that your original thinking makes no sense. You might find new motivations by reading about other peoples' work (and 'standing on the shoulders of giants'). &lt;em&gt;If you don't think your idea is worth this effort, your idea is not worthwhile.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-03-12T23:06:54.967" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21816" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21819" CreationDate="2019-03-13T15:40:24.907" Score="1" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a measurement to correlate &quot;spirituality&quot; (how religious one is) to susceptibility to false memories? What papers or keywords should we look for? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21766" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-03-14T06:03:18.313" LastActivityDate="2019-03-15T15:01:32.433" Title="How to measure the correlation between &quot;spirituality&quot; and the susceptibility to false memories?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21818" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21455" CreationDate="2019-03-13T19:18:16.907" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Children have high pitched voices relative to adults because their vocal folds are shorter and physics demands that short vocal folds result in higher pitches. The format frequencies of children are also higher than adults due to shorter vocal tract lengths. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think your question is, is there a speech communication reason for the vocal folds and vocal tract of children to be shorter than adults to which I would argue that it is unlikely. While it is possible to be grown with adult sized features (e.g., the inner ear and the middle ear ossicles), generally babies are smaller than adults. There would need to be a strong evolutionary advantage to being born with a really long vocal tract. Second, from what I can piece together, (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://dysphagiacafe.com/2015/09/03/newborn-and-early-mouth-throat-development-feeding-swallowing/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;) a shorter vocal tract is desirable for suckling. Therefore I would conclude that evolutionary speaking babies have shorter vocal tracts because they are smaller than adults and if the vocal tract was longer it would make it harder to feed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-03-13T19:18:16.907" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21819" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21816" CreationDate="2019-03-14T00:45:17.280" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe what you are looking for is the field &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive science of religion&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cognitive science of religion is the study of religious thought and behavior from the perspective of the cognitive and evolutionary sciences. The field employs methods and theories from a very broad range of disciplines, including: cognitive psychology, evolutionary psychology, cognitive anthropology, artificial intelligence, neurotheology, developmental psychology, and archaeology. Scholars in this field seek to explain how human minds acquire, generate, and transmit religious thoughts, practices, and schemas by means of ordinary cognitive capacities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Follow up resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iacsr.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Association for the Cognitive Science of Religion (IACSR)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.equinoxpub.com/index.php/JCSR&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Journal for the Cognitive Science of Religion&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-03-15T15:01:32.433" LastActivityDate="2019-03-15T15:01:32.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21821" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-14T20:09:04.477" Score="2" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly my apologies if this isn't the correct se sight to ask this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Background&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had a psychology professor some years ago (now that I think of it probably more like &lt;em&gt;many&lt;/em&gt; years ago...) who proclaimed that a lot of the problems individuals experience in their relationships will be (we'll say persistent but it may not be the best terminology(?)) persistent across most of their relationships.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His actual quote was &quot;You'll find that whatever issues you're having in your relationships now, you'll find persist across all your relationships, despite your partner, so do your best to make the one you have work&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several years after him saying this, I started to notice this in my relationships, that no matter the person, we would always end up having some form of issues I had with relationship partner n-1. But probably this would be best if I left myself out of this and spoke more generally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] I am curious if there is any validity to my professors statement, I currently only have two data points in my sample space (my professor and myself). I do understand the notion that individuals to in fact bring baggage to relationships that will cause said issues, and I'm not sure how to reconcile this without bringing myself into said question which is what I'd like to avoid so not to come off in the wrong way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Previous Research&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have tried &lt;strike&gt;googling&lt;/strike&gt;duck duck go'ing to not much avail, My searches have been &lt;em&gt;problems persisting throughout relationships&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;relationship patterns&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;relationship cognition&lt;/em&gt; but I didn't really find much pertaining to the question at hand. Also I'm not sure if it is in any way related, but when studying at university I did a decent amount of research into &lt;em&gt;mathematical dynamics of relationships&lt;/em&gt; similar to &lt;a href=&quot;http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/pubs/paper277.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/pubs/paper277.pdf&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; It may be possible I didn't present the question in an intelligble way. So along with [1], based on my own experiences and the testimony of said professor coupled with the research I did into the dynamics of relationships, it would seem that outside of initial attraction, the &quot;who&quot; of the relationship doesn't really  matter so much. Meaning that most relationships work not because of some fundamental fact of nature, but more because each individual understands that the problems are an amalgamation of themselves and manifest in some form or another in all their relationships. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please feel free to ask for clarification if need be, it would seem our &quot;in house translator&quot; may have oversold his skills :shrug: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20979" LastEditorUserId="20979" LastEditDate="2019-03-15T09:16:22.753" LastActivityDate="2019-04-16T13:03:05.630" Title="Persistent problems among relationsips" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21824" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-15T12:51:40.330" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was not really sure which stack exchange to post this question, however, this one suits well I am guessing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So assuming that the brain is just a carbon-based input/output calculator, and assuming most of the signals and connections between the nerves are deterministic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Every outgoing action(output) of someone is determined via the ingoing actions (inputs) with some kind of connection/calculation done by the brain. So if this hypothesis is true, How can someone prove or argue of the existence of the free will?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Isn't it possible if we determine every aspect of the input signal, and if we know what the brain does with this input (via some computer model, or something with same manner), can't we foresee what that person is about to do or act versus the input action?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the statement above is true and is proved, can't we say the concept of free will is dead? and can't we read minds?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for any kind (technical or hypothetical) of an answer to disprove the idea written above. Ty&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21778" LastActivityDate="2019-03-15T12:51:40.330" Title="Concept of Free Will" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;free-will&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-03-15T17:07:54.110" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21827" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11070" CreationDate="2019-03-15T23:00:37.030" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dr Graves' research relates to human developmental psychology, not 'all living things'. In his book Integral Psychology (2000) Ken Wilber cross references multiple bodies of work, including eastern philosophy and western psychology. Wilber mentions a number of other researchers whose work correlates with Graves' findings, including Paiget, Fowler, Kegan, Cook-Greuter to name a few. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Three key findings from Graves' work are:&#xA;1. The responsive nature of human consciousness to the complexity of life conditions.&#xA;2. The trajectory of and the human experience of change between the stages.&#xA;3. The open-ended, staged developmental sequence with alternating themes of self-expression and self-sacrifice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find my interpretation of Graves' model at my website &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eman8.net&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.eman8.net&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21783" LastActivityDate="2019-03-15T23:00:37.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21829" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-16T09:43:52.960" Score="0" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;Describing the limitations of my study surrounding the modeling of domestic hot water storage tanks, I want to find a precise term to describe realistic user behavior, which was disregarded in my simulation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such behavior would include, e.g., &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;interrupting/postponing the draw-off during bathing once the temperature falls below a certain limit&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;increasing the temperature setting preceding unusually high hot water consumption&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could I refer to this behavior as &quot;game-theoretical effects&quot;, or is there another, more fitting, scientific term?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21785" LastActivityDate="2019-03-16T12:11:00.893" Title="Correct term for realistic user behaviour and decision making" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21830" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21829" CreationDate="2019-03-16T12:11:00.893" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Science in general refers to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_validity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ecological validity&lt;/a&gt; as the degree to which materials and settings in a study approximate the real world that is being examined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, such limitations could be referred to as limitations to ecological validity. Often, such limitations are inherent to running an experimental study, as opposed to studying the real world. Whether or not this is a risk to the overall validity of your study depends on what conclusions you intend to draw from the results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2019-03-16T12:11:00.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21831" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-16T18:36:50.917" Score="3" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know how to correct a p value of a stiatistic when the same test was run over multiple regions of interest. The modality is MEG. &#xA;So, I have 4 Regions Of Interests, and I ran the same cluster-based permutation test on the averaged timecourse of each ROI. I got more than 10 clusters, each with p &amp;lt; 0.05, but how can I get the corrected p value considering there was more than one region? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help will be much appreciated. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21789" LastActivityDate="2019-09-07T20:02:00.277" Title="correction for multiple comparison over many ROIs" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;meg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21832" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21821" CreationDate="2019-03-17T12:49:36.380" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychology in my opinion is (just like any other science) a science based on loads of observations, which have eventually been formed to create some framework or model that seems to fit real life, but still always evolving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Loads of very observant people had loads of overlapping and non overlapping observations, and opinions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is absolutely no one to tell, if what we think is going on &quot;in someone&quot;, is really what is going on.&#xA;Observations and our instinct are all there is to create the model, that makes us think that we understand the &quot;problems&quot; more. (they are not problems)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could take any famous characters of psychology (e.g.. Sigmund Freud), who has surely contributed a lot to science, so we think we understand more how our psyche works, but for sure no one will ever know.&#xA;All we know is the model we apply to understand people, seem to work for a mass of people, but it will never work for everyone every-time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe it is false to say that:&#xA;&quot;You'll find that whatever &lt;strong&gt;issues&lt;/strong&gt; you're having in your relationships now, you'll find persist across all your relationships, despite your partner, so do your best to make the one you have work&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People are all sorts.&#xA;People change by self observation, and change even more by observing others.&#xA;If they ever notice despite how different we are, how much the &quot;same&quot; we all are at the same time. If they ever notice, that our &quot;so unique&quot; ways of behaving and living life have such a strong template like nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people will surely suffer from what the above statement says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some will not, because the more intelligent and openhearted someone becomes with time, the more wisdom it will develop inside.&#xA;The more wise someone becomes, the more it will understand about him or herself, the more it will accept him or herself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is all that matters, not to go against of who we are.&#xA;We do that by slowly learning what the &quot;Baggage&quot; means in our case (this time around, in this life of ours).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From that era in ones life, life can be like anything, even very different from what it has been before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When one comes to embrace the true self, how ever (f..d up) it may have seemed before (when we still thought the &quot;Baggage&quot; was part of the definition of the self),&#xA;that &quot;newborn&quot; will have a different presence, it will attract a very different audience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That &quot;new shape&quot; of attraction is what will define our later relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to say that:&#xA;&quot;I am curious if there is any validity to my professors statement...&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure you'll ever truly find any validity... it is surely valid from your professors point of view, but does it have to be valid from your point of view???&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You surely cannot expect someone else to tell you whether your professors opinion should be your opinion too?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Few lines above I was saying the opposite of your professors opinion, because that is what I think of life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both yours professors and my contributions (and even Sigmund Freud's), are at the and of the day just opinions, based on how we individually perceive life (including others').&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only thing that matters is how YOU perceive life, and perceiving others living their life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If your perception of life (relationships, ....) is not good enough according to someone at University, or wherever you get in life, that is not your problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Referring to your relationships, that is all there is to you first hand, so how could you not look at life generally through those experiences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(again this is my opinion)&#xA;If you are curious enough to keep digging and thinking about what recurring problems you have had in any of your relationships, then once you may compile a short list of these things.&#xA;You may find, that no matter how many types of conflicts, misalignment you have ever had&#xA;with your partners, they will always be about 1 or 2 MAJOR things in life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any of the conflicts, or what ever you don't like about others or yourself, you'll be able to break down into very basic personal feature of YOURS. The &quot;problem&quot; (it is not really a problem, rather cause in you) is usually so simple you don't even suspect it to cause certain things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All those problems will come down to 1 or 2 of basic things, like low self-esteem is one of the most common one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am sure it is obvious to you, that whatever it is, it is part of your &quot;Baggage&quot;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact that you are still experiencing those recurring problems means you haven't adequately figured out your baggage, and THERE IS NOTHING WRONG WITH THAT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Life is giving these opportunities and time to you to find the answer, and then once you know what it is, to make friends with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The rest of your life is still ahead of you to achieve that, it may or may not take that long.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the end of the day, I believe we are here on Planet Earth to watch the &quot;show&quot;.&#xA;Whenever we see something we need to react to, we do so, because it is in our nature, whether we want to react or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We cannot &quot;screw up&quot;... we just live life, and get experienced that way.&#xA;Or if we become numb and indecisive, then life will live us, and get experienced that way. (it gets rather bitter that way...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Either way we get what we are here for, even if we forgot what we came here for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am sorry, this turned into a &quot;What are we here for???&quot;.&#xA;I shut up now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wish you the best...&#xA;(the easiest is often not be the best, just listen to your heart)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21796" LastActivityDate="2019-03-17T12:49:36.380" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21833" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21691" CreationDate="2019-03-17T20:47:54.400" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although I don't know the answer, I think it would be important to explain what you exactly wish to do with the re-test? If you solely wish to know how reliable the score is, you could do the test on day 1 and the re-test on day 2? The longer the time, the higher the chance that a person's life is subject to change (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, the loss of relatives, or medical intervention), and that it's not a re-test &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;, but a different time point in a person's life. Regardless, I think it would be good to have a look at some of the best-cited papers in your arena of research and see what they do, and perhaps contact the authors of why they choose 2 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it is for a review meta analysis paper, as you say in your comments, then the answer to your question is all about your research question. If indeed you wish to minimize that intervening time (t), the best thing might be to map all the papers, organize them in ascending order of t and then decide what the minimum #papers is you wish to include in your review. A kind of reversed approach, but if the #papers is the bottle neck, it may in fact be a proper, and maybe even the only way to go.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;P.S. -- for what it's worth -- I don't like to write unreferenced answers, but in this case it seems warranted and in fact I was urged by a long-time user to convert my comments into an answer&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-03-17T20:47:54.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21834" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-17T22:40:17.043" Score="1" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the wake of the horrific terrorist attack in Christchurch New Zealand, it became known that the shooter had live streamed 17 minutes of his rampage to Facebook. In the video, of which I have only watched about 15 seconds from the point of the first shot being fired, the shooter can be seen extremely calmly carrying out his attack.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question to the people here is, what is the root cause of a human being such as the shooter, being able to carry out such inhumane, disgusting, horrifying and downright evil acts whilst remaining so chillingly calm?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As someone with very little to no knowledge or experience with the relevant psychological literature, I have to ask, is this shooter a straight up psychopath? Surely the people who carry out such attacks have had some prior brain damage or genetic mental condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21800" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T12:20:17.263" Title="How can a human carry out a mass shooting whilst remaining calm?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21835" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21480" CreationDate="2019-03-17T23:36:26.803" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is a bit broad. The main reason it can be easily answered is that the answer is mostly no. According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14656566.2016.1220542&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2016 recent review&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_disorder#Cluster_A_(odd_or_eccentric_disorders)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cluster A&lt;/a&gt; personality disorders, which among other things feature low empathy and social aversion there's not a lot going on regarding pharmacotherapy:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Patients with schizotypal personality disorder have been analyzed in few small open-label studies using typical and atypical antipsychotics. There are no randomized controlled trials for patients with schizoid or paranoid personality disorder, and there is not a robust evidence about the efficacy of psychoactive drugs in these patients. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;for cluster B (which include narcissistic and borderline PD) there is more pharmacotherapy in practice, in particular for the latter:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Antidepressants, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, and mood stabilizers are used by a significantly higher percentage of borderline patients than other people with personality disorders [...] Cochrane review found that second-generation antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, and dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids have some beneficial effects in these patients, while antidepressants may be helpful when comorbid conditions are present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They don't say anything about narcissistic PD, so my guess is pharmacotherapy is not much of much help there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;for cluster C (which includes avoidant and obsessive-compulsive) they also note briefly that&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are no randomized controlled trials of drug treatment for cluster C personality disorders, although it can be argued that antidepressants might be of some help. Particularly, in patients with obsessive–compulsive personality disorder, use of SSRIs may be helpful, especially if anxiety is present&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2019-03-17T23:36:26.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21836" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-18T03:57:06.063" Score="4" ViewCount="761" Body="&lt;p&gt;Various photography lighting guides &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jPDBMYSGvSs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;state&lt;/a&gt; that when light is positioned &lt;strong&gt;above&lt;/strong&gt; a face it looks natural, but when positioned &lt;strong&gt;below&lt;/strong&gt; a person it looks unnatural or even &quot;creepy&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gI8zg.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gI8zg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;My own comparison using 3D software&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is sometimes used deliberately in movies to evoke fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KGjRD.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KGjRD.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;cc-by photo by Travis Pawlewski - Flickr&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The universal principles of design say that this is because we evolved on planet earth with a single sun, which is always above us. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there are plenty of natural situations where light could come from under us. Such as being reflected off the ground, snow, or water, or just sitting around a warm campfire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9qGwJ.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9qGwJ.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;CC-by photo by Ville Miettinen - Flickr&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm just curious if there are any known psychological reasons why lighting under a face might look unnatural or &quot;creepy&quot;? Or could it be that it's such a staple of horror movies that we're primed to perceive it that way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21801" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-03-20T04:12:54.773" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T09:47:07.037" Title="Why does campfire lighting look creepy?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21838" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-18T16:57:35.333" Score="1" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to find a book that would be helpful to a codependent person with the following criteria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The book focuses on relationships with needy people who don't care for themselves, instead of focusing on relationships with substance abusers.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The book emphasizes leaving and avoiding these kinds of relationships instead of helping the reader improve these relationships.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21807" LastActivityDate="2019-06-18T07:01:37.370" Title="Please recommend a book about codependency that is not in regards to substance abuse" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21839" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-18T19:56:14.113" Score="3" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've experienced cocaine addicts first hand and noticed the development of egoistic personality traits such as selfishness or loss of empathy in cocaine addicts. Are there any scientific references which support that observation? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastActivityDate="2019-03-27T03:12:48.887" Title="Long term cocaine use and personality change - Scientific references?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21841" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21838" CreationDate="2019-03-19T13:33:55.903" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most any book on codependency will mention substance abuse, if for no other reason than the concept began there. Treatment of codependency is about empowering the person who is the caregiver to stop that sort of behavior. The best book I can recommend (I'm a LMHC) is Codependent No More. I would also suggest looking at Attachment Theory, as some researchers believe it can encompass the problems ascribed to codependency in a wider-reaching theoretical approach. To that end you might read Attached.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21813" LastActivityDate="2019-03-19T13:33:55.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21843" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-19T20:23:05.683" Score="2" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I saved a certain file on an SPSS software that expires after 2 weeks of its installation. I wanted to ask if my file would still exist even after the expiration date. The data is for psychology research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21817" LastActivityDate="2019-03-20T11:26:26.157" Title="Do .sav files expire after the trial version expires?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21845" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-20T00:50:00.533" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has any one studied whether are not in the predevelopment stage, or in any developmental stage whether the concept of possessing, or ownership comes into light in the psyche of an individual grasping they own something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20448" LastActivityDate="2019-03-20T00:50:00.533" Title="Possession/Concept of My" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21846" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21843" CreationDate="2019-03-20T11:03:35.663" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The only difference between &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thewindowsclub.com/how-does-trial-software-version-work&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;trial software&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and the 'real' thing is that trial software looses some or all functions after the trial period. Any files generated with it will be kept and be functional; only the exe file is affected. The company of course hopes that you wish to use those files after the trial period and buy the full license.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-03-20T11:26:26.157" LastActivityDate="2019-03-20T11:26:26.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21847" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21848" CreationDate="2019-03-20T11:19:49.587" Score="1" ViewCount="1424" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say a manager emailing the people under her in a way that to them feels degrading, and putting down. But at the end of the email its encouraging/uplifting type saying I know you are intelligent and capable people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is there a name of this type of behavior to attack/degrade then at the end say something nice? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21823" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-03-20T13:36:34.523" LastActivityDate="2019-03-22T04:46:03.250" Title="What is it called to attack a person then say something uplifting?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21847" CreationDate="2019-03-20T11:29:34.980" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like a variant on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.findlay.edu/blog/feedback-sandwich-approach&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;sandwich technique&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which is advocated by some as the preferred way to deliver critical feedback to a person, like a student or employee. The sandwich technique can be defined as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...offer[ing] a piece of negative feedback “sandwiched&quot; between two positive&#xA;  ones, thus easing the blow of the critique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this technique is criticized, because people might not remember the crucial middle critical part of the message, because of the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/decision-making/recency-effect/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recency effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: our brains are hardwired to remember the first and last bits of a conversation whilst glossing over the middle part (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.weq.io/post/why-the-sandwich-feedback-doesnt-work-and-what-to-do-instead&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WeQ&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-03-20T16:10:24.913" LastActivityDate="2019-03-20T16:10:24.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21849" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21847" CreationDate="2019-03-20T12:03:12.120" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sugarcoat&lt;/strong&gt; also fits. If this is intentional in order to have them under control, this can be said as a form of &lt;strong&gt;manipulation&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A reverse effect that the actor may not be aware of that the recipient chose to remember the good information only. This can be described as &lt;strong&gt;cherrypick&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-03-21T01:29:20.010" LastActivityDate="2019-03-21T01:29:20.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21851" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21847" CreationDate="2019-03-20T15:15:49.440" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The closest thing I can think of to what you are talking about is loosely referred to as 'Push-Pull'. It happens in a lot of unhealthy relationships and is a favorite tactic of so-called pickup artists. Used appropriately it can be healthy, but it is typically a manipulation tactic. &lt;a href=&quot;https://outofthefog.website/top-100-trait-blog/2015/11/4/push-pull&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://outofthefog.website/top-100-trait-blog/2015/11/4/push-pull&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21813" LastActivityDate="2019-03-20T15:15:49.440" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21854" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7967" CreationDate="2019-03-20T23:05:01.860" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The neocortex is just sight and hearing. You really need to include the entire nervous system's number of nerves to truly appreciate the processing power of the human neural network. How many nerves are in the human body? Even an estimate of 10^11 (100 billion) neurons times an average of 7000 dendrites or 7.0 * 10^4 connections is 7.0 * 10^15 (7,000,000,000,000,000) or 7 quintillion neural connections. Each neuron operates once every 10 ms or 100 times per second, or 700 * 10^15 or 700 quintillion operations per second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, the chemical connection between neurons are effectively &quot;analog&quot;, or floating-point, so the correct term isn't &quot;bits per second&quot; but FLOPS. Collectively, my estimate above based on common google searches is 700 exaFLOP per second. For comparison, new the supercomputer being installed at Argonne Labs operates at 1 exaFLOPS and comes with no software.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21832" LastEditorUserId="21832" LastEditDate="2019-03-27T00:01:12.243" LastActivityDate="2019-03-27T00:01:12.243" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21856" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-21T06:44:24.537" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know about blindsight, so I'm wondering if there are cases of people in pain who demonstrate all the behaviours of pain (e.g. putting hand in cold water after getting burnt, whining about the pain), but don't feel the pain. Also are there cases of deafhearing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21833" LastActivityDate="2019-03-21T06:44:24.537" Title="Pain without consciousness" Tags="&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21847" CreationDate="2019-03-22T04:39:18.483" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure it has an established name, (perhaps &quot;lead with the negative&quot;,  &quot;bad news first&quot;, or “get the bad news out of the way”) but &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167213509113&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;research&lt;/a&gt; suggests that people prefer to hear the bad news before the good ones... even though that might lower their chances of changing behavior in reaction to the bad news. (For a free but longer summary of the study see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/ulterior-motives/201406/why-hearing-good-news-or-bad-news-first-really-matters&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this PT page&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The body of research in this area is fairly thin though, so I wouldn't put too much stock in it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-03-22T04:46:03.250" LastActivityDate="2019-03-22T04:46:03.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21860" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21861" CreationDate="2019-03-22T12:06:19.390" Score="1" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20496&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Watson, et al. (2008)&lt;/a&gt; states that a superclass of mood and anxiety disorders should be given a nonspecific label, such as ‘emotional disorders’.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They stated that this superclass&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;can be decomposed into three subclasses: the distress disorders (major depression, dysthymic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder), the fear disorders (panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, specific phobia), and the bipolar disorders (bipolar I, bipolar II, cyclothymia).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been different remits put forward in Neurophysiology, Psychology and Psychopathology journals to define what constitutes an emotional disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709990298&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goldberg, et al. (2009)&lt;/a&gt; says they include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), unipolar depression, panic disorder, phobic disorders, obsessional states, dysthymic disorders, post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and somatoform disorders. We have also included neurasthaenia, as this diagnosis is commonly made in many parts of the world, and is in the ICD‐10. We have preferred the term ‘emotional’ because we include somatoform disorders in the group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;yet, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.%20org/10.12965/jer.140143&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baek (2014)&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typical emotional disorders are anxiety disorder, depression, and bipolar disorder&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.%20org/10.1016/j.clinph.2015.08.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sung, et al. (2016)&lt;/a&gt; pointed out that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term ‘emotional disorders’ is not a clearly defined medical term, but is commonly used to refer to psychological disorders (e.g., generalized anxiety disorders and major depressive disorders) that appear to affect the emotions. ‘Emotional disorders’ in this study refers to the symptoms of anxiety and depression&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where there are moves to improve the diagnostic procedures for mental disorders through systems such as HiTOP (&lt;a href=&quot;https://medicine.stonybrookmedicine.edu/HITOP/publications&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stony Brook Medicine, 2017&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000258&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kotov, et al., 2017&lt;/a&gt;) — see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/21648&quot;&gt;my answer&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/21644/how-does-a-person-know-if-he-should-seek-treatment-for-depression-since-feeling&quot;&gt;How does a person know if he should seek treatment for depression since feeling moody is unavoidable?&lt;/a&gt; — has there been any attempt since 2016 to put together definitive criteria to determine what constitutes an &lt;em&gt;emotional disorder&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baek, S. B. (2014). Psychiatric rehabilitation of emotional disorders. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation, 10&lt;/em&gt;, 205–208. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.%20org/10.12965/jer.140143&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.12965/jer.140143&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goldberg, D. P., Krueger, R. F., Andrews, G., &amp;amp; Hobbs, M. J. (2009). Emotional disorders: Cluster 4 of the proposed meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Medicine, 39&lt;/em&gt;, 2043–2059. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709990298&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1017/S0033291709990298&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kotov, R. et al., 2017. The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): A dimensional alternative to traditional nosologies. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126&lt;/em&gt;(4), pp. 454-477. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000258&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/abn0000258&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stony Brook Medicine (2017). &lt;em&gt;The Hierarchical Taxonomy Of Psychopathology (HiTOP)&lt;/em&gt;. [Online]&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://medicine.stonybrookmedicine.edu/HITOP/publications&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://medicine.stonybrookmedicine.edu/HITOP/publications&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sung, C. W., Chen, K. Y., Chiang, Y. H., Chiu, W. T., Ou, J. C., Lee, H. C., ... Wang, J. Y. (2016). Heart rate variability and serum level of insulin-like growth factor-1 are correlated with symptoms of emotional disorders in patients suffering a mild traumatic brain injury. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Neurophysiology, 127&lt;/em&gt;, 1629–1638. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.%20org/10.1016/j.clinph.2015.08.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.clinph.2015.08.006&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Watson, D., O'Hara, M. W., &amp;amp; Stuart, S. (2008). Hierarchical structures of affect and psychopathology and their implications for the classification of emotional disorders. &lt;em&gt;Depression and Anxiety, 25&lt;/em&gt;(4), 282–288. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20496&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/da.20496&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-22T12:30:21.340" Title="What constitutes an emotional disorder?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21861" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21860" CreationDate="2019-03-22T12:30:21.340" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12278&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bullis, at al. (2019)&lt;/a&gt; tackled this very question this month, and outlined criteria to determine what an emotional disorder is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The disorder is characterised by the experience of frequent and intense negative emotions;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is an aversive reaction to the emotional experience itself that is driven by the individual's diminished sense of control and negative appraisal of the emotion; and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The individual engages in efforts to dampen, escape, or avoid the emotional experience, either preemptively or in reaction to the onset of a negative emotional state.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper also expands on each of the criteria and pointed out in the summary that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;these criteria would only be considered an emotional disorder if the associated distress and functional impairment were &lt;strong&gt;chronic and significant&lt;/strong&gt;. [emphasis mine]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term &lt;em&gt;chronic&lt;/em&gt; is well defined within the fields of medicine and mental health, but the question now arises as to how significant is &lt;em&gt;significant&lt;/em&gt; in order to say that the criteria can be considered?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bullis, J. R., Boettcher, H., Sauer‐Zavala, S., &amp;amp; Barlow, D. H. (2019). What is an emotional disorder? A transdiagnostic mechanistic definition with implications for assessment, treatment, and prevention. &lt;em&gt;Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice&lt;/em&gt;, e12278. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12278&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/cpsp.12278&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-22T12:30:21.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21863" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-22T20:07:48.780" Score="3" ViewCount="525" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know of the pretty controversial links between &lt;a href=&quot;http://oxfordre.com/politics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-221&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;personality and political orientation&lt;/a&gt;, in general terms, e.g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although most research examining whether openness and conscientiousness influence political ideology has appeared only within the last decade, support for the expected openness-liberalism and conscientiousness-conservatism links already is voluminous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm curious if studies have looked at the finer correlations of abnormal psychology and political orientation. Do the extremes of personality lead people to more extreme political orientation of some sort? For instance, does sociopathy predispose to extreme left- or right-wing movements?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2019-03-23T00:29:03.317" Title="What kind of political views are sociopaths more likely to espouse?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21864" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21863" CreationDate="2019-03-22T23:55:47.550" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5680983/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 paper&lt;/a&gt; does try to correlate the dark tetrad (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and everyday sadism) to extremist political views:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Previous research on personality and political attitudes has been conducted in countries where political parties from the center dominate the political system. In the present research (N = 675), we focus on the relationship between the dark side of human personality and political orientation and extremism, respectively, in the course of a presidential election where the two candidates represent either left-wing or right-wing political policies [Austrian presidential election of 2016]. Narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and everyday sadism were associated with right-wing political orientation, whereas narcissism and psychopathy were associated with political extremism. Moreover, the relationships between personality and right-wing political orientation and extremism, respectively, were relatively independent from each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Going the other way around, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0963721418817755&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2019 review of research on the psychological profiling of extremists&lt;/a&gt; doesn't quite tie them with any particular personality (disorder) but it does generally correlate them with psychological distress:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empirical findings support a relationship between psychological distress and extreme political ideologies. Compared with moderates, political extremists—on both the left and right of the spectrum—report stronger anxiety about their economic future (van Prooijen, Krouwel, Boiten, &amp;amp; Eendebak, 2015). Furthermore, extremists are more suspicious than moderates about governmental institutions, suggesting distressed expectations of these institutions (Inglehart, 1987). Experimental findings are consistent with these insights. For instance, people psychologically compensate for feelings of uncertainty and fear through strong ideological convictions (McGregor, Prentice, &amp;amp; Nash, 2013), and inducing a loss of significance increases extreme beliefs on both the left and right (Webber et al., 2018).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The link between psychological distress and political extremism is inconsistent with the assumption of the rigidity-of-the-right model that psychological distress stimulates conservative ideologies only. We note, however, that psychological distress stimulates a preference for leaders who, in addition to being radical, are also group-oriented (Hogg, Meehan, &amp;amp; Farquharson, 2010). Feelings of distress therefore make political currents that are not only extreme but also nationalistic particularly appealing. Indeed, the majority of studies indicating a right-wing shift under conditions of uncertainty were conducted in Western countries where the political currents that combine radicalism with nationalism happen to be right wing (e.g., the United States, several European Union, or EU, member states; Jost, 2017). Would distress exert similar effects in countries where the political currents that combine radicalism with nationalism are mostly located on the left, such as Venezuela (i.e., Hugo Chavez and Nicolás Maduro), Ecuador (i.e., Evo Morales), or Nicaragua (i.e., Daniel Ortega; e.g., Müller, 2016)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The review paper goes to discuss &amp;quot;cognitive simplicity&amp;quot; (by this they mean a black-and-white perception of the social world), overconfidence, and intolerance as other established (if somewhat obvious) psychological traits of extremists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess a tentative conclusion from this might be that personality abnormalities (beyond those discrete traits) don't feature high on the psychological profile of extremists (i.e. there might a few psychopaths among the extremists, but most extremists might be just &amp;quot;suffering&amp;quot; from those four discrete traits). Or perhaps more research is needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-23T00:29:03.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21866" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21480" CreationDate="2019-03-23T10:37:27.840" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have also found this 2016 presentation on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ohsu.edu/xd/education/schools/school-of-medicine/departments/clinical-departments/psychiatry/grand-rounds/upload/SLIDES_ROFF_GR_1-26-2016.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Medications for Borderline Personality disorder&lt;/a&gt;. I think it summarizes the topic nicely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Summary&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Medications &lt;strong&gt;can have a role&lt;/strong&gt; in treating BPD&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;No evidence&lt;/em&gt; for monotherapy for BPD&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Symptomatic treatment has a &lt;em&gt;limited evidence&lt;/em&gt; base&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;some evidence for medications for several core BPD symptoms&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;no evidence for medications for some important core symptoms&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I prefer to &lt;em&gt;treat comorbidities&lt;/em&gt; rather than engaging in symptomatic treatment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Be sensitive to the impact of medications on the therapeutic alliance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There will be transference issues around you and your medications&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Address negative attitudes when you see them&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Positive transference to sedating medications can be a problem&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Work to establish a collaborative relationship with your patient and&#xA;the team&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When prescribing:&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Be clear what you are using each medication for&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consider risks (side effects) vs. benefits (evidence base)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Avoid disinhibiting and addictive medications wherever possible&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consider risk in overdose&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Be planful about decreasing and/or discontinuing medications&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, the omega-3 supplements have also been recommended in this source. I wonder how it might possibly work. Also more info on dosage and EPA/DHA ratio would be appropriate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13946" LastActivityDate="2019-03-23T10:37:27.840" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21870" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-24T18:40:57.770" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am attempting to find the term that describes a bizarre and terrifying experience I recently had.  As background: I was the subject of a severe violent assaulted at age 12, now 30 years ago. I have very little recollection of the event, just bits and pieces.  I still have recurring nightmares of this event that my husband finally videotaped because I &lt;em&gt;never&lt;/em&gt; remember them.  They show me in extreme distress, and it is very difficult for him to wake me from them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recently had a prolonged (hours-long) night-time episode in which I was in and out of awareness.  I am still unable to remember large pieces of that episode.  But apparently I became so violent that my husband began to restrain me to prevent me from injuring myself.  I have periods of remembering him sitting on me and holding me down, and not understanding why, but feeling like I was in grave danger and that he was trying to hurt or even kill me.  But I don't remember anything between those moments of awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are clinical terms that describe this sort of drifting in and out of what we assume was a prolonged traumatic flashback?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21849" LastActivityDate="2019-03-24T18:40:57.770" Title="Is this dissociation, depersonalization, or is there a better term?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2019-03-25T09:10:10.920" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21872" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="40" CreationDate="2019-03-24T20:00:17.180" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;If only a small part of the corpus callosum is cut then the patient will still have only one main consciousness, but if too much of the corpus callosum is removed then consciousness will split in two. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Split brain surgery performed in early childhood may initially split the brain into two separate consciousnesses, but as the other connections between the hemispheres rewire there will eventually come a point where the brain as a whole integrates more information than each hemisphere does separately, and the two consciousnesses will recombine into one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People born with agenesis of the corpus callosum rarely show any sign of having 'split consciousness'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ettlinger, G., Blakemore, C. B., Milner, A. D., &amp;amp; Wilson, J. (1972). Agenesis of the corpus callosum: A behavioural investigation. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 95(2), 327-346. &#xA;   &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/95.2.327&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/95.2.327&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sauerwein HC, Lassonde M. (1997) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9273860&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuropsychological alterations after split-brain surgery.&lt;/a&gt; J Neurosurg Sci. 41(1):59-66.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21384" LastActivityDate="2019-03-24T20:00:17.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21873" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-24T21:24:47.923" Score="3" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I say breaks I mean breaks between periods of the same course, breaks between two distinct courses, single days of, weekends, couple days of, few days of, longer periods of holidays of duration more than a week and the longest of them summer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How long can we keep thinking and learning, such that we maximise our thinking and learning? 90 minutes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What short breaks do we need? 15 minutes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How many times in a day can we have a 90 minutes period?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How many times per week can we have such a day?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How many times per year can we have such weeks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Different years have different amounts of studying time in the same school, same year(1st, 2nd, 3rd), and same generation(the different years are close to each other) is this not a problem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a cancer patient since 16, a medical student aiming for radiation oncology and subsidiary MSc&amp;amp;Phd in radiophysics. I am actually autistic but with no mental retardation. So the questions are absolutely necessary as subsidiaries to help me explain myself, why some events seem paradoxical and exactly what information I need. I extensively and thoroughly read ncbi, pubmed and textbooks concerned with my question in hand. A single link I can provide is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6039789/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6039789/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21851" LastActivityDate="2019-03-24T21:24:47.923" Title="What are the neuroscience research findings on the importance of breaks in cognitive function and specifically learning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21876" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-25T10:35:58.723" Score="0" ViewCount="249" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming a layman with no formal training (person A) says &quot;person B has disorder X&quot;. A should not make such diagnosis because they don't have the training. But if A does that because it fits the definition, then wouldn't their conclusion be correct? For example, I know that for a person to have borderline personality disorder they need to have at least 5 of 9 criteria. So if B does have that, then would A be fine to conclude that B has that disorder, in spite of the fact that A isn't trained? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="21821" LastEditDate="2019-03-25T13:22:55.553" LastActivityDate="2019-04-13T14:17:32.530" Title="Would a diagnosis from a layman be legitimate if it follows the definition of the disorder?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;training&gt;&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21877" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-25T12:33:03.337" Score="2" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an excerpt from pp. 169-170 of a book named &lt;em&gt;Flow: the psychology of optimal experience&lt;/em&gt;, written by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi . It has become very difficult to understand the meaning of this&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;code&gt;* Un­less con­sumed in highly skilled rit­ual con­texts, as is prac­ticed in many tra­di­tional so­ci­eties, what drugs in fact do is re­duce our per­cep­tion of both what can be ac­com­plished and what we as in­di­vid­u­als are able to ac­com­plish, un­til the two are in bal­ance. This is a pleas­ant state of af­fairs, but it is only a mis­lead­ing sim­u­la­tion of that en­joy­ment that comes from in­creas­ing op­por­tu­ni­ties for ac­tions and the abil­i­ties to act.*&lt;/code&gt;                                                        Please help me to understand the meaning of this paragraph. I asked the question on english language forums to understand its meaning but it does not seem to work as it is more of a psychology related question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21856" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-03-26T01:33:39.717" LastActivityDate="2019-03-26T08:24:05.550" Title="Csikszentmihalyi on drugs and their effect" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21878" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21877" CreationDate="2019-03-25T13:48:55.303" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Freely translated, the author says that...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;Doing drugs is fine when performed under the guidance of experts in traditional, ritual contexts. Drugs reduce our perception of what is possible, and they reduce the perception of what we ourselves can achieve. Drugs do this until the two are in balance. This is pleasant. But, it is misleading and far greater joy can be achieved when one would stimulate the chances to achieve goals, and to enhance our possibilities to do great stuff.&quot;&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Honestly, I think this is a big mouthful of gibberish. But there you go.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-03-26T08:24:05.550" LastActivityDate="2019-03-26T08:24:05.550" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21879" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21881" CreationDate="2019-03-25T13:58:26.747" Score="0" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you work on a project, for instance a program in the computer science field, many people pause or &quot;bypass&quot; work on it to work on a side project, often smaller and often a &quot;helper&quot; project, whether being a website, forums, marketing or else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a common-anti pattern that leads to an infinite cycle of getting increasingly far from the main and most important top priority product.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now my question is what was the name of this problem?&#xA;Surely there must be a scientific name and description for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21858" LastActivityDate="2019-03-25T15:43:07.857" Title="What is the name of this common anti-pattern" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21880" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21876" CreationDate="2019-03-25T14:58:51.010" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is tempting to think of medical diagnoses as a recipe. In some cases, it is a lot easier than others to see it that way. It would seem that if you have a broken leg, you have a broken leg. Unfortunately, both physical and mental health diagnoses are rarely that straightforward. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In mental health, when a person comes in complaining of e.g. anxiety, feeling down, prolonged grief, or having an unsatisfying love life, those things are certainly present. But in order to get to the etiology of the presenting concerns takes a good bit of work. Certain diagnoses pop up right away as likely candidates, but then you need to rule them out as there's plenty of overlap. You have to have at least 2 potential conceptualizations of what is going on, and then you rely on your experience and ability to help the patient open up more so you can observe how their mind works, how they see themselves, and how they see the world. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With all that in mind you can formulate what you see as the most likely diagnosis. But even then, as time goes on and you learn more about the patient, you may find yourself changing the diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking personality disorders in particular, it is actually quite challenging  often to differentiate between borderline, dependent, narcissistic, to name a few. You really need a lot of information and a working theory of the person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21813" LastActivityDate="2019-03-25T14:58:51.010" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21881" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21879" CreationDate="2019-03-25T15:43:07.857" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could be talking about a number of issues.  You could be talking about&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Freudian defense mechanism &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;repression&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Distraction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Procrastination or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Deferring&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe you are talking about something else entirely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing is &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2374&quot;&gt;not all observations necessarily need a &quot;scientific&quot; name for them in psychology or neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; and whatever the situation is, it would need a lot of background information to determine exactly what it is and how it manifests itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As it stands right now, the question could be deemed open to opinion, especially when Freudian and Neo-Freudian psychology is &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2242&quot;&gt;considered by some here to be pseudoscientific&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-03-25T15:43:07.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21883" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21887" CreationDate="2019-03-25T23:30:40.120" Score="3" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans have three kinds of photoreceptors corresponding to different wavelength-spectra:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/D2kWO.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/D2kWO.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If say photons with wavelengths of around 530 nanometers hit the human retina, this would lead to the perception of the color conventionally called &quot;green&quot;. The color &quot;green&quot;, however, is subjective in the sense that it is bound to a certain cortical physiology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is: Given that we don't have access to how animals perceive color, as we can't infer such qualitative properties purely from physical stimulus properties, how can we conclude that some animals are, say, perceiving ultra-violet colors given certain items or wavelengths? What if they would perceive entirely different colors than known to us?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user21198" LastActivityDate="2019-03-26T03:05:34.533" Title="How do we know what colors animals perceive?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21884" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21877" CreationDate="2019-03-26T01:18:24.347" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do note that he says in the very next paragraph&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some people will disagree strongly with this description of how &#xA;  drugs affect the mind.  After all, for the past quarter-century we have &#xA;  been told with increasing confidence that drugs are &quot;consciousness- &#xA;  expanding,&quot; and that using them enhances creativity. But the evidence &#xA;  suggests that while chemicals do alter the content and the organization &#xA;  of consciousness, they do not expand or increase the self's control over &#xA;  its function. Yet to accomplish anything creative, one must achieve just &#xA;  such control. Therefore, while psychotropic drugs do provide a wider &#xA;  variety of mental experiences than one would encounter under normal &#xA;  sensory conditions, they do so without adding to our ability to order &#xA;  them effectively. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, he is aware that what he is proposing is controversial. To summarize what I gather as &lt;strong&gt;his main point, in my own words: drugs don't work for improving flow or creativity.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for evidence, he's not citing any in there. The book has a list of references at the end, and some inline citations, but not for this &quot;fact&quot;. And if you ask me, he is completely glossing over ADHD or the use of the same class of drugs to improve &quot;flow&quot; in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/18718/do-stimulants-increase-the-iq-tests-score-for-everyone&quot;&gt;just about everyone&lt;/a&gt;. And to paraphrase a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Erd%C5%91s#Personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;famous mathematician&lt;/a&gt; and well-known user of amphetamines... mathematics was set back for a month when he took a break from the drug. Of course there are good reasons not to take such drugs (side effects) but claiming they don't work is silly, if you ask me. (Note that this book of Csikszentmihalyi was first published in 1990, so while ADHD might not have been as widely known back then as it is today, it definitely &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000907/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;was known&lt;/a&gt; in professional circles, ADD was introduced in the DSM-III in 1980.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course it may come down to an argument what really is flow, creativity etc. As the flip side, psychiatrists hardly ever talk about flow in Csikszentmihalyi's terminology, preferring &quot;attention&quot; obviously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-03-26T01:45:06.757" LastActivityDate="2019-03-26T01:45:06.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21886" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-26T02:15:27.280" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Csikszentmihalyi introduced the notion of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;flow&lt;/a&gt;, which is almost certainly his best known work/concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite the fact that Wikipedia has a &lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt; long article on flow, I can't find a simple explanation in there how flow relates to attention, other than it might be just &quot;effortless attention&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this all there is to it? Are there any more in-depth explanations how the two concepts relate or interact?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After paying slightly more attention to the wiki page, the &quot;effortless&quot; bit actually involves a whole motivational loop, so that there's an appearance of lack of effort. So, no deep motivation, no flow. But still I'd like to know if Csikszentmihalyi's flow, which is very highly cited (his books are that is) has been related to other more common concepts...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-03-26T10:39:25.527" LastActivityDate="2019-03-26T10:39:25.527" Title="How does flow differ from or relates to attention?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;flow&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21887" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21883" CreationDate="2019-03-26T02:57:39.993" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some levels of confusion in this in question, but basically we can test&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what wavelengths animals perceive (simple behavioral tests, e.g. training &amp;amp; testing them to distinguish a certain wavelength)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;inspect their cones to determine what wavelengths they could perceive. The latter doesn't necessarily imply that if an animal has say 4 different cones, it has tetrachromatic vision, because there's some degeneracy in some species, which unlike in humans (which have 3 types of cones and trichromatic vision) don't really use all their cones.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To give you a nearly random example of such a paper (this species doesn't have degeneracy), a (freely available) &lt;a href=&quot;http://jeb.biologists.org/content/jexbio/202/21/2951.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper on chicks' vision&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The colour vision of domestic chicks (Gallus gallus) was&#xA;  investigated by training them to small food containers&#xA;  decorated with tilings of grey and coloured rectangles.&#xA;  Chicks learn to recognise the colour quickly and&#xA;  accurately. Chicks have four types of single-cone&#xA;  photoreceptor sensitive to ultraviolet, short-, medium- or&#xA;  long-wavelength light. To establish how these receptors&#xA;  are used for colour vision, stimuli were designed to be&#xA;  distinguished only by specific combinations of receptors.&#xA;  We infer (1) that all four single cones are used, and (2) that&#xA;  their outputs are encoded by at least three opponency&#xA;  mechanisms: one comparing the outputs of ultraviolet- and&#xA;  short-wavelength-sensitive receptors, one comparing the&#xA;  outputs of medium- and long-wavelength receptors and a&#xA;  third comparing of the outputs of short- and long- and/or&#xA;  medium-wavelength receptors. Thus, the chicks have&#xA;  tetrachromatic colour vision. These experiments do not&#xA;  exclude a role for the fifth cone type, double cones, but&#xA;  other evidence suggests that these cones serve luminance-based tasks, such as motion detection, and not colour&#xA;  recognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to get philosophical qualia discussions, akin to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;whether all humans describe the same color with same language&lt;/a&gt;, that's a whole different kettle of fish. I don't know of any studies like that in the absence of language. I'm guessing you might be familiar with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_dress&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;the dress&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-03-26T03:05:34.533" LastActivityDate="2019-03-26T03:05:34.533" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21888" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21889" CreationDate="2019-03-26T04:47:52.327" Score="3" ViewCount="224" Body="&lt;p&gt;Myself when I look at the duck-rabbit image, I see a duck if focus on the left (i.e. the beak) or a rabbit if I focus on the right (the nose).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/V2pW9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/V2pW9.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this how it works for most people, i.e. is the foveal shift what drives the change in interpretation? (I obviously meant to ask if there's an empirical study on this.) If so, is the duck-rabbit a part of a wider class of illusions that rely on smaller or larger changes in what's foveated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-03-26T08:44:28.810" LastActivityDate="2019-03-26T10:13:48.840" Title="Is there a foveal explanation for the duck-rabbit illusion?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21889" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21888" CreationDate="2019-03-26T09:47:38.827" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ambiguous figures do not necessarily depend on focus, they do depend on attention though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The figure you provide is huge. From a standard face-to-monitor distance of a meter or so, one indeed needs to scan the image. Under these conditions I agree with you, in that the perceived animal changes when you change focus. The ears become a bill when you focus on that part and you see a duck. Reversely, when you focus on the head, you see a bunny. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, below I've pasted a smaller version of it (Fig. 1). If it is still too big take some more distance from your monitor and look at the center. You'll notice it will freely flip-flop between critters, also without shifting your gaze. I found another version depicted in Fig. 2. that, in my case, even more smoothly transitions from duck to rabbit and &lt;em&gt;vice versa&lt;/em&gt;. Hence, foveal focus is not key.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ambiguous images are not truly illusions; Many illusions rely on unconscious inferences in perception, while ambiguous figures illustrate the role of expectations, world-knowledge, and the &lt;strong&gt;direction of attention&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, children tested on Easter Sunday are more likely to see the figure as a rabbit; if tested on a Sunday in October, they tend to see it as a duck or similar bird (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~jfkihlstrom/JastrowDuck.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kihlstrom, University of California, Berkeley&lt;/a&gt;, see references there). Hence, by shifting your &lt;strong&gt;attention&lt;/strong&gt; from one part to another, you may indeed evoke a flip flop and although this i medited by visual input and hence needs the retina, it nonetheless is a process induced by shifting your attention and hence a top-down process. Your suggestion of a foveal dependence would imply a bottom-up effect. It is not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wa6ad.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wa6ad.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Rabbit/duck ambiguity. Taken from OP above, source unknown&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QyICx.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QyICx.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;smallrabbitduck&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Animated version of the ambiguous rabbit/duck figure. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://nautil.us/issue/19/illusions/how-your-brain-decides-without-you&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tom van der Bilt, Nautilus issue 19, 2014&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-03-26T10:13:48.840" LastActivityDate="2019-03-26T10:13:48.840" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21890" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-26T10:20:10.910" Score="3" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthline.com/health/pycnodysostosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;According to HealthLine&lt;/a&gt;, Toulouse-Lautrec Syndrome, known clinically as Pycnodysostosis (PYCD) can cause&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;difficulty with mental processes, though intelligence is not usually affected&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/4611/pycnodysostosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GARD also list&lt;/a&gt; that it causes cognitive impairment within the heading &lt;em&gt;symptoms&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0pKgw.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0pKgw.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does the disease, known to cause bone deformities, also cause cognitive impairment, and what kind of cognitive impairment does it cause?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have Googled &lt;em&gt;Toulouse-Lautrec Syndrome cognitive impairments&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Pycnodysostosis cognitive impairments&lt;/em&gt; with no results I have seen other than a case report (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2013-200590&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Girbal, et al. 2013&lt;/a&gt;) which states that in most cases cognitive development is normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Girbal, I., Nunes, T., Medeira, A., &amp;amp; Bandeira, T. (2013). Pycnodysostosis with novel gene mutation and severe obstructive sleep apnoea: management of a complex case. &lt;em&gt;BMJ case reports, 2013&lt;/em&gt;, bcr2013200590. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2013-200590&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1136/bcr-2013-200590&lt;/a&gt; pmcid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3794180&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3794180&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-26T15:12:51.710" Title="Toulouse-Lautrec Syndrome" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;&lt;pathology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21891" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-26T12:02:24.523" Score="3" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find the best strategy to analyze a set of EEG time-frequency data from 24 subjects, using 64 electrodes. This is an exploratory study as I have no a-priori hypothesis on where or when changes in two frequency bands might be observed. In this case I have found that using non-parametrical statistical testing might be the best soulution: in particular, cluster-based permutation testing is widely used in cognitive electrophysiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However this approach is not feasible as I have a 2X2X2 within subject design, and it is not possible to look at interaction with permutation testing. On the other hand, running an ANOVA on the whole data-set might well result in an high number of false positives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A solution to my proble might be to define ROI(s), so to perform ANOVA(s) on a limited number of electrodes within a time window. However I have no clue on how to define such ROI(s).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the best strategy according to you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21864" LastActivityDate="2019-09-10T21:00:45.047" Title="Analyzing EEG time-frequency data in a factorial design" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21893" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21890" CreationDate="2019-03-26T13:19:31.850" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since pycnodysostosis is caused by mutations that cause deficiency in Cathepsin K, it makes sense to look at animal models for the latter; there's a fairly recent study &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21794126&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dauth, 2011&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cathepsin K deficiency in mice induces structural and metabolic changes in the central nervous system that are associated with learning and memory deficits. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cathepsin K is a mammalian cysteine peptidase that is sorted to endo-lysosomes and secreted into the extracellular space by certain cell types [1]. It is abundant in osteoclasts and has a prominent role in bone remodeling due to its collagenolytic activity [2]. Indeed, cathepsin K deficiency has been linked to bone disorders such as pycnodysostosis and osteopetrosis [3,4], while the excessive activity of this enzyme may lead to osteoporosis [5], making it a likely target for rational drug design [6-8].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, pycnodysostosis patients suffering from lifelong absence of cathepsin K activity have been occasionally reported to exhibit, in addition to the abnormalities in bone development, alterations in the CNS such as hyperplasia of the pituitary, demyelination of the cerebrum, and imbalances between brain growth, vascular supply, and cerebrospinal fluid pressure, with complications including sensorineural deafness and frontal porencephalic cysts. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1015763/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[66]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately the trail gets pretty difficult from there because the paper cited for the last para, while mentioning &amp;quot;mental retardation&amp;quot; as known symptom, block-cites some 5 papers for that; I checked out one of them (in JAMA) but that one doesn't mention anything mental, so... who knows which of the other case reports might have some cognitive details, if any.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess the incidence of cognitive issues might depend on the specific mutation, since GARD says that only 5-29% of PSYD actually have these cognitive abnormalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research on animal models of some genetic diseases usually starts with a substantial mutation, i.e. something that's nearly sure to cause the desired disease effect. Later on milder variants are studies. (For example see how the animal models of Huntington's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-37102-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;advanced&lt;/a&gt;) With pycnodysostosis, at least as far neuronal/behavioral effects go, it seems we're at the fist stage (i.e. they published the publishable &amp;quot;sure thing&amp;quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The highly cited paper of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8703060&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gelb, 1996&lt;/a&gt;, which catalogued the (few) known mutations for pycnodysostosis alas does not correlate them with symptoms beyond the mere diagnosis of pycnodysostosis. In fact, this paper doesn't even mention any mental/cognitive effects in the patients studied... which were alas only two or three families.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-26T15:12:51.710" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21894" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-26T17:24:54.523" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are thoughts concieved in realtime or are they preprocessed chains ready to be thought or both (depending on the prospective) or am I asking a too generalized question to have any sense ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21868" LastActivityDate="2019-03-26T20:08:41.430" Title="Timeframe in which thoughts are concieved" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-04-05T23:02:53.300" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21896" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21839" CreationDate="2019-03-27T03:01:21.783" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find a longitudinal study on this, which would be direct evidence, but it seems plausible due to circumstantial evidence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Just taking a dose to &lt;a href=&quot;https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26328908&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lowers&lt;/a&gt; the perception of facial sadness (expressed by others)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Twenty-four healthy recreational cocaine users participated in this placebo-controlled within-subject study. [...] Findings show that cocaine impaired recognition of negative emotions; this was mediated by the intensity of the presented emotions. When high intensity expressions of Anger and Disgust were shown, performance under influence of cocaine 'normalized' to placebo-like levels while it made identification of Sadness more difficult. The normalization of performance was most notable for participants with the largest cortisol responses in the cocaine condition compared to placebo. It was demonstrated that cocaine impairs recognition of negative emotions, depending on the intensity of emotion expression and cortisol response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In a cross-sectional &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713001839&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; users/addicts did perform worse than controls on game-theoretical selfishness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The performance of healthy controls (n = 68), recreational cocaine users (n = 68) and dependent cocaine users (n = 30) in [...] social interaction paradigms (Distribution Game, Dictator Game) was assessed. [...] Decisions in the social interaction tasks of both cocaine user groups were more self-serving compared with controls as cocaine users preferred higher monetary payoffs for themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/79089/1/Preller_Quednow_et_al_2013_SocialCognition_AB_28_5_13.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;In&lt;/a&gt; cocaine users&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;younger age-of-onset of cocaine use was associated with more pronounced empathy impairment [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xKa6i.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xKa6i.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mean explicit and implicit emotional empathy ratings of the multifaceted empathy test (MET)&#xA;in cocaine users with an age of onset (AoO) of cocaine use ≤18 (n=27) and &amp;gt;18 (n=73), and controls&#xA;(n=68). Cocaine users with an AoO≤18 showed less explicit and implicit emotional empathy than&#xA;controls and less implicit empathy than cocaine user with an AoO &amp;gt;18. Error bars refer to SEM.&#xA;*indicates significant difference between groups (p&amp;lt;.05)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With risk of being pedantic, this last study is also not direct evidence, because there could be some other factor (genetic or environmental) that causes someone to both take up cocaine use early in life and also cause them to exhibit lower empathy later in life (which is the only time when empathy was measured in this study design).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-03-27T03:12:48.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21897" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21899" CreationDate="2019-03-27T11:01:03.000" Score="1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't understand some points of the voltage clamp method. In the resting state, Command voltage and membrane potential are both -65mv. If the command voltage increases to 0mv, current is injected into an axon, so membrane potential become over than the threshold and sodium is going to flow into the axon.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I learned that current is the flow of electrons, so if the command voltage is changed into 0mv, electrons flow into an internal membrane. It implies that membrane becomes more negative, but it contradicts the fact that membrane potential becomes 0 mv. &#xA;Is there anything I misunderstood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21871" LastActivityDate="2019-03-27T14:59:40.420" Title="Voltage Clamp Method" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21898" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21876" CreationDate="2019-03-27T11:01:10.730" Score="-5" Body="&lt;p&gt;As long as the criteria do match, then the diagnosis is correct. Some disorders can have overlap criteria, but a disorder should have a unique set of symptoms. If the symptoms B has match a unique set of a disorder, then we can conclude that B has it, and can conclude that the person making that conclusion correct. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt; I know this answer has no reference, but since no one explicitly confirms or disagrees with what I really ask, so I put it as an answer so everybody can vote on it. (Downvotes are welcomed.)&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;On the other hand, I think that this is just basic logic/epistemology, so there is no need for reference either. &lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-03-27T15:58:54.907" LastActivityDate="2019-03-27T15:58:54.907" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21899" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21897" CreationDate="2019-03-27T14:59:40.420" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In voltage clamp, you measure current.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you voltage clamp the cell near it's resting potential, you need little current to hold the cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to voltage clamp the cell depolarized or hyperpolarized relative to rest, you need to inject current (positive or negative). How much current you need to inject depends on the membrane properties of the cell, and the leak conductance. Therefore, measuring the current as a function of the held voltage tells you about these membrane properties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you depolarize the cell, yes, you will open voltage-gated conductances, but these conductances also often inactivate (sodium channels especially). That said, yes, if you depolarize a cell and channels open or close, you will record those changes in your voltage clamp. &lt;em&gt;However, you will never get an action potential if you have a good clamp.&lt;/em&gt; The whole point of voltage clamp is that you hold the voltage constant. Action potentials are positive feedback increases in voltage. If you clamp a cell at -40mV, even if -40mV is normally above threshold in a current-clamped cell, the cell will stay at -40mV. It doesn't really make sense to think about action potential thresholds in voltage clamp, they don't exist because the threshold phenomenon (voltage positive feedback) is blocked by clamping the voltage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the benefits of voltage clamp is that you can (somewhat indirectly) measure the flow of certain ions. If you set the voltage equal to the reversal potential for some ion, you know the current for that ion is exactly zero. This allows you to make inferences about how much current is flowing (and knowing voltage you can calculate conductance) at other voltages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-03-27T14:59:40.420" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21901" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-28T17:55:34.730" Score="1" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;When 2 rational people want to accomplish their goals, they'll get compromise by meeting their goals halfway. But if one of them seems irrational, his opponent will go much farther in his concessions since he knows there's the risk of him burning everything to the ground.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Therefore, it can be advantegous to seem irrational or insane. Is there a term for behaving in such a manner on purpose?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2019-04-10T06:46:23.593" LastActivityDate="2019-04-11T13:49:26.693" Title="Is there a term for simulated irrationality?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21902" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-28T18:19:42.313" Score="8" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer: I am a complete layman in psychology, with no education in the field whatsoever. This question was prompted by my reading Kahneman's &quot;Thinking Fast and Slow&quot;, in which he discusses the model of System 1 and System 2 extensively. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought many of the cognitive biases and other psychological effects were fascinating to read about, and I really enjoyed it. But every time he brought the &quot;two systems&quot; into the discussion of a particular cognitive bias (such as the affect heuristic or hindsight bias), it felt like he was using it as a post hoc explanation of how the effect could be described by certain characteristics of the two systems. It was never clear to me how you can show that the dual process &lt;em&gt;implies&lt;/em&gt; the existence of the discussed effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think he did a far better job showing how certain psychological effects result from prospect theory. It's easy to show, for example, how prospect theory implies the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect#Theoretical_explanations&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;endowment effect&lt;/a&gt;, as shown in the given link. Even though knowledge of the endowment effect existed before prospect theory, it's easy to see how the endowment effect could have been &lt;em&gt;predicted&lt;/em&gt; by prospect theory. You can even &lt;em&gt;prove&lt;/em&gt; that it would exist, given the utility function of prospect theory and the right axioms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I'm confused about how you can do the same with dual process theory, and the cognitive biases that it supposedly explains. &lt;strong&gt;How can you use dual process theory to predict the existence of a cognitive bias?&lt;/strong&gt; Are there examples of cognitive biases that were, or can be explicitly predicted using DPT? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is just a poorly framed question--if predicting cognitive biases is not one of the purposes of the theory--then what is the purpose of dual process theory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: I want to make a few clarifications here.&#xA;My concern is neither with the predictive success of DPT - or other theories to which I compare it - nor is it with whether the things that DPT can predict have already been discovered before DPT. The example I used - prospect theory, and its &quot;prediction&quot; of the endowment effect - is both retroactive (the effect was known before the theory), and according to the answer by Fizz, has questionable predictive verification. However, the manner by which you can use the theory to make the prediction is quite clear. If we assume the value curve given by prospect theory, and the claim of prospect theory that a person's perceived value of a gain or loss is relative to their current position rather than absolutely dependent on the final state, then it follows logically that an individual's perceived gain in value for acquiring something is lower than their perceived loss in value for losing the same thing. This can be answered in theory, on pen and paper, given the framing of the scenario and the axioms of prospect theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With dual process theory I want to understand:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;what kind of predictions it can make about human behavior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; to make those predictions using the theory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since this is seemingly a very celebrated modern theory of human behavior, I just want to know how it's &lt;em&gt;used&lt;/em&gt;. I don't mind if every known consequence of dual process theory was discovered before the theory, nor do I mind if the method is not as rigorous as that of a physics theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17232" LastEditorUserId="17232" LastEditDate="2019-04-25T19:43:22.430" LastActivityDate="2019-04-25T19:43:22.430" Title="How do you predict a cognitive bias theoretically using dual process theory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;dual-process&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21903" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-28T19:16:44.990" Score="0" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;Related question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8450/aftereffects-of-auditory-adaptation/8457#8457&quot;&gt;aftereffects of auditory adaptation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the radio is turned off in the middle of a song, sometimes I can still hear the song playing very quietly for tens of seconds after the radio has been turned off. It happens for repetitive songs that I have heard many times before. A couple of friends said that they have never experienced this, so there are presumably considerable differences between individuals in susceptibility to this illusion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What causes this illusion? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21384" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2019-03-29T14:44:28.377" LastActivityDate="2019-03-29T15:09:49.303" Title="what causes this auditory persistence illusion?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21904" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10982" CreationDate="2019-03-28T21:41:24.960" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is a recent review of the topic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Haggard, P. (2019). The Neurocognitive Bases of Human Volition. Annual Review of Psychology, 70(1), &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10/gd3t64&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10/gd3t64&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://braininstitute.us/static-media/uploads/annurev-psych-010418-103348.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://braininstitute.us/static-media/uploads/annurev-psych-010418-103348.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="406" LastActivityDate="2019-03-28T21:41:24.960" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21906" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-29T02:40:16.613" Score="0" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;I realized that in many neuroscientific experiments, the duration of the stimulus (say the duration of a grating stimuli displayed to subjects) is considerably shorter than the &quot;TR&quot; (roughly speaking the time between consecutive fMRI data acquisitions of the same cortical location) - an example would be a stimulus duration of 500 ms and a TR of 1.5 seconds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: Does this not mean that some measurements have a very low signal-to-noise ratio, or can this approach be justified by the BOLD responses relatively long duration?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user21198" LastActivityDate="2019-04-29T08:01:40.297" Title="fMRI repetition time (TR) and stimulus duration" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21908" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21901" CreationDate="2019-03-29T12:29:12.763" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think there's an official term for this kind of bluffing specifically, that's widely used. But Nixon's approach to the Soviet Union, to act in an exaggerated irrational manner to deter them from provoking the US, is sometimes referred to as the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.cornell.edu/info2040/2017/09/10/30860/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Madman Strategy&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17232" LastActivityDate="2019-03-29T12:29:12.763" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21910" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21903" CreationDate="2019-03-29T14:14:00.393" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you are describing an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earworm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;earworm&lt;/a&gt;, which is a piece of music that repeats in your head even though it is not actually playing. This is a rather common occurrence, and matches your experience of it happening only with songs you're familiar with, and especially so for repetitive songs. What makes songs get stuck in your head is not fully understood, but research has shown that has to do both with qualities of the song (certain melodic elements, intervals, tempos and repetitions are more likely to be earworms), as well as qualities of the listener (having a musical background, obsessive-compulsive tendencies, and being in a non-focused mental state increase likelihood of experiencing earworms).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13850" LastEditorUserId="13850" LastEditDate="2019-03-29T15:09:49.303" LastActivityDate="2019-03-29T15:09:49.303" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21906" CreationDate="2019-03-30T07:03:39.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;(f)MRI does not have good temporal resolution. If that is needed something like EEG or MEG is used, but the latter have low spatial resolution (hard inverse problem). &#xA;Also note that the low temporal resolution of fMRI is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3073717/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;due&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; to BOLD response time (i.e. it's not just the case  that the current fMRI technology sucks)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;fMRI’s temporal resolution is limited by hemodynamic response time; typically the BOLD response has a width of ~3s and a peak occurring ~5–6s after the onset of a brief neural stimulus. This is much slower than the underlying neural processes, and temporal information is thereby heavily blurred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without getting into the specifics of the experiment (what's that you're actually trying to measure) it's impossible to say whether fMRI (=BOLD) would be inappropriate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also noise and blur are not the same issue; loot at &lt;a href=&quot;http://home.deib.polimi.it/boracchi/Projects/BlurNoiseTradeOff.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some illustrations&lt;/a&gt; and it should be obvious without getting into math.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2019-03-30T07:03:39.417" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21902" CreationDate="2019-03-30T07:23:50.260" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, whether something is truly predicted or a post-hoc explanation can be difficult to disentangle in this area. What you're asking for is that dual-process theory predicts the existence of a new type of bias previously unobserved. And that's a tall order because observational psychology has been around for a log time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably the area in which I buy the dual-process explanations the most is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;belief bias&lt;/a&gt;; dual-process theory predicts that our intuitions (T-1 processes) bias us for plausible conclusions (and against implausible ones), even if the reasoning (T-2 process) is faulty (and respectively correct).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Predicting an entirely new type of bias is not the only way to test dual-process theory. One can test it quantitatively by looking at known biases and verifying experimentally if the timing affects the level of bias. And in the case of belief bias, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/13546780542000005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;that seems to be the case&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The purpose of any scientific theory is to explain some aspect of the real world. Just because we don't continuously discover (qualitatively) new facts based on that theory doesn't invalidate it as scientific theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology in general, experimental data is fairly easy to come by, so evidence often leads theory. It's not like in modern physics where you predict the Higgs boson and it takes decades to discover it in actual experiment. Or you predict the string structure of the universe, but it's unlikely we'll ever be able to test that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By request, here's the introductory / &quot;theoretical&quot; part of the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[Dual-process] theories posit two distinct&#xA;  processes of reasoning that compete for control of the response that&#xA;  participants make in reasoning tasks. Heuristic or System1 processes are&#xA;  characterised as rapid, implicit, associative, and heavily contextualised,&#xA;  whereas analytic or System2 processes are described as slow and sequential&#xA;  but capable of abstraction and generalisation. Note that a key difference is&#xA;  the speed of processing. The reason for this is that analytic processing is a&#xA;  sequential process requiring use of central working memory and is&#xA;  constrained by its limited capacity. By contrast, heuristic processes operate&#xA;  through massively parallel implicit systems that exert an unconscious&#xA;  influence on responding. In support of this distinction is evidence of&#xA;  substantial correlations between general intelligence and working memory&#xA;  capacity with abstract deductive reasoning but not pragmatic, belief-based&#xA;  reasoning (Stanovich, 2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While a mass of evidence has been recorded supporting the idea that there&#xA;  are two different processes of reasoning, more research is needed to confirm&#xA;  the characteristics that theorists have attributed to the cognitive systems that&#xA;  may underlie these observations. A relevant methodological innovation&#xA;  reported by Roberts and Newton (2002) is the rapid-response reasoning&#xA;  task. The idea is that by constraining participants to respond within a short&#xA;  period of time, the slower analytic process of reasoning will be differentially&#xA;  inhibited. For example, on the Wason selection task, there is a well established&#xA;  non-logical tendency, known as ‘‘matching bias’’ (Evans, 1998),&#xA;  to select cards that match the explicit content of conditional statements,&#xA;  regardless of the presence of negations. Roberts and Newton (2002) showed&#xA;  that measures of matching bias were significantly increased when a rapid response&#xA;  version of the selection task was compared with a free-time version.&#xA;  This is as dual-process theory would predict, since any influence of analytic&#xA;  reasoning to inhibit the bias would be suppressed by the requirement to&#xA;  respond quickly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A central phenomenon in dual-process accounts of reasoning is that of&#xA;  ‘‘belief bias’’—the tendency to evaluate the validity of an argument on&#xA;  the basis of whether or not one agrees with the conclusion, rather than&#xA;  on whether or not it follows logically from the premises. The&#xA;  phenomenon is one of the earliest reported in the psychology of&#xA;  reasoning (Wilkins, 1928) but the modern study of the effect dates from&#xA;  the paper of Evans, Barston, and Pollard (1983), which established the&#xA;  phenomenon with all relevant experimental controls. Evans et al. showed&#xA;  that participants’ evaluations of conclusions were substantially affected&#xA;  both by the logical validity of the arguments and by the believability of&#xA;  the conclusions. With the help of protocol analyses Evans et al.&#xA;  characterised the effect as involving a within-participant conflict between&#xA;  logic-based (analytic) processes and belief-based (heuristic) processes.&#xA;  Such a conflict is to be expected in view of contemporary dual-process&#xA;  theories. In support of this, it has been shown that participants high in&#xA;  general intelligence are more able to resist belief biases (Stanovich &amp;amp;&#xA;  West, 1997) and that logical and belief-based responding are neurologically&#xA;  differentiated (Goel &amp;amp; Dolan, 2003).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In this study, we extend the rapid-response methodology of Roberts and&#xA;  Newton (2002) to the study of belief bias in syllogistic reasoning. Using a&#xA;  conclusion-evaluation paradigm with problems similar to those of Evans&#xA;  et al. (1983), we compare performance under rapid-response and free-time&#xA;  tasks. We predict that the participants required to respond rapidly will show&#xA;  (a) an increased level of belief bias and (b) a reduced level of logical&#xA;  responding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And regarding prospect theory; quoting from Wikipedia page on it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Critics from the field of psychology argued that even if Prospect Theory arose as a descriptive model, it offers no psychological explanations for the processes stated in it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I don't see how it is any less of a reverse-fitting of (arguably more math-oriented) description to prior data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, the endowment effect is not even certain to exist, if wikipedia is correct (There are some failed replications, no meta-analysis that I can find.) There are a lot of other (possible) theoretical explanations given for it there as well. In fact there is more theory than there are experiments. Also, being much closer to economics, it's generally more likely to have mathematical models for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-02T15:28:59.800" LastActivityDate="2019-04-02T15:28:59.800" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21921" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21989" CreationDate="2019-03-30T20:55:44.510" Score="6" ViewCount="4084" Body="&lt;p&gt;Occasionally, criminal cases where female teachers have sex with male students make the news. I have the impression that many people are much less critical of that than when the victim is female, and some say they'd have been thrilled at the prospect of that happening to them when they were teenage boys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't see the same happening when girls get raped by their teachers; I don't see similar jealousy from women. &lt;strong&gt;That makes me wonder:&lt;/strong&gt; is there a significant difference in the psychological effects of statutory rape on teens, assuming the teens saw the rape as consensual from their perspective? Are there insights by gender on how many teens that were victims of statutory rape considered the events consensual (ignoring whether we would classify their &quot;consent&quot; as such in a cognitive-development sense), and how that affected the effects of the rape on their psyche?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Googling these issues brings up a large body of heavily political opinion with very scattered actual references and data that I could look into, and none of the material I could find addressed the questions I'm curious about scientifically. Even an article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-act-violence/201208/female-teachers-sexual-predators&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychologytoday.com&lt;/a&gt; that seemed relevant doesn't have any actual references to data or studies. An article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/sexual-disorders/lessons-learn-female-educators-who-sexually-abuse-their-students&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychiatrictimes.com&lt;/a&gt; focused on female offenders and said nothing substantial about the effects on male victims, or how the effects compare to those experienced by female victims. I couldn't find any science-journalistic articles (or books) that would offer any insight better than those two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;scholar.google.com had a lot of material, most of it was focused on the experiences of females, and I couldn't find any that compared the effects on males and females, or that made any evaluation that took the willingness of the victims into account.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, there's a lot of politicized material that's largely useless as a source of knowledge about the subject, and a decent amount of scientific material that I don't have the necessary skills and knowledge to evaluate or navigate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16758" LastEditorUserId="16758" LastEditDate="2019-03-31T03:42:07.040" LastActivityDate="2021-05-13T08:48:35.843" Title="Psychological effects of statutory rape - differences by gender?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;trauma&gt;&lt;sexual-assault&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21922" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2019-03-30T23:05:22.220" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This tag is for use with questions regarding any form.of sexual violence (i.e. rape, sexual assault).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-03-30T23:05:22.220" LastActivityDate="2019-03-30T23:05:22.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21923" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2019-03-30T23:05:22.220" Score="0" Body="This tag is for use with questions regarding any form.of sexual violence (i.e. rape, sexual assault)." OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-03-30T23:05:22.220" LastActivityDate="2019-03-30T23:05:22.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5690" CreationDate="2019-03-31T01:08:46.667" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently heard Marjorie Woollacott, a 'neuroscience professor' with tenure at the University of Oregon, praising this paper. (I think she has a book she's promoting). This drew me to look into its claims, and thence to StackExchange. There's a reasonable review of such phenomena (and the associated research) here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3870293/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3870293/&lt;/a&gt;. If anything, they may however be a bit too kind to Achterberg et al. I agree with the incisive criticism already posted on StackExchange, but thought it worthwhile to add to the following. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Carl Sagan (and others) have pointed out, extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. We're all now familiar with the—in many ways far less extraordinary—claims about neutrinos travelling faster than light that resulted in a storm of controversy in 2012, resulting in resignation of a good physicist (&lt;a href=&quot;https://phys.org/news/2012-03-italian-physicist-faster-than-light-resigns.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://phys.org/news/2012-03-italian-physicist-faster-than-light-resigns.html&lt;/a&gt;); the problem was a tiny fault with a cable. Were they true, the claims in Achterberg's article would be even more fundamentally disturbing. How could the electrical or other (?) activity of one mind affect another in a highly insulated environment? This makes absolutely no sense from a physical point of view, especially at a distance in a warm environment of ~300K. To invoke &quot;quantum entanglement&quot; is naive at best. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the very least we need to explore other more mundane explanations for the finding. Several are all-too-easy to identify. The abject failure of randomization is clear: the same sequence was presented to all subjects. Presenting the same sequence to all subjects and then applying time series analysis—without having a control group that were NOT 'subject to distant healing'—strikes me as hugely naive, for the following reason. If there is the slightest common set of behaviours that correlate across individuals, along the lines of e.g. &quot;Gee it's noisy in here&quot; ... &quot;I'm settling down&quot; ... &quot;I'm bored&quot; ... &quot;I'm a bit sleepy&quot; or whatever, presenting the same sequence to all individuals will generate a spurious correlation. This is so likely, and so poorly accommodated that we don't even need to look at the other flaws in the study—the paucity of data, the authors' failure to explore mundane explanations for their results (apart from acknowledging that there were three people in the room who knew when the 'on' and 'off' periods were), and the remarkable heterogeneity of 'healing methods' that in combination seem to be so 'overtly' effective. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are led to the inevitable conclusion that this &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; pseudoscience, poorly done. Sorry Professor Woollacott, but your desire to believe has led you beyond the evidence. You are not alone. We can however all learn from your failure, which is the only good reason to point it out. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My 2c. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21897" LastActivityDate="2019-03-31T01:08:46.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21925" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-31T07:42:24.210" Score="5" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's claimed that the average human reaction time in response to a visual stimulus is 0.25 seconds (&lt;a href=&quot;https://backyardbrains.com/experiments/reactiontime&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://backyardbrains.com/experiments/reactiontime&lt;/a&gt;). This article by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fp160049&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mcleod (1987)&lt;/a&gt; may be a better, more reliable benchmark for my question, as it comes from a more reputable source and states both the low and high bounds  of tested human reaction times (p. 49):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Traditional  laboratory  estimates  suggest  that  &lt;strong&gt;it  takes  from  200-300  ms  to  pick  up  visual  information&lt;/strong&gt;  about  an  uncertain  event  in  the  outside  world  and  to  use  this to  initiate  an appropriate  action&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Do we know/have any way of knowing what percentage of this time is taken up by any given part of the reaction process?&lt;/strong&gt; aka how much time is the eye converting what it sees, how much is the nerve signals doing their job and reporting to or from the brain, how much time does the brain spend processing, how much is the time the muscles take to contract, etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been recently studying reaction times, so would be really interested in the breakdown of this total given time between the various processes involved. Can anyone help me out with this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;McLeod, P. (1987). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fp160049&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual reaction time and high-speed ball games.&lt;/a&gt; Perception, 16(1), 49-59.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21898" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-04-01T13:04:16.973" LastActivityDate="2019-04-01T15:06:41.420" Title="Dissecting human reaction time" Tags="&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21926" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21931" CreationDate="2019-03-31T10:54:48.530" Score="1" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;As discussed &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/8377/how-are-these-review-forgetting-curve-calculated&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; reliability of some charts are dubious. I would like to use such a chart for studying purposes and am looking for something peer-reviewed or as factual as possible. Does it exist?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21899" LastActivityDate="2019-04-01T03:59:31.953" Title="Is there a reliable memory-retention guidance chart?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21928" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20241" CreationDate="2019-03-31T13:00:26.070" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Digital pseudo debility is used by a popular Russian psychiatrist Andrey Kyrpatov to describe a dependence, addiction to information on smart phones, ipads, etc.  people think they are getting smarter when in reality they exhibit all signs of dependence .  He also describes in medical terms what exactly happens in a brain of an addicted person. So digital dementia is the closest to digital pseudo dibility. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://snob.ru/selected/entry/99993&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://snob.ru/selected/entry/99993&lt;/a&gt; Translated excerpt from the article :&#xA;“ Only one thing differs from clinical debility and pseudo-debility: there is no way to make/force, under any circumstances,  a clinical moron to think; the state of his grey matter won’t allow that. &#xA;But the &quot;gray matter&quot; of information psevdodebil is safe, and, in principle, his brain can be trained. But why? No, why not to train him, and why should he train it? What's the point? What is the motivation?  Will he somehow be respected for this in a special way? Or, on the contrary, will they shame that he is a fool? Or he will not survive without it? Not.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is pseudo debility? By Andrey Kurpatov &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.erarta.com/ru/museum/news/report/detail/news-02928/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.erarta.com/ru/museum/news/report/detail/news-02928/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kill the idiot inside you. Information pseudo-debility and digital dementia.&lt;a href=&quot;https://cont.ws/@adviser095/913341&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://cont.ws/@adviser095/913341&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21901" LastEditorUserId="21901" LastEditDate="2019-04-12T12:44:21.697" LastActivityDate="2019-04-12T12:44:21.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21929" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-03-31T18:33:55.393" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has operating conditioning been a useful tool for extinguishing rumination? If so, what is a typical training procedure for extinguishing rumination?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for something like, first train the dolphin to touch it's nose to a stick, then train the command for XYZ using the stick to guide it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9942" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-01T12:02:11.540" LastActivityDate="2019-04-01T12:02:11.540" Title="Operant Conditioning for reducing Rumination" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21930" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21932" CreationDate="2019-04-01T01:06:07.683" Score="3" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human's ability to process language in the abstract is somewhat linked to our ability to both produce and understand sounds (see Broca's area), with that in mind, is Sign Language handled similarly by the brain? Is there any fMRI research that could corroborate that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21113" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-01T08:52:24.217" LastActivityDate="2019-04-01T11:48:31.513" Title="Is sign language handled differently by the brain than spoken laguage?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;psycholinguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21931" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21926" CreationDate="2019-04-01T03:59:31.953" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you can use this graphic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://www.wired.com/wp-content/uploads/archive/images/article/magazine/1605/ff_wozniak_graph_f.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is taken from an article from WIRED, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wired.com/2008/04/ff-wozniak/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Want to Remember Everything You'll Ever Learn? Surrender to This Algorithm&lt;/a&gt;. It talks about Piotr Wozniak and his spaced repetition software &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.supermemo.com/en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SuperMemo&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2019-04-01T03:59:31.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21932" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21930" CreationDate="2019-04-01T09:04:59.890" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a broad meaning of &amp;quot;similarly&amp;quot;, the answer is yes, the processing of sign language has substantial similarities with that of spoken language, in terms of brain areas involved. There are also some differences; the latter issue is a vast and still somewhat controversial research area; from the conclusion of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/jdsde/article/13/1/3/500594&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2007 review&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where differences can be shown between sign and speech they can, on the whole, be ascribed to the different input modalities of the language system—auditory for spoken language, visuospatial for signed language. The specialization of cortical networks for language processing does not appear to be driven either by the acoustic requirements for hearing a spoken language or by the articulatory requirements for speaking. It seems likely, therefore, that it is the specialized requirements of language processing itself, including, for instance, compositionality, syntax, and the requirements of mapping coherent concepts onto a communicable form, that determine the final form of the specialized language circuits in the brain. Even the disagreements in the literature, especially those concerning the relative importance of the RH [right hemisphere] in processing sign, do not trouble this basic insight. It is probably more constructive to pose a somewhat different question: How might signed language use specific brain specializations that are unlikely to be involved in spoken language processing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And for an illustration of the similarities/differences the review has this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hP8dR.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hP8dR.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Color-rendered images of the brain depicting (group) fMRI activation. (a) Regions activated by BSL [British Sign Language] perception in deaf and hearing native signers (first and second columns, respectively) and by audiovisual speech perception in hearing nonsigners (third column). For language in both modalities, and across all three groups, activation is greater in the left than the RH and perisylvian regions are engaged. [The rows are the hemispheres.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a more &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1510527112&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent (2015) study&lt;/a&gt; perhaps more elaborately addressing your question (of similar regions):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;sign language constructions—even those similar to gesture—engage language-related brain systems and are not processed in the same ways that nonsigners interpret gesture. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is already established that a very similar, left-lateralized neural network is involved in the processing of many aspects of lexical and syntactic information in both spoken and signed languages. This includes the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) (classically called Broca’s area), superior temporal sulcus (STS) and adjacent superior and middle temporal gyri, and the inferior parietal lobe (IPL) (classically called Wernicke’s area) including the angular (AG) and supramarginal gyri (SMG). Likewise, narrative and discourse-level aspects of signed language depend largely on right STS regions, as they do for spoken language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-04-01T11:48:31.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21933" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-01T09:29:50.660" Score="3" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of the time, especially in political behaviour, people are likely to ignore the flaws of a leader or in some cases to somehow spin some bizarre positive angle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, corruption of public finance being spun as &quot;it is good because it shows how entrepreneurial the person is&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if not to that extent, this is an effect that is seen a lot, a strange kind of defence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While many terms come to mind, rose tinted glasses, excusing, shifting the burden, none of these exactly describe the psychological phenomenon here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the phenomenon called? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21908" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-01T09:46:01.830" LastActivityDate="2019-04-03T22:32:06.797" Title="What is the most accurate name for the effect where people find excuses for flaws by leaders?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21934" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21933" CreationDate="2019-04-01T09:41:12.263" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's definitely a form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;confirmation bias&lt;/a&gt; &quot;the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses&quot;. But this is a fairly broad category of cognitive biases. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in this case it is probably motivated rather than unmotivated confirmation bias. The somewhat obvious distinction &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1089-2680.2.2.175&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;being&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I also make a distinction between what might be called motivated and unmotivated forms of confirmation bias. People may treat evidence in a biased way when they are motivated by the desire to defend beliefs that they wish to maintain. (As already noted, this is not to suggest intentional mistreatment of evidence; one may be selective in seeking or interpreting evidence that pertains to a belief without being deliberately so, or even necessarily being aware of the selectivity.) But people also may proceed in a biased fashion even in the testing of hypotheses or claims in which they have no material stake or obvious personal interest. The former case is easier to understand in commonsense terms than the latter because one can appreciate the tendency to treat evidence selectively when a valued belief is at risk. But it is less apparent why people should be partial in their uses of evidence when they are indifferent to the answer to a question in hand. An adequate account of the confirmation bias must encompass both cases because the existence of each is well documented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-03T22:32:06.797" LastActivityDate="2019-04-03T22:32:06.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21935" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-01T12:55:01.747" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;My parent went to a Psychologist because of anxiety and panic attacks. Nicely i knew that she uses EEG for diagnostics. So he went to see her, but he told me that during the EEG she asked him for 2 task:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1 Count backward from 100 to zero.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2 Listen a list of words (eg. college, father, mother, etc.). According to the psychologist in this way we'll locate if one of this word is related to a psychological trauma due to some EEG variation during the listening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've looking for some references about those. I understand that the first task is some related to attention and memory-recall functions but i didn't found anything about the second task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any idea?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21905" LastActivityDate="2019-04-01T12:55:01.747" Title="Detecting trauma with EEG?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;trauma&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21937" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21925" CreationDate="2019-04-01T15:06:41.420" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Complex reaction times have been extensively studied and broken down into underlying processing stages. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~saul/discoveryprocessingstages.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sternberg (1969) [Acta Psychologica, 30, 276-315.]&lt;/a&gt; was one of the first systematic attempts at using reaction time to understanding cognitive processing. For simple reaction times (like responding to a brief sound or light), &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Larry_Thompson2/publication/17284303_Premotor_and_components_of_reaction_time/links/54644cf20cf2c0c6aec50636.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Botwinick (1966) [Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71(1), 9-15.]&lt;/a&gt; split reaction time into pre-motor and motor components and found the motor component accounted for 50 ms of a simple reaction time task that took about 250 ms. I am not aware of anyone who has split apart the remaining 200 ms into addiitional stages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-04-01T15:06:41.420" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21943" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-02T15:39:21.293" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Loss aversion (and related phenomena like the endowment effect) are somewhat controversial, it seems; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion#Questions_about_its_existence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;from Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, studies have questioned the existence of loss aversion. In several studies examining the effect of losses in decision making under risk and uncertainty no loss aversion was found.[6] There are several explanations for these findings: one, is that loss aversion does not exist in small payoff magnitudes; the other, is that the generality of the loss aversion pattern is lower than that thought previously. Finally, losses may have an effect on attention but not on the weighting of outcomes; as suggested, for instance, by the fact that losses lead to more autonomic arousal than gains even in the absence of loss aversion.[7] This latter effect is sometimes known as Loss Attention.[8] Even in a non-risky domain, prospective affective judgments about gains and losses show that loss aversion is magnitude dependent such that for low magnitudes there is no loss aversion [9]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Loss aversion may be more salient when people compete. Gill and Prowse (2012) provide experimental evidence that people are loss averse around reference points given by their expectations in a competitive environment with real effort.[10]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;David Gal (2006) argued that many of the phenomena commonly attributed to loss aversion, including the status quo bias, the endowment effect, and the preference for safe over risky options, are more parsimoniously explained by inertia than by a loss/gain asymmetry. Gal and Rucker (2018) made similar arguments.[11][12]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, are there some areas/contexts in which loss aversion isn't controversial? Large payoffs for instance? And are there enough studies to reliably conclude anything, e.g. via meta-analyses (say with moderator analysis)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-04-02T15:39:21.293" Title="In what contexts is loss aversion least controversial?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21944" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-02T16:06:40.000" Score="3" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.10.027&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;research of Matsuzawa et al. (2007)&lt;/a&gt; (see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zsXP8qeFF6A&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BBC video (2013)&lt;/a&gt;) isn't misleading, are there any other cognitive areas where chimpanzees (or other primates) have been observed to surpass humans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more context: trained chimpanzees seem to be able to memorize the random position on a screen of numbers from 1-9 in a very short amount of time, beating humans in the same test. There is one report from &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-008-0206-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;US researchers&lt;/a&gt; which could not replicate this though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on those observations Matsuzawa has advanced the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199549221.003.11&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive-tradeoff (evolutionary) hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; (there's a longer &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ktkjUjcZid0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vsauce video&lt;/a&gt; on that): essentially the idea is that humans &quot;gave up&quot; a good working visual memory for  improvements in other kinds of cognitive abilities (This formulation is a little improper since chimpanzees evolved separately from our common ancestor with them, hence the scare quotes.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, I want to know if this is the only known cognitive phenomenon in which (some) animals beat humans. Since training does play a significant role in the research mentioned above (and this seems to be crux of the controversy surrounding), I'm lowering the bar to asking if trained animals can beat untrained humans on some other cognitive task. I still think this question is informative (e.g. with respect to the power of learning), even with a stacked deck training-wise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-03T07:36:08.670" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T09:44:35.173" Title="Is there some cognitive test besides (visual) working memory in which some animals are superior to humans?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21945" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-02T18:36:37.860" Score="1" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a native Spanish speaker. In Spanish, the verb &quot;to accept&quot; is &quot;aceptar&quot;. When I write it down, or type it on my phone, I tend to write &quot;haceptar&quot; (the H in Spanish is mute, so it'd be pronounced the same way), even though I know it isn't spelled with an H. This also happens to me with some other specific words I can't remember right now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought this happened only to me, but today I found the same word misspelled the same way on a blog over the internet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I directly tied this «condition» to the concept of a &quot;lapsus&quot;, but I couldn't find anything about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to find a name for this, and I also want to know if it's some specific words that cause it on everyone or it's just casual coincidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: It's funny that I [almost] always realise I've misspelled the word just before sending it (if it was in a text message), so I always go back and correct it. But it's a hateful process, mostly when I've written a long text or used &quot;aceptar&quot; multiple times...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit:&lt;/strong&gt; I have come up with an example in English as well. When I try to handwrite or type the word &quot;rhythm&quot;, I tend to spell it &quot;rythm&quot; (even knowing it doesn't go that way). In this case the H is also mute (and I'm starting to see a pattern: every mistake I make is with a mute H).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21915" LastEditorUserId="21915" LastEditDate="2019-04-03T12:54:34.117" LastActivityDate="2019-04-03T12:54:34.117" Title="Involuntary misspelling while writing" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21946" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21933" CreationDate="2019-04-03T01:08:03.973" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias is certainly at play here, but I'd narrow that down a bit. It doesn't have a Wikipedia page (yet) but &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Kahan&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dan Kahan&lt;/a&gt; has been focusing on a variation of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivated_reasoning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motivated reason&lt;/a&gt; he calls &quot;Identity-protective cognition&quot;. (See &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2973067&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Misconceptions, Misinformation, and the Logic of Identity-protective Cognition&lt;/a&gt; for a full discussion.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias can creep in under many circumstances, but we have an especially strong motivation (very often non-conscious) to promote arguments which align with our own self-identity. The person making the kind of claim you're pointing to probably either feels quite strongly about the issue (a economic libertarian discussing the primacy of market-oriented policies, for example) or the person making the claim (a &quot;tribal&quot; leader, perhaps).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An earlier and more limited aspect of this is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Asch effect&lt;/a&gt;. As the wikipedia page on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_from_authority#Cognitive_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;argument from authority&lt;/a&gt; notes —&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In repeated and modified instances of the Asch conformity experiments, it was found that high-status individuals create a stronger likelihood of a subject agreeing with an obviously false conclusion, despite the subject normally being able to clearly see that the answer was incorrect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19603" LastActivityDate="2019-04-03T01:08:03.973" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21947" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21945" CreationDate="2019-04-03T07:55:28.440" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;TLDR: if it's a &quot;graphotactic&quot; mistake that children could make (and it is), adults could make it under time pressure, distraction etc. A technical term for your kind of error is &quot;phonologically plausible error&quot; (PPE)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is rather speculative, but I suspect that having two different spelling sets/rules for things that sound the same is the main reason. There's an obvious source of confusion there that we must constantly fight. That's another reason why some linguists argue for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;phonemic writing&lt;/a&gt; (roughly one spelling for everything that sounds the same.) Spanish &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may even have something to do with the so-called dual process theories of cognition (intuitions vs &quot;deep thought&quot;). If you have to apply multiple rules, it takes more time to discern which, and under time pressure you're more likely to make such mistakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why would you prefer the more elaborate spelling version instead of the simpler one, I don't know. It has been observed that children tend to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3517694/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;do the opposite&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;by kindergarten, many children begin to apply their existing phonological knowledge of pronunciation combined with emerging orthographic knowledge to produce invented spellings. Hence, &lt;em&gt;pack&lt;/em&gt; might be spelled as &lt;em&gt;pak&lt;/em&gt; (Treiman &amp;amp; Bourassa, 2000), which then preserves the minimal phoneme representation, known as the phonological skeleton (Bourassa &amp;amp; Treiman, 2003).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper I quoted that from also discusses cluster interaction of vowels and consonants, which are also a source of spelling errors in children. That seems related to what you experience, except all the examples there are shortening/simplifying, e.g. misspelling &lt;em&gt;sand&lt;/em&gt; as &lt;em&gt;sad&lt;/em&gt;, because the &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; is hard(er) to hear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is also observed in children are more complex errors related to the [mis]application of more complex rules, e.g. &lt;em&gt;press&lt;/em&gt; misspelled as &lt;em&gt;ppres&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As beginning spellers learn sound-letter correspondences, particular patterns of orthographic features become evident (Cassar &amp;amp; Treiman, 1997). One such pattern involves consonant doubling, which occurs when children understand that a word contains a doubled consonant but do not recognize its positional constraints. In written English, doubled consonants occur in medial or final positions after a short vowel but cannot occur in the initial position e.g., &lt;em&gt;press&lt;/em&gt;. However, young children might mark the doubled consonant in the wrong position, such as &lt;em&gt;ppres&lt;/em&gt; (see also Wright &amp;amp; Ehri, 2007), indicating an emerging awareness of the need for a doubled consonant and illustrating that beginning spellers are still mastering word-specific knowledge about positional constraints leading to integration of phonological and orthographic knowledge (Bourassa &amp;amp; Treiman, 2007; Cassar &amp;amp; Treiman, 1997).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your example seems to be a misapplication of a more complex rule regarding the writing of &lt;a href=&quot;https://guinlist.wordpress.com/2017/04/17/155-silent-consonants/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;silent consonants&lt;/a&gt;. No such examples are discussed in that paper, as far as I can tell. I'll try to find some more research on this but &lt;a href=&quot;https://theweek.com/articles/463820/spelling-confessions-superfrustrating-words-still-mess&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anecdotal evidence&lt;/a&gt; is that silent consonants are a frequent source of spelling errors in English as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest example in English I found is in a rather &lt;a href=&quot;https://is.cuni.cz/webapps/zzp/download/130163746&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;obscure thesis&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The first level of misspelling is when a letter in a word is completely omitted or extra added. For example, in the word ‘ransom’ the misspelling is depicted as ‘ransome’ with an extra ‘e’ letter at the end. Silent letters might affect the correct spelling in terms of leaving them out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This involves a vowel and in the final, not initial position, but it's conceptually the same &quot;overcorrect&quot; process as adding an initial silent consonant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I found something &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274393726_Why_Should_We_Take_Graphotactic_and_Morphological_Regularities_Into_Account_When_Examining_Spelling_Acquisition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;similar for French&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Children are sensitive to the fact that&#xA;  many French words include a final silent consonant, which sometimes leads them&#xA;  to add a silent consonant erroneously to words that do not include such letters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since this apparently happens a lot in French, it has been more seriously studied, including what type of root words lead to this overapplication more often etc. (See link for details).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-03T12:00:12.993" LastActivityDate="2019-04-03T12:00:12.993" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21948" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-03T09:33:49.510" Score="2" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;Checking the rather comprehensive but somewhat dated &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2008 review of  Evans&lt;/a&gt; on dual-process theories, I didn't see anything about [mis]spelling. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it seems to me an obvious thing to investigate from a dual-process perspective, because (in theory) the more elaborate rules you have to apply the more mistakes you're likely to make under time pressure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So has anything like this been attempted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this is a little more sophisticated than simply asking if writing (never mind typing) faster results in more errors. You'd have to discern what's the likely cause of the errors, i.e. under time pressure, do you make more errors of the kind that require more complex &quot;graphotactic&quot; rules?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-03T09:38:55.587" LastActivityDate="2019-04-03T12:06:13.883" Title="Is there any research of spelling errors from a dual-process theory perspective?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;writing&gt;&lt;dual-process&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21949" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21948" CreationDate="2019-04-03T10:04:05.717" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, it turns out there is some related research, but there are &lt;a href=&quot;https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01662984/document&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;complications&lt;/a&gt; because spelling &amp;amp; writing is harder to investigate (compared to syllogisms, for instance)... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Spelling relies on two sets of processes, depending on word&#xA;  frequency (for a review, see Tainturier and Rapp, 2001; Bonin,&#xA;  2003). For frequent words, the letter sequence is directly retrieved&#xA;  from the orthographic lexicon via the lexical route. For rare&#xA;  or unknown words, the letter sequence is arrived at indirectly,&#xA;  through a process of phoneme–grapheme conversion (assembled&#xA;  route). The resulting orthographic representation is stored in a&#xA;  graphemic buffer (Caramazza et al., 1987; Hillis and Caramazza,&#xA;  1989) until its graphomotor execution (i.e., initiation and implementation of motor programs and neuromuscular execution).&#xA;  Although the orthographic representation obviously needs to be&#xA;  retrieved or calculated prior to execution (i.e., during the writing&#xA;  latency; Bonin et al., 2002), &lt;strong&gt;Delattre et al. (2006) have shown that&#xA;  the orthographic processing of irregular and infrequent words is&#xA;  still generally incomplete at this stage, and therefore, continues&#xA;  during the graphomotor execution, thus, increasing handwriting duration. According to the authors, these results can be&#xA;  interpreted within the dual-route model.&lt;/strong&gt; When a conflict arises&#xA;  between the outputs of the lexical and assembled spelling routes,&#xA;  it takes time to resolve, and the central processing of this conflict&#xA;  then cascades onto the graphomotor execution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, there is a posited &quot;dual-route&quot; model for spelling/writing, and yes, it's based on timing experiments... although these did not involve time pressure (or counting spelling errors by type), but rather is based on timing the writing of well-known vs obscure words. Whether this &quot;dual route&quot; neatly matches more conventional dual-process accounts of cognitions is a bit unclear to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The complications come from the fact that spelling and writing form a cascading process:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Three factors seem to determine the temporal course of the&#xA;  central processing of spelling. The first one concerns the word’s&#xA;  lexical characteristics. The less frequent and/or regular the word,&#xA;  the longer the central processing takes and the more likely it is to&#xA;  be cascaded. The second factor concerns time pressure. Until now,&#xA;  the cascading phenomenon has only been observed for the production of successive words under time pressure (Delattre et al.,&#xA;  2006; Lambert et al., 2011; Maggio et al., 2012). Producing a single&#xA;  word without any time constraint should minimize cascading, by&#xA;  allowing the spelling process to be completed during the pause&#xA;  (i.e., latency) preceding execution. Third, according to capacity theory, the ability to cascade processing depends heavily on&#xA;  the writer’s development and expertise (Berninger and Swanson,&#xA;  1994; Alamargot et al., 2010). Because handwriting is not yet fully&#xA;  automatized in younger writers, especially those still in primary&#xA;  school (Bourdin and Fayol, 2000; Olive et al., 2009), they have to&#xA;  prevent overloading by segmenting and sequentializing the higher&#xA;  processes and are therefore, unable to engage in parallel, or cascaded, processing (see Olive and Kellogg, 2002; Alamargot et al.,&#xA;  2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly Kahaneman was also involved in formulating &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;capacity theory&lt;/a&gt;. And it seems related to models of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention#Multitasking_and_divided&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;divided attention&lt;/a&gt;, which he also was involved with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, if this is correct, an interesting conclusion is that if you have produce the spelling under time pressure and in a medium that you have little experience with (say you seldom handwrite, or you seldom type) then you are more likely to make spelling errors in that medium not simply because of mechanical issues, but also because it puts a sort of cognitive/time pressure even on processes that you have trained in (spelling). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The introduction of the Delattre paper also has some more interesting observations related to the complexity of the rules, particularly with respect to the how &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;phonemic&lt;/a&gt; the orthography is and some empirical support from of specific forms of dysgraphia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The dual-route model of spelling production (e.g., Ellis, 1982)&#xA;  proposes that two processing systems operate in parallel: a lexical&#xA;  route that retrieves spellings of known words from a memory store&#xA;  of word-specific knowledge and a nonlexical (or assembled) route&#xA;  that generates spellings using a process of sublexical sound-to spelling&#xA;  conversion. The assembled spelling route would be efficient&#xA;  in languages whose orthographies have predictable or consistent&#xA;  orthographic-to-phonological correspondences (such as&#xA;  Turkish, Italian, and Japanese kana) but would be considerably&#xA;  less effective for English and French, whose orthographies are&#xA;  characterized by highly inconsistent relationships (e.g., the vowel&#xA;  /i:/ is spelled in many different ways in English words, as in eel,&#xA;  tea, theme, thief, Keith, people, me, key, quay, ski, etc.). There are&#xA;  many irregular and some almost arbitrarily spelled words in English&#xA;  (e.g., pint, yacht) and French (e.g., fraise, monsieur). The&#xA;  lexical route would work for all known words (irrespective of&#xA;  regularity) but could not provide spellings for new words or&#xA;  nonwords. The assembled route would work for nonwords but&#xA;  would often produce phonologically plausible errors (PPEs), particularly&#xA;  to irregular words, such as yacht (YOT) and monsieur&#xA;  (MESSIEU).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Evidence consistent with the dual-route model comes primarily&#xA;  from studies of the spelling performance of neuropsychological&#xA;  patients with acquired central dysgraphia (for reviews see Barry,&#xA;  1994; Tainturier &amp;amp; Rapp, 2000). The separation of the dual routes&#xA;  is supported by the double dissociation between surface dysgraphia&#xA;  (e.g., Beauvois &amp;amp; De´rouesne´, 1981; Hatfield &amp;amp; Patterson,&#xA;  1983) and phonological dysgraphia (e.g., Shallice, 1981). Surfacedysgraphic&#xA;  people accurately spell more regular than irregular&#xA;  words (for which they make many PPEs) and are interpreted as&#xA;  having an impaired lexical route that forces overreliance on their&#xA;  preserved assembled route. Phonological-dysgraphic people have a&#xA;  marked impairment of nonword spelling but have relatively preserved&#xA;  word spelling and are interpreted as having an impaired&#xA;  assembled route but an intact lexical route.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although the lexical and assembled spelling routes are proposed&#xA;  to be separate, there are at least two lines of evidence to suggest&#xA;  that they interact at some level in normal spellers. First, observation&#xA;  of spelling errors in free writing (e.g., Ellis, 1979; Hotopf,&#xA;  1980) suggests that assembled spelling plays some role in writing;&#xA;  people sometimes make PPEs (e.g., Ver-knickers ayfasia) and may&#xA;  produce different alternative spellings on different occasions&#xA;  (which suggests that not all errors reflect inaccurate spelling&#xA;  knowledge). Second, there is experimental evidence showing lexical&#xA;  influence on assembled spelling; there are lexical priming&#xA;  effects on nonword spelling (e.g., Barry &amp;amp; Seymour, 1988; Campbell,&#xA;  1983; Perry, 2003). For example, the nonword /vi:m/ is more&#xA;  likely to be spelled as VEAM after hearing the word team, as&#xA;  VEEM after the word deem, and as VEME after the word theme.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dual-route models of spelling have been expressed in symbolic&#xA;  terms (e.g., Barry, 1994) but also as more interactive (Rapp,&#xA;  Epstein, &amp;amp; Tainturier, 2002) and connectionist (Houghton &amp;amp; Zorzi,&#xA;  2003) models. Although single-route models of spelling have been&#xA;  proposed (e.g., Brown &amp;amp; Loosemore, 1994; Bullinaria, 1997;&#xA;  Olson &amp;amp; Caramazza, 1994), Houghton and Zorzi (2003) have&#xA;  argued that these are currently unable to account for the full range&#xA;  of empirical data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I quoted all this here because the Wikipedia article on spelling has basically zero psychology or neurology information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-03T12:06:13.883" LastActivityDate="2019-04-03T12:06:13.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21950" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18442" CreationDate="2019-04-03T16:05:21.573" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;In his &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1353/cml.2005.0024&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2003 psycholinguistics book, John Field&lt;/a&gt; has summarized (pp. 70-72) his own typing errors and combined them with an older corpus of Hotopf.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Missing words were among the frequent errors, but alas no numerical frequencies are given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But what he says he noticed is that short function words like &amp;quot;are&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;it&amp;quot; (these are his examples) are more likely to be omitted. And regarding the type of words more likely to be omitted he says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important factor appears to be the difference between lexical and function words.&#xA;The latter seem very susceptible to error: they are sometimes omitted or duplicated, and it is quite common in rapid typing for one function word to be&#xA;substituted for another, even when they are not phonologically identical. This&#xA;leads one to the conclusion that function words may be processed differently from&#xA;lexical ones. It seems possible that the writing process accords a higher level of attention to lexical items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although he doesn't say this, the full-context examples that he gives for omission seem to have another property, namely that short words get omitted close to each other (compare with duplication)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;though these [are] not frequent&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;that [it] is possible&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if you're curious about the related issue(s) he mentions, among the frequent duplication examples are &amp;quot;the the&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;that that&amp;quot;, and &amp;quot;of of&amp;quot;. Among the substitutions are &amp;quot;the&amp;quot; instead of &amp;quot;that&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;of&amp;quot; &amp;lt;- &amp;quot;for&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;doe&amp;quot; &amp;lt;- &amp;quot;do&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;were&amp;quot; &amp;lt;- &amp;quot;where&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;for&amp;quot; &amp;lt;- &amp;quot;from&amp;quot;. He continues:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, notice that some writing slips provide evidence of a planning process operating&#xA;at a level higher than the word. When writing a particular word, we already&#xA;have the next few words stored in our minds, ready for production&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The examples for these are more interesting&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;importan topic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;these given (= give) insights&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;using bothing (= both) approaches&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;difference (= different) intelligence tests&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;neighbourshoods&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is more qualitative than quantitative, but for lack of anything better, I put it in the answer box.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if Field is correct, there's an anticipatory process in writing that causes a number of spelling errors, not all of them omissions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-04-03T16:30:15.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21952" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="127" CreationDate="2019-04-03T16:56:39.997" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;John Fields in his &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1353/cml.2005.0024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2003 psycholinguistics textbooks&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the &lt;em&gt;there -&amp;gt; their&lt;/em&gt; example is not&#xA;a spelling error - the writer is fully aware of the difference between the two forms;&#xA;but, under the pressure of writing, one form (often the more frequent one) is substituted&#xA;for the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And he is correct about the relative corpus frequency of those words (google ngram below):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PJNus.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PJNus.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we apply the same theory to &lt;em&gt;possibly -&amp;gt; possible&lt;/em&gt;, the difference in relative frequency is even greater:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OCDyT.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OCDyT.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This idea of higher-frequency word &amp;quot;takeover&amp;quot; (my term) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2808630/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;is backed up by some more empirical research&lt;/a&gt;, but contradicted by others:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to lexical properties, some studies of spontaneous speech errors (del Viso et al., 1991; Kelly, 1986) as well as errors arising in cases of acquired spoken language deficits (Blanken, 1990, 1998; Gagnon et al., 1997; Martin, Dell, Saffran &amp;amp; Schwartz, 1994) have reported that error responses are biased to be higher in frequency than their targets. However, a number of other studies have found no such effect (spontaneous errors: Harley &amp;amp; MacAndrew, 2001; Vitevitch, 1997; experimentally induced errors: Dell, 1990; aphasic errors in spoken production: Best, 1996; written production: Romani, Olson, Ward, &amp;amp; Ercolani, 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another interesting issue is that written errors seem to cross syntactic category boundaries more often than speech errors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, a large number of studies have reported very high rates of syntactic category preservation in spoken errors produced both spontaneously (Abd-El-Jawad &amp;amp; Abu-Salim, 1987; Arnaud, 1999; Berg, 1992; del Viso et al., 1991; Fay &amp;amp; Cutler, 1977; Fromkin, 1971; Garrett 1975, 1980; Harley, 1990; Harley &amp;amp; MacAndrew, 2001; Leuninger &amp;amp; Keller, 1994; Nooteboom, 1969; Rossi &amp;amp; Defare, 1995; Silverberg, 1998; Stemberger, 1985) as well as subsequent to neurological impairment (Best, 1996; Berg, 1992; Blanken, 1990; Dell et al., 1997; Gagnon et al. 1997; Martin et al., 1994; but see Blanken, 1998). Some studies of written errors have reported that the tendency to preserve grammatical category is weaker in written than in spoken production—and is perhaps non-significant (spontaneous: Hotopf, 1980; aphasic errors: Romani et al. 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps this partly explains why people don't seem to make this &lt;em&gt;possibly -&amp;gt; possible&lt;/em&gt; substitution in speech. (One is an adjective, the other an adverb.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And as far terminology goes, this is sometimes called an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typographical_error#Atomic_typos&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;atomic typo&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, at least among writers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another kind of typo—informally called an &amp;quot;atomic typo&amp;quot;—is a typo that happens to result in a correctly spelled word that is different from the intended one, and since it is spelled correctly, the spellchecker cannot find the mistake. Examples include &amp;quot;unclear&amp;quot; instead of &amp;quot;nuclear&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;you&amp;quot; instead of &amp;quot;your&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;Sudan&amp;quot; instead of &amp;quot;sedan&amp;quot; (leading to a diplomatic incident in 2005 between Sudan and the United States regarding a nuclear test code-named Sedan), &amp;quot;Untied States&amp;quot; instead of &amp;quot;United States&amp;quot;, and &amp;quot;the&amp;quot; instead of &amp;quot;they&amp;quot;. The [&amp;quot;atomic typo&amp;quot;] term was used at least as early as 1995 by Robert Terry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And regarding speech errors (which a lot of answers here point to). Depending whether you are willing to call typos spelling errors or not (Field won't), this is or isn't a (written) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malapropism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;malapropism&lt;/a&gt;. There's not complete consensus whether accidental pronunciations (or typos) that produce word substitions should be called that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definitions differ somewhat in terms of the cause of the error. Some scholars include only errors that result from a temporary failure to produce the word which the speaker intended. Such errors are sometimes called &amp;quot;Fay-Cutler malapropism&amp;quot;, after David Fay and Anne Cutler, who described the occurrence of such errors in ordinary speech. Most definitions, however, include any actual word that is wrongly or accidentally used in place of a similar sounding, correct word. This broader definition is sometimes called &amp;quot;classical malapropism&amp;quot;, or simply &amp;quot;malapropism&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I'm not entirely convinced Wikipedia has this &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0388-0001(79)80022-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;issue right&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under the name of malapropisms, Fay and Cutler (1977) have examined a variety of speech error. However, malapropisms in the classical sense are not speech errors: they are what the speaker intended to say and would be willing to repeat. This paper analyzes 158 classical malapropisms in English. Though some probably result from imperfect learning, most represent errors of storage in the mental lexicon. Statistical assessment of the examples indicates that they most resemble the ‘tip of the tongue” phenomenon, rather than slips of the ear or malapropisms in the Fay/Cutler sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, what seems to be a reasonable conclusion here is that &amp;quot;atomic typos&amp;quot; include the written equivalent of Fay-Cutler malapropisms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The UPenn Language Log discusses &lt;a href=&quot;http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=3339&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a recent example&lt;/a&gt; of the latter, which is a bit long to reproduce here with the accompanying discussion in full. But the point there is that &amp;quot;committed of a crime&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is an &amp;quot;error&amp;quot; because if you showed the writer the sentence and invited him to review it, he would (I surmise) say &amp;quot;oops&amp;quot; and correct &amp;quot;committed&amp;quot; to &amp;quot;convicted&amp;quot;. In contrast, a (classical) malapropism, as deployed by one of the Mrs. Malaprops of the world, is a case where the speaker or writer has entered the wrong word into their mental lexical, and would not be aware that they're making a mistake even if they had the opportunity to review what they said or wrote.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The error in this case is &amp;quot;phonological&amp;quot; because &lt;em&gt;committed&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;convicted&lt;/em&gt; are both three-syllable words with medial stress, whose initial and final syllables are almost the same. And the error is &amp;quot;semantic&amp;quot; because someone is convicted of having committed an offense, so that there's a close relationship in the psychological space of meanings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do I think that this case is a Fay-Cutler malapropism, i.e. a (written form of a) speech error?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For one thing, if we look at a somewhat edited collection, namely the COCA corpus of 425 million words of recent American English, the pattern &amp;quot;committed of a crime&amp;quot; gets no hits, while &amp;quot;convicted of a crime&amp;quot; gets 99, and &amp;quot;committed a crime&amp;quot; gets 236. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the substitution has the general lineaments of a Fay-Cutler-type speech error: same number of syllables, same stress pattern, same lexical category, same first and last syllables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So we can also call &lt;em&gt;possibly -&amp;gt; possible&lt;/em&gt; &amp;quot;a typo with the general lineaments of a Fay-Cutler-type speech error&amp;quot;. Ha ha. Linguists need more roundabout terminology. Actually not all the criteria are met: in particular, it's not the same lexical category in the case of &lt;em&gt;possibly -&amp;gt; possible&lt;/em&gt;, but rather adverb -&amp;gt; adjective. I don't know if Fay &amp;amp; Clutler would have allowed for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This how they actually defined their notion of malapropism&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, the erroneous intrusion is a real word-not the intended word, of course, but not&#xA;a meaningless string of phonemes either. Second, the target and error seem to be&#xA;unrelated in meaning. Finally, there is a close relation between the pronunciation of the&#xA;target and the pronunciation of the error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So &lt;em&gt;possibly -&amp;gt; possible&lt;/em&gt; doesn't quite fit that definition because the words are semantically related. It goes to show how difficult it is to come up with a good categorization of errors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And since (rereading your question)  you think the word &amp;quot;typo&amp;quot; does not apply to this; linguists use &amp;quot;slip of the keyboard&amp;quot;. These include two sub-categories (cf. Field, p. 70)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;motor errors, where there is a failure in the signal that the brain sends to the hand&#xA;or in the contact between hand and keyboard&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lexical errors, where the wrong written form has been selected&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You seem to think that &amp;quot;typo&amp;quot; only describes the first sub-category. But the Wikipedia definition of typo excludes spelling errors (that are a result of ignorance). And since your [lexical] error is not a result of ignorance, it's not excluded, so it is a typo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you probably mean to say is that it is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-5470-6_2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;nonspecified substitution&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;. That means that neither key adjacency nor left/right mirroring were the cause. These two are common causes of &amp;quot;motor&amp;quot; (in the sense of Field) substitutions in typing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-04-03T20:21:33.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21955" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-04T05:47:38.300" Score="2" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen time and time again, both in literature and in conversations with people I know, people describing someone's eyes. What I mean is that I have come across phrases like &quot;Focused gaze&quot;, &quot;Vacant gaze&quot;, &quot;Fearful eyes&quot;, &quot;Eyes lighting up&quot;, &quot;Eyes glazed over&quot;,etc. What exactly is it that causes one to perceive another's gaze as focused, vacant, etc? Is it how often and how much the pupils contract? Is it the frequency of saccades? Is it something else? What is it about the eyes that causes us to perceive a person's gaze as having a certain meaning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21930" LastActivityDate="2019-04-04T05:47:38.300" Title="What causes us to perceive a person's gaze as meaningful?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21956" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-04T13:27:33.580" Score="2" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/21953/interest-of-studying-reaction-to-isolation-chamber&quot;&gt;This question&lt;/a&gt; about someone who wants to be put into an isolation chamber got me thinking about the ethics involved in observing someone doing something risky. If a &lt;em&gt;participant&lt;/em&gt; approaches you about doing something dangerous, possibly with a high likelihood of death or permanent injury, and wants you to document it as an N-of-1 case study, are you ethically allowed to? For example, a terminally ill patient wants to expose themselves to high doses of a drug that may cure them, but will likely severely impair their cognitive function, lead and wants you to document their cognitive decline. How does one describe this to an IRB? Is it the same as studies of actively using addicts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-09-07T12:01:10.093" Title="Ethics of observing someone doing something with substantial risk" Tags="&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21958" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21963" CreationDate="2019-04-04T13:57:37.950" Score="1" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember that there is a matrix in my textbook when I studied the basic psychology in colleage. The four 4 quadrants are 1) self is good and the outside world is also good; 2) self is evil but the outside is good; 3) self is good but the outside is evil; 4) self is evil and the outside is also evil. I have searched it for days but cannot find it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could anyone please tell me what that matrix is? Thanks! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9140" LastEditorUserId="9140" LastEditDate="2019-04-05T01:46:39.367" LastActivityDate="2019-04-06T04:11:16.697" Title="What is the matrix of self and the outside world, evil and good?" Tags="&lt;self&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21959" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-04T15:20:10.247" Score="4" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to conduct a study in the field of cognitive experimental psychiatry. I need an online tool on a PC-based setup to administer Stroop, N-back, and choice reaction time tests. I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psytoolkit.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psytoolkit&lt;/a&gt; an open-source tool than has Stroop and N-back and it is programmable. But I'm not sure whether this tool is validated or not. By validation, I mean whether N-back test measures working memory (as it is supposed to) or not when running the test on Psytoolkit. &#xA;I'm looking for validated online cognitive tests if anyone knows. Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16645" LastActivityDate="2019-04-06T19:25:55.720" Title="What is a validated online tool to administer Stroop and N-back test?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21961" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-04T17:51:33.280" Score="1" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've come across 'The Chimp Model' that sports psychologist Steve Peters advocates for understanding human motivations. While this seems intuitive does it have much credibility in neuroscience? If there's any non-specialist papers I'd be interested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://chimpmanagement.com/the-chimp-model/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://chimpmanagement.com/the-chimp-model/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-KI1D5NPJs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-KI1D5NPJs&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21934" LastActivityDate="2020-11-27T18:11:14.310" Title="Is The Chimp Model really a thing?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;model&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21963" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21958" CreationDate="2019-04-05T09:49:58.293" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may not totally match your description (the person's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_view&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;worldview&lt;/a&gt;, the evilness of the viewed objects), but it's quite analogous to the &lt;strong&gt;table of style of attachment&lt;/strong&gt;, so I put it here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/u0AiIIK.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do notice that the major topic in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attachment theory&lt;/a&gt; is about relationship, while the topics in your description seem to be about moral in general, but I suspect that yours discusses about interpersonal relationships as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The image is captured from the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cengage.com/c/interpersonal-communication-everyday-encounters-8e-wood/9781285445830&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters, 8th Edition&lt;/a&gt;. The original research is Butzer &amp;amp; Campbell, 2008.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One minor note: I see that many people use the word &quot;matrix&quot; as a synonym of &quot;table&quot;. Technically, a matrix is a table of numbers, but not a table of ideas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-04-06T04:11:16.697" LastActivityDate="2019-04-06T04:11:16.697" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21967" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-05T20:26:35.557" Score="1" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychologically, how long does it take for a person to forget the feeling of vengeance over other person or community? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, imagine this scenario: There was a city which was sacked by army and a soldier enters into a house. That house had a family of 4 members, a married couple with their son and daughter. The soldier killed the couples and the son before the eyes of the daughter. Then he took her as a sex slave in his house for 15 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you know, at the beginning, the girl will have lot of vengeance over the soldier .That is she wants kill the soldier to avenge her family's death. But due to tight security she can't do it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now my question is, does the feeling of revenge exists for the whole 15 years OR eventually fade away? If later is true, then how long does it take for the vengeance feeling to fade away?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21943" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-04-07T16:47:08.633" LastActivityDate="2021-02-20T22:40:23.413" Title="How long does it takes for the feeling of vengeance to fade away by time?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21968" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21967" CreationDate="2019-04-05T20:50:54.217" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends on the individual (and possibly the trauma). &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stockholm Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;, where captives &lt;em&gt;develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity&lt;/em&gt; can onset very quickly (in the &lt;em&gt;original case&lt;/em&gt; 6 days). There are also cases where people are actively trying to escape and do not feel a bond with individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-04-05T20:50:54.217" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21970" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-06T19:04:41.500" Score="3" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm starting work on a computational neuroscience project where I want to create my own model of a spiking Hodgkin-Huxley neuron and connect many instances (about 400) of this model through synapses. Is there a generally accepted way to do this? I have experience in Python and Matlab but I'm wondering if there are any good packages or other software to create neurons and connecting them into a network?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16178" LastActivityDate="2019-04-23T15:46:06.453" Title="Simulating Hudgkin Huxley neural network" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21971" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-07T04:51:39.120" Score="1" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the visual cortex of newborn babies right off the bat capable of making sense of raw visual data, for instance, converting the constant stream of raw RGB images perceived by the eyes into a meaningful higher-level representation of objects in motion in a 3D world? Yes? No? If not, then does it mean this skill has to be developed over time by means of some &lt;strong&gt;learning mechanism&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the visual cortex needs time to learn advanced visual skills, how does the actual learning mechanism work? Does the visual cortex have to optimize the connections between neurons, in a way analogous to how artificial neural networks optimize their parameters through backpropagation algorithm (machine learning)? If this is the case, then where does the visual cortex get its error signals from? To make the last question clear, in machine learning the typical approach is to compute the gradient of a loss function which compares the model's prediction with the ground truth, and the model's parameters are updated by moving the parameters in the direction of the gradient. If the visual cortex is learning advanced visual skills by virtue of a similar learning mechanism, then what kind of loss function is the visual cortex optimizing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21951" LastActivityDate="2019-04-07T17:03:00.250" Title="Is the visual cortex of a newborn baby immediately capable of object detection or is this skill learned over time, and if so, how?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21972" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-07T06:53:42.903" Score="1" ViewCount="150" Body="&lt;p&gt;White guilt would appear to be a genuine phenomenon which only White people can ever experience - and yet many people deny that it exists, at all, or that it is a form of phoney Liberalism or, worse, &quot;reverse racism&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, such denials are suggestive of the very thing being denied. White guilt thus appears to feature characteristics of emotional self-indulgence, anger and the desire for forgiveness &amp;amp; personal acceptance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is White guilt the same or similar to other forms of guilt, or does it have its own unique characteristics setting it apart from other functions of the human conscience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_guilt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;White guilt&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21952" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-07T10:56:05.260" LastActivityDate="2019-05-12T17:01:10.187" Title="What does White guilt feel like, how does it socially manifest itself &amp; is it treatable?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;racism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21973" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21972" CreationDate="2019-04-07T11:06:45.510" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given the asker's assertion (in a comment) &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/21972/what-does-white-guilt-feel-like-how-does-it-socially-manifest-itself-is-it-tr#comment41889_21972&quot;&gt;that&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;White guilt results in Black people being killed&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;here's a repetition of what is usually meant by this term (copied from Wikipedia):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;White guilt is the individual or collective guilt felt by some white people for harm resulting from racist treatment of ethnic minorities by other white people both historically and currently in the United States and to a lesser extent in Canada, South Africa and the United Kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like all guilt, White guilt is associated with intentions of making amends toward victims. I think the OP's comment and the question are prompted by a failure to distinguish &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;guilt as a psychological process&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilt_(law)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;guilt as a legal concept&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychological guilt only exist if it is interiorized. A psychopath can be judged guilty by a court but feel no (psychological) guilt whatsoever himself. Here's a primer on guilt, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.2.318&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in the psychological sense&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Guilt may be defined as the dysphoric feeling associated with&#xA;  the recognition that one has violated a personally relevant&#xA;  moral or social standard. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In principle, guilt may be characterized as having both adaptive&#xA;  and maladaptive consequences. On the one hand, guilt&#xA;  experienced at moderate levels is described as serving a positive&#xA;  social function in inhibiting anormative behavior or, in the&#xA;  event of transgression, in stimulating impulses to make restitution&#xA;  and seek forgiveness (Ausubel, 1955). On the other hand,&#xA;  excessive or inappropriate guilt is also assumed to result in&#xA;  dysfunctional and disruptive experiences and, in some cases,&#xA;  clinical disorders (Lewis, 1971). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And regarding White guilt, here some of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167202238377&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;its correlates&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In two studies, the authors investigated guilt as a response to group-based advantage. Consistent with its conceptualization as a self-focused emotion, White guilt was based in self-focused beliefs in racial inequality. Thus, guilt was associated with belief in White privilege (Study 1) and resulted from seeing European Americans as perpetrators of racial discrimination (Study 2). Just as personal guilt is associated with efforts at restitution, White guilt was predictive of support for affirmative action programs aimed at compensating African Americans. White guilt was not, however, predictive of support for noncompensatory efforts at promoting equality, such as affirmative action programs that increase opportunities (Study 2). In contrast, the other-focused emotion of group-based sympathy was a more general predictor of support for different affirmative action policies. Our findings demonstrate the benefits and limits of group-based guilt as a basis of support for social equality and highlight the value of understanding the specific emotions elicited in intergroup contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So (to state the obvious) white guilt not unique in the sense that it's part of a larger category of &quot;group-based guilt&quot;, sometime called &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1886&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;collective guilt&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Another example of the latter that has been investigated a fair bit is &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-23557-005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;German collective guilt&lt;/a&gt; with respect to the Nazi atrocities (and I'm not talking about guilt in the legal sense here, but the psychological one.) Likewise for &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.4119/UNIBI/ijcv.59&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;colonial injustices&lt;/a&gt;. And since in this latter case the perpetrators were usually white, while the victims were not... here's the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;An investigation of the role of group-based shame and guilt in motivating citizens of ex-colonial countries to support restitution to former colonized groups which were the target of violence and oppression. Study 1 (N = 125) was conducted in Australia during the lead-up to the first official government apology to Aboriginal Australians. Among white Australians, guilt and shame were associated with attitudinal support for intergroup apology and victim compensation. However, only shame was associated with actual political behaviour (signing a petition in support of the apology). Study 2 (N = 181), conducted in Britain, focussed on Britain’s violent mistreatment of the Kenyan population during decolonization. It tested a hypothesis that there are two forms of shame—essence shame and image shame—and demonstrated that image shame was associated with support for apology, whereas essence shame was associated with support for more substantial material and financial compensation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since guilt and shame &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shame#Comparison_with_guilt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;aren't easily delineated&lt;/a&gt;, you you'd have dive into the paper for their specific definitions. (The paper is open access, so I'm not going to reproduce all their definitions here.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Guilt is not considered a mental disorder &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)#Psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;per se&lt;/a&gt;. There are no proposed treatments for guilt by itself, if by &quot;treatment&quot; you mean the usual sense of the word (medical, psychological). Making reparations could be considered a &quot;treatment&quot; for some very loose meaning of the word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/B978-012148610-5/50014-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bybee and Quiles (1998)&lt;/a&gt; for a proposed framework for relating (type of) guilt to mental illness in general. Since this is a book chapter and lacks an authors' summary, here are two (one from the publisher, which is mostly quoting the conclusion section of the chapter, and another form the psycNET; the latter is mostly listing chapter sub-headings)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Guilt plays a prominent role in cognitive theories of mental illness as well. Guilt has been associated with a number of internalizing disorders, but most frequently with depression. When guilt is chronic, it becomes closely linked with symptoms of mental illness. Perhaps the most important implication of the present work is the importance of alleviating guilt constructively and effectively. Lewis suggests that reaction formation or sublimation might be therapeutic for the individual experiencing chronic guilt. Even if the other person is dead, the guilty individual might provide indirect reparation by giving to charity in memory or honor of the deceased or by providing social or financial support to the deceased person's family. [...] Individuals might be encouraged to seek forgiveness for transgressions they have committed even when these lapses occurred long ago. Indeed, if guilt feelings are still operative years later, this may provide all the more reason for individuals to work to resolve them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is guilt related to mental illness? The authors discuss a theoretical perspective intended to address and elucidate relationships between guilt and symptoms of mental illness. The basic principles of the model are: (1) Two fundamentally different forms of guilt exist that show radically different relationships to mental health. (2) Predispositional guilt, no matter how intense, is not maladaptive. (3) Chronic, unalleviated guilt is maladaptive. (4) Predispositional guilt is related to fewer symptoms of externalizing disorders and sociopathy. (5) Predispositional guilt is distinguishable from cognition, knowledge, and moral standards: guilt, not moral standards, is related to prosocial behavior. &#xA;  (6) Chronic, unalleviated guilt is associated with more severe symptoms of externalizing disorders. (7) Chronic guilt is distinguishable from shame: both are maladaptive and show distinct relationships to indices of psychopathology. (8) Characteristics of the individual may determine whether guilt is short-lived or chronic, in turn, affecting mental health. (9) Reactions to the precipitating situations may determine whether guilt becomes chronic (or is absent), in turn, affecting mental health. (10) The nature of the guilt-evoking events may determine whether guilt is short-lived or chronic, in turn, affecting mental health. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if you wonder what they mean by those two types:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The central tenet of the present theory is that two fundamentally different variants&#xA;  of guilt exist: predispositional guilt, which is a personality proclivity for experiencing&#xA;  guilt in response to specific, circumscribed, eliciting situations, and chronic&#xA;  guilt, an ongoing condition of guiltiness, regret, and remorse unattached to an&#xA;  immediate precipitating event. We argue that these two forms of guilt display profoundly&#xA;  different relationships to mental health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've only  skimmed the chapter, but they don't seem to discuss any form of collective guilt. I don't know if there is any research relating some form of collective guilt to (some) mental illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_formation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reactive formation&lt;/a&gt; is a psychoanalytic theory, so it may not have much empirical basis. Likewise for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublimation_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sublimation&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-12T16:38:13.980" LastActivityDate="2019-04-12T16:38:13.980" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21974" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21970" CreationDate="2019-04-07T12:54:23.757" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am old and my experience with this area is 20 years out of date, but I would still go with &lt;a href=&quot;https://neuron.yale.edu/neuron/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://neuron.yale.edu/neuron/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-04-07T12:54:23.757" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21971" CreationDate="2019-04-07T17:03:00.250" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A newborn baby has difficulty focusing its eyes or telling the difference between two objects presented to it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A baby learns to recognise its mothers face within the first week after birth, long before it can recognise objects that are not faces. They already show a preference for face-like visual stimuli while in the womb. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Human Fetus Preferentially Engages with Face-like Visual Stimuli&#xA;  Reid et al. Current Biology, March 05, 2018&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.044&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.044&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Babies start to follow moving objects with their eyes at around three months. They are capable of depth perception and have good colour vision by five months (at birth many babies are incapable of detecting some colours).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The American optometric association has a page on infant vision:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aoa.org/patients-and-public/good-vision-throughout-life/childrens-vision/infant-vision-birth-to-24-months-of-age&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.aoa.org/patients-and-public/good-vision-throughout-life/childrens-vision/infant-vision-birth-to-24-months-of-age&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In precocial animals object recognition abilities are apparent very early on. For instance, chicks which are presented with an object immediately after they have hatched will often follow that object as if it were their mother. They show a preference for moving objects over stationary objects. For more information on this check out &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Imprinting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Imprinting&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The visual cortex already starts off with areas specialised for edge detection, colour detection, motion detection etc. However, much of visual perception is learned - if an animal has its eyes patched over at birth then it will have limited perceptual abilities when the patches are removed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the question of how errors are propagated through the visual cortex, Seanny123's answer to this question might be relevant: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/16269/is-back-prop-biologically-plausible&quot;&gt;Is back-prop biologically plausible?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21384" LastActivityDate="2019-04-07T17:03:00.250" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21976" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-07T17:39:06.860" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently started reading &lt;em&gt;Fitzgerald's clinical neuroanatomy and neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=xb6iCgAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP1&amp;amp;dq=info:4mKkwXXinnQJ:scholar.google.com/&amp;amp;ots=IlRUppz1XA&amp;amp;sig=zlK7r856NseByhMo4YYw6GGwYEY#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mtui, et al. 2015&lt;/a&gt;) and reached chapter 12, &lt;em&gt;electrodiagnostic examination&lt;/em&gt;, yesterday. The chapter deals, i.a., with nerve conduction studies and how to determine motor/sensory nerve conduction velocity (MNCV/SNCV). MNCV is about 50 m/s in a young, healthy adult as presented in the book. In a previous chapter, however, the reader is told that A&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\alpha$&lt;/span&gt; axons have conduction velocities ranging from 80 - 120 m/s which I also verified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Isn't this contradictory? How can median nerve MNCV be less than the previously mentioned velocity? I know there are several fibers of a different type in the median nerve but shouldn't much rather scattering occur? What am I missing? Any help is greatly appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mtui, E., Gruener, G., &amp;amp; Dockery, P. (2015). &lt;em&gt;Fitzgerald's Clinical Neuroanatomy and Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;. Philadelphia, PA:Elsevier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21954" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-04-09T05:36:36.367" Title="Why is median motor nerve conduction velocity about 50 m/s?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;motor&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21978" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-08T01:08:28.487" Score="3" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;When does the brain stem appear in humans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following article states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Once the neural tube closes, at around week 6 or week 7 of pregnancy,&#xA;  it curves and bulges into three sections, commonly known as the&#xA;  forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. Just to the rear of the hindbrain&#xA;  sits the part that will soon turn into your baby's spinal cord. Soon,&#xA;  these areas bubble into those five different regions of the brain that&#xA;  we're most familiar with: the cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem,&#xA;  pituitary gland and the hypothalamus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How &quot;soon&quot; after 6 - 7 weeks is this soon the article talks about? When does the brain stem appear in humans?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.whattoexpect.com/pregnancy/fetal-development/fetal-brain-nervous-system/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fetal Brain Development&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13498" LastActivityDate="2019-09-07T10:02:00.220" Title="When does the brain stem appear in humans?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21980" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="21990" CreationDate="2019-04-08T17:27:06.397" Score="4" ViewCount="561" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently come across the following article:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.super-memory.com/help/il_full.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.super-memory.com/help/il_full.htm&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;The author makes the claim that &quot;Incremental learning&quot; is the best way of learning and goes as far as to claim that the problem of &quot;forgetting&quot; is nearly completely avoided. For me the whole thing just sounds like advertising for the program &quot;SuperMemo&quot; but apparently the author Piotr Woźniak holds a PhD and is in fact a researcher. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piotr_Wo%C5%BAniak_(researcher)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piotr_Wo%C5%BAniak_(researcher)&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Is he a known fraud or is the information presented a mainstream opinion shared by psychologists?&#xA;Thanks in advance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21960" LastActivityDate="2019-04-09T19:00:23.490" Title="Is &quot;Incremental learning&quot; pseudo-science?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21981" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="22048" CreationDate="2019-04-09T02:20:05.980" Score="1" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not a psychologist and would like to know how to get a psychological assessment to put into my website? Is there a public assessment with question data and scoring logic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm sorry if the question is obvious to psychologists, and feel free to close the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm initially looking for assessment for students to help them choose a career path. I Googled &quot;student career path quiz&quot; and found numerous assessments, they're free as well, though I don't have the resources to create those assessments in my own website. So I guess my question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;is there a public resource for psychological assessments, including questions, answers, scoring logic, and reporting?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be clear: I want to put an psychological assessment in my website to assess students for choosing a career path (e.g. their personality model) one example is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/IPIP-BFFM/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IPIP Big-Five Factor Markers by OpenPsychometrics&lt;/a&gt; for the big five personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm coming from a programming background, so I'll code the assessment myself. But to do it, I need the list of questions, answers, scoring functions, and reporting standard. The ones that I found have questions and answers, but I couldn't find the scoring logic and how to generate reports for such questionnaires. I'm asking if there are public questionnaires that can I take to put into my own website.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21963" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-04-11T05:28:11.897" LastActivityDate="2019-04-16T00:49:35.163" Title="Where to get psychology assessment resources to put into my website?" Tags="&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21983" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-09T02:56:02.403" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has it been proved by measurement of chemicals in the brain that psychiatric disorders have either their origin or continuance due to chemical imbalance in the brain? I saw the documentary &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFhm-xhQocM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnostic &amp;amp; Statistical Manual: Psychiatry's Deadliest Scam&lt;/a&gt; which calls the &lt;strong&gt;chemical imbalance theory&lt;/strong&gt; a fraud by people labelled as eminent practitioners of Psychology &amp;amp; Psychiatry. Is there a difference of opinion among experts in this field?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17994" LastActivityDate="2019-04-09T02:56:02.403" Title="Is there any empirical support to &quot;chemical imbalance theory&quot; for mental illness?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;dsm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21984" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-09T02:57:14.887" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's suppose that i am a blind person whom never had any experience with sight before. I will also suppose that i have started some courses to learn about the eyes and the way it function with detailed explanation of every single component of the &quot;seeing&quot; process. &#xA;according to previous studies in the field, i will never know &quot; what is to see&quot; until i have a direct experience with that. Building upon that, how could we distinguish experience from knowledge for the application of Artificial Intelligence and machine learning? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19397" LastActivityDate="2019-04-09T04:37:33.053" Title="What is the difference between experience and knowledge and how could we make use of that in machine learning and AI applications?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21985" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21984" CreationDate="2019-04-09T04:37:33.053" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you can't see now why would you be able to see later if nothing has changed? It's not part of your capabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the statement &quot;I will never know what is to see until i have a direct experience with that&quot; isn't actually possible  because you can't have the experience without knowing what it is you're experiencing ... how would you be able to identify something if you have no knowledge of it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless...&#xA;Knowledge is objective - Mary had a little lamb.&#xA;Experience is subjective - It was a painful pregnancy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if you have no knowledge of baseball and I give you the rules book would you know how to play baseball?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yep. Would you understand baseball? Nope.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The rules are the knowledge. The playing is the experience - giving context to the information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deep Blue beats the best chess players. It has no understanding of chess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19555" LastActivityDate="2019-04-09T04:37:33.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21986" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-09T07:05:22.880" Score="2" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?client=ms-android-xiaomi&amp;amp;ei=1UGsXOznNcOPr7wP-NmOkAg&amp;amp;q=multitasking%20is%20bad%20stanford&amp;amp;oq=multitasking%20is%20bad%20stanford&amp;amp;gs_l=mobile-gws-wiz-serp.3..33i21.5403.7641..7870...0.0..0.431.2119.2-7j0j1......0....1.........0i71j0j0i22i30j33i22i29i30j33i160j33i13i21.MhIt4DiTiOw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Researches&lt;/a&gt; shown that multitasking is really bad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, does studying multiple subjects in parallel comes under it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it okay to switch between the subjects (mathematics, physics, biology, ....) In small amounts of time (say 15-30 minutes)?  Is there any research on it whether is efficient or not for comprehending and deep understanding of subjects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;My personal experience&lt;/code&gt;: I tried to study 4 subjects in parallel for every 15-30 minutes (based on interest on the subject or boredom on the subject )for each subject, I notice an increase in my studying time and the breadth, as well as the depth of topics and I, 'm not getting any boredom and constantly thinking about subjects. So, feeling better than studying only a single subject for more time (say 3 hours). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6715" LastEditorUserId="6715" LastEditDate="2019-04-09T07:35:52.383" LastActivityDate="2019-04-09T07:35:52.383" Title="Does studying multiples subjects in parallel effect performance?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21987" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21980" CreationDate="2019-04-09T11:45:45.997" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;WIRED, has an article just about him and his lifestyle: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wired.com/2008/04/ff-wozniak/?currentPage=all&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Want to Remember Everything You'll Ever Learn? Surrender to This Algorithm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An anecdote: I built a &lt;a href=&quot;https://ankiweb.net/shared/info/1346912511&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;flashcard deck for Anki program&lt;/a&gt;. From my observation Anki is one of the leading software in the market for spaced repetition software. &lt;a href=&quot;https://apps.ankiweb.net/docs/manual.html#what-spaced-repetition-algorithm-does-anki-use&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The program's algorithm is based on SuperMemo 2 algorithm.&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So we have these names: WIRED, Anki, spaced repetition. They seem to converge to one conclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-04-09T15:47:14.497" LastActivityDate="2019-04-09T15:47:14.497" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21988" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-09T13:00:20.250" Score="1" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am writing a paper on why people ascribe certain qualities to certain places. I seem to recall an experiment where the subjects used a virtual reality system to navigate a completely fictional computer-generated underground space. A significant number of them chose the same 'spookiest place' and IIRC some quoted some spaces as being colder then others. I recall that it was a response to the claim that since so many people reported feeling of unease in a certain spot in an allegedly haunted house then it must be of supernatural origin. The common response to a fictional place seems to help disprove this claim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I currently have a section on people ascribing positive emotions and responses to places but I am looking for the fear and anxiety response to a place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of this experiment and can direct me to a paper? I have been searching most of the morning but cannot find anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21966" LastEditorUserId="21966" LastEditDate="2019-04-10T07:25:44.087" LastActivityDate="2019-04-13T09:44:09.437" Title="Looking for a paper: Fear response in a computer generated VR environment" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21921" CreationDate="2019-04-09T13:04:04.873" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following is a culmination of research I have conducted over a long time on the very subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The term &quot;statutory rape&quot;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a generic term and some consider it to include just victims under the age of consent, and some consider it to include victims aged 16-18 or older who are being taught in college/university.  Therefore, I would first like to address the term &quot;statutory rape&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of all offenders of male statutory rape victims, 70% were age 21 and older, while 45% of offenders of female statutory rape victims were 21 and older (&lt;a href=&quot;https://classic.ntis.gov/assets/pdf/st-on-cd/PB2007105633.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Troup-Leasure &amp;amp; Snyder, 2005&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has been amalgamated to form the statistic that young adults under age 25 are the most common perpetrators known to law enforcement (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2013.830668&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oudekerk, et al. 2013&lt;/a&gt;), because most (95%) statutory rape victims were female according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://classic.ntis.gov/assets/pdf/st-on-cd/PB2007105633.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Troup-Leasure &amp;amp; Snyder, (2005)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;One important point of note here&lt;/strong&gt; is that the figures, as with all official rape and sexual assault statistics can only be based on cases reported to the police.  Many cases go unreported for many reasons, and therefore these statistics can be a little skewed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In common law jurisdictions, statutory rape is &lt;strong&gt;nonforcible&lt;/strong&gt; sexual activity in which one of the individuals is below the age of consent (the age required to legally consent to the behavior) (Cusack, 2015; &lt;a href=&quot;https://classic.ntis.gov/assets/pdf/st-on-cd/PB2007105633.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Troup-Leasure &amp;amp; Snyder, 2005&lt;/a&gt;). Although it usually refers to adults engaging in sexual contact with minors under the age of consent, it is a generic term, and very few jurisdictions use the actual term statutory rape in the language of statutes (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ovc.gov/publications/infores/statutoryrape/handbook/statrape.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Davis &amp;amp; Twombly, 2000&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Different jurisdictions use many different statutory terms for the crime, such as sexual assault, rape of a child, corruption of a minor, unlawful sex with a minor, carnal knowledge of a minor, unlawful carnal knowledge, sexual battery or simply carnal knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The terms child sexual abuse or child molestation may also be used, but statutory rape generally refers to sex between an adult and a sexually mature minor past the age of puberty, and may therefore be distinguished from child sexual abuse (Cusack, 2015; Fradella &amp;amp; Sumner, 2016). Sexual relations with a prepubescent child in this case is typically treated as a more serious crime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In statutory rape laws, overt force or threat is not present. Statutory rape laws presume coercion, because a minor or mentally handicapped adult is legally incapable of giving consent to the act.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Female on male statutory rape&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Until the late 1970s, sex involving an adult female and an underage male was often ignored by the law, due to the belief that it is often sexual initiation for the younger male (Gartner, 2001) This view still exists within the public viewpoint, as it is glamorized by the media and there may be a gender bias in courts on teacher-student sexual relationships (though these relationships are illegal regardless of age).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To add to this, in at least one case, the U.S. courts have held that male victims of statutory rape &lt;strong&gt;may&lt;/strong&gt; be liable for child support for any children resulting from the crime. In &lt;em&gt;County of San Luis Obispo v. Nathaniel J&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://caselaw.findlaw.com/ca-court-of-appeal/1847179.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;California courts of appeal, 1996&lt;/a&gt;). the 15-year-old victim Nathaniel J. discussed a future relationship with the perpetrator (a 34-year-old woman) and stated that the sex was &quot;mutually agreeable&quot;. Given this testimony, the California Court of Appeal held Nathaniel J. financially responsible for his child. The court stated the boy was &quot;not an innocent victim&quot; of the sexual intercourse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Early Research&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way that long-term effects of child sexual abuse (CSA) have come to be put together reflects, in no small measure, the very particular circumstances that surrounded the revelation of CSA as an all too common event in the lives of children. The first phase of modern research into CSA was not triggered by observations on child victims, but by the self-disclosures of adults who had the courage to publicly give witness to their abuse as children. These early self-revealed victims who were studied, exclusively women, had often been the victims of incestuous abuse, and plausibly attributed many of their current personal difficulties to their sexual abuse as children. This contrasts with the emergence of child abuse as a public health and research issue that has been driven by the observations of professionals caring for abused children&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Long-term impact on mental health&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There have been numerous studies examining the association between a history of CSA and mental health problems in adult life that have employed clinical samples, convenience samples (usually students), and random community samples. There is now an established body of knowledge clearly linking a history of CSA with higher rates in adult life of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, substance abuse disorders, eating disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/download/43835259/Multivariate_correlates_of_childhood_psy20160317-13213-g58tjf.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Briere &amp;amp; Runtz 1988&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.147.3.335&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Winfield et al. 1990&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1992.tb01458.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bushnell et al. 1992&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.163.6.721&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mullen et al. 1993&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.9.1336&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Romans et al. 1995&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.193&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Romans et al. 1997&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199610000-00023&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fergusson et al. 1996a&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199610000-00024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fergusson et al. 1996b&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(96)00059-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Silverman et al. 1996&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.931217875.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fleming et al. 1998&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(98)00118-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fleming et al. 1999&lt;/a&gt;). A more controversial literature links multiple personality disorder with CSA (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009164719202000314&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bucky &amp;amp; Dallenberg 1992&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/10216-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spanos 1996&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Unravelling the associations between abuse and long-term problems&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a wide range of potential adverse adult outcomes associated with CSA. However, although there is a proposal by Karen Rodman, Director and Founder of FAAAS Inc (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.faaas.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Families of Adults Afflicted with Asperger's Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;) for &lt;a href=&quot;https://theneurotypical.com/posttraumatic_relationship_syndrome.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Post-Traumatic Relationship Syndrome or Ongoing Traumatic Relationship Syndrome (OTRS)&lt;/a&gt;, there is no unique pattern to the long-term effects and no &lt;strong&gt;real&lt;/strong&gt; distinctly specific “post-abuse syndrome” that I have found. This suggests that CSA is best viewed as a risk factor for a wide range of subsequent problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In studies on the long-term impact of CSA that employ adult subjects, it is all too easy to forget the abuse occurred in childhood, and to resort to applying inappropriately adult-centred conceptualisations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The sexual abuse of children occurs during a period in life where complex and, hopefully, ordered changes are occurring in the child's physical, psychological and social being. The state of flux leaves the child vulnerable to sustaining damage that will detrimentally affect the normal developmental processes. The impact of abuse is likely to be modified by the developmental stage at which it occurs. It will also vary according to how resilient the child is in terms of their psychological and social development up to that point. A child who has already had to cope with, for example, a problematic family background or prior emotional abuse, will be more vulnerable to the additional blow of CSA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These suppositions are borne out by studies that have demonstrated powerful interactions between the child's prior exposure to potentially damaging situations, and the degree of adult disturbance apparently associated with a history of CSA (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.163.6.721&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mullen et al. 1993&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.165.1.35&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mullen et al. 1994&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199610000-00023&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fergusson et al. 1996a&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199610000-00024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fergusson et al. 1996b&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00039-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fergusson et al. 1997a&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00021-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fergusson et al. 1997b&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The long-term effects of CSA will also be modified by the individual's experience subsequent to the abuse. Romans et al. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.9.1336&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1995&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.193&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1997&lt;/a&gt;) demonstrated that long-term problems following CSA were significantly lower in those who had supportive and confiding relationships with their mothers and in those who, as adolescents, experienced some success at school or with peers. The nature of this success (academic, social or sporting), is probably less important than the accompanying strengthening of self-esteem and enhancement of opportunities for effective social interactions with peers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The relationship between the potential damage inflicted on elements in the child's development and subsequent mitigating factors is complex. For example, the observation that those victims of CSA who manage to establish and maintain stable marital relationships are protected against some of the potentially adverse outcomes of CSA (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.60.2.174&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cole &amp;amp; Putnam 1992&lt;/a&gt;) may reflect, in part, the mitigating and healing influence of patience and understanding from their partners.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Peters (&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1988-98633-005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1988&lt;/a&gt;) suggested that CSA interacts with family background to produce disruption of the child's developing self-esteem and sense of mastery of the world (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/681216&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;agency&lt;/a&gt;). It is these deficits that increase the likelihood of psychological problems in later life. This model of developmental deficits leading to social and personal vulnerabilities in adult life, which in their turn create an increased risk of mental health problems, can usefully be expanded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those with histories of CSA, have an increased risk of social, interpersonal and sexual problems in adult life. This association may play a role in creating at least some of the far better-known associations between CSA and mental health problems. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Greater vulnerability to depression is found in women who lack a trusting, intimate and confiding relationship (Henderson and Brown 1988; Harris 1988; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3109/00048679209072075&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Romans et al. 1992&lt;/a&gt;). Depression is also associated with lowered self-esteem and a sense of hopelessness about one's ability to influence one's life (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.66&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Browne &amp;amp; Finkelhor 1986&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.148.4.375&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ingham et al. 1986&lt;/a&gt;). Therefore, the social, interpersonal and sexual problems associated with a history of CSA may themselves provide fertile ground for the development of mental health problems, particularly in the area of depressive disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A plausible hypothesis can be put forward that the developmental disruption in CSA victims' sense of self-esteem, sense of agency, sense of the world as a safe enough environment, in their capacity for entering trusting intimate relationships and, finally, in their developing sexuality, leads in adult life to an increased risk of low self-esteem, social and economic failure, social insecurity and isolation, difficulties with intimacy and sexual problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Gender Differences&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research continues to depict CSA as predominantly perpetrated against female children. It is estimated that 1 in 20 children in the UK have been sexually assaulted (&lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.466.6459&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Radford et al. 2011&lt;/a&gt;). According to the Office for National Statistics, between March 2003 and September 2018, 82% of sexual assaults in England and Wales were on girls under 16 leaving 18% on boys under 16 (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/datasets/crimeinenglandandwalesappendixtables/yearendingseptember2018/appendixtablesyearendingseptember2018.xlsx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Table A4 in Elkin (2019)&lt;/a&gt;). In Australia, in 2003, 76% of recorded sexual assault victims aged under 15 years of age were female and 24% were male (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs%40.nsf/DetailsPage/4523.02004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trewin, 2004&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing to remember about crime statistics are these are &lt;strong&gt;only assaults which are reported to the police&lt;/strong&gt; and many go unreported (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0I8K5x8oOJkC&amp;amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gregory &amp;amp; Lees, 1999&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Child sexual abuse is clearly an issue in need of a nuanced understanding of both male and female victims. Research suggests that the sexual abuse of boys is far more common than generally believed (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2012.659803&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dorahy &amp;amp; Clearwater, 2012&lt;/a&gt;). This is emerging from studies of clergy-perpetrated sexual abuse and from studies of gay and bisexual men. The prevalence rates for both groups are significantly higher than the more commonly cited figures for males in the general population (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022307323744&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jinich et al., 1998&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9449-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wilson &amp;amp; Widom, 2010&lt;/a&gt;). In relation to clergy-perpetrated abuse, it is becoming clear, as outlined earlier, that boys are much more likely than girls to be the victims of this type of abuse, though it may not be formally reported to authorities for some time, if ever (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.usccb.org/issues-and-action/child-and-youth-protection/upload/the-nature-and-scope-of-sexual-abuse-of-minors-by-catholic-priests-and-deacons-in-the-united-states-1950-2002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Jay College, 2004&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2012.689424&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Parkinson et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;- &lt;a href=&quot;https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/long-term-effects-child-sexual-abuse/gender-differences-long-term-impacts-child-sexual&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cashmore &amp;amp; Shackel (2013)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Talking to male victims myself in my line of work over the years has revealed that boys suffer the same as girls, with additional problems whereby cultural images of how &quot;real men&quot; should think, feel and act can create problems (&lt;a href=&quot;https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/fathers-history-child-sexual-abuse-new-findings-f/introduction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Price-Robertson, 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;powerful barriers to male victim/survivors of child sexual abuse disclosing their experiences to others, accepting their experience as one that may have had a formative influence on their lives, and healing from the trauma of the abuse … [This] means that many in society have difficulty fully acknowledging and accepting the reality of the sexual abuse of males during childhood/adolescence, and the trauma it can inflict. (p. 5)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/long-term-effects-child-sexual-abuse/gender-differences-long-term-impacts-child-sexual#table-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Table 2 in Cashmore &amp;amp; Shackel (2013)&lt;/a&gt; summarises the findings from 11 studies on the impact of CSA on males and a comparison between male survivors of child sexual abuse and female survivors and non-abused men. Overall, research on the effects of CSA amongst male victims indicates that male survivors often &quot;experience the event as traumatic and that psychological distress is a common long-term correlate&quot; of such abuse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Briere, J., &amp;amp; Runtz, M. (1988). Multivariate correlates of childhood psychological and physical maltreatment among university women. &lt;em&gt;Child Abuse &amp;amp; Neglect, 12&lt;/em&gt;(3), 331-341. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(88)90046-46g66&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0145-2134(88)90046-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Browne, A., &amp;amp; Finkelhor, D. (1986). Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of the research. &lt;em&gt;Psychological bulletin, 99&lt;/em&gt;(1), 66. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.66&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.66&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bucky, S. F., &amp;amp; Dalenberg, C. (1992). The relationship between training of mental health professionals and the reporting of ritual abuse and multiple personality disorder symptomatology. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Psychology and Theology, 20&lt;/em&gt;(3), 233-238. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009164719202000314&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/009164719202000314&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bushnell, J. A., Wells, J. E., &amp;amp; Oakley‐Browne, M. A. (1992). Long‐term effects of intrafamilial sexual abuse in childhood. &lt;em&gt;Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 85&lt;/em&gt;(2), 136-142. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1992.tb01458.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/j.1600-0447.1992.tb01458.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;California courts of appeal (1996). &lt;em&gt;County of San Luis Obispo v. Nathaniel J&lt;/em&gt; [Online]&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://caselaw.findlaw.com/ca-court-of-appeal/1847179.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://caselaw.findlaw.com/ca-court-of-appeal/1847179.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cashmore, J. and Shackel, R. (2013). &lt;em&gt;CFCA Paper No. 11&lt;/em&gt;. Southbank, Victoria, Australia: Australian Institute of Family Studies. Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/long-term-effects-child-sexual-abuse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/long-term-effects-child-sexual-abuse&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cole, P. M., &amp;amp; Putnam, F. W. (1992). Effect of incest on self and social functioning: A developmental psychopathology perspective. &lt;em&gt;Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 60&lt;/em&gt;(2), 174. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.60.2.174&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-006X.60.2.174&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cusack, C. M. (2015). &lt;em&gt;Laws Relating to Sex, Pregnancy, and Infancy: Issues in Criminal Justice&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Davis, N. S., &amp;amp; Twombly, J. (2000). &lt;em&gt;State legislators' handbook for statutory rape issues&lt;/em&gt;. American Bar Association, Center on Children and the Law. pdf: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ovc.gov/publications/infores/statutoryrape/handbook/statrape.pdf6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ovc.gov/publications/infores/statutoryrape/handbook/statrape.pdf6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dorahy, M. J., &amp;amp; Clearwater, K. (2012). Shame and guilt in men exposed to childhood sexual abuse: A qualitative investigation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of child sexual abuse, 21&lt;/em&gt;(2), 155-175. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2012.659803&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/10538712.2012.659803&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Elkin, M. (2019). &lt;em&gt;Table A4: Police recorded crime by offence, year ending March 2003 to year ending September 2018&lt;/em&gt; Pimlico, London, UK: Office for National Statistics. 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Prevalence of sexual abuse and factors associated with sexual abuse. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the American Academy of Child &amp;amp; Adolescent Psychiatry, 35&lt;/em&gt;(10), 1355-1364. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199610000-00023&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1097/00004583-199610000-00023&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., &amp;amp; Lynskey, M. T. (1996b). Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: II. Psychiatric outcomes of childhood sexual abuse. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the American Academy of Child &amp;amp; Adolescent Psychiatry, 35&lt;/em&gt;(10), 1365-1374. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199610000-00024&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1097/00004583-199610000-00024&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., &amp;amp; Lynskey, M. T. (1997a). Childhood sexual abuse, adolescent sexual behaviors and sexual revictimization. &lt;em&gt;Child abuse &amp;amp; neglect, 21&lt;/em&gt;(8), 789-803. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00039-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00039-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fergusson, D. M., &amp;amp; Lynskey, M. T. (1997b). Physical punishment/maltreatment during childhood and adjustment in young adulthood. &lt;em&gt;Child abuse &amp;amp; neglect, 21&lt;/em&gt;(7), 617-630. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00021-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00021-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fleming, J., Mullen, P. E., Sibthorpe, B., Attewell, R., &amp;amp; Bammer, G. (1998). The relationship between childhood sexual abuse and alcohol abuse in women‐a case‐control study. &lt;em&gt;Addiction, 93&lt;/em&gt;(12), 1787-1798. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.931217875.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.931217875.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fleming, J., Mullen, P. E., Sibthorpe, B., &amp;amp; Bammer, G. (1999). The long-term impact of childhood sexual abuse in Australian women. &lt;em&gt;Child abuse &amp;amp; neglect, 23&lt;/em&gt;(2), 145-159. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(98)00118-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0145-2134(98)00118-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fradella, H. F., &amp;amp; Sumner, J. M. (Eds.). (2016). &lt;em&gt;Sex, Sexuality, Law, and (in) justice&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gartner, R. B. (2001). &lt;em&gt;Betrayed as boys: Psychodynamic treatment of sexually abused men&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gregory, J., &amp;amp; Lees, S. (1999). &lt;em&gt;Policing sexual assault&lt;/em&gt;. London, UK: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harris, T. O. (1988), Psychosocial vulnerability to depression. In S. Henderson and G. Burrows (eds) &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Social Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 55 - 71.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Henderson, A. S. and Brown, G. S. (1988), Social support: the hypothesis and the evidence. In S. Henderson and G. Burrows (eds) &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Social Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, , Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 73 - 85.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ingham, J. G., Kreitman, N. B., Miller, P. M., Sashidharan, S. P., &amp;amp; Surtees, P. G. (1986). Self-esteem, vulnerability and psychiatric disorder in the community. &lt;em&gt;The British Journal of Psychiatry, 148&lt;/em&gt;(4), 375-385. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.148.4.375&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1192/bjp.148.4.375&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John Jay College Research Team. (2004). &lt;em&gt;The nature and scope of the problem of sexual abuse of minors by Catholic priests and deacons in the United States, 1950-2002: A research study conducted by the John Jay College of Criminal Justice (National Clergy Sex Abuse Report)&lt;/em&gt;. Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.usccb.org/issues-and-action/child-and-youth-protection/upload/the-nature-and-scope-of-sexual-abuse-of-minors-by-catholic-priests-and-deacons-in-the-united-states-1950-2002.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.usccb.org/issues-and-action/child-and-youth-protection/upload/the-nature-and-scope-of-sexual-abuse-of-minors-by-catholic-priests-and-deacons-in-the-united-states-1950-2002.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jinich, S., Paul, J. P., Stall, R., Acree, M., Kegeles, S., Hoff, C., &amp;amp; Coates, T. J. (1998). Childhood sexual abuse and HIV risk-taking behavior among gay and bisexual men. &lt;em&gt;AIDS and Behavior, 2&lt;/em&gt;(1), 41-51. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022307323744&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1023/A:1022307323744&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mullen, P. E., Martin, J. L., Anderson, J. C., Romans, S. E., &amp;amp; Herbison, G. P. (1993). Childhood sexual abuse and mental health in adult life. &lt;em&gt;The British Journal of Psychiatry, 163&lt;/em&gt;(6), 721-732. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.163.6.721&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1192/bjp.163.6.721&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mullen, P. E., Martin, J. L., Anderson, J. C., Romans, S. E., &amp;amp; Herbison, G. P. (1994). The effect of child sexual abuse on social, interpersonal and sexual function in adult life. &lt;em&gt;The British Journal of Psychiatry, 165&lt;/em&gt;(1), 35-47. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.165.1.35&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1192/bjp.165.1.35&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oudekerk, B. A., Farr, R. H., &amp;amp; Reppucci, N. D. (2013). Is it love or sexual abuse? Young adults' perceptions of statutory rape. &lt;em&gt;Journal of child sexual abuse, 22&lt;/em&gt;(7), 858-877. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2013.830668&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/10538712.2013.830668&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parkinson, P. N., Oates, R. K., &amp;amp; Jayakody, A. A. (2012). Child sexual abuse in the Anglican Church of Australia. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 21&lt;/em&gt;(5), 553-570. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2012.689424&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/10538712.2012.689424&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Price-Robertson, R. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Fathers with a History of Child Sexual Abuse: New Findings for Policy and Practice&lt;/em&gt; (CFCA Paper No. 6). Australian Institute of Family Studies. Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/fathers-history-child-sexual-abuse-new-findings-f/introduction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/fathers-history-child-sexual-abuse-new-findings-f/introduction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Peters, S. D. (1988). Child sexual abuse and later psychological problems. In &lt;em&gt;Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, 93rd, Aug, 1985, Los Angeles, CA, US&lt;/em&gt;. Sage Publications, Inc. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1988-98633-005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1988-98633-005&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Radford, L., Corral, S., Bradley, C., Fisher, H., Bassett, C., Howat, N., &amp;amp; Collishaw, S. (2011). Child abuse and neglect in the UK today. London: NSPCC. Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.466.6459&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.466.6459&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Romans, S. E., Walton, V. A., Herbison, G. P., &amp;amp; Mullen, P. E. (1992). Social networks and psychiatric morbidity in New Zealand women. &lt;em&gt;Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 26&lt;/em&gt;(3), 485-492. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3109/00048679209072075&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3109/00048679209072075&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Romans, S. E., Martin, J. L., Anderson, J. C., Herbison, G. P., &amp;amp; Mullen, P. E. (1995). Sexual abuse in childhood and deliberate self-harm. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Psychiatry, 152&lt;/em&gt;(9), 1336-1342. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.9.1336&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1176/ajp.152.9.1336&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Romans, S., Martin, J., &amp;amp; Mullen, P. (1997). Childhood sexual abuse and later psychological problems: Neither necessary, sufficient nor acting alone. &lt;em&gt;Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 7&lt;/em&gt;(4), 327-338. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.193&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/cbm.193&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Silverman, A. B., Reinherz, H. Z., &amp;amp; Giaconia, R. M. (1996). The long-term sequelae of child and adolescent abuse: A longitudinal community study. &lt;em&gt;Child abuse &amp;amp; neglect, 20&lt;/em&gt;(8), 709-723. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(96)00059-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0145-2134(96)00059-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spanos, N. P. (1996), &lt;em&gt;Multiple Identities and False Memories: A Sociocognitive Perspective&lt;/em&gt;. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/10216-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/10216-000&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trewin, D. (2004). Sexual assault in Australia: A statistical overview. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrievable from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs%40.nsf/DetailsPage/4523.02004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs%40.nsf/DetailsPage/4523.02004&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Troup-Leasure, K., &amp;amp; Snyder, H. (2005). &lt;em&gt;Statutory rape known to law enforcement (Juvenile Justice Bulletin No. NCJ 208803)&lt;/em&gt;. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. pdf: &lt;a href=&quot;https://classic.ntis.gov/assets/pdf/st-on-cd/PB2007105633.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://classic.ntis.gov/assets/pdf/st-on-cd/PB2007105633.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wilson, H. W., &amp;amp; Widom, C. S. (2010). Does physical abuse, sexual abuse, or neglect in childhood increase the likelihood of same-sex sexual relationships and cohabitation? A prospective 30-year follow-up. &lt;em&gt;Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39&lt;/em&gt;(1), 63-74. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9449-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s10508-008-9449-3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Winfield, I., George, L. K., Swartz, M., &amp;amp; Blazer, D. G. (1990). Sexual assault and psychiatric disorders among a community sample of women. &lt;em&gt;The American Journal of Psychiatry, 147&lt;/em&gt;(3), 335-341. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.147.3.335&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1176/ajp.147.3.335&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-04-13T11:07:46.833" LastActivityDate="2019-04-13T11:07:46.833" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21990" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21980" CreationDate="2019-04-09T19:00:23.490" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The merits of any given body of work is best assessed by looking at it, regardless of whether you want to label it as 'pseudoscientific' or not based on that judgement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, this proved to be quite troublesome for &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.super-memory.com/help/il_full.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the SuperMemo application&lt;/a&gt;, which makes some pretty strong claims that require justification to be considered academic. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Incremental learning is the fastest and the most comprehensive way of learning available to students at the moment of writing (2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Incremental learning easily ensures 95% recall of top-priority learning material for lifetime&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be considered scientific, there would have to be publicly accessible publications backing up those claims. I found the following list of &lt;a href=&quot;http://super-memory.com/english/publicat.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;50 publications in reference to SuperMemo&lt;/a&gt;. But, I could only find the following &lt;strong&gt;4 publications out of the 50 listed&lt;/strong&gt; on &lt;a href=&quot;http://scholar.google.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A hypothetical model of processes involved in the release of norepinephrine in the adrenergic synapse. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi-org.proxy.findit.dtu.dk/10.1016/0303-2647(91)90025-G&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gorzelańczyk &amp;amp; Woźniak, 1991&lt;/a&gt;): cited by 2; the abstract seems irrelevant to the claims made&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The educational technology of repetition spacing in information systems development. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-5915-3_28&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wozniak &amp;amp; Abramowicz, 1997&lt;/a&gt;): 4 references, all self-citations; no tracked citations on Scholar; furthermore, listed twice in the list of 50 publications&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;SuperMemo (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/24152771?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wharton, 1994&lt;/a&gt;): a 5-page software review, representing a subjective case study at best (&lt;em&gt;&quot;As a new German student, I have been using SuperMemo ...&quot;&lt;/em&gt;); no tracked citations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Optimization of repetition spacing in the practice of learning. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://ane.pl/pdf/5409.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wozniak &amp;amp; Gorzelanczyk, 1994&lt;/a&gt;): 4-pager, 7 references, &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.dk/scholar?cites=5663473014435980774&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;cited by 79&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact that the majority of these publications are not available indicates these were not made 'archival' by the conferences/journals they were presented at. This gives a first poor assessment of the adequacy of this presented work. Rigorous, peer-reviewed, work would be accessible and cited by subsequent research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last paper (4 page 'short communication') with 79 citations presents:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A universal formula for computing inter-repetition intervals&#xA;  in paired-associate learning has been determined for the knowledge&#xA;  retention level of 95%. It is claimed that the formula could be used in&#xA;  the practice of learning for a wide range of subjects, regardless&#xA;  individual learner's capacity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The method they employed to evaluate their algorithm:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The subjects taking part in the experiment were 7 unpaid&#xA;  volunteers, students of computer science at the&#xA;  Technical University of Poznan. In the period of 18&#xA;  months, they memorized and repeated altogether&#xA;  over 35000 items of their choice (the items had the&#xA;  form of Polish-English word pairs). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll leave it up to you to decide whether or not you agree with their conclusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The obtained results unequivocally indicate the superiority of progressive repetition spacing over massed or distributed spacing and may be used in practice of learning in order to minimize time necessary for memorization and retention of the learned material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, alternatively, follow-up on the 79 citations to see how experts in the field formulate the work. One example (&lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0956797613504302?casa_token=CrwUQnadshwAAAAA:u440gMVerDQS7zKVtSUUK3BOKqUXy-96tix-xeY--0tEkT8YaE6giw6ksSSBhpy2eGGxlKPLiuRb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lindsey et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;), emphasis mine:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Outside the academic literature&lt;/strong&gt;, two traditional adaptive-scheduling techniques have attracted a degree of&#xA;  popular interest: the Leitner (1972) system and&#xA;  SuperMemo (Wozniak &amp;amp; Gorzelanczyk, 1994). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, Wozniak seemed to have been a reviewer on that paper!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Conclusion&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the SuperMemo application does seem to have made a noticeable commercial impact, of which the Wired article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wired.com/2008/04/ff-wozniak/?currentPage=all&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Want to remember everything you'll ever learn? Surrender to this algorithm&quot;&lt;/a&gt; and citations to the one paper is a good indication, it does not seem to be embedded in rigorous published scientific research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This does not necessarily make the application 'pseudoscientific' as it might still base itself or correspond to 'proper science', &lt;em&gt;but&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;the way the website represents itself as scientific is grossly overstated&lt;/strong&gt;. I would not place much trust in anything written there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Wozniak, P. A., &amp;amp; Abramowicz, W. (1997). &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-5915-3_28&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The educational technology of repetition spacing in information systems development.&lt;/a&gt; In Systems Development Methods for the Next Century (pp. 341-344). Springer, Boston, MA.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gorzelańczyk, E. J., &amp;amp; Woźniak, P. (1991). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi-org.proxy.findit.dtu.dk/10.1016/0303-2647(91)90025-G&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A hypothetical model of processes involved in the release of norepinephrine in the adrenergic synapse.&lt;/a&gt; BioSystems, 25(4), 275-281.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Wharton C. (1994). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/24152771?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SuperMemo&lt;/a&gt;. CALICO Journal&#xA;Vol. 12, No. 1 (Fall 1994), pp. 66-70&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Wozniak, P. A., &amp;amp; Gorzelanczyk, E. J. (1994). &lt;a href=&quot;https://ane.pl/pdf/5409.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Optimization of repetition spacing in the practice of learning.&lt;/a&gt; Acta neurobiologiae experimentalis, 54, 59-59.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Lindsey, R. V., Shroyer, J. D., Pashler, H., &amp;amp; Mozer, M. C. (2014). &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0956797613504302?casa_token=CrwUQnadshwAAAAA:u440gMVerDQS7zKVtSUUK3BOKqUXy-96tix-xeY--0tEkT8YaE6giw6ksSSBhpy2eGGxlKPLiuRb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Improving students’ long-term knowledge retention through personalized review.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological science, 25(3), 639-647.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2019-04-09T19:00:23.490" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21993" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-09T22:58:23.030" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am actually looking at DSM-5 but I cannot find any exhaustive or otherwise comprehensive list or explicit association of which neurodevelopmental disorders are also learning disabilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21851" LastActivityDate="2019-04-09T22:58:23.030" Title="Which neurodevelopmental disorders constitute learning disabilities?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21997" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21901" CreationDate="2019-04-10T06:02:24.180" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Indeed in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_(game)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;game of chicken&lt;/a&gt; appearing &quot;insane&quot; is actually a good strategy &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pre-commitment&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One tactic in the game is for one party to signal their intentions convincingly before the game begins. For example, if one party were to ostentatiously disable their steering wheel just before the match, the other party would be compelled to swerve.[12] This shows that, in some circumstances, reducing one's own options can be a good strategy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pre-commitment is part of a larger class of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handicap_principle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;wastefully costly&quot; signals&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However the &quot;madman strategy&quot; (linked from another answer) is not a simple game with predetermined payoffs like the chicken game. Rather, the example given there uses &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma#Strategy_for_the_prisoner&amp;#39;s_dilemma&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;prisoner's dilemma&lt;/a&gt; as the &lt;em&gt;initial&lt;/em&gt; game. But what it is actually saying with the -100 part is that since, in reality, the (negative) payoff for war is not known, a &quot;madman&quot; bluff transforms the prisoner's dilemma game into a game of chicken! (&lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/a/647/173347&quot;&gt;Compare the tables&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The essential difference between these two games is that in the prisoner's dilemma, the Cooperate strategy is dominated, whereas in Chicken the equivalent move is not dominated since the outcome payoffs when the opponent plays the more escalated move (Straight in place of Defect) are reversed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So basically the &quot;madman strategy&quot; is a &quot;meta-game&quot; trying to induce the opponent to think it's playing a different game. N.B.: after asking on econ.SE, the general term is &lt;a href=&quot;https://economics.stackexchange.com/questions/27722/is-there-a-general-name-for-the-setup-in-which-payoffs-are-not-known-exactly-but&quot;&gt;Bayesian game&lt;/a&gt;. And more precisely, a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_game&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;signalling game&lt;/a&gt;. The best illustration related to your question is the so-called &quot;reputation game&quot; (a sub-type of signalling game):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The sender can be one of two types: Sane or Crazy. A sane sender can send one of two messages: Prey and Accommodate. A crazy sender can only Prey.&#xA;  The receiver can do one of two actions: Stay or Exit. Apriori, the sender has probability &lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt; to be Sane and 1-&lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt; to be Crazy. [The payoff table is below]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8Kp0q.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8Kp0q.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The a priori numerical constraints are assumed to be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For the Sane sender, the ordering (his utility function) is M1&gt;D1&gt;P1, so the successful &quot;faking mad&quot; monopoly choice has higher payoff (if successful, i.e. if receiver exits) than a cooperative duopoly (D1) which in turn is higher still than the payoff for just &quot;faking mad&quot;. (The last is usually a negative number in reality, i.e. a cost, but this assumption is not strictly necessary, it just needs to be worse/less than the other two aforementioned payoffs.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For the receiver, D2&gt;0&gt;P2, so the message-receiving player has higher payoff if it holds his nerves (and pulls off a &quot;compromise&quot; duopoly) rather than caving in and exiting.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If preying is costly for a sane sender (D1+D1=P1+M1), they will accommodate and there will be a unique separating PBE [perfect Bayesian equilibrium]: the receiver will stay after Accommodate and exit after Prey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A separating [perfect Bayesian] equilibrium is an equilibrium where senders with different types always choose different messages. This means that the sender's message always reveals the sender's type, so the receiver's beliefs become deterministic after seeing the message.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If preying is not too costly for a sane sender (D1+D1 is less than P1+M1), and it is harmful for the receiver (&lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt; D2 + (1-&lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt;) P2 ≤ 0), the sender will prey and there will be a unique pooling PBE: again the receiver will stay after Accommodate and exit after Prey. Here, the sender is willing to lose some value by preying in the first period, in order to build a reputation of a predatory firm, and convince the receiver to exit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A pooling [perfect Bayesian] equilibrium is an equilibrium where senders with different types all choose the same message. This means that the sender's message does not give any information to the receiver, so the receiver's beliefs are not updated after seeing the message.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter is the &quot;madman strategy&quot;. It takes specific payoff constraints and player-type initial distribution to be the optimal strategy even for the Sane type. And for completeness, there's one more case:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If preying is not costly for the sender nor harmful for the receiver, there will not be a PBE in pure strategies. There will be a unique PBE in mixed strategies - both the sender and the receiver will randomize between their two actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter case, i.e. occasional (non-permanent) use a of &quot;madman strategy&quot; is actually more related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.parisschoolofeconomics.eu/IMG/pdf/RiedelSass_StrategicUseAmbiguity.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;strategic ambiguity&lt;/a&gt;, as are all mixed strategies. I'm handwaving the details on the latter here; strategic ambiguity actually has a more precise meaning, withholding information in order to create game-shifting a situation similar to &quot;playing madman&quot;, but without explicitly sending unambiguous &quot;crazy&quot; messages:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;strategic ambiguity can be used&#xA;  by a mediator to achieve cooperation in situations similar to the prisoners’&#xA;  dilemma. In this game a mediator is able to create ambiguity about the&#xA;  reward in case of unilateral defection. If he creates enough ambiguity, both&#xA;  prisoners are afraid of punishment and prefer to cooperate. The outcome&#xA;  thus reached is even Pareto–improving. A remarkable consequence [...] is that the strategic use&#xA;  of ambiguity allows to reach equilibria that are not Nash equilibria in the&#xA;  original game [...].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under the assumption that receivers are ambiguity-averse, sending ambiguous messages can thus obtain a similar effect to &quot;playing madman&quot;... and is much more &quot;appearances saving&quot;. Although strategic ambiguity has been formalized much more recently in game theory than the explicit &quot;madman strategy&quot;, diplomats &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_of_deliberate_ambiguity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;have been using&lt;/a&gt; the former for probably as long as they have been using the more naked &quot;playing madman&quot; strategy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-11T13:49:26.693" LastActivityDate="2019-04-11T13:49:26.693" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="21999" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17532" CreationDate="2019-04-10T09:32:41.873" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think what we call ideologies may be too varied across time and locations to capture in a questionnaire format. If you go one level more specific, to something like support of religion, free market, or moral situations, these may be more reliably and universally measurable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One feature that feels universal is what constitutes a moral violation. Schwartz, Haidt, and others have worked in this area. One proposal is Moral Foundations Theory (MFT) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory&lt;/a&gt;. I've published in this area and I think it's a valuable perspective. Here's one place you can take the test: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.idrlabs.com/morality/6/test.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.idrlabs.com/morality/6/test.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, MFT has been criticized recently for not being sufficiently coherent or reliable, eg. &lt;a href=&quot;https://behavioralscientist.org/whats-wrong-with-moral-foundations-theory-and-how-to-get-moral-psychology-right/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://behavioralscientist.org/whats-wrong-with-moral-foundations-theory-and-how-to-get-moral-psychology-right/&lt;/a&gt; discussion at &lt;a href=&quot;https://twitter.com/Oliver_S_Curry/status/1110876328507645952&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://twitter.com/Oliver_S_Curry/status/1110876328507645952&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T09:32:41.873" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22000" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21978" CreationDate="2019-04-10T09:35:11.827" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure this question is answerable at that specificity. There isn't a discrete point in time where the cells are definitively a brain stem rather than a precursor structure such the bulge mentioned above. One could identify a set of a cells in earlier structures that eventually are located in the adult area we call the brain stem, but that doesn't mean at the point those cells are identifiable that they are IN the brain stem during development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T09:35:11.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21956" CreationDate="2019-04-10T09:40:29.730" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Institutional Review Boards (IRBS) are both legal and practical gatekeepers for researchers, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_review_board&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_review_board&lt;/a&gt;. Practically, a social scientist may not be able to publish or receive funding support if their research is not approved. Legally, they also provide some cover. However, they are not guarantors of being ethical, because there is not universal agreement about what is ethical. So perhaps we could ask WHO would consider it more ethical if such a study were approved by an IRB compared to not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my experience both inside and outside of hospitals managing IRB submissions, such a study is unlikely to be approved. However, some might still consider it ethical, and there's no practical barrier to observing it. One important feature here is whether the researcher designed, encouraged, or administers the treatment. Researchers are not prohibited from observing harmful behaviors in others, in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T09:40:29.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22003" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21836" CreationDate="2019-04-10T09:47:07.037" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are situations as you mentioned where light can be from below, but they are extremely rare in our evolutionary past. Fire is quite recent: remove that one. Reflections from water or snow would require very strong light from above, so those are essentially removed as well. I think the creepiness comes from the unfamiliarity. Also see the Uncanny Valley, which describes similar feelings in response to near-human representations &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncanny_valley&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncanny_valley&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good test would be with non-human animals. Do they find bottom-lit faces fear-inducing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T09:47:07.037" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22004" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21834" CreationDate="2019-04-10T09:50:12.657" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There may be less apparent contradiction if the shooter doesn't consider those behaviors as immoral, disgusting, etc. Consider a soldier in wartime: they might sometimes appear calm as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look at the stated justifications for mass shootings, they often have a specific purpose and apparently see moral reasons for their actions. Broadly speaking, people differ widely in what they consider ethical or moral. One person's virtue is another's sin. There are shared features between many ethical traditions, such as a prohibition against murder, but murder and war remain common. There is no need for a specific physiological fault like a brain injury or a particular genetic variant for humans to disagree wildly on what actions are appropriate. It's famously difficult to sympathize with the moral intuitions of other people; see for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory&lt;/a&gt;. Instead of universal reasons, we generally have the strong feeling that something is right or wrong, and then we construct reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="19843" LastEditDate="2019-04-10T12:20:17.263" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T12:20:17.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22005" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21901" CreationDate="2019-04-10T12:18:24.510" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I like the theory put forward of &lt;em&gt;madman strategy&lt;/em&gt; but I would say that if someone is co-operative with an irrational person, they are agreeing with parts of the irrational person's thinking.  What you seem to be asking about to me is where a &quot;rational&quot; person goes with the irrational behaviour to prevent further irrational behaviour which to a degree would be irrational to me in itself :-/&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to add a possibly more rational alternative to these that others have put forward, whereby there could actually be &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-15208-5_17&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;concessionary behaviour&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; at play.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A rational person may concede to tactically allow the irrational behaviour, maybe on a temporary basis, whilst trying to convince the irrational person(s) that their behaviour is irrational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-04-10T12:18:24.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22010" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="22013" CreationDate="2019-04-11T02:22:40.820" Score="1" ViewCount="216" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lets say I got angry at someone who did/said something wrong. Even after this angry interaction with this person is finished, I noticed I continue to express my negative reaction in my head creating some imaginary situation where this specific person is doing/saying something wrong (which they didn't do/say in real life; it's totally in my head, a creation of my negative imagination). It wastes my time, mental energy, breaks my focus/concentration at productive work, and definitely it's long term effect on my mental health cannot be good.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just wanted to know -&lt;br&gt;&#xA;-  Is this just me, or this happens to other people too?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- What this problem/issue is known as (just so I can do a little more research online)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21980" LastActivityDate="2019-04-11T10:28:54.870" Title="Getting upset from the creation of your own imagination" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2019-04-11T17:31:36.470" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22011" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18402" CreationDate="2019-04-11T08:25:05.437" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The fact that it's a Lyapunov function means that&#xA;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$&#xA;\frac{dL}{dt} = \frac{\partial L}{\partial x} \cdot \frac{dx}{dt} \leq 0&#xA;$$&lt;/span&gt;&#xA;If &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$I-W$&lt;/span&gt; is positive semidefinite, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$L$&lt;/span&gt; is bounded from below by &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$-\frac{1}{2} b^T (I-W)^{-1} b $&lt;/span&gt;.&#xA;This means that the network will end up in a minimum of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$L$&lt;/span&gt; and cannot keep moving for ever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21809" LastActivityDate="2019-04-11T08:25:05.437" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2019-04-11T08:25:05.437" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22012" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22010" CreationDate="2019-04-11T09:33:03.020" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally this is known as rumination. I don't know if there has been a more specific name for the specific type you mention, but it has been studied &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17041914&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;somewhat&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Certain characteristics of rumination, such as compulsion to continue ruminating, occurrence of unproductive thoughts, and &quot;why&quot; and &lt;strong&gt;&quot;what if&quot; type questions&lt;/strong&gt;, as well as negative emotions before and after rumination, were significantly associated with PTSD, concurrently and prospectively. These characteristics explained significantly more variance in PTSD severity than the mere presence of rumination, thereby indicating that not all ways of ruminative thinking are equally maladaptive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A problem in this area is that there's not an agreed definition of rumination, as the intro the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumination_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article on the topic says&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, one can also call persistent &quot;what if&quot; thinking just worry. In fact there are some &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(85)90178-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;older papers&lt;/a&gt; discussing &quot;what if&quot; thinking under worry alone. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The worrier is likely to engage in a series of 'What if...'&#xA;  self-statements. For example, 'What if I fail? My parents might shut off my funding, and I'll have to leave school. What&#xA;  if I can't get a job?.., etc.' There may be some attempted solutions offered (e.g. 'I'11 plead with my folks to continue&#xA;  supporting me'), but these will be followed by further 'What if... ' statements (e.g. 'What if they don't listen to me? What&#xA;  if they are too angry to listen to reason?'). This kind of mental behavior may have very different consequences for the worrier&#xA;  than for someone else who is anxious about some upcoming event but does not engage in worrisome activity. Data do&#xA;  exist that indicate that cognitive avoidance can maintain anxiety (Borkovec, 1974) and catastrophizing self-statements can&#xA;  worsen anxiety (e.g. Grayson and Borkovec, 1978), both despite repeated exposure to the feared stimulus. Although the&#xA;  stated function of worry by the worrier is to attempt to anticipate and cope with an uncertain future, the actual functional&#xA;  effect may be the maintenance of anxiety and its continued and frequent elicitation prior to actual outcomes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recent research trying to separate worry from rumination has generally &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.dylanmolenaar.nl/Topper%20et%20al.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;proposed&lt;/a&gt; that time orientation (future or past) should be distinguishing factor:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several researchers have investigated the content of worry and rumination to study the differences between both&#xA;  processes. The only stable difference that has been consistently found pertains to the temporal orientation&#xA;  (Papageorgiou &amp;amp; Wells, 1999; Watkins, 2004; Watkins, Moulds, &amp;amp; Mackintosh, 2005); whereas worry is&#xA;  predominantly focused on the future, rumination is predominantly focused on the past. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, it's a bit of grey area whether pondering about what someone has said in the past is entirely past-oriented or it if it may have a future-oriented component as well. E.g. you may worry that they'll do something else related to the past discussion like come back to you and continue it. Counterfactual thinking as to what they could have said (but didn't say) is ruminative if you don't really think they might come back and say (more) to you. On the other hand, if you project that they may do so (and you're anticipating responses to a future conversation), it could just as well be considered a worry. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-11T10:28:54.870" LastActivityDate="2019-04-11T10:28:54.870" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22013" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22010" CreationDate="2019-04-11T09:33:32.580" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, this is a common experience. I often see people walking around gesturing and talking quietly but intensely to themselves; amusing that we not only have these imaginary conversations, but can hardly resist moving our faces and bodies in concert with those thoughts. Broadly speaking, humans often engage in counterfactual reasoning: imagining things that aren't. This has been proposed as one of the most unique features of human cognition relative to other animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A key related concept is rumination &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumination_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumination_(psychology)&lt;/a&gt; , which are negative and often repeated thoughts without new insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is also related to mindfulness—awareness of what is currently happening—which is a tool to recognize when one gets lost in thought. It is not trivial just to realize that it is thought, rather than something that is actually happening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also see the psychology term &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/lib/what-is-catastrophizing/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psychcentral.com/lib/what-is-catastrophizing/&lt;/a&gt; : &quot;Catastrophizing is an irrational thought a lot of us have in believing that something is far worse than it actually is. Catastrophizing can generally can take two different forms: making a catastrophe out of a current situation, and imagining making a catastrophe out of a future situation.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-04-11T09:33:32.580" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22015" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-11T17:39:10.133" Score="2" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a model I'd like to compare to the Drift Diffusion model, which is commonly used to model response times and error rates in two-alternative forced-choice tasks.  Lots of publications use the random dot motion task like this [1] or this [2] and collect response-time data.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is - does anyone know of publicly available response time datasets that I could use for model comparison?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;https://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/Ch16.S1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/Ch16.S1.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Random-dot-motion-task-a-An-array-of-dots-is-moving-into-random-directions-with-a_fig2_226279128&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Random-dot-motion-task-a-An-array-of-dots-is-moving-into-random-directions-with-a_fig2_226279128&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21989" LastActivityDate="2019-04-12T21:30:54.060" Title="Open data for behavioral psychology experiment?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22016" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1967" CreationDate="2019-04-11T18:20:26.720" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity_aversion#Experiments_testing_ambiguity_in_games&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Ambiguity aversion&quot;&lt;/a&gt; aka &quot;uncertainty aversion&quot; has been studied more recently in game theory. This is not exactly &quot;fear&quot;, but it's something what's formalizable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a preference for known risks over unknown risks. An ambiguity-averse individual would rather choose an alternative where the probability distribution of the outcomes is known over one where the probabilities are unknown. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The distinction between ambiguity aversion and risk aversion is important but subtle. Risk aversion comes from a situation where a probability can be assigned to each possible outcome of a situation and it is defined by the preference between a risky alternative and its expected value. Ambiguity aversion applies to a situation when the probabilities of outcomes are unknown (Epstein 1999) and it is defined through the preference between risky and ambiguous alternatives, after controlling for preferences over risk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Using the traditional two-urn Ellsberg choice, urn A contains 50 red balls and 50 blue balls while urn B contains 100 total balls (either red or blue) but the number of each is unknown. An individual who prefers a certain payoff strictly smaller than $10 over a bet that pays \$20 if the color of a ball drawn from urn A is guessed correctly and \$0 otherwise is said to be risk averse but nothing can be said about her preferences over ambiguity. On the other hand, an individual who strictly prefers that same bet if the ball is drawn from urn A over the case where the ball is drawn from urn B is said to be ambiguity averse but not necessarily risk averse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And to &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11166-008-9038-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;relate&lt;/a&gt; this notion to empirical psychology, or at least to behavioral economics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People shy away from processes about which they think they have insufficient information (Frisch and Baron 1988). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This happens in particular if an alternative process with a higher perceived informational content is available (Chow and Sarin 2001; Fox and Tversky 1995; Fox and Weber 2002). The effect appears to be particularly strong when somebody with a higher knowledge of the outcome generating process may serve as a comparison (Heath and Tversky 1991; Taylor 1995) or observes the decision (Chow and Sarin 2002). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A preference for the more informative process may be explained by fear of negative evaluation, which is driven by the expectation that one’s actions or judgments may be difficult to justify in front of others. When the audience’s views on an issue are unknown and no prior commitment to one course of action exists, people have been found to make the decision which they deem most easily justifiable to others rather than the one that is intrinsically optimal (Shafir et al. 1993; Simonson 1989; Lerner and Tetlock 1999). In this way they minimize the risk of being judged negatively by others on their quality as decision makers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Choosing the unfamiliar process entailed by the ambiguous urn may lead to embarrassment if a losing outcome should obtain (Ellsberg 1963; Fellner 1961; Heath and Tversky 1991; Roberts 1963; Tetlock 1991; Toda and Shuford 1965). The risky prospect is perceived as more justifiable than the ambiguous one because potentially available probabilistic information is missing from the ambiguous urn (Frisch and Baron 1988). This is consistent with people’s preference for betting on future events rather than on past events, given that information about past events is potentially available whereas the future has yet to materialize (Brun and Teigen 1990; Rothbart and Snyder 1970). It is also consistent with people’s unwillingness to act on the basis of ambiguous information (van Dijk and Zeelenberg 2003).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A decision based on more information is generally perceived as better (Tetlock and Boettger 1989), and it has been shown that a risky prospect is generally considered preferable to an ambiguous one by a majority of people (Keren and Gerritsen 1999). Kocher and Trautmann (2007) find that people correctly anticipate these negative attitudes towards ambiguity. If a bad outcome were to result from a prospect about which an agent had comparatively little knowledge, her failure may be blamed on her incompetence or ‘uninformed’ choice (Baron and Hershey 1988). A bad outcome resulting from a risky prospect, on the other hand, cannot be attributed to poor judgment. All possible information about the risky prospect was known, and a failure is simply bad luck (Heath and Tversky 1991; Toda and Shuford 1965).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Compare &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.03.011&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;with&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fear of the unknown (FOTU) will be defined herein as, “an individual’s propensity to experience fear caused by the perceived absence of information at any level of consciousness or point of processing”; relatedly, intolerance of uncertainty (IU) will be defined as, “an individual’s dispositional incapacity to endure the aversive response triggered by the perceived absence of salient, key, or sufficient information, and sustained by the associated perception of uncertainty.” [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Factorially distinct&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Research exploring FOTU, as reflected by IU, as factorially independent from other constructs has been conducted with the Intolerance of Uncertainty short form (i.e., IUS-12; Carleton, Norton et al., 2007). The available results have provided robust support that FOTU is factorially distinct. The first such study supporting factorial independence was conducted by (Carleton, Sharpe et al., 2007) using undergraduate data. There have been two subsequent publications investigating different aspects of factorial independence for FOTU (Carleton, Thibodeau, Osborne, &amp;amp; Asmundson, 2012; Carleton, Thibodeau et al., 2014). The publications used a large sample of undergraduates and community members who provided responses to measures of anxiety sensitivity, fear of injury or illness, fear of negative evaluation, fear of pain, and FOTU as measured by IU; nevertheless, independent replications appear well-warranted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would not bet the claim to factorial distinctiveness holds because of the limited research, but at least you can refer to FOTU as such, although frankly it seems to based on IU rather than an experiment showing actual fear. Maybe some neuroimaging would help...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TLDR: I think intolerance/aversion to &quot;the unknown&quot; or more precisely to uncertainty/ambiguity is a more established concept than a fear of the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-11T19:11:02.343" LastActivityDate="2019-04-11T19:11:02.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22017" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="22018" CreationDate="2019-04-11T20:47:40.353" Score="2" ViewCount="236" Body="&lt;p&gt;It’s absolutely imperative to identify our blind spots. I believe that they are impediment for one to reach his full potential. But how does one, see his blind spot - #oxymoron? &#xA;What is the psychology behind it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21949" LastActivityDate="2019-04-13T08:20:25.307" Title="What is the psychology behind blind spots? Why do we fail to see, what others see so clearly about us?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22018" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22017" CreationDate="2019-04-12T08:25:43.303" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are talking about is something psychologists Joseph Luft (1916–2014) and Harrington Ingham (1916–1995) looked at in 1955.  They developed a 4-pane window visualisation called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johari_window&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johari Window&lt;/a&gt; (named by combining the first parts of their first names).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MPDIJ.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MPDIJ.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Johari Window&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The model is also denoted as feedback/disclosure model of self-awareness (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.richerexperiences.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Johari-Window.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Luft, J., &amp;amp; Ingham, 1961&lt;/a&gt;).  Each window pane is an arena within which holds information about you.  This is used primarily in self-help groups and corporate settings as a heuristic exercise, however, it is increasingly being used elsewhere such as in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/15869&quot;&gt;clinical supervision&lt;/a&gt; as a useful tool to develop self awareness and reflection (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/14739879.2009.11493757&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Halpern, 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3928/0022-0124-19820501-07&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beach, 1982&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Example of Johari Window&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, when you get a job, your co-workers know a little about you and in this context there will be more information about you in the unknown and hidden arenas.  The open arena will have little information. As the others don’t know much about you the blind spot also has little information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In order for you to know what is in each arena, you MUST be:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;open and honest with yourself&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;open to honest feedback from others&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As more knowledge about you is gathered, the relevant arena gets filled with that knowledge.  Let's say your co-workers see you as someone who doesn't want to talk to them, yet you see yourself as approachable.  The fact that you are seen that way will be in your blind spot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Know what is in your blind spot&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to know what is in your blind spot (as with other arenas), you need to seek for it through communication with your co-workers. You could ask them for their views on you, allowing them to be open and honest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;What is in your hidden arena&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same goes with the hidden arena.  Your co-workers will only know what you disclose or reveal unknowingly.  You don't need to reveal deep secrets you don't want them to know, but to reduce the amount in the hidden arena, you need to disclose what you wish them to know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;This can have a benefit to you.&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As people know more, they understand you more.  What is seen as you being standoffish may not be quite how they see it.  Maybe you are quiet because you just lost a close friend or relative. They may see it differently once they know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;How do I find out what is totally unknown (Unknown Arena)&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well that is the trickier one.  You don't know what is there and neither does anyone else.  The only way you are going to know is by reflection on what you know in the other arenas.  Clinical supervision is one place where your thoughts and feelings about the work you have done can help with this.  Maybe you have hidden prejudices you were not aware of.  There may have been hints of it in your blind spot or hidden arena.  Listening to what others have said is in your blindspot along with your thoughts and feelings will bring them out into your awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Blind spot analysis&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is said in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blindspots_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Wikipedia article @Fizz linked in the comments&lt;/a&gt; seems to say, in a roundabout way, the same as what I said in my answer. Just in a different way.  You need to holistically look at your environment and examine it in order to find your blind spots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beach, E. K. (1982). Johari's window as a framework for needs assessment. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 13&lt;/em&gt;(3), 28-32. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3928/0022-0124-19820501-07&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3928/0022-0124-19820501-07&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Halpern, H. (2009). Supervision and the Johari window: a framework for asking questions. &lt;em&gt;Education for Primary Care, 20&lt;/em&gt;(1), 10-14. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/14739879.2009.11493757&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/14739879.2009.11493757&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luft, J., &amp;amp; Ingham, H. (1961). The johari window. &lt;em&gt;Human relations training news, 5&lt;/em&gt;(1), 6-7. Receivable from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.richerexperiences.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Johari-Window.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.richerexperiences.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Johari-Window.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-04-13T08:20:25.307" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22019" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="22022" CreationDate="2019-04-12T10:43:14.557" Score="3" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Consciouness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness or of being aware&#xA;  of an external object or something within oneself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suppose dreaming qualifies as &quot;being aware of an external object or something within oneself&quot;. But what about sleeping without dreaming. Is there supposedly consciousness in that state?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13498" LastActivityDate="2019-04-12T14:07:31.497" Title="Is there consciouness when a person is sleeping and not dreaming?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22020" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-12T13:51:44.360" Score="1" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introduction:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's fascinating how many of the key concepts of psychoanalysis are presented by metaphores of the ancient Greek mythology. One might wonder whether the Greek mythology is actually the whole psychoanalysis in disguise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples to remember are the myth of “Narcissus and Echo” (embodied in Freud's essay &quot;On Narcissism&quot;), the Oedipus and Electra complexes, the Icarus complex, the Medusa complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, could the building blocks of psychoanalysis be derived from the mythologies of other peoples, as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(The same questions from another perspective: could we find corresponding myths in the mythologies of other cultures. E.g, is there an equivalent to the myth of “Narcissus and Echo” in the mythologies of other cultures?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="2574" LastEditDate="2019-04-24T17:38:55.130" LastActivityDate="2019-04-24T17:38:55.130" Title="Psychoanalysis and its metaphores derived from ancient Greek mythology" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="25" ClosedDate="2019-04-25T07:42:26.327" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22022" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22019" CreationDate="2019-04-12T14:07:31.497" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Giulio Tononi,&quot;consciousness is what goes away when you fall into a dreamless sleep,” he explained that  &quot;once a person goes into dreamless sleep, there is no experience, no perception of surroundings or the environment; there are no memories of the past or the future or even the present. It is thus at this point that everything disappears, which corresponds to consciousness “going away.”&quot; [1]&#xA;You can look up his integrated information theory of consciousness [2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tononi G, Edelman GM: Consciousness and complexity. Science. 1998, 282 (5395): 1846-1851. 10.1126/science.282.5395.1846.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tononi, G. (2011). The integrated information theory of consciousness: an updated account. Archives italiennes de biologie, 150(2/3), 56-90.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastActivityDate="2019-04-12T14:07:31.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22025" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22015" CreationDate="2019-04-12T21:30:54.060" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some example data sets associated with these tutorials &lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/pbwx8/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/pbwx8/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See 'get_all_data.R' in the tutorial subdirectory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might also be interested in some of the surrounding discussion, which is all about  the process of comparing new models with the existing ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2019-04-12T21:30:54.060" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22026" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1967" CreationDate="2019-04-13T08:31:22.247" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=agnosiophobia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;agnosiophobia&lt;/a&gt;, which is the &lt;strong&gt;fear of not knowing&lt;/strong&gt;, (the opposite being &lt;a href=&quot;http://common-phobias.com/Gnosio/phobia.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gnosiophobia&lt;/a&gt; &amp;mdash; &lt;strong&gt;fear of knowledge/knowing&lt;/strong&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also &lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/a/446897&quot;&gt;agnostophobia&lt;/a&gt; which is &lt;strong&gt;fear of the unknown&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-04-13T08:31:22.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22029" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21876" CreationDate="2019-04-13T12:47:07.057" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are some &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1615114&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;basics&lt;/a&gt; on the diagnostic process:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are two main sources of disagreement in&#xA;  assessing psychiatric disorder or, as Feinstein&#xA;  (1985) wrote, 'two different phases of the&#xA;  observational process'. First, in the assessment&#xA;  of psychopathology; to transform ' the observed&#xA;  phenomena into certain raw elements of descriptive&#xA;  data'. Second, disagreement arises from&#xA;  the combining of detected psychopathology to&#xA;  yield diagnoses;' In the second phase, these raw&#xA;  descriptive elements are converted into a&#xA;  category of final expression' (Feinstein, 1985).&#xA;  Efforts have been made to standardize both&#xA;  these areas. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if this needs a quote, here's the obvious fact:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lay interviewers are unable to exercise expert&#xA;  clinical judgements in making decisions about&#xA;  the presence or absence of symptoms. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are some particular problems in attempting&#xA;  to standardize assessments of psychiatric&#xA;  disorder. Lack of insight into mental&#xA;  illness, a problem when assessing people with&#xA;  psychotic illness especially, can affect responses&#xA;  to questions. The extreme example is the deluded&#xA;  patient who will say there is nothing wrong. In&#xA;  the training of a clinical psychiatrist much stress&#xA;  is put on obtaining historical details from&#xA;  informants other than the patient because of&#xA;  clinical evidence that those with severe mental&#xA;  illness can be misleading historians. For&#xA;  example, a subject with a delusion of persecution,&#xA;  may state that neighbours are deliberately&#xA;  making loud noises, or moving furniture in&#xA;  order to annoy. Such statements would lead&#xA;  most clinicians to investigate further by means&#xA;  of informants, though others might rely purely&#xA;  on clinical impressions from an interview.&#xA;  Attempts to standardize assessments of psychosis&#xA;  are more difficult and of a different nature&#xA;  from the problems of standardizing minor&#xA;  psychiatric disorder when insight is rarely&#xA;  impaired to an extent which affects the validity&#xA;  of self-report. A similar problem arises when&#xA;  attempting to standardize assessments of conversion&#xA;  hysteria or other physical disorders with&#xA;  a presumed psychological aetiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not a slam dunk that standazing the interviewing process will eliminate experience as a factor, for example&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There are also concerns that lay interviewers&#xA;  are an important source of bias when using the&#xA;  PSE. Lay interviewers tend to score more highly&#xA;  than psychiatrists and so estimate a higher&#xA;  prevalence of psychiatric disorder. For example,&#xA;  Sturt et al. (1981) found that the mean PSE&#xA;  scores for lay interviewers were nearly 30%&#xA;  higher (4-12 v. 3-20) than those of the psychiatrically&#xA;  trained interviewers. Trends in a similar&#xA;  direction and of a similar magnitude have also&#xA;  been described by Rodgers &amp;amp; Mann (1986),&#xA;  Wing et al. (1977) and Cooper et al. (1977).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PSE is the former name of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCAN&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SCAN&lt;/a&gt; more or less the WHO-equivalent of the more commonly used &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_Clinical_Interview_for_DSM-IV&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SCID&lt;/a&gt;. Both are semi-structured interviews in which open-ended questions may be asked, but the SCID allows more freedom, including skips and completely novel questions from the interviewer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this long preamble, there has been a &lt;em&gt;lot&lt;/em&gt; of research on instruments that would allow a layman to diagnose mental disorders with &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt; level of reliability. These include &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15554572/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CIS-R, CIDI&lt;/a&gt;, and even the older &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3821376/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GHQ&lt;/a&gt;. These generally have a short[er] format and don't try to cover an entire diagnostic manual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trying to produce something that would beat the SCID (or even the SCAN) with lay interviewers didn't go well, insofar. Probably the most substantive effort was NIMH's &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700049151&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DIS&lt;/a&gt;; the combination of its complexity (trying to assess the majority of  DSM-III diagnoses) and use of lay interviewers didn't go well. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3966528/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;E.g.&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Eaton et al., (2000) reported on 349 subjects reinterviewed by psychiatrists using the Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN) following a DIS interview. Results indicated that the DIS missed many cases judged to meet criteria for diagnosis using the SCAN (29% sensitivity), and agreement between the lay versus clinician administered assessments for major depressive disorder was only fair (k=0.20).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(That's frankly understating it fair bit. A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3900052/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;kappa&lt;/a&gt; of 0.2 for depression is pretty abysmal.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012343013-7/50007-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Besides&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Due to its highly structured format, full administration of the DIS-IV typically&#xA;  requires between 90 and 150 minutes. To shorten administration time, the&#xA;  modular format makes it possible to drop evaluation of disorders that are not of&#xA;  interest in a particular study. Another option is to drop further questioning for a&#xA;  particular disorder once it is clear that the threshold number of symptoms needed&#xA;  for diagnosis will not be met. Although designed for use by nonclinician administrators,&#xA;  training for competent administration of the DIS is necessary. Trainees&#xA;  typically attend a 1-week training program at Washington University, during which they review the DIS manual, listen to didactic presentations about the&#xA;  structure and conventions of the DIS, view videotaped vignettes, complete workbook&#xA;  exercises, and conduct several practice interviews, followed by feedback&#xA;  and review. Additional supervised practice is also recommended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So even this layman-oriented interview is not exactly an exercise where experience and training don't matter. Basically, the obvious conclusion is that the more fine-grained your diagnostic manual is in terms of disorder classification, the more experience and training is required to use it, even with fairly standardized instruments. (Of course that doesn't even bring into discussion whether all diagnostic categories can even be reliably distinguished, even in the best of circumstances, interviewer-wise.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's not a lot of research on the use of SCID by non-professionals because its use this way is discouraged. I did find &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3449355/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one paper&lt;/a&gt; which did attempt this although the contrast was not with another SCID interview by a clinician, but rather with the consensus lifetime best estimate (CLBE) diagnosis (given by professionals) taken to be &quot;gold standard&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The overall agreement between the SCID-derived [they mean SCID applied by a trained non-clinician] and CLBE [consensus lifetime best estimate] DSM-IV diagnoses was very low (kappa 0.18). The SCID tended to diagnose more patients with major depression and fewer with schizophrenia and schizotypal disorder. It was clear that the major source of the diagnostic differences was information variance. A brief, or sometimes monosyllabic response to a question of the structured interview was often short of crucial psychopathological information that might have been elicited in an epistemologically more adequate manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fennig et al showed a high diagnostic concordance for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder between the SCID diagnosis by non-clinician interviewers and the best consensus diagnostic estimates performed by psychiatrists. However, that particular study was limited to patients who were already diagnosed with a psychotic condition. More importantly, the SCID-elicited information also served as the main source of the best consensus estimate. This implies little information variance between psychiatrists and non-psychiatrists, i.e. clinician- and non-clinician raters made their diagnoses upon similar information. Minimizing information variance is exactly one of the cornerstones of the structured interview, but it does not guarantee the quality (validity) of the information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In conclusion, this study demonstrated a poor diagnostic performance of a structured psychiatric interview conducted by a for-the-purpose trained non-clinician. Such an interview approach cannot be recommended for clinical work, due to a high proportion of misdiagnoses. The high specificity for the diagnosis of schizophrenia (100%) may suggest a limited applicability of such interviews in research with the purpose of a confirmation of an antecedent, clinician’s diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LhbQ8.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LhbQ8.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I also find interesting in this study, although not highlighted by its authors, is that the non-clinician categorized correctly all [CLBD] cases of major depression (using SCID). The [sub-]sample was rather small though (14). On other hand, he misdiagnosed a whole bunch of other [CLBD] cases (36=50-14) as being major depression. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;High sensitivity, low specificity&lt;/a&gt;). That's not too surprising to me because even in primary care &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19640579&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depression is generally overdiagnosed&lt;/a&gt; &quot;for every 100 unselected cases seen in primary care, there are more false positives (n=15) than either missed (n=10) or identified cases (n=10)&quot;; physician training as well as resorting to reassessments &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)62051-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;seems to lower this bias&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And that brings me to another comparison/point I wanted to make: if it's hard for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_care_physician&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;primary care physicians&lt;/a&gt; to diagnose mental health problems accurately, it's not reasonable to expect laymen to do better (in similar circumstances).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-13T14:17:32.530" LastActivityDate="2019-04-13T14:17:32.530" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22031" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23433" CreationDate="2019-04-13T20:02:06.140" Score="1" ViewCount="211" Body="&lt;p&gt;While having a look at a recent question here, I ran into some (non-peer reviewed) articles with a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/5-types-people-who-can-ruin-your-life/201711/how-quickly-spot-high-conflict-people&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;description like&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;High-conflict people (HCPs) have high-conflict personalities. This means they have an ongoing pattern of all-or-nothing thinking, unmanaged emotions, extreme behavior or threats, and a preoccupation with blaming others. They have a Target of Blame, whom they regularly bully, harass, blame, humiliate, annoy, spread rumors about, and subject to many other adversarial behaviors. This pattern increases and maintains interpersonal conflicts, rather than reducing or resolving them — which is what most people try to do. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you google the HCP term, you'll find several articles with a similar definition, most from the same author. One was even published in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/dealing-with-high-conflict-people-20120812-242hl.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mainstream mass media&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eventually this HCP is cast a sort of cross-sectional aspect of several personality disorders (at least in one article)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Narcissistic HCPs are characterized by an underlying fear of being inferior or powerless, so they are constantly putting themselves above other people — which alienates them in the process and tends to make people look down on them. Borderline HCPs have a deep fear of being abandoned, so they are constantly clinging and demanding reassurance, but alternating that with occasional rages when they feel abandoned — which often pushes people to abandon them. Antisocial HCPs really don’t want to be dominated by others, so they try hard to dominate others, but often end up in prison, where they are dominated. Paranoid HCPs have a fear of being betrayed by those around them, so they may overreact and attack those they fear — which tends to drive people to turn on them. Histrionic HCPs are preoccupied with being the center of attention and will often publicly criticize other people’s behavior (their Targets of Blame) in an effort to get sympathy and more attention. Knowing these patterns makes it easier to spot them, especially when this is combined with observing the four characteristics of HCPs at the top of this article. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has some similarities with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4471981/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;alternative (research) abnormal personality model from DSM-5&lt;/a&gt; in the sense that the latter is also using some traits which possibly span several conventional personality disorders:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In the alternative model, the essential criteria to define any personality disorder are: a) moderate or greater impairment in personality functioning, and b) the presence of pathological personality traits. A “level of functioning” scale is provided, and sensitivity and specificity data supported the designation of “moderate impairment” as the appropriate threshold to indicate the presence of a personality disorder. As defined in the alternative model, personality functioning consists of the degree to which there is an intact sense of self (involving a clear, coherent identity and effective self-directedness) and interpersonal functioning (reflecting a good capacity for empathy and for mature, mutually rewarding intimacy with others). Pathological personality traits are organized into five trait domains (negative affectivity, detachment, antagonism, disinhibition, and psychoticism), each of which is further explicated by a set of trait facets reflecting aspects of the domain itself. This trait system has been shown to correlate well with the Five Factor Model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;High-conflict people&quot; don't quite seem to match any of those 5 traits specifically, but I suppose they would score high on antagonism, disinhibition, negative affectivity, and possibly even psychoticism. (On the FFM they'd probably score low on Agreeableness, high on Extraversion and on Neuroticism.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there peer-reviewed research on &quot;High-conflict people&quot;, perhaps under different terminology? Or is this more of a fringe-scientific grouping?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-13T20:31:23.410" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T00:31:01.407" Title="&quot;High-conflict people&quot;" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;conflict&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22032" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23434" CreationDate="2019-04-13T20:31:04.063" Score="2" ViewCount="477" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.opp.com/-/media/Files/PDFs/Reports-in-English/TKI/TKI-Profile-and-Interpretive-Report-US-English-Pat-Sample.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument&lt;/a&gt; (TKI) is &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1013280109471&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;apparently&lt;/a&gt; quite popular in MBA classes and even in conflict negotiation practice:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The TKI is popular beyond the confines of negotiation classes.&#xA;  Indeed, it is one of the most widely used instruments of its kind in the&#xA;  world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It basically scores one's negotiation style in five domains: Competing, Collaborating, Compromising, Avoiding, and Accommodating, although it looks like these are placed on just two dimensions Assertiveness and Cooperativeness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pPbVl.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/pPbVl.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(The also have an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kilmanndiagnostics.com/frequently-asked-questions-about-tki-assessment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interesting FAQ&lt;/a&gt; as to why they chose this domain approach: apparently to avoid halo and  social desirability effects in questions/answers.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has the TKI been [co]related to the Big Five or some other more general (i.e. not simply focused on conflict-resolution) personality model?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-13T21:13:39.370" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T00:43:08.823" Title="How does the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument relate to the Big Five?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;&lt;conflict&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22034" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-13T22:37:29.253" Score="1" ViewCount="261" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the neural precursors that lead up to the epiphany? How can one, have more creative insights? How this affects our psyche? What's the psychology behind it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The word &quot;epiphany&quot; has a deep, archetypal resonance for us, dating back to ancient Greece. It comes from the Greek &quot;epiphaneia,&quot; meaning &quot;appearance&quot; or &quot;manifestation,&quot; and referred to the revelations brought to us by the gods. Today &quot;epiphany&quot; carries a range of meanings, including &quot;an intuitive grasp of reality,&quot; &quot;an illuminating discovery, realization, disclosure, or insight,&quot; or simply &quot;a revealing scene or moment.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An ephiphany may change your life and most likely the life of the people around you. It could be as simple as braking a mental model, which could open many new doors or neural pathways... For that matter, lets share an interesting examples: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Allegedly Albert Einstein was struck as a young child by being given a&#xA;  compass, and realizing that some unseen force in space was making it&#xA;  move. Another, perhaps better, example from Einstein's life occurred&#xA;  in 1905 after he had spent an evening unsuccessfully trying to&#xA;  reconcile Newtonian physics and Maxwell's equations. While taking a&#xA;  trolley car to home, he looked behind him at the receding clocktower in&#xA;  Bern and realized that if the car sped up close to the speed of light,&#xA;  he would see the clock slow down; with this thought, he later&#xA;  remarked, &quot;a storm broke loose in my mind,&quot; which would allow him to&#xA;  understand special relativity. Einstein had a second epiphany two&#xA;  years later in 1907 which he called &quot;the happiest thought of my life&quot;&#xA;  when he imagined an elevator falling, and realized that a passenger&#xA;  would not be able to tell the difference between the weightlessness of&#xA;  falling, and the weightlessness of space - a thought which allowed him&#xA;  to generalize his theory of relativity to include gravity as a&#xA;  curvature in spacetime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is happening on the psychological level when one experience such &quot;aha moment&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: What &lt;strong&gt;conceptual models of epiphany&lt;/strong&gt; are out there? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21949" LastEditorUserId="21949" LastEditDate="2019-04-18T19:29:36.383" LastActivityDate="2019-04-18T19:29:36.383" Title="What is the psychology behind epiphany?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22036" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-14T01:13:00.987" Score="2" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apparently individuals suffering from schizotypy &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4372844/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lack illusory superiority&lt;/a&gt; in one particular domain: evaluation of their affect. That is to say, neurotypicals overrate their positive affect (and underrate their negative one), whereas individuals with schizotypy don't do either relative to how their affect is perceived by others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LOrUS.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LOrUS.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's another article which concludes that the five-factor model is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2009.07.018&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;good enough&lt;/a&gt; to capture schizotypy, although in practice (insofar) specialized tests are used to detect the latter. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WIciu.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WIciu.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That begs the following question: &lt;strong&gt;do any of the big five personality factors&lt;/strong&gt;, especially those that load most heavily on schizotypy (neuroticism, introversion, low openness to experience) &lt;strong&gt;have a moderating effect on illusory superiority (in some domain) on their own&lt;/strong&gt;? By &quot;on their own&quot; I mean: is there a correlation between any of the big five (or even HEXACO) factors and lessened illusory superiority (on some issue), including via an &lt;a href=&quot;http://methods.sagepub.com/reference/encyclopedia-of-survey-research-methods/n226.xml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interaction effect&lt;/a&gt; of the factors, but found without segregating the sample into schizotypy and non-schizotypy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;N.B.: I'm aware of the controversy surrounding &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressive_realism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depressive realism&lt;/a&gt;, but let's stick just to personality here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-14T01:18:10.927" LastActivityDate="2019-04-14T01:18:10.927" Title="Do any personality factors reduce illusory superiority?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22037" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15535" CreationDate="2019-04-14T03:49:52.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's now a meta-analysis by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691616666070&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Muris et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt; which is a little more fine grained because also takes into account &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/18498/9769&quot;&gt;intercorrelation between these three&lt;/a&gt;; i.e. Muris et al. report effect sizes both uncorrected and corrected (for shared variance).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cIbzJ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cIbzJ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are somewhat obvious (at least for the uncorrected effects) conclusions that the authors draw:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As anticipated, the relations between honesty-humility&#xA;  and the dark triad traits were all negative and of a moderate&#xA;  to large effect size. Thus, in general, narcissism,&#xA;  Machiavellianism, and psychopathy are associated with&#xA;  low levels of positive attributes such as truthfulness, honesty,&#xA;  fairness, sincerity, and faithfulness, which is not surprising&#xA;  as each dark trait can be described in terms of the&#xA;  precise opposites of these characteristics (Ashton et al.,&#xA;  2000). As can be seen in Table 3, the negative link with&#xA;  honesty-humility was significantly stronger for Machiavellianism&#xA;  and psychopathy than for narcissism (rs being&#xA;  -.61 and -.54 versus -.41, respectively). This was especially&#xA;  true for the facets of sincerity and fairness, which&#xA;  were more strongly negatively linked to Machiavellianism&#xA;  and psychopathy, but not for the facet of modesty, which&#xA;  was more substantially negatively associated with narcissism.&#xA;  Thus, Machiavellianism and psychopathy are primarily&#xA;  related to dishonesty and falsehood, whereas&#xA;  narcissism is predominantly linked to arrogance and&#xA;  haughtiness (e.g., Aghababaei, Mohammadtabar, &amp;amp;&#xA;  Saffarinia, 2014; Jonason &amp;amp; McCain, 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When controlling for the shared variance among the&#xA;  dark triad traits, we found a similar picture (see lower&#xA;  panel of Table 3). That is, narcissism was positively associated&#xA;  with extraversion and openness, Machiavellianism&#xA;  was negatively related to agreeableness, and psychopathy&#xA;  was negatively linked to agreeableness and conscientiousness.&#xA;  All dark traits remained statistically negatively&#xA;  associated with honesty-humility (with narcissism being&#xA;  more clearly connected to lack of greed avoidance and&#xA;  modesty, and Machiavellianism and psychopathy being&#xA;  more convincingly associated with lack of sincerity and&#xA;  fairness). Yet, controlling for shared variance resulted in&#xA;  attenuated effect sizes (i.e., uncorrected rs between -.41&#xA;  and -.61 vs. corrected rs between -.26 and -.40). Two&#xA;  new relations attained statistical significance once we&#xA;  controlled for the shared variance among dark triad traits:&#xA;  Machiavellianism was negatively associated with extraversion&#xA;  (r = -.16), while narcissism was positively related&#xA;  to conscientiousness (r = .16). We can only speculate&#xA;  about the meaning of these relations. Thus, the lower&#xA;  levels of extraversion in Machiavellianism fit with the&#xA;  often covert manipulations that are thought to be typical&#xA;  for this trait. The relatively higher levels of conscientiousness&#xA;  that accompany narcissism may serve the effective&#xA;  pursuit of admiration from others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the table above they combined 3 different tests for the dark triad (to get a larger sample), which perhaps explains why they didn't extract facets. They have another table like the above but split by test as well (SD3, DD, and the older ODTS itself assembled from 3 tests) for the purposes of discussing differences among these tests, but they don't get into facets. They do note lower correlations with H when using SD3 and DD and conclude that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;these [newer, briefer] measures [SD3, DD] are not capable of assessing all aspects of the dark triad traits as well as the extended original questionnaires&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also point out that MACH-IV (ODTS) had a small positive correlation with neuroticism, but this becomes negative with SD3, which they could not really explain other than by &quot;employment of different instruments&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-14T04:22:29.790" LastActivityDate="2019-04-14T04:22:29.790" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22038" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="22040" CreationDate="2019-04-14T09:32:54.027" Score="3" ViewCount="633" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is common to represent various attributes on a pair of axes as in the examples below. In general, what is this sort of graph called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is, perhaps, useful to think in these terms and we can recognise the resulting types/points. Examples of the such graphs are included below (Control vs Warmth of Parenting, belief vs knowledge in Religion, morals vs ethics or social vs economics) to produce different graphs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZPDVK.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZPDVK.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Parenting Styles&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ReChg.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ReChg.png&quot; alt=&quot;Political Compass&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ER4vZ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ER4vZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;Belief vs Knowledge&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mR7Gv.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mR7Gv.png&quot; alt=&quot;Ethics vs Morals&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22006" LastActivityDate="2019-04-27T01:02:22.540" Title="What is this type of graph called?" Tags="&lt;social&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22039" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-14T10:04:26.073" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there some hypotheses about neural coding of language, concepts and logical reasoning in the brain, about neural correlates of thoughts? When I search the books, then I find lot of books about neural coding, but they are mostly about representation of stimuli and generation of action and not about thought processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in the emergence of mind in the brain-like neural networks. I guess, that the final answer is not yet given (and maybe never will), but there should be some hypothesis and my question is about those hypotheses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in the microscopic theories only, only the level of neurons and synapses. I am aware of the research, that uses fMRI and similar technologies, but they are exploring only mesoscopic lever. GEVI (genetically engineered voltage indicators) are promising tools for microscopic exploration and there are efforts to use them. So - there should be also hypotheses at the microscopic level about emergence of mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10670" LastEditorUserId="10670" LastEditDate="2019-04-14T10:27:01.070" LastActivityDate="2019-04-14T10:27:01.070" Title="Hypotheses about neural coding and neural correlates of concepts and reasoning - at the level of neurons and synapses" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22040" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22038" CreationDate="2019-04-14T13:37:36.493" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;TLDR version: some common generic names include &quot;business matrix&quot; and &quot;quadrant analysis&quot;, but these are mostly used in business. The former seems a little more general as it has been applied to 3x3 partitions a well. Social sciences in a general seem to lack a common term for this type of graph. But &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;q=quadrant+chart&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;quadrant chart&quot;&lt;/a&gt; or &quot;four-quadrant chart&quot; is probably not too wrong (for the 2x2 case) even though you can't easily find explicit definitions of these terms. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;q=nine+box&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Nine box&quot;&lt;/a&gt; grid/matrix/chart seems used for the 3x3 case, again usually without an explicit definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The divisions in your first three examples are called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(plane_geometry)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;quadrants in math&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In business, Gartner is somewhat [in]famous for their &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.itworldcanada.com/blog/a-gartner-magic-quadrant-know-what-to-read-and-where-to-look/376099&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;magic&quot; quadrants&lt;/a&gt;. A more generic term is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=YB94iSZZgvUC&amp;amp;pg=PA508&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;quadrant analysis&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, as marketing book lets us know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Quadrant analysis is a variation of cross-tabulation in which response to two rating scales questions are plotted in four quadrants of a two-dimensional table. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also &quot;quadrant chart&quot; or &quot;four-quadrant chart&quot; is sometimes used to denote these although almost nobody bothers to define what those terms mean. An IBM piece of software (Cognos) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SSEP7J_11.0.0/com.ibm.swg.ba.cognos.ug_cr_rptstd.doc/c_charts_quadrant.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defines&lt;/a&gt; them as a type of bubble chart (with quadrants highlighted), but surely others use them without bubbles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The information visualisation book of Harris genericized this as &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=LT1RXREvkGIC&amp;amp;pg=PA316&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;business matrix&quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When a chart or graph is divided into four generally small sections, it is sometime described as having four quadrants. Two widely used applications are the business matrix, shown on the left and the traditional graph format on the right. In some cases the quadrants are numbered, as in the graph on the right. In other cases the quadrants are identified by word description as in the business matrix. Because four quadrants are formed does not mean that all four will be used. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dB2FU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dB2FU.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;-- R.L. Harris, &lt;em&gt;Information Graphics: A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference&lt;/em&gt;, Oxford University Press, 1999 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is at least &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.edrawsoft.com/business-matrix-examples.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some software&lt;/a&gt; that uses the same term and I found two more books that call the generic form of Gartner's graph by same generic &quot;business matrix&quot; name. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=AeJdxesY7h8C&amp;amp;pg=PA76&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;first one&lt;/a&gt; only exemplifies the notion with an &quot;export matrix&quot; (strength/weakness X threats/opportunities)  The second book is a bit more elaborate:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Two of the classic strategic development tools are business matrices – the market growth/market share and strength/attractiveness matrices – also known as the BCG (figure 100) and GE matrices. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9pQku.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9pQku.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The business matrices, sometimes called portfolio matrices, graphically display&#xA;  the overall competitive standing of a portfolio of businesses. Each matrix positions&#xA;  the company and its business units according to two dimensions (axes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;-- N. Adler, &lt;em&gt;Tools for Project Management, Workshops and Consulting:  A Must-Have Compendium of Essential Tools and Techniques&lt;/em&gt;, Wiley 2011&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;portfolio matrix&quot; synonym suggest by this latter book also seems to have some traction, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth%E2%80%93share_matrix&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia uses it&lt;/a&gt; to refer just to the  BCG-matrix (which takes its name from the Boston Consulting Group)... which also goes by quite a few other names. As you can probably tell from the Wikipedia BCG example, sometimes a third dimension is plotted using circle radii. Adler also mentions this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You can plot ‘bubbles’ around the points to indicate the relative market size of each business unit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So those may or may not be strictly the kind of graph you look for. But he also shows a 3x3 business matrix (more like your last D&amp;amp;D example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vUYvo.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vUYvo.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter 3x3 seems to be called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mbacrystalball.com/blog/strategy/ge-mckinsey-matrix/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;GE-McKinsey Matrix&quot;&lt;/a&gt; in other places, sometimes with a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/enduring-ideas-the-ge-and-mckinsey-nine-box-matrix&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;nine box&quot;&lt;/a&gt; designation added. Actually &quot;nine box matrix&quot; seems a genericized version of this, potentially with other things on the axes, e.g. leadership potential vs performance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KbbPU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KbbPU.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's one presentation that has &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.slideshare.net/ksatyamahesh/think-matrix&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10 of these variations&lt;/a&gt; used in business, but it just calls them &quot;useful matrices&quot; as an umbrella term. Some of the examples given there don't clearly have obviously ordinal axes though, e.g. the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansoff_Matrix&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ansoff matrix &lt;/a&gt;, but I suppose one can quantify newness. Other examples include the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_matrix&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;risk (management) matrix&lt;/a&gt; and Covey's &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:7_habits_decision-making_matrix.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;time management matrix&lt;/a&gt;, the latter being a derivative of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_management#The_Eisenhower_Method&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eisenhower method/matrix/box&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I can tell, outside business neither is the word &quot;quadrant&quot; nor the word &quot;matrix&quot; really used to refer to this kind of chart, but the chart has a more specific name, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_compass&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;political &quot;compass&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (which you gave as an example); the version of that with center zone is called a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nolan_Chart&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nolan chart&lt;/a&gt;, but it's probably not a term used outside politics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cHAbc.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cHAbc.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of a chart like Nolan's but from organizational/negotiation psychology is the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aVaya.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aVaya.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0301006615594700&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;perception-related&lt;/a&gt; Nolan-like chart, somewhat based on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Four_elements_representation.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aristotelian system of the four elements&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Jhmnx.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Jhmnx.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if anyone has come up with a remotely generic name for this center-separating quadrant-chart variation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Math-wise if you use more than the four quadrants, you're doing some arbitrary &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_a_set&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;partitioning&lt;/a&gt; of a plane although the term &quot;plane partitioning&quot; has a different meaning (in combinatorics); instead &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_partitioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;space partitioning&lt;/a&gt; is the term used for the partitioning of Euclidean spaces, such as the plane. A non-orthogonal example of the latter is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voronoi_diagram&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Voronoi diagram&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also if the scores (plotted on the axes) are bounded, you're not really using/partitioning the whole plane, but just a region thereof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably the most complex example I know of a Voronoi-like diagram that that is reasonably widespread use is the USDA NRCS &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/edu/?cid=nrcs142p2_054311&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;soil textural triangle&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, itself a (barycentric) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_plot&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ternary plot&lt;/a&gt;, i.e. it's actually a projected tridimensional plot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ffgSV.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ffgSV.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This example is, of course, very remote from your original question. See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_diagram&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;piper diagram&lt;/a&gt; for another partitioned plot similar to that USDA triangle, but used in water chemistry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I should mention that a reason that you probably don't see these more often in psychology is that even the (now dated) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MBTI&lt;/a&gt; personality had 4 dimensions. Although its proponents often drew the 16 (extreme) combinations in boxes, it's not easy to put these on explicit axes in a plane figure.  MBTI diagrams often use just colors or letters for the dimensions. The more modern psychological personality theories have 5 (Big Five aka FFM) or 6 (HEXACO) axes, which makes any graphing even more difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter also shun &quot;boxing&quot; just based on extreme values like MBTI did. Boxing the extremes is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator#No_evidence_for_dichotomies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a fairly silly idea&lt;/a&gt; given that these dimensions have normal distribution in the population. So I guess that has created a bit of an &quot;anti-quadrant&quot; reflex in some psychologists. By the way, even the D&amp;amp;D &quot;personalities&quot; from your last chart are superior to MBTI in this sense that the D&amp;amp;D matrix acknowledges the &quot;middle&quot; personality type on both of its dimensions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, even the currently widely accepted models of personality, each of the axes does have a fairly natural dual interpretation: introversion vs extroversion etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course boxing your opponents is very popular in political discourse, even resulting in pun charts like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/b8RGq.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/b8RGq.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or even&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1M1bf.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1M1bf.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-27T01:02:22.540" LastActivityDate="2019-04-27T01:02:22.540" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22041" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="22043" CreationDate="2019-04-14T16:01:24.013" Score="2" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am electronics engineer by profession&#xA;But i am confused in difference between Psychology &amp;amp; Neuroscience? Please explain in lay man terms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22007" LastActivityDate="2019-04-19T11:05:20.307" Title="Difference between Psychology &amp; Neuroscience in lay man terms?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22042" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-14T18:07:51.917" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have very strong Dyscalculia, but I still have a generalized math disability, and despite receiving double-time to do quizzes and exams in my Calculus 1 course, I am still struggling to achieve the C grade I need to move onto Calc 2 which is required for my Computer Science major.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to improve at math and I am curious if there are specialized strategies people like me might benefit from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand self-help questions are banned here, but judging by the response to the meta-site post regarding that. It seems like it might be allowable if the answers to the question can provide help to more than just the individual who posted the question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22008" LastEditorUserId="22008" LastEditDate="2019-04-14T20:03:09.077" LastActivityDate="2019-04-14T20:03:09.077" Title="Are there specialized strategies for those with slight math disabilities?" Tags="&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2019-04-19T21:08:24.457" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22043" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22041" CreationDate="2019-04-14T19:37:46.743" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This will be a little contrived (you asked in layman's terms), but basically psychologists don't care about neurons. They care more about a higher-level view of how the brain works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's even a joke about psychologists having a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/monitor/2008/06/neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;neuron envy&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;. As for an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that you can have an explanation in biology at two different levels. One is a &amp;quot;black box,&amp;quot; or non-reductionist approach. An example of this is behaviorism, which gives you a model of what's going on at the same level as the phenomenon you are studying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And as an analogy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In biology, for example, Mendelian genetics--where you have pea plants and genes--could only get you so far. Sooner or later, you need to open it up and see what's inside. You have to discover the structure of the DNA molecule--an advance that gave birth to modern biology, because it told you about enzymes; it told you about ... the machinery underlying cell physiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology, the nearest thing to that happening is neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-04-15T15:57:34.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22044" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22041" CreationDate="2019-04-15T05:33:20.350" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say the difference between psychology and neuroscience is like the difference between electronics and electrodynamics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2019-04-15T05:33:20.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22045" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19582" CreationDate="2019-04-15T14:34:03.013" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently needed to crate very similar survey, and managed to get better randomisation: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As @verybadatthis each question went to its own block; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Go to Survey Flow, created a Randomizer Flow element; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Added blocks to the randomizer flow. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Providing introduction panels and outro panels for each logical survey section was also straightforward --- I created a group flow element that contained intro, outro and beforementioned randomiser. So in the end it everything looked like that: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YKmeR.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YKmeR.png&quot; alt=&quot;Example of survey structure&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aforementioned appreach allowed me to easily randomize blocks of about 30 questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want more detalis here is my blog post on the matter: &lt;a href=&quot;https://blog.askesis.pl/post/2019/04/qualtrics-random.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://blog.askesis.pl/post/2019/04/qualtrics-random.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21787" LastEditorUserId="21787" LastEditDate="2019-05-05T16:56:58.563" LastActivityDate="2019-05-05T16:56:58.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22046" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-15T18:35:36.543" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for papers that did data cleaning on stroop test results in terms of individual questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, for an individual stroop test Q, remove results that took less than 200ms and more than 3000ms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I used &lt;a href=&quot;http://doodlegames.com/stroop/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://doodlegames.com/stroop/&lt;/a&gt; to conduct my stroop test so I have data that looks like this: &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lpsMY.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lpsMY.png&quot; alt=&quot;Excel Sheet showing Data&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm planning on using average reaction time but am unsure how to clean my data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22013" LastActivityDate="2019-04-15T18:35:36.543" Title="Data Cleaning - Stroop Test: Trying to find a paper than cleans the stroop test for individual questions" Tags="&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22047" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="22052" CreationDate="2019-04-15T19:32:19.263" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to figure out this question. It's just an inquisitive thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does a musician, author, novelist, poet's personal life affect a human being's personal view of that epic figure rather than enjoying these figures' personal poetry, short story, novel, a novella, and other works?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If no then why do epic figures are constantly criticized for their personal life? Is it fair?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19969" LastEditorUserId="19969" LastEditDate="2019-04-15T20:24:19.217" LastActivityDate="2019-04-16T12:02:10.120" Title="Does societal view of epic musician, author's epic work affect mainly any human the way they view them overall or it's their personal life or both?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22048" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21981" CreationDate="2019-04-15T21:43:36.117" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's nothing too deep about IPIP scoring. It just uses the standard &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Likert scale&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/newScoringInstructions.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ipip.ori.org/newScoringInstructions.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Converting IPIP Item Responses to Scale Scores&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Here is how to score IPIP scales:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For + keyed items, the response &quot;Very Inaccurate&quot; is assigned a value of 1, &quot;Moderately Inaccurate&quot; a value of 2, &quot;Neither Inaccurate nor Accurate&quot; a 3, &quot;Moderately Accurate&quot; a 4, and &quot;Very Accurate&quot; a value of 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For - keyed items, the response &quot;Very Inaccurate&quot; is assigned a value of 5, &quot;Moderately Inaccurate&quot; a value of 4, &quot;Neither Inaccurate nor Accurate&quot; a 3, &quot;Moderately Accurate&quot; a 2, and &quot;Very Accurate&quot; a value of 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Once numbers are assigned for all of the items in the scale, just sum all the values to obtain a total scale score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Easy, no? (If you are having problems, you might contact the IPIP consultant. [j5j@psu.edu])&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And they do have &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/newBigFive5broadKey.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a scoring key&lt;/a&gt; for the &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/new_ipip-50-item-scale.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;50-question version&lt;/a&gt; meaning it links questions to Big Five factors; I'm not quoting that whole thing there, but here's a snippet:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Big-Five Factor Markers&#xA;&#xA;Factor I (Surgency or Extraversion)&#xA;&#xA;10-item scale (Alpha = .87)&#xA;+ keyed&#xA;    Am the life of the party.&#xA;    Feel comfortable around people.&#xA;    Start conversations.&#xA;    Talk to a lot of different people at parties.&#xA;    Don't mind being the center of attention.&#xA;&#xA;– keyed&#xA;     Don't talk a lot.&#xA;     Keep in the background.&#xA;     Have little to say.&#xA;     Don't like to draw attention to myself.&#xA;     Am quiet around strangers.&#xA;&#xA;Factor II (Agreeableness)&#xA;&#xA;10-item scale (Alpha = .82)&#xA;+ keyed&#xA;    Am interested in people.&#xA;    Sympathize with others' feelings.&#xA;    Have a soft heart.&#xA;    Take time out for others.&#xA;    Feel others' emotions.&#xA;    Make people feel at ease.&#xA;&#xA;– keyed&#xA;    Am not really interested in others.&#xA;    Insult people.&#xA;    Am not interested in other people's problems.&#xA;    Feel little concern for others.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And so on for the other three factors. Alpha refers to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronbach%27s_alpha&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cronbach alpha&lt;/a&gt;. It's not relevant for your purposes, but only for a reliability evaluation of the test-design itself. (The 100-question variant, also contained in that parge, obviously has higher Alpha.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want a facet-level test, which further subdivides each of the Big Five factors, look at their 120-question NEO PI-R; it has &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/newNEOFacetsKey.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a similar key&lt;/a&gt;. They also have a &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/newHEXACO_PI_key.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HEXACO key&lt;/a&gt;, which adds a sixth main factor (also faceted).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure what you mean by &quot;reporting standard&quot;. I suspect you want to relate the raw scores to population &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;averages and standard deviations&lt;/a&gt;. To get such tables you need to read the original papers on which is based. Here's the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3902_8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one for HEXACO&lt;/a&gt;, for instance (this one is even broken down by gender):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/y3Ffz.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/y3Ffz.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The IPIP  &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/newMultipleconstructs.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;master key page&lt;/a&gt; has a list of references in which you can find the publication for the specific test you are interested in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The initial IPIP test you mentioned/found (the 50-q one) is based on &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/1040-3590.4.1.26&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goldberg's&lt;/a&gt; paper, but that one doesn't seem to contain either the IPIP-modified questions nor even population level means and standard deviations. (The population-based statistics are prone to change a bit if the questions are altered.) So if you pick a test like that you need to gather a sample of subjects first, have them complete the questionnaires, and then compute your own mean &amp;amp; variance distribution tables! Experimental psychology is (hard) work at times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luckily, there's &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.18.2.192&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a newer paper&lt;/a&gt;, on the mini-IPIP (just 20 q's), (also has &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/MiniIPIPKey.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;key available&lt;/a&gt;) which also reports that population data for the older 50-q test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XKocD.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XKocD.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;N.B.: normally a percentile in the distribution would be reported to the user; see &lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/a/3189342/173347&quot;&gt;this math.SE question&lt;/a&gt; for the conversion from raw score to percentile in the normal distribution; basically use a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_normal_table&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Z-table&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-16T00:49:35.163" LastActivityDate="2019-04-16T00:49:35.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22049" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22041" CreationDate="2019-04-16T01:00:25.883" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of neuroscience has nothing to do with the brain (never mind the human brain). For example research to regrow peripheral neuron or neurons in the spinal cord to help paralyzed individuals would be neuroscience but not psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the limit all of psychology is related to neuroscience, since if we could model individual neurons, networks, and brains, then we could predict all of human and animal behavior. That is still a long way off so I think it is reasonable to say parts of psychology are unrelated to neuroscience (e.g., social psychology and psychometrics).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-04-16T01:00:25.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22052" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22047" CreationDate="2019-04-16T11:13:31.857" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, our main impression of someone colors aspects of their details. It's called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;halo effect&lt;/a&gt; or when it has a negative tone it's sometimes called the &quot;pitchfork effect&quot; or &quot;horns effect&quot;. The positive halo effect is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2010.03.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;definitely exploited in advertising&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for why the tabloid press has &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.mec.pt/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;amp;pid=S1646-59542013000400001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;been on the rise&lt;/a&gt;, that's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0267323199014003001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more complex issue&lt;/a&gt;. I'm not sure there's a single good explanation for it. &#xA;But regarding its contents, some evolutionary psychologists &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0099244&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;propose&lt;/a&gt; that it has contents that would have been relevant to our (ancient) past:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We examined the content of three successful tabloids, using a list of evolutionary-based topics created a priori. The results indicate that tabloids reflect fitness-relevant topics that were important throughout our evolutionary past. The tabloids equally represent both sexes, and while they mostly concentrate on entertainers and royalty, they do pay some attention to unknown individuals. By correlating who and what is gossiped about, we found celebrities are more often the subjects of stories involving wealth, while unknown individuals are almost always gossiped about within the context of life-threatening events. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-16T12:02:10.120" LastActivityDate="2019-04-16T12:02:10.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22054" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-17T14:11:20.370" Score="1" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for the experience/ phenomenon of dreaming while being partially awake, being able to decide to wake up when dreaming, having control of the self character in a dream, etc?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13498" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-04-17T15:38:43.343" LastActivityDate="2019-04-19T10:24:18.987" Title="Is there a name for the experience/ phenomenon of dreaming while being partially awake?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22055" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14090" CreationDate="2019-04-17T14:27:56.203" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you're at least in part talking about the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_consensus_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;false consensus effect/bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the false-consensus effect or false-consensus bias is an attributional type of cognitive bias whereby people tend to overestimate the extent to which their opinions, beliefs, preferences, values, and habits are normal and typical of those of others (i.e., that others also think the same way that they do). [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The false-consensus effect is not restricted to cases where people believe that their values are shared by the majority, but it still manifests as an overestimate of the extent of their belief. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no single cause for this cognitive bias; the availability heuristic, self-serving bias, and naïve realism have been suggested as at least partial underlying factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At least your second example: &amp;quot;most people are X&amp;quot; being thought by someone who is X clearly belongs to this false-consensus-bias category.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure your first example is quite like that though... being Italian is not something that can be reasonably assumed to be universal... but Wikipedia also mentions (2nd para quoted) that some seem apply the &amp;quot;false consensus bias&amp;quot; to describe even cases where the subjects just overestimates the extent of their belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The false consensus effect is thought to have some [cor]relation with the availability heuristic, or even be a causal effect of the latter... that seems to have been the ultimate conclusion of Larry's answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's at least &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01041.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one paper&lt;/a&gt; starting with&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Selective exposure to a biased sample of others is supposed to play an important role in explaining the false consensus effect (FCE).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it also measured the level of correlation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Three predictions were tested. First, subjects were expected to refer to similar others more often than to dissimilar others. Second, referring to similar others was expected to lead to larger FCEs. Third, referring to dissimilar others was expected to lead to smaller FCEs. Results provided direct evidence of selective exposure, but this was &lt;strong&gt;most pronounced for issues for which opinions were relatively heterogeneous, i.e. for which there was no clear majority or minority opinion. The availability of similar others was further shown to be associated with larger FCEs,&lt;/strong&gt; whereas the availability of dissimilar others was associated with smaller FCEs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/524416&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Other research&lt;/a&gt; suggest that there more moderators for the FCE:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prior research has shown that individuals are often susceptible to a false consensus effect, whereby they overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions. In three studies, we show that the strength of the false consensus effect is moderated by the valence of one's own opinion, such that overestimation of population consensus is greater when an individual likes an alternative as compared to when she or he dislikes it. Further, we show that this moderation of false consensus is driven by the availability of countervalence attributes, that is, disliked attributes in liked alternatives and liked attributes in disliked alternatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So FCE seems more complex than being driven by mere availability, i.e. the level of like/dislike for the main characteristic as well as its associated/secondary characteristics seem to moderate FCE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To speculate how this might influence your Italian example, subjects with a strong [and positive] ethnocentric perspective will probably exhibit more overestimation (of their percentage in the population). I don't know if anyone has tested this hypothesis though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;N.B. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.596&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one study&lt;/a&gt; found that FCE persisted even after subjects were shown objective statistics. But the persistence of FCE is (thankfully and obviously) &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edp001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;moderated by encountering disagreement&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, one of those papers mentioned some synonyms for FCE that have been used in the literature: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1988.tb02354.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;assumed similarity&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0901_3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;social projection&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-04-17T15:50:39.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22056" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22054" CreationDate="2019-04-17T15:45:18.600" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A dream where you are aware you are dreaming is called a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucid_dream&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lucid dream&lt;/a&gt; (see also La Berge et al 1981). Lucid dreams can have varying level of control; in La Berge et al 1981 subjects were able to report by eye movements and fist clenches when they were lucid dreaming, and were verified to be in REM sleep when this occurred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being aware of your outside surroundings, on the other hand, is called being awake and is not the same as dreaming but could be considered &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daydream&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;daydreaming&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people report that they often have lucid dreams, and lucid dreaming is more common in some patient populations like narcoleptics (Dodet et al 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are methods to encourage lucid dreaming if one wants to experience them (La Berge 1980, Zadra et al 1992).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dodet, P., Chavez, M., Leu-Semenescu, S., Golmard, J. L., &amp;amp; Arnulf, I. (2015). Lucid dreaming in narcolepsy. Sleep, 38(3), 487-497.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;La Berge, S. P. (1980). Lucid dreaming as a learnable skill: A case study. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 51(3_suppl2), 1039-1042.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;La Berge, S. P., Nagel, L. E., Dement, W. C., &amp;amp; Zarcone Jr, V. P. (1981). Lucid dreaming verified by volitional communication during REM sleep. Perceptual and motor skills, 52(3), 727-732.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zadra, A. L., Donderi, D. C., &amp;amp; Pihl, R. O. (1992). Efficacy of lucid dream induction for lucid and non-lucid dreamers. Dreaming, 2(2), 85.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-04-17T15:55:18.537" LastActivityDate="2019-04-17T15:55:18.537" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22057" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-17T16:24:15.817" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;On one hand, people often seem to exhibit various forms of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;illusory [self-]superiority&lt;/a&gt;, perhaps the best known example of that being the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunning–Kruger effect&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_consensus_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;false consensus effect&lt;/a&gt; aka &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15745863&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social projection&lt;/a&gt; seems to work in the opposite direction of making the subject believe he is more similar to others (by making the subject assume the others are [more] similar to him).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an integrative account of these two effects? When does one dominate and when does the other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2019-04-18T17:37:44.960" Title="How is illusory superiority reconciled with the false-consensus effect?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22060" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-18T03:55:31.560" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I understand, the reason to set 1 week as the time between two therapy sessions is for the clients to do homework, which can be: take notes on recursive thoughts and emotions, remember important information that lead to the belief, rewire the brain to build a new habit. (In case of threaten of suicide, it is allowed to have more than one session in one week.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But from my experience, it takes up to 3 days or less to fully remember the necessary information and organize it in a clear, succinct manner. At then, the person basically satisfies with the answer, and only need to wait for feedback. We can say that the rest 4 days are for them to continue challenging their own view, but it seems that any new information that come up are just minor points, and don't really change the original outline of the answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;: How long does it take to assimilate information, recall memory, verbalize &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacit_knowledge&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tacit knowledge&lt;/a&gt; and organize them as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_framework&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conceptual framework&lt;/a&gt; to justify the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;belief&lt;/a&gt;? Is the number 3 a typical number for most people, or is it just me?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would exclude other non-cognitive factors, like having a day-job. The belief doesn't need to be true either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A consequence is that the 1 week waiting between sessions could be different in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive therapy&lt;/a&gt;, since I think in a logical discussion, any emotions that are evoked will quickly be overcome, as long as the client concentrate on the logic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-04-19T12:17:37.327" LastActivityDate="2019-04-19T12:17:37.327" Title="How long it would take to form a conceptual framework to justify a belief?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-therapy&gt;&lt;conceptual-framework&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2019-04-18T21:54:27.703" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22062" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21838" CreationDate="2019-04-18T16:07:23.277" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe check out the work of Pia Mellody.  It's nearly impossible to speak about codependency outside of the context of addiction.  That being said, Pia comes at codependency from the perspective of &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0062505890&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;trauma and attachment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22038" LastActivityDate="2019-04-18T16:07:23.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22064" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-18T20:42:39.170" Score="1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do we learn to improve our working memory capacity without sitting WM tests?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Working memory capacity can be &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/1670/how-to-reliably-measure-working-memory-capacity&quot;&gt;measured&lt;/a&gt;, but I wondered whether the only way to improve it is learning techniques for working memory tests (such as the digit span test)? I &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; I remember that working memory capacity is relatively stable in adulthood and reaches that level at a relatively young age in childhood. So I'm asking whether general education improves our WMC, not for supposed brain training techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2020-09-12T16:36:36.880" Title="Do we learn to improve our working memory capacity without sitting WM tests?" Tags="&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22066" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-19T04:36:38.137" Score="1" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Parent ego state is like a tape recorder full of pre- judged, prejudiced, pre-programmed statements. These &quot;taped&quot; statements can get activated while we are in our Adult or Child and then we can actually hear them as &quot;voices in our heads.&quot; The Parental tapes can feel good or bad depending on which Parent makes them. In other personality theories, the harmful Critical Parent voices are known as the harsh super-ego, negative self-talk, cognitive traps, low self-esteem, punitive protector or catastrophic expectations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question:&lt;/strong&gt; What are the methods or options to either voice down or mute the Critical Parent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transactional Analysis&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis#The_ego-state_(or_Parent%E2%80%93Adult%E2%80%93Child_(PAC))_models&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The ego-state (or Parent–Adult–Child&#xA;(PAC)) models&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21949" LastEditorUserId="21949" LastEditDate="2019-04-19T15:09:13.050" LastActivityDate="2019-04-19T15:09:13.050" Title="In Transactional Analysis, how can one kill or at least voice down the &quot;Critical Parent&quot; ego state?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22069" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22041" CreationDate="2019-04-19T10:52:55.943" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You might say that neuroscience is a study of the materials and physical processes required to make a brain operate, and that could be likened to computer hardware.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might therefore also say that psychology is a study of some aspects of the software that runs on that hardware, and psychotherapy a way of hacking that software.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22044" LastEditorUserId="22044" LastEditDate="2019-04-19T11:05:20.307" LastActivityDate="2019-04-19T11:05:20.307" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22070" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-19T13:02:15.527" Score="2" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;In psych class, I recall learning about a cognitive bias where people are inclined to use all information available to them when making a decision, even if some of the information would be better ignored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe the example given was a study in which participants were asked to evaluate the (college?) application of a candidate. Some participants were given just the conventional application information, while others were additionally given irrelevant information in the form of a portfolio of the candidate's elementary school artwork. The finding was that the artwork influenced the participant's decisions when it was provided.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I don't remember is what this bias is called!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22045" LastActivityDate="2019-04-20T21:42:17.057" Title="Name of cognitive bias where people try to use all given information regardless of quality?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22071" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22070" CreationDate="2019-04-19T15:20:32.040" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_bias_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Information bias&lt;/a&gt; is a cognitive bias to seek information when it does not affect action. People can often make better predictions or choices with less information: more information is not always better. An example of information bias is believing that the more information that can be acquired to make a decision, the better, even if that extra information is irrelevant for the decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_bias_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_bias_(psychology)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21949" LastActivityDate="2019-04-19T15:20:32.040" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22072" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="337" CreationDate="2019-04-19T15:32:19.690" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the image below (related to a chimpanzee) one can clearly see that a dotted actual image, though somewhat distorted, is visible in the neural network structure of the visual system:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/n8dyo.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/n8dyo.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The left picture is the picture as it is in the real world. It's inverted on the monkey's retina. Clearly, the image has the same inverted orientation as the image projected on the retina (compare the numbers and letters between both pictures). It is most likely, because of the close resemblance between humans and chimpanzees, that this process also takes place in the visual cortex of our brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe more clarity can be achieved if we project an arrow (point up) on our retina, with an angle of 45 degrees with respect to a vertical (or horizontal) line and see (with the same technique used to produce the image shown here) what's the orientation of the arrow in our visual system. My guess, on the basis of these pictures, is that the orientation is the same as the orientation of the arrow on the retina, which means the brain uses other mechanisms to turn the image upside-down. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To invert the external image (which, again, I believe can't be achieved by the visual system itself, but maybe over a long period of time this &lt;strong&gt;can&lt;/strong&gt; happen, and only experiments can confirm this) according to me is necessary because the image is projected inverted on the retina. If we don't invert it again we are disorientated. As a counterargument, you can ask (as the OP does) why we have to invert the projected image again and we can perceive the inverted image in the brain as the correct non-inverted image and not the non-inverted image. But I think the inversion of an inversion returns the true orientation of the image in the real world. We don't walk on ceilings in the opposite directions of our moving feet).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastActivityDate="2019-04-19T15:32:19.690" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22074" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20468" CreationDate="2019-04-19T21:54:27.697" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, in a recent &lt;a href=&quot;https://qz.com/1201773/we-took-the-worlds-most-scientific-personality-test-and-discovered-unexpectedly-sexist-results/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;debate&lt;/a&gt; whether Big Five is... ahem... sexist, this was mentioned, which pertains your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There’s another flaw when it comes to taking Big Five personality tests online. The online versions of the Big Five traits inform people of negative character traits, without explaining that the positivity or negativity of all characteristics is shaped by context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Costa believes that the Big Five’s willingness to point out negative traits makes the test more accurate: Myers-Briggs avoids “anything that could be negative. And that’s a great big marketing thing,” he says. But each potentially negative Big Five character trait is informed by the situation. “They’re only negative in certain contexts,” he says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For example, Costa explains, agreeable people are great for a blind date, but tend to be overly dependent. Disagreeable people, meanwhile, aren’t good at smoothing over arguments. But they’re also less likely to obediently follow immoral orders—such as those demonstrated by the Milgram experiment, wherein participants are asked to administer increasingly intense electric shocks to a victim. (The longer IPIP-NEO test briefly acknowledged the importance of context, noting, “agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough or absolute objective decisions,” but the Big Five Inventory website offered no such explanations.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more context, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Costa_Jr&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paul Costa&lt;/a&gt; is one the original authors of NEO-PI, one of the main instruments that shaped Big Five testing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, according to him, avoiding negativity either explicit (or the complementary/implicit one) in the design wasn't a goal because it hindered accuracy. I guess that doesn't completely answer the question about naming of the dimensions, but it's probably informative. (Do note that one of the Big 5 dimensions has a rather negative name--neuroticism.) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Costa's point about commercial tests' negativity-avoidance seems to apply to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/20432/9769&quot;&gt;DISC&lt;/a&gt; as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The factor-naming issue itself was covered in detail in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00970.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1992 paper&lt;/a&gt; of McCrae and John (which has very high number of citations for a psychology paper):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The consensus that five-factorists see among themselves may be puzzling to outsiders because the &quot;disagreement among analysts as to factor titles&quot; that Tupes and Christal noted still plagues the field (John,&#xA;  1990b). Factor names reflect historical accidents, conceptual positions,&#xA;  and the entrenchment that comes from a published body of literature&#xA;  and from published instruments. There are two prominent systems for&#xA;  naming the factors, one derived from the lexical tradition and one from&#xA;  the questionnaire tradition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many writers take Norman's (1963) annunciation of an &quot;adequate&#xA;  taxonomy of personality attributes&quot; derived from Cattell's reduction of&#xA;  natural language trait terms as the formal beginning of the FFM, and&#xA;  the factor numbers and names Norman chose—I: Extraversion or Surgency; II: Agreeableness; III: Conscientiousness; IV: Emotional Stability;&#xA;  and V: Culture—are often used. Peabody and Goldberg (1989)&#xA;  have noted that the order in which these factors emerged roughly parallels&#xA;  their representation among English language trait terms in the&#xA;  dictionary: Many more words can be found to describe aspects of Factors&#xA;  I through III than of Factors IV and V. The factor numbers, I to V,&#xA;  are thus meaningful designations. Roman numerals also have the advantage&#xA;  of being theoretically neutral; they seem to stand above the fray&#xA;  of disputed factor interpretations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The second tradition that led to the modern FFM comes from the&#xA;  analysis of questionnaires, and particularly from the work of H. J.&#xA;  Eysenck, who identified Extraversion (E) and Neuroticism (N) as major&#xA;  components of psychological tests. (It was Wiggins, 1968, who dubbed&#xA;  these the &quot;Big Two,&quot; setting the stage for Goldberg's 1981 designation&#xA;  of the FFM as the &quot;Big Five.&quot;) Costa and McCrae (1980) added&#xA;  a dimension they called Openness to Experience (O), and later (1985,&#xA;  1989) created scales to measure Agreeableness (A) and Conscientiousness&#xA;  (C). A number of publications (e.g., Borkenau &amp;amp; Ostendorf, 1990;&#xA;  Funder &amp;amp; Colvin, 1988; Tellegen &amp;amp; Waller, in press; Wiggins &amp;amp; Pincus,&#xA;  1989; Zuckerman, Bernieri, Koestner, &amp;amp; Rosenthal, 1989) have&#xA;  adopted this nomenclature. Note that N corresponds to low Emotional&#xA;  Stability, —IV, and O is a variant of Norman's Factor V.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If the advantage of the Norman numbers is their theoretical neutrality,&#xA;  the disadvantage is their low mnemonic value. Initials, originally popularized&#xA;  by H. J. Eysenck, are easier to interpret, and they may be less&#xA;  theoretically laden than full names. To those for whom Neuroticism&#xA;  connotes psychiatric disorder, negative affectivity (Watson &amp;amp; Clark,&#xA;  1984) or simply nervousness may seem more apt; all can be characterized&#xA;  by N. Likewise, E can also stand for energy or enthusiasm (cf.&#xA;  Watson &amp;amp; Clark, in press); O for originality; A for affiliation (Leary,&#xA;  1957) or affection (Brand, 1984), and C for constraint (Tellegen, 1982)&#xA;  or control (Krug &amp;amp; Johns, 1986).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, if the spelled-out names really bother interpretation-wise, an alternative is to use just the first letter designator (and/or numbers, but the latter seems a less popular approach). I did see recent papers do the former (use just the letters) although mainly in tables for compactness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in excruciating detail as to level of consensus on the naming of each factor (which seems to be roughly N &gt; E ~ A ~ C &gt; O), the same paper continues:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The problem of what to call the factors is not merely a matter of convention.&#xA;  The labels refiect conceptualizations, and five-factor advocates&#xA;  differ in the details of their views on the factors, and thus in their&#xA;  preferred names. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is probably the least controversy about the definition of N. N&#xA;  represents individual differences in the tendency to experience distress,&#xA;  and in the cognitive and behavioral styles that follow from this tendency.&#xA;  High N scorers experience chronic negative affects (Watson &amp;amp;&#xA;  Clark, 1984) and are prone to the development of a variety of psychiatric&#xA;  disorders (Zonderman, Stone, &amp;amp; Costa, 1989). The recurrent&#xA;  nervous tension, depression, frustration, guilt, and self-consciousness&#xA;  that such individuals feel is often associated with irrational thinking,&#xA;  low self-esteem, poor control of impulses and cravings, somatic complaints,&#xA;  and ineffective coping (McCrae &amp;amp; Costa, 1987). Individuals&#xA;  low in N are not necessarily high in positive mental health, however&#xA;  that may be defined—they are simply calm, relaxed, even-tempered,&#xA;  unflappable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Despite the long and common use of the term Extraversion, there is&#xA;  less consensus about E. Most of the differences can be traced to the&#xA;  fact that E and A together define the Interpersonal Circumplex, around&#xA;  which interpersonal terms are spaced almost evenly. The traditional&#xA;  axes of the circumplex are Dominance (or Status) and Affiliation (or&#xA;  Love; Wiggins, 1979), and the major dispute about E (Norman's Factor&#xA;  1) concerns its alignment with these axes. Goldberg (1990), guided&#xA;  by his analyses of English language trait terms, and Wiggins (in press),&#xA;  guided by the interpersonal tradition, identify this factor with Dominance.&#xA;  McCrae and Costa (1989c) argue that E is best seen as located&#xA;  midway between Dominance and Warmth (although perhaps a bit closer&#xA;  to Dominance). This position, which Peabody and Goldberg (1989)&#xA;  designate as I', is close to the location of such traditional questionnaire&#xA;  measures of E as H. J. Eysenck and S. B. G. Eysenck's (1975) E scale&#xA;  and the EI scale of the MBTI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The advantage ofthe I' position is that it aligns the factor more closely&#xA;  with its noninterpersonal aspects, particularly positive emotionality. As&#xA;  Watson and Clark describe in their contribution to this issue, the tendencies&#xA;  to experience positive and negative emotions are not opposites, but&#xA;  orthogonal dimensions that define an affective plane. People who are&#xA;  cheerful, enthusiastic, optimistic, and energetic are not necessarily low&#xA;  in anxiety or depression—that depends on their level of N. But cheerful&#xA;  people consistently tend to be dominant, talkative, sociable, and warm,&#xA;  and Watson and Clark (in press) argue that positive emotionality should&#xA;  be seen as the core of E. This somewhat unorthodox view is probably&#xA;  a useful corrective to the narrowly interpersonal interpretation of E as&#xA;  sociability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;E is distinguished by its breadth of content. In their review, Watson&#xA;  and Clark (in press) identified seven components of E: venturesomeness,&#xA;  affiliation, positive affectivity, energy, ascendance, and ambition.&#xA;  As Table 1 shows, Costa and McCrae's view of E is similarly broad,&#xA;  although they would divide affiliation into warmth and gregariousness&#xA;  and assign ambition to C.&quot; The fact that such a wide variety of interpersonal,&#xA;  affective, and temperamental variables covary probably accounts&#xA;  for the fact that this factor is so well represented in English language&#xA;  adjectives and so often described by personality theorists.&#xA;  The lexical literature suggests that individuals low in E can be described&#xA;  as quiet, reserved, retiring, shy, silent, and withdrawn (John,&#xA;  1990a), and Q-sort correlates point to emotional blandness and overcontrol&#xA;  of impulses as additional attributes. Nowhere in this description&#xA;  is introspectiveness seen: Low E must be distinguished from Guilford's&#xA;  (1977) Thinking Introversion (which is more closely related to O and&#xA;  C). The confusion between social and thinking introversions is perpetuated&#xA;  in the MBTI, where both kinds of traits are attributed to individuals&#xA;  classified as Introverts. In fact, the MBTI EI scale is a relatively pure&#xA;  measure of low E (McCrae &amp;amp; Costa, 1989a).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The label Agreeableness has been almost universally used for Norman's&#xA;  Factor II, but as Digman (1990) noted, &quot;Agreeableness . . .&#xA;  seems tepid for a dimension that appears to involve the more humane&#xA;  aspects of humanity—characteristics such as altruism, nurturance, caring,&#xA;  and emotional support at the one end of the dimension, and hos&#xA;  tility, indifference to others, self-centeredness, spitefulness, and jealousy&#xA;  at the other&quot; (pp. 422-424). Digman and Takemoto-Chock (1981)&#xA;  offered &quot;Friendly Compliance versus Hostile Noncompliance&quot; as an&#xA;  alternative descriptor for the factor, and Graziano and Eisenberg (in&#xA;  press) adopted the contrast &quot;Agreeableness versus Antagonism.&quot;&#xA;  Because A must be orthogonal to E, the location—and thus the interpretation—&#xA;  of A depends to some extent on one's view of E. Again,&#xA;  Goldberg and Wiggins see this factor as Love or Warmth; Costa et al.&#xA;  (1991) note a cluster of attributes that blend Warmth and Submission,&#xA;  including trust, modesty, and compliance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Like A, C is a highly evaluated dimension; indeed, A and C are&#xA;  the classic dimensions of character, describing &quot;good&quot; versus &quot;evil&quot;&#xA;  and &quot;strong-willed&quot; versus &quot;weak-willed&quot; individuals. Perhaps it was&#xA;  these moral overtones that often led scientific psychologists to ignore&#xA;  these factors, but in fact, both represent objectively observable dimensions&#xA;  of individual differences. Some people are thorough, neat, wellorganized,&#xA;  diligent, and achievement-oriented, whereas others are not,&#xA;  and self-reports of these characteristics can be validated by peer or&#xA;  spouse ratings (McCrae &amp;amp; Costa, 1987).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A number of different conceptions of C have been offered. Tellegen's&#xA;  (1982) Constraint and Hogan's (1986) Prudence reflect an inhibitive&#xA;  view of C as a dimension that holds impulsive behavior in check.&#xA;  Digman and Takemoto-Chock's (1981) Will to Achieve represents a&#xA;  proactive view of C as a dimension that organizes and directs behavior.&#xA;  The term Conscientiousness combines both aspects, because it can&#xA;  mean either governed by conscience or diligent and thorough. Empirically,&#xA;  both kinds of traits seem to covary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The greatest controversy concerns O, and the root ofthe controversy&#xA;  is the disparity between natural language and questionnaire studies.&#xA;  Studies of trait adjectives in English (Goldberg, 1990; John, 1990a)&#xA;  and German (Ostendorf, 1990) typically show a factor defined by such&#xA;  items as intelligent, imaginative, and perceptive, and researchers from&#xA;  Fiske (1949) to Hogan (1986) and Digman (1990) have identified this&#xA;  factor as some form of Intellect. However, many traits related to O&#xA;  are not represented among English trait adjectives—there is, for example,&#xA;  no single English word that means &quot;sensitive to art and beauty&quot;&#xA;  (McCrae, 1990). Researchers using questionnaires have typically found&#xA;  a much broader factor that includes, in addition to creativity and intellectual&#xA;  interests, differentiated emotions, aesthetic sensitivity, need for&#xA;  variety, and unconventional values. This broader concept can be traced&#xA;  to Rogers (1961), Rokeach (1960), and Coan (1974); McCrae and Costa&#xA;  (in press) have argued that O is seen structurally in the depth, scope,&#xA;  and permeability of consciousness, and motivationally in the need for&#xA;  variety and experience. Ideas, of course, form an important aspect of&#xA;  consciousness, but fantasies, feelings, sensations, and values are also&#xA;  experiences to which individuals can be more or less open.&#xA;  Several discussions of the relative merits of these two conceptions&#xA;  have been offered (Digman, 1990; John, 1990a; McCrae &amp;amp; Costa,&#xA;  1985b, in press; Peabody &amp;amp; Goldberg, 1989). One point that should&#xA;  be emphasized is that neither Openness nor Intellect is equivalent to&#xA;  measured intelligence; O is a dimension of personality, not intellectual&#xA;  ability, and many people score high in O without having a correspondingly&#xA;  high IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A recent study illustrates the empirical basis for broadening the conception&#xA;  of this factor beyond Intellect. John (1989a) examined ACL&#xA;  and CQS data from expert raters at the Institute of Personality Assessment&#xA;  and Research. Based on a review of the literature, a panel of&#xA;  judges selected 112 prototype items from the ACL to mark the five dimensions.&#xA;  Many of the terms selected to represent O were consistent&#xA;  with either an Intellect or an Openness interpretation, including wide&#xA;  interests, imaginative, original, curious, and artistic. But because the&#xA;  literature emphasized the Intellect interpretation, judges also included&#xA;  such terms as wise, logical, and foresighted. When observer ratings on&#xA;  the 112 items were factored for a sample of 280 ratees, the five-factor&#xA;  model was clearly recovered, but wise, logical, and foresighted were&#xA;  not among the clear definers of the Intellect/Openness factor (Table 1&#xA;  lists the six highest-loading adjectives). Empirical analyses shifted the&#xA;  factor from a clear Intellect to a mixed Intellect/Openness factor.&#xA;  When ACL factor scores were correlated with CQS ratings by the&#xA;  same experts, the significant correlates (|r | &gt; .40) showed the full range&#xA;  of traits associated with Openness. Individuals rated low on the factor&#xA;  were described by &quot;judges in conventional terms,&quot; &quot;favors conservative&#xA;  values,&quot; and &quot;represses anxiety;&quot; those rated high were described by&#xA;  &quot;high degree of intellectual capacity,&quot; &quot;enjoys aesthetic impressions,&quot;&#xA;  &quot;has wide interests,&quot; and &quot;unusual, unconventional thought.&quot; As seen&#xA;  in this list, O includes aspects of intellect, but is considerably broader&#xA;  in scope.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is obvious from all this is that many researchers have gone to great lengths to put interpretive names to the factors. You can argue that that is a bad thing, but then I'm not here to argue the counterpoint, but to show it happened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are however some researchers which &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~johnlab/pdfs/2008chapter.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;have argued&lt;/a&gt; that [counter]point, on the basis that interpretive naming can lead to further testable hypotheses as to the underlying mechanisms for the factors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Whatever&#xA;  the inadequacies of the natural language for&#xA;  scientific systematics, broad dimensions inferred&#xA;  from folk usage are not a bad place&#xA;  to start a taxonomy. Even in the biological&#xA;  taxonomy of animals, “the technical system&#xA;  evolved from the vernacular” (Simpson,&#xA;  1961, pp. 12–13).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Obviously, a system that initially derives&#xA;  from the natural language does not need to&#xA;  reify such terms indefinitely. Indeed, several of&#xA;  the dimensions included among the Big Five,&#xA;  most notably Extraversion and Neuroticism,&#xA;  have been the target of various physiological&#xA;  and mechanistic explanations (e.g., Canli et&#xA;  al., 2001; see also L. A. Clark, 2005). In research&#xA;  on emotion regulatory processes, the&#xA;  links between the Big Five, the chronic use&#xA;  of particular regulatory strategies, and their&#xA;  emotional and social consequences are being&#xA;  articulated (John &amp;amp; Gross, 2007). Similarly,&#xA;  the conceptual explication of Extraversion&#xA;  and Neuroticism as persistent dispositions&#xA;  toward thinking and behaving in ways that&#xA;  foster, respectively, positive and negative affective&#xA;  experiences (e.g., Tellegen, 1985; see&#xA;  also Clark &amp;amp; Watson, Chapter 9, this volume)&#xA;  promises to connect the Big Five with&#xA;  individual differences in affective functioning,&#xA;  which, in turn, may be studied in more tightly&#xA;  controlled laboratory settings (see Gross,&#xA;  Chapter 28, this volume). At this point, the&#xA;  Big Five differentiate domains of individual&#xA;  differences that have similar surface manifestations—&#xA;  just like the early animal taxonomy&#xA;  that was transformed by better accounts of&#xA;  evolutionary processes and by the advent of&#xA;  new tools, such as molecular genetics. Likewise,&#xA;  the structures and processes underlying&#xA;  these personality trait domains are now&#xA;  beginning to be explicated. Explanatory and mechanistic terms will likely change the definition&#xA;  and assessment of the Big Five dimensions&#xA;  as we know them today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-20T08:13:32.630" LastActivityDate="2019-04-20T08:13:32.630" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22075" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-20T02:05:08.393" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;Having read a miniscule amount about concepts like secondary psychopathy and conscientiousness, I am wondering about how and why psychologists  have decided (or maybe the field of psychology has) that eschewing social norms is a sign of selfishness&amp;mdash;if I have understood or characterised that means of measurement correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my point of view, the norms of any particular society as a whole cannot be relied upon to be a good indicator of what it is right or wrong to do. Many, if not most, societies inadvertently endorse behaviour which causes extreme suffering to others without any due justification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the face of this huge problem facing any moral individual, whereby their inadvertant actions, if they are not thought through (but are merely followed through because they are expected), may cause  or contribute to massive suffering to others, why should anyone think it morally correct or psychologically 'beneficial' to fall back on or adhere to social or societal norms? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How would someone who didn't care about reporting their neighbour for harbouring disfavoured people (Jewish people, gay people, communist people) in Nazi Germany come out on a secondary psycopathy scale, or conscientiousness scale? And how would they fare if they didn't really care too much about when they got their paperwork in, or how punctual they were, because there was far more important stuff to worry about?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we don't want to fall into the trap of endorsing whatever violence one's society wishes to inflict upon a disfavoured or invisible group, don't we need to be sceptical about the priorities that we are superficially handed down arbitrarily by our immediate society and try and find out what it is actually important to do or not do?  And if we don't undertake to do this, but instead follow societal norms, are we not risking inadvertently blindly sending people or other sentient beings to ends involving huge amounts of pain and suffering? And is this, and other norm-following behaviour not a form of indolent and lazy selfishness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the structured thinking behind psychologists assigning behaviour that doesn't fall in with societal norms - often very superficial types of behaviour - to selfishness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10120" LastEditorUserId="10120" LastEditDate="2019-04-20T02:14:32.893" LastActivityDate="2019-04-20T02:14:32.893" Title="Psychopathy, conscientiousness, selfishness" Tags="&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22077" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23142" CreationDate="2019-04-20T06:09:44.817" Score="0" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introduction&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll give context for my question from personal experience, but then I'll generalize my question so that it's broadly useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I was a child, my mother home schooled me. When I entered the 9th(?) grade, I dropped out. And for a few years prior to that, I cheated through most of my schoolwork. Someone suggested that even if I was cheating, I was still learning; this wasn't the case, because my cheating involved memorizing &quot;A A B D B B A.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding of the WAIS is that it merely serves as a way to approximate general intelligence, but it can't directly measure it (except perhaps working memory). And at least in cases like these, it won't work very well because it relies heavily on crystallized knowledge. When I took it, there were questions which I might have learned from school, but obviously I didn't have that experience; I believe this harmed my verbal IQ. You'll understand how verbal similarity and perhaps other sub scores could be likewise impacted. I also imagine that my math score suffered. My thinking is that there are numbers I would have been familiar with, thus reducing my response time. And I am more prone to error in my responses, due to lack of practice. I also would have had better schemes to quickly translate the data into an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Total years of schooling the child missed&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Age of child when those years are missed (college vs highschool)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Child's general intelligence (not as measured by the WAIS)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How would increasing total years missed accumulatively affect IQ (e.g. 6 years = 9 points)? There's an article below about college increasing students' IQs, but what about K-12--would missing earlier years affect IQ more severely? And would missing school have &lt;strong&gt;more&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;less&lt;/strong&gt; severe impact on IQ scoring among more intelligent children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the child (perhaps now an adult) studies, would the child's IQ increase relatively drastically? When I say relative, I mean relative to someone else who also studies and has the same &lt;em&gt;real&lt;/em&gt; general intelligence, but did attend K-12. And to keep it simple, let's stick to math IQ score for this question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, is there a better test for measuring such a person's intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I asked many questions, &lt;strong&gt;probably more than exists within current research&lt;/strong&gt;. If you work in psychometrics or have approximately relevant knowledge, &lt;strong&gt;I'd be happy to hear your assumptions.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;And if I need to reduce my questions,&lt;/strong&gt; then consider the full-scale scores below. If those are the scores of someone who missed school as I described, then what score would you expect them to earn had they not missed school? ... And, is there a better test for them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;80 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;100 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;120&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Related data:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Per the link below, adding a year of school increases IQ. Although not stated, they give the impression that this is referring to college. &#xA; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/brainstorm/201806/how-much-does-education-really-boost-intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/brainstorm/201806/how-much-does-education-really-boost-intelligence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13074" LastEditorUserId="13074" LastEditDate="2019-04-20T06:19:58.283" LastActivityDate="2019-04-27T01:46:06.207" Title="Impact of pre-college schooling on IQ (WAIS)?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22078" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23432" CreationDate="2019-04-20T08:35:50.203" Score="2" ViewCount="1557" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read the 2009 review-ish chapter of McCrae &lt;em&gt;in The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Psychology&lt;/em&gt; and I noticed he never once mentions HEXACO (or its 6th axis: honesty-humility), although McCrae does spend the spacetime to debunk a (totally obscure to me) Polish model of personality that had added a 6th spirituality factor. That to me felt like sweeping HEXACO under the rug, so to speak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the research on relating HEXACO to Big Five has come (unsurprisingly) from the researchers/proponents of the former, see e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/15654/what-are-the-correlations-between-hexaco-and-neo-pi-factors&quot;&gt;What are the correlations between HEXACO and NEO-PI factors?&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, has there been some explicit criticism of HEXACO from the Big Five &quot;heavyweights&quot; (well known researchers/promoters)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a passage in the same book in another chapter by Boele De Raad noting that: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While the Big Five structure has found large adherence, claims for psycholexically&#xA;  based factors beyond the Big Five have been made, for two reasons mainly.&#xA;  The first reason is that the correlation matrices may not be optimally exhausted,&#xA;  and the second reason is that the trait domain may not be truly exhausted. This&#xA;  second reason comes in two versions, one suggesting that the psycholexical&#xA;  approach has been too restrictive in selecting personality descriptors (Almagor,&#xA;  Tellegen andWaller 1995), and the other suggesting that the psycholexical approach&#xA;  has been restricted to the use of trait-descriptive adjectives (cf., De Raad and&#xA;  Hofstee 1993).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ashton and Lee (2001) argued along the lines of exhausting the correlation matrix.&#xA;  They suggested that an additional Honesty-Humility factor, representing such&#xA;  traits as honest, sincere, fair and just, versus dishonest, conceited and boasting,&#xA;  could systematically be extracted. Support for this sixth factor was observed in&#xA;  several languages (Ashton, Lee, Perugini et al. 2004), but not, or not clearly, in all&#xA;  languages where this sixth factor was studied, as in American-English (Ashton,&#xA;  Lee and Goldberg 2004), Turkish (Somer and Goldberg 1999) and Croatian&#xA;  (Mlacic and Ostendorf 2005).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is basically lexical criticism, but since the lexical perspective was hardly dominant in the development of the Big Five (according to the highly cited &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00970.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;review of McCrae and John, 1992&lt;/a&gt;), this lexical criticism seems like a rather minor point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that De Raad himself appears to favor lexicalism, having &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.2.347&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;proposed&lt;/a&gt; an eight-factor model from the latter perspective, by extending analysis to more parts of speech than the traditional approach using just adjectives. So De Raad's criticism of HEXACO being from a lexical perspective isn't surprising.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2019-06-13T00:09:36.000" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T06:36:15.043" Title="What are some criticisms of HEXACO from the Big Five camp?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22079" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22078" CreationDate="2019-04-20T09:33:26.220" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually, McCrae does give his take on HEXACO in the aforementioned book chapter. I missed it initially because it was tucked in a paragraph that opened with a discussion of a lexical 3-factor model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ashton and colleagues (Ashton and Lee&#xA;  2005; Ashton, Lee, Perugini et al. 2004) reported lexical studies in a number of&#xA;  languages in which six replicable factors appeared. Ashton’s model basically&#xA;  divides FFM A into two factors, the second called Honesty-Humility; in addition,&#xA;  the factors are rotated a bit from their usual positions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Perhaps the most problematic feature of these studies is that they are, properly&#xA;  speaking, not so much studies of personality traits as of personality trait language.&#xA;  The people of two different cultures might have identical traits, but a factor that is&#xA;  richly represented in the vocabulary of the first culture might be missing from the&#xA;  vocabulary of the second. McCrae (1990) noted that there are relatively few&#xA;  English-language adjectives that reflect O. For example, there is no single term&#xA;  that designates sensitivity to aesthetic experience; ‘artistic’ comes closest, and it&#xA;  refers to the producer rather than the consumer of art. Yet surely English speakers&#xA;  are capable of responding to beauty (McCrae 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, basically, McCrae's main criticism is that HEXACO is too lexical. And McCrae is rather skeptical of the lexical approach to personality as a whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2019-06-13T00:10:00.237" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T00:10:00.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22081" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22070" CreationDate="2019-04-20T21:07:31.743" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's probably related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_overload&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;information overload&lt;/a&gt; &quot;the difficulty in understanding an issue and effectively making decisions when one has too much information about that issue&quot;. As for a more specific term...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the full text of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp1403_7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp1403_7&lt;/a&gt; it's called the &lt;strong&gt;irrelevant attribute effect&lt;/strong&gt;. I'm not sure how widespread this term is. Therein it's defined as the scenario when&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;irrelevant information may influence choice even when there is an easily&#xA;  justified basis for choice other than the irrelevant attribute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot papers out there on how irrelevant information affects choice, but most don't seem to use this precise term but some reasonably close expression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's even &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/338205&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one paper&lt;/a&gt; which discussed a sub-form of this, namely the &lt;strong&gt;dilution effect&lt;/strong&gt;, which&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;occurs when a person’s consideration of irrelevant information leads to a less extreme judgment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though it's narrower in meaning, this last term is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(81)90010-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more widespread&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-20T21:42:17.057" LastActivityDate="2019-04-20T21:42:17.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22087" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17674" CreationDate="2019-04-21T10:20:51.790" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would look at the research into natural abilities (including mechanical) being carried out by the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jocrf.org/about/history&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johnson O’Connor Research Foundation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Schmidt’s work, to my mind, is so broad and at population level. He basically posits that people with a higher IQ can basically do any job better than those with lower IQ. This is clearly nonsense. A high IQ lawyer, I suspect, would struggle to fix a mechanical problem that a low IQ technician could finish in minutes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastEditorUserId="21999" LastEditDate="2019-04-22T01:45:44.307" LastActivityDate="2019-04-22T01:45:44.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22089" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-21T10:23:41.360" Score="2" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this video the baby impala does not seem to be exhibiting the classic fear responses of Fight, Flight or Freeze.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which fear response is this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/qWXBNFLUD3A&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/qWXBNFLUD3A&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastActivityDate="2021-01-13T17:53:38.560" Title="What do you call this fear response?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22090" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12435" CreationDate="2019-04-21T10:30:43.343" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ericsson’s studies have repeatedly ignored the genetics of performance in any field. His favourite study of expert performance - the London taxi driver experiment - also failed to control for prior genetic attributes that may have led these taxi drivers into their professions in the first place. A good place to start perhaps:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hambrick et al 2014 Deliberate practice and performance in music, games, sports, education, and professions: A meta-analysis&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastEditorUserId="22058" LastEditDate="2019-09-22T07:17:30.043" LastActivityDate="2019-09-22T07:17:30.043" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22091" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="22093" CreationDate="2019-04-21T17:46:53.170" Score="1" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’d like to know if there’s research about the use of ritalin for treating attention deficit in Major Depression Disorder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22057" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-21T21:14:23.043" LastActivityDate="2019-04-21T21:14:23.043" Title="Ritalin for treating attention and lack of focus in depression" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22091" CreationDate="2019-04-21T20:55:39.393" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there is 2014 review of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25295426&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Corp et al.&lt;/a&gt; on stimulants in the treatment of MDD (and bipolar). There is another 2015 review by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mdedge.com/fedprac/article/134204/mental-health/review-psychostimulants-adults-depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pary et al.&lt;/a&gt; just on stimulants in depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some researchers reviewing this, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0004867416634208&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mahli et al.&lt;/a&gt; (2016) have been critical of this use of stimulants, on the argument that the effects appears to be short-lived:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clinically, the rapid amelioration of depressive symptoms with traditional psychostimulants is often dramatic but short-lived, and this suggests that they likely operate via different mechanisms to conventional antidepressants. More importantly, there is little evidence from randomised controlled trials supporting their efficacy in treating depression, although modafinil has been shown to be effective in reducing prominent depressive symptoms, such as fatigue. Research is urgently required to clarify psychostimulants’ mechanisms of action and to evaluate their long-term benefits and risks in the treatment of major and bipolar depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There aren't a lot randomized-control studies either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uptodate.com/contents/unipolar-major-depression-in-adults-augmentation-of-antidepressants-with-stimulants-and-stimulant-like-drugs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UpToDate says&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stimulants (eg, methylphenidate) are indicated for late-life, treatment-resistant unipolar major depression. In addition, stimulant-like drugs (eg, modafinil and pramipexole) have limited evidence for efficacy in the general population of patients with treatment-resistant major depression. The use of stimulants and stimulant-like drugs is consistent with multiple treatment guidelines [11-13]. Based upon our clinical experience, we are more inclined to use stimulants and stimulant-like drugs for patients who lack energy, drive, motivation, interest, optimism, pleasure, and the ability to initiate activities&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I didn't review those guidelines cited (American Psychiatric Association's or CANMAT) to see if they really say that. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200721030-00004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;last review&lt;/a&gt; they mention there is a little older, from 2007.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-21T21:02:27.273" LastActivityDate="2019-04-21T21:02:27.273" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22094" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22089" CreationDate="2019-04-21T21:27:27.130" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's probably not a fear response. Young animals (and human children) sometimes lack it in some contexts. See the controversy with the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20151022-where-does-our-fear-of-snakes-come-from&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fear of snakes in children&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at a two similar videos &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=559fJFACtN0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lioness vs impala calf&lt;/a&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYRvzk4l-HI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;young lion vs oryx calf&lt;/a&gt; however, besides some moments of confusion of the calfs, they do one of two things: face the predator head on (which would work if they had grown horns) or try to suddenly sprint away, which is again not easy for the them to pull off being so young.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it is a mixture of fight, flight, and probably some confusion as well. There's this notion of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;learned helplessness&lt;/a&gt; but it's a bit of stretch to apply it to any of those videos, in my opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-04-24T07:38:03.057" LastActivityDate="2019-04-24T07:38:03.057" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22096" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-22T05:51:22.917" Score="1" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any scientists making substantial progress in the development of far more effective antidepressants? Are there any groups of people interested in developing antidepressants based on genetic tests?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Depression: How effective are antidepressants?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;It can take a long time for a medication to start helping some people. Other people still have symptoms even after trying several different medications. They can then discuss the alternative treatment options with their doctor.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK361016/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK361016/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22063" LastEditorUserId="22063" LastEditDate="2019-04-22T21:25:17.357" LastActivityDate="2019-04-28T05:09:23.017" Title="Are there ways to accelerate the recovery from depression via novel pharmacological antidepressants?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22099" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-22T21:26:45.610" Score="3" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder if my cat really knows me as an individual or just a mysterious connected object that somehow has hands and legs attached to a body. When I pet him, does he know that this action originates from my brain (head)? Or does he think that there is a mysterious soft massaging machine hanging in the air? Of course, most of us believe the former. Especially as he seems to be attentively looking into my eyes when I do so. But I wonder if there have been any rigorous scientific experiments verifying that? And from the Lex Fridman's interview of Christof Koch (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=piHkfmeU7Wo&amp;amp;list=PLrAXtmErZgOdP_8GztsuKi9nrraNbKKp4&amp;amp;index=12&amp;amp;t=0s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;47:47&lt;/a&gt;), he mentioned that bees have very complex neurons and can identify individuals. I also wonder how the experiment was done to verify that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21927" LastEditorUserId="22082" LastEditDate="2019-04-24T05:07:01.247" LastActivityDate="2019-04-24T05:07:01.247" Title="Do my cats really know I exist?" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22102" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="22103" CreationDate="2019-04-23T04:06:12.963" Score="6" ViewCount="120" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that there is a pretty sharp distinction between storing a &quot;fact&quot; like &quot;Chickens are birds&quot; and storing an algorithm or routine like &quot;how to multiply two 3-digit numbers&quot;. I find the latter idea to be very interesting, and I'd like to read more on what has been written on this subject, but I don't know how people in psychology/ cognitive science denote this specific aspect (if they even make such a distinction at all).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm familiar with the ideas of episodic and semantic memory, and it seems that memorizing an algorithm like the one mentioned above, falls into the overall domain of &quot;semantic memory&quot;, but within that area, I'm not finding the term(s) that deal with representation/ storage of this kind of algorithmic/ routine based knowledge (as opposed to &quot;simple facts&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Sequence memory&quot;, as used by Hawkins in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2666719/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; seems to come close to capturing some of the spirit of what I mean, but that doesn't seem to be exactly right either. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9088" LastEditorUserId="2574" LastEditDate="2019-04-24T18:03:55.393" LastActivityDate="2019-04-24T18:03:55.393" Title="Is there a specific term for the notion of storing &quot;algorithms&quot; in human memory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22103" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22102" CreationDate="2019-04-23T05:29:26.673" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;procedural memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In textbooks, memory is often broken down into a hierarchy of types.  Note that this taxonomy is primarily a guide to language use - ie, how types of memory are labelled or referred to, not how memory is actually organised in the brain.  In standard hierarchies, recalling a mathematical formula would fall under &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;semantic memory&lt;/a&gt;, while the process of applying the formula would be stored in procedural memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fiEKk.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fiEKk.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Memory breakdown&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Procedural memory is considered &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;implicit (unconscious) memory&lt;/a&gt;, and is most often associated with motor skill or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_memory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;muscle memory&lt;/a&gt;, but includes any learned procedure or process.  Notably, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory#Acquisition_of_skill&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;process of learning&lt;/a&gt; a motor skill (such as riding a bike) mirrors that of learning a cognitive skill (such as playing chess), in that initially, the process can be acquired consciously (explicit), but with practice, it becomes unconscious (implicit).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-04-23T05:29:26.673" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22104" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22099" CreationDate="2019-04-23T10:02:52.887" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although there is a robust science of animal behavior, it's very difficult to determine what kinds of experiences or thoughts animals are having. In short, we can only observe their behavior. Philosophers argue that a &quot;zombie&quot; or a robot could also demonstrate exactly the same behaviors but have no mind behind them, which means that we can't infer the thoughts just from the behaviors. We can't measure the thoughts themselves. Even neural activity is just a proxy; they are not the thoughts. Frans de Waal's recent bestseller goes into great depth on animal emotions and suggests that there are no uniquely human emotions; I'm guessing he would think that your cat understands you as an agent and has loving feelings towards you.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/25/books/review/frans-de-waal-mamas-last-hug.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/25/books/review/frans-de-waal-mamas-last-hug.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-04-23T10:02:52.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22106" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16415" CreationDate="2019-04-23T11:09:43.080" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of time and money has been invested in finding a good way to measure one's natural &quot;aptitude&quot; at mental tasks, and as far as I'm aware nothing has yet come close to IQ. At least not in terms of predicting an individual's ability to perform mentally challenging tasks, to learn information quickly, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have an IQ of 80, you aren't going to be able to thrive in a job role that requires rapid problem solving, abstract thinking, complex pattern recognition, and multitasking. That's not saying you can't be extremely successful at something else, but IQ is a good predictor of &quot;occupational aptitude&quot; in many areas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22072" LastActivityDate="2019-04-23T11:09:43.080" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22107" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18926" CreationDate="2019-04-23T11:16:50.757" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Certainly only certain techniques count as CBT. The definition is not so abstract that any form of therapy can be interpreted as CBT. CBT is when a patient is taught to reflect on their thought process and to try to change it to be more conducive to a healthy, productive life. The focus on unhealthy mental processes and behaviors - and replacing them with healthier, more rational thinking/actions - is what defines CBT. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22072" LastActivityDate="2019-04-23T11:16:50.757" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22110" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21970" CreationDate="2019-04-23T15:46:06.453" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can simulate a network of hodgkin huxley neurons quite easily with Brian, a python package for simulating networks of neurons. &lt;a href=&quot;http://briansimulator.org/demo/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://briansimulator.org/demo/&lt;/a&gt; &amp;lt;- there's actually a demo of what you want here, I think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also Neuron, as a previous poster answered, but I don't think you need this unless you are doing morphologically detailed simulations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7906" LastActivityDate="2019-04-23T15:46:06.453" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22112" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="81" CreationDate="2019-04-23T15:59:13.670" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Broadly speaking, employee engagement consultancies would say employee satisfaction does not correlate with employee attachment (staying) or employee effort (striving). They would say employee engagement thus translates into the behaviours that benefit organisations financially, whereas employee satisfaction does not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here’s &lt;a href=&quot;https://q12.gallup.com/help/en-us/Answers/164495&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;how Gallup sees it&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gallup research shows that both employee engagement and employee satisfaction relate to meaningful outcomes. However, satisfaction is a broad, attitudinal outcome, like organizational loyalty or pride. It is hard to act on, and some facets of satisfaction are irrelevant to performance. Engagement, on the other hand, predicts satisfaction, as well as many other concrete business outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-04-23T21:27:07.940" LastActivityDate="2019-04-23T21:27:07.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22114" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22032" CreationDate="2019-04-23T17:50:09.963" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am personally accredited in the TKI and before answering the question here is my take:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;TKI is an instrument based on a theory. If neuroscience is your thing, my guess is that you would prefer theories to be based on data (as the Big Five is’ then derive an instrument from that.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I have not seen much in the way of empirical research around the TKI, however as a guess I would hazard the following:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Accommodating may correlate with high trait Agreeableness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Avoiding may correlate with high trait Neuroticism&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Competing may correlate with low trait Agreeableness &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally I think the only value of TKI is to surface how individuals interact with one another. But the problem is that this can create a false awareness - if something is a TRAIT then it is quite hard to change. Better imho to stick with the Big Five and derive an understanding of how you handle conflict from that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastActivityDate="2019-04-23T17:50:09.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="22115" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-23T18:00:44.527" Score="3" ViewCount="147" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a clear definition of the ego which is accepted by the neuroscientific community?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen a previous post (&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/3966/what-do-id-ego-and-super-ego-exactly-mean?r=SearchResults&quot;&gt;What do id, ego and super-ego exactly mean?&lt;/a&gt;) but this definition is for the Freudian concept of the ego. In neuroscience, the concept of ‘ego depletion’ is used (Baumeister) - but this has a different connotation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastEditorUserId="22058" LastEditDate="2019-04-23T22:24:13.967" LastActivityDate="2019-04-26T14:11:56.833" Title="Clear definition of ego" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23116" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-24T04:29:40.557" Score="3" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading about an experimental condition where subjects d' (sensitivity) decreases, while at the same time their criterion is increasing (a shift to the right). The authors were arguing with a decrease in the hit rates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering how this is possible: An increase of criterion should decrease hit rates as well as false alarm rates (the subject becomes more conservative). As these are both proportionally decreased, sensitivity, defined as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$′=_−_$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;should remain constant, or not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YWjMF.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/YWjMF.png&quot; alt=&quot;Sensitivity and criterion&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-015-0903-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-015-0903-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user21198" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-04-25T07:07:20.500" LastActivityDate="2020-02-15T22:02:35.340" Title="Decrease in d' with concurrent increase of criterion" Tags="&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23117" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22115" CreationDate="2019-04-24T06:32:08.463" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've &lt;a href=&quot;https://qz.com/728039/growing-research-in-neuroscience-shows-that-freuds-idea-of-a-superego-isnt-as-wacky-as-it-sounds/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;read this&lt;/a&gt; opinion in Quartz&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Axel Cleeremans pointed out that Freud’s Id-Ego-Superego structure roughly matches onto the Unconscious-Conscious-Metacognition structure of the mind studied in neuroscience today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“The ‘id’ is what we call the unconscious today or the idea that there’s a vast reservoir of representations that sits there and influences ongoing processing but without being available to conscious awareness,” he says. “The ‘super-ego’ in a sense is connected with meta-cognition, with the idea that in addition to first-order awareness, the technical movie that we have as soon as we wake up and the field of sensations we experience and thoughts we have, there’s an additional monitoring and control system.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cleeremans believes that much of Freud’s work has scientific value today. “I think he’s wrongly discredited. He’s discredited for all sorts of political reasons that have nothing to do with the ideas,” he says. While Freud’s work on sexuality and women, for example, are largely dismissed, there’s still considerable value in broad structure of his work. “The core set of ideas hold up,” adds Cleeremans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;YMMV how correct or widely shared that view is. As far as I can tell &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel_Cleeremans&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cleeremans&lt;/a&gt; is a psychologist, not a neuroscientist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6020926/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freud's ideas are still pretty popular in France&lt;/a&gt;; I don't know about Belgium, but... it's close geographically; Cleeremans holds a professorship at a Francophone Belgian university.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could also read &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.10.003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rizzolatti et al.&lt;/a&gt; &amp;quot;Linking psychoanalysis with neuroscience: the concept of ego.&amp;quot; for more details. Looking at the authors' list of this paper, it does seem an interdisciplinary approach (one of the co-authors is affiliated with a neuroscience department). They seem to advance roughly the same analogy as Cleeremans:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We maintain that, in order both to act coherently and to have a basic, first person, understanding of the behavior of others, it is necessary to posit the existence of a neurophysiological &amp;quot;motor&amp;quot; ego similar to the &amp;quot;rider&amp;quot; of the Freudian metaphor. We review then a series of neurophysiological findings showing that the systems underlying the organization of action and conscious perception are both mediated by a cortical motor network formed by parieto-frontal circuits. In conclusion, we show that the activity of this network has strong similarities to that postulated by Freud for the conscious part of ego. We also propose that the default-mode network might represent that part of ego that is mostly involved in unconscious processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-04-24T06:45:23.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23119" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23128" CreationDate="2019-04-24T15:59:31.657" Score="3" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sfu.ca/~kathleea/docs/[2008]%20Haggard%20-%20Human%20Volition%20Towards%20a%20Neuroscience%20of%20Will%20Good%201(1).pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Haggard, Patrick. &quot;Human volition: towards a neuroscience of will.&quot; Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9.12 (2008): 934.&lt;/a&gt;, the author states in the caption of Figure 1 (pg. 4):   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The primary motor cortex (M1) receives two broad classes of inputs.&#xA;  One key input (left-hand panel) reaches M1 from the supplementary&#xA;  motor area (SMA) and the pre-supplementary motor area (preSMA), which&#xA;  in turn receives inputs from the basal ganglia and the prefrontal&#xA;  cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm failing to disambiguate the ending phrase (emphasis mine)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;basal ganglia &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; the prefrontal cortex&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the &quot;and&quot; meant to be interpreted as a &lt;em&gt;logical AND&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;logical OR&lt;/em&gt;? In other words, does a readiness potential in the pre-supplementary motor area (preSMA) require an active input from both the basal ganglia &lt;strong&gt;AND&lt;/strong&gt; the prefrontal cortex &lt;strong&gt;concurrently&lt;/strong&gt; or is a sufficiently strong signal from &lt;strong&gt;either&lt;/strong&gt; region alone sufficient? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hunch&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess is that the latter is the case. For example, on the very same caption of Figure 1 part b, the author indicates that the signal from the frontopolar cortex starts a chain that ends with voluntary action of the right hand. This indicates that executive control from the frontopolar cortex  alone can trigger an eventual movement. Since this is only a hunch, I still want to clarify the point of confusion.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Intent&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm asking this question because I want to figure out a situation at the behavioral level, namely if people can trigger movements purely by executive function and independently of primal urges/apprehensions.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Standards&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be difficult to give a direct and bulletproof answer to the question without a deliberate experiment (see comment). However, I find it acceptable to have a lower standard for potential answer post - for example, conjectures based on indirect evidence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="3379" LastEditDate="2019-04-24T17:08:30.133" LastActivityDate="2019-04-25T15:43:24.567" Title="Can signals from the prefrontal cortex alone trigger a readiness potential in the pre-supplementary motor area?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23122" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15763" CreationDate="2019-04-25T02:04:13.430" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Jung outlines this pretty clearly in both Aion and Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious. I strongly recommend those books to anyone attempting to gain a deeper understanding of these concepts in particular. I found the first few chapters of Aion to be particularly enlightening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many anthropomorphic symbols representing archetypes in the human psyche. The Hero and the Shadow are also two other principle figures. If you check out Jung's Symbols of Transformation, he outlines the Hero and a couple other principle archetypes in great detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The short answer to your questions is that every individual &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; have anthropomorphic representations of both psychological tones (i.e. masculine and feminine); but it is rather that the inferior form which has the same tone as you is referred to as your Shadow, while the inferior form of opposite tone is your Anima/Animus. So, for example, a man does not have an Animus, but one would find through psychoanalysis that his inferior masculine function consists of primary traits which he disdains regarding himself. This is a bit wonky wording in trying to be as honest to Jung as possible, and it would be more technically correct to assert that the symbols your Shadow occupies or manifests before you (in the case of the man) are characterized by anthropomorphic figures which have character traits which disgust you or which you detest. The Anima is then your central feminine figure and the thing responsible for your projects of 'love' and such things like that. The same is true &lt;em&gt;mutatis mutandis&lt;/em&gt; for women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23089" LastActivityDate="2019-04-25T02:04:13.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23124" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23711" CreationDate="2019-04-25T12:50:07.413" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am planning an experiment whereby rTMS would be administered to subjects while they perform a language task, with the hopes of improving performance on this task as compared to sham stimulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due to the novel nature of this task, it is difficult to predict the most optimal region which to choose as a stimulation site. Someone in our group suggested to run this task in the scanner, and choose as the stimulation site the main cluster that the task activates, in other words the cluster that comes out of the fMRI contrast relevant for this task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This however seems to me excessively data-driven, as well as somehow circular (though it would not be correct to quite call it double dipping).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this approach make sense at all?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastActivityDate="2019-08-01T15:22:53.053" Title="task-fMRI to determine TMS site (online stimulation with that same task)?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;tms&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23125" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-25T14:33:33.127" Score="3" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a lecture by a Chinese CEO with a consulting background, I learned an effect called 剧场效应 (can be transliterated into 'theatre effect' in English) and I can explain that a bit in the following story:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a theatre, a short man stands up to see the play (and no one can forbid him), and then the audience behind him should also stand up. And finally, everyone stands up in the theatre but no one can benefit from such a change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an analogy of the same phenomena in society. For instance, we can see from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/996icu/996.ICU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;996.icu project&lt;/a&gt; on GitHub that in China everyone tries to perform better than the others and survive. And because there are so many short men in China who cannot even survive if not try their best. Then almost all of the workers in China work very very hard(but more often not efficiently).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if such an effect is named theatre effect in English. Is there a name for this within research on psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9140" LastEditorUserId="9140" LastEditDate="2020-10-23T23:08:21.173" LastActivityDate="2020-11-01T11:13:56.040" Title="Does there exist a theatre effect?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23127" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-25T15:33:40.390" Score="2" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;i have a specific experimental setup (at least i think so :) It's a replication and i don't know how to correctly determine the false alarm rate for the visual fields since in the article i replicate the FA calculation procedure is not explicite shown. But my impression is that it kind of deviates from a simple 50% noise 50% signal+noise design. Moreover correct d'prime and bias measures depend on the calculated FA% scores. Maybe the design as such is not suitable for calculation of such SDT meassures? I read through the Nacmilian Creelman book (though not very carefully) and am not able to find a solution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ok it's a lateralized lexical decision study testing the left hemisphere superiority in word recognition ( better word - non(pseudo)word discrimination in the Right vs Left visual field)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;overall 256 trials&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;on every trial 2 letter strings are presented for 100 ms: one string to the left and one to the right of a fixation point. ( xxxxx + xxxxx )&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;on 128 trials a word is presented  randomly to the left and right accompanied by a pseudoword: 64 RVF word presentations (e.g. gilus + virus) and 64 LVF word presentations (e.g. virus + gilus)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;on 128 trials pseudwords are presented to both sides-hemifields e.g.(mudo + mumi).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subjects must press left button if word in LVF right button if word in RVF and spacebar if nonwords are in both hemifields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally i would like to determine the d' or A' and bias measures for each hemifield, the correct calculation of FA% is crucial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Hit rate determination for LVF and RVF seems straight forward: correct left and right presses, each divided by 64, since there are 64 word presentations in each hemifield.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question 1: when it comes to determining the false alarm rate for one hemifield which i would like to use for d' calculation: should i divide the measured FAs on one side by all possible FA occurences on that side i.e. 192 (128  bilateral nonword presentations + 64 nonwords in word-nonword trials)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question 2: because the script did not repeat timed out trials should they be  considered as misses?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;thanks &#xA;Kuba&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23085" LastActivityDate="2019-04-25T18:50:21.737" Title="how to correctly determine false alarm rate (in a specific experimental setup)" Tags="&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23128" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23119" CreationDate="2019-04-25T15:43:24.567" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The original author is not making a claim one way or another for logical AND or logical OR &lt;em&gt;within this context&lt;/em&gt;. The statement &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the pre-supplementary motor area (preSMA), which in turn receives inputs from the basal ganglia and the prefrontal cortex&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is referring only to inputs to the preSMA; it is not making any strong statements about which inputs are causal for the readiness potential, only mentioning that those connections exist and therefore &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; be involved in communication of the readiness potential. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are in fact cortico-cortical loops that route through the basal ganglia (see for example Lopez-Paniagua &amp;amp; Seger, 2011; there is probably a better canonical reference but not one I have in hand right now); if there is a signal from frontopolar cortex that reaches motor cortex that does not tell you the basal ganglia were not involved. A signal originating in cortex could communicate with another cortical area both via direct cortico-cortico and via basal ganglia open loops, not that a basal ganglia signal preceded both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only way to truly answer your title question would be to somehow inactivate either basal ganglia or PFC inputs to preSMA. I am not aware of such an experiment, it would be quite technically and ethically difficult both in humans and primates, and PFC is less developed in rodents so it's difficult to make direct analogy there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, &lt;em&gt;the basal ganglia are definitely involved in voluntary movement&lt;/em&gt;. One can simply observe Parkinsonian patients, who have difficulties initiating voluntary movements due to basal ganglia pathology (DeLong 1990 discusses some of the motor impacts of lesions of the basal ganglia).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to know whether movements can be triggered &quot;purely by executive function and independently of primal urges/apprehensions&quot; you will not find the answer simply by identifying whether the basal ganglia are involved or not. Although yes, the basal ganglia are often associate with more &quot;primal&quot; actions, that is only relevant in the absence of neocortex. In the presence of neocortex, that organization no longer applies because cortex influences the basal ganglia (and vice versa).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, it does not seem possible to separate out the basal ganglia from neocortex in terms of cognitive control networks (Duncan 2010, Cole et al 2013), since coactivation of those areas is typically observed and not dissociable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cole, M. W., Laurent, P., &amp;amp; Stocco, A. (2013). Rapid instructed task learning: A new window into the human brain’s unique capacity for flexible cognitive control. Cognitive, Affective, &amp;amp; Behavioral Neuroscience, 13(1), 1-22.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DeLong, M. R. (1990). Primate models of movement disorders of basal ganglia origin. Trends in neurosciences, 13(7), 281-285.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Duncan, J. (2010). The multiple-demand (MD) system of the primate brain: mental programs for intelligent behaviour. Trends in cognitive sciences, 14(4), 172-179.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lopez-Paniagua, D., &amp;amp; Seger, C. A. (2011). Interactions within and between corticostriatal loops during component processes of category learning. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 23(10), 3068-3083.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-04-25T15:43:24.567" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23127" CreationDate="2019-04-25T18:50:21.737" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check out chapter 3 of Macmillan and Creelman on rating scales. You have 3 ratings: left arrow (very confident it is on the left), space bar (not sure), right arrow (very confident it is on the right). You also have non-responses which may be equivalent to a space bar &quot;not sure&quot; or might be something else. I would probably want to know more about why they did not respond (and how often) before deciding what to do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also have 3 stimulus types (LVF-word, RVF-word, and double non-word) which makes things harder and I don't think is covered in M &amp;amp; C. That said, you can extend their examples to 3 stimuli pretty easily. The index of sensitivity d' is a measure of distance between two distributions. It sounds like you want to know the distance between the LVF-word and double non-word distributions relative to the distance between the RVF-word and double non-word distributions, but maybe you only care about the LVF-word and RVF-word comparison.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-04-25T18:50:21.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23134" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23180" CreationDate="2019-04-26T00:30:56.487" Score="5" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is inspired by a &lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/468891/how-do-we-know-the-lhc-results-are-robust&quot;&gt;previous one&lt;/a&gt; on Physics.SE. If we believe &lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.stackexchange.com/a/468900&quot;&gt;the answer to that question&lt;/a&gt;, particle physics doesn't suffer nearly as much from the reproducibility crisis because it has much higher standards than the social sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;'replication crisis'&lt;/a&gt; is that many effects in social sciences (and, although to a lesser extent, other scientific fields) couldn't be reproduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If anything, there is a suspicion that the practices at the LHC might even result in the opposite of the 'replication crisis;' analyses that find effects that are somewhat significant might be examined and tweaked until they decrease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if that answer is true, that suggests a simple way to solve the reproducibility crisis in fields like psychology: just impose higher standards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question: &lt;em&gt;why hasn't psychology (and other fields as a whole) done that? Or is that answer misrepresenting what psychologists already do?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19017" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-04-26T12:02:29.443" LastActivityDate="2019-05-02T12:30:41.880" Title="Why doesn't psychology impose higher standards to solve its replication crisis?" Tags="&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23135" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-26T02:03:39.880" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;We're taught early on that the rat is placed within the following setup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LFqGA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/LFqGA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that diagram, there are no potential distractions for the rat. There's only a lever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Does the rat simply 'discover' the lever, or did researchers show the rat how it's done the first time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) In an environment with many distractions, how would you ensure that the rat pulls the lever for the first time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23097" LastActivityDate="2019-04-29T10:37:53.327" Title="In operant conditioning, how do you get the subject to &quot;pull the lever&quot; for the first time?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23136" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23157" CreationDate="2019-04-26T02:16:26.067" Score="4" ViewCount="118" Body="&lt;p&gt;Think Better on Your Feet: How to Improve Your Working Memory&#xA;in: A Man's Life, Money &amp;amp; Career&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brett and Kate McKay • September 20, 2016, Last updated: October 17, 2018&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.artofmanliness.com/articles/think-better-feet-improve-working-memory/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.artofmanliness.com/articles/think-better-feet-improve-working-memory/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Training Working Memory: Why and how&#xA;Make your working memory work for you.&#xA;William R. Klemm Ph.D.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/memory-medic/201203/training-working-memory-why-and-how&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/memory-medic/201203/training-working-memory-why-and-how&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Klemm makes the claim IQ is not fixed. He claims IQ improves dramatically in the early school years in all children. Moreover, a recent study shows that both verbal and non-verbal IQ can change (for better or worse) in teenagers. The recent study is cited in the above psychology today web link.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it a fact or a neuromyth to claim IQ is not fixed for adults? Processing speeds slow down as we get older, and working memory steadily deteriorates/declines as we get older, too. Are we doomed to get slower and have poorer working memories as we get much older (50, 60s, 70s, 80s)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or can we maintain our intelligence, working memory, and processing speeds for a longer period of time if we do physical exercise, keep physically fit, and live healthy lives? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22063" LastEditorUserId="22063" LastEditDate="2019-04-28T08:02:59.343" LastActivityDate="2019-04-29T10:35:12.277" Title="How to improve working memory in adults?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23139" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-26T14:15:17.643" Score="1" ViewCount="811" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a person can develop - through some function of psychology/imprinting - an explicit attraction to some object (objectophilia - and in some cases, such individuals go so far as to have fully expressed relationships with such objects), then is it possible for a homosexual to develop a 'fetish' towards members of the opposite sex, or similarly a heterosexual towards members of the same sex?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, how would such an attraction differ (if at all) compared to 'non-fetish' based sexual orientations such as individuals that identify as bisexual? Or would they appear, at least superficially, indistinguishable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GcI4fyfI1WM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GcI4fyfI1WM&lt;/a&gt; (documentary of a men that fall in love with their car)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was reading different studies on the whole, &quot;nature vs nurture&quot; debate regarding homosexuality - controversy aside, it sparked the idea that perhaps, like paedophiles who become infatuated with children etc, whether its possible for a person to become (through some exceptional circumstances) infatuated with members of the opposite/same gender, even if they would not otherwise be considered as bisexual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My point being, if someone is able to become attracted to cars in early childhood, that we can easily label as a fetish because of its context: is it therefore possible for a naturally gay person (or otherwise) to become infatuated with the gender which they would not otherwise be attracted to, because of the similar circumstances that, in my described example, would drive a man to fall in love with his car – and would we be able to identify this as such. (In short becoming 'bisexual', but perhaps superficially)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Ps - for the people arguing over my use of the term &quot;fetish&quot;, I do not presume to be an expert on the subject, and frankly wouldn't want to :), but seeing as people can be attracted to objects: objectophilia, animals: zoophilia, children: paedophilia, etc, it seems to me that just because the opposite gender doesn't fit into an accepted category as a &quot;non-genital body part&quot;, it couldn't occur under the guise of bisexuality. And, as one comment so enthusiastically assented, &quot;Anyone who has an attraction to both sexes is bisexual,&quot; which is what we all assume, and yet, should my proposed hypothesis be true, this might not be as straight forward as it is intuitively understood.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18124" LastEditorUserId="18124" LastEditDate="2019-04-28T14:09:16.197" LastActivityDate="2019-04-28T14:45:42.240" Title="To what degree do fetishes differ from conventional sexual orientation?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23140" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23139" CreationDate="2019-04-26T15:56:49.280" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_fetishism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;By Wikipedia's definition&lt;/a&gt; a fetish is &lt;em&gt;&quot;a sexual fixation on a nonliving object or nongenital body part.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, no, it is not 'possible' for anyone to develop a 'fetish' towards a living object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2019-04-26T15:56:49.280" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23141" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23143" CreationDate="2019-04-26T19:01:09.373" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I looked through the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia page listing cognitive biases&lt;/a&gt; looking for a bias that describes the tendency to assume a poorly understood problem must be simple. Planning fallacy is kind of in the right ballpark; it gets the underestimation part, but I am associating the behaviour with a snap decision more than a plan. Is there another that fits better?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I really thought it would be easy to find this term on wikipedia. I mean, how many psychological terms could there possibly be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23103" LastActivityDate="2019-04-29T15:15:17.700" Title="What is the term for the rhetorical, &quot;How hard could it be?&quot;" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23142" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22077" CreationDate="2019-04-27T01:46:06.207" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Almost a week with no answer. I found an article covering part of the topic, though. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.svt.ntnu.no/iso/torberg.falch/Articles/Article.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.svt.ntnu.no/iso/torberg.falch/Articles/Article.pdf&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;THE EFFECT OF EDUCATION ON COGNITIVE ABILITY&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TORBERG FALCH and SOFIA SANDGREN MASSIH&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Economic Inquiry. Vol. 49, No. 3, July 2011, 838–856&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13074" LastActivityDate="2019-04-27T01:46:06.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23143" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23141" CreationDate="2019-04-27T01:53:17.123" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe the closest match is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;illusion of control&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control&#xA;  events; for example, it occurs when someone feels a sense of control&#xA;  over outcomes that they demonstrably do not influence. ... people base&#xA;  their judgments of control on &quot;skill cues&quot;. ... When more of these&#xA;  skill cues are present, the illusion is stronger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This bias only operates when a plausible case can be made for one's skill or intent influencing outcomes - such as a programming task given to a programmer.  In such instances, how well the task or problem is understood, its actual level of difficulty, and the actual level of control over outcomes are overestimated or ignored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_illusions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Positive illusions&lt;/a&gt; - biases that describe how people overestimate their own abilities, success, and control - are the broader category that contains the illusion of control, and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning_fallacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;planning fallacy&lt;/a&gt;, among others.  These biases typically go away when estimating the success of others instead of one's self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is another bias worth noting here, called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard%E2%80%93easy_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hard-easy effect&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a tendency to overestimate the probability of one's success at a&#xA;  task perceived as hard, and to underestimate the likelihood of one's&#xA;  success at a task perceived as easy. ... &quot;Hard tasks tend to produce&#xA;  overconfidence but worse-than-average perceptions,&quot; ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This bias also ignores how well understood a problem is, but it suggests that a problem perceived as hard (whether or not it actually is) is more likely to result in overestimating success.  This bias is not as robust or widely accepted as the former.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-04-27T01:53:17.123" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23144" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23141" CreationDate="2019-04-27T02:37:57.470" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since the rhetorical question &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; include a judgement to others' ability, I think &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;naïve realism&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentrism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;egocentrism&lt;/a&gt; are also relevant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Naïve realism is the human tendency to believe that we see the world around us objectively, and that people who disagree with us must be uninformed, irrational, or biased. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Egocentrism is the inability to differentiate between self and other. More specifically, it is the inability to untangle subjective schemas from objective reality and an inability to accurately assume or understand any perspective other than one's own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2019-04-27T02:37:57.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23146" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-27T11:15:55.097" Score="5" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the conditions for being self-aware? If this answer can not be answered by naming specific traits, behavior unique to a self-aware being, complexity of development or other tangible concepts, is there at least a time frame after conception, when we suspect self-awareness arises?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: As pointed out in one of the comments, my question lacks more information on the research I have done prior to asking it. The background for my question, arises from a discussion of pre- and postnatal development of humans during a seminar held at &lt;a href=&quot;https://kps.ff.cuni.cz/en/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Department of Psychology at Charles University&lt;/a&gt; of Prague. So far, I have come across a lot &quot;we don't really know&quot;, &quot;many signs ..of self-awareness&quot;, biased religious theories, or answers more specific, but philosophical. Accurate methods of testing, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MSR&lt;/a&gt;, do not provide a good general answer. So, to rephrase my question a little, is there some kind of general / 'official' concensus on the subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23106" LastEditorUserId="23106" LastEditDate="2019-04-29T11:14:51.443" LastActivityDate="2019-04-29T11:14:51.443" Title="At what point does a human become self-aware?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;self&gt;&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23147" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23148" CreationDate="2019-04-28T00:18:28.980" Score="4" ViewCount="129" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading &quot;Psychological Types&quot; by Carl Jung and I came across this sentence: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But it is a characteristic peculiarity of the introvert, which is as much in keeping with his own inclination as with the general bias, to confuse his ego with the self, and to exalt it as the subject of the psychic process, thus bringing about the aforementioned subjectivization of consciousness which alienates him from the object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At this sentence, what I didn't understand is what is &quot;subjectivization of consciousness&quot; and how does it cause alienation from object?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be glad if someone can explain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23110" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-04-28T21:41:19.557" LastActivityDate="2019-04-28T21:41:19.557" Title="What did Carl Jung mean by &quot;subjectivization of consciousness&quot;?" Tags="&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23148" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23147" CreationDate="2019-04-28T02:40:45.360" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reviewing Jung’s &lt;a href=&quot;https://carljungdepthpsychologysite.blog/2018/06/29/carl-jung-on-the-nature-of-objects/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nature of objects&lt;/a&gt; the object for which the introvert becomes alienated is the item, topic, or nature that is causing a subjective reaction. This in keeping with the struggle of maintaining a proper distinction between the self and ego creates a confusion toward which is “steering the ship” so to speak. That is to say which is the &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;perceived subject of the psychic process&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This subjective experience of consciousness causes a withdrawal from the “object” in question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I like to think of this withdrawal as a form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance &lt;/a&gt; as the inconsistency between what is expected to be felt or perceived as the correct feeling versus what the actual feeling toward the object is, causes mental discomfort changing the perceived attitude towards the object. This is a loose association but allows some abstraction towards the question at hand. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23112" LastActivityDate="2019-04-28T02:40:45.360" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23149" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23155" CreationDate="2019-04-28T03:25:40.457" Score="1" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure that this is the best site for the question but given it is a psychology book I figured better here than nowhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm reading flow by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and on page 47 the following quote is made:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“they will go on diets, join health clubs, do aerobics, buy a Nautilus, or undergo plastic surgery.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What i meant by &quot;Buy a Nautilus&quot;? I've never heard of someone acquiring the shelled invertebrate as a response to stresses of life, in my entire existence, and based on my research a $10,000+ watch isn't a &quot;normal&quot; response either so i'm not sure what is being communicated in this sentence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4730" LastActivityDate="2019-04-28T20:34:41.557" Title="What does Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi mean by Nautilus?" Tags="&lt;flow&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23150" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22096" CreationDate="2019-04-28T05:09:23.017" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia maintains a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_investigational_antidepressants&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of potential antidepressants&lt;/a&gt; currently under investigation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of some note, the US FDA &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-nasal-spray-medication-treatment-resistant-depression-available-only-certified&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recently approved esketamine&lt;/a&gt; for clinical use.  After being banned in the 1970s, psychedelics have become available for research purposes again in the past 20 years or so.  Esketamine, a derivative of the psychedelic drug &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ketamine&lt;/a&gt;, which was already approved as an anesthetic, is an early result of this resurgence.  Other psychedelics (eg, psylocibin, LSD, mescaline, DMT, MDMA) are being investigated as potential treatment for a variety of mental disorders, including depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also of note, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;transcranial magnetic stimulation&lt;/a&gt; (rTMS) is a relatively new treatment for some types of depression.  The notion that depression comes in several forms or sub-types, responsive to different treatment options, has lead to the investigation of a variety of genetic tests that may help personalize treatment in the future.  Additionally, several labs (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27918562&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example&lt;/a&gt;) are investigating the possibility of using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fMRI&lt;/a&gt; to distinguish such sub-types using brain scans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-04-28T05:09:23.017" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23151" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-28T11:56:18.740" Score="2" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;This relates to my other post &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20514/frissons-on-demand&quot;&gt;Frissons on demand&lt;/a&gt;. As is stated in the abstract of the cited source below (which discusses voluntarily controlled piloerection), the ability &lt;strong&gt;correlates&lt;/strong&gt; with personality traits of openness to new experiences, and &lt;strong&gt;highly emotionally developed parts of the brain:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Compared to previously collected samples, participants reported significantly higher openness to experience, and absorption in response to aesthetic situations. These preliminary findings suggest that this rare and unusual physiological ability has strong emotional and personality correlates.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://peerj.com/preprints/26594/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://peerj.com/preprints/26594/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is, can frissons provide an accurate metric to measure EQ (emotional intelligence)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19860" LastEditorUserId="19860" LastEditDate="2019-04-28T12:09:39.297" LastActivityDate="2019-04-28T12:09:39.297" Title="Can frissons provide an accurate metric to gauge emotional intelligence?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;emotional-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23152" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23139" CreationDate="2019-04-28T14:45:42.240" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ok, so after reading other SO questions, i came across this post, where the answer identifies Paedophilia as a sexual orientation. Should this be the case, it subverts my question, answering it in various ways:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Should paedophilia be considered a sexual orientation, a similar fetish towards a specific gender would also be considered their sexual orientation, regardless of the means by which they developed it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/587/is-pedophilia-a-sexual-orientation-or-a-mental-disorder?noredirect=1&amp;amp;lq=1&quot;&gt;Is pedophilia a sexual orientation or a mental disorder?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Heterosexuality (non-deviant), homosexuality (non-deviant), and pedophilia (deviant) are defined as the three main sexual orientations. I included bisexuality (non-deviant) as being on the spectrum of sexual orientation, and child molestation (deviant) separate from the sexual orientation spectrum, because molestation is often an opportunistic event rather than an ingrained paraphilia or orientation, and can be non-preferential when it comes to victims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why would pedophilia be considered a sexual orientation? (The following is from my notes and I cannot cite specific sources for, say, MRI studies). Pedophiles are sexually attracted to children. It is not a matter of seeing pedophiles who are attracted to the same or opposite sex; it is a matter of being attracted to children in general. Often pedophiles will fixate on prepubescent boys, but if you look at a pedophile's offense history (if they are involved in the criminal justice system) you will find a preponderance of male victims. However, a male-fixated pedophile will also have sexual contact with females when males are not available, which is circumstantial, but the point is pedophiles are sexually aroused by children. Pedophilia is like heterosexuality or homosexuality in that it is innate. It it not a sought after or chosen sexual orientation.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) If a 'gender fetish' were to be considered part of a person's sexual orientation, this implies it would not appear any different from the same orientation developing conventionally. Therefore, it would not, for all intents and purposes, appear any different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) While this does not answer my thesis regarding whether someone could develop such a fetish, if the two appear indistinguishable, and assuming - like paedophilia - it would most likely only appear during childhood, then that means such a phenomenon would not be all that noteworthy but to suggest that bisexual orientation - perhaps in part - may just have some 'nurture' element to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18124" LastActivityDate="2019-04-28T14:45:42.240" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23155" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23149" CreationDate="2019-04-28T20:34:41.557" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is lots of opportunity here for jokes about generational differences, as both Csikszentmihalyi and I were born before generational names were even invented, but I will go straight to the answer. It was probably in the 1960s that Nautilus was the brand name of one of the first manufacturers of home exercise/weight machines. In those days there weren't any exercise clubs to join, and, if you didn't like the YMCA scene, then the only option was to buy a set of barbells, which were clumsy and not well adapted to many muscle groups. The Nautilus machine filled that economic gap and became very popular; you see their many descendants in all the exercise clubs today. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23109" LastActivityDate="2019-04-28T20:34:41.557" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23157" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23136" CreationDate="2019-04-29T10:35:12.277" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;IQ is not the same as working memory (either visual or non-visual). IQ is deprecated in favor of the term general intelligence (g).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Education improves g, but not by much; only about one point per year of education (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4445388/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4445388/&lt;/a&gt;), where about 15 points are a standard deviation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many things affect general intelligence negatively, such as lead exposure or inadequate nutrition. However, once basic good conditions are experienced, cognitive decline is not avoidable. The good news is that while g decreases in older adults, semantic memory (knowledge) can continue increasing, such that real-world performance on many tasks need not suffer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beware a huge range of companies and hucksters promoting activities to slow cognitive decline: to my knowledge, none of them have much validation nor a consensus of scientists without conflicts of interest (e.g., financial).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-04-29T10:35:12.277" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23158" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23135" CreationDate="2019-04-29T10:37:53.327" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rats and other creatures are curious and like to explore their environments. When the action is easy, such as a large lever on the wall, most animals will find it quickly, and if the action is reinforced, easily demonstrate operant conditioning. In the case where the action is hard, such as Thorndike putting cats in puzzle boxes and observing how long it took them to escape, the motivation to find the solution comes from the animal seeking to escape: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-04-29T10:37:53.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23159" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23141" CreationDate="2019-04-29T15:15:17.700" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This sounds a lot like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defensive_pessimism#Strategic_optimism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;strategic optimism&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When facing performance situations, strategic optimists feel that they&#xA;  will end well. Therefore, though they plan ahead, they plan only&#xA;  minimally because they do not have any anxiety to face. While&#xA;  defensive pessimists set low expectations, feel anxious, and rehearse&#xA;  possible negative outcomes of situations, strategic optimists set high&#xA;  expectations, feel calm, and do not reflect on the situation any more&#xA;  than absolutely necessary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20814" LastActivityDate="2019-04-29T15:15:17.700" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23160" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-29T19:31:22.803" Score="1" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking to create an online data collection tool which would involve questions where a short sound clip is played, and the respondents would need to use a rating scale (possibly a slider) to respond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I've come across several sites which do not allow uploading sound clips - any recommendations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9210" LastActivityDate="2019-05-01T16:02:32.197" Title="Are there any online survey/questionnaire makers which allow use of sound clips?" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23161" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23166" CreationDate="2019-04-30T01:02:49.393" Score="2" ViewCount="215" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a follow up to a &lt;a href=&quot;https://christofkoch.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/cr-brain-buddha-13.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; (^) that was cited in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19829/3379&quot;&gt;response&lt;/a&gt; to one of my past questions here. It was found that &lt;strong&gt;experienced Buddhist monks generate a substantial increase in gamma&lt;/strong&gt; waves on demand during their meditation, while novices don't.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sovhealth.com/mental-health/mindfulness-meditation-alters-brain-waves-produces-peace-mind/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; website cites a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;study&lt;/a&gt; (*) that found that &lt;strong&gt;mindfulness meditation causes an increase in alpha waves in subjects&lt;/strong&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm therefore wondering if there is something that the Buddhist monks are doing differently. &lt;strong&gt;Is there a mindfulness meditation technique that tends to produce gamma rhythms in the brain (and not just the alpha frequencies that are typical during mindfulness practice)?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps gamma waves (in the orbitofrontal cortex and areas of the prefrontal cortex) are generated from simply a deeper focus. However, if that's the case, it's still not clear to me how one can attain this. What kind of techniques are likely to lead to this phenomenon? Is it more likely that a more open/wide focus (example cue: &quot;pay attention to all thoughts/feelings/sensations that appear in your mind and, if you get distracted, just come back to the meditation&quot;) or narrow/sharp focus (example cue: &quot;pretend to receive a huge reward for focusing on your breath with high clarity and minimal distractions&quot;) leads to gamma activity? Are there any other dimensions of mindfulness meditation that are relevant here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(^) The Brain of Buddha - Christof Koch&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(*) &lt;em&gt;Mindfulness starts with the body: somatosensory attention and top-down modulation of cortical alpha rhythms in mindfulness meditation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-05-02T05:37:33.490" LastActivityDate="2019-05-02T18:34:56.560" Title="Is there a mindfulness meditation technique that tends to produce gamma rhythms in the brain (and not just the alpha frequencies that are typical)?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;mindfulness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23163" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4126" CreationDate="2019-04-30T10:26:28.100" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I find the Buddhist approach is born for this very situation. If you haven't get familiar with its concept of emptiness (sunyata), then I recommend watching this lecture first: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16znwP6uGlo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Introduction to Nagarjuna's Middle View on Buddhism&lt;/a&gt;. It's intuitive, and just after 10 minute on it and you will get the gist of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if we accept its framework, then we have this simple logic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychologically, the insult harms our sense of self&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;But according to Buddhism, there is no self&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Therefore, you don't feel hurt&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To elaborate, Buddhism views the self as illusion, and they spend most of their time to remind themselves about that. Once you have clear out that illusion, you will reach nirvana, and that's the goal of Buddhists. The mindfulness technique is one way to reach that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;FYI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-conscious_emotions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-conscious emotions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2019-04-30T10:26:28.100" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23166" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23161" CreationDate="2019-04-30T15:21:55.390" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It looks like increased gamma activity is pronounced simply for &lt;strong&gt;long-term meditation practitioners&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long-term Vipassana meditators&lt;/strong&gt; sat in meditation vs. a control rest&#xA;  (mind-wandering) state for 21 min in a counterbalanced design with&#xA;  spontaneous EEG recorded. Meditation state dynamics were measured with&#xA;  spectral decomposition of the last 6 min of the eyes-closed silent&#xA;  meditation compared to control state. Meditation was associated with a&#xA;  decrease in frontal delta (1–4 Hz) power, especially pronounced in&#xA;  those participants not reporting drowsiness during meditation.&#xA;  Relative increase in frontal theta (4–8 Hz) power was observed during&#xA;  meditation, as well as &lt;strong&gt;significantly increased parieto-occipital gamma&#xA;  (35–45 Hz) power&lt;/strong&gt;, but &lt;strong&gt;no other state effects were found for&lt;/strong&gt; the theta&#xA;  (4–8 Hz), &lt;strong&gt;alpha (8–12 Hz)&lt;/strong&gt;, or beta (12–25 Hz) bands. Alpha power was&#xA;  sensitive to condition order, and &lt;strong&gt;more experienced meditators&#xA;  exhibited no tendency toward enhanced alpha during meditation relative&#xA;  to the control task&lt;/strong&gt;. All participants tended to exhibit decreased&#xA;  alpha in association with reported drowsiness. &lt;strong&gt;Cross-experimental&#xA;  session occipital gamma power was the greatest in meditators with a&#xA;  daily practice of 10+ years, and the meditation-related gamma power&#xA;  increase was similarly the strongest in such advanced practitioners&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;  The findings suggest that long-term Vipassana meditation contributes&#xA;  to increased occipital gamma power related to long-term meditational&#xA;  expertise and enhanced sensory awareness.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Early studies of meditators implicated alpha (8–12 Hz) power increases&#xA;  as both a state and trait effect of Yogic, Zen, and Transcendental&#xA;  Meditation practice. Later studies have failed to replicate the early&#xA;  findings of increased alpha in advanced practitioners but have&#xA;  reported increased alpha coherence, especially in assays of TM&#xA;  practitioners (Gaylord et al. 1989; Travis 1991; Travis and Pearson&#xA;  1999; Travis et al. 2002), theta (4–8 Hz) power, especially in the&#xA;  assays of concentrative/focused attention practitioners (Aftanas and&#xA;  Golocheikine 2001; Baijal and Srinivasan 2009; Hebert and Lehmann&#xA;  1977; Pan et al. 1994), or gamma effects (Lehmann et al. 2001; Lutz et&#xA;  al. 2004). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cahn, B. Rael, Arnaud Delorme, and John Polich. &quot;Occipital gamma activation during Vipassana meditation.&quot; Cognitive processing 11.1 (2010): 39-56. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-009-0352-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s10339-009-0352-1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether one can accelerate the gamma power with a particular meditation training technique is another question, however.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Activities likely to trigger gamma power&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even if particular subtypes of mindfuless meditation techniques promoting gamma power in novices may not be known yet, we can conjecture the characteristics thereof based on other activities that trigger gamma activity in the prefrontal cortex. From the comments, Angela Richardson writes  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Noise, flashing lights, movement and high-contrast or striped patterns&#xA;  can all increase gamma activity. In some people the resulting increase&#xA;  in gamma activity is so large that it causes seizures or migraines. If&#xA;  you want a meditation exercise to increase your gamma power then&#xA;  imagine loud music, strobe lights and brightly coloured rapidly moving&#xA;  shapes and patterns.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the corresponding &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1344/5de5d9de6e987e85b77b99f5b6cd7f772d46.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gamma waves are primarily observed in the visual cortex&lt;/a&gt;. See  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Adjamian, Peyman, et al. &quot;Induced visual illusions and gamma oscillations in human primary visual cortex.&quot; European Journal of Neuroscience 20.2 (2004): 587-592. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03495.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03495.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Azizi et al. note that gamma waves also get activated during an n-back exercise, which requires active focus and working memory utilization:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;during cross-modal sensory processing (perception that combines 2&#xA;  different senses such as sound and sight). Also, it is shown during&#xA;  short-term memory matching of recognized objects, sounds, or tactile&#xA;  sensations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Roohi-Azizi, Mahtab, et al. &quot;Changes of the brain’s bioelectrical activity in cognition, consciousness, and some mental disorders.&quot; Medical journal of the Islamic Republic of Iran 31 (2017): 53. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.14196/mjiri.31.53&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.14196/mjiri.31.53&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common theme in the gamma activity literature seems to be a mental state that is awake and alert, with a deep and selective focus/attention. It has also been observed in the phenomenon of &quot;getting it right&quot; and feature extraction, as Phillip Gilley demonstrates in this beautiful visualization:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCpYdSN_kts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCpYdSN_kts&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A mental state that sufficiently mirrors these characteristics during meditation may possibly lead to the desired gamma activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="3379" LastEditDate="2019-05-02T18:34:56.560" LastActivityDate="2019-05-02T18:34:56.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23169" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23170" CreationDate="2019-05-01T12:16:24.330" Score="3" ViewCount="232" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have accuracy data, where every subject gives a correct, i.e. 1 or wrong, i.e. 0 answer. However every subject performs 190 trials in each session, with 10 sessions in total. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To analyze the data I use R, and group the results by session, i.e. more simply put every subject responds 190 times in each session, however after grouping, it gets only one value for each session (I use the group_by function of package dplyr), based on the average of all its trials in that session (could be 1.00 if all the answers are correct or 0.95, 0.85 etc. if the subject has mistakes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My reasoning is that in this way the data is no longer categorical, but quantitative, therefore I was hoping to use repeated-measures ANOVA for the anlysis. However the normality tests that I did on the data showed to be signifcant and a graphical representation of the data also shows that is very strongly skewed to the right (wich is completly logical of course, since there are much more correct answers than wrong).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: What can I use to analyze this data and what is used in the scientific community in general in those situations, since it is not an uncommon problem, accuracy being often measured? I checked some articles, but there for accuracy researchers simply report percentage differences, and state that they are (or aren't) significant.  I know that I could use Friedman's ANOVA, but it isn't that powerfull so I'm looking for another way. Also researchers often report using ANOVA for accuracy scores, which is leaving me absolutely stunned...&#xA;Maybe there are some errors in my reasoning, so all comments are welcome!!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for the answers!!!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23133" LastActivityDate="2019-05-02T13:59:17.863" Title="Analysis of accuracy data?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23170" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23169" CreationDate="2019-05-01T13:32:46.983" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;ANOVA and linear regression are inappropriate when your outcome is a percentage of correct trials, especially so if numbers are near the boundaries 0% or 100%. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mixed effects logistic regression may be appropriate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More detailed answers would require more details about your experiment.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-05-01T13:32:46.983" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23171" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23169" CreationDate="2019-05-01T14:59:25.050" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on the percentage of published papers that I read, and those that I review, that use un-transformed accuracy scores, I am going to guess that is what most cogsci people do. When your accuracy is around 0.5, maybe you can get away with this, but at 0.95, I believe it is a total no go. Of the people who transform, I think they typically either convert to d' with a z-transform (inverse of the cumulative distribution of a Gaussian) or use an arcsine-square-root transformation. I am partial to the rationalized arcsine transform proposed by (&lt;a href=&quot;https://ajslp.pubs.asha.org/doi/abs/10.1044/jshr.2803.455&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Studebaker 1985&lt;/a&gt;) or even better using a logit mixed model (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749596X07001337?via%3Dihub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jaeger 2008&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason that some people think you can get away without transforming when the accuracy is around 0.5 but not around 0.9 is that the transformations (arcsine and logit) are essentially linear near 0.5 but not near 0.95.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from ease of use and historical precedent, there really isn't a good reason not to use a logit mixed model for all statistics involving accuracy data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2019-05-02T13:59:17.863" LastActivityDate="2019-05-02T13:59:17.863" CommentCount="14" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23172" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23160" CreationDate="2019-05-01T16:02:32.197" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Two such systems include Qualtrics and Inquisit. For example: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.qualtrics.com/support/survey-platform/survey-module/editing-questions/rich-content-editor/insert-media/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.qualtrics.com/support/survey-platform/survey-module/editing-questions/rich-content-editor/insert-media/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-01T16:02:32.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23173" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-01T18:22:12.910" Score="4" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few years ago I tried a Raven's Matrices IQ test on the Internet. In every test the bottom right element had to be deduced and this could always be done by scanning the first two rows to determine the pattern. It may also have always have been possible to deduce the solution by scanning the first two columns, although I am not sure that the test designer had this in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It occurred to me that there could be a built-in bias favouring right-handed people or people who first learned to read horizontally from left to right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be fairly simple to devise experiments to test for such bias but an (admittedly rather cursory) Internet search found nothing relevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been any such research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23139" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-05-03T01:16:06.730" LastActivityDate="2020-05-27T03:09:15.963" Title="Handedness bias in Raven's Matrices" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;writing&gt;&lt;handedness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23174" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19286" CreationDate="2019-05-01T20:33:14.580" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several years ago, I was unsuccessfully searching for a study that evaluates the efficacy of many different interventions in the context of addictions. However, I did find a &lt;strong&gt;c&lt;/strong&gt;ognitive &lt;strong&gt;b&lt;/strong&gt;ehavioral &lt;strong&gt;t&lt;/strong&gt;herapy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0740-5472(01)00179-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Copeland et al. 2001&lt;/a&gt;) that included &lt;em&gt;a mindfulness technique called&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;urge surfing&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and it was compared to other CBT interventions in cannabis use disorders. A definition follows from &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/s1077-7229(02)80039-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marlatt (2002)&lt;/a&gt;:    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Other clients have described the successful use of &quot;urge surfing&quot; as a&#xA;  mindfulness technique (Marlatt, 1985, 1994). Clients are taught to&#xA;  visualize the urge as an ocean wave that begins as a small wavelet and&#xA;  gradually builds up to a large cresting wave. As the urge wave grows&#xA;  in strength, the client's goal is to surf the urge by allowing it to&#xA;  pass without being &quot;wiped out&quot; by giving into it. I tell clients that&#xA;  urges are often conditioned responses triggered by cues and high-risk&#xA;  situations. Like a wave, the conditioned response grows in intensity&#xA;  until it reaches a peak level of craving. Giving in to the urge when&#xA;  it peaks only serves to further reinforce the addictive behavior. Not&#xA;  acting on the urge, on the other hand, weakens the addictive&#xA;  conditioning and strengthens acceptance and self-efficacy. Like any&#xA;  skill, learning how to &quot;urge surf&quot; takes practice and improves over&#xA;  time as the client attains greater balance on the mindfulness&#xA;  surfboard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Copeland et al. mention the use of urge surfing in their program:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The second session discussed urge management strategies such as‘‘urge&#xA;  surfing’’ and nonreinforcement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and reported &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;significantly better treatment outcomes than those receiving&#xA;  notreatment. They were more likely to report abstinence during the&#xA;  follow-up period, were significantly less concerned about their&#xA;  control over cannabis use (as measuredby the SDS), and were more&#xA;  likely to have significantly fewer cannabis-related problems than&#xA;  those in the delayed treatment control group. Further, those receiving&#xA;  six sessions of treatment significantly reduced their level of&#xA;  cannabis consumption. These outcomes were unaffected by the therapist&#xA;  delivering the intervention, but were affected by treatment&#xA;  compliance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the study included a lot of other lessons. Regarding how often it should be done: The subjects were advised to use this technique whenever the urge appeared.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More info about urge surfing can be found in the freely accessible book &lt;em&gt;Cognitive behavior therapy: Applying empirically supported techniques in your practice (2003)&lt;/em&gt; in &lt;em&gt;Chapter 67&lt;/em&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the question about lifestyle factors, there have been countless studies (some cited in McGonigal's book) that indicate a positive effect of cardiovascular exercise, sufficient sleep, low-glycemic diets on self-regulation and so I will not cite them here. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Copeland, J., Swift, W., Roffman, R., &amp;amp; Stephens, R. (2001). A randomized controlled trial of brief cognitive–behavioral interventions for cannabis use disorder. &lt;em&gt;Journal of substance abuse treatment, 21&lt;/em&gt;(2), 55-64. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0740-5472(01)00179-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0740-5472(01)00179-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Marlatt, G. A. (2002). Buddhist philosophy and the treatment of addictive behavior. &lt;em&gt;Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 9&lt;/em&gt;(1), 44–50. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/s1077-7229(02)80039-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/s1077-7229(02)80039-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lloyd, A. (2003). Urge Surfing. In W. O'Donohue, J. E. Fisher &amp;amp; S. C. Hayes (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.56.9.1166&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive behavior therapy: Applying empirically supported techniques in your practice&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 451-455). New York: John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons Inc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-05-02T08:04:37.560" LastActivityDate="2019-05-02T08:04:37.560" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23176" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-02T07:38:28.823" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, the humane tendency is to couple with only one person and to be faithful to one's only partner. So dating someone else is very poorly looked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there are in some parts of Africa, for example, people in whom having relationships with other people is normal, even if you are married.&#xA;Is it normal for humans to have one partner and to have strong feelings (such as jealousy and anger) when the partner is interested in someone else or when they go elsewhere? or is it society and evolution that taught us to think like that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23100" LastActivityDate="2019-05-02T07:38:28.823" Title="Are we programmed to live together?" Tags="&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;&lt;social&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23177" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23134" CreationDate="2019-05-02T10:29:45.927" Score="2" Body="&lt;h2&gt;The basis of your question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;..particle physics doesn't suffer nearly as much from the reproducibility crisis because it has much higher standards than the social sciences&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You said this in response to &lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.stackexchange.com/a/468900&quot;&gt;innisfree (2019)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The 'replication crisis' is that many effects in social sciences (and, although to a lesser extent, other scientific fields) couldn't be reproduced. There are many factors leading to this phenomenon, including&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Weak standards of evidence, e.g., &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$2\sigma$&lt;/span&gt; evidence required to demonstrate an effect&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Researchers (subconsciously or otherwise) conducting bad scientific practice by selectively reporting and publishing significant results. E.g. considering many different effects until they find a significant effect or collecting data until they find a significant effect.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Poor training in statistical methods.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You need to bear in mind, that what innesfree said is only part of many different &lt;strong&gt;possible&lt;/strong&gt; reasons, which also doesn't really go in depth into the reasons.  Saying that social sciences has much lower standards required to demonstrate an effect can be seen as inflammatory remarks which has no real merit due to the complexity of the situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The final part of your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;why hasn't psychology (and other fields as a whole) done that? Or is that answer misrepresenting what psychologists already do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Makes your question a great (unbiased) question, and in a sense, that answer is misrepresenting what psychologists already do ... &lt;strong&gt;in most cases&lt;/strong&gt; ... but then, there are arguments which &lt;strong&gt;could&lt;/strong&gt; be made for those other situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Psychology and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Replication Crisis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I pointed out in the comments, there is a lot of debate, even within the field of social sciences, on what is pseudoscience within the social sciences and as you can see within the meta site, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248&quot;&gt;whilst I am a defender of Freudian and Neo-Freudian psychology&lt;/a&gt;, these areas of psychology, along with a few others are &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2242&quot;&gt;considered by some here to be pseudoscientific&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can read those links to the meta site for more on that, but it is the replication crisis which underpins the debate and what is considered to be scientific within research and results, and what is pseudoscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basis of the replication crisis is that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;for anything to be considered scientific (not pseudoscience), &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience#Scientific_method&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;experimental results should be reproducible and verified by other researchers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/theory-knowledge/201601/the-is-psychology-science-debate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Henriques (2016)&lt;/a&gt; points out that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;psychology was defined by the application of scientific method(s) and psychologists conduct valuable research and have developed some key insights into animal behavior, cognition, consciousness, and the human condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The demarcation between what is science and what is pseudoscience within social sciences has been debated in many books and an attempt to create a solid demarcation has been put forward by Sven Ove Hansson (&lt;a href=&quot;https://philpapers.org/rec/HANDP&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1996&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/pseudo-science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2008&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pc4OAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;lpg=PA61&amp;amp;dq=Hansson%2C%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;lr&amp;amp;pg=PA61#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=Hansson,%20S.%20O.%20(1996).%20Defining%20Pseudoscience.&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Where does the problem lie?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @StevenJeuris pointed out in the comments,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The more 'high-level' observations are performed, the more room there is for noise, variance in data, and the need for subjective interpretations in the process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;'High level' cognitive functions (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2042528/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Driver, et al. 2007&lt;/a&gt;) (e.g. memory, awareness, thoughts, emotions, attention, executive function...) in humans cannot be physically recorded and measured, and therefore they can only be measured and recorded subjectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;How does this pose a problem?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where there is no point of reference, either you need a very large group of people who fit a specified criteria in order to assess statistically how predominant certain traits are evident, or you start by assessing a few people (or maybe even one person) with a view to encouraging more research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could be seen when looking at Erikson’s Life Stages of Development (Erikson &amp;amp; Erikson, 1998) &amp;mdash; also discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17211&quot;&gt;my answer&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/17210/what-happens-to-someone-missing-teenage-years-of-development&quot;&gt;What happens to someone missing teenage years of development?&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Erik Erikson’s &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;8 life stages of man&lt;/a&gt;, originally put together in 1950 in his book &lt;em&gt;Childhood and Society&lt;/em&gt;, was delevoped based on his own experiences of life.  A 9th stage was added in 1998 as the Eriksons came to believe that,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the role of old age needs to be reobserved, rethought (Erikson &amp;amp; Erikson, 1998: p. 62).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could say that this theory on the stages of development is pseudoscientific, but without a better frame of reference, Erikson provided the best he could for the time being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where subjective measurement can also pose major problems is highlighted in Forde (2017).  When you are trying to profile and treat for recidivism amongst sexual offenders, you can only rely on subjective observations.  What Forde pointed out is that in this area of psychology within the prison system, psychologists are relying on questionnaires along with the psychologist's opinion on what is required, and he highlighted areas in which this can pose big problems, and why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;How are standards kept as high as possible?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The debate as it stands is the attempt by all social scientists to ensure the best methods of observation can be maintained.  Where deficiencies are highlighted, it is the social scientists' duty to ensure that those deficiencies do not affect their work, and where more research is needed, they attempt to conduct the necessary research to correct those deficiencies where possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing is that you need to remember that what fits one person, may not fit all people, as everyone is different in their own right.  Each and every person will have been subjected to different internal and external influences.  Without objective measurement techniques, there is no other way of scientifically coming to an agreement on what occurs and how within the high level cognitive functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So going back to the crux of your question,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Does particle physics have much higher standards than the social sciences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is open to opinion, but based on the evidence I have put forward, the standards are as high as possible to date within the social sciences, and they are under constant review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Driver, J., Haggard, P., &amp;amp; Shallice, T. (2007). Introduction. Mental processes in the human brain. &lt;em&gt;Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362&lt;/em&gt;(1481), 757-760. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2085&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1098/rstb.2007.2085&lt;/a&gt; pubmed: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2042528/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC2042528&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Erikson, E. H. &amp;amp; Erikson, J. M. (1998). &lt;em&gt;The Life Cycle Completed&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forde, R. A. (2017). &lt;em&gt;Bad Psychology: How Forensic Psychology Left Science Behind&lt;/em&gt;. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hansson, S. O. (1996). Defining Pseudoscience. &lt;em&gt;Philosophia Naturalis, 33&lt;/em&gt;(1): pp. 169—176&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Info. at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://philpapers.org/rec/HANDP&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://philpapers.org/rec/HANDP&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;With the publication of the second issue of the 2013 vintage, &lt;em&gt;Philosophia Naturalis&lt;/em&gt; has ceased publication.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Please order the single issue of the printed issue directly from the publisher via &lt;a href=&quot;http://kontakt.klostermann.de/verlag.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;e-mail&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&amp;amp;tl=en&amp;amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.klostermann.de%2Fepages%2F63574303.sf%2Fde_DE%2F%3FObjectPath%3D%2FShops%2F63574303%2FCategories%2FZeitschriften%2FPhil-nat&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;translated&lt;/a&gt; from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.klostermann.de/epages/63574303.sf/de_DE/?ObjectPath=/Shops/63574303/Categories/Zeitschriften/Phil-nat&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.klostermann.de/epages/63574303.sf/de_DE/?ObjectPath=/Shops/63574303/Categories/Zeitschriften/Phil-nat&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hansson, S. O. (2008) Science and Pseudo-Science. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2017 Edition)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/pseudo-science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/pseudo-science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hansson, S. O. (2013). Defining Pseudoscience and Science. In M. Pigliucci &amp;amp; M. Boudry (Eds.) &lt;em&gt;Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem&lt;/em&gt;. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Henriques, G. (2016). The “Is Psychology a Science?” Debate. &lt;em&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201601/the-is-psychology-science-debate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201601/the-is-psychology-science-debate&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;innesfree (2019). Answer to: How do we know the LHC results are robust? &lt;em&gt;Physics StackExchange&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.stackexchange.com/a/468900&quot;&gt;https://physics.stackexchange.com/a/468900&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-05-02T10:29:45.927" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23178" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-02T10:36:35.350" Score="4" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Inference is the process of generating further premises from information. Sperber et al (2012) write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;'An inference, as the term is used in psychology, is a process that, given some input information reliably yields as output further information that is likely to be true if the input information is. Inference is involved not only in thinking but also in perception and in motor control. When you see a three-dimensional object, a house or a horse, for instance, you have sensory information only about the part of its surface that reflects light to your retina, and perceiving it as a house or as a horse involves inferring from this sensory information about a surface the kind of three-dimensional object it is. When you decide to grasp, say, a mug, you use your perception of the mug and of your own bodily position in space to infer at each moment throughout the movement the best way to carry out you intention. Inferences so understood are performed not only by humans but by all species endowed with cognitive capacities. They are an essential ingredient of any cognitive system.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Judgement and decision making are different processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Judgement, the process of generating factual conclusions from evidence using generalisations is clearly inference. Jolls et al (1998) refer to judgement as '[assessing] the probability of an uncertain event.' Baron (2008) confirms '[T]he term “judgment,” ... refers to the process of inference.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, is decision making, the process of choosing a course of action based on a judgement about the state of the world also an inference? If not, what is it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Decision making is described by Tor (2008) as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;'...how individuals choose among the alternatives available to them...'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14725" LastEditorUserId="14725" LastEditDate="2019-05-02T17:51:15.643" LastActivityDate="2019-05-02T17:51:15.643" Title="Is decision making inference?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23179" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-02T12:05:14.287" Score="2" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Theoretical Neuroscience by Dayan and Abbott page 25, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the probability &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P[t_1, t_2, ..., t_n]$&lt;/span&gt; that a sequence of n spikes occurs with spike &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$i$&lt;/span&gt; falling between times &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_i$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_i+\Delta t$&lt;/span&gt; for &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$i=1,2,...,n$&lt;/span&gt; is given in terms of this by the relation &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P[t_1, t_2, ..., t_n]=p[t_1,...,t_n](\Delta t)^n$&lt;/span&gt;... the probability &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P[t_1, t_2, ..., t_n]$&lt;/span&gt; can be expressed in terms of another probability function &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P_T[n]$&lt;/span&gt;, which is the probability that an arbirary sequence of exactly n spikes occurs within a trial of duration T. Assuming that the spike times are ordered so that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$0 \le t_1 \le t_2 \le ... \le t_n \le T$&lt;/span&gt;, the relationship is &#xA;  &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$P[t_1, t_2, ..., t_n] = n!P_T[n]\big({\Delta t \over T}\big)^n$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I get that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P_T[n]$&lt;/span&gt; is the probability function of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n$&lt;/span&gt; spikes occurring(which later is proved to be a Poisson distribution).  I'm guessing &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n!$&lt;/span&gt; is different ways of re-arranging the &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n$&lt;/span&gt; spikes. What exactly is &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\big({\Delta t \over T}\big)^n$&lt;/span&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23143" LastActivityDate="2020-01-20T09:02:00.230" Title="Homogeneous Poisson Process of spike train" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23180" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23134" CreationDate="2019-05-02T12:30:41.880" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;High standards are being proposed, but not taken up very quickly.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology is currently undergoing a transition in methods between the traditional approach of hypothesizing after results are known (e.g., Bem, 1980) and new statistical and design methods that have fewer false positives, such as focusing on effect sizes and confidence intervals over significance, pre-registration, Registered Reports, sharing of code and data, replication, meta-analysis, multi-site replication such as the Psychological Accelerator and Many Labs, error detection tools, etc. Note that even if these techniques are demonstrably superior for inference quality, their uptake within the discipline and coverage in undergraduate and graduate coursework depends on current faculty changing their beliefs and practices. Historically in science, this is a slow and fraught process (Kuhn, 1962); sometimes fields have had to wait for faculty to die before new methods can take full root. It doesn't look like it will take that long, but I mention this to highlight the difference between superior methods existing and whether they are implemented within a field. Psychology is currently undergoing something of a struggle between reformers and supporters of the status quo. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@Chris Rogers makes another good point that measurement of psychological constructs such as motivation is necessarily indirect, and people are exceptionally variable by context, making the design of measures more contextual than in physics. The lack of stable evidence is not an indication of standards alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-02T12:30:41.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23183" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-02T23:27:02.567" Score="2" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;What I am trying to understand is why do I feel embarrassed in certain situation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g. when I'm talking to people, why do I think about being judged or sounding stupid that would result me in embarrassment. I have been considered as &quot;intelligent&quot; since I was a kid and may be making or looking stupid goes against my own belief of me being 'intelligent'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, when I'm playing a game or playing music, I think about embarrassing myself, making mistakes and think what may the audience/team mates thinking about me? So I avoid it and when I actually get a chance of play, I make mistake and regret/punish myself mentally for making a mistake or regret quite a bit. So, basically, this results me in being low confident. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking about &quot;impressing people&quot; and me resulting in an embarrassing situation, acting stupid, sounding stupid would spoil my &quot;impression&quot;. &#xA;However, I want to act stupid or sound stupid sometime and be ok with it. &#xA;Somehow my biology/mind prevents me every time and I feel the resistance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in search of understanding the reason, I wanted to ask if this has any evolutionary benefit or is it part of natural selection? E.g. having a better chances of survival, when you express less/ be quiet or shy, so that others are not threatened by you? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anybody with more knowledge shed some light or possibly guide me to help my situation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for reading a long post!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23148" LastActivityDate="2019-05-03T13:39:18.087" Title="What is the evolutionary advantage of being embarrassed?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23185" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-03T00:55:54.183" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Condition A has M=5, SD=1&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Condition B has M=10, SD=1  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a two-tailed test gives p&amp;lt;.05, can you infer that Condition B was &lt;em&gt;significantly higher&lt;/em&gt; than Condition A without conducting a one-tailed test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user23149" LastActivityDate="2019-05-03T16:40:52.153" Title="If a two-tailed test shows significance and the mean is higher, can you infer that one condition is significantly higher?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23186" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23173" CreationDate="2019-05-03T01:05:48.997" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28826694&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;There isn't&lt;/a&gt; much of a difference in IQ tests between left and right-handed people. I don't know if this is (more) significant on a sub-test like Raven's.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand there's  &lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/787244&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some correlation&lt;/a&gt; between both handedness and first-language script direction and the phenomenon of mirror writing. So the native script direction may be relevant to a test like Raven's.  I don't know if they adjust for it (e.g. by rotating the matrix) when it's &quot;translated&quot; to Hebrew or Japanese.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2019-05-03T01:05:48.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23187" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23183" CreationDate="2019-05-03T13:39:18.087" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Marks and Nesse investigated evolutionary causes of anxiety disorders and reported about embarrassment in particular:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Social threats evoke responses that promote group acceptance, for&#xA;  example, submission to dominants and to norms of dress, mien, odor,&#xA;  speech, customs, beliefs. &lt;strong&gt;This prevents dangerous extrusion from the&#xA;  group. Mild shyness and embarrassment can promote acceptance.&lt;/strong&gt; If&#xA;  shyness and embarrassment are excessive, however, then fitness&#xA;  suffers, as in several anxiety disorders: pervasive shyness in&#xA;  avoidant personality disorder; gaze aversion and fear of scrutiny, of&#xA;  shaking, and of blushing in social  252 I. M. Marks and R. M. Nesse&#xA;  phobia; fear of excreting near others in sphincteric phobias (Marks&#xA;  1987, pp. 362-371); terror of looking or smelling abnormal in&#xA;  dysmorphopho- bia; fear of behaving antisocially in&#xA;  obsessive-compulsive disorder. Impulses to behave in ways that would&#xA;  cause social rejection may arouse general anxiety without the subject&#xA;  being aware of those punishable impulses, thus helping to conceal them&#xA;  from others (Nesse 1990). We do not emphasize a distinction between&#xA;  fear of specific dangers and anxiety aroused by nonspecific dangers or&#xA;  unconscious impulses, because in all cases the state, whether anxiety&#xA;  or fear, is aroused by a cue that &lt;strong&gt;indicates a threat to reproductive&#xA;  resources.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Nesse, Randolph M. &quot;Fear and fitness: An evolutionary analysis of anxiety disorders.&quot; Ethology and sociobiology 15.5-6 (1994): 247-261. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(94)90002-7&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(94)90002-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastActivityDate="2019-05-03T13:39:18.087" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23188" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-04-24T17:20:07.663" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;Has ordering people along a Ape to Human diagram, as a measure of dehumanization for people in general, been validated in any way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because it seems, if confronted with such a diagram and asking people where to place a specific person, or group of people...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It seems rife with the possibility of jokey answers, or only those thoroughly convinced in their belief of there being humans of unequal worth, such that it'd be more a test for whether someone is an unashamed racist or anti-vegan or some such, instead of a test about whether there's implicit dehumanization, like there are tests of implicit bias.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any proof that the tests can screen out joke answers and are applicable to people who are not unashamed discriminators?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have any access to journal subscriptions, so I wouldn't know where to go to check if there's been any proof that it successfully tests for deliberately hidden / repressed / implicit dehumanization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Places where such a test has been described as being used, as reported by &lt;a href=&quot;https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/qv78zb/drivers-think-bikers-are-less-than-human-survey-says&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vice&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers have now found an explanation for why many drivers act out toward cyclists: They are actually dehumanizing people who ride bikes, according to an April study by Australian researchers in the journal &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1369847818308593#!&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Transportation Research&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The researchers asked 442 Australians, including those who identified as cyclists, to rank the average cyclist on a scale from ape to human. This ape-to-human diagram has been used in other studies, like this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26121523&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one from 2015&lt;/a&gt;, looking at the dehumanization of marginalized groups, such as Muslims and black people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1369847818308593#!&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;April 2019 article&lt;/a&gt; says, in its abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper presents a pilot study applying two validated dehumanization measures to a road user group for the first time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9614" OwnerDisplayName="Malandy" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-05-03T16:18:01.450" Title="Has ordering people along a Ape to Human diagram, as a measure of dehumanization for people in general, been validated in any way?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23189" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23185" CreationDate="2019-05-03T16:40:52.153" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A two-tailed test simply corrects for the appropriate probability of observing a difference as large as you observe given the null hypothesis is true. This probability is twice the one-tailed probability (in effect, a two-tailed test with alpha=0.05 is the same as two one-tailed tests each with alpha=0.025). You do not need a one-tailed test to infer the direction. If there is a significant difference with a two-tailed test, it clearly must be in the direction of the observed difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-05-03T16:40:52.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23190" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-03T19:26:29.547" Score="4" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading Family Evaluation and Bowen/Kerr keep referring to Emotion and Feeling. Those seem like the same thing to me, so I'm wondering what the difference is between them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example:&#xA;&quot;Objectivity and the associated autonomy from one's environment derive from the capacity to recognize the difference between emotional, feeling, subjective and objective responses and to act based on that recognition.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously &quot;objective&quot;, &quot;subjective&quot; and &quot;emotional&quot; are distinct concepts, but how is &quot;feeling&quot; different than &quot;emotional&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15177" LastActivityDate="2019-05-03T19:26:29.547" Title="In Bowen theory, what is the different between Emotion and Feeling" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23193" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17522" CreationDate="2019-05-05T07:05:43.487" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a fairly open-ended question...  One example of the potentially negative consequences of overexpressed BDNF is its effect on the likelihood and frequency of epileptic seizures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess the short version of this effect is that BDNF appears to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor#Synaptogenesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;promote neuronal growth&lt;/a&gt;, including neurogenesis, axonal and synaptic sprouting, and neuronal excitation, in exactly the areas of the brain that are associated with epilepsy.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epileptic_seizure#Mechanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Epileptic seizures&lt;/a&gt; are essentially hyper-excitations of neurons, so any factor that increases the excitability of neurons in brain areas associated with seizures can be a culprit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A good, fairly recent, and open access review of the role of BDNF and its primary receptor TrkB in epilepsy is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK98186/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McNamara &amp;amp; Scharfman (2012)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Intrahippocampal infusion of BDNF and transgenic overexpression of&#xA;  BDNF or TrkB increase seizure susceptibility or severity. Conditional&#xA;  knockout of TrkB eliminated epileptogenesis altogether in the kindling&#xA;  model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, in epileptic mice, adding BDNF increased seizure frequency, and removing it eliminated seizures entirely.  The authors suggest several mechanisms by which this might happen:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... long-term potentiation (LTP) of excitatory synapses between&#xA;  principal cells may contribute to limbic epileptogenesis; that&#xA;  is, potentiation of these synapses may facilitate propagation of&#xA;  seizure activity through synaptically-coupled neuronal populations&#xA;  throughout the limbic system and beyond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One interesting possibility is that enhanced TrkB activation reduces&#xA;  expression of the K-Cl cotransporter, KCC2, ... an important molecular&#xA;  and cellular mechanism contributing to limbic epilepsy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The effect of estrogen on NPY levels could be mediated by BDNF,&#xA;  because BDNF induces NPY synthesis following TrkB activation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, (1) BDNF-induced &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LTP&lt;/a&gt; - the mechanism that underlies memory and learning - increases the excitability of neurons, potentially causing seizures; (2) BDNF may inhibit &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloride_potassium_symporter_5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;KCC2&lt;/a&gt;, itself a synpatic inhibitor, again increasing the excitability of neurons; and (3) hormone-induced BDNF may moderate neuron hyperexcitability through its effect on yet another another protein, the neurotransmitter &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropeptide_Y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NPY&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another recent review, though not open access, is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30262417&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Iughetti et al (2018)&lt;/a&gt;.  Similar to the previous review:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... BDNF has excitatory effects in neuronal cultures and animal brain&#xA;  slices.  Furthermore, both BDNF and its conjugated receptor (... TrkB)&#xA;  are increased  in animal models and humans with epilepsy, particularly&#xA;  in the temporal and hippocampal areas. Acute injection of BDNF in&#xA;  brain of mice induces seizures, which are almost or totally abolished&#xA;  [by] blocking its transcription and pathway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors also implicate the effects of BDNF on axonal sprouting and neuronal hyperexcitability, KCC2 and NKCC1 downregulation, and NPY synthesis on seizure likelihood and frequency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurochemistry is complex and not well understood, and there is indication that BDNF can also have protective properties against epilepsy under certain conditions (eg, long-term in low doses).  Lots more detail is available in the reviews cited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-05-05T07:05:43.487" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23195" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-05T19:11:10.347" Score="5" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do teenage girls &quot;fall in love&quot; with idols they never met?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This behaviour is much more uncommon (if it happens at all) among teenage boys (At least in my experience. I also did a quick survey among around a dozen adults, half men, half women, none of the men recalled something like this from their teens, most of the women did.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20383" LastActivityDate="2019-05-05T19:11:10.347" Title="Why do teenage girls &quot;fall in love&quot; with idols?" Tags="&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23196" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-06T05:49:05.870" Score="0" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that some people think people should start school at the normal age instead of older because they claim they might become too old to learn. I learned from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7jHT7Tumcw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7jHT7Tumcw&lt;/a&gt; that in China, students start learning fractions at a very young age and then end up learning them quite well and quickly. According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/science-says-were-sending-our-kids-to-school-much-too-early-and-that-can-hurt-th.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/science-says-were-sending-our-kids-to-school-much-too-early-and-that-can-hurt-th.html&lt;/a&gt;, it's better to start school at an older age. I think they mean it's better to start grade 1 at an older age because of course those who don't go to kindergarten then start grade 1 at the normal age start an an older age than those who do go to kindergarten then start grade 1 a year later than normal. Maybe for some things people can become too old to learn. For example, Mary and Janelle from Sister Wives were raised very differently and then they had trouble understanding each other's way of thinking until they went to a therapist to understand each other. That doesn't mean there's a universal tendency for everything to be harder to learn when you're older. Maybe the real reason why students in China learn fractions so quickly and well is not because they're taught so young but either because of the method they're taught fractions as described in the video or because there's a general tendency for Chinese people to be more likely to be smart because of their genome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe Mary and Janelle being too old to learn each other's way of thinking actually meant they were very smart. They cannot possibly figure out absolutely everything anyone else can figure out like a God and maybe being too old to learn means they're smart enough to be quite well aware that although there are risks with doing things exactly the way they are used to, there are also risks with trying doing things in a new and different way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that in addition to that, sometimes when somebody learns something while they're so young, they're more likely to misinterpret what they're getting taught. &lt;a href=&quot;https://matheducators.stackexchange.com/questions/10247/how-to-teach-adults-elementary-concepts/10248#10248&quot;&gt;This answer&lt;/a&gt; appears to support my claim. According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://matheducators.stackexchange.com/questions/926/whence-the-everything-is-linear-phenomenon-and-what-can-we-do-about-it&quot;&gt;https://matheducators.stackexchange.com/questions/926/whence-the-everything-is-linear-phenomenon-and-what-can-we-do-about-it&lt;/a&gt;, maybe some students learn something wrong and then after unlearn it later. Also in one episode of &quot;My 600 lb life&quot; the adult patient who is overweight during the episode, at the time she was 5, her parents kept saying &quot;You're too fat. You can't have it&quot; meaning dessert and then she thought it was a punishment for being fat and got very depressed. Unconsciously, that's probably because it's possible to deduce from the fact that she got a punishment that she did something wrong. I think that actually she was too young to be able to figure out how to interpret the message the way she was intended to and an older person who's fat if that was said to them would be able to figure out that the parents weren't trying to be so mean and meant they should not have dessert because it's very sweet and might make them fatter and then they might die of a heart attack.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it actually true that students tend to learn better from school when they start grade 1 at an older age? If so, could one reason be because those who start grade 1 at the normal age are more likely to face the problem where they are not yet ready to learn the basics and then they move on from the basics before they were ready to be able to learn them and then struggle to learn the later material because they're missing the basics? Could another possible reason be because they're less likely to be young enough to misinterpret what they're getting taught?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10270" LastActivityDate="2019-05-06T05:49:05.870" Title="Is there a real benefit to starting grade 1 at a older age? If so, why?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23198" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-06T19:16:23.563" Score="3" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;How long does it take for a neuron to return to it's resting state, due to absence of further stimulus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23170" LastEditorUserId="23170" LastEditDate="2019-05-06T19:31:38.860" LastActivityDate="2019-05-06T19:44:42.120" Title="Assuming a neuron does not reach activation, what is the rate of repolarization in the absence of new stimulus?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23199" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23198" CreationDate="2019-05-06T19:44:42.120" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neurons (either the neuron as a whole, or segments such as a length of dendrite) can be modeled as an RC circuit. This is because the membrane acts as both a resistor and capacitor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;RC circuits have a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RC_time_constant&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;time constant&lt;/a&gt; tau, equal to R * C. This time constant describes how long it takes to passively discharge the membrane capacitor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the context of neurons, this is referred to as the &quot;membrane time constant&quot; and like other exponential decay constants it refers to the amount of time that passes before the voltage has gone ~63.2% of the way towards rest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In exponential decay, equilibrium is never truly reached, but after ~2-3 time constants it is likely decayed to within measurement precision given other sources of noise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question &quot;how long&quot; the only answer is &quot;it depends&quot; - neurons with different functions have very different time constants. Time constants also aren't perfectly static, because the membrane resistance is not constant due to channels gated by voltage or signalling molecules. Typical values are from milliseconds to tens of milliseconds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-05-06T19:44:42.120" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23200" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-07T05:03:25.497" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are some examples of psychosis in people who have major depression? Especially how do delusions show up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Experiencing psychosis can be frightening and confusing, and&#xA;  psychosis can present in a variety of ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Symptoms of psychosis include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;delusions, also known as false beliefs or false perceptions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;hallucinations, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;or seeing or hearing things that are not present&#xA;  paranoia&quot;&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323193.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(link)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23171" LastActivityDate="2019-05-07T05:03:25.497" Title="What are some examples of psychosis in people who have major depression?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23201" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-07T13:21:08.213" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mental arithmetic stress test is used widely to induce mental stress in laboratories. Can this test induce stress to those who are really good at mental calculation or enjoy mental math? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23176" LastActivityDate="2019-12-01T10:01:55.470" Title="Mental stress inducing task" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23203" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-07T23:07:58.710" Score="3" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do the actual nerve cells in the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems have a different structure or chemical make up or are they the same thing just separate systems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23179" LastActivityDate="2019-05-07T23:07:58.710" Title="Is there a structural difference between Nerve cells in the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23205" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-08T14:17:32.343" Score="4" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several social psychologists try to explain the science behind revenge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Ian McKee of Adelaide University in Australia writes in Social Justice Research (Vol. 138, No. 2), linking vengeful tendencies primarily with two social attitudes: right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Popular social psychologist Dan Arieli in &lt;em&gt;The Upside of Irrationality: The Unexpected Benefits of Defying Logic at Work and at Home&lt;/em&gt; (New York:  Harper Collins, 2010) suggests that revenge has a biological basis and feels pleasurable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for new research explaining this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23183" LastEditorUserId="23183" LastEditDate="2019-05-10T13:35:02.250" LastActivityDate="2019-05-14T20:17:11.937" Title="Why do people want to harm those who harmed them?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23206" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23211" CreationDate="2019-05-08T17:50:19.670" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looking at an awards ceremony, I find that all the men look the same to me. Whereas all the women look very &quot;unique&quot;. I wonder if this is a psychological thing in which, because I am male, I am less interested in the particular characteristics of males than females.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It makes me wonder do females think most men look the same? In Western society it is usuall the men who do the chasing so it would make sense for women to at least appear to be distinct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect men's uniqueness might present itself more in facial hair which because mostly it's socially accceptable to be clean shaven then the uniqueness doesn't come through.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2019-05-10T10:28:55.907" Title="Do men look more similar to each other than women?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23209" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-09T20:53:31.347" Score="3" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am using the app Waking up from Sam Harris. A lot of his guided meditations tell you to perceive the world as the raw data of experience, instead of perceiving objects and concepts. To illustrate gazing at your visual field and only observing the colours and contrast, not objects. It is reasonable to wonder if this can happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where in the brain could this change possibly happen. I suppose it is higher-level vision processing. Signals from the retina are relayed further to LGN and the visual cortex, where they are mapped as states of what we are perceiving. Where can this change of perception happen?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT that could possibly explain this is the so called feature integration theory, which states that feature are perceived early, automatically and in parallel, while objects are identified separately. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastEditorUserId="23189" LastEditDate="2019-05-12T19:34:03.657" LastActivityDate="2019-05-12T19:34:03.657" Title="Relaxing your concepts in meditation" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;conceptual-framework&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23210" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-10T08:52:32.367" Score="4" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the earliest neuroscientists, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, postulated that brains are arranged to minimise wire length [1]. In [1] Dmitri Chklovskii and Charles Stevens formulate this problem as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Wiring a brain presents formidable problems because of the extremely&#xA;  large number of connections: a microliter of cortex contains&#xA;  approximately 105 neurons, 109 synapses, and 4 km ofaxons, with 60% of&#xA;  the cortical volume being taken up with &quot;wire&quot;, half of this by axons&#xA;  and the other half by dendrites. [ 1] Each cortical neighborhood must&#xA;  have exactly the right balance of components; if too many cell bodies&#xA;  were present in a particular mm cube, for example, insufficient space&#xA;  would remain for the axons, dendrites and synapses. Here we ask &quot;What&#xA;  fraction of the cortical volume should be wires (axons + dendrites)?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the formulation of this problem continues to evolve and its solution is far from settled, I am motivated by its potential impact on different areas of neuroscience. In particular, the areas of developmental neuroscience, network neuroscience and biophysics(i.e. the energetic constraints on information processing in human brains). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Due to its historical importance and potential impact on the field of neuroscience, I'd like to learn more about the state-of-the-art on this problem. From my own literature review and a question I asked on Twitter, I managed to gather the following references listed below. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this context, are there essential post-2000 publications that aren't in this reference list? One thing I find curious is that although there has been an explosion of neuroscience data since the year 2010 nearly half the papers I have found that directly attempt to answer the question were written before 2010. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;D. Chklovskii, C. Stevens. Wiring optimization in the brain. NIPS. 2000.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;D. Van Essen. A tension-based theory of morphogenesis and compact wiring in the nervous system. Nature. 1997.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;G. Shepherd, A. Stepanyants, I. Bureau, D. Chklovskii and K. Svoboda. Geometric and functional organization of cortical circuits. Nature Neuroscience. 2005.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;M. Kaiser &amp;amp; C. Hilgetag. Nonoptimal Component Placement, but Short Processing Paths, due to Long-Distance Projections in Neural Systems. PLOS. 2006.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A. Stepanyants, L. Martinez, A. Ferecskó , and Z. Kisvárda. The fractions of short- and long-range connections in the visual cortex. PNAS. 2008.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Q. Wena, A. Stepanyants, G. Elstonc, A. Grosberg, and D. Chklovskii. Maximization of the connectivity repertoire as a statistical principle governing the shapes of dendritic arbors. PNAS. 2009.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;C. Cherniak. Neural Wiring Optimization. 2011.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;E. Bullmore , O. Sporns.The economy of brain network organization. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2012.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;M. Hofman. Evolution of the human brain: when bigger is better. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 2014.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A. Gushchin, A. Tang. Total Wiring Length Minimization of C. elegans Neural Network: A Constrained Optimization Approach. PLOS. 2015.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;J. Niven. Neuronal energy consumption: biophysics, efficiency and evolution. 2016.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I. Wang &amp;amp; T.Clandinin. The Influence of Wiring Economy on Nervous System Evolution. Current Biology. 2016.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;S. Srinivasan, C. Stevens. Scaling principles of distributed circuits. biorxiv. 2018.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;J. Stiso &amp;amp; D. Bassett. Spatial Embedding Imposes Constraints on the Network Architectures. Arxiv. 2018. &#xA;of Neural Systems&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorDisplayName="user3503" LastEditDate="2019-05-24T15:56:57.413" LastActivityDate="2019-05-24T15:56:57.413" Title="What is the state of the art on the wiring optimisation problem?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23211" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23206" CreationDate="2019-05-10T10:28:55.907" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Any apparent difference between sexes probably has more to due with the perspective of the viewer than the physiological characteristics of the group. Males and females are both highly diverse in appearance. The particular balance of physiological diversity among a population will depend on the ethnic balance, cultural norms (e.g., having facial or head hair at a certain length), dress, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People recognise different members of their own race more easily than of other races (well-established effect): &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-race_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-race_effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, there's limited evidence suggesting an own-gender effect as well, potentially driven by how people see hair: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001691803000520?via%3Dihub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001691803000520?via%3Dihub&lt;/a&gt; (Wright et al., 2003, 'An own gender bias and the importance of hair in face recognition').&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In sum: this is probably in the eye of the beholder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-10T10:28:55.907" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23212" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-10T10:48:29.953" Score="1" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've watched a few Youtube videos about dealing with narcissists and I noticed a few patterns.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Videos.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The videos appear to be genuine attempts to provide &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt; help to people who are dealing with narcissistic abuse.  The people publishing them are either practitioners or coaches.  Usually they post contact information in the video descriptions to promote their practices.  This seems par for the course.  Some videos provide examples of narcissistic behavior by showing recorded episodes of interactions with extreme narcissists.  They claim to have been recorded legally, which is fine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Comments.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also noticed that many of the comments to the videos seem to express a great deal of hostility towards current of former narcissists in their lives.  Frankly, I am having trouble telling the difference between the narcissists, as they are described in the videos, and those who claim to be their victims in the comments.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not that there is just a rage directed towards those whom they perceive as having taken away their control over their lives.  It's that these supposed narcissists do not acquiesce to the victims' various demands.  Which shows both a feeling of entitlement and a lack of self-awareness.  And it is, in fact, expressed with a great deal of rage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Contradiction.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am having a difficult time making sense of it because, on the one hand, the &quot;victims&quot; do describe some patterns of behavior which the videos attribute to narcissists.  On the other hand, the &quot;victims&quot; themselves seem to exhibit behavior symptomatic of narcissists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The recorded audios of narcissists abusing their victims demonstrate clearly abusive behavior.  But the &lt;strong&gt;definitions of narcissistic abuse, given in the videos, seem to &quot;cast too wide a net&quot;.  They provide good guidance for what makes a narcissist, but do not provide any real tests to exclude the possibility of someone being a narcissist&lt;/strong&gt;.   They can probably provide a justification for actual narcissists to justify their abuse of their victims, as they appear to do in the comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact that all these practitioners can correctly identify narcissists as such, but give poor definitions, as guidance for other on how to identify potential narcissists, makes me think that the practice of making such videos should be unethical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Question.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it unethical though?  Is the idea of avoiding the risks of casting aspersions (through definition which are overly pathologizing of normal behaviors) a part of ethics of clinical psychiatry?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23191" LastActivityDate="2019-09-17T08:46:27.637" Title="What are the ethics (for clinical psychiatrists) of posting videos on Youtube with poorly-worded guidance about disorders?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23213" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23246" CreationDate="2019-05-10T13:43:48.290" Score="6" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in simulations of human behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nicky Case has done some really good ones:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ncase.me/trust/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ncase.me/trust/&lt;/a&gt; - A simulation of repeated prisoner's dilemma under different scenarios, showing how trust can be built and destroyed between people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ncase.me/crowds/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ncase.me/crowds/&lt;/a&gt; - A simulation of memes spreading in a society, and how the relations between people affect whether a meme will spread or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I like the fact that they are easy for people to interact with, and you can learn how things that we accept just happen in society are shown to be emergent phenomena that are the result of simple behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: &lt;strong&gt;Do you know of more sources of simulations like these that you can share?&lt;/strong&gt; I'm especially interested in simulations of people's emotional connections with each other, and group dynamics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3106" LastActivityDate="2019-05-14T06:12:53.550" Title="Easy-to-use simulations of human behavior" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;&lt;trust&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23215" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-10T17:39:42.250" Score="1" ViewCount="381" Body="&lt;p&gt;One factor in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/World_Happiness_Report#/2018_report&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;World Happiness Score&lt;/a&gt; is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Generosity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;generosity&lt;/a&gt;. I had trouble to understand what this actually means and how it enters into the score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These were my specific questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does &amp;quot;generosity&amp;quot; mean that the individuals &lt;strong&gt;feel&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;are&lt;/strong&gt; generous themselves (which feels good)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does it mean that the individuals &lt;strong&gt;experience&lt;/strong&gt; generosity by their fellow citizens (which would affect happiness in a different way)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does it mean that the individuals experience generosity by their government or employer or other superior party?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does it mean &lt;strong&gt;all of this together&lt;/strong&gt;, giving a cumulated number of some kind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why is generosity preferred to other similar factors like &lt;strong&gt;fairness&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;solidarity&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At &lt;a href=&quot;https://politics.stackexchange.com/questions/41357/generosity-in-the-world-happiness-score?noredirect=1#comment161140_41357&quot;&gt;Politics (Beta)&lt;/a&gt; I got this answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2019/changing-world-happiness/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2019/changing-world-happiness/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generosity is the residual of regressing the national average of GWP responses to the question “Have you donated money to a charity in the past month?” on GDP per capita.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But for several reasons, this question - even with regression to GDP per capita - doesn't give a good measure for generosity, I believe:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Many people (in the Western world) donate money mainly around Christmas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The amount of money they donate can hardly be considered really &amp;quot;generous&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Many people in poorer regions of the world don't have enough money to give some of it away (but possibly other things).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my questions are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why did &amp;quot;generosity&amp;quot; enter into the World Happiness Score nevertheless, and in the way it does? And why so prominently, on an equal footing with social support, healthy life expectancy, freedom to make life choices, and - also quite surprisingly - perceptions of corruption?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why is especially &amp;quot;generosity&amp;quot; believed to help quantifying &amp;quot;happiness&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Of course it's easy to believe that someone who &lt;strong&gt;is&lt;/strong&gt; generous and &lt;strong&gt;experiences&lt;/strong&gt; generosity is happier than someone who is greedy and experiences greed. But the same holds for fairness, solidarity, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-05-10T17:45:52.170" Title="Generosity in the World Happiness Score" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;&lt;regression&gt;&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23217" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-11T06:26:08.673" Score="0" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a physicist and am interested in exploring taking therapies to help me overcome anxieties and other issues that I have that seem to me to be psychologically founded. Anecdotally, a few people close to me have been in therapy over the years and have strongly advocated its efficacy. However, and equally, someone close to me tried therapy and found it useless. Moreover, as a scientist I am deeply sceptical of psychoanalysis as a theory and therefore quite adverse to contributing to its continuation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, are there alternative therapeutic techniques I could consider that have a more objective, scientific grounding? Or, am I simply wrong headed and modern psychoanalysis has evolved to the extent that it can be considered objective and scientific?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23197" LastActivityDate="2019-05-11T06:26:08.673" Title="Are there scientifically grounded alternatives to analytical psychotherapy?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2019-05-12T17:41:34.050" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23218" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21335" CreationDate="2019-05-11T07:15:00.357" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Personality testing of (potential) employees is big business, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbc.com/capital/story/20170818-the-new-way-your-personality-could-be-holding-you-back&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;according to the BBC&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A 2014 survey of global HR professionals by CEB, one of the largest providers of online talent tests, indicated that 62% of respondents used some sort of personality test pre-hire. Thirty percent indicated that personality assessments would be used to identify high potential talent in the future. By contrast, a 2001 survey of managers from the American Management Association found that 29% of employers used a psychological measurement or assessment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Supposedly up to 10 years ago, personality testing was &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2006.03.004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mostly used to improve employee retention&lt;/a&gt;, rather than predict performance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The most prevalent reason given for using personality testing was their contribution to improving employee&#xA;  fit and reducing turnover by rates as much as 20% (Geller, 2004), 30% (Berta, 2005), 40% (Daniel, 2005), and even&#xA;  70% (Wagner, 2000). It is of considerable interest that evidence for the validity of personality tests for predicting job&#xA;  performance is rarely cited (see Hoel (2004) for a notable exception) by human resource professionals or recruiters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The BBC cites some anecdotal evidence that personality testing is increasingly being used to predict performance as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it does have some scientific basis. Restricting discussion to Big 5 main factors, from &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2017 review&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Conscientiousness is the best personality predictor of job performance and&#xA;  counterproductive behaviors, and it has shown validity generalization across samples,&#xA;  occupations, and countries. Operational validity of conscientiousness was found to be .39&#xA;  when a quasi-ipsative forced-choice format was used (Salgado, Anderson, &amp;amp; Tauriz, 2015;&#xA;  Salgado &amp;amp; Tauriz, 2014); &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Emotional stability [the opposite of neuroticism] was the second most relevant personality&#xA;  predictor of job performance and counterproductive work behaviors, &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Conscientiousness, emotional stability, and agreeableness are the most valid predictors&#xA;  of overall counterproductive behaviors, interpersonally oriented counterproductive&#xA;  behaviors, and organizationally oriented counterproductive behaviors (Berry et al.,&#xA;  2007); &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Conscientiousness, emotional stability, and agreeableness showed incremental&#xA;  validity over GCA [general cognitive ability = IQ] for predicting overall job performance (Salgado &amp;amp; De Fruyt, 2006); &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The format of the personality inventory is an important moderator of the criterion-related&#xA;  validity of the Big Five dimensions, so that the validity increases dramatically when quasi-&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipsative&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ipsative&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;  forced-choice formats are used (Salgado, Anderson, &amp;amp; Tauriz, 2015; Salgado &amp;amp;&#xA;  Tauriz, 2014);&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/E7Ak4.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/E7Ak4.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lYHIw.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lYHIw.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But sure there are plenty of management/HR &lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2014/08/the-problem-with-using-personality-tests-for-hiring&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fads out there&lt;/a&gt; as well in field of personality testing. A widely cited review of Hunter and Schmidt from two decades ago put the validity of personality testing (without much discrimination how it was done) to 0.22, in the context of hiring practices as predictors for job performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-05-11T07:21:25.330" LastActivityDate="2019-05-11T07:21:25.330" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23219" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4469" CreationDate="2019-05-11T08:40:55.020" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Frankly, I don't see how the meta-analysis of 70-something non-randomized studies from the self-accepted answer &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6235704/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;is such amazing evidence&lt;/a&gt;. On the other hand, there's &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2409267/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2008 meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt; of just the randomized (and double-blind) studies (RCTs), and these are not so few either:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We included studies that randomly assigned adult patients meeting DSM-III-R or DSM-IV criteria for an anxiety disorder to either CBT or placebo. Of 1,165 studies that were initially identified, 27 met all inclusion criteria. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Random effect models of completer samples yielded a pooled effect size (Hedges’ g) of 0.73 (95% confidence interval, 0.88–1.65) for continuous anxiety severity measures and 0.45 (90% confidence interval, 0.25–0.65) for depressive symptom severity measures. The pooled odds ratio for completer treatment response rates was 4.06 (95% confidence interval, 2.78–5.92). The strongest effect sizes were observed for obsessive-compulsive disorder and acute stress disorder. The advantage of CBT over placebo did not depend on placebo modality, number of sessions, or study year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Our review of randomized placebo-controlled trials indicates that CBT is efficacious for adult anxiety disorders. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The notion of placebo is however not always clear when it comes to psychtherapy; in this meta-analysis it &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;had to involve interventions to control for nonspecific factors (e.g., regular contact with a therapist, reasonable rationale for the intervention, discussions of the psychological problem). Placebo interventions that included active treatment ingredients for the target problem (e.g., an intervention that specifically instructs participants to engage in exposure exercises to test certain predictions or to challenge a maladaptive thinking style) were not included&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also only double-blind studies were included in these 27:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(c) Participants and evaluators were blinded to treatment condition (i.e., participants and evaluators were not aware whether they received active treatment or placebo intervention); (d) The evaluators were blinded to treatment conditions (i.e., evaluators were not aware which treatment condition participants had received; and (e) the description of drop-outs was provided.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's even a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29451967&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;newer (2018) meta-analysis&lt;/a&gt; of the same kind&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety-related disorders based on randomized placebo-controlled trials. We included 41 studies that randomly assigned patients (N = 2,843) with acute stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorder (PD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or social anxiety disorder (SAD) to CBT or a psychological or pill placebo condition. Findings demonstrated moderate placebo-controlled effects of CBT on target disorder symptoms (Hedges' g = 0.56), and small to moderate effects on other anxiety symptoms (Hedges' g = 0.38), depression (Hedges' g = 0.31), and quality of life (Hedges' g = 0.30). Response rates in CBT compared to placebo were associated with an odds ratio of 2.97. Effects on the target disorder were significantly stronger for completer samples than intent-to-treat samples, and for individuals compared to group CBT in SAD and PTSD studies. Large effect sizes were found for OCD, GAD, and acute stress disorder, and small to moderate effect sizes were found for PTSD, SAD, and PD. In PTSD studies, dropout rates were greater in CBT (29.0%) compared to placebo (17.2%), but no difference in dropout was found across other disorders. Interventions primarily using exposure strategies had larger effect sizes than those using cognitive or cognitive and behavioral techniques, though this difference did not reach significance. Findings demonstrate that CBT is a moderately efficacious treatment for anxiety disorders when compared to placebo. More effective treatments are especially needed for PTSD, SAD, and PD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5SosA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5SosA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since this 2018 meta-analysis presented itself as the successor of the one a decade before (it shares some authors as well) it still included OCD, acute stress disorder, and PTSD even though these are no longer classified as&#xA;anxiety disorders in DSM-5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also interesting that there few RCTs of CBT in GAD though (only 2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also RCTs aren't all the same quality-wise...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the strength of the effect of CBT depended on whether the analysis&#xA;  was conducted on completer or ITT [intent-to-treat] samples, with completer samples&#xA;  producing significantly larger effect sizes, though not ORs [odd ratios], compared&#xA;  to ITT samples. Such a discrepancy between ITT and completer samples is particularly important given that CBT was associated with significantly greater dropout rates than placebo in the present analysis,&#xA;  a result not found in Hofmann and Smits (2008). Notably, this result&#xA;  appeared to be driven by greater dropout rates among CBT patients&#xA;  in PTSD studies, which has also been found in previous meta-analytic&#xA;  research (Imel, Laska, Jakupcak, &amp;amp; Simpson, 2013). Such a finding suggests that for PTSD studies, the superior effect of CBT compared to&#xA;  placebo may be inflated by lack of data from dropouts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] only 16 of the 41 studies included used ITT analyses,&#xA;  and the use of completer analyses appeared to lead to greater effect&#xA;  size estimates. Even among studies using ITT analyses, results from &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/downloadSupplement?doi=10.1002%2Fda.22728&amp;amp;file=da22728-sup-0001-TableS1.docx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;our&#xA;  risk of bias assessment&lt;/a&gt; indicated that many studies did not account for&#xA;  missing data properly, or did not provide adequate information for why&#xA;  data were missing or how missing data were dealt with. Relatedly, the&#xA;  present results may have been influenced by publication bias. In addition, criteria for treatment response varied between studies, potentially contributed to increased heterogeneity in the effect sizes for&#xA;  categorical outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also note that meta-analyses using only waitlists as opposed to more active placebos had reported even greater effect sizes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For instance, the metaanalysis by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25932596&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bandelow et al. (2015)&lt;/a&gt; comparing CBT to waitlist produced&#xA;  an overall effect size of 1.23 for anxiety disorder symptoms. In contrast, we observed that CBT was associated with an effect size of 0.56&#xA;  when compared to placebo. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The  metaanalysis of Bandelow et al. is also interesting in its own ways; although it targeted fewer disorders (I think they adopted to the DSM-5 view) namely only Panic disorder/agoraphobia, GAD and Social anxiety disorder, it compared treatments multiple treatments, with some interesting conclusions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5oSYK.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5oSYK.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In direct comparisons, individual CBT/exposure was&#xA;  significantly more effective than waiting list, psychological&#xA;  placebo and pill placebo conditions (Table 3). Group CBT was superior to waiting list, but not to pill placebo. Relaxation and non-face-to-face therapies were superior to waiting lists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dOnDT.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dOnDT.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that last table, &quot;Fail-safe N&quot; (number of&#xA;negative studies needed to reject the hypothesis that a&#xA;treatment differs from a control group) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2127453/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Egger P&quot;&lt;/a&gt; estimate publication bias; the &quot;adjusted d&quot; is using the publication-bias-correcting ‘trim and fill’ method of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10877304&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Duval and Tweedie (2000)&lt;/a&gt;. (Alas the meta-analyses of Hofmann and Smits did not report something like this.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-05-11T10:35:44.160" LastActivityDate="2019-05-11T10:35:44.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23222" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23229" CreationDate="2019-05-11T16:52:52.503" Score="1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say he/she wants to get good grades because unconsciously he/she is afraid that otherwise a bad future awaits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question, is the act of studying more a defense mechanism? If it is, under which category we can classify it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thing closest is displacement, but as I understood if you are angry you redirect your anger with displacement. We can substitute other emotion for anger. If it is frustration, frustration needs to be redirected. But the person pushes herself more here so she is not redirecting her frustration(you can always clarify if I understood a concept wrong or send me a resource to clarify, I study by myself I just like learning).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Waiting for you answers! Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23110" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-05-12T09:57:03.677" LastActivityDate="2019-05-12T09:57:03.677" Title="Can the act of studying more be a defense mechanism?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;freud&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23224" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-11T17:46:13.857" Score="0" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know of the condition called prosopagnosia in which the processing of faces is impaired. Is there a condition in which the processing of faces is intact and the processing of objects is impaired, which would prove a double dissociation, which would further prove the independence of these two processes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-05-12T09:20:41.663" LastActivityDate="2019-05-12T09:20:41.663" Title="Is there a double dissociation between face and object processing?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23225" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23303" CreationDate="2019-05-12T01:05:38.980" Score="4" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was at a conference some time ago in a university near my city, a Neurologist was part of the various talks held there, and in his words: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;There is a, let's call it Neuro-Psychologic interpretation of belief, that is actually supported by evidence, which in essence says we really, really don't like doubting what we believe. &#xA;Because not only does it take slightly more energy to doubt any given claim, but by default we are believers. We believe things said to us, and then subject them to scrutiny in a second moment; this according to research conducted in Harvard using an fMRI. Now, if we add to this- in Piagetian terms which most of you are familiar with- the notion of a Schema, so, linked thoughts and expectations placed on the world to simplify actions and problem solving, we are in big trouble. Daniel Kahneman, a known researcher and Psychologist has basically set in stone the fact that we are lazy thinkers. We like to take shortcuts, we don't really like hard challenges and Confirmation Bias would rather us keep believing things we already do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we were to pick between rational discourse with the opposite side, or lash out or ignore them, we'd pick any options that would let us avoid confrontation, because it's really exhausting for the brain to take head on, a waterfall of information that disagrees with more or less your whole worldview, it's too much energy. So true skeptics who enjoy doubting are anomalous, lying or masochists if you ask me.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I translated this in English because it isn't the original language of the talk.&#xA;Do his claims have any weight? It would be a stroke of luck if there was some researcher from Harvard to confirm what he said about the fMRI case. He mentioned Daniel Gilbert was part of it, but i can't find the actual published paper for some reason. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23201" LastActivityDate="2019-05-23T10:46:44.567" Title="Is doubting a claim more taxing in terms of energy spent by the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23226" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-12T05:15:07.267" Score="3" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reuters.com/article/us-peru-corruption/perus-ex-president-garcia-kills-himself-to-avoid-arrest-in-odebrecht-probe-idUSKCN1RT1K4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Peru's ex-president Garcia's suicide to avoid arrest&lt;/a&gt; reminded me of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_officer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;general officers&lt;/a&gt; and politicians who, although wicked, were foxy but rational. They ought've been punished, but they cunningly escaped punishment through suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm assuming that some of the jumpers in the Sep 11 2001 attacks on the WTC weren't judged irrational for dying by suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Society in 2019 disapproves and sigmatizes suicide, but what of  such leaders' suicide? How does psychiatry regard their suicides?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_suicides&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;List of suicides&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_suicides_in_Nazi_Germany&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;List of suicides in Nazi Germany&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_suicides_in_1945_Nazi_Germany&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mass suicides in 1945 Nazi Germany&lt;/a&gt;. Generalfeldmarschalls &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Ritter_von_Greim#Death&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Robert Ritter von Greim&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Model#Suicide&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Walter Model&lt;/a&gt;. 2003-2008 South Korean President &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roh_Moo-hyun&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Roh Moo-hyun - Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, 1970-183 Chilean President &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvador_Allende&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salvador Allende&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Any similar lists for Japan?  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seppuku#Notable_cases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This one one&lt;/a&gt; refers just to a handful of Japanese WW2 top brass.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can think of only: Field Marshals &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajime_Sugiyama#World_War_II&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hajime Sugiyama&lt;/a&gt;,  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideki_Tojo#Arrest,_trial,_and_execution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hideki Tojo&lt;/a&gt; (who missed his heart when he shot himself, but  was executed), General &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shizuichi_Tanaka&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shizuichi Tanaka&lt;/a&gt;,  Admiral &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%ABichi_Nagumo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chūichi Nagumo&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-12-06T17:57:56.907" Title="How does psychiatry judge suicide by military and political leaders?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23229" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23222" CreationDate="2019-05-12T09:54:20.330" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whilst &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248&quot;&gt;I am a defender of Freudian and Neo-Freudian psychology&lt;/a&gt;, please be aware that this covers areas of psychology &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2242&quot;&gt;considered by some here to be pseudoscientific&lt;/a&gt;.  With that in mind, you are right to question the hyposthesis that any defence mechanism involved would be displacement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ego defence mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; theorized by Sigmund Freud, could have a role in the situation you are talking about, but they also may not.  &lt;em&gt;Displacement&lt;/em&gt; involves displacing emotions towards an issue onto another issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using a similar scenario to yours for an example, someone who is frustrated with their grades in science education may displace their emotions towards those grades on to their tutor.  In this situation, instead of internalizing the issue with themselves not understanding the subject, they blame the tutor for not teaching them properly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The defence mechanism you are talking about, is loosely connected to &lt;em&gt;sublimation&lt;/em&gt; (satisfying an impulse - e.g. aggression - with a substitute object).  In your scenario, the person is channelling their frustration constructively by trying to improve the situation through more studying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-05-12T09:54:20.330" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23230" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-12T12:22:52.160" Score="1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;On reading about Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT)&#xA; I encounter&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But, if you feel sad after a friend cancels your lunch plans and you&#xA;  begin to think there’s obviously something seriously wrong with you&#xA;  and no one likes you, this is problematic because this thought is&#xA;  extreme and not based on reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes sense because concluding that none likes you from canceling lunch is overestimation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But my question is different: how or why are we generating these unrealistic thoughts in the first place? Especially given that after some challenging these thoughts, we can correct them ourselves. So if we can correct them ourselves after challenging them, why do we generate these unrealistic thoughts in the first place, and not the correct ones?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23206" LastActivityDate="2020-02-07T16:00:51.067" Title="CBT approach and why we generate unrealistic thoughts" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23231" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-12T13:36:03.853" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some studies up to 2015 surprising found that salty vs. non-salty food doesn't make much difference to thirst. E.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/07/150716092019.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2015 study&lt;/a&gt; found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, according to Prof. Leshem, despite our gut feeling that salt increases drinking, this relationship has not been studied in conditions simulating salt-rich foods such as savory appetizers. Therefore, in the present study involving 58 student participants, Prof. Leshem sought to investigate the effect of salt in solid foods on drinking. Participants were scheduled to come to the lab every few days after not having eaten or drunk anything except water, and not having smoked, for two hours. On the days they came, they were asked to taste nuts -- one time sugary candied nuts, another time salted nuts, and yet a third time nuts with no additives. They rated their level of thirst and, during a couple of hours in which they responded to various questionnaires, they got bottles of water. Each subject could drink as much water as he or she wanted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main finding was that the level of reported thirst and the actual quantity of water that the subjects drank after eating salty nuts were not different than following consumption of candied nuts or nuts without added flavors. To more deeply examine a possible correlation, the researchers selected the 10 male and 10 female students who had consumed the largest quantities of salt (an average of 4.4 grams and 3.7 grams respectively) and sought to determine whether within this subgroup there was a connection between thirst and drinking, but here too no such correlation was found. This means that even those subjects who consumed larger quantities of salt did not drink more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This despite the well-known osmotic mechanism that promotes thirst in response to salt intake, and which is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/ajpregu.1996.271.3.R757&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;verified experimentally&lt;/a&gt; in humans, when using hypertonic vs isotonic infusions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5161740/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2016 study in &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; sheds some light on this issue, basically finding that, in mice at least, SFO-Nos1 neurons anticipate any changes in actual osmotic response; the longer the mice ate, the thirstier they got, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5161740/figure/F4/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;well before&lt;/a&gt; there were any osmotic changes detected by their brains. Alas, these changes were only detectable using optogenetic photometry, not some non-invasive techniques like fMRI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I'm curious if there are any (post-2016) human studies of thirst due to food ingestion (of various kinds) that attempt to account for the multiple [animal] neural pathways that trigger thirst (which very likely have an equivalent in humans.) E.g. we now expect that thirst might get [almost] equally great eating any kind of peanuts (salty or sweet) in a short time frame, but maybe there's a difference in thirst in a medium (or at least slightly longer) time frame between salty and non-salty peanuts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-05-12T13:42:44.627" Title="Are there any psychological studies of thirst following food that account for SFO-Nos1 activity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23232" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-12T14:28:20.327" Score="2" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dea.gov/factsheets/fentanyl&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;E.g.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid that is 80-100 times stronger than morphine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does that refer to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potency_(pharmacology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potency_(pharmacology)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The IUPHAR has stated that 'potency' is &quot;an imprecise term that should always be further defined&quot;, for instance as EC50, IC50, ED50, LD50 and so on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_dose_(pharmacology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;effective dose&lt;/a&gt; is the relevant notion here, but which version does the DEA use ED50, ED95 (does it matter which)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably they are not talking about &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0197734&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;receptor affinity&lt;/a&gt; which would be mostly irrelevant from DEA's perspective (although the FDA suggests otherwise). The latter ratio between fentanyl and morphine is only 1.35 to 1.14 on the μ-opioid receptor. Even that is not really a good way to compare, because actual measurements of affinity have a large margin of error:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/j7mPl.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/j7mPl.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-05-12T15:30:43.750" LastActivityDate="2019-06-11T17:02:09.300" Title="When the DEA says a drug is X times more potent than another, what do they mean?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23232" CreationDate="2019-05-12T16:58:12.930" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;At least the 100 number seems based on the CDC &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mdanderson.org/documents/for-physicians/algorithms/clinical-management/clin-management-post-op-pain-web-algorithm.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parenteral dose conversion&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/s2mnP.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/s2mnP.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Fentanyl has poor oral bioavailability, so it's not intended to be used that way.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2019-05-12T16:58:12.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23235" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6169" CreationDate="2019-05-13T06:13:25.133" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that people don't get too old to learn and some people can gain an understanding of all kinds of stuff in older age. I realize that sometimes somebody has touble learning something when they're older but that does't mean older people can never learn anything. Also, sometimes somebody may claim that somebody else didn't learn because they disagree with them on how to do things. Just becase somebody doesn't agree with somebody else on how to do things doesn't always mean they don't have an understanding of the other person's way of thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10270" LastEditorUserId="10270" LastEditDate="2020-03-16T18:06:09.243" LastActivityDate="2020-03-16T18:06:09.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23237" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-13T11:12:43.097" Score="0" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few years ago, I’ve heard that people have to be in the center if they want to truly enjoy something. For example, when someone really want to enjoy a concert, he or she needs to go to the center of the crowd. It is also true when you work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any psychological terminology or effect which describes this situation well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23213" LastActivityDate="2019-11-11T18:26:25.940" Title="Which psychological word describes this situation best?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23238" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23237" CreationDate="2019-05-13T13:21:19.860" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The claim sounds false for any of the meanings I can imagine for 'truly enjoy'. Enjoyment whether contentment or joy will depend on context, expectations, personality, culture, and other factors. It may be more stimulating to be in louder or more crowded settings; in that sense, being in the middle of a crowd could feel more intense than being on the periphery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-13T13:21:19.860" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23239" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23230" CreationDate="2019-05-13T13:29:13.263" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another way to phrase these questions would be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why do humans feel fear and anxiety?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why are humans particularly sensitive to potential losses See: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the broadest terms, the answer is that we evolved to have these mental characteristics because they probably gave our ancestors a survival and/or reproductive edge over their contemporaries. In the past, humans needed to be socially accepted in a small tribe; exclusion meant actual death as it was too hard to survive alone. Hence, we evolved to be hyper-sensitive to signs of social exclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your final question might be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How come we can't control our feelings with our thoughts?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See the first point above. It didn't help us survive to be calm and at peace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-13T13:29:13.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23241" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-13T15:59:10.040" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hello Psychology and Neuroscience. I am a resuscitation scientist exploring a largely neglected topic area in our field - the effect of cardiac arrest on the people around the event, mostly the family members of the deceased or survivor. These are sorts of articles that I am finding impactful:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Liu W-M, Forbat L, Anderson K: Death of a close friend: Short and long-term impacts on physical, psychological and social well-being. PLOS ONE. Edited by Papousek I. 2019;April 4;14(4):e0214838.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McLaughlin KA, Greif Green J, Gruber MJ, et al.: Childhood Adversities and First Onset of Psychiatric Disorders in a National Sample of US Adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2012;November 1;69(11):1151.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anyone is familiar with this area of study or knows of any seminal articles, please let me know. I'm always looking for collaborators. I am specifically working towards formalizing the care of family members of cardiac arrest victims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23216" LastActivityDate="2019-05-13T15:59:10.040" Title="Understanding the effect of a sudden cardiac arrest (lethal and/or non-lethal) on the psychological health of family/friends/survivors" Tags="&lt;death&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23242" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-13T16:58:20.070" Score="2" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;What determines the &quot;default behaviour&quot; if no self-control is applied?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most documents refer to satisfaction of immediate desire, but that does not seem to explain how quite sophisticated behaviors can occur as the result of a failure of self-control. A temptation to eat fast food which involves purchasing it, or to consume internet pornography, can require higher or executive functions to satisfy in terms of computer operation and engagement with a purchasing process. A temptation to take illegal drugs can potentially require delaying gratification for an unknown period of time (to find a supplier).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is there research on what determines the behavior without self-control, and how it is able to &quot;hijack&quot; executive functions that should rightfully be limiting the undesirable behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23217" LastActivityDate="2019-05-13T16:58:20.070" Title="If self-control is the executive function to resist temptation, how does the brain decide what is and what is not a temptation?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;willpower&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23243" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23244" CreationDate="2019-05-13T20:15:34.400" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quoting [emphasis added] from D.C. Howell's (2012) &lt;em&gt;Statistical Methods for Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, chapter 9 (&lt;em&gt;Correlation and Regression)&lt;/em&gt;, Pg 252:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Although you should not make too much of the distinction between &lt;strong&gt;relationships&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;differences&lt;/strong&gt; (if treatments have different means, then means are related to treatments), the distinction is useful in terms of the interests of the experimenter and the structure of the experiment. When we are concerned with &lt;strong&gt;differences between means&lt;/strong&gt;, the experiment usually consists of a few quantitative or qualitative levels of the independent variable (e.g., Treatment A and Treatment B) and the experimenter is interested in showing that the &lt;strong&gt;dependent variable&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;differs from one treatment to another&lt;/strong&gt;. When we are concerned with &lt;strong&gt;relationships&lt;/strong&gt;, however, the independent variable (X) usually has many quantitative levels and the experimenter is interested in showing that the &lt;strong&gt;dependent variable is some function of the independent variable.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: What is the distinction between a mere difference of the dependent variable (DV) from one one level to another, and the DV as a function of the independent variable (IV)? &#xA;In other words, the distinction that Howell explains in the quoted text is unclear to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17324" LastActivityDate="2019-05-13T22:44:24.970" Title="What is the distinction between &quot;relationship&quot; and &quot;difference&quot; in behavioural statistics?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23244" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23243" CreationDate="2019-05-13T22:44:24.970" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Howell is just making a distinction between types of independent variables (predictors in a regression context): continuous variables versus categorical ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of categorical variables, like &quot;Treatment A&quot; and &quot;Treatment B&quot;, your regression equation will contain variables that contrast between Treatment A and Treatment B - often this is by &quot;dummy coding&quot; where we consider Treatment A as &quot;0&quot; and Treatment B as &quot;1&quot; though there are other schemes as well. In a two-treatment case, you can consider the coefficient for Treatment to be a &lt;em&gt;difference between A and B&lt;/em&gt;. You are likely to plot these sort of data in a box-and-whisker plot (or a bar graph like the infamous 'dynamite plot' that many statisticians abhor) where you have distinct categories on the X-axis and your dependent variable on the Y-axis. You are likely to do statistical inference to determine whether the outcomes for Treatment A are &quot;significantly different&quot; from outcomes for Treatment B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of a continuous variable, for example, blood pressure, now your regression coefficient for blood pressure is interpreted in terms of &lt;em&gt;units of change in your dependent variable per each unit of difference in your predictor&lt;/em&gt; - in this case you are looking at a relationship. For a single linear predictor you are likely to discuss this relationship in terms of a correlation coefficient. You would often plot these sort of data as a scatter plot, with your predictor variable on the X-axis and your outcome variable on the Y-axis, often with a line depicting some sort of fit between the two variables. You are likely to do statistical inference on whether your predictor is significantly related to your outcome variable: that is, whether knowing your predictor gives you better than chance information about the outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the perspective of linear regression, however, these two types of predictor variables are really not all that different, and it is quite straightforward to combine them in the context of multivariate regression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-05-13T22:44:24.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23245" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-14T03:26:05.123" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am writing a paper for my English class about flaws in the justice system. One of the biggest problems I believe exists is the humans' natural instinct to judge people before we even know them. Is it really possible for a human to have the self-awareness and constraint to be impartial?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23218" LastActivityDate="2019-05-14T03:26:05.123" Title="Is it possible to be entirely impartial?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23246" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23213" CreationDate="2019-05-14T06:12:53.550" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nicky Case is a tough act to follow, but there are a lot of simulations available for a variety of different theories in social psychology and behavioural economics.  As such, I won't try to list them all, but provide a &quot;list of lists&quot; that should help you to find more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wikipedia maintains a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_games_in_game_theory#List_of_games&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of games in game theory&lt;/a&gt;.  This does not link to any simulations, but it's easy enough to search Google for them.  For example, here are a couple of interactive online simulations of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_(game)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hawk-dove game&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/AnImitationModelInTheHawkDoveGame/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Single population&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ExpectedDynamicsOfAnIntraPopulationImitationModelInTheTwoPop/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2 population&lt;/a&gt;, and an interactive version of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blotto_game&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blotto game&lt;/a&gt; can be found &lt;a href=&quot;http://success-equation.com/blotto.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.  Wikipedia also has a &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_games_in_game_theory#External_links&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of lists&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  There are also several interactive simulations that are capable of modelling multiple game theory games, including the prisoner's dilemma: &lt;a href=&quot;http://gte.csc.liv.ac.uk/gte/builder/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GTE&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://charlespence.net/oyun/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oyun&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://axelrod.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Axelrod&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;NetLogo, from Northwestern University, lists a number of psychology and social science simulations in its &lt;a href=&quot;http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/models/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;models library&lt;/a&gt; (sorry no jump-to link, you'll have to scroll down to see the categories), including &lt;a href=&quot;http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/models/Rebellion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rebellion&lt;/a&gt; &quot;... an adaptation of Joshua Epstein's model of civil violence (2002)&quot;, the &lt;a href=&quot;http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/models/Piaget-VygotskyGame&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Piaget-Vygotsky Game&lt;/a&gt; &quot;... to shed light on the ongoing debate between two theories of learning, constructivism and social constructivism&quot;, and &lt;a href=&quot;http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/models/Ethnocentrism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ethnocentrism&lt;/a&gt; based on a model by &quot;Robert Axelrod and Ross A. Hammond&quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;AnyLogic Cloud offers a variety of simulations for its platform, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://cloud.anylogic.com/models?public=true&amp;amp;customSearchType=METHOD&amp;amp;customSearchData=Agent%20Based&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;agent-based models&lt;/a&gt; such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://cloud.anylogic.com/model/f1450e69-1159-422a-bcc7-1576c2651cb8?mode=SETTINGS&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reinforcement learning&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://cloud.anylogic.com/model/6362c090-dfba-49c1-b071-e48d520cbec9?mode=SETTINGS&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;epidemic model&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cloud.anylogic.com/model/a52d5c19-6a04-4ade-bea4-c2f7d470d037?mode=SETTINGS&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;schelling segregation&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://cloud.anylogic.com/models?public=true&amp;amp;selectedCategory=Market%20and%20Competition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;market models&lt;/a&gt; such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://cloud.anylogic.com/model/d3d9c85e-a156-4355-b296-568fb531347f?mode=SETTINGS&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;restaurant business&lt;/a&gt;.  Several other simulation platforms for social science and human behaviour are listed in Wikipedia's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_agent-based_modeling_software&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;comparison of agent-based modelling software&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A list of interactive online &lt;a href=&quot;https://economics-games.com/games&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt; economics simulation games&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An old simulation on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.insisoc.org/metanorms/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;evolution of social norms&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above lists are all free; the catalogue would be much larger if you add paid services such as classroom education software.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-05-14T06:12:53.550" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23248" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-14T08:30:38.310" Score="5" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;As an applied mathematician, I have a growing interest in the mechanisms for uncertainty representation and computation in the human brain. In fact, I recently compiled a &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/Kepler-Lounge/Uncertainty_in_the_brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of papers on this subject&lt;/a&gt;. But, so far I haven't found many papers which answer a fundamental sub-question: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What sources of randomness does the brain use for sampling?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://neural-reckoning.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dan Goodman&lt;/a&gt;, a neuroscientist, suggested that I have a look into &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Neuronal_noise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuronal noise&lt;/a&gt;. The neuronal variability perspective is quite popular among computational neuroscientists and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gatsby.ucl.ac.uk/~pel/papers/ppc-06.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;'Bayesian inference with probabilistic population codes'(2006)&lt;/a&gt; is an example of a publication which demonstrates its use: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;At first sight, it would seem that the high variability in the&#xA;  responses of cortical neurons would make it difficult to implement&#xA;  such optimal statistical inference in cortical circuits. We argue&#xA;  that, in fact, this variability implies that populations of neurons&#xA;  automatically represent probability distributions over the stimulus, a&#xA;  type of code we call probabilistic population codes. Moreover, we&#xA;  demonstrate that the Poissonlike variability observed in cortex&#xA;  reduces a broad class of Bayesian inference to simple linear&#xA;  combinations of populations of neural activity. These results hold for&#xA;  arbitrary probability distributions over the stimulus, for tuning&#xA;  curves of arbitrary shape and for realistic neuronal variability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a recent paper published in 2018 [3] presents compelling counter-arguments against the utility of neuronal noise for sampling in the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, the authors make the following case in their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Since the precise statistical properties of neural activity are&#xA;  important in this context, many models assume an ad-hoc source of&#xA;  well-behaved, explicit noise, either on the input or on the output&#xA;  side of single neuron dynamics, most often assuming an independent&#xA;  Poisson process in either case. However, these assumptions are&#xA;  somewhat problematic: neighboring neurons tend to share receptive&#xA;  fields, rendering both their input and their output correlated; at the&#xA;  same time, neurons are known to behave largely deterministically, as a&#xA;  function of their membrane potential and conductance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I find the arguments in [3] compelling due to their fundamental nature, this makes me wonder whether there are other fundamental contributions to this problem that I ignore. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; Cian O'Donnell recently shared his PhD thesis with me on Twitter [4]. The neural noise vs. no neural noise variant of this question is still very much an open problem. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wei Ji Ma, J. Beck, P. Latham &amp;amp; A. Pouget. Bayesian inference with probabilistic population codes. Nature Neuroscience. 2006.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Andre Longtin. Neuronal noise. Scholarpedia. 2013. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;D. Dold et al. Stochasticity from function - why the Bayesian brain may need no noise. Arxiv. 2018. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;R. Cannon , C. O'Donnell , M. Nolan . Stochastic Ion Channel Gating in Dendritic Neurons: Morphology Dependence and Probabilistic Synaptic Activation of Dendritic Spikes. PLOS. 2010. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorDisplayName="user3503" LastEditDate="2019-05-14T11:33:01.783" LastActivityDate="2019-05-14T21:29:09.390" Title="What sources of randomness does the brain use for sampling?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23249" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-14T10:51:06.520" Score="1" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not a brain scientist but the following question seems reasonable to me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prof. Sebastian Seung has given a TED talk named &quot;I Am My Connectome&quot;. If I understand correctly, connectome is basically the graph whose vertices are neurons and whose edges are synapses (strictly speaking, there are many different kinds of neurons so the vertices of the graph should be colored, but let us forget it for now). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The title then appears to be a (probably intentional) oversimplification, since even though we do not understand how exactly memories are stored in the brain (and there are many different kinds of memories), things I will roughy call &quot;electrical and chemical variables&quot; play some role in it (so simply remembering whether there is a link or not between two neurons is not going to fly). I understand that studying these &quot;electrical and chemical variables&quot; is like over a half of the brain science but the exact definition is not particularly important for this question. If my understanding is correct, then one should not get overly excited about the present achievements of the Brain Preservation Foundation (the most promising one is, I think, preserving the connectome of a mammal for some time after its death using a chemical solution/freezing), since they have not shown that they can preserve any of the &quot;electrical and chemical variables&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is: what information can you actually extract out of a connectome, assuming you do not know anything else about the brain? Like something about a person's health, personality, anything? The chance of them having schizophrenia? Their most likely age?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23222" LastActivityDate="2021-01-19T18:06:27.763" Title="What information does the connectome actually contain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23250" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23205" CreationDate="2019-05-14T20:17:11.937" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are at least two additional domains you can investigate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The first is &lt;strong&gt;reciprocity&lt;/strong&gt; as a means towards justice.&lt;/em&gt; In &lt;a href=&quot;https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=11340&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Fourth Arm of Justice: The Art and Science of Revenge&lt;/a&gt; (1997), Judi Parks looks at this from the perspective an employee, but cites Susan Jacoby's report on the survivors of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Majdanek concentration camp&lt;/a&gt; in her 1983 &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOUPwAACAAJ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wild justice: The evolution of revenge&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A desire for retribution does not require rationalization. &quot;A victim wants to see an assailant punished not only for reasons of pragmatic deterrence but also as a means to repairing a damaged sense of civic order and personal identity. Deterrence and retribution are hardly identical, but the former invariably involves an element of the latter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more recent book that explores this dimension is &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=bxlZTWCRXt0C&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Payback: Why We Retaliate, Redirect Aggression, and Take Revenge&lt;/a&gt; (Barash &amp;amp; Lipton, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since deterrence is quite salient in game theory, this aspect shows up there, too. See, for example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0022002711420971&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Paradox of Revenge in Conflicts&lt;/a&gt; (Amegashie &amp;amp; Runkel, 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The second is &lt;strong&gt;identity&lt;/strong&gt; theory.&lt;/em&gt; An example in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-10961-004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;“If you wrong us, shall we not revenge?” Social identity salience moderates support for retaliation in response to collective threat&lt;/a&gt; (Fischer, Haslam, &amp;amp; Smith, 2010)):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Specifically, we found that a threat to national identity (the 7/7/2005 London bombings) led to greater aggression and greater support for revenge when national rather than gender identity was salient. In contrast, a threat to gender identity (Taliban misogyny) led to greater aggression and greater support for revenge when gender rather than national identity was salient. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19603" LastActivityDate="2019-05-14T20:17:11.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23251" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23248" CreationDate="2019-05-14T21:29:09.390" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not sure if I am getting your question right. You are asking for noise that has an inherently information processing function? I would add an other aspect of noises&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Noise as an emerging property&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;On a &lt;strong&gt;large scale&lt;/strong&gt;, when massive amounts of neurons are&#xA;synchronising, then you can detect Noise with Electrodes, like in&#xA;the case of EEG. EEG follows an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian_noise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1/f²&lt;/a&gt; or 1/f³ law (brownian&#xA;noise, red noise, pink noise, depending on the literature). This&#xA;principle can be found anywhere in the world. It states that higher&#xA;frequencies / faster oscillating signals have increasingly smaller&#xA;amplitudes, similar to smaller and larger waves on the sea and so&#xA;on.&#xA;&lt;em&gt;In this case is noise a byproduct of other (stochastic) processes.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;On a &lt;strong&gt;small scale&lt;/strong&gt;, which would probably be something you would&#xA;    measure by using 'clamping'-technique on single neurons.  The&#xA;    &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential#Firing_rate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;firing rate&lt;/a&gt; of a neuron (a neuron chemically charging, until it&#xA;    reaches a threshold, which turns into a all-or-nothing case) also&#xA;    follows some 'systematic randomness' on which probabilistic,&#xA;    stochastic and noisy properties might be useful to describe these&#xA;    processes.&#xA;    &lt;em&gt;In this case is noise a property that emerges from natural stochastic single-neuron firing processes.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Noise emerging from signals related to certain &lt;strong&gt;anatomic sources&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In how far I remember (I do not have a good resource on that) the&#xA;    &lt;strong&gt;hippocampus&lt;/strong&gt;, which is highly relevant for memories, has a strong randomization aspect inherently in its functioning. &#xA;    &lt;em&gt;This might be my closest guess to your question?!&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Another very distinct &lt;strong&gt;'stochastic' process created by the&#xA;Thalamus&lt;/strong&gt;, a largely dominant, pace-giving rhythm within the brain.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ressource: Buszaki &lt;a href=&quot;https://global.oup.com/academic/product/rhythms-of-the-brain-9780199828234?cc=de&amp;amp;lang=en&amp;amp;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rhythms of the Brain&lt;/a&gt; is a nice read on various of these topics&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;On noise as an error process&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe I got your question a little wrong, but thinking of the brain that in the run of evolution turned out to be highly efficient and energy saving, does not want to have any noise that does not fulfill any purpose. (But as I understand, your question was related to the functional aspect of noise.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23229" LastActivityDate="2019-05-14T21:29:09.390" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23255" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23249" CreationDate="2019-05-15T09:26:39.733" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Well, regarding this short definition of a connectome from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wiki&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A connectome (/kəˈnɛktoʊm/) is a comprehensive map of neural&#xA;connections in the brain, and may be thought of as its &amp;quot;wiring&#xA;diagram&amp;quot;. More broadly, a connectome would include the mapping of &lt;strong&gt;all&#xA;neural connections&lt;/strong&gt; within an organism's nervous system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore &lt;strong&gt;you could read out &lt;em&gt;all&lt;/em&gt; information, assuming you have enough computational power.&lt;/strong&gt; (A perfect connectome would represent all information processes in the brain. Because processing information through connections is all the brain does, right? :D)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the real world however, we need &lt;strong&gt;'models' as simplifications&lt;/strong&gt; to deal with these phenomena. A connectome is nothing else than such a model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Influential Factors to consider&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;To &lt;strong&gt;make predictions of real-world constructs, you need to assess real-world phenomena&lt;/strong&gt;. F.i. you need to have&#xA;postulated some outcome-variables (for lets say Schizophrenia) that need to&#xA;be quantified in the real-world &lt;em&gt;(external validity)&lt;/em&gt; to be related to&#xA;inner-brain processes. These real-world concepts of psychological&#xA;processes, speaking of the behavioral, emotional and cognitive&#xA;aspects (which can be measured), are inherently fuzzy, which raises&#xA;the question, to which certainty we will be able to predict&#xA;psycho-physiological correlates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Not to forget, memories are mainly coded as '&lt;strong&gt;processes over-time&lt;/strong&gt;',&#xA;something like chains of activation (other than distinct anatomy and&#xA;brain-areas who would define thoughts). Also noisyness and&#xA;randomness is always a variable you need to consider. (I think the&#xA;Hippocampus functioning of neurons induces randomness by design, but&#xA;I have no source right now.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Also to mention:&#xA;The &lt;strong&gt;individuality of brains&lt;/strong&gt; leads to decreased prediction of the model or a general model that would hold for every individual&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;plasticity&lt;/strong&gt; of the brain states states the ability to change and&#xA;evolve over time.  (Concepts like Imprinting and so on). A static&#xA;model might also not be sufficient to represent these (also highly&#xA;individualized) processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Situational- or environmental dependency&lt;/strong&gt; also influences your&#xA;current state of mind. (It is not possible to 'control' all&#xA;environmental factors, unless you had infinite computational power.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Also the brain and &lt;strong&gt;toughts are highly self-/auto-activating, recurring and in parallel&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;Millions of neurons firing at the same time and oscillating in&#xA;rhythms. Thoughts that become conscious might only be the tip of the&#xA;iceberg in a sea of thoughts that are below a certain threshold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;My proposal to your question: &amp;quot;What exactly can you get from a connectome?&amp;quot;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;In principle everything is possible, but practically we might never truely decode everything from a philosopical and mathematical point-of-view (we needed to create a perfect connectome, which would be a perfect simulation of the entire brain). We might however be able to find &lt;strong&gt;very accurate brain-markers&lt;/strong&gt; that help in &lt;strong&gt;predicting real-world concepts&lt;/strong&gt; that seem relevant for humans&lt;/em&gt; :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Resources&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because it is great: &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/sROKYelaWbo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Video of synchronizing fireflies&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Buszaki: &lt;a href=&quot;https://global.oup.com/academic/product/rhythms-of-the-brain-9780199828234?cc=de&amp;amp;lang=en&amp;amp;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rhythms of the Brain&lt;/a&gt; is a nice read on some how information is created in the brain and different processes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23229" LastEditorUserId="23229" LastEditDate="2021-01-19T18:06:27.763" LastActivityDate="2021-01-19T18:06:27.763" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23257" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-15T15:23:12.060" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've always asked myself of what are made the thoughs of a blind and deaf person... Are they made of concepts? Sensations? Ideas? Have we ever asked a blind and deaf person about that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23235" LastActivityDate="2019-05-15T15:23:12.060" Title="What are the thoughs of a blind and deaf person?" Tags="&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2019-05-28T20:47:37.703" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23259" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-15T21:57:28.437" Score="4" ViewCount="211" Body="&lt;h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some self-help books note the difficulty of starting a boring or cognitively-difficult task (relative to maintaining the 'momentum' once the task has been started). Sometimes they describe an analogy to physical systems whereby a certain amount of 'activation energy' needs to be provided in order for a process to start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Examples&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To generate this initial energy, some self-help authors have described simple techniques:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The moment you feel an instinct or a desire to act on a goal or a&#xA;commitment, use the Rule. When you feel yourself hesitate before doing&#xA;something that you know you should do, &lt;strong&gt;count 5-4-3-2-1-GO&lt;/strong&gt; and move&#xA;towards action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Robbins, Mel. The 5 Second Rule: Transform Your Life, Work, and Confidence with Everyday Courage. Simon and Schuster, 2017.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/17903/is-there-any-direct-or-indirect-empirical-support-for-the-effectiveness-of-mel-r&quot;&gt;Is there any direct or indirect empirical support for the effectiveness of Mel Robbins&amp;#39; five second rule?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Shrink&lt;/strong&gt; your desired hyperfocus period &lt;strong&gt;until you no longer feel&#xA;resistance&lt;/strong&gt; to the ritual. Minimize the amount of time you’ll dedicate&#xA;to focusing on one task until you no longer feel mental resistance to&#xA;it. Even setting a mental deadline of five minutes will likely be&#xA;enough to get you started.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Bailey, Chris. Hyperfocus: How to Work Less to Achieve More. Macmillan, 2018.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One could certainly enumerate an endless amount of techniques beyond these. For example, closing the eyes and visualizing oneself of performing the task, or one could pretend with a high degree of conviction that there is an infinitely large payoff for doing the task and an infinitely large penalty for not doing the task. However, it is not clear whether any of these methods would actually be effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I have not found a single study that evaluated these, or similar, methods (i.e., interventions that increase the probability of people to initialize a psychologically unpleasant task).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What are effective methods to overcome the initial psychological resistance towards an unpleasant task?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Assumptions and differentiation from related questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kelly McGonigal distinguishes between &lt;em&gt;I won't&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;I will&lt;/em&gt; willpower (see &lt;em&gt;The Willpower Instinct: How Self-Control Works, Why It Matters, and What You Can Do to Get More of It (2012, ISBN 978-1583335086)&lt;/em&gt;). The former type of willpower (&lt;em&gt;I won't&lt;/em&gt;) has been discussed in this Q&amp;amp;A forum previously:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19286/best-meditation-techniques-to-overcome-behavioral-addictions&quot;&gt;Best meditation techniques to overcome Behavioral Addictions?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20544/beyond-cbt-and-mbi-what-are-effective-behavioral-interventions-for-modern-lifes&quot;&gt;Beyond CBT and MBI, what are effective behavioral interventions for modern lifestyle addictions during their engagement?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the question here is more in line with the &lt;em&gt;I will&lt;/em&gt; willpower type.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-05-16T14:53:05.577" Title="What are effective methods to overcome the initial psychological resistance towards an unpleasant task?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;willpower&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23260" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-16T04:20:45.613" Score="4" ViewCount="257" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my experience,often in social interactions, the person who seems more desperate is the least desirable person to be interacted with. And no one wants to engage them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More often than not, people seems to avoid desperate people,even when that person needed help most. An example would be a beggar on the street, if group of pedestrian walk by a beggar sitting on the ground, most of us would ignore and continue our journey. (I myself did this before)&#xA;Even though the beggar might be in a dire situation (i.e Hunger, No Shelter)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there psychological theories on this that describe the avoidance or disgust from desperate people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23240" LastActivityDate="2020-11-22T05:45:01.320" Title="Why do people tend to avoid desperate people?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23262" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23259" CreationDate="2019-05-16T12:22:34.513" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of evaluations of those types of techniques. To broaden your query slightly, there is strong evidence from social psychology that increasing helpful behaviors and decreasing unhelpful behaviors is more about context than willpower (e.g., see how Nisbett &amp;amp; Ross talk about the power of the situation for behavior: &lt;a href=&quot;http://faculty.babson.edu/krollag/org_site/soc_psych/ross_pers_sit.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://faculty.babson.edu/krollag/org_site/soc_psych/ross_pers_sit.html&lt;/a&gt;). So if a person were seeking to initiate difficult behaviors, I would first modify the context rather than use the tools mentioned. For example, if a person had trouble doing a work task and was using stackexchange as a distraction, they could disable their internet for a period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-16T12:22:34.513" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23263" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8583" CreationDate="2019-05-16T13:28:17.083" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I studied psychology and we learned about IQ tests, the professor had all N = 100 students in the lecture answer a handful of questions from an IQ test (I forget which one). He then quickly calculated the results and found that the average IQ was 120, with men (20% of the subjects) having an IQ that was on average 10 points higher than the average IQ of the women. He said that this was in line with his findings in past years and with published results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course we did not take a whole test and not in a standardized manner (the questions were projected onto the wall and we sat side by side looking over each other's shoulder), but in the absence of better sources I found this an eye opening preliminary result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23244" LastActivityDate="2019-05-16T13:28:17.083" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23266" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23260" CreationDate="2019-05-16T21:51:02.243" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From a personal standpoint I would avoid these people because I expect people to be continually getting such needs met. I would wonder why a person doesn't already have a support network in place and be suspicious of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I the situation with the beggar I would think this would link more closely to the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bystander_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bystander effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; whereby as an individual you feel less inclined and less responsible as there are many other people in the vicinity that could also make a difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23246" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-05-17T15:38:38.323" LastActivityDate="2019-05-17T15:38:38.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23269" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-17T11:47:51.503" Score="3" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a result of my growing interest in neuroscience, I have begun to try and understand the functioning of the brain. However, I am always confronted by the  following questions: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The brain is a highly specialized organ with innumerable nuclei and pathways, and yet the brain of one individual is surprisingly similar to that of another. Hence, it must be the case that the structure of the brain must, in part, be determined by our genes. If this assessment is correct, how much is our brain structure dependent on our genes?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Now consider the case of a newborn and suppose his/her brain structure has been established somehow. As he/she grows, the brain starts taking sensory input and learns to process it better through neuroplasticity. If so, then why does everyone's, say amygdala only process fear, anxiety, etc. What prevents it from maintaining autonomous functions? Are the functions of different parts also determined by our genetics? (Is neuroplasticity the only force dictating learning?)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, why are all human brains so similar in brain structure, specialization of their parts and functioning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14360" LastEditorUserId="14360" LastEditDate="2019-05-18T03:18:26.197" LastActivityDate="2019-10-17T11:03:20.527" Title="why are all human brains so similar in brain structure, specialization of their parts and functioning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23273" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-18T12:58:38.313" Score="-2" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know how to tackle someone suffering from phobia of walk. It sounds weird that anyone can be suffering from the fear of walk&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22017" LastActivityDate="2019-08-25T09:49:18.630" Title="How can we get to know about the phobia of walk?" Tags="&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-10-17T09:35:40.353" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23274" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21838" CreationDate="2019-05-19T04:14:43.087" Score="-4" Body="&lt;h1&gt;This is a non-scientific suggestion&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[Please be open-minded since we're all just trying to help here]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe we can try looking at codependency from a different angle. We are made of the physical body, emotional and spiritual elements. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If &lt;em&gt;biology&lt;/em&gt; is the &lt;strong&gt;logical&lt;/strong&gt; step towards understanding the pathway of the physical body, then &lt;em&gt;astrology&lt;/em&gt; explains the whole &lt;strong&gt;gravity of your personality&lt;/strong&gt;. Not only does it explains who you are, it also explains how you became who you are. One can only heal when there is an awareness of the root of an event. (There are many psychotherapists that are astrologers as well, a faster way to identify the cause of a trauma or event.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The placements of Neptune and Pluto between two individuals are highly related to codependency and empath/narcissist or victim/saviour relationships. Know your boundaries and make them known, instead quietly resenting yourself for being submissive to the other party.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Healing might take place after reading a book, meeting someone, witnessing an event. What harm does it do to give it a try?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Codepency from an astrological point of view:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vaJ2YiuRrQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vaJ2YiuRrQ&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;2) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a93jjY_Lj3g&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a93jjY_Lj3g&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;3) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tg_5xxlhxeM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tg_5xxlhxeM&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Astrology book suggestion: Alive and Well with Neptune (Bil Tierney)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23257" LastEditorUserId="23257" LastEditDate="2019-05-19T06:09:26.977" LastActivityDate="2019-05-19T06:09:26.977" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23276" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-19T18:11:45.033" Score="0" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm learning programming and I'm now at an advanced stage meaning that I need to solve problems from fields such as dynamic programming, path finding or recursion problems. Depending on the problem I need anywhere from multiple hours to weeks to solve a problem. I often get stuck which seems to be normal from what I have read so far. However sometimes I got stuck and did not code for weeks and then finally was able to solve the problem, even when not thinking about it. I just looked at it from a different angle and was able to solve it. The question is: If I am really stuck, so that I do not code for days to weeks, should I start another problem or should I insist on finding the solution to the problem I'm stuck with. Is there any research pertaining this phenomena?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7672" LastActivityDate="2019-05-19T18:48:08.473" Title="Working on one problem opposed to working on mutliple problems when programming" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23276" CreationDate="2019-05-19T18:48:08.473" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interesting queston I am a psychology student who is learning how to code as well. I am often thinking about what are the best strategies to learn. Below I am referencing a research paper that showed that a too rigid mindset impairs performance in general problem solving abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ErEl, H., &amp;amp; Meiran, N. (2017). A drop in performance on a fluid intelligence test due to instructed-rule mindset. Psychological Research, 81(5), 901–909. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-016-0796-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-016-0796-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am found something similar in my attempts to learn. Sometimes it is useful to take a break to relax your mindset, as it seems that the mind inhibits other solutions, when you are focused on something to exclusively. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastActivityDate="2019-05-19T18:48:08.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23278" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-19T21:23:09.350" Score="-2" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;The criteria for the inattention part of ADHD from DSM-5. At least 6 of the behaviours for at least six months .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Fails to give close attention to detail, makes careless mistakes&#xA;Difficulty sustaining attention&#xA;Doesn’t listen when spoken to directly&#xA;Doesn’t follow through on instructions, doesn’t finish things&#xA;Difficulty organizing tasks/activities&#xA;Often avoids, dislikes tasks that require sustained mental effort&#xA;Often loses things necessary for tasks/activities&#xA;Often easily distracted&#xA;forgetful&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This are supposed to be the criteria for diagnosing somebody with an attention deficit. Almost everybody has this traits to some degree. Are the definitions too loose?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence of training for delayed gratification helping ADHD patients?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastEditorUserId="23189" LastEditDate="2019-05-21T12:27:20.660" LastActivityDate="2019-05-21T12:27:20.660" Title="Is ADHD defined too loosely?" Tags="&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;definition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23280" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23278" CreationDate="2019-05-20T09:04:08.270" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Snippet from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/diagnosis.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/diagnosis.html&lt;/a&gt;  (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;DSM-5 Criteria for ADHD&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People with ADHD show a persistent pattern of inattention and/or&#xA;  hyperactivity–impulsivity that interferes with functioning or&#xA;  development:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Inattention: &lt;strong&gt;Six or more&lt;/strong&gt; symptoms of inattention for children up to age 16, or five or more for adolescents 17 and older and adults;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  symptoms of inattention have been present for at least 6 months, and&#xA;  they are inappropriate for developmental level:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or with other activities.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often has trouble holding attention on tasks or play activities.&#xA;          Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (e.g., loses&#xA;  focus, side-tracked).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often has trouble organizing tasks and activities.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to do tasks that require mental effort over a long period of time (such as schoolwork&#xA;  or homework).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often loses things necessary for tasks and activities (e.g. school materials, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork,&#xA;  eyeglasses, mobile telephones).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Is often easily distracted&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Is often forgetful in daily activities.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hyperactivity and Impulsivity: &lt;strong&gt;Six or more&lt;/strong&gt; symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity for children up to age 16, or five or more&#xA;  for adolescents 17 and older and adults; symptoms of&#xA;  hyperactivity-impulsivity have been present for at least 6 months to&#xA;  an extent that is disruptive and inappropriate for the person’s&#xA;  developmental level:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet, or squirms in seat.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is not appropriate (adolescents or adults may be limited to feeling&#xA;  restless).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often unable to play or take part in leisure activities quietly.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Is often “on the go” acting as if “driven by a motor”.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often talks excessively.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often has trouble waiting his/her turn.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;          Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In addition, the following conditions must be met&lt;/strong&gt;:  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 years.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  Several symptoms are present in two or more setting, (such as at home, school or work; with friends or relatives; in other activities).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social, school, or work functioning.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder (such as a mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  a personality disorder). The symptoms do not happen only during the&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The extent and degree of the symptoms matters. For example, some people can have ADHD traits, but an individual with a legitimate psychopathology may have a lifestyle that significantly suffers without treatment. Certain brain volumes are also smaller in ADHD subjects, see  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Early results with structural MRI show &lt;strong&gt;thinning of the cerebral&#xA;  cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in&#xA;  prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex&lt;/strong&gt;, areas involved in&#xA;  working memory and attention.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). &quot;Chapters 10 and 13&quot;. In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 266, 315, 318–323. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastActivityDate="2019-05-20T09:04:08.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23281" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23273" CreationDate="2019-05-20T09:20:47.843" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Exposure therapy is the most effective treatment for phobias (it has been found to be more effective than cognitive behavioral therapy, medication, and insight therapy). It's important that the therapist break down the steps into a hierarchy of exposure exercises. Initially one can change various dimensions to be less intense by increasing the proximity to the triggering scenario, decreasing the duration of the exposure, lowering the feared characteristics of the triggering element etc. One can even start with visualizations first (or virtual reality simulations, in some cases).   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the phobia is too strong, one can add coping elements such as a support person, a minor amount of tranquilizer, positive self-talk and/or relaxation techniques during the exposure.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consistency is key. For more info, see  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Bourne, Edmund J. Overcoming Specific Phobia: A Hierarchy and Exposure-based Protocol for the Treatment of All Specific Phobias: Therapist Protocol. New Harbinger Pubblications, 1998.&lt;/em&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a patient with a walking phobia the exposure can be gradually increased in intensity by increasing the distance walked (it may initially be virtual or just one single step). To extract further degrees of freedom, it may be necessary to discuss it in more detail with the specific patient. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastEditorUserId="3379" LastEditDate="2019-05-20T09:58:39.340" LastActivityDate="2019-05-20T09:58:39.340" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23282" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20468" CreationDate="2019-05-20T10:04:34.957" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;To this research psychologist, the labels seem fairly neutral compared to the labels in other personality taxonomies such as Meyers-Briggs (as discussed by Fizz). There's cultural baggage on a label like &quot;Openness&quot;, but whether people would like to think they have it doesn't imply it's the wrong term. For example, perhaps the most contested term and construct in personality psychology is intelligence. Certainly people want to think they have it, but that doesn't mean it's the wrong label. Back to Openness, if people considered the whole label, Openness to new experience, they might better recognize that it isn't necessarily attractive. For example, not everyone likes museums or wants to try unfamiliar foods. There's risk in using everyday language, but there's also harm in using a fully neutral term like Type-A Personality, because it obscures the meaning and makes discussion and theory-building correspondingly more difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-20T10:04:34.957" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23283" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23269" CreationDate="2019-05-20T10:14:15.880" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Up until the 70s and 80s, there were decades of hot debate about whether some phenotype such as brain structure or some behavior were caused by genes or by environment. Wikipedia has a decent summary of the history and content of that debate, and I've linked to the section on estimating the relative contribution of genes vs. environment: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture#Heritability_estimates&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture#Heritability_estimates&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The current consensus is that the #1 question isn't very meaningful. Genes and environment are both 100% necessary conditions for a brain to develop. Yes, the similarity between brains (and between species) show that a lot of the structure is conserved, and much of that design depends on genes. But those genes wouldn't develop into a brain without very specific environmental conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are three quite distinct questions under #2. Cells and regions differentiate in the body; brain plasticity isn't 100%. Some structure is conserved. Consider that &quot;modularity&quot;, one type of which is that different areas of the brain do distinct operations, is at least partially false. The brain is not at all like a computer with a motherboard with distinct components. It might help to consider how you would answer your question for why people's thumbs don't look like their other fingers. What prevents a thumb from developing into a finger? Are the functions of a thumb determined by genetics? This might help you to zero in on the specific processes of the brain that are the mechanisms that explain how genes and environments interact to produce phenotypes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-20T10:14:15.880" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23284" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-20T21:18:41.480" Score="2" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;My sibling mentioned me about her idea of pursuing a additional post-university training for obtaining an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.europsyche.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EAP&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.europeanfamilytherapy.eu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EFTA&lt;/a&gt; compliant certificate for psychotherapy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I raised a question regarding the credibility of such programs, which visibly made her feel uneasy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a technical background, and scam and pay per publish conferences and journals are very common in my field, and given my experience I can easily tell what a scam is in my field. However, my sister has little experience in her field, i.e., psychology, so I would like to make sure that she does not take the wrong path. The price of the course that she mentioned was over $3000 for a 4 year training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short: are EAP and EFTA trainings genuine? What is the worth of their certification programs in the field?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note:&lt;/em&gt; I apologize if this question is inappropriate to anyone who might be associated to those organizations, but as I said, my background knowledge is very limited, but at the same time I want to be a helpful bro.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23264" LastEditorUserId="23264" LastEditDate="2019-05-22T08:49:42.390" LastActivityDate="2019-05-22T08:49:42.390" Title="Are orgnizations like European Association for Psychotherapy (EAP) or European Family Therapy Association (EFTA) genuine?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;training&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2019-06-05T09:51:34.090" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23286" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-21T06:36:24.310" Score="6" ViewCount="227" Body="&lt;p&gt;Common intelligence tests such as the WAIS or RIAS don't differentiate well (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_effect&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;or at all&lt;/a&gt;) in very low IQ ranges, making it impossible to diagnose the degree of mental retardation according to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://icd.who.int/browse10/2016/en#/F70-F79&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;criteria&lt;/a&gt; put forward in the ICD-10.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can IQ below 40 be measured?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23266" LastActivityDate="2019-05-23T11:11:05.360" Title="How can IQ below 40 be measured?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23287" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23116" CreationDate="2019-05-21T20:26:56.933" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Within the classical signal detection framework, the effect of bias is studied by keeping the signal and signal plus noise stimuli identical, which should keep d' constant, and manipulating the instructions to the subjects or the payoff/cost matrix to change the bias. Under these conditions, we expect d' to remain constant since it is defined by the signal and signal plus noise distributions. Changing the instructions or payoff/cost matrix can change the underlying distributions even if the stimuli are fixed because forcing someone to use an unnatural criterion could add additional noise. This will cause a decrease in d'. For fixed distributions, changing the criterion can only change d' (as defined by ZD−ZF and not mu2-mu1/sigma) if the distributions are not Gaussian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The attached graphic looks like the experiments manipulated the stimuli/paradigm by changing the inter-stimulus interval (ISI). This seems to have changed the underlying signal and signal plus noise distributions and causes d' to increase as the bias decreases. Potentially the longer ISI gives the subject more processing time leading to an increased d'. Depending on how bias is calculated (cf. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/6302/two-different-values-for-criterion-in-signal-detection-theory/8177#8177&quot;&gt;Two different values for criterion in signal detection theory?&lt;/a&gt;), the criterion could be staying constant relative to the noise alone stimuli, but the bias could be changing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-05-21T20:26:56.933" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23288" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12847" CreationDate="2019-05-22T02:48:34.507" Score="-4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe everytime you express yourself you are being considered by yourself on the reflection that the expression has about and on yourself. So one would never be impartial (in the sense of being removed as individual with a construct of inconscious interests, from the equation) even not being yourself the subject of opinion.&#xA;One would consider that all expression is consubstantiated to the unique core identity of an individual.&#xA;Who you are in conscience it is not who you are within unconsciousness.&#xA;In a strict sense the huge array of variables at play within one's mind would not allow for impartiality in any circumstances.&#xA;I agree with the meditation possibility... but would place it solely in the very long experienced individuals with secluded life.&#xA;Being this just a conceptual opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23270" LastActivityDate="2019-05-22T02:48:34.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23289" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23308" CreationDate="2019-05-22T06:39:40.413" Score="4" ViewCount="212" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any good research on how general IQ correlates with levels of abstractions people can easily handle?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand, that abstractions are different, but here it's probably enough to cover base logical reasoning, set (in math sense) membership and such, maybe some other classification. Also, of course there are situations when language already contains metaphors, which allow people to reason (like &quot;file&quot; can be put into &quot;folder&quot;). My question is more about situations, when there are no suitable ready metaphors (&quot;X&quot; can contain &quot;Y&quot;). (memory can also be a factor?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The notion of complexity of abstract concept systems is also interesting (if there are several), but my hope is to find an answer for any good notion. Basically, &quot;common sense&quot; logic whatever it is is probably enough reference point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is simple. Lets say, people with IQ greater than X can understand and recognize part-whole relationship and use that understanding in their work. Then, of course, it is easy to calculate how accessible some system is: IQ has very simple statistical definition (given standard deviation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not a psychologist so I do not quite know even what are the right terms to search. However, my interest is in making software applications accessible to more users and user interfaces oftentimes rely on users handling of abstract concepts. So my interest is pragmatic. Still I think this question is more on psychology side than UX.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe IQ matters because if a user can't figure out something in a &quot;moment&quot; (in seconds), system is not usable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23271" LastActivityDate="2019-10-20T16:01:10.283" Title="Any research on IQ (general) and coping with abstract concepts?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23291" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-22T18:35:49.490" Score="0" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;Phenomenological experiences are altered during mental illnesses, is there a way to objectively know about them, or atleast know how we know about them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23274" LastActivityDate="2019-05-22T18:35:49.490" Title="What neural mechanism allows humans to make phenomenological observations?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23292" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23302" CreationDate="2019-05-22T19:49:59.320" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lets say we want to compare the correlation between the activation one part of the brain and rise in value of other variable. The design would be within subjects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the data that we can receive from the fMRI from one specific brain area(e.g. temporal cortex) to use to calculate the correlation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastActivityDate="2019-05-23T10:33:13.617" Title="What type of data can we get from fMRI to calculate correlations?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23293" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-22T20:21:12.660" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;Baddeley's model suggests two buffers in the working memory: a phonological loop for acoustic, and a visuospatial sketchpad for visual information. The evidence is that auditory interference caused more performance decrease in auditory rather than visual tasks, and vice versa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I don't think that this is a very big evidence for the theory, that is because, instead of two separate buffers for different kinds of information, perhaps the information held in working memory is more susceptible to similar information, and there is only one storage unit in the working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, it is possible that a verbal task in French can more easily be affected by a French rather than English interference. (well... maybe this was not a good example, because there are many external factors here)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any study which supports this idea? I couldn't find any, probably because my choice of keywords was not good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7063" LastActivityDate="2019-05-22T20:21:12.660" Title="Is it possible that information is stored based on similarity in the working memory?" Tags="&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23294" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-22T21:18:25.617" Score="0" ViewCount="253" Body="&lt;p&gt;In his book &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://archive.org/stream/JordanB.Peterson12RulesForLifeAnAntidoteToChaos/Jordan%20B.%20Peterson%20-%2012%20Rules%20for%20Life_%20An%20Antidote%20to%20Chaos%20%282018%2C%20Random%20House%20Canada%29_djvu.txt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (Peterson, 2018) has following quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you will not &lt;strong&gt;reveal&lt;/strong&gt; yourself to others, you cannot reveal yourself&#xA;to yourself. That  does not only mean that you suppress who you are,&#xA;although it also means that. It means  that so much of what you could&#xA;be will never be forced by necessity to come forward. This  is a&#xA;biological truth, as well as a conceptual truth. When you explore&#xA;boldly, when you  voluntarily confront the unknown, you gather&#xA;information and build your renewed self  out of that information. That&#xA;is the conceptual element. However, researchers have  recently&#xA;discovered that new genes in the central nervous system turn&#xA;themselves on when an organism is placed (or places itself) in a new situation. These genes code for new&#xA;proteins. These proteins are the building blocks for new structures in the brain. This&#xA;means that a lot of you is still nascent, in the most physical of senses, and will not be&#xA;called forth by stasis. You have to say something, go somewhere and do things to get&#xA;turned on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am puzzled what he means by word &lt;strong&gt;reveal&lt;/strong&gt; above?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;why would you not want to reveal (whatever he means) yourself? Can you give some explanations what you think?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Peterson, J. (2018). &lt;em&gt;12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos&lt;/em&gt;. Toronto: Penguin Random House. ISBN: &lt;a href=&quot;https://isbnsearch.org/isbn/0345816021&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;0345816021&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23275" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-09-08T12:30:29.783" Title="Phrase used by jordan peterson about &quot;revealing&quot;" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;self&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23297" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-23T09:26:10.547" Score="2" ViewCount="1516" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any relationship  between intelligence and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;big five personality traits&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23285" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2019-06-13T00:27:59.897" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T00:27:59.897" Title="Relationship between intelligence (IQ) and Big 5 Personality" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23298" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23297" CreationDate="2019-05-23T09:34:53.580" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suppose this needs a more in-depth answer, but a quick search found one twin study (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.02.007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bartels et al. 2012&lt;/a&gt;), which not only correlated IQ with Big5, but also tried to determine how much of that has a shared genetic basis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Significant positive phenotypic correlations with IQ were seen for agreeableness (r = 0.21) and openness to experience (r = 0.32). A negative correlation emerged for neuroticism and IQ (r = 0.10). Genetic&#xA;factors explained (nearly) all of the covariance between personality traits and IQ. Genetic correlations&#xA;were 0.3–0.4 between IQ and agreeableness and openness. The genetic correlation between IQ and&#xA;neuroticism was around 0.18. Thus, personality and IQ did not appear to be independent dimensions,&#xA;and low neuroticism, high agreeableness and high scores on openness all contributed to higher IQ scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That paper also serves as mini-review of prior works:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Openness to experience tends to correlate highest with intelligence (Ackerman &amp;amp; Heggestad, 1997; Aitken Harris, 2004; Chamorro-Premuzic, Moutafi, &amp;amp; Furnham, 2005; Moutafi, Furnham, &amp;amp;&#xA;Crump, 2006) [...] Results for other personality&#xA;traits are less clear. Some studies reported negative associations&#xA;between IQ and neuroticism (Austin, Hofer, Deary, &amp;amp; Eber, 2000;&#xA;Kyllonen, 1997). Occasionally, extraversion has been reported to&#xA;correlate (positively and negatively) with intelligence (Wolf &amp;amp; Ackerman, 2005), and this relation has been moderated by the nature&#xA;of the test and the context (Bates &amp;amp; Rock, 2004; Matthews, 1997;&#xA;Rawlings &amp;amp; Carnie, 1989; Robinson, 1985). Correlations of intelligence with conscientiousness have been small and negative&#xA;(Furnham et al., 2005). Moutafi et al. (2006) hypothesized that conscientiousness is a trait that less intelligent individuals can possess&#xA;to compensate in a competitive environment. Conscientiousness,&#xA;in contrast, has been positively associated with academic performance (Chamorro-Premuzic &amp;amp; Furnham, 2003; Lievens et al.,&#xA;2002). Agreeable people tend to be pleasant and accommodating&#xA;in social situations and this trait is rarely associated with intelligence. However, one study found a small positive relation&#xA;with scholastic achievement in adolescent males (Peterson, Pihl,&#xA;Higgins, Seguin, &amp;amp; Tremblay, 2003). Altruistic behavior, which is&#xA;a small aspect of the construct of agreeableness, was associated&#xA;with higher IQ scores in younger children (Kohlberg, 1964; Krebs&#xA;&amp;amp; Sturrup, 1982)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the compensation hypothesis between conscientiousness and IQ, a more recent review-ish paper, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Murray et al.&lt;/a&gt; is critical of it, considering it an artefact of twin studies. Nevertheless, there's a more recent study &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.03.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rammstedt et al.&lt;/a&gt;, which (using OECD's PIAAC - &amp;quot;PISA for adults&amp;quot; as substitute for IQ) again found in favor of that compensation hypothesis; it also confirmed the positive correlation between Openness and cognitive ability and found a negative correlation with Neuroticism. It also found some moderators for these:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The cognitive ability-Openness relationship is moderated by educational attainment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The association with Conscientiousness is moderated by labor force participation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-05-23T09:54:09.443" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23299" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23300" CreationDate="2019-05-23T10:17:22.940" Score="2" ViewCount="1038" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;target&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;foil&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in experimental design in psychology?  And how is a foil different from a distractor?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23286" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-05-30T04:54:34.737" LastActivityDate="2019-05-30T04:55:12.733" Title="What is the difference between &quot;target&quot; and &quot;foil&quot; in experimental design?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;terms&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23300" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23299" CreationDate="2019-05-23T10:29:31.137" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often, experimental designs in psychology contain a target participant (who receives the experimental manipulation) and then also other types, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;control: no intervention, or a different intervention&#xA;confederate: fake participant (actor, or often research assistant)&#xA;observer: in social influence paradigms&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;perhaps foil is a confederate. Hard to know without you providing the source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-23T10:29:31.137" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23301" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23297" CreationDate="2019-05-23T10:31:33.947" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intelligence as measured by g is most associated with Openness, at modest levels, about r = .10-.15, meaning that only 1% of the variance of each is explained by the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-23T10:31:33.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23302" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23292" CreationDate="2019-05-23T10:33:13.617" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The BOLD response is used in fMRI to provide a quantified measure of activation: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemodynamic_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemodynamic_response&lt;/a&gt;. It is based on the ratio of oxygenated vs. non-oxygenated blood, implying blood flow, and inferred to mean more processing or activation of those brain areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-23T10:33:13.617" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23225" CreationDate="2019-05-23T10:46:44.567" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Overall, the claim seems to be that people prefer holding their current beliefs. This is well-documented, for example in a big literature on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&lt;/a&gt; . Note that this may be culturally dependent; some Buddhist traditions explicitly value holding contradictory beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's possible the study being referred to in the quoted passage is reported in this paper: &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02226.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02226.x&lt;/a&gt; 'When the Truth Is Not Too Hard to Handle: An Event-Related Potential Study on the Pragmatics of Negation' (One author is at Harvard).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, the quoted speaker's comments are inconsistent with the findings. There was earlier work suggesting statements with negations might be more difficult to understand, but this paper doesn't find that. Their results &quot;...suggest that negation poses no principled obstacle for readers to immediately relate incoming words to what they hold to be true.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it's fair to say that humans limit the mental effort they put in; this perspective is also summarized in the theory: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_miser&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_miser&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A word of caution: the quoted text seems to rely heavily on vague appeals to authority (e.g., Harvard) rather than references to specific empirical findings. This can be a red flag for argument quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-23T10:46:44.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23304" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23286" CreationDate="2019-05-23T10:47:59.193" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;With great difficulty. I'm half-joking because I'm not totally sure, but the first observation is that DSM-IV &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B0080-4270(73)00172-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;also used&lt;/a&gt; these brackets, so the ICD-10 isn't alone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The DSM-IV definition utilizes four degrees of severity that reflect the level of intellectual impairment: IQ levels between 50–55 to approximately 70 characterize mild mental retardation, 35—40 to 50–55 characterize moderate mental retardation, 20–25 to 35–40 characterize severe mental retardation, and IQ levels below 20–25 characterize profound mental retardation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as actually testing the profound levels of retardation, it seem to me that alternative tests might be used in practice, e.g. a &lt;a href=&quot;https://hhs.texas.gov/sites/default/files/documents/doing-business-with-hhs/providers/long-term-care/lidda/did-best-practice-guidelines.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2018 Texas HHS guideline&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In some situations, an individual’s limitations may be so extensive that a full scale IQ&#xA;  score cannot be obtained from a standardized intelligence test. In these situations, an&#xA;  estimate of the individual’s IQ score, or, IQ score equivalent should be stated with clinical&#xA;  justification. For example, if an individual’s ability to comprehend oral instruction or&#xA;  visual demonstration is not adequate for a formal appraisal of general intellectual&#xA;  functioning, the use of an Adaptive Behavior Composite (e.g., provided by the VABS)&#xA;  may serve as an estimate of the individual’s intellectual functioning when accompanied&#xA;  by a clinical justification explained in the DID report. However, not all measures of&#xA;  adaptive behavior (e.g., ABAS, ICAP, and SIB) are appropriate for establishing an IQ&#xA;  score equivalent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;VABS is the  Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales; there's a reasonably cited paper by &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1020734325815&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bölte and Poustka (2002)&lt;/a&gt; correlating the ABC subscale of that with IQ &amp;lt; 70 (which is measured on the WISC-R/WAIS-R scale). But it also notes that the because of floor effects with WISC/WAIS we can't be certain that the substitute is really appropriate. It also cites some other papers some of which disagreed with this idea of substituting VABS for IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ICD-11 has &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3188762/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;moved away&lt;/a&gt; from merely using the IQ as discriminator, but has kept it. The DSM-5 was a little bolder:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;DSM-5 abandoned specific IQ scores as a diagnostic criterion, although it retained the general notion of functioning two or more standard deviations below the general population. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the Texas guideline explains further:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the DSM-5 (pages 33-36)&#xA;  is the first edition to classify level of severity based on adaptive functioning rather than IQ&#xA;  score. The DSM-5 explains that “the various levels of severity are defined on the basis of&#xA;  adaptive functioning, and not IQ scores, because it is adaptive functioning that determines&#xA;  the level of supports required.” In other words, the DSM-5 recognizes that adaptive functioning has greater practical significance because it is a better indicator of the&#xA;  individual’s ability to function in society. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And Texas has basically adopted the DSM-5 in this regard, classifying ability by an (approved) ABL test, of which there &lt;a href=&quot;https://apps.hhs.texas.gov/training/cbt/DBMD/DBMD8151824.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;are several&lt;/a&gt;, but since that's not the main topic here... I won't detail that any further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-05-23T11:11:05.360" LastActivityDate="2019-05-23T11:11:05.360" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23305" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23294" CreationDate="2019-05-23T11:21:46.707" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Re-reading the whole quote and not just the first 3 sentences there does seem to be some ramblings which need citations to back his claims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The crux of your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am puzzled [with] what he means by [the] word &lt;strong&gt;reveal&lt;/strong&gt; above?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;why would you not want to reveal (whatever he means) yourself?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first 3 sentences loosely refer to the concept of the johari window which I &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/22018&quot;&gt;spoke about in another answer&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic concept of the johari window is that in order to reveal yourself fully to yourself (who you are) you need to reveal yourself to others.  There can be abilities you have, and maybe aspects to your personality, which are unknown to you but others may see &lt;strong&gt;if you allow them to see them&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for why you would not want to reveal yourself, there can be numerous reasons.  One example was used by Peterson in the same part of the book (Rule 8: Tell the truth — or, at least, don't lie)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider the person who insists that everything is right in her life. She avoids conflict, and smiles, and does what she is asked to do. She finds a niche and hides in it. She does not question authority or put her own ideas forward, and does not complain when mistreated. She strives for invisibility, like a fish in the centre of a swarming school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This person is hiding herself.  She is not revealing her thoughts and ideas, so therefore she is not &lt;strong&gt;revealing herself&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If she revealed her thoughts and ideas she would be seen and heard, therefore putting the knowledge out there that she can think for herself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, she may not see that she &lt;strong&gt;can&lt;/strong&gt; think for herself.  Maybe she thinks her ideas are not going to be correct or even be considered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To find out more about the concept of the johari window, the links in the other answer (linked above) could help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After those first 3 sentences, the quote gives &lt;em&gt;so-called&lt;/em&gt; explanations referring to genes in the central nervous system (CNS) which I cannot vouch for and feel maybe a bit far fetched, although I must point out that I am not fully conversant with the neuroscience.  The problem with this part of the quote is that nothing mentioned is referenced, just like the first 3 sentences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I have found through basic internet searches is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Genetics of the nervous system refers to the study of genetics affecting the development, physiology and functions of the nervous system and diseases thereof&lt;br&gt;(nature.com n.d.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several diseases that directly affect the nervous system have a genetic component: some are due to a mutation in a single gene, others are proving to have a more complex mode of inheritance. As our understanding of the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders deepens, common themes begin to emerge...&lt;br&gt;(National Center for Biotechnology Information 1998)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whether this part of the quote can be relevant to the situation may be answered by others here, but seeing as you haven't asked about that directly I feel a separate question would be needed for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;##References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;National Center for Biotechnology Information (1998). &lt;em&gt;The Nervous System&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22197&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22197&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;nature.com (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;Genetics of the nervous system&lt;/em&gt;. Retreived from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/subjects/genetics-of-the-nervous-system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nature.com/subjects/genetics-of-the-nervous-system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="25159" LastEditDate="2020-09-08T12:30:29.783" LastActivityDate="2020-09-08T12:30:29.783" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23306" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-23T11:41:29.900" Score="3" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazimierz_D%C4%85browski&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kazimierz Dąbrowski&lt;/a&gt;, in his &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_disintegration&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Positive disintegration&lt;/a&gt; theory talks about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexcitability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;overexcitability&lt;/a&gt; as the most evident aspect of developmental potential. He distinguishes five types of overexcitabilties: psychomotor, sensual, intellectual, imaginational and emotional. The emotional excitability, according to the Wikipedia &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is characterised by heightened, intense feelings, extreme experience&#xA;  of complex emotions, identification with others' feelings to the point&#xA;  of actual experience and strong sentimental expression&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These overexcitabilities tend to be present to different extents in gifted people, so it seems reasonable to think that in this case, a deeper capability of feeling emotions is linked to a higher intellectual intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this also happen in the wild? Are there any studies that not only establish the intellectual development of the species that surround us, but also their capability to feel emotions, and any correlation between that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately, is intellectual intelligence development associated to emotional development? Are emotions &lt;strong&gt;needed&lt;/strong&gt; to develop intellectual intelligence in a species?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23287" LastEditorUserId="23287" LastEditDate="2019-05-23T12:04:25.370" LastActivityDate="2019-05-23T12:04:25.370" Title="Is a deeper capability of feeling emotions linked to a higher intellectual intelligence?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;emotional-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23308" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23289" CreationDate="2019-05-23T14:39:20.057" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the answer here is easier than you imagine. Many of the tasks associated with IQ and general intelligence tests contain tasks that are specifically about abstraction. For example, an SAT reading comprehension question depends on verbal and reading skills, but tasks like in an IQ test (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices&lt;/a&gt;) don't correspond to any existing verbal or other knowledge and are therefore tapping a type of abstract thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If that's not what you meant by abstract, consider researching what kinds of cognitive operations are associated with the types of abstraction you had in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, note there are a lot of threads in this group about intelligence, and many of them cover the same useful ground, such as different types of intelligence, the difference between IQ and general intelligence, etc. Wikipedia is also a good source on those definitions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-23T14:39:20.057" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23309" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-23T14:54:49.803" Score="3" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a little bit confused about the definition of a free recall test. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_recall&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;According to Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Items are usually presented one at a time for a short duration, ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If 10 items are presented at the same time for a short duration and subjects are asked to recall them later, could you still say this is a free recall test? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23294" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-05-23T15:27:15.127" LastActivityDate="2019-05-24T17:49:22.860" Title="If 10 words are presented at the same time, is it still considered a 'free recall' test?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23310" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23314" CreationDate="2019-05-23T20:58:55.490" Score="1" ViewCount="121" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are so many articles online and books selling on the idea that we should motivate ourselves daily, as motivation doesn't last long. Many cite numerous experiments and advise on techniques you can supposedly use, because some experiment showed positive results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From all the popular psychology and life coaching books on Motivation, all I can gather is that motivation is something a person should think about constantly and regulate on their own, on a daily basis.(10 proven ways to motivate yourself,...and similar titles).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you really talk yourself into feeling motivated? Or is motivation something that just happens subconsciously? Is popular psychology really onto something or their claims too big? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: My question is not answered with the suggested answer in the comment section. I'm not interested in obstacles to motivation, I'm interested in whether one can consciously spark motivation within oneself, regardless of existing obstacles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4431" LastEditorUserId="4431" LastEditDate="2019-05-24T12:18:15.320" LastActivityDate="2019-05-27T10:10:25.407" Title="Can we really motivate ourselves &quot;on-demand&quot;?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23311" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23313" CreationDate="2019-05-24T01:24:10.120" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a son with autism. He was diagnosed under 3 years old. 2 years old to be exactly. After I doubted several pediatricians that claimed that wouldn't be a valid diagnose after 5 years old. I discovered by myself that it wasn't entirely true. I've read that specialists would diagnose under 2, or even, babies. I want to know because other parents say their doctors say to wait from 2 to 3 years old or even more. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23302" LastEditorUserId="23302" LastEditDate="2019-05-24T01:46:50.330" LastActivityDate="2019-05-24T15:23:03.637" Title="How accurate are diagnoses on Autism to Children under 3 years old?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23312" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-24T04:44:46.490" Score="3" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to this information will acquiring a second language improves the person's general intelligence and reading, even if the individual started learning and have learned it after the age of 18? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How scienctifically and/or empirically accurate is the studies and information?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.com/news/health-27634990&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.bbc.com/news/health-27634990&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/RXeDNkVauh4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/RXeDNkVauh4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20280" LastEditorUserId="20280" LastEditDate="2019-05-26T07:51:56.687" LastActivityDate="2020-02-20T09:01:50.297" Title="Will acquiring a second language improves the person's general intelligence and reading?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;&lt;cognitive-enhancement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23313" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23311" CreationDate="2019-05-24T08:29:39.117" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was a study which examines the exact question you posed.  This study, which was conducted by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00435&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stone et al. (1999)&lt;/a&gt; compared accuracy of diagnosis of autism and a pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to autism, the study suggested 2 conclusions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) the identification of an autism spectrum disorder can be made reliably in children below the age of 3; and (2) the specific diagnosis of autism can be made reliably in children under 3 years, as long as the diagnosticians have experience evaluating young children.  The latter conclusion is presented more tentatively, given the limited sample of clinicians employed in the present study. Further study of the impact of experience on diagnostic reliability at young ages, using lager samples of clinicians, would shed additional light on the issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless of the initial diagnosis, the large majority of children remained on the autism spectrum at the 1 year follow-up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of the children who received a diagnosis of autism at age 2, 96% remained on the autism spectrum at age 3, and 72% retained the specific diagnosis of autism. Although the results suggest that symptomatology improved for 28% of these children, only 1 child (4%) improved to the extent he &amp;quot;left&amp;quot; the autism spectrum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also pointed out that diagnostic stability did not vary as a function of whether the same or a different clinician made the Time 2 diagnosis, proving further support for the robustness of the diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Additional Information after issues surrounding debate were raised.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to the debates over autism, there is a &lt;a href=&quot;http://autism-help.org/points-autism-diagnosis-debate.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;factsheet on the debates at autism-help.org&lt;/a&gt; and the debate covers the causes of autism (genetics etc), lack of definitive test for autism&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;due to the significant variance of symptoms among people with autistic traits, as well as a lack of knowledge about the etiology of the condition. Those with Asperger syndrome may be highly functional cognitively but lack ‘social’ skills, whereas others with so-called “profound Autism” may be non-verbal and deficient in elementary skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and there are issues surrounding the diagnosis of Asperger’s syndrome as opposed to autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[M]any autism spectrum adults and neurotypical (non-autistic) allies in the autism rights movement do not consider Autism to be a disorder, but simply a different way of perceiving and behaving. These people believe that at least some of the difficulties encountered by people with Autism may result from prejudice and lack of accommodation from society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00435&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stone et al. (1999)&lt;/a&gt; is cited in over 200 papers including many over the past 5 years.  One of them is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2045&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Roberts, et al. (2019)&lt;/a&gt;, where they also point out that ASD can be reliably diagnosed by 24 months, although the average age of diagnosis is 2 years later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3279-x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clark, et al. (2018)&lt;/a&gt; also highlights that early diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder is considered best practice, increasing access to early intervention.  They investigated the school age outcomes of children who received an early, as opposed to later, diagnosis of ASD.  The abstract highlights that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Children diagnosed early accessed more intervention, demonstrated better verbal and overall cognition at school age, were more likely to attend mainstream school and required less ongoing support than children diagnosed later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So while raising the debates about autism diagnosis in the last 20 years is a valid argument, it does seem that the 1999 paper still stands as valid, even though changes were made in the DSM with the publication of DSM-5.  But then again, when you look at following studies,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DSM-5 resulted in 47.79% fewer toddlers being diagnosed with ASD compared to those on the DSM-IV. Toddlers diagnosed according to DSM-5 exhibited greater levels of autism symptomatology than those diagnosed with DSM-IV, but the latter group still exhibited significant levels of autism symptomatology&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3109/17518423.2012.672341&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Matson, et al. 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So has the change created a problem where some are no longer diagnosed when they should have been?  That would be open to opinion I believe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clark, M. L. E., Vinen, Z., Barbaro, J., &amp;amp; Dissanayake, C. (2018). School age outcomes of children diagnosed early and later with autism spectrum disorder. &lt;em&gt;Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 48&lt;/em&gt;(1), 92-102. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3279-x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s10803-017-3279-x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Matson, J. L., Kozlowski, A. M., Hattier, M. A., Horovitz, M., &amp;amp; Sipes, M. (2012). DSM-IV vs DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for toddlers with autism. &lt;em&gt;Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 15&lt;/em&gt;(3), 185-190. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3109/17518423.2012.672341&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3109/17518423.2012.672341&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Roberts, M. Y., Stern, Y., Hampton, L. H., Grauzer, J. M., Miller, A., Levin, A., ... &amp;amp; Estabrook, R. (2019). Beyond pass‐fail: Examining the potential utility of two thresholds in the autism screening process. &lt;em&gt;Autism Research, 12&lt;/em&gt;(1), 112-122. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2045&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/aur.2045&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stone, W. L., Lee, E. B., Ashford, L., Brissie, J., Hepburn, S. L., Coonrod, E. E., &amp;amp; Weiss, B. H. (1999). Can autism be diagnosed accurately in children under 3 years?. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40&lt;/em&gt;(2), 219-226. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00435&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/1469-7610.00435&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-05-24T15:23:03.637" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23314" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23310" CreationDate="2019-05-24T09:55:35.083" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is not much possibility to talk yourself into being motivated. However, personal narratives can help us redirect our motivations or manage them more productively. To take this more abstractly, consider a person who just ate a large meal. If they are not hungry, could they talk themselves into being hungry? (Rarely.) However, if a person is craving a certain type of food, they could notice that and consciously decide to redirect that interest into a different type of food, and then that intention might lead to actual behavior. This could also apply to longer-term goals, such as pursuing more education; but that process is only possible to the extent that other, existing motivations are borrowed to a new target. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory&lt;/a&gt; for a popular theory of overall social motivations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Motivation is not just subconscious, to the extent that we can have sensations around desire and goal states, e.g., be aware of urges and drives. All cognition includes subconscious processes: absolutely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Popular psychology is wildly profitable but often quite unrelated to the latest empirical science. The incentive is to be convincing and be shared, not to be accurate. 'The Secret' is a good example: super popular and entirely inconsistent with physics. Finally, the note &quot;...nobody can claim anything&quot; is a bit vague. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-24T09:55:35.083" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23316" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23309" CreationDate="2019-05-24T12:12:30.917" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Free recall refers to not being given exemplars during the retrieval task. For example, multiple choice would be called recognition here, not recall. The format of the presentation such as simultaneous vs. serial, or format of the recall in terms of ordering or grouping, would not affect the term free recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="1107" LastEditDate="2019-05-24T17:49:22.860" LastActivityDate="2019-05-24T17:49:22.860" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23309" CreationDate="2019-05-24T15:39:51.510" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_(memory)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Memory recall&lt;/a&gt; is generally tested with one of three paradigms: serial, cued, and free. In serial recall the subject must recall the items in a specified order (e.g., forward or backwards). In cued recall, the items are usually presented in pairs and the subject is told to recall the matching item to one half of the pair. In free recall, subjects can repeat the items in whatever order they want.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typically items are presented to subjects one at a time, so the experimenter can know in what order they are encoded. There is no reason that multiple items cannot be presented at once (e.g., words in a grid). How the items are presented is independent of the recall procedure (i.e., cued, serial, free).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-05-24T15:39:51.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23323" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-26T09:49:19.427" Score="2" ViewCount="228" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, some Christians say that to know how to act, we just need to &quot;imagine how Jesus would act in this situation.&quot;  The same goes for people we know personally, as in: &quot;What will my boss say if I tell him that?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It looks similar to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentalization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mentalization&lt;/a&gt;, but I wonder if there are other more specific theories about this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23317" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-05-27T05:59:58.080" LastActivityDate="2019-05-27T05:59:58.080" Title="What is it called when you imagine what other people would say or do in a certain situation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;projection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23324" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-26T12:11:24.527" Score="1" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on the books of old testament, can we tell what kind of personality King David had?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am mainly interested in the five factor model and MBTI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23318" LastActivityDate="2019-05-26T12:11:24.527" Title="What is the personality type of King David?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-05-28T20:46:42.300" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23325" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-26T17:19:50.953" Score="2" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;Roughly speaking, I as well as some other people probably have observer following.&#xA;(1) Sometimes ideas start to come to me out of nowhere, (2) then we sometimes analyze it further and either reject or accept some of these idea.&#xA;My question is what are the terms for these two incidents:which part of me is responsible for generating these sometimes out of nowhere coming ideas, and which part of me is responsible for filtering and analyzing them?&#xA;Why how these random ideas come from?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23319" LastActivityDate="2019-05-29T15:32:47.437" Title="is it unconcious?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23326" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-26T20:38:15.827" Score="2" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can think of a banana in my mind, and I can see it, it's there, but it's not really there at the same time. It doesn't feel physical, but for me to be able to see it, it must be physical, right? Are the images just a collection of neurons firing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20712" LastActivityDate="2019-05-27T15:53:58.117" Title="Are the images in our heads physical?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23327" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23323" CreationDate="2019-05-27T05:54:04.073" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans have a natural ability to predict the behavior of others called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;folk psychology&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... folk psychology, or commonsense psychology, is a human capacity to&#xA;  explain and predict the behavior and mental state of other people. ...&#xA;  Traditionally, the study of folk psychology has focused on how&#xA;  everyday people—those without formal training in the various academic&#xA;  fields of science—go about attributing mental states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, folk psychology relies on first determining other people's mental state, and then using that information to predict their behavior.  This underlying ability to predict mental state is often referred to in the literature as &quot;mind-reading&quot; (not to be confused with telepathy), or more formally, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;theory of mind&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentalization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mentalization&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems that humans have some &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mental model&lt;/a&gt; of how other people's minds work, and they use this model to predict their behavior.  Note however, that lay people use a model that is not (scientifically) valid - that is, it is not an accurate representation of how minds actually work - and hence predictions often fail.  Such mental models are presumably sufficiently accurate in everyday situations to be useful nonetheless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How humans do this is subject to some debate.  The leading mechanism is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory-theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;theory-theory&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This theory asserts that individuals hold a basic or 'naïve' theory of&#xA;  psychology (&quot;folk psychology&quot;) to infer the mental states of others,&#xA;  such as their beliefs, desires or emotions. This information is used&#xA;  to understand the intentions behind that person's actions or predict&#xA;  future behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, according to theory-theory, people have an explicit model - one that they learn through experience, and can articulate and apply explicitly - of other people's minds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One challenge to theory-theory is that humans are far too adept at mind-reading for an explicit model.  A competing implicit mechanism is proposed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_theory_of_empathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;simulation theory&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a theory that holds that humans anticipate and make sense of the&#xA;  behavior of others by activating mental processes that, if carried&#xA;  into action, would produce similar behavior. This includes intentional&#xA;  behavior as well as the expression of emotions. The theory states that&#xA;  children use their own emotions to predict what others will do.&#xA;  Therefore, we project our own mental states onto others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, simulation theory suggests that humans have a way to simulate their own mental state - that is, pretend to be in someone else's shoes - and use that to predict the behavior of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As there is much evidence both for and against each theory, a hybrid 2-systems account has also been proposed by eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?Db=pubmed&amp;amp;Cmd=ShowDetailView&amp;amp;TermToSearch=18995826&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frith &amp;amp; Frith (2008)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?Db=pubmed&amp;amp;Cmd=ShowDetailView&amp;amp;TermToSearch=19839692&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Apperly &amp;amp; Butterfill (2009)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-05-27T05:54:04.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23328" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23326" CreationDate="2019-05-27T08:04:49.713" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a classic and unsolved problem and there are many related posts here and in the philosophy stack exchange. For starters, see these resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&lt;/a&gt;: discusses the problem of explaining mental phenomena&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness#Neural_correlates_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness#Neural_correlates_of_consciousness&lt;/a&gt;: connects to the neural activity you mention&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-27T08:04:49.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23329" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23325" CreationDate="2019-05-27T08:11:05.113" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This broad article introduces theories of what unconscious thought is and how it relates to conscious thoughts: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_thought_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_thought_theory&lt;/a&gt; . I recommend it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) All thinking is preceded by or relies on unconscious processes. Consciousness gives a narrow view of all cognition in the same sort of way that our eyes only see a narrow band of the electromagnetic spectrum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) This step is referred to as [mostly] 'conscious' thought/cognition. Note that the difference between conscious and unconscious processes is gradual and continuous rather than categorical; they overlap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a persistent complication in your question that you keep bringing up &quot;me&quot;. It's not necessary to resolve which self or selves were involved to discuss unconscious cognition. The self is a controversial topic. I encourage Sam Harris' book Waking Up, Chapter 2, on this topic: &lt;a href=&quot;https://samharris.org/books/waking-up/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://samharris.org/books/waking-up/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-05-27T08:11:05.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23330" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23310" CreationDate="2019-05-27T10:10:25.407" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What do you mean by motivating yourself on demand? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you mean you are completely take responsibility for yourself, then Cameron Brick's answer is better than me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if you mean you can proactively seek for an external factor as your &lt;strong&gt;extrinsic motivation&lt;/strong&gt;, then yes, why not? People do that all the time. I suppose one reason to hire tutor is to have them to set discipline for yourself, right? Services like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.beeminder.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beeminder&lt;/a&gt; can charge users money if they fail to achieve a result before a deadline. Does that count as motivating yourself on demand?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2019-05-27T10:10:25.407" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23332" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-27T13:32:12.430" Score="7" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;Kahneman (2011) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;apparently suggests&lt;/a&gt; there is system 1 and system 2 in decision making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If I am not wrong he says system 1 is &lt;strong&gt;more prone to error&lt;/strong&gt;s because it is automatic. &lt;strong&gt;Is this correct assumption of mine?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If yes, next question I have is: Is system1 related to unconcious? If yes, then isn't there a conflict between above assumption and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_thought_theory&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; one:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;that unconscious thought (UT) is better at solving complex tasks,&#xA;where many variables are considered, than conscious thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if UT is related to System 1, then doesn't it contradict Kahnemans view that System 1 is more prone to errors (because if it is prone to errors according to Kahneman how is it better at decision making according to Wiki)? Needless to say there are articles which don't agree with wiki article I linked. This one for example: Acker (2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Acker, F. (2008). New findings on unconscious versus conscious thought in decision making: Additional empirical data and meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Judgment and Decision Making, 3&lt;/em&gt;(4), 292-303.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kahneman, D. (2011). &lt;em&gt;Thinking, Fast and Slow&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23323" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-02-14T05:27:41.080" Title="System 1 and unconsious" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23333" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-27T14:38:24.177" Score="0" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;While trying to fall asleep on night, I was wondering what my strategy would be if I was challenged to a competition where the goal was to fall asleep as fast as possible once I was lying in bed. The only degree of freedom would be thoughts. I.e., we assume I can't take a sleeping pill or exploit any other external factors (which are assumed to be averaged out).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What thinking strategies would likely yield the best results in terms of sleep latency? We're considering an average person here (i.e., not a person with special circumstances like insomnia or a biological predisposition/talent for falling asleep immediately). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That rumination will lead to the complete opposite effect has been documented in several studies (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886902001204&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here's one among many&lt;/a&gt;) and is also intuitive. It has also been shown that &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.324.4175&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gratitude reduces sleep latency&lt;/a&gt;. For me personally, imagining myself in cozy environments (e.g., a treehouse covered in moss) has been more effective than any other strategy (including mindfulness, trying to think about nothing, counting and others). The worst thought strategy for me was observing the process of falling asleep and I've never been able to fall asleep while in this mode of thinking (while I have been able to with heavy rumination in some cases).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides gratitude, have there been other thinking modes that have proven effective or are likely to be effective to minimize sleep latency? Perhaps there are other common themes in the positive psychology literature that pose likely candidates. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3379" LastActivityDate="2019-05-27T14:38:24.177" Title="What thoughts should one contemplate to minimize sleep latency?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-thinking&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23334" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23326" CreationDate="2019-05-27T15:53:58.117" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question: Are the images just a collection of neurons firing?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Answer:&lt;/strong&gt; Evidence from clinical neurology and cognitive neuroscience at present shows that all mental activities, not just the image of a banana, occur from neural firings. Without neural firings, no mental activities can occur. What’s more, when the neural firings change, the mental activities invariably change accordingly. That’s why mental activities change whenever neural firings change because of diseases affecting their neural circuits (stroke, trauma, tumor, encephalitis, hypoglycemia, migraine aura, epileptic activity, neurotransmission-interfering drugs, etc.) or because of electrical or magnetic stimulation to the neural circuits. There has never been a scientific report documenting a mental activity occurring by itself without neural firings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, one can postulate that a mental image is something that occurs separately and additionally to the neural firing or one can postulate that a mental image is something that occurs inherently in the neural firing without any additional entity occurring. At present, I think there is no consensus on this yet. But, in my opinion, I favor the second case as some authors do. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5020606/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Moutoussis K (ref 1)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;em&gt;“… a specific brain–activation pattern, leading to the formation of a specific percept. …  specific, individual perceptual experiences are caused by specific, individual brain activation pattern …”&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/374/2063/20150152.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Roederer JG (ref 2)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;em&gt;“when does a specific distribution of neural firings actually become a mental image? This neural activity distribution does not become anything – it is the image.”&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ukachoke C (ref 3)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;em&gt;“…a mental process is the information-processing process, which is an entity that functionally occurs intrinsically in the physical neural process, not an additional entity that occurs separately from the neural process…”&lt;/em&gt;. (If you’re interested in more detailed discussion, you can read &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ref 3&lt;/a&gt;; I think it provides a good, systematic, and evidence-based argument for the case.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question: It&lt;/strong&gt; (the mental image of banana) &lt;strong&gt;doesn't feel physical, but for me to be able to see it, it must be physical, right? Are the images in our heads physical?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Answer:&lt;/strong&gt; This, the mental image of banana, is an interesting phenomenon that’s baffled philosophers, neuroscientists, and others who ponder over it for a long time. It (the mental image of banana) and other similar phenomena, such as the sound of the note C, the odor of the rose, and the feeling of a pinprick, that occur in our minds are called &lt;strong&gt;qualia [ref 4, ref 5, ref 6, ref 7]&lt;/strong&gt;. Each has unique phenomenal characteristics that cannot be described by other phenomena and has to be experienced directly to know what it is like: what the mental image of banana is like, what the sound of the note C is like, what the odor of the rose is like, etc. (You never can describe these phenomena to anyone who has never had experiences of similar kinds of phenomena before, such as, you never can describe what the color red is like to the congenitally blind person, etc.) Again, at present, I don’t think there is a consensus on what qualia are. So, whether they are physical phenomena or not are still unsettled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, some author argues that qualia are physical phenomena and actually are just special kinds of information in the nervous system that neural circuits use to communicate some special information among them. These special kinds of information can occur from neural firings in some special ways. Because neurons are firing in some special ways, special kinds of information with those baffling phenomenal characteristics (vision, sound, odor, etc. in our mind) can occur. This is how qualia (including the mental image of banana) occur in the brain. If this is the case and if we count information as a physical entity, then qualia are physical entities. But they are not conventional physical entities like mass, energy, or force, because they are a different kind of physical entities – they are information entities. That’s why they (including the mental image of banana) don’t feel physical to you. (If you’re interested in more detailed discussion, you can read &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-3/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article (ref 8)&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Moutoussis K. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5020606/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The machine behind the stage: A neurobiological approach toward theoretical issues of sensory perception.&lt;/a&gt; Front Psychol. 2016;7:1357. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Roederer JG. &lt;a href=&quot;http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/374/2063/20150152.long&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pragmatic information in biology and physics.&lt;/a&gt; Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci. 2016 Mar 13;374(2063). PII: 20150152. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ukachoke C. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Theorem II: The Mind is the Composite of All Information-processing Processes of the Brain&lt;/a&gt;. In: The Basic Theory of the Mind. 1st ed, 2018. Bangkok, Thailand.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kanai R, Tsuchiya N. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(12)00320-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Qualia.&lt;/a&gt; Current Biology. 2012 May;22(10):392–396. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tye M. &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/qualia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Qualia.&lt;/a&gt; Zalta EN, editor. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kind A. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iep.utm.edu/qualia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Qualia.&lt;/a&gt; Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qualia&amp;amp;direction=prev&amp;amp;oldid=776191840&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Qualia.&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ukachoke C. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-3/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 3 – Qualia, Conscious Awareness, and Conscious Experiences&lt;/a&gt;. In: The Basic Theory of the Mind. 1st ed, 2018. Bangkok, Thailand.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-05-27T15:53:58.117" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23335" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23325" CreationDate="2019-05-27T20:25:23.550" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This would actually be the scientific approach, which has been well established for centuries:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The concept of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Types&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Memory&lt;/a&gt; - in the field of cognitive science&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Especially the differentiation between &lt;strong&gt;recall&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;recognition&lt;/strong&gt;. Also &lt;strong&gt;Flashbulb memories&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;Eureka effect&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;and especially &lt;strong&gt;Priming&lt;/strong&gt;! &#xA;are all related to preconscious or subliminal concepts&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anatomy related to memory is the (ancient) Hippocampus (which also does random activation as a process) and also the Cortex (especially prefrontal cortex) for self-awareness and consciousness.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Because of the question, in how far my answer is related&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well to say that in the long lasting field of &lt;strong&gt;cognitive sciences&lt;/strong&gt; the concept of unconsciousness is not really of a main topic, because things like Priming (which all relates to things that happened in the past and therefore always involves memory) or Eureka-Effect are inherently related to un- or subconscious processes. The wikipedia article on memory is describing concepts that are common in acedemic psychology for at least 50 years. &#xA;Example: If you ask someone if he/she can remember a certain word that has been shown to them 5 min. ago (an example of the work of cognitive scientists including mathematics), this information is probably available in the persons, but it might not be retreivable in that moment - and in common language you would say that you are not conscious about that information. Priming describes this process of knowing about something, while not being aware of knowing it. So the word consciousness itself is not sufficient in describing the manifold processes that are happening. &#xA;But surely all human related aspects like consciousness, memory, behavior, physiology, emotions and so on are interconnected with one-another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another important aspects - the brain is &lt;strong&gt;auto-activating&lt;/strong&gt; and 'always-on' and is just a giant filter machine. Everything is running in parallel and is subconsciously active in an abstract layer of anatomically connections (especially involving the prefrontal cortex) or electromagnetic signals coding information over time or on any other layer that is involved in the brain as a whole. You can compare consciousness as some kind of tip of the iceberg, when a thought is strongly activated and reaches some kind of threshold. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23229" LastEditorUserId="23229" LastEditDate="2019-05-29T15:32:47.437" LastActivityDate="2019-05-29T15:32:47.437" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23336" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-27T20:46:38.087" Score="1" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;Katz &amp;amp; Kahn defined the interrole conflict as a conflict between two roles that are incompatibles, or when more than one person has the same role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had a question today in an exam about role conflicts induced stress in the workplace and wondered if someone could shed some light about this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Its a true/false question that goes like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;A policeman is in a situation where he must rescue someone while risking his own security.&#xA;This is an interrole conflict. (T/F)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wrote false, because the question does not imply the policeman necessarily has other roles in conflict with this one. For example what if he doesn't have any family, any friends, etc.? But I ain't sure! Is simply being alive an implicit role? Is being healthy and in a state of security a role?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Isn't it more an intra role conflict then? In the sense his job probably doesn't ask for him having to put his own security at risk? I found this one quite difficult to answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like some opinions on this! I want to understand this correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks a lot for any help!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23326" LastActivityDate="2019-05-27T20:46:38.087" Title="Question about interrole conflict" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;workload&gt;&lt;conflict&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23343" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4814" CreationDate="2019-05-29T00:09:13.077" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Narcissism may be petty by definition. For example, materialism plays to the desire of admiration in Narcissistic Personality Disorder. More generally, I'd associate it with a certain kind of maturity deficit. Such are common in Cluster B personality disorders and not just Narcissistic Personality Disorder:&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/neurosagacity/201702/how-tell-youre-dealing-malignant-narcissist&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Notes on Narcissistic Personality Disorder&lt;/a&gt;. So, Envy would be one component. Failure to tolerate any criticism. Rash responses, temper tantrums. Keeping up with the Jonses'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From this I'd expect pettiness to correspond with relatively low Openness to experience, low Agreeableness, High Neuroticism. Most petty people I've known aren't especially Extroverted. Conscientiousness overlaps in Narcissism in odd ways. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Low Openness, and High Neuroticism tends to correspond with Low Fluid Intelligence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I'm not sure if pettiness itself can be measured directly, but I think measures of the Big 5 Personality Traits and Fluid Intelligence can be used to indicate this quality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/insight-is-2020/201807/what-makes-some-narcissists-mean-competitive-and-jealous&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Some Notes on Meanness in Narcissism from Psychology Today&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23339" LastEditorUserId="23339" LastEditDate="2019-05-29T14:42:02.127" LastActivityDate="2019-05-29T14:42:02.127" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23348" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23299" CreationDate="2019-05-30T04:55:12.733" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199534067.001.0001/acref-9780199534067-e-8270&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;target&lt;/a&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A stimulus that a research participant or subject is searching for or&#xA;  trying to concentrate on, and that in research is often accompanied by&#xA;  distractors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199534067.001.0001/acref-9780199534067-e-3226&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;foil&lt;/a&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In research methodology, another name for a distractor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in a multiple choice question, the correct answer is the &quot;target&quot;, and the rest are &quot;foils&quot; or distractors.  This is similar to a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_lineup&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;police lineup&lt;/a&gt;, where the suspect is the &quot;target&quot;, and the rest are &quot;foils&quot; or fillers.  &quot;Foil&quot; and &quot;distractor&quot; are synonyms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-05-30T04:55:12.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23349" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-30T15:23:20.737" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can you please illustrate the difference between the psychosis and the schizophrenia? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23330" LastActivityDate="2019-05-30T15:46:41.213" Title="Difference between psychosis and schizophrenia" Tags="&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23350" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23349" CreationDate="2019-05-30T15:46:41.213" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychosis is part of schizophrenia, and it can be part of other psychiatric disorders, too. Psychosis is a concept that describes specific symptoms. Schizophrenia is a mental illness that has psychotic features. When broken down into symptoms, the notion of schizophrenia vs psychosis makes sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychosis isn’t a mental disorder by itself. Instead, specific features define the experience psychologists call psychosis. Some of the psychotic symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, confusion, and confused speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22063" LastActivityDate="2019-05-30T15:46:41.213" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23351" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-05-30T19:01:11.663" Score="0" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read about OCEAN (or The big five or FFM) on Wikipedia and I'm intrigued. I would like to have a categorisation of attributes describing a personality according to the model. Since we have a lot of attributes and this is a potentially subjective for each attribute if you were to add any measure of intensity, I wanted to ask if you know any source, preferably a scientific one, where this has been done already. (A non-scientific source could be a categorisation done in a blog about character design in novels, for example.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19267" LastActivityDate="2019-07-13T01:01:45.210" Title="Categorisation of attributes according to OCEAN" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23355" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9400" CreationDate="2019-05-31T06:42:29.313" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is little research and no generally accepted definition of study addiction to date, such behavior has been analyzed within research into workaholism. The 'work addiction’ (i.e., workaholism) perspective, helped Dr. Cecilie Andreassen and her colleagues define study addiction (i.e., learning addiction) in a 2014 article of the Journal of Managerial Psychology as: &lt;em&gt;“Being overly concerned with studying, to be driven by an uncontrollable studying motivation, and to put so much energy and effort into studying that it impairs private relationships, spare-time activities, and/or health”.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22063" LastActivityDate="2019-05-31T06:42:29.313" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23356" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23332" CreationDate="2019-05-31T12:42:16.333" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are correct in System 1 being more prone to errors as it relies on emotional experiences in the moment along with stereotypes and frequency of event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;System 2&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You wouldn’t expect someone to  quickly ( in a matter of seconds ) spit out the answer to the question “calculate the mass of this (random) object” if the person has never experienced this object before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;System 1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You would expect someone to apply the brake when they see a red light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Kahneman (2011) System 1 is brought on by emotional experience and in the moment thought. This is a stronger and faster experience than that of which system 2 is capable of overriding. System 2 takes time to meditate a plan or course of action whereas system 1 is more of an immediate response. This delay in response would therefore suggest the latency between the workings of both systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is of course my interpretation of his book “Thinking, Fast and Slow” and has room for subjective debate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He does provide wonderful examples pertaining to stock brokers and their tendency to follow the hype of the crowd and sell when it is often best to ride it out. I do not have the book currently on hand but will comment the reference when i have it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kahneman, D. (2011). &lt;em&gt;Thinking, Fast and Slow&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23112" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-02-14T05:27:41.080" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23357" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23361" CreationDate="2019-05-31T13:46:45.700" Score="1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder if what happened with my son(6yo) is a matter of concern or just a coincidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think I need to give a bit of background to help analyze what happened.&#xA;We are an Arab family live in the UK, majority of my town is of European/Caucasian ethnicity, although there are few Arab families we know about, but we don't really communicate much.&#xA;He is the only student who speaks Arabic in his class (there are Polish and maybe other European languages), I don't know about the rest of the school, but if I guess, there isn't in this school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Me and him were in the car, I was looking for a place to park, and just went by a car park but it wasn't available for normal parking (contract parking).&#xA;I said: We can't park here.&#xA;He said: Why? Is it because we speak Arabic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the beginning I laughed, and told him there is no such thing, but couple of seconds later I was wondering, how would he develop such idea?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this might sound like a troll, but I swear that what really happened, and I am concerned if my son is facing any acts of racism/discrimination, maybe in the school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23359" LastActivityDate="2019-05-31T16:35:16.520" Title="At what age a child would develop a sense of racism or a minority discrimination?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;racism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23358" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23360" CreationDate="2019-05-31T14:38:45.783" Score="1" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;Theory of Mind involves understanding another person's knowledge, beliefs, emotions, and intentions and applying that knowledge to navigate the social world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22063" LastActivityDate="2019-05-31T15:38:59.813" Title="Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23360" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23358" CreationDate="2019-05-31T15:38:59.813" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Theory of mind refers to an ability to recognize that others have a mind, and that others may have knowledge/beliefs/motivations that are different from their own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Children (and adults) with autism as a group have deficits in tests meant to assay theory of mind, though of course the degree of impairment depends on the individual and different tests may give different results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tests that assay theory of mind are often dependent on other skills, however, including language and visual social skills (such as eye contact) that are also often impaired with autism, making it more difficult to separate out those related skills from theory of mind itself. However, even after controlling for language skills, people with autism still have deficits in theory of mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think it is correct to think of theory of mind as a binary yes/no, although some approaches to the concept do treat it as such. Neurotypically developing children show different elements of the theory of mind at different stages of development. Sometimes theory of mind is separated into &quot;orders&quot;, where higher functioning people with autism tend to have more issues with second-order theory of mind, where one recognizes not only that someone else has a mind of their own but also that a third person is able to think about that person's thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some individuals with autism who have theory of mind deficits are still able to develop skills to cope and can understand cognitively that others have minds different from their own. Importantly, however, &quot;theory of mind&quot; itself refers to an innate cognitive ability, sort of a natural or automatic accounting for the thoughts of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., &amp;amp; Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”?. Cognition, 21(1), 37-46.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baron‐Cohen, S., Jolliffe, T., Mortimore, C., &amp;amp; Robertson, M. (1997). Another advanced test of theory of mind: Evidence from very high functioning adults with autism or Asperger syndrome. Journal of Child psychology and Psychiatry, 38(7), 813-822.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baron-Cohen, S. (2000). Theory of mind and autism: A fifteen year review. Understanding other minds: Perspectives from developmental cognitive neuroscience, 2, 3-20.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frith, U., &amp;amp; Happé, F. (1994). Autism: Beyond “theory of mind”. Cognition, 50(1-3), 115-132.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., &amp;amp; Rogers, S. J. (1991). Executive function deficits in high‐functioning autistic individuals: relationship to theory of mind. Journal of child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32(7), 1081-1105.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-05-31T15:38:59.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23361" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23357" CreationDate="2019-05-31T16:35:16.520" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Children as young as two to three years old are able to pick up on racial categories and stereotypes, and to infer that others' behavior is driven by race (also gender and other categories).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, at that age children are actively exploring causes in the world of all types, so a comment asking about Arabic language does not mean that a child is experiencing extensive discrimination due to race - on the other hand, I think it would be naive to think anyone with any minority characteristic is not experiencing &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; discrimination ever, especially in comments from other kids who are themselves learning about the world and other people. It also could have been something overheard on TV, it could have been from a &lt;em&gt;discussion&lt;/em&gt; of discrimination rather than an &lt;em&gt;experience&lt;/em&gt;, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Corenblum, B., &amp;amp; Annis, R. C. (1993). Development of racial identity in minority and majority children: An affect discrepancy model. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 25(4), 499.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hirschfeld, L. A. (2008). Children’s developing conceptions of race. Handbook of race, racism, and the developing child, 37-54.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Katz, P. A., &amp;amp; Kofkin, J. A. (1997). Race, gender, and young children. Developmental psychopathology: Perspectives on adjustment, risk, and disorder, 21, 51-74.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pauker, K., Ambady, N., &amp;amp; Apfelbaum, E. P. (2010). Race salience and essentialist thinking in racial stereotype development. Child Development, 81(6), 1799-1813.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taylor, R. G. (1966). Racial stereotypes in young children. The Journal of Psychology, 64(2), 137-142.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-05-31T16:35:16.520" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23364" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23366" CreationDate="2019-05-31T20:56:54.227" Score="2" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that the person-centred therapy is based on humanistic psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humanistic psychology is sceptical about the use of the scientific method to study human behaviour. Rogers (1965, p. 190) said that: 'it is the dedicated, personal search of a disciplined, open-minded individual which discovers and creates new knowledge ... no refinement of laboratory or statistical method can do this.' &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding this I understand that the research for humanistic is mostly qualitative and not quantitative. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would you refer to as evidence/research for person-centred therapy? Is there any official manual for it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rogers, C. R. (1965). Some Thoughts Regarding the Current Philosophy of the Behavioral Sciences. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 5(2), 182–194. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786500500207&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786500500207&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastEditorUserId="23189" LastEditDate="2019-06-01T10:54:42.003" LastActivityDate="2019-06-01T14:46:25.543" Title="Are there any official guidelines of person-centred therapy?" Tags="&lt;scientific-psychology&gt;&lt;person-centered-therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23366" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23364" CreationDate="2019-06-01T12:27:36.117" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humanistic approaches to psychotherapy are &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19792&quot;&gt;wide ranging&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/humanistic.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not just person-centred therapy&lt;/a&gt;.  Some allow the scientific approach into the therapeutic discussion, and some don't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person Centred Therapy (PCT) is very different to the Freudian approach to therapy, and how the therapy is provided will be dependent on the form of therapy the therapist works within — &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/integrative-therapy.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;integrative&lt;/a&gt; or pure person-centred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Is there any official manual?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no &amp;quot;official manual&amp;quot; I know of, but you can gain a lot of knowledge on the person-centred approach by reading Mearns, et al. (2013) which was a core reading material in one of the years of my training in integrative psychotherapy.  There is also a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=24d-FEptYj8&amp;amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;amp;t=184&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;YouTube copy of an old documentary&lt;/a&gt; showing Carl Rogers demonstrating PCT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference with PCT compared to other forms of therapy is that therapy is not led by the therapist.  Therapy and the sessions are led purely by the client and what they wish to bring to the session — hence the name Person-Centred Therapy.  From a pure person-centred approach, you are not necessarily completely shunning the scientific approach to therapy.  You are just not pushing the scientific approach to therapy towards the client.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Distrust of experts runs deep among person-centred practitioners.  The person-centred counsellor must learn to wear her expertise as an invisible garment in order to be an effective counsellor (Mearns, et al., 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/person-centred-therapy.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Counselling Directory (n.d.)&lt;/a&gt; also points out the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some psychotherapeutic approaches, the therapist and their observations are deemed ‘expert’. The person-centred approach moves away from this idea, and instead trusts that we have an innate tendency to find fulfilment in our own personal potentials (self-actualisation). By facilitating this, the approach helps the client to recognise their own capacity for not only self-healing, but personal growth too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;What would you refer to as evidence/research for person-centred therapy?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't found a PDF or other form of access to the article as of yet, but according the the abstract, &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.b.ebscohost.com/abstract?direct=true&amp;amp;profile=ehost&amp;amp;scope=site&amp;amp;authtype=crawler&amp;amp;jrnl=00131172&amp;amp;AN=4727029&amp;amp;h=rSwMkZU89iHytMVTOLqXv3TTZ%2BUszpoiGGzCQn3JBSve1iJSdLMmh8dODXeHdwWRgRJwcJwTl0BBQxWmgn7ghg%3D%3D&amp;amp;crl=c&amp;amp;resultNs=AdminWebAuth&amp;amp;resultLocal=ErrCrlNotAuth&amp;amp;crlhashurl=login.aspx%3Fdirect%3Dtrue%26profile%3Dehost%26scope%3Dsite%26authtype%3Dcrawler%26jrnl%3D00131172%26AN%3D4727029&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rogers (1979)&lt;/a&gt; discusses the theory and research behind this approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some may consider this form of therapy to be pseudoscientific as it doesn't follow the Popper classification of science (Popper, 1959 &amp;amp; 1963), and some believe that although Rogers put the approach forward as a different form of therapy, it should be seen as a way of working as a therapist in all therapies — with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers#Incongruence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;congruence&lt;/a&gt;, empathy and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditional_positive_regard&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;unconditional positive regard&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly though, in an encounter group run by Carl Rogers, he said there were times when he had to break all his own rules, emphasising that it was more important to be spontaneous and real than to be carefully empathic or relentlessly unconditionally positively regarding – meaning that sometimes he would violate the core principles of his own theory of PCT.  He might direct a person on what they must do or tell them forcibly that what they were doing was wrong (Geraghty, 2016).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Counselling Directory (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;Person-centred therapy&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/person-centred-therapy.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/person-centred-therapy.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Geraghty, A. (2016). We need to talk about love. &lt;em&gt;Therapy Today 27&lt;/em&gt;(1), pp. 20-23.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mearns, D., Thorne, B. &amp;amp; McLeod, J. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Person-Centred Counselling in Action, 4th Edition (Counselling in Action Series)&lt;/em&gt;. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Popper, K. P. (1959). The Logic of Scientific Discovery. New York: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Popper, K. P. (1963). Science as Falsification. In Conjectures and Refutations, New York: Routledge and Keagan Paul, pp. 33-39&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rogers, C. R. (1979). The Foundations of the Person-Centered Approach. &lt;em&gt;Education, 100&lt;/em&gt;(2), 98-107.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-06-01T14:46:25.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23367" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-02T06:01:22.453" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am being contacted by a stranger for having some understandings about a psychological disorder (in this case, BPD). I will help them what I know, in my ability, but I want to avoid the assumption that I know the best, or any unintended harm on their therapy. I think the form of this support has been around for a long time, and basically we can rely on common sense to operate. However, is there a complete guideline for kind of situation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2019-06-02T06:01:22.453" Title="Is there any guideline on how a layman giving support for another layman on their psychological problems?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23373" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-03T11:31:09.480" Score="3" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ever since I left high school I kept reading and being told that it was of great importance to look for a job that alignes with one’s passion. Brochures distributed by both high schools and universities were stressing the need to choose the right subject; and judging from newspaper articles even a new profession had appeared, namely the “carrier advisor”, who was supposed to help high school graduates find the job or course that was aligned with their talents and passions. While I can’t remember this explicitely stated, I have feeling that it was implicetly assumed that one’s passion was not subject to their conscious choice, rather it had been predetermined (by genes? environmental influences in early childhood? I don’t know), and so it was important that one correctly discovers what really interests them and what they are really talented at.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the field of IT I kept hearing similar stuff. Namely, I witnessed quite a few times when an experienced programmer was straightly recommending someone to not continue pursuing qualifications in this field. The arguments were usually along the lines of this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If you have to make yourself programming or learning to program, if you don’t program because you deeply love this work and wouldn't go for a higher paid job even if you had an opportunity - do yourself a favor and find a different job. If you like programming in your spare time, do yourself a favor and keep it as a hobby. Going to this profession because it is well-paid is a major misunderstanding. You will soon hate your job so much that the very thought of sitting in front of the computer again will make you want to vomit. You might even become a decent programmer, but you will never be a great one, and those are paid best – so you will not even be getting the proper money you want in exchange for your wasting of your health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember university trainers also saying something similar, however, they were putting more emphasis on the need to have the proper innate talents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I kind of accepted the above as facts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, then I asked a man I know who is a psychologist and, as far as I'm aware, is highly respected in his field. To my surprise he told me something entirely contrary:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Go ask a miner if he has a deep passion for his job and if he loves it so much that he wouldn’t exchenge it for a more highly paid one even if he could. He will tell you, ‘F*** off, I do this because I have a wife and kids to feed, I hate my job!’ And yet the society needs miners. All this talk about the need to find a job aligned to one’s passions completely ignores the simple fact that the main purpose of having a job is not to fulfill one’s passions but to make a living. While it is good to have a job one also has a passion for, this is a secondary goal, only to be pursued after one has already achieved financial stability. Ironically, those who reject the opportunity to work at a stable, relatively convenient and well-paid job because they choose to pursue their dreams to be, say, musicians or athletes or any other high-risk occupation often fail and have to work in a lowly qualified, poorly paid, tiresome and inconvenient jobs that do not even give them opportunities to pursue their hobbies in spare time. I also do not believe that IT is any different – on the contrary, a passionless job in IT might provide one necessary foundations to start trying to requalify.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I must say I'm confused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To add one last thing to the mix. In the Uni we were told that symbolic operations, commonly found in computer science, mathematics, programming, and the likes, are not what our brains evolved to and, therefore, they are &lt;em&gt;painful&lt;/em&gt; for our brains and one has to force themselves to perform such operations; as opposed to e.g. pattern-matching our brains like to do and are good at. Thus, people usually do not like, do not want and will not perform symbolic operations unless this innate aversion is offset by necessity or rewarded by satisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I’m now left with 4 hypotheses, not sure which one (if any) is correct…&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is unconditionally necessary for a job to be aligned with one’s passions, otherwise their quality of life and satisfaction will suffer greatly. (But the miner example! – on the other hand, I remember having read that many people are farmers out of deep passion rather than necessity, so maybe it also applies to lowly qualified, physical labors?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A person may work physically without deep passion – this will be suboptimal but not unsustainable. As many people work at McDonald’s. However, highly qualified, intellectual work actually requires deep passion, because otherwise the subjectively felt urge to not work in this field and rather find something else to do may become unendurable.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This requirement to have a deep passion for one’s work is a trait appurtenant to intellectual work that requires symbolic opperations, like mathematics, programming or science; a person may, however, do a more humanities-related intellectual work out of pragmatism rather than passion.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The need to have a passion for one’s job is being over-emphasised regardless of the scope; it is first and foremost required to find any job that allows one to make a living and it is possible to work at such a job even without passion. Then, and only then, a passion may be pursued.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suppose this topic had to be tackled by experts? What is the correct answer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23377" LastActivityDate="2020-03-11T13:34:05.780" Title="How important is it to have a job that is aligned with one’s passion?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2020-03-11T16:18:43.410" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23374" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-03T13:24:57.227" Score="2" ViewCount="222" Body="&lt;p&gt;The need to accept one's faults and shortcomings; or accept oneself in whole, with all faults and shortcomings; or self-acceptance is being repeatedly stressed by psychologists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I've always had problems with this. Whenever I was hearing something along the lines of &quot;acceptance is a necessary precondition of change&quot; from a professional therapists I would usually start arguing with him. This is what was reaching me:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To be able to change something in your life you must decide you want to change nothing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So for example, an alcohol addict must decide he will continue drinking until he meets his grave in order to be able to stop drinking? This seemed to me to be either an oxymoron or a particularly twisted form of self-delusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today I read in a newspaper an interview with a professional psychologist and dietician, who was criticizing people who oppose the promotion of self-acceptance among obese people. She elaborated that the dichotomy between obese people accepting their bodies and the fact that obesity is unhealthy and is a both personal and societal problem to be solved is a false one. She pointed out that people who think that way are thinking stereotypically, that this stems from lack of knowledge, that this is a way people cope with cognitive dissonances, etc etc. She claimed that according to research positive motivation is far better than negative motivation that stems from the society rejecting obese people and from obese people not accepting their bodies; instead, if the society accepts obese people and obese people accept themselves, we will take a step closer towards solving the problem of obesity. She explicitly claimed that this does not mean, contrary to a popular belief, that an obese people will not wish to lose weight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ah. So apparently, contrary to what I was understanding, &quot;acceptance&quot; in the mouths of psychologists does not mean &quot;decision not to change&quot;. Then what does &quot;acceptance&quot; mean?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/accept&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;These are the definitions of '&lt;em&gt;accept&lt;/em&gt;' according to the Cambridge Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to agree to take something&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to say yes to an offer or invitation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to consider something or someone as satisfactory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;to believe that something is true&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definitions 1-2 seem clearly not relevant here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definition 3 seems to me to be this exact faulty definition that I had in mind and that was preventing me from understanding was psychologists were really trying to communicate. For example, I suppose, the verb &quot;accept&quot; is used here in the same definition as in the sentence &quot;*The editorial board rejected Mr. Smith's paper two times already, but finally &lt;em&gt;accepted&lt;/em&gt; the third revision for publication*&quot;. So the paper had to be changed two times until finally it was deemed satisfactory and no longer in need of change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, definition 4, while not &lt;em&gt;obviously&lt;/em&gt; inapplicable, nonetheless doesn't seem to be relevant here: I have feeling psychologists, when they are saying that obese people should accept themselves, don't actually mean &quot;&lt;em&gt;obese people should stop deluding themselves into thinking they are thin&lt;/em&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, what does a psychologist mean when they say &quot;&lt;em&gt;acceptance&lt;/em&gt;&quot; or &quot;&lt;em&gt;to accept&lt;/em&gt;&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19207" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-06-03T18:55:20.187" LastActivityDate="2019-06-04T18:26:32.420" Title="What does it mean to &quot;accept my shortcomings&quot;?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23375" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23374" CreationDate="2019-06-03T15:30:38.590" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suppose the word &quot;accept&quot; you hear comes from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;acceptance and commitment therapy&lt;/a&gt;, or ACT. According to the link, the healthy attitudes towards the problem (e.g. obesity) are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A&lt;/strong&gt;ccept your reactions and be present&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt;hoose a valued direction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;T&lt;/strong&gt;ake action&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to answer your question, it is about &lt;strong&gt;accepting your reactions&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;your emotions&lt;/strong&gt; about the problem, not the problem itself. An obese person can be shame, guilt or embarrass about their obseity, and they want to avoid such emotions. This, according to my understanding about the approach, means that they want to avoid facing the truth that they are obese, and thus the action to change cannot be followed. By accepting such emotions, they can dissipate them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, it's not about you want to change nothing, nor finding the problematic situation satisfactory, nor believing you don't have such problem, but about &lt;strong&gt;accepting the negative emotions when facing the reality&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-06-04T18:26:32.420" LastActivityDate="2019-06-04T18:26:32.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23376" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-03T18:41:12.980" Score="3" ViewCount="267" Body="&lt;p&gt;Occasionally I meet people who say that they are sexually attracted to X group of people (e.g. men) and romantically attracted to Y group of people, X and Y not being the same (Sometimes they overlap, e.g. a bisexual person who is only romantically attracted to people of the opposite gender,but sometimes not at all). Recently I got into an argument with a friend about to what extent this viewpoint (i.e. to what extent such separation is real vs. imagined) is supported by professional researchers and by hard data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a variety of old articles regarding distinguishing between the different neurological and evolutionary bases for these being different separate systems:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1019888024255&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1019888024255&lt;/a&gt;) Defining the Brain Systems of Lust, Romantic Attraction, and Attachment&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1986-21992-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1986-21992-001&lt;/a&gt;) A triangular theory of love.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and a couple articles from Lisa Diamond which specifically address whether these two modes of attraction can diverge:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.173&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.173&lt;/a&gt;) What does sexual orientation orient? A biobehavioral model distinguishing romantic love and sexual desire.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00287.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00287.x&lt;/a&gt;) Emerging Perspectives on Distinctions Between Romantic Love and Sexual Desire&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the lattermost article, Diamond argues in the abstract &quot;not only can humans experience these feelings separately, but an individual's sexual predisposition for the same sex, the other sex, or both sexes may not circumscribe his or her capacity to fall in love with partners of either gender.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diamond's work, being the work most directly addressing the question, seems to give a pretty direct answer - yes, this separation a real thing. The articles are &lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt; highly cited, making me think that this viewpoint is viewed favorably throughout the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, my friend is not convinced and demands further evidence. I've had trouble finding more research or data that follows up on this topic one way or another. Is there more recent research or data on this question that follows up or supports Diamond's work? Diamond herself admits that she doesn't have much hard-data to draw upon at the time (over 15 years ago).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23378" LastActivityDate="2019-06-03T18:41:12.980" Title="Separation of romantic and sexual attraction" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;love&gt;&lt;attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23377" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-03T19:42:21.580" Score="0" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone has a miserable childhood and has Dysthymia, but then they suffer from amnesia and forget everything, are they cured of their depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23380" LastActivityDate="2019-06-03T19:42:21.580" Title="Does amnesia cure depression?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;amnesia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23380" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23410" CreationDate="2019-06-04T17:54:49.160" Score="4" ViewCount="171" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any cognitive disability or disfunction that impairs both speech production and listening comprehension, while reading and writing skills are at a normal level or better?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23387" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-06-09T06:00:50.847" LastActivityDate="2019-06-09T06:04:26.223" Title="Impaired verbal communication, but normal reading and writing skills?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;speech-comprehension&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23381" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23382" CreationDate="2019-06-05T06:09:26.387" Score="1" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do humans really feel that a \$99 price tag is significantly lower than a \$100 one?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this phenomenon and research supporting it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user16005" LastActivityDate="2019-06-05T07:02:19.237" Title="Do humans really feel that a \$99 price tag is significantly lower than a \$100 one?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23382" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23381" CreationDate="2019-06-05T07:02:19.237" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia page of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_pricing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychological Pricing&lt;/a&gt; giving this chart:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JpWUs.png&quot; alt=&quot;image description&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kaushik Basu used game theory in 1997 to argue that rational consumers value their own time and effort at calculation. Such consumers process the price from left to right and tend to mentally replace the last two digits of the price with an estimate of the mean &quot;cent component&quot; of all goods in the marketplace. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also related on UX Stack Exchange: &lt;a href=&quot;https://ux.stackexchange.com/q/42649/52226&quot;&gt;Is there any advantage in marketing my product for £99.99 instead of £100?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2019-06-05T07:02:19.237" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23383" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5604" CreationDate="2019-06-05T16:34:20.877" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I proposed people have false beliefs for lying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, an insurance agent may say that their product is good even though their product is bad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, the false beliefs, if it is false, only hurt the customers. The insurance agent doesn't lose money if the customers buy the overpriced product.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference between false beliefs and lying is thin. Here, because the insurance agent is not losing money anyway, the insurance agent then truly believe the lie so he can more convincingly convince others of the lie.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most false believes in democratic countries can be thought of as a way to convince people of certain beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, all proponents of Trump believe that Trump is innocent while all opponents of Trump believe that Trump colludes with Russians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, neither truly care about the truth and no evidence will convince them otherwise. They just believe whatever idea that serves their political interests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not the same with &quot;lying&quot;. With normal lying, the &quot;secret&quot; will go out. The &quot;liars&quot; truly believe their lies so they can more easily convince the swing voters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another sample is how useful IQ is for success. The answer is of course yes. However, the left will think that IQ is not essential for success so they can demand bigger governments for teachers' budget.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The right will say that the poor are poor because they are lazy. The idea that most people simply don't have the right genes to success is not entertained because it's politically incorrect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="699" LastActivityDate="2019-06-05T16:34:20.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23384" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-05T20:44:35.883" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a word or a (catch) phrase for the phenomenon that after something (that is often more or less complex, mostly abstract) has a name, it becomes recognisable and usable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example where this happened is the perception of serendipity after the name &quot;serendipity&quot; for the referred henomenon was invented / became popular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may overlap with the baader-meinhof-phenomenon / frequency illusion, but in my experience there is more to it than an illusion, fallacy or bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23394" LastActivityDate="2019-06-05T20:44:35.883" Title="Phrase for: Something needs a name before it can be perceived" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23388" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-06T06:46:09.503" Score="1" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sexual need between partners/couples often grows time to time. Sometimes it crosses the usual duration like it takes more than an hour to satisfy and it may grow more as they continue. But that hampers usual life activities and sometimes the relationship itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there is any disorder or any behavioral term in Psychology and/or Neuroscience to define this growing sexual hunger?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18409" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-06-06T09:29:02.863" LastActivityDate="2019-06-06T23:15:22.633" Title="What term is used to define long duration sexual intercourse addiction/hunger?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23389" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-03T01:13:52.800" Score="0" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I conducted an experiment where I had 20 people complete 100 sentences with only one word. They had to come up with their completion independently of others and could give any answer they thought was suitable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a sample question with responses from 20 people: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yesterday I bought a: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;House&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;(No answer)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sandwich&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Car&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ticket&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sandwich&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;19&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Car&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sandwich&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I now need to measure, how creative every participant was, meaning I want to rate each participant on a certain scale from completely uncreative to absolutely creative (let's say 0 is uncreative, sticks to popular answers and 100 is highly creative with unique answers to every question). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please help me find suitable formula for rating each participant's originality of responses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crucially important: some sentences were left unanswered by some people, meaning total number of answers for a question was smaller. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23374" OwnerDisplayName="Y. Lapin" LastActivityDate="2019-06-06T12:16:39.430" Title="Measuring originality of a person on a sentence completion task" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23390" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23389" CreationDate="2019-06-06T12:16:39.430" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, I am a bit worried about your comment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;(a) They are told to finish a sentence differently of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are they given any other instructions? Do the answers have to &quot;make sense&quot; somehow? What's to stop someone from answering &quot;yesterday I bought a stomach&quot; for instance? That would certainly be unique. You do say they had to have answers they thought were &quot;suitable&quot; but, still, that's a huge range! Maybe not &quot;stomach&quot; but what about &quot;heart lung machine&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, I think you have to precisely define what you mean by &quot;creative&quot;. You say (also in a comment) that &quot;least used words mean higher creativity&quot; but I am not so sure that I agree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, if you want the least used word and you want to account for the &quot;no answers&quot; then one way is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;All no answers get a 0 score on creativity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Call the number of answers (excluding those with no answers) &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$N$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For each answer, call the number of people who gave that answer &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Q_i$&lt;/span&gt; where i ranges from 1 to the number of different answers. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The creativity score of each answer is &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$N/Q_i$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The key is step 4. There are certainly other formulas you could use. Which one to choose depends on what you want the distribution of creativity to look like and whether you thing &quot;only person with this answer&quot; is twice as creative as &quot;one of two people with this answer&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, again, I'd hesitate to call this creativity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23399" LastActivityDate="2019-06-06T12:16:39.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23391" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23393" CreationDate="2019-06-06T15:06:22.490" Score="0" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I once heard of a disorder that described someone that didn't readily understand that others don't know what they know.  So, the person would often start conversations with vague comments about esoteric concepts then become aggravated when other's weren't familiar.  Does this have a name?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23402" LastActivityDate="2019-06-06T16:01:41.357" Title="someone who doesn't grasp that others don't know what they know" Tags="&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23392" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-06T15:19:25.123" Score="2" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently read a few articles pertaining to visual memory. Most of them (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1167/9.10.7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1167/9.10.7&lt;/a&gt;) use the continuous color recall task where they ask participants to recall the color of an object by clicking on a color wheel. They use as measure of error the angular distance between the participant's response and the actual angle on the colorwheel of the object's color.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why use this dependent variable? In the industry, people use deltaE to determine the color difference between a product and a prototype. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wouldn't it make more sense to also use deltaE as dependent variable in psychology? From what I've read, deltaE tries to be accurate for human color perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23401" LastActivityDate="2021-04-19T04:49:06.113" Title="Why is deltaE not used as a measure of error?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23393" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23391" CreationDate="2019-06-06T16:01:41.357" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The skill of understanding that other people have different knowledge, beliefs, etc, falls under the concept of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;theory of mind&lt;/a&gt; (note that the name is possibly a bit misleading...it's not referring to some scientific theory or to philosophy of mind but rather to this ability to understand that others have different minds).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Difficulties with theory of mind are a common aspect of autism, but can arise from other causes as well including schizophrenia. I don't know of a specific term to describe precisely the symptom you are describing, however, and there may not be such a term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-06-06T16:01:41.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23394" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23388" CreationDate="2019-06-06T16:49:08.933" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you're describing delayed orgasm. I've condensed the relevant bits of the following paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282(15)01957-3/fulltext&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Jenkins &amp;amp; Mulhall. Delayed orgasm and anorgasmia. &lt;em&gt;Fertility and Sterility,&lt;/em&gt; 2015; 104(5):1082-1088.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;Delayed orgasm/anorgasmia defined as the persistent or recurrent difficulty, delay in, or absence of attaining orgasm after sufficient sexual stimulation, which causes personal distress. Delayed orgasm and anorgasmia are associated with significant sexual dissatisfaction. A focused medical history can shed light on the potential etiologies, which include medications, penile sensation loss, endocrinopathies, penile hyperstimulation, and psychological etiologies. Unfortunately, there are no excellent pharmacotherapies for delayed orgasm/anorgasmia, and treatment revolves largely around addressing potential causative factors and psychotherapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Definition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;Delayed orgasm is further classified as lifelong/acquired, generalized/situational, and mild/moderate/severe. An acquired dysfunction establishes that the patient previously had normal orgasm timing. Situational dysfunction implies the man has problems in a particular scenario or scenarios, yet functioning normally in others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;There is no set time threshold for what defines DO. Time threshold for distress is dependent on the partners involved. Some men will reach orgasm with one partner in 15 minutes and have no distress, but with another partner it may cause severe distress because the partner may complain of pain with prolonged intercourse. A population-based survey established that the median intravaginal ejaculatory latency time (IELT) was 5.4 minutes and 2 SD above was approximately 22 minutes. A provider with a patient complaining of IELT longer than 22 minutes will theoretically qualify him for the diagnosis of DO. One should differentiate between problems with of ejaculation and orgasm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Physiology of orgasm&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;Orgasm is a complex neurobiological process that comes as a result of sexual activity (physical sensation) and/or arousal (cognitive awareness). The physiology of ejaculation is discussed elsewhere. When ejaculation occurs, the brain processes the sensation of the pressure buildup within the posterior urethra (bladder neck and external urinary sphincter are closed contemporaneously) leading up to seminal fluid emission and the contraction of the periurethral musculature. This processing leads to the triggering of an orgasm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pathophysiology&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hyperstimulation&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;      &lt;p&gt;Some men obtain greater pleasure from masturbation than they do with sexual intercourse and may continue deep-rooted habits such as frequent masturbation or using idiosyncratic masturbation techniques. Studies have shown a correlation between DO and men with idiosyncratic masturbation practices. Also, with increasing frequency of masturbation the sensitivity of the penis can decline and lead to a vicious cycle where the man increases masturbation force to counteract the declining sensitivity, therefore leading to worsening DO. Vaginal intercourse or orogenital stimulation may not be able to replicate the stimulation achieved through idiosyncratic masturbation and this may result in reduced penile stimulation leading to difficulty achieving an orgasm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Penile Sensation Loss&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;      &lt;p&gt;Penile sensation loss has been shown to increase with age. In a literature review by Rowland, he plotted penile sensory thresholds as a function of age as well as sexual functional status. He found that penile sensation loss was more commonly present in those men with increased age and those with sexual dysfunctions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychosexual Causes&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;      &lt;p&gt;Delayed orgasm based on situational aspects (i.e., difficulties with a specific partner and not with another) is more likely to be due to a psychological etiology. One study looked at stress and anxiety related to timed intercourse demands for fertility treatments and found DO developed in 6% of patients related to elevated anxiety levels. A novel study by Kirby et al. used a rat model to show how stress can suppress the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, which is important in healthy normal sexual function. They showed that acute and chronic immobilization stress led to an increase in adrenal glucocorticoids causing an increase in gonadotropin inhibitory hormone, which suppresses the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis by inhibition of GnRH.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Management strategies&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;It is true that some men with DO/AO never have an etiology diagnosed that reflects our limited understanding of the physiology of orgasm and the pathophysiology of these conditions. Therapy is focused on defining and treating any overt underlying causes often in conjunction with psychotherapy. Various lifestyle changes include steps to improve intimacy, reduce masturbation frequency, change of masturbation style, and decreasing alcohol consumption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RLlfD.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RLlfD.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;DO figure&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other possibilities, if I'm misinterpreting your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypersexual_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hypersexual disorder&lt;/a&gt; (HD; &quot;a pattern of behavior involving intense preoccupation with sexual fantasies, urges and activities, leading to adverse consequences and clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important functions&quot;) was considered for inclusion in the DSM-5, but was eventually rejected by the American Psychiatric Association:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11930-014-0031-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reid &amp;amp; Kafka. Controversies About Hypersexual Disorder and the DSM-5. &lt;em&gt;Current Sexual Health Reports,&lt;/em&gt; 2014; 6(4):259-264.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;The concept of mental disorders has also been condemned by some who suggest it is a value-laden socially constructed phenomena used to impose conformity to cultural norms. Not surprisingly, similar arguments have been launched against the HD proposal with allegations that HD pathologizes normal variants of healthy sexual behavior, and hence, it does not meet the requirements for “deviance.” Another frequent criticism is that HD could be an extension or manifestation of an existing mental disorder. This latter critique should not be quickly dismissed given high comorbidity rates of other mental illness commonly reported among treatment-seeking samples of hypersexual patients. Further, it is widely believed among clinicians working with hypersexual patients that sex is used to “cope” with challenging situations or as a way of “coping” in the wake of emotional distress. Such assertions might imply that hypersexuality is an attempt to compensate for maladaptive systems designed to regulate emotion. Subsequently, wouldn’t the more parsimonious conceptualization of hypersexuality be some type of an emotional dysfunction disorder or an adjustment disorder rather than an independent pathology? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;    &#xA;    &lt;p&gt;If one argues for HD as an independent disorder, they must also identify which internal functions are failing to operate and advance some theory implicating what mechanisms of action are purported to cause the dysfunction. Sadly, sex researchers investigating hypersexuality have often failed in this endeavor with a few notable exceptions. For example, neurobiological mechanisms linked to sexual excitation and sexual inhibition has been advanced as a plausible explanation for hypersexuality. A broader hypothesis about executive deficits in frontal lobe functioning reported mixed findings where hypersexual patients self-reported executive deficits but did not exhibit executive dysfunctions when tested. Many have suggested addiction, impulsivity, and compulsivity models, although it’s questionable whether these conceptualizations really constitute theoretical models given their lack of specificity, falsifiable testability, or explanatory power for the construct of hypersexuality. Moreover, proponents of these approaches have yet to clearly operationalize and delineate the respective distinct contributions of addiction, impulsivity, or compulsivity as they relate to hypersexual behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While HD wasn't accepted as an established diagnosis, compulsive sexual behavior is a common disorder with similar criteria:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4500883/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Derbyshire &amp;amp; Grant. Compulsive Sexual Behavior: A Review of the Literature. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Behavioral Addictions,&lt;/em&gt; 2015; 4(2):37-43.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;p&gt;Compulsive sexual behavior can generally be divided into two categories: Paraphilic and nonparaphilic. Paraphilias are typically considered to be behaviors that have been deemed socially unacceptable that involve non-human objects, suffering of one’s self or a partner, children or a non-consenting person (for example, fetishism, exhibitionism, and pedophilia). Nonparaphilic CSB, which is characterized by more typical sexual desires, include compulsive sexual acts with multiple partners, constant fixation on a partner that may be considered unobtainable, compulsive masturbation, compulsive use of pornography, and compulsive sex and sexual acts within a consensual relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23403" LastEditorUserId="23403" LastEditDate="2019-06-06T23:15:22.633" LastActivityDate="2019-06-06T23:15:22.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23395" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-06T18:28:33.097" Score="5" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does the brain work better:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...sitting rather than lying down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...standing rather than sitting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...walking rather than standing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found this research, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3973903/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3973903/&lt;/a&gt;, The effect of body posture on cognitive performance: a question of sleep quality, but it does not speak to decision making. The same for &lt;a href=&quot;http://razlab.mcgill.ca/docs/Body_posture_alters_human_resting_state.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://razlab.mcgill.ca/docs/Body_posture_alters_human_resting_state.pdf&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you offer examples of studies of cognitive function vs. body position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19555" LastEditorUserId="19555" LastEditDate="2019-06-07T11:43:13.283" LastActivityDate="2019-09-04T09:40:03.667" Title="Should I make all my decisions standing up?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-scienc&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23397" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23418" CreationDate="2019-06-06T21:06:42.353" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am new to Psychology, particularly the signal detection theory (SDT). Before understanding SDT, I performed an experiment to measure what speed difference between a subject's car and the front vehicle could a subject correctly percieve. But I ignorantly only tested subjects on 'signal + noise' trials, i.e. there always was a speed difference in each trial. There never was a catch trial (no speed difference). Thus, I can't estimate the false alarm rate. I only have the Hit and Miss rates for a given speed difference stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can I still use SDT by any chance? Or the estimation of the 'threshold' of detectable speed difference my only option?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20868" LastActivityDate="2019-06-10T17:19:19.843" Title="Is it possible to calculate d prime if no catch trials were done?" Tags="&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23398" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-06T21:49:34.160" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the case of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_symptom_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;somatoform disorders&lt;/a&gt;, when considering such a disorder where seeing the scenes of the surroundings and sensing a series of  psychosomatic pains in a specific way, is there a name for that type of somatoform disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Updated:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, psychotic pains are such that, for example, during anxiety thoughts in the upper right region of the apadiancy or thoughts and emotions related to the affection of the pain in the heart area and ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This situation is somehow associated with repressive mechanisms and in some way when there is no possibility of feeling emotionally or there is a lot of work. Some psychologist said to me about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conversion disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23404" LastEditorUserId="23404" LastEditDate="2019-06-30T21:13:08.823" LastActivityDate="2019-06-30T21:13:08.823" Title="Patterns in psychosomatic pains" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;pain&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;emotional-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23400" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-07T01:25:26.720" Score="2" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;As in the title. &#xA;Assuming you are aware of all your biases,and how they interact with your ideas, can you foresee how your biases will warp your judgement or logic, and stop that from happening? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Living a bias free life sounds like a lot of work though, my curiosity is simply in knowing if it would be possible to do so with the necessary knowledge, or if there is some sort of bias-avoiding killer hidden somewhere in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It looks like similar questions have been asked before, but none literally answer mine.&#xA;Introspection Illusion, IF it affects you only when comparing yourself to others, then it's of no obstruction to my question. &#xA;Superficially, the Introspection illusion doesn't look like a roadblock if all you're considering is &quot;I know i like strawberries. I like no other fruit i tried, so if given the choice between strawberries and other fruit i tried, i will always pick the former.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Bias Blindspot, superficially doesn't look like a negative answer to my question either. &#xA;Confirmation Bias is a good candidate for a negative answer. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/science-choice/201504/what-is-confirmation-bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/science-choice/201504/what-is-confirmation-bias&lt;/a&gt;) As described by the writer, Confirmation Bias is caused by wishful thinking and desires. But what if one was to remove any emotional investment from a belief, if that's even an option? Charles Darwin was a strong advocate of this detachment from information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2917255/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2917255/&lt;/a&gt;) are listed some ways to avoid bias in a research setting, but what about normal everyday life? That's what i'm most interested in, and no reseach i was able to find can answer yes or no decisively. After all, everyday life is a flood of information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If i may use myself as an example, i get slightly sick when i am typing biased arguments or fallacious ones, usually before i actually write them out, but sometimes the revelation of bias comes to me later on.&#xA;One example was one time i was talking about abuse, and having been the target of some types of abuse, i recognised beforehand (Because i was getting sick after predicting where my conclusion was going), that i was about to say that all abuse is equally damaging, but only based on my experience, and not on hard data or some experiment's conclusion. My experience was blinding my conclusion and i noticed, but can you do that with every bias out there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I definitely don't think of myself as avoiding all bias just because very often i feel sick during debates or essays. When i have the information, i can also reliably predict my future behaviour, and if i can't, i just say &quot;I don't know&quot;. It would still be useful to know if some research which i can't access because i'm a mere layman said anything about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23201" LastEditorUserId="23201" LastEditDate="2019-06-10T00:36:08.097" LastActivityDate="2019-06-10T00:36:08.097" Title="Can you prevent your biases from swaying your logic if you're aware of them?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23404" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-07T19:54:55.470" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any statistics books geared towards teaching behavioral data analysis especially in psycholinguistics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23414" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2019-06-10T06:39:19.790" LastActivityDate="2020-01-12T23:39:41.193" Title="Books on Statistics in R for behavioral data analysis" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23407" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-08T11:50:59.107" Score="0" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;People seem to think that introverts are calm people but I have experienced that many introverts easily get anxious  about details.&#xA;I found this:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/the-secret-lives-introverts/201902/do-grammar-mistakes-annoy-you-you-might-be-introvert&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/the-secret-lives-introverts/201902/do-grammar-mistakes-annoy-you-you-might-be-introvert&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are introverts actually very anxious people with detail focus? How am I supposed to read this research? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20304" LastEditorUserId="20304" LastEditDate="2019-06-09T17:35:40.323" LastActivityDate="2019-06-09T17:35:40.323" Title="Are introverts actually very anxious people with detail focus?" Tags="&lt;introversion&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23408" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-08T16:29:37.833" Score="0" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;Someone I know is a pretty good guesser. One day we had a guessing contest, and went around the house guessing how many objects were in different containers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was surprised that I was outperformed every single time, and the other person guessed faster than I did every time as well. For example the person I was competing against guessed correctly, after taking less than five seconds to think, that a container had 218 marbles in it. This individual continued to perform consistently, test after test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The person's accuracy rate over &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$10$&lt;/span&gt; different tests was about &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$95$&lt;/span&gt; percent, and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$98$&lt;/span&gt; percent for objects with over &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$200$&lt;/span&gt; objects and less than &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$300$&lt;/span&gt; objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychology of a person being able to accurately guess the number of objects in a container? Are there any neuro-correlates for this ability? Is there a certain time frame that one should guess in and not overthink too much?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I googled &quot;the psychology of guessing objects&quot; and didn't find anything useful. But I did find that as the number of objects increases, the accuracy tends to decrease linearly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My own thoughts on the matter are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) It might have been a lucky day for the guesser. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) They guessed with relatively few objects in the containers. If we had guessed with 500 or 1000 objects I think he or she would have seen a linear decrease in accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19860" LastEditorUserId="19860" LastEditDate="2019-06-15T13:40:00.910" LastActivityDate="2019-06-15T13:40:00.910" Title="Psychology of guessing number of objects" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23410" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23380" CreationDate="2019-06-09T06:04:26.223" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just a reminder that Stack Exchange is not an appropriate place to get a diagnosis; a vague description of symptoms may indicate a variety of possible outcomes.  See a doctor instead.  That said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One general term for disorders that affect some language modalities and not others, when the cause is psychological rather than physical (ie, not deafness, muscle weakness, paralysis, etc), is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;aphasia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To be diagnosed with aphasia, a person's speech or language must be&#xA;  significantly impaired in one (or several) of the four communication&#xA;  modalities following acquired brain injury or have significant decline&#xA;  over a short time period (progressive aphasia). The four communication&#xA;  modalities are auditory comprehension, verbal expression, reading and&#xA;  writing, and functional communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aphasia is most commonly associated with stroke or dementia, and several &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia#Classification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sub-types&lt;/a&gt; involve both speech production and verbal comprehension difficulties, while not necessarily affecting reading or writing abilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other diagnoses are also possible, as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;language disorders&lt;/a&gt; may consist of a combination of a variety of possible aspects of language ability, while not affecting others.  For example, children with both receptive (comprehension) and expressive (speech) delays may be diagnosed with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_language_impairment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;specific language impairment (SLI)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... diagnosed when a child's language does not develop normally and&#xA;  the difficulties cannot be accounted for by generally slow&#xA;  development, physical abnormality of the speech apparatus, autism&#xA;  spectrum disorder, apraxia, acquired brain damage or hearing loss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though relatively rarely, it is possible for literacy to be largely unaffected by SLI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comorbidity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;comorbidity&lt;/a&gt; is also possible, such as a combination of speech &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_verbal_agnosia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;agnosia&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apraxia_of_speech&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;apraxia&lt;/a&gt;, and if other symptoms are present, then yet other diagnoses would apply, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;autism&lt;/a&gt;, where again, it is possible for some language skills (such as verbal communication) to be impaired while others (such as literacy) are largely unaffected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a general overview of the field, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_and_language_impairment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;speech and language impairment&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;communication disorder&lt;/a&gt;.  A summary of technical terminology used to classify symptoms can be found &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-06-09T06:04:26.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23411" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23426" CreationDate="2019-06-09T16:14:52.147" Score="-1" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;The result of wakeful EEG shows persistent activation of temporal lobes - high level of delta and theta waves in the left temporal lobe (3 on the scale from -3 to 3) and slightly lower in the right temporal lobe.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The sources that I found state that delta and theta waves are typically associated with the state of sleeping, though.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_wave&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_wave&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_wave&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_wave&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are possible explanations of such activity when the subject is awake?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23387" LastEditorUserId="23387" LastEditDate="2019-06-10T18:07:58.180" LastActivityDate="2019-07-11T15:01:35.173" Title="Anomalous activation of temporal lobes" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="16" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23414" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23404" CreationDate="2019-06-10T06:46:41.863" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are lots of resources out there for learning R and many of the general ones are useful for people in psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, see the R contributed documentation:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cran.r-project.org/other-docs.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://cran.r-project.org/other-docs.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I really like the Quick-R site:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.statmethods.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.statmethods.net/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, in terms of psychology-specific resources, check out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personality Project R Guide: &lt;a href=&quot;http://personality-project.org/r/psych/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://personality-project.org/r/psych/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of books that are psychology specific, here are a couple:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Learning Statistics with R&lt;/em&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://learningstatisticswithr.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://learningstatisticswithr.com/&lt;/a&gt; This book is available for free online thanks to Danielle Navarro's use of a CC-BY-SA licence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Discovering Statistics Using R&lt;/em&gt;. If you like Andy Field's accessible style, then you'll like this book.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2019-06-10T06:46:41.863" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23418" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23397" CreationDate="2019-06-10T17:19:19.843" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;In order to estimate d' for a particular signal level, we need an estimate of the hit rate at that signal level and an estimate of the false alarm (FA) rate. Typically, the FA rate is estimated from the no-signal catch trials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With a paradigm like the method of constant stimuli, the assumption is that the false alarm rate is constant and doesn't depend on the past trials. Therefore, if you had 500 trials spread across 4 different signal levels and catch trials, you can either use all the catch trials to calculate a single common FA rate or you can randomly group the catch trials to get 4 estimates of the FA rate (this has some statistical advantages). The key is the catch trials are all assumed to be independent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If instead of 500 trials with 4 signal levels and catch trials, you have 500 trials and 5 signal levels and no catch trials, it might seem that you have no way to estimate the FA rate. That is wrong. If you fit a psychometric function to the hit rate data, the lower asymptote is the FA rate. If all you signal levels lead to high hit rates and you don't know the underlying psychometric function, your estimate of the FA rate is going to be crappy. If they are all at high hit rates and the underlying psychometric function is know and well behaved at the tails, then you can get a good estimate of the FA rate. Even better is if some of the signal levels had low hit rates and that you have a reasonable estimate of the tail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For data like yours where there are multiple signal levels:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;chose a psychometric function&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;fit the the curve&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;if the fit is good, estimate the lower asymptote&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-06-10T17:19:19.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23419" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-10T22:04:48.430" Score="2" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a syllabus for Integrated Information Theory that could help a non-scientists learn all the fundamental concepts required to fully understand IIT&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It looks like it involves statistics, algorithms, and perhaps even some calculus, but I'm not sure what kinds. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a list of papers/ Courses/ subjects/ textbooks that could help me go from a basic understanding of IIT to a full understanding of its mathematical framework (Transition probability matrices,  discrete Markovian dynamical systems, etc). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;FYI: My highest level of math was differential calculus, but that was a long time ago, so I would need a refresher on that as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23428" LastActivityDate="2019-06-10T22:04:48.430" Title="How can I learn Integrated information Theory" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23421" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-11T06:45:37.480" Score="3" ViewCount="299" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for the phenomenon of remembering the position on a page or location in a book as part of the process of recalling a memory? For example, knowing that something was on the left side half-way through the page about two thirds of the way through a book? How would you describe that experience or classify someone that often used that type of memory retrieval process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23432" LastActivityDate="2021-03-04T09:06:05.600" Title="Term for remembering the location/position of text on a page as part of the memory recall process?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23424" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21562" CreationDate="2019-06-11T12:11:49.057" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a slightly older post, but the Wikipedia article is basically correct.  It is a non-committal range of 1mm - 5mm.  Typically high resolution fMRI will probably be &amp;lt;= 1mm on a side, but is typically going to be higher field scanners (&gt;&gt;= 3T) or using slightly different sequences than the standard fMRI sequence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Best thing to do would be to do a quick survey of the literature (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C9&amp;amp;q=high+resolution+fMRI&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C9&amp;amp;q=high+resolution+fMRI&amp;amp;btnG=&lt;/a&gt;) and get an intuition from there.  I think what you will find is it will depend a lot of sequence, sequence parameters and main magnet field strength.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23412" LastActivityDate="2019-06-11T12:11:49.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23425" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20952" CreationDate="2019-06-11T12:17:25.247" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;[This is an older post, but...]  A brain atlas is going to, typically, be a set of images or volume that is labeled anatomically or functionally.  Typically one would take a single volume of data and register or align it to the atlas (or vice-versa).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parcellation is a way of segmenting sub-regions of a particular region of the brain. (What a &quot;region&quot; is or &quot;sub-region&quot; might be a bit up for debate).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One could do image registration / alignment of an MRI data volume to an atlas (that is parcellated or segmented) and then the parcellation can be applied to the MRI data volume.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23412" LastActivityDate="2019-06-11T12:17:25.247" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23411" CreationDate="2019-06-11T14:19:18.120" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to this article, the localized increase in delta and theta waves is a known anomaly in EEG, is referred to as &quot;focal slow activity&quot; and it the case of a wakeful EEG of an adult it usually suggests an organic damage or disfunction of the affected area, but extra tests are required to narrow down the list of possibilities.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;amp;pid=S0004-282X2011000600020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;amp;pid=S0004-282X2011000600020&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23387" LastEditorUserId="23387" LastEditDate="2019-06-11T14:30:40.107" LastActivityDate="2019-06-11T14:30:40.107" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23427" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-11T18:32:04.873" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know any resources on how to look at the averages of first and the second part of an ERP experiment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23414" OwnerDisplayName="eegegg" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-06-12T18:42:35.860" LastActivityDate="2019-06-12T18:42:35.860" Title="Averaging features in NetStation" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23429" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23237" CreationDate="2019-06-12T18:28:46.710" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe you mean an engagement?&#xA;If though, a positive psychology have term &lt;strong&gt;flow state&lt;/strong&gt; - when you fully immersed. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; is wiki article about it. Or hyperfocus - &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfocus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Components of flow state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Intense and focused concentration on the present moment&#xA;&#xA;Merging of action and awareness&#xA;&#xA;A loss of reflective self-consciousness&#xA;&#xA;A sense of personal control or agency over the situation or activity&#xA;&#xA;A distortion of temporal experience, one's subjective experience of time is altered&#xA;&#xA;Experience of the activity as intrinsically rewarding, also referred to as autotelicexperience&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23355" LastActivityDate="2019-06-12T18:28:46.710" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23430" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-12T20:30:21.350" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term brain training is nothing new, however how effective is the 'N-back' method, does this work scientifically speaking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are mixed reviews on this: &#xA;one claiming it works&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.highiqpro.com/dual-n-back/latest-n-back-training-studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.highiqpro.com/dual-n-back/latest-n-back-training-studies&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another it doesn't&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/more/articles/brain-training-still-not-vital&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/more/articles/brain-training-still-not-vital&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23441" LastActivityDate="2019-06-12T20:30:21.350" Title="Supposed 'brain training'" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2019-06-13T00:55:22.297" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23431" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23351" CreationDate="2019-06-13T00:03:18.563" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's unclear what is your definition of attributes.&#xA;But the Big Five emerged from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lexical hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; whereby adjectives in the dictionary that describe people were systematically examined and categorised using approaches such as factor analysis. Some of the papers in this area would contain lists of terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Equally, for briefer lists, you could look at the domain-facet frameworks of various Big 5 personality models, such as the NEO. In this context, the facets help to define the Big 5 Domains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a few such domain-facet/aspect frameworks, summarised in Anglim &amp;amp; O'Connor (2018, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF&lt;/a&gt;). That article also provides a brief review of the lexical approach with some further references.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WcZO6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WcZO6.png&quot; alt=&quot;facets, aspects of big 5&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anglim, J., &amp;amp; O'Connor, P. (2019). Measurement and Research Using the Big Five, HEXACO, and Narrow Traits: A Primer for Researchers and Practitioners. Australian Journal of Psychology, 71, 16-25. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T00:03:18.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23432" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22078" CreationDate="2019-06-13T00:19:14.400" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;We had a discussion of the pros and cons of the HEXACO model in a recent article that draws on arguments and evidence presented by the &amp;quot;heavyweights&amp;quot; of the Big 5 (Anglim, &amp;amp; O'Connor, 2019).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the quote of the paragraph that focusses specifically on the critiques:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the HEXACO model is receiving growing support, the necessity&#xA;of a sixth broad trait, as well as the nature of this trait are&#xA;subjects of current debate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;First, other prominent six factor&#xA;inventories including the Hogan Personality Inventory (Hogan &amp;amp; Hogan,&#xA;1992), the Six Factor Personality Questionnaire (Jackson, Paunonen, &amp;amp;&#xA;Tremblay, 2000), and Saucier's Big Six (Saucier, 2009) have not&#xA;converged on the same sixth factor in the same way that has broadly&#xA;occurred with the Big Five (De Raad, Barelds, Mlačić, et al., 2010).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Second, while several lexical studies have broadly supported the&#xA;HEXACO model, the support is far from universal.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Third, Saucier and&#xA;Ostendorf (1999) have argued that any broad trait in addition to the&#xA;Big Five will correlate highly with one of the existing Big Five, and&#xA;honesty-humility correlates relatively highly with agreeableness (r =&#xA;.67 in Gaughan, Miller, &amp;amp; Lynam, 2012). Honesty-humility also&#xA;correlates reasonably well with straightforwardness and modesty facets&#xA;of agreeableness in the NEO-PI-R, suggesting that a comprehensive&#xA;facet-level model using the Big Five may provide similar predictive&#xA;benefits (Costa &amp;amp; McCrae, 1995; Gaughan et al., 2012).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Fourth,&#xA;Barford, Zhao, and Smillie (2015) mapped the Big Five and HEXACO&#xA;traits to a common space provided by the interpersonal circumplex, and&#xA;found that honesty-humility occupied a fairly similar space to the&#xA;politeness aspect of B5 agreeableness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Finally, Condon (2017) assessed&#xA;the covariance structure of approximately 700 statement-based&#xA;personality test items drawn from the most commonly used public-domain&#xA;personality measures (including an approximately equal representation&#xA;of items from prominent five and six-factor measures). While he found&#xA;support for a large number of narrow traits, factor analysis suggested&#xA;five broad traits, and when six factors were extracted, the sixth&#xA;factor did not correspond to honesty-humility.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anglim, J., &amp;amp; O'Connor, P. (2019). Measurement and Research Using the Big Five, HEXACO, and Narrow Traits: A Primer for Researchers and Practitioners. Australian Journal of Psychology, 71, 16-25. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T06:36:15.043" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23433" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22031" CreationDate="2019-06-13T00:31:01.407" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had a look on scopus and there were no hits for &quot;High conflict people&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I imagine you'd want to turn to other literature; a few thoughts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dark Triad&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Agreeableness from the Big 5 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conflict styles literature&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personality disorders literture&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Literature on aggression&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T00:31:01.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23434" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22032" CreationDate="2019-06-13T00:43:08.823" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a few studies that have correlated Big 5 with conflict styles. There are various terminology and measures but many use a similar set of five styles to the TKI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Antonioni (1998) is highly cited. Here are the correlations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AWZHU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/AWZHU.png&quot; alt=&quot;big 5 and conflict styles&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The five conflict styles are correlated in ways that partially reflect the underlying two-dimensions of interested in self and interested in others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Agreeableness correlates positively with interested in others and avoiding conflict. Agreeableness is also the strongest correlate of conflict styles.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Extraversion and openness are both related to integrating and negatively related to avoiding conflict.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conscientiousness is related to integrating.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Neuroticism is related to avoiding conflict.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Antonioni, D. (1998). Relationship between the big five personality factors and conflict management styles. International journal of conflict management, 9(4), 336-355.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T00:43:08.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23435" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21636" CreationDate="2019-06-13T00:45:06.600" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The IPIP scales are in the public domain: &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ipip.ori.org/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;They are intended to have no restrictions on use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/newPermission.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ipip.ori.org/newPermission.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because the IPIP has been placed in the public domain, permission has already been automatically granted for any person to use IPIP items, scales, and inventories for any purpose, commercial or non-commercial..&#xA;  It is not necessary to contact the IPIP site author (Lew Goldberg) or the IPIP Consultant (John A. Johnson) for permission to use IPIP materials. Requests for permission to use IPIP materials will be answered by sending the requester a link to this page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T00:45:06.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23436" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23421" CreationDate="2019-06-13T06:34:40.040" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How would you describe that experience or classify someone that often used that type of memory retrieval process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on what I think you are asking, you might call this &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidetic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;eidetic memory&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. Less formally it is known as &quot;photographic memory&quot;, or sometimes &quot;perfect recall&quot;. However, these abilities do not generalize to all domains of memory. Usually the memory is limited to certain experts of specific domains who have just developed an ability to recognize certain meaningful patterns. This is evidenced by the fact that random arrangements of pixels are not nearly as memorable as learned special patterns, even for people supposedly having perfect recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is there a name for the phenomenon of remembering the position on a page or location in a book as part of the process of recalling a memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no term I am aware of that is so specific to describe the memory of book pagination, let alone where on the page something was located. Eidetic memory essentially covers that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15389" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T06:34:40.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23437" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-13T15:50:07.507" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thought disorder is usually secondary to psychosis or schizophrenia. But there are those that have some form of thought disorder without any positive psychotic symptoms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any medication indicated directly for the treatment of thought disorder? Could it be treated using ADD stimulants? Atypical antipsychotics perhaps?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T15:50:07.507" Title="Is thought disorder directly treatable with pharmacotherapy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23438" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-13T18:21:37.293" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose you make a rat run through a maze to find it's food. Every day, you put the rat into the same maze. The first few times this rat has to run the maze, it will probably take a little while to figure out. After doing it several times, the rat will find a path through the maze and stick to it; he'll make a habit out of each turn, and become an expert in his path, finding the food quickly every day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering: has anyone ever performed a study quantifying rat-maze complexity in terms of the number of decisions (left, right, or straight), and then measuring the number of daily maze-traversals required before the rat habituates a path through the maze for his food? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the number of traversals required to habituate a path increase linearly with the number of decision-points in the maze, or is there a curve in the relationship between traversals and decision-points?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an upper-bounds on complexity, where the rat will no longer be able to habituate a path? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason I ask is first of all just to learn about animal psychology, but also to provide myself with an organic baseline for path-finding and path-normalization algorithms I'm writing into some code for a programming project.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ETA: Also, if you cite a study, please link me to it. Google knows I like code, and won't give me anything but programmer links when I google rat-maze stuff. I don't know what to search for to find actual rat studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23445" LastEditorUserId="23445" LastEditDate="2019-06-13T18:32:36.007" LastActivityDate="2019-06-13T18:32:36.007" Title="Upper Bounds on Rat Maze Complexity" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23440" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-14T03:16:41.497" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say we have a sentence like, &quot;Yesterday, I saw a giant mammal.&quot;&#xA;Or, &quot;The monkey ate a piece of fruit&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These things are impossible to visualise. Because, for example, a mammal could be a big yellow giraffe, or a small grey mouse.&#xA;A fruit, likewise could be a yellow banana, or a purple grape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any experiements to see what people visualise when the sentence is generic like this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the alternatives are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No visualisation, the brain just hears the words.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The brain visualises some sort of blurry combination of all mammal types. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The brain jumps between visualisations of different mammal types. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The brain chooses a random mammal type and sticks with it until further&#xA;notice.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or something else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think for me &quot;mammal&quot; conjures up some sort of medium sized furry creature much like a giant wombat.&#xA;For fruit it conjures up a round, juicy object, with no specific colour. (I don't think I can imagine colours). Probably closest to a plum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2019-06-14T03:16:41.497" Title="How do we imagine a mammal?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2019-06-14T08:33:02.817" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23441" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23442" CreationDate="2019-06-14T13:16:50.420" Score="2" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in the relation between the age of an individual and their receptiveness towards propaganda or ideology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would suspect that children/adolescents are strongly receptive towards propaganda and that as they enter adulthood they become less receptive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies on this that verify my claim/ contradict it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help is greatly appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23451" LastActivityDate="2019-06-14T14:05:45.760" Title="Age vs. Receptiveness to propaganda/ ideology" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23442" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23441" CreationDate="2019-06-14T14:05:45.760" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Welcome to Psychology.SE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has the potential to be a very big subject, depending on how deep you want to go into it. You may wish to look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;priming&lt;/a&gt; along with studies surrounding &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conformity&lt;/a&gt; and peer pressure, looking at how they play a part in early behaviour and belief forming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may also want to look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Third_Wave_(experiment)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ron Jones' &quot;Third Wave&quot; Experiment&lt;/a&gt; which was portrayed in the movie called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1063669/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Wave&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-06-14T14:05:45.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23443" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1944" CreationDate="2019-06-14T17:28:45.803" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would think so. REM sleep Is in the alpha wave category where visualization Is increased and the restoration properties come from Theta waves. Delta waves are asociated with deep sleep/meditation. I know these waves are simultanious, so, as long as you are producing theta waves, even during the REM/alpha stage, I think you will be getting regenerative results, as well with delta sleep. Its weird because dreams make me want to sleep longer. Not want to wake up. I think dreams have a lot to do with conciousness more so than the brain. If you put your hand in water and slide it, causing a wave or ripple, it follows the hand. I think its the same with conciousness and the brain. The less conscious you are and the more active your brain is (always in beta, on the go, got to constantly be doing something) the more I think your subconcious tries to communicate to you what your waking awareness has lacked to absorb throughout your waking life and when there Is nothing to learn, you play, create, and develope a connection with the dimenions other than the 3rd dimension. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23450" LastActivityDate="2019-06-14T17:28:45.803" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23444" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23447" CreationDate="2019-06-15T08:20:59.337" Score="2" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have googled, but haven't found any definition simple enough that I understand. I would appreciate it if you could give me an example as well!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jack&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23454" LastActivityDate="2019-06-15T10:33:40.920" Title="What is a sensorimotor connection in plain English?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23445" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-15T08:35:46.067" Score="1" ViewCount="163" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people around me believe that if you learn poems by heart in childhood, it will help you to memorize things better further. They say about improvements in memory in general: things like mathematical formulas, historical facts, and even to remember better conversations in real life.&#xA;I'm talking not about using some memorizing techniques, but about the ability to remember things better if you have &quot;trained&quot; your memory (short-time one?) by learning poems (not songs, not formulas, not stories).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I looked for answers on Quora, but they look like &quot;I think&quot; or &quot;Researchers say&quot; without any references to rated scientific journals.&#xA;Are there any scientific works on this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23453" LastActivityDate="2019-06-15T08:35:46.067" Title="Does learning by heart improve memorizing abilities?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23447" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23444" CreationDate="2019-06-15T10:33:40.920" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sensorimotor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merriam Webster Dictionary defines the word&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;sensorimotor&lt;/em&gt; to be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;of, relating to, or functioning in both sensory and motor aspects of bodily activity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and the following relating to the tags you used may help to understand the word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea that we learn by interacting with our environment is probably the first to occur to us when we think about the nature of learning. When an infant plays, waves its arms, or looks about, it has no explicit teacher, but it does have a direct sensorimotor connection to its environment (Sutton &amp;amp; Barto, 2005)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Merriam Webster points out, the sensorimotor connections are related to sensation and to motion&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dictionary.com/browse/sensorimotor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dictionary.com points out&lt;/a&gt; that physiologically, they relate to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;both sensory and motor, as parts of the cerebral cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The sensorimotor connection to your environment taught you what an object looks, feels, smells and sounds like and helps with your spacial awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sutton, R. S. &amp;amp; Barto, A. G. (2005). &lt;em&gt;Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction&lt;/em&gt; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-06-15T10:33:40.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23449" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-15T15:06:11.680" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I sometimes read with a particular focus or goal and don&quot;t remember the things outside of my focus/goal even though I've read them. What is this phenomena called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, you can read a religious text focusing on one subject and not notice the symbolism, then switch focus to symbolism and the symbols come to light. Switch your focus to numerology then you begin to notice the numbers in the story. That is three different things literal, symbolic, numerologic, and this phenomena is not limited to those things but also topic switching changes what you see in a story.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23461" LastEditorUserId="23461" LastEditDate="2019-06-17T01:34:34.820" LastActivityDate="2019-06-17T01:34:34.820" Title="What's it called when you read a book with a particular focus and that focus is what you see and remember but other topics you forget?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23454" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-16T23:35:06.690" Score="3" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I've read up thus far, subliminal messages do have some sort of 'influence' over our decisions or atleast our thought process, to some extent. To what extent if any is the human mind or psyche affected by subliminal messages, and are the extents variable based on the means ie. Textual, verbal, auditory or visual?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The below links are of sources written by authors without substantial credentials:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/201504/subliminal-messages-can-fortify-inner-strength%3famp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/201504/subliminal-messages-can-fortify-inner-strength%3famp&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://visme.co/blog/subliminal-messages/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://visme.co/blog/subliminal-messages/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23441" LastActivityDate="2020-05-26T14:03:10.260" Title="Effects of subliminal messaging" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;consumer-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23455" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-17T04:19:26.977" Score="2" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could a failure of &quot;condensed inner speech&quot; be linked to slowed cognition? It is a type of inner voice, and as conceptualized by Fernyhough it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;involves the capacity to think in terms of pure meaning without the&#xA;  need to put thoughts into words in order to grasp the meaning of the&#xA;  thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm just wondering whether, either in healthy or psychopathological cognition, condensed inner speech has been shown to be more difficult when thinking is slowed for some reason, such as psychotropic medication. I have read that people tend to use expanded (as opposed to condensed) inner speech when under &lt;em&gt;stress&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2020-03-13T17:02:30.483" Title="Could a failure of condensed inner speech be linked to slowed cognition?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23457" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1944" CreationDate="2019-06-17T08:56:15.443" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lucid dreaming is a half-way state between normal REM sleep and wakefulness. Lucid dreaming probably has less of a recuperative effect than normal REM sleep. On the other hand, there is usually less sleep inertia when waking from a lucid dream than when waking from a non-lucid dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The function of REM sleep is still a mystery, so very little is known about how lucid dreaming affects sleep quality. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, going in the other direction, it is known that sleep quality affects the likelihood of lucid dreaming. More specifically, REM rebound following sleep deprivation, going back to sleep after a morning awakening and being sufficiently sleep deprived to take naps before noon are all common triggers for lucid dreams. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience, I have &lt;em&gt;never&lt;/em&gt; had a lucid dream after eight hours of unbroken sleep but if I wake up early in the morning and go back to sleep or if I take a daytime nap then I will quite often get a lucid dream, especially if I have consumed caffeine prior to falling asleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Smith, B. V., &amp;amp; Blagrove, M. (2015). Lucid dreaming frequency and&#xA;  alarm clock snooze button use. Dreaming, 25(4), 291-299.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/drm0000012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/drm0000012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dresler, Martin et al. “Neural correlates of dream lucidity obtained&#xA;  from contrasting lucid versus non-lucid REM sleep: a combined EEG/fMRI&#xA;  case study.” Sleep vol. 35,7 1017-20. 1 Jul. 2012,&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.5665%2Fsleep.1974&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://dx.doi.org/10.5665%2Fsleep.1974&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21384" LastActivityDate="2019-06-17T08:56:15.443" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23458" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23454" CreationDate="2019-06-17T11:51:11.173" Score="1" Body="&lt;h1&gt;A very generic question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is very hard to answer this question because it is very generic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to get a clearer answer you'd have to narrow down your definition of what exactly constitutes &lt;em&gt;subliminal message&lt;/em&gt; and what exactly constitutes an &lt;em&gt;effect&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once done, you can now talk about specific types of &lt;em&gt;stimuli processed purely by the subconscious&lt;/em&gt;, and their specific effect and related variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some examples of what might constitute 'subliminal messages':&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A metaphor&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Asking someone to hold a warm cup of coffee&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Putting an image of eyes in the room&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;'planting' a video frame in a sequences of other frames&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effect (and the extent) of all of these depends on the 'message' itself and the specifics of the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can read further about this 'complexity' simply by reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's entry on Subliminal Stimuli&lt;/a&gt; (and the references therein).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;A very generic answer&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without specifics, you can argue the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;There is mounting evidence that pure subconscious processing can affect our behaviour, albeit often short lived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Resources&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could point you to many resources dealing with specific cases, but I think you'll find much of what you're after (or at least a good subset/overview) in the first couple of chapters of this book:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Dehaene, S., 2014. Consciousness and the brain: Deciphering how the brain codes our thoughts. Penguin.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2019-06-17T11:56:33.927" LastActivityDate="2019-06-17T11:56:33.927" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23459" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-17T13:53:53.753" Score="0" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any widely used suites for measuring a subject's political views? Looking for something commonly cited beyond web quiz time sink quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23395" LastActivityDate="2019-06-17T13:53:53.753" Title="Survey Kits for Political Affiliation?" Tags="&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23455" CreationDate="2019-06-17T15:08:46.570" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did not find a study trying to test your idea. I suppose your hypothesis could be tested by comparing the results Varieties of Inner Speech Questionnaire (VISQ) on the expanded/condensed dimension of participants with induced slower condition to a control group. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McCarthy-Jones &amp;amp; Fernyhough (2011) studied the correlations between the dimensions and psycho-pathological variables. They found the expanded/condensed dimension was not predictive of psychopathology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;McCarthy-Jones, S., &amp;amp; Fernyhough, C. (2011). The varieties of inner speech: Links between quality of inner speech and psychopathological variables in a sample of young adults. Consciousness and Cognition, 20(4), 1586–1593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2011.08.005&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastActivityDate="2019-06-17T15:08:46.570" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23461" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23463" CreationDate="2019-06-17T15:47:16.957" Score="7" ViewCount="3110" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I understand it gender is a self-assigned identity and is correlated but not wholly determined by sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sex is presumably determined by the sex chromosomes present in the DNA of the cells of the individual? The sexes are presumably male and female and intersex?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a list of possible genders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2592" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-06-18T08:20:24.280" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T16:35:57.623" Title="How many genders are there?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23462" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-17T16:10:26.233" Score="6" ViewCount="223" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why does the ability to recall dreams varies greatly from person to person? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why Some Remember Dreams, Others Don't &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/38856-why-people-recall-dreams.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.livescience.com/38856-why-people-recall-dreams.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I decided to ask my question because I read the above article, but the article is from August 13, 2013.  Bahar Gholipour is a staff writer for LiveScience. What have we learned about people's ability to recall their dreams since 2013?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22063" LastEditorUserId="23474" LastEditDate="2019-06-17T17:53:10.050" LastActivityDate="2019-06-17T17:53:10.050" Title="Why do some people not remember their dreams?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23463" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23461" CreationDate="2019-06-18T08:19:04.810" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The subject of gender can be a very personal subject and the subject of gender is discussed among the &lt;a href=&quot;https://lgbtqia.ucdavis.edu/educated/glossary&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LGBTQIA+&lt;/a&gt; community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The LGBTQIA Allyship is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the practice of confronting heterosexism, sexism, genderism, allosexism, and monosexism in oneself and others out of self-interest and a concern for the well being of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex and asexual people.  Is founded on the belief and believes that dismantling heterosexism, monosexism, trans oppression/trans misogyny/cissexism and allosexism is a social justice issue (see the UCDavis link above)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The social sciences have a branch devoted to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gender studies&lt;/a&gt;. Other sciences, such as sexology and neuroscience, are also interested in the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The social sciences sometimes approach gender as a social construct, and gender studies particularly do, while research in the natural sciences investigates whether biological differences in males and females influence the development of gender in humans; both inform debate about how far biological differences influence the formation of gender identity. In some English literature, there is also a trichotomy between biological sex, psychological gender, and social gender role. This framework first appeared in a feminist paper on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsexualism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;transsexualism&lt;/a&gt; (Yudkin, 1978).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Genders&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is the binary gender (male or female) and some identify themselves under a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_gender&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;third (non-binary) gender&lt;/a&gt; of either:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-binary_gender&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;non-binary&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genderqueer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;genderqueer&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;gender fluid,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bigender&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bigender&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigender&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;trigender&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangender&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pangender&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;agender,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;nongendered,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;genderless,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;genderfree, or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://gender.wikia.org/wiki/Neutrois&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neutrois&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;See also: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_identity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gender Identity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Gender identity vs Sexual Orientation&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gender identity is separate from sexual or romantic orientation, and non-binary people have a variety of sexual orientations, just as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;transgender&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cisgender&lt;/a&gt; people do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A non-binary gender is not associated with a specific gender expression, such as androgyny. Non-binary people as a group have a wide variety of gender expressions. People who are non-binary have gender identities that are not exclusively masculine or feminine. They may identify as having an overlap of gender identities, having two or more genders, having no gender, having a fluctuating gender identity, or being third gender or other-gendered. Recognition of non-binary genders is still somewhat new to mainstream Western culture (McGee &amp;amp; Warms, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Gender Identity and Society&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Historically, many if not most societies have recognized only two distinct, broad classes of gender roles, a binary of masculine and feminine, largely corresponding to the biological sexes of male and female.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most cultures currently construct their societies based on the understanding of gender binary—the two gender categorizations (male and female). Such societies divide their population based on biological sex assigned to individuals at birth to begin the process of gender socialization. (Nadal, 2017).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to these traditionally recognized third genders, many cultures now recognize, to differing degrees, various non-binary gender identities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gender neutrality is a movement to end discrimination of gender altogether in society through means of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender-neutral_language&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gender-neutral language&lt;/a&gt;, the end of sex segregation, and other means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Quantifying genders&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Genders can only be quantified to a certain extent.  As indicated, there are binary and non-binary genders.  Binary being male or female and non-binary being others which don’t follow the binary convention. So, you &lt;strong&gt;could&lt;/strong&gt; say there are three genders, but that is oversimplified.  The genders in the third (non-binary) gender category is numerous, and can be bigger than the list I provided.  It is all down to how people identify themselves in the way of gender.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McGee, R. J. &amp;amp; Warms, R. L. (2011). &lt;em&gt;Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History&lt;/em&gt;. New York: McGraw Hill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nadal, K. L. (2017). &lt;em&gt;The SAGE Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yudkin, M. (1978). Transsexualism and women: A critical perspective. &lt;em&gt;Feminist Studies. 4&lt;/em&gt;(3): 97–106. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/3177542&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.2307/3177542&lt;/a&gt; jstor: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/3177542&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3177542&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-06-18T11:49:30.700" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23464" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-18T14:27:39.437" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am using the LORETA-KEY software for source localization, which gives as an output the current density of each voxel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No voxel has zero current density, so which method should be used to decide the active sources? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the Region Of Interest (ROI) appropiate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23478" LastActivityDate="2019-06-18T14:27:39.437" Title="Active Sources Extraction" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;meg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23466" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23505" CreationDate="2019-06-19T03:13:13.853" Score="4" ViewCount="180" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are trying to develop a scientific study to test preschoolers (&lt;strong&gt;3-5 years old&lt;/strong&gt;) ability to learn a new science concept. The problem is that children that young can only remember concepts based on how they &lt;strong&gt;look&lt;/strong&gt; but &lt;strong&gt;cannot remember any abstract information&lt;/strong&gt;. So we are trying to find a science concept that can be taught to young children purely visually (feature based), that they can remember and then be tested on. What is a good example of this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example of a purely visual concept. (Differentiating species based on features):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CIYad.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/CIYad.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23480" LastEditorUserId="23480" LastEditDate="2019-06-25T15:25:54.167" LastActivityDate="2019-06-28T04:32:13.960" Title="What is a science concept that we can teach preschoolers that's purely visual?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23467" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-19T10:14:17.790" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Endowment Effect&lt;/a&gt; on Wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the ways of stating it seems to be &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People's maximum willingness to pay (WTP) to acquire an object is typically lower than the least amount they are willing to accept (WTA)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a long list of explanations on the page, a lot of them attributing it to psychological factors, but I was wondering if it could be a product of rational reasoning that when you have owned a an object, you have had time to inspect it and use it in various ways. On the other hand, when you have to buy it, that assurance of quality isn't present, and hence the difference between the value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if this reasoning could be a valid explanation or not, and if it can be then if it has been already suggested as an explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23485" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-06-20T11:43:13.510" LastActivityDate="2019-06-20T11:43:13.510" Title="Could endowment effect be explained by unsurity about the object?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2019-07-02T19:15:00.313" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23469" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23471" CreationDate="2019-06-19T20:36:40.557" Score="0" ViewCount="132" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed than many couples are very different from each other but yet they fell in love in spite their differences. I was wondering about the psychology behind this. &#xA;Why would someone want to be with someone that has different likes &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23489" LastActivityDate="2019-06-19T22:57:15.240" Title="Why do very different people attract each other?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23470" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-19T22:48:35.800" Score="1" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Objective&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need to estimate the unbiased threshold of detectable speed difference in a car-following task. The details are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Experiment Design&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This experiment was performed in a driving simulator. In each trial, the participant drives a car in a single lane. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Procedure&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Initially, the participant's car and the lead vehicle (car or truck) moved at 100 km/h (27.78 m/s). The lead vehicle was at one of the two distances from the participant's car in a given trial: 50 m or 100 m.   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;After few seconds, the 'Observe' message appeared on participant's windscreen. At the onset of this message, the lead vehicle began to change its speed (increase or decrease) by 1 m/s or 3 m/s at the rate of 0.5 m/s (e.g. it would take 6 seconds to decrease speed by 3 m/s).   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Once the speed difference was complete (e.g. lead vehicle reached 27.78 - 3 = 24.78 m/s speed), the participant was given 4 seconds to observe this change in speed. Then the 'Change Speed' message appeared. At this point, participants were forced to push either the gas pedal or the brake pedal to indicate that they noticed a positive speed difference (e.g. +3 m/s) or a negative speed difference (e.g. -3m/s). They had to provide their reaction even if they did not see any speed difference. Please note that the instructions were given before the experiment began.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Details/Limitations&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There were no catch trials, i.e. there was no trial in which a speed difference was not created.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The trials were done with random combinations of spacing and speed difference. Sometimes negative speed difference trials were done consecutively; in other cases the trials were positive speed difference followed by a negative one. For example: 50 m and +1 m/s -&gt; 50 m and +3 m/s -&gt; 100 m and -3m/s -&gt; 100 m and -1 m/s. These could be in any order.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Possible sources of bias&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A smaller distance of 50 m is relatively unsafe compared to 100 m, especially when the lead vehicle is a truck. So, with small distance, small speed difference and/or a truck, participants might be biased to apply brakes even if the lead vehicle accelerates. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Results&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I now have proportions of correctly detected responses for each combination of distance and speed difference. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I determine an unbiased measure of the threshold of speed difference in each case? Does a speed difference that is correctly detected in at least 75% of the trials an appropriate threshold? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kindly share any beginner-friendly resources for estimating threshold in a single stimulus forced choice task. Thank you in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20868" LastActivityDate="2019-06-22T23:15:03.893" Title="How to determine an unbiased estimate of threshold in a single-stimulus forced choice experiment?" Tags="&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23471" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23469" CreationDate="2019-06-19T22:48:49.753" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Concepts like &lt;em&gt;love&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;attraction&lt;/em&gt; are not only poorly defined, but in this context are too complex to discuss meaningfully, if a scientific answer is what you are after. It is also hard to quantify 'different' when it comes to people - there are just too many variables to compare.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, there is actually some principles and models that could be part of a more complete answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Total Free Energy&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both the TOTAL&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; model (an extension of the famous TOTE&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; model), or the free energy principle&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, assert the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Us humans constantly form predictions that serve as expected state, and then compare them to the actual state of the world/body (via senses).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This applies to both micro levels (say, communication between neuron layers) and micro level (consciousness).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It then goes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When the predicted state matches the actual state, nothing to do. When there is incongruity, we must either change our predications (models/goals) or the world (by acting).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this view, the brain is largely a differential processor - rather than processing stimuli all the way bottom-up, it generates top-down predictions and only left with validating them against stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a hugely efficient optimisation strategy for the sake of metabolic economy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also goes to explain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why we stop perceiving mechanical clocks after spending some time in a room.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why new objects (shoes, houses) excite when new but hence after peter out.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why relationships tend to cool-off over time (and in turn why some people cheat on their partner).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In extremely general terms - that that doesn't change doesn't excite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now back to Friston:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For survival sake, all living things strive to minimise surprises by forming and updating a model of their environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Things get interesting when survival is no longer a concern...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Diversity&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Taking into account the said above, picking someone who's different from you in many aspects means your mental models are challenged more often, which could yield excitement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think a good example is dating someone of different nationality, say a Westerner dating an Easterner. Differences can go both way (good and bad), but it is exciting nevertheless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Wang, C. and Mukhopadhyay, A., 2012. The Dynamics of Goal Revision: A Cybernetic Multiperiod Test- Operate-Test-Adjust-Loop (TOTAL) Model of Self-Regulation. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(5), pp. 815-832.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Miller, G.A., Galanter, E. and Pribram, K.H., 1986. Plans and the Structure of Behavior. Adams Bannister Cox.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; Friston, K., 2010. The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory?. Nature reviews neuroscience, 11(2), p.127.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3330" LastEditorUserId="3330" LastEditDate="2019-06-19T22:57:15.240" LastActivityDate="2019-06-19T22:57:15.240" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23472" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-20T17:33:40.070" Score="2" ViewCount="253" Body="&lt;p&gt;The issue of whether emotions are rational (or intelligent) is at the center of philosophical and psychological discussions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the mainstream take on the logic and nature of emotions? Or where might I be able to read more about the nature and logic of emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23446" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-06-24T17:03:39.747" LastActivityDate="2019-06-30T08:51:52.810" Title="Are emotions rational?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2019-06-28T16:50:52.793" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23474" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15222" CreationDate="2019-06-21T05:35:01.867" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an important question for a number of reasons, not the least of which is the pervasive conflation of &quot;brain waves&quot; with EM or radio waves in popular media and even in some articles in Scientific American.&#xA;The three top-voted answers at this point (June 2019) by Robin Kramer, AliceD, and bobby although apparently inconsistent, are all correct, but lack some detail that can resolve the apparent inconsistency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To begin, as Robin states and AliceD implies, Brain waves are NOT electromagnetic (EM) waves; brain waves are the term given to the patterns of voltage differences measured between two electrodes connected to the three dimensional extracellular fluid matrix surrounding the brain (as shown beautifully by Robin). This matrix includes the skull and scalp of the subject, and since the skull has a high resistance, the current that eventually makes it to the scalp is quite small and produces a very small voltage as it flows through the somewhat resistive scalp between the two electrodes. During open skull surgery, the EEG recorded from the brain surface is 10-100 time larger as the current does not have to flow out through the skull to reach the electrodes and then back again. These voltage patterns of course go up and down, thus producing &quot;waves&quot; in the EEG record of voltage versus time as AliceD explains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not the same sense of the term &quot;wave&quot; that is used in physics to describe wave phenomena; generally physicists talk about waves as solutions to differential wave equations, including Maxwell's equations. Only in the broadest sense of some possible periodicity of the phenomenon producing ups and downs in a graph of the phenomenon versus time can the commonality of these two senses of the word &quot;wave&quot; be identified. Note, however, that physicist's solutions to wave equations can be quite general, and include any combination of solution functions that take as arguments (ax+bt) and (ax-bt) representing forward and backwards traveling solutions. Hence, a square pulse will solve wave equations, and given that any realistic signal has a Fourier representation, any signal can be said to be comprised of a weighted sum of sine and cosine &quot;waves&quot; as described by AliceD, even if the signal itself is not periodic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EM waves are solutions to Maxwell's equations that carry energy through space by means of changing electric and magnetic fields that can travel long distances from where they are launched and are associated with far-field energy. This far-field energy is no longer affected by its source, nor does its fate affect its source. This is different than the energy in the electric and magnetic fields related to the current flow in the&#xA;extracellular matrix; this is called the near-field, and it comprises the motive power that drives the current flow. Attention to details is&#xA;important here; EEGs do not record electric fields, they record differences in potential. Potential is a scalar field with a single numerical value at each point in space and no absolute zero point - hence having to always measure the difference in voltage (potential) between two points and to have connections to the extracellular fluid matrix circuit, whereas the electric field is a vector field with a magnitude and direction at each point in space. The electric field is the gradient of the potential, and this is the direction that the current will flow in isotropic extracellular fluid. Changing the potential at points in the extracellular matrix will change the near-field electric field and thus the three dimensional pattern of current flow and any recorded potential differences. Brain waves are these latter potential differences due to the near-field energy in the electric and magnetic fields, and separate from the far field effects of radiated energy in the form of EM waves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, bobby points out that changing potential differences representing brain waves imply changing electric fields that, as Maxwell says, produces changing magnetic fields, which, in turn generates a changing electric field, etc - and we're off to the races: an EM wave is launched! Or is it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One needs a device called an antenna to transduce a changing voltage/current into and EM wave, and a very basic rule for antennas is that they only start converting significant amounts of energy when the size of the antenna approaches 1/4 the wavelength of the signal being radiated. So let's see how big our antenna would need to be for a 10 Hz alpha wave to be launched out of our scalp. Since EM waves travel at the speed of light, or 300,000,000 m/s, our scalp would have to be 75,000,000 meters in size! I don't have the equations here, but it's pretty obvious that essentially zero energy at 10 Hz is going to be radiated. And if one wanted to pick up that signal, the receiving antenna would have to be equally large! Seventy five Megameters is pretty damn big.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is why the EEG electrodes have to touch the scalp or otherwise connect to the actual circuit in which current is flowing rather than than just be placed nearby to pick up radiated EM energy from the brain. And while it's true a number of tricks can be pulled (as is done in cell phones dielectric antennas) to reduce this size by maybe a factor of ten, even for 100Hz or 1000Hz signals, virtually no energy is going to radiate from the scalp, nor will EM waves be picked up and converted into changing potentials on the scalp from the EM milieu around us. Cell phones can be small because they utilize signals in the range of 3 GHz where 1/4 of a wavelength is about 2.5 cm, or an inch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, even though there could be EM waves produced by brain &quot;waves&quot;,&#xA;practically speaking, it doesn't happen, and looking in detail at how EM wave are radiated reveals that the brain &quot;wave&quot; is, in fact, a different phenomenon from any EM wave that it might be associated with or generate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps the most succinct way to pinpoint the difference is to note that EM waves consist of packets of energy propagating through space via self-regenerating changing electric and magnetic fields that have units of volts/meter and amps/meter, while brain &quot;waves&quot; are difference in voltages between two points on the scalp measured in Volts - note that they have different units. With brain &quot;waves&quot;, essentially no energy is leaving the scalp and radiating into space because the frequencies are too low and the scalp is far to small to act as an effective antenna to convert them into EM waves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23497" LastEditorUserId="23497" LastEditDate="2019-06-21T19:09:34.030" LastActivityDate="2019-06-21T19:09:34.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23475" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15222" CreationDate="2019-06-21T15:48:48.383" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Strictly from a point of view in physics, there are only &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4 fundamental interactions&lt;/a&gt;: gravitation, electromagnetic, weak interaction and strong interaction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The weak and strong interactions only exist in sub-atomic, so they won't contribute anything to brainwave. The gravitation interaction, while theoretically affects, is extremely tiny to the point that it can be neglected either. &lt;strong&gt;Therefore, everything the brain does is electromagnetic.&lt;/strong&gt; In fact, every chemical process can also be said to be purely electromagnetic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I must emphasize this is strictly a physics point of view, because I know in other fields, like biology or neuroscience, it is impractical to group every &lt;em&gt;form of electromagnetic interaction&lt;/em&gt; in one basket. Electric field, magnetic field, radiation, Van de Waals interaction, you name it, are different forms of electromagnetic interaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What can be quite confusing is that in biology or neuroscience, the term &lt;em&gt;electromagnetic&lt;/em&gt; can be used for a form of such interaction: the co-existence of electric field and magnetic field. This is why we can say that electric field is not electromagnetic. This is, strictly from a physics point of view, wrong. However, this is just different interpretations of the term, so biologists and neuroscientists can safely use that statement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-06-21T15:54:39.087" LastActivityDate="2019-06-21T15:54:39.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23476" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-22T06:39:03.323" Score="0" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why does music sound good to us? Why is it that a single guitar bend, blues riff on a piano, or a scream by a singer can cause us such a sensation? What makes it better than just noise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a physicist, I tried to think of this question from our perspective. Every sound, song, noise or what have you can be decomposed to single frequency waves. We can write the spectrum, i.e. what frequencies (or equivalently musical notes) compose this particular sound and at what intensity. 'A' is well known to have a 440 Hz frequency, for example. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Composed music usually have well defined frequencies. Most of the frequencies will have no effect on the composition (zero intensity), only the ones that the composer decided. Maybe some frequencies will be added due to the digital nature of modern recording, but the highest intensities will be at the frequencies that the composer / pianist played.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Noise, on the other hand, is usually composed of all frequencies (ideally). Every frequency will have a significant contribution to the overall noise. Maybe there will be a central frequency that dominates a bit, but it would not have a significantly higher intensity than the other frequencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is, can our brain prefer compositions with well defined frequencies over a scramble of frequencies? Can this be one of the reasons we like composed music better than noise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23505" LastActivityDate="2019-06-22T06:39:03.323" Title="Why do we like music?" Tags="&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23478" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23466" CreationDate="2019-06-22T20:27:47.600" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider showing a visual representation of the &lt;strong&gt;Earth-Moon-Sun&lt;/strong&gt; system: either with videos or with globes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Show a globe of the Earth, that it's round but looks flat up close, and that it spins. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Show that the Sun is also round, much larger than the Earth, but very far away, and looks like a circle from far away.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Show that the moon is also round, smaller than Earth, but not as far away (people have been there, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/moonimg_07.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the landing spots can be pointed to at night&lt;/a&gt;, and there are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1249.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pictures of Earth from the Moon&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Show that the Moon orbits the Earth, that's why there are moon phases (notice how the lit side is always pointing towards the Sun) and the moon disappears every month (the Sun outshines the Moon when they coincide in the sky)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Show that the Earth orbits the Sun (this one is harder to intuitively demonstrate)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Show that the Earth axis has a tilt, and that's why there are seasons (might be stretch).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Then to really challenge them, you could even tell that some people don't believe any of this, and instead they believe that &lt;a href=&quot;https://proxy.duckduckgo.com/iu/?u=https%3A%2F%2Fd2v9y0dukr6mq2.cloudfront.net%2Fvideo%2Fthumbnail%2FVB6lIpK%2Fflat-earth-3d-model-with-a-layer-of-stars-sky-at-a-glass-dome-day-and-night-animation-geocentric-concept-of-universe-satellite-map-ancient-beliefs-of-flat-earth-concept-satellite-map-america-africa-and-europa-in-front_spudhoodg_thumbnail-full15.png&amp;amp;f=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Earth is flat&lt;/a&gt; and argue with each other about &lt;a href=&quot;https://wiki.tfes.org/Flat_Earth_Maps&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;various details of how it's flat&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastEditorUserId="4055" LastEditDate="2019-06-25T18:46:00.000" LastActivityDate="2019-06-25T18:46:00.000" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23479" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23470" CreationDate="2019-06-22T23:15:03.893" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Any estimate you make is going to be pretty bad. To answer this question requires so many assumptions about the data, experiment, and intended usage, it is just not possible. You would be better off running the experiment again after consulting someone who knows more about experimental design. Beyond that, you could hire a stats consultant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from the lack of catch trials, you only have 2 speeds. Even if you get lucky and they bracket threshold (e.g., d' of 1 or 75% correct), without more theory (or data), you cannot interpolate between the points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-06-22T23:15:03.893" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23480" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23545" CreationDate="2019-06-23T06:51:25.637" Score="4" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could somebody help please in providing some research papers or a resource book that states how much the visual cortex occupies of our cortex?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find some reliable source but I couldn't find any other than one &lt;a href=&quot;http://discovermagazine.com/1993/jun/thevisionthingma227&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; mentioning it is 30%. But still I need to cite a reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21391" LastActivityDate="2019-07-05T07:02:46.137" Title="Visual Cortex percentage" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23481" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-23T22:08:29.370" Score="3" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder if there is any research into the content of a conversation between two people and how that relates to IQ. My casual conversations are that people of, lets say a more humble background, which generally correlates to a lower IQ, the topics of conversation tend to involve:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Food: What did you have for dinner. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Drink: How many pints did you/will you have this evening/last night.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Relations: Who said what to who, e.g. &quot;He said.. then she said... then..&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What you like: Do you like Jam? I like Jam. Do you like Marmalade? I like Marmalade.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i.e. fairly simple stuff. I don't think it would be too hard to program that into a computer. In fact, I would even say there is a lower form of conversation along the lines of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Alright?&quot; &quot;Aye&quot; &quot;Yup.&quot; &quot;Aye&quot;. &quot;Ow's it going?&quot; &quot;Aye. Good.&quot; &quot;Yup&quot;. &quot;Aye&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Some might argue that such utterances actually have deeper meaning learned through years of use.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whereas I would characterise higher IQ conversations tend to involve more imagination, meta-language, &quot;And then he said... but why? And what were the motives?&quot; Critical thinking, and going against the grain. But then this could be because it's more socially acceptable to have these ideas, whereas in working class areas you don't want to be seen as different or above your station.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think this is a class thing. Because you can have quite rich people whose conversations are quite simple. e.g. like the stereotype of the Valley Girl who just like talks about like clothes like thing like. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-12-29T17:52:49.630" LastActivityDate="2019-12-29T17:52:49.630" Title="What research is there into content of conversations vs IQ?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23483" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-24T06:54:36.847" Score="2" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been reading about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydactyly&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;polydactyly&lt;/a&gt; and found that surgery is only necessary in certain cases.  It depends on way the extra digit on the hand or foot is attached.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, central polydactyly (a very rare situation, in which the extra digit is on the ring, middle or index finger) requires early osteotomy and ligament reconstructions to prevent deformities, such as angular growth deformities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am wondering about is the most common type which is ulnar polydactyly also called postaxial polydactyly (the extra digit is on the ulnar side of the hand, thus the side of the little finger).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuroscience and psychology have studied the consequences for humans of losing a limb or other body parts, including documenting the pain caused by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_limb&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;phantom limb effect&lt;/a&gt; (usually explained as due to reorganisation of the brain’s representation of missing part). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What has neuroscience been able to establish regarding the extra sensorimotor information the brain would be dealing with?  Can those with extra fingers use their extra digits with no problems with coordination etc?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-06-24T06:54:36.847" Title="Has there been any neuroscientific study of polydactyly?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;coordination&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23486" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-24T17:20:43.783" Score="2" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question may be seen as an extension of my &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/14082/can-the-effectiveness-of-antidepressants-be-explained-by-a-placebo-effect&quot;&gt;previous question&lt;/a&gt;, here. I was talking to a person online where s/he mentioned that psychiatrists themselves don't have an idea as to how SSRIs work. Upon searching YouTube, I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Ugcq6FWmNI8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this video&lt;/a&gt; where the narrator goes on to make many statements referencing various journals, doctors, researchers, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some points in particular that have been bothering me a bit from the video;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;[...] in 1965 he said that &quot;some, if not all depressions are associated with an absolute or relative deficiency of catecholamines, particularly norepinephrine.&quot; After that researchers quickly turned much of their attention to serotonin, guessing a deficiency in serotonin to be a root cause of depression. So, in this case, researchers first understood how a drug worked, then assumed the cause of depression based on the way the drug works. [...] The American Psychiatric Association's own 1999 textbook explains that assuming depression is caused by low serotonin because a drug that seems to prevent depression raises serotonin &quot;...is similar to concluding that because aspirin causes gastrointestinal bleeding, headaches are caused by too much blood loss and the &lt;em&gt;therapeutic action of aspirin in headaches involves blood loss.&lt;/em&gt; So, in 1999 the APA is making fun of how the chemical imbalance idea came to be.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Going back to antidepressants again, we’d want to know the context in which you introduce this medication. A genetic test, for example, would be helpful, but before you introduce a drug that increases serotonin signalling, we would at least want to verify that the person actually has low serotonin levels. Especially because antidepressants are known to have a very high risk for complications including the potentially life-threatening serotonin syndrome and a black box warning for “suicidal thoughts and behaviours.”. But as researchers at McMaster University explain, “It is currently impossible to measure exactly how the [living] brain is releasing and using serotonin...&quot; [...] In 1971, investigators at McGill University failed to find a “statistically significant” difference between the 5-HIAA levels of depressed patients and normal controls and there was no correlation whatsoever between depression severity and levels of 5-HIAA. Then in 1974, two researchers at the University of Pennsylvania found that a serotonin depleting drug didn’t reliably induce depression at all. Then, in 1975, investigators at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm found that 30% of the depressed patients they tested indeed suffered from low levels of the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA. But, they also found that 25% of the “normal” group also had low cerebrospinal levels of these metabolites. Finally, in 1984, NIMH investigators wanted to see whether those depressed patients with low serotonin would be the best responders to an antidepressant. Unfortunately for the chemical imbalance theory, lead investigator James Maas wrote, “contrary to expectations, no relationships between cerebrospinal 5-HIAA and response to [the antidepressant] amitriptyline were found.” Simply put, researchers assumed that antidepressants were working their magic in a certain context based on what the antidepressant does, not based on proper evidence for that context.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;[...] Have a listen to Psychiatrist Daniel Carlat’s comment on this: &quot;But on the other hand, what we don't is we don't know how the medications actually work in the brain... when patients ask me about these medications, I'll often say something like, well, the way Zoloft works is it increases the levels of serotonin in your brain... and presumably the reason you're depressed or anxious is that you have some sort of deficiency. ... I say that because patients ... certainly don't want to hear that a psychiatrist essentially has no idea how these medications work.&quot; So with antidepressants, we don’t actually know why they would work, and there’s doubt about whether they actually do work. [...] But what happens in people who just don’t take medication? In Robert Whitaker’s book “Anatomy of an Epidemic,” he explains that before the age of antidepressants, people’s depression would usually resolve by itself eventually. A 1931 long term study of 2,700 depressed patients reported that more than half of those admitted for depression only had one depressive episode and no relapse. [...] At the end of 6 years, the people who received the medication were more than 3 times as likely to have stopped functioning in their usual societal roles.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And there are many points he said in the video (that I didn't quote so as to not make the post long enough to read, but keep it succinct as well) that I am totally unable to accept as hardcore facts/pieces of evidence against anti-depressants and that doctors, as well as researchers, don't know what they are doing. This is totally against what I have seen &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/tLntiP5Msxw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Yy8e4sw70ow&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. The video craftily puts a disclaimer before that if someone is on medication, they should first take the advice of their physician/psychiatrist, but goes on to plant the seeds of doubt. And as I am a novice in this field, this video has managed to boggle my mind as well has irked me a bit. I'd really appreciate it if I get some clear explanations as to what is going on here. Regards! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11733" LastActivityDate="2019-06-25T21:32:58.913" Title="Do psychiatrists and researchers themselves don't have an idea how antidepressants work?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23487" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23486" CreationDate="2019-06-24T18:09:30.480" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Haha, yep. We don't know how depression or SSRIs work. We have hypotheses for both schizophrenia and depression - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2669582/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the dopamine hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3405681/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the serotonin hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While I was conducting my research, I too was faced with this conundrum. And &lt;a href=&quot;https://davidhealy.org/switch-on-anti-depression-today/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. David Healy&lt;/a&gt; is one of the trailblazers of the side which says that it's all clever pharma marketing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As in the post you sent, norepinephrine was considered to be the monoamine that was linked to depression. Soon the notion changed from this to serotonin deficiency being the culprit. Back then a class of drugs known as &quot;Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)&quot; were administered which worked selectively to suppress the effect of the enzyme MAO which was responsible for the breakdown of the monoamines (da, ht, ne).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SSRIs were revolutionary because these targeted the serotonin reuptake (popular speculation). Since it's more targeted towards ht, it's clear why they're more popular than MAOIs now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Find a brief comparison between MAOIs and SSRIs here : &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellmind.com/how-do-ssris-compare-to-maois-1066856&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.verywellmind.com/how-do-ssris-compare-to-maois-1066856&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But just like any drug, they've got their own drawbacks. And since there's a big question mark on their functioning, it's clear that there's a need to carry out rigorous and definitive research into this area to know how depression and SSRIs work for certainty. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23516" LastEditorUserId="23516" LastEditDate="2019-06-25T21:32:58.913" LastActivityDate="2019-06-25T21:32:58.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23488" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-24T20:44:06.423" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;How is the global test score supposed to be computed based on the individual scores in the Wechsler Nonverbal Scale of Ability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say the sub-test scores are A, B, C, and D.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From there:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;how do we obtain the global score? is it age dependent?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I understand that the standard deviation on the total score is 15. Is this correct?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;how is the confidence interval computed? is it symmetric around the &quot;measured&quot; value?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23517" LastEditorUserId="18720" LastEditDate="2019-06-25T21:48:31.230" LastActivityDate="2019-06-25T21:48:31.230" Title="Scoring of the Wechsler Nonverbal Scale of Ability" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23489" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-25T07:09:34.690" Score="2" ViewCount="209" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was trying to build a software simulation of people using different pathways in a city to get from point A to point B. I do know the Dijkstra's algorithm and the A* algorithm, but what they do is to find the shortest path between two nodes. Those algorithms can be used to do it, but they problem is that they only do that, they just find the perfect shortest path. And when I see realistic population movements in a city, I see different people choose different pathways to get from point A to point B, even the same person sometimes chooses a different pathway in two different moments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know part of that depends on emotional factors that would be impossible to predict. But my point is that when you look at a map and you decide yourself the path you are going to use to go from you location to a desired destination, you don't seem to run a Dijkstra or A* algorithm in your brain. In fact, I can't possible know the length of every road which is something necessary to run a Dijkstra or an A* algorithm. What algorithm does the brain use to choose a path? It's clearly not always the shortest path. I'm not just talking about the seemingly randomness that other factors like safety of the road can add to the result, or other emotional factors. Because even if my only goal is to choose the shortest path between two points, I am probably going to choose a pathway that is different from the one another person would choose, even with the same goal. I even saw that men and women tend to have brains adapted for this in a different way; in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-OfQFYZ-BAc&amp;amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;amp;t=278&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Brain Games episode from National Geographic&lt;/a&gt; they briefly mention it, I don't know how scientifically accurate it is, but well, that's why I am asking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I shorter words, I'm curious about the actual pathfinding algorithm the human brain uses. If there's one at all. Is there any paper or source that I could read about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22075" LastEditorUserId="22075" LastEditDate="2019-06-25T07:31:55.180" LastActivityDate="2019-06-25T07:31:55.180" Title="What's the pathfinding algorithm the human brain uses?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23490" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23472" CreationDate="2019-06-25T09:52:29.850" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our evaluation of the rationality of emotions depends on some social norm about the behavior and context of the behavior. On the other hand the somatic marker hypothesis states that there is logic in the inner workings of emotions. To illustrate somebody having an outburst while on his job may appear irrational to the public, even though there is rationality how this emotion was born. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;somatic marker hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; states that our decision making process is influenced by emotions (Damasio, 2000). Behavior that are associated with good outcomes are more likely to be repeated. Emotions and their bodily representations (somatic markers) serve as biasing signals for decision making. The case of Phineas Gage, a man that had an iron rod driven through his skull is used as example of not being able to use emotions in decision making, due to damage to the vmPFC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the somatic marker hypothesis emotions and bodily changes(somatic markers) become associated with previous outcomes. This associations guide subsequent decision making processes. The markers can be activated through two distinct pathways. The first one is the body loop, where changes in the body are relayed to the brain. Being triggered by some sensory experience would fall into this pathway. The second pathway is as-if-body loop, where cognitive representations activate emotions. I think that the somatic marker hypothesis says emotions are embedded in our rationality rather than saying our emotions are rational. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize I believe it is necessary to uncouple the evaluation of the rationality of some behavior and the processes guiding emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Damasio, A. R. (2000). &lt;em&gt;Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain.&lt;/em&gt; New York: Quill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastEditorUserId="23189" LastEditDate="2019-06-30T08:51:52.810" LastActivityDate="2019-06-30T08:51:52.810" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23491" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-25T10:03:09.107" Score="3" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;The principal reason of this question is that I know people that can willingly enter in lucid dream (and so do what they want in it, and wake up when they want). Some of then use EEG (not professionnal one, ZEO sleep manager or Olimex) and they lucid are on NREM2 or REM.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;So it's still sleep (the brain waves length are said to be sleep). But they can basically fall asleep and start lucid dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Important point to mention: those people are doing polyphasics sleep, hence the capacity to fall asleep for a nap really easily. But because of this they don't try to sleep outside their schedules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the thing is that they relax and then fall asleep in a lucid state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meditation can be observed in theta wavelength (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchingmeditation.org/meditation-research-summary/brain-waves&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Manocha, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.innoacademy.org/sites/default/files/media/posts/documents/NEUROSCI.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aftanas &amp;amp; Golocheikine, 2001&lt;/a&gt;) (referenced by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_wave#Meditation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;). But it's mindless meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/15335/is-mindfulness-meditation-an-effective-method-to-fall-asleep&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; refer meditation as a good method to fall asleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you simplify it (a lot) meditation and lucid dream can have a lot of common points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is there any known relatio between the two? Is it possible to fall in lucid dream by meditating?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aftanas, L. I., &amp;amp; Golocheikine, S. A. (2001). Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: high-resolution EEG investigation of meditation. Neuroscience letters, 310(1), 57-60. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3940(01)02094-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/S0304-3940(01)02094-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Manocha, R. (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;Research Summary: Brain Waves&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchingmeditation.org/meditation-research-summary/brain-waves&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.researchingmeditation.org/meditation-research-summary/brain-waves&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23486" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-06-25T21:53:00.480" Title="Can meditation be associated to lucid dream?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23492" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23466" CreationDate="2019-06-25T13:28:45.880" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;How about some experiments on &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;gravity&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Gravity is a fairly simple concept if kept to the level of a simple attraction between two material objects. Students will be able to relate a number of their personal experiences with this.&#xA;Then maybe you can ask them questions about:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Flow of water in a pipe maze wherein the pipe nodes are at different levels, all subjected to gravity on Earth(in the usual way)...or the path taken by a rolling ball when left free to move in a maze with nodes at different levels from the ground.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The trajectory of a ball thrown at an angle from the ground where gravity is absent.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;....and so on.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Why I think this is a good idea: It is a simple concept which will purely use the student's imagination power and that was what was expected. More over a myriad of questions can be formed on this simple concept by increasing the complexity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23520" LastEditorUserId="23520" LastEditDate="2019-06-25T13:37:24.953" LastActivityDate="2019-06-25T13:37:24.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23493" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23491" CreationDate="2019-06-25T14:02:55.010" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Stumbrys, Erlacher, &amp;amp; Malinowski (2015) found a positive correlation between mindfulness during wakeful states and lucid dreaming during sleep. However, there is no explanation about how the actual processes of meditation and lucid dreaming are related.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stumbrys, T., Erlacher, D., &amp;amp; Malinowski, P. (2015). Meta-Awareness During Day and Night: The Relationship Between Mindfulness and Lucid Dreaming. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 34(4), 415–433. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236615572594&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236615572594&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-06-25T21:53:00.480" LastActivityDate="2019-06-25T21:53:00.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23494" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23498" CreationDate="2019-06-26T04:03:45.060" Score="4" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider the following scenario:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Every time I do the groceries with my son he constantly asks for a packet of lollies. I find this constant asking for lollies very annoying, so I always end up buying him the lollies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the parent, the textbook states that this an example of negative reinforcement. Now this seems very intuitive, but I am wondering why this could not be an example of a punishment?  The definition of punishment that I have been given is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;If the behaviour brings about a negative outcome, it's less likely to occur in the future&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would've thought that the if the son's behaviour changed from misbehaving, this is an example of a punishment (albeit a tasty punishment). If the son continued to misbehave after receiving the lollies, then this would be typical of a reinforcer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I on the right track?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23524" LastActivityDate="2019-06-26T21:17:48.263" Title="Punishment v.s Negative Reinforcement" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23495" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-26T05:40:43.583" Score="0" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am aware that the music and IQ question has already been asked. But I am not focused on IQ or intelligence here. Let me explain. Four years ago I taught myself music from scratch; I didn't know what a note was. I taught myself to compose. Even though I cannot play an instrument or sing. Four years later I can compose complex music both with staves and in a DAW. Changes I have noticed over 4 years of daily intensive music composing:&#xA;[1] I can hear musical detail that I could not 4 years ago. &#xA;[2] I can remember complex music easily; 4 years ago I couldnt remember any music. &#xA;[3] I can remember and change music in my mind to new music easily. &#xA;[4] I cannot remember lyrics anymore. Because I absorb lyrics and turn them into melody patterns instead. So I replay them as melodies that don't remove words, but create non recallable words. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the four years has been spent in either Finale, a composing program, or in a DAW [digital audio workstation] called FL Studio. I have made classical, piano and electronic music. It's hard to quantify my hours spent composing over 4 years - it's been endless. Throughout it I am self taught from books; I've taken no lessons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can only present my experiences. I am not a psychologist or brain expert. So I have no access to studies.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23526" LastEditorUserId="23526" LastEditDate="2019-06-26T14:00:05.187" LastActivityDate="2019-06-26T14:00:05.187" Title="Does learning to compose music change our perceptions? Even without playing or singing" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23497" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-22T10:39:46.300" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;We often see people and students yawning while reading a boring course book. But, when told about something interesting, their sleepiness vanishes.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Why and how does this happen? What are the exact hormones or biochemical pathways involved?&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[NOTE: This is seen more when the temperature is slightly below body temperature at around 20-18°C. How does temperature play a role in facilitating this process?]&#xA;Thanks &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23520" OwnerDisplayName="Martin Medro" LastActivityDate="2019-06-26T14:15:35.190" Title="Why people feel more sleepy while doing something that's not interesting even when they are not actually tired?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23498" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23494" CreationDate="2019-06-26T14:26:13.943" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Operant Conditioning&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general topic you are referring to is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;operant conditioning&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Positive/negative refers to whether you are adding something or taking it away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reinforcement/punishment refers to whether you are causing a behavior to increase or decrease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Positive punishment is adding (positive) a bad thing (punishment) like yelling at or slapping the kid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Negative reinforcement is taking away (negative) a bad thing (reinforcing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Negative punishment is taking away (negative) a good thing (punishing), like limiting access to a certain toy or the television. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both positive punishment and negative punishment tend to reduce a behavior, though often positive punishment is less effective and more likely to produce off-effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, in operant conditioning everything is &lt;em&gt;relative to the consequences of a behavior by the one behaving&lt;/em&gt; (&quot;operating&quot;). If someone is not &quot;operating&quot; you cannot describe it in operant conditioning terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Your example scenario&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your first example is &lt;em&gt;positive&lt;/em&gt; reinforcement from the perspective of the child: their behavior (begging) leads to getting rewarded with lollies. One would expect that this would increase future begging for candy rather than reduce it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only way to think of this as &lt;em&gt;negative reinforcement&lt;/em&gt; is from the perspective of the &lt;em&gt;parent&lt;/em&gt;, for whom giving the child lollies (the parent's behavior) has removed a noxious stimulus (the begging by the child), which might lead the parent to again purchase lollies to reduce complaining.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in parenting or training a dog or most any other context where there is a power relationship, you are usually more concerned with thinking about how behaviors affect the child/dog/whomever. In this situation, if a parent wants to stop the begging long term, likely the best approach is to target &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;extinction&lt;/a&gt; of the behavior, which occurs when a behavior (e.g., begging) does not achieve a positive outcome (e.g., no lollies are obtained).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I would've thought that the if the son's behaviour changed from misbehaving, this is an example of a punishment (albeit a tasty punishment)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the perspective of the son, this is &lt;strong&gt;not an example of operant conditioning&lt;/strong&gt;, because the behaviour change (stopping begging) is not causing the 'stimulus' (getting candy), but rather the other way around. You could only consider this operant conditioning from the perspective of the parent, who is being trained to do an action (&quot;give candy&quot;) to remove an aversive stimulus (child begging).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-06-26T21:17:48.263" LastActivityDate="2019-06-26T21:17:48.263" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23499" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-26T22:36:45.413" Score="-1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;Where I can read a good overview on schools/trends in psychology (behaviorism, gestalt, freudism etc)?&#xA;And which of them is most scientific/evidentiary and less &quot;art&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23530" LastActivityDate="2019-06-27T17:07:46.067" Title="Schools in psychology" Tags="&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23500" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-27T14:24:50.563" Score="1" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have some difficulties distinguishing criterion and convergent validity. According to Wikipedia, the difference is that criterion validity really focuses on &lt;em&gt;predicting&lt;/em&gt; scores on another test, whilst converging validity is concerned with finding correlations between tests or variables that are &lt;em&gt;theoretically assumed&lt;/em&gt; to be related (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_validity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_validity&lt;/a&gt;; To avoid any confusion: I know that concurrent validity is a subtype of criterion validity). &#xA;However, I found a multiple choice question online that confused me:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Scores on a final exam are related to student grade point average, the amount of time spent studying for the exam, and class attendance. What type of validity is demonstrated in this case?&#xA;A) convergent validity &#xA;B) discriminant validity&#xA;C) criterion validity&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apparently, the right answer is A), but I think you could still argue for C) in the following manner:&#xA;Scores on the final exam is the outcome measure and GPA, amount of time spent studying, and class attendance predict it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16170" LastActivityDate="2019-06-27T14:24:50.563" Title="Criterion versus Convergent Validity" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23501" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-27T13:35:23.597" Score="7" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;Time is short in the days of learning for me but I like listening to lectures and case studies about code in my field. I've thought about getting a &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/B07Q34ZKLF&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bluetooth Sleep Headphone&lt;/a&gt; to possibly listen to these lectures and studies while sleeping. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, upon my research I've only be able to find on this site one a Q&amp;amp;A without an answer: &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/questions/9843/can-one-learn-whilst-sleeping-can-one-solidify-a-memory-study-for-exams-by-li&quot;&gt;Can one learn whilst sleeping? Can one solidify a memory &amp;amp; study for exams by listening to recordings while asleep?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my research and Google kungfu I've seen questionable sites that indicate as yes and some no but I was wondering have there been any creditable university case studies that show wether this is factually possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23532" OwnerDisplayName="DᴀʀᴛʜVᴀᴅᴇʀ" LastActivityDate="2019-07-01T13:30:38.797" Title="Is there any scientific data showing one can learn while sleeping?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23502" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23499" CreationDate="2019-06-27T17:07:46.067" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Welcome to Psychology.SE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @Ooker was indicating, a question asking for a &quot;good&quot; overview on different sections of psychology is going to generate a very opinion-based answer and because of the nature of such questions, they do not fit well with StackExchange sites due to the way they work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question on which is most scientific is also opinion-based as there are areas of psychology &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2242&quot;&gt;considered by some here to be pseudoscientific&lt;/a&gt; by some and not by others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would look at reading introductory books on psychology.  In my view, any by Routledge  or SAGE publications would give a fairly thorough rundown on the different theory bases etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For free ebooks you won't go far wrong reading the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.freepsychotherapybooks.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ones available from the International Psychotherapy Institute&lt;/a&gt; (although I am not affiliated  to them). Being who they are, the institute's selection will have a strong leaning towards Freudian and Neo-Freudian psychology but they will give you a start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-06-27T17:07:46.067" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23503" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-27T19:43:56.973" Score="4" ViewCount="250" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some people would say that without religion, there would be no moral code to tell us what is good and bad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some Darwinist's like Dawkins say that acts like sharing and feelings like guilt are innate and that we don't need religion. And that we can have morals without religion. He gives the examples of a monkey sharing it's food. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However there appear to be some religions, e.g. human sacrifice in paganism, or death for apostasy in Islam, which seem to suggest that the notion of what constitutes good and bad is more flexible. And the feeling of guilt would be more a social construct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sure we can have laws without religion. But these laws might just suit the majority not the minority.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So for instance would a person who had never been taught that murder is bad. But that murder as a revenge for steeling (for example) is good. Would they then feel guilt after comitting a murder? (As Dawkin's might posit). Or feel like they have done a good deed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, from a psychological standpoint, is Dawkin's correct in thinking that humans would be kind to each other in the absence of society built on the foundations of a religious code. If so what exactly is &quot;guilt&quot; if it only exists with respect to social expectations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2020-02-16T12:28:04.133" Title="Is a concept of good and bad innate or learned?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23466" CreationDate="2019-06-28T04:32:13.960" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;At this age I find it &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;limiting not to use verbal communication in combination with visuals and ACTION&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you can't remove this limitation, please disregard this answer. Otherwise, keep reading it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience with kids at this age, they respond positively with:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;fun physical activities&lt;/strong&gt;: ludic games, moving around, challenges using their body (e.g. psychomotricity)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;instigating stories&lt;/strong&gt;: using puppets or props, emotions (lightly exaggerated facial expressions, peculiar ton of voice, events happening to characters)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;concrete projects&lt;/strong&gt;: arts and crafts, building blocks, toys, music&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;media&lt;/strong&gt;: videos, iPad games, etc&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;nature&lt;/strong&gt;: bringing them outdoors (green park, beach, etc), playing with animals or watching them, &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;love&lt;/strong&gt;: serenity, care and patience from the facilitator, positive stimulation, challenge proportional to the cognitive level, respect for his or her individuality &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering that at this age most kids cannot develop abstract thinking, I never expected to test them on the concepts I'm helping them to build (if she doesn't know the answer, it's ok!). I always thought more like I'm facilitating them to form &quot;building blocks&quot; internally, like &quot;planting seeds&quot;, that will grow with them and help them in the future, when their cognitive system is better developed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also follow some educators &amp;amp; philosophers that regard this age as a time to teach moral values, social and emotional skills, rather than science and informational skills &lt;em&gt;[I'll provide some reference later ]&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Paleontology concepts, Earth's history, care for species:&lt;/strong&gt; &#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;tell the story of the extinction of the dinosaurs using puppets and emotions; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;play a relate video appropriated for the age (maybe scenes from Iced Age?);&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;test (and reinforcement)&lt;/em&gt;: ask them to draw the characters of the story and talk about what they have learned and how they wanted the story to end&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Water cycle / care for environment&lt;/strong&gt;: &#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;play the video of the water cycle; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;present a skit with characters showing the consequences for the water system on throwing trash on the floor or using plastic bottles, etc; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;test (and reinforcement):&lt;/em&gt; have them build props using recycled materials and ask them how to protect the environment and what are the consequences of not doing it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Human body / hygiene&lt;/strong&gt;: &#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;play a video showing the &quot;nasties&quot; (or monsters) inside our mouth, that are flushed away when we brush our teeth; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;play another video with a catchy song about brushing our teeth (or play the song with them using musical instruments); &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;bring a gigantic brush and simulate brushing gigantic teeth made out of toilette paper rolls (or something similar to a tooth); have them playing with the gigantic brush, pretending to brush their teeth; give them challenges&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;test (and reinforcement):&lt;/em&gt; have them make the &quot;mouth monsters&quot; with playing dough and ask them how to prevent that from happening, using their life examples&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some educators that inspired this answer: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pestalozzi&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Montessori&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Amos_Comenius&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Comenius&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau#Education_and_child_rearing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rousseau&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Kardec&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rivail&lt;/a&gt;, Jesus of Nazareth, Socrates&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23518" LastActivityDate="2019-06-28T04:32:13.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23507" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23472" CreationDate="2019-06-28T09:46:49.503" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;First I need to suggest definitions for &lt;em&gt;rational&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;emotion.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Rational&lt;/strong&gt; = relating to, based on, or agreeable to &lt;em&gt;reason&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rational&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merriam-Webster&lt;/a&gt;), which is a logical &lt;em&gt;thought&lt;/em&gt; about how things are related; the thoughts appear in the &lt;em&gt;brain.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An &lt;strong&gt;emotion&lt;/strong&gt; = &lt;em&gt;heart&lt;/em&gt; feeling, which is a reaction of the heart to what one thinks, recalls, sees, hears or experiences in other ways (my own definition).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, emotions, which are heart reactions, are not rational, but can be partially controlled by reasoning. For example, one feels a fear of doing something, but then thinks about it and realizes it can be good to do it anyway and starts to feel hope and peace instead of fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, emotions can influence rational decisions. One who sees something and finds it emotionally pleasant can start to think how to get it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example 1:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Past trauma can make you believe (in your head) that something what is generally not harmful is harmful for you, so next time, when confronted with a similar situation, you may feel fear, which can make you run away from &quot;no reason.&quot; One could say this is an &quot;irrational&quot; response but it is &quot;understandable.&quot; You can then learn how to overcome bad memories from the trauma and make your decisions in future similar situations more &quot;intelligent.&quot; Based on this example, I claim they are thoughts and actions that can be rational (intelligent) or not, but emotions are just feelings, so they can not be rational or irrational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example 2:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You see a person, which triggers a pleasant emotion in your heart. The emotion makes you believe (in your head) that if you approach the person and start talking with him, something good will happen, so you do, and then something good actually happens, for example, you are able to reveal some bothering thoughts to him, which relieves you. Based on this example, I claim that emotions, even if they cannot be rational by themselves, can convince you to make rational decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion: Thoughts (rational or irrational) are in your head and emotions in your heart. The reason for the action can start in your head or in your heart, but it is only your head that can be rational, not your heart. And emotions can help you make rational decisions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-06-28T13:23:22.313" LastActivityDate="2019-06-28T13:23:22.313" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23508" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-28T11:24:01.727" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;The procedures may vary from country to country, but I'm wondering if they are cremated or otherwise disintegrated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23539" LastActivityDate="2019-06-28T11:24:01.727" Title="What happens to the brains that are utilized during studies afterwards?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23510" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23503" CreationDate="2019-06-29T09:24:08.007" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Psychologically,&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;guilt&lt;/strong&gt; can be described as &quot;a &lt;em&gt;feeling&lt;/em&gt; of responsibility or remorse for some offense, crime, wrong, etc., &lt;em&gt;whether real or imagined&lt;/em&gt;&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dictionary.com/browse/guilt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dictionary.com&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Guilt is an emotion triggered by a belief that you did something wrong, based on what &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; think is wrong. You can feel guilty after breaking your New year resolution. You can also feel guilty when doing something what is considered wrong by social, moral or religious criteria set by others but only when you &lt;em&gt;believe&lt;/em&gt; that what you did is wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, you can feel guilty when you do something against your personal beliefs. I'm not answering to &quot;Is a concept of good and bad innate or learned?&quot; because, this is not a psychological question...The question what is innate and learned, of course, can be a psychological question. I believe that the &lt;em&gt;capability&lt;/em&gt; of feeling guilt (not guilt by itself) is &lt;em&gt;innate.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-07-03T10:55:36.257" LastActivityDate="2019-07-03T10:55:36.257" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23511" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-29T15:16:25.763" Score="1" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia. Which tells you that excessive levels may increase the risk of obtaining schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;L-glutamine turns into glutamate directly. Does this mean that L-glutamine supplementation, which is common among bodybuilders, increases the risk?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-06-29T20:55:22.507" LastActivityDate="2019-06-29T22:56:37.953" Title="Relation between L-glutamine supplementation and risk of schizophrenia" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23512" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-29T16:47:56.620" Score="3" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;In CBT they tell you to challenge automatic thoughts.&#xA;So say someone doesn't say hello to you, then you think he doesn't like me.&#xA;CBT says to challenge this and maybe you realize that he didn't see you actually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a more philosophical question in such sense.&#xA;CBT assumes that at some point we are generating wrong ideas (automatic thoughts) and later we are able to correct them ourselves.&#xA;My question is, if we are able to correct them, why are we generating the wrong ideas in the first place? What is the mechanism that allows this to happen? Which mind processes are in play here? Concious/unconcious?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23545" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-06-30T06:19:36.323" LastActivityDate="2019-12-02T10:23:37.473" Title="Why are we generating wrong ideas in the first place?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23513" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23511" CreationDate="2019-06-29T20:54:49.277" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Glutamate availability in the brain is strictly dependent on &lt;em&gt;de novo&lt;/em&gt; synthesis of glutamine in astrocytes. This process  requires the enzymes pyruvate carboxylase and glutamine synthetase to form glutamine, which is then converted into glutamate by deamidation via phosphate-activated glutaminase in a reaction that also yields ammonia &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25236722&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Schousboe &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2014)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, whatever you ingest in terms of glutamate or glutamine via your food doesn't reach the brain and won't play a role in psychosis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is good news, as glutamate is an abundant, naturally occurring amino acid and is found in tomatoes, grapes, cheese, mushrooms and other foods. It is also widely used as a flavor enhancer with an umami taste that intensifies the meaty, savory flavor of food. It's commonly used in stock, soups, ramen, savoury snacks &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;. (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25236722&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schousboe &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Adv Neurobiol&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;:13-30&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-06-29T22:56:37.953" LastActivityDate="2019-06-29T22:56:37.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23514" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-06-29T23:58:33.900" Score="1" ViewCount="168" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the book &quot;How to take smart notes: one simple technique to boost writing, learning and thinking: for students, academics and nonfiction book writers&quot; by Söhnke Arens the author makes the claim that using the &quot;Zettelkasten&quot; method for organizing notes is highly effective. To support this argument the author points to Niklas Luhmann who was a very productive social scientist in the 20th century and used the method. However the author does not actually cite any research that proves that the system works for everyone. Is there actually any research? If not, is there any consensus on which system students should use to organize their knowledge?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: Here is Luhmann himself explaining his system.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://luhmann.surge.sh/communicating-with-slip-boxes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://luhmann.surge.sh/communicating-with-slip-boxes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23547" LastEditorUserId="23547" LastEditDate="2019-06-30T00:08:12.933" LastActivityDate="2019-06-30T00:08:12.933" Title="Is there any research into the effectiveness of the &quot;Zettelkasten&quot; (slip box) method of processing notes?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23515" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23512" CreationDate="2019-06-30T09:07:44.917" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;They are learned thinking patterns, schemas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can't give our cognitive attention to more than one thing at a time so most of our thinking is automatic, relying on pattern matching to previous experience. We have algorithms or heuristics for most events and objects and people and inputs. They are the things we &quot;know&quot;. Much of the time they're right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conscious and unconscious don't really have any meaning here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11667" LastActivityDate="2019-06-30T09:07:44.917" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23516" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23551" CreationDate="2019-06-30T23:53:27.453" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm an undergraduate linguistics student with a strong interest in cognitive psychology of visual attention. Nowadays, I'm studying on an undergraduate research project in which I'm planning to use reaction-time measurement and oddball presentation. However, when I dive into the oddball paradigm literature it seemed to me that it is only used with some other neuro-imaging techniques like EEG, fMRI etc. So I started to wonder if it is inappropriate to use oddball in order to elicit some behavioral data for some reason. Although I've searched for this on Google Scholar or Science Direct, I could not find anything directly related to this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it uncommon / inappropriate / methodologically flawed to use the oddball paradigm only with reaction time? If so, why? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19402" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-05T19:42:14.390" LastActivityDate="2019-07-05T19:42:14.390" Title="May somebody use oddball paradigm solely for psychophysical studies?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23517" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23501" CreationDate="2019-07-01T07:03:59.817" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think that it is possible to learn new facts while sleeping, but it is certainly possible to reactivate certain memories during sleep and thereby affect the probability of those memories being retained. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one study, participants learned a visuospatial task while smelling an odour. They were better at remembering how to perform the task if they were subsequently exposed to the same odour during sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Reactivating Memories during Sleep by Odors: Odor Specificity and&#xA;  Associated Changes in Sleep Oscillations, Julia S. Rihm,  Susanne&#xA;  Diekelmann,  Jan Born and  Björn Rasch&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jocn_a_&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jocn_a_&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another study, participants had to learn spatial locations for some objects and a sound associated with each object. The sounds associated with some of these objects were played back to them during sleep. Upon awakening, they were better at recalling the locations of objects whose sounds they had heard during sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Strengthening Individual Memories by Reactivating Them During Sleep,&#xA;  John D. Rudoy, Joel L. Voss, Carmen E. Westerberg, Ken A. Paller&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://science.sciencemag.org/content/326/5956/1079&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://science.sciencemag.org/content/326/5956/1079&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In another study, participants remembered melodies better if they later heard those melodies during sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cued memory reactivation during sleep influences skill learning James&#xA;  W Antony, Eric W Gobel, Justin K O'Hare,  Paul J Reber&amp;amp; Ken A Paller&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nn.3152&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nature.com/articles/nn.3152&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21384" LastActivityDate="2019-07-01T07:03:59.817" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23518" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23501" CreationDate="2019-07-01T13:30:38.797" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am almost a layman but I got to learn something on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I could understand, what in common can be found in wake/sleep and learning are the &lt;em&gt;brain waves&lt;/em&gt;. Neurons exchange signals in form of electrical pulses and the collective frequency of these firing rates are indeed these brain waves. In &lt;a href=&quot;http://news.mit.edu/2017/brain-waves-reflect-different-types-learning-1011&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; it is pointed out that learning can be differentiated in explicit and implicit. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Explicit learning occurs, for example, as one is engaged in learning English grammar rules (that posted article explains more in deep the difference between explicit and implicit learning) This kind of learning is characterised by the dominance of high frequency brain waves (called &lt;em&gt;alpha&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;beta&lt;/em&gt;, the latter being faster. This range is characterised by frequencies of 10-30 hertz. Hertz is a measure of frequency, defined as &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1/second$&lt;/span&gt;, that is: consider for example the centrifugue of the washing machine: if it does 10 rounds in a second, then its frequency is 10 hertz).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, when one sleeps, his/her brain wave frequency drops from &lt;em&gt;alpha&lt;/em&gt; to &lt;em&gt;theta&lt;/em&gt; in the pre-sleep stage and eventually to &lt;em&gt;delta&lt;/em&gt; in the deep sleep phase. This latter is the slowest frequency of the spectrum (ranging in 1 to 4 hertz according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/delta-wave&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;refer here for more&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence I would say that active learning as could performed during wake can not be accomplished during sleep inasmuch there is not the proper brain waves setting to, almost for what concerns explicit learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope it helps and hope I got the point correctly. Wish you best luck with your study!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23552" LastActivityDate="2019-07-01T13:30:38.797" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23520" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-01T22:21:09.023" Score="0" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't really want to give examples as I am looking for a general rule that I can apply to any behavior or tendency to determine whether it is normal or a disorder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23359" LastActivityDate="2019-07-02T16:17:29.793" Title="What is the basis on deciding that a certain behavior/tendency is abnormal or a disorder" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23521" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-02T11:55:33.780" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know how these two forms of approaches differ in terms of guiding a person's anxiety and helping them heal. there has been no research done using these two forms of meditation together on testing anxiety. they have been studied separately. So I had wanted to know, how they differ in terms of helping anxious individuals.&#xA;after reading this article i wanted to suggest understanding from the behalf of others, as i am new here :)&#xA;refrence: &#xA;Tacón, Anna M., et al. &quot;Mindfulness meditation, anxiety reduction, and heart disease: a pilot study.&quot; Family &amp;amp; community health 26.1 (2003): 25-33.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23551" LastEditorUserId="23551" LastEditDate="2019-07-03T16:48:17.470" LastActivityDate="2019-07-03T16:48:17.470" Title="how do Transcendental Meditation and mindfulness differ in terms of dealing with individual's anxiety?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;mindfulness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23522" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-02T13:02:50.637" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although  I have seen several studies that did substantiate low self esteem having a significant correlation with anorexia nervosa, but does OCD also play a major contribution in understanding the behavioral patterns  in an individual suffering from anorexia nervosa.&#xA;this question came into my mind when i read an article regarding Obsessive compulsive disorder among anorexia and bulimia patients&#xA;refrence : &#xA;Lilenfeld, L., Kaye, W., Greeno, C., Merikangas, K., Plotnicov, K., Pollice, C., Rao, R., Strober, M., Bulik, C. and Nagy, L. (1998). A Controlled Family Study of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(7), p.603. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23551" LastEditorUserId="23551" LastEditDate="2019-07-10T16:24:22.450" LastActivityDate="2019-07-10T16:24:22.450" Title="Does OCD play a major contribution in an individuals suffering from anorexia nervosa?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23523" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10266" CreationDate="2019-07-02T13:49:43.257" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, emotional IQ is attained through past experiences and through how the individual is able to learn from his surrounding about himself and strengthen his/her basic characteristics one should exhibit in  main areas: self-awareness, emotional control, self-motivation, empathy and relationship skills(Borsic Lab et al., 2019).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;refrence : Borsic Lab, Z., Burbano, K., Gallardo R, V., Bangeppaga, M., Mulla, S., &amp;amp; Selvanayag, M. (2019). Emotional Intelligence Models as Generators of BusinessManagement Change in the Human Talent Area. Journal Of Artificial Intelligence, 12(1), 1-10. doi: 10.3923/jai.2019.1.10&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23551" LastActivityDate="2019-07-02T13:49:43.257" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23520" CreationDate="2019-07-02T16:11:28.217" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can think of &quot;abnormal&quot; in two basic ways: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Statistical abnormality&lt;/strong&gt; - The extent to which an individual is high or low on some trait &lt;em&gt;compared to the average of the population&lt;/em&gt;. This use of the term is value-neutral, meaning that there is nothing inherently good or bad about being close to the average (i.e., &quot;normal&quot;) or far from the average (i.e., &quot;abnormal&quot;). For example, an individual with an extremely high IQ is &quot;abnormal&quot; in the same way that someone with an extremely low IQ is &quot;abnormal&quot;. In short, statistical normality is just a way to mathematically describe how extreme a value is compared to some reference. The key to this type of &quot;normal&quot; is that the &lt;em&gt;reference point (e.g., mean) is empirically derived&lt;/em&gt;. It is simply a numerical description.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Social or clinical abnormality&lt;/strong&gt; - The extent to which an individual expresses a value on some trait compared to some reference &lt;em&gt;defined by people&lt;/em&gt;. This reference point (or set of points) might be defined by society (i.e., &lt;em&gt;social norms&lt;/em&gt;) or by experts like clinical psychologists (i.e., &lt;em&gt;diagnostic criteria&lt;/em&gt;). The key to these types of &quot;normal&quot; is that the reference point is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; value-neutral. In fact, the reference points with social and clinical normativity are usually what is considered &quot;good&quot; by those setting the criteria.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People (professionals included) often fail to distinguish between statistical normality and social/clinical norms, but its important to keep these straight when thinking about mental or behavioral disorders. Saying that an individual is &quot;abnormal&quot; in a statistical sense means something very different than saying that an individual is &quot;abnormal&quot; in a clinical or social sense. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To answer your question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question is about clinical normativity. There is one especially useful criterion that clinical psychologists use to determine whether a patient is presenting as abnormal (or &quot;disordered&quot;): &lt;strong&gt;The extent to which a patient's symptoms interfere with everyday functioning and basic well-being&lt;/strong&gt;. An individual might meet several specific criteria for a disorder (e.g., ADHD, phobias), but if he or she has found a way to maintain stable relationships, keep a job, and is otherwise happy with their life, a clinician might decide against giving a formal diagnosis. In short, the clinician basically asks the patient to identify the things making them miserable and tries to determine if any of the symptoms might be responsible. Things that will tend to push a clinician toward making a diagnosis of a disorder are things like not paying bills, poor social relationships, not leaving the house, drinking too much alcohol, inability to stay employed, feeling anxious or depressed, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Caveats&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, the &quot;everyday-functioning/well-being&quot; heuristic isn't perfect, but it is very useful for helping to organize one's thinking about what makes a behavior or disposition &quot;disordered&quot;. The main drawback to this heuristic is that there are many things that interfere with everyday functioning that aren't considered disordered, like grief. Grieving over the death of a loved one can be incredibly disruptive to a person's life, but it isn't actually clear that a magic pill that could prevent the grieving process would be a good thing. Is it good for someone to lose their spouse and carry on like nothing happened the next day? Reasonable people can disagree on the answer to this question, but (for now) most clinical psychologists don't consider grieving to be &quot;disordered&quot; unless the person has been grieving for a very long time (e.g., years). So, the &quot;everyday-functioning/well-being&quot; heuristic is generally useful when trying to figure out if something is disordered, but keep in mind that there are many situations in which its application is of limited value. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23181" LastEditorUserId="23181" LastEditDate="2019-07-02T16:17:29.793" LastActivityDate="2019-07-02T16:17:29.793" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23526" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-03T03:07:51.813" Score="0" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a question in mind regarding about plants. I remember there is an experiment where plants raised in good environment with compliments tends to flourish and grows bigger compare to the plants raise in a bad environment. Which leads me to ponder on the question whether do plants feel's emotions  the same way as humans do even though they do not have any means of expressing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23561" LastActivityDate="2019-07-03T03:07:51.813" Title="Do plants feel emotional pain as humans and animals do?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23529" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-03T02:37:49.383" Score="4" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is anyone familiar with this open access study?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Radua, J., Borgwardt, S., Crescini, A., Mataix-Cols, D., Meyer-Lindenberg, A., McGuire, P. K., &amp;amp; Fusar-Poli, P. (2012). Multimodal meta-analysis of structural and functional brain changes in first episode psychosis and the effects of antipsychotic medication. &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience &amp;amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, 36&lt;/em&gt;(10), 2325-2333. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.07.012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.07.012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm surprised by the included studies. 76% of FEP patients in the structural group (965 patients) received antipsychotics, and only 53% of FEP patients in the functional group (362 patients) received medication. I always assumed studies on FEP using medication-naive patients were almost unheard for ethical concerns. Unless I'm mistaken, that's not the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Forty-three studies met inclusion criteria (Fig. 1). Specifically, in the structural meta-analysis, we included 965 FEP subjects (mean age 24, range 15–35 years; 34% females; 76% receiving antipsychotic treatment), matched with 1040 controls (mean age 26, range 15–35 years; 34% females). The cognitive tasks functional imaging cohort included 362 FEP subjects (mean age 26, range 19–36 years; 31% females; 53% receiving antipsychotic treatment).&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user27343" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-07-03T16:09:19.067" LastActivityDate="2019-07-03T16:09:19.067" Title="How common is it to include unmedicated patients in first episode psychosis (or any type of psychosis) studies?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychosis&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23530" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3840" CreationDate="2019-07-03T15:59:15.303" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According neurological perspective,  Amygdala  is involved in pleasurable emotional learning as well as fearful emotional learning. awareness of the aversive nature of  stimuli is sufficient to guide our actions. We avoid dangerous neighborhoods&#xA;or shark-infested waters, not mainly because we have been&#xA; attacked by sharks in those locations, but instead&#xA;because we might have been given information regarding the stimulus aversive characteristics.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Previous research did substantiate on basis of humans using fear conditioning. they had had found that the amygdala is not completely important in terms learning or developing of an external, cognitive representation of the aversive characters of a stimulus or event . &#xA;This cognitive representation that depends on the hippocampal memory&#xA;system, which is significant in terms of developing declarative memories, which leads to recalling of past failed experience from hippocampus and feeling sense of fear of failure in future outcomes .although, the amygdala is important for expressing conditioned fear response towards the  same stimuli. &#xA;&lt;strong&gt;refrence : Phelps, E., O'Connor, K., Gatenby, J., Gore, J., Grillon, C., &amp;amp; Davis, M. (2001). Activation of the left amygdala to a cognitive representation of fear. Nature Neuroscience, 4(4), 437-441. doi: 10.1038/86110&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23551" LastActivityDate="2019-07-03T15:59:15.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23531" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-03T16:05:50.473" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that in some cases, given a set of objects, human subjects asked to randomly select one will tend to favor one over others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We all know the situation where &quot;37&quot; will be favored when asked to select a random number between 1 and 100, and I'd once heard that the top right square of a square divided into four squares will be favored, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: what is the &lt;strong&gt;name&lt;/strong&gt; for these types of variables? (Schleiderman Variables? Steinman Variables?...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23565" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2020-02-18T01:43:20.680" LastActivityDate="2020-02-18T01:43:20.680" Title="What to call variables that measures human's random preferences to select a given experimental stimuli?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23533" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23536" CreationDate="2019-07-03T16:56:44.480" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am an economist, and almost all work on shame (very little work has been done on empathy in economics, we typically just jump to some form of altruism) has simply been on observed outcomes. That being said, I was wondering if there are any good reference text or papers (big researcher names are welcome) on more of the nature of such emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23566" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-03T19:38:48.860" LastActivityDate="2019-07-04T07:42:50.983" Title="Papers/Resources on the source/process of shame and empathy" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23535" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9400" CreationDate="2019-07-03T17:34:49.143" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Any form of excessive secretion of dopamine, can not be good, be it drugs, learning, sex etc. workaholism is a form learning addiction,  workaholism is said to be as an addiction&#xA;very similar to alcoholism. Workaholic as a “person whose pleasure from learning things at work has become so extreme, that it indicates clear disturbances with his/her personal happiness, bodily health, and interpersonal relations, and with his smooth social functioning” . Therefore,  there are some perspectives related to workaholism. workaholism at least initially was formulated to be referred as addictive process (Sussman, 2012).&#xA; Negative side effects of workaholism or the strive or need to constantly work towards gaining knowledge may include subjective emotional sorrow or feeling of “burned out” (Sussman, 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on that search,&#xA;these authors induced that addiction includes: &#xA;(a) engagement in the behavior to achieve&#xA;appetitive effects&#xA; (b) preoccupation with the behavior &#xA;(c) temporary satiation&#xA; (d)loss of control&#xA; (e) suffering negative consequences&#xA;hope my answer helped. if you want to read in depth on this. do refer to the reference for article.&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;reference :  Sussman, S. (2012). Workaholism: A Review. Journal Of Addiction Research &amp;amp; Therapy. doi: 10.4172/2155-6105.s6-001&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23551" LastActivityDate="2019-07-03T17:34:49.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23536" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23533" CreationDate="2019-07-03T19:34:19.260" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Empathy is a topic that has been addressed extensively by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans_de_Waal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Frans de Waal&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;; he has been studying primates intensively and draws parallels between them and us. Especially the differences and commonalities between humans, bonobos and chimps is interesting. Check him out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scientific American (a non-peer reviewed scientific journal I'm reading a lot), had a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/magazine/sa/2018/09-01/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;special issue recently&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/magazine/sa/2018/09-01/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, September 2018&lt;/a&gt;) on why humans set themselves apart from other animal species. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Tomasello&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tomasello&lt;/a&gt; has an interesting contribution there on the evolution of empathy and its role in the domination of mankind. An interesting read for sure.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-04T07:42:50.983" LastActivityDate="2019-07-04T07:42:50.983" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23538" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-04T05:47:26.960" Score="1" ViewCount="335" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a single subject data(T1w and rs-fMRI BOLD). I am wanting to generate functional connecitivty matrix after preprocessing the raw fMRI. I already used CONN toolbox to do the entire preprocessing. I have now completed the first-level analysis as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I am wanting to calculate FC matrix, I have computed ROI-to-ROI connectivty during first-level analysis. I belieive this is the correct way forward. I am having the output file named &quot;resultsROI_Subject###_Condition###.mat&quot;. Can someone please show me how to compute FC matrix values using this file.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am extracting 'Z' values from &quot;resultsROI_Subject###_Condition###.mat&quot;. I am then calculating correlation coefficients of Z using MATLAB 'corrcoef' function. So the resultant matrix that I get after doing this MATLAB operation, is it the FC matrix that I want?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the Z matrix obtained after running CONN preprocessing pipeline. Z is of size (RoI&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\times$&lt;/span&gt;RoI). Here, the number of RoI is 105. Z represents Fischer-transformed correlation coefficient between each source and target RoI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8RVFa.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8RVFa.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Z matrix - 105x105&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the result after applying MATLAB tanh function.&#xA;MATLAB code -&gt; &lt;code&gt;Z_tanh = tanh(Z);&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Jd0iz.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Jd0iz.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Z_tanh&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21586" LastEditorUserId="21586" LastEditDate="2019-07-09T09:13:42.557" LastActivityDate="2019-07-09T09:13:42.557" Title="How to generate functional connectivity matrices after first-level analysis in CONN toolbox?" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23539" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23201" CreationDate="2019-07-04T08:42:04.623" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stress&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is a very broad term. For instance, I'm doing tests on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.audiologyonline.com/articles/listening-effort-we-know-it-12032&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;listening effort&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; using &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.journalofcognition.org/articles/10.5334/joc.18/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;pupillometry&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. Pupillometry measures pupil diameter which is correlated to stress. More stress means larger pupils. Effortful listening is also a form of stress and hence indeed also evoke a pupil response.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm focusing on cochlear implant (CI) users, and these folks even have a lot of trouble understanding speech, especially in noise. But even in total silence (no background noise, normal 65 dB speech) they need to mentally focus on the task at hand. Hence they have large pupil responses even under optimal listening conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, normal hearing (NH) folks show, on average, also a substantial response in silence, although smaller than CI wearers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To extrapolate these findings to your case by drawing the parallel between NH listeners (math proficient) and CI users (math deficient), I can assure you that even mathophiles  do show a stress response, even for relatively simple math assignments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-07-04T08:42:04.623" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23540" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-02T20:12:34.090" Score="6" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm in a psychology lab and we're having trouble getting participants for an fMRI study. We pay $150 per subject and we need to have several hundred healthy controls for one study. For the 20-minute study, the participant has to look at certain words and think about them, like imagining a scenario where &quot;family&quot; or &quot;pride&quot; was important. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We keep finding participants from recruiting around campus who will seem enthusiastic, then fall asleep immediately in the scanner. Our IRB states that we have to let them sleep for the full scan and pay them the full amount. I don't know how to prevent this. We've wasted thousands of dollars and weeks to months of time running studies with garbage data. Has anyone figured out how to recruit better participants?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="rooty" LastActivityDate="2019-07-04T08:50:22.690" Title="How to recruit participants for fMRI study who do not fall asleep during experiment?" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23541" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23540" CreationDate="2019-07-02T20:26:32.070" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on my own experience as a student, the problem is probably not that your participants are lazy... the problem is that, like many university students, they're severely sleep-deprived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While a student, I once agreed to participate in a friend's (non-MRI) study, which involved listening to sounds and clicking buttons in response. To my embarrassment, despite being enthusiastic about participating, I kept drifting off briefly during the study. I managed to complete it, but I'm sure my results were affected. I'm pretty sure that if I had ever tried to participate in an MRI study, I would have fallen completely asleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't have experience running MRI studies so I'm not really sure what to suggest to solve this problem, other than to try recruiting from less sleep-deprived populations, or redesigning the study tasks to be more engaging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="ekl" LastActivityDate="2019-07-02T20:26:32.070" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23543" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23540" CreationDate="2019-07-04T00:03:42.043" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem is not your participants.  It is your stimuli.  They are too boring.  Change them, or add a task participants must perform.  It could be as simple as &quot;Press a button to continue.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will need to go through the ethics board again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27743" OwnerDisplayName="Anonymous Physicist" LastActivityDate="2019-07-04T00:03:42.043" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23544" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18723" CreationDate="2019-07-04T11:20:51.610" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been involved in norming the German version of the WAIS-IV in 2012. The procedure for norming a psychological test is always the same:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A representative sample of the whole population is drawn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What differs between tests is how the sample is drawn. For the WAIS-IV, equal numbers of persons where recruited for each age group (in, I believe, 5 year increments), gender, and educational level in four regions of Germany. So while, as @bucky has explained, certain groups of people are more willing to participate, we have filled each &quot;bucket&quot; of the sample with the same number of people. The effort to fill certain buckets was larger, but no subpopulation is overrepresented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other tests use different procedures to draw their samples, and this is one of the distinguishing criteria between different tests, and the reason why some tests (such as the Wechsler tests) are preferred above others.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The norming is usually done by the test author him- or herself when the test is first published. Later revisions are often normed by the test publisher with the help of &quot;professional testers&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of the WAIS-IV, the sample was tested by psychology students from four German universities who had been schooled in applying the test. The testing was supervised by specially schooled grad students. The norms where calculated from the sample test results by an experienced statistician. The whole procedure was supervised by psychologists working at the test publisher (Pearson).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes individuals (e.g. scholars) or organisations (e.g. universities) create norms for a population independent of the test author or publisher, and sometimes these norms are published (as scientific papers) for other scholars to use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes norms for subpopulations that have not been sampled during the official norming are mathematically extrapolated, e.g. if persons over a certain age have not been part of the norming sample the curve of the age-by-result distribution is extended mathematically to include the missing ages. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Norms are always only applicable to the population the sample was drawn from. That is why the population is always mentioned along with the norms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Large (in the sense of popularity and publication effort) tests such as the Wechsler tests are normed for each country, sometimes even for different subpopulations within a country (e.g. by gender, by age, for different occupational groups, for different test situations [e.g. there are 10- and 20- minute normes for the Raven Progressive Matrices, depending on how much time you want to allow your probands to answer], and so on).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If norms for one population that you would like to test (as a test user) do not exist, an experienced psychologist might estimate the test results from norms from another population when the relation between the two populations with regard to the tested construct is known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(There is an ongoing intense debate about this procedure. Using intelligence as an example, when you use different norms for different populations, all populations will be equally intelligent. Norming means that the average person in that population &lt;i&gt;is defined as having&lt;/i&gt; an IQ of 100. Their raw scored might differ! So when you use, for example, an African norm for Africans and a European norm for Europeans, Africans and Europeans appear to be equally intelligent. But when you use the same norm for both populations, the African population seems to have lower IQ. There are many different interpretations of this result – that Africans are less intelligent, that the tests culturally biased, that &quot;intelligence&quot;, as tested by an IQ test, is dependent on schooling, that intelligence differs between cultures, and so on. What is for certain is that norming, even if it could be done perfectly, doesn't tell you what the test results mean.)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23571" LastActivityDate="2019-07-04T11:20:51.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23545" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23480" CreationDate="2019-07-04T12:45:26.667" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As Bryan Krause indicates in the comments, the statement that &lt;em&gt;'One third of the cortical surface is dedicated to vision processing'&lt;/em&gt; is disputable. Especially given that fact that there's evidence that even the primary visual cortex is involved in multimodal processing &lt;a href=&quot;https://global.oup.com/academic/product/sensory-substitution-and-augmentation-9780197266441?cc=nl&amp;amp;lang=en&amp;amp;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(MacPherson, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;. Nonetheless, it is a valuable statement as it makes clear that a lot of our cortex &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; process visual stimuli and that it is an important sense for us. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you need a reference for the one third statement, you can use &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763413001917&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kupers &amp;amp; Ptito (2014)&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://global.oup.com/academic/product/sensory-substitution-and-augmentation-9780197266441?cc=nl&amp;amp;lang=en&amp;amp;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(MacPherson, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;. Note that these references are secondary literature, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, they are not research papers where they actually calculated the cortical surface involved in visual processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ljDIa.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ljDIa.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;VisualAreas&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Functional areas of the cortex. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-physiology-textbook/central-nervous-system-12/functional-systems-of-the-cerebral-cortex-121/association-areas-656-8927/images/cortical-areas-jpg/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Boundless Physiology Textbook&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://global.oup.com/academic/product/sensory-substitution-and-augmentation-9780197266441?cc=nl&amp;amp;lang=en&amp;amp;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MacPherson, &lt;em&gt;Sensory Substitution and Augmentation&lt;/em&gt;, Proceedings of the British Academy 2018&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763413001917&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kupers &amp;amp; Ptito, &lt;em&gt;Neurosci Biobehav Rev&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;41&lt;/strong&gt;: 36–52&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-05T07:02:46.137" LastActivityDate="2019-07-05T07:02:46.137" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23551" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23516" CreationDate="2019-07-05T19:40:40.137" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, I'm not an expert, but the oddball paradigm was initially developed for use in event-related potential (ERP) studies (basically EEG measures) (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddball_paradigm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;). Hence, because of historical reasons, you see this paradigm pop up especially in ERP studies. However, the task has been used in purely psychophysical experiments as well, without EEG or imaging (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3121949/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stockdale &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2011)&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3121949/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stockdale &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Vis Res&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;51&lt;/strong&gt;(11): 1232–8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-07-05T19:40:40.137" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23552" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-05T21:36:19.187" Score="0" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a technical term to denote when a person types here instead of hear or any other wrong word of a homonym pair--there for they're,etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23584" LastActivityDate="2019-07-05T21:36:19.187" Title="Typing hear instead of here" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23553" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23332" CreationDate="2019-07-05T22:14:39.303" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Proneness to error is relative to the type of task. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have a task with a lot of variables, system 1 will (sometime) be less prone to error. It can integrate and process them in a parallel way. In this type of task, system 2 will not have enough time and ressources to process serially the same amount of information in the same time, so it will result in more errors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, system 1 has systematic bias due to heuristic processing, thus it will produce systematic errors confronted to certain type of problems (how many animals of each species moïse did take on the ark?). This specific class of problem will be more adequately handled by system 2, as it will carefully, sequentially consider each information, not being overwhelmed by their amount.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also noteworthy that this model (system 1 and 2) is hotly debated, seeming too simplistic. For example, it seems that intuitive processes (system 1) would also use logical rules, not only heuristics. cf &lt;a href=&quot;http://wdeneys.org/data/Perspectives_DeNeys_final.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23581" LastActivityDate="2019-07-05T22:14:39.303" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23555" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23569" CreationDate="2019-07-07T12:02:34.840" Score="1" ViewCount="484" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4h6p9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4h6p9.png&quot; alt=&quot;updated version of Maslow's hierarchy of fundamental human motives&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above reinterpretation of the hierarchy by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kendrick et. al (2010)&lt;/a&gt; is straightforward enough. I am trying to see if there is any work done on generalizing the top portion there beyond peaking out at parenting e.g. mate acquisition-retention and parenting applied for life pursuits like academic or professional accomplishments. Maybe subject-acquisition-retention and progeny?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., &amp;amp; Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the Pyramid of Needs: Contemporary Extensions Built Upon Ancient Foundations. &lt;em&gt;Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 5&lt;/em&gt;(3), 292–314. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610369469&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/1745691610369469&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23395" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-07-09T08:05:03.383" Title="Kendrick et. al version of Maslow's Hierarchy" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;needs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23556" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23572" CreationDate="2019-07-07T15:48:27.257" Score="-1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;For instance is it possible to determine with some degree of accuracy if a person is ranks high in openness to new ideas by some photos of the person? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23588" LastActivityDate="2019-07-12T13:02:55.770" Title="Are personality characteristics correlated with certain underlying features of the facial expressions of a person?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23557" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-08T02:27:56.597" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, I downloaded the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kaggle.com/c/grasp-and-lift-eeg-detection/data&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EEG grasp data set&lt;/a&gt; from kaggle. I am having a hard time understanding the data and plotting it. I extracted the &quot; first subjects' &quot; csv files from the train folder which consists of 2 files - data and events. The events has the 6 events (as the columns) and has binary values for whether the event happened or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am having trouble understanding the data file, which consists of 32 columns representing electrode channels and over a 100k rows. Each row consisting of integral values which I think is the digitized amplitude (please correct me if I'm wrong); In the data set what are &quot;series&quot;and what are the 100k+ rows in each series?     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also to understand how the data works, I need to visualize it - which I have no idea on how to plot using matplotlib library (I am using python 3), I know that the x axis should be time, but what do I put on the y axis when having a data set of 32 columns&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS - I don't want to use any advanced libs/softwares like EEGLAB, mne..etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23593" LastEditorUserId="23593" LastEditDate="2019-07-08T03:22:52.030" LastActivityDate="2019-07-08T03:22:52.030" Title="Help understanding and visualizing the data from EEG grasp dataset from kaggle" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23558" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23610" CreationDate="2019-07-08T03:03:57.493" Score="2" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our brain is trained from culture and environment that we're raised in. So we don't control what we're learning until we get to teenage. But by that time our behaviour is already been shaped. This shapes our intuition part.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also we can't be rational because we know so very less, how can a person take rational decision in constraint partially observable space. This shapes our analytical part.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is how much we should trust our brain ? Neither intuitive nor analytical part is controlled by us !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23594" LastActivityDate="2019-07-18T05:48:49.007" Title="How much we should trust our brain" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23559" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-08T13:01:25.960" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the meaning of behaviorally oriented outside-in nature of therapy? I am especially interested why this outside-in word was used but please provide me a wider context of this type of therapy. Especially as it is meant on the following page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sheknows.com/health-and-wellness/articles/1126691/depression-treatment-behavioral-activation/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sheknows.com/health-and-wellness/articles/1126691/depression-treatment-behavioral-activation/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you possibly give some resources such as scholarly articles or book chapters where this method is used? My problem is that I am a non-expert on psychotherapy but need a starting point on the above issue. Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23597" LastActivityDate="2019-07-09T07:20:51.893" Title="What is the meaning of behaviorally oriented outside-in nature of therapy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23561" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23570" CreationDate="2019-07-08T17:28:44.560" Score="2" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;I experienced a weird situation a while back wherein I was dreaming hut was pretty sure I was in a dream and could control it to my wishes. I even had a break in my sleep and immediately went back to sleep and was again in the same situation. Can someone try to go in this state by planning or is it purely random?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user23601" LastActivityDate="2019-07-09T14:44:20.463" Title="Taking Control of Your Dream" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-07-26T09:03:22.613" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23564" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-09T00:52:51.760" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anyone knows if skin condutance may be analised by some package in r studio? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a signal in txt.file and I need to analyse, however I dont have any tool or software to do this beyond the R.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23187" LastActivityDate="2019-07-09T00:52:51.760" Title="How to analyse skin conductance in r studio?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2019-07-26T08:52:27.023" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23566" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-09T02:15:16.460" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently working on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kaggle.com/c/grasp-and-lift-eeg-detection/data&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EEG Grasp Dataset&lt;/a&gt; from Kaggle. I am aware that I need to filter the EEG signal as it is visually noisy (is there any way to mathematically show it's noisy?). How do I choose what filter I should use from the vast number of types available. Also how do I make sure that the filter improves the SNR while not removing/damaging the information in the EEG signal?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From The kernels in kaggle,&#xA;I have seen people use filters like discrete wavelet transform to get the frequency components and filter out unnecessary frequencies or they have used butterworth and notch filters, though one said that the notch filter &quot;distorts&quot; the signal and instead a high pass at 40Hz should be used. People have used different ones so, is there any procedure to determine which filter to use or should I start testing from the most basic filters then get into better frequency domain filters, then spatial filters and finally adaptive filters?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23593" LastEditorUserId="23593" LastEditDate="2019-07-09T02:45:26.200" LastActivityDate="2019-07-16T21:04:25.530" Title="How to chose which filter to design for EEG signal?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2019-07-26T08:51:53.333" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23568" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23559" CreationDate="2019-07-09T07:08:50.197" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concept of &amp;quot;outside-in&amp;quot; within the context of the article involves looking at how your environment is affecting your mental health. In other words, how the world around you (people you see, people you talk to...) is causing or worsening the depressive feelings and work on changing those things first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of articles online concerning &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_activation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Behavioural Activation&lt;/a&gt;, which is the form of behaviour therapy developed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Skinner&lt;/a&gt; discussed in the article you linked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One meta-analysis (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Pim_Cuijpers/publication/239845740_Behavioral_treatment_of_depression_A_meta-analysis_of_activity_scheduling/links/00b7d52f3e4a54261c000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cuijpers et al. 2007&lt;/a&gt;) found it very effective, and there are a couple of books on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Behavioral Activation for Depression: A Clinician's Guide&lt;/em&gt; by Christopher R. Martell, Ruth Herman-Dunn, and Sona Dimidjian (2010)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Behavioral Activation: Distinctive Features&lt;/em&gt; by Andrew M. Busch, Jonathan W. Kanter, and Laura C. Rusch (2009)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cuijpers, P., Van Straten, A., &amp;amp; Warmerdam, L. (2007). Behavioral activation treatments of depression: A meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Clinical psychology review, 27&lt;/em&gt;(3), 318-326. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.11.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.cpr.2006.11.001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-07-09T07:20:51.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23569" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23555" CreationDate="2019-07-09T08:05:03.383" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://lib-edpsy.alzahra.ac.ir/documents/10157/40405/Perspectives+on+Psychological+Science-2010-Peterson-320-2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Peterson &amp;amp; Park (2010)&lt;/a&gt; provided a commentary on Kenrick et al (2010) whereby they pointed out that although the revision makes an important contribution by grounding the hierarchy in modern evolutionary thought, it may be premature to remove self-actualization from the hierarchy by reducing it to other needs associated with status and reproduction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We suggest that it is premature to jettison self-actualization from this revised version of Maslow’s hierarchy. We write from the perspective of positive psychology, which regards what is good in life to be as genuine as what is bad (Peterson &amp;amp; Park, 2003). What is good is not secondary, derivative, illusory, epiphenomenal, or otherwise suspect—at least until the data show otherwise. In their revision of Maslow’s hierarchy and their dismissal of self-actualization as a motive in its own right, Kenrick et al. seemed to reflect business-as-usual psychology by reducing what is good to something more mundane and perhaps not so good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, Kenrick et al. mentioned positive psychology in their article and concluded that their evolutionary perspective is consistent with the view that human nature indeed has positive aspects. So, their revised pyramid may well accommodate the various emphases of positive psychology. And someday, if we take the pyramid metaphor literally, psychologists may follow the earlier examples of Egypt and Mexico and build several, including one that reflects Maslow’s (1971) deficiency needs and another one that reflects his growth needs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to note that Maslow's (1943, 1954) five-stage model was expanded to include cognitive and aesthetic needs (Maslow, 1970a) and later transcendence needs (Maslow, 1970b).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7jbXw.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7jbXw.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;revised hierarchy&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More can be read on that in an article by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McLeod (2018)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So answering your question on generalizing the top portion of the pyramid by Kenrick et al. beyond peaking out at parenting may not be relevant as Maslow went beyond parenting with his expanded pyramid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review, 50&lt;/em&gt;(4), 370-96. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0054346&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow, A. H. (1954). &lt;em&gt;Motivation and personality&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Harper and Row.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow, A. H. (1970a). &lt;em&gt;Motivation and personality&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Harper &amp;amp; Row.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow, A. H. (1970b). &lt;em&gt;Religions, values, and peak experiences&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Penguin. (Original work published 1966)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McLeod, S. A. (2018). &lt;em&gt;Maslow's hierarchy of needs&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Peterson, C., &amp;amp; Park, N. (2003). Positive psychology as the evenhanded positive psychologist views it. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Inquiry, 14&lt;/em&gt;(2), 141–146. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1449822&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1449822&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Peterson, C., &amp;amp; Park, N. (2010). What happened to self-actualization? Commentary on Kenrick et al.(2010). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(3), 320-322. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610369471&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/1745691610369471&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-07-09T08:05:03.383" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23561" CreationDate="2019-07-09T14:44:20.463" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term for this phenomenon is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucid_dream&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;lucid dreaming&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. It is common to have some lucid dreaming experiences, but different people have different occurrence rates of lucid vs non-lucid dreams, and the level of &quot;control&quot; varies as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A previous &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/12532/does-individual-understanding-or-perception-determine-dream-lucidity&quot;&gt;SE Q&amp;amp;A&lt;/a&gt; addresses some of the possible influences on lucid dreaming including the potential to learn to have more lucid dreams as a skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-07-09T14:44:20.463" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23571" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13759" CreationDate="2019-07-10T01:01:54.837" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The number of channels are not the issue at all, its the electrodes that are at fault for your wrong readings. Dry electrodes/ water based electrodes have a much higher impedance when placed on your head. They record relatively good signals but require the user to be absolutely still, any slight movements and muscle/facial movements - even blinks can cause high frequency artifacts and distort your signal horrendously, which might be the reason that you are only viewing Eye blinks in your EEG. Gel based electrodes are the best but extremely irritating to use, the sticky feeling on your head after the experiment is done, is totally the worst.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23593" LastActivityDate="2019-07-10T01:01:54.837" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23572" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23556" CreationDate="2019-07-10T04:34:55.730" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;These studies investigated the abilities of participants to guess peoples' personalities from photos of their faces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extraverts' faces were judged as more extraverted by participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ian S. Penton-Voak, Nicholas Pound, Anthony C. Little, and David I.&#xA;  Perrett(2006). Personality Judgments from Natural and Composite Facial&#xA;  Images: More Evidence For A “Kernel Of Truth” In Social Perception.&#xA;  Social Cognition: Vol. 24, No. 5, pp. 607-640. &#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2006.24.5.607&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2006.24.5.607&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants performed better than chance at judging conscientiousness and agreeableness from composite faces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Little, A. C. and Perrett, D. I. (2007), Using composite images to&#xA;  assess accuracy in personality attribution to faces. British Journal&#xA;  of Psychology, 98: 111-126. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1348/000712606X109648&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1348/000712606X109648&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants could identify agreeableness, neuroticism and physical health from the faces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Jones, A. L., Kramer, R. S. S., and Ward, R. (2012). Signals of&#xA;  personality and health: the contributions of facial shape, skin&#xA;  texture, and viewing angle. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform.&#xA;  38, 1353–1361. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027078&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027078&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21384" LastEditorUserId="21384" LastEditDate="2019-07-11T07:00:37.540" LastActivityDate="2019-07-11T07:00:37.540" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23578" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23579" CreationDate="2019-07-11T16:01:53.130" Score="3" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychologists are not using large, existing, free data to its potential. We don't know what exists, what it contains, or how to use it without a huge investment. Secondary analysis of large, open datasets can improve replicability and reproducibility over small new studies, e.g., through accessibility, high power, generalizability, and validated measures. Between-subjects moderation designs particularly lack power. However, these resources are underused in research and education. Student research often has low inference quality, and educators may lack access to use these tools for pedagogy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a list of large-scale, free datasets with psychological variables? Additionally, is there a list of other such lists?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/3933/psychological-journal-that-focuses-on-publishing-interesting-psychological-datas?rq=1&quot;&gt;Psychological journal that focuses on publishing interesting psychological datasets&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="19843" LastEditDate="2019-07-11T16:31:09.097" LastActivityDate="2019-07-14T01:04:18.857" Title="Is there a list of large-scale, free datasets with psychological variables?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23579" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23578" CreationDate="2019-07-11T16:01:53.130" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Participants at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.improvingpsych.org&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;last meeting&lt;/a&gt; of the Society for the Improvement of Psychological Science developed a list of &gt;100 such datasets with some metadata such as topic, country, total number of participants, etc. The list is currently a collaborative wiki open to editing by anyone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1ejOJTNTL5ApCuGTUciV0REEEAqvhI2Rd2FCoj7afops/edit#gid=0&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;List of open psychology datasets and aggregators&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Outside of psychology, there are a vast amount of aggregators. Here are two major resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Data/Where-can-I-find-large-datasets-open-to-the-public&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.quora.com/Data/Where-can-I-find-large-datasets-open-to-the-public&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://toolbox.google.com/datasetsearch&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://toolbox.google.com/datasetsearch&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="19843" LastEditDate="2019-07-11T16:36:31.030" LastActivityDate="2019-07-11T16:36:31.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23581" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-11T20:46:04.153" Score="3" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often hear claims that psychoanalysis is ineffective, takes too long, is just pseudo-science, that other therapies such as cognitive-behavioural should be preferred or even that it should be entirely dismissed. In &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/GOwJKbJxVUM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this talk&lt;/a&gt; however, the speaker seems to claim that psychoanalysis has quite a bit of empirical evidence going for it, which surprised and confused me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How strong is the research on psychoanalysis as a treatment for depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure if this is too opinion based, so please help me make it better if it is (e.g. 'what is some of the best evidence on psychoanalysis as a treatment for depression?')&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23635" LastEditorUserId="23635" LastEditDate="2019-07-11T20:56:26.517" LastActivityDate="2019-07-11T20:56:26.517" Title="How strong is the evidence for the effectiveness of psychoanalysis in the treatment of depression?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23582" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-12T05:11:53.037" Score="0" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say I train a task that consists of a sequence of smaller events a 1000 times such that it becomes an automatic/subconscious (something like muscle memory) movement. Then when I view the EEG signal during this automatic task (assuming this task consists of 3 small events) will I be able to see/decode instances of the second and third event once the first event is finished by the user?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It is basically sequential decoding of future automatic events. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23593" LastActivityDate="2019-07-15T15:20:34.843" Title="Can a sequence of &quot;automatic&quot; tasks be seen in an EEG?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;automaticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23584" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23556" CreationDate="2019-07-12T13:02:55.770" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Сorrelation Big Five and with facial features (static photo)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uUmY9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uUmY9.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hu, S., Xiong, J., Fu, P., Qiao, L., Tan, J., Jin, L., &amp;amp; Tang, K. (2017). Signatures of personality on dense 3D facial images. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 73. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-00071-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-00071-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Penton-Voak, I. S., Pound, N., Little, A. C., &amp;amp; Perrett, D. I. (2006). Personality Judgments from Natural and Composite Facial Images: More Evidence For A “Kernel Of Truth” In Social Perception. Social Cognition, 24(5), 607–640. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2006.24.5.607&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2006.24.5.607&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23638" LastActivityDate="2019-07-12T13:02:55.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23585" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1521" CreationDate="2019-07-12T13:43:48.307" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are some recent papers about the links between face and behavior:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kramer, R. S. S., King, J. E. &amp;amp; Ward, R. Identifying personality from the static, nonexpressive face in humans and chimpanzees: Evidence of a shared system for signaling personality. Evol. Hum. Behav. DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.10.005 (2011).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Walker, M. &amp;amp; Vetter, T. Changing the personality of a face: Perceived big two and big five personality factors modeled in real photographs. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 110, 609–624 (2016).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kramer, R. S. S. &amp;amp; Ward, R. Internal facial features are signals of personality and health. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 63, 2273–2287 (2010).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lewis, G. J., Lefevre, C. E. &amp;amp; Bates, T. Facial width-to-height ratio predicts achievement drive in US presidents. Pers. Individ. Dif. 52, 855–857 (2012).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haselhuhn, M. P. &amp;amp; Wong, E. M. Bad to the bone: facial structure predicts unethical behaviour. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 279, 571 LP-576 (2012).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Valentine, K. A., Li, N. P., Penke, L. &amp;amp; Perrett, D. I. Judging a Man by the Width of His Face: The Role of Facial Ratios and Dominance in Mate Choice at Speed-Dating Events. Psychol. Sci. 25, (2014).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Carre, J. M. &amp;amp; McCormick, C. M. In your face: facial metrics predict aggressive behaviour in the laboratory and in varsity and professional hockey players. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 275, 2651–2656 (2008).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haselhuhn, M. P., Ormiston, M. E. &amp;amp; Wong, E. M. Men’s Facial Width-to-Height Ratio Predicts Aggression: A Meta-Analysis. PLoS One 10, e0122637 (2015).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lefevre, C. E., Etchells, P. J., Howell, E. C., Clark, A. P. &amp;amp; Penton-Voak, I. S. Facial width-to-height ratio predicts self-reported dominance and aggression in males and females, but a measure of masculinity does not. Biol. Lett. 10, (2014).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Welker, K. M., Goetz, S. M. M. &amp;amp; Carré, J. M. Perceived and experimentally manipulated status moderates the relationship between facial structure and risk-taking. Evol. Hum. Behav. DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2015.03.006 (2015).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hu, S. et al. Signatures of personality on dense 3D facial images. Sci. Rep. 7, 73 (2017).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Borkenau, P., Brecke, S., Möttig, C. &amp;amp; Paelecke, M. Extraversion is accurately perceived after a 50-ms exposure to a face. J. Res. Pers. 43, 703–706 (2009).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Little, A. C. &amp;amp; Perrett, D. I. Using composite images to assess accuracy in personality attribution to faces. Br. J. Psychol. 98, 111–126 (2007).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Walker, M., Schönborn, S., Greifeneder, R. &amp;amp; Vetter, T. The basel face database: A validated set of photographs reflecting systematic differences in big two and big five personality dimensions. PLoS One 13, (2018).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Qiu, L., Lu, J., Yang, S., Qu, W. &amp;amp; Zhu, T. What does your selfie say about you? Comput. Human Behav. 52, 443–449 (2015).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wang, Y. &amp;amp; Kosinski, M. Deep neural networks are more accurate than humans at detecting sexual orientation from facial images. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. DOI: 10.1037/pspa0000098 (2018).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23638" LastActivityDate="2019-07-12T13:43:48.307" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23586" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23582" CreationDate="2019-07-13T10:58:32.237" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The basic answer is that it depends on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;training protocol (duration, frequency)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;modality (hearing, seeing, memorizing, attention, etc)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;individual variance (observable changes varies between individuals - some may not respond to the training)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it has to be determined individually for each task (not enough information provided in the original question). In other words, it is an empirical question, which means that the answer lies in the results of an experiment - ”we have to check”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3258" LastEditorUserId="3258" LastEditDate="2019-07-15T15:20:34.843" LastActivityDate="2019-07-15T15:20:34.843" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23588" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-13T22:40:34.507" Score="11" ViewCount="973" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;hedonic treadmill&lt;/a&gt; theory of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;subjective well-being&lt;/a&gt; each human has a hedonic set point. Positive or negative life events cause relatively short-term deviations to one's happiness before it returns to the baseline happiness level determined by the set point. The set point appears to be stable over the course of one's life. One's happiness, measured over time, looks something like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DWAs1.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DWAs1.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question: &lt;strong&gt;What, if anything, has been demonstrated by research to cause long-term, significant upward shifts of the baseline happiness? And, if so, which of those interventions are accessible to an average person (in wealthy countries)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OTuyH.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OTuyH.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastEditorUserId="4055" LastEditDate="2019-07-17T20:54:54.810" LastActivityDate="2021-02-01T20:20:07.620" Title="What can one do to permanently increase one's baseline happiness (subjective well-being)?" Tags="&lt;well-being&gt;&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23589" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23578" CreationDate="2019-07-14T01:04:18.857" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here this question on the psychology &amp;amp; neuro exchange has several cognitive test datasets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/16/online-data-repository-of-research-in-the-cognitive-sciences&quot;&gt;Online data repository of research in the cognitive sciences&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18642" LastActivityDate="2019-07-14T01:04:18.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23592" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19190" CreationDate="2019-07-14T13:48:08.830" Score="2" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;20-30% vision. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2016.00037&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sheth &amp;amp; Young (2016)&lt;/a&gt; which cites Van Essen (2003).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;27% vision, 8% auditory (Van Essen, 2003)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I have seen some earlier references that say 50%. I think this derives from two factors. First, it is 50% in Macaque (see above ref 1).  Second, my feeling (I haven't dug into this in enough detail to conclusively state it, so please don't quote me on this!) is that earlier studies on humans were more speculative and tended to follow that 50% as a best guess in absence of direct measurements. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As some of the above answers point out, one needs to be careful in defining what part of the brain and what vision means.  If one were to include the subcortical structures (i.e., amygdala, superior colliculus, pulvina, LGN) the estimate of total brain (not just the cerebrum cortex) would be different. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Sheth, B. R., &amp;amp; Young, R. (2016). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2016.00037&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Two visual pathways in primates based on sampling of space: exploitation and exploration of visual information.&lt;/a&gt; Frontiers in integrative neuroscience, 10, 37.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Van Essen, D. C. (2003). Organization of visual areas in macaque and human cerebral cortex. The visual neurosciences, 1, 507-521. &#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23650" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-08-13T14:40:16.313" LastActivityDate="2019-08-13T14:40:16.313" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23597" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23598" CreationDate="2019-07-15T14:09:52.933" Score="0" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard that severe damage to the hippocampus results in the inability to form new memories but still remember old ones. Am I mistaking something? Is the hippocampus responsible for storing memories, creating memories or both?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21018" LastActivityDate="2019-07-16T16:25:51.827" Title="Is the hippocampus responsible for storing or creating memories?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;hippocampus&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23598" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23597" CreationDate="2019-07-15T14:38:00.787" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's fair to say storing new memories is an important function of the hippocampus. The most famous example is the case of HM&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaison&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaison&lt;/a&gt;, possibly that's where you heard this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hippocampus is also heavily involved in navigation, so memory is not the only thing it does, and there are memory systems that don't seem to involve the hippocampus (for example, working memory and motor skill learning. There's some ongoing discussion around how best to classify different kinds of memory, to be able to say more specifically which kinds belong to this hippocampus system). So as always, the story is complicated. But HM's story shows that &quot;severe damage to the hippocampus can result in the inability to form new memories, but still leave old ones intact&quot; is a fair-enough claim. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastEditorUserId="18720" LastEditDate="2019-07-16T16:25:51.827" LastActivityDate="2019-07-16T16:25:51.827" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23599" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-15T16:52:15.200" Score="7" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found several popular articles (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/07/140708121527.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ScienceDaily&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/kids-with-autism-have-a-higher-risk-of-drowning-its-time-we-do-something-about-it/article35188828/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Globe and Mail&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/brain/autism/news/20170321/autism-greatly-boosts-kids-injury-risk-especially-for-drowning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt;) indicating that &lt;em&gt;children&lt;/em&gt; with Autism have a significantly elevated risk of drowning. The general theory seems to be that the calming affect of water combines with a lack of situational awareness common in people with Autism to create a &quot;perfect storm&quot; situation in which the child is presented with highly appealing decision opportunities that they are not fully able to assess. A simple online search for &quot;autism and drowning&quot; turns up tons of articles and discussions about the risk of drowning in &lt;em&gt;children&lt;/em&gt; with Autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has a substantially elevated risk of drowning been shown to exist or not exist for &lt;em&gt;adults&lt;/em&gt; with Autism? That is, is the risk of drowning for children simply more socially relevant today (e.g. drowning out any studies and warnings of potential linkages for adults), or is there substantial reason to believe that the maturity that comes with age does or does not reduce the risk of drowning to control group levels?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13656" LastEditorUserId="13656" LastEditDate="2019-07-16T10:20:24.593" LastActivityDate="2020-08-05T10:18:29.037" Title="Is Autism associated with an increased drowning risk for adults?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23600" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21718" CreationDate="2019-07-16T05:12:08.447" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;you can convert your data frame to numpy array using &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;data=df.to_numpy()&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If your data is single trial meanining two dimensional dataset, you can use&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;channel_names=df.columns.tolist()&#xA;channel_types=len(channel_names)*['eeg']&#xA;sfreq = 1000  # in Hertz&#xA;montage = 'standard_1005'&#xA;info = mne.create_info(channel_names, sfreq, channel_types, montage)&#xA;raw = mne.io.RawArray(data, info)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have multitrials dataset&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;channel_names=df.columns.tolist()&#xA;channel_types=len(channel_names)*['eeg']&#xA;sfreq = 1000  # in Hertz&#xA;montage = 'standard_1005'&#xA;info = mne.create_info(channel_names, sfreq, channel_types, montage)&#xA;data=data.reshape(len(channel_names),-1,sfreq*time)&#xA;data=np.swapaxes(data,0,1)&#xA;epochs = mne.EpochsArray(sub, info)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once you &lt;a href=&quot;https://martinos.org/mne/stable/auto_tutorials/simulation/plot_creating_data_structures.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;convert your dataset to mne structure&lt;/a&gt;, you can use &lt;a href=&quot;https://martinos.org/mne/dev/generated/mne.filter.filter_data.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mne filters&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/mne-tools/mne-features&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mne features&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23658" LastActivityDate="2019-07-16T05:12:08.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23601" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-16T15:37:29.757" Score="5" ViewCount="156" Body="&lt;p&gt;Related: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/961/13656&quot;&gt;Are there emotions that only some people can feel?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any known observed or theoretical process by which new emotions could be observed or discovered?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although one may argue over the exact number of emotions that exist today or the exact criteria that differentiate one from another, there is broad agreement on the general types of emotions that exist (e.g. most psychologists would agree that happiness, sadness, envy, anxiety, excitement, anger, disgust, lust, pride, etc. are emotions while pecan, horseradish, choke, stupid, chair, delta, redshirt, appoiapgpadvap, asdf, and yooe caph garharheq are not emotions). Those minor disagreements/edge cases are &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; what I am talking about, but a brand new emotion. Hypothetically, I can imagine that one might result from novel stimuli (or patterns of stimuli) never before experienced by humans (and thus resulting in a never-before seen affect on the brain), but I am not aware of any actual cases of this occurring or any known (outside of science fiction) theory of what sort of stimuli patterns might accomplish this or what such an emotion might be like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it has been shown that one of the &quot;standard&quot; emotions today arose &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; the advent of anatomically-modern humans (e.g. Cro-Magnon), I would consider that an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In response to a comment by Bryan Krause, I am aware that there is a linguistic argument here. I'm imagining this as similar to the linguistic/neurological divide in color taxonomy. Famously, Russian does not have a single word for &quot;blue&quot; (instead, dividing it up into two separate colors), while Japanese historically did not distinguish between what English speakers call blue and green, but I believe it is fairly well understood that these distinctions happen at a fairly high level in the brain, rather than representing truly distinct forms of cognitive evolution. The color equivalent to my question could be whether it is possible for the brain to evolve, or for novel stimuli to generate, an &lt;em&gt;entirely new color that no one has ever seen before&lt;/em&gt; and that cannot be reasonably described as a variant or subtype of an existing color. Some science fiction authors, famously H. P. Lovecraft, have tried to imagine a &quot;new&quot; color, so the idea that new cognitive experiences could be found is certainly not new.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to ask this is whether the process of coming up with new words to describe emotions represents enhancements in the &lt;em&gt;understanding&lt;/em&gt; of current emotions or whether it represents truly new emotions never before experienced or observed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13656" LastEditorUserId="13656" LastEditDate="2019-07-16T19:12:37.010" LastActivityDate="2020-06-04T04:18:24.680" Title="Can new emotions be created or discovered?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23605" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-17T05:39:16.197" Score="1" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;In trying to understand the origins of test anxiety, a thought came up. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Consider an individual who has in the past performed badly in university assessment tasks. In an attempt to do better academically, the individual negatively reinforces unattainably high expectations to avoid any future feelings of inadequacy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have I used the idea of negative reinforcement correctly in this instance? I have been taught the fundamental ideas of reinforcement and punishment as described by Skinner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23524" LastActivityDate="2019-07-18T05:56:25.233" Title="An Example of Negative Reinforcement?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23610" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23558" CreationDate="2019-07-18T05:48:49.007" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly not trusting the brain in itself does more harm than good, as it gives way to paranoia and anxiety, and serves to be a very unhealthy mental disaster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, there is much more to decision making in the brain than just intuition and the analytical part of function, as factors such as personality, perception stemming from the frontal , and gathered experiences and learned memory from the hippocampus work together as well and much more as the brain works in an integrated manner interlinking both conscious and subconscious aspects of the brain. But what the brain does best is learn from experiences, and it keeps doing so and the best way to maintaining a healthy life is to have a healthy brain, and a healthy brain demands trust and constant learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thirdly recent evidences based on research suggest that the prefrontal cortex continues to get developed and shaped even until a person hits his 30’s while the other parts of brain continue to grow and develop which is where neuroplasticity also finds its role through out our life(Hötting &amp;amp; Röder, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you guys want to further understand my comprehension,refer to this article, hope it was helpful:). &lt;strong&gt;Reference : &#xA;Hötting, K., &amp;amp; Röder, B. (2013). Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition. Neuroscience &amp;amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(9), 2243-2257. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.04.005 &#xA;Mullally, S., &amp;amp; Maguire, E. (2013). Memory, Imagination, and Predicting the Future. The Neuroscientist, 20(3), 220-234. doi: 10.1177/1073858413495091&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23551" LastActivityDate="2019-07-18T05:48:49.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23611" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23605" CreationDate="2019-07-18T05:56:25.233" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on the scenario you mentioned, it resembles more as Learned Helplessness or Self-Fulfilling prophecy than negative reinforcement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learned Helplessness,is a belief that an individual could not make a change to the outcome after being exposed to the aversive stimuli for a number of times (Seligman, 1972).To the point where he/she stop attempting to address the issue as they thought it is inevitable. As an example: a person who failed multiple times for a subject despite constant revision eventually stop trying to take the test because he/she thinks that their effort is &quot;pointless&quot; and do not bother about it anymore since he/she believed their failure is unavoidable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-fulfilling prophecy,is a phenomena when a prediction of an outcome of a situation (directly/indirectly) becomes a reality due to the inclination on false belief of the individual (Madon, Willard,Guyll &amp;amp; Scherr, 2011). Example, if a person thinks he/she is not good in Mathematics and continues to think or feel such way, he/she will likely to fail in an upcoming test. Although the person might not have failed the test, just because of the belief that he/she is terrible at math,which discourage the person to even make an effort to practice and study. Thus, making the individual's statement of &quot;terrible at maths&quot; true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for Negative Reinforcement, is when a stimulus that is deemed unpleasant to the individual is removed to increase the possibilities of the behaviour to occur in the future (Skinner, 1953).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to better explain negative reinforcement, an example: a teacher decided to cancelled additional classes (removed the unpleasant stimulus) to an individual when he/she did well in exams (increased the likelihood of a behaviour to occur).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unpleasant stimulus: Additional Class&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Behavior to reinforce: Maintains academic grades&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Madon, S., Willard, J., Guyll, M., &amp;amp; Scherr, K. C. (2011). Self-fulfilling prophecies: Mechanisms, power, and links to social problems. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(8), 578-590. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00375.x&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seligman, M. E. (1972). Learned helplessness. Annual review of medicine, 23, 407-412. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.me.23.020172.002203&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.me.23.020172.002203&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behaviour. New York: Macmillan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23561" LastActivityDate="2019-07-18T05:56:25.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23612" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-18T17:00:26.663" Score="2" ViewCount="143" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to turn arround this &lt;a href=&quot;https://chess.stackexchange.com/questions/24917/why-arent-there-any-women-super-gms?noredirect=1#comment38681_24917&quot;&gt;question posted on chess exchange&lt;/a&gt; where sociological arguments are given to explain why &lt;a href=&quot;https://aeon.co/essays/why-are-only-two-of-the-world-s-top-100-chess-players-women&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;only two of the world's top 100 chess players are women&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there neurological evidences to assert, in equal conditions, women would still be worst at chess than men?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user23674" LastActivityDate="2019-07-18T17:00:26.663" Title="Is there a neurological reason why women do not occupy top positions in the chess ranking?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23613" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-19T13:29:13.610" Score="0" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the APA guidelines of reporting non-parametric tests they suggest reporting the median results when using non-parametric tests (&lt;a href=&quot;http://evc-cit.info/psych018/Reporting_Statistics.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://evc-cit.info/psych018/Reporting_Statistics.pdf&lt;/a&gt; - search for 'non-parametric'). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a significant result for a large non-parametric data set where the medians are the same, but the means are different. (I know that there is a debate on the usefulness of means for non-parametric data, but my professors have argued that it is useful in this case.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would it be 'OK' to report the results using the mean, or both the mean or the medium, or just stick to the median? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for any help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23623" LastActivityDate="2019-07-19T13:29:13.610" Title="Reporting results of a Mann Whitney U test when the medians are equal" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23618" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-20T01:40:56.870" Score="2" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am an older adult, who entered college late in life. I came to find out that I have both Dyscalculia, and Dyslexia (formally diagnosed) through great difficulty in college. Not realizing that I had either of those throughout my life. But, in reading the criteria late in life, I find that those diagnoses explain a lot of weird traits, directional, perceptual as well as difficulty remembering. &#xA;I have always been able to write fluently- upside down, backwards, upside down and backwards, with both hands, also forwards upside down. (I am right handed), I also can write normally with both hands. But even still with the added abilities, I cannot learn math, or to read music and I cannot learn other languages. I learn music and repeat it through tone listening.&#xA;There has not been a lot of research for comorbidity between Dyslexia and Dyscalculia. I am wondering if anyone has any access to research that would explain my phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23686" LastActivityDate="2019-07-20T01:40:56.870" Title="Upside down, backwards writing" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-07-24T16:46:36.383" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23623" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-20T23:53:10.230" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a freshman at Neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I learned there are 5 types of brainwaves: Gamma, Beta, Alpha, Theta and  Delta, each types have a different frequency  range.&#xA;So my question is when onserving a brainwaves at particular state how we know which types of brainwaves is dominated from each other?  (Does it change amplitude or it change frequency).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And if it change amplitude, is there any ways can I know what is maximum and minimum range of amplitude of each types of brainwaves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you very much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23693" LastActivityDate="2019-07-21T16:53:10.643" Title="How can we know which types of brainwaves is dominated at particular state?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23625" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23623" CreationDate="2019-07-21T16:53:10.643" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;See a previous Q&amp;amp;A: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20075/why-do-brains-oscillate-within-specific-frequency-ranges/20086#20086&quot;&gt;Why do brains oscillate within specific frequency ranges?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that answer covers much of your question; I'll try to cover the rest here. In short, the names gamma/beta/alpha/theta/delta are just that: names of parts of a spectrum, just like colors red/green/blue. &quot;Alpha waves&quot; aren't necessarily a real, discrete thing, it's just a name given to oscillations in a particular frequency band which may or may not be due to a &quot;real&quot; oscillation: even a random system produces waves of many frequencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The power spectrum of noise in the brain is typically &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_noise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;pink&quot;&lt;/a&gt; which means it falls off with ~1/f or 1/f&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To see &quot;real&quot; elevations in a power spectrum, you need to plot the whole spectrum and look for &quot;bumps.&quot; I just grabbed one from a random paper, and although I don't like how these data are plotted without a log scale, it does show peaks in the spectrum nicely:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/huU9l.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/huU9l.png&quot; alt=&quot;Power spectrum peaks&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Image adapted from Cajochen et al 1995; annotations mine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as the amplitude of these &quot;waves&quot; - that entirely depends on your recording system, skull geometry, and other technical issues specific to a particular recording: the actual amplitude in volts is not really important. Therefore, typically one normalizes the power spectrum and either compare across conditions in a recording (that is, keeping the recording system constant and looking at different epochs), or normalizes the entire spectrum to &quot;total power&quot; to compare between recordings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It almost never make sense to compare power in different frequency bands, though, in saying whether a frequency is &quot;dominant&quot;: there is no meaning to delta being higher than beta, for example, besides the power law relationship where power is almost always higher at lower frequencies (except for extreme cases like the alpha peaks in the image above). What is relevant, however, could be when &quot;in condition A, delta is higher than delta in condition B, and beta in condition A is lower than beta in condition B&quot;: relative comparisons are key. The exception is when you have prominent peaks, like in the image above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cajochen, C., Brunner, D. P., Krauchi, K., Graw, P., &amp;amp; Wirz-Justice, A. (1995). Power density in theta/alpha frequencies of the waking EEG progressively increases during sustained wakefulness. Sleep, 18(10), 890-894.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-07-21T16:53:10.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23627" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-22T10:29:28.197" Score="2" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;We can understand things much quickly when things are defined as a duality. Like good and bad, happy and sad, positive and negative, slow and fast etc. When two things are distinguishable distinctly the human mind tends to grasp it more easily versus defining it on continuum scale or having more than two states.&#xA;Duality is the most easily understood phenomenon of human mind. That's why most classification happens on these lines despite the existence of a continuum of states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23699" LastActivityDate="2019-08-03T19:37:19.233" Title="Why does human mind tend to understand everything in terms of duality or binary states rather than continuum of states?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23631" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18734" CreationDate="2019-07-23T01:14:34.190" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know how reproducible those findings are, but this study (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937090/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schretlen, van der Hulst, Pearlson, &amp;amp; Gordon, 2010&lt;/a&gt;) found a moderate association between fluid intelligence and openness to experience:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The two separate samples yielded strikingly similar associations between trait Openness and cognitive test performance. In both samples, Openness showed strong positive correlations with Gc, intermediate correlations with Gf and fluency, and relatively weak correlations with executive functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we add to that the claim that the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2373294/#__sec11title&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;use of certain drugs&lt;/a&gt; is positively correlated to openness to experience, then we have some support for your idea of this trait as a confounding variable in your study results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, we should also keep in mind that drug use itself may influence openness to experience (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3537171/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MacLean et al, 2011&lt;/a&gt;), which should complicate things further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23635" LastActivityDate="2019-07-23T01:14:34.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23634" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-23T21:30:51.353" Score="1" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for free software for EEG data processing.&#xA;What free or opensource software packages are available for analyzing raw EEG data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14957" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-07-23T23:29:42.003" LastActivityDate="2019-07-31T21:25:02.617" Title="EEG analysis free software?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23635" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-23T23:17:50.223" Score="3" ViewCount="289" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ataraxia is the freedom from distress or worry in ancient Greek philosophy.  However, emotions play a vital role in motivation and decision making.  Many disorders relate to having excessive emotional reactions or inappropriate triggers for them.  There are also a few concerning a lack of or dulled emotional responses.  While high levels of stress and anxiety are seen as harmful, the same concern is rarely shown for the opposite end of the spectrum.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been unable to find any information about disorders related to dulled or absent anxiety or stress reactions.  I assume this is due to the lower perceived harm, or conflation with depression disorders, but I find it hard to believe no one has done any work in this area. Clinical apathy is not what I'm looking for, since that seems to be typified by acute lack of response or interest in immediate stimulus or short time spans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23705" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-08-27T14:07:23.130" LastActivityDate="2019-08-27T14:12:36.050" Title="Is there a mental health disorder related to a harmful lack of anxiety and stress?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23634" CreationDate="2019-07-24T08:51:40.790" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several options that I found in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/post/What_is_the_best_open_source_software_to_analyse_EEG_signals2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; ResearchGate question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most prominent truly open source options seem to be &lt;a href=&quot;https://martinos.org/mne/stable/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MNE&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/forrestbao/pyeeg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PyEEG&lt;/a&gt; but I have no hands on experience with either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23706" LastActivityDate="2019-07-24T08:51:40.790" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23638" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23588" CreationDate="2019-07-24T10:03:34.640" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neural networks tend to maintain &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dynamic-connectome.org/pubs/Kaiser2010Frontiers.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;limited sustained activation&lt;/a&gt; to preserve functional properties, i.e. they can't convey information or compute things when completely active or inactive. This only happens within a small range of parameters. Let's then pseudoscientifically pretend that this awesome paper can provide the neurological basis for the hedonic treadmill and can be self-similary extrapolated to conscious functioning: We don't function optimally if we continually over or under react to our average stimulation, and evolution wants us to function optimally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to keep our functions optimized we want to be able to respond to the broadest range of inputs possible, we want to be dead center on &quot;average stimulation&quot; so that we can still compute and respond appropriately in events of lower or higher than usual stimulation: the hedonic set point here is your relation to your average stimulation. You might be a happy peppy person slightly overreacting to average stimulation or a lethargic person, underreacting. But it doesn't really matter, it's evolution using you to test whether that happiness point might be optimal to make you behave well and reproduce. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's continue assuming that this set point is achieved by a regulated process in neural networks by adapting their sensitivity to their inputs over time to stay at that optimal point. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Final assumption: if we don't optimize to our average inputs and too many of our neural networks respond too little or too much to their input for too long our brain will compute for a depressive or manic lifestyle. Both perfectly valid lifestyles, but seen by the evolutionary watch dogs as 'inferior' lifestyles. And usually reported to not be all that great. But hey, life itself is usually reported not to be all that great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paints the picture of the hedonic treadmill: as far as subjective well being is concerned, people tend to get used to their situation and be content, unless they become depressed or manic. That's ignoring all other things that can go wrong in the brain that aren't purely 'happiness disorders'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This was what I believe keeps us at a point where we &quot;behave evolutionary optimal&quot;. For evolutionary purposes however it does not matter if we consciously enjoy or detest the ride we're stuck in, as long as we see it through and procreate. That gives us some artistic freedom in the conscious experiencing of our ride. We can change our outlook on things: it is perfectly possible to be completely content with being eaten by a bear in the near future, but completely impossible to have any kind of control over your behaviour while it is happening. So when receiving negative or positive inputs we lose control over our consciousness, and evolution takes the wheel, but at our hedonic set point when things that we're used to are going on we can take control over our outlook of our existence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So while I don't think you can, or want, to be in a permanent elevated happiness state (mania is no fun) you can permanently change how you perceive being forced by evolution to be stuck at a hedonic set point. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intuitively you might want to resist this, or find it unfair or unwanted and it is this resistance that will create suffering while you're neurologically at a state where you could be perfectly content and at ease. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unless we develop technology capable of changing how our neural networks function, I think nihilism (as viewed by for example Albert Camus, not online edgelords) and radical acceptance (as part of Dialectical Behavioral Therapy) might provide the most useful tools of permanently changing your outlook on your existential conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To provide an answer to your question: I think in wealthy countries our best intervention to improve our subjective well-being is a continuous effort toward radical acceptance of our existential condition aided by philosophy, therapy and a healthy lifestyle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23706" LastEditorUserId="23706" LastEditDate="2019-07-24T10:15:52.570" LastActivityDate="2019-07-24T10:15:52.570" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23640" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23634" CreationDate="2019-07-24T14:06:16.747" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The main programs in the field are: Fieldtrip and EEGLAB.&#xA;These are MATLAB-based but can be run on Octave (opensource implementation of basic MATLAB) which would be a good suggestion if you ever have any intent on working with other people looking at EEG data in research institutions etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only other real alternative is MNE (Python-based), as suggested above. I use both EEGLAB and MNE for different things and I think having the ability to use both is definitely beneficial. If you are more used to the Python way of doing things then this might be your best option, although it's not as beginner-friendly as something like EEGLAB (but might be more intuitive if you've never used MATLAB-style coding before).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23710" LastActivityDate="2019-07-24T14:06:16.747" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23641" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23627" CreationDate="2019-07-24T17:24:58.847" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many reasons why people tend to understand things in dualistic ways, but I'll mention two: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In the realm of inference&lt;/strong&gt; (e.g., judging what is true, forming predictions), having mature schema for each end of a spectrum (e.g., one for introverts and one for extroverts) allows you to infer what positions between the two extremes might look like with adequate levels of accuracy. So, if you have developed schema for the ends of the extroversion spectrum, you can infer what a moderately extroverted person would be like &lt;em&gt;without actually needing to store a third schema for a moderately extroverted person in memory&lt;/em&gt;. In other words, a dualistic understanding allows you to form schema for points between the extremes on the fly when you need it (sometimes called &lt;em&gt;interpolation&lt;/em&gt;). It isn't a system that's free of the risk of error, but its easy to see how it is extremely efficient from a computational perspective in a world where agents don't need perfect mental models. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In the realm of decision-making&lt;/strong&gt;, its important to consider the nature of what a decision actually is. While information and judgments might rest on spectra (e.g., the degree of attraction felt for a dating partner, strength of a preference for a political candidate) the actual &lt;em&gt;decisions&lt;/em&gt; that are informed by these judgments are often discrete. For example, you can't &quot;kinda&quot; marry or &quot;kinda&quot; vote for someone. You either choose him/her or you don't. You can only express one behavior at a time. What this means is that information and judgments which fall on spectra often need to be &lt;em&gt;converted&lt;/em&gt; into yes/no decisions. For example, when choosing which of five schools to attend for college, you're actually trying to convert a plethora of continuous information (e.g., benefits and costs of each school) into five yes/no values (specifically, one &quot;yes&quot; and four &quot;nos&quot;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is such a ubiquitous phenomenon in decision-making that I don't think its surprising that people naturally tend to use binary language to speak about things which exist on continua. That said, its important to point out that people &lt;em&gt;don't&lt;/em&gt; always reduce topics they care about to binary categories. In many cases, people will share their &lt;em&gt;ambiguity&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;ambivalence&lt;/em&gt; with trusted friends when they are having a hard time converting continuous information into discrete decisions. Pay attention the next time a friend opens up about something difficult and you'll notice that their language often demonstrates nuance and awareness of grey areas. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper cited below is an excellent discussion of the relationship between continuous information and discrete judgments and the reference section is packed full of papers that go into much more detail than I'm able to accomplish here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luan, S., Schooler, L. J., &amp;amp; Gigerenzer, G. (2014). From perception to preference and on to inference: An approach–avoidance analysis of thresholds. Psychological Review, 121(3), 501. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5c60/b2f986827b9db7b406c719e47018c56cce34.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link to PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23181" LastActivityDate="2019-07-24T17:24:58.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23642" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23655" CreationDate="2019-07-24T19:28:54.333" Score="7" ViewCount="892" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many videos (for example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JUxY_5-N81Q&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFBk1iLMPds&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iy4vq8RdPGU&amp;amp;list=WL&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) where Jordan Peterson claims that &lt;strong&gt;as societies become more egalitarian, personality differences across genders increase&lt;/strong&gt;. He is often stating that these results have been replicated over and over and published in the most leading scientific journals (such as Science) and claiming that this is an established fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a quick search, I was not able to find any Science articles that debate this specific topic (only in other journals whose quality (as an outsider) I cannot judge (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.81.2.322&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;)). Also, since in my own profession (economics) many famous professors tend to overstate that their view is the established one, how debated are these claims within the academic (not political or media!) landscape today?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23712" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-07-26T01:57:32.570" LastActivityDate="2020-05-12T19:11:36.607" Title="Is Jordan Peterson correct when he states that &quot;as societies become more egalitarian, personality differences across genders maximize&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;gender&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23644" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-25T02:18:20.807" Score="1" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just saw the documentary &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9358204/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The Great Hack&quot; (2019)&lt;/a&gt; about Cambridge Analytica. In it, they were talking about “data points” to profile people to better target them and persuade them into voting a certain way. I think they needed around 5000-6000 data points to achieve the claimed outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could anyone give an example of what a “data point” is in this case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23715" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-12-23T13:17:34.010" LastActivityDate="2019-12-23T13:17:34.010" Title="In &quot;The Great Hack&quot;, what are the data points used in psychological profiling?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23645" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-25T06:16:19.673" Score="2" ViewCount="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncir.2016.00023/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncir.2016.00023/full&lt;/a&gt; proposes a neuronal model to learn time-based sequences, referred to as HTM (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_temporal_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_temporal_memory&lt;/a&gt;). An implementation is here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://numenta.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://numenta.org/&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any other models known or proposed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23717" LastActivityDate="2019-07-25T06:16:19.673" Title="What models are there for neuronal sequence memory?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23646" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-25T07:26:01.307" Score="2" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;We are plotting the temporal generalization map (binary decoding) using EEG signal, but we obtained a strange result and don’t know how to interpret it. &#xA;First, after bandpass filter (8-12 Hz), we could obtain a normal result as below. &#xA; &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ybmlu.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ybmlu.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;As shown in time-course, the classifying values (thick black lines) between red line (first condition) and blue line (second condition) are variable along the time, so that the values in the early time do not easily apply to the late time leading to the normal map of the temporal generalization. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, using higher frequency band (12-30 Hz) we encountered a strange result&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kHg1q.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/kHg1q.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;In this case, the classifying values between red line (first condition) and blue line (second condition) are somewhat constant along the time, so that the values in the early time easily apply to the late time leading to the high decoding accuracy all over the map. The point is that two parallel curves are easily divided by a simple mean (black thick line) between two curves as the classifier. If two curves are not parallel but mixed with each other, the decoding accuracies over the map of the temporal generalization should be low, and we can conclude that the high frequency do not contain decodable information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions, &#xA;1.  Have you ever seen this type of time-courses of the high frequencies in our result and this strange map the temporal generalization and?&#xA;2.  We use the matlab function ‘filtfilt.m’ for bandpass filter, could you recommend other function for bandpass filter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16753" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T11:23:05.670" Title="The strange shape of the temporal generalization map" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23647" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-25T08:11:09.327" Score="3" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;The way I learned it, a neuron fires with a fixed amplitude, and the only information encoded in the output is the frequency at which it fires. 10 spikes per second is in some sense a 'stronger' signal than 5 spikes per second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But from a computational point of view this seems absurd. It makes the output of a neuron little more than the encoding of an analog voltage level. What a waste of a channel!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am looking for is research work done on analysing neuronal spike trains for the kind of information that might be found on a digital channel. There might be a pattern of spikes to represent a particular sensation or action, with certain patterns repeated at intervals. Or some such.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does any such work exist, either confirming or refuting this idea?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23717" LastEditorDisplayName="user3503" LastEditDate="2019-08-26T03:43:30.010" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T03:43:30.010" Title="How are the outputs of neurons encoded, if at all?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23647" CreationDate="2019-07-25T15:36:04.560" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The concept of digital channels of information flow is a serial-processing biased view of information: it applies a lot to serial systems like computers (which are still serial even with multiple &quot;cores&quot; since each operates independently of the other), but does not apply in the same way to massively parallel systems like the nervous system except perhaps to some very of the very low-level sensory information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, temporal coding has been a very active area of research. There are many different time scales on which neurons can potentially carry timing information. However, a digital bit stream is probably the least efficient one so you won't find much from neuroscience suggesting that type of pattern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;External timing is very important&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even given a very simple &quot;analog-ish&quot; neural code, where firing rates indicate some intensity of signal (for example, the tension on a tendon), there is also key temporal information to carry: the tension is happening &lt;em&gt;now&lt;/em&gt;. It is not on a stack to be processed and conveyed in the most efficient encoding possible, it is happening presently, and the neuronal signal has to encode not just &lt;em&gt;how much&lt;/em&gt; but also that it is occurring &lt;em&gt;now&lt;/em&gt;: rate codes can do this to a fairly high precision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuronal firing is a bit like a Geiger counter: the intensity is indicated by the rate of clicks, but there is a ton of additional information based on when those clicks occur. For example, as you move a Geiger counter nearer to a radiation source, the click rate increases dramatically. Any code that is more complex would introduce delays, and those delays necessarily result in a loss of temporal information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Phase coding&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within the brain, there are definitely cases where temporal information is important to neural codes. The brain handles more complex information that changes over longer time scales than in the periphery, so it is possible to degrade temporal information to allow for deeper encoding schemes that combine generative models of the outside world with abstracted sensory information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, one can look at &lt;em&gt;phase coding&lt;/em&gt; where neurons fire at a particular phase of an ongoing oscillation (Montemurro et al, 2008; Kayser et al, 2009). You could perhaps think of the ongoing oscillation as a &quot;timing bit&quot; because it provides a synchronizing point for relative timing of spikes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the hippocampus, phase coding is important for reconstruction of position information from neural spiking activity (O'Keefe et al, 1993; Jensen and Lisman, 2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ensemble coding&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine a cortical neuron fires up to 100 Hz. You could digitize a signal by looking at spike/no spike within 10 ms bins, so every 10 ms you have 1 bit of information per neuron. Take an ensemble of 100 independent neurons, and you have 100 bits per 10 ms or 10,000 bits per second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you instead of 100 members of an ensemble, each 10 ms encodes not 1 * 100 bits, but 2^100 which is on the order of 10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt; patterns every 10 ms. And this is without assuming a more complex temporal code where the order of firing within a brief window matters (Abeles et al, 1993).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is good evidence that overlapping cell assemblies/ensembles exist (see for example Harris, 2005 for review) such that at any moment in time, the high-dimensional activity over the space of many neurons carries information, for example about the current sensory state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that there are billions of neurons in a brain, ensemble coding makes bit rate not itself a limiting factor, though other constraints seem to make phase coding and other types of temporal info&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abeles, M., Bergman, H., Margalit, E., &amp;amp; Vaadia, E. (1993). Spatiotemporal firing patterns in the frontal cortex of behaving monkeys. Journal of neurophysiology, 70(4), 1629-1638.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harris, K. D. (2005). Neural signatures of cell assembly organization. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6(5), 399.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jensen, O., &amp;amp; Lisman, J. E. (2000). Position reconstruction from an ensemble of hippocampal place cells: contribution of theta phase coding. Journal of neurophysiology, 83(5), 2602-2609.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kayser, C., Montemurro, M. A., Logothetis, N. K., &amp;amp; Panzeri, S. (2009). Spike-phase coding boosts and stabilizes information carried by spatial and temporal spike patterns. Neuron, 61(4), 597-608.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Montemurro, M. A., Rasch, M. J., Murayama, Y., Logothetis, N. K., &amp;amp; Panzeri, S. (2008). Phase-of-firing coding of natural visual stimuli in primary visual cortex. Current biology, 18(5), 375-380.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;O'Keefe, J., &amp;amp; Recce, M. L. (1993). Phase relationship between hippocampal place units and the EEG theta rhythm. Hippocampus, 3(3), 317-330.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-07-25T15:36:04.560" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23651" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-25T16:12:30.687" Score="3" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;The procedure of one experiment includes the next sequence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The anagram is presented for several seconds;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;special word&quot; is presented for 90 ms;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The same anagram is presented again;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The anagram is solved by the participant.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is predicted that the &quot;special word&quot; from the item №2 influences the probability  of solving the anagram successfully. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is it better to define the &quot;special word&quot;? It could be defined as prime, but priming per se implies that the stimulus precedes the target stimulus (e. g., anagram), and that is not the case here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any other ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23719" LastActivityDate="2019-07-25T16:12:30.687" Title="How could you define this variable?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23653" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23646" CreationDate="2019-07-25T20:21:04.317" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am unsure to what your paradigm exactly does, but as to your frequency bands a layman's interpretation would be as shown in Table 1. Hence, the frequency bands you investigate could simply be different, because the states associated with them are different. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to your band filter - the best thing to do is find the rock stars in your field and copy their methods. The filtfilt function in matlab is excellent, as it is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://nl.mathworks.com/help/signal/ref/filtfilt.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;zero-phase digital filter&lt;/a&gt;. It will depend on the filter order, however, if the outcome will make any sense. Too low of an order may generate overlap between bands, too high orders may introduce artifacts. But by the looks of it, none is happening here, but I can't be sure and you need to verify yourself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gs3Nt.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Gs3Nt.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;EEG_bands&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Table 1. Simplified overview of the EEG bands and their characteristics. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newdawnmagazine.com/articles/the-power-of-the-mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;New Dawn Magazine&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-26T11:23:05.670" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T11:23:05.670" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23654" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-26T01:17:17.033" Score="4" ViewCount="3359" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading about &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anorexia-nervosa/symptoms-causes/syc-20353591&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anorexia&lt;/a&gt; and as I understand it, it's an eating disorder where someone severely restricts their intake of food because of an intense fear of gaining weight, a distorted perception of weight, equating weight with self-worth, and things like that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering, is it possible for someone to have anorexia without weight and body esteem issues? In other words, they severely restrict their food intake but not because of a fear of gaining weight or body esteem issues. I came across &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Can-someone-have-anorexia-without-having-body-image-issues&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Quora question&lt;/a&gt;, but the only answer there is an anecdotal one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or perhaps is there some eating disorder other than anorexia that matches this description? I came across this article, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eatingdisorderhope.com/blog/ed-body-dysmorphia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Does Everyone With an ED Have Body Dysmorphia?&lt;/a&gt;, but it didn't really help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23724" OwnerDisplayName="ununseti" LastEditorUserId="23724" LastEditDate="2019-07-26T01:27:16.440" LastActivityDate="2020-09-25T15:14:01.670" Title="Is it possible for someone to have anorexia without body image issues?" Tags="&lt;eating-disorders&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23655" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23642" CreationDate="2019-07-26T01:37:48.003" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Searching the first three pages of &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C33&amp;amp;q=personality+gender+egalitarianism&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;personality gender egalitarianism&amp;quot; on Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;, I found five studies on this topic. All of them support the view finding of increased gender differences in more egalitarian countries, and I didn't find any that were against. [Edit: added a Falk 2018 as noted in a comment.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the studies analyze the Big Five personality traits. Schmitt 2017 also claims increased differences in &amp;quot;Dark Triad traits, self‐esteem, subjective well‐being, depression and values&amp;quot;, and Falk 2018 finds increased differences in &amp;quot;willingness to take risks, patience, altruism, positive and negative reciprocity, and trust&amp;quot;. One study, Lippa 2010 argues that the differences in the Big Five are quite small, whereas &amp;quot;gender differences on the people–things dimension of interests are ‘very large’&amp;quot;. The study authors agree that this shows some inadequacies in social role theory and is more consistent, attributional, and social comparison theories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Costa Jr., Paul T.,Terracciano, Antonio,McCrae, Robert R.&#xA;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 81(2), Aug 2001, 322-331. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.81.2.322&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondary analyses of Revised NEO Personality inventory data from 26 cultures (N =23,031) suggest that gender differences are small relative to individual variation within genders; differences are replicated across cultures for both college-age and adult samples, and differences are broadly consistent with gender stereotypes: Women reported themselves to be higher in Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings, whereas men were higher in Assertiveness and Openness to Ideas. Contrary to predictions from evolutionary theory, the magnitude of gender differences varied across cultures. Contrary to predictions from the social role model, gender differences were most pronounced in European and American cultures in which traditional sex roles are minimized. Possible explanations for this surprising finding are discussed, including the attribution of masculine and feminine behaviors to roles rather than traits in traditional cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schmitt, David P.,Realo, Anu,Voracek, Martin,Allik, Jüri&#xA;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 94(1), Jan 2008, 168-182. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.94.1.168&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Previous research suggested that sex differences in personality traits are larger in prosperous, healthy, and egalitarian cultures in which women have more opportunities equal with those of men. In this article, the authors report cross-cultural findings in which this unintuitive result was replicated across samples from 55 nations (N = 17,637). On responses to the Big Five Inventory, women reported higher levels of neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness than did men across most nations. These findings converge with previous studies in which different Big Five measures and more limited samples of nations were used. Overall, higher levels of human development--including long and healthy life, equal access to knowledge and education, and economic wealth--were the main nation-level predictors of larger sex differences in personality. Changes in men's personality traits appeared to be the primary cause of sex difference variation across cultures. …&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lippa, R. A. (2010), Gender Differences in Personality and Interests: When, Where, and Why?. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4: 1098-1110. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00320.x. &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00320.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How big are gender differences in personality and interests, and how stable are these differences across cultures and over time? To answer these questions, I summarize data from two meta‐analyses and three cross‐cultural studies on gender differences in personality and interests. Results show that gender differences in Big Five personality traits are ‘small’ to ‘moderate,’ with the largest differences occurring for agreeableness and neuroticism (respective ds = 0.40 and 0.34; women higher than men). In contrast, gender differences on the people–things dimension of interests are ‘very large’ (d = 1.18), with women more people‐oriented and less thing‐oriented than men. Gender differences in personality tend to be larger in gender‐egalitarian societies than in gender‐inegalitarian societies, a finding that contradicts social role theory but is consistent with evolutionary, attributional, and social comparison theories. In contrast, gender differences in interests appear to be consistent across cultures and over time, a finding that suggests possible biologic influences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schmitt, D. P., Long, A. E., McPhearson, A. , O'Brien, K. , Remmert, B. and Shah, S. H. (2017), Personality and gender differences in global perspective. Int J Psychol, 52: 45-56. doi:10.1002/ijop.12265. &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ijop.12265&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;… Several large cross‐cultural studies have generated sufficient data for evaluating these global personality predictions. Empirically, evidence suggests gender differences in most aspects of personality—Big Five traits, Dark Triad traits, self‐esteem, subjective well‐being, depression and values—are conspicuously larger in cultures with more egalitarian gender roles, gender socialization and sociopolitical gender equity. Similar patterns are evident when examining objectively measured attributes such as tested cognitive abilities and physical traits such as height and blood pressure. Social role theory appears inadequate for explaining some of the observed cultural variations in men's and women's personalities. Evolutionary theories regarding ecologically‐evoked gender differences are described that may prove more useful in explaining global variation in human personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Falk, Armin and Hermle, Johannes (2018), Relationship of gender differences in preferences to economic development and gender equality. &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;. doi:10.1126/science.aas9899. &lt;a href=&quot;https://science.sciencemag.org/content/362/6412/eaas9899&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[According to the resource hypothesis,] greater availability of material and social resources removes the gender-neutral goal of subsistence, which creates the scope for gender-specific ambitions and desires. In addition, more gender-equal access to those resources may allow women and men to express preferences independently from each other. As a consequence, one would expect gender differences in preferences to be positively associated with higher levels of economic development and gender equality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We tested these competing predictions using data on experimentally validated measures of willingness to take risks, patience, altruism, positive and negative reciprocity, and trust for 80,000 individuals in 76 representative country samples. So that the data would be geographically representative, the dataset was chosen so as to include all continents and a broad range of cultures and economic development levels. In total, the data represent about 90% of both the world population and global income.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The data revealed substantial cross-country variation in gender differences in preferences. Gender differences were found to be strongly positively associated with economic development as well as gender equality. These relationships held for each preference separately as well as for a summary index of differences in all preferences jointly. Quantitatively, this summary index exhibited correlations of 0.67 (P &amp;lt; 0.0001) with log GDP per capita and 0.56 (P &amp;lt; 0.0001) with a Gender Equality Index (a joint measure of four indices of gender equality), respectively. To isolate the separate impacts of economic development and gender equality, we conducted a conditional analysis, finding a quantitatively large and statistically significant association between gender differences and log GDP per capita conditional on the Gender Equality Index, and vice versa. These findings remained robust in several validation tests, such as accounting for potential culture-specific survey response behavior, aggregation bias, and nonlinear relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mac Giolla, E. and Kajonius, P. J. (2019), Sex differences in personality are larger in gender equal countries: Replicating and extending a surprising finding. Int J Psychol. doi:10.1002/ijop.12529. &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ijop.12529&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sex differences in personality have been shown to be larger in more gender equal countries. We advance this research by using an extensive personality measure, the IPIP‐NEO‐120, with large country samples (N &amp;gt; 1000), from 22 countries. Furthermore, to capture the multidimensionality of personality we measure sex differences with a multivariate effect size (Mahalanobis distance D). Results indicate that past research, using univariate measures of effect size, have underestimated the size of between‐country sex differences in personality. Confirming past research, there was a strong correlation (r = .69) between a country's sex differences in personality and their Gender Equality Index. Additional analyses showed that women typically score higher than men on all five trait factors (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness), and that these relative differences are larger in more gender equal countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6191" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T19:34:33.537" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23656" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23698" CreationDate="2019-07-26T02:04:11.300" Score="2" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most studies on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience_sampling_method&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;experience sampling&lt;/a&gt; are about whether some activity correlates with increased or decreased happiness/subjective well-being. However, it's often hard to tell from these studies what number corresponds a neutral point, where someone is neither unhappy or happy (or equally so), or is feeling an valence/affect equivalent to a nonconscious state. For instance &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=05e5d_KBYY0C&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PP13&amp;amp;dq=experience+sampling&amp;amp;ots=rtKOM3tmc0&amp;amp;sig=GJp6aaU09aJXINg_91LAHeC_s7c#v=onepage&amp;amp;q&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Experience Sampling Method: Measuring the Quality of Everyday Life&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; (2007) shows its results in terms of z-scores, which are defined relative to some average, but it's unclear whether that average would be higher or lower than a neutral point. As such, while we can say that these people are happier in this situation than another, it's hard to see whether they're overall happy or unhappy in that situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not particularly interested in what activities or age or gender correlates with happiness, but just how happy people are relative to some clearly defined neutral point. Ideally, the study wouldn't just show some average among all study participants across all their experiences, but also what percentile corresponds to what happiness ratings, and the range of happiness scores and the frequency of different happiness ratings for each person. Is there a study that addresses this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6191" LastActivityDate="2019-07-30T20:36:13.970" Title="How happy are people relative to neutral (as measured by experience sampling)?" Tags="&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23657" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23661" CreationDate="2019-07-26T03:33:54.380" Score="-1" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does our brain allow us to commit suicide?&#xA;Our brain and everything in our body has developed to ensure our survival. At the prospect of a threat to our life, our brain does everything to save us with all those reflexes. In spite of this, some people are capable of committing suicide, how is this possible? &#xA;Lets consider a scenario, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A person commits suicide in anticipation of being insulted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case, being insulted is clearly better than compromising our survival.Everything we do is primarily for our survival. While suiciding, one has to go against all of his instincts that were hard wired into him. Again, if one has the will power to commit suicide, one should be able to endure any other difficulty in life, this is also contradictory. Please explain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21022" LastEditorUserId="21022" LastEditDate="2019-07-26T03:54:09.840" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T11:14:18.343" Title="How does our brain allow us to commit suicide?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23658" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23654" CreationDate="2019-07-26T06:52:04.717" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is possible for someone to have an eating disorder without weight and body esteem issues (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3868099/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sarkar, et al. 2013&lt;/a&gt;), but not Anorexia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear of becoming fat or gaining weight and having a distorted view of themselves and of their condition are criteria required in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnostics and Statistical Manual&lt;/a&gt; which is used for diagnosing mental health problems. Therefore, Anorexia would not be diagnosed without these criteria being present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An eating disorder without body image issues would be diagnosed as EDNOS (Eating Disorder Not Otherwise Specified) under the 4th Edition, but as the 5th edition merged the former categories of &lt;em&gt;Eating Disorders&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Feeding Disorder in Infancy or Early Childhood&lt;/em&gt; and formed the new category, &lt;em&gt;Feeding and Eating Disorders&lt;/em&gt;, the diagnosis under the 5th edition would be &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/eating-disorders/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;OSFED (Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OSFED is every bit as serious as anorexia, bulimia, or binge eating disorder, and people suffering from OSFED are every bit as deserving and in need of treatment – their eating disorder is just presenting in a different way. It is common for symptoms to not fit with the exact diagnostic criteria for anorexia, bulimia, or binge eating disorder – OSFED accounts for a large percentage of eating disorders (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.beateatingdisorders.org.uk/types/osfed&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beat Eating Disorders, 2017&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beat Eating Disorders (2017). &lt;em&gt;Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder (OSFED)&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.beateatingdisorders.org.uk/types/osfed&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.beateatingdisorders.org.uk/types/osfed&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sarkar, S., Padhy, S. K., Rao, P., &amp;amp; Gupta, S. (2013). Transient eating problems in an adolescent without body image disturbances: a diagnostic quandary. &lt;em&gt;Indian journal of psychological medicine, 35&lt;/em&gt;(4), 410. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7176.122244&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.4103/0253-7176.122244&lt;/a&gt; PubMed Central: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3868099/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3868099&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-07-27T06:12:46.800" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23660" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23644" CreationDate="2019-07-26T10:06:50.183" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The 'data points' were collected by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/07/the-great-hack-facebook-cambridge-analytica/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cambridge Analytica&lt;/a&gt; through an app developed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-46822439&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr Aleksandr Kogan&lt;/a&gt;. The app was a personality quiz called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/935252/cambridge-analytica-academic-aleksandr-kogan-scapegoat-privacy-app-quizzes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This is Your Digital Life&lt;/a&gt; and was run on Facebook. It collected all kinds of data, including 'likes', birthdays and locations. So it was those kind of data points where Cambridge Analytica was bragging about. It claimed that it had up to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/07/the-great-hack-facebook-cambridge-analytica/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5000 data points on every US voter&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T10:06:50.183" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23661" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23657" CreationDate="2019-07-26T11:14:18.343" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The survival instinct is not the only drive that decides whether or not a person will choose to continue or end his/her life. Other instincts that have been evolved to increase the survival chance of a clan/species, such as the instinct to procreate and to perpetuate his/her clan/species and the instinct to avoid pain/sufferings (both physical and mental), also have the effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is why a mother/father can sacrifice her/his life for her/his child. That is why a person can sacrifice his/her life for his/her clan (nation) or humanity (his/her species). In some animals, it is even more obvious when the hive instinct is stronger than the individual instinct to survive – a bee or an ant will fight to its death to protect its colony.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a person suffers a severe pain or other sufferings that he/she considers not curable, such as terminal cancer pain, the drive to avoid further sufferings can be stronger than the survival instinct. This is also the case for mental sufferings. If a person contemplates that he/she will have to endure shame, insult, humiliation, etc. that is unbearable for him/her, the drive to avoid sufferings can be stronger than the survival instinct too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One may ask, then, why do we evolve the instinct to avoid pain/sufferings if it can lead us to premature death? The answer is that the instinct to avoid pain/sufferings in general cases help increase the survival chance of a species. Pain/sufferings, in general, are the early warnings of more serious danger or situations that may endanger life and therefore have to be avoided. The cases exampled in the previous paragraph are exceptional cases. The suicidal rate in people worldwide is only about 16/100,000  per year or about 0.016 percent per year among 7.7 billion people. It is just that evolution works in general cases, not in every particular case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Befrienders Worldwide. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.befrienders.org/suicide-statistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Suicide Statistics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eric R. Pianka. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/Thoc/HumanInstincts.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Can Human Instincts Be Controlled?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ukahoke C.The Basic Theory of the Mind. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-11/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 11 - Self&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-preservation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-preservation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T11:14:18.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23662" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-26T12:08:03.010" Score="2" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone provide me with an electrocardiogram signal of a bipolar patient? I'd like to have a trace obtained in an intermittent period, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, when the patient is not experiencing a depressed or manic episode. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched for it on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14716615&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pubmed physionet&lt;/a&gt; but I could not find anything. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23727" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-26T13:27:44.670" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T13:27:44.670" Title="Bipolar Disorder Patient data" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;matlab&gt;&lt;ecg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23663" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23665" CreationDate="2019-07-26T12:54:00.790" Score="6" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;What makes human being in anger or in mental pain once his/her partner leaves? If you think logically we can replace our partner with a new one or if alone also doesn't make any difference. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From another perspective a person having multiple partner increases the chance of having better and more offspring, so by evolution this should be a happy emotion than a sad one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is why is infidelity bad and not a good thing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23538" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-26T14:03:03.240" LastActivityDate="2019-07-27T20:35:05.180" Title="What are the reasons behind monogamy in humans?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23664" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13052" CreationDate="2019-07-26T13:30:35.590" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the question asked here violates the orthodox discussion around bullying. But indeed, there's a psychological response in normal human beings towards amoral/narcissistic/sociopathic individuals. We do experience the desire to restore normalcy even with violent means. Otherwise stories about medieval knights, superheroes, and the likes would not interest us like they do. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think normal adults suppress this desire a lot better than children. I have a narcissistic mother who regularly humiliated me in subtle ways. And as I child, I initiated a lot of physical fights with her. From the outside, I looked like a psycho, but victims of narcissistic abuse would know how totally sadistic it is even without violence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is possible that children who display narcissistic and sociopathic signs early on get picked up by bullies. Sometimes they are just plain creepy, which is not sufficient reason to beat someone up, but children who are sensitive to these kinds of signals may not be able to suppress the impulse to restore normalcy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23729" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T13:30:35.590" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23665" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23663" CreationDate="2019-07-26T13:37:44.577" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, I think monogamy is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.irishtimes.com/news/science/are-humans-naturally-monogamous-or-polygamous-1.3643373&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;socially and culturally determined construct&lt;/a&gt; in man. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the animal world both monogamy and polygamy are encountered. Monogamy increases the chance of the survival of individual offspring, as dad can help raising the offspring  and can defend the family. This increases fitness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the on the other hand, polygamy increases the spread of the (male) genes and hence increases the chance that the male gene pool is spread. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The relative benefits of both strategies depends on many factors, including resource availability, offspring need, parental care, and mating dynamics &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2018.00030/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Klug, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2018.00030/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Klug, &lt;em&gt;Front Ecol Evol&lt;/em&gt; (2018); 2018.00030&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-27T20:35:05.180" LastActivityDate="2019-07-27T20:35:05.180" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23666" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23671" CreationDate="2019-07-26T14:36:35.763" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most sources on the internet say that coulrophobia is caused due to the unfamiliar face which often triggers fear to people (who suffer from it). What can be some other causes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23732" LastActivityDate="2019-07-27T20:36:02.087" Title="What are the possible causes of coulrophobia?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23668" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-26T14:49:31.270" Score="1" ViewCount="83" Body="&lt;p&gt;My colleague and I are working with non-parametric Likert data. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have been taking the median, but just realised that we are still getting values of say 2.5 or 1.5. Our justification for using the median over the mean was that values which lie between our Likert data points do not have strong meaning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are unsure if we should run our analysis again, always taking the minimum value or...?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23623" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T19:12:37.160" Title="Using the median for non parametric (Likert) data, when it gives you a decimal place" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23669" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23668" CreationDate="2019-07-26T15:27:38.397" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are using the wrong justification for using the median. The only reason you can even consider using a median or mean with Likert data is because there &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; meaning to values between Likert items. If you have &quot;Agree&quot; and &quot;Strongly Agree&quot; there is definitely the possibility of some value where someone agrees more strongly than agree but less strongly than strongly agree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, you lose a ton of information when you calculate the median of a Likert-like item, and it can be dangerous to do so when the shapes of the response distributions vary. Let's consider a case where you have 5 levels. These two count vectors give you the same median '3':&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A = [5 5 50 20 20]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;B = [20 20 50 5 5]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but the distributions are quite different and the median is not very informative about that difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may consider using the &quot;interpolated median&quot; which treats a Likert item as indicating the interval between adjacent items, for example a &quot;3&quot; really means &quot;somewhere on the interval [2.5 3.5].&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the cases A and B above, the interpolated medians are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;m&lt;sub&gt;intA&lt;/sub&gt; = 3.3&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;m&lt;sub&gt;intB&lt;/sub&gt; = 2.7&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-07-26T15:45:17.693" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T15:45:17.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23670" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23668" CreationDate="2019-07-26T19:12:37.160" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bryan's answer is just fine, I just wish to add some fundamentals on the median. A quick look on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki page&lt;/a&gt; would've told you right away that medians of integers don't necessarily have to be integers when there are an even number of observations. Consider the data set [0 1]  - the median and mean are the same, namely 0.5. An uneven number of integers will always yield an integer median. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you feel uncomfortable mentioning decimals of a Likert scale, consider rounding the outcomes to the nearest integer.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-07-26T19:12:37.160" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23671" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23666" CreationDate="2019-07-26T21:14:12.960" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.coulrophobiafacts.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coulrophobia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is a fear of clowns. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a phobia &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thesun.co.uk/fabulous/4395633/phobias-coulrophobia-causes-fear-of-clowns-symptoms/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not (yet?) acknowledged by the WHO or the APA as a disorder&lt;/a&gt;. Nonetheless it seems to be an accepted phobia in hospitalized children &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27966019&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Meiri &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Guardian has a very interesting popular scientific account on the causes of coulrophobia. The author brings up the following two convincing arguments why clowns can be scary (and others arguments as well - I encourage you to read the article itself):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The “uncanny valley” effect&lt;/strong&gt;: A phenomenon whereby things that look human, but are in fact not quite human appear as highly unsettling. Think of a dead body for example. In case of a clown their elaborate make up and weird behavior contradicts our sense of 'normal'. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Unpredictability&lt;/strong&gt; is something which causes distrust and apprehension in humans. Clowns are by their very nature unpredictable, as they always act weird and do not adhere to social standards.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27966019&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meiri &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Eur J Pediatr&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;176&lt;/strong&gt;(2):269-72&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-27T20:36:02.087" LastActivityDate="2019-07-27T20:36:02.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23672" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-26T22:20:18.627" Score="0" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans tend to have guilt complexes, which prevents them, for example, from taking too many samples from Costco. Is there a name for this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23736" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T21:00:55.077" Title="Is there a name for the natural human guilt complex?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23673" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-27T01:26:17.703" Score="2" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I ran across this article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncir.2016.00023/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why Neurons Have Thousands of Synapses, a Theory of Sequence Memory in Neocortex&lt;/a&gt;, which leads to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numenta&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://numenta.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HTM&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my reading, this provides a credible theory of sensory encoding and neocortical processing, along with a mechanism for sequence memory. Seems too good to be true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I being gullible? Is this research regarded as credible? Is it the subject of academic research by others quoting this work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what I'm really looking to do is to quantify and qualify the extent to which this work has influenced the work of others; the extent to which others have either built upon it or proposed alternatives or ignored it entirely. For example, is there any academic thought leader or highly-respected group that has reviewed this material and written in judgment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23717" LastEditorUserId="23717" LastEditDate="2019-07-29T23:50:07.577" LastActivityDate="2019-07-29T23:50:07.577" Title="Is HTM (Hierarchical Temporarl Model) accepted as credible?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23674" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-27T10:15:20.877" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does smoking affect cognitive abilities? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could it have a positive impact on alertness (like coffee)? Could it reduce our ability to concentrate? Could it lead to less oxygen in the brain, and some 'sluggishness' in thoughts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm specially interested in the long term effect, present even when there's no nicotine in the body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3354" LastActivityDate="2019-07-27T17:15:25.367" Title="Smoking and cognitive abilities" Tags="&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23675" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23674" CreationDate="2019-07-27T17:15:25.367" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Smoking is associated with reduced memory and with decline in cognitive function over the long term. Compared to people who continue smoking, people who stop smoking sooner have less decline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Sabia et al 2008:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;smokers compared with those who never smoked were more likely to be in the lowest quintile of cognitive performance. After adjustment for multiple covariates, this risk remained for memory (OR, 1.37; 95% CI, 1.10-1.73)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Sabia et al 2012:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Faster cognitive decline was observed among current smokers compared with never smokers in men (mean difference in 10-year decline in global cognition = −0.09 [95% CI, −0.15 to −0.03] and executive function = −0.11 [95% CI, −0.17 to −0.05]). Recent ex-smokers had greater decline in executive function (−0.08 [95% CI, −0.14 to −0.02]), while the decline in long-term ex-smokers was similar to that among never smokers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the second study, the effect was observed in men but not women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because these are not randomized studies (and indeed, randomizing people to smoke or not smoke over decades is not an ethical study that will ever be conducted), causality is difficult to infer, but they are strongly suggestive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because these are long-term studies, they say little about the acute effects of nicotine. Acutely, like other stimulants, nicotine can cause cognitive enhancement. However, long-term users become sensitive to being deprived of nicotine and require nicotine to get back to baseline. Smoking more and more and more to get a benefit is probably not a great idea, so there is no potential for nicotine to be used for long-term cognitive enhancement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From Myers et al 2008:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Overnight tobacco deprivation resulted in impaired functioning on all cognitive tests and increased self-reports of tobacco craving and negative mood; nicotine normalized these deficits. In the nondeprived condition, nicotine enhanced performance on the continuous performance test (CPT) and an arithmetic test in a dose-related manner, but had no effect on working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myers, C. S., Taylor, R. C., Moolchan, E. T., &amp;amp; Heishman, S. J. (2008). Dose-related enhancement of mood and cognition in smokers administered nicotine nasal spray. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33(3), 588.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sabia, S., Elbaz, A., Dugravot, A., Head, J., Shipley, M., Hagger-Johnson, G., ... &amp;amp; Singh-Manoux, A. (2012). Impact of smoking on cognitive decline in early old age: the Whitehall II cohort study. Archives of general psychiatry, 69(6), 627-635.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sabia, S., Marmot, M., Dufouil, C., &amp;amp; Singh-Manoux, A. (2008). Smoking history and cognitive function in middle age from the Whitehall II study. Archives of internal medicine, 168(11), 1165-1173.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-07-27T17:15:25.367" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23676" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23672" CreationDate="2019-07-27T19:42:44.453" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short Answer: I'm not aware of a specific name for this, but I would describe it as &lt;em&gt;guilt-proneness&lt;/em&gt;, and it is almost always associated with a high degree of conscientiousness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long Answer: Conscientiousness is one of the five major personality traits. People with high levels of conscientiousness feel strongly compelled to adhere to societal norms and rules, and will experience more guilt when they fear they've broken them. If extreme, in combination with other criteria, it could be classified as Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD). The DSM 5 lists eight diagnostic criteria for OCPD, one of which is &quot;overconscientious, scrupulous, and inflexible about matters of morality, ethics, or values.&quot; However, in the absence of OCPD criteria, if I was writing a psychiatric impression of someone like you describe, I would probably say that person demonstrates and high degree of conscientiousness and is prone to guilt reactions in the face of perceived violations of his or her morals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23739" LastActivityDate="2019-07-27T19:42:44.453" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12419" CreationDate="2019-07-27T19:45:51.340" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dereistic Thinking&lt;/strong&gt;: Failure to take the facts of reality into account, so that thoughts derived mainly from fantasy rather than experience and logical inference.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Dereism&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mental activity that deviates from the laws of logic and experience and fails to take the facts of reality into consideration. In many schizophrenic states, psychic activity is largely expressed without respect to the realities of life. When a patient firmly believes that, as the Redeemer, he cures all illnesses by simple gesture, his or her thinking is said to ebb out of harmony with facts, that is, dereistic. “The separation of associations from experience naturally facilitates dereistic thinking in its highest degree, which is actually based  on the very fact that natural connections are ignored&quot; (Bleuler, E. Textbook of Psychiatry, 1930).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23739" LastActivityDate="2019-07-27T19:45:51.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23678" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23635" CreationDate="2019-07-27T19:57:26.610" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sociopaths (people with Antisocial Personality Disorder) report lower levels of anxiety and stress than the general population. Psychopathic traits tend to foster resiliency and are protective against anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm a board-certified psychiatrist. There is ample evidence in the literature (and basic psych textbooks) that sociopathy have low levels of harm avoidance, decreased physiological responses to stress, and lower overall reported anxiety and fear. There is evidence supporting this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fairness, this association has come into question and there are some newer studies that are reevaluating the association between anxiety and sociopathy. Anecdotally, I have never encountered an ASPD patient with comorbid anxiety. I’m sure they exist: I’ve just never seen it, and suspect that it’s rare.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Hofmann, S. G., Korte, K. J., &amp;amp; Suvak, M. K. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.6.714&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The upside of being socially anxious: Psychopathic attributes and social anxiety are negatively associated.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of social and clinical psychology, 28(6), 714-727.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dinn, W. M., &amp;amp; Harris, C. L. (2000). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(00)00224-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurocognitive function in antisocial personality disorder.&lt;/a&gt; Psychiatry research, 97(2-3), 173-190.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Dolan, M. C., &amp;amp; Rennie, C. E. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.11.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Is juvenile psychopathy associated with low anxiety and fear in conduct-disordered male offenders?&lt;/a&gt; Journal of anxiety disorders, 21(8), 1028-1038.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23739" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-08-27T14:12:36.050" LastActivityDate="2019-08-27T14:12:36.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23680" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-28T20:06:27.820" Score="0" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;It looks like a useless burden and a waste of energy, why it evolved?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23748" LastActivityDate="2019-07-29T09:00:58.997" Title="How could siblings rivalry / jealousy be useful to human evolution?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23681" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-28T22:19:55.157" Score="2" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;A test will take place in two months time. It will take place on 12:00 PM, and the test takes one hour. One has to perform tasks such as a basic IQ test, mental arithmetic and solving a sudoku. These types of tasks are known in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone wants to train for this event by performing the tasks on a regular basis. What would be a good training schedule? Would it be best to train every day for an hour at exactly 12:00 PM, to condition the brain, or would it be better to train at random times to improve the brain's flexibility? Also, would it be better to take days off to have the brain rest, like you would do when training your body?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23750" LastActivityDate="2019-08-03T19:45:11.347" Title="Timing mental arithmetic training for specific event" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23682" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23673" CreationDate="2019-07-28T23:47:08.773" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the abstract of the paper you quote, they say (edited by me a bit to make it more brief:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;First we show that a neuron with several thousand synapses...can recognize hundreds of independent patterns of cellular activity... We then propose a neuron model where patterns detected on proximal dendrites lead to action potentials...and patterns detected on basal and apical dendrites act as predictions... We then present a network model based on neurons with these properties that learns time-based sequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, they are showing a bunch of things that are true in some simulations they have run, which are based on some biologically plausible assumptions. There is no reason to doubt their simulations, and Hawkins is a credible person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic assumptions they make are grounded in known and agreed upon concepts in neuroscience: the anatomy of different cell types, for example, the effects of synapses at different places in the cell. The whole synthesis of their work, though, is just a hypothesis, and that's also how they are presenting it. It wouldn't make sense, and Hawkins would not claim, that this is &quot;accepted&quot;: it's a proposed idea that they show some properties of &lt;em&gt;in silico&lt;/em&gt;. Even if some cells in the brain do work this way, it doesn't necessarily mean it is an organizing principle, either. If you're interested, Hawkins' book &lt;em&gt;On Memory&lt;/em&gt; tells a bit more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can add a bit of skepticism if you'd like because these authors work for a company that sells patented machine learning technologies based on their neuroscientific work, but I don't think that's a reason to throw them out entirely, and their academic publications seem sound. I like to use &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=12178982597363125669&amp;amp;as_sdt=2005&amp;amp;sciodt=0,5&amp;amp;hl=en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; to track citations of a given paper; if you follow that link or find the paper there on your own, you'll see it has been cited ~150 times, though many of those citations are coming from a more computational/machine learning angle, which makes sense: that's the main application for the paper. It's not really proposing any novel biology, since the biology is mostly based on things already known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-07-28T23:47:08.773" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23684" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23680" CreationDate="2019-07-29T09:00:58.997" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, it must be understood that not all traits in an animal are evolved or selected traits – some are only variations. Some of these variations may be selected by some evolutionary pressure in the future and then become evolved or selected traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, each of the various hair colors (black, brown, blond, red, white, etc.) is not an evolved or selected trait – all of them are only variations in hair colors. For now, there is no evolutionary pressure to select any of them, so present-day people have various hair colors. But suppose there is a strange disease that gradually kills off people who do not have blond hair; then the blond hair will be selected by this evolutionary pressure. And after some time, there will be only people (or the majority of people) with blond hair. At this stage, the blond hair will become a selected trait. These also happened to the variation of the finch’s beaks in Galapagos, some of which were selected by evolutionary pressure in some specific ecological niches. This pressure led to speciation that resulted in various kinds of finches that Darwin found in various niches. So were true for variations in appendages, which at first were in in-complete forms but later were selected by evolutionary pressure in various ecological niches and evolved into arms, wings, and fins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do we know that a trait is an evolved/selected trait or a variation of a trait? One important characteristic is that, if it’s an evolved/selected trait, it will appear in all or in the majority of that species. So, for example, the human hand, the bird wing, and the fish gill appear in all humans, birds, and fish – these are evolved/selected traits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, not all traits that are present in all/the majority of a species always are evolved/selected traits. Some may be just vestigial traits or just results of genetic drifts (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/research/evolutions-useless-traits/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evolution’s Useless Traits&lt;/a&gt;). But these are exceptions rather than the general rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general rules of evolution are variations in traits, competition, differential production/survival among different traits, and heritability of (some) traits (&lt;a href=&quot;https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_25&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Natural selection&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Natural Selection – Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the case in question, siblings jealousy/rivalry that is strong or destructive does not seem to be an evolved/selected trait because it does not occur in all humans and not in the majority of human families. It’s probably just a variation trait in some families. And minor jealousy/rivalry is not an evolved/selected trait either. It is probably just one emotion of several emotions that the versatile amygdala (and other emotion-creating neural centers) can produce (to flag various kinds of stimuli that an animal encounters). The amygdala is the evolved/selected trait; any of the various emotions (including sibling jealousy/rivalry) that it can produce is not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-07-29T09:00:58.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23686" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-29T12:01:58.860" Score="2" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am an Indian who believed in God and followed &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduismn&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hinduism&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later, I went to college and became enlightened and ruled out the idea of third party creation or the existence of a creator. That said, during the time I believed in God, when I entered the temples I had a different feeling (I can't explain it, but it felt good) by hearing the chanting of mantras, the glow of lamps, the smoked smell of camphor, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this is a spiritual feeling. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I have lived my childhood as a theist and later as an atheist I can't differentiate if the spiritual feeling is because of &lt;strong&gt;childhood memories&lt;/strong&gt; or is &lt;strong&gt;genetically embedded&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask this question to understand how people like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajneesh&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;OSHO&lt;/a&gt; and thousands of his variants in India could glue millions of followers without giving any material things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23538" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2019-08-22T17:09:41.783" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T11:42:39.130" Title="Cognitively, where does spiritual feeling come from?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-science-of-religion&gt;&lt;spirituality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="18" ClosedDate="2019-08-23T11:42:48.987" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23687" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23688" CreationDate="2019-07-29T12:28:59.413" Score="1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;We all might have experienced a post-alcoholic hangover after heavy drinking. I think this includes a depressive state, which doesn't last long and wears off once we take rest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is whether occasional excess alcohol consumption can make you depressed permanently? Specifically, I'm wondering whether occasional binge-drinking can lead to a permanent depressive state in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23538" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-29T18:43:54.870" LastActivityDate="2019-07-29T18:43:54.870" Title="Post alcoholic depression and mental health" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23688" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23687" CreationDate="2019-07-29T15:48:45.663" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been several studies that show links between binge drinking and depressive symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it's hard to make any strong statement about a particular level of drinking, because drinking behaviors are so variable, and also to quantify the &quot;level&quot; of the effect on depression, because depression symptoms are also variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, it's hard to make causal statements because alcohol use could be a coping mechanism for depressive symptoms rather than causal: many studies approach the relationship from the opposite direction, implying the depressive symptoms are causal for alcohol use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've pulled a few papers and can discuss them briefly, though this is not a comprehensive review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Paljärvi, T., Koskenvuo, M., Poikolainen, K., Kauhanen, J., Sillanmäki, L., &amp;amp; Mäkelä, P. (2009). Binge drinking and depressive symptoms: a 5‐year population‐based cohort study. Addiction, 104(7), 1168-1178.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;This study found a positive association between baseline binge drinking and depressive symptoms 5 years later.&quot; &quot;Binge drinking was related to symptoms of depression independently of average intake.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd note that this study shows some truly massive relationships, odds ratios of 4-9 for some subcategories; it also seems to have some potential for demonstrating a causal role when they are comparing time 1 drinking to time 2 depression, though still not conclusive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this study gets closest to testing what your question is asking, because it explicitly includes measures of hangovers/binging that are missing from some other studies. It also shows a dose-dependent relationship where more frequent binge drinking is associated with more depressive symptoms, but the relationship is still present even at lower levels of binge drinking compared to non-binge drinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Grant, B. F., &amp;amp; Harford, T. C. (1995). Comorbidity between DSM-IV alcohol use disorders and major depression: results of a national survey. Drug and alcohol dependence, 39(3), 197-206.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Virtually all odds ratios were significantly greater than 1.0, demonstrating that comorbidity of alcohol use disorders and major depression is pervasive in the general population. The magnitude of the association remained stable across the three time frames but diagnostic and subgroup variations in comorbidity were noted. The association between alcohol dependence and major depression was greater than the association between abuse and major depression and the association between alcohol abuse and major depression was consistently greater for females and blacks, compared to their male and non-black counterparts.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This studied focused on older adults, age 57+.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Hill, K. G., White, H. R., Chung, I. J., Hawkins, J. D., &amp;amp; Catalano, R. F. (2000). Early adult outcomes of adolescent binge drinking: person‐and variable‐centered analyses of binge drinking trajectories. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(6), 892-901.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;Adolescent alcohol use did not predict educational attain-ment, crime, family roles, or depression.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study patterned adolescent (&amp;lt;18yo) drinking behaviors into several categories and showed relationships between alcohol use and several other outcomes, but not depression, at age 21.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Okoro, C. A., Brewer, R. D., Naimi, T. S., Moriarty, D. G., Giles, W. H., &amp;amp; Mokdad, A. H. (2004). Binge drinking and health-related quality of life: do popular perceptions match reality?. American journal of preventive medicine, 26(3), 230-233.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;After adjusting for confounding factors, frequent binge drinkers were more likely than non-binge drinkers to experience ≥14 unhealthy days (physical or mental) in the past month (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=1.39, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.24–1.56), primarily because they had more mentally unhealthy days than non-binge drinkers (AOR=1.52, 95% CI=1.32–1.75).&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study combines depressive symptoms with other categories of mental/physical health to assay general quality of life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And finally I'll end with one meta-analysis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Boden, J. M., &amp;amp; Fergusson, D. M. (2011). Alcohol and depression. Addiction, 106(5), 906-914.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The current state of the literature suggests a causal linkage between alcohol use disorders and major depression, such that increasing involvement with alcohol increases risk of depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They seem to make some arguments for a causal alcohol use -&gt; depression relationship, though I haven't read closely enough to decide whether I am convinced by those arguments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-07-29T15:48:45.663" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23689" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-30T02:35:08.620" Score="1" ViewCount="93" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently read the book &lt;em&gt;The Brain that Changes Itself&lt;/em&gt; and I ran across a passage that explains how habits &quot;take over a bit of the brain map.&quot; By this, I thought it meant that each habit forms some connections between neurons (please clarify). It also states that this is why it is hard to break a bad habit. If our brains have so much capacity, why would some pathways being occupied affect the formation of others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below is an excerpt of the paragraph I got this from:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;But when we learn a bad habit, it takes over a brain map, and each time we repeat it, it claims more control of that map and prevents the use of that space for &quot;good&quot; habits. That is why 'unlearning' is often a lot harder than learning, and wy early childhood education is so important- it's best to get it right early, before the 'bad habit' gets a competitive advantage.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23737" LastEditorUserId="23737" LastEditDate="2019-07-30T23:35:38.613" LastActivityDate="2019-07-30T23:35:38.613" Title="Neuroplasticity and Habit Formation" Tags="&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23690" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-30T05:10:08.320" Score="0" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whether we talk about EEG, ECG or EKG aren't all these signals discrete as we are reading the voltages from the electrodes that are due to certain bio-chemical or bio-electrical activities. I do not get why people say that EEG is continuous and hence we need to convert it to digital when it is already digital.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23593" LastActivityDate="2019-08-03T19:29:04.257" Title="Why are biosignals from the body said to be continuous?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;&lt;ecg&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23691" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8800" CreationDate="2019-07-30T06:22:16.920" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The common steps are:&#xA;- Raw Signal (after pre-amplifier and amplification)&#xA;- Band pass filter&#xA;- Band rejection/Notch filter (cutoff depends on where you're at)&#xA;- Anti Aliasing Filter&#xA;- Sample/Hold&#xA;- MUX(if you have multiple channels)&#xA;- ADC&#xA;- Digital Signal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;like AliceD mentioned you can use FFT based filters and WT as a filter. For WT you basically apply it to the signal(after selecting a mother wavelet) and you will get a number of coeeficients representing different frequency components which can then be subtracted from the raw signal to remove the noises.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apart from these filters you could also use spatial filters, a very common one is CSP(common spatial patterns) or others like MEC, CCA, AC, CAR, ICA etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23593" LastActivityDate="2019-07-30T06:22:16.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23692" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23690" CreationDate="2019-07-30T07:00:54.817" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Biological signals are analogues and hence continuous. Early EEG systems simply recorded the analogue signals and displayed it as a continuous signal graphically as wiggly lines written by little pens on a roll of paper (Fig. 1). Only after analogue-to-digital converters became available, could EEG signals and the likes be digitally sampled. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1N0x5.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1N0x5.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;analogue EEG signal&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Analogue EEG signal. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK390356/figure/f39/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Britton &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, 2016&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK390356/figure/f39/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Britton &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, Electroencephalography (EEG): An Introductory Text and Atlas of Normal and Abnormal Findings in Adults, Children, and Infants, 2016. Chicago: American Epilepsy Society&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-08-02T21:29:38.620" LastActivityDate="2019-08-02T21:29:38.620" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23694" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-30T10:21:43.253" Score="1" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed differences between how my friends and I are motivated with regards to exercise, and would like to better understand what is influencing this difference psychologically.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I am indifferent to running events.  I have run for its own sake on my own, both at novice and intermediate levels; training myself until I could run 5k or 10k regularly.  I once did a half marathon distance on my own simply as I was curious whether I could do it.  I feel absolutely no motivation to run as part of a group, nor do I feel any motivation to run for the reward of getting a time or rank or medal or what have you.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I recognise that this mindset is unusual when compared to my friends.  One friend started running with a &quot;couch to 5k&quot; group, another is keen to train for a half marathon event, another is a semi-professional athlete, etc.  The point is that most people I know who run seem to be motivated differently.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What explains the difference between these types of motivation?  This is not to ask what drives motivation generally, but specifically what is the neurological and thus psychological root cause for individuals being motivated by different sorts of things, in this case about why people run as a form of exercise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23708" LastEditorUserId="23708" LastEditDate="2019-07-30T15:16:33.717" LastActivityDate="2021-04-22T08:27:52.573" Title="Neurological explanation for differences in what motivates runners?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23695" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23690" CreationDate="2019-07-30T13:16:54.137" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To add to the answer provided by @AliceD, pure digital waveforms are square waveforms as they represent steps between 1s and 0s and are therefore not continuous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/l5YQu.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/l5YQu.png&quot; alt=&quot;Digital waveform&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Analogue waveforms are not.  They are smooth continuous waves and can represent many voltage points at each millisecond, microsecond or nanosecond between the peaks and troughs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/m6p5X.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/m6p5X.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;analogue waveform&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Outputs from ADCs (Analogue to Digital Converters) will have steps in them representing the various voltage ranges at their relative timings. In a sense they are digital outputs but are really a digitized version (a representation) of an analogue waveform through digital sampling of the wave voltage at the relevant millisecond, microsecond or nanosecond depending on the ADC timing (see the image below from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/chpt-13/practical-considerations-adc-circuits/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/chpt-13/practical-considerations-adc-circuits/&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cJAHu.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cJAHu.png&quot; alt=&quot;digitized version of an analogue signal&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-07-30T13:16:54.137" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23696" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-30T13:54:11.130" Score="3" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are three different patterns of behavior in the so called strange situation in which the caregiver leaves the infant for a while and a stranger comes in the room. These behavioral patterns are than classified in three attachment styles: secure, resistant and avoidant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any quantitative research that links the early attachment styles with the probability of certain personality disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastActivityDate="2019-07-30T13:54:11.130" Title="How are attachment styles linked to personality disorders" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;&lt;dsm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23697" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23656" CreationDate="2019-07-30T16:31:47.517" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just finished reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/posts/FvbTKrEQWXwN5A6Tb/a-happiness-manifesto-why-and-how-effective-altruism-should&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; (2018) by Michael Plant, a PhD student at Oxford University.  Given that it is not a peer-reviewed paper, it would be worth checking his references, but this is what he says about the neutral point:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Life satisfaction surveys don’t ask people to specify what point on&#xA;  the 0 to 10 scale they would consider equivalent to not being alive. 0&#xA;  is labelled not at all’ and 10 ‘completely satisfied’. ... How could&#xA;  we settle where the neutral point is? Two strategies seem possible.&#xA;  First, we could find out at what LS scores individuals report their&#xA;  lives are neutral on experience measures of SWB. Second, we could poll&#xA;  people to ask at what LS score out of 10 they would be indifferent&#xA;  between living with that score for the rest of their life or dying. I&#xA;  am unaware of any analysis which has been conducted along either&#xA;  lines. Thus, for the moment, this unfortunately remains a point of&#xA;  armchair conjecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: LS = Life Satisfaction; SWB = Subjective Well-Being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-07-30T16:31:47.517" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23698" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23656" CreationDate="2019-07-30T20:12:54.577" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Diener and Diener's &amp;quot;Most People Are Happy&amp;quot; (1996) summarizes the results of various studies on how happy people are, and finds that the vast majority of people are happy, based on a variety of methodologies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myers and Diener (1995) asked “Who is happy?” but examined the question of who is more and who is less happy. In fact, most people report a positive level of subjective well-being (SWB), and say that they are satisfied with domains such as marriage, work, and leisure. People in disadvantaged groups on average report positive well-being, and measurement methods in addition to self-report indicate that most people's affect is primarily pleasant. Cross-national data suggest that there is a positive level of SWB throughout the world, with the possible exception of very poor societies. In 86% of the 43 nations for which nationally representative samples are available the mean SWB response was above neutral. Several hypotheses to explain the positive levels of SWB are discussed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's the section on experience sampling:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In two other studies (&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1991-00334-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thomas &amp;amp; Diener, 1990&lt;/a&gt;), college students who were &amp;quot;beeped&amp;quot; reported more positive affect than negative affect on about 80% of occasions. Similarly, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1992-07339-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Williams, Suls, Alliger, Learner, and Choi (1991)&lt;/a&gt; found that working mothers who were signaled at random times reported very high levels of positive affect and low levels of negative affect. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2805902&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Larson (1989)&lt;/a&gt; used the beeper methodology with American children; they reported predominantly positive affect about 52% of the time, neutral or mixed affect on about 29% of the occasions, and dominant negative affect 19% of the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1991-97398-008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brandstatter (1991)&lt;/a&gt; drew his respondents in Europe from unemployed persons, soldiers, students, married couples, and members of charity organizations. Participants recorded a selfselected word that described their current mood when they were signaled. Joy and relaxation were reported 43% of the time, and sadness, anger, and fear were reported 22% of the time. On average, respondents reported positive emotions 68% of the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1985-14548-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diener, Larsen, and Emmons (1984)&lt;/a&gt; examined subjects' levels of mood in different situations. The moods ranged from slightly positive, when respondents were alone, to extremely positive, when participants were in social, recreational situations. Finally, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1988-05565-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Delespaul and deVries (1987)&lt;/a&gt; studied chronic mental patients living in the community and found that the average mood at the time these patients were signaled was above the neutral point of the scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6z7cI.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6z7cI.png&quot; alt=&quot;Table showing percentage of participants with positive subjective well-being in multimethod studies&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These results of happiness were considerably higher than what laypeople and psychology professionals expected:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1V7eG.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1V7eG.png&quot; alt=&quot;Table comparing people's beliefs on how happy people are compared to the actual results&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diener et al. (2018) adds that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biswas-Diener, Vittersø, and Diener (2005) found that among the Inuit (indigenous people of Greenland), the Maasai (the traditional pastoralist-hunter tribe in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania), and the Amish, the vast majority of respondents scored above neutral in both satisfaction and affect balance. The self-report survey results were replicated with several other measures of SWB—informant reports, experience sampling, and a memory measure—reducing the plausibility that the positive responses are due only to self-report biases. In addition, all three groups were above neutral on satisfaction with each of 14 different life domains. Thus, the finding that most people are happy generalized to cultures that differ significantly from mainstream Western culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diener, E., &amp;amp; Diener, C. (1996). Most People Are Happy. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science&lt;/em&gt;, 7(3), 181–185. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00354.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00354.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Diener, E., Diener, C., Choi, H., &amp;amp; Oishi, S. (2018). Revisiting “Most People Are Happy”—And Discovering When They Are Not. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(2), 166–170. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618765111&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618765111&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6191" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-07-30T20:36:13.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23699" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23694" CreationDate="2019-07-30T21:22:20.877" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question is really broad and can encompass libraries. However, to add my 2-cents worth regarding &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;specifically what is the [...] psychological root cause for individuals being motivated by different sorts of things...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would say that a lot of this has to do with external factors, and specifically external sources promoting exercise to be 'healthy', including peer pressure and multimedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To pin this global effect on our way of thinking down to  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[the] specific[...] neurological root&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is not really feasible in a single answer in theSE framework, as it is just way too complex to grasp on a single web page in a Q&amp;amp;A forum I'm afraid. But the between-subject differences can, at least partly, be explained by intersubject environmental differences.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03422.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brody &amp;amp; Inoue, Issues Innov Nursing Practice, 218-27&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-07-30T21:22:20.877" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23700" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-30T22:12:42.770" Score="0" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is probably the most adequate stackexchange for this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to imagine something that does not exist, explicitly or implicitly, in our universe?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Exclude things such as a Unicorn for example, that's just a horse and the corn is from other animals who have such an &quot;organ&quot;. Other stuff might be just an application of the laws of nature. Our images of extraterrestrials usually involve hands, eyes, holes as nose etc.. which we do know of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22029" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-31T14:27:18.760" LastActivityDate="2019-07-31T14:27:18.760" Title="Imagining unreal stuff" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;imagery&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2019-08-04T17:32:04.113" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23701" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-31T07:25:50.217" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;When using software to invert the colors of a picture or screen, the software just blindly (literally) uses a mathematical formula to calculate the inverted color of each pixel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in RGB, if a pixel's color is represented by (100, 25, 5), then the inverted color of that pixel is calculated as (155, 220, 250).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, human perception of color is not the same for all colors, we have different sensitivity to different color ranges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What ends up happening is that objects/subjects in pictures that are inverted this way are hard to distinguish. The relationships between the colors are, at least perceptually, completely changed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, &lt;strong&gt;if I wanted to invert the colors of a picture, but keep the proper &quot;perceptual relationships&quot; between the colors of that picture. How should I do it?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, you can easily test this by fiddling with the Accessibility features of your computer or phone and turning on (at least on Macs and iPhones) the &quot;Invert colors&quot; option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23763" LastActivityDate="2019-07-31T07:25:50.217" Title="What is the &quot;perceptually correct&quot; range or map of negative (inverted) colors?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23702" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-31T12:35:51.800" Score="3" ViewCount="182" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading William James' &quot;Principles of Psychology&quot;.  It is clear in his research that he was acutely aware of brain plasticity and the limited capacity for a precise &quot;schema&quot; (ie. static brain map) to represent brain function.  Seeing that this text is well over 100 years old and cites much research even older, how is it that I see so much information (primarily in the press and lay neurology texts) that brain plasticity is a new perspective recently discovered by academics and researchers?  Without question the earliest modern neuroscientists knew about brain plasticity.  It was an undeniable characteristic of their research.  (As a side note, it is interesting that creatures with less intelligence have greater plasticity, with the level of intelligence being inversely proportional to plasticity.  A fact I've never seen discussed.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel I should mention that I am not a psychologist or neuro-scientist.  I have a doctorate in Statistics. I did search academic papers and there are many papers that credit William James with describing plasticity under the heading &quot;habit&quot;.  So to my original question, why is it that plasticity is just being &quot;discovered?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An academic paper that clearly sites William James with being the first to introduce plasticity - &lt;a href=&quot;https://fastertomaster.com/the-brain-that-changes-itself-norman-doidge/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://fastertomaster.com/the-brain-that-changes-itself-norman-doidge/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A recent book that erroneously claims plasticity is a new concept - &lt;a href=&quot;https://fastertomaster.com/the-brain-that-changes-itself-norman-doidge/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://fastertomaster.com/the-brain-that-changes-itself-norman-doidge/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23767" LastEditorUserId="23767" LastEditDate="2019-07-31T13:52:53.883" LastActivityDate="2019-08-02T22:03:03.057" Title="William James &quot;Principles of Psychology&quot; and Brain Plasticity" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23703" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23700" CreationDate="2019-07-31T13:13:11.243" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The best known examples of impossible objects are one of the following (but there are a multitude of others around). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course they exist as you see right in front of you on your screen. Yet, that is in 2D space. If you imagine these objects to be 'real' matter, so imaginary physical objects, and imagine tracing the cube's ribs (Fig. 1) with your finger, or the ribs of the triangle (Fig. 2), or the tripod (Fig. 3) you are imagining the impossible. Such an object cannot exist in 3D space. Likewise, if you imagine tracing the water in the waterfall (fig. 4) falling and flowing back up, against the laws of gravity, you definitely imagine an impossible thing, as such a scenario can only exist in 2D space - our mind tricks us into assembling an impossible 3D perception out of a 2D image.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Escher has made many of these impossible objects that exist only in 2D space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bol.com/nl/p/escher-op-reis/9200000091494103/?Referrer=ADVNLGOO002008P-G-69733010818-S-664287831040-9200000091494103&amp;amp;gclid=CjwKCAjw-ITqBRB7EiwAZ1c5UzFaDuYF8kWMbtjQpPYIEkLLYsmw5ep0uIkYH-uWLgxCTcHQF9Wr_xoCQWUQAvD_BwE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Escher op reis. Frederico Giudiceandrea&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yBOlm.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yBOlm.png&quot; alt=&quot;impossibleCube&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Impossible cube. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://mathstat.slu.edu/escher/index.php/Depth_and_Perspective&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SLU Math&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ENcQN.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ENcQN.png&quot; alt=&quot;ImpossibleTriangle&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Impossible triangle. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://brainden.com/impossible-objects.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brain Teaser&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GfGNx.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GfGNx.gif&quot; alt=&quot;impossible&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 3. Impossible tripod. source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://piscesdna.blogspot.com/2010/07/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Piscesdna&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ee1A3.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ee1A3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 4. Escher's Waterfall ('Waterval'). source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/art/imposs.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hanover College&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-31T14:23:31.030" LastActivityDate="2019-07-31T14:23:31.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23704" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-07-31T18:18:12.840" Score="2" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hope I am asking this question in the right place. In her reading of Duras's &lt;em&gt;Hiroshima mon amour&lt;/em&gt;, Julia Kristeva, the analyst and philosopher, refers to Duras as a melancholic. Anne Juranville, also an analyst and a professor of literature, however, believes, in Kelly Oliver's words, that &quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Duras is too depressed to be melancholic &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=vvcit1tEOSMC&amp;amp;lpg=PA152&amp;amp;ots=gic6uj2sQW&amp;amp;dq=%22Duras%20is%20too%20depressed%20to%20be%20melancholic%22&amp;amp;pg=PA152#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22Duras%20is%20too%20depressed%20to%20be%20melancholic%22&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oliver, 2001, 152&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone explain what she means by this? Isn't the melancholic, in the last analysis, the same as the depressed? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does she mean by saying that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the melancholic “subject,” and in particular the feminine one,&#xA;  maintains an immediate, traumatic relation to the real qua maternal&#xA;  Thing. &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=vvcit1tEOSMC&amp;amp;pg=PA152&amp;amp;lpg=PA152&amp;amp;dq=%22Duras%20is%20too%20depressed%20to%20be%20melancholic%22&amp;amp;source=bl&amp;amp;ots=gic6uj2sQW&amp;amp;sig=ACfU3U2GNatMICHD0UjbGLfd89JUYaaEKw&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=2ahUKEwiDsrT94N_jAhVEy6QKHTYMCyAQ6AEwAHoECAAQAQ#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22Duras%20is%20too%20depressed%20to%20be%20melancholic%22&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ibid&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's part of the paragraph cited from Kelly Oliver's &lt;em&gt;Psychoanalysis, Aesthetics, and Politics in the Work of Kristeva&lt;/em&gt; (2009):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Anne Juranville, also an analyst and professor of literature,&#xA;  disagrees with Kristeva’s clinical diagnosis, arguing that Duras is&#xA;  too depressed to be melancholic, but does agree that the melancholic&#xA;  “subject,” and in particular the feminine one, maintains an&#xA;  immediate, traumatic relation to the real qua maternal Thing. This&#xA;  nostalgic denial of individuation, as for Kristeva, positions the&#xA;  melancholic beyond the pale of symbolic intervention, unable to access&#xA;  in any way the historical reality of the social: “Stupefied,&#xA;  horrified, [the melancholic] fixes himself in an inhuman zone beyond&#xA;  death where, lacking the least symbolic recourse, he is condemned to&#xA;  remain eternally and passively concentrated on this gaping wound that&#xA;  he himself is” (1993, 54). &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=vvcit1tEOSMC&amp;amp;lpg=PA152&amp;amp;ots=gic6uj2sQW&amp;amp;dq=%22Duras%20is%20too%20depressed%20to%20be%20melancholic%22&amp;amp;pg=PA152#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%22Duras%20is%20too%20depressed%20to%20be%20melancholic%22&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ibid&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23756" LastActivityDate="2019-08-01T18:51:07.093" Title="What does this writer mean?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23706" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23702" CreationDate="2019-07-31T20:31:01.693" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Neural plasticity is a broad term. While it has long been recognized, the fact that the adult brain is plastic even at the gross structural level has taken a long time to become widely accepted.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;There are a few things that play a role here. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;First and foremost, &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neural plasticity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; is a term encompassing many different processes. Neuroplasticity can be observed from microscopic (molecular) changes in individual neurons, to large-scale structural changes, such as cortical remapping in response to injury.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Secondly, the small scale changes have long been recognized, the gross structural changes were only discovered much later. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thirdly, neuroplasticity has indeed been long recognized, but it has long been thought that there were critical periods in life &lt;a href=&quot;https://watermark.silverchair.com/53-1-185.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAkkwggJFBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggI2MIICMgIBADCCAisGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQM_wxRRVB7qPvFjX-bAgEQgIIB_BIPJD5b8Ytu_7euVeR0XdaTpRwuOoNh6C37dGgt6bAIsyxSUg6U5gstPxXIjuOKE4nhvRlnNcnjhQpzIZVv0Oldz_n5tubC6BHOwssGDPYUoRPvut0HStA0iZoJ7NFqw7O7clqi5_hyHHKu-D_gbxwdl6GWZE8jisAOHb5Cc6TIzkR3wxg8qANAbjwhjfpAa49b5EGMJt3-QZ9eCRm0iFbrc7tn7U30R5LjB21W-7Y4DnlBtiwHrJCkNFCu6a-Yse-Yi0SP7B2lmi3c1rkQkmjV1s2XhY7nzT5ZqhYaC4KZFvLpnSTJqqdxCQP8VQgjBk5LeOC9Y5BNz7N5OsNSpmM3BpefyC6DQIx9d12a-Wo3qUs0m4Daf-uR9TYYVymvWWGwd-l96R6eP3n7SDWVhDcuBEd4bPtoTT-Hak4noNfswq9jpfGrPxRpEnueDqyq1HE86_98kB3MzkKzvW-QGw0bEIN463hDE6auxUXwTfdZthT0oMEa5FjEmN5srdY87BsvNcHYyTOeEd5VsjzE7DDGw8jVhA8k8O3zXD0DVWtSmo35m79hHM70nvNBbFKsl6QHHCELsd22OL8gEtx1W0FhbFT1eXppcn47qtQW0SEXCbAc20W2N-KNK9mB1EjVx7O4TLFotse0TUnK6foM0ShdzrLFxT-NMlX32kg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sylva &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 1997)&lt;/a&gt; where after plasticity was no longer present. In a way, that idea is still recognized, and is the reason why, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, congenitally deaf children are receiving cochlear implants in the first months of their lives to allow the plastic brain to develop hearing and speech development during this &quot;critical period&quot; where these developments are accompanied by gross changes in the brain not possible later in life &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016558769700058X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Snik &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, 1997)&lt;/a&gt;. Untreated prelingual deafness therefore results in impaired speech understanding and the typical 'deaf speech' when they receive an implant after this critical period. &lt;a href=&quot;http://discovermagazine.com/2003/jun/feattongue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paul Bach-y-Rita&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Merzenich&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Michael Merzenich&lt;/a&gt; are often credited for their ideas on the plastic &lt;strong&gt;adult brain&lt;/strong&gt;. For instance, &lt;a href=&quot;http://discovermagazine.com/2003/jun/feattongue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bach-y-Rita&lt;/a&gt; recognized that his dad, by then an aged man, was still capable to re-learn many tasks after serious brain injury. He recognized that hence, the adult brain is plastic too (plastic, in terms of gross changes that allow re-allocation of healthy brain tissue to take over the tasks from damaged regions). The idea of the adult brain being able for gross plastic changes has taken a while to become accepted.    &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016558769700058X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Snik &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Int J Ped Otorhinolayngol&lt;/em&gt; (1997); &lt;strong&gt;41&lt;/strong&gt;(2):121-31&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://watermark.silverchair.com/53-1-185.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAkkwggJFBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggI2MIICMgIBADCCAisGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQM_wxRRVB7qPvFjX-bAgEQgIIB_BIPJD5b8Ytu_7euVeR0XdaTpRwuOoNh6C37dGgt6bAIsyxSUg6U5gstPxXIjuOKE4nhvRlnNcnjhQpzIZVv0Oldz_n5tubC6BHOwssGDPYUoRPvut0HStA0iZoJ7NFqw7O7clqi5_hyHHKu-D_gbxwdl6GWZE8jisAOHb5Cc6TIzkR3wxg8qANAbjwhjfpAa49b5EGMJt3-QZ9eCRm0iFbrc7tn7U30R5LjB21W-7Y4DnlBtiwHrJCkNFCu6a-Yse-Yi0SP7B2lmi3c1rkQkmjV1s2XhY7nzT5ZqhYaC4KZFvLpnSTJqqdxCQP8VQgjBk5LeOC9Y5BNz7N5OsNSpmM3BpefyC6DQIx9d12a-Wo3qUs0m4Daf-uR9TYYVymvWWGwd-l96R6eP3n7SDWVhDcuBEd4bPtoTT-Hak4noNfswq9jpfGrPxRpEnueDqyq1HE86_98kB3MzkKzvW-QGw0bEIN463hDE6auxUXwTfdZthT0oMEa5FjEmN5srdY87BsvNcHYyTOeEd5VsjzE7DDGw8jVhA8k8O3zXD0DVWtSmo35m79hHM70nvNBbFKsl6QHHCELsd22OL8gEtx1W0FhbFT1eXppcn47qtQW0SEXCbAc20W2N-KNK9mB1EjVx7O4TLFotse0TUnK6foM0ShdzrLFxT-NMlX32kg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sylva &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Br Med Bull&lt;/em&gt; (1997); &lt;strong&gt;53&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 185-19&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-07-31T21:34:25.317" LastActivityDate="2019-07-31T21:34:25.317" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23707" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23634" CreationDate="2019-07-31T21:25:02.617" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The eegkit package for R is a good and open source toolkit for data analysis. It is easy to use and you can get really cool plots. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14800" LastActivityDate="2019-07-31T21:25:02.617" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23708" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23704" CreationDate="2019-07-31T21:48:13.637" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As Bryan indicates, this question is hardly answerable in the context of science. However, I can take a bash at it;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can anyone explain what she means by this? Isn't the melancholic, in the last analysis, the same as the depressed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, melancholy is more of a 'normal' emotional state, whereas depression is a debilitating mental illness associated with morbid symptoms and higher chances of suicide.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to that other passage, I reckon that's really a biased, opinion-fueled statement with no relation whatsoever in science. To cite a part of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Kristeva&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki page on her&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Her [...] work includes [...] intertextuality, the semiotic, and abjection, in the fields of linguistics, literary theory and criticism, psychoanalysis, biography and autobiography, political and cultural analysis, art and art history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These areas of expertise are quite far from science. Psychoanalysis comes closest, but even that is disputed in terms of not being embedded in evidence-based science.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-08-01T18:51:07.093" LastActivityDate="2019-08-01T18:51:07.093" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23709" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23712" CreationDate="2019-08-01T10:09:26.833" Score="2" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;A mathematician on the MathOverflow, Hans-Peter Stricker, recently(2016) &lt;a href=&quot;https://mathoverflow.net/questions/255855/human-brains-considered-as-directed-graphs&quot;&gt;considered the possibility that human brains may be modelled as directed graphs with neurons as nodes and synapses as edges&lt;/a&gt;. I think this makes sense as neurons are &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/15272/are-there-bidirectional-neurons&quot;&gt;mostly unidirectional&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, what I am curious about is whether there are ever errors in the developmental process such that there are 'collisions' between two neurons. I can imagine this occurring in two ways:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it possible for dendrites to connect to other dendrites?   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alternatively, can axon terminals connect to other axon terminals?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, are there publications that estimate the natural frequency of such errors in a human brain? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Edward T. Bullmore and Danielle S. Bassett. Brain Graphs: Graphical Models of the Human Brain Connectome. 2011. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Danielle S. Bassett and Edward T. Bullmore. Small-World Brain Networks Revisited. 2017. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorDisplayName="user3503" LastEditDate="2019-08-01T13:25:55.750" LastActivityDate="2019-08-01T16:33:54.597" Title="Modelling the Human Brain as a directed graph" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23124" CreationDate="2019-08-01T15:22:53.053" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not a circular question. In fact, using fMRI to create targets is useful to determine TMS targets outside of the motor cortex or visual cortex. See the study here that used fMRI during a task to generate TMS targets, and then applied theta burst stimulation to those targets: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pnas.org/content/113/21/6059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.pnas.org/content/113/21/6059&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BOLD contrasts are very useful when using TMS to target sites outside of motor cortex, visual cortex and frontal eye field, where TMS can be validated functionally using motor evoked potentials (MEPs), phosphenes or saccadic eye movements, respectively. Brainsight TMS Navigation enables BOLD contrasts (or peak MNI co-ordinates derived from BOLD contrasts) to be entered as targets for TMS.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9380" LastActivityDate="2019-08-01T15:22:53.053" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23712" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23709" CreationDate="2019-08-01T16:23:55.757" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Axo-axonic synapses and dendrodendritic synapses exist, and are not errors. They are particularly common in invertebrate nervous systems but are also found between particular cells in mammalian brains. I would say they are relatively understudied but not ignored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;True errors of the type you describe seem extremely unlikely to me. Synapses do not simply impinge on other fibers, there is extensive pre- and post-synaptic machinery, and bidirectional communication is necessary for proper synaptogenesis. Synapses are held together by connective proteins that are anchored in each membrane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in terms of thinking of the brain as a &quot;directed graph&quot; one need not consider these uncommon synapses to have bidirectional connectivity: it is entirely possible, if not common, for cells to make traditional axon-dendrite synapses on another neuron that makes a reciprocal axon-dendrite synapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Graph theoretical approaches to understanding the brain are quite common, however, and certainly did not arise on StackExchange in 2016, as your own references make clear. There is no need for a directed graph to only have connections in a single direction, either. Any connectivity matrix can be interpreted in terms of graph theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Haydon, P. G., &amp;amp; Drapeau, P. (1995). From contact to connection: early events during synaptogenesis. Trends in neurosciences, 18(4), 196-201.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kawaguchi, Y., &amp;amp; Kubota, Y. (1997). GABAergic cell subtypes and their synaptic connections in rat frontal cortex. Cerebral cortex (New York, NY: 1991), 7(6), 476-486.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pinault, D., Smith, Y., &amp;amp; Deschênes, M. (1997). Dendrodendritic and axoaxonic synapses in the thalamic reticular nucleus of the adult rat. Journal of Neuroscience, 17(9), 3215-3233.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somogyi, P. (1977). A specific ‘axo-axonal’interneuron in the visual cortex of the rat. Brain Res, 136(2), 345-350.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-08-01T16:33:54.597" LastActivityDate="2019-08-01T16:33:54.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23713" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3420" CreationDate="2019-08-01T17:30:02.777" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a clear answer in terms of the biblical model of psychology: they are exact opposites. There is body, soul, and spirit. Picture the soul as a garden, where experiences, thoughts and habits are planted and cultivated. The spirit is the gardener. &#xA;In hypnotism, the spirit or gardener is put to sleep so someone else can temporarily come into the garden and plant seeds, dig up plants, etc. In meditation, the soul is put to sleep so the spirit can do some gardening. &#xA;Most people are in a hypnotic state most of the time though, meaning their gardener is asleep on the job, so meditation serves to wake up the gardener. &#xA;So it comes to the give a man a fish/teach him to fish metaphor. Hypnotism is getting a fish (or maybe a snake) and meditation is learning to fish. &#xA;Also for closure in the garden metaphor, the body and external circumstances are the harvest from your garden. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23778" LastActivityDate="2019-08-01T17:30:02.777" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23719" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19853" CreationDate="2019-08-02T20:34:17.520" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ebbinghouse indeed only &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tested on himself&lt;/a&gt;, limiting the generalization of his findings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question is a really good one; given the time of his writing, the now so familiar structure of a standard journal paper (Abstract, Introduction, M&amp;amp;M, Results, Discussion) is not present in his monograph. However, tucked away in the text on p. 51 of 100 in &lt;a href=&quot;http://nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/~jose/courses/578_mem_learn/2012/readings/Ebbinghaus_1885.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this pdf version&lt;/a&gt; of his book he describes the following: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The investigations in question fell in the year 1879-80 and comprised 163 double tests.&#xA;  Each double test consisted in learning eight series of 13 syllables each [...] and then in relearning them after a definite time. The learning was continued until&#xA;  two errorless recitations of the series in question were possible. The relearning was&#xA;  carried to the same point; it occurred at one of the following times, -- namely, after about&#xA;  one third of an hour, after 1 hour, after 9 hours, one day, two days, six days, or 31 days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand, hence, he learned a sequence of syllables and then he basically tried to re-learn those sequences after a series of fixed times and see how his scores were the second time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-08-02T22:48:27.937" LastActivityDate="2019-08-02T22:48:27.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23720" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23702" CreationDate="2019-08-02T22:03:03.057" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The difference is that these days&#xA;- it is known that plasticity (mainly) occurs in the synaptic connections,&#xA;- the biophysical changes that implement the plasticity are known.&#xA;- this knowledge allows manipulating and blocking of memory formation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance in the 60s is was still thought that memory was stored in DNA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23787" LastActivityDate="2019-08-02T22:03:03.057" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23722" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23690" CreationDate="2019-08-03T19:29:04.257" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I disagree with the other answers, to an extent. Biological signals are generally created by ion passing through a cell membrane. Each of these ions cause a tiny current/magnetic field which is too small to measure in most cases. Each cell action potential is made up of hundreds (???) of ions passing through the membrane at a variety of positions. Most measures of biological signals measure potentials from many cells. These cells are distributed in a non homogeneous extracellular matrix. At the limit the biological signals are discrete and made up of individual ions, but by the time we measure them, they are so mixed up that they are continuous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1107" LastActivityDate="2019-08-03T19:29:04.257" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23724" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23681" CreationDate="2019-08-03T19:45:11.347" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly, I think you’re thinking too much tbh. But still, I would totally answer this question- I think both are good approaches. But at different period of time. Suppose it’s after a month. So for the first 20 days you work on different time period. It’s better you work longer- what I mean is you start by giving one sample test in one hour then take a 15 minutes break. Then again you do it for 3-4 hours. Take a good nap for 1-2 hours. Then again do it. &#xA;In the last 10 days. You practise hard at 12PM  for sure. But you also practise in the remaining time. Because you need the brain to work. Simple example- if a car is switched off for 30 days it will take time to start. But if it switched off 39 minutes back it will start asap. Think about it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope it helps. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23791" LastActivityDate="2019-08-03T19:45:11.347" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23725" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23726" CreationDate="2019-08-03T22:07:18.367" Score="0" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;To calculate percent change the formula is: &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\frac{Amount \, ofchanges} {Original \, amount}100=\frac{New−Old}{Old}100$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;because we want to see how it changes compared to where it was before, now if there is no changes the percent changes must be zero. I am a student in neuroscience field, we always measure biophysical signals change (in our field we call it normalized signals, for example the signal that define the amount of blood in cerebral area), but these signals are always start from 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is normalized value and the percent change are the same, and why start from 1 and not 0?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18550" LastActivityDate="2019-08-03T23:11:53.503" Title="Percent change of a biophysical signal" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23726" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23725" CreationDate="2019-08-03T23:11:53.503" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Normalized values usually refer to a ratio, which is not the same as percent change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Percent change is usually bad because increases and decreases aren't the same:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;40 to 60 is a 50% increase. 60 to 40 is a 33% decrease. A 50% decrease from 60 would be 30. It gets especially complicated and unwieldy if you have multiple contributing factors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, I recommend taking logarithms and using differences between logarithms: then &quot;0&quot; means no change. Alternatively you can use ratios, which are the same as subtracting logarithms, but then you interpret no change as &quot;1&quot; because it's a ratio; x/x = 1, not zero. Logarithms are great because different additive factors act on the outcome as a product, but you can use linear statistics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-08-03T23:11:53.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23728" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12988" CreationDate="2019-08-04T14:06:24.793" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Nighres project has released some 7T MRI datasets and tools to run them. You can read the paper on the tools &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/gigascience/giy082&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, and download the datasets from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nitrc.org/frs/?group_id=1205&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NITRC here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23798" LastActivityDate="2019-08-04T14:06:24.793" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23729" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-04T14:17:21.727" Score="3" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bowlby's attachment talks about the primary caregiver, it does not specify mother or father, even though it is mostly the mother. I want to know more about the specific roles of the father and mother in the process of attachment. I've read some studies than mention some differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freeman &amp;amp; Brown(2001) examined attachment for adolescents, they used the Adolescent Separation Anxiety Test to evaluate this population, they found the mother is most often the primary source of attachment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Main &amp;amp; Cassidy (1988) found that the infant attachment was less predictive of the attachment style at six years of age for the father than for the mother.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the studies that talk about the differences between mother and father in attachment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freeman, H., &amp;amp; Brown, B. B. (2001). Primary attachment to parents and peers during adolescence: Differences by attachment style. Journal of Youth and Adolescence; New York, 30(6), 653–674. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1012200511045&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1012200511045&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Main, M., &amp;amp; Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of Response to Reunion With the Parent at Age 6: Predictable From Infant Attachment Classifications and Stable Over a 1-Month Period. Developmental Psychology, 24(3), 415–426. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.24.3.415&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.24.3.415&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastEditorUserId="23189" LastEditDate="2019-08-04T14:39:31.307" LastActivityDate="2019-08-04T14:39:31.307" Title="The differences in attachment between father and mother" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23730" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-04T21:33:47.550" Score="1" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my research project, besides sound and light therapies, I would like to experiment with rTMS (repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation) on volunteers. I wonder if this requires medical licensing? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23210" LastActivityDate="2019-09-04T02:00:45.070" Title="Does rTMS therapy require medical licensing?" Tags="&lt;tms&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23731" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23730" CreationDate="2019-08-05T01:55:40.887" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends on the country, but, for most of them (incl. USA and EU), you don't need a medical license to perform biomedical &lt;em&gt;research&lt;/em&gt;, including human experiments with TMS. However, you will need legal approval, such as certified research environment, ethics/IRB permission, etc. Also, one should delineate research and clinical trials, which are governed by a special set of rules and, most often, require medical environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15227" LastActivityDate="2019-08-05T01:55:40.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23732" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-05T08:29:01.980" Score="0" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was watching a video about one of the hardest maths problems even examined in the IMO (International Math Olympiad). And once I was walked through the solution, it seemed so obvious to me, as I'm sure it did for most people. It had a two step solution and was explained very intuitively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example of this is whenever I watch a movie and replay the story line in my head afterwards, it always feels that the story line is predictable. Almost as if I could write it myself. When in essence it's not doubt difficult and I couldn't never predict it's plot line without seeing the entire film.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given any outcome to an event (such the answer to a mathematical problem or the plot of a movie (or anything really), why do we feel as if it was so obvious?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Besides the throw-away answer of 'cockiness or 'arrogance', is there a physiological phenomenon for this sense of confidence/ know-how one may experience after being told the solution/end to something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23807" LastActivityDate="2019-08-05T09:46:29.273" Title="Why do solutions to problems feel simple (or obvious) once we are given them?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23734" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23732" CreationDate="2019-08-05T09:46:29.273" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The closest one that comes to mind is called the &lt;code&gt;Hindsight Bias&lt;/code&gt;. Basically this means that things seem to be &quot;more obvious&quot; than it actually is--usually after the event had just happened. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Definition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;Hindsight bias is a term used in psychology to explain the tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted. In essence, the hindsight bias is sort of like saying &quot;I knew it!&quot; when an outcome (either expected or unexpected) occurs - and the belief that one actually predicted it correctly.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually coming up with the idea is difficult, for instance solving a math problem. The challenge is finding the right mental model to approach the problem, but once the solution or approach is presented to you, it may be easy to accomplish and you'd feel it was obvious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or it could be really just that predictable or that you're natural/good at the subject (e.g. Math) to begin with and it is easy for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23808" LastActivityDate="2019-08-05T09:46:29.273" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23735" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-05T13:29:04.120" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/search/journal/psychology?query=expertise&amp;amp;tab=top-results&amp;amp;origin=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.frontiersin.org%2Fjournals%2Fpsychology%23&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a search&lt;/a&gt; on &lt;em&gt;Frontiers in Psychology&lt;/em&gt; shows, there a different articles and research topics about the topic of being an expert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is there any literature or research about the effects of being an expertise on the mental health of a person or the state of self-actualization ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23810" LastActivityDate="2019-08-05T13:29:04.120" Title="Effects of expertise on mental condition?" Tags="&lt;health-psychology&gt;&lt;self&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23737" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-05T14:42:25.640" Score="0" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there is some research that IQ is inherited, but is it inherited more from the father, or mother, or both?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23813" LastActivityDate="2019-08-06T05:07:44.833" Title="if IQ is inherited, is it from father or mother?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23738" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-05T14:54:05.167" Score="5" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;While I'm studying(or doing anything in my life), my brain wanders around(daydreams, stresses, remembers unpleasant memories and thinks negatively about the future) so I notice that and then bring it back to focus again in studying. Isn't that the same thing as mindfulness meditation? in both things, we focus on or attend to something and when the brain wanders around, we bring it back.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I read articles before &lt;a href=&quot;https://focusingresources.com/2014/03/12/focusing-tip-417-difference-focusing-mindfulness-meditation/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.truelittlemonk.com/content/1021&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;  that say the difference is that in mindfulness, you let things(that you attended to) go after you finish without thinking about it again.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Does that mean that I can call studying a mindfulness meditation if I stopped thinking about it after finishing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23811" LastEditorUserId="23811" LastEditDate="2019-08-05T15:48:48.660" LastActivityDate="2020-11-13T16:49:41.713" Title="what is the difference between mindfulness meditations and focusing on other things?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;mindfulness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23739" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-05T16:26:27.293" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand the effect of a consumer's motivation for and expectation of a product on placebo effects as mediators of a condition in a marketing context.&#xA;In the experiment, I am not sure if I should consider motivation and expectation as parallel or serial mediators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the one hand, from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vroom's &quot;Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy&quot; model&lt;/a&gt;, there is a relationship between motivation and expectation, but does a relationship like this automatically imply that the mediators are serial?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am also unsure if Vroom's theory can be applied in the first place to product marketing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23815" LastEditorUserId="23815" LastEditDate="2019-08-05T19:08:43.877" LastActivityDate="2019-08-05T19:08:43.877" Title="In an experiment where motivation and expectation are mediators, are they considered parellel or serial?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23741" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-06T03:58:50.883" Score="0" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;First off, I want to say that I read several related questions about IQ and fluid intelligence here on Stack Community and I need some further clarifications about domain expertise. A few months ago I took Mensa IQ test from  its local representative office in my homeland, I wasn't able to make it to the top 2% and gain membership, however, my official overall score was estimated to be 126. Ever since then, I became obsessed with the idea of improving my IQ. I did a research but as I was reading and reading I came to a conclusion that it is virtually impossible to increase one's score, it is, basically, fixed. People on the forum have mentioned couple of times that, although, IQ is fixed and can't be improved by, say, practicing brain games and logical puzzles, one can improve his/her abilities in certain domain and gain expertise by deliberate practice, which, the way I see it, means it is possible to increase your IQ in a particular area. I want to know if mathematics could be regarded as such area and if it does, what are the most efficient techniques to develop it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23819" LastEditorUserId="23819" LastEditDate="2019-08-06T19:41:43.947" LastActivityDate="2019-08-06T19:41:43.947" Title="How to improve domain expertise in mathematics?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23742" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23737" CreationDate="2019-08-06T05:07:44.833" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both.  The Independent article used a blog post as its main source.  The blog post (which is no longer online) claimed to rely on a doc (scientific document) that &lt;strong&gt;actually&lt;/strong&gt; hardly supports its main assertion.  What that doc &lt;strong&gt;actually&lt;/strong&gt; found was that there are 41 genes on the X chromosome associated with mental retardation, and none on the Y chromosome, and many (but well under 41) such genes on each of the other 22 chromosomes.  These autosomes had a total of 180 such genes.  (&lt;a href=&quot;https://sci-hub.tw/10.1016/S0168-9525(01)02446-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;My source&lt;/a&gt; for the doc)  The doc then goes on to make a bunch of conclusions based on &quot;assuming that these [41] genes are responsible for the development of general intelligence or cognitive abilities (‘g’ according to Plomin)&quot;, but this is a totally unwarranted assumption in my view.  Oh, and the doc is in the Opinion section, so it's probably NOT peer-reviewed, which is why I call it a &lt;strong&gt;doc&lt;/strong&gt; rather than a paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8283" LastActivityDate="2019-08-06T05:07:44.833" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23743" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-06T05:21:08.727" Score="4" ViewCount="225" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do you know about &lt;strong&gt;synchronicity theory&lt;/strong&gt; (Carl Jung) and what scientific work has been done and is it proven? (what common references)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible that it could be related to the &lt;strong&gt;collective subconscious&lt;/strong&gt; if it is real? (Scientific  common references)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20869" LastActivityDate="2019-08-07T15:15:36.780" Title="Is Carl Jung synchronicity scientific theory?" Tags="&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23744" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23743" CreationDate="2019-08-06T06:02:30.760" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Synchronicity is an interesting philosophical idea; unfortunately there is no evidence that it actually exists.  Therefore, there are some people who consider Jung's theory to be pseudoscientific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Robert Todd Carroll, in his book &amp;quot;The Skeptics Dictionary,&amp;quot; notes that &amp;quot;even if there were a synchronicity between the mind and the world such that certain coincidences resonate with transcendental truth, there would still be the problem of figuring out those truths. What guide could one possibly use to determine the correctness of an interpretation?&amp;quot; There is no scientific or objective way to determine whether synchronicity is valid or not; it's all subjective personal opinion and experience and flexible definitions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can read more on this on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/43105-synchronicity-definition-meaning.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this LiveScience webpage&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also commented on synchronicity within an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.whatstheproblem.co.uk/articles/psychology/pseudoscience-in-psychology/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article I wrote in May&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of Jung’s theories are considered to be pseudoscience. One example is synchronicity, his idea that meaningful connections in the world manifest through coincidence with no apparent causal link. This is what Jung referred to as the acausal connecting principle (&lt;a href=&quot;https://skepticalinquirer.org/newsletter/visitations_after-death_contacts/?/sb/show/visitations_after-death_contacts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nickell, 2002&lt;/a&gt;). This is because these ideas culminated from his ideas about the paranormal. Despite his own experiments failing to confirm the phenomenon (Shermer &amp;amp; Linse, 2002) he held on to the idea as an explanation for apparent ESP (Jung, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jung, C. G. (2013). Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle. London: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nickell, J. (2002). “Visitations”: After-Death Contacts. Skeptical Inquirer 12(3) Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://skepticalinquirer.org/newsletter/visitations_after-death_contacts/?/sb/show/visitations_after-death_contacts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://skepticalinquirer.org/newsletter/visitations_after-death_contacts/?/sb/show/visitations_after-death_contacts&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shermer, M. &amp;amp; Linse, P. (2002). The skeptic encyclopedia of pseudoscience (Vol. 1). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-06T06:02:30.760" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23745" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23738" CreationDate="2019-08-06T07:48:16.440" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is question I've been asking myself as well in my experience with mindfulness meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meditation is not manipulating experience, it is simple noticing it. Furthermore it focuses on sensory experience which seems to be inversely correlated with our narrative experience(Farb et al., 2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being focused on studying involves planning and invariably it adds a narrative feature to our experience. Mindfulness increase grey matter in areas associated with executive control(Hölzel et al., 2011), hence we can hypothesize mindfulness is good for more effective studying. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There might some type of false placebo effect in studies reporting increased focus due to meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Farb, N. A. S., Segal, Z. V., Mayberg, H., Bean, J., McKeon, D., Fatima, Z., &amp;amp; Anderson, A. K. (2007). Attending to the present: Mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2(4), 313–322. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsm030&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsm030&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hölzel, B. K., Carmody, J., Vangel, M., Congleton, C., Yerramsetti, S. M., Gard, T., &amp;amp; Lazar, S. W. (2011). Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry Research, 191(1), 36–43. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastActivityDate="2019-08-06T07:48:16.440" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23746" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-06T12:27:49.513" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently working on immersion and how it can be quantified. One of the problems I have run into is how to determine which scale to use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have performed a literature review but have not obtained any insight. Since I do not know if immersion is a binary or graded experience, how should I decide on which scale to use? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can I use an interval scale and then obtain nominal values from that? If yes, which methods are available? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I highly appreciate your help!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23823" LastActivityDate="2020-01-05T22:01:20.163" Title="How to determine which scale to use: Nominal vs Interval?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23748" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-06T20:32:13.163" Score="0" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lets assume a case of free recall tests that 10 words are presented &lt;strong&gt;at the same time&lt;/strong&gt;&quot; and subjects are asked to recall them later. The words are presented in two different conditions (A and B). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If subjects recall a specific word &lt;strong&gt;earlier&lt;/strong&gt; in A condition than B condition, what does it mean? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we say something with recall order? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23294" LastActivityDate="2019-08-06T20:32:13.163" Title="If people recall a specific word earlier among 10 words in free recall, what does it mean?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23749" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-06T23:12:21.977" Score="5" ViewCount="982" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand better the influence of psychological biases on the financial market decision-making process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindsight_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; describes hindsight as follow:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Refers to the common tendency for people to perceive events that have already occurred as having been more predictable than they actually were before the events took place. As a result, people often believe, after an event has occurred, that they would have predicted, or perhaps even would have known with a high degree of certainty, what the outcome of the event would have been before the event occurred. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the definition of confirmation bias according to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;same source&lt;/a&gt; is relatively similar:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that those biases differ from the results' reflection perspective. However, I'm a bit confused about the proper interpretation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20227" LastActivityDate="2019-08-08T19:00:53.533" Title="What is the difference between hindsight bias and confirmation bias?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23750" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23749" CreationDate="2019-08-07T02:53:34.907" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Those sources seem like they have the correct descriptions and they are definitely different, I'm not too sure how to say more than them but I'll try to rephrase. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For hindsight bias, you are looking at a current result of something that happened, and looking further backward and saying &quot;oh that was predictable&quot; or &quot;oh I would have guessed that&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Confirmation bias means that, for something you think is true today, you will more strongly recognize further evidence in favor of your opinion versus evidence against it in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-08-07T02:53:34.907" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23753" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23749" CreationDate="2019-08-07T06:55:24.047" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hindsight Bias&lt;/strong&gt; (Also known as the &amp;quot;knew-it-all-along phenomenon&amp;quot;), is the tendency when an individual assumes that he/she knew and predicted an outcome after the outcome has been determined (Hoffrage &amp;amp; Pohl, 2003). Due to that, it makes the individual believe that he/she could have predicted that outcome with statements such as: &amp;quot;I knew it all along&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;I knew it would happen&amp;quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210344000080&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hoffrage &amp;amp; Pohl, 2003&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hindsight bias functions in a way that after learning the outcome, it gives the individual a sense of predictability, a higher degree of certainty of the outcome without any prior knowledge. Having hindsight bias could potentially lead to people being overconfident on their ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, consider a student who is answering a test question and is uncertain whether he should answer A or B. The student eventually answer B. When the teacher mentioned the actual answer is B. The student's first thing that came into his mind after the answer is mentioned: &amp;quot;I knew the answer is B all along&amp;quot;. Making him feel confident about it despite the fact that he was uncertain about the answer during the initial stage on doing the test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Confirmation Bias&lt;/strong&gt; is the tendency for the individual to find and gather information that is more inclined and supports his/her beliefs (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nickerson, 1998&lt;/a&gt;). At the same time, ignoring the other possible alternatives of the information; making it biased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example, if a person strongly believes that playing games is harmful for children, he/she would find information/studies that supports the connotation that playing games is harmful. Without acknowledge or accept the fact there are also information/studies shown that it is beneficial for children to play games.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hoffrage, U., &amp;amp; Pohl, R. (2003). Research on hindsight bias: A rich past, a productive present, and a challenging future. &lt;em&gt;Memory&lt;/em&gt;, 11(4-5), 329–335. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;http://https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210344000080&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/09658210344000080&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. &lt;em&gt;Review of General Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, 2(2), 175–220. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23561" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-08T19:00:53.533" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23760" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23738" CreationDate="2019-08-07T18:40:15.070" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First,  mindfulness meditation is a practice that involves attention regulation and adopting a particular orientation toward one's experiences in the present moment [1]. Your example has largely described the first component—paying attention to the current moment. The second component has been described as relating to one's experience within an orientation of curiosity, experiential openness, and acceptance. The consequences of this component include cultivating a non-reactive and non-judgmental attitude [2].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, there are formal mindfulness practices like mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program [3], and &quot;informal&quot; mindfulness practices namely mindfulness of everyday activities (e.g., mindful eating, mindful walking), mindful reading, in your case. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, mindfulness meditation cultivates focused attention, and focused attention is part of the practices involved in mindfulness meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., ... &amp;amp; Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical psychology: Science and practice, 11(3), 230-241.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[2] Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., &amp;amp; Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27-45.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[3] Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain and illness. New York: Delacorte.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastActivityDate="2019-08-07T18:40:15.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23761" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-08T01:18:14.613" Score="1" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am just getting into watching psych lectures and things online and am taking notes but I have been wondering what the proper/standard way of writing in note form about standard deviations is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: GROUP-A is a third of a standard deviation higher in TRAIT than GROUP-B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a standardised way of representing that information with a kind of notation or shorthand in psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks! And sorry for the very basic question!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23841" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2020-02-18T01:42:11.900" LastActivityDate="2020-03-19T03:02:35.320" Title="What is the notation about group differences in terms standard deviations?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23762" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-08T06:38:11.333" Score="4" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can a trait like selfishness improve with therapy or other methods. Or is it fixed and can not be changed whatever you do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This article claims that it can be done, but I need more solid reasearch data :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vice.com/en_au/article/9kkeyd/can-a-psychologist-cure-my-worst-character-trait-unstoppable-selfishness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.vice.com/en_au/article/9kkeyd/can-a-psychologist-cure-my-worst-character-trait-unstoppable-selfishness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="6546" LastEditDate="2019-08-08T07:37:22.687" LastActivityDate="2019-08-10T11:04:47.093" Title="Can a trait like selfishness improve" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23763" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-08T06:48:43.740" Score="1" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;The impact of depression on memory and working memory has been discussed extensively in the thread below. &#xA;I can't seem to find information about rehabilitation and recovery of memory after depression. &#xA;Has there been any studies looking at memory improvement after depression? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/15810/what-effect-can-depression-have-on-memory&quot;&gt;What effect can depression have on memory?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2019-08-08T11:19:23.903" LastActivityDate="2019-08-08T11:19:23.903" Title="Recovery of memory especially working memory after depression" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23764" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23821" CreationDate="2019-08-08T07:14:13.240" Score="2" ViewCount="184" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does an individual going through a period of extreme anxiety, show increased levels of selfishness during that period ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When this period ends, does the individual returns back to normal levels of selfishness ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following extract is from this  &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/invisible-illness/anxiety-makes-you-selfish-f0488589bfd0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;, which describes the personal experience of a person with anxiety/depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When we’re anxious, we become lost in our own thoughts, waging a&#xA;  battle so distracting in its intensity that it makes it nearly&#xA;  impossible to notice the outside world. It’s not that we don’t care,&#xA;  but rather that we’re so distracted by our discomfort that it is only&#xA;  with great effort that we’re able to look out and truly see others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This somehow verifies my intuition, that extreme anxiety increases selfshiness. There is so much anxiety related activity in the head, that other aspects like other people, are neglected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is just a personal report though, I need more solid research data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6546" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-08-19T10:04:32.493" LastActivityDate="2019-08-19T10:04:32.493" Title="Does selfishness increase in periods of extreme anxiety" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23766" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21831" CreationDate="2019-08-08T18:09:32.717" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You have one p-values for each ROI timecourse (for the largest cluster) indicating whether your conditions are exchangeable. If you want to correct for the 4 ROIs you could use any adequate multiple comparison correction, from classical Bonferroni (which might be too conservative as the tests are likely not completly independent) to Benjamini-Hochberg style FDR correction (but applied to the cluster permutation test p-values).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This leaves us with the question which p-values count, one per ROI (the largest cluster, i.e. smallest p-value) or the p-values for all supra cluster-threshold clusters. I would think the former is more appropriate, as you already corrected for the multiple clusters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, for the Bonferroni correction you would multiply your p-values by 4, (or identically, divide your critical alpha by 4).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This solution is incomplete, as I do not know how to get corrected p-values for the second largest cluster with FDR or Holm-Bonferroni.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23856" LastActivityDate="2019-08-08T18:09:32.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23767" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21891" CreationDate="2019-08-08T19:09:34.497" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is possible to look at within-subject interactions using cluster permutation tests. &#xA;I.e. Eric Maris here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://mailman.science.ru.nl/pipermail/fieldtrip/2011-January/003447.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://mailman.science.ru.nl/pipermail/fieldtrip/2011-January/003447.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2x2x2 with factors A,B,C has 4 interactions AxB, AxC, BxC and AxBxC and 8 cells&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;+--------+-------------+-------------+&#xA;| C = 0  |    B = 0    |    B = 1    |&#xA;+--------+-------------+-------------+&#xA;| A = 0  | A0 B0 C0    | A0 B1 C0    |&#xA;| A = 1  | A1 B0 C0    | A1 B1 C0    |&#xA;+--------+-------------+-------------+&#xA;&#xA;+--------+-------------+-------------+&#xA;| C = 1  |    B = 0    |    B = 1    |&#xA;+--------+-------------+-------------+&#xA;| A = 0  | A0 B0 C1    |  A0 B1 C1   |&#xA;| A = 1  | A1 B0 C1    |  A1 B1 C1   |&#xA;+--------+-------------+-------------+&#xA;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2-way: You calculate the difference of differences at the average of missing factor:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$&#xA;interaction_{AB} = \frac{interaction_{AB_{c=0}}  + interaction_{AB_{c=1}}}{2}  = \frac{(A_0B_0C_0-A_1B_0C_0)- (A_0B_1C_0-A_1B_1C_0) + (A_0B_0C_1-A_1B_0C_1)- (A_0B_1C_1-A_1B_1C_1)}{2}&#xA;$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and for the three way interaction is the difference of interactions&#xA;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$&#xA;interaction_{AB_{c=1}} - interaction_{AB_{c=0}}&#xA;$$&lt;/span&gt;&#xA;(or any of the other pairs, same result)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wrote a small script that confirms this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&#xA;library(tidyverse)&#xA;library(&quot;ANOVApower&quot;)&#xA;&#xA;# simulate simple 2x2x2 design&#xA;design_result &amp;lt;- ANOVA_design(design = &quot;2w*2w*2w&quot;,&#xA;                              n = 10, &#xA;                              mu = c(1:8), &#xA;                              sd = 1.0, &#xA;                              labelnames = c(&quot;A&quot;,0,1,&quot;B&quot;,0,1,&quot;C&quot;,0,1))&#xA;&#xA;d = design_result&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$dataframe&#xA;contrasts(d$&lt;/span&gt;A) = c(-.5,.5)&#xA;contrasts(d&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$B) = c(-.5,.5)&#xA;contrasts(d$&lt;/span&gt;C) = c(-.5,.5)&#xA;&#xA;# Cool, the ANOVApower script already gives us a unique column for each cell&#xA;# we can forget about subject because everything is balanced :)&#xA;d_cell = d%&amp;gt;%group_by(cond) %&amp;gt;%&#xA;  summarise(y = mean(y))&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;d_interactions = d_cell %&amp;gt;% summarise(&#xA;                     AB_C0 = (y[cond=='A_0_B_0_C_0']-y[cond=='A_0_B_1_C_0']) - (y[cond=='A_1_B_0_C_0']-y[cond=='A_1_B_1_C_0']),&#xA;                     AB_C1 = (y[cond=='A_0_B_0_C_1']-y[cond=='A_0_B_1_C_1']) - (y[cond=='A_1_B_0_C_1']-y[cond=='A_1_B_1_C_1']),&#xA;                     AC_B0 = (y[cond=='A_0_B_0_C_0']-y[cond=='A_0_B_0_C_1']) - (y[cond=='A_1_B_0_C_0']-y[cond=='A_1_B_0_C_1']),&#xA;                     AC_B1 = (y[cond=='A_0_B_1_C_0']-y[cond=='A_0_B_1_C_1']) - (y[cond=='A_1_B_1_C_0']-y[cond=='A_1_B_1_C_1']),&#xA;                     CB_A0 = (y[cond=='A_0_B_0_C_0']-y[cond=='A_0_B_1_C_0']) - (y[cond=='A_0_B_0_C_1']-y[cond=='A_0_B_1_C_1']),&#xA;                     CB_A1 = (y[cond=='A_1_B_0_C_0']-y[cond=='A_1_B_1_C_0']) - (y[cond=='A_1_B_0_C_1']-y[cond=='A_1_B_1_C_1'])&#xA;)&#xA;&#xA;d_2way = d_interactions %&amp;gt;% summarise(AB = (AB_C0 + AB_C1)/2,&#xA;                             AC = (AC_B0 + AC_B1)/2,&#xA;                             BC = (CB_A0 + CB_A1)/2)&#xA;&#xA;&#xA;d_interactions&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$AB_C0 - d_interactions$&lt;/span&gt;AB_C1&#xA;d_interactions&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$AB_C1 - d_interactions$&lt;/span&gt;AB_C0&#xA;&#xA;# confirm with linear model results&#xA;lm(y~A*B*C,d)&#xA;&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which returns:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt; d_2way&#xA;# A tibble: 1 x 3&#xA;      AB     AC    BC&#xA;   &amp;lt;dbl&amp;gt;  &amp;lt;dbl&amp;gt; &amp;lt;dbl&amp;gt;&#xA;1 -0.683 -0.827 0.129&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt; d_interactions&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$AB_C1 - d_interactions$&lt;/span&gt;AB_C0&#xA;[1] 1.307831&#xA;&amp;gt; d_interactions&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$AB_C1 - d_interactions$&lt;/span&gt;AB_C0&#xA;[1] 1.307831&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt; lm(y~A*B*C,d)&#xA;&#xA;Call:&#xA;lm(formula = y ~ A * B * C, data = d)&#xA;&#xA;Coefficients:&#xA;(Intercept)           A1           B1           C1        A1:B1        A1:C1        B1:C1     A1:B1:C1  &#xA;     4.3853       3.8473       1.8056       1.1670      -0.6832      -0.8272       0.1288       1.3078  &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Identical results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what I would do&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23856" LastActivityDate="2019-08-08T19:09:34.497" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23768" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21831" CreationDate="2019-08-08T19:59:05.590" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I fully endorse Benedikt's answer. Further, you have to specify the question you are asking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say you want to know whether activity in a face recognition task differs between conditions in FFA, PPA, STS, and FEF and that the &lt;strong&gt;location&lt;/strong&gt; of the difference is what you want to know, then Bonferroni is the correction of choice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case you ask the question whether the activity in the brain differs &lt;strong&gt;somewhere&lt;/strong&gt;, but you do not care where specifically, then false discovery rate correction (FDR) is the method of choice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The former allows statements like it is FFA and not STS, the latter allows statements like the conditions lead to differential activity in a collection of areas, whose identity is not too certain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15886" LastActivityDate="2019-08-08T19:59:05.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23769" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23746" CreationDate="2019-08-08T20:16:00.330" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd recommend an ordinal scale. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A nominal scale just labels classes without a &amp;lt; or &gt; relation. Using this you would be limited to &quot;immersive&quot; and &quot;not immersive&quot; type of answers. This runs into the danger that experimental subjects might classify all your conditions as immersive or non-immersive respectively. That is, you might get little information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An ordinal scale is a set of ordered levels with a &amp;lt; or &gt; relation. A 5-point Likert scale like &quot;not immersive at all / a little immersive / moderately immersive / highly immersive/complete immersion&quot; would be an example. In case immersiveness is binary, it would show as all answers falling into only two levels of your scale. That is, you do not lose anything. As an experimental subject, I'd understand such instructions and a rating scale. This is what I'd take. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interval scale requires a quantitative comparison. For example, the difference between 350ms and 370ms reaction time is as large as between 200ms and 220ms. For immersiveness I do not know of such a scale. Therefore it does not seem an option for you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a further rational scale. But it is even more demanding. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A nice explanation of scales is on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mymarketresearchmethods.com/types-of-data-nominal-ordinal-interval-ratio/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mymarketresearchmethods.com/types-of-data-nominal-ordinal-interval-ratio/&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15886" LastActivityDate="2019-08-08T20:16:00.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23770" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-08T21:01:53.683" Score="4" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most studies I see compare firing rate with some observed variable (stimuli or behavior). However, they treat all spikes the same. But neurons sometimes release different neurotransmitters depending on the situation, meaning not all spikes are the same. Does this affect our interpretation of these studies? Are there models that account for this? Do spikes vary in any other way? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, knowing when a neuron is acting as excitatory versus inhibitory may vastly change our interpretation of it's role. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally this may become even more of an issue when we attempt to model or predict from multiple channels as we are potentially missing out on a crucial piece of information. Without that, do we even have the ability to fully understand the area?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a slightly different note: Are there other aspects of a neuron output that are important in it's computational role in the circuit? Why don't we take into account it's amplitude over-time for example?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My primary worry is that we are averaging away, or outright throwing away, a lot of information that which could be insightful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23865" LastActivityDate="2019-08-08T21:01:53.683" Title="The same neuron sometimes released different neurotransmitters, so how does this affect our interpretation of computational models?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;model&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23771" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12903" CreationDate="2019-08-08T23:49:13.417" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I myself have a long-standing fascination with the Enneagram system and believe it to be the most incisive and encyclopedic theories of human patterns I know.  So, yes, I would say there are correlations with career-choice (as with essentially all behavior).  I have one more specific comment about job-choice.  But first, I'd like to enumerate two important caveats that apply here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Career choices (like many other important human choices - marriage, politics, etc.) are highly conditioned on background, education, opportunities perceived to be available, etc. - therefore, it is naive to expect overwhelming simplistic correlations.  Type Five scientists?  Type Eight policemen?  Maybe - if one really investigated I suspect there would be evidence that the relative frequencies of these Type-job pairings exceed those expected based on frequencies of the Types in the population under study.  But they might not be that much higher - there's just too much variability in our various life paths....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Formal research on the Enneagram is hamstrung in general terms by the lack of a simple, easy objective measure of Enneagram type.  Yes, there are various (relatively) cheap-and-easy tests, available on-line and in book-form - but I don't think they are particularly accurate.  There's too much at stake psychologically when people are being asked self-report questions, and many of use &quot;game the system&quot; in favor of how we'd like to be seen (even if tend we claim otherwise).  This is based on 10+ years experience with hundreds of people coming through a public discussion-group I've run on the Enneagram.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe someday there'll be an Enneagram test based on brainawaves (or whatever).  Until then, I'd say, in our time, the better way to get into this system is to read a good book (any of the Risa and Hudson books are good places to start), and look and soberly deeply into yourself if you are so inclined.  Then, if you take an abiding interest in the topic, and want to get more involved, try and find an Enneagarm-educted community with sincere people who can help validate (or challenge) your self-assessment.  Once securely typed, you can really &lt;em&gt;know&lt;/em&gt; how deeply and uncannily this system works in our lives - and curiosities like how the system relates to career-choices may not actually seem as important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As mentioned above, I do have one more comment specifically on job-choice, however.  Based on my own typing skills I once did a survey of a group of 100+ individuals many of whom I know well (my high school class) and attempted to correlate career-choice with Enneagram type.  Interestingly, I found that the TYPE-WING actually seemed as strongly typed with career-fields chosen as the MAIN TYPE.  Possibly, as individuals who express their main type in so many aspects of our lives, we unconsciously choose career-fields that help express our less-fully-expressed aspects as described by our type-wing.  (Just a speculation.)  More caveats: (1) TYPE-WINGS may be harder to diagnose properly than the main type itself; (2) I have somewhat different beliefs about what these TYPE-WINGS are than the ones described in the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry for the long-winded answer, that's just the territory as I see it.  Please post any replies, and I will attempt to monitor this thread.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23869" LastActivityDate="2019-08-08T23:49:13.417" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23776" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-09T13:41:53.583" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am doing a Masters degree in Cognitive Neuroscience and was thinking on doing my master thesis on effective connectivity in Theory of Mind. I like the model-based approach of Dynamic Causal Modeling (DCM). I have been thinking about how to that analysis in a reproducible manner. I have been reading a lot recently about reproducible fMRI analysis methods, like using Nipype in a Docker container.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I am unsure about how I would be able to achieve the same kind of reproducibility when using SPM, in comparison to using Nipype and Docker, where I can document every step of the analysis in a Jupyter Notebook. Nipype only seems to have interfaces for preprocessing and first level analysis in SPM12, but not for any of the DCM functionality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also found a &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/JohnGriffiths/mne-dcm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Github repository&lt;/a&gt; where someone tried to port DCM to MNE-python, but the last commit was two years ago, so I don't think anything will come after that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does any of you have an idea how to address this? Any suggestions are welcome!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks a lot!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18756" LastActivityDate="2019-08-09T13:41:53.583" Title="Reproducible Dynamic Causal Modeling/ model based effective connectivity analysis for fMRI" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23777" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-09T14:08:54.210" Score="2" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I try to analyse my memory and cognition while learning coding and generally interacting with a computer to develop more meta cognition. I found many times that I remember the words and some associations regarding some procedure, but I do not really remember how to execute it. I will give an example from statistics. I was doing an Anova and the rule states that if the Mauchly's test is significant you should use Greenhouse Geiser adjustment, however if epsilon is greater than 0.75 you use a different adjustment. I have executed this rule a bunch of times, however when I run into it again the only thing I remember is Greenhouse Geisser and 0.75, I always have to check the relationship between them and what to do next. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My semantic memory keeps the information about the association of the two words. What is the term used for the memory of procedures to execute? I know about procedural memory, though that is defined as implicit so it does not encompassing this concrete example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This happens in many other situations as well with more difficult procedures or concepts, I remember the words and the associations to it, but for the actual procedure or concept I always have to look up again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-08-19T10:04:36.507" LastActivityDate="2019-08-19T10:04:36.507" Title="The relationship between semantic memory and concepts/procedures" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23787" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="169" CreationDate="2019-08-11T12:59:12.857" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;While many consider Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to be pseudoscientific, there is a paper which suggests there is empirical support for the theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow's hierarchy of basic human needs provides a major theoretical framework in nursing science. The purpose of this study was to empirically test Maslow's need theory, specifically at the levels of physiological and security needs, using a hologeistic comparative method. Thirty cultures taken from the 60 cultural units in the Health Relations Area Files (HRAF) Probability Sample were found to have data available for examining hypotheses about thermoregulatory (physiological) and protective (security) behaviors practiced prior to sleep onset. The findings demonstrate there is initial worldwide empirical evidence to support Maslow's need hierarchy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00012272-198610000-00008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Davis-Sharts, 1986&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Davis-Sharts, J. (1986). An empirical test of Maslow's theory of need hierarchy using hologeistic comparison by statistical sampling. &lt;em&gt;Advances in Nursing Science, 9&lt;/em&gt;(1), 58-72. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00012272-198610000-00008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1097/00012272-198610000-00008&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-11T12:59:12.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23791" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21891" CreationDate="2019-08-11T21:00:14.583" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This scenario is practically unsolvable. If one doesn't have any assumptions about when, where, and how the changes may occur, then for 24 subjects (typically in this business, with high inter-subject variance due to age, sex, etc.) x 64 channels (usually, with variable SnR) x 45 frequencies (each signal exists in the frequency space of 1 to 45 Hz, at least) x some_cognitive_states_or_tasks you have an insane number of alternatives. It will take equally insane statistical power (i.e., amount of evidence) to prove any effect. The expected effect size on the field of cognitive neuroscience is below Cohen d &amp;lt; 1 (see, 10.1371/journal.pbio.2000797), so even if you have it somewhere, it will not be statistically significant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15227" LastActivityDate="2019-08-11T21:00:14.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23794" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="643" CreationDate="2019-08-12T06:09:06.723" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not &quot;accepted&quot; science behind the meaning of dreams. From a physiological perspective , the role of sleeping (suspended neural activity ) in relation to cleaning the brain of toxic byproducts of daily activity is  undeniable (every open system, like a cell,  generates residue, entropy laws ),  but this does not explain the associated dreams and their meaning (if any). It might have something to do with the perception of time, in other words,  consolidating the information extracted from past experiences and successfully managing/predicting decision making in future challenges (which is essential for survival from an evolutionary perspective) might explain this phenomenon.  In deep learning (and big data science) the training of a neural network is an essential process (and it takes time).  The brain trains itself  on past experiences,  in order to better manage/handle future challenges.  That's what the brain does when you sleep. It's all about training the neural network,  in order to be more efficient when faced with future challenges.  So I would not put too much weight on the &quot;meaning &quot; of dreams,  there isn't any.&#xA; And I suspect that this training that the brain performs  is more advanced than the standard neural network training required in pattern recognition..  The brain performs training in simulated scenarios,  this is dynamic training. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23918" LastEditorUserId="23918" LastEditDate="2019-08-12T06:25:56.293" LastActivityDate="2019-08-12T06:25:56.293" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23795" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-12T07:07:27.620" Score="2" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to segregate different components of verbal working memory and visuospatial working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to assess verbal working memory I am using an auditory version of n-back task with a load levels ranging from 1 to 2. The task requires the participant to respond when they here the same consonant one after the other (1-back condition) or when they hear the same consonant at an interval of another consonant (2-back condition)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to assess visuopatial working memory I am using a spatial n-back task. The memory load ranges from 1 to 2.  A set of cards are shown to the subjects sequentially, each card has a small back color dot on a white background. The position of the dot changes from card-to-card. The subject has to respond when they saw the dot appearing on the same location in comparison to the previous card (1-back condition) or after an interval of one card (2-back condition).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure whether it can segregate the components of verbal and visuospatial working memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an article that might give me a clue as what component is tapped in the 1 n-back load level and 2 n-back load level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&#xA;Vatsal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23919" LastActivityDate="2019-08-12T07:07:27.620" Title="Is it possible to segregate components of verbal and visuospatial working memory using n-back paradigm?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23796" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-12T16:04:21.840" Score="0" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the things human's do (and possibly other animals) is consider various options, imagine what they would be like, and then make a choice. This is called a &quot;tree search&quot;. For example, &quot;should I take the job offer A or B&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, I wonder if this abstract decision making, may have evolved from food finding. And what is the smallest animal that does this sort of thing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, imagine a small monkey or squirrel climbing a tree. When it gets to a branch it has a choice of taking the left branch or the right branch. It has to guess which branch is likely to lead to the best crop of fruit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once it has got fruit from one branch it may have to retrace its steps to get to the next branch. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I would suggest that this sort of &quot;tree search&quot; would probably have evolved in mammals brain before humans repurposed these brain pathways to do more abstract decision making involving language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am trying to think of other animals that this would apply to. For example a rabbit may have a choice between branching tunnels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A bear might have a choice of paths up a mountain and so on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rats are good maze finder so they must have this ability to make choices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder what other animals do this sort of thing? Rather than making a choice at random? It would have to be an animal at least as advanced enough to have a memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2019-08-13T12:08:54.940" Title="Could human decision making have evolved from food finding?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;free-will&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23797" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23796" CreationDate="2019-08-12T16:32:07.307" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt; is the simplest model organism whose nervous system has been studied extensively. &lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt; certainly makes decisions; I would feel pretty confident in saying that decision making is an ubiquitous feature in the nervous system of freely moving animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also non-controversial to consider more complex behaviors as having evolved from more simple ones (finding food/evading predation/mating). You can even reduce a lot of complex behaviors directly to those simple ones, and certainly neural mechanisms for grouping and distinguishing between different patterns (an essential component of language but also many other behaviors) are conserved across domains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is not correct to refer to all decision making as a tree search: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_traversal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a tree search is a particular family of algorithms&lt;/a&gt; and not what you describe. Even tree-like problems need not be solved with a tree search. Specifically, tree search is a computational algorithm that works well in the serial processing environment of computer science. Analogies between brains and computers often break down at the level of algorithms, because brains are massively parallel. That doesn't mean tree search-like algorithms are absent from the brain, but you should not take such a narrow view &lt;em&gt;a priori&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Christiansen, M. H., &amp;amp; Kirby, S. (2003). Language evolution: Consensus and controversies. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(7), 300-307.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Faumont, S., Lindsay, T. H., &amp;amp; Lockery, S. R. (2012). Neuronal microcircuits for decision making in C. elegans. Current opinion in neurobiology, 22(4), 580-591.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fitch, W. T. (2005). The evolution of language: a comparative review. Biology and philosophy, 20(2-3), 193-203.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-08-12T16:32:07.307" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23799" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23808" CreationDate="2019-08-12T17:17:35.040" Score="2" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Introduction:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 'Wiring optimization in the brain'(2000), Dmitri Chklovskii and Charles Stevens&#xA;analyse the dependence of the complexity of cortical circuits on the number of synapses per neuron using virtual perturbations. The authors clarify what they mean by a perturbation in their introduction: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To calculate the optimal wire fraction, we start with a real cortical region containing a fixed&#xA;  number of neurons, a mm cube, for example, and imagine perturbing it by adding or subtracting synapses and the axons and dendrites needed to support them. The rules for perturbing the cortical cube require that the existing circuit connections and function remain&#xA;  intact (except for what may have been removed in the perturbation), that no holes are created, and that all added (or subtracted) synapses are typical of those present; as wire volume&#xA;  is added, the volume of the cube of course increases.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Starting from a reasonable set of physiological relationships approximated as algebraic equations they derive a formula for &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\theta$&lt;/span&gt;, the ratio of the number of synapses per neuron in the perturbed cortex to that of the real cortex as a function of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\phi$&lt;/span&gt;, the volume fraction of the perturbed cortical region made up of wires(synapses + dendrites), and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\lambda$&lt;/span&gt;, a constant that multiplies the length of wire associated with each synapse: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;\begin{equation}&#xA;\theta(\phi) = \frac{1}{\lambda^5} \cdot \Big(\frac{1-\phi}{1-\phi_0}\Big)^{\frac{2}{3}} \cdot \frac{\phi}{\phi_0} \tag{1}&#xA;\end{equation}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the paper, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\lambda$&lt;/span&gt; is assumed to be equal to &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$1.0$&lt;/span&gt; and I must say that the authors explain the derivation clearly. It doesn't require more than highschool algebra and each assumption is carefully justified. By calculating &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\frac{d\theta}{d\phi}$&lt;/span&gt; you may then find that ,if &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\lambda =1$&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\theta$&lt;/span&gt; is maximal when &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\phi = 0.6$&lt;/span&gt;. This much makes sense to me but the authors then try to rationalise this value in a manner that appears to lack careful justification: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Why does complexity reach a maximum value at a particular wire fraction? When wire and&#xA;  synapses are added, a series of consequences can lead to a runaway situation we call the&#xA;  wiring catastrophe...At this point(phi=0.6), adding wire becomes impossible without decreasing complexity or making&#xA;  other changes - like decreasing axon diameters - that alter cortical function. The physical&#xA;  cause of the catastrophe is a slow growth of conduction velocity and dendritic cable length&#xA;  with diameter combined with the requirement that the conduction times between synapses&#xA;  (and dendrite cable lengths) be unchanged in the perturbed cortex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Question:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The kind of justification that appears necessary to me concerns data on brain development. I understand that significant synaptic pruning occurs during adolescence so &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\theta$&lt;/span&gt; should vary and I think this poses a significant challenge to the account given by Chklovskii and Stevens. More precisely, this variation isn't accounted for by variations in &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\phi$&lt;/span&gt; in their model so I have doubts concerning the temporal and causal validity of their model.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To quantify the variation in &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\theta$&lt;/span&gt; we may use numbers from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cs.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/deborah_sandoval.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;'Synaptic Pruning Mechanisms in Learning'&lt;/a&gt; by Deborah Sandoval:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;At infancy, each neuron averages around 2,500 synapses and at the peak&#xA;  of exuberant synaptogenesis (around 2-3 years of age) the number&#xA;  increases to around 15,000 (The University of Maine, 2001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I must add that I have spent some time googling 'Wiring Catastrophe' but this doesn't return anything besides the original paper by D. Chklovskii and C. Stevens. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These observations lead me to the following questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If equation (1) is not an exact relationship, how can the extremization(i.e. differentiation) procedure be justified within the context of applied mathematics? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any biological evidence of runaway wiring catastrophes occurring in real brains? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Discussion:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clarify how synaptic pruning fits into the discussion we may associate a perturbation with a temporal variation in the number of synapses per neuron in the brain as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;\begin{equation}&#xA;\theta(i \rightarrow f) = \frac{\langle \text{synapses}_{t=f}/\text{neuron}_{t=f} \rangle}{\langle \text{synapses}_{t=i}/\text{neuron}_{t=i} \rangle} \approx \frac{\sum \text{synapses}_{t=f}}{\sum \text{synapses}_{t=i}} \tag{2}&#xA;\end{equation}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;since the number of neurons in the brain is approximately constant. My argument is essentially that significant variations in &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\theta$&lt;/span&gt; aren't explained by the variations in &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\phi$&lt;/span&gt; which stands in contrast to the authors' assertion in their introduction that &lt;em&gt;the relation between relative complexity &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\theta$&lt;/span&gt; and wire volume fraction &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\phi$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt; is given by equation (1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Addendum:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just received a pretty comprehensive reply from Charles Stevens via email. In particular, he advised me to read the final version of their paper: &lt;em&gt;Chklovskii, D.M., Schikorski, T., and Stevens, C.F. (2002) Wiring optimization in cortical circuits. Neuron 34:341-&#xA;347.&lt;/em&gt; This is on my reading list for the day. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;D. Chklovskii, C. Stevens. Wiring optimization in the brain. NIPS. 2000.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gal Chechik ,Isaac Meilijson. Neuronal Regulation: A Mechanism For Synaptic Pruning&#xA;During Brain Maturation. 1999. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Deborah Sandoval. Synaptic Pruning Mechanisms in Learning. 2015. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorDisplayName="user3503" LastEditDate="2019-08-16T11:45:06.133" LastActivityDate="2019-08-16T11:45:06.133" Title="Understanding the 'Wiring Catastrophe'" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23803" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23796" CreationDate="2019-08-13T12:08:54.940" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Could human decision making have evolved from food finding?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; The answer is yes, it probably could. But the more probable answer is that decision making in humans and other animals has evolved to increase the survival chance of humans and those animals and of their species. To increase the survival chance certainly requires good decision making to find food, but it also requires good decision to avoid/evade danger, to find fit mates, to protect/raise their offspring, etc. Thus, decision making has evolved to do all these necessary activities, not only food findings, with the end, common goal of to increase the survival chance (of the animals and their species).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: What is the smallest animal that can do decision makings? … I wonder what other animals do this sort of thing? Rather than making a choice at random?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; Decision making in the advanced form like that exists in humans requires a nervous system with an integration center. The group of animals or Metazoans that have a nervous system is Eumetazoa, but only animals in the subgroup called Bilateria (which comprises many phyla) have an integration center (see the picture).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fpuuJ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fpuuJ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The integration center in the basal (more primitive) animals of each phylum is in the form of a nerve ring, a ganglion, or a group of ganglia; only in more advanced animals of each phylum is it in the form of the brain, which can be rudimentary or well developed (like those in mammals). [1-3]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the earliest animals that can make decisions are probably the basal animals in each phylum in Bilateria. C. elegans, which Bryan Krause mentioned in his answer, is one of these animals. It is a small, basal animal in phylum Nematoda (marked * in the picture). It has only a nerve ring connected with ganglia as an integration center. It probably can make only simple decisions and most likely without consciousness, which is different from us, human, because the structure of its integration center is too simple to create a complex function like consciousness. The earliest animals that probably can make discussions with some form of consciousness is arguably lampreys.[3] They are small, basal animals in the phylum Chordata (marked * in the picture), class Petromyzontida. [1,3]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it should be noted that decision makings have been existing in more primitive forms in other animals and other living organisms for a very long time before the brain emerged. These animals/organisms are animals that have a nervous system that is only a nerve net without the brain (e.g. jellyfish, hydras, sea anemones), animals that do not have a nervous system (sponges, Trichoplax), single-cell animals, and even plants, fungi, bacteria. All these living organisms have mechanisms (such as a nerve-net or certain cellular mechanisms) to detect information in the environment and in themselves, process the information, and make appropriate (non-random) responses without using the brain.[1-6] So, with these abilities, it can be considered that they, too, can do decision makings (but in the most primitive or most basic forms). If so, it can be considered that bacteria are the smallest organisms that can make decision makings (in the most primitive form).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Roth G &amp;amp; Dick K [Ref 1]: Nervous systems and brains have a dual function, i.e., the maintenance of inner “vital” functions of the organism and the control of behavior of that organism within a given environment. Unicellular organisms exert the same functions and exhibit remarkably complex behaviors, although they do not possess, by deﬁnition, a nervous system. Bacteria sense nutritive substances (e.g., sugar) or toxins (e.g., heavy metal) in their environments through a large number of chemoreceptors as well as obstacles through mechanoreceptors. This diverse information is integrated and, through a chain of complex chemical reactions, drives their ﬂagella for movement. &#xA;  … The bacterium has a mini-memory, by which it can compare the incoming information with previous information, and this “knowledge” determines the behavior. Thus, even in these most primitive organisms we ﬁnd the three basic components for adaptive control of behavior, i.e., a sensorium, a motorium and in between information storage and processing.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Roth G, Dicke U. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.co.th/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwi8mLLz0KTWAhXJOY8KHTNcD7MQFggnMAA&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fcda%2Fcontent%2Fdocument%2Fcda_downloaddocument%2F9783642107689-c1.pdf%3FSGWID%3D0-0-45-1404406-p174537886&amp;amp;usg=AFQjCNEP_Y0Wv_J0fF_haYNFzYbTn95w2A&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evolution of Nervous Systems and Brains.&lt;/a&gt;In: Galizia CG, Lledo P-M (eds.). Neurosciences - From Molecule to Behavior: A University Textbook. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2013:19-45. ISBN: 978-3-642-10768-9. DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-10769-6_2.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Jorgensen EM. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(14)00752-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Animal evolution: Looking for the first nervous system.&lt;/a&gt; Current biology. 2014 Jul;24(14):R655–R658. DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.06.036&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.06.036&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Feinberg TE, Mallatt J. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3790330/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The evolutionary and genetic origins of consciousness in the Cambrian Period over 500 million years ago.&lt;/a&gt; Front Psychol. 2013;4:667. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00667. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Renard E, Vacelet J, Gazave E, Lapébie P, Borchiellini C, Ereskovsky AV. &lt;a href=&quot;https://bio.spbu.ru/staff/pdf/Renard%20et_2009-NervSpon.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Origin of the neuro-sensory system: New and expected insights from sponges.&lt;/a&gt; Integr Zool. 2009 Sep;4(3):294-308. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-4877.2009.00167.x &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brenner ED, Stahlberg R, Mancuso S, Vivanco J, Baluska F, Van Volkenburgh E. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.howplantswork.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Plant_Neurobiology.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Plant neurobiology: An integrated view of plant signaling.&lt;/a&gt; Trends Plant Sci. 2006 Aug;11(8):413-419. DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2006.06.009. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Camilli A, Bassler BL. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776824/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bacterial small-molecule signaling pathways.&lt;/a&gt; Science. 2006 Feb 24;311(5764):1113-1116. DOI: 10.1126/science.1121357. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-08-13T12:08:54.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23807" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-14T16:17:44.960" Score="4" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my personal experience, typing my thoughts when I am working through creative problems seem to help. But it's subjective and would like to have some confirmation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Atkin in &quot;The Phenomenological Influence of Inner Speech on Executive&quot; shows that Thinking Out Loud can help in one problem-solving exercise. It seems that it was first noted by Newell and Simon in 1972 in their book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(this is also confirmed anecdotally in Rubber Duck Debugging in programming, which for some works while typing)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of literature connected to writing for learning, in school settings, so I am not sure if this works for creative problems or mostly for integrating knowledge. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also idea of &quot;freewriting&quot; by Peter Elbow which is something similar to what I mean, but it seems his research and articles that cite him focus on freewriting for writing fiction (I guess it's a bit similar).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding phrasing, I saw phrases used as inner speech writing and private writing, but it doesn't seem to return a lot of results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry if I am breaking any rules here, I am not a student of psychology just a hobbyist&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23948" LastActivityDate="2020-09-12T05:38:15.127" Title="Is there any research connected with typing/writing to help in creativity or focus?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23799" CreationDate="2019-08-14T17:34:23.737" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;The role of synaptic pruning and brain development:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an email I received from Charles Stevens of the Salk Institute, one of the co-authors, he explained that they were trying to make predictions about cortical structure and function in fully developed brains and that they weren't trying to model brain development. This answers my first question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt; Empirical observations of the 'Wiring Catastrophe':&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He also advised me to read the final version of his paper [2] which is a lot more thorough and contains a number of predictions based on three different thought experiments. Each thought experiment leads to a function whose extrema correspond to a scenario where the volume of axons and dendrites occupy approximately 60% of a cubic cortical region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of referring to a 'Wiring Catastrophe' the final paper simply focuses on the predictions of each thought experiment which are backed by the following observation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also measured the wire fraction from three mouse cortical regions and find that its actual value is not significantly different from the special value of 3/5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be precise, using an electron microscope they analysed cubic cortical regions from the Neocortex, Piriform cortex and Hippocampus of adult mice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I must add that the discussion section and experimental methods section contain very insightful caveats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;D. Chklovskii, C. Stevens. Wiring optimization in the brain. NIPS. 2000.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Chklovskii, D.M., Schikorski, T., and Stevens, C.F. (2002) Wiring optimization in cortical circuits. Neuron 34:341- 347&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-14T17:34:23.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23810" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19795" CreationDate="2019-08-14T22:37:30.363" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I hope I am qualified to answer this question. I am not a psychologist but have worked with transgender persons in volunteering positions a number of times and am fairly well researched on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The biggest key point as I have studied simply is based on health outcomes as opposed to comparing this to mental illness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://whatweknow.inequality.cornell.edu/topics/lgbt-equality/what-does-the-scholarly-research-say-about-the-well-being-of-transgender-people/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This page&lt;/a&gt; talks about the practical health outcomes of the treatments. Individuals who identify as transgender already often suffer from a variety of issues that reduce both their quality of life and in some cases health. These can include developing mental disorders if they do not get treatment and even self harm or suicide. Overall most of the linked studies in that article showed that the benefits largely outweighed the risks in an overall health decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you imply that other treatments are used for most conditions which have effects on mental health, usually either &quot;talking cures&quot; or medications. The difference being in almost all cases these treatments are ineffective or even make the situation worse in transgender individuals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I cannot find a study to link to this which is publicly available right now but in short, treating transgender individuals with treatments used for mental illness usually makes the condition worse. In many cases it causes additional depressive disorders to form as well as long term self image problems and self hatred, as well as increasing the risks of self harm or suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary, it is not to say the treatments used for transgender persons are risk free, but merely that they are better than the alternatives both of doing nothing and of trying to use a purely psychiatric method to treat. As both of those tend to make the condition gradually worse and no other treatments are known which produce a consistent improvement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23953" LastActivityDate="2019-08-14T22:37:30.363" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23811" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-15T07:00:41.167" Score="4" ViewCount="162" Body="&lt;p&gt;Procrastination seems universal and well understood by the public. However, there seems to be very little research into techniques and approaches that works to reduce and manage procrastination. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The previous aversion therapy thread cited a 2012 review that found minimal research into procrastination. It is 2019 now and I was wondering whether anyone knows of any recent research? - &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/18477/21&quot;&gt;Effectiveness of aversion therapy for procrastination&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thread will address procrastination in ADHD - &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/23813/treatment-and-strategies-for-procrastination-for-adhd&quot;&gt;Treatment and strategies for procrastination for ADHD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2019-08-15T07:51:20.663" LastActivityDate="2020-01-14T00:02:00.280" Title="What works for procrastination?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;procrastination&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23812" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16622" CreationDate="2019-08-15T07:13:22.010" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the studies that you were after have only recently been published earlier this year. 38 subjects with ADHD had fMRI scans and compared with a database. The study found that - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;More severe hyperactivity was associated with increased functional connectivity in the left putamen, right caudate nucleus, right central operculum and a portion of the right postcentral gyrus within the auditory/sensorimotor network.More severe hyperactivity was associated with increased functional connectivity in the left putamen, right caudate nucleus, right central operculum and a portion of the right postcentral gyrus within the auditory/sensorimotor network.&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-019-2031-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-019-2031-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-08-15T07:13:22.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23813" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-15T07:48:16.463" Score="8" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am keen to know what strategies and treatment approaches works best for procrastination for people with ADHD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People with ADHD seem to have a different level of complexity from the usual procrastination with neurotypical people. Another thread discussed how people with ADD/ADHD &quot;often heavily discount the importance of an event if it's sufficiently far away from the current time&quot;, which does not seem to occur as much with neurotypicals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ADHD research has increased recently and I was wondering whether there has been any evidence found to be effective with procrastination in this specific population as yet? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference between ADHD procrastination and usual procrastination was nicely discussed in this thread -&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/18477/21&quot;&gt;Effectiveness of aversion therapy for procrastination&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usual procrastination is addressed here - &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/23811/what-works-for-procrastination&quot;&gt;What works for procrastination&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2019-08-20T00:00:14.890" LastActivityDate="2021-02-19T15:02:58.113" Title="Treatment and strategies for procrastination for ADHD" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23814" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24113" CreationDate="2019-08-15T11:11:14.283" Score="1" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am designing an fMRI experiment whereby, for each trial, subjects need to listen to an auditory stimulus (of arbitrary duration), and subsequently give a rating for each stimulus. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I intend to compare the BOLD signal for the different conditions under which that stimulus is presented. Thus, the part (epoch) of the trial that is of interest for analyses (contrasts) is when the stimulus is presented. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: is there any reason (to do perhaps with MR physics or statistical analyses) whereby the duration of the epoch of interest (i.e. of the auditory stimuli) should be an &lt;em&gt;integer multiple&lt;/em&gt; of the TR, or can this really be arbitrary?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastActivityDate="2019-09-19T06:57:46.097" Title="Does the duration of the epoch of interest in fMRI need to be a multiple of TR?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23815" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23814" CreationDate="2019-08-15T16:46:01.077" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The biology underlying the BOLD response is much slower than typical TRs, so I would say on one hand it doesn't really matter because the TR interval is not the time scale that matters. On the other hand, if you are presenting stimuli of duration where the TR matters, those stimuli are occurring too quickly to be resolved separately using fMRI. You may be able to solve this problem by averaging over many stimulus presentations with orders in different combinations, but that may increase your scan time more than having space between epochs and requires independence assumptions that are likely to be inappropriate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, look at the structure of some auditory fMRI tasks and see how they are organized before designing your own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-08-15T16:46:01.077" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23819" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23777" CreationDate="2019-08-16T08:09:55.207" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are right, &lt;strong&gt;procedural memory&lt;/strong&gt; is defined as implicit. &lt;strong&gt;Semantic memory&lt;/strong&gt; on the other hand is part of &lt;em&gt;explicit memory&lt;/em&gt;. It includes &lt;strong&gt;declarative knowlegde&lt;/strong&gt; (knowledge of facts or ideas) that can be made conscious. As far as I know there is no particular relationship between the two but they will definitely interact during cognitive processes. For example, experts often possess declarative knowledge thas has been proceduralized, which means that the declarative knowlege is incorporated in automatic procedures without making strong demands on working memory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is believed that &lt;strong&gt;concepts&lt;/strong&gt; (&quot;a concept is a mental representation used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people into a category&quot;, see Woolfolk, Educational Psychology) are part of semantic memory and thus explicit memory. The term for &quot;memory of procedures to execute&quot; comes closes to two things that are part actually procedural memory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Scripts:&lt;/strong&gt; actions sequences or plans of action stored in memory. For example, we have scripts for ordering food at a certain type of restaurant.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Productions&lt;/strong&gt; (or condition-action rules): if A happens than B happens. If good behavior occurs than reinforce that behavior if you want it to occur again. Or if you want to ski faster than you automatically lean back.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order for the procedure to become more easy to execute or even automatic for you as an individual, you need to proceduralize your declarative knowledge. So explicit knowledge has to become implicit. These skills are often referred to &lt;strong&gt;automated basic skills&lt;/strong&gt;. For this to happen you will need to practice the skill a lot in a realistic context. However, not all skills can be come expert. Some skills such as driving can be automatic but you will still need to monitor the traffic consciously while driving, in other words you cannot do this automatically. Such a conscious procedure is called &lt;strong&gt;domain-specific strategy&lt;/strong&gt;. After reading your example, I think the skill your are referring to can become automatic, however you need to practice each individual procedure (how and when to do a certain statistical test) for it to become automated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know this might not entirely answer your question but I think the information is usefull nevertheless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference used: Educational Psychology by A. Woolfolk, Chapter 8.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23961" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-08-16T11:08:16.053" LastActivityDate="2019-08-16T11:08:16.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23820" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13232" CreationDate="2019-08-16T11:17:46.880" Score="2" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Caveats&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's some points to keep in mind when thinking about this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;While it is true that connections in cortex are reciprocal, this does not mean that they are symmetric. Cortical connectivity is quite elaborate and the neurons that send bottom-up signals to the next higher area are not necessarily the same neurons that receive the feedback. The forward signals seem to originate mostly from cortical layers 2/3 and 5, whereas the targets of feedback are primarily layers 1 and 6 (see for example Roelfsema &amp;amp; Holtmaat (2018) figure 2 and Shipp (2007)). On the other hand, an axon that terminates in layer 1 may be contacting dendrites of neurons with cell bodies in other layers, so the story is not that simple (see Larkum et al. (2018)).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The connections may not be monosynaptic. Many of the communication between cortical areas happens via the thalamus and other subcortical structures (see the same papers as in the last point).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Learning symmetric connections&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will ignore these two points for now and just assume that a set of neurons in a lower-level cortical area (for example, V1) and a set of neurons in a higher-level cortical area (let's say V2) have reciprocal, monosynaptic connections. So how can a neuron &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$y_j$&lt;/span&gt; in V2 ensure that its feedback to V1 generates roughly the pattern that excited &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$y_j$&lt;/span&gt; in the first place? One possibility is to use &lt;strong&gt;Hebbian learning&lt;/strong&gt;. Essentially, if synaptic strength &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w_{ji}$&lt;/span&gt; in the forward and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w_{ij}$&lt;/span&gt; in the feedback pathway both grow when &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x_i$&lt;/span&gt; in V1 and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$y_j$&lt;/span&gt; in V2 fire synchronously / with strong rates, the connections will tend to become symmetric over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Instar-outstar learning&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pure Hebbian learning (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Delta w_{ji} \propto x_i \cdot y_j$&lt;/span&gt;) tends to be unstable, so one needs to add a decay term to the weights. This way you arrive at instar-outstar learning (see for example Grossberg (2013), section 1.5), which has been used for exactly this purpose: learning appropriate connections between higher-level categories and lower-level inputs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The forward connection would perform &lt;strong&gt;instar learning&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Delta w_{ji} \propto y_j \cdot (x_i - w_{ji})$&lt;/span&gt;). This means that the weights of all synapses going into neuron &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$y_j$&lt;/span&gt; compete. Over time, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w_{ji}$&lt;/span&gt; will tend to the mean input vector &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\langle \mathbf{x} \rangle$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The feedback connection would perform &lt;strong&gt;outstar learning&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Delta w_{ji} \propto x_i \cdot (y_j - w_{ji})$&lt;/span&gt;). This means that the weights of all synapses going out of neuron &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$y_j$&lt;/span&gt; are in competition. Note that this may be difficult to implement in a biological neural network, since it means that synapses on different neurons &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x_i$&lt;/span&gt; have to compete with each other. Over time, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w_{ij}$&lt;/span&gt; will also tend to the mean output vector &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\langle \mathbf{x} \rangle$&lt;/span&gt;. Since the input of the forward connection is the output of the feedback connection are identical, the weight vectors should become symmetric.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Oja learning&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note however, that this means the weight matrices are transposes of each other, not inverses. Also, you would need to ensure that different neurons in V2 do not all learn the same pattern, for example by inhibitory connections between them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One way to overcome both of these problems is to use the &lt;strong&gt;Oja subspace rule&lt;/strong&gt; (see Oja (1992, 1997)): &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Delta \mathbf{W}_{ji} \propto (\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{W} \cdot \mathbf{y}) \cdot \mathbf{y}^T $&lt;/span&gt; This rule ensures that the weight matrix is orthogonal, so that the transpose will be an inverse. However, note that this involves some more competition between synapses on different neurons, so it is not biologically plausible. Note also that the weight vectors will now tend to principle components of the input patterns, not to mean values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Beyond the simple scenario&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These learning rules make it possible to learn symmetric connections in a very simple scenario, assuming directly connected, rate-based neurons. The proofs to show that instar-outstart approximates the mean and Oja's rule performs PCA also assume linear neurons, which is a further simplification. So coming back to the caveats above, in cortex the story is probably not so simple. Still, these principles (Hebbian learning with competition in both directions) may provide the basis for an explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, despite caveat 1 Hebbian learning may still be useful since neurons across all layers of a cortical column tend to respond to the same stimuli. So as long as the rates are similar enough, the connections could still learn to be somewhat symmetrical or at least to have the kind of concept unrolling function you have in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, while I only talked about rate-based networks, something similar may work for spiking networks as well (see Clopath et al (2010) for a spike-time dependent plasticity rule that can lead to the formation of reciprocal connections).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;TL;DR&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Connections in cortex may not be directly symmetrical. Making several simplifying assumptions, it is possible to learn symmetrical connections with variants of Hebbian learning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Clopath et al. (2010). Nature Neuroscience 13(3), 344-352. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2479&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grossberg (2013). Neural Networks 37, 1-47. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2012.09.017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Larkum et al. (2018). Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 12, 56. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnana.2018.00056/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oja (1992). Neural Networks 5(6), 927-935. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0893-6080(05)80089-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Oja (1997). Neurocomputing 17, 25-45. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-2312(97)00045-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Roelfsema &amp;amp; Holtmaat (2018). Nature Reviews Neuroscience 19(3), 166-180. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn.2018.6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Shipp (2007). Current Biology 17(12), R443-R449. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.03.044&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23198" LastActivityDate="2019-08-16T11:17:46.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23821" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23764" CreationDate="2019-08-16T11:50:54.290" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is hard to argue that anxiety makes you more &quot;selfish&quot;. Your definition of &quot;extreme periods anxiety&quot; is rather vague and hard to operationalize, same goes for selfishness in this context. The article you cited is not based on scientific literature but much rather a personal look on anxiety and selfishness. Therefore it is in no way conclusive evidence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anxiety is a natural body response to certain dangers. When anxiety becomes abnormal it can  be diagnosed as an Anxiety disorder (see DSM V for criteria for certain anxiety disorders). There has been a lot of research on General Anxiety Disorder (one of the anxiety disorders) and the worry-process. However, too my knowledge there are hardly any studies that describe individuals become more selfish. Like I said, this is also definition question. Certainly people with anxiety worry more and are more focused on the thoughts in their head. However, as far as I know there is no convincing evidence that people with strong anxiety do not care about others except for themselves. On the contrary some people with Anxiety disorders excessively call their loved ones to make sure that they are alright.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further reading: Butcher, Hooley and Mineka, Abnormal Psychology 16th Edition, Chapter 6.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23961" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-08-17T13:17:34.447" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T13:17:34.447" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23822" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23827" CreationDate="2019-08-16T13:02:14.437" Score="2" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given Hebbian theory stating that two neuron cells wich fire subsequently tend to wire together, what is the underlying mechanism by which they do so? How does the cell identify the subsequently actioned neurons? How do the two find their ways to connect with each other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do they already need to be very close to each other, or even have already some synapses formed? In this case, do synaptogenesis forms randomly and spontaneously between adjacent cells?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3130" LastActivityDate="2019-08-16T17:38:46.530" Title="Hebbian theory and synaptogenesis - how to identify the subsequently actioned neuron?" Tags="&lt;neurogenesis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23823" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23811" CreationDate="2019-08-16T13:33:44.313" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found this 2018 meta-analysis of 24 studies by Wendelienvan &amp;amp; Klingsieck on procrastination intervention - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327736834_Overcoming_Procrastination_A_Meta-Analysis_of_Intervention_Studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Educational Research Review article.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They used Steel's 2007 definition of procrastination as an irrational and acratic behavior. Procrastination is a voluntary delay an intended course of action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay. Wendelienvan &amp;amp; Klingsieck found that &lt;strong&gt;cognitive-behavioural&lt;/strong&gt; therapeutic approaches had a greater reduction in procrastination than &lt;strong&gt;self-regulation&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;strength &amp;amp; assertiveness training&lt;/strong&gt; interventions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quite an accessible and interesting read. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2019-08-16T23:27:03.163" LastActivityDate="2019-08-16T23:27:03.163" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23824" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23826" CreationDate="2019-08-16T15:05:52.627" Score="3" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;When two neurons connect to form a synapse, between the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic cells some space is found (synaptic cleft). How does this keep in position if there is no physical connection between the two?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3130" LastActivityDate="2019-08-16T16:46:01.483" Title="How synapses are hold in place if they're not phisically attached?" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23825" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-16T16:45:18.760" Score="0" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;A mouse goes through a maze and gets to a T-junction. Does it &quot;know&quot; there is a choice to be made between left and right or does it just continue following it's nose? Perhaps using some heuristics?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An ape is given a choice of toys to play with. Does it know there is a choice and consider each in turn? Or just grab one on instinct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A human gets to a T-junction in a maze. And you can garuntee that he or she will stop there for a while considering their options and imagining the best route forward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I wonder if &quot;choice&quot; is a thing that only humans (and maybe apes and crows) understand because they are the only ones who can make use of this by considering the future events?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, apart from the artificial example of a T-junction in a maze, what other examples of &quot;choices&quot; exist in the wild.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2019-08-16T23:48:58.217" Title="Do animals know about choices?" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;free-will&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23826" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23824" CreationDate="2019-08-16T16:46:01.483" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a physical connection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Synapses are held together by adhesion molecules, like cadherins and neuroligins/neurexins. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/content/4/4/a005694.short&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Missler, M., Südhof, T. C., &amp;amp; Biederer, T. (2012). Synaptic cell adhesion. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology, 4(4), a005694.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-08-16T16:46:01.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23827" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23822" CreationDate="2019-08-16T17:38:46.530" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hebb's actual statement is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Let us assume that the persistence or repetition of a reverberatory activity (or &quot;trace&quot;) tends to induce lasting cellular changes that add to its stability. ... When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in Hebb's case we are talking about neurons that are &lt;em&gt;already connected&lt;/em&gt; that then &lt;em&gt;increase their strength of connection&lt;/em&gt; when firing of Cell B follows after excitation by Cell A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biologically, the plasticity mechanism best associated with Hebbian plasticity is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike-timing-dependent_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;spike timing dependent plasticity (STDP)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. STDP utilizes a calcium signal mediated by NMDA receptors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NMDA receptors are glutamate receptors but depend on simultaneous depolarization of the membrane to displace a magnesium block that is ordinarily present. NMDA receptors are best activated when they are already bound to glutamate (released from Cell A) when Cell B fires an action potential; the action potential propagates back into the dendritic tree as well as down the axon, and this displaces the magnesium block, allowing calcium to enter the cell. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The subsequent signaling cascade results in increases in post-synaptic AMPA receptors, which causes long term potentiation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If cell B fires but cell A did not fire before it, then the action potential still propagates back into the dendrites but there is no glutamate present at synapses between cell A and cell B so those synapses are not potentiated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hebb, D.O. (1949). The Organization of Behavior. New York: Wiley &amp;amp; Sons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-08-16T17:38:46.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23829" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23825" CreationDate="2019-08-16T23:48:58.217" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What (with proper null and experimental method) do you mean by &quot;heuristic&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What (with proper null and experimental method) do you mean by &quot;instinct&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What (with proper null and experimental method) do mean by &quot;considering&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a situation where psychological language meets the imperfections of experimental neuroscience. Typical neuroscience tasks are simple because they attempt to isolate some particular behavior in the most parsimonious way possible. Generalization to behavior in the natural state is far removed from this. e.g. consider the humble mouse. It takes 100's-1000's of trials to learn a 2AFC task with visual feedback. It takes ~6 trials (even in absence of cortex and hippocampus via Markus Meister) to learn a complex maze given the right reward condition. Context is everything and ethological context is missing from most modern behavioral assays. A mouse will escape from a looming stimulus with 0 training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, although I'm not a mouse myself (but I am an ape), I would say: the mouse &quot;knows&quot; just as well as you do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21497" LastActivityDate="2019-08-16T23:48:58.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23831" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4337" CreationDate="2019-08-17T03:02:36.750" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have come across some literature in the gaming arena which I thought was relevant. Gaming is full of texting however there is also voice chat (so this might be a bit off-topic). Texting as the sole form of communication in social media has become increasingly rare.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite these reservations, this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265911502_Language-related_computer_use_Focus_on_young_L2_English_learners_in_Sweden&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2014 Swedish study (Sundqvist &amp;amp; Sylvén)&lt;/a&gt; found a significant relationship between online gaming and practising and using English especially for boys. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://eric.ed.gov/?q=source%3a%22CALICO+Journal%22&amp;amp;pg=2&amp;amp;id=EJ1143385&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 Danish study&lt;/a&gt; found a strong relationship between gaming and English acquisition. Signe Jensen examined 107 students and found that for boys playing games with oral and written input performed better on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T03:02:36.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23832" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-17T05:22:32.287" Score="1" ViewCount="193" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the field of AI research there are really good research blogs that regularly analyse methods and review papers. Examples that come to mind are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://bair.berkeley.edu/blog/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BAIR blog&lt;/a&gt;: The Berkeley AI Research blog&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://distill.pub/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Distill&lt;/a&gt;: an AI journal devoted to clear explanations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Might there be something similar for neuroscience? To qualify what I mean by 'good' the blog would have to cover: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;methods for experimental, computational and theoretical neuroscience&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;comprehensive reviews of basic neuroscience research &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Three neuroscience blogs that come to mind are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.harvardneuroblog.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harvard Neuro Blog&lt;/a&gt;: articles from graduate students and postdocs working on basic research in the neurosciences at Harvard University&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://neuwritewest.squarespace.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuwrite West Blog&lt;/a&gt;: a blog to make neuroscience accessible to anyone curious about the brain&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://nikokriegeskorte.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Niko Kriegeskorte's blog&lt;/a&gt;: the blog of the visual scientist Niko Kriegeskorte&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far, I am unaware of an online journal like Distill for neuroscience research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; As per the suggestion of Arnon Weinberg I decided to qualify what exactly I mean by 'good' and provided examples for concreteness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorDisplayName="user3503" LastEditDate="2019-08-23T11:34:51.023" LastActivityDate="2019-10-22T11:00:00.160" Title="Good neuroscience research blogs" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" CommunityOwnedDate="2019-08-20T19:26:20.730" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23834" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3351" CreationDate="2019-08-17T09:27:39.717" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn3916&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2015 Nature Reviews Neuroscience paper&lt;/a&gt; summarises the neurological changes underlying the cognitive changes with mindfulness practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness practice enhances attention. The anterior cingulate cortex is the region associated with attention in which changes in activity and/or structure in response to mindfulness meditation are most consistently reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness practice improves emotion regulation and reduces stress. Fronto-limbic networks involved in these processes show various patterns of engagement by mindfulness meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meditation practice has the potential to affect self-referential processing and improve present-moment awareness. The default mode networks — including the midline prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate cortex, which support self-awareness — could be altered following mindfulness training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T09:27:39.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23835" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-17T10:08:29.173" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the first 200 ms of meeting someone our implicit / System 1 brain makes a number of inferences (based on age, gender, race, voice, smell among others) to determine whether we ‘like’ the other person or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research or study that shows the relationship of this implicit cognition on latter / explicit evaluations of trust?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T10:08:29.173" Title="Trust after the first 200 milliseconds" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23839" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9512" CreationDate="2019-08-17T11:06:18.460" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Emotion regulation as mrt mentioned above is a good term. Affective control seems more task and goal-focused than emotion regulation though. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This definition of emotion regulation outlined by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.academia.edu/14093419/EMOTION_DYSREGULATION_MODEL_OF_MOOD_AND_ANXIETY_DISORDERS&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hoffman et al. 2012&lt;/a&gt;  is quite helpful - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Emotion regulation has been defined as the process by which people influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express these emotions. Based on this conceptualization, an emotion can be regulated at various stages in the process of emotion generation: (1) selection of the situation, (2) modification of the situation, (3) deployment of attention, (4) modification of cognitive appraisal, and (5) modulation of responses. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T11:06:18.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23840" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1617" CreationDate="2019-08-17T12:04:46.233" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;evidence of recent co-evolution between genes and large-scale culture&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006504&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2018 PLOS Computation Biology simulation study - The Cultural Brain Hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; examined the data from animals and humans. It found a relationship between brain size, adaptive knowledge, social learning, group size, and lifespan across the animal kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;relationships between brain size, group size, innovation, social learning, mating structures, and the length of the juvenile period that are supported by the existing empirical literature.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study found evidence of cumulative cultural evolution explaining the brain human sizes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T12:04:46.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23841" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23931" CreationDate="2019-08-17T14:48:33.410" Score="9" ViewCount="13866" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before I begin, note I have no animosity nor prejudice against anyone. Please keep the answers scientifically motivated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Various surveys on trans populations have shown male to female transitions are 2-4x more likely than female to male (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286423757_The_Demographics_of_the_Transgender_Population/link/5a962c8545851535bcdcc300/download&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).  This is clearly statistically significant and not some anomaly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can only think of 2 possible solutions ... either a difference in psychological predisposition between the sexes (but if so what), or some genetic component.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said, what is the most likely reason for this?  Does the large discrepancy in numbers suggest such a genetic component?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;For context&lt;/em&gt;, here is one of the stats I am basing the question on(the stats are similar for all countries for which there is data):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The American Psychiatric Association, using GID criteria, suggested that MTFs had a 1 in 30,000 (.0077%) prevalence rate, while FTMs were 1 in 100,000 (.0029%)&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23984" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2021-04-10T06:06:54.733" Title="Why are trans-women more common than trans-men?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;gender&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20180" CreationDate="2019-08-17T15:03:59.640" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The sources and the theory you mentioned are quite old and may be outdated. I learned about drives, needs and motives in a more modern context during my introductory course of Industrial and Organizational (I/O) Psychology. Overall drives are more of a non-human concept that is too simplistic to explain complex human behavior (Landy &amp;amp; Conte, 2013). Nowadays, the definitions below are often used by psychologists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Buchanan and Hyczynski (2013) a &lt;strong&gt;need&lt;/strong&gt; is innate and related to survival such as the need for water, oxygen etc. Needs that are triggered by deprivation are known as &lt;strong&gt;drives&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Buchanan and Hyczynski (2013) use the following description of a &lt;strong&gt;motive&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A socially acquired need activated by a desire for fulfilment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Drives and motives can be contrasted using the information provided by Buchanan and Huczynski (2013):&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Drives&lt;/em&gt;&#xA; 1. are innate&#xA; 2. have a physiological basis&#xA; 3. are activated by deprivation&#xA; 4. are aimed at satiation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Motives&lt;/em&gt;&#xA; 1. are learned&#xA; 2. have a social basis&#xA; 3. are activated by environment&#xA; 4. are aimed at stimulation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know I somewhat glossed over the theory you mentioned but I looked it up and it seems somewhat outdated to me. I hope this more recent information helps answering your question!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further reading:&#xA;Landy, F.J. &amp;amp; Conte, J.M. (2013). Work in the 21st century: An introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (6th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. (Chapter 8)&#xA;Buchanan, D. &amp;amp; Huczynski, A. (2013). Organizational behavior: An introductory text (8th edition). Essex, UK: Pearson Education. (Chapter 9)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23961" LastActivityDate="2019-08-17T15:03:59.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23843" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-17T15:37:13.177" Score="2" ViewCount="123" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4130248/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Children may elicit, either through active engagement or some feature of their personality or appearance, a response from their environment that might protect them from deprivation-related risk either by reducing their exposure to risk factors or altering their impact once they have been exposed.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could childern be caused by parenting, schooling and/or close social rings to learn neurodevelopmental disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i.e Are parenting, schooling and/or close social rings able to cause someone young(Before the Age of 7) previously not suffering from the Neurodevelopmental Disorders or exacerbate them in those already suffering from them to learn those disorders by example or experience? Like one would learn table manners.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A parent with Neurodevelopmental Disorders will probably tolerate somethings that others would find problematic while being incommoded by something trivial to others. They will also focus on verbal communication. Speak verbosly, have trouble interpreting non-verbal communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If ones' parents have poor social interactions the offspring might not be that welcome. And thence develop their cognitive function accordingly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If schools fail to notice early signs the disorder might progress further. Both due to lack of help and because teachers and classmates will drift away, bully, prank, hit, abuse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21851" LastEditorUserId="21851" LastEditDate="2019-08-22T20:44:25.200" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T08:21:19.360" Title="Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Cognitive Function and Causing someone to Learn" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23844" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23901" CreationDate="2019-08-17T17:59:06.077" Score="2" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3416662/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3416662/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OCD being an anxiety disorder and OCPD being a personality disorder it is entirely possible that these two can be present on the same patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Autism, e.g Aspergers Syndrome and ADHD have some similarities but are distinct disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We learn at university that people with Aspergers are frequently obsessive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on Occam's Razor &quot;Pluralitas non est ponenda sine necessitate&quot; Psychiatrists and Neuropsychologists are intently parsimonious in diagnosing a patient with multiple disorders even if the examinee meets the criteria, is indeed experiencing the symptom, has the equivalent behaviour. And we are taught at university just that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any case in which the behaviour of the examinee undoubtedly suggests comorbidity of OCD,OCPD, ASD and ADHD mixed type maybe even along with an entirely distinct disorder like dysthimia? How exactly are these examinees' behaviours? As a medicine student professors do not answer these questions in their lectures ( one reason I am most probably converting to Law since they are slightly more open there).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21851" LastEditorUserId="21851" LastEditDate="2019-08-19T19:16:26.437" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T15:44:53.103" Title="Comorbidity of Neurodevelopmental Disorders between them and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23845" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-18T01:18:40.320" Score="3" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002261.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002261.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is Myelin used as a term to mean the Myelin Sheath as opposed to the proper term?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is apparent to me that Myelin is the substance itself regardless of structure and the Myelin Sheath is the structure around the axis to insulate Electro-Chemically the nervous system composed of this substance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But Media and Physicians frequently use Myelin instead of Myelin Sheath as opposed to textbooks that make the distinction&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21851" LastActivityDate="2019-08-19T08:40:18.430" Title="Myelin and Myelin Sheath" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23847" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-18T04:23:24.653" Score="0" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have encountered a vast variety of definitions for affect, each of which contrasts it with the term &quot;emotion&quot; in a whole different way. Here are a few:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Affect denotes the visible/objective expression of an emotion.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Affect is the actual underlying subjective feeling an emotion.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Affect means the initial automatic reaction to a situation before cognitive appraisal helps build-up to the more complex emotions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, given how practically (amongst professionals) both of these terms are often used interchangeably, I wonder if there's a clear non-controversial distinction between &quot;affect&quot; and &quot;emotions&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13528" LastActivityDate="2019-08-18T06:18:59.847" Title="How is the term &quot;affect&quot; different from &quot;emotion&quot;?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23848" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23847" CreationDate="2019-08-18T06:18:59.847" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a difference between &lt;em&gt;affect&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;emotion&lt;/em&gt;, and the first two descriptions you quoted sum up the main way the two words are different&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Affect denotes the visible/objective expression of an emotion.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Affect is the actual underlying subjective feeling [of] an emotion.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia summarizes&lt;/a&gt; that in psychology, the word &lt;em&gt;affect&lt;/em&gt; is used to describe the &lt;strong&gt;experience&lt;/strong&gt; of feeling or emotion.  The word also refers sometimes to &lt;em&gt;affect display&lt;/em&gt;, which is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a facial, vocal, or gestural behavior that serves as an indicator of affect (APA 2006).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Think of it in the sense that if you have an emotion in play, how do you describe how the emotion &lt;strong&gt;affects&lt;/strong&gt; the person &lt;strong&gt;experiencing&lt;/strong&gt; the emotion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotions can interfere with how the person reacts to stimuli through &lt;em&gt;valence&lt;/em&gt; (the &amp;quot;goodness&amp;quot; of the event , which is &lt;em&gt;positive valence&lt;/em&gt;, or the &amp;quot;badness&amp;quot; of the event, which is negative valence — perceptional or actual), &lt;em&gt;motivation&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;arousal&lt;/em&gt; (the state of being attentive, alert and awake). This is why &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthline.com/health/affective-disorders#types&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;affective disorders&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; such as &lt;em&gt;depression&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;anxiety disorders&lt;/em&gt; are not referred to as &lt;em&gt;emotional disorders&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA (2006). VandenBos, Gary R., ed. &lt;em&gt;APA Dictionary of Psychology&lt;/em&gt; Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-18T06:18:59.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23849" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23845" CreationDate="2019-08-18T06:35:47.627" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia points out&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Myelin&lt;/strong&gt; is a lipid-rich (fatty) substance formed in the central nervous system (CNS) by glial cells called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligodendrocyte&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;oligodendrocytes&lt;/a&gt;, and in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwann_cell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schwann cells&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When referring to the sheath, you are referring to the covering which is made of myelin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Myelin sheaths are sleeves of fatty tissue that protect your nerve cells from damage (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/multiple-sclerosis/myelin-sheath-facts&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing is that myelin formed in the CNS and PNS is only used in the form of a sheath  to protect your nerve cells, so when physicians refer to the myelin, they are referring to the sheath.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With demyelination, the integrity of the sheath is being compromised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-08-19T08:40:18.430" LastActivityDate="2019-08-19T08:40:18.430" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23852" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-18T18:25:41.767" Score="1" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found that people are often &amp;quot;roused to action,&amp;quot; activism and even zealotry by attributing either extreme of &amp;quot;nobleness&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;despicability&amp;quot; to their self or group identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if there is a name for this phenomena.  I'll give two examples to help pin this down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Attribution of Despicability&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, Fred is an evangelical who has an axe to grind with Catholicism.  Fred encounters an apathetic Catholic named Phil, who neither knows or cares anything about his alleged Catholic faith, and yet Fred proceeds to blast Phil verbally (under the appellation &amp;quot;you Catholics&amp;quot;) for how despicable and anti-biblical their beliefs are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Phil becomes very unsettled and defensive from this encounter, and subsequently chooses not just to learn his faith - but to defend it as well. Ironically Phil grows into a zealot for his Catholic faith due to Fred's negative outburst.  It could be said that Phil has (subconsciously?) resolved to prove Fred wrong or &lt;em&gt;perhaps to attain a form of revenge&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Attribution of Nobleness&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jake, a young man, is an athletic but wayward soul.  He encounters a decorated army veteran named Gabe who says &amp;quot;I've been watching you for several days now lad, and I can tell you that in you is a greatness that is meant to be released.&amp;quot;  The subsequent conversation inspires Jake to join the military and, indeed, Jake subsequently has a stellar military career that proves Gabe was right!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Wrapping Up&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize that not every dynamic has a specific name in psychology, but it troubles me that the overall phenomena I'm outlining isn't represented in public dialogue, particularly when it comes to politics.  I believe the nation is becoming increasingly polarized and hostile because &amp;quot;attribution of despicability&amp;quot; is counter-productively generating the wrong kind of zealotry and thus ever-deepening unproductive contrasts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;You leftists just want to destroy democracy&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;.  Well, the &amp;quot;leftist&amp;quot; did not have an opinion about democracy before the accusation, but due to the judgmental accusation...the leftist began to study and embrace arguments of why democracy is evil.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;You rightists just want to subjugate minorities&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;.  Well the &amp;quot;rightest&amp;quot; who had no particular sentiment before now adopts a passive-aggressive attitude about those who claim to support minorities and perhaps against minorities as well.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, both positive and negative accusation(s) have a catalytic or causal power.  Seen this way, in the case of negative accusations which we use to judge and condemn, the reality is that &amp;quot;we have met the enemy, and it is ourselves.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wouldn't be surprised if psychology has two names which treat both the &amp;quot;attribution of nobleness&amp;quot; and the &amp;quot;attribution of despicability&amp;quot; as two different things, even though I see them as flip-sides of the same coin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Update&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Until I learn more about this, and understand it better, I'm going to call the overall phenomenon &amp;quot;Manifest Testimony&amp;quot;...intentionally echoing the phonetics of the otherwise unrelated &amp;quot;Manifest Destiny.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23990" LastEditorUserId="23990" LastEditDate="2020-10-05T18:27:41.327" LastActivityDate="2020-10-05T18:27:41.327" Title="What is the name for this form of &quot;influence&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23853" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-18T19:52:48.120" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a hobbyist making BCI for biofeedback training.&#xA;Can I induce any damage to my brain by EEG brain training? For instance, by using wrong training protocols.. Be the way, it would be wonderful if someone can point me to any good sources of information on this topic (training protocols, algorithms, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23991" LastActivityDate="2019-08-18T19:52:48.120" Title="Does EEG biofeedback brain training can cause any harm?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23854" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23852" CreationDate="2019-08-18T19:55:57.060" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have some ideas about your first example. During my course of social psychology a learned about self/social categorization, two concepts that shape how individuals perceive groups. Here are some quick definitions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Self categorization&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the process of seeing oneself as a member of a social group (Smith, Mackie &amp;amp; Claypool, 2014)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Social categorization&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The perceptual classification of people, including the self, into categories (Forsyth, 2014).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to self and social categorization people automatically view themselves as part of a group and others as part of a group also. I think Phil in your example still views himself as part of the group &quot;catholics&quot; (even though he does not know much about it) and Fred as part of the group &quot;Evangelics&quot;. After that there are quite a view phenomenons that suggest people care about their beliefs and about their group status. One good example in this context is the &lt;strong&gt;ingroup-outgroup bias&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The tendency to view the in-group, its members, and its products more positively than other groups, their members, and their products. Ingroup favoritism is more common than outgroup rejection (Forsyth, 2014).&#xA;  So, Phil might realize that he is part of the group &quot;catholics&quot; and subsequently becomes more defensive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also it could be possible that Phil experiences some form of &lt;strong&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/strong&gt; (an adverse psychological state that occurs when an individual simultaneously holds two conflicting cognitions (Forsyth, 2014)), because he claims he is part of the catholic group but is blatantly confronted that he barely knows anything about his group. This might lead to the attitude change you suggest, that he wants to learn more about catholicism. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this is more a description of how processes in groups can work and how people influence each other based on these processes. It is in no way a description of a scientifically backed up process/theory, although the terms used in my description are of course backed by science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for the second example, I personally believe there could be a lot of factors that lead to Jake's decision of joining the army. I think it would be hard to pin it down on the few words of the army veteran.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I am not an expert on social psychology. So I hope this information helps understanding social processes but it might not be a complete and conclusive answer. If you are interested in social psychology and group dynamics then I recommend to check out Forsyth's book &lt;em&gt;Group dynamics&lt;/em&gt;. It explains concepts wihtin the field very well and uses informative examples. Hope this helps in some way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forsyth, D.R. (2014). Group dynamics (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. ISBN- 13 9781133956532&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, E.R., Mackie, D.M., &amp;amp; Claypool, H.M. (2014). Social Psychology (4th ed.). New York, NY: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-84872-894-3&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23961" LastActivityDate="2019-08-18T19:55:57.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23858" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-19T12:06:06.657" Score="2" ViewCount="330" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would be very grateful to people with experience in using neural network models in neuroscience for advice!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What approach would you recommend for building neural networks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am choosing between TensorFlow, PyTorch and Keras. An important aspect for me is to be able to easily access the params of the NN (especially the weights). I want to build encoding models of biological neurons so for me model transparency, interpretability and exploration capacity is as important (if not more) than performance metrics or efficiency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23994" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T19:06:16.863" Title="ML/Neuroscience: TensorFlow vs PyTorch vs Keras for bulding NN models of the nervous system?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23859" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-19T12:48:33.953" Score="1" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, if a diagnosing clinician makes a grave error in diagnosis, is it possible to later invalidate the diagnosis on the basis of insufficiency, lack of evidence, poor judgment, or other similar reason?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if someone accidentally ended up in a situation where he/she was diagnosed with a mental disorder according to the DSM, but the symptoms according to the DSM do not correspond at all to reality (For example, at least the main symptoms are missing, the study admission was less then the official time needed to diagnose someone with a specific disorder, or a similar reason), can the diagnosis be fully expunged from their medical record upon a sufficient showing of such insufficiency?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not asking about getting a second opinion, refusing treatment, or getting a discharge from treatment - I'm asking about fully eradicating or expunging a diagnosis to the point where it never really &quot;existed&quot; &lt;em&gt;at all&lt;/em&gt; in a medical or medicolegal sense. In the practice of law, a legal judgment, order, or document can often be &quot;voided&quot;, &quot;vacated&quot;, &quot;quashed&quot;, &quot;overturned&quot; or &quot;invalidated&quot; by a court if it is shown to have been issued in error. Is there any similar thing in the practice of medicine?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This sort of question is, perhaps, not very interesting or relevant for the majority of patients, but it can be &lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt; relevant for persons who must undergo formal &quot;fitness for duty&quot; evaluations or must &quot;pass&quot; medical background checks. For example, someone aspiring to become a pilot who has a history of treatment for schizophrenia, but is currently &quot;ok&quot;, must normally undergo a grueling, time consuming, and expensive evaluation process. If such a person could get some sort of medical evaluation stating that they never really &quot;had&quot; schizophrenia to begin with, that could allow them to answer &quot;no&quot; on the applicable medical background check forms and obtain licensure that much more easily. This question may also be relevant to victims of gaslighting - if a person was given a clinical &quot;label&quot; as a result of abuse inflicted upon them, removing the &quot;stigma&quot; of having the &quot;label&quot; may be a valuable form of healing even if the person doesn't have any pressing &lt;em&gt;legal&lt;/em&gt; need to have the diagnosis &lt;em&gt;formally&lt;/em&gt; removed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user23995" LastEditorUserId="13656" LastEditDate="2019-08-19T18:34:22.430" LastActivityDate="2019-08-19T18:34:22.430" Title="Is it possible for a &quot;false positive&quot; medical diagnosis to be voided or expunged later?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2019-08-28T17:32:31.383" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23862" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23832" CreationDate="2019-08-19T14:39:31.800" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Also check:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://bitsandbrains.io/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://bitsandbrains.io/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.talyarkoni.org/blog/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.talyarkoni.org/blog/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;calling it a blog is too much but sometimes we share stuff:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://kordinglab.com/about/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;kordinglab.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But also, there is maybe a bit more of a culture of publishing thoughts in papers in the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24000" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-08-19T14:57:47.680" LastActivityDate="2019-08-19T14:57:47.680" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2019-08-20T19:26:20.730" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23864" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23813" CreationDate="2019-08-20T01:09:03.857" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting question, and after mostly failing to find recent literature I've become fascinated at why this topic is not more heavily studied. It looks like a field ripe for disruption by new ideas and approaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not convinced that procrastination is any different in those diagnosed with ADHD than in neurotypicals. As with many psychiatric diagnoses, behaviors are described in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM&lt;/a&gt; but mechanisms are usually unknown. Without knowing any mechanism (hand-waving a probable weakness of connection between prefrontal areas and motor areas, but no idea what may weaken it) it's hard to say whether an unknown mechanism in ADHD differs from an unknown mechanism in everyone else, or even that the distinction between ADHD and normal has clear boundaries. I'd really appreciate the education of being shown evidence I'm wrong here, but I've seen heated debates over defining ADHD, and Stack Exchange doesn't do extended back-and-forth discussions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The slope of the curve representing what I've known as &quot;delay discounting&quot; (also called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_preference&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;time preference&quot;&lt;/a&gt;) was described by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.5.769&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Green and Myerson&lt;/a&gt; and has been associated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02347.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ADHD&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/FBP.0b013e3280115f99&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;drug abuse and gambling&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022403&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lower socioeconomic status&lt;/a&gt;. But I don't see this as a mechanism, just another way to quantify the behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The nature of procrastination&lt;/a&gt; by Piers Steel and &lt;a href=&quot;https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.1149&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Longitudinal study of procrastination, performance, stress, and health&lt;/a&gt; by Roy Baumeister seem to be the most relevant (highly cited) descriptions of procrastination, and both are over a decade old. Some intervention articles I've found are &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.263&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ADHD outcomes for children treated in community based pediatric settings&lt;/a&gt; by &lt;a href=&quot;https://rldc.cchmc.org/people/jeff-epstein-phd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jeffrey Epstein&lt;/a&gt; (not &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Epstein&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;that one&lt;/a&gt;), et al and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2016.1198154&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Academic interventions for academic procrastination&lt;/a&gt; by Zacks and Hen, but I can't find anything on interventions that seems to be highly cited and well-accepted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I disclose that I often procrastinate on StackExchange. I'm currently reading and writing about procrastination rather than working on analyses I need done asap. :(&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6259" LastActivityDate="2019-08-20T01:09:03.857" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23865" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23813" CreationDate="2019-08-20T02:08:57.460" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem with this question is that procrastination has many components and is not an explicit diagnostic category of ADHD. As the result, finding evidence for a phenomenon that is poorly described and measured plus not part of a diagnostic or treatment criteria is very difficult.&#xA;Having said that, ADHD as a concept and a disease construct is still helpful and there are increasing studies examining ADHD and its associated phenomenologies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291419538_Cognitive_behavioural_therapy_for_ADHD_in_adults_systematic_review_and_meta-analyses&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2016 systematic review of cognitive-behavioural therapy by Jensen et al&lt;/a&gt; found CBT to be effective for ADHD. The study only found two studies that fitted their selection criteria and analysed their intervention in details. One study had two sessions focused on procrastination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;11 -Consequential Thinking - Application of Skills to Procrastination&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;13-  Constructive Planning -  Application of Skills to Procrastination&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in a round about way CBT is helpful for procrastination in ADHD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-20T02:08:57.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23866" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-20T12:58:37.970" Score="4" ViewCount="507" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just heard or maybe I saw a clip on tv about this tapping technique. Something about tapping various points of the body for psychological treatment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is this EFT all about? Is there any solid evidence for EFT? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Discussed in this Skeptic thread too, sorry I didn't realise it was there - &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/231/what-is-eft-emotional-freedom-technique-and-does-it-work&quot;&gt;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/231/what-is-eft-emotional-freedom-technique-and-does-it-work&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2019-08-22T01:54:19.170" LastActivityDate="2021-02-06T12:34:48.637" Title="Evidence for this tapping therapy - EFT (Emotional freedom technique)" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;pseudoscience&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23867" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-20T17:59:18.197" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can General Assessment of Functioning (GAF) be used to measure recovery etc. from all mental health problems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know it's used with 'schizophrenia', but what about things like personality disorders, Dissociative Identity Disorder, etc.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-08-23T11:55:13.733" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T11:56:41.017" Title="Can General Assessment of Functioning (GAF) be used to measure recovery etc. from all mental health problems?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23868" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23866" CreationDate="2019-08-20T19:16:17.087" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Emotional Freedom Technique (EFT) is part of the energy psychology movement which draws on various forms of alternative medicine to stimulate meridian points of the body (Gaudiano, 2000). At the moment it is considered pseudoscience because it has no effect beyond the placebo-effect in clinical psychology (Bakker, 2013).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an excerpt from a study by Waite &amp;amp; Holder (2003) that assessed the effectiveness of EFT for anxiety:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These results do not support the idea that the purported benefits of EFT are uniquely dependent on the &quot;tapping of meridians.&quot; Rather, these results suggest that the reported effectiveness of EFT is attributable to characteristics it shares with more traditional therapies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And here is the abstract from another article by Bakker (2013) on energy psychology, the &quot;field&quot; EFT falls in:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Proponents of energy psychology techniques, such as Thought Field Therapy and Emotional Freedom Techniques, have sought “empirically supported therapy” status despite an unsupported and implausible theoretical basis and claims in response of representing a “pseudoscientific” movement. Two major reviews of the supportive evidence which has accumulated over the past 30 years have been published recently. This current status report describes the history, theory, techniques, claims, and implications of the energy psychology movement, examines support for its theoretical base, its current outcome study support, and offers conclusions and recommendations as to its research and clinical prospects. It is concluded that there is scant support for the radical theories underlying energy psychology techniques, and that empirical support for their efficacy is methodologically weak, and has not been able to demonstrate an effect beyond nonspecific or placebo effects, or the incorporation of known‐effective elements. The only dismantling studies to date have been disconfirmatory. Further research is highly unlikely to be scientifically productive, and scientist practitioners are advised to continue to adhere to well‐established cognitive and behavioural principles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, overall there is little scientific evidence for the underlying assumptions of EFT, hope this answers your question!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bakker, G. (2013). The current status of energy psychology: Extraordinary claims with less than ordinary evidence. Clinical Psychologist, 17(3), 91-99. doi:10.1111/cp.12020&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gaudiano B.A., Herbert JD (2000). &quot;Can we really tap our problems away?&quot;. Skeptical Inquirer. 24 (4). Retrieved 2019-08-20.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Waite, L.W. &amp;amp; Holder, M.D. (2003). Assessment of the Emotional Freedom Technique: An alternative treatment for fear. The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice, 2(1), 20-26.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23961" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-08-25T21:23:22.503" LastActivityDate="2019-08-25T21:23:22.503" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23870" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23875" CreationDate="2019-08-21T01:06:06.417" Score="2" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;From an exchange with &lt;a href=&quot;http://seunglab.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dr. Seung&lt;/a&gt;, an expert on connectomics, I learned that one of his former PhD students Viren Jain is leading the &lt;a href=&quot;https://ai.google/research/teams/perception/connectomics/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Connectomic effort at Google&lt;/a&gt; using supervised learning methods. Now, supervised deep learning methods usually require large amounts of data to succeed. (I know this based on experience in industry as well as the deep learning literature.) However, due to the time and effort of human annotation the datasets for circuit reconstruction are really small: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/f2BZy.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/f2BZy.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://science.eyewire.org/science-artificial-intelligence.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;It takes about six months for humans to annotate 1 cubic millimeter of brain volume.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact, Dr. Seung informed me that the &lt;a href=&quot;https://cremi.org/data/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;following dataset&lt;/a&gt; from a circuit reconstruction competition in 2016 which is less than five gigabytes in total is basically state of the art. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1712.04621&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;augmenting training data with synthetic data&lt;/a&gt; is frequently used for computer vision problems, I am led to the following questions: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Might it theoretically be possible to augment human-annotated training data with morphologically similar synthetic data? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What methods in the near future might allow us to significantly increase the size of human-annotated training data?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Michał Januszewski, Jörgen Kornfeld, Peter H. Li, Art Pope, Tim Blakely, Larry Lindsey, Jeremy Maitin-Shepard, Mike Tyka, Winfried Denk &amp;amp; Viren Jain. High-precision automated reconstruction of neurons with flood-filling networks. Nature. 2018. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Luis Perez and Jason Wang. The Effectiveness of Data Augmentation in Image Classification using Deep Learning. Arxiv. 2017. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Alberto Bailoni, Constantin Pape, Steffen Wolf, Thorsten Beier, Anna Kreshuk, Fred A. Hamprecht. A Generalized Framework for Agglomerative Clustering of Signed Graphs applied to Instance Segmentation. Arxiv. 2019.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;EyeWire: mapping neurons. &lt;a href=&quot;https://science.eyewire.org/science-mapping-neurons&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://science.eyewire.org/science-mapping-neurons&lt;/a&gt; Accessed 21 August 2019. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorDisplayName="user3503" LastEditDate="2019-08-24T09:50:49.760" LastActivityDate="2019-08-24T09:50:49.760" Title="Constraints on dataset size for AI-assisted connectome reconstruction" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23871" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-21T02:29:16.853" Score="2" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have seen the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal in 2018 (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook%E2%80%93Cambridge_Analytica_data_scandal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;). While I agree that stronger regulations on the use of personal data should be enforced, but from a psychological point of view:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How strongly can a person's political position be manipulated by a company like this (or combined with biased media)?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What kind of manipulation is possible and can be done? Can they completely reverse one's political position?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20616" LastActivityDate="2019-08-21T02:29:16.853" Title="From psychological point of view, how easy can public opinion be manipulated by politicians and media?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23874" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23866" CreationDate="2019-08-21T08:30:40.600" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading the answer from @HallsofJustice, the report from &lt;a href=&quot;https://skepticalinquirer.org/2000/07/can_we_really_tap_our_problems_away/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gaudiano &amp;amp; Herbert JD (2000)&lt;/a&gt; was a &lt;em&gt;Skeptical Inquirer&lt;/em&gt; report, and as the name suggests, their reports contain the extreme end of skepticism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For most of its existence, the Skeptical Inquirer (SI) was published by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, widely known by its acronym CSICOP. In 2006 the CSICOP Executive Council shortened CSICOP's name to the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) and broadened its mission statement (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst I concede that there are elements of Jungian theory which can be questionable, I am a defender of psychological theories developed by Freud and others. Yet, some of these theories are considered pseudoscientific and I am skeptical of reports by the Skeptical Inquirer on the basis that I wonder if they ever produce unbiased reports. I wonder how 90% of psychology would stand against their &amp;quot;scrutiny&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without reading more works of Gary M. Bakker I realize that I cannot fully comment on what he writes but it seems intriguing when he is someone who&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;has published in both clinical (Practical CBT) and skeptical (God: A Psychological Assessment) fields (&lt;a href=&quot;https://skepticalinquirer.org/authors/gary-m-bakker/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Skeptical Inquirer&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a bit of an oxymoron when your work involves &amp;quot;scientifically studying&amp;quot; a psychological theory or concept on one hand, and writing about God as though He exists when in the scientific realm, He cannot be considered to exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/cp.12020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bakker's 2013 paper&lt;/a&gt; cited in the answer by @HallsofJustice you get a feeling that the paper is going to be totally biased against EFT right from the start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reviewing one paper on the subject, Bekker reports that EFT slightly outperformed diaphragmatic breathing (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10189&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wells et al., 2003&lt;/a&gt;, p. 958).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They suggested (p. 961) that the EFT effect is unlikely to have been a placebo effect because, in their experience “many people are initially skeptical” about EFT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reviewing another 2 papers:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;two EFT studies were unpublished small “partial replications” of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10189&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wells et al. (2003)&lt;/a&gt; study (Baker &amp;amp; Siegel, 2005; Salas, 2001). Baker and Siegel (2005) used a “supportive interview” control instead of diaphragmatic breathing, and again EFT performed better on subjective measures but not on heart rate change or on follow-up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bekker went on to state that &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;despite such sparse and methodologically weak evidence&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-3204.45.2.199&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feinstein (2008)&lt;/a&gt; concluded that the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10189&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wells et al. (2003)&lt;/a&gt; study helped to bring energy psychology past the threshold formulated by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.div12.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Division 12 Task Force of the American Psychological Association&lt;/a&gt;, establishing EFT as a &lt;em&gt;probably efficacious&lt;/em&gt; treatment for specific phobias (page 210).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bekker concluded that EFT along with Energy Psychology should be considered pseudoscientific as it is in the same vain as faith healing etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you look at the whole picture, Gary Craig’s EFT (Craig &amp;amp; Fowlie, 1995) does not just involve tapping and the basic idea is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.emofree.com/eft-tutorial/tapping-basics/how-to-do-eft.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;given in his website&lt;/a&gt; along with a free copy of the theory behind it in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.emofree.com/images/pdf/Unseen_Therapist.v3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PDF format&lt;/a&gt; and for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.emofree.com/images/pdf/Unseen_Therapist.v4.azw3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kindle&lt;/a&gt;. EFT uses positive affirmations to counteract negative thinking patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you combine this with &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2016.10.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sebastian &amp;amp; Nelms (2017)&lt;/a&gt; you mentioned in the comments along with &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10189&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wells et al. (2003)&lt;/a&gt; plus Baker &amp;amp; Siegel (2005) and Salas, (2001). There is strong evidence to suggest EFT is effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I pointed out in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248/&quot;&gt;a meta post here&lt;/a&gt; and in my blog article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.whatstheproblem.co.uk/articles/psychology/pseudoscience-in-psychology/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pseudoscience in psychology&lt;/a&gt;, which expands on the meta post, just because the effects cannot be scientifically measured, it doesn't necessarily mean that it is not effective when patients are consistently reporting significant benefits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bakker, G. (2013). The current status of energy psychology: Extraordinary claims with less than ordinary evidence. Clinical Psychologist, 17(3), 91-99. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/cp.12020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/cp.12020&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Craig, G., &amp;amp; Fowlie, A. (1995). Emotional freedom techniques: The manual (with video and audio tapes). Sea Ranch, CA: Author.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feinstein, D. (2008). Energy psychology: A review of the preliminary evidence. &lt;em&gt;Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 45&lt;/em&gt;(2), 199–213. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-3204.45.2.199&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0033-3204.45.2.199&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gaudiano B.A., &amp;amp; Herbert J. D. (2000). Can we really tap our problems away?. &lt;em&gt;Skeptical Inquirer. 24&lt;/em&gt;(4). Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://skepticalinquirer.org/2000/07/can_we_really_tap_our_problems_away/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://skepticalinquirer.org/2000/07/can_we_really_tap_our_problems_away/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Salas, M. M. (2001). The effect of an energy psychology intervention (EFT) versus diaphragmatic breathing on specific phobias. Unpublished master’s thesis. Kingsville: Texas A &amp;amp; M University.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sebastian, B., &amp;amp; Nelms, J. (2017). The effectiveness of Emotional Freedom Techniques in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Explore, 13&lt;/em&gt;(1), 16-25. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2016.10.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.explore.2016.10.001&lt;/a&gt; pubmed: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27889444&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;27889444&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wells, S., Polglase, K., Andrews, H. B., Carrington, P., &amp;amp; Baker, A. H. (2003). Evaluation of a meridian-based intervention, Emotional Freedom Techniques (EFT), for reducing specific phobias of small animals. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59&lt;/em&gt;(9), 943–966. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10189&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/jclp.10189&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-21T08:42:58.010" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23875" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23870" CreationDate="2019-08-21T08:52:53.497" Score="1" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Improving labeling&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Increasing the amount of data that humans can annotate in a reasonable amount of time (your second question), one essentially needs to develop better labeling tools. Typically, this can either involve &lt;strong&gt;nicer interfaces&lt;/strong&gt; or training ML algorithms to &lt;strong&gt;propose labels&lt;/strong&gt; which humans can then more easily confirm or improve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recently attended a talk by &lt;a href=&quot;https://brain.mpg.de/research/helmstaedter-department.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moritz Helmstaedter&lt;/a&gt; in which he presented work in both these directions. If I remember their approach correctly, they first had people trace axons and dendrites in serial electron microscope sections. Based on these traces, they then found the membrane around these axons/dendrites using an algorithm, which gave them a proposal for the segmentation. For the tracing part, they developed a nicer interface (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.4331&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;): instead of showing only slices along the cardinal directions to their labelers, they developed a &quot;flight mode&quot; in which the labeler can see the data from an ego-centric view in the current direction of the neurite they are tracing. This gave them a 4- to 13-fold speedup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Synthetic data&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concerning your first question, I'm not aware of any work on synthetic datasets in this area. I imagine generating one would be quite difficult, since cell morphology is complex. In order to generate synthetic EM images, you'd essentially need a detailed description of the cell morphologies in a cube of cortical tissue - and we usually get these descriptions from EM data. Alternatively, you could try to use deep learning (autoencoders or generative adversarial networks) to produce such synthetic data, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2019.02.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this recent review&lt;/a&gt; concluded that these will most likely not give you the quality you would need for training, since&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the artificial images would likely either fail in subtle ways to be truly&#xA;  realistic or would fail to capture the full diversity of real-world data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For now it seems the field will have to aim for better / faster human annotations instead of synthetic data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23198" LastActivityDate="2019-08-21T08:52:53.497" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23876" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-21T09:03:44.763" Score="0" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the evidence for Emotional Freedom Technique or EFT for PTSD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional Freedom Technique or EFT is a form of therapy for PTSD. EFT combines the cognitive components from CBT and exposure therapy and combines it with stimulation of eight acupuncture points. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare6040146&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Church, D. et al. (2018)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A typical sequence in the treatment of PTSD might be to have the client vividly recall details of a traumatizing event (exposure) while pairing the memory with emotionally neutral statements (cognitive reframing). To these cognitive and exposure elements, EFT adds the stimulation of a pre-established set of eight acupuncture points (acupoints) by tapping on them with the fingertips, a form of acupressure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Church, D., Stapleton, P., Mollon, P., Feinstein, D., Boath, E., Mackay, D., &amp;amp; Sims, R. (2018, December). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare6040146&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Guidelines for the Treatment of PTSD Using Clinical EFT (Emotional Freedom Techniques).&lt;/a&gt; In Healthcare (Vol. 6, No. 4, p. 146). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-08-22T20:38:06.307" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T01:27:57.950" Title="Evidence for EFT (Emotional Freedom technique) for PTSD" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23878" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-21T09:56:23.257" Score="-1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is mounting evidence that EFT, a form of therapy which combines cognitive, exposure therapy along with acupuncture point stimulation is effective -&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/23876/evidence-for-eft-emotional-freedom-technique-for-ptsd&quot;&gt;EFT for PTSD question&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the biological evidence for the efficacy for EFT? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-08-21T09:58:04.780" Title="How does Emotional Freedom Technique (EFT) work?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23879" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23878" CreationDate="2019-08-21T09:58:04.780" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a couple of studies that seem to outline some possible mechanisms for how EFT works. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22986277&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2012 study of salivary cortisol of 83 subjects&lt;/a&gt; found that a significant decrease after one hour of clinical EFT treatment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;decrease in cortisol level (-24.39%; SE, 2.62) compared with the decrease observed in the SI (-14.25%; SE, 2.61) and NT (-14.44%; SE, 2.67) groups (p &amp;lt; 0.03)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0890117116661154?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&amp;amp;rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&amp;amp;rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2018 randomised study of 16 subjects with PTSD&lt;/a&gt; having done 10 clinical EFT treatment found genetic changes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Significant differences (P &amp;lt; .05) were found for 6 genes—chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3), interleukin 18 (IL-18), interleukin 10 receptor beta, tumor necrosis factor alpha–induced protein 6, leukocyte-endothelial cell adhesion molecule 1 (selectin L), and interferon-induced transmembrane protein 1. These target genes are generally known to be involved in the regulation of cellular immunity and inflammation and are associated with stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the mechanisms EFT is thought to work is through acupuncture stimulation. This review article describes &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.acupmedvet.com/artigos%20cient%C3%ADficos/Hui_2010_AutonomicNeuroscience.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2009 study of 48 subjects treated with acupuncture&lt;/a&gt; found - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;decreased activity in limbic and paralimbic regions including the medial prefrontal, medial parietal and medial temporal lobes, along with increased activity in the sensorimotor cortices and select paralimbic structures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-08-21T09:58:04.780" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23880" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23866" CreationDate="2019-08-21T10:45:09.663" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is strong evidence for EFT for depression. A metaanalysis &lt;a href=&quot;https://tappingintowellbeing.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Meta-Analysis-EFt-Depression.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nelms &amp;amp; Castel (2016)&lt;/a&gt; found 20 studies including 12 randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and 8 outcome studies. 461 participants were studied in the outcome studies with over 398 in the RCTs. There were significant reduction in depressive symptoms found in this meta-analysis across multiple patient populations in a variety of different settings. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cohen׳s d for RCTs was 1.85 and for outcome studies was 0.70. Effect sizes for follow-ups less than 90 days were 1.21, and for ≥ 90 days were 1.11&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EFT is also effective for anxiety. A meta-analysis by &lt;a href=&quot;https://evidencebasedeft.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Meta-analysis-EFT-Anxiety.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clond (2016)&lt;/a&gt; found 14 studies with 658 subjects examined (293 EFT, 365 control). The meta-analysis found significant improvement in anxiety in the trials and &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;effect size for the EFT treatment group was 1.23 (95% confidence interval, 0.82-1.64; p &amp;lt; 0.001), whereas the effect size for combined controls was 0.41 (95% confidence interval, 0.17-0.67; p = 0.001)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The studies included in the meta-analysis were across a range of populations from children and adolescents, to university students and adults covering a range of anxiety disorders from test anxiety, phobias, PTSD and fibromyalgia with anxiety. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PTSD is further discussed in another question - &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/23876/evidence-for-eft-emotional-freedom-technique-for-ptsd&quot;&gt;Evidence for EFT (Emotional Freedom technique) for PTSD&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The possible biological mechanisms for how EFT works is discussed here - &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/23878/how-does-emotional-freedom-technique-eft-work/23879#23879&quot;&gt;How does Emotional Freedom Technique (EFT) work?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nelms, J. A., &amp;amp; Castel, L. (2016). A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized and Nonrandomized Trials of Clinical Emotional Freedom Techniques (EFT) for the Treatment of Depression. EXPLORE, 12(6), 416–426. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2016.08.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2016.08.001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Clond, M. (2016). Emotional Freedom Techniques for Anxiety: A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 204(5), 388–395. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000483&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000483&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2019-08-23T01:16:51.810" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T01:16:51.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23884" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23876" CreationDate="2019-08-22T02:11:37.280" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The meta-analysis on anxiety referred to by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/6/4/146/htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Church, D. et al. (2018)&lt;/a&gt; was performed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://evidencebasedeft.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/EFT-for-PTSD-Meta-Analysis-Sebastian-Nelms-Explore-pre-pub.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sebastian &amp;amp; Nelms, (2017)&lt;/a&gt; was published in a questionable journal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This critique by Ferrara found that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;four studies suffered from two fatal flaws: they had a small number of participants, and EFT was compared to waitlist controls that did nothing. These studies really tell us nothing about the effectiveness of EFT and they do not validate the theory behind it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Small, biased studies without comparison groups from one group of researchers with a financial interest in EFT have shown the treatment is associated with improved PTSD symptoms. However, when it has been compared to CBT, there are no differences between the approaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://healthybutsmart.com/emotional-freedom-technique/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://healthybutsmart.com/emotional-freedom-technique/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Church, D., Stapleton, P., Mollon, P., Feinstein, D., Boath, E., Mackay, D., &amp;amp; Sims, R. (2018, December). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/6/4/146/htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Guidelines for the Treatment of PTSD Using Clinical EFT (Emotional Freedom Techniques).&lt;/a&gt; In Healthcare (Vol. 6, No. 4, p. 146). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Sebastian, B., &amp;amp; Nelms, J. (2017). &lt;a href=&quot;https://evidencebasedeft.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/EFT-for-PTSD-Meta-Analysis-Sebastian-Nelms-Explore-pre-pub.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Effectiveness of Emotional Freedom Techniques in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Meta-Analysis.&lt;/a&gt; EXPLORE, 13(1), 16–25. &#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2019-08-23T01:27:57.950" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T01:27:57.950" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23888" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23832" CreationDate="2019-08-22T05:03:53.207" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would also like to plug &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Markus Meister’s blog: &lt;a href=&quot;https://markusmeister.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://markusmeister.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jeremy Borniger’s blog and journal club: &lt;a href=&quot;https://jeremyborniger.com/new-blog&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://jeremyborniger.com/new-blog&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Spike on Medium curated by Mark Humphries and curated by others; probably the closest to what you are looking for: &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/the-spike&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://medium.com/the-spike&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inscopix’s corporate blog: &lt;a href=&quot;https://media.inscopix.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://media.inscopix.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Off the Convex Path which features ML and computational neuroscience: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.offconvex.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.offconvex.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And Richard Gao’s blog: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.rdgao.com/blog/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.rdgao.com/blog/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;None of them are “one-stop-shops” like some machine learning blogs but they all offer interesting perspectives and reviews across computational and systems neuroscience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24023" LastEditorUserId="24023" LastEditDate="2019-08-22T05:11:21.127" LastActivityDate="2019-08-22T05:11:21.127" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2019-08-22T05:03:53.207" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23889" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23841" CreationDate="2019-08-22T05:19:59.330" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Exactly like you, I would like to begin by saying that I have no animosity nor prejudice against anyone. What I am saying below is not meant to be offensive to anyone, it is just an honest account of what the data in my region says. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You wrote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;I can only think of 2 possible solutions ... either a difference in&#xA;  psychological predisposition between the sexes (but if so what), or&#xA;  some genetic component.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there is in fact a third factor, which is economics. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where I live (Southeast Asia), there's quite a large number of many male -&gt; female trans people that are prostitutes. I have lived in Indonesia, Philippines, and Thailand, which are all countries that appear lower than 80th in the list of countries by GDP per capita, and do have a large population of people living in poverty. If you go to the streets where most of the prostitutes advertise themselves (such as Jalan Jaksa in Jakarta, Indonesia) you will find these days that many of them (and in some areas, the majority of them!) are male -&gt; female trans. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This may get quite controversial, so once again, I begin by saying that I have no animosity nor prejudice against anyone. I just want to point out, if I may, that for men, it is not as easy to make money as a prostitute as it is for women. Men statistically pay for sex more often than women do. I have not seen any homeless women in my city acting as &quot;beggers&quot; (I only see men doing this), but I see far more female prostitutes (in fact I have never in my life seen a male prostitute advertising themselves on a street!). Most of the trans-women I know in my city, started out as pre-operation trans people that made ends meet as escorts or prostitutes or &quot;sugar babies&quot; and many of them got the money for their operation by a &quot;sugar daddy&quot; or a wealthy client that developed a closer relationship with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; saying this is the only reason. I am just saying that there is at least one more reason in addition to the two that you have suggested as the only two you could think of. What I have written applies to my region of the world and may not apply to wealthier places such as Luxembourg where practically everyone (even the poorest people) are better off than the middle class here (and would less likely need to resort to prostitution).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is also likely that the answer to the question depends heavily on the region in question, as is the case for sexual orientation demographics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me start with the opening sentence to the Wikipedia article on &quot;Demographics of Sexual Orientation&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The demographics of sexual orientation vary significantly, and&#xA;  estimates for the LGBT population are subject to controversy and&#xA;  ensuing debates.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the same page has this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bXWFh.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bXWFh.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It shows that males are more likely to be gay than females in every city in Brazil except for Manaus which is in the Amazon. We cannot rule out the possibility that in Manaus, there might be cultural or societal reasons why 10% of the women have become attracted to women more than the men. I am not saying that the men of Manaus are bad people, I am just saying that &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;genetics and psychology are not the only factors&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and that culture and society can affect what type of people a population finds attractive (in a misogynistic society women might start to find men less appealing, for example, so it is not just genetics and psychology).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, in USA the statistics are the opposite of in Brazil (women are more likely to be gay than men):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/T0dxI.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/T0dxI.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect that just as the demographics of LGBT people &quot;vary significantly, and estimates for the LGBT population are subject to controversy and ensuing debates&quot;, the same may be true for trans people (in fact trans is the T in LGBT, so already there's at least one other place that says that statistics will vary significantly and be hard to generalize). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am  not saying that psychology and genetics don't play any role at all, but I do think we also have to consider other factors that would lead to more males becoming trans than females such as geography (are we in a place where it's acceptable for men to transform but not women? are we in a place where more women are in demand for certain jobs? are we in a place where more women are in demand for sex?) and in some cases even economy. Because of this added complication (which gets into &quot;soft&quot; sciences of sociology and economics which are harder describe in a more mathematical or clinical manner than &quot;hard&quot; sciences like neurology), it might be very difficult to get a straight answer regarding psychology and genetics, especially since all the data is also relatively new and people haven't been studying the topic for long enough yet!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24022" LastActivityDate="2019-08-22T05:19:59.330" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23891" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-22T05:42:04.590" Score="4" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's an Thai word: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thailand-family-law-center.com/demystifying-kreng-jai/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;kreng jai&lt;/a&gt; (the feeling of not wanting to disturb/inconvenience another person, or feeling uneasy due to your own request of someone) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise in Burmese the word &quot;anade&quot; which is &quot;a strong sense of consideration for others' feelings and a desire not to cause them to feel psychological distress, unease, or burden&quot; and in Japanese the similar word &quot;enryo&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There seems to be a common cross-cultural feeling of distress at being a burden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a psychological explanation for why people feel bad instead of good, if someone were to help them with something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24022" LastEditorUserId="24022" LastEditDate="2019-08-22T23:09:52.643" LastActivityDate="2019-08-24T07:27:57.737" Title="Is there a known reason why people feel a bit bad after other people do something for them?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23893" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23858" CreationDate="2019-08-22T07:28:57.747" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you want to build a neural network as a biological simulation, maybe none of these are the best options, since they are more suitable for deep neural networks. If you want to mimic synapses using some model as Hodgkin and Huxley, you must use some different approaches. For that, you may use NEURON environment (&lt;a href=&quot;https://neuron.yale.edu/neuron/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://neuron.yale.edu/neuron/&lt;/a&gt;), which has some implementations of the theoretical models behind action potentials. It comes with a gui, but personally I don't like it, so I just code everything using their python's library. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, if you are just looking for a way to model a network, without adding too much complexity, then any of your examples are probably are ok to build directed graphs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24026" LastActivityDate="2019-08-22T07:28:57.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23894" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8226" CreationDate="2019-08-22T14:41:59.593" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;From a developmental perspective, this question is partially addressed in the pages of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661317301110#sec0010&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Mechanisms for Connectome Development&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; by Marcus Kaiser. Spatial considerations are an important constraint on the probability of a connection between pairs of neurons in two ways: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The first factor is the neuronal density which he explains very clearly:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...as a higher number of neurons per volume make it more likely to hit&#xA;  a potential target neuron. Say that for each volume element (e.g., 1&#xA;  μm3) there is a probability &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p$&lt;/span&gt; that the space contains a neuron and a&#xA;  probability &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$q = 1 − p$&lt;/span&gt; that the space is empty. Hitting another&#xA;  neuron three volume elements away from the starting point given a&#xA;  (certain) direction means two times passing through empty volume&#xA;  elements and one time (the last growth step) entering a volume element&#xA;  that contains a neuron (Figure 2B): the probability to hit another&#xA;  neuron after n steps or passed volume elements is &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P(X = n) = qn−1&#xA;&amp;gt; \cdot p$&lt;/span&gt;. The exponential decay of the probability to encounter&#xA;  another neuron as a function of distance between two neurons (or &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n$&lt;/span&gt;&#xA;  steps) means that it is more likely to hit a nearby neuron than&#xA;  hitting a neuron that is far away after failing to encounter many&#xA;  nearby neurons. Imagine going through a crowded room in a straight&#xA;  line. You are more likely to bump into someone early on than only&#xA;  passing through an empty space and reaching a person who is farther&#xA;  away. Therefore, basic considerations for axon growth can already&#xA;  account for the observed exponential decay of connection probability&#xA;  with distance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The degree of curvature during axonal growth is another consideration as a random walk in space would actually increase the probability of revisiting spaces that don't contain a neuron. But, there may be reasons for changing course: &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;While axons normally grow in a straight line, their target neurons&#xA;  might often be off-course leading to the need to change the growth&#xA;  trajectory. Causes for changing direction could be physical obstacles&#xA;  that either block the path or lead to adhesion of the axon.&#xA;  Alternatively, concentration gradients can lead an axon towards a&#xA;  target. In this way, axonal growth cones detect the concentration of a&#xA;  molecule and follow a gradient of increasing concentration towards the&#xA;  source of that molecule [22]. However, the concentration of a molecule&#xA;  decays exponentially with the square of the distance between source&#xA;  and growth cone. Given the diffusion constant in vivo [23], the&#xA;  estimated maximum distance across which a growth cone can detect&#xA;  molecules emitted from a target neuron is 1 cm [24].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what about axons that are more than a centimeter in length? Dr. Kaiser addresses this case as well. In fact, the whole paper is an enjoyable read and covers many related questions.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastActivityDate="2019-08-22T14:41:59.593" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23895" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11060" CreationDate="2019-08-22T15:36:00.587" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question can be addressed in many ways. One approach that we have taken is to test memory for what has just recently happened a few seconds ago.  In these experiments we ask people to find a target in a simple visual search, and report its location.  For example we might show them 3 numbers and one letter and ask them to report the location of the letter.  After several minutes of doing this task, we give them a surprise question in which we ask them to tell us the actual letter that they had just located in the most recent trial (which they saw just a few seconds ago).  What we find is that it is easy to find situations in which our participants have very little memory of that letter. What is interesting about this is that they had just located the letter by virtue of the fact that it was a letter.  We presume, therefore, that the letter had briefly entered their awareness.  This can be debated, if one assumes that one can search for letters without actually experiencing the letters.  However we also found the same result with digit-parity tasks (i.e. find the odd number among evens or vice versa). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We called this effect attribute amnesia, since people seem to have amnesia for a specific attribute of a stimulus they had just selected.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So while there are lots of ways to interpret this finding, the clearest result seems to be that performing a mental operation that selects a piece of visual information can leave a memory trace so weak that it cannot be remembered just a few seconds later.  Our interpretation is that the memory was never created in the first place.  We believe that the brain has filters on memory encoding that allow us to process information without remembering it.  It is also possible that it was encoded into memory and immediately forgotten but we do not favor this view as it seems less parsimonious than the filter that prevents encoding in the first place.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some articles on this phenomenon:&#xA;Chen, H., &amp;amp; Wyble, B. (2015). Amnesia for object attributes: Failure to report attended information that had just reached conscious awareness. Psychological science, 26(2), 203-210.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chen, H., Swan, G., &amp;amp; Wyble, B. (2016). Prolonged focal attention without binding: Tracking a ball for half a minute without remembering its color. Cognition, 147, 144-148.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chen, H., &amp;amp; Wyble, B. (2016). Attribute amnesia reflects a lack of memory consolidation for attended information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 42(2), 225.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some freely-available pre-prints of related articles if you cannot access the ones above:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/gbdcr/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psyarxiv.com/gbdcr/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/87yg2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psyarxiv.com/87yg2/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I apologize that not all of our work is available on preprint servers yet.  I'd be happy to email copies of published articles if you email me at bwyble@gmail.com&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24033" LastEditorUserId="24033" LastEditDate="2019-08-23T20:19:18.943" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T20:19:18.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23896" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23899" CreationDate="2019-08-22T20:25:47.333" Score="2" ViewCount="181" Body="&lt;p&gt;Baron-Cohen has conducted extensive studies [1,2] examining the prevalence of autism spectrum conditions (ASCs) and mathematical or scientific ability. Most of these studies, however, have focused mostly on (Cambridge) undergraduates or winners of the UK Mathematics Olympiad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one study, Baron-Cohen found in [2] that Olympiad winners scored the highest in the AQ test (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\mathrm{AQ}\colon 24.5,\mathrm{ SD}\colon 5.7$&lt;/span&gt;), with the second highest scoring group being the mathematics students (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\mathrm{AQ}\colon 21.5,\mathrm{ SD}\colon 6.4$&lt;/span&gt;).&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^1$&lt;/span&gt; This leads one to conjecture that autistic traits may be more prominent among individuals with higher mathematical ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;What is the population evidence&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^2$&lt;/span&gt; around autism/autistic traits in mathematics? If possible, at the postgraduate level in professional mathematicians?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer&lt;/strong&gt;: There is a another question focused on the postgraduate maths skill set: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/23911/based-on-current-evidence-can-one-reasonably-argue-that-mathematicians-have-mor&quot;&gt;Is there any evidence for the distinction between undergrad and postgrad mathematics?&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^1$&lt;/span&gt;Note however that the sample is small: &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n=16$&lt;/span&gt; for UK Olympiad winners, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n=85$&lt;/span&gt; for mathematics students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^2$&lt;/span&gt;As in measuring the average AQ of mathematicians against other groups, such as graduate students, undergraduates, and controls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[1] Baron-Cohen, Simon, Sally Wheelwright, Amy Burtenshaw, and Esther Hobson. &quot;Mathematical talent is linked to autism.&quot; Human nature 18, no. 2 (2007): 125-131.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[2] Baron-Cohen, Simon, Sally Wheelwright, Richard Skinner, Joanne Martin, and Emma Clubley. &quot;The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians.&quot; Journal of autism and developmental disorders 31, no. 1 (2001): 5-17.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24037" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2019-08-24T02:47:33.083" LastActivityDate="2019-08-24T02:47:33.083" Title="What is the evidence that mathematicians are more likely to have autistic traits than the rest of the population?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23897" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-22T21:40:19.790" Score="1" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am using representational similarity analyses (RSA) to compare models to some fMRI data. As part of this analysis I have computed noise ceilings for each of my regions of interest (ROIs). What's weird is that, for one ROI, the correlation between my model and the aggregate participant data (RDMs averaged together) is higher than the noise ceiling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I calculated the noise ceiling by splitting the participant data into two sets, averaging the RDMs from each set and the correlating the two sets to one another. The main model comparisons are done by correlating the model RDM to an averaged RDM from all of the participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that the noise ceiling is supposed to estimate the performance of a &quot;hypothetical true model&quot; and be the upper bound of your prediction accuracy, how should one interpret this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that this is only one ROI, my interpretation is that this region is a little noisier than others and so the between-participant correlation isn't great, but when you aggregate many participants it averages out some of the noise in the data and allows for a decent model correlation. Is that reasonable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24039" LastActivityDate="2019-08-22T21:40:19.790" Title="Noise ceiling estimate is lower than model prediction in RSA?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;similarirty&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23898" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-23T04:32:40.360" Score="1" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Introduction:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In ‘Is coding a relevant metaphor for the brain?’(2018) Romain Brette argues that &lt;em&gt;the causal structure of neural codes (linear, atemporal) is incongruent with the causal structure of&#xA;the brain (circular, dynamic).&lt;/em&gt; While he clearly explains how neural codes are inappropriate theoretical constructs for behavioural neuroscience experiments it's immediately clear what he means by &lt;em&gt;causal structure&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/e4t4B.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/e4t4B.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the 18th page he explains that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The causal structure of the brain is sketched on Figure 9A. At a&#xA;coarse description level, the brain is a dynamical system coupled to&#xA;the environment by circular causality. At a finer description level,&#xA;the brain is itself made of neurons, which are themselves dynamical&#xA;systems coupled together. To a first approximation, the coupling is&#xA;mediated by spikes, which are timed events. In a dynamical system,&#xA;state variables have a causal role by construction; examples of state&#xA;variables in this physical system are membrane potential and the state&#xA;of ionic channels. Spikes have causal effect, but being events they&#xA;are not state variables; a spike is something that happens, not a&#xA;property of the system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which is incongruent with concept of a neural code since:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neural codes abstract time away, but temporality is critical to the&#xA;operation of a dynamical system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's worth noting that Judea Pearl and other computer scientists have developed practical methods for causal inference [2] but no rigorous notion of causality. For this reason, I think evidence of the brain's causal structure would require a practical dynamical model of the brain on which we can perform causal inference to answer questions in behavioural neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt; Questions:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This leads me to a couple questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there biologically-plausible dynamical systems models that would qualify? (Might brain network models be sufficient? Ex: [3])&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Assuming such models exist, what methods may we use to perform causal inference on these dynamical systems?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After further reflection upon comments due to Bryan Krause I think these two questions may be combined to form a single question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Are there biologically plausible models for causal inference in the human brain?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt; Discussion:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Dynamical Systems that build upon neural coding theory:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brette's notion of causal structure for the brain appears to be in direct opposition with that of Karl Friston's &lt;em&gt;Free Energy Principle&lt;/em&gt; [4] whose formalism builds upon neural coding theory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning under the free-energy principle can be formulated in terms of&#xA;optimizing the connection strengths in hierarchical models of the&#xA;sensorium. This rests on associative plasticity to encode causal&#xA;regularities and appeals to the same synaptic mechanisms as those&#xA;underlying cell assembly formation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in [5] Karl Friston argues that a dynamical system like the brain can encode sequences of events via attractors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...the basic idea is that the environment unfolds as an ordered sequence&#xA;of spatio-temporal dynamics, whose equations of motion induce&#xA;attractor manifolds that contain sensory trajectories. Critically, the&#xA;shape of the manifold generating sensory data is itself changed by&#xA;other dynamical systems that could have their own attractors. If we&#xA;consider the brain has a generative model of these coupled attractors,&#xA;then we would expect to see attractors in neuronal dynamics that are&#xA;trying to predict sensory input. In a hierarchical setting, the states&#xA;of a high-level attractor enter the equations of motion of a low-level&#xA;attractor in a nonlinear way, to change the shape of its manifold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a plausible hypothesis which suggests that a more sophisticated notion of encoding might be used by the brain where state variables emerge from temporal sequences via attractors. Having said that, Brette's critique of the conventional interpretation of neuronal codes by the majority of behavioural neuroscientists still holds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Causal Inference vs the metaphysics of Causality:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can't know the brain itself, only models of the brain that we may use to do experiments. To clarify my first question: Brette says that models based on notions of neural coding wouldn't qualify so what are concrete examples of dynamical systems models that do? My questions are very much designed to move the discussion beyond theory and what could be useful to behavioural neuroscientists. Furthermore, I suspect that it's not possible to define causality without going into &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/causation-metaphysics/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;metaphysics&lt;/a&gt;. This is probably why Judea Pearl chose to develop a theory of causal inference and not a theory of causal methods. Using methods from causal inference you can argue that two causal structures are distinct if: (1) there is a method for causal inference that is applicable to struct A but not struct B (2) there is a method for causal inference for which struct A and struct B give different answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Romain Brette. Is coding a relevant metaphor for the brain? BioArxiv. 2018.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Robert R. Tucci. Introduction to Judea Pearl's Do-Calculus. 2013.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Christopher W. Lynn &amp;amp; Danielle S. Bassett. The physics of brain network structure, function and control. Nature. 2019.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Karl Friston. The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory? 2010.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Karl Friston and Stefan Kiebel. Predictive coding under the free-energy principle. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 2009.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Metaphysics of Causation. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2016.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3503" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T15:57:44.470" Title="Biologically plausible models for causal inference in the human brain" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;encoding&gt;&lt;behavioural-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23899" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23896" CreationDate="2019-08-23T06:02:42.227" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. I can't seem to find a specific study into professional mathematicians or graduate students so far, the studies always seem to group the occupations together. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, Baron-Cohen's team has done an impressive national survey &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0141229&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ruzich et al., 2015)&lt;/a&gt; and recruited nearly half a million people through a UK TV show. They managed to get over 450,394 survey respondents which allowed them to analyse occupations. They found that people working in STEM scored higher in an autism screening questionnaire or AQ (Autism-Spectrum Quotient) test. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;individuals working in a STEM career (m = 21.92, SD = 8.92) scored higher than individuals non-STEM careers (m = 18.92, SD = 8.48)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, there wasn't a specific category for mathematicians as probably it is too specific and too small a field to analyse. The three categories &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figure?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0141229.g003&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(figure 3)&lt;/a&gt; forming STEM was Comp &amp;amp; IT, Engineering and Sci &amp;amp; Tech. Mathematicians would fit into one of those occupational roles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ruzich, E., Allison, C., Chakrabarti, B., Smith, P., Musto, H., Ring, H., &amp;amp; Baron-Cohen, S. (2015). &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0141229&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sex and STEM Occupation Predict Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) Scores in Half a Million People&lt;/a&gt;. PLOS ONE, 10(10), e0141229. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T06:02:42.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23900" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23179" CreationDate="2019-08-23T08:22:37.627" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all you should notice the assumption that spikes are independent and that every sequence of spikes over an interval has the same probability. That's why you can express &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P[t_{1}, t_{2}, ..., t_{n}]$&lt;/span&gt; in terms of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P_{T}[n]$&lt;/span&gt;. &#xA;Second, note that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p[t_{1}, t_{2}, ..., t_{n}]$&lt;/span&gt; is a probability density. So you can express the probability as the integral of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p[t_{1}, t_{2}, ..., t_{n}] dt_{1}dt_{2}...dt_{n}$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Delta t / T$&lt;/span&gt; is the probability that one spike occurs in that time interval. If &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Delta t$&lt;/span&gt; is small enough, only one spike is within that interval, so just let &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\Delta t \rightarrow dt_{i}$&lt;/span&gt;. Then  &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p[t_{1}, t_{2}, ..., t_{n}] dt_{1}dt{2}...dt{n} = n!P_{T}[n]dt_{1}dt_{2}...dt_{n}(\frac{1}{T})^{n}$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You should see this as a joint probability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24026" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T08:22:37.627" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23901" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23844" CreationDate="2019-08-23T10:08:27.463" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found your question hard to answer because of the multiple disorders involved. I hope my answers contains some information that is usefull to you. However, it is likely not the satifsying answers you are looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Hansen, Oerbeck, Skirbekk, Petrovski, &amp;amp; Kristensen (2018) about 21 percent of children with neurodevelopmental disorders (ND) have one comorbid disorder in the category of neurodevelopmental disorders. For ADHD and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ADS), tic disorder was the most common ND. 36% of ADHD patients had tic disorder as well and 44% ASD patients had a tic disorder. As for OCD, 3.3% of the patients with ADHD also had OCD and 4.0% of the patients with ASD had OCD as well. This study did not investigate the OCPD as a possible comorbid disorder for neurodevelopmental disorders. After doing some more searching, I unfortunately could not find much information about OCPD in relation to Neurodevelopmental disorders and the specific example your provided (OCD, OCDP, ADHD and ADS). However, that does not mean it is not possible, in practice all kinds of comorbidities can occur. The behavior of these patients would likely reflect the symptoms of all the disorders present in the patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A big problem with our current understanding/diagnosis of disorders is that most of the disorders are categorized based on their symptoms (e.g. DSM V). In practice symptoms between disorders heavily overlap resulting in comorbidity for most patients (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2014). It is often mandatory to diagnose multiple disorders. For example, if the patient meets both the criteria for ADHD and Autism Spectrum Disorder, then both disorders need to be diagnosed, same goes for OCD and OCPD (see DSM V, Chapters about Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Personality Disorders). Sometimes patients are believed to have &quot;hybrid disorders&quot; (multiple symptoms of multiple disorders). Therefore, it would be better to classify disorders according to their causes instead of the symptoms. That would be the first step in truly explaining disorders instead of simply describing them (Davey, 2014).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Davey G. (2014). Psychopathology: Research, Assessment &amp;amp; Treatment in Clinical Psychology (2nd ed). British Psychological Association and John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons LTD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hansen, B., Oerbeck, B., Skirbekk, B., Petrovski, B., &amp;amp; Kristensen, H. (2018). Neurodevelopmental disorders: Prevalence and comorbidity in children referred to mental health services. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 72(4), 285-291. doi:10.1080/08039488.2018.1444087&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2014). (Ab)normal psychology (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23961" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-08-23T15:44:53.103" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T15:44:53.103" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23902" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20148" CreationDate="2019-08-23T11:03:47.307" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dynamical systems (basically all of them) display a wide repertoire of dynamics when tuned close to criticality (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_phenomena&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_phenomena&lt;/a&gt;). In this range, organized patterns of activity emerge, close to those that we find when looking at statistical dependencies between time series recording (at least partially) brain activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long range correlations also emerge in this phase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it's true that dynamical models tuned close to criticality better fit brain activity. On the other hand saying that &quot;brain activity is critical&quot; is a logical fallacy, since we are giving to the modelled system properties of the model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(chaos is a close concept, stressing the dependency on initial conditions, but in this case I think that criticality is more relevant).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See, among other things, this scientific yet accessible paper&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beggs, J. M., &amp;amp; Timme, N. (2012). Being Critical of Criticality in the Brain. Frontiers in Physiology, 3. doi:10.3389/fphys.2012.00163&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2012.00163/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2012.00163/full&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24044" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T11:03:47.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23903" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23867" CreationDate="2019-08-23T11:37:03.510" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, the General Assessment of Functioning (GAF) score can be used for all psychiatric disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The GAF is not commonly used now as the DSM V has opted for the WHODAS 2.0 instead of GAF. There were fundamental problems with GAF including poor reliability with people who were less trained, cross-cultural variations and symptom severity tended to influence symptom scoring instead of functional impairment &lt;a href=&quot;http://jaapl.org/content/42/2/173&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Gold, 2014)&lt;/a&gt;. The DSM V also commented on their concerns - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We do not believe that a single score from a global assessment, such as the GAF,&#xA;  conveys information to adequately assess each of these components, which are likely to vary independently over time. Further, we are concerned about evidence that the GAF requires specific training for proper use, and that good reliability and prediction of outcomes in routine clinical practice may depend on such training&#xA;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=18&amp;amp;ved=2ahUKEwj15PXY8JjkAhU37HMBHVNRCfYQFjARegQIBRAC&amp;amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychiatry.org%2FFile%2520Library%2FPsychiatrists%2FPractice%2FDSM%2FAPA_DSM_Insurance-Implications-of-DSM-5.pdf&amp;amp;usg=AOvVaw30t3JRl3I8jZ7Nh0aELkO7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(APA, 2013).&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=18&amp;amp;ved=2ahUKEwj15PXY8JjkAhU37HMBHVNRCfYQFjARegQIBRAC&amp;amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychiatry.org%2FFile%2520Library%2FPsychiatrists%2FPractice%2FDSM%2FAPA_DSM_Insurance-Implications-of-DSM-5.pdf&amp;amp;usg=AOvVaw30t3JRl3I8jZ7Nh0aELkO7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Insurance Implications of DSM 5&lt;/a&gt;. In Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gold, L. H. (2014). &lt;a href=&quot;http://jaapl.org/content/42/2/173&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5 and the Assessment of Functioning: The World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 (WHODAS 2.0)&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online, 42(2), 173–181.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-08-23T11:56:41.017" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T11:56:41.017" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23904" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23908" CreationDate="2019-08-23T11:51:05.103" Score="0" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for methods currently used to analyze micro-electrode arrays spike trains and figure out patterns, as repeated sequences of activation or spacial correlations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know about ISI histograms, power spectrum, anda DNA-sequencing-like-algorithms, but I am looking for other methods, from statistics or machine learning. &#xA;Any recommendations of papers/books exploiting these methods? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24026" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T18:23:25.550" Title="Methods to find patterns or correlations in MEA spike trains" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23905" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-23T11:51:35.577" Score="0" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;Where can I find the scoring and analysis of the intrinsic-extrinsic religious orientation scale given by Allport and Ross (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bfa1/e5d350b1307ca9796f86495af668e9758e4f.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1967&lt;/a&gt;). I'm unable to find it anywhere.&#xA;There is also a religious orientation scale by Gupta and Mishra (2007).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Allport, G. W., &amp;amp; Ross, J. M. (1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. &lt;em&gt;Journal of personality and social psychology, 5&lt;/em&gt;(4), 432. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0021212&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0021212&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24003" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-24T12:14:41.303" Title="How do I score people on the Religious Orientation Scale?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23906" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="243" CreationDate="2019-08-23T12:07:57.457" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm going to focus on your third question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What does scientific research tell us about why humans have this tendency?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I use the word &quot;focus&quot; because, well, I can't answer that. But I can introduce you a field of research that may be able to answer that for you. It's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive science of religion&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cognitive science of religion is the study of religious thought and behavior from the perspective of the cognitive and evolutionary sciences. The field employs methods and theories from a very broad range of disciplines, including: cognitive psychology, evolutionary psychology, cognitive anthropology, artificial intelligence, neurotheology, developmental psychology, and archaeology. Scholars in this field seek to explain how human minds acquire, generate, and transmit religious thoughts, practices, and schemas by means of ordinary cognitive capacities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other resources to research on this topic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iacsr.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Association for the Cognitive Science of Religion (IACSR)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.equinoxpub.com/index.php/JCSR&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Journal for the Cognitive Science of Religion&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-08-23T13:33:11.890" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T13:33:11.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23907" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-23T15:57:27.163" Score="2" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any scientific study or theory which supports the following claim? - People always decide to act in accordance with things they believe will guarantee them the maximum amount of positive feelings in their conscious life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any other variables that play a role in the person's decision-making?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(*Note please that I don't have a background in psychology.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24047" LastEditorUserId="24047" LastEditDate="2019-08-23T16:33:05.620" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T15:44:44.273" Title="Do people always decide to do things that they believe will provide them the maximum amount of positive feelings in their conscious life?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23908" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23904" CreationDate="2019-08-23T18:23:25.550" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a very broad question. There is a very large literature on studying MEA spike trains: some classic methods are probably already explained in books such as Dayan and Abbott's Theoretical Neuroscience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're looking for &quot;statistical modelling&quot;, i.e. describing properties of a network's activity without caring for its actual structure and dynamics, generalised linear models (GLM) are a common tool (see articles by Liam Paninski 2004, Jonathan Pillow 2008) and maximum entropy models too (Schneidman et al. 2006, Shlens et al 2006). This literature is still quite popular, although probably not as fruitful as a decade ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are certainly other things that could be mentioned in this area, but I don't know them all, and it also fundamentally depends on what you're trying to do. Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24048" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T18:23:25.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23909" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23858" CreationDate="2019-08-23T19:06:16.863" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you're looking at computational models of actual neurons and biological neural networks, there are a number of tools out there which are specifically for the purpose. The most commonly used are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nest-simulator.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEST&lt;/a&gt; is well maintained and a common tool for network dynamics.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://brian2.readthedocs.io/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brian2&lt;/a&gt; is flexible and easy to use.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.neuron.yale.edu/neuron/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NEURON&lt;/a&gt; is particularly popular when one is interested in biologically detailed single neurons and their interactions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Writing bio-plausible neural models in Tensorflow or Torch is certainly possible, but those tools are particularly useful when you want to efficiently &lt;em&gt;train&lt;/em&gt; a network (normally by backpropagation), and bio-plausible models are not commonly written using these tools. However, I am aware of at least two tools that simulate &lt;em&gt;spiking&lt;/em&gt; networks in Torch. These are used because the authors were interested in porting models similar to convolutional neural networks, but with spikes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/miladmozafari/SpykeTorch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SpykeTorch&lt;/a&gt; High-speed simulator of convolutional spiking neural networks with at most one spike per neuron. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://gitlab.com/aiCTX/sinabs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sinabs&lt;/a&gt; used to port CNNs to neuromorphic hardware&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24048" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T19:06:16.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23910" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-23T19:54:38.030" Score="5" ViewCount="96" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.learning-mind.com/macdonald-triad-traits-psychopath-child/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Learning-Mind website&lt;/a&gt;, the 3 basic behaviors of a person  which indicate likely psychopathy are &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unhealthy obsession around arson&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cruelty to animals &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bed wetting after the age of five years old&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has been described as the MacDonald triad. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if 2 out of the 3 behaviors are found in one person, does that mean that he/she is certainly a psychopath? How predictive is the MacDonald triad?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How treatable is psychopathy? How can one if they have three of the MacDonald triad and have been diagnosed with psychopathy to not to behave like that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This 2012 question discussed the definition of psychopathy - &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/678/are-there-any-standard-tests-to-measure-psychopathy&quot;&gt;Are there any standard tests to measure psychopathy?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And so does this 2009 question - &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/21022/what-is-the-proper-definition-of-psychopathy&quot;&gt;What is the proper definition of psychopathy?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24050" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-08-26T03:43:22.540" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T03:43:22.540" Title="Cases of psychopathy" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23911" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-23T21:31:06.380" Score="3" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;Baron-Cohen has conducted studies [1,2] investigating whether autism spectrum conditions (ASCs) are related to mathematical or scientific ability. These have, however, focused mostly on (Cambridge) undergraduates or winners of the UK Mathematics Olympiad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, Baron-Cohen found in [2] that Olympiad winners scored the highest in the AQ test (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\mathrm{AQ}\colon 24.5,\mathrm{ SD}\colon 5.7$&lt;/span&gt;), with the second highest scoring group being the mathematics students (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\mathrm{AQ}\colon 21.5,\mathrm{ SD}\colon 6.4$&lt;/span&gt;).&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^1$&lt;/span&gt; This leads one to conjecture that autistic traits may be more prominent among individuals with higher mathematical ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While investigations on the relationship between autism and mathematical ability have been carried out [3,4], mostly of these focused on students at the undergraduate level or below. Furthermore, these studies may be focused on a completely different skill set than the one required for the practice of research mathematics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there evidence for the distinction between undergraduate and postgraduate skills and studies especially from a biological or psychometric point of view?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the level of mathematics as done by undergraduates different from graduate students or professional mathematicians? There are very distinct skills required at various levels for example, a set of skills&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^2$&lt;/span&gt;, such as good writing, abstract thinking, endurance&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^3$&lt;/span&gt;, creativity, and problem solving for a research project. Is technical ability such as [4] &quot;mathematical ability&quot; through arithmetic problems, which focuses only on problem solving, a distinct set of skills that has been shown to be distinct in other studies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Disclaimer&lt;/strong&gt;: This question has been split from &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/23896/are-mathematicians-more-autistic-than-mathematics-student&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^1$&lt;/span&gt;Note however that the sample is small: &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n=16$&lt;/span&gt; for UK Olympiad winners, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n=85$&lt;/span&gt; for mathematics students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^2$&lt;/span&gt;Of course, there are also skills which individuals with ASCs may have trouble with, such as socialisation (mathematics is often described as an activity with a large social component by its practitioners).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$^3$&lt;/span&gt;In the sense of obsessing, possibly for &lt;em&gt;years&lt;/em&gt;, with a research problem to solve it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[1] Baron-Cohen, Simon, Sally Wheelwright, Amy Burtenshaw, and Esther Hobson. &quot;Mathematical talent is linked to autism.&quot; Human nature 18, no. 2 (2007): 125-131.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[2] Baron-Cohen, Simon, Sally Wheelwright, Richard Skinner, Joanne Martin, and Emma Clubley. &quot;The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians.&quot; Journal of autism and developmental disorders 31, no. 1 (2001): 5-17.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[3] Chiang, Hsu-Min, and Yueh-Hsien Lin. &quot;Mathematical ability of students with Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism: A review of literature.&quot; Autism 11, no. 6 (2007): 547-556.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[4] Bressan, Paola. &quot;Systemisers are better at maths.&quot; Scientific reports 8, no. 1 (2018): 11636.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24037" LastEditorUserId="24037" LastEditDate="2019-08-24T01:52:26.460" LastActivityDate="2019-08-24T01:52:26.460" Title="Is there any evidence for the distinction between undergrad and postgrad mathematics?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23913" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23907" CreationDate="2019-08-23T23:48:00.200" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say that the more compelling scientific evidence would suggest the opposite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Daniel Kahnemann got a Nobel Prize for behavioural economics, part of which discussed that the default decision making is not a rational, thought through process.  His book Thinking Fast and Slow discusses it quite well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dan Ariely's book Predictably Irrational discusses similar concepts, and covers some cognitive biases - specific examples of how people make decisions other than following rational decision making process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both of these books are readily accessible for people without a Psychology background.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the books suggested a way to reduce the impact of this tendency: draft out the framework for the decision making process before going into the decision environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd suggest that more decisions are made from the aspect of minimising negative feelings in the short to medium term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24053" LastActivityDate="2019-08-23T23:48:00.200" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23914" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-24T01:24:04.287" Score="6" ViewCount="194" Body="&lt;p&gt;There have been studies &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225397896_Mathematical_Talent_is_Linked_to_Autism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.autismresearchcentre.com/papers/2001_BCetal_AQ.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[2]&lt;/a&gt; investigating the relationship between autism spectrum conditions (ASCs) and mathematical or scientific ability. In the first study, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225397896_Mathematical_Talent_is_Linked_to_Autism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baron-Cohen et al (2007)&lt;/a&gt; examined 378 undergraduate mathematics students with 414 students from other disciplines (medicine, law, social science). There was a ninefold increase in the rates of autism in the mathematics group compared to the control group (seven cases of autism 1.85% in the math group vs one case of autism 0.24% in the control group). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is some evidence that seem to indicate that individuals with higher mathematical ability &lt;em&gt;might&lt;/em&gt; have more autistic traits. Baron-Cohen has suggested that there is an empathizing–systemizing difference where empathy is mutually exclusive to systematizing or conceptualization but this is hotly contested &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239781577_The_empathising-systemising_theory_of_autism_Implications_for_education&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[3]&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what is the relationship between mathematical ability and autism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(The distinction between postgrad and undergrad maths is discussed in another question - &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/23911/what-is-the-reason-why-mathematicians-have-more-autistic-traits-than-others&quot;&gt;Is there any evidence for the distinction between undergrad and postgrad mathematics?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[1] Baron-Cohen, Simon, Sally Wheelwright, Amy Burtenshaw, and Esther Hobson. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225397896_Mathematical_Talent_is_Linked_to_Autism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Mathematical talent is linked to autism.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; Human nature 18, no. 2 (2007): 125-131.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[2] Baron-Cohen, Simon, Sally Wheelwright, Richard Skinner, Joanne Martin, and Emma Clubley. &lt;a href=&quot;http://docs.autismresearchcentre.com/papers/2001_BCetal_AQ.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians.&quot;&lt;/a&gt; Journal of autism and developmental disorders 31, no. 1 (2001): 5-17.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[3] Baron-Cohen, S. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239781577_The_empathising-systemising_theory_of_autism_Implications_for_education&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The empathising-systemising theory of autism: Implications for education&lt;/a&gt;. Tizard Learning Disability Review, 14, 4–13. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1108/13595474200900022&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1108/13595474200900022&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24037" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2019-08-24T06:03:50.083" LastActivityDate="2020-10-01T21:07:15.787" Title="What is the relationship between mathematical ability and autism?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23915" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23891" CreationDate="2019-08-24T07:21:46.300" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you seem to be talking about here are cultural influences affecting your judgement on what is right and wrong to say and do in certain situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ecologies shape cultures, and cultures influence the development of personalities (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/download/39612381/Cultural_influences_on_personality20151102-2970-70f979.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Triandis &amp;amp; Suh, 2002&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The conceptualization of culture is by no means a simple matter. One possible way to think about culture is that “culture is to society what memory is to individuals” (Kluckhohn 1954). It includes what has worked in the experience of a society, so that it was worth transmitting to future generations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.academia.edu/download/39612381/Cultural_influences_on_personality20151102-2970-70f979.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Triandis &amp;amp; Suh (2002)&lt;/a&gt; went on to say that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Funder (1997) defined personality as “an individual’s characteristic pattern of thought, emotion, and behavior, together with the psychological mechanisms— hidden or not—behind those patterns” (pp.1–2)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The kind of situation you talk about would not be seen as often in Western countries, but it seems to be widespread in Eastern cultures.  To use the Thai culture of เกรงใจ (Kreng Jai) you linked to in your question, as you pointed out, it is insisted that you must not cause anyone distress or discomfort.  But, Kreng Jai can be vexing and cause distress in itself as the insistence can even be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;at the expense of efficiency, honesty, or one’s own interests (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thailand-family-law-center.com/demystifying-kreng-jai/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thailand Family Law Center, 2012&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/20141015014001-50338470-%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%88-kreng-jai-overused-or-misunderstood&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fitzroy (2014)&lt;/a&gt;, there are good aspects to Kreng Jai in business and general society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By demonstrating more courtesy amongst the team you show more compassion and empathy which can lead to better teamwork and better results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are many ways where if Kreng Jai was over used, it can cause all sorts of problems.  For example, being too Kreng Jai to ask your boss for help can result in an important task not being completed on time.  This can cause cause loss of revenue for the business, and embarrassment for both parties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When feeling bad for &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;being inconsiderate towards others feelings on the matter&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;, it can cause a lot of psychological discomfort, and this is what you are describing here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fitzroy, P. (2014). &lt;em&gt;เกรงใจ (Kreng Jai) – overused or misunderstood?&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/20141015014001-50338470-%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%88-kreng-jai-overused-or-misunderstood&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/20141015014001-50338470-%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%88-kreng-jai-overused-or-misunderstood&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Funder D. (1997). &lt;em&gt;The Personality Puzzle&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Norton&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kluckhohn, C. (1954). Culture and behavior. In &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Social Psychology&lt;/em&gt;, ed. G Lindzey, 2:921–76. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thailand Family Law Center. (2012). &lt;em&gt;Demystifying Kreng Jai&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.thailand-family-law-center.com/demystifying-kreng-jai/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.thailand-family-law-center.com/demystifying-kreng-jai/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Triandis, H. C., &amp;amp; Suh, E. M. (2002). Cultural influences on personality. &lt;em&gt;Annual review of psychology, 53&lt;/em&gt;(1), 133-160. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135200&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135200&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-24T07:27:57.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23905" CreationDate="2019-08-24T12:14:41.303" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know about Gupta &amp;amp; Mishra as I cannot find the paper you are referring to, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0021212&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Allport &amp;amp; Ross (1967)&lt;/a&gt; on page 436 (page 5 of the pdf) points out that the full Religious Orientation scale has been deposited with the American Documentation Institute. You need to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Order Document No. 9268 from ADI Auxiliary Publications Project, Photoduplication Service, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't find the document on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://catalog.loc.gov/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Library of Congress catalog&lt;/a&gt;, but it doesn't necessarily mean they don't have it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can have a web chat with a librarian  or use their general inquiries form by going to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.loc.gov/rr/askalib/ask-contactus.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.loc.gov/rr/askalib/ask-contactus.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-08-24T12:14:41.303" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23917" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23941" CreationDate="2019-08-24T12:49:32.850" Score="2" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name for this cognitive bias?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Scenario&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am bad at socializing with people. For 95% of the time I talked to people, I was very awkward. Yet, mostly only 5% of the opposite time stuck to my memory. Therefore I think that I'm a very social person. Although, overwhelmingly, I'm bad. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My mind is biased. I'm blind to all the times I failed, but can recount the outliers (successes) more vividly as if they were the norm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Replace &quot;socializing with people&quot; with anything else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: found and highlighted in this video: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17LuaKpCoDw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17LuaKpCoDw&lt;/a&gt; starting around 1:25&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24058" LastEditorUserId="4116" LastEditDate="2019-08-27T15:54:43.637" LastActivityDate="2019-08-27T23:52:36.783" Title="Cognitive bias believing you are good at the things you are bad at, as successes are more vivid?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23918" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-24T12:52:16.127" Score="1" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen footage of the holocaust where parents and their children were shot, with the parents just standing there, doing nothing to protect their children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have enormous difficulty in understanding the mindset/attitude/reason for this, fatalistic?, conduct. Being a parent myself, I &lt;em&gt;know&lt;/em&gt; I would just go berserk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would make parents act like those in the footage?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8906" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-08-26T16:10:29.997" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T16:10:29.997" Title="What would make parents lose their instinct to protect their own children?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23919" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23918" CreationDate="2019-08-24T13:41:26.050" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gas chambers were decorated as normal showers and massacres as a morning walk. They were simply not told that they are going to be executed. However, once they realized what was about to happen, their instincts typically kicked in and chaos broke out. A lot of people tried to run away and they got shot. Mothers tried to protect their children, but there was simply nothing they could do at this point. Resisting the order to stand in the line would have ended deadly - not only for the mother but also for the children. The only thing they could have done at that moment was to beg and pray for mercy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, there was a huge food shortage in 1944 and 1945. Staatsfeinde des Deutschen Reichs were the last priority at the food chain so most of them were extremely low on energy. This is dreadful for any kind of instinct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19350" LastActivityDate="2019-08-24T13:41:26.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23920" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23917" CreationDate="2019-08-24T14:06:37.817" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It could be described as quite a few cognitive biases.  See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, confirmation bias, illusory superiority or choice-supportive bias could be at work here in your description.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastEditorUserId="11556" LastEditDate="2019-08-24T14:15:14.557" LastActivityDate="2019-08-24T14:15:14.557" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23923" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23918" CreationDate="2019-08-25T06:00:00.630" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sounds like you have had a distressing encounter with &quot;learned helplessness&quot; as madsun also described. Learned helplessness is a well-studied psychological phenomenon and reaction that explains the terrible situation that you have described. It is situational and explains the &quot;fatalism&quot; that is so difficult to understand. The simplest explanation I can find seems to be &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a phenomenon observed in both humans and other animals when they have been conditioned to expect pain, suffering, or discomfort without a way to escape it &lt;a href=&quot;https://positivepsychology.com/learned-helplessness-seligman-theory-depression-cure/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ackerman blog, 2019)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chris describes the different types of learned helplessness in an another question &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19132/how-does-one-escape-learned-helplessness&quot;&gt;How does one escape learned helplessness?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://positivepsychology.com/learned-helplessness-seligman-theory-depression-cure/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Learned Helplessness: Seligman’s Theory of Depression (+ Cure).&lt;/a&gt; PositivePsychology.com blog (2018, March 24).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-08-25T06:00:00.630" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23925" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23910" CreationDate="2019-08-25T12:32:54.663" Score="2" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Psychopathy and the MacDonald triad&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just keep in mind that psychopathy is often used as a more popular term for the characteristics of Anti-Social Personality Disorder (Davey, 2014). The three behaviors described by the website were indeed studied in the scientific community (see MacDonald). First of all, this research was retrospective and descriptive which in no way provides a causal link between the three factors and psychopathy. In other words, those three factors (or even two of them) are by no means the cause of psychopathy. In order to establish a true causal link between those three factors and psychopathy an experiment would be necessary (Passer, 2019) which is virtually impossible in this case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subsequent research has also criticized the validity of the MacDonald triad, suggesting that it likely has low predictive power for Psychopathy (Parfitt &amp;amp; Alleyne, 2018; Ryan, 2009). People who show all three factors of the MacDonald triad may very well not be psychopaths.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Treatment of psychopathy&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for treatment of psychopathy, clinicians have experienced that treatment of psychopathy is very difficult if not impossible. When psychopaths are caught after a crime they often have to participate in rehabilitation programs but these are general ineffective (Butcher, Mineka &amp;amp; Hooley, 2017). Some studies show that treatments which are effective for other criminal offenders actually lead to higher reoffending in psychopaths (Harris &amp;amp; Rice, 2006). Especially treatment focused on social skills and empathy seem to have counterproductive results because it makes the psychopath even more charming and socially cunning (Vitale &amp;amp; Newman, 2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Biological treatments such as drug therapies have not been systematically studied but so far show modest changes at best, leading scientist wondering whether these are worth studying more systematically. Overall these biological treatments seem to have little impact on the indivudal with psychopathy. Also, even if these treatments could help, psychopaths are still likely to be unmotivated to take medicines for example (Butcher et al., 2017).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, cognitive behavioral therapies seem to be most promising. These therapies often focus on a few specific factors, as can be read in Butcher et al. (2014):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Common targets of cognitive-behavioral interventions include the following: (1) increasing self-control, self-critical thinking, and social perspective taking; (2) increasing victim awareness; (3) teaching anger management; (4) changing antisocial attitudes; and (5) curing drug addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, even CBT is relatively (to other disorders) not very effective for psychopathy, as Butcher et al. (2017) write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Even the best of these multifaceted, cognitive- behaviorally oriented treatment programs generally produce only modest changes, although they are somewhat more effective in treating young offenders (teenagers) than older offenders, who are often hard-core, lifelong psychopaths&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further reading about treatment see chapter 10 of Butcher et al. about personality disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I personally believe psychopathy is one of the more serious disorders (do not get me wrong, all disorders negatively affect people), mainly because hatred and incomprehension for these individuals is very high even though in most cases there is hardly anything they can do about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., &amp;amp; Hooley, J. M. (2017). Abnormal psychology (17th ed.). Boston: Pearson.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Davey G. (2014). Psychopathology: Research, Assessment &amp;amp; Treatment in Clinical Psychology (2nd ed). British Psychological Association and John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons LTD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harris, G. T., &amp;amp; Rice, M. E. (2006). Treatment of psychopathy: A review of empirical findings. In C. J. Patrick (Ed.), Handbook of the psychopathy (pp. 555–72). New York: Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Parfitt, C., &amp;amp; Alleyne, E. (2018). Not the sum of its parts: A critical review of the macdonald triad. Trauma, Violence, &amp;amp; Abuse, (2018). doi:10.1177/1524838018764164&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Passer, M. (2019). RESEARCH METHODS: Concepts and connections. S.l.: WORTH PUB.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ryan, K. (2009). The Macdonald triad: Predictor of violence or urban myth?.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vitale, J. E., &amp;amp; Newman, J. P. (2008). Psychopathy&#xA;as psychopathology: Key developments in etiology, assessment, and treatment. In W. E. Craighead, D. J. Miklowitz, &amp;amp; L. W. Craighead (Eds.), Psychopathology: History, diagnosis, and empirical foundations (pp. 565–97). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23961" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-08-25T14:37:20.047" LastActivityDate="2019-08-25T14:37:20.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23926" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21315" CreationDate="2019-08-25T14:03:53.600" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's call &quot;response function&quot; the function that gives a neuron's firing rate (or probability of firing) given its input. Then, different kinds of neurons have different response functions. All of them, as far as I'm aware, are nonlinear, and can usually be experimentally measured. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are neurons that will fire a little, even for small inputs (so they're basically rectified, &lt;em&gt;non&lt;/em&gt;linear units) and neurons that need a specific, non-zero threshold of input to be crossed before they fire at all (somewhat analogous to having negative bias). These used to be called Type I and Type II neurons respectively, although I've rarely heard this definition recently. There are also neurons that &lt;em&gt;always fire unless inhibited&lt;/em&gt; from doing so (&quot;tonic activity&quot;): you can see this as implementing a positive bias. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About the second part of your question, the &quot;modification mechanisms&quot;: there are many factors that influence a neuron's probability of firing which are &lt;em&gt;independent&lt;/em&gt; both of the input and of the input weight. You can see these as changes in the bias, either temporary or long-term. The main causes of this are the neuron's recent firing history (usually neurons are less likely to fire if they've just fired, unless they like to burst) and other phenomena usually called 'intrinsic plasticity'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this gives you a bit more of an idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24048" LastActivityDate="2019-08-25T14:03:53.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23927" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-25T14:05:03.330" Score="2" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Chomskian view asserts that certain structural components of grammar are innate to all humans. To support the Chomskian view, the observation that we are able to omit certain pronouns in the English language without ever being taught the grammatical rules necessary is used to support the view. However, my question is, what would an example of the above observation be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24065" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T05:16:09.020" Title="Chomskian view on grammar" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23929" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23927" CreationDate="2019-08-25T18:04:47.507" Score="3" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Summary:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's worth noting that all languages have an oral origin so concerning the biological origins of grammar we must look for neurological structures involved in speech processing/production. However, it's worth first clarifying Chomsky's view that there are two levels of innateness: at the level of genetics i.e. biological heredity and at the level of neurological structures i.e. morphology and morphogenesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on the available evidence, it appears that specific genes and neurological structures that aid language acquisition do exist but these aren't necessarily specific for language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt; Chomsky's view:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chomsky has historically held firm to the view expressed in 1983 [1]:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;QUESTION: Is the role of heredity as important for language as it is&#xA;for embryology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CHOMSKY: I think so. You have to laugh at claims that heredity plays&#xA;no significant role in language learning because exactly the same kind&#xA;of genetic arguments hold for language learning as hold for&#xA;embryological development. I’m very much interested in embryology but&#xA;I’ve got just a layman’s knowledge of it. I think that recent work,&#xA;primarily in molecular biology, however, is seeking to discover the&#xA;ways that genes regulate embryological development. The gene-control&#xA;problem is conceptually similar to the problem of accounting for&#xA;language growth. In fact, language development really ought to be&#xA;called language growth because the language organ grows like any other&#xA;body organ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, Chomsky also recognised that there was little neurobiological evidence to support this view at the time beyond reasonable hunches:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;QUESTION: Is there a special place in the brain and a particular kind&#xA;of neurological structure that comprises the language organ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CHOMSKY: Little enough is known about cognitive systems and their&#xA;neurological basis; so caution is necessary in making any direct&#xA;claims. But it does seem that the representation and use of language&#xA;involve specific neural structures, though their nature is not well&#xA;understood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Chomsky's particular hypotheses:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the above interview we may derive two hypotheses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;That there might be genes for linguistic ability.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;That the development of language may rely on neurological structures that are specific for language.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first hypothesis is partially validated by research on the FOXP2 gene [3]. In 2001 it was found that in humans the mutation of this gene significantly disrupts speech and language skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, we must note that FOXP2 has other roles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...FOXP2 is also expressed in defined regions of other tissues during&#xA;embryo development, including the lung, the gut and the heart, as&#xA;well as in several tissues of the adult organism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that the heart, gut and lung developed prior to linguistic ability it's more likely that FOXP2 was initially useful for heart and lung function, and was exploited for linguistic ability rather than the other way around. This gene is actually present in other animals. The authors of [3] clarify this point:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the presence of FOXP2 in other animals does not diminish its relevance&#xA;for speech and language, but rather represents another example of&#xA;recruitment and modification of existing pathways in evolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The possibility of specific neurological structures:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the second hypothesis, this is the subject of ongoing investigation that combines AI research, cognitive science, neuroscience and morphogenesis. How language develops is a very complex and fascinating subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a pioneering robot experiment [2], the linguist and cognitive scientist, Pierre-Yves Oudeyer showed that with basic neural equipment for adaptive holistic vocal imitation, coupling directly motor and perceptual representations in the brain, it was possible to generate spontaneously shared combinatorial systems of&#xA;vocalizations in a society of babbling individuals:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...the transition from inarticulated vocalization systems to&#xA;human-like speech codes may have been largely due to a modest&#xA;biological innovation. Indeed, the model indicates that neuronal&#xA;structures that encode a priori and specifically phonemic&#xA;organization, as well as typical regularities of speech, do not need&#xA;to be innately generated to allow the formation of such speech code.&#xA;This is the second contribution of this work: it allows us to&#xA;understand how the self-organizing properties of simple neural&#xA;structures may have constrained the space of biological vocalization&#xA;structures and how speech codes may have been generated and selected&#xA;during phylogenesis. These new hypothesis may not have been identified&#xA;without the use of computer models and simulations, because the&#xA;underlying dynamics are complex and difficult to anticipate through&#xA;uniquely verbal reasoning. This illustrates the potential importance&#xA;of these new methodological tools in human and biological sciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pierre-Yves' research on robot languages suggests that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The specific neurological structures that aid acquisition aren't necessarily specific for language.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive scientists should investigate the development of the vocal tract during language acquisition.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concerning specific neurological structures, today we know that Broca's area is heavily used for speech production but similar regions are present in other apes that have limited linguistic ability [6]. So it's important to consider the causal influence of Broca's region within cortical networks involved in speech production. In [7] the authors share that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using direct cortical surface recordings in neurosurgical patients, we&#xA;studied the evolution of activity in cortical neuronal populations, as&#xA;well as the Granger causal interactions between them. We found that,&#xA;during the cued production of words, a temporal cascade of neural&#xA;activity proceeds from sensory representations of words in temporal&#xA;cortex to their corresponding articulatory gestures in motor cortex.&#xA;Broca’s area mediates this cascade through reciprocal interactions&#xA;with temporal and frontal motor regions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this reason in the discussion section they infer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...Broca’s area is not the seat of articulation per se, but rather is&#xA;a key node in manipulating and forwarding neural information across&#xA;large-scale cortical networks responsible for key components of speech&#xA;production.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far there is a lot of neurological evidence supporting Oudeyer's conjecture that &lt;em&gt;specific neurological structures that aid acquisition aren't necessarily specific for language&lt;/em&gt;. As for Oudeyer's second suggestion there's still a lot we don't know. You might be interested in the work of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mpi.nl/department/neurobiology-language/4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Max Planck Department for the Neurobiology of Language&lt;/a&gt;[4,5].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt; References:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Noam Chomsky. Things No Amount of Learning Can Teach. Interviewed by John Gliedman. 1983.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pierre-Yves Oudeyer. Self-Organization and Complex Dynamical Systems&#xA;in the Evolution of Speech. 2013.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gary F. Marcus and Simon E. Fisher. FOXP2 in focus: what can genes tell us about speech and language? Elsevier. 2003.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hagoort, P., &amp;amp; Beckmann, C. F. (in press). Key issues and future directions: the neural architecture for language. In P. Hagoort (Ed.), Human Language: From Genes and Brains to Behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hagoort, P. (in press). Introduction. In P. Hagoort (Ed.), Human Language: From Genes and Brains to Behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Claudio Cantalupo and William D. Hopkins. Asymmetric Broca’s area in great apes. NIH Public Access. 2001.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Adeen Flinker, Anna Korzeniewska, Avgusta Y. Shestyuk, Piotr J. Franaszczuk, Nina F. Dronkers, Robert T. Knight, and Nathan E. Crone. Redefining the role of Broca’s area in speech. PNAS. 2015.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditorDisplayName="user3503" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T05:16:09.020" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23930" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-26T00:51:09.263" Score="2" ViewCount="733" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have sometimes wondered if our consciousness dies when we go to sleep at night or perhaps when we enter a deep coma, like from brain damage, for example.  When we wake, or are woken, a new consciousness is booted up with the memories of the previous consciousness, so that it gives the illusion of one continuous consciousness.   This question may be partly philosophical as well as scientific, because it looks at some of the assumptions about the nature of consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A possibly unfair analogy might be to a computer, when its running it has a memory-set like a consciousness.  And if you shutdown and reboot the computer, then it can continue running as it did before, as if it had never been shut down.  However, once a computer is shut down, its largely inert, though I know there are unimportant edge cases exceptions to this.  The computer is effectively dead when its shut down, its ram has largely dispersed.  We can start the computer back up, but it will really be loading the ram from disk.  The original electrical activity that made up the 'consciousness' of the computer before it was rebooted is effectively dead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do we know we don't die when we go to sleep?&lt;/strong&gt; I mean even if our consciousness doesn't wholly die, we may suffer a partial death of sorts. I could be wrong, but I believe its possible for victims of brain damage to show minimal neural activity.  Rarely, but occasionally some of these victims recover, but perhaps their brain has rebooted their mental ram (if you will). And they may not technically be the same consciousness who fell into the coma, but merely a copy of that consciousness reconstituted from data held in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Surely plenty have considered this question, &lt;strong&gt;has there been any research?&lt;/strong&gt;  Do we have any kind of answer to this question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24072" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T11:48:06.280" Title="Does our consciousness die when we go to sleep or fall into a coma?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23931" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23841" CreationDate="2019-08-26T04:04:20.293" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: It might be genetic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human sexual behaviour, especially where stigma and taboos are involved, is notoriously difficult to study, so the real answer is that we just don't know.  However, some evidence suggests that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_transsexuality#Biological_factors&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;genetic factors&lt;/a&gt; may be at play:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A 2008 study compared 112 male-to-female transsexuals ... with 258&#xA;  cisgender male controls. Male-to-female transsexuals were more likely&#xA;  than cisgender males to have a longer version of a receptor gene ...&#xA;  The androgen receptor (NR3C4) is activated by the binding of&#xA;  testosterone or dihydrotestosterone, where it plays a critical role in&#xA;  the forming of primary and secondary male sex characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A variant genotype for a gene called CYP17, which acts on the sex&#xA;  hormones pregnenolone and progesterone, has been found to be linked to&#xA;  female-to-male transsexuality but not MtF transsexuality. Most&#xA;  notably, the FtM subjects not only had the variant genotype more&#xA;  frequently, but had an allele distribution equivalent to male&#xA;  controls, unlike the female controls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In 2013, a twin study ... found that one third of identical twin pairs&#xA;  in the sample were both transgender: 13 of 39 (33%) monozygotic or&#xA;  identical pairs of assigned males and 8 of 35 (22.8%) pairs of&#xA;  assigned females. Among dizygotic or genetically non-identical twin&#xA;  pairs, there was only 1 of 38 (2.6%) pairs where both twins were&#xA;  trans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although variability in the available data is high, it is not unusual to see gender differences in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsexual#Incidence_and_prevalence&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;prevalence rates of transsexuality&lt;/a&gt; of around 2:1 or higher for trans-women (MtF) over trans-men (FtM).  This finding is compatible with a genetic predisposition: Genes linked to transsexuality are found on the X-chromosome, and since men have only 1 copy of this chromosome, atypical alleles are more likely to be expressed phenotypically in men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar ratio of men to women is found in sexual orientation, where gay men are approximately &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_sexual_orientation#Modern_survey_results&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;twice as common&lt;/a&gt; as gay women.  This ratio can similarly be at least &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_orientation#Causes&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;partially explained&lt;/a&gt; by genetic factors tied to the X-chromosome.  However, while this data has less variability (it appears to be somewhat more reliable), sexual orientation also has significant gray areas (eg, bisexuality) that preclude simple conclusions.  For example, reports of homosexual feelings or experiences may be more common in women than men.  Similar complications exist in the data about transsexuality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Correspondingly, environmental factors, such as laws, religion, taboos, stigma, and so on, can greatly affect not only the honesty with which results are reported, but also the potential labels used, the granularity of the data, and its consistency across surveys.  Thus it is probably too early to jump to any firm conclusions about this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T04:04:20.293" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23932" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23930" CreationDate="2019-08-26T11:48:06.280" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Does our consciousness die when we go to sleep or fall into a coma?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; No, neuroscientifically speaking, the consciousness does not die when we are sleeping or are in a coma; it is just in a sleep mode or in a severely depressed mode. This is because the group of neural circuits that function to create consciousness (ref 1, 2, 3) does not die when we are in those conditions; it is just functioning in the mentioned modes, which are different from the mode when we are fully conscious. This is unlike the case when one actually dies or when one has a brain death. In such cases, this group of neural circuits actually dies. So, neuroscientifically speaking, the consciousness that comes from the function of this group of neural circuits dies too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Philosophically speaking, this question may be answered differently, depending on what one means by the word “die”, which can be different among different philosophers. But this is a neuroscience forum, so I won’t get into that discussion and use the word “die” in the neuroscientific sense.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should also be noted that consciousness is not an all-or-none phenomenon but is a graded phenomenon. There can be graded different levels of consciousness, such as (from high to low) heightened alertness, normal alertness, drowsiness, sleeping (from light to deep), stupor, and coma, depending on the stimulation/facilitation of the consciousness neural circuits from the ARAS (ascending reticular activating system, which arises from the rostral brainstem)(ref 4,5), and the ARAS stimulation can be affected by stimulants, physiological diurnal sleep-wake cycle, depressants, and various pathological conditions (such as trauma, brainstem hemorrhage, and tumor). Also, even if a person is/appears alert,  there can be graded different consciousness states in that person. These different consciousness states have different consciousness content, such as normal conscious awareness, confusion, akinetic mutism, minimally conscious state (MCS), and vegetative state (VS), depending on the severity of damages to the consciousness neural circuits, which can be affected by similar pharmacological and pathological causes just mentioned. In these conditions, patients may appear alert (i.e, opening eyes, blinking, and chewing spontaneously) but have abnormal content of consciousness (deranged in confusion, retarded in akinetic mutism, minimal in MCS, and none or almost none in VS).(ref 6,7)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, consciousness during sleep or coma is just consciousness in one of these various physiological/pathological states. And, as long as the consciousness neural circuits are still functioning, albeit in an abnormal mode, and living, it can be considered that, neuroscientifically, consciousness is still living too (albeit in an abnormal mode).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q:&lt;/strong&gt; When we wake, or are woken, &lt;strong&gt;a new consciousness is booted up&lt;/strong&gt; with the memories of the previous consciousness, so that it gives &lt;strong&gt;the illusion of one continuous consciousness&lt;/strong&gt;. …&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could be wrong, but I believe its possible for victims of brain damage to show minimal neural activity. Rarely, but occasionally some of these victims recover, but perhaps their brain has rebooted their mental ram (if you will). And &lt;strong&gt;they may not technically be the same consciousness who fell into the coma, but merely a copy of that consciousness reconstituted from data held in the brain.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; You are right. And actually, technically speaking, our present-moment consciousness is just a slightly different copy of the previous-moment one. Our brain cells are in continuous metabolic activities, which continually change both their structural components and functional components. So, technically speaking, we this moment are a biologically different entity from we a moment ago. It’s been always like this since we’re born. Yet, we feel that we are the same person with same consciousness and the same “self” all along. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be argued that this feeling of same consciousness and same “self” is an evolved function to enhance the survival of an organism that has this feeling. Theoretically,  comparing two types of animals, one with this sense, and the other without this sense, with all other things identical, the one with this sense obviously has more drive to avoid danger, to seek happiness, to stay alive, and to procreate (all for the sake of its &quot;self&quot;) than the one without this sense. So, it is logical to conclude that the sense of same consciousness and same “self” is just the evolved function to help increase the survival chance of the being and the species that possess it. (more detailed discussion in ref 8, 9)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Koch C, Massimini M, Boly M, Tononi G. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn.2016.22&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural correlates of consciousness: progress and problems.&lt;/a&gt; Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2016;17: 307-321. The full pdf file can be downloaded from &lt;a href=&quot;https://puredhamma.net/wp-content/uploads/Neural-correlates-of-consciousness-Koch-et-al-2016.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;here&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Song X, Tang X. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S100200710800138X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;An extended theory of global workspace of consciousness.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Progress in Natural Science. 2008 Jul;18(7):789–793. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ukachoke C. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-6/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 6 – Consciousness&lt;/a&gt;.  In: The Basic Theory of the Mind. 1st ed, 2018. p 8-18. Charansanitwong Printing Co. Bangkok, Thailand.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Yeo SS, Chang PH, Jang SH. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3722571/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The ascending reticular activating system from pontine reticular formation to the thalamus in the human brain.&lt;/a&gt; Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7: 416. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticular_formation#Functions_of_the_ARAS&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Function of the ARAS&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bernat JL. &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.330.3843&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chronic disorders of consciousness.&lt;/a&gt; Lancet 2006;367:1181–1192. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cavanna AE, Cavanna SL, Servo S, Monaco F. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.discoverymedicine.com/Andrea-Eugenio-Cavanna/2010/05/09/the-neural-correlates-of-impaired-consciousness-in-coma-and-unresponsive-states/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The neural correlates of impaired consciousness in coma and unresponsive states.&lt;/a&gt; Discov Med. 2010 May;9(48):431-438. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fabbro F, Aglioti SM,Bergamasco M,Clarici A,Panksepp J. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4374625/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evolutionary aspects of self- and world consciousness in vertebrates&lt;/a&gt;. Front Hum Neurosci 2015; 9: 157.  doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00157&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ukachoke C. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-11/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 11 Self. The Basic Theory of the Mind.&lt;/a&gt; 2018.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T11:48:06.280" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23934" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23907" CreationDate="2019-08-26T15:44:44.273" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Also worth having a look at Robert Sapolsky’ 2017 book Behave. There’s a good summary of all the hidden forces motivating seemingly inexplicable behaviours. For example, why does revenge taste so sweet? Turns out that one of the headiest dopamine hits our brain receives is when we punish someone. Having done so, we may feel guilty afterwards. What’s that all about? Both are evolutionary mechanisms for supporting kin co-operation (the fourth evolutionary force) and solve the ‘freeloading’ problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of our impulses are a combination of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hormones and neuropeptides, such as dopamine and oxytocin, 600m years old&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nervous system development - from 500m years BCE&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brain development - from 500m years ago to the development of the human prefrontal cortex, c 5m years ago&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What ‘feels good’ and ‘bad’ is often expressed in the brains reward system (especially the ventral striatum) using much of this very ancient apparatus. We are generally biased to following these instincts because they are what enabled our species to meet the four evolutionary challenges of survival, sexual selection, kin selection and kin co-operation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: David Buss ed Evolutionary Psychology, Fifth Edition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T15:44:44.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23898" CreationDate="2019-08-26T15:57:44.470" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the literature I have found on biologically plausible models for causal inference in the human brain, experimental validation appears to be constrained by a lack of data. In the case of causal inference models for multisensory perception, the authors of [2] say that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...the specific computations underlying the frontal multisensory&#xA;representations, and their specific role in driving behaviour, have&#xA;remained elusive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, the path to biologically plausible models first starts with cognitive plausibility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt; Cognitively plausible models:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In [1], Kording et al. come up with a time-bounded model and compute-efficient cognitive model for multisensory perception:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perceptual events derive their significance to an animal from their&#xA;meaning about the world, that is from the information they carry about&#xA;their causes... The brain should thus be able to efficiently infer the&#xA;causes underlying our sensory events. ...We formulate an&#xA;ideal-observer model that infers whether two sensory cues originate&#xA;from the same location and that also estimates their location(s). This&#xA;model accurately predicts the nonlinear integration of cues by human&#xA;subjects in two auditory-visual localization tasks. ...By combining&#xA;insights from the study of causal inference with the ideal-observer&#xA;approach to sensory cue combination, we show that the capacity to&#xA;infer causal structure is not limited to conscious, high-level&#xA;cognition; it is also performed continually and effortlessly in&#xA;perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their causal model may be succinctly described as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One cause may be reponsible for both sensory cues(audio and visual).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Two separate causes may be responsible for each cue.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They then go on to define a Causal Bayesian model which may be described using Bayes rule:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;\begin{equation}&#xA;P(C|x_v,x_a) = \frac{P(x_v,x_a|C)P(C)}{P(x_v,x_a)}&#xA;\end{equation}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$C$&lt;/span&gt; denotes a type of cause and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x_v, x_a$&lt;/span&gt; represent the visual signals and auditory signals respectively which are modelled as univariate Gaussian variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$C=1$&lt;/span&gt; there is a single cause and if &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$C=2$&lt;/span&gt; there are distinct causes. Although this model is simple the authors find that the model's predictions actually match the behaviour of the participants in the experiment. This experiment is very useful but the authors recognise:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This leaves the question of what neural processes underlie the causal&#xA;inference computations that emerge at the behavioural level as close to&#xA;Bayes-optimal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt; Finding a neural description of multisensory causal processes:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Building upon [1], the authors of [2] combined a multivariate analysis approach to MEG data with computational modelling of behaviour, to infer where in the brain and when neural signals predicted by models of sensory fusion and causal inference emerge during multisensory perception. They reasoned that causal inference would rely at least in part on the frontal cortex, a structure that is thought to subserve causal reasoning and sensory conflict resolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is an important step forward as they managed to find a neural description using MEG data that is consistent with their hypotheses and a refinement of Kording et al. causal model:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using a multisensory rate-categorisation task, we show that flexible&#xA;multisensory behaviour is best described by a Bayesian causal&#xA;inference model. The neural representations of sensory fusion and&#xA;inference unfold hierarchically in time and across distinct brain&#xA;regions. This comprises a cascade from early unisensory encoding at&#xA;the primary cortical level, to reliability-weighted fusion in the&#xA;parietal-temporal cortices, and to causal inference primarily in the&#xA;frontal lobe. We found that neural representations within the&#xA;dorsomedial and ventrolateral PFC were directly predictive of&#xA;categorical choices, and that the vlPFC subserves a particular&#xA;behavioural benefit of inferring sensory causes to minimise perceptual&#xA;bias in discrepant crossmodal contexts. Our results thereby reconcile previous rival computational models of multisensory integration (Figure 1), by showing that distinct computational strategies are orchestrated in temporal sequence and along a parietal-frontal hierarchy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps greater progress can be made modelling the probabilistic behaviour of populations of neurons [3,4]. But, as pointed out by Brette these would have to be neural dynamics models where the method for inferring population codes accounts for temporal dynamics in a biologically plausible manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt; References:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Konrad P. Körding , Ulrik Beierholm  , Wei Ji Ma , Steven Quartz, Joshua B. Tenenbaum, and Ladan Shams. Causal Inference in Multisensory Perception. PLOS. 2007.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yinan Cao, Christopher Summerfield,  Hame Park,  Bruno L. Giordano, Christoph Kayser. Causal inference in the multisensory brain. biorxiv. 2018.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Zemel RS, Dayan P, Pouget A. Probabilistic interpretation of population codes. Neural Comput 10: 403–430. 1998.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pouget A, Dayan P, Zemel RS. Inference and computation with population codes. Annu Rev Neurosci 26: 381–410. 2003.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Karl Friston and Stefan Kiebel. Predictive coding under the free-energy principle. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 2009.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user3503" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-08-26T15:57:44.470" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23937" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23942" CreationDate="2019-08-27T03:35:32.603" Score="3" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;American neuroscientist James H. Fallon released many of the images of MRIs from diagnosed psychopaths and was able to identify a pattern when compared to the average individual. Is there a database for Autism that can be used in a similar way? If anyone can find a study specifically comparing autism and another type of brain that will be fine, as I seek to compare autistics, neurotypicals, and other different types of neurological disorders identifiable through brain imaging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24084" LastEditorUserId="24084" LastEditDate="2019-08-29T01:57:02.317" LastActivityDate="2019-08-29T01:57:02.317" Title="Publicly accessible database for the Autistic brain under MRI and/or fMRI" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23939" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-27T20:58:44.200" Score="0" ViewCount="170" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is obvious that at least in western culture today, where much personal freedom is accepted or tolerated by society, women often wear clothes different from those worn by men. For example, they tend to expose more skin than men in public (e.g. university, etc.). Here are the links to a few images serving as examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.venturelab.ch/demandit/files/M_BB941CC4DCEF687AD98/dms/Image/EITFood2019_InesKutzli_Pitchfest.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.venturelab.ch/demandit/files/M_BB941CC4DCEF687AD98/dms/Image/EITFood2019_InesKutzli_Pitchfest.jpg&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://imagesvc.timeincapp.com/v3/fan/image?url=https://hiddenremote.com/wp-content/uploads/getty-images/2017/08/645890504-89th-annual-academy-awards-backstage.jpg.jpg&amp;amp;w=4868&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://imagesvc.timeincapp.com/v3/fan/image?url=https://hiddenremote.com/wp-content/uploads/getty-images/2017/08/645890504-89th-annual-academy-awards-backstage.jpg.jpg&amp;amp;w=4868&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://jessicaleephotography.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/072-gatineau.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://jessicaleephotography.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/072-gatineau.jpg&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencespo.fr/summer/sites/sciencespo.fr.summer/files/20180105_2018%20Uni%20class%20liste00d.jpg?1516789786&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencespo.fr/summer/sites/sciencespo.fr.summer/files/20180105_2018%20Uni%20class%20liste00d.jpg?1516789786&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How should we interpret such a difference in behavior? Does it reflect some innate difference between the two sexes or is it simply caused by cultural factors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two different hypotheses for or against which one may argue:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Western women's preference for clothes exposing more skin is at least to some degree driven by their genome, which is, to some degree, different from men's genome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Although women naturally like to be attractive and beautiful, nothing in their genes directly drives them to expose more skin. Social and cultural forces and factors, like peer pressure, are the only major factors which make more exposed skin equal to more beauty/sex appeal in their minds. What is the source of those cultural forces? One possibility is that men's libido has shaped some customs and norms in society through different possible mechanisms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19429" LastEditorUserId="19429" LastEditDate="2019-08-31T11:06:01.010" LastActivityDate="2019-08-31T11:06:01.010" Title="Are women naturally inclined to expose their skin more than men are?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23940" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-27T22:50:28.193" Score="4" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a reference request. I'm looking for a solid introduction to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - i.e. what it is and the science behind it. I'm having trouble finding anything that isn't written by someone with pretty clear evangelical purposes. I don't want that. I'm not personally looking to use CBT. I don't want to feel like I'm being sold a bill of goods. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Honestly, the whole thing smells more than a little fishy, like just another self-help regime that people are getting caught up in, where profit-hunting sharks are taking advantage of people's misery. I'm not saying it is that, but that's just to lay out my own priors and biases. So I want a balanced, trustworthy account of the science behind it to evaluate its merits, i.e. whether nor not it's grounded in a successful (i.e. experimentally sound) scientific theory of psychology.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24092" LastActivityDate="2019-08-27T22:50:28.193" Title="Balanced Introduction to CBT and the Science Behind It" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;&lt;cognitive-therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23941" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23917" CreationDate="2019-08-27T23:52:36.783" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The self serving bias is the most likely bias at play. It affects what information we remember and how we interpret events. It ca  be used to explain  the dunning Krueger effect, which is the effect you are describing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24060" LastActivityDate="2019-08-27T23:52:36.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23942" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23937" CreationDate="2019-08-28T01:32:41.273" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not personally familiar with this project (outside my area of research), but a quick search brought me to the Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange (ABIDE):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://fcon_1000.projects.nitrc.org/indi/abide/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://fcon_1000.projects.nitrc.org/indi/abide/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on citation counts for the primary articles, it seems popular. If you want to compare to other types of brains you will probably need to use multiple data sets and combine them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Di Martino, A., Yan, C. G., Li, Q., Denio, E., Castellanos, F. X., Alaerts, K., ... &amp;amp; Deen, B. (2014). The autism brain imaging data exchange: towards a large-scale evaluation of the intrinsic brain architecture in autism. Molecular psychiatry, 19(6), 659. doi: 10.1038/mp.2013.78.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Di Martino, A., O’connor, D., Chen, B., Alaerts, K., Anderson, J. S., Assaf, M., ... &amp;amp; Blanken, L. M. (2017). Enhancing studies of the connectome in autism using the autism brain imaging data exchange II. Scientific data, 4, 170010. doi: 10.1038/sdata.2017.10.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-08-28T01:32:41.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23943" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-28T03:40:27.417" Score="5" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's take three people: Alice, Bob, and Carol. Suppose Alice is heterosexual. That should imply that Alice finds Bob attractive at some level, but not Carol. Does this mean Alice is more likely to be biased in favor of Bob (and the reverse if Alice is homosexual)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've not found anything directly analyzing this. Closest was &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5943618/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;The Influence of Sexual Orientation on the Perceived Fit of Male Applicants for Both Male- and Female-Typed Jobs&lt;/em&gt;, but it dealt with whether the sexual orientation of the applicant affected whether the applicant was perceived by the hiring manager as suitable, i.e. it's not the sexual orientation of the hiring manager that's being investigated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably if the answer to the title question is &quot;yes&quot;, then it would be advisable to appoint asexual people to e.g. settle sexual harassment complaints.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19017" LastEditorUserId="19017" LastEditDate="2019-12-17T04:51:45.253" LastActivityDate="2019-12-19T05:19:38.013" Title="Does sexual orientation influence gender bias?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23945" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-28T19:25:51.153" Score="6" ViewCount="137" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read online that heavy alcohol consumption can lead to neurological damage, specifically in areas that affect your cognitive performance and memory but what I couldn’t find is if the damage can be reversed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellmind.com/alcohol-damages-day-to-day-memory-function-62982&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.verywellmind.com/alcohol-damages-day-to-day-memory-function-62982&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.addictioncampuses.com/blog/alcohol-abuse-cause-brain-damage/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.addictioncampuses.com/blog/alcohol-abuse-cause-brain-damage/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24099" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-08-30T02:13:00.937" LastActivityDate="2019-08-30T02:13:00.937" Title="Can the neurological damage done by alcohol be reversed?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23948" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-29T07:49:38.743" Score="3" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am starting my thesis, and as I was doing research on types of meditations effect on self compassion. I am new to this research, so I had wanted to know from anyone with experience. Someone, who has carried a research regarding Transcendental meditation. I want to know if for using TM for my research, will I need a practitioner or I can use a certified youtube video, where the digital instructor will be enough to guide my participants for TM?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23551" OwnerDisplayName="Nai chan" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2019-09-02T00:22:09.803" LastActivityDate="2020-11-13T16:43:28.880" Title="Can Transcendental meditation be used in lab setting via Digital instructor or do we need a practitioner for TM?" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23949" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23943" CreationDate="2019-08-29T09:26:01.887" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The issue around attraction needs to be clarified and assumptions challenged and proven. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To imply that sexual orientation is solely and wholly responsible for attraction is a severe and gross oversimplification verging on stereotyping and discrimination. As Wiki argues &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness_stereotype&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;physical attractiveness is distinct from sexual attraction&lt;/a&gt;. Just because someone is physically attractive and also falls within one's sexual orientation, that person may also not be attracted to the person. The person may already be in a fulfilling relationship or the other person has a wedding ring, to imply that humans are animalistic and therefore their desires translate into behaviour without much other consideration is quite improper and unscientific. You should not draw a specific scenario like studies on hiring interviews to imply that the evidence is not present. There are enough studies on attraction and behaviour in other fields to disprove the specific example of hiring interviewers. I am sure you would not like your race, age or any other stereotyping physical attribute to be the sole determinant for how people and the public assess you? Would you? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On that note, there has been research on attractiveness according to sexual orientation. If attraction is the basis of hiring decision-making process, this study disproves this. However, if you are implying sexual orientation goes through a different mechanism to affect the decision-making process at the hiring interview, then I would be keen to hear it. This &lt;a href=&quot;https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/30162/0000546.pdf?sequence=1&amp;amp;isAllowed=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1992 study of 52 subjects (four groups of 13)&lt;/a&gt; found minimal or no difference between heterosexuals and homosexuals on the assessment of attractiveness. Both heterosexual and homosexual men rated younger sex subjects higher than older subjects. Your question implies that homosexual men should rate women lower than men as they are not sexually attracted to them. If there are no differences between attractiveness depending on sexual orientation, it seems hard to argue that asexual people should be used on hiring interview panels. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jankowiak, W.R., Hill, E.M., Donovan, J.M., (1992). &lt;a href=&quot;https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/30162/0000546.pdf?sequence=1&amp;amp;isAllowed=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The effects of sex and sexual orientation on attractiveness judgments: An evolutionary interpretation.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Ethology and Sociobiology&lt;/em&gt;. Volume 13, Issue 2, Pages 73-85.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-08-29T09:26:01.887" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23950" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23945" CreationDate="2019-08-29T10:15:45.903" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of the acute neurological effects of ethanol alcohol, such as slurred speech, ataxia, and confusion/sedation, are reversible, and the symptoms will disappear after the blood alcohol level gets down to below the intoxication level. However, in very high dose, alcohol can cause stupor or even coma, with irreversible neurological damages from associated hypoglycemia (from the hypoglycemic effect of alcohol and from concomitantly inadequate food intake) or hypoxemia (from the respiratory depression effect of alcohol). Also, there can be indirect permanent brain damage from falls, car accidents, regurgitation with aspirations, drowning, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the chronic neurological effects of ethanol alcohol, such as Wernicke-Kosakoff syndrome, alcoholic cerebellar degeneration, and alcoholic dementia are irreversible, and at present, there are no effective treatments to reverse neurological damage in these conditions. However, further progression can be halted by quit drinking alcohol. And, in the case of Wernicke’s encephalopathy,  if adequate dose of thiamine is given in time, neurological injuries can be reversed and permanent neurological damage may not occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;General References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Healthline. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthline.com/health/alcohol-related-neurologic-disease&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alcohol-Related Neurologic Disease&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alcohol intoxication&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernicke%E2%80%93Korsakoff_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Academic References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Arts NJM, Walvoort SJW, Kessels RPC. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5708199/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Korsakoff’s syndrome: a critical review&lt;/a&gt;. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2017; 13: 2875–2890. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S130078&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harper C. &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/alcalc/article/44/2/136/184817&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Neuropathology of Alcohol-Related Brain Damage.&lt;/a&gt; Alcohol and Alcoholism. 2009 Mar-Apr; 44(2):136–140. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agn102&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agn102&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ridley NJ, Draper B, Withall A.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3580328/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alcohol-related dementia: an update of the evidence.&lt;/a&gt; Alzheimers Res Ther. 2013; 5(1): 3. doi:10.1186/alzrt157 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-08-29T10:15:45.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23951" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-29T10:39:14.687" Score="7" ViewCount="182" Body="&lt;p&gt;Harvard-Oxford Cortical Structural Atlas now calls the 'Supplementary Motor Area' the 'Juxtapositional Lobule Cortex (formerly Supplementary Motor Cortex)'. I've looked for papers that explain the name change but haven't managed to locate any. All the papers I've found either continue to use SMA or give both ('JLC formerly SMC') without explanation. Where did this change originate? Is JLC the accepted term now?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24105" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T21:52:57.703" Title="Supplementary Motor Area or Juxtapositional Lobule Cortex" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23952" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-29T13:01:03.723" Score="3" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been thinking for several years that maybe the mind could be described as a space, in the mathematical sense, of information and that similarly to the relativistic case of the spacetime whose geometry is determined by its content in mass-energy, the informational content of the mind could determine its structure. This would be a generalization of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis with general informational content and not only language shaping the topology/ geometry of the &quot;informational space&quot; I think the mind must be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have similar considerations been published in psychology literature so far?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24107" LastActivityDate="2020-01-14T06:03:40.513" Title="Does the informational content of the mind determine its structure?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23953" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-30T03:18:44.053" Score="3" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;IQ tests often feature puzzles where the subject must identify and extrapolate a pattern in a sequence of symbols. One might hypothesize that someone who is good at doing that would also be good at finding patterns in random symbols, or otherwise finding connections between unrelated things. This may lead to a tendency to believe that things are connected when they aren't. Is there any research demonstrating a relationship between the ability to see patterns and the tendency to find patterns when they &quot;aren't there?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly, someone who can't see any patterns would never commit type-II error, but on the other hand someone who can see lots of patterns may have well-calibrated instincts from experience with other patterns that appeared to them but later turned out to not be there. It's not obvious to me how those competing factors would balance out as you went from low-g to high-g.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24109" LastActivityDate="2019-08-30T03:18:44.053" Title="Is type-II error correlated to g?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;human-error&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23954" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5483" CreationDate="2019-08-30T04:48:23.227" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer, we're in the fuzzy zone of psychology where nothing is certain, only likely to be certain, and &quot;likely&quot; is not that close to 100%. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is homosexuality ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A psychological illness? No (although what's an &quot;illness&quot; is itself fuzzy, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_hysteria&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;female hysteria&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A natural disposition of a person? To some extent.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A voluntary choice? Probably not.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Something else? Partly.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See a &lt;a href=&quot;https://science.sciencemag.org/content/365/6456/eaat7693&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent paper&lt;/a&gt; published in &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt;. It studied 477,522 US &amp;amp; UK participants and is the largest study performed to date. Its conclusions are, homosexuality is caused by multiple genes &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; &quot;something else&quot;, with the former accounting for less than a third of the effect. The &quot;something else&quot; remains to be explored, but the obvious candidate is environmental factors, such as cultural norms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the &lt;em&gt;Science&lt;/em&gt; paper is too dense to be understood, there are various summaries in the popular media such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.latimes.com/science/story/2019-08-29/there-is-no-single-gay-gene&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19017" LastEditorUserId="19017" LastEditDate="2019-08-30T08:32:55.563" LastActivityDate="2019-08-30T08:32:55.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23955" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-30T11:25:31.140" Score="2" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a &lt;a href=&quot;https://academia.stackexchange.com/questions/135086/handling-disruptive-student-on-the-autism-spectrum/135093#135093&quot;&gt;question from Academic SE&lt;/a&gt;, there was a description of parent's of a student on the spectrum refusing to be contacted by the university. I suspect that his parents may be suffering from burn out/mental exhaustion, hence they do not want to be contacted with concerns about their child at university. I am struggling to find studies or reports of parental burnout, especially for parents of children with ASD. Otherwise are there rates for parents with disability in general? The assumptions may be wrong and there are minimal or no impact on the parents? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This 2015 question discusses &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/3766/what-cognitive-processes-occur-during-a-mental-exhaustion-or-burnout&quot;&gt;What cognitive processes occur during a mental exhaustion or &amp;#39;burnout&amp;#39;?&lt;/a&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-08-30T11:25:31.140" Title="Rates of parental burnout for parents with ASD children/disability" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;mental-exhaustion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23957" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23948" CreationDate="2019-08-30T18:53:30.220" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;As per the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tm.org&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;official site&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The TM technique is not &quot;one size fits all.&quot; It's taught one-on-one&#xA;  and is carefully personalized for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Only certified TM teachers can instruct you in the authentic TM&#xA;  technique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could, obviously, perform some form of meditation that you consider equivalent to it. However, you won't be able to claim that you are testing the authentic TM, which is, in general quite secretive regarding the concrete process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are TM dropouts who claim to reveal the whole process, like this &lt;a href=&quot;http://minet.org/Documents/TM-FAQ&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;guideline&lt;/a&gt;. Performing upon these also carries the risk of being considered 'not the authentic TM.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3354" LastEditorUserId="3354" LastEditDate="2019-08-30T19:01:57.703" LastActivityDate="2019-08-30T19:01:57.703" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23959" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21207" CreationDate="2019-08-31T01:42:24.877" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is some evidence that pet therapy are effective for individuals with autism. The studies did not differentiate between children and adult though it is likely that the studies are focused on children. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232813038_Animal-Assisted_Intervention_for_Autism_Spectrum_Disorder_A_Systematic_Literature_Review&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2012 systematic review by O'Haire&lt;/a&gt; found increased social interaction and communication as well as a decrease in problem behaviors, autistic severity, and stress. There is a strong suspicion of publication bias and also a lack of control arms for comparison. O'Haire found 14 studies ranging from 1989 to 2012 that had outcome data for her review. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another interesting &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0041739&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2012 French study by Grandgeorge et al)&lt;/a&gt; looked at the prosocial impact of having a pet in 260 families with children. What I thought was interesting was that having a pet since birth had minimal impact on the child which were the same rate as children without pets. However, if the family got a new pet after the age of 5, there was evidence of an increase in prosocial behavior. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Grandgeorge, M., Tordjman, S., Lazartigues, A., Lemonnier, E., Deleau, M., &amp;amp; Hausberger, M. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0041739&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Does Pet Arrival Trigger Prosocial Behaviors in Individuals with Autism?&lt;/a&gt; PLOS ONE, 7(8), e41739. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;O’Haire, M. (2012). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232813038_Animal-Assisted_Intervention_for_Autism_Spectrum_Disorder_A_Systematic_Literature_Review&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Animal-Assisted Intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Literature Review&lt;/a&gt;. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. Vol 43, pg 1606–1622.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-08-31T01:42:24.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23960" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23976" CreationDate="2019-08-31T09:30:53.703" Score="2" ViewCount="1842" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a phenomenon where people get to a stage in life they never thought they'd see it and they don't know what to do. Why is that? Why is that when we're faced with a non-foreseeable dilemma we don't know what the right thing is to do? How common is this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;I Never Thought I'd See the Day!&quot; or &quot;I never thought I'd get this far&quot; from SpongeBob's Plankton T.V. Show are memes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zOY5z.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zOY5z.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iah2l.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iah2l.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm adding to social psych tag because I've seen related questions in social psych class. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user24115" LastEditorDisplayName="user24115" LastEditDate="2019-09-01T18:43:24.630" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T18:43:24.630" Title="Explanation of &quot;I never thought I'd get this far&quot;" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-09-02T16:01:22.423" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23962" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-08-31T14:52:12.833" Score="2" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many psychological experiments involve shocking animals, playing loud sounds near them, depriving them of social contact, etc. For example, Martin Seligman's studies of learned helplessness in dogs are of this nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, to my understanding, studies of learned helplessness in dogs at best provide an analogy to depression in humans, and it seems unlikely that actually shocking and trapping dogs was necessary for insight into human depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, Harry Harlow's studies of deprivation of maternal contact in monkeys seem to give extraordinarily obvious results, telling us what almost anyone already knows - that infants crave maternal contact. I don't think I need socially maladjusted monkeys in a laboratory in order to understand this point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this wrong, or if not, what are some other counter-examples? What experiments involving inflicting physical or psychological pain on animals were necessary parts of important results in human psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4129" LastActivityDate="2019-09-02T19:04:03.353" Title="What important psychological results would not have been discovered without experiments on non-human animals?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23964" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23968" CreationDate="2019-08-31T19:36:06.633" Score="2" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can we sleep throughout our whole life if we are supplied the necessary things like food,water etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24122" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T09:33:56.333" Title="Is there any Sleep limit for a human body?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23965" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-01T00:54:32.890" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was observing some condition. most people (that I observed), if they do something (mentally) to someone, they will tend to have the same feeling like 'the someone' is doing the same to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;example, if person a is lying to person b, person a would think that person b is lying too to person a, although it may not. it is something like anxiety that appears due to our fault.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;so, is there any psychological condition that fits the description?&#xA;what is the name, and how exactly it is (?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to search it over the internet but couldn't find any. maybe because I used wrong keyword or something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24124" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T03:29:04.970" Title="is there any psychological condition that fits what I describe?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23967" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23971" CreationDate="2019-09-01T07:30:20.170" Score="3" ViewCount="116" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in how schizophrenia can be expressed in them, and whether it depends on the perception of the world.  Maybe they see text pop-up in the air, or something like that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24125" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-09-02T00:22:27.103" LastActivityDate="2019-09-02T00:22:27.103" Title="Can schizophrenics who are deaf since birth hear voices?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23968" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23964" CreationDate="2019-09-01T09:33:56.333" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Is there any Sleep limit for a human body?&#xA;Can we sleep throughout our whole life if we are supplied the necessary things like food,water etc.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; Yes, there is a sleep limit for human (and other animals that sleep). And, no, we can’t sleep throughout our whole life even if all our metabolic requirements are supported. This is because sleep does not occur freely without any control but is under control of a complex neural network. This network limits how long one can sleep or be awake. It also regulates the time when sleep is to begin and to end. (Ref 1 - 4)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sleep occurs alternately with wake in cycles, called sleep-wake cycle. These cycles are under control of a complex network of neural circuits in the brainstem, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, basal forebrain, and thalamus (see figure below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/g2uFk.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/g2uFk.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(The figure is from Figure 2, Ref 1.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the periodicity of the cycles are controlled by circadian rhythm pacemaker in suprachiasmatic nucleus, internal homeostasis, and ambient light. (see figure below)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FFQJi.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FFQJi.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(This figure is from Figure 3, Ref 1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In human and animals that sleep, this cycle is about 24 hours, with the mean duration of sleep (in human) of about 7.5 hours (with a standard deviation of about 1.25 hours) (Ref 2.). So, normally we sleep about 7.5 hours and then are set to be awake by these neural mechanisms. Because sleep is under control of these neural circuits, we cannot just fall asleep whenever we want and cannot sleep as many hours as we would like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Larson-Prior, Linda &amp;amp; Ju, Yo-El &amp;amp; Galvin, James. (2014). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266950842_Cortical-Subcortical_Interactions_in_Hypersomnia_Disorders_Mechanisms_Underlying_Cognitive_and_Behavioral_Aspects_of_the_Sleep-Wake_Cycle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cortical–Subcortical Interactions in Hypersomnia Disorders: Mechanisms Underlying Cognitive and Behavioral Aspects of the Sleep–Wake Cycle.&lt;/a&gt; Frontiers in neurology. 5. 165. 10.3389/fneur.2014.00165.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Purves D.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hse.ru/data/2011/06/22/1215686482/Neuroscience.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 27 Sleep and Wakefulness.&lt;/a&gt; Purves D, Augustine GJ, David Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, Lamantia AS,‎ McNamara JO, Williams SM, editors. Neuroscience. 3rd ed. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates Inc; 2004. ISBN-13: 9780878937257 ISBN-10: 0878937250. p659-686.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Moore RY. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/491041&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clinical Update - Circadian Rhythms, Hypothalamus, and Regulation of the Sleep-Wake Cycle.&lt;/a&gt; Medscape. 2019 Sep 1.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T09:33:56.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23969" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17820" CreationDate="2019-09-01T10:10:13.657" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Came across &lt;a href=&quot;https://dspace.flinders.edu.au/xmlui/handle/2328/38264&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article 2018 by Riggs and Bartholomaeus&lt;/a&gt; and thought of this question. Gaslighting is more common in casual parlance than in the academic literature. There is great difficulty in studying gaslighting as it is inherently relational and by definition, the individual is being manipulated by the other person. It is a very personal experience making it quite hard to objectively study so making it a very difficult to investigate scientifically. Riggs defined gaslighting -&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gaslighting is about subtly conveying to a person that their own judgment is not to be trusted and that they are not competent, thus undermining their confidence in being able to trust their own views and experiences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Riggs illustrates with case examples how gaslighting is an identity-related abuse and uses his experience with transgender clients to illustrate the gaslighting experiences with parents of transgender children. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;gaslighting is centrally about issues of power and control (as is true for any form of abuse), in contexts where power differentials are already significant (such as in parent–child relationships), this can exacerbate the likelihood that control techniques such as gaslighting will occur, and minimise the likelihood that they will be identified by others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do like the discussion about the therapeutic approaches that a clinician can take to help ameliorate the impact and validate the impact of gaslighting on the client. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Riggs, D. W., &amp;amp; Bartholomaeus, C. (2018). &lt;a href=&quot;https://dspace.flinders.edu.au/xmlui/handle/2328/38264&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gaslighting in the context of clinical interactions with parents of transgender children&lt;/a&gt;. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 33(4), 382–394. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2018.1444274&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2018.1444274&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T10:10:13.657" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23970" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23962" CreationDate="2019-09-01T10:37:37.680" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this necessarily involves some speculation. It's very hard to tell whether certain important findings would have been discovered without studies in non-human animals. We should also keep the hindsight bias in mind, that is, the tendency to retroactively claim that we 'knew it all along'. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another aspect to consider is that only experiments enable us to investigate the causality of a relationship that we might have already observed in a non-experimental context. For example, we might have already observed that people with depression also show signs of helplessness, but this usually isn't enough to assume a causal link between these two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, I do think there are a few findings that would have been almost impossible without research in non-human animals. For example, any knowledge that stems from the recording of individual neurons in the brain. It's currently infeasible to record data from individual neurons in humans (apart from a few patients that have medical devices implanted due to neurological disorders). So for example, our knowledge of dopamine neurons signaling reward prediction errors depended critically on research in non-human animals (Schultz et al., 1997, Science).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21640" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T10:37:37.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23971" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23967" CreationDate="2019-09-01T11:02:44.483" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;A quick Google search reveals some answers such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2632268&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Atkinson, J. R. (2006)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Around half of all deaf people diagnosed with schizophrenia report experiencing “voices,” during which they sense someone communicating with them in the absence of any external stimulus. This closely parallels prevalence rates of auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) in hearing people with schizophrenia (50–70%). There is no evidence reported for increased frequency of psychotic hallucinations in congenitally deaf people. However, greater proportions of visual and tactile/somatic hallucinations have been noted. Around 50% of deaf people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia report visual hallucinations, and a similar proportion describe tactile/somatic hallucinations, despite the low occurrence of these phenomena in schizophrenia generally (15% and 5%, respectively).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The abstract points out that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study of voice-hallucinations in deaf individuals, who exploit the visuomotor rather than auditory modality for communication, provides rare insight into the relationship between sensory experience and how “voices” are perceived. Relatively little is known about the perceptual characteristics of voice-hallucinations in congenitally deaf people who use lip-reading or sign language as their preferred means of communication. The existing literature on hallucinations in deaf people is reviewed, alongside consideration of how such phenomena may fit into explanatory subvocal articulation hypotheses proposed for auditory verbal hallucinations in hearing people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Atkinson, J. R. (2006). The perceptual characteristics of voice-hallucinations in deaf people: insights into the nature of subvocal thought and sensory feedback loops. &lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia bulletin, 32&lt;/em&gt;(4), 701-708. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbj063&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1093/schbul/sbj063&lt;/a&gt; pubmed: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2632268&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC2632268&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T11:02:44.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23973" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-01T11:30:00.497" Score="0" ViewCount="140" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a vague idea how believing in a flat earth may work. (Not enough to write it down)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it still irritates me that an appreciable fraction of the general population in the US deny that climate change is caused mainly by human influences. Even more so as it seems to be a fraction large enough to be politically relevant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see that this question has a strong political connotation, which is opinion based. But that is not part of the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is somehow culture-related, as it's different in Europe, at least in Germany. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would expect it is a fringe group like people assuming a flat earth.&#xA;There is a related, but different kind of group. People denying that the Holocaust happened. This has a strong political association to extreme right groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is assuming flat earth and denying climate change the same kind of phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4799" LastEditorUserId="4799" LastEditDate="2019-09-01T11:54:14.847" LastActivityDate="2019-09-03T09:40:02.880" Title="Does denying climate change work similar to believing the earth is flat?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23974" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-01T12:49:34.323" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), not a professional psychologist or anthropologist but a smart thinker and philosopher, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.utilitarian.org/texts/oursexethics.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;believed&lt;/a&gt; that jealousy was one of the main sources of the sexual ethics of his time. I'm much interested in this kind of analysis, relating cultures, customs, norms, and traditions to basic human drives and emotions and also to other factors (geographical, economical, etc.). For example, why is there hijab in islamic world? Was it originated as a result of jealousy of men at some period of time at a specific region?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if professional social psychologists today deal with such questions at least partially, and how they differ with anthropologists or sociologists in this respect, if at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19429" LastEditorUserId="19429" LastEditDate="2019-09-01T19:52:25.487" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T19:52:25.487" Title="Does social psychology include study of human cultures?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23975" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23974" CreationDate="2019-09-01T13:38:33.380" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I can see where the confusion may lay as the disciplines are very similar but different in their own ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Social Psychology&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is about understanding individual behavior in a social context (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-psychology.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McLeod, 2007&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This field of psychology therefore looks at human behaviour as influenced by other people along with the social context in which this occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McLeod also points out that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Topics examined in social psychology include: the self concept, social cognition, attribution theory, social influence, group processes, prejudice and discrimination, interpersonal processes, aggression, attitudes and stereotypes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cultural aspects of psychology will affect interpersonal processes etc. but in depth analysis of culture in psychology is covered by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cultural psychology&lt;/a&gt;, which informs several other fields within psychology, including social psychology, cultural-historical psychology, developmental psychology, and cognitive psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;How they differ with anthropologists or sociologists in this respect.&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Anthropologists&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;scientifically study human behaviour and societies in the past and present. Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviour and cultural anthropology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst anthropologists will study the cultures, past and present, they don't analyze the &lt;strong&gt;psychology&lt;/strong&gt; of, or within, cultural differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia, and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity. As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as cognitive science (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Sociology&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is the study of society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction and culture of everyday life. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about &lt;strong&gt;social order, acceptance, and change or social evolution&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;). Sociology is also defined as the general science of society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While culture forms part of society, again &lt;em&gt;sociology&lt;/em&gt; doesn't deeply examine cultural aspects in the same way as &lt;em&gt;anthropology&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;cultural psychology&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To understand more about the differences, please read the Wikipedia articles linked and follow the citations referenced in them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McLeod, S. (2007). Social Psychology. &lt;em&gt;Simply Psychology&lt;/em&gt; [Online].&lt;br&gt;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-psychology.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-psychology.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T13:38:33.380" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23976" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23960" CreationDate="2019-09-01T14:05:24.580" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a good question which cannot really be provided with scientifically proven reasons, so we can only look at possibilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From personal experience as a therapist, anecdotally I can say that with some people, the meme would not be complete.  With these people the situation would be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I didn't think I would get this far &lt;strong&gt;so quickly&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and that could be a key point with many others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When planning for the future, do you plan for things you know you will reach very soon or do you include those points where you cannot envisage getting to right now?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forward planning can be different from person to person, and if you haven't planned for a particular eventuality, how do you know what you &lt;strong&gt;want&lt;/strong&gt; to do, let alone how you &lt;strong&gt;should&lt;/strong&gt; do things?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The comment at the bottom of your image:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I have managed to change my name and gender on ALL of my legal documents! So what's next?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;can be a comment of surprise, and maybe despair; or it could be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Good! I have that out of the way, now do I have to do anything else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The processes involved with identity change can be daunting and therefore some choose to take things a step at a time rather than planning the whole process before carrying it out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the person aware of all the things they need to do?&#xA;Can they cope?&#xA;Do they have the support of professional organizations to help along the way?&#xA;Do they have support from friends and family?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All these things and more will affect how the person will be dealing with the situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T14:05:24.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23977" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-01T15:52:03.297" Score="2" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;How the &quot;percentage&quot; of disability is measured in India in case of cognitive difficulties such as autism, ADHD, learning disability, intellectual disability etc?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2019-09-01T15:52:03.297" Title="How the percentage of disability is measured in India in case of autism, ADHD, learning disability etc?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23979" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-01T18:15:30.130" Score="3" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is common problem for many &quot;mild&quot; (ASD level-1) autistics to be criticized as &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://interpersonal.stackexchange.com/questions/20696/but-you-dont-look-autistic-isnt-a-nice-thing-to-say&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;you do not look autistic&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&quot; &lt;em&gt;or some of its variants&lt;/em&gt;. Also sometimes seen in social media that moderate autistics (level-2) (claimingly) facing similar issues to disclose their diagnosis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &quot;visible&quot; I mean the publicly considered easily observable disabilities, such as extreme intellectual disabilities, visibly heavily motor nonfunction or totally unable to move, saliva dripping from mouth, complete nonverbality or observably distorted voice and language, disfigurement or birth-defects, inability to hold urine or stool,  etc. Usually the known to be severe (level-3) autistics have at least one of these &quot;publicly perceived as disability&quot; symptoms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Incidentally, autism is not itself a visible condition at all, and the intellectual disability is not itself autism, its sometimes a co-morbid condition with autism but it is not identical to autism, rather autism is basically the impairment in social cognition. Also some of the symptoms of autism may be actually visible or easily observable &lt;strong&gt;but these are commonly mistaken as intentional inappropriate behaviour or lack of morality or as some mental illness instead of cognitive difficulties or social disablilities&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now my question is; Is it possible that someone has level-3 (severe) autism yet on superficial look or talk the disability does not appear? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Theoretically it seems to be very possible that a severely autistic person may lack all of the publicly believed stereotype on disability, also can lack intellectual disability, moreover can apply sharp observations and observation to mask and fit-in, yet can have tremendous problem in social aspects. In such case a level-3 autistic too may face &quot;you don't look autistic&quot; situations. And probably all the observable symptoms will be imsinterpreted as mood or behaviour issue. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But does that happen in reality? or all of the severe (level-3) ASD have also some publicly believed stereotype of disability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Note: See also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.childbrain.com/pdd_print.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Autism &quot;severity&quot; levels&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Screenshot: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vzhus.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vzhus.png&quot; alt=&quot;ASD or autism spectrum disorder is a behavioral disorder of speech, communication, social interaction, and repetitive type compulsive behavior. There are three levels of ASD recognized by the DSMV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 5th edition). The three levels of severity for ASD include: Level 1: Requiring Support: Problems with inflexibility, poor organization, planning, switching between activities, which impair independence. Poor social skills, difficulty in initiating interactions, attempts to make friends are odd and unsuccessful. Level 2: Requiring Substantial Support: Marked difficulties in verbal and nonverbal social communication skills. Markedly odd, restricted repetitive behaviors, noticeable difficulties changing activities or focus. Level 3: Requiring Very Substantial Support: Severe difficulties in verbal and nonverbal communication. Very limited speech, odd, repetitive behavior; many express their basic needs only.&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="13859" LastEditDate="2019-09-04T18:28:19.067" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T07:18:30.720" Title="is it possible to be severely autistic yet not being &quot;visibly autistic&quot;?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23981" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-02T10:02:02.153" Score="4" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I expect balancing on a tightrope and juggling apples while listening to Mozart would trigger more brain activity than say playing chess, and while there are many ways to measure/define brain activity, still, is there any human activity that is known to be 'the most taxing'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brain activity I suppose can be measured as some function of below suggestions, or is there a commonly accepted definition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Energy consumption&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Number of neurons/synapses involved&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amount input 'data' consumed&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amount of output 'data' generated&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24131" LastActivityDate="2019-09-02T10:02:02.153" Title="What activity causes the highest level of brain-activity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23982" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23973" CreationDate="2019-09-02T14:21:32.943" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is serious work on this, despite it being a political minefield. You're probably looking for &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614568432&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lewandowsky, et al. (2015)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to get some distance from the issues of the day (and associated name calling) and into the mechanisms that drive this sort of phenomenon in general you might get more joy out of something like &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/tops.12186&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cook &amp;amp; Lewandowsky (2016)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That will bring you into stuff like &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-018-01936-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hahn, et al. (2018)&lt;/a&gt;. That's not directly political at all, but I think the relevance to your question is pretty strong. This is one of those fields that is exploding thanks to ever-better desktop computing, there's a ton of stuff that hasn't been tried yet! Hope you have some fun with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cook, J., &amp;amp; Lewandowsky, S. (2016). Rational irrationality: Modeling climate change belief polarization using Bayesian networks. &lt;em&gt;Topics in cognitive science, 8&lt;/em&gt;(1), 160-179. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/tops.12186&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/tops.12186&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hahn, U., Hansen, J. U., &amp;amp; Olsson, E. J. (2018). Truth tracking performance of social networks: how connectivity and clustering can make groups less competent. &lt;em&gt;Synthese&lt;/em&gt;, 1-31. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-018-01936-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/s11229-018-01936-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lewandowsky, S., Gignac, G. E., &amp;amp; Oberauer, K. (2015). The robust relationship between conspiracism and denial of (climate) science. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Science, 26&lt;/em&gt;(5), 667-670. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614568432&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/0956797614568432&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-09-03T09:40:02.880" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23983" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-02T14:46:07.883" Score="2" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;Microaggression has been used in the articles and has become more commonplace in the public discourse. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember reading articles proposing existence of microaggressions but have not seen any psychology lab research confirming its existence. There has been vehement hostility from conservative commentators claiming that microaggression is a pseudoscience based on &quot;biased interview questions, reliance on narrative and small numbers of respondents, problems of reliability, issues of replicability, and ignoring alternative explanations&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;- Microaggression article on Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the best evidence so far for the existence of microaggression? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-09-02T14:46:07.883" Title="Scientific basis for the existence of microaggression" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23984" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23962" CreationDate="2019-09-02T18:07:20.240" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question of course deals with hypothetical scenarios, making it hard to give definite, objective answers. However, I would like to make a contribution. I believe that behaviorism, a perspective on the psychology of personality, has been largely shaped by animal experiments in its early days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is hard to say what we would know about conditioning (an important part of behaviorism) and how it influnces learning and personality if Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner had not conducted their famous (animal) experiments. Initial mechanisms that they found in animals were later verified to also exist in humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Classical conditioning&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In classical conditioning an unconditioned stimulus (US) is paired with an initially neutral stimulus (Conditioned Stimulus) to elicit a conditioned response (CR). So, a dog naturally salivates (UR) when it is presented with food (US) but if you ring a bell (CR) before you present the food then eventually the dog will salivate after it hears the bell (Gleitman, Gross &amp;amp; Resiberg, 2010). This is exactly the example that Pavlov used during his famous experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Operant/instrumental conditioning&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This form of conditioning uses reinforcers. When an organism shows the desired behavior it is reinforced with a desired stimulus such as food. Thorndike and Skinner put cats in a box and had them learn various behaviors through instrumental conditioning (Gleitman et al., 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this is a real short overview of conditioning and behaviorism. However, these experiments with animals paved the way to a lot of important discoveries in psychology with regard to humans such as the conditioned drug response (craving) for example (Gleitman et al., 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gleitman, H., Gross, J., &amp;amp; Resiberg, D. (2010). Psychology. New York, NY: Norton.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23961" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-09-02T19:04:03.353" LastActivityDate="2019-09-02T19:04:03.353" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23985" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-02T21:08:15.067" Score="3" ViewCount="859" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a member of a closed, fairly large private group on Facebook of former game show contestants.  Several years ago, another member posted a Google Forms version of the Asperger Quotient test, asking group members to take the test, to report their overall score (anonymous), and to answer a few demographic questions on the form.  After collecting about 300 responses, he shared the composite results with the group (who were enthusiastic about the idea).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've since asked the member who composed the original post if he would be interested in turning this idea into a publishable research brief. I am a psychologist and faculty at a small university and could create the IRB/ submission at my institution.  My issue, though, involves about informed consent. The data is collected, but he did not include an informed consent statement with his Facebook post.  Should I scrap his data, create an informed consent, and then re-send out the AQ?  Or do you think I should submit a request to the IRB asking to use the existing data? &#xA;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24135" LastActivityDate="2019-09-03T06:39:51.947" Title="Informed Consent Research Question" Tags="&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23986" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23985" CreationDate="2019-09-02T22:08:20.117" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd recommend consulting informally with IRB staff at your institution beforehand, usually (and maybe especially at a smaller institution?) they are willing to help out a bit at the design stage. Once you find the right person to contact, I'd convey to them almost exactly what you've posted here (probably via email), plus a bit more background on the actual current form of the data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IRBs can vary quite a bit on what they allow; there are minimum standards they are required to follow but I've seen IRBs go well beyond those standards at times. It may be that the IRB decides the data are anonymous enough and low risk enough that you don't even need consent; it may be that they won't allow it in any form unless you start from scratch (and contacting the people who originally participated may similarly not be allowed; you might be able to solicit the group but not the previous responders directly).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is likely a blanket prohibition on &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt; collecting data, then trying to go back and get consent to use it in another way, but your situation is a bit different in that you weren't the one collecting in the first place and the collection does not seem to meet the criteria for &quot;research&quot; at the time of collection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/decision-charts/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;These flow charts from HHS&lt;/a&gt; might help a bit if you are in the US. Following Chart 2 and then Chart 4/5, it is quite &lt;em&gt;possible&lt;/em&gt; that this work could be exempt from full review (but at least at my institution, &lt;em&gt;it is still the IRB that decides whether the exemption applies&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-09-02T22:08:20.117" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23987" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-02T22:26:45.030" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do we have a psychological need to talk to people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't believe it's in Maslow's hierarchy, but surely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2019-09-03T14:56:45.550" Title="Do we have a psychological need to talk to people?" Tags="&lt;communication&gt;&lt;needs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23988" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23973" CreationDate="2019-09-03T00:22:47.693" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;My best guess is that this kind of thinking is most similar to conspiracy theories, which can be created by a combination of confirmation bias, emotionally salient narrative, and overactivity in meaning and interpretation over facts and in critical thinking. Delving deeper into how conspiracy theories and paranoia work could provide some insight into the neurological mechanisms involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we have a strong emotionally salient narrative in our minds, our brains are excellent at cherry picking exactly the right set of events and interpretations (of which there are infinitely many) to support our narrative while omitting or ignoring contrary data - to the point where even the most outrageous narrative can seem 'obvious'. The more intensely we cling to the narrative or idea, the more we will do this. So conspiratorial thinking is in a way a special case of extreme confirmation bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conspiracies are usually in the form of a positive narrative. But extreme skepticism is a form of conspiracy theory. The reasoning: implied in this thinking is that Global Warming (or the Holocaust, or whatever is denied) is a conspiracy. Is some elaborate fabrication by some people with an ulterior motive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overactivity in centers of meaning and interpretation as opposed to facts seem critical to paranoid and conspiratorial thinking. Conspiracy theories and paranoia usually involve weaving a very strong and emotionally salient narrative subscribing negative intentions to powerful actors. Then reinterpreting facts and events with these negative intentions and the grand narrative in mind. Ex: global warming is part of a grand scheme for [person or group] to [establish world domination / make large sums of money / ruin our economy / etc] by [keeping us all in fear / making us invest in certain technologies / etc].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see a very strong correlation between far right political orientation and conspiratorial thinking. However I also see some conspiratorial thinking on the far left.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24139" LastActivityDate="2019-09-03T00:22:47.693" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23989" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23985" CreationDate="2019-09-03T00:53:49.770" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The other issue is whether it is a closed Facebook group or a public Facebook group. If it is a closed group then privacy issues do apply. Public groups are accessible by everyone, so broader social media rules apply. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, talking to your IRB about retrospective approval is essential. Some IRBs do not grant retrospective approvals full-stop, no exceptions. Not having identifiers or including people who have declared themselves or identified how they answer is also an important distinction as well that needs to be in your ethics application. I know some IRBs if they look at the questions and the fact that it is a survey are usually able to grant retrospective approval despite the lack of consent. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Putting a post and asking permission to do research would definitely be helpful. People can raise your concerns and this can be included in your ethics approval and communication with your IRB. Definitely communicate with the group and be transparent in the type of journals and conferences that you could be publishing in. I find details like that is helpful and encourages further engagement from the community. For some, research is a very new thing and they may never encounter an academic journal before. So having this introduction and being part of the scientific writing process can be quite exciting for the group. In some FB groups that I am in, research legitimizes and validates the difficulties that they are having. It gives them a voice when they previously feel unheard. Also, highlighting and educating about the strict privacy regulation of the journal and the IRB process is a great way to educate your group and the general public about research and scientific journals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: Not sure how I missed the comment about GoogleForms. GoogleForms is not universally accepted as confidential and adequately de-identifying for research purposes. Sometimes when people fill in the GoogleForm, their Google sign in might be collected which then makes the survey not confidential (make sure this setting is off and that this data has not been collected by accident). It is much harder to disprove data manipulation as the survey can be altered as well after being filled in or manipulated by the researchers without any metadata evidence, all of which makes IRBs and ethic boards very nervous and hesitant to approve research using GoogleForms. &#xA;For countries which insists that the server of the data storage be in the same country, GoogleForm does not have this option - &lt;a href=&quot;https://support.google.com/docs/forum/AAAABuH1jm0QpVoaDeB-Kk/?hl=en&amp;amp;gpf=%23!topic%2Fdocs%2FQpVoaDeB-Kk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Support Question&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2019-09-03T06:39:51.947" LastActivityDate="2019-09-03T06:39:51.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23991" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23987" CreationDate="2019-09-03T14:15:42.777" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It’s worth remembering that Maslow proffered a THEORY with very little experimental evidence to support it. Since then lots of experimental research has been done with a number of primary needs being identified. Primary needs are often those that take place implicitly and/or evoke visceral responses (typically via the amygdala) when threatened or rewarded (there’s more to it than that but just a starter for 10).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A neat summary of those primary needs can be found in David Rock’s Your Brain at Work (2009). The need I believe you’re referring to is RELATEDNESS. Neuroscientific research in this area has found that being excluded from say a conversation or group hurts us more than physical pain. Also have a look at:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neural bases of feeling understood and not understood &#xA;Sylvia A. Morelli,  Jared B. Torre, Naomi I. Eisenberger&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Naomi Eisenberger in addition has lots more great research in this area - too much to list here&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastEditorUserId="22058" LastEditDate="2019-09-03T14:56:45.550" LastActivityDate="2019-09-03T14:56:45.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23992" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24016" CreationDate="2019-09-03T15:10:41.040" Score="2" ViewCount="230" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for the Schwartz Value Survey (SVS; Schwartz, 1992). I seem to have found a copy &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065260108602816&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; in the appendix of this paper but I'm not quite sure if it is okay to use it the way it is presented, or if I need permission to use this scale in my research. I would appreciate any help; thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19874" LastEditorUserId="19874" LastEditDate="2019-09-03T15:24:03.617" LastActivityDate="2019-09-07T13:44:55.590" Title="Schwartz Value Survey (SVS)" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23995" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="23996" CreationDate="2019-09-03T22:40:48.677" Score="1" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have drawn a lesion mask using FSLeyes on a T1-weighted image for MS patients. Is there tool to get the lesion volume from the mask?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24147" LastActivityDate="2019-09-04T14:21:45.917" Title="Find volume of lesion mask" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23996" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23995" CreationDate="2019-09-03T22:40:48.677" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming your mask is in NIfTI format (nii or nii.gz extension), you can use the fslstats command line tool for that. Just type &lt;code&gt;fslstats&lt;/code&gt; on the command line to see the help text for command syntax and arguments. For your specific case, you can use:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;fslstats &amp;lt;input&amp;gt; -V&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;input&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; is the path to your mask NIfTI file. The returned numbers will be the mask volume in voxels and mm^3.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;FSL install&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since you said you used FSLeyes to draw your mask, I'm assuming you have the full install of the FSL package as well. If not, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://fsl.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fsl/fslwiki/FslInstallation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;their wiki for instructions&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24147" LastEditorUserId="24147" LastEditDate="2019-09-04T14:21:45.917" LastActivityDate="2019-09-04T14:21:45.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23998" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24004" CreationDate="2019-09-04T09:05:00.580" Score="2" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;We do lot a physical exercise for keeping body in shape and strong. I have not heard about any exercise for mental health. Is there any thing like mental exercise or physical exercise also include mental exercise ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23538" LastActivityDate="2019-09-05T02:50:54.183" Title="Exercise for Mental health" Tags="&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="23999" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-04T10:03:08.850" Score="1" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;On &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/What-is-fractionation-hypnosis-and-psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quora&lt;/a&gt; I read: &quot;Fractionation is going in and out a state repeatedly in order to reach deeper levels.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can sound and music be used with this method to reach deeper levels e.g. more theta brainwaves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here I am referring to fractionation in hypnosis not in seduction.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;thanks, k&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23560" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-09-05T06:11:01.353" LastActivityDate="2019-09-05T06:11:01.353" Title="How can sound and music be used with 'Fractionation' to reach deeper levels of mind?" Tags="&lt;music&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2019-09-04T16:15:26.100" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24000" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-04T11:12:07.970" Score="4" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can repetitive music (minimal) help remember by increasing theta waves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand theta waves are involved in memory tasks. If correct, can I try increase theta waves with audio neuro-feedback to help remember or find clarity on a question? I am thinking about something very simple like drumming with 4-6 beats per second. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cheers! k&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23560" LastEditorUserId="23560" LastEditDate="2019-09-04T15:42:15.163" LastActivityDate="2019-09-04T15:42:15.163" Title="Can repetitive music help remember by increasing theta waves?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24001" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-04T17:55:33.310" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have some symptom of schizophrenia maybe some parts of five types of it. So i detected some inner disorder symptom like catatonic schizophrenia, in this situation i searched for the result and analyzed my  last thought and body languages so i detected that there is some relation between this situation (like Agitation) with those last situation, i guess there is some communication between some part of unconscious mind with my EGO based of point view to environment form those recent situations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wF1cB.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wF1cB.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;n&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;so maybe find some communication between inner child which want to show somethings and be possible to understand by tracking the last thoughts and be awaking to physical senses and emotional relation by this part of unconscious mind, or in some other situation could be from some archetype of Jung theory communication with ego ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SO i am not familiar with this knowledge and want to know more scientific information's about this hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be appreciate your help for understanding more about this conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks a lot &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24152" LastActivityDate="2019-09-04T17:55:33.310" Title="possible relation of catatonic schizophrenia situations with unconscious mind parts based of the point of view of Recent situations" Tags="&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2019-09-04T18:00:50.310" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24003" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-05T01:29:05.923" Score="9" ViewCount="2516" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine a person who:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mostly prefers written communication (email, instant messaging) to making phone/video calls or seeing face-to-face&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hardly ever watches videos on the internet. Prefers reading&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;At college/uni, instead of attending lectures/seminars, would successfully study things on their own using the recommended materials, and would always pass the exams&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Would rather sort things out themselves instead of asking for help/directions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are great at working from home&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Generally does not socialise and are very happy to stay on their own / keep to themselves&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Avoids living in cities and prefers rural low-to-zero populated areas&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does not hate people but just finds most of them rather boring or being nuisance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Despite all the above, are very positive and friendly when communicating face-to-face and are very valued within their professional circle&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been trying to find a term to describe such a person but so far all terms that I found seem to bear a negative connotation or identify a disorder. There is no negativity or disorder here as the person does not feel stress or disability and are very happy with what they are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of terms that are close but do not match for reasons explained:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autism spectrum&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asperger_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Asperger syndrome&lt;/a&gt; are both defined as &quot;disorders&quot; with &quot;difficulties&quot;. The person does not have any difficulties: they do appear socialising and communicating just fine — when they need it for some purpose other than socialising/communicating itself;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misanthropy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Misanthrope&lt;/a&gt; actually hates people (which makes the term regarded as rather negative). The subject person does not. They simply avoid seeing people unnecessarily;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recluse&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Recluse&lt;/a&gt; is a very close call, but it describes a person who &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; live that way without conveying anything of whether they &lt;em&gt;want&lt;/em&gt; to live that way. A very social party goer may hide away and be a recluse if a gang is after them. Conversely, the subject person who, despite their preference, lives in a big city and participates in social drinks at work just because it secures their career cannot be called &quot;recluse&quot;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loner&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Loner&lt;/a&gt; is another good word but it is not sufficiently neutral. As the linked article says, &quot;&lt;em&gt;the modern term &quot;loner&quot; can be used with a negative connotation in the belief that human beings are social creatures and those that do not participate are deviant.&lt;/em&gt;&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14925" LastEditorUserId="14925" LastEditDate="2019-09-05T07:30:13.210" LastActivityDate="2020-01-19T16:04:06.970" Title="Is there a neutral term for people who tend to avoid face-to-face or video/audio communication?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24004" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23998" CreationDate="2019-09-05T02:50:54.183" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is enough evidence to tackle the issue of exercise and depression. I am not sure about the rest of the psychiatric spectrum and disorders. A &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004366.pub6/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2013 review by Cooney et al&lt;/a&gt; found differences in the methodological rigor of the trials. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For the 35 trials (1356 participants) comparing exercise with no treatment or a control intervention, the pooled SMD for the primary outcome of depression at the end of treatment was ‐0.62 (95% confidence interval (CI) ‐0.81 to ‐0.42), indicating a moderate clinical effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, when they examined a smaller more methodologically rigorous group, the effect size lessened but was still significant. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;6 trials (464 participants) with adequate allocation concealment, intention‐to‐treat analysis and blinded outcome assessment, the pooled SMD for this outcome was not statistically significant (‐0.18, 95% CI ‐0.47 to 0.11). Pooled data from the eight trials (377 participants) providing long‐term follow‐up data on mood found a small effect in favour of exercise (SMD ‐0.33, 95% CI ‐0.63 to ‐0.03). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, definitely exercise is very helpful for depression with meaningful improvements. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cooney  GM, Dwan  K, Greig  CA, Lawlor  DA, Rimer  J, Waugh  FR, McMurdo  M, Mead  GE. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004366.pub6/abstract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Exercise for depression&lt;/a&gt;. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 9. Art. No.: CD004366. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004366.pub6.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-09-05T02:50:54.183" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24005" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20922" CreationDate="2019-09-05T03:44:35.903" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately this question is based on a false premise. Thanks for asking. The oversimplified view on brain lateralisation is so stubbornly persistant and it invaded so many meditation guides, self help blogs, pseudoscientific faith healing and even job interviewer criteria, that it is now a part of &quot;viral&quot; phenomenon. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, brain lateralisation exists. But it does not work in the oversimplified way they describe. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, M. Gazzaniga shown sometimes the &quot;random versus linear&quot; relation work in sort of [opposite][1] way than the popular myth. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Writing an overview of the split-brain research in a 2002 article for Scientific American, Gazzaniga concluded, based on the interpreter phenomenon and other findings, that the left hemisphere is “inventive and interpreting,” whilst the right brain is “truthful and literal.” This seems at odds with the myth invoked by Rabbi Sacks and many others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1][&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/brain-myths/201206/why-the-left-brain-right-brain-myth-will-probably-never-die]&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/brain-myths/201206/why-the-left-brain-right-brain-myth-will-probably-never-die]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2019-09-05T03:44:35.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24006" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24003" CreationDate="2019-09-05T05:51:50.923" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The description strongly matches with Autism, Autism spectrum disorder and Asperger syndrome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asperger_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Asperger syndrome&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autism spectrum condition&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autism&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Classically, Asperger syndrome was characterised by no obvious delay in language development, and in some cases Aspergers tend to have a very vast vocabulary.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did not understand what is meant by a neutral term. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Autism is not a bad word at all. Many autistics consider autism as their identity, or the right term to explain who are they and what does the typically developing people require to know about them. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="13859" LastEditDate="2019-09-05T05:57:17.887" LastActivityDate="2019-09-05T05:57:17.887" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24007" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16689" CreationDate="2019-09-05T06:12:08.573" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;it is sometimes called as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantilization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;infantilization&lt;/a&gt;, which is common towards children as well for some people with impaired social communication, so apparently considered as childish people. Infantilizing is harmful because &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The person may have a childish communication style which may be unwantedly appreciated by public but the communication difficulties may be ignored. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;it ignores the actual intellectual capabilities, and also disqualifies the apparently &quot;childishly communicating person&quot; from having high targets as well as high support at the same time. It creates low expectation and more chances to miss opportunity. Society often does not understand its not being childish rather it is a communication difficulty that may co-occur with autism, nonverbal learning disorder, ADHD etc. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2019-09-05T06:12:08.573" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16689" CreationDate="2019-09-05T07:47:07.897" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a few terms which can be used for this.  The answer from @AlwaysConfused could describe the situation if you are actually talking to them like a child as stipulated in the title, but therapists should not sound patronising or condescending so I wonder if you may be referring to a form of &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumnavigation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;circumnavigation&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The use of circumnavigation may not necessarily be a case of being sly. Therapists may do this to build a complete picture of a situation as you suggest, but it can also get their client to look at things from a different angle too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe looking directly at the situation is going to be too psychologically painful right now so circumnavigating the direct path can help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other than this, when a therapist &quot;wants to fish out certain information from you&quot;, there can be certain protocols which need to be followed, for example, if therapy is being given due to a situation which may lead to a court case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A therapist in this situation cannot be seen to be leading a potential witness in a court case, so they must ask open and indirect questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, this can be see as circumnavigation of a sort, but it is more a case of open and indirect questioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-09-05T07:58:09.027" LastActivityDate="2019-09-05T07:58:09.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24009" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24003" CreationDate="2019-09-05T09:53:01.137" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I agree with @AlwaysConfused that this sounds very like someone with Asperger's.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you want a more &quot;neutral&quot; term, would &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introvert&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Introvert&lt;/a&gt; help?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such a person - an &lt;code&gt;Ixxx&lt;/code&gt; on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Myers-Briggs scale&lt;/a&gt; - typically finds their &quot;energy levels&quot; drain when in groups of people, and recharge when they are on their own.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24159" LastActivityDate="2019-09-05T09:53:01.137" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24012" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-05T17:16:44.587" Score="2" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have 7 z-scored images correlated to the 7 components from cerebellar cerebellar derived ICA resting state components.  Using nilearn or any other plotting packages for that matter I would like to generate a map with all the networks on it is separate colors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18642" LastActivityDate="2019-09-05T17:16:44.587" Title="PLotting multiple z-scored images in Nilearn" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24014" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20922" CreationDate="2019-09-06T02:08:19.307" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: how to train our brain to always use left part for thinking &amp;amp; deciding things? How do I not take emotional decisions?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; For the second question, you can train to take rational rather than emotional decisions by trying to use reasons and logic over emotions every time you make a decision. This can be trained and you’ll succeed in the long run; it will become your trained habit. It does not matter which side of the brain is dominating in the process of making those rational decisions, so you do not have to worry about it. The brain will find its way to achieve the goal if you train yourself consistently. The desired habit will form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the first question, we have no control over which side or which area of the brain to use when we perform any mental task. It all occurs automatically by the wiring of the brain, which is determined both by our genetics and environmental factors (both nature and nurture, that is). These wiring can be modified to some degree by environmental factors; training is one of them. And as others have pointed out in their answers, the brain lateralization is not simple and clear cut – the language (symbol), rationality, and order are not 100% on the left hemisphere, nor are art, emotion, and creativity 100% on the right hemisphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One popular example is Betty Edwards' Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, first published in 1979 but now in its fourth edition [7], which epitomizes the popular view that the right hemisphere is responsible for creativity. Brain imaging shows, though, that creative thought activates a widespread network, favoring neither hemisphere [8]. A more recent example is Iain McGilchrist's 2009 book The Master and His Emissary, which draws on cerebral asymmetry in a sweeping account of the forces that shaped Western culture, and provocatively declares the right hemisphere to be the dominant one (“the master”) [9]. Although widely acclaimed, this book goes far beyond the neurological facts. Polarities of left and right brain are broadly invoked in art, business, education, literary theory, and culture, but owe more to the power of myth than to the scientific evidence [10]. [Ref 1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the end, you can train yourself to make rational decisions and to do many other things without having to demand (or to concern) which side of the brain is mainly doing that for you, just by training and training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Corballis MC. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3897366/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Left Brain, Right Brain: Facts and Fantasies.&lt;/a&gt; PloS Biol. 2014 Jan; 12(1): e1001767. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001767&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Editorial. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.academia.edu/32920682/The_neural_bases_of_hemispheric_specialization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Neural Basis of hemispheric specialization.&lt;/a&gt; Neuropsychologia. 2016; 93: 319-324.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-09-06T02:08:19.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24015" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17563" CreationDate="2019-09-07T07:04:05.167" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The relationship between implicit bias and individual behaviour is not direct and does not satisfactorily explain biased behaviour on an individual basis. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two studies that looked at cardiovascular disease, which does propose some interesting hypotheses. These studies add to the growing evidence that bias whether implicit or explicit is significant at a group or community level instead of at an individual basis. This &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.117.006872&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2014 a study of 503 cardiologists by Daugherty et al.&lt;/a&gt; performed implicit gender bias test and asked the cardiologists to go through a clinical vignette. The differences the recommendations in the clinical vignette according to gender was not wholly explained by the differences in the implicit bias test. We know there is a bias against aggressive management of heart disease in women by cardiologists in general by previous studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;The utility of secondary stress testing after an abnormal exercise treadmill test was rated as “high” more often for female than male patients (32.8% versus 24.3%, P=0.04); this difference did not vary with implicit bias. Angiography was more consistently rated as having “high” utility for male versus female patients (part 1: 19.7% versus 9.8%; part 2: 73.7% versus 64.3%; P&amp;lt;0.05 for both); this difference was larger for cardiologists with higher implicit gender bias on risk taking (P=0.01)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At a community level however, there is a strong correlation between communities that have a high level of black racial bias and higher rates of black deaths from circulatory diseases. This &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/09/160907095535.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2016 study by Leitner et al&lt;/a&gt; mapped over 1.4 million responses of white participants to US counties through a national survey and found that counties with high rates of implicit and explicit bias against blacks had far higher rates of &quot;circulatory disease and in circulatory-disease-related death rates&quot; than counties with lower racial bias. Although this study does not solely focus on implicit racial bias, (it included explicit racial bias), it does provide food for thought. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;(I)n counties with high (1 SD above the mean) explicit racial bias, the difference between Blacks’ and Whites’ death rates was 62 deaths per 100,000. In contrast, in counties with low (1 SD below the mean) explicit bias, the difference was 35 deaths per 100,000... We made this estimate at the average Black population level in counties for which we had death-rate data for Blacks (average Black population = 28,598); 11 more Blacks per county were predicted to die annually in high-explicit-bias counties (95 deaths) than in low-explicit-bias counties (84 deaths).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Daugherty Stacie L., Blair Irene V., Havranek Edward P., Furniss Anna, Dickinson L. Miriam, Karimkhani Elhum, … Masoudi Frederick A. (n.d.). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.117.006872&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Implicit Gender Bias and the Use of Cardiovascular Tests Among Cardiologists.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of the American Heart Association, 6(12), e006872. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.117.006872&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.117.006872&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leitner, J. B., Hehman, E., Ayduk, O., &amp;amp; Mendoza-Denton, R. (2016). &lt;a href=&quot;https://sci-hub.tw/10.1177/0956797616658450&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blacks’ Death Rate Due to Circulatory Diseases Is Positively Related to Whites’ Explicit Racial Bias: A Nationwide Investigation Using Project Implicit.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological Science. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616658450&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616658450&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-09-07T07:04:05.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24016" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23992" CreationDate="2019-09-07T13:44:55.590" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first Schwartz Value Survey (SVS) was published in 1992 which consisted of 56 items. Since then, it has gone through a couple changes. A current version employs 57 items. The SVS56 and SVS57 are different, with one item changed and one item added in the SVS57. Schwartz &amp;amp; Sagiv (1995) is the first article using the SVS57. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 'face' item was added in 2004, the final survey consisting of 58 items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The SVS57 is available &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mededportal.org/publication/10002/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; with a short scoring key included as well. However, I recommend going through the full manual with additional resources, available &lt;a href=&quot;http://crossculturalcentre.homestead.com/DraftManual_SVS_14Feb2009.doc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19874" LastActivityDate="2019-09-07T13:44:55.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24017" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-07T14:27:27.283" Score="2" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’m taking currently two antidepressants. Will adding a third or fourth antidepressant to my treatment plan cause serotonin syndrome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7049" LastEditorUserId="7049" LastEditDate="2019-09-30T10:51:57.070" LastActivityDate="2019-09-30T12:16:28.717" Title="Is serotonin syndrome something we can predict before it happens?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-09-30T12:16:39.183" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24018" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24048" CreationDate="2019-09-07T18:32:30.617" Score="3" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ASD&lt;/a&gt; is a set of very much heterogeneous symptoms with some common characteristics like lack of eye contact, lack of social guesswork, difficulty in learning unwritten social norms or conventions, missing the sense of personal boundary of other people, lacking or inappropriate gesture, restricted repeatitive and intense interests, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interview and psychometry methods, sort of, work, still misdiagnosis ain both ways, are common and develop controversies and harasses. Delayed diagnosis is also a fact. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But my question is; do we yet have any &quot;confirmed&quot; and reliable test for ASD particularly those at the &quot;mild&quot; end of the spectrum? Such as a scan-based technique such as MRI/ fMRI/ DTI or say electrophysilology techniques such as EEG or qEEG or molecular tests like DNA blotting or DNA sequencing or Elisa etc does such physical or molecular techniques can characterise ASDs?? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notably, this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25316335&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; says no significant anatomical difference found in a large-scale analysis using ABIDE database.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-09-10T13:09:35.073" LastActivityDate="2019-09-10T15:49:41.307" Title="Excluding psychometry and interview methods, is there any physical or molecular method that can confirm mild autism?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24019" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23914" CreationDate="2019-09-07T19:03:16.183" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It can range from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savant_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;savant&lt;/a&gt;-like skills to extreme &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscalculia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dyscalculia&lt;/a&gt;, some are very mean or average. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The savant stereotype is caused mostly by many Western films which is applicable only for a small fraction of ASD population; for the others in ASD spectrum it is misleading  and unhelpful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2019-09-07T19:03:16.183" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24020" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-07T19:14:48.750" Score="2" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading into Anders Ericssons work on expertise and as made popular by Malcom Gladwell(though quoted incorrectly) is the requirement of accumulating large amounts of &quot;deliberate practice&quot;(Practice with a specific goal in mind with adequate feedback). I was also looking into Daniel Coyle's work on skill development and he follows a sort of similar theory in the sense that he does agree with deliberate practice, but puts more of an emphasis on &quot;reaching&quot; which can be defined as practicing and pushing yourself slightly outside your abilities with every practice session. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't see a reason to disagree with the above, but I pose another question which is how does one achieve consistency in the above described practice, which is usually tiring and require discipline (sometimes the mood just doesn't strike us to practice much less practice at the edge of our abilities). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My theory is that those who persist and are consistent in their practice over a long period of time in pursuit of expertise either deliberately or not have a reward system(Something releases dopamine as a result of practicing). It seems reasonable that people are only motivated to do a task where there is a positive correlation between reward and difficulty. So my question is how important is reward in your guys' opinion in achieving expertise? How can we add more reward to practice if it is important?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23697" LastEditorUserId="23697" LastEditDate="2019-09-07T19:21:06.230" LastActivityDate="2019-09-07T19:21:06.230" Title="What's the importance of reward on acquiring expert level skill?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reward&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24021" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-07T19:46:21.160" Score="4" ViewCount="666" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asperger_syndrome#Characteristics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;says&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/87jWi.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/87jWi.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People with Asperger syndrome often display restricted or specialized&#xA;  interests, such as this boy's interest in stacking cans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How predictive is this of Asperger's: What percentage of normal boys and boys with Asperger's display this type of behavior, respectively?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user16005" LastEditorDisplayName="user16005" LastEditDate="2019-09-08T22:27:55.437" LastActivityDate="2019-09-22T16:09:04.617" Title="Is stacking cans really a sign of Asperger's?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24022" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24021" CreationDate="2019-09-07T21:12:32.323" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Autism is usually a range or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;spectrum&lt;/a&gt; of co-morbid symptoms that greatly vary from one autistic individual to another. As an only common characteristic we may say that autism is a disability in social cognition. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even no two aspergers are same (and now the term Asperger has been merged with ASD since there is not a clear distinction of Asperger and other ASD. Initially Aspergers was distinguished from most other types of autism that do not have any speech or language delay (&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20151102042503/http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2015/en#/F84.5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WHO, ICD-10&lt;/a&gt; , &lt;a href=&quot;https://behavenet.com/diagnostic-criteria-29980-aspergers-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-4&lt;/a&gt;) though internally it is very same to other forms of autisms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We may say that arranging objects (such as laundry clips, pen caps, pebbles, blocks, sticks etc) may help recognise autism, but it is not a conclusive by any means. Almost any kids do some amounts of constructive play. &lt;a href=&quot;https://tranquilbabiesny.wordpress.com/2017/07/23/lining-up-toys-doesnt-mean-your-toddler-has-autism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;If a kid likes to line up toys, no need to panic&lt;/a&gt;, it is probably not autism, its probably a very common kid, playing with stuffs. However if there are combination of social difficulties then maybe it is autism and the kid needs support and understanding. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversly, someone is autistic does not mean they will obsessively arrange toys in arrays. Some will watch TVs, some will sit still, some will jump or pace up or some will try to socialise but eventually fail. Or some will sit beside the window, or some will not look anything such readily recognisable. ASD is a spectrum of conditions, not one single condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lining up toys that is only one observation on behaviour but there are many more other aspects such as some common characteristics are difficulties comprehending social norms and cues, failing to guesswork on social expectations, lack or inappropriateness in using body language, lack of eye contact, lacking sense of personal boundary, irritability with change of address or routine or  living methods or arrangement of things, hypersensitivity or hyposensitivity (or combination of these 2) towards sound noise, light, smell, tastes, texture, in some cases difficulty with fine motor skills, learning difficulties such as dyscalculia or dyslexia, problems with facial recognition etc. However these symptoms usually occur in a combination and vary greatly within ASD individual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, punding, patterning and constructive play (and some cases disinterest or difficulty or  inability in pretend play or role play game) is one of the common  feature of ASD, and not necessarily tin cans but these infants may find some other materials, and not only lining up but they may engage in making more type of  arrays and patterns, however &lt;em&gt;only 1 characteristic is not even close to conclusive.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="13859" LastEditDate="2019-09-22T16:09:04.617" LastActivityDate="2019-09-22T16:09:04.617" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24024" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5889" CreationDate="2019-09-07T21:57:15.500" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. Everyone is not a little bit autistic. Everyone may not be &quot;typically developing&quot; in some or some aspect; but autism is not universal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Apparently Same symptoms or same behaviour may have complete different reasons.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aspergers is predominately a communication problem and problem with social guesswork. Usually a vast number of other complaints co-occur which are invisible from outside. It not necessarily includes introversion, rather the introversion is sometimes a byproduct of failed communication with peer group. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some typically developing people may be shy or introverted. Who do not like to make friends. But they have good social skills. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people may develop narcissistic personality disorder. Which is a problem about ego. They may have manipulative nature. They tend to have good understanding of social cues. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some cases these condition may be co-occuring. However everyone is not autistic, and there isn't a thing like being a &quot;little bit&quot; autistic. &lt;em&gt;Being in even very mild end of ASD spectrum is usually a very stressful condition, however the invisibility of the disability often blends it so much indistinguishably&lt;/em&gt; with typically developing population. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another situation of similar superficial appearance, Also Say for a restless uncontrollable behaviour may look common with ADHD and some ASD as well as typically developing. But the inherent reason may be very different. Such as for ADHD it may be a shifting attention and energetic impulse, whereas in ASD it may be the anxiety developed from lack of predictability of a real life process going on. A typically developing person can do the same due to joy or anger or boredom but they have better response inhibition. Even bipolar patients may have indistinguishable symptom, but that is due to an unusual state of mood and feeling, even without triggered by another reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology is very tricky. Not only behaviours but the reasons behind behaviour to be considered. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="13859" LastEditDate="2019-09-09T19:18:00.377" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T19:18:00.377" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24025" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24037" CreationDate="2019-09-08T03:39:52.687" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read the wikipedia article on Cingulate cortex and the article about limbic lobe. Also did web search but it is not clear to me whether they are synonymous or there are slight differences in the parts they include. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;UPDATE:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it seems search terms for &quot;limbic system&quot; and &quot;limbic lobe&quot; giving me a different google search result. There also are wikipedia pages on &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cingulate_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1. Cingulate cortex&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_lobe&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2. Limbic Lobe&lt;/a&gt; ,&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3. Limbic System&lt;/a&gt; .  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where cingulate cortex (1) is confusingly similar to Limbic lobe (2) but Limbic system (3) seem to be different (but inclusive) terminology from limbic lobe (2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I want to know if limbic &quot;lobe&quot; and cingulate cortex are synonymous or they differ in the areas they include. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="13859" LastEditDate="2019-09-09T19:07:06.253" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T21:23:19.487" Title="Cingulate cortex vs Limbic lobe are they same or slightly different?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;definition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24027" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-08T07:11:29.617" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can concepts such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungian_archetypes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;archetype&lt;/a&gt; (ancient patterns) in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jung&lt;/a&gt;'s theory have a life in human societies, and if so, can these concepts become contaminated and diseased?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A look at  religion introduces it like a virus mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Richard Dawkins&lt;/a&gt;' talk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A kind of life that may be a kind of clever life resulting from evolution among members of one species, perhaps Jung 's work can somehow channel this into science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, can a concept like God or Satan have a life in this domain (within the collective subconscious of humans) and become contaminated by the overuse and the pathogenic look of humans, and therefore whether systems like this have a collective subconscious? Defense systems (referred to by Freud) can be upgradable. And can the poems of individuals such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sohrab_Sepehri&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sohrab sepehri&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansur_Al-Hallaj&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mansur Al-Hallaj&lt;/a&gt; about God and Satan in this respect be somehow related to the question of the evolution and enhancement of the defense systems of these subconscious components?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24152" LastActivityDate="2019-09-08T07:11:29.617" Title="The hypothesis of a kind of life for archetypes of particular patterns in human societies" Tags="&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24028" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-08T15:28:51.503" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a programmer writing a small n-Back test/game app,and certain things are still ambiguous to me:&#xA;1-is there a standard implementation used in research(for example displaying a sequence of pictures or using a 3x3 grid) ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2-what is the correct way to implement higher n-backs for example tri &amp;amp; quad using a 3x3 grid like this one &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9Le9c.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9Le9c.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; ,can I use different colors for the other two stimuli or do they have to be completely different (for example A color and an auditory stimulus for dual n-back),and is it okay to use arbitrary large grids or does it have to be 3x3,and if it was okay is there any adjustment that needs to be accompany such change(for example is there a constraint based on the n in n-back that limits the size of the grid?).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3-would A letter and it's color used to create a dual n-back, be considered 2 non interfering stimuli in the same way a a visual stimulus and an auditory one are? and if not is there a resource that defines interfering and non interfering stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4-when calculating the score should using interfering stimuli be scored differently from non interfering ones?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5-would adding visual effects (for example animating the a list of pictures moving from left to right) instead of displaying them sequentially affect the result in any way, or is it okay?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24187" LastActivityDate="2019-09-08T15:28:51.503" Title="N-Back implementation?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24029" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24021" CreationDate="2019-09-08T15:35:06.413" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Symptoms of Asperger’s Syndrome&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;difficulty recognizing social cues&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;awkward body language&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;social isolation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;aloofness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;fixation on certain objects&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The picture (and idea) that “stacking cans” is in itself a sign of Asperger’s is misleading at best.&#xA;One could just as easily say this child is making “a tower”, a common activity amongst children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://openpathcollective.org/topic/aspergers-syndrome/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Asperger at Psychotherapy Collective&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stacking objects can be a child development tool.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.adam-mila.com/milestones/fine-motor-skills/stacking/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Childhood development tools&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2019-09-17T18:49:38.570" LastActivityDate="2019-09-17T18:49:38.570" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24030" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24033" CreationDate="2019-09-08T16:11:06.413" Score="2" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Nicotinic AchR is known for long to be an ion channel receptor however it has been argued &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24185813&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;whether it is a GPCR&lt;/a&gt;, as well &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscarinic_acetylcholine_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Muscarinic AchR&lt;/a&gt; is known to be GPCR.  Seemingly many other nerve cell bound receptors like   &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Serotonin receptor&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melatonin_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Melatonin receptors&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dopamine receptors&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adrenaline and Nor-adrenaline receptors&lt;/a&gt;, known to be G-protein coupled receptor (GPCRs). Although &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GABA_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GABA receptors&lt;/a&gt; are not directly GPCR by functionality, wikipedia tells &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GABAB_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a subtype of GABA receptor&lt;/a&gt;. is probably GPCR. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I have basically 2 part in this question: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Why GPCR or receptors homologous to GPCR are so common in nerve cells? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are there neuronal receptors which do not have homology with GPCRs?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2019-09-08T17:31:09.130" Title="Why seemingly all the neuronal membrane-bound receptor are exclusively GPCR or highly homologous to GPCR family?" Tags="&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;cell-signaling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24031" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2019-09-08T17:05:40.340" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2019-09-08T17:05:40.340" LastActivityDate="2019-09-08T17:05:40.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24032" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2019-09-08T17:05:40.340" Score="0" Body="" OwnerUserId="-1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2019-09-08T17:05:40.340" LastActivityDate="2019-09-08T17:05:40.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24030" CreationDate="2019-09-08T17:31:09.130" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you're confused about proteins that &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; GPCRs versus having homology. GABA-B is another that &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; a GPCR (it is not particularly related to GABA-A). These are also called metabotropic receptors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ionotropic receptors are from separate families, many from the Cys-loop family (see Sine &amp;amp; Engel, 2006) with a characteristic 5-subunit composition, or the heterotetrameric structure shared among related glutamate receptors (see Dingledine et al 1999).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your link for nAChR doesn't seem to argue that it is homologous to GPCRs, instead it describes a possible interaction with that channel with g-proteins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, none of this is special for neurons: because all modern proteins evolved from previous ones, there is substantial homology within protein families that can often be traced even between vertebrates and bacteria. Within the GPCR family, many different proteins have evolved different sensitivities and different specific g-protein interactions, but the general concept is conserved: something binds outside the cell, causing an internal conformational change that affects a g-protein. The ionotropic receptors are much different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dingledine, R., Borges, K., Bowie, D., &amp;amp; Traynelis, S. F. (1999). The glutamate receptor ion channels. Pharmacological reviews, 51(1), 7-62.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sine, S. M., &amp;amp; Engel, A. G. (2006). Recent advances in Cys-loop receptor structure and function. Nature, 440(7083), 448.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-09-08T17:31:09.130" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24035" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24038" CreationDate="2019-09-09T13:39:30.237" Score="1" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;This article,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/12114150/Human-brain-can-store-4.7-billion-books-ten-times-more-than-originally-thought.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human brain can store..&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;claims the memory has a capacity of around 1 petabyte or quadrillion bytes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This other one,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-the-memory-capacity/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What's the memory capacity of the human brain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;claims the memory storage capacity is around 2,5 petabytes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's the memory capacity of the human brain? Or at least the most widely accepted estimate?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13498" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T16:13:55.487" Title="What's the memory capacity of the human brain?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-09-09T17:49:32.637" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24037" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24025" CreationDate="2019-09-09T14:32:34.967" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Updated answer: &#xA;The limbic lobe (aka limbic cortex) is made up of the cingulate gyrus and the parahippocampal gyrus (so the cingulate gyrus is only part of the limbic lobe). The limbic lobe is part of the limbic system. There is some disagreement over what the limbic system includes, but some of the other areas contained in the limbic system include the subcallosal gyrus, hippocampus, and amygdala.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24105" LastEditorUserId="24105" LastEditDate="2019-09-09T21:23:19.487" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T21:23:19.487" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24038" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24035" CreationDate="2019-09-09T16:13:55.487" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know the answer to your question but I'm not aware of anyone who does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper referred to in the first article above is Bartol et al. (2015) in eLife (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/10778/elife-10778-v2.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/10778/elife-10778-v2.pdf&lt;/a&gt;). This paper is a proposal of how one might estimate the storage capacity of a synapse. Their current estimate is 4.7 bits per synapse. The article states that more work is needed to get an accurate estimate. The paper does not provide a definitive answer to your question. There is not much research on this subject at the moment, probably because there are still many things we don't yet know about the nature of memory. In time we may find that a completely different method to Bartol's gives a better estimate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The figure of 1 petabyte is not given in Bartol's paper. This value may have been given in the press release or it could have been calculated by the journalist (by multiplying the estimated synapse capacity by an estimated number of synapses). The estimate of the number of synapses in the brain is the subject of research itself. Bartol's paper says that there are 'many trillions of synapses', which doesn't give us enough information to calculate. The figure needed to get 1 petabyte is around 200 trillion synapses, if my maths is to be trusted. The figure of 1 petabyte is the product of two estimates that may or may not be right, so it's probably not reliable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second article is a Professor's response to this question. He says, in essence, that we don't yet know the answer and it would be difficult to calculate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We still have so much to learn about memory. I suspect it will be some time before we know the answer to your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24105" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T16:13:55.487" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24039" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-09T17:54:26.020" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Concerning some of the mental states that need to be solved by a complex problem &lt;a href=&quot;http://maximulation.com/en/the-7-key-messages-of-complex-thinking/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Complex Thinking of Edgar Morion&lt;/a&gt;), for example in relation to the concept of God there is some kind of paradox or contradictory thought in the mental systems facing this situation, I guess There is. (Mybe ralated to old said about madness danger of thinkng in this field)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What kind of reaction can this be classified as a Psychlogical&#xA;defense mechanism?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is it a type of separation behavior with an intrinsic defense&#xA;mechanism in such a way that a complex problem from different angles&#xA;may represent contradictory concepts, Human intelligence tries to&#xA;internalize its contradictory dimensions in order to understand it&#xA;and, since it disturbs one's mental equilibrium, it seeks to&#xA;disassociate these dimensions, and in so doing, reaching to&#xA;paradoxial thought in the mind?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If the analysis is to some extent true, what tags are useful for&#xA;searching the Internet ? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;what is the evolutionary trend of this behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What other defense mechanism using in this situation?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Finally dose this behavior seen in artificial intelligence? what relatice expression used for this behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23404" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T17:54:26.020" Title="Paradoxical thoughts in complex thinking like god concept" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24040" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-09T20:21:13.580" Score="2" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this &lt;a href=&quot;https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/rats/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;epigenetics tutorial by University of Utah&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (Browser requires to support and allow adobe flash player); it is shown that in rat model those rat kids get little or no maternal care, whenn adult, develops aggression, lack of calmness etc. Whereas the rat kids got more maternal care and nurturing, developed better cope-up at stress, relaxed very quickly after stress. They credit this to &lt;strong&gt;hippocampal GR&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;glucocorticoid receptor protein&lt;/strong&gt;) gene overexpression in the more nurtured rat kid (and underexpression of GR gene in uncared rat kid) as well as difference in expression in &lt;strong&gt;&quot;hundreds of genes&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;. (The adobe flash app even offers a &lt;em&gt;&quot;rat pup licking game&quot;!&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PCWuk.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PCWuk.png&quot; alt=&quot;screenshot&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Screenshot of the app. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does this principle also work on human?&lt;/strong&gt; There is a &lt;strong&gt;common popular belief&lt;/strong&gt; that stress makes a person more resilient to stress. But at least in the rat example &lt;em&gt;at least partly that popular assumption did not apply&lt;/em&gt;. The rat which lacked maternal adore at childhood, developed underexpressed hippocampal GR gene throughout the rest-of-the-life, and though they have specific advantage to specific situation, they could not quckly relief from stress. In contrast, more nurtured rat kid developed overexpression of hippocampal GR gene that helped them fast recover after stress. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is; this principle found in rats (which is also at a contrary to a certain popular belief), does also apply on humans? Such as if a human kid get less nurturing and more struggle or stess, will she or he develop less-resilience/ delayed recovery from stress at later life? as well if a human kid get proper maternal care and nurturing then she or he will develop more adaptibility and faster recovery from stress? If yes, is it due to similar set of genes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="13859" LastEditDate="2019-09-09T21:13:53.363" LastActivityDate="2019-09-09T21:13:53.363" Title="Does this Rat psychological developmental mechanism also work in human?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;cell-signaling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24041" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-09T21:32:54.093" Score="3" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;em&gt;The Age of Spiritual Machines,&lt;/em&gt; Ray Kurzweil mentioned a project at the Advanced Telecommunications Research Lab in Kyoto that was building a brain with a billion artificial neurons. He said that when it was completed, it would be set free to read the internet. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My initial exploration of this revealed that this project was headed by Hugo de Garis, who apparently retired some years ago now. What was the result of the project? It seems like it never reached the stage envisioned by Kurzweil and I would guess this is due to funding issues, but I’m seeking some kind of confirmation of whether or not this is correct. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastActivityDate="2020-06-16T23:02:25.143" Title="What became of the CAM-Brain project in Kyoto?" Tags="&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24043" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-10T07:28:21.767" Score="1" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;When machines are in control of society's work (assume all),what are the people'say reaction. Is there a theory that can predict humans reaction when something superior like this comes?(perhaps envy or pride related )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24202" LastActivityDate="2019-09-10T07:28:21.767" Title="Theory to predict technological change reaction" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-09-12T20:21:54.567" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24044" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-10T08:52:30.273" Score="1" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to conduct an experiment and I found that the difficulty of a conflict to resolve could play a factor in this experiment. &#xA;I now need an easy way of measuring the potential difficulty of a conflict, so that I can control this factor.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Own Proposal&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm coming from StackOverflow and am used to present own proposals (since psychology is not primarily my field of expertise I wanted to have your opinion for my approach: &#xA;I thought of a questionnaire that is supposed to measure various factors that could influence the difficulty of a conflict. &#xA;The factors I thought of are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Personal Involvement&lt;/strong&gt; (PI): The potential change and stress that a given conflict can have on the life of a conflict party. e.g. a colleague is telling you to bring out the trash while you don't feel like doing it. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Influence of Emotions&lt;/strong&gt; (IoE): How strong Emotions influence conflicts. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Objective vs. Subjective&lt;/strong&gt; (OvS): Are Arguments in the conflict based on evidence or are more testimonial kind. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Risk&lt;/strong&gt; (R): What is the probability and damage of an undesired outcome for a conflict party? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Level of Society&lt;/strong&gt; (LoS): 1-to-1 vs. 1-to-many vs. many-to-many, also is it a conflict between countries of just a few people. personal-family-inner friend circle-outer friend circle-foreign groups-countries-cultures ... just to give some example to what that could include.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;potential violence&lt;/strong&gt; (PV): Probability and potential dangerousness of on party using violent measures. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;explicitness&lt;/strong&gt; of conflict result(s) (ECR): I think some conflicts have explicit results like &quot;Do Aliens exist?&quot; and some don't necessarily have a definite answer like &quot;What is an appropiate outfit for a woman? (which is answered differently in different cultures)&quot; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;conflict&lt;/strong&gt; resolution skills of the conflict partys (CRS): This also might include negotiating and communication skills as well. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;medium&lt;/strong&gt; (M): speech, written, social network, face-to-face, etc. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I then thought of measuring those metrics on a scale of 1-7, weight them and add them add for some kind of conflict difficulty score:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RXRZ4.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RXRZ4.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Say Risk has a 10% influence on the conflict difficulty the weight, therefore, would be 0,1*(Scale of Risk). &#xA;I also think this way the result might be 2 different scores depending on the partys point of view. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also think that some of the metrics I proposed are not needed or cannot be measured using a questionnaire like the medium for example. &#xA;But before I really go all the way to create a new questionnaire I wanted to know if I'm on the right track, if there is literature on this topic I missed, if I missed other important factors and so on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have implemented a chat tool for my bachelors thesis, that displays emotions and handles profanity in messages differently. I know want to evaluate this software. The goal of this software is to improve communication in conflict situations and a new solution for hate speech in social networks. &#xA;I also have a software engineer background and this is my first question in the psychology sector. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24198" LastEditorUserId="24198" LastEditDate="2019-09-10T16:39:33.553" LastActivityDate="2019-09-10T16:39:33.553" Title="How to measure/predict the difficulty of a conflict?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;&lt;conflict&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24045" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19352" CreationDate="2019-09-10T14:06:21.143" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Prions&lt;/a&gt; are sort of protein with such a distorted conformation that convert its benign/ essential form into prion forms. Thus they can multiply which is comparable to reproduction in virus and viroids. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;if an animal is infected with prions then it is better to not eat any of the part of that animal. Not necessarily bone marrow but of any part. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocannibalism#Medical_implications&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Prion disease also spreads through funerary cannibalism ritual&lt;/a&gt;. . Prion is a great concern about biosafety. Prion-infected cattles are not burried or left into nature but incinerated. There are disputes about &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2658766/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;whether burning is sufficient&lt;/a&gt;. Dementia is too mild term to describe prion infection, they are extreme debilitating, progressive, usually fatal, and usually affect the brain and nervous system. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.prionalliance.org/2013/12/02/what-are-human-prion-diseases/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Most prion diseases are fatal within a few months, though some can last a few years&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Some prion diseases are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrapie&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scrapie&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuru_(disease)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kuru&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mad cow disease&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatal_insomnia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fatal insomnia&lt;/a&gt; etc.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prions can also spread through grafting, blood transfusion etc. and standard biosafety procedures to kill bacteria and virus does not work on prions. They require a more harsh sterilisation procedure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="13859" LastEditDate="2019-09-11T16:52:53.503" LastActivityDate="2019-09-11T16:52:53.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24046" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10278" CreationDate="2019-09-10T14:59:04.933" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For school or college level biology class these hierarchical classification schemes (based on devbio) are still sometimes used and it helps me greatly to conceptualise the brain structure and basic folding as well as to get a meaningful  mental framework to put the so many other small parts of brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning about a smaller brain part (say for example  the parietal lobe, or for say hippocampus or amygdala or superior colliculi etc) and not knowing whether they belong to prosencephalon or mesencephalon or telencephalon (or some other level of structural hierarchy) will make me feel afraid and bizarre, and i would also fail to conceptualise and visualise the zones. the names of zones will appear like a chaotic crowd of plastic balls. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="13859" LastEditDate="2019-09-10T15:09:38.523" LastActivityDate="2019-09-10T15:09:38.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24047" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24044" CreationDate="2019-09-10T15:24:47.167" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Questionnaires and measurement scales typically take a lot of revision and validation. Otherwise, it is very common that you measure things you don't intend to measure, are missing relevant options, or omit critical factors entirely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd recommend some piloting and to use existing and validated measures whenever possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of your items sound incredibly broad to me. Are you going to rate &quot;influence of emotions&quot; on a 7-point scale by asking people &quot;On a scale of 1-7, how emotional do you feel about this situation?&quot; That might be fine, but there's also a ton of nuance to emotion that will be missed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also have a lot of factors, so it will take a &lt;em&gt;lot&lt;/em&gt; of data to resolve their relative influence (potentially hundreds of cases; thousands if you care about interactions between factors) in order to determine proper weights, and you &lt;em&gt;still&lt;/em&gt; need to come up with a ground truth &quot;conflict difficulty&quot; outcome measure. Otherwise you are just guessing at weights which isn't very useful. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Make sure you have IRB approval before continuing with human subjects research (I've been surprised how unaware some tech people are about regulatory requirements, especially at Academia.SE).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given this is a bachelors' thesis, it may be sufficient to &lt;em&gt;start&lt;/em&gt; some of these processes rather than &lt;em&gt;complete&lt;/em&gt; them. It might be simpler to just do an experiment, test two versions of your software, and compare some satisfaction outcomes. You won't know which conflicts were more difficult, but you won't necessarily have to: you can rely on random assignment to assume that the comparison groups are equal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-09-10T15:24:47.167" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24048" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24018" CreationDate="2019-09-10T15:49:41.307" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;No.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The key term that will help you look for research about this is the word &quot;biomarker&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are certainly correlations with autism and some of the measurement techniques, but they aren't specific enough to be used for diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plitt et al 2015 compared fMRI classification to a behavioral scale in high-functioning ASD vs IQ-matched typically developing. Their best imaging classification was about 77% accurate (and that's probably an overestimate due to selecting the 'best'), whereas behavioral classification was 95% accurate. This result is consistent with other studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's possible to use these methods to find biomarkers at better than chance levels, but unless they become equivalent to other diagnostic methods, it is the diagnosis used to evaluate the biomarker rather than the biomarker used to evaluate the diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abraham, A., Milham, M. P., Di Martino, A., Craddock, R. C., Samaras, D., Thirion, B., &amp;amp; Varoquaux, G. (2017). Deriving reproducible biomarkers from multi-site resting-state data: an autism-based example. NeuroImage, 147, 736-745.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ecker, C., Bookheimer, S. Y., &amp;amp; Murphy, D. G. (2015). Neuroimaging in autism spectrum disorder: brain structure and function across the lifespan. The Lancet Neurology, 14(11), 1121-1134.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Loth, E., Spooren, W., Ham, L. M., Isaac, M. B., Auriche-Benichou, C., Banaschewski, T., ... &amp;amp; Charman, T. (2016). Identification and validation of biomarkers for autism spectrum disorders. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 15(1), 70.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plitt, M., Barnes, K. A., &amp;amp; Martin, A. (2015). Functional connectivity classification of autism identifies highly predictive brain features but falls short of biomarker standards. NeuroImage: Clinical, 7, 359-366.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Uddin, L. Q., Dajani, D. R., Voorhies, W., Bednarz, H., &amp;amp; Kana, R. K. (2017). Progress and roadblocks in the search for brain-based biomarkers of autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Translational psychiatry, 7(8), e1218.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-09-10T15:49:41.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24049" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-10T16:20:48.893" Score="5" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen several videos/documentaries featuring (usually self-proclaimed) exorcists, both Catholic and Protestant, who perform &quot;exorcism&quot; ceremonies in which they &quot;cast out demons&quot;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm personally a Christian, but I have some scepticism about the validity of these ceremonies, partly because I suspect that most of what's happening is that the pastor is inducing psychological phenomena of hysteria and euphoria in people through psychological conditioning techniques (links to more general scientific research in this area from informed readers would be welcome, btw).    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I find harder to explain is that many of these people, during the exorcism, actually begin speaking and behaving as if the actual &quot;demon&quot; is communicating.  I have posted links to videos below where people start speaking to the pastor using complete sentences, laughing maniacally and taunting the pastor, all while supposedly the &quot;demon&quot; is doing the talking.  This seems like a really extreme psychological phenomenon to be caused through simple psychological manipulation.  I should explain that this happens after the people are subjected to significant psychological suggestion, like the pastor addressing the demon and telling them to &quot;come out&quot;, etc.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible that a person, in the right circumstances, could be induced to believe that they are a different entity, and to communicate as if they were that entity, in a fashion which seems similar to what I (a layman) imagine is the psychological phenomenon labelled as &quot;Dissociative Identity Disorder&quot;?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I should add that I, a layman, am highly sceptical of psychiatry and the validity of labels like DID, but that's probably an unrelated topic.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are links to two of the most dramatic examples: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUOAmOX5LFI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUOAmOX5LFI&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ieMSo6Y_LZc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ieMSo6Y_LZc&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And YouTube titles of other videos: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;You may never see an exorcism this violent. Murders 1,000 years ago still haunt a man today.&quot;&#xA;&quot;John Safran vs God - Exorcism&quot;&#xA;&quot;The Exorcist Claiming To Cure The Sick Of Their Demons: The Murky Truth Of Modern Exorcisms&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24204" LastEditorUserId="24204" LastEditDate="2019-09-10T22:18:18.557" LastActivityDate="2019-09-10T22:18:18.557" Title="Purported exorcisms - can hypnosis cause a person to temporarily experience phenomena similar to those labelled as &quot;DID&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;religion&gt;&lt;spirituality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2020-02-24T06:18:09.867" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24050" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-11T07:08:58.927" Score="4" ViewCount="152" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been studying into the important of memory and learning. I think it's undeniable that part of learning is requiring the retrieval of information at the relevant times, but the counter argument I've heard is that understanding is more important, but I always pose the question &quot;isn't understanding just a combination or applications of things you know? Since you know it that means you must have memorized it.&quot; To which people usually don't have a good counterargument or concede that it's plausible. I'd like to test my theory on the importance of memory in learning. I argue that all of learning is dependent upon memory in some form or another, therefore if someone wants to better their learning they need to better their ability to remember and retrieve relevant information in situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23697" LastActivityDate="2020-02-09T19:02:40.293" Title="Importance of memory on learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24051" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24052" CreationDate="2019-09-11T11:33:43.170" Score="4" ViewCount="184" Body="&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://theconversation.com/how-to-conduct-job-interviews-with-candidates-who-have-autism-123152&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent conversation article&lt;/a&gt; argued that microexpressions may be picked up at a high rate by a subset of people with autism. &#xA;Usually, autistic people are thought to be unable or inadept at social cues and social expressions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence for this subset of adept microaggression assessors? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Be aware that a subset of people with autism are highly adept at noticing micro expressions, the very quick expressions that flit across someone’s face before they “rearrange” into a socially acceptable reaction. The people able to perceive this, however, are often unaware that they are supposed to ignore those expressions and respond to the “public face” instead. This can lead to social awkwardness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-09-11T15:53:04.643" Title="Adept noticing of microexpressions by autistic people" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24052" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24051" CreationDate="2019-09-11T15:37:42.350" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Clark et al, 2008 show &lt;em&gt;impairment&lt;/em&gt; in ASD individuals for detection of the emotional content of microexpressions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, ASD individuals have trouble discriminating the nuance of facial expressions (though some argue otherwise: see for example Ozonoff et al 1990), for example the differences between genuine smiles and posed smiles (for example, Boraston et al 2008); ASD individuals can &lt;em&gt;learn/train&lt;/em&gt; to improve recognition of these cues, however (for example, Solomon et al 2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tardif et al 2007 suggests that slowing down a discrimination task improves performance for ASD individuals, again suggesting that impairments may be worse for briefer displays like microexpressions. This result is also consistent with the idea that, for some ASD individuals, detecting emotions is more about learned rules rather than the more &quot;automatic&quot; emotional detection process for typically developing people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, I don't see evidence for the claim in the linked article. That said, ASD individuals are each unique humans, and there could certainly be specific individuals who are sensitive to or have learned to recognize microexpressions, but the article doesn't cite any reference. A general caution to be aware of and sympathetic to difficulties with social cues for ASD folks applying for jobs makes sense to me; connecting this to enhanced microexpression detection does not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I'd add, also, that the existence, nature, and ubiquity of microexpressions is a bit controversial: see Porter &amp;amp; ten Brinke 2008)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Boraston, Z. L., Corden, B., Miles, L. K., Skuse, D. H., &amp;amp; Blakemore, S. J. (2008). Brief report: Perception of genuine and posed smiles by individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(3), 574-580.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clark, T. F., Winkielman, P., &amp;amp; McIntosh, D. N. (2008). Autism and the extraction of emotion from briefly presented facial expressions: stumbling at the first step of empathy. Emotion, 8(6), 803.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Porter, S., &amp;amp; ten Brinke, L. (2008). Reading between the lies: Identifying concealed and falsified emotions in universal facial expressions. Psychological science, 19(5), 508-514.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., &amp;amp; Rogers, S. J. (1990). Are there emotion perception deficits in young autistic children?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31(3), 343-361.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Solomon, M., Goodlin-Jones, B. L., &amp;amp; Anders, T. F. (2004). A social adjustment enhancement intervention for high functioning autism, Asperger’s syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder NOS. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 34(6), 649-668.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tardif, C., Lainé, F., Rodriguez, M., &amp;amp; Gepner, B. (2007). Slowing down presentation of facial movements and vocal sounds enhances facial expression recognition and induces facial–vocal imitation in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(8), 1469-1484.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Winkielman, P., McIntosh, D. N., &amp;amp; Oberman, L. (2009). Embodied and disembodied emotion processing: Learning from and about typical and autistic individuals. Emotion Review, 1(2), 178-190.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-09-11T15:53:04.643" LastActivityDate="2019-09-11T15:53:04.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24054" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-11T16:33:57.503" Score="5" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;The left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Ldlpfc) and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmpfc) has been identified as having some positive functional correlation to procrastination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I gather, this is because&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the left-lateral PFC tends to be implicated in &amp;quot;go&amp;quot; / &amp;quot;stay&amp;quot; tasks.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The L-dlpfc is a target in brain stimulation for anxiety, to increase contentedness and decrease negative fixation (citations below)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets assume two things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;definition: &amp;quot;procrastinating IS DOING something enjoyable at the expense of something more necessary in the longer term&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;definition: &amp;quot;avoidance is NOT DOING something which is necessary in the long term&amp;quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly these two notions overlap: procrastination is avoidance (because procrastination = avoidance + preferred or distracting activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;QUESTIONS&lt;/strong&gt;: It seems like pure avoidance is more akin to &amp;quot;can't-go&amp;quot; and procrastination to the &amp;quot;can't-&lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt;-go&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is there any reason to think that increased right-lateralization  of brain activity (which may help the procrastinator) will not help the avoider?(since this “can’t-go” network is already hyper-active during avoidance and no-go task)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Thoughts and Reference would be greatly appreciated&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5018960/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Identifying the Neural Substrates of Procrastination(nih.gov)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5390716/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;direct current stimulation over right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex alters decision making during approach-avoidance conflict (nih.gov)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14342" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-09-12T20:11:16.753" Title="Avoidance Vs. Procrastination? Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the go-no-go task" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;lateralization&gt;&lt;procrastination&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24055" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-11T22:29:35.540" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following quote from the discussion in a review paper by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/fulltext/S0896-6273(08)00744-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Higley and Sabatini&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Finally, several studies demonstrate the ability of dendritic Ca&#xA;  transients to herald near-synchronous and spatially clustered synaptic&#xA;  activation. However, most of this evidence has been acquired in brain&#xA;  slices using forms of synaptic activation that may not closely&#xA;  resemble in vivo conditions. The intact brain is awash with robust and&#xA;  behaviorally context-specific patterns of synchronous neuronal&#xA;  activity (Buzsaki and Draguhn, 2004; Llina´ s and Steriade, 2006;&#xA;  Stevens and Zador, 1998).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Moreover, neurons in vivo are influenced by both excitatory and&#xA;  inhibitory synaptic connections as well as state-dependent actions of&#xA;  myriad neuromodulators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Higley, M.J. and Sabatini, B.L., 2008. Calcium signaling in dendrites and spines: practical and functional considerations. Neuron, 59(6), pp.902-913.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;made me pondering about the following questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What's the difference between Calcium signal into the spine versus &quot;Ca transients&quot;? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do different neurons/spines have a coupled/correlated calcium signal?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14851" LastEditorUserId="14851" LastEditDate="2019-09-13T16:04:53.777" LastActivityDate="2019-09-13T18:47:07.530" Title="How do different dendritic spines experience a correlated/coupled calcium signaling?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24056" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-11T22:45:17.143" Score="6" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-wing_authoritarianism&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Right-wing authoritarianism&lt;/a&gt; (RWA) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_dominance_orientation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social-dominance orientation&lt;/a&gt; (SDO) are two measures often used in (social) psychology studies on political orientation, see e.g. a meta-analysis of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1088868308319226&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sibley and Duckitt&lt;/a&gt; linking them to Big-Five personality factors, or another of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2027&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Onraet et al.&lt;/a&gt; relating them to cognitive abilities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand there's a large dataset from the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSContents.jsp&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;World Values Survey&lt;/a&gt; (WVS) that also asks left-right political orientation questions; see for instance &lt;a href=&quot;http://geser.net/internat/t_hgeser5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Geser (2008)&lt;/a&gt;. It seems to me sociologists and political scientists rather than psychologists have more often used this dataset. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my questions is: are the RWA and SDO measures well correlated with some subset of World Values Survey questions? I.e., can a subset of the latter be used to stand-in for the two more specific instruments?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(This may seem like an odd question, i.e. why use a big questionnaire instead of two small ones, but the WVS dataset covers a lot of countries, in many of which one can hardly find a single RWA/SDO study.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-09-11T22:54:01.113" LastActivityDate="2019-12-01T21:57:36.273" Title="Right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) and Social-dominance orientation (SDO) in the World Values Survey" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24057" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-11T22:48:54.337" Score="1" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have brain and behavioral data for which I am comparing two groups- younger and older adults. I would like to select a subset from the younger and older group that are matched for behavioral performance, in addition to ensuring that other factors do not confound the behavioral performance, such as education and IQ. I was wondering how I can go about systematically creating these two age group subsets? I was reading a bit on propensity score matching and was wondering if this is the way to go?&#xA;Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24214" LastActivityDate="2019-09-11T22:48:54.337" Title="How can I properly match subjects in my sample based on behavioral performance?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24058" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-12T06:59:44.167" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;my question is related to this post -&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/16017/open-source-software-for-analyzing-electrodermal-activity/24053#24053&quot;&gt;Open-source software for analyzing Electrodermal activity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The eda explorer, especially the online version, is quite nice and handy. However, it does not provide an automatic artifact correction, but “only” an artifact detection. In your text above, you described that “the noisy data can subsequently be removed”. I wonder how I can remove this noisy data. As far as I understand, I have to replace the noisy data points with clean data points. Otherwise, there are missing data points or the measurement time decreases by the amount of noisy data. Do you know what I mean? Maybe this is quite lame question, but I am struggling at this point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking forward to your help! Thanks a lot&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cheers TSM&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24211" LastActivityDate="2019-09-12T06:59:44.167" Title="EDA explorer - artifact detection vs artifact correction" Tags="&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24059" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-12T07:24:19.940" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, give subjects a research topic, and observe how they conduct psychology experiments, in order to study the psychology of those who are asked to study psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24216" LastEditorUserId="23961" LastEditDate="2019-09-12T16:15:03.873" LastActivityDate="2019-09-12T16:15:03.873" Title="Are there studies in psychology on how psychology researchers design experiments?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24061" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-12T17:27:58.510" Score="2" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;Self-determination theory posits that parental autonomy support (PAS) has myriad benefits for children. All the studies I have been able to find either rate PAS based on observing parents interact with their children and coding the observations, or administer scales to the children to assess their perceptions of PAS. Do you know of any scales that directly ask parents about their behaviors in order to measure autonomy support?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24217" LastActivityDate="2019-09-12T17:27:58.510" Title="Are there scales to measure parental autonomy support from the parents' perspective? (Self-determination theory)" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24063" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-12T21:44:51.220" Score="1" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to remove the mind from the rest of the body and have it &quot;alive&quot; somehow as in its former known form? Mind uploading would be computerizing a mind to preserve data, memories and etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are other constituents of this though that I will outline:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.Mind uploading as in an interlink between the mind and some proxy (may or may not be computerized, but in general it might be expected) -- i.e., having the mind function in some connective/remote form that doesn't require a body but still enables the organ to work somehow -- like if you could linke neurons/axons/synapses to some feedback system that's not body-dependent;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2.Mind drive --  the ability to store NON-computerized components of the brain in some reliable method to preserve it biological function somehow (without its native body specifically at the least). Also, the idea of somehow or the same being being still technically of its former identity once this application has been made is questionable at best (when you take someone's brain and &quot;Frankenstein&quot; its ability to live and then relay it elsewhere somehow, can you argue that this is still of its natural-born identity?);&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two above differences take in to account the obvious notion that brain as a natural form is subject to decay and death as it is biological naturally (without factoring in anti-aging and other methods). The idea might stand to bring up the possibility of femtotechnology or etc. to recreate brain neural network copies and then attempting to figure what to make of the conscious bridge that forms one with mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24218" LastActivityDate="2019-09-14T00:46:07.340" Title="Mind uploading &amp; its constituents: Theoretically possible?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24065" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23841" CreationDate="2019-09-13T00:06:05.673" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first thing that comes to my mind is the difference in stigma in expression of gender or gender characteristics. To explain: It is much more socially acceptable (at least in Western culture) for a female to display &quot;masculine&quot; characteristics than it is for a man to display &quot;feminine&quot; characteristics. For example, women can wear pants without being ridiculed but a man in a dress is a rare sight. Another example is it is much more socially acceptable for women to kiss women than it is for men to kiss men. To put it in another way, women have a wider range of socially acceptable gender expression. A biological man who expresses themselves in a feminine way is not accepted in modern society in general. It is much more acceptable if that person redefines themselves as a woman and begins to be seen as a woman. Imagine the difference in reception of a person who identifies a man wearing makeup, a dress, and high-heels speaking in a typically feminine tone and cadence versus a person who states they identify as a woman wearing makeup, a dress, and high heels speaking in a typically feminine tone and cadence. On the reverse side, biological women who express themselves in a masculine way are faced with much less aversion. In short, biological men who are more feminine might feel more of a need to transition to fit into our binary society than biological women who are more masculine. Thoughts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24219" LastActivityDate="2019-09-13T00:06:05.673" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24069" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-13T09:34:52.040" Score="3" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;Been reading some research involving various brain imaging techniques and it's not my strong point. Really, if the electrodes or SQUIDS measure surface activity, how does one measure what's going on in the medial cortices?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24226" LastActivityDate="2019-09-13T09:34:52.040" Title="How can one detect ACC, PCC or any other medial cortical activity with MEG or EEG if it's inside the brain?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;meg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24071" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24063" CreationDate="2019-09-13T14:44:39.707" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;To upload information stored in the mind is to upload information stored in the brain because the brain is the physical part of the mind. To do this is not an easy task because the brain has neither output port nor functional modules for this purpose (to upload its information), and the information in the brain is not stored in one definite place like a hard drive or a series of memory banks in a computer but is stored scatteredly in neural circuits all over many areas of the brain, with 100 billion neurons and about 100 to 1,000 trillion synapses making up those neural circuits [1,2]. So, it certainly won’t be easy like uploading information from our computers to elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another problem is that current technologies that can gather information from the brain, such as EEG, MEG,  and electrocorticography, are very crude (they cannot single out a specific neural circuit that contains the specific information) and cannot access information in all parts of the brain, especially that in the deep structures. Single-unit neural recordings are much finer and can record deeper, but we have to do such recordings possibly millions of time to get all the information from all information-containing neural circuits in the brain, which will certainly do some damage to the brain (and its mind). So, this seems to be quite a harmful way to upload information from the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another significant problem is that the information in the brain are in various forms: declarative memory (which also has many types: immediate memory, working memory, and long-term memory) and non-declarative memory (skills, habits, predilections,etc.) [3]. They are are stored in different types of neural substrates: neural signaling patterns, facilitation/inhibition of corresponding neural synapses' strength, modifications of neural circuits' formation, etc. The information that is stored in the form of neural synapse or neural circuit modification is not free to read directly but has to be converted into neural signals before it can be read by other neural circuits and by our instruments. So, the problem is we have to activate all those neural circuits/synapses before we can read their information. But how do we know which ones of those multitude neural circuits/synapses in the brain store information, and how we do that to all several millions of them? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What’s more, current technologies still cannot decipher accurately what exactly the signals that are  gathered from the brain mean, e.g, what do those EEG/MEG signals mean – a vision of the red color?, a house?, or a man? So, without knowing what the information we’ve got represents, it is difficult to store and archive it correctly and retrieve it later effectively. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Edited part:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because all the above problems are technical problems, I think it is theoretically possible to overcome them although it certainly requires much more advanced technology than we currently have. And it seems very likely that we will not have that technology in the near future, certainly not within a few decades from now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The biology problem and the hard problem of consciousness and qualia.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to note that the above discussion is about the possibility of uploading information of the mind to a computer, which is arguably theoretically possible. But to upload or relocate the mind itself to function or live in a computer is another matter because it will face additional 2 formidable problems: the biology problem and the hard problem of consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The biology problem:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mind and its physical brain are alive; they change their structures to some degree overtime by neural circuit and synapse modifications to store new information or modify its skills, habits, predilections, etc. On the contrary, the computer is not biologically alive and cannot change or modify its structure (hardware) by itself. So, even if we can upload all the mind’s information to the computer successfully and try to set it function there, the mind can never really live in the computer the way it lives in the brain, where it can modify its self bit by bit overtime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The hard problem of consciousness and qualia:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the problem of having phenomenal perceptions (the red color, the sound of music, the smell of the rose, etc. that appear phenomenally red, phenomenally music, phenomenally rose, phenomenal etc. in our mind) and phenomenal consciousness (the awareness of what it is like to see the red color, to hear the sound of music, to smell the rose, etc., and what it is like to be ourselves)[4] Although we have learnt a lot about neural correlates of consciousness [5], we still do not know how these non-material phenomenal manifestations occur from the material neural circuits. Some new theory explains that they are special kinds of information, which is non-material, that occur inherently in the material neural circuits [6], but this has to be verified by experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because both the biology problem and the hard problem are fundamental problems, if we cannot solve these problems first, we will never be able to upload or relocate the mind itself to function and live in a computer like the way it lives naturally in our brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Byrne JH. &lt;a href=&quot;http://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/s1/introduction.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Introduction to neurons and neuronal networks.&lt;/a&gt; Neuroscience Online. The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sporns O, Tononi G, Kötter R. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1239902/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The human connectome: A structural description of the human brain.&lt;/a&gt; PLoS Comput Biol. 2005 Sep;1(4):e42.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Purves D. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hse.ru/data/2011/06/22/1215686482/Neuroscience.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 30. Memory.&lt;/a&gt; In: Purves D, Augustine GJ, David Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, Lamantia AS,‎ McNamara JO, Williams SM, editors. Neuroscience. 3rd ed. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates Inc; 2004. ISBN-13: 9780878937257 ISBN-10: 0878937250.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Chalmers DJ. &lt;a href=&quot;http://consc.net/papers/facing.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Facing up to the problem of consciousness.&lt;/a&gt; J Conscious Stud. 1995;2(3):200-219.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Koch C, Massimini M, Boly M, Tononi G. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn.2016.22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural correlates of consciousness: progress and problems.&lt;/a&gt; Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2016;17: 307-321. The full pdf file can be downloaded from here.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ukachoke C. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Basic Theory of the Mind&lt;/a&gt;1st ed, 2018. p 8-18. Charansanitwong Printing Co. Bangkok, Thailand.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="19332" LastEditDate="2019-09-14T00:46:07.340" LastActivityDate="2019-09-14T00:46:07.340" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24072" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24055" CreationDate="2019-09-13T18:47:07.530" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;With little to go on, your questions are difficult to answer specifically but I'll give the general guidance I can.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) Calcium signals in neurons are typically brief. &quot;Calcium transient&quot; is a synonym for &quot;brief calcium signal.&quot; Someone could contrast between types of calcium transients in terms of their source (external calcium vs. internal stores), location (spines vs dendrites), etc, but you would have to give a more specific example to describe any difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) Calcium signals could be correlated in different neurons or different spines of the same neurons if both cells/spines get excitatory input from the same presynaptic cell, or if excitatory input is from different cells that have temporally correlated firing. You could also get coupling if the entire dendrite is depolarized, either locally or via a back-propagating action potential. Again, without a specific example it's difficult to give more information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The review you cite:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Higley, M. J., &amp;amp; Sabatini, B. L. (2008). Calcium signaling in dendrites and spines: practical and functional considerations. Neuron, 59(6), 902-913.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;discusses both (1) and (2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-09-13T18:47:07.530" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24073" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-14T06:14:54.600" Score="2" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;For those with disordered avoidance, a common theme is the inability to do something which is beneficial and, perhaps more importantly, even pleasurable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For those that study motivation, intrinsic or otherwise...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the situation where one chooses to do nothing or something else --not because it is preferable or more enjoyable but simply because they are unable to psychologically tolerate the object of their own desire....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;em&gt;what does it mean to &quot;want to&quot; if one is unable to force oneself to do&lt;/em&gt;? And, what areas of the brain are competing in such a struggle with the self? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Differentiate this from procrastination in which there is a preference for one active over another in the short term)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14342" LastActivityDate="2019-09-14T06:14:54.600" Title="&quot;Wanting to do&quot; without being &quot;able to do&quot;?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;procrastination&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24074" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-14T07:31:23.383" Score="0" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just recently discovered the field of cognitive science. The more i read, the more I discover how complex this is. I would love to study this and be able to find out that specific segment for me and then develop it. In Romania (where I live) this is not a developped domain. I would like to study abroad but I could not afford moving for 1 year in another country. In case you can recomment short term workshops in Europe i would very much appreciate it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24233" LastActivityDate="2019-09-18T05:20:40.257" Title="Where can I study cognitive science - long distance program?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24075" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24074" CreationDate="2019-09-14T10:57:00.863" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are a huge array of options here depending on the sophistication of the course you are looking for. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would suggest for a free option starting with MIT, they provide a large range of modules online associated with psychology and neuroscience (please see the attached link) with videos of the lectures they have conducted within the university. A wonderful starting point in my opinion.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/brain-and-cognitive-sciences/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/brain-and-cognitive-sciences/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The british geoscience association also list a number of online courses &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bna.org.uk/careers/online-courses-moocs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, however these are often more biologically focused than cognitive in nature. Most the short courses are less than £70. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a range of courses on coursera provided by various universities, which will provide you with accreditation for the courses, &lt;a href=&quot;https://neurosciencenews.com/free-neuroscience-moocs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here is a list&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for workshops, they tend to be relatively expensive as most are provided for post-grads, many of which are working with individuals conducting neuroimaging studies as part of MSc or PhD projects and beyond. These are only really helpful when you start conducting studies. You can find many courses &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bna.org.uk/mediacentre/events/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;listed here&lt;/a&gt; on the British Neuroscience Associations website (the courses are based across many European countries). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope you enjoy your journey into what I believe is the most exciting area of scientific investigation. I would add one piece of advice, make sure you develop a good back ground in research methods and statistics (both are equally important) as this is what helps you to understand if research is good or bad, along with developing your own research skills for the future. Here is a basic but free &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ucl.ac.uk/child-health/short-courses-events/about-statistical-courses/introduction-research-methods-and-statistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;starting point&lt;/a&gt;, I would recommend something with more advance statistical methods for going further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope that helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastActivityDate="2019-09-14T10:57:00.863" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24076" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-14T11:59:22.123" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading Polivagal Theory by Stephen Porges. There Is one statement that is not entirely clear ( Sorry if Im not using proper technical terms but that book Is one of the few which is not in english among my books) to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At some point he claims that social engagement and motion activation (sport) are not compatibile and entering motion state inhibits detection of social engagement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However I cannot connect that to other parts of the theory. While I believe a perceived state of danger may inhibits positive social signs detection, I cannot understand why also mobilization may prevent the same thing. That's sound like socialization Is harder when performing sports which is somewhat counter intuitive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24237" LastActivityDate="2019-09-14T11:59:22.123" Title="On which bases Porges claims that mobilitization activation inhibits perception of positive social signals?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24078" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24094" CreationDate="2019-09-14T15:30:04.353" Score="0" ViewCount="452" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/personality-disorders/symptoms-causes/syc-20354463&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Personality disorders - Mayo Clinic&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A personality disorder is a type of mental disorder in which you have a rigid and unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning and behaving. A person with a personality disorder has trouble perceiving and relating to situations and people. This causes significant problems and limitations in relationships, social activities, work and school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mental-illness/symptoms-causes/syc-20374968&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mental illness - Mayo Clinic&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mental illness, also called mental health disorders, refers to a wide range of mental health conditions — disorders that affect your mood, thinking and behavior. Examples of mental illness include depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, eating disorders and addictive behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I understand the personality disorders are more about having a rigid and unhealthy pattern of thinking, while mental illness in general is more about mood. However, in my understanding that mood is just automatic thinking that stems from past experience, which is no differ than personality disorder. The CBT approach, which is again fixing incorrect automatic thoughts, seems to be successful in working with both of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is there any actual difference between them? Or is that personality disorder just an extreme version of mental illness, in which the belief is more systematic (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_view&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;world view&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief#Belief_systems&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;belief system&lt;/a&gt; I would say)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;A minor and quick to answer question: why is personality disorder has the &quot;personality&quot; in its name? &lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2019-09-17T07:51:21.420" Title="What is the difference between personality disorder and other types of mental illness?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;definition&gt;&lt;automaticity&gt;&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24079" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24096" CreationDate="2019-09-14T17:55:11.000" Score="3" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've noticed that if I agree with the political/cultural/religious views of a person, then he looks sort-of beautiful (physical appearance), even if he (or she) happens to be ugly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've also noticed that if people disagree strongly with a person's political views, they think he or she is ugly (as an example, think of the many caustic comments on the looks of Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question is: What is the name of this phenomenon?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that &quot;Attractiveness bias&quot; is a term describing the opposite phenomenon: if a person looks beautiful, we think he's wise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I'm asking here about the &lt;strong&gt;opposite direction&lt;/strong&gt;: if a person is wise (according to our subjective opinion, of course), then we think he looks beautiful. I tried googling this but couldn't come up with any discussion of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21123" LastActivityDate="2019-09-16T13:15:10.023" Title="Attractiveness bias, based on political views" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24082" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24088" CreationDate="2019-09-15T01:34:28.580" Score="0" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looking at neural networks, each node can be described as a neuron with either several long input wires, or several long output wires.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A neuron, however, has many short input wires (dendrites) and a single long output wires (axon). Thereby not fitting either case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do we reconcile these difficulties?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2019-09-15T12:39:20.797" Title="Are neurons the wrong shape to model neural networks?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24083" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-15T05:28:26.603" Score="-2" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;On an untimed test where you are given directions on how to solve progressive matrices there is no reason to fail the question besides the test being wrong or not following directions. How was iq ever perceived as being anything besides effort. The only way might be if modern tests don't have directions in which case it's just knowledge of the directions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24241" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T14:29:37.340" Title="How is it possible for fluid iq to be anything besides effort" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24084" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24078" CreationDate="2019-09-15T07:39:57.393" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There may not be one: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;it is impossible to conclude with confidence that personality disorders are, or are not, mental illnesses; there are ambiguities in the definitions and basic information about personality disorders is lacking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11823318/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11823318/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mental illness in general isn’t about mood, either. Mood only covers mood disorders, but the DSM and ICD contain other conditions too: autism, schizophrenia, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mental illnesses also have biological components, they’re not solely disorders of thought patterns formed over time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21885" LastActivityDate="2019-09-15T07:39:57.393" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24085" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23212" CreationDate="2019-09-15T07:53:08.257" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The enforceable ethical guidelines a given practitioner must adhere to are defined by several codes or areas of law: state licensure, (usually national) board certification, and employment contracts. On top of that, there are typically non-enforceable ethics codes on the profession level. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I’m not sure what the ethical concern would be in the videos you’re talking about, as long as the stated information is accurate and the limited scope (“this is not a training on how to diagnose”) is clear. There is no duty to only ever provide absolutely comprehensive information. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only possibly applicable thing I can come up with is the Goldwater Rule against armchair diagnosing: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The Goldwater Rule embodies these concepts and makes it unethical for a psychiatrist to render a professional opinion to the media about a public figure unless the psychiatrist has examined the person and has proper authorization to provide the statement,&quot; said APA CEO and Medical Director Saul Levin, M.D., M.P.A. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/newsroom/news-releases/apa-calls-for-end-to-armchair-psychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychiatry.org/newsroom/news-releases/apa-calls-for-end-to-armchair-psychiatry&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21885" LastActivityDate="2019-09-15T07:53:08.257" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24086" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24089" CreationDate="2019-09-15T07:59:12.057" Score="5" ViewCount="400" Body="&lt;p&gt;I tried searching on my own but can’t even come up with proper search terms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prior to medical transition, do people undergo testing for conditions like Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia or XXY? Although in some cases it’s visually clear that somebody is intersex, in others such as XXY, the person can be unaware their entire life unless they are specifically tested. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21885" LastActivityDate="2019-09-15T14:10:47.030" Title="Do transgender people typically get tested for intersex conditions?" Tags="&lt;sex-differences&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24088" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24082" CreationDate="2019-09-15T12:39:20.797" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; Not all neurons have many short dendrites and a single long axon. In fact, the majority of them do not have this shape. Cerebellar granule cells, which are the most numerous neurons in the brain (estimates of their total number average around 50 billion, which means that they constitute about 3/4 of the brain's neurons)[Ref 1,2,3], do not have this shape. They have an axon that branches out into long parallel fibers as shown in the diagram below (modified from the figure in Ref 2).&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4Dxrg.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4Dxrg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;The shapes of neurons vary greatly. This is because neurons have evolved their structures to suit their functions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We can learn a lot about what a neuron does by looking at it’s morphology (i.e. shape). For example a neuron with large branching dendrites is likely integrating information from a large number of inputs, whereas a neuron that has dendrites that branch close to the soma, but don’t extend very far, is probably only integrating information from it near neighbors. Same thing with axons, projection neurons have long axons that allow them to communicate with neurons in distant brain regions, while a local interneuron will a short axon that will only branch locally, allowing it to talk to nearby cells. Some cells in the peripheral nervous system have the axons coming directly out of the dendrites, allowing them to efficiently convey information from one to the other. [Ref 4] (The figure below is also from Ref 4)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0xAWf.gif&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0xAWf.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, neurons have evolved their various shapes to do their functions. I think whether the one shape of these, as questioned in this thread, or many or all of these shapes are right or wrong for us to use to model neural networks is not answerable now. But I think we should try to study and learn from them because it is the best model we have. Remember, these neurons with their various shapes and connections are successful in creating one of the most wonderful phenomena in this universe: our conscious mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Richard H. Masland. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(04)00440-3.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuronal cell type.&lt;/a&gt; Current Biology. 2004; Vol 14 No 3: R497-R500.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Erik De Schutter. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tnb.ua.ac.be/publications/pub052/eds-abst.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Glomeruli of Cerebellar Cortex: Computation by Extrasynaptic Inhibition?&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellar_granule_cell&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cerebellar Granule Cell.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Masland RH. &lt;a href=&quot;https://canvas.brown.edu/courses/851434/pages/looking-at-neurons?module_item_id=6586407&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Looking at Neurons&lt;/a&gt; Brown University. Neuroscience in Action: Understanding Our Brains and Nervous System.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-09-15T12:39:20.797" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24089" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24086" CreationDate="2019-09-15T14:10:47.030" Score="7" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;undergo testing for conditions like Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia or XXY?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chromosomal screening is not routinely done according to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2019/211/3/position-statement-hormonal-management-adult-transgender-and-gender-diverse&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;recently released Australian guidelines&lt;/a&gt;. &#xA;The issue is whether there is a relationship between transgenderism and intersex conditions and no there is not. If a condition is not higher than the usual population, then there is no evidence to screen and perform investigations that are unlikely to produce any useful outcomes. Transgenderism seems to be an independent phenomenon and does not seem to have a relationship with intersex conditions according to current research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Chromosomal analyses are rarely abnormal in TGD individuals and should only be performed if there is clinical suspicion (eg, Klinefelter syndrome). Genital examination is not routinely required.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cheung, A. S., Wynne, K., Erasmus, J., Murray, S., &amp;amp; Zajac, J. D. (2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2019/211/3/position-statement-hormonal-management-adult-transgender-and-gender-diverse&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Position statement on the hormonal management of adult transgender and gender diverse individuals&lt;/a&gt;. The Medical Journal of Australia, 211(3), 127–133. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-09-15T14:10:47.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24090" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-15T16:21:15.933" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will take an example specific to myself to illustrate:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having a very solid music culture and a quite good one about movies, a few cues usually help me remember the works in question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes I am confronted to a name, like a movie name, or a song name and I know that this one, this specific one, I will have a hard time to remember its name. I feel it right away.&#xA;And sure enough, this is usually right and I just can't remember the name, no matter if I see it written many times. I know the audio, the visuals, I can feel it, but I don't know the words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to happen with very specific names and it very rare; it almost feels like 'oh, this word is mapped to a specific black hole in my memory, and I can't register it'; it's not an age thing, it was always like that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is interesting is that I know it at the beginning; the question is if I prime myself for forgetting it, or if I know there is some characteristic of it that I can't handle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, assuming I'm not unique in this, my question is: what would make some things hard vs. simple to memorize when they seemingly require the same effort to evaluate and remember?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24248" OwnerDisplayName="Thomas" LastActivityDate="2019-09-15T17:24:27.493" Title="Why are some specific names / items harder to remember" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24091" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-15T21:28:02.753" Score="2" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need to carry out EEG experiments with stimuli being images of 5 digits between 0 and 9. In order to select these 5 digits, I wanted to know if there has been any research work that measures relative brain activity while observing numerals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been able to find similar work for text (orthographic coding), but not for visual processing. Please let me know if you know of any such work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24249" LastActivityDate="2019-09-16T01:03:59.270" Title="Has there been any research on the visual uniqueness (in terms of brain activity) of numerals from 0 to 9?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24092" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24091" CreationDate="2019-09-16T01:03:59.270" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not sure, but I think you'd find it interesting that there are some humans out there who do not have an intuitive sense of any number past two. For example, people who are part of hunter gatherer tribes who, for example, only need to know that they have a lot of berries, not that they have exactly 7 or exactly 65; for their lifestyle, there is no need for counting. Their numbers are &quot;1&quot;, &quot;2&quot;, and &quot;more than 2&quot;, and their language lacks the capability to express any other numerical idea. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably this has an effect on the physiology of their brain. I'm pointing this out because maybe it suggests that something as specific as the numerical digits 0-9, which are represented with different symbols even across cultures that have all 10 digits, are too specific to elicit any sort of measurable difference in brain activity while reading one compared to the other. And that's the reason no studies have been done on them. Am totally unsure of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23952" LastActivityDate="2019-09-16T01:03:59.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24093" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-16T01:08:28.313" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;A long time ago (early in my undergrad), in one of my Psychology courses, I was exposed to this list (not sure if it was some established, well known theory or just some list that my textbook had come up with) that listed things that brought two people closer together. The only thing I remember on the list was &quot;time spent together&quot;, in that the more time two individuals spend with each other, in particular alone, the closer they become. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this ring a bell to anyone? Do you know any sort of lists (from a source, possibly your own head) that are similar to this? I'm really just curious, it was something I thought about a lot when I was younger and want to revisit it for fun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23952" LastActivityDate="2019-09-16T01:08:28.313" Title="A set of rules that defined requisites for two individuals becoming close. I can't seem to remember the rules of the theorem" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24094" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24078" CreationDate="2019-09-16T11:37:38.900" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ooker, the distinction between personality disorders and acute mental illness is evolving. Personality disorders are no longer thought to be permanent and resistant to change, BPD or borderline personality disorder responds well to DBT (dialectical behavioral therapy). DSM 5 has moved away from diagnosing the disorders but more about the functional analysis of the &quot;severity of impairment in personality functioning and the problematic personality trait(s)&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Psychiatrists/Practice/DSM/APA_DSM-5-Personality-Disorder.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM 5 - Personality Disorder factsheet&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of understanding the differences further, &lt;a href=&quot;https://sci-hub.tw/10.1002/jclp.20205&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ruocco (2005)&lt;/a&gt; argued that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Clinical syndromes were generally thought to be characterized by transient symptoms with biological causes and an unstable course; personality disorders were supposed by many to be characterized by long-standing personality traits, whose&#xA;  roots were primarily psychological, and a stable and unremitting course. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So personality disorders usually imply or have evidence of childhood traits that have been persistent over time and space. So a child's temperament and predisposing approach are thought to form a child's personality. Whereas an acute mental illness are less likely to have a strong neurodevelopmental clues or predisposition.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ruocco, Anthony. (2005). &lt;a href=&quot;https://sci-hub.tw/10.1002/jclp.20205&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reevaluating the distinction between Axis I and Axis II disorders: The case of borderline personality disorder.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of clinical psychology. 61. 1509-23. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-09-16T11:37:38.900" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24095" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24083" CreationDate="2019-09-16T12:53:11.547" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Even under your assumption that everyone would solve correctly every fluid IQ test given enough time, the test outcome measured as completion time would still tell us that some people solve it faster and some slower, so it is a measure of processing speed.  By analogy: everyone but the severely disabled can run or at least walk 100 meters. That doesn't mean everyone is going to achieve an olympic record in that sport.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What lies underneath that (processing) speed... i.e. how much is it effort and how much something else is &lt;a href=&quot;https://digest.bps.org.uk/2018/02/27/smart-or-determined-examining-the-role-of-motivation-in-iq-tests/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;another matter&lt;/a&gt;. Experiments that have tried to motivate people financially (albeit with pretty small sums) haven't been able to improve people's performance in such tests. On the other hand, practice/training &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20177/does-practicing-ravens-progressive-matrices-tests-inflate-your-iq-score&quot;&gt;does&lt;/a&gt; improve results to a certain degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2019-09-16T13:08:16.023" LastActivityDate="2019-09-16T13:08:16.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24096" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24079" CreationDate="2019-09-16T13:15:10.023" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is a negative/reverse &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;halo effect&lt;/a&gt;, aka a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;horns (or devil) effect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2019-09-16T13:15:10.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24097" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-16T19:07:00.047" Score="-1" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;Should I understand the Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs as a hierarchy of different emotions sorted/hierarchized by their emotional intensity they create in a person's mind? If not, why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24047" LastActivityDate="2019-09-19T09:45:09.420" Title="How should I understand the Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;needs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24098" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24078" CreationDate="2019-09-17T05:23:30.287" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You claim that &amp;quot;mental illness in general is more about mood&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, technically speaking, mental illness is an umbrella term, which also encompasses &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mood-disorders/symptoms-causes/syc-20365057&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mood disorders&lt;/a&gt;. The very quote you used to base that conclusion on says&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mental illness, also called mental health disorders, refers to a wide range of mental health conditions — disorders that affect your mood, thinking and behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact that they listed mood first doesn't really mean any prioritization of mood over the other factors, in the scientific literature at least.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to refer to the use of this &amp;quot;mental illness&amp;quot; term by the general public, it's probably &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1508784/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more likely&lt;/a&gt; to be understood as referring to psychotic disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results indicate that the majority of the public identifies schizophrenia (88%) and major depression (69%) as mental illnesses&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not including personality disorders in the list of examples is perhaps a confusing oversight on that Mayo page for &amp;quot;mental ilness&amp;quot;. Also, note that the more official DSM terminology speaks of mental disorders not mental illnesses. And personality disorders are certainly included e.g. MedlinePlus &lt;a href=&quot;https://medlineplus.gov/mentaldisorders.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;says&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are some types of mental disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many different types of mental disorders. Some common ones include&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anxiety disorders, including panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and phobias&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Depression, bipolar disorder, and other mood disorders&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Eating disorders&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personality disorders&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychotic disorders, including schizophrenia&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As discussed in Poidah's answer, this strict/conventional categorization is somewhat debatable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for why this &amp;quot;personality&amp;quot; terminology... it is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3811086/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;due to Kraepelin&lt;/a&gt;. Even though his list of personality disorders bares little resemblance to the modern (DSM) one, his idea that there's a spectrum of personality traits that spans the healthy and the abnormal has persisted... Along the way came some psychoanalytic ideas, which shaped some of the categories still used today (despite the subsequent [near-]demise of psychoanalysis from the mainstream psychiatry). In (a lot of) detail:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) introduced personality types into modern psychiatric classification, under the term “psychopathic personalities.” [...] Kraepelin stressed the existence of a broad overlap between overt pathological conditions and personal features that are encountered in normal people. He noted that the limit between pathological and normal is gradual and arbitrary. In entering the field of personality, psychiatry was taking an interest in conditions that were not previously considered to be liable to psychiatric interpretation. In the 7th edition of his textbook, Kraepelin assumed that psychopathic personalities were the consequence of a faulty constitution, which had previously been approached under the ill-defined concept of degeneracy. Psychopathic personalities result from a psychological inborn “defect,” which explains why the symptoms of psychopathic personalities have always been present in the individual and persist with little modification during his or her whole life. Their pathological nature is not deduced from the fact the symptoms appear in the patient after a period of normal functioning, but rather from the fact that symptoms deviate from the range of normalcy. Patients with psychopathic personalities often have good cognitive capabilities, but their affects and emotions are problematic. In the 7th edition of Kreapelin's textbook, the list of pathological personalities comprised only four types: (i) the born criminal (der Geborene Verbrecher), modeled on earlier description by Cesare Lombroso (I'uomo delinquente) and James C. Prichard (moral insanity); (ii) the irresolute or weak-willed (die Haltlosen), who are unable of applying themselves to sustained and long-term work; (iii) the pathological liars and swindlers (die krankhaften Ttigner und Schwindler) whose disorder is due to hyperreactive imagination, unfaithful memory, an unstability of emotions and willpower; and (iv) the pseudoquerulants (die Pseudoquerulanten) who correspond to today's paranoid personality. The prefix “Pseudo” was meant to differentiate this personality from the delusional disorder of the same name. In the 8th edition (1915), the list was expanded to seven types: (i) the excitable (die Erregbaren), possibly sharing some characteristics with today's borderline personality disorder; (ii) the irresolute; (iii) persons following their instincts (Triebmenschen) such as periodic drinkers and pleasurelovers; (iv) eccentrics (Verschrobene); (v) pathological liars and swindlers; (vi) enemies of society (Gesellschaftsfeinde); and (vii) the quarrelsome (die Streitsüchtige). Kraepelin studied patients whose symptoms had consequences on social adaptation, and for whom a psychiatric opinion might be sought after some problem with the law. Most of Kraepelin's personality types do not correspond to DSM-IV-TR categories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]  DSM-II (1968) was influenced by psychoanalysis; in DSM-II, some personality disorders had to be differentiated from the neuroses of the same name (eg, hysterical, obsessive-compulsive, and (neurasthenic personalities and neuroses). In DSM-III (1980), and the subsequent DSM-III-R (1987) and DSM-TV (1994), personality disorders were described as discrete types, grouped into three clusters, placed on a separate axis (axis II). This categorical approach was in line with the medical model advanced by Emil Kraepelin. Borderline and narcissistic personality disorders, which entered DSM-III, were adapted from psychoanalytical concepts. The preparation of DSM-5 questioned the merits of combining typological and dimensional models of personality, reopening a century-old debate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for another claim of yours that CBT is (as) effective for personality disorders as for mood disorders... I doubt it given that personality disorders in general have a &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026616&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reputation&lt;/a&gt; for being hard[er] to treat (by any means). At least the evidence base is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61394-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rather lacking&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-09-17T07:51:21.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24099" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24074" CreationDate="2019-09-17T08:18:53.473" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;To add to the answer from @Comte, there are also &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.open.ac.uk/courses/find/psychology-and-counselling&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Open University courses in Psychology&lt;/a&gt; here in the UK&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-09-17T08:18:53.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23212" CreationDate="2019-09-17T08:46:27.637" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @Maria points out, a &lt;em&gt;code of ethics&lt;/em&gt; would be formed from the governing regulatory bodies surrounding the profession within the country concerned. For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All APA members are bound by the ethical code of the medical profession, specifically defined in the &lt;em&gt;American Psychiatric Association’s Principles of Medical Ethics With Annotations Especially Applicable to Psychiatry (“Principles”)&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/ethics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;American Psychiatric Association, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A copy of the APA code of ethics is available on the website page linked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The governing regulatory body the practitioner is licensed through will handle any ethical concerns surrounding a registered practitioner and if they consider that they have acted unethically, the regulatory body can take relevant actions including removing their license to practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To view the current code of ethics you need to go to the relevant regulatory body, for which you would need to know who the practitioner is registered with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association (n.d.) &lt;em&gt;Ethics&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/ethics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/ethics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-09-17T08:46:27.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24102" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-17T10:07:32.873" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;(Complete novice here)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for some research or publications that would tackle the question of how much rest is required for good mental performance / productivity and is there a schedule that would describe the relationship of work and rest. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem i am trying to solve is that of optimal productivity from a one knowledge worker (e.g. me) who’s output isn’t related directly to hours worked (not call center where every minute online talking to customer equals productivity). &#xA;Empirically (observing self and colleagues) I know that working long hours every day leads to worsening productivity, but how many hours can be worked without a productivity dip? What if we measure productivity over a period of a week - is working 12 hours mon-wed and then 6 thu and fri better than working 7 hours daily?&#xA;What about need for long break - a vacation, there seems to be a negatively accumulating coefficient. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any clues to research appreciated. Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1184" LastActivityDate="2019-09-17T10:07:32.873" Title="Mental fatigue and recovery schedule" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24103" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24041" CreationDate="2019-09-18T00:09:08.983" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hah! That's funny, I was just looking for information about this project too. However, I was one of the guys involved (in Robokoneko project, more specifically).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No, it wasn't due to funding issues. Explaining what actually went wrong is a bit lengthy process and goes deeply into philosophy of mind, so to put this as short as possible: what do you think could be achieved in terms of understanding human mind by randomly evolving neural networks? If a being was created, fully aware of its existence, would you be able to tell what led to forming its consciousness? Their goals were absolutely pointless. Costly and hopeless, and with no applications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no need to recreate complex natural processes, especially with (still) very basic understanding of brain machinery, if what needs to be done can be achieved with abstract constructs. My criticism of their approach led to denying me PhD studies and broke my career in science in general. On the other hand, in terms of software and engineering a lot of great people were involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24267" LastActivityDate="2019-09-18T00:09:08.983" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24104" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-18T00:12:32.373" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been exploring inattentive ADHD and I am really struggling to understand the difference between clinically significant inattentiveness in people with ADHD versus non-clinically significant inattentiveness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there good explanations and evidence of neurological differences that can help me understand the pathways?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure whether a discussion about the differences in brain structure would be helpful in elucidating and elaborating the differences.  I could not find anything relevant in this SE, the brain structure differences in hyperactivity has been discussed in this question but nothing really about inattentiveness in ADHD - &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/16622/which-brain-areas-are-linked-to-hyperactivity-in-adhd&quot;&gt;Which brain areas are linked to Hyperactivity in ADHD?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-09-18T00:12:32.373" Title="What are the underlying basis/mechanism for inattentiveness in ADHD?" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24106" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-18T13:15:55.070" Score="3" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;Religious beliefs, in particular views on the afterlife, could plausibly influence suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there some study which tries to look at how belief systems play a role in the number of suicides in some country or in the world?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24047" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-12-21T19:23:35.303" LastActivityDate="2019-12-21T19:23:35.303" Title="Does belief in an afterlife play a role in suicide rates?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24108" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24121" CreationDate="2019-09-18T15:30:05.820" Score="2" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if hallucinations could radically override real external stimuli. &lt;strong&gt;After all every sensory organ responds to external stimuli, but when a hallucination occurs, I suppose, the external stimulus and the false stimulus (hallucination) combine&lt;/strong&gt;. Or do they?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: &lt;em&gt;Let's say I'm looking at an apple and in the meantime I hallucinate an orange, theoretically the informations about the apple should still reach my brain together with the hallucination of the orange, therefore I should be able to see the apple and the orange at the same time.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Something analogous happens in the phenomenon of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterimage&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;afterimage&lt;/a&gt; where the photochemical activity in the retina continues &lt;strong&gt;with less intensity&lt;/strong&gt; even without the original stimulus. The &lt;em&gt;new&lt;/em&gt; and the &lt;em&gt;old&lt;/em&gt; stimuli combine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that what happens during hallucinations too?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24273" LastEditorUserId="24273" LastEditDate="2019-09-20T17:09:03.040" LastActivityDate="2019-09-20T17:09:03.040" Title="Are normal external stimuli still processed by the brain during a hallucination?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24109" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-18T17:02:54.060" Score="4" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Perceptual defense&quot; is supposed to be a tendency to switch attention away from stimuli with negative valence; perhaps a kind of &quot;cognitive avoidance&quot;. While doing a literature review on these two concepts, I have found much research from the 60s and 70s, but not so much contemporary work---and most of the contemporary articles are from marketing or neighboring disciplines, rather than psychology proper. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this because perceptual defense and cognitive avoidance have fallen out of favor as explanatory tools in psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7608" LastActivityDate="2019-09-18T17:02:54.060" Title="Are perceptual defense and cognitive avoidance still recognized as existing mechanisms in psychology?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24110" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24115" CreationDate="2019-09-18T22:05:51.530" Score="1" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not to offend anyone or anything, but I've been searching up about abortion lately, and all the debate about it, and it got me wondering, when does a baby develop a consciousness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consciousness - the ability to sense the world around you in an independent way. You can think for yourself, and make choices that defy your natural instincts. It is what some say separates us from wild animals. Animals have a survival instinct. They do what they can to survive. Eating colourful packets of soap is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; an example of a survival instinct, and therefor proves that we have a consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/5410/definitions-of-consciousness?rq=1&quot;&gt;Definitions of consciousness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So when does consciousness begin in a baby? And before that time, how does the brain work? Does it just feel the surroundings without any response? Any help would be greatly appreciated. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user24268" LastEditorDisplayName="user24268" LastEditDate="2019-09-18T22:48:07.800" LastActivityDate="2019-09-19T11:17:13.947" Title="When does a human baby develop a consciousness?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24111" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-19T01:30:08.877" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading about how rituals (performed right before a task) increase confidence and readiness for the task, and improve performance by &quot;dulling the neural response to performance failure&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5452956/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;), and that they work by triggering the placebo effect. This lead me to my question: what is the probability of a ritual to cause this positive effect on a randomly chosen person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I didn't manage to find any statistics or useful numbers regarding what part of the population is receptive to placebo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24277" LastActivityDate="2019-09-19T01:30:08.877" Title="Chance of receptiveness to ritual / placebo" Tags="&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24112" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24097" CreationDate="2019-09-19T03:46:54.060" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;TKN to the best of my knowledge Maslow himself never associated his hierarchy of needs with emotions per se.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It’s also worth remembering that his Hierarchy is a THEORY and work in the field of experimental psychology, especially animal studies (Panksepp), Fear Conditioning (LeDoux), Consciousness (Damasio) and Interoception (Barrett) while they disagree, have all demonstrated emotions to work in ways that do not map to Maslow’s Hierarchy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you’re interested in seeing a schema of Emotions and emotional intensity suggest you have a look at Keltner et al (2019) - Emotional Expression: Advances in Basic Emotion Theory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastEditorUserId="22058" LastEditDate="2019-09-19T09:45:09.420" LastActivityDate="2019-09-19T09:45:09.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24113" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23814" CreationDate="2019-09-19T06:57:46.097" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe to add to the previous answer because I think it does not adress the core question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think there are two reasons you might want to jitter your stimulus onset in relation to the TR. 1) Design/shape considerations 2) psychological considerations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) &lt;strong&gt;Design effect:&lt;/strong&gt; If you are only interested in BOLD amplitude, then you might not want to jitter. This allows you to do very simple analyses without any deconvolution/hemodynamic basis functions. Because you measure the BOLD response at the same point in time, you can simply average the 1st,2nd,3rd etc. TR after stimulus onset.&#xA;But if you are interested in the shape of the BOLD response, then you might miss the peak, miss the undershoot etc. Thus for an acurate estimation of the shape, you should jitter the stimulus onset. In other words, jittering gives you a higher sampling rate at the cost of less samples per sampling point (less power without assuming a BOLD shape).&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/988iz.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/988iz.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this image you can see that on the left side, by chance (or on purpose) we sample very close to the BOLD peak - great! On the right side, we jittered the stimulus relative to the TR. We now &#xA;sample the BOLD response more uniformly, but averaging is more difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that this is related but a bit orthogonal to the event-related / blocked design decision. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) &lt;strong&gt;Psychological Effect&lt;/strong&gt;: If you always present the stimulus at integer TRs (e.g. with a TR of 2s), subjects will synchronize with your experiment and expect the stimulus. Whether this is something you want, you need to decide for yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More information can be found here: &lt;a href=&quot;http://mindhive.mit.edu/book/export/html/74&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://mindhive.mit.edu/book/export/html/74&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23856" LastActivityDate="2019-09-19T06:57:46.097" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24115" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24110" CreationDate="2019-09-19T11:08:22.310" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: When does a human baby develop a consciousness?&lt;/strong&gt; … Consciousness - the ability to sense the world around you in an independent way. You can think for yourself, and make choices that defy your natural instincts. It is what some say separates us from wild animals...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; Consciousness is the term that has various meanings. In the above meaning, it requires the function of certain groups of neural circuits that include the ARAS (ascending reticular activating system), several cortical areas, and the thalamo-cortical loop [1,2]. So, for a fetus to begin to have consciousness, it must have these neural circuits developed to the point that they start functioning, which occurs around gestational week (GW) 24 -26. [3,4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Two of the most important pathways in the brain are the ones that transmit sensorimotor information, the thalamocortical (TC) and corticothalamic (CT) pathways. The TC relays sensory and motor information from the receptors in the retina, cochlea, muscle or skin to the sensorimotor regions of the neocortex via the major subcortical sensorimotor relay, the thalamus. The CT pathway completes the feedback loop by transmitting information from cortex back to the thalamus. These essential pathways begin to form in the later part of the second trimester in humans, and are complete by GW 26. [3]” &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies about sleep-wake cycles in fetuses also find that a fetus has definite sleep-wake cycles with distinguishable REM and non-REM periods between GW 28 – 31 [5,6]. This means that a fetus does already have periods of wakefulness, which are necessary for conscious awareness to occur, instead of being in an unconscious state all the time, during this time. So, consciousness begins to exist in a fetus no later than this time period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, consciousness in a fetus is in a very rudimentary form; this can be evident from the fact that even an infant, which has a more mature brain than a fetus, exhibits consciousness only at a low level compared with an adult and that the default mode neural circuit, which is now found to have an important role in consciousness at rest [2], is still incomplete[4]. What’s more, the sense of self or self-recognition begins to appear in some infants only around 15 months of age and in a majority of infants by 24 months of age [7]. So, it’s very very unlikely that an infant has the sense of self and that it can think for/about itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, it seems that an infant begins to have a rudimentary form of consciousness at around GW 24-26. This may help provide informed decision about legal abortion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Assuming that consciousness is mainly localized in the cortex, consciousness cannot emerge before 24 gestational weeks when the thalamocortical connections from the sense organs are established. Thus the limit of legal abortion at 22-24 weeks in many countries makes sense...[4]”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, these are only indirect evidence. Direct, definite evidence of when exactly a fetus begins to have consciousness is not available yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Koch C, Massimini M, Boly M, Tononi G. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn.2016.22&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural correlates of consciousness: progress and problems.&lt;/a&gt; Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2016;17: 307-321. The full pdf file can be downloaded from &lt;a href=&quot;https://puredhamma.net/wp-content/uploads/Neural-correlates-of-consciousness-Koch-et-al-2016.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Song X, Tang X. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S100200710800138X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;An extended theory of global workspace of consciousness.&lt;/a&gt; Progress in Natural Science. 2008 Jul;18(7):789–793.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Stiles J, Jernigan TL.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2989000/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Basics of Brain Development&lt;/a&gt;Neuropsychol Rev. 2010 Dec; 20(4): 327–348.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lagercrantz H.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25160864&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The emergence of consciousness: Science and ethics.&lt;/a&gt; Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2014 Oct;19(5):300-5. doi: 10.1016/j.siny.2014.08.003.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Okai T, Kozuma S, Shinozuka N, Kuwabar Y, Mizuno M. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/037837829290198P&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;A study on the development of sleep-wakefulness cycle in the human fetus.&lt;/a&gt; Early Human Development. 1992 Jun-Jul; 29(1-3): 391-396. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-3782(92)90198-P&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-3782(92)90198-P&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mirmiran M, Maas YGH, Ariagno RL. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8367/ee6086340465de1417041eb5ef0c902dd089.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Development of fetal and neonatal sleep and circadian rhythms.&lt;/a&gt; Sleep Medicine Reviews. 2003; 7(4):321-334.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Anderson JR. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6199243&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The development of self-recognition: A review.&lt;/a&gt; Dev Psychobiol. 1984 Jan;17(1):35-49. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="19332" LastEditDate="2019-09-19T11:17:13.947" LastActivityDate="2019-09-19T11:17:13.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24117" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-19T15:39:24.103" Score="2" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am using E-Prime (version 3) to design an experiment. In my script I have the following&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Variable = Random(1,100)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes my variable a random number ranging from 1 to 100.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to make this variable be a random value pulled from a normal distribution, rather than just a random number from 1 to 100. Is there a specific command that executes this in E-Prime? Or will I have to generate more code for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24284" LastActivityDate="2019-09-19T15:39:24.103" Title="E-Prime Scripting Issue: Pulling a Random Number from a Normal Distribution" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24121" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24108" CreationDate="2019-09-20T13:01:11.227" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Are normal external stimuli still processed by the brain during a hallucination?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; Yes, normal stimuli are still processed during a hallucination, but some of them may be distorted or obliterated. This is evident clinically. For example,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;When a schizophrenia patient has an auditory hallucination (such as voices talking to him/her) [Ref 1] while he/she is doing something in the public, the patient still hears sounds in the surroundings and what other people are talking normally.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;When a migraine or epileptic patient has a visual aura (a kind of visual hallucination, which usually occurs as flashing lights [scintillation], zigzag patterns [fortification spectra], or blind spots [scotomas]) [Ref 2] or a drug addict has a visual hallucination (such as insects crawling on the floor, a pink elephant coming into the room, or a stranger coming to attack him/her) from psychedelic drugs, he/she still can see the visual image of the surrounding place.[Ref 3] But, the part of visual field that the visual aura/hallucination is occurring may be normal, distorted, or obliterated, as in the figures below.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Figure 1.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aao.org/image/visual-aura-of-migrain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual aura of migraine.&lt;/a&gt; [Ref 4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wZRxX.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wZRxX.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Figure 2. This is what an aura is like to one migraine sufferer. [Ref 5]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/p3cHT.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/p3cHT.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some patients with a tumor, abscess, cyst, or other lesions at the parietal somatosensory area have sensory seizure (a kind of somatic sensory or tactile hallucinations) and some schizophrenics have tactile hallucinations, which can occur as insects crawling on the skin, the skin over the head being stretched, the patient being cuddled or kissed, etc. [Ref 6]. These patients still have intact sensory perception while they have these tactile hallucinations because they can feel touch, pain, hot, cold, proprioception, etc. as usual while they're having the hallucinations. But, although these sensations are still normal in the unaffected areas, they may be altered, diminished, or absent in the affected areas.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, normal stimuli are still processed by the brain during a hallucination, but they may not be processed normally, especially in the affected area, and the resulting perceptual experience is the experience of a mixture of normal perception and hallucination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Larøi F, Sommer IE, Blom JD, Fernyhough C, H. ffytche D, Hugdahl K, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/38/4/724/1870870&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Characteristic Features of Auditory Verbal Hallucinations in Clinical and Nonclinical Groups: State-of-the-Art Overview and Future Directions&lt;/a&gt; Schizophrenia Bulletin. 2012 Jun; 38 (4): 724–733. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs061&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs061&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Schott GD. &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/130/6/1690/292406&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Exploring the visual hallucinations of migraine aura: the tacit contribution of illustration.&lt;/a&gt; Brain. 2007 Jun; 130(6):1690–1703.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Teeple RC, Caplan JP, Stern TA.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2660156/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual Hallucinations: Differential Diagnosis and Treatment&lt;/a&gt; Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry.2009; 1(1): 26–32.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Falardeau J. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aao.org/image/visual-aura-of-migraine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Visual aura of migraine.&lt;/a&gt; American Academy of Ophthalmology.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bekkie’s Wonderland. &lt;a href=&quot;http://bekkieswonderland.blogspot.com/2011/02/migraines-and-migraine-art-drawn-by.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Migraine and migraine art drawn by patients.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactile_hallucination.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tactile hallucination&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="19332" LastEditDate="2019-09-20T13:07:04.613" LastActivityDate="2019-09-20T13:07:04.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24122" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-20T15:41:35.753" Score="6" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer provided by @user287279 to  &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/24110&quot;&gt;When does a human baby develop a consciousness?&lt;/a&gt; is a great answer in my mind which scrapes the surface of what consciousness consists of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you look at consciousness and how there are different levels to it, I couldn't initially think of any lower level of consciousness other than described in the answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the ability to sense the world around you in an independent way&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preconscious&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;preconscious&lt;/a&gt;, where information is available for cognitive processing, but lies outside conscious awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Claire_Sergent/publication/7177242_Conscious_preconscious_and_subliminal_processing_A_testable_taxonomy/links/5a09ad5a458515afc7b0e2b3/Conscious-preconscious-and-subliminal-processing-A-testable-taxonomy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dehaene, et al. (2006)&lt;/a&gt; provides a good rundown on the difference between conscious, preconscious and subliminal processing, along with possible reasons why some knowledge remains permanently inaccessible; however, it doesn't indicate when preconscious processing begins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if there is any scientific argument where it is considered that preconsciousness could have started earlier than consciousness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dehaene, S., Changeux, J. P., Naccache, L., Sackur, J., &amp;amp; Sergent, C. (2006). Conscious, preconscious, and subliminal processing: a testable taxonomy. &lt;em&gt;Trends in cognitive sciences, 10&lt;/em&gt;(5), 204-211. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.03.007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.tics.2006.03.007&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;Free PDF available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Claire_Sergent/publication/7177242_Conscious_preconscious_and_subliminal_processing_A_testable_taxonomy/links/5a09ad5a458515afc7b0e2b3/Conscious-preconscious-and-subliminal-processing-A-testable-taxonomy.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Claire_Sergent/publication/7177242_Conscious_preconscious_and_subliminal_processing_A_testable_taxonomy/links/5a09ad5a458515afc7b0e2b3/Conscious-preconscious-and-subliminal-processing-A-testable-taxonomy.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-09-27T06:58:12.147" Title="Different levels of consciousness" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24123" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24126" CreationDate="2019-09-20T18:39:29.630" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do we know that compressing the knee generates a feedback signal that makes the leg extend even before the signal reach the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24237" LastActivityDate="2019-09-21T11:39:23.960" Title="How do we know brain Is not involved in knee reflex?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24126" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24123" CreationDate="2019-09-21T09:59:39.993" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: How do we know brain Is not involved in knee reflex?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; The brain is involved in the knee reflex in the control of how fast/slow and strong/weak the reflex occurs, but it's not essential in the occurrence of the knee reflex. The knee reflex is still present even when the spinal cord is cut or destroyed at any level above L2 [1], which is above the reflex arc pathway (L2-4) and which cuts off the connection between the brain and the reflex arc. This is usually evident clinically. The only exception that the knee reflex may be absent after the incident is that the condition called “spinal shock” occurs [3]. However, this condition is temporary, and the knee reflex will return, usually even brisker than before the incident (due to the absence of inhibitory control from the brain). This confirms that the brain is not essential in the knee reflex and only has regulatory roles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: How do we know that compressing the knee generates a feedback signal that makes the leg extend even before the signal reach the brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; Electrophysiologic studies show that the latency of the knee reflex is normally about 46 msec [1] while the evoked potential (P37) recorded at the scalp over the leg area after electrical stimulation of the posterior tibial nerve is about 37 msec.[4] So, comparing data from these comparable but not identical experiments, it can be estimated that the knee reflex occurs, indeed, after the signal reaches the brain, as you asked. But don’t forget that the former latency is the time of the complete loop while the latter latency is of only halfway. It will take longer than 37 msec for the signal to complete the loop of leg-brain-leg and move the knee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Xu D, Guo X, Yang CY, Zhang LQ. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/149875/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Assessment of Hyperactive Reflexes in Patients with Spinal Cord Injury.&lt;/a&gt; BioMed Research International. Vol 2015, Article ID 149875. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/149875&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/149875&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patellar_reflex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Patella reflex.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Atkinson PP, Atkinson JLD. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(11)64067-6/fulltext&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spinal Shock.&lt;/a&gt; Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 1996 Apr; 71(4): 384–389.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Walsh P, Kane N, Butler S. &lt;a href=&quot;https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/76/suppl_2/ii16&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The clinical role of evoked potentials.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery &amp;amp; Psychiatry 2005;76:ii16-ii22. &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2005.068130&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2005.068130&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="19332" LastEditDate="2019-09-21T11:39:23.960" LastActivityDate="2019-09-21T11:39:23.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24127" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16295" CreationDate="2019-09-21T12:00:43.037" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;SDT is oft-cited in academia but as a theory has somewhat isolated itself from our ‘less positive’ intrinsic needs. For example, we have intrinsic status needs; as well as fairness needs (which include with it punishing transgressors - ‘costly punishment’); and relatedness needs (which include ‘negative’ behaviours such as forming outgroups from our intrinsic social categories).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These social needs are included in David Rock’s SCARF model, referenced from his book below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your Brain at Work: Strategies for Overcoming Distraction, Regaining Focus, and Working Smarter All Day Long - 2009&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastEditorUserId="22058" LastEditDate="2019-09-22T07:16:09.377" LastActivityDate="2019-09-22T07:16:09.377" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24128" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18142" CreationDate="2019-09-21T12:10:23.287" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The point about PD is that co-operation is NOT the more favourable outcome - for the INDIVIDUAL. Thus, the best strategy on single shot or fixed session PD games is always to defect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What if the experiment is open-ended? Then, as Robert Axelrod and numerous other mathematical models have demonstrated, the optimal strategy is to co-operate with Tit for Tat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ‘cause’ of defection can thus be seen as ‘self interest’. However, cooperation always decays over time which leads us to consider that Reputation is also a factor, worth a look:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Duca and Nax 2018 Groups and Scores: The Decline of Cooperation &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simply defecting deteriorates ones own reputation, and this in turn becomes a new cause of defection in future rounds&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastActivityDate="2019-09-21T12:10:23.287" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24131" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18142" CreationDate="2019-09-21T20:16:15.270" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Actually we need to differentiate between two situations: when a perfectly rational subject (think a robot) plays the game and when a human plays the game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a robot plays the game, he knows he can't control other subject's actions, so he only considers his own choices and considers the two choices of the opponent equally possible. So put yourself in the shoes of that robot - he has two possibilities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Betray:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- he gets 0 years or 2 years of prison (both equally possible)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Don't betray:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;- he gets 1 year or 3 years of prison (both equally possible)  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We see here that both cases are worse if he doesn't betray. The first part shows us that with betraying he gets 0 years, and with not betraying he gets 1 years, which is worse. The other part shows us that with betraying he gets 2 years and with not betraying he gets 3 years, which is again worse.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So he concludes that it's better to always betray (the important thing here is that he can't control what the other subject will do, so he must consider that both of the opponents choices are equally probable). 50% probability to get 0 years is better than 50% probability to get 1 year. On the other hand, 50% probability to get 2 years is better than 50% probability to get 3 years. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But now we come to humans. What's interesting is that, as the Wikipedia article says,  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In reality, humans display a systemic bias towards cooperative behavior in this and similar games despite what is predicted by simple models of &quot;rational&quot; self-interested action.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Humans are actually not playing it as a robot would! Humans show a tendency to be more cooperative than robots, which contrasts with what you imply in your question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason for humans being more cooperative could be that they care about their reputation, as the other user said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20310" LastActivityDate="2019-09-21T20:16:15.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24132" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-21T22:52:30.263" Score="0" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, psychologists have speculated for a long time about the long-term effects of abstinence from sex and of sexual frustration. Some of them, including Wilhelm Reich (I think), have claimed that such abstinence has negative impacts. I wonder how the apparent happiness of Buddhist monks can be explained by such theories. Of course, one may question if they are really happy. But it is often said by observers that monks are cheerful people (see, for example, Professor Richard Davidson's descriptions). And Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, claimed that his teachings aimed liberation from suffering. In his view, suffering is caused by craving and attachment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At least since the 20th century, western psychologists have shown interest in Buddhism. One can here name like Erich Fromm and Carl Jung, among others, as psychologists who have written positively about Buddhism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19429" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-05T08:22:52.647" LastActivityDate="2021-02-05T08:22:52.647" Title="Buddhist monks/nuns and long-term effects of sexual abstinence on psyche" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;cognitive-science-of-religion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24134" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-22T04:46:15.533" Score="-1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a test to see if the Prefrontal cortex of someone works normally? especially a simple test like a questionnaire that you give the individuals to fill out and based on their answer you obtain results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24304" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-09-25T15:40:09.413" LastActivityDate="2019-09-25T15:40:09.413" Title="Testing Prefrontal cortex" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24137" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-22T19:34:59.007" Score="3" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a connection between the Kundalini force and the brain waves in relation to the question-based meditation link below?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/17829/23404&quot;&gt;Which Meditation Techniques Correlate Best with Certain Brain-Waves?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And what are the characteristics of the brain theta wave, besides is there a link between the illusions of schizophrenia and the increase in theta waves in the brain? And what if there is a new science in place of the Kundalini force instead of what they have said?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Link to an Amateur Talk about Kundalini and Schizophrenia on YouTube:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=-G0S6s7DGKU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=-G0S6s7DGKU&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this paper with this topic:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Schizophrenia or spiritual crisis? On &quot;raising the kundalini&quot; and its diagnostic classification&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Two patients are described who had been diagnosed as schizophrenic,&#xA;  but had actually instead been going through spiritual crises, which in&#xA;  Eastern spiritual tradition are called raising the kundalini. Perhaps&#xA;  this experience is not a disease, but many--especially if not&#xA;  understood by oneself, the nearest relations and the medical&#xA;  profession--cause mental illness. In WHO ICD-10 the experience could&#xA;  be classified as F48.8, disordines neurotici specificati alii. The&#xA;  process falls outside the categories of both normal and psychotic.&#xA;  When allowed to progress to completion this process culminates in deep&#xA;  psychological balance, strength, and maturity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would greatly appreciate it if you kindly give me some feedback on this research data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23404" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-09-24T08:38:58.000" LastActivityDate="2019-09-24T08:38:58.000" Title="Schizophrenia relation between brain theta wave or kundalini and" Tags="&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24138" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24140" CreationDate="2019-09-23T00:01:26.657" Score="0" ViewCount="705" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not entirely sure if their is a duplicate of this question, or if this is the right SE site, topic, so sorry in advance if I am wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Throughout my life, I have noticed that many people, including myself, put things in a pocket opposite of their main hand of usage (excluding ambidextrous people.) I am right handed, and I typically put my phone and other objects in my left pocket, and I take it out with my left hand and transfer it to my right hand. A relative of mine who is left-handed does the same thing, although with directions reversed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this so? What psychological reasons are their to do such an act?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This isn't really something I think is easily Googled, so I am asking here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24308" LastActivityDate="2019-09-24T05:03:54.053" Title="Why do right-handed people put things in their left pocket, and vice versa?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;handedness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24139" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24142" CreationDate="2019-09-23T11:26:18.787" Score="3" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently reading Dr. Richard Haier's book The Neuroscience of Intelligence. I have a base knowledge of statistics, but I am confused about the following extract from page 80 (chapter 2.4): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When correlations are computed in identical twins reared apart, the&#xA;  correlation is  also one way to estimate heritability, so a&#xA;  correlation of .70 indicates that 70% of the  variance in intelligence&#xA;  is due to genetic factors and 30% is not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is using correlation a valid way to estimate the heritability of a specific trait? I was under the impression that for a comparison of shared variance r² would have to be used, which would mean IQ is not 70% inherited, but only 49% (a huge difference!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24309" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T10:37:12.700" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T10:37:12.700" Title="Correlation used as explanatory device in ''The neuroscience of Intelligence'" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24140" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24138" CreationDate="2019-09-23T11:57:31.083" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Why do right-handed people put things in their left pocket, and vice versa?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; I suppose that the left pocket means the left shirt-pocket because, in the case of pant-pockets, it is the right pant-pocket that most right-handed people usually put things (a wallet, a mobile phone, etc.) in. The reasons that they use the right pant-pocket are probably that it is more convenient and faster and that it consumes less energy than using the left pant-pocket.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iOw3R.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iOw3R.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason that right-handed people usually put things in their left shirt-pocket and vice versa for the left-handed people is probably the same. For right-handed people, putting things in the right shirt-pocket requires more flexing of the finger, wrist, and elbow joints, which is less comfortable and consumes more energy (for muscle contractions). But, unlike your case, I observe that most people who put things in their left shirt-pocket with their right hand will remove the object from the pocket with their right hand, not with their left hand and then transfer it to the right hand, which will take more time and expend more energy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3hcCe.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3hcCe.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finding ways to spend least energy for any action seems to be a well-preserved selected trait in all animals. It certainly gives a basic advantage for survival to the animals. That’s why, mostly, a man or an animal will always try to walk/fly/swim the shortest path it can to the goal. This preference applies to all other actions. This finding ways to spend least energy is called the principle of least effort:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“The principle of least effort is a broad theory that covers diverse fields from evolutionary biology to webpage design. It postulates that animals, people, even well-designed machines will naturally choose the path of least resistance or &quot;effort&quot;.”[Ref 1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Summary. The observations in this section can be summarized by proposing three fundamental principles underlying the study of movement economy. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The first derives from Hull (1943), to the effect that, when the organism is repeatedly presented with a number of equally reinforced alternative responses, that response requiring the least metabolic energy expenditure will become the dominant response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The second principle is that, when either the choice of response has been made or no choice given and a goal response specified, over trials the organism minimizes the metabolic energy expended in achieving the task goal. This economy-learning, or efficiency-learning, relationship, as shown in Figure 7, was first suggested by Freeman (1948), but Brener and Mitchell (1989) have also recognized the same principle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The third principle serves to explain these phenomena - the principle of least metabolic energy expenditure. In being receptive to sensory information about metabolic energy expenditure, organisms select the least effortful coordination and control function, and, with practice, the selected control parameters are refined to attain the task goal with less metabolic energy expenditure. The following section examines the contribution of various sources of informational support for response selection and metabolic energy minimization.” [Ref 2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, the reason that right-handed people put things in their left shirt-pocket is probably an evolutionary biological reason, not a psychological reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be noted that evolution works in general but not in every case. And variation is another constant facet of evolution. So, not every selected evolutionary trait will appear in all members of a species or will win out over other competing traits and manifest itself every time in a similar situation. Sometimes, another trait wins out. Therefore, some people or some people sometimes will not behave according to this principle of least effort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_effort&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The principle of least effort&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sparrow WA, Newell KM.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758%2FBF03212943.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Metabolic energy expenditure and the regulation of movement economy.&lt;/a&gt; Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review. 1998; 5: 173. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03212943&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03212943&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-09-23T11:57:31.083" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24142" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24139" CreationDate="2019-09-23T14:05:41.613" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The author is simply not being explicit. The &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;correlation&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is neither &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, it is simply the relation between x and y.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pearson's correlation coefficient, or &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a measure of the linear correlation between two variables. It's value is between +1 and −1, 1 being a total positive linear correlation, 0 means no linear correlation, and −1 is total negative linear correlation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/mathematics/coefficient-of-determination-r2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;coefficient of determination, or &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; has a value between 0 and 1. A value near 1 indeed indicates that most of the variation of the response data is explained by the different input values, whereas a value of &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; near 0 indicates that little of the variation is explained by the different input values.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now to your book; 70% seems indeed like a lot. I thought it was approximately 40% and this is backed up by &lt;a href=&quot;https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/traits/intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NIH&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/is-intelligence-hereditary/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scientific American&lt;/a&gt; that mention approximately 50%. However &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; mentions numbers up to 86% and back this statement up with influential articles. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/mp2014105&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Plomin &amp;amp; Deary, 2015)&lt;/a&gt; indeed postulate that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The heritability of intelligence increases from about 20% in infancy to perhaps 80% in later adulthood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/traits/intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Plomin &amp;amp; Deary, &lt;em&gt;Molecular Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;20&lt;/strong&gt;: 98–108&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-09-23T14:27:29.080" LastActivityDate="2019-09-23T14:27:29.080" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24143" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24148" CreationDate="2019-09-23T17:12:38.770" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm analyzing some resting-state data and some of the scans are 10 min while others are 7 min. I need to cut the last 3 min off of those with 10 min scans so everyone has 7 min of resting-state data. I realize I could just delete timeseries columns after processing but I'd like to perform the truncation earlier so that my temporal filtering isn't biased. I believe there's an FSL tool to accomplish this but can't find it. Any suggestions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24310" LastActivityDate="2019-09-24T18:53:17.717" Title="Temporally truncate BOLD data" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24144" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-23T19:35:17.003" Score="2" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://towardsdatascience.com/elon-musks-neuralink-everything-you-need-to-know-a19c35708f9a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; article there is a statement that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuralink&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuralink&lt;/a&gt; can help people with Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, and&#xA;  depression by promptly sending electric pulses into the areas&#xA;  responsible for their specific symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you refer me to the detailed information about depression treatment via&#xA;Neuralink?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="554" LastEditorUserId="554" LastEditDate="2019-09-23T20:02:16.280" LastActivityDate="2019-09-23T20:02:16.280" Title="Neuralink in depression treatment" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24146" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24138" CreationDate="2019-09-24T05:03:54.053" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am left handed and used to put things in my left pocket, but I quickly discovered that often I hold something in my left hand and my right hand is free (to take out keys for example). &#xA;I think naturally one would put everything in his dominant-side pocket, but over time learns to use the opposite pocket&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18912" LastActivityDate="2019-09-24T05:03:54.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24147" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-24T06:52:33.683" Score="2" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Few days back I took an IQ test (&lt;a href=&quot;http://test.mensa.no/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;online mensa norway&lt;/a&gt;) and found my IQ score to be 85. I actually had my IQ professionally tested 16 months ago by a psychologist when I was 18, and found out that I am pretty average (I got a score of 101). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that online tests are not valid, possibly explaining the lower score of 85. Nonetheless, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensa_International&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mensa&lt;/a&gt; seems OK,as they claim that their test was correlated with other standardized tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is: can IQ within- test (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;., test / re-test scores) vary over periods of time (say months to a few years, or even from a day to day basis?), or are the differences observed here better explained by between-test variability?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24315" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-09-25T09:15:59.860" LastActivityDate="2019-09-25T09:15:59.860" Title="Can some one operate 15 points lower during some part of the day and then return to normal?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24148" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24143" CreationDate="2019-09-24T18:24:23.963" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It looks like &lt;code&gt;fslroi&lt;/code&gt; is the tool I'm looking for. To temporally truncate a scan the usage would be &lt;code&gt;fslroi &amp;lt;input&amp;gt; &amp;lt;output&amp;gt; &amp;lt;tmin&amp;gt; &amp;lt;tsize&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; where &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;tmin&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; would be zero and &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;tsize&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; would be the number of volumes you want to keep. Now I just need to figure out how many volumes make up 7 minutes...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24310" LastEditorUserId="24310" LastEditDate="2019-09-24T18:53:17.717" LastActivityDate="2019-09-24T18:53:17.717" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24150" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24168" CreationDate="2019-09-25T13:35:29.713" Score="3" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working with a smoking cessation app and I want to study the acceptance of smoking behaviour. I found a good paper by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80015-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gifford et al. (2004)&lt;/a&gt; in which the authors use their own questionnaire called the &lt;strong&gt;Avoidance and Inflexibility Scale (AIS)&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I cannot find it in PsycInfo and Google Scholar. A more general research on google does not yield any result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Gifford, E. V., Kohlenberg, B. S., Hayes, S. C., Antonuccio, D. O., Piasecki, M. M., Rasmussen-Hall, M. L., &amp;amp; Palm, K. M. (2004). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80015-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Acceptance-based treatment for smoking cessation.&lt;/a&gt; Behavior therapy, 35(4), 689-705.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21788" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-09-27T08:25:01.157" LastActivityDate="2019-09-27T09:12:44.037" Title="How do I get the &quot;Avoidance and Inflexibility Scale&quot;?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24151" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-25T13:42:20.933" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;What makes some people more suseptible to manipulation and having their opinions swayed relative to others? Are there character traits which highlight who might be more easily manipulated, or is it a frame of mind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in either case, how might someone that is easily manipulatable change their behaviour and/or frame of mind to protect themselves from being so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18124" LastActivityDate="2019-09-25T13:42:20.933" Title="How to reduce the chance of being manipulated?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24153" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24134" CreationDate="2019-09-25T15:40:03.527" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Prefrontal cortex is most closely associated with the group of cognitive functions termed &quot;executive function&quot; - measures of executive function do not measure prefrontal cortex per se because (almost all) brain functions are not simply localized to one area, but one would expect major lesions of the prefrontal cortex to impair executive function, as would pharmacological manipulations that preferentially target prefrontal cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a list from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychological_test#Executive_function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; of some tests that involve executive function (not fully inclusive):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Behavioural Assessment of Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;CNS Vital Signs (Brief Core Battery)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Continuous performance task (CPT)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Controlled Oral Word Association Test (COWAT)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;d2 Test of Attention&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Digit Vigilance Test&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Figural Fluency Test&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Halstead Category Test&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hayling and Brixton tests&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kaplan Baycrest Neurocognitive Assessment (KBNA)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Kaufman Short Neuropsychological Assessment&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Ruff Figural Fluency Test&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Stroop task&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Test of Variables of Attention (T.O.V.A.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Tower of London Test&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Trail-Making Test (TMT) or Trails A &amp;amp; B&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Symbol Digit Modalities Test&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Test of Everyday Attention (TEA)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The appropriateness of a particular test would depend on other circumstances: for example, some of these tests are more appropriate to research in healthy folks, others are more appropriate for monitoring symptoms of/diagnosing dementia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, the prefrontal cortex is a big area of the brain with involvement of lots of different functions. Focal lesions or individual differences could easily impact some prefrontal cortical function while sparing others. Prefrontal cortex should not be thought of as &quot;one thing&quot; but rather as a diverse brain &lt;em&gt;region&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-09-25T15:40:03.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24155" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24156" CreationDate="2019-09-25T15:59:26.850" Score="5" ViewCount="126" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing a short essay on emotions and I stumbled upon a few references of confusion being an emotion but no solid exclusive research results focusing on confusion as an emotion. If it isn't, what classification would it fit?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Few references: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/38/E7900.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/38/E7900.full.pdf&lt;/a&gt; (page E7901) which simply explains about 27 types of emotions mostly deduced from physical observations rather than neurological&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And this paper, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5620019/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5620019/&lt;/a&gt;, also explains what happens neurologically when a person is confused though it's focused more on the advancement of Machine Learning: Neural Networks than pure neuroscience. This is from another unanswered question &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/67440/neuroscience-of-confusion&quot;&gt;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/67440/neuroscience-of-confusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24329" OwnerDisplayName="Axel" LastEditorUserId="24329" LastEditDate="2019-09-27T12:55:44.530" LastActivityDate="2019-09-27T12:55:44.530" Title="Would you classify confusion as an emotion?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24156" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24155" CreationDate="2019-09-25T16:20:41.577" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/confusion&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cambridge Dictionary&lt;/a&gt; defines confusion as &quot;a situation in which people do not understand what is happening, what they should do or who someone or something is.&quot; This means that confusion occurs in one's &lt;em&gt;thoughts,&lt;/em&gt; in the &lt;em&gt;brain.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I define emotion as &quot;an irritation of the &lt;em&gt;heart&lt;/em&gt;&quot; or simply &quot;a heart &lt;em&gt;feeling.&lt;/em&gt;&quot; By heart, I mean a physical heart. Emotion is a heart response to whatever irritates it: thoughts, memories, what someone sees or hears, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if you say that confusion is about thoughts and emotions are about heart feelings, then confusion is not an emotion. Confusion may or may not be &lt;em&gt;accompanied&lt;/em&gt; by emotions, for example, someone does not understand what is happening (confusion) and, as a result, feels fear in the heart (emotion).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if I want to classify confusion, but it is a &quot;problem with understanding,&quot; not necessary as a &quot;condition&quot; but as a temporary or chronic state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" OwnerDisplayName="Jan" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-09-26T11:49:08.493" LastActivityDate="2019-09-26T11:49:08.493" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24157" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24161" CreationDate="2019-09-25T21:03:30.913" Score="3" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;You find yourself in a certain situation A. You perceive the situation: perceive objects, actions of people involved...You develop an opinion on the situation, and it was the first time you perceived an example of a generalization of such situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, you find yourself in situation B, which is another example of some generalisation of A. Let's say that A was you having a crush on someone, and so was B (only the two crushes were different people). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To what extent does your perception and opinion of A influence your perception and opinion of B? Will you always compare (for example) the crush B to crush A? Or is it possible that the influence of A on B is limited, and your view of B won't necessarily be biased in such a way?&#xA;Can your generalisation of beauty differ a lot from the first 'beautiful' thing you perceived? Are the first times you receive stimuli decisive for future perceptions of similar stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24332" LastActivityDate="2019-10-26T10:01:10.167" Title="Does the way you perceive something for the first time have a big influence on future perceptions of similar stimuli?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24159" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-26T06:06:55.133" Score="1" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's your favorite and/or &quot;gold standard&quot; RNA-seq datasets for neurodegenerative diseases?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I come from the field of computational cancer genomics where there are some datasets that are well-known as &quot;high-quality&quot; ones in cancer. I want to benchmark some of the computational tools I'm currently developing on RNA-seq datasets for neurodegenerative diseases: I want to make sure I can identify known regulators with the tools I am testing. Therefore, I am looking for high-quality RNA-seq datasets for neurodegenerative diseases. Any advice on where to find such datasets?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24335" LastActivityDate="2019-09-26T06:06:55.133" Title="&quot;Golder standard&quot; RNA-seq datasets for neurodegenerative diseases" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24160" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-26T07:50:22.977" Score="1" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;Something that has puzzled me is the concept &quot;social intelligence&quot; or &quot;social giftedness&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Partial illustration of problems:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There do not exist &lt;em&gt;consistent&lt;/em&gt; general values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;implies: e.g. both &quot;being good with people&quot; and &quot;being bad with people&quot; may be regarded as &quot;social intelligence&quot;, just that their &lt;em&gt;goal&lt;/em&gt; is different.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;both intelligence and giftedness are somewhat vague, because e.g. &lt;em&gt;valuation&lt;/em&gt; of them is subjective and because people may not display these traits consistently (&quot;a Ph.D. with 20 years of experience can still be wrong&quot;). That which is intelligent for someone else might not be that for someone else. Unless one can devise some &quot;semi-objective&quot; measure (which is what I'm asking here).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Some people regard these concepts as &quot;being good with people&quot; or &quot;using right kind of communication techniques&quot;. However, I find that these are not necessarily suitable for semi-scientific definition, because from these it's not a very long distance to &lt;em&gt;rhetorics&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is &quot;socially gifted&quot; or &quot;social intelligence&quot; defined &quot;in a scientific way&quot; or &quot;semi-objectively&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can there exist a &quot;right type&quot; of &quot;social intelligence&quot;? Judging by that some people exhibit that there exists wrong forms, like &lt;em&gt;bullying&lt;/em&gt;, would suggest that some people &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; there are right and wrong types. However, if this is subjective, then its point is (since I can still disagree)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15494" LastEditorUserId="15494" LastEditDate="2019-09-26T07:56:35.157" LastActivityDate="2019-09-26T07:56:35.157" Title="How is &quot;socially gifted&quot; or &quot;social intelligence&quot; defined &quot;in a scientific way&quot; or &quot;semi-objectively&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24161" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24157" CreationDate="2019-09-26T08:06:35.717" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In social contexts, one area to look is within the field of cognition. John Bargh’s famous experiment (ref below) showed that whether we hold a cold or warm drink in our hand prior to meeting a person for the first time influences our subsequent impression of them - this is called priming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stimuli that influence our attitudes to others do not only come from the environment. They also are processed internally. There is a vast field of experiments in social cognition (especially implicit cognition, happening in the first 200 milliseconds or less in ways we are not ‘aware’). These experiments show that unconscious evaluations and categorisations of others happen lightning quick, and influence later (conscious) attitudes we have towards them. These evaluations are made from everything from facial symmetry, height, weight, voice depth, accent, smell, age, gender and status. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also generalise experiences. Let’s say you once had a negative experience with a man with a beard. Now, you may tend to react in the same way to other men with beards as that original person - no matter that they’re different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of our relationships are built on these entirely arbitrary considerations, which are in all likelihood adaptations from previous evolutionary environmental challenges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;:: Experiencing Physical Warmth Promotes Interpersonal Warmth&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lawrence E. Williams and John A. Bargh 2008&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;:: Implicit social cognition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adam Hahn, Bertram Gawronski 2018&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastEditorUserId="22058" LastEditDate="2019-09-26T09:57:01.207" LastActivityDate="2019-09-26T09:57:01.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24163" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24155" CreationDate="2019-09-26T18:00:23.403" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Confusion is not an emotion. It's not something you can call a healthy real emotion. Confusion is an indication of your problems. Seem like you would like to forget about the source of your confusion by naming confusion as emotion. On the other hand, a lot of emotions are active in a state of confusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Real emotions are always in relation to an object. You (the subject) are experiencing emotions in relation to an object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Confusion should be classified as &lt;strong&gt;mental suffering&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24312" LastActivityDate="2019-09-26T18:00:23.403" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24165" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24122" CreationDate="2019-09-27T06:58:12.147" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Preconciousness is associated with intense activation, yet confined to sensori-motor processors ; &#xA; Occipito-temporal loops and local synchrony ; &#xA; Priming at multiple levels ; &#xA; No reportability while attention is occupied elsewhere ;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;quora could also provide some answers : &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-core-of-human-consciousness/answer/Daisi-Lui&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-core-of-human-consciousness/answer/Daisi-Lui&lt;/a&gt; ;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;preconsciousness could have started earlier than consciousness ;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud, S., Strachey, J., In Freud, A., In Rothgeb, C. L., Richards, A., &amp;amp; Scientific Literature Corporation. (1953). The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24342" LastActivityDate="2019-09-27T06:58:12.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24167" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-27T08:31:06.720" Score="4" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;Everybody knows situations where activities requiring concentration and high level consciousness can over time become a &quot;background&quot; task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;you read a text aloud but think about other things&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;you drive a car but it just &quot;happens&quot; and you can listen to the news&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; is it measurable to demonstrate how an activity &quot;goes background&quot; in the brain? What is the current state of research, or at least what are proper neuroscience terms to look for in this context?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16114" LastEditorUserId="25777" LastEditDate="2020-05-27T07:40:28.897" LastActivityDate="2020-05-27T07:48:31.607" Title="What is the state of the art research of the consciousness level for high-level cognitive activity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24168" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24150" CreationDate="2019-09-27T09:05:20.000" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the measures subsection of the methods section in the paper you refer to (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80015-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gifford et al, 2004&lt;/a&gt;), you can see that Gifford et al. (2002) is cited when referring to the AIS questionnaire. However, I cannot seem to find this paper titled &lt;em&gt;&quot;Combining Bupropion SR with acceptance-based behavioral therapy for smoking cessation: Preliminary results from a randomized controlled trial.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe this is what you were referring to when you stated &quot;I cannot find &lt;em&gt;it&lt;/em&gt;&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did a more general search for &quot;Gifford Avoidance and Inflexibility Scale&quot; and found &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1359105309342304&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gifford &amp;amp; Lillis (2009)&lt;/a&gt; in which they cite the original paper you found (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80015-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gifford et al., 2004&lt;/a&gt;)—hardly useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, a validation study of the scale was published by different authors (&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fpas0000059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Farris et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;), in which they provide the following citations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The Avoidance and Inflexibility Scale (AIS; &lt;strong&gt;Gifford, 2001; Gifford,&#xA;  2002; Gifford et al., 2002&lt;/strong&gt;) is a smoking-specific measure of&#xA;  experiential avoidance that was specifically developed for&#xA;  process-based smoking cessation research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also provide the following description:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Avoidance and Inflexibility Scale (AIS; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80015-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gifford et al., 2004&lt;/a&gt;) The AIS&#xA;  is a 13-item self-report assessment in which respondents to consider&#xA;  how they respond to difficult thoughts that encourage smoking (e.g.,&#xA;  “I need a cigarette”, “I wish I could have a cigarette now!”),&#xA;  different feelings that encourage smoking (e.g., stress, fatigue,&#xA;  boredom, enjoyment, satisfaction, etc.), and bodily sensations that&#xA;  encourage smoking (e.g., “physical cravings or withdrawal symptoms”).&#xA;  Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Not at all to 5 = Very&#xA;  much), with higher scores reflecting more inflexibility/avoidance in&#xA;  the presence of difficult smoking-related thoughts, feelings, and&#xA;  sensations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gifford (2001) is an unpublished manuscript. Gifford (2002) is a doctoral dissertation (&quot;Acceptance based treatment for nicotine dependent smokers: Altering the regulatory functions of smoking related affect, physiological symptoms, and cognition.&quot;) which I am also unable to find online. Lastly, Gifford et al. (2002) is the first paper we could not find.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The validation study does provide all 13 items in Table 1 (&lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fpas0000059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Farris et al., 2015&lt;/a&gt;). Combined with the knowledge that it is a 5-point Likert scale (1= Not at all to 5 = Very much) you do have most of the information needed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ppn56.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ppn56.png&quot; alt=&quot;AIS scale items&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, personally I would recommend you to contact Gifford and explain your struggles in obtaining access to her research, and kindly request her to place a copy of the unpublished materials on ResearchGate, arxiv, or any similar platform.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Gifford EV. The Avoidance and Inflexibility scale. 2001 &lt;strong&gt;Unpublished manuscript&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gifford EV. Doctoral dissertation. University of Nevada; Reno, NV: 2002. Acceptance based treatment for nicotine dependent smokers: Altering the regulatory functions of smoking related affect, physiological symptoms, and cognition.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gifford, E. V., Antonuccio, D. O., Kohlenberg, B. S., Hayes, S. C., &amp;amp; Piasecki, M. M. (2002). Combining Bupropion SR with acceptance-based behavioral therapy for smoking cessation: Preliminary results from a randomized controlled trial. In annual meeting of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Reno, NV.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gifford, E. V., Kohlenberg, B. S., Hayes, S. C., Antonuccio, D. O., Piasecki, M. M., Rasmussen-Hall, M. L., &amp;amp; Palm, K. M. (2004). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80015-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Acceptance-based treatment for smoking cessation.&lt;/a&gt; Behavior therapy, 35(4), 689-705.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Gifford, E. V., &amp;amp; Lillis, J. (2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1359105309342304&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Avoidance and inflexibility as a common clinical pathway in obesity and smoking treatment.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of health psychology, 14(7), 992-996.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Farris, S. G., Zvolensky, M. J., DiBello, A. M., &amp;amp; Schmidt, N. B. (2015). &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fpas0000059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Validation of the Avoidance and Inflexibility Scale (AIS) among treatment-seeking smokers.&lt;/a&gt; Psychological assessment, 27(2), 467.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-09-27T09:12:44.037" LastActivityDate="2019-09-27T09:12:44.037" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24169" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24167" CreationDate="2019-09-27T13:02:02.337" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One approach to this is to search for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?newwindow=1&amp;amp;biw=1280&amp;amp;bih=918&amp;amp;ei=9wqOXaCMJpLWwALl2bGQBQ&amp;amp;q=habituation%20study&amp;amp;oq=habituation%20study&amp;amp;gs_l=psy-ab.3..0j0i7i30l3j0i30l3j0i8i30l3.108659.113853..114179...0.2..0.116.1999.24j2....2..0....1..gws-wiz.......0i71j0i131i273j0i67j0i131i67j0i131j0i13j0i8i7i30.CGKAGTLaHAw&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjg4-O2ivHkAhUSK1AKHeVsDFIQ4dUDCAs&amp;amp;uact=5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;habituation&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?newwindow=1&amp;amp;biw=1280&amp;amp;bih=918&amp;amp;ei=HwqOXfD8MMGjwAKV4KqQAQ&amp;amp;q=%22learned+task%22+study&amp;amp;oq=%22learned+task%22+study&amp;amp;gs_l=psy-ab.3...2152.9148..9465...1.4..0.96.1497.21....2..0....1..gws-wiz.......0i71j0i273j0j0i131j0i67j0i131i273j0i22i30j0i13i5i30j33i299j33i160.uNmcwwg6cOk&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiwiO_PifHkAhXBEVAKHRWwChIQ4dUDCAs&amp;amp;uact=5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;learned task&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?newwindow=1&amp;amp;biw=1280&amp;amp;bih=918&amp;amp;ei=WgqOXa3eC8jPwAK60o7QAQ&amp;amp;q=%22concomitant+task%22+study&amp;amp;oq=%22concomitant+task%22+study&amp;amp;gs_l=psy-ab.3...3236.4040..4393...0.2..0.84.292.4......0....1..gws-wiz.......0i71j33i10.hxkWJSOhtA4&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwit89rrifHkAhXIJ1AKHTqpAxoQ4dUDCAs&amp;amp;uact=5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;concomitant task&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?newwindow=1&amp;amp;biw=1280&amp;amp;bih=918&amp;amp;ei=hAqOXc7NBoLIwQLPorlg&amp;amp;q=%22dual+task%22+study&amp;amp;oq=%22dual+task%22+study&amp;amp;gs_l=psy-ab.3..0j0i30l2j0i5i30l2j0i8i30l3.24533.27145..27479...0.2..0.88.814.11......0....1..gws-wiz.......0i71j0i8i7i30j0i7i30j0i7i5i30.3PzSkCvsbfw&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjOn9n_ifHkAhUCZFAKHU9RDgwQ4dUDCAs&amp;amp;uact=5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;dual task&quot;&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?newwindow=1&amp;amp;biw=1280&amp;amp;bih=918&amp;amp;ei=3gqOXeKDPcLLwQKi5aDYAQ&amp;amp;q=%22multiple+task%22+study&amp;amp;oq=%22multiple+task%22+study&amp;amp;gs_l=psy-ab.3...19930.23341..23657...0.2..0.84.872.12......0....1..gws-wiz.......0i71j0i7i30j0i8i7i30j0i7i5i30j0i13j0i8i13i10i30j0i30j0i8i30.YwfjjmEH7BE&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwji6oSrivHkAhXCZVAKHaIyCBsQ4dUDCAs&amp;amp;uact=5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;multiple task&quot;&lt;/a&gt; studies, which may include cognitive and physical aspects (memory, reaction time and such). &quot;Background tasks&quot; are usually related to computers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-09-27T13:13:42.637" LastActivityDate="2019-09-27T13:13:42.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24170" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-27T14:25:06.277" Score="2" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, trying to understand a mathematical problem and its solution, or abstract reasoning, but in the process get lost even have no clear idea of what part is 'not understood'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24329" LastActivityDate="2019-09-27T14:25:06.277" Title="What happens neurologically and chemically when an individual is confused?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24171" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-27T17:36:27.223" Score="0" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there anything studies or research in psychology and neuroscience currently on the rapid acquisition of skills to an expert level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23697" LastActivityDate="2019-10-13T10:23:51.337" Title="Research or studies on rapid skill acquisition?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;perceptual-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24173" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18292" CreationDate="2019-09-27T20:47:57.600" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A Note on Resting States, Resting Brains, and Meditative States&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A resting state, or ‘somatic rest’, would seem to correspond with a brain at rest or ‘neurologic’ rest, but by definition, somatic and neurologic rest are entirely different things. A resting ‘state’ or somatic rest represents the inactivity of the striatal musculature that results from the application of resting protocols (continual avoidance of perseverative thought represented by rumination, worry, and distraction.).  Resting states also are affective states, as they elicit opioid activity in the brain. Resting states in turn may occur in tandem with all levels of non-perseverative thought that are passive or active, from just passively ‘being in the moment’ or being mindful, to actively engaging in complex and meaningful cognitive behavior. The latter cognitive behavior is also additionally affective in nature due to its elicitation of dopaminergic activity, and resulting opioid-dopamine interaction results in a perceived state of ‘bliss’ or ‘flow’. On the other hand, a resting ‘brain’, neurologic rest, or the so-called ‘default mode network’ is a specific type of neural processing that occurs when the mind is in a ‘passive’ state, or in other words, is presented with no or very limited cognitive demands. This results in ‘mind wandering’ that can entail non-perseverative (creative thought) or perseverative thought (rumination, worry). As such a resting brain may or may not correlate with somatic rest, and is correlated with a level of demand, not a kind of demand, as in somatic rest.&#xA;Like the broad color palate that emerges from the intermix of three primary colors, it may be argued that meditative states are simply emergent properties of two very distinctive neuro-physiological resting states that have separate and easily definable causes. It is remarkable that in the literature of meditation, the neuro-physiology of rest both in body and mind is not defined, with a similar neglect to how neuro-muscular activity is actively shaped by experience or learning. The importance of meditation is very real, and the meditative community is understandably averse to equating it with rest since it makes meditation less ‘special’ or less marketable. But that is my argument nonetheless, which in the end provides a better advocacy of meditation by denying that meditation elicits a unique physiological process or state, which like the concept of ‘phlogiston’, or the imaginary element that enabled fire, impedes rather than furthers scientific inquiry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;from 'The book of Rest' at doctormezmer.com&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24350" LastActivityDate="2019-09-27T20:47:57.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24175" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-27T23:57:16.173" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which cranial nerves decussate apart from the few nerve fibers of the optic nerve that do and how to easilly remember the cranial nerves that do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537244/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here is a paper for the Trochlear Nerve&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I have found no paper for all 12 of the Cranial Nerves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is easier to remember the exceptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That way if there are fewer nerves that have some fibers decussate they should be the exception to the general rule that cranial nerves do not deccusate as they are fewer and easier to remember.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise the general rule is that even they generally decussate and the exception are those that do not have any fibers decussate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless of which is the exception a mnemonic for the exceptions would be really useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21851" LastActivityDate="2019-09-27T23:57:16.173" Title="Decussation of Cranial Nerves" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24177" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-28T11:56:10.540" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence to suggest that individuals that were bullied in school as children select occupations that are a means of making people obligated to respect them? For example people that join the police?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My premise is based on observations of a majority of individuals in law enforcement having personality traits that are consistent with the descriptions of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarian_personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Authoritarian Personality&lt;/a&gt;, and I felt that childhood experiences of being unable to cope or predict norms of their social environment may be a good explanation as to why they choose a career that enforces a consistency in the accepted social norms of the society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23602" LastEditorUserId="23602" LastEditDate="2019-09-28T17:35:40.913" LastActivityDate="2019-09-28T17:35:40.913" Title="Choice of Occupation and Negative Childhood Experiences" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24178" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-28T14:27:11.243" Score="2" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Research in physics allowed us to build bridges, computers, put people in space. Research in chemistry led to the discovery of all sorts of new materials which we use everyday. Research in biology led to many the discovery of many drugs that save millions of people every day. [Fill in more examples of game-changing technology based on hard sciences here.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Did research in psychology lead to any useful technology? If yes, what are your favorite examples?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24354" LastActivityDate="2019-10-05T00:48:29.013" Title="Did research in psychology lead to any useful technology?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24180" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24178" CreationDate="2019-09-28T15:55:10.343" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychology and Neuroscience informs the science of human biology and chemistry in order to create the many drugs used to help with mental health disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other than that, I cannot think of any physical technology born out of psychology alone. Depending on your definition of technology, there are instruments providing rudimentary diagnostics questionnaires such as the mental health assessment from PsychologyToday at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/tests/health/mental-health-assessment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/tests/health/mental-health-assessment&lt;/a&gt;, and there are other instruments used by therapists such as Patient Health Questionnaires (PHQs). Examples can be found at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.phqscreeners.com/select-screener&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.phqscreeners.com/select-screener&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-09-28T15:55:10.343" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24181" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-28T15:57:32.870" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;A person, who tries to hide something from himself due to him not being able to cope with that thing, will try to deny it. This is what is called defensive denial. For example, if I say to myself I only smoke to show a girl I like how cool I am, it's actually me trying to cope up with the fact that I have smoking addiction which has nothing to do with any girl. This is one of the methods of defense our brain uses to deal with anxiety and things we don't want to know about ourselves. My question is, how do I know the difference between me denying that thing due to me not being able to cope with the truth and me simply telling the truth. For example, if I say to myself, I don't want to become a dancer, how do I know if this is a form of defensive denial and I actually want to become a dancer but I'm hiding it due to some deeper reason, and  me actually not wanting to become a dancer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21018" LastEditorUserId="21018" LastEditDate="2019-09-28T16:10:57.190" LastActivityDate="2019-09-28T16:10:57.190" Title="How do I make the difference between defensive denial and it being true?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24182" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-28T17:15:46.850" Score="5" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know there is a medical condition called &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosopagnosia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Prosopagnosia&lt;/a&gt;&quot; that is described as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a cognitive disorder of face perception in which the ability to recognize familiar faces, including one's own face (self-recognition), is impaired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Knowing this, I was wondering if there was also a word/medical condition that would describe:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a cognitive disorder in which the ability to associate a name with a face is impaired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this scenario, when the person sees someone, they remember every fact about them (what do they for a living, if they have a significant other, if they have children, etc...) but are incapable of remembering the person name.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The person having this could be described as having &quot;a bad memory for names&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, does such a medical condition exist? Is there a word for it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21063" LastActivityDate="2019-11-09T15:47:08.857" Title="Inability to associate a face with a name" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24183" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24178" CreationDate="2019-09-28T17:47:25.007" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Artificial intelligence has received a strong influence from cognitive science, not only in its name.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concepts like the P300 might have an application in lie detection. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P300_(neuroscience)#Applications&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive psychology is in the basis of assessments for drivers, pilots. For that you'll need to work through concepts like attention, concentration, and the like. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, it's not in the scope of psychology to produce technology. So, you won't find much more than concepts/views/ideas flowing into/inspiring a technology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24357" LastActivityDate="2019-09-28T17:47:25.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24185" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-28T22:18:55.350" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anders Ericsson's work is famous for creating the idea of &quot;deliberate practice&quot; and its creation of experts, but Anders also talks about how long hours are inevitable in becoming an expert. Let's examine this on the standard of running. In 1960 a less than 5 minute mile was impossible, but now it's impressive but having a closer to 4 minute flat mile run is more impressive. We can maybe assume people didn't train as long as people do now to achieve that which would support Anders, but what if the variance in time spent training between 1960 runners and now is about the same, just that our training methodologies have allowed runners to easily surpass that speed. My question is what allows someone to become an expert in shorter time? What features of training methods IN ANY field (not just running) allows someone to acquire expertise in a field faster than other methodologies? Can we evaluate such methodologies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23697" LastActivityDate="2019-09-28T22:18:55.350" Title="Becoming an expert with accumulative hours of practice much less than the average expert?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24186" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24182" CreationDate="2019-09-29T07:09:58.113" Score="3" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;recognize familiar faces&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The distinction between familiar and unfamiliar faces with the prosopagnosia seems to be more a wiki thing than in clinical or common usage. The defintion does not seem fixed. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Prosopagnosia-Information-Page&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NINDs&lt;/a&gt; defines it as &quot;characterized by the inability to recognize faces&quot; rather than only just familiar faces. So sufferers &quot;use other ways to identify people, such as relying on voice, clothing, or unique physical attributes&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-au/professional/neurologic-disorders/function-and-dysfunction-of-the-cerebral-lobes/agnosia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Merck manual&lt;/a&gt; provides a different naunce &lt;em&gt;&quot;inability to identify well-known faces, including those of close&#xA;   friends, or to otherwise distinguish individual objects among a class&#xA;   of objects, despite the ability to identify generic facial features&#xA;   and objects.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This phenomenon is distinct from &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Anomic_aphasia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anomic aphasia (also known as amnestic aphasia and nominal aphasia)&lt;/a&gt; where there is an impairment of word recall &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomic_aphasia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;especially nouns and verbs&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just remember humans and brains are not compartmentalized like computers or objects. Phenomenons that occur due to how the neurons or the lobe is organized. Brain damage are not random too, so common patterns form strokes and injuries result in well known and well described phenomenons. The distinction between naming familiar faces and naming strangers/unknown people would not be a useful clinical distinction. If you think about it, name association exercises of strangers seems too difficult to be used clinically. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-09-29T07:09:58.113" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24188" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-30T13:48:09.103" Score="2" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I conducted an IPIP survey with 20 groups of 100 participants.&#xA;Now I have to analyze the survey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The website &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/newScoringInstructions.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ipip.ori.org/newScoringInstructions.htm&lt;/a&gt; says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Once numbers are assigned for all of the items in the scale, just sum all the values to obtain a total scale score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead, I calculated an average value for each question.&#xA;I think I can compare the results of the groups better this way.&#xA;Is the evaluation still valid?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have represented the result as semantic differential and a spider web modal.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/x88vn.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/x88vn.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;semantic differential&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24360" LastActivityDate="2019-09-30T13:48:09.103" Title="Analyze a IPIP Survey with semantic differential and a spider web modal" Tags="&lt;ipip&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24189" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-09-30T14:06:26.807" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;On Parenting, issues regarding emotional resilience are often discussed as something of great value, a lifelong gift to give to one's child, and I cite studies and articles to help parents learn what resilience is and how to teach it. I define resiliency as a kind of positive mind set which allows a child/person to maintain a healthier outlook in the face of stress. For example, resilient kids see setbacks as learning opportunities rather than failures, feel that they have agency instead of helplessness, avoid negative self-talk, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me (totally uninformed opinion coming) that much older people are less likely to be able to change their psychological habits/traits. (It's a cognitive bias I have.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know from my own dogs that it's quite possible to teach an old dog new tricks (my 13 year old Border Collie could learn new tricks in a few minutes), but so far, I've not been able to find anyone willing to fund a grant involving &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.clickertraining.com/15tips&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;clicker training&lt;/a&gt; patients my age to learn new ways to cope with unwanted emotions or negative experiences. (J/k about the grant. And the clicker training/operant conditioning, but with clicker training, there is no negative feedback except for lack of reward.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone can point me in the right direction to literature demonstrating how to successfully increase resiliency in elderly patients, it would be much appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastEditorUserId="5104" LastEditDate="2019-09-30T20:12:28.710" LastActivityDate="2019-10-03T20:12:01.177" Title="Are there any studies regarding elderly people and learning resiliance?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24190" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24191" CreationDate="2019-09-30T18:28:46.613" Score="3" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;While reading a science fiction book, Calculating God by Robert J. Sawyer, I came across the following lines:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;“Well, if I showed you one object - one rock, say - you would not have to count it. You would just perceive its cardinality: you would know there was one object. The same thing happens with two objects. You just look at the pair of rocks and in a single glance, without any processing, you perceive that there are two of them present. You can do the same with three, four, or five items, if you are an average human. It is only when confronted with six or more items that you actually start counting them.”&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;“How do you know this?”&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;“I watched a program about it on the Discovery Channel.”&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming this is a real psychological phenomenon, is there a name or reference for it? I have contacted the author but have not received a response yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24362" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-09-30T23:01:45.193" LastActivityDate="2019-10-01T02:03:31.420" Title="Perception Cardinality" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24191" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24190" CreationDate="2019-10-01T02:03:31.420" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The author responded. It is called &quot;Subitising&quot; or &quot;Subitizing&quot; or &quot;Perceiving cardinality at-a-glance&quot;. The term was coined by Kaufman in 1949.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24362" LastActivityDate="2019-10-01T02:03:31.420" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24192" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-01T05:35:18.340" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have observed that when learning new words (vocabulary building), if we are presented with, say, 5 new words in these 2 manners:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;only 5 words presented in isolation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;40 words presented, with 5 words emphasized&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;then, the retention of those 5 words is more in the second case. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, if we are studying some subject, and we are presented with a summary of important points in one case, and a collection of several points with important points underlined, then there is more retention in the second case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To generalize the observation: &lt;strong&gt;Memory retention is more if information is presented accentuated among a heap of other information, than when it is presented in isolation&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is my observation correct? Have other people witnessed it in some form? And why does this happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, can someone point me to some references if research has been done on this? I couldn't think of a keyword to search for this on the web. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8094" LastActivityDate="2019-10-01T05:35:18.340" Title="Memory Retention : isolated information vs emphasized information in a heap" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24193" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4423" CreationDate="2019-10-01T06:21:44.863" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;When someone is slow to respond to someone else's request, they requester gets angry. Anger causes certain instinctive behaviours (repeating the request, swearing, shouting, bashing) which are very effective at persuading a human to hurry up. Because people anthropomorphise computers, they show the same anger response to a slow computer as they do to a slow human. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen many people crash their computers with repeated clicks, and all of them have enough years of experience with computers to know that the computer will respond sooner if they click once and wait. I have also seen people damaging their computers by hitting and throwing them. A Bayesian rational actor might click again after a few seconds in case the first click didn't register, but it certainly wouldn't act like a human.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21384" LastActivityDate="2019-10-01T06:21:44.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24194" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24286" CreationDate="2019-10-01T20:04:59.327" Score="3" ViewCount="179" Body="&lt;p&gt;While anesthesia is given to a patient what changes in the chemistry of brain happens. Which part of the brain is affected by the medicine which causes anesthetic effects. &#xA;Can anesthesia be considered as sleep+painless state of body? Or is it more than that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23538" LastEditorUserId="23538" LastEditDate="2019-10-04T19:47:44.770" LastActivityDate="2019-10-18T16:03:17.033" Title="What exactly happens to brain during anesthesia" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24195" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-02T03:46:36.497" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both are &quot;learned&quot; (non-genetic) disorders with a small set of overlapping traits/symptoms, usually starting early in life. Are they connected in any way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24084" LastActivityDate="2019-10-02T03:46:36.497" Title="Can Emotional Detachment Disorder lead to Sociopathy?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24197" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24189" CreationDate="2019-10-02T19:25:20.197" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bit too long for a comment, so here it is. The following quote from Yuval Harari's &lt;em&gt;Homo Deus&lt;/em&gt; is skeptical about what you call &quot;elderly people and learning resilience&quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&quot;Of course, by 2033 many new professions are likely to appear — for example, virtual-world designers. But such professions will probably require much more creativity and flexibility than current run-of-the-mill jobs, and it is unclear whether 40-year-old cashiers or insurance agents will be able to reinvent themselves as virtual world designers (try to imagine a virtual world created by an insurance agent!). And even if they do so, the pace of progress is such that within another decade they might have to reinvent themselves yet again.&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reference that he gives is: E. Brynjolfsson and A. McAffee, &lt;em&gt;Race Against the Machine: How the Digital Revolution is Accelerating Innovation, Driving Productivity, and Irreversibly Transforming Employment and the Economy&lt;/em&gt; (Lexington: Digital Frontier Press, 2011)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24362" LastActivityDate="2019-10-02T19:25:20.197" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24199" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-03T12:35:19.850" Score="0" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could you recommend books/articles about character defects (e.g. envy, laziness, hate, etc.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am particularly interested in:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A comprehensive list of character defects&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Description of possible causes of those defects&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Examples&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The character defects should not be necessarily caused by mental illness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of a book that seems to fit my criteria would be (although it is related to mental illnesses): &lt;code&gt;50 Signs of Mental Illness - A Guide to Understanding Mental Health - by James Whitney Hicks&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No limits about the date of publication (the older the better).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24376" LastActivityDate="2019-10-04T15:00:19.483" Title="Reading list for character defects" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24200" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24199" CreationDate="2019-10-03T17:53:18.827" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The lists of &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.practicalrecovery.com/prblog/defects-character-defective-way-helping/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;character deficits&lt;/a&gt;&quot; can be mixtures of judgements, beliefs, attitudes and emotions. The common denominator of the things on such lists is often just that they are not acceptable for some people, but they are not all necessary bad and some of them may not need to be changed or treated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Laziness can be a temporary &lt;em&gt;mood,&lt;/em&gt; which, if excessive, can become &lt;em&gt;a bad habit.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anger is an &lt;em&gt;emotion,&lt;/em&gt; which can help you refuse inappropriate attitudes of others or, when not controlled by proper thinking, can result in destruction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hate is an intense &lt;em&gt;dislike&lt;/em&gt; for something or someone and it is not necessary bad; together with anger, it can help you refuse things that are not good for you. On the other hand, hate is often completely unreasonable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear can be perceived as &lt;em&gt;weakness,&lt;/em&gt; but it is also a &lt;em&gt;warning emotion&lt;/em&gt; that can help you avoid a danger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-10-04T15:00:19.483" LastActivityDate="2019-10-04T15:00:19.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24201" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24189" CreationDate="2019-10-03T20:12:01.177" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This isn't quite my area of expertise, but I did find a couple recent papers that attempted to use behavioral interventions to improve some measure of resilience in older populations and showed positive results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Luskin, F., Reitz, M., Newell, K., Quinn, T. G., &amp;amp; Haskell, W. (2002). A controlled pilot study of stress management training of elderly patients with congestive heart failure. Preventive cardiology, 5(4), 168-174.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Perez-Blasco, J., Sales, A., Meléndez, J. C., &amp;amp; Mayordomo, T. (2016). The effects of mindfulness and self-compassion on improving the capacity to adapt to stress situations in elderly people living in the community. Clinical Gerontologist, 39(2), 90-103.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to one showing an effect of a &lt;em&gt;physical&lt;/em&gt; intervention, which makes sense since physical and mental/emotional outcomes tend to be highly correlated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Roh, S. Y. (2016). Effect of a 16-week Pilates exercise program on the ego resiliency and depression in elderly women. Journal of exercise rehabilitation, 12(5), 494.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, it seems like it's possible to improve psychological habits in older adults, though I didn't find anything comparing older to younger populations, and the vast amount of literature in this area seems to be focused on measuring and correlating measures of resiliency with other health outcomes, rather than improving it directly. Seems like an important area for future work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-10-03T20:12:01.177" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24202" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-04T02:38:18.073" Score="4" ViewCount="159" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=19&amp;amp;cad=rja&amp;amp;uact=8&amp;amp;ved=2ahUKEwi2uqj8x4HlAhXvCjQIHeZLAjwQFjASegQICBAB&amp;amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailytexanonline.com%2F2018%2F11%2F13%2Fsleep-in-bed-dont-study-in-it&amp;amp;usg=AOvVaw02q1ToZ5fJfv0Ez1RUmGj4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; and some other articles stating that you should not do anything in bed except sleep. This includes studying, eating, and watching T.V, because your brain will have a difficult time associating what exactly your bed is for, which can lead to insomnia when trying to sleep. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my question is, can I do these other things on a bed on which I do not sleep in (in another room)?  Contrary to what the article says, I just don't want to study on a desk, I find it very hard to focus (eg. in school) because my body position from sitting on a desk is not ideal/comfortable for me. I prefer to lay down as this helps me relax and thus keeps me concentrated. Would it hurt my sleep if I switched to studying on a bed that I don't sleep on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21425" LastEditorUserId="21425" LastEditDate="2019-10-04T02:53:57.713" LastActivityDate="2019-10-14T21:14:43.030" Title="Research shows that doing anything in bed other than sleeping can disrupt sleep. What if these other things are done on another bed?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-scienc&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24203" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-04T10:35:34.683" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;We have a development in our application in which our users can create a report based on different parameters, say (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x_1,\dots,x_n$&lt;/span&gt;), with each &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x_i$&lt;/span&gt; taking values in a set &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X_i$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The report can take as input any type of logical formula of the form &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x_{k_1} @ \dots @ x_{k_m}$&lt;/span&gt; where &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$@$&lt;/span&gt; represents a disjuntion &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\lor$&lt;/span&gt; or a conjuction &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\land$&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$@ \in \{\land, \lor\}$&lt;/span&gt;). The report will return a population whose features under the formula are true. For example, I can input the formula &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$(x_{k_1} &amp;lt; 50 ) \land (x_{k_2} = T \lor x_{k_3} =F)$$&lt;/span&gt; and I will see all the results with those parameters satisfied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A known result in Boolean logic says that any type of such formula can be represented in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctive_normal_form&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conjunctive normal form&lt;/a&gt; (CNF) or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjunctive_normal_form&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;disjunctive normal form&lt;/a&gt; (DNF).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you know of any research on the question of whether humans are better at interpreting logical formulas in CNF or DNF versus a less structured form? Moreover, is there any research on whether CNF or DNF is more intuitive than the other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24385" LastEditorUserId="26475" LastEditDate="2021-03-20T10:18:25.767" LastActivityDate="2021-03-20T10:18:25.767" Title="Are people better at interpreting CNF or DNF?" Tags="&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24204" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-04T13:28:17.563" Score="2" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to ask you the reasoning behind a question they asked me during a job interview (with a psychologist) a few years ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He basically handed me a bunch of colored cards (fifteen at least), asked me to think of my own logical order and to sort the cards according to the chosen order.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After I ordered them, he took notes on a sheet of my result, took the papers from me, shuffled them and gave them back to me, telling them to reposition them in the same order they had previously chosen.&#xA;And he added &quot;70% of people change the order of at least one card in the second round&quot;.&#xA;It is clear that he only told me to influence me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the purpose of this test?&#xA;I'm very curious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24386" LastActivityDate="2019-10-07T08:38:02.160" Title="Strange question in a job-interview" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24207" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24211" CreationDate="2019-10-04T20:53:53.557" Score="0" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do I find myself lost when; for example, Sheldon (from the Big Bang Theory) talks fast about complex physics. I try to comprehend what he's saying but I guess my brain isn't fast enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also is there any way I cant increase the passage speed between my ears and my brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24390" LastActivityDate="2019-10-05T18:53:12.977" Title="Auditory Processing Speed" Tags="&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24208" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24178" CreationDate="2019-10-05T00:48:29.013" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are just a few examples from the top of my head:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Robots are made to look as artificial as possible because psychologists found&#xA;out that the closer they look to a real person, the higher the&#xA;discomfort.   &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The surroundings of large Cat scanners (MRI) to make&#xA;people more comfortable and allow reduced dosage of Benzodiazepines  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Upcoming developments in general AI that would be impossible without deep insight into psychological processes  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lights and sounds in tunnel systems and airport tunnels (birds chirping in Frankfurt, Germany is one example)  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Elevator music to prevent&#xA;people from having claustrophobic attacks  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Light therapy devices  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Performance enhancing military devices (currents to shorten training time in drone pilots etc)  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Positioning of instrumentation in vehicles  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Street surfaces that make sounds to prevent accidents&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Use of colors and shapes in all guidance systems (traffic)  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lie detectors&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Some biometric access systems (gait analysis)  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Countless medical devices for natal care (everything that feels good;))  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Devices and robots for elderly care&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23210" LastActivityDate="2019-10-05T00:48:29.013" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24209" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-05T13:43:07.010" Score="4" ViewCount="431" Body="&lt;p&gt;if this is not the right place of my question please let me know , I remove or move my question into another stack.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm a software engineer and in one of my interviews they asked me this question : &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Do you prefer Waffles or Pancakes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know are they ask this question to reduce stress from me or something behind it? like how I thinking, I don't know , I try to search but nothing I can find. so I decide to ask it here. this question is interesting for me because I find that some other companies asked this question for product manager role or front-end developer, and my answer is Waffles &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24393" LastEditorUserId="24393" LastEditDate="2019-10-05T13:59:49.750" LastActivityDate="2019-10-05T13:59:49.750" Title="Waffles or Pancakes?" Tags="&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24211" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24207" CreationDate="2019-10-05T18:53:12.977" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A concept has the property of depth, which is basically how much background understanding must be recruited to interpret it. The deeper the concept, the more understanding is required. Sheldon talking complex physics is relating many deep concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your mind tries to make sense of new information by associating it with your background understanding of reality. If you lack the background, it will have to work harder to make sense of it, and if it can't make sense of it, you will find yourself lost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When new information is taken in and used in various ways (eg. muilling it over; using it in everyday life), redundant portions of it become incorporated into the unconscious mind to be used as a framework to further understanding (i.e. it becomes &quot;second nature&quot;). Unconscious information processing is much faster than conscious processing, so while you lose conscious access to the concept, you gain fast processing speed effortlessly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When Sheldon speaks, he is accessing a deep unconscious network of understanding.&#xA;The way to increase speed of processing is to use related information repeatedly until your mind builds up the background understanding. Much of the more redundant processing will be relegated to the unconscious, freeing up your conscious mind to take in more information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, you lack the requisite foundation to understand Sheldon's complex physics in realtime, so are trying to consciously process everything said. Practice, practice, practice thinking about complex physics to build a foundational understanding that'll take the load off to speed up processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;–Yuri&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24395" LastActivityDate="2019-10-05T18:53:12.977" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24214" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24202" CreationDate="2019-10-06T03:11:57.713" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Best to just be able to wind down and turn off your mind (as much as possible).  For example, according to the study below, just watching TV will not affect your sleep but binge watching TV can.  A person needs to ‘cool down’ before going to sleep.&#xA;Besides, if we are just supposed to sleep in bed, how is it that people regularly have sex in bed yet rarely complain that sex leads to insomnia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.clinicaladvisor.com/home/the-waiting-room/binge-watching-tv-and-its-effects-on-sleep/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;binge watching tv&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastActivityDate="2019-10-06T03:11:57.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24215" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10633" CreationDate="2019-10-06T11:08:33.080" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There does not seem to be any research on your exact question on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the effect of &amp;quot;low attention tasks&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;high attention tasks&amp;quot; on the comprehension and memory of speech modality learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if we widen the scope of the question to different modalities of learning like reading, then there is ample research. However, most of the research seems to be done on comprehension and not memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Low Attention Tasks&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lin Lin et. al. (2009) did a study on college students for assessing their reading performance under three conditions: (a) reading only (silence condition), (b) reading with a video playing in the background (background multitasking condition), and (c) reading and watching video simultaneously (test multitasking condition). &lt;strong&gt;They found that the participants performed best in the background condition, i.e. when they had a background video playing&lt;/strong&gt;. This a surprising finding. A similar study was done by Jennifer Lee et. al. (2011) and found that the performance was similar for cases (a) and (b).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For your case, this suggests that &amp;quot;low attention tasks&amp;quot; will not negatively affect your comprehension, and may even increase comprehension (as suggest by Lee et. al. (2009)).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;High Attention Tasks&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond conclusions about the effect of low-attention tasks, Jennifer et. al. (2011) also rigorously tested the effect of &amp;quot;high attention tasks&amp;quot;. To quote from their abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants were given a timed (16 minutes) reading comprehension test in three conditions: Silence (only reading), Background multitasking (reading with a non-tested video shown simultaneously), and Test multitasking (reading with a tested video shown simultaneously) conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our findings indicated that: (1) participants in the Background condition performed as well as those in the Silence condition, and (2) &lt;strong&gt;when participants were tested on their video comprehension, the group in the Test condition performed significantly better than the group in the Background condition&lt;/strong&gt;. The results of this study suggest that cognitive load plays an important role in determining how much information is retained when students perform more than one task at a time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their conclusion tells that the division of cognitive load affects your performance very clearly. Hence, it is best to avoid the high-attention tasks altogether.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lin Lin, Tip Robertson &amp;amp; Jennifer Lee (2009) Reading Performances Between Novices and Experts in Different Media Multitasking Environments, Computers in the Schools, 26:3, 169-186, DOI: 10.1080/07380560903095162&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jennifer Lee, Lin Lin &amp;amp; Tip Robertson (2012) The impact of media multitasking on learning, Learning, Media and Technology, 37:1, 94-104, DOI: 10.1080/17439884.2010.537664&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Non-research Sources&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beyond what the current research says, I would like to cite 2 more sources: &amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;Deep Work&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;quot; book by &lt;strong&gt;Cal Newport&lt;/strong&gt;, and the training modality of &lt;strong&gt;Samurai Jack&lt;/strong&gt; (a fictional character in an animated series).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &amp;quot;Deep Work&amp;quot;, Cal Newport makes a very compelling case for why deep work (i.e. work devoid of all distractions) is so important. The first half of the book is completely dedicated to understanding its importance; while the second half deals with its implementation. Cal Newport is an academic, and so he backs his claims with scientific research and his own careful observations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, as a kid, I was always fascinated with the training regime of Samurai Jack. When training for sword fighting, he used to blind-fold himself and then train. This made him one of the best Samurais, capable of defeating a redoubtable evil dragon. What I got to understand from his regime was that he was blocking all the various stimuli in order to bring intense focus and really bring out the potential of the remaining active senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not just true for Samurai Jack. Masters in any field have been doing this through the ages : &lt;strong&gt;cutting down stimuli&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's surprising, then, today we are instead adding more stimuli instead of reducing them. I think it's best to go the old-fashioned way. It's best we embrace the The Samurai Jack Blindfold:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/682HA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/682HA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8094" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-10-06T11:08:33.080" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24217" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-06T15:46:55.297" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I know, this information is not available yet. If indeed it is not available, this question may wait for future answers. I have known out that some parts of human connectome are already mapped, so it might be already available. I have looked some sites, and seems it is not easy to find it for me. So, by answers to this question, I will see, and other readers may see, how much this knowledge is available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think, this question may also get answers about whether borders of internal urethral sphincter are strictly defined, and about how to navigate to or access the connectome data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24383" LastEditorUserId="24383" LastEditDate="2019-10-07T08:11:45.220" LastActivityDate="2019-10-07T08:11:45.220" Title="How many axons and dendrites are entering and exiting human male internal urethral sphincter?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24220" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24204" CreationDate="2019-10-07T08:28:19.877" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I mentioned in the comment that it could be just a memory test, but now, with knowing a bit more of the context (it was an interview to join a bank), it could be a test about how you stick with your first decision and how you are influenced by an &lt;em&gt;obvious suggestion&lt;/em&gt;  to change it because, supposedly, &quot;70% people before you did&quot;, so to &lt;em&gt;change the logic&lt;/em&gt; by which you ordered the cards the first time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was one of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikijob.co.uk/content/aptitude-tests/test-types/aptitude-tests&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;aptitude tests&lt;/a&gt;, probably a variant of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikijob.co.uk/content/aptitude-tests/test-types/situational-judgement-test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;situational judgement test&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-10-07T08:38:02.160" LastActivityDate="2019-10-07T08:38:02.160" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24225" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10000" CreationDate="2019-10-08T09:51:00.253" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fear&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merriam-Webster dictionary&lt;/a&gt; defines fear as &quot;an &lt;strong&gt;unpleasant&lt;/strong&gt; often strong emotion caused by anticipation or awareness of danger.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear is &lt;strong&gt;helpful&lt;/strong&gt; when it helps you to avoid things that are not good for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear is &lt;strong&gt;harmful&lt;/strong&gt; when it stops you doing something what is good for you or someone else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, even when fear is helpful (positive), it is not pleasant, but when you properly react to it, you can experience a pleasant feeling of &lt;a href=&quot;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/satisfaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;satisfaction&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;after your action&lt;/em&gt;; for example, you can feel safe after reacting to fear and running away from a danger or feel peace and joy after doing something despite fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-10-08T13:08:40.437" LastActivityDate="2019-10-08T13:08:40.437" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24229" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="987" CreationDate="2019-10-09T13:35:42.307" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;A highly controversial exploration of consiencesness can be found in &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Penrose, R. (1994). Shadows of the Mind. Oxford University Press, 1st ed. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It argues conscienceness can't be modeled by a turing machine, using Godels theorem and then hypothesizes that quantum mechanic effects in microtubili inside neurons might play an important role in the emergence of conscienceness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have asked 3 neuroscientists and 2 AI-researchers about this perspective, all of them complained about the book and some said conscienceness is the mere result of emergence and that no fancy quantum mechanics is required to explain it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So (based on my survey of 5 scientists), this book does not convey the/any consensus of the field of Neuroscience. Nevertheless I think it is, up to a certain extend, important to consider opposing arguments/perspectives when studying topics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24427" LastActivityDate="2019-10-09T13:35:42.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24230" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24256" CreationDate="2019-10-09T20:29:49.440" Score="1" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen a assertiveness training videos and there is said that the person should show assertiveness with &quot;I&quot; statements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example :&#xA;I feel seed due to the way you just spoke to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My problem is that I see that this can't be used, as in my opinion it is just a manifestation of weakness. If there we split all possible situations in just 3 :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;in family or with love one&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;at work&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;on the street&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only place where this type of place where this type of sentence would not be seen as a weakness is maybe only in first case , so the question is, why is this so ? Am I wrong or the world is wrong ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second example :&#xA;I feel that you don't invest enough of time in keeping the apartment clean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this type of assertive sentence, I see the problem that someone is saying what they feel or what they think but the only way to fix that is that other person do something about it. This one way view of this is also a major brake in using sentence like this one. The second problem is that if somone would use this type of sentence offten, he would be a needy person ? And also here is the same question. Am I wrong or the world is wrong ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24432" LastActivityDate="2019-10-16T20:03:19.467" Title="Assertiveness - should I have feeling that someone need to do something for me" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24231" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24240" CreationDate="2019-10-09T20:49:35.580" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;In APA referencing style, the first in-text citation of a work by three to five authors must include all the authors, while the subsequent citations should only mention the first author followed by the expression &quot;et al.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this apply literally to a long text such a thesis (in my case, 25 pages)? Or is there some kind of reset, say, for each chapter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21788" LastEditorUserId="21788" LastEditDate="2019-10-09T21:13:08.060" LastActivityDate="2019-10-11T03:47:26.390" Title="How to deal with APA in-text citations in long texts?" Tags="&lt;apa-style&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24233" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-10T08:01:43.110" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;Please allow me to introduce the context of the situation first before asking my questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This week I was taking part in a non-violent occupation of a public place (in Paris) within the context of an international movement (you may have heard of it or not). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part of this occupation was blocking a bridge for car traffic, still allowing bicycles and pedestrians to pass.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At one point in time, the authorities decided to completely close one side of the bridge by using thick and high metal fences, no one could pass through any longer - and they were patrolling on the other side of the fence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The event organizers decided to deploy &quot;peace-keepers&quot; on the other side of the bridge (the open one) so that people would be informed that it is really blocked - it was not really visible before almost traversing the bridge completely - and they were given a deviation-possibility and other help - friendly and non-violent!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What did I observe with individuals and couples (very biased of course):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tourists (non-french) were very open and happy to be there, asked what all this is about and so on - no problem for using the deviation, some even participated in the event for some time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Young, &quot;native&quot; people were partially very open, partially they did not want to listen (up to ignoring) to the help and had to learn it the hard way (when facing the fence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ratio of those strongly ignoring any help seem to raise with age and status. From &quot;Don't worry, I'm a lawyer, I will pass&quot; up to getting a hysterical crisis of one individual when realizing that one cannot get through.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wasn't observing a female/male variance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was quite disturbing to us to see so many people ignoring our advice as it was well meant and the situation was not caused by us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any study concerning this kind of behavior? Does it have a name? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally I would like to know what makes people behave in this way. Why are some open, why are some so stubborn? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How much is it depending on the culture of the society?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a method which could help to improve our impact?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24435" LastEditorUserId="24435" LastEditDate="2019-10-11T08:19:16.793" LastActivityDate="2019-10-14T21:18:25.597" Title="How to explain individual ignorance towards people wanting to help?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24235" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-10T13:21:13.047" Score="3" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;The chapter &quot;Risk Policies&quot;, in Kahneman's &quot;Thinking, Fast and Slow&quot;, opens with this example, which makes vivid the pitfalls of relying on our intuitions in choosing between bets:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine that you face the following pair of concurrent decisions. First examine both decisions, then make your choices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Decision (i): Choose between  &#xA;A. sure gain of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$240  &#xA;B. 25% chance to gain $&lt;/span&gt;1,000 and 75% chance to gain nothing&#xA;&#xA;Decision (ii): Choose between  &#xA;C. sure loss of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$750  &#xA;D. 75% chance to lose $&lt;/span&gt;1,000 and 25% chance to lose nothing&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most people, looking at both concurrently, choose A and D. Now consider this second choice:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;AD. 25% chance to win &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$240 and 75% chance to lose $&lt;/span&gt;760 &#xA;BC. 25% chance to win &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$250 and 75% chance to lose $&lt;/span&gt;750&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly, any sane person will choose BC here; it dominates option AD. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, AD is exactly the combination of options A and D, while BC is the combination of B and C.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I cant understand how &lt;code&gt;&quot;sure gain of $240&quot;&lt;/code&gt; option is transformed to &lt;code&gt;&quot;25% chance to win $240&quot;&lt;/code&gt; and why these suggestions are equivalent? Am I missing something? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24439" LastActivityDate="2019-10-10T13:21:13.047" Title="I can't understand the comparison made by Kahneman" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2019-10-13T18:54:21.423" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24236" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-10T14:04:54.940" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/17867/do-violent-videos-and-video-games-affect-your-behaviour&quot;&gt;As per the answer to the 2018 question on this site about the same topic&lt;/a&gt;, we did not know whether there was a causal link between exposure to violent video games and aggressive behavior because the experts were divided and were upholding opposite believes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today, however, my Googling of 'violent video games' mostly reveals news articles about studies from 2019 that are supposed to disprove this purported link. Examples of such articles: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cnbc.com/2019/08/09/no-evidence-that-violent-video-games-are-causing-mass-shootings.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CNBC&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.forbes.com/sites/olliebarder/2019/02/15/new-study-shows-that-there-is-no-link-between-violent-video-games-and-aggression-in-teenagers/#70583a56328e&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Forbes&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/05/health/video-games-violence-explainer/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CNN&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/05/sports/trump-violent-video-games-studies.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The New York Times&lt;/a&gt;. These articles link to such studies and quote experts' opinions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Courtesy of the Oxford Internet Institute and the University of Oxford, this new study was published in Royal Society Open Science and is being touted as being &lt;strong&gt;one of the most comprehensive studies on the subject to date&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As time has gone on, he said, &quot;the evidence has become pretty clear that, where there are correlations, it's probably because of a third factor.&quot; For example, boys have historically been more likely to play video games, and they also happen to be more aggressive than girls on average, Przybylski said.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If I read these articles correctly, they seem to mean that the lack of causal link here is nowadays the dominant opinion among experts&lt;/strong&gt;. CNBC even says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The APA has reiterated for years that there is no connection between violent video games and violent actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;del&gt;Although this statement seems simply untrue: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/about/policy/violent-video-games&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA resolution on Violent Vide Games&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2015/08/violent-video-games&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA Review Confirms Link Between Playing Violent Video Games and Aggression &lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/pi/families/review-video-games.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA task force on violent media&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/del&gt; &lt;strong&gt;My bad: the APA differentiates between violence and aggression; they link violent games to aggression but not violence&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CNN on the other hand explicitly says that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The American Psychological Association has yet to update its policy statement on video games and aggression, and other groups, such as the American Academy of Pediatrics, also warn against violent media. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And they link to &lt;a href=&quot;https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/138/2/e20161298&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this AAP policy statement&lt;/a&gt; which is far more dire than what APA had released, even in spite of the &lt;a href=&quot;http://theconversation.com/its-time-to-end-the-debate-about-video-games-and-violence-91607&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;harsh criticism APA faced for their policy statement&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, importantly, the above APA and AAP statements are from 2015 - 2016 while the news articles I link to are from 2019 - much could have changed within 3 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the lack of new statements released by APA nor AAP that I know of that would either reaffirm or reverse their 2015-16 positions about the subject, I believe it is appropriate if I ask my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;As of 2019, are the experts still divided in the subject, or is the lack of causal link here becoming the dominant opinion among experts?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19207" LastEditorUserId="19207" LastEditDate="2019-10-10T15:21:46.350" LastActivityDate="2019-10-10T15:21:46.350" Title="Do we still not know whether violent video games negatively affect players?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;aggression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24237" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-10T16:57:54.320" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do we have any mechanism for deleting neuronal connections? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, if I learn a better version for doing something, I assume the brain will create a new neuronal connection, and we will use this connection. However, what happens to the old, non-used version? Does it fades away after a while? or is it enough to have a better, stronger connection to have the older version ignored, even if present?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3354" LastActivityDate="2019-11-09T20:02:25.303" Title="Mechanism for deleting old memories" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24238" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24237" CreationDate="2019-10-10T19:48:30.157" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One particular mechanism for reducing synaptic strength is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;long-term depression&lt;/a&gt; (note: this terminology is not related to the mental health term depression). Much like the opposite process that strengthens synapses, certain firing patterns tend to weaken synapses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_scaling&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synaptic scaling&lt;/a&gt; is a homeostatic mechanism by which more excited cells become less excitable over time, including by reducing their response to inputs globally (this is also a particular category of long-term depression). If you keep re-strengthening certain synapses, and then scaling all of them down, the result over multiple iterations is that those synapses that don't get re-strengthened get weaker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3921176/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synaptic homeostasis hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; of sleep suggests that this process occurs during sleep and is a key reason why sleep is important (there are many other theories about sleep, however).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-10-10T20:00:33.993" LastActivityDate="2019-10-10T20:00:33.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24240" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24231" CreationDate="2019-10-11T03:47:26.390" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;APA style is mostly designed for defining manuscript submission rules for journal articles. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you seek to apply these rules to a thesis or book, you inevitably have to apply your own rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The general principle is that in-text citations should unambiguously identify an end of text reference. Thus, whatever principle you adopt should do this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a thesis, I think either approach would be fine. You could use et al across chapters or reset each chapter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, I think that if you have a combined reference list at the end of the book/thesis, then it's fine to not reset after each chapter. In contrast, if each chapter has its own reference section, then it makes sense to reset each chapter. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2019-10-11T03:47:26.390" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24241" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24242" CreationDate="2019-10-11T14:13:19.847" Score="2" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;A foundation of my psychological work is the body. Simply put, I work on a big part with embodiment to diagnose, as well as to intervene and to integrate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One illustration, or rather one important reasoning for embodiment seems to be the so called facial feedback test. I have read about this test over and over again in literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2016, there have been efforts to reproduce this test, and these efforts did fail. See here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/releases/effect-of-facial-expression-on-emotional-state-not-replicated-in-multilab-study.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/releases/effect-of-facial-expression-on-emotional-state-not-replicated-in-multilab-study.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All this is rather new to me, so I don't know how to handle this situation. My intention is to do honest work. I am wondering:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it careless to still cite the facial feedback although it cannot be reproduced? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Or is it only careless to still cite if several studies proved it explicitely wrong?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do I talk to clients about the facial feedback?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Should I simply try it myself and choose to belief what I want?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please note that I am not asking for opinions. My question finally is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As an ethic worker in the field of psychology, how do I handle contradicting study results, based on the example of the facial feedback?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The example of facial feedback implicitely includes a) the contradicting study results and b) the contradiction becomes visible over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24242" LastActivityDate="2019-10-11T14:41:09.293" Title="How do I handle contradicting study results?" Tags="&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;body-language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24242" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24241" CreationDate="2019-10-11T14:41:09.293" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Many individual papers report non-reproducible findings. I would advise you to look for review papers and meta-analysis studies to get the bigger picture. If not available, you can consider to set up a literature study yourself.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/collections/prbfkwmwvz&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nature&lt;/a&gt; puts it down neatly (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Science moves forward by corroboration – when researchers verify others’ results. Science advances faster when people waste less time pursuing false leads. &lt;strong&gt;No research paper can ever be considered to be the final word&lt;/strong&gt;, but there are too many that do not stand up to further study&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently it has appeared that the results of a great many studies cannot be reproduced, leading to what is referred to now as the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Replication crisis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many factors may contribute, chief among those are according to Nature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the increased levels of scrutiny, complexity of experiments and statistics, and pressures on researchers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More reliable resources than individual primary research reports are the so-called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;meta-studies&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, review studies that collects as much information there is and where the authors attempt to synthesize the bigger picture to extract solid conclusions from them, as well as confounding factors explaining why some studies may have drawn less correct conclusions.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2019-10-11T14:41:09.293" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24243" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-11T18:17:05.213" Score="2" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't found a detailed study of this, but here would be an example. If people shared a site that talked about the dangers of global warming, but wasn't peer reviewed, does this increase awareness, or does it actually give more credibility to global warming denial sites, since they are on equal footing, both being non peer reviewed? A global warming denialist argument is that a debate still exists (it doesn't), which has been good enough to cause skepticism and lack of action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know sites generally have incentives to get their articles or videos shared, so they would rather make their own summaries of scientific results, rather than just link to proper references. But pseudoscience sites can also reference peer reviewed sources, they just give their own interpretations of them. But why should anyone believe one site over another, since the standards for credibility are gone (which all of these sites perpetuate, pseudoscience or not)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or is it the case that non peer reviewed sites draw attention to issues in a way peer reviewed sources don't, and while there may be some collateral damage with lowering of standards, people are being swayed by pseudoscience sites either way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the main question is, has sharing non peer reviewed sites caused more damage than good in combating pseudoscience (including this site)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user23575" LastEditorDisplayName="user23575" LastEditDate="2020-01-07T03:41:51.383" LastActivityDate="2020-01-07T03:41:51.383" Title="Has sharing non peer reviewed sources decreased or increased beliefs in pseudoscience?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;pseudoscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24250" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-12T14:52:13.807" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is bolded &quot;less&quot; right? Shouldn't it be more?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, let's suppose we did our cross-sectional study and found that the cholesterol content of adults' diets decreased with age. We would then like to know why this is so. One possible answer is that people change their diets as they get older because they feel more vulnerable to heart disease. So we asked the oldest group, using the retrospective approach, if they feel more vulnerable and eat less high-cholesterol food today than they used to.&#xA;Sure enough, they said yes. But another reason for the current age differences in diet could be that the older adults never ate diets as high in cholesterol as those of the younger adults. So we asked the oldest group to describe the diets they ate 10 or 20 years ago. The diets they described contained &lt;strong&gt;less&lt;/strong&gt; cholesterol than their current diets (which we already knew) and the current diets of the 35- and 45-year-olds in our study! This finding reflects the fact that the older subjects grew up at a different time, when food preferences or availability may have been different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sarafino, E. P., &amp;amp; Smith, T. W. (2014). Health psychology: Biopsychosocial interactions. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18399" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-10-12T18:00:10.247" LastActivityDate="2019-10-12T18:00:10.247" Title="An example from Health Psychology" Tags="&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24252" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-13T11:12:35.783" Score="0" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if the following mental state was possible and if so, if it was documented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept would be not to be conscious for a while, to be in some way in automatic mode. And because of any stimulus, return to a normal state with all the recent memories in mind but the impression that they all happened in a second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The goal is clearly not to have to wait for a given event or to put an unpleasant period of time behind you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24461" LastEditorUserId="24461" LastEditDate="2019-10-13T11:38:21.240" LastActivityDate="2019-10-13T16:58:50.510" Title="How to become a philosophical zombie?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-10-13T19:43:34.893" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24252" CreationDate="2019-10-13T16:58:50.510" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A true philosophical zombie would form the same memories of being conscious that a conscious human would. By definition, a p-zombie is atom-for-atom identical to a real person, and would be impossible to distinguish by any means, even through the memories stored in the zombie's brain! If consciousness was one day imbued into a 30-year-old philosophical zombie, they would not realize that they had previously not been conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a corollary, science could never know if it had successfully produced a p-zombie, because if you gave someone the zombie pill, nothing measurable would change and after it wore off they would not know anything happened. It would be indistinguishable from a placebo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24109" LastActivityDate="2019-10-13T16:58:50.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24256" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24230" CreationDate="2019-10-13T22:05:32.630" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I could understand, you are broadly asking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can I ask for something assertively without seeming demanding or weak?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it ok for me to be demanding and even selfish?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How am I expected to be assertive under different circumstances / environments (e.g work, family, general social interactions etc)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It helps to think of &quot;Assertiveness Training (AT)&quot; as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a way to effectively &lt;strong&gt;communicate with others&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;considering the &lt;strong&gt;rights of all party&lt;/strong&gt; involved in a social interaction, and &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;keeping in mind the &lt;strong&gt;context of the social interaction&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just like a constitution in a democracy gives you certain &quot;rights&quot;, AT also defines some &lt;strong&gt;rights&lt;/strong&gt; that you need to recognize and understand to be assertive in a social situation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These rights are: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Every individual has the right to do anything as long as it does not hurt others.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Everyone has the right to maintain their dignity by being assertive - even if it hurts someone else's feeling.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Everyone has the right to make a request from someone, as long as they recognize that the other person has the rights to say no.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In many interpersonal situations the rights aren't clear. But you always have the right to discuss the problem with the persons involved, to clarify it.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Everyone has the rights to these rights.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Fensterheim Ph.D., Herbert and Jean Baer, (1975). &lt;em&gt;Don't Say Yes When You Want to Say No: Making Life Right When It Feels All Wrong&lt;/em&gt;. RHUS. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(While these are broad guidelines, there are others who have expanded it to be more specific; e.g &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.liveyourtruestory.com/8-assertiveness-rights-which-you-need-to-defend-communication/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mhankyswoh.org/Uploads/files/pdfs/Assertiveness-AssertiveRights_20130813.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; (pdf)).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have all come across people who are &lt;strong&gt;aggressive&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;passive&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the context of AT:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;An &lt;strong&gt;aggressive&lt;/strong&gt; person is someone who doesn't respect the rights of others nor cares for their feelings. Aggression is about dominance. E.g. of this kind of behaviour include yelling at someone, threatening someone or even physical brawls to get your way.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;passive&lt;/strong&gt; person on the other hand is someone who sacrifices their own rights or feelings and often gives into the demands made by someone, irrespective of what they genuinely want to do or how they feel about it. Passivity here is about being submissive. E.g. of this kind of behaviour include doing what everyone asks you to do, trying to be nice to everyone even if you don't feel like it, not standing up for your beliefs etc.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So assertiveness is kind of like trying to navigate another path between being aggressive and passive by being considerate of the feelings / rights of others you are interacting with while also respecting your own feelings / rights too depending on the situation and the person(s) involved. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, an assertive approach is about respect and consideration for self and others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under certain circumstances, deliberately choosing to be aggressive or passive can also be considered being assertive. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another important concept to understand in AT is to understand the situational context of any social interaction. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That means, depending on the situation, context and the person(s) involved, how you communicate also needs to change. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g. When your wife yells at you, you may feel comfortable to yell back at her. But obviously when your boss yells at you, being assertive-passive and choosing to be quite is a better choice at that moment. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, for example, it is not assertiveness if you express your undying attraction and love to a widow at her husband's funeral, however badly you want to, because it is socially not appropriate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So now, let's address your doubts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can I express or ask for something assertively without seeming demanding or weak?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keeping AT concepts in mind, being demanding can be an aggressive behaviour if you are totally disregarding the rights of the other person (i.e. their right to say no to you). So if you are not disregarding the rights of the other person, as per AT you are not being demanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But you also have to consider the situational context. E.g. Sometimes you may choose to be rude with a stranger if they are annoying you or you may even be aggressive with someone if threatened by them. Or you might purposefully choose to obey and be passive when you feel threatened, so as to not endanger your life. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a boss you can make some demands on your employees to do their job better or in a particular way. This may seem like an aggressive behaviour, but can be considered an assertive approach because of the social context - a boss is required to manage his employee, and employees are expected to do their job well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;About appearing weak - AT does not consider expressing your thoughts, wants and feelings as weakness. In fact it actually encourages you to express it clearly, directly and openly. (e.g. &quot;I didn't like that movie&quot;, &quot;I want to go a movie&quot;, &quot;I felt bad when you arrived late for the movie&quot;). Expressing yourself like these isn't a weakness because it helps the other person(s) understand you better, without any room for misunderstanding. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ofcourse, most of the times, it is not assertiveness if you aren't considerate of the other person's rights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it ok for me to be demanding and even selfish?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on the situational context, yes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have the right to say no, even to your close friend, even if they may feel hurt about it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, assertiveness doesn't mean you always have your way. But AT says you should also be considerate to yourself too (you have the same rights as others), and so if you feel someone is making some unjustified demand on you, it is ok to say no even if some may perceive that as selfishness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can be demanding if required so. For example, at work, sometimes you may need to be aggressive to further your career. (Note that the appropriateness of this varies based on a society's culture. For e.g. in US, it may be appropriate for you to go home before your boss, but in Japan or Korea, this may be considered as you being rude to the boss). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;(It is very important to keep in mind that AT is not about always getting your way).&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How am I expected to be assertive under different circumstances / environments (e.g work, family, general social interactions etc)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By balancing your rights vs the rights of the other person(s) in a socially appropriate manner. Sometimes it may be apt to be assertive-passive and sacrifice your rights for the demands made by someone you love. Sometimes it may be apt for you to be assertive-aggressive with a pesky family member. And so on. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24466" LastEditorUserId="24466" LastEditDate="2019-10-16T20:03:19.467" LastActivityDate="2019-10-16T20:03:19.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24257" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24233" CreationDate="2019-10-13T23:42:55.763" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Different personalities at play can partly explain this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An old joke goes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;There are two kinds of people in this world. If there is an electrical fence, and you tell them about it, one will believe you. The other will insist on peeing on the fence to find out the truth.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Individuals prone to anxiety may indeed be less trusting. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trusting someone's word, especially a stranger's, carries uncertainty and uncertainty to an anxious mind causes a lot of mental distress. So anxious people often try to cope with this by trying to regain the feeling of being in control by &quot;doing their own research&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A narcissist personality type may have an unrealistic view of their status in society and thus expect to be treated differently than &quot;normal&quot; folks. Due to their exaggerated sense of importance of their own self, they may feel that regular rules don't apply to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A paranoid personality type would be less trusting of a stranger too, as they sometimes tend to be overly suspicious and distrustful of people. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(These are the few personality types that immediately came to my mind and their underlying way of thinking could explain why these kind of people may have opted to not listen to your group of &quot;peace-keepers&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24466" LastEditorUserId="24466" LastEditDate="2019-10-14T21:18:25.597" LastActivityDate="2019-10-14T21:18:25.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24258" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24202" CreationDate="2019-10-14T00:40:59.787" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“Mixing sleep and study in the same location sends mixed signals to the brain,” Carter wrote in an email. “It does not know which it is supposed to be focusing on. This leads to less effective studying (and) learning, and it makes it harder to fall asleep when you want to.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This may have to do in the context of Pavlovian Conditioning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pahlov found he could trigger a dog's salivating reflex to the ring of a bell by ringing a bell whenever the dog was fed (over a period of time). (McLeod, S. A. (2018, Oct 08). Pavlov's dogs. Simply Psychology. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theory proposed in the article is suggesting something similar: to condition your body to associate the bed with sleeping. So that, just as the sound of a bell makes the dog salivate reflexively, a bed where you regularly sleep in can also make you automatically feel sleepy when you lie down on it and thus help you fall asleep more easily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But this can only happen if sleeping is the only activity that you do on a bed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you do other activities, and your brain find these more stimulating, then the bed can become associated with that feeling / stimulation / action and trigger it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So for example, if you play video games in your bed repeatedly over a period of time, lying on the bed may automatically remind you of video games and get you all stimulated. Obviously a stimulated brain will find it difficult to fall asleep. And you may then go on to do some other activity instead of sleeping, without realising why you couldn't sleep. Over a period of time, this kind of cycle (not being able to sleep and doing something else till you feel sleepy) could develop into a sleep order. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So my question is, can I do these other things on a bed on which I do not sleep in (in another room)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Theoretically, you can. In effect, you can try to condition yourself to associate one environment with your sleeping activity and another for studying. You just have to ensure that the environment has enough differences (maybe use a different mattress on the bed, a bed sheet with a different texture, a bed placed in a different direction, a light source at a very different location etc. etc.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once you've differentiated between the two environments, try to keep both unchanged as it is for a period of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Contrary to what the article says, I just don't want to study on a desk, I find it very hard to focus (eg. in school) because my body position from sitting on a desk is not ideal/comfortable for me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your body is telling you something when it protests (through aches and pains) when you sit for long hours on a desk. It is because you are not taking the right amount of breaks and hydrating and fueling yourself at regular interval. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And make sure your chair and desk are ergonomically designed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, follow the guidelines as in using a computer. And if you use a computer install a software like Workrave (Windows) or TimeOut (Mac) that will force you to take a break regularly. The difference to the body on taking these micro-breaks and short-breaks can really be surprising. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24466" LastEditorUserId="24466" LastEditDate="2019-10-14T21:14:43.030" LastActivityDate="2019-10-14T21:14:43.030" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24259" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-14T05:47:45.787" Score="3" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some are born psychologists and they have passion towards it unlike some people who just work to earn money on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The people who just do the same as work, will they satisfy the people with the care which is the prime importance, and is the real burden of talking to the patients concealed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20025" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-10-14T07:53:37.123" LastActivityDate="2019-10-15T17:49:56.487" Title="Is psychology an art or work?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24260" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21138" CreationDate="2019-10-14T16:11:08.390" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Savant syndrome can be congenital or acquired.[1,2] The acquired savant syndrome can occur in people with stroke, head injury, and even some degenerative diseases (such as dementia) that affect the left fronto-temporal lobe. [1] Transcranial magnetic stimulations of this area, which can cause inhibition in this area, can also elicit these kinds of unusual capacities too, even though only transiently. [3-5] So, there is a theory that the extraordinary skills of savants, such as calculating, memorizing, and performing music, exist latently within us all but are not normally accessible because there is inhibition from some areas, especially the left fronto-temporal lobe. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Snyder and Mitchell (1999) have argued that the extraordinary skills of savants, including mathematics and drawing, are within us all but cannot normally be accessed without some form of brain damage. It has also been argued that such skills can be made accessible to normal people by switching off part of their brain artificially using magnetic pulses (Carter, 1999). Using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to interrupt the function of the frontotemporal lobe, a region of the brain implicated in the development of savant skills (Miller et al., 1996,1998), we tested this hypothesis. Here we show that savant-type skills improved in 5 out of 17 participants during the period of stimulation.[4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, lesions at the left fronto-temporal lobe can cause disinhibition of neural processes in some other areas and enable those areas to function with extraordinary capacities [3,4]; thus, some people can suddenly develop savant syndrome because there is an acute lesion, such as stroke, head trauma, and even transcranial magnetic stimulation, at the left fronto-temporal lobe (or other yet-undiscovered inhibiting areas) thereby releasing the latent savant skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Treffert DA. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2677584/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The savant syndrome: An extraordinary condition. A synopsis: past, present, future.&lt;/a&gt; Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2009 May 27; 364(1522): 1351–1357doi: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0326. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savant_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Savant syndrome.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Snyder A. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2677578/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Explaining and inducing savant skills: Privileged access to lower level, less-processed information.&lt;/a&gt; Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2009 May 27; 364(1522): 1399–1405. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0290. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Young RL, Ridding MC, Morrell TL. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eightstep.me/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/young-2004-skills-by-brain-inhibition.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Switching skills on by turning off part of the brain.&lt;/a&gt; Neurocase. 2004 Jun;10(3):215-22.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Snyder A, Bahramali H, Hawker T, Mitchell DJ. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a4d2/a99d76404cc3564ce6e0c49d43831904450a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Savant-like numerosity skills revealed in normal people by magnetic pulses.&lt;/a&gt; Perception. 2006;35(6):837-45. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-10-14T16:11:08.390" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24261" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24259" CreationDate="2019-10-14T22:18:03.213" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/full/10.1027/1864-9335/a000332&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This social psychology study&lt;/a&gt; found that some lay individuals can accurately infer social psychological phenomena without any background in psychology. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, as in every field, some people maybe more &quot;gifted&quot; and thus better suited to being psychologists than others. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the same time, psychologists too cannot ignore the fact that they too have to make a living. So yes, it is work too, even for the passionate or the naturally gifted. And most psychologist realistically understand that they cannot help everyone, even if they want to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24466" LastActivityDate="2019-10-14T22:18:03.213" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24263" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-15T05:51:13.747" Score="1" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hello I am taking a neurophysiology course and learned about the action potential and that it propagates in one direction from axon hillock down along the axon. &#xA;I understand that action potential is simply the voltage difference caused by influx of Na+ ions causing the inside of the cell relatively more positive&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions is why/how does action potential propagate? &lt;strong&gt;why should it propogate?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If at one site where a sodium channel opens to depolarize, and k+ channel polarize the cell to membrane potential &lt;strong&gt;at that site&lt;/strong&gt;, how does this affect the next neighboring ion channels down the axons to open and close? Why doesn't it just cause an action potential at one section of the membrane and stop? What exactly causes the neighboring ion channels to open continuously as well after the previous one open and closes? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Textbooks just says 'it propagates down the axon' but never mentions why it should and why should the previous ion channel configuration affect the next region of the membrane. I guess this might be a rather dumb question but I hope I did not confuse you, I realize my questions is a bit odd?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24476" LastEditorUserId="24476" LastEditDate="2019-10-15T05:56:39.897" LastActivityDate="2021-03-10T12:04:35.473" Title="what causes an action potential to propagate exactly and why should it propagate?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24264" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24859" CreationDate="2019-10-15T08:31:13.890" Score="2" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have observed some of my mother's sleep-talking and have even attempted to reply / speak to her during such episodes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my experience, I have found sleep-talking to be a part of her dream. In some cases, when she sounded panicky, I have even woken her up partially to rescue her from panic, only to have her drowsily explain that she was dreaming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However this article by Teodora Stoica in the Scientific American (&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/why-do-we-sleep/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/why-do-we-sleep/&lt;/a&gt;) says that sleep-talking happens during NREM sleep and not during REM sleep when dreaming occurs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Onto stage 3 and 4, characterized by delta waves, the slowest and highest amplitude brain waves, the most unlike waking brain waves. Since delta sleep is the deepest sleep, it is the most difficult stage in which to wake sleepers, and when they are awakened, they are usually sleepy and disoriented. Interestingly, delta sleep is when sleep walking and sleep talking is most likely to occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could the experts here please shed some light on sleep-talking and its relation (or lack thereof) to dreaming?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24445" LastEditorUserId="24445" LastEditDate="2020-02-04T07:59:01.843" LastActivityDate="2020-02-04T19:43:41.420" Title="Does sleep-talking typically happen during NREM or REM sleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24265" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-15T12:17:42.957" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I had previously drawn a map of which emotions exists based on this paper: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pnas.org/content/114/38/E7900&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.pnas.org/content/114/38/E7900&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But now that I opened my college textbook 'understanding motivation and emotion' by Johnmarshall Reeve I find that he uses another set of emotions such as anger and contempt (basic emotions) that isn't a part of the above mentioned paper's model. I find in the book's references that his writing is based on papers older than the one I have linked, but the book is of an edition written more recently than the paper. He mentions that he has spent his entire life in the field of emotion and motivation, so are the ones in the paper i linked still debated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the current view on which emotions to exist, as an industry standard and/or are the most accurate, and that I should model my view of human emotions to fit?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vincent-Emil&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24479" LastActivityDate="2019-10-15T12:17:42.957" Title="What is the current view of which emotions exist?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-10-23T14:33:03.977" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24266" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-15T14:03:41.967" Score="2" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://augmentingcognition.com/ltm.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;In his essay Michael Nielsen&lt;/a&gt; talks about his way of learning about new field of study. He's using spaced-repetition to remember things he learned. It seems that he adds a lot of information into his system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example of two questions he adds to his system, after reading one paper is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;What does Jones 2011 claim is the average age at which physics Nobelists made their prizewinning discovery, over 1980-2011?” (Answer: 48)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Which paper claimed that physics Nobelists made their prizewinning discovery at average age 48, over the period 1980-2011?” (Answer: Jones 2011)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any disadvantages from trying to remember so much information? I don't mean the obvious ones like time it takes to create cards / test them.&#xA;I think I read somewhere that there is a tradeoff between memory flexibility and amount of information you can learn but I can't find it now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23948" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-10-15T14:03:41.967" Title="Are there disadvantages to spaced repetition?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;spaced-repetition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24268" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24259" CreationDate="2019-10-15T15:51:01.213" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an interesting question, which may or may not garner more than one useful answer. There will be a small element of opinion in the answer which must be very limited for an answer to be a good one for this site, and therefore I will try and formulate my answer with as little opinion as possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question on whether psychology is an art or work depends much on the differences within your definitions of each.  I will base the difference on the first statement you made:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some are born psychologists and they have passion towards it unlike some people who just work to earn money on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, it is an art if you only need to have a passion for psychology, rather than it being work because you just need to be able to analyse effectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This then leads on to the question of whether you &lt;strong&gt;can&lt;/strong&gt; analyse human psychology effectively if you don't have a passion for it or a high interest in it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@sfxedit cited an interesting study (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000332&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gollwitzer &amp;amp; Bargh, 2018&lt;/a&gt;), which points out that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;some lay individuals can reliably judge established social psychological phenomena without any experience in social psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;with &lt;em&gt;social psychological phenomena&lt;/em&gt; meaning&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;predicting how human beings in general feel, think, and behave in social contexts and situations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can predict how human beings in general feel, think, and behave in social contexts and situations without actually empathising with the people in question.  A problem with that if you work directly with clients is the fact that clients can detect whether the therapist is empathic or not (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143055&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Xiao et al. 2015&lt;/a&gt;) so can those who are only providing therapy for the money going to be that effective?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is open to opinion, so I will leave that for you to decide, however, the founder of Person Centered Therapy (Carl Rogers) believes that one of the core conditions for effective therapy is empathy. Plus, from my own personal experience as a client facing therapist, in order for a strong rapport to be built, you need to be able to empathise with your client's situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We believe that the most useful definition of empathy would emphasize the ability to detect accurately the emotional information being transmitted by another person. This entity has been termed empathic accuracy by others (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.4.730&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ickes et al., 1990&lt;/a&gt;, for a brief review)&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;   — &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.234&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Levenson &amp;amp; Ruef 1992&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my answer to your question depends on the kind of psychologist you are wanting to be.  If you are a Research Psychologist who is not client facing, then all you need is to be able to analyse the data effectively. Whether the effectiveness will depend on your passion for the subject or not is open to opinion, as is whether the work of a non-client-facing Research Psychologist is work or just an art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are a Clinical Psychologist, or other Clinical Therapist who is client facing, you need to be able to empathise.  For this reason, and the fact that empathising in harrowing client situations can be emotionally draining, it is work in the definition and context put forward. There is however, an art involved in effectively dealing with the emotions internalised through empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in summary, Psychology and related fields can be seen as an art or hard work.  The decision on that definition is yours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gollwitzer, A., &amp;amp; Bargh, J. A. (2018). Social psychological skill and its correlates. &lt;em&gt;Social Psychology, 49&lt;/em&gt;(2), 88. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000332&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1027/1864-9335/a000332&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ickes, W., Stinson, L., Bissonnette, V., &amp;amp; Garcia, S. (1990). Naturalistic social cognition: Empathic accuracy in mixed-sex dyads. &lt;em&gt;Journal of personality and social psychology, 59&lt;/em&gt;(4), 730. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.4.730&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-3514.59.4.730&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Levenson, R. W., &amp;amp; Ruef, A. M. (1992). Empathy: a physiological substrate. &lt;em&gt;Journal of personality and social psychology, 63&lt;/em&gt;(2), 234. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.234&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.234&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Xiao, B., Imel, Z. E., Georgiou, P. G., Atkins, D. C., &amp;amp; Narayanan, S. S. (2015). &amp;quot; Rate My Therapist&amp;quot;: Automated Detection of Empathy in Drug and Alcohol Counseling via Speech and Language Processing. &lt;em&gt;PloS one, 10&lt;/em&gt;(12), e0143055. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143055&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1371/journal.pone.0143055&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-10-15T17:49:56.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24270" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24274" CreationDate="2019-10-16T01:44:30.877" Score="1" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Almost like an addiction, similar to the way a pyromaniac feels about fire or burning...  I don't know if there's even a word for this, seeing as it's not a common experience, but if there is, it would probably end with &quot;maniac&quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24487" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-10-17T04:14:19.033" LastActivityDate="2019-10-17T04:14:19.033" Title="Is there a diagnostic term for a person who impulsively keeps secrets?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;compulsive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24271" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-16T03:30:10.030" Score="0" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the best way to overcome: Why facts don't change our minds?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt; &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/02/27/why-facts-dont-change-our-minds&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/02/27/why-facts-dont-change-our-minds&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to get climate change deniers to seriously consider the possibility that they may be incorrect. It is very important that we achieve a sufficient quorum of public support so that we can implement the required changes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have spent hundreds of hours carefully proving that severe anthropogenic (human caused) climate change is a verified fact that does not even depend on expert opinion. The actual raw uninterpreted climate data proves this all by itself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was thinking that this would break through to the remaining 33% climate change skeptics that do not have a financial incentive to lie. What is the expert opinion on changing peoples minds on the basis of irrefutable facts? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When there is a difference of opinion even when one disagrees with an expert it is possible that the expert is incorrect. When one rejects verified facts one is impossibly correct. The former seems to be within the range of normal behavior whereas the latter seem pathological. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24488" LastEditorUserId="24488" LastEditDate="2019-10-17T14:13:05.580" LastActivityDate="2019-10-17T14:13:05.580" Title="What is the best way to overcome: Why facts don't change our minds?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;deception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="13" ClosedDate="2019-10-17T15:03:16.370" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24273" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-16T16:50:36.643" Score="0" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a professional term that describes the problem of someone who has difficulties in fitting in / integrating in a given group, eg: a child in school. Thanks in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24494" LastEditorUserId="24494" LastEditDate="2019-10-19T06:40:01.910" LastActivityDate="2019-10-19T06:40:01.910" Title="Inabilty to integrate" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24274" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24270" CreationDate="2019-10-16T17:36:14.543" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has a list of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_control_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;impulse control disorders&lt;/a&gt; described in the DSM.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As can be seen from the list, many &quot;official&quot; names of impulsive disorders do not end in mania - eg, pathological gambling, sexual compulsion, compulsive buying, and the one most closely related to what is described in the question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathological_lying&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pathological lying&lt;/a&gt;.  And if it doesn't fit in the latter category, then:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Disorders characterized by impulsivity that were not categorized&#xA;  elsewhere in the DSM-IV-TR were also included in the category&#xA;  &quot;Impulse-control disorders not elsewhere classified&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-10-16T17:36:14.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24275" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8145" CreationDate="2019-10-16T20:52:53.473" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;CBT stands for Cognitive &lt;strong&gt;Behaviour&lt;/strong&gt; Therapy (I mention this because in the thrill of learning it, the &quot;B&quot; part is often ignored or forgotten). CBT integrates aspect of both cognitive psychotherapy and &lt;strong&gt;behaviour psychotherapy&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Behaviour psychotherapy was formed earlier and its basic gist (very simply put) is that our behaviours and environment can influence our thoughts and feelings and so changing our behaviour / environment can change how we think and feel. (Knowing the basics of cognitive therapy, which supposes that your thoughts influence your emotions and behaviours, you can understand how it was logical to integrate both to treat someone - and thus we have CBT.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So for the situation you described where the cognitive distortions have all been addressed, and part of the problem still exists or a new one is revealed, it may be helpful to try and address it through behavioural changes. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/patients-and-families/exposure-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;exposure therapy&lt;/a&gt; is a technique in Behaviour therapy that is used to reduce certain kinds of anxiety, and could be helpful here. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As suggested by others in the comments too, for example, a behavioural change he could do is to reveal to people before hand that he has a speech impediment that sometimes causes him to stutter or pause as he searches for words. You can role play this with him. Then ask him to say it to a close friend or family member not aware of it. And then slowly escalate to saying it to a stranger. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or ask him to deliberately pause when speaking with someone and see what their reaction is. (First role play it with him).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes facing your fears this way (in a more controlled manner) reveals new cognitive distortions (examples of which user30295 has described in his detailed answer) that one may not be aware of, and that would need to be addressed using cognitive therapy techniques. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24466" LastEditorUserId="24466" LastEditDate="2019-11-12T06:36:26.550" LastActivityDate="2019-11-12T06:36:26.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24277" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-17T01:54:44.227" Score="0" ViewCount="192" Body="&lt;p&gt;It comes in many forms: exhibitionism, voyeurism, public sex, rape, incest, to name a few. Any johnny with a John Thomas and internet has noticed how prevalent the incest premise has become on porn sites. But why is taboo sex appealing? How does it tickle one's fancy? Is it evolutionary?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3577" LastActivityDate="2019-10-17T15:26:36.757" Title="Why is taboo erotic?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24279" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24263" CreationDate="2019-10-17T10:08:34.527" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a sodium (Na) channel is stimulated by a strong-enough stimulus (such as from an electrical stimulus or from an incoming action potential), it will open and let a lot of Na+ ions influx rapidly into the cell at that channel, creating an action potential there. The locally high concentration of Na+ ion inside the cell at that channel will cause Na+ ions there to spread around immediately. This will cause depolarization and openings of the nearby Na channels, resulting in new actions potentials occurring at the nearby channels. This whole process will repeat itself again at these channels, causing more new action potentials to spread out further. In each cycle of an action potential, the potassium channel opens after the sodium channel does about 1 msec. Although the opening of the potassium channel causes repolarization,  it doesn’t have any effects on the concentration of Na+ ion and does not stop the spreading out of the Na+ ions. Therefore, an action potential inevitably spreads out and out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aqduP.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/aqduP.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the axon is stimulated at its trunk, the action potential will spread out both ways, up and down the axon. Figure 3.1 A shows a schematic diagram of an axon and the charge distribution along the membrane of that axon. More positive charges exist on the outside of the axon, and more negative charges on the inside. Now consider the consequences of delivering some stimulus to a point in the middle of the axon, Figure 3.1 B. If the depolarization is sufficiently large, voltage-dependent sodium channels will be opened, and an action potential will be initiated, and the sodium ion (Na+) will influx into the cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The influx positive charges Na+ will spread to the adjacent regions of the membrane. As the charges move to the adjacent regions of the membrane, the adjacent regions of the membrane will depolarize. If they depolarize sufficiently, voltage-dependent sodium channels in the adjacent regions of the membrane will be opened and &amp;quot;new&amp;quot; action potentials will be initiated, Figure 3.1 C. This perturbance of charge distribution will then spread to the next regions and initiates other &amp;quot;new&amp;quot; action potentials, Figure 3.1 D to 3.1 F.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[The above text and the figure are adapted from Reference 1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xZOMk.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xZOMk.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if the action potential spreads down from the axon hillock (which is located to the left side of the axon and is not shown in the picture) as in Figure 3.12 above, it will spread only one way to the distal end of the axon [inset 2, 3, and 5] because the previously depolarized channels will still be inactive (or in refractory period) for a while after the action potential ends [inset 4].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[The above text and the figure are adapted from Reference 2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Byrne JH. &lt;a href=&quot;https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s1/chapter03.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 3: Propagation of the Action Potential. Neuroscience Online.&lt;/a&gt; The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth). McGovern Medical School.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Augustine GJ. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hse.ru/data/2011/06/22/1215686482/Neuroscience.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chpater 3. Voltage-dependent membrane permeability.&lt;/a&gt; In: Purves D, Augustine GJ, David Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, Lamantia AS,‎ McNamara JO, Williams SM, editors. Neuroscience. 3rd ed. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates Inc; 2004. ISBN-13: 9780878937257 ISBN-10: 0878937250.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-10-17T10:08:34.527" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24282" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-18T03:46:22.287" Score="0" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of my close friends is having a behavioural or perosnality change. He used to be polite and civil but these days (since about 10 months) he is very aggresive and mean. He has been recently diagnosed with hypothyroidism and is on medication currently. I do not know if thyroid disorder is causing this or not. We used to discuss a lot of things. We loved to discuss a lot of things. We never had problems. We both were open minded. But nowadays, he ,especially in discussions, is very aggresive. Even if presented with facts or his own previous assertions he become very agitated. He tries to put the blame on others. What is more shocking is that he accepts the evidence and says the evidence supports him even though it contradicts him. This is not a one-time incident. It is happening everytime. We are so exhausted. There is no way for us to compromise either. He comes up with different line of arguments. Even if we decide not to argue on a particular stuff he accepts and immediately comes up with arguments. Literally, anything becomes an argument aggresively. If I make a remark like, &quot;there is too much traffic today&quot;, then he immediately picks up and yells at me. He asks, what do you think is a city? don't you know there are traffic jams? Don't be the frog on well. Don't you learn anything ever in your life? Did you ever stepped out of your home? If I apologize. He would accept and again after few minutes or later the same day will send statistics on traffic jams in city and reignite the arguments. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He was not so back then. Is it a problem? Does he need a clinical evaluation? Can anyone guess what is the probelme if any?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24506" LastActivityDate="2019-10-18T03:46:22.287" Title="What could be the cause of behavioural or personality change?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24283" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-18T07:42:54.643" Score="2" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am going to purchase an EEG and conduct a series of studies for my MA work. Unfortunately, I come from an undeveloped country so I never had a chance to learn how to use it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a few questions, please, explain to me like I am five:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the cheapest / best options for a beginner such as myself to start with?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Will I need any other devices/accessories except the EEG machine and a computer? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What's the best software to store the data and analyze it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there any good how-to books that cover all the important details and nuances that I will require to educate myself?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18242" LastActivityDate="2019-10-18T07:42:54.643" Title="Purchasing and Using Encephalogram (EEG)" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24284" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24194" CreationDate="2019-10-18T13:07:25.103" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;General anesthesia is a drug-induced reversible state defined by five end points:&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Unconsciousness&lt;/strong&gt;, lack of awareness of sensory input&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Analgesia&lt;/strong&gt;, lack of pain&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Akinesia&lt;/strong&gt;, lack of movement&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Amnesia&lt;/strong&gt;, lack of recall&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Physiological stability&lt;/strong&gt;, the preservation of normal levels of all vital physiological functions, such as respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and temperature&#xA;E.N. Brown et al., “General anesthesia, sleep and coma,” New Engl J Med, 363:2638–50, 2010.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some anesthetics, such as ketamine, which was synthesized in 1962, and nitrous oxide block the channel of the N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor. Normally activated by the neurotransmitter glutamate released from excitatory neurons, the NMDA receptor allows the flow of potassium ions out of the cell and allows calcium and sodium ions in, increasing the relative voltage of the neuron’s interior and thereby increasing the probability of firing an action potential. Anesthetic drugs that target this receptor act as antagonists to block these ions fluxes, decreasing the ability of the cell to fire. This then produces an anesthetic-induced oscillation, which alters when neurons can spike, and impede commu­nication between brain regions that play a role in consciousness. Research (done with an fMRI) suggests that all the regions of the brain relevant to the maintenance of anesthesia are already affected at 0.5–0.7 MAC. This would therefore mean that anesthesia, while it does &quot;put you to sleep,&quot; your body is more in an in-between stage, where you are alive, but in a comatose state. During sleep, a body still moves, and can still remember things, such as dreams. However, whilst under the anesthesia, neither of these actions occur. Hope this helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24509" LastActivityDate="2019-10-18T13:07:25.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24285" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-18T13:26:22.810" Score="0" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know PTSD can occur with many people. But does age influence whether or not you can get over it? For example, someone who was a vet in Vietnam compared to someone who went through a robbery as a kid. Which one would be more likely to recover from their PTSD?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24509" LastActivityDate="2019-10-18T13:26:22.810" Title="So, stress (specifically PTSD) can be caused while you're young or older. But is it less likely to go away as you get older?" Tags="&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24286" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24194" CreationDate="2019-10-18T16:03:17.033" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;General anesthesia is a reversible drug-induced neurophysiological state comprised of unconsciousness, amnesia, analgesia, and immobility with maintenance of physiological stability. How anesthetic drugs create the state of general anesthesia is still not completely understood, but general anesthesia is essential for the safe and humane conduct of surgical and invasive diagnostic procedures.[1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The goals of general anesthesia include amnesia, analgesia, unconsciousness, and immobilization. The ability of general anesthetics to produce these distinct therapeutic endpoints is not equal. For example, explicit memory is the most sensitive target of inhaled general anesthetics; consciousness (assessed by appropriate response to spoken commands) is preserved in the absence of memory during exposure to low doses; and unconsciousness is produced by lower concentrations of most general anesthetics than those that ablate movement in response to noxious stimuli. [2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;General anesthetics consist of many different drugs. [2,3] These different drugs display distinct relative potencies in their ability to produce different components of general anesthesia. For example, the ratio of the drug concentration producing immobility during incision to that producing unconsciousness is 1.5 for nitrous oxide, about 3 for most of the inhaled halogenated ether, and over 4 for the intravenous anesthetic propofol. They also have different effects on EEG during anesthesia. Thus, clinically, general anesthetics can be classified into 3 groups based on their relative potencies for different clinical endpoints and their impact on EEG:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Group 1&lt;/strong&gt; consists of etomidate, propofol, methoxital, and barbiturates. These are intravenous drugs that are much more potent at producing unconsciousness than immobilization and shift cortical EEG toward lower frequencies. Their effects are mediated mainly by a subset of γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA-A) receptors, which, when activated, reduce neuronal excitation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Group 2&lt;/strong&gt; includes the gaseous anesthetics nitrous oxide (N2O), xenon (Xe) and cyclopropane, along with an intravenous agent, ketamine. Clinically, these drugs produce significant analgesia, while their potency as hypnotics and immobilizers are relatively weak, and they may increase cortical EEG frequencies. Anesthetic agents in this group have little or no effect on GABA-A receptors, but they instead potently inhibit N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, which are excitatory cation channels activated by the amino acid glutamate. In addition, agents in this group also inhibit α4β2 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which modulate synaptic release of neurotransmitters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Group 3&lt;/strong&gt; consists of the volatile halogenated anesthetics: halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, sevoflurane, and desflurane. These drugs induce amnesia, hypnosis, and immobility in a predictable manner and reduce the spectral edge frequency of cortical EEG. General anesthetics in this group lack significant selectivity for general anesthetic target molecules. They enhance the function of inhibitory GABA-A and glycine receptors while also activating 2P potassium channels and inhibiting excitatory glutamate receptors and a variety of excitatory cation channels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Group 1 and Group 3 drugs that act by enhancing GABA-A receptor activity in various neural circuits appear to impair both unconscious and conscious processing, including associative cortex and synchronous integration among multiple cortical areas. Cortical EEG activity shifts toward lower frequencies in the presence of these drugs, and large doses can lead to the total loss of coordinated neural activity (iso-electric EEG). On the other hand, Group 2 drugs such as ketamine and nitrous oxide appear to act by impairing signal filtration to the consciousness, perhaps altering the amounts or intensities of sensory inputs, or by allowing leakage of unconscious signals into conscious processing. This lack of filtering “jams” or overwhelms the consciousness with signals, leading to a “dissociative” state, frequently associated with reports of vivid dreamlike experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, while being under general anesthesia, the brain is still functioning, but it is functioning differently from when it is awake or sleeping. [4] Neural circuits that are responsible for consciousness, sensation perception, memory, and motor are not functioning as they do when being awake or sleeping. For different general anesthetics, different effects on neruotransmitter receptors and neural circuits are different; thus, various neural circuits in the different areas of the brain are affected differently, and the whole brain will function in different unconscious states even though, outwardly, the anesthetic patients appear to be in similar unconscious states. Also, for different dosages of the same anesthetics, overall neural circuits are affected differently, and the brain in different anesthetic stages will function differently too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;N.B. The above is a simplified answer about the complex actions of general anesthetics. More details can be found in the following references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Akeju O, Brown EN. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5520989/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural oscillations demonstrate that general anesthesia and sedative states are neurophysiologically distinct from sleep.&lt;/a&gt; Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2017 Jun; 44: 178–185.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Forman SA, Chin VA. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3674880/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;General Anesthetics and Molecular Mechanisms of Unconsciousness.&lt;/a&gt; Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2008 Summer; 46(3): 43–53.doi: 10.1097/AIA.0b013e3181755da5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brown EN, Purdon PL, Van Dort CJ. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3390788/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;General Anesthesia and Altered States of Arousal: A Systems Neuroscience Analysis.&lt;/a&gt; Annu Rev Neurosci. 2011; 34: 601–628.doi: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-060909-153200&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Müller CP, Pum ME, Amato D, Schüttler J, Huston JP, Silva MA.&lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07445.x&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The in vivo neurochemistry of the brain during general anesthesia.&lt;/a&gt; J. Neurochem. (2011) 119, 419–446. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07445.x&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07445.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-10-18T16:03:17.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24290" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-22T05:04:18.890" Score="3" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm applying for Master's in Computer Science programs with the goal of gaining research experience and moving into the field of Cognitive Science to one day get my PhD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find labs and professors right now that conduct computational cognitive science research, my interests right now are pretty broad, but I'm looking in general for Artificial Intelligence related research that leverages insights from psychology and neurology in order to develop more efficient algorithms.  My interests are also pretty broad in the field of Computational Cognitive science because its really important to me right now to make sure I find a good advisor/ professor to work under while I develop what my more specific interests are.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone give me some names of labs or professors to look into?  Or where would be good places to look for such labs?  Its really overwhelming because many of these labs that I've found (for example, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://womenincocosci.com/cocosci.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this site)&lt;/a&gt; seem to be in departments such as Psychology and Neuroscience, I'm not sure if I should just be looking for labs that fall under the Computer Science department since that is what I will be under, also I noticed a lot of the labs have mostly Psych or Neuro students as well as opposed to CS, not sure if that means that lab doesn't tend to accept CS students?  I was wondering if anyone can give me advice about how to best find research labs that fit this interdisciplinary theme that would accept computer science students to work under?  Just looking for some guidance if any former or current graduate students who came from a Computer Science background about which labs offer Computational Cognitive Science focused themes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks so much! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;tldr; Need computational cognitive science labs/ professors/ resources for a prospective Master's student with a Computer Science background looking to move more into Cognitive science.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24525" LastActivityDate="2020-06-20T22:31:58.350" Title="How do I find Computer Science-Focused Cognitive Science Labs for Research?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;collaboration&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24292" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-22T09:59:26.267" Score="2" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been diagnosed with major depressive disorder, commonly known as depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some days ago I had a discussion with my therapist about whether or not depression is part of the person I am. She says that indeed it is and that I should accept it as a part of my being. I should not fight it, but rather accept it. I should not see it as a &quot;demon&quot; trying to mess with my life, but rather as a part of me asking for attention, rising from the dark depths of my mind where I try to bury it. It is a helpess child, my own inner child, crying and asking for help for only apparently no reason, and I should not &quot;beat it up&quot; and yell at it to &quot;go back into its room&quot;, but rather ask what's wrong and cuddle it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I disagree, as I think that I &lt;em&gt;have&lt;/em&gt; depression, but I &lt;em&gt;am not&lt;/em&gt; my depression. I'm &lt;em&gt;suffering from&lt;/em&gt; a depressive episode, but I &lt;em&gt;am not&lt;/em&gt; a depressed person, as I am a completely different human being when I'm not going through an episode. I &lt;em&gt;have&lt;/em&gt; an illness, I &lt;em&gt;am not&lt;/em&gt; my illness. I might come to terms with the fact that I indeed have depression and that I have to deal with it, but this doesn't mean accepting it as a part of me. I fight it as I fight a flu or a cold. I accept the fact that I have come into contact with the virus, I can't be mad for that, I can't just willingly remove it from my body simply because I don't want it, but that illness is not a &lt;em&gt;part&lt;/em&gt; of me, though it affects my everyday life and forces me to feel and act in ways I'd rather not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might ask to clarify what I mean with &quot;part of who a person is&quot;, so let me try to explain further: is depression part of someone's personality, consciousness, temper, character? Or is it, as a disease, a negative and abnormal &lt;em&gt;influence&lt;/em&gt; on someone's regular and healthy behavior? Am I someone who tends to be negative, irritable, hopeless, unexplainably sad and tired, self-loathing, apathetic, suicidal, because that's who I &lt;strong&gt;am&lt;/strong&gt;, or do I &lt;strong&gt;suffer from&lt;/strong&gt; such symptoms of my illness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24527" LastEditorUserId="24527" LastEditDate="2019-10-22T20:07:48.743" LastActivityDate="2019-10-22T20:07:48.743" Title="Is depression part of who a person is?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2019-10-23T13:41:28.870" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24294" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24292" CreationDate="2019-10-22T14:39:08.650" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Depression can be defined as &quot;a state of feeling sad&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merriam-Webster&lt;/a&gt;), which is an &lt;strong&gt;emotion&lt;/strong&gt; or a &lt;strong&gt;feeling in the heart.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depression can develop as a &lt;strong&gt;reaction&lt;/strong&gt; to a thought, demand, event or word someone said to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may have a certain &quot;character&quot; or &quot;temper&quot; that makes you vulnerable for things that hurt you and make you sad. So, it is correct to say that you are not depressed as a person but you may be prone to become depressed when something hits you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depression is a feeling and not a disease and it usually does not come from an underlying disease, but from the conflicts in your thoughts, attitudes, believes and relationships - which you can accept or change, as appropriate. Depression can make you stop functioning, which you can call a disease, but depression on its own is not already a disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-10-22T16:02:15.627" LastActivityDate="2019-10-22T16:02:15.627" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24296" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-22T15:40:00.133" Score="2" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to figure out how subjective well-being is operationalized in relation to a systematic review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some authors seems to include CES-D scales when reviewing well-being, categorizing it as &quot;negative affect&quot;. Others include quality of life scales, which measures other non-subjective factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What scales best operationalize SWB and should QoL-scales be included?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24530" LastActivityDate="2019-10-22T15:40:00.133" Title="Should Quality of Life-scales (QoL) be included when measuring subjective well-being (SWB)?" Tags="&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24297" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="7804" CreationDate="2019-10-22T16:25:59.033" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This really depends on the circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Remember(!)&quot; may sound like a command and a lot of people, especially adults, may feel being patronized by it. It can work well when teachers or parents talk to children, for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Don't forget&quot; may also sound quite patronizing, but in a conversation with a person you have a friendly relationship, it can sound like a recommendation. You could also say &quot;Let me remind you...&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-10-22T17:56:37.883" LastActivityDate="2019-10-22T17:56:37.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24298" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-23T01:27:17.977" Score="4" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that &lt;strong&gt;multistable perception&lt;/strong&gt; refers to the phenomenon that occurs when we look at an ambiguous image like a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necker_cube&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Necker Cube&lt;/a&gt; or some sort of &lt;a href=&quot;https://image.slidesharecdn.com/intro2b-141112112823-conversion-gate01/95/positive-negative-space-and-3d-1-638.jpg?cb=1415791789&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive/negative space art&lt;/a&gt;, and we can’t perceive both possibilities at once, but rather waver between them repeatedly. However, all of the visual examples I’ve seen of this phenomenon only have two possible interpretations (of course, putting two Necker Cubes next to each other leads to &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$4$&lt;/span&gt; possible interpretations, and three Necker Cubes gives &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$8$&lt;/span&gt; interpretations, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, does anyone know of a well-known ambiguous image or piece of art with exactly &lt;em&gt;three&lt;/em&gt; different interpretations between which the viewer switches back and forth? If not, can anyone construct such an image?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24533" LastActivityDate="2019-10-23T15:21:51.487" Title="Multistable perception with three possibilities" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24299" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-23T03:11:28.027" Score="1" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.kmel-journal.org/ojs/index.php/online-publication/article/viewFile/267/267&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cañas, A. J., Novak, J. D., &amp;amp; Reiska, P. (2015). How good is my concept map? Am I a good Cmapper?. Knowledge Management &amp;amp; E-Learning: An International Journal, 7(1), 6-19.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper was published in 2015 by the inventors of Concept mapping. In this paper, they have listed 7 Criteria for good concept maps. One of these criteria is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Concept labels in maps should be only one or a few words labeling a specific&#xA;  concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the rationale for this criterion? Is there any empirical study on it? I'd appreciate it if you inform me of studies that have tested or explained why nodes should be small.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11686" LastEditorUserId="11686" LastEditDate="2019-10-23T03:23:36.627" LastActivityDate="2019-10-23T03:23:36.627" Title="Why should nodes be small in a concept map?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;assimilation-theory&gt;&lt;meaningful-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24300" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-23T09:05:57.493" Score="0" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you dream of experiencing some behaviour involving positive punishment, can this behaviour reinforce itself in real life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3848" LastEditorUserId="3848" LastEditDate="2019-10-23T13:37:39.103" LastActivityDate="2019-10-23T13:37:39.103" Title="Can positive punishment occur when dreaming?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24301" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-23T12:25:47.507" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Please let us know any studies that compare features of concept mapping with outlining. Many studies have reported both outlining and concept mapping helpful for learning and assessment, but they looked at them as black-boxes. On one hand, although outlining has been around for longer, there are significantly more studies that indicate the effectiveness of concept mapping for learning and assessment. On the other hand, outlining is more widely used among students and researchers. Then, what are the features that differentiate them? Are there specific features that are helpful for some applications but not others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is what we already know:&#xA;Miyatsu et al. [1] define the following procedure for outlining:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Read the entirety of the original passage.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Keep in mind how the author structures ideas.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Identify main ideas.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Structure main ideas in the outline.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Use outline as a cue to retrieve information.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These steps are very similar to the procedure advised by Novak and Cañas [2, 3] about designing a good concept map. Especially, steps three and four in the outlining procedure correspond to the progressive differentiation and integrative reconciliation processes defined in Ausubel's Assimilation theory [4], which are the foundation of the concept mapping.&#xA;Mayer [5] found outlines as &quot;advance organizers&quot; helpful to facilitate &quot;bridging,&quot; i.e., the thinking process one goes through to connect the new knowledge with what they already know [1]. This thinking process results in meaningful learning that is shown to be improved through concept mapping [2]. Lehman et al. [6] compared outlining with concept mapping, but found no significant differences between their uses, although results were leaning towards greater improvements with the mapping condition. Also, Bui and McDaniel [7] compared the use of skeletal outlines to illustrative diagrams in improving free recall and short-answer questions; while both conditions were significantly effective for free recall compared to a control, those using illustrative diagrams had performed significantly better than students using skeletal outlines, particularly for low-ability learners. Therefore, free recall may not depend on how students organize or visualize information, but it does effectively change improvements in short answer questions. Kiewra [8] compared using matrices against outlining on comparative information, with the former having visual properties that allow users to create relationships between different categories of information that the latter often overlooks. Hansell [9] suggested the use of &quot;post organizers&quot; or &quot;arrays,&quot; which use a combination of &quot;words, lines, and arrows,&quot; similar to that of concept maps. This was shown to have significantly improved the ability for students to outline as it focuses on &quot;identifying relevant ideas and fitting these into a meaningful pattern.&quot; As a result, the visualization of information may have played a large role in enabling students to process information to a deeper level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1- Miyatsu, T., Nguyen, K., &amp;amp; McDaniel, M. A. (2018). Five popular study strategies: their pitfalls and optimal implementations. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(3), 390-407.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2- Novak, J. D., &amp;amp; Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them. Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, 2008.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3- Cañas, A. J., Novak, J. D., &amp;amp; Reiska, P. (2015). How good is my concept map? Am I a good Cmapper?. Knowledge Management &amp;amp; E-Learning: An International Journal, 7(1), 6-19.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4- Ausubel, D. G. (1963). Cognitive Structure and the Facilitation of Meaningful Verbal Learning1. Journal of teacher education, 14(2), 217-222.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5- Mayer, R. E. (2008). Applying the science of learning: Evidence-based principles for the design of multimedia instruction. American psychologist, 63(8), 760.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;6- Lehman, J. D., Carter, C., &amp;amp; Kahle, J. B. (1985). Concept mapping, vee mapping, and achievement: Results of a field study with black high school students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 22(7), 663-673.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;7- Bui, D. C., &amp;amp; McDaniel, M. A. (2015). Enhancing learning during lecture note-&#xA;taking using outlines and illustrative diagrams. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 4(2), 129-135.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;8- Kiewra, K. A. (2002). How classroom teachers can help students learn and teach them how to learn. Theory into practice, 41(2), 71-80.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;9- Hansell, T. S. (1978). Stepping up to outlining. Journal of Reading, 22(3), 248-252.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11686" LastActivityDate="2019-10-23T12:25:47.507" Title="Which features of concept mapping are more helpful than outlining, or vice versa? and why?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;assimilation-theory&gt;&lt;meaningful-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24303" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24298" CreationDate="2019-10-23T13:27:05.863" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here’s an image I found that triggers &lt;strong&gt;tristable perception&lt;/strong&gt; (as opposed to just bistable perception):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cA4mR.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cA4mR.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Tristable Cubes&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The three possible interpretations are&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A big cube with a smaller cube in front of it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A big cube with a small cubical chunk missing&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A room with a small cube sitting in the corner&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Apparently there is a fourth possible interpretation, but it is so “unlikely” that we can’t visualize it very readily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This comes from a paper called &lt;a href=&quot;https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2193817&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The dynamics of perceptual rivalry in bistable and tristable perception.”&lt;/a&gt; Can anyone find any more examples?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24533" LastEditorUserId="24533" LastEditDate="2019-10-23T15:21:51.487" LastActivityDate="2019-10-23T15:21:51.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24306" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-23T16:30:52.487" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I've been delving into &quot;memory techniques&quot; and people who compete in memory competitions(memorizing and reciting a poem in a small amount of time, memorizing a deck of cards, memorizing pi, etc). I've read books written by competitors as well as blogs in the community and have up with this list of techniques that are generally accepted as used in a competitive setting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Memory Palace: You allocate what you're trying to memorize into a visualization of a place you are familiar with&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pegging: You link one piece of information to another by getting an association even if the two subjects are not related(memorizing your grocery list by remembering your first item in the list is &quot;pickle&quot; and that rhymes with &quot;sickle&quot; which is used to cut grain so you deduce the 2nd item is &quot;rice&quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Projecting: A method used by some to memorize poems or story is to place themselves in it and see it firsthand in their mind&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are just a couple examples to prove a theory. My theory is all memory techniques are just spreading new knowledge across many neurons. In theory our brain works by when a neuron fires off, adjacent neurons fire off and we remember something. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my theory is that all memory techniques just exploit this by embedding new knowledge into a breadth of neurons. Any thoughts or opinions on this? What makes a good &quot;memory strategy&quot; that is supported by what we know about the human brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23697" LastActivityDate="2019-10-23T16:30:52.487" Title="Common latent feature among all &quot;memory techniques&quot;" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24307" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-23T17:58:13.497" Score="-1" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, not all human beings are materialistic. I strongly believe that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We tend to not be happy with what we have but what we want. We desire for more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a saying that says that the other side of the lawn is greener.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are inclined to compare ourselves with other human beings. Sometimes I have seen humans become so envious and jealous that they become their only barrier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we behave like so? We know that we can never be like them. Still, we want to have that kind of car, that kind of house and the list goes on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not only that. I have detected a feeling among humans titled &lt;strong&gt;A feeling of deprivation and replenishment&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today we have an $80 Nokia Lumia 630 cellphone. Tomorrow we will see a commercial on an android phone. Little more expensive. Still, we want that. Then the market introduces the next-gen iPhone. We want that too. Then an iPad. Then iMac. Then iDesktop. Then dual-processor Xeon 21 cores the best desktop. Still, something will be missing tomorrow as soon we see the commercial of the next-generation TV with THX certified 8.5 channel Dolby Digital surround sound speakers and subwoofers. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does the human brain act this way? Is it right or appropriate to act this way? Is our human brain programmed for materialism and as soon as it perceives that object with its five senses and even though we don't need it we want it anyway? Why doesn't our sixth sense kick in and say hey enough already? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have also seen in certain conditions and circumstances the sixth sense of homo sapiens automatically kicks in psychologically and it happens to support the lost or damaged senses. For example, when a visually impaired person is walking on the streets, right at that moment they can feel their sixth sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question are we materialistic by nature and why doesn't our brain have some sort of protection mechanism to protect us from that instinct? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19969" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2019-10-23T18:21:52.453" LastActivityDate="2019-10-26T19:48:44.717" Title="Are our human brains programmed as materialistic as one can be?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24310" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-24T00:14:05.697" Score="0" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a study in which there are 2 groups: control vs drug. All individuals were assessed at 4 different developmental time points and I ran 5 tests at each time point. My goal is to see how the drug impacted their overall performance throughout development (i.e. how the drug affects development). I can't seem to figure out which type of test this would be. I believe it would be a repeated measures style of ANOVA, but I can't determine what it would be specifically. If anyone could give their input, I would really appreciate it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24540" LastActivityDate="2019-10-24T00:14:05.697" Title="What type of statistics test would I run for 2 different treatments assessed using 5 measurements at 4 different time points?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24311" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-24T11:58:21.183" Score="0" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have music to shape and color synesthesia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synesthesia_research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;From Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, I gather that from about 1900 to 2000 psychology research did not see synesthesia as worth studying:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Due to the difficulties in assessing and measuring subjective internal experiences, and the rise of behaviorism in psychology, which banished any mention of internal experiences, the study of synesthesia gradually waned during the 1930s. Marks[7] lists 44 papers discussing colored hearing from 1900 to 1940, while in the following 35 years from 1940 to 1975, only 12 papers were published on this topic. Cretien van Campen graphed the number of publications in the period 1780 - 2000 and noticed a revival of synesthesia studies from the 1980s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why was that the case?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23526" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-10-24T16:12:51.203" LastActivityDate="2019-10-24T16:12:51.203" Title="Why was Synesthesia ignored by psychology researchers for about 100 years?" Tags="&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24314" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24317" CreationDate="2019-10-24T21:48:30.750" Score="3" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for the phenomenon of arguing with other people in one's mind?&#xA;I don't mean simply replaying memories of arguments (or modifications thereof), although that may fall under this too but also predicting arguments and debating people preemptively in one's imagination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24550" LastActivityDate="2019-10-27T13:46:21.483" Title="Is there a name for arguing with other people in one's mind?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24315" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-25T10:02:26.420" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been getting classes on psychology of the motivation and my intructor mentioned about McClelland's theory of needs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki entry on the subject&lt;/a&gt; is somewhat clear about it. It doesn't mention about the necessity of determination neither the necessity of competence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my class my intructor attributed this to McClelland to which &lt;em&gt;him&lt;/em&gt; defined those as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Necessity of determination:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tendency of to feel protagonist of your his or her own destiny.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Necessity of competence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tendency of a person to measure one's own performance with that of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure where did my professor got those or if McClelland ever mentioned those in his theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps someone with experience in this field can offer some guidance on what's difference between them and how does exactly apply to a person's motivation?. Does it exist a hierarchy here as with Maslow's?.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24555" LastActivityDate="2019-10-25T10:02:26.420" Title="Did McClelland ever mentioned about two aditional needs in motivation?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24316" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17778" CreationDate="2019-10-25T10:32:24.273" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The functions estimate the parameters of the distribution. If I understand you correctly, you want to make individual predictions - these require a predictor variable in the sense of a regression model. (sorry for the late response, I just stumbled across the question)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24557" LastActivityDate="2019-10-25T10:32:24.273" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24314" CreationDate="2019-10-25T15:11:02.963" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not aware of a term specifically for this phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having a conversation in one's head has been termed dialogic inner speech by &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/11/1/110/2375153&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;several researchers&lt;/a&gt;.  You didn't mention if the people you are arguing with reply back - if they don't, then it's just regular (monologic) inner speech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One common function of inner speech is &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Internal_monologue&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;sometimes referred to&lt;/a&gt; as speech rehearsal - ie, where one might practice a monologue or dialogue (eg, debate) in their mind ahead of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a more pathological context, repeatedly looping through a conversation in one's head can be a form of rumination, and simulating a future argument could be considered &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumination_(psychology)#Types_and_content_of_thoughts&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;action rumination&lt;/a&gt; if it is a reaction to a recently failed argument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-10-25T15:11:02.963" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24318" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24339" CreationDate="2019-10-25T15:41:47.707" Score="5" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking to find studies that examine when STEM education is most critical (e.g. what years of early STEM education have a significant impact on college/uni-level students, as measured by their IQs/GPAs/SATs or any combination thereof), and what demographics (age and/or sex) of students become disengaged from STEM education. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Results of STEM education at the pre-K and kindergarten level are of acute interest. Preferably the latest peer-reviewed studies, from North American universities of good repute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A jumping-off point perhaps: &lt;a href=&quot;http://joanganzcooneycenter.org/publication/stem-starts-early/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;STEM Starts Early: Grounding Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math Education in Early Childhood&lt;/a&gt;, and &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/nov2017/STEM-learners&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;More Than a Foundation: Young Children Are Capable STEM Learners&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19962" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-11-01T17:31:04.547" LastActivityDate="2019-11-01T17:31:04.547" Title="Early STEM Education Impact" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24319" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-25T20:46:24.573" Score="-1" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;We think anything as real if we can perceive it through our senses. But I think generally speaking, anything &lt;strong&gt;is&lt;/strong&gt; real if it occupies space (ie familiar 3D world/space)&amp;amp; have a 2 way to &amp;amp; fro interaction between it &amp;amp; us. So the latter definition excludes things in the past &amp;amp; future that &lt;strong&gt;were&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;will be&lt;/strong&gt; real. So what about our thoughts or the mind? Mind is the arena where we have thoughts. The thoughts we have in our mind can be visual/tactile/auditory /olfactory/gustatory, etc. For instance, we can reproduce an image of a real world object in our mind. We know that the imagery is in our mind &amp;amp; not in the real world, though there is an exact replica in the real world. These imageries can be static or dynamic according to we wish. I mean we can even run a movie in our mind in such a way that's virtually indistinguishable from reality. Just think about dreams. Sometimes after waking up, we think the events that occurred in our dreams really did occur. The complicated biological processes happening in our brain cells create what you call as thought. These biological processes can be thought of as an information or information changes. This information hence definitely occupy space. They occupy space in our brain cells. But where does the imagery or the virtual 3-D hologram itself that this information produces exist? For sure this imagery doesn't exist in our familiar 3 dimensions.If it did,it would be real as any other real object. But we know our mental imageries are 3-D.So why I believe these visual thoughts has to occupy some dimension or space? Because we experience it.Experience is mediated through interaction by some signal.Signal can travel through some medium only. By medium I mean space or higher dimensions; not a physical matter substance. So I think even though on how to produce an imagery in the mind is encoded as information in our brain cells, the information about the imagery itself has to geometrically occupy space &amp;amp; time. That space maybe the higher dimensions. Thats why even though we don't feel these visual thoughts to be real, it appears as if they are real.In short I think they aren't real because of my definition I believe of  whats real  (anything real should occupy our familiar 3D space &amp;amp; have 2 way to &amp;amp; fro interaction). So in short this is what I want to know- is there any evidence in neuroscience that suggests visual thoughts (possibly auditory,tactile,etc) or some aspects of the mind occupy higher dimensions? (Maybe something anomalous that suggests leakage of energy or info)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24558" LastEditorUserId="24558" LastEditDate="2019-11-09T11:03:30.500" LastActivityDate="2019-11-09T11:03:30.500" Title="Is there any evidence in neuroscience that suggests visual thoughts (possibly others) or some aspects of the mind occupy higher dimensions?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="18" ClosedDate="2019-10-26T12:04:03.697" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24320" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24355" CreationDate="2019-10-26T00:32:55.657" Score="0" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Wikipedia, Neurolinguistic Programming is a pseudoscience and dismissed by most experts. However, Psychology Today, a popular magazine, appears to not thoroughly reject it. Does this fact invalidate the legitimacy of Psychology Today?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17014" LastActivityDate="2019-10-30T23:39:04.830" Title="does the fact that Psychology Today take neurolinguistic programming seriously delegitimize the magazine?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24319" CreationDate="2019-10-26T00:36:45.300" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As pointed out in the comments, there are many different questions in your post, and it lacks a clear focus and structure, plus you introduce many assumptions that I think are incorrect (e.g., the definition of &lt;em&gt;real&lt;/em&gt; is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; &quot;what we can perceive through our senses&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, and to cut to the chase, the answer is: yes, our thoughts are real. You seem to accept that thoughts are a sort of information, so &lt;strong&gt;thoughts are real to the extend that information is real&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Steven Pinker in &lt;em&gt;How The Mind Works&lt;/em&gt; (I think it's an excellent book to read for the kind of questions you have), the &lt;em&gt;mind&lt;/em&gt; is what the brain does, which includes our thoughts, and it is, essentially, information/logic/processes that arise from the physical structure and physical properties of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that sense, you can draw an analogy to a silicon-based computer and the software that's on it (which is physically rooted in the arrangement of electrons in the computer's hardware). Just like a silicon computer, our mind uses symbols to represent the physical world, and these symbolic processes (which are not yet well understood) can also allow the representation of things that don't exist in the physical world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To use an example from the silicon-computer analogy, think of a video game like &lt;em&gt;World of Warcraft&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;The Legend of Zelda&lt;/em&gt;: the whole game is fully rooted in the physical world (the structure of the hardware, the arrangement of electrons on the circuits, indentations on an optical disk etc.), but the game itself (the software) is the information that is encoded in the physical systems. Furthermore, the game can represent a completely unrealistic world (one could say &quot;imaginary&quot;, but that word is closely related to what we're trying to understand, so it's best to leave it out of the explanation). But you could never claim that the software, the game itself, is not real.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that sense, I would say that thoughts are real, even though they may represent things that are not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24535" LastActivityDate="2019-10-26T00:36:45.300" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24322" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-26T02:14:22.023" Score="2" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that emotional hypersensitivity and over-offendedness is on the rise. I've been trying to read up on it but it's hard to find scientifically backed material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The website &quot;Exploring your mind&quot; has some interesting articles but I have no way of judging their accuracy. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://exploringyourmind.com/the-bad-habit-of-being-offended-by-everything/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Bad Habit of Being Offended by Everything&lt;/a&gt; which has a link to &lt;a href=&quot;https://exploringyourmind.com/dealing-hypersensitive-people/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dealing With Hypersensitive People&lt;/a&gt;. While the information presented seems to make sense, it doesn't cite any authors, let alone peer reviewed papers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What peer reviewed studies have been done in the areas of emotional hypersensitivity and over-offendedness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11098" LastActivityDate="2019-10-26T02:14:22.023" Title="What studies have been done in the areas of emotional hypersensitivity and over-offendedness?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24323" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24307" CreationDate="2019-10-26T19:48:44.717" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know of research that discusses this, as it seems to be more of a philosophical question rather than a scientific one. A quick search in Google Scholar did not yield a lot scientific articles, and rather, showed that this topic may be more theoretical. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still, I'd suggest a few readings such as Rousseau's &lt;em&gt;Discourse on the Arts and Sciences&lt;/em&gt;, or this article I found while doing some quick research : &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1016/j.jcps.2017.07.006?casa_token=cA7pRvQG8EoAAAAA:nHYytcmqzyfz_WzouL-FGZT49HSLfFDMZGaPz3cSI1_LEn7MtWrQb5-3300YDnGm_e9zMVYXomSnFROG&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Materialism pathways: The processes that create and perpetuate materialism&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise, I found this website and a podcast that discuss the topic. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newscientist.com/round-up/stuff/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NewScientist&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.npr.org/2013/12/26/257394308/are-we-genetically-inclined-to-be-materialistic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NPR&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Enjoy reading/listening to these! Hope it helps. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Best, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20561" LastActivityDate="2019-10-26T19:48:44.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24324" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-26T20:01:08.093" Score="1" ViewCount="254" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any established treatments (I'm going to leave the exact terms a little bit vague because my understanding is vague) of which hobbies and interests are most likely to be attractive to someone with XYZ score on an  OCEAN / Big 5 test?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TIA,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24565" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2020-04-26T23:21:55.047" LastActivityDate="2020-04-26T23:21:55.047" Title="Hobbies / interests correlated with Big 5 scores?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24328" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-27T14:47:59.807" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The phonological loop (or &quot;articulatory loop&quot;) as a whole deals with&#xA;  sound or phonological information. It consists of two parts: a&#xA;  short-term phonological store with auditory memory traces that are&#xA;  subject to rapid decay and an articulatory rehearsal component&#xA;  (sometimes called the articulatory loop) that can revive the memory&#xA;  traces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddeley%27s_model_of_working_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can the second &lt;em&gt;rehearsal&lt;/em&gt; process suffer a deficit without the phonological store being affected? If so, then there's be a name for the cognitive skills associated with the articulatory loop only -- what is it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2019-10-28T14:06:05.720" LastActivityDate="2019-10-28T14:06:05.720" Title="Are there cognitive deficits or abilities that are linked specifically to the articulatory loop part of the phonological loop?" Tags="&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24329" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-27T22:28:42.573" Score="2" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;Introversion&quot; as I've encountered it is at one end of a polarity in both Jungian preferences and the Big 5. It is at least in theory not seen as intrinsically pathological by psychologists, though it may be roughly treated in some cultures today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;autism spectrum&quot; is (now) the DSM-V successor to a DSM-IV which had distinct autism, Asperger's, and ADD/ADHD, and perhaps other conditions which have been folded into a broader autism spectrum. It is seen as a (pathological) behavioral health issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this disconnect simply because Jungian / Big 5 is not a tool to diagnose pathologies (apart from Jung's remark about pure introverts and pure extraverts being an extreme and pathological exception), and the DSM-V is a tool in an enterprise to diagnose and treat behavioral health issues, or is there another difference between one being treated by psychology as legitimate and the other being treated as pathological?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it is possible to be an introvert without being on the autism spectrum, or be on the autism spectrum without being an introvert, what would examples of those cases look like, together with a non-autistic extravert and an autistic introvert?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;TIA,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24565" LastActivityDate="2019-10-27T22:28:42.573" Title="What is the difference in meaning between introversion and at least some of the autism spectrum" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;jung&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;&lt;dsm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24330" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-28T10:54:58.000" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have observed a number of users in 3 public parks during the course of 2 months and have identified 60 different types of uses. I can't find a protocol to classify similar uses (not users) into clusters. I know that I should do it manually, and I do believe it is not a complex task, but I would like to follow some basic rules and I cannot find a good source. Could anyone suggest me an author?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24577" LastActivityDate="2019-10-28T10:54:58.000" Title="Is there a protocol to cluster observed behaviour data?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2019-11-06T16:10:49.613" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24331" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24324" CreationDate="2019-10-28T13:26:24.087" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes. One example is that people high in Openness to New Experiences are interested in aesthetic experiences including museums and being in nature, and novel experiences as you'd expect from the name. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1997-08808-031&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1997-08808-031&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Treatment is a bit misleading here to mean 'study', because in psychology it usually means 'intervention'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-10-28T13:26:24.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24333" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10455" CreationDate="2019-10-28T21:56:52.517" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, loving-kindness meditation. Love is the cure for all mental illnesses. I was suffering from schizophrenia until I tried Metta. By sending good wishes of happiness to my family members, my symptoms of schizophrenia were gradually diminishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schizophrenia is closely related to sinning or selfish actions sense gratification. My overindulgence in sense gratifications was the cause of schizophrenia. As soon as I turned to love the things got better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry for not providing any references from other sources but this is my direct experience of Metta.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24312" LastActivityDate="2019-10-28T21:56:52.517" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24334" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-28T22:26:51.040" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://neurology.mhmedical.com/book.aspx?bookID=1049&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Principles of Neural Science 5th edition&lt;/a&gt;, Chapter 3, It Is said that Autism Is a genetic disorder but which genes are involved Is not clear, how do we know there Is a genetic basis and Is not a response to environmental factors (or a combination)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24237" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-10-29T10:29:45.867" LastActivityDate="2019-11-05T07:45:35.783" Title="Clues for genetic basis in Autism Spectrum Disorders" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24339" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24318" CreationDate="2019-10-29T19:23:48.680" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, answers to these questions are not yet available.  As &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/0013189X16633182&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Morgan et al (2016)&lt;/a&gt; put it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... whether and to what extent science achievement gaps display&#xA;  stable, cumulative, or compensatory growth trajectories are unknown.&#xA;  This has been due to the lack of large-scale, multivariate, and&#xA;  longitudinal studies, particularly those following diverse samples&#xA;  across the elementary and middle school grades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Available data (eg. the &lt;a href=&quot;https://nces.ed.gov/ecls/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ECLS&lt;/a&gt;) typically follows children only as far as middle school, so effects on post-secondary level students are hard to come by.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, as the &lt;a href=&quot;http://joanganzcooneycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/jgcc_stemstartsearly_final.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elisabeth McClure reports&lt;/a&gt; listed in the question assert, the available data suggests that early STEM education has significant impact on academic achievement and cognitive skills later in life.  The earlier the intervention, the greater the impact down the road, particularly for pre-kindergarten (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2007-16709-012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Duncan et al, 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/tea.20395&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sackes et al, 2010&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10763-017-9812-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tippett &amp;amp; Milford, 2017&lt;/a&gt;), and early kindergarten (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200611000937&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sarama et al, 2012&lt;/a&gt;) exposure.  That is, even where achievement gaps may be compensated for with later remedial programs, the sooner children are exposed to STEM education, the more favourable the future effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Correspondingly, interest in STEM education and careers is already set well before high school - from &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/sce.21007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sadler et al (2012)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The key factor predicting STEM career interest at the end of high&#xA;  school was interest at the start of high school. ... During the high&#xA;  school years, the percentage of males interested in a STEM career&#xA;  remained stable (from 39.5 to 39.7), whereas for females it declined&#xA;  from 15.7 to 12.7.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-10-29T19:23:48.680" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24340" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24352" CreationDate="2019-10-29T19:47:30.080" Score="4" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not long since a friend of mine reported about an experiment they would do in their philosophy class, or rather, in their philosophy classes. At that time, his and the parallel class were dealing with the problems in regards to Utilitarianism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The teacher then proposed in class A the following problem (&lt;em&gt;see&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trolley_problem&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trolley Problem&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You see a runaway trolley moving toward four tied-up people lying on the main track. You are standing next to a lever that controls a switch. If you pull the lever, the trolley will be redirected onto a side track, and the four people on the main track will be saved. However, there is a single person lying on the sidetrack. You have two options:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;    &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Do nothing and allow the trolley to kill the four people on the main track.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;    &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pull the lever, diverting the trolley onto the side track where it will kill one person.&#xA;    Which is the more ethical option? Or, more simply: What is the right thing to do?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;    &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sidenote:&lt;/em&gt; The only thing you know about these people is that they're all more or less the same age. Nothing else (so there are no criminals, murders or saints to be taken into consideration).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The teacher then asked the pupils what they would do. The results were&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;29 would pull the lever. They argued that, on equal terms, letting one person die is worth if you can save four lives (4&gt;1).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;1 claimed, he wouldn't do anything, because he believed in destiny.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now the teacher proposed another problem in the parallel class B, which goes as follows&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One man enters a hospital - let's call him John - because he has injured his arm. Nothing dangerous, but it requires disinfection. Coincidentally, in the same hospital, four patients are about to die. They need (urgently) respectively these organs: a heart, a liver, two kidneys, and lungs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;After some tests, it turns out, that John's organs aren't only in perfect conditions for a transplant but are also compatible with the four patients mentioned previously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Assume now that the hypothetical transplants would all succeed and that John is the only possibility for those four patients to survive. You have two options:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;    &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;    &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Let John go home after disinfection and allow the four patients to die.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;    &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Arrest John and take his organs in order to save the four patients' lives. John dies.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;    &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sidenote:&lt;/em&gt; Again, the only thing you know about these people is that they're all more or less the same age. Nothing else (so there are no criminals, murders or saints to be taken into consideration).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Surprisingly, a survey revealed the following results&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;23 would let John go home, even if the four patients die. They argued that John should decide whether to sacrifice for the benefit of the other patients.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;7 would remove John's organs - and therefore kill him - in order to save the other patients' lives. They believed that four lives are, on equal terms, more value than one.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The teacher then brought both classes together and let them compare their viewpoints regarding the respective situations. Most of them agreed with the decisions, their colleagues from the parallel class had taken until one student noticed&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;We are actually dealing with the same situation. It does not matter wheter railway tracks or a hospital: this is just the context and it should not influence the final decision. The problem reduces to deciding wheter for people should live or only one, but not both of them.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Last, but not least, my question: &lt;strong&gt;How can you explain psychologically that, even though the students had to address the same question, the answers were dramatically different?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21449" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T14:30:21.853" Title="On a variation of Trolley's problem. How to explain the survey's results?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24341" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-29T20:27:06.103" Score="0" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to use self-hypnosis or subliminal messages to completely forget certain memories from one's brain, to cure from mental disorders as PTSD, if such memories are troubling one's life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24585" LastActivityDate="2019-10-29T20:27:06.103" Title="Can one use self-hypnosis or subliminal messages to wipe out selected memories from my brain (i.e. selective permanent amnesia)?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;&lt;amnesia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24342" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-26T17:52:54.350" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's common knowledge that humans think with their brains. So it's common to associate hard thinking with head and to seemingly &quot;feel&quot; that it's the head which is loaded when one's thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But does this association have any grounds in actual sensing? Can one sense where the thought processes are happening if not taught about this? If we taught some child that he thinks with e.g. stomach (and no one hints him otherwise), would he associate thinking with that location? Or would he somehow suspect that actually it's the head which is thinking, and what he is taught is wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Ruslan" LastActivityDate="2019-10-30T17:12:44.270" Title="Can thought processes be sensed to happen exactly in the head?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24343" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24342" CreationDate="2019-10-29T09:39:56.700" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the 4th century BC, Aristotle wrote that the source of intelligence was the heart (&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.stanford.edu/class/history13/earlysciencelab/body/heartpages/heart.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;). Other greeks like Alcmaeon of Croton thought it might be the brain. I think the fact that they were having this discussion means that it's not obvious from our sensations alone that the thoughts are happening in the head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24597" OwnerDisplayName="Zlira" LastActivityDate="2019-10-29T09:39:56.700" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24344" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24346" CreationDate="2019-10-29T20:48:21.593" Score="0" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a mind develops, it goes through numerous stages of awareness, such as (not necessarily in order)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Awareness of others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Awareness of self&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Awareness of other's thoughts (this may not be a discrete stage)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do you call the awareness of other's awareness of you (and the logical deduction of what they believe you're thinking)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe this should be the stage before meta-gaming is possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24586" LastActivityDate="2019-10-29T21:21:18.447" Title="Thinking about What Others Think of You" Tags="&lt;metacognition&gt;&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24345" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5966" CreationDate="2019-10-29T21:17:12.417" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Personally informed answer and I don't need to reference (which I will explain):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Metaphysical background&lt;/em&gt;: It's impossible to claim value without being &lt;em&gt;part-subjective&lt;/em&gt;. Reason: such claim must &lt;strong&gt;come from a subject&lt;/strong&gt; and since &lt;strong&gt;a moral idea is not a physical phenomenon&lt;/strong&gt; (it may be brain physics, but unless one can explain it, then one cannot say it's physical), then it cannot be &quot;natural-science like&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Base case&quot;: Since it's part-subjective, then it means that it's &lt;em&gt;open to subjective interpretation&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Inductive hypothesis&quot;: Since it's open to subjective interpretation, then claim that &quot;anyone can make any sort of moral claim&quot;. I.e. &quot;I think slavery is morally correct&quot; and &quot;I think slavery is not morally correct&quot; are &lt;em&gt;about as valid&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Inductive step&quot;: Given any moral statement, it's not possible to decide non-subjectively whether it's right or wrong. This is because of &quot;inductive hypothesis&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Implies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;fair&quot; is part-subjective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;good&quot; is part-subjective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;equality&quot; does not consistently exist, since it's possible to deviate by &quot;applying part-subjectivity&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[any moral statement] is part-subjective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Semantics of &lt;em&gt;part-subjective&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's subjective and it can be intersubjective. It's not objective, since subjective and objective fundamentally contradict (solipsism).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't need reference, because by moral being part-subjective I can choose to or attempt to deviate from any reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15494" LastActivityDate="2019-10-29T21:17:12.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24346" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24344" CreationDate="2019-10-29T21:21:18.447" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This sort of thinking is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;theory of mind&lt;/a&gt; (not to be confused with theories of how the mind works).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not entirely clear whether theory of mind is a discrete ability or a spectrum, but tasks requiring higher-order theorizing tend to be more difficult and are more likely to be lost to dysfunction:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Cognitive theory of mind is further separated into first order (e.g., I think she thinks that…) and second order (e.g., he thinks that she thinks that…)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not aware of a specific term that distinguishes second-order theory of mind when the second-order person is in fact the first-person rather than a third-person (e.g., &quot;she thinks that I think that...&quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-10-29T21:21:18.447" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24348" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-30T05:40:34.313" Score="0" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few years ago, I had been grocery shopping. On my way out from the mall-like building, I stopped at the empty &quot;mini McDonald's&quot; restaurant they had there, bought some food and sat down at a random table. No other guests were around, so I was alone in the area. I'm a white male, then in the my late 20s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After a while, two young white males (probably in their teens) sat down two tables across from me, facing me, but looking at something together on one of their phones which one of them held up in the air with both arms resting on the table. Possibly to avoid glare from the lights in the ceiling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I remember thinking about this situation a number of times. If it had been the other way around, and I got there after them, I would not have sat myself down near them. I'd basically pick a seat as far away from them as possible (but probably still that side of the area). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But then again, I'm highly anti-social and thus is not a good specimen to measure &quot;average behaviour&quot; on. Those kids probably didn't think consciously about it at all, but simply sat down near where another person had sat down, without being completely &quot;in my face&quot;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also had the thought that maybe they sat there only to record me with their phone stealthily, pretending to be watching some video or whatever they were doing. I'm not handsome, but also not looking like a total freak. I don't think there would be much reason to record me, especially as I only sat there eating slowly without saying anything or making any &quot;fuss&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More than likely, I'm over-thinking this, but some social situations like that just stick in my mind for years. I often see videos which have been recorded without the subject knowing it, and it seems very easy nowadays to hide that you are filming somebody with a phone or even smaller cameras.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, I'm kind of wondering about this specific scenario, but also realize that it's impossible for any of you to reasonable give a firm answer. Who knows? The only thing I know is that nobody ever linked me to a video where I'm sitting at a McDonald's eating. However, I'm also genuinely interested in this from a bigger perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, as long as there's not something obviously threatening or really weird about the person, will people tend to sit themselves near existing customers in a fast food restaurant or similar setting?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24591" LastActivityDate="2019-10-30T05:40:34.313" Title="Is the average person more likely to sit near rather than far away from a stranger already sitting in a restaurant when it's otherwise empty?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;social&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24349" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-30T11:16:23.807" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Firstly, I have an incredibly rudimentary understanding of how neurons interact etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding of memory representation is that it's a group of interconnected neurons that fire in some particular way when the memory is recalled. Assuming this to be the case, what exactly causes a memory to weaken? If it's a weakening of the connections between neurons, say due to a lessening of the number of neurotransmitter receptors (no point replenishing receptors if they're not being used), does the memory seem weaker because the signal literally takes longer to traverse all connections in said group? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For memory loss, do some neurons simply have all their receptors for neurotransmitter X decay and consequently, break the memory? Following this, can neurons have neurotansmitter receptors for multiple neurotransmitters, and can a neuron release multiple neurotransmitters? This would imply that neuron A could be used in the storage of multiple memories. So perhaps a different memory becomes reinforced (more neurotransmitter receptors for neurotransmitter Y), &quot;kicking out&quot; neurotransmitter X?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cheers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24598" LastActivityDate="2019-10-30T11:16:23.807" Title="How is a memory lost?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24351" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24342" CreationDate="2019-10-30T16:29:50.773" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: But does this association (that the head is the place where thought processes happen) have any grounds in actual sensing?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; Yes, the association (that the head is the place where thought processes happen) has the ground in evolutionary neurophysiology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thinking, analyzing, deciding, and other cognitive functions are the most important functions for a human or any other animal to survive in the environment that poses endless varieties of challenges. Thus, it is very crucial for a human/animal to be able to locate where these functions are in its body so that it can give the best protection at the correct place. For this, the organ where these cognitive functions occur – the brain – has  evolved complex functional areas (mostly in the temporo-parietal junction and the fronto-parietal cortex) that can create the correct 3-D mental image of its body and environment with the correct relation to the brain itself, that is, with the brain correctly felt to be in the head, not in the hand, the leg, the abdomen, or anywhere else, including outside the body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You don’t need anybody to tell you that the thoughts occur in your head. Just close your eyes and feel where your thought is. You’ll feel that you’re thinking in your head, again not in the hand, the heart, the body, or anywhere else, including outside your body. That’s the result of the functions of your brain areas that create the 3-D of your body image and your surroundings with the correct relation to the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is also true in animals. If animals do not evolve to the ability to know that it is in their heads that their thinking occurs, they will not give their heads the first and foremost priority in protection and caring. Their heads (which is the place where they think) will become susceptible to danger, and their species will become extinct from this, leaving only those animals that evolve this crucial ability to persist. Evidently, animals that persist nowadays always try to protect/care their heads above all other body parts. For example, in danger, if they decide to flee, they will turn with their heads furthest away from the danger and they will escape into the protection (cave, tunnel, shield, etc.) with their heads in first. When they hide from the sun or the rain to seek comfort, they always give the priority to their heads to be under the shelter even if other body parts have to stick out in the sun or the rain. So, what that is thinking in the animals knows where it is (i.e., knows that it is in the head) because it protects and takes care of itself correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, humans and animals must have observed that when their heads are hit hard enough, they cannot think normally or even cannot think at all (i.e., lose consciousness, if the hit is severe). This doesn’t happen if the hand, the chest, the abdomen, or other part else is hit but the head is spared. They must also have witnessed these in other animals. So, in addition to the innate ability to know that the thinking is in their heads, they can learn from these experiences that it is definitely the head that the thinking occurs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, no human or animal needs to be taught that the head is the place where it thinks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the above discussion answers the other questions already too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Blanke O, Slater M, Serino A. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26447578&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Behavioral, Neural, and Computational Principles of Bodily Self-Consciousness.&lt;/a&gt; Neuron. 2015 Oct 7;88(1):145-66. The pdf file can be downloaded from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(15)00818-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0896627315008181%3Fshowall%3Dtrue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lenggenhager B, Smith ST, Blanke O. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17283609&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Functional and neural mechanisms of embodiment: importance of the vestibular system and the temporal parietal junction.&lt;/a&gt; Rev Neurosci. 2006;17(6):643-57. The pdf file can be downloaded from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/139701/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/139701/1/%5BReviews_in_the_Neurosciences%5D_Functional_and_Neural_Mechanisms_of_Embodiment_Importance_of_the_Vestibular_System_and_the_Temporal_Parietal_Junction.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_schema&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Body Schema&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="19332" LastEditDate="2019-10-30T17:12:44.270" LastActivityDate="2019-10-30T17:12:44.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24352" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24340" CreationDate="2019-10-30T17:15:58.053" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The two problems might seem to be equivalent but they aren't - in the &quot;John&quot; scenario those advocating not to arrest John and harvest his delicious organs are pointing out that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;that John should decide whether to sacrifice for the benefit of the other patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is showing that the problems aren't equivalent because John has a choice to sacrifice himself - he &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; turn to the docs and say - &quot;Right! Knock me out and cut me up!&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the trolley problem however the one &lt;em&gt;doesn't&lt;/em&gt; have the choice to sacrifice themselves for the many, when deciding between forcing John to be an organ donor and letting the others die the ethical dilemma is about removing John's agency. To make the problems equivalent you would have to modify the trolley problem such that the &quot;one&quot; person also had access to a lever to divert the trolley such that it would kill them (and the knowledge of what pulling that lever would do).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially the &quot;John&quot; scenario could be considered similar to the &quot;stranger on a footbridge&quot; variant of the Trolley Problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In another version of the problem, the trolley, as before, is about&#xA;  to kill five people. This time, however, you are not standing near the&#xA;  track, but on a footbridge above the track. You cannot divert the&#xA;  trolley. You consider jumping off the bridge, in front of the trolley,&#xA;  thus sacrificing yourself to save the imperiled people, but you realize&#xA;  that you are far too light to stop the trolley. Standing next to you,&#xA;  however, is a very large stranger. The only way you can stop the&#xA;  trolley killing five people is by pushing this large stranger off the&#xA;  footbridge, in front of the trolley. If you push the stranger off, he will&#xA;  be killed, but you will save the other five.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.utilitarian.net/singer/by/200510--.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ethics and Intuitions, Peter Singer 2005&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As with the &quot;John&quot; case the majority vote &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; to kill the poor fat stranger and instead allow the hapless majority to die.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; the two different problems provoke such different responses, Dr Joshua Greene examined this in his doctoral thesis &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://emilkirkegaard.dk/en/wp-content/uploads/Joshua-D.-Greene-The-Terrible-Horrible-No-Good-Very-Bad-Truth-about-Morality-and.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Truth about Morality and&#xA;What to Do About it&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; and proposed that the difference was driven by a difference in emotional response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As he put it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because people have a robust, negative emotional response to the personal violation proposed in the footbridge case they immediately say that it’s wrong... At the&#xA;  same time, people fail to have a strong negative emotional response to the relatively impersonal violation proposed in the original trolley case, and therefore revert to the most obvious moral principle, ‘‘minimize harm,’’ which in turn leads&#xA;  them to say that the action in the original case is permissible&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Greene tested this theory using an fMRI in &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://static.squarespace.com/static/54763f79e4b0c4e55ffb000c/t/5477ccc3e4b01fb132f9bcc3/1417137347517/an-fmri-investigation-of-emotional-engagement-in-moral-judgment.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An fMRI Investigation of&#xA;Emotional Engagement in Moral&#xA;Judgment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; and the results seem to suggest that the initial response to the stranger-on-a-footbridge variant is indeed an &lt;em&gt;emotional&lt;/em&gt; one (based on activity seen on the fMRI in different areas of the brain) and it is this that leads to the difference in responses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The trolley and footbridge dilemmas&#xA;  emerged as pieces of a puzzle for moral philosophers: Why is it acceptable to sacrifice one&#xA;  person to save five others in the trolley dilemma&#xA;  but not in the footbridge dilemma? Here we&#xA;  consider these dilemmas as pieces of a psychological puzzle: How do people manage to conclude that it is acceptable to sacrifice one for the&#xA;  sake of five in one case but not in the other? We&#xA;  maintain that emotional response is likely to be&#xA;  the crucial difference between these two cases.&#xA;  But this is an answer to the psychological puzzle, not the philosophical one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24001" LastEditorUserId="24001" LastEditDate="2019-11-04T14:30:21.853" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T14:30:21.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24354" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24373" CreationDate="2019-10-30T22:43:09.530" Score="2" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whenever people experience specific medical symptoms, they might research it online and find out that there is a possibility of a certain cancer being the culprit, they then might see that the chances of getting that cancer is 1 in a million. So they would often shrug it off as &quot;Well that will never happen to me!&quot;, whereas that same person might go to the local store to purchase a lottery ticket that has a chance of winning set at 1 in 30 million and they then feel like the chance is high enough to win.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking to find out if there is a particular name for this type of behaviour / thought process. I'm interested in research papers regarding these behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21800" LastEditorUserId="21800" LastEditDate="2019-11-01T12:23:25.550" LastActivityDate="2019-11-03T21:14:36.207" Title="What's the human behaviour called that often makes us warp realities to appease another?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24355" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24320" CreationDate="2019-10-30T23:29:35.893" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A similar question has been discussed on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/questions/2362/is-psychology-today-a-credible-source&quot;&gt;Meta site associated with this Stack&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary: Psychology Today doesn't really have any legitimacy to invalidate in the first place. It's just a collection of blogs without any peer review process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology Today is a popular science magazine, not a peer-reviewed publication. There are some good articles on the site; there are also many bad ones. Some articles cite peer-reviewed literature: if you find a peer-reviewed source on Psychology Today, feel free to read it for yourself!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The editors may keep certain content off the site, but they are not adhering to any standards of evidence or standards of clinical care. It's fine to cite for a source of popular claims, but doesn't have any scientific weight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main purpose of the Psychology Today website seems to be as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://member.psychologytoday.com/us/signup&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paid directory for psychology professionals&lt;/a&gt; - basically, people sign up, post their pictures and biography and a phone number to try to collect clients. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the editors have &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/about-psychology-today&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brief biographies&lt;/a&gt; posted - it seems clear that the editorial staff have their expertise in publishing/journalism, like you would expect for a popular magazine. They do not have the sort of editorial staff that a reputable journal has, which would include university research scientists at the top of their research field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/sites/default/files/PT_MediaKit_Edu_2013.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;media guide for educational advertisers&lt;/a&gt; the site compares itself (favorably, from the viewpoint of an advertiser) in terms of # of viewers to sites like The Atlantic, Oprah, Time, The New  Yorker, Fortune, Popular Mechanics, and National Geographic. Many of those sites also have some good content, but may be more readily recognizable as popular magazines. If they were a site for reputable science content you could expect that they would instead compare themselves with other peer-reviewed content.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of the pages have language along the lines of &quot;Verified by Psychology Today&quot; but in every case I see this it seems to refer to their &lt;em&gt;directory of psychology professionals&lt;/em&gt; rather than any of the blog content. I don't know what the verification process entails.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-10-30T23:39:04.830" LastActivityDate="2019-10-30T23:39:04.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24356" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-10-31T00:29:20.740" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently received this question via email and thought it might be of broader relevance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I am writing as I am interested in using measures of personality in&#xA;  some clinical psychology research.   I am specifically interested in&#xA;  measuring neuroticism, and perhaps also extraversion, given previous&#xA;  work in my area speaks to the importance of these dimensions in terms&#xA;  of health outcomes in my area.   I was wondering whether you would&#xA;  have any advice on available instruments for measuring just these&#xA;  dimensions (rather than measuring, say, a full five factor model). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;For instance, would it be considered psychometrically ‘kosher’ to just&#xA;  pull out the neuroticism and/or extraversion scales from the BFAS or&#xA;  the 5 NEO Domains from the IPIP website and administer the scales in&#xA;  isolation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2019-10-31T00:43:50.210" Title="Is it okay to measure only a subset of the Big Five such as neuroticism and extraversion in research?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24357" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24356" CreationDate="2019-10-31T00:43:50.210" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's very common in research to only measure a subset of the Big Five. When I recently reviewed the literature on the Big Five and well-being, there were a huge number of papers that only used a subset of the Big Five. And I'd say that the most common variables to be measured in isolation were neuroticism followed by extraversion. More generally, if I were to add one more to the mix in health related research, I'd say that conscientiousness deserves greater attention. It's particularly relevant to health-related outcomes and captures quite a different mechanisms (e.g., compliance with treatment, healthy lifestyle, lower levels of compulsive behaviours, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And when you look at this research, they generally take scales from standard length measures of the Big Five (e.g., NEO FFI, IPIP NEO 50, BFI or BFI 2, etc.). You also have Eysenck's measures which are still popular and provide neuroticism and extraversion measures. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I'm not really a fan of this piece-meal approach to personality measurement. It's not that hard to include a complete measure of the Big Five, and then you get a more comprehensive view of how personality maps onto the constructs of interest, rather than assuming a priori that the domains you're looking at are all that there is. If the number of items is a big issue, the BFI 44 is not that long or if you get desperate there's something like the Mini IPIP 20 (although alphas are a bit lower). We discuss these recommendations and trade-offs quite a bit in Anglim &amp;amp; O'Connor (2019).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anglim, J., &amp;amp; O’Connor, P. (2019). Measurement and research using the Big Five, HEXACO, and narrow traits: A primer for researchers and practitioners. Australian Journal of Psychology, 71(1), 16-25. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download?format=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psyarxiv.com/a78g2/download?format=pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2019-10-31T00:43:50.210" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24358" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24360" CreationDate="2019-10-31T09:48:26.383" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a seek for hints or references. Feel free to delete the question if it is not suitable to the rules in here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard people saying that our inner spacial perception is an important foundation for our ability to think. So if we are standing upright, the mere awareness that our hands &quot;are below our head&quot; and &quot;our feet are below our hands&quot;, all orientation like this is more important for our thinking than it would seem first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further I have heard that there exists some sort of illness or disability, where the proprioception is somehow distorted or blocked, and this allegedly is affecting the thinking power. People who could think, calculate, conclude etc in a normal way, cannot do so any longer because their spacial perception/proprioception is somehow reduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A prominent person who is a counter example for this connection between proprioception and thinking could be Stephen Hawking. A prominent pro argument for the connection could be the process of training pilots in a centrifuge, thinking while suffering a lot of G.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Can somebody tell me the right terms or keywords so that I can find &#xA;  literature about the mentioned connection? My search shows very wide &#xA;  results between mathematical concepts, mental mapping, spacial &#xA;  orientation and more, but I am looking for the basic relation between &#xA;  muscles, nerves, proprioception and clear conceptional thinking. &#xA;  Or does somebody even now a paper which examines this connection?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24242" LastEditorUserId="24242" LastEditDate="2019-10-31T16:49:39.297" LastActivityDate="2019-11-01T05:39:08.310" Title="How can I find literature about the connection between proprioception and thinking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;body-language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24359" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24380" CreationDate="2019-10-31T19:49:08.640" Score="5" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen repeated suggestions that the Big 5 model is the preferred model of personality in psychology, and Myers-Briggs is used in pop psychology and industry and not presently taken that seriously by proper psychologists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that there is a connection between the two. Extraversion is one axis with the same name and similar or unchanged content. Openness on at least one test sounds like a rough gauge of old-fashioned IQ, and as such is a candidate for correlation with the Sensate-Intuitive axis. In the popular &lt;em&gt;Please Understand Me!&lt;/em&gt;, the SP-SJ distinction sounds a lot like Conscientiousness. These suggestions could be challenged, but it seems grounds to suggest that three of the four Jungian preferences survive largely intact in Big 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I overestimating the continuity between the two models? If I am not, why does Big 5 have scientific validity where the MBTI is a bit of fluffy pop psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;--UPDATE--&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have un-accepted the answer as I find it bare assertion plus a statement of author's credentials, and I really want a more thorough response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To flesh out what I meant by the question, I'm going to go with Jungian preferences as simplified in &lt;em&gt;Please Understand Me!&lt;/em&gt;, said to be one more assertion of temperament theory as &lt;em&gt;Kevin Trudeau's Mega Memory&lt;/em&gt; can be said to be one more assertion of (neo?)-classical standard memory techniques, which may be seen as a move from fluff to fluffier. I acknowledge this as a liability, and I further acknowledge that I do not engage whether the NT-NF polarity is relevant to people deemed Sensate, nor whether the SJ-SP polarity is relevant to people deemed Intuitive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One can be deemed Intuitive without being good at, relying, or identifying with intuition as the term is usually used. The Sensate-Intuitive axis is one I would on consideration suggest might be better named &lt;strong&gt;Concrete-Abstract:&lt;/strong&gt; where &lt;em&gt;Abstract&lt;/em&gt; is paired with &lt;em&gt;Feeling&lt;/em&gt;, it matches more closely with what one might pick a one-word label of &quot;intuitive&quot; for (other candidates might be &quot;influencer, &quot;spiritual&quot; or &quot;self-actualizing&quot;). Combine &lt;em&gt;Abstract&lt;/em&gt; with &lt;em&gt;Thinking&lt;/em&gt; and you get STEM practitioners, analytic philosophers, and so on, and possibly liable not to hold common intuition in very high regard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think I have anything quite as striking to offer for the SP-SJ axis, but I think that people evaluated by Myers-Briggs as SJ with at least a square J, you'll get people who are diligent, believe in order, and so on, high performers on high Conscientiousness. I'm a little less sure with SP, but I would think squarely SP people would commonly register as &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/5129/how-to-predict-romantic-attraction/17036#17036&quot;&gt;highly primative&lt;/a&gt;, and I would expect solid SP's to score low on questions about &quot;I diligently keep my home, my room, my cubicle, and my desk meticulously clean&quot; used to assess degree of Conscientiousness on Big 5 scoring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume that Extraversion will be accepted as an obvious point of contact, and people may argue traits versus preferences (&lt;em&gt;Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World that Can't Stop Talking&lt;/em&gt; asserts that one can be deeply introverted and learn to function as a consummate extravert if one deeply desires it), but it still looks to me like, if I may count better, all three other Jungian preferences appear to reincarnate in Big 5 in slightly different form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If industry's popular MBTI is largely reincarnate in proper psychology's Big 5, it might explain why industry is reaping apparent benefits from the deprecated tool.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If Openness, which is said to be a crystallization of what is otherwise represented in IQ, is largely similar to &quot;Sensate-Intuitive&quot; (or &quot;Abstract-Concrete&quot;), and so on, and a personality psychologist does not see a need to give much more than bare assertion in a response, could this be a little more worth digging into...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24565" LastEditorUserId="24565" LastEditDate="2019-11-25T23:21:10.073" LastActivityDate="2019-11-25T23:21:10.073" Title="Aren't MBTI and Big 5 connected?" Tags="&lt;jung&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;&lt;mbti&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-11-25T23:52:45.940" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24360" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24358" CreationDate="2019-11-01T05:39:08.310" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Two major terms:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&quot;Spatial Representation&quot;:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;of pitch height (lower/higher):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027705000260&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027705000260&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;emotions (down/up):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699930500347794&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02699930500347794&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&quot;Spatial Analogy&quot;:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5256459/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5256459/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some papers argue that even time has strong spatial representation in it:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001002770700087X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001002770700087X&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="761" LastActivityDate="2019-11-01T05:39:08.310" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24361" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-01T06:43:19.903" Score="2" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does a nap of the kind that is often recommended – that is, early afternoon and no more than 30 minutes – affect nighttime sleep, especially the duration of nighttime sleep, but also its quality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar question was asked &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/10681/if-you-sleep-during-the-day-do-you-need-less-sleep-at-night&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, but it referred to much longer daytime sleep, which is generally not recommended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24604" LastActivityDate="2019-11-01T06:43:19.903" Title="How does a nap affect nighttime sleep duration?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24364" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-01T22:48:20.077" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphantasia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aphantasia&lt;/a&gt; is a &amp;quot;condition&amp;quot; where you can't picture things in your mind; I read a few articles about it, and feel like I don't have it, but have something close to it, and would like to know if it has a name.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aphantasia seems to be a very &amp;quot;strong&amp;quot; condition : in the articles I read, people that described it seemed to not be able to picture &lt;em&gt;anything&lt;/em&gt;, e.g. the founder of Mozilla Firefox said he thought &amp;quot;counting sheep&amp;quot; was a metaphor. Now I don't feel anything that strong because I can picture &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt; things, and so I'm wondering if the following &amp;quot;symptoms&amp;quot; are just a normal thing about picturing stuff in your head (it might just be), or if it's a &amp;quot;near-aphantasia&amp;quot; condition, and if it is, if it has a name:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-what I can picture is very dim, that is, I can't have a very clear, precise picture in my head. For instance when I try to picture the face of someone I know (which is part of the examples the articles gave) I can see something for a few seconds but it's very fuzzy, doesn't have clear cut boundaries and it disappears quickly, so I'm unable to keep a mental image for more than a few seconds. The same thing happens for landscapes, or any picture that I'm familiar with. It also happens for geometric shapes (I do maths for a living, so I'm often confronted to the situation of having to visualize shapes)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-When I manage to visualize things, not only are they very fuzzy as described above, but I also lack control on said representations. To give an example of what I mean, sometimes when I can't sleep I try to actually count sheep (doesn't work, if you were wondering), but it's very hard to make them just go over the fence that I tried to imagine : very often they'll resist and go backwards by some sort of external force, and when I try to push them forward I am often obligated to make the whole world that I tried to picture tip over so that they are forced down by gravity; but even then I can't control the tipping and everything just blows up with me losing control and the sheep just not obeying.&#xA;There's a similar phenomenon when, e.g., I think of skiing : I try to picture myself skiing (it's of course just an example) but I can barely control what happens (even though in real life I'm a decent skier) and always end up doing (unwanted) barrel rolls in my head and crashing down, although I specifically try to visualize myself not doing that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So there are these two phenomena : I can't visualize properly, but not to the point of aphantasia, that is, I can visualize &lt;em&gt;some amount&lt;/em&gt; of things, just not properly; and I don't have control over what I do manage to visualize.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know if they're related but they're both of the type &amp;quot;I can't visualize properly&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My specific questions are therefore :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a &amp;quot;special&amp;quot; condition, or is it just something that everyone has and it's just how visualization works ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If not, do they have a name ? Are they related somehow ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24607" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-11-01T22:48:20.077" Title="Does this &quot;near-aphantasia&quot; condition have a name?" Tags="&lt;visualization&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-11-01T23:03:27.393" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24365" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24386" CreationDate="2019-11-02T05:36:59.777" Score="2" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any data available on the density of capillaries in the brain? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I have seen images like this (from Chapter 2 of &lt;em&gt;The Cerebral Circulation&lt;/em&gt;, by Cipolla MJ.):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HmntK.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/HmntK.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This illustrates to some extent (some?) of the arteries in the brain. But is there an image available which illustrates how the capillaries are distributed in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I recently had a discussion in which I was told that &lt;em&gt;blood does not enter the brain due to the blood brain barrier&lt;/em&gt;. Is such a statement accurate? The previous question is relevant here since if the brain is dense with capillaries then it would sound strange (to a layman like me) that blood does not enter the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: Please not that I have no background in neuroscience and the last biology lecture I had was in high school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24608" LastActivityDate="2019-11-05T16:22:44.737" Title="Brain capillary density" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24367" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24370" CreationDate="2019-11-03T13:05:58.157" Score="1" ViewCount="337" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the exact meaning of the term &lt;em&gt;projection&lt;/em&gt; and the verb &lt;em&gt;to project&lt;/em&gt; in neuroscience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't found any neuroscience reference book or dictionary that gives a definition, although those terms are often used in the definitions themselves. For example, the Glossary of &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; (2nd ed.), available at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10981/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10981/&lt;/a&gt; gives this definition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;upper motor neuron&lt;/strong&gt;: A neuron that gives rise to a descending projection that controls the activity of lower motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and several others, but &quot;projection&quot; itself is not an entry in the Glossary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;Oxford English Dictionary&lt;/em&gt; gives this definition (#11): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Physiol.&lt;/em&gt; The spatial distribution, in the brain, or other parts of the central nervous system, of the points to which nerves or nerve impulses go from any given area or organ; const. &lt;em&gt;on&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;upon&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;to&lt;/em&gt; the receiving part; also &lt;em&gt;concr.&lt;/em&gt;, a tract of projection fibres.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but it's still a little vague.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd be happy if someone could give me a precise definition (and some references to corroborate it). In particular: can I say that a neuron &lt;em&gt;projects&lt;/em&gt; to another neuron, to mean that the axon of the first connects to some dendrite of the second?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cheers!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24613" LastActivityDate="2019-11-03T18:28:22.990" Title="Meaning of &quot;projection&quot; and &quot;to project&quot; in neuroscience" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;projection&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24368" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-03T13:55:13.260" Score="1" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Wikipedia (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill&lt;/a&gt;) it says: &quot;The hedonic treadmill, also known as hedonic adaptation, is the observed tendency of humans to quickly return to a relatively stable level of happiness despite major positive or negative events or life changes.&quot; This stable level is referred to as the happiness set point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there strategies (backed up by studies / research) that improve this stable level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24614" LastActivityDate="2019-11-03T13:55:13.260" Title="How to improve the &quot;happiness set point&quot;?" Tags="&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-11-03T15:31:37.243" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24369" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-03T14:56:38.180" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Over the last few months there have been multiple reports of random strangers keying Teslas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in understanding the mental state of of the person carry out the act? I have already read the following article &lt;a href=&quot;https://cleantechnica.com/2019/10/05/what-motivates-someone-to-key-a-tesla/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://cleantechnica.com/2019/10/05/what-motivates-someone-to-key-a-tesla/&lt;/a&gt; which is quite insightful . But I am looking for a generic predisposition that plagues these peoples mind - Are there any day to day examples of the same ? Do we all have these predisposition though of varying degrees (examples) ? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can one change their mentality to not fall prey to performing these actions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23383" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T16:06:46.953" Title="What motivates someone to key a Tesla" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-11-05T01:39:01.447" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24370" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24367" CreationDate="2019-11-03T18:28:22.990" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the definition you found from OED is fine. Dictionary definitions are often not really ideal for terms used in biology, you learn more from examples and usage, for example the quote you gave about upper motor neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;can I say that a neuron projects to another neuron, to mean that the axon of the first connects to some dendrite of the second?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typically &lt;em&gt;yes&lt;/em&gt;, though as the OED definition implies, &quot;from any given&quot;/&quot;to the receiving part&quot;, &lt;em&gt;projection&lt;/em&gt; is typically used for longer-range connections, where the sending and receiving cells are in different nuclei or layers. You would be less likely to describe cells that synapse on each other within one nucleus as &lt;em&gt;projecting&lt;/em&gt;, though I also wouldn't say that description is entirely wrong either, and the distance required to be &quot;long-range&quot; can sometimes be short.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You'll note if you go through the Purves' glossary that you linked, all the uses of &quot;projection&quot; refer to long-range connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-11-03T18:28:22.990" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24371" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-03T20:20:24.820" Score="1" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Attachment theory suggests that we divide attachment styles into secure attachment style vs insecure attachment styles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What fraction of the population would be classified as having a secure attachment style, and what fraction as having an insecure attachment style?  Is there are any data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is any data on the breakdown between different types of insecure attachment style, that would also be interesting.  I am most interested in the US or Western cultures, if it is culturely-dependent, but I would be interested in any references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a reference that describes Mary Ainsworth's initial study of infants from middle-class Baltimore families as having the following proportions: 66% secure attachment (type B), 20% insecure-avoidant (type A), 12% insecure-ambivalent (type C).  I found a reference to a 1992 study from Fonagy et al. that seemed to suggest a split of about 57% secure attachment, and 42% insecure attachment.  Another &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/mary-ainsworth.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;website&lt;/a&gt; reports the proportions as 70%, 15%, 15%.  That's a fair bit of variation among numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11209" LastActivityDate="2021-03-28T10:06:10.633" Title="What fraction of the population has secure attachment style?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24372" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-03T21:00:45.477" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read several times about an effect that turns up when you are in a conversation with a person and the person starts suddenly complaining about their job, hobby or relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one confirms their negative views on the topic, they change into a defensive position and start defending what they criticized before. If one does the opposite, they turn even more negative towards their complaints.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has this an name?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24616" LastActivityDate="2019-11-03T21:00:45.477" Title="Name of an effect, negative amplification" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24373" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24354" CreationDate="2019-11-03T21:14:36.207" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_illusions#Types&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;optimism bias&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a tendency for people to overestimate their likelihood of&#xA;  experiencing a wide variety of pleasant events, such as enjoying their&#xA;  first job or having a gifted child, and somewhat underestimate their&#xA;  risk of succumbing to negative events, such as getting divorced or&#xA;  falling victim to a chronic disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Optimism bias&lt;/a&gt; is a type of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-enhancement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-enhancement&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... a preference for positive over negative self-views.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_illusions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive illusions&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... unrealistically favorable attitudes that people have towards&#xA;  themselves or to people that are close to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-11-03T21:14:36.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24374" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24371" CreationDate="2019-11-04T08:41:43.430" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Welcome to Psychology.SE. The answer to your question is not that straight forward. You could have a strong attachment style amongst work colleagues but have an insecure attachment style with superiors or parents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For different types of attachment (insecure/secure) I would suggest reading the works of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bowlby&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Bowlby&lt;/a&gt; who pioneered the theory of attachment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For further reading there is also a book called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.co.uk/Understanding-Disorganized-Attachment-Practice-Children/dp/1849050449&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Understanding Disorganized Attachment: Theory and Practice for Working with Children and Adults&lt;/em&gt; by David and Yvonne Shemmings&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T08:41:43.430" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24375" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24378" CreationDate="2019-11-04T09:24:34.707" Score="-1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have decided to study psychology as a hobby. I want it to understand better people that I am interacting with. Specifically, I want to know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why humans talk / behave in certain ways?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How they think and why they think in those ways?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do people make decisions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How to study personality as a whole?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What areas of psychology should I study? I have heard that an OCEAN model can help me with that. Will it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24618" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T16:04:32.600" Title="How to learn how humans behave?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-11-05T22:22:09.250" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24377" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24382" CreationDate="2019-11-04T16:02:06.773" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lecture slide says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;classical conditioning causes a stimulus to signal a positive or negative consequence; &lt;strong&gt;the resulting behavior doesn't produce the consequence&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does it mean by the bolded sentence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24043" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T16:51:42.960" Title="What does it mean by &quot;the resulting behavior doesn't produce the consequence&quot;?" Tags="&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24378" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24375" CreationDate="2019-11-04T16:04:32.600" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Those research questions are broad and therefore don't point specifically to sub-areas in psychology. For example, you could examine behavior in multiple species (flies, rats, humans), multiple contexts (social media, laboratory, financial markets), and diverse methods (neuroscience, surveys, computational modeling). However, your mention of personality suggests that one area to look closely at would be Social and Personality Psychology, which are two domains often combined: &lt;a href=&quot;http://spsp.org/about/what-socialpersonality-psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://spsp.org/about/what-socialpersonality-psychology&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T16:04:32.600" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24379" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24369" CreationDate="2019-11-04T16:06:46.953" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recommend looking at the literature on aggressive behavior, e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggression&lt;/a&gt;. There are many potential causes for such an act. In terms of generic predispositions, consider personality types (e.g., low Agreeableness), but don't overlook the importance of context and culture (e.g., high wealth inequality).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to the final question, self-help questions are out of scope for this forum. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T16:06:46.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24380" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24359" CreationDate="2019-11-04T16:10:27.783" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;All personality models are related in that they are carving up the same variance into different factors, and some of the factors will overlap. Extraversion is probably the most similar trait between the two models, but it's still quite different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a personality psychologist, I would say yes, this is potentially an overestimation of their convergence. A brief description of why the Big Five is preferred over MBTI is that the measures of the former are dimensional rather than categorical, have more test re-test stability, and have more stable relationships with other levels of analysis (e.g., genes predicting traits; traits predicting behaviors). Reliability and validity are the cornerstones of quality measurement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T16:10:27.783" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24382" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24377" CreationDate="2019-11-04T16:51:42.960" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The slide is contrasting classical conditioning with operant conditioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In operant conditioning, you train that a &lt;em&gt;behavior&lt;/em&gt; is paired with a reward or punishment. For example, a lever press dispensing a food pellet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In classical conditioning, there is no relevant behavior. Some stimulus (rather than behavior) is paired with an outcome. For example, if there is a tone played before a shock, the tone will cause rodents to freeze in anticipation of the shock, but nothing about their freezing behavior is causing the shock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T16:51:42.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24383" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-04T17:28:45.630" Score="1" ViewCount="117" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know about &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/sleep-paralysis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sleep paralysis&lt;/a&gt; and there is several information about it,  available over literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sleep paralysis is a temporary inability to move or speak that occurs&#xA;when you're waking up or falling asleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I never read about sensations of some electric current passing through an individual as shown in this &lt;a href=&quot;https://image.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/humanoid-robot-glowing-energy-circles-600w-49279639.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;figure&lt;/a&gt; from top to bottom during sleep. It doesn't comes under the category of sleep paralysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I searched over internet &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Why-can-I-make-my-body-feel-like-electricity-is-running-through-it-at-will&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[1]&lt;/a&gt;, I found almost no proper material to read science behind it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research done on (or at-least recognition in literature on existence of) &lt;strong&gt;such&lt;/strong&gt; sensations while sleeping?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6715" LastEditorUserId="6715" LastEditDate="2020-12-26T03:34:31.263" LastActivityDate="2020-12-26T03:34:31.263" Title="Reason for experiencing electric current flowing through body during sleep from top to bottom" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-11-05T10:08:11.100" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24384" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17384" CreationDate="2019-11-04T19:42:32.137" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;To want to have a normal relationship with another person is commendable. Unfortunately, they can't. &lt;strong&gt;Their inability to receive feedback is a part of their diagnosis.&lt;/strong&gt; Attempts to do so will also cause them to escalate, as they are responding to the denial of their perception of reality, not the actual facts. &lt;strong&gt;How you communicate the facts won't matter to them, as the facts are disproving their view of reality.&lt;/strong&gt; Merely having the facts presented to them is enough to trigger their escalation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most neurotypical persons have been conditioned by society to ask themselves if they may be in the wrong when someone responds in the ways someone with a narcissism diagnosis usually responds. Unfortunately, when interacting with a narcissist that isn't the case. Narcissists often blame others as a part of the narcissist's own maladjusted behavior, not because the other person is actually at fault. &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder#Associated_features&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This reaction is actually a part of the diagnostic criteria used to diagnose the condition.&lt;/a&gt; To get around that quality would go a long way in helping clinicians treat the condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is worth noting that narcissism, as a clinical condition, is so severe as to qualify as a personality disorder. The person's behavior will not be consistent with either your expectations or reality, but since narcissists go to elaborate lengths to conceal their own misconduct there is often no way to expect that at first. Since they stress their need to conform and to project success they often appear to be very well-adjusted. Many narcissists use their skills at deceit to advance professionally, and often become problematic for a formal environment to deal with. If you're encountering a narcissist in a professional environment be cautioned that they're going to be highly toxic to your career, as they will be willing to pursue you in a very vindictive fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately their inability to receive feedback is similar to the way a schizophrenic reacts when you deny their delusions. The narcissist's mind perceives themselves in an unrealistic fashion and is willing to tamper with records and evidence in an attempt to deny reality. If you contradict their perceptions of themselves and the context surrounding themselves the narcissist will escalate, as you are now evidence that their perceptions are wrong. They are responding to the denial of their perception of reality, not the actual facts. No statement that includes them in any way is going to be tolerated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15523" LastActivityDate="2019-11-04T19:42:32.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24386" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24365" CreationDate="2019-11-05T00:18:20.030" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Indeed, the brain is absolutely full of vasculature; I thought this image was a nice example...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JMDe6.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JMDe6.png&quot; alt=&quot;Vasculature&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(figure from Adams et al 2015)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(a) and (d) are sections through cortex, parallel to the surface. All the black/colored dots are indicating vessels (arterioles and venules) that are diving down into the brain. (b) shows the vasculature of the pial surface, where arteries and veins can be distinguished (color coded in c); this is how they get the color coding in (d), by comparing the overlay position. You can see all the veins, in blue, are larger and surrounded by the arteries, in red.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note the millimeter scale. The authors report 27.4 vessels per square millimeter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When describing the &lt;em&gt;blood brain barrier&lt;/em&gt; people are not referring to an absence of blood vessels in the brain; rather, the blood brain barrier is between the &lt;em&gt;walls lining all of those vessels&lt;/em&gt; and the &lt;em&gt;neurons themselves&lt;/em&gt;. Therefore, the actual surface area of this blood brain barrier is absolutely massive. Wong et al estimates 15-25 square meters of surface area over 600 kilometers of blood vessels in the brain, whereas the skin is only about 2 square meters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z21CK.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Z21CK.png&quot; alt=&quot;Blood-brain barrier&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(figure from Wong et al 2013)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Elsewhere in the body, nutrients just leak out of capillaries by diffusion. The endothelium in the brain (BMEC in the figure above) strictly controls the transport of most substances from the vascular space to the brain space, and the space between the endothelial cells is tightly closed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, the endothelial cells themselves are covered by the processes of glial (non-neuronal) cells called astrocytes, serving as a second layer of regulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adams, D. L., Piserchia, V., Economides, J. R., &amp;amp; Horton, J. C. (2015). Vascular Supply of the Cerebral Cortex is Specialized for Cell Layers but Not Columns. Cerebral cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991), 25(10), 3673–3681. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhu221&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wong, A. D., Ye, M., Levy, A. F., Rothstein, J. D., Bergles, D. E., &amp;amp; Searson, P. C. (2013). The blood-brain barrier: an engineering perspective. Frontiers in neuroengineering, 6, 7. doi:10.3389/fneng.2013.00007&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-11-05T16:22:44.737" LastActivityDate="2019-11-05T16:22:44.737" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24388" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24334" CreationDate="2019-11-05T07:45:35.783" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a clear heritable component that seems to be &quot;highly genetically heterogeneous and may be caused by both inheritable and de novo gene variations&quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00385&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Rylaarsdam, Gomboa, 2019)&lt;/a&gt;. There has been hundreds of genes implicated in autism and a complex interaction of non-heritable gene variations as well, &quot;genetic modifiers such as copy number variation, single nucleotide polymorphisms, and epigenetic alterations likely play a key role&quot; (Rylaarsdam, Gomboa, 2019). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Rylaarsdam review article summarises the current state of play in terms of the genetic and non-heritable gene factors as well. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rylaarsdam, L., &amp;amp; Guemez Gamboa, A. D. (2019). Genetic Causes and Modifiers of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 13, [385]. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00385&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00385&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-11-05T07:45:35.783" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24389" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-05T16:10:00.187" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is a commonly observed effect: Some things are very hard to find because they're embedded in surroundings where they don't stand out, but after you've found one, it's easy to find it again—and it's hard to perceive the original difficulty of finding it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, finding Waldo on a page of a &lt;em&gt;Where's Waldo?&lt;/em&gt; book is usually very difficult. You have to search through many &quot;decoy&quot; images on the same page. But once you've found Waldo on that page, finding him again is much easier. You can omit nearly the whole page from your search, and Waldo visually &quot;pops out&quot; more easily. Sometimes you can't &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; see Waldo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Solving a puzzle or brainteaser question is usually difficult, but once you know the solution, solving it again is easy.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learning mathematics is usually difficult, but often after you've learned a piece of it, e.g. the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, it seems almost trivially obvious. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Learning to perceive spoken words in a foreign language is usually difficult at first, but once you've got it, it's effortless; you can't even &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; perceive them. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually after learning one of these things, one tends to underestimate its difficulty for someone who hasn't solved it. For example, after finding an outdoor sign for a business on a crowded street, people will sometimes point and say, &quot;It's right there—the yellow sign! Can't you see?,&quot; forgetting how hard it is for someone who hasn't seen the sign yet to see it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might reasonably say that the above examples illustrate several distinct effects, not just one effect. That's OK. If there are multiple terms or multiple forms of &quot;Where's Waldo?&quot; effect distinguished in the literature, I'd love to see an answer with more than one. I'm mainly asking in order to get terms to search the literature on Google Scholar. I'm as interested in the base effect as in the difficulty empathizing with people who haven't yet &quot;found Waldo&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17722" LastEditorUserId="17722" LastEditDate="2019-11-05T16:59:23.100" LastActivityDate="2019-11-06T16:24:17.220" Title="Seeking a standard term for the &quot;Where's Waldo?&quot; effect" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24392" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-05T21:53:33.053" Score="11" ViewCount="1102" Body="&lt;p&gt;The cognitive ability of humans is varies with the concentration of CO₂ in breathing air. But how does it vary?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A very high concentration causes sleepiness, and sleepiness is a state of reduced cognitive ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That means it does vary, but I think there is no sudden onset of the reduction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would be interested in, ideally, a function of some experimental correlate of cognitive ability by level of CO₂, but any theoretical or experimental information about the shape of the function is interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm aware that the signal to noise ratio in an experimental measurement is high, but qualitative results are the most important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4799" LastActivityDate="2019-11-08T14:59:27.660" Title="How does intelligence or general cognitive ability vary with level of CO₂?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24394" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-06T08:27:21.523" Score="0" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, I know hormones in the brain being released are more or less responsible for the emotions we feel. From a physical point of view, the amount of hormones available and the production rate of the hormones is limited. So, if the amount of hormones being released exceeds the production rate, from a purely physical point of view, at some point it will be depleted. I personally experience this in the form that after euphoria I feel more down than usual (at least I believe that this is an example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Also, there is physical pain. I have no idea if that can be limited in any way depending (or not) on time of duration and intensity.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I can grasp the concept from a logical point of view. On the other hand, I have a strong sense that there are certain actions in the world that have no upper limit of inflicting physical and psychological pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; Is the length and intensity of feelings and emotions limited, especially these of physical and psychological pain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19267" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-11-06T17:22:27.013" LastActivityDate="2019-11-06T17:23:39.543" Title="Is the length and intensity of feelings and emotions limited?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24397" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="14090" CreationDate="2019-11-06T15:20:40.343" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Italian in London that overestimates the number of Italians in London could have &lt;strong&gt;confirmation bias,&lt;/strong&gt; which is &quot;the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that affirms one's prior beliefs or hypotheses&quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; referring to The Psychology of Judgement and Decision Making, p. 233).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The attractive woman thinking that all people are friendly because they are friendly to her could also have confirmation bias or &lt;strong&gt;observational &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;selection bias&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which is &quot;introduced by the selection of individuals, groups or data for analysis in such a way that proper randomization is not achieved.&quot; Or she could use &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_validation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;subjective validation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; by which she perceives two unrelated events (i.e., a coincidence) to be related because their personal belief demands that they be related.  Or she could be just &lt;strong&gt;naive.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-11-06T15:38:46.660" LastActivityDate="2019-11-06T15:38:46.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24398" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24389" CreationDate="2019-11-06T16:24:17.220" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Learned recognition&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rspb.2002.2081&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The evolution of signal form: effects of learned versus inherited recognition (The Royal Society Publishing)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Organisms can learn by individual experience to recognize relevant&#xA;  stimuli in the environment or they can genetically inherit this&#xA;  ability from their parents...We analyse the joint effects of receiver&#xA;  biases, signal cost and mode of acquisition, investigating the&#xA;  circumstances under which &lt;strong&gt;learned recognition&lt;/strong&gt; gives rise to more&#xA;  exaggerated signals than inherited recognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Curse of knowledge&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Usually after learning one of these things, one tends to underestimate&#xA;  its difficulty for someone who hasn't solved it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastActivityDate="2019-11-06T16:24:17.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24399" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24394" CreationDate="2019-11-06T16:33:20.610" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The key terms to help understand the answers about the duration and intensity of experiences over time would likely include &lt;em&gt;habituation&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;emotion&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;pain&lt;/em&gt;. You might be surprised by how scientists use these terms differently than most people. Consider an intro psych textbook or wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, emotions are generally defined as being brief, transitory affective states. If someone has a negative feeling that lasts for hours, psychologists might call that a &lt;em&gt;mood&lt;/em&gt;. If a person has a negative feeling that lasts for years, psychologists generally use other labels such as &lt;em&gt;personality&lt;/em&gt;. The experience in a moment might be the same between these cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are some assumptions in your question that are not shared by most research or clinical psychologists or neuroscientists. For example, emotions aren't deterministically caused by hormones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19843" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2019-11-06T17:23:39.543" LastActivityDate="2019-11-06T17:23:39.543" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24400" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-06T18:26:30.433" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I pinch my right upper inner thigh I get a tingling sensation on my right upper forearm (on the inner side (near the place my forearm is touching the desk as I type)). I have had similar experiences with stimulus on different regions of the body. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How can this be understood in terms of how the different parts of my body are stored in my brain, knowing that perhaps the stimulus signal is also activating the nearby forearm responsible region? &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Does this imply that in my evolutionary history my inner thigh and forearm were one(ie femur and radius were one) and that they have since split to form separate limbs, or perhaps just the skin covering those regions was once close and has since split, hence largely sharing the same neural pathways? If so, can this distant past still have such an impact on my perception and senses that I am attributing to it?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;What is the best explanation as to why these two regions are stored closely together in the brain, if so is the case?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Have any prominent studies been done on this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24646" LastEditorUserId="24646" LastEditDate="2020-03-23T03:48:43.200" LastActivityDate="2020-03-23T03:48:43.200" Title="Triggering false sense of stimulus" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24401" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-06T19:19:55.763" Score="1" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/12-proven-ashwagandha-benefits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; article, where is the herb &lt;code&gt;ashwagandha&lt;/code&gt; which could treat depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Particularly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In one controlled 60-day study in 64 stressed adults, those who took&#xA;  600 mg of high-concentration ashwagandha extract per day reported a&#xA;  79% reduction in severe depression, while the placebo group reported a&#xA;  10% increase&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I look at the products with &lt;code&gt;ashwagandha&lt;/code&gt;, how do I recognize what is close to &lt;code&gt;600 mg of high-concentration&lt;/code&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is usually written the percentage of withanolides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, how to choose the right daily amount for depression in the particular product with &lt;code&gt;ashwagandha&lt;/code&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="554" LastActivityDate="2019-11-06T19:19:55.763" Title="How much ashwagandha to relieve depression?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24402" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12125" CreationDate="2019-11-06T21:10:36.307" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;several characters from &lt;strong&gt;azumanga daioh!&lt;/strong&gt; :) One who's name is &lt;strong&gt;osaka&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;the other I can't remember her name&lt;/strong&gt; but I think it starts with a t.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;zim from invader zim,&lt;/strong&gt; and probably &lt;strong&gt;GIR&lt;/strong&gt; from this show, as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;spongebob&lt;/strong&gt; probably&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;shawn spencer from psych&lt;/strong&gt; definitely has adhd, 1,000% (I wish I could be as charismatic as he is, but alas, life is not TV) Gus may be too, but I can't be sure&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;tigger from winnie the pooh&lt;/strong&gt; (especially the tigger movie, my word. I shed a tear. maybe two.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;other possibles, but not 100%: &lt;strong&gt;stitch from lilo and stitch&lt;/strong&gt; (can a dog/alien have adhd?). &lt;strong&gt;Lilo might be too,&lt;/strong&gt; but can't be sure. It's been a long time since I've watched that movie. Even if they aren't adhd, its still a great movie for adhders, and really shows the struggle we can go through (family, friend troubles, relationships and not fitting in.....intergalactic troubles.....lol, and just being plain weird).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;someone in &lt;strong&gt;The Emporer's new groove&lt;/strong&gt;. But I haven't watched it in so long I don't know who's suspect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;marvel's &lt;strong&gt;guardian's of the galaxy (quill(?)&lt;/strong&gt; most definitely and probably other characters, like &lt;strong&gt;rocket&lt;/strong&gt;. In the second movie it comes more into play for the plot. again, these movies made me cry because they get it.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;probably some characters from &lt;strong&gt;princess bride&lt;/strong&gt;, as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24647" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-11-07T13:59:19.257" LastActivityDate="2019-11-07T13:59:19.257" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24404" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24460" CreationDate="2019-11-07T14:38:38.667" Score="4" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand how behaviorism is outdated for not considering the brain processes and cognition as ultimately responsible for memory and learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless, after reading Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective, 6th Edition, by Dale Schunk, and reading a few posts on &quot;Cognitivism vs Behaviourism&quot; around the web I was left in complete confusion on why some cognitivists (or people professing to be) spurn the whole idea and practices of behaviourism at the same level creationists and evolutionists despise each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I compiled a list of behaviourist principles and practices that seem to make total sense (even being avant-garde and cognitivist in nature) and which don't seem to contradict cognitivism in &lt;strong&gt;practical&lt;/strong&gt; terms at all:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trial-and-error learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Law of effect &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Law of exercise&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Thorndike's Principles of Teaching (teachers should help students form good habits and not wait for them to do it all by themselves)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sequence of curricula (connect knowledge across subjects)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Systematic desensitisation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Contiguity of stimuli and responses (if you see it as a cognitive process)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Behaviour changing techniques using threshold, fatigue and incompatible response along with cognitive techniques, no?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reinforcement (positive and negative), if you look at it as a cognitive process and complement their way of doing positive reinforcemnt with cognitive techniques? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Punishment was considered the worst of all stimuli by behaviourists&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The idea of parental involvement, setting expectations, self-evaluation, student participation, etc...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Successive approximations (shaping) if once again you look at it as a cognitive process&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-regulation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The idea that school sucks and the only reason many young people go to it is because they don't want to be punished by their parents or the law, such as in the UK, would send parents to jail for truancy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The idea of block scheduling instead of 50-minute slots per class per subject&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Out-of-school programmes, summer camps and after-school activities&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mastery learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Linear vs branching programmes in CBT&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Contingency contracts&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I right to assume that the whole divide (at least on the topics I picked above) has to do with the theory behind these practices or are they really outdated and something fundamentally different has been created by cognitivism to fill in their place?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24650" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-11-07T19:46:37.143" LastActivityDate="2019-11-16T18:44:11.787" Title="Are behaviourist practices and/or principles still valid and useful?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24406" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-07T16:18:00.133" Score="0" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often come across the term &quot;Shared environment&quot; (as opposed to &quot;Non-shared environment&quot;). I &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; I understand non-shared environment, but shared environment is very confusing to me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone give a good explanation with examples please? Especially in regards to how can shared environment contribute to &lt;strong&gt;any&lt;/strong&gt; difference at all in explaining variance? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know the claim is that it explains very little, i.e. most of the variance due to environment is due to non-shared. But how is even a small variance due to shared environment possible? I mean, if two people (or siblings) went to different schools, and their income outcome was different, you could talk about the non-shared environment (school) that was different between them. But if they went to the same school, how can this shared environment contribute to any difference at all, even if very little. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24655" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-11-07T23:01:33.693" LastActivityDate="2019-11-07T23:01:33.693" Title="What's a clear explanation of &quot;Shared environment&quot;?" Tags="&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24408" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-07T20:18:21.417" Score="2" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm new here but I thought y'all would be the best place to ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there some research sub-community that studies how to measure psychological constructs and processes when you have high-resolution behavioral data? I'm vaguely aware of psychometrics but I've only heard of it in the context of designing questionnaires.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To avoid the &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/66377/what-is-the-xy-problem&quot;&gt;XY problem&lt;/a&gt;, let me describe what I mean a little more. I think I've got a handle on psychometrics as [broadly] the science of measuring psychological states and constructs. In contrast to the questionnaires I often see, I have behavioral data - in particular, I have virtual reality position tracking data. Participants in our experiments wear the headset and use hand controllers and we get position and rotation data at 90Hz over the course of the 5-20 minute experiment. I say this is &quot;high-resolution behavioral data&quot; because it is behaivoral (rather than self-report-based) and high-resolution because the data collected is not a single measure (e.g, how close did someone approach an object in VR?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of ways to measure any proposed construct. For example, one of our rough observations over five-ten years of runnign studies is that some people get super into VR and move around a lot while others don't move around as much. Some explore scenes and others don't. There are a bunch of ways that have been used in the past (standard deviation of yaw angle, total amount of movement, number and average length of fixations, amount of horizontal range that has been 'seen', amount of sphere being seen, etc. [apologies if those don't make sense as written, the key idea here is that they all correlate at about 0.5-0.8 but they legitimately measure different things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to be able to evaluate them coherently, and of course that means using previously invented frameworks if possible. I'd like to ask questions like: how reliable are they? how related are they? do they measure different things? are they measuring different parts of the same thing? which are best related to X construct of interest? which are related only because of noise? how do you account for noise and multiple comparisons when your measures are highly correlated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd also like to answer other questions similar to those that I haven't thought of - and I assume the psychometrics community (or some sub-field of it) would have converged on the good questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24658" LastActivityDate="2019-11-07T20:18:21.417" Title="Is there a subfield of psychometrics focused not on test questions but &quot;high-resolution&quot; &quot;behavioral&quot; data?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24412" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-08T04:19:27.820" Score="1" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many types of work that mainly create benefit by thinking, often called desk jobs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The output is based on the cognitive abilities of the person.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;It typically happens in an environment we call office.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A working person has some amount of cognitive abilities. They are certainly multidimensional, but that has no relevance here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are things that can reduce these abilities. Some of them are obvious, but it would be interesting to know all that are important for a common desk job. I assume there are not so many of them that this becomes a list question. Many of them are obvious, but I assume there are others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obvious are for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tiredness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;External distraction by unrelated activities of others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some points or classes where it is not obvious are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Maybe some types of mental illness? Major depression seems likely?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Possibly external physical influences like freezing?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are certainly unusual points applying only to few people, for example a person extremely distracted by harsh light. These are interesting, of course, but I mainly think of common things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4799" LastActivityDate="2019-11-08T17:21:38.767" Title="What can reduce the cognitive abilities in a common workplace?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-11-08T17:28:54.887" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24414" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24412" CreationDate="2019-11-08T10:10:26.037" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the most significant factors impairing cognitive abilities in a typical office environment is the noise. It is well-known that quiet environment is essential for good concentration. For instance, WHO recommends school classrooms should have noise level as low as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/15/2/285/htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;35 dB&lt;/a&gt; during classes. Yet a typical office environment can be as loud as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/health-topics/tf4173&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;70 dB&lt;/a&gt;, which is about 30-50 times louder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=cognitive+performance+noise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;loads&lt;/a&gt; of articles describing the effects of different levels of noise on various cognitive abilities, which inevitably show that noise above &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307856096_Effects_of_Background_noise_on_cognitive_performance_in_elementary_school_children&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;60-65 dB&lt;/a&gt; has a significant impact on mental activity, and noise above &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4900491/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;75 dB&lt;/a&gt; has a lasting effect which can be measured 4 hours after the exposure. For reference, most public transport is louder than that, and a subway can be as loud as 95 dB.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.blog/2015/01/16/why-we-still-believe-in-private-offices/&quot;&gt;well known&lt;/a&gt; that private offices (which reduce the noise quite a bit) can boost productivity significantly. Unfortunately, they are too pricey, or at least are seen as such, to become widespread.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24666" LastActivityDate="2019-11-08T10:10:26.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24415" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24412" CreationDate="2019-11-08T10:32:57.877" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question can only be answered if asked to the fields of human knowledge that deal with humans and their activities: ergonomics, psychology, social sciences, human-computer interaction, etc... There is no one field that may give you a complete list, in my opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So let's think about it together and start with the intrinsic domains that could affect human cognition in the context of the workplace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Human physical aspects&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As you mentioned, tiredness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Disabilities (e.g. visual impairment)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Physical incompatibility (e.g.: person provided with tools and accessories that don't fit their height or size)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Debilitating illnesses (e.g.: headaches, colds, etc...)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Human psychological aspects&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bias and faulty heuristics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mental illnesses (affecting either mood, thought process or both)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Motivational and attitudinal issues (e.g.: the person just hates their job or their job is run by a dictatorial boss)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Attentional issues (e.g.: the person is spread too thin or dividing their attention between personal and professional tasks)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lack of knowledge or experience (e.g.: the person doesn't have much to refer back to when they need to process new information. This can lead to bias.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now in the frontier between intrinsic and extrinsic aspects: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Human social aspects&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Once again, bias and faulty heuristics shared by people in the workplace &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beliefs and values (this is actually covered by biases)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Authorisation issues (e.g.: the person might know how to do something but doesn't have the privileges or authorisation to do a task)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dependency issues (e.g.: a process might need other people or external requirements to be completed: a worker in an assembly line might not be able to do their part until another worker on a previous line finishes their job)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mis-allocation (e.g.: someone is asked to do a job they are not prepared, trained or don't have the experience to do)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Faulty or lack of processes (e.g.: people are asked to do stuff without a certain underlying process or order, or their process lacks the necessary steps or contingency for cognitive processes to occur: a programmer is given a two-line brief to start the creation of a software without time to plan or understand the requirements of such)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Negative psychological environment (e.g.: an environment that fosters gossip, blaming, bullying and peer-pressure)  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Office culture (another one covered by biases but it can also be the resulting environment, both psychological and physical, that contributes to and is made of all the aspects we are discussing in this thread)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the more extrinsic reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Environmental aspects&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Climate (e.g.: an office that is too hot or too cold)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Workplace layout (e.g.: one needs to walk a lot between buildings to consult with colleagues, colleagues are in another country, the office is not open plan, your desk is too small, etc...)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Workplace design (e.g.: the room is painted in bright distracting colours or shabbily painted, signage that is not positioned in a visible location, etc...) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Noise and pollution (e.g.: certain activities require masks and ear-guards, sometimes offices are so close to the traffic there is a constant hum, air-conditioning noise, etc...)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wrong tools, equipment, and accessories (e.g.: equipment that hasn't been adapted for disabilities or physical characteristics of worker, etc...)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Outdated tools, equipment, and accessories (e.g.: a bit like wrong tools but more like that slow computer you have to wait 5 minutes for every operation to go through) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Badly designed interfaces and instructions (e.g.: the software or machines required to get the job done have usability and affordance issues, a coffee machine/photocopier that just a few know how to operate, etc...)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Local culture (e.g.: foreign language, local customs and behaviours, etc...)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feel free to edit and add more to the list.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24650" LastEditorUserId="24650" LastEditDate="2019-11-08T17:21:38.767" LastActivityDate="2019-11-08T17:21:38.767" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24416" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24392" CreationDate="2019-11-08T14:26:13.623" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3548274/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Is CO2 an Indoor Pollutant? Direct Effects of Low-to-Moderate CO2 Concentrations on Human Decision-Making Performance&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Environ Health Perspect&lt;/em&gt;. 2012 Dec; 120(12): 1671–1677: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;of 9 different cognitive tests performed at 600ppm (green), 1000ppm (blue) and 2500ppm (red) several show very marked decrease in scores at higher C02 concentration.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/g7U8f.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/g7U8f.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Authors summarized findings as: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Relative to 600 ppm, at 1,000 ppm CO2, moderate and statistically significant decrements occurred in six of nine scales of decision-making performance. At 2,500 ppm, large and statistically significant reductions occurred in seven scales of decision-making performance &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Four years after the above was published, the negative effects of carbon dioxide were confirmed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/ehp.1510037&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Associations of cognitive function scores with carbon dioxide, ventilation, and volatile organic compound exposures in office workers: a controlled exposure study of green and conventional office environments.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Environ Health Perspect&lt;/em&gt; (June 2016) 124:805–812, which was mentioned on Earth SE by Ken Fabian, although there is one common author Usha Satish.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, a very recent article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31240239&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Effects of acute exposures to carbon dioxide on decision making and cognition in astronaut-like subjects&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;NPJ Microgravity&lt;/em&gt;. (June 2019) 5: 17, which also has Usha Satish as an author, tends to contradict the above: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oefxV.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oefxV.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19953" LastEditorUserId="19953" LastEditDate="2019-11-08T14:59:27.660" LastActivityDate="2019-11-08T14:59:27.660" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24417" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-08T16:13:05.540" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am using a Levenson's Self-Report Psychopathy Scale to divide participants into two groups (high v low scores). I have selected participants based on them scoring in the top or bottom 25% of responses. I would like to report the mean percentile rank that each group falls under. I am relatively new to using psychological tests and don't know where to find this information. Is this available somewhere for all validated tests? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24671" LastActivityDate="2019-11-08T16:13:05.540" Title="Finding percentile ranks for questionnaires and psychometric tests" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24420" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24182" CreationDate="2019-11-08T22:30:28.363" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Face-name recognition is a form of paired associates, episodic memory. This type of memory is fairly difficult, even for cognitively normal people (and the ability often declines substantially with age), and thus a poor performance on a face-name task is not typically considered pathologic. Therefore, it doesn't have a specific neurologic term to describe it, which is why you can't find one. Words like aphasia, agnosia, alexia, apraxia (etc.) all denote conditions that should not exist in neurotypical people. HTH.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24673" LastEditorUserId="21063" LastEditDate="2019-11-09T15:47:08.857" LastActivityDate="2019-11-09T15:47:08.857" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24421" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-08T22:35:03.537" Score="3" ViewCount="273" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mUmj0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mUmj0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On average, there is a 15 IQ points gap between whites and blacks. Is there a scientific consensus on whether this gap is explained by nature/genetics, nurture/environment, or both?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This NYT article refers to a quote from Dr Francis Collins saying that most experts on intelligence “&lt;em&gt;consider any black-white differences in I.Q. testing to arise primarily from environmental, not genetic, differences.&lt;/em&gt;”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/01/science/watson-dna-genetics-race.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/01/science/watson-dna-genetics-race.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that true, or is he being politically correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article also mentions James Watson's unchanged views that the gap is explained mostly by genetics. It refers to his infamous comment on black people's intelligence being the same as whites:&#xA;“&lt;em&gt;people who have to deal with black employees find this not true.&lt;/em&gt;”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After looking at the bell curves, I am afraid I would never look at a black/african person the same again. I never thought that science would teach me to be racist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: My thread may share the same 'topic' with others, but it is not a duplicate. I am asking more specific questions with regards to the scientific consensus on the matter, and whether Dr Collins statement in the NYT article is true. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24675" LastEditorUserId="24675" LastEditDate="2019-11-08T22:52:30.020" LastActivityDate="2019-11-08T22:52:30.020" Title="Is there a scientific consensus on the cause of IQ gap by race?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ClosedDate="2019-11-09T05:29:52.093" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24422" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21153" CreationDate="2019-11-08T22:41:21.257" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The primary visual cortex is topographic, which means that specific parts of that brain region correspond exactly to specific parts of your visual field. In order to prove that a scotoma (literally a blind spot in your vision) is due to dysfunctional neurons, all you need to do is show that the neurons responsible for that spot in your vision are not working but the rest of them are. We can do this with a variety of tools, the most common one these days being fMRI. In addition to showing that the area of neuronal dysfunction maps onto the area subserving vision in that area where the scotoma is located, a spreading depression does exactly that: it spreads, at a predictable rate, from the location of its onset to adjacent brain tissue. fMRI will show you not only the area of brain dysfunction, but will allow you to &quot;follow&quot; the neuronal dysfunction as it moves over time, and show that it corresponds to the location of the scotoma in your visual field, which will also move in correspondence. HTH. See: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC31895/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC31895/&lt;/a&gt; for first reference to this type of research (more in pubmed with keywords fMRI and migraine aura).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24673" LastEditorUserId="24673" LastEditDate="2019-11-10T15:45:37.883" LastActivityDate="2019-11-10T15:45:37.883" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24426" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24440" CreationDate="2019-11-10T03:42:17.030" Score="0" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there in psychology an explanation and/or term that describes the phenomena that exists where people perceive a solution to a problem as “simple” after the solution has been found?&#xA;I have noticed in my many years of working with people that there are some who claim the solution to a problem was “simple” - and take great pride in this - but only after the solution has been found.&#xA;Of course, many things seem “simple” or “obvious” after they are known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example:  Fixing a car.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A mechanic needs to fix a car the problem area of which he does not know “specifically” but “generally” and he has to test each part he removes.  The parts are A, B, C, D and E. He has to remove parts B, C, D and E just to get to part A, all of which are time-consuming to remove (except part A).  Part A turns out to be the faulty part and it’s easy to replace - just two screws.&#xA;The boss (who is a mechanic himself but with higher rank within the company) says that the repair was “simple” - just had to change part A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Think an electrical system issue - battery, alternator, starter, starter relay).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that “oversimplification bias”?  I don’t know if such a bias exists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastEditorUserId="11556" LastEditDate="2019-11-10T20:07:05.527" LastActivityDate="2019-11-12T16:23:23.373" Title="What is the psychological explanation for the phenomena that a person sees the solution to a problem as “simple” once it has been found?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24428" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24448" CreationDate="2019-11-11T04:41:01.670" Score="1" ViewCount="106" Body="&lt;p&gt;My current knowledge about dopamine and serotonin came from a series of articles and web pages, a few videos also.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As per my knowledge and readings I know that addiction is about reward, a person’s brain releases a chemical called &lt;strong&gt;dopamine&lt;/strong&gt; when a person do addictive task and hence he feels momentarily good. But doing too much of it damages the receptors and hence the person cannot feel &lt;em&gt;happy&lt;/em&gt; anymore by doing that addictive act but he keeps on doing it in hope of that reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, if we treat that person so that his receptors gets healed a little and then we start giving him some medicine which releases &lt;strong&gt;dopamine&lt;/strong&gt; in right amount and hence converting that person’s addition from that previous addictive task to the medicines ( well I believe this is what psychiatrist actually do, because a person who goes to a psychiatrist always ends up taking medicines whole of his life) . If it’s all about &lt;em&gt;feeling good&lt;/em&gt; and the release of &lt;strong&gt;dopamine&lt;/strong&gt; then it seems completely logical to treat it by medicines and some self control. Then, my question, finally, is &lt;strong&gt;Is it possible to cure addiction by converting it into another addiction?&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I talked to some professionals and they said that it’s not wise to substitute a behavioural addiction with a substance addiction, but I cannot see any difference because both of these have same effect on the brain i.e. release of a &lt;em&gt;chemical&lt;/em&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that there lies many many minute and significant details which I have failed to look over but I expect that the researchers, well educated and even self-learner’s will get the gist of what I have said.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21149" LastEditorUserId="21149" LastEditDate="2019-11-13T11:54:33.930" LastActivityDate="2019-11-14T10:37:39.790" Title="Can we change a particular addiction into another addiction?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24432" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23237" CreationDate="2019-11-11T18:26:25.940" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the question and comments, I believe the word the OP is asking for and means enjoying something more when being in the center of the happening is &lt;strong&gt;engagement.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/engagement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merriam-Webster&lt;/a&gt;, engagement means &quot;a job or period of employment especially as a performer,&quot; or &quot;emotional involvement or commitment.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A simpler word would be just &lt;strong&gt;involvement,&lt;/strong&gt; which, according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/involvement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lexico&lt;/a&gt;, means &quot;the fact or condition of being involved with or participating in something&quot; or &quot;emotional or personal association with someone.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has nothing to do with being self-centered or egocentric. It means experiencing the event better when you are &lt;strong&gt;actively participating&lt;/strong&gt; in it rather than just observing it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastActivityDate="2019-11-11T18:26:25.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24435" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24449" CreationDate="2019-11-11T22:33:45.137" Score="4" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently received an &lt;a href=&quot;https://openbci.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Open BCI&lt;/a&gt; headset, and have been experimenting with it.  One interesting is my brain gives off very regular pulses.  My wife tested the headset too, and she also had these pulses.  I'm not sure if this is some artifact of the headset, or if there is something like a 'brain beat' similar to a heart beat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an example readout from the headset's 8 channels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZGuVQ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ZGuVQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The pulse frequency seems to change based on activity.  Here is another sample after I've been chatting with some people online.  You can see the frequency seems to have doubled, possibly due to increased cognitive load from interaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this phenomena, and is there any idea what it is?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KPg8L.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/KPg8L.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One odd thing about the pulses is that they are synchronized across my brain.  Here is an image of the 8 electrodes placement on my head, which you can see are spread across the top of my head from the front to the back.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any idea what can cause the pulses to synchronize like this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bSNZ0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bSNZ0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UPDATE: At Bryan Krause suggestion, I looked into whether it is some sort of cardiac pulse.  To get ECG data, I attached two skin patches to my biceps and a ground to my elbow.  The exact same pattern shows up.  I'm guessing it is the electric pulse that drives my heart, but the strange thing is the pulse is much slower than my heart, and does not correspond too closely to my heart rate.  For example, at rest I measured 8 beats per pulse.  Then I did some exercise to elevate my heart rate.  The pulses remained the same frequency but I now had 12 heart beats per pulse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a shot of the channels.  Channel #1 is the ECG data, and rest of the channels are the EEG.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0yTrc.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/0yTrc.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1002" LastEditorUserId="1002" LastEditDate="2019-11-13T15:54:56.100" LastActivityDate="2019-11-13T17:59:06.903" Title="Strange synchronized brain pulses on EEG using OpenBCI Cyton board" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24437" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-12T04:22:46.603" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking to find data that has patient's responses to Rorschach's inblots as well and their associated diagnosis ( Mainly looking into patients that have been diagnosed with schizophrenia, depression or a related mental illness).&#xA;I have been able to find researches that mention they have used a number of patients, and give out their Exner scoring system for their illness, but is there a place where I can find the actual responses?&#xA;I do not need confidential data, mainly just patient's responses. Looking into doing some experimentative AI related tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where would I find such data?&#xA;Any guidance is appreciated! &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24691" LastActivityDate="2020-04-10T07:02:10.360" Title="Where to find patient responses on Rorschach's Inkblot test?" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24438" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24437" CreationDate="2019-11-12T05:10:39.687" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, Exner scoring seems to be the standard for Rorschach test studies. The scores are likely a way of protecting patients that may give very personal answers that can identify them. For example, if a research subject reports the Rorschach image as reminding them of their hometown in Brooklyn and their mother who is a famous person, a research study that report raw data and raw responses will not pass ethics due to confidentiality issues. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are right, most studies use the Exner reporting system - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dovepress.com/distinctive-rorschach-profiles-of-young-adults-with-schizophrenia-and--peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-NDT&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Japanese study looking at young people with schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uccs.edu/samuelsonlab/sites/samuelsonlab/files/inline-files/franklin%20and%20cornell%201997.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adolescent females study &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will likely need to contact studies and join teams that do Rorschach studies to learn the specifics for yourself. Unfortunately, you would not be able to cite or use it as the basis for your research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-11-12T05:10:39.687" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24439" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-12T05:37:22.723" Score="0" ViewCount="130" Body="&lt;p&gt;I once watched a YouTube video explaining that it was because it was an evolutionary disadvantage to remember it better because you might do something like electrocute yourself with an electrical socket and then get scared before you know what it is. I'm guessing the research thought it was because people might become too scared to try things if they remember the incident too well. I believe that video was a TED-Ed video that no longer appears in the first page of YouTube search results. That video doesn't give me the information I'k looking for. Also, YouTube isn't 100% reliable. Also, from reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/329089/could-some-google-questions-be-useful/329094#329094&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;, I think it's sometimes fine to ask a question when I Google information and can't get the information I'm looking for from a reliable seeming source. I know it's actually a YouTube video that didn't give me the reliable information I needed. I also Google searched &quot;why can't we remember being a baby&quot; and found the article &lt;a href=&quot;http://theconversation.com/why-cant-we-remember-our-early-childhood-62325&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Why can’t we remember our early childhood?&lt;/a&gt; as the first search result and it didn't answer my question so probably none of the search results do. I'm not asking the evolutionary reason we can't remember being babies. I'm asking the reason based on how the brain works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is it about the way the brain works that causes people not to remember being a baby?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing the brain starts in a simpler state. Then the brain takes time to develop abilities such as memory reconstruction. I think just like absolute pitch is an ability that the brain can develop with time, memory reconstruction is also an ability that babies' brains have not yet had time to develop very well. I also realize that even after that ability develops, it's probably not 100% reliable for everyone. Once, I went to the roundhouse in Toronto on a day that there was something going on. On that day, I payed for lemonade using tickets and then they thought I hadn't payed then somebody else said I payed and they believed him. I'm guessing the person whom I payed had developed a method of memory reconstruction that was normally reliable but wasn't reliable in that situation. I'm guessing she was so busy doing so many things with so many customers coming that the memory of my payment faded faster than it normally does and then she used the method of memory reconstruction that assumed that the memory of me paying wouldn't fade so fast because her memories of doing things normally fade slower because she's not so busy doing so many things so fast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10270" LastActivityDate="2019-12-01T02:08:39.983" Title="Why can't we remember being babies?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24440" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24426" CreationDate="2019-11-12T16:23:23.373" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @Arnon suggested in the comments, this looks to be a case of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindsight_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hindsight bias&lt;/a&gt;, especially given the reference to &quot;hindsight is 20/20&quot; in a comment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Via Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Hindsight bias, also known as the knew-it-all-along phenomenon[1] or creeping determinism,[2] refers to the common tendency for people to perceive events that have already occurred as having been more predictable than they actually were before the events took place.[3][4] As a result, people often believe, after an event has occurred, that they would have predicted, or perhaps even would have known with a high degree of certainty, what the outcome of the event would have been, before the event occurred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-11-12T16:23:23.373" CommentCount="0" CommunityOwnedDate="2019-11-12T16:23:23.373" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24441" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-12T16:52:28.673" Score="2" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StrengthsFinder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;StrengthsFinder&lt;/a&gt; survey is a personality assessment which finds strengths which an individual can contribute to an organization. What is the consistency of this assessment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When a person takes the assessment multiple times in short time&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When a person retakes the assessment several months later&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is variance, what is it most likely to be attributed to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gallup.com/cliftonstrengths/en/249935/strengths-change-answering-big-question.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Gallup website&lt;/a&gt;, claims:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gallup's test-retest statistical correlation studies of&#xA;  CliftonStrengths assessments yield a correlation hovering around 0.7.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it does not cite any source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="4397" LastEditDate="2019-11-12T16:58:51.120" LastActivityDate="2019-11-26T00:42:13.513" Title="Longitudinal consistency of StrengthsFinder" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24444" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-13T09:21:07.917" Score="3" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;When talking about triptans used for migraines such as Zolimitriptan, such drugs &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zolmitriptan&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;are selective serotonin receptor agonists&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SSRIs, as their function states, are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The British National Formulary &lt;a href=&quot;https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/zolmitriptan.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;doesn't say so&lt;/a&gt;, but I am wondering if triptans can affect the efficacy of SSRIs. If so, how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the way I understand it, triptans could help boost the efficacy of SSRIs due to the fact that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the SSRIs are blocking (&quot;inhibiting&quot;) reuptake of serotonin, meaning more serotonin is available to pass further messages between nearby nerve cells.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the triptans activate serotonin receptors being that they are an agonist (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agonist&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a chemical that binds to a receptor and activates the receptor to produce a biological response&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2019-11-21T21:25:17.343" Title="Triptans and SSRIs" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24447" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-13T14:08:23.007" Score="2" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen some real evil acts. And I almost lost confidence in humanity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we become so evil sometimes that hurts other people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess everybody knows the Renaissance novel Les Miserables by Victor Hugo. There in the story, it is depicted how a person from the lowest echelon of the society stole a loaf of bread because his sister's child was hungry and how he was punished for years in hard labor during the industrial revolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So evil or injustice reveals itself such sometimes that we are compelled to question why? Why do we have to be so evil when we have this beautiful world just in front of us? Is it because of how our brain chemicals perceive things sometimes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a person is envious or jealous or has unjust anger and an MRI could be done right at that instance, would it show why we are evil?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19969" LastEditorUserId="19969" LastEditDate="2019-11-13T14:25:06.573" LastActivityDate="2019-12-01T02:19:57.437" Title="Why do our brains act in such a evil way sometimes that hurts other people?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24448" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24428" CreationDate="2019-11-13T14:59:20.973" Score="0" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Intro and Bill&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this answer, I am going to refer to a fictional person named Bill.  You can skip to the next header if you wish, but here is a brief rundown on Bill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bill has always been a gambler.  He started when his older brother used to sneak him into the pub to play on the fruit machines.  Now, 15 years on, he has progressed from machines to horses, and over the last few years, to online betting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bill had a good job in the city, but was made redundant 6 months ago due to cutbacks.  He was not too worried about finding more work in a hurry, as he had some savings.  Now, those are gone, and his online betting has increased so much that this month he was unable to make the mortgage payment.  That is when his wife discovered that the joint credit card was up to its limit and that there was no money left at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bill loves his wife and winces when he describes the day she found out, and how frightened for the future and how betrayed she was.  He desperately needs to pay back the money he owes her and some money he now owes to friends.  He just cannot see how, unless he can get that one big win.  Bill describes how he can study form and then will just ‘know’ that he has a winner.  As soon as that happens, the feeling of anticipation and excitement just grows, and the feeling is better than almost anything in the world.  Yes of course he must stop gambling, but never having that feeling again is going to be hard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Important - Addiction as opposed to Habit&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Addiction issues likely to arise are wide and varied.  There are 2 types of addiction — Substance Addictions, and Process Addictions (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3354400/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alavi, et al. 2012&lt;/a&gt;); and they can be anything from Risk Taking (“Adrenaline Junkie”) behaviours, Alcohol, Drugs or Food Addictions to Work, Shopping or Travel Addictions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the demarcation can be blurry (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1957.02970520056015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eddy, 1957&lt;/a&gt;) The difference between addictions and habits are that habits are generally unconscious actions and they do not take over your life.  Addictions on the other hand are generally conscious actions which affects the person and their family with the fact that the person has become reliant on the actions to “live their life” (&lt;a href=&quot;https://byrdnick.com/archives/9951/addiction-vs-habit-infographic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Byrd, 2016&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Addictions can impact the person’s &lt;em&gt;wheel of wellness&lt;/em&gt; [self-care] (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10703376&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Crowell, 1998&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb01906.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Myers, et al. 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/J_Myers_Indivisible_2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Myers &amp;amp; Sweeney, 2005&lt;/a&gt;) and there can be severe emotional and/or other psychological disturbances if the actions are not followed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Addictions can start in many different ways.  Addictions, or Self-Defeating Behaviours, operate within the following 3-step cycle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Usually, but not every time, it starts with something which the person has found deeply uncomfortable in an emotional sense which leads to the feeling of need to relieve the discomfort.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This then leads to avoidance, distraction or escape from the emotional pain, in this case through the addictive behaviour, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the addictive behaviour then leads to guilt for having done it, which is another uncomfortable (negative) feeling or emotion to add to the list from the start, and the process continues from the beginning (at number 1) again.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case of drug or alcohol abuse without an initial deeply uncomfortable emotional feeling, it could start with a heavy night of use which creates an elevated sense of feeling.  This can lead to feelings of guilt and other negative feelings, and so the cycle continues from there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, the seeking to regain those feelings in “that next high” can lead to feelings of inadequacy and/or despair which then takes you onto the negative feelings part of the cycle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Can we change a particular addiction into another addiction?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prolonged use of certain alcoholic drinks or certain drugs can lead to a situation where it would take so much more of the substance to get the “high” that you may then seek alternative (stronger) substances (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.91.3.199&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Skinner &amp;amp; Allen, 1982&lt;/a&gt;).  With alcohol for example, you may move from beer to spirits.  With process addictions, it could lead to substance habit(s) followed by addiction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Counselling such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/18926/&quot;&gt;Cognitive Behaviour Therapy&lt;/a&gt; may be used to challenge certain stages of the cycle of Self-Defeating Behaviours and therefore break that cycle and put an end to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we apply what I have said so far to Risk Taking as an addiction, it can be classed as a substance addiction as it involves the elevation of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenaline&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adrenaline&lt;/a&gt; in the body, or it can be classed as a process addiction as it involves taking risks.  However, if you take Bill as an example, you can deduce that the addiction is a process addiction as it doesn’t involve intoxication from a substance related addiction &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;, however, at certain times, there can be adrenaline involved and at some other times there can be other feel good hormones involved such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dopamine&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotonin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;serotonin&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;How does this apply to Bill?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we apply what I have said so far to Risk Taking as an addiction, it can be classed as a substance addiction as it involves the elevation of adrenaline in the body, or it can be classed as a process addiction as it involves taking risks.  However, if you take Bill as an example, you can deduce that the addiction is a process addiction as it doesn’t involve intoxication from a substance related addiction &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;, however, at certain times, there can be adrenaline involved and at some other times there can be other feel good hormones involved such as dopamine and serotonin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarise what Bill’s problem is, he has a gambling addiction which seems to have started 15 years ago.  His wife discovered the problem once she saw that their joint credit card is maxed out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the height of the chase to gain winnings, adrenaline will be rushing through his body giving feelings of excitement, and when there are wins, dopamine will affect the reward centres of his brain whilst serotonin provides some relaxation counteracting the adrenaline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bill sees himself as always been a gambler and it started with his brother taking him to the pub to play on fruit machines.  Now he is gambling through online betting.  Looking at Bill’s history, the problem has escalated through the years and he is at the point where he needs help to stop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How long that takes will be down to the hard work Bill is prepared to undertake, and it is generally believed that it takes around 21 days to stop a habit — just as it does to start one — although it is not necessarily that clear cut (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.674&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lally, et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem has been exacerbated by a combination of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the increase of access to gambling through online gambling sites,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the fact that he was made redundant 6 months ago, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;he wished to become a “professional gambler” to profit from his savings.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;How could we help Bill?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, we need to get Bill to examine why he looked for help.  He said that having that feeling of anticipation and excitement is better than almost anything in the world and never having it again is going to be hard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bill winces when he describes the day his wife found out.  Has he only come due to the fact that he was caught with the problem and needs to pay his friends and credit card back?  If that is the case, once he has paid them back, will he go back to his old habits?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Bill’s Goal&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once he has done this, the last part of the combination of problems which exacerbate things (the wish to be a professional gambler) will make things a little more difficult to start with, and therefore this would need to be looked at first as it will affect his ability to look at what is known as self-exclusion schemes. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.begambleaware.org/stay-in-control/what-is-self-exclusion/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GambleAware, n.d.(a)&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does it mean to be a professional gambler?  What about the problem of “House Edge” (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.begambleaware.org/understanding-gambling/gambling-words-and-phrases-explained/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GambleAware, n.d.(b)&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alavi, S. S., Ferdosi, M., Jannatifard, F., Eslami, M., Alaghemandan, H., &amp;amp; Setare, M. (2012). Behavioral Addiction versus Substance Addiction: Correspondence of Psychiatric and Psychological Views. &lt;em&gt;International journal of preventive medicine, 3&lt;/em&gt;(4), 290–294. pmcid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3354400/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3354400&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Byrd, N. (2016). &lt;em&gt;Addiction vs. Habit: Recognizing the dangers&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://byrdnick.com/archives/9951/addiction-vs-habit-infographic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://byrdnick.com/archives/9951/addiction-vs-habit-infographic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crowell, D. M. (1998). Care for the case manager: balancing your wheel of life. &lt;em&gt;Journal of case management, 7&lt;/em&gt;(3), 112-116. PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10703376&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10703376&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Eddy, N. B. (1957). Addiction-producing versus habit-forming: Guest Editorial. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the American Medical Association, 163&lt;/em&gt;(17), 1622-1623. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1957.02970520056015&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1001/jama.1957.02970520056015&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;GambleAware, n.d.(a). &lt;em&gt;Self-Exclusion&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.begambleaware.org/stay-in-control/what-is-self-exclusion/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.begambleaware.org/stay-in-control/what-is-self-exclusion/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;GambleAware, n.d.(b). &lt;em&gt;Gambling Words and Phrases Explained&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.begambleaware.org/understanding-gambling/gambling-words-and-phrases-explained/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.begambleaware.org/understanding-gambling/gambling-words-and-phrases-explained/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lally, P., van Jaarsveld, C. H. M., Potts, H. W. W. &amp;amp; Wardle, J. (2010). How are habits formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world. &lt;em&gt;European Journal of Social Psychology, 40&lt;/em&gt;(6), p. 998—1009. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.674&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1002/ejsp.674&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myers, J. E., &amp;amp; Sweeney, T. J. (2005). The indivisible self: An evidence-based model of wellness. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Individual Psychology, 61&lt;/em&gt;(3), 234-244. Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/J_Myers_Indivisible_2004.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/J_Myers_Indivisible_2004.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Myers, J. E., Sweeney, T. J., &amp;amp; Witmer, J. M. (2011). The wheel of wellness counseling for wellness: A holistic model for treatment planning. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Counseling &amp;amp; Development, 78&lt;/em&gt;(3), 251-266. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb01906.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;j.1556-6676.2000.tb01906.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Skinner, H. A., &amp;amp; Allen, B. A. (1982). Alcohol dependence syndrome: Measurement and validation. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91&lt;/em&gt;(3), 199–209. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.91.3.199&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0021-843X.91.3.199&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-11-14T10:37:39.790" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24449" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24435" CreationDate="2019-11-13T17:59:06.903" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Turns out these pulses are due to software latency in the OpenBCI GUI.  One particular widget, the headshot widget, uses a lot of the CPU causing packet delay, and leads to the pulse pattern.  Once the headshot widget is turned off, then the pulse artifact disappears.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/OpenBCI/OpenBCI_GUI/issues/349&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://github.com/OpenBCI/OpenBCI_GUI/issues/349&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1002" LastActivityDate="2019-11-13T17:59:06.903" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24450" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-13T22:56:57.337" Score="1" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;Obviously, they can't go to sleep immediately after sunset right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24700" LastActivityDate="2019-11-13T22:56:57.337" Title="Before taming fire, what did early humans do in dark?" Tags="&lt;anthropology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-11-14T12:32:47.290" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24451" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-14T12:02:31.830" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;so according to mainstream view brains are completely deterministic given initial conditions and knowing all the external input, and free will doesn't exist. so has there been attempts to predict human/advanced animal behavior from a given initial brain state? i mean accurately predicting movement of limbs and words spoken and facial expression for many minutes, not just predicating a sad brain is going to cry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21833" LastActivityDate="2019-11-14T12:02:31.830" Title="accurately predicting behavior from initial brain state" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24453" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24456" CreationDate="2019-11-15T06:56:06.883" Score="2" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3297071/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Long-term administration of the dopamine D3/2 receptor agonist pramipexole increases dopamine and serotonin neurotransmission in the male rat forebrain&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The sensitivity of postsynaptic D2 receptors in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) remained unaltered following pramipexole administration, as indicated by the unchanged responsiveness to the microiontophoretic application of DA. Their tonic activation was, however, significantly increased by 104% compared with the control level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does this mean? How does it enhance DA transmission?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17165" LastActivityDate="2019-11-15T16:29:22.150" Title="What is receptor tonic activation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24454" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24518" CreationDate="2019-11-15T08:46:47.477" Score="2" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine a few common stressful situations that we all go through:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Being struck in traffic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Having to wait for a bus, train...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Going through security/immigration control at an airport&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Purely an anecdotal observation: People tend to seek comfort in some form to handle such encounters - typically immediately afterwards.  Quite often it takes the form of snacking, drinking, dining, binging...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is this: Anecdotal observations aside, are there any studies that have attempted to correlate the magnitude of the stress with the likelihood of the comfort-seeking behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19016" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-11-29T19:39:35.337" LastActivityDate="2019-11-29T19:39:35.337" Title="Research correlating stress/boredom with eating/comfort-seeking?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;correlation&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24456" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24453" CreationDate="2019-11-15T16:29:22.150" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In physiology, &quot;tonic&quot; refers to something roughly continuous or static.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of receptor activation, tonic typically means there is some small quantity of agonist present such that the receptor is always activated a little bit. The receptors mediating tonic effects are typically &quot;extrasynaptic&quot;: outside the synapse, and typically have higher affinity for their agonist. The opposite of tonic would be &lt;em&gt;phasic&lt;/em&gt; - where a release of neurotransmitter causes an immediate and brief receptor activation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the passage you quote, they try puffing on some DA (&quot;microiontophoretic application of DA&quot;) and they get the same response with and without pramipexole, so there is no effect on the phasic response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the &lt;em&gt;tonic&lt;/em&gt; activation, when they aren't puffing on DA, was increased. You normally measure this tonic activation by using a receptor antagonist (in this case they use haloperidol). The tonic activation is equal to (without antagonist) - (with haloperidol).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The drug they are using, pramipexole, is a D2 receptor agonist. How I would interpret their result is that, because pramipexole is around all the time during their experiments, there is constant low-level activity at the D2 receptor. They did not find evidence that this low-level activity decreased the response to phasic dopamine release, however; if it did, they would have seen a decreased response when they puffed on DA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chernoloz, O., El Mansari, M., &amp;amp; Blier, P. (2012). Long-term administration of the dopamine D3/2 receptor agonist pramipexole increases dopamine and serotonin neurotransmission in the male rat forebrain. Journal of psychiatry &amp;amp; neuroscience : JPN, 37(2), 113–121. doi:10.1503/jpn.110038&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Grace, A. A. (2000). The tonic/phasic model of dopamine system regulation and its implications for understanding alcohol and psychostimulant craving. Addiction, 95(8s2), 119-128.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-11-15T16:29:22.150" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24457" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-16T06:55:20.473" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just heard that when you criticize something objectively and even when other people agree that it is true, the people that heard your criticism may actually associate this negativity with YOU. What is this phenomenon called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if you comment on a metropolitan city, people tend to be impersonal, I heard people hearing your comment actually may associate &quot;impersonal&quot; with &lt;em&gt;you&lt;/em&gt;. That actually is opposite to what might be expected, because if I mention people are impersonal, it should imply that I hope for the situation to be more personable, which mean I am not impersonal. So this is a big surprise if it is in fact true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14766" LastEditorUserId="14766" LastEditDate="2019-11-16T07:21:20.253" LastActivityDate="2019-11-16T07:21:20.253" Title="Is it known in human psychology that when you comment on something negatively but objectively, people may associate the negativity with YOU?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24404" CreationDate="2019-11-16T18:44:11.787" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Turf war mixed with artificial distinctions. Behaviorism can hardly be considered outdated when the most popular therapies are behavioral: CBT, DBT, ACT. Even modern implementations of mindfulness are behavioral. Behaviorism is also popular in performance management and organizational psychology, addiction, instructional design, etc.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21885" LastActivityDate="2019-11-16T18:44:11.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24461" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24465" CreationDate="2019-11-17T12:10:06.230" Score="3" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am wondering if there is any evidence of personality traits like intro versus extroversion existing in native people without any contact with modern society, or if they are a result of modern life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3441" LastEditorUserId="3441" LastEditDate="2019-11-17T20:16:19.883" LastActivityDate="2019-11-18T19:20:21.127" Title="Do modern personality traits exist with native people" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24463" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24468" CreationDate="2019-11-17T21:20:03.987" Score="-1" ViewCount="146" Body="&lt;p&gt;Don't insecurities arise from self hate? For example if we are insecure about our face aren't we hating our face - hating ourselves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24724" LastActivityDate="2019-11-18T15:53:50.803" Title="How would you differentiate &quot;self hate&quot; from &quot;insecurities?&quot;" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2019-11-19T16:29:44.747" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24464" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-18T05:50:41.503" Score="2" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;One would think perceptual dysfunctions would be sufficient to define the condition since the inability to discern or perceive phenomena and failure to execute or adjust behavior due to lack of proper feedback could explain most if not all characteristic behavior&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unusual gestures and speech, improper social behavior would be explained by the inability to fully discern speech and gestures and learning them in a partial manner while repetitive behavior and rigid thinking would be explained by a limited range of feedback causing a failure to diverge. Even the stereotypes like lining up cars by color, spending hours watching washing machines spin, being really obsessed by specific sorts of machinery etc. can be explained by low-level patterns like color gradients, mechanical movement etc. registering much more dominantly than higher-level patterns with a larger number of elements and chaoticity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't see how Occam's Razor would not apply here. What makes it necessary to define autism in such a nebulous way then? Is it the history behind it, or is it more nuanced than I think?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: I should clarify, by 'perceptual dysfunction' I am speculating about a more general form of sensory processing disorder. There is no reason the mechanism behind sensory processing disorders would not affect perception of higher order emergent phenomena in the same manner. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, think about a chain of emergence like &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;points -&amp;gt; curves -&amp;gt; shapes -&amp;gt; faces -&amp;gt; expressions -&amp;gt; nonverbal messages&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With sensory processing disorder in my example shapes might fail to register or dominate and disturb perception at a noticeably higher rate than without. I believe the same can also apply for a 'perceptional dysfunction' where faces, expressions etc. have a higher chance failing to register with or without disturbance in perception of lower level patterns. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23395" LastEditorUserId="23395" LastEditDate="2019-11-18T18:36:04.710" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T19:48:19.220" Title="What makes it necessary to define autism beyond perceptual dysfunction?" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24465" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24461" CreationDate="2019-11-18T08:07:14.160" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;See the study below conducted on Tsimane (indigenous Bolivians). It uses Big-5 traits to assess whether if a general factor of personality can be identified with the natives (who mostly fit your criteria) similar to western population studies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which is 'evidence' that personality traits exists in indigenous tribes the same way they do in Western populations, since well, how else would they measure it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;van der Linden, Dimitri et al. “How Universal Is the General Factor of Personality? An Analysis of the Big Five in Forager Farmers of the Bolivian Amazon.” Journal of cross-cultural psychology vol. 49,7 (2018): 1081-1097. doi:10.1177/0022022118774925&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6047301/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6047301/&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23395" LastEditorUserId="23395" LastEditDate="2019-11-18T19:20:21.127" LastActivityDate="2019-11-18T19:20:21.127" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24466" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24441" CreationDate="2019-11-18T09:07:32.877" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Seems like StrengthFinder and CliftonStrengths are owned by Gallup organisation and there is commercial registration of the tests? The same way as psychometric testing can be commercialised and protected by intellectual property law, it seems that Gallup has done the same with those tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the result, research and testing into those instruments are very limited and stifled by the risk of litigation by the Gallup organisation. Makes it hard to independently verify and test the assumptions and studies done by Gallup unfortunately. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2019-11-18T09:07:32.877" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24468" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24463" CreationDate="2019-11-18T15:53:50.803" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Self-hating and insecurity are not the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-hatred or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/self-loathing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-loathing&lt;/a&gt; is an attitude in which one thinks he/she is not good as a person from various reasons and does not accept and love him/herself. No matter what the cause, at some point one needs to realize that self-hatred is a conscious attitude, so a decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Insecurity means that one is not confident about a certain personal characteristic or capability, which can make him/her anxious, but not necessary self-loathing. One can be insecure but still love and accept himself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, insecurity is a feeling one may not be able to overcome at times, while self-hatred is an attitude that can be changed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Experiencing and accepting love from others can help one to start love him/herself and  to be more secure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastActivityDate="2019-11-18T15:53:50.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24469" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-18T19:12:54.087" Score="3" ViewCount="946" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the video &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9f3qyNNtpQk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Self-esteem Doesn't Exist&lt;/a&gt;, the author Jordan Peterson clearly seems to argue he doesn't believe in self-esteem, given the title of the talk. However, I do not notice him mentioning anything in relation to this and therefore I do not understand what he means exactly (maybe because I am not an English speaker).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you clarify why exactly he claims self-esteem does not exist, or what he is referring to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24731" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-12-22T14:46:44.450" LastActivityDate="2020-01-21T16:02:35.280" Title="Why would someone state that &quot;self-esteem doesn't exist&quot;?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24471" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24486" CreationDate="2019-11-18T20:17:38.823" Score="2" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’m wondering why people are more likely to fail when they know people are watching and or counting on them. For example in a football game where there is 2 seconds left in the game, and team A has the ball and they’re 2 points behind team B. They go for a field goal and the kicker misses by a mile after going say 20 for 20 field goals all season before that kick. What explains the cause for underperformance when the stakes are high, or someone is watching, etc?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24733" LastActivityDate="2019-11-23T19:20:10.600" Title="Why do I always screw up when people are watching?" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24472" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24473" CreationDate="2019-11-18T22:22:00.927" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;MMN x MMR - mismatch negativity versus mismatch response: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How are the concepts related and what is the difference between them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24734" LastActivityDate="2019-11-18T23:10:53.813" Title="Mismatch negativity vs. mismatch response" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24473" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24472" CreationDate="2019-11-18T23:10:53.813" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;MMN/MMR refer to responses during an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddball_paradigm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;oddball paradigm&lt;/a&gt;. The typical arrangement of this sort of paradigm is to have a sequence of stimuli, for example, a sequence of tones of one frequency, followed by either the same tone (standard) or a different tone (oddball).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;For EEG, they are the same thing&lt;/a&gt;. Mismatch negativity is a particular response in the EEG observed as the difference in response to an &quot;oddball&quot; compared to the same stimulus when it is a standard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Mismatch response&quot; is a more general term that would include, for example, an increase (or simply a change) in neuronal firing in response to the oddball vs. standard, or a change in functional connectivity, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-11-18T23:10:53.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24480" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24481" CreationDate="2019-11-19T18:46:54.070" Score="2" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if the MFG is located in the region considered the DLPFC? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24747" LastActivityDate="2019-11-19T19:26:09.060" Title="Is the approximation of the Medial Frontal Gyrus in the region of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24481" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24480" CreationDate="2019-11-19T19:26:09.060" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;No; the medial frontal gyrus is medial; it faces the sagittal midline of the brain. Medial is the opposite of lateral; the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is lateral, facing towards the outside of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps you are thinking of the &lt;em&gt;middle&lt;/em&gt; frontal gyrus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2019-11-19T19:26:09.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24482" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-19T20:03:20.857" Score="0" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;Obviously, not all phobias are made equal. There are some 'phobias' that involve things that are normally do inspire fear in others (such as, famously, spiders). Honestly, I never understood why being scared of things like spiders constituted a 'phobia', since phobias are supposed to be irrational fears, but being afraid of spiders (at least, certain species) is obviously normal and not exactly irrational. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I often say I have a phobia of ghosts. But do I? I don't believe in ghosts, so I consider it irrational, but 'ghosts' in general don't scare me. The ghosts of Skyrim never scared me, though the ones in certain quest mods do. And I've certainly never found Casper scary, but I could never force myself to enter a location I've heard is haunted, purely because of that label. Old abandoned buildings (particularly houses) also scare me for no reason. Simply being in one makes me want to get out of there as fast as possible. And considering that ghosts in general don't scare me, I'm not sure my weird and obviously nonsensical fear would actually count as a phobia. Its, of course, normal to find ghosts scary. But is it normal to not be able to enter a supposedly 'haunted' location, or an old rotting building, even though I honestly don't see any reason for ghosts to exist. And thinking about that fact doesn't help one bit for some reason.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what's the line between being just scared of something and having a phobia towards it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user24748" LastActivityDate="2019-11-19T20:24:18.363" Title="When does a fear of something constitute a phobia?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24483" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24482" CreationDate="2019-11-19T20:24:18.363" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5 criteria&lt;/a&gt; for Specific Phobia are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A. Marked fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (e.g., flying, heights, animals, receiving an injection, seeing blood).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: In children, the fear or anxiety may be expressed by crying, tantrums, freezing, or clinging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;B. The phobic object or situation almost always provokes immediate fear or anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;C. The phobic object or situation is actively avoided or endured with intense fear or anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;D. The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the specific object or situation and to the sociocultural context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for 6 months or more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;F. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;G. The disturbance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder, including fear, anxiety, and avoidance of situations associated with panic-like symptoms or other incapacitating symptoms (as in agoraphobia); objects or situations related to obsessions (as in obsessive-compulsive disorder); reminders of traumatic events (as in posttraumatic stress disorder); separation from home or attachment figures (as in separation anxiety disorder); or social situations (as in social anxiety disorder).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The parts I would highlight are that the fear has to be intense and out of proportion to the actual risk, it has to cause some sort of impairment, and it can't be classified as part of a broader mental disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if someone sees a spider at work and is startled by it, you wouldn't call that a phobia by itself from a clinical perspective. You might joke about it among friends and say you have a phobia of spiders, but that's just using embellishing language, it's not a diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone lives in an area where dangerous spiders are present, and takes reasonable precautions to defend themselves (for example, not walking barefoot outdoors), that would not be a phobia: it's not out of proportion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if someone sees a spider at work and then experiences intense symptoms while at work that interfere with their performance, make them constantly preoccupied that there is going to be another spider, and it's a sustained rather than passing experience, then that's closer to the DSM-5 definition of phobia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In either case, it's really up to a professional to assess the situation and determine if a diagnosis is warranted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-11-19T20:24:18.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24486" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24471" CreationDate="2019-11-20T22:32:00.167" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are quite a few studies on this, but a nice recent one is this: &#xA;Lee, Taraz G., et al. &quot;Limiting motor skill knowledge via incidental training protects against choking under pressure.&quot; Psychonomic bulletin &amp;amp; review 26.1 (2019): 279-290.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13423-018-1486-x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13423-018-1486-x&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They consider a few possible mechanisms, but end up leaning towards a 'high incentives are distracting' story. (Another candidate that can't be ruled out is 'high incentives encourage top-down control processes, and those are just not very good at driving motor sequences'). The main evidence hinges on differences between implicit and explicit learning of a key-sequence task: only the people who got explicit instruction show choking under pressure, even though both groups are doing the same task. If you just want the final take-home, it's &quot;our results lead us to conclude that a training regime that seeks to restrict awareness of movement strategies and structure could lead to more stable performance under pressure, potentially via reduced performance deficits in the face of distraction.&quot; but underneath that claim there's a bunch of cool structure in the patterns of performance across the two groups that they dig into in some detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastEditorUserId="18720" LastEditDate="2019-11-21T19:39:18.327" LastActivityDate="2019-11-21T19:39:18.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24487" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-20T22:46:11.873" Score="2" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading about core beliefs (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.therapistaid.com/worksheets/core-beliefs.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://betterrelationships.org.au/well-being/core-beliefs-self-acceptance/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). While I get the definition, the examples seem very simple to me. For example &quot;I'm ugly&quot; vs &quot;I'm beautiful&quot;. Don't most people accept that things exist in a continuum or range? For example I might believe the world is &lt;strong&gt;generally safe&lt;/strong&gt; but still lock my door at night. Why is there this false dichotomy when it comes to core beliefs, or am I mistaking? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24756" LastActivityDate="2019-11-20T22:46:11.873" Title="Why are core beliefs often phrased as opposites?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24489" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24444" CreationDate="2019-11-21T12:07:44.260" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;triptans could help boost the efficacy of SSRIs &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is minimal evidence for this Chris. One of the reasons for that is that there is a limit to how much serotonin is released for the nerve cell. So more of the same isn't going to make much difference. &#xA;edit: So in terms of reuptake inhibitors, triptans are agonists. So increased agonism seems unlikely to make a significant difference. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Theoretically there is a risk of serotonin syndrome. There has been many case reports and a black label FDA warning has been issued in the 1990s.However the data for that severe reaction seems to be patchy and the rates of co-prescription of SSRIs and triptans have not reduced or changed in any meaningful way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/2673391&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/2673391&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2019-11-21T21:25:17.343" LastActivityDate="2019-11-21T21:25:17.343" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24493" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24469" CreationDate="2019-11-22T06:57:51.283" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume the title is designed to be a bit provocative. But I think he makes a few claims:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Big Five personality (especially neuroticism and extraversion) explains self-esteem well.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It's very difficult to change a person's fundamental level of neuroticism.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interventions that focus directly on increasing self-esteem in a way that are detached from reality may be counterproductive.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beyond not being depressed, higher-levels of self-esteem may not necessarily be good or functional, especially if they are not grounded in intersubjective reality or lead to narcissism.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2019-11-22T06:57:51.283" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24496" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-22T18:38:52.280" Score="0" ViewCount="109" Body="&lt;p&gt;We read phrases like&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The subconsciousness makes up 90% of our brain.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The subconsciousness makes up 95% of our brain.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The subconsciousness can be influenced by hypnosis.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have yet to see a study in neuroscience that picks the topic up. There seems to be no proof of its existence other than a psychological crutch to explain behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People like Bruce Lipton try to connect neuroscience to psychology and do not convince in doing so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is what psychologists define as subconsciousness proven in neuroscience and can the psychological subconsciousness be visualized by neuroscientists? I am alluding to pictures or video of the images perceived...........&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24753" LastEditorUserId="10102" LastEditDate="2019-11-29T05:02:51.010" LastActivityDate="2019-11-29T05:02:51.010" Title="Is what psychologists define as subconsciousness proven in neuroscience and can the psychological subconsciousness be visualized by neuroscientists?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24499" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24471" CreationDate="2019-11-23T19:20:10.600" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the answer is pretty easy: stress. As &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_stress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; states it,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;When people think the demands being placed on them exceed their ability to cope, they then perceive stress.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The player might feel that the expectations of them are too high and also if they fail, that the negative consequences will be big in terms of being blamed etc.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This stress then occupies certain part of player's mental capacity, which means they are not fully concentrated on the task. I'm sure there's plenty of literature on the effects of stress on performance.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, certain amount of stress can actually be beneficial for the performance because it increases arousal, but the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes%E2%80%93Dodson_law&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Yerkes–Dodson law&lt;/a&gt; tells us that if there's too much arousal, performance will decrease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20310" LastActivityDate="2019-11-23T19:20:10.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24501" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24496" CreationDate="2019-11-24T10:40:28.347" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The vast majority of neural processes (and their associated mental processes) in the brain are subconscious (or unconscious), i.e. we are not consciously aware of them and cannot consciously control them. Yet, without these subconscious processes, we will not be able to live as we do now – we will have to spend an incredible amount of time and effort to consciously control all the processes that are naturally subconsciously controlled now. As a matter of fact, we will not be able to consciously do such tedious yet demanding tasks well, and we will die.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All neural processes except the final-stage sensory perception neural processes and the highest cognitive neural processes are subconscious. The subconscious neural processes are in all parts of the brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brainstem and autonomic system. For example, neural processes that control breathing, heart contraction, pressure in the arterial and venous systems, body temperature, sleep-wake cycle, secretion of various body fluids (sweat, tear, saliva, gastric juice, etc.), secretion of various hormones, various reflexes (pupillary light and accommodation reflexes, optokinetic reflex, vestibulo-ocular reflex, etc .), homeostasis of various blood constituents, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cerebellum. For example, neural processes that control contraction &amp;amp; movement of hundreds of millions of muscle fibers of various agonist and antagonist muscles for balance and accuracy in walking, writing, speaking, playing various sports, playing various musical instruments, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Deep cerebral nuclei. For example, neural processes that control the tone of your trunk muscles (when sitting, standing, walking, etc.), emotion (*1), formation, storing, and retrieval of memory (*2), etc.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cerebral cortex. For example, neural processes that perform early-stage sensory perception (*3), early-stage language functions (*4), some stages of decision, some forms of thinking (*5), etc.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And, if you include spinal cord, the majority of their neural processes are subconscious too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;N.B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*1. That's why we can't completely control our emotions at will: we can't get out of anger, sadness, depression, etc. or get into any emotion we want instantly at will, because they are partly controlled by subconscious neural processes. Also, we will not be able to have any emotion even if we try to if the subconscious neural processes (in the amygdala and other nuclei in the limbic system) for emotion are impaired (such as in various apathy disorders: Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, fronto-temporal dementia, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*2. That's why you can't memorize new events or recall past events, even if you try, if the subconscious neural processes (the hippocampus and other nuclei in the limbic system) that form, store, and retrieve memory are impaired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*3. That's why we can't consciously see in colors (achromatopsia), can’t recognize familiar faces (prosopagnosia) (including one’s own face), or can't recognize what the object is (visual agnosia) if the subconscious processes that process color, object identification, or face identification are impaired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*4.That's why we can't understand what people say even if we hear them clearly (sensory dysphasia) or can't understand what the text in the book means even if we see it clearly (alexia) if the subconscious neural processes that processes the meaning of the sound or of the image is impaired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*5. See more details in the references below. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;General, basic information about unconscious processes in the brainstem, autonomic nervous system, cerebellum, and deep cerebral neuclei (basal ganglion, thalamus, amygdala, etc.) can be found easily by searching the internet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of the more in-depth, interesting articles about this matter are as follows (and more references can be found inside these articles):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bargh JA, Morsella E. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2440575/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Unconscious Mind.&lt;/a&gt; Perspect Psychol Sci. 2008 Jan;3(1):73–79. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00064.x. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dehanene S. Fathoming unconscious depths. In: Consciousness and the brain. Penguin Books. 2014. New York, New York, USA. ISBN 978-0-670-02543-5, 978-0-14-312626-3. p 47-88.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dijksterhuis A. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3831564/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;First neural evidence for the unconscious thought process.&lt;/a&gt; Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2013 Dec; 8(8): 845–846. doi: 10.1093/scan/nst036. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dijksterhuis A, Strick M. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292188707_A_Case_for_Thinking_Without_Consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A Case for Thinking Without Consciousness.&lt;/a&gt; Perspect Psychol Sci. 2016 Jan;11(1):117-32. doi: 10.1177/1745691615615317. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hallett M. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1950571/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Volitional control of movement: The physiology of free will.&lt;/a&gt; Clin Neurophysiol. 2007 Jun;118(6):1179–1192. DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2007.03.019 PMCID: PMC1950571 NIHMSID: NIHMS24077. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Horga G, Maia TV. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3458455/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conscious and unconscious processes in cognitive control: A theoretical perspective and a novel empirical approach.&lt;/a&gt; Front Hum Neurosci. 2012; 6:199. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00199. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-11-24T10:40:28.347" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24504" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24528" CreationDate="2019-11-24T13:18:47.747" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Softmax is a mathematical function frequently used to model probabilistic choice between multiple alternatives associated with different values, e.g. two arms in a bandit task; See for example [1] and [2]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where was this method first applied?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;[1] Shteingart, Hanan, Tal Neiman, and Yonatan Loewenstein. &quot;The role of first impression in operant learning.&quot; Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 142.2 (2013): 476.‏&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;[2] Egelman, David M., Christophe Person, and P. Read Montague. &quot;A computational role for dopamine delivery in human decision-making.&quot; Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 10.5 (1998): 623-630.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7212" LastActivityDate="2019-11-27T10:25:49.363" Title="Who was the first to use Softmax to model decision making?" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24510" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-25T19:25:57.163" Score="1" ViewCount="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a few papers I have read claims that AFQT is geared largely (mostly?) towards measuring crystallized intelligence. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;a href=&quot;https://study.com/academy/popular/difference-between-the-asvab-afqt.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://study.com/academy/popular/difference-between-the-asvab-afqt.html&lt;/a&gt; lists Arithmetic Reasoning, Word Knowledge, Paragraph Comprehension, Mathematics Knowledge as AFQT subtests. That does not seem geared towards mostly / largely crystallized intelligence? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you explain what AFQT is &lt;em&gt;actually&lt;/em&gt; designed to measure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5098" LastActivityDate="2019-11-25T19:25:57.163" Title="Is AFQT geared towards estimating crystallized intelligence?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24511" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24524" CreationDate="2019-11-25T19:52:03.243" Score="3" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been researching the subject of affirmations and the relation with alpha waves over the course of the last few days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've found a significant amount of general information on the importance of performing learning/creative tasks during the alpha state, many of these sources indicating such a state as being ideal for self-suggestion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On one of the articles I stumbled upon, the following statement was made:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The subconscious mind is most open to helpful and beneficial suggestions while we are in the “alpha” brainwave state—our most relaxed state of mind. The alpha wave frequency is often achieved in a meditative state or just before falling sleep, creating an optimal time to receive positive affirmations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/embodied-wellness/201704/affirm-or-not-affirm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/embodied-wellness/201704/affirm-or-not-affirm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such statements seem to run abound when running online searches, however, I have been unable to find any study to support statements like these; that could indicate the &quot;openness&quot; of the subconscious to &quot;beneficial&quot;/&quot;helpful&quot; effects to suggestive events when the brain is operating in the alpha band.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking to find published research that could support to some extent statements like those.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24791" LastActivityDate="2020-12-20T15:04:30.520" Title="Any research backing alpha waves and impact on subconscious mind" Tags="&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24512" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24496" CreationDate="2019-11-25T21:49:35.943" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The neuroscientist Joseph LeDoux has advised us to consider ALL behaviours as non conscious unless proven otherwise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I’m guessing the percentages you have given in your question originally derive from computations of data coming into the brain per second, versus the brain’s neuronal capacity to process it. This is covered in Tor Nørretrander’s book The User Illusion, and Timothy Wilson’s Strangers to Ourselves. Contrary to Bryan Krause’s comments above, this is quite widely accepted in the academic community and has nothing to do with Freud. Quiroga has also demonstrated that we only ‘see’ the equivalent of a penny piece on our finger held out at arms length, the rest being constructed by our experience, predictions and imagination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nørretranders 1998 - The User Illusion: Cutting Consciousness Down to Size&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wilson 2002 - Strangers to Ourselves: Discovering the Adaptive Unconscious&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LeDoux 2016 - Anxious: Using the Brain to Understand and Treat Fear and Anxiety&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quiroga 2017 - The Forgetting Machine: Memory, Perception, and the &quot;Jennifer Aniston Neuron&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastActivityDate="2019-11-25T21:49:35.943" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24513" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-25T21:58:53.323" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a dataset of 364 people in a control group population and about 450 in one comparison group sample and 150 in another comparison group population. We're doing a full analysis of these data. We've been trying to get longitudinal data for all people in all groups, but that's proving difficult. If we wanted to use a subsample for a longitudinal analysis, would a random sample of each of the three groups be the best thing (using a different sample number for each considering confidence levels)? I feel like there's some kind of statistical consideration that I'm not thinking about. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24792" LastActivityDate="2019-11-25T21:58:53.323" Title="What to consider when subsampling" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;sampling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24515" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24447" CreationDate="2019-11-25T22:27:38.963" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;MVR there are many hormones within us that motivate behaviours that served a purpose in previous (phylogenetic) environments that in our modern society may appear to be evil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oxytocin for example (the so called love hormone) spikes before conflict, and one of the biggest dopamine hits we can ever experience is by punishing someone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sapolsky 2017 - Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastActivityDate="2019-11-25T22:27:38.963" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24518" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24454" CreationDate="2019-11-25T23:43:22.933" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Droid here are a couple of relevant studies:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Experiments with rodents done by Kent Berridge found that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stressed rats will expend more energy on obtaining pleasurable relief (in the form of food) than non-stressed rats. But only to familiar foods &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Peciña, S., Schulkin, J., &amp;amp; Berridge, K.C. (2006). Nucleus accumbens corticotropin-releasing factor increases cue-triggered motivation for sucrose reward: Paradoxical positive incentive effects in stress&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Experiments with stressed exam students done by Wendy Wood et al found that stress amplified the hedonic habitual approaches already used by students (so basically it made them seek out more of the HABIT though not the reward, to relieve stress and regain comfort.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neal, D.T., Wood, W., &amp;amp; Drolet, A. (2013). How do people adhere to goals when willpower is low? The profits (and pitfalls) of strong habits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short it seems that our default response to stress (and subsequent comfort seeking) is to seek out a FAMILIAR rewarding habit (E.g. having a coffee at Starbucks, if that’s a habit) than a non-habitual reward. (So comfort seeking is Pavlovian not strictly hedonic)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22058" LastActivityDate="2019-11-25T23:43:22.933" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24520" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23392" CreationDate="2019-11-26T01:29:09.677" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Delta E is used extensively in vision research, however the study you sited only tested hue recall (all samples and test responses were designed to vary in hue and minimally in luminance and saturation). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is one possible criticism of the studies. One of the major improvements in Delta E 2000 is a hue dependent rotation. We are more or less sensitive to certain hue regions. While this is one source of criticism, they are generally relying on large color differences to differentiate successful trials vs. unsuccessful trials and Delta E does not have any meaning for large color differences. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more accurate reinterpretation might be to say that they aren't calculating color differences at all but rather the variation of the response distribution and the underlying probability density functions. The variation analysis is not dependent on individual color difference calculations. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24793" LastActivityDate="2019-11-26T01:29:09.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24511" CreationDate="2019-11-26T14:03:46.917" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For anyone interested, I believe to have found one such published article: &lt;code&gt;Hypnotic Susceptibility increased by EEG Alpha Training&lt;/code&gt; by DAVID R. ENGSTROM, PERRY LONDON &amp;amp; JOSEPH T. HART.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the article, they describe the correlation between hypnotic susceptibility and alpha waves. Here is one of the relevant lines:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results were analysed by correlation techniques and by analysis of variance and covariance. They indicate that hypnotic susceptibility and operant alpha rhythm are positively related both before and after the subjects received alpha training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24791" LastActivityDate="2019-11-26T14:03:46.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24526" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-27T00:57:39.613" Score="2" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let us look at definitions first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;role&lt;/strong&gt; (also &lt;strong&gt;rôle&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;social role&lt;/strong&gt;) is a set of connected behaviors, rights,&#xA;  obligations, beliefs, and norms as conceptualized by people in a social situation. It is an&#xA;  expected or free or continuously changing behaviour and may have a given individual social&#xA;  status or social position. It is vital to both functionalist and interactionist understandings&#xA;  of society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;(From here.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking at &lt;em&gt;&quot;role&quot;&lt;/em&gt; from the perspective of sociology, so I would like to restrict this&#xA;definition and consider by role the position of a person in a social structure.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Behavior&lt;/strong&gt; (American English) or &lt;strong&gt;behaviour&lt;/strong&gt; (Commonwealth English) is the actions and&#xA;  mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in conjunction with&#xA;  themselves or their environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as&#xA;  the (inanimate) physical environment. It is the computed response of the system or organism to&#xA;  various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or&#xA;  covert, and voluntary or involuntary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;(From here.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a bit heavy. We will be considering only &lt;em&gt;&quot;individuals&quot;&lt;/em&gt; here.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose I am researching a person in a society, and I have managed, on one hand, to locate several&#xA;distinct roles they occupy, and, on the other hand, a number of behaviours they are noticed&#xA;to perform. I find it safe to assume that some of the behaviours discovered are &lt;em&gt;&quot;connected&quot;&lt;/em&gt; to&#xA;the roles — that is, there is a measure that determines how likely would another person with the&#xA;same role be to perform the behaviour. Furthermore, I find it plausible to believe that, given&#xA;otherwise even choice, a person will prefer a behaviour that is more strongly connected to some of&#xA;the roles they occupy, so I see this &lt;em&gt;&quot;strength of connexion&quot;&lt;/em&gt; as a continuum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it fair to accept the assumptions I made above?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How can I measure the strength of connexion between a role and a behaviour?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16671" LastEditorUserId="16671" LastEditDate="2019-12-16T12:06:03.293" LastActivityDate="2019-12-17T10:04:34.913" Title="How are role and behaviour connected?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24528" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24504" CreationDate="2019-11-27T10:25:49.363" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;http://incompleteideas.net/book/bookdraft2017nov5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sutton and Barto&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The term soft-max for the action selection rule ... is due to &lt;a href=&quot;https://papers.nips.cc/paper/195-training-stochastic-model-recognition-algorithms-as-networks-can-lead-to-maximum-mutual-information-estimation-of-parameters&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bridle (1990)&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;  This rule appears to have been first proposed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1960-03588-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Luce (1959)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7212" LastActivityDate="2019-11-27T10:25:49.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24530" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24447" CreationDate="2019-11-28T19:43:48.587" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's also the work done by psychiatrist Daniel Amen. In his Ted talk [on YouTube] he describes having done about 80000 brain scans. He seriously puts forward the idea that criminality in many cases could be fixed by a brain scan, finding an abnormal growth, and removing or reducing it. He says that all his scans have let him to the opinion that the prison system should do such an assessment of the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23526" LastActivityDate="2019-11-28T19:43:48.587" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24532" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-29T04:43:23.063" Score="3" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been trying to understand why humans grief. I read a few articles and come to this conclusion (which I want to check with experts):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;being separated creates bad feelings because, being together makes move evolutionary sense.&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Parents want reproduction/their genetic material to proliferate (cuz if it doesn’t then that species die/stops existing)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Kids want to also pass their genetic material and if they die they can’t pass that on. So they want to stay with their parents.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;thus, there is a stress mechanism keep the family together when there is a separation (since this is perceived as a threat, higher chance of risk)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So grief is this stress system trying to keep us safe. Does this make sense or am I missing something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am mostly interested in understanding grief in terms of evolutionary psychology and in the context of all (or any) of these:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;death&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;divorce&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;break ups&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;loss&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;separation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources/references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scienceline.org/2015/07/is-there-a-reason-for-grief/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://scienceline.org/2015/07/is-there-a-reason-for-grief/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/From-an-evolutionary-perspective-why-do-humans-grieve?__category__=transactional&amp;amp;__filter__=all&amp;amp;__nsrc__=1&amp;amp;__sncid__=3603336506&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.quora.com/From-an-evolutionary-perspective-why-do-humans-grieve?&lt;strong&gt;category&lt;/strong&gt;=transactional&amp;amp;&lt;strong&gt;filter&lt;/strong&gt;=all&amp;amp;&lt;strong&gt;nsrc&lt;/strong&gt;=1&amp;amp;&lt;strong&gt;sncid&lt;/strong&gt;=3603336506&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/culturing-science/the-evolution-of-grief-both-biological-and-cultural-in-the-21st-century/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/culturing-science/the-evolution-of-grief-both-biological-and-cultural-in-the-21st-century/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16853" LastActivityDate="2019-12-01T02:01:46.157" Title="From an evolutionary perspective, why do humans grieve?" Tags="&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;death&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24534" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24439" CreationDate="2019-11-29T14:06:07.670" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20160726-the-mystery-of-why-you-cant-remember-being-a-baby&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BBC article&lt;/a&gt;, there's a prediction about that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps, when we’re very young, the hippocampus simply isn’t developed enough to build a rich memory of an event. Baby rats, monkeys and humans all continue to add new neurons to the hippocampus for the first few years of life and we all are all unable to form lasting memories as infants – and it seems that the moment we stop creating new neurons, we‘re suddenly able to form long-term memories. “For young babies and infants the hippocampus is very undeveloped,” says Fagen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is the under-formed hippocampus losing our long-term memories, or are they never formed in the first place? Since childhood events can continue to affect our behaviour long after we’ve forgotten them, some psychologists think they must be lingering somewhere. “The memories are probably stored someplace that’s inaccessible now, but it’s very difficult to demonstrate that empirically,” says Fagen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We should be very wary about what we do recall from that time, though – our childhood is probably full of false memories for events that never occurred.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Elizabeth Loftus, a psychologist at the University of California, Irvine, has devoted her career to the phenomenon. “People can pick up suggestions and begin to visualise them – they become like memories,” she says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24713" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-11-29T14:06:07.670" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24535" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-29T17:12:25.023" Score="0" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have wondered this question for awhile, and I thought it would be appropriate to ask on here. Particularly, is there any evidence showing that animals exposed to human language during their development acquire &lt;em&gt;some&lt;/em&gt; specific understanding for that language? A dog raised by an English owner seems to understand words of the owner, either by learning or some form of conditioning. Would it be extremely hard for an animal to listen to someone of French or Spanish, for example, later on in their life? Would it be the same degree of difficultly as a human adult during second language acquisition? Sorry for the broad question, just genuinely curious. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24747" LastActivityDate="2019-11-29T17:12:25.023" Title="Do animals have a critical period for language similar to humans?" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;psycholinguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24536" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-29T19:19:48.257" Score="4" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does our brain sense the &lt;strong&gt;passage of time&lt;/strong&gt;? What is the mechanism? I am not asking here about memory. I have searched about it on the internet. &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/your-brain-has-two-clocks/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/your-brain-has-two-clocks/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;I found this- &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4830363/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4830363/&lt;/a&gt; &#xA;So does this mean (so as to explain it in a simple way to understand it easily), that our brain somehow create intrinsic repetitive processes analogous to clocks &amp;amp; in turn process information from it so as to &lt;em&gt;sense&lt;/em&gt; time? Is that information fed to the center(s) responsible for consciousness to further process information?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24558" LastEditorUserId="24558" LastEditDate="2019-11-29T20:02:45.217" LastActivityDate="2019-12-17T10:50:09.847" Title="How does our brain sense the passage of time?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24537" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-11-29T22:28:22.113" Score="1" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, one of my friend has fear of heights, even if there is a strong glass window and no reason for him to fall off. He is even aware and admits his fear is irrational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many may say it’s in subconscious mind or neurologically left brain, in that case, can you let me know experiments(better if I can do it myself) , research paper and scientific resources that explains this phenomenon in details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there no way to communicate to this part of brain? Does it not follow rationality? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does philosophical perspective helps? As some of spiritual/non-spiritual thinker may claim? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt;: &#xA;Reference: &lt;a href=&quot;https://acmelab.yale.edu/sites/default/files/our_unconscious_mind.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://acmelab.yale.edu/sites/default/files/our_unconscious_mind.pdf&lt;/a&gt; ”Research has recently brought to light just how profoundly our unconscious mind shapes our day-to-day interactions“&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21780" LastEditorUserId="21780" LastEditDate="2019-12-14T14:52:04.663" LastActivityDate="2019-12-14T14:52:04.663" Title="why we failed to convince our own mind by reasoning and rational arguments over mental illness like depression, anxiety, phobia?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24544" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-01T08:11:37.253" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;When speaking without the intent of communicating, but just to ones self or reading to ones self. Does this use a different area of the brain as opposed to speaking to a person, or even a device such as Alexa? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24827" LastActivityDate="2019-12-01T08:11:37.253" Title="Does speaking to self, use different area of brain as opposed to speaking to a person?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2019-12-03T18:28:59.403" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24545" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-01T09:19:24.470" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;The movie &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0167404/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Sixth Sense&lt;/a&gt; had perhaps one big theme: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BPSQswV2fLc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dead people only see what they want to see&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it does seem that can be more general: do living people actually do that too? This led to the question: does human psychology has a theory about most people only see what they want to see?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And as a result, one way to have really good personal relationship is to show them what they want to see, or say what they want to hear?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14766" LastEditorUserId="14766" LastEditDate="2019-12-01T12:21:24.830" LastActivityDate="2019-12-01T12:21:24.830" Title="Does human psychology has a theory about most people only sees what they want to see?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2019-12-02T07:52:57.687" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24548" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23512" CreationDate="2019-12-02T00:20:07.340" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect we adopt irrational positions when we have an implicit choice available and our frame of mind, owing to biological factors such as stress hormone levels, favors rapid choices over thoughtful reflection on the circumstances we face. Dual process theory provides a decent framework for thinking about this. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a remarkable body of literature examining paranoid ideation and social anxiety produced by D. Freeman which examines something along these lines experimentally. Attributional styles seem to be learned, then reinforced by exposure to stressful situations. Sort of a &quot;feedback loop&quot; of distorted cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24832" LastActivityDate="2019-12-02T00:20:07.340" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24549" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-02T02:12:51.130" Score="4" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0974320625&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional Intelligence 2.0&lt;/a&gt; it is stated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We have so many words to describe the feelings that surface in life,&#xA;  yet all emotions are derivations of five core feelings: happiness,&#xA;  sadness, anger, fear, and shame.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This chart is used to categorize different feelings under these core emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/auPl6.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/auPl6.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interesting that there are 4 negative and only 1 positive core feeling. Also to note there is 'Heartbroken' in the sad category. However, is there is no 'love' feeling to match 'Heartbroken'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, the main question: Does the current psychology understanding back up this sort of categorization? And is 'love' really non-existent as a discrete feeling?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24833" LastActivityDate="2019-12-02T02:12:51.130" Title="Number of core feelings?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;emotional-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24550" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23512" CreationDate="2019-12-02T10:23:37.473" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are some reasons I collected that can explain why we have wrong ideas:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Na&amp;#239;ve realism &lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentrism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Egocentrism &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Illusion of transparency &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-conscious_emotions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-conscious emotions &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2019-12-02T10:23:37.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24554" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24572" CreationDate="2019-12-04T13:04:57.197" Score="2" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the German language, there is a term for the youngest member of a family: &quot;Nesthäkchen&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, on Wikipedia I can't find any more details - only the book/film with the same title has a Wikipedia page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen it several times where the youngest team member gets special treatment. Mostly the older team members are kind to the youngest member, and  thus the youngest member has more freedom/rights than the other team members.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is this phenomenon called in psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BTW, I guess this phenomena is valid for many mammals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13175" LastEditorUserId="13175" LastEditDate="2019-12-10T08:45:48.990" LastActivityDate="2019-12-10T08:45:48.990" Title="Special treatment of youngest member of a group" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24558" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24562" CreationDate="2019-12-06T04:00:38.843" Score="0" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have notice that when I switch my focus from existing task to a clock (both digital, which shows numbers, and mechanical, which shows arms), the time on the clock seem to stop ticking for a brief moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, my question is that does this phenomena has a term? Is there any explanation why this will happen? Is this common or is this a problem only few person would ever experience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I am new to this field, I would also like to know how to tag this kind of question. Thank you very much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24864" LastActivityDate="2019-12-06T12:26:10.400" Title="The clock stop when switching focus" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24562" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24558" CreationDate="2019-12-06T12:26:10.400" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there is a term for this phenomenon. It is called stopped-clock illusion. It’s a type of chronostasis or a kind of temporal illusion, that the time interval is perceived to be longer than it really is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though I’m not totally convinced myself, the current explanation is like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This phenomenon happens because the brain fills in the perception gap that occurs (while changing visual targets) with the end visual target. This is because, when we change visual targets by moving our eyes, the overall visual scene will become blurred during that time and the brain avoids this confusing visual input by suppressing it, which results in a perception gap during that period of time. When the gaze changing ends, the brain fills this gap with the static image of the end visual target instead. As a result, the end visual target will be perceived to exist longer than it is actually seen. This suppressing of the blurred image also explains why we never experience blurry images while we move our eyes to see things around us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronostasis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chronostasis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;BBC Future. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20120827-how-to-make-time-stand-still&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The mystery of the stopped clock illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More in-depth, academic references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Eagleman DM. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2866156/pdf/nihms-73539.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human time perception and its illusions.&lt;/a&gt; Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2008 April;18(2):131–136.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;van Wassenhove V, Wittmann M, Craig AD, Paulus MP. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3085178/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychological and neural mechanisms of subjective time dilation.&lt;/a&gt; Front Neurosci.2011;5:56.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-12-06T12:26:10.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24563" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23226" CreationDate="2019-12-06T17:57:56.907" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suicide is not a psychiatric disorder. Suicidal ideation or attempts are considered a symptom of certain psychiatric disorders (e.g. depression), and these disorders are treated by psychiatrists, but in and of itself suicide can be a rational choice and is in some legislations even legally facilitated by physicians (e.g. for the terminally ill).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within their professional capacity, psychiatrists have nothing to say about people killing themselves to avoid shame or punishment or as a sacrifice for their country.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user24872" LastActivityDate="2019-12-06T17:57:56.907" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24564" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-06T20:39:52.327" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know what research has found about whether talking about politics on a scale of left to right biases people in any way. Perhaps to answer questions such as if the scale were to be inverted, would it have any difference? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8588" LastActivityDate="2019-12-11T18:06:52.647" Title="Does putting something on a scale of left-to-right bias people in one direction?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24565" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-07T18:32:31.360" Score="5" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is estimated that the in the human brain there are about 100 billion neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With thousands of synapses for each of them, the total number of synapses is over 100 trillion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet each neuron has one axon with which it can output signal. Obviously each axon forms more than one synapse (else the number wouldn't add up), but how many? It should be thousands per axon, with several different neurons. Is that so?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24879" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-01-07T23:02:35.790" LastActivityDate="2020-01-08T05:54:24.607" Title="How many different synapses can an axon form? How do they differ?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24566" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-07T23:03:46.937" Score="3" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Note: So-called &quot;big-list&quot; questions are &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2459/7001&quot;&gt;occasionally tolerated&lt;/a&gt; here; I'm hoping this one will pass muster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm looking to compile a list of existing post-publication meta-sites.  These would be sites that list research papers (as does any online publication), but instead of just linking to content, they list meta information about the articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most online publications (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychNET&lt;/a&gt;) and search engines (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.ca/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;) already list a variety of common meta-information, such as: Abstract, authors, journal, date of publication, citations, etc.  I'm not interested in meta-information already provided by authors upon submission, unless that information is listed on the site in a normalized, searchable format (eg, with a query API).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather, I'm looking for meta-information that requires analysis (typically involving human intervention) to compile.  Examples might be: The list of experiments, the &quot;n&quot; of each experiment, the results and significance (p-values), the type of each experiment (RCT, blindness, population study, pre-registered, etc), research field search tags, responses and replications, meta-analyses that the paper is included in...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples that I'm aware of to get this list started:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.shortscience.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ShortScience.org&lt;/a&gt;: Lists layman abstracts for AI papers.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scite.ai/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;scite_&lt;/a&gt;: Check if papers have been supported or contradicted. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What else is out there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2020-01-23T17:24:43.040" LastActivityDate="2020-01-25T19:11:24.477" Title="List of research paper meta information sites" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;meta-analysis&gt;&lt;publication&gt;&lt;replication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24569" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-08T16:37:12.957" Score="1" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some of my friends told me they never see color in memory or dreams, is this some kind of symptom? Does it have a name in psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did some search on internet, but seems most pages did not explain why this happens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of them suggest it might related with black white TV or traumatic events, but this seems not the case for people that never see color in memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could someone explain this, Thanks for your help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24524" LastEditorUserId="24524" LastEditDate="2019-12-08T16:54:26.267" LastActivityDate="2019-12-08T16:54:26.267" Title="Why some people can't see color in memory or dreams" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15222" CreationDate="2019-12-09T05:57:10.877" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the posted question could be re-worded as - 'In what ways are Brain Waves and Electromagnetic Waves the same and/or different' - to help with giving an answer the person was looking for in their question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize an answer - They are both frequency patterns but occur from different phenomena. Brain Waves deal with particular states of neurological activity in a physical brain. Electromagnetic waves deal with the propagation of energy from sources of atomic matter (atoms). Brain waves may consist of Electromagnetic waves (radiation) but Electromagnetic Waves do not consist of Brain Waves. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24884" LastActivityDate="2019-12-09T05:57:10.877" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24571" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-09T17:56:32.870" Score="0" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I got confused a bit after watching these two &lt;strong&gt;short&lt;/strong&gt; videos: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBtRN0R3VV8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OunyV_HgGBc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In first one it seems author suggests that: &lt;strong&gt;we aren't in much control&lt;/strong&gt; on what to pay attention to? &lt;strong&gt;Did I get it correctly? Or maybe I misunderstood?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the 2nd video, same author, seems to encourage to pay attention to things.&#xA;I find this somehow conflicting with first one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone help clarify this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24886" LastActivityDate="2019-12-09T17:56:32.870" Title="Paying attention: are we free to do so?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24572" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24554" CreationDate="2019-12-09T20:58:09.820" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not aware of any special technical term for such a phenomenon, though colloquially the youngest child may sometimes be called &quot;the baby of the family&quot;.  Furthermore, I'm not aware of this phenomenon existing outside of family dynamics - it might be just your personal experience.  In the workplace for example, the youngest members of a team may be treated as inexperienced or incompetent, as competition or threat, or as subordinate or servant.  Favouritism may equally be shown to the eldest, most senior, most productive, or most visionary members of a team.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Within families, a number of surveys have suggested that parents do appear to favour their youngest children.  However, a few interpretations of this phenomenon are possible.  One interpretation is that younger children demand and respond to preferential treatment over their older siblings (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140197117301276&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jensen &amp;amp; McHale, 2017&lt;/a&gt;).  Another is that younger children are easier to manage than older children, and in fact they receive no better treatment than their older siblings did at the same age (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mumsnet.com/children/parents-favouritism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mumsnet, 2018&lt;/a&gt;).  It is also possible that there is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness#Biological_function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cuteness&lt;/a&gt; effect:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... human adults react positively to infants who are stereotypically cute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also of note: Being the youngest child &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_order&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;does not grant&lt;/a&gt; any special advantage later in life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-12-09T21:12:18.500" LastActivityDate="2019-12-09T21:12:18.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24573" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24565" CreationDate="2019-12-10T00:04:19.300" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;You're right - from the simple math in the numbers you've given, you can deduce that each average neuron makes thousands of connections (sending and receiving).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this varies a bit by cell type:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;There is one special synapse called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calyx_of_Held&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Calyx of&#xA;Held&lt;/a&gt; which is a nearly&#xA;one-to-one connection between certain types of cells in the auditory&#xA;brainstem: one globular bushy cell makes only 1 or 2 calyx synapses with MNTB &#xA;neurons (though they also have collaterals to other targets) which themselves &#xA;receive 1 or at most 2 calyx synapses (though they also receive a small &#xA;fraction of input from other sources) (Smith et al 1991, Smith et al 1998, &#xA;Rodríguez‐Contreras et al 2006)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Napper and Harvey 1988 estimate about 175,000 synapses arrive at each Purkinje&#xA;cell in the cerebellum.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The ballpark number of &quot;thousands of synapses per neuron&quot; is&#xA;reasonable for most cells, however.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurons can and do make multiple synaptic connections with the same post-synaptic cell - that's one of the ways to regulate the strength of connection between two neurons - but most synapses will be from different neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Synapses on different compartments of a cell can have different effects, because they tend to sum more with other local connections and less from far ones, and because synapses closer to the cell body are more likely to directly control firing than synapses far away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Axons from many cell types in neocortex have a complex branching pattern, where axons often branch both locally as well as sending various collaterals to other areas of neocortex and even to subcortical structures (see some examples in Ojima et al. 1991 &amp;amp; 1992). They make synapses all along these branches except for the longest projection stretches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hawkins, J., &amp;amp; Ahmad, S. (2016). Why neurons have thousands of synapses, a theory of sequence memory in neocortex. Frontiers in neural circuits, 10, 23.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Napper, R. M. A., &amp;amp; Harvey, R. J. (1988). Number of parallel fiber synapses on an individual Purkinje cell in the cerebellum of the rat. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 274(2), 168-177.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ojima, H., Honda, C. N., &amp;amp; Jones, E. (1991). Patterns of axon collateralization of identified supragranular pyramidal neurons in the cat auditory cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 1(1), 80-94.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ojima, H., Honda, C. N., &amp;amp; Jones, E. G. (1992). Characteristics of intracellularly injected infragranular pyramidal neurons in cat primary auditory cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 2(3), 197-216.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rodríguez‐Contreras, A., de Lange, R. P., Lucassen, P. J., &amp;amp; Borst, J. G. G. (2006). Branching of calyceal afferents during postnatal development in the rat auditory brainstem. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 496(2), 214-228.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, P. H., Joris, P. X., Carney, L. H., &amp;amp; Yin, T. C. (1991). Projections of physiologically characterized globular bushy cell axons from the cochlear nucleus of the cat. Journal of comparative neurology, 304(3), 387-407.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, P. H., Joris, P. X., &amp;amp; Yin, T. C. (1998). Anatomy and physiology of principal cells of the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) of the cat. Journal of neurophysiology, 79(6), 3127-3142.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-01-08T05:54:24.607" LastActivityDate="2020-01-08T05:54:24.607" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24576" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-10T11:36:05.457" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;By what criteria can a comorbidity be determined in a diagnosis? Is it pretty much educated guess-work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm casually studying the DSM-5... by what standards can one be confident that a disorder is accompanied by a comorbidity? Is it common to misdiagnose a disorder due to a concurrent comorbidity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24610" LastEditorUserId="24610" LastEditDate="2019-12-11T09:32:41.640" LastActivityDate="2019-12-13T23:29:23.580" Title="How to assess a comorbidity?" Tags="&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24578" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-11T07:18:41.373" Score="4" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I understand correctly, Jordan Peterson argues in &lt;em&gt;12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos&lt;/em&gt; that hierarchy is natural and humans tend to form hierarchies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies to confirm or infirm this statement?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24897" LastActivityDate="2019-12-11T07:18:41.373" Title="Do Humans Have a Biological Need for Hierarchies?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24579" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10832" CreationDate="2019-12-11T09:44:45.910" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Another explanation for this is that the centers for speech and singing, respectively, are located in different parts of the brain. People with speech impediments, and even severe brain damage from trauma such as Aphasia or Tourette Syndrome, tend to exhibit damage in the speech areas of the left hemisphere of the brain. The parts of the brain that are responsible for singing are located in the right hemisphere, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both sides of the brain can vocalize. But for very severe cases of brain damage, the ability to sing where speech is impossible is somewhat reliant on &lt;a href=&quot;https://vcm.bc.ca/struggle-to-speak-but-can-sin/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;committing a song to memory before the left side of the brain is damaged&lt;/a&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;It’s because the melody and the long-ago memorized words to those&#xA;  songs are housed in the right hemisphere of the brain, so they’re&#xA;  accessible to people with damaged left hemispheres, who do still&#xA;  struggle with putting new, original thoughts into words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, scientists at the Max Planck Institute in Germany discovered that speech can be successfully processed in the right hemisphere of the brain when words are simply spoken rhythmically, without melody. This would also support AliceD's answer but, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2041112/Why-singing-helps-people-speech-disorders--s-rhythm-tune.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the article&lt;/a&gt; also states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The level of familiarity with the song lyrics and whether the texts&#xA;  contained formulaic phrases was found to be even more important. Daily&#xA;  expressions like ‘How are you?’ are highly automatized at the motor&#xA;  level, and common song lyrics can be recalled from long-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, people who stutter do not generally have trouble forming new thoughts to put into words... they simply have trouble putting those words into clear, concise sentences. So, that sort of speech impediment should also not prevent them from being able to commit songs to memory... thereby enabling them to recall songs from the right hemisphere of their brain and sing them immaculately. There are also studies that show vocal training as a method to temporarily, and sometimes in the longer-term, &lt;a href=&quot;https://qbi.uq.edu.au/blog/2018/04/how-singing-reverses-neurological-problems-speech&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;improve fluency in those living with various speech-related neurological impairments.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24610" LastActivityDate="2019-12-11T09:44:45.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24580" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24587" CreationDate="2019-12-11T11:36:53.787" Score="2" ViewCount="138" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Basic Theory of the Mind&lt;/a&gt;, the mind is not a different entity from the brain, but an emergent property of the brain.  Based on this assertion, can it be concluded that computers and any other information processors have or can have consciousness and mind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24893" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2019-12-12T17:40:12.580" LastActivityDate="2019-12-14T09:11:55.683" Title="Does monism imply that computers can have consciousness?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;qualia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24582" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24564" CreationDate="2019-12-11T18:06:52.647" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes.  In fact, it has been demonstrated in experiments that you can get people to assert they believe the opposite of what they previously said if you can successfully frame the idea with its political polarity inverted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't remember the experiments off the top of my head, but I think this podcast episode touches on it.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://youarenotsosmart.com/2019/03/01/yanss-146-tribal-psychology-rebroadcast/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youarenotsosmart.com/2019/03/01/yanss-146-tribal-psychology-rebroadcast/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been established that people who hold ideologies, or just very strong political beliefs, are motivated by the perception of whether something is left or right.  Objective facts, even reproducibility, are less important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18778" LastActivityDate="2019-12-11T18:06:52.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24583" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24584" CreationDate="2019-12-11T19:07:33.723" Score="0" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is their brain actually working or is it day dreaming and not functioning if they’re staring at a physics problem and not capable of making any progress on it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When a student who can’t come up with any ideas to write longer essays is trying to come up with sentences to write about, what is their brain doing if they’re not making any progress for a long time? Is it actually working or does it refuse to fire neurons to come up with ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the reason some people can’t do physics because their brains can’t fire electricity at a high enough amplitude? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24903" LastEditorUserId="24903" LastEditDate="2019-12-11T19:13:44.540" LastActivityDate="2019-12-12T01:26:07.647" Title="What is the brain doing when someone tries to solve a physics or math problem that they can’t make any progress on?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24584" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24583" CreationDate="2019-12-12T01:26:07.647" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To survive, the brain has evolved to solve problems it faces at the best it can, from the problems of escaping a stalking tiger, finding food, competing for the fit mate in the ancient time to solving physics/math problems, trying to make ends meet, and planning for a secure future in the present time. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the ability for a particular brain to solve any problem depends on both &lt;em&gt;the hard-wiring&lt;/em&gt; of the involved neural circuits of the cognitive areas and &lt;em&gt;the informatio&lt;/em&gt;n, both declarative (the memory that you’re conscious of) and non-declarative (the skills, the experiences you’ve learned), that the brain has. The hard-wiring is mostly genetically-determined, which is different among individuals, but &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;can b&lt;/em&gt;e modified by practicing, aging, and diseases. The information the brain has is determined by what the brain has accrued from previous encounters, which are obviously vastly different among individuals. So, the ability to solve problems among different brain are different. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That’s why some people are genius, some are average, and some are handicapped. But no matter of what type they are, in the normal conditions, their brains always try to do it best to solve problems because it is inherent in the nature of the brain to do so. Of course, in some situations such as when the brain is bored from repeated stimuli, fatigued from prolonged working, in a sleepy stage, or in a pathological stage (i.e., having a cerebral concussion, an encephalopathy, or an encephalitis), it might not try to solve the problems as usual. But those are abnormal conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, when a student who can’t come up with any ideas to write longer essays is trying to come up with sentences to write about, the brain is still working and does not refuse to fire neurons to come up with ideas. And the ability to solve problems is not about firing electricity in the brain at a high enough amplitude but is about firing signals in the correct ways in the capable and knowledgeable neural circuits, which depend on the hard-wiring and the information as mentioned above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Accordingly, to be better at solving problems, one has to practice solving problems (this will modify the hard-wiring of the involved neural circuits) and learn more and more (this will help increase the information that may be useful in solving problems).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may find more information about the brain function on the net. The fairly good  and not-very to understand one is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hse.ru/data/2011/06/22/1215686482/Neuroscience.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;(Purves D, Augustine GJ, David Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, Lamantia AS,‎ McNamara JO, Williams SM, editors. Neuroscience. 3rd ed. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates Inc; 2004. ISBN-13: 9780878937257 ISBN-10: 0878937250.) in &lt;em&gt;Unit IV  The Changing Brain&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Unit V Complex Brain Functions&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-12-12T01:26:07.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24586" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23952" CreationDate="2019-12-12T08:30:07.467" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don’t think the question of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;whether the informational content of the mind determines its structure&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; can be answered definitely by referring to current standard psychology or neuroscience references because there is still no consensus on what the mind is, and likewise for its structure. I’ll try to to give the answer based on current knowledge in physics and neuroscience, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, let’s clarify what you mean by the phrase “&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;determine its structure&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;”. You give an analogy in your comment above: in general relativity, the distribution of mass-energy determines the space-time geometry (of that region). So, “determine its structure” here means “&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;determine the topology/geometry of the structure&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;”, not “&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;determine the basic structure, per se&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;”. That is, the mass-energy distribution does not determine the basic structure of the space-time – the basic-structure of space-time is still a 4-dimensional differentiable manifold, with three space coordinates and one time coordinate, coupled with the metric tensor g and governed by the Einstein Field Equation. [1,2] Each different space-time region with different mass-energy distribution just has different topology/geometry of space-time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the basic structure of the mind? Certainly, there is no standard answer for this yet. However, currently, there are several theories [3-5] that assert that the mind is composed of information and information processing, which is the concept similar to the concept of your question. But none of these theories propose that the basic structure of the mind is determined by its informational content although the topology/geometry of the mind or what the individual mind is actually like is determined by its informational content. For example, in the Integrated Information Theory, the mind is invariably the integrated information, and in the Basic Theory of the Mind, the mind is invariably the composite of information processes – no matter what the informational content of the mind is. But, like the case of topology/geometry of space-time above, what the mind is actually like in each individual case is determined by its informational content.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another obvious analogy is us. Each of us has different physical and mental compositions, which determine who each of us individually is (or determine the topology/geometry, if you will, of each of us). But the basic structure of us are all the same – the basic structure of homo sapiens. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To recap, the informational content of the mind determines the topology/geometry of the mind but does not determine the basic structure of the mind. This is what I can logically conclude from the current scientific knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Space Time.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2.Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;General Relativity Theory.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Doyle B. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.informationphilosopher.com/knowledge/identity_theory.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mind-body Identity Theory&lt;/a&gt; The Information Philosopher.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tononi G. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7609/0af5d172b37f992e26613967168f79c6a0c8.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Integrated Information Theory of consciousness: An updated account.&lt;/a&gt; Arch Ital Biol. 2012 Jun-Sep;150(2-3):56-90. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ukachoke C. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Basic Theory of the Mind.&lt;/a&gt; 1st ed, 2018. Charansanitwong Printing Co.: Bangkok, Thailand.   &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2019-12-12T08:30:07.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24587" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24580" CreationDate="2019-12-12T22:47:42.293" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Note: While &quot;The Basic Theory of the Mind&quot; may potentially be well researched and possibly accurate, it is (as far as I know) a self-published discourse by a non-researcher, that is not peer-reviewed.  As such, I will not address it specifically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Monism&lt;/a&gt;, the view that the brain and mind are one entity, is often associated with a family of philosophy of mind viewpoints called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;functionalism&lt;/a&gt; - the idea that mental states are defined solely by their functional role.  A related approach is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;computationalism&lt;/a&gt; - the idea that mental states are defined by their information processing function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, computationalism's answer to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hard problem of consciousness&lt;/a&gt; (the question of how the brain gives rise to the mind under monism), is that the mind is an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emergent&lt;/a&gt; phenomenon due to information processing in the brain.  A well-known theory that supports this particular view with evidence is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_information_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Integrated Information Theory&lt;/a&gt; (IIT).  While this is a popular view, it is not the only one, and hence &lt;strong&gt;it is not fair to say that monism implies computationalism&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind#Monist_solutions_to_the_mind%E2%80%93body_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of monistic alternatives&lt;/a&gt; to computationalism can be found on Wikipedia.  A couple of interesting examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Physicalism&lt;/a&gt;: The physical properties of the brain also matter (ie, not just its information processing properties).  This implies that a brain made of silicon, performing the exact same information processing as a brain made of carbon, may not share the same conscious experience, because they are physically different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliminative_materialism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eliminative materialism&lt;/a&gt;: Conscious experience does not exist.  That is, people's common-sense understanding of the mind is incorrect, and the mind is essentially reducible to the biological properties of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia also mentions &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;functionalism&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;behaviourism&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_physicalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;type physicalism&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergentism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emergentism&lt;/a&gt;.  Other alternatives worth mentioning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Representationalism&lt;/a&gt;: The mind is an internal representation of the brain - ie, not a physical phenomenon, but an interpretation of physical phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_zombie&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Philosophical zombies&lt;/a&gt;: The conceivability of a zombie, physically indistinguishable from a human being, but having no conscious experience (no mind), suggests that computationalism is incorrect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Idealism&lt;/a&gt;: We are making a mistake trying to determine how the mind arises from the brain, because it is the other way around - the mind is the fundamental reality from which all else arises.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_closure_%28philosophy%29&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Closure&lt;/a&gt;: We simply lack the intellectual capacity to understand the brain-mind relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2019-12-12T22:47:42.293" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24537" CreationDate="2019-12-13T04:12:18.253" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some scientists will say that a fear of heights (and spiders, snakes, and the dark) are innate, i.e. that we are born with them because they confer an evolutionary advantage. In other words, a fear of heights tends to prevent falls, and a fear of snakes tends to prevent snake bites. We tend to have little control regarding when these fears arise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the &lt;em&gt;amount&lt;/em&gt; of fear/anxiety we feel for any given thing or situation can be modulated. For example, many therapists use a strategy called &amp;quot;exposure therapy,&amp;quot; exposing the patient to the feared thing or situation repeatedly, in a safe manner, which typically results in a reduction in the intensity of the anxiety response. Another example: when people do regular physical exercise, many studies show that their mood rises and they react less strongly to negative events. They even feel less physical pain when injured (compared to sedentary adults). There are many other strategies one can use to modulate painful feelings, which can be found in the book of Sudism (sudism.org). EDIT (Dec 14 2019): Sudism is a philosophy, not a science, owing to the fact that it is not currently possible to precisely measure positive and negative affect (i.e. our feelings of pleasure and pain). Take care.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT (Dec 14 2019) -- Here are some supporting references that illustrate that (A) exposure therapy is beneficial for reducing anxiety, that (B) physical exercise is beneficial for reducing physical pain, and that (C) certain fears are innate:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;From this meta-analysis: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas_Parsons3/publication/6120330_Parsons_TD_Rizzo_AA_Affective_outcomes_of_virtual_reality_exposure_therapy_for_anxiety_and_specific_phobias_a_meta_analysis_J_Behav_Ther_Exp_Psychiatry_39_250-261/links/09e41513528410d546000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Parsons, Thomas &amp;amp; Rizzo, Albert. (2008). Affective outcomes of virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety and specific phobias: A meta-analysis. Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry. 39. 250-61. 10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.07.007&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;A good deal of research has shown that exposure therapy is effective for reducing negative affective symptoms (Rothbaum &amp;amp; Schwartz, 2002).&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;From this review of literature on exposure therapy: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/anxiety/exposure-therapy-anxiety-disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johanna S. Kaplan, PhD and David F. Tolin, PhD. (Sep 2011). Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders. Psychiatric Times.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Over a quarter of the people in the US population will have an anxiety disorder sometime during their lifetime. It is well established that exposure-based behavior therapies are effective treatments for these disorders; unfortunately, only a small percentage of patients are treated with exposure therapy.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;From this study: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/apnm-2013-0481#.VYB6i0bKCJM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Einat Kodesh &amp;amp; Irit Weissman-Fogel. Exercise-induced hypoalgesia – interval versus continuous mode. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 2014, 39(7): 829-834, 10.1139/apnm-2013-0481&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;In conclusion, interval exercise (85% HRR) has analgesic effects on experimental pain perception. This, in addition to its cardiovascular, muscular, and metabolic advantages may promote its inclusion in pain management programs.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;From this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cbs.mpg.de/Fear-of-spiders-and-snakes-is-deeply-embedded-in-us&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2017 press release from the Max Planck Society&lt;/a&gt; on recent research comparing infants' reactions to various stimuli (from benign fish and flowers to non-benign snakes and spiders):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;We conclude that fear of snakes and spiders is of evolutionary origin. Similar to primates, mechanisms in our brains enable us to identify objects as 'spider’ or 'snake’ and to react to them very fast.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24908" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-12-14T14:08:42.577" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24591" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24576" CreationDate="2019-12-13T23:29:23.580" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we consider the field of psychiatry, usually a comorbidity is understood as the simultaneous occurrence of two or more mental disorders in the same person. But attention can also treat physical comorbidity, when there is coexistence of physical and mental pathologies for example. But that does not clarify your question. Sometimes DSM can help and sometimes cause confusion. What needs to be highlighted is the crucial role of clinical evaluation. It is through the evaluation process that we can understand the course of the disease development, its predisposing factors, current difficulties and the symptomatological evolution. A good assessment can see if and when there is a major disease and which diseases can act secondarily. Some symptoms may work together, some clinical conditions of comorbidity have a temporally defined course of action. Although the experience of the clinician counts a lot, we cannot ignore the remarkable role played by exams, tests and other diagnostic instruments. In the case of psychological assessment, which is my background, we can often see from the evidence that new insights are made into each case and from there, build a more effective intervention plan. Hope this helps. Good luck.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2713155/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt; you can find some more. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24910" LastActivityDate="2019-12-13T23:29:23.580" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24592" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-13T23:58:57.567" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is delicate to conduct studies with &lt;strong&gt;schizophrenic patients&lt;/strong&gt;, considering that the results may be altered by the medication factor. What strategies should be used to counteract this effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24910" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-05-13T08:57:50.323" LastActivityDate="2020-05-15T18:19:56.607" Title="How can we eliminate the effect of psychiatric medication on neuropsychological research with schizophrenic patients?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24593" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-14T07:52:46.243" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a student working on EEGs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a EEG data of Brainwave in 4 emotional states, namely anger, sorrow, joy and pleasure. Is there any method for determining the difference between these emotional states by analyzing the 5 Brainwaves (gamma to delta)? And how can I detect which brainwaves are dominant?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23693" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-09-11T08:07:41.380" LastActivityDate="2020-09-11T08:07:41.380" Title="How can I determine which of Brainwave is dominant as one state by EEG data?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24599" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-14T19:05:59.060" Score="6" ViewCount="336" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the (in)famous experiment by psychologist Zimbardo at Stanford, also called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.prisonexp.org/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stanford Prison Experiment&lt;/a&gt;, my understanding is that only males were selected. Is there any other analogous experiment with women only, or women and men, and what was their result?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24923" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-12-15T11:26:41.433" LastActivityDate="2019-12-15T11:26:41.433" Title="Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment with women" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24604" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-15T09:45:23.980" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know if there are psychological traits that predict that a person will be good at acting. And, if psychology can say something about this , which aspects of acting can mostly be taught and which one are hard to be (being dependent mostly some sort of 'natural aptitude').&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3217" LastActivityDate="2019-12-15T09:45:23.980" Title="Are there psychological traits that predict that a person will be good at acting?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24605" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-15T18:51:49.727" Score="0" ViewCount="82" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thinking about the &quot;re-education&quot; camps in parts of the world. They attempt to replace one idiology in you head with another and is considered brainwashing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, the first idiology got in their head by their parents. So is that not also brainwashing of a sort?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How would I know if I have been brainwashed to believe things that aren't necessarily true? How can I prevent being brainwashed by the media?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example I believe that we can find out how the world works through science and experiment but maybe I've just been brainwashed to believe that and really the only way to find out about how the world works is by divine revelations by angels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how can I tell?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2019-12-17T10:38:26.580" Title="How would I know if I've been brainwashed?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24607" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24605" CreationDate="2019-12-15T20:00:23.680" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll go about this question focusing on the definitions, rather than jumping onto the answer proper. Clarifying definitions may already help you a step closer to an answer.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;On the other hand, the first id[e]ology [of children] got in their head by their parents. So is that not also brainwashing of a sort?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the definition of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/brainwashing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Brainwashing&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;...:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a forcible indoctrination to induce someone to give up basic&#xA;  political, social, or religious beliefs and attitudes and to accept&#xA;  contrasting regimented ideas&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...readily answers this Q, namely a kid's brain is a clean slate, virtually devoid of &quot;political, social, or religious beliefs&quot;. So no, this is not brainwashing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;How would I know if I have been brainwashed...[?]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brainwashing was coined by journalist &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Hunter_(journalist)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edward Hunter&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; in September 1950 described how Mao Zedong’s Red Army used terrifying ancient hypnotic techniques to turn the Chinese people into mindless, Communist automatons. &quot;Brainwashing” was a word-for-word translation from xi-nao, the Mandarin words for wash (xi) and brain (nao). In the Korean war later in the '50s, thousands of American soldiers, including high-ranked officers, petitioned to end the war, made false claims of war atrocities by the Us and even refused to re-enter the army after they were freed. The US jumped on it and said these people were brainwashed. However, when the media hype was over, scientific research revealed what truly made these soldiers following the ideas of the &quot;communists&quot;; they were tortured (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/true-story-brainwashing-and-how-it-shaped-america-180963400/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smithsonian Magazine&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question seems also to radiate the mystical origins of the word brainwashing, namely that the media can somehow hypnotize you and change your thoughts mysteriously. Those are false believes. Of course the media affects your thinking, but it cannot &quot;brainwash&quot; you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;I believe that we can find out how the world works through science and experiment but maybe I've just been brainwashed to believe that and really the only way to find out about how the world works is by divine revelations by angels.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some people believe God created the earth and all its life on it. Others choose evolution to be key to life, and the big bang for the creation of the universe instead. It's a choice you can make. Many scientists are also believers. In other words, you don't have to choose, and support both views. Nothing brainwashy about either side.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2019-12-15T21:00:05.250" LastActivityDate="2019-12-15T21:00:05.250" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24609" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24593" CreationDate="2019-12-16T01:15:36.787" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Each &quot;brainwave&quot; is a range of frequencies that make up the signal, usually called a frequency band (ie. &quot;the gamma frequency band&quot;). To determine differences between bands, you would generally look at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_density&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;power spectral density (PSD)&lt;/a&gt; of the signal. For instance, you may want to compare the average power in each frequency band.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In practice the PSD is estimated by calculating a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodogram&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;periodogram&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24928" LastActivityDate="2019-12-16T01:15:36.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24611" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21396" CreationDate="2019-12-16T09:29:25.980" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Yes, but it does not matter&lt;/strong&gt;    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Long answer:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Each question has some &lt;em&gt;inner mechanism&lt;/em&gt; that you either know or you don't. Usually you should know &lt;em&gt;how to do it&lt;/em&gt;, but you don't know, that you &lt;em&gt;should do it that way&lt;/em&gt;. Once you know the right method, next puzzle you would solve much faster - most IQ tests are like this. If you don't know the mechanism, it could be very hard to solve - IQ tests &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; be like this.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;For example &lt;a href=&quot;https://puzzling.stackexchange.com/q/87683/34043&quot;&gt;this one&lt;/a&gt; - once you know, that there are 4 squares all the time, next puzzle of this kind will be much easier. Most puzzles use &lt;em&gt;Subtraction&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Addition&lt;/em&gt; - once you try this two things, you will solve lots of IQ tests. You are expected to know this methods, and that it will be used in test.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Problem with IQ tests is &lt;em&gt;insufficient number of respondents&lt;/em&gt; - since it needs lots of people to create norm.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;For example I created test with possible score 0-100, and 50% of people reached 80 points. When you take the test and had 80 score, your IQ should be 100. But when (because of better education for example) most scores begin to be above 80, norm will change and for 100IQ you would have to score 82 or more.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, you can &lt;em&gt;study&lt;/em&gt; for it, but when more and more people do it (and knows about using subtraction, 4 squares all the time and so), norm will change and tests would be harder for everyone anyway, since there will be always exactly 50% of people that could reach at least 100IQ. ( = take some online tests, since most people do it, otherwise it would put you into disadvantage.)    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Flynn effect&lt;/a&gt;  - raise in IQ due to education and also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_health_on_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;health&lt;/a&gt; (notice not genes).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.123test.com/interpretation-of-an-iq-score/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;More about norm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tests commonly used&lt;/a&gt; - in it you can hide math operations without using numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24930" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-12-16T11:36:40.607" LastActivityDate="2019-12-16T11:36:40.607" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24618" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-17T21:23:16.070" Score="0" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;evident from language&lt;/a&gt; that everyone can distinguish the living entities from the otherwise, or, rather, that there is a scale between two poles that is widely agreed upon. This observation is paralleled by hard research in cognitive psychology and neuroscience. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there research that confirms &lt;em&gt;(or refutes)&lt;/em&gt; that individuals vary in their preference for animacy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to state this question is that I am asking whether &lt;em&gt;&quot;animacy preference&quot;&lt;/em&gt; is a dimension on which individuals vary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Talia Konkle and Alfonso Caramazza — &lt;em&gt;&quot;Tripartite Organization of the Ventral Stream by Animacy and Object Size&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Rosa Salva U.Mayer G.Vallortigara — &lt;em&gt;&quot;Roots of a social brain: Developmental models of emerging animacy-detection mechanisms&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Tao Gao George E. Newman Brian J. Scholl — &lt;em&gt;&quot;The psychophysics of chasing: A case study in the perception of animacy&quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16671" LastEditorUserId="16671" LastEditDate="2019-12-21T00:11:35.147" LastActivityDate="2019-12-21T00:45:57.620" Title="Is there evidence that individuals consistently prefer entities according to their animacy?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="20" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24619" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-18T05:58:25.490" Score="1" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is under what conditions can we overuse our brain? To be concrete lets focus on mental tasks like coding and math problem solving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Q1: How many hours of &quot;fun&quot;(i.e. stressfree) problem solving can we do in a day (say out of 14 waking hours)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some interesting studies/posts&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Focal dystonia&lt;/strong&gt; this is from an answer in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/What-will-happen-if-we-use-our-brain-too-much&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quora&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;To go a little off topic, it may be possible to damage your brain through overuse, but more from years and years of repetitive practice. Ironically, the very skill you spend so much time developing is the part that gets disrupted. This is a disease called focal dystonia—”Focal dystonia most typically affects those who rely on fine motor skills (musicians, writers, surgeons, etc.)&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2018/03/how-being-a-workaholic-differs-from-working-long-hours-and-why-that-matters-for-your-health&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How Being a Workaholic Differs from Working Long Hours&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;We found that work hours were not related to any health issues, while workaholism was. &quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2019/10/16/excessive-brain-activity-linked-shorter-life/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Excessive brain activity linked to a shorter life&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;I think this is overactivity, out-of-control excitation — it’s not good for the brain. You want the neurons to be active, when and where you want them to be active, not to be just generally firing off,&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/thinking-hard-calories/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Does Thinking Really Hard Burn More Calories?&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;The brain continuously slurps up huge amounts of energy for an organ of its size, regardless of whether we are tackling integral calculus or clicking through the week's top 10 LOLcats.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/3766/what-cognitive-processes-occur-during-a-mental-exhaustion-or-burnout&quot;&gt;What cognitive processes occur during a mental exhaustion or 'burnout'?&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;: &quot;One of the older theories suggested that a person literally runs out of brain-fuel when they hit the wall (Baumeister et al, 1998). They called this state &quot;ego depletion&quot; and it refers to the kind of mental burnout you are talking about.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Q2: Any comments on the above studies/posts as it regards the goal of estimating the hours of safe but intense mental activity? Can we infer anything from them to help with that estimation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on these studies, I think the answer is 10-12 hours but given that &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;we vary the tasks to avoid &quot;focal dystonia&quot; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;maintain a healthy lifestyle (sleep,exercise, diet) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;and most importantly try to keep the work enjoyable. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24942" LastEditorUserId="24942" LastEditDate="2019-12-18T22:35:33.747" LastActivityDate="2019-12-18T22:35:33.747" Title="Using the Brain too much?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;mental-exhaustion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24621" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23943" CreationDate="2019-12-19T05:19:38.013" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Partial answer: it's apparently the case that &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0146167211410355&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;being physically attractive affects the hiring manager positively, assuming the hiring manager is of the opposite sex&lt;/a&gt;. The reverse is true if the hiring manager is of the same sex - the effect on the hiring manager is negative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Previous studies of organizational decision making demonstrate an abundance of positive biases directed toward highly attractive individuals. The current research, in contrast, suggests that when the person being evaluated is of the same sex as the evaluator, attractiveness hurts, rather than helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors speculate that the reason for same-sex negative feedback is the perception of self-threat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study does not examine sexual orientation, but given the fact that most (&gt;90%) of people are heterosexual, it's a possible confounding variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19017" LastActivityDate="2019-12-19T05:19:38.013" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24622" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-19T13:42:05.363" Score="3" ViewCount="189" Body="&lt;p&gt;After a recent MacOS update, I am no longer able to run the (latest) AxoGraph software for electrophysiology data analysis on my computer, as I get the following error message:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;&quot;AxoGraph.app&quot; needs to be updated.&#xA;&#xA;The developer of this app needs to update it to work&#xA;with this version of macOS. Contact the developer for&#xA;more information.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Screenshot:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tWvmD.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/tWvmD.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that this is because AxoGraph is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT208436&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;32-bit application&lt;/strong&gt;, which is not supported by macOS Catalina&lt;/a&gt;. I have already contacted the support of the application for advice. In the meantime, &lt;strong&gt;is there any good solution besides switching to a different software?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24948" LastEditorUserId="24948" LastEditDate="2019-12-27T03:56:08.083" LastActivityDate="2019-12-27T15:43:34.450" Title="Unable to run AxoGraph v1.7.6 on macOS 10.15 Catalina" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24623" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-19T14:51:54.293" Score="5" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;A number of studies show that social rejection causes actual pain. Is there a study that focuses on finding the personality dimensions that predict the amount of such pain? For example, is there a correlation between &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits#Extraversion&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;extroversion&lt;/a&gt; and the severity of rejection pain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/3541&quot;&gt;An answer nearby&lt;/a&gt; suggests that there is some kind of &lt;em&gt;&quot;sensitivity&quot;&lt;/em&gt; to a person, but I am so far unable to determine what exactly this &lt;em&gt;&quot;sensitivity&lt;/em&gt;&quot; means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;References:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;K. D. Williams and allies — &quot;Ostracism: Consequences and Coping&quot;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Naomi I. Eisenberger and allies — &quot;Does Rejection Hurt? An fMRI Study of Social Exclusion&quot;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16671" LastActivityDate="2019-12-29T09:37:28.410" Title="What predicts the severity of rejection pain?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24624" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24106" CreationDate="2019-12-19T19:18:42.507" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think, from a statistical point of view, this question will be impossible to answer, because belief in an afterlife is almost always tied to powerful confounding factors, such as participation in a community of fellow believers, marital status, age, etc. I imagine that religious affiliation probably can have a strong protective effect regarding suicide - though I don't have any statistics to back that up - but I can't envisage how you would separate out the various components of religious affiliation and prove which component(s) made the crucial difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might have heard of Émile Durkheim's famous book &lt;em&gt;Suicide&lt;/em&gt;. (Forgive me if I'm assuming either too little or too much knowledge on your part.) Durkheim looked specifically at the effect of religious affiliation on suicide: he found that Jews in late nineteenth century France had the lowest rate of suicide, Protestants the highest, and Roman Catholics somewhere in the middle. Durkheim, however, attributed these findings to the fact that Jews tended to form very tight-knit communities, and that Protestants tended to be much more individualistic, than to any doctrinal difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a more personal note, as a believer who has been through two episodes of severe depression, I think that, broadly speaking, belief in an afterlife probably does have a protective effect with regard to suicide - although there are plenty of factors whose effect is more potent. I have no background in academic psychology, so my advice is probably both unwelcome and unsound, but, if this is part of a formal research project, a good place to start would be to interview believers who had gone through, or were going through, an episode of severe depression. Also, John Donne's &lt;em&gt;Biathanatos&lt;/em&gt; provides a very left-field exploration of Christian attitudes to suicide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24949" LastActivityDate="2019-12-19T19:18:42.507" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24627" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-20T03:15:47.117" Score="2" ViewCount="174" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimax&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;minimax algorithm&lt;/a&gt; is the basic way an AI can decide which move to make in a game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea is that might be paraphrased as &quot;prepare for the worst&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems such a fundamental way to decide what action to make in the world that it seems like the brain should implement such an algorithm in order to decide what to do next.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i.e. think of a possible action, and the worst thing that could happen in each case, then go for the least-worst option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I expect the brain also takes probabilities into account. So that it might choose an action if the worst possible option is also extremely unlikely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How would we test if the brain was using this algorithm?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2021-02-25T02:18:09.843" Title="Does the brain use the minimax algorithm?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24633" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24469" CreationDate="2019-12-22T15:10:03.767" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/9f3qyNNtpQk?t=41&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;In the video, he states&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What is self-esteem? It is a word (actually it is two words). It is sort of something you think you might have or not have. &lt;strong&gt;But, that's a figure of speech. That's not an empirical phenomenon.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, by stating &quot;self-esteem does not exist&quot;, he is implying it cannot be empirically observed, i.e., it is not something that can be observed reliably and systematically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From there on out, he starts arguing why this is so. Some key points:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reported self-esteem measures are pretty appalling.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You can already model the concept of self-esteem with the Big 5. I presume he is implying here the concept is superfluous and implications of 'low or high self-esteem' are modeled better using Big 5.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The introduction of the concept has lead to undesirable consequence of advocating for self-esteem. But, there is no reason to believe that increasing your self-esteem is a good idea. &quot;It is not at haste that you should have a good opinion of yourself in every bloody situation.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He continues to give examples for these points, e.g., &quot;self-esteem might become disconnected from the actual accomplishment&quot;, but I believe this is outside of scope what you are asking for here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2019-12-22T15:15:23.650" LastActivityDate="2019-12-22T15:15:23.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24635" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24645" CreationDate="2019-12-23T08:32:16.790" Score="1" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say a persons experienced a scarring event in their life (ptsd), and so their mind has developed defense in which they laugh uncontrollably whenever their nervous. This is similar to Joker 2019, whenever Arthur was stressed or depressed he would break out in a laughing episode. However, I began to think otherwise, because later in the film Arthur was physically abused as a child (even being tied to a radiator), which may contributed to this being a physical disorder, but I'm looking for a psychological disorder. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the name/term for this condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've thought of psuedobulbar affect (PBA), but after doing research, it is a physical disorder, not purely psychological.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24963" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-12-26T10:10:38.983" LastActivityDate="2019-12-26T11:28:55.590" Title="Laughing as a psychological defense when nervous" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24636" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24740" CreationDate="2019-12-23T10:16:09.710" Score="5" ViewCount="104" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently reading the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/1400067472&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;‘The Worm at the Core: On the Role of Death in Life’&lt;/a&gt;. I have to say that I am a bit skeptical about many of the statements posed, and I’m trying to identify why that is, so I decided to dive into some of the articles they reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the things I encountered was a reference to a paper by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.789&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schimel et al. (2007)&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;em&gt;&quot;Is Death Really the Worm at the Core? Converging Evidence That Worldview Threat Increases Death-Thought Accessibility.&quot;&lt;/em&gt; In Study 5, they state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The results of Study 5 demonstrate, once again, that exposure to&#xA;  worldview-threatening information causes thoughts of death to become&#xA;  more accessible&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They base this on an experiment in which they compare the DTA (death-thought accesibility) in three groups:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;creationist/anti-creation, creationists who read anti-creation material (n=20, M=2.75)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;evolutionist/anti-creation, evolutionists who read anti-creation material (n=20, M=1.95)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;creationist/control, creationists who read neutral material (n=20, M=1.90)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have trouble to see the validity of the conclusion based on the experiment. Might it not also just be the case that creationists in general think more about death? And that reading a passage about the theory of evolution (which is inherently about life and death), makes everyone, regardless of their point of view on evolution, think more about death? I think the problem with this experiment is that there is a group missing in the experiment; the evolutionist/control group. It might be very well possible that this group has a DTA of 0.95 and a low SD. If that were the case, reading the passage has increased the DTA of both the creationists and the evolutionists and thus nothing can be said about the effect of worldview-threatening information. All we would then conclude, is that reading about evolution increases DTA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not a researcher myself, nor am I very familiar with social sciences. I hope someone with more experience in these fields could explain to me if my train of thought is correct, or if not, where the fallacy in this train of thought is. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would also be interested to find references to articles that contain experiments that substantiate the statement cited above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., &amp;amp; Pyszczynski, T. (2015). &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/1400067472&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The worm at the core: On the role of death in life.&lt;/a&gt; Random House.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Schimel, J., Hayes, J., Williams, T., &amp;amp; Jahrig, J. (2007). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.789&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Is death really the worm at the core? Converging evidence that worldview threat increases death-thought accessibility.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of personality and social psychology, 92(5), 789. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jesse_Jahrig/publication/6346017_Is_Death_Really_the_Worm_at_the_Core_Converging_Evidence_That_Worldview_Threat_Increases_Death-Thought_Accessibility/links/0deec538761ba43e48000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24964" LastEditorUserId="24964" LastEditDate="2019-12-23T14:28:22.863" LastActivityDate="2020-01-12T02:27:03.133" Title="Terror management theory: Is this a valid conclusion based on the conducted experiment?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24638" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-24T03:08:46.083" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assume I had a business. That business would've been very close to be sold to a bigger company, &lt;strong&gt;if only I didn't mess up some of my papers.&lt;/strong&gt; Thing is though, I didn't really only mess these papers. The issues started years ago when I thought I'd be smart and not fully fill out all the forms and so on. In time, it all added up, but given that it was some precise papers at the end that got me, I'm prone to say &quot;ah, if only this [most recent evil] didn't happen!&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What bias am I guilty of?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24968" LastActivityDate="2019-12-30T17:54:34.717" Title="Believing only one thing matters, when in reality, it was a chain reaction. What's the bias called?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24640" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-24T11:35:59.083" Score="2" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally speaking it is known that human observers’ perceptions of distances in depth are generally inaccurate. I guess that the accuracy is sometimes a very large degree. To be more specific I am looking for clear information (data) on that topic for healthy persons. &#xA;What would be the errors? 10% or more?&#xA;How the errors depends on the distance?&#xA;Any help are highly welcomed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24970" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-12-26T10:20:10.143" LastActivityDate="2019-12-26T10:20:10.143" Title="Accuracy of visual distance and size perception" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24642" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-25T14:56:18.517" Score="2" ViewCount="95" Body="&lt;p&gt;Where are the emotions in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow pyramid&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/deDJW.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/deDJW.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When we go from inside of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/hk/blog/hide-and-seek/201601/what-are-basic-emotions?amp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;basic emotions&lt;/a&gt; outside like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wgQxw.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wgQxw.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in which direction at the Maslow pyramid we would move?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Update:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;@ArnonWeinberg&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; Comment i need to  mention these information about my prose of asking this question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I like to have one theory about this relations between the Psychology&#xA;  emotional growing and the Maslow pyramid levels, so i asked this kind,&#xA;  but could be another Emotional diagram which is more Updated&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;new Update:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i found this paper which is saying about computational mode of Emotions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/pdf/1706.09554.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Relationship Between Emotion Models and Artificial Intelligence&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newton.ac.uk/files/seminar/20120313163017001-153025.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; power-point:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qhDhX.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qhDhX.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for your attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24975" LastEditorUserId="24975" LastEditDate="2020-01-25T12:12:31.207" LastActivityDate="2020-01-25T12:12:31.207" Title="Emotions VS Maslow pyramid" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24645" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24635" CreationDate="2019-12-26T11:28:55.590" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven’t seen the movie Joker (2019) ... yet ... but I have observed what is often referred to as &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_laughter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nervous laughter&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; occurring with many people, including those involved in the controversial &lt;em&gt;Milgram Experiment&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/29e4/8c1365346fc67137423a016096622ac6a215.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Milgram, 1963&lt;/a&gt;) as you can see in &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/mOUEC5YXV8U&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this YouTube video&lt;/a&gt; at 5 mins 40 secs for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There isn’t necessarily any psychological disorder which will cause nervous laughter, but it is a physical reaction to stress, tension, confusion, or anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuroscientist Vilayanur S. Ramachandran states (Ramachandran, 2004):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have nervous laughter because we want to make ourselves think what horrible thing we encountered isn't really as horrible as it appears, something we want to believe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and also suggests that laughter is used as a defense mechanism used to guard against overwhelming anxiety. Laughter often diminishes the suffering associated with a traumatic event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologist and neuroscientist Robert Provine, from the University of Maryland, studied over 1,200 &amp;quot;laughter episodes&amp;quot; and determined that more than 80% of laughter isn't a response to anything he described as “resembling a formal effort at humour” (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webcitation.org/67VExLQDj&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Provine, 1996&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67&lt;/em&gt;(4), 371-378. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040525&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0040525&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/29e4/8c1365346fc67137423a016096622ac6a215.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/29e4/8c1365346fc67137423a016096622ac6a215.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Provine, R. R. (1996). Laughter. &lt;em&gt;American Scientist, 84&lt;/em&gt;(1), 38-47. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webcitation.org/67VExLQDj&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.webcitation.org/67VExLQDj&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ramachandran, V. S. (2004). &lt;em&gt;A brief tour of human consciousness: From impostor poodles to purple numbers&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Pi Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-12-26T11:28:55.590" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24642" CreationDate="2019-12-26T12:33:18.833" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The 2 concepts you are referring to are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (&lt;a href=&quot;https://scottbarrykaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Maslow-1943.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow, 1943&lt;/a&gt;) and Plutchik’s general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=Ie1GBQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Plutchik, 1980&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;strong&gt;They are totally separate concepts&lt;/strong&gt;, but can be &lt;strong&gt;linked only to a small degree&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As someone progress within Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the person can experience a variety of different emotions, depending on their experiences leading up to and upon achieving that level of attainment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, someone who has met all their safety needs may experience a sense of optimism and trust in their environment. When meeting their love and relationship needs there will probably be experiences of love, but also there may be joy and serenity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If for some reason the person loses an aspect or more of their safety needs, for example, there could be apprehension, worry, fear, annoyance, pensiveness...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological review, 50&lt;/em&gt;(4), 370-396. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/h0054346&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://scottbarrykaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Maslow-1943.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://scottbarrykaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Maslow-1943.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In &lt;em&gt;Theories of emotion&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 3-33). Academic press. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-558701-3.50007-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/B978-0-12-558701-3.50007-7&lt;/a&gt; Google Books: &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=Ie1GBQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=Ie1GBQAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2019-12-26T12:33:18.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24649" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24679" CreationDate="2019-12-26T13:33:27.887" Score="-1" ViewCount="246" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in reasons why people engage in body modifications, such as piercings or tattoos.  I am aware of some religious reasons, and some religions forbidding such activity, but I am interested in personal reasons in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I don't see how piercings and tattoos communicate fitness or fertility, help with symmetry, or improve sexual attractiveness.  Perhaps there are other emotional or linguistic meanings involved?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there research into why people use piercings or tattoos for personal reasons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user24978" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditorDisplayName="user24978" LastEditDate="2020-05-09T04:03:46.830" LastActivityDate="2020-05-09T04:03:46.830" Title="Is there research into why people use piercings or tattoos for personal reasons?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;physical-attraction&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;&lt;body-language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24651" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24622" CreationDate="2019-12-27T04:48:34.397" Score="1" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Response from AxoGraph Support&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I received an answer from John of AxoGraph suggesting to follow the steps outlined in &lt;a href=&quot;https://au.pcmag.com/vmware-fusion-8-for-mac/63913/how-to-run-32-bit-apps-in-macos-catalina&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this tutorial&lt;/a&gt; to set up a virtual machine (VM) on my computer with an earlier version of macOS using the &lt;strong&gt;Parallels&lt;/strong&gt; software ($79.99/year).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He also discouraged using &lt;strong&gt;VirtualBox&lt;/strong&gt;, the free VM manager, as &quot;there's more work involved, and it’s not so smoothly integrated with Catalina.&quot; In his reply, John also promised &quot;to finish the new completely re-written 64-bit version of AxoGraph,&quot; which &quot;is not far from completion,&quot; first releasing a new data-acquisition-only version, subsequently followed by an update with data analysis features. It sounded like all of this would take at least several months, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;My Solution&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After some digging, setting up a virtual machine (VM) with an earlier version of macOS indeed did seem to be the best option for me at this point. What I was after, however, was a &lt;strong&gt;free solution&lt;/strong&gt; - and eventually, I managed to get a &lt;strong&gt;Mojave VM&lt;/strong&gt; to work on my Catalina using &lt;strong&gt;VirtualBox&lt;/strong&gt;. Getting through the whole process was a patchwork of several different sources (mostly following &lt;a href=&quot;https://appletoolbox.com/need-to-run-32-bit-apps-on-macos-catalina-use-a-mojave-virtual-machine/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this tutorial and its comments&lt;/a&gt;), so I decided to re-write the &lt;strong&gt;detailed steps I took below&lt;/strong&gt; (some steps may be adjustable but I used these specific settings with success):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;1. Download macOS Mojave Installer:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Go to this link: &lt;a href=&quot;https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT210190&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT210190&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Click on &lt;em&gt;Get macOS Mojave&lt;/em&gt; in step 4, and open in &lt;strong&gt;App Store&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Click on &lt;em&gt;GET&lt;/em&gt; - that will open the updater, which will download the installer (if you already have Catalina installed, the &quot;update&quot; will stall after the download automatically)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Find it in your &lt;strong&gt;Applications&lt;/strong&gt; folder as &lt;em&gt;Install macOS Mojave.app&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;2. Create an ISO installation media using Terminal:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Create a temporary disk image from the install file &amp;amp; make a bootable installer using Terminal:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;hdiutil create -o /tmp/Mojave.cdr -size 7000m -layout SPUD -fs HFS+J&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Attach that file, with Terminal command:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;hdiutil attach /tmp/Mojave.cdr.dmg -noverify -mountpoint /Volumes/install_build&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Build it, with command:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;sudo /Applications/Install\ macOS\ Mojave.app/Contents/Resources/createinstallmedia --volume /Volumes/install_build&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Move it to your mac’s Desktop:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;mv /tmp/Mojave.cdr.dmg ~/Desktop/InstallSystem.dmg&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Unmount the file:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;hdiutil detach /Volumes/Install\ macOS\ Mojave&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Convert it to ISO:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;hdiutil convert ~/Desktop/InstallSystem.dmg -format UDTO -o ~/Desktop/Mojave.iso&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rename it to remove the CDR extension:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;mv ~/Desktop/Mojave.iso.cdr ~/Desktop/Mojave.iso&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Exit Terminal via Terminal command:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;exit&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;3. Create a new virtual machine (VM) in VirtualBox:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Download &lt;strong&gt;Oracle's VM VirtualBox Manager&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.virtualbox.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.virtualbox.org&lt;/a&gt;) &amp;amp; install it on your Mac&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Open &lt;strong&gt;VirtualBox&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Click on &lt;strong&gt;New&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Select &lt;em&gt;Type: Mac OS X&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Version: Mac OS X (64-bit)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Memory size: &lt;em&gt;8192 MB&lt;/em&gt; (at least 3 GB)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hard disk: &lt;em&gt;Create a virtual hard disk now&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hard disk file type: &lt;em&gt;VDI&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Storage on physical hard disk: &lt;em&gt;Fixed size&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;File location and size: &lt;em&gt;32.00 GB&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;4. Tweak the VM before installation:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;With your newly created VM selected in VirtualBox, go to &lt;em&gt;Settings&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;strong&gt;Storage&lt;/strong&gt;:&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Click on &lt;em&gt;Empty&lt;/em&gt; → Remove [&lt;em&gt;square with a red cross at the bottom&lt;/em&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Click on &lt;em&gt;Controller: SATA&lt;/em&gt; → Add optical drive [&lt;em&gt;CD with a green plus sign&lt;/em&gt;] → &lt;em&gt;Add&lt;/em&gt; → Find the .iso file you created and click &lt;em&gt;Choose&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Settings&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Display&lt;/em&gt;: &lt;strong&gt;Video Memory&lt;/strong&gt; - at least &lt;em&gt;128 MB&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Settings&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;System&lt;/em&gt;: &lt;strong&gt;Processor(s)&lt;/strong&gt; - at least &lt;em&gt;2&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;5. Install the macOS on your VM:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;With your VM selected in VirtualBox, click &lt;em&gt;Start&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Wait until the &lt;em&gt;Language&lt;/em&gt; selection appears; select your preferred language and continue&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;macOS Utilities&lt;/em&gt;: &lt;strong&gt;Disk Utility&lt;/strong&gt; → Continue&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Select &lt;em&gt;VBOX HARDDISK Media&lt;/em&gt; → click on &lt;strong&gt;Erase&lt;/strong&gt; in the toolbar&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Name the drive as you wish and keep the default selections: &lt;em&gt;Format: Mac OS Extended (Journaled)&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Scheme: GUID Partition Map&lt;/em&gt;; click &lt;em&gt;Erase&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Quit&lt;/em&gt; Disk Utility when done&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Select &lt;strong&gt;Install macOS&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Continue&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;Agree&lt;/em&gt; to the license&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Select the hard drive you just erased and &lt;strong&gt;Install&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;MacOS starts installing; wait and &lt;strong&gt;be patient&lt;/strong&gt;! (It took about half an hour for me. The VM may restart at least once in the process.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Go through the &lt;strong&gt;MacOS setup&lt;/strong&gt; (select your Country, keyboard, etc.)&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is recommended that you do not log in with your Apple ID at this time and click &lt;em&gt;Set up later&lt;/em&gt; instead&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I also did not allow &lt;em&gt;Location Services&lt;/em&gt;, nor &lt;em&gt;data collection&lt;/em&gt; from Apple&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Once installed, you can eject the installation disc from within the VM&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It also might be a good idea to go to &lt;em&gt;System Preferences...&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Software Update&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Advanced...&lt;/em&gt; → uncheck &lt;em&gt;Check for updates&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;6. Install the latest version of AxoGraph on your VM:&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Open &lt;strong&gt;Safari&lt;/strong&gt; within your VM&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Go to &lt;a href=&quot;https://axograph.com/download&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://axograph.com/download&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Click on &lt;strong&gt;Mac OS X 10.4 and up*&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Install&lt;/strong&gt; AxoGraph&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;h1&gt;Voilà!&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Now you can run AxoGraph, as well as other 32-bit applications, on your MacOS Catalina!&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You should be able to turn off the VM from within, as you usually would shut down your Mac&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is booted again by selecting your VM in VirtualBox and clicking &lt;em&gt;Start&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24948" LastEditorUserId="24948" LastEditDate="2019-12-27T15:43:34.450" LastActivityDate="2019-12-27T15:43:34.450" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24652" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-27T06:41:10.653" Score="1" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've just read Rolf Dobelli's &lt;strong&gt;The Art of Thinking Clearly&lt;/strong&gt;, as well as Mark Manson's &lt;strong&gt;Everything is F*cked&lt;/strong&gt;, which I stumbled upon the concept of cognitive biases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the books they mentioned how religions are required to maintain hope and seemingly control over humanity, and their strategies of exclusion (ie us vs them). Regarding this, it seems to have an overlap with confirmation bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As such, is there a deeper relationship between the two? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24982" LastActivityDate="2019-12-27T06:41:10.653" Title="Is there a link between confirmation biases and a tendency to subscribe to religions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24656" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24627" CreationDate="2019-12-27T18:03:52.147" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I work in data science, I reach many of the conclusions that a psychologist might, by means of aggregating a lot of data and backtracking on it. I have no formal training and all my opinions are based on conclusions we tested &amp;amp; drew from our work that translated into nearly no bad business decisions and constant growth.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Machine learning is not general intelligence. As such, although I believe that the comparison is not ill-willed, it's as far from the truth as it can be. ML is really a bunch of optimization problems that, when put together, form a coherent system that draws conclusions such as &quot;is this a picture of an elephant?&quot;. Just as the brain does, there's a multitude of inputs and a central system that decides, mostly based on past experience what to do with said inputs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I expect the brain also takes probabilities into account. So that it might choose an action if the worst possible option is also extremely unlikely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In popular culture, it's called &quot;least resistance path&quot;, it's also a trait that I see nearly all intelligent life forms exhibit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I find through my work is that, although bias is frowned upon, it's also a beautiful thing. Personally, I'm a contrarian and I like to believe the good ol' &quot;people are stupid&quot;, but in reality, they really aren't. All the experiences you go throguh train your brain in exactly the same manner you speak of. The problem occurs when the multitude of paths isn't known at the start, that is to say, you're unexperienced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bias is not necessarily helpful min-maxing that happens in the background.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way, don't confuse this with what learning is. Min-maxing as you call it is a higher-level process that is what we can observe from the brain forming connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24968" LastEditorUserId="24968" LastEditDate="2019-12-27T18:13:27.550" LastActivityDate="2019-12-27T18:13:27.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24657" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24638" CreationDate="2019-12-27T18:28:30.763" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The described scenario is about &lt;em&gt;ascribing the problem to a single mistake, while the real problem was long-term wrong behaviour.&lt;/em&gt; From the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of cognitive biases&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fallacies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fallacies&lt;/a&gt;, this is the closest what I could find:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fallacy of the single cause:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The fallacy of the single cause, also known as complex cause, causal&#xA;  oversimplification, causal reductionism, and reduction fallacy, is&#xA;  a fallacy of questionable cause that occurs when it is assumed that&#xA;  there is a single, simple cause of an outcome when in reality it may&#xA;  have been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient causes. It can be &#xA;  logically reduced to: &quot; X caused Y; therefore, X was the only cause of&#xA;  Y&quot; (although A,B,C...etc. also contributed to Y.) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_single_cause&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The terms bias and fallacy are used to describe how being &lt;em&gt;unaware&lt;/em&gt; of deceptive logic or prejudice results in wrong conclusions. In the scenario in the question, one is &lt;em&gt;consciously&lt;/em&gt; trying to interpret the situation in attempt to avoid the full truth, which can be described with the terms, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Minimisation&lt;/strong&gt; - a type of deception involving denial coupled with rationalisation in situations where complete denial is implausible (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimisation_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Belittling&lt;/strong&gt; - regarding or portraying as less impressive or important than appearances indicate (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dictionary.com/browse/belittle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dictionary.com&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2019-12-30T17:54:34.717" LastActivityDate="2019-12-30T17:54:34.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24660" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24623" CreationDate="2019-12-28T15:30:55.520" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have found 2 papers that may be relevant to your question - &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256933605_Is_ostracism_a_strong_situation_The_influence_of_personality_in_reactions_to_rejection&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This paper&lt;/a&gt; probably answers your question the most - I have only schemed  through it, and it seems that the results were insignificant.  You can check out the paper in more detail, hopefully it will get you to more resources that can help with your research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25040459&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;I have also found this paper&lt;/a&gt; which does not entirely answer your question, but I think will help with your insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also keep in mind that some neuroimaging research on social exclusion in causing activation in regions (e.g. dACC) associated with physical pain employs &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3240863/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reverse inference method&lt;/a&gt;.  This does not mean the results are entirely unworthy of considering - just something to keep in mind when looking at neuroimaging result interpretations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McDonald, Melissa &amp;amp; Donnellan, M.. (2012). Is ostracism a strong situation? The influence of personality in reactions to rejection. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Research in Personality. 46&lt;/em&gt;. 614–618. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2012.05.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.jrp.2012.05.008&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Park, M., Lee, K.H., Sohn, S., Eom, J., &amp;amp; Sohn, J. (2014). Degree of extraversion and physiological responses to physical pain and sadness. &lt;em&gt;Scandinavian journal of psychology, 55&lt;/em&gt;(5), 483-8. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1111/sjop.12144&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Poldrack R. A. (2011). Inferring mental states from neuroimaging data: from reverse inference to large-scale decoding. &lt;em&gt;Neuron, 72&lt;/em&gt;(5), 692–697. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2011.11.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.neuron.2011.11.001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24991" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-12-29T09:37:28.410" LastActivityDate="2019-12-29T09:37:28.410" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24665" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6477" CreationDate="2019-12-29T15:49:23.250" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that some things are fun because our brain knows that the activity can make you happy and release dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, say you're going to play a game that you've never seen or played before. At first you probably won't be that in interested in it. But when you start playing it, you start to like the game. Then your brain documents it as fun, So when you see that game or think of it and start playing it, you will experience fun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason why your brain probably thought of it as fun is because it's a game, and games are triggers for dopamine release when you win, advance in the game, get more points, etc. This is all due to primitive behaviors relating to triggers of dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now say you're a kid and you're playing around with your friend. I think the reason that playing around with someone makes you happy and is fun is because that particular person makes you happy. So doing things with them such games will let you have fun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24999" LastActivityDate="2019-12-29T15:49:23.250" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24668" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-30T19:47:52.753" Score="0" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;I liked to know more about brain waves and sexual actions ( like foreplay, orgasm, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I found this &lt;a href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/file/d/1C0MZ__8jWKMFvuepr1VMWjZcnu6QoGGA/view?usp=drivesdk&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1743609515325613&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;REVIEW:New Electroencephalogram (EEG) Neuroimaging Methods of Analyzing Brain Activity Applicable to the Study of Human Sexual Response&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cMkTc.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cMkTc.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I seen &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=vcTJAAAAQBAJ&amp;amp;pg=PA100&amp;amp;dq=orgasm%20brain%20wave%20beta%20alpha&amp;amp;hl=fa&amp;amp;sa=X&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwj6pJ3m29zmAhUCLFAKHf8fBS8Q6AEIOzAD#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=orgasm%20brain%20wave%20beta%20alpha&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this e-book&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fBZjO.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fBZjO.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These parts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yno91.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yno91.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So as you can see above, the author said the brain wave shut down and there is some &lt;strong&gt;height change in alpha wave&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;So i like to know more about the &lt;strong&gt;brain wave shutdown condition&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;could be happened about similar situation with this condition ( brain wave shutdown )?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;And why the alpha wave has huge change and &lt;strong&gt;not discussed&lt;/strong&gt; other brain waves ?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Also for better understanding some similar known situation and effect of these two conditions?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24975" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2019-12-31T14:49:49.827" LastActivityDate="2019-12-31T14:49:49.827" Title="Alpha wave changes and brain waves shutdown vs sexual actions" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24671" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2019-12-31T18:10:41.290" Score="1" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a &lt;a href=&quot;https://philarchive.org/archive/GORWAT-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;philosophy paper&lt;/a&gt;, I saw the following claim defended:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;They sometimes seem to think of the relevant projects as though they were books in a library that contains a large but finite number of books ... As previously argued, if we are to suppose that our personal identities make finite the bounds of what activities we can identify with then our identities do put finite bounds on which books are in our personal libraries&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, 'relevant projects' mean those things that can hold our interest for a long period of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is whether or not this metaphor of interest is accurate. Do people really have a finite set of things that they can take interest in, and how big is this set? How exactly can interest be developed, and can any person take an interest in anything, or are there additional factors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suppose on a more psychological side these questions can be answered by examining what gives us interest. What are the psychological conditions for interest to arise? What combination of genetics, previous experience, context, etc. gives rise to interest?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25013" LastEditorUserId="25013" LastEditDate="2020-01-04T22:12:50.740" LastActivityDate="2020-01-04T22:12:50.740" Title="Are one's interests like a &quot;library&quot;?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2020-01-08T05:26:29.273" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24673" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-01T16:04:16.537" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I watched the movie &quot;Arrival&quot; today and came to define the concept of &quot;Sapir-Whorf sensitivity&quot; as the measure of to what extent is the way of thinking of somebody influenced by the languages they know. As this is an instance of neuroplasticity, one may think that the latter varies across the brain, which leads to the concept of &quot;differential neuroplasticy&quot;. That way, intelligence as the ability to learn could be categorized as a brain map of this differential neuroplasticity through the diverse functional areas of the brain. This would explain why different persons can be very intelligent though in different ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have such concepts been studied before?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24107" LastActivityDate="2020-01-01T16:04:16.537" Title="Have &quot;Sapir-Whorf sensitivity&quot; and &quot;differential neuroplasticity&quot; been considered so far?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24679" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24649" CreationDate="2020-01-02T08:06:58.620" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is far too broad for this forum.  In fact, entire &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ca/books/about/Body_piercing_and_tattoos.html?id=IvBWAAAAYAAJ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;books&lt;/a&gt; have been written on this topic.  An extensive review by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1740144506001136&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wohlrab, Stahl, &amp;amp; Kappeler (2006)&lt;/a&gt; &quot;Motivations for getting tattooed and pierced&quot; divides the literature into 10 broad categories of reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Beauty, art and fashion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Individuality&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personal narrative&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Physical endurance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Group afﬁliations and commitment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Resistance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spirituality and cultural tradition&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Addiction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sexual motivation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No speciﬁc reason&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To keep this answer's length sane, I'll just focus on the areas that you seem most concerned with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sexual attraction:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are probably a few different ways that tattoos and piercings can increase sexual attractiveness.  For example, tattoos can be used to &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00266-011-9698-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;camouflage scars&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human sexual preference is highly affected by environmental (ie, psychological, social, cultural, rather than genetic or evolutionary) factors.  For example, sexual attraction can be susceptible to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_fetishism#Cause&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conditioning and imprinting&lt;/a&gt;, leading to an extensive list of fetishes and paraphilias, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stigmatophilia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stigmatophilia&lt;/a&gt; - &quot;sexual arousal from body modifications such as piercings and tattoos&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related to this, tattoos and piercings may provide &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513811001401&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;exploitability signals&lt;/a&gt; - tattoos on women are associated with promiscuity for example, which is attractive to some:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Results suggest that sexual attraction to exploitability cues&#xA;  functions to motivate men to employ exploitative strategies towards&#xA;  accessible targets ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And in much the same way as humans are prone to decorate spaces around them, so they decorate themselves as well - with fashion, accoutrements, and as it so happens, tattoos and piercings.  Just as art and ornaments might decorate a room in your house, so they might decorate human bodies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fitness and fertility:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common explanation for body modification from an evolutionary perspective is as a signal of fitness.  This is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handicap_principle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the handicap principle&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... reliable signals must be costly to the signaler, costing the&#xA;  signaler something that could not be afforded by an individual with&#xA;  less of a particular trait. ... Receivers know that the signal&#xA;  indicates quality because inferior quality signalers cannot afford to&#xA;  produce such wastefully extravagant signals. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, this is like saying &quot;I am so fit / masculine / feminine that I can afford to mutilate my body without substantially affecting my attractiveness.&quot;  For more details, see research by &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1037/a0027908&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carmen, Guitar, &amp;amp; Dillon (2012)&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886908003681&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wohlrab et al (2008)&lt;/a&gt;; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513809001081&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koziel, Kretschmer, &amp;amp; Pawlowski (2010)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2020-01-02T18:40:47.443" LastActivityDate="2020-01-02T18:40:47.443" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24680" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-02T14:51:04.640" Score="2" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;From reading accessible information about &lt;em&gt;Free Running Sleep Disorder&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;FRSD&lt;/strong&gt;) in humans, I understand it is a chronic and cyclic sleep disorder of a totally unentrained 24-hours circadian rhythm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Description&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recognize a term like &lt;em&gt;totally unentrained 24-hours circadian rhythm&lt;/em&gt; as somewhat vague, but a description I find  practical is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Each day, a person would naturally feel &lt;code&gt;enough tired&lt;/code&gt;, to sleep, &lt;em&gt;a&#xA;  bit later than the day before&lt;/em&gt;; thus, that person won't be able to&#xA;  naturally fall asleep before that later time;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Correspondingly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Each day, that person would naturally wake up a bit later than the day&#xA;  before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;It might be reasonable to say that an FRSD sufferer totally lacks the common ability to fall asleep when feeling &lt;code&gt;a bit tired&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Cyclicity&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The disorder is chronic and cyclic because the human brain will stubbornly &quot;remember&quot; the need to permit sleep (as well as waking up) later every day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Approximate exampling of the problem is available with this diagram:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Day 01: Wake up at 06:00&#xA;Day 02: Wake up at 06:30&#xA;Day 03: Wake up at 07:00&#xA;Day 04: Wake up at 07:30&#xA;Day 05: Wake up at 08:00&#xA;Day 06: Wake up at 08:30&#xA;Day 07: Wake up at 09:00&#xA;Day 08: Wake up at 09:30&#xA;Day 09: Wake up at 10:00&#xA;Day 10: Wake up at 10:30&#xA;&#xA;Day 11: Wake up at 11:00&#xA;Day 12: Wake up at 11:30&#xA;Day 13: Wake up at 12:00&#xA;Day 14: Wake up at 12:30&#xA;Day 15: Wake up at 13:00&#xA;Day 16: Wake up at 13:30&#xA;Day 17: Wake up at 14:00&#xA;Day 18: Wake up at 14:30&#xA;Day 19: Wake up at 15:00&#xA;Day 20: Wake up at 15:30&#xA;&#xA;Day 21: Wake up at 16:00&#xA;Day 22: Wake up at 16:30&#xA;Day 23: Wake up at 17:00&#xA;Day 24: Wake up at 17:30&#xA;Day 25: Wake up at 18:00&#xA;Day 26: Wake up at 18:30&#xA;Day 27: Wake up at 19:00&#xA;Day 28: Wake up at 19:30&#xA;Day 29: Wake up at 20:00&#xA;Day 30: Wake up at 20:30&#xA;&#xA;Day 31: Wake up at 21:00&#xA;Day 32: Wake up at 21:30&#xA;Day 33: Wake up at 22:00&#xA;Day 34: Wake up at 22:30&#xA;Day 35: Wake up at 23:00&#xA;Day 36: Wake up at 23:30&#xA;Day 37: Wake up at 24:00&#xA;Day 38: Wake up at 24:30&#xA;Day 39: Wake up at 01:00&#xA;Day 40: Wake up at 01:30&#xA;&#xA;Day 41: Wake up at 02:00&#xA;Day 42: Wake up at 02:30&#xA;Day 43: Wake up at 03:00&#xA;Day 44: Wake up at 03:30&#xA;Day 45: Wake up at 04:00&#xA;Day 46: Wake up at 04:30&#xA;Day 47: Wake up at 05:00&#xA;Day 48: Wake up at 05:30&#xA;Day 49: Wake up at 06:00&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The described approximate cycle will repeat at self about each 49 days until the disorder has disappeared or as long as it is not treated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Symptoms and Prognose&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If an FRSD sufferer is untreated and would forcefully be awoken and forcefully stay awake thought the day (before natural awakening should have been occurred), side effects such as sleepiness, headaches, and possibly &quot;seeing yellow stars&quot; and more would occur throughout the day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If treatment is unavailable or rejected;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Monetary income wouldn't be optional from a job in &lt;em&gt;predefined time frames&lt;/em&gt; (such as from 08:00 to 14:00 every day), and either a job in &lt;em&gt;differentiating time frames&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;free running&lt;/em&gt; in itself would be needed, or otherwise another source of monetary income would be needed (such as social security, grace organization, family, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Etiology&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that as of the second decade of the 2000's, the cause of this problem in the general audience is unknown and there might be more than one cause:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The problem is likely organic, whether if innate or if evolved sometime after birth.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;It is more common in people with different conditions of blindness&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In people without different conditions of blindness it usually start in teen era and might naturally disappear only at, or after, age 30.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In non blind people, selective impotency of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanopsin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;melanopsin receptors&lt;/a&gt;, might cause it.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Management&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that as of the second decade of the 2000's, this problem was considered among some sleep physicians to be very hard to manage, with the first line treatment being instant release melatonin in steadily growing dosages (no more than about 20mg, which if this dosage was reached, other treatment would be considered),&lt;br&gt;&#xA;but not only it often doesn't help to entrain the circadin rhythm and the pathway is different, it can include serious side effects such as vivid mightmarish dreams which are commonly reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If instant release melatonin doesn't work (or doesn't work good), a subjective, complex treatment might be given and would be likely similar to that of chronic insomnia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Likely including small dosages (&lt;code&gt;4≤mg&lt;/code&gt;) of prolonged release melatonin, possibly combined with other long-term insomnia medications as a synergistic treatment.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;My question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does Free Running Sleep Disorder (FRSD) in humans get treated as of 2020s?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user24978" LastEditorDisplayName="user24978" LastEditDate="2020-01-20T03:08:10.673" LastActivityDate="2020-01-20T03:08:10.673" Title="How does Free Running Sleep Disorder (FRSD) in humans get treated as of 2020s?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24681" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-03T03:19:28.200" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can a person sway the results of their Psychiatric diagnosis test? Say a person has a mental illness that is more serious that they want to accept, if they know enough about Psychology, can they gear their answers toward a different diagnosis that is more acceptable to them and society? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looking into this question many articles are listed about lie detector tests. &lt;a href=&quot;https://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/detecting-lies-in-the-brain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/detecting-lies-in-the-brain/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some articles deal with how an individual might be able to detect another person's deception and the kinds of deception exhibited. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pro.psychcentral.com/exhausted-woman/2017/03/the-levels-of-deceptive-people/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pro.psychcentral.com/exhausted-woman/2017/03/the-levels-of-deceptive-people/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;other articles deal with self-deception and possible reasons why. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6353154/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6353154/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01718/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01718/full&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if a professional evaluation of an patient can be manipulated to achieve the results that patient wants while being deceptive concerning the more accurate diagnosis. For example someone with a serious personality disorder being diagnosis with a more socially acceptable illness, such as ADHD or anxiety disorder because of the deceptive interaction of the patient during the evaluation? Is there a way for a professional to determine what is the true diagnosis vs the diagnosis the patient consciously wants to be evaluated as suffering from?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason's why this patient might want to be diagnosed with a inaccurate illness may be many, as of now I am not interested in that unless it affects my original question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24755" LastEditorUserId="24755" LastEditDate="2020-01-05T04:35:53.223" LastActivityDate="2020-01-05T04:35:53.223" Title="Psychological Diagnostic Test" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24682" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-03T03:32:09.650" Score="0" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen some of Don Hoffman's lectures and talks and I have understood his idea in regards to how different species interpret the physical object by consciousness, as follows (no need to read if you just want to answer the question directly from your understanding and let me to crosscheck the data):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The physical object in this cosmos → everything there is in the cosmos we live in, however it is interpreted by an organism, &lt;strong&gt;is what it is&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Organisms of a given species can only acquire knowledge based on what they have already received and processed (experienced) as &lt;em&gt;interpretation&lt;/em&gt; → by their species-specific nervous systems (or similar systems) → from that physical object;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;For one species, a human might be interpreted as an ape and for another an ape as a human; the small the big, the big the small, etc.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;This helps to explain unintuitive physics concepts such as &quot;worm holes&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A species-specific interpretation is at least in humans done by;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;1)&lt;/strong&gt; Sensation&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;2)&lt;/strong&gt; Perception (figure organization)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;3)&lt;/strong&gt; Identification; &quot;human&quot; (if possible and desirable)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;4)&lt;/strong&gt; Recognition; &quot;John Smith&quot; or &quot;American&quot; (if possible and desirable)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Space, time and energy, as well as, human, ape, language, gender sensation (if described lingually as a &quot;gender identity&quot;), first names, last names, nicknames, tools, devices, machines, computers, operating systems and any other (defined) &quot;entity&quot; are all, at least in some sense, evolutionary-derived, species-specific interpretations of the physical object made by conscious agents in a cosmos in which consciousness is more fundamental than space, time and energy (as interpretations).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;We work with these interfaces first and foremost to survive, but if circumstances allow it, to be more accurate as well (which increases a change of a species to survive);&lt;br&gt;&#xA;We further interface (simplify) the interfaces (simplifications) to do both better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;We humans, and likely any other possible life forms formed in this cosmos, could never know what is the physical object in perfect accuracy, no matter how long we survive and how accurate we interface. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Evolution does not favor those who see reality more accurately but those who survive although more accuracy is more surviving.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;My question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do species interpret the physical object according to Donald D. Hoffman?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user24978" LastEditorDisplayName="user24978" LastEditDate="2020-03-24T07:02:06.940" LastActivityDate="2020-03-24T07:02:06.940" Title="How do species interpret the physical object according to Donald D. Hoffman?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24683" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-03T05:46:48.623" Score="3" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lately, I (as someone with no experience or prior knowledge in the topic) have been thinking about...thinking. The part that intrigues me the most is memory. As a computer-y type person, I tend to think in logic and organized systems of bytes, but I understand this way of thinking about the brain is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eklavya.in/pdfs/Sandarbh/Sandarbh_105/01-14_The_Empty_Brain.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;incorrect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I can half-understand half-guess from the limited information I can find online, the brain is made up of neurons which build up memories in their interactions through &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mrburkholder.com/uploads/7/5/2/1/7521101/how_our_brains_make_memories__science__nature__smithsonian_magazine.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synapses&lt;/a&gt;, which send chemicals to each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to visualize, say, a thumbtack, I would need a lot of information. I think trying to recall an image of a thumbtack would send a &quot;trigger&quot; to a neuron, telling it to pass it on to other neurons, building up an image from these chemicals. I think I've read these chemicals are also what causes emotions (dopamine especially being the one that comes to mind), but I could be mixing things up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So when thinking about a thumbtack, those neurons would connect in a pattern, to ensure I get all the right signals to envision one. This makes a lot of a sense to me, and explains things like forgetting and the ability to imagine and visualize inexactly with ease, but not remember exact values or images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could anyone provide any insight into whether my somewhat informed guesses are correct, or to any more accurate explanations of what is currently known? Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25026" LastActivityDate="2020-01-03T05:46:48.623" Title="Are memories stored as patterns of chemicals/emotions?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24684" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24687" CreationDate="2020-01-03T08:39:15.600" Score="2" ViewCount="602" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/23796468/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/23796468/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched the national library of medicine but I could not find any papers about predicting both the therapeutic and adverse effects on the specific patient (individual) in front of us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People work on/ have an extremely similar chemistry (all cells do that was the phenomenon that the theory of evolution explained) but it is not identical (absolutely) across individuals otherwise we should predict drugs would have absolutely the same effects on all individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As drugs do have different effects across individuals the expectation of the effects should be different too. Because we now know that they have a similar but slightly non-homogeneous chemistry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can we earnestly predict the effects, both therapeutic and adverse, of psychotropic drugs on the specific patient in front of us?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21851" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-01-03T19:47:23.007" LastActivityDate="2020-01-03T20:02:58.863" Title="Predicting the individual effects of psychotropic drugs" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24685" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24684" CreationDate="2020-01-03T10:10:55.660" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How can we earnestly predict the effects, both therapeutic and adverse, of psychotropic drugs on the specific patient in front of us?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The basic answer is that you cannot necessarily predict accurately how any medication will affect any individual person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Medications &lt;strong&gt;can&lt;/strong&gt; in general, carry risks of side effects. The risk levels of each side effect will also be different. Anyone who is licensed to prescribe medications have access to enough literature to assess the level of risk based on risk factors known to the medical profession.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, here in the UK, we have the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bnf.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;British National Formulary (BNF)&lt;/a&gt;, which provides guidance on prescribing in general, as well as guidance on prescribing for children and those who are pregnant etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Detailed information is also given as to the drug indications and dose, contra-indications, known side effects and risk factors among other things to consider.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example side effects list etc. for Paroxetine (a Selective Serotonin Reputable Inhibitor) can be viewed at &lt;a href=&quot;https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/paroxetine.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/paroxetine.html&lt;/a&gt; (NOTE: I have been advised that this may be restricted to UK website visitors only). An &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugs.com/paroxetine.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;alternative example from the US&lt;/a&gt; is from drugs.com&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-01-03T11:02:22.657" LastActivityDate="2020-01-03T11:02:22.657" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24686" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24684" CreationDate="2020-01-03T10:49:51.930" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Therapeutic effects and adverse reactions of psychoneuro-pharmaceutical drugs are tested using the same gold standard as usd for more conventional drugs, namely in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=39532&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;randomized controlled trials&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phase I trials&lt;/a&gt; focus on side effects and dosages in a small group of healthy subjects. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phase II testings&lt;/a&gt; assess efficacy and side effects in a medium-sized population of patients. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phase III testing&lt;/a&gt; assesses efficacy, effectiveness and safety in large numbers of patients. The outcome will tell you whether the drug works, how well it works and what side effects are to be expected and how often they occur.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These data do not allow to predict effects and side effects in a specific patient; they only allow you to estimate the chances that a drug will work and what side effects can be expected based on population testing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of the renewed interest in psychoactive compounds to treat depression and addiction, there is currently an increasing trend to conduct RCTs on compounds like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psilocybin&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/magazine/sa/2020/01-01/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Lewis, 2019)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/magazine/sa/2020/01-01/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lewis, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt;, January issue (2020)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-01-03T20:02:58.863" LastActivityDate="2020-01-03T20:02:58.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24687" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24684" CreationDate="2020-01-03T16:57:12.890" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Predicting individual side effects is generally not feasible in current clinical practice, although in the purview of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personalized_medicine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;personalized medicine&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, mostly as a research goal/topic. For psychotropic medications, this is largely envisaged to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/pharmacogenomics-and-personalized-medicine-643/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;work&lt;/a&gt; through pharmacogenomics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In pharmacogenomics, genomic information is used to study individual responses to drugs. When a gene variant is associated with a particular drug response in a patient, there is the potential for making clinical decisions based on genetics by adjusting the dosage or choosing a different drug, for example. Scientists assess gene variants affecting an individual's drug response the same way they assess gene variants associated with diseases: by identifying genetic loci associated with known drug responses, and then testing individuals whose response is unknown. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scientists believe many idiosyncratic effects result from individual variation that is encoded in the genome. Thus, genetic variation in genes for drug-metabolizing enzymes, drug receptors, and drug transporters have been associated with individual variability in the efficacy and toxicity of drugs. Genetics also underlies hypersensitivity reactions in patients who are allergic to certain drugs, such as penicillin, wherein the body mounts a rapid, aggressive immune response that can cause not only a rash, but can also hinder breathing and cause edema to the point of cardiovascular collapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Predicting serious ADRs [adverse drug reactions] is a priority for pharmacogenomic research. For example, the enzyme CYP2D6, one of a class of drug-metabolizing enzymes found in the liver, breaks down and terminates the action of certain antidepressant, antiarrhythmic, and antipsychotic drugs. Molecular cloning and characterization studies of the gene that codes for this enzyme have described more than 70 variant alleles (Meyer, 2000). These alleles contain one or more point mutations, only some of which affect enzyme activity; however, some of these alleles involve gene deletions and duplications that can lead to increased enzyme activity. Individuals who are homozygous or heterozygous for the wild-type or normal activity enzymes (75%–85% of the population) are called extensive metabolizers; intermediate (10%–15%) or poor (5%–10%) metabolizers are carriers of two alleles that decrease enzyme activity (Ingelman-Sundberg, 1999); and ultrarapid metabolizers (1%–10%) are carriers of duplicated genes. The most common alleles can be detected by DNA chip microarrays, allowing most patients to be assigned to a particular phenotype group. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the completion of the Human Genome Project, anticipation was high that genetic information would radically improve medicine, that side effects would be more predictable, and that patients could be screened for likely drug responses. But thus far, progress has been much slower than what the initial excitement suggested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A great deal of this delay relates to the fact that an individual's response to drugs is multifactorial, resulting from multiple gene and environmental interactions (Haga &amp;amp; Burke, 2004). Scientists also recognize that even as the knowledge base continues to expand, the clinical translation of that knowledge still requires empirical evidence, generated for a particular disease and drug combination, before treatment can be customized to a patient's genotype. Thus, much work remains to be done before personalized medicine can reach its fullest potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Last year the FDA has &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/safety-communications/fda-warns-against-use-many-genetic-tests-unapproved-claims-predict-patient-response-specific&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;issued&lt;/a&gt; a warning against improper/premature use of pharmacogenomics to select antidepressants. An excerpt...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the FDA is aware of genetic tests that claim results can be used to help physicians identify which antidepressant medication would have increased effectiveness or side effects compared to other antidepressant medications. However, the relationship between DNA variations and the effectiveness of antidepressant medication has never been established. The FDA is aware that health care providers may have made inappropriate changes to a patient's medication based on the results from genetic tests that claim to provide information on the personalized dosage or treatment regimens for some antidepressants. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a limited number of cases for which at least some evidence does exist to support a correlation between a genetic variant and drug levels within the body, and this is described in the labeling of FDA cleared or approved genetic tests and FDA approved medications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As noted in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6291002/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;review of last year&lt;/a&gt; there are now several guidelines trying to put together the available knowledge:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are multiple guidelines in various stages of development during the past 5 years including those by the Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC), a registered service mark of the US Department of Health and Human Services and other authoritative scientific consortia [(e.g., Dutch Pharmacogenetic Working Group (DPWG)] for cytochrome P450 and drug therapy including for psychiatry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CPIC has a &lt;a href=&quot;https://cpicpgx.org/guidelines/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;database page&lt;/a&gt; roughly ordered by the drug in question, e.g. &amp;quot;CYP2D6, CYP2C19 and Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors&amp;quot;. The &lt;a href=&quot;http://upgx.eu/guidelines/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DPWG guidelines&lt;/a&gt; currently seem to be one large (book-sized) pdf document, not restricted to psychotropic drugs. Various papers, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41431-019-0540-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;e.g. Lunenburg et al.&lt;/a&gt; describe how their methodology (and thus sometimes conclusions) differs from CPIC etc. The latter consortium also publishes journal papers on their individual drug guidelines, e.g. they &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmid/27997040/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;have one&lt;/a&gt; on &amp;quot;Genotypes and Dosing of Tricyclic Antidepressants&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-01-03T17:42:16.480" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24688" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23654" CreationDate="2020-01-03T17:38:26.607" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This could be ARFID or OFSED.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/learn/by-eating-disorder/arfid&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ARFID&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Avoidant Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID) is a new diagnosis in the DSM-5, and was previously referred to as “Selective Eating Disorder.” ARFID is similar to anorexia in that both disorders involve limitations in the amount and/or types of food consumed, but unlike anorexia, ARFID does not involve any distress about body shape or size, or fears of fatness.....a person with ARFID does not consume enough calories to grow and develop properly and, in adults, to maintain basic body function. In children, this results in stalled weight gain and vertical growth; in adults, this results in weight loss. ARFID can also result in problems at school or work, due to difficulties eating with others and extended times needed to eat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;OFSED (formerly EDNOS) refers to an eating or feeding disorder that does not meet the full diagnostic criteria of another eating disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25027" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-01-03T17:38:26.607" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24694" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23654" CreationDate="2020-01-05T23:08:17.323" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;That's a question of definition. Anorexia can be either a mental health issue or a symptom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If by anorexia you mean anorexia nervosa, then per definition it's an eating disorder, that among other things, implies body image issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice however, that anorexia can also simply mean the symptom, which is a pathological lack of appetite. In this case, it's a symptom of another illness, and not an illness per se. The underlying cause can well be cancer, AIDS, for example. For example, as it is used by &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjcsm.12059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ezeoke and Morley (2015)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia even has two separate pages for the illness: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and for the symptom: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_(symptom)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia_(symptom)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Ezeoke, C. C., &amp;amp; Morley, J. E. (2015). &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjcsm.12059&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pathophysiology of anorexia in the cancer cachexia syndrome.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of cachexia, sarcopenia and muscle, 6(4), 287-302.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3354" LastEditorUserId="3354" LastEditDate="2020-01-06T13:17:34.063" LastActivityDate="2020-01-06T13:17:34.063" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24697" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-06T12:25:30.060" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2014.05.027&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koubeissi et al. (2014)&lt;/a&gt; there was an experiment on a patient to find out which part of the brain caused her epilepsy. In this experiment they have found out that if they electrically stimulate her left claustrum, the person would lose consciousness. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: If they have stimulated her right claustrum, would that caused her a loss of consciousness as well? In other words: Are both claustrums necessary for a conciousness to appear in an ordinary healthy human brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Koubeissi, M. Z., Bartolomei, F., Beltagy, A., &amp;amp; Picard, F. (2014). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2014.05.027&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Electrical stimulation of a small brain area reversibly disrupts consciousness.&lt;/a&gt; Epilepsy &amp;amp; Behavior, 37, 32-35.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24047" LastEditorUserId="24047" LastEditDate="2020-01-07T17:30:18.503" LastActivityDate="2020-01-07T18:27:45.847" Title="Does an electrical stimulation of a right claustrum leads to a temporary loss of consciousness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24700" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-06T15:22:52.883" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a concise overview table of all types of neurons (whose number is &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/brainwaves/know-your-neurons-classifying-the-many-types-of-cells-in-the-neuron-forest/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;at least in the hundreds&lt;/a&gt;) indicating which neurotransmitters they use pre- and post-synaptically (of which there are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/neurotransmitters&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;over 100 different ones&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a type of neuron releases (or receives) more than one neurotransmitter the relative amounts would be interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore: For each neurotransmitter there seem to be &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/12974/4736&quot;&gt;more than one receptor&lt;/a&gt;, so the table should include also the receptor (per neuron type and received neurotransmitter).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally, to each pair of neuron type and released neurotransmitter the neuron types should be listed that receive this transmitter from this type of neuron. (It might turn out that &quot;anything goes&quot;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-01-06T15:29:51.653" LastActivityDate="2020-01-07T14:25:48.763" Title="Neurotransmitters by neuron types" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24702" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19428" CreationDate="2020-01-06T16:31:05.633" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my opinion, things that I find attractive change with circumstances.  My age plays a role, how well you know someone or the more things you enjoy about them as you get to know them and then how those same things can bother you down the road or on certain days or when in certain groups.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other factors like past experience, upbringing, things you find attractive might be qualities, or physical characteristics that a carer or influence of yours had: family members, teachers, movie stars, musicians, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ex girlfriends can change what you find attractive in future relationships.  If you have a strong distaste for an ex then you might find qualities that she had unattractive if similar qualities are found in a new interest.  Where as if you miss that person and hold them in high esteem, you may go looking for a kind of replica or replacement to satisfy the feeling you got when those qualities are present.  But you may also resent those qualities because they remind you of that other person and this might contribute to lessening the attractiveness in them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no answer to attractiveness.  Some of us find it attractive to need someone to boost them up.  Physical appearance doesn't necessarily matter, e.g. if someone who had an okay home life but had a mother, aunt, or other care giver that they really cared about who never seemed to obtain any satisfaction in life and was always unhappy but still got up and did it all in hopes that the child would have a better life, and maybe did it with a fake smile just for them, now this child may find other under-appreciated women attractive and try to give them that extra spice in life that the other people they care about never seemed to see, not necessarily sexual either, though it seems to be man's MO to believe he is a gift from god to bestow upon women.  It's not as though a person has an attraction to &quot;mother figures&quot; or their own mother, I've never really read Freud, but it seems people who hate or fear Freud fear themselves and their own perverse minds thanks to the rash, cruel judgments of others, or their, or their parents' religion makes them feel shameful about it.  Nobody wants to be run out of town, or labeled something they are not due to something the brain automatically does due to conditioned responses. (mind you, I don't believe in free will; I'm more of an &quot;interacting processing&quot; guy; ref. Robert Anton Wilson 'Maybe Logic'.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize this is not exactly what you were asking for, but I think any study you can conduct will have no true control, especially without an extensive psychological study done on each individual subject and possibly even pictures of the women from their lives.  Even if it is solely on physical appearance, the reasons I might like a certain kind of eyes more than the majority is perhaps I spent many crucial points of my life with someone who had eyes like that, or a &quot;double chin and a plastic smile.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25047" LastActivityDate="2020-01-06T16:31:05.633" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24703" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-07T01:06:26.637" Score="0" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;What would be the psychological term when a person counters an argument using logical and relevant to some degree, but yet out of scope argument believing that he or she made a successful claim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;an example would be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;you should not run on ice [obviously, ice is slippery]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the opponent &lt;em&gt;objects&lt;/em&gt; by saying:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;if I run on water sideways I'll be fine &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in this example the opposing person remains in a subject of movement on a substance which is water/ice (depending on the state of matter), suggest different type of motion (sideways, not forward), yet at the same time the counter-argument doesn't actually counter or contradict the thesis stated by the first person. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet the opposing part is convinced on winning the argument and awaits confirmation from the adversary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25050" LastActivityDate="2020-01-07T01:06:26.637" Title="Psychological term for using out of scope arguments in a discussion" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24705" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24711" CreationDate="2020-01-07T09:50:14.847" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I used to believe that connectivity is nothing but synaptic connectivity and thus a long-term concept: synapses grow and synaptic strengths change on rather large time scales. But recently I found that connectivity sometimes is used as a short-term concept, e.g. in statements like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336920763_Cortical_functional_connectivity_indexes_arousal_state_during_sleep_and_anesthesia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;»[C]ortical connectivity will reflect clear changes when transitioning&#xA;  into states of reduced consciousness.«&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming that transitioning into a state of reduced consciousness takes place in some seconds or minutes, also connectivity would have to change on this time scale. But what kind of connectivity would this be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors of the paper cited above call it &quot;functional connectivity&quot; and measure it by the so-called &quot;weighted phase lag index&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is functional connectivity defined or explained (understandable to a non-specialist) and how does it relate to synaptic connectivity (which can easily be understood by non-specialists)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-01-07T10:44:28.730" LastActivityDate="2020-01-07T17:34:58.853" Title="Functional vs. synaptic connectivity" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24706" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-07T10:23:55.160" Score="0" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some basic cases of stimuli that are typically experienced either as pleasant or unpleasant, e.g. the &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AGrosse_terz_c_e.ogg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;major third&lt;/a&gt; as opposed to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ATritonus_auwaerts_abwaerts.ogg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tritone&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming that there are different processes going on in my brain while listening to these two intervals, I'd like to know: What are the qualitative differences between these processes that would allow to understand that the first is experienced as pleasant and the other is experienced as unpleasant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just by thinking about it, there seem to be three possibilities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The same regions/areals/neuron groups are active but in different characteristic modes, exhibiting different spatio-temporal patterns of neural activity.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Different regions are active in different modes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Different regions are active but in somehow similar modes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming that the difference is mainly due to different activity modes (cases 1 and 2), I would like to know which characteristics might correlate with the pleasantness and unpleasantness of the expericence, e.g. some kind of &quot;harmony&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastActivityDate="2020-01-07T17:07:03.943" Title="Neural correlates of pleasantness and unpleasantness" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24707" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-07T13:04:43.453" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming that the performance in performing a motor or mental task can be quantitatively measured (e.g. by measuring its duration, efficiency, and quality of the outcome) I wonder if there have been systematic studies how self-observation influences these parameters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess to study this influence one needs four experimental set-ups to compare to each other:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Just ask the test person to perform the task.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ask her to observe herself (to be able to report what went on, afterwards).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ask her to think loud.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ask her to try &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; to observe herself.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;Is there a canoncial paper in which such an experiment is described?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there was a study where the influence of self-observation is measured in a &lt;strong&gt;multi-tasking setting&lt;/strong&gt; (&quot;Do this and do that at the same time and observe  yourself while doing it&quot;) this would be even greater.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastActivityDate="2020-04-01T09:50:00.363" Title="How does self-observation influence performance?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;multi-tasking&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24708" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24700" CreationDate="2020-01-07T14:15:41.053" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has a comprehensive list of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurotransmitters&lt;/a&gt;, categorized as (a short list):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Amino acids: glutamate, aspartate, D-serine, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gasotransmitters: nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Monoamines: dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (noradrenaline; NE, NA), epinephrine (adrenaline), histamine, serotonin (SER, 5-HT)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trace amines: phenethylamine, N-methylphenethylamine, tyramine, 3-iodothyronamine, octopamine, tryptamine, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Peptides: oxytocin, somatostatin, substance P, cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript, opioid peptides&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Purines: adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Catecholamines: dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Others: acetylcholine (ACh), anandamide, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They then specifically present about 100 transmitters and the respected receptors in the tables and most of both are additionally presented in separate articles. They mention specific actions of main transmitters and they further categorize them by systems: noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin, histamine and acetylcholine system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What can be interesting to focus on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which neurotransmitters/receptors are excitatory or inhibitory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which neurotransmitters are antagonistic or synergistic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which neurotransmitters/receptors are related with specific diseases&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Drugs that act on specific receptors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2020-01-07T14:25:48.763" LastActivityDate="2020-01-07T14:25:48.763" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24709" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-07T14:53:12.963" Score="2" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I noticed improved mental health (better mood, better cognition? more energy) after &lt;strong&gt;reducing&lt;/strong&gt; smoking.Is it backed up by research?&#xA;I know stopping smoking is, but reducing? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.pulsetoday.co.uk/clinical/clinical-specialties/mental-health/stopping-smoking-as-effective-as-antidepressants-at-improving-mood/20005864.article&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.pulsetoday.co.uk/clinical/clinical-specialties/mental-health/stopping-smoking-as-effective-as-antidepressants-at-improving-mood/20005864.article&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25057" LastActivityDate="2020-02-05T16:53:54.197" Title="Reducing smoking and mental health benefits" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;depression&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24710" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24706" CreationDate="2020-01-07T17:07:03.943" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Simply put, pleasant/unpleasant sensations are associated with the activation of certain &lt;strong&gt;brain regions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Many affective stimuli are hedonically complex mixtures containing&#xA;  both pleasant and unpleasant components. To investigate whether the&#xA;  brain represents the overall affective value of such complex stimuli,&#xA;  or the affective value of the different components simultaneously, we&#xA;  used functional magnetic resonance imaging to measure brain&#xA;  activations to a pleasant odor (jasmine), an unpleasant odor (indole),&#xA;  and a mixture of the two that was pleasant. In brain regions that&#xA;  represented the pleasantness of the odors such as the &lt;strong&gt;medial&#xA;  orbitofrontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt; (as shown by activations that correlated with the&#xA;  pleasantness ratings), the mixture produced activations of similar&#xA;  magnitude to the pleasant jasmine, but very different from the&#xA;  unpleasant indole. These regions thus emphasize the pleasant aspects&#xA;  of the mixture. In contrast, in regions representing the&#xA;  unpleasantness of odors such as the &lt;strong&gt;dorsal anterior cingulate and&#xA;  midorbitofrontal cortex&lt;/strong&gt; the mixture produced activations that were&#xA;  relatively further from the pleasant component jasmine and closer to&#xA;  the indole. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jneurosci.org/content/27/49/13532&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Journal of Neuro Science&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastActivityDate="2020-01-07T17:07:03.943" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24705" CreationDate="2020-01-07T17:23:31.027" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;That one looks a bit familiar to me!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short, simple answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(extracted from the longer answer below...)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Measures of functional connectivity are &lt;em&gt;just correlations&lt;/em&gt; (correlation here referring broadly to statistical relationships, not a specific statistic): they do not say anything about the causes of those correlations including whether they are direct or indirect. The &quot;connectivity&quot; is &lt;em&gt;functional&lt;/em&gt; in that it is measured only by the &lt;em&gt;function&lt;/em&gt; at the measured nodes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Functional connectivity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Functional connectivity refers to temporal correlations in some measure of nervous system activity. Both positive and negative functional connectivity is possible. The canonical example is correlation in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging#BOLD_hemodynamic_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BOLD fMRI signal&lt;/a&gt;, which is often defined as the Pearson correlation in the resting state BOLD signal time series between remote voxels, or across blocks during some task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For EEG, functional connectivity measures include &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence_(signal_processing)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;coherence&lt;/a&gt;, amplitude correlations (such as the Pearson correlation of the signal envelope, typically band-pass filtered into named bands like delta/theta/alpha/beta/gamma), and measures of phase relationships such as the phase lag index and weighted phase lag index.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What these measures share in common is that they record some statistical non-independence in the activity measured in different areas of the brain. However, they differ greatly in temporal and spatial scale depending on the modality and subsequent signal processing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, measures of functional connectivity are &lt;em&gt;just correlations&lt;/em&gt; (correlation here referring broadly to statistical relationships, not a specific statistic): they do not say anything about the causes of those correlations including whether they are direct or indirect. The &quot;connectivity&quot; is &lt;em&gt;functional&lt;/em&gt; in that it is measured only by the &lt;em&gt;function&lt;/em&gt; at the measured nodes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, consider a weighted directed graph of nodes A, B, and C. Even if there is no edge connecting A and B, if C drives both A and B then there will be functional connectivity between A and B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You would even expect to observe functional connectivity &lt;em&gt;between the brains of different people&lt;/em&gt; if they were, for example, watching the same video &lt;em&gt;(as an aside...I think someone actually did this experiment, leading to some bogus claims about universal consciousness or something like that...the real explanation is more like &quot;when two people listen to the same audio track, in which sometimes there is speech and sometimes there is no speech, they both have more activity in their auditory cortex during speech&quot; which is considerably less profound...)&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A synaptic connection between nodes P and Q almost certainly implies there will be functional connectivity between P and Q (though it may not be measurable depending on the strength of that connection and the structure of the rest of the network), but the inverse is not true: functional connectivity is insufficient to claim a real synaptic connectivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personally, I wish another term was used besides &lt;em&gt;connectivity&lt;/em&gt; but this is the field standard terminology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Functional connectivity can be distinguished from two other types of connectivity: effective and structural.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Effective connectivity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Effective connectivity refers to model-based measures of causal influence of some brain area on another. Examples include the use of dynamic causal modeling (see for example Friston 2009, which is also highly relevant to the rest of this answer) and multivariable autoregressive modeling (see for example Cheung et al 2010).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Structural connectivity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Structural connectivity refers to the physical axonal connections between brain areas. In neuroimaging, it is often measured using diffusion tensor imaging which takes advantage of the fact that water more freely diffuses along axon tracts rather than perpendicular to them. Structural connectivity can also be measured more directly using neuronal tracers (dyes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term &lt;em&gt;structural connectivity&lt;/em&gt; is used both in the context of connection strengths between certain areas relative to other areas, as well as to overall white matter integrity which can be disrupted in disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that while structural connectivity is often expected to correlate with functional connectivity, it doesn't need to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Synaptic connectivity&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These other terms are mostly used in the broad areas of neuroimaging and EEG/MEG. Using these modalities, even effective and structural connectivity only loosely imply synaptic connectivity. Detecting true synaptic connectivity requires more invasive electrophysiological techniques such as paired patch clamp recordings, or via anatomical reconstructions using tracers or electron microscopy. Synaptic connectivity can also be observed in real time using live-cell imaging of dendritic spines after injection or genetic expression of a fluorescent marker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cheung, B. L. P., Riedner, B. A., Tononi, G., &amp;amp; Van Veen, B. D. (2010). Estimation of cortical connectivity from EEG using state-space models. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical engineering, 57(9), 2122-2134.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Friston, K. J. (1994). Functional and effective connectivity in neuroimaging: a synthesis. Human brain mapping, 2(1‐2), 56-78.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Friston, K. (2009). Causal modelling and brain connectivity in functional magnetic resonance imaging. PLoS biology, 7(2), e1000033.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jones, D. K., Simmons, A., Williams, S. C., &amp;amp; Horsfield, M. A. (1999). Non‐invasive assessment of axonal fiber connectivity in the human brain via diffusion tensor MRI. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine: An Official Journal of the International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 42(1), 37-41.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nägerl, U. V., Willig, K. I., Hein, B., Hell, S. W., &amp;amp; Bonhoeffer, T. (2008). Live-cell imaging of dendritic spines by STED microscopy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(48), 18982-18987.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vinck, M., Oostenveld, R., Van Wingerden, M., Battaglia, F., &amp;amp; Pennartz, C. M. (2011). An improved index of phase-synchronization for electrophysiological data in the presence of volume-conduction, noise and sample-size bias. Neuroimage, 55(4), 1548-1565.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-01-07T17:34:58.853" LastActivityDate="2020-01-07T17:34:58.853" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24713" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24697" CreationDate="2020-01-07T18:22:08.730" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's probably a bit more complicated than that. Cortical areas tend to be highly connected with their contralateral counterparts, so it's not really fair to expect that the effects of stimulation on one side of the brain doesn't impact the contralateral side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The claustrum is itself a small gray matter region, but it is surrounded by white matter as well. Koubeissi et al used a fairly strong stimulus when they saw effects on consciousness; I have a hard time believing this stimulation was &lt;em&gt;only&lt;/em&gt; affecting the claustrum and not fibers of passage at that stimulation intensity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A recent study of 5 epilepsy patients attempted to replicate the Koubeissi finding, stimulating the claustrum (bilaterally in 4/5) in epilepsy patients, but none of the patients lost consciousness despite experiencing other effects. The authors suggest that the results presented in the earlier case study could be based on the unique circumstances of that patient, which include their epilepsy history and prior resection, and that the stimulation location in that Koubeissi case was not really directly in the claustrum. Additionally, Bickel &amp;amp; Parvizi were unable to use a stimulus as strong as the prior case report because their patients experienced negative side effects like painful muscle responses that Koubeissi did not see.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Bickel, S., &amp;amp; Parvizi, J. (2019). Electrical stimulation of the human claustrum. Epilepsy &amp;amp; Behavior.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Damasio et al, 2013 is another case study, where the patient had bilateral damage to a substantial portion of the brain, including the claustrum bilaterally. This patient had quite a bit of impact to various functions due to this damage, but they were still conscious. Therefore the answer to &quot;&lt;em&gt;Are both claustrums necessary for a conciousness&lt;/em&gt;&quot; seems to be &quot;no&quot;; in a &lt;em&gt;healthy brain&lt;/em&gt; it's a bit harder to say, because it's not ethical to damage the claustrum in healthy brains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Damasio, A., Damasio, H. &amp;amp; Tranel, D. Persistence of feelings and sentience after bilateral damage of the insula. Cereb. Cortex 23, 833–846 (2013).&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also other papers showing suppression or recovery of consciousness through stimulation of other brain regions besides the claustrum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Redinbaugh, M. J., Phillips, J. M., Kambi, N. A., Mohanta, S., Andryk, S., Dooley, G. L., ... &amp;amp; Saalmann, Y. B. (2019). Central thalamus modulates consciousness by controlling layer-specific cortical interactions. bioRxiv, 776591.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Schiff, N. D., Giacino, J. T., Kalmar, K., Victor, J. D., Baker, K., Gerber, M., ... &amp;amp; Farris, S. (2007). Behavioural improvements with thalamic stimulation after severe traumatic brain injury. Nature, 448(7153), 600-603.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-01-07T18:27:45.847" LastActivityDate="2020-01-07T18:27:45.847" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24714" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-07T23:24:14.073" Score="4" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a more specific version of my previous &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/24671/are-ones-interests-like-a-library&quot;&gt;question&lt;/a&gt;, I'd like to know if an interest in anything can be developed in any person. Let us assume the person has the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Sufficient motivation to become interested in the subject at hand.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2018/09/having-a-growth-mindset-makes-it-easier-to-develop-new-interests&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The correct mindset toward interests&lt;/a&gt;. As in, the person appreciates that interest is not fixed, but can be developed and changed over time.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No misconceptions pertaining to the interest being developed. For example, someone not wanting to become interested in a field because of the stereotypes about people working in that field.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, then, assuming these points, &lt;strong&gt;can any person develop an interest in any field/activity&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For my own research toward this problem, I found &lt;a href=&quot;http://minerva.union.edu/bizerg/readings100/silvia_2008.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Interest - The Curious Emotion&quot;&lt;/a&gt; by Paul Silvia. He says that interest arises if a subject appraises something as being novel, complex, and comprehensible. This doesn't seem to cover the whole story, as it is fairly easy to come up with examples where despite making those appraisals, a subject does not develop interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25013" LastActivityDate="2020-01-07T23:24:14.073" Title="Can any person develop an interest in anything?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24717" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-08T11:50:06.607" Score="1" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coma&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coma&lt;/a&gt; is correlated to a significant inactivity of the cerebral cortex and the reticular activating system, while other parts of the brain - e.g. the limbic system - might still show considerable activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Are there cases where people recovered from a coma and could later plausibly report experiences they made during the coma?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kind of experiences would they typically report - if any? And how fine-grained can descriptions of such experiences be?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I felt that I were alive.&quot; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I felt horrible/relaxed.&quot; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I sometimes felt hungry.&quot; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I felt that my mother was there.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I somehow felt she touched me.&quot; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;I somehow heard her say my name.&quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most surely, elaborate thoughts and complex emotions can not be recalled and plausibly reported (because they could not take place).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What would such reports tell us about the neural basis of&#xA;  consciousness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there forms of recoverable coma where the cerebral cortex and/or the reticular activating system is completely mute, i.e. without any measurable coordinated neural activity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do other parts of the brain necessarily show no measurable coordinated neural activity when the cerebral cortex and/or the reticular activating system doesn't?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-01-08T14:17:03.227" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T17:16:51.163" Title="What can coma patients report about their experiences - if anything?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24718" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-08T13:05:34.223" Score="0" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is an overview question. I wonder which principles of grouping neurons into higher units are there, and which principles I have overseen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;neurotransmitter systems&lt;/strong&gt;: all neurons that release or react on a given (class or set of) neurotransmitters&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;functional systems&lt;/strong&gt;: all neurons (and groups of neurons) that are involved in performing a given task or function&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;regions&lt;/strong&gt;: all neurons in a given 3-dimensional volume of the brain, e.g. a voxel &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;nuclei&lt;/strong&gt; etc: a group of nearby neurons which somehow belong to each other (morphologically or synaptically, possibly encapsulated by some &quot;membrane&quot;) &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;clusters&lt;/strong&gt;: a group of neurons (nearby or not) that are strongly interconnected by synapses&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;independent sets&lt;/strong&gt;: of a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipartite_graph&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multipartite&lt;/a&gt; subgraph of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6136126/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain network&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;groups defined &lt;strong&gt;by other graph-theoretical measures&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;pathways&lt;/strong&gt;: a somehow distinguished (e.g. shortest) synaptical route from neuron (group) A to neuron (group) B&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;cortical layers&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;cortical columns&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make my question specific and not too broad, let me just ask the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Which principles of grouping neurons is missing in the list above?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(There should be not so many.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For each classified group of neurons some numbers will be interesting to know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How many neurons do they typically comprise?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How many groups of the same kind are there?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How strongly do they overlap?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastActivityDate="2020-01-09T13:49:54.420" Title="Principles of grouping neurons" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24719" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13097" CreationDate="2020-01-08T13:22:18.247" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I guess the answer depends on what you mean with &quot;connected more than once&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Initially, being connected is a strictly binary relation: either two neurons are connected or not. (The question may be: directly or not. Indirectly, each pair of neurons is connected, as I assume.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you consider &quot;being connected more or less strongly&quot; - which is not a binary relation anymore - you may consider the degree of connectedness as a natural number 1, 2, 3, ... and in this case, you might want to count synapses between two neurons. And surely, there can be more than one:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;»&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4295841/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An important experimentally observed feature [...] is the&#xA;  distribution of the number of synapses from one neuron to another,&#xA;  which has been measured in several cortical layers. All of these&#xA;  distributions are bimodal with one peak at zero and a second one at a&#xA;  small number (3–8) of synapses.«&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to consider pathways between two neurons A and B - shortest sequences of connected neurons starting with A and ending with B - then the answer is &quot;yes, of course&quot; again:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/post/What_is_the_average_number_of_synapses_between_any_two_neurons_in_the_brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;»[Each neuron] is within two or three connections of all the others via myriad potential routes.«&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-01-08T13:36:07.367" LastActivityDate="2020-01-08T13:36:07.367" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24720" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19795" CreationDate="2020-01-08T14:26:47.040" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR&lt;/strong&gt;: Multiple approaches have been tried over many years.  Current medical evidence strongly supports an &quot;affirming approach&quot; to alleviate gender dysphoria.  &quot;Corrective approaches&quot; are considered unethical, and withholding treatment is not considered neutral.  It's explained in the referenced &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/solgbt_webinar_transition_garofalo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;AAP slides&lt;/a&gt;, e.g.:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Children rejected and not supported are at increased risk of&#xA;  the following during adolescence:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Depressive symptoms, low life satisfaction, self-harm, isolation,&#xA;  posttraumatic stress, incarceration, homelessness, and suicidality&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More up to date is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is the first study to examine mental health in these children, finding that they have low levels of anxiety and depression.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;Olson, Durwood, DeMeules, and McLaughlin, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-3223&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Mental Health of Transgender Children Who Are Supported in Their Identities&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, Pediatrics, 2016&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also note that medical treatment is not as easy to obtain as commonly believed:  Typically, prior to medical treatment is &lt;em&gt;social&lt;/em&gt; transitioning.  Reversible &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puberty_blocker&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;puberty blockers&lt;/a&gt; are used until the patient is legally an adult (with bodily autonomy).  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-life_experience_(transgender)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Real-life experience&lt;/a&gt; is typically required before hormones and surgery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to the question is on page 27 of the linked &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/solgbt_webinar_transition_garofalo.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;AAP slides&lt;/a&gt;, including 7 references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Why do we believe in Affirming approach?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Affirming does not mean encouraging or pushing gender transition&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Children rejected and not supported are at increased risk of the following during adolescence:–&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Depressive symptoms, low life satisfaction, self-harm, isolation, posttraumatic stress, incarceration, homelessness, and suicidality&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Family acceptance and support during adolescence is tied to the following in young adults:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Positive self-esteem, high social support, positive mental health, less depressive symptoms, greater self-esteem, greater life satisfaction (compared with youth whose families were non-supportive)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The references included are as follows (I include links to facilitate access):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;D’Augelli, Grossman, &amp;amp; Starks, &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0886260506293482&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Childhood Gender Atypicality, Victimization, and PTSD Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youth&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2006.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Garofalo, Deleon, Osmer, Doll, &amp;amp; Harper, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.03.023&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Overlooked, misunderstood and at-risk: Exploring the lives and HIV risk of ethnic minority male-to-female transgender youth&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, Journal of Adolescent Health, 2006.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hill, Menvielle, Sica, &amp;amp; Johnson, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/00926230903375560&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;An Affirmative Intervention for Families With Gender Variant Children: Parental Ratings of Child Mental Health and Gender&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, Journal of Sex &amp;amp; Marital Therapy, 2010.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Roberts, Rosario, Corliss, Koenen, &amp;amp; Bryn Austin, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1804&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Childhood Gender Nonconformity: A Risk Indicator for Childhood Abuse and Posttraumatic Stress in Youth&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, Pediatrics, 2012.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Skidmore, Linsenmeier, &amp;amp; Bailey, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-006-9108-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Gender nonconformity and psychological distress in lesbians and gay men&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, Archives of Sexual Behavior, 2006.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Toomey, Ryan, Díaz, Card, &amp;amp; Russell, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0020705&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Gender-nonconforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: school victimization and young adult psychosocial adjustment&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, 2010.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not 100% sure what &quot;Travers et al., 2012&quot; refers to.  But I guess it's this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McClelland et al., &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2012.694760&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Seeking safer sexual spaces: queer and trans young people labeled with intellectual disabilities and the paradoxical risks of restriction&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, Journal of Homosexuality, 2012.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Continuing on...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The AAP admits that Gender is man made, not real, but a social construct (see page 7).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Based on the American Academy of Pediatrics understanding of Gender, it is a completely arbitrary social construct that varies by place and time(page 7 in the PDF linked above). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their talk slides (page 7) actually say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gender&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex (APA, 2011):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Gender expression&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Gender roles/behaviors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Gender identity&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Varies by place, time period&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Social construct&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This absolutely does not say nor imply &quot;man made&quot; nor &quot;not real&quot;.  Whether or not you call gender, sexuality, etc., a &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social construct&lt;/a&gt;&quot; is a matter for feminism and gender studies.  In any case, the AAP are clearly not saying gender is unimportant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more reliable source than random talk slides from the same institute is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Whether talking about children or adults, it is helpful to think of gender in three parts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ol&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sex&lt;/strong&gt;, the combinations of physical characteristics (including but not limited to genitals, chromosomes, and sex hormone levels) typical of males or females.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Gender identity&lt;/strong&gt;, a person’s internal sense of being male, female, or, for some people,  a blend of both or neither.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Gender expression&lt;/strong&gt;, the many ways people show their gender to others, such as  the clothing and haircuts they wear or the roles and activities they choose.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/solgbt_resource_transgenderchildren.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Supporting and Caring for Transgender Children&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, AAP, 2016.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I highlight how &lt;em&gt;gender&lt;/em&gt; is closely tied to one's internal sense of self (including one's brain and thought processes).  Moreover, &lt;strong&gt;everything psychological is simultaneously biological&lt;/strong&gt;, so you can't cleanly separate &lt;em&gt;gender&lt;/em&gt; from &lt;em&gt;sex&lt;/em&gt;.  (See: Ainsworth, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/518288a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Sex redefined&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, Nature, 2015.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a description of the history of sex vs. gender, see: Muehlenhard and Peterson, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9932-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Distinguishing Between Sex and Gender&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, Sex Roles, 2011.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Gender Dysphoria is treated categorically different, but there has been no new category defined on which to base that decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;regardless of the type of disorder that the standard treatment is not acceptance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In 2013, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSM-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM V&lt;/a&gt; renamed &quot;gender identity disorder&quot; to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_dysphoria&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gender dysphoria&lt;/a&gt;.  This seems to be the result of the discovery of multiple types of evidence for of biological &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_transsexuality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;causes of transsexuality&lt;/a&gt; (too many references to include here).   (Although the terminology is more complex than that; see Davy and Toze &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/trgh.2018.0014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;What Is Gender Dysphoria? A Critical Systematic Narrative Review&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, Transgender Health, 2018.  The DSM V critera are available &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/gender-dysphoria/what-is-gender-dysphoria&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Gender dysphoria&lt;/em&gt; typically either comes from the person themselves (e.g., a dislike of their own body), or from society (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://transequality.org/issues/resources/national-transgender-discrimination-survey-executive-summary&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Injustice at Every Turn&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, 2012).  Saying &quot;pro-Gender Dysphoria&quot; and &quot;mutilation&quot; is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loaded_language&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;loaded language&lt;/a&gt; and misleading: medical professionals instead try to &lt;em&gt;minimize&lt;/em&gt; gender dysphoria.  They might provide medical means for transgender people to become more satisfied with their bodies, and help them become a more functional member of society.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Pages 39-41 show the side effects of testosterone therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the WPATH &lt;em&gt;Standards of Care&lt;/em&gt;, there's no &lt;em&gt;medical&lt;/em&gt; treatment until puberty.  (However, &lt;em&gt;social&lt;/em&gt; transition is recommended.)  After reaching puberty:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fully Reversible Interventions ... Adolescents may be eligible for puberty-suppressing hormones as soon as pubertal changes have begun.  ...  Adolescents may be eligible to begin feminizing/masculinizing hormone therapy, preferably with parental  consent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;As the level of gender-related abuse is strongly associated with the degree of psychiatric distress during adolescence (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224490903062258&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nuttbrock et al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;),  &lt;strong&gt;withholding  puberty  suppression  and  subsequent  feminizing  or  masculinizing  hormone therapy is not a neutral option for adolescents&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://wpath.org/media/cms/Documents/SOC%20v7/Standards%20of%20Care_V7%20Full%20Book_English.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Standards of Care&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, version 7, WPATH, 2012.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Medical treatment is not as easy to obtain as commonly believed (it's not like on TV):  It varies from patient to patient, but typically first comes social transitioning, and reversible &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puberty_blocker&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;puberty blockers&lt;/a&gt;, and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-life_experience_(transgender)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;real-life experience&lt;/a&gt;.  Side-effects (which occur in virtually all medical treatments) are ordinarily discussed in detail among doctors and guardians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As one example of why withholding treatment is not neutral: suicide rates for transgender adolescents are alarming (&lt;a href=&quot;https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/AFSP-Williams-Suicide-Report-Final.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Williams Institute, 2014&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-4218&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Toomey et al. 2018&lt;/a&gt;) but are massively reduced when being supported in one's gender identity (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1867-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bauer et al. 2015&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-3223&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Olson et al., 2016&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(To give a mental picture of why the difference is so extreme: imagine a doctor singling out a non-transgender adolescent male, and encouraging/coercing him to live as a woman.  Most people would say &lt;em&gt;it's wrong on so many levels&lt;/em&gt;.  Now replace &quot;non-transgender&quot; with &quot;transgender&quot;.  From the transgender adolescent male's perspective, there is no change in these two scenarios: he too will feel &lt;em&gt;it's wrong on so many levels&lt;/em&gt;.  [It gets worse too: his family joins in, etc.])&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;People with phobia's are taught to manage and improve their phobia, not embrace it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what the AAP describe as &quot;rejected and not supported&quot;, which leads to the aforementioned consequences.  &lt;em&gt;Corrective Approaches&lt;/em&gt; are considered unethical:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Treatment aimed at trying to change a person’s gender identity and lived gender expression to become more congruent with sex assigned at birth has been attempted in the past (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470719664.ch5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gelder &amp;amp; Marks, 1969&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14167034&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Greenson, 1964&lt;/a&gt;), yet without success, particularly in the long-term (Cohen-Kettenis &amp;amp; Kuiper, 1984; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1965.01730020074009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pauly, 1965&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;strong&gt;Such treatment is no longer considered ethical.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://wpath.org/media/cms/Documents/SOC%20v7/Standards%20of%20Care_V7%20Full%20Book_English.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Standards of Care&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, version 7, WPATH, 2012.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I didn't find the Cohen-Kettenis &amp;amp; Kuiper (1984) reference, but the following refrence seems more up-to-date and closely related: Cohen-Kettenis, van Goozen, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199702000-00017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sex Reassignment of Adolescent Transsexuals: A Follow-up Study&lt;/a&gt;, Journal of the American Academy of Child &amp;amp; Adolescent Psychiatry, 1997.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The UN also considers corrective approaches contrary to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/HIV-AIDS/Governance%20of%20HIV%20Responses/Trans%20Health%20&amp;amp;%20Human%20Rights.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;bodily autonomy&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, a human right.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3234" LastActivityDate="2020-01-08T14:26:47.040" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24721" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-08T17:13:05.027" Score="0" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have zero background in psychology, and only slightly more experience with children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But as someone who was once a child, and who is consistenly confused by the media created explicitly for children, I wonder why it exists.  In particular, is such media proven to be better developmentally for a child than, say, a relatively clean sitcom designed with no particular age group in mind?  Or is &quot;Baby Shark&quot; better than the indie electro-pop on my iPod?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand why children's books exist-- they actually help isolate aspects of a language to assist with the reading component of linguistic mastery.  But this principle doesn't extend so cleanly to audiovisual forms of media, since a child can more easily passively glean from such content (as they already do in day-to-day life when adults have conversations around them).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be awesome if your answer included some research-- being outside the field, I struggled to find sources myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25064" LastActivityDate="2020-01-08T17:13:05.027" Title="Are TV shows and songs designed for children developmentally more beneficial than regular ones?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24722" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24718" CreationDate="2020-01-08T17:24:41.830" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In anatomy/physiology, there are 2 major categorizations of the nervous system:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Central nervous system&lt;/strong&gt; (brain + spinal cord) and &lt;strong&gt;peripheral nervous system&lt;/strong&gt; (all other neural structures)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Somatic nervous system,&lt;/strong&gt; which controls skeletal muscles and skin, and and &lt;strong&gt;autonomic n. system,&lt;/strong&gt; which controls internal organs, blood vessels and glands and is further divided to &lt;strong&gt;sympathetic&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;parasympathetic system.&lt;/strong&gt; Both the somatic and autonomic system have &lt;strong&gt;motor&lt;/strong&gt; neurons that control muscles and &lt;strong&gt;sensory&lt;/strong&gt; neurons that convey sensory signals. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/90mHQ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/90mHQ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Image source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, creative commons license&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurons can be further categorized by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurotransmitters&lt;/a&gt; involved (dopamine system, acetylcholine system, etc.), and by various anatomical and functional subsystems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of anatomical and functional structures formed by neurons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cortical areas&lt;/strong&gt; (functional areas of the brain cortex) (&lt;a href=&quot;https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/functional-systems-of-the-cerebral-cortex/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lumen&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Main parts of the brain:&lt;/strong&gt; cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem, some of which can be further divided into hemispheres, lobes and folds&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Deep structures of the brain:&lt;/strong&gt; thalamus, hypotalamus, hypocampus, amygdala, corpus callosum, limbic system, pituitary gland, pineal gland, and structures collectivelly called &lt;strong&gt;basal ganglia,&lt;/strong&gt; which include the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus in the cerebrum, the substantia nigra in the midbrain, and the subthalamic nucleus in the diencephalon (&lt;a href=&quot;https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-anatbrain.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mayfield Clinic&lt;/a&gt;). &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Areas containing either neuron cell bodies or axons:&lt;/strong&gt; gray matter (cell bodies) and white matter (axons) of the brain and spinal cord (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/greywhit.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Indiana.edu&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Histological areas of the brain:&lt;/strong&gt; layers and columns (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nuclei&lt;/strong&gt; of the cranial nerves (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nerve_nucleus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Centers&lt;/strong&gt; (cardiovascular center, reflex center for cough, vomiting, etc.) in medulla oblongata (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medulla_oblongata&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Corticospinal tracts&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticospinal_tract&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pathways&lt;/strong&gt; - the term is usually used for cranial nerves: visual pathway, auditory pathway, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ganglia&lt;/strong&gt; - anatomical structures containing neuron body cells in the peripheral nervous system (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganglion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nerve plexuses&lt;/strong&gt; - branching networks of intersecting nerves (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve_plexus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reflex arcs&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflex_arc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2020-01-09T13:49:54.420" LastActivityDate="2020-01-09T13:49:54.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24725" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20616" CreationDate="2020-01-09T06:39:00.650" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychosomatic is a disease that is both physical and psychological and can cause increase in symptoms such as eczema, psoriasis, ulcers, etc. They can cause serious physical problems. Somatic is a symptom of a physical symptom with no possible reasons for such like a woman being appearing pregnant with all the symptoms while not being pregnant. A somatic disorder is when is goes on too long. Idiopathic means there is a possible physical cause or psychological cause but neither is known. For example fibromyalgia used to be considered idiopathic and is now a known disease although we’re still uncertain if it is somatic or if it is psychosomatic, HIV used to be considered idiopathic as well. This is just the tip of the iceberg and doesn’t fully explain the similarities and differences. Proper research and understanding should be done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25071" LastActivityDate="2020-01-09T06:39:00.650" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24726" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-09T13:03:59.993" Score="0" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[Thanks to Bryan Krause's advice, I edited the question.]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Definition:&lt;/strong&gt; Let &lt;strong&gt;two functional units&lt;/strong&gt; be two sets of neurons, A and B, such that the probability of being connected (synaptically or by neurohormons) for A-neurons among each other is very high, the same for B-B-connections, but for A-B-connections, the probability is very low.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume there are two functional units whose occupied brain regions (i.e. whose voxels) strongly overlap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By fMRI (with its given spatio-temporal resolution) those two units could not be distinguished and it would be hard to observe their functional connectivity or non-connectivity directly (because fMRI scans would not show, if only one or both of them are &quot;active&quot;). Nevertheless some experimental set-ups might reveal their functional connectivity or non-connectivity indirectly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: Has this ever been observed? Is it known, whether there are two functional units that occupy essentially the same brain region and have been shown indirectly to be functionally connected or not (as defined &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/24711/4736&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;)? Or is it very unlikely that this will occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-01-10T11:10:45.890" LastActivityDate="2020-01-10T11:10:45.890" Title="Functional neuronal units that occupy the same brain region" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24727" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-09T13:43:36.170" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;From an &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/155/4736&quot;&gt;answer&lt;/a&gt; to the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/96/research-suggesting-conscious-control-over-brain-region-activation?rq=1&quot;&gt;Research suggesting conscious control over brain region activation?&lt;/a&gt; I have learned:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;»[S]ubjects become better at up-regulating or down-regulating&#xA;  activation in specific brain regions by attending to feedback-- even&#xA;  moreso than subjects who do not receive biofeedback. This is reflected&#xA;  both in the fMRI images and subjective reports from the subjects.«&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given this as a fact: How well is it understood? Which mechanisms are believed to be at work? I assume the fMRI scans mainly indicate &lt;em&gt;that&lt;/em&gt; a specific brain region is more or less active but not &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; so. &quot;Why so&quot; could mean:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;By which mechanisms inside the region?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;By which influence by other regions?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;By which learned practice?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How are the immediate causes (of higher activity) related to the fact that the subject pays attention to the feedback?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does consciousness come into play?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: &lt;strong&gt;Which of these questions do already have a (partial) answer?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastActivityDate="2020-01-09T13:43:36.170" Title="How well is biofeedback understood?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;biofeedback&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24728" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19702" CreationDate="2020-01-09T14:02:35.767" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following, and more, is available at my blog article &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.whatstheproblem.co.uk/articles/psychology/microbiome-and-probiotics-gut-bacteria-can-affect-your-mental-health/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Microbiome and Probiotics: Gut bacteria can affect your mental health?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Answer to Question 1:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can poor mental health affect the bidirectional communication between gut microbes and the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though there is cross talk between your enteric nervous system (ENS) and your brain, researchers assumed that microbes did not play into it. But recent breakthroughs are challenging that assumption, and changing our understanding of how the blood brain barrier works, because the microbiome can affect your brain in some pretty big ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ENS is a massive web spread over your entire digestive tract made up of more than 500 million neurons that control your guts. This &lt;em&gt;second brain&lt;/em&gt; as it is sometimes called, is pretty much self sufficient, and can take care of most of its jobs by itself. But it is connected to the CNS through your vagus nerve, which is an information superhighway between your gut and your brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Stress affects your microbiome&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Early research starting in the 1970s (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc414848&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tannock &amp;amp; Savage, 1974&lt;/a&gt;) showed that stress could affect the kind of microbes found in the guts of mice. One group found that stressing mice by depriving them of food or water, caused them to have more coliform bacteria like E.coli, and less of another form of bacteria called lactobacilli in their intestines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another group found that the stress of dealing with an aggressive cage mate led to changes in amounts of other kinds of bacteria. They found increased numbers of Bacteriodes and Clostridium, along with decreased numbers of Coprococcus, Pseudobutyrivibrio and Dorea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But even though it was clear that stress could affect the kinds of microbes in the intestines, it wasn’t clear if that was a 2 way relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Could Gut microbes be affecting psychological stress levels?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first big break on this question came when some scientists from Kyushu University, Japan (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2004.063388&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sudo, et al. 2004&lt;/a&gt;), discovered that exposure to certain kinds of microbes had dramatic effects on brain chemical levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this study, the scientists used germ free mice. These were mice delivered by C section and immediately put into super clean cages, so they were barely exposed to microbes at all. They also made comparisons with specific pathogen free mice. These were mice only exposed to a known set of microbes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The germ free mice got a lot more stressed when they were restrained, so it was something about the bacteria in the specific pathogen free mice that was helping them with their stress levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The team found that the germ free mice had less of a protein called Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). BDNF is important for learning, memory, and higher order thinking. The germ free mice had less of it in the brain regions that determine how an animal reacts to stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Answer to Question 2 and 3:&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can consuming products containing probiotics be used to help with mental health problems? If so, can consuming products containing probiotics when well cause mental health problems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is not a lot of research that is very clear on the relationship between the gut and the brain in humans. These discoveries are so new that nobody has been able to do any large scale studies in humans yet. But along with prebiotics (fibre suppliments designed to feed good bacteria), small studies have tried treating volunteers with probiotics, deliberately introducing new microbes in to there guts, and the microbes and fibre affected the subjects mood and cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So there might be a relationship between your microbiome and your mental health. But the studies have not been able to look closely enough at what exactly the prebiotics and probiotics are doing to the microbes in the gut, or how that may be translating in to changes in mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;What does this mean?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers will be getting more into the nitty gritty of these relationships and trying to work out whether these discoveries can translate into medical treatments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other scientists are trying to work out how to humanize the mouse microbiome, making the mouse microbiome more human like. They are doing this by taking faecal matter from sick and healthy human patients and inserting them into mice to study the effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That kind of experiment can let researcher pick apart how differences in the microbiomes connects with changes in mental health. They can also get right into the brains of mice in ways they can’t with human patients, using dissected tissues to look directly at the structures of brain cells and how they connect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Can we tailor our microbiome for maximum benefit?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some researchers are also trying to figure out how specific kinds of microbes are affecting our brains and how we can tailor our microbiomes to maximize the health benefits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Others are starting to ask questions about how other things that affect our microbiomes like antibiotics could be affecting our mental health and cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So there is still a lot we don’t know about how our microbiome can affect our brain. But there are a lot of new studies in the works and scientists and doctors are hoping that as our knowledge of how our Brain-Gut-Microbiome Axis grows, so will our ability to tweak it and hopefully improve some lives along the way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Further Reading&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bailey, M. T., Dowd, S. E., Galley, J. D., Hufnagle, A. R., Allen, R. G., &amp;amp; Lyte, M. (2011). Exposure to a social stressor alters the structure of the intestinal microbiota: implications for stressor-induced immunomodulation. &lt;em&gt;Brain, behavior, and immunity, 25&lt;/em&gt;(3), 397–407. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2010.10.023&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.bbi.2010.10.023&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3039072/pdf/nihms253984.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3039072/pdf/nihms253984.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bercik, P., Denou, E., Collins, J., Jackson, W., Lu, J., Jury, J., … &amp;amp; Verdu, E. F. (2011). The intestinal microbiota affect central levels of brain-derived neurotropic factor and behavior in mice. &lt;em&gt;Gastroenterology, 141&lt;/em&gt;(2), 599-609. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2011.04.052&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1053/j.gastro.2011.04.052&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085(11)00607-X/pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085(11)00607-X/pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Carabotti, M., Scirocco, A., Maselli, M. A., &amp;amp; Severi, C. (2015). The gut-brain axis: interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems. &lt;em&gt;Annals of gastroenterology, 28&lt;/em&gt;(2), 203–209. pmcid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4367209&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC4367209&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4367209/pdf/AnnGastroenterol-28-203.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4367209/pdf/AnnGastroenterol-28-203.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furness J.B., Callaghan B.P., Rivera L.R., Cho HJ. (2014) The Enteric Nervous System and Gastrointestinal Innervation: Integrated Local and Central Control. In: Lyte M., Cryan J. (eds) &lt;em&gt;Microbial Endocrinology: The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Health and Disease. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 817&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Springer. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-0897-4_3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1007/978-1-4939-0897-4_3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Human Microbiome Project Consortium (2012). Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. &lt;em&gt;Nature, 486&lt;/em&gt;(7402), 207–214. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11234&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/nature11234&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3564958/pdf/nihms378076.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3564958/pdf/nihms378076.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mayer, E. A., Knight, R., Mazmanian, S. K., Cryan, J. F., &amp;amp; Tillisch, K. (2014). Gut microbes and the brain: paradigm shift in neuroscience. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 34&lt;/em&gt;(46), 15490–15496. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3299-14.2014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3299-14.2014&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4228144/pdf/zns15490.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4228144/pdf/zns15490.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mayer, E. A., Tillisch, K., &amp;amp; Gupta, A. (2015). Gut/brain axis and the microbiota. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of clinical investigation, 125&lt;/em&gt;(3), 926–938. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI76304&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1172/JCI76304&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4362231/pdf/JCI76304.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4362231/pdf/JCI76304.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reardon, S. (2014). Gut–brain link grabs neuroscientists. &lt;em&gt;Nature News, 515&lt;/em&gt;(7526), 175. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/515175a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/515175a&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/news/polopoly_fs/1.16316!/menu/main/topColumns/topLeftColumn/pdf/515175a.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nature.com/news/polopoly_fs/1.16316!/menu/main/topColumns/topLeftColumn/pdf/515175a.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, P. A. (2015). The tantalizing links between gut microbes and the brain. &lt;em&gt;Nature News, 526&lt;/em&gt;(7573), 312. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/526312a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/526312a&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/news/polopoly_fs/1.18557!/menu/main/topColumns/topLeftColumn/pdf/526312a%20corrected.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nature.com/news/polopoly_fs/1.18557!/menu/main/topColumns/topLeftColumn/pdf/526312a%20corrected.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;References&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sudo, N., Chida, Y., Aiba, Y., Sonoda, J., Oyama, N., Yu, X. N., … Koga, Y. (2004). Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system for stress response in mice. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of physiology, 558&lt;/em&gt;(Pt 1), 263–275. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2004.063388&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1113/jphysiol.2004.063388&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1664925/pdf/tjp0558-0263.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1664925/pdf/tjp0558-0263.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tannock, G. W., &amp;amp; Savage, D. C. (1974). Influences of dietary and environmental stress on microbial populations in the murine gastrointestinal tract. &lt;em&gt;Infection and immunity, 9&lt;/em&gt;(3), 591–598. pmcid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc414848&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC414848&lt;/a&gt; Free PDF: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC414848/pdf/iai00243-0111.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC414848/pdf/iai00243-0111.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-01-09T14:24:26.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24730" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-09T14:29:20.823" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder if there are approaches to apply psychoactive drugs (more) locally, e.g. by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_carrier&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;drug carriers&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Usually psychoactive drugs are taken orally/&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteral_administration&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;enterally&lt;/a&gt; and thus flood the brain unspecifically: each neuron and synapse sensitive to it - whereever it is located - will react on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume that a lot of effort is taken to design the drugs such that they get effective at locations/neurons as specific as possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This can be done chemically, but another way of doing so would be to apply them more locally and make use of diffusion and possibly retardation effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder which role such considerations play today for psychoactive drugs. Are there biological, technical, or even ethical reasons that prohibit local application of psychoactive drugs - or make it seem futile?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more somatic and/or localized diseases, applying more localized therapies is good practice, e.g. (minimal) surgical operations, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;radiation therapy&lt;/a&gt;, any kind of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Route_of_administration#Parenteral&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parenteral drug administration&lt;/a&gt;, esp. drug carriers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[Related to this question is this one: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/24729/density-maps-of-neurotransmitter-systems&quot;&gt;Density maps of neurotransmitter systems&lt;/a&gt;.]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastActivityDate="2020-01-09T14:29:20.823" Title="Applying psychoactive drugs locally" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24731" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-09T20:16:58.707" Score="0" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found through self-observation that while solving some problem I am more inclined sometimes to first try and manipulate the variables that require the least amount of effort to manipulate, rather than the ones that might appear the most salient to the problem. Is there any research in this type of bias. I do not know what is the name for this type of phenomena or whether it has been operationalized or published yet. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To give an example sometimes when I am debugging when coding I try some very inefficient changes like changes the syntax from &quot; to ', even though this does not matter. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastEditorUserId="23189" LastEditDate="2020-01-11T20:44:02.877" LastActivityDate="2020-01-11T21:35:21.053" Title="Cognitive bias with trial and error problem solving" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24734" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-10T11:02:11.823" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a dominant opinion about the positve or negative effects of explicitly naming the diagnosed disease and the observed symptoms (in the language of the psychologist) in the therapy of personality disorders, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;narcissistic&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A general rule might be to remain always in the conceptual world and terminology of the patient. Or that some small dose of psychologist's language might be of help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most probably there is no single dominant opinion but several. Where do I find some expositions of such opinions, ideally in the form of a paper or talk, or as an answer here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, there may be meta-studies measuring the effect of (neuro-)psychologist's language in therapies of personal disorders. These to know would be perfect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-01-20T14:16:30.320" LastActivityDate="2020-01-20T14:16:30.320" Title="Effects of psychologist's language in therapies of personal disorders" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;cognitive-therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24735" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-10T11:17:11.743" Score="2" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is lot of movement in India currently going on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/india-modi-culture/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rewriting history&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;dealing with topics such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.change.org/p/honourable-minister-hrd-govt-of-india-the-aryan-invasion-theory-a-myth-indian-history-has-to-be-retold&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Aryan Invasion Theory&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/ramayana-mahabharata-are-true-accounts-of-the-periodnot-myths/291363&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ramayana and Mahabharatha&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am guessing similar such ideas may be around the world on presenting their local history correctly. My question is not on the justification of these movements or the truth behind it but I am rather wondering if there a known human psychology which makes this need of a person that their ancestors belong to an &quot;elite history&quot;. If so, what is it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why would it be important for a present day person what their ancestors did or where did they come from? Why a glorified history of their ancestors 1000 of years back is important? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, my question is not actually it is true or not but mainly trying to understand human psychology where search for &quot;true history&quot; is mainly a need for one to be &quot;special&quot;. Is it just the need to be proud about something or something more deeper? This need is often bigger than the need to find &quot;truth&quot;.  Being open to accept that their ancestors or their favourite historical heroes could have done something wrong is simply out of question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is simply why do people care if someone who lived in different era but in their neighbourhood was a &quot;hero&quot; or &quot;not&quot;.  Why are they not as neutral or objective as they would be for someone in foreign land.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is my first question here so please let me know if I need to edit it to make it more appropriate for this site. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25081" LastEditorUserId="25081" LastEditDate="2020-01-10T16:16:37.317" LastActivityDate="2020-01-10T16:16:37.317" Title="Psychology behind for historical bias" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24736" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-10T22:35:28.620" Score="0" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In view of the increasing need for organ transplants( possibly because of the greater ability of the surgeons and physicians to both execute the transplant, prevent a rejection, and/or diagnose the need to transplant) how could one minimize the Type I statistical error (the possibility that while the patient is not brain dead he is diagnosed as such) when testing for brain death?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a waste of resources to wait for metabolic death clinging to a life that cannot be saved thence omitting the duty to save people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless the duty to omit killing people actively/intently is even greater. This is exactly what we are doing when we remove the life support of someone in a chronic vegetative state( we will not go to jail only because at that time as medical standards mandate we wrongly assumed/believed they were brain dead, i.e We acted according to the medical standards but nonetheless came to a wrong conclusion/diagnosis).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being a layman( I studied(partialy, uncomplete course) medicine aspiring to be a radiation oncologist and devote myself to proton therapy and carbon-ion radiation therapy for the brain probably due to my own PMA) I am absolutely terrified in the thought of being mistakenly diagnosed brain dead while being in vegetative state. I want my body to be useful even after I die I am just reluctant to sign up for organ donation because it might put even more stress on the already hectic life of physicians and increase the probability of a False Positive. Albeit being a cancer patient I could not even donate blood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore could a straight 48-hour or 72-hour recording of an EEG with as many non-redundant and carrefuly placed electrodes prove useful in reducing false positives? Is there a better alternative. Being a sufficient condition( or as close to it as possible) with the least necessary conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21851" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-01-11T01:27:12.987" LastActivityDate="2020-01-11T01:27:12.987" Title="Whole brain death diagnosis and false positive" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="15" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24737" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-11T18:50:35.493" Score="2" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;Long story short, I am a psychology student interesting in counselling. I've been reading all the major psychotherapy theories and Carl Roger's person centered approach intrigues me. I am one of those guys who understand terms and knows how to use them in general, but struggle immensely when asked to give a fundamental, understandable definition. This is not for a school assignment but for my own understanding. I kind of understand the concepts I am about to list below but perhaps it's the language barrier (I'm mainland Chinese) or the nature of Rogers writing and the nature of his thoughts, it's hard for me to materialize a concise, fundamental definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two terms that I struggle to define:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Inconsistent&quot; experiences. Experiences which are&quot;inconsistent&quot; to the concept of self&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-structure. Self-construction. How a person organizes and maintain itself (of experiences)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My attempt to define it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Inconsistent experiences are those that is unexpected and challenges how you view yourself or how you view reality. For eg, in childhood, the world seems all about having fun, things seem peaceful. But the experience of working (having new responsibilities, realizing life is hard) and having a dispute with a co-worker (the world is not always peaceful), directly challenge that.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Self-structure is how a person organizes all their experiences, knowledge, values and beliefs. Ie what is the typical protocol when dealing with new information, new experiences, etc and how do they compact that in their short/long term cognition. How do they accept, challenge or deny new info?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have a good understanding of Carl Roger's or if you have something to add, interject, or correct, please feel free to comment. Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25088" LastActivityDate="2020-02-12T11:02:40.363" Title="Understanding Carl Rogers' Concepts. What are inconsistent experiences? what is self-structure?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;person-centered-therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24739" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24731" CreationDate="2020-01-11T21:27:46.023" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This sort of experience is probably better termed a &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;heuristic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; rather than a &lt;em&gt;bias&lt;/em&gt;.  The two can be related in some cases (as heuristics can cause bias when the underlying model does not fit the real situation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the Wikipedia page linked above, a heuristic is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;any approach to problem solving or self-discovery that employs a practical method that is not guaranteed to be optimal, perfect or rational, but which is nevertheless sufficient for reaching an immediate, short-term goal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Choosing to manipulate the easiest variables to manipulate first is an example this. It is practical, but may not be optimal. Since there is a low cost to manipulating the easiest variables, you might save some time and effort if one of those manipulations does happen to work, even if it was improbable. Not only do you avoid trying to more complex solutions, but you also avoid expending the mental effort of determining which one to invest in trying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A well-known and &lt;a href=&quot;https://xkcd.com/806/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;often-lamented&lt;/a&gt; example of this sort of heuristic is in tech support decision trees that often start with steps like &quot;Is the power on?&quot; and &quot;Have you tried turning it on and off again?&quot; These steps seem a bit silly, and often have nothing to do with the symptoms of the problem, but if they happen to work it saves the support representative a lot of further time and effort investigating the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this heuristic will fail if you manipulate a lot of &quot;easy&quot; variables - in that case, the sum time to try all the easy steps might be more effort than it would have taken to use some mental effort in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-01-11T21:35:21.053" LastActivityDate="2020-01-11T21:35:21.053" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24740" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24636" CreationDate="2020-01-12T02:27:03.133" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, the authors appear to have been &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.789&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;aware of your concern&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Given that the only difference between these groups involved a subject&#xA;  variable for which there could be preexisting differences in DTA, we&#xA;  included a third group of creationists who read a nonthreatening&#xA;  essay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the evolutionist/anti-creation and creationist/control groups had very similar scores, there was seemingly no reason to suspect different baselines.  However, I agree with you that adding this third group may not have been sufficient to eliminate the potential for preexisting differences in DTA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dispositional DTA:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study of preexisting differences in DTA baselines is relatively recent, and is called dispositional DTA.  This line of research is indeed showing significant variation in DTA between different groups in control conditions, variation in reaction to primes, and even variation in reaction to delay - see &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-08654-009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mikulincer &amp;amp; Florian (2000)&lt;/a&gt; for examples of all 3.  So in light of this, I would not take it for granted that evolutionists and creationists should necessarily have the same dispositions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Curiously, a study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15298860801984788&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Friedman and Rholes (2009)&lt;/a&gt; found religious fundamentalism to be negatively correlated with dispositional DTA (ie, greater fundamentalism = reduced effects on DTA).  Although fundamentalism is not the same measure as creationism, it does suggest that evolutionists may even have higher dispositional DTAs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately however, a (not independent) partial replication of Study 5 is reported in &lt;a href=&quot;https://era.library.ualberta.ca/items/78e8957e-a0fa-4c0e-9dac-fcfe6515403f&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hayes (2011)&lt;/a&gt; Study 4, in which pro-evolution participants are subjected to an anti-evolution prime or the same control material used in Study 5, and the same DTA measure is used immediately thereafter.  While not having the creationist contrast, this experiment measures the evolutionists/control baseline missing from Study 5, as well as the effect of anti-evolution material on evolutionists.  I do note that the criteria for selecting participants was slightly different than Study 5, but not substantially different (n=93).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;DTA was higher in the Threat condition (M = 2.26, SD = 0.98) than in&#xA;  the Control condition (M = 1.68, SD = 0.96).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The results seem to indicate that the authors' assumptions about evolutionists' preexisting DTA may be valid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Implicit primes:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The alternative explanation that reading about evolution might raise DTA in all participants due to the nature of the topic does not fit well within the context of existing DTA research.  Explicit primes increase DTA only after a delay or distraction.  For the immediate effects on DTA found in Study 5, an implicit prime must be used - ie, one that does not directly elicit thoughts of death.  This is presumably what Studies 1-4 establish.  Also see &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0146167215607843&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Steinman &amp;amp; Updegraff (2015)&lt;/a&gt; for a comprehensive review on the effects of explicit vs implicit primes on the need for delay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that context, had Study 5 not included evolutionists at all, the data gathered would have still been sufficient to conclude that reading about evolution increases DTA in creationists, substantiating the statement cited in your question.  The study's novel inclusion of a group with an opposing worldview adds some valuable information from which to consider additional conclusions.  That said, it would not be prudent in any case to make strong conclusions from a single, small, poorly controlled, unreplicated experiment.  In my view, this study has many flaws that I won't rant about here.  All I will say is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Good on you for checking references, that is rare and commendable.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Good on you for applying critical thinking and questioning conclusions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Re further references, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terror_management_theory#Death_thought_accessibility&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DTA hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia article contains many references to literature both supporting the cited statement and questioning the evidence for it.  Lots more on Google of course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-01-12T02:27:03.133" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24742" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24737" CreationDate="2020-01-12T12:38:31.357" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your attempt to define &lt;strong&gt;self-structure&lt;/strong&gt; is almost there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-structure is how a person organizes all their experiences, knowledge, values and beliefs. Ie what is the typical protocol when dealing with new information, new experiences, etc and how do they compact that in their short/long term cognition. How do they accept, challenge or deny new info?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have one half of its definition in a sense, because self-structure is not just about &lt;strong&gt;how&lt;/strong&gt; a person organises all their experiences etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rogers' concept of self-structure is also about the actual structure of the self. What &lt;strong&gt;are&lt;/strong&gt; the core values and beliefs within the person's experiential world? Are they congruent with the real world or are they incongruent? I will go into that in a moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your attempt to define &lt;strong&gt;inconsistent experiences&lt;/strong&gt; is almost there&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inconsistent experiences are those that is unexpected and challenges how you view yourself or how you view reality. For eg, in childhood, the world seems all about having fun, things seem peaceful. But the experience of working (having new responsibilities, realizing life is hard) and having a dispute with a co-worker (the world is not always peaceful), directly challenge that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inconsistent experiences can be unexpected, but they can be expected sometimes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example, you could have a belief that a certain other person is a good person and would not harm anyone, although you keep getting little hints that this belief may be wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first few times could be unexpected, but after a while you may pick up a pattern to when you notice these little hints. You can expect these little hints to come up during those moments and therefore they will not be &lt;em&gt;totally&lt;/em&gt; unexpected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inconsistent experiences can challenge you or not. It is all down to how you choose to deal with the inconsistency. If you choose to take notice of the inconsistencies and examine them, they can challenge your structure of self, and in certain situations, they can alter your structure of self slightly, or even drastically. In my example your belief regarding that person could change, but it may not change your structure of self. It could do both in the sense that you could take it that you are not a good judge of character and therefore judge everyone else with suspicion. If you choose to ignore the inconsistent experience(s), they will not challenge the structure of self at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Longer answer with further clarification&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-structure and inconsistency with experiences are covered in Carl Rogers' 19 propositions (Rogers, 1951). These propositions form the basis of Rogers' concept of the self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They state that everyone exists in a continually changing world of experience, and they are at the centre of their experiential world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The structure of the self&lt;/strong&gt; is formed as a result of interaction with the environment, and particularly as a result of evaluating all interaction with others — an organised, fluid but consistent conceptual pattern of perceptions of characteristics and relationships of the &amp;quot;I&amp;quot; or the &amp;quot;me&amp;quot;, together with values attached to these concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is because:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The person reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived. This the person's perceived &amp;quot;reality&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The person reacts as an organized whole to this experiential world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A portion of the experiential world gradually becomes differentiated as the self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The structure of the self involves the concepts of who they are — where they believe are in society, who they are as a person, their core values and beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice that this involves the &lt;strong&gt;perceived&lt;/strong&gt; reality, because what is perceived can be, to varying extents, very different to &lt;strong&gt;actual&lt;/strong&gt; reality (See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johari_window&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Johari Window&lt;/a&gt; for a cognitive psychology example of what I am referring to here)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now the self has been formed, the person has one basic tendency and striving —  to actualise, maintain and enhance themselves (See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow's concept on this&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your behaviour can be seen to help or hinder self-actualisation, and the best vantage point for understanding your own behaviour is from your own internal frame of reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Behaviour, according to Rogers' theory of the self, is basically the goal-directed attempt of the person to satisfy their needs as experienced, in their experiential world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, this is experiential world as opposed to the real world which potentially can be different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotion accompanies, and in general facilitates, such goal directed behaviour. It is the kind of emotion related to the perceived significance of their behaviour for the maintenance and enhancement of their self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The values attached to experiences, and the values that are a part of the self-structure, in some instances, are values experienced directly by the person, and in some instances are values introjected or taken over from others. The values can be perceived in a distorted fashion, as if they had been experienced directly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As experiences occur in life, they are either:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;symbolised, perceived and organised into some relation to the self,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;denied symbolisation and ignored because there is no perceived relationship to the self structure,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;or given distorted symbolisation, because there is a perceived relationship to the self structure but experience is &lt;strong&gt;inconsistent in some way with the structure of the self&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most thoughts and beliefs that are adopted by the person are those that are consistent with the experiential world; and, most of the ways of behaving that are adopted by the person are those that are consistent with the concept of self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What exact properties makes an experience &amp;quot;inconsistent&amp;quot; (to the self-structure)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your new attempt to define &lt;em&gt;inconsistent experience&lt;/em&gt; is correct&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An experience is said to be inconsistent when the experience appears to demonstrate to the individual some values or qualities (of people, reality, themselves) that differs to what they have stored in their self-structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A shorter definition can be that an experience will be inconsistent when the experience does not agree with your self-structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remember that your self-structure is built from your experiential world which can be different to the real world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your self-structure is built from past experiences, knowledge, values and/or beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are experiencing something which is different to your self-structure, the experience is inconsistent with your self-structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Your requests for further clarification&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are some good examples of inconsistent experiences (given a person's self concept)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;One example from my work with the abused&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of men believe that they will never be attacked and raped, and if anyone was to try, they would be able to fight them off and prevent it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of those who have been raped believe that because they could not fight them off, they must have &amp;quot;somehow&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;for some reason&amp;quot; allowed it to happen and therefore it is their fault.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are some examples of a person's self-structure in terms of how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your example is part of the story.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An individual categorizes information from conversations and media in categories such as information on friends, on world events, on politics...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The self-structure is formed not just from conversations they have had and from the news and other media, but also from personal experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's again use my example of these men who are now blaming themselves for being raped.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is where the choice I mentioned in the short answer comes in. You can choose to ignore the inconsistencies and carry on believing your self-structure is correct, or you can stop and examine the inconsistencies and adjust your self-structure to suit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These men examined the experience, interpreted the events and adjusted their self-structure accordingly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their previous self-structure contained the belief that they could prevent it, but &lt;strong&gt;they now believe&lt;/strong&gt; that the inconsistent experience shows they couldn't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their attacker(s) managed to rape them even though the person &amp;quot;should have been able to prevent it and fight them off&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They chose to look at this experience and see it that they must have let them do it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their adjusted self-structure now contains the belief that if anyone was to try again, they will not be able to prevent it and, in fact, they may allow it to happen again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Their self-structure has been severely compromised and maladjusted, to the point that they are now living with feelings of guilt and shame which is not theirs to bear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do experiences also demonstrate inconsistency with how a person organizes themselves? If &amp;quot;inconsistency&amp;quot; refers to that aspect as well, what is a good example?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a very good question which therapy gives the answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In very simplified terms, the previous inconsistent experience within their &lt;strong&gt;experiential world&lt;/strong&gt; and resulting adjustment would need to be examined in therapy in order for the &lt;strong&gt;real world&lt;/strong&gt; interpretation (they did not willing allow it to happen and it is not their fault) to be taken as fact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason for believing it is their fault will be examined by re-examining the events in a safe environment, and challenging how this belief was formed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is by challenging this altered belief that the maladjusted self-structure can be altered to be more accurate and helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a more in depth take on the theory of the self, Rogers (1951) is a recommended read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;References&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rogers, C. (1951). &lt;em&gt;Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory&lt;/em&gt;. London: Constable. ISBN 978-1-84119-840-8.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-01-13T10:21:05.957" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24743" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24717" CreationDate="2020-01-12T16:10:26.057" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The majority of people who recovered from coma did not report any experiences that occurred while they were in coma (clinically unresponsive, with absent or minimal brainstem reflexes, and with severely abnormal EEG). However, some people who had cardiac arrest or came very close to clinical death but were successfully revived reported later that they had conscious perceptual experiences during these critical periods, when they were in coma. This kind of experiences is called “near-death experience (NDE)” by Moody [1]. About 10% to 20% of such critical individuals reported near-death experiences (NDEs) [2]. NDEs include many experiences, such as seeing tunnel, light, and stars; out-of-body experiences; pleasant feelings; entering a door/gate, heaven, or hell; seeing deceased relatives, religious figures, or god; a life review; a conscious return into the body; etc. [2-5]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, NDE is still an unsettled subject. Some believe that cumulated evidence so far shows that NDEs are real, that the mind and consciousness can exist without and outside the brain, and that the current understanding that the brain is the basis of consciousness and the mind is not correct [6-10].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Others believe that NDEs are neurophysiologic phenomena that occur while the brain is functioning in an abnormal state [5,11]. Evidence is that many mental phenomena that occur in NDEs can occur or be induced to occur in other non-coma, neurophysiologic states, such as sleep [4], meditation [12], simple partial seizures [13], certain drug-induced altered states of consciousness [11,14], and electrical stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation of the brain[15]. Interestingly, some investigators found that a surge of neurophysiological coherence and connectivity occurred within the first 30 sec after cardiac arrest and preceded isoelectric electroencephalogram in experimental rats [16]. Whether this also occurs in humans and is the basis of NDE occurrences or not needs further investigations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most crucial aspect of NDEs is whether the reported experiences occurred during coma/cardiac arrest or not. It is possible that those experiences occurred when the patients have recovered but were still in a confused or dream-like state and that the patients wrongly attributed the time of those experiences to when they were still in coma/had cardiac arrest; their reports were just sincere fallacy. However, this can be investigated in NDE experiencers who have out-of-body experiences and report seeing the scene and event when they are in coma/have cardiac arrest. If these NDE experiencers report (without the help from other people) the scene and events where and when they are in coma/have cardiac arrest correctly, it means their NDEs indeed occur during coma/cardiac arrest and, indeed, normal consciousness can exist without and outside a normally functioning brain – our understanding of the neural basis of consciousness has to be greatly revised from the root. AWARE [17] was the study that was designed to investigate this. Its results, however, were inconclusive. AWAREII [18] is a similar study that is expected to finish this year (2020). It is interesting to see how its results will come out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far, however, our present understanding of the neural basis of consciousness has been vindicated in clinical and experimental settings all around the world every day for a long time. It predicts that no conscious experiences, complex thoughts, or complex emotions can occur when one is in coma (clinically unresponsive, with absent or minimal brainstem reflexes, and with severely abnormal EEG), and no definite incidents of conscious experiences during coma have ever been reported. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Moody, R. A. (1975). Life After Life. New York, NY: Bantam Press.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kopel J. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6442886/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Near-death experiences in medicine.&lt;/a&gt; Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2019 Jan;32(1):163-164. doi: 10.1080/08998280.2018.1542478.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Belanti J, Perera M, Jagadheesan K. &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.897.8862&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phenomenology of near-death experiences: A cross-cultural perspective.&lt;/a&gt; Transcult Psychiatry. 2008 Mar;45(1):121-33. doi: 10.1177/1363461507088001.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Charland-Verville V, Jourdan JP, Thonnard M, Ledoux D, Donneau AF, Quertemont E, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4034153/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Near-death experiences in non-life-threatening events and coma of different etiologies.&lt;/a&gt; Front Hum Neurosci. 2014;8:203. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00203. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nelson K. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6170042/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Near-death experiences: Neuroscience perspectives on near-death experiences.&lt;/a&gt; Mo Med. 2015 Mar-Apr;112(2): 92-96. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Alexander E. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6170087/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Near-death experiences, The mind-body debate &amp;amp; the nature of reality.&lt;/a&gt; Mo Med. 2015 Jan-Feb;112(1):17-21. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Greyson B. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6179792/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Getting comfortable with near death experiences: An overview of near-death experiences.&lt;/a&gt; Mo Med. 2013 Nov-Dec;110(6):475-481.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hagan JC III. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6170059/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Near-death experiences: I hope you are comfortable with them by now!&lt;/a&gt; Mo Med. 2015 Mar-Apr;112(2): 88-91. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Long J. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6172100/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Near-death experiences evidence for their reality.&lt;/a&gt; Mo Med. 2014 Sep-Oct;111(5):372-380. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;van Lommel P. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21988246&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Near-death experiences: The experience of the self as real and not as an illusion.&lt;/a&gt; Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2011 Oct;1234:19-28. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06080.x. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Martial C, Cassol H, Charland-Verville V, Pallavicini C, Sanz C, Zamberlan F, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/231971/1/1-s2.0-S105381001830535X-main.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurochemical models of near-death experiences: A large-scale study based on the semantic similarity of written reports.&lt;/a&gt; Conscious Cogn. 2019 Mar;69:52-69. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.011. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gordon WV, Shonin E, Dunn TJ, Sheffield D, Garcia-Campayo J, Griffiths MD. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6244634/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meditation-induced near-death experiences: A 3-year longitudinal study.&lt;/a&gt; Mindfulness (N Y). 2018;9(6): 1794-1806. doi: 10.1007/s12671-018-0922-3. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hoepner R, Labudda K, May TW, Schoendienst M, Woermann FG, Bien CG, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23086176&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ictal autoscopic phenomena and near death experiences: A study of five patients with ictal autoscopies.&lt;/a&gt; J Neurol. 2013 Mar;260(3):742-749. doi: 10.1007/s00415-012-6689-x. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Timmermann C, Roseman L, Williams L, Erritzoe D, Martial C, Cassol H, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6107838/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DMT Models the Near-Death Experience.&lt;/a&gt; Front Psychol. 2018 Aug 15;9:1424. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01424. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Blanke O, Thut G. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/78e8/f14eb545507beefedb7b166e8b85026ccf79.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 26. Inducing Out-of-body Experience.&lt;/a&gt; In: oup–Tall Tales about Mind and Brain (Typeset by SPi, Delhi). 2006 Jul 12.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Borjigin J, Lee U, Liu T, Pal D, Huff S, Klarr D, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3761619&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Surge of neurophysiological coherence and connectivity in the dying brain.&lt;/a&gt; Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013 Aug 27;110(35):14432-7. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1308285110. /&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Parnia S, Spearpoint K, de Vos G, Fenwick P, Goldberg D, Yang J, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.neardeathexperience.us/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Journal_Resuscitation_AWARE.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;AWARE - AWAreness during REsuscitation-a prospective study.&lt;/a&gt; Resuscitation. 2014 Dec;85(12):1799-1805. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2014.09.004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2014.09.004&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hra.nhs.uk/planning-and-improving-research/application-summaries/research-summaries/aware-ii/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;AWARE II.&lt;/a&gt; NHS Health Research Authority. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2020-01-12T16:10:26.057" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24745" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23404" CreationDate="2020-01-12T23:39:41.193" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just to add a few other options that I consider relevant:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/longitudinal-data-analysis-for-the-behavioral-sciences-using-r/book234770&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Longitudinal Data Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences Using R&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9781461412373&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Behavioral Research Data Analysis with R&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03192993&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Methods for the Behavioral, Educational, and Social Sciences: An R package&lt;/a&gt; (an interesting paper).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24910" LastActivityDate="2020-01-12T23:39:41.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24746" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-13T19:08:20.743" Score="0" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say, a man is trying to find pleasure in doing something. he assumes he can have pleasure with playing, but just a while after start playing he feels definitely it can give him some pleasure. At that moment he stops playing and start finding for new form work/person/object/topic that can give him pleasure. It's not his/her fear to have the pleasure but it's like okay, anytime he can come back and have this any moment, a mean of it's in stock. But he never comes back until the feelings has been forgotten.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name of this type of disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16679" LastActivityDate="2020-01-13T19:08:20.743" Title="Regarding a mental disorder of finding pleasure and lose attraction" Tags="&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24747" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24756" CreationDate="2020-01-13T21:27:22.437" Score="-3" ViewCount="99" Body="&lt;p&gt;In correlation between carl jung for famous archetypes like the Self, the Persona, the Shadow and the Anima/Animus, and Freud defense mechanism, are done any tracking human sexual algorithms and its upgrading or downgrading?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example in adult pornography behaviors and thus the reactions which downgrading or upgrading, could we  classifying these in Freud's defense mechanism levels that change the user's Anxiety and stress, with. Combination this classification by  looking into Jung anima and animus developments growing and downgrading levels?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If not is there any paper on discussion via internet, or ... and which discussed about correlation between those (Freud defence mechanism and Jung archetype. Anima/animus growing levels ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Update:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i am looking somethings like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.slideshare.net/LouiseBangor/freuds-psychosexual-stages-and-defence-mechanisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hAZeZ.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/hAZeZ.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but in correlation about Freud defense mechanism with Jung, archetypes (specially anima and animus) also better for describing the levels of growing for example the growing levels of anima which is &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Anima_and_animus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this kind&lt;/a&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/S8z9s.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/S8z9s.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for your attention to this hard question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24975" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-01-15T09:23:28.597" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T09:45:29.740" Title="Freud defense mechanisms combinations with jung Anima/animus archetype" Tags="&lt;jung&gt;&lt;freud&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24748" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-13T22:50:10.353" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading &lt;em&gt;Memory Disorders in Psychiatric Practice&lt;/em&gt; by  &lt;em&gt;German E. Berrios&lt;/em&gt; and  &lt;em&gt;John R. Hodges&lt;/em&gt; (2000). The section on The Ganser Syndrome has &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MxVFg.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; table (from page 449) contrasting Schizophrenia and the The Ganser Syndrome. The third row of the table reads: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;\begin{array}{c|c|c|}  &amp;amp;   \text{Ganser Syndrome} &amp;amp; \text{Schizophrenia } &#xA;\\\hline \text{Return to previous personality possible} &amp;amp; \text{Yes} &amp;amp; \text{No} &#xA; \\\hline \end{array}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book doesn't elaborate as to how a return to previous personality is not possible in Schizophrenia. My own (weak) understanding was that some people do make a full and complete recovery indefinitely - taking that to mean a return to previous personality happens. I would appreciate if someone could elaborate or share a source that provides an explanation for this claim. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is a return to previous personality possible in Schizophrenia? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25097" LastEditorUserId="25097" LastEditDate="2020-01-13T22:59:21.050" LastActivityDate="2020-01-13T22:59:21.050" Title="Is a return to previous personality possible in Schizophrenia?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24750" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-14T11:18:30.733" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;delusion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is a firm and fixed belief based on inadequate grounds not&#xA;  amenable to rational argument or evidence to contrary, not in sync&#xA;  with regional, cultural and educational background.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if there is evidence that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;talking therapy&lt;/a&gt; can help with delusions (which people with schizophrenia often suffer from) - or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I assume that it depends on the form and severity of the delusion, and that there are mild forms which can be treated by talking therapy. Other forms may not be treatable by talking therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there are cases where talking therapy does help, is there evidence and are there (meta-)studies which techniques help best?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;asking specific questions&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;telling specific things&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;giving explanations&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;contradicting or confirming the patient&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;trying to tangle the patient up in self-experienced contradictions&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-01-14T11:26:08.000" LastActivityDate="2020-01-14T11:26:08.000" Title="Can talking therapy help with severe delusions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;cognitive-therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24751" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-14T11:52:22.820" Score="3" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am publishing a survey on a crowdsourcing platform to study how people of different ages perceive certain aspects of non-literal language. The platform allows me to target people with ages in specific ranges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions is: what are appropriate age ranges? Is there any literature that would, for instance, say the linguistic perception is similar for people between 25 and 34-years old? Or is 25 and 44 years old a better range? All in all, which age partitioning makes more sense in terms of linguistic development, perception of non-literal language, or any other related criterion?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance: 18-24, 25-34, 34-44, 45-54, &gt;65? Or maybe 18-24, 25-44, &gt;45?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25101" LastActivityDate="2020-01-17T11:51:51.877" Title="Appropriate age grouping for studying linguistic development" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;&lt;psycholinguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24752" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-14T11:59:15.297" Score="0" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there known neuronal mechanisms that somehow explain phenomena like&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_withdrawal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;thought withdrawal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_insertion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;thought insertion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_broadcasting&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;thought broadcasting&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;i.e. deviating-from-normal experiences and beliefs about one's thoughts (where they come from, where they go to)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some references would be great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Edit&lt;/strong&gt;: A famous example of thought insertion (or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination#Auditory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;auditory hallucinations&lt;/a&gt; - who would tell the difference?) has a Wikipedia article on its own: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Course_in_Miracles&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A course in miracles&lt;/a&gt; by Helen Schucman (whose brain presumably has not been investigated).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-01-17T14:19:53.343" LastActivityDate="2020-01-17T14:19:53.343" Title="Neuronal mechanisms underlying delusional beliefs about one's thoughts" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24755" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24757" CreationDate="2020-01-15T09:44:02.307" Score="2" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was looking into Situation Awareness (SA), but have problems understanding its general use. I am aware of the work by Mica Endsley and a few others. &lt;a href=&quot;https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/44771/what-is-situational-awareness-and-why-is-it-important/44772#44772&quot;&gt;This question&lt;/a&gt; is related, but I find the answer not satisfying. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My current understanding is this: if I know everything I need to know to achieve some goal, then I am situation-aware. In that case, I would need SA for &lt;em&gt;everything&lt;/em&gt; I do. Is that correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More specifically: what does Situation Awareness allow me to do that I couldn't do without it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25106" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T10:32:12.260" Title="Situation Awareness - what is it good for?" Tags="&lt;situation-awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24747" CreationDate="2020-01-15T09:45:29.740" Score="2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is there any paper on discussion via internet, or ... and which discussed about correlation between those (Freud defence mechanism and Jung archetype. Anima/animus growing levels?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Elements of your question discusses 3 very different theories which do not correlate directly with each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, Jung came up with the different levels of development for the anima and animus, but this is very different to Freud's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosexual_development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychosexual Stages of Development&lt;/a&gt; which is briefly covered in your image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neither of these theories correlate with each other and neither correlate at all with Freud's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Defense Mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; as they have nothing to do with development, although they can affect development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many different theories of development which some are discussed in my answer at &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17211/7604&quot;&gt;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17211/7604&lt;/a&gt;. If all these theories are taken on board together, they can form an integrative theory of human development, but where some are similar, some differ greatly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T09:45:29.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24757" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24755" CreationDate="2020-01-15T10:24:07.190" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My current understanding is this: if I know everything I need to know to achieve some goal, then I am situation-aware.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is correct.  Situation Awareness (SA) is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situation_awareness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;described quite well in Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Situational awareness&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;situation awareness (SA)&lt;/strong&gt; is the perception of environmental elements and events with respect to time or space, the comprehension of their meaning, and the projection of their future status.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Situation awareness has been recognized as a critical, yet often elusive, foundation for successful decision-making across a broad range of situations, including aviation, air traffic control, ship navigation, health care, emergency response, military command and control operations, and offshore oil and nuclear power plant management. Lacking or inadequate situation awareness has been identified as one of the primary factors in accidents attributed to human error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, if you have situation awareness, you are aware of &lt;strong&gt;every single possible aspect&lt;/strong&gt; involved in a situation and therefore you have a much better chance of predicting the future outcome of a given method of moving forward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also asked if you would need SA for &lt;strong&gt;everything&lt;/strong&gt; you do and the answer is no, but ideally you would need at least some SA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Wikipedia points out in the link and quote above,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Lacking or inadequate situation awareness has been identified as one of the primary factors in accidents attributed to human error.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For an example, if you were to cut yourself deeply, and you were bleeding out, without any SA you would more than likely die. With some SA, you would know that you have a better chance of survival if you try to stem the flow of blood somehow, but how?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may think that just putting your hand over it is enough, but if it is an arterial bleed, would it really be enough? If emergency medical assistance comes quickly enough, then maybe, but maybe not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A tourniquet would stop the flow completely, but that can also cause issues but do you know that and what can you do to mitigate those issues (if at all).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Knowing all the possible methods and pitfalls of carrying out a task will provide the very best possible outcome; but if you really need to make a decision right there and then, you can always make an educated guess if you have some idea of how things can go.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T10:24:07.190" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24758" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24755" CreationDate="2020-01-15T10:32:12.260" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My current understanding is this: if I know everything I need to know&#xA;  to achieve some goal, then I am situation-aware. In that case, I would&#xA;  need SA for everything I do. Is that correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not entirely. The original definition is much more specific and you seem to over-generalize here. One of the traditional cited papers for situation awareness (SA) seems to be by &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1518/001872095779049499&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Endsley, M. R. (1995)&lt;/a&gt; (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;SA is &lt;strong&gt;an understanding of the state of the environment&lt;/strong&gt; (including relevant parameters of the&#xA;  system). It provides the &lt;strong&gt;primary basis for subsequent decision making and performance in the&#xA;  operation of complex, dynamic systems&lt;/strong&gt;. SA is&#xA;  formally defined as a person's &quot;perception of the&#xA;  elements of the environment within a volume of&#xA;  time and space, the comprehension of their&#xA;  meaning and the projection of their status in the&#xA;  near future&quot; (Endsley, 1988, p. 97). At the lowest&#xA;  level of SA, a person needs to perceive relevant&#xA;  information (Level 1 SA). Integrating various&#xA;  pieces of data in conjunction with operator goals&#xA;  provides an understanding of the meaning of&#xA;  that information, forming Level 2 SA. Based on this understanding, future events and system&#xA;  states can be predicted (Level 3), allowing for&#xA;  timely and effective decision making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, note that the definition is confined to the &lt;em&gt;&quot;operation of complex, dynamic systems&quot;&lt;/em&gt;. Also note that what you describe implies Level 3 SA according to the previously mentioned definition. There is also no claim you need to know &lt;em&gt;everything&lt;/em&gt;; situation awareness allows for &lt;em&gt;&quot;timely and effective decision making&quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Endsley, M. R. (1995). &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1518/001872095779049499&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Measurement of situation awareness in dynamic systems.&lt;/a&gt; Human factors, 37(1), 65-84.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T10:32:12.260" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24760" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24717" CreationDate="2020-01-15T17:16:51.163" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;From a German &lt;a href=&quot;https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&amp;amp;tl=en&amp;amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Fgesundheit%2Fdiagnose%2Fkuenstliches-koma-an-der-schwelle-zwischen-schmerz-und-traum-a-1286392.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;non-scientific magazine&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Patients react very differently to the artificial coma. &quot;Many of them&#xA;  have nightmares, but not everyone can remember them later,&quot; says&#xA;  Meermeier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Put up for discussion here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastActivityDate="2020-01-15T17:16:51.163" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24763" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24775" CreationDate="2020-01-14T08:51:36.123" Score="3" ViewCount="153" Body="&lt;p&gt;Resting, as opposed to sleeping, helps with physical recovery and relaxation, but much of the benefit of real sleep is mental.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I can't sleep, how much, if any, sleep-related benefit is gained by lying down for 6 hours with my eyes closed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28598" OwnerDisplayName="Michelle Jonah" LastActivityDate="2020-01-23T14:57:04.670" Title="How effective is lying down with eyes closed as a substitute for sleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24766" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-16T08:55:34.730" Score="0" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;More appropriately I am Looking for a word that describes fetishizing(placing too much importance in) something that you are involved with to a point of finding beauty in it i.e. the illusion of beauty in what you do to a point of assuming that the people who don't see it don't appreciate beauty at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this term called &quot;Focusing Illusion&quot;, but &quot;Focusing illusion&quot; signifies over-emphasis or placing too much importance on one aspect of an event to an extent where you mistake or incorrectly/partially assume factors contributing to causality. So that doesn't fit my need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example 1: An English literature admirer who has read and reviewed everything by let's say Shakespeare to a point of finding beauty in it and thinks anyone who does not find beauty in Shakespeare does not appreciate beauty at all or has a false idea of beauty. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example 2: A mathematician let us say an algebraic geometry expert finds beauty in the mathematics of Grothendieck construction and keeps raving about it to others but when they fail to find it, s/he generalizes that person to be incapable of appreciating beauty at all. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help is appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25112" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-01-16T10:03:00.007" LastActivityDate="2020-01-16T10:03:00.007" Title="Is there a term in psychology that describes being involved in something to a point of finding beauty in it?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24767" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23852" CreationDate="2020-01-16T09:17:32.427" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The fact that positively-reinforcing is causing a self-fulfilling prophecy, the second one seems like the observer-expectancy/Rosenthal/Pygmalion effect to me. There could be a more particular form of it but generally, I think it fits the scenario.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The name comes from the famous Rosenthal-Jacobson study: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02322211&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rosenthal, Robert; Jacobson, Lenore (1992). Pygmalion in the classroom : teacher expectation and pupils' intellectual development&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pygmalion_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia: Pygmalion/Rosenthal Effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25112" LastActivityDate="2020-01-16T09:17:32.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24768" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-16T16:14:47.933" Score="2" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know visual stimuli from retina presented in Cartesian coordinate is mapped to V1 as a form of polar coordinates. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinotopy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Visual_map&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scholarpedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I wonder whether this spatial representation in polar coordinate in V1 is maintained to the higher visual cortex such as IT. I searched for some papers regarding this, but I could not find the paper showing clear picture of how visual stimuli is mapped to higher layer of visual cortex other than V1. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case of Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), one of the types of Artificial Neural Network (ANN), input image to the CNN is in the Cartesian coordinate and this Cartesian coordinate is maintained to the last layer. In the similar context, I was wondering if the first layer of the visual cortex is in polar coordinate, whether this polar coordinate is maintained as this signal goes up to the higher layer of visual cortex. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could you suggest me some materials related to this topic? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25009" LastActivityDate="2020-01-16T16:14:47.933" Title="Retinotopic mapping to higher visual cortex" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24772" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-17T04:07:11.353" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;When measuring nocturnal sleep for a person that has narcolepsy using an EEG a distinctive lack or reduction of slow wave sleep activity is indicated. Slow wave sleep brainwaves are the brainwaves with the highest amplitude. Given a 24 hour day, can I infer that the brain of a narcoleptic general operates at a lower mean amplitude than a “normal” brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13045" OwnerDisplayName="user3302435" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2020-01-21T17:14:26.957" LastActivityDate="2021-02-15T02:03:10.283" Title="Mean brainwave amplitude" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24774" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24763" CreationDate="2020-01-17T22:33:08.093" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you lie down under certain circumstances (for 6 hours, eyes closed, comfy, in a quiet place and several hours after the last real sleep), I doubt you will stay awake the whole time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, there's is microsleep. Indeed, even if you were driving or in any other dangerous situation, your brain would manage to enter sleep mode for some seconds. So, these microsleep periods will happen and contribute to your rest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, if an insomniac does that, there's a good chance that they are misjudging the amount of sleep they get. They might be entering several periods of low quality sleep, but won't be aware of it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Third, the amount of sleep you need varies when exposed to stress, stimulus, new activities and so on during the day. Spending 6 hours in a low stress environment will reduce the amount needed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, it's better than nothing, but if it came close to real sleep, some people would manage to live with 6 hours of resting with closed eyes instead of sleeping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3354" LastActivityDate="2020-01-17T22:33:08.093" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24775" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24763" CreationDate="2020-01-18T03:34:38.313" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe the important⁽¹⁾ point is paradoxical sleep. If you cannot sleep, you should try to defocus your thought, in order to allow neurones to &quot;run freely&quot;⁽²⁾.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2928623&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;It has be shown that rats deprived of paradoxical sleep died in 16-54 day&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) I don't know if this will work, but I've been taught at university that neurons can die from sub or over stimulation. For this reason I've come to the conclusion that one of the objectives of dreaming is to allow neurons to fire action potentials in regards with their own physiological needs, instead of coordinated thoughts needs of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25130" LastEditorUserId="25130" LastEditDate="2020-01-23T14:57:04.670" LastActivityDate="2020-01-23T14:57:04.670" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24776" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-18T13:23:00.810" Score="0" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Activity in the neocortex of the brain is significantly reduced during slow wave sleep. The general theory is that during that during this period of time memory consolidation occurs. Individuals with type 1 narcolepsy generally fail to enter slow wave sleep. Which presumably indicates that their neocortex operates continuously throughout the entire sleep-wake cycle. I suppose that is the basis for memory difficulties attributed to the narcoleptic condition. On the other hand, when a neuron is potentiated for a certain amount of time it enters that state of long term potentiation. Long term potentiation is critical for neuroplasticity of which is a mechanism for learning. Thereby could we assume that the neocortex of narcoleptic brain   Remains in a more plastic state than a normal brain and if so should that not offset the memory consolidation decrepency?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13045" LastEditorUserId="13045" LastEditDate="2020-01-30T19:02:00.293" LastActivityDate="2020-01-30T19:02:00.293" Title="Neocortical potentiation vs slow wave memory consolidation in narcolepsy" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24777" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24763" CreationDate="2020-01-18T14:14:21.103" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lying down for 6 hours with your eyes closed and not claiming that you have slept, you are very likely in Stage 1 of the sleep cycle. This is a restful state that transits from wakefulness to sleep [1]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How effective? Much less effective than if you would fall into further stages of sleep because it is called sleep restriction, which impairs daily functioning [2].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Stages of Sleep - Non-REM and REM Sleep Cycles. (n.d.). Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tuck.com/stages/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.tuck.com/stages/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[2]Van Dongen HP, Maislin G, Mullington JM, Dinges DF&#xA;Sleep. 2003 Mar 15; 26(2):117-26.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7138" LastActivityDate="2020-01-18T14:14:21.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24779" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-19T08:52:28.257" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;As per my initial readings about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dopamine&lt;/a&gt; are concerned it is usually stated that (like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.longdom.org/open-access/happiness-role-of-dopamine-and-serotonin-on-mood-and-negative-emotions-2165-7548-1000350.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; ) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dopamine is a hormone associated with happiness.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But today I have come across a &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/ukFjH9odsXw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt; in which the narrator says that dopamine may not be associated with happiness but gives birth to desires, beacuse addicts tends to indulge in activities which no longer provide them any happiness and even then they cannot stop.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what role does dopamine plays in addiction? Does it provide happiness or make us to do the “slavery” ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21149" LastActivityDate="2020-01-19T08:52:28.257" Title="What is the actual work of dopamine? Does it provide happiness or gives birth to desire?" Tags="&lt;dopamine&gt;&lt;executive-function&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24780" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-19T15:45:15.220" Score="3" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SB-243213&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SB-243213&lt;/a&gt; acts as a selective inverse agonist for the 5-HT2C receptor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT2C_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The 5-HT2C receptor&lt;/a&gt; is one of many 5-HT receptors which are receptors that bind serotonin, and seems to play a major role in both suicide (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/1395631&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some suicide victims have an abnormally high number of 5-HT2C receptors in the prefrontal cortex&lt;/a&gt;) and schizophrenia (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28294132&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;activation of 5-HT2C receptors reduces mesolimbic nigrostriatal dopamine release (which conveys antipsychotic action)&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chemicals which are commonly prescribed for major depressive disorder and schizophrenia are non-selective and affect a broad range of molecular targets (including other families of 5-HT2 receptors, and other targets) at varying binding affinities, while also producing a wide range of side effects related to those various molecular targets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SB-243213 has better than 100x selectivity for 5-HT2C over all other receptor subtypes tested, and a longer duration of action compared to older 5-HT2C antagonist ligands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like a promising target for future research, but I can't find an example of it being tested in humans, but it seems to have had a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11489455&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;healthy anxiolytic response in rats&lt;/a&gt; and a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11888551&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;significantly beneficial response on the rat sleep profile&lt;/a&gt;, although this research is from almost 20 years ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aside from distribution differences of 5-HT2C receptors in rat and human brains, what other differences could cause unexpected results and possible side effects if tested in a human?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the studies notes that positive results were seen at &quot;10 mg/kg po&quot; in rats, and having read the full text of one of the studies many tests were done with doses ranging from 1mg/kg to 10mg/kg, with tolerance studies up to 40mg/kg. Also, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medchemexpress.com/HandlingInstruction/Compound%20Handling%20Instructions.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example routes and volumes for different animals are noted here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can an appropriate, initial test dosage be calculated for humans? The &lt;a href=&quot;https://documents.tocris.com/pdfs/tocris_msds/3527_sds.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SDS from a manufacturer&lt;/a&gt; lists &quot;&lt;em&gt;Acute Toxicity: IPR-RAT TDLo: 0.63mg/kg&lt;/em&gt;&quot;. For a 250g rat, would that be ~15mg? For an 80kg human, would that be ~50g?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In what way would such a chemical be toxic? To the liver?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What can happen if a human takes such a dose of SB-243213?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it hasn't been through a clinical trial, what are some of the risks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From one of the articles above:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We have previously described the development of selective 5-HT2C receptor antagonists including SB-206553 and SB-242084...we have demonstrated an involvement of the 5-HT2C receptor in animal models of anxiety and depression and shown that such compounds do not possess either pro-convulsant or hyperphagic properties...Unfortunately these compounds were not suitable for progression into man for a number of reasons, including an interaction with cytochrome P450 enzymes. We have therefore developed SB-243213 as a selective 5-HT2C receptor antagonist (Bromidge et al., 2000) which does not interact with cytochrome P450 enzymes &lt;strong&gt;at concentrations up to 10uM&lt;/strong&gt;. SB-243213 is currently in clinical development with potential for the treatment of a range of psychiatric diseases including anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially I'm looking for reasons why this might not be suitable for humans, or examples of possible side effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Why has this 20-year-old, apparently promising drug not proceeded beyond the clinical development mentioned?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are 18 articles mentioning &quot;SB-243213&quot; on DeepDyve. I'll continue to update this post as I find more information. After reading all of the articles I plan to contact some of the authors if I can't find an answer this question by myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25138" LastEditorUserId="25138" LastEditDate="2020-01-19T18:17:29.427" LastActivityDate="2020-01-19T18:17:29.427" Title="What can happen if a human takes SB-243213?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24786" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24772" CreationDate="2020-01-21T23:02:11.957" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would not recommend phrasing it that way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the brain of a narcoleptic generally operates at a lower mean amplitude than a “normal” brain&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is very misleading and imprecise, because it suggests the amplitude is lower overall, which it may not be, whereas&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;a distinctive lack or reduction of slow wave activity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is precise and clear: it is talking about a specific type of brain activity at a particular time of day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, the second statement implies nothing about the rest of the day. It could be that there is an increase in slow oscillations during other parts of the day that offsets the change at night, for example. Additionally, it is not typical to talk about &quot;mean amplitude&quot; over a 24 hour period. There is simply no good reason to rephrase it the way you are suggesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-01-21T23:02:11.957" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24789" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24794" CreationDate="2020-01-22T09:30:00.937" Score="3" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question, whilst to a degree can be seen as &amp;quot;common sense&amp;quot; in some respects, has puzzled me in other ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at the situations where &lt;em&gt;Failure to Thrive&lt;/em&gt; (FTT) can cause death, even the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_to_thrive&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; for it mentions mental issues as an endogenous cause, while there can also be one or more of both endogenous and exogenous causes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am intrigued by the mental issues for FTT deaths. What kind of mental issues, other than the obvious such as anorexia, can cause death due to FTT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am particularly interested in the cases where babies die due to FTT even though they have been fed, such as in orphanages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at a situation in Romania, I remember news reports during the dictatorship of Nicolae Ceaușescu, where there were large numbers of young children under 5 dying in orphanages due to FTT. I cannot find any reference to this online, however there is an APA report (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/06/neglect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Weir, 2014&lt;/a&gt;) which mentions institutional neglect causing developmental delays.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As well as developmental delays, can  neglect through lack of emotional care be the cause of death through FTT? If so, how does the death occur even if nutritional needs are met?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Weir, K. (2014). The lasting impact of neglect. &lt;em&gt;Monitor on Psychology 45&lt;/em&gt;(6), 36. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/06/neglect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/06/neglect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-01-22T14:32:07.653" Title="Death caused by &quot;Failure to Thrive&quot; (FTT)" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24790" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-22T09:31:44.987" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;In George Orwell's novel &lt;strong&gt;1984&lt;/strong&gt; the ruling Party is creating a &quot;new version&quot; of English, called &lt;em&gt;Newspeak&lt;/em&gt;, which focuses on removing any and all parts of the language which can be used to express any opinion, idea or concept which the Party does not agree with. The purpose of &lt;em&gt;Newspeak&lt;/em&gt; is to counter rebellion, and is based on the idea that &quot;if you cannot put it into words, you cannot contemplate it&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if this would actually be the case in real life. Would a human who does not have the language capabilities to express/describe the idea of &quot;I don't like the goverment, something should be done against it&quot; also be unable to truly work out/understand that idea itself within their own head?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25150" LastActivityDate="2020-02-15T14:04:36.250" Title="Would Newspeak actually work for what the Party intends it for?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24791" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-22T11:07:30.147" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do there exist systems of formalizing emotion and their patterns? In other words, something that, for example, decomposed all emotions into combinations of a few fundamental ones or theories that predict how some follow from the other or specific metrics that can be used to classify emotion, etc. I was really fascinated by the movie “inside out”, mostly because, to me, it seemed a nice way to decompose human emotion but I assume there exist more nuanced takes on this in the literature. Are there specific terms or theories I should be looking at? Ideally, I would like a book on the subject to explore a little more ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25151" LastEditorUserId="25151" LastEditDate="2020-01-22T19:38:50.890" LastActivityDate="2020-01-22T19:38:50.890" Title="Formalizing emotion" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2020-01-23T13:52:39.910" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24792" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-22T11:11:00.303" Score="1" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which specific characteristics of neural activity patterns are unique for the cortex and neocortex as the presumed &quot;seat of consciousness&quot; and can only be observed there? Activity patterns having these characteristics would be candidates for &quot;neural correlates of consciousness&quot; and so to speak are responsible for or underlie conscious experience. Furthermore, it would be &quot;explained&quot; why neural activity in other parts of the brain don't (directly) affect conscious experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I especially wonder on which level of description and observation and on which spatio-temporal scales these activity patterns (and their characteristics) would be found. It could be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;on a subneuronal level&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;on the level of single neurons&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;on the level of small groups of neurons, e.g. cortical columns&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;on a voxel level&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;on a ROI level&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With &quot;characteristic&quot; I mean something like&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;reentrant signaling states in some specific forms&quot; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/a/69615/1000&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;some forms of synchrony, resonance, or general structuredness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;but it would have to be defined in a specific way such that it is unique and characteristic for the cortex and would not be found in other areas of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there at least some preliminary and not too abstract answers around? Known neural-based explanations of consciousness I am aware of (and that are summarized for example &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Models_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/987/what-are-current-neuronal-explanations-and-models-of-consciousness&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) don't give explicit answers to my question but often remain rather abstract and often don't explicitly argue that the processes they describe only do and can occur in the cortex - let alone what is &quot;really characteristic&quot; for them as spatio-temporal processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If experts here would say that this question in this form is unanswerable or otherwise ill-posed it would be great to know. Thanks a lot in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-01-22T11:20:24.697" LastActivityDate="2020-01-23T07:26:51.400" Title="Which characteristics of neural activity patterns underlie conscious experience?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24794" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24789" CreationDate="2020-01-22T13:41:36.397" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The reason for failure to thrive other than insufficient nutrition, can be suppressed growth hormone secretion due to emotional neglect. In the following example, both the emotional neglect and insufficient nutrition were combined, though:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10572896&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychosocially stunted growth masked as growth hormone deficiency, (Klinische Pediatrie, 1999)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Short stature is a common reason for presenting a child to the&#xA;  pediatrician. &lt;strong&gt;Emotional deprivation may cause short stature and may&#xA;  simulate growth hormone deficiency.&lt;/strong&gt; Diagnosis of emotional&#xA;  deprivation as the cause of growth retardation is difficult and&#xA;  misdiagnosed frequently despite of suspicious clinical signs. We&#xA;  report on 2 patients with growth retardation because of emotional&#xA;  deprivation. At the age of 5 years both children had a severe growth&#xA;  hormone deficiency. They received therapy with growth hormone and&#xA;  showed an increase of growth velocity to &gt; or = 8 cm in the first year&#xA;  of treatment. But in the third year of treatment both patients showed&#xA;  a diminished response to the growth hormone therapy. During the period&#xA;  of observation the features of emotional deprivation became obvious&#xA;  through the extreme behavioural abnormalities. Both children showed&#xA;  disturbances in their social behaviour, and striking disorders&#xA;  concerning eating and digestion. The families of these children had&#xA;  severe social problems; alcoholism, low income and rejection of the&#xA;  child were risk factors. &lt;strong&gt;Removal from the current environment led to&#xA;  a characteristic increase of the growth velocity. Growth hormone&#xA;  deficiency was spontaneously reversible, so that treatment with growth&#xA;  hormone was terminated.&lt;/strong&gt; The social environment and the psychical&#xA;  prosperity are essential growth factors in childhood and adolescence.&#xA;  The common features and risk factors of emotional deprivation are&#xA;  described. &lt;strong&gt;Spontaneous catch-up growth after removal from the&#xA;  current environment distinguishes this form of short stature from the&#xA;  other organic growth disorders.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/failure-to-thrive&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hopkins Medicine&lt;/a&gt; says that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Other factors that may lead to failure to thrive:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;ul&gt;&#xA;  &lt;li&gt;Emotional deprivation as a result of parental withdrawal, rejection or&#xA;  hostility&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;  &lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Problems with the endocrine system, such as thyroid hormone&#xA;  deficiency, growth hormone deficiency or other hormone deficiencies...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...some of which might be triggered by emotional neglect despite proper nutrition:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8680203&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Failure to grow: lack of food or lack of love? (Professional Care of Mother and Child, 1994)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;One of the most important criteria for good health in childhood is&#xA;  normal growth. Taking regular accurate measurements of length and&#xA;  plotting them on a centile chart is essential to spot early signs of&#xA;  growth disorders. Be alert for a &quot;zig-zag&quot; pattern on the chart: it&#xA;  could indicate &lt;strong&gt;psychosocial dwarfism&lt;/strong&gt; (see opposite). Length is&#xA;  more important than weight for identifying growth disorders. &lt;strong&gt;Lack of&#xA;  love, or an adverse emotional or social environment, can cause growth&#xA;  failure even in a child who is eating enough.&lt;/strong&gt; Such children have a&#xA;  condition called psychosocial dwarfism, which is due to&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;hypopituitarism (too little growth hormone secretion from the pituitary gland). This condition does not respond to growth hormone&#xA;  treatment. Once the child is placed in an alternative environment, eg&#xA;  a good foster home, the hypopituitarism is reversed and rapid&#xA;  &quot;catch-up&quot; growth takes place.&lt;/strong&gt; It often emerges that such children&#xA;  have been physically, emotionally or sexually abused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not aware of any case in which psychological reasons alone in a properly fed child would result in death associated with failure to thrive. When it comes to failure to thrive in certain orphanges, I would not ascribe it solely to psychological reasons... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21336" LastEditorUserId="21336" LastEditDate="2020-01-22T14:32:07.653" LastActivityDate="2020-01-22T14:32:07.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24795" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24792" CreationDate="2020-01-23T05:44:04.340" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As discussed previously in &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/69450/physical-correlates-of-consciousness/69615#69615&quot;&gt;this thread&lt;/a&gt;, information (specifically, information that exists in the neural circuits), is probably the physical quantity that correlates perfectly with consciousness and, I would like to add, qualia. This is because information can have the same complexity, dynamicity, and content as consciousness and qualia do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, what is the specific neural activity that is or contains information among neural circuits. When a neural circuit is functioning, there are many activities going on in and around that neural circuit: signal processing activities, metabolic activities, structural maintaining (of membranes, organelles, cytoskeletons, etc.) activities, circuit modifying (of synapses, dendrites, axons) activities, changes in supplying blood circulation, oxygen, and other blood constituents, changes in its physical constitutions (temperature, mass, entropy, etc.), etc. But the only activity that has the complexity, dynamicity, content containing capacity as the information does is the signal processing activity. Moreover, it’s the only activity that can communicate locally and extensively with its counterparts in other neural circuits. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, from current evidence, it is to be concluded that neural processing activities, with its correct spatio-temproal and other profiles, underly the brain’s information-related functions, including consciousness and qualia. Clinical and experimental evidence strongly supports this concept. Anything (such as a certain disease or drug, brain electrical stimulation, or transcranial magnetic stimulation) that mainly affects neural transmissions and significantly interferes with the signal processing activities but does not significantly interfere with other activities significantly interferes the brain’s information-related functions, such as consciousness and qualia. Moreover, the change that occurs in the signal processing activity and that in the brain’s information-related functions (such as consciousness and qualia) occur &lt;strong&gt;simultaneously!&lt;/strong&gt; For more detailed discussion about this matter, please read ref 1 and ref 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, why do some signal processing activities have qualia or consciousness, why some don’t? There are different explanations for this from some existing theories. The Integrated Information Theory [IIT][3-6] asserts that a conscious experience is a maximally irreducible conceptual structure (MICS), which corresponds to &lt;strong&gt;a local maximum of integrated conceptual information&lt;/strong&gt; (or a local maximum of Φ or Φmax) and provides mathematical formulations to calculate Φ. So, according to this theory, for any signal processing activity to be conscious, it &lt;strong&gt;must be complex in a certain way enough for its Φ to reach Φmax there&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, from its calculations, there is no consciousness during sleeps, generalized seizures, or in the cerebellum – which are all true – even if, in the last two examples, active and complex processing activities are going on. It also calculates that processing activities in computers or robots, no matter how complex, can’t become conscious because they function from fixed software, which isn’t really complex in the IIT way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to The Basic Theory of the Mind [1,2], not all signal processing activities can be qualia or consciousness. To be qualia or consciousness, the signals from signal processing activities not only &lt;strong&gt;must be accessible by the consciousness neural process&lt;/strong&gt; but also &lt;strong&gt;must be in some specific forms that mean qualia or mean consciousness in the nervous system language&lt;/strong&gt;, that is, the signals must be in some specific forms that, when processed by neural circuits in the nervous system, will be interpreted to be qualia or consciousness. The theory called this kind of signals “Special signaling pattern” and “Special signaling state”. This is like why all words, except the word is this specific form “consciousness”, do not mean consciousness in English. However, although the theory gives some preliminary characteristics of these special signaling forms, it admits that the complete characteristics of these special signaling forms are not known at present but predicts that these specific forms exist and can be found by investigations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the Adaptive Resonance Theory (ART)[7,8], “&lt;strong&gt;all conscious states are resonant states, but not all resonant states are conscious states&lt;/strong&gt;”. The resonance states &lt;strong&gt;must be accessible to consciousness to be conscious&lt;/strong&gt;. “Indeed, some resonant states, such as the storage of a sequence of events in working memory before rehearsal occurs, or the entorhinal–hippocampal resonances that may dynamically stabilize the learning of entorhinal grid cells and hippocampal place cells, are not accessible to consciousness.” So, they are not conscious. Also, the resonance states &lt;strong&gt;must be in some forms to be conscious – they must involve the processes of learning, expectation, and attention&lt;/strong&gt;. For example, “What sort of resonance supports a conscious percept of surface brightness or color? As noted above, I have predicted that such a consciously visible percept is supported by a surface shroud resonance between visual cortical areas and the parietal cortex that is predicted to play a role in learning invariant object categories (Section17).This prediction illustrates how ART clarifies mechanistic relationships between the CLEARS processes of &lt;strong&gt;c&lt;/strong&gt;onsciousness, &lt;strong&gt;l&lt;/strong&gt;earning, &lt;strong&gt;e&lt;/strong&gt;xpectation, &lt;strong&gt;a&lt;/strong&gt;ttention, &lt;strong&gt;r&lt;/strong&gt;esonance, and &lt;strong&gt;s&lt;/strong&gt;ynchrony.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think these are some preliminary answers that I can gather from some existing theories. They are certainly not the widely-accepted, standard answers. And there are other theories that I’m not familiar with, such as ref 9-11, which may have the answers you’re looking for. So, if you are intereseted and have time, please examine them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ukachoke C. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-6/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 5 – Theorem IV: A Quale is a Special Kind of Signaling Pattern&lt;/a&gt; In: &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Basic Theory of the Mind&lt;/a&gt;. 1st ed. Bangkok, Thailand; Charansanitwong Printing Co. 2018.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ukachoke C. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-6/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 6 – Theorem V: Consciousness is a Special Kind of Reentrant Signaling State&lt;/a&gt; In: &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Basic Theory of the Mind&lt;/a&gt;. 1st ed. Bangkok, Thailand; Charansanitwong Printing Co. 2018.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tononi G. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC543470/pdf/1471-2202-5-42.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An information integration theory of consciousness.&lt;/a&gt; BMC Neurosci 2004,5:42. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-5-42. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tononi G. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.architalbiol.org/aib/article/view/15056/23165867&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Integrated information theory of consciousness: An updated account.&lt;/a&gt; Arch Ital Biol. 2012 Jun-Sep;150(2-3):56-90. DOI: 10.4449/aib.v149i5.1388. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Oizumi M, Albantakis L, Tononi G. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4014402/pdf/pcbi.1003588.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;From the phenomenology to the mechanisms of consciousness: Integrated Information Theory 3.0.&lt;/a&gt; PLoS Comput Biol. 2014 May;10(5):e1003588. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003588. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tononi G, Koch C. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4387509/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Consciousness: Here, there and everywhere?&lt;/a&gt; Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2015 May 19;370(1668):20140167. DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0167. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Grossberg S. &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.294.4425&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adaptive Resonance Theory: How a brain learns to consciously attend, learn, and recognize a changing world.&lt;/a&gt; Neural Netw. 2013 Jan;37:1-47. DOI: 10.1016/j.neunet.2012.09.017. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Grossberg S. &lt;a href=&quot;https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0893-6080(16)30180-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Towards solving the hard problem of consciousness: The varieties of brain resonances and the conscious experiences that they support.&lt;/a&gt; Neural Netw. 2017 Mar;87:38-95. DOI: 10.1016/j.neunet.2016.11.003. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;McFadden J. &lt;a href=&quot;https://philpapers.org/rec/MCFTCF-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The CEMI Field. Theory gestalt information and the meaning of meaning.&lt;/a&gt; J Conscious Stud. 2013;20(3-4):3-4. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sevush S. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/4432/1/single_neuron_theory.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Single-neuron Theory of Consciousness.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Theoretical Biology. 2005. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hameroff S, Penrose R. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.galileocommission.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Hameroff-Penrose-2016-Consciousness-In-The-Universe-An-Updated-Review-Of-The-Orch-Or-Theory.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Consciousness in the universe: A review of the 'Orch OR' theory.&lt;/a&gt; Phys Life Rev. 2014 Mar;11(1):39-78. doi: 10.1016/j.plrev.2013.08.002. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="19332" LastEditDate="2020-01-23T07:26:51.400" LastActivityDate="2020-01-23T07:26:51.400" CommentCount="10" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24797" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-24T10:27:24.097" Score="2" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;Following Bryan Krause's &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/24792/which-characteristics-of-neural-activity-patterns-underlie-conscious-experience?noredirect=1#comment47486_24792&quot;&gt;advice&lt;/a&gt; I tried to be more specific and picked as one specific neural theory of consciousness &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Grossberg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stephen Grossberg&lt;/a&gt;'s &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_resonance_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adaptive Resonance Theory&lt;/a&gt; in which a specific group of resonances play an important role:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/P9Kss.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/P9Kss.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311479408_Towards_solving_the_hard_problem_of_consciousness_The_varieties_of_brain_resonances_and_the_conscious_experiences_that_they_support&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: What characterizes these resonances (as neural processes) and why can they only occur in the cortex?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What distinguishes Grossberg's resonances from general forms of resonances that presumably may occur in every part of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are (general and specific, necessary and sufficient) conditions for Grossberg's resonances to occur &amp;ndash; in the language of systems of interacting units &amp;ndash; and can it be shown that these conditions are not met in other parts of the brain than the cortex?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note, that any definition of such resonances should not include as a defining criterion that they are found in the cortex. Otherwise it would not help to answer my &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/24792/which-characteristics-of-neural-activity-patterns-underlie-conscious-experience&quot;&gt;initial question&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-01-24T13:02:42.213" LastActivityDate="2020-01-24T13:02:42.213" Title="What characterizes Grossberg's resonances?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;qualia&gt;&lt;adaptation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24799" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-24T15:15:31.520" Score="3" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a rsFMRI sequence that includes &lt;strong&gt;slice spacing&lt;/strong&gt;. I have not seen that before. Why anybody would add slice spacing between 2 measured slices?&#xA;Is it a mistake or there is a rationale behind, eg incr. SNR?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Slice Thickness  2.6&#xA;Slice Spacing 0.5&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25163" LastActivityDate="2020-01-24T15:15:31.520" Title="slice spaing in rsFMRI" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24800" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24807" CreationDate="2020-01-25T08:17:56.677" Score="0" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a theory that consciousness is the result of information processing. Many speculate based on this that the brain is conscious because it is processing information. &lt;em&gt;If&lt;/em&gt; this theory of consciousness is true, would it be correct to assume that consciousness initially occurs within each neuron cell, rather than the brain as a whole?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, given that cells within the brain transmit data via synapses to do collective computations, would it be fair to assume that they would also form a collective consciousness from this process? In other words, would several connected neurons performing a computation together all share consciousness, and if divided into 2 groups would their shared consciousness also be divided? If so, perhaps this could explain how some studies indicate that consciousness can be divided (ie duel/divided consciousness in split brain patients)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just to clarify, I realize this assumption is not proven by science and I'm not meaning this to be an opinion based question. I'd just like to know whether there's any logical/scientific errors here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25168" LastEditorUserId="25168" LastEditDate="2020-01-25T19:51:36.737" LastActivityDate="2020-01-26T05:40:02.600" Title="Could bioinfomatics explain consciousness?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24801" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-25T11:22:40.117" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I assume that the cognitive abilities required for most strategy-centric games are more or less same. It is also observed that they have certain intersection with cognitive abilities required for some other activities such as logical reasoning for problem solving (though this seems to be a matter of debate).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What precisely are the cognitive abilities required for strategy games?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I have no knowledge in psychology; When I said &lt;em&gt;observed&lt;/em&gt; above, the usage is informal.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: I am not interested in simple logical games, and games that bring in social elements (eg. cooperative games)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Context: This question is related to &lt;a href=&quot;https://chess.stackexchange.com/a/24921/14678&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; answer for a chess.com question. As humorously put in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/nov/20/world-chess-championship-women-magnus-carlsen&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; article (see the quote below), this is a question best put to experts on psychology and neuroscience. So, I post the question here in a general form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The chess.com online forums are full of commentators (whom one must assume all work as neuroscientists when they’re not playing chess) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25169" LastEditorUserId="25169" LastEditDate="2020-01-25T11:27:44.587" LastActivityDate="2020-01-25T11:27:44.587" Title="What are the cognitive abilites required for strategy games?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24802" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-25T13:21:34.150" Score="1" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the book, &lt;em&gt;Thinking Fast and Slow&lt;/em&gt; (Kahneman, 2011):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You will from time to time meet a patient who shares a disturbing tale of multiple mistakes in his previous treatment. He has been seen by several clinicians, and all failed him. The patient can lucidly describe how his therapists misunderstood him, but he has quickly perceived that you are different. You share the same feeling, are convinced that you understand him, and will able to help. [...] Do not ever &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; of taking on this patient! Throw him out of the office! He is most likely a psychopath and you will not be able to help him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it true, and if so, why, is such a person 'most likely a psychopath'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kahneman, D. (2011). &lt;em&gt;Thinking, Fast and Slow&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25159" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-02-14T05:23:53.573" Title="Why does Daniel Kahneman describe these group of therapy-seeking individuals as psychopaths?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24804" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24566" CreationDate="2020-01-25T19:11:24.477" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Very interesting question! I would mention &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.semanticscholar.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.semanticscholar.org/&lt;/a&gt;, they do something similar to scite. They classify citations into e.g. &quot;Cites Results&quot; or &quot;Cites Background&quot;, they describe their method in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Identifying-Meaningful-Citations-Valenzuela-Ha/1c7be3fc28296a97607d426f9168ad4836407e4b&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13234" LastActivityDate="2020-01-25T19:11:24.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24800" CreationDate="2020-01-26T05:40:02.600" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’m not certain but think that the theory you referred to is Single-neuron Theory of Consciousness [1]. Anyway, if it is not the one, let’s discuss this theory because it has the concept like the one in your question. The abstract of this theory is as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By most accounts, the mind arises from the integrated activity of large populations of neurons distributed across multiple brain regions.  A contrasting model is presented in the present paper that places the mind/brain interface not at the whole brain level but at the level of single neurons.  Specifically, it is proposed that &lt;strong&gt;each neuron in the nervous system is independently conscious, with conscious content corresponding to the spatial pattern of a portion of that neuron's dendritic electrical activity&lt;/strong&gt;.  For most neurons, such as those in the hypothalamus or posterior sensory cortices, the conscious activity would be assumed to be simple and unable to directly affect the organism's macroscopic conscious behavior.  For a subpopulation of layer 5 pyramidal neurons in the lateral prefrontal cortices, however, an arrangement is proposed to be present such that, at any given moment:  &lt;strong&gt;i)&lt;/strong&gt; the spatial pattern of electrical activity in a portion of the dendritic tree of each neuron in the subpopulation individually manifests a complexity and diversity sufficient to account for the complexity and diversity of conscious experience; &lt;strong&gt;ii)&lt;/strong&gt; the dendritic trees of the neurons in the subpopulation all contain similar spatial electrical patterns; &lt;strong&gt;iii)&lt;/strong&gt; the spatial electrical pattern in the dendritic tree of each neuron interacts nonlinearly with the remaining ambient dendritic electrical activity to determine the neuron's overall axonal response; &lt;strong&gt;iv)&lt;/strong&gt; the dendritic spatial pattern is reexpressed at the population level by the spatial pattern exhibited by a synchronously firing subgroup of the conscious neurons, thereby providing a mechanism by which conscious activity at the neuronal level can influence overall behavior.  The resulting scheme is one in which conscious behavior appears to be the product of a single macroscopic mind, but is actually the integrated output of a chorus of minds, each associated with a different neuron.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Comment:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fist, I think it is certain that the signaling activity of each neuron, among other millions of neurons, in the neural circuit that creates consciousness contributes something to the whole consciousness. But I think whether we call this minute contribution “consciousness” is a matter of individual’s opinion. However, if we call it “consciousness”, we should be aware that, whatever this minute consciousness is, it is not and cannot be the complex and highly informative consciousness that we feel in our mind, because a single neuron is too simple to be so. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, let’s examine the content of the theory. It appears strange to me that the theory asserts that &lt;strong&gt;dendritic electrical activity corresponds to consciousness.&lt;/strong&gt; Dendritic activities are processing activities of incoming information that arrives at dendrites. They are ongoing, unfinished activities. On the other hand, the completely processed, synthesized information comes out at the axons. Also, a lot of current evidence shows that consciousness corresponds to recurrent neuronal activities among and synchronization of various cortical areas [2-5]. The recurrent neuronal activities and synchronization entails activities in the axons too. Therefore, it seems more evidence-based that the composite of all electrical activities, both dendritic and axonal, not dendritic alone, among various cortical areas that include the consciousness neural circuit should be the one that corresponds to consciousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Next, regarding assertion i), it’s hard to believe that &lt;strong&gt;the spatial pattern of electrical activity in a portion of the dendritic tree of each neuron individually&lt;/strong&gt; manifests a complexity and diversity sufficient to account for the complexity and diversity of conscious experience, but it’s more probable that &lt;strong&gt;the combination of the spatial patterns of electrical activities of a very large group of neurons&lt;/strong&gt; can manifest the require complexity and diversity. Assertion ii) is possible but needs objective evidence to confirm. Assertion iii) is not a novel assertion but a current standard model of neuronal processing. Assertion iv) is questionable, but it may just an inaccurate wording. I think the wording shouldn’t be &lt;strong&gt;“dendritic spatial pattern is re-expressed at the population level by …”&lt;/strong&gt; but should be &lt;strong&gt;“dendritic spatial pattern is processed, and a new axonal spatial pattern is synthesized and expressed at the population level by …”&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sevush S. &lt;a href=&quot;http://cogprints.org/4432/1/single_neuron_theory.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Single-neuron Theory of Consciousness.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Theoretical Biology. 2005..&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Babiloni C, Marzano N, Soricelli A, Cordone S,  Millán-Calenti JC, Percio CD, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4927634/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cortical neural synchronization underlies primary visual consciousness of qualia: Evidence from event-related potentials.&lt;/a&gt; Front Hum Neurosci. 2016;10:310.   &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dehaene S, Sergent C, Changeux JP. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC166261/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A neuronal network model linking subjective reports and objective physiological data during conscious perception.&lt;/a&gt; Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Jul 8;100(14):8520–8525.   &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fisch L, Privman E, Ramot M, Harel M, Nir Y, Kipervasser S, et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2854160/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural “Ignition”: Enhanced activation linked to perceptual awareness in human ventral stream visual cortex.&lt;/a&gt; Neuron. 2009 Nov 25;64(4):562–574.   &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pollen DA. &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/9/1/4/314915/On-the-Neural-Correlates-of-Visual-Perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;On the neural correlates of visual perception.&lt;/a&gt; Cereb Cortex. 1999; 9(1):4-19.  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2020-01-26T05:40:02.600" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24808" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-26T15:00:19.247" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;Note: this is my first question on this site. If my question is not clear enough, lacks context or I forgot some rule, please tell it in the comments so I can edit my question appropriately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;br&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/351/is-there-evidence-that-listening-to-music-can-aid-hinder-concentration-or-perfor&quot;&gt;Is there evidence that listening to music can aid/hinder concentration or performance?&lt;/a&gt; , listening to music while studying seems to have no clear positive results (but rather negative results). Are there any studies or results that were made about the effect of listening to someone speaking in a foreign language while studying ? For example, listening to chinese audio while studying for engineering exams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for your help !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25179" LastActivityDate="2020-01-26T15:00:19.247" Title="Any studies about the effect of listening to audio in a foreign language while studying?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;audition&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24816" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-28T14:32:43.070" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;SMBC Comics (&lt;a href=&quot;http://smbc-comics.com/comic/emotion-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotion&lt;/a&gt;) presented the formula&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$&#xA;\text{strength of your emotional reaction} = \frac{\text{emotional power of an event}}{\text{your distance from the event}}.&#xA;$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It feels intuitively correct, but &quot;distance&quot; seems oversimplified in the current digital age.  Thus, I'm curious if there is actually a mathematical model along these lines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;: Is there a mathematical model for the &quot;strength of your emotional reaction&quot; to the effect of SMBC Comics's formula?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Honestly, I don't even know what to search for here.  I put &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=emotional%20reaction%20model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;emotional reaction model&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt; into PubMed, but it didn't help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3234" LastActivityDate="2020-01-28T14:32:43.070" Title="Is there a mathematical model for the &quot;strength of your emotional reaction&quot; to the effect of SMBC Comics's formula?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24825" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-30T08:10:33.830" Score="3" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;I learned about the term &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reactance&lt;/a&gt; after some research, what wasn't as obsessive in the description as I had observed with some people in the past. Still made a very good point in describing the behavior and its triggers I was looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just coincidentally I learned a few days later about &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.autism.org.uk/about/what-is/pda.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pathological demand avoidance&lt;/a&gt;. And while I understand it that way, that the former is more like a behavior everyone is driven by, to different strong extends. And the latter having additional symptoms beside this leading to more obsessive behavior and generally an more present impact than what I understand reactance to be like. But focusing on the core, I wonder what they are different in, if anything. As both boil down to feeling resistant to choose options you feel being obligated to choose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is PDA actually just a strong form of reactance reinforced by possibly other (autistic) traits? Or do they have a distinct difference in their core definition of affecting someone?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19801" LastEditorUserId="19801" LastEditDate="2020-02-03T09:06:27.423" LastActivityDate="2020-08-20T15:03:13.813" Title="What makes pathological demand avoidance different from reactance?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24827" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-30T12:28:01.827" Score="2" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;citing from the usage instructions of &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/frames/MECFull.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/frames/MECFull.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The MEC-SPQ was designed for immediate assignment after media&#xA;  exposure. Starting with instructions  how  to  fill  in  the &#xA;  questionnaire,  and  assuring  anonymity,  &lt;strong&gt;all  process  and  state&#xA;  variables  (attention,  involvement,  SoD,  SSM,  Spatial  Presence) &#xA;  should  be  presented  in randomized order&lt;/strong&gt;. Because of the items’&#xA;  wording, &lt;strong&gt;the Domain Specific Interest Scale has to be  implemented  as&#xA;  a  single  block.  Mixing  these  items  with  other  scales  would &#xA;  overstrain participants&lt;/strong&gt;’  ability  to  deal  with  different  levels &#xA;  of  judgment.  Subsequently,  all  other  trait variables  have  to &#xA;  be  assessed  as  randomized  item  battery.  Finally, &#xA;  sociodemographics  and other variables of interest conclude the&#xA;  MEC-SPQ.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;emphasis mine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Should all items from the process and state variables be mixed together and then rotated, or should the process and state variables be kept separate, rotated, and then presented in random order?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The implied contrast to the Domain Specific interest Scale seems to point to the former option, but that seems odd to someone who is doing this for the first time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25200" LastActivityDate="2020-01-30T12:28:01.827" Title="How exactly should the items in the MEC-SPQ be rotated?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24828" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="11090" CreationDate="2020-01-30T12:29:38.760" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did some hobbyist experimentation in this area and wrote an article for Adafruit on reaction times recently. Their &quot;arduino-like&quot; boards make a good platform for this and don't need any extra electronics. I would &lt;em&gt;avoid&lt;/em&gt; use of a laptop or general purpose computer as there are many software components adding latency and some of them aren't predictable. Even something as simple as the innocent-looking &lt;a href=&quot;https://danluu.com/keyboard-latency/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;keyboard adds latency&lt;/a&gt;. LEDs are far better due to high speed response than LCD devices for visual stimuli too. I would also suggest verifying the accuracy of any measuring equipment with a high speed camera - many smartphones have a 240fps mode nowadays.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have a look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://learn.adafruit.com/circuit-playground-bluefruit-quick-draw-duo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adafruit Learn: Circuit Playground Bluefruit Quick Draw Duo&lt;/a&gt; if you're interested. There are two parts, the first is a game, the second measures reaction times and sends them over USB to the host computer. If you are working with young children the game as a first phase might be useful to get them interested. The graphs are just simple R/ggplot2 plots of the console output.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25199" LastActivityDate="2020-01-30T12:29:38.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24829" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-01-31T04:58:31.123" Score="5" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand the difference between &lt;a href=&quot;https://english.stackexchange.com/a/423583/50720&quot;&gt;empathy and sympathy&lt;/a&gt;, but not the emboldened sentence. Please expound? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/hide-and-seek/201505/empathy-vs-sympathy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Empathy vs. Sympathy | Psychology Today Canada&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sympathy (‘fellow feeling’, ‘community of feeling’) is a feeling of care and concern for someone, often someone close, accompanied by a wish to see him better off or happier. Compared to pity, sympathy implies a greater sense of shared similarities together with a more profound personal engagement. However, sympathy, unlike empathy, does not involve a shared perspective or shared emotions, and while the facial expressions of sympathy do convey caring and concern, they do not convey shared distress. Sympathy and empathy often lead to each other, but not always. For instance, it is possible to sympathize with such things as hedgehogs and ladybirds, but not, strictly speaking, to empathize with them. Conversely, &lt;strong&gt;psychopaths with absolutely no sympathy for their victims can nonetheless make use of empathy to ensnare or torture them&lt;/strong&gt;. Sympathy should also be distinguished from benevolence, which is a much more detached and impartial attitude.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastActivityDate="2020-03-04T07:03:00.450" Title="How can psychopaths with no sympathy for their victims, exploit empathy to ensnare or torture them?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24833" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-01T05:13:38.580" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, I am not talking about user suicide. I am talking about actual suicide. Isn't the fear of death naturally so big that people couldn't, but how do they? What would be tormenting them so badly that it overcomes the fear of death? Even if they are physically fit teens with a life ahead of them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user25210" LastActivityDate="2020-02-01T05:13:38.580" Title="Why do people suicide?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2020-02-01T05:15:05.553" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24834" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-01T05:47:45.727" Score="2" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;The terms &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androphilia_and_gynephilia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Androphilia&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;Gynephilia&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; describe the two major &lt;code&gt;romantic and/or sexual orientation/s&lt;/code&gt; of humans → towards &amp;quot;masculine&amp;quot; humans and &amp;quot;feminine&amp;quot; humans, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally any human (including Asexuals which only lack the desire to have sex but   not the romantic connection desire) will likely be classified by some in society as a &amp;quot;heterosexual&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;homosexual&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;bisexual&amp;quot;, according to that person's &lt;code&gt;romantic and/or sexual orientation/s&lt;/code&gt; and in the context of gender.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;One can say that attractions to FTM transgenders and attraction to MTF transgenders are separate major philias &amp;quot;Andromimetophilia&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;Gynemimetophilia&amp;quot;&lt;sup&gt;(as somewhat accurate yet probably bad terms)&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;One could speak of a third and forth philias (or fifth and sixth philias, depending how one counts) to Male-oriented intersex individuals and Female-oriented intersex individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;One could go to the extreme and speak about philias to FTM and MTF &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detransition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;detransitioned&lt;/a&gt; people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;My problem&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any of the above philias can have one or more paraphilias, which can be not harmful or does harmful but it is unclear to me if there is a criterion to distinct between a philia and a paraphilia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Non harmful examples&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A man with gynephilia (heterosexual) can have a paraphilia such as for women in army uniform and on the contrary, a man with androphilia (homosexual) can have a paraphilia for men in army uniform.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A man with gynephilia (heterosexual) can have a paraphilia for women with Gothic appearance and on contrary, a man with androphilia (homosexual) can have a paraphilia for men with Gothic appearance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Harmful examples&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The first harmful example is pedophiliac paraphilia:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;A man with gynephilia (heterosexual) can have a paraphilia for little girls (say under sexual maturation) and on the contrary, a man with androphilia (homosexual) can have a paraphilia for little boys (say, under sexual maturation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Another harmful example is zoophilia which includes exploitation of animals who cannot give consent and might be raped.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both pedophilia (not to be confused with hebephilia which is attraction to young teenagers) as well as zoophilia, are rare paraphilias that may manifest themselves in harmful or illegal behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Interim note&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I have shown, the &amp;quot;philia&amp;quot; term can describe both sexual orientations and their sub components (&lt;em&gt;not harmful&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;is harmful&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;My question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a criterion to distinct between a philia and a paraphilia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question encapsulates the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the term Philia exists in psychological literature for describing &lt;code&gt;romantic and/or sexual orientation/s&lt;/code&gt; and not just fetishes, or alternatively, as a standalone term?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user24978" LastEditorUserId="18889" LastEditorDisplayName="user24978" LastEditDate="2021-01-18T07:07:18.827" LastActivityDate="2021-01-18T07:07:18.827" Title="Is there a criterion to distinct between a philia and a paraphilia?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;gender&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;&lt;sexual-assault&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24838" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24834" CreationDate="2020-02-01T13:15:29.583" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I am aware, there is no such word in the English language as &lt;em&gt;Philia&lt;/em&gt;, but it is a suffix within words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the suffix of &lt;em&gt;-philia&lt;/em&gt; in a word does not necessarily denote anything sexual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;-philia&lt;/em&gt; suffix denotes one of the following (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/-philia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merriam-Webster, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;friendly feeling toward&lt;br&gt;(as in Franco&lt;em&gt;philia&lt;/em&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;tendency toward&lt;br&gt;(as in hemo&lt;em&gt;philia&lt;/em&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;abnormal appetite or liking for&lt;br&gt;(as in necro&lt;em&gt;philia&lt;/em&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term &lt;em&gt;paraphilia&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;denotes any intense and persistent sexual interest other than sexual interest in genital stimulation or preparatory fondling with phenotypically normal, physically mature, consenting human partners (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.appi.org/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders_DSM-5_Fifth_Edition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA, 2013&lt;/a&gt; p.685).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So a man or woman in uniform will not be a paraphilia. For more on paraphilias see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.12703/P5-36&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McManus, et al. (2013)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the subject of -philias, there is one point you made which is not entirely accurate. You said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Both pedophilia and zoophilia are rare harmful paraphilias that require hospitalization, therapy, surveillance and generally also chemical castration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure on zoophilia, but:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;paedophilia and hebephilia is extremely common and therefore not rare (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.02.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gerwinn et al., 2018&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Contrary to public perception, child sex offending (CSO) and paedophilia are not the same. Only half of all cases of CSO are motivated by paedophilic preference, and a paedophilic preference does not necessarily lead to CSO. However, studies that investigated clinical factors accompanying and contributing to paedophilia so far mainly relied on paedophiles with a history of CSO.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Estimates on the prevalence of paedophile CSO are wide ranging, and more accurate with better reporting, but they include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;12.7% (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077559511403920&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stoltenborgh, M. et al., 2011&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;24.7% (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.424.3847&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Oluwatosin, &amp;amp; Akinbo, 2017&lt;/a&gt;) and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;27% girls and 16% boys (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(90)90077-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Finkelhor et al., 1990&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;60% girls (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3109/00048679809062736&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McConaghy, 1998&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;there are hebephiles and paedophiles who do not act out on their desires, and there are helplines such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.stopitnow.org.uk/helpline.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stop It Now!&lt;/a&gt; for those who are worried they &lt;strong&gt;may&lt;/strong&gt; act out, so therefore&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;these sexual tendencies do not &lt;em&gt;necessarily&lt;/em&gt; need hospitalization, therapy, surveillance and chemical castration.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chemical castration is an idea put forward to deal with pedophilia, and even made mandatory in states such as Alabama (&lt;a href=&quot;https://legiscan.com/AL/bill/HB379/2019&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LegiScan, 2019&lt;/a&gt;). However, there is no strong scientific evidence to back the idea that this helps to stop pedophilia or hebephilia, and many criminologists argue that police investigators treating castrated men as less likely to reoffend than non-castrated men may cause an investigation bias and self-fulfilling prophecy (Horne &amp;amp; Lovaglia, 2008; Sismondo &amp;amp; Greene, 2015; Fridell, 2016).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®)&lt;/em&gt;. American Psychiatric Pub.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gerwinn, H., Weiß, S., Tenbergen, G., Amelung, T., Födisch, C., Pohl, A., ... &amp;amp; Wittfoth, M. (2018). Clinical characteristics associated with paedophilia and child sex offending–Differentiating sexual preference from offence status. &lt;em&gt;European Psychiatry, 51&lt;/em&gt;, 74-85. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.02.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.02.002&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Horne, Christine; Lovaglia, Michael J. (2008). &lt;em&gt;Experiments in criminology and law: a research revolution&lt;/em&gt;. Rowman &amp;amp; Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-6027-7&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finkelhor, D., Hotaling, G., Lewis, I. A., &amp;amp; Smith, C. (1990). Sexual abuse in a national survey of adult men and women: prevalence, characteristics, and risk factors. &lt;em&gt;Child abuse &amp;amp; neglect, 14&lt;/em&gt;(1), 19. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(90)90077-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1016/0145-2134(90)90077-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fridell, Lorie A. (2016). &lt;em&gt;Producing Bias-Free Policing: A Science-Based Approach&lt;/em&gt;. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-33175-1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;LegiScan. (2019). Alabama House Bill 379.&#xA;In &lt;em&gt;LegiScan API&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://legiscan.com/AL/bill/HB379/2019&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://legiscan.com/AL/bill/HB379/2019&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McConaghy, N. (1998). Paedophilia: a review of the evidence. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 32(2), 252-265. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3109/00048679809062736&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3109/00048679809062736&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McManus, M. A., Hargreaves, P., &amp;amp; Lee Rainbow, L. J. A. (2013). Paraphilias: definition, diagnosis and treatment. &lt;em&gt;F1000prime reports, 5&lt;/em&gt;. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.12703/P5-36&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.12703/P5-36&lt;/a&gt; pmcid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3769077&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3769077&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). -philia. In &lt;em&gt;Merriam-Webster.com dictionary&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/-philia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/-philia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oluwatosin, S. A., &amp;amp; Akinbo, O. T. (2017). Prevalence and Public Perception on Causes of Paedophilia in Osun State Nigeria. &lt;em&gt;Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 4&lt;/em&gt;(24). doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.424.3847&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.14738/assrj.424.3847&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sismondo, Sergio; Greene, Jeremy A. (2015). &lt;em&gt;The Pharmaceutical Studies Reader&lt;/em&gt;. John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-89654-9&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stoltenborgh, M., van Ijzendoorn, M.H., Euser, E.M., &amp;amp; Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2011) A global perspective on child sexual abuse: meta-analysis of prevalence around the world. &lt;em&gt;Child Maltreat, 16&lt;/em&gt;(2), 79-101, doi: &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077559511403920&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1177/1077559511403920&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-02-03T11:52:07.470" LastActivityDate="2020-02-03T11:52:07.470" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24842" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8105" CreationDate="2020-02-02T06:52:41.590" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a person who has dealt with 12 years of chronic bipolar depression and anxiety with multiple serious suicide attempts, I would say that much of reason behind the attempts have to do with &lt;em&gt;pure absolute exhaustion&lt;/em&gt;. The coping skills are there but they are hard to practice everyday.  I say “practice” because performing mundane tasks such as brushing my teeth or putting on a shirt feels much like part of a day long yoga routine. The intrusive thoughts and the dialogue wear me out. The feeling that this could go on for another decade felt too overwhelming for me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If some one became a paraplegic and confined to bed for most of their life but is mentally healthy, they may make peace with this by adapting to their situation. Listening to audio books, watching movies, writing, etc. &#xA;In the case of someone who has had too many severe episodes of not being able to leave bed or normal periods of having minuscule energy due to depression, things are different. The depressive cannot focus, draw pleasure from distractions, and paralyzed by fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In many ways suicide makes logical sense in the same way that a caged animal would be willing to bite off a limb to escape this cage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is research that suggests that suicidality has its causes in specific chemical imbalances in the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-origins-of-suicidal-brains/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-origins-of-suicidal-brains/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which is why, I believe when a new medication was added to my cocktail of meds, my suicidal thoughts vanished within 48 hours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My theory is that the cause of suicide is extreme mental distress from chemical imbalance and that once conceived, takes on a life of its own and becomes a monster. It is a resolve that most people set plans for but provides soothing effects for people who believe that they will soon have relief. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25219" LastEditorUserId="25219" LastEditDate="2020-02-02T15:05:48.183" LastActivityDate="2020-02-02T15:05:48.183" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24849" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-03T06:28:34.877" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose, someone wants to know something about a topic. To know better me must ask questions to others about the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, there are some people who have a great curiosity for the knowledge but afraid to ask questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose, X has a huge curiosity about maths but whenever he asks questions about it to his teacher he hesitates by thinking that this would be a very dope question and the whole class will laugh at him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is why do we feel that and what can we do to prevent it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25223" LastActivityDate="2020-02-03T06:28:34.877" Title="Why some people feel afraid to ask questions?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24850" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24829" CreationDate="2020-02-03T06:33:26.663" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The theory, apparently backed up by some experiments, is that psychopaths can make use of empathy at will, which is what allows them to employ emotional manipulation. As related in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.inc.com/justin-bariso/neuroscience-shows-psychopaths-can-use-emotional-intelligence-to-harm-heres-how-to-protect-yourself.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;popsci account&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, consider one particularly fascinating experiment by Dr. Christian Keysers, Professor of Social Neuroscience at the University of Amsterdam.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one study, Keysers and his team analyzed the brain activity of 21 convicted violent psychopathic offenders, comparing the results with 26 men of similar age and IQ. The participants were shown movies of people hurting each other while brain activity was measured. Later, a doctoral student would slap the patients on their hands to localize brain regions connected with feeling touch and pain. The goal was to see if patients' brains activated a feeling of pain in their own brain when viewing the pain of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The vicarious activation of motor, somatosensory and emotional brain regions was much lower in the patients with psychopathy than in the normal subjects,&amp;quot; writes Keysers. &amp;quot;The theory seemed right: their empathy was reduced, and this could explain why they committed such terrible crimes without feeling guilt.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But one question still plagued Keysers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How could these same individuals prove to be so charming at times?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;I remember chatting with one of the patients...a particularly severe psychopath (he had scored the full 40 points on the psychopathy checklist),&amp;quot; writes Keysers. &amp;quot;Surrounded by the guards, he seemed a most pleasant person. He was smiling, engaging, and seemed to feel exactly what we wanted from him.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So Keysers and his partner decided to let the patients watch the movies again, this time asking them to try and empathize with the victims in the movies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;What we found was that this simple instruction sufficed to boost the empathic activation in their brain to a level that was hard to distinguish from that of the healthy controls,&amp;quot; writes Keysers. &amp;quot;Suddenly, the psychopaths seemed as empathic as the next guy. Their empathy was switched on.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keysers' conclusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Psychopathic individuals do not simply lack empathy. Instead, it seems as though for most of us, empathy is the default mode. If we see a victim, we share her pain. For the psychopathic criminals of our study, empathy seemed to be a voluntary activity. If they want to, they can empathize, and that explains how they can be so charming, and maybe so manipulative. Once they have seduced you into doing what serves their purpose, the effortful empathy would probably disappear again.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure how well accepted this is... The BBC also ran &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-23431793&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a story&lt;/a&gt; on this with some additional more sketpical comments&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essi Viding from University College London, who was not involved with the study, said it was an extremely interesting finding, but that it remained unclear whether the psychopathic criminals' experience of empathy felt the same as that of the controls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;It's dangerous to look at brain activation and say that it means they're empathising. They are able to generate a typical neural response, but that doesn't mean they have the same empathetic experience,&amp;quot; Prof Viding told BBC News.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;We know they can generate the same response but they do that in an active and effortful way. Under free-viewing conditions they don't seem to. [...]&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109716&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;newer study&lt;/a&gt; that seems to confirm the &amp;quot;empathy switch&amp;quot; in a larger class of &amp;quot;dark triad&amp;quot; personalities. (Also &lt;a href=&quot;https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/dark-triad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;posci story&lt;/a&gt; on that.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-02-03T07:01:46.780" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24853" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-03T15:23:02.130" Score="3" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I understand about number sense and numerical cognition, the visual system is heavily involved in the approximate number system and the object tracking system, which are at the root of number sense and numerical cognition leading to the rest of mathematics. So, how exactly would somebody with a severely impaired or nonfunctional visual system (blindness) develop number sense?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25227" LastActivityDate="2020-02-03T15:23:02.130" Title="How does number sense develop in blind people?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;numerical-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24854" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-03T16:30:37.223" Score="2" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading &quot;Psychology and Religion&quot; which is a transcribed lecture by Carl Jung. In this lecture he mentions several times how the psyche uses dogma and ritual to defend again original religious experience or as a substitute.  I understand why we might want to substitute for original religious experience, but I don't see where he talks about why we would defend against it. What is Jung's opinion on why we need to defend against original religious experience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23767" LastActivityDate="2020-08-27T06:52:57.860" Title="Why does Jung suggest that we need to defend our psyche from original religious experience?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;jung&gt;&lt;religion&gt;&lt;cognitive-science-of-religion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24858" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-04T07:43:11.183" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was chewing gum when I took the Trident gum wrapper and rolled it into an open cylinder with a diameter of about 1.5mm (give or take 0.15mm). When I look through the gum wrapper (I have to put it right up against my eye and position it just right to be able to see all the way through), images seem about 10% smaller (extremely back of the napkin assumption) than without the gum wrapper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is hard to measure empirically, so I tried to &lt;a href=&quot;https://imgur.com/a/CfDI3ch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;take a photo showing this effect&lt;/a&gt;, but the camera showed no difference between the two (the one through the wrapper is brighter, but I think that's just the iPhone camera trying to adjust to the surrounding dark and thus trivial). Just to confirm, I asked 6 people if they see any differences between viewing items through the gum wrapper and without the gum wrapper, and all of them said that the images through the gum wrapper looked smaller than without the wrapper. [EDIT: Asked 4 more people and 3 of the 4 said the image was 5-10% larger than normal]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[EDIT 2: The images also get larger (smaller for the people who said the image was larger) as the wrapper moves away from the eye and towards the object, eventually reaching true size when the wrapper is at the object.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only reason I could think of this happening is based on another observation I made. As I brought the gum wrapper into position, objects seemed to bend as they passed over the wrapper in my vision. The only thing I could think of is that the diameter of the cylinder is small enough that this &quot;bend&quot; doesn't have time to even out, and thus collides with the &quot;bend&quot; on the other side of the wrapper and creates a smaller image. However, this assumes that the distortion is causing images to be smaller when viewed through the wrapper. The &quot;bend&quot; distortion could also just be a byproduct of the actual cause of this phenomenon and just a symptom of the image getting smaller.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this occurring?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT 3: &lt;a href=&quot;https://imgur.com/a/TpmIbHx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;More photos&lt;/a&gt; that are more out of focus as recommended for more data&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/528234&quot;&gt;Originally posted in the physics SE site&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25235" LastActivityDate="2020-02-04T07:43:11.183" Title="Why does an image seem smaller through a pinhole when viewing with human eye" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24859" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24264" CreationDate="2020-02-04T19:43:41.420" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like there is a common idea that dreaming occurs only during REM sleep, but I'm not quite sure why this persists. Scientists interested in sleep and dreaming have known for a long time that dreams occur in both NREM and REM sleep, and there are many papers comparing NREM to REM dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cavallero, C., Cicogna, P., Natale, V., Occhionero, M., &amp;amp; Zito, A. (1992). Slow wave sleep dreaming. Sleep, 15(6), 562-566.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A fairly old paper on sleep talking concludes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The distribution of sleep-talking incidents by time of night does not differ significantly from a random distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sleep talking occurs both in REM&#xA;  (rapid eye movement) and NREM (no rapid&#xA;  eye movement) stages of sleep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sleep-talking incidents occurring during REM periods were different in character&#xA;  from those occurring in NREM periods&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of note, in looking at their data:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of the 84 sleep-talking incidents, 7 (8%) occurred in REM periods, 53 (63%) occurred in Stage 2, and 24 (29%) in Stages 3 and 4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, it does appear that there are fewer events during REM sleep, but because REM sleep is a smaller fraction of the night this difference is exaggerated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related to dreaming,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Only 2 awakenings were made following REM sleep-talking incidents. Both REM awakenings produced detailed reports of &quot;disturbing&quot; dreams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;By any of the usual criteria, one would say&#xA;  that subjects are dreaming while speaking&#xA;  during REM periods. All of the recent data&#xA;  on the relationship between dreaming and&#xA;  REM periods indicate that dreams occur&#xA;  during these periods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;if we accept the NREM&#xA;  waking report of mental activity as repre&#xA;  sentative of the mental activity that was&#xA;  actually occurring during the incident, we&#xA;  would describe these mental experiences as&#xA;  less &quot;dreamlike&quot; than the REM experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, it seems like sleep-talking during REM is more associated with dreaming; sleep-talking with NREM may not be, and may be more associated with internal thoughts or just brief arousals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Rechtschaffen, A., Goodenough, D. R., &amp;amp; Shapiro, A. (1962). Patterns of sleep talking. Archives of General Psychiatry, 7(6), 418-426.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-02-04T19:43:41.420" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24860" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-05T03:21:28.783" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Dunning-Kruger describes a cognitive bias where people evaluate their own skills as greater than reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder about a similar situation wherein one underestimates the abilities of others. I would tend to think this occurs when the other individual is either highly-skilled or more skilled than the one making judgement, but I'm not sure that is absolutely necessary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this a known phenomenon? If so, what are the motives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25240" LastActivityDate="2020-02-05T03:21:28.783" Title="What is the phenomenon of devaluing others' abilities called?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24864" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24870" CreationDate="2020-02-05T22:54:46.533" Score="3" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen personality tests and industrial / organizational psychology tests that force one to choose between non-opposing concepts. What is the name of this question style, and what are the reasons to use it over a more standard question style that forces you to choose between opposing pairs?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I prefer [Assertiveness / Clear communication]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I prefer my direct reports to be [Self-directed / Punctual]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25250" LastActivityDate="2020-02-06T22:08:18.050" Title="What is the name of the survey question style that forces a choice between non-opposite pairs of items, and why is it used?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24865" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24867" CreationDate="2020-02-05T23:08:56.927" Score="2" ViewCount="1522" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not a psychologist/psychology student, but I've just recently discovered the Open-Source Psychometrics Project, and I think it's great. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my untrained eyes, it seems like they have solid methodology and are collecting a huge amount of data: &lt;a href=&quot;https://openpsychometrics.org/_rawdata/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://openpsychometrics.org/_rawdata/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I'm wondering how it's been received by the research psychology community?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it considered a reputable data source?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any serious evaluations of its methodology or data?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25249" LastActivityDate="2020-04-01T08:53:40.580" Title="Has the Open-Source Psychometrics Project been well received by the community?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24866" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-06T04:31:13.460" Score="1" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read that the phospholipids in many cell membranes (I am referencing neurons specifically) have a non-polar hydrocarbon tail and a polar phosphate head. Regarding the non-polarity of the hydrocarbon - are all hydrocarbons non-polar (I think I understand that this is calculated by seeing if there is a non-zero dipole moment for the molecule)? Why are the phospholipid tails attracted to each other enough to form a seal that overcomes large concentration gradients? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23737" LastActivityDate="2020-02-06T04:31:13.460" Title="Non-polar hydocarbons in phospholipid bilayer" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24867" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24865" CreationDate="2020-02-06T05:18:57.810" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a matter of anecdote, I've used some of this data for teaching purposes, and I've heard of others doing the same. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As Bryan notes, there is a list of journal articles that have used the data: &lt;a href=&quot;https://openpsychometrics.org/_rawdata/cited/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://openpsychometrics.org/_rawdata/cited/&lt;/a&gt; This includes many well-regarded journals in personality and individual differences research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One main limitation is that the data tends to be based around single scales. In contrast, I imagine in a lot of uses cases for potential publications rely on relating multiple scales with each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I imagine these datasets could be useful for examining various general questions about scale properties and test structure. You could also  look at  demographic correlates of test scores. And the data would be interesting if you were interested in the psychometric properties of the specific tests that are reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A second limitation is that there seems to be limited information about the nature of data collection and data cleaning. That said, for many purposes, a massive online convenience sample of online participants may be useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-02-06T05:18:57.810" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24870" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24864" CreationDate="2020-02-06T20:34:34.290" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Forced-choice task&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;You have answered your own question: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...tests that force one to choose...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such tests are generally referred to as &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cis.rit.edu/people/faculty/montag/vandplite/pages/chap_4/ch4p5.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;forced-choice tests&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; in psychophysics. There are many applications of these tests. In general, AFC tasks are less biased than for example yes/no tasks &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15327043hup1803_4?casa_token=TZFMPieMBMYAAAAA:JCu0eiMcstIaQVOEy7P_lYYi5YtfUsFrQ5CIoyV5QqEL3LRHcNBLfkdURSrfomzVfOdVgQL73xMA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Yushurun &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2008)&lt;/a&gt;. A sample paper on an AFC test for personality testing is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698908002599&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Christiansen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2005)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698908002599&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Christiansen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Human Performance&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;18&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 267-307&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15327043hup1803_4?casa_token=TZFMPieMBMYAAAAA:JCu0eiMcstIaQVOEy7P_lYYi5YtfUsFrQ5CIoyV5QqEL3LRHcNBLfkdURSrfomzVfOdVgQL73xMA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;yushurun &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Vis Res&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;48&lt;/strong&gt;(17): 1837-51&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2020-02-06T20:34:34.290" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24871" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24864" CreationDate="2020-02-06T22:08:18.050" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Like AliceD's answer says, this is a form of forced-choice task used to assay preferences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These measures are used especially when there is no good counterpart on the opposite side: there is no spectrum to consider. Let's think about your examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I prefer [Assertiveness / Clear communication]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I prefer my direct reports to be [Self-directed / Punctual]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would the &amp;quot;opposite&amp;quot; versions of these be? Some possibilities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I prefer [Assertiveness / Passiveness]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, I prefer [Opaque communication / clear communication]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I prefer my direct reports to be [Self-directed / Micromanaged]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I prefer my direct reports to be [Late / Punctual]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the exception of maybe the third one (level of oversight), the counterparts are not really that informative. No one wants their employees to be &lt;em&gt;late&lt;/em&gt;, but someone might not mind so much if someone is &lt;em&gt;late&lt;/em&gt; as long as they manage themselves. The test is trying to get at what your desires are when you weight dissimilar things against each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example might be food preferences: are sweet and sour opposites?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about someone that likes, say, fruit flavors - those are both &lt;em&gt;sweet&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;sour&lt;/em&gt; - you need a way to find that someone prefers sweet+sour over savory, or to find that another person likes sweet and savory foods, but doesn't like sour ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other options in this circumstance might be to rank-order possibilities, but in general giving people just 2 options allows them to more quickly make a determination. You can develop rank orders later by analyzing the results of the individual paired items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-02-06T22:08:18.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24879" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25422" CreationDate="2020-02-08T14:48:21.273" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to order Plutchik's emotions model from the most negative to the most positive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are the emotions in alphabetical order: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;anger, anticipation, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise, trust&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I didn't find anything online regarding this. Can someone help me?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25269" LastEditorUserId="25269" LastEditDate="2020-02-08T17:10:38.383" LastActivityDate="2020-06-02T12:35:23.943" Title="Plutchik's emotions from negative to positive" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sentiment-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24881" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-08T15:22:34.510" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's clear that neurons are involved in whatever memory. Suppose I see the image of a bird taking off over and over again. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The image becomes imprinted in my memory. So when I think about this offtaking bird the same process as seeing it take off makes me see the memory. Somehow the image of this offtaking is reviewed, like a stored video on my mobile phone. The method of pinning the data is very different though from the mechanism in my brain. In my brain connections between neuron dendrites get strengthened. And there are a lot of these connections. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fIF7I.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fIF7I.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But is every neuron dendrite connection with another neuron's dendrite only once used in the forming of memory or can it be used in different memories? The difference being the connection strendth?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastActivityDate="2020-02-08T15:22:34.510" Title="Can one neuron denrdite be involved in different memories?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24886" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-09T05:03:38.697" Score="2" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I am about to leave, my youngest son will show affection by hugging me before I leave. When we are playing a game and he is really enjoying it, he will actually smile at me and hit me really quickly maybe 5 times a row. Sometimes this coincides snuggling his head into my body. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Initially I thought he was being angry or acting out, it has become clear that he only does it a happy face while we are doing something fun. (And not in an &quot;I am overwhelmed&quot; kind of way. Lately I respond by returning a hug instead of giving him a surprised or irritated face, and he likes that).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, when I try to google to understand this, keywords such as &quot;affectionate hitting&quot; simply return thousands of &quot;anti-parent hitting children sites&quot;. Is there an term for when children do this so I can find more helpful thoughts/discussion about this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25273" LastEditorUserId="25273" LastEditDate="2020-02-12T21:23:16.790" LastActivityDate="2020-02-12T21:23:16.790" Title="How to learn about children using hitting affectionately" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24887" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-09T14:11:01.833" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm pretty sure that the answer to the following question is yes :&#xA;Is there any categorization of cognitive abilities based on brain structure and biology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, because I'm a newbie, I'm kind of lost in the subject of neuroscience, I would like to know where I could find such a thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's what I call &quot;a categorization based on brain structure and biology&quot;:&#xA;From what I read on the subject (a French book called &quot;Apprendre&quot; (= &quot;To learn&quot;) from Stanislas Dehaene - &lt;a href=&quot;https://translate.google.com/translate?oe=utf-8&amp;amp;client=firefox-b-m&amp;amp;client=ob&amp;amp;um=1&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;sl=fr&amp;amp;tl=en&amp;amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.co.uk%2FApprendre-talents-cerveau-d%25C3%25A9fi-machines%2Fdp%2F2738145426&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;English translation of synopsis&lt;/a&gt;), some brain areas that seem to have been designed for some &quot;primitive&quot; tasks (I have in mind a study showing that the area that is usually active in face recognition seems to be reused for the ability to read for modern sapiens).&#xA;So, I suppose that this area has some information processing abilities that can be explained in a certain way by biology/brain structure, etc... So, we might relate &quot;face recognition&quot; and &quot;reading&quot; in the same category of cognitive ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarise, what I'd like to know for a certain cognitive ability:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Which part of the brain is concerned?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If possible, why is it this part? (the structure, the biology of it etc...)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the fundamental use of this part?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How is this ability working? &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(if it's something about being able to do some maths, how do we do it, which part of the brain and why, what should this part of the brain be used for, how do we make abstract thoughts and how do we resolve an equation)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you please point me in the direction of some references where I can learn the state of the art on the subject? (more especially in the field of intellectual abilities, memory, and learning).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25275" LastEditorUserId="25275" LastEditDate="2020-02-12T14:20:18.390" LastActivityDate="2020-02-12T14:20:18.390" Title="Is there any categorization of cognitive abilities based on brain structure and biology?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24888" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-09T21:33:49.260" Score="2" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many years ago I read an article that said something along the lines of minority populations stop being &quot;noticed&quot; when they cross a threshold of something like 20%. Below 20% or so they are perceived as being fairly rare, and above 20% or thereabouts they stop being noticed as different. The example I remember our prof using at the time was the number of women CS students in the class. Below 20% women CS was perceived as being mostly a man's discipline, but as the numbers crossed 20% or so it stopped being perceived as primarily associated with one gender or another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have been looking for citations or references to this effect for some time, but haven't been able to find any. Does this ring a bell with anyone?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25277" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-02-10T07:36:06.533" LastActivityDate="2020-02-10T07:36:06.533" Title="~20% threshold for perceiving minority populations as &quot;others&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24889" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24894" CreationDate="2020-02-10T04:53:52.340" Score="2" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;I Googled about this but couldn't find any thing precise to be that does thinking about something hard alters the speed of neurons impulses? I have heard of neurons velocity being variable but want to understand the exact circumstances in which the velocity varies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25000" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-02-11T11:12:04.677" LastActivityDate="2020-02-11T11:12:04.677" Title="Does thinking or focusing on something alter a neuron's speed?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24890" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-10T06:00:45.203" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a person consumes large amounts of 5-HTP or SAM-e resulting in elevated serotonin levels in their synaptic vesicles, how is this excess offloaded? What is the average rate of clearance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the literature I can find deals with serotonin syndrome which concerns synaptic serotonin, and is caused by substances that prevent transport of the serotonin from the synapse like antidepressants and lithium.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I want to know is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Do the neurons release more serotonin into the synapse in response to surplus serotonin (i.e. if you have it, spend it)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the mechanism that causes neurotransmitters to be released into the synapse called? I know the thing that removes it is a transporter.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25279" LastEditorUserId="25279" LastEditDate="2020-02-11T11:57:35.417" LastActivityDate="2020-02-11T11:57:35.417" Title="How does the body respond to having excess levels of neuronal, not synaptic, serotonin?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24891" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24886" CreationDate="2020-02-10T07:59:49.220" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The search term &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-m&amp;amp;sxsrf=ACYBGNSNzZsyp9P-h3D8KqmUIP9swP99kQ%3A1581321035800&amp;amp;q=children%20hitting%20for%20fun&amp;amp;oq=children%20hitting%20for%20fun&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;children hitting for fun&quot;&lt;/a&gt; seems to yield the results you may want although the results seem to come from sites such as mumsnet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An aspect to this phenomenon is that this behaviour &lt;strong&gt;may&lt;/strong&gt; lead to bullying behaviour later on in life if the right responses are not given when this occurs.  The child needs to learn the &lt;em&gt;cause and effect&lt;/em&gt; of hitting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typing the same term &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;q=children%20hitting%20for%20fun&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; gives research articles on dealing with bullying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-02-10T07:59:49.220" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24892" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-10T11:11:58.440" Score="2" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;Folk psychology knows and uses the concept of &quot;being of the same mind&quot; that often is supposed to explain why two people find themselves sympathic or like (or even love) each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Being of the same mind&quot; includes &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;beliefs and models&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;preferences, values, and interests&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;liking and disliking (of other things and persons)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;behaviour. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It depends on the proper individual mix of similarities of minds that lets one find someone else sympathic, and sometimes it's the same mix that lets two people like &lt;em&gt;each other&lt;/em&gt;. Note, that the proper mix may either be an enabling factor (a necessary condition), or a driver (a sufficient condition).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if there is a single scientific term for &quot;being of the same (or similar) mind&quot;, and which role it plays in scientific psychology. (Maybe none because it's considered too unspecific a concept - or even undefinable.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-02-10T14:53:04.620" LastActivityDate="2020-02-10T14:53:04.620" Title="&quot;Being of the same mind&quot; as a scientific concept" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;&lt;attraction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24894" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24889" CreationDate="2020-02-11T11:11:17.850" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are, as far as I know, 2 main factors that determine the speed of action potential propagation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/organ-systems/neuron-membrane-potentials/a/action-potential-velocity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diameter&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: Axons with a large diameter have lower resistances, and hence higher conduction velocities;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/organ-systems/neuron-membrane-potentials/a/action-potential-velocity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Myelination&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: Myelin prevents passive diffusion of ions through the cell's membrane and increases charge separation across the cell membrane, speeding up conduction. Additionally, the spaces between the myelin sheaths, known as the nodes of Ranvier, facilitate &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/saltatory-conduction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;saltatory conduction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which is akin to the action potential 'jumping' from node to node with a net increase in propagation as a consequence. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These factors are physical properties of a neuron and hence are pretty much constant under physiological conditions, and are not influenced by thinking or focus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2020-02-11T11:11:17.850" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24896" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-11T12:36:35.687" Score="3" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to convert a fairly complicated neuron model from integrated form (a form of the spike response model) to ODE form for use in the BRIAN simulator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The BRIAN simulator requires neuron/synapse models to be given as two parts: the differential equation governing the model, and the response of the model to a spike. To use a model given in integrated form (i.e. as a solved membrane potential &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$V(t),$$&lt;/span&gt; we must first convert it into ODE form. The documentation (specifically &lt;a href=&quot;https://brian2.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user/converting_from_integrated_form.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://brian2.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user/converting_from_integrated_form.html&lt;/a&gt;) gives examples of doing this with basic models, and I'm trying to reproduce these before moving on to the model I'm interested in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The documentation demonstrates this technique with models of the form&#xA;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$V(t) = \sum_i w_i \sum_i \text{PSP}(t-t_i) + V_{rest}$$&lt;/span&gt; for different forms of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$\text{PSP}(t),$$&lt;/span&gt; and this general form is similar to that which I am trying to work with.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no problem reproducing the equations (differentiating both sides and substituting where necessary), but I don't quite understand how to notice the behaviour of the model upon spiking from the integrated form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, using the alpha function &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$\text{PSP}(t) = \frac{t}{\tau} e^{\frac{t}{\tau}},$$&lt;/span&gt; we have upon differentiating the expression for V that&#xA;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$\frac{dV}{dt} = \sum_iw_i\left[\sum_i\frac{1}{\tau}e^{-\frac{t-t_i}{\tau}} - \frac{t-t_i}{\tau^2}e^{-\frac{t-t_i}{\tau}}\right] + V_{rest} $$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where we arrive at the equations&#xA;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$\tau\frac{dV}{dt} = g- V + V_{rest},  \text{ and } &#xA;\tau\frac{dg}{dt} = - g&#xA;$$&lt;/span&gt;&#xA;upon defining &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$ g = \sum_i w_i \sum_i e^{-\frac{t-t_i}{\tau}}. $$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This agrees with the example in the documentation. However, upon spiking, the documentation states that the model reacts as &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$ g \longleftarrow g + w_i, $$&lt;/span&gt; and I'm not sure how this is clear from the integrated model. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone could explain how to notice this in this example and in general, it would be greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cheers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25284" LastEditorUserId="25284" LastEditDate="2020-02-11T14:45:28.520" LastActivityDate="2020-02-11T14:45:28.520" Title="Understanding the transition from integrated form to ODE form of neuron models" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24897" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-11T14:53:16.867" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the outcome variables that researchers measure? Is it just a PTSD Checklist form filled out after every session? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21184" LastActivityDate="2020-02-11T14:53:16.867" Title="How is the effectiveness of EMDR measured?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24900" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-11T21:02:27.203" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, I heard in a podcast that people enjoy booths or corners in restaurants because we have a natural preference for spaces we deem more secure (e.g. in this case, we can see the rest of the restaurant easily, less ''points of attack'' because of surrounding walls, etc.). I have heard similar rationale for several other behaviors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This made me wonder, to what extent, do we have ingrained ''secure'' behaviors and at which point are our secure behaviors learned during our upbringing (e.g. taught by parents, school, society). For instance, something we may have been taught is ''don't get into a car with strangers.''&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there works that have explored what secure behaviors should be transmitted vs. what behaviors seem to be ingrained by default?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25290" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-02-12T10:29:23.760" LastActivityDate="2020-02-12T10:29:23.760" Title="Do we humans have an innate perception of what are secure behaviors? If yes, to what extent?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24902" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-12T02:48:50.580" Score="0" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;Amateur here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's suppose I know a person who is an expert on a certain subject, say history. Since I like history myself, I will ask him/her a number of questions on subjects that I know only superficially: I studied them in school but I have now almost no remembrance of those facts and of what they implied. This person will usually answer me with details but, from time to time, I find him/her unable to answer. Although it is clear to me (and probably to others) that s/he does not have the knowledge, or the understanding, to actually answer the question, s/he actually makes up some excuses such as that it is a complicated argument, or that I would not be able to understand it because I am no expert (implying that s/he is). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To my eyes, this person is not only avoiding to face an issue, but also suppressing it in such a way that something that should be a chance to learn becomes actually a change to boost the ego.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would this be an avoidance behaviour/disorder? Is there any other more specific definition to describe that mechanism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25296" LastActivityDate="2020-02-12T02:48:50.580" Title="Avoidant behaviour and ego boosting" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24905" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-13T04:01:14.393" Score="2" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a neurotransmitter detaches from the receptor and is returned to the neuron via the transporter, what are the primary factors that influence whether that molecule is re-stored in a vesicle by VMAT2 or broken down by MAO A or B? Is it simply the relative abundance of those compounds?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25279" LastActivityDate="2020-02-13T04:01:14.393" Title="What determines whether a monoamine neurotransmitter is recycled or broken down by MAO?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24906" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-13T09:55:38.153" Score="2" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to find out which recreational drugs have the biggest negative interactions with BD (bipolar disorder types I and II) but haven't been able to find strong research. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I especially interested in the interactions of hallucinogens &amp;amp; psychedelics with bipolar disorder, especially the tryptamine class of psychedelics (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; LSD, psilocybin, DMT). Interactions of stimulants with BD (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, cocaine, adderall) are well-documented and I'm less curious about that. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone point me to sources and/or share your own knowledge? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25302" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-02-16T14:15:03.093" LastActivityDate="2020-03-07T14:58:25.850" Title="What recreational drugs have especially negative interactions with bipolar disorder?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24909" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-14T20:28:07.203" Score="2" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my task, there are 8 levels of a within-subjects/repeated measure factor. The overall relationship that this factor has with  the DV is in the shape of an inverted-U, such that their DV scores at levels 1 and 8 are generally lowest, and those at 4 and 5 are highest. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I want to test is whether my individual difference measure interacts with the within-subjects factor to make the inverted U (quadratic) shape fit better or worse. My hypothesis is that those high on my indiv diff measure will have more of a straight line than the curvey one in the overall sample. And I'd like to keep the indiv diff measure continuous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Input and insights on good statistical approaches to this question are greatly appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emmett&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25312" LastActivityDate="2020-02-18T01:37:48.630" Title="How to assess the effect of individual difference measure on quadratic fit of a within-subject factor?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24912" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23503" CreationDate="2020-02-16T12:28:04.133" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no evidence that humans need religion to develop the concepts of morality and ethics. In contrast, there are endless examples of where religion is the primary cause of inhumanity and murder.  The &quot;however&quot; in your question doesn't make sense. You posit that religion is necessary for morality but then move straight to an example of where religion shows the opposite.  In addition to Dawkins,  I suggest you read 'God is Not Great' by Christopher Hitchens and 'The End of Faith' by Sam Harris.  Both make thorough,  well-researched arguments against religion as a source of morality.  Look for some YouTube videos of Hitchens,  he also had a reputation as an excellent debater.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25316" LastActivityDate="2020-02-16T12:28:04.133" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24915" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24909" CreationDate="2020-02-18T01:37:48.630" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;By default your 8 levels are probably coded linearly: e.g., &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;-3.5,-2.5, ..., 2.5,  3.5&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To examine quadratic effects you could simply square these values. Interpretation of linear and quadratic parameters will be clearer if you first center the linear variable before squaring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you could enter (-3.5)^2 = 12.25; (-2.5)^2 = 6.25, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Equally, some data analysis software will allow you to specify polynomial contrasts (i.e., linear, quadratic, cubic). And in such software you can specify interactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In R, you would specify that the 8-level variable is an ordered factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In SPSS, the GLM - Repeated measures dialog allows you specify interactions and polynomial contrasts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-02-18T01:37:48.630" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24916" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23761" CreationDate="2020-02-18T01:41:38.137" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The psychology notation for standardized differences between group means is &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;. I.e., the difference between group differences divided by the within-group standard deviation. Note that there are some variants about which group is used or whether a pooled standard deviation is obtained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I.e., in your example: &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 0.3.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to report means and sds, then you typically use &lt;em&gt;M&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;SD&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-02-18T01:41:38.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24917" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21710" CreationDate="2020-02-18T01:52:59.023" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Generally,  psychological scales that are the sum of forced-choice items exhibit skew as the mean approaches the floor or ceiling of the scale. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The test manual for the NEO-PI shows the exact relationship between raw scores for domains and facets and corresponding percentiles. So if you want to be more precise and not assume normality, you can use that data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's one table showing skewness values in an officer sample from Detrick &amp;amp; Chibnall (2013). As is typical with this kind of data, there's a little bit of skew, but it's not huge. So the normal approximation wont be too bad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yZfi5.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yZfi5.png&quot; alt=&quot;neo pi r skew&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Detrick, P., &amp;amp; Chibnall, J. T. (2013). Revised NEO Personality Inventory normative data for police officer selection. Psychological Services, 10(4), 372.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-02-18T01:52:59.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24918" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-18T11:45:59.990" Score="0" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not asking whether the difference is genetic or environmental, or if IQ scores are a racist and flawed measure of intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a consensus that today, in e.g. America, there are differences in IQ scores?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone find a psychologist that disagrees?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2020-02-25T20:14:05.320" Title="Is there a consensus that there are racial differences in IQ scores?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24920" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-18T13:36:32.407" Score="5" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if anyone can provide some scientific explanation on why humans seem to like organising (cultural) items in arrangements such as lists, rankings, best-ofs etc. Some reference to scholarly literature on the topic would be also appreciated. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25331" LastActivityDate="2020-07-01T15:04:20.440" Title="Why humans like to rank things, make lists etc.?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behavioural-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24921" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-18T14:55:15.120" Score="0" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;McLuhan is claiming that Gutenberg technology was the reason of human psyche fragmentation, primitivism and social conformism. I am trying to find links between Gutenberg technology and the phenomenon of fragmentation and see none. Could anyone explain how these two are connected?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What seems to me is that McLuhan mixes up specifically western people development, their cultural evolution with how Gutenberg technology affects people and these two seem completely disconnected for me. My experience tells me the opposite: well-read people tend to be more complex vs people who don’t read books (all other parameters being as equal as possible).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me his reaction seems more like emotional counter reaction against educated peoples’ views who saw degradation of human being with the coming new TV, radio technologies (which seems more correct way of viewing the effect of these technologies) and nothing more than that. I get such an impression because I don’t get the links between the two phenomena. Could anyone elaborate on that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also asked here (some comments below linguistics post elaborate a bit more on the question): &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/questions/35248/gutenberg-technology-effects-on-human-psyche?noredirect=1#comment77867_35248&quot;&gt;https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/questions/35248/gutenberg-technology-effects-on-human-psyche?noredirect=1#comment77867_35248&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another his idea: Gutenberg technology and specifically phonetic alphabet leads to point of view (and linear thinking) vs mosaic integrative view that is brought in by electric technology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What it seems to me is that he is considering here as a Gutenberg human a poorly educated individual whereas enough educated ones tend to have the opposite mosaic world view and without any resort whatsoever to TV technology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The latter actually throws back to narrow-minded ‘point of view’ approach that is clearly demonstrated by today’s inability of regular people to build the bridges between, say, conservatism ideas and democratic ones leading to conflicts and tensions. At the very least these two: human fragmentation, negative things about the western people that McLuhan saw and Gutenberg technology effects seem to me either a rather disconnected phenomena or related in very intricate ways far from as simplistic as he describes it. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Still, I admit I can be totally wrong just out of misunderstanding or not seeing what he actually means. He is giving very definite answers and strong claims, so I suppose he has foundations for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Book of the McLuhan where he claims that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Understanding_Media&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Understanding_Media&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25332" LastEditorUserId="25332" LastEditDate="2020-02-21T16:04:56.823" LastActivityDate="2020-02-21T16:04:56.823" Title="Gutenberg technology effects on human psyche" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24927" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-19T09:34:25.710" Score="1" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am 30 year-old man with cerebral palsy. Somehow that and one antispastic drug (baclofen) turned me into a vivid dreamer and out of body experiencer. I am not a believer, quite the opposite because those &quot;other realities&quot; are terrifying, but I often floated in my room, and was also aware of this. Aware to the point that I managed to test a few things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes I was floating, sometimes standing on my own legs and watching me sleep, sometimes even seeing me sleeping and me watching myself sleeping from sort of TPP (frequent gamer here, third person perspective)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would really like to report my case for scientific research.  Does anyone know of a research group interested in a case report? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25342" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-02-19T11:38:18.653" LastActivityDate="2020-02-19T11:38:18.653" Title="Out of body experience tests. How to contact scientists?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="16" ClosedDate="2020-02-20T04:01:59.063" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24928" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-19T14:18:16.197" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read somewhere that a psychologist in 1949 (or somewhere around that) described &lt;strong&gt;sexual addiction&lt;/strong&gt; as a &lt;strong&gt;release&lt;/strong&gt;. I don't remember the author's name nor the title of the paper.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The gist of that paper was that &lt;strong&gt;sexual addiction&lt;/strong&gt; is not about emotions, no intimacy but it's all about a &lt;strong&gt;release&lt;/strong&gt; of a chemical. And I read in the comments that this idea was followed by universities researchers for a long time.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help will be much appreciated.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. : Let me know if this question is off-topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21149" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-02-19T17:14:53.730" LastActivityDate="2020-02-19T17:14:53.730" Title="Which paper was it that defined addiction as a release?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;publication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24933" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-20T03:11:52.207" Score="2" ViewCount="165" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surely_You%27re_Joking,_Mr._Feynman!&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman&lt;/a&gt;, the physicist Richard Feynman tells a great short story about bad science being done by scientists who should know better in &lt;a href=&quot;http://calteches.library.caltech.edu/51/2/CargoCult.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cargo Cult Science&lt;/a&gt; (which is the last story of the book). I believe it is a transcript of Feynman's commencement address to a graduating class at Caltech.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Near the end of the story he describes experiments done on rats by a scientist named `Young' in 1937. Basically he claims that Young does an experiment to show that rats put into mazes can tell where they are by various means, and Feynman describes how Young controls for these various factors in his experiments. The implication is that other scientists doing rat maze experiments were not controlling for these factors, and their science might not be trustworthy. For more details read the story, it is really interesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am posting here because I am curious about this study, and cannot find it anywhere. (I did find &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.realclearscience.com/blog/2014/02/the_rat_experiment_you_dont_know_about_but_should.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; which suggests that this study by `Young' might have never been published).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where is this study done by Young in 1937? Is anyone here familiar with it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25349" LastActivityDate="2020-02-20T03:11:52.207" Title="Feynman's Cargo Cult Science: Young's Rat Experiment Study" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24934" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24936" CreationDate="2020-02-20T06:00:18.690" Score="1" ViewCount="485" Body="&lt;h1&gt;What is cognitive distorion?&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Wikipedia, &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_distortion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive distortion&lt;/a&gt; are thoughts that cause individuals to perceive reality inaccurately&amp;quot;. It is a negative outlook on reality, sometimes called negative schemas (or schemata), and can reinforce negative emotions and thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QXDoO.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QXDoO.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Criticisms on cognitive distortion&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Common criticisms of the diagnosis of cognitive distortion relate to epistemology and the theoretical basis. The implicit assumption behind the diagnosis is that the therapist is infallible and that only the world view of the therapist is correct. If the perceptions of the patient differ from those of the therapist, it may not be because of intellectual malfunctions but because the patient has different experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;My question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For convenience, I'll name the person who is making diagnosis Cueball, and the person who is being diagnosed Megan. Here is Cueball and Megan:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xzgo0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xzgo0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree with the idea that Cueball may even have assumption that he is correct (thus having a distorted perception about Megan), but I don't think this criticism paints a full picture. I think the main issue with cognitive distortion is that Megan lacks self-skepticism. That is, she doesn't assume that she can be wrong. Any person can (or will) assume that they are correct, but they can still assume that they can be wrong at the same time. And more importantly, &lt;strong&gt;the behavior of a person assuming they can be wrong is totally different from the behavior of a person who doesn't have that assumption&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if Cueball doesn't see that behavior in Megan, can he conclude that she has cognitive distortion and still be correct? Is the signs of cognitive distortion so detectable that one can use gut instinct to conclude and still be correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Related: &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/q/57246/19487&quot;&gt;Does following logic necessarily require one to conclude that they are objective and have no bias?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-02-28T03:16:53.500" Title="Can one claim that a person is having cognitive distortion and be always correct?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;&lt;epistemology&gt;&lt;cognitive-distortion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24936" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24934" CreationDate="2020-02-21T03:44:31.377" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The use of assumptions in clinical settings seems to play into the errors you mention. Cueball is just as prone to distortions as Megan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Dawes, Faust, &amp;amp; Meehl (1989), a professional in the field has to rely on one of two choices when making a decision on a client, either their own clinical judgment which is based on experience and knowledge or actuarial judgment which essentially rests on the statistical method, establishing a link between empirical data and the event in question. The clinical judgment does not seem to be accurate, for the most part. Clinicians fair better when using methods that are backed by actuarial methods, rather than relying on their own &quot;hunches&quot; or &quot;gut feelings&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would probably be a better idea for Cueball to at least try to jot down some explicit instances of distortions and compare them to some baseline to ensure it is something out of the ordinary, at least for what he might know about Megan. &#xA;Though he would be correct, at least in this instance, but it wasn't necessarily due to experience, but chance.&lt;br&gt;&#xA; Which is one of the big issues pointed to in the article by Dawes and his colleagues, they essentially find that the criticisms towards the therapist being an all-knowing being are valid and point out that they often forget to consider other variables that might be contributing to the situation, so with the occasional correct guess, they may begin to rely on their gut or worldview which distorts their decisions, overall. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To combat these errors Lambert and Shimokawa (2011), highly recommended that client feedback is collected because it helps in understanding the client's subjective point of view and can aid in aligning the therapist's views to better meet the needs of their client, leading to stronger outcomes. The practice of feedback helps build a factor in therapy success, which is the therapeutic alliance (the relationship between client and therapist). Flexibility also helps as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This notion of client feedback is another layer on top of the common factors pointed out by Rosenzweig (2002) that seem to contribute most to positive client outcomes, more so than the theoretical method used. These factors include the qualities of the therapist and how they interact with the client and their specific qualities.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Essentially, it is the nonspecific elements, like therapist and client qualities in interaction, that create the foundation for a better client outcome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dawes, R. M., Faust, D., &amp;amp; Meehl, P. E. (1989). Clinical versus actuarial judgment. Science, 243(4899), 1668-1674.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lambert, M. J., &amp;amp; Shimokawa, K. (2011). Collecting client feedback. Psychotherapy, 48(1), 72–79.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rosenzweig, S. (2002). Some implicit common factors in diverse methods of psychotherapy. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 12(1), 5–9. doi:10.1037/1053-0479.12.1.5 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24990" LastEditorUserId="24990" LastEditDate="2020-02-28T03:16:53.500" LastActivityDate="2020-02-28T03:16:53.500" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24937" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-21T19:38:38.210" Score="2" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neurotransmitter imbalances are blamed for various psychiatric conditions (depression, ADHD, etc).  Clearly plasma levels of neurotransmitters are confirmed to be abnormal in some people with such conditions.  BUT, has causality ever been proven?&#xA;That is; for example, does a serotonin deficiency cause depression or does depression cause a serotonin deficiency?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is clearly possible to be &quot;situationally depressed&quot; caused, for example, by grief or the loss of a loved one.  Do such people also experience a neurotransmitter imbalance?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a definitive study of this? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25362" LastActivityDate="2020-02-21T21:14:16.117" Title="Causality regarding neurotransmitter imbalance and depression" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24939" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24937" CreationDate="2020-02-21T21:14:16.117" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have what is mostly a frame-challenge to your question as an answer: &lt;strong&gt;the simple &quot;neurotransmitter imbalance&quot; hypothesis is a bit outdated, and it hasn't been strongly influential in a research context for a very long time&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather, it is an extremely oversimplified way to try to explain that there are brain differences involved in depression: that it's a real and physical disorder rather than something &quot;made up&quot; or &quot;all in the head&quot;. This message might be useful for patients in explaining that their symptoms are not imaginary or something to just &quot;get over&quot;, and also for pharmaceutical marketing of those medications. It may also cause harm (see Kemp et al 2014).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hypothesis is originally based on studies that showed both a) that drugs impairing serotonin signalling could create depressive symptoms in animal models, and b) that drugs like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which (at least initially) increase synaptic availability of serotonin, could treat depressive symptoms. Since then, more work shows that it is very questionable to consider reduced levels of monoamines like serotonin purely causative for depression, because depletion of such monoamines fails to produce depressive symptoms in healthy subjects (France et al 2007 review several such studies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, other neurotransmitters are also involved, and serotonin itself acts through numerous receptor subtypes (even completely different families), and many of these influence levels of other neurotransmitters as well. Levels of glutamate, dopamine, and norepinephrine are also both implicated in depression, but like with serotonin there is no clear, simple story.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the brain, it's not just &lt;em&gt;how much&lt;/em&gt; of a substance is present, but &lt;em&gt;where&lt;/em&gt; it is released, &lt;em&gt;when&lt;/em&gt; it is released, and in &lt;em&gt;what pattern&lt;/em&gt; it is released. The same neurotransmitter in different brain areas can have different or even opposite effects. A neurotransmitter released 100 times in 1 second or 100 times in 100 seconds can have different or even opposite effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also a strong likelihood that depression and related conditions including anxiety disorders are not specific conditions but rather umbrella descriptions for a host of different brain dysfunctions. If there was a simple story, it wouldn't be nearly as complicated to treat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;France, C. M., Lysaker, P. H., &amp;amp; Robinson, R. P. (2007). The&quot; chemical imbalance&quot; explanation for depression: Origins, lay endorsement, and clinical implications. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 38(4), 411.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kemp, J. J., Lickel, J. J., &amp;amp; Deacon, B. J. (2014). Effects of a chemical imbalance causal explanation on individuals' perceptions of their depressive symptoms. Behaviour research and therapy, 56, 47-52.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lacasse, J. R., &amp;amp; Leo, J. (2005). Serotonin and depression: a disconnect between the advertisements and the scientific literature. PLoS medicine, 2(12).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leo, J., &amp;amp; Lacasse, J. R. (2008). The media and the chemical imbalance theory of depression. Society, 45(1), 35-45.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-02-21T21:14:16.117" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24941" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24950" CreationDate="2020-02-14T20:33:41.687" Score="5" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider a scenario  where a person's melatonin secretion gets inhibited (and that person also don't get external melatonin);&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Will this person feel sleepiness and a desire to sleep? Or, since that person is not having melatonin being secreted, there will not be any sleepiness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Searching for this, I found that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sleepfoundation.org/articles/melatonin-and-sleep&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;melatonin levels in the blood rise sharply and you begin to feel less alert&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. However, I would like to know if a person which is not have melatonin being secreted will not feel sleepiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is Melatonin necessary to sleep or even to have desire for sleep?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25365" OwnerDisplayName="Mycroft" LastActivityDate="2020-02-23T10:09:13.713" Title="Is Melatonin necessary to sleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24942" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24949" CreationDate="2020-02-22T10:09:40.803" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;A transparent blue inkjet cartridge looks deep blue, a red one looks deep red, but a yellow one looks red. Tea also looks yellowish when it's shallow and reddish otherwise. Red is another colour, a different wavelength, so why does deep yellow look red?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/A4zUC.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/A4zUC.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25366" LastActivityDate="2020-02-24T14:10:05.910" Title="Why does &quot;bulk&quot; yellow ink look red?" Tags="&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2020-02-24T14:10:20.797" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24943" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24986" CreationDate="2020-02-22T10:43:56.180" Score="3" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say there is a group of OCEAN profiles. How do I calculate how well another profile fits into this group of profiles?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congruence_coefficient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congruence_coefficient&lt;/a&gt; the way to go or are there alternatives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25367" LastActivityDate="2020-03-01T23:52:25.917" Title="What measures are available for calculating big 5 congruence with a collection of profiles?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24944" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-22T11:31:46.550" Score="3" ViewCount="547" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why do people call the NERIS Type Explorer of www.16personalities.com unscientific?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.16personalities.com/articles/reliability-and-validity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.16personalities.com/articles/reliability-and-validity&lt;/a&gt; it provides good test-re-testing reliability, an internal consistence and discriminant validity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If it this is true, what's the difference to big5?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a fundamental difference to big5 or is the only difference that NERIS Type Explorer has not been approved by scientists yet?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25367" LastEditorUserId="20031" LastEditDate="2020-02-22T23:23:39.643" LastActivityDate="2020-02-22T23:23:39.643" Title="Is NERIS Type Explorer unscientific?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24949" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24942" CreationDate="2020-02-23T08:23:42.100" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not all liquid or things that are yellow become red when they exist in large quantity. For example, beer, vegetable oil, and normal urine never look red even in large quantity, like in a vat. It really depends on the optical properties of the liquid and the suspended particles in it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The optical properties of something depend on both its intrinsic factors such as its reflectance, transmittance, and absorptance of the light and the extrinsic factors such as its thickness, the surface that it’s on, the angle of light incidence, and the polarization of the incident light. (This is not to mention psychological factors like the mood when you look at that thing or the surroundings colors or compositions of that thing, which can make that thing look different.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That’s why a thin film of water is colorless but a large body of water like the lake looks blue. And that’s why there is a phenomenon called iridescence – the phenomenon that certain surfaces appear to change color as the angle of view or the angle of illumination changes – like changing rainbow colors on a soap bubble or on a colorless CD surface.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your case, I think the color reflection and transmission properties of the ink are different. The ink probably reflects mainly the yellow color, so it looks yellow when reflection of colors is the major event – as when the ink is painted on a surface. But the ink probably transmits more of the red color than the yellow color, so it looks red when transmission of colors is the major event – as when you look through it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;N.B.&lt;/strong&gt; I think you’ll probably get better answers than mine by posting the question on the Physics forum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://light-measurement.com/reflection-absorption/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;II.8. Reflection, Transmission, and Absorption&lt;/a&gt; Gigahertz-Optik.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://sensing.konicaminolta.us/blog/elements-that-affect-the-appearance-of-color/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elements that Affect the Appearance of Color&lt;/a&gt; Konica Minolta.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridescence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Iridescence&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2020-02-23T08:23:42.100" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24950" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24941" CreationDate="2020-02-23T10:09:13.713" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don’t have a direct or a very reputable reference to answer this question, but I work in the clinical field and have seen many insomniacs, so I’ll offer you the answers based on the references and the experiences I have for you to consider in the meantime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Melatonin’s principal function is to convey the message of darkness or information about timing of the day and night to the central circadian clock. [1-3]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;In mammals, a central circadian clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus, tunes the innate circadian physiological rhythms to the ambient 24 h light–dark cycle to invigorate and optimize the internal temporal order. … Melatonin conveys the message of darkness to the clock and induces night‐state physiological functions, for example, sleep/wake blood pressure and metabolism. [1]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The primary physiological function of melatonin, whose secretion adjusts to night length, is to convey information concerning the daily cycle of light and darkness to body structures. [2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Melatonin does not have direct effects on sleep-wake cycles, which are governed by other complex neural circuits in the brainstem. It is not one of the neurotransmitters in the complex sleep-wake neural circuits, which utilize cholinergic, noradrenergic, and serotonergic neurotransmitters. Melatonin just influences the circuits by conveying the message of darkness or timing of the day and night to the SCN, the central circadian clock, which in turn, affects the sleep-wake neural circuits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The highly organized sequence of human sleep states is actively generated by nuclei in the brainstem, most importantly the cholinergic nuclei of the pons–midbrain junction, the noradrenergic cells of the locus coeruleus, and the serotonergic neurons of the raphe nuclei. The activity of the relevant cell groups controls the degree of mental alertness on a continuum from deep sleep to waking attentiveness. These brainstem systems are in turn influenced by a circadian clocks located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and VLPO of the hypothalamus. The clock adjusts periods of sleep and wakefulness to appropriate durations during the 24-hour cycle of light and darkness that is fundamental to life on Earth. [4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clinically, melatonin seems to be neither necessary nor sufficient for sleep to occur. This is evident by the fact that when melatonin is high in the night and a person is about to fall asleep or even asleep, he /she can be awakened and remain awake by some strong stimulus despite the high level of melatonin at that time. Also, if melatonin is given to awake people, they may feel like sleeping, but, unlike strong sleeping pills (which mostly affect cholinergic, noradrenergic, and/or serotonergic neurotransmissions), they may not fall asleep if other things such as surrounding circumstances do not allow them to sleep. So, melatonin alone is not sufficient for sleep to occur or be maintained. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, when a person is deprived of sleep for one or more nights, he/she can fall asleep during daytime even if the level of melatonin is low at that time. Or, if strong sleeping pills (which mostly affect those mentioned neurotransmissions) are given to awake people during daytime, when melatonin level is low, they will fall asleep despite the low level of melatonin. So, melatonin alone is not necessary for sleep to occur or be maintained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, the principal role of melatonin regarding sleep is to convey the message of darkness or information about timing of the day and night to the central circadian clock to influence the sleep-wake neural circuits so that the animal, including human, can sleep at appropriate time; but it is not necessary or sufficient for sleep to occur or be maintained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nava Zisapel. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6057895/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;New perspectives on the role of melatonin in human sleep, circadian rhythms and their regulation&lt;/a&gt;. Br J Pharmacol. 2018 Aug; 175(16): 3190–3199.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Claustrat B, Leston J. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25908646&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Melatonin: Physiological effects in humans.&lt;/a&gt;. Neurochirurgie. 2015 Apr-Jun;61(2-3):77-84. doi: 10.1016/j.neuchi.2015.03.002.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pandi-Perumal SR1, Srinivasan V, Spence DW, Cardinali DP. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18020480&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Role of the melatonin system in the control of sleep: therapeutic implications.&lt;/a&gt; CNS Drugs. 2007;21(12):995-1018.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Purves D. Chapter 27.  Sleep and wakefulness. Neural circuits governing sleep. In &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hse.ru/data/2011/06/22/1215686482/Neuroscience.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuroscience. 3rd ed.&lt;/a&gt; Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates Inc; 2004. p 674-684.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2020-02-23T10:09:13.713" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24951" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25292" CreationDate="2020-02-23T17:55:23.013" Score="4" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rao and Ballard (1999) start their &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nn0199_79&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; by stating that extra-classical receptive fields, which exhibit the phenomenon of end-stopping are difficult to explain. They show that in an idealized predictive coding model trained on natural images, the &quot;neurons&quot; at a higher level in the model have a receptive field that exhibits end-stopping; therefore, if neurons in the brain are implementing predictive coding, they would exhibit this phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I don't understand is this - why is it difficult to explain extra-classical receptive fields? After all, retinal ganglion neurons that are on-center will also exhibit &quot;end-stopping&quot; if a stimulus extends outside of the center, and the explanation for that receptive field is straightforward: the photoreceptors at the periphery hyperpolarize the ganglion cell, whereas those at the center depolarize it. Why can't a similar story be told about cortical neurons? Why was the predictive coding framework needed to explain end-stopping?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25372" LastActivityDate="2020-05-09T13:54:26.560" Title="Extra-classical receptive fields are surprising, but retinal ganglion receptive fields are not. Why?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24953" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25878" CreationDate="2020-02-24T02:53:17.180" Score="2" ViewCount="407" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing research on alleged testimonies and evidences of the spirit realm. In particular, I've been lately reviewing testimonies and live recordings of exorcisms, some of which I find particularly impressive. I say impressive because in my opinion the exorcisms look quite convincing, and I lack the expertise in psychology and neuroscience to provide a convincing explanation other than assuming that everything is staged (which I wouldn't be able to prove either).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Common patterns are that the allegedly possessed person seems to switch personality (as though the alleged entity's personality is taking over), sometimes the exorcist and the alleged entity establish conversation, sometimes the person starts to &amp;quot;throw up&amp;quot; the alleged entity out of their body right before full deliverance is achieved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below some example videos with timestamps to illustrate the point:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/EteJtXUmqrE?t=202&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Woman named Veronica, is exorcised by Bob Larson ( Video not for kids ).&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Mkdaz6dVRO4?t=177&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TESTIMONY TURNS DELIVERANCE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Ry0mU0flrJ4?t=215&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shocking Powerful Deliverance From Demons&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/zwKWT5ca0LE?t=1530&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Casting Out False NAR Demons (New Apostolic Reformation Warning)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/RXDX92mrGxU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A demon screamed and came out of a woman at the Eiffel tower and the Police was afraid and left. &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://v.youku.com/v_show/id_XMzA2Mjk0ODUzMg==.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lady's Voice Turns into a Man's Voice - Exorcist Bob Larson Throws out the Demon!&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/pIqPfZZOQsg?t=20&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;El poder de Cristo - Sacando legión de demonios #chile #imp #estebanguzman #jesus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/yKnxWl8500k?t=148&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;LIBERACION DE INFLUENCIA SATANICA- Pastor Juan Carlos Harrigan&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychological explanation for exorcisms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25376" LastEditorUserId="25376" LastEditDate="2020-11-10T07:56:29.620" LastActivityDate="2020-11-10T07:56:29.620" Title="Psychological explanation for exorcisms?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24955" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-24T11:09:36.360" Score="1" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rats with VMH damage overeat because the ventromedial hypothalamus&#xA;  controls the body's ability to digest and store food. (Keesey &amp;amp;&#xA;  Powley, 1975). It controls digestive reflexes. When the ventromedial&#xA;  hypothalamus is damaged, digestive reflexes become overactive and&#xA;  empty the gut abnormally fast. Therefore, the animals start eating&#xA;  sooner than normal and therefore overeat. The rush of extra food&#xA;  cannot be metabolized so it is stored as fat. &lt;a href=&quot;http://indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/hunger_center.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If your ventrome-dial hypothalamus get hit by a hard object somehow or due to infection and is not working properly, more it remains destroyed and unfunctional while there is no food, what will happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25380" LastEditorUserId="25380" LastEditDate="2020-02-24T12:06:29.080" LastActivityDate="2020-02-24T12:06:29.080" Title="What would happen when the vitrome-dial hypothalamus get destroyed while there is no food to seek for?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24958" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24963" CreationDate="2020-02-24T13:09:46.883" Score="5" ViewCount="98" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a very active member of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://security.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;Information Security&lt;/a&gt; Stack Exchange site. Every now and then, I come across people who I believe may suffer from paranoia. They believe that &amp;quot;someone&amp;quot; is out to get them, and use techno-babble to make themselves sound legitimate. Here is an example post:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How to prevent attacker from viewing what's on my Android phone screen? Can someone give me advice or suggest apps to prevent this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if I write in notepad, and it's offline, they can read it. They know the time of my alarm. if I just set new random one they know. If I play some music, they know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another post by the same user:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;they can read my screen, listen to my mic and even control my notification. both my rooted and unrooted phone. This happens when i just moved to new place im renting, it was bad neighborhood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not a psychiatrist, but I am very well-versed in security and I am 99.999999% certain that the things this person described are not real. I asked that person a few times who &amp;quot;they&amp;quot; were, and how he could know that someone was reading his messages. He claimed he didn't know who &amp;quot;they&amp;quot; were, but he was certain someone was watching him. As an example for &amp;quot;proof&amp;quot; he claimed that someone in his neighborhood was listening to the same song he was listening to a while ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The sad thing is, such users come to our site regularly and I am unsure how to best help them. What should I do when I come across a person who I suspect may suffer from paranoia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;What I've tried so far&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far, I have tried to tell those looking for help with their supposed hacker problems that they are likely not being attacked, and that it seems to me that they may be affected by paranoia. I tried to help them by adding links to credible organizations (like the Australian &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/paranoia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Better Health Channel&lt;/a&gt;), which was always countered by them claiming that they are not paranoid and that their problems are real.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if bluntly saying &amp;quot;I think you may have a mental health problem&amp;quot; is beneficial though, and if it may do more harm than good. For this reason, I am asking this question, how exactly I should act and how to best help people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25383" OwnerDisplayName="MechMK1" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-02-26T16:11:02.433" Title="How to help people who may suffer from Paranoia?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="13" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24959" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-25T05:03:03.183" Score="4" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I work the weekend closing shifts at a local supermarket. There are many stores in the chain, and they all have the same soundtrack - consisting mostly of 70's music - which is played on repeat throughout the day. My job is to pull forward items, making them flush with the edges of shelves (so they are more accessible and visually appealing). This is a very repetitive task, and requires little concentration. In my personal experience, the repetition of the same music every week has a detrimental effect on my ability to work efficiently - it makes me sluggish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Occasionally, however, a newer, more likable song is played (about every hour). I find that my motivation and work efficiency is boosted by the unfamiliar beat. I want to petition the company to update the entire playlist, arguing that it will benefit both the workers and the employer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Before I draft a petition, I want to check that my observations are consistent with findings in modern psychology. I searched the web for relevant reports which would backup my hypothesis, but Google Scholar's search engine is only so helpful in finding things when you do not know the proper terms to search for... I did find some experiments (listed below) exploring the same subject, but I feel that alone they are insufficient for my argument:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0056448&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Music in Industry&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-6870(72)90101-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Music — an aid to productivity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-6870(71)90072-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Background music and industrial efficiency—A review&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-2011-1141&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Effects of background music on concentration of workers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-2012-1410&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Background music: Effects on attention performance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first three of these reports hit some points which I wanted to emphasize, the last two seem like they would only hurt my cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;There is general agreement that music may increase contentment of the worker, improve output, and lessen fatigue...&quot; (1st report)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;Music is most often appreciated by workers at repetitive manual tasks.&quot; (1st report)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;music is effective in raising efficiency in this type of [repetitive] work...&quot; (2nd report)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&quot;The use of music in industry is discussed as a possible means of aiding alertness, especially in jobs where a certain amount of repetition is involved.&quot; (3rd report)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At first glance, this seems like a solid foundation for drafting a petition. I have three reports from professional psychologists which make the same points I do. However, there is a slight problem. Each of these reports (with the fourth being the exception) study only the presence of music in a work environment, which is something my job already has. I am trying to find something to confirm my hypothesis that &lt;em&gt;likable&lt;/em&gt;/&lt;em&gt;new&lt;/em&gt; music is preferable to old/repetitive playlists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again the question arises, are these observations consistent with modern psychology? Perhaps I am on a wild goose chase. Maybe I am not finding the right report because it &lt;em&gt;doesn't exist&lt;/em&gt;. But then again, maybe it does. I am not sure how things are run here at Psychology Stack Exchange, but I know that over at Stackoverflow, where I come from, there is an option to flag questions as off-topic if they are requests for third-party resources (such as books or tutorials). In light of this, I am not going to ask the easy question, &quot;Can someone find me a good lab report?&quot; Instead, I am going to ask for confirmation on my hypothesis, which will make this question more valuable to users visiting this site in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does new and likable music improve the motivation and/or work efficiency of laborers with repetitive tasks? And, on the flip-side, does old/repetitive/unlikable music demotivate and/or slow down workers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(If you do not mind, please help me out with the petition by including any sources in your answers)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25387" LastEditorUserId="25387" LastEditDate="2020-02-26T15:57:33.417" LastActivityDate="2020-02-27T19:15:55.460" Title="Are there positive/negative effects of new/repetitive music in work performance?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;environmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24960" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-25T09:20:35.263" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was chewing gum when I took the Trident gum wrapper and rolled it into an open cylinder with a diameter of about 1.5mm (give or take 0.15mm). When I look through the gum wrapper (I have to put it right up against my eye and position it just right to be able to see all the way through), images seem about 10% smaller (extremely back of the napkin assumption) than without the gum wrapper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is hard to measure empirically, so I tried to &lt;a href=&quot;https://imgur.com/a/CfDI3ch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;take a photo showing this effect&lt;/a&gt;, but the camera showed no difference between the two (the one through the wrapper is brighter, but I think that's just the iPhone camera trying to adjust to the surrounding dark and thus trivial). Just to confirm, I asked 6 people if they see any differences between viewing items through the gum wrapper and without the gum wrapper, and all of them said that the images through the gum wrapper looked smaller than without the wrapper. [EDIT: Asked 4 more people and 3 of the 4 said the image was 5-10% larger than normal]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[EDIT 2: The images also get larger (smaller for the people who said the image was larger) as the wrapper moves away from the eye and towards the object, eventually reaching true size when the wrapper is at the object.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only reason I could think of this happening is based on another observation I made. As I brought the gum wrapper into position, objects seemed to bend as they passed over the wrapper in my vision. The only thing I could think of is that the diameter of the cylinder is small enough that this &quot;bend&quot; doesn't have time to even out, and thus collides with the &quot;bend&quot; on the other side of the wrapper and creates a smaller image. However, this assumes that the distortion is causing images to be smaller when viewed through the wrapper. The &quot;bend&quot; distortion could also just be a byproduct of the actual cause of this phenomenon and just a symptom of the image getting smaller.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this occurring?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT 3: &lt;a href=&quot;https://imgur.com/a/TpmIbHx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;More photos&lt;/a&gt; that are more out of focus as recommended for more data&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/528234&quot;&gt;Originally posted in the physics SE site with an account that I lost&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25388" LastActivityDate="2020-03-30T22:01:05.177" Title="Why does an image seem smaller or larger through a pinhole when viewing with human eye" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24963" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24958" CreationDate="2020-02-26T07:48:48.847" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not active on this board, so please forgive me if my answer is not up to community standards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not a psychologist, but I have some experience with mental illness (maybe too much.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;True &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theravive.com/therapedia/paranoid-personality-disorder-dsm--5-301.0-(f60.0)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paranoia&lt;/a&gt; (or Paranoid Personality Disorder/PPD) is much more pronounced than thinking that people can spy on you through your mobile. Whether it's true or not isn't relevant, really. In this case, there is a kernel of truth to their fears, which becomes exacerbated.*&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;According to the DSM-5, persons with Paranoid Personality Disorder will have trouble operating with others in the workplace, educational or social settings (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). It is noted that people with PPD are more frequently unemployed or working more menial jobs than the general population (Mueser, Mischel, Adams, Harvey, McClure, Look, Leung, &amp;amp; Siever, 2013).They tend to be solitary, self sufficient, and secretive, and will have difficulty making or maintaining intimate relationships or close friendships. (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Persons with PPD may experience a conflict, in that they want intimate relationships and friendships, but do not have a level of trust which is an essential element of such relationships. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If many of the other criteria aren't met, it's probably not paranoia. On the other hand, if your interactions are limited, you may not know about other criteria, so this might be paranoia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;How to help people who may suffer from Paranoia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's very difficult, even for therapists, because challenging their belief systems makes the person very defensive. They do not tend to have much self insight, which makes therapy challenging. Clearly you are not in a therapeutic relationship with the user; I would try to steer them in the right direction security-wise, and then (gently and respectfully) disengage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;So far, I have tried to tell those looking for help with their supposed hacker problems that they are likely not being attacked, and that it seems to me that they may be affected by paranoia. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would definitely avoid this, as this is giving a diagnosis, which you should not do (I believe it's unethical) over a brief interaction on the internet. I'm not surprised they counter by claiming that they are not paranoid and that their problems are real. To someone who's paranoid, their problems &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; real.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In case my answer isn't well explained,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if bluntly saying &quot;I think you may have a mental health problem&quot; is beneficial though, and if it may do more harm than good. For this reason, I am asking this question, how exactly I should act and how to best help people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unless you are in a close personal relationship with someone, I think it's not in their best interests to tell them they may suffer from a mental illness, whether they do or not. First, you do not know. Second, they will most likely be defensive if not offended as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My reaction would be to be kind and gentle with the person, avoid overt confrontation (&quot;That's not possible...&quot;) and let people close to them tell them they need professional help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*&lt;sub&gt;Laptop cameras have been hacked, and worse.&lt;/sub&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;**&lt;sub&gt;I know people who believe Pizzagate was real. Te truth doesn't matter if you like conspiracy theories.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Diagnostics and Statistics Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)&lt;/em&gt; Washington. DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="5104" LastEditorUserId="5104" LastEditDate="2020-02-26T16:11:02.433" LastActivityDate="2020-02-26T16:11:02.433" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24964" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-26T12:38:13.880" Score="3" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Generalized (Positive) Reciprocity&lt;/a&gt; says that if A helps B, B will help C. Many studies have shown that this behavior exists in different settings (real life, field and lab experiments). Studies also show that the &amp;quot;task/dimension/domain&amp;quot; between A/B and B/C can be different. For example, A helps B with a computer problem and B gives more in a dictator game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm more interested in Generalized Negative Reciprocity. If A is unkind to B, B will be unkind to C. Obviously the underlying mechanisms in the positive and negative versions are different. Studies have shown (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031047&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gray, et al. 2014&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/srep22316&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Strang, et al. 2016&lt;/a&gt;) that if the &amp;quot;task/dimension/domain&amp;quot; is similar, people reciprocate negatively. A gives little in dictator game to B and B will do the same in a dictator game to C. But what if the dimensions are different. Like A gives B a bad task instead of a good one, will B also give little to C ina dictator game (compared to a B that received a good task).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you guys know any papers that deal with this research question? I spent weeks reading literature in this area but I cannot believe that nobody tried it out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update 1: I actually found something. Zitek et al. 2010 let participants think about unfair situations in their past and they observe less pro-social behavior in different experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nevertheless, I would appreciate additional resources. I'm going through papers citing Zitek.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social modeling could explain past research showing a relationship&#xA;between being the victim of selfish behavior and acting selfishly in&#xA;the same domain (e.g., Austin &amp;amp; Walster, 1975; Moschetti &amp;amp; Kues, 1978;&#xA;Zitek et al., 2007); perhaps people who have been the victims of&#xA;uneven monetary distributions, for example, simply imitate such unfair&#xA;behavior when it is their own turn to distribute money or believe that&#xA;such behavior is more normative. We found, however, that when people&#xA;pondered times when life was unfair to them—recalling slights in a&#xA;wide variety of domains—they were subsequently less likely to help an&#xA;experimenter with an additional task, even though none of them had&#xA;recalled a time when they asked for help but did not receive it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gray, K., Ward, A. F., &amp;amp; Norton, M. I. (2014). Paying it forward: Generalized reciprocity and the limits of generosity. &lt;em&gt;Journal of experimental psychology: General, 143&lt;/em&gt;(1), 247. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031047&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/a0031047&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Strang, S., Grote, X., Kuss, K., Park, S. Q., &amp;amp; Weber, B. (2016). Generalized negative reciprocity in the dictator game–how to interrupt the chain of unfairness. &lt;em&gt;Scientific reports, 6&lt;/em&gt;, 22316. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/srep22316&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/srep22316&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Zitek, E. M., Jordan, A. H., Monin, B., &amp;amp; Leach, F. R. (2010). Victim entitlement to behave selfishly. Journal of personality and social psychology, 98(2), 245. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-00584-006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;// edit: Thanks to Chris Rogers for adding the references!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25393" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-02-27T17:40:44.210" Title="Dimensional/Domain Change in &quot;Generalized Negative Reciprocity&quot;?" Tags="&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;altruism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24965" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24967" CreationDate="2020-02-26T18:47:29.913" Score="0" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;With this I mean the notion of humans being able to, for example, look at a painting and tell that something doesn't belong in there. For example sun glasses on the Mona Lisa, without prior knowledge of the painting. I just find it easier to spot or add things to something that are wrong than to add something that fits in perfectly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found some pointers to Gestalt Theory but I couldn't find anything there yet. I'll keep looking but maybe someone here knows what I'm trying to convey. Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25394" LastActivityDate="2020-02-27T05:26:03.317" Title="How can humans tell when something diverges from the norm" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;gestalt-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24966" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-26T19:47:41.780" Score="1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;First time asking here so I don't know the ethos yet of how liberal or strick this site is on the particulars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In spending my day programming in Prolog I often hit a wall sometimes and stop coding on a section for a few minutes to a few days because the code is not flowing off the finger tips or the mind doesn't have the solution mapped out to the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lately I am starting to see one pattern emerge (there are many more but this question is just about this one) that causes me to stop and that is that I can't keep all of the concepts in my head while coding. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have ever seen the show where a person is given a 5 second image of a chess board and asked to lay out the pieces on a different board from memory then you know that an average person is limited by their short term memory. But if the pieces are in the movements from a real game, a chess expert can typically remember all of the pieces on the board since they view the board different than an average person, but if the pieces are just random the expert has the same success rate of reproducing the board as an average person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same thing seems to be happening when I am coding a highly recursive set of predicates that have many state variables, as long as the concepts are familiar I can handle some very complex routines, but if my limit is exceeded or the solutions is not familiar then I step back because I know that my subconscious will work on the problem and typically give me one or more clear directions to take.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So the question is: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are their any research papers that show that the conscious mind will get frustrated by certain problems because of the limit of short-term memory but that the subconscious mind will persist on a problem till solved?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why I don't view this as a duplicate of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/1/25395&quot;&gt;How is it that taking a break from a problem sometimes allows you to figure out the answer?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I view that question as &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The OP is looking for a term to describe the phenomenon. e.g. the tag terminology.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The OP says the answer will suddenly come to them because they stopped. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is adding an additional (exact) condition that I am stopping because I have exceeded the limit of my conscious memory (short term memory if you chose) and so can't concentrate on it any more as something has to be taken from the short term memory to add something. However the subconscious is able to deal with the problem because it has absorbed all of the concepts that don't fit into short term memory and can continue to work on the problem. It may find and answer or a reason it can not be answered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Appears I need more specifics on why I think my question stands apart from the noted possible duplicate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since you asked here we go:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;If I am stuck on a particular problem in my work, often if I stop thinking about the problem and do something else, the answer will suddenly come to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know why I am stopping, I have used up my ability to hold concepts in &lt;em&gt;conscious memory&lt;/em&gt;, the other person is just stuck and they don't know why. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question does not put a time frame of when the &lt;em&gt;result&lt;/em&gt; arrives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quote from other question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;You can either focus on one thing or another, you can't focus on two or three things at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am focused on one thing also so this is similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other quote&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Because consciousness is very limited in what it can do; unconsciousness is much broader.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That statement can be taken as a truism that applies to both questions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is pointing out a specific difference, namely that the subconscious has access to more concepts at once than the limited short term memory of &lt;em&gt;conscious memory&lt;/em&gt;. Granted the conscious has access to other concepts in long term memory, but these types of problems have so many new concepts that need to be accessed as the same time, that &lt;em&gt;conscious memory&lt;/em&gt; can not access them all when first seeing the problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other quote&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;you keep on focusing at it, you may get stuck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Same as previously said: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know why I am stuck and therefore stopping, I have used up my ability to hold concepts in &lt;em&gt;conscious memory&lt;/em&gt;, the other person is just stuck and they don't know why.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other quote&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Taking a break, taking a shower, going for a walk, playing golf, you come back refreshed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar in that one has to move the task out of the conscious, but my questions doesn't require being refreshed to get the &lt;em&gt;result&lt;/em&gt; from the subconscious. In my question it is not being refreshed that gets a &lt;em&gt;result&lt;/em&gt; for the subconscious, the subconscious will give back a &lt;em&gt;result&lt;/em&gt; when it finds one, be it a short time or many years. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other quote&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;And often doing the other activity, boom, the idea will come to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The other question via the quote suggest that you must go through a refreshing activity to get an idea. My question is saying that because the subconscious can hold more concepts it can find a &lt;em&gt;result&lt;/em&gt; because it can access more concepts at once than &lt;em&gt;conscious memory&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question does not require or suggest that the &lt;em&gt;result&lt;/em&gt; arrives in the manner of a boom, nor does it rule it out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't think there is much more dissection I can do here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25395" LastEditorUserId="25395" LastEditDate="2020-03-03T10:46:25.170" LastActivityDate="2020-03-03T10:46:25.170" Title="Problem solving and memory size, conscious vs subconscious" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24965" CreationDate="2020-02-26T20:39:19.990" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_coding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;predictive coding&lt;/a&gt; model of brain function suggests that the entire function of the brain is to update an internal model of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This process occurs by generating predictions based on the current model, and comparing these predictions to sensory information. The difference between the predictions and the actual information is the &lt;em&gt;prediction error&lt;/em&gt;: this is the stuff that the brain has to work harder on, because it is these errors that require further action to update the models and make better predictions in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on this model, &lt;strong&gt;unexpected things are highly salient&lt;/strong&gt;, because they generate large prediction errors. In contrast, &lt;em&gt;expected&lt;/em&gt; things are boring, and can mostly be ignored. This is a mechanism to filter the massive amount of sensory information we are capable of taking in at any given moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As of now, predictive coding is still just a model, and there is a lot of work being done towards finding evidence for predictive coding in the brain. That said, it explains the phenomenon you are describing fairly well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some references for further reading:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bastos, A. M., Usrey, W. M., Adams, R. A., Mangun, G. R., Fries, P., &amp;amp; Friston, K. J. (2012). Canonical microcircuits for predictive coding. Neuron, 76(4), 695-711.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kok, P., &amp;amp; de Lange, F. P. (2015). Predictive coding in sensory cortex. In An introduction to model-based cognitive neuroscience (pp. 221-244). Springer, New York, NY.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Melloni, L., van Leeuwen, S., Alink, A., &amp;amp; Müller, N. G. (2012). Interaction between bottom-up saliency and top-down control: how saliency maps are created in the human brain. Cerebral cortex, 22(12), 2943-2952.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rao, R. P., &amp;amp; Ballard, D. H. (1999). Predictive coding in the visual cortex: a functional interpretation of some extra-classical receptive-field effects. Nature neuroscience, 2(1), 79-87.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Spratling, M. W. (2012). Predictive coding as a model of the V1 saliency map hypothesis. Neural Networks, 26, 7-28.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yuille, A., &amp;amp; Kersten, D. (2006). Vision as Bayesian inference: analysis by synthesis?. Trends in cognitive sciences, 10(7), 301-308.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-02-26T23:05:44.337" LastActivityDate="2020-02-26T23:05:44.337" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24970" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24965" CreationDate="2020-02-27T05:26:03.317" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In fact one might say that pretty much most of human cognition is detecting when things diverge from the norm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some simple examples include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Movement detection is nothing more than detecting when the input in our eyes diverges from the norma of nothing moving. Equally the same can be said with detection of sudden sounds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, once a sudden sound like a washing machine turning on might continue for so long it becomes the norm, then we may then not even consciously notice it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remembering faces, is a process of coding how each face diverges from the norm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McCarthy (inventor of Lisp) proposed that human knowledge should be encoded as &quot;exceptions&quot;. e.g. &quot;a penguin is a bird &lt;em&gt;except&lt;/em&gt; it can't fly&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neural networks, also, first converge to the norm, and then refine themselves by the various exceptions to that norm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10332" LastActivityDate="2020-02-27T05:26:03.317" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24973" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-27T16:59:01.647" Score="4" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;Long time screen users like software developers sometimes use computers so intensely that they do not blink enough with their eyes. This leads to dry eyes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, people typically don't blink their eyes normally when using a computer or other digital devices or simply watching television intently.&#xA;  Specifically, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/dry-eyes-faq/dry-eyes-from-computer.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;computer use affects both blink rate (how frequently we blink) and blink completeness (whether the eyelids close completely during a blink)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to induce blinking by manipulating the screen, for example by regularly making it completely black for a split second?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Blink patterns: reading from a computer screen versus hard copy. Optometry and Vision Science. March 2014.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Blink rate, blink amplitude, and tear film integrity during dynamic visual display terminal tasks. Current Eye Research. March 2011.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Computer vision syndrome: a review. Survey of Ophthalmology. May/June 2005. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25404" LastEditorUserId="5104" LastEditDate="2020-02-27T18:43:30.383" LastActivityDate="2020-02-29T21:05:16.210" Title="Is it possible to induce eye blinking?" Tags="&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;behavioural-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24974" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-27T19:09:16.713" Score="0" ViewCount="852" Body="&lt;h1&gt;Cognitive distortions and negative emtions&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Wikipedia, &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_distortion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive distortion&lt;/a&gt; are thoughts that cause individuals to perceive reality inaccurately&amp;quot;. It is a negative outlook on reality, sometimes called negative schemas (or schemata), and can reinforce negative emotions and thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QXDoO.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there are many forms of cognitive distortion, I think the basis are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Strong negative emotions and reactions&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Insisting that their statement is absolutely correct&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Immediate refute the opposite statement without giving any reason&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;As listing of these, I'm thinking about &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YMPzDiraNnA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;learned helplessness&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;prejudice&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;My question&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For convenience, I'll name the person who is making diagnosis Cueball, and the person who is being diagnosed Megan. Here is Cueball and Megan:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xzgo0.png&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First, I get that Cueball's judgement can be distorted, because he has his own worldview. From that link: &amp;quot;The implicit assumption behind the diagnosis is that the therapist is infallible and that only the world view of the therapist is correct. If the perceptions of the patient differ from those of the therapist, it may not be because of intellectual malfunctions but because the patient has different experiences.&amp;quot; One cannot deny that they have &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;implicit attitude&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I suppose that the key factor here is the &lt;strong&gt;strong negative emotions and reactions&lt;/strong&gt; of Megan. Because our &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_perception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotion perception&lt;/a&gt; is strong, Megan's emotions can be accurately perceived. I suppose that even when Cueball has his own belief to the topic at hand and thus has distortions himself, such negative emotions will raise a concern that there is something wrong in her, &lt;strong&gt;and it will be accurate&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, people can still disagree with each other, and have bias, and look stubborn in the eyes of the other. But at least even when they are defending their arguments, they can still assume a chance that it's not true. They just don't see how it's not true. If they are challenged, then they still try to giving reasons why they think that. This is another kind of emotion, which isn't as negative as above, and it will still be accurately perceived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The only exception that I can find is that Megan's problem triggers Cueball's past experience. &lt;strong&gt;Otherwise, if Cueball can keep his calmness and ask &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_questioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Socratic questions&lt;/a&gt;, then I don't get why he would have distortions.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why can't emotion perception &amp;quot;win&amp;quot; our own belief and judge the situation accurately?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Summary and note&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question doesn't ask how to combat distortions, but just asks why distortions happen at the first place. It bases on two premises:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cueball uses Socratic questioning technique&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Emotion perception is accurate and independent with his existing belief&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way to combat distortion once it happens, as how I understand &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/24936/12937&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;, is to take note.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-02-28T07:33:37.787" Title="Why can't emotion perception &quot;win&quot; our own belief and bias to judge the situation accurately?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;&lt;cognitive-distortion&gt;&lt;emotion-perception&gt;&lt;belief&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24978" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-29T14:57:41.133" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Foreword: Perhaps this question is better suited for statistics.stackexchange.com, but I'm deeply interested in studying about both the living thing and the statistics side of things.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Everything in this universe that has surviving and procreation as some of its goals, given finite resources, operates within a competitive system. As such, one is rewarded for doing well, as well as punished for doing badly. Ane extreme proof of this system is the savanah, where faster(?) gazelles can outrun lions so that they can continue existing &amp;amp; procreating and the slower ones get eaten.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, then, is there any literature that studies the fitness of individuals inside systems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assume we built a model &lt;code&gt;StocksTraderFitness&lt;/code&gt; and based on only assumptions at the very start, we tell the model about 4 qualities it should look at and their importance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;level-headed =&amp;gt; 1.3&#xA;does well under stress =&amp;gt; 1.7&#xA;is good with maths = 1&#xA;loves risk = 1.3&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We then create 1000 &lt;code&gt;StockTraders&lt;/code&gt; and we let them out inside the system, based on a &lt;code&gt;FitnessFunction&lt;/code&gt;, we keep calculating how they are doing and once we reach an observable good spot, we try to see whether or not our model was good and &lt;strong&gt;if these weights of importance don't match these of the winners', we re-adjust our model,&lt;/strong&gt; or even better yet, we observe new qualities we hadn't even thought about through pattern recognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there literature or a field that studies this in the context of living things?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Side note, perhaps it helps with an answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My original, actual intent with reading on this is that I believe &lt;strong&gt;fitness is akin to what we popularly call intelligence: you do well in the systems you believe are meaningful to you, therefore you are intelligent&lt;/strong&gt; and the study of discrepancies between humans' personal care about these systems. I had an argument with my grandmother when I was 12 and it made me realize that she's wrong in my system (in a way that I can also test &amp;amp; prove), but she's right inside her's (that she can also test &amp;amp; prove), simply because we are humans, it doesn't mean we submit or attribute importance to every system put in front of us and as such, biases are formed, which leads me to think that the current world-view, perhaps hindered by popular media of the bias is that it's evil, when in fact, it's a core building block of ours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24968" LastActivityDate="2020-03-30T21:01:02.110" Title="What is the field that deals with observing an individual's fitness within a system called?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;performance&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24978" CreationDate="2020-02-29T20:48:19.913" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The study of physiological fitness is simply evolutionary biology. The study of animal behavior and how it evolved is ethology. John Maynard Smith was one of the first to apply mathematical modeling, especially game theory, to the evolution of species. It is now a well-established field (see for example the wikipedia page for evolutionary game theory). But other mathematical frameworks, such as dynamical systems, have been applied to the question.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The precise algorithm you describe is called an evolutionary algorithm and is a well-known, well-studied subclass of optimization algorithms that are loosely inspired by biological systems (e.g. genetic algorithm, particle swarm algorithm...). These algorithms are useful when trying to optimize a high-dimensional and/or highly non-linear function.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_algorithm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_algorithm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your side note I think you didn't think this through very carefully. Firstly you are now talking about behavior, not physiology. It is far less clear how behaviors are shaped by evolution. Then you describe how an observer would attribute value to an environment, while fitness is precisely the opposite. Finally there is no notion of &quot;value&quot; in evolution. You might be fit in one environment, but not in another. It doesn't make you any better or worse. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-02-29T20:48:19.913" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24982" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24973" CreationDate="2020-02-29T21:05:16.210" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are multiple ways to trigger eyeblinks:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Typically in scientific research an air puff is used.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Anything that touches the cornea.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Loud noises.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bright lights.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Looming stimuli (i.e. something that is or looks like it is approaching fast).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;More broadly anything that is unexpected and triggers a sense of danger.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in short it is possible to visually trigger blinks but as far as I know not anything that would be an agreeable experience to the observer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-02-29T21:05:16.210" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24983" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24960" CreationDate="2020-02-29T21:56:27.087" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suspect this is related to distance perception and size constancy. The retinal size of an object (the actual projection of the object on your retina) decreases with 1/distance. However your visual system is compensating for this effect, which is called size constancy. For example if you put one thumb at arm length (~60cm) in front of you and another at half that distance, they will appear roughly the same size, the farther one a little smaller, while it is actually half the size of the closer one. Similarly when you look at yourself in a mirror, your face seems regular size. Next time your are in front of a mirror with condensation, draw the contour of your face in the condensation. You'll be surprised by how small it actually is. Your visual system uses distance cues to perceptually &quot;rescale&quot; objects so that they appear closer to their real size, and not just the size they have on the retina. This is the basis of illusions such as the corridor illusion or Ames' room.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bLB1I.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bLB1I.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames_room&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames_room&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To go back to your question, when looking at the keyboard through the wrapper you basically eliminate all distance cues (binocular vision, perspective...). Now in an uncontrolled experiment using uncontrolled stimuli it is a bit hard to predict what will happen perceptually, but you can assume that you'll reduce the amount of perceptual constancy and objects will appear smaller (closer to their retinal size), which seems in agreement with your observations. Why does one of your friend perceive it as larger? A similar phenomenon occurs with prisms. With prisms you artificially increase or decrease vergence angle, a cue for distance perception, while preserving the retinal size of an object. Consequently objects appear larger when you decrease vergence (because an object that would elicit the same retinal size but is farther would actually be bigger), or smaller when increase it. However is small subset of the population report perceiving the opposite effect, and as far as I know no one has provided a good explanation of why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Picture from: Gibson, J. J. (1966). The senses considered as perceptual systems. pp 315.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-02-29T21:56:27.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24984" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-02-29T11:50:28.007" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several articles I've found which seem to anecdotally back up the suggestion that waking up slowly is better than waking up abruptly, in terms of combatting sleep inertia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nbcnews.com/better/pop-culture/make-your-day-better-stay-bed-longer-really-ncna837176&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nbcnews.com/better/pop-culture/make-your-day-better-stay-bed-longer-really-ncna837176&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://qz.com/1301170/sleep-inertia-explains-why-you-feel-so-groggy-when-you-wake-up/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://qz.com/1301170/sleep-inertia-explains-why-you-feel-so-groggy-when-you-wake-up/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brightontheday.com/4-benefits-of-waking-up-slowly-and-how-to-actually-do-it/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.brightontheday.com/4-benefits-of-waking-up-slowly-and-how-to-actually-do-it/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I want to know if there have been any studies conducted which directly compared the effects on sleep inertia of waking up slowly and mindfully vs. swiftly and energetically. I wasn't able to find any through Google Scholar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6425" OwnerDisplayName="Lou" LastActivityDate="2020-02-29T22:52:40.767" Title="Is there research evidence to suggest that waking up slowly is more beneficial than waking up abruptly?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24986" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24943" CreationDate="2020-03-01T23:52:25.917" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_measure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_measure&lt;/a&gt; states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosine_similarity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cosine similarity&lt;/a&gt; is a commonly used similarity measure for real-valued vectors, used in (among other fields) information retrieval to score the similarity of documents in the vector space model. In machine learning, common kernel functions such as the RBF kernel can be viewed as similarity functions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also see: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congruence_coefficient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Congruence coefficient&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other measures: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_distance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Euclidean distance&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25367" LastActivityDate="2020-03-01T23:52:25.917" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24987" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-02T16:19:41.950" Score="0" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the strength of the correlation between IQ and intelligence where by intelligence I mean the &quot;performance of brain&quot; - the general efficiency of solving mental tasks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2020-03-02T16:19:41.950" Title="How strongly does IQ correlate with intelligence as it's commonly understood?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24989" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-03T09:38:46.523" Score="2" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose I am doing the laundry while simultaneously taking out the trash, so am carrying a bag of dirty clothes in one hand and a bag of rubbish in the other.  I might be on autopilot where I lift up the lid of the garbage bin, throw my laundry into it and turn to walk away before then realising what I have done: thrown the wrong bag one into the bin i.e. &quot;right idea, wrong object&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that it's some sort of inattention effect that is studied in cognitive psychology, but can somebody tell me what the correct name for this phenomenon is? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;edit&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Dual-task interference is closer to the concept I'm looking for&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8172" LastEditorUserId="8172" LastEditDate="2020-03-12T19:26:22.167" LastActivityDate="2020-03-16T03:16:14.217" Title="What is the name of inattention/autopilot phenomenon that results in 'swapping out' errors" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;multi-tasking&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24991" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="24993" CreationDate="2020-03-04T22:05:14.647" Score="3" ViewCount="113" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I am composing a post and I am looking for a name of the behaviour among people that they start running when they see two or more people running in opposite direction sensing a potential threat or when two or more people are looking upwards, others also start looking upwards. Such phenomena is recorded in various funny videos compilations and I would like to know if there is any name of such phenomena or any description of such phenomena that I can refer to in the post?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25446" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-03-05T14:52:25.280" LastActivityDate="2020-03-06T18:41:20.407" Title="I am looking for the name of a phenomenon where people blindly follow others when they sense a threat" Tags="&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24993" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24991" CreationDate="2020-03-05T23:23:42.097" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_mentality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Herd mentality&lt;/a&gt; (aka mob mentality) involves people following others without (deliberate) thinking - ie, impulsively or blindly:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... describes how people can be influenced by their peers to adopt&#xA;  certain behaviors on a largely emotional, rather than rational, basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most experiments in herd mentality involve strangers.  There are other terms for non-impulsive behaviors (Wikipedia lists group intelligence, crowd wisdom, groupthink, deindividuation, and decentralized decision making).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is contrasted with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviour&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;swarm behavior&lt;/a&gt;.  Herd mentality usually refers to individuals conforming to or blindly following others, whereas swarm behavior does not involve individuals doing the same thing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... it is an emergent behaviour arising from simple rules that are&#xA;  followed by individuals and does not involve any central coordination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rather, in swarm behavior, individuals make different decisions depending on what others around them are doing, such as avoiding predators based on the reactions of others.  Confusingly, &quot;herding&quot; is swarm behavior (in insects it's called swarming; but fish school, birds flock, and mammals herd).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2020-03-06T18:41:20.407" LastActivityDate="2020-03-06T18:41:20.407" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24996" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-07T14:15:21.080" Score="0" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my collage , I need to submit an article on Genocides in Ancient World&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I collected many details and show to my guide &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But he requested me to add about the psychological feelings does a female have when spectating (partial)  genocide of her race &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let I explain in detail :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was a city in 1500 BC which was sacked by enemy army . The commander decided to kill the males and take females as slaves .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.The people of the city were gathered in a big ground.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2.The soldiers will dig a large pit before the gathered people&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3.The 10-20 soldiers with swords will stand on the edge of the pit in a single line side by side with 2 meters gap to each other .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;4.Each and every soldier have 20-30 persons standing in queue in front of them&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;5.All of the women , where gathered and sat down some meters away from the pit&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;7.Now , the a man standing in the first of the queue come forward and kneel down before the soldier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;8.The soldier will cut the head (beheading) of man and push the body and head into the pit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;9&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The women gathered watching them with tears and screams&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;10.This continues until all persons standing in the queue beheaded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now my question is , what are psychological feeling does the females experiences when they watching the beheading of their family and relatives  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need them in psychological terms , NOT simply anger , vengeance , sadness,pain  etc i.e not in  layman terms&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I am a History student , I can't get it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please explain me &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(sorry for Bad English)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21943" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-03-08T10:04:12.233" LastActivityDate="2020-03-08T10:04:12.233" Title="What feelings do women and girls have when seeing genocide of her race?" Tags="&lt;pain&gt;&lt;military-psychology&gt;&lt;trauma&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="24997" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-07T14:57:54.077" Score="3" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have zero background in psychology and healthcare. Recently I started to read health topics online by googling. I supposed one's health can be broadly categorised into genetic, physical, mental, emotion. Meanings for the first two seem pretty straight forward, but I'm confused with the differences between mental health and emotion health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below is one of the few websites that saying mental health and emotion health are not the same:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pyramidhealthcarepa.com/pyramid-healthcare-assessment-center/pfbh-assessment-center-blog/what-is-the-difference-between-mental-health-emotional-health&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.pyramidhealthcarepa.com/pyramid-healthcare-assessment-center/pfbh-assessment-center-blog/what-is-the-difference-between-mental-health-emotional-health&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Part of mental health is how well your mind processes and understands information and experiences. In contrast, emotional health involves your ability to manage and express the emotions that arise from what you have learned and experienced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, when searching examples of health issues for these two categories, results are substancially overlapping. For instance, depression is listed as an emotion health issue by many websites, but I could also find many other websites that categorise it under mental health issue. Appreciate if someone could shed the light on their differences and give some examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25460" LastActivityDate="2020-03-07T14:57:54.077" Title="Differences between mental health and emotion health" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25002" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="699" CreationDate="2020-03-08T02:00:42.370" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&quot;We are currently using Inquisit to conduct Internet experiments. Since it is not compatible with non-Windows systems&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As of this time, Inquisit runs on Windows, Mac, iOS, and Android devices for precision-timed psychological testing. It also integrates with Qualtrics, Sona, TurkPrime, and other online participant recruiting platforms. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It does still require that participants download the app, either from directly millisecond.com, the App Store, or the Google Play store.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Details available at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.millisecond.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.millisecond.com&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25468" LastEditorUserId="25468" LastEditDate="2020-03-10T21:10:18.117" LastActivityDate="2020-03-10T21:10:18.117" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25005" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-08T23:36:46.640" Score="1" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.unilad.co.uk/life/straight-people-dont-exist-finds-new-study/amp/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.unilad.co.uk/life/straight-people-dont-exist-finds-new-study/amp/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent studies show that the eyes dilate when people watch male and female porn in all men and women, regardless of their orientation, which indicates sexual arousal.&#xA;It turns out all the bisexuals.&#xA;But how are studies that say that sexual orientation is not a choice;&#xA;Many factors influence sexual orientation, such as: genes, hormones, culture.&#xA;Sexual orientation is very stable and is unlikely to change.&#xA;Statistics say 90% of the heterosexual population.&#xA;How can this be understood?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25474" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-03-13T09:01:28.250" LastActivityDate="2020-03-13T09:01:28.250" Title="Do straight people exist?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25007" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25005" CreationDate="2020-03-09T14:01:37.453" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article you link to mentions that the sample used in the research was women, there is a passing mention of males having slight pupil dilation when shown images of male masturbation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the data seems to point to something a bit more complicated, Levay (2017), explains that though women in this area of research typically show stronger signs of bisexuality, even contrary to what they report, men seem to fall into one of two categories, straight or gay, with bisexuality being rarer. It seems that to distinguish bisexual males from straight or gay males requires more careful studies and evaluation, pupil dilation is only one piece of the process.&#xA;Levay calls the distribution bimodal between the three categories for males, with straight being the heavier end while gay males are a smaller amount with bisexuality running trough between the former and latter. Levay reports that there are two types of bisexual males, ones that are bisexual as measured by objective measures and have personality factors such as higher sex drive, curiosity and sensation seeking and one that claims to be bisexual but has homosexual arousal patterns. The bisexual sample in one study mentioned seemed to be unaware that their arousal was homosexual, despite claims to be attracted to both sexes. Levay believes that there could be issues of cognitive dissonance in the bisexual sample. Levay suggests another possibility, that there is a lack of feedback due to neural circuits mediating genital arousal to cortical circuits involved in the conscious evaluation of arousal in bisexual males.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it seems that when it comes to bisexuality in males, there is a greater chance that they may actually be gay but have not fully reconciled any qualms they may have with their sexual preferences. Of course, Levay also mentions that the jury is still out on the issue of dissonance and further research can be done on the topic. This contradicts the information presented in the article you posted and shows that male preference is not as fluid as a female preference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&#xA;LeVay, Simon. Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation. , 2017. Print. &lt;a href=&quot;https://libgen.pw/item?id=1703978&amp;amp;adblock=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://libgen.pw/item?id=1703978&amp;amp;adblock=true&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24990" LastEditorUserId="24990" LastEditDate="2020-03-11T13:31:17.987" LastActivityDate="2020-03-11T13:31:17.987" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25009" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-09T17:56:26.930" Score="3" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I have been reviewing several articles related to psychopathy outside the forensic area and I have observed that a very popular questionnaire in a college setting is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathic_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychopathic Personality Inventory&lt;/a&gt;(PPI). So far I have not been able to find this questionnaire explicitly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand, the questionnaire was developed in this paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263105409_Psychopathic_Personality_Traits_and_Somatization_Sex_Differences_and_the_Mediating_Role_of_Negative_Emotionality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychopathic Personality Traits and Somatization: Sex Differences and the Mediating Role of Negative Emotionality&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;by Scott O. Lilienfeld and Tanya H. Hess, 2001.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if you could tell me where I can find the questionnaire?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would appreciate it very much, thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Levenson, M. R., Kiehl, K. A., &amp;amp; Fitzpatrick, C. M. (1995). Assessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population. Journal of personality and social psychology, 68(1), 151. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.1.151&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.1.151&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user25482" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditorDisplayName="user25482" LastEditDate="2020-09-08T12:49:16.083" LastActivityDate="2020-09-08T12:49:16.083" Title="Short form of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory questionnaire" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25010" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="678" CreationDate="2020-03-09T18:44:13.067" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335585543_Are_Prisoners_More_Psychopathic_than_Non-forensic_Populations_Profiling_Psychopathic_Traits_among_Prisoners_Community_Adults_University_Students_and_Adolescents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Are Prisoners More Psychopathic than Nonforensic&#xA;Populations? Profiling Psychopathic Traits&#xA;among Prisoners, Community Adults, University&#xA;Students, and Adolescents&lt;/a&gt; by&#xA;Daniel Boduszek, Agata Debowska, Nicole Sherretts, Dominic Willmott, Mike&#xA;Boulton, Krzysztof Kielkiewicz, Katarzyna Popiolek &amp;amp; Philip Hylandpaper, paper, I found&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;Psychopatic personality traits scale&lt;/strong&gt; (PPTS; Boduszek et al. 2016a) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;is a personality-based self-reported 20-item measure designed to assess&#xA;  psychopathic traits in forensic and non-forensic populations. The scale was developed to measure&#xA;  four factors labeled affective responsiveness, cognitive responsiveness, interpersonal manipulation,&#xA;  and egocentricity. Each subscale consists of five items measured using “agree” (1) and “disagree” (0)&#xA;  format (i.e., a trait is either present or absent). Total scale scores range from 0 to 20, whereas&#xA;  subscale scores range from 0 to 5. Higher scores indicate increased levels of psychopathic personality&#xA;  traits (i.e., increased egocentricity and interpersonal manipulation and increased deficits in affective&#xA;  and cognitive responsiveness).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can find the questionnaire, among other cool things :), in this paper&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292881843_Introduction_and_validation_of_Psychopathic_Personality_Traits_Scale_PPTS_in_a_large_prison_sample&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Introduction and validation of Psychopathic Personality Traits Scale (PPTS) in a large prison sample&lt;/a&gt; by Daniel Boduszek, Agata Debowska, Katie Dhingra, Matt DeLisi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the questionnaire&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bxC0E.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bxC0E.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user25482" LastEditorDisplayName="user25482" LastEditDate="2020-03-09T21:06:24.940" LastActivityDate="2020-03-09T21:06:24.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25011" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21022" CreationDate="2020-03-09T19:35:01.033" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have also read a lot of definitions of psychopathy and I've never found them contradictory, quite the opposite. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You could take the oldest(?) one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Psychopathy has been classically described as a severe personality&#xA;  disorder and a unitary construct associated with a variety&#xA;  of affective, behavioral and interpersonal impairments&#xA;  (Cleckley 1941).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding this last part of your question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;It seems like a blanket term for everything that's considered &quot;evil&quot; by society, but doesn't seem like a real mental disorder.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, they have lot of &quot;evil&quot; traits but some of them also have &quot;non evil&quot; traits. For instance:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;leadership, logical thinking, composure, creativity, fearlessness, money smart, focus, extroversion and management; and could contribute to a positive adjustment within a set environment (&lt;em&gt;The Durand adaptative psychopathic traits questionnaire: Development and validation&lt;/em&gt;,  2017)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Block Quotes above are from this paper&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335731815_Adaptive_psychopathic_traits_Positive_outcomes_in_a_college_student_sample&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adaptive psychopathic traits: Positive outcomes in a college&#xA;student sample&lt;/a&gt; by&#xA;Jonathan Bronchain, Henri Chabrol, Patrick Raynal&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user25482" LastEditorDisplayName="user25482" LastEditDate="2020-03-09T21:03:05.627" LastActivityDate="2020-03-09T21:03:05.627" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25012" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-09T20:03:33.730" Score="1" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the approximate average duration of a DSM-V structured clinical interview for diagnosing winter depression? I would be very grateful for the answer!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25484" LastActivityDate="2020-03-09T20:03:33.730" Title="What is the approximate average duration of a SCID-5 interview for diagnosing winter depression?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;dsm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25014" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-09T22:13:41.000" Score="0" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's said that men in general die from suicide about 3 times more than women, but women make about 3 times more attempts than men. So, men have around 9 times more mortality per attempt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some sources for this claim are the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellmind.com/gender-differences-in-suicide-methods-1067508&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Differences in Suicide Among Men and Women&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gender differences in suicide&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the main reasons that could explain this difference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-03-09T22:30:21.280" LastActivityDate="2020-03-09T22:30:21.280" Title="What explains the contrast in suicide mortality versus attempts between men and women?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25017" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-10T16:14:02.933" Score="0" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the Lolita movie, when Humbert was 14 years old he had a relationship with a 14-year-old girl, but then she gets sick and dies, and this marks him for life, because we see that even at 50 he still has preferences towards teens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is this called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally,&#xA;What is the name of the condition in which a person loses another person with whom they were in love and thanks to this they try to find another person who reminds them of that lost person for the rest of their lives?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are there people to whom this happens?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do they have in their brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user25482" LastActivityDate="2020-03-10T16:14:02.933" Title="What is the name of the condition of Humbert towards Lolita?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25018" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-11T08:04:26.947" Score="1" ViewCount="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider the image shown below&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FJYC1.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FJYC1.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any studies that look at how the viewer's response to such images - simple monocolor outline symbols - varies depending on their mood.  For instance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tense and agitated viewer responds best to red wine glass&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Relaxed viewer responds best to blue wine glass&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Happy user responds best to green wine glass&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19016" LastActivityDate="2020-03-11T08:04:26.947" Title="Correlations between symbol color, viewer response and viewer mood" Tags="&lt;color&gt;&lt;mood&gt;&lt;imagery&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25021" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-11T13:14:32.710" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came across a &lt;em&gt;magic&lt;/em&gt; trick on &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/rmVz9dsMWNU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;YouTube&lt;/a&gt; that made me curious (starting from 10m15s). Maybe it has something to do with synesthesia? But let me first describe the trick in short.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It involves two persons. One from the audience and of course the magician itself. The magician holds a card with a pyramide of numbers on it, like this: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;    5&#xA;   5 5&#xA;  5 5 5&#xA; 5 5 5 5&#xA;5 5 5 5 5&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then the magician asks the person to read out loud the numbers several times (five, fifty five, ...). The magician informs the person beforehand, that he is going to ask a question later on. And that he wants the person to answer it right away. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then after a minute or so, the magician asks: &quot;Think of a vegetable and tell me it's name&quot;. According to this trick there is a 70% chance that the person answers &lt;em&gt;carrot&lt;/em&gt;. And the second most given answer is &lt;em&gt;tomato&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, why is that? The magician explains this with a neurological coherence between numbers and colors. Would that be some form of &lt;em&gt;mild&lt;/em&gt; synesthesia that a lot of perople have? So that (statistically seen) the neurological representation of number is similar to the perception of a specific color?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please bear with me, I am total laymen on this topics!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25499" LastActivityDate="2020-04-30T00:02:50.277" Title="Neurologic coherence between numbers and colors?" Tags="&lt;color&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25025" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-12T02:16:13.813" Score="0" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently working on research analysing yes/no responses in a recognition memory task. The false alarm rate is quite high so I have performed a d-prime test and collected d-prime values. Now that I have these d-prime values I do not know how to analyse/report these findings as I have a d-prime value for each individual participant. Some papers show a comparison using an ANOVA but I do not know how to conduct this comparison with the d-prime data or if this is what I should be doing, should I be using the mean of my d-prime values? How should I go about reporting my d-prime results?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25504" LastActivityDate="2021-04-06T09:02:55.307" Title="Reporting d-prime results" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;analysis&gt;&lt;task-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25026" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25025" CreationDate="2020-03-12T06:12:54.247" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;d-prime values are usually fairly well normally-distributed. So you can use any parametric test relying on the normality assumption (in facts you should always z-transform fractions before to use a parametric test on them). If you have only 2 conditions you can use a classical t-test. From your question it seems you have only 1 value per participants so that would probably be an independent t-test. If you have more than 1 comparison an ANOVA would be the typical test to use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For reporting results it is a bit tricky. d-primes are not that intuitive for people. So you might want to report fraction correct in the text, but run your tests on d-primes. For the same reason you might want to plot your results as fractions. Below is an example of wording (but refer to a statistical textbook for conducting and reporting statistical tests). Note that it is fine to report means and standard deviations of fractions. However parametric tests should always be conducted on z-scores. I know people use fractions in tests all the time but it is &lt;strong&gt;wrong&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The mean recognition rate increased from NN% to NN% between the conditions ... and ..., for a mean improvement of NN ± NN% (SE). This difference was significant in an independent t-test on z-transformed recognition rates: t(N)=N, p&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-03-12T06:12:54.247" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25028" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-12T08:34:14.997" Score="1" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;How a series of physical and chemical events leads to a very non physical/ intangible perception? For example, let's say a certain wavelength of light falls on the retina of my eyes, then the sensory cells convert that into electrical signals that go to the brain through optic nerves and there it leads to a series of chemical activities that makes us perceive a  certain colour, say red. But there is no such thing as red or blue or green or yellow or anything else outside of our brains. These perception of colours or perceptions in general aren't absolute, they don't exist without us. Heck, we can't even know that how i perceive red is same as how others perceive red. &lt;strong&gt;So, how do we perceive a sensation?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;What are our perceptions?&lt;/strong&gt;  Can it be even explained by science? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25509" LastActivityDate="2020-03-12T08:34:14.997" Title="How a living being (a huge collection of atoms) perceive things?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2020-03-12T17:47:57.850" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25031" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-12T12:45:29.970" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3466464/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hayes, et al. (2012)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Some researchers have suggested that patients with PTSD have an&#xA;  enhanced ability to forget information, which may explain amnesia for&#xA;  important details of their traumatic event. This idea, mainly evolving&#xA;  out of the child sexual abuse literature, suggests that repeat trauma&#xA;  survivors with PTSD cope during their trauma by dissociating from&#xA;  their surroundings and disengaging attention from the event, sometimes&#xA;  leading to amnesia for large stretches of time (Terr, 1991). &lt;strong&gt;This&#xA;  avoidant coping style may manifest in adulthood by increased ability&#xA;  to forget new information presented in an experimental setting&#xA;  (McNally et al., 1998).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Suppressing bad memories from the past can block memory formation in the here and now, research suggests. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/mar/15/suppressing-traumatic-memories-can-cause-amnesia-research-suggests&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: This question appears to be asking for people who want to explain their experiences with patients as well as providing extra information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think one's courage is strongly related with remembering crucial parts of life that &lt;em&gt;does&lt;/em&gt; matter, I think, and remembering is, in fact part of memory and a thousand of processes that influence that. If you can't remember yourself good things because you used to suppress traumatic memories in the past, you will get struck in your void and the bad happenings and this automatically predicts what situations you will face in future to include careless actions and taking unwanted risks. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(no cites to official documents)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question: Patients have a coping style to forget bad memories as well as good memories fast, but does this explain the functioning of the courage system, in other words can memory influence courage in patients with PTSD?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my conclusion is, if memory gets trained intense, only then courage will build up and related symptoms such as anxiety, annoyance will disappear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Definitions:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;courage:&lt;/strong&gt; the quality of mind or spirit that enables a person to face difficulty, danger, pain, etc., without fear; bravery.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;courage system:&lt;/strong&gt; in fact, this is the biochemical system that produces chemicals and processes in the brain that keeps us motivated.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;intense training for memory:&lt;/strong&gt; techniques whereby memory is trained to do tasks that are trivial for daily life. This can be done by a therapist, neurofeedback or individual training with online resources. However I'm not sure how well memory plays a role here, that's my question.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;annoyance&lt;/strong&gt;: a person or thing that annoys; nuisance.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hayes, J. P., VanElzakker, M. B., &amp;amp; Shin, L. M. (2012). Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. &lt;em&gt;Frontiers in integrative neuroscience, 6&lt;/em&gt;, 89. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2012.00089&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.3389/fnint.2012.00089&lt;/a&gt; pmcid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3466464/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC3466464&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McNally, R. J., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Clancy, S. A., &amp;amp; Pitman, R. K. (1998). Directed forgetting of trauma cues in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. &lt;em&gt;Journal of abnormal psychology, 107&lt;/em&gt;(4), 596. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.107.4.596&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/0021-843X.107.4.596&lt;/a&gt; pmid: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9830247&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;9830247&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Terr, L. C. (1991). Childhood traumas: an outline and overview. &lt;em&gt;The American journal of psychiatry, 148&lt;/em&gt;(1), 10-20. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.148.1.10&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1176/ajp.148.1.10&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25512" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-03-16T07:36:16.290" LastActivityDate="2020-03-16T07:36:16.290" Title="Does PTSD related courage (coping mechanisms) run parallel with bad memory in patients?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ClosedDate="2020-03-13T16:34:25.357" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25032" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-12T14:30:18.750" Score="6" ViewCount="134" Body="&lt;p&gt;The well known Dunning-Kruger effect is oft cited as a general explanation for why people with limited expertise overestimate their abilities. Other than the &lt;a href=&quot;https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=A501D141B334D49F8CE2492CC3A91A28?doi=10.1.1.64.2655&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;initial research&lt;/a&gt; that described this cognitive bias, there seems to be little actual data to support it outside of a sit-down questionnaire or IQ test in a university setting. Driving is a well-known example (i.e. '80% of drivers consider themselves above average') although I note from &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/55/what-is-the-relationship-between-self-perceptions-and-actual-driving-ability&quot;&gt;a previous post&lt;/a&gt;, the evidence for the Dunning-Kruger effect in driving is mixed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any data to support the Dunning-Kruger in outside of a sit-down test performed by university students?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25513" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-02-09T06:53:40.643" LastActivityDate="2021-02-09T06:53:40.643" Title="Is there evidence to support the Dunning-Kruger effect?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25037" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-15T14:08:09.613" Score="2" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to see if there is a term for someone that assumes because they have some level of expertise in a given field, they refused to listen to others (who do not have similar pedigrees) who have input on the assumption their lack of experience makes the input irrelevant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is see there is a term 'curse of knowledge' where one assumes others have the 'same' knowledge (which would be one form of opposite of this) and another Zen term 'Shoshin' that means open minded and willing to accept input from any/many/all sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I'm referring to someone who has been biased by their own field and the perceived image of their own expertise in that field and thus will not listen to anyone 'outside' their expertise regardless of the quality or nature of the input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a manner of speaking, it would also be antithetical to Dunn &amp;amp; Kruger effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25531" LastActivityDate="2020-07-05T14:49:16.550" Title="What is the opposite of 'curse of knowledge' or reverse of Zen 'Shoshin'?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25041" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-16T03:04:47.343" Score="2" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;This sort of dovetails off a question I asked on the AI Exchange: &lt;a href=&quot;https://ai.stackexchange.com/questions/12953/is-there-a-need-for-stochastic-inputs-to-mimic-real-world-biology-and-environmen/13005#13005&quot;&gt;Is There A Need For Stochastic Inputs To Mimic Real-World Biology And Environment?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I figured this site would give more insight on what I'm trying to accomplish neurologically/biologically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is this: in order for artificial intelligence to more accurately simulate consciousness, bodily processes that may influence thoughts, and more complex response to stimuli that may not always be deterministic, would a new library similar to TensorFlow or PyTorch be necessary, or are these libraries sufficient enough?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper actually used FFNN to accomplish hunger/satiety: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4936290/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4936290/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would a new math be required, such as linear-time logic or fuzzy logic that would be better implemented in a completely new software library? Perhaps used in-tandem with something like TensorFlow, in order to reproduce the variations in feelings like hunger or random thoughts and creative inspiration?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I'm thinking of an application similar to a tensor field, where over time a mood (happy/sad/angry) could be (literally) bit-by-bit changed, affecting surrounding tensors in a stochastic way, but it may not lead to a full mood swing at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I focused too specifically on a software library to accomplish the &lt;em&gt;features&lt;/em&gt; of consciousness/moods/thoughts rather than the holistic Holy Grail everyone is chasing of accomplishing AI consciousness and artificial general intelligence? I was thinking of starting this as an open source software project but I may be on a wild goose chase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25537" LastActivityDate="2020-03-16T03:04:47.343" Title="Is a New Software Library to Simulate Natural Processes like Hunger Needed?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25042" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24989" CreationDate="2020-03-16T03:16:14.217" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect#Automaticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stroop Effect&lt;/a&gt; is more for rapid-fire tasks and task switching.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious_thought_theory#The_deliberation-without-attention_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Unconscious Thought Theory&lt;/a&gt; may be related.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Absent-mindedness can lead to automatic behaviors or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatisms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;automatisms&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Highway hypnosis is similar, where you don't remember the task you've done even though it's correct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise, making a mistake due to habit/habituation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25537" LastActivityDate="2020-03-16T03:16:14.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25046" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25048" CreationDate="2020-03-18T22:18:28.960" Score="1" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I find that if you tell someone to give you &lt;code&gt;20$&lt;/code&gt; vs. giving you &lt;code&gt;1$&lt;/code&gt; everyday for 20 days - people react differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly humans have a hard time comprehending the fact that small changes in their behaviour everyday may eventually lead to big consequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25551" LastEditorUserId="25551" LastEditDate="2020-03-22T13:04:19.913" LastActivityDate="2020-03-22T13:04:19.913" Title="Humans don't understand the accumulation of small numbers - what is this phenomena called?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25047" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-20T00:21:44.747" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;This questions is around my observation of my own behavioral pattern. I am quite good at avoiding junk foods on some days and on others, I am miserably fail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have some mild clinical depression and anxiety, and so I have good &amp;amp; bad days in that context too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On bad days(depression or anxiety), I crave for junk food especially sugar(sometimes booze &amp;amp; smoke too). I am usually able to keep myself off of them for a couple of hours, I employ various techniques like taking a walk, eating veggies, meditating but even after hours, when urge do not go away, I finally give up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The way I give up is quite interesting too, I just eat fast or do so in a fashion that I won't let me think about it or put an argument against it. It feels like my mind is hijacked or possessed and the worst thing is I end up eating twice(or much more) of what might have satisfied me on a normal day e.g. 10 cookies instead 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I believe the problem is not only about resisting the urge but resisting it for long enough like a day without adding any more intensity to it(longer I resist and stronger they get).&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any advice is much appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21780" LastActivityDate="2020-03-20T19:48:11.503" Title="What are some methods to manage a constant &amp; persistent temptation or urge towards a bad habit like smoking, eating junk food?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;&lt;self-discipline&gt;&lt;willpower&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2020-03-20T19:54:40.977" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25048" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25046" CreationDate="2020-03-20T01:24:44.667" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans have loads of cognitive biases. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The one you have in mind could either be so called 'denomination effect', the tendency to care about large currency denominations and be less careful with smaller currency denominations. For example, not to care about the .99 part in a US 9.99 price tag.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It could also be the less-is-better effect. Small amounts of something are preferred than one big lump-sum. For example, buying something in 10 installments of US 110 is chosen instead of one scary US 1000 price tag.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3354" LastEditorUserId="3354" LastEditDate="2020-03-20T01:38:48.617" LastActivityDate="2020-03-20T01:38:48.617" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25051" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25085" CreationDate="2020-03-20T18:04:01.863" Score="4" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ok, I am not going to fuss around the issue. The question is simple, but the internet is oozing with self-proclaimed behavioral scientists answering the question and it's hard to find a good, scientific answer to the query, so here goes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are the toilet paper shelves out of stock around the world?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of articles on the internet seem to lead back and quote &lt;a href=&quot;http://theconversation.com/theres-plenty-of-toilet-paper-so-why-are-people-hoarding-it-133300&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article from &quot;The Conversation&quot;&lt;/a&gt;. Their slogan is &quot;Academic rigour, journalistic flair&quot;, but I don't know the site and so what do you think of it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25560" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2020-03-28T02:49:02.887" LastActivityDate="2020-03-30T03:31:19.520" Title="Why is toilet paper out of stock around the world during the coronavirus outbreak?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25058" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25931" CreationDate="2020-03-21T22:49:18.933" Score="5" ViewCount="421" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone be healed from a long-held addiction or compulsive disorder in an instant due to a dramatic spiritual experience and without therapy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is motivated by multiple conversion testimonies in which people claim to have had dramatic life-changing spiritual &amp;quot;encounters&amp;quot; or experiences that put an immediate end to behavioural addictions, substance addictions, mental health issues, among others. For illustrative purposes, I'm sharing below two conversion testimonies that I find quite impressive and don't know how to explain from a psychological point of view, and therefore I believe they can be interesting case studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Testimony 1&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/hyHAFvPn-ik?t=948&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;From Atheist To Believer In Jesus Christ - How Jesus Cured My Eating Disorder - Christian Testimony&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This testimony has many details, but I want to focus here on the eating disorder aspect of it (from 15:47 to 23:34), and the experience this girl had that made her free in a matter of seconds. This girl had been suffering from bulimia and anorexia for 4 years, with multiple failed attempts to quit the behaviour up to that point. According to her testimony, in December of 2017 she was throwing up in the bathroom, she was feeling impotent, hopeless and desperate. In the midst of this, she had the sudden occurrence to mentally cry out &amp;quot;Jesus&amp;quot; and immediately, in a matter of seconds, a feeling of immense love and peace overwhelmed her. But most astonishingly, as a result of this overwhelming emotional experience, her 4 year bondage to bulimia and anorexia immediately stopped. According to her testimony, the experience happened 2 years prior to the recording of the video, and she has never relapsed or even had the desire to ever since.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She devotes a good part of the video to describe in great detail her bathroom experience. She employs an interesting analogy to help the audience understand her experience: she references her maternal love for her 5 year old son as a strong baseline, and then claims that the sense of love that overwhelmed her in the bathroom greatly surpasses it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find this testimony impressive. There are 2 aspects about this testimony that intrigue me a lot:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This lady experienced an emotional transition from deep despair to immense peace and love in just seconds. How is this possible?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Not only that, but also as a result of this experience she was completely healed from bulimia and anorexia, despite suffering these eating disorders for 4 years and numerous failed attempts to quit up to that point.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Testimony 2&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4ZFhNIKjYPw?t=1657&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MY TESTIMONY: JESUS SAVED ME FROM DEMONS, ATHEISM, SEVERE DEPRESSION &amp;amp; MORE!!&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This testimony describes a somewhat similar experience to the first one. In short: a woman tells that for decades she used to deal with severe depression, strong anger and hatred issues, porn addiction and compulsive stealing. She also mentions that she used to be a lesbian, and for many years experienced sleep paralysis &amp;quot;attacks&amp;quot; at night and felt &amp;quot;evil presences&amp;quot; during these episodes. According to her testimony, one night she had a sleep paralysis &amp;quot;attack&amp;quot; but with an unprecedented level of intensity. In similar fashion to the previous testimony, she cried out &amp;quot;Jesus, save me&amp;quot; a couple times, she broke down emotionally, cried for 1 hour, and afterwards she began to experience a sudden deliverance from all her addictions and mental health issues, without ever relapsing again. This experience is narrated from 27:37 to 33:41 in the video.  And there is more. At &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4ZFhNIKjYPw?t=2561&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;42:41&lt;/a&gt; she tells that she changed so dramatically that her attraction to women also stopped, she stopped being a lesbian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find this second testimony incredible. She had a very intense sleep paralysis &amp;quot;attack&amp;quot;, in desperation she cried out for help, then she broke down emotionally and cried for 1 hour, and afterwards all her addictions and mental health issues stopped. And she also stopped being a lesbian. I just don't know how to express my perplexity and puzzlement at this testimony.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I'm really intrigued to know a psychological explanation for these testimonies. I imagine that if we could learn how to tap into the power of our minds to suddenly turn our emotions into peace and love (like in the first testimony) or experience a strong emotional catharsis (like in the second testimony) to free ourselves from years of addictions and unhealthy compulsive disorders in a matter of seconds, that would just revolutionize therapy and addiction recovery programs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what is really going on psychologically in these testimonies? Do these experiences have a name? How is it possible for a person to suddenly be free from years of addiction or compulsive habits or mental health issues in a matter of seconds, without therapy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25376" LastEditorUserId="25376" LastEditDate="2021-04-18T12:58:05.697" LastActivityDate="2021-04-18T12:58:05.697" Title="Can someone be healed from a long-held addiction or compulsive disorder in an instant and without therapy due to a dramatic spiritual experience?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;spirituality&gt;&lt;compulsive&gt;&lt;eating-disorders&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25060" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-22T11:40:14.243" Score="0" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;The experience obtained by Jaunting while being conscious is clearly impossible to attain in real life (if you don't know what I'm talking about, you can ignore this sentence). However, someone posted in great detail about experiencing a long life while being knocked unconscious for a few minutes: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/oc7rc/have_you_ever_felt_a_deep_personal_connection_to/?utm_source=amp&amp;amp;utm_medium=&amp;amp;utm_content=comments_view_all&amp;amp;sort=top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/oc7rc/have_you_ever_felt_a_deep_personal_connection_to/?utm_source=amp&amp;amp;utm_medium=&amp;amp;utm_content=comments_view_all&amp;amp;sort=top&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given how multiple people have described similar experiences and the probability that all of them are lying is slim (it would take a great deal of effort all for a tiny reward (or nothing at all for the people who simply sent a private message to the original poster (you could not get anything from sending a direct message to a throwaway account about how you experienced the same thing, especially considering that the sender would not expect the original poster to mention to everyone else that they heard about similar experiences through PMs) sharing similar experiences) for multiple independent people to make up a whole story about such an event), I will assume the storyteller is telling the truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does information theory have anything to say about how detailed or how long such visions can be? In this case, we can say for simplicity that the person was out for 10 minutes and experienced 10 years for a dilation factor of &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$5 \cdot 10^5.$&lt;/span&gt; If we assume that the mind cannot simulate anything more detailed than reality, with detail depending on some version of Kolomogorov complexity, this means that his imagination could have been at most &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$2 \cdot 10^{-6}$&lt;/span&gt; as detailed. This seems surprising given that the only inaccuracy the poster complained about during his imaginary lifetime was that a lamp had the wrong perspective. Furthermore, surely the ability to use language and perceive concepts such as marriage, work, children, eating, bathrooms and whatever else was mentioned would take up more than 2 millionths of the brain's ability. Even realizing the incorrectness of the lamp must've taken significant mental processing. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My best guess as to how this may happen at all is that the &quot;boring&quot; parts of those 10 years are extremely compressed and entire months are cut out. If someone ever described something like checking the calendar thousands of times, being stuck in traffic for ages, or performing a dull repetitive action hundreds of times in a dream, I would be even more bewildered as to how they could've imagined all they did in such a short time. On the extreme end of actions which take up the entire mind and cannot be sped through, one mathematician (who probably had no reason to lie) talked about an idea in detail coming to him from a dead colleague in a dream, whereupon he used that idea to finish a paper and then mentioned the occurrence in that paper. If the same idea came to him while conscious, it might have occupied his entire mind for a minute or so. But this happened during a dream lasting at least a few hours, so we don't get any contradiction from the information theoretic viewpoint. Do we have any explanations for how visions occupying entire decades in the span of mere minutes do not contradict information theory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/oc7rc/have_you_ever_felt_a_deep_personal_connection_to/?utm_source=amp&amp;amp;utm_medium=&amp;amp;utm_content=comments_view_all&amp;amp;sort=top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/oc7rc/have_you_ever_felt_a_deep_personal_connection_to/?utm_source=amp&amp;amp;utm_medium=&amp;amp;utm_content=comments_view_all&amp;amp;sort=top&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: If you believe I am misusing information theory, that what I am using to analyze these stories is not remotely related to information theory, or that this does not belong on Psychology SE, please speak up and inform me of what details I should add and/or another SE to post this to. I prefer constructive criticism and feedback to silent downvotes, and recognize that there may not be enough standard psychology in this post to satisfy some people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25574" LastActivityDate="2020-03-22T11:40:14.243" Title="Does information theory allow for extremely distorted mental time perception?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25063" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25086" CreationDate="2020-03-23T05:41:53.590" Score="0" ViewCount="494" Body="&lt;p&gt;For people without DID, dream experiences include having other characters in one's dreams behave in ways one &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/dream-catcher/201608/non-self-characters-in-lucid-dreams&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;can't predict or control&lt;/a&gt;, sometimes there can be a &quot;switch&quot; into lucid dreaming where more control can be exhibited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since people with DID already have &lt;em&gt;alters&lt;/em&gt; in waking life (ie, identities the &lt;em&gt;host&lt;/em&gt; can't directly control and switch amongst), how does this manifest in dream states?  That is, are in-dream characters the same as alters, or different ones?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bonus questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How often do perspective-switches happen for people with DID?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does communication between alters take place in the dream world?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19962" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2020-04-02T05:07:25.100" LastActivityDate="2020-04-02T05:07:25.100" Title="How do people with DID (Dissociative Identity Disorder) experience dreams?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;did&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25065" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-23T04:39:03.330" Score="6" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;My wife suffered from a Traumatic Head Injury several months ago. She had 2 Brain surgeries due to bleeding of the brain. As a result, she is unable to speak words other than yes, no, don't know and there. She has to learn through Speech and Language Therapy how to say each word. However, right from the start, she's been able to easily say sentences such as &quot;For fucks sake Scott&quot; and &quot;Fuck off&quot;. Is there something about swearing that is built in?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Scott Cheadle" LastActivityDate="2020-03-23T14:14:08.800" Title="Why is swearing such an in built part of the mind?" Tags="&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25066" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25065" CreationDate="2020-03-23T14:14:08.800" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The mind is a large landscape as you are finding. Speech centers where new or current ideas are formed into words rely on other areas where conversion elements have already been worked out some time ago. Ready made phrases for non-new ideas and reliable conversation can be brought up with little or no effort. With these peppered into speech one can sound as if they are otherwise fully conscious and thinking about what they are saying. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can see this when speaking with people when they cannot stop adding the same phrase to their sentences. Such as &quot;...if you know what I mean.&quot; Though a complex phrase it has its own quick 'subroutine' to send it to the mouth. After hearing this over and over you would guess that the speaker is not as self aware as you first suspected. This can reflect the effort made as they cast about for ideas and how to express them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The foul language which would be rare in earlier days probably reflects her frustration and anger with her difficulties in forming speech. Normally there are filters to prevent using bad language if only to spare feelings of listeners. These can also be compromised when the effort is to get &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; speech together. You can think of her speech as letting you in on parts of her internal, normally private, dialogue as she struggles to express herself. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With patience this should improve as she re-maps her speech abilities along with the boundaries of what to say and not say. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suggest you read &lt;em&gt;The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat&lt;/em&gt; by Oliver Sacks to see how disparate the areas of the mind can be. Good luck to you both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25587" LastActivityDate="2020-03-23T14:14:08.800" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25070" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-23T19:38:35.010" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;Robert Cialdini discusses 7 major influence buckets in his 2 books (Influence, Pre-suasion)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social Proof.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personal Consistency &amp;amp; Commitment.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Authority.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reciprocity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Scarcity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Liking.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept of Anchoring brought up nicely in this video &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/uqXVAo7dVRU?t=136&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/uqXVAo7dVRU?t=136&lt;/a&gt; does not seem to fall under any of the above stated buckets. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anchoring fall under any of the above buckets or is it its own separate bucket?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25590" LastActivityDate="2020-03-23T19:38:35.010" Title="Does Anchoring fall under any of Robert Cialdini's influence buckets?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25071" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-24T06:14:46.503" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Considering Elon Musk's new Nueralink, the original Utah Array, and what happens to an individual nueron with long term potentiation, what happens to a nueron on a cellular level (and consequently other nuerons further down a nueral pathway) when stimulated by an extra-cellular placed electrode in close proximity to it? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this make the firing of a nueron even more likely due to plasticity changing the number of dendridic spines contributing to an increase in spatial summation around that electrode?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Please cite)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25594" LastActivityDate="2020-03-24T06:14:46.503" Title="What happens to a nueron on a cellular level when stimulated by an electrode?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25058" CreationDate="2020-03-26T09:00:12.090" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I haven't got half an hour at the moment to sit and watch this video at the moment, but there can be many reasons someone with religious convictions may be able to abstain from addictive behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is impossible, to determine categorically what exactly invoked the change from a neurological point of view scientifically and from a psychology stand point you only have anecdotes to work from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Large scale psychological studies on how this works have not been conducted that I know of. And, in order to consistently leverage this potential we would need to be able to measure the state of mind along with how and what that person is thinking at any specific moment in time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While an empathic person can have &lt;strong&gt;an idea&lt;/strong&gt; what someone &lt;strong&gt;might&lt;/strong&gt; be thinking, mind reading is not physically possible, so therefore this cannot be leveraged from a pure scientific standpoint at this time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once large scale psychological studies on how this works have been conducted, we may become closer to leveraging this ability within people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-03-26T09:00:12.090" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25080" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25083" CreationDate="2020-03-26T20:10:19.063" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hopefully this is the right area. but for some background, for a school project I'm currently trying to design a medically accurate zombie. I have half a semesters knowledge of basic physiology, and part of the class is that I do more research into areas that are relevant to my project, and I'm wondering where I can find any info, or if you have any insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You see, we're in groups, and so far we've designed it so that the infection is spread by fungi, other members of the group are working on how it crosses the blood brain barrier, how it spreads, etc. I'm looking at behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing we've considered is that the fungi destroys parts of the brain like the frontal cortex, so the victim loses their personality, and some similar ways that it makes the victim more zombie-like. One idea I've been trying to work with is that the fungi alters the concentration of ions in the brain. The problem is, I can't find much research that is accessible to someone with my knowledge. I've found some articles like this one: &lt;a href=&quot;https://europepmc.org/article/pmc/pmc3628083?client=bot#free-full-text&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://europepmc.org/article/pmc/pmc3628083?client=bot#free-full-text&lt;/a&gt; , that describe the effect of one ion concentration on one aspect of neuronal behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess what I'm really asking is whether there is one source that puts a lot of these facts together so someone without a medical degree could understand it, possibly with some additional research? I just want to know a list of ions in the brain that can modify neuronal behaviour, what that would look like, and how that works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a source like this that exists? Am I able to access it? Do I have any misconceptions about this subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please let me know, any help or input is greatly appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25612" LastEditorUserId="25612" LastEditDate="2020-03-26T20:33:03.310" LastActivityDate="2020-03-28T11:03:41.717" Title="Where to find information regarding the effect of ion concentration in the brain on behaviour?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25082" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25094" CreationDate="2020-03-27T09:08:35.147" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm an occasional meditator and I've noticed that conceptual thought often produces eye movements, and I'm curious if anyone has tried using eye movements as a form of biofeedback. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://choosemuse.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Muse headset&lt;/a&gt; for example tracks EEG data and plays it back to the user as sound. I'm curious if it would be possible to set something like that up with eye-tracking using consumer-grade technology, and if any research has been done on eye tracking as a form of biofeedback.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25615" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-03-27T09:21:26.550" LastActivityDate="2020-03-28T22:24:39.920" Title="Can eye tracking be used as a form of biofeedback?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25083" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25080" CreationDate="2020-03-27T09:46:04.790" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The 'ion concentration in the brain' is a really general concept. A biochemist (I did Biochemistry in a, seemingly, previous lifetime) might approach this question by taking a brain, freeze drying it, then homogenize it and determine ion concentrations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the effect of ion concentrations in the brain plays out its role in a much more confined space, namely across the cell's membranes. The &lt;em&gt;differences in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/the-membrane-potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ion gradients&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; across the neuron's membrane is what determines its responses. Further, different &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-anatbrain.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;brain areas&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; govern different responses. Gross changes in ion concentrations in the prefrontal cortex for instance will exert wildly different effects than the same procedure in the brain stem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to go this way, you should perhaps confine yourself to a specific area of the brain, and to a specific way of disregulating &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/Homeostasis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ion homeostasis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Or veer away from the idea entirely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you'd rather could use as a source of inspiration are &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophiocordyceps_unilateralis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;zombie ants&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. These ants are 'zombified' by the fungus &lt;em&gt;Ophiocordyceps unilateralis&lt;/em&gt;, which infects &lt;em&gt;Camponotus leonardi&lt;/em&gt; ants that live in tropical rainforest trees. Once infected, the spore-possessed ant will climb down from its normal habitat and bite down on a leaf and then die.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fungus can only flourish at a certain temperature, humidity, location and distance from the ground. By hijacking ants they re-locate themselves to ideal spots. in fact, 95% of the ants found their way to the north side of a plant, about 25 centimeters above the ground, in an environment with 94 to 95 percent humidity and with temperatures between 20 and 30 degrees Celsius &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fungus-makes-zombie-ants/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Harmon, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note, however, that the underlying pathophysiological underpinnings are entirely different from your original ion homeostasis idea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4dJ78.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/4dJ78.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;zombie_ant&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Zombie ant. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophiocordyceps_unilateralis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fungus-makes-zombie-ants/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harmon, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am,&lt;/em&gt; Fungus Makes Zombie Ants Do All the Work, July 2009&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-03-28T11:03:41.717" LastActivityDate="2020-03-28T11:03:41.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25085" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25051" CreationDate="2020-03-28T03:35:12.410" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In simple terms, demand for toilet paper increased and supply was unable to scale up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The supply chain for toilet paper is unable to rapidly scale up production to the levels required to meet the large increase in demand.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Most supermarkets (at least where I live) seem to be unwilling to increase the prices of toilet paper in order for supply and demand to equalise. Presumably, if the price of toilet paper in supermarkets was increased by 4 or 5 times (or perhaps more), we would eventually reach a point where toilet paper would be in stock. However, supermarkets would be accused of price gouging in a crisis, which would be bad for publicity (as well as people unable to afford toilet paper).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why did demand increase?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Toilet paper is not perishable. Thus, people can buy huge amounts of toilet paper and they will eventually be able to use it. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are few substitutes for toilet paper. There are items like tissues, paper towels,  wet wipes, and bidets, but these are not great substitutes for most people, and in some cases, these are out of stock also.  In contrast, while food is essential, people are able to eat a wide range of different foods.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Toilet paper is also an essential item.  For most people the perceived cost of being without toilet paper is quite high. Thus, if people perceive there is a chance that they could run out, this is more likely to trigger an increase in their demand (to stock up).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;As noted below, more people are using toilet paper at home rather than at outside the home (e.g., work, school, etc.).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably, the increase in demand is triggered by the sum of the knowledge and motives of the many economic actors in a society. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some people might be rationally thinking that it would be wise to stock up on toilet paper if they might be going into lockdown soon. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A desire to stockpile will further increase when people see that if they don't stockpile, they are more likely to run out of toilet paper. Presumably, international media and social media would help ignite the stock-piling and then the empty shelves and the associated media coverage further increase demand. So, shortages create even more shortages.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'm not really clear on whether third parties are stockpiling toilet paper to sell at inflated prices. But it seems like normal rational behaviour (perhaps selfish when taken to extremes) can explain what is going on without the need for reference to such third party actors.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I'm inclined to think that normal rational economic behaviour combined with failures in the supply chain and an unwillingness to raise prices in response is the main explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2020-03-30T03:31:19.520" LastActivityDate="2020-03-30T03:31:19.520" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25086" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25063" CreationDate="2020-03-28T07:55:13.273" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, I was not able to find empirical literature on this question, as it does not appear to have been studied much - &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265126428_Dreams_in_Multiple_Personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;for example&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;References to dreams in the multiple personality literature are rare&#xA;  and tend to be brief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So we are limited to clinical reports.  In 1994, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deirdre_Barrett&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Deirdre Barrett&lt;/a&gt; collected 3rd-hand accounts of dreams from &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1995-02602-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;23 DID (MPD) patients&lt;/a&gt;.  The study method that she used is not very good quality however, so any conclusions would be premature, but it does provide some possible hypotheses as to the nature of these patients' dreams, as summarized in this table:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xdoxI.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xdoxI.png&quot; alt=&quot;![enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, alters appear as characters in dreams (4) of more than half of the patients in this survey.  Item (5) lists a few patients reporting dreams experienced from multiple perspectives (ie, multiple alters) simultaneously:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... for these 26% of patients with dreams in category 5, two or more&#xA;  personalities reported dreaming at the same time and experiencing each&#xA;  other as characters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another interesting item (9) lists patients who reported experiencing multiple different dreams by different alters.  Note that some of the dream reports (2) were not actually dreams, but were perceived as such by the alter recounting them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More case reports are reviewed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265126428_Dreams_in_Multiple_Personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;another paper&lt;/a&gt;, and Barrett has &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ca/books?id=m22BCwoCB70C&amp;amp;dq=dissociative%20identity%20disorder%20dream%20characters&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;written extensively&lt;/a&gt; on this subject.  She summarizes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;These included memories of childhood traumas and content of recent&#xA;  fugue episodes.  A few of the dreams were undisguised recreations of&#xA;  actual episodes, especially for recent repressed events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;No characteristic of the dreams of dissociative disordered patients in&#xA;  this survey is so distinctive as to never be found in those of other&#xA;  dreamers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empirical data (based on mentation) would be more reliable for drawing conclusions.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237390832_The_dream_character_as_prototype_for_the_multiple_personality_alter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barrett&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1994-98908-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;others&lt;/a&gt; have hypothesized that rather than alters appearing in dreams, characters in dreams may be used as inspiration (prototypes) for dissociated identities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-03-28T07:55:13.273" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25089" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25099" CreationDate="2020-03-28T15:09:43.693" Score="1" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that the IQ statistic is designed to give it a mean of 100 and that you'll certainly never find someone with an IQ below 1 or above 300, but that tells us very little about the variance or general shape of the distribution. So why is it that every graph of IQ scores that I've seen appears to be a truncated normal distribution? Is it some property of the test design, some property of the test subjects, or some deep theorem in statistics that I've overlooked?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25621" LastActivityDate="2020-03-30T17:17:42.417" Title="Why does IQ have a truncated normal distribution?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25091" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-28T20:10:04.310" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;At work, sometimes, we get in touch with kind people. But often, we are with rude people, and here, we cannot control others, even if they shout... my question is ... how to not feel the shouting ? I tried to consider people like objects in my mind, but without any success...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25626" LastActivityDate="2020-03-28T21:09:02.727" Title="How to not feel anything when people shout over me?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2020-03-28T22:13:21.673" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25094" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25082" CreationDate="2020-03-28T22:24:39.920" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a well known relationship between pupil dilation and multiple cognitive processes such as attention, surprise, task difficulty etc. It remains unclear which specific process modulates pupil dilation, but it is a fairly large (but slow) effect that can easily be picked up by consumer-grade eye-trackers. See below an example of a paper using pupil dilation to decode which letter a patient is attending in a human-computer interface system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar effects have been reported with microsaccades (the tiny movements your eyes make even when you are fixating, see comprehensive review below). However microsaccades are hard to detect and most likely beyond the capabilities of a consumer-grade eye-tracker.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are studies trying to link larger eye-movements to cognitive processes. This idea goes as far back as Yarbus' work, who was the first to record eye-movements in freely-looking observers. See a famous image from his work below. Similar techniques are being used by advertising companies today to try to predict consumers preferences. It is hard to tell how valid these techniques are in the industry. But there is also some very good work looking at these questions in academia, see for example a paper from Laurent Itti's lab below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vIO76.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vIO76.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally preferential-looking is a classical technique in developmental studies (with children). For example you display 2 stimuli, one containing depth the other one not, and if the children are looking more often at one or the other then you know they perceive a difference, even at an age where they are too young to explicitely report their percepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mathôt, S., Melmi, J. B., van der Linden, L., &amp;amp; Van der Stigchel, S. (2016). The Mind-Writing Pupil: A Human-Computer Interface Based on Decoding of Covert Attention through Pupillometry. PloS one, 11(2), e0148805.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rolfs, M. (2009). Microsaccades: small steps on a long way. Vision research, 49(20), 2415-2441.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Borji, A., &amp;amp; Itti, L. (2014). Defending Yarbus: Eye movements reveal observers' task. Journal of vision, 14(3), 29-29.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yarbus, A. L. (2013). Eye movements and vision. Springer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kowler, E. (1990). The role of visual and cognitive processes in the control of eye movement. Reviews of oculomotor research, 4, 1-70.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hayhoe, M. M. (2004). Advances in relating eye movements and cognition. Infancy, 6(2), 267-274.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferential_looking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferential_looking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-03-28T22:24:39.920" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25097" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-29T21:22:34.973" Score="0" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was watching Shutter Island when I first heard this expression &quot;Defense Mechanism&quot;&#xA;Now I'm wondering how those could be used to deal more effectively and healthily with toxic/negative people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, a toxic coworker who is openly provocative and purposefully to trigger a negative reaction from her victims in order to escalate the negativity cycle. (hopefully that sentence makes sense)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was thinking, this could be dealt with in 3 steps :&#xA;Step 1 : analyse how the victim reacted on the attack to determine her defense mechanism choice&#xA;Step 2 : assume the attack may come another time but this time be prepared for a proper response&#xA;Step 3 (optionally) : analyse the attacker defense mechanism to improve step 2 with a more efficient reaction&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was hoping there would be a book on this. But anyway, what do you guys think of this ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25634" LastActivityDate="2020-03-29T21:22:34.973" Title="How could defense mechanisms be practically leveraged to be better at dealing with negative people?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25099" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25089" CreationDate="2020-03-30T16:08:26.030" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IQ isn't &lt;em&gt;normal&lt;/em&gt;, it's &lt;em&gt;normalized&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; to have mean 100 and standard deviation 15, usually via a percentile method.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason IQ looks roughly normal is because intelligence (however it is defined) is a complex trait. Complex traits are predicted to have a roughly normal distribution based on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;central limit theorem&lt;/a&gt;: a sum of many individual factors (including genetic and environmental ones) will tend to be distributed normally in a population, even if the underlying factors themselves are not normal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no real concrete measure &quot;IQ&quot;: it isn't measuring a real-world physical property the way you measure mass or length. Instead, you use tests intended to get some measure of that abstract trait, and then normalize individuals based on the group statistics. Actual tests administered to measure IQ will have a minimum and maximum score: you can at worst get every question wrong, at best get every question right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-03-30T17:17:42.417" LastActivityDate="2020-03-30T17:17:42.417" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25021" CreationDate="2020-03-30T22:37:18.883" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In some sense yes, we all have some mild synesthesia and tend to associate some shapes with some colors/names etc. There is a famous experiment from Ramachandran showing that when asked to identify 2 shapes, one called &quot;bouba&quot; and the other one &quot;kiki&quot;, almost everybody reports the rounder shape as &quot;bouba&quot; and the sharper one as &quot;kiki&quot;. It's unclear why, it's a classical chicken or egg problem. It could suggest that language reflects to some extent the visual appearance of objects. Or that from experience we match the visual appearance of objects with sounds they are (randomly) often associated with. In any case, if one takes the time to conduct polls and measure how often a stimulus is associated with another stimulus one can, at least in some situations, predict to a fairly large degree what people will think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L7goZ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L7goZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouba/kiki_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouba/kiki_effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-03-30T22:37:18.883" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25102" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25103" CreationDate="2020-03-31T13:45:16.690" Score="0" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is my first question in this forum and hence forgive me if the question is amateurish. I was always interested in what a psychology expert will say about this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider a boy who is dumb from his childhood. Here dumbness means, he is terrible at making decisions in the immediate situations. Very shy from childhood. Sometimes people make fun indirectly, and he does not get that at that moment. Sometimes other persons try to draw information from him which may harm him, and he innocently tells everything ... etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But on the other hand, that same boy turned out to be good in school. Good at the undergraduate level and doing well even in postgraduation also.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This leads me to the question, why do some boys turn out to be so dumb? It seems like it is genetic rather upbringing problem. I will appreciate a deeper and literature based answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24876" LastActivityDate="2020-03-31T14:42:26.763" Title="Psychology behind dumb child doing good in academics" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2020-04-02T05:04:36.133" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25103" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25102" CreationDate="2020-03-31T14:42:26.763" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most people confuse shyness with introversion, and the difference is that shy people do it out of &lt;em&gt;fear&lt;/em&gt;, while introverted people do it out of the urge to be &lt;em&gt;alone&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being shy is a bad thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Being an introvert is NOT a bad thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People also confuse &lt;em&gt;Dumbness&lt;/em&gt; with &lt;em&gt;Gullibility&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gullibility is a failure of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;social&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; intelligence, which is again a clear sign of high introversion, and they do that because they're a better judge of character.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simply put &quot;Intelligent people are more likely to trust others, while those who score lower on measures of intelligence are less likely to do so&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I couldn't do better than this.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140316133840.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140316133840.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25627" LastActivityDate="2020-03-31T14:42:26.763" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25104" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-03-31T20:45:17.940" Score="3" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;My question is in regards to a fungal infection, but I am open to learning about viral or bacterial infections. That being said, is it possible that a fungus/virus/etc could target a specific area of the brain? For example, causing swelling in specifically the amygdala, or attacking neurons &lt;em&gt;only&lt;/em&gt; the prefrontal cortex. My knowledge of neuroscience is limited, so I was wondering if there are proteins that only occur in some areas, or differing levels of extracellular ion concentrations that an infectious agent could use to localize an attack on the brain in a way that was beneficial for the disease to spread. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to see if there is a way that a fungal infection could attack the amygdala and/or prefrontal cortex in order to induce aggression in a victim and cause it to spread faster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help or additional input is appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25612" LastActivityDate="2020-04-06T23:02:11.200" Title="Is there a way that an infection could target a specific area of the brain?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;pathology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25105" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-01T01:41:49.277" Score="7" ViewCount="192" Body="&lt;p&gt;Curious in finding out if there have been any psychological studies done on uncertainty &amp;amp; what the results of those studies have been.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have there been any frameworks or methodologies on combating uncertainty from a psychological perspective? Assuming uncertainty is a negative experience for most people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25261" LastActivityDate="2020-04-02T11:12:09.193" Title="What psychological methods exist for dealing with uncertainty?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25106" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25105" CreationDate="2020-04-01T03:03:40.527" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;When uncertain about a decision and you are aiming for an optimal outcome, Hastie and Dawes (2009), suggest that the choice be 1) based on your current assets (money, physiological state, psychological capacities, relationships, and feelings). 2) It is based on the possible consequences of the choice. 3) When the consequences are uncertain, their likelihood is evaluated using the basic rules of probability theory. 4) It is a choice that is adaptive to the constraints of those probabilities and the values or satisfactions associated with each of the possible consequences of the choice. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for some of the mechanisms at play when making a decision the authors provide some advice, such as focusing on the future and not the past (sunk costs), avoiding cohesive conclusions based on random data or what you &quot;know&quot; (texas sharpshooter and conjunction fallacies, respectively). They also point out that fast somatic markers (emotion, feeling, mood, and evaluation) typically shrink large choice sets, which contain fewer options but allow a more thoughtful cost-benefit evaluation. They use overemphasized happiness as an example of this being a bad idea and suggest taking a more thorough look at other aspects of a decision. Along with that they also recommend spelling out many of the relevant events and really thinking through the &quot;reasons for&quot; and &quot;reasons against&quot; the occurrence of each event which can help increase the quality of judgments under ignorance. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also list some common decision-making procedures that have no relation to rational choice. 1) Habit, or choosing what we had chosen before. 2) Conformity, or making the choice you think most other people would make. 3) religious principles or cultural mandates, choosing as we have been taught by our parents and authorities.   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also Kahneman (2011), who found that our brain has two modes one really fast and the other slow and deliberate, we tend to rely on the fast mode more than we should in decision making and the many bias and heuristics that come with faster choices can make us more confident in our decision-making but may not give us the most optimal outcome. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two references provided overlap and seem to work off of each other in one way or another. They both come to the conclusion that optimal decision making is made more deliberately than based on some of the fallacies and biases that we tend to rely on for quick choices in our day-to-day. None the less, they do provide excellent examples of understanding and knowledge of how to deal with uncertainty.       &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hastie, R., &amp;amp; Dawes, R. M. (2009). Rational choice in an uncertain world: The psychology of judgment and decision making. Sage Publications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24990" LastActivityDate="2020-04-01T03:03:40.527" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25109" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-01T10:20:55.367" Score="2" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;In My Country Uganda, we are put under total lockdown. a curfew was imposed that starts at 7 Pm, but on the contrary, when it clocked 7 PM, people were not in their houses but rather on the verandas and balconies and some on streets to see how the security was going to enforce the curfew.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Experiments reveal, for example, that people are more likely to watch violent TV shows and play violent video games when labels warn against them. And there are many examples of books becoming more popular after they’re banned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When someone tells you not to think about something, your mind has a sneaky way of returning to that very thought. In a &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0898622239&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brilliant study led by psychologist Daniel Wegner&lt;/a&gt; (Wegner, 1989), people were told not to think about a white bear. They spent the next 5 minutes thinking aloud, saying everything that came to mind was thinking of a white bear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My Question&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Why do people seem to do the opposite of what they were told regardless if their actions have repercussions?&#xA;This applies to directions given by Parents, Bosses, Drill Sergeants, Police (under certain circumstances), Firemen and Teachers/Professors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Credit: Bussiness Insider&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wegner, D. M. (1989). &lt;em&gt;White bears and other unwanted thoughts: Suppression, obsession, and the psychology of mental control&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Penguin Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25647" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-04-06T06:22:13.747" Title="Why do people seem to do the opposite of what they were told regardless if their actions have repercussions or not?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25113" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25105" CreationDate="2020-04-02T11:12:09.193" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What do you mean by uncertainty? Is it internal or external? I am heavily a category learning person, so I begin there. Even like that, there are many ways you can approach this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Uncertainty can be when you encounter something novel and have to generalize your experience to complete a task or make sense of things&lt;/strong&gt;. People can behave systematically in those situation, many times irrationally. A good example is the inverse base-rate effect. One theory says that this behaviour results from the way you allocate attention in the new situation. Have a read or a google scholar search. I selected some papers&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I fun new one I liked:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Don, H. J., Beesley, T., &amp;amp; Livesey, E. J. (2019). Learned predictiveness models predict opposite attention biases in the inverse base-rate effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Animal Learning and Cognition. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/xan0000196&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/xan0000196&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The big old ones, very influential papers in the field:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Kruschke, J. K. (1996). Base Rates in Category Learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22(1), 3–26.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Medin, D. L., &amp;amp; Edelson, S. M. (1988). Problem structure and the use of base-rate information from experience. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117(1), 68–85. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.117.1.68&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.117.1.68&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the moment, this approach does not combat uncertainty. The inverse base-rate effect results from specific psychological mechanisms. That is to say, the way you generalize your experience to something yet unseen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Uncertainty can be probabilistic&lt;/strong&gt;. You can encounter events that might have many outcomes. When you see those events, you simply don't know what outcome will occur. But you might have some probabilistic knowledge - meaning one outcome is more probable. This has been shown for example to affect the way you explore the environment, including the choices you have. People in reinforcement learning study these topics a lot. Here is a really fun paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Boldt, A., Blundell, C., &amp;amp; De Martino, B. (2019). Confidence modulates exploration and exploitation in value-based learning. Neuroscience of consciousness, 2019(1), niz004.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, uncertainty results from learning and the way you organize the information you process. Here is an interesting study from learning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jones, P. M., Zaksaite, T., &amp;amp; Mitchell, C. J. (2019). Uncertainty and blocking in human causal learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition, 45(1), 111.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this sense, uncertainty can be battled by simply learning more and gathering more information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another approach to this is that of the Drift Diffusion Model (DDM). DDM treats uncertainty as internal noise (the noise generated by the way the brain accumulates information). If uncertainty (the internal noise)is high, then you will make more errors, will be slow at gathering information. Here is yet another paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ratcliff, R., Smith, P. L., Brown, S. D., &amp;amp; McKoon, G. (2016). Diffusion Decision Model: Current Issues and History. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(4), 260–281. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.01.007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.01.007&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same is true here. Over time, your experience will help you reduce uncertainty. This is done by simply skewing your knowledge toward making a correct response when you encounter the same situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Uncertainty is a bad experience.&lt;/strong&gt; I think it is &lt;strong&gt;simply not true&lt;/strong&gt;. You have to remember that people are quite adept at dealing with whatever things come at them. The above references show you that people employ interesting strategies and behave in a very specific way in the face of uncertainty. If you want to make it a bad experience, you have to add something else as well: stress; pressure; threat; etc...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the way to go about it is to see how people generalize what they know to new situations, because uncertainty often arises from not knowing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13308" LastActivityDate="2020-04-02T11:12:09.193" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25115" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25144" CreationDate="2020-04-02T17:54:19.530" Score="5" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently reading Psychology and Life by Richard J. Gerig, where emotions are defined as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A complex pattern of changes, including physiological arousal,&#xA;  feelings, cognitive processes, and behavioral reactions, made in&#xA;  response to a situation perceived to be personally significant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not able to understand why anything other than feelings should be part of emotion. Isn't physiologica arousal, behavioral reactions and cognitive processes side effects of emotions rather than being part of emotion itself? For e.g. when you feel angry your heart rate increases. Why including factors (other than feeling) in definition make sense? I think this is also related to unlearning what has been already wrongly learnt where I am treating emotion just as feeling but nothing more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21074" LastActivityDate="2020-06-01T13:55:08.707" Title="Doubt on definition of emotion" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25119" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-04T05:15:00.167" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Which area in the brain has the highest number of synapses or connections? I couldn't find any reliable link on the internet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24558" LastActivityDate="2020-04-04T05:15:00.167" Title="Which area in the brain has the highest number of synapses?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25124" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25155" CreationDate="2020-04-05T22:17:35.043" Score="0" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wonder if the energy delivered to brain per unit time to maintain brain processes is limited and fairly constant? Is all provided energy fully used?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25680" LastEditorUserId="25680" LastEditDate="2020-04-11T17:33:02.207" LastActivityDate="2020-04-11T22:37:35.027" Title="Energy supply to brain" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25126" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-06T16:30:52.413" Score="0" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Iam  just an enthusiast.When I look for how does our brain works it boils down to firing of neurons in a pattern. I read that  all of our thoughts, memory is due to firing of networks of neurons in a pattern. But one thing I just could not correlate is that how firing of neurons using electrical signals picturises the world around and beyond us? .How these electrical signals did it appears to us recognizably as something like sound, picture etc... &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How neurons firing in a pattern just could appear it as reality or something else ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25046" LastActivityDate="2020-04-06T16:30:52.413" Title="How firing of neurons stimulate reality?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2020-04-07T16:27:53.457" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25129" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25104" CreationDate="2020-04-06T23:02:11.200" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many variation in terms of proteins or peptides across the cortex, as well as structurally (layers etc), and how it is connected to the rest of the body (axonal projections, blood vessels, etc) but basically all areas are constituted of the same basic building blocks. So most viruses will tend to affect some areas more, but I don't think an infection could ever be targeted that accurately to a specific area (let's say affect Broca's area and cause a very specific aphasia). For example rabies travels back to the brain from muscles, so it will reach the primary motor cortex first. But then it will diffuse from there. This is even more true for bacterial infections which as far as I know don't even target neurons specifically. Usually a bacterial infection will start somewhere else like an open wound, teeth or the ears. I don't think a bacteria could jump directly to the brain (I might be wrong). For example when a syphilitic infection reach the neurosyphilis stage, it has already propagated to most of the body. The neurosyphilis tends to affect frontal and parietal lobes first but that's far from an accurate targeting. I believe fungal infections are more similar to bacterial infections and don't tend to target neurons specifically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not my area of expertise so if anyone with better knowledge cares to answer I would be interested as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3679988/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3679988/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosyphilis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosyphilis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-04-06T23:02:11.200" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25130" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-07T14:55:37.190" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following script is from Trappenberg's Fundamentals of Computational Neuroscience and is used to test a perceptron's robustness against noise. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, how would one alter it to test the output of a multilayer perceptron?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, wOut and rIn are non-comformable because the wOut of a multilayer perceptron with 2 hidden layers is 26*2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how could I alter this to test the trained multilayer perceptron?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;%% Testing generalization perfroamnce of trained perceptron&#xA; perceptron_network_sim; &#xA; letterMatrix=rIn; &#xA; for nflip = 1:80;    &#xA;    dist1=[]; dist2=[]; &#xA;    for trial=1:10; &#xA;       rIn=abs(letterMatrix-randomFlipMatrix(nflip)); &#xA;       % Threshold output function&#xA;       rOut1=(wOut*rIn)&amp;gt;0;&#xA;       nerror=0; &#xA;       for j=1:26; nerror=nerror+(sum(rDes(:,j)~=rOut1(:,j))&amp;gt;0); end &#xA;       dist1=[dist1,nerror];&#xA;       % Max output function&#xA;       [v,i]=max(wOut*rIn);&#xA;       rOut2=zeros(26); for j=1:26; rOut2(i(j),j)=1; end&#xA;       dist2=[dist2,0.5*sum(sum(rDes~=rOut2))];&#xA;    end&#xA;    meanDist1(nflip)=mean(dist1); stdDist1(nflip)=std(dist1);&#xA;    meanDist2(nflip)=mean(dist2); stdDist2(nflip)=std(dist2);&#xA; end&#xA; figure; hold on;&#xA; errorbar((1:80)/156,meanDist1,stdDist1,':')&#xA; errorbar((1:80)/156,meanDist2,stdDist2,'r')&#xA; xlabel('Fraction of flipped bits')&#xA; ylabel('Average number of wrong letters')&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20836" LastActivityDate="2020-04-07T14:55:37.190" Title="Testing Multilayer Perceptron" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2020-04-11T23:22:59.187" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25131" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25138" CreationDate="2020-04-07T17:57:31.840" Score="3" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the book &quot;The future is faster than you think&quot; by Peter Diamandis, Steven Kotler:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Consider the nine-dot problem, a classic test of creative problem-solving. Connect nine dots with four lines in ten minutes without lifting your pencil from the paper. Under normal circumstances, fewer than 5 percent of the population can pull this off. In a study run at the University of Sydney in Australia, none of their test subjects did. But then the researchers took a second group of subjects, and used transcranial direct stimulation to artificially mimic many of the changes produced during flow. What happened? Forty percent solved the problem—a record result.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the current scientific consensus on this question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This appears to be the study mentioned:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Brain stimulation enables the solution of an inherently difficult problem&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304394012003618&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304394012003618&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An APA reference to the study was requested.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Here is one such reference:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Using transcranial direct current stimulation to enhance creative cognition: Interactions between task, polarity, and stimulation site.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-24133-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-24133-001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastEditorUserId="8423" LastEditDate="2020-04-08T06:03:35.663" LastActivityDate="2020-08-06T15:58:15.610" Title="Does Transcranial Direct-Current Stimulation (tDCS) enhance cognitive function?" Tags="&lt;tdcs&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25132" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-07T19:39:41.857" Score="2" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;Please forgive what may be an elementary question for many of you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand the range of firing rates in an idealized neuron.&#xA;I understand what governs the maximum firing rate of a neuron (the refractory period), however I would like to know how to figure out what the minimum firing rate would be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The context of this neuronal excitation would be one of applying a constant, sustained electrical stimulus which barely satisfies the threshold requirement for an action potential to occur in the neuron. Put otherwise, the neuron would be exposed to the lowest level of sustained stimulation required to cause a steady spike train.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found information on average firing rates (in various species and in various parts of the nervous system and in response to various amplitudes of stimuli), but I have not found anything yet which describes how to find the lowest rate of firing in an idealized neuron. I also am unclear as to whether the threshold of an action potential refers to the minimum required to cause a single, solitary action potential (and it will not be repeated even if the stimulus is kept steady) OR if the threshold implies that the action potential would be repeated steadily. Please forgive my ignorance of the subject, as I am only just starting to study this fascinating and intimidating subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for your time and consideration!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25695" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-07T20:13:33.763" LastActivityDate="2020-04-07T20:13:33.763" Title="Minimum constant neuron firing rate" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;&lt;model&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25133" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-08T00:59:21.640" Score="1" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a college student, and I utilize the free counseling service on campus. Once a therapist told me to register for a shorter session because he didn't think I needed 1 hour and he wanted to be more available for other students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How should one prepare for a counseling session? Writing down questions? I always feel like not bring enough things to talk about in my sessions make my therapist &quot;unhappy&quot;.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel like I've asked two separate questions. Anyway, any specific or broad advice is welcomed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25697" LastActivityDate="2020-04-09T12:20:35.483" Title="Prepare for a counseling session" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25135" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5129" CreationDate="2020-04-08T10:36:37.900" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Dating websites and psychological researchers attempt to find those factors that predict the fit between potential romantic partners.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The very first sentence -- the premise -- of your question is not correct. They do not attempt to find such factors, because their goal is to keep you as a customer for as long as possible, thus paying maximum amounts of money to them, and of course viewing ads and generating content and activity for their service to appear less dead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They are sadly pure scams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25702" LastActivityDate="2020-04-08T10:36:37.900" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25137" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-08T22:47:25.500" Score="4" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Memory_Championships&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Memory competitions&lt;/a&gt; have different events; most of them revolve around memorizing digits, cards, faces, etc. over a defined period of time. However, world champions use established techniques like Person-Action-Object and the method of loci, indicating that the information efficiency of remembering narratives constructed out of objects is higher than that of memorizing the digits directly, even taking into account the time-consuming encoding technique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Encoding digits into objects is a significant mental burden: the one-hour record for memorizing decimal digits is 4620 digits, which works out to 4620 lg(10) = &lt;strong&gt;15347 bits/hr&lt;/strong&gt;. The record for cards is 2530 cards, which is an information content of only 2530 / 52 * lg(52!) = &lt;strong&gt;10975 bits/hr&lt;/strong&gt;. This means that it's significantly harder to encode playing cards than words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would the limit be if entropy were the bottleneck, rather than encoding? That is, imagine the following memory discipline:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Competitor is taken into a room with a powerful computer running software of their choice.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A random sequence of bits, or compressed &lt;a href=&quot;https://worldbuilding.stackexchange.com/questions/173300/language-that-cannot-be-divided-into-words&quot;&gt;incomprehensible alien language&lt;/a&gt;, is received by the computer, which encodes it into some format. Maybe it's a movie of one's memory palace, or a fictitious oral history, or a written story, or a list of random words.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Competitor watches the movie or other encoding.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;After 1 hour, competitor goes into a different room and has an unlimited amount of time to input information into a decoder computer, which reconstructs the original information.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The computer is allowed to use voice or holographic interfaces, error-correcting codes, etc. But brain-computer interfaces are considered cheating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Questions&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What type of encoding would maximize the bits of information a human could memorize in an hour? Would it be unique for each person, or relatively universal?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the estimated bandwidth in bits/hr of this encoding? (I'd guess that it's much less than the human conscious bandwidth limit of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.fastcompany.com/3051417/why-its-so-hard-to-pay-attention-explained-by-science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;~120 bits/s = ~400,000 bits/hr&lt;/a&gt;, unless unconscious memory systems are much higher-bandwidth than we think.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/10750/which-format-of-secret-would-be-the-most-efficient-for-human-memory&quot;&gt;Which format of secret would be the most efficient for human memory?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25708" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-04-08T22:47:25.500" Title="Most efficient (highest-bandwidth) memory encoding scheme?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25138" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25131" CreationDate="2020-04-09T02:17:26.907" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no consensus on this question. This technique is relatively new, and has not been widely used so far. I know of one paper (below) that used this technique alongside intra-cortical recordings and do report convincing effects on LFPs (the overall activity of a local area) and behavior of non-human primates, but not on individual neurons. So this technique does have the potential to modulate brain activity on behaving humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the paper you cite specifically, I do not know whether it is true or not. But solving the 9-dots problem is a hard and unspecified problem that presumably involves the participation of millions of neurons all over the brain. That you could improve performance so much by applying such a simplistic pattern of stimulation is more than highly dubious (in my opinion even laughable). It may be true, but if you asked me to bet I would feel very comfortable betting a large sum of money that such a result would not be replicated in a rigorous, large-scale, double-blind study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for consensus, you'll find multiple meta-analyses and reviews (example below) arguing that tDCS has no effect whatsoever on behavior. It doesn't mean there aren't studies reporting real effects in the mix, but the vast majority of studies I have seen so far were very dubious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Krause, M. R., Zanos, T. P., Csorba, B. A., Pilly, P. K., Choe, J., Phillips, M. E., ... &amp;amp; Pack, C. C. (2017). Transcranial direct current stimulation facilitates associative learning and alters functional connectivity in the primate brain. Current Biology, 27(20), 3086-3096.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Horvath, J. C., Forte, J. D., &amp;amp; Carter, O. (2015). Quantitative review finds no evidence of cognitive effects in healthy populations from single-session transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Brain stimulation, 8(3), 535-550.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-04-09T02:17:26.907" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25142" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25133" CreationDate="2020-04-09T12:20:35.483" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Proviso&lt;/em&gt;: What I write below is simply general advice and does not establish a psychologist-patient or psychologist-client professional relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some general suggestions for individual psychotherapy discussion topics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Tell your counselor&lt;/strong&gt; how you are feeling, for example, &quot;I feel nervous before sessions because I'm not sure what to talk about&quot; or &quot;I'm afraid that if I don't bring up enough topics you won't like me, or you will be bored with me.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In my personal experience as a client in psychotherapy, this is both the &lt;strong&gt;most difficult&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;and&lt;/em&gt; the &lt;strong&gt;most helpful&lt;/strong&gt; of all the suggestions I'm writing in this post. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ask your therapist&lt;/strong&gt; for advice on how to prepare for counseling sessions.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If you feel that your counselor is not listening or does not seem to care or is simply not helpful, &lt;strong&gt;ask to see another counselor&lt;/strong&gt;. Depending on the setting (college counseling center, private therapist, mental health agency), you might be asked to explain why you want to see another therapist. If that is the case, write down your reasons, without censoring what you write. You can decide later how blunt (direct) you want to be.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Read &lt;strong&gt;self-help books&lt;/strong&gt; on behavior change; goal-setting; developing good habits; etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;New Harbinger Publications&lt;/em&gt; has a good track record for workbooks and self-help. (I do not have any affiliation with the company.) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newharbinger.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;New Harbinger&lt;/em&gt; website&lt;/a&gt; | &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newharbinger.com/sites/default/files/catalogs/2019-fall-consumer-catalog.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Most recent &lt;em&gt;New Harbinger&lt;/em&gt; catalog&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For my own personal growth (and as a psychologist) I really like &lt;strong&gt;worksheets&lt;/strong&gt; because they get me thinking about questions that I would not have considered otherwise. Here are some (all free):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ctacny.org/sites/default/files/trainings-pdf/change_plan_mi-_aedp.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Change Plan Worksheet&lt;/a&gt; - created for substance abuse treatment, but they apply to almost any problem or goal.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.motivationalinterviewing.org/sites/default/files/valuescardsort_0.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Personal Values Card Sort&lt;/a&gt; - this is one of my favorites. If you download it, get your scissors out as you need to cut up the little rectangles printed on each page. You create three piles for the cards: &lt;strong&gt;Not Important to me&lt;/strong&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;Important to me&lt;/strong&gt;; and &lt;strong&gt;Very Important to me&lt;/strong&gt;. After you cut out all the &quot;cards&quot;, go through them one at a time and put them on one of the three piles. Back in the day they called this &quot;values clarification&quot;. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Personal Values Cardsort (and similar cardsorts) have helped me a lot  personally and many of my psychotherapy patients over the years have also find them to be very helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychpoint.com/mental-health/worksheets/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsychPoint Therapy Worksheets&lt;/a&gt; - this site is designed primarily for mental health professionals, but most of the worksheets are not complicated. Look over the worksheets first before downloading them because &lt;em&gt;you can download only three worksheets&lt;/em&gt;. (You can download more if you are a licensed mental health professional and want to subscribe for $99 USD per year.) [I am not affiliated with this website or its owner.]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Complete a worksheet before a counseling session, make a copy of your completed worksheet, and give it to your counselor at the beginning of the session.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18201" LastActivityDate="2020-04-09T12:20:35.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25144" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25115" CreationDate="2020-04-09T13:32:53.863" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are asking some very important questions. And your skepticism is a sign of a &lt;strong&gt;scholar&lt;/strong&gt; in my book. ;o) &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I agree with you that the definition provided by your textbook falls short.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotion is a huge topic. It might help to narrow the scope of your question. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also suggest carefully defining a word like &quot;feelings&quot;. For example, how are &lt;em&gt;feelings&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;emotion&lt;/em&gt; different? (if they are).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an article that will give you an introduction to contemporary research on emotion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Critchley, Hugo D. and Sarah N. Garfinkel. &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Interoception and emotion&lt;/a&gt;.&quot; &lt;em&gt;Current Opinion in Psychology&lt;/em&gt; 17 (2017): 7–14. [Open access]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Abstract&lt;/strong&gt;: Influential theories suggest emotional feeling states arise from physiological changes from within the body. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Interoception describes the afferent signalling, central processing,&#xA;  and neural and mental representation of internal bodily signals.&#xA;  Recent progress is made in conceptualizing interoception and its&#xA;  neural underpinnings. These developments are supported by empirical&#xA;  data concerning interoceptive mechanisms and their contribution to&#xA;  emotion. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Fresh insights include description of short-term interoceptive effects&#xA;  on neural and mental processes (including fear-specific cardiac&#xA;  effects), the recognition of dissociable psychological dimensions of&#xA;  interoception, and models of interoceptive predictive coding that&#xA;  explain emotions and selfhood (reinforced by structural anatomical&#xA;  models and brain and experimental findings). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This growing grasp of interoception is enriching our understanding of&#xA;  emotion and its disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has a good article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interoception&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18201" LastActivityDate="2020-04-09T13:32:53.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25146" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-09T17:59:31.363" Score="2" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am aware of 2 brain anomalies that seem to be associated with the non-emergence of a conscience.&#xA;One is associated with psychopathy. The other is associated with narcissism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;psychopathy:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;My understanding is that a psychopath has a smaller and misshapen amygdala and that the connectivity between the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex is nearly non-existent.  My understanding is that psychopaths experience weaker pain signals than non-psychopaths. Fearlessness is often attributed to them. They apparently have the ability to feel empathy for others, but they simply choose not to. The inability to delay gratification and to learn from life experiences are also traits which have been associated with psychopathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One interpretation of this is that persistent pain which is strong enough to induce a rumination that does not relent until a means of avoiding such pain in the future has been discovered, is a necessary precondition for the emergence of a conscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;narcissism:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;My understanding is that narcissists, by contrast, have a lack of grey matter in the left anterior insula and that this has been associated with an inability to experience affective empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This evidence seems to suggest that these 2 are necessary preconditions for the emergence of a conscience:&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;1: the ability to experience persistent pain necessary to induce rumination&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;2: the ability to experience affective empathy&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this correct?&#xA;Is this comprehensive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastEditorUserId="8423" LastEditDate="2021-01-21T22:13:49.800" LastActivityDate="2021-01-21T22:13:49.800" Title="What are the necessary pre-conditions for the emergence of a conscience?" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25148" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-09T19:36:03.460" Score="0" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a 3th year medicine student and I'm working on a paper including the possible analgesic effects of Olanzapine on complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). The mechanism of pain perception in CRPS is due to central sensitization and sympathetic activated pain. The nociceptive receptors that are responsible for allodynia are located in the spinal column (dorsal horn) and periphery. Now knowing that olanzapine (Zyprexa) is an agonist of alpha-2-adrenergic receptors, does that also include adrenergic receptors in the dorsal horn and periphery (as example  the limbs)? Or does olanzapine only have effect in the brain?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Louise Wever" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-04-13T20:46:52.587" LastActivityDate="2020-04-13T20:46:52.587" Title="What is the working mechanism of the atypical antipsychotic Olanzapine?" Tags="&lt;pain&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25153" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-11T12:32:11.597" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a Psychology term (not a test procedure, just a term) that describes cognitive testing not based on a questionnaire, or a standard operating procedure. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the situation - in our clinic people get to see a Psychologist who looks into people's background before they are being enrolled in surgery and the subsequent intensive rehab program. Basically, these professionals 'informally' assess whether potential surgery/rehab candidates have a sufficient social network to support their rehab, and whether they appear mentally fit to take this challenge. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I am revising this paper and the editor asks for a clarification on the cognitive screening method. Well, we didn't use a standardized test at all (no IQ test, questionnaire etc), except when the Psychologist had doubts after the informal intake. In that case, patients are referred to a geriatrician or a more specialized psychologist to do 'proper' (I guess standardized) cognitive screening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for 'informal cognitive screening', perhaps as part of an 'intake' procedure?    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-11T19:09:14.973" LastActivityDate="2020-04-11T19:09:14.973" Title="Is there a commonly used term for 'informal' cognitive screening?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25155" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25124" CreationDate="2020-04-11T22:37:35.027" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is very little change in the overall brain energy metabolism with task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question has been answered previously at Biology.SE:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/839/how-does-the-brains-energy-consumption-depend-on-mental-activity&quot;&gt;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/839/how-does-the-brains-energy-consumption-depend-on-mental-activity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The top-voted answer there cites this review:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.112819&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Raichle ME, Mintun MA. BRAIN WORK AND BRAIN IMAGING. Annual Review of Neuroscience 2006 Jul;29(1):449-476.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which states:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;the local energy consumption increase owing to a typical task-related response could be as little as 1%&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although this may not seem intuitive, it does start to make sense when you consider the way energy is used by the brain and how brain activity changes over time. Active processing results in changes in patterns of brain activity: which &lt;em&gt;neurons&lt;/em&gt; are active, not which &lt;em&gt;regions&lt;/em&gt;. There is always a baseline level of activity happening in the brain, even in areas not involved in the current task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, most of the energy used to support neurotransmission is by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%2B%2FK%2B-ATPase&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sodium/potassium pumps&lt;/a&gt; that maintain ion concentration gradients. These pumps are always active, working against passive leak as well as neuronal activity. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-04-11T22:37:35.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25156" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25288" CreationDate="2020-04-13T01:04:58.907" Score="6" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any peer-reviewed studies that show what percent of the population are believed to have Narcissistic Personality Disorder that have been published within the past ten years? I have read about studies that list the percent of people with NPD, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18557663/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;all&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010440X09000984&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;of them&lt;/a&gt; came out on or before two thousand ten and may no longer be accurate and some of them weren't even peer-reviewed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25157" LastEditorUserId="25157" LastEditDate="2020-08-06T15:32:58.050" LastActivityDate="2021-05-23T14:35:38.277" Title="Recent Peer Review Studies on How Many Have Narcissistic Personality Disorder" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25157" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25158" CreationDate="2020-04-13T01:30:38.810" Score="3" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not an expert (actually I am not even psychologist/neuroscientist or anything like it).My question is: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since light and sound comes to, respectively, our eyes and ears at different times and &quot;visual input&quot; and &quot;sound input&quot; take different times to be processed (and as far as I know, even some traits of vision - like color, motion, shape - take different time to be processed), how does our brain gives rise to the counscious experience of simultaneity (in the case of actual simultaneity, of course)? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do we experience this synchronization of stimulus (which, of course, can include others senses, like touch and proprioception)? What would be a time line of that? Because it makes a bit confuse. Aren't we experiencing reality in real time (except for the fact that stimulus take time to get to our senses)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25738" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-14T14:19:57.963" LastActivityDate="2020-04-14T18:49:21.720" Title="Synchronization of perception of sensory information" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25158" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25157" CreationDate="2020-04-13T04:39:14.143" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question you ask is the topic of a very active line of research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First you are right that light (~300.10^6m.s-1) and sounds (~350m.s-1) reach an observer at different times, as a function of distance. You are also right that visual and auditory inputs are processed at different speeds by the brain, with auditory signals being faster. The auditory system is much better, in general, at processing things quickly. Take for example the fact that the auditory system processes sounds between 20 and 20,000Hz (the auditory bandwidth), while the visual system saturates at ~30Hz (which is why movies are at 60Hz). It doesn't necessarily means you get &quot;aware&quot; of sounds faster than vision but this is true as well. You can react to sounds in 50-150ms, and visual stimuli in 150-250ms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So how does your brain fuses sounds and vision, and do you get &quot;aware&quot; of this percept relative to &quot;real&quot; time? Your brain needs to make an inference, that is to guess whether a sound and a visual input are generated by the same source. Your brain uses the probabilities of sounds and visual inputs to co-occur to guess whether they should be fused or not. This is called causal inference (scientific review paper below). If a visual and auditory inputs are too discrepant in space (where they come from) or time, your brain will assume they have different sources. If they more or less match, your brain will assume they come from the same source and combine them, which provides some advantages to locate that source, for example, as you now have 2 pieces of information. When you become &quot;aware&quot; of the sound/visual input/combined percept, relative to the &quot;real&quot; world is as far as I know unknown and difficultly testable (how would you estimate when some one becomes aware of an external stimulus when all you have are external stimuli to compare to). This can probably be addressed but as I said it is an ongoing field of research (below a review on the topic).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a phenomenon you will probably find interesting (original paper below). Because the brain uses the general statistics of the world to decide whether to fuse or split sound and vision, it is possible to change that. Some scientists have adapted observers to a specific mismatch between sound and vision. After some time of observing a consistent delay, let's say a beep happening consistently 100ms after a flash, the observers were asked to tell whether a beep and a flash happened simultaneously. What scientists have found consistently (there are many studies looking at this phenomenon) is that before adaptation people are mostly accurate. But after adaptation the observers report (in that example) the flash as happening roughly 100ms before the beep (as they were adapted). There are some limits to that, people can't adapt to too big a delay etc. But it is a robust phenomenon. If you are old enough to have experienced bad streaming services, where sound was often mismatched to images, you will remember thatafter some time you got not so annoyed with it. This is the reason, you just adapted to the delay. Scientists have also tried to see if this is distance-dependent but results are still inconclusive (different studies found contradictory results so far).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shams, L., &amp;amp; Beierholm, U. R. (2010). Causal inference in perception. Trends in cognitive sciences, 14(9), 425-432.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hanson, J. V., Heron, J., &amp;amp; Whitaker, D. (2008). Recalibration of perceived time across sensory modalities. Experimental Brain Research, 185(2), 347-352.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sugita, Y., &amp;amp; Suzuki, Y. (2003). Implicit estimation of sound-arrival time. Nature, 421(6926), 911-911.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-04-13T04:39:14.143" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25159" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-13T11:59:48.627" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jVXx0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jVXx0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The figure shows Twice as much dopamine was released when there is a 50/50 chance of getting the reward vs 100%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So brain releases dopamine in anticipation of reward. But how does the brain confirm that the reward is actually recieved and how it makes sure that it needs to release more dopamine when the probablity of getting the reward is 50% ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25742" LastActivityDate="2020-04-13T11:59:48.627" Title="Dopamine is released in anticipation. What chemial is released when the reward is actually recieved and complete the feedback loop?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25160" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-13T22:02:56.447" Score="0" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is general intelligence, supposedly measured by IQ, meant to underlie all intelligence, be the thing that accounts for all intelligence / ability, or does all intelligence account for general intelligence? Who claims the former, that g is more basic, and why do they claim that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the question matters a little, because, if it doesn't, then IQ scores are a product of learning and teaching successes, rather than vice versa -- given that ability in any sphere [mathematics e.g.] is not innate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2020-04-14T03:48:26.233" LastActivityDate="2020-05-15T02:39:22.717" Title="Is general intelligence meant to underlie all intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25163" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-14T06:34:08.960" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the following video eventhough people know that when handlebar of the bicycle is turned left the wheel of that bicycle is turned towards right and vice versa, they can't ride that new bicycle instantaneously without any practice. Why is that so? Why can't we do something even though we know how it works? what is the scientific explanation behind it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/MFzDaBzBlL0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Detailed video link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/BGW79MivM1Q&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Short video&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One more hypothetical question relating to this. Let us consider a boy who never swam in his life, if theoretically came to know each and every aspect of swimming ,learning for several years. If one day after these years he fell into a large swimming pool, can he decently swim by applying his theoretical knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not a thought experiment as in philosophy.I want to know &lt;strong&gt;scientifically how&lt;/strong&gt; his &lt;strong&gt;knowledge and doing&lt;/strong&gt; of swimming &lt;strong&gt;correlate&lt;/strong&gt;? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25046" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-14T15:05:07.217" LastActivityDate="2020-04-14T19:21:05.037" Title="Why can't we do the things we know instantaneously?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;brain-training&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25165" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25231" CreationDate="2020-04-14T09:31:01.573" Score="4" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;According &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.livescience.com/37684-narcissistic-personality-disorder-brain-structure.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;to an article on livescience.com&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;&quot;Narcissists' Lack of Empathy Detected in Brain Scans&quot;&lt;/em&gt;, research seems to indicate that a low volume of grey matter in the left anterior insula is associated with an inability to exhibit empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Researchers used magnetic resonance imaging to scan the brains of 34 people, including 17 individuals who suffer from narcissistic personality disorder, and found that pathological narcissists have less gray matter in a part of the cerebral cortex called the left anterior insula. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What percentage of the population have this particular condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2020-04-24T08:56:04.813" LastActivityDate="2020-04-28T21:41:38.823" Title="What percentage of the population have the brain anomaly associated with the inability to exhibit empathy?" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25166" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25157" CreationDate="2020-04-14T14:08:55.017" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The brain actively integrates and synchronizes sensory inputs, up to the point that it actually delays one modality to match it with another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Your question is all about &lt;strong&gt;intersensory asynchrony&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;sensory integration&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A well-known example where the two stimulus modalities you mention in your question (light and sound) are perceived as separate, while they are in fact coming from the same event, is a thunder heard &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; lightning. This is caused by the fact that sound travels at a speed much slower than light, and hence a thunder can lag lightning by seconds (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/P4Q3J.png&quot; alt=&quot;Thunder lightning&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;source: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/sound2.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NASA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In many instances, however, a multimodal perception is actually perceived as being synchronous, while they are in fact offset in time due to differences in physical characteristics of the stimuli. Take the storm as an example - when it is far away, the thunder is perceptually dissociated from the lightning, because the sound lags the light by seconds. But when the thunderstorm is close enough, the auditory crack and visual lightning are perceived as synchronous, while in fact they are still offset because of the sound travelling so much slower than light. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why does the brain sync perceptions into 1 event, and sometimes not? This has to do with the &lt;strong&gt;window of integration&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jean_Vroomen/publication/43535149_Perception_of_intersensory_synchrony_a_tutorial_review/links/0fcfd506d6effbeaa1000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vroomen and Keetels (2010)&lt;/a&gt; conclude in their review on this topic that a stimulus asynchrony in the case of auditory beeps and visual flashes can be between &lt;strong&gt;25 and 50 ms&lt;/strong&gt; and still be perceived as coming from the same event. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The window of integration between more complex stimuli can be much greater. For example, the window for &lt;strong&gt;speech and visual information&lt;/strong&gt; can be as large as &lt;strong&gt;203 ms&lt;/strong&gt;. Such large windows of integration point toward higher processes playing a role in the brain. Only temporal lags &lt;strong&gt;below 20 msec&lt;/strong&gt; are expected to go &lt;strong&gt;unnoticed because of hard-wired limitations&lt;/strong&gt; on the resolution power of the individual senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jean_Vroomen/publication/43535149_Perception_of_intersensory_synchrony_a_tutorial_review/links/0fcfd506d6effbeaa1000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vroomen and Keetels (2010)&lt;/a&gt; argue there must be &lt;strong&gt;higher processes&lt;/strong&gt; at work in the brain that actively synchronize percepts that are offset in time, but seem to belong to one and the same event. One such mechanism is referred to as &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://acousticengineering.wordpress.com/tag/ventriloquist-effect/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;temporal ventriloquism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, which means that a &lt;em&gt;perceptual modality is &lt;strong&gt;actively shifted in time&lt;/strong&gt; to match it with another modality&lt;/em&gt;. This effect is most pronounced in visual stimuli. Visual perceptions are in fact &lt;em&gt;actively adjusted in time&lt;/em&gt; to match a sound or tactile stimulus. Likely visual percepts are shifted preferably by the brain, because the visual system is the slowest of all the senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jean_Vroomen/publication/43535149_Perception_of_intersensory_synchrony_a_tutorial_review/links/0fcfd506d6effbeaa1000000.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vroomen &amp;amp; Keetels, &lt;em&gt;Att Percept Psychophys&lt;/em&gt; 2010; &lt;strong&gt;72&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 871-84&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-14T14:21:17.833" LastActivityDate="2020-04-14T14:21:17.833" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25167" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25163" CreationDate="2020-04-14T15:02:23.833" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Motor learning is a complex process &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(10)00512-9?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982210005129%3Fshowall%3Dtrue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Wolpert &amp;amp; Flanagan, 2010)&lt;/a&gt;. Oftentimes the process is broken up in elements &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002313&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Weaver, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a cognitive phase;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;an associative phase; &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;an autonomous phase.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The process you describe as having the 'knowledge' is part of phase 1, namely cognitively analyzing what is needed to do the job. However, the associative phase is necessary, where one actively practices and obtains feedback through observation and instructions by a teacher of what is correct, and what still needs work. Lastly, the motor behavior needs to be automated, such that it can happen without conscious control &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002313&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Weaver, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This process needs a lot of time and hence the scene in the Matrix where Neo learns Kung Fu in a split second is obviously not possible. In fact, mastering martial arts, and in fact any skill, leads to profound changes in the brain, including gross structural changes that can only happen over the course of days, weeks, or even months. For instance, jugglers have been shown to increase gray matter over time in specific areas of the brain (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OaBkw.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/OaBkw.png&quot; alt=&quot;juggling&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Expert jugglers show increased gray matter volume in several brain areas, including the secondary visual cortex and the hMT +/V5 &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S105381191400278X?casa_token=2A1fHizRjRAAAAAA:HjjUSBMsC59-rmMjVvTyX9nB_y-dubgffGolNjUmBa2nLRXVtPQa-HrJ2uvIvhZOYOSrvw2I4w&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Gerber &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. , 2014)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S105381191400278X?casa_token=2A1fHizRjRAAAAAA:HjjUSBMsC59-rmMjVvTyX9nB_y-dubgffGolNjUmBa2nLRXVtPQa-HrJ2uvIvhZOYOSrvw2I4w&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gerber &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;NeuroImage&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;95&lt;/strong&gt;: 320-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002313&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Weaver, &lt;em&gt;PLoS Biol&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;13&lt;/strong&gt;(12): e1002313&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(10)00512-9?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982210005129%3Fshowall%3Dtrue&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wolpert &amp;amp; Flanagan, &lt;em&gt;Curr Biol&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;20&lt;/strong&gt;(11): R467-72&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-14T19:21:05.037" LastActivityDate="2020-04-14T19:21:05.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25168" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-14T15:25:07.580" Score="3" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I understand it, the greater light levels are the more we require in order to detect a difference. I've also read this holds true for colour saturation. However, I can't seem to find any information that accounts for hue or the wavelength of light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25752" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-14T15:41:14.837" LastActivityDate="2020-04-16T20:14:52.730" Title="Are there any definitions of the perception &amp; JND of the colour of light approximately like how the Weber Law defines it for the brightness of light?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25169" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25168" CreationDate="2020-04-14T15:40:49.370" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most obervers can differentiate about a million different colors &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.osapublishing.org/view_article.cfm?gotourl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww%2Eosapublishing%2Eorg%2FDirectPDFAccess%2FBD1E75BB%2DA72F%2DA7D4%2D9DF6FD85845EAF73%5F50303%2Fjosa%2D41%2D12%2D1057%2Epdf%3Fda%3D1%26id%3D50303%26shib%3D578950%26seq%3D0%26mobile%3Dno&amp;amp;org=Universiteit%20Leiden%20%2F%20LUMC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Halsey &amp;amp; Chapanis, 1951)&lt;/a&gt;. Generally this is referred to as the JND of hue. The difference between the definition of color and hue is minimal; basically, white, black and grey are considered colors, not hues. Anyway, a Google Scholar search using the keyword 'JND + color' didn't come up with much, but 'JND + Hue' did the job for me. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have added a few interesting, classic references below. A search with 'JND + Hue' yields many more. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.osapublishing.org/view_article.cfm?gotourl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww%2Eosapublishing%2Eorg%2FDirectPDFAccess%2FBD1E75BB%2DA72F%2DA7D4%2D9DF6FD85845EAF73%5F50303%2Fjosa%2D41%2D12%2D1057%2Epdf%3Fda%3D1%26id%3D50303%26shib%3D578950%26seq%3D0%26mobile%3Dno&amp;amp;org=Universiteit%20Leiden%20%2F%20LUMC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Halsey &amp;amp; Chapanis, &lt;em&gt;JOSA&lt;/em&gt; (1951); &lt;strong&gt;41&lt;/strong&gt;(12): 1067-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/224366a0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Holtsmakr &amp;amp; Valberg, &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; (1969); &lt;strong&gt;224&lt;/strong&gt;: 361-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-14T19:31:26.693" LastActivityDate="2020-04-14T19:31:26.693" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25170" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25157" CreationDate="2020-04-14T18:49:21.720" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The synchronization of sensory information is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multisensory_integration&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;multisensory integration&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Multisensory integration, also known as multimodal integration, is the&#xA;  study of how information from the different sensory modalities (such&#xA;  as sight, sound, touch, smell, self-motion, and taste) may be&#xA;  integrated by the nervous system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the most salient example of neural &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_binding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;binding&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The examples provided are of &quot;temporal binding&quot; - eg, when you touch your nose and your toes at the same time, the signal from your toes takes much longer to reach your brain, and yet, you experience the simultaneity just fine.  However, binding encompasses all aspects of conscious experience, such as object recognition, motor response, language processing, decision-making, emotion, etc, all of which can happen at different times and in different parts of the brain, but yet be experienced as unitary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question of how this happens is called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;binding problem&lt;/a&gt;, or to be more specific:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Secondly, there is the &lt;em&gt;combination problem&lt;/em&gt;: the problem of how&#xA;  objects, background and abstract or emotional features are combined&#xA;  into a single experience. The combination problem is sometimes called&#xA;  BP2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many hypotheses have been proposed that you can read about on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_problem#Modern_theories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, and some &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrent_thalamo-cortical_resonance#Temporal_binding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroscientific hypotheses&lt;/a&gt; as well, but in general, this problem is currently unsolved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The inevitable corollary of neural binding is that our sense of the real-time present is mostly composed of events taking place in the recent past - sometimes referred to as the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specious_present&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;specious present&lt;/a&gt;&quot;.  How far in the past, or more specifically, the &quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4326640/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;temporal binding window&lt;/a&gt;&quot; is highly variable, differs between individuals, and is affected by mental disorders, training, etc.  It is also not so much a window as a probability distribution, but certainly extends to the hundreds of milliseconds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-04-14T18:49:21.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25171" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25186" CreationDate="2020-04-15T04:27:54.703" Score="2" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;Out of interest, I've been reading some psychology topics online recently (I have zero background in psychology). For example, Maslow theory in depth. On and off, I come across terms that sound like having same meaning. So I need to search their explanation, in order to learn their differences, if any. More and more often, I run into situation where different psychology related websites giving slightly different explanation, or sometimes, even conflicting explanation. So, I'm often confused and unable to determine which explanation is the right one. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a de-facto reliable source to learn psychology (except attending school), where knowledge and explanation given are considered as truth? Or... is the field of Psychology itself still full of ambiguity nowadays?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--- update 4/19 (summary)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My study approach is by keep searching and reading from multiple websites until I reach a point where I feel somewhat confident to take a guess. All along I've been uncomfortable with this approach because I find it not as productive as I wish, and the outcome may not reflect the truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding from input of @AliceD and @Chris Rogers is that, it seems that to learn psychology in informal way for non-pro purpose (in my case, for personal growth, to understand myself better), this is the logical and viable way, even though it is not as intuitive as I've been hoping. And for those who suspect they have mental health problem, the best is to reach out to registered mental health professional for help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25460" LastEditorUserId="25460" LastEditDate="2020-04-19T03:21:16.747" LastActivityDate="2020-04-19T03:21:16.747" Title="Reliable channel or method for self-study of Psychology" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25172" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25171" CreationDate="2020-04-15T07:46:49.660" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Psychology can be said to be an empirical science which is built up out of the elements of experience &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/132841a0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Avelin, 1933)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming Psychology in general is empirical, its principles can be investigated by experiments, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, through the gold standard of clinical research, namely &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=39532&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;randomized controlled clinical trials&lt;/a&gt; (RCTs). Such studies are generally considered to be reliable, yet they are not always accurate, as they are still prone to all sorts of troubles, to name a few see Fig. 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All these potential sources of error can lead to false conclusions and hence different studies may yield conflicting evidence. As such, the 'truth' may be out there, but often it is represented in the scientific community by consensus, rather than fact. Different people may adhere to different beliefs, and rely their views on a select number of results, rather than the consensus. As such, even reputable textbooks may convey a biased message. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To search for the book of truth, as you seem to do, is in vain. It hasn't existed, does not exist, and will not exist. In fact, the best sources are meta-studies that compare the available data critically and come to a consensus, rather then stating them as facts.    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/67KiD.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/67KiD.png&quot; alt=&quot;RCTs&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=39532&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sessley &amp;amp; Imrey (2015)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/132841a0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Avelin, &lt;em&gt;Nature&lt;/em&gt; (1933); &lt;strong&gt;132&lt;/strong&gt;: 841–3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=39532&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sessley &amp;amp; Imrey, &lt;em&gt;Anesthesia-analgesia&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;121&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 134-42&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-04-16T07:29:11.620" LastActivityDate="2020-04-16T07:29:11.620" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25173" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25175" CreationDate="2020-04-15T09:32:58.023" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a movement calling for the &quot;humanitarian treatment of robots&quot; where robots must not be &quot;sexually molested&quot;, must be spoken to with kind words and be treated, generally, like sensitive humans. This is likely because people are incapable of separating human from robot when they look at a robot made up to look human.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question came up when there was a video of Boston Dynamics engineers shoving a robot and knocking it over went viral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is this condition where this inability to separate the two manifests? Perhaps the bonus question is: What is the phobia called where one fears that these groups will gain enough momentum to make it law?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25758" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-04-16T06:33:44.390" LastActivityDate="2020-04-16T07:20:29.967" Title="What is the condition called when someone believes that robots should be treated as though they are human?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25175" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25173" CreationDate="2020-04-16T07:20:29.967" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;robot humanization&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; can be used to describe a psychological trait for considering certain robots to be human-like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Life-like humanization of robots has been the aim of artificial intelligence (AI) research for many years, and we seem to be getting there with a robot called Sophia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using artificial intelligence, Sophia can communicate with people and even use facial expressions to convey emotions - and looks eerily human as she does so (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.itv.com/goodmorningbritain/news/sophia-the-robot-freaks-our-piers-morgan-and-susanna-reid&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ITV, 2017&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A YouTube video of a 2019 interview with Sophia on UK television programme &lt;em&gt;This Morning&lt;/em&gt; can be seen at &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/5_jp9CwJhcA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/5_jp9CwJhcA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The pros and cons of AI being used to humanize robots have been debated for quite a while (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.147&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Giger et al. 2019&lt;/a&gt;). One con is that the more a robot is humanized, the less likely people are to sacrifice it in favour of a fellow human (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2019.37.1.41&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nijssen et al. 2019&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Giger, J. C., Piçarra, N., Alves‐Oliveira, P., Oliveira, R., &amp;amp; Arriaga, P. (2019). Humanization of robots: Is it really such a good idea? &lt;em&gt;Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 1&lt;/em&gt;(2), 111-123. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.147&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.147&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nijssen, S. R. R., Müller, B. C. N., van Baaren R. B., &amp;amp; Paulus, M. (2019) Saving the Robot or the Human? Robots Who Feel Deserve Moral Care. &lt;em&gt;Social Cognition, 37&lt;/em&gt;(1): 41 &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2019.37.1.41&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2019.37.1.41&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ITV. (2017) &lt;em&gt;Meet Sophia, the eerily human-like robot...&lt;/em&gt; Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.itv.com/goodmorningbritain/news/sophia-the-robot-freaks-our-piers-morgan-and-susanna-reid&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.itv.com/goodmorningbritain/news/sophia-the-robot-freaks-our-piers-morgan-and-susanna-reid&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-04-16T07:20:29.967" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25177" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25168" CreationDate="2020-04-16T17:18:19.380" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It depends how you define colors. Color-spaces are always 3D. The most obvious colorspace is based on the 3 types of cones you have (LMS) however it is not very sensible as you have no idea what your cones are. A slightly more sensible one is the CIE 1931 XYZ colorspace, which is a linear transformation of the LMS colorspace. One axis of this space was specifically chosen to match brightness perception. So if you take a plane orthogonal to this luminance axis you can define a point by 2 coordinates which can be (or not, again depending of what coordinate system you use) saturation (how far you are from neutral gray) and hue (the angle from neutral gray). You can measure thresholds, or Just Noticeable Differences (JNDs) around different points of this plane. Those are called McAdams ellipses (after the scientist who first performed this experiment). They look like this:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/l4PbM.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/l4PbM.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see the size and orientation of these ellipses vary widely depending on where you are in this space. So it is not really true that Weber's law applies to color perception. Not to saturation and certainly not hue. At least not when you measure chromaticity in terms of physical units.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In facts in color perception the reasoning is somewhat inverted. What colorspace should you use, considering a physics-based colorspace, such as CIE XYZ, accounts so poorly for what we subjectively perceive? More recently different colorspaces have been designed that distort the XYZ colorspace non linearly such that these ellipses become more circular (e.g. the CIE Luv color-space). In that case whether Weber's law applies or not totally depends on how you defined you colorspace. But we know that Weber's law is a general law in perception and applies to all percepts such as motion, depth, you name it, and also more abstract percepts such as numbers. So it is sensible to design a color-space where saturation respects Weber's law. However for hue Weber's law is not meaningful, as it is an angle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MacAdam, D. L. (1942). Visual sensitivities to color differences in daylight. Josa, 32(5), 247-274.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacAdam_ellipse&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacAdam_ellipse&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastEditorDisplayName="user17122" LastEditDate="2020-04-16T20:14:52.730" LastActivityDate="2020-04-16T20:14:52.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25178" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-16T22:55:51.707" Score="5" ViewCount="578" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was writing an article on masturbation and was doing some net based research. I saw on a paper (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.12.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phillips-Farfán et al. 2007&lt;/a&gt;) that frequent masturbation increases estrogen receptors in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is does estrogen receptivity decrease and/or go to back to normal due to abstinence from masturbation and/or from increased testosterone levels in the body due to abstinence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Phillips-Farfán, B. V., Lemus, A. E., &amp;amp; Fernández-Guasti, A. (2007). Increased estrogen receptor alpha immunoreactivity in the forebrain of sexually satiated rats. &lt;em&gt;Hormones and behavior, 51&lt;/em&gt;(3), 328-334. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.12.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.12.001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25776" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-04-23T01:34:04.453" Title="Long term effect of masturbation on Estrogen receptors" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25179" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-17T02:32:30.110" Score="0" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the long term effects of reading and talking out loud and while you can't hear the actual sound? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading aloud increases your memory retention via the the production effect. But that increase in retention is based upon a self referential auditory input. If you remove that characteristic it will not yield the same results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This makes me wonder if cutting yourself off from that auditory input while still saying the words out loud has any negative impact on memory retention or any other aspects of the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are you disassociating the way your brain makes a connection between the spoken speech and the expected auditory input you would normally associate to it? Would making this a continual process have detrimental long term effects on your brain creating a mild form of auditory processing disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or would it yield positive results in the respect that you would be training your brain in such a manner to essentially &quot;think harder&quot; during this process, thereby increasing memory retention?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25777" LastEditorUserId="25777" LastEditDate="2020-04-17T21:43:49.060" LastActivityDate="2020-04-17T21:43:49.060" Title="Long term effects of speaking &amp; reading aloud while cutting yourself off from the auditory input" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25180" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-17T10:15:20.930" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am an undergraduate student who is trying to classify motor imagery from EEG data!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no experience working with EEG or any neuroscience background, I only have a very basic knowledge of how EEG, ERD/ERS and frequency domain work from the papers I've tried to read but don't understand and the basic idea of what they are doing. I also have a reasonably basic knowledge of supervised Machine Learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I plan to use ERD/ERS to classify Left foot, Right hand and rest to classify motor imagery in real time!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What is the easiest way to do this?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I have bandpassed the data between 7-30 Hz for Mu and Beta wavelengths as they are the ones related to the motor imagery as well as removing the baseline and just plotted the Power Spectral Density. I passed this data through a basic SVM; linear and gaussian, optimised parameters with poor results (60% accuracy on average)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9z21Z.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9z21Z.png&quot; alt=&quot;Power Spectral Density&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no idea how to do feature extraction, where to start, how to properly classify EEG data. and how to do this in real time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;If someone could guide me and provide the steps on how to proceed I would extremely grateful!&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to work in the field of Brain Computer Interfaces as I find it fascinating, this is my first step :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the link to the dataset and its details &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bbci.de/competition/iii/desc_IVc.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BCI competition: IVc&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25781" LastActivityDate="2020-04-17T10:15:20.930" Title="Classifying motor imagery using EEG data" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25181" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25182" CreationDate="2020-04-17T18:42:43.973" Score="2" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read about quasi-experimental design and the variations it has such as &lt;strong&gt;pre-test post-test non-equivalent groups&lt;/strong&gt;, and also &lt;strong&gt;experimental designs&lt;/strong&gt;. Having compared these two, I ascertained that the difference between this variation of quasi-experimental design(&lt;strong&gt;pre-test post-test non-equivalent groups&lt;/strong&gt;) and &lt;strong&gt;experimental design&lt;/strong&gt; is randomization.&#xA;However, what I couldn't understand was:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why should quasi-experimental design  even exist when we can do randomization easily and the randomization has more benefits than matching the participants?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Honestly, I search for the answer but I couldn't find any, and obviously &#xA;that is why I'm asking a question, yet if you find any alike question I would be happy if you refer me to it.&#xA;I genuinely appreciate it if you refer me to at least one resource as well.&#xA;The reference book for the discrimination between these two designs:&#xA;Introduction to Research Methods and Data Analysis in Psychology, Third Edition by Darren Langdridge and Gareth Hagger-Johnson&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25788" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2020-04-23T01:03:53.267" LastActivityDate="2020-04-23T01:03:53.267" Title="Why use a quasi experimental design when you can do an experiment?" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25182" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25181" CreationDate="2020-04-17T19:04:51.197" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first paper I found searching for &quot;advantages of quasi-experimental design&quot; was this one:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5036994/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schweizer, M. L., Braun, B. I., &amp;amp; Milstone, A. M. (2016). Research methods in healthcare epidemiology and antimicrobial stewardship—quasi-experimental designs. Infection control &amp;amp; hospital epidemiology, 37(10), 1135-1140.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the benefits are pragmatic: less cost, potential for retrospective analysis, bypassing ethical considerations that present barriers to randomized trials, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of the type of quasi-randomized design I've often been involved in myself is when the data have already been collected in normal medical practice. Sometimes these patients are difficult if not impossible to consent: an intensive-care unit population, for example. Those patients are very sick and their imminent needs are live-saving care; there may not be time to obtain consent for a randomized trial. However, if practices and policies change over time or are different in different facilities, you can use a quasi-experimental design to determine whether those changes or differences in standard of care have an important impact or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-04-17T19:04:51.197" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25183" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-17T20:46:40.120" Score="1" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed that young children don't doubt a lot of things. If a teacher tell them &quot;1+1=2&quot;, they usually just learn it without questioning. When those children get older, they often start to revisit they old knowledge and start to be skeptic about them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would you recommend me some key words for this topic? Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24047" LastActivityDate="2020-05-13T19:20:53.727" Title="How do we call a tendency of young children to accept things as facts without doubting them?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25185" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-18T04:57:43.660" Score="1" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scapegoating&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article on scapegoating&lt;/a&gt; is rather thin on correlates, but has plenty of &quot;pure&quot; theories as to what causes scapegoating, not backed by much if any evidence, even correlational.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So what is known about the correlates of this behavior, and for starters personality, e.g. Big Five?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Edit: Initially, I asked about other correlates too, but that's probably too broad for just one question.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2020-04-21T00:52:24.053" LastActivityDate="2020-04-21T00:52:24.053" Title="To what extent is scapegoating correlated with personality?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25186" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25171" CreationDate="2020-04-18T10:44:30.727" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading is a great way of studying Psychology. Many just accept what they are told by friends etc. without looking into the subject a bit deeper, which can be a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are even debates within our meta site concerning the reliability of some online psychology articles. One example is &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/questions/2362/is-psychology-today-a-credible-source/2432&quot;&gt;Is Psychology Today a credible source?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I fully encourage you to challenge narrative put across in newspapers, social media, popular psychology articles etc. by reading the source of the studies where possible. &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; is a friend for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As discussed in the comments, the only possible problem with just reading to learn &amp;mdash; as with many areas of scientific study &amp;mdash; is that it is best (where you can) to get some practical knowledge along with the theoretical knowledge in order to fully understand all the concepts involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is best through structured learning in psychology courses, but if you are reading a subject you have first hand knowledge of, you could do some self-reflection to learn some of the practical side, either alone, or through the help of a fully trained and registered therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As @AliceD points out in his answer, there are times in the study of psychology where you will find slightly different concepts (interpretations of the studies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;To search for the book of truth, as you seem to do, is in vain. It hasn't existed, does not exist, and will not exist. In fact, the best sources are meta-studies that compare the available data critically and come to a consensus, rather then stating them as facts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There &lt;strong&gt;is&lt;/strong&gt; no one book of truth on the subject of psychology. And, while some concepts are completely out of wack with the facts found in the studies, there can legitimately be different concepts born out of some psychological studies. This is purely because they simply cannot be fully proved through scientific measurements through brain scans and the like. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248&quot;&gt;my meta post answer regarding pseudoscience within psychology&lt;/a&gt; for more on that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that some concepts &lt;strong&gt;are&lt;/strong&gt; complete quackery and some (especially in social media and newspapers) are complete lies or slight twists in the truth. All of which can be weeded out by going to the studies and reading what they actually found and how.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When finding conflicts in ideas which you cannot resolve through Google Scholar searches etc. you could bring the conflicts here for resolving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ask lots of questions where needed. That's what this site is for. I must point out however, that there is one caveat I will give regarding use of Psychology.SE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the psychological concepts you are talking about relates to psychological problems you or someone you know may be facing, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/questions/502/why-was-my-self-help-question-closed-as-off-topic&quot;&gt;for a number of reasons outlined in this meta post&lt;/a&gt; we can not, and will not, give advice or potential diagnoses for any specific individual. If you have a question regarding your mental health, you should see a doctor or fully trained and registered therapist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-04-18T10:44:30.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25187" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25171" CreationDate="2020-04-18T22:23:55.677" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are curious about psychology you can find articles about almost anything in &quot;PsychologyToday&quot;. I'm a second year psychology student with high GPA and i find it really helpful for my assignments and also i read articles almost everyday.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25796" LastActivityDate="2020-04-18T22:23:55.677" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25188" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-20T16:12:25.780" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading through some notes on integrate and fire models and it says that we assume that spike arrivals are random.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why exactly can we make this assumption? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it because experiments haven't shown otherwise thus far?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25805" LastActivityDate="2020-04-20T17:03:43.597" Title="In Integrate-and-fire models, why can we assume spike arrivals to be random?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25189" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25188" CreationDate="2020-04-20T17:03:43.597" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming random spike arrivals is just a &lt;em&gt;convention&lt;/em&gt; that is chosen, not an assumption of some natural system. It's not a property of integrate-and-fire models. Probably whoever chose this convention did so for some demonstration (teaching) purposes. It may also be chosen to model &quot;neural noise&quot; which is a shortcut for &quot;all the other stuff going on in the brain besides that which we are studying&quot;. In that context, it's common to model the effect of a consistent incoming signal on a random background.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An equivalent might be to see how an electronic filter would respond to either an impulse or to white noise: you could learn something about the filter (such as its ability to attenuate certain frequencies, or a certain response pattern to an impulse) by looking at either of those responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, by feeding noisy/random input to a integrate-and-fire neuron, you can find how changing parameters of your model neuron changes its output properties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-04-20T17:03:43.597" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25191" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-21T03:43:38.673" Score="4" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;Orphans, in the context of this question, refers to early childhood orphans. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the developed world, orphans and foster kids rarely experience a stable &quot;family life&quot;. In other parts of the world, orphans' lot is typically much worse. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person's upbringing/circumstances during their early years can be assumed (?) to have an outsized effect on their worldview and behavior during adult life [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100503161332.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;]. It is also known that people who have grown up in happy stable families are more likely to seek out and create that sort of thing for themselves, and conversely people who were raised in environments with lots of yelling etc. consider that to be quite normal [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201707/6-ways-rough-childhood-can-affect-adult-relationships&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;]. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Current literature [&lt;a href=&quot;https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/jfmdp/journal-of-family-medicine-and-disease-prevention-jfmdp-3-059.php?jid=jfmdp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;] also suggests&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Family dynamics will ultimately influence the way young people view themselves/others and the world. It will also impact their relationships/behaviors and their future wellbeing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, can an orphan, who has never experienced true &quot;parental love&quot; be reasonably expected to provide the same for their children? Conversely, are there reasons they might actually be able to?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100503161332.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Early childhood experiences have lasting emotional and psychological effects&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (www.sciencedaily.com)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/experimentations/201707/6-ways-rough-childhood-can-affect-adult-relationships&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;6 Ways That a Rough Childhood Can Affect Adult Relationships&quot;&lt;/a&gt; (www.psychologytoday.com)&#xA;[3] Ubaidi, B. A. (2017). &lt;a href=&quot;https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/jfmdp/journal-of-family-medicine-and-disease-prevention-jfmdp-3-059.php?jid=jfmdp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cost of growing up in a dysfunctional family.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of Family Medicine and Disease Prevention&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25804" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2020-05-01T14:56:18.037" LastActivityDate="2020-05-01T14:56:18.037" Title="Can an orphan grow up to be a good parent?" Tags="&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25193" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25201" CreationDate="2020-04-21T10:47:21.497" Score="0" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm studying brain anatomy but I find coordinates systems are not consistent among books, lecture notes and internet. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;There are 3 plane directions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;horizontal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;coronal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sagittal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;And 6 directions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;superior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;inferior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;anterior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;posterior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;medial&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;lateral&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I actually find is that the same &quot;view&quot; of the brain often have different names, and different views have the same name. I wanted to get rid once and forever to all ambiguity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do I call a radiograph taken on&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;horizontal plane and looking from superior direction?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;horizontal plane and looking from inferior direction?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;coronal plane and looking from anterior direction?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;coronal plane and looking from posterior direction?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sagittal plane and looking from medial direction?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sagittal plane and looking from lateral direction?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;How do I call a radiograph taken from&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;above the brain without &quot;cutting&quot; it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;below the brain without &quot;cutting&quot; it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the front of the brain without &quot;cutting&quot; it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the back of the brain without &quot;cutting&quot; it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the left side of the brain without &quot;cutting&quot; it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the right the brain without &quot;cutting&quot; it?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another anomaly is that left/right is different. Other directions are from a point external to the body to another point external to the body (in example, superior seems to go from below the feet, to above the head), while medial, seems to indicate going from the center of the body, to the left or right side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24237" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2020-04-21T15:55:43.523" LastActivityDate="2020-04-22T22:19:47.133" Title="Consistent neuroanatomy coordinates naming" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25194" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25752" CreationDate="2020-04-21T17:48:47.127" Score="2" ViewCount="114" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looking at these resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Learned helplessness - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;Wikipedia, Learned helplessness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0500&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Learned Helplessness - Peterson - - Major Reference Works - Wiley Online Library&quot;&gt;Christopher Peterson, Learned Helplessness, 2010&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com.vn/books?hl=en&amp;amp;lr=&amp;amp;id=BSz5BwAAQBAJ&amp;amp;oi=fnd&amp;amp;pg=PA1&amp;amp;dq=learned+helplessness+&amp;amp;ots=1wyov6f1To&amp;amp;sig=qn4sJFj6GKQS27nr9GlMCcnfa4o&amp;amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=learned%20helplessness&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Human Learned Helplessness: A Coping Perspective - Mario Mikulincer - Google Books&quot;&gt;Mario Mikulincer, Human Learned Helplessness: A Coping Perspective, 2013&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm still unable to find how widespread learned helplessness is in society. Do you know where I should take a look?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2021-02-06T04:46:17.097" LastActivityDate="2021-02-06T04:46:17.097" Title="How widespread is learned-helplessness in society?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;positive-psychology&gt;&lt;learned-helplessness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25201" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25193" CreationDate="2020-04-22T22:19:47.133" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not familiar with radiography, only MRI, but I assume conventions are similar. By convention images are always shown as if in front of the subject, or looking at the subject's feet (from below). There might be specific names for the direction of the cut (from top or from below) but they are not common (I've never heard them). Usually to avoid ambiguity you would always present cuts in the standard orientation. You can describe the cut (&quot;coronal&quot; or &quot;axial&quot;) but images are usually self-explanatory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For planes there are multiple names being used. The most common, in my experience, are axial, sagittal and coronal. But you will occasionally see respectively horizontal, medial and frontal. The 3 axes orthogonal to these planes and their associated orientations are the superior/inferior axis, the left/right axis and the anterior/posterior axis. Again, these cuts will usually always be shown from front, or from below. If, for any reason, someone decided to present a different orientation that would be specified explicitly. The sagittal cut is unambiguous, but usually you'll see it with the patient pointing left.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know the name of an image &quot;without cutting it&quot;, but I would assume it is just a &quot;projection&quot;. And I would assume that unless specified explicitly orientations would be the same as cuts. Indeed, the orientation conventions used in modern imagery have been inherited from the old-age radiographic plates. While drawings are usually depicted as seen from top because it makes more sense to look at a brain from the top during a dissection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Left/right is useful to describe the overall orientation of a subject, but not of an area in the brain (area X is to the right of area Y is true only in one hemisphere), so these directions are replaced by medial/lateral for brain locations. For some reason superior/inferior are also replaced by dorsal/ventral, I don't know why. For example the dorso-lateral PreFrontal Cortex is the &quot;outer-top&quot; part the the PFC. The ventro-lateral PFC is the &quot;outer-bottom&quot; part. And the ventro-medial PFC is the &quot;inside&quot; of the PFC (that you cannot see looking directly at the brain). Even weirder anterior/posterior are kept, but rostral/caudal are also used. To make it even more confusing these 2 axes do not perfectly match (rostral points toward the front for the anterior parts of the brain but down for the posterior parts of the brain). The axial plane for the brain is defined by the interaural axis and the lower ridge of the eye sockets. Brain coordinates are usually (at least in the scientific literature) reported by their position on the antero-posterior and medio-lateral axes. The origin of the system is the midpoint of the interaural axis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately there is more terminology that you'll find. For example referring to other parts of the brain, like &quot;occipital&quot;. Different reference system are often mixed, like Caudal IntraParietal vs. Anterior IntraParietal. So long story short, there is no consistent coordinate system. It is truly unfortunate that terms used to disambiguate brain locations are themselves source of confusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an example of macaque MRI with from top-left rotating counter-clockwise, an axial cut, a sagittal cut and a  coronal cut. I labeled directions for clarity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Sx2Ie.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Sx2Ie.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/V1dES.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/V1dES.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-04-22T22:19:47.133" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25203" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-24T03:39:58.760" Score="6" ViewCount="558" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for a cognitive bias that causes people who have been successful in one area to be overconfident in their level of knowledge / ability in another unrelated area?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's related to the Dunning-Kruger effect, but I'm specifically referring to the case where the overconfidence comes as a result of having been successful, and feeling as if that success makes the person qualified to have strong opinions on all matters, even when at odds with experts in that field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25838" LastActivityDate="2020-05-25T02:10:04.190" Title="Name of cognitive bias that causes experts to overestimate their ability in other areas?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25204" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-24T07:04:23.357" Score="0" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am searching a list of conflicts humans can have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here I found some &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scribendi.com/advice/types_of_conflict_in_literature.en.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;7 types of conflicts&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person vs Person&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person vs self&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person vs. Fate/God(s)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person vs. Nature&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person vs. Society&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person vs. the Unknown/Extraterrestrial&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Person vs. Technology/Machinery&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the refer to literature, not to psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This wikipedia page contains a list: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict#Social_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conflicts (Social science)&lt;/a&gt; But this is just a list of unrelated articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a valuable book/article which provides an overview over the different conflicts humans can have?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13175" LastActivityDate="2020-04-25T13:38:57.947" Title="List of conflicts humans can have" Tags="&lt;conflict&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25205" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25203" CreationDate="2020-04-24T09:34:48.163" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Dunning-Kruger effect is specific to expertise in a particular domain. The domains tested in the original studies by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.avaresearch.com/files/UnskilledAndUnawareOfIt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kruger &amp;amp; Dunning (1999)&lt;/a&gt; are: humor, logical reasoning, and English grammar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is fully possible to underestimate your skills in one domain in which you are an expert, and overestimate your skill in another in which you are a novice. As per &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2019/1/31/18200497/dunning-kruger-effect-explained-trump&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an interview with Dunning, published at Vox.com&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;But there are a couple things that people get wrong that are major.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The first is they think it’s about them [i.e., others]. That is, there are those people out there who are stupid and don’t realize they are stupid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Now, those people may exist, and the work isn’t about that. It’s about the fact that this is a phenomenon that visits all of us sooner or later. Some of us are a little more flamboyant about it. Some of us aren’t. But not knowing the scope of your own ignorance is part of the human condition. The problem with it is we see it in other people, and we don’t see it in ourselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The first rule of the Dunning-Kruger club is you don’t know you’re a member of the Dunning-Kruger club. People miss that.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your description also seems related to a logical fallacy, namely &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.logicallyfallacious.com/logicalfallacies/Appeal-to-False-Authority&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;appeal to unqualified authority&lt;/a&gt;, or appeal to false authority, typically categorized simply under &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/#AppealtoAuthority&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;appeal to authority&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;However, appealing to authority as a reason to believe something is fallacious whenever the authority appealed to is not really an authority in this particular subject, when the authority cannot be trusted to tell the truth, when authorities disagree on this subject (except for the occasional lone wolf), when the reasoner misquotes the authority, and so forth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&#xA;Kruger, J., &amp;amp; Dunning, D. (1999). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.avaresearch.com/files/UnskilledAndUnawareOfIt.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Unskilled and unaware of it: how difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments.&lt;/a&gt; Journal of personality and social psychology, 77(6), 1121.&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2020-04-24T09:45:22.943" LastActivityDate="2020-04-24T09:45:22.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25206" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-24T09:36:01.370" Score="1" ViewCount="175" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to measure IQ of college students for a research project I am working on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After searching for valid IQ test for research that is also low cost/free, I came across this site-&lt;a href=&quot;https://openpsychometrics.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://openpsychometrics.org/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They have an IQ test listed as,The Full scale IQ test (&lt;a href=&quot;https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/FSIQ/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/FSIQ/&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also have listed some research papers that they claim have used their data&#xA;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://openpsychometrics.org/_rawdata/cited/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://openpsychometrics.org/_rawdata/cited/&lt;/a&gt;) but I simply used my browser search option to search for the terms &quot;IQ&quot; and &quot;Intelligence&quot; in that page, with O results. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the full scale IQ test valid and useable  for publishable academic research work? Shall I administer their test on a sample from my target population and use it for my research work?&#xA; If not, what are some other free or low cost options avaible for me?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25668" LastEditorUserId="25668" LastEditDate="2020-04-24T09:45:14.487" LastActivityDate="2020-04-24T09:45:14.487" Title="Validity of Open Online IQ test" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25207" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25225" CreationDate="2020-04-24T11:47:32.340" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have some data from a study where humans are shown an object and asked to select all words from a list that apply to the object. What I am trying to do is use the data to confirm that a particular object, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{1}$&lt;/span&gt;, is a better fit of a particular word, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w$&lt;/span&gt; , than another object, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{2}$&lt;/span&gt;. I am trying to use hypothesis testing to confirm this, with a null hypothesis that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{2}$&lt;/span&gt; is an equivalent or better fit than &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{1}$&lt;/span&gt; i.e. the probability of labelling &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{2}$&lt;/span&gt; with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w$&lt;/span&gt; is greater than or equal to the probability of labelling &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{1}$&lt;/span&gt; with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w$&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n_{1}$&lt;/span&gt; annotations for &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{1}$&lt;/span&gt;, in which the object is labelled &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x_{1}$&lt;/span&gt; times with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w$&lt;/span&gt;. Similarly &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{2}$&lt;/span&gt; is labelled &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x_{2}$&lt;/span&gt; times in &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n_{2}$&lt;/span&gt; annotations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To calculate the p-value I am working out the probability of observing the difference in the proportion of times &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{1}$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{2}$&lt;/span&gt; are labelled with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w$&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P(x_{1}/n_{1}-x_{2}/n_{2}\geq d)$&lt;/span&gt;, where d is the observed difference. This gives quite a long function, which relies on the actual underlying probability, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p_{1}$&lt;/span&gt;, of labelling &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{1}$&lt;/span&gt; with &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$w$&lt;/span&gt;, so now I suppose I have to find &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$p_{1}$&lt;/span&gt; which maximises this function?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel uncertain that I'm tackling this in the right way, does this seem correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25843" LastActivityDate="2020-04-27T09:15:01.960" Title="How to confirm that a more frequently labelled object is a better instance of the label" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;data&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25208" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25207" CreationDate="2020-04-24T16:40:10.587" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could possibly use a two-proportion z-test to test against the null hypothesis that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$(x_{1}/n_{1}-x_{2}/n_{2})==0$&lt;/span&gt;, though there may be better methods that consider the overall distribution of words chosen and accounting for differences in raters in terms of how many words they choose (your situation does not fit the assumptions of the test but may be 'close enough' for certain purposes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-04-24T16:40:10.587" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25210" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="55" CreationDate="2020-04-25T07:47:09.007" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Even simple survey data seems to prove this point. There cannot be 80% of people having &quot;above average&quot; driving skills. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;80% of respondents rated themselves “above average” as drivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&#xA;McCormick, I.A., Walkey, F.H &amp;amp; Green, D.A. (1986) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0001457586900047&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Comparative perceptions of driver ability— A confirmation and expansion&lt;/a&gt;. Accident Analysis &amp;amp; Prevention, 18,205-208 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2020-04-25T07:47:09.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25212" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8514" CreationDate="2020-04-25T13:14:03.997" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunbar%27s_number&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dunbar's number&lt;/a&gt;, and the inherent trade off that the more friends one has (quantity) the less time they can spend with each (quality). Time spent could be assumed to equate to friendship strength.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I will note, however, that there is in fact a secondary level (of quality) to the time itself whereby how effectively one uses it with different friends, however using the above method it would be assumed all time is spent equally effectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25849" LastActivityDate="2020-04-25T13:14:03.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25213" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25204" CreationDate="2020-04-25T13:38:57.947" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In regards to a list, if there is anything like that it is simply internal and external conflicts (which encompasses your list, as well as deals with overlapping components of your list).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, there are three major paradigms of sociology, one of which is conflict theory. This examines stratification (ie through classes) and inequality (ie of resources), largely being credited to Karl Marx. In general, the paradigms are different lenses with which to examine issues in society (gender, class, race, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25849" LastActivityDate="2020-04-25T13:38:57.947" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25215" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25165" CreationDate="2020-04-25T22:52:57.403" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Kent Kiehl's work may be the closest means of determining this. According to an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wired.com/2014/04/psychopath-brains-kiehl/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interview&lt;/a&gt;, he states &quot;psychopaths have 5 to 10 percent reduced gray matter density in and around the limbic regions [a network deep in the brain that's important for emotional processing].&quot; If his source(s) can be examined for 1. what percent of psychopaths exhibit such reduced gray matter like all or most or some and 2. compared to what data regarding the general population. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the former, it could be twisted into finding your answer by simply combining that and the fact (which multiple sources have reported) that psychopaths make up 1% of the population (Note!: almost all sources that report this do so based on behavior, which is sampled and attempted to be detected, not based on anatomy and brain structure). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is in the latter where more details on this condition can be found for the general population, if Kiehl source(s) does happen to have it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anything, enough brain scans of the general population to best ascertain this have not been conducted.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25849" LastEditorUserId="25849" LastEditDate="2020-04-25T23:00:20.110" LastActivityDate="2020-04-25T23:00:20.110" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25218" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-26T19:48:52.383" Score="0" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name of the bias caused by the fame of a person on subject matters they are not experts on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g: If a celebrity they like talks about climate change, people might tend to read, discuss, and follow their views as opposed to that of an educated climate scientist. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25861" LastActivityDate="2021-02-09T15:07:05.813" Title="Bias caused by the opinion of a famous person on matters they are not well-educated on?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25220" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-26T20:21:00.303" Score="0" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand someone why we like hierarchical social structures today.  They are present across virtually all cultures and we've used them for a very long time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it appears we also gravitate toward organizing things in hierarchies as well, not just people.  When we study topics, we draw diagrams of hierarchies.  When we write textbooks, we subdivide information into ranges of topics and them smaller ranges, and then the individual concepts themselves.  We put our paperwork in folders, in filing cabinets, which are arranged in shelves, which are arranged in rows of shelves, and so on...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently we've spent more time exploring other structures like networks with nodes, but our default still seems to be hierarchies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's not just organizations and governments that we organize this way, but also information.  Why is this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding the utility of hierarchies in organization information, binary search trees in computer science allow finding indexed information very quickly (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~adamchik/15-121/lectures/Trees/trees.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Adamchik, 2009&lt;/a&gt;).  However it is common knowledge that we have been organizing information hierarchically long before the advent of computer science.  So did we realize this intuitively?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Perhaps this predisposition bleeds over in some way from social hierarchies?  Could our other predisposition to see human intention in inanimate objects have led us to use the same structure for information (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/how-think-neandertal/201608/why-people-see-faces-when-there-are-none-pareidolia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coolidge, 2016&lt;/a&gt;)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adamchik, V. S. (2009) &lt;em&gt;Binary Trees&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~adamchik/15-121/lectures/Trees/trees.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~adamchik/15-121/lectures/Trees/trees.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coolidge, F. L. (2016). Why People See Faces When There Are None: Pareidolia. &lt;em&gt;Psychology Today&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/how-think-neandertal/201608/why-people-see-faces-when-there-are-none-pareidolia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/how-think-neandertal/201608/why-people-see-faces-when-there-are-none-pareidolia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25748" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-05-15T07:58:47.723" LastActivityDate="2020-05-15T07:58:47.723" Title="Predisposition toward organizing information in a hierarchical manner?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25221" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25220" CreationDate="2020-04-26T21:39:48.530" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not out of desire, it is out of necessity of abiding a feature of information and knowledge itself. Quite frankly, this goes into a bit of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;data science&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;information theory&lt;/a&gt; (I personally learned of this through &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_visualization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;data visualization&lt;/a&gt;. Nonetheless, I still think it is a relevant question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Richard Wurman in his book, &lt;em&gt;Information Anxiety&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;“information may be infinite, however… the organization [or structuring] of information is finite.”&lt;/strong&gt; Furthermore, “Each vantage point, each mode of organization will create a new structure. And each new structure will enable you to see a different meaning, acting as a new method of classification from which the whole can be grasped and understood.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The three main ways of organizing information are as follows (please note that those within parenthesis are my personal examples, the rest are more main/established ones):  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Location  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Categorical&lt;br&gt;&#xA;a. (similarity/relatedness)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;b. (problem/solution)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;c. (cause/effect)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hierarchical&lt;br&gt;&#xA;a. Alphabetical&lt;br&gt;&#xA;b. Time&lt;br&gt;&#xA;c. (deductive/inductive order)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;d. (importance)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;e. (simplicity/complexity)  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In relevance to hierarchical information and psychology though, it is worthwhile to note that both foundations of language and logic are found through the alphabetical category. These, in turn, are fundamental features of the human mind and are, in large part, also means through which the mind makes connections. Also, tendencies towards hierarchical information could also be explained through using time as an anchor to which to describe things in relation to such as the past, present, and future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25849" LastEditorUserId="25849" LastEditDate="2020-04-26T22:39:24.847" LastActivityDate="2020-04-26T22:39:24.847" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25222" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24324" CreationDate="2020-04-26T22:44:25.987" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Holland's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Codes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;RIASEC&lt;/a&gt; is probably the most studied such personality-based model of vocational choice. Note however that's not quite Big Five based though. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804674-6.00025-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804674-6.00025-9&lt;/a&gt; for the details. It's way too much to get into the details here, but a teaser quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;vocational interests are markedly&#xA;  more stable than the Big Five personality traits in adolescence and young adulthood&#xA;  (Low et al., 2005). Although the stability of both constructs increases during these&#xA;  life phases, the stability of interests becomes stronger, and vocational interests&#xA;  remain more stable than the Big Five personality traits for ages 22 to 29. From ages&#xA;  30 to 39, the stability coefficients of the Big Five and vocational interests converge.&#xA;  However, even though vocational interests tend to be remarkably stable, there is&#xA;  still room for change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The approach of viewing vocational interests as personality traits is based on&#xA;  personality models (e.g., the Neo-Socioanalytic Model of Personality; Roberts &amp;amp;&#xA;  Wood, 2006; McAdams &amp;amp; Pals, 2006) that distinguish between personality traits&#xA;  and motivations and consider interests and personality traits to be equivalent or&#xA;  regard interests explicitly as personality characteristics (e.g., Kandler,&#xA;  Zimmermann, &amp;amp; McAdams, 2014). By contrast, several other models of personality&#xA;  view interests as outcomes of personality traits (e.g., McCrae &amp;amp; Costa, 2008).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;[...] Holland himself stated that vocational interests are “an important aspect of personality” (Holland, 1997, p. 8), and he defined the six interest types as “personality types” (Holland, 1997).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.12.011&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a review&lt;/a&gt; on the correlation of choice of academic major and Big Five personality (that's got some mainstream press &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.independent.co.uk/student/student-life/Studies/new-study-finds-link-between-big-five-personality-traits-and-which-subject-students-study-at-a6846996.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;coverage&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Consistent findings across studies were that students of arts/humanities and psychology scored high on Neuroticism and Openness; students of political sc. scored high on Openness; students of economics, law, political sc., and medicine scored high on Extraversion; students of medicine, psychology, arts/humanities, and sciences scored high on Agreeableness; and students of arts/humanities scored low on Conscientiousness. [...]  For all Big Five personality traits medium effect sizes were found frequently, and for Openness even large effect sizes were found regularly. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Some will surely turn on the MBTI-style cliché/stereotype  generator based on that.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if there's that level of research depth for just &quot;hobbies and [non-professional] interests&quot; as opposed to vocational/academic-major choice, but probably there are some papers on the less professional interests. I'm not sure there's a unifying (attempt at) theory for just any interests, but one can surely find somewhat amusing/disparate papers &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2019.101307&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;like&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Collectors with an investment motive tend to have above-average education and financial means. High Openness and low Agreeableness significantly characterize their personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2020-04-26T23:20:45.163" LastActivityDate="2020-04-26T23:20:45.163" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25224" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-27T01:00:03.457" Score="2" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;An Ativan injection, probably 20-min after the event, erased my memory starting 30-min &lt;em&gt;prior&lt;/em&gt; to the event until (maybe 1-hour or so?) after the event. Because of memory loss, the injuries were the only reason I know something happened to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Initially, I'd just described myself as having been &quot;unconscious&quot; to explain my 100% lack of memories. CLEARLY though, as I think about &quot;what just happened to me???&quot;, &lt;em&gt;consciousness&lt;/em&gt; as an explanation for loss of memory prior to the event is ridiculous. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ativan / Lorazepam clearly wiped my memory starting 50-min prior to the injection, and then after the injection the transport to ER, ER xrays, a blood test, and stitches to my face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So... was it likely I was ever &lt;strong&gt;conscious&lt;/strong&gt; during that extended memory loss period. Maybe talking to the EMTs? Able to describe the event, before the injected Ativan overwhelmed me and erased my memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that how it works? I was interacting with EMTS and ER people then, &quot;zap&quot; my memory was erased?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;OR&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The Ativan injection made me so passive, I was unaware of my surroundings and Ativan also blocked memories from forming (however that happens in the brain). I was in an ambulance. I was getting xrays. I was getting stitches. The stitches were 4 on my face, so Ativan was either a pain killer or they gave me something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This is important&lt;/em&gt; , during my memory loss period, is it possible I was talking and making decisions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6870" LastActivityDate="2020-04-27T01:00:03.457" Title="Does Ativan / lorazepam ever cause unconsciousness, or only memory loss?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2020-05-07T07:44:20.757" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25225" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25207" CreationDate="2020-04-27T09:15:01.960" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher%27s_exact_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fishers's exact test&lt;/a&gt; exists for this purpose which calculates the p-value from a contingency table. In this case the null hypothesis is that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{1}$&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$o_{2}$&lt;/span&gt; are equally likely to be labelled with the word. As noted by @Bryan it may also be possible to use a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_statistic#Common_test_statistics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;two-proportion z-test&lt;/a&gt;, but this would require a larger dataset.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25843" LastActivityDate="2020-04-27T09:15:01.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25226" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-27T15:17:54.583" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;You probably notice that you have have choice to make but you feel no preference for a certain option, you tend to ask for others opinion. When they give their opinion, you certainly noticed that you can make a choice, which you couldn't before asking.&#xA;For example, You have to chose between a red dress and a blue dress,but have no preference, so you ask your friend: &quot;Should I chose the red dress or the blue dress ?&quot; and they say &quot;Well I would chose the blue one&quot;. After this answer, you are able to chose between red and blue. Why is this ? Also, paradoxaly, I feel like we are more tempted by the other option than the one our friend would chose. &#xA;For example, if your friend said they would pick the blue one, your are often more tempted to chose the red one instead. If you ask what they prefer between A &amp;amp; B and they say A, you will probably chose B. Why ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25869" LastActivityDate="2020-04-27T15:17:54.583" Title="Why does asking opinion helps making choices?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2020-04-28T18:29:16.810" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25228" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-28T11:09:04.943" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to figure out the simultaneous-multi-slice (SMS) factor for my MR acquisition, to use during slice-timing correction, in SPM12. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DICOM header obtained during conversion (with the Matlab script dicom_sort_convert_main) is a mess, and the only variable that sounds like it &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; be the SMS, is: sKSpace.ucMultiSliceMode=2. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assuming the total number of slices is nSlices=64, is it then correct that my reference slice should be the 16th one (i.e. divide nSlices by 2 to get the mid-slice, and by SMS=2 again) ? And that it is the timing of &lt;em&gt;this&lt;/em&gt; mid-slice (irrespective of what the TR was), that I should use as a reference, in the SliceTimingCorrection SPM batch?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6446" LastEditorUserId="6446" LastEditDate="2020-04-28T11:54:50.717" LastActivityDate="2020-04-28T11:54:50.717" Title="Choice of reference/mid-slice during SPM slice-timing-correction" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25230" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25233" CreationDate="2020-04-28T19:59:35.937" Score="2" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just got into neuroscience like a couple of months ago, but I can't, for the life of me, figure this out. Wouldn't it take a humongous amount of action-potentials in, for example, the thalamus for a small number of neurons to fire at the opposite end of the brain in the frontal cortex? Also, usually, signals travel from the cortex back to the thalamus, so is it possible for signals to get boosted in some way? It just seems there wouldn't be enough action-potentials for there to be any circuitry in the brain. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: My thought process is very mathematical, and I didn't think about temporal summation when thinking about this, but let's say, for example, that it takes 4 APs to fire a single neuron. That would mean that y = x/4, with y being the amount of output APs and x being the amount of input APs. Let's say that 100 million neurons need to fire to reach the end of the frontal cortex. That would mean you'd need 400 million input APs in total to reach the end of the frontal cortex. That seems like a lot, but while typing this, I feel like my grasp of some of the more basic aspects of neuroscience isn't really that great. I'm self-teaching so maybe that has something to do with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25878" LastEditorUserId="25878" LastEditDate="2020-04-28T22:26:00.260" LastActivityDate="2020-04-28T22:52:11.140" Title="If it takes multiple action-potentials to cause one action-potential in another neuron, why don't brain signals dissipate almost immediately" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25231" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25165" CreationDate="2020-04-28T21:41:38.823" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short, the question cannot be answered as-is.  I will explain why, and then answer a broader question that you may find useful instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reverse Inference:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As background, consider the common problem of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(11)00989-5&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;reverse inference&lt;/a&gt;: Suppose we identify subjects with relatively low grey-matter volumes (GMV) in the left anterior insula (LAI).  Can we conclude that these subjects have low empathy?  Well, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S002239561300157X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;source paper&lt;/a&gt; for the referenced article already says ... not really:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;GM volume of the left anterior  insula  was  marginally,  positively &#xA;  correlated  with emotional empathy (... p&amp;lt;.10 ...).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about NPD, can we conclude that they have NPD?  Well, subjects with low LAI GMV might have NPD, or they might just be &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2019.00815/full&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;good singers&lt;/a&gt;!  Or maybe they are just good at &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?Db=pubmed&amp;amp;Cmd=ShowDetailView&amp;amp;TermToSearch=29061528&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;learning new languages&lt;/a&gt;!  In fact, low LAI GMV is associated with some cognitive advantages, as well as &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1471-244X-12-45&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;many mental disorders&lt;/a&gt;.  See, one of the problems with reverse inference is that psychological constructs simply do not line up well with gross neuroanatomical features - that is, brain regions do multiple things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Anatomical Abnormality:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A second issue is with the concept of an abnormality.  Although the source paper discusses &quot;structural abnormalities in fronto-paralimbic brain regions of patients with NPD,&quot; it does not define this abnormality.  Consider this figure from the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UbjN0.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UbjN0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here, the vertical (Y) axis represents LAI GMV.  It does appear that NPD patients (green) have lower LAI GMV than healthy controls (yellow).  However, where is the abnormality?  What volume difference constitutes an identifiable condition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Normal Distribution:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Technically, we should also be concerned with the low power of this paper (only 17 subjects in each group).  For example, an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/narcissistic-self-and-its-psychological-and-neural-correlates-an-exploratory-fmri-study/33080CBD49FB388287C776198DE1D6C4&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;earlier study&lt;/a&gt; (with 11 subjects in each group) found differences in the right anterior insula rather than the left.  Hmmm...  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_crisis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Replication crisis&lt;/a&gt; anyone?  But let's put that aside for a minute, and consider the question at hand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose for a minute that low LAI GMV did indicate something about empathy (though it probably does not), and that there was a definable abnormality of LAI GMV (though there probably is not), what percentage of the general population would have such an abnormality?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, it's reasonable to use a normal distribution to estimate this.  For this, we need average and standard deviation values for LAI GMV.  I am not aware of a meta-analysis looking at this, but some individual studies report such values.  For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1471-244X-12-45/tables/2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;this study&lt;/a&gt; of 39 subjects reports LAI GMV (corrected for total brain size) mean = 2209mm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; and std = 214.2mm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;.  Supposing that this is representative of the general population (I wouldn't assume that, but it's a start), a normal distribution might look like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TzTj8.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TzTj8.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this example, I just went with the cut-off being the mean for clinical patients in the study (2124mm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;), resulting in about 35% of the population below the cut-off, but you can &lt;a href=&quot;https://mathcracker.com/normal_probability&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;construct your own graph&lt;/a&gt; with whatever cut-off you deem useful for your purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-04-28T21:41:38.823" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25230" CreationDate="2020-04-28T22:52:11.140" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This answer is a bit below my normal referencing standards, but hopefully helps you with some things you're missing and motivates further reading...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Thalamus (at least parts of it) projects directly to frontal cortex (and everywhere in neocortex). Just one synapse from thalamic cell to cortical cell. Neurons send long projections (axons) from region to region. So, with your assumption of 4 presynaptic neurons per cell (which is probably on the low side, but see 2 and 3 below) that would mean just 4 cells in thalamus, rather than 400 million.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In the CNS, especially in the brain and even more especially in neocortex, connections are one-to-many (divergence) and also many-to-one (convergence). When one cell fires, it influences many other downstream cells (for order of magnitude you can assume &quot;thousands&quot;). The strengths vary: some cells get larger inputs than others from the same cell.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Most connectivity is local, and the entire brain is constantly active. For typical neocortical cells, you might see a &lt;em&gt;minimum&lt;/em&gt; firing frequency of around 1 Hz in normal &lt;em&gt;in vivo&lt;/em&gt; conditions. There are billions of cells each connected to thousands of others, so any one cell is receiving many many inputs at any one time. Other inputs arrive on this background of activity.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd recommend starting with a basic neuroscience textbook; Purves' Neuroscience is a good one as is Kandel's Principles of Neural Science. If you're coming from a more computational background, Dayan and Abbott's Theoretical Neuroscience is also a good book, but I'd suggest pairing it with something more rooted in biology as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-04-28T22:52:11.140" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25235" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-29T05:17:29.087" Score="0" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;My real question is where can I find people to discuss topics in this area of study - the application of behavioral psychology on technology and computers.  For example, can we use what we know about the physiology of the brain and the psychology of humans to make better software?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that behavioral psychology is starting to be applied to the areas of economics.  Is it being applied in other areas like technology?  How would I be able to form discussion groups with people interested in this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for any guidance that you can provide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25753" LastActivityDate="2020-04-29T10:00:05.637" Title="What Field of Behaviorial Psychology Deals with Technology? How the Application of Pyschology can Improve Something Like Computers" Tags="&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25236" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25235" CreationDate="2020-04-29T09:53:28.157" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you are looking for is not so much a 'sub-field', as they are cross-disciplinary fields of researchers who borrow from different fields, including computer science and psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human factors&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Human factors and ergonomics (commonly referred to as human factors) is the &lt;strong&gt;application of psychological and physiological principles&lt;/strong&gt; to the engineering and design of products, processes, and systems. The goal of human factors is to reduce human error, increase productivity, and enhance safety and comfort with a specific focus on the interaction between the human and the thing of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Human–computer interaction (HCI) studies the design and use of computer technology, focused on the interfaces between people (users) and computers. Researchers in the field of HCI observe the ways in which humans interact with computers and design technologies that let humans interact with computers in novel ways. As a field of research, human–computer interaction is situated at the intersection of computer science, &lt;strong&gt;behavioural sciences&lt;/strong&gt;, design, media studies, and several other fields of study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have a &lt;a href=&quot;/questions/tagged/hci&quot; class=&quot;post-tag&quot; title=&quot;show questions tagged &amp;#39;hci&amp;#39;&quot; rel=&quot;tag&quot;&gt;hci&lt;/a&gt; tag on this site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Information science&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Practitioners within and outside the field study application and usage of knowledge in organizations along with the interaction between people, organizations, and any existing information systems with the aim of creating, replacing, improving, or understanding information systems. Historically, information science is associated with computer science, &lt;strong&gt;psychology&lt;/strong&gt;, technology and intelligence agencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2020-04-29T10:00:05.637" LastActivityDate="2020-04-29T10:00:05.637" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25238" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-29T18:50:57.683" Score="2" ViewCount="128" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some human beings appear to be “without conscience” in that their actions in the world appear to be unrestrained by genuine care and concern for the well being of other human beings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some of these individuals are exceptionally skilled at gaining the trust of others while hiding their true motives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cost of allowing these individuals to operate freely within organizations that have the potential to do vast harm, for example a virology lab with the potential to cause a worldwide pandemic, is so high that screening such individuals rigorously for competence alone is insufficient. A single competent individual who is without conscience could, for example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/47531/is-it-true-that-a-chinese-researcher-made-a-million-dollars-selling-his-lab-anim&quot;&gt;sell lab animals that had been experimented on to a wet market in order to make some extra money&lt;/a&gt; and potentially start a worldwide pandemic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the most promising technologies to assist with the detection of people whose desire to benefit themselves is unrestrained by care and concern for the welfare of other human beings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently aware of 4 but it is unclear to me how effective any of these actually are currently or have the most potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1: genetic testing&lt;br&gt;&#xA;2: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;3: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.paulekman.com/facial-action-coding-system/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Facial Action Coding System (FACS)&lt;/a&gt; (perhaps &lt;a href=&quot;https://becominghuman.ai/apples-ai-secret-how-the-43-muscles-in-your-face-will-play-a-big-part-of-apple-s-new-ai-and-siri2-de8d4f54894?gi=ecc5a5e9bb9e&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;aided by Artificial Intelligence&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;4: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reputation_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reputation systems&lt;/a&gt;    &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This problem is complicated by the fact that there seem to be a number of &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/25146/8423&quot;&gt;different, and perhaps unrelated, conditions&lt;/a&gt; that might be responsible for the non-emergence of a conscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the HARE checklist would seem to be a good tool for detecting psychopathy, but perhaps not for Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastEditorUserId="8423" LastEditDate="2020-05-02T20:39:17.487" LastActivityDate="2020-05-02T20:39:17.487" Title="What are the most promising technologies to aid in the detection of those who are without conscience?" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25239" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-30T01:01:59.273" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was discussing with my fiancée about our expectations of our future children to perform chores at home. While we do both agree that chores are to be performed (in accordance to the child's development), we disagree on how that should be enforced. I am looking for scientific studies on the different methods to assign children chores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I believe there should be clear and consistent expectations, and we should try to avoid pointed asking/demanding them to perform tasks which are not &quot;on their list&quot;. For example, say we have a 10 year-old. We could set him to clean the yard and cut the grass every Saturday, or even weekly. He could even choose when to do it, as long as the grass is clean by Sunday evening. If he doesn't do it -- say by Sunday morning -- I might have to remind him of it, escalating the warnings as necessary (for example, in the a second time I might remind him I can take the internet down until he does it). Either if there is a lot of work or not to be done, the expectation is the same: clean the yard.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, she believes that the child should perform tasks as they are needed, whenever we ask him to do it. For example, there might not be the need to clean the yard every week. Whenever the yard is not good enough, we might ask/demand him to clean it. If the yard is good enough, or if we did it ourselves for some reason, we might ask him to perform some other task to help out around the house.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We had slightly distinct experiences growing up, and I believe this is where our different opinions stem from. I can understand (as a layman) that these different approaches will lead to different outcomes. For example, her approach could lead the child to have a broader range of habilities, whereas (I expect) mine could reduce overall stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to pinpoint my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;What are the advantages and disadvantages of different methods of assigning chores to children?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in the end I am trying to find scientific studies on this subject. As we are both university professors (in Sciences), peer-reviewed research ought to end the discussion, at least for what approach should make everyone happier at the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have tried looking up on my own for an answer, but I couldn't find a satisfying response. For reference, here's what I've found so far:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1417.2009.01030.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Children and Chores: A Mixed-Methods Study of Children’s Household Work in Los Angeles Families, DOI:10.1111/j.1548-1417.2009.01030.x&lt;/a&gt;: In the abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;em&gt;We suggest that while most children are aware that their working parents need help, in some families, inconsistent and unclear expectations from parents negatively affect children's participation in household work&lt;/em&gt;&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is essentially my opinion. However from reading their paper I could not see where this conclusion comes from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They also mention&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;&lt;em&gt;Today, most children are expected to help with household tasks, yet the level and consistency of their participation appears to vary greatly across families (Coltrane 2000)&lt;/em&gt;&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I also could not find this specific statement &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01208.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coltrane 2000&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems to be a common opinion: &lt;a href=&quot;https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:sS1DpFftMZ0J:https://ntcutah.com/how-to-get-kids-to-do-chores/+&amp;amp;cd=15&amp;amp;hl=pt-BR&amp;amp;ct=clnk&amp;amp;gl=br&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:sS1DpFftMZ0J:https://ntcutah.com/how-to-get-kids-to-do-chores/+&amp;amp;cd=15&amp;amp;hl=pt-BR&amp;amp;ct=clnk&amp;amp;gl=br&lt;/a&gt;, item 1, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mother.ly/child/always-let-them-help-14-other-tips-to-raise-responsible-kids&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mother.ly/child/always-let-them-help-14-other-tips-to-raise-responsible-kids&lt;/a&gt;, item 6. This is not peer-reviewed research, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25885" LastEditorUserId="25885" LastEditDate="2020-05-01T18:51:54.547" LastActivityDate="2020-05-01T18:51:54.547" Title="Approaches to assigning chores to children" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25240" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-04-30T09:02:58.337" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been researching what sort of mental illness I am contending with because years of working with doctors has been a practice of throwing darts in the dark and missing every target. Various psychological disorders have been toyed with and I've been labeled clinically depressed, general anxiety, bipolar, borderline, etc, etc..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've more or less narrowed it down to the realm of personality disorder but as I go through the clusters, A, B, and C, I can check off almost every symptom as either being present in my life to varying degrees or having been a problem in the past, some of which I've already worked through.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am a tad frustrated with the ineffectual treatment I've received after years of concerted effort and I bristle at all the meds thrown at symptoms that missed the mark entirely and actually worsened the issue. I have always known my only biological issue had something to do with the GABA area of the brain and even then the suggestions never worked - It is exactly why I drank for most of my life, I have been sober during these years of treatment and just suffering the GABA problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, my illness is almost entirely psychological and I span the spectrum of personality disorder - Any idea of a name for something that encapsulates the realm of psychological personality illness? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25886" LastActivityDate="2020-04-30T09:02:58.337" Title="Is There A Name For Total Personality Disorder(A+B+C)?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2020-04-30T15:36:43.500" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25241" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25259" CreationDate="2020-04-30T10:18:52.143" Score="-2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;how do you know where is your electrode in the brain? Whether you're in the soma, axon, its terminal, dendrites - wouldn't it change your signal (and how)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What happens if you are recording from a neuropil region? There are just so many possibilities when you stick up an electrode - how do you control this and keep your sanity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25887" LastActivityDate="2020-05-03T23:03:13.500" Title="to electrophysiologists, where is your electrode?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25243" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25250" CreationDate="2020-04-30T17:26:13.317" Score="2" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;When humans watch animations which contain human-like characters in them, we seem to imagine that the animated individuals, whether they be photorealistic or mere stick figures, are human, or at least living, in some way. If I see a stick figure get his or her heart broken, I feel for them as if I were watching a character in a movie get their heart broken. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is obvious nuance in that my emotions will likely be different in response to watching two situations which ceteris parabus only differ in that one has stick figure characters while the other has high-qualtiy photorealistic ones. However, there still seems to be something going on where the mind imbues entities with a perception of humanity, or at the very least of vitality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, &lt;strong&gt;my question is&lt;/strong&gt; first and foremost whether or not there has been any research done our perception of other things as human/alive (this seems like something that would at least happen in child developmental fields), and if so, is there a particular region of the brain and/or pathway/mechanism that we know is involved with this behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25892" LastActivityDate="2020-05-01T15:44:23.050" Title="Is there any formal understanding of how humans perceive humanity/vitality in other entities?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25244" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25032" CreationDate="2020-05-01T05:03:28.213" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there are research showing a relationship between skills and not only &quot;sit down tests&quot;. A &lt;a href=&quot;https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&amp;amp;context=comminfolit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;systematic review&lt;/a&gt; by Madmood (2016) found &quot;self-reported and demonstrated information literacy skills&quot; supported the Dunning-Kruger phenomena. Demonstrated information literacy was from derived sources such as &quot;observations, field notes, participant reflexive journals, expert grading of searching tasks, analysis of students’ theses, quizzes, and information related assignments&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mahmood, K. (2016). Do People Overestimate Their Information Literacy Skills? A Systematic Review of Empirical Evidence on the Dunning-Kruger Effect. Communications in Information Literacy, 10 (2), 199-213. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.15760/comminfolit.2016.10.2.24&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.15760/comminfolit.2016.10.2.24&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2020-05-01T10:51:06.667" LastActivityDate="2020-05-01T10:51:06.667" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25249" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-01T13:26:48.607" Score="0" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know how I can get free access to data obtained from psychological experiments conducted to study the effects of meditation on the brain. Ex : FMRI data and the like &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25900" LastActivityDate="2021-01-21T18:35:56.660" Title="Where can I find open data for psychology research on meditation?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25250" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25243" CreationDate="2020-05-01T15:44:23.050" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, there's a lot of work on this! Still a ton of open questions though, and plenty of smart people working in quite disconnected paradigms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A classic study in this space is Heider F. &amp;amp; Simmel M. (1944). An Experimental Study of Apparent Behavior, The American Journal of Psychology, 57 (2) 243. DOI: 10.2307/1416950&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But note the date! 1944! I think what you're really looking for is the community that is still citing this today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One recent example might be people interested in Bayesian Theory of mind, eg:&#xA;Baker CL, Jara-Ettinger J, Saxe R, &amp;amp; Tenenbaum JB (2017). Rational quantitative attribution of beliefs, desires and percepts in human mentalizing. Nature Human Behaviour&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, 'agency' is one of the areas identified/investigated as part of core developmental knowledge by Spelke and collaborators, see for example &#xA;Spelke, E. S., &amp;amp; Kinzler, K. D. (2007). Core knowledge. Developmental science, 10(1), 89-96.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This answer doesn't really do justice to the breadth of this literature, there's a lot of it! But hopefully the citations and cited-by links from these will throw up the kind of thing you're looking for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2020-05-01T15:44:23.050" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25253" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-01T23:35:21.290" Score="9" ViewCount="214" Body="&lt;p&gt;I noticed that I didn't sleep yesterday for no reason and spent the whole night to answer questions in one of the communities in here. Why did I do this? I still come here  every hour and check if someone chooses my answer or asks me something. There is a vague feeling. I'm like people who are on Instagram or Snapchat all day. I'm trying to understand what the reasons are behind this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, there are two general types of user here. People who seek help and people who want to help others. The motivation for the first group is obviously urgency of finding an answer for their question. However, the second group doesn't need to bother. They got no problems. What are the psychological factors that make those people help others and contribute to the community?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know the reputation system has a big impact, but I think giving points and badges are not enough. I believe there are some powerful gamification elements such as unlocking privileges. What actually keeps people here? Is the model of StackExchange, which is depended on reputation points, sustainable? If all reputations were reset today, would people still come here to answer questions? Or there is something more, I don't see?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25903" LastEditorUserId="25903" LastEditDate="2020-05-02T04:00:24.637" LastActivityDate="2020-05-13T13:22:34.320" Title="What is the motivation model behind StackExchange?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;gamification&gt;&lt;prosocial-behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="4" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25254" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-02T04:10:51.720" Score="3" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do we eve know that fluid and crystallized intelligence exists?  It's a proposed framework of how our mind works that was proposed by Raymond Cattell in 1963 and further developed by his student, John L. Horn.  But, how did they deduce that our intelligence operates in these two different ways?  Why can't there be 4 different ways that our intelligence operates?  Why not 10?  Was there any physiological proof that our brain is divided in this way?  Or, was this all just simply a wild guess that seems to just fit with how our brain seems to operate (aka how we think)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone actually proven with certainty that our brain actually works in this manner?  Or, has this become an accepted theory in the intelligence field merely because of a lack of a competing theory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25753" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2020-05-05T17:14:32.573" LastActivityDate="2020-05-05T18:00:32.603" Title="Can Someone Explain How Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence was Discovered?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25255" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25253" CreationDate="2020-05-02T09:44:54.093" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;This should be a comment, not an answer. But because of the formatting I put it here.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My speculation: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Gamification - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;gamification&lt;/a&gt;/&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptance#Social_acceptance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Acceptance - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;social acceptance&lt;/a&gt; + &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Altruism - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;altruism&lt;/a&gt; + &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Curiosity - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;curiosity&lt;/a&gt; + &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Flow (psychology) - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;flow&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gamification/social acceptance: you need to prove to folks in this site that you do know stuffs &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Altruism: you once had this question before, so you can related this to yourself. Or you know you have some keywords that help, and you feel that it doesn't take much time to say&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Curiosity: the question is interesting, and you want to see it unfold&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Flow: once you are in a flow, it's hard to break it. Once an idea pops in your mind, you need to finish it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Except the first one, all the last ones are intrinsic motivations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take this very answer as an example. At first it was just a small comment to the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My speculation: gamification + altruism + exploration&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then I felt like &quot;exploration&quot; was not a good word, so I replaced it with &quot;curiosity&quot;. Then I added another sentence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;My speculation: gamification + altruism + curiosity. Except the first one, the last two ones are intrinsic motivations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I still felt my answer was incomplete, so I had to elaborate more. So we are here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-05-02T18:12:09.583" LastActivityDate="2020-05-02T18:12:09.583" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25256" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1755" CreationDate="2020-05-02T19:15:13.780" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Low / loss of motivation is associated with several Disorders of Diminished Motivation (DDM) (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akinetic_mutism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;akinetic mutism&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboulia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;abulia&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;apathy&lt;/a&gt;) that occur frequently in individuals with traumatic brain injury or other underlying neurological disorder, as well as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avolition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;avolition&lt;/a&gt;, and is a prominent symptom of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysthymia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dysthymia&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivational_anhedonia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;motivational anhedonia&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt;, and others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is not much research on treatment of motivation in these disorders with nutrition, possibly because of the underlying neurological causes, the complexity of studying nutrition, and low incidence rates.  For a reasonably useful answer, I will instead review the effect of nutrition on motivation in depression, where much more research is available, and this would hopefully extend to low motivation in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Personalized Nutrition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several reasons why it may be impossible to find clear answers on nutritional treatments for motivation.  For one, known &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronutrient_deficiency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nutrient deficiencies&lt;/a&gt; rarely manifest in isolated cognitive symptoms such as low motivation - but rather with acute physical disease symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another important factor is that nutrient deficiencies may have as much to do with individual characteristics as general dietary ones - that is, a dietary prescription may not work the same for everyone.  Unfortunately, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritional_genomics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nutritional genomics&lt;/a&gt; as a field is currently in its infancy - see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bmj.com/content/361/bmj.k2173&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ordovas et al (2018)&lt;/a&gt; for a recent review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also many unknowns remaining regarding the role of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gut%E2%80%93brain_axis#Anxiety_and_mood_disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gut microbiome in depression&lt;/a&gt;, and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placebo#Depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;placebo effect&lt;/a&gt; of treatment - ie, seeing a nutritionist may well be as important as the prescription they provide.  And ironically, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165178112008153&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;some research&lt;/a&gt; suggests that fasting may be effective with depression - implying the opposite of a nutrient deficiency!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Healthy Diet:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rigidly set dietary prescriptions can have advantages even when not personalized.  For example, they take the onus off patients to make healthy diet choices, and may be more likely to be followed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, research on a variety of diets demonstrate that healthy diets have positive effects on depression (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29031185&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Molendijk et al, 2018&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/impact-of-wholeofdiet-interventions-on-depression-and-anxiety-a-systematic-review-of-randomised-controlled-trials/B98E83F5A5848506859D99EB8C1EBA50&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Opie et al, 2015&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30720698&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Firth et al, 2019&lt;/a&gt;).  The general recommendation therefore is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_diet&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;well known&lt;/a&gt;: Reduce sugar and processed foods, increase fruits and vegetables.  This has the added bonus of not just improving motivation, but also improving overall physical and mental health!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, the below recommendations are fine to follow, but just note that any healthy diet is fine too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Dietary Prescriptions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several recent reviews of current findings containing specific dietary prescriptions are listed below, with relevant extracts.  I encourage reading the papers for specific tests of nutritional interventions and their results, as recommendations may or may not be applicable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2738337/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sathyanarayana et al (2008)&lt;/a&gt;: Understanding nutrition, depression and mental illnesses&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The dietary intake ... are often deficient in many nutrients,&#xA;  especially essential vitamins, minerals, and omega-3 fatty acids.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6484557/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Khanna, Chattu, &amp;amp; Aeri (2019)&lt;/a&gt;: Nutritional Aspects of Depression in Adolescents - A Systemic Review&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... several healthy foods such as olive oil, fish, nuts, legumes,&#xA;  dairy products, fruits, and vegetables have been inversely associated&#xA;  with the risk of depression and might also improve symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/depression/guide/diet-recovery#1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebMD&lt;/a&gt;: Depression and Diet&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... while certain eating plans or foods may not ease your symptoms or&#xA;  put you instantly in a better mood, a healthy diet may help as part of&#xA;  your overall treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.isom.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Nutritional-Brain-Energy-Enhancement-for-Reducing-Mental-Fatigue-and-Improving-Mood-and-Cognition-27.4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brown (2012)&lt;/a&gt;: Nutritional Brain Energy Enhancement for Reducing Mental Fatigue and Improving Mood and Cognition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The enhancement of brain energy metabolism with nutritional factors&#xA;  such as creatine, acetyl-l-carnitine,  multivitamins  and  polyphenol &#xA;  rich  diets  may  be  a  novel  strategy  for  reducing mental fatigue&#xA;  and improving mood and cognition ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-05-02T19:15:13.780" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25259" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25241" CreationDate="2020-05-03T23:03:13.500" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't really have an answer to your question, but I can give you some starting points. First regarding whether you are in the soma the answer is &quot;very unlikely&quot;. Keep in mind your typical acute recording electrode will be ~100um in diameter, at least ~50um and up to ~250um for linear probes. Chronic recording electrodes (e.g. Utah arrays) can be much smaller but never smaller than ~10um. The body size of neurons vary within the range 10-50um. So if you poke the soma of a neuron with your electrode you will pretty much kill it instantly (unless you use patch-clamping, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nmeth.1993/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nature.com/articles/nmeth.1993/&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now dendritic electrical potentials are small (few mV). Only after being non-linearly summed up will they reach the threshold that will trigger a spike (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135703&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135703&lt;/a&gt;). Spikes is what you are able to record, it is unlikely that dendritic potentials will be high enough for you to detect above background noise. Even if, it means your electrode is close enough to the soma and your recording will most likely be dominated by the neuron spikes, which will have a much higher Signal-to-Noise Ratio.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The trickiest part of your question is whether you are recording from an actual neuron or its axon. I see no reason why you wouldn't be able to record from an axon. Statistically I do not know how likely it is, considering that axons are far smaller, but much longer than the soma. I can provide 2 thoughts: (1) does it matter? Axons within gray matter most likely come from local neurons. As a physiologist your goal is to know when/what/how the neurons within the vicinity of your electrode are spiking. So does it matter that you are recording from the soma itself or its axon few hundreds of um away? (2) When you lower you electrode too much and reach white matter you start seeing strange spikes, usually I see &quot;double-spikes&quot; that look like an &quot;M&quot;. Based on the depth of the electrode, background noise and that this doesn't look a regular spike, it is quite clear that this waveform comes from an axon. I've personally never seen similar waveform within gray matter. But of course I cannot be 100% sure that I've never recorded from an axon either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for how to keep your sanity, as always in science you draw conclusions based on what is most likely. Physiology is very hard, so as long as you made the best possible job targeting the correct recording area, isolated good-looking waveforms, did a rigorous spike-sorting and found meaningful effects related to your stimulus/task. Then is it more likely that you recorded mostly from proper neurons, with possibly few artifacts here and there, or that your recorded mostly from dendrites or axons from far-away neurons (that is things that are not related to computations actually being carried within the area your are recording from), and that all your effects are just an artifact? You'll never be able to completely eliminate uncertainty, but you can reduce it to levels that make you quite confident what you are reporting is true. Asking this question is a good start though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-05-03T23:03:13.500" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25260" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25268" CreationDate="2020-05-04T04:13:34.693" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a novice in EEG, and also not a native speaker of English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am reading through the article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6123891/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A revised glossary of terms most commonly used by clinical electroencephalographers and updated proposal for the report format of the EEG findings. Revision 2017&lt;/a&gt; in Clinical Neurophysiology Practice. There it distinguishes the &lt;em&gt;alpha rhythm&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;rhythms of alpha frequency&lt;/em&gt;. In the definition of alpha rhythm:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Rhythm at 8–13 Hz inclusive occurring during wakefulness over the posterior regions of the head, generally with maximum amplitudes over the occipital areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which,  I read,  refers to that alpha wave we also know as the PDR (posterior dominant rhythm). Notably,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;“[others in this frequency band]... should either have specific appellations ... or should be&#xA;  referred to as rhythms of alpha frequency or alpha activity.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ok. Then, I expected &lt;em&gt;alpha wave&lt;/em&gt; to be generic, defined as waves in 8–13 Hz. However it read:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Alpha wave: Wave with duration of 1/8–1/13 s (77–125 ms).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I understand, duration of a wave (as in physics) is different from its period. A period is the inverse of frequency, while duration is either the time the wave continues, or the time of single up and down which doesn't cycle. The glossary itself has an entry for duration:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Duration: (1) The interval from beginning to end of an individual wave or complex. Comment: the duration of the cycle of individual components of a sequence of regularly repeating waves or complexes is referred to as the period of the wave or complex. (2) The time that a sequence of waves or complexes or any other distinguishable feature lasts in an EEG record.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it seems to me that it's either (1) The glossary is inconsistent in its wording, or (2) alpha wave as defined here is for single complex (similar to &lt;em&gt;spike&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;sharp wave&lt;/em&gt;) that is characterised by its length in time. Either isn't very convincing for me: (1) They took their trouble ommiting the word frequency and using 1/8-1/13 instead of 8-13, would they use confusing wording? (2) From what I have gathered, this definition is used by a distinct minority (if any).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the glossary inconsistent? Can I understand the alpha wave &lt;strong&gt;defined there&lt;/strong&gt; as Wave with &lt;em&gt;frequency&lt;/em&gt; of 8–13  Hz?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If not, can I understand this alpha wave as a name for non-cyclic activity? How widely is this definition used? Any other usuage of &lt;em&gt;alpha wave&lt;/em&gt; I encountered simply refers to a continuous oscillation with frequency of 8–13 Hz.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24210" LastEditorUserId="24210" LastEditDate="2020-05-05T01:35:23.747" LastActivityDate="2020-05-05T07:20:09.967" Title="Definitions of the alpha wave in the revised glossary by Clinical Neurophysiology Practice?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25263" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-04T17:43:35.243" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am developing an application to help students remember what they learn.&#xA;But I need deeper and more grounded research in topics of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spaced repetition / Revision&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Forgetting Curve&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Long term memory&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Memorization&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please suggest some good books / sources that cover most of these topics in a technical way (not kind of self help books). Or books that you think will be helpful to develop such a system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25927" LastActivityDate="2020-05-04T17:43:35.243" Title="Which are some good books to research spaced repetition and long term memory?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;study-cognitive-sciences&gt;&lt;spaced-repetition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25267" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-05T05:15:07.593" Score="1" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;I meant to ask, do I need to study any of Freud’s other works before reading “The Uncanny”?&#xA;And, reading Freud (his whole body of work) have any prerequisites?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25930" LastActivityDate="2020-05-05T05:15:07.593" Title="Studying Freud and “The Uncanny”" Tags="&lt;freud&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2020-05-05T18:52:48.597" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25268" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25260" CreationDate="2020-05-05T07:20:09.967" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I personally don't see the contradiction. It seems very contrived from your end to establish that there is one. I think it's very clear from the definition of the alpha wave that 'duration' is synonymous with 'period' in that case. In the 4th quote, defining 'duration', it even says this outright, &quot;The duration of the cycle of individual components of a sequence of regularly repeating waves or complexes is referred to as the period of the wave&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, looking at the definition of alpha wave where duration in that specific case equals period, solves everything. It's the most intuitive answer. Would it have been better if they had written 'period' instead? Probably. But to pick up on that definitional ambiguity, not see their definition of duration also includes that of period, and somehow claim that this implies people are defining alpha waves for non-cyclic activity is an enormous stretch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The glossary's definition is correct and you can understand the definition of an alpha wave as a wave in the 8-13 Hz band / a wave with a period of 1/8 - 1/13 seconds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23710" LastActivityDate="2020-05-05T07:20:09.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25272" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-05T16:59:17.193" Score="1" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the title states, I would like to get recommendations for some good reads about the brain's reward system, motivation and addiction.&#xA;In particular I'm looking for a book that assumes no neuroscientific background, and possibly provides comprehensive overview of the brain structure, neuroscience glossary, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25938" LastActivityDate="2020-05-05T16:59:17.193" Title="recommendations for good books focusing on the reward system, motivation and addiction" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25273" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25254" CreationDate="2020-05-05T17:52:34.363" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is actually a fairly obscure topic in the history of psychology. According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00606/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a recent paper&lt;/a&gt; (starting with its conclusion), in the early 1940s Cattell mostly reforumulated an idea of Hebb, which the latter obtained by observing the differential effect (on verbal vs non-verbal abilities) of some brain injuries (lobotomies of various kinds actually). After a 20-year hiatus, Cattell published on this again (together with his student Horn) but this time with focus on the fluid intelligence as being &amp;quot;culture-fair&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Cattell's” theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence is Hebb's theory of Intelligence A and Intelligence B, given another name and popularized by Cattell. Cattell's theory was Hebb's idea. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In his 1943 paper, Cattell (1943, p. 179) stated that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hebb (1941c, 1942) has independently stated very clearly what constitutes two thirds of the present theory, for he says that “intellectual power may be needed for the first appearance of the qualitatively superior response, but not necessarily for its persistence” (Hebb, 1942), and “in any test performance there are two factors involved, whose relative importance varies with test: one factor being the lasting changes of perceptual organization and behavior induced by the first factor during the period of growth.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hebb's presentation (Hebb, 1941c) discussed the differences in effects of brain injury on adults and children and the finding that “certain kinds of abilities are less affected by late than by early injury.” While I do not have a copy of Cattell's (1941) APA presentation, I do have the typed version of Hebb's (1941c) in which he presented his ideas on Intelligence A and Intelligence B as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be proposed that intellectual development includes two distinct things: (A) direct intellectual power, by neural maturation, and (B) the development of qualitative modifications of perception and behavior. The first factor is what reaches a peak somewhere around the beginning of adolescence, declining slowly thereafter; the second is the product of the first factor. [Hebb, 1941c, p. 5]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hebb (1942, p. 287) [...] concluded by saying “The contrast is not between intelligence and knowledge, but between capacity to develop new patterns of response and the functioning of those already developed.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two pages that Cattell sent to Hebb for his comments include the definition of fluid and crystallized intelligence as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adult mental ability is of two kinds, which may contingently be called ‘fluid’ and ‘crystallized.’ ‘Fluid’ ability is a truly general ability to discriminate and perceive relations between any fundaments, new or old. Crystallized ability consists of discriminatory response habits built up in a particular field, through the original operation of ‘fluid’ ability, but no longer requiring a true insightful perception for their successful functioning. Intelligence tests test, at all ages, the combined action of fluid and crystallized ability, recording the level of whichever is higher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He continued to say that: “the level of the ‘crystallized’ abilities has been largely determined by the original level of the all-round, ‘fluid’ ability. ‘Crystallized’ ability is thus a dead coral formation revealing by its outlines the limits of the original living process. Loss of any system of discriminatory habits, e.g., through brain injury, is now likely to remain more localized, i.e., to affect general ability less, and to be less remediable. For as the tide of ‘fluid’ ability recedes after adolescence the ‘crystallized’ discriminatory powers persist at a level above that at which the fluid ability is capable of rebuilding them.” (Hebb, 1941-1942, R.B. Cattell to Hebb, September 22, 1941)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hebb showed Cattell's letter to his Head of Department, George Humphrey, and Humphrey then wrote to Cattell that “I do not think however that you should present this as your own hypothesis. It is in essence the theory on which Hebb has been experimenting all the year.” He continued to say that “Some hundreds of A.P.A. members heard Hebb put out the theory at the Evanston meeting, and I hope you will forgive me if I say that I am sure you would do your scientific reputation harm by publishing the paper in the form in which I have seen it, i.e., without giving him credit.” (Hebb, 1941-1942, G. Humphrey to R. B. Cattell, September 24, 1941)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...] Cattell also replied to Humphrey to explain how he developed his theory. He said that “I made what seemed to me a tenable, though possible premature, generalization on his data differentiating the adult abilities which do and do not deteriorate and asked in my last letter if he approved of the passage in which I described this as implicit in his writings.” Cattell went on to say that “The further theories are however quite independent, and to the best of my knowledge were neither in Hebb's paper nor in our after dinner conversation. My views were based on two pieces of evidence not in Hebb's field of research, and I had already discussed them with Thurstone and with Miles. Hebb's third source of evidence fitted in beautifully with these and completed the picture, but two thirds of the picture was already there. Naturally Hebb and I in discussion gained clarifications, but this would have happened if I had discussed the same matter with any other man of Hebb's intelligence and liking for the subject.” (Hebb, 1941-1942, R.B. Cattell to G. Humphrey, September 26, 1941)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, Cattell agreed to credit Hebb, but suggested that he was being generous in doing so: “However, I trust that the revised statement which I have sent to Hebb will be agreeable to both of us, though I confess that on re-reading it I think it goes further in acknowledging priority of parts of the theory to Hebb than my reason alone indicates that it should.” (Hebb, 1941-1942, R.B. Cattell to G. Humphrey, September 26, 1941).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As noted by Horn (1966, p. 554), Cattell did not do any follow-up research on the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence, but “left it on the shelf” until 1963, when he showed that two general ability factors could be derived from factoring culturally embedded and culture fair intelligence test results from a sample of 277 children in the 7th and 8th grades (Cattell, 1963). In this paper he concluded that one of these factors “fits the crystallized ability factor measured in traditional intelligence tests and the other a fluid general ability measured in culture-fair intelligence tests” (p. 20). Cattell's student John Horn continued to develop the theory of crystallized and fluid intelligence (Horn and Cattell, 1966, 1967).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-05-05T18:00:32.603" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25277" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-06T23:34:30.500" Score="0" ViewCount="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a psychological effect I read about that I'm trying to remember the name of regarding people being overly attached to their decisions as being the best, because they made that decision, even if they are proven by facts to be a bad decision. Can anyone remind of the name of this psychological effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person 1: &quot;I bought the [insert product name] and it is better than all other options&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person 2: &quot;That product has actually been proven to be the worst option&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person 2: (Provides factual proof)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Person 1: &quot;No, [insert product name] is the best option there is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25946" LastActivityDate="2020-05-06T23:34:30.500" Title="Definition associated with being attached to your own decisions, even when they are proven bad" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2020-05-07T01:06:13.017" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25279" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-07T02:09:46.527" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was trig the zen breathing meditation technique similar to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324417&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; post instructions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;so i have seen some auto reflex in my mouth like Swallowing reflex, also before have seen some tedx speech which at some part of it the speaker was saying about some auto reflex in &#xA; focusing to some partly upper of Direct line of us sight meditation !! and interpreted it as a gear change of car driver ( driver comes to body and gear change comes to auto reflex), so i like to know more about it and google the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=meditation%20auto%20reflex%20in%20body&amp;amp;oq=meditation%20auto%20reflex%20in%20body%20&amp;amp;aqs=chrome..69i57j33.15648j0j7&amp;amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;amp;ie=UTF-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;meditation auto reflex in body&lt;/a&gt; but don't find any direct link to it, so i don't know is this popular in meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was thinking to work on it if it is common as one of my class project (‌research methodology  course's project), so is there any scientific text about this phenomena in psychology, any tag for search or paper or ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25925" LastActivityDate="2020-05-07T02:09:46.527" Title="Meditation vs auto reflex in body" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;automaticity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2020-05-07T07:45:00.520" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25280" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-07T11:28:15.053" Score="3" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;Axis communications have given guidelines on minimum operational requirements of a camera to allow a human observer to identify, recognise, and detect human subjects (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.axis.com/en-ca/learning/web-articles/perfect-pixel-count/pixel-density&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.axis.com/en-ca/learning/web-articles/perfect-pixel-count/pixel-density&lt;/a&gt;). They have cited the Swedish National Laboratory of Forensic Science, and IEC International Standard IEC 62676-4 in explanation of their recommendations, however i cannot find these specific texts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any peer-reviewed studies that observe the effects of the pixel density of an image on a person's ability to identify, recognise, and detect human subjects (specifically facial)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched various sources, but only seem to find results that address image resolution and face-detection software efficacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25949" LastActivityDate="2020-05-07T11:28:15.053" Title="Objectively defining the image parameters for facial detection, recognition, and identification in digital imagery" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;imagery&gt;&lt;criminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25281" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19336" CreationDate="2020-05-07T19:16:05.630" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the author, in this maze-category the objects are memories (or mental objects). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author references to chapter 3, when discussing the maze-category. Chapter 3 of the book, gives an application to Memory Evolutive Neuronal Systems (MENS). There, a morphism represents a way of relating mental objects. This is a general description. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author gives as examples for the maze-category:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;travel time &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;number of steps needed to go from one mental object to another.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The product &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$P$&lt;/span&gt; of two memories is two memories at once. The concept of a middle point requires that the agent has the memories of both memories. One wall only requires one memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt; can potentially represent any of the points between the two walls. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16980" LastEditorUserId="16980" LastEditDate="2020-05-07T19:28:02.293" LastActivityDate="2020-05-07T19:28:02.293" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25286" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25287" CreationDate="2020-05-08T14:21:08.097" Score="0" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ive randomly thought about a vague idea that perhaps the satisfaction I experience when listening to music is due to my brain correctly predicting a next sound in a sequence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you think that has any theoretical truth to it? If so, what do you think an evolutionary reason to feel satisfaction after predicting a sound?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another observation is that listening to unfamiliar music, for example a classical music sequence, is not satisfying to me. I'm not sure if I can appreciate its beauty that so many people see. What about that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if that's the right place bu I just wanted to share my thoughts. Is there any interesting writing on that? I'm also not sure which tags to use-please feel free to categorise my question or point me to another forum for discussion. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25958" LastActivityDate="2020-05-08T16:13:25.583" Title="Satisfaction from music due to correct prediction of a sound" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25287" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25286" CreationDate="2020-05-08T16:13:25.583" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;That's pretty much the core argument of &#xA;&quot;On the joys of perceiving: Affect as feedback for perceptual predictions&quot; (2015) Chetverikov &amp;amp; Kristjánsson.&#xA;It's a fun read, I think you might enjoy it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously music and other arts pull a bunch of other affect levers as well, not just this one. And &quot;correct predictions&quot; might not be the best way to characterize this particular lever: maybe the pleasure comes from being &lt;em&gt;predictive&lt;/em&gt; rather then &lt;em&gt;predictable&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;cf. Braem, Senne, and Trapp (2019) &quot;Humans show a higher preference for stimuli that are predictive relative to those that are predictable.&quot;&#xA;Familiarity with a music style confounds the two, they both go up as you get a feel for the style. There's obviously &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; going on with curiosity/exploration/novelty also being pleasurable, but I don't think it's clear yet if you get that 'for free' with the predictive account or if an intrinsic reward for exploration should be its own thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, long story short there's some literature that looks a lot like your 'random vague idea', it's incomplete ongoing work, but it sure looks like it might be going somewhere interesting. Enjoy!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2020-05-08T16:13:25.583" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25288" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25156" CreationDate="2020-05-08T18:32:13.913" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;While not a peer-reviewed study per se, but the DSM-5 says that the prevalence of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/special-reports/new-insights-narcissistic-personality-disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Narcissistic Personality Disorder in the population is 6.2%&lt;/a&gt;, or approximately one out of sixteen members of the population (6.25%). The DSM-V was published in 2013 and is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm/feedback-and-questions/frequently-asked-questions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;peer-reviewed text&lt;/a&gt;, so it is within the 10 year criteria you mentioned and this fact is mentioned in more recent sources like an article for Psychiatric Times published in 2016. Another study from 2019 doesn't mention Narcissistic Personality Disorder, but does mention how approximately &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0229876&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3% of the population has Antisocial Personality Disorder&lt;/a&gt;, another disorder that is a common dual-diagnosis with Narcissistic Personality Disorder. Then, there is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430883/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2020 study&lt;/a&gt; that shows 1.6% of people have borderline personality disorder or BPD, which can be associated with a &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/27063/25157&quot;&gt;lack of empathy&lt;/a&gt; and lead to behaviors that can be mistaken for NPD. This is similar to Histrionic Personality Disorder (which doesn't cause people to suffer from a lack of empathy like with NPD, but can appear that way due to how it is difficult for those with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodtherapy.org/learn-about-therapy/issues/histrionic-personality#:%7E:text=According%20to%20a%202018%20study,as%20though%20they%20lack%20empathy.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HPD to recognize the emotions of others&lt;/a&gt; and thus lack emotional intelligence) that affects &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/personality-disorders/histrionic-personality-disorder-hpd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;less than or equal to 2% of the population&lt;/a&gt; according to the  University of Arizona College of Medicine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25157" LastEditorUserId="25157" LastEditDate="2021-05-23T14:35:38.277" LastActivityDate="2021-05-23T14:35:38.277" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25291" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-09T10:49:12.903" Score="1" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was IQ tested with a test battery that was normed 27 years ago when i was 8 (WISC-R)(It was normed 27 years ago when I was 8). My Verbal IQ score was 122 and my Performance IQ score was 130. I found a paper about my contry's Flynn Effect IQ gains. It stated that for WISC-R and WISC-IV, we can expect a score discrepancy of roughly 7 points between Verbal IQ score and VCI score. Similarly, we can expect a discrepancy of roughly 15 points between Performance IQ score and PRI score (WISC-IV is very recently normed in my country.) Given these numbers, this question came to my mind: Can somebody Flynn adjust his/her inflated IQ score and get a reasonably accurate IQ score estimation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25965" LastEditorUserId="25965" LastEditDate="2020-05-09T15:18:47.203" LastActivityDate="2020-05-09T15:18:47.203" Title="Is Flynn adjustment for IQ scores viable?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25292" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24951" CreationDate="2020-05-09T13:54:26.560" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The difference is that ganglion neurons are responding directly to phenomena &lt;em&gt;in&lt;/em&gt; their receptive field. That is, the on-center, off-surround ganglion cells are directly connected to the photoreceptors at the center and in the surround. The explanation for off-surround is that photoreceptors at the periphery will directly hyperpolarize the ganglion cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extraclassical receptive field effects are about explaining how a neuron (e.g., in V1) responds to phenomena &lt;em&gt;outside&lt;/em&gt; its receptive field. That is, it is possible to map the entire portion of the visual field that it is hooked up to, e.g., by passing a stimulus across the visual field and noting all regions where spike trains are evoked by the stimulus. This portion of the visual field is known as the classical receptive field. It turns out that V1 neurons can be influenced by stimuli &lt;em&gt;outside&lt;/em&gt; their classical receptive field. Unlike &quot;end-stopping&quot; in retinal ganglion neurons, this cannot be explained by hyperpolarizing input at the periphery of the receptive field, because the stimulus causing the end stopping is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; in its receptive field in the first place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25372" LastActivityDate="2020-05-09T13:54:26.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25293" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-09T17:11:26.330" Score="2" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, I would like to know what facet regulates these behaviours / cahracteristics of a person:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How loud and fast-talking they are (on average).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Their excitement level (on average).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Excitement seeking &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.testsonthenet.com/Factors-facets.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(1)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.timothy-judge.com/documents/2013-31562-001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cloud.ibm.com/docs/personality-insights?topic=personality-insights-agreeableness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(3)&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensation_seeking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(4)&lt;/a&gt; is defined as facet that tells how much a person seeks excitement, but does it tells how much a person is excited on average? And if not then what facet tells that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24618" LastActivityDate="2020-08-15T03:27:35.270" Title="Excitement level in OCEAN model" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25294" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-09T22:20:17.943" Score="0" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there an evolutionary reason why people care so much about politics? I speculate that it is because in ancestral times, politics was a literal life and death matter. Is there any books about this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6527" LastActivityDate="2020-05-09T22:20:17.943" Title="Is there an evolutionary reason why people care so much about politics?" Tags="&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25296" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25299" CreationDate="2020-05-10T11:36:57.933" Score="3" ViewCount="191" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sorry for a very rookie question. I've got an interest in spiking neural networks and therefore I started learning about different neuron models like Leaky integrate-and-fire, Izhikevich, etc. But then I became interested in the biological nature of all the processes happening &quot;under the hood&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I really don't get at this point in time, is what is happening with the neuron while it is in its refractory state? Most of the sources say something like &lt;code&gt;during the refractory period, a neuron is unable to produce new spikes&lt;/code&gt;. Yes, I get it. But what happens internally? I.e. how the incoming impulses are handled during this time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mean, a neuron is constantly receiving impulses (spikes) from other neurons it's bound with via synapses. So hundreds (or even thousands) of presynaptic neurons will keep sending impulses to our post-synaptic neuron, while it's refracted. What will happen to all these impulses? Will they just become &quot;discarded&quot; somehow? Or will they be still somehow accumulated within the post-synaptic neuron and their influence will be considered later, after neuron comes back to the resting state, in order to produce an action potential? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because, if the incoming signals are discarded, then we are losing the &quot;data&quot; in some sense, which I don't believe is happening in reality. If these signals are accumulated somewhere, what's the maximum capacity of this &quot;somewhere&quot;? What happens in case of overflow? And anyway it would mean that the transfer of the signal within the network gets delayed, and that's quite confusing...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25972" LastActivityDate="2020-05-10T22:23:23.987" Title="What is actually happening with neuron during refractory period?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25298" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25296" CreationDate="2020-05-10T22:15:42.550" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here you are confounding the function of a neuron with its implementation (you might want to read about David Marr's 3 levels of analysis). Functionally you can describe neurons and neural networks using information theory, bayesian modelling, causal networks or any other framework makes sense in what you are studying. However keep in mind that a neuron is a biological object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are 2 kinds of refractory periods caused by 2 separate mechanisms (see image from physiologyweb.com). Firstly because the potassium channels are slower than the sodium channels, there is a time after the spike where the cell is hyperpolarized. The electrical potential of the neuron is lower than its resting potential. This is the relative refractory period where it is harder to make a neuron spike (because you need a higher depolarization to reach spiking threshold). This is well describe by the Hodgkin-Huxley model. On top of that the sodium channels themselves have a refractory period. After being activated they remain inactive until the cell become hyperpolarized. This is the absolute refractory period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/39Rg0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/39Rg0.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To go back to this idea of level of analysis, a model is always a simplification of the world. If you wanted to have an exact model of a neuron you would need to model the ions themselves. Instead if you are interested in the flow of ions you can simply model the gates and their dynamics. If you are interested in the electrical potential you can ignore the gates and use the Hodgkin-Huxley model. If you are interested in the spikes you can simplify it even further and use an intergrate-and-fire model. You can even model only the mean firing rate and so on and so forth. From the point of view of the neuron, or the ions being pumped in and out the neuron, there is no &quot;data&quot; to be processed. All you can say is that it functionally behaves as if it was implementing whatever function you are studying. But keep in mind it will always be imperfect as it is a biological object.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-05-10T22:15:42.550" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25299" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25296" CreationDate="2020-05-10T22:23:23.987" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Prelude&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are thinking far too much about biological neurons as CPUs or some similar electronic equivalent; they are not, they are biological machines and much of the fidelity of biological signal processing comes from massively parallel probabilistic networks with a lot of simultaneous redundancy, rather than serial processing of a stack. Neurons encode information in space (which neurons are firing) and time (when do those neurons fire). There is no biological mechanism for encoding the strength of a signal beyond the maximum firing rate of an individual neuron without considering the ability of a group of neurons to fire together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in biological neurons, I would strongly suggest starting from a basic neuroscience textbook. You will get a lot further learning bottom-up rather than trying to reverse engineer what you know about artificial neural networks and network models in thinking about biology. Two books I typically suggest (any edition of either is probably fine) are &lt;strong&gt;Neuroscience by Dale Purves, and Principles of Neural Science by Eric Kandel&lt;/strong&gt;. You can consider either of those books as references for the rest of this answer, which is all very basic in the context of a first-semester neuroscience course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neurons in space&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurons are not single-compartments (whereas most artificial neural network units are); they extend across non-isoelectric space, so events occurring at the soma/axon hillock are filtered before affecting the dendrites (where inputs tend to arrive). Therefore, &quot;what happens during the refractory period&quot; depends very much on &lt;em&gt;where you are&lt;/em&gt; in the cell. This is addressed a bit in this Q&amp;amp;A: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/10071/does-an-action-potential-abolish-an-excitatory-postsynaptic-potential&quot;&gt;Does an action potential abolish an excitatory postsynaptic potential?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When neurotransmitters bind ligand-gated ion channels, a conductance is opened with some reversal potential. What happens to the membrane next depends on other parameters, in particular the magnitude of other open conductances (or the inverse, the input resistance) and the membrane voltage. Excitatory conductances tend to have reversal potentials near 0 mV, so the closer the cell is to 0 mV the smaller the evoked current will be. During action potentials (at least near the soma, and possibly propagated into the dendrites), the cell is depolarized and has low input resistance due to open voltage-gated channels. Inputs that arrive in that context are indeed going to be blunted if not entirely &quot;wiped out&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Absolute refractory period&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two relevant refractory periods to consider. One called the &quot;absolute&quot; refractory period refers to the period of time during and immediately after an action potential. Action potentials occur due to a positive feedback loop of opening voltage-gated (typically sodium) channels. After opening, these channels &lt;em&gt;inactivate&lt;/em&gt; and cannot be reopened for some time. This inactivation is necessary for an efficient repolarization of the cell back near rest after an AP is fired. These channels need to recover sufficiently from inactivation in order to fire again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Relative refractory period&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After the absolute refractory period, there is an additional interval in which a cell is more hyperpolarized than normal. This state is caused by the voltage-gated potassium channels that are crucial for repolarizing the cell quickly, with the trade-off that the cell is further from threshold for a brief time. The relative refractory period can be overcome with a sufficiently large stimulus, whereas the absolute refractory period cannot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-05-10T22:23:23.987" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25303" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25417" CreationDate="2020-05-11T17:14:56.140" Score="7" ViewCount="189" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see that in the Wikipedia page of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Emotion classification - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;emotion classification&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_desire&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Sexual desire - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;sexual desire&lt;/a&gt; is only mentioned once (in Parrott's tree-structured list of emotion). It is absent from other kinds of classification. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is sexual desire?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Sexual desire is a motivational state and an interest in “sexual objects or activities, or as a wish, or drive to seek out sexual objects or to engage in sexual activities”. Synonyms for sexual desire are libido, sexual attraction and lust. Sexual desire is an aspect of a person's sexuality, which varies significantly from one person to another, and also varies depending on circumstances at a particular time. Not every person experiences sexual desire; those who do not experience it may be labelled asexual. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Emotion - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Emotions are biological states associated with the nervous system brought on by neurophysiological changes variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioural responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. There is currently no scientific consensus on a definition. Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, creativity and motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it seems to me that you can consider sexual desire as an emotion. However, the lack of it in other kinds of classification make me question about that. I think sexual desire is common and basic enough to have a consideration in most classifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2020-06-05T00:12:28.980" Title="Is sexual desire an emotion?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25304" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25303" CreationDate="2020-05-11T17:15:39.827" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia page of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Desire - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;desire&lt;/a&gt; counts it as emotion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Desire is the emotion of longing or hoping for a person, object, or outcome. The same sense is expressed by words such as &quot;craving&quot;. When a person desires something or someone, their sense of longing is excited by the enjoyment or the thought of the item or person, and they want to take actions to obtain their goal. The motivational aspect of desire has long been noted by philosophers (for example, stating that human desire is the fundamental motivation of all human action) as well as by scientists (see motivational salience). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2020-05-11T17:15:39.827" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25305" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18714" CreationDate="2020-05-11T22:12:53.227" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Christine Kenneally asks a number of famous linguists this question and gives all their answers side by side at the end of her book &quot;The first word&quot; (2007). There's not really much consensus! Some say yes, some say no, and there's quite a bit of variety in the justification for each. Plus also some interesting intermediate answers that are something like &quot;yes, but a linguist arriving on the island would immediately notice features of the language suggesting it had a short history&quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is the last chapter for good reason, the rest of the book gives the context for why the answers are so varied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2020-05-11T22:12:53.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25306" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25253" CreationDate="2020-05-12T17:55:05.247" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer is that anyone who gives you a short answer should be treated with suspicion.  ;-p&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_Exchange#Foundation_and_growth&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;StackExchange&lt;/a&gt; was founded in 2008, and has seen a lot of changes since that time.  That has provided the science community with little time to study the phenomenon in much detail.  As such, there are many &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/4925/7001&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;many&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; theories, but little consensus, and no comprehensive model in place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are several related articles on Wikipedia - one thing I can recommend for now, is to keep an eye on them.  Wikipedia tends to be updated with new evidence-based findings over time, so as knowledge progresses, it will likely be featured there:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-generated_content#Motivation_for_creating_UGC&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Motivation for creating user-generated content&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_participation#Motivations&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Motivation for online participation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_community#Motivation&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Motivation for contributing to Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And in particular: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%26A_software#Motivations&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Motivation for contributing to Q&amp;amp;A sites&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Speaking of Wikipedia, it is clear that points and badges are not necessary to motivate contributions, as many crowdsourcing systems succeed without them.  Presumably, social psychology (eg, recognition, identity) plays a big role, as does intrinsic motivation (eg, ideology, curiosity).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, what would happen if such extrinsic rewards were removed is a question about a controversial phenomenon called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overjustification_effect#Gamification&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;overjustification effect&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;... gamification refers to the application of game design elements to&#xA;  non-game contexts ... by providing symbolic rewards such as points,&#xA;  badges, or virtual currency. However, a number of academics and other&#xA;  critics have expressed concern that these rewards may backfire via the&#xA;  overjustification effect. ... these critics of gamification express&#xA;  concerns that gamified contexts ... might provide expected rewards for&#xA;  activities ... and therefore reduce intrinsic interest in those&#xA;  activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, if this effect is real and applicable to the StackExchange, then there is a danger that initially intrinsically motivated contributors might become dependent on the extrinsic rewards over time.  Complicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In reality, like any product or service on the market, StackExchange is subject to market forces, corporate decisions may be influenced by motivational models as well as user feedback, but are often made for other reasons, and therefore its sustainability is not easy to predict.  It is likely the case that the underlying motivational model is multi-faceted, with each aspect of the system contributing to (or detracting from) its success, interacting in a multitude of different ways with individual user attributes, and changing over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-05-12T17:55:05.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25307" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25253" CreationDate="2020-05-12T18:59:07.980" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'll try to answer from the second side, wanting to help others. This, as it were, involves a certain amount of &quot;helping oneself.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1) There is a desire to teach, or help others understand what you know. At some level, many people feel the world would be better off, if there were less &quot;ignorance.&quot; SE provides a chance for you to educate one, or &quot;many&quot; other people on a topic of your choice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2) In seeking to help others, I clarify issues/problems for myself. I (hopefully) come away with a better understanding of the question and answer for myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;3) I get to test my knowledge against that of others with similar interests. Other people will point out things that my answers have overlooked. Queries about my answers from others may force me to &quot;dig deeper&quot; and come to a new level of understanding. And the &quot;reputation&quot; system is a rough measure of how much you have achieved, both in absolute terms, and relative to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastActivityDate="2020-05-12T18:59:07.980" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25308" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23642" CreationDate="2020-05-12T19:11:36.607" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;This phenomenon was at least alluded to by William Strauss and Neil Howe in their book,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0688119123&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;Generations&quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;America had a relatively egalitarian society in the late 1940s, 1950s, and early 1960s, during the rise of the World War II generation, a so-called &quot;civic&quot; type of generation. That was when politics was played &quot;between the 40 yard lines,&quot; that is, around the center, ice cream came in three flavors, there was no political &quot;gender gap&quot; (women were not notably more liberal (or conservative) than men), and houses like those in &quot;Leavittown&quot; were of roughly uniform size and shape &quot;little boxes&quot; made of ticky tacky.&quot; It was in such a &quot;uniform&quot; society that gender differences were most pronounced, perhaps as a &quot;counteraction&quot; against the general uniformity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &quot;Boom&quot; society that followed was the opposite, with &quot;31 flavors&quot; of ice cream, greater racial and social diversity, rising income inequality, a certain amount of social fragmentation. But the one thing that distinguished the Boomers was the narrowing of gender roles, perhaps as a reaction against the rising differentiation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastActivityDate="2020-05-12T19:11:36.607" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25310" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25253" CreationDate="2020-05-12T19:44:34.803" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The Stack Exchange model is based on gamification. Gamified environments typically deploy incremental rewards that tap into the brain's reward system, making these applications addictive, in a quite literal sense. In addition, reputation increases come with incremental gain of moderator abilities, which give a sense of power. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;I agree with Ooker: it is definitely a matter of gamification. But as you already indicate yourself, there's more to it than just reputationincrease. It's the privileges and  moderation tools that become incrementally available when you are climbing the ladder. These tools give users the ability to exert influence, and eventually they even allow changing the content of the site, without much restrictions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gamification is used in a lot of applications. Basically it taps into the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;reward system&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. The reward of providing a good answer is the incremental increase in reputation and badges. What's even better, more rep comes with step-wise increases in moderator tools on the SE network, which basically corresponds to empowerment on the site. Now all these things are powerful motivators. &lt;a href=&quot;https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.com/&amp;amp;httpsredir=1&amp;amp;article=1127&amp;amp;context=cscsp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neyman (2017)&lt;/a&gt; gives a catching account of this phenomenon:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Closely tied to variable rewards, &quot;gamification&quot; is defined in the tech industry as the process of using game mechanics to reward the completion of tasks. Academically, &quot;gamification&quot; has been defined as &quot;a process of enhancing services with (motivational) affordances in order to invoke gameful experiences and further behavioral outcomes.&quot; Experts recommend implementing rewards in small, frequent bits so that the user of an app feels a sense of achievement. They also recommend &quot;sharing loops&quot; that integrate rewards with the users social network by allowing the user to share their accomplishments&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sounds eerily familiar, doesn't it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Stack exchange gamified environment does exactly this: the reputation increase is highly incremental. Reputation increase will give you a sense of accomplishment. With that, the reward centers will release dopamine system, as has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.growthengineering.co.uk/dopamine-the-science-behind-gamification/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;associated with gamified paradigms&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gestaltrevision.be/pdfs/papers/2017/Janssen_et_al_PPT_2017.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Janssen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2017)&lt;/a&gt;. Dopamine makes you feel good &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2958859/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(see for a review Arias-Carrión &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., (2010))&lt;/a&gt;. Eventually you want more and more and you might even be craving it (the constant checking out whether you have gained some reputation), akin to addiction. It's know that social media in general, such as the likes on FB comes with shots of dopamine in the reward system. Exactly this mechanism is the reason people becom eaddicted to drugs like cocaine, heroin, meth, which are all powerful dopamine releasing agents &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00064/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Diana, 2011)&lt;/a&gt;. But also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counselingandintervention.com/addiction.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;alcohol, tobacco, gambling and sex&lt;/a&gt; release dopamine in the reward center and are therefore potentially addictive. I think that gamified activities fall into the same class of dopamine-releasing activities. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why am I answering your question right now? Why not another one? Because I want that bounty, and the associated dopamine rush. Why did I just stop revising my paper to answer this question? Procrastination, yes, but even more importantly, it will yield a reward on the &lt;em&gt;short term&lt;/em&gt;. The reward system is a highly ancient structure, part of our '&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/where-addiction-meets-your-brain/201404/your-lizard-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lizard brain&lt;/a&gt;'. It is highly sensitive to rewards on the short term, bypassing, even short-circuiting our cortical inhibitions that strive to achieve bigger goals that will sustain rewards and happiness on the long run.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lastly, and already shortly hinted at, also in your post, is that reputation increases come with incremental gain of moderation tools. The ability to downvote and close questions give a sense of power, a sense of you controlling this site. An infamous study showing people's lust for power comes from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/an-important-but-rarely-discussed-lesson-of-the-stanford-prison-experiment/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stanford Experiment&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this experiment, an experimental “jail” was set up in the basement of at Stanford University. The prisoners were a group of study subjects, the other half were assigned the role of guards. All subjects were males. The guards tuned from good to evil when the experiment evolved. In the end, they started punishing the prisoners, by denying them food among other quite distressing acts of bruatlity. The prisoners were even (sexually) humiliated and victimized. A lively account is given in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24031990-200-inside-the-prison-experiment-that-claimed-to-show-the-roots-of-evil/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;New Scientist (Perry, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;. What it shows is that people love to be able to exert power over their peers. This in turn, no doubt, will also be fed by the reward system.     &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2958859/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Arias-Carrión &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Int Arch Med&lt;/em&gt; (2010); &lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt;: 24&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00064/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diana, &lt;em&gt;Front Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt;, (2011)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.gestaltrevision.be/pdfs/papers/2017/Janssen_et_al_PPT_2017.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Janssen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Pediatric Physical Therapy&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;29&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 95-99&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.com/&amp;amp;httpsredir=1&amp;amp;article=1127&amp;amp;context=cscsp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neyman, A Survey of Addictive Software Design (2017)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-05-13T13:22:34.320" LastActivityDate="2020-05-13T13:22:34.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25313" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24592" CreationDate="2020-05-13T08:55:57.900" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know, this effect cannot be eliminated by any practical means, other than &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratified_sampling&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stratifying&lt;/a&gt; the subjects into groups according to type of drug, dosage, duration of use &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;. and use statistical testing to look for any differences between the groups with, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.idre.ucla.edu/other/mult-pkg/introduction-to-linear-mixed-models/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;linear mixed modeling&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a cursory search on Google Scholar yields multiple studies where unmedicated folks were successfully recruited into the study, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/42/4/1046/2413960&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kraguljac &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt; (2016)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/42/4/1046/2413960&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kraguljac &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia Bull&lt;/em&gt; (2016); &lt;strong&gt;42&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 1046–55&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-05-13T15:21:06.140" LastActivityDate="2020-05-13T15:21:06.140" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25315" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25317" CreationDate="2020-05-13T15:07:56.293" Score="4" ViewCount="131" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many ways of treating depression, one of which is administering &lt;strong&gt;antidepressants&lt;/strong&gt;. From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/mental-health-disorders/mood-disorders/depression#v27731291&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this site&lt;/a&gt;, and several others, I read that &lt;strong&gt;risk of suicide increases&lt;/strong&gt; after starting an antidepressant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A few people do become more agitated, depressed, and anxious shortly&#xA;  after an antidepressant is started or after the dose is increased.&#xA;  Some people, especially younger children and adolescents, become&#xA;  increasingly suicidal if these symptoms are not detected and rapidly&#xA;  treated. This finding was first reported with SSRIs, but the risk&#xA;  probably does not differ among classes of antidepressants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, simply, &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; is that? These antidepressants work &lt;em&gt;long-term&lt;/em&gt;, but cause strong suicidal thoughts when taken &lt;em&gt;initially&lt;/em&gt;. Does it have something to do with hormones?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25998" OwnerDisplayName="Varsh04802_Lr" LastEditorUserId="25998" LastEditDate="2020-05-30T04:15:20.520" LastActivityDate="2020-05-30T04:15:20.520" Title="Why does suicide risk increase just after starting an antidepressant?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25317" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25315" CreationDate="2020-05-13T19:53:20.253" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This comes from talking to a psychiatrist about the issue:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the effects of depression is a loss of motivation.  In some suicidal individuals, this has the result that they want to die, but can't work up the motivation to do anything about it.  Once they start taking antidepressants, however, the lack of motivation goes away before the depression does, creating a short period of increased suicide risk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25996" LastActivityDate="2020-05-13T19:53:20.253" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25319" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-14T11:01:53.127" Score="0" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is not uncommon to see couples where the two spouses are twenty to thirty years apart in age, that is, one third to one half of a lifetime apart. In such cases, it is much more common for the man, rather than the woman, to be the older. Such people include the current, and some past &lt;a href=&quot;https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/59164/why-wasnt-grover-cleveland-chided-more-gratingly-for-marrying-his-21-y-o-wife/59168#59168&quot;&gt;Presidents of the United States&lt;/a&gt; (and their first ladies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a psychological/neurological basis for this phenomenon? For instance, there appears to be a trait called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergamy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&quot;hypergamy&quot;&lt;/a&gt;, whereby women prefer richer, more &quot;established&quot; men, to a degree that the man is much older. The converse is that men prefer women who are younger, more attractive, and by implication, more fecund. All other things being equal, of course. Are men and women, in fact, believed by experts to be &quot;hard-wired&quot; in the foregoing, or comparable, ways?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="680" LastActivityDate="2020-05-15T00:03:17.293" Title="What's the rationale behind marriages where the man is much older?" Tags="&lt;gender&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25320" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-14T12:40:20.360" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many neurotransmitter receptors are known, for example 5-HT&lt;sub&gt;2a&lt;/sub&gt;, Mu, NMDA, and so on. How have these receptors been discovered?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24652" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-05-14T19:30:36.363" LastActivityDate="2020-05-15T19:58:13.767" Title="How are neurotransmitter receptors discovered?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25321" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25320" CreationDate="2020-05-14T19:28:08.200" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Each receptor has its own story of discovery. I'll share here the methods used by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2012/lefkowitz/facts/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lefkowitz&lt;/a&gt; that led to the discovery of one of the first neurotransmitter receptors, namely the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;β2 adrenergic receptor&lt;/a&gt; (β2AR) from frog erythrocytes in 1981. With this I mean β2AR was among the first receptors that was identified, purified, and characterized both at the protein and DNA level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lefkowitz's team was the first to uncover the charactistics of a neurotransmitter  at the protein and DNA level. βARs are involved in regulating cardiovascular function. Lefkowitz was awarded the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2012/lefkowitz/facts/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Noble prize&lt;/a&gt; for his early pioneering work on the discovery of these receptors. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His method was based on several steps, namely:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The development of a novel and specific &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligand_binding_assay&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;radioligand binding assay&lt;/a&gt; to enable the measurement βAR-binding sites;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The identification of detergents to successfully solubilize a functional βAR from membrane preparations;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The synthesis of an affinity resin and photoaffinity ligands to facilitate receptor purification;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reconstitution of the purified β2AR into phospholipid vesicles;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The demonstration that β2AR couples to, and activates the heterotrimeric G protein Gs and subsequent activation of adenylyl cyclase to produce cAMP;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Purified hamster β2AR was used for peptide sequencing that were subsequently used to synthesize oligonucleotides for cloning studies to isolate β2AR cDNA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After β1AR, Lefkowitz's lab soon purified β1AR, α1AR, and α2AR.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867412013621&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Benovic, &lt;em&gt;Cell&lt;/em&gt; (2012); &lt;strong&gt;151&lt;/strong&gt;(6): 1148-50&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24261196_Historical_evolution_of_the_neurotransmission_concept&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lopez-Munoz &amp;amp; Alamo, &lt;em&gt;Neural Transm&lt;/em&gt; (2009) &lt;strong&gt;116&lt;/strong&gt;: 515–33&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-05-15T19:58:13.767" LastActivityDate="2020-05-15T19:58:13.767" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25322" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25347" CreationDate="2020-05-14T19:34:18.577" Score="1" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;To clarify the question, if you had a chip inside your brain that is sending bytes via wi-fii, bluethoot or other kind of waves, would the encephalogram detect anomalous activity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are the waves amplitude of normal brain electromagnetic activity very different from what a chip sends?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user26002" LastActivityDate="2020-05-20T09:37:06.923" Title="Would an electroencephalogram detect a chip in you brain that is sending signals?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;software&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25324" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25160" CreationDate="2020-05-14T23:33:57.140" Score="-2" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is general intelligence meant to underlie all intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know what you are trying to ask.  Are you trying to ask if general intelligence is the basis of all other intelligence?  If this is what you are indeed asking, the answer is no.  Long ago, scientists thought of g, general intelligence to be a number that encapsulates the sum of all of one's different intellectual abilities.  (I know.  It sounds vague and doesn't sound very scientific.)  I don't think they intended to mean that g was like some precursor to each type of intellectual process and thus, the best indicator of a person's intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Is g, measured by IQ, the basis of a person's intellectual abilities&#xA;  or does a person's overall intelligence lead to a number, g?  Who&#xA;  claims the former and why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I reworded this person's question because it wasn't very clear as written.  I also think the question is almost exactly the same as the first question, except the person also asks who believes in g as the basis of intelligence.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was once a time that most scientists and other experts in the field of intelligence believed in the concept of g, a number that encapsulates all the intellectual abilities of that person into one simple score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As it still happens frequently today, in the early 1990's, there was a remarkable discrepancy in what most scientists believed intelligence was and what popular news articles and media such as movies believed.  (This is a topic for a different question but it amazes me sometimes the huge difference between what scientists believe and what the public believes.  I personally don't think this vast difference just happens by accident.  The information conveyed to the public is usually distorted intentionally.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, going back.  In 1994, scientists in the field of intelligence were shocked by the public's completely backward notions of what intelligence was.  The media was apparently butchering what scientists were saying.  As a result, some 50 leading scientists and experts in the intelligence community signed a list of statements that was published in the Wall Street Journal, expressing dismay at the media's incorrect depiction of intelligence.  This public statement was titled &quot;Mainstream Science on Intelligence&quot;.  It stated facts that were widely accepted by scientists and experts in the study of intelligence.  Some of these statements were:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;IQ can be measured well and IQ tests are very accurate.  &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are different types of intelligence tests but there is only one type of intelligence.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Intelligence tests are not culturally biased.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such outrage by the scientific community!  What a shock!  Why would the media intentionally distort what the real science was?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well, all these questions became moot because something really ironic occurred. &#xA; It was determined that most of the claims made by Mainstream Science on Intelligence were wrong!  It's ironic but no reputable scientist or expert in intelligence &lt;em&gt;today&lt;/em&gt; would ever sign that statement that they had once so confidently signed and published in the Wall Street Journal.  Studies made during and after the 1990's, actually disproved most of the statements in Mainstream Science on Intelligence.  Scientists did a complete 180-degree turn.  The lying media turned out to be right!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What's more ironic is that there are now laypeople who believe in the statements made by Mainstream Science on Intelligence.  Not scientists but laypeople who haven't been keeping up with the science.  They are accepting the statements made in the Mainstream Science on Intelligence as true.  They believe things like IQ is an accurate and precise measure of general intelligence, g.  Or, g actually is a great indicator of how smart a person generally is.  Funny, no?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyway, the original question had asked &lt;strong&gt;who&lt;/strong&gt; claims that general intelligence underlies all intelligence.  I don't think anyone believes this.  I never heard of anyone who believes that there are some group of genes (aka g) that has an effect on all our intellectual abilities and is the factor that mainly accounts for a person's intelligence.  Next question...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I think the question matters a little, because, if it doesn't, then IQ&#xA;  scores are a product of learning and teaching successes, rather than&#xA;  vice versa -- given that ability in any sphere [mathematics e.g.] is&#xA;  not innate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I didn't understand this question.  How did you logically conclude &quot;IQ scores [are] a product of learning and teaching successes&quot; since &quot;IQ scores [are] incorrect representation of intelligence&quot;?  It happens to be true but how did you conclude that from anything you said before or after?  And, what do you mean by vice-versa?  It doesn't make sense.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To set the record straight, there is no such thing as a g that represents the general intelligence of a person.  Just because you are good at one thing, it's been determined that you might not be necessarily good at other intellectual pursuits.  I strongly believe this to be true.  Research has proven it.  And, you personally see instances of this in real life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me also state that an IQ test is also a very inaccurate method to measure intelligence, especially at the tail-end of the distribution on the right side.  Furthermore, please keep in mind that the scientific field of intelligence is actually still in its infancy.  Many basic concepts are still unproven to be true or not.  We are still learning about ourselves.  Current studies include determining what types of events appear in what part of the brain.  It's all so very new.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25753" LastEditorUserId="25753" LastEditDate="2020-05-15T02:39:22.717" LastActivityDate="2020-05-15T02:39:22.717" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25326" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25203" CreationDate="2020-05-15T04:58:10.520" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Duffx,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cognitive bias that you are looking for is called the Overconfidence Bias.  Your description exactly matches its symptoms.  With this bias, &lt;em&gt;an expert&lt;/em&gt; is more likely to be the victim of overconfidence.  This overconfidence, however, is not within the expert's field but within a totally unrelated field in which both the expert and an average layperson have a similar lack of experience. (So, technically, both the expert and a layperson are both laypeople in this field.)  For particular reasons, the expert believes that the prowess in their own field will translate over to or aid them with an unrelated field.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A special feature of the Overconfidence Bias is that the expert's overestimation of his abilities &lt;em&gt;increases&lt;/em&gt; as the difficulty of the task increases. ie. The more difficult/complex the task is, the more confident the expert is that he can complete the task.  Reversely, when the task gets easier, the expert still believes that he can accomplish the task better than an average layperson but his advantage is not as great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below is a passage from the Wikipedia page about the Overconfidence Bias which restates the above.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconfidence_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconfidence_effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The overconfidence effect is a well-established bias in which a&#xA;  person's subjective confidence in his or her judgements is reliably&#xA;  greater than the objective accuracy of those judgements, especially&#xA;  when [their] confidence is relatively high.  &quot;The Role of Individual&#xA;  Differences in the Accuracy of Confidence Judgments&quot;  The Journal of&#xA;  General Psychology. 129 (3): 257–299&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;The key finding is that confidence exceeds accuracy so long as the&#xA;  subject is answering hard questions about an unfamiliar topic.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&quot;This phenomenon is most likely to occur on hard tasks, hard items,&#xA;  when failure is likely or when the individual making the estimate is&#xA;  not especially skilled.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above scenario may initially appear to be the Dunning-Kruger Effect because the expert is indeed a novice in an unrelated field and is overestimating his abilities like in the Dunning-Kruger Effect.  However, with the Overconfidence Bias, the expert overestimates his abilities more than the average layperson does.  Further, the harder the task, the larger the overestimation by the expert.  This particular increase in overestimation will not occur in a normal layperson.  As you can see, the Overconfidence Bias differs slightly but significantly from the Dunning-Kruger Effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25753" LastEditorUserId="25753" LastEditDate="2020-05-25T02:10:04.190" LastActivityDate="2020-05-25T02:10:04.190" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25329" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25218" CreationDate="2020-05-15T14:23:45.007" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't believe that there is a cognitive bias that has been accepted by the scientific community that fits your fact pattern.  You can look for a matching cognitive bias yourself in this list:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconfidence_effect#Better-than-average_effects&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconfidence_effect#Better-than-average_effects&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't see one.  In fact, I don't even think people would believe a celebrity over an educated climate scientist on the current status of climate change.  It may help the person remember the ad or public announcement because a celebrity was the one to announce it but I doubt the credibility of the celebrity exceeds that of the scientist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25753" LastActivityDate="2020-05-15T14:23:45.007" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25335" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-15T22:06:01.027" Score="0" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's well known that the so called &quot;negative symptoms&quot; of schizophrenia are very, very hard to treat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has anyone studied an approach where the patient / participant -- after a successfully completed exercise [reading, working, art, whatever], or perhaps at the end of several / the day -- just phones someone up to talk about what it was like and how they found it. Not for therapy per se: just a &quot;chance to talk&quot;, about what they learnt, what they found difficult etc., rather than trying to target any cognitive changes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am basing this idea that apathy is a response to a lack of &lt;em&gt;shared&lt;/em&gt; meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2020-05-15T22:15:18.973" LastActivityDate="2020-05-15T22:15:18.973" Title="Has anyone trialled this approach to treating apathy / avolition in schizophrenia ['sharing meaning']" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25336" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-16T00:45:21.773" Score="6" ViewCount="102" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any theories in cognitive psychology that try to model the belief in conspiracy theories through the lens of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayes_estimator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bayesian decision theory&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For reference, in Bayesian decision theory a rational agent often behaves so as to minimize its expected (projected) loss.  This expected loss is subjective and involves:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An estimated probability over a set of events (or possible explanations)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The loss the subject individually assigns to or perceives associated with a given event (or explanation)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under this model a rational agent can make decisions as per:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d^* = \underset{d}{\operatorname{argmin}} \mathrm{E}^\pi\left[L\left(\theta,d\right)| \text{D}\right]$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where we have:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$L$&lt;/span&gt; is the (subject's) loss function&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\pi$&lt;/span&gt; is the subject's posterior or prior beliefs over a set of parameters / events / explanations &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\theta$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d$&lt;/span&gt; is the decision the agent is trying to make&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\text{D}$&lt;/span&gt; is the observed data (e.g. available evidence to the subject)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Fear and loss aversion&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One could argue that if a subject assigns a high loss to a specific belief (e.g. a conspiracy theory that the subject is particularly afraid of), the subject may choose to believe it or at least behave as if it was true, even if there is little evidence to support it. In other words, subjects may act and believe in a conspiracy theory out of &lt;strong&gt;fear&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;loss aversion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Side observation: Note that a model where the agent instead maximizes the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;utility&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; it derives from a given belief is mathematically equivalent. Loss (negative utility) and regret minimization are often just used as a canonical model for both.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Ill-conditioned optimization&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a computational standpoint, the optimization (minimization) of the expected loss can be &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condition_number&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;ill-conditioned&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; if the probability &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\pi$&lt;/span&gt; is small (little evidence supporting an explanation) but the assigned loss &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$L$&lt;/span&gt; is large (big implications if true). This could lead different agents to believe and act &lt;em&gt;very&lt;/em&gt; differently depending on how they &lt;strong&gt;approximate&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;optimize&lt;/strong&gt; the above expectation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To illustrate this point, consider a conspiracy theorist arguing: &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;I know there is little direct evidence for [conspiracy theory] X, but &lt;em&gt;what if&lt;/em&gt; it's true?&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;.  This tension could lead the conspiracy theorist to &amp;quot;accept&amp;quot; the theory and behave accordingly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Confirmation bias still applies&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the above still allows a straight bias in &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\pi$&lt;/span&gt; (e.g. evidence selection based on confirmation bias) to heavily influence &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$d^*$&lt;/span&gt;. This Bayesian and subjective model just happens to allow for the subject's perceived &lt;strong&gt;loss&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;utility&lt;/strong&gt; to also contribute to how a given conspiracy theory may shape the agent's behavior, conclusions or beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most interestingly, perhaps, this framework shows that the computation of beliefs and behavior can naturally be very &lt;strong&gt;ill-conditioned&lt;/strong&gt;, so small differences in how different agents aggregate sparse evidence and model their losses can lead them to draw significantly different conclusions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note&lt;/strong&gt;: I'm not familiar with the psychology of conspiracy theories, so apologies if I am missing a trivial connection in the literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="169" LastEditorUserId="169" LastEditDate="2020-07-20T03:45:31.003" LastActivityDate="2020-07-20T03:45:31.003" Title="Bayesian models of conspiracy theorists" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25339" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25343" CreationDate="2020-05-16T08:58:12.023" Score="0" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;We want to present different colors to participants in an online experiment (in an HTML/CSS-based application, hence we'll use &lt;code&gt;RGB&lt;/code&gt; values). More in specific, we want to show red and green colors on grey background.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crucially, we want to do our best to balance all possible factors apart from hue, especially those that might influence emotional (positive/negative) evaluation, so in particular brightness and saturation. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, different models give different results, and the resulting colors can seem (to us subjectively) very unnatural, i.e. not what we would call a typical green or typical red. For example, selecting a red and green similar in lightness and saturation (&lt;code&gt;hsl(h*, 100%, 25.1%)&lt;/code&gt;) would mean red &lt;code&gt;RGB(128,0,0)&lt;/code&gt;(&lt;code&gt;#800000&lt;/code&gt;) and green &lt;code&gt;RGB(0,128,0)&lt;/code&gt;(&lt;code&gt;#008000&lt;/code&gt;), but these seem (on grey background, e.g., &lt;code&gt;#909090&lt;/code&gt;) neither naturally red and green, nor equal in visibility, see e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/O9uWn.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;red here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EUWEI.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;green here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another option is following the CIELCh model, where saturation is calculated as &lt;code&gt;C*/L*&lt;/code&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00426-017-0880-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wilms &amp;amp; Oberfeld, 2018&lt;/a&gt;), a balanced pair could be: &lt;strong&gt;red&lt;/strong&gt; CIE-LCh°(ab) (D65/2°) = 34, 100, 57, &lt;code&gt;rgb(164, 14, 0)&lt;/code&gt; (&lt;code&gt;#A40E00&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;hsl(5.1, 100%, 32.2%)&lt;/code&gt;) and  &lt;strong&gt;green&lt;/strong&gt; CIE-LCh°(ab) (D65/2°) = 34, 100, 150, &lt;code&gt;rgb(0, 103, 0)&lt;/code&gt; (&lt;code&gt;#006700&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;hsl(120, 100%, 20.2%)&lt;/code&gt;). But then the lightness from the HSL model is not equal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course there is also the problem that we cannot know the participants' monitor properties (let alone lighting conditions, etc.), which definitely rules out great precision in this matter, but still that seems the lesser problem: in general the same RGB color setting looks fairly similar on all monitors (again, in our subjective experience).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize that this can never be perfect, but I'm looking for suggestions for a least problematic solution, something that ensures the least possible influence on emotional impact of the color.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A definitive answer would include the possibly most optimal &lt;em&gt;&quot;red&quot;&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;&quot;green&quot;&lt;/em&gt; colors with &lt;em&gt;RGB&lt;/em&gt; values, along with a clear and convincing explanation (and references) about how it was derived (including software or formula if needed).&lt;/strong&gt; An additional &lt;em&gt;blue&lt;/em&gt; value could also be helpful to generalize the concept (and to further test the necessary color code transformations, if any).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25952" LastEditorUserId="25952" LastEditDate="2020-05-17T17:34:51.693" LastActivityDate="2020-05-19T17:56:49.170" Title="Equalize/balance brightness and saturation of different colors using RGB (across various monitors)" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;emotion-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16831" CreationDate="2020-05-16T14:36:08.263" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's this article which I'm unable to obtain:&#xA;&quot;The Psychology of Social Nudism&quot;, Lutzeier, Daniel Paul &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.base-search.net/Record/24284d994ab352ffa7c0fe41386604322d9cd0edfc2a04f7082ffbcac2beadd2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.base-search.net/Record/24284d994ab352ffa7c0fe41386604322d9cd0edfc2a04f7082ffbcac2beadd2/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26014" LastActivityDate="2020-05-16T14:36:08.263" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25343" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25339" CreationDate="2020-05-16T21:54:44.387" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;First I should tell you that controlling for color in an online experiment is hopeless. Monitors display quite different colors, people run experiments in environments that have very different illuminations etc. There is no chance you could display equiluminant colors, which is already hard to do in the best of conditions, in an online experiment. However you can still try to minimize as much as possible variations in luminance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You seem to assume that the RGB value of a pixel is equivalent to luminance. It is not, it is the 8-bits encoding relative to the maximum physical capabilities of the display. The RGB color channels do not have the same luminance. The ratio is roughly respectively &lt;a href=&quot;https://stackoverflow.com/questions/596216/formula-to-determine-brightness-of-rgb-color&quot;&gt;0.3, 0.6 and 0.1&lt;/a&gt;. In other words a green value that roughly matches the most luminant red a monitor can display is only half of that value ([255,0,0] has roughly the same luminance as [0,128,0]). As I said without carefully calibrating your monitor with a photometer there is no way you can display perfectly equiluminant colors online. What you can do is take a RGB space, like the sRGB space, pick 2 colors  that have equiluminance in that space, and assume that it is not too far off on people displays.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saturation is even trickier because it is not a physical quantity you can measure (technically luminance is also based on a standard observer but at least you can relate it to radiant energy). Saturation will depend on which color space you pick. CIELuv, or its polar equivalent CIELch is indeed a reasonable choice. Note that CIELuv requires defining a &quot;white point&quot; (in the values you give it seems to be D65), yet another reason why online color experiments are hopeless. Here I think you are making the opposite mistake as for RGB colorspaces, the L coordinate of the Luv/Lch colorspaces is luminance. So 2 colors that have the same L value do have the same luminance (and the uv/ch coordinates indicate chrominance on an equiliminant plane). However you cannot easily transform CIELuv coordinates to RGB values. You'll need to transform colors back to the CIEXYZ colorspace first, and then to RGB.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally as the specific hue does not seem to be an issue for you, you can always measure equiluminance experimentally. For example using a alternating red and green drifting bars. Pick a red value, start with a very dark or bright green and increase/decrease that value. When colors are equiluminant you should perceive a clear drop in the speed of the drifting bars (the motion pathway is luminance-based).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All that to say, it is good to try to control for possible confounds, but be aware that you will never be able to perfectly control for it. I would personally not worry about it too much. If it is a critical aspect of your experiment try designing a good control condition instead (switch colors for half the observers, or run a subset of observers with colors that are clearly not equiluminant or something like that).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A very good reference on the topic:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.visionlab.harvard.edu/Members/Patrick/PDF.files/2002%20pdfs/equi.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.visionlab.harvard.edu/Members/Patrick/PDF.files/2002%20pdfs/equi.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I used this website to convert CIELuv to RGB values. Results are in the figure below. To get equiluminant colors the L value should remain constant (here I used 34 as the paper you cited). To have equisaturation (assuming the colorspace is correct), the uv coordinate should have the same euclidian distance (sqrt(u^2+v^2)=Cst, here I used 100). I absolutely do not guarantee this is correct. I just googled &quot;CIE-Luv converter&quot; and found this website. Checking if it is correct would be quite time consuming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://colormine.org/convert/rgb-to-luv&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://colormine.org/convert/rgb-to-luv&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yhvsl.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yhvsl.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastEditorUserId="25952" LastEditDate="2020-05-19T17:56:49.170" LastActivityDate="2020-05-19T17:56:49.170" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25345" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-17T07:43:51.340" Score="0" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible for an incompetent person to reevaluate his abilities (to become more realistic about his abilities) when finding about the Dunning-Kruger effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21741" LastActivityDate="2020-05-19T23:22:38.540" Title="Does the Dunning-Kruger effect still work the same if the incompetent person is aware of this effect?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25346" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-17T08:01:33.960" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;From these definitions (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cloud.ibm.com/docs/personality-insights?topic=personality-insights-extraversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.testsonthenet.com/Factors-facets.htm#Extraversion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.timothy-judge.com/documents/2013-31562-001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;) I have concluded that &lt;strong&gt;warmth&lt;/strong&gt; is a facet that describes how much a person is showing warmth and love towards other people (e.g., touching, kissing, saying nice things) and &lt;strong&gt;empathy&lt;/strong&gt; is how much a person sympathizes with the feelings of other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What if you are high in &lt;strong&gt;warmth&lt;/strong&gt; but low in &lt;strong&gt;empathy&lt;/strong&gt;? How would such a person behave? Isn't those facets are somewhat opposite of one another?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24618" LastActivityDate="2020-05-18T07:36:11.647" Title="What if a person is high in warmth but low in empathy?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25347" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25322" CreationDate="2020-05-17T16:56:35.107" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;EEG is commonly band pass filtered in the range of 0.1-1000 Hz at the absolute widest; more often closer to 0.1-200 Hz, or even less. Hence, there is no need to sample at higher frequencies, which would make it harder to store and process the data, given this is the normal range of biological signals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bluetooth and wifi are in the high 100s MHz to GHz range, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, nowhere near the EEG wavelengths. In effect, these signals from cellphones, wireless routers, microwaves, &lt;em&gt;etc&lt;/em&gt;., do not interfere with the EEG.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might pick up lower frequency carrier artifacts, however, depending on the manner of transmission.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-05-18T09:16:13.497" LastActivityDate="2020-05-18T09:16:13.497" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25348" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-17T19:27:06.887" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to prove that a bunch of individuals were (or could be) convinced to be good at something (even really difficult), but it was in fact their illusion of knowledge?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a bit more detail: let's take an average class at school. Let's give them a math teacher, whose way of teaching math is extremely mnemonic, still facing hard subjects. They'll be asked exactly what they were told at lesson, without any reworking demanded. The teacher will assign the highest marks to those students who are able to repeat the better. Will some of them eventually get to believe they are good at math, when in fact they can scarcely ever apply what they're studying or explain the ideas behind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did not find what I was looking for in the Wikipedia &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;persuasion&lt;/a&gt; though. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26017" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-05-18T13:58:55.157" LastActivityDate="2020-05-19T07:13:47.700" Title="Is it possible to convince a group of people that they master something, when they in fact don't?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;persuasion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25349" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26152" CreationDate="2020-05-17T19:54:49.477" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;The article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simpleminded.life/what-makes-aesthetically-pleasing/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;What Makes Something Aesthetically Pleasing? | Simple Minded&quot;&gt;What Makes Something Aesthetically Pleasing? | Simple Minded&lt;/a&gt; lists some way to pleasing your &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Sense - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;senses&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Vision:&lt;/strong&gt; balance, emphasis, rhythm, proportion, pattern, unity and contrast. Along with the visual elements: color, line, shape, value, texture&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hearing:&lt;/strong&gt; loudness, pitch, beat, repetition, melody, pattern, noise&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Touch:&lt;/strong&gt; texture, shape, weight, softness, temperature, vibration, sharpness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Smell:&lt;/strong&gt; sweet, fruity, fragrant, pungent, chemical, woody, minty&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Taste:&lt;/strong&gt; umami, sweetness, sourness, bitterness, texture, pungency&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I want to learn more about &lt;strong&gt;sense pleasing&lt;/strong&gt;, where should I start? Which subfields within psychology or neuroscience research about this? The Wikipedia page of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Sense - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;Sensation&lt;/a&gt; doesn't contain the keyword &lt;code&gt;pleasing&lt;/code&gt;. Searching on Google Scholar with the keyword &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;q=sense+pleasing&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;sense pleasing - Google Scholar&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;sense pleasing&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/a&gt; doesn't yield anything. Two other fields relevant to this are aesthetics and design, but they are just applications of this concept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-07-29T13:32:14.990" LastActivityDate="2020-10-30T16:50:36.870" Title="What keywords to learn more about sense pleasing?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25354" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25355" CreationDate="2020-05-18T23:15:13.483" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Years ago I did a fake wonderlic test on a website getting a bad score mainly because the test server delayed time in between questions but also the questions were harderd and not correctly ordered by difficulty. I did another 2 or 3 tests after then a couple of years later did a real wonderlic test (with different questions) and scored 95th%, im wondering is this score invalid because I did a few practice tests some years before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also the real test included instructions not to spend too much time on one question which made a difference i think.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26029" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2020-05-19T06:33:02.647" LastActivityDate="2020-05-27T00:45:14.010" Title="Is the Wonderlic invalid if you have previously done other intelligence tests?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25355" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25354" CreationDate="2020-05-19T06:42:24.487" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is assumed that most people taking intelligence tests have been exposed to a wide range of assessments in the past. It is a standard feature of education systems that students will do a wide range of assessments, and some of these are more or less like intelligence tests. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many tests even have practice questions for the purpose of increasing validity. The rationale is that some people may perform unnecessarily poorly because they're not familiar with the interface or the general test taking strategy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, no, doing another intelligence test doesn't invalidate your current intelligence test score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, there is an active literature on practice effects. For example, see this question about &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/20177/does-practicing-ravens-progressive-matrices-tests-inflate-your-iq-score?rq=1&quot;&gt;practice effects on Raven's&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a general principle practice effects are generally considered to be small on intelligence tests. The theory of skill transfer says that they will vary on a continuum based on the similarity between what has been practiced and what you are doing now. There also needs to be some capacity for domain-specific learning. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your case, most free online tests that claim to be modelled on the Wonderlic or another commercial test are likely to be a very rough proxy.&#xA;More generally, the Wonderlic has a wide range of question types. Thus, I doubt that even taking an alternate form of the Wonderlic would make much difference to subsequent test taking efforts.&#xA;Also, when you do a test, you typically don't receive feedback on what is the correct answer. So, the capacity for incidental learning is limited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2020-05-27T00:45:14.010" LastActivityDate="2020-05-27T00:45:14.010" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25356" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25348" CreationDate="2020-05-19T06:54:06.147" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question relates a bit to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-efficacy&lt;/a&gt; literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Underlying ability is one cause of self-efficacy. And presumably, there are many mechanisms by which people can form an accurate opinion of their ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, there are various known ways of increasing or decreasing self-efficacy without changing actual efficacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, there is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big-fish%E2%80%93little-pond_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;big-fish-little-pond effect&lt;/a&gt;. Basically, you can increase self-efficacy by putting people in an environment with others who are less capable. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, giving people feedback that they are good or giving people tasks suited to their ability will increase a sense of self-efficacy.&#xA;Some of these strategies are considered effective teaching especially if it helps overcome obstacles related to students even trying. But it can also be problematic if people allocate resources based on an inaccurate belief about their strengths and weaknesses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-05-19T06:54:06.147" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25357" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25345" CreationDate="2020-05-19T07:00:15.707" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;One critique of the Dunning-Kruger effect is that it is just regression to the mean. I.e., there is an imperfect correlation between perceived an actual ability. A consequence of this is that people low in ability will overestimate and people high in ability will underestimate. Of course, in some domains, we also see a leniency bias whereby people in general have an inflated sense of their ability. For a discussion of these interpretations see this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.talyarkoni.org/blog/2010/07/07/what-the-dunning-kruger-effect-is-and-isnt/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;post by Tal Yarkoni&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But in general, there are ways of increasing the correlation between perceived an actual ability. The basic principle is to provide people with feedback on their performance that is accurate. And presumably, it would help to persuade people that it is trustworthy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2020-05-19T23:22:38.540" LastActivityDate="2020-05-19T23:22:38.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25358" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25348" CreationDate="2020-05-19T07:13:47.700" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say this is a matter of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion#Authority&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;authority&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;We have the tendency to believe that if an expert says something, then it must be true. People like to listen to those who are knowledgeable and trustworthy, so if you can be those two things, then you are already on your way to getting people to believe and listen to you. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2020-05-19T07:13:47.700" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25360" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25322" CreationDate="2020-05-20T09:37:06.923" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;EEG electrodes are designed to record the electrical activity of the brain over the scalp. As @Bryan said the frequency of interest is usually less than 200 Hz, although it is possible to record up to 5KHz(e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brainproducts.com/files/public/products/techspecs/BP_AmpsComparison.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BrainAmp&lt;/a&gt;). But we should keep in mind that even in the higher sampling frequencies, it is only recording the electrical potential over the scalp, while the communication devices you mentioned are using electromagnetic fields (Bluetooth and wifi) or radio frequencies (e.g RF modules) for communication, and seems irrelevant to compare these frequency ranges to the sampling rate of the recording device (apples and oranges).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, any electronic device needs the power to run, and your device needs to be supplied with electrical source (i.e. batteries), and depending on how it is powered I think it would be possible to detected it with altered EEG on the electrodes above it. There exist passive implants that do not need external sources of energy to function, but they are not good enough to transfer data at the bitrates you mentioned. Bluetooth and wifi have a lot of power consumption and need batteries to function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To sum up, it depends on how your device is powered, and if there is a source of electrical activity, it will alter the EEG and you can detect it, although, you might not be able to say on which frequency exactly is working on (is it Bluetooth, wifi, RF, etc. ?). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18052" LastActivityDate="2020-05-20T09:37:06.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25362" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-20T03:56:42.540" Score="3" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;In attempt to answer the question: &quot; Have US suicides increased in March/April 2020 compared to 2019 ?&quot;. I've been unable to find any published US data for &lt;strong&gt;either&lt;/strong&gt; 2019 or 2020. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of any published data? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update: Resources already checked:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.americashealthrankings.org/explore/annual/measure/Suicide/state/ALL&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;United Health Foundation&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CDC&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://chapterland.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2017/11/US_FactsFigures_Flyer.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Suicide Facts &amp;amp; Figures&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://afsp.org/suicide-statistics/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;American Soc for Suicide Prevention&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/united-states-population/suicide-rates/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;World Population Review-US&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/datasources/nvdrs/datapublications.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NVDRS (cdc)&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;and of course, Wikipedia&#xA;Common to all of these is that the most recent data is 2018 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26045" OwnerDisplayName="BobE" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2020-05-25T12:36:31.307" LastActivityDate="2020-05-25T12:42:18.297" Title="Source of data for US suicides (by month or quarter) 2019 vs. 2020" Tags="&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25363" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-20T16:52:51.883" Score="1" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;From these sources (&lt;a href=&quot;https://cloud.ibm.com/docs/personality-insights?topic=personality-insights-agreeableness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.timothy-judge.com/documents/2013-31562-001.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.testsonthenet.com/Factors-facets.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;) I have figured out that anxiety and stressfulness are generally defined as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Anxiety&lt;/strong&gt; - Prone to have generalized anxiety, panic, specific phobias, worry as well as feeling tension, nerviousness.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stressfulness&lt;/strong&gt; - Feeling helpless, overwhelmed under stress, pressure or when facing emergency situations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But isn't feeling helpless and overwhelmed cause you to feel anxious? And isn't feeling of helplessness and overwhelmed basically comes from anxiety? When I feel overwhelmed, it basically means that I am very anxious at the moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another definition (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k08aJYvRTCU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;) might be that stressfulness is a proclivity to feeling panic. But isn't panic is just a final stage of being anxious?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between &lt;strong&gt;anxiety&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;stressfulness&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24618" LastEditorUserId="26227" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T02:51:29.847" LastActivityDate="2021-03-01T12:00:40.060" Title="Anxiety vs Stressfulness in the Big Five?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25366" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3693" CreationDate="2020-05-20T20:01:01.803" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there are 3 questions here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) What are the equations of the the cone opponent colorspace? You answered the question yourself, it is literally additions and subtractions of the response of the 3 types of cones. Note that this is an approximation, more than 10 pathways composed of over 80 cell types have been identified. There are also some small controversies, like that it is unclear whether the S cone contributes to the luminance axis or not. This specific colorspace is called the DKL colorspace. It has been shown by Derrington, Krauskopf &amp;amp; Lennie (hence the name) to account extremely well for the activity of cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus (a relay between the retina and the primary visual cortex). However it is not a very meaningful colorspace perceptually speaking. It is a linear transformation of the LMS cones colorspace, thus as shown by Erwin Schrodinger they are indistinguishable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A depiction of the DKL colorspace from the psychopy documentation.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fQ8S1.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fQ8S1.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) Where are the rods? Well rods are not thought to contribute to color perception. A simple demonstration of that is that at low-lights levels (called scotopic vision) you lose the ability to discriminate colors. The reason is that rods are more sensitive than cones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3) How to relate a monitor RGB  colorspace to the DKL colorspace? As I said the LMS colorspace and the DKL colorspace are linear transformations of each other. This is also true for the CIEXYZ colorspace, and any RGB colorspace. The LMS and DKL colorspaces are based on a standard observer from the CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage, a committee that fixes standards for anything related to visual displays): 2 sets of measurements of the cones sensitivity functions agreed so well that they were averaged and the result was decided to be a &quot;standard observer&quot;. The XYZ colorspace is based on a somewhat arbitrary transformation of these spaces. In any case any of these spaces can be recovered from any of the others using a simple matrix multiplication. transformation matrices for standard colorspace (LMS, DKL and XYZ) are known and can be found on the internet. For a specific monitor you would need to measure its properties and compute it yourself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Derrington, A. M., Krauskopf, J., &amp;amp; Lennie, P. (1984). Chromatic mechanisms in lateral geniculate nucleus of macaque. The Journal of physiology, 357(1), 241-265.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schrödinger, E. (1994). On the relationship of four-color theory to three-color theory. Color Research and Application.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-05-20T20:01:01.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25367" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25391" CreationDate="2020-05-21T03:59:24.920" Score="-1" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;If one had sufficient control of the correct institutions, how difficult would it be to create a &quot;pandemic&quot; that is simply a result of the nocebo effect? In other words, can the nocebo effect have such far-flung consequences as described below?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example (this may not be completely accurate, just something from a biology noob), let's assume that one entity controlled all sample testing locations and decided to return a result for 90% of people with the flu or some common disease saying that have Virus. Let us also assume that there is a paper published about VirusX saying that it has CommonDisease-esque symptoms but more serious and deadlier. Would it be possible to enough people display the nocebo symptoms that it becomes newsworthy, causing people to unexpectedly come down with &quot;VirusX&quot; even though this is just the nocebo effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just to clarify, I do not think Covid-19 is fake. For anyone who does, I would highly recommend a visit to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the CDC's&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the WHO's&lt;/a&gt; website to convince yourself otherwise. This is simply a thought experiment to help better understand the implications of the nocebo effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26042" LastEditorUserId="26042" LastEditDate="2020-05-21T04:14:47.590" LastActivityDate="2020-05-27T05:54:01.420" Title="Nocebo Viral Epidemic" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25370" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-22T06:48:12.573" Score="2" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you do heavy exercise like running, your heart rate, and breathing increases, is it because of the sympathetic nervous system controls it? Or the Sympathetic nervous system only activates on the fight-flight situation? Or is the exercise considered a fight-flight situation by our brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24911" LastActivityDate="2020-05-25T04:28:31.870" Title="Is exercise considered a 'fight-flight' situation by our brain?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25371" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25370" CreationDate="2020-05-22T09:53:24.197" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The sympathetic nervous system's primary process is to stimulate the body's fight-flight-or-freeze response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;homeostasis&lt;/a&gt; (Brodal, 2004).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The heart rate and breathing increase is needed for homeostasis due to the need for more blood oxygen and fuel by the muscles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brodal, P. (2004). &lt;em&gt;The Central Nervous System: Structure and Function&lt;/em&gt; (3 ed.). US: Oxford University Press. pp. 369–396. ISBN 0-19-516560-8.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-05-22T09:53:24.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25373" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4856" CreationDate="2020-05-22T17:50:51.117" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My point&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;I find that it is fair to say men benefit from casual sex encounters more than women. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Evidence&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;In the Penguin publication the &quot;Red Queen&quot; by Matt Ridley, he writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Throughout our evolutionary history, men and women have faced different sexual opportunities and constraints. For a man casual sex with a stranger carried only a small risk - infection, discovery by the wife - and a potentially enormous reward: a cheap addition of an extra child to his genetic legacy. Men who seized such opportunities certainly left behind more descendants than men who did not. Therefore, since we are by definition descended from prolific ancestors rather than barren ones, it is a fair bet that men possess a streak of sexual opportunism. Virtually all male mammals and birds do, even those that are mainly monogamous... men are more likely to be tempted by an opportunity for casual sex than women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, Ridley states that because men who were more promiscuous left more offspring. Modern men too posses a streak of sexual opportunism inherited from their ancestors. &#xA;On the other hand, he writes of women:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Women are likely to be different. Having sex with a stranger not only encumbered a Pleistocene woman with a possible pregnancy before she had won the man's commitment to help rear her child, but it also exposed her to probable revenge from her husband if she had one, and to possible spinsterhood if she did not. These enormous risk were offset by no great reward. Her chances of conceiving were just as great if she remained faithful to one partner and her chance's of losing the child without a husband's help were greater. Therefore women who accepted casual sex left fewer rather than more descendants, and modern women are likely to be equipped with a suspicion of casual sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This provides an evolutionary explanation as to why the two sexes behave differently. However, Ridley does account for social pressures writing:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A modern women is exposed to pressure from men to be sexually uninhibited, but she is also exposed to the same pressure from other women. Likewise, men are under constant pressure to be more 'responsible', sensitive and faithful - from other men as well as well as from other women.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So he also acknowledges that this could be skewed by people pressuring women to be more promiscuous and men to be less so. However, I found conflicting evidence to one of Ridley's assertions: that men are not as pressured by other men to avoid casual sex. Personally, I agree with the conflicting evidence, which can be found &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books?q=social+pressures+against+casual+sex#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=social%20pressures%20against%20casual%20sex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; under the title: &quot;Social Psychology and Human Sexuality: Essential Readings&quot;, page 156. I quote:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Of particular interest was the fact that the male peer groups agreed to support each other in their efforts to obtain sexual experiences during the vacation, whereas the female peer groups were more likely to agree to support each other in refraining from sex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Discussion of above evidence&lt;/strong&gt; Taking the arguments and research above into account, I would say that in terms of genetic legacy men benefit more in that they are able to have more offspring from casual sex, without having to raise them. Socially it is difficult to say, for example, women, who are caught having casual sex, may be rejected by their partners, who don't want to raise a child that isn't there own, and thus have no support in raising the potential offspring. Also, looking at the evidence above, it seems that their friends don't support casual sex and thus they may be scolded or even rejected by them. However, I have inferred this from the evidence and cannot say with certainty. There could also be repercussions for males, for example, would a prospective female partner want to reproduce with a male whom she knows has had casual sex with multiple women? What's to say they won't do it again? So, it is possible that social repercussions also would happen for men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusion&lt;/strong&gt; As a final concluding argument, I will say: casual sex has more genetic benefits for men, as it is an easy opportunity to extend their genetic legacy. The full social repercussions are unclear for both sexes, however, it is likely both sexes face negative repercussions, if found out. Both sexes can potentially face negative consequences but the male will always earn the greatest potential benefit from casual sex: new offspring, with no parental investment on his part.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26050" LastEditorUserId="26050" LastEditDate="2020-05-22T19:19:26.753" LastActivityDate="2020-05-22T19:19:26.753" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25375" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-23T08:19:24.160" Score="2" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's this &lt;a href=&quot;https://old.reddit.com/r/technology/comments/259w7p/mysleepbutton_a_new_app_that_could_help_you_fall/chf5yi8/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;technique&lt;/a&gt; called? Any evidence? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;I'll make it easier. Visualize the word Red. In big red letters. Examine your creation but don't judge harshly. After a few seconds, switch to the word Blue, in blue letters. Then again with Green. Now repeat the sequence or feel free to wander off into any pattern of colors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This is how it works. You can't think and feel at the same time (by feeling I mean any of the senses including vision) so exercising your vision causes your brain to shut down. You can do the same by listening intently, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;This has usefulness beyond relaxing enough to fall asleep. I have a theory that high level problem solving requires switching to feelings. We feel our way through tough problems because conventional thinking is too tedious, inefficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;BTW, you now know how to meditate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6479" LastActivityDate="2020-06-05T17:33:47.733" Title="What evidences this technique of visualizing different color words in sequence, to help you sleep?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25378" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-24T02:09:25.823" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if there has been study on the difference of effect of red vs green ambient light on human sleep. This is specifically in the interest of choosing between red or green alarm clock digits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found a similar study that compares green and blue, but not green and red: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/06/160608154233.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/06/160608154233.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because green is an inhibitory signal to our brains, I would expect it would be better for sleep, but I personally find red to be feel the least intense, so I’d like to know if any study has been done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26060" LastEditorUserId="26060" LastEditDate="2020-05-24T03:41:45.190" LastActivityDate="2020-05-24T03:41:45.190" Title="Effects of Red vs. Green ambient lighting on sleep" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25381" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-24T19:39:22.547" Score="2" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;A friend was complaining to me the other day about a anonymous survey that they started to answer online which made them feel as if the survey was making negative presumptions about them which led to their not completing the survey.  I was wondering if there was a specific term for this sort of situation, where the nature of the survey may alienate or drive away answers of it, and if there was any standard procedures the creator of a survey was expected to do to minimize this outcome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To protect their privacy I won't go into the nature of the specific survey my friend was upset about, but to give an example of what I'm talking about let's make up an example of a survey that is directed at individuals that view pornographic stories with themes that may be considered non traditional or even anti social like rape, sadism, incest, etc.  This theoretical survey starts with questions that ask things like if the answer was abused as a child, if they came from a broken home, and other generally considered 'negative' childhood experiences, follows by a list of questions about what methods the participant may use to distract themselves from their interest in the material, followed by asking if the answer is a registered sex offender and what issues they had with the law, and finishes with a bunch of questions about how likely they are to engage in the activity in real life and what laws/legal practices are most likely to prevent them from doing so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The implication of questions in this theoretical survey is that these individuals are a danger to society who can barely control their urges and likely to break the law by acting out the behaviors they are reading about if they haven't done so already.  Meanwhile one of the participants of the survey may argue that just because they read pornography with this content doesn't mean they have any intent on acting on it, any more then watching a violent action movie is going to cause them to go out on a murder spree.  The individual answering  this survey may thus become angered by the content of the survey which they feel is making unfair presumptions or judging them and thus either fail to complete the survey or modify their answers based off of feelings that the survey is 'judging' them, for instance claiming to view the material less often or to get less enjoyment out of the material then they really do because they are left feeling guilty for consuming the material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a specific term for this potential problem?  Lets say that the nature of the information your trying to collect means that all the listed questions above made sense to ask a participant, are there techniques or approaches that it's recommended one use to minimize the likelihood of upsetting or alienating the individual taking the survey when asking these questions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26068" LastActivityDate="2020-05-24T19:39:22.547" Title="Is there a term for a situation when questions in an anonymous survey may alienate the answers of the survey?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25382" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25370" CreationDate="2020-05-25T04:28:31.870" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03345606&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intense exercise elevates levels of cortisol&lt;/a&gt;, which is the primary stress hormone. However, since this intense exercise usually only lasts for a short time (except maybe for ultra-marathon runners), it is considered &lt;a href=&quot;https://exploreim.ucla.edu/mind-body/defining-stress/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;acute rather than chronic stress&lt;/a&gt;. Other &quot;intense&quot; activities, like sex, also elevate levels of stress hormones. This just goes to show you that some stress is good. Generally, only chronic stress is bad (or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brief very intense stress from trauma&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18785" LastActivityDate="2020-05-25T04:28:31.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25383" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25362" CreationDate="2020-05-25T09:32:13.027" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;At the time of writing this answer, suicide data is not publically available post 2018&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;CDC’s &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/fatal.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WISQARS™ (Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System)&lt;/a&gt; is an interactive, publically accessible, online database that provides fatal and nonfatal injury, violent death, and cost of injury data from a variety of trusted sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The CDC &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/fatal_help/data_sources.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;states&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;Mortality data come from the National Center for Heath Statistics (NCHS), CDC annual mortality data files. NCHS mortality data are derived from the Multiple Cause of Death data. For more information, contact NCHS at (301)436-8500 or nchsquery@cdc.gov — or visit the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/nchs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NCHS website&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The National Death Index (NDI) service has death records added annually, approximately 10-12 months after the end of a particular calendar year. This information is &lt;em&gt;available to investigators solely for statistical purposes in medical and health research&lt;/em&gt;. The service is &lt;strong&gt;not accessible&lt;/strong&gt; to organizations or the general public for legal, administrative, or genealogy purposes. To access the NDI service, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ndi/index.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;you need to complete an NCHS application form&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The final 2018 NDI file is available for both NDI Routine searches and NDI Plus searches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;Early Release File&lt;/em&gt; for 2019 is now available for searching. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ndi/completion_status.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;See completion percentages by state&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;Early Release File&lt;/em&gt; is now updated quarterly. The current searchable version will always be the most recent version.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) in an agreement with the National Association of Public Health Statistics and Information Systems (NAPHSIS) implemented a restrictive rule for publically reporting National Vital Statistics System (NVSS) state- and county-level death data for years 2008 and later, in order to avoid inadvertent disclosure of cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-05-25T12:42:18.297" LastActivityDate="2020-05-25T12:42:18.297" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25367" CreationDate="2020-05-27T05:54:01.420" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A historical example of what you describe is the 14-17th centuries &quot;dancing manias&quot; where hundred of people would start dancing to exhaustion for no apparent reasons. Sometimes causing death. There are many case studies of mass psychogenic illness, you'll find examples in the wikipedia page of this topic. Note that this is typically the default diagnostic: because there seem to be no biological cause for the mass illness, it is assumed to be of psychogenic cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've also found 1 paper testing this question explicitly (ref below). They brought groups of participants to a research center supposedly &quot;to test the side effects of a new carrier compound for an antiviral medication&quot;, a placebo participants had to ingest. In a &quot;Pill&quot; group actors feigned to feel suddenly sick with flu-like symptoms. In a &quot;Pill+Media&quot; group participants also then viewed a 1h long documentary on the 1918 flu epidemics. Both groups were compared to &quot;control&quot; group without pills, without actors, without the documentary. Experimenters assessed the participants well-being in different ways, both physiological and psychological. They found far more reported symptoms (by a factor of 11) in the 2 experimental groups than the control group, but not more in the Pill+Media than the Pill alone group. They also found no difference in the physiological variables between groups (heart rate and blood pressure). It's a hard experiment to conduct and it seems reasonably well done (although I'm admittedly not very knowledgeable in social psychology). It suggests that it is quite easy to induce psychogenic symptoms in an otherwise healthy population. However medias didn't seem to increase the effect (at least a documentary about a 100 years old epidemics, and at such a short term) and there seem to be no physiological effects of the nocebo stimulus (again, at least at such a short term).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancing_mania&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancing_mania&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Broderick, J. E., Kaplan-Liss, E., &amp;amp; Bass, E. (2011). Experimental induction of psychogenic illness in the context of a medical event and media exposure. American journal of disaster medicine, 6(3), 163.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-05-27T05:54:01.420" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25392" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24167" CreationDate="2020-05-27T07:37:18.217" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This would be a combination of couple of things, dependant upon what type of &quot;activity&quot; you are referring to. It can be broken up into two aspects, the physical and the cognitive aspect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cognitive aspect is your mind becoming &lt;strong&gt;&quot;unconsciously competent&quot;&lt;/strong&gt; of completion of the activity. There are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_stages_of_competence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;4 measureable stages of competence&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; involved in the process of progressing from incompetence to competence in a skill. When your activity becomes a &quot;background&quot; task, you have reached unconscious competence in the task in reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The physical aspect has to do with &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;procedural memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which is a type of &lt;strong&gt;implicit memory&lt;/strong&gt;. Procedural memory is created through procedural learning, or repeating a complex activity over and over again until all of the relevant neural systems work together to unconsciously produce the activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25777" LastEditorUserId="25777" LastEditDate="2020-05-27T07:48:31.607" LastActivityDate="2020-05-27T07:48:31.607" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25393" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-27T11:52:32.410" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm designing a psychology experiment in which we're interested in how working memory load affects performance in a theory-of-mind task. Independent variable is working memory load, dependent variable is theory-of-mind task performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In our within-subjects design, we have 2 working memory conditions (high load and low load). We have 2 stimulus sets (one for each working memory condition, counterbalanced across participants) to prevent carry-over effects between working memory conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that performance in our task is driven not only by working memory condition, but also by stimulus set to a large extent. My colleague believes this can be dealt with using mixed models. However, I have some doubts about taking this approach, and would rather take the time to adjust the stimulus sets so that performance within each subject is as comparable as possible between both stimulus sets (under the same working memory condition).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I were to take my colleague's advice, would there be any issues for example with power? And are there resources that you could point me to so that I can understand this issue better?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: There were some questions about sample size and analysis setup. I'm aiming for around 40 participants, but have only just started collecting data. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To clarify, I'm not against using mixed models per se, but I'm wondering: 1) whether there might be a loss in power which is proportionate to the imbalance in effects between the two stimulus types, 2) whether I may need to take steps to compensate for this loss in power, and 3) if so, what steps to take (e.g., is there a way to calculate, roughly, how many more participants I would need given a certain effect size for stimulus type? Or is there perhaps a smarter way to set up the analyses?). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The analysis setup is to perform a linear mixed model, with dependent variable as proportion of correct responses, with fixed effects as working memory load (high vs. low), stimulus type (set 1 or 2), and their interaction, and with mixed effects as intercepts for subjects and items. Then we'd compare this fit with fit of a reduced model without these fixed effects. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this clarifies my question, and appreciate help answering the 3 questions stated in my edit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26085" LastEditorUserId="26085" LastEditDate="2020-05-28T18:15:57.243" LastActivityDate="2020-05-29T13:40:50.070" Title="Power issues with mixed models" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25399" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25393" CreationDate="2020-05-29T13:40:50.070" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could you maybe check in simulation?&#xA;I'm a huge fan of the workflow described here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://betanalpha.github.io/assets/case_studies/principled_bayesian_workflow.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://betanalpha.github.io/assets/case_studies/principled_bayesian_workflow.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are asking question #3 of 4, the &quot;inferential adequacy&quot; one, right? Can you run some simulations with varying 'true stimulus-set gap' and just see how big a gap you can tolerate with your design?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You don't need to know the true data generating process to do this, generating responses from the model tells you something useful about the model+design setup, in this workflow reality has to wait until question #4. Also an important question, but checking against reality comes &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; passing the tests you're talking about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although you don't need to know how people actually come up with their responses, you &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; need to be Bayesian enough to be comfortable putting priors on all the parameters. If it's important to convince a colleague with the results, might be worth checking that's not a dealbreaker for them!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2020-05-29T13:40:50.070" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25400" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-29T13:51:05.850" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let's say there are two political parties, Lion and Tiger.&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One day, major news media reports on some study showing steady growth of Tiger supporters over Lion in the past few years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this reinvigorate Lion voters, pushing more centrists to vote Lion, and more Lion voters to come out to the polls? Or does it convince Lion voters they're a lost cause, and turn centrists toward Tiger? It seems there would be a strong effect in one of the two directions, but I don't have any good intuition around which way it would lean. Has this been studied, and what do the data say?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Footnotes:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I chose animals out of a desire to minimize association with actual political parties. Letters and numbers have an order to them, and if I said Party A and Party B, there's some implicit notion of superiority to A because it uses the letter A. The same holds with 1 and 2. You'd be shocked at the amount of thought that went into these hypothetical party names :)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12897" LastActivityDate="2020-05-29T13:51:05.850" Title="Are voters driven more by a winning position, or a losing position?" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25402" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-29T22:16:21.920" Score="0" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been asking myself &lt;strong&gt;what the whole point of psychotherapy is&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my understanding it is pretty much a way to understand the past and the present through a mixture of mindfulness + assessing different perspectives through guided questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;post-relationship break up trauma: trying to understand what really went wrong and the benefits of moving forward&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;childhood long-term trauma: going back to the &quot;painful&quot; moments and realizing how they affect the way we are in the present&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does psychotherapy really work like this? If so, isn't this simply a form of rationalization?&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;If the answer was yes and yes, I am asking myself how this really helps &quot;fixing&quot; emotional trauma - what I experienced in my life is that this methodology provides relief so we can build new memories and habits, but the emotional part staying there, forever and re-emerges very painful, weakening you once again.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26100" LastActivityDate="2020-05-29T22:16:21.920" Title="Does spaced &quot;rationalization&quot; repetition overcome trauma?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;trauma&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25403" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25404" CreationDate="2020-05-30T08:07:32.470" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider the following situations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You are walking along a narrow ledge overlooking a void.  You know you should not look down but .. you do&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;You have an annoying little morsel of food stuck between your teeth.  You know very well that trying to prise it loose with your tongue is a futile effort.  But you still do it...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am in the process of putting the finishing touches to a game where the natural tendency of the player to perform actions that will result in scoring points will in fact result in a smaller win.  Everything in the game play push the player to force an early win with a low score.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to review any studies of such phenomena in psychology so I can leverage a more value into the overall player experience.  Reactance comes close to describing what the player is naturally pushed to do but not quite... .  Are there any other effects of the same ilk that might come closer?  If so, are there any good studies of what drives/amplifies these effects?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19016" LastActivityDate="2020-05-30T09:08:19.043" Title="Any other studied psychological phenomena like reactance?" Tags="&lt;video-games&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25404" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25403" CreationDate="2020-05-30T09:08:19.043" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You may wish to look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000222&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Steindl, et al. (2015)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This paper presents an overview of research into Reactance that has been done since Miron and Brehm's 40 years review (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1024/0044-3514.37.1.9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2006&lt;/a&gt;) of all research since Brehm first proposed reactance theory (1966).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brehm J. W. (1966). &lt;em&gt;A theory of psychological reactance&lt;/em&gt;. New York, NY: Academic Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miron A. M. &amp;amp; Brehm J. W. (2006). Reactance theory – 40 years later. &lt;em&gt;Zeitschrift Für Sozialpsychologie/Journal of Social Psychology, 37&lt;/em&gt;(1), 9-18. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1024/0044-3514.37.1.9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1024/0044-3514.37.1.9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Steindl, C., Jonas, E., Sittenthaler, S., Traut-Mattausch, E., &amp;amp; Greenberg, J. L. (2015). Understanding psychological reactance: New developments and findings. &lt;em&gt;Zeitschrift fur Psychologie/Journal of Psychology, 223&lt;/em&gt;(4), 205-214.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000222&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000222&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="-1" LastEditDate="2020-06-17T09:55:31.633" LastActivityDate="2020-05-30T09:08:19.043" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25406" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-30T15:30:14.517" Score="0" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any data on distribution of various levels of need for cognition (like intelligence, that from my understanding is said to follow the normal distribution)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Specifically, I'm interested in knowing how common &quot;high&quot; need for cognition is (I marked it in quotation marks as I understand there's no well-defined metric for it - please correct me if I'm wrong).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26103" LastActivityDate="2020-05-30T15:30:14.517" Title="Need for Cognition - Distribution in Population" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;&lt;needs&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25407" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-31T00:59:54.640" Score="0" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand how our brains - neurons or other chemical processes work in regards to learning/ memorizing and understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found a lot of &quot;theoretical&quot; discussions on the topic- e.g. learning is memorizing, and understanding is knowing how to apply something. But none of them talked about the actual process in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26108" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-05-31T18:12:58.737" LastActivityDate="2020-05-31T18:12:58.737" Title="Neurotically, what is the difference between learning/memorizing and understanding?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25408" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-31T07:45:58.373" Score="0" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there any known ways to improve short-term/working memory? To allow it to retain more information, to allow it to retain that information longer despite distraction/loss of focus on that information, and to improve the accuracy of retention of any temporarily stored information?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, in the case of mental math, I at least personally frequently encounter the problem of not being able to hold working numbers in memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say for instance that someone recites two simple three digit numbers to add together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;346+857&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If my goal is to hold these numbers in the front of my mind, that's doable only by repeatedly reciting them to myself either vocally or mentally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if I want to actually process these numbers, I will immediately encounter the problem that I now have to work with a new, sort of buffer number, where I add together parts of the previous two numbers until I get the result.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the process used here is woefully inefficient, and even ineffective, because every time I start processing these numbers (e.g. adding parts of them together) the actual numbers, besides the parts being processed will fly out of the forefront of my mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To illustrate what it at least feels like is happening in the short term memory it would go something like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;346+857&#xA;346+857&#xA;346+857&#xA;346+857...&#xA;3+8=11&#xA;346+857&#xA;11&#xA;4+?&#xA;346+857&#xA;4+5=9&#xA;?...&#xA;11 (if lucky)&#xA;119&#xA;346+857&#xA;119&#xA;6+?&#xA;346+857&#xA;6+7=14 (hello human error)&#xA;346+857&#xA;119&#xA;14&#xA;11...&#xA;1204 (one misstep in the over 20 steps leads to a wrong result)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And this is generously assuming that I only cock up that one thing, and do not forget the initial 2 numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is however abundantly clear I believe that this is not only inefficient but also ineffective since there is a very high chance of error, as I would have to repeatedly recall the initial two numbers, while repeatedly recalling my buffer number, and then in-between recalling the working-parts of the initial two numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just for simple addition, the chance of inaccurate results is already inexcusably high and the amount of time it takes is also, subjectively speaking too high, I mean this might take a whole 30 seconds easily, maybe more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This all leading me to wonder if there are any known methods to increase the accuracy and capacity of short-term/working memory so that this kind of inefficient disaster could be avoided?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8222" LastActivityDate="2020-05-31T07:45:58.373" Title="Are there any ways to improve short-term/working memory?" Tags="&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;&lt;mnemonic&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25409" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-05-31T20:59:21.340" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was aware about a term called Sublimation. Recently, I came along a word called Cathexis. After looking for its meaning in the dictionary, I realised, that it is not the synonym of Sublimation despite the meaning being quite similar. How do I differentiate between  Sublimation and Cathexis? Are there any similarities as well?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26111" LastActivityDate="2020-07-01T11:07:30.823" Title="Sublimation &amp; Cathexis" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25411" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25409" CreationDate="2020-06-01T02:02:32.370" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would say subliminal is more cognitive, while cathexis is more emotional, though can be triggered/catalysed cognitive or subliminal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subliminal is hard to define though, and cathexis from the field of psychoanalysis is kind of speculative. However there is obviously some kind of mechanism occuring, and having good words for the phenomenas occuring in the brain is useful, but prone to misunderstandings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The wikipedia article is useful: &#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathexis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathexis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26004" LastEditorUserId="26004" LastEditDate="2020-06-01T10:36:06.153" LastActivityDate="2020-06-01T10:36:06.153" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25415" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6228" CreationDate="2020-06-01T06:54:02.223" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is often assumed that the five factors are theoretically orthogonal (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199352487.013.20&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199352487.013.20&lt;/a&gt;).  In practice, the the five factors are highly correlated; however, this is usually ignored in favour of the assumed theoretical orthogonality. An alternative explanation is that the correlation has been ignored due to the absence of a better model in which the dimensions are biologically based and strictly orthogonal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more recent development posits a two-dimensional taxonomy in which the dimensions (affiliation and dominance) are strictly orthogonal.  The biological basis for these two dimensions are identified in the research (affiliation/oxytocin/Putamen) and (dominance/testosterone/Prefrontal cortex). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-01T06:54:02.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25416" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24920" CreationDate="2020-06-01T13:20:46.167" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Taxonomic classification seeks to identify similarities and differences between entities to assist in conceptualizing and communicating (Bailey, 1994). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rouse (2004) discusses Motivational Systems Theory which seeks to explain why we strive to perform, a component of which is learning, understanding and communicating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bailey, K. D. (1994)&lt;/strong&gt; Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences: Typologies and taxonomies. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10.4135/9781412986397&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Rouse, K. A. G. (2004)&lt;/strong&gt; Beyond Maslow’s hierarchy of needs what do people strive for? Performance Improvement, 43(10), 27–31. doi:10.1002/pfi.4140431008 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-01T13:20:46.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25417" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25303" CreationDate="2020-06-01T13:41:39.630" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sexual desire, libido, horniness, titillation, lust and eroticism are all listed as emotions in the Atlas of Personality, Emotion and Behaviour (Mobbs, 2020).  In the atlas taxonomy, emotion is defined the perception of a neurological impulse that initiates behaviour (typically abstract nouns).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The full catalogue is available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.4792323&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.4792323&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-05T00:12:28.980" LastActivityDate="2020-06-05T00:12:28.980" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25419" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15534" CreationDate="2020-06-01T14:13:59.713" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Plutchik's model is certainly visually appealing; however, the two dimensions of the model have no neurological or biological basis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Atlas of Personality, Emotion and Behaviour (Mobbs, 2020) is an alternative with an established neurobiological basis.  The atlas catalogues over 3,000 emotions which include vigilance.  Alternative emotions would include: alertness, caution, diligence, attentiveness, observance, and watchfulness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A visualisation of the atlas is shown below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UiwyM.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UiwyM.png&quot; alt=&quot;Example personality traits, emotions and behaviour applicable to each cell in the atlas&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plutchik, R., &amp;amp; Conte, H. R. (1997). Circumplex Models of Personality and Emotions. American Psychological Association.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-01T14:13:59.713" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25420" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25131" CreationDate="2020-06-01T22:44:32.233" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: Most literature reviews and meta-analyses on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_direct-current_stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive enhancement from tDCS&lt;/a&gt; have found some promising effects, but it is too early to tell which specific effects will replicate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... there is mixed evidence about whether tDCS is useful for cognitive&#xA;enhancement in healthy people. Several reviews have found evidence of&#xA;small yet significant cognitive improvements.  Other reviews found no&#xA;evidence at all ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For examples of at least partially favourable reviews, covering many hundreds of studies, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2014.01.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brunoni &amp;amp; Vanderhasselt (2014)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.07.083&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Coffman, Clark &amp;amp; Parasuraman (2014)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2015.06.013&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Price et al (2015)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2016.04.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dedoncker et al (2016)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1558-x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dedoncker et al (2016)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2015.10.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hill, Fitzgerald &amp;amp; Hoy (2016)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00956&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mancuso et al (2016)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2015.11.004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Summers, Kang &amp;amp; Cauraugh (2016)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2015.11.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hashemirad et al (2016)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28559804&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Weinberger, Green &amp;amp; Chrysikou (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2016.1176986&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Martins et al (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57379-3_25&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Katsoulaki, Kastrinis &amp;amp; Tsekoura (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-016-0004-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Strobach &amp;amp; Antonenko (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-016-0006-z&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schroeder et al (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0974-360X.2017.00064.6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ali, Mansoury, &amp;amp; Samaneh (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-016-0005-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schroeder &amp;amp; Plewnia (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-017-0010-y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reteig et al (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57505-6_8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sellaro, Nitsche &amp;amp; Colzato (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00167&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lucchiari, Sala &amp;amp; Vanutelli (2018)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbz130&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Huo et al (2019)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.109814&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mayer et al (2020)&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroenhancement#Transcranial_direct_current_stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Stimulation protocols:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One notable exception is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2015.01.400&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Horvath, Forte &amp;amp; Carter (2015)&lt;/a&gt;, which found no evidence of cognitive enhancement from tDCS.  Aside from the criticisms that this review has received (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2015.06.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2015.03.007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2015.03.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;), it did serve to highlight certain issues within this field.  A few more recent reviews concur: eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000396&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barti et al (2020)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2018.11.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Galli et al (2019)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reasons for the mixed results found in some reviews may be that many &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00453&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;studies are under-powered&lt;/a&gt; (see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2017.06.021&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Medina &amp;amp; Cason (2017)&lt;/a&gt;), or &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-017-0007-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not long enough&lt;/a&gt; (see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.07.031&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Westwood &amp;amp; Romani (2017)&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More importantly however, tDCS interventions are still in an exploratory phase, and protocols are &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00157&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not yet established and consistent&lt;/a&gt; across studies.  There is variability in stimulation location, polarity, intensity, definition, and arrangements.  Thus, studies reporting null results do not necessarily indicate ineffectiveness - rather, they may just be setting boundaries on effective protocols.  Time will tell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This issue is further exacerbated by the potential specificity of protocol to task and possibly even to individuals.  Although the likelihood of 20 years of research involving numerous experiments by many independent labs being found entirely spurious is fairly low, it is too early to tell which findings will ultimately pan out.  As many of the literature reviews conclude: More replication is desperately needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2020-08-06T15:58:15.610" LastActivityDate="2020-08-06T15:58:15.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25422" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24879" CreationDate="2020-06-02T12:35:23.943" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Negative to positive suggests a linear scale between negative and positive.  The literature does not seem to support such a one dimensional scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a two-dimensional taxonomy that has the personality descriptor 'negative' in cell (-2,-2) and positive in (2,2), which suggests a diagonal line on the two-dimensional plane that best represents negative to positive (Mobbs, 2020).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The words are scored and sorted in accordance with the atlas as follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L2BkP.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/L2BkP.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-02T12:35:23.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25425" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8626" CreationDate="2020-06-03T00:03:58.890" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;These are the best words I could find using the atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour (Mobbs, 2020).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;being able to recognize and name one's emotions&lt;/strong&gt;: self-aware, self-observant, reflective, contemplative.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;being able to recognize and name other people's emotions&lt;/strong&gt;: empathic, compassionate, understanding, sensitive, sympathetic.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;being able to understand the root cause of certain emotions&lt;/strong&gt;: wise, perceptive, insightful, discerning, astute.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;being able to keep calm in the middle of strong emotions&lt;/strong&gt;: self-governing, self-restrained, temperate, level-headed, dispassionate, balanced.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-03T00:03:58.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25426" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="81" CreationDate="2020-06-03T03:36:01.793" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my experience, employee engagement equates to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the willingness of the individual to expend discretionary effort to achieve goals,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the loyalty of the individual towards the employer, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the willingness of the individual to creatively solve problems faced by the employer. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-03T03:36:01.793" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25428" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="332" CreationDate="2020-06-03T14:46:03.997" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;If viewed through the lense of the Five Factor Model, the decision to do nothing (the Zero option) may be encompassed by the negative valence of 'Openness to Experience' or the negative valence of 'Extraversion'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who would take the zero option in the scenario outlined would be people:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;who are less open to experience (trying a new venue), and/or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;who are less extraverted and so less interested in mingling with others.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I think the scenarios outlined involves selection bias.  The author of the question is associating with people whose personality is more aligned with positive valence Extraversion and/or positive valence Openness to Experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-03T14:46:03.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25429" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-03T15:03:51.877" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know very little about neuroscience and psychology, but I am curious about how our understanding of thought fits into our picture of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thoughts, as I understand them, are a kind of internal speculation; they often come in the form of an internal voice or perhaps as mental images. I can, for example, think in verbal language (which contains propositions and such), or I can imagine a picture of mountains—this, of course, being all in my own mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could it make sense to say, then, that thoughts serve as a kind of internal sensory data? My theory is that perhaps the brain projects processing as a kind of internal sense (thoughts), from which it can extract new data and continue processing—this being more efficient than information processing without a kind of feedback loop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this ever articulated as a theory of thought? Otherwise, what is the neural/psychological basis for how thoughts arise and are used by the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26124" LastActivityDate="2020-06-03T15:03:51.877" Title="Are thoughts a kind of internal sensory data?" Tags="&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25430" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-03T16:08:54.947" Score="0" ViewCount="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to design a survey containing a set of health psych vignettes, demographics, personal factors like political leaning and two other questionnaires on other attitudes. Does anyone know if I should have my vignettes first, at the end, or in the middle? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many thanks, &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;O. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26123" LastActivityDate="2020-06-03T16:08:54.947" Title="What order for vignettes and measures in a survey?" Tags="&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25431" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-03T20:32:38.097" Score="2" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been looking for a chart/table of Valence and Arousal values from the advanced Russell's model such as the one referenced in this article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/50805681_Asymmetrical_Facial_Expressions_based_on_an_Advanced_Interpretation_of_Two-dimensional_Russells_Emotional_Model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/50805681_Asymmetrical_Facial_Expressions_based_on_an_Advanced_Interpretation_of_Two-dimensional_Russells_Emotional_Model&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm unable to find anything that isn't a picture, and what I'm really looking for is a table/spreadsheet with the emotions and the valence/arousal values for each emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a source for this that I can reference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26125" LastActivityDate="2021-03-01T05:02:35.293" Title="Looking for a source for Valence/Arousal values Russell's advance circumplex model of emotion?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25432" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25431" CreationDate="2020-06-04T03:49:57.643" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Circumplex models of emotion with the dimensions 'arousal' and 'valence' are not grounded with neurobiological support.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is however an alternative 'atlas' model with two dimensions that does have neurobiological support (Mobbs, 2020).  The atlas model uses the dimensions of 'affiliation' and 'dominance' with broad emotional categories as shown below.  The atlas is supported with a catalogue of over 3000 emotions each with precise coordinates. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RlvmC.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RlvmC.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The facial expressions for each location in the atlas is shown below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XlVxa.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XlVxa.png&quot; alt=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877.g005&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLOS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-04T03:49:57.643" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25433" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23601" CreationDate="2020-06-04T04:18:24.680" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour catalogues over 3,000 emotions (Mobbs, 2020).  The atlas's approach taken to identifying and cataloguing the emotions was to start with existing lists of emotions and then using thesauri to identify synonyms and antonyms of emotions, which are themselves likely to be emotions. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I expect that over time, existing emotions will be subdivided into more specific variants which will then need to accepted by the curators of each dictionary.  At the point these variants are included in dictionaries, the new emotion will be deemed to discovered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLOS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-04T04:18:24.680" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25436" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="5163" CreationDate="2020-06-04T23:54:54.697" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Several explanations could apply crossing psychology and linguistics:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cognitive&lt;/strong&gt;: It is perhaps bold to suggest that there could be a perfectly constructed error message. Reading comprehension and interpretation is impacted by a diverse array of cognitive processes, including literal, inferential and evaluative cognitive processes(Basaraba et al., 2013). Despite having comprehensive vocabulary and general knowledge, individuals may still encounter difficulties with text comprehension due to metacognitive deficits with memory and reading strategies(Oakhill et al., 2015), diversity of cultural background(Yousef et al., 2014), and developmental opportunity(Paris &amp;amp; Hamilton, 2009). Given the extensive array of cognitive processes required to comprehend text, it is not surprising that a range of interpretations will exist, no matter how well constructed the response is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Opportunity cost&lt;/strong&gt;: The amount of time an individual will devote to solving the conundrum of the error message is dependent on their other priorities(Kurzban et al., 2013). The individual is unlikely to know in advance how much time it will take to comply with the error message, so they are likely to make assumptions.  If the opportunity cost associated with the estimated time is less than the value the individual estimates is associated with other opportunities, then they are unlikely to respond in the manner expected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Learned behaviours&lt;/strong&gt; will also be involved.  If the user has learned from prior interactions that the same result can be achieved through non-compliance, then they are likely to repeat this learned behavior in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition to the above, self-efficacy(Bandura &amp;amp; Locke, 2003) and embarrassment avoidance(Jiang et al., 2018) may have a role to play. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bandura, A., &amp;amp; Locke, E. A. (2003). Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited [Review of Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited]. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(1), 87–99. psycnet.apa.org. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.1.87&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.1.87&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basaraba, D., Yovanoff, P., Alonzo, J., &amp;amp; Tindal, G. (2013). Examining the structure of reading comprehension: do literal, inferential, and evaluative comprehension truly exist? Reading and Writing, 26(3), 349–379. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9372-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9372-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jiang, L., Drolet, A., &amp;amp; Scott, C. A. (2018). Countering embarrassment-avoidance by taking an observer’s perspective. Motivation and Emotion, 42(5), 748–762. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-018-9673-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-018-9673-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kurzban, R., Duckworth, A., Kable, J. W., &amp;amp; Myers, J. (2013). An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36(6), 661–679. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X12003196&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X12003196&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oakhill, J. V., Berenhaus, M. S., &amp;amp; Cain, K. (2015). Children’s reading comprehension and comprehension difficulties. In A. Pollatsek &amp;amp; R. Treiman (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Reading (pp. 344–360). Oxford.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paris, S. G., &amp;amp; Hamilton, E. E. (2009). The Development of Children’s Reading Comprehension. In S. E. Israel &amp;amp; G. G. Duffy (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Reading Comprehension (pp. 32–53). Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yousef, H., Karimi, L., &amp;amp; Janfeshan, K. (2014). The Relationship between Cultural Background and Reading Comprehension. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(4). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.4.4.707-714&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.4.4.707-714&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-04T23:54:54.697" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25438" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-05T15:35:43.130" Score="2" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my understanding, many newer antipsychotics (e.g. olanzapine and quetiapine) are considered to have an anti-depressive effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Olanzapine:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For olanzapine I found this on wikipedia: &quot;it [olanzapine] is superior [to haloperidol] for the treatment of negative and depressive symptoms.&quot; &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Quetiapine:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is approaved by the FDA for treating Bipolar Depression&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For quetiapine I read that &quot;antagonism of the 5HT2A receptor in the frontal cortex of the brain relieves negative symptoms.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is the anti-depressive effect (relieve of negative symptoms) in the above quote stated to be archieved through contra-intuitive antagnism of the 5-HT receptor? And is the anti-depressive effect of newer antipsychotics archieved through their agonistic effects on some 5-HT receptors (5-HT5A for olanzapine&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; and 5-HT1A (partial-agonist) for quetiapine&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a significant anti-depressive effect to newer antipsychotics? If yes, how is it explained?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;References:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Abou-Setta AM, Mousavi SS, Spooner C, Schouten JR, Pasichnyk D, Armijo-Olivo S, et al. (August 2012). &quot;First-Generation Versus Second-Generation Antipsychotics in Adults: Comparative Effectiveness [Internet]&quot;. PMID 23035275.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychopharmacologyinstitute.com/publication/quetiapine-indications-fda-approved-and-off-label-uses-2112&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psychopharmacologyinstitute.com/publication/quetiapine-indications-fda-approved-and-off-label-uses-2112&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;Dev V, Raniwalla J (October 2000). &quot;Quetiapine: a review of its safety in the management of schizophrenia&quot;. Drug Safety. 23 (4): 295–307. doi:10.2165/00002018-200023040-00003. PMID 11051217.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;Roth BL, Driscol J. &quot;PDSP Ki Database&quot;. Psychoactive Drug Screening Program (PDSP). University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the United States National Institute of Mental Health. Retrieved 14 August 2017.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;Jensen NH, Rodriguiz RM, Caron MG, Wetsel WC, Rothman RB, Roth BL (September 2008). &quot;N-desalkylquetiapine, a potent norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor and partial 5-HT1A agonist, as a putative mediator of quetiapine's antidepressant activity&quot;. Neuropsychopharmacology. 33 (10): 2303–12. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301646. PMID 18059438.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;Schotte A, Janssen PF, Gommeren W, Luyten WH, Van Gompel P, Lesage AS, et al. (March 1996). &quot;Risperidone compared with new and reference antipsychotic drugs: in vitro and in vivo receptor binding&quot;. Psychopharmacology. 124 (1–2): 57–73. doi:10.1007/bf02245606. PMID 8935801.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26135" OwnerDisplayName="Arch Linux Tux" LastEditorUserId="26135" LastEditDate="2020-06-05T16:42:58.297" LastActivityDate="2020-06-05T16:42:58.297" Title="Explanation of anti-depressive effect of newer antipsychotics" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25439" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25375" CreationDate="2020-06-05T17:33:47.733" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Imagery Distraction&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The technique referred to is called 'imagery distraction' (Harvey &amp;amp; Payne, 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some evidence has been found for “imagery distraction” being associated with shorter sleep onset latency and less frequent and distressing pre-sleep cognitive activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The success of the “imagery distraction” task is attributed to it occupying sufficient “cognitive space” to keep the individual from re-engaging with thoughts, worries, and concerns during the pre-sleep period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The type of imagery seems less important.  So visualizing coloured words should be equally as effective as counting sheep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harvey, A. G., &amp;amp; Payne, S. (2002). The management of unwanted pre-sleep thoughts in insomnia: distraction with imagery versus general distraction. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(3), 267–277. doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00012-2 &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-05T17:33:47.733" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25440" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-06T05:47:20.530" Score="3" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bell_Curve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, an empirical study arguing for IQ correlations with success, genes and race apparently sparked a big controversy in the US since 1992 when it was first published. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The central thesis of writers Richard J. Hernstein and Charles Murray is that intelligence is partly a genetically inherited property and that there are meaingful differences in average IQ between East Asians, White Americans, and African Americans due to their different ethnicities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read there have been a lot of critical literature in response to this. But has there been any conclusive statement on this question 26 years after the publication of this work? As a non-specialist I find reading through the massive literature around the work to be daunting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20341" LastEditorUserId="20341" LastEditDate="2020-06-06T16:45:04.697" LastActivityDate="2020-06-06T16:45:04.697" Title="Any conclusive statement on the controversial book The Bell Curve" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25442" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-06T12:17:51.083" Score="5" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;Robert Trivers argues that we deceive ourselves in order to better deceive others, in part because self-deception can reduce unconscious body signals of lying (von Hippel &amp;amp; Trivers, 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On Wikipedia, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-deception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Self-deception - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;self-deception&lt;/a&gt; is criticized for &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;...not being able to account for why evolutionary selection for lying would allow a body language that gives away lying to exist instead of simply selecting for lack of such signals. (Ekman, 2006; Damasio, Evans &amp;amp; Cruse, 2004) ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the main arguments against this criticism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;von Hippel, W., &amp;amp; Trivers, R. (2011). The evolution and psychology of self-deception. The Behavioral and brain sciences, 34(1), 1–56. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X10001354&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X10001354&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ekman, P. (Ed.). (2006). Darwin and facial expression: A century of research in review. Ishk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Damasio, A. R., Evans, D., &amp;amp; Cruse, P. (2004). Emotion, evolution and rationality. William James and the modern neurobiology of emotion, 3-14.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24337" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-06-07T10:10:47.813" LastActivityDate="2020-06-07T10:10:47.813" Title="Why is self-deception necessary to better deceive others?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;deception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25443" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-07T01:14:05.580" Score="2" ViewCount="259" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a sample problem with the answer I am stuck on:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; According to the elaboration likelihood model, which of the following does NOT predict whether a message will be persuasive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;A.  The length of the message&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   B.  The attractiveness of the person delivering the message&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   C. The truthfulness of the message&lt;br&gt;&#xA;   D.  The trustworthiness of the person delivering the message&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;  &#xA;  &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Answer:&lt;/strong&gt; The correct answer is C. According to the elaboration likelihood model, the truthfulness of the message itself is not actually a characteristic used to determine whether a message will be persuasive (choice C is correct). The message characteristics (including length) do predict persuasiveness (choice A is wrong), as do the source characteristics (including the attractiveness and the trustworthiness of the person delivering the message; choices B and D are wrong).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wouldn't the truthfulness of the message still be a factor, since it is a characteristic of the message itself (via the central route with message characteristics)? I get why the other answers are wrong. I don't get why C is correct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26142" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-06-08T09:01:57.000" LastActivityDate="2020-11-06T08:07:10.753" Title="Why does the Elaboration Likelihood Model not account for truthfulness of the message?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25444" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-07T03:06:19.330" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;Michael Stevens/VSauce summarized one aspect he realized after a 3 days isolation experiment as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;.. being able to talk to people and share my experiences - I realized how&#xA;  important that was.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;  &lt;strong&gt;If you only have your own experiences, you are&#xA;  not fully having them. You have to have someone else to listen to them&#xA;  and react to them, and then you've fully experienced them&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ref: &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/iqKdEhx-dD4?t=31m55s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/iqKdEhx-dD4?t=31m55s&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this idea?   &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess this idea and related concepts have been postulated in social psychology or social philosophy before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26143" LastEditorUserId="26143" LastEditDate="2020-06-11T16:13:22.940" LastActivityDate="2020-06-11T16:13:22.940" Title="Concept of shared experience" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25446" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-07T08:01:04.223" Score="0" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember reading a text written by Jacques Lacan, stating that if an object suffers a change (however small) in a person's view, his unconscious enters an unsafe state. Does anybody know the reference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25930" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2020-06-07T23:09:43.923" LastActivityDate="2020-06-07T23:09:43.923" Title="Which text by Lacan states this?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25447" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-07T16:24:48.833" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for some research on how / whether the 'observer effect' and 'observer bias' affects personality questionnaires. I recently completed the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.16personalities.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;16Personalities&lt;/a&gt; test, a series of questions that drops you into a list of 16 personalities and gives a horoscope-like explanation of who you are.  I realised that I answered the questions based on my perception of my personality, and not necessarily what I would do. So if I think of myself as an introvert then I'm more likely to answer 'I am highly likely to feel awkward at a party.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then I read this article about how &lt;a href=&quot;https://getpocket.com/explore/item/23-signs-you-re-secretly-a-narcissist-masquerading-as-a-sensitive-introvert&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;narcissists can sometimes masquerade as sensitive introverts&lt;/a&gt; - known as covert narcissists. What's to stop a covert narcissist from skewing their 16personalities answers to reflect a more pleasing view of themselves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think there is a bias issue with running a questionnaire in which you are both the observer and the subject, observing your own personality and giving responses that fit your perception of yourself. I was wondering whether anyone could point me to articles or research that look deeper into the observer effect in personality questionnaires.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help would be great!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26146" LastActivityDate="2020-06-07T16:24:48.833" Title="Any good research on observer effect and personality tests?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25448" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25363" CreationDate="2020-06-07T18:39:34.570" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Your question indicates that your research indicates a close association between stress and anxiety. I've tried a few different approaches to separating these terms but with limited success.  Investigation included a review of:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Concomitant literature&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Biological associations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Personality disorders&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lexical relatedness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Concomitant therapies&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Concomitant literature&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/gasc20/current&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Journal of Anxiety, Stress &amp;amp; Coping&lt;/a&gt; is dedicated to anxiety and stress, which indicates that they are very closely related topics.  The aims of the journal include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;understanding of the relationship between psychological and physiological processes during stressful and anxious states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Google scholar identifies over 3 million articles concurrently including stress and anxiety, indicating some level of association or correlation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Biological associations&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Stress and anxiety appear to be associated in heart disease (Chauvet-Gelinier &amp;amp; Bonin, 2017).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Neuropeptides have been identified that concurrently relate to stress and anxiety (Heilig, 2004; Cohen, 2012).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Personality disorders&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), lists the adjustment disorders (page 286) concurrently with stress and anxiety.  Interestingly, the DSM lists the word 'stress' 237 times and 'anxiety' 1280 times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Lexical&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Oxford and Collins dictionary lists &lt;em&gt;anxiety&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;stress&lt;/em&gt; as synonyms.  Merriam Webster lists them as near synonyms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One definition of synonym is that you can use two words interchangeably in a sentence without loss or alteration of meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anxiety and stress are both abstract nouns and emotions, being able to be used in the sentence:  &amp;quot;I feel a sense of &lt;em&gt;anxiety&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;I feel a sense of &lt;em&gt;stress&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The curators of the Oxford and Merriam Webster dictionaries appear to believe that anxiety and stress are closely associated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My own research is in the lexical analysis of personality, emotion and behaviour (Mobbs, 2020).  The words stressed and anxious can be visualised as follows.  It is visually apparent that the terms are highly related, possibly synonyms.  The question mentions Big-5; both anxious and stressed are in the region of the atlas denoted by the Big-5's neuroticism dimension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/36HNO.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/36HNO.png&quot; alt=&quot;Anxious and Stressed: Visualised according to the Atlas of Personality, Emotion and Behaviour&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Therapies&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A range of therapies appear to be targeted at concurrently dealing with stress and anxiety, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Group therapy (White, 1992)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Talk therapy,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Cognitive behavioral therapy (Hopkinson, 2019)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dialectical behavior therapy (Fitzpatrick, 2019)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Music therapy (Umbrello, 2019)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Physical exercise (Mikkelsen, 2017)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chauvet-Gelinier, J. C., &amp;amp; Bonin, B. (2017). Stress, anxiety and depression in heart disease patients: A major challenge for cardiac rehabilitation. Annals of physical and rehabilitation medicine, 60(1), 6-12.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mikkelsen, K., Stojanovska, L., Polenakovic, M., Bosevski, M., &amp;amp; Apostolopoulos, V. (2017). Exercise and mental health. Maturitas, 106, 48-56.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;White, J., Keenan, M., &amp;amp; Brooks, N. (1992). Stress control: a controlled comparative investigation of large group therapy for generalized anxiety disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 20(2), 97-113.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopkinson, M. D., Reavell, J., Lane, D. A., &amp;amp; Mallikarjun, P. (2019). Cognitive behavioral therapy for depression, anxiety, and stress in caregivers of dementia patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Gerontologist, 59(4), e343-e362.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fitzpatrick, S., Bailey, K., &amp;amp; Rizvi, S. L. (2019). Changes in Emotions Over the Course of Dialectical Behavior Therapy and the Moderating Role of Depression, Anxiety, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Behavior Therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Umbrello, M., Sorrenti, T., Mistraletti, G., Formenti, P., Chiumello, D., &amp;amp; Terzoni, S. (2019). Music therapy reduces stress and anxiety in critically ill patients: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Minerva anestesiologica, 85(8), 886-898.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heilig, M. (2004). The NPY system in stress, anxiety and depression. Neuropeptides, 38(4), 213-224.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cohen, H., Liu, T., Kozlovsky, N., Kaplan, Z., Zohar, J., &amp;amp; Mathé, A. A. (2012). The neuropeptide Y (NPY)-ergic system is associated with behavioral resilience to stress exposure in an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37(2), 350-363.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs, A. E. (2020). An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PloS one, 15(1), e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-20T06:14:27.307" LastActivityDate="2020-06-20T06:14:27.307" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25452" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-08T11:13:31.840" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;That is if my entire brain gets modeled both atom by atom and functionally in a virtual environment, then would my replica be considered artificial?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26099" LastActivityDate="2020-06-08T11:13:31.840" Title="If everything that I do gets represented statistically, then would my non biological version be considered real or artificial?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2020-06-19T09:48:20.480" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25453" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-08T12:56:01.323" Score="0" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've read tons of articles about how moving our bodies is going on. BUT I've found some part of topic just IGNORED. ALL authors just pass the part &quot;our brain generates the signal&quot;. I have been trying to find the answer for 1 week and found nothing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it an unanswered question in neuroscience? Or they just skip because they don't know, or it is so trivial question and only I cannot understand it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because in order to depolarize the neuron it should open ion channels by our wish. E.g. I wanna move my leg up, just because I can. My brain opens ion channels just because I want it. My will should be like physical power isn't it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26150" LastActivityDate="2020-06-08T12:56:01.323" Title="How a signal is generated by the brain when we want to move a body" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="10" ClosedDate="2020-06-08T19:39:35.817" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25454" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-08T15:01:30.247" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;When comparing the stress level of today's life to earlier times, intuition may say: The world is so much more complex today, of course, it's more stressful now. But there is certainly a bias in the intuition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any estimations on how &quot;hard&quot; or stressful life was when we lived in small tribes, compared to today in a city?  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4799" LastActivityDate="2020-06-19T02:47:19.153" Title="How stressful was life when we lived in small tribes, in comparison to today?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25456" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-08T21:02:49.173" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Dialectical_behavior_therapy#section_Overview&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia's article about DBT, in the overview section&lt;/a&gt; it says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In DBT's biosocial theory of BPD, clients have a biological predisposition for emotional dysregulation, and their social environment validates maladaptive behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the theory, &amp;quot;maladaptive behavior&amp;quot; - as defined by who/what - the patients' view of their social environments' various norms or the scientific-concesus of maladaptive behaviors (or something else)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some cases, patients' environments' view of what reoccuring behavior in the patient is maladaptive, there no agreement between that and the scientific concensus - that's why it's important for me to know which one the theory refers to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;I'm assuming the article refers to the scientific concesus definition of &amp;quot;maladaptive behavior&amp;quot; but I want to make sure.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26103" LastEditorUserId="26103" LastEditDate="2021-03-11T22:57:37.933" LastActivityDate="2021-04-11T15:03:40.330" Title="Dialectical Behavior Therapy's Biosocial Theory - Social Environment Validates Patients' Maladaptive Behavior - As Defined By Who/What?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;&lt;cognitive-therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25457" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-08T21:50:33.620" Score="4" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;From chapter &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$7$&lt;/span&gt; of Kandel et all's Principles of Neural Science:, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=&amp;amp;ved=2ahUKEwiegpi-_PLpAhVWG80KHYPbA40QFjAAegQIBxAB&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2Fcu%2Fbiology%2Fcourses%2Fw3008%2F2004%2FWeek_03_22%2Fchapter_7_KS.pdf&amp;amp;usg=AOvVaw3G0xCQgu_D3ylJE0UEVIzC&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Go to page 12, Box 7-2&lt;/a&gt; (particular image attached below)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The author claims that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$V_m = E_{Na} + I_{Na} / g_{Na}$$&lt;/span&gt; on one side of the equation and then says &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$V_m = E_{K} + I_{K} / g_{K}$$&lt;/span&gt; by looking at the other side of the circuit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But how can this be?  Since the battery is showing a negative side facing &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$V_{in}$&lt;/span&gt; doesn't it have to be&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$V_m = -E_{K} + I_{K} / g_{K}$$&lt;/span&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I misunderstanding something or did the author make a mistake in calculation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mcmUA.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mcmUA.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24853" LastActivityDate="2021-03-06T00:03:10.277" Title="Equivalent Circuit of cell membrane potential" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25458" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25457" CreationDate="2020-06-08T22:09:56.550" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The author has just chosen to draw the battery &quot;backward&quot; in the diagram to go along with the negative sign. In the equations, the direction of the battery should just be oriented by convention according to outward vs. inward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$E_{K} = -75 mV$&lt;/span&gt;. If you were to use instead your equation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$V_m = -E_{K} + I_{K} / g_{K}$$&lt;/span&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;you would need to take &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$E_{K} = 75 mV$&lt;/span&gt; and you'd arrive at the same answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd say there is a bit of a physics vs. biology clash here; in physics, it's more typical to go with certain explicit/literal conventions which then fit nicely into particular equations, and that's how you're thinking about it. In biology, we tend to take some shortcuts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-06-08T22:09:56.550" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25443" CreationDate="2020-06-09T07:15:40.740" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not my area, but an interesting question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Elaboration Likelihood Model appears to divide messages between that which is true and that which is persuasive.  If you are intent on determining whether a message is true, it must go the rough the central route which will take protracted effort.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, very often we are less interested in what is true and more interested in taking cues from others so that we avoid the laboursome effort of intensive thought.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your question, if the message is persuasive, then no about of truth or falsity of which you are unaware will influence you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could not see it in the article, however, I imagine that if you were &lt;em&gt;a priori&lt;/em&gt; aware that a message is false, you would naturally be more circumspect about allowing a false argument to be persuasive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Modern advertising seems to revolve around persuasive arguments rather than truthful arguments (I'm not saying they are false, but the investment effort is making the commercial persuasive rather that factual).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following except from Kitchen (2014, page 2034) clarified the issue for me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;  &lt;p&gt;The premise of ELM is that &lt;strong&gt;when elaboration likelihood is high, information&#xA;  processing will occur via the central route. Resultant attitude formation, change or endurance is derived from extensive consideration of the message arguments and will be more persistent&lt;/strong&gt; (Haugtvedt and Petty, 1989) and predictive of an individual’s subsequent behaviour (Petty and Cacioppo, 1983). When elaboration likelihood is low, processing occurs via the peripheral route. &lt;strong&gt;The peripheral route to persuasion requires little cognitive effort, instead relying upon peripheral cues such as source credibility and heuristics&lt;/strong&gt; (Petty and Cacioppo, 1983). As such, attitudes formed via the peripheral route are relatively unaffected by argument quality, are temporary in nature, and are not as predictive of subsequent behaviour as those formed using the central route (Petty and Cacioppo, 1983).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kitchen, P. J., Kerr, G., Schultz, D. E., McColl, R., &amp;amp; Pals, H. (2014). The elaboration likelihood model: review, critique and research agenda. European Journal of Marketing.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-12-2011-0776&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-12-2011-0776&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-09T07:15:40.740" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25462" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-09T16:11:51.220" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have an undergraduate degree in psychology and I'm currently pursuing a master's degree in a different field. However, I am still interested in many aspects of psychology, including personality psychology. During my undergrad, I took two courses on personality, one dealing with personality at large, and one dealing with psychopathology. I'm looking for a more advanced book on personality psychology to read over the summer, perhaps a textbook that is read as part of a postgraduate degree in personality psychology. I'm not interested in psychopathology. Any recommendations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16170" LastActivityDate="2020-06-09T23:09:57.523" Title="Postgraduate level books on personality psychology" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25463" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-09T16:46:13.560" Score="0" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;While spaced repetition would be ideal, if we are forced into a situation requiring cramming, how can we maximize the short term benefit?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider a hypothetical scenario: I am locked in an isolated room with a stack of flashcards. After an indeterminate amount of time, I will be administered a test of the material on the flashcards. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would the best approach to studying the flashcards? Is there an optimal way to schedule the order of the cards as I review them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like everyone acknowledges the reality of cramming under current educational practices, so what can we do to make the most of it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26165" LastActivityDate="2020-06-09T16:46:13.560" Title="How can we make the most of a cramming session?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25464" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25462" CreationDate="2020-06-09T23:09:57.523" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The best place to start is probably THE personality psychologist, Gordon Allport. He wrote several texts that give a good overview of the issues facing the investigation of personality. He gives a fairly critical look at defining and measuring personality. Highly recommended reading if you plan on delving into personality theory. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;His books on the topic: &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personality: A psychological interpretation. (1937) New York: Holt, Rinehart, &amp;amp; Winston.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Becoming: Basic Considerations for a Psychology of Personality. (1955). New Haven : Yale University Press. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Nature of Personality: Selected Papers. (1950; 1975). Westport, CN : Greenwood Press. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Person in Psychology (1968). Boston: Beacon Press&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Psychologist's Frame of Reference (1940).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pattern and Growth in Personality. (1961). Harcourt College Pub. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personality &amp;amp; social encounter. (1960). Boston: Beacon Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24990" LastActivityDate="2020-06-09T23:09:57.523" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25465" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-10T03:52:53.013" Score="3" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding of the psychology of revenge has always been very simple: if you are wronged and do nothing about it, the perpetrator and everyone else who learns about that may get tempted to wrong you again when given an opportunity. In other words, the goal of revenge is to build a reputation of a revengeful person and thereby deter people from doing injustice to you. Sure, people seeking revenge don't always clearly think in such rational terms, but they are at least driven by the vengeance instinct, which survived in us because of, I think, the evolutionary benefit described above. So I think that the vengeance instinct is normally triggered only when the desired revenge is subconsciously felt to be likely to produce a useful deterrent effect. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I watched quite a few famous movies in which the main character embarks on a very dangerous and costly revenge-seeking mission that can't really be explained in terms of deterrent effect and has no other personal benefit worthy of undertaking the mission. For example, in &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Godfather_Part_II&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Godfather Part II&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, the don of a crime family in America travels to Italy to exact his childhood vengeance from a Sicilian local mafia chieftain and almost gets killed there. In &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0104667/plotsummary&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lady Dragon&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, a CIA agent resigns from her job and goes to Southeast Asia in a pursuit to kill the drug lord she suspects ordered the killing of her husband, and there she gets raped and almost gets killed. In &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licence_to_Kill&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Licence to Kill&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, James Bond turns down an important assignment and becomes a rogue agent to get revenge for his friend, who lost his wife and a leg, from a drug lord who is powerful enough to control an entire country in Latin America. It seems highly irrational for the main characters of such movies to risk their own lives and waste so much time and effort just to seek revenge for no personal gain worthy of engaging in such pursuits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the view of modern psychology and neurology on people like the main characters of the above movies? Are they considered to be vengeful psychopaths despite being positively portrayed in movies, or is it considered normal and justified to get seriously distracted from life goals in order to seek revenge even when there's no direct or indirect personal benefit of it from the rational standpoint? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A friend of mine opined that the vengeance instinct is a somewhat outdated instinct we are all born with and that this instinct possibly renders taking revenge the only possible way to fully regain psychological well-being after a particularly traumatic experience. Regaining psychological well-being, in turn, helps achieve life goals. I'm curious whether this kind of reasoning to justify seemingly pointless revenge-seeking missions is backed by science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26168" LastEditorUserId="26168" LastEditDate="2020-06-10T10:40:40.290" LastActivityDate="2020-06-10T10:40:40.290" Title="Is it normal to seek revenge when there's no rational benefit of it?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25466" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-10T12:44:01.877" Score="1" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the past 3½ decades, I've discussed, read, and studied a significant number of mental health practitioner claims, random anecdotal experiences, and clinical study abstract summaries &amp;amp; reports regarding what is now called Narcissist Personality Disorder (NPD) and how this disorder relates to the psychological condition referred to as a sociopath. When I first looked into how the clinical community faced these two very similar conditions, I found most qualified sources to be mostly consistent in what they indicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, always open to opposing views, I've also read or been informed by others that seem to indicate the earlier claims have all made the same assumptions, and what was considered a common error. The conflicting sources suggested that the earlier sources all conflated the clinical behavior characteristics of the NPD condition with those exhibited by and leading to a diagnosis of a sociopath. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In response to the resulting muddied waters, I found some clarity, at least to myself, in the notion that all Sociopaths are narcissists, but not all narcissists are sociopaths. In other words, when further confused and contradicted, I've always had a tendency to fall back onto those conclusions I arrived at years ago when first settling on a satisfactory understanding of the two. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This understanding concluded that if a subject who was previously diagnosed with NPD was to be clinically diagnosed with the more severe condition of a sociopath, (I assume when formally diagnosed, the vernacular is more sophisticated than what I'm using here) the mental health practitioner making the determination would be required to observe, document, and assess any quantified increases in magnitudes of or changes to exhibited behavioral characteristics common to both the diagnosis of the NPD and the sociopath conditions, as well as any behavioral characteristics associated with either condition but presenting in novel form with the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From what I can remember, a number of these exhibited behaviors were very similar to, if not the same as those used in diagnosing someone with NPD, just at some sorry of elevated measure. Others were similar to those used with NPD, but would exhibit distinct differences if done so by a sociopath. Finally, some of those exhibited behaviors which contribute to the diagnosis of a sociopath seemed completely divorced from and in a few instances conflict with those suggesting a diagnosis of NPD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Frustratingly, what I have not retained are the specific characteristics or symptoms which triggered the very conversations I remember having. But what I do remember, and do so very clearly, was the lack of intellectual  satisfaction I always felt walking away from these discussion related to the unreconciled relationship I always felt these two conditions have to one another, where the parallels in behavior characteristics begin and where they end, or whether or not my fall back conclusion which always seemed to relation static was actually valid, at least from the clinical standpoint.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know I'm going to be told I can only present one question per post. As such, I'm going to get ahead of that criticism by providing my only question here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Are there any relationships, similarities, or differences between the specific behavioral characteristics associated with a clinical diagnosis of narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) and those associated with a clinical diagnosis of a sociopath?&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, the following are not questions to be answered, rather meant to ensure those attempting to provide an answer have been provided a clear understanding of precisely what the single question above is trying to ask.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following should not be considered additional questions needed to be answered, that would be very anti-stack of me to do. Instead, the following offer additional granularity and detail in the form of drill down questions. These are meant for purposes of guidance in answering the single, not a multiple set of questions noted in bold above. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, I'm restating the same question in a few different ways at a few different levels to ensure the full breadth of the single question is understood and hopefully answered:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.1 - What are the actual, clinical differences between NPD and the disorder colloquially known as a sociopath?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.2 - Are the two conditions, NPD and the condition of sociopath, actually considered to be clinically related?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.3 -  Is the relationship really as simplistic as it always just a case of a narcissist exhibiting more acute levels of behavior which is common to both conditions, meet or exceeded a certain behavioral threshold, and thus jumped to the diagnosis of the more severe of the two conditions, and is now a sociopath?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.4 - If that's the case, what are the specific behavioral characteristics used to make this determination in the clinical setting?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1.5 - What are the predetermined thresholds, how is the associated behavior quantified, and how are those metrics measured?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See, those are simply all small parts of the same question. That's why they are numbered 1.X, to ensure that they are simply detailed parts of the single question in bold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the record, this question is being asked to assist me in determining whether specific people I've been exposed to during my life at various times and to various effects to me, were as I suspect, likely diagnosable as sociopaths. All are narcissists, but the lines of delineation are not stated very clearly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26171" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-10T20:29:57.113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-10T22:59:13.400" Title="Relationships Between Specific Behavioral Characteristics Associated With Clinical Diagnosis of Narcissists &amp; Sociopaths" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25467" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-10T13:11:24.997" Score="0" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whether or not a culture was considered superior was posited as a reason some empires endured. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the book the grand chessboard,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&quot;Rome’s imperial power, however, was also derived from an important psychological reality. Civis Romanus sum—“I am a Roman citizen”—was the highest possible self-definition, a source of pride, and an aspiration for many. Eventually granted even to those not of Roman birth, the exalted status of the Roman citizen was an expression of cultural superiority that justified the imperial power’s sense of mission.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, I came across a post questioning how China with its large population was able to unite itself into one nation, while Europe's history is marked with strife.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the reasons put forward by a top answer and relevant to this post, was their unifying culture. &quot;China (or at least its core) had a central, unifying culture built around philosophers such as Confucius and Lao-tse that was attractive to people over a wide land area.&quot; &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Somewhat echoed by the author of the book mentioned above, &quot;That unity was reinforced, legitimated, and sustained—again, as in the case of Rome—by a strongly felt and deeply ingrained sense of cultural superiority that was augmented by Confucianism, an imperially expedient philosophy, with its stress on harmony, hierarchy, and discipline.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20883" LastActivityDate="2020-06-14T18:22:08.837" Title="What factors influence the perception of cultural superiority?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25470" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25466" CreationDate="2020-06-10T19:32:14.037" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour uses a lexical approach that may assist with your question(Mobbs, 2020).  The atlas catalogued over 20,000 English language words describing emotion, personality traits and behaviour.  The emotions, traits and behaviours used to define each construct are visualised using heat-maps in two dimensions: affiliation and dominance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The narcissistic and sociopath disorders you refer to are shown with other constructs for comparison:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Narcissistic personality disorder (Fig AC)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Antisocial personality disorder (Sociopath) (Fig X)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conduct disorder (Fig Q)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Dark Triad (Fig H)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Criminal behaviour (Fig K)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Synonyms of unethical (Fig J)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figure/image?download&amp;amp;size=large&amp;amp;id=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877.g007&quot;/&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a lexical perspective, these constructs are all located in the top-left hand corner of the atlas thus highly related. To specifically answer your question, the similarities of these constructs are that these behaviours are all dominant and disaffiliative.  The differences between these constructs is a matter of degree. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM-5 is the clinician's diagnostic manual.  The DSM prescribes a number of time and severity based diagnostic criteria to clinically diagnose each specific disorder. The relevant chapters of the DSM are concise and in plain English, so suggest you read the relevant chapters for each specific disorder(American Psychiatric Association, 2013).  In addition to the DSM, one would need several years of education and clinical experience to correctly apply the DSM, so would urge caution in attempting diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Association.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs, A. E. D. (2020). An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PloS One, 15(1), e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declared interest&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am the author of the atlas paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-10T22:59:13.400" LastActivityDate="2020-06-10T22:59:13.400" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25471" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-11T00:11:29.830" Score="2" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was going through &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/227/how-does-raw-iq-change-over-the-lifespan-at-the-group-level&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; and it struck me that your raw IQ reaches its peak somewhere between 18 and 21. I came across the following &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.inc.com/melanie-curtin/want-to-raise-your-iq-by-23-percent-neuroscience-says-to-take-up-this-simple-hab.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; which says meditation could be very helpful to boost your fluid intelligence. In addition to the above articles, I also came across &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Why-arent-IQ-tests-used-for-college-admissions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ramymond Lockey's post where he claims to have shown a change over the years after 18&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it true that meditation helps gain more IQ as your brain activities are slowed down (as per the second article) and this could improve the fluid intelligence as a byproduct, even during the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;early adulthood&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;? I'm assuming that productivity (in any form) and critical thinking abilities could be bettered/sharpened by focusing on the little details and then tap a nut &lt;em&gt;gently&lt;/em&gt; at the right spot (instead of brute tapping to crack it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26179" LastEditorUserId="26179" LastEditDate="2020-06-11T09:12:03.683" LastActivityDate="2020-06-11T13:40:55.223" Title="Is your fluid intelligence malleable in the positive side?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25473" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-11T08:45:53.970" Score="2" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is this heise article &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.heise.de/ct/artikel/Die-Psycho-Tricks-der-App-Entwickler-4547123.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.heise.de/ct/artikel/Die-Psycho-Tricks-der-App-Entwickler-4547123.html&lt;/a&gt; (unfortunatley in German) talking about manipulative mechanisms in mobile apps. He is talking amongst others about snapshat evaluating realtionships with the help of emojis - I was wondering if there are any offical studies or papers talking about how this kind of features in apps makes people addicted to keep using these apps.  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26185" LastActivityDate="2020-06-11T08:45:53.970" Title="Offical studies/papers of relationship evaluation in mobile apps" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25474" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25475" CreationDate="2020-06-11T14:40:41.757" Score="2" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to understand what is the root cause for revenge? I understand anger is caused by the gap between expectation/anticipation and the reality. But as to revenge, I am not satisfied just with identity related or social order maintenance or reciprocity. While resources pointing to the direction of getting started, any valuable input, views, opinions and research outcomes would be very much helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26187" LastEditorUserId="26187" LastEditDate="2020-06-14T16:03:26.953" LastActivityDate="2020-06-14T16:03:26.953" Title="Revenge attitude: is it innate or acquired in human" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25475" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25474" CreationDate="2020-06-11T17:39:32.060" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Open access sources from Google Scholar:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jackson, J. C., Choi, V. K., &amp;amp; Gelfand, M. J. (2019). Revenge: A multilevel review and synthesis. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 319-345. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103305&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103305&lt;/a&gt;              &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lambert, A. J., Eadeh, F. R., &amp;amp; Hanson, E. J. (2019). Anger and its consequences for judgment and behavior: Recent developments in social and political psychology. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 60, 103-173.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://psyarxiv.com/svcux/download?format=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psyarxiv.com/svcux/download?format=pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-11T17:39:32.060" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25477" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-11T22:59:45.023" Score="7" ViewCount="192" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dark/black and light/white have symbolic meanings(&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_psychology#Specific_color_meaning&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/GoodColorsEvilColors&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;). Dark/black represents, among others: Grief, evil, mystery (often with hidden threats), lack of knowledge, etc. Light/white represtents, among others: Purity, sincerity, good, happiness, knowledge, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://writing.stackexchange.com/a/51456/28708&quot;&gt;It is argued that this symbolism is not inherent to these colors and is an example of racism&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, to my intuition, this symbolism is likely innate in humans and has little to do with skin color. My arguments are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Humans are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diurnality&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;diurnal&lt;/a&gt; rather than &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnality&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;nocturnal&lt;/a&gt;. Day is the time when humans are active, night is the time when they withdraw to their shelters. And it happens that day is light while night is dark. As such, darkness evokes negative feelings in humans (which urge one to withdraw) while lightness evokes positive emotions (which invite one to embrace whatever evokes them).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Humans' main sense is sight, but humans' eyes are not well adapted for darkness. Hence, in darkness humans are cut from their main source of knowledge about heir surroundings. From this it follows that darkness represents lack of knowledge while lightness represents knowledge.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;This also means that in darkness humans have trouble to see an impending danger. The phrase 'hiding in shadows' has a very literal meaning, since shadows used to be (and sometimes perhaps still are) among the good places for assassins to hide.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Historically, nighttime used to be a very dangerous period, best spent in hiding. A person who overstayed in a forest was at risk of being assaulted and eaten by a nocturnal predator. Nighttime was also the favorite time of brigands and outlaws to pillage villages. &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;THerefore it seems all but obvious that darkness represents hidden danger.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;From the above also easily follows why does darkness represent evil and lies, while lightness represents good and sincerity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;That light is biologically needed by humans seem to be confirmed by the fact that at least in some individuals, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthline.com/health/depression/light-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;seasonal deprivation of light leads to a major depressive disorder and the therapy is to expose affected people to light&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It therefore seems that the reasons why darkness represents grief and sorrow while light represents joy and happiness are biological and innate rather than cultural.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://thescienceexplorer.com/brain-and-body/isolation-dark-drives-humans-brink-insanity-studies-find&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;These scientific expereriments and their horrifying effects&lt;/a&gt; also seem to hint that the reason of the symbolism behind light and dark (and hence: white and black) are biological and innate.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, all I wrote above are just my intuitions and I do not have expertise in the relevant fields of study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, may I ask if there are (neuro)biological reasons behind this symbolism or is this a purely cultural thing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19207" LastEditorUserId="19207" LastEditDate="2020-06-12T03:49:44.920" LastActivityDate="2020-06-12T19:12:11.653" Title="Is the symbolic meaning of dark/black and light/white innate in humans?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;color&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25479" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-12T01:40:03.970" Score="4" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am conducting a resting-state functional connectivity seed-to-voxel analysis on the 25 participants from the NYC test-retest dataset using the CONN toolbox with the Posterior Cingulate Cortex of the Default Mode Network as a seed region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am using a liberal uncorrected voxel-level &quot;height&quot; threshold of p &amp;lt; .001 with a p-FDR corrected cluster-level &quot;extent&quot; threshold of p &amp;lt; .05, which is recommended when the expected effects are distributed/broad but weak as opposed to focal and strong (when a p-FDR- or FWR-corrected voxel-level &quot;height &quot;threshold is recommended instead) according to the developer of the CONN toolbox (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nitrc.org/forum/forum.php?th..&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nitrc.org/forum/forum.php?th..&lt;/a&gt;.). &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched for literature on which those recommendations are based but could only find tangential reasons and nothing concrete (of course, having a more liberal voxel-level threshold would allow one to detect weaker effects because statistical power increases for the same sample size). If anybody has a reference for those specific recommendations, I would be grateful if they can share it because the developer of the CONN toolbox has expressed them in several posts so they must be some sort of standard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My first question relates to the appropriateness of this thresholding convention for my particular case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While seed-to-voxel connectivity during resting state can be considered distributed when the analysis is carried out on the whole brain and no a-priori predictions are made because large-scale networks (e.g., default mode network)are identifiable during rest, I am uncertain about connectivity during resting state being necessarily &quot;weak&quot; as the recommendations assume.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason for this doubt is the knowledge that the BOLD signal during a task-related activity is very small compared to the noise, with up to 80% of the BOLD modulation being discarded as noise (1st reference below). On the other hand, precisely the low-frequency spontaneous fluctuations in the BOLD signal that are discarded as noise in task fMRI are taken as signals of interest in resting-state fMRI.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From this, I would expect stronger effects during rest vs. task, giving roughly a 80:20 ratio. So maybe in my case assuming that effects are weak is unwarranted unless I am missing something (e.g., even though activations might be stronger during rest, correlations might not necessarily also be stronger).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My main question (assuming that I have used appropriate thresholding criteria) relates to whether I should report ALL anatomical areas within a significantly identified cluster when writing a paper. The reason I am asking is because the most significant cluster (out 16) in my analysis spans over thirty atlas-defined anatomical areas and its size is 50 574 voxels, covering a huge chunk of the neocortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any convention about reporting areas within a cluster - do I report all or just, for example, the first five? I did come across a recommendation only to report the general area (e.g., left hemisphere) when the cluster is large because it is not clear which anatomical regions are truly correlated and which are false positives (2nd reference below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with that is that I do not really know how to call this huge chunk of the neocortex (e.g., just forebrain?) and from prior literature, we know which regions should be significantly negative/positively correlated with the PCC, which makes me think that my threshold is too liberal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do I just report them like this: cluster one (MNI of most active voxel, size, cluster-level extent p-value), etc., without referring to the anatomical location of the clusters themselves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smitha KA, Akhil Raja K, Arun KM, et al. Resting state fMRI: A review on methods in resting state connectivity analysis and resting state networks. Neuroradiol J. 2017;30(4):305‐317. doi:10.1177/1971400917697342&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Woo, C.-W., Krishnan, A., &amp;amp; Wager, T. D. (2014). Cluster-extent based thresholding in fMRI analyses: Pitfalls and recommendations. NeuroImage, 91, 412–419. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.12.058&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26189" LastEditorUserId="26189" LastEditDate="2020-06-13T01:42:47.533" LastActivityDate="2020-06-13T01:42:47.533" Title="Do I report all anatomical regions in a large significant cluster identified in functional connectivity seed-to-voxel analysis?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;publication-process&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25480" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-12T10:12:48.433" Score="3" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a human watched a beautiful painting, a beautiful animation, sees a beautiful nature scene what hormone or neurotransmitter is produced in the organism that he feels the aesthetic pleasure? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also is it the same chemical as when we hear a beautiful music?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there are many like for example dopamine, oxytocin and endorphin then which one is the main responsible for the pleasure? &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24439" LastActivityDate="2021-03-14T06:16:50.683" Title="Aesthetic pleasure hormone or neurotransmitter" Tags="&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;aesthetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25484" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-13T06:11:16.887" Score="4" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first time I read an article, which offered me a high level basic understanding of a behavioral model called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensation_seeking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Sensation seeking - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;sensation seeking&lt;/a&gt;, changed the way I look at world since. This was the first time I'd found myself so enamoured by such a simplistic concept, which was so easy to relate to my behavior, and provided me with a means of learning how my mind works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Sensation Seeker is loosely defined as an individual who consistently feels a yearning to engage in high energy, high risk, and high adrenaline rush. They are known to be sexually promiscuous, thrill seekers, and/or skofflaws.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the cognitive phenomenon known as Sensation Seeking still the designation for this behavior? If not, has the condition been renamed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26171" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-06-13T07:33:33.530" LastActivityDate="2020-06-13T07:33:33.530" Title="Is Sensation Seeking Still a Thing?" Tags="&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25487" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-13T19:02:02.307" Score="-1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have two questions regarding the fact that each sensory receptor has its specific ion channels that open in response to a specific stimulus (for example, ion channel that opens when streching for somatosensation), and is connected to correspondent sensory cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Did our sensory system developed perfectly so that each ion channels in the sensory receptors are connecting to the corespondent sensory cortex? If not, can you elaborate and give examples?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Theoretically, what would happen if they weren't corresponding? And specific, if for example, we had sound receptor that was connected to the visual cortex?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25957" LastActivityDate="2020-06-14T23:17:11.113" Title="Question about the role of the sensory receptors compared to the sensory cortoces" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25488" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-14T00:04:04.950" Score="2" ViewCount="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;When interpreting a sentence, does syntactic analysis take place before any semantic analysis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26200" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-14T18:04:28.320" LastActivityDate="2020-06-14T18:04:28.320" Title="When human interpret a sentence, does syntactic analysis take place before any semantic analysis?" Tags="&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;psycholinguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25489" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25526" CreationDate="2020-06-14T11:02:10.873" Score="2" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;Music forces us to feel emotions. Some music calms us, some music give us energy. What emotions music makes us feel can be different in each person but generally gives same emotions to us. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have emotional turbulence in our daily routine. Sometimes our emotions sync with our partner but sometimes not. Is it possible that listening the same music with your partner can synchronize emotionally? Is there any scientific research for that? My field is not psychology so I am asking to you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26203" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-14T18:04:44.190" LastActivityDate="2020-06-19T14:56:00.983" Title="Is it possible that listening same music with your partner can synchronize emotionally?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25492" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-14T19:21:54.253" Score="0" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to figure out which participants who took a 18-item multiple choice test scored significantly above chance. Each item has 3 choices, so the probability of getting each question correct is 0.33. To know how many items correct a person would have to get in order to be significantly above chance, does it make sense to use a binomial probability calculator like this: &lt;a href=&quot;https://stattrek.com/online-calculator/binomial.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://stattrek.com/online-calculator/binomial.aspx&lt;/a&gt; and try different numbers of successes until the probability is &amp;lt; p=0.05 (assuming this is my significance criteria)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For 18 items where the probability correct is 0.33, the probability of getting 9 correct is 0.061 and the probability of getting 10 correct is p=0.027, so does it make sense to use &quot;10 items correct&quot; as my criteria for &quot;performed significantly above chance?&quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26207" LastActivityDate="2021-03-13T00:09:20.997" Title="Calculating Significantly Above Chance for 3-AFC Test" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25493" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25487" CreationDate="2020-06-14T23:17:11.113" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Without going into the business of ion channels, sensory receptors connect to specific brain areas (although there are relays in-between). For vision it is V1 in the occipital cortex, for audition A1 in the temporal cortex, for somato-perception S1 in the parietal cortex. Olfaction, gustation and the vestibular systems don't seem to have a clear &quot;primary&quot; area like audition, vision and somatoperception. The orbito-frontal cortex seems to be quite involved in olfaction/gustation, but it's also involved in a lot of different stuff. For the vestibular system some areas of the parietal cortex are also quite involved, but also in other stuff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Primary areas receive direct connections from the sensory organs (again, with relays in-between) and are organized topically. For example, the visual cortex has a retinotopic organization where adjacent cells in the cortex encode information from adjacent cells on the retina. A1 has a (somewhat looser) tonotopic organization, and S1 has a &quot;body-topic&quot; organization (called the homunculus). Those pathways a quite fixed and quite distinct. There is no way to have a &quot;mix-up&quot; between them, and you never see that. There can be some &quot;mix-up&quot; within one pathway. For example amblyopia in vision where the visual cortex does not develop as expected and results in some visual loss (less than 20/20 vision in one eye).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So yes, the sensory organs develop well (with some exceptions) and project to very distinct areas all over the brain (frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes). What would happen if you rewired the brain is unclear. There was one famous experiment where optical nerves in ferrets were connected to the auditory cortex. Experimenters observed a cortical map similar to what they would have expected in visual areas. So it suggests that at least the visual and auditory cortices are &quot;interchangeable&quot;. But then these areas have their own connections to other areas, so what actually happens is anyone guess (do you &quot;hear&quot; visual stimuli?). Those are deep philosophical questions, similar to &quot;do we all see colors similarly?&quot;, that we are far to have a good handle on scientifically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortical_homunculus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortical_homunculus&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-06-14T23:17:11.113" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25494" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25492" CreationDate="2020-06-15T14:44:54.900" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The hypothesis would normally be expressed as a one-sided test as p(X≥10). The online calculator you have selected is fine and the significant result could be expressed in an article as follows: (p=0.33, q=0.66, K=10, n=18, p-value = 0.043).  &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to think of this is that 9 or fewer correct answers is more likely to be random chance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the threshold of 10, it is unlikely that the result could be explained by random chance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-15T21:17:23.220" LastActivityDate="2020-06-15T21:17:23.220" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25497" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-16T12:35:19.657" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am running a behavioral experiment where a number of subjects (=20 in my case) perform a simple cognitive task. The experiment consists of a fixed number of trials (say, 40 in my case). During each trial, the participant executes a single key-press and the response time (RT) is recorded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my recorded data looks like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;subject-1   -&amp;gt; [Trial-1 RT, Trial-2 RT ... Trial-40 RT]              # (40 trials)&#xA;subject-2   -&amp;gt; [Trial-1 RT, Trial-2 RT ... Trial-40 RT]              # (40 trials)&#xA;...        ...       ...&#xA;subject-20  -&amp;gt; [Trial-1 RT, Trial-2 RT ... Trial-40 RT]              # (40 trials)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now based on some RT criterion, a few trials are removed for each subject. This resulting data looks like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;subject-1   -&amp;gt; [Trial-1 RT, Trial-3 RT ... Trial-40 RT]              # (32 trials)&#xA;subject-2   -&amp;gt; [Trial-1 RT, Trial-2 RT ... Trial-38 RT]              # (36 trials)&#xA;...        ...       ...&#xA;subject-20  -&amp;gt; [Trial-3 RT, Trial-8 RT ... Trial-40 RT]              # (28 trials)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The removal of a few trials result in a non-uniform number of data-points for each subject. Eg. subject-1, subject-2 and subject-20 have 32, 36 and 28 trials respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I want to test the effect of trials on response times, what statistical methods should I use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that when I am &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; removing the data, I have a nice 20*40 (subjects * trials) data matrix on which I can perform repeated measures ANOVA (within-subject) to see the effect of trials on response times. But how should I go about it if I am removing a couple of trials?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21586" LastActivityDate="2021-03-13T15:07:00.753" Title="What statistical tests should be performed to test effect of trials on response times where each subject has different number of data-points?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25498" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25497" CreationDate="2020-06-16T14:17:06.610" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mixed effects regression is somewhat related to repeated measures ANOVA and can handle missing data. However, they assume the missing data are missing at random.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on what type of rejection criteria you are using, that assumption may be broken, in which case I think you're pretty much out of luck without a method to account for that. It may be that it is a sufficiently reasonable assumption, however, even if not strictly warranted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-06-16T14:17:06.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25499" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-16T15:01:46.503" Score="2" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, cells in layer 5 of the neocortex have a larger soma than do other layers. I'm wondering what the functional difference is between smaller and larger soma. On one hand, I can imagine that there's more area for axo-somatic synapses (making the neuron easier to fire). On the other hand, it's a larger cell and thus requires more simultaneous synaptic activations. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26220" LastActivityDate="2020-06-16T15:01:46.503" Title="What effect does the size of the soma have on firing characteristics?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25501" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-16T18:37:08.547" Score="0" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;Working in the tech industry, I noticed that there seems to be an over-representation of people with childhood trauma within the ranks of very very top entrepreneurs.  People like Steve Jobs, Elon Musk, or Larry Ellison.  Does anyone know if there is some peer-reviewed studies on how childhood experiences affect entrepreneurial success?  Also in addition to empirical studies, are there any psychological theories that can explain such cause &amp;amp; effects if any exists at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26222" LastEditorUserId="26222" LastEditDate="2020-06-22T17:12:31.830" LastActivityDate="2021-05-24T04:30:10.890" Title="Do outstanding entrepreneurs have an over-representation of childhood trauma?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;trauma&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25502" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-16T21:01:42.527" Score="2" ViewCount="831" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the three years since getting my B.S. in Computer Science I have become more interested in biology again (my original major) and also in psychology and neuroscience. My current job -- which is more Information Technology than actual Computer Science -- is not fulfilling. My level of interest when learning about the brain and/or mind is so much higher than, say, learning about the architecture of some web application. &lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is moving into psychology and/or neuroscience as drastic of a switch as I think it is? Does anyone have any advice for how best to start down that path?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If I decide to do this, I am assuming some graduate school will be required. Given that I finished undergrad with just average grades, is it a fool's errand to even consider going down this road?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26225" LastActivityDate="2020-06-17T02:52:41.227" Title="Can I still get involved in psychology/neuroscience with a computer science degree from several years ago?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ClosedDate="2020-06-17T15:31:14.247" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25503" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25502" CreationDate="2020-06-16T21:43:05.650" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think it's foolish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to make the switch, I'd look into BS-requiring lab tech jobs in labs doing things you are interested in, and trying to apply for graduate school in a year or two if that works out well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are jobs that recently-graduated students often do for a year or two while strengthening an application for graduate school, and in my experience a CS background can be quite useful to many labs. The lab I work in often takes on undergraduate assistants in CS, and some of those students choose to keep working after graduating (or come from elsewhere after graduating).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Titles for these jobs vary a lot by institution, but I've seen &quot;research intern&quot;, &quot;junior scientist&quot;, &quot;research technician&quot;, etc. You can both look at job postings and try to contact professors directly; know that both methods may have a high rejection rate. You'll have the best chance if you both a) learn enough about what particular labs are doing to be able to describe why working there would interest you, and b) don't paint yourself into such a narrow focus that many opportunities are ruled out. Don't be afraid to contact past professors even if you've been out of school for a bit and ask their advice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Expect to take a pay cut compared to your industry job, and to not have much (any) negotiating power. The things you would want to stress when you apply are that you are interested in making a career move to academia and pursuing a graduate degree, but want to get research experience. Look for jobs where you'll have an opportunity to work on projects and &lt;em&gt;publish&lt;/em&gt; rather than becoming de facto IT support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Poor undergraduate grades will hurt you - grad school applications can be very competitive, especially at better known schools (but don't discount other research institutions; good mentors are more important than Ivy-tier names). Your goal would be to accrue research experience and solid letters of recommendation: these can compensate a lot for average grades. At the same time, you should make it a personal goal to learn more about the specific fields of research and research questions you might be interested in, even if they're outside the work you start doing initially.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm speaking from a US perspective, so if you are elsewhere things may be a bit different. Good luck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-06-16T21:43:05.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25505" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25480" CreationDate="2020-06-17T02:37:51.473" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;μ-opioid receptors (MOR) have been demonstrated to be involved in our perception of beautiful faces (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicaldaily.com/seeing-pretty-faces-rewards-brain-perceiving-beauty-all-chemical-reaction-269074&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.medicaldaily.com/seeing-pretty-faces-rewards-brain-perceiving-beauty-all-chemical-reaction-269074&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here’s &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2726&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one study&lt;/a&gt; that demonstrates an uptick in dopamine upon listening to music: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.com/news/health-12135590&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.bbc.com/news/health-12135590&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26227" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-03-14T06:16:50.683" LastActivityDate="2021-03-14T06:16:50.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25506" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25502" CreationDate="2020-06-17T02:52:41.227" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I second everything Bryan Krause said. I'm just adding few more thoughts and personal experience. I'm originally an electrical engineer, I started a PhD in psychophysics, got involved in some physiology projects  along the way, and decided after my PhD (now quite a long time ago) to switch to basically straight physiology. Having an engineering background is not hurtful, on the contrary. If you check you'll realize there is a high proportion of engineers among neuroscientists. That's not a coincidence, modern neuroscience has been strongly influenced by electrical engineering, information theory, and increasingly computer science. But when you get involved in research none of these distinctions are really meaningful. On a given week I might participate in a surgery, program a new experiment, fix an electrical recording system and write a paper. No one cares what my original training was, only whether I'm able to do these stuff or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being said there is a difference between how to think as an engineer (what's the most efficient way to solve a problem) and as a scientist (what does that mean). I've seen plenty of engineers unable to change the way they think. In science it is better to fail at something while understanding why, than succeeding without knowing why. I would still encourage you to do a PhD even if you want to remain an engineer, there is a big need of high-skills research engineers. Thinking like a scientist is really the only skill you need. If you are motivated you'll quickly learn any topic you want. You don't even need to be that smart to make it through grad-school frankly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your first question I would recommend you read a few introductory textbooks. See if you find it easy to go through them. Non-fiction books (or blogs, or whatever) are great, but deceiving because they make science sound exciting. The truth is 90% of science is painfully boring. You need to make sure you find even technical aspects interesting (e.g. I find phylogenetics or neuroanatomy fascinating, but I'm sure I would be unable to complete a PhD in these fields because doing these experiments sounds so boring to me).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To answer your second question getting into a prestigious grad school will be very challenging without good grades. But don't let that discourage you. I wasn't an especially good student either and I became what I would describe as a successful scientist nonetheless. I can guarantee you no one cares what grades I had in grad-school, and even less in undergrad. That's also pretty common among scientists. Diligently learning everything you are taught does not necessarily correlate with critical thinking (as long as you learn other stuff of course). I totally agree with Bryan Krause you shouldn't get too concerned about getting into a prestigious grad-school. (1) There are plenty of good mentors in &quot;lower-tier&quot; universities. The overall quality of the grad-school might be a little lower but that does not nearly compensate for having a good mentor. (2) I often tell undergrads and grad students that a PhD is more like a resume: it demonstrates you have learned techniques but no one expect you to do amazing work. Just like grades, no one cares where you went to grad school. I don't know where any of my colleagues did their PhD. (3) Prestigious grad-schools are pretty toxic environments: very competitive and not very friendly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-06-17T02:52:41.227" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25508" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25512" CreationDate="2020-06-17T07:49:38.547" Score="6" ViewCount="199" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;I am fitting learning curves for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochlear_implant&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cochlear implant&lt;/a&gt; (CI) users. These folks get a CI, and then need to start learning to understand speech again. They keep on improving for years. Along the way, speech recognition is tested frequently. The outcome measure of speech tests is a simple word or phoneme correct score. The %correct score runs from a minimum of 0%, to a maximum of 100%. No rocket science thus far.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typically, these learning curves start at a value around 25% and end at 80% (barred the rock stars, CI users never reach 100%). In the beginning they learn quick, and this levels off as to what seems a maximum (Fig. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question premise&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Now I seek to fit a function to these data, because I want to know how &lt;em&gt;fast&lt;/em&gt; they learn. I did this using regression analysis using the least-squares method in MATLAB. The function I used I found in another software package called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.graphpad.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GraphPad Prism&lt;/a&gt;. While the latter package was not used to analyze the data, I did use it as an inspiration to find a proper model. The function I fitted through the data (red line in Fig. 1) GraphPad calls a '&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.graphpad.com/guides/prism/7/curve-fitting/reg_exponential_association.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one-phase association function&lt;/a&gt;'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Y = Y0 + (Plateau-Y0).(1-exp(-Kx)), which translates to Y = Y0 + (Plateau-Y0).(1-e&lt;sup&gt;(-Kx)&lt;/sup&gt;) if I am not mistaken (I don't understand the fancy formula make up, hope this'll do...) (Fig. 2). The link explains the backgrounds, but in a nut shell, it is based on a biochemical process, namely the interaction between an enzyme and a substrate. My purpose is a totally different one, namely a psychophysical one to model a learning process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I chose the 'one-phase association' function, because the main parameters in the model follow my needs very well: it has a start value Y0 that reflects the baseline score when people get their CI, and there is a maximum (Plateau). In addition, it has the K value, which in (psycho-)physics would be called tau, which describes the slope. And this slope is what we need, as we want to know how &lt;em&gt;fast&lt;/em&gt; these people learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Specific questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is the 'one-phase association' a proper way to fit a learning curve? It is a function I only know from Biochemistry;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A colleague over in the USA used a '&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;logit&lt;/a&gt;' function for this purpose. Afaik, a logit function does not have a slope parameter and hence, from my pov, it would be less fitting for my purposes (pun not intended). Is a logit function the best way to fit a learning curve?*&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;* &lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;: after a literature search I found that the logit function is a sigmoid function, and, hence, it does have a slope parameter&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fyE1M.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/fyE1M.png&quot; alt=&quot;matlab learning in quiet s#2 65 dB&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Learning curve obtained in quiet at 65 dB speech level. Blue crosses: raw experimental data. Red line: fitted logarithmic function. Diamonds: derived fitting features irrelevant to the question proper. source: own work&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qxjdC.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qxjdC.png&quot; alt=&quot;'One-phase association' curve: Y=Y0 + (Plateau-Y0)(1-exp(-Kx)) &quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. One-phase association Y=Y0 + (Plateau-Y0)&lt;em&gt;(1-exp(-K&lt;/em&gt;x)). source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.graphpad.com/guides/prism/7/curve-fitting/reg_exponential_association.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GraphPad&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-06-25T10:57:24.217" LastActivityDate="2020-06-26T07:10:57.397" Title="Which function to use for fitting learning curves?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;psychophysics&gt;" AnswerCount="5" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25509" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-17T08:25:47.470" Score="1" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to insert the placeholders &quot;welcome text&quot;, &quot;instruction text&quot;, &quot;fixation cross&quot; and &quot;thank you text&quot; on the grey screen. The black fixation cross appears in the middle of the screen for a duration of 90 seconds. the black cross should randomly &quot;flash&quot; (turn red for 200 ms) ten times during this 90&#xA;seconds period. to make sure that random flashes do not occur directly one after the other, there should be an interval of at least two seconds between two flashes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26230" LastActivityDate="2020-06-17T08:25:47.470" Title="How to add fixation cross on grey screen using psychopy?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2020-06-27T19:33:27.520" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25511" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25508" CreationDate="2020-06-17T17:23:04.057" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This equation &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Y_0 + (Y_{max}-Y_0)\left[1-e^{-\kappa x}\right]$&lt;/span&gt; is simply an exponential approach, that is the solution to a first order differential equation. It is the most widespread equation in physics describing a process where the rate of change of a system is related to the state of the process. In the context of learning, it tells you that the better you are, the slower you keep improving. For that reason it is considered, as far as I know, the principled way to model learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you figured out &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Y_0$&lt;/span&gt; is your starting point, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Y_{max}$&lt;/span&gt; your asymptote, &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\kappa$&lt;/span&gt; the rate of change and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x$&lt;/span&gt; your variable, usually time &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t$&lt;/span&gt;. You'll often rather see this equation as &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$e^{-\frac{t}{\tau}}$&lt;/span&gt;, where &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\tau$&lt;/span&gt; is called the time constant and has the same unit as &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t$&lt;/span&gt; (obviously &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\tau=\frac{1}{\kappa}$&lt;/span&gt; and doesn't change anything about the meaning of the equation). It tells you, in the context of a resistor-capacitor circuit for example, the time it takes for the capacitor to discharge its energy through the resistor (in facts only about 1 third its energy, and is considered fully discharged after &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$3\tau$&lt;/span&gt; because it has less than 5% its original energy remaining). So for learning this parameter has a clear meaning as well (learning time), and you can interpret it the same way people do in physics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A logit function has a slope value as well. It is the natural way to model anything related to odd-ratios but I would argue it is not meaningful in the context of learning. If all you want is a descriptive model to compare the speed of learning it doesn't really matter what model you use as long as it fits data well. But I don't see the point of using a less principled and more complicated model when a simple exponential works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A last point is that you could use a binomial distribution and Maximum likelihood estimation to fit your curve, instead of mean squares. It's just slightly nicer mathematically as mean squares kind of assumes that you could have a ratio correct &amp;gt;100%. But that's just a detail, both techniques will give you good results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user17122" LastActivityDate="2020-06-17T17:23:04.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25512" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25508" CreationDate="2020-06-17T17:50:18.397" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmoid_function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sigmoids&lt;/a&gt; are more general and probably better for modeling learning than a simple exponential. Your exponential fits decently, but it probably doesn't describe the actual underlying process very well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, learning is often not fastest at the start, there is often some level of &amp;quot;aha!&amp;quot; moment later on. Sigmoids can capture this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a variety of sigmoidal functions, but they are all differentiable and have a central peak in the first derivative. The &lt;em&gt;time to peak&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;slope at peak&lt;/em&gt; are both parameters you can use to measure learning rate, though they measure somewhat different things. Which one is more applicable will depend on how learning in your paradigm varies across subjects and conditions. Looking at the data you posted, the peak slope (peak of the first derivative) is probably a decent choice, although I'm not sure you really have enough data points in the first month to get a good measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Exponential fits are likely to be more unstable, and in the data you've posted it looks like your fit is overfitting the beginning and end of the learning process, so you're missing the most important part for determining the actual &amp;quot;speed&amp;quot;, which is between your first 3 data points; none of these are fit well. With an exponential fit, you are supposing that &lt;em&gt;the most learning occurs at the point of the first trial&lt;/em&gt;. In most tasks without substantial prior instruction, you need at least a couple of trials to even figure out what is going on, and can't start to improve until then. If that first &amp;quot;trial&amp;quot; is a whole block then maybe this is not a terrible assumption, but that's mainly because you've already passed the peak slope of the sigmoidal function early on; if you used the entire data then a sigmoid would still fit better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_curve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_curve&lt;/a&gt; and:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Culler, E., &amp;amp; Girden, E. (1951). The learning curve in relation to other psychometric functions. The American journal of psychology, 64(3), 327-349.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gallistel, C. R., Fairhurst, S., &amp;amp; Balsam, P. (2004). The learning curve: implications of a quantitative analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101(36), 13124-13131.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Daller, M., Turlik, J., &amp;amp; Weir, I. (2013). Vocabulary acquisition and the learning curve. Vocabulary Knowledge: Human ratings and automated measures, 47, 185.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-06-17T17:50:18.397" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25513" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25514" CreationDate="2020-06-17T19:01:58.250" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;To the best of my understanding, the five factor model of personality comes from a factor analysis on a large list of adjectives that can be used to describe an individual's personality. It is validated, in some sense, by its usefulness in predicting behavior and life outcomes in a wide range of contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like something very similar could be done for emotion. I.e. list words describing a persons present state (angry, remorseful, sad, bitter, frustrated, etcetera) and do a factor analysis on those. Then, see if the resulting model (assuming that the analysis yields something useful) is predictive of shorter term / state dependent behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has any work like this been done?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26232" LastActivityDate="2020-06-18T00:05:20.947" Title="Is there an analog to the five factor model for emotion?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25514" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25513" CreationDate="2020-06-18T00:05:20.947" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The recently published &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour&lt;/a&gt; is possibly what you are looking for(Mobbs, 2020).  Over 3,000 emotions are included in the analysis, a summary of which is below.  The article has a more &lt;a href=&quot;https://ndownloader.figstatic.com/files/21216930&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;comprehensive version&lt;/a&gt;.  The five factor model was derived through factorisation whereas the atlas was developed using a lexical/network approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figure/image?download&amp;amp;size=large&amp;amp;id=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877.t003&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLOS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declared Interest&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am the author of the atlas paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-18T00:05:20.947" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25515" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8510" CreationDate="2020-06-18T02:32:41.047" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The recently published &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour&lt;/a&gt; catalogues over 3,000 emotions (Mobbs, 2020).  A summary of the emotions is below with a more &lt;a href=&quot;https://ndownloader.figstatic.com/files/21216930&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;comprehensive version&lt;/a&gt; included in the article. The atlas uses the dimensions of affiliation and dominance compared to the Russell model of affect and vallence.  The article identifies the neurological and hormonal basis for the selection of affiliation and dominance as dimensions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figure/image?download&amp;amp;size=large&amp;amp;id=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877.t003&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLOS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Russell, J. A., Lewicka, M., &amp;amp; Niit, T. (1989). A cross-cultural study of a circumplex model of affect. Journal of personality and social psychology, 57(5), 848. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.848&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.848&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declared Interest&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am the author of the atlas paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-18T02:32:41.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25516" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-18T13:13:58.777" Score="1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to learn how to do GLMM for my phd in psychology. I was intending to do a mixed model ANOVA, but the GLMM allows me to consider more variables simultaneously and so I have decided to go with this. I appreciate a very similar question was asked and answered some time ago, but the answer posted doesn't resolve my issue. I've read the Barr 2013 article and gone through the checklist and I have two extra questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Should I include random effects.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My data is from a psychology repeated measures experiment, with two independent variables, and an additional self-reported variable for each trial. The GLMM allows me to examine the role of each variable, while also accounting for the self-reported variable. I have collected a number of individual characteristics that could be related, and can add them in as a random variable. When I add them in, the model doesn't really change. So, does this mean that the result holds, regardless of the individual factors included in the model? Does this make the model more generalisable? In the Barr article in suggests reporting ‘&lt;em&gt;by excluding the random slope for the priming manipulation, we assume that the priming effect is invariant across subjects (or items) in the population.&lt;/em&gt;’ - but I'm not entirely sure what they mean by '&lt;em&gt;invariant across subject'.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. What information should I include in the resulting tables.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My data is output from SPSS, which provides two output tables. One gives the fixed effect for each variable, but the second table gives the fixed effects for each level of the variable as shown below. The obvious problem with this is that it is making comparisons between each level which results in a blank row. Is it sufficient to report the main fixed effects in the table, and then discuss the differences between levels where the main effect is significant? (For clarity, at the moment in the table below only fixed effects are included in the model and reported.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you have any thoughts or opinions on this I would really love to hear them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for your time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XarRk.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/XarRk.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26236" LastActivityDate="2020-06-18T13:13:58.777" Title="How do I complete and report a Generalised Linear Mixed model from SPSS into APA?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;pain&gt;&lt;linear-mixed-model&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25517" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-18T14:26:35.373" Score="0" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The illness is accompanied by &lt;strong&gt;memory gaps&lt;/strong&gt; beyond what would be explained by ordinary forgetfulness.&#xA;...&#xA;DID symptoms include &amp;quot;the presence of two or more distinct personality states&amp;quot; accompanied by the inability to recall personal information, beyond what is expected through normal forgetfulness. Other DSM-5 symptoms include a loss of identity as related to individual distinct personality states, and &lt;strong&gt;loss referring to time, sense of self and consciousness.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if I understood what is 'dissociative identity disorder', and above is what I found on wiki. Some cases says they just completely lost the consciousness for serveral days and wake up at random places, i.e. the so called memory gaps, however during this time some other identities in their body, is there, and doing something they don't know. But is this the actual symptoms for DID, could someone just lost consciousness forever after having DID, and instead someother identity taking over? (I personally find this hard to believe.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24524" LastActivityDate="2020-06-18T14:26:35.373" Title="What is dissociative identity disorder" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;did&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25518" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-18T18:00:12.720" Score="-2" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm a writer and, in this story I'm currently writing, a psychiatrist researches a new therapy method before finally testing it on his patients. My plan, however, was to eventually have his license revoked, but I wonder on what grounds exactly? Would it be because of using an officially unapproved therapy on patients? Does this mean that a therapy can only be publicly used if approved by either a state board that oversees psychologist/psychiatrist or the ethics committee of the APA?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I apologize if this is a strange or weirdly worded question, but I'm not sure how to delicately word this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26237" LastActivityDate="2020-06-19T00:00:31.893" Title="Could a psychiatrist have their license revoked for using a new type therapy procedure on patients?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25520" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25518" CreationDate="2020-06-19T00:00:31.893" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Gross and/or repeated breaches of ethical standards is normally cause for revocation of any professional licence (e.g. psychology, medicine, law, accounting, engineering).  Possibly relevant ethical standards may include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychology.org.au/getmedia/d873e0db-7490-46de-bb57-c31bb1553025/APS-Code-of-Ethics.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychology.org.au/getmedia/d873e0db-7490-46de-bb57-c31bb1553025/APS-Code-of-Ethics.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code/ethics-code-2017.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code/ethics-code-2017.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-19T00:00:31.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25521" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-18T23:51:22.740" Score="0" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a corpus (a labeled collection of documents) for the forms used in various psychiatric tests (Beck Depression Inventory, Addiction Severity Index, PTSD Checklist, etc) and their item-level questions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest thing I could find is the &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ontogene.org/current-pr/psymine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PsyMine&lt;/a&gt; corpus, but it seems like that corpus is not being maintained anymore. I'd like to find something in the same format of the Brown corpus or the Reuters corpus in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nltk.org/book/ch02.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NLTK&lt;/a&gt; Python package, but even if it's just a file, then I can convert it. My purpose is to use this corpus as a reference to match descriptions of these forms that various groups have submitted to certain databases, across databases because they're different from each other and I'm hoping they'd be similar to a general corpus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21184" OwnerDisplayName="HS-nebula" LastEditorUserId="21184" LastEditDate="2020-06-19T14:56:26.827" LastActivityDate="2020-06-19T14:56:26.827" Title="What mental health corpuses exist for natural language processing research?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;nlp&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25508" CreationDate="2020-06-19T10:06:54.170" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is your objective to model:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the decline in incremental daily learning over time, or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the total cumulative learning,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My feeling is that this problem is better modelled by thinking of the problem as modelling the decline in incremental daily learning over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two reasons for my assertion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The decline in daily learning accords more with reality, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;there are far more distributions to model deline, such as: exponential, Weibull, log-normal, gamma.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My gut feel tells me that modelling the incremental with a log-normal would be a great starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Said another way, I think you should be modelling the probability density function (pdf) rather than the cumulative density function (cdf).  In statistics, we start by modelling the pdf. The cdf is an outcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-19T10:06:54.170" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25525" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-19T14:01:58.497" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know what generates the action potential in the brain areas that is relevant to dreaming, since our sensory nervous systems don't work (or do they?). What else can generate the action potential needed for dreaming?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25957" LastActivityDate="2020-06-23T22:54:40.440" Title="How action potential is generated while dreaming" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25526" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25489" CreationDate="2020-06-19T14:56:00.983" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that one of the most basic and universal responses a person can have to &lt;strong&gt;music&lt;/strong&gt; is &lt;em&gt;engagement&lt;/em&gt;. When listeners are engaged with music, they follow the sounds closely connecting in an affective way to what they hear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, music listening and music therapy is becoming an important topic of social neuroscience scientific inquiry (Kamioka et al., 2014).&#xA;This branch of research is facilitated by &lt;em&gt;Hyperscanning EEG&lt;/em&gt; which provides the opportunity to explore dynamic brain activities between two or more participants (Liu et al., 2018).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to suggest to you the following study by &lt;strong&gt;Lindenberger and colleagues (2009)&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;The authors recorded EEG from the brains of pairs of guitarists playing a short melody together to investigate the rate of cortical synchronization in the course of music-driven actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to measure the rate of brain synchronization, they implemented the &lt;em&gt;phase-locking index (PLI)&lt;/em&gt; which reflects invariants of phases across trials measured from single electrodes. As you can see in the first figure both the participants playing and listening to each other music showed &lt;strong&gt;fronto-central&lt;/strong&gt; activity and &lt;em&gt;Synchronization&lt;/em&gt; measured by the PLI index suggested that the activity is the highest at &lt;strong&gt;fronto-central&lt;/strong&gt; sites. Especially, in the image below you can see the PLI distribution in the &lt;strong&gt;fronto-central brain regions&lt;/strong&gt; at the theta frequency.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UlGHz.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UlGHz.png&quot; alt=&quot;Figure 1. PLI distribution in the fronto-central brain regions at the theta frequency (4.95Hz)&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Finally, they used another index called &lt;strong&gt;Interbrain Phase Coherence (IPC)&lt;/strong&gt; which represents the degree of constancy in phase differences across trial between &lt;em&gt;two electrodes&lt;/em&gt; measuring the activity from &lt;em&gt;two different brains&lt;/em&gt;.&#xA;In the figure below you can see synchronization between brains as measured by IPC: coherence was also strongest for fronto-central connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BjevG.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BjevG.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope that this paper partly answered your doubts. I do not know any study directly investigating brain synchronization in romantic couples, but if you think that romantic couples can be a discriminating factor to study brain synchronization while listening or practising music you could put on an experiment that considers romantic couples as an experimental group and friends/acquaintances as a control group.&#xA;Always remember, however, that you must justify the choice of your experimental groups with strong literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;REFERENCES&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24876768/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kamioka H, Tsutani K, Yamada M, Park H, Okuizumi H, Tsuruoka K, Honda T, Okada S, Park S. (2014)Effectiveness of music therapy: a summary of systematic reviews based on randomized controlled trials of music interventions. &lt;em&gt;DOVEPRESS&lt;/em&gt;. http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/PPA.S61340&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01862/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Difei Liu, Shen Liu, Xiaoming Liu, Chong Zhang, Aosika Li, Chenggong Jin, Yijun Chen, Hangwei Wang and Xiaochu Zhang. Interactive Brain Activity: Review and Progress on EEG-Based Hyperscanning in Social Interactions. &lt;em&gt;Front. Psychol.&lt;/em&gt;, 08 October 2018 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01862&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://bmcneurosci.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2202-10-22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ulman Lindenberger, Shu-Chen Li, Walter Gruber and Viktor Müller. Brains swinging in concert: cortical phase synchronization while playing guitar. &lt;em&gt;BMC Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; 2009, 10:22 doi:10.1186/1471-2202-10-22&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2020-06-19T14:56:00.983" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25527" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25508" CreationDate="2020-06-20T00:55:24.687" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could use something like Desmos to rapidly try out different functions and see how well they fit the different datasets you have.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The site allows you to vary different function parameters using sliders and see how the shape changes in response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, here's a plot using Demos that reproduces the shape of the curve used to fit the data in Fig 1 quite well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lSaA5.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/lSaA5.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The above plot and sliders can be seen here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.desmos.com/calculator/w0ye3ynpia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.desmos.com/calculator/w0ye3ynpia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can imagine the various curve fitting packages as essentially varying the parameter sliders to find the curve with minimum deviation from the data points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4055" LastActivityDate="2020-06-20T00:55:24.687" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25528" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-20T02:52:06.407" Score="0" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are three theories of intrinsic motivation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2004-19493-002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Need-Satisfaction theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_evaluation_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive evaluation theory (CET)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The theories identify the following innate needs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;competence&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;relatedness&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;autonomy.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the core difference between these theories?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In what sense are they different?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Where would it be best to use these theories?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26241" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-20T10:06:45.690" LastActivityDate="2020-06-20T10:06:45.690" Title="What is the core difference between Cognitive evaluation theory and Need-Satisfaction theory" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25529" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24290" CreationDate="2020-06-20T22:31:58.350" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The field you're talking about is probably computational neuroscience. In general, the advice I would give is that the department you are in doesn't much matter. There are people who study neuroscience that are in engineering, comp. sci, psychology, whatever. I know University of Chicago has an entire program in &lt;a href=&quot;https://biosciences.uchicago.edu/programs/computational-neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Computational Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;. Probably the best thing to do is look up research in good journals (Neuron, Nature Neuroscience, Journal of Neuroscience, to name a few) and start popping off emails to professors. Most won't care that you have no background in biology or psychology, you can learn that on the way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26245" LastActivityDate="2020-06-20T22:31:58.350" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25532" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21378" CreationDate="2020-06-21T14:23:12.407" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The EEG (or Local Field Potential - LFP) is the result of currents flowing in and out of every neuron in the brain. As this current flows, a dipole is created which creates an electric field - this is what is measured at the electrode. There are details in &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3241&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this excellent review&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is true that neurons tend to fire synchronously during epochs of oscillations but that is only part of the story. The voltage measured by the electrode also includes sub-threshold activity and it must be noted that the contribution of a current is scaled by 1/(r^2) where r is the distance to the electrode. This means that EEG usually only measures activity from neurons close to the electrode. Activity of subcortical structures (hippocampus, amygdala) get attenuated because they are too far away. That is why you have to actually stick an electrode into the brain to measure from these structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26245" LastEditorUserId="26245" LastEditDate="2020-06-21T14:34:38.230" LastActivityDate="2020-06-21T14:34:38.230" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25534" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-22T03:28:41.670" Score="0" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Me and Person X differ in many ways, i'm not sure which mindset I should follow. Which is considered right or is a winning mindset?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When going for a run, X sets a goal of 10km, once X completes 10km, he then pushes himself and runs a couple more. At the end, X has a sense of accomplishment for finishing 10km and running a few more than the target. X continues keeping such goals and increasing the no. of km to run while having daily satisfaction.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When going for a run, I set a tough goal of 50km. Every day I run as much as I can and push myself a bit more the next day i.e on the first day I do 10km, on the next day I do 10.5km, and so on. The increment is not planned nor is the quantity strictly increasing. Everyday is a challenge since I'm trying to reach a tough goal which my current body can't achieve. But after many days, I finally reach the goal and my satisfaction is at its peak as i've reached a challenging goal after days of struggle.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both of these seem to be correct, but which is better/healthier? Can these two even be categorized?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23593" LastActivityDate="2020-06-22T03:28:41.670" Title="The right mindset?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;theory-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25536" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-22T22:03:36.390" Score="1" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;Isn't mindfulness is difficult for a thinker which usually philosophers are?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness by definition is bringing awareness to present moment non judgmentally and I agree it may relax you. I believe it happens because you shrink your attention to such a short span, in a moment by moment fashion that complex thoughts can't be formed and thus you relieve yourself from any unpleasant (or pleasant) feeling that may arise from complex thoughts. In simple words, you reduce your suffering, if any, to at it's minimum by limiting input to senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, is avoiding complex unpleasant thought always desirable? aren't these thoughts and their uncomfortable feelings motivates and inspire us introspect and change?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: In early childhood I had my belief and respect for patriarchal social system(disbelief in gender equality). It were some uncomfortable thoughts that made me correct myself and disregard such systems which causes unnecessary man made suffering. If every time I felt uncomfortable and practiced mindfulness to avoid them, I might passively be supporting such system till date.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may say some thoughts are useful and worth attention &amp;amp; others not. Like worrying about upcoming college exam won't do any good, you may just use best of the time left. However can we say that with 100% certainty? The worry is something bringing your attention and focus to a problem at hand, may be you could be one in a million who will get a brilliant idea to handle such situation or device a undetectable way to cheat, or it may just help to focus and put 100% to prep for exam or it could keep you panicking, unproductive and prove itself a useless thought pattern. Similarly if you fail on an exam, there is no good in being sad about it or is there? may be the sadness is useful in making a neural pattern in brain to put more effort and time next semester.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence I even find judging thoughts worthiness is difficult and inconsistent. However if you are having too many negative thoughts keeping you on the edge on a regular basis may end up in health issue, in which we can regard it as certainly a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize, wouldn't being too much mindful may make you too adaptive to be mal-adaptive? wouldn't it may stop your thought processes which might have produced some good for society? and wouldn't it limit your potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21780" LastActivityDate="2020-06-24T10:24:34.013" Title="Is living with constant mindfulness necessarily good? or does it limit one's potential?" Tags="&lt;mindfulness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2020-06-25T10:36:30.653" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25537" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25525" CreationDate="2020-06-23T22:54:40.440" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a lot to unpack here, but maybe a good place to start is looking at the difference between an action potential and a brainwave. An &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;action potential&lt;/a&gt; is the abrupt change in voltage of a single neuron in response to a pre-synaptic stimulus. Brainwaves are measured by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;EEG&lt;/a&gt;. They represent the sum of many neurons' activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I understand the gist of your question, you want to know where the brain activity &amp;quot;comes from&amp;quot; during sleep/dreaming since there are no sensory stimuli. It's a good question, and a topic of research. Check out &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867419307433&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; or any of Gyorgy Buzsaki's work. Also, you may be interested in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Default_mode_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Default mode network&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26245" LastActivityDate="2020-06-23T22:54:40.440" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25538" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-23T23:51:50.987" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering why many people just read headlines when they scroll through social media and make up their minds based on this? What bias or heuristic is at play? Why don't people read the article?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have considered availability bias because people will use the information that is available to them but that doesn't seem to capture the whole phenomenon. Why don't people click on the article to read it and assume they know the whole story based on the few words contained in the headline?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26264" LastActivityDate="2020-07-02T15:30:22.130" Title="What heuristic or bias is at play when drawing conclusions from headlines only?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25539" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25545" CreationDate="2020-06-24T08:26:07.083" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, a researcher is investigating synonyms and prepares a test.  A participant undertaking the test incorrectly interprets the instructions, and understands the test to relate to antonyms rather than synonyms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this then make the test results invalid?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26268" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-24T22:37:33.950" LastActivityDate="2020-06-24T22:37:33.950" Title="If the instructions of a group intelligence test are misunderstood, are the results of that test invalid?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;&lt;validation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25540" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25536" CreationDate="2020-06-24T08:49:03.903" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness by definition is bringing awareness to present moment non&#xA;judgmentally and I agree it may relax you. I believe it happens&#xA;because you shrink your attention to such a short span, in a moment by&#xA;moment fashion that complex thoughts can't be formed and thus you&#xA;relieve yourself from any unpleasant (or pleasant) feeling that may&#xA;arise from complex thoughts. In simple words, you reduce your&#xA;suffering, if any, to at it's minimum by limiting input to senses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For me it is the opposite. In order to stay mindful and present you need a very stable and extended attention span. Philosophy, or just thoughts in general, are just mind wandering, it requires no effort, and no stable attention. And it changes nothing in reality. It actually limits your senses, mindfulness heightens your senses, because you are actually observing more input then when you are mindless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, is avoiding complex unpleasant thought always desirable?&#xA;aren't these thoughts and their uncomfortable feelings motivates and&#xA;inspire us introspect and change?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What thoughts are you talking about? The content of the thought does not really matter, what matters is how you react to it. You could have thoughts about strawberries, but if you are allergic you may react in a negative way to them (resistance), if you love fruit you may react positive, and else just neutral. You can live on basic hedonistic principle if you want.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If every time I&#xA;felt uncomfortable and practiced mindfulness to avoid them, I might&#xA;passively be supporting such system till date.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mindfulness is not about avoiding anything, it is the opposite, observe the present with as much attention as possible, but without reacting to it. That means to observe thoughts as well, but not react to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may say some thoughts are useful and worth attention &amp;amp; others not.&#xA;Like worrying about upcoming college exam won't do any good, you may&#xA;just use best of the time left. However can we say that with 100%&#xA;certainty? The worry is something bringing your attention and focus to&#xA;a problem at hand, may be you could be one in a million who will get a&#xA;brilliant idea to handle such situation or device a undetectable way&#xA;to cheat, or it may just help to focus and put 100% to prep for exam&#xA;or it could keep you panicking, unproductive and prove itself a&#xA;useless thought pattern. Similarly if you fail on an exam, there is no&#xA;good in being sad about it or is there? may be the sadness is useful&#xA;in making a neural pattern in brain to put more effort and time next&#xA;semester.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Worrying is not a single thought. Worrying is when you react to fear with fear. It creates a cycle, a loop of fear. Just observe the thought and the sensation you label fear, but don't react to it. Worrying doesn't help you focus, it is a distraction. It does the opposite. Yes it might get you so fearful and anxious and nervous that it makes you do something, but the result will not be of the same quality as when you do something calm and with full focus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize, wouldn't being too much mindful may make you too&#xA;adaptive to be mal-adaptive? wouldn't it may stop your thought&#xA;processes which might have produced some good for society? and&#xA;wouldn't it limit your potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you get to that state of awareness of a zen monk where you have no thoughts at all, you would realize that society is just an illusion. How would you even be able to help someone if you are not mindful? If all you are aware of is your thoughts, how are you supposed to notice someone who needs help. What does it even mean to 'produce some good'?&#xA;Thoughts limit potential. Thoughts are limited and limiting by nature. For example if you believe that a snake will kill you, you will stay away from snakes, and potentially never find out that their venom cures cancer (just an example). Or if you believe that slavery is something barbaric and could never happen in the modern world, you could become a slave and never realize it. In yoga and buddhism this is called karma. Thoughts that skew your perspective and make you only see reality from a specific relative perspective. If you want to learn more, I recommend &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gjNAMOMN0P4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this talk from david bohm, a theoretical physicists&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26267" LastEditorUserId="26267" LastEditDate="2020-06-24T10:24:34.013" LastActivityDate="2020-06-24T10:24:34.013" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25542" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-24T15:26:05.007" Score="4" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a specific term that describes the phenomenon where you perceive a tool as an extension of your own body?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of this would be when a skilled artist or tradesman has so mastered their craft that when they use a paint brush or wrench their mind extends their consciousness to the object and they use the tool unconsciously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example is riding a bicycle.  If you are an experienced cyclist, you are usually not consciously thinking about how you are riding your bicycle.  Your mental awareness has expanded to the bicycle and you respond to riding it like it is another limb of your own body&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26271" LastEditorUserId="26271" LastEditDate="2021-05-03T00:24:44.137" LastActivityDate="2021-05-04T14:37:24.230" Title="Is there a term in psychology for when a tool is perceived as an extension of your body?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25543" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-24T15:53:03.643" Score="2" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we assume that there is no extrinsic meaning in life (objectively speaking), it follows that one needs to have intrinsic values to make one's life meaningful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, an objective observation of our world tells us that we are just a set of random particles in a vastly huge universe. From that follows that we just exist and things like values, desires, morals, .... are just &amp;quot;psychological&amp;quot; constructs that are neither right or wrong (and we mostly will never get to an answer like that).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The cognitive dissonance then appears as follows:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Analytical thoughts mostly occur to understand and categorize something (as right or wrong for example) - but this striving is contradictory to the belief that, objectively speaking, we will never get to a right-or-wrong answer and that there is no actual (physical) meaning or value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This of course can lead into a deep rabbit-hole:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;loss of intrinsic meaning and values (&amp;quot;they don't really exist - so why search&amp;quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;inability in general decision-making(&amp;quot;how to decide when there is no right/wrong&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;why decide when there is no meaning&amp;quot;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;apathy, anxiety/panic/GAD (as a result of impression of no control over one's life), OCD, dissociation, depression...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;What does research or practical application suggest, when it comes to analytical (and probably rational) thinking patterns that create a cognitive dissonance, which subsequently (can) create serious psychological issues?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26260" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-24T21:15:19.827" LastActivityDate="2020-06-24T21:15:19.827" Title="What are common ideas to resolve a cognitive dissonance in which the belief is realistic but causes problems for &quot;coping with the world&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;cognitive-dissonance&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25544" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25538" CreationDate="2020-06-24T17:09:21.770" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think that the conjunction fallacy might play a role in these instances. The fallacy assumes, according to Tversky &amp;amp; Kahneman (1983), that we tend to try to build a more plausible reason in our minds and thus string together the information with what is easier to believe. With an abundance of information, it is easier for people to piece stories together that support what they have already been exposed to, and thus tend not to extend their reasoning past this point, representativeness is at work, as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;url=http://faculty.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/nehring/teaching/econ106/readings/Extensional%2520Versus%2520Intuitive.pdf&amp;amp;ved=2ahUKEwiZ7qGNnq7qAhW_wzgGHdVCB_wQFjABegQIBBAB&amp;amp;usg=AOvVaw1kPAhnBoW7ZcCuP7AN-LEN&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tversky, A., &amp;amp; Kahneman, D. (1983). Extensional versus intuitive reasoning: The conjunction fallacy in probability judgment. Psychological Review, 90(4), 293&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24990" LastEditorUserId="15348" LastEditDate="2020-07-02T15:30:22.130" LastActivityDate="2020-07-02T15:30:22.130" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25545" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25539" CreationDate="2020-06-24T19:39:46.507" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Kelley (1927) constructed test validity as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem of validity is that of whether a test really measures what it purports to measure, while the question of reliability is that of how accurately a test measures the thing which it does measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the example provided, the test purports to measure some aspect of synonyms.  The test actually (due to the misinterpretation) measures antonyms.  Therefore, in the example provided, the test is not valid.  If it were to argued that it was a valid test of synonyms, then you would also have to admit that it was not reliable and/or accurate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kelley's construction of validity remains in common use and adequate for the example provided.  For a more complete view of validity, see Boag (2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kelley, T. L. (1927). Interpretation of educational measurements. World Book. &lt;a href=&quot;https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.$b239527&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.$b239527&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Boag, S. (2015). Personality assessment,‘construct validity’, and the significance of theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 84, 36-44. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.039&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.039&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-24T19:39:46.507" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25546" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25538" CreationDate="2020-06-24T20:15:01.277" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If the headline confirms a strongly held prior belief, or is antithetical to prior beliefs, then no need to read.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider an article titled, '&lt;em&gt;the world is round&lt;/em&gt;' ... no need to read it as I already believe that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An alternate title '&lt;em&gt;the world is flat&lt;/em&gt;' ... no need to read that either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An article 'the world is changing' may pique my interest and cause me to read further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder whether any heuristic or bias is at play, or whether an evaluation mechanism that judges the perceived benefit of reading the article versus the time opportunity cost of engaging with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-24T21:30:16.050" LastActivityDate="2020-06-24T21:30:16.050" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25548" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25559" CreationDate="2020-06-25T06:32:07.607" Score="1" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are fear and desire located on the opposite sides of a spectrum or are they more like filters/lenses through which one can look simultaneously?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24340" LastActivityDate="2020-06-26T16:09:36.370" Title="What is the relationship between fear and desire?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25549" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-25T06:58:32.713" Score="0" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;As you ascend through lower levels of consciousness your perception is dominated by the ego mind. Since you can experience different negative emotional states at the same point in the evolution of your consciousness, why do specific calibrated levels of lower mind correspond to specific negative emotions? Is it your perspective view on reality is dominated by a single ego emotion at a time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do the calibration levels of lower mind consciousness directly correlate to the experience of the negative emotions themselves. Is the transformation of the lower mind to the higher mind equivalent to no longer experiencing the physical sensations of the specific negative emotions themselves?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or it is you can always experience the physical sensation of negative emotions at any point in your consciousness. It just isn’t your minds initial response anymore?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25777" LastActivityDate="2020-06-25T06:58:32.713" Title="Calibrated levels of lower mind consciousness and it’s role on the physical experience of ego emotions" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25551" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25508" CreationDate="2020-06-25T09:29:06.230" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Learning curves can be fitted well with standard psychometric curves, like the Weibull function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;I decided to also post an answer here myself, as I've been working on the data after the answers came in. I accepted Bryan's answer as they rightfully suggested that these data should not be fitted with a simple exponential, but with a psychomteric (sigmoid) curve. I chose the Weibull and went on from there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A general form of the psychometric curve has two horizontal asymptotes, corresponding to minimum (guess rate) and maximal performance (1-lapse rate). They are often denoted as gamma and lambda, respectively (eq. 1).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6KvGH.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6KvGH.png&quot; alt=&quot;general psychometric curve&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Eq. 1. General psychometric curve &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03194547.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Strasburger, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A generalized psychometric curve is shown in Fig. 1.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GRfcn.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/GRfcn.png&quot; alt=&quot;psychometric_curve&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Psychometric curve &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03194547.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Strasburger, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Weibull function is a popular used sigmoid for psychometric fitting purposes. Its function is shown in eq. 2. Note that gamma, or lapse rate, is omitted here, but can be simply added back in the first factor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ncYY0.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ncYY0.png&quot; alt=&quot;Weibull&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Eq. 2. Weibull. Note that lapse rate lambda has been omitted &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03194547.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Strasburger, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Weibull function has been used before for learning curves, as shown by the paper cited by Bryan above &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pnas.org/content/101/36/13124&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Gallistel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. The logit function in the question is a variant on the Weibull.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, the speed of learning (beta') can be elegantly estimated by the maximum of the first derivative, as pointed out by Bryan in the accepted answer, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, the point where the second derivative equals zero, according to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6Tpyd.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6Tpyd.png&quot; alt=&quot;slope estimate&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Eq. 3. maximal slope of the Weibull function. Note that lapse rate lambda has been omitted &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03194547.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Strasburger, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my specific case, I had to use a derived version because of the &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;log axis in my data as pointed out above in the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recommend the &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03194547.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Strasburger (2001)&lt;/a&gt; paper for further details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For comparison, I plotted the same sample data as above in the question using a Weibull fit in Fig. 2. The fit is still not great, as it has difficulty finding the lower aymptote, because of the lack of data here. This was the reason I chose the simple exponential earlier, as I was worried about this. Note that I expanded the left-hand side of the x-axis here to better show the course of the lower asymptote.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/80FNf.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/80FNf.png&quot; alt=&quot;sample data&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Sample data with Weibull fit using the same data as in the question. source: own work&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A more convincing fit is shown in Fig. 3, where the data is quite obviously a sigmoid. For this reason, a weibull fit is better. Further, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pnas.org/content/101/36/13124&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Gallistel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2004)&lt;/a&gt; also successfully fitted data that lacked data points around the lower asymptote (their Figs. 1 &amp;amp; 7).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NU6tl.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/NU6tl.png&quot; alt=&quot;sample sigmoid data &quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 3. Sample data with Weibul fit using other data than in the question. source: own work&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pnas.org/content/101/36/13124&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gallistel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;PNAS&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;101&lt;/strong&gt;(36): 13124-31&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03194547.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Strasburger, &lt;em&gt;Percept Psychophys&lt;/em&gt; (2001); &lt;strong&gt;63&lt;/strong&gt;(8), 1348-55&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-06-26T07:10:57.397" LastActivityDate="2020-06-26T07:10:57.397" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25552" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-25T09:56:14.700" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can the Conscious Competence Learning Model be applied to emotion regulation? As you activate the parasympathetic nervous system by utilizing techniques such as meditation your overall emotion regulation continuously improves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Activating the PNS progresses your emotion regulation through the 4 stages of the Conscious Competence Learning Model, effectively activating unconscious competence at regulating your emotional state. At this stage of regulation there are no physiological effects of a negatively induced emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However if PNS activation is directly proportional to Sympathetic Nervous System deactivation does that mean you can theoretically regress your emotional regulation back through the 4 stages of conscious competence by repeated activation of the SNS?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How is this explained in regards to your mind achieving unconscious competence at emotion regulation in the first place? Is unconscious competence indefinite or does it become a permanent trait of your being after it has been achieved?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25777" LastEditorUserId="25777" LastEditDate="2021-03-13T19:40:59.317" LastActivityDate="2021-03-13T19:40:59.317" Title="Can the Conscious Competence Learning Model be applied to emotion regulation" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25553" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-25T13:25:33.280" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/004269899290190T&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wolfe (1991)&lt;/a&gt; reports an example of a search that seems to be parallel for target trials and serial for blank trials:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MQ8kC.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MQ8kC.png&quot; alt=&quot;From Wolfe, J. M. (1992). “Effortless” texture segmentation and “parallel” visual search are not the same thing. Vision Research, 32(4), 757-763.&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's another example from &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03206946&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wang et al., 1994&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xpwE8.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xpwE8.png&quot; alt=&quot;from Wang, Q., Cavanagh, P., &amp;amp; Green, M. (1994). Familiarity and pop-out in visual search. Perception &amp;amp; psychophysics, 56(5), 495-500.&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Strangely, In &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.296.3400&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Treisman's seminal 1980 paper&lt;/a&gt; she also reports a serial slope for color and shape blank trials:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TFxZZ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TFxZZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;from Treisman, A. M., &amp;amp; Gelade, G. (1980). A feature-integration theory of attention. Cognitive psychology, 12(1), 97-136.&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is anyone familiar with other examples of a dissociation between target-present and target-absent search slopes, in this direction or in the opposite one (e.g., parallel for blank but serial for target trials)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-Matan&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26281" LastEditorUserId="26281" LastEditDate="2020-10-30T16:04:47.320" LastActivityDate="2020-10-30T16:04:47.320" Title="Parallel target search and serial blank search" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25555" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-25T15:34:06.277" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can you please recommend some literature about experiments used to study system 1 (fast and unconscious) decision making (Kahneman, 2011) in human or non-human animals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Macmillan. ISBN 9780141033570&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26282" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-06-27T10:06:45.000" LastActivityDate="2020-06-27T10:06:45.000" Title="System 1 (fast and unconscious) thinking" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25557" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-26T06:13:57.647" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my personal experience and from the (anecdotal) evidence it seems like music is way more addictive (for the lack of a better word) than film (movies).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, when a new record from my favorite singer or band is released, I can listen to it a few times a day for several days or maybe even weeks. And then the frequency slowly tapers off, but I can still listen to it every week or month for many many years.&#xA;For film it is completely different story. Even the movies that I consider absolute masterpieces, I would rewatch it maybe once every 6 months / year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is it the case? Is it because visual media is more... intense, rich, contains more &amp;quot;meaning&amp;quot; per unit of display?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But even if that's the case, I would doubt it would explain such dramatic difference in watching / listening frequencies - once per 6 months and hundreds of times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26284" LastActivityDate="2020-06-26T17:43:16.033" Title="Why is music more addictive than film?" Tags="&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25558" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-26T10:37:45.433" Score="1" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;People often have old watches, old cars or some old articles which are not functional but they don't feel like throwing them away. So what purpose does such a feeling serve and how is it helpful or harmful for our survival?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6833" LastEditorUserId="6833" LastEditDate="2020-06-27T12:26:18.707" LastActivityDate="2020-06-27T12:26:18.707" Title="What is the context of nostalgia?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;survival&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25559" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25548" CreationDate="2020-06-26T16:09:36.370" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour (Mobbs, 2020) is able to visualise emotions in two dimensions: affiliation and dominance.  Fear is considered submissive and disaffiliative.  Desire is more dominant and intrapersonal, that is, in itself neither affiliative or disaffiliative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TWudy.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TWudy.png&quot; alt=&quot;Emotions Fear and Desire&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLOS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declared interest&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am the author of the atlas paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-06-26T16:09:36.370" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25560" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25570" CreationDate="2020-06-26T16:36:41.937" Score="3" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;This may be not the appropriate community, but I am looking for resources - books or articles - about how to improve the affective support towards an adult who suffered childhood sexual abuse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am starting a relationship with a person in her 30s who suffered constant sexual and physchological abuse as a child. She did not realize it until a few years ago, and she is going to therapy now. I am not trying to replace the professional help in any way, I just want to understand how to better support her when she talks about the things she had experienced, or when she feels guilty or unloved. I am doing my best to make her feel safe and loved, but sometimes I just don't know what to say.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did some research, but found only books or articles for professional treatment, or guides on how to detect it. I understand the vastly difference between individual cases, but this is something so unrelated to my experience that any guidance will be very helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I am an academic researcher - on a completely different field -, so I might be able to cope with some technical terms or dense books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26286" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-06-29T09:12:32.353" LastActivityDate="2020-06-29T09:12:32.353" Title="Resources for adults supporting a partner with childhood sexual trauma" Tags="&lt;ptsd&gt;&lt;trauma&gt;&lt;sexual-assault&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25561" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25557" CreationDate="2020-06-26T17:43:16.033" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You guessed it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Listening to music is a passive activity. It causes no mental burden or stimuli to your thoughts. It is just allowing sound frequencies manipulate your brain and evoke whatever feelings they do in your mind. Whereas for watching movies, you need focus, to follow the story, and make sure you don't miss details. Human characters are involved, evoking love, happiness, disappointment, anger, stress, uncertainty, jealousy, envy, et; a huge emotional and mental burden. Very different from the relax &amp;quot;la-la land&amp;quot; world of music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20341" LastActivityDate="2020-06-26T17:43:16.033" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25562" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-27T10:53:25.770" Score="3" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Mental Fatigue: Costs and Benefits, Boksem and Tops advance that mental fatigue results from the brain's decision to save energy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/u5vfd.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/u5vfd.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51426280_Mental_fatigue_Costs_and_benefits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51426280_Mental_fatigue_Costs_and_benefits&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, on &amp;quot;Time&amp;quot;, Dr Marcus Raichle argues that: &amp;quot;while the brain burns a lot of energy, any changes in brain activity and energy use during a tough mental task are minute&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://time.com/5400025/does-thinking-burn-calories/#:%7E:text=While%20the%20brain%20represents%20just,way%20the%20brain%20consumes%20energy.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://time.com/5400025/does-thinking-burn-calories/#:~:text=While%20the%20brain%20represents%20just,way%20the%20brain%20consumes%20energy.&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering these statements, if mental work does not consume large amounts of energy and mental fatigue is caused by energy investment, why does mental work cause fatigue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26289" LastActivityDate="2020-06-27T10:53:25.770" Title="Why does mental work cause fatigue?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25563" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-27T15:35:37.660" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;A neuron can be electrically stimulated to initiate action potential. How much electrical  energy is required  to stimulate a single  human  neuron or a group of few thousand  neurons? Please  provide  reference. Internet search doesn't reveal any such related information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26292" LastActivityDate="2020-06-27T15:35:37.660" Title="How much electrical energy is required to stimulate a single human neuron?" Tags="&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25564" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21344" CreationDate="2020-06-27T23:57:06.457" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;No. We now know that some fathers react negatively to the gender nonconformity of their sons (i.e. their femininity) which is present and visible often from a very early age. The distant father hypothesis was discredited in the early 1980’s when large studies were carried out and found most gay men came from normal backgrounds. Further, the hypothesis would have to hold up cross-culturally. In Finland, gay men rate their fathers as warmer than straight men did. This is because Finn’s may react more affectionately to feminine boys than we do in the Anglo-sphere. The trauma model is useful to the religious because they can get self-hating men to put all of that guilt on their parents. Warren Throckmorton, a former gay conversion therapist, said most of the time the trauma model did not fit at all. But as conversion therapists, they told parents it was their fault and it led to some pretty awful familial disputes (even divorce) as parents quibbled over who “made their son gay”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally speaking, most of the evidence points towards prenatal environment such as androgen exposure. Twin studies have conclusively shown the social environment and upbringing has little to no effect on male sexual orientation. Trauma models are ridiculous but popular. All of the evidence indicates sexual orientation is determined early in development and relies heavily upon biology set in the womb. Take a look at the Fraternal Birth Order effect for example, in which antibodies from earlier pregnancies interfere with male-typical brain arrangement leaving the attraction in the default ‘female’ position.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26298" LastActivityDate="2020-06-27T23:57:06.457" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25567" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-29T02:11:23.530" Score="4" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the book &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0974320625&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Emotional Intelligence 2.0&lt;/a&gt; by Travis Bradberry &amp;amp; Jean Greaves:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The daily challenge of dealing effectively with emotions&#xA;is critical to the human condition because our brains are&#xA;hard- wired to give emotions the upper hand. Here’s how it&#xA;works: everything you see, smell, hear, taste and touch travels through your body in the form of electric signals. These&#xA;signals pass from cell to cell until they reach their ultimate&#xA;destination, your brain. They enter your brain at the base&#xA;near the spinal cord, but must travel to your frontal lobe&#xA;(behind your forehead) before reaching the place where rational, logical thinking takes place. The trouble is, they pass&#xA;through your limbic system along the way—the place where&#xA;emotions are produced. This journey ensures you experience&#xA;things emotionally before your reason can kick into gear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6iQf3.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6iQf3.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the presented as fact that senses such as seeing/sight go through Emotional/Limbic system prior to reaching Rational neo-cortex layer. Is this the current scientific stance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26305" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2020-06-29T07:37:02.200" LastActivityDate="2020-06-29T19:32:06.683" Title="Is it scientifically backed that sensory signals always go through limbic/emotional brain system?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;emotional-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25568" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-29T02:21:28.083" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Books sometimes say, &amp;quot;Our genes want us to have as many children as possible&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;Evolution wants the fittest to survive&amp;quot;. But genes are not conscious entities who can want things. So, why do we anthromorphize genes, evolution, and nature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6527" LastActivityDate="2020-06-29T02:21:28.083" Title="Why do we anthromorphize genes, evolution, and nature?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25570" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25560" CreationDate="2020-06-29T08:58:03.993" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Rape and sexual assault definitely does not only affect the assaulted, but also the friends and family as they can feel helpless, not knowing what is best to do to help and support the assaulted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I mentioned in the comments, support groups such as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;RAINN (US)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Call 800 656 4673 or 800 656 HOPE&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.rainn.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.rainn.org&lt;/a&gt; and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Survivors Trust (UK)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Call 0808 801 0331&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thesurvivorstrust.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.thesurvivorstrust.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;See also: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thesurvivorstrust.org/national-helplines&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.thesurvivorstrust.org/national-helplines&lt;/a&gt; for other national helplines&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;provide support to survivor's partners, friends and family too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following books are recommended by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ercc.scot/reading/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Edinburgh Rape Crisis Centre&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Allies in healing: when the person you love was sexually abused as a child, by Laura Davis&lt;br&gt;ISBN: 978-0060552992&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Laura Davis is also the author of the well known book for survivors called &lt;em&gt;The Courage to Heal Workbook&lt;/em&gt; which is a companion to the main book &lt;em&gt;The Courage to Heal&lt;/em&gt; she co-authored with Ellen Bass&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Allies in Healing&lt;/em&gt; is available through Amazon as a Kindle book for a much cheaper price than a printed copy if that suits you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Ghosts in the bedroom: A guide for partners of incest survivors, by Ken Graber&lt;br&gt;ISBN: 978-1558741164&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Ken Graber draws from personal experience to show how partners can accept responsibility for their own issues, support the recovery of the incest or sexual abuse survivor, and work toward solving relationship problems together.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-06-29T08:58:03.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25571" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-29T13:44:41.253" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering how likely it is for someone with an mental illness like depression that after he is released is hospitalized again. Could you expect that someone who is released is never in the need of this service again? I wasn't successful with my web search, so I was hoping someone here knows some sources on this topic.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Im particularly interested in data from countries with good and stable public healthcare, preferably European.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26310" LastActivityDate="2020-06-29T13:44:41.253" Title="Are there any sources on how many of patients with mental illness were hospitalized several times?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25572" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25567" CreationDate="2020-06-29T19:32:06.683" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;While it is true that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system#Attentional_and_emotional_processes&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Limbic system - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;emotional life is largely housed in the limbic system&lt;/a&gt;, the model seems to be over-simplistic to me. There are more complex emotions that are housed in the neocortex, not just the limbic system&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;. However, it can still be useful to teach for layman? Similarly to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triune_brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;triune brain&lt;/a&gt; model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a good introductory video course on emotion, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Human Emotion 1.1: Course Overview by June Gruber - YouTube&quot;&gt;Human Emotion&lt;/a&gt;, host by June Gruber, prof in Yale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;* I believe I have this claim when watching this course, but I cannot find the particular video that make that statement.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2020-06-29T19:32:06.683" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25574" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25578" CreationDate="2020-06-30T08:30:38.643" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of research uses ERP, which is time-locked EEG. I am reading about semantic and syntactic anomalies. So when a semantic anomaly occurs there is supposed to be a negative peak in ERP at 400ms. I have some questions how this this component was established and how the data is collected?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an assumption that these peaks happen in all individuals always at the same time? Is it only an assumption or is there evidence of invariability? Let's say the peak happens at 420 ms would you than use the amplitude from 400 ms or from 420?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is the data collected from the whole brain and averaged out?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastActivityDate="2021-04-26T05:05:17.970" Title="What are ERP components such as N400?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;event-related-potential&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25575" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-06-30T21:14:57.630" Score="1" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is meant by &lt;em&gt;background assumption&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26317" LastActivityDate="2020-06-30T22:56:30.230" Title="What is a background assumption?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2020-07-03T17:18:15.943" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25576" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25575" CreationDate="2020-06-30T22:27:13.277" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A background assumption is something implied or assumed by what you say, but not explicitly stated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, if you say 'I feel happy'.  It is implied or assumed that you exist.  It is also implied or assumed that happiness exists.  It is implied and assumed that you have feelings.  It is implied that you have told the truth rather than a lie. A background assumption is that you and I both interpret happiness in a similar way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many things we say include background or implied assumptions.  Fortunately, most people make similar background assumptions which means that they don't need to be stated, which greatly aids in efficient communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Did you notice that I made the assumption that we all make similar background assumptions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question may be better directed to &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/&quot;&gt;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-06-30T22:56:30.230" LastActivityDate="2020-06-30T22:56:30.230" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25578" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25574" CreationDate="2020-07-01T08:29:24.937" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The semantic N400 and syntactic P600 are some of the most well established ERP components in the literature. They were discovered decades ago and the results have been replicated hundreds of times in other papers. There is just no question that they are present and very robust. That's not saying they are there 100% of the time in 100% of people. All we know is that it's a very easy response to get out and by now it would be surprising / worthy of investigation if people didn't show them in the standard paradigm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a paper from a few years ago that looks at the 30 years of N400 research and all the papers that found the effects. It's probably a bit out of date now but it does a great summary of the research up until that point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think Hillyard &amp;amp; Kutas (1983) is the original paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ERP components are not always so tightly linked in time. You can module them based on task context and shift them by all sorts of ways so it's never that the peak is exactly at 400 ms post-stimulus. It can start WAY before then and end WAY after then. Broadly, we use N400 to talk about a large response that peaks &amp;quot;in that time window&amp;quot; (so, from 300-500ms). I wouldn't get too fixated on the specific milliseconds. Therefore you don't &amp;quot;use&amp;quot; the amplitude for anything (not sure I understood that part of your question).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typically you see N400 over central-parietal electrodes. There is a bit of confusion over exactly what the cortical sources are but MEG and fMRI do support the idea it's a strong dipole with the positive component slightly in the LH and therefore EEG electrodes over central and parietal sites pick up the strongest signal. This also gets at what you use as your reference electrode because EEG potentials are differential and the patterns you see on the head are very dependent on reference / ground settings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Typically you would group electrodes over general position and look at central-parietal ones or you could plot individual responses (both ways would still show the N400). As with anything in science, it's up to you what you show.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23710" LastActivityDate="2020-07-01T08:29:24.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25579" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25584" CreationDate="2020-07-01T22:29:17.307" Score="2" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a comic book called &amp;quot;Knights of the Dinner Table&amp;quot; about a bunch of rpg players.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one issue, the only girl at the table GM's some kind of self-discovery game she learnt in her psychology class. She describes some situations and asks for details from the players, giving an example herself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At one point, for example, she says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ok, so you continue your journey down your own personal path. Soon you come to a large bear! What do you do? My bear turns out to be very tame and I'm able to hand feed it and befriend it! He decides to accompany me on my journey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At the end, she explains what each thing symbolizes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bear represents adversity and how you deal with it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Supposedly this is (loosely) based on a real exercise for self discovery. I would like to know more about the real exercise in which this is based, but I don't know how to start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any idea how this exercise is called, or how can I find more information about something similar?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26322" LastActivityDate="2020-07-02T18:33:40.550" Title="Identify kind of descriptive role playing game for self-discovery" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25581" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-02T12:37:04.010" Score="4" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that people who experience &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16571536/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;autoscopy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; can see their body image outside them without a mirror. I had read many years back in a paper that people who experience the inverse phenomenon called &lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;heautoscopy&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt; become unable to see their body image in a mirror. I am not able to trace that paper. It is correct? Is there any place I can read more about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17994" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-07-09T08:08:41.453" LastActivityDate="2020-07-17T15:09:10.360" Title="Do people who experience heautoscopy become unable to see their reflected image in a mirror?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25582" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-02T12:51:09.447" Score="-1" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;Any technique or Matrix or Questionnaires, Qualitative or Quantitative Analysis&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26326" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-07-03T08:52:50.980" LastActivityDate="2020-07-03T19:23:04.150" Title="How can we measure the levels of Frustration?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;sentiment-analysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2020-07-07T13:19:53.803" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25583" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-02T16:29:51.900" Score="0" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have an EEG dataset with participant ids and averaged signal to noise ratios for different different conditions and regions. Can I use a mixed effect model for this dataset (e.g., lmm(SNR ~ condition * ROI (1|subject))? I am trying to understand the benefits of mixed effect models over Repeated measure anovas. Any answer/reading/discussion post will be helpful. Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23414" LastActivityDate="2020-07-02T16:29:51.900" Title="Is it possible to use mixed-effect models on averages dataset?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;linear-mixed-model&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25584" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25579" CreationDate="2020-07-02T18:33:40.550" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I finally found it, apparently it's called &lt;a href=&quot;https://exploringyourmind.com/the-forest-test-and-its-place-in-psychoanalysis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Forest Test&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hindrances and annoyances that take away our happiness, entrenched&#xA;fears, values ​​that govern our choices and behavior. The forest test&#xA;tries to clarify and interpret many of these issues based on the&#xA;approach from which it was designed: relational psychoanalysis.&#xA;According to this theory, our psychological suffering is rooted in&#xA;underlying issues that we must bring to light in order to heal the&#xA;hurts and move forward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For those who have not heard about this relational test, we should&#xA;first say that it isn’t in any way conventional. The forest test&#xA;doesn’t have enough reliability and validity to be part of normal&#xA;clinical practice. However, we cannot rule out its relevance within&#xA;the context and the theoretical framework from which it was created.&#xA;It is, without a doubt, worth taking into account.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The forest test is a projective test which can reveal the fears, hindrances and deepest interests of each patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26322" LastActivityDate="2020-07-02T18:33:40.550" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25585" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25582" CreationDate="2020-07-03T06:36:00.047" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the Atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour (Mobbs, 2020), frustration is an emotion that can be visualised on the two dimensional grid as shown below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The atlas paper describes a method for measuring emotions (and behaviours and personality traits) according to the orthogonal dimensions of affiliation and dominance. The neurobiological basis for the two dimensions are described in the paper as are the evolutionary associations with other vertebrates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The atlas facilitates measuring such emotions using either a scalar or vector approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A scalar measure of frustration can be achieved by identifying proximate synonymic emotions, such as: aggravation, anger, annoyance, botheration, chagrin, derailment, discontentment, exasperation, impatience, and irritation.  The proportion of these proximate synonyms that apply would be a scalar measure of frustration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A vectored approach would be to draw a vector from the origin (or some other point) through the cell in which frustration is located (-1,1) and then extending to the extremity of the atlas.  Many points on the vector would have a specific word descriptive of that point or segment along the vector. Fifteen related emotions are visualised to assist in the specification of the end point of the vector. (let me know if you would like others that better fit your need).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oiH0Q.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oiH0Q.png&quot; alt=&quot;Frustration&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs, AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLOS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs, AED (2020) An Atlas of Personality, Emotion and Behaviour. figshare. Collection. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.4792323.v1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.4792323.v1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declared interest&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am the author of the atlas paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-07-03T19:23:04.150" LastActivityDate="2020-07-03T19:23:04.150" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25587" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-03T16:47:11.877" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;People under the age of consent still lack the mental ability to give informed consent. but the age of consent varies across countries and states from puberty in Yemen to 15 / 16 / 17 / 18 ( France, UK, Ireland, Tunisia).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;can the mental ability to give consent be scientifically defined / measured /approximated?&#xA;if yes, at what age are 95% of people mentally able to give consent? or more ideally what's the percentage of people mentally able to give consent in function of age.( does it follow an S-curve? )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does that age vary across cultures / countries / education systems?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;** ( of course, other factors come into play in determining the  legal age of consent like the economical dependence of teens and tradition) but if less than 95% of people of certain age are unable to consent, one might argue that, that age is too low.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26331" LastActivityDate="2020-07-03T16:47:11.877" Title="At what age are 95% of people mentally able to give consent?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25588" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25599" CreationDate="2020-07-04T01:49:13.397" Score="5" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;These are regions of our brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EwODT.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/EwODT.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our eyes are in front below our forehead, however, the visual area Occipital Lobe is behind. Are there any biological reasons for this? why shouldn't Occipital Lobe be in forehead instead?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking of one thing but I don't know whether it's correct: The signals to run from the eyes thru' other regions for linking knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26336" LastEditorUserId="26336" LastEditDate="2020-07-06T01:38:39.293" LastActivityDate="2020-07-06T01:55:52.600" Title="Why is the occipital lobe behind instead of in front?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25589" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4313" CreationDate="2020-07-04T12:33:49.330" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found the review made in 2012, which has India results among others:&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://sci-hub.se/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00417.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blass, T. (2012). A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Studies of Obedience Using the Milgram Paradigm: A Review. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(2), 196–205. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00417.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DfE2l.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DfE2l.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it is from 1983. I failed to found any East culture Milgram's experiment replications after 2000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The last known replication was made in Polland in 2015:&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617693060&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Doliński, D., Grzyb, T., Folwarczny, M., Grzybała, P., Krzyszycha, K., Martynowska, K., &amp;amp; Trojanowski, J. (2017). Would You Deliver an Electric Shock in 2015? Obedience in the Experimental Paradigm Developed by Stanley Milgram in the 50 Years Following the Original Studies. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(8), 927–933. doi:10.1177/1948550617693060&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26337" LastActivityDate="2020-07-04T12:33:49.330" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25591" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-04T19:28:02.273" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for the general name or literature examples of the following fictionally common (but not sure of its reality) psychological phenomenon, its nomenclature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When someone is accused of something, i.e. prostitution or murder,&#xA;after a while the person no longer fights it back but instead turns&#xA;into a character suitable with the accusations, although he/she was&#xA;innocent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this phenomenon have a name, nomenclature?&#xA;Here, I am asking about the psychological ground of this claim, rather than the general notion of &amp;quot;self-fulfilling prophecy&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26340" LastEditorUserId="26340" LastEditDate="2020-07-04T20:03:50.643" LastActivityDate="2020-07-04T20:03:50.643" Title="name of the phenomenon: accepting accusations and transformation of a character into the accused one" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25593" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-05T15:07:37.197" Score="3" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading on wikipedia that there are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory#Exceptions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;exceptions to the hebbian rule&lt;/a&gt;, and I was curious about the possibilities of other hypotheses of how learning occur in the brain. So I would like to know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;are there alternative (or complementary) hypotheses to the hebbian rule?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26342" LastActivityDate="2020-07-05T15:07:37.197" Title="Alternative hypotheses to Hebb's rule" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25595" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-05T20:49:31.100" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;As I understand it the resting potential is maintained due to the different permeabilities of K+ and Na+ and in fact at the resting potential the sum of the Na+ and K+ currents is zero. The pump's job I believe is to ensure that the concentrations of Na+ and K+ are stable and not to mantain the membrane potential directly. Since the current of Na+ out and K+ in are the same at equilibrium, an ion pump with a ratio of 2 Na+ out and 2 K+ in should work fine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why is there the 2-3 ratio? Does this help out during action potentials?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26333" LastActivityDate="2020-07-05T20:49:31.100" Title="Why do Na+/K+ ion pumps in neurons have a ratio of 3 to 2" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25596" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-05T21:01:42.783" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do the Wechsler IQ (e.g. WAIS III) tests indices (e.g. verbal IQ, performance IQ) and sub-scales contribute to overall IQ? What are the weights of each? If a person scores above 99.9th (maximum) percentile on each index, could their total IQ be estimated on this basis, and if so, what would be their estimated result?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17391" LastActivityDate="2020-07-05T21:01:42.783" Title="How is the weight of Weschler subscales calculated towards general IQ?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25597" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-05T23:02:10.307" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for two things that I an unable to find.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A &amp;quot;survey&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;quiz&amp;quot; that attempts to determine the degree one's support for various theories of consciousness. I could imagine a series of statment on a Likert scale: &amp;quot;It is possible to upload a mind into a computer&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;If Mary knows &lt;em&gt;X holds&lt;/em&gt; and Mary knows &lt;em&gt;if X holds then Y holds&lt;/em&gt;, Mary therefore necessarily knows &lt;em&gt;Y holds&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;It is possible to tell the difference between true and artificial consciousness through a keyboard-mediated conversation&amp;quot; etc. After taking the quiz, it could tell you, &amp;quot;you support a cognitivist theory of consciousness&amp;quot;, or whatever the case may be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Results on correlations between support for various theories of consciousness and things like educational background, age, religious affiliation, socioeconomic status, and so on. For instance, one might discover that engineers who make less than $80K per year tend to be more supportive of functionalism than those with a PhD in classic literature. I'm just making things up, but these are the kinds of things I am interested to see if there are results on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not even necessarily curious about which theories of consciousness are correct, but more so the (possibly implicit) beliefs &lt;em&gt;about&lt;/em&gt; theories of d consciousness held by people across cultures and social groups and how to measure the degree of those beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26345" LastEditorUserId="26345" LastEditDate="2020-07-06T05:00:18.147" LastActivityDate="2020-07-06T05:00:18.147" Title="Are there surveys and results on degree of support for different theories of consciousness with correlations to demographic or other characteristics?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25598" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-05T23:04:16.067" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ever since I was a kid, I've been baffled by the existence of people who buy a video game for a ton of money, and a glossy &amp;quot;strategy guide&amp;quot; to go with it. Then they get home and read the &amp;quot;strategy guide&amp;quot; to see &amp;quot;where to go&amp;quot;, and then they do it in-game. Instead of experiencing the game, they just &amp;quot;follow the instructions&amp;quot;, beating the game in no time. Then they supposedly go on to the next game and do the same thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can very much understand if somebody who is helplessly stuck in Zelda on NES, having walked around helplessly for three straight weeks, burning down bushes and bombing every pixel of the overworld, yet simply cannot find the raft anywhere, resorts to &amp;quot;looking it up&amp;quot; or calling the &amp;quot;Nintendo Hotline&amp;quot; for aid. I still don't condone it, since it will take away the satisfaction of eventually finding the solution on your own, but I have done this myself, so I understand how one thinks in such a situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm not talking about such &amp;quot;normal&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;reasonable&amp;quot; gamers. I'm talking about those who seem to miss the entire point of a video game, and who would probably press a secret combination on the gamepad to jump straight to the end credits if there were such a cheat. Bypassing the entire... thing. The experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The game &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; walking around helplessly, talking to people, trying to make up maps of your own on paper or in your mind, coming up with ideas which seem to make sense, but turn out to be false. But at least you tried it. And when you finally do figure it out, however long it takes, it feels &lt;em&gt;fantastic&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The game isn't just a matter of &amp;quot;connecting the dots&amp;quot; by walking from point A to point B as quickly as possible, and then to point C, and then D, and so on. I dare say that extremely few players are that lucky/intelligent. You are supposed to slowly get better and figure things out little by little, until you master the game. Then, and only then, you deserve to see the end credits. Then, and only then, will it feel like an accomplishment. Then, and only then, was there any point in shelling out all that money for the game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I keep watching people play games in emulators on Twitch. They completely bypass the entire mechanics of the game, saving and loading states with no regard to whatever mechanism the game provides. They sit with a GameFAQs walkthrough open at all times, reading from it instead of &amp;quot;wasting&amp;quot; a single minute in-game to try going somewhere and just explore. To experience the game as it was intended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;So where do I go now?&amp;quot; is a common question. They seem to be so used to cheating their way through life that their brains cannot comprehend the concept of actually doing something &amp;quot;for real&amp;quot;. It would never cross their minds to actually listen to what is said in the game and try exploring based on this information, the overall objective and of course their own curiosity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best game moments I've ever had came from imagining myself actually being in the game's world and going exploring -- not from finding the optimal route to the next dungeon to mechanically slash away at some boss after solving a standardized series of puzzles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why do so many people just see it as some kind of &amp;quot;chore&amp;quot; that they still somehow want to do, but only like an obligation to &amp;quot;get through it&amp;quot; as quickly as possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26346" LastActivityDate="2020-07-05T23:04:16.067" Title="Why do so many people ruin their video game experience by cheating?" Tags="&lt;video-games&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2020-07-11T06:41:42.773" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25599" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25588" CreationDate="2020-07-06T01:55:52.600" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the retina, visual signals next travel through the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus&lt;/a&gt;. This nucleus is quite centrally located, about as much in the middle of the brain as possible, and much much more ancient (evolutionarily, and developmentally) than the folded outer part of the brain that is highly recognizable in humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This entire folded brain region including frontal/parietal/temporal/occipital lobes is called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neocortex&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;neocortex&lt;/a&gt;, and it is quite recent in evolution, only appearing in mammals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other vertebrates, the next step in visual processing is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior_colliculus#Optic_tectum&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;optic tectum&lt;/a&gt;, also found in the center of the brain. In mammals we typically call this the superior colliculus, and it still functions in eye movements and visual target localization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The position of visual cortex in humans is determined simply by the part of neocortex that gets direct inputs from the visual part of thalamus, so it is likely that it inherits somewhat from the organization of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamus&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;thalamus&lt;/a&gt;, where you can notice that the LGN is located towards the back part of the thalamus, but note that LGN isn't simply the structure furthest back (MGN, the auditory thalamus, is further back, for example). Otherwise, there is no need or reason for the visual cortex to be in any particular part of the brain, only that it needs some space for itself apart from other regions. Input isn't coming directly from the retina in the eyes, so there is no improvement to path length to have the visual cortex anywhere else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vision isn't even forward-focusing in many mammals, this is a trait that you really only see in carnivores and primates that use binocular vision to make an improved 3D map of the world in front. Prey animals like rodents and many herbivores have vision that is more concerned with what is above or on any side rather than what is in front.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also, to some extent, &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/35532/why-do-some-bad-traits-evolve-and-good-ones-dont&quot;&gt;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/35532/why-do-some-bad-traits-evolve-and-good-ones-dont&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-07-06T01:55:52.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25600" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-06T09:11:22.733" Score="3" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why did humans evolve to be traumatizable, instead of being more resilient and treating trauma in a detached manner? Don't symptoms of trauma reduce a person's biological fitness? Is PTSD an adaptation, and if so, what is it an adaptation for? After all, the stress reaction and emotional imprinting appears to be designed rather than an accident.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26349" LastEditorUserId="26349" LastEditDate="2020-07-11T12:46:37.703" LastActivityDate="2021-02-22T23:13:38.423" Title="Why did humans evolve to be traumatizable?" Tags="&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;&lt;trauma&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25601" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-06T11:12:20.073" Score="0" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Background&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stephen Krashen and Tracy Tarrell have given an interesting approach to learning new languages which they call &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_approach&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Natural Approach&lt;/a&gt;. In this approach, they bring the naturalistic approach of language acquisition (i.e. how babies &amp;quot;acquire&amp;quot; language without &amp;quot;learning&amp;quot; grammar) to the classroom setting. Over decades of research, they have found this approach to be effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stephen Krashen has further formulated a set of hypotheses to explain why and how this works: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input_hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Among many things, these hypotheses primarily differentiate between &amp;quot;learning&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;acquisition&amp;quot;. While the former is done deliberately through the conscious, the latter is subconscious. Krashen defines a term called &amp;quot;Comprehensible Input&amp;quot; which is input understandable by listeners even if they do not understand all of the words or grammar structures. They claim that learners can learn in a natural environment where they receive Comprehensible Input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more details on the theory, kindly refer to the linked Wikipedia pages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;My Question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, my question is this: Can the Natural Approach of learning be applied to other fields like Music and Mathematics? Music and Mathematics are also like learning a new language, and so can we learn them better if we don't focus too much on their &amp;quot;grammar&amp;quot; but rather try to &amp;quot;acquire&amp;quot; them in some manner?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8094" LastActivityDate="2020-07-06T11:12:20.073" Title="Can Krashen's Input Hypotheses be applied to areas other than Language Acquisition?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25602" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-06T13:55:34.187" Score="3" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two kinds of pride: hubris pride and authentic pride¹. &amp;quot;Authentic pride is tied to adaptive achievement and goal engagement, whereas hubristic pride is tied to extrinsic values of public recognition and social dominance&amp;quot;². I wonder how and when authentic pride becomes hubris pride?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the two are interrelated because both kinds of pride have the same gesture, and seems to create the same social impact in short term. I don't think there is a gray area between them, but I think they can &amp;quot;swap&amp;quot; to each other relatively fast, and can happen back and forth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The images below show some gestures of pride:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3a36f.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/3a36f.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1LE84.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/1LE84.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Since both types of pride display the same gesture, so I guess there is no way to point to an image and say &amp;quot;this is hubris pride&amp;quot; and to another &amp;quot;that is authentic pride&amp;quot;. The way to differentiate them, I think, largely relies on the context, not on body gesture.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;¹ David DeSteno, &lt;a href=&quot;https://ideas.ted.com/pride-can-be-a-virtue-but-it-needs-to-be-the-right-kind-of-pride/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Pride can be a virtue, but it needs to be the right kind of pride |&quot;&gt;Pride can be a virtue, but it needs to be the right kind of pride&lt;/a&gt;, TED Ideas&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;² Carver and Johnson, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3137237/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Authentic and Hubristic Pride: Differential Relations to Aspects of Goal Regulation, Affect, and Self-Control&quot;&gt;Authentic and Hubristic Pride: Differential Relations to Aspects of Goal Regulation, Affect, and Self-Control&lt;/a&gt;, Journal of Research in Personality&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-07-11T08:17:24.693" LastActivityDate="2020-07-11T08:17:24.693" Title="When does authentic pride become hubris pride?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25605" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-07T03:05:26.960" Score="0" ViewCount="302" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am planning the following memory experiment:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants study a list of words, a random half of which are followed by an instruction to remember and the other half by an instruction to forget.  Afterwards, they are given a recognition memory test which includes words that they have previously studied, unstudied words that sound similar to studied words they had been instructed to remember, unstudied words that sound similar to studied words they had been instructed to forget, and unstudied words that are unrelated to studied words.  Participants have to respond &amp;quot;yes&amp;quot; to words they recognize as having studied regardless of the associated memory instruction (remember or forget) and &amp;quot;no&amp;quot; to the words they don't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If participants falsely recognize (respond &amp;quot;yes&amp;quot;) to more similar sounding unstudied words than unrelated unstudied words it is taken as evidence that they encoded the sound of the words they studied.  Comparing &amp;quot;yes&amp;quot; responses between unstudied words that sound similar to remember instructed study words and those that sound similar to forget instructed study words can reveal whether the process of remembering or forgetting is more likely to lead to the encoding of sound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the above analyses in mind it would make sense that the dependent variable is the &amp;quot;yes&amp;quot; response.  But is the independent variable the memory instruction? the type of unstudied word on the recognition test? or something else?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26356" LastActivityDate="2020-07-12T19:44:13.780" Title="What is the independent variable in this memory experiment?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25607" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-07T12:10:46.313" Score="1" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.forbes.com/sites/nicolemartin1/2018/11/30/how-social-media-has-changed-how-we-consume-news/#7192005c3c3c&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;popular science article&lt;/a&gt;, on most people read a social media article for 15 seconds or less, and watch a video for 10 seconds or less. I tried to go down the link rabbit hole, but failed to find any concrete studies- only more pop sci and blog posts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Really, I am interested in the psychological aspects of processing news on social media sites. Much of fake news propagated on social media exploits that we make very quick decisions as to whether to believe/ follow up what we read on social media, such as by using figures that seem reasonable- they exploit our 'type 1', heuristic reasoning. I would be grateful if someone could provide references to further studies- whether simply providing statistical data like the average time spent reading a post, or ones trying to unpick psychological mechanisms of processing this news.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6523" LastActivityDate="2020-07-07T12:10:46.313" Title="References for how we perceive, process and give attention to news on social media" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25611" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-08T17:57:48.083" Score="3" ViewCount="139" Body="&lt;p&gt;Last day, I watched a video at ‘Numberphile’ which made a strange demand. According to the video, if you ask people to randomly pick any one integer between 1 and 10 (both inclusive), people are more likely to choose 7. They also said that around 45% of people prefer the given choice. I will post the link to this video at the comments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to them, the explanation of this strange phenomenon is that when asked to make a random choice, 1 and 10 gets the least preference since they are the endpoints and so, they don’t seem to be random to the one making the choice. 5 gets cancelled next as it lies exactly midway between the endpoints. Even numbers get cancelled next as the human brain associates a sense of order with multiples of 2 and so, doesn’t find them quite random. (Here’s where I step in to contribute something more to the theory- my personal guess is that the brain does the same for multiples of all integers, only that it does it lesser as the integer increases. Thus, odd prime numbers must be interpreted by the brain as more random species. I exclude 2 since it never really gets a chance to participate in our intuitive domain of prime numbers). After eliminating them all, 3 and 7 are left, out of which 3 gets cancelled out for being too small in magnitude and 7 wins the game at the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, I didn’t find the stream of reasons quite convincing. So, I decided to do a small personal survey to check the authenticity of the given fact. Therefore, I posted a status on WhatsApp urging people to give me a random number between 1 and 10 and the results were just midway between what ‘Numberphile’ predicted and what one may intuitively argue on the statistical basis that every integer has equal choices. Before I tell you the results, I must mention that they should not be taken too seriously as the sample space of the survey is as small as only 55 people and anyone with a basic knowledge of statistics knows that such a small sample space isn’t enough to conclude something about a larger population. You’ll get the results of my lovely survey in a tabular format in the first image that I add in this post.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without doubt, 7 won the game (never challenge your favorite YouTube channel), but instead of getting the desired 45% majority, it succeeded in only a 20. Moreover, 3 is the runner up which continues confirming our hypothesis. The next big thing to notice is that the endpoints got least majority as was predicted earlier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, going into my personal guess, it seems it’s a great triumph for someone who never studied the human brain. The three prime numbers of the list (which constitute only 33% of the total) have been chosen by almost 46% of the sample space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, it’s time to talk about where the survey is messing up with the given theory. First of all, 3 is not singly the runners up- it shares the second position with 6 (which is an even number) and our theory has no explanation for this. The second big blow comes if we separately observe the even numbers. It can be seen that the even numbers get almost 42% choices which is not very far away from the midpoint of 50%. So, this hypothesis of eliminating the even numbers seems to be a bit bizarre. But, again, we must remember that our sample space was not big enough to yield extremely precise results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Last but not the least, I calculated the average of the 55 choices and it came to be around 5.49, which is insanely close to the ideal expectation of 5.50, a result, which relies solely on the assumption that all the choices are equally probable. I can’t come up with any concrete explanation for this beautiful accuracy. Maybe, we can try to justify ourselves by saying things like the super majority of 7 was somewhat balanced by the second best performance of 3 and the votes for 4 and 5 balance that of 6 and so on. But, this justification looks very weak and fragile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below are the tables showcasing the data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I shifted my question from Mathematics stack exchange to here because i believe this is something meant for this forum!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I welcome any answer which will describe this better.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qTHlk.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/qTHlk.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BSeMg.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BSeMg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/R6MBg.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/R6MBg.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26375" LastActivityDate="2020-07-10T14:57:48.457" Title="Explaining mathematically why most people chose 7 when asked to chose a number between 1-10" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25612" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25581" CreationDate="2020-07-09T08:08:23.590" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;While acknowledging the fact that Google delivers personalized results, I am fairly sure a Google search for &amp;quot;heautoscopy&amp;quot; will deliver you bucket loads of papers to read - I have copied a random handful for your convenience below under 'further reading'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, a popular source seems to contradict your definition, as it states &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heautoscopy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;heautoscopy&lt;/a&gt; as being:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A hallucination in which one sees one's own body from a distance.&#xA;Heautoscopy may occur as a symptom in schizophrenia and epilepsy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your own referenced &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16571536/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brugger (2002)&lt;/a&gt; paper gives a nice definition of both terms in one go:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an &lt;strong&gt;autoscopic hallucination&lt;/strong&gt; the &lt;em&gt;observer's perspective is clearly body-centred, and the visual image of one's own body appears as a mirror reversal&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;Heautoscopy&lt;/strong&gt; (i.e., the encounter with an alter ego or doppelgänger), is defined as a &lt;em&gt;reduplication not only of bodily appearance, but also of aspects of one's psychological self&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not being able to see ones own reflection in a mirror would be an entirely different phenomenon, more akin to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirrored-self_misidentification&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mirrored-self misidentification&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Further reading&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16019077/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Blanke &amp;amp; Mohr, &lt;em&gt;Brain Res Brain Res Rev&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;50&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 184-99&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16571536/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brugger, &lt;em&gt;Cogn Neuropsychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (2002); &lt;strong&gt;7&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 179-94&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1073027/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brugger &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; (1994); &lt;strong&gt;57&lt;/strong&gt;(7): 838–39&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-07-17T15:09:10.360" LastActivityDate="2020-07-17T15:09:10.360" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25613" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-09T08:58:22.767" Score="2" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;RBANS (Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS))&lt;/strong&gt; is used to evaluate cognitive function in patients with cognitive impairment, stroke or traumatic brain injury. The score is composed of five domains scores (Immediate Memory, Visuospatial/ Constructional, Language and Delayed Memory) and a total score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am now seeing a patient in a follow-consultation and I am trying to figure out whether the change in his RBANS score after 1 year is significant or not. &lt;strong&gt;There is a regression formula provided in this paper (1) which allows to calculate the predicted RBANS score at a follow up time.&lt;/strong&gt; A deviation from this score allows to identify a significant change. Here a capture of the table:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/e0A0B.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/e0A0B.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Education in years is coded as&lt;/em&gt; 11 years or less = 1, 12 years = 2, 13–15 years = 3, 16 years or more = 4&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the same paper, the authors provide an example (Male, 75 years, 10 years education, 1 year follow-up):&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cYnYq.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/cYnYq.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question&lt;/strong&gt;: Before applying this equation to my patient, I wanted to reproduce the results from their example in Table 5. However, I am not coming to the same results and I think this might be due to an issue with the linear regression equation formula I derived from Table 2. I would be very thankful if someone could provide me with a hint here? I understand the question might be very basic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the formula I derived from Table 2:&#xA;Linear regression (for Total Scale for example):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Predicted RBANS Time 2 = 37.65 (Constant) + 0.75*Time 1 Index Score - 0.23*Age in years + 1.47*education in years + 7.81 (Standard Error of the Estimate)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using data from example in Table 5:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;37.65+0.75*91-0.23*76+1.47*1+7.81=97.7 &amp;gt; which is wrong.&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you very much for your consideration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;References:&#xA;(1) Duff K, Schoenberg MR, Patton D, Mold J, Scott JG, Adams RL. Predicting change with the RBANS in a community dwelling elderly sample. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2004;10(6):828-834. doi:10.1017/s1355617704106048&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26379" LastActivityDate="2020-07-09T08:58:22.767" Title="Predicting cognitive decline on RBANS test" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25615" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-09T19:25:02.387" Score="2" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;OT student here scoring the RBMT and for the Belongings Delayed recall section the manual does not describe a common situation I have encountered:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The client requires prompting to recall there are two belongings they must retrieve at the end of the assessment which are in 2 different locations. They must correctly say which belongings are in which location. Often times, the client will be prompted to remember the belongings (which automatically deducts two points), then, they correctly identify the belongings (for example a phone and a wallet) as well as the locations they are in (a desk drawer and a cabinet), except the client reverses the locations. For example, in reality, the phone is in the desk and the wallet in the cabinet but they falsely say the opposite: the phone is in the cabinet and the wallet in the desk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the client technically correctly identified the locations but got the placement of their belongings reversed, how would one score this? Is it a flat out zero or would they get 1 point for the locations because the belongings are reversed? Or would they get full marks since the locations are correctly identified?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Brianna Wilson" LastActivityDate="2020-07-09T20:37:49.057" Title="Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test- item 19- Belongings Delayed Recall scoring" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25621" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25611" CreationDate="2020-07-10T14:57:48.457" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a really fun problem! Intuitively, the numbers all have latent features (isEven, isPrime, etc), so they live in a richly structured space. So far so good, but the (typical) structure of that space for people is an empirical question, you can't just introspect or ask a mathematician.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's actually quite a bit of work on this, because the numbers make a convenient test case if your goal is to figure out how to infer the properties of structured representations in general. A lot of it is descended from &amp;quot;The internal representation of numbers&amp;quot; (Shepard, Kilpatric, Cunningham 1975) which uses multidimensional scaling on similarity judgements. Tenenbaum had another crack at it in 1996 using expectation maximization, but you might want to skip forward to Navarro and Griffiths (2008) &amp;quot;Latent features in similarity judgments: A nonparametric Bayesian approach.&amp;quot; because who doesn't love Bayesian nonparametrics? That's probably not the final word on this, there's got to be some newer shinier way to extract latent features coming soon to a journal near you. But I'm pretty sure these methods mostly agree on the main features of your whatsapp poll, and in particular they all find that 7 is weird in the sense of not very similar to the other small numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2020-07-10T14:57:48.457" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25624" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-10T17:03:14.017" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can you suggest me books about crowd's psychology? I know it's commonly used in marketing or in politics so I am interested why this works so good. In my country (Georgia, Near the black sea) this is like&#xA;the biggest problem. I want to konw more about this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26395" LastActivityDate="2020-07-10T17:03:14.017" Title="Crowd's psychology" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25625" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-11T01:15:21.773" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand from the signal processing perspective how the perception of depth and the ability of spatial orientation is calculated by our brains. One possible explanation seems to be that the brain receives two visual signals, at each interval one signal at each eye. From the differences in the two visual signals (especially from the variation in resolution), the brain can learn to calculate the depth of the merged image signal. This ability however needs to be learned by the brain first, so I would think at least.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I'd like to ask, at what age do we learn depth and orientational sensing?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the ability to learn this sensing require two receivers of the visual signal? If someone, who was born with only one functional eye, completely blind on the second eye from birth, would this person still be able to develop this sensing, and if yes, would it take this person more time to do this?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26399" LastEditorUserId="26399" LastEditDate="2020-07-11T01:22:53.717" LastActivityDate="2020-07-11T01:22:53.717" Title="Requirements and development of depth and spatial orientation sensing" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25631" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25800" CreationDate="2020-07-12T03:57:21.350" Score="9" ViewCount="1598" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basically the title. I would like to know if there are scientific studies on the phenomenon of experiencing sudden body shaking and trembling in religious settings, usually in response to the command of a person who represents a religious authority. Please take a look at the following examples for illustrative purposes:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/0cOtLmNQzcc?t=111&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/FbtFNUULEqo?t=239&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;B&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/8DyykUq3sCU?t=312&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;C&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/BI6MDAbD25k?t=472&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;D&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/juo2rNDYROg?t=181&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;E&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/suXNxCs45Ys?t=273&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;F&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/cbtIkIcftVM?t=1131&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;G&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/BVQJieSdHac?t=1004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;H&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4aix9SlcLrE?t=406&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;I&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/yKnxWl8500k?t=151&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;J&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/xxL71A6rq3M?t=388&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;K&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/kD3g5rg0CqE?t=120&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;L&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/0iunSt3d3KQ?t=130&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;M&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/sowJFlY6CVs?t=182&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;N&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/FyBXj6zVwUE?t=48&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;O&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/FyBXj6zVwUE?t=131&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;P&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/RKgl07Nu-8w?t=100&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Q&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Ppk1uoy-OdA?t=140&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;R&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/VEi8rWLdf-o?t=70&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;S&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/YVcTCooxEFY?t=181&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;T&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many people claim they are the result of a supernatural influence acting upon these individuals. Here are some quotes from first-hand experiencers of the phenomenon:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4aix9SlcLrE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Testimony 1&lt;/a&gt;: this is by far the best testimony I know of. The context is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownsville_Revival&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brownsville Revival&lt;/a&gt;. In the video a lady testifies about her experience of body shaking and trembling allegedly as a manifestation of the Holy Spirit acting upon her. In fact she begins to shake and tremble on camera as she is narrating her testimony. At &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4aix9SlcLrE?t=406&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;6:46&lt;/a&gt; the lady and the preacher begin to talk specifically about the causes of her tremors. At &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4aix9SlcLrE?t=432&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;7:12&lt;/a&gt; she says &amp;quot;[...]like right now, &lt;strong&gt;I think the Glory of God is so strong up here, my body can't really take it and that's why I'm doing this&lt;/strong&gt; [...]&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/svpToEmqPEA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Testimony 2&lt;/a&gt;: The testimony as a whole is powerful, but regarding body shaking and trembling at &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/svpToEmqPEA?t=294&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4:54&lt;/a&gt; the guy describes his experience. Here a quote: &amp;quot;[...] my body started doing things that defied metaphysics, &lt;strong&gt;my body started doing things that I couldn't explain&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;strong&gt;I started levitating and bouncing off of the chair I was sitting in like a jack hammer&lt;/strong&gt; [...]&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Ppk1uoy-OdA?t=122&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Testimony 3&lt;/a&gt;: &amp;quot;[...]I felt an electricity, a fire[...]&amp;quot; followed by the girl trembling and fainting in reaction to the command of the preacher. Then the preacher says &amp;quot;The power of God is the kingdom of God manifesting in our midst[...]&amp;quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/VEi8rWLdf-o?t=71&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Testimony 4&lt;/a&gt;: &amp;quot;[...]I felt an electricity all through my body, in all of my joints[...]&amp;quot;, followed by the woman trembling and fainting in reaction to the command of the preacher (just like in the previous testimony).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/lii9TcDlTwc?t=118&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Testimony 5&lt;/a&gt;: &amp;quot;[...]I felt a heat, and I felt a peace[...]&amp;quot;, followed by the woman trembling and fainting in reaction to the command of the preacher (again).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/lii9TcDlTwc?t=125&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Testimony 6&lt;/a&gt;: &amp;quot;[...]I felt a vibrating that I'm feeling right now[...]&amp;quot;, followed by the guy fainting and feeling a sort of ecstasy based on his facial expression, in response to the preacher's command.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/YyTLtoQt8LU?t=144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Testimony 7&lt;/a&gt;: &amp;quot;[...]I was burning all over, and I felt so free, He just embraces you and makes you feel so loved[...]&amp;quot;, followed by the guy losing the equilibrium and fainting, in response to the preacher's command.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of these videos pertain to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.holyspirit.tv/page/about&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Andres Bisonni's ministry&lt;/a&gt;, who has run dozens of &amp;quot;miracle crusades&amp;quot; around the world. In &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/2o6-Jb2Pv14?t=224&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this video&lt;/a&gt; he claims that his ministry is about &amp;quot;signs, wonders and miracles&amp;quot; and in &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/UH5yD6Hh6mo?t=157&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this video&lt;/a&gt; he claims that his ministry started with a supernatural encounter with the Holy Spirit that changed his life. Andres Bissoni has a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/user/andresabm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;YouTube Channel&lt;/a&gt; with more than 375K subscribers, from which I borrowed most of the example videos above. Most of these videos are highlight video clips from &amp;quot;miracle crusades&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;Holy Spirit revival meetings&amp;quot; and are intended to showcase &amp;quot;the power of God&amp;quot;. In particular, most of those highlight clips show instances of dramatic body shaking and trembling, so the claim that they are supernatural is obvious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Likewise, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/FbtFNUULEqo?t=230&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Example B&lt;/a&gt; took place in an evangelistic campaign in Mexico led by the Hispanic pastor and evangelist Juan Carlos Harrigan, who also has a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC5NVx2uLuwC9iXXS3TwAGIg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;YouTube Channel&lt;/a&gt; with over 1 million subscribers. In the video the preacher says in Spanish &amp;quot;[...] está muy fuerte la unción sobre ella, agárrenla, está muy fuerte [...]&amp;quot; which in English translates to &amp;quot;[...] the anointing over her is very strong, hold her, it's very strong [...]&amp;quot;, meaning that the dramatic body shaking and trembling the girl experienced is allegedly the result of God's anointing being poured over her.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So we have live recordings of people dramatically shaking and trembling, multiple first-hand testimonies and at least two very influential preachers claiming these manifestations are supernaturally caused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, are these manifestations necessarily of supernatural origin? Is the supernatural the only &amp;quot;reasonable&amp;quot; explanation? Are there scientific explanations? Are there scientific studies explaining the mechanics behind this phenomenon, rendering the &amp;quot;supernatural explanation&amp;quot; unnecessary?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Extra points to be given&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;@PaulJohnson in Skeptics.SE objects that the question for necessity is trivially answerable with no since in principle everyone could be a paid actor, which would explain away everything. Although I agree with him in principle, in all honesty I really doubt this is the case. If these preachers have been hiring actors to fake these manifestations for so many years, by now there would be whistleblowers exposing them (e.g. someone saying &amp;quot;this preacher is a scammer, he hired me to perform in front of the audience&amp;quot;), but so far I haven't come across a single case (I'm talking about Andres Bisonni and Juan Carlos Harrigan specifically, I know there are scammer preachers out there).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, even children are experiencing this (like &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/RKgl07Nu-8w?t=101&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/8zv44JvuTqk?t=268&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/fTqkpjmW9ZI?t=124&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/8zv44JvuTqk?t=273&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;), very old people (like &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/YVcTCooxEFY?t=181&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/8zv44JvuTqk?t=293&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) and even &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/y15LiY3Q8e0?t=212&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;prison inmates&lt;/a&gt;, and I really doubt they are all paid actors. So there are clearly sincere people experiencing this stuff, and I don't find it reasonable to gratuitously disregard the phenomenon claiming they are all faking it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;@PaulJohnson in Skeptics.SE also mentioned &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mass psychogenic illness&lt;/a&gt;, which is very interesting, and I thank him for sharing that, but I would really love it if he could elaborate more on that in a formal answer to the question (I wish it was reopened) instead of lightly mentioning it in the comment section. However, looking at the symptoms table in the article, none of the symptoms in the table corresponds to dramatic body shaking or trembling, the closest one is &amp;quot;nervousness&amp;quot; but equating that to &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;feeling a &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Ppk1uoy-OdA?t=122&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fire&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/VEi8rWLdf-o?t=71&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;electricity&lt;/a&gt; through your body that makes you shake and tremble, accompanied by feelings of &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/YyTLtoQt8LU?t=150&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;love&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/lii9TcDlTwc?t=117&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;peace&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt; is a little bit of a stretch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;@TonyMobbs presents two candidate hypotheses: H4) Conformance to social norms and H8) Attention seeking (since the other hypotheses were dismissed). These hypotheses in essence assert that people are actors intentionally faking it all (in H4 out of peer pressure, in H8 out of love for attention). In other words, H4 and H8 are equivalent to the &amp;quot;Paid Actors&amp;quot; hypothesis, except that without the &amp;quot;Paid&amp;quot; part (since the incentive is other than money). Although in principle this could explain the outer behavior (shaking, trembling, etc.), it fails to explain the multiple reports of very strong sensations and emotions that seem to co-occur with these experiences. In particular, there is a pattern of people reporting strong sensations that they describe with expressions such as &lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;waves of electricity&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;fire&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;heat&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;burning all over&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;, sometimes in combination with &amp;quot;joy&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;love&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;peace&amp;quot;, etc. This is confirmed by a &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/677881&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;peer-reviewed paper&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; acknowledging that people report these overwhelming feelings and emotions. Also, here is an &lt;a href=&quot;http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:J2dseD7Tb7AJ:www.charismamag.com/spirit/revival/32085-this-is-what-it-looks-like-when-holy-spirit-s-electric-power-sweeps-over-you&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;gl=cl&amp;amp;strip=1&amp;amp;vwsrc=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example testimonial in written form&lt;/a&gt;, and here are some example video clips of this: &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/7oMl7ZBlgdM?t=901&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/gDzI7ke3L54?t=592&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;B&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/VEi8rWLdf-o?t=71&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;C&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4hlqcekrGYI?t=95&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;D&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/8zv44JvuTqk?t=167&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;E&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/YVcTCooxEFY?t=49&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;F&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/sowJFlY6CVs?t=228&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;G&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Ppk1uoy-OdA?t=121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;H&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/YyTLtoQt8LU?t=144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;I&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/lii9TcDlTwc?t=118&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;J&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/cf3FLfddT8Q?t=99&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;K&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/MjpKiFK_Q3w?t=161&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;L&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Di7Y7JIyMqI?t=275&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;M&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There being so many reports of overwhelming emotions and sensations co-occurring with shaking/trembling, how do H4 and H8 account for them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25376" LastEditorUserId="25376" LastEditDate="2021-04-16T01:21:02.650" LastActivityDate="2021-05-17T01:36:55.247" Title="Is there a scientific explanation for dramatic body shaking and trembling in religious settings? (see videos for illustrative examples)" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;religion&gt;&lt;epilepsy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25634" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-12T11:46:02.813" Score="0" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sorry if this appears a silly question - If I understand correctly, the objective of classical conditioning, is to pair a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, so the neutral stimulus starts producing the same unconditioned response corresponding to unconditioned stimulus.&#xA;My question is - can there be multiple &amp;quot;levels&amp;quot; of stimuli that can end up producing the same unconditioned response ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, referring to the famous dog salivating experiment, the dog learns to associate ringing bell stimulus with food because it was paired with food stimulus.&#xA;Now if we start pairing another stimulus say, &amp;quot;bang the door&amp;quot;, with &amp;quot;ring door-bell&amp;quot;, would the dog be able to eventually salivate on &amp;quot;bang the door&amp;quot; stimulus ? Would it learn that &amp;quot;bang the door&amp;quot; would then be followed with &amp;quot;ringing door bell&amp;quot; and eventually &amp;quot;food&amp;quot; stimuli and thus learn multiple &amp;quot;levels&amp;quot; of associations between the stimuli ? If yes, how many such &amp;quot;levels&amp;quot; can an animal like rat or dog form these associations for ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20831" LastEditorUserId="20831" LastEditDate="2020-07-12T12:03:49.987" LastActivityDate="2020-12-11T16:07:15.813" Title="Multiple &quot;levels&quot; of association in classical conditioning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25605" CreationDate="2020-07-12T19:44:13.780" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems this experiment is trying to test two different things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If participants falsely recognize (respond &amp;quot;yes&amp;quot;) to more similar&#xA;sounding unstudied words than unrelated unstudied words it is taken as&#xA;evidence that they encoded the sound of the words they studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this part of the experiment, the independent variable is the type of word on the recognition test, specifically &lt;strong&gt;whether the words on the recognition test sound similar to the studied words or not&lt;/strong&gt;. In this case, the dependent variable is the likelihood of recognizing the words, with the hypothesis being that participants will be more likely to recognize words that sound similar to the studied words than words that are unrelated to the studied words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Comparing &amp;quot;yes&amp;quot; responses between unstudied words that sound similar&#xA;to remember instructed study words and those that sound similar to&#xA;forget instructed study words can reveal whether the process of&#xA;remembering or forgetting is more likely to lead to the encoding of&#xA;sound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this part of the experiment, the independent variable is the memory-instruction (and &lt;strong&gt;whether words on the test sound like remember-instructed or forget-instructed words&lt;/strong&gt;, since these variables go hand-in-hand). In this case, the dependent variable is still the likelihood of recognizing the words, with the hypothesis (probably) being that participants will be more likely to recognize words that sound similar to remember-instructed words than words that sound similar to forget-instructed words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: I just realized you designed the experiment. I would recommend choosing a single hypothesis because there seem to be two hypotheses and corresponding independent variables which makes things kind of confusing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26415" LastActivityDate="2020-07-12T19:44:13.780" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25639" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25789" CreationDate="2020-07-13T09:33:18.917" Score="2" ViewCount="154" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think if you ask a person &amp;quot;What's wrong in your life?&amp;quot; several times (for example monthly) the person starts to focus on negative things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe questions like this can have a negative outcome. The person will focus on (maybe even search) things which are negative. These questions might influence his attention. And finally the person might get depressed or the relationship gets worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am new to psychology. Is there a term for this? Or are there researches on this topic?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is causing you stress?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What do you dislike at your workplace?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What annoys you most about your spouse?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13175" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-08-08T01:34:14.927" LastActivityDate="2020-08-13T14:29:29.943" Title="Asking &quot;What's wrong in you life?&quot; → Person sees more problems" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25641" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-13T19:29:55.180" Score="1" ViewCount="71" Body="&lt;p&gt;Internal monologue is also called as self-talk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is clear that a person can speak one word at a time. No one can speak two words in parallel. It is because of the reason that a person got a single mouth. In the case of two or more persons, there can be two or more words in parallel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this context, is it possible to do parallel self-talks (being a single person)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6715" LastEditorUserId="6715" LastEditDate="2020-07-31T08:54:32.110" LastActivityDate="2021-04-27T10:02:45.267" Title="Is it possible to do multiple internal monologues in parallel?" Tags="&lt;thought&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25642" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25641" CreationDate="2020-07-13T22:26:47.603" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No one can speak two words or can sing two songs in parallel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;PHYSIOLOGICALLY&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's something called polyphonic singing, which &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Overtone_singing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;overtine singing&lt;/a&gt; is a form of. Here's a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vC9Qh709gas&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;demonstration of overtone singing&lt;/a&gt; and a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnXgOcI7GUA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;demonstration that also includes undertone singing&lt;/a&gt;, so it's possible both physiologically &lt;em&gt;and cognitively&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For verbal communication, some languages require just little enough use of parts of the mouth and/or throat such that it's possible to produce sounds in parralel that can build up words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overtones and undertones are not the only techniques that can be used to produce muliple sounds at the same time that are enough to communicate in a verbal langauge. For example, beatboxers produce multiple sounds at the same time. It depends on the language. For example, some language requires a certain pressure in the lungs to produce some of it sounds such that other sounds cannot be produced at the same time, while in others that is not the case, while some require so much that &lt;em&gt;no&lt;/em&gt; sounds can be produced in parralel that are a part of verbal languages, , as far as I know, such as whistling languages (and possibly clicking languages but I'm not fully certain about that).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's also non-verbal communication that can be done. In this case, single-handed sign language can be done with 2 hands at the same time. This might limit communication, but, again, it depends on the language.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, other physical communication can be used for conversing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;COGNITIVELY&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not know enough about neuroscience to answer this, except for what I heard in documentaries from some researchers (and I don't have citations nor links for that) that the human brain can retain only about 3-7 &amp;quot;small&amp;quot; pieces of information at the same time (I've heard an estimation in bytes, too, however I don't know how relevant and/or accurate it is, as meaning can be encoded to very large and very small amount of bytes), and I do not know enough about how language processing works in the brain to answer you that, and self-conversation also requires processing of the own self, so it's not only the language processing part(s) of the brain that will need to be involved, as there will be needed to be some feedback loop that takes own-produced information as stimuli for processing - something that is usually done serially, and not in parallel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I do not think that we have enough cognitive capabilities for that, but like I said, I'm not an expert in the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26103" LastActivityDate="2020-07-13T22:26:47.603" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25643" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-14T00:53:27.917" Score="1" ViewCount="847" Body="&lt;p&gt;I saw something about psychogenic death. I am wondering if it can be induced by a desire. I think that it can by a person being lazy and not caring about the world. It is said to happen with prisoners of war. The article says that it is not suicide but I don't know if it is true. It cannot happen all at once, it just happens because the person does not care.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is an article here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-09/uop-pcd092018.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-09/uop-pcd092018.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference to the original research is: Leach, J. (2018). ‘Give-up-itis’ revisited: Neuropathology of extremis. Medical hypotheses, 120, 14-21. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2018.08.009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2018.08.009&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26423" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-07-14T16:26:13.873" LastActivityDate="2020-07-15T22:31:16.400" Title="How can one induce psychogenic death?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;death&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25644" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-14T03:56:40.583" Score="1" ViewCount="151" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently started working with Spiking Neural Networks and was hoping for some input from others. I saw there were many libraries/platforms specifically made for working with SNN's (Brian, PyNN, NEURON, etc...) however I was wondering if there were any tradeoffs in using plain, old popular Tensorflow for SNN implementation. Is there a reason that it is underresearched? Has anyone tried or working on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for any feedback anyone can offer,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26425" LastActivityDate="2020-12-16T12:01:00.077" Title="Is using tensorflow for Spiking neural networks a &quot;good&quot; idea?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25645" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25647" CreationDate="2020-07-14T04:03:03.873" Score="2" ViewCount="2499" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not a psychologist so forgive the dumb question. I frequently read the &amp;quot;calculating&amp;quot; sign attributed to people with anti-social behavior like psychopaths, but I fail to understand what this word exactly mean. According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/calculating&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Merriam-Webster&lt;/a&gt;, calculating is &amp;quot;marked by prudent analysis or by shrewd consideration of self-interest&amp;quot;. However, I am not sure I understand what exactly is bad about this. Surely we are all better off doing some prudent analysis about the situations we are in, no? Would you just jump into a job without analyzing whether it is good for you or not? How about when you decide to get married, do you just jump into a marriage without thinking about the possibility of the success of the marriage? Perhaps the second part of the definition is negative, I mean the &amp;quot;self-interest&amp;quot; part, but then this sounds like being selfish, as opposed to how this word is commonly attributed to antisocial or even criminal behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at it differently, the opposite of the definition above is perhaps &amp;quot;marked by no analysis and consideration of self-interest.&amp;quot; Now yes, the second part seems altruistic, but the first part is something that no one would want.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am sure I am missing the obvious, perhaps it is because English is not my main language, so I would appreciate some explanation on this word from a psychology perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26424" LastActivityDate="2020-07-15T22:02:56.443" Title="What is the exact meaning of a &quot;calculating&quot; person?" Tags="&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25646" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-14T05:45:00.403" Score="0" ViewCount="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have eeg data with the channel names and locations in the x and y direction - 2D projection&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this possible to do a surface laplacian on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If not, would it be feasible to use someone elses 3D coordinates to do it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25781" LastActivityDate="2020-07-14T05:45:00.403" Title="Surface Laplacian using x and y data" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25645" CreationDate="2020-07-14T06:38:57.830" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The thesaurus may assist.  The Synonyms of 'calculating' are: artful, astute, calculative, canny, conniving, crafty, cunning, deceitful, devious, dexterous, dirty, disingenuous, foxy, guileful, machiavellian, manipulative, scheming, shrewd, slick, slippery, sly, subtle, underhand, unscrupulous, and wily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Acknowledging that everyone pursues self-interest to an extent, the intent of the definition appears to suggest that a 'calculating' person has little empathy or consideration of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Synonyms extracted from Merriam-Webster and Oxford.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-07-14T06:38:57.830" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25648" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25634" CreationDate="2020-07-14T15:34:59.737" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Found answer to my own question. This is called &amp;quot;higher order conditioning&amp;quot;:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Higher+Order+Conditioning#:%7E:text=Higher%20Order%20Conditioning%20(also%20known,produce%20salivating)%20to%20produce%20the&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Higher+Order+Conditioning#:~:text=Higher%20Order%20Conditioning%20(also%20known,produce%20salivating)%20to%20produce%20the&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20831" LastActivityDate="2020-07-14T15:34:59.737" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25650" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25643" CreationDate="2020-07-14T17:50:55.757" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Leach's hypothesis is based upon case reports of prisoners of war subject to the most severe forms of incarceration and profound deprivation.  A minority of prisoners reportedly completely withdrew and ceased any form of goal directed behaviour (eating, drinking etc.).  Presumably, the prisoner's 'giving up' was in response to their self-evaluation that survival was impossible in the circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leach, J. (2018). ‘Give-up-itis’ revisited: Neuropathology of extremis. Medical hypotheses, 120, 14-21. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2018.08.009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2018.08.009&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-07-15T08:03:18.003" LastActivityDate="2020-07-15T08:03:18.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25653" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25639" CreationDate="2020-07-15T06:43:26.380" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps psychological priming.  Three links below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Loizou, G., &amp;amp; Karageorghis, C. I. (2015). Effects of psychological priming, video, and music on anaerobic exercise performance. Scandinavian journal of medicine &amp;amp; science in sports, 25(6), 909-920. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12391&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12391&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Loersch, C., &amp;amp; Payne, B. K. (2016). Demystifying priming. Current Opinion in Psychology, 12, 32-36. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.020&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-07-15T06:43:26.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25654" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25643" CreationDate="2020-07-15T21:28:57.323" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering if it can be induced by desire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychogenic death refers to death triggered by psychic stimuli. The individual finds himself in a situation where external forces have lead to a restriction of his world and in addition, believes that this situation is unalterable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud called this the death-drive. Except no person of his own volition would drive himself to death. This is obvious. The force of life is strong in every kind of being. The key here is the external 'psychic stimuli' that triggers this so called death-drive as well as the external factors that brings about this confluence of psychic factors. Thus to think of this as a 'desire' is to misunderstand the psychology of the situation as well as to misunderstand what is meant by desire. So no.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think it can by [sic] a person being lazy and not caring about the world. It is said to happen with prisoners of war.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One situation which demonstrates this is carceral solitary confinement with little or no meaningful contact. There has been a great deal of legal argument as to whether this constitutes torture and/or cruel and unusual punishment. For this reason International law discourages its use within penal institutions, and prohibits it entirely for juveniles whereas the US actively encourages it. Anna Conley writes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the most serious human rights violations is occurring today throughout the US. In US jails and prisons, individuals are held in solitary confinement for weeks, months and even years. Solitary confinement can cause significant psychological damage, including cognitive delays, increased suspicion and paranoia, increased anxiety, fear, aggression and hostility, heightened feelings of helplessness and depression, and increased thoughts and attempts at self-mutilation and suicide. Many individuals held in this severe form isolation are juveniles or individuals with serious mental illnesses, to whom it is particularly damaging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although solitary confinement is common in the rest of the world, nowhere is it more prevalent as a long-term prisoner management tool than the US.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;US courts have found solitary confinement is a violation of the 8th Amendment of the US Constitution in certain cases, yet the practise persists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Refs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Torture in US Jails and Prisons: An analysis of Solitary Confinement under International Law&lt;/em&gt;, Anna Conley, &lt;em&gt;Vienna Journal on International Constitutional Law&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Psychogenic death of Mr. J. A., A Case Report&lt;/em&gt;, K. D. Stumpfe, &lt;em&gt;Psychosom. Med. Psychoanal.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25601" LastEditorUserId="25601" LastEditDate="2020-07-15T22:31:16.400" LastActivityDate="2020-07-15T22:31:16.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25656" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-16T01:48:06.620" Score="3" ViewCount="566" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reaction formation&lt;/strong&gt; is a defense mechanism in which emotions and impulses which are anxiety-producing or perceived to be unacceptable are mastered by exaggeration of the directly opposing tendency&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Undoing&lt;/strong&gt; is a defense mechanism in which a person tries to cancel out or remove an unhealthy, destructive or otherwise threatening thought or action by engaging in contrary behavior&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both defense mechanisms seem to be reacting to an unhealthy thought with the opposite. Is there a quality that differentiates the two mechanisms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia links:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_formation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_formation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undoing_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undoing_(psychology)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26436" LastActivityDate="2020-12-06T14:57:16.663" Title="What is the difference between Undoing and Reaction Formation?" Tags="&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25657" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25631" CreationDate="2020-07-16T14:29:07.643" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;As the OP notes, this has been a difficult topic for Skeptics.SE. I'm going to try to answer here, but over on Skeptics this would probably be labelled as &amp;quot;Original Research&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem for Skeptics.SE is that the claim being challenged is that these shaking movements have a supernatural cause. All we can say for certain is that we can't rule out a psychological cause, but psychological or neurophysiological explanations backed by evidence don't seem to be available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the absence of a proper evidence-based theory of what is going on here we can only fall back on &amp;quot;mass hysteria&amp;quot;, or as its more politely known these days, &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;mass psychogenic illness&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; (MPI). However this is really only a label for a bunch of phenomena that we guess are related. There is also the problem that MPI is the diagnosis used when nothing else can be found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, Wikipedia quotes the following list of attributes of MPI outbreaks, so we can at least compare this phenomenon with it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;symptoms that have no plausible organic basis;&lt;/em&gt; Yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;symptoms that are transient and benign;&lt;/em&gt; Yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;symptoms with rapid onset and recovery;&lt;/em&gt; Yes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;occurrence in a segregated group;&lt;/em&gt; I think this may mean a group segregated for weeks rather than hours. On the other hand some preachers call on their congregations to separate themselves from the sinful world; it would be interesting to score these events against that criterion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;the presence of extraordinary anxiety;&lt;/em&gt; No. However other strong emotions are certainly present, and this might well have the same effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;symptoms that are spread via sight, sound or oral communication;&lt;/em&gt; All three are present in these services, but that doesn't prove it is how this is spread.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;a spread that moves down the age scale, beginning with older or higher-status people;&lt;/em&gt;  Unknown, but a review of videos of these events might provide data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;a preponderance of female participants.&lt;/em&gt; Again, the videos might provide data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia article also lists medical symptoms that occur in MPI. As the OP notes, shaking and fainting is not in the list. However these events are not socially constructed as &amp;quot;illness&amp;quot;, so if this is MPI it is not surprising that harmful medical symptoms are not present (although the shaking and falling does bear a resemblance to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/parkinsons-disease/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Parkinson's Disease&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, MPI or something like it appears to be the most plausible explanation for this phenomena, and a review of videos of these events might shed further light on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26440" LastActivityDate="2020-07-16T14:29:07.643" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25659" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25660" CreationDate="2020-07-17T13:40:27.460" Score="3" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to measure serotonin with a sample of spinal fluid?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25721" LastActivityDate="2020-07-18T18:05:32.847" Title="Measuring serotonin in the brain with a sample of spinal fluid" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25660" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25659" CreationDate="2020-07-17T15:14:43.460" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is entirely possible to sample serotonin levels from cerebral spinal fluid (CFS) taken via a lumbar puncture, also known as a spinal tap, to the spinal column from the central nervous system (CNS).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/anyt6.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/anyt6.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the most accurate method of measuring neurotransmitter levels in the brain* without risking damage to cerebral tissue, although &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22664303/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;it is safer and almost as accurate to take the sample from platelets&lt;/a&gt; extracted a blood sample. The reason it is safer is because you don't have to go through nerve tissue, and because CSF does not contain the defences of blood to deal with toxins and pathogens (potential infections).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;note&lt;/em&gt;. It is perhaps more accurate to use a tissue sample, although this would take longer to analyse and damage grey matter. In animal studies we use in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3083031/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;vivo microdialysis&lt;/a&gt;, but this is only worthwhile in controlled (extremely clean) experimental conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2020-07-18T18:05:32.847" LastActivityDate="2020-07-18T18:05:32.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25662" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-17T21:43:57.163" Score="2" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.technologynetworks.com/neuroscience/articles/the-neurobiology-of-stress-with-professor-michael-meaney-323347&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Michael Meaney interview&lt;/a&gt;, he let an open question at the end. He mentioned that communal parenting, could &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;in some ways buffer the child by having potentially more positive sources of resilience in their lives&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot;. I know the &lt;em&gt;amygdala&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;medial prefrontal cortex&lt;/em&gt; are brain regions important for emotion regulation, however, how communal parenting could change their development and be an explanation for this to happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the interview last question (to avoid the link):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Interviewer&lt;/strong&gt;: Have there been studies of the influence of care&#xA;in societies where the burden of care might be moved between parents&#xA;or is it reasonably constant across societies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Michael Meaney&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;em&gt;No. We think it’s really interesting and it’s a dynamic. The psychologists speak, for example, of a child as being an&#xA;organism that’s remarkably good at seeking out nurturance from&#xA;whatever source may be there.  We see in Asia that many children are&#xA;raised by grandparents or in a more communal environment. In a cohort&#xA;that we run in Singapore, I believe that in 50% of the cases the&#xA;mother is not the primary care giver in terms of the person who spends&#xA;the most amount of time with the child.  That wouldn’t be true up to&#xA;one year of life, but beyond one year it’s very often that children&#xA;are raised by others, particularly grandparents. People are living in&#xA;larger, extended families. The irony there is that these care&#xA;structures may come closer to the original organization of the family&#xA;who lived in kin groups. In fact, it may be that we in the west are&#xA;somehow the outliers having created these nuclear families in which&#xA;parenting and child care is so closely linked to one or two&#xA;individuals whereas in other societies it can be far more communal.&#xA;That leads you to some interesting outcomes. For example, a colleague&#xA;of ours in Singapore was looking at the association between a common&#xA;feature of early maternal care, which is sensitivity – to what extent&#xA;is the mother attuned to the cues of the infant? She had a predicted a&#xA;relationship between development in the prefrontal cortex and maternal&#xA;sensitivity.  She’s seen a rather weak relationship, which surprised&#xA;her, so she took this large sample she had and she split it and for&#xA;those whom the mother was the primary care giver, she saw a very&#xA;strong relationship between maternal sensitivity and prefrontal&#xA;development, but for those children for whom the mother wasn’t the&#xA;primary caregiver, it was absent.&lt;/em&gt;  &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So I think in these particular&#xA;instances, you’re seeing more diversity within the child care&#xA;environment and I think it’s an excellent question to ask, does this&#xA;in some ways buffer the child by having potentially more positive&#xA;sources of resilience in their lives?  It’s a question well worth&#xA;noting&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24818" LastActivityDate="2020-07-17T21:43:57.163" Title="How communal parenting, through the develpment in the prefrontal cortex, could lead to a better emotion regulation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2020-08-05T22:51:11.173" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25664" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25644" CreationDate="2020-07-18T19:31:42.473" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of the key issues with spiking neural networks is that while SNN are computationally more powerful than the so called 2nd generation neural networks (artificial neural networks), they are also computationally 'much' more expensive. This means you need a lot of computational power to effectively use them, and limits their use by the wider data science community and therefore the development of the method, which is mostly stuck in research groups. Many of whom are working on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3316781.3317822&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;issue of efficiency&lt;/a&gt;, while IBM amongst others is working on &lt;a href=&quot;https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7727758&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the hardware issue&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another issue for the poor adoption and development of SNNs is that, at the time of writing, they are not able to effectively conducting supervised learning. So while SNNs are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2020/06/biologically-inspired-deep-learning-predicts-chords-of-bach/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;good at dealing with specific  tasks&lt;/a&gt; for which they have been hard coded, they are not generally applicable to a wider range of problems without considerable coding. By comparison ANNs are highly versatile and &lt;strong&gt;easily&lt;/strong&gt; applicable to a wide range of data science problems. It has been suggested elsewhere that for SNNs to be general purpose, we would need to more accurately mimic learning in the mammalian brain in order to conduct supervised learning tasks. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnbot.2019.00018/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;There are recent steps in the right direction&lt;/a&gt; that take a simplified approach by adding a reward process in to the NN, which in my opinion (with a background in 'reward systems') is a good start. But this is all very recent compared to ANNs, and really the 'further research is required' slogan strongly applies before SNNs are more widely adopted within both data science and computational psychology/neuroscience. Although as you can see &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/arnogranier/SNN&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; the TensorFlow community is starting to work on utilising SNNs. Google (TensorFlow) itself is &lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/abs/1907.13223&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;well onboard&lt;/a&gt; with studying SNNs, and is one of the strongest leaders in the field of machine learning, so you should expect to see a lot more work from google here, which will spread the the wider data science community. With that said I cannot see a reason not to use TensorFlow, it is, however, worth looking into IBMs ML offerings too given there interest in &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/@sumitg_16893/ibm-research-cracks-code-on-accelerating-key-machine-learning-algorithms-647b5031b420&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;developing hardware for SNNs&lt;/a&gt;, and how &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2018/03/ibm-machine-library-46-times-faster-tensorflow/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Snap ML&lt;/a&gt; out performs TensorFlow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, SNNs are computationally powerful in theory, but are computationally expensive compared to ANNs with current technology. SNNs also have a supervised learning problem which means that this need to be developed to allow SNNs to be used more generally, and wider adoption. This would lead to more use of SNNs and therefore more development. SNNs are likely a future of machine learning as research and technology develops, but its currently mostly limited to academic investigation and understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2020-07-19T10:54:10.293" LastActivityDate="2020-07-19T10:54:10.293" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25665" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-18T20:56:56.717" Score="2" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;To be precise, by &amp;quot;evil&amp;quot; I am referring specifically to&#xA;the weakness of the trait of (or compulsion) for “genuine care and concern for the wellbeing of others”&#xA;with respect to&#xA;the strength of the trait of (or compulsion for) &amp;quot;the pursuit of self-interest&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or, more succinctly, the weakness of the force of conscience as a constraining force on the predatory compulsion of self-interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“The battle line between good and evil runs through the heart of every&#xA;man.&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA; ~Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some humans seem to lack this “genuine care and concern for the wellbeing of others”&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Of those who do, there seem to be at least 2 distinct groups:&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;1: Those who lack it permanently. (irredeemably evil)&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;2: Those who lack it only temporarily. (temporary insanity)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &amp;quot;temporary insanity&amp;quot; I am referring to the phenomenon of people who seem to act without care and concern for the well being of others, but who seem to do so because they lack the ability to control their fear at the time and are later genuinely remorseful for their behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &amp;quot;irredeemably evil&amp;quot; I am referring to those who never experience any genuine remorse for such behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Difficulty #1: The seeming absence of a single underlying cause&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychopathy is probably the best example of &amp;quot;irredeemable&amp;quot; evil. There are methods like the PCL-R to detect this particular type of evil. However, there seems to be growing evidence that narcissism also has a strong heritable component. The methods for detecting psychopathy do not seem to be applicable to narcissism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To add to the difficulty of the problem, the evidence would seem to suggest that the absence of moral constraint to predatory compulsions may not have a single cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, there is some evidence to suggest that psychopathy may be the result of weak pain signals in general.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One interpretation of this is that conscience emerges and is strengthened by the process of persistent pain giving rise to rumination. i.e. When our actions harm others, the persistent guilt that we feel, gives rise to a resolve to change our behavior both to relieve the pain in the moment and to avoid feeling this pain again in the future. However, if the pain signal is too weak to give rise to rumination, then the conscience does not form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, narcissists seem to typically have normal levels of pain for themselves but lack the affective empathy which would trigger similar levels of pain when other humans are suffering. One interpretation of this is that the persistent pain which gives rise to the rumination which gives rise to conscience does not arise, due not to the inability to experience pain in general, but rather to the inability to experience pain of others due to the absence of affective empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given these different ways in which the growth of conscience can be interrupted, it's possible that the most effective means of discernment between &amp;quot;irredeemable evil&amp;quot; an &amp;quot;temporary insanity&amp;quot; might be to identify the traits of those who have a fully developed conscience and look for the absence of those traits in the individual in question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Difficulty #2: Variance in the size of the circle of genuine care and concern.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To further add to the difficulty of this problem, it seems that the size of the circle of &amp;quot;genuine care and concern&amp;quot; varies considerably amongst humans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For some, it extends only to kin.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;For others it might extend to a larger tribe.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;For others still, it might, as some religions would encourage us, extend to all humans or even all living beings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be more precise, therefore,&#xA;given that evil is the perception of the absence of &amp;quot;genuine care and concern for the well being of others&amp;quot;,&#xA;and that those who lack &amp;quot;genuine care and concern for the well being of others&amp;quot; will feel compelled to fake it in order to survive and thrive in society,&#xA;this question seems to break down into the following 2 components:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1: pre-discovery: What is the most accurate method that potential prey can use to detect that the &amp;quot;care and concern&amp;quot; displayed by the skilled predator is, in fact, a deception?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2: post-discovery: Having witnessed evidence of the absence of &amp;quot;genuine care and concern for the well being of others&amp;quot;, what is the most accurate means of determining if this is due to a permanent versus temporary inability to expand the circle of care and concern?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastEditorUserId="8423" LastEditDate="2020-07-20T19:57:33.273" LastActivityDate="2020-07-20T19:57:33.273" Title="What is the most accurate method of discerning between “irredeemable evil” and “temporary insanity”?" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25667" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25665" CreationDate="2020-07-19T14:56:07.793" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It almost seems like a two-valued judgment, where you either have the trait or don't, but the context seems to matter. Someone may perform irredeemably evil acts, yet go home to their family with whom they have a genuine concern for their wellbeing.&#xA;Especially when talking about the issue using the construct of psychopathy where:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By foregrounding intrinsic evil, psychopathy marginalizes social problems and excuses institutional failures at rehabilitation. We need not understand a criminal's troubled past or environmental influences. We need not reach out a hand to help him along a pathway to redemption. The psychopath is irredeemable, a dangerous outsider who must be contained or banished. Circular in its reasoning, psychopathy is nonetheless alluring in its simplicity (Franklin 2011).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Franklin essentially views the construct as subjective, rightfully so, since those who often lead or protect our society might commit or allow acts that would fall into the category of irredeemable evil, in terms of participating or profiting from genocide or interfering in other nations politics that may cause great harm to that particular population. Bandura (1990), views it as a problem of cognition, where the individual's thoughts are reconstrued or even formed to justify their actions, where the benefits seem to outweigh any moral sanctions that would regularly prevent the behavior from being performed. He gives the example of the soldier that kills, where they have reframed the act of murder as something to be proud of, rather than something that is forbidden and evil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one gets behind the construct of psychopathy, there could be an argument made that they may lack the proper cognitive skills to buffer themselves against moral disengagement, making them act the way they do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&#xA;Bandura, A. (1990). Selective activation and disengagement of moral control. Journal of Social Issues, 46(1), 27-46 &lt;a href=&quot;https://sci-hub.se/https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb00270.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://sci-hub.se/https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb00270.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Franklin. K. (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wbur.org/npr/136433233/expert-panel-weighing-the-value-of-a-test-for-psychopaths&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.wbur.org/npr/136433233/expert-panel-weighing-the-value-of-a-test-for-psychopaths&lt;/a&gt; Retrived 19, July 2020.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24990" LastActivityDate="2020-07-19T14:56:07.793" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25668" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-19T22:20:31.930" Score="4" ViewCount="374" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen some text that said some pains in body caused by inner child like this,so i like to know does inner Child is a pseudoscience, so i have seen the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_child&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, and seen some information :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further developments Within the framework of psychosynthesis, the&#xA;inner child is often characterized as a subpersonality&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Qibln.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt; or may also&#xA;be seen as a central element surrounded by subpersonalities.[4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Internal Family Systems therapy (IFS therapy) expanded the concept&#xA;considerably by positing that there is not just one inner child&#xA;sub-personality, but many. IFS therapy calls wounded inner child&#xA;sub-personalities &amp;quot;exiles&amp;quot; because they tend to be excluded from&#xA;waking thought in order to avoid/defend against the pain carried in&#xA;those memories. IFS therapy has a method that aims to gain safe access&#xA;to a person's exiles, witnessing the stories of their origins in&#xA;childhood, and healing them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So i googled the and seems  is classified as Science, so my result is that inner child is classified as science, so i tied to understand the science meaning and psychology and found this text:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between psychology and pseudoscience?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychology is a science because it is based on rigorous research and&#xA;empirical evidence. It can be distinguished from pseudoscience and&#xA;folk wisdom because it's theories can be followed through with&#xA;evidence while the other two are mere intelligent&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;based of this, Their must detected some pains in academic papers that be related to inner child and found some common human situation which inner child react in some specific pasterns, so i googled the  &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=fa&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;q=inner%20child%20paterns%20pain&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;inner child pasterns pain&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; and found :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Qibln.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Qibln.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and some others paper ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So based of this information i think finding some pattern in humans mental behaviors and some software method for cutting the release and happy feeling could be classified as Science, but if you don't mind, i would like to know, your views point about this classification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25925" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-07-21T07:10:49.630" LastActivityDate="2020-07-25T14:47:00.077" Title="Is the concept of the 'inner child' considered to be pseudoscience?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25669" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25665" CreationDate="2020-07-20T06:48:16.383" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The lexical approach may assist. The lexical hypothesis states that, ‘All aspects of human personality, which are or have been of importance, interest or utility, have already become recorded in the substance of language’(Cattell, 1943) and, ‘When an idea is important, people are likely to have a word for it … the more important something is, … the more words there are likely to be’(Miller, 1996). The atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour uses a lexical approach to visualise words using the axes of affiliation and dominance (Mobbs, 2020).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A sample of synonyms of &lt;strong&gt;evil&lt;/strong&gt; are: abhorrent, abominable, appalling, atrocious, awful, baleful, base, bent, contemptible, corrupt, criminal, crooked, cruel, damaging, dangerous, depraved, despicable, destructive, disagreeable, disgusting, dishonourable, dreadful, fiendish, filthy, foul, harmful, heinous, hideous, horrendous, horrible, horrid, hurtful, immoral, inhuman, inhumane, iniquitous, loathsome, malevolent, malicious, malignant, mischievous, monstrous, nasty, nauseating, nauseous, noxious, obnoxious, obscene, odious, offensive, pernicious, perverse, perverted, poisonous, repellent, repugnant, repulsive, revolting, rotten, ruinous, scandalous, shocking, sickening, stormy, threatening, ugly, unclean, unethical, unlawful, unprincipled, unscrupulous, venomous, vicious, vile, villainous, wanton, wicked, woeful, wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A sample of synonyms of &lt;strong&gt;insane&lt;/strong&gt; are: absurd, asinine, bananas, barmy, bats, batty, bedlam, bizarre, bonkers, certifiable, crackbrained, cracked, crackers, crackpot, crazed, crazy, cuckoo, daffy, daft, delirious, demented, deranged, devilish, dippy, disturbed, dotty, enraged, exasperated, extreme, fanciful, fantastic, farcical, fatuous, featherheaded, fool, foolish, fruity, gaga, half-baked, half-witted, hare-brained, haywire, hysterical, idiotic, ill-conceived, illogical, imbecilic, immoderate, inane, incensed, inept, intolerable, irrational, irritated, jerky, kookie, laughable, lavish, loony, ludicrous, lunatic, mad, mad_as_a_hatter, maniac, maniacal, manic, mental, mentally_ill, mindless, moronic, non compos mentis, nonsensical, not_all_there, nuts, nutty, nutty_as_a_fruitcake, pointless, potty, preposterous, psycho, psychopathic, psychotic, raving_mad, ridiculous, round_the_bend, scatty, schizophrenic, screwball, screwy, senseless, silly, simpleminded, stark_raving_mad, stiff, stupid, unbalanced, unconscionable, unhinged, unmerciful, unreal, unrealistic, unreasonable, unsound, unstable, unwise, vexed, wacko, wacky, weird, whacko, whacky, wild, witless, zany.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both evil and insane are visualised according to the atlas below along with other constructs for the purpose of comparison (Jones &amp;amp; Paulhus, 2014; DSM-5; ICD-11).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TK46K.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TK46K.png&quot; alt=&quot;Evil and Insane according to the atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour (Mobbs, 2020)&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a linguistic / lexical perspective, the primary difference between evil and insane is the level of dominance.  Evil implying intent whereas insanity implies the absence of intent.  The visual analysis also appears to support the concept that insanity is associated with a complete absence of empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cattell RB. The description of personality: basic traits resolved into clusters. J Abnorm Soc Psychol. 1943; 38: 476–506. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054116&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054116&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller GA. The science of words. New York: Scientific American Library; 1996.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jones DN, Paulhus DL. Introducing the short Dark Triad (SD3): a brief measure of dark personality traits. Assessment. 2014; 21: 28–41. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oxford and Merriam-Webster thesauri.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. 5th ed. Washington, DC: Author; 2013.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;World Health Organization. International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems. 11th ed. World Health Organization; 2018. &lt;a href=&quot;https://icd.who.int&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://icd.who.int&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declared interest&lt;/strong&gt;: I am the author of the atlas paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-07-20T06:48:16.383" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25670" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25668" CreationDate="2020-07-20T07:26:05.613" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I Google(-scholared) the term too and indeed I would classify it as pseudoscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The hits are mainly books, or dodgy journal papers. No hits that are pointing to the more established journals. While recognizing this doesn't prove that the concept of the inner child is bogus, or that it's not classified a science, it is a strong indicator that the concept has not (yet?) been embraced by scientists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The term sounds to fit the idea of the 'pure, innocent, unblemished' beings children are supposed to be, not yet molded to fit society. I guess it's an interesting idea, but it sounds New Agie to me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are people way more proficient in Psychology hangin' around here, so a more authorative answer can likely be expected anytime soon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-07-21T08:51:33.907" LastActivityDate="2020-07-21T08:51:33.907" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25672" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-20T13:11:51.433" Score="2" ViewCount="145" Body="&lt;p&gt;With the intent of being seen as a big shot, a person induces unsuspecting observers to underestimate them by intentionally failing in trivial tasks but then successfully completing more complex tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26466" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-07-20T16:20:22.350" LastActivityDate="2020-08-19T17:01:45.190" Title="Is there a name for this feeling?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25673" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25675" CreationDate="2020-07-20T13:26:39.473" Score="1" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;What factors determine the personality of a newborn baby?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do all newborns exhibit identical behaviour?  If not, are genetics responsible for the differences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References consulted so far:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/11-3-is-personality-more-nature-or-more-nurture-behavioral-and-molecular-genetics/#:%7E:text=on%20human%20behaviour.-,Behavioural%20genetics%20is%20based%20on%20the%20results%20of%20family%20studies,associated%20with%20which%20personality%20traits.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Is Personality More Nature or More Nurture? Behavioural and Molecular Genetics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellmind.com/are-personality-traits-caused-by-genes-or-environment-4120707&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Are Personality Traits Caused by Genes or Environment?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/under-the-influence/201307/do-genes-influence-personality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Do Genes Influence Personality?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26467" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-07-20T17:47:07.480" LastActivityDate="2020-07-21T00:08:39.163" Title="Personality at Birth" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25672" CreationDate="2020-07-20T16:14:47.730" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The emotions may include: duplicitousness, slipperiness, artfulness, craftiness, deviousness, wiliness, cunningness, deceitfulness, slyness, sneakiness, crookedness, vanity, haughtiness, pretentiousness, affectation, conceitedness, smugness, superciliousness, bumptiousness, condescension, obstreperousness, grandiosity, hubris.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-07-20T16:14:47.730" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25675" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25673" CreationDate="2020-07-20T17:06:30.520" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;nature vs nurture&lt;/em&gt; debate is long standing. Nurture presumably plays little or no role for the majority of newborns (see prenatal discussion below), therefore nature (genetics) would be the only influencing factor. Subsequent to birth, nurture presumably plays an increasingly greater role as time progresses.  Some (but not all) twin studies demonstrate some impact of genetics on behaviour (Johnson, 2002; Plomin 1976).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The behaviour of newborns are generally referred to as being instinctive or innate and may include goal-directed behaviours such as suckling, looking, smelling and imprinting. Researchers such as Lorenz and Sluckin are foundational on early life behaviour research.  I also contributed to an article on newborn instinctual behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The impact of prenatal stressors on the newborn have been considered in relation to maternal mental health (Erickson, 2017), alcohol abuse (Lange, 2017; McLachlan, 2019), substance abuse (Forray, 2016) and gestational diabetes (Schmidt, 2019):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Mother’s mental health&lt;/strong&gt;: The findings were that there was no support for relationships between prenatal mental health indicators and infant temperament in multiple studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder&lt;/strong&gt;: The reported prevalence is less than 1% of births, however, the implications on the newborn are profound with as many as 30% of adults in correctional facilities suffering Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Substance abuse&lt;/strong&gt;: Whilst birth and health problems have been widely investigated, little could be found on the implications on personality of the newborn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Diabetes&lt;/strong&gt;: Whilst birth and health problems have been widely investigated, little could be found on the implications on personality of the newborn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is likely that I've not identified all relevant studies in relation to prenatal stressors affecting the personality and would welcome the advice of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Johnson, W., Krueger, R. F., Bouchard, T. J., &amp;amp; McGue, M. (2002). The personalities of twins: Just ordinary folks. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 5(2), 125-131. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1375/twin.5.2.125&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1375/twin.5.2.125&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plomin, R., Willerman, L. &amp;amp; Loehlin, J.C. Resemblance in appearance and the equal environments assumption in twin studies of personality traits. Behav Genet 6, 43–52 (1976). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01065677&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01065677&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sluckin, W. (2017). Imprinting and early learning. Transaction Publishers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sluckin, W., Herbert, M., &amp;amp; Sluckin, A. (1983). Maternal bonding. Blackwell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lorenz, K. (2002). King Solomon's ring: new light on animal ways. Psychology Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs, E. J., Mobbs, G. A., &amp;amp; Mobbs, A. E. (2016). Imprinting, latchment and displacement: a mini review of early instinctual behaviour in newborn infants influencing breastfeeding success. Acta Paediatrica, 105(1), 24-30. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13034&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13034&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Erickson, N. L., Gartstein, M. A., &amp;amp; Dotson, J. A. W. (2017). Review of prenatal maternal mental health and the development of infant temperament. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic &amp;amp; Neonatal Nursing. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jogn.2017.03.008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jogn.2017.03.008&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forray A. (2016). Substance use during pregnancy. F1000Research, 5, F1000 Faculty Rev-887. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.7645.1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.7645.1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schmidt, C.B., Voorhorst, I., van de Gaar, V.H.W. et al. Diabetes distress is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes in women with gestational diabetes: a prospective cohort study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 19, 223 (2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-019-2376-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-019-2376-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lange, S., Probst, C., Gmel, G., Rehm, J., Burd, L., &amp;amp; Popova, S. (2017). Global Prevalence of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder Among Children and Youth: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA pediatrics, 171(10), 948–956. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.1919&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.1919&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McLachlan, K., McNeil, A., Pei, J. et al. Prevalence and characteristics of adults with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in corrections: a Canadian case ascertainment study. BMC Public Health 19, 43 (2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6292-x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6292-x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-07-21T00:08:39.163" LastActivityDate="2020-07-21T00:08:39.163" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25676" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8976" CreationDate="2020-07-20T17:25:21.627" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Distinguishing between similes like this can be aided by a word's etymology.  The root of Narcissist is the Greek deity Narkissos, or Narcissus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Narcissus, in Greek mythology, the son of the river god Cephissus and the nymph Liriope. He was distinguished for his beauty. According to Ovid's Metamorphoses, Book III, Narcissus's mother was told by the blind seer Tiresias that he would have a long life, provided he never recognized himself. However, his rejection of the love of the nymph Echo or (in an earlier version) of the young man Ameinias drew upon him the vengeance of the gods. He fell in love with his own reflection in the waters of a spring and pined away (or killed himself); the flower that bears his name sprang up where he died.&amp;quot; (Britannica.com).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the word, today, is often used interchangeably with Megalomaniac; a Narcissist is originally speaking to a person who is obsessed with, or overvalues, their appearance.  Megalo (big... REAL big - think Megalodon) and mania (obsession) refers to a person's overestimation of who they are compared to everyone else - an obsession with power, influence, or control.  Megalomania is a more common combination of a root and suffix, while narcissism derives from the too-pretty-for-his-own-good Narcissus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adolf Hitler was more of a megalomaniac; while every artist who sings about how 'hot' they are is a Narcissist (or their lyrics suggest as much at least).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps to some extent!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Britannica.com, Narcissus. (2020). Encyclopedia Britannica. Acquired 20 July, 2020 from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Narcissus-Greek-mythology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Narcissus-Greek-mythology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26470" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-07-25T16:48:12.680" LastActivityDate="2020-07-25T16:48:12.680" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8976" CreationDate="2020-07-20T19:47:42.333" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=se.014.0067a&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;narcissism&lt;/a&gt; is introspective - i.e. an obsession of self/physical appearance. While internalized &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0146167208320061?casa_token=v0-RdeKSdf0AAAAA:IvBH_T5cjMPTg6uniwemQ23Pk0wVGS3KQfC2axBab5EevNHzSqQVM9u3v4L5hLJwd0tzTiP4_3Di&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the disorder personality often seeks out admiration &amp;amp; external merits&lt;/a&gt; (eg. Social Media) to affirm the belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in context a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00332747.1955.11023003?journalCode=upsy20&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;megalomanic&lt;/a&gt; look at ones self as extrinsic from the world: Yet the delusion that they either have the power/ability to influence the rest of the world or the rest of the world is &amp;quot;out to get them&amp;quot; remains absent of influence from external elements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26471" LastActivityDate="2020-07-20T19:47:42.333" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25678" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-21T02:31:24.443" Score="3" ViewCount="97" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let say one is talented in music, and wants to become a great musician. Does self-actualisation refer to &lt;strong&gt;mental state during the journey of pursuing goal&lt;/strong&gt;, or the &lt;strong&gt;mental state after achieve the goal&lt;/strong&gt;. Originally I thought it's the latter. Recently I read about the concept of arrival fallacy, which casts doubt over my understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-actualisation in Maslow Theory (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-actualization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wiki&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the desire for self-fulfillment, namely the tendency for him [the&#xA;individual] to become actualized in what he is potentially. This&#xA;tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what&#xA;one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Arrival fallacy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/28/smarter-living/you-accomplished-something-great-so-now-what.html#:%7E:text=This%20wave%20of%20hopelessness%20has,credited%20with%20coining%20the%20term.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article link&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“Arrival fallacy is this illusion that once we make it, once we attain&#xA;our goal or reach our destination, we will reach lasting happiness,”&#xA;said Tal Ben-Shahar, the Harvard-trained positive psychology expert&#xA;who is credited with coining the term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25460" LastEditorUserId="25460" LastEditDate="2020-07-21T10:00:05.010" LastActivityDate="2020-08-11T12:30:56.423" Title="Does self-actualisation happen during the journey or after achieve the goal" Tags="&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25679" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-21T02:50:15.597" Score="2" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagan_standard&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sagan standard&lt;/a&gt;, which says that &amp;quot;extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence&amp;quot;, a kind of proportionality bias?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the &lt;a href=&quot;http://skepdic.com/proportionalitybias.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;proportionality bias&lt;/a&gt; is a tendency to believe that causes are proportional to effects in magnitude, so the Sagan standard seem to fall into that category. Maybe if the standard was a little more specific or it actually defined what it means by extraordinay, then maybe it wouldn't be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26472" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-07-21T09:25:33.477" LastActivityDate="2020-07-23T11:54:23.213" Title="Is the Sagan standard a kind of proportionality bias?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25682" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-21T12:00:59.570" Score="0" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;In several places I have seen reference to the &lt;em&gt;law of diminishing returns&lt;/em&gt; with regard to satisfaction. A common toy example is eating cookies. The first cookie gives some amount of satisfaction, the second some smaller amount, and so on. It follows the satisfaction function  &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$S(n)$&lt;/span&gt; is a convex function of the number &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n$&lt;/span&gt; of cookies eaten.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This seems quite reasonable but I wonder how is it backed up experimentally? Are there studies where subjects are given various amounts of &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; and their satisfaction is somehow measured?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Three follow-up questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Has this been done using some objective measure of satisfaction rather than just asking the subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Are there any mathematical models for the shape of the convex function?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;How do things change is there are several utilities? So &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$S(n,x)$&lt;/span&gt; where &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$n$&lt;/span&gt; is the number of cookies and &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$x$&lt;/span&gt; describes the quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15516" LastActivityDate="2020-07-22T16:39:50.327" Title="Are there mathematical models for multi-utility satisfaction?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;preferences&gt;&lt;model&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25683" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-21T12:57:33.503" Score="2" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;In whole genres of movies and TV series, criminals and criminal organizations have a central role, either in the role of villains or anti-heroes. And I think it is safe to assume that, given the broad dissemination of these media, real-life criminals do watch them as well, at least casually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question then is: are there any studies evaluating the effect of media about or featuring criminals on real-life criminals? Does watching these media change the inclinations of criminals, maybe towards more stereotyped behaviors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26478" LastActivityDate="2020-07-21T12:57:33.503" Title="What is the effect of movies and TV series on criminals?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;criminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25685" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6229" CreationDate="2020-07-21T18:18:37.957" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Very interesting question, however, cognitive exhaustion may be a learned phenomena ( &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5413468/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5413468/&lt;/a&gt; ) as referenced by this 2017 article finding it to be conditioned to the individual. Though I cannot provide a concrete answer, I would estimate that cognitive stamina, so to speak, can be trained into the individual much like aerobic or muscular stamina.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26482" LastActivityDate="2020-07-21T18:18:37.957" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25687" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-22T10:18:47.663" Score="0" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;To illustrate, the adult attachment interview examines attitudes towards attachment figures in adults. Waters &amp;amp; Waters(2006) state that using attachment interview is costly and time-consuming. One could take advantage of modern technology to analyze.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Natural language processing is improving each day. My question is whether any branch of personality psychology used it to analyze people's narratives or their psychological profiles. I am not interested at where the state of NLP is right, but whether it has been used in some credible psychological research yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23189" LastEditorUserId="23189" LastEditDate="2020-07-22T21:32:39.893" LastActivityDate="2020-07-22T21:32:39.893" Title="Has Natural Language Processing been used to evaluate case studies?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;nlp&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25690" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-22T21:41:14.360" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to know how positive and negative mindset can influence interpersonal relationships with others.  For example: if you have a negative mindset, would people not want to relate with you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26491" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-07-24T06:36:07.843" LastActivityDate="2020-07-24T06:36:07.843" Title="How can positive and negative mindsets influence interpersonal relationships with others?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25691" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-23T04:03:53.417" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently doing some research about human emotion based on EEG classification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do an experiment in that I show subject a picture about 3 state of emotion and record their EEG signal.&#xA;I split my experiment into 3 set, each set I change record order (for example: Set 1: emotion 1, 2 ,3 ; Set 2: emotion 2, 3, 1 and Set 3: emotion 3,1,2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a question that at different record time (or at different set) does the EEG signal perform on same task have the same characteristics with order set.?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have this question because I hear that people always change state of mind at different time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you very much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23693" LastActivityDate="2020-07-23T04:03:53.417" Title="Does Human Brain signal of same task in different time have the same characteristics?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25695" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-23T12:11:54.867" Score="3" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;If people with Antisocial Disorder are generally lacking of emotions and empathy, do they understand art in a way as neurotypical people does?&#xA;Are there any famous artists who been diagnosed with ADR?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26497" LastActivityDate="2020-08-22T17:02:55.427" Title="Antisocial Disorder and Art" Tags="&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25698" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25690" CreationDate="2020-07-23T17:04:31.460" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The lexical approach may assist. The lexical hypothesis states that, ‘All aspects of human personality, which are or have been of importance, interest or utility, have already become recorded in the substance of language’(Cattell, 1943) and, ‘When an idea is important, people are likely to have a word for it … the more important something is, … the more words there are likely to be’(Miller, 1996). The atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour uses a lexical approach to visualise words using the axes of affiliation and dominance (Mobbs, 2020).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Relevant synonyms are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;positive&lt;/strong&gt;: assured, beneficial, clear, complete, confident, constructive, convincing, decisive, effective, persuasive, practical, pragmatic, proper, real, regular, sanguine, satisfied, sure, unreserved, useful, wholehearted, worthwhile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;negative&lt;/strong&gt;: adversarial, adverse, damaging, derogatory, destructive, dismissive, disparaging, hostile, inhospitable, prejudicial, untoward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At face value, people with the traits associated with positive are more likely to attract others.  The traits associated with negative are more likely to dissuade others from associating with the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The visualisation of positive and negative according to the atlas approach is shown below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nWIpU.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/nWIpU.png&quot; alt=&quot;Positive and negative visualised according to the atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour (Mobbs, 2020)&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cattell RB. The description of personality: basic traits resolved into clusters. J Abnorm Soc Psychol. 1943; 38: 476–506. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054116&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054116&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller GA. The science of words. New York: Scientific American Library; 1996.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declared interest&lt;/strong&gt;: I am the author of the atlas paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-07-23T17:04:31.460" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25699" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-24T01:05:59.873" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;em&gt;First Aid for the Psychiatry Clerkship 5e&lt;/em&gt; on SSRIs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no correlation between plasma levels and efficacy or side effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, according to &lt;em&gt;Psychiatry 3e&lt;/em&gt; by Cutler:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A general principle in using all antidepressants is to start at the lowest marketed dose, increasing every week or two up to the FDA listed maximum dose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do I make sense of this discrepancy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26436" LastEditorUserId="26436" LastEditDate="2020-07-26T20:28:11.477" LastActivityDate="2020-07-26T20:28:11.477" Title="Do SSRIs have dose-dependent efficacy?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25700" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8941" CreationDate="2020-07-24T08:25:40.103" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The lexical approach may assist. The lexical hypothesis states that, ‘All aspects of human personality, which are or have been of importance, interest or utility, have already become recorded in the substance of language’(Cattell, 1943) and, ‘When an idea is important, people are likely to have a word for it … the more important something is, … the more words there are likely to be’(Miller, 1996). The atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour uses a lexical approach to visualise words using the axes of affiliation and dominance (Mobbs, 2020).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Synonyms are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Extrovert&lt;/strong&gt;: affable, companionable, cordial, demonstrative, exhibitionist, expansive, extroverted, exuberant, friendly, genial, good-humoured, gregarious, lively, outgoing, show-off, showman, sociable, social, socialite, socializer, uninhibited, unreserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introvert&lt;/strong&gt;: introspective, introverted, loner, private, recluse, remote, reverse, secret, secretive, shrinking violet, solitary, standoffish, unobtrusive, wallflower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The visualisation of extrovert and introvert according to the atlas approach is shown below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/j1jDZ.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/j1jDZ.png&quot; alt=&quot;Extroversion and Introversion according to the Atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour (Mobbs, 2020)&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, the empirical, measurable, objective differences between extroverts and introverts are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Both introversion and extroversion are neither dominant or submissive behaviours.  Dominance is roughly equivalent to agency for those familiar with Bakan's definition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Introverted behaviours are those which isolate the individual from others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Extroverted behaviours are those which connect the individual to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: The extroverted behaviours occupy a single cell of the atlas whereas the introverted behaviours occupy two cells.  I would interpret this as an opportunity for improved classification in future editions of the atlas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cattell RB. The description of personality: basic traits resolved into clusters. J Abnorm Soc Psychol. 1943; 38: 476–506. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054116&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054116&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller GA. The science of words. New York: Scientific American Library; 1996.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declared interest&lt;/strong&gt;: I am the author of the atlas paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-07-24T08:25:40.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25701" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-24T13:46:57.663" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;How can you keep a highly active mind satisfied?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even more specifically:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;when one has tried many ways to learn but seemingly runs out of new things to learn about or do,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;at an older age,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;After graduating,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;for people potentially with autism/asperger's.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26509" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-07-25T11:58:58.203" LastActivityDate="2020-07-25T11:58:58.203" Title="How to keep a highly active mind satisfied?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25703" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25668" CreationDate="2020-07-25T14:47:00.077" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The quick answer to your question is that the concept of the &lt;em&gt;Inner Child&lt;/em&gt; does have a scientific backing, though not in a traditional sense when following the deliniation laid down by Karl Popper (1959).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looking at the science behind the concept, you need to unpick it from the pseudoscience put across in many books such as the one mentioned in the Wikipedia article you linked — Lucia Capacchione's &lt;em&gt;Recovery of Your Inner Child&lt;/em&gt; (Capacchione, 1991).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The fact pointed out in the book that its roots are within ancient mythology and fairy tales is a little weak. However, the links made later within the same part of the book are more accurate in that they come from Neo-Freudian psychologist Carl Jung, along with Eric Berne's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Transactional Analysis&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (&amp;quot;nurturing parent&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;protective parent&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;critical parent&amp;quot; etc. in the Parent, Adult, and Child ego states) and Sigmund Freud himself (see: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego-defense mechanisms&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therories from Eric Berne, Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung are all often dismissed as pseudoscientific because they do not meet the falisifiability criteria within Karl Popper's demarcation between science and pseudoscience (Popper, 1959; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/Karl-Popper.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McLeod, 2020&lt;/a&gt;). However, Sven Ove Hansson (1996; 2008; 2013) points out that Popper's criteria is too tight and excludes legitimate sciences. — See also &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248/7604&quot;&gt;my answer to the question on pseudoscience within Freudian and Neo-Freudian theories&lt;/a&gt; for more information on this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Your_Inner_Child_of_the_Past.html?id=IxBsAAAAMAAJ&amp;amp;source=kp_book_description&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the synopsis from the jacket&lt;/a&gt; of Whitney Hugh Missildine's book &lt;em&gt;Your Inner Child of the Past&lt;/em&gt; (Missildine, 1963), notice the sections of text marked by me in bold below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What was your childhood like? Were your parents always making you do things? Criticizing you? Or did you always get your own way? Were you often punished as a child? Did your parents continually fuss at you with anxious reminders and directions? Did you feel neglected, even unwanted? Or were you the boss of the family for whom all sacrifices were made?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This remarkable book helps you to free yourself from the tensions that can be set up in childhood (even by parents who try hard to do their best) and continue to exhaust you in adult life. By describing — &lt;strong&gt;and illustrating with case histories&lt;/strong&gt; — various child-parent relationships and their results, Dr. Missildine shows you how to recall the forgotten child you once were. He demonstrates how that child — who might have been overdisciplined or overindulged or subjected to any of a dozen common parental attitudes — still persists in the adult You.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You see how your 'inner child of the past' continues to act out old habits, old angers, fears and confusions. That 'child' today makes you, perhaps, oversensitive, or unable to relate to people, or subject to rages or procrastination or compulsive spending or being overcritical of others (or of yourself), and in other ways causes you pain or disturbs your marriage or family or working life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To help you make peace with this 'inner child' and thus free your energies for adult living is the author's purpose. His concept of retraining the 'inner child' has led to happier, more productive lives for many of his own patients. In this book he speaks so clearly and interestingly, and with such warmth and sympathy, that you will find yourself relaxed and eager to begin discovering and coming to terms with your inner child of the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using case histories bolsters claims made and provides the evidential science behind the theory. Maybe not the hard evidence purists around may be looking for (scientific equipment measuring something as evidence of existence for example), but evidence nevertheless.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When the Wikipedia article mentions that IFS therapy (Internal Family Systems therapy)...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;calls wounded inner child sub-personalities &amp;quot;exiles&amp;quot; because they tend to be excluded from waking thought in order to avoid/defend against the pain carried in those memories. IFS therapy has a method that aims to gain safe access to a person's exiles, witnessing the stories of their origins in childhood, and healing them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is coming from the Freudian concept of ego-defense mechanisms of repression, and possibly denial.  Detachment occurs often in abuse, rape and assault, and if occurred in childhood, the sense of &amp;quot;loss of childhood&amp;quot; can come into play.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are issues with inner child therapy in these cases which I discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/15788/7604&quot;&gt;my answer to Can people improve their memory by training themselves to recall previously forgotten memories?&lt;/a&gt;, as trying and recall the whole memory &lt;strong&gt;can but not always&lt;/strong&gt; lead to a change in the memories of what actually happened (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fmsfonline.org/?faq=faq&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;False Memory Syndrome&lt;/a&gt;). However, if fully trained in this delicate area of inner child therapy and it is carefuly managed, it can be beneficial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Capacchione, L. (1991). &lt;em&gt;Recovery of your inner child: The highly acclaimed method for liberating your inner self&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Simon &amp;amp; Schuster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hansson, S. O. (1996). &lt;em&gt;Defining Pseudoscience&lt;/em&gt;. Philosophia Naturalis, 33(1): pp. 169—176&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Still to find DOI/PMID reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hansson, S. O. (2008). &lt;em&gt;Science and Pseudo-Science&lt;/em&gt;. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2017 Edition) [Online]&lt;br&gt;Available at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/pseudo-science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/pseudo-science&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hansson, S. O. (2013). Defining Pseudoscience and Science. In M. Pigliucci, M. Boudry (Eds.) &lt;em&gt;Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem&lt;/em&gt;(pp. 61—77). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McLeod, S. A. (2020). &lt;em&gt;Karl popper - theory of falsification&lt;/em&gt;. Retrieved from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Missildine, W. H. (1963). &lt;em&gt;Your Inner Child of the Past&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Simon &amp;amp; Schuster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Popper, K. R. (1959) &lt;em&gt;The Logic of Scientific Discovery&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Other source links&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ego-defense mechanisms (Simply Psychology)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Transactional Analysis (Wikipedia)&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-07-25T14:47:00.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25704" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25678" CreationDate="2020-07-25T15:16:23.477" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Short answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Maslow, you reach self-actualisation when you reach the goal.  Not juring your journey.  The arrival fallacy refers to the fact that if you reach that goal, it doesn't necessarily mean that you will stay there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take away any of the levels below self-actualisation, and you will not reach the top goal. If once you reach there, one of the lower levels goes for some reason, you will lose the position of having been self-actualised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow himself said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though, in principle, self-actualization is easy, in practice it rarely happens (by my criteria, certainly in less than 1% of the adult population.  For this, there are many, many reasons at various levels of discourse, including all of the determinants of psychopathology that we not know. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Toward-a-Psychology-of-Being/Abraham-H-Maslow/9781627932745&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Full answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19789/7604&quot;&gt;My answer to Is self-actualization really a need?&lt;/a&gt; gives a clue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We need to determine what self-actualisation actually is.  Maslow described it (emphasis mine) as follows: (&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow, 1943&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This term, first coined by Kurt Goldstein (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/10021-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1939&lt;/a&gt;), is being used in this paper in a much more specific and limited fashion. It refers to &lt;strong&gt;the desire for self-fulfillment&lt;/strong&gt;, namely, &lt;strong&gt;to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially&lt;/strong&gt;. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, &lt;strong&gt;to become everything that one is capable of becoming&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in inventions. It is not necessarily a creative urge although in people who have any capacities for creation it will take this form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The clear emergence of these needs rests upon prior satisfaction of the physiological, safety, love and esteem needs. We shall call people who are satisfied in these needs, basically satisfied people, and it is from these that we may expect the fullest (and healthiest) creativeness (Kardiner, 1941). Since, in our society, basically satisfied people are the exception, we do not know much about self-actualization, either experimentally or clinically. It remains a challenging problem for research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow's hierarchy&lt;/a&gt; is visually put together as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.svg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Image Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikimedia Commons&lt;/a&gt; Under Creative Commons &lt;a href=&quot;https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CC BY-SA 3.0&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the triangle's levels, Physiological, Safety, Love and Belonging, Esteem, and Self Actualization which are on the left are the goals at each level. The items inside each level are your needs for each goal. If, for example, you don’t have all your needs for the physiological goal level, you cannot have safety, even if you have all the prerequisite needs in the safety level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To attain the sixth level or stage: self-actualisation, is &lt;strong&gt;the goal&lt;/strong&gt; of Maslow's Theory, &lt;strong&gt;not a need&lt;/strong&gt;.  Take away any of the levels below self-actualisation, and you will not reach the top goal. And as stated by Maslow (1943) — see above — and in the &lt;strong&gt;TLDR summary&lt;/strong&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/5580&quot;&gt;@NickStauner's answer&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/169/does-evidence-support-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs&quot;&gt;Does evidence support Maslow&amp;#39;s Hierarchy of Needs?&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One sequence can't fit all (it didn't claim to), but it makes sense in general, and so do the exceptions, and so do other motive models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow himself said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though, in principle, self-actualization is easy, in practice it rarely happens (by my criteria, certainly in less than 1% of the adult population.  For this, there are many, many reasons at various levels of discourse, including all of the determinants of psychopathology that we not know. (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Toward-a-Psychology-of-Being/Abraham-H-Maslow/9781627932745&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Maslow, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;also, the fact that &amp;quot;most of us function most of the time on a level lower than that of self-actualization&amp;quot; he called it the &lt;em&gt;psychopathology of normality&lt;/em&gt;. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/180676.Ego_Development&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Loevinger, 1976&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goldstein, K. (1939). &lt;em&gt;The organism: A holistic approach to biology derived from pathological data in man&lt;/em&gt;. Salt Lake City, UT: American Book Publishing.&lt;br&gt;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/10021-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1037/10021-000&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Loevinger, J. (1976) &lt;em&gt;Ego Development: Conceptions and Theories (Jossey-Bass Behavioral Science Series)&lt;/em&gt;. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Review&lt;/em&gt;, 50 (4), 370–96.&lt;br&gt;DOI: [10.1037/h0054346][14]&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;FREE via&lt;/strong&gt; http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maslow, A. H. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Toward a psychology of being&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Toward-a-Psychology-of-Being/Abraham-H-Maslow/9781627932745&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Simon and Schuster&lt;/a&gt; [eBook].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-08-11T12:30:56.423" LastActivityDate="2020-08-11T12:30:56.423" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25706" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-25T23:19:58.163" Score="0" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have tried to find some papers about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silva_Method&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Silva Method&lt;/a&gt; when that i seen this text in Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;James Randi wrote that the Silva Method &amp;quot;claims to develop improved&#xA;memory, learning ability, and paranormal powers like telepathy. Much&#xA;of the course consists of 'visiting' absent persons imagined by&#xA;students and performing diagnoses on them. No tests of the validity of&#xA;this practice have been done; such tests are discouraged by the&#xA;teachers of the system.&amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=10&amp;amp;q=allintitle:%20%20psychology%20%22Silva%22&amp;amp;hl=fa&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;so i tried this tags(&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?start=10&amp;amp;q=allintitle:%20%20psychology%20%22Silva%22&amp;amp;hl=fa&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;psychology &amp;quot;Silva&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;) and not find any paper, So if there is not any paper on silva methods, why does it happen? is it not scientific issue or ...?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20869" LastActivityDate="2020-07-26T01:48:07.457" Title="Searching for Silva Method papers" Tags="&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25707" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-25T23:34:41.373" Score="0" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without rehearsing or continuing to repeat the number until it is&#xA;committed to memory, the information is quickly lost from short-term&#xA;memory. You can increase the duration of short-term memories to an&#xA;extent by using rehearsal strategies such as saying the information&#xA;aloud or mentally repeating it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any CRT intervention that targets this skill?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In particular, is there any evidence that rehearsal changes in some people diagnosed with schizophrenia, whether or not that can be remediated?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastActivityDate="2020-07-25T23:34:41.373" Title="Brain traning or CRT for STM rehearsal, especially with the schizophrenias" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25709" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25706" CreationDate="2020-07-26T01:48:07.457" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Randi&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;James Randi&lt;/a&gt; is a famous skeptic who challenges paranormal and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pseudoscientific&lt;/a&gt; claims. Pseudoscience consists of statements, beliefs, or practices may give the appearance of being scientific, but, are untestable. James Randi's claim is that the Silva method is untestable and, therefore, unscientific.  In other words, the Silva method has no observable (or statistically significant) effect on memory, learning or telepathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-07-26T01:48:07.457" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25710" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-26T02:22:33.627" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do savant skills respond to teaching? e.g. does a musical savant need study music to get better at it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know there's a lot of literature on the phenomenon of savantism, both due to autism and otherwise. But I'm curious how it differs from 'talent': specifically, how and if it can be improved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26521" LastActivityDate="2020-07-26T02:22:33.627" Title="Savantism versus talent" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8976" CreationDate="2020-07-26T02:24:41.887" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The lexical approach may assist. The lexical hypothesis states that, ‘All aspects of human personality, which are or have been of importance, interest or utility, have already become recorded in the substance of language’(Cattell, 1943) and, ‘When an idea is important, people are likely to have a word for it … the more important something is, … the more words there are likely to be’(Miller, 1996). The atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour uses a lexical approach to visualise words using the axes of affiliation and dominance (Mobbs, 2020).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Synonyms are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;narcisism&lt;/strong&gt;: conceit*, egocentricity, egocentrism, egoism*, egomania, egotism, narcism, navel-gazing, pride, self-absorption, self-centeredness, self-concern, self-interest, self-involvement, self-preoccupation, self-regard, selfishness, selfness, solipsism, vanity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;megalomania&lt;/strong&gt;: conceit*, conceitedness, egotism*, grandioseness, grandiosity, obsessionalism, paranoia, self-importance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The visualisation according to the atlas approach is shown below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JHqdu.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/JHqdu.png&quot; alt=&quot;Megalomania and narcissism visualised according to the atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour (Mobbs, 2020)&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In answer to your question, there appears to be very little difference between megalomania and narcissism from a lexical perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cattell RB. The description of personality: basic traits resolved into clusters. J Abnorm Soc Psychol. 1943; 38: 476–506. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054116&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054116&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller GA. The science of words. New York: Scientific American Library; 1996.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declared interest&lt;/strong&gt;: I am the author of the atlas paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-07-26T02:24:41.887" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25712" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-26T06:03:13.477" Score="0" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand Naive realism as: I am objective and whoever disagrees with me is biased.&#xA;I don't get Naive cynicism though. Does is stand for: I am objective and others are more selfish than me?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between Naive realism and cynicism? Is one a subset or consequence of the other?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26523" LastActivityDate="2020-07-26T07:31:45.717" Title="What is the difference between naive cynicism and naive realism?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25713" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25712" CreationDate="2020-07-26T07:31:45.717" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The lexical approach may assist. The lexical hypothesis states that, ‘All aspects of human personality, which are or have been of importance, interest or utility, have already become recorded in the substance of language’(Cattell, 1943) and, ‘When an idea is important, people are likely to have a word for it … the more important something is, … the more words there are likely to be’(Miller, 1996). The atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour uses a lexical approach to visualise words using the axes of affiliation and dominance (Mobbs, 2020).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unsure what is implied by naive, however, the synonyms are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Cynicism&lt;/strong&gt;: disbelief, disenchantment, disillusion, distrust, doubt, doubtfulness, dubiety, incredulity, irony, mistrust, negative_thinking, negativity, nihilism, pessimism, sardonicism, scepticism, scoffing, suspicion, and unbelief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Realism&lt;/strong&gt;: accuracy, authenticity, clear-sightedness, common_sense, faithfulness, fidelity, level-headedness, naturalism, opportunism, pragmatism, telling_it_like_it_is, truthfulness, and veracity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The visualisation of cynicism and realism according to the atlas approach are shown below. Optimism, pessimism, altruism and sadism are also included for the purpose of comparison:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/K9UMl.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/K9UMl.png&quot; alt=&quot;'Isms' according to the Atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour (Mobbs, 2020)&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In answer to your question, cynicism is both submissive and anti-social.  It is associated with the emotions of anxiety and fear. Realism is neither dominant or submissive and is more associated with the emotions of stability and harmony.  Optimism is both dominant and affiliative and is associated with the emotions of confidence and courage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cattell RB. The description of personality: basic traits resolved into clusters. J Abnorm Soc Psychol. 1943; 38: 476–506. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054116&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054116&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Miller GA. The science of words. New York: Scientific American Library; 1996.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Declared interest&lt;/strong&gt;: I am the author of the atlas paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-07-26T07:31:45.717" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25714" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-26T13:28:39.957" Score="0" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need to conduct some job interviews for my company. I can handle the technical side alright, but I'm no psychologist and I will most likely miss some red flags, or fail to notice the best applicant for the job. I have strong doubts that I could fix this problem by reading a book or two or by taking some online classes, but I need a starting point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to start from a book about conducting job interviews that is more scientific, in other words has scientific references that I can check and discusses how professional psychologists approach interviewing people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user26527" LastActivityDate="2020-07-26T13:28:39.957" Title="Book on how to conduct face to face job interviews" Tags="&lt;selection-recruitment&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25716" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25718" CreationDate="2020-07-26T20:34:21.170" Score="1" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found an &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2018827/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;old paper&lt;/a&gt; describing a case study where a catatonic patient was successfully treated with benztropine (Cogentin). However, I can't find any modern guidelines that calls for this treatment (first-line is usually benzodiazepams). Is there any reason not to use anticholinergics for catatonia treatment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Albucher RC, DeQuardo J, Tandon R. Treatment of catatonia with an anticholinergic agent. Biol Psychiatry. 1991;29(5):513-514. doi:10.1016/0006-3223(91)90281-p&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Francis A. Catatonia: diagnosis, classification, and treatment. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2010; 12:180.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26436" LastActivityDate="2020-08-04T20:39:30.803" Title="Can anticholinergics like benztropine be used to treat Catatonia?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;&lt;pharmacopsychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25718" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25716" CreationDate="2020-07-27T19:44:00.680" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anticholinergics by themselves commonly have sedative effects. The reason you read about benztropine being used is that it has dopaminergic activity as well (in addition to anticholinergic activity). Specifically, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzatropine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;benztropine&lt;/a&gt; and its derivatives are also dopamine reuptake inhibitors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So from the perspective that benztropine is a dopamine reuptake inhibitor, i.e. a stimulant in the traditional sense, it would probably be a bad idea to use as a treatment for catatonia. If I remember right, its particular binding affinity is significant at the dopamine transporter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26537" LastEditorUserId="26537" LastEditDate="2020-08-04T20:39:30.803" LastActivityDate="2020-08-04T20:39:30.803" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25719" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-27T21:51:22.817" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does any branch of psychology study scientifically what traditionally, outside a scientific perspective has been called spiritually? In the same way people of ancient times considered voices in the head to be demons and we today consider that a mental issue related to schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could the spirituality of other be the positive thinking, empathy, or any other aspect - empirically studied - of the mind?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3354" LastActivityDate="2020-07-29T13:33:42.267" Title="Do psychology deals with what others could call spiritualy?" Tags="&lt;spirituality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25720" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-28T00:45:40.480" Score="1" ViewCount="53" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a professor who, in a lecture, briefly describes the neurophysiology of the &amp;quot;fight-or-flight&amp;quot; response. She states &amp;quot;in the hierarchy of information processing, emotional data override conscious thought. However, the amygdala is closer to the thalamus and receives the information before the sensory cortex. Sensory receptors send information to the thalamus, where further processing takes place before the information is sent simultaneously to the sensory cortex, and the amygdala and hippocampus. If the amygdala perceives the information to be threatening, the amygdala immediately initiates fight or flight mechanisms in the limbic system and the information never makes it to your sensory cortex.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To illustrate, she gives an example of &amp;quot;a teacher who has just called on you asking for an answer to a question you don't know.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Her concern here is to demonstrate that a student can feel so threatened in classroom situations that they initiate a fight or flight response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not argue with the idea that a student could feel extremely threatened in such a situation, and have a very strong emotional response. However, I contend that such a case—-a response to a teacher asking a question--could not be an example of the fight or flight response, which evolved to facilitate survival in the face of extreme physical danger, and mechanistically, does not involve higher-processing centers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, the situation in which a human understands a question, and the social circumstances in which it is asked, necessarily involves higher-structure processing. You can’t feel a threat if you don’t process the language first, or have a process for considering what other people might be thinking about you. Therefore, since the fight or flight response is initiated purely by more primitive processing, the example of the classroom question cannot be a stimulus for a true fight-or-flight response. I’m not saying that some sort of process doesn’t happen that involves stress and the amygdala, and the limbic system—strong emotions—but in the case of a question the response is mediated by higher structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me try to summarize my argument like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(1) understanding someone’s question requires higher-structure processing,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(2) already being at higher-structure processing, and at the level of consciousness, the neural pathway does not suddenly become completely non conscious and generate a purely primitive response (and even if it does, it is not purely a fight or flight response, because that is an entirely non-conscious pathway)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(3) the fight-or-flight behavior is a primitive-structure pathway involving the amygdala, shutting out higher-structure processing, which is a response to a physical threat and immediate physical action (no conscious, higher structure mediation)—fight or run.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is higher-structure interpretation necessary to understand the question, and/or higher-structure interpretation to feel uncomfortable about how other people think of one when one responds, then the behavior cannot involve fight or flight because that is a non-conscious, primitive-level pathway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like confirmation that I am correct in my argument, and the professor's example, of the student being asked a question, can not possibly be an example of true fight-or-flight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26538" LastActivityDate="2020-07-28T00:45:40.480" Title="Can a student being asked a question trigger a true fight-or-flight response?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8012" CreationDate="2020-07-28T01:07:53.417" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Schemata are said to account for generic concepts and the meaning of those concepts. Schemata are generally said to represent ``knowledge'' however, it is argued that the theory struggles to account for specific knowledge. Most theorists seem to agree schemata are meant to represent generic concepts - not specific facts or information. I would recommend &amp;quot;Schemata: the building blocks of cognition&amp;quot; by Rumelhart if you want to read more about this. Category theory might also be interesting to look into just to get an idea about the types of things schemata represent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mental Models are structures which are said to represent some aspect of the environment. Where schemata represent concepts, mental models represent an understanding of the specific actual environment a person is in/interacts with. I would recommend Normans &amp;quot;Some Observations on Mental Models&amp;quot; for more information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One example I like is the following:&#xA;You can have the concept of a house somewhere in memory. When you are shown a photo of any house or go into a house, even if you haven't seen it before, you still recognise it as a house. You can recognise this because you have one or more schemata which have encoded the ``concept'' of what a house is.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, if you were living in a house, you might know the bathroom is two doors down the corridor to the right, or that the kitchen tap needs to be turned on in a particular way to get hot water, or that the second step creaks in cold weather. This information doesn't really relate to schemata - this is specific information about the environment you're in. This type of information is stored as a mental model of your specific house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user26539" LastActivityDate="2020-07-28T01:07:53.417" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25723" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-28T08:13:16.613" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe that the following courses are a minimum math/engineering/(+cs) requirement for theoretical neuroscience research, specifically, Eliasmith's NEF/SPA approach. I wonder what other tools might be useful. Concretely, I am trying to workout the marginal utility of &amp;quot;learning more math just in case you'll need to apply it in some new context + improved mathematical maturity&amp;quot; versus &amp;quot;learning more neuroscience&amp;quot;. Can you please list some math/engineering/(+cs) courses you found integral to your research and provide context?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Math:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Precalculus,&#xA;Calculus 1,&#xA;Calculus 2,&#xA;Multivariable Calculus,&#xA;Ordinary Differential Equations,&#xA;Linear Algebra (to Eigenvalues),&#xA;Discrete Mathematics and Logic,&#xA;Optimization and Numerical Methods&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Engineering:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Systems and Signals,&#xA;Control Systems,&#xA;Pattern Recognition,&#xA;Information Theory and Applications,&#xA;Machine Learning (Neural Networks in particular)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;CS:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;Data Structures and Algorithms,&#xA;Object-Oriented Software Development,&#xA;Neuromorphic Computing&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25712" LastActivityDate="2020-07-28T16:40:27.583" Title="Theoretical Neuroscience: what tools are in your mathematical toolkit?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25725" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25723" CreationDate="2020-07-28T16:40:27.583" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Luckily, I think your list of requirements is already too long.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your primary toolkit is going to be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Linear Algebra&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Probability and statistics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;python&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want, you can add:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Signal processing (filtering)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Machine Learning (mostly just applications of linear algebra)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently TAing at an online summer school called Neuromatch Academy.  Check out their syllabus (3 week course) for an overview of tools useful in theoretical neuroscience.  homepage: &lt;a href=&quot;https://neuromatch.io/academy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://neuromatch.io/academy/&lt;/a&gt; syllabus, tutorials: &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/NeuromatchAcademy/course-content&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://github.com/NeuromatchAcademy/course-content&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Out of interest, why NEF?  There are a wealth of frameworks out there, and NEF is relatively limited in its application.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2949" LastActivityDate="2020-07-28T16:40:27.583" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25726" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-29T01:39:27.053" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a current consensus on whether it is effective to act out one's anger in some harmless way to become less angry overall over time? Or is it considered more effective to find ways to either not act on anger or not be angry in the first place?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know a person who insists that if I don't allow them to yell in anger at a certain trigger in the moment, then they will inevitably explode more severely later on after &amp;quot;bottling it in&amp;quot; too many times. I am trying to find out whether that is borne out by the current consensus about catharsis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26548" LastActivityDate="2020-07-29T01:39:27.053" Title="Current consensus on Catharsis theories of anger management?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25727" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-29T07:23:25.720" Score="1" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Link to Wikipedia article on the experiment&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This line in the first paragraph catches my eye:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These fake electric shocks gradually increased to levels that would have been fatal had they been real.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The maximum voltage for the shocks is given later in the article as 450V.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the Milgram experiment produce different results if the person &lt;em&gt;believes&lt;/em&gt; that an electrical shock at 450V is fatal? Presumably some people already believe this level of voltage is fatal (e.g. via a physics or electrical engineering background). Has it been tested if people who are told, or already know that this is fatal still continue to administer the shocks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19017" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2020-07-29T16:52:37.687" LastActivityDate="2020-07-29T19:30:38.600" Title="Does the Milgram experiment produce different results for people who believe the final voltage is deadly?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;&lt;obedience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25728" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25727" CreationDate="2020-07-29T09:37:49.547" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Milgram experiment is makes people think the voltage is dangerous, due to the labelling and acting by the confederate 'learner', who eventually goes silent signifying unconsciousness in the least, and possibly deadliness. Despite these cues over 50% of participants ('teachers') progress to the highest 'shock' level with simple promoting from an authority figure. We are, of course, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.performancetrading.it/Documents/JmAbuGrahib/JmA_Milgram.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;drop-offs as the perceived danger to the 'learner' (confederate) increases&lt;/a&gt;, and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.visualexpert.com/Resources/psychwarnings.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;benefit of obedience are outweighed by the signalled danger&lt;/a&gt;. Of course you would have to measure beliefs about how harmful each level of shock is to see how it ties with drop-off exactly. Unfortunately, it seems beliefs about harm are assumed, and have not been actively researched. As you can see from the drop-offs its clear in some participants believe the shocks increase harm, whether those who continued to press think so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RJShx.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RJShx.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general warning labels are enough to create a negative emotional response for people i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5632120/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cigarette packaging&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666319306257&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;food and drink&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What the obedience experiment indicates to some researchers is that majority of people who will continue to cause, what researchers interpret as, great pain with simple prompting from authority, due to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1996.tb00084.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;deferred responsibility&lt;/a&gt; and accountability. Of course this is assumed, and not actively measured, &lt;strong&gt;it could well be that the participants did not believe it to be so harmful&lt;/strong&gt;, or could even see through the ruse. Interestingly, some studies in the past showed that putting other 'teachers' (confederates) in the room with the participant, could impact the participants 'shock' progression, if the confederates dissented against the authority by leaving part way through or refusing to continue. However, recent studies show that this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Replicating-Milgram%3A-Would-people-still-obey-today-Burger/b5d343985f72c0d8b45e4013c6e381cc8707793b?p2df&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dissident social effect&lt;/a&gt; has not been replicated. Which leaves question marks over why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jKmvA.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/jKmvA.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01632/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;individuals often believe that in a similar situation to the they would perform better than average&lt;/a&gt; in their country, knowledge of the experiment does play a role in how far participants believe they would go.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, we assume the participants believe increasing shocks cause more harm. We do not know if those who went all the way believe the shocks were as harmful as participants who dropped out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9304" LastEditorUserId="9304" LastEditDate="2020-07-29T19:30:38.600" LastActivityDate="2020-07-29T19:30:38.600" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25729" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-29T13:31:08.937" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;What factors make one prioritize a task higher another ones? What are some models about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that I'm not asking what makes one wants to do a thing. That's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Motivation - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;motivation&lt;/a&gt;, and there are plenty of models behind it. Here I presume the subject already has motivation to do a task, and I just want to examine when they will do that task, given there are other motivated tasks alongside.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eisenhower.me/eisenhower-matrix/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;The Eisenhower Matrix: Introduction &amp;amp; 3-Minute Video Tutorial&quot;&gt;The Eisenhower matrix&lt;/a&gt; is a good start, as it indicates two factors: importance and urgency. However, I think there are more to this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2020-07-29T13:31:08.937" Title="What are the models of prioritization?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25730" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25719" CreationDate="2020-07-29T13:33:42.267" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Maybe what you are looking for is the field &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive science of religion&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive science of religion is the study of religious thought and behavior from the perspective of the cognitive and evolutionary sciences. The field employs methods and theories from a very broad range of disciplines, including: cognitive psychology, evolutionary psychology, cognitive anthropology, artificial intelligence, neurotheology, developmental psychology, and archaeology. Scholars in this field seek to explain how human minds acquire, generate, and transmit religious thoughts, practices, and schemas by means of ordinary cognitive capacities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Follow up resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iacsr.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Association for the Cognitive Science of Religion (IACSR)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.equinoxpub.com/index.php/JCSR&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Journal for the Cognitive Science of Religion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2020-07-29T13:33:42.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25732" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-30T11:56:28.770" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a medical/psychological term for changing one's vantage from 1st person to 3rd person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example would be focusing one's eyes on an object while working out to partly  distract them from the pain – changing vantage from participant to observer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have heard this called 'emotional distancing' but it would seem such an important skill that I ask if there is a more formal term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19555" LastEditorUserId="19555" LastEditDate="2020-07-30T18:10:03.320" LastActivityDate="2020-08-06T18:43:45.713" Title="Term for emotional distancing?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25734" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-30T18:10:32.243" Score="2" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a dataset that I am trying to screen for careless responding. I am having a little trouble finding research on what is the minimum length that a questionnaire needs to be in order to do long string analysis. Huang et al. (2012) suggest using a cut-off of people who answer the same on equal or greater than half the length of the scale. This seems problematic for shorter scales, for example, if someone answers 3 answer the same on a 6 item scale, they would be flagged. Particularly if there are no reversed items in the scale. Curran (2016) mentions that a 20 item scale might be problematic because it is too short, but the paper they cite doesn't explain this or what would determine a scale that is too short.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if someone might have some insight on this or some papers I should refer to. Thank you for reading!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26560" LastActivityDate="2020-08-09T12:25:11.100" Title="Length of questionnaire for long-string analysis" Tags="&lt;data&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25735" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-07-31T15:25:37.770" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm new to analyzing QUEST data to produce psychometric functions. I am using Psignifit in Matlab for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have this data:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9Y5qe.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/9Y5qe.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Column #1 has stimulus contrast presented in the first or the second interval and column #2 (response) says whether the user correctly identified the interval in which it was presented. 1 is correct and 0 is wrong. With QUEST, each contrast level presented is different and there is only row for that particular contrast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How do I use this data (1s and 0s) to get % correct and fit the psychometric function to that data in psignifit in Matlab?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there a way to build the psychometric function without binning the data?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help is appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26564" LastEditorUserId="26564" LastEditDate="2020-07-31T15:56:53.800" LastActivityDate="2020-07-31T15:56:53.800" Title="How to obtain percent correct responses from the QUEST data" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25739" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-02T10:46:26.187" Score="0" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Occasionally I hear my friends who have psychological disorders complain that healthy people don't understand what they feel. Therefore they prefer to be supported by someone who also has psychological disorders, because they can understand each others. This and other relevant beliefs constitute what I would call &amp;quot;belief system of people with psychological disorders&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to study more about this belief system, and the dynamics of a relationship (friendship, romantic relationship, parent-child relationship, etc) when there are differences in beliefs, expectations, experiences, and personalities, etc. Especially when one of them is healthy and the other one is not (psychologically or physiologically). What would people react with such contradictions, what forces them to react such way, and how will that solve problems or make situations worse (e.g. get misunderstanding and hurt)? Do you have any pointers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2021-02-17T13:19:18.340" LastActivityDate="2021-02-17T13:19:18.340" Title="Is there any source to study about common belief system?" Tags="&lt;belief&gt;&lt;epistemology&gt;&lt;disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25740" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-02T12:12:30.863" Score="0" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since there is not sociology stackexhange to my knowledge, I believed it would be the best to post this question here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From sociological theory it is conceptualized by Erving Goffman that individuals play this theatrical role around other individuals or in public space. But this had me thinking about the phrase &amp;quot;You are making a scene!&amp;quot; when someone drops their act, in for example, a heated discussion between two individuals (often between a romantic couple to my experience). But if they were both playing a role, and one individual alarming the other that they are &amp;quot;making a scene&amp;quot;, would imply that they are performing an act/role infront of others. But this wouldn't make sense since he/she is dropping their act/role? Or should I immagine society as a theatre in which all its actors are trying to act in such a way to be unnoticed, such that, you as the observer of the theatrical play, observes it as a whole. And thus when someone &amp;quot;makes a scene&amp;quot; it shifts all the attention towards that individual and breaks the script of the collective agreed upon theatrical play?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Where does this phrase come from and how should it be interpreted given sociological theory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26571" LastActivityDate="2020-08-02T12:12:30.863" Title="How would you explain within sociological theory the phrase &quot;You are making a scene!&quot;, when an individual drops its act/role in public?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25746" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-03T11:56:14.913" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Placebo effect states that if you and I are both surgeons and we have 10 alike patients each who are in need of knee surgery's, that if you go and do your operations by the book, and I on the other hand do sham ops (Just simply cut the patient open and sew them back up) on my patients, that regardless, over 20% of both our patients will recover with total success from the surgery they had received. And when it comes to psychology this percentage jumps even higher!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quite simply put, the Placebo effect is our looking glass eye into divine miraculous happenings. What's more is that it is the individual themselves who is performing these miracles. I.E. If you have cancer and believe that cancer will kill you, it will. But if you have cancer, and believe that you will beat that cancer by 100%, you will! They both are correct. But How? Why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hence, why, oh why, have we not all looked into this very magical thing that is going on? Are we scared? Do we fear that if we find a way to master this thing called the placebo effect that none of us will have a job? That the need for doctors and medicine will perish? Would that not be a better world?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know why we have not mastered our understanding and use of the Placebo effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any Takers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26577" LastActivityDate="2020-08-03T11:56:14.913" Title="Why have we not yet mastered our understanding of the Placebo effect?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;placebo&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2020-08-10T16:00:16.900" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25748" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-04T01:59:37.060" Score="2" ViewCount="784" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mental Status Exams done by psychiatrists often include a description of the &amp;quot;relatedness&amp;quot; of a patient. Sometimes, patients are described as &amp;quot;oddly related.&amp;quot; What is &amp;quot;relatedness&amp;quot; and what qualifies as &amp;quot;oddly related&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A google search for &amp;quot;oddly related psychiatry&amp;quot; shows a similar question on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/AskDoctorSmeeee/comments/4scq1n/what_does_oddly_related_mean/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reddit&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://allnurses.com/oddly-related-t387449/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;allnurses&lt;/a&gt; without a proper answer unfortunately.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26436" LastActivityDate="2021-02-17T17:46:22.513" Title="What does &quot;oddly related&quot; mean in a mental status exam?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25749" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26997" CreationDate="2020-08-04T14:41:44.943" Score="4" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;So are instincts such as not touching fire or don’t touch sharp points trained out because we felt pain from them first (or heard it’ll bring pain from other)? Or are those instinct born with us?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26589" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T11:04:00.600" Title="Is survival instinct trained from pain or born with?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;survival&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25750" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25748" CreationDate="2020-08-05T09:47:39.493" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Relatedness is part of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-determination Theory (SDT) is just that — a model, a macro theory, of human motivation (&lt;a href=&quot;https://leif.me/2017/01/self-determination-theory-understanding-human-motivation-for-fun-and-profit/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Singer, 2017&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and refers to the need to feel connected to others (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01983&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wang et al. 2019&lt;/a&gt;). It is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;people’s need to care about and be cared about by others, to feel connected to others without concerns about ulterior motives, and to feel that they are contributing to something greater than themselves (&lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2014/11/what-maslows-hierarchy-wont-tell-you-about-motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fowler, 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a paper by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01157&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Martela &amp;amp; Riekki (2018)&lt;/a&gt;, they said&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Based on research on self-determination theory, basic psychological needs, and prosocial impact, we suggest that there are four psychological satisfactions that substantially influence work meaningfulness across cultures: autonomy (sense of volition), competence (sense of efficacy), relatedness (sense of caring relationships), and beneficence (sense of making a positive contribution).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without more information from the person who wrote this, the comment &amp;quot;oddly related&amp;quot; cannot be meaningfully interpreted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further Reading&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Keller, H. (2016). Psychological autonomy and hierarchical relatedness as organizers of developmental pathways. &lt;em&gt;Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 371&lt;/em&gt;(1686), 20150070. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0070&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0070&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fowler, S. (2014). What Maslow’s Hierarchy Won’t Tell You About Motivation &lt;em&gt;Harvard Business Review&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2014/11/what-maslows-hierarchy-wont-tell-you-about-motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://hbr.org/2014/11/what-maslows-hierarchy-wont-tell-you-about-motivation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Martela, F., &amp;amp; Riekki, T. J. (2018). Autonomy, competence, relatedness, and beneficence: A multicultural comparison of the four pathways to meaningful work. &lt;em&gt;Frontiers in psychology, 9&lt;/em&gt;, 1157. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01157&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01157&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Singer, L. (2017). Self-determination Theory: Understanding Human Motivation for Fun and Profit &lt;a href=&quot;https://leif.me/2017/01/self-determination-theory-understanding-human-motivation-for-fun-and-profit/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://leif.me/2017/01/self-determination-theory-understanding-human-motivation-for-fun-and-profit/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wang, C. J., Liu, W. C., Kee, Y. H., &amp;amp; Chian, L. K. (2019). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness in the classroom: understanding students’ motivational processes using the self-determination theory. &lt;em&gt;Heliyon, 5&lt;/em&gt;(7), e01983. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01983&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01983&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-08-05T10:02:41.573" LastActivityDate="2020-08-05T10:02:41.573" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25752" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25194" CreationDate="2020-08-05T13:20:38.730" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem with measuring learned helplessness is that while we know it exists and is related to  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4920136/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dorsal raphe nucleus 5-HT neurons in the brain&lt;/a&gt;, we have no official designation of it as a mental disorder and official study to measure it. However, there is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2005.03.021&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a correlation between depression and learned helplessness&lt;/a&gt;, so we might be able to use depression statistics in order to measure the amount of learned helplessness in society. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/depression.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;7.6% of people 12 years and older experience depression in the United States&lt;/a&gt; in any two week period and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhamcs/web_tables/2017_ed_web_tables-508.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;9.4% of American patients visiting the hospital in 2017 experienced depression&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Globally, over 264 million people suffer from depression&lt;/a&gt; and thus, they are more likely to suffer from learned helplessness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25157" LastActivityDate="2020-08-05T13:20:38.730" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25754" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25761" CreationDate="2020-08-06T13:22:48.907" Score="4" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading Dr. Bessel van der Kolk's book &lt;em&gt;The Body Keeps the Score.&lt;/em&gt; Dr. Van der Kolk describes how, in people with PTSD, the brain actually undergoes changes in response to trauma. Their perception and interpretation of their world shifts on a neurological level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Say a person doesn't fit all the criteria for an official PTSD diagnosis, but still experiences some (perhaps less intense or long-lasting) symptoms of post-traumatic stress. Is it likely that the same neurological changes would be taking place, just to a lesser extent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or is it more analogous to depression, where (if I understand correctly!) research on how the brain responds to depression isn't necessarily analogous to how the brain responds to feeling &amp;quot;sad&amp;quot; (i.e. while sadness can turn into clinical depression, clinical depression itself is a specific condition that feels different from just extra severe sadness)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Context: I'm writing an article about the cognitive effects of trauma on students, but most of the studies I find screen participants for PTSD specifically. I'm wondering if these studies would still apply to students who don't necessarily have PTSD, but still suffer from the aftermath of a trauma.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26597" LastActivityDate="2020-08-10T19:02:39.897" Title="Is there a neurological difference between someone experiencing a &quot;normal&quot; trauma response, and someone with PTSD? Or are they on the same continuum?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;&lt;trauma&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25755" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25732" CreationDate="2020-08-06T18:43:45.713" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term you are looking for is illeism: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thefreedictionary.com/illeism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the tendency in some individuals to refer to themselves in the third person&lt;/a&gt;. It can be used as a literary device, but it is used to refer to when &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illeism#In_everyday_speech&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;real people change vantage point and - through a mental condition or social context&lt;/a&gt; - refer to themselves in the third person, possibly after referring to themselves in the first person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25157" LastActivityDate="2020-08-06T18:43:45.713" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25757" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-07T00:32:27.400" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have known a few abuse victims (mental abuse more than physical abuse). One common trait among all of these people are they would go to any length to make peace. Usually their abusers use this weakness to get their things done. For instance, one of the abusers I know would call up everyone if the victim does not pick up the call or would create extreme public nuisance. The victim would than quickly pick up his/her call or would try to do anything to bring back peace, usually at the expense of his/her dignity.&#xA;I have asked these victims and they have usually responded that they like peace.&#xA;Is there any psychological/ neuroscience phenomena that exclaims this behaviour?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26600" LastActivityDate="2020-08-07T00:32:27.400" Title="Why does a lot of victims of abuse tend to avoid confrontation?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25759" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25749" CreationDate="2020-08-07T14:43:42.997" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I suppose, you meant &lt;code&gt;&amp;quot;Is survival instinct just a consequence of pain, or is it something different, independent?&amp;quot;&lt;/code&gt; And this is quite a good question, because in most cases pain feeling appear together with survival instinct (for example, fights or fire), and it's hard to understand what exactly leads a person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's also good to consider pain as a part of self-preservation, together with fear (of pain).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, I haven't found any clear answer, but there are several clues and researches of related topics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some rare people feel no pain. However, there are 2 separate diseases: congenital insensitivity to pain and congenital indifference to pain. Both of them lead to higher death rate comparing to normal people, but indifference to pain leads to a bit smaller death rate than insensitivity to pain. We can make a conclusion, that understanding of dangerous situations helps people survive without feeling pain. Thus, survival instinct differs from feeling pain (at least in some cases).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Statistics shows that death rate of people feeling no pain is very high in childhood and decreases over the years. Again, we see that experience shapes the awareness of dangers, and people learn to avoid them even without feeling pain.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are researches that distinguish and measure separately fear of dying (which can be understood as self-preservation, fear of pain) and fear of being dead (which can be understood as fear of death itself), and they obtain different results. This is another evidence of inequity of survival instinct and (fear of) feeling pain.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To conclude, we can suppose that survival instinct consists of self-preservation (feeling pain and fear of it) and Moree high-level fear of death itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://n.neurology.org/content/24/9/838/tab-article-info&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;David E. Comings, George D. Amromin: Autosomal dominant insensitivity to pain with hyperplastic myelinopathy and autosomal dominant indifference to pain&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00223980.1969.10543496?src=recsys&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lora-Jean Collett  &amp;amp; David Lester: The Fear of Death and the Fear of Dying&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10173" LastActivityDate="2020-08-07T14:43:42.997" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25761" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25754" CreationDate="2020-08-07T20:40:56.540" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;First, your question pertains to two possible populations:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&amp;quot;less long-lasting&amp;quot; PTSD is diagnosed as acute stress disorder (ASD); PTSD cannot be diagnosed until at least one month after exposure to the inciting trauma, and ASD sometimes resolves without progression to PTSD.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&amp;quot;less intense&amp;quot; PTSD is usually diagnosed as an adjustment disorder, meaning a maladaptive response to some psychosocial stressor that somehow doesn't meet the criteria for ASD/PTSD.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Is it likely that the same neurological changes would be taking place, just to a lesser extent?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We need to define those changes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22034143&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sherin, J. E., &amp;amp; Nemeroff, C. B. (2011). &lt;strong&gt;Post-traumatic stress disorder: the neurobiological impact of psychological trauma.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Dialogues Clin Neurosci&lt;/em&gt;, 13(3), 263-278.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ht0QK.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ht0QK.png&quot; alt=&quot;table1&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Table I.&lt;/strong&gt; Summary of neurobiological features with identified abnormalities and functional implications in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. CRH, corticotropin-releasing hormone; 5HT, serotonin; GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid; NPY, neuropeptide Y; ACTH, adrenocorticotropin; NE, norepinephrine; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23117638&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;other studies&lt;/a&gt; have demonstrated reduced amygdala volume in PTSD patients. It should come as no surprise that ASD features many of the same neurobiological changes (especially hypocortisolism) as PTSD, although quantitative differences may not correlate with symptom burden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12136506&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marshall, R. D., &amp;amp; Garakani, A. (2002). &lt;strong&gt;Psychobiology of the acute stress response and its relationship to the psychobiology of post-traumatic stress disorder.&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Psychiatr Clin North Am&lt;/em&gt;, 25(2), 385-395.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Studies of the acutely traumatized have found that those individuals who are at increased risk for chronic PTSD are relatively more likely to experience a more severe acute emotional reaction. This includes not only the intensity of emotions such as fear, anxiety, and/or despair, but also dissociative experiences and cognitive disruption. This clinical picture, in turn, is associated with increased heart rate, increased skin conductance, and relatively lower levels of blood cortisol compared to those who will not develop PTSD (discussed later in this article). However, an interesting caveat to this generalization is that the presence of acute dissociative symptoms appears to mediate the intensity of the peripheral sympathetic nervous system response. Griffin et al. found that peritraumatic dissociation was associated with both greater severity of PTSD symptoms, and relatively greater suppression of autonomic physiologic responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25599382&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more recent research&lt;/a&gt; confirms the expectation that comparable neuroanatomic changes occur in ASD as with those seen in PTSD (particularly amygdala activation). In summary: ASD and PTSD share many neurobiological characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, adjustment disorder (sometimes referred to as &amp;quot;situational depression&amp;quot;) is far more nebulous. It can be acute or chronic, and it can present in a variety of ways to the extent that its existence has been contested as &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.2161-1939.2009.tb00069.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;‘a progression threshold from normal human adaptation under conditions of stress, change, and loss, into the dark web of “mental illness.”’&lt;/a&gt; In the linked article, John Daniels argues that adjustment disorder should be treated as a collection of behavioral responses to normal emotional states that can act as a precursor to better-characterized clinical pathologies like anxiety disorder, depression, and conduct disorder. This group of behaviors, Daniels contends, should be treated with counseling instead of pharmaceutical &amp;quot;brief therapies&amp;quot; that might be better served in combating the biochemical changes seen in ASD. There is an abundance of literature regarding the lack of rigorous study of adjustment disorder (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19558652&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s121072&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;b&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Or is it more analogous to depression, where (if I understand correctly!) research on how the brain responds to depression isn't necessarily analogous to how the brain responds to feeling &amp;quot;sad&amp;quot;...&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ultimately, your analogy here is good for differentiating between the two possibilities you identified in being &amp;quot;sub&amp;quot;-PTSD (duration [ASD] vs. intensity [adjustment disorder]). Generally speaking, ASD has a similar neurobiological profile to PTSD with respect to chemical, physiological, and anatomic changes. To use your words, adjustment disorder &amp;quot;isn't necessarily analogous&amp;quot; to PTSD and rather encompasses a broad spectrum of (possibly normal) emotional responses to both acute and chronic stressors. This tracks with our understanding of other diseases: matching symptoms of variable duration are more likely to have the same underlying etiology (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; a mild runny nose lasting one week might be correctly ascribed to a host of different viral causes) as compared to symptoms of varying intensity that bear a passing resemblance to each other (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; rhinorrhea caused by a cluster headache doesn't implicate a virus).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may find additional pertinent information on (and in the citations of) the Wikipedia pages for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PTSD&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_stress_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ASD&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjustment_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adjustment disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23403" LastEditorUserId="23403" LastEditDate="2020-08-10T19:02:39.897" LastActivityDate="2020-08-10T19:02:39.897" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25762" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-07T22:22:39.307" Score="1" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is the closest stack exchange site I could find that suites my question: How can I best produce the ganzfeld effect? I tried with noise canceling earbuds, white noise, and a paper sleep mask.&#xA;I've composed some questions below:&#xA;Can I move my eyes?&#xA;Can I move my body?&#xA;Can I make any noise?&#xA;How long will it take for effects to begin?&#xA;Any other information will be much appreciated. Thanks in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26606" LastActivityDate="2020-08-07T22:22:39.307" Title="How to produce the ganzfeld effect?" Tags="&lt;hearing&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25764" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-08T08:38:49.143" Score="-1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been wondering, why isn't the &amp;quot;easy to difficult&amp;quot; approach the norm in car driving lessons. For example, first learning all that can be learnt on a car simulator, then driving a simplified, low speed electric vehicle (like a kid electric vehicle) and only last riding a normal training car.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Isn't this done because no one has cared to set it up this way or rather because it would be inefficient as a learning approach?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastActivityDate="2020-09-08T19:02:20.303" Title="Applying the &quot;easy to difficult&quot; approach in car driving lessons" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25768" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-08T21:12:47.733" Score="0" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introdution:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes we build our reasoning and decisions on more or less rational reasoning which consists of logical steps of thought. Let's say, it basically follows this path: problem &amp;gt;&amp;gt; reasoning &amp;gt;&amp;gt; decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At other times, though, our decisions do not come as a consequence of specific steps of thought, but rather as an unconscious attempt to fit our pre-existing beliefs or emotions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Example 1:&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;A person is seriously ill and considering various treatment options. A reasoning approach would be to get information about the pro-s and con-s of each, consult with several experienced professionals, outline and weigh potential risks/ chances of success/ cost/ etc. The belief-fitting approach would be to go for a quack. In this latter case, the inherent belief would be that &amp;quot;it could not be true that I am irreversibly ill&amp;quot;. Whatever facts and explanations that person is given, his mind would seek all possible ways to justify that belief (rationalize it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Example 2:&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Another example would be repressed anger - the mind would seek any situation, no matter if actually connected with the original cause for that anger, to vent out in an outburst. Note that the term &amp;quot;rationalization&amp;quot; is not appropriate here, as we are not speaking about a decision process, but rather about an emotional reaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Example 3:&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;Someone's deep belief is that he does not deserve to be a happy person in life. Hence, he unconsciously ends up in situations which are putting him down (low paid job, abusive spouse, unreliable friends, etc), perpetuating a vicious cycle. (I think Carl Jung pays attention to such patterns.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, what is the term for this mental process where deeply rooted beliefs and emotions, unconsciously predetermine our decisions/ emotional states/ social relations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Similar questions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/546/is-decision-making-emotionally-based-with-rationalization-as-the-only-conscious&quot;&gt;Is Decision-Making Emotionally Based, with Rationalization as the only Conscious Component?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="2574" LastEditDate="2020-11-06T11:39:44.967" LastActivityDate="2020-11-06T11:39:44.967" Title="Using rationalisations to fit your specific, unconscious beliefs - how is that process called?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;belief&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25769" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-09T06:45:07.880" Score="0" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do mother and the wife of a person always compete with each other for him?&#xA;The term 'compete' here refers to being dominating and influencing other.&#xA;Is it a common household psychlogical condition in which 2 females are trying to win over the male?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26615" LastActivityDate="2020-08-09T06:45:07.880" Title="Mother Vs Wife competetion" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25770" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-09T07:12:38.037" Score="0" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found myself of having a feeling of being strong or being superior when I see something like &amp;quot;Aristotle was wrong&amp;quot;, even if I myself have nothing to do with the subject, let along being correct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know how to describe this feeling but I am pretty sure it is something different from &amp;quot;schadenfreude&amp;quot;. It happens only when I see someone else being &amp;quot;wrong&amp;quot; about something, especially if that person is a famous one (like Aristotle or Georg Cantor).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my self experience, it seems that &amp;quot;the knowledge of a famous person being wrong&amp;quot; itself provides the feeling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this feeling a common thing to have, and is there any study and/or terminology on this feeling?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16834" LastActivityDate="2020-08-09T07:12:38.037" Title="What is that &quot;superior&quot; feeling when you know someone else is being wrong?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25771" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25734" CreationDate="2020-08-09T12:25:11.100" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are a few general principles that I would apply:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the scale have a mix of positively and negatively worded items? If so, you'd need fewer items to identify strange cases. If it is all positively worded, then it's possible that someone could for example agree to a fairly large number of items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it measure multiple constructs or does it measure a single dimension? If it measures more than one dimension (e.g., like a five factor personality test), then you'd expect to see more diversity in responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From first principles, it can be helpful to consider whether there is any conceivable reason to provide such a sequence of responses that would reflect conscientious survey completion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You may also want to think about your survey design and the incentive structure to consider what incentives there are to respond in given way. Some survey designs make that mode of responding more efficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another general strategy is to calculate an index and plot the distribution of cases on that index. If you see a break in the histogram, this can suggest that a discrete process (i.e., non-conscientious responding) has caused the data on the other side of the break. This can be helpful when looking at things like survey completion times. In the case of providing only one response option to a set of items, you can obtain a count of the number of response options and tabulate and look to see whether the vast majority provide all the responses. Alternatively, if it looks like a common response type, then you'd be less likely to conclude that it is problematic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is one way to get this in R assuming &lt;code&gt;data&lt;/code&gt; is your dataset and &lt;code&gt;items&lt;/code&gt; is a vector item names.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;data&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$unique_responses &amp;lt;- apply(data[,items], 1, function(X) length(unique(X))&#xA;table(data$&lt;/span&gt;unique_responses)&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-08-09T12:25:11.100" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25772" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25791" CreationDate="2020-08-09T15:26:10.923" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, I have realized that whenever my friends suggest me a movie or a tv show to watch, there is an instinctive response inside me that always tells me to not try the suggestion. I then realized that this is also true when it comes to books and music. I later told my friend this and he told me that he always has the same reaction whenever I suggest something to him. I do not think lowly of his opinions in any way and our taste has many things in common. The same thing goes for him.&#xA;Interestingly, even after we have acknowledged this reaction, it is still present whenever a suggestion is raised by either one of us.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My only guess is a sense of pride over what I like but I am not too sure. I was just wondering whether it is a common phenomenon where we are instinctively biased against others' suggestions in clearly subjected matters such as movies, books, or music genres or not. If yes, then what are the ways to minimize this reaction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26084" LastActivityDate="2020-08-13T09:11:26.720" Title="Are we biased against other people's suggestions?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25773" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25764" CreationDate="2020-08-09T18:42:58.397" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Probably because it would be inefficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given the right conditions, learning to drive can be a risk-minimal activity. If you start in a quiet neighbourhood or stretch of road with no traffic, and let the learner experiment with the pedals, gears etc. on their own time, then they're learning directly the same skills they'll need to know when driving for real. If you learn on a simulator, however, you won't be learning real driving - you won't know how people will react in reality until you get on the road.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6425" LastActivityDate="2020-08-09T18:42:58.397" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25775" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-10T13:41:08.350" Score="2" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am quite interested in this topic and trying to find rigorous academic sources. The Wikipedia link of persuasive speech &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasive_speech&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasive_speech&lt;/a&gt; is not relevant to this academic field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not sure if the Wikipedia page of &amp;quot;persuasion&amp;quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion&lt;/a&gt; is about the field of &amp;quot;persuasive communication&amp;quot;. What text/article can I start to read in order to get a big picture of the organization of this field and some recent advances?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26613" LastEditorUserId="26613" LastEditDate="2020-08-19T14:16:15.973" LastActivityDate="2020-08-19T14:16:15.973" Title="Starting academic textbook/survey article for the field of persuasive communication?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;persuasion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25776" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-10T13:44:19.660" Score="2" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most of psychoanalytic sources, including &lt;a href=&quot;https://1.cdn.edl.io/XRT6WhAdm7L7xioV6lr2dVK1GoWWCeq614ySeGavmjPY2rV5.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM&lt;/a&gt;, talks about Borderline Personality disorder and only disorder. Meanwhile &lt;a href=&quot;https://therapistuncensored.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Psychoanalytic_Diagnosis_-_Nancy_McWilli.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nancy McWilliams&lt;/a&gt; talks about Borderline Personality Organization. Also she mentions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kernberg (1984), one of the originators of the concept, began having to differentiate between “borderline personality organization” (BPO) and the DSM’s “borderline personality disorder” (BPD).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meanwhile people with Borderline Personality Organization is described by McWilliams as quite abnormal and problematic. So it stays unclear &lt;strong&gt;what exactly the difference between Borderline Personality Disorder and Borderline Personality Organization?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Also, are there any difference between Psychotic Personality Disorder vs Psychotic Personality Organization?&lt;/strong&gt; McWilliams doesn't seem to say anything on that topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26624" LastActivityDate="2020-08-10T13:44:19.660" Title="Borderline Personality Disorder vs Borderline Personality Organization" Tags="&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;diagnosis&gt;&lt;dsm&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25777" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25775" CreationDate="2020-08-10T17:25:20.937" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to suggest the classic and pioneer book in the field of communication and pursuasion by Daniel H. Pink.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;To Sell Is Human: The Surprising Truth About Moving Others&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The book not only contains the basics of pursuasions but also explains in detail, why and how things work. Its a master piece!&#xA;Hope you would enjoy it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26615" LastActivityDate="2020-08-10T17:25:20.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25779" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-11T05:34:35.983" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;My first language is French. When I write in english (online chat), I often think of a word but write a different word. For example I just did it again tonight. I was thinking &amp;quot;who are you talking to? &amp;quot; and I wrote &amp;quot;who i you talking to ?&amp;quot;. I don't do that in French. I was wondering if there is a name for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26630" LastActivityDate="2020-08-11T05:34:35.983" Title="thinking of a word but writing a different word (only on my second language)" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2020-08-11T17:08:10.183" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25781" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-11T09:41:55.733" Score="0" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is anyone familiar with studies showing a go/no-go advantage (in commission errors/mean RT) for responding to the presence of a cue, compared with when asked to hold response for the presence of a cue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;cheers,&#xA;-Matan&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26281" LastActivityDate="2020-08-11T09:41:55.733" Title="Go/No-go advantage for responding to presence" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25782" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26691" CreationDate="2020-08-11T10:39:21.217" Score="3" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a bit confused. In an open access article (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3221&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Caspi, et al. 2020&lt;/a&gt;), is the following — under &lt;strong&gt;Methods: Assessing Psychopathology&lt;/strong&gt; (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[...]&lt;/strong&gt; externalizing disorders (ie, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, alcohol&#xA;dependence, cannabis dependence, other drug dependence, and tobacco dependence),&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;internalizing disorders (ie&lt;/strong&gt;, depression, generalized anxiety disorder, fears [including social phobia, simple phobia, agoraphobia, and panic disorder], &lt;strong&gt;posttraumatic stress disorder&lt;/strong&gt;, and eating disorders&#xA;[including bulimia and anorexia]), and thought disorders (ie, obsessive-compulsive disorder, mania,&#xA;and schizophrenia)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can understand that PTSD will be caused by internalisation of the trauma experience(s), but from my experience, elements of PTSD often involve externalising (hypervigilence for example) and sometimes unhelpful thoughts/behaviours (for example, fear of all people of a certain religion, culture, background and/or gender; and to the extreme, violent tendencies towards those people to &amp;quot;prevent&amp;quot; further traumatising events).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is PTSD just an internalising disorder, or can it be a mixture of an internalising, externalising and thought/behaviour disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Caspi, A., Houts, R. M., Ambler, A., Danese, A., Elliott, M. L., Hariri, A., ... &amp;amp; Rasmussen, L. J. H. (2020). Longitudinal Assessment of Mental Health Disorders and Comorbidities Across 4 Decades Among Participants in the Dunedin Birth Cohort Study. &lt;em&gt;JAMA Network Open, 3&lt;/em&gt;(4), e203221-e203221. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3221&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3221&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2021-02-23T00:16:04.427" Title="PTSD is an internalising disorder or mixed?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25784" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-11T15:34:57.323" Score="0" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my area of psychology we report the results of a repeated measures ANOVA with 1 within subjects independent variable as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;F(2,60) = 120.29, MSe = 173.09, p&amp;lt;0.05, ηp2 = 0.78&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand this results means that the main effect of the independent variable was significant, but what do the MSe and ηp2 each tell us?  What would be considered &amp;quot;good&amp;quot; values for these terms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26356" LastActivityDate="2020-08-11T21:23:51.780" Title="How do you interpret the MSe and partial eta squared reported with an F-statistic?" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25785" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25784" CreationDate="2020-08-11T21:23:51.780" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The outputs of statistical analyses are not &amp;quot;good&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;bad&amp;quot;, except that they are definitely bad no matter what numbers you get if you've done your analyses incorrectly, and good if you've chosen an appropriate model, gathered enough data, and avoided statistical pitfalls like p-hacking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Always report actual p-values, rather than &amp;quot;p&amp;lt;0.05&amp;quot;. The only exception is for very small p-values (e.g., p&amp;lt;0.0001).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;MSE, the mean squared error, is not easy to interpret by itself. Its range of values completely depends on your measurement scale. For models fit to the same data, a smaller MSE is &amp;quot;better&amp;quot;, but it's more complicated than that and there are better methods for model selection (but also problems with model selection generally).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Effect sizes like the partial eta squared depend entirely on the field and type of data being analyzed. Effect sizes that are large in one context may be considered small in another. Partial eta squared measures how much variance is explained by your predictor divided by how much variance is unexplained (plus the numerator), so values closer to 1 mean a bigger effect. 0.78 is usually quite a large effect in psychology, since many measures in psychology depend on individual factors that are hard to capture. Again, however, that isn't necessarily true in every single case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-08-11T21:23:51.780" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25786" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-11T23:43:06.580" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Computational approaches to understanding the connectivity of biological neural networks using graph theory and dynamical systems have been recently gaining traction.  I am wondering if there are any existing models for spiking neural networks that explicitly incorporate graph dynamical systems in their construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've looked at simulation libraries like Brian 2, but they don't seem to emphasize the connectivity schemes found in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I were to construct one myself, I am mainly interested in what the connectivity/geometry of the network would be like to create an adjacency matrix.  I've been learning about ergodic Markov chains and wondering if their geometry could be somehow applied here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that given an adjacency matrix, and a binary vector of initial conditions, one can describe state dynamics at time t by raising the adjacency matrix to the power of t and computing the product with the initial conditions vector.  As a starting point it could be interesting to combine this with an &amp;quot;accurate&amp;quot; adjacency matrix, later incorporating inhibition and other parameters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26639" LastActivityDate="2020-08-11T23:43:06.580" Title="Graph Dynamical Systems for simulating Spiking Neural Networks" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;dynamic-systems&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25787" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-12T01:38:12.833" Score="1" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have only known one autistic person and as far as I could see he was perfectly functional except that he could not relate to other people. It seemed as though most of the stuff his parents and others were trying to get him to do were not things that he actually needed to do, but were various forms of human ceremony, like looking people in the eyes and other things like that which have no practical necessity, but are just societal norms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main practical failure I saw in him was an inability to convey complex plans or ideas to other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I am curious what genuine functional disabilities severely autistic people have, as opposed to social misbehaviors. As far as I could tell, by reading complaints of parents of autistic children, the only true dysfunctionality I could detect were the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ignoring traffic, walking into moving traffic without looking&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Failure to discriminate between potentially dangerous strangers and friends&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Failure to recognize dangerous objects like knives&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Increased propensity to enter bodies of water and drown&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, of course, all children suffer from the above dysfunctions, and it appears that autistic children simply are more likely to endanger themselves. Does this tendency to be unaware of these dangers continue into adulthood, or do adults with autism learn to respect water and other dangers the same way non-autistic adults do?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12982" LastEditorUserId="25157" LastEditDate="2020-08-13T21:37:13.563" LastActivityDate="2021-01-13T17:34:24.823" Title="What practical dysfunctionality characterizes severe autism?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25788" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-12T14:08:32.190" Score="0" ViewCount="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why the characteristic duration of Sperling's effect observed in his method of partial reports (200-400 ms) is the same as time at which attentional blink has its peak? How is the attentional blink related to sensory buffer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26593" LastEditorUserId="26593" LastEditDate="2020-08-17T10:36:04.883" LastActivityDate="2020-08-17T10:36:04.883" Title="Connection between Sperling's partial report paradigm and attentional blink" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25789" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25639" CreationDate="2020-08-12T14:57:49.657" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is priming effect. There are some experiments closely related to your observation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Strack, F., Martin, L.L. and Schwarz, N. (1988), Priming and communication: Social determinants of information use in judgments of life satisfaction. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol., 18: 429-442. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420180505&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this paper, the significant change in correlation between happiness and subject of previously asked question was observed, as against to the same question asked after the question about happiness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also framing effect can be related to your question: the way which question about person's life is asked can change the expected answer to the question (along with temporal opinion about given subject). When the process is repetitive, it can factor into more permanent change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1981). &amp;quot;The Framing of decisions and the psychology of choice&amp;quot;. Science. 211 (4481): 453–58. doi:10.1126/science.7455683&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related to this is also confrmation bias - in case of a question about some negative aspects of some subject (in this case life), more negative memories about it is primed, what substancially changes the way we process the subject&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Nickerson, Raymond S. (June 1998), &amp;quot;Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises&amp;quot;, Review of General Psychology, 2 (2): 175–220, doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26593" LastEditorUserId="26593" LastEditDate="2020-08-13T14:29:29.943" LastActivityDate="2020-08-13T14:29:29.943" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25790" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25639" CreationDate="2020-08-12T22:39:08.637" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Q: Would sparsely repeated negative prompts have negative long-term outcomes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A: Probably not, but more research would be needed to provide a definitive answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10094&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Norem &amp;amp; Chang (2002)&lt;/a&gt; argue that how negative (or positive) cognitions affect individuals depends on their predisposition.  For example, a negative prompt given to someone with &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.concog.2016.10.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;unrealistic optimism&lt;/a&gt; might call their attention to potential areas of improvement in their life otherwise overlooked, and lead to improved outcomes.  Another perspective is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-affirmation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-affirmation theory&lt;/a&gt;, which suggests that healthy individuals would simply counterbalance negative prompts with positive thoughts - such as &amp;quot;there is much more going well in my life&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;others are doing even worse&amp;quot; - see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-enhancement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-enhancement&lt;/a&gt; for a similar effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another interesting suggestion comes from a classic experiment (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.47.1.5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wilson et al, 1984&lt;/a&gt;), in which subjects were asked about their romantic relationships, and the mere act of making explicit their previously implicit attitudes changed those attitudes.  This effect happens irrespective of valence - that is, asking to &amp;quot;Describe your spouse&amp;quot; potentially has the same effect as asking &amp;quot;What annoys you about your spouse?&amp;quot; - and is not affected by repetition - attitudes did not change significantly from being asked the same questions again in multiple sessions.  Crucially however, changes in attitude did not result in outcome changes: There was no difference in breakup rate at followup.  On the other hand, other studies (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.31.1.17&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rubin &amp;amp; Mitchell, 1976&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/269325&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Veroff, Hatchett, &amp;amp; Douvan, 1992&lt;/a&gt;) found that such questions can affect marital satisfaction, and may accelerate its progression (strengthening or weakening it faster, again irrespective of valence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Notes about domain specificity:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not aware of an experimental paradigm that could be used to test this specific question - ie, I don't know why any researcher would want to test if they can cause depression or other life problems in subjects, or what ethics review board would approve it.  There are studies that look at long-term outcomes of positive prompts (eg, &amp;quot;What's going well in your life?&amp;quot;), but research in general suggests that positive and negative cognitions are independent (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0879(200002)7:1%3C1::AID-CPP228%3E3.0.CO;2-S&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Macleod &amp;amp; Moore, 2000&lt;/a&gt;), so we could not assume that negative prompts produce opposite reactions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, cognitions (both positive and negative) come in many flavours - referring to the past (eg, &amp;quot;What has gone wrong in your life?&amp;quot;), &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfactual_thinking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;counterfactuals&lt;/a&gt; (eg, &amp;quot;What could have gone better in your life?&amp;quot;), &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_orientation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;future directed thinking&lt;/a&gt; (eg, &amp;quot;What will go wrong in your life?&amp;quot;) also known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explanatory_style&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;optimism/pessimism&lt;/a&gt;, and others.  Unfortunately again, these often appear as different constructs with independent outcomes, so studies looking at any of these would not necessarily inform us about the type of questions you have in mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Priming&lt;/a&gt; is yet another related construct that does not usually look at long-term outcomes.  In a typical affective priming paradigm for example, subjects may be primed with brief exposure to the words &amp;quot;failure&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;success&amp;quot;, and then asked &amp;quot;How are things going in your life?&amp;quot; to see if they describe positive or negative aspects of their life more often.  Priming effects are not believed to last very long - on the order of seconds (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930125768&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hermans, De Houwer &amp;amp; Eelen, 2001&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-08-12T22:39:08.637" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25791" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25772" CreationDate="2020-08-13T09:11:26.720" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It can be caused by reactance - automatic opposite response preventing actions that threatens behavioral freedom. You can find more about reactance in:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Baron, Robert A.; et al. (2006). Social Psychology. Pearson. ISBN 9780205444120.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Roeckelein, J. E., ed. (2006). &amp;quot;Reactance theory&amp;quot;. Elsevier's Dictionary of Psychological Theories. Elsevier. pp. 507–508. ISBN 9780080460642.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26593" LastActivityDate="2020-08-13T09:11:26.720" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25792" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25816" CreationDate="2020-08-13T09:28:40.650" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;Everything I can find about term 'metacognitive strategy' or 'metacognition' is related to teaching or learning strategies, but I wonder what does it actually mean in terms of cognitive science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26593" LastEditorUserId="26593" LastEditDate="2020-08-17T10:34:08.073" LastActivityDate="2020-08-17T20:23:59.397" Title="Metacognitive strategy in terms of cognitive science" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25793" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19609" CreationDate="2020-08-13T10:49:04.027" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Old question, but still relevant. I think that the success of these kind of simple (and stupid?) games have several explanations but the game makers are less interested in why simple and stupid games are very financially successful and instead they just follow the trend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not only games but also many other products and marketing which are created in this way: Simple and often stupid. Simplicity has advantages because the customer and consumer has limited time and limited energy to learn the new thing, and if it were a complicated advanced computer game where you have to fly around in deep space for a week before anything ever happens, then your brain would not receive a reward and you would get bored (like I got). On the contrary if the game quickly rewards you and is simple to learn then it becomes more addictive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cuteness of game characters has been around for long and in Japan many products are created and marketed with cuteness which has been successful now also in the Western world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was a major hit game called Candy Crush saga which is very simple, tries to look cute and it rewards the player almost directly just when you get three in a row...That way it will be tempting for the consumer to continue because you got rewarded. Compared to more complicated games which are more difficult to learn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2846" LastActivityDate="2020-08-13T10:49:04.027" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25794" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-13T10:52:07.733" Score="0" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read somewhere that when there is a number in a brand or a company name, that will have a negative effect and the conclusion was that numbers should be avoided. You should rather have a name like &amp;quot;Apple&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;Google&amp;quot; compared to &amp;quot;S3&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;F5 LLC&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this (still) true or is there more to know about it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2846" LastEditorUserId="2846" LastEditDate="2020-08-13T11:51:25.270" LastActivityDate="2020-08-13T11:51:25.270" Title="Effect of numbers in brands and company names" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;neuromarketing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25797" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-14T11:30:48.950" Score="6" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am referring to Eric Kandel and his experiment on &lt;em&gt;Aplysia&lt;/em&gt; where he shows that synapses between a pair of neurons can be modulated by means of a third neuron that synapses onto the terminals of the two other neurons. The third neuron doesn't cause post-synaptic firing, but it modulates the activity and strength of the synapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is known as modulatory input-dependent plasticity as depicted in the following pictures. For more information you can refer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterosynaptic_plasticity#:%7E:text=In%20heterosynaptic%20plasticity%2C%20synaptic%20pathways,those%20who%20are%20specifically%20stimulated.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is whether such synapses exist in the human brain too? If yes, are they abundant, or they are rare in the human brain, and what is their duty in brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TDJQD.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/TDJQD.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iIq4C.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/iIq4C.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mWOjw.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mWOjw.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26653" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-08-17T11:15:05.273" LastActivityDate="2021-01-15T07:24:04.373" Title="Are there synapses on other neuron terminals in human brain like in Aplysia" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25799" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-14T19:17:15.547" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the relationship between working memory and positive or negative mood as higher order affective states which can change vary slowly compared to moment-to-moment affective responses (both valence and arousal)? Are there any literature related to this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26655" LastEditorUserId="26655" LastEditDate="2020-08-27T12:32:44.470" LastActivityDate="2020-08-27T12:32:44.470" Title="relationship between mood and working memory" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;&lt;mood&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25800" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25631" CreationDate="2020-08-15T00:06:15.747" Score="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;The exhibited behaviours are episodic glossolalia, collapsing, fainting, trembling, jerking, convulsing, contorting, and shaking.  The individuals performing these episodic behaviours report experiencing overwhelming emotions of love, peace, ecstasy and euphoria. The exhibited behaviours are inconsistent with the claimed emotions, so perhaps another way to understand the question is to explain why individuals behave in a manner that is inconsistent with their emotions. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XCYctz_fKf0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Examples of behaviour&lt;/a&gt; associated with euphoria do not generally include glossolalia, collapsing, fainting, trembling, jerking and shaking. The exhibited behaviours are more congruent with the emotions of stress, anxiety, fear, and confusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The exhibited behaviours and reported emotional experiences are observed in both religious and nonreligious settings including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Indigenous american indian &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ghost-Dance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ghost dance&lt;/a&gt; ceremonies,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wckqRZM-J4g&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Indian Rain Dance to God Parjanya&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z8YC0dnj4Jw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Balinese ceremonies&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hindu &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-pCix0vb5E&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kundalini&lt;/a&gt; Awakening ceremonies, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V33bWVkZTdw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fringe martial arts&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The adoption by some Christian sects of the exhibited behaviours, and other behaviours such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_laughter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;laughing&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_drunkenness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;drunkenness&lt;/a&gt;, appears to be relatively recent with the &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Blessing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Toronto Blessing&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; in the 1990s appearing to be significant.  In all cases exhibited, the behaviours and emotions appear to occur in the presence of, and behest of, a charismatic and captivating authority figure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the absence of peer reviewed literature on the topic, eight strawman hypotheses are proposed. In accordance with the principle of parsimony, the hypothesis without discrediting evidence and the least number of assumptions will be tentatively selected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The strawman hypotheses identified are:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The behaviours and emotions may result from:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;an unidentified invisible force (e.g. a spirit or god) causing electro neurological impulses that result in such behaviour,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a hysterical state induced by the leader or other &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mass psychogenic illness&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a hysterical state self-induced by the individual,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the individuals are conforming to the directions of an authority figure and/or subject to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_pressure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;peer pressure&lt;/a&gt; and conforming to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_norm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social norms&lt;/a&gt; of the group,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the individuals suffering from a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_neurological_symptom_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Functional Neurological Disorder&lt;/a&gt; (FND),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the individuals being paid actors,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the individuals being in a state of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnosis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypnosis&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the individuals are &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_seeking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attention seeking&lt;/a&gt;, or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dissociative disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each of these strawman hypotheses will be examined in turn:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Unidentified invisible force/Divine Intervention&lt;/strong&gt;.  No confirmatory evidence has yet been tendered supporting the existence of invisible forces, other than the four fundamental forces of gravity, electromagnetism and strong and weak nuclear forces. As the exhibited behaviours are widespread across non-intersecting religious and cultural groups, a further unanswered question is which of the unidentified invisible forces is capable of inducing the emotions and behaviours or whether all unidentified invisible forces are equally capable of inducing such emotions and behaviours. The Christian sects shown in the exhibited videos subscribe to their religion by way of faith, which is ordinarily defined as a belief in the absence of supporting evidence.  There being no scientific evidence of the involvement of unidentified invisible force(s), this hypothesis is dismissed. For further discussions on divine intervention, see  &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/14746700802396106&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/14746700802396106&lt;/a&gt; , &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.5840/faithphil199714215&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.5840/faithphil199714215&lt;/a&gt; , &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.31577/orgf.2019.26106&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.31577/orgf.2019.26106&lt;/a&gt; , and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735295-074&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501735295-074&lt;/a&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hysterical state induced by the leader&lt;/strong&gt;: The presence of a charismatic and captivating leader in all the videos provided suggests credence for this option.  The causes of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mass Psychological Illness&lt;/a&gt; remain speculative. The psychological mechanism capable of inducing a hysterical state are not yet understood and the mechanisms used by the charismatic leader are not uniform between the ghost dance ceremonies, Hindu Kundalini Awakening ceremonies, particular martial arts and Christian sects.  There being no identified scientifically established mechanism capable of inducing hysterical states, this hypothesis is dismissed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hysterical state induced by the individual&lt;/strong&gt;: No established mechanism by which an individual may self-induce a hysterical state was identified, therefore, this hypothesis is dismissed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conformance to the social norms&lt;/strong&gt;: There is strong evidence that individuals seek to conform with the directions of authority figures and social norms.  Conformance is due to the desire to avoid behaviours that would exclude them from the group(Burger, 2019; Milgram &amp;amp; Gudehus, 1978; Philippe &amp;amp; Durand, 2011; Schmidt et al., 2019). YouTube records examples of individuals participating in such behaviours but later ceasing the behaviours.  These individuals report conforming to the behaviours due to social and situational pressure. It seems inconceivable that individuals who can participate in activities (in some cases for many years) that reliably induce feelings of love, peace, ecstasy and euphoria would ever seek to depart from such behaviours, yet the internet abounds with stories of individuals ceasing to perform such behaviours. The prevalence of individuals reporting conformance to social and situational pressure and the abundance of established peer reviewed literature identifying the basis of socially conforming behaviour suggests that this hypothesis is not immediately dismissable and worthy of more rigorous scientific analysis. References to individuals departing from these behaviours can be found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1MWKv4bHT9I&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g-nE-zrIhKc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k7b0srsYWFA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VupmCgCzLMc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lQSU5f1TLPo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Functional Neurological Disorder (FND)&lt;/strong&gt;: Individuals suffering FND exhibit behaviours for many years and do not describe the concurrent emotions as love, peace, ecstasy and euphoria. There being no similarity between FND and the relevant behaviours and emotions, this hypothesis is dismissed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Paid actors&lt;/strong&gt;: Given the number of observed occurrences of the exhibited behaviours, it seems inconceivable that at least one paid actor would not have published their experiences in either paid media or a blog.  The absence of individuals claiming to be paid actors discredits this hypothesis and it is therefore dismissed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Hypnosis&lt;/strong&gt;: Hypnosis is defined as a human condition involving focused attention, reduced peripheral awareness, and an enhanced capacity to respond to suggestion. It is unclear from the exhibited behaviours that the process of hypnosis matches the behavioural expectations of hypnosis (Williamson, 2019; Mayo Clinic) and nor does the hypnotic induction process appear to match those in the exhibited videos.  For these reasons, this hypothesis is therefore dismissed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attention seeking&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_seeking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Attention seeking&lt;/a&gt; seems very likely given the nature of the YouTube based individual testimonies. Attention seeking and Conformance to the social norms appear to be related when the individual seeks to draw attention to their conformance to the social norm (see DOI:10.1111/bjso.12196, DOI:10.1353/jip.2021.0002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dissociative-disorders/symptoms-causes/syc-20355215&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dissociative disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;: It seems less likely that anyone with a dissociative disorder would post (or would be able to) post on YouTube.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of the nine strawman hypotheses, only &lt;strong&gt;Conformance to the social norms&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;Attention seeking&lt;/strong&gt; avoided immediate dismissal.  Both hypotheses that avoided dismissal undoubtedly requires more formal scientific assessment, presumably by way of surveying a substantial number of individuals who have previously participated in such behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; No peer reviewed research was identified in the preparation of this response.  All research was therefore restricted to Wikipedia and YouTube (except where specifically identified).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A sample of resources accessed:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossolalia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossolalia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slain_in_the_Spirit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slain_in_the_Spirit&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundalini&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundalini&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.recoveringfromreligion.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.recoveringfromreligion.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.restorationcounselingseattle.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.restorationcounselingseattle.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_seeking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_seeking&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/SwjCuyuKf3s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/SwjCuyuKf3s&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/F6c4BxktCdU&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/F6c4BxktCdU&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/bZIrU7m0gx0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/bZIrU7m0gx0&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/1YTZkHKN6l4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/1YTZkHKN6l4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/kD3g5rg0CqE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/kD3g5rg0CqE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/WaT06FX85G4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/WaT06FX85G4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/FEYW2vqqNDQ&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/FEYW2vqqNDQ&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/TUvNW0ZZoDw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/TUvNW0ZZoDw&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/8L1Fslf3g2M&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/8L1Fslf3g2M&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Q5LpMxYfHn4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/Q5LpMxYfHn4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/G22hZ81Vku0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/G22hZ81Vku0&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/LDRPOxqVw90&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/LDRPOxqVw90&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/hypnosis/about/pac-20394405&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/hypnosis/about/pac-20394405&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Burger, J. M. (2019). 13.3 Conformity and Obedience. Introduction to Psychology. &lt;a href=&quot;https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/conformity-and-obedience/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/conformity-and-obedience/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Milgram, S., &amp;amp; Gudehus, C. (1978). Obedience to authority. Ziff-Davis Publishing Company. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www1.psych.purdue.edu/%7Ewillia55/120/LectureSocialF10.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www1.psych.purdue.edu/~willia55/120/LectureSocialF10.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Philippe, D., &amp;amp; Durand, R. (2011). The impact of norm-conforming behaviors on firm reputation. Strategic Management Journal, 32(9), 969–993. &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/smj.919&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/smj.919&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Schmidt, M. F. H., Rakoczy, H., &amp;amp; Tomasello, M. (2019). Eighteen‐Month‐Old Infants Correct Non‐Conforming Actions by Others. Infancy: The Official Journal of the International Society on Infant Studies, 24(4), 613–635. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12292&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12292&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Williamson, A. (2019). What is hypnosis and how might it work? Palliative Care: Research and Treatment. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1178224219826581&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1178224219826581&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2021-05-17T01:36:55.247" LastActivityDate="2021-05-17T01:36:55.247" CommentCount="17" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25801" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25293" CreationDate="2020-08-15T03:27:35.270" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like an aspect of extraversion. I.e., loud and fast talking sounds like gregariousness and assertiveness.  In general, extraverts are also more active and expressive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the NEO-PI-R has facets of extraversion as follows:&#xA;(E1) Warmth (E2)&#xA;Gregariousness (E3) Assertiveness (E4) Activity (E5)&#xA;Excitement-Seeking (E6) Positive Emotions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fast talking might also be linked to intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-08-15T03:27:35.270" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25803" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-15T15:47:40.943" Score="0" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on usage of machine learning algorithm like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_tree_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tree decision learning&lt;/a&gt; for modeling human brain function in Schizophrenia to predict brain part dysfunctions which i guess could be testable by brain parts activity percentage on FMRI Photos)to Finding Proper mathematical models of that part of brain for example i suggest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Different decision tree algorithms &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_tree_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Decision tree learning&lt;/a&gt; (like&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ID3_algorithm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ID3&lt;/a&gt;) for frontal part of brain because of logical function of&#xA;its, by assuming that the brain parts function and Algorithm selected&#xA;correctly could be possible to improve its limitation by use some&#xA;more professional algorithms like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4.5_algorithm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;C4.5 algorithm&lt;/a&gt; for covering&#xA;the detected limitation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So i am searching for some similar research on modeling the schizophrenia by machine learning  models, and i found &lt;a href=&quot;http://legacydirs.umiacs.umd.edu/%7Esarit/data/articles/synt2012.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;General article&lt;/a&gt;, in this field:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11229-012-0182-z&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Combining psychological models with machine learning to better&#xA;predict people’s decisions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, because of not finding proper paper, I am in doubt that is possible to use machine learning modes to modeling some schizophrenia brain dysfunctions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If not:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since i am trying to understand better the schizophrenia, based of your knowledge how much these steps are practical to solve  mathematical schizophrenia modeling:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess these steps would be useful to solve that problem:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;finding Wrong functions in the anterior part of the brain for&#xA;schizophrenia based of FMRI and ... ?! ( hard parts of it)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;finding More Suitable problem in machine learning that brain part (&#xA;which is not so hard because of known &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.analytixlabs.co.in/blog/how-to-choose-the-best-algorithm-for-your-applied-ai-ml-solution/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;algorithm characterized&#xA;parameters&lt;/a&gt; )&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Creating New CBT method based of detected machine learning&#xA;Algorithm.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Modeling the Ordinary CBT method to proper mathematical algorithm.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Comparing these two CBT method by computer models and if possible&#xA;tests with humans as treatment.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If yes, could you suggest &lt;strong&gt;proper Tags&lt;/strong&gt; for this filed of research and if possible finds some this kind paper or review paper about:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;modeling some schizophrenia brain dysfunctions by machine learning  models.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25925" LastActivityDate="2020-08-15T15:47:40.943" Title="About possibility of modeling the schizophrenia by machine learning models" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25805" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25815" CreationDate="2020-08-16T07:25:13.573" Score="2" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen this phenomenon in various pieces of media, but recently observed it in real life and I'm wondering what it's called.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, when you want something but don't get it, you downplay the importance of that thing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've mostly seen it depicted as &amp;quot;moody teens&amp;quot; using responses like &amp;quot;I didn't want to go to that party anyway&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;you can keep your stupid X, I didn't want it anyway&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26660" LastActivityDate="2020-08-17T16:14:26.123" Title="What's the behaviour of downplaying the importance of something you wanted but didn't get called?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25806" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-16T07:45:24.827" Score="1" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd really like to know how psychology and neuroscience are working with the concepts of &amp;quot;ideas&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;beliefs&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;mental images&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;thoughts&amp;quot; nowadays. I'm designing some mental health training for school teachers and as a first step I am introducing them to familiar elements they can recognise in their own minds. Feelings, emotions, attention and goals are maybe easier to isolate and explain a bit. But the ovelap among the first set of concepts I'm mentioning is too big to make easy distinctions. That's why I would find very helpful if anyone could help me clarify the connections and differences between the concepts of &amp;quot;ideas&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;beliefs&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;mental images&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;thoughts&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I've said, I'm asking this question because I'm preparing a course for school teachers. So I'm not really asking for a very in depth exposition (although of course it can always be very interesting to read, if offered). Just some brief definitions with the most relevant and least controverted relations and key differences among these concepts can be of much help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you very much in advance for your attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26661" LastEditorUserId="26661" LastEditDate="2020-08-20T20:39:59.963" LastActivityDate="2020-08-20T20:39:59.963" Title="How would you explain the relationship between &quot;ideas&quot;, &quot;beliefs&quot;, &quot;mental images&quot; and &quot;thoughts&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2020-09-01T22:20:56.767" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25807" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25799" CreationDate="2020-08-16T16:16:06.693" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Welcome to the community Dalek!&#xA;Emotional states can guide the actions and decisions we make in our everyday life through their influence on cognitive processes such as working memory.&#xA;I would like to share with you couple of sources (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsx030&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Figueira et al., 2017&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baddeley, 2012&lt;/a&gt;) which can be quite helpful for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People over here tried to figure out emperically how our moods are affecting cognition processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Baddeley, A. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. &lt;em&gt;Annual review of psychology, 63&lt;/em&gt;, 1-29. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Figueira, J. S., Oliveira, L., Pereira, M. G., Pacheco, L. B., Lobo, I., Motta-Ribeiro, G. C., &amp;amp; David, I. A. (2017). An unpleasant emotional state reduces working memory capacity: electrophysiological evidence. &lt;em&gt;Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 12&lt;/em&gt;(6), 984-992. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsx030&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsx030&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26615" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-08-19T13:55:01.383" LastActivityDate="2020-08-19T13:55:01.383" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25808" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-16T16:16:09.027" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm wondering if there is a formal neuroscience or psychology term for the following: We see something new, fresh, and different and as a result pause just a little bit longer to look it over.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine a hiring manager going through a pile of resumes. They all look the same. Suddenly they come across one that has a fresh, new template and spend some more time looking it at. As a result they might just short-list this candidate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would this be an effect or a cognitive bias? Does it have a name?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: Not a psychologist or neuroscientist, just curious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26665" LastActivityDate="2020-08-17T11:59:40.917" Title="Is there a formal name for the effect/cognitive bias of seeing something new" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;terms&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25809" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-17T03:48:31.070" Score="4" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer- I had asked this question in the Math stack exchange, but was encouraged to ask it here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm working on creating an emotional calculator of sorts, for personal use, wherein, whenever I am stressed, I can pretty much figure out what to do to feel better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll be using the Emotional Equations book by Chip Conley (summary here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://blas.com/emotional-equations/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://blas.com/emotional-equations/&lt;/a&gt;) as a point of reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;here's my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's take the following equation as an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Let's say I interviewed for a job and now am anxious about whether or not I will get it.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Anxiety = Uncertainty &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\times$&lt;/span&gt; Powerlessness&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To make myself feel better, if I focus on the Powerlessness variable, then I can do many things to make myself feel better. For example: I could apply for more jobs, go take a walk, go for a run, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, each of those things will not help me in the same way. They will each have different &amp;quot;proportions of powerlessness&amp;quot; to offer, so to speak. So, if I go get ice cream, sure I'll feel a little better, but I'm sure I'll be anxious an hour after eating that ice cream. So, on a scale of 1-10, it will probably reduce powerlessness by 0.5 or 1, whereas if I apply for more jobs, for example, it will reduce powerlessness by 7-8.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What math principle/logic/practice can I use to calculate how much something (eating ice cream) can affect powerlessness?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you! Apologies for the long question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26672" LastActivityDate="2020-08-23T23:25:33.863" Title="Emotional Calculator; How can I mathematically show a decrease in anxiety using an emotional equation?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25810" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25805" CreationDate="2020-08-17T08:51:46.493" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Being the mother of 2 teenage daughters, I'm going with...&#xA;Self-deception&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-deception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-deception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26673" LastActivityDate="2020-08-17T08:51:46.493" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25811" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-17T09:46:21.127" Score="2" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's the current scientific and schooled (university or alike) consens as far as Intelligence theories are concerned?&#xA;Which theory / model is currently (broadly) being taught? Please be specific and link corresponding sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wasn't able to find anything besides a quote from Gottfredson, 1997 and Sternberg, 2003: &amp;quot;Virtually all psychologists now believe that there is a generalized intelligence factor, g&amp;quot; ... so is Spearman's two factor theory the current basis? Or in general that a general factor exists, which rules out a few theories like Thurstones or Gardners, but doesn't specify which to &amp;quot;follow&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26635" LastActivityDate="2020-08-21T10:13:31.293" Title="What intelligence theory is being taught?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25812" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25808" CreationDate="2020-08-17T10:55:19.410" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salience_(neuroscience)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Salience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; comes to mind, which in Psychology can be defined as...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... anything (person, behavior, trait, etc.) that is prominent, conspicuous, or otherwise noticeable compared with its surroundings. Salience is usually produced by novelty or unexpectedness, but can also be brought about by shifting one’s attention to that feature. Salience usually depends on context. A child would not be particularly salient at his or her school, but would be at a nursing home. The act of crying would not be salient at a funeral, but would be at a job interview. A salient feature can be thought of as the “figure” that stands out against the “ground” of all other nonsalient features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/social-cognition/salience/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IResearch.net: Psychology Research &amp;amp; Reference&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-08-17T11:59:40.917" LastActivityDate="2020-08-17T11:59:40.917" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25813" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25797" CreationDate="2020-08-17T11:10:07.770" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A bunch of papers I was able to dig up after a cursory search on Google Scholar strongly indicates that heterosynaptic modulation does exist in man, at least in the motor cortex. In these papers the conclusion was reached by using indirect measures, namely by making use of specific stimulation strategies in intact brains in living humans. This as opposed to methods that more directly approach the question, like histology, or single-cell recordings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6730024/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hartwig &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;24&lt;/strong&gt;(13): 3379–85&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6665848/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jung &amp;amp; Ziemann, &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;29&lt;/strong&gt;(17): 5597–604&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6672399/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nitsche &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2007); &lt;strong&gt;27&lt;/strong&gt;(14): 3807–12&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6608185/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Zhen &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2014); &lt;strong&gt;34&lt;/strong&gt;(21): 7314–21&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-01-15T07:24:04.373" LastActivityDate="2021-01-15T07:24:04.373" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25814" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25809" CreationDate="2020-08-17T13:12:35.323" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Chip Conley's ideas as to emotional equations represent an interesting concept; however, the equations do not appear to be founded in science at this stage.  To represent the equations mathematically would first require to ability to measure each of component of the equations.  Measuring psychological concepts is fraught with issues at this stage and a great deal theoretical research is ongoing (see references below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notwithstanding the methodological issues, the equations are certainly thought provoking:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Emotions = Life&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Emotion = Energy + Motion&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Event + Reaction = Outcome&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Despair = Suffering – Meaning&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Disappointment = Expectations – Reality&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Regret = Disappointment + Responsibility&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Jealousy = Mistrust / Self-Esteem&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Joy = Love – Fear&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adroher, N. D., Prodinger, B., Fellinghauer, C. S., &amp;amp; Tennant, A. (2018). All metrics are equal, but some metrics are more equal than others: A systematic search and review on the use of the term “metric.” PloS One, 13(3), e0193861. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193861&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193861&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Boag, S. (2015). Personality assessment, “construct validity”, and the significance of theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 84, 36–44. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.039&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.039&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Borsboom, D., Mellenbergh, G. J., &amp;amp; van Heerden, J. (2003). The theoretical status of latent variables. Psychological Review, 110(2), 203–219. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.2.203&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.2.203&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nowland, T., Beath, A., &amp;amp; Boag, S. (2019). Objectivity, realism, and psychometrics. Measurement, 145, 292–299. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2019.05.038&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2019.05.038&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conley, C. (2012). Emotional equations: Simple truths for creating happiness+ success. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 1451607261&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-08-17T13:12:35.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25815" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25805" CreationDate="2020-08-17T16:14:26.123" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;In  general, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;rationalization&lt;/a&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... a defense mechanism in which controversial behaviors or feelings&#xA;are justified and explained in a seemingly rational or logical manner&#xA;to avoid the true explanation, and are made consciously tolerable—or&#xA;even admirable and superior—by plausible means.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The specific case mentioned in the question is one of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fox_and_the_Grapes&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sour Grapes&lt;/a&gt;, from Aesop's fables:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The story concerns a fox that tries to eat grapes from a vine but&#xA;cannot reach them. Rather than admit defeat, he states they are&#xA;undesirable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Defense mechanism&amp;quot; however, is a psychoanalytic (Freudian) construct, which is generally considered pseudoscience or outdated.  The more modern theory of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt; now subsumes what was previously thought of as rationalization:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In practice, people reduce the magnitude of their cognitive dissonance&#xA;... by changing the conflicting cognition [or] Ignore or deny&#xA;information that conflicts with existing beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-08-17T16:14:26.123" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25816" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25792" CreationDate="2020-08-17T20:23:59.397" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think there's a single meaning for this term, mainly because &amp;quot;cognitive science&amp;quot; is pretty broad and inclusive. So people working in different sub-fields of cognition use it to refer to different things, depending on what they're working on. A couple examples outside of learning and teaching might be confidence judgements (how likely is it that your last response was correct? etc) in memory or categorization studies, or things like 'planning to plan' in resource-rational accounts of behavior, where you might want to work out how much time you can afford to spend making a decision. These are pretty different areas, but they are all legit ways to use the word 'metacognition', as are the learning and teaching examples you mention. They're all 'thinking about thinking' in some sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Actually if it comes to that I don't think there's a single clean and universally accepted definition for 'cognition' either. You recognize it when you see it, it's just a vibe sort of thing. Or, to put it more scientifically, 'cognitive' is a fuzzy category ala Rosch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Confidence/error tracking example:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rstb.2011.0416&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rstb.2011.0416&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;resource-rational example:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://arxiv.org/pdf/1801.09848.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://arxiv.org/pdf/1801.09848.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2020-08-17T20:23:59.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25817" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-18T14:08:36.007" Score="0" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider one came up with a new surveying method, for example an application that relies on some form of gamification of question-answering and wanted to compare how participants would use it to answer question. It seems logical to let participants perform some type of well validated questionnaire, perhaps a Big-5 questionnaire, in the traditional form (for example on a 5 point likert-scale) and additionally get their answers to the same questions on the new surveying format, in order to compare the two and asses whether the new format yields comparable results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, in order to control for sequence effects, it appears right to randomly assign participants to either using the new format or the traditional format first.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, how would one go about determining the perfect interval between two testing sessions? Are there any important papers for reference that someone could link me to? Are there any greater issues with testing applying the same questionnaire just in a different format back to back without any break? Since I'm rather interested in testing in the realm of personality-measurement, the papers or references should relate to those areas, in the best case. Thanks for any thoughts or answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26686" LastEditorUserId="26686" LastEditDate="2020-08-19T10:57:52.253" LastActivityDate="2020-08-19T10:57:52.253" Title="How much time between test-runs for comparing surveying-tools?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25818" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13026" CreationDate="2020-08-18T14:24:49.393" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/ambigamy/201511/hardening-the-smarteries&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Hardening of the Smarteries&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26687" LastEditorUserId="26687" LastEditDate="2020-08-19T20:06:47.237" LastActivityDate="2020-08-19T20:06:47.237" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25819" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-18T16:12:14.503" Score="3" ViewCount="1637" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came across &lt;a href=&quot;https://rtt.com/whatisrtt/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rapid Transformational Therapy&lt;/a&gt; (RTT), a type of therapy created by the British psychologist and best-selling author Marisa Peer, which claims to be able to cure almost every personal &amp;quot;problem&amp;quot;. Hypnosis is a key element of the therapy, with the idea that the deep cause of many issues, from acne to phobias to depression to allergies, is something in the subconscious, and the solution being its acknowledgment and liberation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All I can find online about this (very expensive) therapy is praise after praise, mostly from self help and other light sites. I have found no scientific assessment of it. There are a few peer psychologists &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amandarobinspsychotherapy.com.au/articles/2018/6/17/why-marisa-peer-scares-me&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;complaining about it&lt;/a&gt;, but how much this is just envy is hard to tell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in a scientific appraisal of RTT. Is it as effective as the online presence of her seem to indicate? Is there evidence about it, perhaps comparing it to other therapies?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16411" LastEditorUserId="16411" LastEditDate="2020-08-19T09:29:33.797" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T12:13:59.453" Title="What is the scientific evaluation of Rapid Transformational Therapy?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;&lt;person-centered-therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25820" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25819" CreationDate="2020-08-18T20:23:22.523" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;q=%22Rapid+Transformational+Therapy%22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;no research papers on RTT present on Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, I think it is straightforward to presume that it has not been scientifically evaluated, which makes any claim whatsoever about its efficacy quite dubious. It's up to the people promoting an approach to demonstrate scientifically that it is effective, rather than for others to demonstrate it is ineffective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-08-18T20:23:22.523" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25822" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-19T10:50:33.863" Score="3" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drperlmutter.com/about/grain-brain-by-david-perlmutter/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Grain Brain hypothesis&lt;/a&gt; states that the consumption of gluten (and grains in general) produce long-term neurological damage. It's been proposed and popularised by neurologist and best-selling author David Perlmutter. He's has now made a career as a diet celebrity, selling books, food products, retreats, and the like.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a very comprehensive critical review of his profile and ideas &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thecut.com/2015/06/problem-with-the-grain-brain-doctor.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, which basically states that the current (2015) evidence is not there to support his claims, but doesn't deny some potential plausibility. A similar conclusion is reached in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Is-there-any-real-proof-for-the-grain-brain-theory-that-humans-should-not-eat-grains-or-is-this-idea-pseudoscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Quora question&lt;/a&gt;, from 2014.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder what's the updated case for or against that hypothesis. I did a rough search on Google Scholar and found &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10620-019-05663-x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1892&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; articles advising against low or gluten free diets. &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jgh.13706&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This one&lt;/a&gt; suggests gluten might not have to do with mild brain degeneration. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/12/3/822/htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; meta-analysis is too technical for me to understand but seems to focus only on those allergic to gluten.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone aware of the most recent and reliable evidence on this hypothesis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16411" LastActivityDate="2020-08-19T10:50:33.863" Title="What is the scientific evaluation of the Grain Brain hypothesis?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25824" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-19T13:54:47.450" Score="0" ViewCount="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a mobile app that I am developing I use multiple measurements - user acceleration, ambient noise level, consistency of the speed of user interactions with on-screen information etc - to keep track of how the user is probably feeling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For each of the above I have found good literature that describes research in the area.  For instance, the first derivative of user acceleration (jerk) has been shown to correlate well to how tense the user is feeling.  That apart I have incorporated machine learning techniques that ensure that the assessments that keep improving with usage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is one additional measure that I would like to incorporate - if only I could find at least some preliminary research that shows the right way forward. Both iOS and Android devices report the X and Y radii (major and minor radii) of the elliptical area that is tapped when the user interacts with the screen.  One possibility, for instance, would be to use consecutive touch events to deduce a numeric measure in the form of a &amp;quot;haptic jerk&amp;quot; (analogous with jerk as it relates to acceleration).  Perhaps haptic jerkiness increases as the user gets more distracted/busy/stressed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My searches have thus far yielded nothing useful - perhaps because I am not quite using the right search terms.  Perhaps someone here is aware of prior published research on the subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19016" LastActivityDate="2020-08-19T13:54:47.450" Title="Assessing feelings/mood from tap event Radii on touch screens" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;&lt;mood&gt;&lt;touch&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25828" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-20T14:14:24.550" Score="0" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;After which age, humans stop acquiring new reasoning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, suppose Mr. 'X' believes that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;capitalism is good, communism is evil or vice versa&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a specific religion is good, all other religions are evil&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a specific political party is good, all other parties are evil&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;... etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;these are examples of beliefs. People generally don't change their beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I want to change his belief, when should I stop trying? I mean, can I change his belief if he/she crossed 40years?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24043" LastActivityDate="2020-08-20T15:00:14.603" Title="After which age humans stop acquiring new beliefs?" Tags="&lt;belief&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25829" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-20T14:14:50.030" Score="1" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a student from Computer Science and interested in graph theory. I was looking for datasets for brain networks (structural and functional) for graph analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have found brain image datasets such as HCP and nilearn but I was wondering if there are raw graph datasets to work with. It would be great if these brain networks are designed for also tagged with phenotype or disease because I am looking to perform graph analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26699" LastActivityDate="2020-10-15T10:48:41.167" Title="Brain network datasets" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25832" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-20T19:30:36.740" Score="1" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Correlations between biological measurements and intelligence has been made in the past, e.g. blood flow or metrics like cortex size, though are there any specific neuroscience related intelligence theories and if so, any sources?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With theories I’m referring to works like the psychometric ones (Spearman) or cognitive-contextual like Triarchic and so forth..&#xA;Are any well-researched theories in the neuroscience space?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26635" LastActivityDate="2020-08-20T19:30:36.740" Title="Any neuroscience related intelligence theories?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25833" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-20T23:01:24.673" Score="0" ViewCount="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was thinking about building one app to give ability of communicate between Psychological Advisor and patients in different nations by this online bilingual translation technology like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/v9Uvo.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/v9Uvo.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kKLITKo8HM4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This video&lt;/a&gt; show more about its aspect like translation delay and ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So does translating the speech between the patient and doctors is acceptable and don't remove some useful data for this work?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the psychology adviser needs to have some speech parameters like sound tone and ..., which this works fail for this purpose, but i asked it here also.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24975" LastActivityDate="2020-08-20T23:01:24.673" Title="About bilingual translation technology usage between advisor and patient" Tags="&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25834" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-21T01:24:50.993" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if computational neuroscientists have come up with any models of attention allocation that are decentralized. I'm curious if any efforts have been made on this front, as selective attention is quite a fundamental feature of cognition. What are some of the the best models out there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4424" LastActivityDate="2020-08-21T01:24:50.993" Title="Are there any decentralized attention allocation algorithms in the literature?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25836" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-21T02:53:29.477" Score="3" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are aspects of cognition that are vaguely reminiscent of markets within an economy. For example, there is specialization as well as integration within both brains and economies. One of the problems posed by specialization is how the output of the specialized module or function can be integrated seamlessly with the whole, and this is one place where economics has an answer: through the price system.&#xA;(An analogue in the brain could be the amount of secretion of a neurotransmitter or growth factor.)&#xA;However, economies are made up of agents with self-interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it too far a stretch to think that neurons may be self-interested in a similar way? To justify the reasoning a little bit in biological terms, neurons are eukaryotic cells. There are a host of single-celled eukaryotic animals in the wild. These animals need to function in a self-interested manner, or else they wouldn't survive. Could neurons, therefore, have co-opted the self-interested &amp;quot;outlook&amp;quot; of such animals? After all, the basic DNA may still be there, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anybody is interested, &lt;a href=&quot;https://dnalc.cshl.edu/view/2059-Synaptic-competition.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this video&lt;/a&gt; was the inspiration behind my question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4424" LastEditorUserId="4424" LastEditDate="2020-12-08T11:19:40.430" LastActivityDate="2020-12-08T11:19:40.430" Title="Is there any justification for viewing neurons as self-interested agents?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25837" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25811" CreationDate="2020-08-21T10:13:31.293" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;My impression is that the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model is the most established and well respected framework. I.e., the closest thing that we have to something like the &amp;quot;Big Five&amp;quot; in personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It incorporates the importance of g, which is arguably one of the most fundamental ideas in intelligence research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it also focuses quite a bit on the distinction between fluid and crystalised intelligence. It is a very developed taxonomy based on a lot of theoretical and empirical work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sternberg's model of practical intelligence and Gardner's model of multiple intelligences often seem to get mentioned in entry-level textbooks but I don't think they enjoy mainstream support in the intelligence community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-08-21T10:13:31.293" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25838" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25836" CreationDate="2020-08-21T16:37:26.497" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer to &amp;quot;is there any justification&amp;quot; is pretty much always &amp;quot;yes&amp;quot;, but that can be a quite uninteresting &amp;quot;yes&amp;quot; if those justifications are poor. People justify bad or unsupported ideas all the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A big difference between single cells of a whole organism and single-celled organisms is that only the single-celled organisms reproduce on their own. Natural selection helps optimize that process to preserve the cells (and organisms) which are best able to make new copies of themselves. In that sense, even multicellular organisms aren't really self-interested, they are &amp;quot;my next generation interested&amp;quot;, which explains a lot of animal behavior that cannot be explained by self interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are models of brain function that involve competition between neurons (like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winner-take-all_(computing)&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;winner-take-all&lt;/a&gt; decision making, used both in artificial neural networks and to understand biological brains), but these algorithms aren't really &amp;quot;self-interest&amp;quot;, they're just the way that a whole brain arrives at a conclusion. There is also competition in development of neurons and synapses (and in other cell types as well), but it's not really right to think of this as &amp;quot;self-interest&amp;quot;, in particular because the &amp;quot;losers&amp;quot; undergo &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptosis&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;apoptosis&lt;/a&gt; - that's the opposite of self-interest, it's explicitly a behavior selected in cells that kills the cell for the benefit of the organism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could one still use a model of self-interest to understand these behaviors of cell survival and neural computation? Yes, probably, but it would be important to think of it as an &lt;em&gt;analogy&lt;/em&gt;. The neurons in such a model might behave &lt;em&gt;like&lt;/em&gt; a self-interested agent, but that doesn't mean they are one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes cells in a multicellular organism &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; develop tendencies towards self-interest, when the genes that limit and control the cells' growth are not behaving properly. These cells start to do a great job of replicating &lt;em&gt;themselves&lt;/em&gt; rather than functioning for the survival of the whole organism. We call this &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cancer&lt;/a&gt;, and it ultimately becomes self-defeating since once the whole organism dies, the tumor does as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-08-21T16:37:26.497" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25839" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25819" CreationDate="2020-08-21T19:08:26.197" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rtt.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;RTT's&lt;/a&gt; online forum was used to enquire as to whether there was any peer reviewed literature supporting RTT.  RTT's company lawyer replied with:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are no current published papers on RTT that we can provide. However, we have two feasibility studies starting in September. From what we have collected so far, we have statistically significant results in multiple therapeutic areas, however we can not yet share this information as we are still working on the data collection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A second line of inquiry was to note that RTT is endorsed by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://myiict.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Institute of Complementary Therapies&lt;/a&gt;(IICT).  The IICT also endorses techniques such as &lt;em&gt;Quantum Photo-Somatics&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Suspended Yoga&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;Tibetan Pulsing&lt;/em&gt;. The peer reviewed literature seems to have overlooked RTT and these other 'vital' therapies.  It is noteworthy that endorsement by the IICT can be obtained by a simple registration process and the payment of $179 per annum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that the data collection is starting next month, it doesn't seem that any scientific appraisal will be available for a few years (assuming that the claimed statistical significance still exists when the data is collected).  RTT self-identifies as a complementary therapy.  Complementary medicine can generally be equated with being non-scientific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further to the prior comments, a very expensive placebo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-08-21T19:08:26.197" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25840" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-21T20:54:40.947" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for the term for the tendency of people to keep a kind of &amp;quot;altruism credit&amp;quot; which means if they help someone else at one moment, they more likely resolve to not helping if they encounter an occasion to help the same day. Alternatively, I'd appreciate any studies which focused on this effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2020-08-21T20:54:40.947" Title="Name of the effect that one feels entitled to more egoistic behaviour if one commited an altruistic deed" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;altruism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2020-08-22T18:35:53.023" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25841" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-22T05:16:19.517" Score="0" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the psychology behind keeping secrets and not being able to keep secrets?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to prevent yourself telling secrets by imagining the dire consequences of telling secrets?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to train oneself to prevent yourself from telling a secret irrespective of whether you are tired, emotional or drunk?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26710" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-08-23T03:57:10.860" LastActivityDate="2020-08-23T03:57:10.860" Title="How to teach yourself to keep secrets?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25843" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-22T13:05:32.410" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the semantics for transition from positive valence to negative valence in the emotion literature? If for instance, (++) valence would be referred to as &lt;strong&gt;happy&lt;/strong&gt; and (--) valence state as &lt;strong&gt;sad&lt;/strong&gt; with considering neutral arousal state then how do we call (+-) and (-+) valence states?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested to know what are the valence states that correspond with the transition from positive to negative and vice versa.&#xA;I appreciate if the answer would refer to some references.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26655" LastActivityDate="2020-08-22T13:05:32.410" Title="transition in valence state" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;arousal&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25844" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21732" CreationDate="2020-08-22T13:11:01.817" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think, for a start, that you are absolutely right that time passes faster for older people. How can you do research to show this? It's a silly comment. Life itself shows that this is the case. When you're young (under your teens), normally, you enjoy life every day, crying and laughing. The days seem to last &amp;quot;forever&amp;quot;. Although it is said that time flies by when having a good time. But I think the last is the case for older young ones (like Einstein said when having a good time with your girlfriend time seems to pass much faster than holding you're hands on a hot object for a minute). Though it could be possible that in a Hopi society (to name an example) this isn't the case, but I'm 100% are it's the case when growing older.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering your question. It is said we are living in fast times these days. It's a rat's race. Are living fast and the perception of the speed of time connected? I think indeed. When I lay in my bed the whole of the day while feeling depressed, I can tell you that time passes slowly! Except when you sleep, of course. When I have many things to do (which I like) there can't be plenty of time enough, so time flies by. On the contrary, doing a job you hate for eight hours, will slow down your perception of time. Always looking at the clock: when can I go home?&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;I think this has been the case in all eras we are looking at. Why shouldn't it? I think a physical clock will have no effect on that. In almost all, if not all, cultures a physical clock is present. It's not a Swiss-made precisely ticking clock or an atomic clock, but one that resides in Nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my answer: No.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastActivityDate="2020-08-22T13:11:01.817" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25845" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-22T17:56:05.407" Score="0" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some time ago it was quite popular in Holland to put a special kind of picture on the internet. People (mainly young ones) made with their hands or faces, took a photo of it and used the negative function of their mobile camera. Here's one result:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/q75h0.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/q75h0.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of seeing the imprint bulging inwards, it seems like it's bulging outward. It seems pretty clear that the negative of inward is outward, but does this really answer my question?&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Who knows?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-08-22T19:12:51.107" LastActivityDate="2020-08-22T19:12:51.107" Title="Why does our perception of the photo negative of a snow imprint changes from inside to outside" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25846" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-22T18:27:34.793" Score="0" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think on Wiki &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ#:%7E:text=Twin%20studies%20of%20adult%20individuals,for%20late%20teens%20and%20adults.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; it is suggested that IQ is inherited to some degree.&#xA;But I can't find scientific information on whether it is more inherited from mother or father?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;e.g. if both mother and father have high IQ does it mean child is more likely to have high IQ then if for example only father has high IQ?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26713" LastActivityDate="2020-09-25T22:04:10.430" Title="IQ Heritability: from father vs mother?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25847" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-23T07:44:26.763" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;Bipolar disorder type 2 and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is regularly seen together. What is the neurological explanation for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26716" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-08-31T15:45:09.640" LastActivityDate="2021-05-28T17:07:55.807" Title="What is the neurological basis for the association between Bipolar type 2 and autism spectrum disorder (ASD)?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25848" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25882" CreationDate="2020-08-23T14:29:21.953" Score="0" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have any data to back this up, but it seems people are quick to question their non-belief in the horror side of the supernatural (while in dark rooms and the like), but still scoff at the idea of magic, and other fictional tropes. Even if the person knows perfectly well that ghosts don't exist, why does that particular myth prove hard to dispel?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm new to this site, so I apologise if it's not an appropriate question here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26718" LastActivityDate="2020-08-30T06:23:10.350" Title="Why do people fear ghosts but not believe in fairies?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25849" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25809" CreationDate="2020-08-23T23:25:33.863" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Attempting to reduce emotional responses to mathematics is likely in the realm of chaos theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a great Robert Sapolsky Stanford lecture on Chaos versus Reductionism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/_njf8jwEGRo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/_njf8jwEGRo&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26721" LastActivityDate="2020-08-23T23:25:33.863" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25851" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25925" CreationDate="2020-08-24T15:39:59.247" Score="1" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have an fMRI overlay that was output from meta-analysis software, so I only have the .nii results file, no raw data. I would like to view this file in conjuction with the AAL3 atlas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I usually use FSL but I cannot work out how to get the AAL3 atlas to work in FSL (I've managed to get the aal3v1.nii file into the right place but when I try to select it in the atlas pane, it hangs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I'm less familiar with MRICron but I did manage to get the AAL3 atlas to load. I cannot, however, get the brain region labels to show and it's the labels that I need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;I have never used SPM before. I've tried following several instruction manuals/tutorials but cannot even work out how to view my overlay. The AAL3 instructions are for SPM and talk about setting up contrasts and so on but I only have the .nii file - I don't have any data to analyse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone offer an idiot's guide to viewing an overlay with the AAL3 atlas, please, in any program? I've spent so many hours trying to work this out but I'm totally lost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24105" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T16:23:51.387" Title="View fMRI results with AAL3 atlas" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;spm&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25853" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-24T21:42:13.197" Score="0" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently carrying out research for my masters dissertation and i've run into a critical issue while trying to analyse my data. I'm a psychology student looking into predictors of male rape myth acceptance. My predictors are Sex, Age, Ethnicity, Estimated monthly income and Homophobia. My criterion variable and Homophobia predictor are both scale data, while Sex, Age, Ethnicity and Estimater monthly income are all categorical data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have successfully recoded Sex into a 0= female and 1= male binary variable and also dummy coded all of my other categorical variables. I've now come to do the analysis and I'm completely clueless on how I should enter the variables into the hierarchical model and then how to interpret the results after. I've only ever conducted a multiple regression using scale predictors before. I am also only familiar with dummy variables when they are entered into a model alone without any other variables as this is as far as our teaching went regarding them. If anyone can give me any help I'd appreciate it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26727" LastActivityDate="2020-08-25T10:03:10.490" Title="How to run a multiple hierarchical regression with both categorical and scale predictors in SPSS?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;software&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25854" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13026" CreationDate="2020-08-24T23:13:16.023" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've not seen self-infallibility listed anywhere; however, there are a few psychological constructs that may be useful:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dark Triad&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduct_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM5 - Conduct Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM5 - Narcissistic Personality Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM5 - Antisocial Personality Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overconfidence may be a synonym for self-infallibility in the context you are thinking.  Overconfidence would normally be thought of as a component of narcissism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More information would probably be required to distinguish between the four identified psychological constructs but hopefully these four links are a starting point for further research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jones, D. N., &amp;amp; Paulhus, D. L. (2014). Introducing the Short Dark Triad (SD3): A Brief Measure of Dark Personality Traits. Assessment, 21(1), 28–41. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-08-24T23:13:16.023" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25855" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25853" CreationDate="2020-08-25T00:56:27.847" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basically, you've got three kinds of predictors:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Binary (e.g., gender sex coded female = 0, male = 1):  The coefficient is the degree to which males are higher than females on the outcome variable, holding all other variables constant.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Numeric (e.g., age in years): The coefficient is the effect of being one year older on the outcome variable holding all other variables equal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nominal (3 or more categories; e.g., ethnicity). Here you create k - 1 dummy variables (where k is the number of categories). Each dummy category is the effect of being in that category relative to the reference category holding all other variables constant.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once you understand how to interpret the coefficients, hierarchical regression really doesn't change anything. Hierarchical regression is really the same as running a set of regression models with different predictors (they just happen to involve incrementally adding predictors).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-08-25T00:56:27.847" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25856" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-25T05:01:46.693" Score="3" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone point me to a good resource to explain how neurons in the visual system become sensitive to visual features?  I understand that specific neurons fire for things like direction of motion, orientation, etc.  How does this specialization get “programmed in” during development?  I’m sure that training from experience is key but how does a specific neuron become specialized for a feature and its neighbor becomes specialized for another feature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I’m a noob and curious how different neurons specialize to fire for simple features in the LGN but more complex features in higher visual areas.  Just go straight to Huble &amp;amp; Wiesel?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26730" LastActivityDate="2020-08-26T15:59:20.010" Title="Neuron specialization in the Visual System" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25859" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-25T14:02:49.247" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently conversing in the context of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/science/collective-unconscious&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carl Jung's concept of collective unconscious&lt;/a&gt; and Rollo May's concept of Dasein (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167815613880&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ratner, 2019&lt;/a&gt;). I frequently notice that some social contexts are very interrelated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, someone from a certain community (e.g. online gaming) would be talking to me about a specific topic that would usually be exclusive to a closed niche (e.g. the beauty in combining the color blue with the color orange). And then another person from a totally different community (e.g. a group of friends from the finance community) will be talking to me about the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think one reason for this is that these two different persons have a common social context (e.g. the TV) apart from the community where I separately have common ground with them (e.g. online gaming and finance). Another possible explanation is that they keep noticing the blue and orange color combination in me and they're just obfuscating facts because it would be socially inappropriate to tell me directly. The latter could be true, but I wonder why it happens very commonly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've also had some readings regarding behavior that said that when such kind of random reinforcement interval happens, a &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.uiowa.edu/comparative-cognition-laboratory/glossary/superstitious-behavior&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;superstition&lt;/a&gt; is usually formed. And I think this reinforcement-based superstition theory is true because I've started doing an investigation on conspiracy theories related to this as an effect of my &amp;quot;blue and orange&amp;quot; experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I actually found related conspiracy theories like the &lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.adams.edu/thepawprint/disney-princesses-to-blame-for-lack-of-boyfriend/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;theory about Disney princesses&lt;/a&gt; which says that the media is actually conditioning the mind of children to search for their &amp;quot;prince charming&amp;quot;. Another more credible concept is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/topic/invisible-hand&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Invisible Hand by Adam Smith&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, could it be possible that this archetype of the collective unconscious is actually &amp;quot;alive&amp;quot; in the sense that it is continuously evolving and directing us (e.g. through &amp;quot;blue and orange&amp;quot; hints)? What related questions would I need to ask in order to answer this inquiry?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ratner, J. (2019). Rollo May and the Search for Being: Implications of May’s Thought for Contemporary Existential-Humanistic Psychotherapy. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 59&lt;/em&gt;(2), 252-268. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167815613880&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167815613880&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26347" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-08-27T06:40:31.820" LastActivityDate="2020-08-27T06:40:31.820" Title="A Collective Unconscious That's Alive?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ClosedDate="2020-08-25T18:04:50.627" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25860" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="18205" CreationDate="2020-08-25T15:33:36.633" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mair, C. (2019). Speaking of Psychology: Psychology of Fashion. Retrieved August 25, 2020, from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/research/action/speaking-of-psychology/fashion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/research/action/speaking-of-psychology/fashion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26347" LastActivityDate="2020-08-25T15:33:36.633" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25861" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-25T16:49:51.657" Score="0" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;What psychological constructs best model friendships, and what are some common classic and contemporary academic literature on the subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26347" LastEditorUserId="26347" LastEditDate="2020-08-26T14:32:48.633" LastActivityDate="2020-08-28T03:31:39.653" Title="Psychology of Friendship" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25862" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-26T01:54:19.507" Score="2" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading paper-listed below-that talks about three terms,&#xA;Conditioned freezing;&#xA;Shock sensitization to startle;&#xA;Conditioned fear potentiation to startle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that conditioned freezing takes place when the subject (rat) learns to associate a neutral stimulus (CS) with an aversive stimulus (US), such that when the CS is presented alone, the subject will freeze in the form of defensive behavior. However, I do not understand its relation to the other two terms listed above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The paper citation is below,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(200005)36:4%3C282::AID-DEV3%3E3.0.CO;2-X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Richardson, R., &amp;amp; Vishney, A. (2000)&lt;/a&gt;. Shock sensitization of startle in the developing rat. Developmental Psychobiology: The Journal of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology, 36(4), 282-291.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26736" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-08-29T18:56:54.960" LastActivityDate="2020-08-29T18:56:54.960" Title="Difference between conditioned freezing, shock sensitization to startle and conditioned fear potentiation to startle?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behavioural-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25863" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25930" CreationDate="2020-08-26T07:55:14.130" Score="1" ViewCount="424" Body="&lt;p&gt;The more I think about the difference between &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;learning&lt;/a&gt; and Pavlovian conditioning, the more I'm unable to see how they differ. Even though in theory associative learning is just a portion of learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is the classical conditioning:&#xA;&lt;img src=&quot;https://resize.hswstatic.com/w_830/gif/hypothesis-1.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What if we have an observer watching the process? I think that even when the food and the bell are not for them, the fact that they observe their effects to the dog can lead them to a condition response as well. The process is as follow:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Before conditioning:&lt;/strong&gt; the observer has a belief that that food will make the dog excretes salivation, but bell alone is not. We say that the belief &amp;quot;food will make the dog excretes salivation&amp;quot; is an unconditioned belief, and &amp;quot;bell won't make the dog excretes salivation&amp;quot; a no-conditioned belief.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;After conditioning:&lt;/strong&gt; the observer has a new belief that &amp;quot;bell alone will still make the dog excretes salivation&amp;quot;. This belief is a conditioned belief.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We have this analogy:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Unconditioned observation:&lt;/strong&gt; Observe that the dog is fed&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conditioned observation:&lt;/strong&gt; Observe that the dog hears the bell&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conditioned belief:&lt;/strong&gt; Food will make the dog salivating&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Unconditioned belief:&lt;/strong&gt; Bell alone will still make the dog salivating&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I missing something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-09-05T14:26:37.617" LastActivityDate="2020-09-05T14:26:37.617" Title="What is the difference between conditioning and learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25864" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25861" CreationDate="2020-08-26T14:24:48.627" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are some related resources:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Classic: Carnegie, D. (1964). How to win friends and influence people. New York: Simon and Schuster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Modern Educational: infed.org. (2013, May 9). Friendship theory: some philosophical and sociological themes – infed.org: Education, Community-Building and Change. &lt;a href=&quot;https://infed.org/mobi/friendship-some-philosophical-and-sociological-themes/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://infed.org/mobi/friendship-some-philosophical-and-sociological-themes/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Modern with Minimal Academic Credibility: Wikipedia contributors. (2020, August 8). Friendship. Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendship&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendship&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Modern Casual: Friends. 2020. Psychology Today. Retrieved Aug 25, 2020, from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/friends&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/friends&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concise: friend. 2020. In Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved Aug 25, 2020, from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/friend&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/friend&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26347" LastEditorUserId="26347" LastEditDate="2020-08-26T14:34:48.797" LastActivityDate="2020-08-26T14:34:48.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25865" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25862" CreationDate="2020-08-26T15:20:58.930" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The first sentence of the abstract is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rats given a series of shocks exhibit a potentiated startle response to a loud&#xA;acoustic stimulus compared to nonshocked animals&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shock sensitization to startle refers to how giving a series of shocks results in a stronger startle in response to a startling acoustic stimulus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first sentence of the introduction is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presentation of a stimulus (e.g., a tone or a light) that had been previously paired with an aversive stimulus (e.g., shock) markedly enhances the unconditioned startle response to a loud, unexpected noise. This effect is referred to as fear potentiation of startle&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fear potentiation of startle is a more general case of &amp;quot;shock sensitization to startle&amp;quot; - animals who are made fearful respond more strongly to a startling cue. This is probably something you are familiar with as a human, too: think about jump scares in a haunted house, being startled by something while watching a scary movie, a sudden noise when walking in the dark, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When reading a paper you might start at the beginning and find the first places that terms you are interested in are mentioned - that's usually where they will be defined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-08-26T17:09:52.170" LastActivityDate="2020-08-26T17:09:52.170" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25868" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25846" CreationDate="2020-08-26T21:21:41.643" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that specifics on the heredity of IQ are largely unknown today. That same wiki page says,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intelligence in the normal range is a polygenic trait, meaning that it is influenced by more than one gene, and in the case of intelligence at least 500 genes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The frequency and disconnection of studies like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridgebrainsciences.com/more/articles/22-genes-have-been-linked-to-intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-have-discovered-almost-1-000-new-genes-associated-with-intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; shows just how uncertain this field of science is today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the genes that are passed on at random, they would be equally likely to be passed on from the mother as from the father - and the sheer amount of them would probably statistically lower any discrepancies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there is one little thing that might dictate that one parent is more likely to pass on IQ than the other: IQ is partially determined by environmental factors, and these environmental factors can sometimes be manipulated by the parents - and this manipulation may depend on the parents' intelligence. For example, according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.massagemag.com/infant-massage-boosting-babies-brain-power-23586/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;, infant massages can improve intelligence. It is quite possibly true that a more intelligent parent is more likely to find and notice this information. But perhaps it is also true that a father is generally more likely to accept and use this information than a mother, or vice versa. This would mean that one parent finding out this method to improve the baby's IQ would have more of an effect than the other one finding out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, this is only speculation, and this is clearly not strictly genetic, but it points to the possibility of one gender's IQ mattering more to the baby's development than the other's.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But with your example question, yes, that would probably be more likely, since that means there are more likely to be more IQ-related genes passed on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18820" LastActivityDate="2020-08-26T21:21:41.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25869" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21433" CreationDate="2020-08-26T23:55:32.913" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The editors of Jung's Collected Works point us in the direction of Jolande Jacobi's book &lt;em&gt;Complex/Symbol/Archetype&lt;/em&gt; for a Jung's definitions of this term.  (See the footnote in the &amp;quot;Definitions&amp;quot; chapter of of &lt;em&gt;Psychological Types&lt;/em&gt;.) There is a good summary of Jocobi's discussion in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://appliedjung.com/complex-archetype-symbol&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;AppliedJung.com website&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26743" LastActivityDate="2020-08-26T23:55:32.913" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25871" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24854" CreationDate="2020-08-27T01:51:52.527" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For a really quick and clear understanding of why sometimes it is better to stay in the container of dogma read Edward Edinger's &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0919123708&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Moby Dick&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jung's position is that religious energy must only &lt;em&gt;sometimes&lt;/em&gt; be defended against. The entire process of Jungian Analysis does, in fact, consist of a process of contacting one's own religious experience in a first-hand, non-dogmatic (responsible, discriminated) way. This process is what Jung developed and described in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0393065677&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Red Book&lt;/a&gt; and consists of analyzing one's dreams (which are essentially products of religious experience) active imagination, and discovering the religious energies in one's own, individual psyche.  However, Jung said in many places that Analysis was not for everybody, and if you can stay in the &amp;quot;container&amp;quot; of dogma contentedly, do so. He advocated Analysis only when your religious container was broken and neurotic symptoms where beginning to appear. I.e., those for whom the old dogmas would no longer work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To understand the power of the psyche's religious function, consider St. Paul's experience on the road to Damascus. He was knocked off his horse and went temporarily blind from having a religious experience (i.e., moving from persecuting Christians, to suddenly being converted to a Christian.) Similarly, think of Islamic religious fundamentalism; here is an example of religious energy coming up in raw form. It's not that that energy is &amp;quot;bad;&amp;quot; it is that it has not been reflected upon by the ego, the conscious mind, in a modern way, and the energy coming from the religious function is not &amp;quot;channeled,&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;well-contained.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider also the numerous cults gone awry: Jamestown, Nazism, etc. The appendix in Edinger's book &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/163051277X&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The New God Image&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is worth studying here. If that's the best you can do with your religious energy, better to stay in dogma. . . .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jung frequently establishes his point of view by reviewing what others have thought and done in history. He does this to show that there is a psychological necessity and historical precedent for what he is saying. The repression or suppression of the individual religious experience has been the historical position of much organized religion, particularly Christianity, for millennia.  The Catholic position has been that all believing Catholics need to &amp;quot;adopt the official dogma&amp;quot; (only Jesus and a few saints get to have a first-hand, non-dogmatic experience.) So Jung is just saying that throughout history, the need to contain religious energy in something has been found to be a necessity. (Esther Harding's &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0691017905&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Psychic Energy: It's Source and Transformation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt; is particularly clear on this.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also Edward Edinger's many other books on this topic, for instance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0919123864&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Psyche in&#xA;Antiquity.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0919123554&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Transformation of the God&#xA;Image&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0964222108&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Transformation of&#xA;Libido&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0919123279&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Christian&#xA;Archetype&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lawrence Jaffe's &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0919123856&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Celebrating&#xA;Soul&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;might also be useful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26743" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-08-27T06:52:57.860" LastActivityDate="2020-08-27T06:52:57.860" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25872" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-27T07:17:14.663" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is realistically in two parts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;how could a personal behavioural survey be constructed?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;are there any existing personal behavioural survey tools available?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The behavioural survey may include questions like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Did you feel lethargic today &lt;em&gt;[yes/no]&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How long have you worked out today &lt;em&gt;[high, medium, low]&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The survey tool would facilitate statistical analysis by categorically encoding the responses as shown in italics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be appreciated if you could provide ideas as to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How could this survey tool be built?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What questions should be asked?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How could the responses be quantified and analysed?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26744" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-08-30T21:13:24.590" LastActivityDate="2020-08-30T21:13:24.590" Title="How to build a personal behavioural chart?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2020-09-04T10:55:20.380" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25875" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-27T21:54:07.310" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wasn't able to find anything - I'm writing an article about the associations between cortical grey matter and scores on cognitive Intelligence tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are lots of good resources which argue and correlate those two, but I can't find a comparison of an &amp;quot;unintelligent&amp;quot; (performing bad on test) person being examined and an &amp;quot;intelligent&amp;quot; person. Does anyone know a good source?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26635" LastActivityDate="2020-08-27T21:54:07.310" Title="Comparison of Grey Matter in regards to &quot;Intelligence&quot;?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25876" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-28T01:57:47.087" Score="2" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;Doing my own independent research, I've noticed a clear pattern of religious people reporting feelings and sensations that they usually describe with expressions such as &amp;quot;waves of electricity&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;fire&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;heat&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;burning all over&amp;quot;, among others. I've heard expressions like these mainly from individuals in Pentecostal and Charismatic circles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For illustrative purposes, here are some example video clips from individuals describing their first-hand experiences: &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/7oMl7ZBlgdM?t=901&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;A&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/gDzI7ke3L54?t=592&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;B&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/VEi8rWLdf-o?t=71&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;C&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4hlqcekrGYI?t=95&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;D&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/8zv44JvuTqk?t=167&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;E&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/YVcTCooxEFY?t=49&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;F&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/sowJFlY6CVs?t=228&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;G&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Ppk1uoy-OdA?t=121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;H&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/YyTLtoQt8LU?t=144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;I&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/lii9TcDlTwc?t=118&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;J&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/cf3FLfddT8Q?t=99&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;K&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/MjpKiFK_Q3w?t=161&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;L&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Di7Y7JIyMqI?t=275&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;M&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, here is a quote from a very descriptive testimonial posted on Charisma Magazine:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...] In an instant, the Spirit of God gave me a single word in tongues to speak out, and as I repeated it, more words erupted through me. The power of the wonderful Holy Spirit &lt;strong&gt;enveloped me&lt;/strong&gt; as what seemed like &lt;strong&gt;waves of electricity&lt;/strong&gt; and what I can only describe as God's &lt;strong&gt;love and power washed over me&lt;/strong&gt;. It seemed as though a spotlight exploded out of my mouth as I spoke in tongues, with my arms and hands surging with &lt;strong&gt;tremendous currents of electricity&lt;/strong&gt; as the waves of power washed over the rest of my body as I loudly spoke in tongues, feeling immersed in His Spirit. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.charismamag.com/spirit/revival/32085-this-is-what-it-looks-like-when-holy-spirit-s-electric-power-sweeps-over-you&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.charismamag.com/spirit/revival/32085-this-is-what-it-looks-like-when-holy-spirit-s-electric-power-sweeps-over-you&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:J2dseD7Tb7AJ:www.charismamag.com/spirit/revival/32085-this-is-what-it-looks-like-when-holy-spirit-s-electric-power-sweeps-over-you&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;gl=cl&amp;amp;strip=1&amp;amp;vwsrc=0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cached version&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reviewing literature about these experiences in Google Scholar, I came across a paper published in 2014 by Julia L. Cassaniti and Tanya Marie Luhrmann titled &lt;em&gt;The Cultural Kindling of Spiritual Experiences&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/677881&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1086/677881&lt;/a&gt;). In this paper, there is a very interesting claim made by the authors. Here are two quotes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The “Holy Spirit” experience, for example, is a concept often used to describe an event in which someone feelings an &lt;strong&gt;intense surge of power sweeping through their body like electricity&lt;/strong&gt;, or what we would call the bodily affordance of an &lt;strong&gt;adrenaline rush&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These three phenomena—cataplexy, or the loss of muscle&#xA;control; &lt;strong&gt;adrenaline surge&lt;/strong&gt;, as if &lt;strong&gt;electricity is shooting through&#xA;the body&lt;/strong&gt;; and emotional surge, when someone experiences intense, overwhelming emotion—are examples of physiological phenomena that are common to all human bodies but unusual enough so that people can remember the moment&#xA;independent of a specific label.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, these authors are essentially claiming that the overwhelming feelings reported by religious individuals, typically described with expressions such as &amp;quot;waves of electricity&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;power&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;fire&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;heat&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;burning all over&amp;quot;, etc., would be nothing but physiological symptoms produced by sudden and intense surges of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenaline&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adrenaline hormone&lt;/a&gt; released into the individuals' bloodstreams. However, the paper offers no evidence to justify this claim. Moreover, a quick research into &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthline.com/health/adrenaline-rush&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;adrenaline rushes&lt;/a&gt; shows that they play a big part of the body's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fight-or-flight response&lt;/a&gt;, which is an evolutionary adaptation that gets triggered by situations that we perceive as dangerous, such as horror movies, extreme sports and similar, which to my layman understanding would make no sense in a typical religious worship setting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is it factually correct that adrenaline rushes are the ultimate cause behind the dramatic spiritual experiences reported by individuals in Pentecostal and Charismatic circles?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;@TonyMobbs in the comment section suggests that this question has already been answered &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/25800/25376&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. Concretely, he is pointing to two hypotheses from his answer: H4) Conformance to the social norms and H8) Attention seeking (as the other hypotheses are dismissed in the same answer). I don't agree with his suggestion, for the following reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;H4 was proposed as an explanation for the outer behaviour of shaking/trembling, not for the feelings of electricity, fire or heat reported by people. H4 basically proposes peer pressure as the primary incentive for shaking and trembling, and someone who intentionally fakes shaking or trembling out of peer pressure emotion-wise would feel feelings of relief, calm or social acceptance at best (not waves of &amp;quot;electricity&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;fire&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;heat&amp;quot;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;H8 (attention seeking) was later on proposed after I presented counter-examples to H4 in a &lt;a href=&quot;https://chat.stackexchange.com/rooms/112139/discussion-between-tony-mobbs-and-spirit-realm-investigator&quot;&gt;chat room discussion&lt;/a&gt;. However, at the moment H8 is just a placehoder in his answer, its writing is still pending, and at no moment his answer explains how H8 can account for feelings of &amp;quot;electricity&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;fire&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;heat&amp;quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25376" LastEditorUserId="25376" LastEditDate="2020-08-31T03:12:10.253" LastActivityDate="2020-08-31T03:12:10.253" Title="Is adrenaline rush the real cause behind feelings of &quot;electricity&quot;, &quot;fire&quot;, &quot;heat&quot; or &quot;burning all over&quot; reported in certain religious groups?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;religion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="12" FavoriteCount="0" ClosedDate="2020-09-01T22:21:13.767" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25877" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25861" CreationDate="2020-08-28T03:31:39.653" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;A few learned works on friendship:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bell, S., &amp;amp; Coleman, S. (Eds.). (2020). The anthropology of friendship. Routledge. ISBN 9781000320558&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current directions in psychological science, 11(1), 7-10. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00157&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00157&lt;/a&gt;   &lt;a href=&quot;http://onemvweb.com/sources/sources/Friendship_Quality.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://onemvweb.com/sources/sources/Friendship_Quality.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Spencer, L., &amp;amp; Pahl, R. (2006). Rethinking friendship: Hidden solidarities today. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691127422&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berndt (2002) observed that friendships can be classified as prized or troubled. The characteristics of which are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Prized friendships&lt;/strong&gt;: intimacy, loyalty, supporting, helping, sharing, praising, encouraging. and bolstering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Troubled friendships&lt;/strong&gt;: conflicts, dominating, and rivalry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berndt's analysis can be summarised visually according to the atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour (Mobbs, 2020):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ciUmB.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ciUmB.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly (but perhaps not surprisingly), friendship appears to closely align to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877.g007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Agreeableness&lt;/a&gt; dimension of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Five Factor Model&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mobbs AED (2020) An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. PLoS ONE 15(1): e0227877. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877&lt;/a&gt; [Post author = article author]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-08-28T03:31:39.653" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25878" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24953" CreationDate="2020-08-28T03:55:57.657" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com.au/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; reveals a substantial quantity of learned research on the topic of exorcisms, of which the items below are but a few:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ferracuti, S., &amp;amp; Sacco, R. (1996). Dissociative trance disorder: clinical and Rorschach findings in ten persons reporting demon possession and treated by exorcism. Journal of personality assessment, 66(3), 525-539. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6603_4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6603_4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ross, C. A., Schroeder, E., &amp;amp; Ness, L. (2013). Dissociation and symptoms of culture-bound syndromes in North America: A preliminary study. Journal of Trauma &amp;amp; Dissociation, 14(2), 224-235. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2013.724338&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2013.724338&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;McNamara, P. (2011). Spirit Possession and Exorcism: History, Psychology, and Neurobiology [2 volumes]: History, Psychology, and Neurobiology. ABC-CLIO.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Henderson, D. J. (1976). Exorcism, possession, and the Dracula cult: A synopsis of object-relations psychology. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 40(6), 603.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bull, D. L. (2001). A phenomenological model of therapeutic exorcism for dissociative identity disorder. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 29(2), 131-139. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/009164710102900204&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/009164710102900204&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pfeifer, S. (1994). Belief in demons and exorcism in psychiatric patients in Switzerland. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 67(3), 247-258.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1994.tb01794.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1994.tb01794.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rosik, C. H. (1997). When discernment fails: The case for outcome studies on exorcism. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 25(3), 354-363. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/009164719702500304&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/009164719702500304&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for many religious behaviours, exorcism behaviours appear to exist between non-intersecting religious and cultural groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A review of the abstracts suggests that involvement in exorcism is considered to be a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dissociative disorder&lt;/a&gt;.  The Mayo Clinic also has an interesting article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dissociative-disorders/symptoms-causes/syc-20355215#:%7E:text=Dissociative%20disorders%20are%20mental%20disorders,with%20functioning%20in%20everyday%20life.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dissociative disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-08-28T03:55:57.657" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25879" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-29T03:41:28.023" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;A person with high IQ might be good at solving puzzles with determined rules, but are not necessarily able to deal with complicated real world problems with limited knowledge, limited resources, and unknown rules. Allocating a person's limited resource into the most important area is one of the keys to success.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a &amp;quot;quotient&amp;quot; or a psychological measure that measures a person's ability of making a correct strategic decision, either through thinking or through a subconscious process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26613" LastActivityDate="2020-08-29T03:41:28.023" Title="What is the &quot;quotient&quot; determining a person's ability of seeing the big, long term picture?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25880" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-29T14:53:05.803" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know some references (e.g. papers or book chapters) that discuss aspects of the adaptivity of human/animal based on studying the behavior and ideally, what computational objectives pertaining to the adaptivity of human/animal have been or can be suggested based on them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example: Animals should adapt to their environment to survive, they should develop whatever [computation] needed to detect the hunter and escape timely. They should update their internal model (whatever we define the internal model), with changes in their environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23886" LastActivityDate="2021-05-27T17:04:00.393" Title="Looking for references discussing aspect of human/animal adaptivity and its pertaining computational objectives" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25882" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25848" CreationDate="2020-08-30T06:23:10.350" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some arguments for the origins of religion based on the byproducts of our adaptive cognitive mechanisms and biases. A prominent one is the &lt;em&gt;hyperactive agency detection device&lt;/em&gt; (HADD)--we are quick to infer the presence of intentional agency upon hearing a sudden unexplained noise or unnatural movement, especially in low perceptual quality situations (e.g. the dark). The cultural description of ghosts and other feared supernatural entities align with the situations in which HADD is likely to be triggered, but not so much fairies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26138" LastActivityDate="2020-08-30T06:23:10.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25885" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-30T15:28:35.677" Score="0" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does reading sentences one by one beside a picture&#xA;(as shown in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BijgqxztEpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; video of &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/lucidl/tedegraph&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; project) contributes to better comprehension of the text,&#xA;due to better readability, focus and other factors? In opposite to classical reading?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have already one feedback from person with dyslexia and she tells she reads fantastic with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="554" LastEditorUserId="554" LastEditDate="2020-09-03T18:55:26.740" LastActivityDate="2020-09-03T18:55:26.740" Title="Does reading sentences one by one contributes to better comprehension of the text?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25886" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25880" CreationDate="2020-08-30T15:56:05.350" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dynamic systems analysis has recently made inroads into psychology.  Quirin et al.(2020) consider adaptive processes and may be a place for you to start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quirin, M., Robinson, M. D., Rauthmann, J. F., Kuhl, J., &amp;amp; Deyoung, C. G. (2020). The Dynamics of Personality Approach (DPA): Twenty Tenets for Uncovering the Causal Mechanisms of Personality. European Journal of Personality. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2295&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2295&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-08-30T15:56:05.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25887" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-30T19:35:52.477" Score="1" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find the literature or a phenomenon name to explain the following condition,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Animals are trained with cued fear conditioning (Context A), then at testing, they have two consecutive cases. They can be either tested in the training context (Context A, contextual fear testing) first, or they can be tested in a different context (Context B, cue fear at testing) first. During contextual testing, animals show more freezing if they were not subjected to context B testing first. Does this indicate some form of contextual extinction or enhancing the specificity of freezing to CS while being in context B?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26736" LastActivityDate="2020-08-30T19:35:52.477" Title="Contextual freezing decline after exposure to CS (Fear Conditioning)" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;behavioural-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25888" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-31T01:19:53.293" Score="1" ViewCount="148" Body="&lt;p&gt;Why does a person's mind keep imagining situations with problems that do not exist and continue solving those problems in the imagination?&#xA;This keeps the person generally in absent-mindedness and oblivious of the real problems at hand and fails to solve real problems in life.&#xA;Is is any syndrome or disorder?&#xA;What is the solution?&#xA;IS there something like CBT/DBT/IPSRT that can make a change?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17994" LastActivityDate="2020-09-20T06:22:52.140" Title="Why does a person's mind keep imagining situations with problems that do not exist and continue solving those problems in the imagination?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;ptsd&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25890" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25847" CreationDate="2020-08-31T07:16:56.473" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Google Scholar identifies several learned articles that discuss the association/overlap between bipolar disorder type 2 and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Khanzada, N. S., Butler, M. G., &amp;amp; Manzardo, A. M. (2017). GeneAnalytics pathway analysis and genetic overlap among autism spectrum disorder, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 18(3), 527. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18030527&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18030527&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Stahlberg, O., Soderstrom, H., Rastam, M., &amp;amp; Gillberg, C. (2004). Bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and other psychotic disorders in adults with childhood onset AD/HD and/or autism spectrum disorders. Journal of neural transmission, 111(7), 891-902. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-004-0115-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-004-0115-1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gandal, M. J., Zhang, P., Hadjimichael, E., Walker, R. L., Chen, C., Liu, S., ... &amp;amp; Shieh, A. W. (2018). Transcriptome-wide isoform-level dysregulation in ASD, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder. Science, 362(6420). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat8127&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat8127&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Excerpts from the above include:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The conditions show similar neuropsychiatric behavioral disturbances, including impaired social interaction and communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Twenty-three genes were common to all three disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overlapping genes impacted dopamine and serotonin homeostasis and signal transduction pathways, impacting mood, behavior and physical activity level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My non-expert interpretation of the above is that there are genetic processes at work that drive the similarities in behaviour associated with these conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-08-31T07:16:56.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25891" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-31T07:43:11.240" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is it called when an individual would change what they were initially doing after hearing a loud noise, like a car beep, or alarm?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, what causes this behaviour to occur?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26744" LastActivityDate="2020-08-31T07:43:11.240" Title="Changing ideas after hearing loud noises?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25892" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-31T07:56:08.337" Score="0" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;What happens inside the brain when we concentrate (meditate), and why does a person find it difficult to continuously concentrate for a long time? That is, why does one need a break after working or studying for a given time, or why do we lose our concentration after a certain time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26773" LastEditorDisplayName="user27529" LastEditDate="2021-01-06T18:49:36.160" LastActivityDate="2021-01-06T18:49:36.160" Title="What happens inside the brain when we concentrate?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25893" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-31T10:23:35.550" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ater getting my bachelors degree in communications and working for a few years i discovered Psychology as kind of my hobby and read alot of books and visited some courses.&#xA;Now I want to get things a little bit more professional and get a Masters degree in the field. Now I need some opinions, expierences and recommendations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&amp;gt; Have you done a Psy. distance learning degree an can recommend it? ( or know of good/ affordable degrees?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&amp;gt; Do you think a Conversion Master can work in a field like Psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&amp;gt; Are their kinds of Psychology Masters I should be aware of?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;-&amp;gt; Do you know any good ressources I can draw Information from? (Of course I googled the topic already, but information is suprisingly limited and rather shallow)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just as a side note, Iam from Europe and the search is basically worldwide, so not limited to distance learning within the US (seems to be a common perception...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance, I hope you can help me take a step forward in this way :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24860" LastActivityDate="2020-08-31T10:23:35.550" Title="Psychology Master (Conversion) distance learning" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25894" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-31T11:07:24.480" Score="0" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;When you are in a sleeping state ,i.e.lying in bed before your alarm clock rings, and you hear a noise or a voice that is not too loud and is not continuous but impulsive, and your brain immediately recognise it and  remember it after you get up, does it mean: 1) that you were already half awaken? 2) that you were fully asleep but your brain was able to register it as if you were awaken?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26775" LastActivityDate="2020-08-31T11:07:24.480" Title="What does it mean if you are in a sleeping state and you hear a sound that your brain is immediately aware of?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25895" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-31T11:51:19.840" Score="0" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the psychology behind expecting a sound to occur from the action of a particular object?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And is this something measured by probability, by taking explanatory variables into consideration such as mass of the object, material and force of action for the sound to be caused?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, when playing an instrument such as a piano, what are the chances of experiencing an expected sound? I understand that this may be dependent on knowledge of the instrument, and knowing aposteriori the sounds, however, is there a method to expecting a sound to occur from playing keys on a piano without experience of this instrument? hence, is the probability of expecting a certain sound possible apriori?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A few questions asked here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26744" LastActivityDate="2020-08-31T11:51:19.840" Title="The probability of expecting the 'right' sound?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;music&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25896" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-08-31T15:57:03.130" Score="0" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does watching scary videos affect mental health?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are some individuals more/less prone to feeling scared than others?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26608" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-09-02T23:11:56.197" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T10:30:33.643" Title="Why do some individuals enjoy watching scary videos?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;well-being&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25897" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25898" CreationDate="2020-08-31T17:42:00.547" Score="2" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible that two neurons stimulate each other in an everlasting two neuron circuit?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26766" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-08-31T20:08:32.273" LastActivityDate="2020-08-31T20:08:32.273" Title="Can two neurons stimulate each other?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25898" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25897" CreationDate="2020-08-31T18:44:09.243" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;We refer to neurons that are connected to each other as having a &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C50&amp;amp;q=reciprocal+connection+neuron&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;reciprocal&amp;quot; connection&lt;/a&gt; (however, the term is also used to refer to &lt;em&gt;regional&lt;/em&gt; reciprocal connections in addition to neuron-neuron connections).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For typical neurons, much more than one input is necessary to reach action potential threshold, so you wouldn't expect reciprocally connected neurons to result in an &amp;quot;everlasting&amp;quot; response of the two cells. Pyramidal cells in neocortex, for example, are often connected to their neighbors, but that doesn't mean one always fires after its neighbor. Holmgren et al 2003 tested 542 pyramidal cell pairs from layer 2/3 of rat neocortex. 61 of those pairs were connected, and of the 61, 7 were connected reciprocally, and these were much more common among cells less than 50 microns apart.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are, however, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_pattern_generator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;central pattern generators&lt;/a&gt; that can include reciprocal connections to create a repeating rhythm. These networks typically involve substantial inhibitory components, though, rather than just two interconnected cells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Holmgren, C., Harkany, T., Svennenfors, B., &amp;amp; Zilberter, Y. (2003). Pyramidal cell communication within local networks in layer 2/3 of rat neocortex. The Journal of physiology, 551(1), 139-153.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-08-31T18:44:09.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25900" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-01T09:50:08.910" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;Or would they invariably show signs that psychologically they weren't right? I'm watching The Fall, where a serial killer is in the middle of his spree, but without his wife or work colleagues noticing any strange or abnormal behaviour, and wondering if that could really happen IRL?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26780" LastActivityDate="2020-09-01T09:50:08.910" Title="Could a serial killer continue undiscovered by friends, family, work colleagues?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;criminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2020-09-01T13:00:49.257" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25901" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-01T14:09:32.797" Score="3" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a Master's student focusing on psycholinguistics and I am preparing for my thesis. What I will be looking at are register effects and for that I will be conducting 2 online experiments using Ibex (participants will hear context sentences, be presented with a set of  visual stimuli and then react to the visual stimuli). As far as I know, online RT studies are not as reliable as those which are conducted in the lab in the sense that they are noisier and less accurate. There is a great thread which discusses this topic &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/9584/how-valid-are-reaction-times-collected-from-online-studies&quot;&gt;How valid are reaction times collected from online studies?&lt;/a&gt; and where it is claimed that online RTs studies can be reliable if they are well powered. All in all it makes sense but I am confused as to how many participants are too little and how many are just enough. Your help is very much appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26781" LastActivityDate="2020-09-01T15:43:44.967" Title="How many participants are needed for online reaction time studies?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;&lt;psycholinguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25902" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25901" CreationDate="2020-09-01T15:43:44.967" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are four variables of interest in a statistical power analysis: power (often chosen as 0.8 or 0.9 by convention, this is the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis if it is false), tolerated false-positive rate (alpha, often chosen as 0.05 by convention), sample size, and the effect size (which in turn depends on the variability of the observations and the difference between groups).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you do a power analysis, you can choose any one of those variables to calculate provided you have all the others. In your case, you want to know the sample size you need so you need to choose or estimate the other numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you know what statistical test you are using, there are numerous online calculators to help you choose a sample size. Personally, I like to use the free software &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologie.hhu.de/arbeitsgruppen/allgemeine-psychologie-und-arbeitspsychologie/gpower.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;G*Power&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Power and alpha are typically chosen by convention, so what you still need to know to determine your necessary sample size is the effect size you are looking for. If you have an experiment that you expect to have a large impact on reaction times, you don't need as many participants. If you are looking for a subtle effect, you need more. You can choose that threshold based on what is reasonably interesting/clinically relevant (this is ideal but sometimes frustratingly difficult to settle on), or you can base it on pilot data (can be dangerous when pilots are based on small sample sizes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you don't have any preliminary data, the best way to estimate the variance in observations would be to look at other similar studies collecting online reaction time data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, if you want to make sure you have a sufficiently powered study, it's good to use conservative estimates. If you guess that your effect is smaller and the variability is larger than what you hope, then you have a better chance of a sufficiently powered study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-09-01T15:43:44.967" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25903" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-02T11:07:31.523" Score="0" ViewCount="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have asked before that &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/25668/is-the-concept-of-the-inner-child-considered-to-be-pseudoscience&quot;&gt;is inner child a scientific &lt;/a&gt;term and find out it could be more pseudoscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But now I like to know what is the inner child place in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological defence mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; , what is the inner child defence system, according to that what is the place of these defence mechanism in psychological defence system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this question is hard so I am interested to know how could I found the inner child defense mechanism in the academic papers ( proper tag or ...) to reach more to answer and ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25925" LastActivityDate="2020-09-02T11:07:31.523" Title="Location of inner child at psychological defence mechanisms" Tags="&lt;dynamic-systems&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25904" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25906" CreationDate="2020-09-02T12:42:03.847" Score="3" ViewCount="238" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in what I naively call  &amp;quot;memory of addiction&amp;quot; - i.e. the brain restructuration that drugs addicts have and which causes the addict to need more and more to be satisfied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, knowing that some brain accident can cause amnesia, I wondered if there were cases of people who were drug addicts that &amp;quot;forgot&amp;quot; or lost there addiction after some accident (shock, stroke or whatever...).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you had any report paper on the subject, I'd be glad to know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25275" LastActivityDate="2020-09-02T17:41:46.017" Title="Are there cases of drug addict that &quot;forget&quot; their addiction after some brain damages?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25906" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25904" CreationDate="2020-09-02T17:41:46.017" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not aware of truly &amp;quot;forgetting&amp;quot; as in amnesia, but there have been reports that brain damage can disrupt the behavioral pattern of addiction which I think qualifies as what you describe as what &amp;quot;causes the addict to need more and more to be satisfied&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Naqvi et al 2007 reported that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;smokers&#xA;with brain damage involving the insula, a region implicated in conscious urges, were more likely&#xA;than smokers with brain damage not involving the insula to undergo a disruption of smoking&#xA;addiction, characterized by the ability to quit smoking easily, immediately, without relapse, and&#xA;without persistence of the urge to smoke&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patients in this study had damage from either stroke or from surgical resections for cancer or epilepsy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Naqvi, N. H., Rudrauf, D., Damasio, H., &amp;amp; Bechara, A. (2007). Damage to the insula disrupts addiction to cigarette smoking. Science, 315(5811), 531-534.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also this review:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Droutman, V., Read, S. J., &amp;amp; Bechara, A. (2015). Revisiting the role of the insula in addiction. Trends in cognitive sciences, 19(7), 414-420.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'd note that brain damage studies like these are quite complicated because damage to one area is often accompanied by other damage, and few subjects have similar lesions, so I'd be more hesitant than some of these authors are to implicate the insula specifically. Notably, the insula is near subcortical structures and fibers of passage that could also be involved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stelten, et al 2008 is a review of neurosurgical attempts to target addiction. These are mostly case studies/series and involved complex cases typically with multiple co-occurring psychiatric conditions. The authors raise ethical concerns with some of the studies, as well, including issues of consent and the permanence of interventions and the lack of control comparisons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Stelten, B. M., Noblesse, L. H., Ackermans, L., Temel, Y., &amp;amp; Visser-Vandewalle, V. (2008). The neurosurgical treatment of addiction. Neurosurgical focus, 25(1), E5.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also find &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_ylo=2016&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=5,50&amp;amp;sciodt=0,50&amp;amp;cites=11963772166133013727&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more recent papers and reviews that cite this one on Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; which might be a good place to continue your literature search.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-09-02T17:41:46.017" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25907" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-02T22:48:00.397" Score="0" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;From my limited knowledge, the structural-functional view focuses on the functions of different institutions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, that doesn't state what created these institutions in the first place. Even if institutions were created randomly, they will still serve whatever &amp;quot;function&amp;quot; they happen to serve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does the functional view assume that the institutions are purposefully designed to serve their functions? If so, does this view focus on particular mechanisms? Institutions can be designed by the government, or come up &amp;quot;endogenously&amp;quot; by groups of people getting together, or can just happen by chance (and survive if it happens to address certain needs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13243" LastActivityDate="2020-09-08T21:49:43.483" Title="Does the functionalism view of sociology assume that institutions are intentionally designed to serve their functions?" Tags="&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25908" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-03T03:29:40.263" Score="2" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I  watched &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dr10kEq-eu4&amp;amp;t=28s&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this video&lt;/a&gt; recently, and a common reaction in almost all of the strangers was that they were smiling, while talking about the most painful things they were told in their lives. My question is, why is that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it because they have accepted these events and have learned to move on, or do they act out this courage because they do not want to feel inferior socially? Could it be a psychological mechanism to cope up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25998" LastEditorUserId="25998" LastEditDate="2020-09-09T13:34:17.823" LastActivityDate="2020-09-09T13:34:17.823" Title="When talking about painful events in their lives, why do most people smile?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25911" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-03T14:09:32.447" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any therapy that is considered effective for changing a person's personality from introversion toward extraversion in the absence of any specific diagnosable disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am able to find many resources on treatment modalities that have been found to improve social function in people with certain specific disorders for which introversion is often a symptom, such as autism, depression, and schizophrenia, but I'm interested in the case of someone who doesn't have any specific disorder per se, but wants to become less introverted in order to build relationships, social capital, professional stature, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an analogy, remedial/developmental reading educators often distinguish between people with specific learning disorders such as dyslexia who often need a diagnosis-specific intervention versus people who just didn't get the opportunity to learn earlier, and thus respond well to general pedagogical techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13656" LastEditorUserId="13656" LastEditDate="2020-09-03T14:14:57.737" LastActivityDate="2020-09-03T14:14:57.737" Title="What sort of therapy could help a person become more extraverted?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;extraversion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25912" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25896" CreationDate="2020-09-03T16:06:00.877" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Below are some reasons why some people enjoy and what happens when watching a scary movie:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Horror entertainment can trigger the fight-or-flight response, which comes with a boost in adrenaline, endorphins, and dopamine. The brain can then process surroundings and conclude that the experience is not a genuine threat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Below are some causes and effects of watching a scary movie:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Excitation transfer: This theory states that people who experience an emotional response to horror also experience more enjoyment when threats are resolved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Individual empathy: People who are less empathetic enjoy horror films more, according to Professor Ron Tamborini. He suggests that “viewers with high levels of empathy should dislike horror films because they react negatively to the suffering of others.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sensation-seeking: People who watch horror movies may want to stimulate sensory reactions. Studies indicate these viewers may be more aggressive than other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Source of Reference&lt;/strong&gt; - &lt;a href=&quot;https://b.online.csp.edu/resources/article/pyschology-of-fear/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Concordia University&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26791" LastEditorUserId="20034" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T10:30:33.643" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T10:30:33.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25914" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-03T18:38:51.857" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently a study demonstrated evidence to support the hypothesis that exercise improves mental resilience and that this increased resilience seems to be related to &amp;quot;increased galanin levels in the locus coeruleus, a cluster of neurons in the brainstem involved in the stress response.&amp;quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.inverse.com/mind-body/brain-study-exercise-increases-resilience-to-stress/amp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SOURCE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chronic environmental or genetic elevation of galanin in noradrenergic&#xA;neurons confers stress resilience in mice&#xA;Rachel P. Tillage, Genevieve E. Wilson, L. Cameron Liles, Philip V. Holmes and David Weinshenker&#xA;Journal of Neuroscience 31 August 2020,&#xA;JN-RM-0973-20;&#xA;DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0973-20.2020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0973-20.2020&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2020/08/28/JNEUROSCI.0973-20.2020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2020/08/28/JNEUROSCI.0973-20.2020&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My intuition is that the sensory-motor brain has been designed by evolution to convert energy into the resources needed to sustain the &amp;quot;task positive network&amp;quot; only when the animal is moving and to otherwise conserve energy. Think of the lifestyle of the lion, for example. This animal seems to spend much of its time between hunts conserving energy. One might imagine that when the resources required to sustain mental stability run out, the resulting instability might reinforce the hunger compulsion to compel the lion to hunt for its next meal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this intuition reasonable or unreasonable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Might this phenomenon of exercise being required to sustain mental resilience be related to the need for primitive fish, our evolutionary ancestors, to keep swimming in order to breathe?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastActivityDate="2020-09-03T18:38:51.857" Title="Why does exercise increase mental resilience?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25915" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8955" CreationDate="2020-09-03T21:09:56.090" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;Possibly of interest:&#xA;2011 study from Berkeley, published in the Journal of Neuroscience: Pulling an all-nighter can bring on euphoria and risky behavior: &lt;a href=&quot;https://news.berkeley.edu/2011/03/22/pulling-an-all-nighter/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://news.berkeley.edu/2011/03/22/pulling-an-all-nighter/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26792" LastActivityDate="2020-09-03T21:09:56.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25918" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25922" CreationDate="2020-09-04T07:38:21.430" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to read or download this ARVO Journal's article, but I just cannot find any button on the website with this functionality: &lt;a href=&quot;https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2139676&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2139676&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;I have already registered and logged on, but the situation has not changed. Could you please help me find a way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26066" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T10:39:28.130" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T16:14:52.707" Title="How to view or download an open access article from ARVO journals?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25920" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-04T08:20:31.273" Score="0" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for the name and description of some psychological process I've observed - having two steps assuming the implication of third. For example - when I sometimes think &amp;quot;A is better then B&amp;quot;, it's instantaneously followed by &amp;quot;there must be possibility of C that is better both from A and B&amp;quot;. I do assume that process have a name, since it's quite common phenomenon in thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26020" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T20:22:19.783" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T20:22:19.783" Title="Term for the implication of the existence of additional entities?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25921" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25939" CreationDate="2020-09-04T10:25:45.327" Score="1" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know a guy who was very smart in school and university and had a high IQ. For example, in middle school he used to read high school science and math books like they're nothing but he had low EQ and low emotion control (probably because he had no father figure). Now this guy is in his late 30s and he say he's not as smart as he was, he has trouble understanding some of what he wrote or read 15 years ago, but he now understand emotions better which is clear when you see him interact with other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He used to analyze people logically which led him to many awkward moments and many confrontations (especially with girls) when he explained the inconsistencies in their arguments but now he really can read people emotions from their body language, their voice, their words.... which led him to wonder if some of his IQ became EQ. Suppose that he decides to live far from people and study his favorite subjects again, will his EQ decrease and become IQ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3205" LastActivityDate="2020-09-07T02:20:33.183" Title="IQ-EQ oscillation" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;emotional-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25922" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25918" CreationDate="2020-09-04T10:32:24.047" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2139676&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper you are linking to&lt;/a&gt; is an abstract presented on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.visionsciences.org/past-meetings/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vision Sciences Society Annual Meeting of 2011&lt;/a&gt;. Study abstracts are submitted to the conference organizers and often appear in the conference program and/or on the conference web site. They describe the work that will be/has been presented as an oral or poster presentation on a conference. Often the abstract is the only written record that remains of a conference prezzo. In other words, the abstract you are seeing is the paper itself, there is no further material to be downloaded, which explains the absence of the download button. If you click on the specific &lt;a href=&quot;https://jov.arvojournals.org/issues.aspx?issueid=933033&amp;amp;journalid=178#issueid=933033&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2011 issue&lt;/a&gt;, you'll see hundreds of prezzo abstracts listed there, including yours. On the website of VSS there's unfortunately only information about the last conference held, I believe in May 2020.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can contact the study authors and ask if they are willing to share the poster or the slides of the prezzo. In my experience, authors are often happy to share their research. Perhaps the results have been published in a journal paper in the meantime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T16:14:52.707" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T16:14:52.707" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25923" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-04T13:54:42.853" Score="1" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, it could be the case that a person has less &lt;strong&gt;Acetylcholine&lt;/strong&gt;, a key hormone that enables/helps to establish connection between neurons, so, the person has to go through more hardship to remember, thus study becomes difficult and difficulty makes the person reluctant. this is just an example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any book, research paper explaining why a person becomes reluctant to study using biological mechanism/brain chemistry or any type of method?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25589" LastEditorUserId="25589" LastEditDate="2020-09-04T14:32:53.727" LastActivityDate="2020-09-06T23:22:52.477" Title="Is there a Brain Mechanism for Reluctance of Studying?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25924" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-04T13:59:59.657" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if there is something similar HSV color-space for representing tonal perception. Also, I'm not sure about which are the psychological dimensions of sound perception. I believe that &amp;quot;pitch&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;loudness&amp;quot; are integral dimensions, but, are there others?&#xA;I would very much appreciate any help or recommended readings for this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14967" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T13:59:59.657" Title="Cognitive dimensions of sound perception and &quot;tonal space&quot;" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;auditory-discrimination&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25925" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25851" CreationDate="2020-09-04T16:23:51.387" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think to use the MRIcorn is the easiest way,&#xA;You can put the AAL3v1.nii.gz and AAL3v1.nii.txt into the mricron-templates folder.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yxZ5Y.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yxZ5Y.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;by the way which software you use to do fMRI meta-analysis?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;best,&#xA;Hui Zheng&#xA;Shanghai Mental Health Center&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26798" LastActivityDate="2020-09-04T16:23:51.387" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25926" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25923" CreationDate="2020-09-05T08:18:33.007" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As in everything in psychology and the studies of behaviour and the brain, there are many interpretations for the extremely complicated process of learning. If you want to check a basic (But detailed) book on most of the early understandings on the subject of Learning, I recommend anything written by Michael Domjan; specially &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;The Principles of Learning and Behavior&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, the studies showed in &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;Cognitive Psychology&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; by Robert Stenberg (Mainly memory and perception) could shed some light. If these books are not enough, you could always look for more specifics in some books in neural science, like: &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;Principles of Neural Science&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, written by Eric Kandel (Chapter 9 covers mostly learning, but I still recommend Chapters 1, 3, 4, 7 and 8)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want a more casual answer, learning is something we don't wanna do sometimes because it is very frustrating, exhausting and hard. Even more, if you're trying to study a very difficult subject, where you start to acknowledge your own cognitive limitations and falling victim to our impatience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26800" LastEditorUserId="26800" LastEditDate="2020-09-06T23:22:52.477" LastActivityDate="2020-09-06T23:22:52.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25927" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-05T10:57:13.017" Score="0" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anybody see the green ball in this picture shrinking? I have asked my friends and they have all said yes. I also saw the green ball seemingly decreasing in size when I first saw it. My only guess of how it works is that it resembles our reflex when we look at a very far or very near object and our lens instinctively adjust to make the image sharper, but in this case, it makes us see the ball as shrinking. However, I can't find any similar illusion on the internet. I would like to ask is there any other illusions like this out there, and if so, what is it called? Also, is my guess about the illusion's mechanism correct (or at least makes some logical sense)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.s: This is a very up-close (and quite random) picture of my friend's laptop LED.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/27zlg.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/27zlg.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26084" LastEditorUserId="26084" LastEditDate="2020-09-05T11:48:31.543" LastActivityDate="2020-09-05T11:48:31.543" Title="A random optical illusion" Tags="&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25928" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-05T13:26:41.050" Score="3" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;What branch of psychology deals with the framing effect (Tversky and Kahneman, 1981)? Any notable related literature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Tversky, A., &amp;amp; Kahneman, D. (1981). The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice. Science, 211(4481), 453-458. Retrieved September 5, 2020, from &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1685855&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.jstor.org/stable/1685855&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26347" LastActivityDate="2020-09-07T22:41:52.247" Title="What branch of psychology deals with the Framing Effect?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25930" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25863" CreationDate="2020-09-05T14:26:18.050" Score="0" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In Pavlov experiment, the unconditioned response and conditioned response is the same (both are salivating). In the analogy, the unconditioned belief is not the same with the conditioned belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In Pavlov experiment, the unconditioned response can only happen after the unconditioned stimulus. In the analogy, the unconditioned belief can be recalled (&amp;quot;activated&amp;quot;) even though there is no unconditioned observation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2020-09-05T14:26:18.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25931" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25058" CreationDate="2020-09-05T15:23:24.400" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer to this question is indeed: We don't know - as @ChrisRogers correctly explained.  However, let me mention some related research that may help shed some light on the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, there have been several highly publicized studies suggesting that psychedelic drugs can be useful in the treatment of addiction.  A few of these preliminary studies looked at spiritual experience as a potential mediator of this effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2174/1874473708666150107121331&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Garcia-Romeu, Griffiths, &amp;amp; Johnson (2014)&lt;/a&gt; for example, tested psilocybin on habitual smokers with a history of failed attempts at quitting, in a small non-randomized or controlled pilot study (read: preliminary!), and found:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smoking cessation outcomes were significantly correlated with measures&#xA;of mystical experience on session days, as well as retrospective&#xA;ratings of personal meaning and spiritual significance of psilocybin&#xA;sessions. These results suggest a mediating role of mystical&#xA;experience in psychedelic-facilitated addiction treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other effects of the drug and its intensity were not predictive of &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2016.1170135&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;long-term outcomes&lt;/a&gt;, suggesting that the spiritual experiences themselves may have been responsible for the effects, with the drug only a trigger.  Other studies (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0269881114565144&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bogenschutz et al, 2015&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.12.019&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dakwar et al, 2014&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2018.01.005&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dakwar et al, 2018&lt;/a&gt;) found similar results (again, preliminary!) with alcohol and cocaine addiction.  This is &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00005&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;by no means&lt;/a&gt; the only interpretation of the effects of psychedelic drugs on addiction - for example, such experiences may simply accompany whatever underlying effects the drug induces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/JAN.0000000000000001&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Previous research&lt;/a&gt; has suggested that spiritual experiences may be associated with beneficial outcomes in addiction treatment, though evidence is largely associative, and often retrospective.  Cases of spontaneous recovery from addiction linked to intense experiences (with or without the aid of psychedelics) are also not hard to come by in the literature, but as &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02673.x&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sellman (2009)&lt;/a&gt; puts it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... dramatic life‐changing experiences are hard to manufacture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As research into psychedelics is opening up, and their ability to manufacture such &amp;quot;dramatic life‐changing experiences&amp;quot; is established, we may learn more about the potential mediating role of these experiences in recovery.  There is a fair bit more discussion of this in Sellman's book: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00048670701579074&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Future of God in Recovery from Drug Addiction (2007)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-09-05T15:23:24.400" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25932" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-05T19:23:25.113" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to introduce current noise into the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hodgkin Huxley&lt;/a&gt; model to better represent the natural firing behavior of neurons - now I know that there are several approaches, but I would like to determine the noise intensity as a function of the total membrane voltage - do you have an idea how I could do that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hodgkin, A. L., Huxley, A. F., (1952), A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve. The Journal of Physiology, 117 &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1952.sp004764&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1952.sp004764&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Goldwyn, J. H., &amp;amp; Shea-Brown, E. (2011). The what and where of adding channel noise to the Hodgkin-Huxley equations. PLoS computational biology, 7(11), e1002247. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002247&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002247&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26801" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-09-05T23:52:13.493" LastActivityDate="2020-09-05T23:52:13.493" Title="Calibrate noise dependent on the membrane potential" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25933" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-05T17:48:24.580" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assume the patient is of average intelligence, high-functioning and not an immediate danger to themself or others but shows symptoms compatible with multiple diagnoses suggesting multiple contrasting courses of drug prescription. I haven't been able to find anything and assume that any non-negative answer would be unusably broad or otherwise contraindicated, but that may be pessimism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="ynaq" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2020-09-13T23:48:10.523" LastActivityDate="2020-09-13T23:48:10.523" Title="Is there a general order in which mental health issues are addressed in patients that can't specify which issue is most important to them?" Tags="&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25934" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-06T00:17:57.480" Score="0" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.laserfiche.com/ecmblog/how-do-we-keep-ai-systems-from-learning-bad-things/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Reward hacking&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirehead_(science_fiction)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wireheading&lt;/a&gt;, is a recurring theme in the Reinforcement Learning and &lt;a href=&quot;https://towardsdatascience.com/avoiding-side-effects-and-reward-hacking-in-artificial-intelligence-18c28161190f&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Artificial General Intelligence&lt;/a&gt; literature, where an agent learn to exploit the system to maximise reward.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do we know about actual limits of wire heading in humans? Do the body has an intrinsic defense mechanism to stop it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance (wild guess) the intense electric signals or other side effects of wireheading could generate pain, up to a threshold in which the subject prefer to stop rather than keep hacking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References of actual experiments are welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26802" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-09-06T11:33:26.313" LastActivityDate="2020-09-06T11:33:26.313" Title="What do we know about actual limits of wire heading in humans?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25935" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13671" CreationDate="2020-09-06T07:22:08.930" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quirin et al (2020) have developed a dynamic systems approach that uses optimisation consider behaviour and personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Quirin, M., Robinson, M. D., Rauthmann, J. F., Kuhl, J., Read, S. J., Tops, M., and DeYoung, C. G. (2020) The Dynamics of Personality Approach (DPA): 20 Tenets for Uncovering the Causal Mechanisms of Personality. Eur. J. Pers., &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2295&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2295&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-09-06T07:22:08.930" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25936" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-06T20:03:20.893" Score="3" ViewCount="125" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking about what pleasure is from the perspective of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_information_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;integrated information theory of consciousness&lt;/a&gt;. As I understand it, according to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/emotion/#EvalTradAffeScieApprTheo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;appraisal theory of emotions&lt;/a&gt;, the orientation on the good-bad spectrum is essential for every emotion. From the point of view of these theories, it seems pleasure should occur every time whenever a decision leads to a state evaluated as positive. Is this what modern research suggests or is there a better theory on what pleasure is information-wise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, what is the algorithm of pleasure according to contemporary science?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2020-10-13T20:31:43.317" Title="Is pleasure synonymous to positive reinforcement?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25937" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25928" CreationDate="2020-09-06T23:20:33.550" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gestalt psychology&lt;/a&gt; (Interpretrations of problems) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive psychology&lt;/a&gt; (Problem solving). If you are fairly new to these topics, Robert Stenberg's &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.worldcat.org/title/cognitive-psychology/oclc/654314386&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Psychology&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; is pretty simple and explains a lot of the basics of this complicated issue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be noted that Tversky and Kahneman are specialist in cognitive psychology itself, and have more works on this subject; but I still recommend Stenberg's work to appreciate a lot more of these books if you are starting to learn in psychology and the likes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope it helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26800" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-09-07T22:41:52.247" LastActivityDate="2020-09-07T22:41:52.247" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25938" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25936" CreationDate="2020-09-07T00:55:31.490" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Before I even start to try answering this question, it should be said that there is no clear and definitive answer. Endless debates are everywhere on the subject of consciousness but nothing has come close to becoming concrete, since many fields of knowledge have very different thing to say (like biology, philosophy, and of course, psychology).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, as a psychologist, I will give information to try to give the best answer I can from my perspective:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Going to early psychology, in behaviorism (the works of mostly &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pavlov&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Skinner&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Watson&lt;/a&gt;) have come to the conclusion that human behaviour will always steer in direction of receiving rewards and avoiding punishment, in other words, yes: our decisions are always in search of pleasure and escaping,reducing eliminating and (preferably) staying away of stressful stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The feelings of pleasure are tied to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurotransmitter&lt;/a&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dopamine&lt;/a&gt;, as it is well known, and the feelings of stress and discomfort are tied to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortisol&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cortisol&lt;/a&gt; (It is a lot more complicated than that, but I am trying to be simple and to keep it short). These hormones are released when the enviroment interacts with a person in a certain way, meaning that the objects or actions themselves are not what bring these emotions, but our perceptions and appreciation of the stimuli in question. This is the foundation of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intrinsic&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Extrinsic_motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;extrinsic&lt;/a&gt; motivations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks to everyone's definition of pleasure and stress being different, and our own definitions of these terms can evolve and change (Mostly to our ever-changing perspective and more accurately, our &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neurotransmitter receptors&lt;/a&gt; adapting accordingly to the amounts of dopamine or cortisol being received) is that we don't make the same choices than the rest of humanity or even that our decisions are not always constant, since we make decisions are in the moment, and our solution to the problem &amp;quot;What is going to give me the most pleasure?&amp;quot; is made somethings in the split of a second.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These hormones have been guides to ensure our survival as a species, making us feel good about things that are good for us (Like good food and sex) and making us flee or solve bad situations (Like the pressence of a predator, or being socially rejected). But as we grew smarter, we learn to &amp;quot;cheat&amp;quot; our innate reward system to make us feel good a in much more ways and situations. Smoking, drugs, and junk food does sure give a rush of dopamine, but the pleasure it gives surely contradict the effects they do to our health, so dopamine and cortisol are no longer reliable indicators that we are doing a &amp;quot;good choice.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can even make this MORE complicated if we start bringing in to this discussion the psychodinamics theories of Consciousness and the Unconscious, since if these ideas are to be believed, we could be making decisions that bring us stress and discomfort subconsciously, trying to appease the desires that we are not aware, giving some form of pleasure that we do not even accept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And bringing this wall of text to a conclusion, you COULD try to make a formula of behaviour with the variables of stress and pleasure, but would it be scientifically accurate and consistent? I don't think it can be done, by the very nature of biology and neural science, there is an constant evolution of pleasure and our understanding, and too many variables to be an effective algorithm to be applied to a considerable size of persons. But it surely has been &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewin%27s_equation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;theorized&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far my links have been Wikipedia articles, to make researching a bit simpler if you are not willing to read entire books and articles, but I do not recommend this if you are serious about your learning of the subjects. Here I will list some books and explain how they relate to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/B00H7HU5ZE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Principles of Learning and Behaviour&lt;/a&gt; by Michael Domjan. This detailed book can help you understand every facet of the more earlier works of behaviorism and some of the more present ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/1588111245&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurochemistry of Consciousness&lt;/a&gt; by Elaine Perry. It surely is a heavy read, but very insightful and detailed if you are for the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259916421_Unconscious_influences_of_not_just_on_decision_making&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Unconscious Influences on Decision making&lt;/a&gt; by Géraldine Coppin. While I am not usually font of psychodinamics theories of decisions, I feel obligated to link at least an article to let you read on it and make your own conclusions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26800" LastActivityDate="2020-09-07T00:55:31.490" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25939" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25921" CreationDate="2020-09-07T02:20:33.183" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;IQ&amp;quot; is a very broad and full of misconceptions. While it may be the most popular form for measuring intelligence, it has been debated a lot of it's scientific properties and accuracy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the case you explain,the individual in question has high understanding of mathematics and logic and low emotional intelligence. If we are following the famous interpretation of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Gardner&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gardner's&lt;/a&gt; of intelligence with the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Theory of Multiple intelligences&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;there is no direct correlation between the two&lt;/strong&gt;; but, by logic and human limitations, not everyone can have high intelligence in all its different encarnations. It can be perfectly normal to be considered a genius in some area but &amp;quot;average&amp;quot; in others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As we understand this, it is no secret that an emotional unstable person may have difficulties getting their thoughts in order and may have poor performance by stressful factors formed by their disruptive psyche. I feel obligated to note that to be unstable by your emotions, you need to first recognize and acknowledge them, and to do that you need to develop some tools provided by emotional intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And as well, there are many theories that as we grow old if not maintained and reinforced, our intelligence may start to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleability_of_intelligence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;deteriorate&lt;/a&gt;, and that many factors that increase this process are tied to psychological stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is definitely endless variables that can not be determined by the lack of details in the case proposed, but this is just a broad interpretation and should not be taken as absolute truth and be used to explain every person that may fit this case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want to research more on your own, the previously mentioned Garner's &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0465047688&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice&lt;/a&gt; is a must read to understand one of the most prominent theories of intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotional intelligence can be studied in much more detail in the work of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Goleman&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Goleman&lt;/a&gt; in Emotional Intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And while it can be a heavy read, any serious book on neuroplascity can be helpful to understand the ever changing brain and it's functions and &amp;quot;agility&amp;quot;. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://rads.stackoverflow.com/amzn/click/com/0262529335&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuroplasticity&lt;/a&gt; by Mohed Constandi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this answer helps you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26800" LastActivityDate="2020-09-07T02:20:33.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25940" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-07T07:13:20.517" Score="0" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there popular resources that discuss group dynamics in a fraternity? I'm especially looking for the common concepts and viewpoints (e.g. power, status, camaraderie, loyalty, initiation) and possible pitfalls to avoid (e.g. greed, impudence, arrogance, parasitism).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, is there a specific term for this type of field of study?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26347" LastEditorUserId="26347" LastEditDate="2020-09-07T11:01:33.587" LastActivityDate="2020-09-07T11:01:33.587" Title="Resources on Fraternity Group Dynamics" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25942" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-07T18:00:45.320" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;In wild turkeys, male turkeys that are related to eachother will band together to form groups where only one male in the group will reproduce and the others will simply exist to help the dominant male. It was shown that this is a form of &amp;quot;cooperative evolution&amp;quot; in which the genes of the nonreproducing males live on through the dominant male. The results were shown to be consistent with &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nature03325&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hamilton's rule&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could suicide be an evolved trait? In the case of Turkeys, the choice to be sub-dominant (and to never reproduce) is always done within families. Similarly, if suicide was evolved for in a similar way, it might be that there's a &amp;quot;family&amp;quot; trigger. For example, if a &amp;quot;subdomininant male&amp;quot; believes that his family's fitness would be higher without him (maybe in a poor family where lack of food will produce two males with studented growth), suicide might be more likely as it increases the &amp;quot;dominant males&amp;quot; potential reproductive success. But if that male is an only child and there are no cousins or potential for other kin - suicide would hurt the genetic fitness of the family.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any evidence of this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26806" LastActivityDate="2020-09-07T18:00:45.320" Title="Is suicide an evolved trait consistent with Hamilton's rule?" Tags="&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25943" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-07T18:07:52.783" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;So everybody raised in the same area speaks with the same dialect, why is it so? What is the neuroscience behind this phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26766" LastActivityDate="2020-09-07T18:07:52.783" Title="What is the neuroscience behind copying dialect?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25944" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25009" CreationDate="2020-09-08T01:32:58.257" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;An open version of the PPI is available here: &lt;a href=&quot;https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/LSRP.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/LSRP.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-09-08T01:32:58.257" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25945" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-08T12:16:26.720" Score="2" ViewCount="94" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l80zgw07W4Y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; Ted Talk Ramachandran sais that &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mirror neurons&lt;/a&gt; can make a person with an amputated arm feel sensation, is it true? And if so, why doesn't the brain feel a sensation by looking at someone else's arm when your arm is intact?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26766" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-09-09T22:59:34.233" LastActivityDate="2021-02-07T01:02:55.343" Title="Is it true that mirror neurons can make a man with an amputated arm feel sensation just by looking at someone else's arm, like Ramachandran said?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;mirror-neurons&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25946" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25907" CreationDate="2020-09-08T20:27:43.430" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since there have been no answers in five days, perhaps I can give a partial answer. I am by no means an expert, so I hope someone will point out my mistakes or if there is any bias (which I am sure there is). Also, my knowledge is limited to political science, but still I hope there is something that you can get from this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In Britannica, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/topic/structural-functionalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;structural functionalism&lt;/a&gt;, is defined as &amp;quot;a school of thought according to which each of the institutions, relationships, roles, and norms that together constitute a society serves a purpose, and each is indispensable for the continued existence of the others and of society as a whole.&amp;quot; So for Britannica, the view seems to be about mutually interdependent structures in society. According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_functionalism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;, a common analogy likens these structures to &amp;quot;organs.&amp;quot; The wikipedia article also lists a lot of criticism to this approach. To give an example of &amp;quot;real research&amp;quot; along these lines; many view the &lt;em&gt;Varieties of Capitalism&lt;/em&gt;-framework (Soskice &amp;amp; Hall, 2001) as functionalistic (but you should make up your own mind about that, of course ;)).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A common critique of structural-functionalism is indeed that it explains the existence of institutional arrangements based on some notion of efficiency or optimality. This critique seems to be very common among historical-institutionalists in political science, who stress that institutions are the products of historical processes, and even in cases where they are the products of some group of actors to solve a particular problem, they can often &amp;quot;outlive&amp;quot; their creators and, with time, change to serve entirely new purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of this can be found in Kathleen Thelen's critique of the structural-functionalist perspective. In her book &lt;em&gt;How Institutions Evolve&lt;/em&gt; (2004), she describes (among other things) how the German system of vocational training evolved from being a system initially designed to weaken the position of the labor movement, to the diametrically opposite position of being a central pillar in the cooperation between the state, employer associations and labor. I recommend reading the introduction and following the references therein - she also references research using the functionalist perspective!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pierson (&lt;em&gt;Politics in Time&lt;/em&gt;, 2004) defines a &amp;quot;functional interpretation&amp;quot; as a view where &amp;quot;institutional arrangements are explained by their outcomes,&amp;quot; or where &amp;quot;institutions take the form they do because powerful actors engaged in rational, strategic behavior are seeking to produce the outcomes observed.&amp;quot; This he calls &amp;quot;actor-centered functionalism,&amp;quot; which he distinguishes from &amp;quot;societal functionalism,&amp;quot; in which institutions exists because they fulfill a certain function for society as a whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For Pierson, functional accounts are seen as inadequate for historical research, as they are unable to account for &amp;quot;lag&amp;quot; between the moves of actors and actual institutional outcomes (among other things). I recommend reading Piersons introduction and chapter 4 and 5 if you are interested in what he says about functionalism (I really recommend the entire book, actually :)).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for my subjective view (for whatever its worth to you ...), I'm not really sure what functionalism really is. I have read many articles that analyze institutions or human behavior using game-theoretic models and so on, and in my (narrow) view, this literature represents the stereotype of functionalist accounts. Even so, there are works that utilize game-theory in historical research (see especially: Greif, Avner, 2006, &lt;em&gt;Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy&lt;/em&gt;) and that tries actively to overcome the sort of criticism that I have cited above, so there is certainly a blurry line of demarcation here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am sorry for the heavily biased reply to your post, and I am not entirely sure it was the answer you were looking for. Reading the critique of researchers in the &amp;quot;historical institutionalism&amp;quot; camp will certainly answer your question positively - functionalism is indeed about purposefully designed institutions (but, as Pierson points out, this does &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; mean that the perspective is without merit!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, due to my own narrow perspective; what researchers subscribing to functionalist views themselves think, I do not know. Also, if there is any difference between sociology and political science I cannot tell. Hopefully someone will reply with a more informed view if they feel this reply is inadequate :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26797" LastEditorUserId="26797" LastEditDate="2020-09-08T21:49:43.483" LastActivityDate="2020-09-08T21:49:43.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25948" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-09T15:31:48.747" Score="0" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the neurotransmitter of retinal ganglion cells and relay neurons in the LGN?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are they Merely excitatory or inhibitory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Inputs from LGN to the primary visual cortex are just excitatory or they can also inhibit v1 neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can you please share some references to address this question?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26653" LastActivityDate="2020-09-09T15:31:48.747" Title="What is the neurotransmitter of retinal ganglion cells and relay neurons in the LGN?" Tags="&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25949" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25945" CreationDate="2020-09-09T23:10:26.373" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mirror neurons&lt;/a&gt; exist and have been recorded from in primates and humans - these are cells that respond to the actions and inferred perceptions of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In papers by Ramachandran and others, they have shown that patients who have their arm anesthetized report experiencing a sensation of touch when they see someone else's arm touched:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Case, L. K., Abrams, R. A., &amp;amp; Ramachandran, V. S. (2010). Immediate interpersonal and intermanual referral of sensations following anesthetic block of one arm. Archives of neurology, 67(12), 1521-1523.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Case, L. K., Gosavi, R., &amp;amp; Ramachandran, V. S. (2013). Heightened motor and sensory (mirror-touch) referral induced by nerve block or topical anesthetic. Neuropsychologia, 51(10), 1823-1828.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These papers of course strongly suggest, but do not necessarily prove, that these phenomena occur due to mirror neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-09-09T23:10:26.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25950" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25945" CreationDate="2020-09-09T23:25:26.603" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Ramachandran's original research can be found at:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ramachandran V. S. (2005). Plasticity and functional recovery in neurology. Clinical medicine (London, England), 5(4), 368–373. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.7861/clinmedicine.5-4-368&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.7861/clinmedicine.5-4-368&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A replication study has subsequently been performed:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Daniëlle Ezendam, Raoul M. Bongers &amp;amp; Michiel J. A. Jannink (2009) Systematic review of the effectiveness of mirror therapy in upper extremity function, Disability and Rehabilitation, 31:26, 2135-2149, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3109/09638280902887768&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3109/09638280902887768&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The conclusion of the replication study was:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The present review showed a trend that mirror therapy is effective in upper limb treatment of stroke patients and patients with CRPS, whereas the effectiveness in other patient groups has yet to be determined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The replication study indicates that the mirroring effect is true at least in some situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Ted lecture you refer to (time = 4:45) suggests that we do feel a sensation in our own arm when we sense that someone else may be feeling pain in their arm.  Perhaps this is the basis of empathy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ramachandran conducted subsequent research:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ramachandran, V. S., &amp;amp; Hirstein, W. (1997). Three laws of qualia: What neurology tells us about the biological functions of consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 4(5-6), 429-457.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This subsequent research indicates that if the area of the brain that contain the mirror neurons is damaged, then the individual may suffer a loss of empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversely, bilateral damage to the amygdala may lead to a loss of emotion and empathy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-09-09T23:25:26.603" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25953" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25954" CreationDate="2020-09-10T02:25:19.510" Score="0" ViewCount="89" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm sure everyone experienced it quite a few times before. For example, sometimes when we go to the kitchen to grab something the moment we get to the kitchen you forget what you were trying to get. Why is that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17262" LastEditorUserId="6947" LastEditDate="2020-09-11T08:08:05.147" LastActivityDate="2020-09-11T08:08:05.147" Title="Why do we sometimes forget the retrospective component of a particular task?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25954" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25953" CreationDate="2020-09-10T05:21:14.447" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;I must begin by stressing that while this is an interesting question, it is also very complex (much like memory itself). Similar to other areas of Cognitive Psychology, depending on which expert you ask, you might get different explanations. My background is in prospective memory and cognitive psychology, and this is how I would address this question. I believe this framing is crucial to contextualize my answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On a high level, we can classify memory into &lt;a href=&quot;https://human-memory.net/retrospective-prospective-memory/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retrospective memory and prospective memory&lt;/a&gt;. Retrospective memory is where to be remembered item occured in the past (people, events, tacit skills). Prospective memory (PM) concerns how we remember to do things in the future (i.e., &amp;quot;remembering to remember&amp;quot;), or remember to perform an intended action at the correct time/situation. A classic example of PM is having to remember to pick up milk on the way home from work. Your ability to do this may be directed by &lt;em&gt;active maintenance&lt;/em&gt; (e.g., reiterating to yourself for hours), self-generated cues/offloading (e.g., a phone reminder), or environmental cues (e.g., driving past the shop).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In prospective memory, it is common for individuals to remember to complete the prospective (e.g., go to the shop), but forget the retrospective component of the task (e.g., what to buy at the shop). This is the experience you are talking about. There is a wide literature of laboratory based experiments that attempt to explain the processes underlying why individuals sometimes forget to perform a PM task (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000303&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smith et al.&lt;/a&gt;; or B&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-02930-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;randimonte et al.&lt;/a&gt;; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2013.07.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scullin et al.&lt;/a&gt;), or forget to perform the retrospective component (for review, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.plm.2017.03.007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;see Mcbridge &amp;amp; Workman&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without getting deep into the neurological or exact cognitive level for &lt;em&gt;why you would forget the retrospective component of a task&lt;/em&gt;, consider some factors that may decrease/increase probability of forgetting:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/S0364-0213(01)00058-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Task interruptions&lt;/a&gt; 'disrupting' your memory trace&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A long duration between encoding an intention and having to retrieve the specific item from memory.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Pre-existing clinical disorder or ageing related disorder. Intoxication related brain function inhibition.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The to-be remembered retrospective component was unfamiliar, indistinct. You failed to encode the item properly in the first place.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Having a strong memory trace through &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/acp.1576&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;implementation intentions can support memory for the retrospective component&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There's evidence that &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-17875-001?doi=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cue valence&lt;/a&gt;/&lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-10651-002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;salience&lt;/a&gt; (i.e., being positive/negative or distinct) or &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00657/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;important&lt;/a&gt; improves  memory for the retrospective portion of PM.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is but a small subset of possibilities. On a cognitive level, an activation based explanation would be that the &amp;quot;to-be remembered retrospective memory item&amp;quot; dropped below some critical threshold of neural activation, and was forgot. Interference based approaches would argue that some event during the retention interval disrupted the stored model or memory item, thus leading to forgetting. Neuropsychology based approaches would be able to map more specifically regions of the brain to forms of forgetting in laboratory based tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, we don't really know exactly why people forget things in any arbitrary context. However, psychologists can identify and classify the &lt;em&gt;kind of forgetting&lt;/em&gt; that occurred, and provide suggestions of the &lt;em&gt;likely&lt;/em&gt; factors that would have contributed to that forgetting. Neuropsychology approaches would assist in grounding these explanation in terms of neurological processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further Reading:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brandimonte, M. A., Einstein, G. O., &amp;amp; McDaniel, M. A. (Eds.). (2014). Prospective memory: Theory and applications. Psychology Press. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-02930-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-02930-000&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, R. E., Hunt, R. R., &amp;amp; Murray, A. E. (2017). Prospective memory in context: Moving through a familiar space. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 43(2), 189–204. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000303&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000303&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Burgess, P. W., Gonen-Yaacovi, G., &amp;amp; Volle, E. (2011). Functional neuroimaging studies of prospective memory: What have we learnt so far? Neuropsychologia, 49(8), 2246–2257. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.02.014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.02.014&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schaper, P., &amp;amp; Grundgeiger, T. (2018). The effect of different distractions on remembering delayed intentions. Memory, 26(2), 154–170. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2017.1339090&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2017.1339090&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson, F. T., &amp;amp; McDaniel, M. A. (2019). Retrieval in prospective memory: Multiple processes or just delay? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 72(9), 2197–2207. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021819845622&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021819845622&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ball, B. H., Brewer, G. A., Loft, S., &amp;amp; Bowden, V. (2015). Uncovering continuous and transient monitoring profiles in event-based prospective memory. Psychonomic Bulletin &amp;amp; Review, 22(2), 492–499. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0700-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0700-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dismukes, R. K. (n.d.). Prospective Memory in Aviation and Everyday Settings. 22.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heathcote, A., Loft, S., &amp;amp; Remington, R. W. (2015). Slow down and remember to remember! A delay theory of prospective memory costs. Psychological Review, 122(2), 376–410. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038952&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038952&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kuhlmann, B. G., &amp;amp; Rummel, J. (2014). Context-specific prospective-memory processing: Evidence for flexible attention allocation adjustments after intention encoding. Memory &amp;amp; Cognition, 42(6), 943–949. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-014-0405-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-014-0405-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McBride, D. M., &amp;amp; Workman, R. A. (2017). Chapter Seven - Is Prospective Memory Unique? A Comparison of Prospective and Retrospective Memory. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 67, pp. 213–238). Academic Press. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.plm.2017.03.007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.plm.2017.03.007&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Scullin, M. K., McDaniel, M. A., &amp;amp; Shelton, J. T. (2013). The Dynamic Multiprocess Framework: Evidence from Prospective Memory with Contextual Variability. Cognitive Psychology, 67(0). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2013.07.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2013.07.001&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6947" LastActivityDate="2020-09-10T05:21:14.447" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25955" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-10T05:23:06.480" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://irisreading.com/speed-reading-tips-5-ways-to-minimize-subvocalization/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Speed Reading Tips: 5 Ways to Minimize Subvocalization&lt;/a&gt; suggests that &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot; study after study shows that eliminating this habit completely is not possible.&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this true? What are some of the authentic studies and results regarding this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="17994" LastActivityDate="2020-09-10T05:23:06.480" Title="Can subvocalization during reading be totally done away with?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;reading&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25957" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22064" CreationDate="2020-09-10T07:35:56.793" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not a psychologist so be cautious about drawing conclusions from what I say.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Education can teach us to use our working memory more effectively by:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Learning how to do better chunking (which sometimes comes at a cost of time and effort spent on recall and on creating the chunk, but this can be improved with practice).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Using our strongest domain(s) when appropriate, taking into account our capacity and &amp;quot;chunking skills&amp;quot; in each domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/10449/24277&quot;&gt;this answer&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The evidence for domain-specific modalities is largely based on the (lack of otherwise expected) interference between them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This means that &lt;strong&gt;maybe&lt;/strong&gt; you could spread your items-to-remember across different domains to use otherwise untapped capacity, and (based on information from the linked answer) the usage order of domains matters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, since some (if not all) of these methods come at a cost and require conscious effort, the advantages of remembering more this way are limited and not equivalent to increasing your actual working memory capacity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Examples:&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remembering a number by the pattern it draws on a phone's unlock screen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remembering a shopping list by imagining a set of (memorable, ridiculous) images where each image includes 2 items, one of which is also included in the next image (1st image: items 1 and 2, 2nd image: items 2 and 3, and so on). Then you can recall the first image, and recall each next image by asking what other image included an item from the current image. This is a good example of how verbal/auditory memory isn't always the best choice for remembering a list, unless your visual memory is much worse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remembering a number by recognizing (mathematical or other) patterns in it, so you can reconstruct the number (or part of it) from these patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While you didn't ask for &amp;quot;brain training techniques&amp;quot;, training is part of learning, if you want to become educated on how to use your working memory more effectively, you will need to practice the methods and see them in action, and they involve using skills that will improve with more practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more information, read about methods of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-you-can-train-your-brain-memory-champion-still-forget-your-car-keys-180962496/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;memory champions&lt;/a&gt; - people who manage to quickly memorize many things, such as card decks, long numbers and speeches. Their methods can be used by anyone, you don't have to be an exceptional person to be able to do impressive things with your memory, I tried it myself and was surprized at how well and how easily it worked for me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24277" LastActivityDate="2020-09-10T07:35:56.793" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25958" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-10T09:10:10.197" Score="2" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;When running a sociological experiment where subjects are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups and only the treatment group will be sent some information regularly (for example, weekly), how can the researcher minimize the risk of contamination of the control group (for example, if someone from the treatment group posts their information on social media or the like where anyone from the control group might see it)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any way (other than informing both groups of the importance of a control group) to reduce this risk of control group contamination?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6960" LastActivityDate="2020-09-12T06:52:31.773" Title="How to avoid control group contamination?" Tags="&lt;reproducible-research&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25965" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19598" CreationDate="2020-09-12T08:11:47.473" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is a very simple question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt;, three vertical lines were occupying the top space in the diamond. In the lower half of the diamond, half the space was shaded and the other half was unshaded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;2&lt;/strong&gt;, two vertical lines were occupying the top space in the diamond. In the lower half of the diamond, all of the space was shaded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was hence a net loss of one vertical line and increase of one shaded space. That is the same operation you should have conducted in &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;strong&gt;3&lt;/strong&gt;, two vertical lines were occupying the upper-half space in the square. Similarly, half the bottom-half space of the square was shaded. Therefore, there must now be in the empty space a square containing one vertical line and a fully shaded bottom-half space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was not the relative positions of the vertical lines that you should have considered, but the quantity thereof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope I don't have to explain to you why there should be a square in the empty space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyways, that was my interpretation of the question. Hope this helped.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26832" LastActivityDate="2020-09-12T08:11:47.473" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25966" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22064" CreationDate="2020-09-12T16:07:22.447" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Based on what I'll explain below, I'm going to have to say yes—but I don't know that there's a lot permanency to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not a psychologist, but I do have low working memory and seem to notice when and how it improves and worsens (for me, personally). So, I can give you my personal anecdotal opinions (with no guarantees as to their accuracy, nor to how they might affect other people besides myself):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a teenager, I seemed to notice dramatic gains in working memory through playing Chess regularly with a challenging, but realistic opponent (one I could work up to beating, rather than one that trounced me all the time no matter how much I practiced). These gains actually seem to last a long time (potentially up to several months after stopping), but they're initially very stressful (and later addictive) for me to work at gaining, and after that long time has elapsed and the benefit is gone, I don't know that they have any lasting benefit with regard to working memory. It seemed to take a few weeks of serious playing to get a particularly nice effect. It's important to note that at the time, I was not impulsive in my decisions, and I analyzed all my options before making a move (rather than using intuition). I didn't memorize moves in advance. Finding a proper Chess opponent is difficult. The stress comes back when the working memory goes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Chess seemed to help me with decision-making, and foreseeing obstacles and solutions (outside of Chess). It improved the number of things I could foresee in my working memory, and such.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I discovered that listening to audiobooks while typing out what I heard (as best as I could), seemed to improve my working memory (and my typing speed).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, I discovered that practicing four-part songs on a digital piano seemed to increase my working memory (including as it pertains to story-writing). I like this method quite a bit, and it's what I do now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stress seems to decrease my available working memory, while comfort seems to increase it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think memorizing paragraphs of text every day for a long time actually had a negative impact on my working memory (although it might have had initial gains). I think the reason is that I wasn't working on long-term retention, but just on like one or two-day retention. I tried memorizing too much stuff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm light-sensitive, and it seems that some kinds of light can negatively impact my working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some drugs are supposed to impact working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So you know, here is a list of situations that require working memory that I struggle with:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taking directions (people usually lose me after the first two steps)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Audio lectures&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Reading (Even though I know what all the words mean, I sometimes have to reread a paragraph several times)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Answering questions that require me to make a decision&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Conversations&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Explaining things I know, vocally&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Doing much of anything when I'm nervous&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Transitioning between activities&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Completing/ending activities&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taking notes (yes, that's a coping mechanism that just isn't ideal)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consulting multiple sources to complete an assignment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Telling people what I just read. The need to do so seems to take the working memory required to remember the stuff I read.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Knowing what people are talking about, especially if they they answer simple questions with long stories (instead of with one word or one sentence answers).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Helping people with their computer software-related stuff. I still do it, successfully, but I usually have to waste a lot of time listening to them talk about stuff that I just can't process, before I do it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Taking messages for other people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Making commitments wherein it wasn't my idea to make the commitment; I mean if someone asks, Will you do such and such after you finish what you're doing? I prefer them just to ask after I finish instead.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In-class assignments (where the teacher tells the assignment vocally, without writing it down)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Listening to people, especially if they talk slowly (it's easier for me to understand people that talk fast, because I can fit it in all at once more easily)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I'm good with some of the working memory tests they give. Like, where they ask you to repeat back numbers. That's not really a challenging environment for me by comparison to the above. Numbers are easy because they're in small, separable chunks, and they have simple meanings, often without much context. Numbers are also easy to repeat quickly. Words in a conversation or in instructions are more difficult, because they're bigger and involve more things, and not just a linear process that requires little effort. Plus, it's harder to get distracted with numbers. I can remember a license plate number a lot more easily than I can remember a list of three or four things someone else wants me to do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19142" LastEditorUserId="19142" LastEditDate="2020-09-12T16:36:36.880" LastActivityDate="2020-09-12T16:36:36.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25888" CreationDate="2020-09-13T03:37:13.340" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It sounds like you're talking about what psychologists and neuroscientists commonly call &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_sdt=1,14&amp;amp;q=%22episodic+future+thinking%22&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;as_vis=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;episodic future thinking&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=1%2C14&amp;amp;as_vis=1&amp;amp;q=%22mental+simulation%22&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mental simulation&lt;/a&gt;. In this cognitive state, we simulate possible future scenarios, often pertaining to social interactions we might have, or survival situations. This allows us to pseudo-test hypotheses regarding the possible outcomes for an imagined scenario based on inference and the memories of our past experiences in similar situations. This may be adaptive if it allows us to prepare contingency plans for those scenarios, should one arise. We do this habitually, perhaps because there are so many possible scenarios to simulate, and the more we explore options and form tentative contingency plans, the better prepared we are for the world. It might also just be a rewarding activity in and of itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Absent-mindedness, mind wandering, or distractibility by one's own thoughts may be problematic if we are chronically distracted away from the present moment and the tasks that need to be accomplished at the moment. Mindfulness therapies may be helpful in training the ability not to let the mind wander and instead focus on desired tasks. Activities that require concentration may also train this ability, such as music performance. In severe cases, stimulant medication may be helpful, such as amphetamines or methylphenidate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regarding neural mechanisms for these states, there has been quite a lot of research and speculation in recent years on the interplay between two major brain networks, typically called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C14&amp;amp;q=default+mode+network&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;default mode network&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C14&amp;amp;q=salience+network&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;salience network&lt;/a&gt;. In functional connectivity MRI studies, the default mode network seems to be active during the state you described, whereas the salience network is active during focused attention on the external world and while completing a task. It may be that differences in how these networks have developed in an individual dictate the strength of their tendency to internally simulate rather than focus on the external world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a study regarding these networks and PTSD: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3498527/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural Dysregulation in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Evidence for Disrupted Equilibrium between Salience and Default Mode Brain Networks&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9217" LastEditorUserId="9217" LastEditDate="2020-09-15T20:13:48.083" LastActivityDate="2020-09-15T20:13:48.083" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25968" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-13T13:11:13.563" Score="3" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there neurological disorders which do not affect the emotions per se but affect how they are expressed by the body?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Say, normally positive emotions are associated with the tips of the lips facing upwards; do some people express positive emotions in different ways?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alternatively, when an average person discovers something funny for some period of time they breathe abnormally (so-called laughter); could some people's reaction entail e.g. blinking instead of that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26841" LastActivityDate="2020-09-16T03:48:42.647" Title="Neurological disorders affecting body language" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;body-language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25969" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-13T19:51:51.617" Score="0" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;Dreams seem very similar to data compression in a computer like a zip-file. We gather a huge pile of data throughout the day and when we rest, we compress this raw data into chunks of similar data (impressions/feelings) to store it in the long term memory more efficiently. It would make sense, because when we dream we often see things that we experienced but mixed up with other stuff and also more symbolically. Has anyone had this theory before or is there any research on this topic? Just the thoughts of a curious software engineer. Cheers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26846" LastActivityDate="2020-09-13T19:51:51.617" Title="Is dreaming the data compression of the brain?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25971" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-14T22:16:35.160" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember something in psychology saying some people who are motivated by parent/guardian abuse in their past can have issues motivating themselves unless under pressure of a deadline or other stressor. Is there a known disorder under these traits? What are some treatments that may work? And finally are there any books or readings on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26856" LastActivityDate="2020-09-14T22:16:35.160" Title="Solving motivation issues caused by abuse" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;procrastination&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25972" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25968" CreationDate="2020-09-16T03:48:42.647" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is usually referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_expression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotional expression&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_display&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;affect display&lt;/a&gt;, which can be verbal as well as non-verbal, whereas &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_language&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;body language&lt;/a&gt; is exclusively non-verbal, and not exclusive to emotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This function can certainly go &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_expression#Disorders&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wrong&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a few disorders that show deficiency in emotional expression&#xA;and response. These include alexithymia, autism, hypomimia and&#xA;involuntary expression disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_display#Disorders_and_physical_disabilities&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;also&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Disorders involving ... reduced affect displays most commonly include&#xA;schizophrenia, post traumatic stress disorder, depression, autism and&#xA;persons with traumatic brain injuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, afflicted individuals do not typically substitute one expression for another - they usually either do not express some emotions (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spock&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spock&lt;/a&gt;, who would have been diagnosed with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexithymia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;alexithymia&lt;/a&gt;), or they express some emotions inappropriately (eg, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joker_(2019_film)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Joker&lt;/a&gt;, who presumably suffers from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudobulbar_affect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PBA&lt;/a&gt;).  It's unlikely that someone would express happiness by tapping their foot, or laughter by blinking their eyes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-09-16T03:48:42.647" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25973" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-16T14:26:42.330" Score="3" ViewCount="105" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any difference between label and category? We use categories everyday. Psychiatrists use it too. Aren't psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia or bipolar disorder just labels that are assigned to specific disorder cases that patients have?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Isn't &amp;quot;labeling&amp;quot; itself a label? People have some thoughts, but some of them are labeled as &amp;quot;labeling&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I say that the bird I see is a pigeon, this is labeling as well. But I don't think that saying that the pigeon is a pigeon is a cognitive distortion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sorry, I am not a psychologist. But my psychotherapist said me that I assign labels to person and their actions. But I don't understand what it means and why it is bad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26862" LastEditorUserId="26862" LastEditDate="2020-09-16T14:34:42.673" LastActivityDate="2020-12-17T22:07:17.250" Title="Why is labeling a cognitive distortion? How is it different from categorization?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;&lt;cognitive-distortion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25974" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-16T20:01:27.100" Score="3" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;h1&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Context&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently working on a research about the relation between children's first years of life and the managment of emotional emptiness in maturity, e.g. smoking habits, eating disorders, onychophagia, bruxism, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Information found&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do know both oxytocin and prolactin are needed for lactation, as it says in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/565623_2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Prolactin stimulates milk biosynthesis within the alveolar cells of the breast and oxytocin stimulates contraction of the myoepithelial cells that surround the alveoli, causing the milk to be ejected into the ducts leading to the nipple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, as Michel Odent points out in &lt;em&gt;Le bébé est un mammifère&lt;/em&gt;, when a mother gives birth to a child, a peak of oxytocin is released stimulated by the very first moment of physical contact. I can deduce that if there is no contact, neither the oxytocin peak will occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, does somebody know if prolactine levels are affected by the peak of oxytocin caused by mother-child contact? e.g. Lower levels of oxytocin could lead to lower levels of prolactin and affect lactation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26779" LastEditorUserId="26779" LastEditDate="2020-09-17T04:58:01.560" LastActivityDate="2020-09-17T04:58:01.560" Title="Interactions between oxytocin and prolactin after birth" Tags="&lt;oxytocin&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25976" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25973" CreationDate="2020-09-17T04:30:11.657" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As Bryan Krause suggested (above), talking with your psychotherapist is likely the &lt;strong&gt;most important&lt;/strong&gt; next step for you to take.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, please note that what I write below is simply general &lt;em&gt;information&lt;/em&gt; about cognitive behavioral therapy. I do not know your situation. What I share with you here is not personal advice. It is information only.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You might find it helpful to read more about cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) because it might answer at least one of your questions, which I will paraphrase as: &lt;em&gt;Why are cognitive distortions potentially harmful?&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Brief answer with an example&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What you &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; (assumptions, beliefs) about yourself and the world greatly influences what you &lt;em&gt;do&lt;/em&gt; (behavior) and how you &lt;em&gt;feel&lt;/em&gt; (emotions). Our minds often distort reality by &amp;quot;telling&amp;quot; us untruths, which in turn lead us to feel and act differently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: I'm a college student majoring in psychology. I studied reasonably well for a statistics test, but I received a &amp;quot;B-&amp;quot; grade. My friend received an &amp;quot;A&amp;quot;. I immediately think, &amp;quot;I'm not smart enough to be a psychologist.&amp;quot; I subsequently don't study as hard and I start thinking about changing to an &amp;quot;easy&amp;quot; major. I feel down and start to smoke weed every day to feel better, which causes me to feel even less motivated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, according to cognitive behavioral theory, my negative (distorted) thoughts about the &amp;quot;B-&amp;quot; grade led to a downward spiral of maladaptive behaviors and depressed mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Very brief history&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[&lt;strong&gt;Edit of 17 Dec 2020&lt;/strong&gt;: Thank you to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/users/11556/tale852150&quot;&gt;tale852150&lt;/a&gt; for calling attention to my egregious and baffling omission (see the Comments, below). I added this section about Albert Ellis because Ellis was indeed the first cognitive-behavioral theorist and clinician.]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Albert Ellis (1913–2007)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the mid-1950s, Albert E. Ellis, Ph.D., developed the first systematic cognitive therapy, which he originally called &amp;quot;rational therapy&amp;quot;, with the therapy approach evolving, the name changed to &amp;quot;rational-emotive therapy&amp;quot; (RET), and finally, &amp;quot;rational-emotive behavior therapy&amp;quot; (REBT). This book chapter provides a concise, yet complete overview of REBT:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dryden, Windy, Daniel David, and Albert Ellis. &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Windy-Dryden/publication/227153297_Rational_Emotive_Behavior_Therapy/links/563200b808ae3de9381d893e/Rational-Emotive-Behavior-Therapy.pdf#page=241&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;quot; In &lt;em&gt;Handbook of Cognitive Behavioral Therapies&lt;/em&gt;, 3rd ed., edited by Keith S. Dobson, 226–276. New York: Guilford, 2010.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And here are few representative samples of Ellis' publications:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ellis, Albert. &amp;quot;Rational Psychotherapy and Individual Psychology.&amp;quot; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Individual Psychology&lt;/em&gt; 13, no. 1 (1957): 38-44.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ellis, Albert, and Robert A. Harper. &lt;em&gt;A New Guide to Rational Living&lt;/em&gt;. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1961.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ellis, A. (1962). &lt;em&gt;Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;. Secaucus, NJ: Lyle Stuart.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ellis, Albert. &amp;quot;Rational-Emotive Therapy and Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Similarities and Differences.&amp;quot; &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Therapy and Research&lt;/em&gt; 4, no. 4 (1980): 325-340.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ellis, Albert. &amp;quot;Changing Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) to Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT).&amp;quot; &lt;em&gt;Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy&lt;/em&gt; 13, no. 2 (1995): 85-89.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Aaron Beck (1921– )&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aaron Beck, M.D. developed &amp;quot;cognitive therapy&amp;quot; in the early 1960s. One of his first breakthrough articles was:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beck, Aaron T. &amp;quot;Thinking and Depression: I. Idiosyncratic Content and Cognitive Distortions.&amp;quot; &lt;em&gt;Archives of General Psychiatry&lt;/em&gt; 9, No. 4 (1963): 324–333. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1963.01720160014002&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Helpful articles&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John M. Grohol, &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/lib/15-common-cognitive-distortions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;15 Common Cognitive Distortions&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;, &lt;em&gt;PsychCentral&lt;/em&gt; (24 Jun 2019). Here is a quote from Dr. Grohol's article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What’s a &lt;em&gt;cognitive distortion&lt;/em&gt; and why do so many people have them?&#xA;Cognitive distortions are simply ways that our mind convinces us of&#xA;something that isn’t really true. These inaccurate thoughts are&#xA;usually used to reinforce negative thinking or emotions — telling&#xA;ourselves things that sound rational and accurate, but really only&#xA;serve to keep us feeling bad about ourselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cherry, Kendra. &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-cognitive-behavior-therapy-2795747&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What Is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)?&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; &lt;em&gt;verywellmind&lt;/em&gt; (13 June 2020). This is a quote from the article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on changing the automatic&#xA;negative thoughts that can contribute to and worsen emotional&#xA;difficulties, depression, and anxiety. These spontaneous negative&#xA;thoughts have a detrimental influence on mood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that &amp;quot;automatic negative thoughts&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;cognitive distortions&amp;quot;, as used by most psychotherapists, have very similar if not identical meanings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Best-selling book&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The top-selling cognitive behavioral therapy book on Amazon.com currently is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gillihan, Seth J. &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Made Simple: 10 Strategies for Managing Anxiety, Depression, Anger, Panic, and Worry&lt;/em&gt;. Emeryville, CA: Althea Press (Callisto Media), 2018. (Amazon rating/reviews: 4.6 stars; &lt;a href=&quot;https://reviewmeta.com/amazon/1939754852&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ReviewMeta: 4.6 stars&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I haven't read Gillihan's book, but a ReviewMeta rating of 4.6 based on 97 reviews suggests it's been helpful to most people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, there are scores of good online articles and books about cognitive behavioral therapy. The ones I mentioned are just a select sample to (hopefully) get you started learning more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18201" LastEditorUserId="18201" LastEditDate="2020-12-17T22:07:17.250" LastActivityDate="2020-12-17T22:07:17.250" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25977" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-17T11:28:26.050" Score="1" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm studying music therapy and music-based interventions relating to Substance Use Disorder.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Music therapy&lt;/a&gt; and music-based interventions are increasingly used for the treatment of substance use disorder &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5687713/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hoffmann et al., 2017)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I noticed that studies examining the effects of music therapy on mood, feeling and emotions of addicted patients use these three terms interchangeably. For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15913388/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jones (2005)&lt;/a&gt; refers to the terms&#xA;&lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;feeling and emotions&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt; (p.100) only to assess &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;mood&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt; using a visual analogue scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;My question: Does a theory - or even a test (not necessarily about music-therapy experiments) -  handles those three terms (mood, feeling and emotions) as separate constructs?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;P.S.&lt;/strong&gt; I aim to possibly differentiate these terms properly to implement an experiment&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastActivityDate="2020-09-17T11:28:26.050" Title="Nomenclature for mood, feelings and emotion in experimental-psychology" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;mood&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25980" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-17T18:05:29.113" Score="0" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was thinking about dreams from a psychoanalytic perspective. I want to know about falling asleep. What is everybody's destination on that bed? Is it the future past or our imagination?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26871" LastActivityDate="2020-09-18T14:53:55.187" Title="When we all fall asleep, where do we go?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2020-09-25T10:34:28.873" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25981" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25980" CreationDate="2020-09-18T06:54:08.113" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In short, it depends on the dream. Sometimes dreams can play out a past event &lt;strong&gt;with or without truth&lt;/strong&gt;, sometimes they can project a &lt;strong&gt;possible&lt;/strong&gt; present and future. Sometimes they can play out a fantasy you may have and have no bearing on reality at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Whilst &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248&quot;&gt;I am a defender of Freudian and Neo-Freudian psychology&lt;/a&gt;, please be aware that this covers areas of psychology &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2242&quot;&gt;considered by some here to be pseudoscientific&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sigmund Freud’s &lt;em&gt;The Interpretation of Dreams&lt;/em&gt; was one of the most important books of the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First published in 1900, it provides a groundbreaking theory of dreams and an innovative method for interpreting them that captivates readers to this day (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.freud.org.uk/learn/discover-psychoanalysis/the-interpretation-of-dreams/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freud Museum of London&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sigmund Freud said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For this reason, there are many books and websites purporting to be an accurate way of interpreting your dreams. Some believe that interpreting dreams can be a way of working out what you will do or should do. Freud himself said these books are not to be followed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main thing to take to mind is that dreams cannot be relied upon to accurately recall or predict anything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dream interpretation was an important &amp;quot;technique&amp;quot; in psychotherapy. However, after over a hundred years of research, there is still no scientific consensus on the meaning of dreams, or even if they mean anything at all! Dream interpretation is currently patent quackery. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud#Dream_interpretation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;RationalWiki&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To call dream interpretation &amp;quot;quackery&amp;quot; would signify that dream interpretation is seen as a means of therapy.  Whilst there is no scientific consensus on the accuracy of dream interpretation, and therefore it is pseudoscience; it is not a form of therapy and never was.  It is a tool, which whilst possibly inaccurate, can give an &lt;strong&gt;indication&lt;/strong&gt; as to &lt;strong&gt;possible&lt;/strong&gt; areas of concern when exploring with your client where problems lie.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example the Freudian case of &amp;quot;Wolf Man&amp;quot; Sergei Pankejeff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pankejeff sought treatment for depression in 1910 after his sister and father committed suicide. Freud fixated on a dream about wolves (hence the &amp;quot;Wolf Man&amp;quot; moniker) Pankejeff reported and spun a strange tale from this (&lt;a href=&quot;https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud#Methodology_and_case_studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;RationalWiki&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Freud&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;interpreted [the dream] in minute detail to represent a disguised memory of the patient, at age one and a half, observing his parents engaging in “coitus &lt;em&gt;a tergo&lt;/em&gt; [from behind], three times repeated.” (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.srmhp.org/0202/review-01.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Esterson, 2003&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without knowing the full details of the dream and the conversation between Sergei and Freud, we cannot determine how he came to this idea, however, this is a &lt;strong&gt;possible&lt;/strong&gt; interpretation according to Freud.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Esterson, A. (2003) Freud's Theories of Repression and Memory. &lt;em&gt;Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice 2&lt;/em&gt;(2)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.srmhp.org/0202/review-01.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.srmhp.org/0202/review-01.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-09-18T14:53:55.187" LastActivityDate="2020-09-18T14:53:55.187" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25983" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-19T02:29:09.937" Score="0" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am writing a story which includes a surgical procedure to enhance a persons logic. I am looking for a specific part of the brain that, as far as we can tell with decent science, directly influences logical thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a region like this that I could use?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know logic is complex and spread out, I'm just looking for something specific that has some influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20141" LastActivityDate="2020-09-19T02:29:09.937" Title="Is there a specific part of the brain that, as far as we can tell, is used for logic?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25986" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26123" CreationDate="2020-09-20T01:10:05.493" Score="1" ViewCount="243" Body="&lt;p&gt;After analyzing multiple reports of spiritual experiences, I've identified two general categories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Bodily manifestations: shaking, jerking, trembling, contorting, etc. (see this &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/25631/is-there-a-scientific-explanation-for-dramatic-body-shaking-and-trembling-in-rel&quot;&gt;related question&lt;/a&gt; for examples).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Intense euphoric emotions and sensations: &amp;quot;waves of electricity&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;heat&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;fire&amp;quot;, as well as emotions such as love, peace, joy, etc. (see this &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/25876/is-adrenaline-rush-the-real-cause-behind-feelings-of-electricity-fire-hea&quot;&gt;related question&lt;/a&gt; for examples).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know several testimonies in which both experiences (bodily manifestations and intense emotions) are reported to have happened concurrently, but I also know testimonies in which only intense emotions and sensations are reported (with no mention of bodily manifestations), and there are also many live recordings of individuals undergoing intense bodily manifestations externally, but we have no way to tell what kinds of emotions and sensations the individuals felt internally (if they felt anything at all).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the context of spiritual experiences: are &lt;strong&gt;bodily manifestations&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;euphoric emotions and sensations&lt;/strong&gt; independent phenomena (which may or may not co-occur), or are they inherently tied (and hence they always co-occur)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25376" LastEditorUserId="25376" LastEditDate="2020-10-03T01:53:05.177" LastActivityDate="2020-10-21T18:31:52.407" Title="Do bodily manifestations (e.g. jerking) and intense euphoric sensations (e.g. &quot;heat&quot;, &quot;electricity&quot;) always co-occur in spiritual experiences?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;religion&gt;&lt;spirituality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25987" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25888" CreationDate="2020-09-20T06:22:52.140" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is something I heard of can be done but don't know how effective it is(it seems like it could be effective but I haven't seen any actual research done on it, just a bunch of theory that's honestly a little bit woo woo). In a book called &amp;quot;The Inside Out Revolution&amp;quot; by Michael Neill he talks about the idea that all of our experiences are our thoughts/neural impulses in the brain and the attempt to correct/to fix the thoughts is the thing that drives us down a bad spiral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Imagine if you were to sit in a blank room for 15 minutes, no artwork on the wall, no music, no phone or anything else to keep you distracted. If you are the average person, during this time you would have experienced many different things(pizza sounds good right now/ do they hate me/ I wonder if peanut butter has real pennants in it/ etc). Even though nothing in your surroundings was &amp;quot;causing&amp;quot; you to experience any of these thoughts/sensations. They came about as a result of your thoughts/neural impulses/imagination and faded back away into nothing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The idea he proposes in this book is a realization that everything we experience is a function of our thoughts first and not our environment, when you start having this insight the terrifying/nagging/constant/repetitive negative thoughts carry much less weight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I mentioned earlier that the thoughts come and fade back into nothing, his theory is that some disorders are caused by this broken loop. If a person takes some of these thoughts too seriously they will fixate on them more and more and not allow them to fade back into nothing as they normally would as do other random thoughts/neural impulses. He makes the argument that a lot of disorders are caused by a correction mechanism gone wrong, instead of having the insight that the thoughts we are experiencing are just that... thoughts, we take them seriously, we think that the thoughts are a function of our environment/circumstances because we fail to realize that the causal mechanism for our sensations are mostly our own random neural impulses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the author, the reason why people keep on trying to solve their problems in their minds is because the thoughts we all have every day feel like they are real and we haven't learned to recognize them as just our thoughts&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26882" LastActivityDate="2020-09-20T06:22:52.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25989" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-20T07:13:03.350" Score="0" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you heard about a company called Elon Musk Neuralinnk.&#xA;The ultimate goal of Neuralink is to achieve human memory implantation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Doctors were prepared to implant the first bionic eye in a human.&#xA;Named Gennaris, the system was developed by Monash University in Australia and involves a technology that uses a camera to transmit the image seen to the brain.&#xA;The unit consists of a small camera that transmits the seen image to the image processing chips via a wireless transmitter. After processing, the information travels to the brain.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.monash.edu/mada/research/the-bionic-eye&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.monash.edu/mada/research/the-bionic-eye&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Is it possible to perform a memory implantation with this (or similar) technical solution?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26885" LastActivityDate="2020-09-20T07:13:03.350" Title="Can Neuralink really be used for memory implantation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25992" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-21T06:11:34.100" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given an authority figure that in reality is not in control of whatever domain they're supposed to be in control of, some people have the tendency to ignore the evidence that the authority figure is not in control (or ascribe the behavior of the authority figure to some &amp;quot;unknown master plan&amp;quot;). These people are more likely to believe that the authority figure has more control than they do in reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the subconscious motivation for this tendency is simply that it's comforting to think that authority figures have perfect control over their domain (especially if you are in that domain, eg governmental authority).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a term in psychology that describes this tendency? I've done a bit of searching and the closest I could find is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Authority Bias&lt;/a&gt; but Authority Bias is specifically the tendency of people to agree with the opinion of authority figures, which is different to the idea I'm trying to express. Any ideas?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26889" LastActivityDate="2020-09-21T06:11:34.100" Title="Name for the tendency of people to believe authority has more control than they do?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25994" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="25995" CreationDate="2020-09-21T06:53:57.773" Score="4" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;When something &amp;quot;new&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;interesting&amp;quot; enters our visual field it can usually happen that our eyes move toward the new target. How &amp;quot;intentional&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;controllable&amp;quot; are these movements? What degree of control do we have over this event? Since the movement is amazingly quick (maybe 0.3 seconds), it seems unlikely that a complex decision has been made, so can it be considered involuntary or beyond our control?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7285" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-09-22T16:08:56.013" LastActivityDate="2020-09-22T16:08:56.013" Title="What degree of control do we have on eye movements?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="25995" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25994" CreationDate="2020-09-21T19:31:33.633" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;We have a lot of control over our eye movements, including saccades. We can suppress saccades and make an anti-saccade instead. So can monkeys, our close cousins. Children have a lot more difficulty with the anti-saccade task, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://clinicalmovementdisorders.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40734-015-0025-4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Saccades&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; are fast eye movements, as opposed to the slower &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_pursuit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;smooth-pursuit&lt;/a&gt; responses of the eye &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10991/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Purves, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;. Saccades are generally initiated when a visual target appears suddenly in our field of view. They can be made either voluntarily, or involuntarily. Once initiated, a saccade cannot be interrupted (source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Engineering/Courses/122JDD/Lcturs/sacc05.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brown University)&lt;/a&gt;. However, a saccade can be suppressed before it is executed. This can be investigated with the anti-saccade task &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn1345&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Munoz &amp;amp; Everling, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;. In this task, the subject is instructed to look &lt;em&gt;away&lt;/em&gt; from a suddenly appearing target and make an eye movement to the opposite side. This is difficult. However, humans can do it, and even monkeys can be trained on the task, although kids are reported to have a lot of difficulty with it. Anti-saccades have a longer delay than saccades, and have a larger margin of error in terms of the accuracy of putting the 'anti-target' on the fovea of the retina. Many of the anti-saccades are preceded by an (unintentionally initiated) pro-saccade, where the subject focuses on the target first, before making the intended eye movement to the opposite side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn1345&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Munoz &amp;amp; Everling, &lt;em&gt;Nature Rev Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;: 218–28&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10991/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds). &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates (2001). Types of Eye Movements and Their Functions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-09-22T08:22:12.537" LastActivityDate="2020-09-22T08:22:12.537" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26002" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-22T14:09:24.987" Score="2" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am searching for a specific (as specific as is currently known) region of the brain that has a known(?) large role in deductive and inductive reasoning. My research has narrowed me down to the Left Medial Prefrontal Cortex, however the best papers I found are from 2013 or earlier. Do any of you know the current thought on the function of the lMPFC specifically in regards to logical thinking?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/782167&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Neurology of Reasoning (2002)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00340/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The role of medial prefrontal cortex in early social cognition (2013)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20141" LastEditorUserId="20141" LastEditDate="2020-09-22T14:17:37.493" LastActivityDate="2020-09-22T14:17:37.493" Title="Function of the Left Medial Prefrontal Cortex" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26005" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26010" CreationDate="2020-09-23T09:03:44.403" Score="1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recall hearing something about there being a mechanical way that two neurons can communicate with each other in addition to the chemical and electrical synapse methods. Something about a certain frequency or physical pulse that can travel along the connexons across the gap junction that is received by the post-synaptic terminal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Did I make this up?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26903" LastActivityDate="2020-09-24T09:14:57.237" Title="Is there a mechanical/vibrational communication method between pre- and post-synaptic terminals in addition to chemical and electrical synapses?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;communication&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;&lt;cell-signaling&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26006" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-23T09:47:45.867" Score="1" ViewCount="49" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm just into my first week of Neuroscience and reading about membrane/action potential. It is my understanding that when the membrane potential changes, it is more K+ ions move across the membrane compared to other ions to bring it back to equilibrium because the membrane conductance to K+ is higher, which makes the other ions have less of an impact on the membrane potential (which is also why the resting potential is closer to K+ than Na+). Can any of you list the factors that makes the membrane more permeable to K+? Is it proportion of channels or any inherent characteristics of K+ ions? Thank you :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26896" LastActivityDate="2020-09-23T14:48:52.323" Title="What are the factors that make the membrane more permeable to Potassium ions than Sodium or Chloride (or any other ions)?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26007" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26126" CreationDate="2020-09-23T11:52:09.130" Score="2" ViewCount="81" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have heard this model used or implied by multiple community sources, and some which have been endorsed; most will use different names for the two parts, for example the &amp;quot;subconscious&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;conscious&amp;quot;; or &amp;quot;you&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;your &amp;quot;; or, as in Ted Urban's widely circulated &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ted.com/talks/tim_urban_inside_the_mind_of_a_master_procrastinator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TED talk&lt;/a&gt;, the &amp;quot;rational human being&amp;quot; and the &amp;quot;instant gratification monkey&amp;quot;. It also appears in some much more dubious contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All advice that begins with this model inevitably ends with the assertion that the &amp;quot;real person&amp;quot; is perfect and can achieve whatever goal is being discussed if they only manage to defeat the &amp;quot;weaknesses&amp;quot; part.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any actual psychological or neuroscientific evidence for this model actually being the case? I've never believed that there is, but replying that I believe that there are not two parts, there is only me and I am not perfect, has attracted actively hostile responses and claims that it contradicts established research, although the speakers could not cite such research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23217" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-10-21T19:03:59.667" LastActivityDate="2020-10-22T02:13:36.893" Title="Is there any actual evidence for the common model of the &quot;real you&quot; and a separate section that contains all your weaknesses?" Tags="&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;&lt;willpower&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26006" CreationDate="2020-09-23T14:48:52.323" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-pore-domain_potassium_channel&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;two-pore-domain potassium channels&lt;/a&gt;. There is otherwise nothing intrinsic in the membrane that makes it more permeable to potassium, but the membrane contains these channels which are referred to as &amp;quot;leak&amp;quot; channels because they are not voltage-gated and are always open. These allow cells to turn the concentration gradient maintained by the sodium-potassium ATPase into an electrical gradient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other channels are also present and can contribute to the membrane potential at rest, but the two-pore potassium channels are typically the largest contributors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of what you've written as background in your question is only applicable to &lt;em&gt;rest&lt;/em&gt; so be sure to consider that as you learn about action potentials and post-synaptic potentials. What &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; true is that if you were to hold a cell at 0 mV without any voltage-gated channels, you would see much more potassium leaking out than other positive ions moving in, and this is why the inside becomes more negative (establishing the resting membrane potential). The resting potential is the potential at which the net charge of ions flowing across the membrane is &lt;em&gt;equal&lt;/em&gt;: that is, there are just as many positive ions flowing out at rest as there are flowing in. If anything else were true the cell would &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; be at equilibrium and the membrane voltage would continue to change until it were true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-09-23T14:48:52.323" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26010" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26005" CreationDate="2020-09-24T07:14:31.977" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Action potentials travelling through the axon are accompanied by a mechanical displacement of the axonal membrane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Multiple studies have shown that a mechanical displacement of the axonal membrane accompanies an action potential. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms7697&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hady &amp;amp; Machta (2015)&lt;/a&gt; used a computer model to show that these mechanical displacements are generated by the storage of energy  in the neuronal membrane when the action potential travels through the axon that alter the compressive electrostatic forces across the membrane. These forces lead to co-propagating mechanical displacements accompanying the action potentials, which the authors have dubbed 'action waves' &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms7697&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Hady &amp;amp; Machta, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to realize that the action potential drives the action wave and communication between neurons. As far as I understand, the action wave has no known physiological function in neural communication, although it is a point of debate &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brain-cells-communicate-with-mechanical-pulses-not-electric-signals/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Fox, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brain-cells-communicate-with-mechanical-pulses-not-electric-signals/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fox, &lt;em&gt;Sci Am&lt;/em&gt; (2018), April issue&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms7697&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hady &amp;amp; Machta, &lt;em&gt;Nat Comm&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;: 6697&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-09-24T09:14:57.237" LastActivityDate="2020-09-24T09:14:57.237" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26013" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-25T23:14:12.150" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing a study on the impact of video quality and memory. The subject groups are going to watch a video of someone reciting 20 or so facts, and then will be asked to recall the facts or answer questions about them (this is what I need help with). The goal is to determine whether slowed down videos decrease overall memory or retention&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want a difficult enough memory task that most people will fall somewhere in the middle (I don't want everyone to get 100%s as that'd mess with the math)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone know of any memory measures that use a similar list of facts structure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26919" LastActivityDate="2020-09-25T23:14:12.150" Title="Measure of short term memory" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26014" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26041" CreationDate="2020-09-25T23:53:41.143" Score="2" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've commonly heard that when practising a motor skill, one should start slow with correct form and one shouldn't force speed. Rather, let speed come naturally. I believe this but I can't find a citation for its prescription. Does anyone have a study to support (or deny) this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm particularly interested in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/aiming-movement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;aiming movement&lt;/a&gt; in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ykuuv23-40o&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;first-person shooter&lt;/a&gt; video-games. The input device is moving a computer mouse. I am also training in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vDjlV6Qtb90&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Super smash Bros. Melee&lt;/a&gt;, a platform fighting game. The input device is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?tbm=isch&amp;amp;q=gamecube+controller&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GameCube controller&lt;/a&gt;. These would both fall under fine motor skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3577" LastActivityDate="2020-10-10T09:34:33.923" Title="Motor skill: Let speed come naturally?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;sport-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26015" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-26T13:36:16.693" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I learnt to solve Rubik's cube 2 - 3 years ago, I used to practice once in a while, I can solve Rubik's cube within a minute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One day, I went to my uncle's house, my nephew had a Rubik's cube, I wanted to solve it, it was so damaged, that it took on average 3 seconds to make one turn, I keep forgetting the intermediate steps, while trying to solve it. I was not under any emotional stress or pressure at that moment, eventually I quit. And, I went to my home, I tried to solve using my Rubik's cube, I was able to solve it. Why I'm unable to solve the same, when I do it slowly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can assume, it has something to do with muscle memory, since I've been solving Rubik's cube, for few years, why I fail to remember, when doing it slow?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26923" LastActivityDate="2020-09-26T13:36:16.693" Title="Difficulties in recollecting memory, when execution speed of an action is slow" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26021" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26024" CreationDate="2020-09-29T13:58:14.770" Score="1" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Blindsight by peter watts, the author mentions something called a &amp;quot;neurological bureaucracy&amp;quot;, in which the conscious mind has little purpose other than acknowledging what has already been thought and done by the unconscious mind and taking credit as its own work. The book uses examples like Eureka moments and a musician performing, where the unconscious mind takes control over the conscious mind and is superior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Every dancer and acrobat knows enough to let the mind go, let the body run itself.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite being fairly convincing, the theory seems to be in conflict with the very nature of human cognitive process. Does such claims has any backing in current scientific discovery?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is being totally unconscious superior? Or is it only superior to a conscious mind in a &amp;quot;Complete&amp;quot; Chinese room scenario, where the system/brain has already been fed with enough information to compute all its &amp;quot;results&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26946" LastActivityDate="2020-10-05T03:11:19.773" Title="Is unconsciousness actually superior to the conscious mind?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26022" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-29T20:50:53.333" Score="0" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;The basis of my experiment are 4 neutral text snippets. For each text snippet, I create an uncertain and a certain version so that I have a total of 8 text snippets (2 versions for each text snippet, 1 certain and 1 uncertain version). The &amp;quot;version&amp;quot; of the text is the IV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, the participants are randomly shown 4 text snippets at the same time (always 2 uncertain and 2 certain text snippets). The participants are asked to indicate if they perceive the text snippet as uncertain or not (DV).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the one hand, I have a within-subject design because each participant sees uncertain and certain versions of text snippets. On the other hand, I have a between-subject design because a participant only sees either the certain or the uncertain version of a text snippet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my analysis, I will first examine the difference between the uncertain and certain versions in general (I sum up the results of the certain and the uncertain versions and compare the results). Then, I will examine the difference between the uncertain and certain versions of each text snippet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is: What is the name of that setting? Is that setting a crossover-design?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26947" LastEditorUserId="26947" LastEditDate="2020-09-29T21:05:51.400" LastActivityDate="2020-10-03T16:25:12.673" Title="Which experiment design is this? Between and within combined" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26023" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-09-30T10:14:20.087" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Signals in the brain normally excite neurons only if they are &lt;em&gt;well known&lt;/em&gt;, i. e. because synapses pass them on that grew during learning. But even for well-known patterns I could imagine that without any additional amplification, there is a chance that, originating for example from the retina, they would eventually die out without reaching relevant other parts of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, depending on the underlying neural coding you assume, the amplitudes could carry information and amplifying signals across the board could cause ambiguous circumstances: How would a neuron be able to &lt;em&gt;tell&lt;/em&gt; whether the incoming signal is strong because it was learned by a previous neuron or it is in fact quite unknown but got amplified?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="224" LastActivityDate="2020-09-30T10:14:20.087" Title="How does the brain amplify signals without interfering with pattern recognition?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26024" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26021" CreationDate="2020-09-30T15:07:15.737" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Is unconsciousness actually superior to the conscious mind?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some aspects, yes; in some, no. Both unconsciousness and consciousness are essential for organisms that have evolved to have consciousness; these organisms can’t survive without both of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Long answer:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All mental processes are unconscious in the sense that we never are conscious of the processing at any of the processing steps in any mental process (e.g., we never are conscious of the processing at any of the processing steps in the processing processes of vision, sound, taste, language, decision making, etc. and never know what the processing at each step is like); we are conscious of only the results of some mental processes (e.g. we are conscious of the vision, sound, taste, meaning of words, and decisions resulting from the corresponding mental processes and know what they are like) while the vast majority of mental processes have unconscious results, such as the information of the pressure in the blood vessels, blood pH level, and blood electrolyte and hormone levels (e.g., we never are conscious of the pressure in the blood vessels, blood pH level, and blood electrolyte and hormone levels and never know what they are like).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(N.B. To avoid confusion, it should be note that mental processes whose results we can be conscious of are often called conscious mental processes even if we are not conscious of the processing at any step of their processing processes, and that mental processes whose results we cannot be conscious of are often called unconscious mental processes.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The major differences between unconsciousness and consciousness is that the following occur if something is conscious but do not occur if it is unconscious:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The mind has the awareness and experiences of what that something is like – what the vision of the house is like, what the sound of the song is like, what the taste of the honey is like, etc. (Compare these to the unconsciousness cases: the mind doesn’t have the awareness and experiences of what the blood pressure at 120 or 130 mmHg is like, what the blood pH of 7.35 or 7.45 is like, what the blood sodium level of 135 mEq/L or 140 mEq/L is like, etc.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The mind can share the information of that something to its various parts that include the cognition part, the symbolizing part, and the storage part. Thus, it can think about, analyze, compare, and do other mental activities regarding that something intentionally; it can directly represent that something with symbols – written signs, sounds, gestures, etc. – thus, it can communicate information about that something to other members of its species; and it can intentionally memorize and recall that something, at least with some details and for some time. For example, we can do these activities (think about, analyze, compare, talk and write about, and memorize and later recall) to the vision of the house, the sound of the song, and the taste of the honey, but we cannot do these activities to the unconscious registration of the blood pressure, blood pH, and blood sodium level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These properties of being globally available for various mental processes, being able to be stored and retrieved, and reportability certainly give organisms that have consciousness flexible response mechanism to cope with infinite challenges it may encounter in the environment and thus increase the survival chance of the organisms and their species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, although unconsciousness performs the vast majority of mental processes and are essential to life, there are something that is survival-promoting that unconsciousness cannot do while consciousness can. In the former case, unconsciousness may be considered superior while in the latter case consciousness is certainly superior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Is being totally unconscious superior?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A: From the discussion above, the answer is obviously “no”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Or is it only superior to a conscious mind in a &amp;quot;Complete&amp;quot; Chinese room scenario, where the system/brain has already been fed with enough information to compute all its &amp;quot;results&amp;quot;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A: In real life, there are infinite, unpredictable challenges in the environment to tackle with. It’s impossible to feed the Chinese room with infinite amount of information for infinite scenarios in advance so that anyone in the room can automatically respond to each scenario correctly. This is true in the case of organisms as well. It’s impossible to have an unconscious system in any organism pre-fed with infinite information to cope with infinite challenges. That’s why consciousness evolves to tackle this problem of infinite challenges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it were possible to feed an infinite amount of information into a system, including an unconscious system, the answer to this question would probably be yes; but in real life, it’s not possible to do so.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Earl B. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4122207/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The biological function of consciousness.&lt;/a&gt; Front Psychol. 2014;5:697. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00697.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dehanene S. Fathoming unconscious depths. In: Consciousness and the brain. Penguin Books. 2014. New York, New York, USA. ISBN 978-0-670-02543-5, 978-0-14-312626-3. p 47-88.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dehaene S, Changeux JP, Naccache L, Sackur J, Sergent C. &lt;a href=&quot;http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.65.3821&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conscious, preconscious, and subliminal processing: A testable taxonomy.&lt;/a&gt; Trends Cogn Sci. 2006 May;10(5):204-211. DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2006.03.007.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2020-09-30T15:07:15.737" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26029" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-02T12:58:20.767" Score="4" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am from India, and if you take a glance at the daily news you will see a lot of gruesome gangrapes and murders. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Delhi_gang_rape_and_murder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nirbhaya,&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathua_rape_case&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kathua rape case&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/hathras-gangrape-and-murder-case-how-the-case-has-unfolded-so-far/articleshow/78410835.cms&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hathras gangrape&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;There are other such incidents all around the globe.&#xA;Unfortunately, the masses in India are still &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.businessinsider.com/heres-what-most-indian-men-think-about-rape-2015-3?IR=T&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;loyal believers in sexism&lt;/a&gt; and all the &amp;quot;rules and regulations on women &amp;quot;it entails.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And unfortunately the sex education taught to us at middle school and high school mostly focuses on that these changes as puberty are normal, and why it is wiser to not get pregnant at the age of 15 years. Various contraceptive methods ,venereal diseases .A very short ,glossed over mention of sexual crimes and no explanation why it's wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many ways proposed to change the rape culture and in bringing the rapists and victims to justice ,like police reforms, law enforcements , death penalty, fast track courts for child rapists.&#xA;Even school workshops, seminars have been conducted, along with workplace training against sexual abuse.&#xA;But sex and its related topics are still seen as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexuality_in_India&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;taboo topic&lt;/a&gt; and the school centered education isn't very effective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Coming from a place where non consensual sex is glorified and pop culture depict it too often,I know that &lt;a href=&quot;https:///www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/insight-therapy/201602/rape-is-not-only-about-power-it-s-also-about-sex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rape is about both power and sex.&lt;/a&gt; What I think could be a step towards eradicating this is by teaching the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/teen-angst/201311/surviving-rape-part-one&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;real life stories of rape survivors&lt;/a&gt; and how they bounced back, just like the biography of any famous person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that there are many &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLWotws3ZMethMPb3fC3pBDkM6MlsSCA54&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;informational videos&lt;/a&gt; available on the internet, but many parents are still against such content, for fear of &amp;quot;polluting&amp;quot; their innocent children's minds. Moreover, many parts of rural India don't have much access to the internet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So my main question is that have such approach to introduce sexual assault into literature tried out before? Or any other methods? how have these worked out? What are the underlying basis for such methods?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If any relevant research articles are available, please provide links. Eager to read up any articles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S:&lt;em&gt;I know that very few users are from India and I didn't find any specific Stack Exchange site for teaching methodology in general, so I am posting this question in this site.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26932" LastEditorUserId="26932" LastEditDate="2020-10-06T15:49:11.657" LastActivityDate="2020-10-06T15:49:11.657" Title="Techniques to combat sexism at school level" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;sexual-assault&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26030" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26043" CreationDate="2020-10-02T17:44:29.253" Score="7" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have no educational background in psychology, just a casual curiosity. Do therapists need therapy because it’s impossible for people to see their own blind-spots (I think this is called the shadow)? Are there ways you can train people to see weird distortions in their own logic on their own, or do they always need an outside party?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26961" LastActivityDate="2020-10-06T06:40:00.897" Title="Why do therapists need therapy?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26031" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-02T20:56:45.197" Score="2" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is known that the average person can only hold 7 ± 2 items in their short term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can this number be increased with training &lt;strong&gt;without&lt;/strong&gt; the use of mnemonics (for example the major system or the method of loci)? What is the consensus of possible improvements of memory span (or digit span) by training?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I only found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006899315000487&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, whose results&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... support that working memory is limited by a fixed number of items.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26962" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-10-06T05:44:42.793" LastActivityDate="2020-10-06T05:44:42.793" Title="Can memory span be increased with training?" Tags="&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2021-05-07T02:49:51.720" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26032" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-03T02:08:58.367" Score="-1" ViewCount="108" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am coming at this thinking about two different situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Those in political parties digging in their heels and doubling down on their beliefs.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Friends or relationship partners standing their ground harder and harder in an argument.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we do this? I have briefly asked some friends why we do this and the answers are all vague, non-descriptive, or circular, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Because it's human nature (non-descriptive)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Because it makes us angry when the other person says X perspective (why does it make us angry?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Because it hurts to be confronted with knowledge that is outside your comfort zone (why does it &lt;em&gt;hurt&lt;/em&gt; exactly?)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Because we have a need to be right...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;...&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But none of these are satisfying answers. I would like an answer that gets at the core of why this is, some sort of mathematical or highly logical answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically these answers point at some underlying mathematical or logical reason that is not easy to articulate clearly. &lt;strong&gt;For some reason&lt;/strong&gt; getting confronted with a perspective that doesn't agree with your own makes people angry and double down on their own beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I try to find a deeper reason or meaning for this, I say basically that you essentially have a sphere of awareness or knowledge. Anything outside of that knowledge that conflicts with your existing knowledge makes you try to reject it. BUT WHY? Obviously some people can short circuit this process and learn to ACCEPT new information by reasoning through it, even if it is uncomfortable at first. BUT WHY IS IT UNCOMFORTABLE? Also I'm not talking about those people, I'm talking about the ones (and it happens to everyone under certain circumstances) who &lt;strong&gt;double down on their perspective&lt;/strong&gt;. Those who you can feel are digging in their heels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do they double down? Why do they dig in their heels? Because it makes you feel good. But why does it make you feel good? Because you are right and your worldview is not &lt;em&gt;shaken&lt;/em&gt;. But why does this feel good? Or from a different angle, they do this because hearing the perspective makes them angry. But why does it make you angry? Because it disagrees with your perspective? Why does disagreeing with your perspective make you angry? Because it is a form of change perhaps? But why does change cause anger? Because it disrupts the balance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't know. What are the deeper reasons why people do this, and then not stopping there... What is the deeper reason for that, and for that and for that? Such that the real answer will be some sort of psychological axiom, an assumption that EVERYONE agrees is true and doesn't require further explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7611" LastActivityDate="2020-10-05T14:22:51.940" Title="Why do human beings double down on their perspective?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;thought&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;belief&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26033" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26032" CreationDate="2020-10-03T15:56:09.803" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(why does it make us angry?)&#xA;(why does it hurt exactly?)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question made me think of the work of Festinger, Riecken &amp;amp; Schachter (1956)&#xA;In their book &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;When Prophecy Fails&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot; they follow a UFO religion as it anticipates an apocalypse. The authors believe that the group's beliefs are brought on by five conditions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A belief must be held with deep conviction and it must have some relevance to action, that is, to what the believer does or how he or she behaves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;A belief must be held with deep conviction and it must have some relevance to action, that is, to what the believer does or how he or she behaves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The person holding the belief must have committed himself to it; that is, for the sake of his belief, he must have taken some important action that is difficult to undo. In general, the more important such actions are, and the more difficult they are to undo, the greater is the individual's commitment to the belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The belief must be sufficiently specific and sufficiently concerned with the real world so that events may unequivocally refute the belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Such undeniable disconfirmatory evidence must occur and must be recognized by the individual holding the belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The individual believer must have social support. It is unlikely that one isolated believer could withstand the kind of disconfirming evidence that has been specified. If, however, the believer is a member of a group of convinced persons who can support one another, the belief may be maintained and the believers may attempt to proselytize or persuade nonmembers that the belief is correct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors argue that cognitive dissonance drives the behavior and that when confronted with disconfirming evidence they seek relief, in some cases, they try to find evidence that confirms their view rather than one that disconfirms it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using these as a guideline, one could measure someone's commitment or belief on an issue, and from there have a better idea of how likely they are to change their mind on a topic when presented with evidence that counters their belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It should be noted, though that the methods of study used by the authors of the book have been heavily criticized. The validity of their claims is questionable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Prophecy_Fails&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Prophecy_Fails&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24990" LastEditorUserId="24990" LastEditDate="2020-10-05T14:22:51.940" LastActivityDate="2020-10-05T14:22:51.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26034" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26022" CreationDate="2020-10-03T16:25:12.673" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I understand your description correctly, you have one within-subject factor with two levels (certain/uncertain) and one between-subject factor (based on how you assign the different text snippets to different group, but I'm not sure I understand what exactly you are doing there). So, this would be a repeated-measures design with different groups (based on the assignment of different text snippets) which I would refer to as is a mixed design (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.discoveringstatistics.com/statistics-hell-p/porus-comparing-means/mixed-designs/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.discoveringstatistics.com/statistics-hell-p/porus-comparing-means/mixed-designs/&lt;/a&gt;), and you could analyse it, e.g., with a mixed ANOVA (&lt;a href=&quot;https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/mixed-anova-using-spss-statistics.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/mixed-anova-using-spss-statistics.php&lt;/a&gt;). I think crossover-design refers to something similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26956" LastActivityDate="2020-10-03T16:25:12.673" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26036" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-04T14:44:55.047" Score="0" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the roots of the Intelligence question, i.e. since when do &amp;quot;humans&amp;quot; think about what &amp;quot;Intelligence&amp;quot; means and where it actually comes from?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did some digging in the greek philosophy around the topic of &amp;quot;Nous&amp;quot;, though it seems the roots go way deeper - unfortunately not finding any proper sources. Hence: Does anyone know about the &amp;quot;Origin of the Intelligence question?&amp;quot;? (&lt;em&gt;Preferably with sources&lt;/em&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26635" LastActivityDate="2020-10-04T14:44:55.047" Title="Origin of the Intelligence question?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26040" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-05T06:12:28.623" Score="1" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;I took the TRI-52, which is strongly correlated with &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.imgur.com/666gyEn.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;other cognitive ability tests&lt;/a&gt;. When I first took it, I was tired, my mind was foggy, and my ADD was acting up -- I got a score of 116. The following day, I took it while well rested &amp;amp; with improved concentration, and got a score of 125. I did not receive any feedback on any of the questions, so I've no idea which questions I got right or wrong; this might mitigate the impacts of the practice effect. Which is a more accurate representation of my score? My first attempt, even though I took it in suboptimal conditions, or my second attempt, which might be susceptible to practice effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26972" LastActivityDate="2020-10-05T06:12:28.623" Title="Is practice effect on matrix-based IQ tests largely attributable to question feedback?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26041" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26014" CreationDate="2020-10-05T07:57:17.517" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The following citations don't speak to starting slow, but they confirm that speed and accuracy increase with practise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is interesting that with practice, [...] limb trajectories get faster and more asymmetric (Elliott, Chua, Pollock, &amp;amp; Lyons, 1995; Khan &amp;amp; Franks, 2000).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f0cb/b028b6248ac5fd74bbb22e2b65c13fbb6198.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elliott, D., Hansen, S., Grierson, L.E.M., Lyons, J., Bennett, S.J., Hayes, S.J. 2010. Goal-directed aiming: two components but multiple processes. &lt;em&gt;Psychological Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, 136, 1023-1044.&lt;/a&gt; PDF page 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Decrease in endpoint variability occurs in conjunction with an increase in the peak velocity of the limb (e.g., Elliott et al., 1995).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Elliott et al., 2010, PDF page 10)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: Found some more relevant sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The group exposed to the slowest speed training program was the only group [...] which had significantly lower time-on-target scores from the control group who trained at the criterion speed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10671315.1975.10615298&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barbara E. Jensen (1975) Pretask Speed Training and Movement Complexity as Factors in Rotary Pursuit Skill Acquisition, &lt;em&gt;Research Quarterly&lt;/em&gt;. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 46:1, 1-11&lt;/a&gt;, DOI: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10671315.1975.10615298&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1080/10671315.1975.10615298&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The effect of learning a novel skill at specific speeds on performance over a range of speeds was examined on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=pursuit+rotor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the pursuit rotor&lt;/a&gt;. Three groups of subjects were given three days of training: Group 1 at 30 rpm, Group 2 at 60 rpm, and Group 3 at 30–45.60 rpm. Group 4, a control, practiced on a pegboard task during this period. On Days 4 and 5, all four groups were tested for transfer at 30, 45, and 60 rpm. For the most part, Group 3 appeared to perform equal to or better across the range of speeds than any of the other groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1980.50.1.83&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Siegel, D., &amp;amp; Davis, C. (1980). Transfer Effects of Learning at Specific Speeds on Performance over a Range of Speeds. &lt;em&gt;Perceptual and Motor Skills&lt;/em&gt;, 50(1), 83–89&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1980.50.1.83&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1980.50.1.83&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Speed and accuracy are two sides of the same skill coin. although there is a strong and widespread belief in industry that the instructor should focus on developing accuracy because speed will follow, that is not true. The research is clear: if you want speed and accuracy, you must train for both and preferably right from the start of training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ca/books?id=BqkpO46H5GsC&amp;amp;pg=PA55&amp;amp;lpg=PA55&amp;amp;dq=The+result+of+speed+and+accuracy+emphases+on+the+learning+of+a+selected+motor+skill+in+golf&amp;amp;ots=tze717VyUs&amp;amp;sig=ACfU3U3wMdC7BhpiZBXxhHZhx4s4TcZTgQ&amp;amp;hl=en#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=The%20result%20of%20speed%20and%20accuracy%20emphases%20on%20the%20learning%20of%20a%20selected%20motor%20skill%20in%20golf&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;James, R. (1995). Chapter 8. In &lt;em&gt;The techniques of instruction&lt;/em&gt; (p. 55). Aldershot, Hampshire, England: Gower.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3577" LastEditorUserId="3577" LastEditDate="2020-10-10T09:34:33.923" LastActivityDate="2020-10-10T09:34:33.923" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26042" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-05T22:10:02.247" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not quite understand why people use both centre cue as well as double cue in the ATN task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, some papers hold that Orienting = RT(double cue) - RT(spatial cue), whereas others define Orienting = RT(centre cue) - RT(spatial cue).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would the above two definitions leads to different results in terms of neural activation or behavioural measures?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18375" LastActivityDate="2020-10-05T22:10:02.247" Title="In the attentional network task (ATN), how do double cue and centre cue differ?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;attention&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26043" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26030" CreationDate="2020-10-06T06:40:00.897" Score="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/16829/7604&quot;&gt;pointed out in another answer of mine&lt;/a&gt;, therapists are not immune to psychological problems. In fact, one study shows the lifetime rate of depression in psychologists and social workers to be higher than that of the general population (&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.16.2.305&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Deutsch, 1985&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They hear about difficult, sometimes traumatic experiences as their clients share their issues. This can lead to problems due to the phenomenon known as &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/16607/7604&quot;&gt;Emotion Contagion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. They too occasionally have personal problems and things they may find difficult work through without some assistance. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.talkspace.com/blog/therapists-experience-in-therapy/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This TalkSpace article&lt;/a&gt; for some other examples of how therapists might need therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you indicated in your question, sometimes this may not be immediately noticed by the therapist for reasons like hidden issues. As I have pointed out &lt;a href=&quot;https://cogsci.stackexchange.com/a/15869/7604&quot;&gt;in another previous answer - see for more info.&lt;/a&gt;, there is &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.counsellingme.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/What-is-supervision.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Clinical Supervision&lt;/a&gt; which helps to highlight any possible psychological issues or hidden traits — e.g. prejudices or other incorrect thought patterns/conclusions) — which may need therapy (See &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/22018/7604&quot;&gt;my answer talking about Johari Windows&lt;/a&gt; for more on that). This is standard practice, and required in codes of practice for registered counsellors, psychotherapists, psychologists, psychiatrists, etc. and those in training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deutsch, C. J. (1985). A survey of therapists' personal problems and treatment. &lt;em&gt;Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 16&lt;/em&gt;(2), 305–315. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.16.2.305&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.16.2.305&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-10-06T06:40:00.897" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26044" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26048" CreationDate="2020-10-06T07:09:44.133" Score="2" ViewCount="570" Body="&lt;p&gt;Everything we perceive is through the 5 senses. That means the body which is perceived through sense of feeling and seeing is also formed as an image in mind or brain?&#xA;Is it correct that it is either the mind or brain that creates the body. Or some part of brain that creates the body?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any articles or research along these lines?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One more thing I want to add that everything we are seeing, including the body, all appears in a small part of brain, and then we are projecting it outside?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26883" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-10-06T11:06:39.457" LastActivityDate="2021-03-22T21:08:06.267" Title="Does the mind create the body?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26045" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26044" CreationDate="2020-10-06T11:03:24.887" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answers&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Yes, and yes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;The answer to your first question (I've re-worded it a bit)...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is the outside world, such as the image of other people, a reconstruction of the collection of sensory inputs that are processed and merged in the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...is simply and straightforwardly a 'yes'. Sensations picked up in the periphery are collected and processed centrally in the brain. So yes, it is all in the eye of the beholder, and as &lt;a href=&quot;https://people.psych.ucsb.edu/loomis/jack/loomis_presence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bach-y-Rita (2003)&lt;/a&gt; famously put it:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We see with the brain, not the eyes&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your second question is a more interesting one in my opinion, namely&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...are perceptions of the outside world all processed in the brain and then projected, as if they were outside?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer here is also 'yes', quite obviously given the answer to the first question, yet it is a fascinating and active interdisciplinary area of research spanning psychology, neuroscience and philosophy. It is &lt;a href=&quot;https://people.psych.ucsb.edu/loomis/jack/loomis_presence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;of much interest now, given the COVID-19 crisis&lt;/a&gt;, and the many hours people spend talking to computer screens instead of 'real' colleagues, friends or family.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon you are referring to is beknown to me as &lt;strong&gt;distal attribution&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00173591/document&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Auvrey &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;.,2005)&lt;/a&gt;, which can be defined as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...the ability to attribute the cause of our proximal sensory stimulation to an exterior and distinct object&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon has attracted a lot of interest in the arena of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_substitution#:%7E:text=Sensory%20substitution%20is%20a%20change,coupling%20system%2C%20and%20a%20stimulator.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sensory substitution&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, where a lost sense (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; vision) is replaced by another (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; touch) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899315005156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. An example device is the BrainPort V100, where visual information is transferred from a head-worn camera to a tactile display worn on the tongue &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17434440.2016.1237287?needAccess=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;., 2016)&lt;/a&gt; (Fig. 1). The cool thing in regard to your question is that blind folks using this or similar devices have been reported to feel a disconnection between outside and the tactile information the device provides on their tongue. However, after prolonged use, subjects using a related (predecessor) device of the BrainPort, the TVSS, reported that they started to feel the tactile sensations to be actually located outside of their body. Specifically, this happened when the users were able to direct the camera image themselves, rather than receiving static images projected onto their backs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The TVSS system is shown in Fig. 2. It was a massive device built in the 1960's by Bach-y-Rita and colleagues to substitute vision for tactile sensations. The camera is on the left in the picture and the 200-tactor display is mounted in the rest of the back support of the dental chair. At first the camera was held stationary to project stationary images onto the back of the subjects. While successful, the tactile images on the back lacked the feeling of externalization. However, when the users were able to handle the camera themselves, they started to actually sense the objects to be 'out there' in space.I note, however, that these observations are rather anecdotal, but were obtained from reputable sources. The experiments are dealt with in &lt;a href=&quot;https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/4081930&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;White (1970)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gA39N.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/gA39N.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;BrainPortV100&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. BrainPortV100 device. It consists of an electrotactile tongue display unit connected to a glasses-worn camera. picture courtesy: &lt;a href=&quot;https://newssalute.it/vedere-con-la-lingua-oggi-e-possibile-si-chiama-brainport-v100/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;News Salute&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QyKoM.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QyKoM.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;TVSS&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 2. Bach-y-Rita's Tactile to Vision Substitution System (TVSS). picture courtesy: &lt;a href=&quot;http://tonguevision.blogspot.com/2007/01/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tongue Vision&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00173591/document&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Auvrey &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Integr Neurosci&lt;/em&gt;; &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt; (4), 505-21&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://people.psych.ucsb.edu/loomis/jack/loomis_presence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bach-y-Rita &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Int J Human-Computer Interact&lt;/em&gt; (2003): &lt;strong&gt;15&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 285-95&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899315005156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;1624&lt;/strong&gt;: 140-52&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17434440.2016.1237287?needAccess=true&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Exp Rev Med Dev&lt;/em&gt; (2016);&lt;strong&gt;13&lt;/strong&gt;(10): 919-31&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/4081930&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;White, &lt;em&gt;IEEE Trans Man–Machine Syst&lt;/em&gt; (1970); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;:54–58&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-10-06T19:59:11.207" LastActivityDate="2020-10-06T19:59:11.207" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26048" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26044" CreationDate="2020-10-06T14:44:54.123" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Does the mind create the body?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A: The answer depends on what you mean by “the body”.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If “the body” in the question means &lt;strong&gt;“the body as we perceive it”&lt;/strong&gt;, the answer is &lt;strong&gt;“yes”&lt;/strong&gt;. And, not only is the body in this sense is created by the mind, everything else in this world, the universe, and the reality as you perceive them are also created by the mind.[1,2]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is easy to show that “the body as we perceive it” is created by the mind (or its physical counterpart – the brain) and is not the real physical body as it exists in the physical world. One of the easiest examples to show this is the finger sausage illusion (see the figure below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/i38Je.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/i38Je.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Figure. Finger Sausage Illusion. A – the fingers as appeared when looked at directly and B – the fingers as appeared when one looks at the background beyond the fingers. [3]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the fingers as we see in our mind change (A &amp;lt;-&amp;gt; B), depending on where we focus our sight, the physical fingers themselves cannot change abruptly by just changing the sight’s focus. This proves that the fingers as we see in our mind is not the physical fingers that exists in the physical world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;But if “the body” in the question means &lt;strong&gt;“the physical body as it exists in the physical world”&lt;/strong&gt;, the answer is &lt;strong&gt;“no”&lt;/strong&gt;. The evidence is obvious and abundant in everyday life: just by the wish of our mind - we cannot create a new limb or new organ for the lost one; we cannot create wings to fly, gills to breath underwater, or an organ to sense echolocation even if we want to create them; and we cannot create a duplicate of our body just in case we need a limb/organ replacement.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180209100639.htm&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;How the brain constructs the world. Insights into processes underlying the integration and storage of sensory signals.&lt;/a&gt; ScienceDialy. February 9, 2018.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural basis of self&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ukachoke C. &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net/chapter-3/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;3.6. Sensory perception qualia as representations of the outside world&lt;/a&gt; In: &lt;a href=&quot;https://mindtheory.net&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Basic Theory of the Mind&lt;/a&gt;. 1st ed. Bangkok, Thailand; Charansanitwong Printing Co. 2018.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2020-10-06T14:44:54.123" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26049" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-06T15:52:03.240" Score="2" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/dsm5-in-distress/201104/most-rapists-are-not-sadists&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not all sexual assaulters are psychopaths or sadists&lt;/a&gt; as the media often chalks them up to ,there is scope to at least mend the thinking of some of the rapists, or any which haven't yet given in to the temptation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have also read up a bit on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/articles/199211/round-rapists&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;different types rapists&lt;/a&gt;. Most alarming are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-love-wisdom/201411/the-norman-high-school-rapes-and-sexism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;juvenile rapists&lt;/a&gt; and their reasoning.&#xA;There are short films such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/talking-about-trauma/201811/man-monster&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;I am trying to understand this topic more deeply,as a means to educate people as I asked &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/26029/techniques-to-combat-sexism-at-school-level&quot;&gt;here.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any further research on this topic and related articles with links are deeply appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26932" LastActivityDate="2020-10-06T15:52:03.240" Title="Research on the psychopathology of rapists" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;sexual-assault&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26050" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-07T07:18:25.760" Score="5" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/26047/7604&quot;&gt;A recent question&lt;/a&gt; was asking around the subject of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology#WEIRD_bias&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;WEIRD psychology&lt;/a&gt; [WEIRD standing for &lt;strong&gt;W&lt;/strong&gt;estern, &lt;strong&gt;E&lt;/strong&gt;ducated, &lt;strong&gt;I&lt;/strong&gt;ndustrialized, &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt;ich and &lt;strong&gt;D&lt;/strong&gt;emocratic — an acronym seemingly coined by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Henrich, et al (2010)&lt;/a&gt;] and reading the Wikipedia article to find that out and get some understanding of the subject made me wonder if the concept of WEIRD psychology could have merit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the purposes of focus, &lt;strong&gt;let's take one aspect of the WEIRD category — Educated&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would a person in Western society, educated at a lower level, be &lt;strong&gt;psychologically&lt;/strong&gt; different to someone in Western society educated to the highest possible level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be precise in my meaning regarding psychological differences, ignoring the systems of education and assuming:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;nobody in either group are suffering from any psychotic disorders,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;both groups have the same powers of observation, and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;both have equal access to any required reference materials and advice from experts,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is there empirical evidence to suggest that one of the groups cannot form a sound and reasonable argument based on their knowledge of the world around them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe I am not using the correct search criteria in Google but I can't seem to find any.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., &amp;amp; Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world?. &lt;em&gt;Behavioral and brain sciences, 33&lt;/em&gt;(2-3), 61-83. doi: &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1017/S0140525X0999152X&lt;/a&gt;. PMID: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20550733/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;20550733&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-10-07T07:42:33.880" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T04:02:55.343" Title="Are University Graduated WEIRD people psychologically different to Generally Educated WEIRD people?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26051" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-07T12:38:30.120" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;By accident, I stumbled over this optical illusion:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zJQ1d.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zJQ1d.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is not a strong one, and maybe you don't experience it, but I see the size of the circles in the second last row decrease from left to right. I don't see this in all the other rows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe it's only the illusion of an illusion, but in case it's a real illusion (which you experience, too) I wonder:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does it belong to a class of optical illusions which already is quite&#xA;well understood? If so: Under which name and where can I learn more&#xA;about this class of optical illusions? If not so: Has anyone an idea&#xA;how to explain it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the illusion may depend on the &lt;strong&gt;angle of view&lt;/strong&gt;. I have the impression it does but did not investigate it systematically. I also may depend on the &lt;strong&gt;size of the image&lt;/strong&gt; - on small displays it might not &amp;quot;work&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4736" LastEditorUserId="4736" LastEditDate="2020-10-08T07:06:12.033" LastActivityDate="2020-10-08T07:06:12.033" Title="A new kind of optical illusion?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26052" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-07T16:59:23.523" Score="2" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was looking at different phyc products online and notice that some inventories are called personal inventories and some are called clincal. This made me wonder if this was just the name the publishing company gave them or if these were really two different classes of inventory and also if the latter, what is the difference? The example I came across was the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychcentral.com/lib/minnesota-multiphasic-personality-inventory-mmpi/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Minnesota Multi-phasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.millonpersonality.com/inventories/MACI/#:%7E:text=The%20MACI%20inventory%20Millon%20Adolescent,rate%20scores%2C%20and%20interpretive%20depth.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI)&lt;/a&gt; instrument. Please note that I am asking this about psychological intruments as whole subject rather than these specific intruments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26991" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-10-11T08:48:53.673" LastActivityDate="2020-10-11T09:34:37.890" Title="What is the difference between a clinical inventory and personal inventory?" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26054" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26146" CreationDate="2020-10-07T21:52:30.113" Score="5" ViewCount="356" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question has to do with how people perceive other accents. It seems that having a British accent makes someone seem more intelligent, even though that isn’t always true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As funny as it is, I think someone with a British accent could approach me and start talking about dogs sniffing each other’s butts and I would still think, “man, this guy really does knows what he’s talking about.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have done some searching, but it seems there isn’t a definite answer answer for why a British accent makes someone appear sophisticated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The top answer &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/Why-do-British-accents-sound-intelligent-to-Americans&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; suggests that maybe the association has to do with people’s original perception of those people to begin with. If you thought British people were smart and you heard someone with what you thought was a British accent you may be quick to think that person is smart.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://sites.psu.edu/siowfa16/2016/09/06/why-does-a-british-or-new-zealand-accent-sound-more-intelligent/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; suggests the theory that the association could come from countries historical dominance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What explains why (a lot of Americans for sure) think someone with a British accent must be smart?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I’m not sure about good tags for this question&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24733" LastActivityDate="2020-12-05T15:42:39.273" Title="Why does a British accent sound smarter to Americans?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26057" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13562" CreationDate="2020-10-08T15:04:27.980" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Because of perisaccadic space compression effect, the focus lies inbetween from the saccade onset position to its future offset (target position), but only given the target is inside this region.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;In case the target changes its position during saccade; or was not inside it from the start (antisaccade task), there is no compression effect and, therefore, no objects are focused.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26997" LastActivityDate="2020-10-08T15:04:27.980" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26060" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-09T11:06:28.453" Score="2" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia article:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), formerly known as electroshock therapy, is a psychiatric treatment in which &lt;strong&gt;seizures&lt;/strong&gt; in the brain (without muscular convulsions) are electrically induced in patients to provide relief from mental disorders.&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; Typically, 70 to 120 volts are applied externally to the patient's head resulting in approximately 800 milliamperes of direct current passed through the brain, for 100 milliseconds to 6 seconds duration, either from temple to temple (bilateral ECT) or from front to the back of one side of the head (unilateral ECT).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This procedure is applied to people (&amp;quot;patients&amp;quot;) who suffer from depression or bi-polarity (though I think the last is not a disorder, as is very exemplified in the movie &amp;quot;One flew over the cuckoo's nest&amp;quot;; it's a common feature of all human beings and we are taught at an already young age to keep our attention, concentration, actions, etc. between unnatural boundaries). Depression can emerge from such conditioning, from exterior impulses (seeing that Nature gets less and less, for example), maybe there is a genetic component. Exogenous and endogenous depression.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Most people relapse (as can be read in the article) before a year after the treatment and there are side effects (the most common adverse effects are confusion and transient memory loss).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short: it's not an effective therapy in the long run.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://ECT%20is%20much%20safer%20today.%20Although%20ECT%20may%20still%20cause%20some%20side%20effects,%20it%20now%20uses%20electric%20currents%20given%20in%20a%20controlled%20setting%20to%20achieve%20the%20most%20benefit%20with%20the%20fewest%20possible%20risks&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; advertisement of the Mayo Clinique (where ECT is still used) it is said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ECT is much safer today. Although ECT may still cause some side effects, it now uses electric currents given in a controlled setting to achieve the most benefit with the fewest possible risks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, they put it that way out of commercial interest.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;I think a combination of medicines with therapy does a better job in the case of depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All that I've written is just a preliminary for my question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What happens on the neuron-level if ECT is applied to someone's brain?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-10-09T12:04:43.103" LastActivityDate="2020-10-09T13:17:24.070" Title="What has changed in your brain after electroconvulsive &quot;therapy&quot; (ECT)?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26061" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26060" CreationDate="2020-10-09T12:04:10.397" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is actually quite some information on this. After a cursory Google Scholar search using the keywords &amp;quot;long-term neuronal effect of ECT&amp;quot; I found the following effects on the brain:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A week or two after the ECT, gray matter of depressed patients seemed to be increased in volume throughout the brain &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322319315434&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ousdal, 2020)&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In rats, ECT resulted in behavioral improvements and neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Quite some of these new neurons survived up to 12 months &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756104/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Vestergaard &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2017)&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In mice, a single ECT triggered cortical snaptogenesis and a sustained neurogenesis, accompanied by behavioral improvement. Relapse occurred 40 days later. However, a 5-week continuation protocol following the initial ECS treatment led to a more persistent improvement of behavior and better survival rates of new neurons, but the authors did not investigate how long effects last after ECT was stopped fully &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1935861X18302845&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Jonckheere &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2018)&lt;/a&gt;;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1935861X18302845&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jonckheere &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Brain Stim&lt;/em&gt; (2018); &lt;strong&gt;11&lt;/strong&gt;(6): 1336-47&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322319315434&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ousdal &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Biol Psych&lt;/em&gt; (2020); &lt;strong&gt;87&lt;/strong&gt;(5): 451-61&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27756104/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vestergaard &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Hippocampus&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;27&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 52-60&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-10-09T13:17:24.070" LastActivityDate="2020-10-09T13:17:24.070" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26062" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-09T13:33:49.753" Score="0" ViewCount="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am acquiring eeg data with the ANT neuro's 64-channel system and I want to use eeglab to analyse the data. I am using Lab Streaming Layer (LSL) as software for data acquisition, which saves the file in .xdf format. One problem that I am facing is that the electrodes are labelled as numbers, from 1 to 65 (because I have an EOG channel), and I would like them to be labelled following the 10-20 international system (so Fz, Cz, etc), this way the &amp;quot;source&amp;quot; from which the signal comes from will be much more clear. I am not interested in a source estimation, so I don't need anatomical precision, but I want to get the PSD under some electrodes to evaluate cognitive workload.&#xA;I have found the label field in the structure dataset, however, I don't know how to import those labels from the LSL dataset to the EEG data stracture created in eeglab (because this is what you're supposed to do right?), to then read them with the eeglab GUI.&#xA;Unfortunately on the internet I could not find any helpful solution. Can somebody help me out please?&#xA;Thank you in advance!&#xA;Luca&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27003" LastActivityDate="2020-10-09T13:33:49.753" Title="Import ANT neuro's channel labels into eeglab" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;matlab&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26063" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-10T12:17:48.707" Score="0" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;The malleability of Intelligence is factually proven. I have written about short-term and long-term changes (due to pharmacological factors and environmental changes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I'm looking for more influences to boost Intelligence - I took a look into Intelligence / Cognitive training, though it's being heavily critisized, hence I'd rather go with something else. Does anyone have articles / any ideas on which other methods, categories and so forth might improve Intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Vague ideas I had in mind are psychological and behavioral influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27010" LastActivityDate="2020-10-10T12:17:48.707" Title="Ways to improve Intelligence?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26064" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9897" CreationDate="2020-10-10T17:53:02.247" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to stress why this can be very risky to not only a client's situation, it can disrupt their affairs with family, friends and professional connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A life-coach can give advice just like a friend can also. Any connection from one's inner circle is natural to want a listening ear and another's view and opinion when one wants support and help. Ethical boundaries are strictly held in the field of a professional working in the mental health field like a social worker, psychotherapist and counsellor. Therapists can give their views and opinions only when asked from their patients/clients and unsolicited advice is a big no-no. And advice that was not asked for is very unethical because we never know what this client is capable of. For instance, a mother tells her new psychologist that her children are not listening to her when she asks them to do stuff and rants how she is tired of repeating herself.&#xA;The ethical situation would be for a therapist to first sympathize and then ask the mother why she thinks her children are not listening. If a therapist tells the parent to set rules for the children, this is breaking a boundary. How old are these children? Do they come from a family of divorce? Did the mother explain briefly the situation that her children are adopted and have had trouble focusing in school when things get rough with the family? The children may suffer from ODD (Oppositional defiant disorder). Sometimes it can be the mother herself where she constantly yells and this causes the children to rebel and distant themselves from her fearing her own energy. The mother may blame the children that are not listening and lie to the therapist that her children are selfish and rebellious when in truth, the children fear the mother for always yelling and have learned a coping mechanism of just shutting themselves in their rooms. Parents are very responsible for their actions as well and many times, the behaviour must be changed for all parties and not just the children to unify a family together with healthy boundaries and trust. If the mother leaves this information out to the therapist, the therapist may assume that the children are not coming from a dysfunctional family and how setting strict rules does not work for all kids as they can rebel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To conclude, this is why a therapist should not give advice on their own terms. It can damage a client's reputation. Especially if the therapist is new and the counsellor has not yet taken notes on how the environment is in one's situation. The therapist must ask further questions to understand as to why the children are not listening and should ask about the situation at home and if there is a strong bond between the mother and her children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27011" LastActivityDate="2020-10-10T17:53:02.247" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26066" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-10T20:08:06.443" Score="2" ViewCount="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am desperately researching the retest-reliability of the index &amp;quot;working memory&amp;quot; in the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV). Unfortunately, I don't have the original manual at hand and the internet sources I found just report ranges for all indexes, i.e. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pubpsych.de/retrieval/PSYNDEXTests.php?id=9006581&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;I would be glad, if someone could post the retest-reliability value here and — if existing — an accessible source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27014" LastActivityDate="2020-10-10T20:08:06.443" Title="Retest-Reliability of index &quot;Working Memory&quot; in Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;reliability&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26067" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-10T23:26:31.120" Score="-2" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;In other words, why are professionals/experts good at doing what they know to do for others but not for themselves ?&#xA;What is the psychological bias behind this ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course this questions comes from the popular saying which is only a saying, but for the sake of the question we'll assume that most professionals fall to this flaw.&#xA;Dentists have poor teeth, doctors are fat, webdesigner have ugly sites, hairdressers have bad haircuts, masons have bent houses, etc&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I read that the simple explanation is that they are humans like others and have flaws. But it doesn't explain why their flaw happens to precisely be in their field of competence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3820" LastEditorUserId="3820" LastEditDate="2020-10-11T10:22:07.657" LastActivityDate="2020-10-12T15:03:19.497" Title="Why is the shoemaker badly shod?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26068" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-11T04:54:58.963" Score="2" ViewCount="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been searching why different functions exist in even a similar structure cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The first reason is differences in cortical neuron density.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The neuronal density contour plot (Fig. 1D) reveals the approximate boundaries of V1, V2, and other extrastriate areas and makes it possible to distinguish somatosensory cortex from surrounding areas. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010356107&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Collins, et. al., 2010&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And then, naturally, the second reason is differences in cortical connections.&#xA;For example, it might to have a paper that the division by connectome matches that of Broadman. However, I couldn't find the paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please let me know if I've missed something, or if the connectome itself is not yet mature enough to do it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Collins, C. E., Airey, D. C., Young, N. A., Leitch, D. B., &amp;amp; Kaas, J. H. (2010). Neuron densities vary across and within cortical areas in primates. &lt;em&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107&lt;/em&gt;(36), 15927-15932. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010356107&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010356107&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27017" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-10-11T08:11:18.857" LastActivityDate="2020-10-11T08:11:18.857" Title="Is there any correlation between conection and function?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26069" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-11T05:49:38.187" Score="1" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am asking this question to assist with my work in the setting described below, and am  working on the below mentioned spreadsheet as I write this. I thought this could be an interesting question to get others' thoughts about the benefits or pitfalls of an aggregate score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Background: My colleagues and I are measuring three aspects of weekly well-being or functioning among our clients who are brain injury survivors. We are doing this as part of the weekly case note or SOAP note process. We chose three measures of weekly coping (non-scientifically and without reference to prior known work, measures, or conceptual frameworks--we just thought these would work for our purposes). We did this because we wanted to have a way to keep track of these clients' general mental well-being during Covid-19 Zoom classes (vs. prior in-person classes when we did not collect this data and when they were presumably under less stress). The 3 aspects we are rating each week are: Mood, Coping, and Engagement. Our observed scores on these are being recorded weekly in an excel spreadsheet. 1 = poor/low, 2=fair/moderate, 3=good/high, 4=excellent/very high.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question: What are the benefits or pitfalls of having an aggregate score, such as an average (or sum)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for clinical opinions/thoughts on this and/or input from those with more measurement experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At first blush, I am thinking that the amount of variance or overlap between mood, coping, and engagement, plus the fact that people may score high on one but low on another, may not warrant drawing any kind of insight from an aggregate score. That said, I tried averaging one person's scores across a number of weeks and it seemed to be useful in that I could see that her lower average week was a week that she also had a cold, for instance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27019" LastEditorUserId="27019" LastEditDate="2020-10-11T10:09:45.990" LastActivityDate="2020-10-11T10:09:45.990" Title="What are the benefits or pitfalls of including an aggregate score (sum or average) for 3 measures of well-being?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;neuropsychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26072" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9897" CreationDate="2020-10-11T12:28:12.767" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have only come across this question today, and seeing as you asked this question in 2015, I hope you have been able to work the answer out now during your training.  However, to address this question here with supporting citations, here is my answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many people know that friends and family want the best for them so they may find&#xA;it difficult to avoid offering advice or opinions when you share your thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But occasionally their advice is not sufficient, or we are too embarrassed or ashamed to tell them what is bothering us, or we just don’t have an appropriate person to turn to. Counselling is a really useful option at these moments (McLeod, 2003).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is one issue with that if seeking advice and opinions. Counselling does not involve the provision of advice. Many people come to therapy expecting the therapist to act as an expert offering specific advice and guidance. This often leads to confusion as this is not the case in a therapeutic relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Advice given from friends, family or even counsellors can be totally incorrect for the client and therefore the client should be given the opportunity to work the answers out for themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other forms of helping will usually involve the individual being given advice or guidance&#xA;on the most effective way to solve a problem or achieve a goal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a teacher may help a student by advising them on how to revise in order to&#xA;successfully pass an exam (Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You gave an example where a counsellor might say:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;you’ve listed many bad qualities about your girlfriend&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While you are not criticising your client when saying this as a counsellor, this is criticism of a third person who is not there to defend themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A client may present qualities in their girlfriend which may be seen as bad qualities, but they are the client's view of their girlfriend and not the counsellor's.  Who is to say that the client may have the wrong impression?  There is always 2 sides to a story when looking at relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A therapist who is working ethically will not sit in judgement of the client, their experiences, or others around them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapy does not usually involve criticism, although it can be challenging for the client.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other forms of helping may use constructive criticism to highlight areas for improvement&#xA;or motivate further action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a personal trainer may help a client by criticising them in order to motivate&#xA;them to work harder in the gym (Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to expertise in the client's situation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapy involves equality between therapist and client – it is essential that the relationship between the therapist and client remain equal throughout the therapeutic process in order for the client to take ownership of their own growth and development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other forms of helping may involve a power imbalance as the helper holds more expert&#xA;power than the person being helped.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a lecturer may help a student in many ways but the relationship is always&#xA;imbalanced because the lecturer has the power to award good or bad grades (Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Counselling involves exploring your thoughts and feelings along with looking at your options in how to move forward in life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapy does not have a guaranteed outcome – it frequently focuses on the self-exploratory&#xA;journey rather than the eventual destination, and goals established at the start may not be&#xA;the desired outcome by the end of the process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other forms of helping may set a specific outcome at the start and the relationship may&#xA;be considered a failure if this outcome is not met by the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, a dietitian may help a client by instructing them to eat a wheat-free diet to&#xA;alleviate allergies and this will have a successful outcome provided that the client follows&#xA;the advice (Short &amp;amp; Thomas, 2015).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sutton &amp;amp; Stewart (2002) gives distinctions between therapy, guidance and advice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Advice&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;Persuasive one-way exchange involving the advice-giver offering an opinion, making a judgement or making a recommendation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Guidance&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;Encouraging a one-way exchange involving the guide showing the way, educating, influencing or instructing.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Therapy&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;Facilitative two-way collaborative and supportive relationship that allows clients to explore their problem, understand their problem and resolve or come to terms with&#xA;their problem.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapists should not give advice as this would result in the therapist taking control of the life of the client rather than the client learning to control his/her own life (Sutton &amp;amp; Stewart, 2002).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You asked:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a sense, is the way councillors/psychologists speaking to people actually underhanded as they try to dress-up advice as non-advice?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not only will a therapist who is working ethically not sit in judgement of the client, their experiences, or others around them; they will not offer advice as it will affect the client's autonomy, as explained just now.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any therapist who is found to be advising on what to do (underhandedly or overtly) can find themselves in trouble with their governing body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ethical frameworks for governing bodies of counsellors and psychotherapists (e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/ethics-and-standards/ethical-framework-for-the-counselling-professions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BACP, 2018&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bcpc.org.uk/uploads/files/Statement-of-Ethical-Principles-2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BCPC, 2011&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/code-of-ethics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NCS, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/UKCP-Code-of-Ethics-and-Professional-Practice-2019.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UKCP, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;) state that all therapists must follow the principle of autonomy in therapy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Autonomy: respect for the client’s right to be self-governing (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/ethics-and-standards/ethical-framework-for-the-counselling-professions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BACP, 2018&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BCPC members aim to respect the dignity, autonomy and integrity of each individual (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bcpc.org.uk/uploads/files/Statement-of-Ethical-Principles-2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BCPC, 2011&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Respect for the dignity and rights of the client&lt;/strong&gt; (Autonomy)&lt;br&gt;Clients have the right to self-determination and to be shown dignity and respect for making their own lawful decisions (&lt;a href=&quot;https://nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/code-of-ethics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NCS, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All Practitioners undertake to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Work in ways that promote client autonomy and well-being and that maintain respect and dignity for the client (&lt;a href=&quot;https://nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/code-of-ethics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NCS, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Best interests of clients&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Act in your client’s best interests.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Treat clients with respect.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Respect your client’s autonomy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/UKCP-Code-of-Ethics-and-Professional-Practice-2019.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UKCP, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even psychologists registered with the American Psychological Association (APA) are to respect client autonomy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination. Psychologists are aware that special safeguards may be necessary to protect the rights and welfare of persons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision making. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA, 2003&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's examine some of your assertions and examples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You also said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[T]he counsellor is supposed to challenge the client’s incongruent views. Which views the councillor challenges are up to him, so that’s exerting change on the client.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Challenging views which &lt;strong&gt;may&lt;/strong&gt; be incongruent with reality &lt;strong&gt;may&lt;/strong&gt; invoke change within the client's views, but done autonomously, it may not.  The client has the choice whether to thoroughly examine their thoughts or not.  If they choose to stick to their point of view in an autonomous therapy session, their views will not change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In an example you said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;client: &amp;quot;my date cancelled on me&amp;quot;, councilor [sic] &amp;quot;do you feel let down?&amp;quot; (this is planting the idea in his head). Now wouldn't it be better if the councilor [sic] gave advice like &amp;quot;there are plenty of fish in the sea&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are correct in your assertion that asking &amp;quot;do you feel let down?&amp;quot; is &amp;quot;planting an idea in the client's head&amp;quot; as it is a leading question (you can only answer &lt;strong&gt;yes&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;no&lt;/strong&gt;).  This is not ethical practice, again under autonomy rules.  The client should be given open questions in order for the client to be able to answer in their own way.  A better example question to the statement first given would be &amp;quot;and how did that make you feel?&amp;quot;. This leads to a myriad of answers which could come from the client such as &amp;quot;angry&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;annoyed&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;upset&amp;quot; or even &amp;quot;let down&amp;quot;. There may be a surprise nonchalant response in some occasions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA (2003) &lt;em&gt;Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct&lt;/em&gt; (Last Amendment 2017) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BACP (2018) &lt;em&gt;Ethical Framework for the Counselling Professions&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/ethics-and-standards/ethical-framework-for-the-counselling-professions/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/ethics-and-standards/ethical-framework-for-the-counselling-professions/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BCPC (2011) &lt;em&gt;Bath Centre for Psychotherapy and Counselling Statement of Ethical Principles&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bcpc.org.uk/uploads/files/Statement-of-Ethical-Principles-2011.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.bcpc.org.uk/uploads/files/Statement-of-Ethical-Principles-2011.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;McLeod, J. (2003) &lt;em&gt;An Introduction to Counselling&lt;/em&gt;. Buckingham: Open University Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NCS (n.d.) &lt;em&gt;Code of Ethics&lt;/em&gt; (Last Updated May 2020). &lt;a href=&quot;https://nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/code-of-ethics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/code-of-ethics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Short, F. &amp;amp; Thomas, P. (2015) &lt;em&gt;Core Approaches in Counselling and Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;. Hove: Routledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sutton, J. &amp;amp; Stewart, W. (2002) &lt;em&gt;Learning to Counsel&lt;/em&gt;. Oxford: Spring Hill House.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UKCP (n.d.) &lt;em&gt;The Code of Ethics and Professional Practice&lt;/em&gt; (Last Updated October 2019)&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/UKCP-Code-of-Ethics-and-Professional-Practice-2019.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/UKCP-Code-of-Ethics-and-Professional-Practice-2019.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-10-11T12:28:12.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26073" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26243" CreationDate="2020-10-11T13:32:23.707" Score="5" ViewCount="128" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the last decade, a lot of famous personalities and celebrities have opened up about suffering from mental disorders, largely depression. This has caused the younger generation to accept and seek help more easily than before, which is good, but my question deals with the authenticity of such claims on social media.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A lot of teenagers choose social media to open up, and enjoy the sympathy it brings from a vast pool of people. But do they even suffer, in the first place? If they do, the obvious choice would be to seek help from doctors, then why social media? If there are people doing this just for sympathy and attention, is there a way to sort out them from genuine claims?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know that mental disorders have always been there, the facilities available today makes more people come out for help than ever before, and that explains why the numbers are more than the last century. But can there be a chance of an overestimation? Can people fake symptoms of depression, for example?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&lt;em&gt;I apologize if this question offends anyone- I tried to make it as passive as I could. Edits to soften the phrasing of the question would be appreciated&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25998" LastEditorUserId="25998" LastEditDate="2020-11-17T02:25:08.067" LastActivityDate="2020-11-18T17:50:14.150" Title="Can people fake mental illness to gain sympathy?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26074" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-11T17:45:26.673" Score="1" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;I claim that &amp;quot;warnings are more likely to be read and taken seriously, if they are well-written, without errors&amp;quot;.  Is this claim supported by psychological science?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like, a warning on a video showing risky extreme sports activities, to not try to imitate. If the warning is poorly written in English, is it more likely to be ignored and not taken seriously, and thus less effective? That is my hunch, but is it really supported by science?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27021" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-10-12T18:12:43.703" LastActivityDate="2020-10-12T18:12:43.703" Title="Are well-written warnings more likely to be heeded?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26067" CreationDate="2020-10-12T15:03:19.497" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been asking myself this question for a couple years now and so far the best explanation that came to my mind this :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shoemakers are badly shod because they are the only one who they as shoemakers can put bad shoes on without risking complaint. Moreover they are also the only one who will not reward them for putting on good shoes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words it is a bit like vacations. When they put on bad shoes for themselves, they feel relieved from work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3820" LastActivityDate="2020-10-12T15:03:19.497" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26084" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26089" CreationDate="2020-10-13T19:54:58.443" Score="3" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;So pain is the sensory feeling that tells indiviual that something bad at some part of the body has happened. What I fail to understand is how is pain subjective? If we have touch receptors in the body we can technically all feel hyptactic simulation, why this cannot be said about pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this &lt;a href=&quot;https://esc-sec.ca/2019/09/02/do-insects-feel-pain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; it is mentioned:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;pain is different from nociception, which is the ability to respond to damaging stimuli.  All organisms have nociception.  Even bacteria can move away from harmful environments such as high pH.  But not all animals feel pain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question: How is pain subjective? Why nociception isnt considered pain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25446" LastActivityDate="2020-10-14T06:49:47.513" Title="How is Pain Subjective and Different from Nociception" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26088" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-14T04:59:57.857" Score="1" ViewCount="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been searching extensively on the internet and journal articles for the size, volume, dimensions, etc. of the central lateral nucleus in the anterior intralaminar thalamus in humans but have not been to find any information? Could anybody point me to a source that contains this information or anything relevant (e.g., about the anterior intralaminar nuclei in general)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26189" LastActivityDate="2020-10-14T04:59:57.857" Title="What is the size, volume, dimensions etc. of the central lateral nucleus in the anterior intralaminar thalamus in humans?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26089" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26084" CreationDate="2020-10-14T06:49:47.513" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: How is Pain Subjective and Different from Nociception?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; Pain is not nociception because their definitions are different. The usual definitions are like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nociception refers to the peripheral and central nervous system (CNS) processing of information about the internal or external environment, as generated by the activation of nociceptors&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. Typically, noxious stimuli, including tissue injury, activate nociceptors that are present in peripheral structures and that transmit information to the spinal cord dorsal horn or its trigeminal homologue, the nucleus caudalis. From there, the information continues to the brainstem and ultimately the cerebral cortex, where the perception of pain is generated.  &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pain is a product of higher brain center processing&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; … (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WYUvD.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WYUvD.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Nociception and pain&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Nociception (also nocioception, from Latin nocere 'to harm or hurt') is the sensory nervous system's process of encoding noxious stimuli&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;. In nociception, intense chemical (e.g., cayenne powder), mechanical (e.g., cutting, crushing), or thermal (heat and cold) stimulation of sensory nerve cells called nociceptors produces a signal that travels along a chain of nerve fibers via the spinal cord to the brain.&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/WYUvD.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; Nociception triggers a variety of physiological and behavioral responses and &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;usually results in a subjective experience (or perception) of pain in sentient beings.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;”(2)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, nociception is defined to be the processing of noxious stimuli, which involves several levels of processing, but pain is defined to be the perception of the result of nociception processing. As there are many factors that can affect nociception at each level of processing, such as the pain control mechanism (e.g. the pain gate control) in the spinal cord and brainstem, analgesics, and even the mood of the subject, the pain perception can be altered/modified, and the final pain perception can be different even if it occurs in the same individual and from the same noxious stimuli. Also, because these factors are different among different subjects, the final pain perception in each individual is subjective – depending on various factors in each subject and different among different subjects even if it occurs from the same noxious stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;When your shin hits something hard and you feel pain there, if you stroke or massage the injured shin lightly, you’ll feel better with less pain – this is because the pain is modified by the pain gate control or other pain control mechanisms by the touch sensation. (3,4)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;In a person who has a spinal cord transection with a loss of all sensations and voluntary movements of the legs, if you prick his foot, his foot will involuntarily jerk away from the prick, which means nociception is still being processed, but you won’t feel any pain because the pain perception in the brain does not occur (due to the spinal cord transection).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Alice has been given a flu shot in her arm, but she is a strong person and is in a good mood, so she feels little pain in her arm. On the contrary, Bob has been given a flu shot with the same needle size and ease of injection, but Bob is an irritable person and already in a bad mood, so he feels that the pain from the shot is very severe. So, the pain perceived from the same noxious stimuli is different among different subjects, depending on various factors in each subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, the pain is different from nociception and is subjective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;National Research Council. 2009. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK32659/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mechanisms of Pain&lt;/a&gt; In: Recognition and Alleviation of Pain in Laboratory Animals.  Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.17226/12526&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.17226/12526&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nociception&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nociception&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nachum Dafny.&lt;a href=&quot;https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s2/chapter08.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 8: Pain Modulation and Mechanisms.&lt;/a&gt; Neuroscience Online. The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gate_control_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gate Control Theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2020-10-14T06:49:47.513" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26093" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25829" CreationDate="2020-10-15T10:15:21.147" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you create an (free) account at: &lt;a href=&quot;https://db.humanconnectome.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://db.humanconnectome.org&lt;/a&gt; , I believe you should be able to find &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;connectomes&lt;/a&gt; through &lt;a href=&quot;https://db.humanconnectome.org/app/template/Index.vm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like a bit of a hassle to download the files though (and they only seem to come in very large packs).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another perhaps easier method, if you just want some simple and easily accessible files to work with right away is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://neurodata.io/project/connectomes/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://neurodata.io/project/connectomes/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which you can read more about in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6481161/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There you can just download some graphs directly in .graphml format. Then you can use them in e.g. python with &lt;a href=&quot;https://networkx.github.io/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;networkx&lt;/a&gt;. For example, to construct a graph object from a graphml file, plotting it and getting the adjacency matrix, you'd simply write:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;import networkx as nx&#xA;&#xA;G = nx.read_graphml(&amp;quot;/rhesus_brain_2.graphml&amp;quot;)&#xA;M = nx.adjacency_matrix(G)&#xA;nx.draw(G, node_size = 10, width = 0.1, arrowsize = 2, pos = nx.spring_layout(G))&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is just a simple example, but I hope it helps. It sounded as if that was perhaps just what you needed: something raw and simple to get you started; and those datasets are sometimes the hardest to find.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I am myself on the lookout for more specific types of connectomes; see my question &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/26095/connectome-datasets-related-to-consciousness&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. If you happen to come across anything more, I'd be really grateful if you'd let me know.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20910" LastEditorUserId="20910" LastEditDate="2020-10-15T10:48:41.167" LastActivityDate="2020-10-15T10:48:41.167" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26095" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-15T10:41:47.793" Score="0" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a mathematics student currently looking for &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;connectome&lt;/a&gt; datasets specifically related to consciousness research. I have mainly looked at the following sites:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://neurodata.io/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://neurodata.io/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://db.humanconnectome.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://db.humanconnectome.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, either I am terrible at searching, or there does not seem to be much there, or the pure graphs are not available, and I'd have to construct them myself from MRI data, which is out of scope for my project.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm interested in datasets in the form of functional connectivity networks (in some standard format like .graphml or just adjacency matrices), specifically related to consciousness research such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disorders_of_consciousness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DoC&lt;/a&gt;, sleep, or possibly on mindfulness meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I should add that my knowledge of connectomics and MRI data is very limited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question(s)&lt;/strong&gt;: Could and would anyone refer me to databases or research where such datasets might possibly be obtained?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20910" LastEditorUserId="20910" LastEditDate="2020-10-15T22:09:13.923" LastActivityDate="2020-10-15T22:09:13.923" Title="Connectome Datasets Related to Consciousness" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;data&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26096" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26105" CreationDate="2020-10-15T13:08:23.247" Score="0" ViewCount="110" Body="&lt;p&gt;My classmates and I are conducting a written paper on bransford and johnson's laundry experiment, but we cannot find good reliable sources on the original experiment to provide context and explanation on how exactly it was performed. any help please?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27052" LastActivityDate="2020-10-16T12:26:09.593" Title="any reliable sources or any help for bransford and johnson's laundry experiment?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26097" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26132" CreationDate="2020-10-15T21:17:16.753" Score="2" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This could be a question for parenting SE, but I am looking to understand the mechanism, so I am looking for a core answer from a psychological perspective; without all of the cultural noise that comes with parenting techniques etc.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example situation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A 5 year old child is struggling learning to read and write, for whatever normal reason for that age. So they are losing interest in going to school and or doing school/home work. One option is to provide one on one supervision/encouragement and giving a small food reward‡ for say each letter or word written correctly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My (simple) understanding is that Dopamine facilitates the 'get up and do something productive' drive, and we have dopamine released when we eat food. &lt;em&gt;Or in cave man terms, Ug want's Dopamine hit. Ug get out of cave, hunt down some berries, Ug gets dopamine reward. Ug not die of boredom/hunger today.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately in modern society with fridges and infinite scroll on Facebook this mechanism had been short circuited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So will rewarding academic work with food help build the mechanisms for reward and help study concentration skills as a person gets older; or will this strategy short circuit and create an unhealthy dependency on food when studying/ loosing interest in study once they have had something to eat?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What needs to be done to make this strategy effective, with positive long term outcomes?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr/&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;‡ Lets assume the food is moderately healthy e.g., raisins, peanut butter on celery, pieces of fruit. Lets also assume the food is partly randomly given, so that the student doesn't always expect a reward, and loses interest as the first time they don't get a reward (Tip I heard for dog training).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3623" LastEditorUserId="3623" LastEditDate="2020-10-20T22:39:38.630" LastActivityDate="2020-10-25T03:19:53.357" Title="Are food rewards a good long term learning strategy?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;&lt;dopamine&gt;&lt;reward&gt;&lt;habituation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26099" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26101" CreationDate="2020-10-16T03:03:44.180" Score="0" ViewCount="419" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question in final jeopardy tonight was &amp;quot;(What is) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_A_and_Type_B_personality_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;type A personality&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;.  My response was &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_(ethology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;alpha&lt;/a&gt; (male)&amp;quot;, which I maintained was the same thing.  Later, when I typed in &amp;quot;type a personality vs&amp;quot;, the search engine offered up &amp;quot;type a personality vs alpha male&amp;quot; but none of the links I clicked made mention of this.  On the off chance that I knew what I was talking about, I wrote this question.  If I get an answer, will it be a fluke redemption, or the last nail in my coffin?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27061" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2021-02-01T03:34:42.623" LastActivityDate="2021-02-01T03:34:42.623" Title="Is Type A personality and being an alpha (male) the same thing?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26100" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15" CreationDate="2020-10-16T05:14:44.787" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.quantified-mind.com/science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Quantified mind&lt;/a&gt; is a collection of many tests with published papers. Its free and batteries are easy to customize, but only works online and converts the raw measurements of each test into a score for that item.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21602" LastActivityDate="2020-10-16T05:14:44.787" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26101" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26099" CreationDate="2020-10-16T09:17:47.610" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a lot of overlap between the two's personality types but not quite the same.  Type A personality is genderless and refers to someone generally meticulous on details and likes to take charge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alpha male is a term that was misunderstood and later overturned based on pack behaviors of wolves.  The researcher who coined the term 'alpha' as a leader later came out and said his own research was misunderstood and somewhat debunked, in that alphas are not leaders all the time and doesn't mean to take charge of things all the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27063" LastActivityDate="2020-10-16T09:17:47.610" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26104" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-16T11:43:39.113" Score="0" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quote from DSM-5:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;C. Onset of intellectual and adaptive deficits during the developmental period &lt;br&gt;(Page 33: Diagnostic criteria for Intellectual Disability [Intellectual Development Disorder]).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[...]&lt;/strong&gt; In acquired forms, the onset may be abrupt following an illness such as meningitis or encephalitis or head trauma occurring during the developmental period.&lt;br&gt;(Page 38: Development and Course)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27064" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-10-16T12:58:34.400" LastActivityDate="2020-10-16T12:58:34.400" Title="How would we classify it when an adult developed a neurocognitive disorder leading to learning disability?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26105" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26096" CreationDate="2020-10-16T12:26:09.593" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There was no laundry experiment &lt;em&gt;per se&lt;/em&gt;.  What you are referring to is part of an experiment to do with investigations of comprehension and memory recall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following is a passage from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.open.edu/openlearn/health-sports-psychology/psychology/starting-psychology/content-section-3.4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Section 3.4&lt;/a&gt; of the free online course &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.open.edu/openlearn/health-sports-psychology/psychology/starting-psychology/content-section-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Starting with psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; at the UKs Open University &lt;strong&gt;[with a link to the pdf provided by &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.msu.edu/directory/altmann-erik.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Erik M. Altmann of Michigan State University Psychology Department&lt;/a&gt; added by myself]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://msu.edu/%7Eema/802/Ch6-Memory/2/BransfordJohnson72.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Bransford and Marcia Johnson (1972)&lt;/a&gt; carried out a number of experiments which illustrated the role of schemas in our understanding and recall of information. In one experiment the participants were read the passage below and then asked to recall it as accurately as possible. However half of the participants were given a title for the following passage and the other participants were given the passage without the title.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups… Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo any particular endeavour. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important, but complications from doing too many can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well… At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Bransford and Johnson 1972 p. 722)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The passage was given to 2 groups — 1 with the topic of the passage, and 1 without the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The instruction sheet for the toipc before &lt;em&gt;S&lt;/em&gt;s included the additional sentence, &amp;quot;The paragraph you will hear will be about washing clothes&amp;quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80006-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bransford and Johnson, 1972&lt;/a&gt; p. 722)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bransford, J.D., &amp;amp; Johnson, M.K. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11&lt;/em&gt;(6), 717-726. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80006-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80006-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-10-16T12:26:09.593" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26109" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26124" CreationDate="2020-10-18T03:46:08.427" Score="5" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;Say we A-B tested user reactions to completing some task (e.g. transferring files, restarting their device): would people be quicker to get impatient/ annoyed if they got random percentages as indicators of progress, or if they had a steady, accurate progress bar? What if it was steady but NOT accurate?&#xA;When would people experience the most intense emotional drops or rises? Would the slot machine effect play a part, i.e. would the chance of getting a &amp;quot;big&amp;quot; leap (21% towards update installation!) keep users waiting patiently during the slower progress intervals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is based off a wandering thought while my laptop was restarting recently, as well as some basic psych understanding. I can certainly see it being possible that people would, on average, be more willing to wait for a 2/3/8 min update with erratic progress than 1/2/5 mins with steady progress.&#xA;I'd be interested if anyone knows of such/similar studies and, if so, what conclusions they reached.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: internet legend Tom Scott came through and discussed this topic recently, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iZnLZFRylbs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iZnLZFRylbs&lt;/a&gt;!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19962" LastEditorUserId="19962" LastEditDate="2021-03-20T07:05:15.880" LastActivityDate="2021-03-20T07:05:15.880" Title="The unpredictable loading bar -- or, the slot machine effect" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26111" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-19T10:51:44.773" Score="-2" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several approaches to categorize personality characteristics into similar amount of types: the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_temperaments&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;four temperament theory&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DISC_assessment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DISC theory&lt;/a&gt;, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(79)90001-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PAEI model&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any research about possible biological preconditions of mentioned theories?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27085" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-10-20T23:50:33.030" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T06:05:06.853" Title="Why there are four types of temperament?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26112" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-19T12:37:24.930" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm writing my masters thesis in the field of computational neuroscience (using a spiking model). One of my supervisors is a cognitive scientist, who likes to use Marr's 3 levels of analysis.&#xA;Marr's 'computational level' is the highest of the three, describing 'what does the system do?'. Confusingly, it seems to me that the field of computational neuroscience actually operates at Marr's lowest level (the 'hardware' level), and ironically, it is actually cognitive models that operate at Marr's computational level.&#xA;How do I reconcile/explain this in my paper? Am I missing something or am I correct that this is confusing/contradictory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27087" LastActivityDate="2020-10-19T12:37:24.930" Title="Confusion about Marr's &quot;computational level&quot; and computational neuroscience" Tags="&lt;computational-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26113" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-19T18:36:48.707" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did a depolarization experiment that compared a mock-treated cell line with a treated line. One part of the results are easy to interpret: Treatment resulted in lower 350/380 ratios along the length of the response curve. That's easy, the treatment probably reduced calcium transport. However, in addition to this, the treatment also significantly shifted each inflection in the curve earlier in number of cycles. How could this be interpreted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18202" LastActivityDate="2020-10-19T18:36:48.707" Title="Interpreting FURA depolarization/calcium assay" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26115" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="6133" CreationDate="2020-10-19T22:29:59.323" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2017.07.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Socionics&lt;/a&gt; was developed independently of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MBTI&lt;/a&gt;. The creator of socionics (Aushra Augusta) used Jung as a starting point (as did MBTI) but said that in the process his definitions &amp;quot;were changed beyond recognition&amp;quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20140420000232/http://socionics.us/works/socion.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Socion&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;). She also incorporated the concept of &lt;em&gt;information metabolism&lt;/em&gt; from a psychologist named Antoni Kempinsky, so that the functions are not only vague collections of behaviors as in Jung, but objective categories we use to describe reality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MBTI's functional model is not very well-developed; it was initially developed in terms of the four letters/dichotomies and only recently have people attempted describing how types use all eight functions (Beebe), perhaps influenced by socionics. In socionics the functions were defined very early on, in terms of Model A.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Socionics also has a theory of relationships between types, which is absent from MBTI. Socionics makes a distinction between &lt;em&gt;strengths&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;values&lt;/em&gt;, whereas in MBTI it is not clear that you can value something, yet be bad at doing it for yourself. This is the concept underlying &lt;em&gt;duality&lt;/em&gt;, the relationship where you have similar values yet can help each other with your weaknesses in the best way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To get into the specifics, if you look at the basic definitions of the functions (in socionics called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wholesocionics.com/articles/0-IM-Element-Agendas&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;elements of information metabolism&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;), there are many differences. Si in MBTI has to do with tradition and reflecting on the past, whereas this is more of an Ni theme in socionics. Te in socionics is all about pragmatism whereas it's described as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/understanding-mbti-type-dynamics/the-eight-function-attitudes.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;external laws and rules&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; in MBTI, more of a Ti+Se theme in socionics. Fe in MBTI is described as &amp;quot;seeking harmony&amp;quot; which is really more about Fe+Si (or Fi+Si) and doesn't describe EIEs who have Fe as a leading function. (Notice here how element pairs are also significant in socionics, not so much in MBTI.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The dichotomies are vaguely similar, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://socionist.blogspot.com/2007/12/comments-on-modern-myers-briggs.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;none&lt;/a&gt; of them are the same, really. There is a widespread idea that sensors are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.slayerment.com/blog/ns-are-smarter-ss-mbti&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;unintelligent&lt;/a&gt; (and unworthy of interacting with the superior intuitives) in MBTI while this is not true in socionics - sensors and intuitives have different areas of intelligence and in fact depend on each other. The J/P dichotomy might be the most different though - Perceiving sounds a lot like Ne/Si valuers in socionics, who prefer to stay open to new information and options rather than committing to a single one and pushing for that (Ni/Se).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All in all, there is &lt;em&gt;no direct translation&lt;/em&gt; between types, only correlations. Other types like ENTJ might be something like SLE in socionics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you're learning socionics the best practice is to completely keep it separate from MBTI in your mind. Trying to compare them usually ends up confusing beginners more than it helps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lytov, D., &amp;amp; Lytov, M. (2005, September 30). Retrieved from Lytov, D. (2005). Introduction to socionics. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.socioniko.net/en/articles/lytovs-intro1.html%C2%A0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.socioniko.net/en/articles/lytovs-intro1.html &lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27090" LastEditorUserId="27090" LastEditDate="2020-10-28T01:07:19.410" LastActivityDate="2020-10-28T01:07:19.410" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26119" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-20T15:45:10.953" Score="-1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;What happens when cerebrum and cerebellum are surgically separated (or partially separated)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this lethal, and if not, what are consequences for brain operations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25937" LastEditorUserId="25937" LastEditDate="2020-10-21T22:43:28.740" LastActivityDate="2020-10-21T22:43:28.740" Title="Cerebrum and Cerebellum split?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;brain-injury&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26121" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26111" CreationDate="2020-10-20T23:10:43.887" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humorism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;four temperament theory&lt;/a&gt; is an ancient theory of personality; however, it does appear to have been the dominant theory of personality from 400BCE through to the mid 1800s. New theories of personality emerged with Darwin's observations on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;emotion&lt;/a&gt; and Galton's proposal of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lexical hypothesis&lt;/a&gt;. The lexical hypothesis is foundation of many of the current theories of personality, the most popular of which is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;five factor model&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recent temperament theories such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MBTI&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DISC_assessment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DISC&lt;/a&gt; have been criticised for a lack of scientific basis and being &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnum_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barnum tests&lt;/a&gt;.  Barnum tests are such that everyone is happy with the result, i.e. Are you either intelligent or clever?  MBTI and DISC seem to omit the less attractive aspects of humanity, such as: narcissism, anger, anxiety, depression etc.  On this basis, research of temperament is infrequent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A criticism of psychological theories in general (not just temperament theories) is that the neurobiological basis remains unidentified, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.07.004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.25066-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.  An active area of current science is to establish the neurobiological basis of personality and progress is regularly reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-10-20T23:10:43.887" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26122" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-21T04:12:00.607" Score="0" ViewCount="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a theory (or research direction) to describe the following phenomenon:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I have two attributes of a stimulus, my evaluation of it might depend (non-additively) on the different manifestation of that attribute.&#xA;So for example, if one attribute is very high, the other attribute might not matter in my evaluation of the stimulus because the first one is dominant.&#xA;However, when the first attribute is low, the other attribute might be able to compensate in the evaluation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27099" LastActivityDate="2020-10-21T04:12:00.607" Title="Stimulus evaluation depending on attribute strength of a second attribute" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26123" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25986" CreationDate="2020-10-21T05:37:03.777" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;An inherent problem with the line of investigation is that the exhibited behaviours are inconsistent with the claimed emotions.  In no other situation do the emotions of love, peace, ecstasy and euphoria result in the performance of behaviours such as glossolalia, collapsing, fainting, trembling, jerking, convulsing, contorting and shaking.  More likely causes of involuntary jerking, convulsing, contorting and shaking may include &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/anxiety-shaking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anxiety&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.peacehealth.org/medical-topics/id/seize&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;seizure&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/myoclonus/symptoms-causes/syc-20350459&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;myoclonus&lt;/a&gt;. Given the incongruity and incompatibility of the emotions and behaviours, it may seem that they are entirely unrelated; however, it is possible that there is an antecedent cause of both. To assist with this analysis, the following mathematical notation is introduced:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Let &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; be the reporting of particular emotions (love, peace, ecstasy and euphoria).  Note, that the reported emotions may not be the actual emotions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Let &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt; be the performance of the behaviours (glossolalia, collapsing, fainting, trembling, jerking, convulsing, contorting and shaking).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Let &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt; be the cause of &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; under certain conditions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Let &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt; be the cause of &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt; under certain conditions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Let &lt;strong&gt;A&lt;/strong&gt; be the actual emotions (not necessarily the reported emotions &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Analysis&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt; always causes &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; and always causes &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt;, then &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt; will always co-occur.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt; causes &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt; under certain conditions and &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt; causes &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; under different conditions, then &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; will not necessarily co-occur.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Note&lt;/em&gt;: In this analysis, it is important to note that the reporting of emotions (&lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt;) is not the same as actually experiencing the emotions (&lt;strong&gt;A&lt;/strong&gt;). For the reasons given above, it is asserted that the reported emotions (&lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt;) can not cause the behaviours (&lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt;), and by implication, the reported emotions (&lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt;) are never the same as the actual emotions being experienced (&lt;strong&gt;A&lt;/strong&gt;). See &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramaturgy_(sociology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dramaturgy&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-monitoring&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-monitoring&lt;/a&gt; as a possible explanations of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the answer to one of your earlier questions, eight strawman hypotheses were offered to explain the claimed emotions (&lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt;) and observed behaviours (&lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unidentified invisible force.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hysterical state induced by the leader&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hysterical state induced by the individual:&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conformance to the social norms&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Functional Neurological Disorder (FND)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Paid actors&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Hypnosis&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attention seeking&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of the eight hypotheses, six were excluded as being implausible, leaving only 4) Conformance to the social norms and 8) Attention seeking as being plausible explanations, which I will consider individually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conformance to the social norms&lt;/strong&gt;:  In this case, the cause (&lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt;) is the desire to conform.  Whether &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt; results in &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt; would be governed by the social norms of the particular religious group.  It may be possible for one particular religious group to emphasise the reporting of emotions (&lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt;) and place less emphasis of the behaviours (&lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt;) (or vice versa), in which case, the answer to your question is “No”, that is, the observed behaviours and reported emotions do not necessarily co-occur.  However, in religious groups that emphasize both the reporting of emotions &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; the performance of the behaviours, then it is more than likely that both will co-occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attention seeking&lt;/strong&gt;:  In this case, the cause (&lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt;) is the desire to gain the attention of others.  Whether &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt; results in &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt; would be governed by whether the attention seeking individual assessed that either or both &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt; are necessary to gain the desired attention. The attention seeking individual may be seeking the attention of only one person, a sub-group, or the entire religious group.  If the attention seeking individual is seeking the attention of the entire group, then the analysis is virtually identical to &lt;em&gt;Conformance to the social norms&lt;/em&gt; analysed above.  If the attention seeking individual is seeking the attention of only one individual, then the attention seeking individual would assess whether &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt; and/or &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; are necessary to gain the desired attention.  In this situation, it is not possible to say that &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt; would always co-occur, however, if the interaction occurred in the confines of one of the relevant religious groups, then it seems more likely that the &lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt; would co-occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In conclusion, it is not necessary that the reported emotions (&lt;strong&gt;R&lt;/strong&gt;) and observed behaviours (&lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt;) co-occur, however, it is likely in practice that they often do due to the social norms of the particular religious cults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-10-21T18:31:52.407" LastActivityDate="2020-10-21T18:31:52.407" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26124" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26109" CreationDate="2020-10-21T06:55:03.700" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A couple of studies (&lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1294211.1294231&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harrison et al, 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4018/IJTHI.2016100101&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Amer &amp;amp; Johnson, 2016&lt;/a&gt;) tested pauses/stalls in progress, and concluded (respectively): &amp;quot;... participants perceived progress bars with pauses as taking longer to complete ...&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;... participants preferred a progress bar that moves consistently to a stalling progress bar, and judged the process duration to be shorter ...&amp;quot; suggesting that continuous/steady progress bars are preferred by users over intermittent/random indicators.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is much more research on continuous progress indicators (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0894439313497468&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Villar, Callegaro, &amp;amp; Yang, 2013&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439317695581&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Liu &amp;amp; Wronski, 2018&lt;/a&gt;) that suggests that users generally prefer fast-to-slow / decelerating progress - that is, inaccurate progress bars that overestimate progress early on.  Slot machines similarly use early success to increase player perseverance, a kind of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anchoring bias&lt;/a&gt;.  However, most of this research is on progress indicators for active tasks such as filling out surveys.  Some experiments with passive waiting (like file transfers) align with their results (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.doi.org/10.17140/PCSOJ-5-144&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gronier &amp;amp; Baudet, 2019&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21383-5_113&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kuroki &amp;amp; Ishihara, 2015&lt;/a&gt;), but other studies show a preference for accelerating progress instead (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1294211.1294231&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harrison et al, 2007&lt;/a&gt;), so I would wait for a meta-analysis specific to passive tasks before making a firm conclusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are also various exploratory studies testing alternative progress bar displays, such as different &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1109/INCoS.2011.65&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;colours&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1109/INCoS.2014.85&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;shapes&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/1753326.1753556&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;designs&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1145/2851581.2892308&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;animations&lt;/a&gt;, adding &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.doi.org/10.14236/ewic/AD1998.9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;audio&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4018/ijthi.2014070105&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;video&lt;/a&gt;, suggesting that user perceptions can be altered in a variety of novel ways.  As well, progress indicators on passive tasks may be affected by the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1109/INCoS.2014.85&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;labour illusion&lt;/a&gt;, in which user experience is influenced by the perceived amount of work done.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-10-21T06:55:03.700" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26125" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26119" CreationDate="2020-10-21T15:14:32.940" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: What happens when cerebrum and cerebellum are surgically separated (or partially separated)?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; If that happens, the functional connection between the cerebrum and cerebellum will be destroyed. Now, the connection between the cerebrum and cerebellum serves to do these functions (1,2):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Coordination of voluntary movements. Most movements are composed of a number of different muscle groups acting together in a temporally coordinated fashion. One major function of the cerebellum is to coordinate the timing and force of these different muscle groups to produce fluid limb or body movements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Motor learning. The cerebellum is important for motor learning. The cerebellum plays a major role in adapting and fine-tuning motor programs to make accurate movements through a trial-and-error process (e.g., learning to hit a baseball).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cognitive functions. Although the cerebellum is most understood in terms of its contributions to motor control, it is also involved in certain cognitive functions, such as language. Thus, like the basal ganglia, the cerebellum is historically considered as part of the motor system, but its functions extend beyond motor control in ways that are not yet well understood.” (1)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the connection is severed, these functions will be impaired, resulting in loss of coordination of motor movement (such as dysmetria, dysdiadokokinesia, and stuttering speech), loss of motor learning (it will be very difficult to learn new motor skills, be it sports, musical performance, dancing, etc.), and impairment of some cognitive functions (e.g., impaired spatial cognition, dysprosody, anomia, executive dysfunction with difficulties in planning, set-shifting, abstraction, working memory, and verbal fluency, personality change, and inappropriate behavior [3]).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Is this lethal, and if not, what are consequences for brain operations?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; A separation of the cerebrum and cerebellum will not be lethal. Medically, there is no diseases or conditions that require a separation between the two structures. But there are diseases that, in effects, separate the two structures, such as stroke, tumor, or demyelinating disease that affects the superior cerebellar peduncles (which connects the cerebrum and cerebellum). Or there may be diseases/conditions that destroy the cerebellum, such as stroke, tumor, trauma, or operation that removes the cerebellum to treat these diseases/conditions, and thus having the same effects of separating the cerebellum from the cerebrum. All these pathological conditions and operations that treat them can causes the symptoms and signs mentioned above, but none are lethal by themselves (i.e., none are lethal if there are no other complications).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;James Knierim. &lt;a href=&quot;https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s3/chapter05.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 5. Cerebellum: 5.1 Overview: Functions of the Cerebellum&lt;/a&gt; Neuroscience Online. The University of Texas. Health Science Center at Houston. McGovern Medical School.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;William C Hall. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hse.ru/data/2011/06/22/1215686482/Neuroscience.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 18. Modulation of Movement by the Cerebellum.&lt;/a&gt; In: Purves D, Augustine GJ, David Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, Lamantia AS,‎ McNamara JO, Williams SM, editors.&#xA;Neuroscience. 3rd ed. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates Inc; 2004. ISBN-13: 9780878937257 ISBN-10: 0878937250.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mark Rapoport. &lt;a href=&quot;https://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/jnp.12.2.193&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Role of the Cerebellum in Cognition and Behavior.&#xA;A Selective Review.&lt;/a&gt; The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2020-10-21T15:14:32.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26126" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26007" CreationDate="2020-10-22T02:13:36.893" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;For sure presentations aimed at lay audiences tend to oversimplify and exaggerate research findings, but for the underlying construct, there is a great deal of evidence, and it is considered widely accepted in the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The technical term for it is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dual-process theory&lt;/a&gt;, and is often referred to as System 1 and System 2 based on the popular book &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thinking, Fast and Slow&lt;/a&gt;, by Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman, which is a very accessible source for anyone interested in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory#Evidence&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;evidence-base&lt;/a&gt; behind this theory (or class of theories, as many have been proposed).  It is also a popular topic on this forum, so be sure to search for these keywords to learn more (examples: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/546/7001&quot;&gt;Is Decision-Making Emotionally Based, with Rationalization as the only Conscious Component?&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/8596/7001&quot;&gt;Does fixing cognitive biases do more harm than use?&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/10516/7001&quot;&gt;Research on aversion to cognitive effort?&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One quibble with the way some non-technical presentations refer to this construct is that they seem to imply that System 1 and 2 refer to distinct physical &amp;quot;parts&amp;quot; of a person.  For example, the left brain / right brain division can be a reasonable metaphor for lay persons, but it should not imply that a stroke in one half of your brain will turn you into &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spock&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spock&lt;/a&gt; (an emotionless perfectly logical decision-maker).  It's important to emphasize the process part of dual-&lt;em&gt;process&lt;/em&gt; theory, and to this end, authors in the field often use the terms Type 1 and Type 2 thinking instead.  For example, Type 1 (intuitive) thinking is likely to be composed of many sub-processes working in parallel, and Type 2 (rational) thinking surely depends on these processes for its own contributions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consequently, asserting a good/bad dichotomy to these processes is misleading, as they serve interdependent purposes.  There are many scenarios where Type 2 thinking is impractical due to time constraints and &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_rationality&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bounded rationality&lt;/a&gt;.  Evans and Stanovich, two of the leading researchers in the field, agree (excerpt from &lt;a href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734689.013.0008&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Evans, 2012&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In recent writing, I have attributed responsibility for a range of&#xA;cognitive biases roughly equally between type 1 and type 2 processing&#xA;... Stanovich ... similarly identifies a number of reasons for error&#xA;other than a failure to intervene with type 2 reasoning; for example,&#xA;people may reason in a quick and sloppy (but type 2) manner or lack&#xA;the necessary “mindware” for successful reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-10-22T02:13:36.893" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26127" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-23T15:40:05.203" Score="0" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;When there is an abuse happening, usually the perspectives of each side are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Police and social worker: How to protect the victim?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The abuser: How to get out of trouble?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These goals are different, but not incompatible. The process of getting the children out of harm's way might involve court-ordered parenting classes, anger management, or other skills-building; it might involve supervised visits or group therapy; there are all kinds of things that would potentially raise their awareness, give them other options, model reasonable parenting styles, etc. &lt;strong&gt;However, even though the abuser does learn that acting that way will have legal consequences, there is still a possibility that they might never learn awareness that what they do is harmful (said by a clinical social worker).&lt;/strong&gt; This reflects in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.stopvaw.org/effectiveness_of_batterers_intervention_programs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the effectiveness of batterers' intervention programs&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19136/12937&quot;&gt;the effectiveness of sex offender treatment programmes&lt;/a&gt;: the former is &amp;quot;modesty&amp;quot;, and the latter is even slightly reverse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder why this happened. My hypothesis is that after being released they don't live in a healthy, respectful environment? I don't see a single instance of mentioning this in any material I read, even though I admit I haven't read much. In addition, I think friends and family of abusers may have developed &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/25194/12937&quot;&gt;learned helplessness&lt;/a&gt; in supporting and intervening bad behaviors, so they just turn a blind eye on them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example from that social worker: there is a man who had been an abused child, bounced through jails and psychiatric hospitals his whole life, but ended up in a nursing home environment where everyone cared for him. When he arrived, he would hit people out of the blue because it's what he expected to happen to him. With firm boundaries and a gentle environment, he stopped hitting people. But he had low intellectual functioning and a lifetime in the system, so he couldn't engage in hypothetical or multi-stage thinking about the consequences of his actions. He had to have a changed environment because he couldn't change himself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2021-04-28T07:45:46.603" LastActivityDate="2021-04-28T07:45:46.603" Title="Why is the effectiveness of treatments for abusers and offenders low?" Tags="&lt;awareness&gt;&lt;learned-helplessness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26128" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23125" CreationDate="2020-10-23T15:59:06.307" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;From the macro perspective, this is the so-called &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/pdf/10.1142/9789814569927_0001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;involution&lt;/a&gt;(or 内卷化) &lt;a href=&quot;https://supchina.com/2020/08/04/hardworking-bitches-given-cold-shoulder-by-microsoft-employees-in-china-office/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;which is recently a hot topic in China&lt;/a&gt;. This should be a political problem in nature but can also be viewed from psychology, methinks, from the perspective of individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference: &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/gpa/wang_files/Involution.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;From Revolution to Involution: State Capacity, Local Power, and [Un]governability in China&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9140" LastEditorUserId="9140" LastEditDate="2020-11-01T11:13:56.040" LastActivityDate="2020-11-01T11:13:56.040" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26129" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23125" CreationDate="2020-10-23T16:18:02.770" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is related to, but not exactly, the concept of the &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;tragedy of the commons&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.  The eponymous scenario deals with a village's common land, where farmers can bring their cows to graze for free. Every individual farmer can rationally act in their own self interest to take advantage of the free grass. But when every farmer in the village does this, the grass is over-grazed and the common is destroyed for everyone. Although every individual acts to improve their own situation, everybody is worse off in the end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is related to the &amp;quot;theater effect&amp;quot; in that each individual is rationally acting in their own best interest, but the end result is a worse outcome for everyone. It's somewhat distinct in that it doesn't exactly deal with the over-exploitation of common resources quite so explicitly, but there are a number of parallels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is also somewhat related to the &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;prisoner's dilemma&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, in which two criminals are asked to testify against one another. If neither testify, both go to jail for 1 year; if one testifies and the other doesn't, one goes to jail for 5 years and the other does not go to jail; if both testify, both go to jail for 3 years. Both individuals can improve their situation by testifying, but only if the other one does not. This is similar to one individual in the theater standing up - they will get an advantage, but only if no one else does the same. Every individual has a personal incentive to stand up, but if everybody does so, they wind up in a worse situation than they started with, where everyone had the same view but was seated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13850" LastActivityDate="2020-10-23T16:18:02.770" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26130" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-24T08:33:55.020" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like experience is organised by the abstract concepts or categories that we know - the more we know, the more we perceive. The world is an undifferentiated whole, and we use concepts and categories to make sense of it in a way that seems pre-rational and not necessarily entirely verbal, but for sure to a high degree facilitated by language. Where my daughter sees &amp;quot;a bunch of guitars&amp;quot;, I see one electrical bass, two stratocasters, one telecaster, one semi-hollow ES-335 copy, one acoustic and one classical guitar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think most people have the experience that as we learn something new, suddenly we see things in the world that we didn't see before. We have learned a new way of looking at the world, of organising our sensory input into new categories, and we therefore see things that we couldn't see before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no doubt that this phenomenon has been studied extensively in cognitive science, and I would like some references for where I could read more about this. I'm interested in the way that our concepts influence our experience and how this leads to habits that make us take our concepts as truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My main purpose is to use such scientific literature to support an argument that diagnostic categories in psychiatry aren't &amp;quot;true&amp;quot; (i.e. natural categories) even if they &amp;quot;feel&amp;quot; true to us clinicians (I work as a psychiatrist), because as least to some extent, they're the result of having been socialised into a certain way of organising our clinical experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27109" LastActivityDate="2020-10-24T08:33:55.020" Title="Experience organised by concepts - relevant science?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26131" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-24T21:08:59.320" Score="0" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;One of interesting things in severe depression is psychosis and how it happens that such conditions occur and what is the difference between this type of psychosis and specific conditions of schizophrenia are also interesting, especially in two fields:&#xA;1-Brain MRI photos of those two illnesses, for comparing about dysfunctional brain systems, or high functional parts of brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2- the patients' hallucination  experiences with schizophrenia vs deep depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;if you would like to comment here, please comment about it and if possible some  proper tags to find internet post or papers, I don't find paper with this tag :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=ru&amp;amp;as_sdt=0,5&amp;amp;q=schizophrenia%20vs%20severe%20depression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;schizophrenia vs severe depression&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20869" LastActivityDate="2020-10-24T21:08:59.320" Title="Severe depression VS Schizophrenia" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26132" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26097" CreationDate="2020-10-25T03:19:53.357" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Food rewards are effective and safe to use in principle.  But in practice...?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The non-caveman term for the process of using consequences to modify behavior is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;operant conditioning&lt;/a&gt;, and the specific use of rewards is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement#Positive_reinforcement&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive reinforcement&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: A father gives candy to his daughter when she tidies up her&#xA;toys. If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is&#xA;a positive reinforcer (to reinforce the behavior of cleaning up).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice the very specific phrasing of this example as an &lt;em&gt;if&lt;/em&gt;, rather than an &lt;em&gt;is&lt;/em&gt; - that is, food rewards are a reinforcer only if they work.  This means that in order to know if they work, you will have to try them out, it is not something that can easily be predicted in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Positive reinforcement using a variety of different kinds of rewards (tangible rewards such as food, prizes, privileges, and intangible rewards, in particular social rewards such as praise, attention, and affection) are a mainstay of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviour_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;behavioral therapy&lt;/a&gt; (BT, including CBT).  If a parent consults a behavioral therapist for help with a child struggling with homework, then the therapist will likely start with an assessment that includes determining what reinforcers the child may respond well to, as well as possible obstacles to progress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Behavioral therapy is commonly used with children, particularly children with learning difficulties such as autism.  Since autistic children may initially respond less favorably to certain kinds of social reward, other rewards such as food may be used in early sessions, though patients are ideally weaned off tangible rewards in favor of intangible ones before completing treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Behavioral therapy using positive reinforcement is one of the most evidence-based and effective approaches in the field.  However, parents attempting to replicate this process outside the lab or clinic are recommended &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parent_management_training&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;training&lt;/a&gt;, as they may run into a number of pitfalls.  As a starter on reinforcement training, I recommend the great, accessible, and very short book &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.ca/books/about/Don_t_Shoot_the_Dog.html?id=4VE-8VAyS5AC&amp;amp;redir_esc=y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Don't Shoot the Dog!&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-10-25T03:19:53.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26134" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26137" CreationDate="2020-10-25T13:38:53.067" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I just began reading &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/theoretical-neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dayan &amp;amp; Abbott's Theoretical Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;. I'm barely even through the second page, and I'm already stuck on this paragraph:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Axons from single neurons can traverse large fractions of the brain, or, in some cases, the entire body. In the mouse brain, it has been estimated that cortical neurons typically send out a total of about 40mm of axon and have approximately 10mm of total dendritic cable in their branched dendritic trees. The axon makes an average of 180 synaptic connections with other neurons per mm of length and the dendritic tree  receives, on average, 2 synaptic inputs per micro-meter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I understand correctly, the axon connections are essentially output connections, and the dendritic tree connections are input connections. Since all the connections must occur between axons and dendrites only, the number of input connections must equal the number of output connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Doing some very basic back-of-the-envelope calculations using the provided data shows that this is wrong:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For the axons (output connections):&lt;/strong&gt; 180 axonal connections/mm * 40 mm total axon length = 7,200 axonal connections&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For the dendrites (input connections):&lt;/strong&gt; 2000 dendritic connections/mm * 10 mm total dendritic tree length = 20,000 dendritic connections&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These two numbers don't match. So there's obviously more to this than just matching the number of input to output connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What else could be going on?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27117" LastActivityDate="2020-11-24T17:05:20.497" Title="Cortical Statistics" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26137" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26134" CreationDate="2020-10-25T16:06:18.180" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have a copy of the book on hand so I'm not sure if they say more about this, but I can make some guesses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;External connections. They are talking about local cortical connectivity but not inputs coming from outside cortex if they are just measuring cortico-cortical axons but all dendrites. Typically external connections are a much smaller fraction than the ratio discrepancy here, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cell types. Cortex has lots of different cell types, and if they present an average across cells measured but don't account for their different ratios or don't measure all cells equally you wouldn't expect the ratio to match. In particular, I wonder if they're only talking about excitatory cells in a specific layer, for example. You'd expect an imbalance because those cells may be getting more inputs from other layers than they output.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Axons are probably more likely to get cut off on a histological slice. They are longer and more meandering, whereas dendrites are typically constrained to near the cell body/within the cortical column. They're more likely to underestimate local axonal connections because of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall also these numbers are quite close, within an order of magnitude. I don't see them as conflicting much. Measuring biology is messy. If you report the sources they cite for these numbers it may be more clear which of the factors I mention are most likely to contribute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-10-25T16:13:31.137" LastActivityDate="2020-10-25T16:13:31.137" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26138" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-25T20:35:27.550" Score="2" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;My main field is not Linguistics/reading comprehension so what I am asking might sound a bit silly or not make a lot of sense. My question could certainly be better-phrased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there a theory in reading comprehension that says something like: &amp;quot;The simple reading questions are best answered via simple text analyses, whereas more difficult reading questions are best answered with more complex text analyses&amp;quot;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think this intuitively makes sense, since for example, if a person over-analyzes (over-thinks through) the simple reading questions from Grade 1 classes, such a practice can introduce unnecessary complications in deriving the correct answer for the questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS: I guess by saying &amp;quot;elementary (easy/simple) reading questions&amp;quot; vs. &amp;quot;advanced (difficult) reading questions&amp;quot;, I am referring more to their readability/difficulty as depicted in the English classes of different grade levels. For example, the reading questions of the Kindergarten/Grade 1 classes are considered much easier than the ``advanced'' reading questions that are from college-level English classes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PPS: I think I need to be more precise on what I mean by &lt;code&gt;simple text analysis'' and &lt;/code&gt;complex text analysis''. When school teachers try to teach students on how to analyze texts, they refer to the theory like the &amp;quot;three levels of reading&amp;quot; (literal, inferential, critical). In this context, &lt;code&gt;simple text analysis'' would be the analyses that focus on literal comprehension whereas &lt;/code&gt;complex text analysis'' would be the analyses that focus on critical comprehension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you, :S&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27121" LastActivityDate="2020-10-25T20:35:27.550" Title="Is there a reading comprehension theory that suggests simple reading questions are best solved via simple text analysis, and vice versa?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;reading&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26141" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-27T03:16:58.547" Score="3" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/evolution-the-self/201706/what-s-emotional-reasoning-and-why-is-it-such-problem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; in Psychology Today discusses problems associated with '&lt;em&gt;emotional reasoning&lt;/em&gt;'.  The article also proposes the use of several psychological therapies intended to overcome and/or reduce the impact of &lt;em&gt;emotional reasoning&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is &lt;em&gt;emotional reasoning&lt;/em&gt; a real thing?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are the proposed therapies efficacious for mitigating the negative aspects of &lt;em&gt;emotional reasoning&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it possible to change someone’s beliefs without using counter-emotional tactics (i.e. generate a counter emotion to change the person's belief)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27125" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-10-30T16:53:45.800" LastActivityDate="2020-10-30T16:53:45.800" Title="Is it possible to become less reliant on emotional reasoning?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26142" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-27T08:00:53.783" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;From what I understand there is (or was) a controversy whether humans reason deductively by constructing mental models and surveying them or by following built-in inference rules of mental logic (usually logical, but perhaps content-specific too). The former is associated with Johnson-Laird and Byrne and the latter with Braine and O'Brien, to name a few prominent proponents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was trying to find a survey of the current state of the art, but did not have much luck. Most hits date back to 1990s or 2000s. This is confirmed by the Google Ngram, which shows mental logic peaking in the late 1990s and mental models in the early 2000s, and both dropping dramatically by 2010. Wikipedia does not help much either beyond &amp;quot;scientific debate continues&amp;quot; with references also predating 2010. After 2010 there seem to be (anecdotally) more papers with mental models, but they are narrowly focused, and even &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10339-020-00956-w&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2020 survey by Cárdenas-Figueroa and Navarro&lt;/a&gt; does not address the competing theory. Was there ever a resolution? Were they integrated, did both fall out of favor after something new emerged? I am particularly interested in cognitive aspects of mathematical reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27126" LastActivityDate="2020-10-27T08:00:53.783" Title="What is the current status of mental models vs mental logic controversy?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26145" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26150" CreationDate="2020-10-28T01:47:55.663" Score="1" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’ve wondered about this for quite a long time, but never thought to ask it anywhere:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I’m assuming most people know what it’s like to watch a bird flying by, you can steadily concentrate as the bird flies by, and it seems your eyes move at a constant smooth rate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As opposed to watching a bird or any object or thing, I can’t seem to use my eyes to sweep across the scene if nothing is moving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why can’t I gaze around at a constant rate when I have nothing to watch?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24733" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-10-29T20:51:38.727" LastActivityDate="2020-10-31T21:38:07.363" Title="Why can’t my eyes gaze around at a constant rate?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26146" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26054" CreationDate="2020-10-28T23:30:35.457" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: This is still debated, but it might be due at least partly to social stereotypes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Attitudes:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many British accents, but the one most likely to be used in comparisons to say, American, Australian, or New Zealand accents is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;RP&lt;/a&gt;, or the Queen's English.  Other accents used include &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicultural_London_English&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;MLE&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuary_English&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Estuary&lt;/a&gt;, which are more common in modern times.  American accents also vary, and the one most commonly used in regional comparisons is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_American_English&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Standard American English&lt;/a&gt;, or GenAm, or Network English.  Much like RP, the Standard accent is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prestige_dialects#E&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;most common in broadcast media&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subject perceptions of accents are tested using the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matched-guise_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;matched-guise&lt;/a&gt; and similar verbal-guise paradigms, in which speakers read the same content in different accents, while listeners, unaware of the manipulation, are asked to rate the speakers on various traits.  A common finding in matched-guise research is that people in general &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.862&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;prefer standard accents&lt;/a&gt; over foreign accents, presumably due to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accent_perception#Social_identity_theory_of_accents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in-group bias&lt;/a&gt;.  However, can exceptions be made for native speakers of non-standard accents, such as the way Americans rate British accents?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An early study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167285111009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stewart, Ryan, &amp;amp; Giles (1985)&lt;/a&gt; suggested that Americans indeed perceive British speakers as higher status than own-accent speakers.  However, in a later study by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9481.00136&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bayard et al (2001)&lt;/a&gt;, Americans rated the American accent higher than British on many traits, including intelligence and class.  Had attitudes changed in the intervening years?  Or is the difference &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1515/mult.2005.24.3.211&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;due to changes in method&lt;/a&gt; used?  Results of other studies (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://search.proquest.com/openview/336f7b5cabae57e0cc7859aebb51eb25/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&amp;amp;cbl=1817376&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scott, Green, &amp;amp; Rosewarne, 1997&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/How-Accents-Affect-Perception-of-Intelligence-%2C-%2C-Anderson-Downs/f080ba11e631ede0f3ca539c1e812b2eb3b7e1a6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anderson et al, 2007&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/00909889409365409&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gill, 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/14622/volumes/v36/NA-36&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wang et al, 2009&lt;/a&gt;) also question Americans' preference for the British accent.  Even if a preference for the British accent exists among Americans, it may only reflect the RP accent (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008413100010343&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trudgill, 1983&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reasons:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several hypotheses have been proposed for why listeners might have preferences for some accents over others:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The inherent value hypothesis is favored by many lay people - when asked about their preferences, they often claim that certain accents just &amp;quot;sound better&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The imposed norm hypothesis suggests that certain accents are &amp;quot;standard&amp;quot; in a given culture, and consequently preferred over non-standard accents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The social connotation hypothesis is a variation that suggests that traits are associated with accents through social stereotypes, influenced by media.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting way to test these hypotheses is to compare listener preferences when they don't recognize the accents that they are asked to rate.  To this end, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/00335637409383249&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Giles et al (1974)&lt;/a&gt; asked Brits to rate Greek accents, and Giles, Bourhis, &amp;amp; Davis (1979) asked Welsh to rate French accents.  Native speakers of the rated accents report clear preferences for one accent over another; however in both studies, listeners with no knowledge of the rated languages were unable to discern the accents and gave speakers similar ratings.  This result challenges the inherent value hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, native speaker ratings do not correlate well with how similar accents are to the &amp;quot;standard&amp;quot; accents, challenging the imposed norm hypothesis.  A study reported by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008413100010343&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trudgill (1983)&lt;/a&gt; also demonstrated that native English speakers that can discern British accents give accents different ratings depending on which region or country the listener is from, contrary to both the inherent value and imposed norm hypotheses.  Finally, ratings can differ significantly depending on what trait is measured (eg, intelligence, class, solidarity, success).  Consequently, the social connotation hypothesis tends to be the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dominant theory&lt;/a&gt; in current scholarship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Controversy:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, while some later studies (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/125858&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Leemanna, Kollyb, &amp;amp; Nolan, 2015&lt;/a&gt;) corroborate the social connotation hypothesis, others lend support to the inherent value hypothesis (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5309(98)00008-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ladegaard, 1998&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0883-2919.2005.00411.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hiraga, 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://hdl.handle.net/1959.11/19947&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gooskens, Hilton, &amp;amp; Schüppert, 2016&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://hdl.handle.net/1811/91694&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wadas, 2020&lt;/a&gt;).  It is also possible that accent cannot always reliably be separated from other differences in speech, or that subjects unable to discern accents have nonetheless developed implicit associations through media exposure.  Additionally, accent preferences don't always align well with media stereotypes as reported by subjects.  More research is needed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the social connotation hypothesis is correct, then preference for the British accent may be the result of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglophile#American_Janeites&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;American Anglophilia&lt;/a&gt; - basically, the British have done a good job of branding themselves overseas.  Indeed, subjects from many countries (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12139&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Spain&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9841.2010.00442.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Norway&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2011.592590&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Japan&lt;/a&gt;) prefer the British accent, but others (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.5539/ells.v1n1p86&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Iran&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2012.734509&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Korea&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5309(98)00008-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Denmark&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9481.00136&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;New Zealand, and Australia&lt;/a&gt;) seem to prefer the American accent - attributed to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pax_Americana&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pax Americana&lt;/a&gt;, or the USA doing a good job of branding themselves in those countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-10-28T23:30:35.457" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26147" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-29T05:21:54.840" Score="0" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_cognitive_tempo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sluggish cognitive tempo&lt;/a&gt;, sometimes known as Concentration Deficit Disorder, is a syndrome related to (but distinct from) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attention deficit hyperactivity disorder&lt;/a&gt; (ADHD).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Question: What are the best methods to diagnose and treat Concentration Deficit Disorder?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do any of the following have scientific support?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Electroencephalography (EEG)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;DNA therapy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27143" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-11-05T03:58:36.433" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T19:18:56.320" Title="Diagnosis and treatment for Concentration Deficit Disorder?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;&lt;cognitive&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26149" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21629" CreationDate="2020-10-29T16:13:55.057" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dark Triad&lt;/a&gt; maybe what you are seeking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You have described the behaviours as &amp;quot;malicious&amp;quot;, where as the Dark Triad uses the word &amp;quot;malevolent&amp;quot;. The Oxford Dictionary advises that these two words are synonyms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jones, D. N., &amp;amp; Paulhus, D. L. (2014). Introducing the Short Dark Triad (SD3): A Brief Measure of Dark Personality Traits. Assessment, 21(1), 28–41. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-10-29T16:13:55.057" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26150" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26145" CreationDate="2020-10-29T20:51:20.067" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Smooth-pursuit eye movements require something to pursuit. Intentionally attempting to make such an eye movement in the absence of an appropriate moving visual target will&#xA;result in a saccade instead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Your question concerns two types of basic eye movements, namely &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/subjects/saccades&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;saccades&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroanatomy/L7/Lab07p22_index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;smooth-pursuit eye movements&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saccades are rapid movements of the eyes to change the point of fixation. They occur for instance during reading and while gazing across a room. Saccades can be made voluntarily or involuntary &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10991/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Purves, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smooth pursuit movements are slower eye movements that keep a moving stimulus focused on the retina. One can voluntarily decide whether to follow a moving stimulus or not. However, making a smooth-pursuit movement in the absence of a moving stimulus is next to impossible for most people. Instead, when attempting to do this, a saccade is made instead. Performing a smooth-pursuit movement in the absence of a moving target seems to be possible, but requires a lot of training &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10991/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Purves, 2001)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10991/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Purves &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (eds). &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates (2001). Types of Eye Movements and Their Functions&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2020-10-29T20:51:20.067" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26152" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25349" CreationDate="2020-10-30T16:20:22.323" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to me is that sense pleasing is better recognized by the term &amp;quot;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rewarding&lt;/a&gt; stimuli&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously rewarding stimuli isn't necessarily about sensual stimuli, but that would be a good start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-10-30T16:50:36.870" LastActivityDate="2020-10-30T16:50:36.870" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26157" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-31T14:37:35.933" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;How can we assess our own mental state?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, in the morning I always thought I am awake but I can always be more alert by showering. How can my brain tell if it's at a sub-optimal state?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Different from &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/12886/does-the-brain-have-a-debugging-mode&quot;&gt;this question&lt;/a&gt; which is more asking about the origin of the mental state, this question is asking whether we can truly assess its performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27155" LastActivityDate="2020-10-31T14:37:35.933" Title="How to monitor our own cognitive state" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26159" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-10-31T18:46:45.330" Score="0" ViewCount="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Let me explain. In prospect theory, the reference point is important: people are risk averse above it and risk seeking below it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From a purely mathematical perspective, such a reference point seems arbitrary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I wonder if this has a neurological explanation. For instance, suppose some neurons fire above a threshold and some other neurons fire below that threshold? If so, then that will give a more fundamental explanation of the reference point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13243" LastActivityDate="2020-10-31T18:46:45.330" Title="Is there a neurological explanation of o reference point in prospect theory?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26164" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-01T20:32:39.167" Score="0" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;We know that people's memories are fluid and are edited over time (subconsciously).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We also know that accounts of history -- the &amp;quot;memory of human kind&amp;quot; -- have been edited and shaped by historians' narratives over time. (It is less clearly whether such &amp;quot;history editing&amp;quot; is conscious or not, of course. A white supremacist trying to play down away brutality towards non-white people may be doing this intentionally.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is somewhat open ended question. Is there a link, direct or indirect, between these two actions? To the extent that such editing is unconscious, they may be directly linked by the same underlying mechanism: human brains trying to make memories simple to understand and congruent to current perspectives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13243" LastActivityDate="2020-11-01T20:32:39.167" Title="Is the mechanism behind how historians &quot;edit history&quot; and how human beings &quot;edit memory&quot; similar or even the same?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26166" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1567" CreationDate="2020-11-01T20:58:50.420" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps it's just because we are vulnerable during sex? Evolutionary speaking, an animal or other person could attack us so it makes sense to seek a safe environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="908" LastActivityDate="2020-11-01T20:58:50.420" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26168" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-03T07:04:26.583" Score="0" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, let's say I am solving a tough Calculus problem, as is my friend.&#xA;I have practised calculus problems for several months now. While my friend is new to it.&#xA;So, I solve it easily while my friend struggles.&#xA;The Problem is a mix of the ones that I have done, so I can't recall the solution directly from memory.&#xA;Now, what exactly can we attribute my solution to?&#xA;Do my neurons mix and match stuff from various different memory locations to find an answer, or is my &amp;quot;Activation Function&amp;quot; so well developed, that I can &amp;quot;compute at will&amp;quot; quick and error-free?&#xA;If it's the former, high IQ is literally attributed to a good memory and retrieval from the memory system.&#xA;Only if its the latter, can we attribute &amp;quot;better processing&amp;quot; to high IQ?&#xA;Thoughts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS:- Simple arithmetics Calculations &amp;amp; algebra can be &amp;quot;direct computation&amp;quot; but manipulating/applying known formulae and concepts, does that come under &amp;quot;memory&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;computation&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27168" LastEditorUserId="27168" LastEditDate="2020-11-03T09:14:15.080" LastActivityDate="2020-11-03T09:14:15.080" Title="What lies at the core of human brain's processing, is it a simple retrieval from memory or actual computation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26169" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26170" CreationDate="2020-11-03T08:24:48.357" Score="3" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;Understanding the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;big five personality traits&lt;/a&gt; appears to give the promise of understanding ourselves better.  However, it is clear that our behaviour is variable, for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;individuals may be highly &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreeableness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;agreeable&lt;/a&gt; (or disagreeable) in the presence of family and close friends yet be the opposite unfamiliar situations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;anxiety (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;neuroticism&lt;/a&gt;) may not be a problem in familiar situations yet be strong in unfamiliar situations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Questions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Big Five suggests that we behave consistently irrespective of the situation. How can this be true given the apparent differences in behaviour that exist in each situation?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How should individuals take this into account in their career choices?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27170" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-11-03T14:44:45.690" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T05:59:37.620" Title="Can we be both agreeable and disagreeable at the same time?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26170" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26169" CreationDate="2020-11-03T14:25:00.543" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are two main theories of behaviour, &lt;strong&gt;trait theory&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;situationism&lt;/strong&gt;.&#xA;What you are referring to is known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situationism_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;situationism&lt;/a&gt;. A doyen of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;trait theory&lt;/a&gt; was &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Cattell&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Raymond Cattell&lt;/a&gt; who was the father of modern personality testing (his &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16PF_Questionnaire&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;16PF&lt;/a&gt; test was a forerunner of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big Five&lt;/a&gt;).  An assumption of trait theory is that individuals have inherent personality traits and will therefore behave consistently irrespective of the situation. Conversely, situationists suggest that the situation an individual finds themselves in has a significant impact on the individual's behaviour.  The extremity of the situationist argument is that individual's do not have personality traits at all and that the situation is sufficient to predict and individual's behaviour. Both trait theorists and the situationists have evidence to support their positions and I think it is generally accepted that the truth lies somewhere in the middle. To resolve the trait theory versus situationism argument are the emerging computational approaches such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cybernetics&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_dynamics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;system dynamics&lt;/a&gt;. Unfortunately, these emerging fields are in their infancy and nothing to report at this time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of the above was a long-winded and round-about way of saying that the Big Five is not perfect, but probably the best you can do just at the moment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2020-11-03T14:47:50.243" LastActivityDate="2020-11-03T14:47:50.243" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26173" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-04T16:05:15.910" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been reading latley on SNN and decided to try and implement myself some simple simulation.&#xA;So I wrote a simple MATLAB simulation using simple LIF current based model and I try using STDP to classify unsupervised MNIST data such as here:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncom.2015.00099/full#&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncom.2015.00099/full#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(So, images converts to poisson spike train by intensity)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm using simple window based STDP updates and most of the times I'm getting that a single same neuron in the hidden layer spikes for any input sample that I feed in (i.e. only neuron #50 spikes for any given input).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would really appreciate if anyone can clarify the following for me:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Is there a way to normalize/regularize the weights updates such that this neuron dominance won't happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Any general tips on how to monitor/verify the STDP convergence? max/min of weights? positive STDP update larger than negative STDP update?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, would really appreciate any help.&#xA;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27178" LastActivityDate="2021-01-02T19:06:49.050" Title="Single neuron dominates for all input patterns using STDP in simple LIF SNN" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26174" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-05T01:39:47.613" Score="3" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;People acquire tastes through exposure. This includes the &amp;quot;mere exposure effect&amp;quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect&lt;/a&gt;). Also, music heard more often are more likely to sound pleasing to the ear (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5374342/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5374342/&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there is ample &lt;em&gt;behavioral&lt;/em&gt; evidence of such &amp;quot;familiarity increases preference* phenomenon, I have failed to find clear neurological explanations. Are there neurological explanations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13243" LastEditorUserId="13243" LastEditDate="2020-11-18T08:37:44.917" LastActivityDate="2020-11-18T08:37:44.917" Title="Is there a neurological explanation of acquired tastes?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26176" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26147" CreationDate="2020-11-05T12:10:30.240" Score="2" Body="&lt;h2&gt;This answer covers the diagnosis of Sluggish cognitive tempo&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there is debate about its nature (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/819838&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Brooks, 2014&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/professional/resources/research-horizons/archives/2015/summer/sluggish-cognitive-tempo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Silva, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;) there is a whole issue of the Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology (&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/journal/10802/volumes-and-issues/42-1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Vol. 42, Issue 1 - January 2014&lt;/a&gt;) devoted to the subject of &lt;em&gt;sluggish cognitive tempo&lt;/em&gt; (SCT) and the debate. That issue has renewed interest in the condition (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/professional/resources/research-horizons/archives/2015/summer/sluggish-cognitive-tempo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Silva, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychological Association (APA) publishes the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and is the &amp;quot;go-to&amp;quot; for diagnostic criteria for mental disorders. The latest edition is DSM-5 (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA, 2013&lt;/a&gt;). As it stands right now, there is no official definition (as defined by the DSM) of &amp;quot;sluggish cognitive tempo&amp;quot; (SCT) or &amp;quot;concentration deficit disorder&amp;quot; (CDD), but the DSM-5 does mention that concentration deficits frequently occur following mild traumatic brain injury but,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;can occur in brain-injured and non-brain-injured populations, including individuals with PTSD (page 280)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in individuals with acute stress disorder (pages 284 and 286)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Concentration deficits can also occur in depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_cognitive_tempo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article for &amp;quot;sluggish cognitive tempo&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; states that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;there is no overlap between the official ADHD inattention symptoms [&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_predominantly_inattentive&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ADHD-I&lt;/a&gt;] and the SCT symptoms&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;there is actually a definite overlap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM-5 states that for a diagnosis of ADHD-I (emphasis mine on symptom category letters),&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Six (or more) of the following symptoms have persisted for at least&#xA;6 months to a degree that is inconsistent with developmental level and that negatively impacts directly on social and academic/occupational activities:&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; The symptoms are not solely a manifestation of oppositional behavior, defiance, hostility, or failure to understand tasks or instructions. For older adolescents and adults (age 17 and older), at least five symptoms are required.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;a&lt;/strong&gt;. Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or during other activities (e.g., overlooks or misses details, work is inaccurate).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;b&lt;/strong&gt;. Often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities (e.g., has difficulty remaining focused during lectures, conversations, or lengthy reading).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;c&lt;/strong&gt;. Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly (e.g., mind seems elsewhere, even in the absence of any obvious distraction).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;d&lt;/strong&gt;. Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (e.g., starts tasks but quickly loses focus and is easily sidetracked).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;e&lt;/strong&gt;. Often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities (e.g., difficulty managing sequential tasks; difficulty keeping materials and belongings in order; messy, disorganized work; has poor time management; fails to meet deadlines).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;f&lt;/strong&gt;. Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort (e.g., schoolwork or homework; for older adolescents and adults, preparing reports, completing forms, reviewing lengthy papers).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;g&lt;/strong&gt;. Often loses things necessary for tasks or activities (e.g., school materials, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, papenwork, eyeglasses, mobile telephones).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;h&lt;/strong&gt;. Is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli (for older adolescents and&#xA;adults, may include unrelated thoughts).&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;i&lt;/strong&gt;. Is often forgetful in daily activities (e.g., doing chores, running errands; for older adolescents and adults, returning calls, paying bills, keeping appointments).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Citing &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2015.12.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Becker, et al (2016)&lt;/a&gt;, Barkley (2018) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292148331_Sluggish_cognitive_tempo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Becker &amp;amp; Barkley (2018)&lt;/a&gt;, the Wikipedia article lists the following for the symptoms of SCT:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Prone to daydreaming &lt;strong&gt;DSM criteria b for ADHD-I&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Easily confused or mentally foggy&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Spacey or inattentive to surroundings &lt;strong&gt;DSM criteria b and c for ADHD-I&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Mind seems to be elsewhere &lt;strong&gt;DSM criteria c for ADHD-I&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stares blankly into space &lt;strong&gt;DSM criteria c for ADHD-I&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Underactive, slow moving or sluggish&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lethargic or less energetic&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trouble staying awake or alert&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Has drowsy or sleepy appearance&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gets lost in own thoughts &lt;strong&gt;DSM criteria b, c and h for ADHD-I&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Apathetic or withdrawn, less engaged in activities&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Loses train of thought or cognitive set&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Processes information not as quickly or accurately&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there is an overlap, in criteria, if consensus is achieved for the idea that SCT or CDD exists, there will be a need to officially define a set of criteria which would need to be met, due to the overlap with ADHD-I and the fact that the other symptoms listed can occur with depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the meantime, the&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;13 SCT symptoms that loaded consistently on an SCT factor as opposed to an ADHD factor&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;put together by Becker et al. (2014) and copied into Wikipedia (listed above) are all we have at the current time for a diagnosis of SCT.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although additional measurement work needs to be conducted now that these 13 items have been identified (15-17), it is important to note that parent, teacher, adult self-report, and child self-report ratings scales (18-23), as well as a semistructured clinical interview (24), have been developed that include at least most of these 13 items. Studies using these measures demonstrate that SCT can be reliability assessed, with excellent internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and moderate interrater reliability (14). (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292148331_Sluggish_cognitive_tempo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Becker &amp;amp; Barkley (2018)&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On top of this, whilst research indicates SCT is associated with ADHD-I,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;findings show that SCT is even more prevalent in autism. SCT is most common when autism and ADHD co-occur. Because autism without ADHD is rare (whereas ADHD without autism is not), it is important to assess both SCT and ADHD in children referred for autism evaluations and rule-out autism in children referred for ADHD. SCT may be another neurocognitive problem shared by children with autism and children with ADHD in need of assessment and intervention (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2020.101678&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mayes, et al. 2020&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA. (2013). &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®)&lt;/em&gt;. American Psychiatric Pub. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Barkley, R. A. (2018). &lt;em&gt;Barkley Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Scale — Children and Adolescents (BSCTS-CA)&lt;/em&gt;. Guilford Publications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Becker, S. P., Leopold, D. R., Burns, G. L., Jarrett, M. A., Langberg, J. M., Marshall, S. A., ... &amp;amp; Willcutt, E. G. (2016). The internal, external, and diagnostic validity of sluggish cognitive tempo: A meta-analysis and critical review. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the American Academy of Child &amp;amp; Adolescent Psychiatry, 55&lt;/em&gt;(3), 163-178. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2015.12.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2015.12.006&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Becker, S. &amp;amp; Barkley, R. A. (2018). Sluggish cognitive tempo (Chapter 15) Banaschewski, T., Coghill, D., &amp;amp; Zuddas, A. (Eds.). &lt;em&gt;Oxford Textbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder&lt;/em&gt; (pp.147-153). Oxford University Press. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292148331_Sluggish_cognitive_tempo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292148331_Sluggish_cognitive_tempo&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Brooks, M. (2014). Sluggish Cognitive Tempo a Distinct Attention Disorder? &lt;em&gt;Medscape Psychiatry News&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/819838&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/819838&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., &amp;amp; Waschbusch, D. A. (2020). Sluggish cognitive tempo in autism, ADHD, and neurotypical child samples. &lt;em&gt;Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 79&lt;/em&gt;, 101678. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2020.101678&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2020.101678&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Silva, M. (n.d.). A Fuzzy Debate About A Foggy Condition &lt;em&gt;Cincinnati Children's Hospital&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/professional/resources/research-horizons/archives/2015/summer/sluggish-cognitive-tempo&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/professional/resources/research-horizons/archives/2015/summer/sluggish-cognitive-tempo&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2020-12-19T19:18:56.320" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T19:18:56.320" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26177" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26183" CreationDate="2020-11-06T18:13:01.940" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_questioning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Socratic questioning&lt;/a&gt; is a skills that is commonly used in therapy. However, if I use it to my friends, does that mean I'm therapize/counsel them? The answer is conflict to me:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;On one hand in a therapeutic relationship the therapist has power (which can be used to exploit the client if they want). And I fail to see how using Socratic questioning can do that. Plus that this technique is probably the most basic and ancient form of conversation (from Socrates' time!)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;On the other hand it is also probably the most basic form of therapy. Beck's cognitive therapy is essentially this&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So at the end of the day is Socratic questioning a form of therapy or not? And in general what is the line between daily conversation and therapy? If a non-therapist use therapeutic techniques, would there be any problem? (Assuming they don't need to worry about burn out, and will not exploit anyone)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2020-11-07T12:37:05.923" Title="What is the line between daily conversation and therapy?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;cognitive-therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26178" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21629" CreationDate="2020-11-06T21:36:28.407" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is a scale on benign and malicious envy. It isn't exactly what you want, but it may contain some citations that are of interest you. I believe they also mention the dark triad, which @Tony Mobbs suggested. Both are worth a look at least. I think the scale is on OSF (osf.io) if you can't access the paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0146167214564959&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0146167214564959&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lange, J., &amp;amp; Crusius, J. Dispositional envy revisited: Unraveling the motivational dynamics of benign and malicious envy. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin&lt;/em&gt;, 41(2), 284-294. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214564959&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214564959&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27180" LastActivityDate="2020-11-06T21:36:28.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26179" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-07T01:07:10.420" Score="6" ViewCount="571" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lots of people have been sharing first-hand reports of their personal experience of the so-called &amp;quot;Kundalini awakening&amp;quot;. The following are a few illustrative anecdotes:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/kundalini/comments/ka16rs/after_7_years_of_silence_i_can_finally_tell_my/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/kundalini/comments/kad9as/does_anyone_have_advice_on_how_to_deal_with_the/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/kundalini/comments/2rqstw/spine_stretching_leads_to_visionary_energy_rush/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/kundalini/comments/jn4qbz/my_mothers_kundalini_awakening/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/hyhpTI_NE3E&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4r9tbDu5fG4?t=189&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/TOgTtp9uRcw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;taken from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=%22kundalini+awakening%22+experience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;YouTube&lt;/a&gt; and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/kundalini/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;subreddit on Kundalini&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://marjoriewoollacott.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marjorie Woollacott&lt;/a&gt;, PhD and professor of Neuroscience and Human Physiology at the University of Oregon, has devoted part of her time to the research of the &amp;quot;Kundalini awakening&amp;quot; phenomenon. In her recent paper titled &lt;em&gt;Investigation of the phenomenology, physiology and impact of spiritually transformative experiences - kundalini awakening&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32753262/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32753262/&lt;/a&gt;), she makes the following claim:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The rationale for this study was that though there are many scientific articles published on stress reduction and increased mental function related to meditation, yoga and other tools that come from spiritual traditions, &lt;strong&gt;peer-reviewed research on energetic or kundalini awakenings is rare. This may be due to the phenomenology of this awakening, which does not easily fit into the current materialist scientific paradigm&lt;/strong&gt;. Nor is it easily amenable to traditional means of scientific experimentation and measurement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To understand why Woollacott claims this, let's look at the typical symptoms of the &amp;quot;Kundalini awakening&amp;quot; syndrome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most frequent and distinctive one appears to be the feeling of an &amp;quot;energy&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;electric current&amp;quot; moving up the spine toward the crown of the head. Here is a quote about this from Woollacott's paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Energetic awakenings are often accompanied by physiological experiences. Historical texts [6,7] and modern research [22] concur that as part of the awakening and transformative process, &lt;strong&gt;many individuals feel energy moving up the spine toward the crown of the head&lt;/strong&gt;, or centered in the heart. This is frequently associated with inner sounds or an experience of radiant light, a sense of joy, or a sense of deep interconnectedness with others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundalini&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article&lt;/a&gt; on Kundalini seconds this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Kuṇḍalinī experience is frequently reported to be a &lt;strong&gt;distinct feeling of electric current running along the spine&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundalini#cite_note-Sarawati-8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[8]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundalini#cite_note-Anodea-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[9]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundalini#cite_note-Paulson-10&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;[10]&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other symptoms and results of the &amp;quot;Kundalini awakening&amp;quot; syndrome are summarized in the following tables and figures from the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Tables&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dklzj.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/dklzj.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/F30m9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/F30m9.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rwGN5.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/rwGN5.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h1&gt;Figures&lt;/h1&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/svq4L.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/svq4L.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/flQxM.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/flQxM.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/krGb2.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/krGb2.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other people holding reputable credentials who acknowledge the &amp;quot;Kundalini awakening&amp;quot; as a real phenomenon are &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bonniegreenwell.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bonnie Greenwell&lt;/a&gt; (PhD) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.amazon.com/Lawrence-Edwards/e/B005HVZG4M&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lawrence Edwards&lt;/a&gt; (PhD). Here are a couple of interviews with them: &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/qMD5JUqufTs&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Eh1yPWo5Ou8&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, here is an &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/6_7sdNeahC4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;interview&lt;/a&gt; Marjorie Woollacott gave to &lt;a href=&quot;https://thinkingallowed.com/jm.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jeffrey Mishlove&lt;/a&gt;, in which they discuss different aspects of the Kundalini awakening and the main conclusions of Woollacott's paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bonnie Greenwell wrote a PhD dissertation titled &amp;quot;KUNDALINI: A STUDY OF EASTERN AND WESTERN PERSPECTIVES AND EXPERIENCES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOTHERAPISTS&amp;quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=9396506&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;available here&lt;/a&gt;). She describes the phenomenon as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This dissertation explores in depth the experience of kundalini awakening, a complex spiritual, psychic and physiological phenomenon which may occur in individuals spontaneously or as a result of certain spiritual practices or therapeutic processes, and discusses theories and methods which may be useful to transpersonal psychotherapists who have clients involved in this experience. People are commonly misdiagnosed and inappropriately treated by therapists and physicians when having this experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The dissertation identifies seven major ways in which kundalini phenomena is manifest, usually over a period of years---samadhi experiences; pranic activity which includes a wide range of body movements, vibrations, and temperature changes; spontaneous production of yogic postures or hand movements, yogic breaths, mantras or other sounds and symbols; sudden apparent physical illnesses, pains and eating difficulties; emotional upheavals, often accompanied by fear of death or insanity; seeing visions or hearing inner voices and sounds; and acquiring of psychic abilities or other occult powers.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study reviews classical yogic literature on kundalini, and presents facts and commentaries on 23 case histories, 14 from Eastern and Western literature and 9 obtained from in-depth interviews with Western people who appeared to experience kundalini awakening.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;QUESTION&lt;/strong&gt;: What is a scientific explanation for the symptoms of the &amp;quot;Kundalini awakening&amp;quot; syndrome, such as the feeling of an &amp;quot;energy&amp;quot; moving up along the spine, vibrations, electric currents, heat, euphoria / bliss, spontaneous yogic postures, among others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25376" LastEditorUserId="25376" LastEditDate="2020-12-31T22:08:21.973" LastActivityDate="2021-01-03T01:24:26.017" Title="Explanation for the &quot;spinal energy&quot; and other &quot;Kundalini awakening&quot; symptoms?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;spirituality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="10" FavoriteCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26180" PostTypeId="5" CreationDate="2020-11-07T11:22:51.563" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;For questions relating to spirituality within the fields of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive Science of Religion&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurotheology/Spiritual Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; (the study of religious thought and behavior from the perspective of the cognitive and evolutionary sciences).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-11-07T11:22:51.563" LastActivityDate="2020-11-07T11:22:51.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26181" PostTypeId="4" CreationDate="2020-11-07T11:22:51.563" Score="0" Body="For questions relating to spirituality in the fields of Cognitive Science of Religion and Neurotheology/Spiritual Neuroscience — the study of religious thought and behavior from the perspective of the cognitive and evolutionary sciences." OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-11-07T11:22:51.563" LastActivityDate="2020-11-07T11:22:51.563" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26183" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26177" CreationDate="2020-11-07T12:37:05.923" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;For the answer to this question, you need to look at the definition of the word &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;therapy&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; in the context of psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapy is a treatment for psychological problems in which therapists and clients work together to understand problems and come up with plans for fixing them, generally by changing ineffective thoughts, emotions or behaviors (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/topics/therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA, n.d.&lt;/a&gt; &lt;strong&gt;[in the website meta description not in the web content]&lt;/strong&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The borders between therapy and general socratic questioning between friends/work colleagues is very thin (if at all existent).  It can be very therapeutic to feel you can talk to a very good friend or colleague about a problem, but sometimes the situation can be misjudged. With all the best will in the world, sometimes people find it difficult to be non-judgemental of a friend who has confided in them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trained therapists, who are registered and licenced, are vetted by their managing bodies to provide a &lt;strong&gt;safe therapeutic environment to their clients, free of judgement and respectful of client autonomy&lt;/strong&gt; (Fundamental principles of all codes of ethics — e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/code-of-ethics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Counselling Society (updated June 2020)&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therapy provides a &lt;strong&gt;supportive, non-judgemental environment&lt;/strong&gt; where you might feel more able to talk openly about your experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your therapist and you will work together to make changes that you want to achieve to feel a greater sense of happiness, empowerment, or perhaps to feel less affected by particular experiences (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dpt.nhs.uk/our-services/psychology-and-psychological-therapies/what-are-psychological-therapies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Devon Partnership NHS Trust, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You said that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in a therapeutic relationship the therapist has power (which can be used to exploit the client if they want)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Remember that although therapists are in a position of power, if true autonomy is provided, the client has all the power to control the therapeutic relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Among other big differences including closed vs open questioning&lt;/strong&gt;, one big difference between friends/colleagues and a therapist who works within the ethical framework is that a friend/colleague may tell you what they would do or suggest what you should do to deal with a situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Respecting client autonomy, a therapist can not and &lt;strong&gt;must not&lt;/strong&gt; do that.  An ethical therapist will work with the client to work out what options the client has and possible pros and cons associated with those options &lt;strong&gt;in order for the client to choose their own course of action&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychotherapy is a collaborative treatment based on the relationship between an individual and a psychologist. A psychologist provides a supportive environment that allows you to talk openly with someone who is objective, neutral and nonjudgmental (APA, n.d.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA. (n.d.) Therapy. &lt;em&gt;American Psychological Association&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/topics/therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/topics/therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Devon Partnership NHS Trust. (n.d.) What are psychological therapies? &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dpt.nhs.uk/our-services/psychology-and-psychological-therapies/what-are-psychological-therapies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.dpt.nhs.uk/our-services/psychology-and-psychological-therapies/what-are-psychological-therapies&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;National Counselling Society (2020). Code of Ethical Practice &lt;a href=&quot;https://nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/code-of-ethics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://nationalcounsellingsociety.org/about-us/code-of-ethics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-11-07T12:37:05.923" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26187" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-08T14:27:18.573" Score="2" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is sometimes said that we all make big mistakes.  Is this true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a starting point, 'big mistake' could be defined as a mistake which we do unconsciously for months, and for which the implications endure for more than a few months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the best approach to recover from 'big mistakes'?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27194" LastEditorUserId="27194" LastEditDate="2020-11-09T11:56:18.783" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T18:29:41.613" Title="Does everyone make big mistakes?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2020-11-11T02:17:20.443" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26188" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-08T13:36:51.960" Score="3" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does &amp;quot;medullary bulb transition&amp;quot; make sense in neuroanatomy internattionally or is it a Brazilian invention and there is no term like that in English? What is then the difference of the &amp;quot;medullary bulb transition&amp;quot; and the &amp;quot;medullo-pontine junction&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am trying to translate an MRI report for social security reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It reads:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Discovered a lesion affecting supra and infratentorial compartments to the right of the midline, measuring about 6,4 x 5,4 x 4,0 cm, showing hyposignal on T1 and heterogeneous signal on T2, with cystic areas and highlight markedly heterogeneous by the contrast, mass effect of which deforms the brainstem and the IV ventricle, contralateraly bypassing there structures and causing an insinuation of the cerebellar tonsils toward the foramen magnum, compressing the medullary bulb transition. It is observed that the basilar artery and a portion of the right vertebral artery intracranial transit are wrapped by the lesion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1GCEA_enGR828GR828&amp;amp;sxsrf=ALeKk026hx-mS3zBxB_mzf3yskD-wp6KyQ%3A1604840622814&amp;amp;ei=ruynX8qfMY7MaOrLvsAH&amp;amp;q=%22Medullary+Bulb+Transition%22&amp;amp;oq=%22Medullary+Bulb+Transition%22&amp;amp;gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQAzIHCCMQrgIQJzoECAAQR1DDKFjCQGD8QWgAcAJ4AIAB3QGIAfkCkgEFMC4xLjGYAQCgAQGqAQdnd3Mtd2l6yAEIwAEB&amp;amp;sclient=psy-ab&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjKrvmZgfPsAhUOJhoKHeqlD3gQ4dUDCA0&amp;amp;uact=5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1GCEA_enGR828GR828&amp;amp;sxsrf=ALeKk026hx-mS3zBxB_mzf3yskD-wp6KyQ%3A1604840622814&amp;amp;ei=ruynX8qfMY7MaOrLvsAH&amp;amp;q=%22Medullary+Bulb+Transition%22&amp;amp;oq=%22Medullary+Bulb+Transition%22&amp;amp;gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQAzIHCCMQrgIQJzoECAAQR1DDKFjCQGD8QWgAcAJ4AIAB3QGIAfkCkgEFMC4xLjGYAQCgAQGqAQdnd3Mtd2l6yAEIwAEB&amp;amp;sclient=psy-ab&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwjKrvmZgfPsAhUOJhoKHeqlD3gQ4dUDCA0&amp;amp;uact=5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A google search shows that there are only 5 papers (or even less as some are doubles) in English language with this term from University of São Paulo and some other Spanish speaking Professors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Just an educated guess.&#xA;An exam states&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;causing an insinuation of the cerebellar tonsils towards the foramen&#xA;magnum, compressing the medullary bulb transition&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How confident would you be that the &amp;quot;medullary bulb transition&amp;quot; is the transition bettween spinal cord (from medula spinalis) and medulla (same times called bulb) inside the foramen magnum (a kind of medullo-bulbar juction)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21851" OwnerDisplayName="George Ntoulos" LastEditorUserId="21851" LastEditDate="2020-11-09T07:21:10.213" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T07:21:10.213" Title="What is the medullary bulb transition?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;&lt;neurology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26189" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26187" CreationDate="2020-11-09T05:39:45.630" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the simple and obvious answer to this question is &amp;quot;Yes&amp;quot;.  That is, everyone at some point in their life is likely to make a 'big mistake'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regret is the likely emotion felt subsequent to making a 'big mistake' and is a well researched topic as per the references below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are countless situations in which an individual is likely to feel the emotion of regret, including: divorce, bankruptcy, loss of a close friend, self-inflicted injury, resigning from employment in a rage, being sentenced to jail etc. (The examples chosen here are likely to reflect instances where the big mistake endures for more than a few months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clinical psychology is the profession with specific training for helping individuals move on from their mistakes and overcoming a deep-set emotion of regret.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Connolly T, Zeelenberg M. Regret in Decision Making. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2002;11(6):212-216. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00203&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00203&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sweis BM, Thomas MJ, Redish AD (2018) Mice learn to avoid regret. PLoS Biol 16(6): e2005853. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2005853&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2005853&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-11-09T09:12:46.890" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T09:12:46.890" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26190" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26169" CreationDate="2020-11-09T05:59:37.620" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Big Five is a &lt;strong&gt;trait theory&lt;/strong&gt; built for the specific purpose of quantifying how people &lt;em&gt;differ&lt;/em&gt;, i.e. the focus in on individual differences. Therefore, we need to have a reliable way of comparing two people on their traits. If we try to compare people's agreeableness in every single situation, we run into the problem you describe: everyone behaves more or less agreeably in different situations. Therefore, to compute a trait, &lt;strong&gt;we assume that we are &lt;em&gt;averaging&lt;/em&gt; a person's behavior &lt;em&gt;over a long period of time&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, e.g. over a month or a year. If you behave agreeably more times or with more intensity than your friend over the course of a year, we say that you're more agreeable than your friend, but that doesn't mean you'll always &lt;em&gt;behave&lt;/em&gt; more agreeably than your friend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most today agree theorists today agree that traits are somewhat stable but not strong predictors for every situtation; regardless, the &lt;em&gt;existence&lt;/em&gt; of such differences is significant and what helps us 'understand ourselves better' as you said. Perhaps you should look at Dan P. McAdams for a widely cited model of the 'three levels of personality'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27197" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T05:59:37.620" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26191" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26111" CreationDate="2020-11-09T06:05:06.853" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eysenck&lt;/a&gt; is a popular theorist who proposed a biological basis for Extraversion, Psychoticism, and Neuroticism. He didn't do a lot of empirical research but his theory has influenced researchers, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0191886912005326&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapman and Weiss&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27197" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T06:05:06.853" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26192" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26224" CreationDate="2020-11-09T07:13:53.783" Score="3" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the correct scientific term for the tendency to wrongfully relate arbitrary observations to a significant event, just because they occurred in temporal or spatial proximity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most recently I have observed this error in a discussion about an unsolved killing, where a participant was quite sure that her observation of a black van in a far away town was related to the killing, for the single reason that it occurred around the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27198" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-04-04T06:28:22.820" LastActivityDate="2021-04-04T06:28:22.820" Title="Term for the tendency to relate events that occurred in proximity?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;human-error&gt;&lt;causal-inference&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26193" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26195" CreationDate="2020-11-09T07:53:59.930" Score="3" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the scientific term for the tendency of people to believe, that their expected experience positively deviates from what their first- or second-hand experience suggests?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example for this effect would be an older European Lady dating a young African man and - despite knowing that many such relationships are dominated by asymmetric economical and romantical interests - believes, that her own relationship will be different.&#xA;Another example are people who are educated and experienced enough to know how cults work, yet fail to identify the cult they themselves are currently involved in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Generally, I would say it is a form of self-delusion, or hope, if you want to give it a positive spin - but I am looking for a more specific term for this particular type of self-delusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27198" LastEditorUserId="27198" LastEditDate="2020-11-09T08:45:00.660" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T15:46:08.140" Title="What is the scientific term for the expectation, that a personal experience positively deviates from what first- or second-hand experience suggests?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26194" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-09T09:45:52.270" Score="0" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am now trying to understand the scope of the study of neuroanatomy as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/q/2533/7604&quot;&gt;discussion in meta&lt;/a&gt; surrounding the question &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/26185/7604&quot;&gt;Dorsum sellae, tuberculum sellae and sella turcica which of the 3 is referred to by the adjective sellar?&lt;/a&gt; has raised the question on whether the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurocranium&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurocranium&lt;/a&gt; would be studied by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neuroanatomy&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you apply that logic, in my view 90% - 100% of human anatomy could be under the umbrella of neuroanatomy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermatome_(anatomy)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dermatomes&lt;/a&gt; relate to the anatomy of the vertebral regions of the spine. The nerves travel throughout the body, the organs and within the skin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my view, neuroanatomy covers the structure and organization of the nervous system which in turn involves the brain, spinal cord and related neural networks throughout the body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I wrong and the whole body (or close to it) is under the umbrella of neuroanatomy?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2020-12-22T11:00:25.057" Title="What is the scope of the study of Neuroanatomy?" Tags="&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26195" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26193" CreationDate="2020-11-09T15:46:08.140" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are you referring to the &lt;strong&gt;optimism bias&lt;/strong&gt; from a social psychology perspective?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your brain has a built-in optimism bias. The phenomenon is also often&#xA;referred to as &amp;quot;the illusion of invulnerability,&amp;quot; &amp;quot;unrealistic&#xA;optimism,&amp;quot; and a &amp;quot;personal fable.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This bias leads us to believe that we are less likely to suffer from&#xA;misfortune and more likely to attain success than reality would&#xA;suggest.2﻿ We believe that we will live longer than the average, that&#xA;our children will be smarter than the average, and that we will be&#xA;more successful in life than the average. But by definition, we can't&#xA;all be above average.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-optimism-bias-2795031&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;VeryWellMind&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27197" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T15:46:08.140" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26199" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-09T19:25:15.710" Score="2" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;Lets assume that a person grows up thinking that religion X is true religion. So he builds up a profile in ones head and when notion of religion X appears the neurons that is related are fired, giving sensation of God and related stuff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets us also assume that later in life he learns that religion X was not correct, then does &amp;quot;realization&amp;quot; of this fact happens by modifying old neural networks or a new profile is created for religion X and old profile gets deleted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words do neurons associated with sensation that religion X was true religion &amp;quot;modified&amp;quot; or a new network is created giving a new sensation that religion X was not true religion along!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my general understanding modification of old network could be challenging assuming that they are surrounded by other neurons associated with other stuff, a certain modification by having more or less neurons would result in borrowing neighboring neurons and wiring them to create a modification or loosing some connections to create a modification, which doesn't seem efficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27205" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T19:25:15.710" Title="Biological Neural Network Modification to Unlearn Understandings" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26201" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-09T23:44:14.883" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am self studying a book &amp;quot;Neuronal Dynamics&amp;quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/index.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And I found this very challenging to derive this from p_0&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/Ch7.S5.html#Ch7.E45&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://neuronaldynamics.epfl.ch/online/Ch7.S5.html#Ch7.E45&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Until (7.37) was OK, but after that seems really difficult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone knows how this equation is derived?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27200" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-11-09T23:55:15.113" LastActivityDate="2020-11-09T23:55:15.113" Title="Deriving Fourier transform of auto correlation function from probability distribution" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26203" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-10T05:15:54.980" Score="0" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm struggling to find this missing word, that I imagine would be part of the psychological literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Personality is to an individual what ____________ is to a 1:1 relationship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any thoughts? I imagine &amp;quot;Culture&amp;quot; would be the personality equivalent for an organization, but I'm unfamiliar with similar concepts for a 1:1 relationship. Does &amp;quot;culture&amp;quot; apply equally to organizations of size 2?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many thanks in advance&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27208" LastEditorUserId="27208" LastEditDate="2020-11-11T17:11:49.370" LastActivityDate="2020-11-16T19:01:33.487" Title="What is the &quot;personality of a relationship&quot; called?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26204" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26203" CreationDate="2020-11-10T06:22:27.403" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Perhaps this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An individual's personality&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A couple's relationship&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A group's dynamics&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;An organisation's culture&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-11-10T06:22:27.403" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26206" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-10T21:14:44.520" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;On page 32 of &amp;quot;Principles of Neural Science,&amp;quot; it sates that, &amp;quot;...the initial segment of the axon has the highest density of voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and therefore the lowest threshold for generating an action potential...&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27213" LastEditorUserId="27213" LastEditDate="2020-11-16T17:33:48.003" LastActivityDate="2020-11-16T17:33:48.003" Title="Why is a low threshold necessary for generating an action potential?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26207" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-10T22:01:28.833" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are plenty of psychological traits such as personality and preferences that can be quantified with questionnaires. Most notable is the &amp;quot;big 5&amp;quot; traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since siblings are genetically related and (usually) come from similar environments they have much in common. However, it is feasible that a negative correlation between siblings could develop once in a while. For example, suppose there is a division of labor where one sibling gets good at task A and another at task B. Each will learn different skills which may push some trait in opposite directions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is debatable to what extent many &amp;quot;quantifiable traits&amp;quot; have meaning, but a negative sibling correlation coefficient would still be unexpected regardless. Are there any documented examples?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6355" LastActivityDate="2020-11-10T22:01:28.833" Title="Negativly-coorelated sibling traits" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26208" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-11T01:33:14.053" Score="2" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;On pg.37 of “Principles of Neural Science,” they state that “...in systems with feedback circuits it is the dynamic activity of the system that determines the outcome of computation, not inputs or initial conditions” (37). What do they exactly mean in this sentence?&#xA;I apologize for the follow-up question, but how would a feedback connection even look in a neural network?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27214" LastActivityDate="2020-11-11T01:33:14.053" Title="From the following paragraph, why would the input or the initial condition not matter in the output?" Tags="&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26209" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-11T07:41:46.363" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am learning to work with EEG data in young and elderly subjects. The goal is to find differences in P300 (amplitude &amp;amp; latency) between both age groups during learning. I analyzed the data based on Grand Averages of both groups. As a confirmatory analysis I've tried to find the P300 peak for each subject individually and I performed analysis based on this peaks. Now I am interested in the variability in P300 latency in each trial, especially in elderly subjects, as the decreased P300 amplitude might be partially explained by averaging of more variable peaks. The single trial data looks very noisy and based on the fixed time window for searching P300 peaks, I am getting very different latencies for each trial. The topographies of single trial data also does not help - some looks ok, but others are just noise. Does someone know, how to handle P300 in single trial EEG data? Are classification methods for BCI going to work for this project?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27210" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-11-11T08:19:53.430" LastActivityDate="2020-12-11T10:07:25.733" Title="How to handle single trial ERP (P300)" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;signal-processing&gt;&lt;p300&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26210" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26209" CreationDate="2020-11-11T08:19:35.053" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I remember trying using single-epoch measurements with &lt;a href=&quot;https://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/electrophysiology/the-electroretinogram-clinical-applications/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;electroretinogram (ERG) recordings&lt;/a&gt;. Basically, ERG responses are electrical potential recordings from the neural activity in the retina. ERGs are usually also obtained using ensemble averages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The single-sweep ERG amplitude measures were, as expected, also really messy due to random noise and eye movement artifacts that are normally averaged out when using ensemble averages. However, when using all 250 available individual epochs I had at the time, I could still show that ERG amplitudes slowly declined along the duration of the recording. So I took advantage of all available recordings by plotting all available amplitudes against time and performing linear regression. Linear regression is a particularly robust statistical method when a lot of data is available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In your case, where you basically wish to do an analysis of variance on  populations of people, I would try to pool all the data available per subject and determine the standard deviation, or a related variance parameter. Then doing that for all 20 normal subjects will yield a collection of variabilities. This could then be compared to the older population. I can't advice you on the most appropriate statistical test unfortunately, but for a starters you can simply plot the 2 point clouds and compare them visually. If it looks promising, you can do a t-test (which is likely not the most appropriate test, but it will give you a fair indication). If it all looks promising, you have to find a proper analysis of variance to compare the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-11-11T09:51:11.790" LastActivityDate="2020-11-11T09:51:11.790" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26211" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-11T10:36:47.630" Score="0" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;After reading/watching hundreds of testimonies of people sharing their own personal spiritual experiences, and after analyzing how different skeptics react to these testimonies, I've come to the conclusion that there are two extremes that in my opinion should be equally avoided: 1) believing 100% of what a testimony says and 2) dismissing 100% of what a testimony says. The reason is that testimonies typically present an account of personal experiences entangled with the individual's own interpretation of those experiences. The experiences themselves, devoid of any interpretation, are the &amp;quot;raw data&amp;quot; of the testimony, whereas the interpretation parts are biased by the individual's previous beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Take for example a person relaying their own personal experience of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/26179/explanation-for-the-spinal-energy-and-other-kundalini-awakening-symptoms&quot;&gt;Kundalini awakening&lt;/a&gt;. The &amp;quot;raw data&amp;quot; of the testimony would be the experiences themselves, e.g. feeling an intense vibration/electric current running up the spine, feeling bliss, ecstasy, etc. On the other hand, claims such as &amp;quot;I opened my heart chakra&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;I awakened the Kundalini energy&amp;quot;, etc. would be part of the individual's own interpretation of those experiences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My current personal opinion is that testimonies can provide valuable insights if we are careful enough to distinguish between these two aspects. However, I'm saying this based on the assumptions that people are generally 1) honest and 2) more or less reliable when it comes to reporting raw personal experiences, e.g. their emotions, their symptoms, their physical sensations, what they heard, what they saw, etc. (again, making sure to remove as much &amp;quot;biased interpretations&amp;quot; from the reports as possible and just keeping the &amp;quot;raw experience&amp;quot; parts).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are my assumptions accurate? Are there psychological studies discussing the reliability of witnesses when it comes to reporting their own personal experiences? What about reporting their own &amp;quot;spiritual experiences&amp;quot;? Under which circumstances are testimonies of spiritual experiences more reliable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;* Note: a possibly &lt;a href=&quot;https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/77254/are-extraordinary-first-hand-subjective-accounts-more-likely-to-be-true-the-more&quot;&gt;related question&lt;/a&gt; for the interested reader.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25376" LastEditorUserId="25376" LastEditDate="2020-11-11T12:27:53.443" LastActivityDate="2020-11-11T12:27:53.443" Title="To what extent are testimonies of &quot;spiritual experiences&quot; reliable?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;spirituality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26213" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-11T13:21:16.057" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I discovered that sleep tends to mitigate the 'stress' that one gets by trying to deal with logical problems like work related tasks and general daily life tasks. Does sleep do this by removing the tendency for human to think logically as when we see dreams, they are highly illogical such as &amp;quot;fork made with orange peels!&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it the fact that in sleep the parts associated with stress i.e. logical reasoning part of the brain is being shutoff that results in weird dream contents?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27054" LastActivityDate="2020-11-11T13:21:16.057" Title="Sleep/Dream and Logical Decisions" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26214" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-11T15:15:58.837" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to figure out the name for a design study in the following scenario. Imagine a hospital where patients with a certain condition (say bacteria infection) are treated with a certain medication (say antibiotic A). At some point in time, there was a decision to change the antibiotic used to treat the condition to another medication (Antibiotic B). A sample were drawn from time1 (with use of Antibiotic A) and another sample from time2 (after change to Antibiotic B). The samples can be considered independent and differences can be investigated using either Independent samples t-test or chi-square. I am not sure what type of study design this is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following are my thoughts so far:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Causal-Comparative or Ex post facto [but since I can change the treatment (antibiotic), I am not sure this is right].&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Quasi-experimental - My doubt with this is that this is an observational study and the change in practice (antibiotics) was not due to experimentation but change in operation.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;A combination of retrospective and prospective study as stated &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.statisticshowto.com/cohort-study/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, however, the page and every example of this that I saw seems to suggest that this design is used on THE SAME cohort.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I saw a question about similar design &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/242727/compare-two-samples-from-same-population-taken-at-different-times&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; but there was no mention of the study design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also asked this question &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/495902/name-of-study-design-for-2-samples-measured-at-different-times/495905#495905&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and the responses seem to be between natural-experimental and quasi-experimental. However, I am not sure it is either of the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All assistances are welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27221" LastActivityDate="2020-11-11T15:15:58.837" Title="What is the study design for 2 samples measured at different times that can be considered independent?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;reproducible-research&gt;&lt;twin-study&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2020-11-19T05:09:16.220" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26217" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-12T06:17:29.907" Score="0" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;h2&gt;The question is notwithstanding how IQ seems relatively fixed through the lifespan&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that's the same thing as asking the question independent of whether IQ has enough validity to scientifically explain rather than just measure intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am also assuming that &amp;quot;intelligence&amp;quot; - as it is measured by IQ tests - is learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If each year a child is just 3% disadvantaged at obtaining the skills necessary to do well at intelligence tests, across the 11 years of school this works out at roughly 70%: the mental age of someone with a learning disability, right?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's suppose that 50% of variance in learning is explained by environment and teaching etc., roughly the same as IQ scores in adulthood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does that mean that - on average - an adult with a learning disability but no genetic differences to the population mean, will have been &lt;strong&gt;6% worse at learning what is necessary to pass IQ tests each year they were at school&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Is disadvantage cumulative across childhood development?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By 3% or 6% disadvantaged I just mean learning - the skills that IQ tests measure - at 97% or 94% capacity: &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;due to environmental differences&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What meta or theoretical mistakes or false assumptions have I made?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7852" LastEditorUserId="7852" LastEditDate="2020-11-12T06:24:07.523" LastActivityDate="2020-11-12T06:24:07.523" Title="Is intelligence and social disadvantage cumulative across childhood development?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26218" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-12T15:40:48.363" Score="0" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently I've watched Netflix's &amp;quot;Mindhunters&amp;quot; show where the agents do &amp;quot;criminal-personality profiling&amp;quot; on serial killers to try and predict what they are going to do next. I'm wondering if this technique is still done today, and if so, is it seen as credible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like there is obviously no causal evidence on what motivates a person to become a serial killer, so at best, we're left with observational evidence which would need to be extrapolated from to create the post-hoc narrative and &amp;quot;psychological insights&amp;quot; about what the killer is going to do next.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are tells like teenage bed-wedding or torturing small animals as a kid actually predictive of becoming a serial killer or are these insights just communicating that early-life PTSD is a possible cause?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27226" LastActivityDate="2020-11-12T15:40:48.363" Title="How useful are the psychological profiles of serial killers?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;criminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26219" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26236" CreationDate="2020-11-13T15:27:30.627" Score="0" ViewCount="119" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know the title seems insane, and this is most likely impossible, but &lt;em&gt;is there a mental illness that almost stops a person from thinking?&lt;/em&gt; By thinking I mean the &amp;quot;talking in your head&amp;quot; thing. I'm not looking for a mental illness that makes them unconscious, but rather a mental illness that keeps them conscious and almost stops them from thinking. I have been saying this a few times, but I feel like it's false, since thinking is a person can't stop thinking if they are alive and conscious(right?). A more realistic question is: &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;is there a mental illness that causes one's thinking abilities to severely decline?&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27228" LastEditorUserId="27228" LastEditDate="2020-11-18T15:02:56.033" LastActivityDate="2020-11-19T19:23:32.610" Title="Is there a mental illness that almost completely stops you from thinking?" Tags="&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26220" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-13T16:02:56.480" Score="3" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I keep running into alternative theories and facts about what specification of light to use in sun lamps for light therapy treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many actual afflicted people seem to just swear by just &lt;a href=&quot;https://meaningness.com/metablog/sad-light-lumens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pumping as much light as humanly possible onto a person's eyes&lt;/a&gt;. I am talking up to thousands of watts, commercial LED flood lights. Other articles seem to place &lt;a href=&quot;https://ask.metafilter.com/47461/Sad-lightboxes-make-me-happy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more importance on the color&lt;/a&gt;, and sometimes even on the exact frequency graph. And all consumer products seem to be small tablets you place about 6 inches from your face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What, according to research, is the best setup for treating SAD? Is there an optimal color and intensity or is it just about increasing light available?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27229" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-11-15T09:18:08.610" LastActivityDate="2020-11-15T19:41:18.140" Title="SAD Therapy Light Specifications?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26224" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26192" CreationDate="2020-11-13T18:31:20.147" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is informally referred to as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00888&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;illusion of causality&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Illusions of causality occur when people develop the belief that there&#xA;is a causal connection between two events that are actually unrelated.&#xA;Such illusions have been proposed to underlie pseudoscience and&#xA;superstitious thinking, sometimes leading to disastrous consequences&#xA;in relation to critical life areas, such as health, finances, and&#xA;wellbeing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a cognitive error in the way humans &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_reasoning#Inferring_cause_and_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;infer cause and effect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The example that I'm most familiar with is in medical quackery.  Suppose someone is experiencing constipation.  They try some advice from friends: Go for a long walk, eat some prunes, massage their stomach, use magnesium supplements.  Then they try more questionable solutions: Probiotics, colon hydrotherapy, acupuncture, herbal medicines.  At some point during the process, the constipation is relieved, and the patient naturally concludes that whatever treatment immediately preceded this event must have been the cure.  They &amp;quot;swear by this treatment&amp;quot; from then on, failing to consider that prior treatments may have needed more time to take effect, that other activities not considered treatments may have affected the results (eg, regular exercise, dietary changes), or simply the mere passage of time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-11-13T18:31:20.147" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26227" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26192" CreationDate="2020-11-14T12:50:15.823" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;post hoc ergo propter hoc&lt;/a&gt; fallacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Post hoc ergo propter hoc (Latin: 'after this, therefore because of this') is an informal fallacy that states: &amp;quot;Since event Y followed event X, event Y must have been caused by event X.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20310" LastActivityDate="2020-11-14T12:50:15.823" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26228" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-14T15:42:04.633" Score="1" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;Children learn to speak by hearing others and then trying to pronounce these words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I don't understand is: how does their brain know the right instructions to give to the tongue, lips and the vocal cords to produce a sound that is similar to what they hear? How does the brain of child who is trying to pronounce letters for the first time know how to move the tongue to produce 'N' sound, for example?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we find it hard to pronounce foreign letters that doesn't exist in our first language as adults? Does our brain lose the ability to figure out how to pronounce new letters?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27237" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-11-14T20:01:23.773" LastActivityDate="2020-11-14T20:15:35.487" Title="how does our brain know how to provide the right instructions to pronounce words?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;speech&gt;&lt;speech-comprehension&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26229" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26382" CreationDate="2020-11-14T19:31:55.317" Score="0" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;Those how have an absolute pitch can name the note when they hear it. For those who don't have this ability is it possible to remember a pitch of at least one note?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27239" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T01:15:16.467" Title="Is it possible to memorize the sound of a certain pitch?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26230" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26228" CreationDate="2020-11-14T20:15:35.487" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Children &lt;strong&gt;experiment&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;practice&lt;/strong&gt;. They produce sounds and then listen to their own sounds as well as those produced by others around them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Part of this experiment and practice is the stage of language development referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babbling&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;babbling&lt;/a&gt;. During babbling, infants work towards producing sounds specific to the language they've been exposed to and gradually develop more and more sophisticated sounds that still (mostly) lack meaning. Infants select and repeat those sounds they make that replicate the language they hear from others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Periods during development when certain skills are learned preferentially are called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_period&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;critical periods&lt;/a&gt;. There are early critical periods in language development after which it is more difficult (but not impossible!) to learn to pronounce new syllables because the practice/experimentation phase is passed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;de Boysson-Bardies, B., &amp;amp; Vihman, M. M. (1991). Adaptation to language: Evidence from babbling and first words in four languages. Language, 67(2), 297-319.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hallé, P. A., De Boysson-Bardies, B., &amp;amp; Vihman, M. M. (1991). Beginnings of prosodic organization: Intonation and duration patterns of disyllables produced by Japanese and French infants. Language and speech, 34(4), 299-318.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Oller, D. K., Wieman, L. A., Doyle, W. J., &amp;amp; Ross, C. (1976). Infant babbling and speech. Journal of child Language, 3(1), 1-11.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-11-14T20:15:35.487" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26231" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-15T02:00:38.743" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the book of Eric Berne, Games People Play, he handles greetings between humans as trade subject. So I am wondering that there is any theory about interactions between humans as a trade action/subject. Such as conversations, greetings, relations, social media likes/shares? Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2645" LastActivityDate="2020-11-15T02:00:38.743" Title="Any theory about interactions between humans as a trade action/subject" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;game-theory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26233" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26203" CreationDate="2020-11-16T18:54:53.377" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given the blank I would suggest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;habit&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;personality is an enduring pattern of relating and responding to life's challenges that has its roots in genetics and experience. Couple's relationship evolves over time and becomes similarly half-intuitive and half-conscious. But I suppose this may be a word that is not &amp;quot;psychological&amp;quot; enough.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6151" LastEditorUserId="6151" LastEditDate="2020-11-16T19:01:33.487" LastActivityDate="2020-11-16T19:01:33.487" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26234" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26219" CreationDate="2020-11-16T19:08:02.740" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Well, dementia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consciousness is mostly affective. Affective consciousness and emotional response (albeit changed) is preserved in dementia. Cognitive tasks progressively become nearly impossible. Thoughts, if they arise, become unpronounceable or impossible to communicate. In other psychiatric disorders that disrupt thinking - such as major psychoses - some kind of thinking is preserved, even grandiose or very persecutory delusions have some internal logic and mostly can be communicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6151" LastActivityDate="2020-11-16T19:08:02.740" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26235" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26194" CreationDate="2020-11-16T19:23:29.703" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is the traditional division of anatomy by systems. Neuroanatomy is simply another name for anatomy of the nervous system - both macroscopic and microscopic. As opposed to anatomy of skeleton and muscles, internal organs and topographical anatomy. And of course one remembers the division of macroscopic anatomy and microscopic (which further goes into cytology and histology). So in summary -- yes, the whole body - but just as far as the nerve cells and structures are involved. And please remember - an extremely precise definition here will defy the reason because a lot of these words and divisions are traditional - therefore to be viewed with their own history of use, which may change with time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary, Sobotta Atlas of Anatomy and Anatomy Textbook. It also helps if one has attended medical school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6151" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2020-11-22T10:34:01.330" LastActivityDate="2020-11-22T10:34:01.330" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26236" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26219" CreationDate="2020-11-17T01:59:54.143" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thinking is mainly supported by the frontal lobes (although the ARAS – the Ascending Reticular Activating System – is essential for its arousal and other cortical areas are essential for its sensory inputs and other associative functions, such as language, spatial orientation, and emotion, which are closely associated with thinking). So, anything that affects the frontal lobes can affect the thinking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But frontal lobes never stops function if one is still conscious – neurons in the frontal lobes will keep firing as long as  there’s a stimulation from the ARAS. So, to literally stop thinking (or all neurons in the frontal lobes stop firing) in still-conscious people is impossible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, frontal lobes can be interfered to the degree that the thinking is significantly impaired or retarded and the person seems to stop thinking. This can happen in a varieties of conditions, such as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Psychological:&lt;/strong&gt; severe emotional overload (e.g., by a sudden loss of something so precious, an unexpected devastating event, or an overwhelming rage), schizophrenia in some stages (e.g. catatonic stage), severe depression&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pharmacological:&lt;/strong&gt; overdosage of antipsychotic, sedative, or other psychoactive drugs&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Pathological:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;all metalbolic derangements (hypoglycemia, hyponatremia, hypercalcemia, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;some medical conditions (hypothyroidism, hypocorticolism, hypothermia, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;frontal lobes disorders: frontal lobe tumor, infarction, hemorrhage, encephalits, dementing diseases&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;other causes: post- cerebral contusion, post-ictal stage&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At some stages of the above conditions, either before the patients lapse into coma or after they emerge from coma, the patients will appear dazed, muted, unable to think, and unable to respond. That is, apparently, they seem to stop thinking in these conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontal_lobe#Function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Frontal lobe&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;WebMD. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/brain/what-is-encephalopathy#1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;What Is Encephalopathy?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Roger F Butterworth. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20383/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chapter 38. Metabolic Encephalopathies&lt;/a&gt;. Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects. 6th edition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. [Delirium](&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delirium&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delirium&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2020-11-17T01:59:54.143" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26237" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-17T08:30:46.037" Score="2" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading about Internal Family Systems therapy recently. It's claims seem quite appealing, since it suggests it can do the work of other therapies like psychoanalysis only faster and more directly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has it been studied to determine how effective it is? Whether in comparison to to other therapies or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13552" LastActivityDate="2020-11-21T06:50:33.543" Title="What is the evidence for the efficacy of Internal Family Systems (IFS) therapy?" Tags="&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;cognitive-therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26238" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26241" CreationDate="2020-11-17T10:56:56.627" Score="2" ViewCount="107" Body="&lt;p&gt;Consider for exemple the stereotype threat, of which a recent meta-analysis can be found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343149798_Effectiveness_of_Stereotype_Threat_Interventions_A_Meta-Analytic_Review&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;. People try to assess how can a stereotype might explain a difference between two groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, they almost never control for IQ or Big Five which seems to me to be latent variables with much more explanatory power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My questions are :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Why don't they ever control for these two important factors ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does it mean that the conclusion of these studies are flawed in some way ?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27257" LastActivityDate="2020-11-20T08:07:10.503" Title="Why are most psychological studies not controlling for IQ and personality scores of their respondents?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26239" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-17T11:45:21.170" Score="1" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking to measure satisfaction/frustration of the psychological need for relatedness (self-determination theory) at work. Have seen the scales by Van den Broeck et al. (2010), Longo et al (2016), and Chen et al. (2015) in this regard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, scales measuring isolation, e.g., Orhan et al. (2016), seem a better fit for the situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can I use the presence/absence of isolation as a stand-in for frustration/satisfaction of need for relatedness? Are they interchangeable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please advise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Chen, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Beyers, W., Boone, L., Deci, E. L., Van der Kaap-Deeder, J., ... &amp;amp; Ryan, R. M. (2015). Basic psychological need satisfaction, need frustration, and need strength across four cultures. Motivation and emotion, 39(2), 216-236.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Longo, Y., Gunz, A., Curtis, G. J., &amp;amp; Farsides, T. (2016). Measuring need satisfaction and frustration in educational and work contexts: The Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale (NSFS). Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(1), 295-317.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Orhan, M. A., Rijsman, J. B., &amp;amp; Van Dijk, G. M. (2016). Invisible, therefore isolated: Comparative effects of team virtuality with task virtuality on workplace isolation and work outcomes. Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las Organizaciones, 32(2), 109-122.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Van den Broeck, A., Vansteenkiste, M., De Witte, H., Soenens, B., &amp;amp; Lens, W. (2010). Capturing autonomy, competence, and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the Work‐related Basic Need Satisfaction scale. Journal of occupational and organizational psychology, 83(4), 981-1002.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27258" LastEditorUserId="27258" LastEditDate="2020-11-20T12:29:35.220" LastActivityDate="2020-11-20T12:29:35.220" Title="Are measures for Isolation and Frustration of Need for Relatedness interchangeable?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26240" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-17T15:27:35.867" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is very common to think about how people think about you, how you look, how you sound, and how you can display your best towards others. But more often or not delving too much into these feeling and trying to act upon them can instead hurt you in the long run instead of helping you. Like for instance trying too hard to crack a joke only for it to fall face first into awkwardness, or trying too hard to get someone's attention only for you to make them feel uncomfortable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At times with insecurities, even when though you know you have them, why is it so hard for some people to let go of their shortcomings?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27262" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-11-18T09:18:33.800" LastActivityDate="2020-11-18T09:18:33.800" Title="Why is it so hard to let go of our insecurities?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26241" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26238" CreationDate="2020-11-18T01:40:39.827" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;A quick look at your reference focussed on a meta-analysis of an intervention. Evaluating interventions is mostly about estimating the mean effect of an intervention. So, even if personality or intelligence influences the outcome, this is not directly relevant to evaluating whether on average the intervention has an effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other contexts, controlling for personality and intelligence maybe quite relevant. In general, controlling for personality or intelligence is more relevant (a) where the predictors are conceptually or empirically related to personality or intelligence, and (b) where personality or intelligence is a strong predictor of the outcome of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a whole range of psychological constructs that overlap substantially with either personality or intelligence. And in those cases, you do have a body of literature that examines the degree of overlap with personality or intelligence. And there's also literature that examines the incremental prediction of the variable of interest relative to personality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Grit: Is it different from conscientiousness?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Assessment centers: Do they incrementally predict over and above intelligence?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Type D personality: Is it more than a composite of neurotcism and extraversion&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Trait emotional intelligence: Is it just a weighted composite of the Big 5&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ability emotional intelligence: does it predict workplace outcomes over and above intelligence?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers are always confronted with issues of which variables to measures. It is often not practical to measure everything. In particular, intelligence takes quite a bit of time to measure well. So you often get research that doesn't control for these factors. And then later on, other studies come along and fill the gap. There is also a bit of a process &amp;quot;construct proliferation&amp;quot; in psychology. A researcher comes up with a new pet construct. And other researchers point out later on how it's not that different to personality or how it doesn't incrementally predict. A lot of heated debates arise over these things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Researchers also differ in theoretical orientation and practical concerns. For instance, in industrial/organisational psychology, intelligence and Big 5 personality assessment are very well embedded. So, incremental prediction over and above these factors  is a common question for a researchers to ask. In other fields, they may be less grounded in personality or intelligence frameworks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-11-18T01:40:39.827" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26242" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26050" CreationDate="2020-11-18T03:58:09.520" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A lot of psychological research takes place in societies that are Western, Democratic, and Industrialized, and that from a global/historical perspective are relatively Educated and Rich.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Of course, within those societies, people vary in their level of education and their socioeconomic status (e.g., wealth, income, financial security, earning potential, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And education and socioeconomic status have numerous correlates with psychological variables and life outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;E.g., educational attainment is positively correlated with life time income, intelligence, and political views.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are two obvious explanations for these processes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Education changes a person. They acquire general and discipline specific skills. They get exposed to different experiences, career opportunities and so on.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Psychological characteristics predict interest, access, and success in higher education. For instance, more intelligent people are more likely to be granted access and succeed in higher education.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Third variables. Factors like family socioeconomic status predict psychological characteristics as well as the probability of pursuing higher education.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-11-18T03:58:09.520" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26243" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26073" CreationDate="2020-11-18T05:30:37.887" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes,many celebrities have talked about mental illness they have ,or have recovered.&#xA;Most common is depression,&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demi_Lovato#Health&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bulimia&lt;/a&gt;,anorexia,OCD and sometimes bipolar,PTSD.&#xA;[Not shocking since showbiz is majorly concerned about perfection and beauty to the the narrow standards prevalent].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes these claims are met with skepticism and then there's a word for it:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://dictionary.com/e/slang/sadfishing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sadfishing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The possible reasons could include, obviously is publicity and marketing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bad publicity is still publicity, and looking vulnerable and expressing such feelings helps other common people to sympathise, and the star studded life becomes more believable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And the main point of concern ,regarding whether they are genuine or not, is the fact that the behave ,speak and go on in their lives in a perfectly healthy manner.&#xA;People expect someone with such a complex list of problems to behave differently ,be &amp;quot;weird&amp;quot; in some way. But from personal experience,people who are suffering have shaped themselves to society's expectations to live up to &amp;quot;I'm fine&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is also to lack of in depth knowledge of such mental illness or hyperbolic generalizations which most of us will hear or even say ourselves from time to time:&#xA;&amp;quot;She's a psycho&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or&#xA;&amp;quot;he cleans his room so much he must have OCD&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But ,we don't know them personally, and everyone has a set of behaviors when behave a kind of people- friends, teachers, parents which is slightly different from our true self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for checking if their claims are true ,we would have to look at their medical records etc ,which for obvious reasons is confidential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: As suggested by Chris Rogers I have added some information about &lt;a href=&quot;https://listverse.com/2012/04/11/top-10-most-notorious-insanity-defense-cases/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;insanity pleas&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insanity_defense#Definition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; in Wikipedia ,is a short explanation of what conditions can pass an insanity plea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26932" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-11-18T17:50:14.150" LastActivityDate="2020-11-18T17:50:14.150" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26245" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26238" CreationDate="2020-11-18T13:05:00.497" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You only control for factors that have been proven to matter. IQ has not been shown to be significant. So why measure or control IQ variation if there is no evidence of difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In fact there is evidence that the activation of stereotype threat confounds cognitive performance and therefore IQ. If a person has their stereotype threat activated, and they perform poorly in an IQ test, is that a fair representation of their cognitive abilities? Many articles and studies prove the confounding ability of stereotype threat and the need to minimise this factor in IQ testing, it seems complex and unfair to apply a measure that is significantly influenced by the stereotype threat factor that you are studying.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://spsp.org/news-center/blog/aronson-stereotype-threat&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;- Stereotypes impair intellectual performance blog&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2020-11-20T08:07:10.503" LastActivityDate="2020-11-20T08:07:10.503" CommentCount="15" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26247" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26219" CreationDate="2020-11-19T19:23:32.610" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Thought blocking is a common phenomenon in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. The patient experience a short stopping of all thoughts, they report that all thoughts disappear for a short while (seconds, rarely more than 20-30 seconds or so in my experience). This has been described in the psychopathological literature at least since the publication of Fish's Clinical Psychopathology in 1967, but presumably a lot earlier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not aware of other psychiatric or otherwise pathological conditions in which patients remain conscious and report the loss of thoughts. There are some conditions, as listed by user287279 above, and while it's plausible that there might be a loss of verbal thinking in severe cases of some of them, I have never heard patients report this, neither during the condition nor after recovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27109" LastActivityDate="2020-11-19T19:23:32.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26248" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-20T09:38:47.680" Score="0" ViewCount="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm new to the concept of STDP&#xA;Does Spike timing dependent plasticity explain frequency dependent plasticity? For example, low frequency stimulation of presynaptic neuron causes LTD, however in this case surely the presynaptic spike occurs before the postsynaptic spike? what mechanism results in LTD during low frequencies?&#xA;Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27284" LastActivityDate="2020-11-20T09:38:47.680" Title="what's the relationship between frequency induced plasticity and spike timing dependent plasticity?" Tags="&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26249" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-20T14:09:50.323" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If exactly one neuron magically disappeared from my brain, would my thoughts be significantly different?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One can ask an analogous question about a single neuron (and/or its synapses) being magically displaced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know how &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;sensitive to initial conditions&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; or, rather, to fine details of structure is the activity of human brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This could lead to a philosophy of mind version of the old &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_of_Theseus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ship of Theseus&lt;/a&gt; philosophical thought experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has this version of the ship of theseus already appeared in the philosophy of mind literature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27286" LastActivityDate="2020-11-20T16:31:20.110" Title="If exactly one neuron magically disappeared from my brain, would my thoughts be significantly different?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26250" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-20T15:29:13.437" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bkbLYqwjQOg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This &amp;quot;Scishow&amp;quot; video&lt;/a&gt; is about internal and external anal sphincters, its length is just 3:51. The speaker, Hank Green, says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The muscle that keeps things from leaking out of your body, your anal&#xA;sphincter, is always clenching ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... when smooth muscle contracts, it can stay contracted for a long&#xA;time without using much ATP, so it won’t run out of fuel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it comes with a slower contraction speed ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The internal layer contracts involuntarily, but it relaxes when it&#xA;gets the “gotta go” signal from your body.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The external sphincter is technically skeletal muscle, so it can&#xA;contract voluntarily, ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think, these statements also can be said about internal and external urethral sphincters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_urethral_sphincter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article Internal urethral sphincter&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it is under the control of the autonomic nervous system&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_sphincter_muscle_of_male_urethra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia article External sphincter muscle of male urethra&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Voiding urine begins with voluntary relaxation of the external&#xA;urethral sphincter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/44re4q/are_neurons_in_the_brain_simply_put_just_complex/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this Reddit askscience page&lt;/a&gt; NeuroBill says:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... A neuron either spikes, or does not. This causes it's target cells&#xA;to be excited to a small, graded degree. If enough of these small&#xA;graded inputs summate, then the cell receiving these inputs will&#xA;spike.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, involuntary sphincter should get neuron spikes for every its reclench action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Main question is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Where from does human male internal urethral sphincter get the spikes? Ie what mechanism provides regular spikes for it?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additional questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How frequently does i. u. s. get spikes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How decision to pee makes that mechanism to stop sending spikes? (After writing this question i come to conclusion that the spikes frequency must be more than 1 per several seconds).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Answers may be generalised up to all involuntary sphincters, if you easily can. You can answer additionally just about human female internal urethral sphincter, human internal anal sphincter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you do not know about urethral sphincter, but just about anal sphincter, or do not know about male sphincter, but just about female, i would like to read about it, because it can be, potentially, for my point of view, (level of knowledge), similar to male internal urethral sphincter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24383" LastActivityDate="2020-11-20T15:29:13.437" Title="What provides regular neuron spikes for internal urethral sphincter to regularly reclench?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;physiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26251" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-20T15:37:53.673" Score="2" ViewCount="88" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have read multiple times that we tend to marry one of our parents. Some even claim there is no way around it. I don't really see it. There are some aspects that are similar between my spouse and my parent, but since a character has very many facets, I could find some similar facets to &lt;em&gt;any&lt;/em&gt; person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Obviously, a person is influenced by their surrounding, especially their close relationships, like their parents. And also, obviously, we tend to stick with what we know - including people that are similar to us and what we know. But that basically just means we tend to marry someone who is similar to us and the milieu we grew up with. I don't see any need for arguing that we marry one of our parents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the evidence and accompanying reasoning for the claim that we marry our parents?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples of such claims:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/What-do-marriage-counselors-mean-by-we-marry-our-parents-or-we-marry-at-our-level-of-dysfunction-How-can-we-make-sure-not-to-do-that&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.quora.com/What-do-marriage-counselors-mean-by-we-marry-our-parents-or-we-marry-at-our-level-of-dysfunction-How-can-we-make-sure-not-to-do-that&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/tech-support/201405/why-your-partner-may-be-your-parent&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/tech-support/201405/why-your-partner-may-be-your-parent&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tesh.com/articles/why-do-we-marry-people-who-are-similar-to-our-parents/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.tesh.com/articles/why-do-we-marry-people-who-are-similar-to-our-parents/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21084" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-11-20T23:07:09.620" LastActivityDate="2021-05-01T11:07:00.643" Title="Is there literature support for the 'pop' claim that people &quot;marry their parent&quot;/choose a partner with traits similar to their parent(s)?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26253" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26237" CreationDate="2020-11-21T06:50:33.543" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Internal Family Systems therapy have not been subjected to large rigorous clinical trials. Most of the studies were pilots with no confirmatory studies as yet. I am just repeating the IFS website which best summarises the three existing studies in rheumatoid arthritis, PTSD and depression. I could not find any decent trials in my preliminary search.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A pilot study of 13 patients with PTSD and comorbidities found a 92% improvement after completing 16 sessions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A randomised trial of 79 patients with rheumatoid arthritis, the 39 patients receiving IFS had reduced pain and depressive symptoms, while improving physical function and self-compassion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A study of female college students did not find any difference in the 17 students treated with IFS compared with the 15 students treated with usual care of IPT or CBT, which supports IFS's efficacy, but the therapists in the IFS arm mainly only had 1 year of IFS training and experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ifs-institute.com/resources/research&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ifs-institute.com/resources/research&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2020-11-21T06:50:33.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26255" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-21T17:16:35.080" Score="1" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;How does neural synchronization happen and what results/shows up if it doesn’t work like it should like described &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.intechopen.com/books/research-advances-in-chaos-theory/chaos-in-human-brain-phase-transition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Moreover, chaotic behavior stemming from self-organization processes in the human brain could explain “randomness” in neural synchronization related to cognitive functions and consciousness and also in mental disorganization related to psychopathological phenomena such as schizophrenia [14]. In addition, it has been argued that epilepsy is an example of chaos in the human brain [15]. Besides, some researchers think about the dreaming brain as a brain in which some self-organizing processes occur and exhibit chaos-like stochastic properties that are highly sensitive to internal influences [16].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and how can  &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2848257/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;a failure to integrate the activity of local and distributed neural circuits&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; be described in Layman's terms and without I specifically referring to schizophrenia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;.. it has been proposed that the cognitive and affective impairments associated with schizophrenia may be related to &lt;strong&gt;a failure to integrate the activity of local and distributed neural circuits&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27292" LastEditorUserId="27292" LastEditDate="2020-11-21T17:43:29.950" LastActivityDate="2020-11-21T17:43:29.950" Title="How does neural synchronization happen and what if it doesn’t work like it should in healthy people?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26257" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12125" CreationDate="2020-11-21T21:02:48.803" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a layperson so take that into account, but I find several characters in anime and manga who resonate with my experiences living with ADHD, and what I've researched about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One character especially is Katarina/Catarina Claes from the novels and anime &amp;quot;My Next Life as a Villaines: All Route Lead to Doom.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;She zones out, she dives head first into things she finds interesting, she's often hyper and literally climbs trees. She hates things that bore, and she certainly is impulsive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was this quote in particular (in her past life) that really spoke to me:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;I&gt;Acchan... I can't... can't go on. I leave the rest... to you...&amp;quot; With that, my best friend slammed her textbook shut, before dramatically planting her forehead down onto the stack of notes I had printed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Wh-what are you even saying...? It hasn't even been ten minutes since we started! If you keep this up, you'll drop out of the school system for an entire year!&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;..Nghh... b-but... reading these endless lines in this thick reference book only makes me sleepy... there's no avoiding it. There has to be some sort of curse in this terrible reference book...&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Saying so, my friend sighed deeply. And with that, the High School entrance exam study session ended, in all of ten minutes. Although she was physically capable and did well in sports, she was apparently hopeless in her studies. It wasn't like she was bad at studying - she simply had no interest in it, and was the sort of person who didn't care about matters that bored her&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--My Next Life as a Villainess Vol 2 by Satoru Yamaguchi&lt;/I&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would love to see an except's opinion. But the fandom is pretty much United.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27296" LastActivityDate="2020-11-21T21:02:48.803" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26258" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-22T02:56:20.827" Score="0" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;How to decide whether one has antisocial personality disorder, psychopathy, or both?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the traits which non-psychopaths with APD have but psychopaths don't have, or vice versa?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27298" LastActivityDate="2020-12-24T22:01:45.207" Title="What are the observable differences between &quot;pure&quot; antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26260" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-22T05:46:17.460" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name for inability to recognize one's own (not other's) emotions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27298" LastActivityDate="2020-11-22T07:55:31.223" Title="When a person is unable to recognize their own emotions, what is the name for it?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26261" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-22T06:03:33.490" Score="2" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems like that the &lt;strong&gt;general public&lt;/strong&gt; [1,2,3] and some academics [4,5] &lt;strong&gt;believe&lt;/strong&gt; that &lt;strong&gt;China is&lt;/strong&gt; an exemplar &lt;strong&gt;society of low-trust&lt;/strong&gt;. Most of my friends share the same beliefs. However, one &lt;strong&gt;data source claims that China has the highest social trust&lt;/strong&gt; score: &lt;a href=&quot;https://ourworldindata.org/trust&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://ourworldindata.org/trust&lt;/a&gt;. See also: &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2011.00909.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2011.00909.x&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my limited experience, people in China don't trust commercials, agents, or anyone who wants your money; but commoners are often trustable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried to find several academic papers [6,7,8,9] but none of them directly compare the trust level in China and a Western country.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do you have some &lt;strong&gt;reliable reference&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1]&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/china-has-a-high-yield-but-low-trust-society-says-author-of-age-of-ambition-1.321115&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/china-has-a-high-yield-but-low-trust-society-says-author-of-age-of-ambition-1.321115&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2]&lt;a href=&quot;https://asiasociety.org/switzerland/social-credit-scores-low-trust-society&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://asiasociety.org/switzerland/social-credit-scores-low-trust-society&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[3]&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/ChineseHistory/comments/86vss4/has_china_always_been_a_low_trust_society/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.reddit.com/r/ChineseHistory/comments/86vss4/has_china_always_been_a_low_trust_society/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[4]&lt;a href=&quot;https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:_gUmC7iCfiAJ:https://www.econjobrumors.com/topic/low-trust-societies-can-only-thrive-under-authoritarian-governments+&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;ct=clnk&amp;amp;gl=ca&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:_gUmC7iCfiAJ:https://www.econjobrumors.com/topic/low-trust-societies-can-only-thrive-under-authoritarian-governments+&amp;amp;cd=1&amp;amp;hl=en&amp;amp;ct=clnk&amp;amp;gl=ca&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[5]&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/26384944?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.jstor.org/stable/26384944?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[6]&lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0095555&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0095555&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[7]&lt;a href=&quot;https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/39972/wp586.pdf?sequence=3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/39972/wp586.pdf?sequence=3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[8]&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12939-016-0469-7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12939-016-0469-7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[9]&lt;a href=&quot;http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-JJYJ200210007.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-JJYJ200210007.htm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26613" LastEditorUserId="26613" LastEditDate="2020-11-23T00:05:44.463" LastActivityDate="2020-11-23T00:05:44.463" Title="Reliable sources for society trust score?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;altruism&gt;&lt;trust&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26262" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26251" CreationDate="2020-11-22T07:53:15.033" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, much literature supports this notion. &lt;strong&gt;Mary Ainsworth's attachment theory&lt;/strong&gt; has a lot to say about parental attachments and how important they are for future growth; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886916303312&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this journal article&lt;/a&gt; is directly related to your query. There is also related research in &lt;strong&gt;evolutionary psychology&lt;/strong&gt;, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513802001198&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals-sagepub-com.ezcentennial.ocls.ca/doi/full/10.1177/1948550618794679?utm_source=summon&amp;amp;utm_medium=discovery-provider&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; we get attracted to parental traits: the most popular explanation is &lt;strong&gt;sexual imprinting&lt;/strong&gt;, which comes from evolutionary psychology: as the human species evolved, the humans who learned early on what humans looked like were more likely to mate with the same species and pass on their genes, leading to an evolutionary benefit for learning traits from your parents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27197" LastEditorUserId="27197" LastEditDate="2020-11-23T00:00:21.373" LastActivityDate="2020-11-23T00:00:21.373" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26263" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26260" CreationDate="2020-11-22T07:55:31.223" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are you referring to &lt;em&gt;alexithymia&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Alexithymia is defined as a personality construct characterized by the sub-clinical inability to identify and describe emotions in the self. The core characteristics of alexithymia are marked dysfunction in emotional awareness, social attachment, and interpersonal relating. Furthermore, individuals suffering from alexithymia also have difficulty in distinguishing and appreciating the emotions of others, which is thought to lead to un-empathic and ineffective emotional responding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.disabled-world.com/health/neurology/alexithymia.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.disabled-world.com/health/neurology/alexithymia.php&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27197" LastActivityDate="2020-11-22T07:55:31.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26264" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-22T10:59:42.073" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Verveen published in 1962 that the relative spread and diameter of nerve fibers have a negative linear log(relative spread) to log(diameter) relationship. Are there others besides this publication that show this, for example, in experimental tests? Please see here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;@Article{verveen_1962,&#xA;  author = {Verveen, A.A.},&#xA;  title = {Axon diameter and fluctuation in excitability. Acta Morphol Neerl Scand 5:79-85},&#xA;  pages = {79-85},&#xA;  volume = {5},&#xA;  journal = {Acta morphologica Neerlando-Scandinavica},&#xA;  month = {02},&#xA;  year = {1962},&#xA;}&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26801" LastActivityDate="2020-11-22T10:59:42.073" Title="Relative Spread and fibre diameter of nerves" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26265" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26271" CreationDate="2020-11-22T15:06:33.840" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;As an study/research idea, I have been going through articles about treatment response (mostly SSRI and other antidepressants) related to treating depression, but many studies seem to be mostly reporting changes in total scores (eg BDI or PHQ) whereas I haven't really seen much research analyzing the effect of treatment on symptom level (say on individual questions of those scales), with the exception of specific field of suicidality. Especially given many of the treatments are considered &amp;quot;equally&amp;quot; effective (esp antidepressant mono therapy) it would be of scientific interest to look into more detailed level and see if there's any difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any realiable studies/meta-analysis which would report such values, or if not, is there a reason, such as methodological issues, for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27302" OwnerDisplayName="tuomas" LastActivityDate="2020-11-23T18:58:15.327" Title="Any studies that assess effects of treatment to individual depression symptoms" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26267" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-22T21:56:56.553" Score="0" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;The point of the experiment is to study the, in some sense, counter-intuitive nature of equations. The correct answer would be 3p=5a, where p describes the number of plums and a that of apples. However, many people mistakenly answer 5p=3a. I believe participants were also asked to explain how they rationalized their answer. It could also be they were actually presented with a different but analogous statement like &amp;quot;there are twice as many students as teachers&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm actually not even entirely sure that the experiment I'm referring to is generally considered a part of psychology, or that it was even a proper experiment in the traditional sense, my computer science teacher brought it up several years ago in the context of neural networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've done a bunch of keyword searches, without any success. I would appreciate if someone could point me in the right direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27305" LastActivityDate="2020-11-22T21:56:56.553" Title="Name of the experiment in which participants are asked to express &quot;I have three apples for every five plums&quot; as an equation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26270" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-23T01:35:17.943" Score="1" ViewCount="260" Body="&lt;p&gt;I recently watched a &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/Ch6EOVJSYM4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;testimony&lt;/a&gt; of a man who reports the results of a 40-day water/juice fast (no food). The individual claims to have been addicted to drugs for 22 years, including marijuana, cocaine, mushrooms, LSD, ecstasy, prescription pain pills and alcohol. He went cold turkey, abstaining from both food and addictive substances during the 40-day fast. After the fast, he reports complete freedom and no relapses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This particular case raised my interest in the potential benefits of fasting in the addiction recovery arena. After a quick search I found &lt;a href=&quot;https://observer.com/2016/02/the-number-one-secret-to-superhuman-willpower/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this site&lt;/a&gt; which claims that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fasting is by far the most sophisticated willpower workout available. If you get good at fasting, you can learn to control every other aspect of your life. If you get good at fasting, you can overcome any addiction, not matter how deeply imbedded. Medically, fasting has been found to rapidly dissipate the craving for nicotine, alcohol, caffeine and other drugs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it true that any addiction can be overcome with the skills learnt by fasting? Are there studies on the effectiveness of fasting for overcoming substance addictions or any other addiction for that matter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25376" LastEditorUserId="25376" LastEditDate="2021-05-17T22:41:24.813" LastActivityDate="2021-05-17T22:41:24.813" Title="Is fasting an effective method to overcome substance addictions?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;&lt;feeding&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;&lt;willpower&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26271" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26265" CreationDate="2020-11-23T11:22:00.510" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;To my mind, there are several reasons why this isn't the standard procedure. One reason is that Likert-type items are ordinal data, which means that standard statistical methods such as linear regression and t-tests shouldn't be used. Instead, non-parametric tests need to be used, and those generally confer lower statistical power. In contrast, a scale score (the sum of several Likert-type items) is per convention handled as interval data, which means that those standard methods can be used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another reason is that this might increase the probability of false positives. If a scale used to measure depression has 17 items and the significance level is set to p &amp;lt; 0.05, there is a 1 - 0.95^17 = 58 percent chance of at least one false &amp;quot;significant&amp;quot; association between the test group (treatment vs. no treatment) and an item from the scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, the idea (which is questionable) is that there exists an underlying pathological &amp;quot;depression process&amp;quot; in the brain, which is expressed through different symptoms such as depressed mood, sleep disturbances, loss of interest etc. This is the medical model, and it is analogous to, for instance, pneumonia, in which there is a pathological infectious/inflammatory process in the body caused by bacteria, and giving rise to symptoms such as coughing, fever, etc. From this theoretical point of view, it makes more sense to assess the total score of the depression scales, which is thought to represent the &amp;quot;latent variable&amp;quot; that is the &amp;quot;depression process&amp;quot;, rather than just one of the isolated symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, there are examples in the literature of the approach you suggest. Below is one example of a meta-analysis of some trials of SSRI for depression. The study is not without flaws in my opinion, so the results should be interpreted with care, but it is an example of the idea you had.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31303567/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Influence of baseline severity on the effects of SSRIs in depression: an item-based, patient-level post-hoc analysis&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27109" LastActivityDate="2020-11-23T11:22:00.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26273" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26265" CreationDate="2020-11-23T18:58:15.327" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Division 12 of the American Psychological Society has a resource that may assist.  For a range of diagnoses (including &lt;a href=&quot;https://div12.org/diagnosis/depression/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depression&lt;/a&gt;), non-pharmaceutical treatments that have demonstrated efficacy are identified.  For each treatment, the studies and meta-analyses that were used to support its efficacy are identified.  The approaches used in the supporting articles may assist with the methodological aspects of your question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-11-23T18:58:15.327" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26275" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-24T03:44:47.853" Score="1" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;Functional near-infrared spectropathy &amp;quot;fNIRS&amp;quot;, is a biophysics/medical technique that uses the near-infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum (around 680nm to 810nm in wavelength) to image the blood oxygenation level dependent &amp;quot;BOLD&amp;quot; effect in the brain to image brain function &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1631079/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;for more on BOLD look here&lt;/a&gt;. Recently, in 2018 a study was done &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6237845/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link to study&lt;/a&gt; showing that High-field MRI could be used to functionally image sodium quantitively in the brain.&#xA;I'm wondering if the same thing (functional sodium imaging) can be done with fNIRS or an Infrared spectropathy type deal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know if this has been attempted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27316" LastActivityDate="2020-11-24T03:44:47.853" Title="Has anyone tried using functional near-infrared spectropathy to quantitively measure sodium concentrations in the brain?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;fmri&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26276" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-24T07:41:42.733" Score="0" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;If someone were to smoke marijuana lightly during his teens and stop abruptly in his adulthood. Would he suffer from Some type of damage to his short term memory/iq and if so can the damage be reversed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27317" LastActivityDate="2020-11-24T15:06:53.370" Title="Will smoking marijuana lightly during teens cause developmental damage to the brain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26277" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26276" CreationDate="2020-11-24T15:06:53.370" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is impossible to say with any degree of certainty whether a given individual will or will not suffer from any consequences of any amount of marijuana consumption, so we'll have to use the scientific data which can only say something about group-level effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is quite well known that cannabis impairs cognition in the short-term*, and that the effects may last for at least a while of abstinence in heavy users. What you're asking about is whether there are any lasting and irreversible effects of cannabis on cognition, and this remains a debated and unresolved question in the scientific literature on harmful effects of cannabis. For instance, a recent &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32823178/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;review&lt;/a&gt; find inconsistent evidence for long-term working memory deficits in current heavy users and limited evidence for recovery after abstinence. In the same study, similar results are reported for other areas of cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When it comes to IQ, there are some long-term studies that assess whether there are lasting long-term effects of cannabis on IQ. I believe the first such study was the one published by &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22927402/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meier and colleagues in 2012&lt;/a&gt;, in which they reported that among heavy users who had begun using cannabis before the age of 18, there was a lasting decline of IQ from childhood to mid-life with about 8 points, that persisted even after cessation of cannabis use. A similar study was published in 2016 by &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26739345/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mokrysz and colleagues&lt;/a&gt;, finding no decline of IQ between ages 8 to 15 in adolescents and pre-teens who had used cannabis during those years. Both studies may be subject to methodological criticism, and to my knowledge, there are no other studies with similar design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another issue is whether cannabis impacts brain development and/or causes morphological brain changes. The literature on this topic is also on the whole inconclusive, as shown in a recent review by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7027478/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kroon and colleagues&lt;/a&gt;. However, it should be noted that there is actually some evidence (&amp;quot;limited evidence&amp;quot;) for reduction in the volume of prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, which is consistent with animal studies in which especially a reduction of hippocampus volume can be induced under experimental conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, the scientific literature in this area is on the whole inconclusive, and while it cannot be ruled out that there might be irreversible negative effects of cannabis on cognition, especially in those who start to use cannabis early and develop a heavy use over long periods of time, there are no hard evidence to support this either.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*. Though there is also some reports indicating positive effects of cannabis on divergent thinking (i.e. &amp;quot;out of the box&amp;quot;-thinking), which might be considered a positive effect on cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27109" LastActivityDate="2020-11-24T15:06:53.370" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26279" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26258" CreationDate="2020-11-24T21:50:20.003" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Antisocial personality disorder (APD) and psychopathy are not distinct entities, but highly overlapping constructs. APD is the diagnosis currently supported by the latest iterations of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)&lt;/a&gt;, and psychopathy is rarely used in clinical contexts today, though the terms are often used interchangeably.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psi.uba.ar/academica/carrerasdegrado/psicologia/sitios_catedras/practicas_profesionales/820_clinica_tr_personalidad_psicosis/material/dsm.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;criteria of APD&lt;/a&gt; are centered around antisocial behaviors such as norm violating behavior, impulsivity, aggressiveness, and a lack of remorse. Psychopathy lacks a specific set of criteria, but for instance the often used &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.hare.org/scales/pclr.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hare Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R)&lt;/a&gt;include aspects such as impulsivity, aggressivity, and a greater focus than APD on the lack of empathy and Machiavellianism, that is manipulativeness and callousness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27109" LastActivityDate="2020-11-24T21:50:20.003" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26281" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-25T01:37:01.667" Score="2" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;For those born with cognitive impairment, could technology progress to a point where their disability is rectified to a level of regular human faculty? In the movie and memoir, &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awakenings&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Awakenings&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt;, a new drug L-Dopa is applied to patents suffering from the sleeping sickness. They are temporarily brought out of a coma-like state, and become regular functioning people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I hope this question isn't too speculative to be off topic. Although, I think there are a few glimmers of evidence out there:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2011/01/drug-treat-type-mental-retardation-shows-promise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Drug to Treat a Type of Mental Retardation Shows Promise&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://sci-hub.tw/10.1126/scitranslmed.3001708&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Study&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As recently as 10 years ago, the idea of reversing mental retardation was unthinkable. That's because many of these conditions result from genetic glitches that derail brain development even before birth. But recent studies with mice and other animals have given researchers hope that it may be possible to develop treatments that improve cognition and behavior in conditions like Fragile X syndrome, in which a mutation to a gene on the X chromosome makes part of the chromosome look unusually thin, and Rett syndrome, another common cause of mental retardation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3876407/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;New Innovations: Therapeutic opportunities for Intellectual disabilities&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intellectual disability, the currently accepted American term (replacing mental retardation), is socially, rather than scientifically derived, and limited in its precision. The new International Classification of Diseases (ICD11) categorization recommends “intellectual developmental disorder” 6. Our understanding of how learned memories are stored in the brain is still fragmentary7–9 but learning processes appear to converge upon the ability to appropriately develop and modulate synaptic junctions in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jacquemont, S., et al. (2011). Epigenetic Modification of the FMR1 Gene in Fragile X Syndrome Is Associated with Differential Response to the mGluR5 Antagonist AFQ056. Science Translational Medicine, 3(64), 64ra1–64ra1. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3001708 &lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4116" LastActivityDate="2020-11-25T01:37:01.667" Title="Is there an example of a major mental handicap being rectified similar to Awakenings, the 1990 film and 1973 nonfiction book?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26282" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-25T12:51:41.987" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;When building a survey, what is the maximum number of response choices in a question? In the interest of reducing cognitive load and/or avoid choice paralysis.&#xA;I couldn't find any research on this specifically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27325" LastActivityDate="2020-12-26T12:06:55.590" Title="How many answer choices is too many answer choices?" Tags="&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26284" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-26T08:42:20.163" Score="0" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;How can I vary the membrane surface in the classic HH model? I have programmed such a model and now I ask myself how I can change the surface of the compartment, so which parameters I have to increase so that the surface is 10 times bigger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26801" LastActivityDate="2020-11-26T08:42:20.163" Title="Surface area in the classic Hodgkin Huxley Model" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26286" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26282" CreationDate="2020-11-26T11:49:03.157" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Take a look at researches on human Working Memory Capacity (WMC) and it applications in different problems, for instance, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/working-memory-capacity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here is Elsevier ScienceDirect chapter/paper set related to WMC&lt;/a&gt;. Most of the researches depicts that WMC of an adult human is limited to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2864034/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;3-5&lt;/a&gt;-7 items, depending of how large and complex these items are.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, if your survey question is about something minimalistic, like preferable color or time slots, which are quite simple objects to comprehend, you may confidently provide up to 7 answer options. But if your question is asking about behaviour in some imagined environment, and answer options present different complex scenarios in a response to this environment, it's better to limit them to 3-4 options so that respondents would be able to comprehend each option separately and consciously compare it with other ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10173" LastActivityDate="2020-11-26T11:49:03.157" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26289" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-27T16:53:44.923" Score="3" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question is in regard to the explanation power of the conducted experiments to prove the self-concept maintenance theory in Mazar et al.'s &amp;quot;The Dishonesty of Honest People?&amp;quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245918781032&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Verschuere, et al. 2018&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I correct in thinking that the experiments are not controlled enough and their claim that one result might be consistent to their theory does not mean that the motives behind the behaviours observed in the results cannot be due to other forces?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In one experiment where they they claim to test the hypothesis directly that one is aware of it's dishonest behaviour, but because of the cognitive mechanism one is able to maintain ones self concept is actually full of flaws. E.g. we do not know whether it was controlled for individual differences, since the sample size is small, randomization might still lead to heterogeneity between groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Verschuere, Meijer, Jim, Hoogesteyn, Orthey, McCarthy, Skowronski, ..., Ezgi. (2018). Registered Replication Report on Mazar, Amir, and Ariely (2008). &lt;em&gt;Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science. 1&lt;/em&gt;(3), 229—377. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245918781032&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245918781032&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27329" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2020-11-28T09:13:38.440" LastActivityDate="2020-11-28T10:08:43.143" Title="The research on dishonesty" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;behavioural-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26290" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21961" CreationDate="2020-11-27T18:11:14.310" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;(This isn't a complete answer, as I'm not in a position to comment on the neuroscience, but it should provide some useful background for anyone else who is interested in Peters' work.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While The Chimp Model is &lt;em&gt;based&lt;/em&gt; on psychology, is not intended to be an accurate nor detailed representation &lt;em&gt;of&lt;/em&gt; the science. Rather, it is a conceptual framework that can be used to help people think about and change their behaviour. It provides a metaphor that can help coaches and individuals who want to know a bit more about the way their minds work, and enable them to make changes based on what they have learned. The idea is that it will help people &lt;em&gt;use&lt;/em&gt; the science, but is not the science itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Compare this to the idea that atoms are little coloured balls: that isn't an accurate representation of modern physics, but it is a useful way to think about many of the properties of matter in many practical situations)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The model divides the mind into three parts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Chimp. According to the model, this is an independent part of your mind that is not under your control. It works with feelings and impressions, and makes deductions using &amp;quot;emotional thinking&amp;quot;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Human. This is the conscious, thinking, analytical part of your mind that operates on facts and can make logical deductions.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The Computer. This is the part of your mind that stores memories, skills and habits. It can do a certain amount of &amp;quot;automatic&amp;quot; thinking.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Peters' ideas are related to the ideas espoused by Daniel Kahneman in his book, &amp;quot;Thinking, Fast and Slow&amp;quot;. In this book Kahneman posits that there are two systems at work in the human mind:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;System 1, which is fast, instinctive and emotional. This system can perform&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;System 2, which is slower, more deliberative, and more logical&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kahneman's work is much closer to &amp;quot;proper&amp;quot; (i.e. academic) psychology than that of Peters, whose motivation is practical rather than scientific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Both Peters and Kahneman are proponents of a school of thought known as &amp;quot;dual process theory&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10919" LastActivityDate="2020-11-27T18:11:14.310" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26295" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-11-29T11:13:37.423" Score="0" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there studies that analyse if stress in displacement primarily results from being removed from a physical or from a social environment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, does it lead to more stress to remain in a place if the community leaves, or to leave a physical place jointly with a community?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27352" LastActivityDate="2020-11-29T11:13:37.423" Title="Do physical or social factors predominate in place attachment?" Tags="&lt;environmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26300" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-02T02:13:20.463" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have experienced several mind pops and instant recalls based on triggered events, and some might come suddenly, or they might gradually appear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sometimes, though, I remember something that I would like to write down or look up on-line, but sometime later, when I am reminded about it, all I can remember was that I wanted to write it down or look it up, but I wouldn't be able to remember what it was.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, what theories or hypotheses might suggest for why this happens frequently?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18499" LastActivityDate="2020-12-02T02:13:20.463" Title="From a general perspective, why are we more likely to remember wanting to do something, but not specifically what it is?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26303" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-02T12:38:25.213" Score="0" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introduction:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My personal observation is that most people, regardless of culture context, tend to put stigma mainly on the victim of a violent act and not (that much) on the perpetrator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is always the victim who feels shame and embarrassment in public and it is never the perpetrator. As far as the perpetrator is concerned, things are clear - malignant egoism and narcissism prevents them from feeling any remorse or shame.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But why does the victim feel shame? Why is the public response of mocking or insulting the victim for being a victim and not the perpetrator for acting violent?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I have my own hypothesis: being a victim is a display of weakness, which is unconsciously perceived (on an evolutionary psychology level) as threat for the survival of the social group. A weak individual has no use as far as physical combat survival is concerned. A strong, albeit criminal individual is not that useless: in times of peace he could be kept imprisoned, but in times of war, he could be deployed.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2574" LastEditorUserId="2574" LastEditDate="2020-12-03T10:14:55.767" LastActivityDate="2020-12-03T10:14:55.767" Title="Why do people tend to put stigma on a victim and not on the perpetrator?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolutionary-psychology&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;&lt;criminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26304" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-02T17:19:09.190" Score="-1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently taken up the study of neurology, and I was wondering if you could create a device that would input gamma waves into your brain. And if it would be safe. Suppose you had a device that you wore sort of like a headband, and it emitted gamma waves and focused them into your brain. Would this be safe, if at low power? And would it increase focus/awareness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26606" LastActivityDate="2020-12-03T19:28:28.070" Title="Could you inject external gamma waves into your brain safely?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26305" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26304" CreationDate="2020-12-03T01:22:56.113" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q: Could you inject external gamma waves into your brain safely?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;A:&lt;/strong&gt; Yes, nowdays we can  inject external gamma waves into the brain safely, and the procedure has been done routinely in many advanced neuroradiosurgical clinics for decades now – it’s called Gamma Knife or Gamma Knife Radiosurgery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But the procedure isn’t done to increase focus or awareness – there’s no theoretical background or experimental evidence for that. Instead, the procedure is done to precisely remove a pathologic lesion, such as tumor, arterovenous malformation, and epileptic focus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This procedure is the procedure of choice when the conventional neurosurgery cannot be performed due to fact that the lesion is too deep down in the brain or too near a vital structure (such as in the middle of the brainstem) or that the patient's age or medical conditon wouldn't allow a conventional neurosurgical procedure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ucsfhealth.org/treatments/gamma-knife&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gamma Knife&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/16559-gamma-knife-radiosurgery&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gamma Knife Radiosurgery&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastActivityDate="2020-12-03T01:22:56.113" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26306" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26400" CreationDate="2020-12-03T01:31:41.790" Score="0" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know if there's any study about that, I'm specially interested if it determines how much it influences a certain person behavior in a certain given percentage and the quantities from where a person wouldn't do a certain thing but for more money they end up doing them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not discovering anything new saying that there are tasks we wouldn't do if we don't earn money, that's basically what most jobs are about. But point is it does not end in that, most people can end up doing things that go against their morals if they are given enough money. I even believe that most people would do anything that goes extremely against their morals if very huge quantities of money were given to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there studies on how much that influences the behavior of a person on average?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastEditorUserId="8573" LastEditDate="2020-12-03T10:24:01.107" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T21:17:59.373" Title="How much does money (or any desired good) influence a person on average?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;sociology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26307" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-03T04:39:26.803" Score="2" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm in my first semester studying mental health counseling at a master's level and I have heard several of my professors make comments to the effect that over the past 20-30 years they have seen the definition of trauma shift dramatically to include things of lesser and lesser severity. I was wondering where this trend started and whether there were any particular researchers or organizations that spearheaded this movement of thought within the field? Is it the result of any particular philosophical, political, or social movements that have affected the field as a whole? or have there been any landmark works that have pushed the field of trauma research in this direction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've already read &lt;em&gt;The Trauma Spectrum&lt;/em&gt; by Robert Scaer, but it seems like things were already headed in the direction of expanding the definition of trauma already.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27080" LastEditorUserId="27080" LastEditDate="2020-12-03T19:25:51.497" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T08:13:01.227" Title="When and how did the concept of psychological trauma begin to be extended and expanded to include more mundane and less severe experiences?" Tags="&lt;ptsd&gt;&lt;definition&gt;&lt;trauma&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26308" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26304" CreationDate="2020-12-03T04:55:52.717" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am fairly certain that the question is not about electromagnetic gamma light radiation, but rather about the gamma frequency brain waves. While we do not &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;inject gamma waves&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot; we can stimulate brain activity at gamma level frequencies through the use of sensory stimulation that occurs at such a frequency. There has been research done with people who have Alzheimer's and the use of lights that turn off and on at the same frequency as Gamma waves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the respective wikipedia articles that concern gamma waves vs gamma rays respectively&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;vs&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray#:%7E:text=A%20gamma%20ray%2C%20or%20gamma,imparts%20the%20highest%20photon%20energy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray#:~:text=A%20gamma%20ray%2C%20or%20gamma,imparts%20the%20highest%20photon%20energy&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found the following articles about the use of gamma frequency stimulation in Alzheimer patients.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a link to an article: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nia.nih.gov/news/noninvasive-brain-wave-treatment-reduces-alzheimers-pathology-improves-memory-mice#:%7E:text=Previously%2C%20researchers%20at%20the%20Massachusetts,also%20boosted%20the%20activity%20of&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nia.nih.gov/news/noninvasive-brain-wave-treatment-reduces-alzheimers-pathology-improves-memory-mice#:~:text=Previously%2C%20researchers%20at%20the%20Massachusetts,also%20boosted%20the%20activity%20of&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Noninvasive brain wave treatment reduces Alzheimer's pathology, improves memory in mice&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is an article that mentions the use of sound waves at a gamma frequency too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.alzforum.org/news/research-news/flash-beep-gamma-waves-stimulate-microglia-memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.alzforum.org/news/research-news/flash-beep-gamma-waves-stimulate-microglia-memory&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Flash! Beep! Gamma Waves Stimulate Microglia, Memory&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27080" LastEditorUserId="27080" LastEditDate="2020-12-03T19:28:28.070" LastActivityDate="2020-12-03T19:28:28.070" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26313" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-03T21:27:58.980" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think the question is best described by an example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You are at a doctors office and are about to have a conversation about you birth control prescription.&#xA;Before you can enter you have to decide if you want the female doctor or the male doctor with you in the room. The decision is made on either a sheet of paper or screen listing the female and male doctors name with a checkbox attached.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depending on which option is listed first or on top the decision is biased towards that option. If for example the male doctor is listed first the patient might feel that selecting the female doctor is out of the ordinary or 'extra work' just for her. The patient might be inclined to choose the first option to avoid any confrontation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This might be especially true if the patient feels uncomfortable with the topic of the appointment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In what form could we present the options as to not give any bias as to what the &amp;quot;normal&amp;quot; or expected answer is?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27384" LastActivityDate="2020-12-04T04:39:31.640" Title="How can we overcome positional bias when selecting an option on a screen/document?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26315" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26313" CreationDate="2020-12-04T04:39:31.640" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could randomise the order of response options.&#xA;This wouldn't prevent bias in the individual case, but it would probably remove most bias in aggregate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also wonder whether in the case that you present, positional bias has much of an effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Equally, you could make &amp;quot;no preference&amp;quot; or something similar, the first option.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2020-12-04T04:39:31.640" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26318" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4037" CreationDate="2020-12-05T11:43:23.347" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our large cortex allows us to produce survival behaviour more sophisticated than any other species. Our basic traits are co-operation, competition and cheating. We excel at all three and can switch in a heartbeat according to the perceived situation.&#xA;I suggest an evolutionary feedback loop between the traits and cortex size. Cheating, for example, only works if one or more others can be deceived. If their cortex is as large as yours you are less likely to succeed. The traits drive behaviour at every social grouping: family, tribe, nation, economic bloc. Language is only a tool for the traits.&#xA;However in recent times the aforementioned feedback loop may have stopped working or even reversed. Increasing our species is reshaped by relative levels of fertility and promiscuity more than any other factor. We cannot countenance eugenics. Can we countenance the consequence of that distaste?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27361" LastActivityDate="2020-12-05T11:43:23.347" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26321" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-06T01:58:32.967" Score="2" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;STEM&lt;/a&gt; courses, students solve problems in problem sets, as a way to &lt;a href=&quot;https://bokcenter.harvard.edu/problem-sets&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;learn through practice&lt;/a&gt;. Answers are often provided for some problems (e.g., the odd numbered problems in a textbook) and not for others. When a student is working on a problem that they have an answer for, they have a choice about how long to work on it before looking at the answer. If the goal is to learn as efficiently as possible for long-term understanding, what is the optimal amount of time to spend on a problem before looking at the answer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way to think about this question: Imagine that a student has access to a problem bank with an unlimited supply of questions and answers. So at any point they can look at a solution and move on, without ever running out of questions. If they have a fixed amount of time to practice, &lt;strong&gt;will they achieve a better understanding of the subject if they set a shorter time limit and cover more questions, or set a longer limit and spend more time struggling with the more difficult problems?&lt;/strong&gt; Assume that the problems are moderately difficult (not just &amp;quot;plug numbers into a formula&amp;quot; problems), but are not open-ended research problems or tricky challenge puzzles. I.e., They are written for the purpose of teaching fundamental results or techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to this question may depend on how you value the benefit of students struggling with a problem and discovering their own insights, compared to the benefit of learning the &amp;quot;correct&amp;quot; procedure for solving a problem, and going on to practice that procedure on other problems. An argument for the latter point of view is that by spending too much time on each problem, students risk not having enough time to discover and practice the range of problem types they need to learn the class material. An argument for the former point of view is that struggling with problems is more important for understanding in the long run. I don't know which argument is better supported by evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/820004/when-to-give-up-on-a-hard-math-problem/820014&quot;&gt;When to give up on a hard math problem?&lt;/a&gt; (Math Stack Exchange). I think there may be a distinction between problems where the difficulty is inherent to the problem, which is more what this MSE question is about, and problems that are hard due to lack of experience or knowledge.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Keith Devlin's concept of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.coursera.org/learn/mathematical-thinking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mathematical thinking&lt;/a&gt;. Devlin is opposed to math instruction that emphasizes procedures for solving problems. I think he would favor a longer duration for each problem, since his goal for students is to learn how to think mathematically, not learn &amp;quot;correct&amp;quot; procedures.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are many similar Quora questions -- e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/How-long-should-I-stay-working-on-a-math-problem-I-am-stuck-on-before-asking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How long should I stay working on a math problem I am stuck on before asking?&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/How-long-should-one-attempt-to-solve-a-math-problem-before-looking-at-a-solution-How-do-I-balance-the-intellectual-reward-for-solving-the-problem-myself-vs-looking-at-a-solution-with-respect-to-time-management-and&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How long should one attempt to solve a math problem before looking at a solution?&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.quora.com/How-long-should-I-keep-trying-to-solve-a-maths-problem-before-asking-for-help-so-that-I-dont-blunt-my-creativity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How long should I keep trying to solve a maths problem before asking for help?&lt;/a&gt; I'm hoping for a more evidence-based answer.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27081" LastActivityDate="2020-12-06T01:58:32.967" Title="When learning a subject by working on a problem set, what is the optimal amount of time to spend on a problem?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;educational-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26322" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-06T04:36:30.240" Score="-1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is the analogy of a defribillator for a brain be able to tackle brain deaths ? What are the limitations to this idea?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27397" LastActivityDate="2020-12-06T10:56:06.960" Title="Can a brain dead person be revived through a modified defribillator?" Tags="&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26323" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-06T09:52:24.247" Score="0" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am writing a review article on dialectical behavioral therapy. If in the article, there are technical terms related to behavioral therapy, so, should I define each of the terms while writing the article or should I assume that the readers/editor/reviewers of the psychology journal know all these terms. For example: A term, cognitove behavioral therapy (CBT). Should I explain what is CBT or should I assume that readers know this type of term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27398" LastEditorUserId="27398" LastEditDate="2020-12-07T18:35:16.917" LastActivityDate="2020-12-07T18:35:16.917" Title="Should I define each and every term while writing an article for a psychology journal?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;publication-process&gt;&lt;publication&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26324" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26322" CreationDate="2020-12-06T10:36:30.333" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Brain death is defined as the complete and &lt;strong&gt;permanent&lt;/strong&gt; loss of brain function (1), or complete, &lt;strong&gt;irreversible&lt;/strong&gt; cessation of brain function (2), or &lt;strong&gt;irreversible&lt;/strong&gt; cessation of all functions of the whole brain (3). Therefore, according to these definitions, once brain death occurs, it cannot be reversed, and even if one tries to treat this condition by any treatment or intervention (including the suggested brain defibrillation), it will not be successful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, it is very important to note that &lt;strong&gt;not all&lt;/strong&gt; patients who have loss all functions of the whole brain and appear to be in deep coma have brain death. Some of them have &lt;strong&gt;reversible&lt;/strong&gt; causes, such as overdosage of CNS (central nervous system) depressant drugs, severe hypothermia, and severe metabolic (acid-base, electrolyte, endocrine, etc.) abnormalities. (1-3). These patients can be revived and their coma can be reveresed not by some kind of brain defibrillation but by treating the cause. Even in patients who are in coma from non-convulsive status epilepticus and have generalized abnormal electrical discharges in their brains (as can be diagnosed from EEG – electroencephalogram), which may be considered the brain equivalence of the heart fibrillation, the treatment is intravenous antiepileptic drug injection, not any kind of brain defibrillation, to stop the abnormal cerebral discharges. (4)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, one of the utmost important points in diagnosing brain death is to establish that the condition of the patient is &lt;strong&gt;irreversible and permanent&lt;/strong&gt;. This can be done by establishing the cause to be an irreversible, destructive, structural disease or condition, such as prolonged cardio-pulmonary arrest, or a large intracerebral hemorrhage or a massive cerebral contusion, both with severe brain edema and herniation compressing the brainstem; and by ruling out reversible causes (mentioned above).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, it is &lt;em&gt;not that no kind of electrical shock to brain has some role in medical treatment&lt;/em&gt;. Regarding the idea of brain defibrillation, there is indeed a medical intervention that delivers an electrical shock to the brain; the procedure is called electroconvulsive therapy or electroshock therapy. (5,6) But it is not done to revive near-brain-death or other comatose patients but to treat some psychiatric disorders, such as depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;David M. Greer, MD, MA1; Sam D. Shemie, MD2,3; Ariane Lewis, MD4; et al. &lt;a href=&quot;https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2769149&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Determination of Brain Death/Death by Neurologic Criteria. The World Brain Death Project.&lt;/a&gt; JAMA. 2020;324(11):1078-1097. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.11586&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;G Bryan Young. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uptodate.com/contents/diagnosis-of-brain-death?search=brain%20death&amp;amp;source=search_result&amp;amp;selectedTitle=1%7E150&amp;amp;usage_type=default&amp;amp;display_rank=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diagnosis of brain death&lt;/a&gt; In. Janet L Wilterdink, editor. UpToDate. Sep 02, 2020&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;American Academy of Neurology (AAN) guideline. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.aan.com/Guidelines/home/GetGuidelineContent/432&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Update: Determining Brain Death in Adults&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Raoul Sutter, Stephan Rüegg, Peter W. Kaplan. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5829470/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Epidemiology, diagnosis, and management of nonconvulsive status epilepticus&lt;/a&gt; Neurol Clin Pract. 2012 Dec; 2(4): 275–286.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Charles Kellner. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-electroconvulsive-therapy-ect-for-adults?search=electroconvulsive%20therapy&amp;amp;sectionRank=1&amp;amp;usage_type=default&amp;amp;anchor=H30&amp;amp;source=machineLearning&amp;amp;selectedTitle=1%7E133&amp;amp;display_rank=1#H30&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Overview of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for adults.&lt;/a&gt; In: David Solomon, editor. UpToDate. Dec 01, 2020.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Electroconvulsive therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19332" LastEditorUserId="19332" LastEditDate="2020-12-06T10:56:06.960" LastActivityDate="2020-12-06T10:56:06.960" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26326" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26323" CreationDate="2020-12-06T19:10:22.633" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question may be better directed to &lt;a href=&quot;https://academia.stackexchange.com&quot;&gt;academia.se&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the first instance, you should check the editorial requirements of the journal you are targeting.  Most journals prescribe that it is mandatory to spell out acronyms with first usage.  It is possible that some very specific technical journals will allow common terminology through without being specific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question is interesting in that you have used the acronym CAB for &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt;ognitive &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt;ehavioural &lt;strong&gt;T&lt;/strong&gt;herapy, for which I use the acronym CBT.  I personally associate CAB with &lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt;linical &lt;strong&gt;A&lt;/strong&gt;ssessment of &lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt;ehaviour.  Clearly the acronyms CAB and CBT are not as well established as I had understood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2020-12-06T19:10:22.633" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26327" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-06T19:58:15.643" Score="3" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;The whole quote is, “Their lumen corresponds topologically to the outside of the cell; consequently, the inner leaflet of their lipid bilayer corresponds to the outer leaflet of the plasmalemma.” The “they” corresponds fo the vacuolar apparatus of a cell. My question here is, how is it possible for the inner leaflet of the vacuolar apparatus to lie on the outer leaflets of the plasma membrane? Wouldn’t this mean that the vacuolar apparatus partly lies outsides the cell? Or am I mistaken? The excerpt is from Chapter 4 of &lt;em&gt;Principles of Neural Science&lt;/em&gt; by Kandel et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27401" LastActivityDate="2021-01-06T03:05:25.697" Title="What is the meaning of “the inner leaflet of their lipid bilayer corresponds to the outer leaflet of the plasmalemma.”" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26328" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26327" CreationDate="2020-12-07T02:14:11.273" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't have Kandel in front of me but I am pretty sure I know what your book is trying to say. The specific language they've chosen for this section is quite odd and I believe old-fashioned, though, which might be leading to your confusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Transferring membrane-bound material from intracellular organelles to the surface of a cell involves or vice-versa involves &lt;em&gt;fusing vesicles with the plasma membrane&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;budding vesicles from the plasma membrane&lt;/em&gt;. The process is more or less the same, just in reverse. See the diagram below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ovk9K.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ovk9K.png&quot; alt=&quot;Membrane-bound organelles&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Adapted from &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_apparatus#/media/File:0314_Golgi_Apparatus.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_apparatus#/media/File:0314_Golgi_Apparatus.jpg&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice how the &amp;quot;protein&amp;quot; has its purple plus-shaped domain on the outside of the cellular membrane? If it were to be secreted in a vesicle (as pictured here) or taken up by endocytosis (just imagine the arrows pointing the other way), fusing or pinching the membrane would mean that this &amp;quot;outside&amp;quot; part is actually on the inside of the secretory vesicle, Golgi apparatus, any lysosome/endosome, etc. What stays constant is the part facing the cytosol.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, you can say that the &amp;quot;inside&amp;quot; of any of these compartments &amp;quot;looks like&amp;quot; the outside of the cell, whereas the outside of these compartments (facing the cytosol) looks like the inside of the cell membrane (also facing the cytosol).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For another intuitive way of thinking about this, imagine you have an inflated balloon. You press a marble into the side of the balloon and pinch inside so now the marble is entirely inside this little bubble inside the whole balloon. It's still covered by &amp;quot;outside balloon&amp;quot;, but yet it is inside this little compartment you've created.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For more general thoughts on &amp;quot;topology&amp;quot; (what is referred to by &amp;quot;topologically&amp;quot;) see the general mathematical concept: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-12-07T02:22:59.147" LastActivityDate="2020-12-07T02:22:59.147" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26330" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26365" CreationDate="2020-12-07T12:20:06.747" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a game where &amp;quot;a suitcase is packed&amp;quot; and you have to remember all the words or objects that are packed into the suitcase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Each participant adds a new word to the &amp;quot;chain of words&amp;quot; one after the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder whether this information is stored in the &amp;quot;long-term memory&amp;quot; or whether it only remains in the &amp;quot;short-term memory&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27407" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-12-14T08:33:11.870" LastActivityDate="2020-12-14T12:22:39.600" Title="Memory game - short or long-term memory?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26333" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-07T16:25:57.827" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;When people fear something, and then at a later time don't, have they just gotten used to the feeling of fear, or are they actually less scared? If it varies by which fear we are talking about, then for the fear of darkness specifically and also for all other fears.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was discussing it with a friend today, and they said, that people just get used to their fears, but it doesn't seem to make sense, and they couldn't explain to me why that would be the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27408" LastActivityDate="2020-12-07T16:25:57.827" Title="When people get over their fears, do they get over it, or do they just get used to it?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26335" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-07T22:22:23.370" Score="4" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;h2&gt;Background&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The 19th century Chinese political philosopher and dissident &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kang_Youwei&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kang Youwei&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; wrote that among the more severe miseries of this life are: premature death, mutilation, slavery, and &lt;em&gt;living outside of China&lt;/em&gt;. And Kang was hardly an innovator in this respect; indeed, he seems to have drawn on a long tradition in Chinese thought which holds that it's only really possible to live a happy, civilised life on Chinese soil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've only ever set foot in China twice - both were very brief visits - and I can't say I was much persuaded to Kang's point of view. But such naked &amp;quot;geographical chauvinism&amp;quot;, as I'll call it, makes me question my own attitudes to distant lands. As an Englishman, writing at a latitude of 53 degrees north, it seems incredible to me that the fourth largest city in Europe is Saint Petersburg, at a latitude of 60 degrees north, where the sun doesn't rise until after ten o'clock in the depths of winter. Likewise, as a younger man I served with the British navy in the Persian Gulf; it seemed incredible to me then that so many millions of people could withstand such an intense, coruscating bombardment of sunlight. &lt;strong&gt;Are these sentiments just an Englishman's reproduction of Kang's fallacy?&lt;/strong&gt; Or is there some concrete evidence to support my intuitions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Prior Research&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Measuring a nation's happiness is, of course, an impossibly thorny matter, both methodologically and philosophically, so much so that I won't even bother to discuss the various national happiness scores, such as the Human Happiness Index. However, there do seem to be a couple of plausible ways to measure &lt;em&gt;unhappiness&lt;/em&gt;: suicide rates and consumption of antidepressants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_antidepressant_consumption&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;an authoritative-looking list of countries by consumption of antidepressants&lt;/a&gt;, Iceland consumes more per capita than any other country, and by a comfortable margin. Iceland is also the most northerly country in the world as measured by the latitude of its capital city. (An interesting side-note: Greenland, currently under Danish sovereignty, is even further north, and has been called &lt;a href=&quot;https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2009/10/why-do-so-many-greenlanders-kill-themselves.html#pagebreak_anchor_2&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;'The Suicide Capital of the World'&lt;/a&gt;.) The next most northerly country, Finland, is the eleventh highest consumer of antidepressants, and, with the exception of the post-Soviet states, the ten most northerly countries are all within the top fifteen consumers. These data, of course, need to be interpreted with a great deal of caution. For one thing, antidepressant consumption only measures how frequently a particular kind of &lt;em&gt;treatment&lt;/em&gt; for depression is used; populations in other countries might be just as depressed, but, due to poverty, culture, etc, might not receive treatment, or might receive another kind of treatment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The figures for rates of suicide seem to tell a slightly different story. There does seem to be a modest correlation between latitude and suicide rate; more northerly (or more southerly, in the southern hemisphere) countries do seem to have, on average, somewhat higher rates. But the epicentre for suicide is northeastern Europe, and not Scandinavia. And then there is the massive anomaly of India, which has quite a high suicide rate, is very much in the global south, and which accounts for a sixth of the world's population. The Mediterranean factor, on the other hand, seems to support the hypothesis that some climates are more conducive to human happiness than others; almost every country with a Mediterranean coastline has a low suicide rate. (I was also struck by the seeming lack of a correlation between poverty and suicide, whereas I had expected there to be a strong link.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/q9RiU.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/q9RiU.png&quot; alt=&quot;countries by suicide rate&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Countries of the world by suicide rate in 2012. Higher rates correspond to darker colours.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;What I'd Like to Know&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there are any interesting research on the relationship between &lt;strong&gt;latitude and extreme unhappiness&lt;/strong&gt; (i.e. suicide, depression, etc)? If so, what does the consensus seem to be?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any interesting research on the relationship between &lt;strong&gt;climate and extreme unhappiness&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there any interesting research on the relationship between latitude and climate on the one hand, and &lt;strong&gt;the more nebulous concept of human happiness&lt;/strong&gt; on the other?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24949" LastActivityDate="2020-12-07T22:22:23.370" Title="Are some latitudes or climates more conducive to human happiness than others?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26336" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-08T06:40:54.957" Score="2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;I play a lot of video-games and did some research online and came to the conclussion that a certain set of things are linked to an above average reaction speed and an general improved cognitive function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3942723/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Drinking coffee.&lt;/a&gt; I never drunk coffee but when I heard about it's benefits I started implementing it into my diet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.polygon.com/2013/1/30/3932876/research-playing-first-person-shooters-improves-learning-abilities-cognitive-function&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Playing FPS or fast paced shooter games helps improve your overall reaction times?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cinemablend.com/new/Science-Proves-Watching-3D-Movies-Can-Actually-Improve-Your-Brain-71579.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Watching 3D films&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053810010000681&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Meditation&lt;/a&gt; I don't think I need to provide sources for that since everyone knows about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3307962/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sleep&lt;/a&gt; Self evident.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190522141829.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Colder temperature improves mental performance in males but not in females, it's the opposite for women&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And certain types of foods including those rich in antioxidants and omega-3 fatty acids.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now many of those tips most people know about but are there any other secret ways that can get you to the next level that the average person doesn't know about?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27411" LastEditorUserId="27411" LastEditDate="2020-12-08T06:54:07.157" LastActivityDate="2020-12-08T06:54:07.157" Title="Are there any ways to naturally speed up my reaction speed without any drugs?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;reaction-time&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26338" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-08T16:32:18.790" Score="3" ViewCount="352" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm doing a minor in psychology and during my lesson in both psychological approaches and social psychology, this question popped into my head.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For as far as I know nudge theory is about altering the choice-architecture, but without removing choice. This results in certain (wanted) behaviour. Examples of nudges are: a fly in a urinal; the piano stairs in train stations is way of nudging; stores putting certain brands on eye-level; etc. Where priming is receiving a certain stimulus which creates (temporary) schemes of behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could someone help me understand the difference, or how they are connected?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27415" LastEditorUserId="27415" LastEditDate="2020-12-10T09:03:41.183" LastActivityDate="2021-01-29T16:07:25.790" Title="What is the difference between &quot;nudge theory&quot; and &quot;priming&quot;?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26340" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9873" CreationDate="2020-12-09T07:14:22.727" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Introverts Process Information Deeply&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Trying to think of exactly the right word is called “word retrieval.” And this can be hard for introverts. In social situations, this may translate to us falling behind fast-talking extroverts. At work, we may come off sounding like we don’t know what we’re talking about, even when we do. In the classroom, we may shrink from raising our hand, because we know it will be challenging for us to put our thoughts into words if we’re called on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One reason word retrieval can be difficult for introverts is we process information deeply. We chew on ideas, turning them over and over in our minds, analyzing them from every angle. When you’re turned inward reflecting on something — even something as simple as, What should I have for dinner? — it’s hard to talk. Introverts don’t think out loud like extroverts do. We generally do our processing inwardly. Quietly. Without words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://introvertdear.com/news/the-science-behind-why-introverts-struggle-to-speak/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://introvertdear.com/news/the-science-behind-why-introverts-struggle-to-speak/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27421" LastActivityDate="2020-12-09T07:14:22.727" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26341" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-09T15:12:38.043" Score="2" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there research to support the idea that social networking sites could be improved to &amp;quot;feel more&amp;quot; in order to avoid &amp;quot;online disinhibition effect&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_disinhibition_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_disinhibition_effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, having e.g. videos instead of static pictures of people? In order to emphasize that they're real?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15494" LastActivityDate="2020-12-13T18:51:12.727" Title="Is there research to support the idea that social networking sites could be improved to &quot;feel more&quot; in order to avoid &quot;online disinhibition effect&quot;?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26342" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-09T18:16:09.593" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I tried looking up an answer to this question, but all I got were links to depression hotlines. Gotta love Google :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is sadness as a separate emotion beneficial? Sadness seems mostly to be associated with loss, or a severe change in one's future. Not getting a job, losing a loved one to death or breakup, regret for a decision made or event occurred that can't be undone. It seems in all of these cases that simple pain would suffice just as well, and yet there exists a dedicated emotion for it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the benefit of feeling sadness as a distinct emotion from pain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12897" LastActivityDate="2020-12-09T18:16:09.593" Title="Why does sadness exist as a separate emotion?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26345" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-10T09:11:29.030" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently learning psychological approaches and social psychology, and this question popped into my head. The book on the approaches is: Glassman, W., Hadad, M. (20130116). Approaches to Psychology,  6th Edition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we look at a child, from the viewpoint of behaviorism, the child copies the behavior of the parents. Unlike the parents the child does not understand why certain behaviour is exhibited, because they don't understand the world. Could you say that someone's way of thinking is &amp;quot;shaped&amp;quot; by seeing and associating the behavior he / she sees as a child?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, that a child is looking at the behavior of the parents and that he / she grows up to be a very analytical person or a very impulsive person. The thing that brought me to this was that as a child you resemble your mother in some areas and your father in others. That the mother takes an analytical approach to these specific situations, where the father might be impulsive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to hear your thoughts on this, did I go wrong somewhere?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27415" LastActivityDate="2020-12-10T09:11:29.030" Title="In the behaviorism it is argued that we learn behavior, but (how) does this influence our way of thinking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26346" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-11T00:49:40.287" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’ve been thinking about this in regards to empathy, or trying to understand someone. You have to put yourself in that person’s position and imagine yourself going through that same experience. But it doesn’t seem like you can analyze the feelings you get while at the same time feeling them. But this isn’t just about empathy, but really imagining any emotion. When I think of observing,I’m thinking of nonfeeling. Of course, I don’t think you can never feel any emotion. But if I think of meditation,  I’m thinking about observing my breathing,my heart rate,the environment around me. This is the act of observing,if you consider observing an act. But now I want to imagine something exciting. So I imagine myself on a rollercoaster. And I feel the excitement from it. It doesn’t seem like I can fully immerse myself in this scenario while simultaneously trying to observe myself, observe how it makes me feel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27431" LastActivityDate="2020-12-11T00:49:40.287" Title="Is it possible to feel an emotion and simultaneously observe it? Are there studies regarding this, and terms related to it?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26351" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-12T04:17:55.160" Score="0" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm planning on submitting a study proposal to an IRB for exempt research. The study's data will be collected through telephone surveys, and of course, I'd need informed consent from each participant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But I'm unsure on a couple things:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For starters, should the participants' consent be signed on a document somewhere (if asking this question sounds ridiculous, sorry)? Or is oral consent enough?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If oral consent is enough, should I audio-record the participants giving their consent? If recording them is not necessary, how should I store evidence of them giving consent?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyways, thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27438" LastActivityDate="2020-12-12T04:17:55.160" Title="Consent for Telephone Surveys" Tags="&lt;ethics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26352" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20342" CreationDate="2020-12-12T09:22:25.263" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think you may run two Quest procedures. One is used to calculate the 75% threshold and the other one calculating 25% threshold. In this way you can calculate the JND.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27440" LastActivityDate="2020-12-12T09:22:25.263" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26354" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-12T18:49:47.190" Score="0" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine a person has random psychosomatic itching and applies an ointment which brings relief. Could their brain wrongly assosiate the process that causes the itching as good as it brought relief?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343819192_%27Liking%27_and_%27wanting%27_in_eating_and_food_reward_Brain_mechanisms_and_clinical_implications&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Berridge, 2020&lt;/a&gt; recently showed, there's a difference between wanting and liking something and dopamine (which is said to work on the basis of operant conditioning) is rather assosiated with wanting. I wondered whether the brain can decypher when the operant conditioning creates a harmful feedback loop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would appreciate any literature recommendations which would bring me closer to the answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2020-12-28T12:36:40.307" LastActivityDate="2021-01-23T15:44:17.253" Title="Does the brain possess mechanisms to spot a feedback loop of self-induced negative sensation and relief?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26355" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26357" CreationDate="2020-12-13T01:56:53.170" Score="4" ViewCount="56" Body="&lt;p&gt;After 51 years, the &amp;quot;Z-340&amp;quot; cypher text from &amp;quot;Zodiac&amp;quot; serial killer has been solved: &lt;a href=&quot;https://edition.cnn.com/2020/12/11/us/zodiac-killer-cypher-340-code-trnd/index.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://edition.cnn.com/2020/12/11/us/zodiac-killer-cypher-340-code-trnd/index.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now that we have the problem and the solution, when I'm watching the cypher text again I'm like &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;Ho.. look, look, it's so obvious! The sign must mean this and that and the following letter is transposed according to the sign and if you like at this and that there is a clear relationship between the age of the captain and whatever this thing mean!! Ha! It must be!&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even knowing that it's just wishful thinking, I'm still willing it to be true: &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;Yeaaah, it's probably, 99.99% sure, just me imagining things.. BUT! That 0.01% doubt, I want it to be true anyway.&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a name for this effect. I don't think it's the Barnum effect, it may or may not be a &amp;quot;confirmation bias&amp;quot;. What is this effect called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27446" LastEditorUserId="7632" LastEditDate="2020-12-13T16:24:57.283" LastActivityDate="2020-12-13T16:24:57.283" Title="Name of the psychological effect that make us see correlation that may not exist" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26356" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-13T02:17:03.190" Score="2" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;Many psychologists resist disclosing their opinions on school prior to making an appointment.  I want to talk about my problems with being bullied in school, and I don't think that a therapist could help me unless they hated schools in general.  I have had a bad experience with a liberal psychologist who had a regular set of opinions surrounding schools.  How could I determine if a psychologist distrusts academia?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27447" LastActivityDate="2021-01-18T08:02:55.270" Title="How do I find the right psychologist for myself?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2021-01-18T09:39:50.807" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26357" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26355" CreationDate="2020-12-13T03:05:30.363" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The feeling that the solution is obvious after it is provided is called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindsight_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hindsight bias&lt;/a&gt; (aka the &amp;quot;knew-it-all-along phenomenon&amp;quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This feeling is informed by the metacognitive sense of surprise, which itself is a form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_fluency&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;processing fluency&lt;/a&gt;.  Basically, when the solution to a problem is first given, it is surprising (lacks fluency), and hence judged as difficult.  However, when the solution is known or provided again, it is no longer surprising (has fluency), and hence judged as easy.  People often underestimate the difficulty (or predictability) of solutions (or events) after knowing the outcome, due to this bias.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the example provided in the question however, it is not clear that you actually know the solution, only that you feel that you know the solution after it was solved by someone else.  In this case, you really do have a case of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wishful_thinking&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;wishful thinking&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2020-12-13T03:05:30.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26358" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-13T03:18:49.143" Score="0" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;(I don't know what the correct tag for this topic is)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Physicologists talk to many people and may encounter many things they aren't actually comfortable addressing. Do phsychologists talk to other phsychologists the same way their clients talk to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27448" LastActivityDate="2020-12-13T03:18:49.143" Title="Wait, who do psychologists talk to then?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2020-12-20T22:21:15.547" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26359" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26330" CreationDate="2020-12-13T09:33:21.413" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short-term memory capacity is very limited (&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/3579/how-much-can-users-hold-in-their-short-term-memory&quot;&gt;How much can users hold in their short term memory&lt;/a&gt;), and that seems to be a fundamental property of short-term memory (&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/5366/can-working-memory-actually-be-improved&quot;&gt;Can working memory actually be improved?&lt;/a&gt;). So the longer this game progressed, the less likely it would be that players could keep the information in short-term memory. A few items would be fine. Ten items would be difficult, and items would start to drop out of short-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Memory experts use techniques like the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;method of loci&lt;/a&gt; to associate new information with an existing structure held in long-term memory. So they would have a significant advantage in this game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27081" LastEditorUserId="27081" LastEditDate="2020-12-14T00:51:07.760" LastActivityDate="2020-12-14T00:51:07.760" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26360" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-13T11:10:29.427" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes when I lie in bed, with my eyes closed, I get the sense that my head is actually at the bottom of the bed, where my feet usually are, when &lt;strong&gt;I know&lt;/strong&gt; it is still resting on the pillow on the top pat of the bed. Sometimes, I get the sense that my head is turned towards one side of the room, when &lt;strong&gt;I know&lt;/strong&gt; is turned to the other side of the room.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, there is a disconnect between my conscious knowledge of my head's direction, and what my &amp;quot;senses&amp;quot; are telling me. If I open my eyes, I am never laying in the direction my senses told me. Sometimes, I can induce this effect, by just visualizing myself laying in a different direction than the one I know I'm laying in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What could be the cause of this effect? Is it a malfunction of proprioception, a corruption of memory, a near-sleep phenomenon, a malfunction of magnetoception (although that hasn't been proven to be human sense last I checked), or something else? Is this even a phenomenon that anybody knows about?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT:&lt;/strong&gt; I asked this questions on three different subreddits, and a lot of people had some very interesting speculations on the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/neuroscience/comments/kc9n1c/change_in_perceived_direction_of_body_when_laying/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;r/neuroscience&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/cogsci/comments/kc9nmt/change_in_perceived_direction_of_body_when_laying/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;r/Cogsci&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/neuro/comments/kc9mh1/change_in_perceived_direction_of_body_when_laying/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;r/neuro&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27450" LastEditorUserId="27450" LastEditDate="2020-12-14T09:16:33.787" LastActivityDate="2020-12-14T09:16:33.787" Title="Change in perceived direction of body when laying in bed" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2020-12-14T09:24:00.303" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26364" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-14T08:25:09.937" Score="0" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;The question is in context of projects you've setup as your career goals.&#xA;In such projects,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is no one pushing you stay on track.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is no system around you to help you flow with the flow.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;But people you love depend on you and your success.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In these situations, when the deadlines are closing on you, should you take motivation from fear of failing or the joy of winning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The question is for the former case, &lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;Fear of Failing&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;, does it&#xA;even help with motivation or just induces despair and makes you&#xA;think more about the alternatives to the path you've taken and have&#xA;come quite far.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;And for the latter case, drawing motivation from &lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;Joy of&#xA;Winning&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt; just ends up with dreamy and fantasy like foggy illusions&#xA;in your head that you believe would come true.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or it's just that if you depend on motivation, you're bound to failure. So, you should try to set some systems around you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this is not the right place for this question, I humbly request you to guide me in the right direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27458" LastActivityDate="2020-12-14T08:25:09.937" Title="Does fear induce motivation or despair in context of closing deadlines in personal projects?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;fear&gt;&lt;goals&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26365" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26330" CreationDate="2020-12-14T08:27:01.113" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;The game you describe is a textbook example of one relying on working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;The game you describe is an example of one that taxes &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory#:%7E:text=Working%20memory%20is%20a%20cognitive,of%20decision%2Dmaking%20and%20behavior.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;working memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Working memory can be conceptualized as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00401/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Chai &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, 2018)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a short-term storage component with a capacity limit that is heavily&#xA;dependent on attention and other central executive processes that make&#xA;use of stored information or that interact with long-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Short term memory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; being &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2657600/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Cowen, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[F]aculties of the human mind that can hold a limited amount of information in a very accessible state temporarily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference between working memory and short-term memory is confusing, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2657600/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cowen (2009)&lt;/a&gt; continues by disambiguating working memory and short term memory:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[W]orking memory &lt;strong&gt;includes short-term memory&lt;/strong&gt; and other processing mechanisms that help to make use of short-term memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2657600/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cowen (2009)&lt;/a&gt; points to another definition that is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the attention-related aspects of short-term memory. This, however, is not so much a debate about substance, but rather a slightly confusing discrepancy in the usage of terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, when you look up the Wiki page on &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_span&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;memory span&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, which describes the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.memorylosstest.com/digit-span/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;digit span test&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, a textbook example of a working-memory test, you can see that they also use the terms short-term memory and working memory interchangeably. So I reckon the exact differences between the two are indeed not always clear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now long-term memory is another matter altogether, and is, according to the current concepts about memory, not needed for your game, other than to associate and give meaning to the items added (remembering the attributes in the suitcase in a foreign language unbeknownst to you would certainly complicate matters!). Long-term memory being&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a vast store of knowledge and a record of prior events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The difference with short-term storage  is that it has a longer decay time and a larger capacity. However, the exact differences remain a matter of debate &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2657600/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Cowen, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless the exact differences, conceptually, the game relies on working memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00401/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chai &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Front Psychol&lt;/em&gt; (2018), &lt;strong&gt;27&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2657600/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cowen, &lt;em&gt;Prog Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;169&lt;/strong&gt;: 323-38&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-12-14T12:22:39.600" LastActivityDate="2020-12-14T12:22:39.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26366" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-14T13:45:49.367" Score="0" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know people who can instantaneously remember many events from 50 years ago. Moreover, there are savants who have memorized thousands of books and can instantly read off paragraphs from any page of these books, what is the molecular mechanism of long term memory storage that satisfied two competing requirements:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Instantaneous retrieval&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Stable long term storage&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I see that there are number of school of thoughts. C.R. Gallistel is of the opinion that plastic synapsis cannot account for storage &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364661317300852&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;. He argues for storage in the cellular matter akin to DNA. I am looking for comprehensive and up to date readings on this topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27459" LastEditorUserId="27459" LastEditDate="2020-12-16T11:41:10.187" LastActivityDate="2020-12-16T11:41:10.187" Title="Long term memories - the molecular mechanism?" Tags="&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26367" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-14T19:24:11.277" Score="2" ViewCount="74" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if these are two separate questions, but I'm curious: in theory, could an existing adult mind/brain be modified to perceive pleasure/pain signals more intensely than otherwise? Without drastically changing the rest of the brain (i.e. while making sure that the brain is the same person; although this question is understandably complicated and potentially philosophical)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As to the latter part of the question, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wired.com/2017/04/the-cure-for-pain/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;SCN9A gene&lt;/a&gt; might play a part. Maybe there exists a similar gene for pleasure?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(I made &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/97345/in-theory-would-it-be-possible-to-genetically-engineer-an-adult-to-experience-m&quot;&gt;a post&lt;/a&gt; focusing on the genetic side on the biology SE. I &lt;em&gt;think&lt;/em&gt; the questions are different enough for this to be acceptable, but it might be worth looking there to avoid duplicated effort.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27451" LastEditorUserId="27451" LastEditDate="2020-12-19T16:41:18.437" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T20:07:53.667" Title="In principle, could a brain be rewired to experience more pleasure and/or pain?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;pain&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26372" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-15T03:19:20.817" Score="5" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed before that if I use a somewhat uncommon word like &amp;quot;doubtlessly&amp;quot; in conversation, my conversation partner is more likely to say the word again later.&#xA;Am I falling prey to a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;frequency illusion&lt;/a&gt; or is this a real phenomenon?&#xA;I would be interested if anyone knows any research or studies on this subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27472" LastActivityDate="2020-12-15T03:28:05.543" Title="Are people more likely to use words they've heard recently in conversation?" Tags="&lt;language&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;&lt;priming&gt;&lt;psycholinguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26374" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26385" CreationDate="2020-12-15T12:07:01.943" Score="1" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the correct scientific term for the - erroneous - inversion of cause and effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27198" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-12-17T08:58:02.270" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T03:19:39.097" Title="What is the scientific term for the erroneous inversion of cause and effect?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26375" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26374" CreationDate="2020-12-15T15:26:34.307" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Would the concept of contraposition from the world of mathematical logic work for you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the Wikipedia explanation of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;contraposition&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The contrapositive of a statement has its antecedent and consequent inverted and flipped. For instance, the contrapositive of the conditional statement &amp;quot;If it is raining, then I wear my coat&amp;quot; is the statement &amp;quot;If I don't wear my coat, then it isn't raining.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27475" LastActivityDate="2020-12-15T15:26:34.307" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26376" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-16T02:12:18.590" Score="2" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;The author didn't cite any source for this &amp;quot;Research into communications theory&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;      Why should you aim for two or three major points? Research into&#xA;communications theory suggests that people grasp information better&#xA;when it is arranged in groups of three. While you need not adhere&#xA;to this rule slavishly, a three-tiered argument gives the appearance&#xA;of balance and strength.7 In addition, it is unlikely that all seven or&#xA;eight points will really stand alone: no fact pattern is that complex.&#xA;It is much more likely that some of those points can be combined&#xA;in some way and those that cannot are either mere spectres or too&#xA;minor to merit a mention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Page 17. Stacie Strong &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.linkedin.com/in/s-i-strong-50b82832/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BA English literature (UC Davis 1986), MPW (USC 1990), JD (Duke 1994), PhD Law (Cambridge 2002), DPhil (Oxford 2003)&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;em&gt;How to Write Law Essays &amp;amp; Exams&lt;/em&gt; 5th Edition (2018).  p 47.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27476" LastActivityDate="2020-12-16T02:12:18.590" Title="What research suggests that people grasp information better when arranged in groups of three?" Tags="&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26377" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26367" CreationDate="2020-12-16T10:26:07.470" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a difficult question to answer and likely can generate a variety of equally valid (or invalid) answers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought to tackle this from a pathological vista - namely that of &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_processing_sensitivity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sensory processing sensitivity&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; (SPS), which seemingly resembles your area of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SPS can be defined as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5832686/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Acevedo &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2018)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[A] genetically based trait associated with greater sensitivity and responsivity to environmental and social stimuli. [It] is characterized by greater empathy, awareness, responsivity and depth of processing to salient stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In their article the authors review the structural underpinnings as observed by fMRI scanning of SPS, alongside the brains of Autism Spectrum Disorder, Schizophrenia and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder who also exhibit SPS alongside their other symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Common activated regions in all disease types were shown in the &lt;strong&gt;precentral gyrus&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SPS was associated with activity in reward processing centers (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ventral tegmental area (VTA)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substantia_nigra&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;substantia nigra (SN)&lt;/a&gt;, centers for regulation of bodily physiology and pain (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hypothalamus&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periaqueductal_gray&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;periaqueductal gray&lt;/a&gt; (PAG); self versus non-self recognition and empathy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/inferior-frontal-gyrus&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;inferior frontal gyrus&lt;/a&gt; (IFG) and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;insula&lt;/a&gt;), awareness and self reflection (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporoparietal_junction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;temporoparietal junction&lt;/a&gt; (TPJ)) and self-control (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/prefrontal-cortex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;prefrontal cortex (PFC)&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of Autism Spectrum Disorder, Schizophrenia and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder the authors continue with multiple brain regions that are activated commonly and uniquely with respect to SPS proper. I refer to the review referenced below for details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I reckon, but am unsure, that re-wiring of the pathways or altering the structures themselves with, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, transcranial stimulation or with ablation techniques can emulate SPS symptoms, including pain and emotion processing. The practical ways to do this are difficult, given the complexity of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5832686/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Acevedo &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci&lt;/em&gt; (2018); &lt;strong&gt;373&lt;/strong&gt;(1744): 20170161&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-12-16T12:17:10.480" LastActivityDate="2020-12-16T12:17:10.480" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26378" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-17T04:00:25.933" Score="2" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;So this may be a stupid question as I am not trained in neuroscience or psychology at all, but I had an idea about a somewhat counterintuitive approach to psychotropics and was wondering whether if it was at all scientifically sound and feasible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To distill my theory, it's basically that in the same way prolonged cocaine abuse can make you chronically unhappy and apathetic, could we encourage some sort of controlled antipsychotic abuse to make you chronically happy and energized? My thinking is this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the mechanism of antipsychotic drugs in an oversimplified sense is just to decrease dopamine, naturally when you withdraw your brain would respond by having an increase of dopamine. More specifically, since your brain overreacts to the antipsychotics it starts dramatically over sensitizing your brain to dopamine. So it seems to me that the reverse effect of the withdrawal is way more powerful than the direct &amp;quot;purpose&amp;quot; of the drug (this is in a sense how I understand the condition of tardive dyskinesia).&#xA;My thought is that this approach is particularly advantageous for the long-term use of physiatric drugs since in the long term the use of physiatric drugs has very little effect (and can sometimes even entrench mental illness further). Because of the fact that when dependence is developed the brain's structure and functioning in response to the ongoing presence of psychiatric medication is changing, it seems that developing drugs whose intended effects come from withdrawal would help resolve issues surrounding tolerance (as protracted withdrawal can sometimes last for years after the last dose of a drug was taken).&#xA;Is it viable to use a drug originally meant to suppress dopamine transmission to induce tolerance and thus increase dopaminergic effects to treat another disease where more dopamine is needed? For instance, can we use the anti-dopaminergic compound haloperidol to induce tolerance to address lower concentrations of dopamine transporters in people with ADHD, as opposed to using amphetamines?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27485" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-12-17T13:34:25.317" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T05:20:44.380" Title="How to take advantage of the withdrawal symptoms of antidopaminergics?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;drugs&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26379" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26374" CreationDate="2020-12-17T08:53:42.433" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Given your comment to the first answer...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The logical error I am looking for, is &amp;quot;I am wearing my coat, therefore it is raining&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...I think you are referring to &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;deductive arguments&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. A deductive argument (definition taken from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bellevuecollege.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/41/2015/01/Critical-Thinking-TEXT.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mark Storey, Bellevue College)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...claims (explicitly or implicitly) that if the premises all are true, then the&#xA;conclusion must be true&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Valid examples are (taken from the linked document from Mark Storey)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;All bats are cute animals. No cute animals are mean. So, certainly, no bats are mean.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Joan is Lauren’s mother. Therefore, Joan must be older than Lauren.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Nobody knows Ned. Therefore, it must be that Ned does not know himself.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Some cats are pets. Thus, some pets must be cats.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A familiar invalid example is the following (taken from memory on my own Philosophy class, a long, long time ago):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All cows have 4 legs. It has 4 legs, thus it must be a cow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question proper states that it should be related to cause and effect. In terms of deductive reasoning, however, it is based on &lt;em&gt;premises&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;conclusions&lt;/em&gt;. Quoting Mark Storey again:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[T]he argument may fail in its aim; what makes the argument deductive is that it&#xA;is the kind of argument that—if it were successful—would have the premises absolutely&#xA;guarantee the conclusion to be true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think what you are after are examples where the &lt;em&gt;premises&lt;/em&gt; do not guarantee the &lt;em&gt;conclusion&lt;/em&gt; to be true. This is different from causes and effects, though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2020-12-17T08:53:42.433" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26380" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26378" CreationDate="2020-12-17T13:02:32.583" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Taking dopamine antagonists leads to serious side effects, and stopping taking them leads to other, equally nasty side effects. None of them include happiness or feeling energized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;So basically, based on our discussion in the comments, I think you are after the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it viable to use a drug originally meant to suppress dopamine&#xA;transmission to induce tolerance and thus increase dopaminergic&#xA;effects to enhance dopaminergic transmission to enhance mood and happiness after stopping the drug to reap the benefits of long-term 'withdrawal' symptoms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First off, drugs targeting the dopaminergic (DA) system are associated with serious negative side effects. To step into the class where you are after, the classical anti-psychotics that inhibit DA signaling are associated with the following side effects (taken from the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-8661/haloperidol-oral/details#:%7E:text=Dizziness%2C%20lightheadedness%2C%20drowsiness%2C%20difficulty,increase%20the%20risk%20of%20falling.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;page on haloperidol from WebMD&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;dizziness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;lightheadedness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;drowsiness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;difficulty urinating&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;sleep disturbances&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;headache&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;anxiety&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;in rare cases sometimes permanent tardive dyskinesia, a nasty side effect marked by stiff, jerky movements of the face and body, muscle twitches, eye blinking, tongue thrusting, uncontrollable shaking, or arm waving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;rarely neuroleptic malignant syndrome occurs including: fever, muscle stiffness or muscle pain or muscle weakness, tiredness, confusion, sweating, fast/irregular heartbeat, dark urine, and kidney problems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;And the list goes on, and on, and on (see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugs.com/sfx/haldol-side-effects.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Drugs.com&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Long term-use may lead to drug-induced Parkinsonism, which is actually the second most common cause of Pakinsonism in older people, after Parkinson's syndrome &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmj.bmj.com/content/85/1004/322&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Thanvi &amp;amp; Treadwell, 2009&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now fast forward to your withdrawal state that should make you happy, as dopamine transmission may indeed be exacerbated. The tolerance to haloperidol comes, at least in part, because D2 transmission is enhanced in the striatum in the brain &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/npp2008116.pdf?origin=ppub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ginovart &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2009)0&lt;/a&gt;. This leads to the dreaded tardive dyskinesia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Abrupt stopping haloperidol intake after chronic use results in side-effects on their own in psychotic patients (apart from re-inducing psychotic states), namely &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8464331/#:%7E:text=The%20current%20findings%20indicate%20that,and%20internal%20chaos%20(1).&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bronson, 1993)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;nausea and vomiting&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;sweating&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;as well as a relapse into psychosis characterized by anxiety, depression and internal chaos. Interestingly, the authors conclude that the so-called relapse into psychosis may actually be caused by withdrawal instead of the underlying disease state .&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, happiness doesn't seem part of the deal of acute withdrawal from a well-investigated dopamine antagonist, unfortunately. Taking them is a pain, and stopping them abruptly is also not a pleasant thing to do either. When you slowly decrease dosage the withdrawal side effects will be less severe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8464331/#:%7E:text=The%20current%20findings%20indicate%20that,and%20internal%20chaos%20(1).&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bronson, &lt;em&gt;Life Sci&lt;/em&gt; (1993); &lt;strong&gt;52&lt;/strong&gt;(16): PL129-33&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/npp2008116.pdf?origin=ppub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ginovart &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychopharmacology&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;34&lt;/strong&gt;: 62–671&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmj.bmj.com/content/85/1004/322&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Thanvi &amp;amp; Treadwell, &lt;em&gt;BMJ&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;85&lt;/strong&gt;(1004): 322&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2020-12-17T13:13:16.223" LastActivityDate="2020-12-17T13:13:16.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26381" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="20742" CreationDate="2020-12-17T21:12:45.953" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Obviously, pain and touch receptors are represented by entirely different receptors in the skin, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nociceptor#:&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nociceptors&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutaneous_receptor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mechanoreceptors&lt;/a&gt;, respectively. Each has physically different afferents that carry the signal to the brain. Pleasant touch is mediated by C-tactile afferents to the brain, represented by low-threshold non-myelinated C-fibers &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2452073X18300229&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Nees &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2019&lt;/a&gt;. Pain is mainly mediated via Aδ and C fibers &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/pain-receptor#:%7E:text=Pain%20receptors%2C%20also%20called%20nociceptors,and%20most%20of%20visceral%20organs.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Beissner &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2010)&lt;/a&gt;. Hence, different afferent pathways to the S1 exist from the periphery to the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once in the brain, there is no such thing as a single localized 'pain center', as proposed by Descartes in the early days (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nlc-bnc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape2/PQDD_0033/MQ64365.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ha, 2000)&lt;/a&gt;. In fact, SI cannot be called the 'pain center', as ablation of this cortical region leads to an altered perception of pain, rather than its disappearance &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1082317496800262#:%7E:text=Pages%20174%2D180-,Primary%20somatosensory%20cortex%20and%20pain%20perception%3A%20Yes%20sir%2C%20your%20pain,in%20your%20head%20(Part%20I)&amp;amp;text=This%20Focus%20article%20proposes%20that,as%20any%20other%20novel%20stimulus.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Backonja, 1996)&lt;/a&gt;. Pain perception involves many more brain centers, including S2, and those involved in higher cognitive and emotional-motivational processes, such as the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the ventral striatum (VS), and the insular cortex &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2452073X18300229&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Nees &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2019&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the brain, pleasant touch seems mediated by a set of brain regions overlapping with that of pain, involving the insula, considered to be the primary somatovisceral cortex and connections to the striatum &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871613003311?casa_token=W1HFjAvr2N4AAAAA:Yx98lsVnynJ93xSuSixyR6nAoCJAAketVI-hwoe7xf97bYujMdMnG5jmyF-oopd0RQkfDtmfsFI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Migliorini &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2013)&lt;/a&gt; and ACC. Interestingly, however, pleasant touch was also shown to activate the nucleus accumbens &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hbm.23679&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Kreuder &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2017)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, to me it seems the pathways largely overlap centrally, barred the activation of the nucleus accumbens for pleasurable tactile stimuli, which is consistent with it being a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;pleasure center&lt;/a&gt;. I think there must be specific connections that are separated very early in the very periphery through a different set of skin receptors that signal to different neurons in brain regions that largely overlap between the two modalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1082317496800262#:%7E:text=Pages%20174%2D180-,Primary%20somatosensory%20cortex%20and%20pain%20perception%3A%20Yes%20sir%2C%20your%20pain,in%20your%20head%20(Part%20I)&amp;amp;text=This%20Focus%20article%20proposes%20that,as%20any%20other%20novel%20stimulus.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Backonja, &lt;em&gt;Pain Forum&lt;/em&gt; (1996); &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;(3): 174-80&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/pain-receptor#:%7E:text=Pain%20receptors%2C%20also%20called%20nociceptors,and%20most%20of%20visceral%20organs.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Beissner &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences&lt;/em&gt; 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ed., 2014&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nlc-bnc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape2/PQDD_0033/MQ64365.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ha, MSc thesis, McGill University, Montreal, 2000&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hbm.23679&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kreuder &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Human Brain Mapping&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;38&lt;/strong&gt;(9): 4525-34&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871613003311?casa_token=W1HFjAvr2N4AAAAA:Yx98lsVnynJ93xSuSixyR6nAoCJAAketVI-hwoe7xf97bYujMdMnG5jmyF-oopd0RQkfDtmfsFI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Migliorini &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Drug and Alcohol Dependence&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;133&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 661-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2452073X18300229&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nees &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neurobiology of Pain&lt;/em&gt; (2019); &lt;strong&gt;5&lt;/strong&gt;: 100025&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastActivityDate="2020-12-17T21:12:45.953" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26382" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26229" CreationDate="2020-12-18T01:15:16.467" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, it seems like this ability can be acquired with practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.paulheinz.com/paul-heinz-blog/2019/12/17/identifying-notes-without-perfect-pitch&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Identifying Notes without Perfect Pitch&lt;/a&gt;, the author picked twelve familiar songs, each of which started on one of the twelve pitches of the chromatic scale. Once he memorized the song-pitch association, he was able to recognize 10 out of of 12 pitches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some users of &lt;a href=&quot;https://music.stackexchange.com/questions/4061/able-to-recall-music-in-its-correct-key-but-dont-have-perfect-pitch-what-is&quot;&gt;Music Stack Exchange&lt;/a&gt; mention similar results. For example, one person says they can remember the pitch of their tuning fork, and another suggests the song approach: &amp;quot;If hearing a note instantly reminds you of a song, then I think you &lt;em&gt;are&lt;/em&gt; identifying that note, just by the song name, not the note name (that you may or may not happen to know).&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27081" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T01:15:16.467" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26383" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26378" CreationDate="2020-12-18T02:03:46.460" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is not an a totally absurd proposal if dosage and time-related issues weren't a factor, but it is rife with practical difficulties otherwise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In schizophrenia patients, what you're talking about has been widely studied, under terms like &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31077727/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;antipsychotic-evoked dopamine supersensitivity&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, &amp;quot;supersensitivity psychosis&amp;quot; (SP) etc. The latter is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.karger.com/Article/Fulltext/477313&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;basically&lt;/a&gt; &amp;quot;a limbic equivalent of TD&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem is that TD and SP are pretty correlated, in terms of the dosage required to obtain them, and require &amp;quot;overdosing&amp;quot; the (schizophrenia) patient. Typically, in order to obtain the anti-psychotic effect, 65%-80% peak striatal D2 occupancy is needed. TD/SP most commonly occur at greater than 80% occupancy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Using 1st gen anti-psychotics (e.g. haloperidol) for this purpose in therapeutic is probably the worst idea, because achieving the desired super-sensitivity to striatal dopamine would mean giving the patient TD (tardive dyskinesia) with pretty high probability. TD is generally considered the worst side-effect of anti-psychotics (see previous link). You could say the cure (TD) is worse than the disease you'd want to treat (ADHD). On other hand, it may a little more plausible to do this with atypical (2nd gen) antipsychotics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, quetiapine [39] and clozapine [33,40] can induce SP without producing overt or detectable drug-induced movement disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But atypical anti-psychotics aren't totally free of the risk of TD, they just reduce it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even disregarding side-effects (which AliceD's answer covers aplenty), which would actually be exacerbated by the high dosage needed, the problem is that the SP phenomenon (which would be the basis of propose cure for ADHD) is variable in time:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The persistence of the dopamine supersensitivity syndrome depends on the duration of the preceding blockade [132] and on the specific antipsychotics used (fluphenazine, perphenazine, clozapine, and quetiapine) [1,41].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So it would not be a cure for ADHD except possibly in small number of patients for whom the long-term effect comes out &amp;quot;just right&amp;quot;. There's also the obvious risk of &amp;quot;overshooting&amp;quot; and inducing actual likelihood of psychosis in someone (with ADHD) who didn't have such a risk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, giving a patient a drug and adjusting the dosage until the desired effect is observed is simpler than giving a drug hoping for permanent effect that only stabilizes some time after not taking the drug.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On top of these, there's the issue that the exact mechanism of ADHD isn't absolutely sure. And that basically all psychotropics act on more than one neurotransmitter, so the don't totally cancel each other out. For these reasons, there are even &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2898838/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;publications&lt;/a&gt; discussing co-medicating some/few patients with anti-psychotics and stimulants, even though these classes of drugs  partially cancel each other out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now very interestingly, there is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.hindawi.com/journals/pd/2014/684973/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a 2014 paper&lt;/a&gt; (alas with only 6 citations) that does propose using very &lt;em&gt;low&lt;/em&gt; doses of haloperidol as an adjuvant of L-Dopa in Parkisons precisely for this purpose of causing dopamine supersensitivity (and not for the common purpose of treating co-morbid psychosis that some Parkinson patients exhibit).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The trick that makes very low doses feasible for this purpose is that antipsychotics cause the D2 receptors to switch to a D2High (high-affinity) state. Apparently this switching happens even a low dosage of antipsychotics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Unlike in your proposal though, although the effect apparently lasts for a while after haloperidol discontinuation, it begins on it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RsPrS.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/RsPrS.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The authors of this paper also emphasize a more substantial decline in &amp;quot;freezing&amp;quot; (a Parkinson symptom) that may coincide with the peak (and delayed) effect of D2High caused by haloperidol, but frankly the data is pretty weak in that regard and one can easily level &amp;quot;p-hacking&amp;quot; at this particular finding:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5Kyy4.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5Kyy4.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it needs saying, even if this &amp;quot;trick&amp;quot; were to work better (e.g. with other doses), since Parkinson is neurodegenerative, there's only so much tweaking at the margin of the remaining neurons' sensitivity you can hope to do, before the loss of more/enough neurons overtakes that extra sensitivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, there actually many ways to trigger D2High states, stimulants themselves (e.g. amphetamine) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pnas.org/content/102/9/3513.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;do that&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2020-12-18T05:20:44.380" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T05:20:44.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26384" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-18T02:25:47.480" Score="0" ViewCount="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Last year the FDA &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-permits-marketing-first-medical-device-treatment-adhd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;approved&lt;/a&gt; the first medical device for ADHD, a Trigeminal Nerve Stimulator, a sort &amp;quot;pacemaker&amp;quot; that is used every night on the head of the patient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying find what's the proposed mechanism of action for this and if e.g. have there been imaging studies confirming how it might work in treating ADHD. Note that I'm not asking for &amp;quot;black box&amp;quot; efficacy studies for TNS on ADHD; I'm sure those exist as a precondition for FDA approval--the link above actually discusses those clinical trials in fair detail. But says just this about mechanism and neuroimaging:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While the exact mechanism of eTNS is not yet known, neuroimaging studies have shown that eTNS increases activity in the brain regions that are known to be important in regulating attention, emotion and behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't seem to find those studies... probably searching for the wrong term(s). I doesn't help that TNS has been proposed for &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30139273/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;migraine&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://apnews.com/press-release/pr-newswire/3d170fa6abc1f6000c0c363f9da5dbd7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;epilepsy&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5533766/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;TBI recovery&lt;/a&gt; etc. as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2020-12-18T02:42:12.997" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T02:42:12.997" Title="What's the proposed mechanism of action of Trigeminal Nerve Stimulation (TNS) for ADHD? (And is there some neuroimaging in support of it?)" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;adhd&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26385" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26374" CreationDate="2020-12-18T03:19:39.097" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to a &lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.com/books?id=0uxnglHzYaoC&amp;amp;pg=PA844&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dictionary of psychology&lt;/a&gt; this is simply called &amp;quot;reverse causality&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In attempting to understand the relationship between cause and effect, a tendency to attribute what is actually the cause to the effect. For example, does the ingestion of lead paint cause a lower intelligence quotient (IQ) or is it that children with lower IQs tend to eat lead paint?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T03:19:39.097" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26387" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-18T09:16:30.273" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question comes from a personal experience I've had over the last few days, 'experimenting' on my own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a light bulb in a room that is turning on and off periodically, let's say per second. If I am standing in the room with my eyes open, after some time I get dizzy. Then I thought to check what will happen if I could close my eyes in sync with the light turning off; each time the light was gone I would close my eyes and then opened them again when it was on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After some practice I managed to achieve this. What I noticed was that, although I was again moving between a period of light and a period of darkness, I was not getting dizzy anymore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that somehow the brain is able to differentiate between an external source of change in light and when my eye-lids also participate ( so having so too say two stimuli, light and eye-lids).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like more information or thoughts on what exactly may happen in this situation, perhaps even with some reading recommendations on similar research. I admit that catching this &amp;quot;filter&amp;quot; on how the brain ( or the eyes??) understands and behaves when changes in the light happen, caught my interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27491" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T16:26:12.720" Title="Reaction when light is turning on and off" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;stimulation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26389" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26390" CreationDate="2020-12-18T14:47:50.977" Score="0" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a single neuron can have thousands of synapses with other neurons, how do each neuron &amp;quot;knows&amp;quot; to which further neuron to send transmitters? i.e. selectivity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27492" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T16:05:16.127" Title="How do neurons know where to send transmitters?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26390" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26389" CreationDate="2020-12-18T16:05:16.127" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;When a neuron fires an action potential, it doesn't &amp;quot;select&amp;quot; a target. It releases neurotransmitter (somewhat probabilistically, as vesicle release has a probability &amp;lt;1 at most synapses) to every cell it synapses on, all of the thousands you reference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is important for selectivity is the development of synapses, which are shaped by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon_guidance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;axon guidance cues&lt;/a&gt; and later by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;synaptic plasticity&lt;/a&gt;. All of this is laid down well before an action potential causes neurotransmitter release.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, for almost all connections in the brain, a post-synaptic neuron won't fire due to the activity of a single pre-synaptic cell. Therefore, the selectivity in which neurons will fire an action potential is driven by the &lt;em&gt;population&lt;/em&gt; of neurons that are previously active, not any one cell. Neurons that fire in the near future can be said to be determined by the &lt;em&gt;combination of all the neurons&lt;/em&gt; firing in the recent past, including both excitatory and inhibitory neurons. This gives brains an incredible diversity of possible states. If we are to simplify neurons as &amp;quot;firing&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;not firing&amp;quot; in a given time window that would equal 2^(number of neurons) possible states, each leading to a different subsequent state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T16:05:16.127" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26391" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26387" CreationDate="2020-12-18T16:20:33.737" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;In neurophysiology we refer to &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efference_copy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;efference copy&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;. In short, efference copy is when the brain area that sends a signal to cause a movement also sends some &amp;quot;copy&amp;quot; of that signal to the sensory part of the brain. This copy signal helps the sensory brain areas predict what to expect from your own movements, and therefore lets your perception be driven by changes in the world rather than your own self-motion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can also frame this in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_coding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;predictive coding&lt;/a&gt; models of brain function, in which brains are said to create model of the world and respond primarily to violations of this model/relatively unexpected events (&lt;em&gt;for example, if a filing cabinet remains motionless in the corner, you don't notice it; your model is that filing cabinets are inanimate objects that stay still. If it moves forward a few centimeters, you will notice it quite quickly&lt;/em&gt;). A light flashing on and off is a somewhat &amp;quot;unexpected&amp;quot; stimulus: ordinarily, lights stay either on or off. However, if you blink such that when your eyes are open only when the light is on, nothing unexpected is happening to the light: it's on when your eyes are open, and you expect to see nothing of the world when your eyes are shut so the absence of the light with eyes closed is expected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For another example that's easy to test out, if you move your head side to side, you won't perceive other objects as &amp;quot;moving&amp;quot; (the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibular_system&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;vestibular system&lt;/a&gt; helps inform this perception of the world as stationary as well, by measuring rather than predicting your head movement). You may notice that your visual perspective changes, but you don't sense that objects are really moving &lt;em&gt;in the environment&lt;/em&gt;. Same when you change your visual gaze from one target to another: you'll blink briefly and the image that lands on your retina will be &lt;em&gt;completely different&lt;/em&gt; from the one you just saw, but you still perceive the world as having stayed the same, not as if everything in front of you has just jumped by a meter or more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other applications include understanding why it is difficult to &amp;quot;tickle yourself&amp;quot;, and how an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_echolocation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;echolocating bat&lt;/a&gt; can differentiate between its own calls and the reflected echos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Wikipedia page I linked to at the start has a lot more to say about efference copy, and you can also use that phrase as a search term to find out more about the specific circumstance you're describing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-12-18T16:26:12.720" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T16:26:12.720" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26392" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-18T23:47:22.560" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.the-scientist.com/features/what-do-new-neurons-in-the-brains-of-adults-actually-do--67459&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; that stated:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&amp;quot;Researchers think neurogenesis helps the brain distinguish between&#xA;two very similar objects or events, a phenomenon called pattern&#xA;separation. According to one hypothesis, new neurons’ excitability in&#xA;response to novel objects diminishes the response of established&#xA;neurons in the dentate gyrus to incoming stimuli, helping to create a&#xA;separate circuit for the new, but similar, memory.&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What do they mean by &amp;quot;diminish the response of established neuron&amp;quot;? How does it work?&#xA;Also, what do they mean by &amp;quot;helping to create a separate circuit for the new, but similar, memory&amp;quot;? What is the new circuit and how is it being formed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27492" LastActivityDate="2020-12-18T23:47:22.560" Title="How does pattern separation works?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neurogenesis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26393" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-19T01:03:44.077" Score="1" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do all neurons have something to do (i.e. all are activated for some known stimuli), and when a novel stimuli appear some of them change in some way so we can learn it? Or is it that we have &amp;quot;new&amp;quot;/&amp;quot;unused&amp;quot; neurons (i.e. do not fire for any known stimuli), and when a novel stimuli appear, they can continue the chain of neurons and &amp;quot;learn&amp;quot; it (i.e. activated when it appears)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it's the former, how do only some of the neurons change (in comparison to all) to be activated for the novel stimuli, and what is that change?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If it's the latter, do the unused neurons compete for the novel stimuli? How do the unused neurons &amp;quot;know&amp;quot; to &amp;quot;pick up&amp;quot; the novel stimuli? i.e. be activated for it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I understand that if neuron A is activated very often with neuron B, at some point it's very likely that they will have a connection (Hebbian theory). But how would novel knowledge be incorporated? i.e. a new neuron that we never had before, or an existing one that somehow decides to change, be suddenly activated for the novel input, and form a synapse with an existing neuron?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27492" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T01:03:44.077" Title="Do all neurons have a &quot;job&quot;, or are some waiting to be assigned for a novel stimuli to appear?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26395" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26356" CreationDate="2020-12-19T07:12:31.490" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;If you are lucky, you might be able to find a psychologist or a group practice who blogs specifically about bullying? That might a good way to find out the opinions and direction of how they would approach therapy with you. Unfortunately, there are no simple or easy ways to predict or decipher bias or the direction of the therapy. Usually it is worth visiting a couple of psychologists and decide after a couple of sessions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T07:12:31.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26396" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26401" CreationDate="2020-12-19T07:26:55.960" Score="2" ViewCount="135" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was asked by my professor to give a presentation on the topic &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;Cognitive biases and distortions&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; and during my prep I had this question. Could anyone please shed some light?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I tried finding more regarding the difference but I am yet to find &amp;quot;cognitive biases &lt;strong&gt;vs&lt;/strong&gt; distortions&amp;quot; I have only found &amp;quot;cognitive biases &lt;strong&gt;and&lt;/strong&gt; distortions&amp;quot;.&#xA;Going by definitions it seems to me that distortions might be a subset of biases but i'm not at all sure. The counter argument to this for me is maybe biases are more about &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;what we see&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; and distortions about &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;how we interpret it&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27497" LastEditorUserId="27497" LastEditDate="2020-12-19T12:53:56.107" LastActivityDate="2020-12-20T00:46:16.863" Title="What is the difference between Cognitive Bias and Cognitive distortion?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;cognitive-distortion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26399" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26367" CreationDate="2020-12-19T19:12:59.210" Score="1" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;could an existing adult mind/brain be modified to perceive pleasure/pain signals more intensely than otherwise&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It depends what you mean by &amp;quot;modified&amp;quot;, but even without going to any genetic (or surgical, e.g. implants) modifications, the central mechanisms involved in pain can be sensitized merely by experience/exposure to a certain level of stimuli; see e.g. (fairly cited) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2750819/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;review paper&lt;/a&gt; on central sensitization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The nociceptor-induced sensitization of the somatosensory system is adaptive in that it makes the system hyperalert in conditions in which a risk of further damage is high, for example, immediately after exposure to an intense or damaging stimulus. This sensitization is the expression of use-dependent synaptic plasticity triggered in the central nervous system (CNS) by the nociceptor input and was the first example of central sensitization, discovered [in 1983]. Since then, we have learned that a number of different forms of functional, chemical, and structural plasticity can sensitize the central nociceptive system to produce pain hypersensitivity under both normal and pathological circumstances, some of which are persistent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To induce central sensitization, the noxious stimulus must be intense, repeated, and sustained. Input from many fibers is required over tens of seconds; a single stimulus, such as a pinch, is insufficient. Peripheral tissue injury is not necessary, although the degree of noxious stimulation that produces frank tissue injury almost always induces central sensitization, so that the phenomenon is very prominent after post-traumatic or surgical injury.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mechanism[s] by which this happens are on one hand very diverse as far as initiation, but seem to converge in one final pathway (dorsal horn neurons):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;multiple different triggers can contribute to the establishment of this form of central sensitization: glutamate acting on NMDAR, but also on AMPAR and mGluR, the neuropeptides substance P and CGRP, the kinin bradykinin, as well as BDNF and NO. [...] The reason so many different transmitters, modulators, and their receptors are involved is that it is not their specific action that is important but rather that they are released directly from or induced in response to nociceptor afferent activity, and each can separately or together initiate the activation of those multiple intracellular signaling pathways that lead to the establishment of hyperexcitability in dorsal horn neurons [...]. In other words, there are many parallel inputs to dorsal horn neurons that can independently or cooperatively initiate central sensitization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So that gives numerous potential [malevolent] pharmacological/genetic/physical interventions that could have the same (ultimate) effect of causing central sensitization to pain. And if you care about the practical details, you can read the experimental methods section of the papers cited in that review.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as &amp;quot;pleasure&amp;quot; is concerned, there have been numerous studies on sensitization to drugs that have addictive potential. But in that area, things are more muddy because &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;behavioral sensitization&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; doesn't really &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4425246/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;separate&lt;/a&gt; the &amp;quot;like&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;want&amp;quot; components, which have some common pathways in the brain (the famous dopamine mesolimbic/NAc) but also distinct for various &amp;quot;likes&amp;quot; (e.g. those for sweet taste have been fairly well identified) and it seems it is mainly other neurotransmitters are mainly involved in the latter (e.g. MOR-receptor agonists, like endorphins and also orexin for taste. Things are complicated in that regard because &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jneurosci.org/content/37/34/8284&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;merely eating&lt;/a&gt; something that does not subjectively register as pleasant will also release pretty much the same neurotransmitters; there are apparently subtle differences to consider in what regions of the brain where they are released.) Behaviorally studied, preferences can have many confounders besides actual &amp;quot;like&amp;quot;; see e.g. [amusing perhaps] controversy on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-020-00836-z&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sugars vs cocaine&lt;/a&gt;, which was even the stuff of tabloids some years back (as &amp;quot;cupcakes vs cocaine&amp;quot; or thereabout).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While sensitization of D2 [dopamine] receptors involved in the feedback loop of addiction is fairly well understood (e.g. see all the &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20942582/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;D2High research&lt;/a&gt;), I'm not sure there's been comparable effort to understand if there is easily and &lt;em&gt;separately&lt;/em&gt; triggerable sensitization in receptors involved in e.g. sweet tasting, although in general, mu opioid receptors &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12654343/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;can be&lt;/a&gt; sensitized as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2020-12-19T20:07:53.667" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T20:07:53.667" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26400" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26306" CreationDate="2020-12-19T21:17:59.373" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here are two studies may be relevant to your question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0749597812001380&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Seeing green: Mere exposure to money triggers a business decision frame and unethical outcomes&lt;/a&gt;. The authors report that &amp;quot;individuals primed with money were more likely to demonstrate unethical intentions than those in the control group&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;money cues triggered a business decision frame, which led to a greater likelihood of unethical intentions and behavior.&amp;quot; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.fastcompany.com/2682374/exposure-to-money-triggers-unethical-decisions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This article&lt;/a&gt; explains that the researchers &amp;quot;primed&amp;quot; the participants by showing them either &amp;quot;money-related&amp;quot; phrases or &amp;quot;neutral&amp;quot; phrases and measured how that affected their decisions in hypothetical scenarios or games. So even when there is no actual money involved, the study found that thinking about money can influence people's behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797610387613&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Social Class, Contextualism, and Empathic Accuracy&lt;/a&gt;. The authors report that &amp;quot;individuals of a lower social class are more empathically accurate in judging the emotions of other people.&amp;quot; In &lt;a href=&quot;https://healthland.time.com/2010/11/24/the-rich-are-different-more-money-less-empathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt;, a study co-author points out that people with more modest financial resources need to depend on others more than people who are more able to solve their problems with money. This may give them more experience cooperating with people and developing empathy. So in this case it's the money that someone accumulates throughout their life that may prompt them to act in a less empathetic way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27081" LastActivityDate="2020-12-19T21:17:59.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26401" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26396" CreationDate="2020-12-20T00:46:16.863" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has articles on both of these terms, so that would be one place to start. Although you may not be able to cite Wikipedia as a source, both of these articles have good References sections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the Wikipedia definitions (emphasis added):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive bias&lt;/a&gt;: &amp;quot;a systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_distortion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cognitive distortion&lt;/a&gt;: &amp;quot;an exaggerated or irrational thought pattern &lt;strong&gt;involved in the onset or perpetuation of psychopathological states&lt;/strong&gt;, such as depression and anxiety.&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So both of these terms apply to thought patterns that deviate from a theoretical rational standard. But cognitive distortions apply specifically to states considered psychologically abnormal, while cognitive biases refer to properties of human thinking that tend to affect everyone. The examples given in the articles seem to support this distinction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you mentioned, cognitive distortions could be seen as a subset of cognitive biases, specifically the subset that leads to psychopathological conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27081" LastActivityDate="2020-12-20T00:46:16.863" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26402" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-20T08:22:52.207" Score="0" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am reading a paper in which the Visual Paired Associate Subtests 1 and 2 of the &amp;quot;Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised&amp;quot; are used to assess cognitive function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a significant difference in performance between control and test groups for subtest 1 but not subtest 2. Yet in the paper no background on the difference between these two tests is provided and I have been unable to find information on the subtests at this level of granularity through googling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any insight into the difference between these subtests would be much appreciated!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27505" LastActivityDate="2020-12-20T08:22:52.207" Title="Differences between Visual Paired Associate Subtests 1 and 2 of the &quot;Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised&quot;" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26404" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-21T02:36:46.173" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do neurons have a single transmitters vesicle per synapse they have? So when they will be activated, each transmitter vesicle is going to one synapse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or is it that neurons release some amount of transmitters using some number of vesicles when they are activated, and then the transmitters are being divided between all of their synapses?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27492" LastActivityDate="2020-12-21T02:36:46.173" Title="Do neurons have a single transmitters vesicle per synapse they have?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neuro-transmitters&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26405" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-21T02:56:59.510" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am an engineer dealing with Brain-Computer Interface, and at the moment, in a clinical context. One area which I came across was rehabilitation for patients suffering from Spinal Cord Injuries or stroke patients and that one method, is to artificially excite the paralyzed muscle to trigger movement. This is supposed to restore some of the lost functionality of the reduced motor functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;If this method is used to increase activation in motor functions, how does stimulating neurons on the muscle result in such a thing? from my understanding, the sensory signals go from the limbs/body parts to the brain, and bio-signals that move the muscles are fired from brain, through the spinal chord and to the targeted muscle, so how does activation of these neurons near the muscle help restore brain's motor function firing mechanism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;So if the motor functions are reduced in SCI patients, would the non-motor functions leading to those motor functions to be created also be decreased too? From my understanding, before the motor function is created, certain neurons in certain brain cortices are fired, which result in these neural functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27058" LastActivityDate="2020-12-21T02:56:59.510" Title="How does Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) restore motor functions and non-motor functions in SCI patients" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;motor&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26406" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-21T05:26:06.890" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a word or term that identifies the inability of those who have lived a privileged life to relate or understand those who have had to struggle to get where they are?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25946" LastActivityDate="2020-12-21T05:26:06.890" Title="Term for inability to relate to struggle due to privelege?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26408" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26409" CreationDate="2020-12-21T16:38:45.273" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;So I close my eyes, turn around, open them for just a blink and close again. I have observed a chair. I can't tell you how the chair looks like in detail, but I can more or less tell its shape and color. What's more, if I'm not disturbed, I can remember that shape and color for at least a minute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What if I wanted to construct a device that could repeat this process. With digital hardware its not too hard - take a digital camera and a solid state memory device. For every bit of info in my solid state drive, I can call the operation &amp;quot;store&amp;quot; and my bit will be stored, or &amp;quot;erase&amp;quot; and it will be erased. Don't know how reliably each physical bit works with current technology, but given sufficient number of physical bits per logical bit I can theoretically make a device that will store my picture for as long as I want.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about building a spiking neuronal network to do the same thing? I have tried some naive approaches, and I arrive at a fundamental problem: spiking neuronal networks seem to have almost no inertia on the fast timescale. A neuron only fires while there is sufficient input. When input is gone, it no longer fires (besides some resting state activity). I can construct a network with recurrently-connected neurons, in which case, in principle, the activity of the network could sustain itself after the input is gone. However, depending on the parameters of the network I observe a rapid switch between two very extreme behaviours. In one case, the feedback strength of the network is too weak, and the activity drops as soon as the input is gone. In the other, the feedback weight is too strong, and the activity of the network quickly reaches some maximal firing state independently of which exact input the network has received. These transitions happen exponentially fast. Theoretically, there are adaptive control mechanisms in neuronal networks, such as inhibition and synaptic plasticity. However, I am struggling to understand how such mechanisms can ever be fast enough to compensate for the sudden increase or drop of input.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;TL;DR&lt;/strong&gt;: Naively neuronal networks do not seem stable enough to implement robust short-term memory. What are the known mechanisms that nevertheless make it possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note: I'm not asking how exactly short-term memory works. I am aware that nobody really knows. I'm asking for intuition to help disprove my argument that it should not work when implemented using neurons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27513" LastActivityDate="2020-12-21T17:08:07.647" Title="Is short-term memory theoretically possible to with spiking neurons?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26409" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26408" CreationDate="2020-12-21T17:00:49.133" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;While we don't entirely know how all aspects of working memory operate, experiments show that a subset of cells in the brain exhibit &lt;em&gt;persistent activity&lt;/em&gt; during working memory tasks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's an example from a review by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661303001979&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Curtis &amp;amp; D'Esposito&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QrplW.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/QrplW.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a task in panel (a) where there is a cue presented briefly (marked by &amp;quot;C&amp;quot;), and then the monkey needs to remember the cue (during the time marked by &amp;quot;D&amp;quot;), and finally at time R the targets appear and the monkey can make a response.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We see in spiking recordings from monkeys that there are cells in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex that are activated not only by the cue and during the response, but they have persistent activity during the delay period. In human studies we can't ordinarily place electrodes but part (b) shows a similar study using fMRI, and the colored areas on the brain indicate brain areas that demonstrated more blood flow (marking metabolism) during the delay period, which includes areas of the same brain region as the monkey experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The explanations are &lt;strong&gt;recurrent network activity&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;bistability&lt;/strong&gt;: a population of cells that is excited can continue to excite each other and remain active until stopped (see for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attractor_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attractor networks&lt;/a&gt; for a conceptual idea), as well as bistability in individual neurons where a neuron that reaches threshold &lt;em&gt;continues to fire tonically&lt;/em&gt; rather than firing a single action potential, until firing is ceased via inhibition. &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1023/A:1008837311948.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Camperi and Wang 1998&lt;/a&gt; is an excellent, clear review of these concepts with a straightforward mathematical approach to how you can model this &lt;em&gt;in silico&lt;/em&gt;. It's probably more efficient to start from here rather than reinventing it on your own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also recommend other papers by XJ Wang who has done extensive work in this area. I also recommend you look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_space&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;phase-space diagrams&lt;/a&gt; which can help conceptualize dynamic systems with stable properties (and which network parameters are necessary for stability), they come up a lot in theoretical neuroscience. Dayan and Abbott's &lt;a href=&quot;https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/theoretical-neuroscience&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Theoretical Neuroscience&lt;/a&gt; is also a good starting point if you can find a copy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Camperi, M., &amp;amp; Wang, X. J. (1998). A model of visuospatial working memory in prefrontal cortex: recurrent network and cellular bistability. Journal of computational neuroscience, 5(4), 383-405.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Curtis, C. E., &amp;amp; D'Esposito, M. (2003). Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(9), 415-423.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2020-12-21T17:08:07.647" LastActivityDate="2020-12-21T17:08:07.647" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26413" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-23T01:30:31.187" Score="3" ViewCount="112" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pomodoro technique and entering into flow states are two commonly mentioned productivity techniques used by people studying or doing creative work. I have used these two techniques and I feel more comfortable with the flow state is it feels like a hyperfocused state.&#xA;Are there respectable scientific studies that support these techniques? Which technique is better?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27521" LastEditorUserId="23755" LastEditDate="2020-12-24T04:53:28.610" LastActivityDate="2020-12-25T02:00:25.940" Title="Pomodoro Technique vs Flow" Tags="&lt;performance&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26414" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-24T00:18:43.247" Score="5" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a software engineer with a special interest in machine/deep learning and I have a fair amount of experience in this space. In (supervised) machine learning, you are tuning a (very) large data structure called a &lt;em&gt;neural network&lt;/em&gt; by subjecting it over and over again with pictures/sounds/inputs that contain a particular &amp;quot;thing&amp;quot; you want it to learn and letting it analyze the characteristics of each input. Every time you show it a new input that contains this &amp;quot;thing&amp;quot; it tweaks the configuration of the network a bit more, and after many (hundreds; thousands; tens of thousands) of examples, this network converges (&amp;quot;learns&amp;quot;) into a final state that is capable of recognizing the &amp;quot;thing&amp;quot; on new inputs that it has not yet seen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to do some research in some new areas of machine learning and I'm interested in what some of the predominant modern theories are on how the brain &amp;quot;works&amp;quot; as a possible source of inspiration. It is my belief that humans have inadvertently been building computers and software in a way that mimics the human body, probably because nature perfected the recipe a &lt;strong&gt;long&lt;/strong&gt; time ago, and its probably the best recipe! So by having some decent understanding of what our top dogs in neuroscience believe with respect to have the brain &amp;quot;works&amp;quot;, I might be able to think outside the box here and solve some problems that I wouldn't have thought of otherwise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;how the brain works&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot; I mean:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theories on how the brain converts inputs (vision, sound, smells, tactile sensations/pressure/heat/pain, tastes, etc.) into a form that it can then process and make informed decisions with&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theories on how the brain actually makes these decisions; how we think and uses stored information to decide to do something&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theories on how the brain stores and fetches memories and information (how I can recall my social security number, name or birth date, or how I know what a cat looks like; as well as how I store new info like remembering a new co-worker's name)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Theories on why our brains are all so different and people have different likes/interests/aversions than others (why I like writing software and hiking and other people like skydiving or eating spicy food, etc.)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again I'm interested in what the modern and &amp;quot;predominant&amp;quot; theories are (by that I mean: gaining lots of traction/legitimacy within the appropriate scientific communities) for all these things. Knowing what those are will help me sift through the ocean of blogs, white papers and articles that might very well mislead me or take me down roads on theories that were relevant 20 years ago but have long-since been abandoned or replaced, etc. Thanks in advance for any-and-all steering here!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27526" LastActivityDate="2020-12-24T00:18:43.247" Title="Where to find modern theories on how the brain computes inputs and information" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;brain-computer-interface&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2020-12-29T16:25:38.020" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26415" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26413" CreationDate="2020-12-25T02:00:25.940" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Comparing the &lt;em&gt;Pomodoro Technique&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;flow state&lt;/em&gt; is like comparing tomatoes and oranges. They are not two different techniques that you choose between. &lt;em&gt;Pomodoro&lt;/em&gt; is a productivity / time management technique, and &lt;em&gt;flow&lt;/em&gt; is a mental state. They are related in the sense that you could use Pomodoro to help get into a flow state, but you could also use some other technique for that purpose, which it sounds like you already do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The canonical reference for flow is &lt;em&gt;Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience&lt;/em&gt; by Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, who first used the term to refer to a mental state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One thing to keep in mind about flow is that it's good for productivity, but not necessarily good for self-improvement. In a flow state, you tend to accomplish tasks without conscious thought, which accounts for the high productivity. But this also means that you aren't thinking about how you might get better. The process of &lt;em&gt;deliberate practice&lt;/em&gt; could be seen as an anti-flow technique, where you consciously focus on each step of a task in order to improve. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.calnewport.com/blog/2012/04/09/the-father-of-deliberate-practice-disowns-flow/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I didn't find any rigorous scientific research about the effectiveness of the Pomodoro Technique. &lt;a href=&quot;https://hbr.org/2014/02/the-surprising-power-of-impulse-control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This HBR article&lt;/a&gt; has some informal results, and anecdotally it's a popular technique among knowledge workers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27081" LastActivityDate="2020-12-25T02:00:25.940" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26417" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-26T23:03:21.253" Score="2" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I do not have university access and do not want to spend money on protected documents. I am looking for free access. (Possibly I would spend money for original documents which should then be sent to me. ;) )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27543" LastActivityDate="2020-12-28T02:53:37.490" Title="Where can i find old archived patient records from 19th century psychiatric hospitals?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26418" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-27T10:38:58.317" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;Japanese people should certainly be commended for their exemplary displays of civility, I’m sure this doesn’t require debating (&lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/hj1VfnJdRNw&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this scholarly source&lt;/a&gt; including examples like respecting subway stair lanes, leaving a lost shopping bag beside a tree and a hotel apologizing for a 4-am 1-minute Internet shortage). However, &lt;strong&gt;I am genuinely curious what the psychological cause for said civility would be&lt;/strong&gt;. Has there perhaps been a time in Japan’s history when this wasn’t the case from which we could infer an origin for such high and seemingly nationwide standards?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27547" LastEditorUserId="27547" LastEditDate="2020-12-27T16:51:58.587" LastActivityDate="2020-12-27T17:30:35.683" Title="What is the cause for the Japanese people’s exemplary civility?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2021-01-01T06:52:08.827" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26421" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="8955" CreationDate="2020-12-28T00:14:25.667" Score="1" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is sleep deprivation addictive?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That may not be a correct conclusion based solely on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8298841/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;symptoms of mania that some people experience&lt;/a&gt;. While sleep deprivation has been used to treat depression, with some success, it should be noted that &lt;strong&gt;acute&lt;/strong&gt; sleep deprivation provides a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0361923009002020&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brief relief against depression&lt;/a&gt;, but &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/depression/guide/depression-sleep-disorder#1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;chronic&lt;/strong&gt; sleep deprivation&lt;/a&gt; is also linked with &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2007.00596.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;increased depression for many&lt;/a&gt;. Moreover, chronic sleep deprivation spread over many months or even years is linked with increased stress, weight gain and weakened immune system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Does sleep deprivation count as a drug?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It has been tested as therapeutic substitute to drugs to treat depression and has proved effective in providing a brief relief to some individuals. But no, it is hard to conclude that sleep deprivation is akin to an addictive drug based on the available research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24466" LastEditorUserId="24466" LastEditDate="2020-12-28T02:41:30.233" LastActivityDate="2020-12-28T02:41:30.233" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26422" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26417" CreationDate="2020-12-28T02:53:37.490" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A Google search for &lt;em&gt;patient records from 19th century psychiatric hospitals&lt;/em&gt; (no quotes) turns up relevant results, though not for free access.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, here's a service from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides/mental-health/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The National Archives&lt;/a&gt; (UK) that looks like exactly what you're talking about. And another one from &lt;a href=&quot;https://archives.govt.nz/mental-health&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;New Zealand&lt;/a&gt;. I'm sure there are more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27081" LastActivityDate="2020-12-28T02:53:37.490" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26423" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-28T09:32:05.657" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I watched VSauce documentary about creating horror. Uncanny Valley phenomenon was a really interesting topic to hear about in this documentary. Are there more phenomenon like this, how can I learn about these phenomenon?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27557" LastActivityDate="2020-12-28T09:32:05.657" Title="More psychological phenomenon like Uncanny Valley to create fear and how to find them" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26425" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-28T13:48:59.823" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am currently trying reproduce, for learning purposes only, an experiment on the procedural learning of unstructured categories[1]. I have read the article reporting the experiment and some other references[2], but they are somewhat hard to understand for my current level of knowledge in some aspects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, I could not understand how to produce the reported stimuli for unstructured categories, the main thing I would like to learn how to do.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any educational resources available on this matter somehow easier to grasp? I have tried really hard to learn through the mentioned works but perhaps I need to read something more introductory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Crossley, M. J. Madsen, N. R. Ashby, F. G. Procedural learning of unstructured categories. &lt;em&gt;Psychon Bull Rev&lt;/em&gt; (2012), v. 19, p. 1202-1209. doi:10.3758/s13423-012-0312-0&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Ashby, F. G. Valentin, V. V. The Categorization Experiment: Experimental Design and Data Analysis. In: Wagenmakers, E. Wixted, J. T. &lt;em&gt;Steven's Handbook of Experimental Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;. Vol. 5 (Methodology), 4th ed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10881" LastEditorUserId="10881" LastEditDate="2020-12-30T06:03:56.070" LastActivityDate="2020-12-30T06:03:56.070" Title="Educational Resources on construction of Unstructure/Information Integration categorization experiments?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26426" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-28T20:27:22.817" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the Psychological explanation behind hoards of people turning on someone, unfairly and unreasonably simply because others have turned on that person? It's like that hate just keeps gaining momentum, facts and logic be damned. Why are people like this? I would take a wild guess that there's some mix of a bystander effect going on and tribal in-group favoritism. If there's a thread where someone's just getting unfairly dogpiled on, I always make an effort to support them. I've been on the receiving end of these dogpiles, it's really the fastest way to lose compassion for humanity, you realize the truth to them is just whatever others in their vicinity think and they they will use strategies of insults, hypocrisy and gaslighting to shut you down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27560" LastActivityDate="2020-12-28T20:27:22.817" Title="Psychology of dogpiling" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2021-01-17T06:11:31.417" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26427" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-28T23:00:07.513" Score="0" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on a graduate research project using the ABIDE I and II autism datasets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;MRIQC has been run on these data - and I now must remove participants marked as outliers on 3 specific quality metrics. However, I have run into an issue - there appear to be multiple &amp;quot;runs&amp;quot; per participant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If, on one run, the participant fails QC stipulations, but not on another run, does this mean that the participant should be excluded from analyses? Or is the purpose of having multiple &amp;quot;runs&amp;quot; in structural MRI in order to have sufficient data that, if one run is &amp;quot;bad&amp;quot;, another run can be used?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have tried reading the MRIQC documentation; Googling; downloading and reading textbooks - for some reason, I find numerous resources on fMRI, but nothing for structural.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would really appreciate any help anyone can offer - I am a bit desperate at this stage as my supervisors are on holiday.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for reading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27561" LastActivityDate="2021-05-28T01:05:40.580" Title="&quot;runs&quot; or &quot;sessions&quot; in Structural MRI - Purpose and Implications for Quality Control" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26428" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26427" CreationDate="2020-12-28T23:45:22.217" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is common to remove especially motion-corrupted MRI runs without excluding the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without more knowledge about the project it's hard to know why exactly they have multiple runs present and whether there are differences between runs or just repeated scans. It may be that the operators made sure to collect more data when they suspected subjects had too much motion during the scan, they may have done so randomly or by convenience (such as according to patient comfort), or they may have had other reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would consult other papers published using the same data set (even the functional ones) for their inclusion criteria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2020-12-28T23:45:22.217" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26432" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-29T14:14:24.020" Score="2" ViewCount="72" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe I understand the natural path, in which stimuli appear and by neural plasticity our brains &amp;quot;learn&amp;quot; these stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I recently learned about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_brain_stimulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;electrical brain stimulation&lt;/a&gt; and I was wondering what is the mechanism that allows the brain to take these stimulated/activated neurons, and either convert them to, or detect which original stimuli shaped them. Whether it was an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.latimes.com/health/la-xpm-2011-oct-10-la-heb-prosthetic-eyes-blind-20111010-story.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;image&lt;/a&gt;, a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763416306820&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;memory&lt;/a&gt;, or some other stimuli that shaped them. That is, the &amp;quot;reverse&amp;quot; way of the natural path.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27492" LastEditorUserId="27492" LastEditDate="2020-12-29T14:44:44.580" LastActivityDate="2020-12-29T14:44:44.580" Title="How does the brain interpret electrical brain stimulation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26433" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-29T21:12:31.673" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am tracking eye movements in mice passively viewing naturalistic stimuli or experimental stimuli meant to elicit reflexive eye movements. I would like to define a transformation function that translates displacement in pixels (x, y) to degrees of visual angle (azimuth, elevation). Here is an example image:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Bthcg.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Bthcg.png&quot; alt=&quot;Example Image&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have seen &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15099710/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; paper referenced several times in other papers that track eye movements in mice, but it seems like the position of my cameras relative to the eye is different than what is shown in the paper and I worry this will affect the validity of the transformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have the ability to track any feature of the eye that is useful. Right now I am tracking the center of the pupil, the corners of the eye, and the center of the top and bottom eyelid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT #1&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a description of the camera's position relative to the animal. The solid black object represents the animal (A=anterior, P=posterior, D=dorsal, V=ventral). The angle from each orientation represents the angle from the animal to the camera.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zWMm3.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/zWMm3.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27569" LastEditorUserId="27569" LastEditDate="2021-01-02T23:06:58.933" LastActivityDate="2021-02-02T00:03:30.340" Title="How to estimate eye-in-head rotation (degrees of visual angle) from a 2D video of the eye?" Tags="&lt;eye-movement&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26434" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-29T23:18:36.627" Score="3" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is &lt;em&gt;the&lt;/em&gt; stance (i.e., that which is most prevalent across the psych &amp;quot;community&amp;quot; —both research and applied) on whether mental illnesses are inventions, discoveries, or some combination thereof?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is there or has there been much debate or critical analysis on this; if so, by or between whom, when, and to what affect on the field?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27571" LastEditorUserId="27571" LastEditDate="2021-01-15T23:07:06.497" LastActivityDate="2021-01-15T23:07:06.497" Title="Mental/psychiatric illnesses/disorders: natural or social kinds?" Tags="&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2021-01-05T05:35:26.077" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26435" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26338" CreationDate="2020-12-30T15:28:01.813" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;They are not necessarily related concepts, and I think. While nudge (in Thaler's sense) is a mechanism for fostering choice in a planned way, priming refers to a faster processing of new stimuli related to recently activated ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems like the nudge of might happen through several possible mental processes, including (possibly) priming - although I personally couldn't find any example of how priming could be used to nudge a decision, I'm certain it might. None of the cited examples work through priming, though. For instance, it seems to me that the fly in the urinal example might work through a salience effect (a salient bug in the urinal makes one direct their attention to the salient object).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of priming (unrelated to nudge) could be when you see the word &amp;quot;bee&amp;quot;, and then see a related stimuli, like the word &amp;quot;honey&amp;quot;, and you recognize it faster because there's a previously activated schema. Priming might happen through a lot of means, like words rhyming or starting with the same syllable, semantically related objects, recognition of one object in an abstract pattern, etc. However, in priming there's always at least one prime (a previous stimulus) and one target (a later stimulus) and the prime will make the activation/recognition of the target faster.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hypothetically, one could use priming to nudge people into &amp;quot;better&amp;quot; decisions if one could offer a prime related to the &amp;quot;best&amp;quot; decision (our target). For instance, consider there is a (widely known) healthy meal and an unhealthy alternative as the options in a restaurant menu. You might put a text saying &amp;quot;Be Healthy&amp;quot; at the cover, which people will see before seeing the alternatives. This might enhance the activation of the healthy alternative, and it might influence the choice (or not). While it's uncertain on whether the healthy food will be chosen, theoretically its activation will be faster due to priming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SUGGESTED REFERENCES:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Matlin, M. W. Cognition. Hoboken: Wiley, 2012, 8th edition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sternberg, R. J. Sternberg, K. Cognitive Psychology. Boston: 2017, 7th edition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10881" LastActivityDate="2020-12-30T15:28:01.813" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26436" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-30T16:47:12.130" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anyone have a suggestion of the kind of stimuli I could use for a categorization experiment that needs a range of clearly defined and a range of ambiguous stimuli?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I need to produce both a range of single stimuli, and a way to combine multiple stimuli in a set which shares this characteristic of having both clearly defined ranges and an ambiguous one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Some Context on the General Goal&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am currently conducting an experiment where I want my participants to learn two different schemata aiming to test whether people will implicitly assume details from the whole scene based on what schema better accommodates the given stimuli. For that reason, I need some ambiguity to be solved through contextual cues, so I can check whether the same stimuli might be interpreted in different schemata and compare whether or not different participant groups assume different implicit information based on that. So each schema will be composed of a character, an action (a verb, executed by the character), a simple noun for an object and a collective noun for a set of objects, which will be part of the action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am looking for is a possible kind of stimuli that might either fall clearly into one of two categories or be ambiguous and hard to categorize into one of the categories. I need to be able to combine them into sets of 3 where I might make the set: (a) clearly belonging to a collective category, by combining all the 3 stimuli from items also clearly from that category, (b) completely ambiguous, by having all the 3 stimuli ambiguous, and (c) intermediate degrees, by combining 1 ambiguous + 2 unambiguous; 2 ambiguous + 1 unambiguous for both sides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What I've Tried So Far&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll show you with an example of what I have tried so far. I have two categories, 'namu' and 'bonho' (both 2-sylleble pseudo-words of Portuguese):&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uCNrW.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/uCNrW.png&quot; alt=&quot;Example of stimuli for the categories 'namu' and 'bonho'&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you can see, those stimuli vary in angle. Every line with an angle between 1 and 59 degrees is certainly a namu, and every line with an angle between 121 and 179 degrees is certainly a bonho. But between 60 and 120 degrees we have the ambiguous zone and the stimuli might be both namu and bonho (chosen at random).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I have in mind here is a kind of &amp;quot;semistructured&amp;quot; categorization: something that combines both deterministic/structured and probabilistic/unstructured categorization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, as like I said, I need to be capable of combining multiple stimuli to form sets made of stimuli of the first categories, like this:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/URBwi.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/URBwi.png&quot; alt=&quot;The namel and bonhal sets&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;As you can see, the idea is that a 'namel' is a set of 'namus', and a 'bonhal' is a set of 'bonhos'. Both sets have 3 of its basic constituents. To be categorized a namel, every constitnuent of the set must be a namu, and to be a bonhal every constituent is required to be a bonho. But when all the constituents are ambiguous the whole set is ambiguous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have made a single test with the 1-stimulus form (namu vs bonho), but it does not meet my goals so I never tried the combined 3-stimuli form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Problems with those stimuli&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with the mentioned strategy is that both my niblings, which tested the task for me, and even myself when testing it, followed the strategy of answering according to the highest side: if the highest side was the left side we answered 'namu', for instance, even though there were some errors this rule of thumb worked most of the times with random stimuli uniformly distributed between 1 and 179 degrees. I thought about changing the distribution to a normal one with mean in 120 degrees and a standard deviation of 40, so the majority of the stimuli would be ambiguous, but then too few would be clear and it doesn't seem like it's going to work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone have a suggestion of the kind of stimuli I could use for this purpose? As far as I researched, I have found nothing in the literature about this kind of situation. I have found about both unstructured and structured (rule-based) categorization tasks, but nothing about a mixed range. But a reference of this kind would also be a good answer to my question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10881" LastEditorUserId="10881" LastEditDate="2020-12-30T22:56:07.573" LastActivityDate="2020-12-30T22:56:07.573" Title="Practical Suggestions for Ambiguous Stimuli for Categorization Experiment" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;categorisation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26437" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26433" CreationDate="2020-12-30T20:50:05.757" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;In theory you can use the geometry of your setup to transform your data to the orientation reffered in the paper you mentioned using &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheimpflug_principle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Scheimpflug Principle&lt;/a&gt; and then use the methods provided in it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Practically, you can only approximate the geometry of your setup. If you have some idea about angles in something like this&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/R6Qrr.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/R6Qrr.gif&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;please let me know, I might be able to do the math for you.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: The lens plane is parallel to image plane in cameras so now it is just the question of orientation of subject plane and lens plane(camera plane).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27576" LastEditorUserId="27576" LastEditDate="2020-12-30T20:56:12.350" LastActivityDate="2020-12-30T20:56:12.350" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26438" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-30T20:58:03.257" Score="3" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I come from an economics background where people often written explicit mathematical models for their theories. To be clear, the vast majority of economic models are not useful quantitatively — the functional forms, etc, tend to be way off. However, the models are useful in disciplining the qualitative predictions from the theory. Human intuition is faulty. If we just rely on intuition in building theories, we almost always miss something until we write them out using models.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I read psychological theories, I find that most of them are not expressed in explicit models. This makes me worried that my understanding of the theories can be incomplete and different from what the original authors intended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is this the common practice? Would we gain anything to make psychological theories mathematically explicit, or will that be a waste of time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13243" LastActivityDate="2021-01-04T05:27:25.400" Title="Why do psychologists often not use mathematical models to express their theories?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;computational-modeling&gt;&lt;mathematical-psychology&gt;&lt;model&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26440" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2020-12-31T05:43:11.883" Score="1" ViewCount="47" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was surprised to read on &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4_k5HuDTk3Q?t=2795&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://youtu.be/4_k5HuDTk3Q?t=2795&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://documentaryheaven.com/uncontacted-tribes/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Uncontacted Tribes documentary&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BJ9HI.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/BJ9HI.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The individual in the picture is part of an Amazonian tribe that was contacted a few months/years before the shooting was made&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do humans have a natural tendency of feeling ashamed when not wearing clothes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I couldn't tell whether the statement was made as a result of his contacts with clothed people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="517" LastActivityDate="2021-01-02T23:55:35.847" Title="Do humans have a natural tendency of feeling ashamed when not wearing clothes?" Tags="&lt;anthropology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ClosedDate="2021-01-17T06:13:15.207" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26441" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-01T05:08:15.937" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Thomas Metzinger's book &lt;em&gt;Being No One&lt;/em&gt;, he claimed at the start of section 6.3.3&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Have you ever seen a child, who has just learned to walk, run toward a set of two or three stairs much too fast and then fall on its face in an unprotected way, which might have caused considerable injury had it been an adult? The child, now lying face down, lifts its head, turns around, and searches for its mother. It does so with a completely empty facial expression, showing no kind of emotional response. It looks into its mother’s face to find out how it is actually now feeling itself. How bad was it really? Should I cry or should I laugh?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is that real? I've never seen it. Has this been documented in the literature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27580" LastActivityDate="2021-01-01T05:08:15.937" Title="Do toddlers have to learn what they feel?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;cognitive-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26442" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-01T08:33:13.937" Score="0" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;In context of the research* &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02336.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(reference)&lt;/a&gt; by Gollwitzer, that was of &lt;em&gt;When intentions go public&lt;/em&gt;, which states that: saying your goal publicly will reduce our efforts to do it,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to ask the meaning of some specific terms, as well as a one paragraph simplified version of that that research (maybe in 50-100 words) and simple words, and terms, instead of the terms used in it. Because, most of us aren't able to deduce much from the research paper. Some difficult terms are &lt;em&gt;identity-relevant&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;behavioral-impact&lt;/em&gt; , etc. They should be simplified in an easily understandable english sentences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But my question is more focused on below questions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;To what extent we can push this concept?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: When our parents ask, what do you want to pursue? and we reply:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;I want to learn football from Cambridge Football Club, in order to be a good football player &lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we don't disclose the above, our parents might not be convinced sending us to Cambridge; they might think that I'm going there to date a girl maybe!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does wishing or making any weak commitment- such as a daily habit, but not the goal itself- in front of others, will it harm the efforts we make to achieve our goals?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if I said to my friends:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;I am running 100m in morning daily...&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The degree to which our goal realization is ruined by a weak commitment is less than that of straightforward saying our goals;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;*&lt;em&gt;Research in refrence: Gollwitzer, P. M., Sheeran, P., Michalski, V., &amp;amp; Seifert, A. E. (2009). When intentions go public: Does social reality widen the intention-behavior gap? Psychological Science, 20, 612–618. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02336.x&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cnbc.com/2019/09/05/why-sharing-goals-with-someone-helps-you-achieve-them.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this CNBC Article&lt;/a&gt;, which tells facts opposite to the research. It says, &amp;quot;When the study participants shared their target goal [...], they were more likely to reach their goal. On the flip side, those who relayed their goals to the individual who they believed was a community college student did not perform better. Similarly, the group who didn’t tell their goal to anyone also didn’t see any improvement.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26998" LastEditorUserId="26998" LastEditDate="2021-01-11T07:56:16.293" LastActivityDate="2021-01-11T07:56:16.293" Title="We should not publicly say our goals to everyone. But how far it can be actually applied?" Tags="&lt;goals&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26443" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26438" CreationDate="2021-01-01T20:27:08.730" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Come read some cognition! It's a wide open field with angles on all kinds of psychology stuff, and we're having a great time throwing greek letters around like confetti. I think you might like it!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of my favorite recent pro-model rants is this one psyarxiv.com/rybh9/ Although, to be fair they do argue for 'computational' rather than 'mathematical'. I would argue these both mean 'explicit formalism', which is what you're after here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There's a whole journal of mathematical psychology&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-mathematical-psychology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-mathematical-psychology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or Computational Brain and Behavior &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.springer.com/journal/42113&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;www.springer.com/journal/42113&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;is full of cool stuff on a surprisingly wide range of psych topics united by a common theme of awesome mathy-ness&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psych is very broad, but whatever corner of it you're interested in, there's almost certainly a math-y cognitive/computational version of it (as well). Those mathpsych folks definitely get around. Probably the most math-resistant corner of psych is social psych, emergent behavior of groups type stuff is absolutely vicious to model, as you would know, coming from econ... but see eg. cogsci.mindmodeling.org/2019/papers/0172/0172.pdf&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Explicit formalism is the future of psych, and quite a lot of the future is here already&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="18720" LastActivityDate="2021-01-01T20:27:08.730" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26445" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-02T10:24:27.223" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6428732&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;One theory&lt;/a&gt; of dreams is they help us process strong experiences. So I wondered whether one needs a longer sleep after some strong experiences partly to give the brain longer to complete the healing/rewiring process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2021-01-02T13:42:28.380" LastActivityDate="2021-01-02T13:42:28.380" Title="Do stronger emotions take longer to process with dreams?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26446" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-02T11:35:19.340" Score="3" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have recently done CBT and I am finding a lot of value in the ABCD detective method for myself&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/-/media/CCI/Consumer-Modules/Back-from-The-Bluez/Back-from-the-Bluez---06---Detective-Work-and-Disputation.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/-/media/CCI/Consumer-Modules/Back-from-The-Bluez/Back-from-the-Bluez---06---Detective-Work-and-Disputation.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;ABCD is not the only questionnaire or data collection method that is useful for CBT, but I only seem to find these forms in pdf format, which is not very convenient to fill in and doing the calculations for multiple choice scoring forms at the end seems fully automatable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if there are any recommended websites or apps that provide a service, where these forms are convenient to fill in and does automatic score calculation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27585" LastActivityDate="2021-01-02T11:35:19.340" Title="Convenient CBT Questionnaires" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26449" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26179" CreationDate="2021-01-03T01:17:56.820" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;As suggested by @TonyMobbs in the comments (thanks for the idea!), I sent an email to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bonniegreenwell.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bonnie Greenwell&lt;/a&gt; via &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.bonniegreenwell.com/contact&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this form&lt;/a&gt;. Surprisingly, I received a very prompt reply:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dear SRI,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is no comprehensive science at this time of kundalini activation in the west, although an ancient science exists in India and the study of QiGong in China also has comprehensive understanding of energy in the body. Joan Harrigan Ph.D.,  a psychologist and yogi, has written a book called Kundalini Vidya (available on amazon) that explains in great detail a yogic science gained from a yogic master in India. Dr. Vasant Lad who has a school of Ayurveda medicine also has a yogic medical perspective of kundalini. I am not familiar with all the science of Qigong, but kundalini is called the Qigong Crisis in that tradition.  Modern research in kundalini is primarily the collected experiences of thousands who have experienced it, and the fact that the experience does not fit any known medical model that would account for the symptoms. My book &amp;quot;The Kundalini Guide&amp;quot; describes some of these phenomena  and Dr. Yvonne Kason's new book &amp;quot;Touched by the Light&amp;quot; describes this and many other kinds of spiritual emergence. Dr. Stan Grof has written at length about spiritual emergence, including kundalini. His wife Christina wrote a biography of her own experience with it. My doctoral research included many biographies describing similar experiences and my subsequent book &amp;quot;Energies of Transformation: A Guide to the Kundalini Process,&amp;quot; published in 1990, has an extensive bibliography. There has not traditionally been respect in western medicine for eastern perspectives based on thousands of years of practice and observation, and even though a person in a kundalini process demonstrates great releases of energy there is no western scientific measurement as far as I know to validate this or determine its source.  Dr. Andrew Newberg has done neurological research with people who report the shifts of consciousness that can occur in or following kundalini activation, and you can find his research through his website. An organization that has studied energy in the USA is ISSSEAM although I do not know if they specifically call it kundalini, but rather bioenergy.  You can see this is a vast subject without a definitive western model  to explain it at this time. A man named JJ Semple has started a Kundalini Consortium and  has written about kundalini extensively from a Qigong point of view, after awakening his energy years ago doing Qigong practice. He is hoping to establish research using these techniques with students. You can listen to him on youtube. I hope this gives you an entry into the research needed to explore your question, even if it offers no definitive conclusion acceptable to western medicine at this time. Dr. Harrigan's book is the best one I know of that offers a model for this experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Blessings, Bonnie&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25376" LastEditorUserId="25376" LastEditDate="2021-01-03T01:24:26.017" LastActivityDate="2021-01-03T01:24:26.017" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26451" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-03T10:26:44.720" Score="1" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;Discrimination can be understood as “making judgment based on general, rather than case-specific, information”. For instance, racial discrimination is making judgments based on one’s race (general information) rather than one’s own merits (case-specific information).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, people often find certain types of discrimination morally acceptable. For instance, it is usually okay for an employer to outright reject job applicants without college degrees even if it is possible that some without a degree are more qualified. People are often also okay with employers giving more consideration to those who went to better schools, even though some students from lower ranked schools can be better.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are many such examples. Human beings cannot spend infinite time to acquire information in each task, so they use shortcuts which, usually, involve some kind of discrimination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is: why do people find certain types of discrimination unacceptable but others acceptable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13243" LastActivityDate="2021-01-03T10:26:44.720" Title="Why do people find certain, but not all, forms of discrimination wrong?" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26452" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-04T00:55:37.500" Score="3" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;The Hannah Experiment&amp;quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;http://bear.warrington.ufl.edu/brenner/mar7588/Papers/darley-gross-jpsp1983.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Darley &amp;amp; Gross 1983&lt;/a&gt;) is cited as an example of labels biasing evaluation. This is described in &amp;quot;Drunk Tank Pink by Adam Alter&amp;quot; which I've paraphrased below:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Princeton University students decided whether a young fourth-grader named Hannah was performing above, below, or precisely at the level expected of an average student in the fourth grade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;During the first phase of the experiment, the students watched one of two brief videos:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lucky Hannah is shown to come from a college-educated family and lives in a wealthy neighbourhood.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Unlucky Hannah is shown to come from a family with a high-school education and a poor neighbourhood.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At this point, some of the students watched a second video, in which Hannah was asked to answer a series of twenty-five questions from an achievement test. The questions were designed to assess her mathematical, reading, science, and social science skills. Instead of presenting a clear image of her ability, the video was ambiguous: sometimes she was engaged, answering difficult questions correctly, and sometimes she seemed distracted and struggled with relatively easy questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hannah’s ability was difficult to discern from the video, but some of the students began watching with the labels “wealthy” and “college educated” in mind, whereas the others began watching with the labels “working class” and “high school educated” in mind. These labels functioned as tiebreakers when Hannah’s performance was neither flawless nor disastrous. The students who expected Hannah to succeed saw exactly that pattern of achievement in her responses (ignoring her missteps and distractibility), whereas those who expected less from Hannah saw exactly what the negative labels implied (ignoring her intermittent engagement and mastery of the difficult questions). In the end, the Lucky Hannah was judged to have performed above her fourth-grade level, whereas her Unlucky counterpart seemed to perform below fourth-grade level. The Hannah study showed that people are suggestible, willing to view the world with the guidance of labels when faced with an otherwise unbreakable tie.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does this bias have a name? Has it been replicated/generalized?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Darley, J. M., &amp;amp; Gross, P. H. (1983). A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44&lt;/em&gt;(1), 20–33. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.20&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.20&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4397" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-01-04T09:48:11.090" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T02:24:52.183" Title="Has the labelling and overshadowing effect from the Hannah Experiment been replicated?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26453" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-04T04:43:24.357" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Whenever we manage to turn on the TPLOpen1 after calibrating the eye-tracker, it keeps broadcasting the following error message.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;Runtime Error!&amp;quot;&#xA;The following runtime error occurred:&#xA;Client Open call failed in Device Connect(). Host 'localhost (127.0.0.1)' could not be reached on port 8080. Specific endpoint failure: 'Clock'. Return code:'-101', Status code:'-101', Reason:&amp;quot;. Please ensure Tobii Pro Lab is Open and able to be reached with your current TobiiProLabDevice settings.&#xA;Line: 13040&#xA;Error Number: 5502&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Funny thing is, we cannot even found the line in question (13040) where the error is supposed to have occurred. Could anyone guide us?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27588" LastActivityDate="2021-01-04T04:43:24.357" Title="About runtime error" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26457" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26459" CreationDate="2021-01-04T13:43:14.297" Score="0" ViewCount="101" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are the following similarities between introvert personality type, Social anxiety disorder and mild autism&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Disinterest in social interaction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Interested in objects than people&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;May be afraid of being centre of attention&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have difficulty in people skills&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;May lack eye contact&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;May have special interest and hyperfocus&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Have difficulty guessing others' mind&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How to distinguish these conditions are due to  introvert personality, social anxiety disorder and mild autism?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-04T19:05:20.767" Title="How to distinguish introvert personality, social anxiety disorder and mild autism?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;aspergers&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;&lt;introversion&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26459" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26457" CreationDate="2021-01-04T16:57:56.037" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an ongoing debate as to whether it is best to view personality disorders as being categorical or dimensional in nature. Your question infers the perspective of the categorical view.  The alternative dimensional perspective suggests that the three disorders you mention are very similar, that is, these three conditions overlap to a large extent with a slight shift along an (as yet unnamed) dimension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopwood, C. J., Kotov, R., Krueger, R. F., Watson, D., Widiger, T. A., Althoff, R. R., Ansell, E. B., Bach, B., Michael Bagby, R., Blais, M. A., Bornovalova, M. A., Chmielewski, M., Cicero, D. C., Conway, C., De Clercq, B., De Fruyt, F., Docherty, A. R., Eaton, N. R., Edens, J. F., … Zimmermann, J. (2018). The time has come for dimensional personality disorder diagnosis. Personality and Mental Health, 12(1), 82–86. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/pmh.1408&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/pmh.1408&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2021-01-04T16:57:56.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26460" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26457" CreationDate="2021-01-04T19:05:20.767" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The 3 said conditions look very similar, but their meaning is different.  but they indicate different parameters or different directions. Overlap can happen, such as an &amp;quot;introvert autistic&amp;quot; or an &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-37714048&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;extrovert autistic&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Kq2qm.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Kq2qm.png&quot; alt=&quot;relationship between introversion, SAD and Autism&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Introversion is an aversion or avoidance of social situations.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Social anxiety is a fear of social situations.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Autism is an extremely broad range of conditions, which may include inability to process social information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How does they differ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introversion&lt;/strong&gt;: It is sort of very old term, very broad and general one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Introversion does not necessarily include an inability to process social information. Rather it is seen that &lt;a href=&quot;https://news.yale.edu/2018/03/15/study-sad-lonely-people-more-likely-be-natural-social-psychologists&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;many introverts are better in predicting how others feel at social context&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Introversion does not also necessarily mean a fear and/or shyness of social situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Social anxiety disorder (Social phobia)&lt;/strong&gt; means a fear of social situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Social anxiety does not necessarily mean a lack of social understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Social anxiety may be seen from very young age or may develop at a later age due to trauma, stress, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Social anxiety disorder typically starts in childhood or adolescence.&#xA;Among individuals who seek treatment as adults the median age of onset&#xA;is in the early to mid-teens with most people having developed the&#xA;condition before they reach their 20s. However, there is a small&#xA;subgroup of people who develop the condition in later life. Some&#xA;people can identify a particular time when their social anxiety&#xA;disorder started and may associate it with a particular event (for&#xA;example, moving to a new school or being bullied or teased).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--- Social Anxiety Disorder: Recognition, Assessment and Treatment. NICE Clinical Guidelines, No. 159. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK).Leicester (UK): British Psychological Society; 2013. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK327674/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NCBI Bookshelf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Social anxiety is also linked with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avoidant_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Avoidant personality disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Autism&lt;/strong&gt; seemingly is a genetically determined set of conditions, although it invites bullying, discrimination, hatred etc that may further intensify social anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The word autistic comes from the word &amp;quot;autos&amp;quot; that mean &amp;quot;self&amp;quot;; but this self-limiting does not necessarily comes from an aversion of people, but it generally comes from an inherent lack of social understanding. There may be deficit of understanding other people's intentions and mindsets (&amp;quot;lack of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4187579/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive empathy&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;) or may have an unusual or  different &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;theory of mind&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;; may have &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249970775_Autism_as_Context_Blindness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;context blindness&lt;/a&gt; i.e. an inability to process how the same task evoke different reactions at different social contexts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Autistics may have a problem understanding or using nonverbal communication such as posture, gesture, proxemics, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Autistic people often want friend, and often &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-people-with-autism-forge-friendships/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;forge for friend&lt;/a&gt;. The social aversion or friendship aversion may be secondary; due to misunderstandings, failed communications, rejection, trauma etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Autism often comes with one or more co-morbid disabilities like dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, developmental coordination disorder, pragmatic language disorder, nonverbal learning disorder, prosopagnosia etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notably, Due to pressure from society, autistics may develop various masking mechanisms and tricks (such as laughing when everybody laughs, force maintain eye contact, force greetings etc) so that they appear less neurodivergent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The take-home message is that, the psychologist/ psychiatrist who have to distinguish the 3 conditions need to be utmost cautious and aware not just the behaviour but the inherent cognitive 'reason' behind the symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-04T19:05:20.767" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26461" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-04T19:25:41.110" Score="2" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed in some of my family members, who've been through struggles in life, to extremely &amp;quot;cling&amp;quot; into their sad emotions! They &lt;strong&gt;don't &lt;strong&gt;want&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; let go of it. It almost feels like they feel safe and secure with their emotional &amp;quot;miseries&amp;quot;. I have searched the net and found this is a common phenomena in many people. I was wondering if there is any scientific paper written on this subject. I don't know the proper terminology for this behavior. I was hoping someone can shed some light. Thanks,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27593" LastEditorUserId="27593" LastEditDate="2021-01-04T19:31:15.200" LastActivityDate="2021-01-04T20:18:10.967" Title="Why Do People Feel &quot;Safe &amp; Secure&quot; with Their Emotional Distress?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2021-01-07T09:42:23.630" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26462" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26461" CreationDate="2021-01-04T20:18:10.967" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;You are right, and consolation often backfires. this is for 2 reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We as human beings, want to be witnessed, heared. Few year ago a video based on research work of Megan Devine went viral over internet.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2zLCCRT-nE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2zLCCRT-nE&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://refugeingrief.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://refugeingrief.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Lot of positivity we say, is actually &amp;quot;toxic positivity&amp;quot;. It make our pain invalidated, disbelieved, or may have a discriminatory &amp;quot;bad vibes unwelcome&amp;quot; approach. Toxic positivity may oppress people from telling their problem and finding a solution.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-man-cave/201908/toxic-positivity-dont-always-look-the-bright-side&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-man-cave/201908/toxic-positivity-dont-always-look-the-bright-side&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-04T20:18:10.967" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26463" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-04T12:31:46.307" Score="2" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;It looks like mental illness and neurodevelopmental disorders may look absolutely same if we superficially  observe the behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Anger, destructive behaviour can be either due to a mental illness (anxiety, panic disorder, mood disorders, etc) and also can be a meltdown that is seen in neurodevelopmental conditions (Autism, Aspergers, ADHD, SPD etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Stereotypy and stimming behaviour can occur due to either mental illness like OCD and severe anxiety or it may have a neurodevelopmental origin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Anxiety itself, can be either of a psychological origin (such as either fear of something irrational, or just a state of fear), or it may have a neurodevelopmental origin such as the patient of ADHD or Aspergers or SPD can not handle a overstimulated state and may feel anxious if they have to wait for uncertain period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a lot of other similarities between neurodevelopmental and psychological conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now suppose the scene a patient comes in the chamber of a General Physician/ Psychiatrist with complaints of restlessness, anxiety, depression, psychosomatic illness (nausea, headache, numbness), forgetfulness, lack of concentration etc. The general symptoms signal either a primarily psychological condition, or may have a neurodevelopmental origin. How the General Physician / psychiatrist should distinguish it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" OwnerDisplayName="Always Confused" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T11:24:38.350" Title="How to distinguish mental illness and neurodevelopmental disorders?" Tags="&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26465" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26452" CreationDate="2021-01-05T01:20:59.037" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is basically describing stereotyping. (Several biases overlap to form these, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype#Formation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;depending which theory you prefer the most&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most cited paper that cites Darley &amp;amp; Gross seem to be a 1995 review titled &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1995-17407-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;. It cites D &amp;amp; G for implicit stereotyping (research):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although research on stereotypes has often used direct or explicit&#xA;measures (see Judd &amp;amp; Park, 1993), there are also substantial&#xA;research programs on stereotypes that use indirect measures—&#xA;ones in which a stigmatizing feature with which a stereotype&#xA;is associated (e.g., weight, race, or gender) is peripheral&#xA;to the respondent's judgment task (e.g., Darley &amp;amp; Gross, 1983)&#xA;or in which the purpose of investigation is otherwise disguised&#xA;(e.g., Hamilton &amp;amp; GifFord, 1976). Crosby, Bromley, and Saxe&#xA;(1980) were able to locate enough research using indirect measures&#xA;of prejudicial stereotypes to conclude that &amp;quot;anti-Black&#xA;sentiments are much more prevalent among White Americans&#xA;than the survey data [i.e., direct or explicit measures of stereotypes]&#xA;lead one to expect.&amp;quot; Although the use of indirect measures&#xA;in these studies often reflects the researchers' intent to&#xA;avoid intrusion of unwanted demand or impression-management&#xA;artifacts (which would plausibly suppress accurate expressions&#xA;of conscious stereotypes), some of the research that is&#xA;summarized just below was designed specifically to investigate&#xA;unconscious operation of stereotypes. These studies suggest that&#xA;stereotypes are often expressed implicitly in the behavior of persons&#xA;who explicitly disavow the stereotype. The next two sections&#xA;focus attention on race and gender stereotypes because&#xA;these, having been much more heavily investigated than other&#xA;stereotypes, have provided the most persuasive evidence for implicit&#xA;stereotyping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia also has a more specific article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_stereotype&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;implicit stereotype&lt;/a&gt;, although it seems someone was unhappy with it... The wiki article claims:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Implicit stereotype was first defined by psychologists Mahzarin Banaji and Anthony Greenwald in 1995&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;which is probably referring to the above 1995 review, but I'm not sure how correct is the claim that Banaji &amp;amp; Greenwald were the first to define the notion. (They clearly were not the first to study it.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Greenwald has actually co-authored a more recent &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-050837&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(2019) review&lt;/a&gt; titled just &amp;quot;Implicit Social Cognition&amp;quot;, which (I guess) could  be useful to check for research progress on implicit stereotyping. Most of the later research seems to have involved (the veritable explosion of) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit-association_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IAT&lt;/a&gt; studies. Greenwald (2019) summarizes several meta-analyses and does some moderator analysis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a broader theoretical perspective (and to clarify what Greenwald and&#xA;Banaji actually introduced--it's actually the term &amp;quot;implicit cognition&amp;quot;, with a specific def), Hahn  &amp;amp; Gawronski (2015) write contrasting Greenwald's conception with De Houwer et al.'s:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Drawing on the notion of implicit memory, Greenwald and&#xA;Banaji (1995) defined implicit cognition as “introspectively&#xA;unidentified (or inaccurately identified) trace of past experience&#xA;that mediates responses” (p. 5). Although this definition was&#xA;meant to imply unawareness of the sources of mental contents,&#xA;it has often been interpreted to imply unawareness of the&#xA;mental contents themselves (e.g., unawareness of the source of&#xA;an attitude vs. unawareness of the attitude itself). However, the&#xA;latter interpretation conflicts with a considerable body of&#xA;evidence, suggesting that the psychological constructs captured&#xA;by nonreactive, computerized measures are consciously accessible&#xA;and thus not unconscious (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4038711/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hahn et al., 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More recently, De Houwer et al. (2009) proposed an alternative&#xA;conceptualization to overcome the common confusion&#xA;regarding the meaning of the term implicit. [...]&#xA;Measurement procedures [...] may be&#xA;described as direct if their measurement outcomes are based on&#xA;participants’ self-assessment of the to-be-measured attribute&#xA;(e.g., when participants’ racial attitudes are inferred from their&#xA;self-reported liking of Black people). Conversely, measurement procedures may be described as indirect if their outcomes are&#xA;not based on a self-assessment (e.g., when participants’ racial&#xA;attitudes are inferred from their reaction times to positive and&#xA;negative words after being primed with Black faces) or when&#xA;it is based on a self-assessment of attributes other than the&#xA;to-be-measured attribute (e.g., when participants’ racial attitudes&#xA;are inferred from their self-reported liking of a neutral&#xA;object after being primed with Black faces).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Applying the latter categorization to D &amp;amp; G (1983) study, they clearly used an indirect measure in De Houwer's categorization. Thus from this methodological perspective (after glancing over &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19379018/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;De Houwer et al.&lt;/a&gt;) D &amp;amp; G (1983) is an &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_priming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;affect priming&lt;/a&gt; study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2021-01-05T02:24:52.183" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T02:24:52.183" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26467" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23979" CreationDate="2021-01-05T03:11:07.440" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you propose&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it possible that someone has level-3 (severe) autism yet on superficial look or talk the disability does not appear?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;is nonsense by the usual (DSM) &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;definition&lt;/a&gt; of autism, which is based on several criteria which are behaviorally defined, i.e. from an observer's standpoint, to start with&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a child must have persistent deficits in each of three areas of social &lt;strong&gt;communication&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;interaction&lt;/strong&gt; (see A.1. through A.3. below) plus at least two of four types of restricted, repetitive &lt;strong&gt;behaviors&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nowhere in there is that presupposed to be just &amp;quot;basically the impairment in social cognition&amp;quot; that may not even be manifested.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Somewhat of an aside here; DSM-5 has tried to be less &amp;quot;atheoretical&amp;quot; than its III/IV predecessors, but in the end the differences in that regard &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0957154X17741783&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;are minor&lt;/a&gt;.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now if you want a bit of a deep[er] dive here, the DSM-5 acknowledges that some compensatory behaviors exist and should even be considered in assessing the (actual) severity of the diagnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And a bit of digging through recent research finds a controversy in &lt;a href=&quot;https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/jcpp.12989&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(re)defining (of sorts)&lt;/a&gt; &amp;quot;true&amp;quot; autism to mean Theory-of-Mind-deficits instead of [DSM] behavioral-autism... or at least (thus) identifying &amp;quot;camouflaged&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;highly compensated&amp;quot; autism (understood as ToM-deficits). This is quite a complicated discussion because ToM is multidimensional (or at least its measures are--and some correlate &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.567401/full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;better than others&lt;/a&gt; with DSM-autism), and so (varied) are &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13229-019-0308-y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;compensatory mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; for its deficits. The latter are surprisingly used by &amp;quot;normal&amp;quot; people as well, with perhaps only &amp;quot;shallow&amp;quot; compensation strategies specific to autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the realm of personalities, you have prominent researchers on both sides of this dispute, e.g. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesca_Happ%C3%A9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Happé&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jcpp.13344&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;responding to&lt;/a&gt;) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ric_Fombonne&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fombonne&lt;/a&gt;'s (&lt;a href=&quot;https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/jcpp.13296&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;editorial&lt;/a&gt;). (h-index &amp;gt; 100 for both.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm guessing you've read &amp;amp; bought the ToM-deficits view of autism when you say &amp;quot;autism is not itself a visible condition at all&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;is basically the impairment in social cognition&amp;quot;. Frankly if you look at Happé's last piece I linked, she (and her group) are cautious not to take that extreme position, although I'm sure it came off like that in some popsci article (the BBC at least has &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-51475739&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;an article&lt;/a&gt; on people discovering their &amp;quot;hidden autism&amp;quot; thanks [or at least in relation] to Happé's research.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a final (recommended) reading here, which may help put this in context, some &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/conversations-critical-psychiatry-allen-frances-md&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;piece&lt;/a&gt; from Allen Frances who was quite involved with&#xA;the previous editions of the DSM on the conflicting views on mental illness diagnosis standards in general (e.g. is clinical impairment needed) is also relevant here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2021-01-05T07:18:30.720" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T07:18:30.720" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26469" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26472" CreationDate="2021-01-05T07:56:54.787" Score="2" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am someone very far away from psychology, actually an engineering student, but I came up with this curiosity a few days ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be specific, let's assume someone is learning physics. He previously took statistical mechanics course, and studied hard. About six months passed, and he still believes that his deep understanding of statistical mechanics is maintained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But when he tries to remember the specific derivations of formulae, he encounters many obstacles. He doesn't remember the key ideas of individual derivations, but he definitely remembers how they roughly looked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then at a glance it looks like someone who studied statistical mechanics really hard and didn't revise for a long time doesn't have an advantage over someone who is in the middle of process of learning statistical mechanics yet isn't studying hard. They both share the fact that they don't know the details. The only difference, I would say, is that the former has enough confidence based on his experience of understanding the subject and performing well in the exams but the latter doesn't.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But it becomes a completely different story when the former starts to revise statistical mechanics. He can somehow pull out the &amp;quot;ancient&amp;quot; memories of the ways through which he made understanding possible, and without going through the entire textbooks, but by nearly skimming through them, can combine all the pieces into, and recover, one single piece of solid understanding. And it doesn't take long - the length of time needed varies, depending on the amount he has to revise, from a day to a few weeks. However it shouldn't definitely be more than a month.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Under what mechanism of psychology and neuroscience does this happen and what do psychologists call this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27596" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T11:54:54.033" Title="What do psychologists call the ability to quickly revise and remember things that a person had previously learnt" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;&lt;procedural-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26471" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26463" CreationDate="2021-01-05T11:24:38.350" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As @BryanKrause said; mental illness and neurodevelopmental conditions are not distinctively separable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Example: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3764497/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt;,&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/obsessions-and-compulsions-in-asperger-syndrome-and-highfunctioning-autism/23B6C7CD77FD6899E6AC1B800F315E84&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Obsessions and compulsions in Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T11:24:38.350" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26472" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26469" CreationDate="2021-01-05T11:54:54.033" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Looks like when your friend was freshly learning the equations, he was using more of his &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;episodic memory&lt;/a&gt; but as he went &amp;quot;used-to&amp;quot; with the equations, he tapped into more of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;semantic memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lets use familiar example. When we recite something, we usually apply the episodic memory. It works much like how we searched a song &amp;quot;along&amp;quot; a tape of a cassette recorder. We had to forward/ rewind repeatedly to find the song.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We use semantic memory when we use language (or anything we learn at a depth and develop some experiene in it). Such as while reading, we instantly recognise the letter L (a shape) is linked with sound ELL or the word &amp;quot;CAT&amp;quot; indicates a mental image of a furry carnivorous animal. We do not scroll through the entire alphabet. If we compare episodic memory as a cassette system, then semantic memory is more like a modern digital file folder system, which is just &amp;quot;browse, click and play&amp;quot; type.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-05T11:54:54.033" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26473" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26475" CreationDate="2021-01-05T21:07:41.537" Score="2" ViewCount="80" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am designing a correlational study experiment to test children on their performance on a task at &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_1$&lt;/span&gt; and then at &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_2$&lt;/span&gt; a year later, specifically using the balance-scale paradigm (Siegler, 1981). I'm not sure which statistical tests will be appropriate to run.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to find out if the early use of a sophisticated decision rule at &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_1$&lt;/span&gt; is predictive of children using even more sophisticated rules in &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_2$&lt;/span&gt;. Namely, is a child who can deploy a complex decision rule quicker than most of her peers at &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_1$&lt;/span&gt; more likely to use even more complex decision rules at &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_2$&lt;/span&gt;? I will compare these results with the &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_1$&lt;/span&gt; vs &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_2$&lt;/span&gt; results of children who failed to deploy that more complicated decision rule at &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_1$&lt;/span&gt;. These two decision rules will be operationalised as non-continuous binary variables.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kind of statistical testing would be most appropriate here?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Siegler, R. S. (1981). Developmental sequences within and between concepts. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 46(2), 84&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27601" LastEditorUserId="27601" LastEditDate="2021-01-06T18:53:28.987" LastActivityDate="2021-01-06T19:13:07.927" Title="What's the most appropriate statistical analysis to run for a correlational study?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26474" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25892" CreationDate="2021-01-06T13:46:36.520" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Neurons become refractory which means that they can't fire again until time has passed. Look up Action Potential and the limits of firing rating.&#xA;There is also a competition for different circuits to become conscious so when one becomes tried the other takes over. This is why it is hard to continue to think about one thing, without soon considering something else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27607" LastActivityDate="2021-01-06T13:46:36.520" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26475" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26473" CreationDate="2021-01-06T19:13:07.927" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although you have two times of testing, you really just have two binary variables and you'd like to know if they are associated, there are no repeated measures here. You'd like to know if the value of one binary variable depends on the value of the other binary variable. I'll call them A,B and X,Y.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there is no relationship between A,B and X,Y, then you expect the ratio of X:Y to be the same for A as it is for B (this is your null hypothesis). You can examine your data by building a 2x2 contingency table with cells AX, AY, BX, and BY.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can test the null hypothesis described with a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi-squared_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;chi-square test for independence&lt;/a&gt;, or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher%27s_exact_test&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fisher's exact test&lt;/a&gt; if the sample size is fairly small.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-01-06T19:13:07.927" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26477" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-07T15:20:06.770" Score="0" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a known psychological effect or theorie that describes and explains this phenomenon:&#xA;Someone facing a (buying)decision asks another person about the cons of buying, but instead of evaluating the list of cons deeply, in an affirmative manner the list psychologically just serves to corroborate the decision to buy (&lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;Glad you mentioned that, but …&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;). As the person being asked, you got a strong feeling that the decision was already made before asking the cons and you serve as a kind of dummy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27014" LastEditorUserId="27014" LastEditDate="2021-01-07T15:29:23.940" LastActivityDate="2021-01-07T15:29:23.940" Title="Term/theory of psychological effect: asking for counter-arguments without (ever thinking of) considering them in decision" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2021-01-07T19:31:11.950" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26478" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-08T05:00:19.917" Score="2" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any major difference between the two classification systems ?&#xA;and why is there no awareness as of yet about research based domain for classifying mental disorders when it for the larger part focuses more on - neurobiological tests which indeed could tell us more about that disorder on various parameters .&#xA;thankyou&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27615" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T11:27:30.750" Title="research based criteria domain and DSM5" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;dsm&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26479" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26307" CreationDate="2021-01-08T08:13:01.227" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;One can't be certain what that kind of allusion refers to, but there has been a level of controversy stemming from the changes to the trauma criterion in DSM-IV (it was changed &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5371751/#:%7E:text=The%20DSM%2D5%20definition%20of,considered%20trauma%20in%20this%20definition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;again&lt;/a&gt; in DSM-5). The change in DSM-IV--which does correspond with the time frame you mention--was seriously lambasted in some corners, &lt;a href=&quot;https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-23/edition-5/can-we-salvage-concept-psychological-trauma&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;e.g.&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Criterion A1, certifies three groups of people as potentially eligible for the diagnosis of PTSD: direct recipients of serious threat or harm, such as rape victims or combat veterans; those experiencing vicarious exposure to the trauma experienced by others, such as bystanders at a drive-by shooting; and those experiencing ‘informational exposure’. This third group is new in DSM-IV. It consists of people who are ‘confronted with’ information about threats to others, such as horrified television viewers of the 9/11 terrorist attacks (Marshall et al., 2007). Although the authors of the original PTSD diagnosis surely would not have envisioned these viewers as trauma victims (McNally &amp;amp; Breslau, 2008), our current DSM concept of trauma certifies them as trauma survivors just as much as it does those who escaped the World Trade Center before its collapse. In fact, one survey indicated that about 4 per cent of American adults living far from the scenes of the terrorist attacks developed apparent PTSD (Schlenger et al., 2002), presumably while watching coverage of the attacks from the comfort of their living rooms. These people developed what Young (2007) wryly calls ‘posttraumatic stress disorder of the virtual kind’ (p.21).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of this bracket creep in the definition of trauma (McNally, 2003a), most people today qualify as trauma survivors. For example, in one epidemiological survey, 89.6 per cent of adults in southeastern Michigan were trauma survivors by DSM-IV criteria (Breslau &amp;amp; Kessler, 2001). [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, there are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3687542/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;studies&lt;/a&gt; which point to a limited practical impact of that textual change between DSM-III and IV, in terms of actual PTSD diagnoses:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We used data from the 2009 PTSD diagnostic subsample (N=3,013) of the Nurses Health Study II. We asked respondents about exposure to stressful events qualifying under 1) DSM-III, 2) DSM-IV, or 3) not qualifying under DSM Criterion A1. Respondents selected the event they considered worst and reported subsequent PTSD symptoms. Among participants who met all other DSM-IV PTSD criteria, we compared distress, symptom severity, duration, impairment, receipt of professional help, and nine physical, behavioral, and psychiatric sequelae (e.g. physical functioning, unemployment, depression) by precipitating event group. Various assessment tools were used to determine fulfillment of PTSD Criteria B through F and to assess these 14 outcomes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants with PTSD from DSM-III events reported on average 1 more symptom (DSM-III mean=11.8 symptoms, DSM-IV=10.7, non-DSM=10.9) and more often reported symptoms lasted one year or longer compared to participants with PTSD from other groups. However, sequelae of PTSD did not vary systematically with precipitating event type.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, the expanded definition could have possibly been abused, but in practice that didn't happen much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T08:13:01.227" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26480" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26478" CreationDate="2021-01-08T11:27:30.750" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/15816/dsm-and-references-to-icd&quot;&gt;The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD)&lt;/a&gt; are clinical diagnostic and classification criteria for clinical work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/research/research-funded-by-nimh/rdoc/index.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative&lt;/a&gt; is a research framework for investigating mental disorders. It integrates many levels of information (from genomics and circuits to behaviour and self-reports) in order to explore basic dimensions of functioning that span the full range of human behaviour from normal to abnormal. For more information, visit the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/research/research-funded-by-nimh/rdoc/about-rdoc.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;About RDoC&lt;/a&gt; page.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast to existing diagnostic guidelines, which are used for clinical purposes, RDoC is a research framework meant for supporting biobehavioral approaches for studying mental disorders. &lt;strong&gt;It is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; for diagnosing mental disorders or for clinical practice&lt;/strong&gt;. Studies that use the RDoC framework could lead to more knowledge of the mechanisms and processes in mental health and mental disorders. This information could help inform future diagnostic criteria (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/research/research-funded-by-nimh/rdoc/resources/rdoc-frequently-asked-questions-faq.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The concept behind the RDoC initiative can be seen as an extension to the debate over the level of &lt;strong&gt;real&lt;/strong&gt; scientific research in psychology and psychiatry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have covered this extensively in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.meta.stackexchange.com/a/2248/7604&quot;&gt;my answer to a meta question on the subject&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On April 29, 2013, a few weeks before the publication of the latest version of the DSM (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5&lt;/a&gt;), which is published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), NIMH director Thomas Insel published a blog post critical of the methodology of the DSM and highlighting the improvement offered by the RDoC project (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/about/directors/thomas-insel/blog/2013/transforming-diagnosis.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Insel, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is good to debate things like this and I have no objection to debating the subject which in effect is what the NIMH is doing with this initiative (&lt;a href=&quot;http://publichealthunited.org/pressreleases/DSM5andRDoCSharedInterests.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Insel &amp;amp; Lieberman 2013&lt;/a&gt;] &lt;strong&gt;emphasis below mine&lt;/strong&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thomas R. Insel, M.D., director, NIMH&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Jeffrey A. Lieberman, M.D., president-elect, APA&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;NIMH and APA have a shared interest in ensuring that patients and health providers have the best available tools and information today to identify and treat mental health issues, while we continue to invest in improving and advancing mental disorder diagnostics for the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Today, the American Psychiatric Association’s (APA) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), along with the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) represents the best information currently available for clinical diagnosis of mental disorders. Patients, families, and insurers can be confident that effective treatments are available and that the DSM is the key resource for delivering the best available care. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) has not changed its position on DSM-5. As NIMH’s Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) project website states, &lt;strong&gt;“The diagnostic categories represented in the DSM-IV and the International Classification of Diseases-10 (ICD-10, containing virtually identical disorder codes) remain the contemporary consensus standard for how mental disorders are diagnosed and treated.”&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The same applies now with DSM-5 and the International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision (ICD-11).  The DSM and RDoC could be used in combination, as the APA uses all research available to formulate their diagnostic criteria anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM–5) is the product of more than 10 years of effort by hundreds of international experts in all aspects of mental health. Their dedication and hard work have yielded an authoritative volume that defines and classifies mental disorders in order to improve diagnoses, treatment, and research (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). &lt;em&gt;American Psychiatric Pub&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Insel, T. R. (2013). Post by Former NIMH Director Thomas Insel: Transforming Diagnosis &lt;em&gt;National Institute of Mental Health&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/about/directors/thomas-insel/blog/2013/transforming-diagnosis.shtml&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nimh.nih.gov/about/directors/thomas-insel/blog/2013/transforming-diagnosis.shtml&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Insel, T. R. &amp;amp; Lieberman, J. A. (2013). DSM-5 and RDoC: Shared Interests (Press release). &lt;em&gt;American Psychiatric Association&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;http://publichealthunited.org/pressreleases/DSM5andRDoCSharedInterests.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://publichealthunited.org/pressreleases/DSM5andRDoCSharedInterests.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T11:27:30.750" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26482" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21313" CreationDate="2021-01-08T19:09:29.407" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;More of an opinion based answer- the symptoms become more distinguishable from kids and adolescent behaviour when you age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Restless behaviour, stimming behaviour, echolalia etc. can be confusing with typical childish behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Failing to organise things, fine motor skill problems, making clutters, forgetfulness etc. can be easily confused with adolescent and early adult behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But when the patient is adult, say 20 or 30 years old, yet having unusually childish behaviour, lack of social understanding, various skill deficits (and given that the patient fail to 'mask' hard enough); the neurodevelopmental anomalous pattern gets some more visibility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T19:09:29.407" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26483" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25787" CreationDate="2021-01-08T19:28:38.320" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Autism is an extremely broad and multidimensional set of difficulties. 2 severely autistic person does not necessarily have the exactly same set of difficulties. There are various psychometric tests and questionnaries (Related link: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_do_we_measure_autism_severity&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;How do we measure autism severity&lt;/a&gt;) for measuring severety of autism, but you may call it a total or overall measurement of difficulty. The exact set of difficulties vary from one autistic individual to another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://ibcces.org/blog/2018/03/23/12748/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;If you’ve met one person with autism, you’ve met one person with autism.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If 2 person shows symptoms of autism severely that does not mean the 2 person will show the each symptom with same severety. Their areas of strengths, deficits, sensitivities etc. can be entirely different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-are-the-three-levels-of-autism-260233&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The functioning labels  indicate how much support an autistic person needs&lt;/a&gt;, with level 1 meaning relatively little support is required and level 3 indicating the need for a great deal of support.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, I am curious what genuine functional disabilities severely&#xA;autistic people have, as opposed to social misbehaviors&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am afraid why social dysfunctions are &amp;quot;not genuine&amp;quot; one. The social misbehaviours come from some cognitive problems, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249970775_Autism_as_Context_Blindness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;context blindness&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosopagnosia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;prosopagnosia&lt;/a&gt;, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Ignoring traffic, walking into moving traffic without looking Failure&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;to discriminate between potentially dangerous strangers and friends&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Failure to recognize dangerous objects like knives Increased&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;propensity to enter bodies of water and drown&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sounds like severe &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_disability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;intellectual disability&lt;/a&gt;, an often overlapping condition with autism. Severe autism certainly means severe impairment in some aspects of cognition, but not necessarily all aspects of cognition and intellect, and may have advance or even gigantic ( &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savant_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autistic savants&lt;/a&gt; ) intellect in specific areas of cognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The main practical failure I saw in him was an inability to convey&#xA;complex plans or ideas to other people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar other failures the autistics may experience, are &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-is-face-blindness-prosopagnosia-in-autism-259889&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;prosopagnosia&lt;/a&gt;, dyscalculia, dyslexia, dyspraxia, issues with sensory processing (including meltdowns and shutdowns), problems with processing multiple sensory inputs, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_and_working_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;working memory problems&lt;/a&gt;, and many other. Autistics also may face anxiety and confusion with &lt;a href=&quot;https://molecularautism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2040-2392-4-31&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;unpredictability&lt;/a&gt; or sudden changes in a plan or routine, These problems are very practical, serious and debilitating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="13859" LastEditDate="2021-01-13T17:34:24.823" LastActivityDate="2021-01-13T17:34:24.823" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26484" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24464" CreationDate="2021-01-08T19:48:19.220" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are several other aspects that I think are not just &amp;quot;perceptions&amp;quot; but something more complicated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Having an weak or a different &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;theory of mind&lt;/a&gt;; that hinders processing in general how other people may perceive or interpret something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Having difficulty with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy#Cognitive_empathy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive empathy&lt;/a&gt;; that hinders understanding others' motives and intentions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Having difficulty with consequences of something especially in social situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Problems with planning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Problems with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_and_working_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;working memory&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T19:48:19.220" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26485" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26526" CreationDate="2021-01-08T20:33:14.247" Score="3" ViewCount="219" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can an autistic person have very advanced language skills (Verbal communication, not about tonal nor body language skill, nor the written verbal language, I keep dyslexia out of this discussion for sake of specificity) and a very Early age of first talk, while having other autism symptoms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notably there are a few blogs and many social media posts that writes about &amp;quot;hyperverbal autistics&amp;quot; but I did not find scientific literature about hyperverbal autistic people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-04-20T10:09:42.130" LastActivityDate="2021-04-20T12:12:42.180" Title="Can an autistic person have very advance language skills?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;autism&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="3" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26486" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4515" CreationDate="2021-01-08T21:44:51.323" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;What seems most intuitively to me; people did not knew about autism. With time, the awareness and diagnosis increased. Many of us know weird people who often stay alone, have communication problems, have unsuccessful life, is often pitied, bullied, called with derogatory terms. Now we know all these conditions have names.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One more factor almost nobody mentions; it has been got harder to &amp;quot;blend in&amp;quot; to a mainstream society. We are living in an age which is fast changing, unpredictable, competitive, always-connected. Social &amp;quot;cunningness&amp;quot; also got to be an important survival skill. The scenario was not such only a 20 years ago... if an adult behaved like a 12 year kid, it wont significantly impacted life, but now it does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“I have often thought that people on the mild end of the Asperger&#xA;spectrum may have fit in better years ago than they do today. An&#xA;eccentric stone mason who designed a cathedral would be admired for&#xA;his work. A brilliant scientist who preferred the company of mice to&#xA;humans might have been considered eccentric, but not necessarily&#xA;labeled socially dysfunctional. In many ways, today’s “always&#xA;connected” society has put more social demands on people, and a lack&#xA;of social ability may be seen as more of a handicap than in the past.”&#xA;— Temple Grandin (&lt;a href=&quot;https://books.google.co.in/books?id=adPodg5MNU0C&amp;amp;lpg=PA206&amp;amp;ots=F9CNXL-ouR&amp;amp;dq=%E2%80%9CI%20have%20often%20thought%20that%20people%20on%20the%20mild%20end%20of%20the%20Asperger%20spectrum%20may%20have%20fit%20in%20better%20years%20ago%20than%20they%20do%20today.%20An%20eccentric%20stone%20mason%20who%20designed%20a%20cathedral%20would%20be%20admired%20for%20his%20work.%20A%20brilliant%20scientist%20who%20preferred%20the%20company%20of%20mice%20to%20humans%20might%20have%20been%20considered%20eccentric%2C%20but%20not%20necessarily%20labeled%20socially%20dysfunctional.%20In%20many%20ways%2C%20today%E2%80%99s%20%E2%80%9Calways%20connected%E2%80%9D%20society%20has%20put%20more%20social%20demands%20on%20people%2C%20and%20a%20lack%20of%20social%20ability%20may%20be%20seen%20as%20more%20of%20a%20handicap%20than%20in%20the%20past.%E2%80%9D%20%E2%80%94%20Temple%20Grandin&amp;amp;pg=PA206#v=onepage&amp;amp;q=%E2%80%9CI%20have%20often%20thought%20that%20people%20on%20the%20mild%20end%20of%20the%20Asperger%20spectrum%20may%20have%20fit%20in%20better%20years%20ago%20than%20they%20do%20today.%20An%20eccentric%20stone%20mason%20who%20designed%20a%20cathedral%20would%20be%20admired%20for%20his%20work.%20A%20brilliant%20scientist%20who%20preferred%20the%20company%20of%20mice%20to%20humans%20might%20have%20been%20considered%20eccentric,%20but%20not%20necessarily%20labeled%20socially%20dysfunctional.%20In%20many%20ways,%20today%E2%80%99s%20%E2%80%9Calways%20connected%E2%80%9D%20society%20has%20put%20more%20social%20demands%20on%20people,%20and%20a%20lack%20of%20social%20ability%20may%20be%20seen%20as%20more%20of%20a%20handicap%20than%20in%20the%20past.%E2%80%9D%20%E2%80%94%20Temple%20Grandin&amp;amp;f=false&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The way I see it&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clearly, it is way more harder to just blend in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-08T21:44:51.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26489" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-09T16:36:25.123" Score="0" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am proposing an experiment in developmental psychology which asks whether the early use of decision rule X at &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_1$&lt;/span&gt; (In children mean aged 9) is correlated with the use of more sophisticated rule Y at &lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$t_2$&lt;/span&gt; (Children mean aged 10 years 10 months).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know two things.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, what type of design is this? At first I thought it was a correlational design but because it is staggered by discrete time intervals now I am not so sure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Secondly, and I had some help with this thanks to Bryan Krause, how should I report my statistics? I understand that I may be using a Chi^2 test for independence, so therefore do I simply say: 'We will use a Chi² test of Independence to determine whether Rule X use at _t¹ is correlated with Rule Y use a t²'. Will I need to provide any additional information or run any additional tests?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of a classification criterion , i.e. 20/25 responses being consistent with Rule-usage, the results collected will be non-continuous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you for reading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27601" LastActivityDate="2021-01-09T16:36:25.123" Title="What is the research design for the study I am proposing?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26490" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26485" CreationDate="2021-01-09T17:03:29.337" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, this may happen with Asperger subtype of autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;AS had already been described in 1981 by Lorna Wing, who first&#xA;proposed the term to refer to a special subgroup of children who,&#xA;according to Asperger’s original description, were characterized by:&#xA;social isolation and lack of reciprocity in social interactions;&#xA;normal or precocious language acquisition, with above-average&#xA;linguistic skills but subtle abnormalities of verbal and non-verbal&#xA;communication (e.g., atypical syntax, pedantic vocabulary and absent&#xA;or stereotyped prosody); a narrow focus of interests, often restricted&#xA;to unpragmatic and highly original themes; overachievement in specific&#xA;cognitive domains; and motor clumsiness (Wing, 1981).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--- A Concise History of Asperger Syndrome: The Short Reign of a Troublesome Diagnosis; by J. B. Barahona-Corrêa and Carlos N. Filipe (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4725185/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some authors claimed that Asperger subtype is characterised by no obvious language delay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One approach to resolve this question has been to adopt the criterion&#xA;of absence of clinically significant language or cognitive delay —&#xA;essentially, the “absence of language delay.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;--- Can Asperger syndrome be distinguished from autism? An anatomic likelihood meta-analysis of MRI studies; by Kevin K. Yu, Charlton Cheung,  Gráinne M. McAlonan (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3201995/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did not found research articles about very early talkers, but some internet article claims very early talkers sometimes experience social deficits but without explicite mention of ASD.&#xA;such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.huffpost.com/entry/9-truths-about-early-talk_b_8137426/amp&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.huffpost.com/entry/9-truths-about-early-talk_b_8137426/amp&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Update:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/aur.183&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Phonology and vocal behavior in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3110574/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC full text&lt;/a&gt;) it has been said that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of phonological development, articulation is often reported&#xA;to be normal or even precocious in children with ASD who speak&#xA;(Kjelgaard &amp;amp; Tager-Flusberg, 2001; Pierce &amp;amp; Bartolucci, 1977),&#xA;although Rapin, Dunn, Allen, Stevens and Fein (2009) and Cleland,&#xA;Gibbon, Peppé, O'Hare and Rutherford (2010) showed a range of patterns&#xA;of speech and language behavior to be present in school-aged children&#xA;with ASD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Although they discusses other anomalies in language development)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;in &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16685188/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Early language and communication development of infants later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder&lt;/a&gt; it is said that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, this prospective study confirms that delays in communication&#xA;and language development are apparent early in life in children with&#xA;ASD, and emphasizes that developmental surveillance should include&#xA;monitoring for delays in gesture, which may be among the earliest&#xA;signs of ASD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastEditorUserId="13859" LastEditDate="2021-01-16T10:10:24.403" LastActivityDate="2021-01-16T10:10:24.403" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26491" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-09T17:16:06.150" Score="4" ViewCount="86" Body="&lt;p&gt;Imagine a person has some false beliefs, which are also reflected then in his actions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I  don't want to interact with people because I don't trust them and 90% of time they will betray me&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If I form close relationship with people then I will not be able to move to different country because I will miss them&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;....&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We can bring similar beliefs. I am interested &lt;strong&gt;which direction in psychology&lt;/strong&gt; studies this situation when person has such beliefs? And tries to correct them&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27626" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2021-01-13T06:19:59.527" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T05:04:19.943" Title="Which area of psychology studies false beliefs?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;rationality&gt;&lt;cbt&gt;&lt;human-error&gt;&lt;belief&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26492" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26494" CreationDate="2021-01-10T00:38:16.583" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;For an image with an object (e.g., a cat) and its slightly tranlsated image (or its flipped image), an average person can instantly recognize that the objects in the both images are the same (i.e., a cat).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, for an image with an object and its 90 or 180 degree rotated one, one cannot instantly recognize the objects in the images are the same especially when the object is quite a complacted or unfamiliar one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this context, is there a technical terminology (in neuroscience) that differentiate between image rotation and image translation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11585" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T04:51:03.560" Title="Is there a word that differentiate between image rotation and image translation?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26493" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26742" CreationDate="2021-01-10T07:42:03.897" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been googling and couldn't find the answer to these questions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For a given synapse, can a post-synaptic neuron have multiple types of receptors for different neurotransmitters or is typically just one type of receptor for a given synapse?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;For a given post-synaptic neuron, comparing across its dendrite synapses, can it have multiple types of receptors across different synapses or is it typically just one type of receptor for a given neuron?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Do the quantity and types of receptors on a neuron change over time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you - much appreciated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27630" LastActivityDate="2021-03-04T12:34:22.047" Title="Types of receptors on a single synapse or neuron" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26494" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26492" CreationDate="2021-01-10T14:39:30.910" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe you are talking about recognition part that say if the image is transformed to be flipped one is able to righaway recognize the object, however if the transformation is say 90 degrees then its hard. I believe the word is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;amp;rct=j&amp;amp;q=&amp;amp;esrc=s&amp;amp;source=web&amp;amp;cd=&amp;amp;ved=2ahUKEwi-yYbby5HuAhVYVH0KHeSMA0EQFjAEegQIARAC&amp;amp;url=http%3A%2F%2Fyann.lecun.com%2Fexdb%2Fpublis%2Fpdf%2Fsimard-98.pdf&amp;amp;usg=AOvVaw35Q_Udem6geg0dIcwrtBzB&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;transformation-invariance&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27054" LastActivityDate="2021-01-10T14:39:30.910" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26495" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-10T15:07:46.733" Score="2" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read that children brain has more neural plasticity compared to adults, with the possible explanation as appeared in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/262/why-does-neuroplasticity-decrease-in-adults&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt; question, pertaining to synaptic changes, where if you learn something, the synapse change occurs in structure to reflect the new learned stuff. I am curious to know if there is a method/research that perhaps quantifies this, in other words an adult can potentially acquire/learn new things daily, does that mean that the rate of change quantifying neural plasticity is few hours or perhaps one day in adults?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27054" LastEditorUserId="27054" LastEditDate="2021-01-12T12:02:34.027" LastActivityDate="2021-01-12T12:02:34.027" Title="Rate of Change in Neural Plasticity" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26497" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-11T15:25:55.027" Score="2" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was involved in a group project were we were connecting people with a PenPal, by receiving their stories. Unfortunately, people were being driven away because of PenPal idea. We changed the project and we were met with an increase number of submission, now people only have to share their own story, the PenPal was removed.&#xA;Is there any studies that can help me interpret this reaction, since the project ways also aimed to people between 16-25 years old. Are they more likely to be more interested in self-promoting, than engaging in conversation with others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27638" LastActivityDate="2021-01-11T15:25:55.027" Title="The BOOM of social media, related with new features of self-promotion, rather than chats to engage with others?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26498" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-12T01:48:46.457" Score="2" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;How many emails per day does a mental practitioner receive per day?&#xA;I do not find an estimate. There are anecdotal accounts, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-good-life/201108/dealing-e-mail-the-24-hour-rule&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-mysteries-love/201902/is-why-i-haven-t-replied-your-email&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;; here answers go from 50 to 200 emails per day.&#xA;There is a nice &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/workforce/publications/15-health-service-providers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA report from 2015,&lt;/a&gt; but it does not discuss this aspect.&#xA;I am looking at the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.lifewire.com/how-many-emails-are-sent-every-day-1171210&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;general population of workers&lt;/a&gt; as well, although this approach implies an increase in the variance, and thus in the uncertainty on whether the answer I could get is similar to the answer I would get from practitioners; here it seems that office workers receive 40 email per day.&#xA;My curiosity started after I read some articles (e.g. this &lt;a href=&quot;https://kspope.com/ethics/email.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one&lt;/a&gt;) on ethical concerns about emails, so I started to wonder how much a mental practitioner might spend per day reading emails.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not a psychologist or neuroscientist, but I reading on this topic for some research on time consumption in the occupation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any insight or reading reference would be very welcomed!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27642" LastActivityDate="2021-01-12T01:48:46.457" Title="Email per day - mental practitioner" Tags="&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26500" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-12T09:06:29.980" Score="1" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;recently several major Telegram channels I am member of have been heavily ostracizing people posting gifs in such channels, and claiming that it's a sign of retardation. I would not want to jump to such conclusions too fast, so I got curious, maybe there have been any research on this issue?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27643" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2021-01-13T06:22:12.177" LastActivityDate="2021-01-13T12:29:55.300" Title="What is the correlation between posting GIFs in group chats and IQ" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26502" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-12T16:53:19.623" Score="0" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;Here is the quote:&#xA;&amp;quot;Because BH4 is not present in saturating concentrations under basal conditions, it is crucial in regulating TH activity.&amp;quot;&#xA;This is from &lt;em&gt;Fundamental Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt;, page 121.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27428" LastEditorUserId="27428" LastEditDate="2021-01-12T17:09:10.377" LastActivityDate="2021-02-11T19:03:45.410" Title="What does the following sentence mean? I don't understand what they are referring to when they say &quot;saturating concentrations&quot; and &quot;basal conditions&quot;?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26503" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26491" CreationDate="2021-01-12T18:06:10.123" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;These are typically called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_distortion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive distortions&lt;/a&gt; and are a mainstay of CBT, but are equally likely to be addressed by any &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive psychotherapist&lt;/a&gt;.  This is usually done by building skills to identify and challenge such thoughts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the much older (and largely outdated) school of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychoanalysis&lt;/a&gt;, these are typically referred to as a defense mechanism called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rationalizations&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In contrast, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviour_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;behavioral therapies&lt;/a&gt; are less likely to directly address such thoughts.  With this paradigm, distortions typically subside once the underlying behavior pattern is addressed (eg, by improving social skills, and actually making friends).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2021-01-12T18:06:10.123" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26504" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26502" CreationDate="2021-01-12T18:30:00.633" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I will rewrite the sentence another way that preserves what a believe is the intended meaning:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is little enough BH4 under normal conditions such that levels of BH4 are important for TH activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahydrobiopterin&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BH4&lt;/a&gt; is an enzyme cofactor; in this context they're talking about it used with tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) to make a precursor (L-DOPA) to dopamine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there was so much BH4 available at basal (normal) conditions that adding more doesn't speed up TH activity, we can say it's saturated. In that context, BH4 changes don't really regulate TH activity (unless they are huge changes that bring it well below the 'saturated' level).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The sentence you quoted is saying this isn't the case. BH4 isn't present at saturated levels, so you can influence TH activity (and therefore synthesis of L-DOPA) by influencing BH4 concentration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2021-01-12T18:35:26.540" LastActivityDate="2021-01-12T18:35:26.540" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26505" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-12T19:59:13.567" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I often solve complicated problems by thinking about the problem for maybe 15 minutes, then taking a break for one or two hours, and then think for another 15 minutes. This often leads to much better solutions than working on the problem for 2 or 3 hours straight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is particularly evident for problems that have both an analytical and a creative part. It somehow seems that the solution matures or ripes unconsciously during the break.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Two questions to this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;First of all, is this hypothesis that the solution somehow &amp;quot;ripes&amp;quot; unconsciously true/plausible? Or is it rather caused by the refreshed brain after the break?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Second, does this phenomenon have a name under which more literature could be found?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27648" LastActivityDate="2021-01-12T19:59:13.567" Title="Do solutions for complicated problems ripe during long breaks?" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;&lt;problem-solving&gt;&lt;creativity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2021-01-13T10:20:16.803" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26506" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-13T10:28:36.643" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is strong correlation between acceptance of LGBT in countries and the economic prosperity of the respective countries. As far as I have checked the literature then the mainstream research trend is to estimate the economic output of LGBT acceptance or cost of homophobia, there is accepted view that homophobic/acceptance norms (in law) create additional cost/growth in economy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But are there any research that tends to uncover the reciprocal direction of this: how lack of social-economic opportunities for self-realisation and personal growth fuel homophobia? One can imagine the following vignette: some politicians strive for anti-homophobic laws but they ignore the funding necessities of educational or re-skiing systems. Clearly - such activities can create or increase the homophobia for those for whom the assistance for personal growth is the top priority in life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have checked &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21599165.2020.1733983&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21599165.2020.1733983&lt;/a&gt; and this is another article that misses this reciprocal link in the opposite direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is hard to say - whether such reciprocal links is my imagination and not the observed fact in field studies. Or maybe the research trends are biased a bit. I can say that Western European countries have far more opportunities for their people for getting education or mentoring or good jobs than in Eastern European countries. And the homophobia is correlated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question arises with the current developments in one country - one social liberal party have inner deliberation about preserving the governing coalition in the face of homophobic law proposed by right-wing party of the same coalition. From the internal discussions I can say that social liberal party is almost ready to accept the proposed culture war and leave the coalition. I disagree with this position - my viewpoint is that lack of social-economic opportunities is the decisive factor in homophobia and it could be more beneficial for the LGTB community if the party stays in the coalition and continues the creation of those social-economic opportunities (as much as the coalition dynamics allow it) and hence continues to create the beneficial social-economic environment for the acceptance of LGBT to emerge. I would like to go into the internal party discussions with these arguments about social-economic factors. But I have not academic literature that can provide the research background to my senses. So - this my question is about the existence of such research trends! Hope, that someone can provide those social-economic arguments and hence - we could channel them into political debates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10670" LastActivityDate="2021-01-13T10:28:36.643" Title="Does lack of social-economic opportunities for self-realisation and personal growth explain homophobia (at least partly)?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;economics&gt;&lt;political-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26509" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="22089" CreationDate="2021-01-13T17:53:38.560" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The linked Youtube Video is unavailable but looking at the videos linked by @Fizz it looks like it is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/addiction-and-recovery/202008/understanding-fight-flight-freeze-and-the-fawn-response#:%7E:text=The%20fawn%20response%20involves%20immediately,authority%20figure%20is%20the%20abuser.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fawn response&lt;/a&gt;. It is one kind of fear response where the stressed individual chooses to be complient with the threatening agent.  It is comparable to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_syndrome&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stockholm syndrome&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've read many internet articles on Fawn response in human but I did not found scientific records about fawn response in other animals though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-13T17:53:38.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26511" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="3708" CreationDate="2021-01-13T18:49:18.337" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think we all multitask to some extent which is not just task switching. Such as while watching a movie, we watch the visual scene (containing multiple objects) , listen to the soundtrack (music + voice), perceive the theatre hall's airconditioner temperature, all at a time. I don't feel it is just a very fast task switching. Its just simultaneous processing of several sensory inputs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Talking or thinking while walking is another example of multitasking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Breathing is another example of multitasking, we continually do it even when we do any other work. (Breathing is partly a voluntary action, we have voluntory control over it).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;However doing certain types of work together, may be difficult for some and not so difficult for someone else.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example I know a tutor (male) who can solve chemistry problems over a paper while receiving a phone call about another chemistry problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My mother can listen to my words while she teaches music via phone and can interfere the student on other end of phone making a mistake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know several female teachers who can write something while listening to something else.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-13T18:49:18.337" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26513" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-14T01:09:55.183" Score="1" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;Out of the FOG (a website on personality disorders) claims that NPDers manipulate social hierarchies in an entirely self-serving way that non-NPDers don't (which comes with the admission, of course, that all societies have an invisible social hierarchy written into them).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is perceiving a hierarchy and acting upon it in subconscious ways considered neurotypical behavior? (Ex: stereotypes, striving for an upper class life, etc.) Can empathy (a lack of which is one of the classifying factors for NPD in the DSM-V) be retained while viewing a person as &amp;quot;lower&amp;quot; than you?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thank you!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27658" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T01:09:55.183" Title="What's the difference between how a person with NPD views social hierarchies versus a non-disordered person?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2021-01-18T00:22:44.023" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26516" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="241" CreationDate="2021-01-14T04:40:26.993" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Seems to be a form of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimming&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stimming&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotypy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;stereotypy&lt;/a&gt;. Stimming helps in calming and concentrating. Everybody stims to some extent but it is more common to people having neurodevelopmental condition. As you mention it is related to ADHD, it is very much likely to be stimming behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T04:40:26.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26518" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15510" CreationDate="2021-01-14T04:54:03.483" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotypical&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;typically developing&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; people (those who are not in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;autism spectrum&lt;/a&gt;) needs &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_contact&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;eye contact&lt;/a&gt; itself as a signal of communication as well as they observe &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaze&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;gaze&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_expression&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;facial expression&lt;/a&gt;, and other &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_language&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;body language&lt;/a&gt; parameters to determine a lot of information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The lack of ncessity of eye contact may hint the presence of autism spectrum disorder or at least broader autism phenotype.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T04:54:03.483" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26520" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-14T05:15:25.020" Score="0" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does severe autism necessarily include intellectual disability symptoms? Or it is possible to having severe autism as well as moderate or high general intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched Internet but I did not found a clear satisfactory search result. Some articles like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4927579/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Autism As a Disorder of High Intelligence&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6683759/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;State of the Field: Differentiating Intellectual Disability From Autism Spectrum Disorder&lt;/a&gt; etc. it is not clear to me that whether all 'severely autistic's are also necessarily 'intellectually disabled' or not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T05:15:25.020" Title="Does severe autism necessarily include intellectual disability symptoms?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26522" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-14T09:30:10.080" Score="1" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the simplest neural networks (that's the only I've experience with), the learning process is the update of parameters of a function, such that the overall error between inputs and prediction is minimized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This function being trained, when we feed it with data, it tells us the label. The idea is pretty simple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If we want to push forward this analogy, just for the sake of doing something, there should be evidence of how a set of exposures to &amp;quot;labelled&amp;quot; inputs, change either the neurons, or the connections between them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not referring so much to models, but to structural changes observed when a brain learns to put a label to a perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've followed a few theories of computer scientist like Marvin Minsky (society of mind), but no much of the actual evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there such an evidence? Is there any informal ground level article you could provide of this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27207" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T09:30:10.080" Title="Is there any evidence of &quot;learning&quot; on a single neuron, or a network?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26523" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-14T11:38:25.343" Score="0" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our professor taught us about these two delusions and upon further thinking I feel that &lt;strong&gt;Eratomania may just be a sub-part of Grandiose disorder&lt;/strong&gt;. If this is the case then why are these studied as separate Delusions??&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In my search that includes generic books like Psychology by Robert A Baron and google I'vs found no resource that answers this question!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All I've found are definitions!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person with &lt;strong&gt;grandiose&lt;/strong&gt; delusional disorder has an over-inflated sense of worth, power, knowledge, or identity. The person might believe they have a great talent or has made an important discovery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Someone with &lt;strong&gt;erotomanic&lt;/strong&gt; delusional disorder believes that another person, often someone important or famous, is in love with them. The person might attempt to contact the object of the delusion, and stalking behavior is not uncommon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27497" LastEditorUserId="27497" LastEditDate="2021-01-14T11:58:59.900" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T11:58:59.900" Title="Is Eratomanic delusion just a type of Grandiose delusion?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26524" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="1363" CreationDate="2021-01-14T17:36:23.373" Score="0" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To be more specific, are there any differences in brain structure or&#xA;brain activity, that can be used to distinguish between autistic and&#xA;non-autistic person by analysing their brain structure and brain&#xA;activity while performing various tasks?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Autism and autism spectrum characteristics are defined by behavioural, cognitive and emotional terms. These aspects are seemingly so complex that probably a lot of brain regions or brain features are involved in normal functioning of these aspects of human life. (so we can speculate a difference in any part of these circuitries may cause autism) There may be too many reasons such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20598548/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mirror neuron dysfunction&lt;/a&gt;, abnormality in &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14521193/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;amygdala&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7037573/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hippocampi&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4265725/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Limbic system&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4190580/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;parietal lobe&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4351628/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;insular cortex&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4633503/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cerebro-cerebellar circuits&lt;/a&gt;, almost all part of the brain have been linked with autism. Microscopic features such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24210821/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain hyperconnectivity&lt;/a&gt; has been linked with autism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_MRI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)&lt;/a&gt; is a kind of MRI-based technique which may be useful for observing brain circuitries, especially hyper- or hypo- connectivities.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FhnAx.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/FhnAx.gif&quot; alt=&quot;Sample DTI&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;Fig: Sample DTI image (from Wikipedia)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Several DTI-based studies found speciality in autistic brains such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322315005697&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frontal lobe&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0028044&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Socio-emotional circuits&lt;/a&gt;, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fMRI&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PET-CT scans&lt;/a&gt; can be very useful tools to study brain activity pattern in autistic and typically developing people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wd3kL.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/wd3kL.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;Brain activity pattern differences&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Differences in activation during visuomotor coordination between autistic people (yellow) and non-autistic controls (blue), Wikipedia, that has been taken from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC509312/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Opening a Window to the Autistic Brain&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the difficulty with MRI and radiologic techniques is, you can not make the subject do a lot of versatile activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;qEEG (quantitative EEG)&lt;/a&gt;- mapping has shown some success distinguishing typically developing brain and autistic brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bYTt1.gif&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/bYTt1.gif&quot; alt=&quot;sample qEEG map&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt; Sample qEEG map from &lt;a href=&quot;https://austinpublishinggroup.com/autism/fulltext/autism-v1-id1007.php&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;QEEG and VARETA based Neurophysiological Indices of Brain Dysfunction in Attention Deficit and Autistic Spectrum Disorder&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/A5qE5.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/A5qE5.png&quot; alt=&quot;sample qEEG map&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt; from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.intechopen.com/books/autism-a-neurodevelopmental-journey-from-genes-to-behaviour/connecting-electroencephalography-profiles-with-the-gamma-amino-butyric-acid-gaba-neuropathology-of-&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Connecting Electroencephalography Profiles with the Gamma-Amino-Butyric Acid (GABA) Neuropathology of Autism as a Prelude to Treatment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.spectrumnews.org/news/big-brain-may-mark-subtype-of-autism/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Big brain may mark subtype of autism&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13859" LastActivityDate="2021-01-14T17:36:23.373" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26525" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-15T21:16:12.007" Score="2" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are the neural plasticity mechanisms behind learning essentially the same across different species? For instance, is STDP assumed to be a standard mechanism in almost anything with a brain, or is it only found in mammalian brains? Cephalopods seem like they have vastly different neural architectures at a macro-level - but are things pretty much the same at the synaptic/neural level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27668" LastActivityDate="2021-01-15T21:16:12.007" Title="Different plasticity mechanisms in different species" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26526" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26485" CreationDate="2021-01-16T03:21:05.553" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;They may be referring to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlexia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hyperlexia&lt;/a&gt; (rather than hyperverbal ability):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hyperlexic children are characterized by word-reading ability well&#xA;above what would be expected given their age. ... Some experts believe&#xA;that most children with hyperlexia, or perhaps even all of them, lie&#xA;on the autism spectrum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But as far as verbal ability goes, since autism is a spectrum disorder, there is bound to be a spectrum of verbal abilities in those afflicted.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum#Communication_skills&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; summarizes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Language impairment is also common in children with autism, but it is&#xA;not necessary for the diagnosis. ... It is also common for individuals&#xA;with ASD to communicate strong interest in a specific topic, speaking&#xA;in lesson-like monologues about their passion instead of enabling&#xA;reciprocal communication with whomever they are speaking to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, &amp;quot;hyperverbal&amp;quot; autistics are hardly unusual.  However, they often struggle with perspective-taking, and hence may speak out of turn, failing to assess their audience's level of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For recent reviews of language acquisition and verbal abilities in individuals with ASD, see for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.09.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Eigsti et al (2011)&lt;/a&gt;; &amp;quot;Language acquisition in autism spectrum disorders: A developmental review&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... early studies indicated that some 50% of affected individuals&#xA;never acquire functional speech, though more recent estimates find a&#xA;smaller proportion of non-verbal individuals, typically around 25%.&#xA;Language acquisition in ASD is characterized by dramatic delays, with&#xA;first words produced at age 38 months, on average, compared to 8–14&#xA;months in TD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1044/leader.FTR2.22042017.54&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Volkers (2017)&lt;/a&gt;; &amp;quot;Untangling the Language Challenges of Autism&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... on average, children on the spectrum produce their first word one&#xA;to two years later than typically developing children. And we know&#xA;that language ability among children on the spectrum varies&#xA;greatly—some may be fluent conversationalists, while others can barely&#xA;speak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2021-01-16T03:21:05.553" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26527" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-16T16:18:57.597" Score="2" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;A while back I saw a chart of psychological development milestones, and it said around the age of 28 people tend to think less in a collective and more on their own. I can't find the chart nor can I find anything backing up that claim since. Is there any evidence that this is true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27671" LastActivityDate="2021-01-16T16:18:57.597" Title="Is there any evidence that people follow crowds less at a certain age?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26528" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-16T16:33:43.390" Score="0" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a lot of talk of younger generations being &amp;quot;softer&amp;quot; but is there any evidence for differences in resilience or hardiness between generations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26149" LastEditorUserId="26149" LastEditDate="2021-01-18T08:32:13.077" LastActivityDate="2021-01-18T08:32:13.077" Title="Evidence for differences in resilience between generations" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26529" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-17T15:39:22.953" Score="1" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kaggle.com/deanp3/uw-neural-data-challenge-intro&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kaggle Neural data challenge&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A number of spikes given a stimulus are Poisson distributed as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$Y_i \sim P(\lambda_i)$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The mean and variance of any Poisson process is given as&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$E[P(\lambda_i)] = Var[P(\lambda_i)] = \lambda_i$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In order to normalize the data, the square root transformation is applied on mean and variance as,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$E[\sqrt{P(\lambda)}] \approx \sqrt{\lambda}$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$$Var[\sqrt{P(\lambda)}] \approx \frac{1}{4}$$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not understand how the variance becomes constant by square root transformation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Update: Received an answer at &lt;a href=&quot;https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/505298/square-root-transformation-of-poisson-process-how-small-var-sqrtp-lambda&quot;&gt;Statistics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13088" LastEditorUserId="13088" LastEditDate="2021-01-18T19:13:37.450" LastActivityDate="2021-01-18T19:13:37.450" Title="Square root transformation of Poisson process. How Var[P(sqrt(lambda))] ~ 1/4?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26530" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-18T05:24:50.980" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are the personality tests (specifically, the big five test) in open source psychometric project reliable?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Link : &lt;a href=&quot;https://openpsychometrics.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://openpsychometrics.org/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27680" LastActivityDate="2021-01-18T05:24:50.980" Title="Are the personality tests (specifically, the big five test) in open source psychometric project reliable?" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26532" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-18T16:31:14.693" Score="2" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was trying to understand the mathematics behind the theory of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Orchestrated objective reduction&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, and clearly, first I read the original paper of Penrose &amp;amp; Hameroff. Then I tried some other related papers (reviews, critics, etc.), yet, I could not find any straightforward math behind this theory in any of my searchings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any references and resources on the mathematics of Orchestrated objective reduction?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27685" LastActivityDate="2021-01-18T16:31:14.693" Title="Resources on understanding the Orchestrated objective reduction" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;consciousness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26534" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-19T09:05:41.583" Score="1" ViewCount="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm starting to go down a research path related to haptic and embodied cognition. Though I haven't taken a deep dive into neuroanatomy (only a 300 level undergrad cognitive neuroscience course's worth and a good amount of self study), it seems pretty apparent the complexity of the of the mechanoreceptors is greater than that of the fibers ascending the spinal tracts up through the medulla.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since the sensory nerves bifurcate into seemingly more (please correct me if I'm wrong) nerve endings than the bundles of fibers they send signals up through, I wonder: is there a limit to the amount of somatosensory percepts someone can be aware of at one time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I thought about looking in the literature for things like, why someone might go into shock when jumping into ice-cold water. Hopefully asking here could bring me closer to an answer or at least a direction to look into.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Holly&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27691" LastActivityDate="2021-01-19T09:05:41.583" Title="Is there an upper bound on signals ascending from the sensory nerves through the medulla?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;awareness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26538" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26540" CreationDate="2021-01-20T11:48:06.630" Score="2" ViewCount="167" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human brain can be described as a &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;Russian nesting doll&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt; in the sense that the most ancient areas of the brain responsible for lower functions are located at its centre while newer sections associated with higher-level functions are located on its outskirts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How exactly do we define &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;higher level&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;lower-level&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt; functions? Moreover, is there a middle-ground where certain functions cannot be described to be higher-level or lower-level?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27696" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-01-20T13:20:13.343" LastActivityDate="2021-01-20T14:14:35.827" Title="What are higher-level and lower-level brain functions?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neuroanatomy&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26539" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-20T12:12:06.273" Score="0" ViewCount="45" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been reading a lot about free will and the most recent neuroscience experiments in that field. However, one way question troubles me to which I have never been able to find any study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We know that neurons fire when depolarization occurs, phenomenon that we call action potential.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Depolarization occurs following a stimulus. Stimuli mostly come from chemical synapses, sensory neurons or pacemaker potentials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a deterministic view of the brain, one that does not involve free will (in the common sense of the term), stimuli coming from chemical synapses would always be explainable. By explainable, I mean that they could be predicted based on the electrochemical state of synapses before giving rise to them. For the purpose of my thinking, I won't refer to sensory neurons nor pacemaker potentials as for the first ones the origin of the stimuli is deterministic since caused by an external factor (e.g.: a sound or a touch) and in the second the stimuli were initially programmed at cell level to happen at a certain rate, so deterministic as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In light of the above, if free will does exist (in the sense that it can create indeterministic behaviours and that those indeterministic behaviours are not generated randomly by let's say quantum activity within neurons but rather by a true free will), we should, I guess observe stimuli occurring without any underlying causes. That's to say, either:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Internal stimuli coming from synapses that could not be explained by the electrochemical state of the synapses before giving rise to the stimuli; or&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Changes in the electrochemical state of the synapses that could not be explained by their initial state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is my reasoning flawed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are any of you aware of any research about that?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for reading.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27697" LastEditorUserId="27697" LastEditDate="2021-01-20T22:40:40.357" LastActivityDate="2021-01-20T22:40:40.357" Title="Free will and neuron firing" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;free-will&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26540" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26538" CreationDate="2021-01-20T12:24:10.653" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-59259-371-2_29#citeas&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tranel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (20003&lt;/a&gt; gives a succinct definition of higher level brain functions in their chapter abstract:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Higher brain functions are the operations of the brain that stand at&#xA;the pinnacle of evolution and are largely unique to humans. Verbal&#xA;communication, the ability to “think in the future,” and the capacity&#xA;to hold multiple tracks of complex information “on-line” at the same&#xA;time, are examples of higher mental functions [...]. The higher-order capacities of the&#xA;human brain can be captured under the terms “cognition” and&#xA;“behavior.” Cognition is composed of intellectual function, memory,&#xA;speech and language, complex perception, orientation, attention,&#xA;judgment, planning, and decision-making. Behavior is the manifestation&#xA;of these cognitive functions. Behavior is guided by another facet of&#xA;higher brain function—namely, personality, which describes the&#xA;psychological make-up, traits, and response styles that typify a&#xA;person’s behaviors across a range of situations and circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Lower level functions, on the other hand are not that well defined, and I guess it's pretty much anything else than the above :) A look at the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://webvision.med.utah.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;visual system&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; can help illustrate the difference (Fig. 1). The purple areas in the figure reflect areas mediating lower-level functions, namely retina (sensation of light), optic nerve (secondary visual neurons that send signal to brain), superior colliculus (low-level localization functions and saccade initiation), and V1 (processing of simple shapes). The higher-level areas, namely 'What' (dorsal stream), 'Where' (ventral stream), 'How' reflect higher level functions that reflect human consciousness, namely the interpretation of the identification of objects, and whether they are stationary, or whether they are moving. These are what Tranel calls 'complex perception'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, in contrast to Tranel's definition, these are not solely human capacities, because some animals are well-versed in discriminating different species (a mouse will respond differently to a fellow species and a cat :-) and where a target object is going (the same mouse will generally walk in a different direction than the cat is going). This is probably the answer to your question whether there is a gray area between high and low-level functions in the brain - yes, there is. The two terms are umbrella terms and not that well defined. In fact, I couldn't find a strict definition of 'lower-level' brain functions after a Google search.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VfvJ9.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/VfvJ9.png&quot; alt=&quot;VS&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Visual system. Source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://visionhelp.wordpress.com/2018/07/03/who-what-when-where-and-how-in-the-visual-system/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Vision Help blog&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://webvision.med.utah.edu/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WebVision -- The Organization of the Retina and Visual System&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-59259-371-2_29#citeas&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ranel &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Higher Brain Functions. In: Conn (ed) &lt;em&gt;Neuroscience in Medicine&lt;/em&gt;. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-01-20T14:14:35.827" LastActivityDate="2021-01-20T14:14:35.827" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26543" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25249" CreationDate="2021-01-21T18:35:56.660" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Kaggle has a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kaggle.com/abyssjumper/meditation-eegdata&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dataset&lt;/a&gt; of an EEG conducted on a meditation group versus a control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other than that, if you are looking for the raw datasets of fmri meditation studies, that may be a little more difficult. If you are fine with summary statistics, and some inferential tests (data that has already been analysed), then &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.co.za/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;as_vis=1&amp;amp;q=meditation+fmri&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; has many open source papers on the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26684" LastActivityDate="2021-01-21T18:35:56.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26544" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-21T23:22:42.693" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I studied Psychology some years ago, and well, I ended up as a programmer. Now, I'm working on a personal side project to build an API to serve correction for different psychology tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since I moved out of the field for so many years, I'm having a hard time trying to look for some quantitative instruments to evaluate different aspects of the human psychology: personality, resilience, control locus etc...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All the test must be reliable (they are precise and achieve to measure what they want to, backed up by studies) and up-to-date and frequently use among professionals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27701" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2021-01-22T03:27:04.897" LastActivityDate="2021-01-22T03:27:04.897" Title="Update list of the most used and reliable quantitative tests in Psychology" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26545" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26544" CreationDate="2021-01-22T03:26:26.087" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://ipip.ori.org/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;International Personality Item Pool&lt;/a&gt; would be a great place to start.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2021-01-22T03:26:26.087" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26546" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-22T04:02:03.230" Score="-1" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the psychological basis of understanding a subject.&lt;br&gt; I have observed cases where a person in&lt;br&gt;anxiety reads a chapter of a book and doesn't grasp anything after 1 hour.&lt;br&gt; The same person was given SNRI and he grasped the things in under 15 minutes.&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Somehow just by focusing on the subject understanding happens automatically.&#xA;Are there any good research/books etc on this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27519" LastActivityDate="2021-01-22T18:39:47.937" Title="How does understanding happens" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;meaningful-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26548" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26669" CreationDate="2021-01-22T13:49:37.763" Score="3" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was watching &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molly%27s_Game&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;Molly's Game&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; where a conversation between Molly and her psychologist dad appear in later life of Molly (Molly didnt have very good relationship with her dad and wanted to piss him off often when she was young)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The transcript:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dad: I knew that you know that I cheated with mom&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Molly: i didnt know that till I was 20 years old&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dad: You knew it when you saw me with someone in my car, you were 5&#xA;years old, you didnt know what you saw but you have known since then&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is this psychlogical effect where one doesnt yet know that he/she knows something and perhaps act out something to its effect?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25446" LastEditorUserId="25446" LastEditDate="2021-02-18T13:52:23.337" LastActivityDate="2021-02-19T15:26:17.750" Title="What is the term used to describe a situation where person doesnt know that he/she actually knows something?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26549" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26546" CreationDate="2021-01-22T14:10:38.920" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;One's understanding is basically training of &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.ifc.unam.mx/Brain/nenet.htm#:%7E:text=NEURAL%20NETWORKS,of%20fine%20structures%20called%20dendrites.&amp;amp;text=When%20a%20neuron%20receives%20excitatory,action%20potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brains neural network&lt;/a&gt; to be able to reproduce the results being learned. You can somehow compare with how machine learning algorithms work where a large array of data is used to train the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network#:%7E:text=An%20artificial%20neural%20network%20is,to%20the%20input%20of%20another&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;artificial neural networks&lt;/a&gt; via &lt;a href=&quot;https://brilliant.org/wiki/backpropagation/#:%7E:text=Backpropagation%2C%20short%20for%20%22backward%20propagation,to%20the%20neural%20network%27s%20weights&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;backpropogation&lt;/a&gt; of errors, over time the network is able to reproduce that data.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In human the learning perhaps lot slower as we dont have tools such as derivatives to allow backpropogation. In comparison a robot is able to walk by training over RL in as short as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/robots/a31208710/google-robot-teaches-itself-to-walk/#:%7E:text=But%20with%20the%20help%20of,Not%20bad.&amp;amp;text=Usually%2C%20a%20roboticist%20must%20either,trial%2Dand%2Derror%20training.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;few hours&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now you can combine this understanding with what @AlicdD mentioned&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;cover wide areas of research, from antidepressants and anxiety, focus to cognitive function and learning new tasks&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are neumerous factors involved that give rise to understanding, one can however theorize that if mind is less distracted then learning can be improved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27205" LastEditorUserId="27205" LastEditDate="2021-01-22T18:39:47.937" LastActivityDate="2021-01-22T18:39:47.937" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26552" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26354" CreationDate="2021-01-23T15:44:17.253" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Professor Sweeney has expressed the hypothesis that counterfactual thoughts that follow a relief are an example of a such mechanism on the &lt;a href=&quot;https://hiddenbrain.org/podcast/waiting-games/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hidden Brain podcast&lt;/a&gt; although it's not something she discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.katesweeny.com/uploads/2/6/9/4/26944848/sweeny_vohs_2012_psysci.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the paper&lt;/a&gt; which finds counterfactual thoughts to be a common aftermath of a relief. The podcast discussed an experience of a guy attacked by lions in a group and how such extreme sitations tend to be followed by euphoria and laughing that later feels chilling to the people who undergo them, making the euphoria feel like not worth the experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2021-01-23T15:44:17.253" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26553" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25032" CreationDate="2021-01-24T05:45:09.927" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: It's currently unclear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the 20+ years since the original paper was published, there have been &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect#Later_studies&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;many successful replications&lt;/a&gt; of the effect, including domains not involving written tests, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.05.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;debating&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11238-010-9200-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;chess&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0379-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bridge&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200110001-00029&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bed-side manner&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104345&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;facial recognition&lt;/a&gt;, and yes, even &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2009.04.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;driving&lt;/a&gt;.  However, as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; summarizes:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... their conclusions are strongly challenged when subjected to&#xA;mathematical analysis and comparisons across cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, a significant component of the reported effect may be due to statistical artifacts that result from the method used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is not the first time that the study method used has been questioned: Theoretical criticisms appeared shortly after the original paper's publication (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.2.180&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krueger &amp;amp; Mueller, 2002&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2007.12.006&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krajc &amp;amp; Ortmann, 2008&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.talyarkoni.org/blog/2010/07/07/What-the-Dunning-Kruger-effect-Is-and-Isnt/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more here&lt;/a&gt;).  However, subsequent replications of the effect correcting for these artifacts largely survived the criticisms with the main revision in results being that high performers are no longer thought to underestimate their ability.  Nonetheless, some studies that successfully replicated the effect did notice significant artifacts remaining in their empirical data - for example, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1021/ed100328c&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bell &amp;amp; Volckmann (2011)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... students with the highest exam scores are just about as variable&#xA;at gauging their course knowledge as students who have the lowest exam&#xA;scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Empirical evidence that other artifacts could be substantial was finally  demonstrated with the publication of a series of studies in &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.5038%2F1936-4660.9.1.4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nuhfer et al (2016)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.5038%2F1936-4660.10.1.4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nuhfer et al (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, who state:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our results show that different numerical approaches employed in&#xA;investigating and describing self-assessment accuracy are not equally&#xA;valid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additional studies feature similar conclusions - for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2017.03.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feld, Sauermann, &amp;amp; de Grip (2017)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our results show that the unskilled are more overconfident than the&#xA;skilled.  However, as we predict in our methodological  discussion,&#xA;this relationship is significantly weaker than ordinary least squares&#xA;estimates suggest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000579&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;McIntosh et al (2019)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... the pattern can be induced (and greatly inflated) by a host of&#xA;other factors and biases, some psychologically interesting, and some&#xA;‘merely’ statistical.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2020.101449&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gignac &amp;amp; Zajenkowski (2020)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... although the phenomenon described by the Dunning-Kruger hypothesis&#xA;may be to some degree plausible for some skills, the magnitude of the&#xA;effect may be much smaller than reported previously.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The artifacts significantly diminish the Dunning-Kruger effect size, possibly eliminating it in some cases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additional notes:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The example in the question of people systematically overestimating their driving competency is &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; an example of the Dunning-Kruger effect.  Rather, it is an example of a different bias called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority#Better-than-average_heuristic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;above-average effect&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a large amount of literature on self-assessment - where subjects are asked to assess their own competence in some domain.  Across many studied domains, people tend to be somewhere around &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691613518075&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;moderately good&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; at self-assessing their abilities, but certainly not perfect.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Contrary to the above-average effect, low-performers in Dunning-Kruger-type studies do &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; estimate their competence as higher than better-performing participants - rather, they rate their competence as higher than it actually is.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;In their original paper, Dunning &amp;amp; Kruger established a non-standard protocol for measuring the self-assessment bias, in which they divide results into sorted quartiles, and compare average absolute differences between actual and estimated test scores.  It is this protocol that is implicated in the statistical artifacts afflicting the results, as using more standard methods, such as adjusted scatter-plots, correlations, and error-bars, it does not appear as if there is much difference (if any) between low and high performers' precision.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Studies that adjust for statistical artifacts demonstrate that the non-standard protocol used by Dunning &amp;amp; Kruger causes data &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censoring_(statistics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;censoring&lt;/a&gt; (hiding the effects of noise), &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceiling_effect_(statistics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;floor/ceiling&lt;/a&gt; effects (error ranges are bounded), and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_toward_the_mean&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;regression to the mean&lt;/a&gt; (due to comparison of 2 independent measures).  Combined with some likely above-average effect, these statistical artifacts explain most (if not all) of the results.  The artifacts are so significant that even random data can generate the effect!&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2021-01-24T05:45:09.927" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26555" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-24T15:20:44.920" Score="1" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;Some may argue that our body is independent from our personality, and whether you are taller, shorter, black, white, etc does not have any influence on how your mind works and interprets the world. Are there any shreds of evidence to prove this argument wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Could it be said that how our body is composed, its aspect, and how&#xA;it reacts to its environment would affect our personality and the way&#xA;of acting in the world or those are isolated and our personality does&#xA;not react to how our body is made?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;For instance, two twins with different personalities, could it be said that their body affected their personality in different manners, and having had different body both of them, they would have had two other personalities, different between them as well?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any aspect of psychology studying this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27713" LastEditorUserId="27713" LastEditDate="2021-05-25T15:23:56.010" LastActivityDate="2021-05-25T15:23:56.010" Title="Does our body affect our personality?" Tags="&lt;behavioural-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2021-01-29T20:49:24.823" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26556" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-24T17:53:26.507" Score="1" ViewCount="69" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is a Wikipedia page on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_simulation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain simulation&lt;/a&gt;, but:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;: Could there be (experimental) evidence that the (human) brain cannot be simulated by a computer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that the Wikipedia page &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_uploading&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mind uploading&lt;/a&gt; has a section called &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_uploading#Practical_issues&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Practical issues&lt;/a&gt;, but Wikipedia says that this section needs expansion. It is followed by sections on philosophical, ethical, legal or political issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My purpose is not philosophical here. Roughly speaking, I just want to know whether there are research works (published in serious peer-review journals) showing that the human brain cannot be simulated by a classical computer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Previous version of the post&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Previous title&lt;/em&gt;: Can the human brain be reduced to a biological AI?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The question is in the title. Let me clarify what I mean by « biological AI » : it looks like an oxymoron if you understand biological as natural and artificial as non-natural, but let understand biological as organic and AI as what it actually does (and not as what it is made of). On the other hand, I am (obviously) not asking whether the human brain was designed...&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;AI is here understood in its current classical sense, and not in what it could be in the future with (for example) quantum computers, so that if one can shows (for example) that the (humain) brain involves some quantum processes which cannot be simulated classically, then the answer should be no. Note that the quantum processes were just used here as an example, the question does not reduce to the existence of such processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="3200" LastEditorUserId="9512" LastEditDate="2021-01-27T03:40:25.787" LastActivityDate="2021-01-27T03:40:25.787" Title="Can the human brain be simulated by a computer?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;artificial-intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26557" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26559" CreationDate="2021-01-25T06:23:26.703" Score="1" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if this is the right site to ask this, if not sorry for that I am new here......&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am wondering if two childs from different parents from different regions are kept in a completely empty room, do they behave same or different and for why(for the genes? and they are just children, like pure children without any experience because if it will not they must behave differently for environmental experiences, right?)?&#xA;And if they behave in a same way, what if we make a huge area with every needs of living, an ideal environment to grow in the same way then everyone will learn the equal things and experiences so nothing wrong will happen.(like a utopia)&#xA;And I am thinking this to do with a medium number of people. If I do this with a large number of people will anomalies happen?&#xA;If they are not equal then there must be the factor genes will come to show the features but if the environment is right then will not the features work in a same manner?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If my question sounds silly, sorry......&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27719" LastEditorUserId="27719" LastEditDate="2021-01-25T06:43:01.897" LastActivityDate="2021-01-25T14:11:11.083" Title="Are we different or same?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;genetics&gt;&lt;behavioural-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26558" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-25T11:30:29.653" Score="0" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was wondering if it's possible to automatically pseudo-randomize stimuli in R? If so, I would be very grateful for any help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26781" LastActivityDate="2021-01-26T16:16:13.470" Title="Automatic pseudo-randomization of stimuli in R" Tags="&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;psycholinguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26559" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26557" CreationDate="2021-01-25T14:11:11.083" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Welcome to Psychology.SE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you ask&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;if two childs from different parents from different regions are kept in a completely empty room, do they behave same or different&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;that is a question which is heavily debated in Psychology. It all boils down to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/naturevsnurture.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nature vs nurture or nature vs environment&lt;/a&gt; shaping behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your question is definitely not silly and as it stands, the answer is very much open to opinion but you can get some information on the debate from the link provided above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See also:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://behavioralscientist.org/the-end-of-nature-versus-nurture/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://behavioralscientist.org/the-end-of-nature-versus-nurture/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.goodtherapy.org/blog/psychpedia/nature-versus-nurture&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.goodtherapy.org/blog/psychpedia/nature-versus-nurture&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.softschools.com/examples/science/nature_vs_nurture_examples/482/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.softschools.com/examples/science/nature_vs_nurture_examples/482/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-nature-versus-nurture-2795392&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-nature-versus-nurture-2795392&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2021-01-25T14:11:11.083" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26563" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-26T04:00:46.750" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’m reading Think Fast And Slow and am learning about the priming effect. Has anyone studied how meditation affects this phenomenon?  Are folks who meditate any less likely to respond to being primed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26861" LastActivityDate="2021-01-26T04:00:46.750" Title="Does meditation have and effect on Priming?" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;&lt;priming&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26566" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26558" CreationDate="2021-01-26T16:16:13.470" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;You can use the &amp;quot;sample&amp;quot; function: &lt;a href=&quot;https://stat.ethz.ch/R-manual/R-devel/library/base/html/sample.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://stat.ethz.ch/R-manual/R-devel/library/base/html/sample.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Start with a list of the stimuli you want to present. For example, if you have two stimuli that should be repeated 4 times each, your list would be &lt;code&gt;c(1,1,1,1,2,2,2,2)&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you take 8 samples from this distribution without replacement, you have a random permutation of the list. This is the default behavior if you just give the original list, like this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;sample(c(1,1,1,1,2,2,2,2))&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-01-26T16:16:13.470" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26567" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-26T21:07:11.187" Score="1" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Triune brain model suggests our brains evolved adding more layers, a lizard brain, then a mammal brain, then a new human brain. As that's false, and the same structures have become modified in different ways in different lineages, what is the name of this current model?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27560" LastActivityDate="2021-05-13T14:01:50.317" Title="The &quot;Triune brain&quot; model is obsolete, what is the name of the model that replaces it?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;evolution&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="12" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26568" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26556" CreationDate="2021-01-27T03:24:25.830" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;To my knowledge (I hold an advanced degree in the field), there is no widely-accepted research that documents that the brain cannot be simulated using a classical computer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our current understanding of the human brain is that the primary functional mechanisms consist of neurons that transmit data via chemical and electrical connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, we have no comprehensive, finite, and accurate definition of &amp;quot;consciousness&amp;quot;, and therefore we cannot prove or disprove consciousness of a computer simulation.  For that matter, as much as we have tried, it is questionable if we can &lt;em&gt;truly&lt;/em&gt; prove or disprove consciousness in human beings, although that is the topic of much debate.  It largely depends on how one defines the term &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;consciousness&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Outside of consciousness and several other more abstract and philosophical matters (such as feelings and emotions), we know of no limits to our cognitive simulations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9512" LastEditorUserId="9512" LastEditDate="2021-01-27T03:29:31.650" LastActivityDate="2021-01-27T03:29:31.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26569" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-27T11:01:20.060" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;If I have to study for a topic I do not particularly like,  I have to overcome many distractions until I finally reach the stage where I can efficiently learn. Conversely, after I build momentum it does not really depend on the initial interest for a topic, If I have been studying for several hours I cannot stop until I figured all the nuances of a problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the name of this psychological phenomena?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27151" LastActivityDate="2021-01-27T11:01:20.060" Title="Studying - Building momentum is hard, but stopping is too. What is the name of this psychological effect" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26573" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-28T19:14:36.000" Score="0" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am designing an experimental study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have two treatments that will be shown to participants 4 times each (A total of 8 times).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For a while, I have been looking for the best way to randomize the order in which these treatments are presented to participants, since the order could have an effect on the dependent variables we are measuring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I've been looking at techniques such as crossover, counterbalancing and latin square, but so far I haven't seen any case in which the treatments are repeated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone has any suggestion of methods that could deal with this specific design, or any ideas on how to select some of the possible combinations for evaluation. It would be impossible to implement all possible combinations in the experiment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For clarity here are some possible combinations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2&#xA;&#xA;2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1&#xA;&#xA;1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2&#xA;&#xA;2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would appreciate your suggestions&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sincerely Miguel&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27751" LastActivityDate="2021-01-28T19:14:36.000" Title="How to randomize order of two-way conditions with repetition in an experimental study design?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26577" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-29T23:25:07.650" Score="0" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to the source linked below, a d' score of 1 corresponds with 76% of correct responses. Which d prime would correspond to 90% of correct responses? What if the data have been corrected following Hautus’ recommendations for extreme values? In a standard same-different paradigm, what d' value would be considered high sensitivity? For example, what is the difference between a d' of 2 and 3?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803110358463&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803110358463&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="15244" LastActivityDate="2021-01-29T23:25:07.650" Title="interpretation of d-prime (signal detection theory)" Tags="&lt;signal-detection&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26580" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-01-30T17:26:36.620" Score="0" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I realize my question is more of a pharmacological one than a neuroscientific one, but I didn't know where else to ask this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I've read, there's two components to how psychedelics work:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Psychedelics agonise serotonin 2A receptors. This causes an over-saturation of serotonin in the brain, which causes the effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Psychedelics reduce blood flow to the DMN (default mode network), which reduces its supply of oxygen, and therefore its activity. That makes the brain redirect the neural activity out to the &amp;quot;fringes&amp;quot; of the brain, which causes signals to travel new paths. These new paths often involve different parts of the brain that wouldn't usually communicate. This causes synesthesia, new perspectives and a generally just a very altered mental and visual perception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, is it so that both, neither or only one of these explanations are correct? Perhaps it is the over-saturation of serotonin that reduces the blood flow to the DMN?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27450" LastActivityDate="2021-01-30T17:26:36.620" Title="How do psychedelics work?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;&lt;synesthesia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="12" ClosedDate="2021-01-31T21:09:51.363" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26585" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-01T10:49:03.483" Score="1" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;Im talking about tests not designed for self-administration like the moca,wais etc. Could the scored potentially be deflated or inflated and misadministered thus making them invalid?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27769" LastActivityDate="2021-03-03T16:03:20.440" Title="Is a cognitive test invalid if self-administered?" Tags="&lt;test&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26586" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26585" CreationDate="2021-02-01T15:39:17.307" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are quite a few factors to consider when taking an assessment. For one, the external conditions of your environment, and your internal mindset should ideally be &lt;em&gt;standardised&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An example of &lt;em&gt;external&lt;/em&gt; standardised conditions are a consistent room temperature, a quite space to take the test, or an external examiner to check that no one cheats.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Internally, the test taker should not be hungry, and should understand the test instructions, for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By taking the test yourself, the conditions will likely not meet this criteria of standardisation necessary for the results to be comparable. If you want to know a bit more, there are &lt;em&gt;norm&lt;/em&gt;-referenced, and &lt;em&gt;criterion&lt;/em&gt;-referenced assessments. The first kind compare your scores to the scores of other test takers, like a pub quiz, for example; scores are compared, and the team with the most points wins. Here, if the conditions are not standardised, your results will not be comparable to others.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Criterion-referenced measures compare your score to a predetermined benchmark, like an exam at school; if you score above 50%, you pass. In this case, a lack of standardised conditions means you may not answer the questions as intended, and so the benchmark comparison will also lose meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Reference&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;C. Foxcroft &amp;amp; G. Roodt. (2001). &lt;em&gt;Introduction to psychological assessment in the South African context&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26684" LastActivityDate="2021-02-01T15:39:17.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26587" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26588" CreationDate="2021-02-01T19:33:11.233" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to understand neuronal synchronization/desynchronization and oscillation, as well as the psychedelic state. The following sentence confused me a bit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psilocybin reduced spontaneous cortical oscillatory power from 1 to 50 Hz in posterior association cortices, and from 8 to 100 Hz in frontal association cortices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is taken from this article on how &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6618409/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Broadband Cortical Desynchronization Underlies the Human Psychedelic State&lt;/a&gt;, featured in the &lt;em&gt;Abstract&lt;/em&gt; section.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, as far as I've understood, the &amp;quot;power&amp;quot; of an oscillation is the square of its amplitude. In the quoted sentence, they say that the oscillatory &amp;quot;power&amp;quot; decreased with the increase of Hertz. Judging by that sentence, it would seem that an increase in the amplitude of a neuronal oscillation means a decrease in the oscillation's frequency. Is this correct, incorrect or perhaps imprecise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27450" LastActivityDate="2021-02-01T19:50:32.060" Title="Is the oscillatory power inversely proportional to the frequency?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;synchronization&gt;&lt;psychedelics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26588" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26587" CreationDate="2021-02-01T19:50:32.060" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is sort of sloppy writing about their results, and statistical significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the paper, they're analyzing data in bands 1-4Hz, 4-8Hz, 8-13Hz, 13-30Hz, 30-50Hz, and 50-100Hz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psilocybin reduced spontaneous cortical oscillatory power from 1 to 50 Hz in posterior association cortices&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;means &amp;quot;we saw significant reductions in all of the bands except 50-100Hz&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and from 8 to 100 Hz in frontal association cortices&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;means &amp;quot;we saw significant reductions in all of the bands except 1-4Hz and 4-8Hz&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They're not saying anything in those sentences about the magnitude of the changes, only about the locations in space and in the frequency domain where they saw changes. And it doesn't really mean they don't see changes in the other bands, just that any changes there did not meet their criteria for significance. They're also sort of mixing a quantitative and qualitative assessment of the data. The sentence in the abstract refers to Figure 3 of the paper, where you can see that the magnitude and extent of the changes is far more frequency dependent than that short sentence conveys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-02-01T19:50:32.060" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26589" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="23588" CreationDate="2021-02-01T20:20:07.620" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Going off the findings in &lt;a href=&quot;http://sonjalyubomirsky.com/wp-content/themes/sonjalyubomirsky/papers/SL2006b.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt;, it seems that one's baseline level of happiness can be increased and &lt;em&gt;maintained&lt;/em&gt; at a (weakly) significant level by &amp;quot;continual effort and engagement in  some  intentional  process&amp;quot; (Sheldon &amp;amp; Lyubomirsky, 2006, pg. 59), which the authors refer to as &amp;quot;activity-based changes&amp;quot;. Examples given include, starting to exercise, beginning a new project, or gaining a new perspective.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;This as opposed to &lt;em&gt;circumstance-based&lt;/em&gt; changes which deliver only minimal, short-lived increases in happiness, such as getting a raise, or buying a new car.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I feel it is important to note that this is only one paper which uses a short time frame of only 6 months to measures changes in happiness. However, it seems then that to achieve lasting increases in our happiness set point, we are better off working on ourselves than our surroundings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26684" LastActivityDate="2021-02-01T20:20:07.620" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26590" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-01T22:45:44.407" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;People usually want to make their own decisions. Those looking for spouses often listen to their inner romantic instincts and reject advice from more experienced people. Drivers are skeptical about self-driving cars and would feel safer driving themselves. In some cases, even when unjustified, people would rather take matters into their own hands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A convenient explanation of this is overconfidence. People may be overly confident about their ability to choose the best decision. However, it seems that this is not everything.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even those who know that it is better to let experts decide for them have bursts of distrust. People routinely decide not to follow doctor advice, even though they know they don't have good reasons to do so. Even those exposed to thorough research on how romantic instincts are not long-lasting follow their heart when choosing spouses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These observations lead me to suspect that people simply have an innate preference to take matters into their own hands. Is there research that can speak to this conjecture?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13243" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-02-16T02:54:00.850" LastActivityDate="2021-03-18T03:03:20.327" Title="Do people have an innate preference to take matters into their own hands?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26591" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26590" CreationDate="2021-02-01T23:26:23.863" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_control&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;illusion of control&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control&#xA;events; for example, it occurs when someone feels a sense of control&#xA;over outcomes that they demonstrably do not influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some examples from the same source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Subjects are either given tickets at random or allowed to choose their&#xA;own. They can then trade their tickets for others with a higher chance&#xA;of paying out. Subjects who had chosen their own ticket were more&#xA;reluctant to part with it. ... Participants who chose their own&#xA;numbers were less likely to trade their ticket even for one in a game&#xA;with better odds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On average, drivers regard accidents as much less likely in&#xA;&amp;quot;high-control&amp;quot; situations, such as when they are driving, than in&#xA;&amp;quot;low-control&amp;quot; situations, such as when they are in the passenger seat.&#xA;They also rate a high-control accident, such as driving into the car&#xA;in front, as much less likely than a low-control accident such as&#xA;being hit from behind by another driver.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The illusion of control is one of several &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_illusions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;positive illusions&lt;/a&gt; that people have about themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2021-02-01T23:26:23.863" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26595" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-02T20:19:27.337" Score="0" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;In this article, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6618409/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Broadband Cortical Desynchronization Underlies the Human Psychedelic State&lt;/a&gt;, this sentene is said:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psilocybin reduced spontaneous cortical oscillatory power from 1 to 50 Hz in posterior association cortices, and from 8 to 100 Hz in frontal association cortices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll abbreviate posterior association cortices to &lt;em&gt;PAC&lt;/em&gt;, and frontal association cortices to &lt;em&gt;FAC&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As found out in this &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/26587/is-the-oscillatory-power-inversely-proportional-to-the-frequency/26588#26588&quot;&gt;question&lt;/a&gt;, the above sentence really means that after psilocybin intake, the brain waves present in the PAC are high-level gamma frequencies, and the brain waves present in the FAC are delta and theta frequencies. They are the ones left, since the other bands were desynchronized away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, since these are the bands left, does that mean that they are more prevalent? Does that mean that the PAC will be operating fully on high-level gamma frequencies and therefore there'll be more of these frequencies in the PAC than usually?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If so, does this mean that the senses of which the PAC is responsible for, will be &lt;strong&gt;heightened&lt;/strong&gt;, since the gamma frequency is a higher frequency, meaning more information is passed in less time? And does that mean that the senses of which the FAC is responsible for, will be &lt;strong&gt;diminished&lt;/strong&gt;, since the delta and theta frequencies are the lowest?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27450" LastEditorUserId="27450" LastEditDate="2021-02-02T20:25:28.283" LastActivityDate="2021-02-02T20:25:28.283" Title="Does the desynchronization of some bands mean an increase in the prevalence of the other bands?" Tags="&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="11" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26599" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26617" CreationDate="2021-02-03T15:26:03.423" Score="5" ViewCount="87" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was said that because the experiment of Seligman that gave birth the theory of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Learned helplessness - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;learned helplessness&lt;/a&gt; was an expansion of Pavlov's experiment, hence the word &amp;quot;learned&amp;quot; in the term should be understood as conditioning, not learning in general. So perhaps it's better termed as &amp;quot;conditioned helplessness&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Learning - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;Learning - Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Learning is the process of acquiring &lt;strong&gt;new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's clear that people with learned/conditioned helplessness acquiring new behaviors, but do they acquire new understanding, knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Related:&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/25863/12937&quot;&gt;What is the difference between conditioning and learning?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/19132/12937&quot;&gt;How does one escape learned helplessness?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/3958/12937&quot;&gt;Are association, conditioning, and symbolic learning the same thing?&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2021-02-03T15:32:23.783" LastActivityDate="2021-02-07T04:08:31.673" Title="Does the &quot;learned&quot; in &quot;learned helplessness&quot; refer specifically to behaviorism's conditioning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;&lt;learned-helplessness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26600" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-03T21:44:10.470" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I know intense mental activity supposes spending about 1% more energy than what you would spend by basically making no real effort in any mental activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If that's the case, why is so tiring? In comparison a 1% extra activity from being quiet all day done with any other part of the body, would be way less tiring than that 1% extra activity from the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastActivityDate="2021-02-03T21:44:10.470" Title="Why is intensive mental activity so tiring if it just spends a bit more energy than in relax?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26601" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26605" CreationDate="2021-02-03T22:06:09.463" Score="1" ViewCount="84" Body="&lt;p&gt;Most EEG machines use a system based upon differential amplifiers to enhance the signal, a basic differential amplifier has 2 inputs and one output. the device takes 2 signals and outputs the difference between them (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/XMizSSOejg0?t=165&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this video&lt;/a&gt;). In short, the output is the difference between 2 signals and the differential amplifier discards the rest of the signal. But I think that possibly the current way of recording EEG could be encouraging loss of data due to ONLY looking for difference within EEG signals instead of analytical evaluation of absolute signals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why do we use relative signals and not absolute signals with EEG? Have there been any attempts to use absolute signals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27316" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-04T09:19:44.560" LastActivityDate="2021-02-04T14:29:55.747" Title="Why do we use relative signals and not absolute signals with EEG?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26602" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-03T22:26:55.457" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;Would a brain with in a state where lower frequency brain waves are more prevalent, be better at math, writing, music, logical problems and other forms of abstract thought? Or would that same brain do better if it were in state where higher frequency brain waves were more prevalent? Or, is it answer much more complex than: &amp;quot;lower frequency = higher ability for abstractions&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I've learned is that if one's brain activity is generally operating more in the lower frequencies, then one is more internally active than if the brain activity leaned more towards higher frequencies. This makes sense in relation to how delta brain waves are the dominant brain waves under sleep, and this could explain dreaming (internal stimuli almost completely drowning out all external stimuli). With theta waves, the internal world is still more prevalent, but the external world is more in the picture. I believe that perhaps this brain wave intermediary is where sleep paralysis happens. I've also read that alpha brain waves become more prevalent when one is in deep thought, and even has an increase when one closes one's eyes. I'm not sure to what degree my understanding of this is inaccurate, but it is this understanding that lead me to the question at hand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27450" LastActivityDate="2021-02-03T22:26:55.457" Title="Are lower frequency brain waves better for mental, abstract tasks?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;music&gt;&lt;mathematical-ability&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;writing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26603" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26601" CreationDate="2021-02-04T06:07:44.777" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;EEG measures &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;voltage&lt;/a&gt;. By definition, voltage is an electric potential &lt;em&gt;difference&lt;/em&gt;. There is no meaning of an &amp;quot;absolute&amp;quot; voltage, it's always a difference.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, people &amp;quot;attempt&amp;quot; to measure a voltage with only one contact all the time, it happens whenever there is a broken channel or a failure of a ground wire. The result is an amplification of whatever other environmental signals can be picked up, dominated by AC current (&amp;quot;60/50-cycle noise&amp;quot;), radio waves, and other electromagnetic interference. A good ground wire is necessary to measure the small signals from the brain; something like an &amp;quot;Earth ground&amp;quot; would not be anywhere near sufficient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;You can get more local measures of voltage using electrodes in close proximity and measuring the potential between them rather than each against some other &amp;quot;ground&amp;quot;. Usually these are depth electrodes in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-02-04T06:07:44.777" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26605" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26601" CreationDate="2021-02-04T08:18:25.453" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A voltage is by definition a potential difference between 2 electrodes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, to record a signal on 1 electrode that is hardly affected by the other reference electrode a distant electrode can be used, referred to as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tmsi.com/blog/measurement-principles/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;monopolar recording&lt;/a&gt;. By contrast, when 2 electrodes are placed close together on the site of interest it is referred to as a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tmsi.com/blog/measurement-principles/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;bipolar&lt;/a&gt; recording. In EEGs, it has everything to do with &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_5.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;differential amplifiers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.analog.com/media/en/training-seminars/tutorials/MT-042.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;common mode rejection&lt;/a&gt;, which you already hint at in the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Without going into the technical details of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_1.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;opamps&lt;/a&gt;, I can say that differential amplifiers, ideally, reject the common signal on the electrodes and keep the differential voltage. In effect, most of the artifacts are rejected, while the signal is maintained. Artifacts are often widespread across the scalp, such as muscular artifacts, and are shared across electrodes, while the signal of interest is mostly confined to local areas on the scalp.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In EEG monopolar recordings are typically used, basically because sufficient artifact is rejected yet the signal is least distorted. In addition, and not least important, standard EEG electrode montages allow for the arithmetic deduction of bipolar recordings from monopolar recordings, whereas the reverse is not possible &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bcia.org/files/public/CE%20Articles/Saabbiof-36-04-128-133.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Saab, 2009)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, many electrophysiological signals, even those closely related to EEG, are often recorded using bipolar recordings, because either the signal is too low to be recordable, or the artifact is otherwise too large (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21096910/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diez &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;, 2010&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26743880/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://iovs.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2189069&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al.&lt;/em&gt;, 2013&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21096910/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Diez &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc&lt;/em&gt; (2010): 5803-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bcia.org/files/public/CE%20Articles/Saabbiof-36-04-128-133.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Saab, &lt;em&gt;Biofeedback&lt;/em&gt; (2009); &lt;strong&gt;36&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 128–33&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://iovs.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2189069&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;.,&lt;em&gt;IOVS&lt;/em&gt; (2013); &lt;strong&gt;54&lt;/strong&gt;:3891–901&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26743880/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Doc Ophthalmol&lt;/em&gt; (2016); &lt;strong&gt;132&lt;/strong&gt;:1–15&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-04T14:29:55.747" LastActivityDate="2021-02-04T14:29:55.747" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26606" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26609" CreationDate="2021-02-04T08:43:14.083" Score="3" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Disclamer: I am not interested in personal views on whether gay parenting is a good or bad thing. I would like to understand whether there has been serious research on the upbringing consequences for such children. I am a physicist so I know nothing about psychology, but I am good with numbers and their statistical interpretation so anything substantiated is very much welcome. Thank you&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gay parenting, whether official or not, is in place for now more than a generation and among the fierce debates about that topic (I am French), I tried to look for research that would bring some actual data on the comparative measurable effects of gay vs straight parenting (on the children). &lt;strong&gt;The point I am interested in is specifically the sexual orientation of the children (now grown-ups).&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I did not find anything substantial, probably because I do not know the right literature in that field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there such research?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27793" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2021-02-04T12:13:44.790" LastActivityDate="2021-02-04T12:48:02.130" Title="Has there been research on the impact of gay parents on the sexual orientation of adopted children?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26609" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26606" CreationDate="2021-02-04T12:42:38.577" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Farr, R. H., Forssell, S. L., &amp;amp; Patterson, C. J. (2010). Parenting and child development in adoptive families: Does parental sexual orientation matter?. &lt;em&gt;Applied Developmental Science, 14&lt;/em&gt;(3), 164-178. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2010.500958&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2010.500958&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://escholarship.org/content/qt3k56b4b4/qt3k56b4b4.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt; from escholarship.org&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This study investigated child development and parenting in 106 families headed by 27 lesbian, 29 gay, and 50 heterosexual couples (80% White, M = 42 years) with young adopted children (41% White, M = 3 years). Parents and teachers reported that, on average, children were developing in typical ways. Measures of children's adjustment, parenting approaches, parenting stress, and couple relationship adjustment were not significantly associated with parental sexual orientation. However, several family process variables—parenting stress, parenting approaches, and couple relationship adjustment—were found to be significantly associated with children's adjustment, regardless of parental sexual orientation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Herek, G. M. (2014). Evaluating the methodology of social science research on sexual orientation and parenting: A tale of three studies. &lt;em&gt;UCDL Rev., 48&lt;/em&gt;, 583. &lt;a href=&quot;https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/davlr48&amp;amp;div=18&amp;amp;id=&amp;amp;page=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/davlr48&amp;amp;div=18&amp;amp;id=&amp;amp;page=&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://lawreview.law.ucdavis.edu/issues/48/2/topic/48-2_Herek.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF&lt;/a&gt; from law.ucdavis.edu&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For at least four decades, questions about the well-being of children raised by sexual minority individuals or same-sex couples have figured prominently in public debates about adoption, foster parenting, child custody and visitation, and marriage equality. Those debates have often focused on questions of law, personal values, and morality, but many have also included empirically testable assertions about the relationship (or lack thereof) between parents' sexual orientation and their children's developmental outcomes. The social science research that has empirically assessed the validity of those assertions is the focus of the present paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Patterson, C. J. (2017). Parents' sexual orientation and children's development. &lt;em&gt;Child Development Perspectives, 11&lt;/em&gt;(1), 45-49.  &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12207&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12207&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What if any influence does parents' sexual orientation have on children's development? Research suggests that, contrary to concerns voiced by many observers, parents' sexual orientation has little if any direct impact on children's development. Even so, some distinctive qualities of experiences in families of lesbian and gay parents have been noted, and their implications are not fully understood. Moreover, research on individual differences among families headed by lesbian mothers and gay fathers, and their possible impact on children, is still in its early phases. In this article, I provide an overview of research in this area and offer suggestions for further studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stacey, J., &amp;amp; Biblarz, T. J. (2001). (How) does the sexual orientation of parents matter?. &lt;em&gt;American Sociological Review&lt;/em&gt;, 159-183. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/2657413&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.2307/2657413&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Opponents of lesbian and gay parental rights claim that children with lesbigay parents are at higher risk for a variety of negative outcomes. Yet most research in psychology concludes that there are no differences in developmental outcomes between children raised by lesbigay parents and those raised by heterosexual parents. The analysis here challenges this defensive conceptual framework and analyzes how heterosexism has hampered intellectual progress in the field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-02-04T12:48:02.130" LastActivityDate="2021-02-04T12:48:02.130" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26610" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26611" CreationDate="2021-02-05T11:27:37.700" Score="1" ViewCount="67" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both single neurons and groups of neurons can generate oscillatory activity spontaneously. In addition, they may show oscillatory responses to perceptual input or motor output. Even memory and thinking is associated with these neural oscillations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, are these nerve responses always oscillatory in nature? Or do we find patterns in the firing of neurons (action potentials) or in the postsynaptic potentials which are truly &lt;em&gt;chaotic&lt;/em&gt; and do not fall under any &lt;em&gt;oscillatory&lt;/em&gt; patterns? Or is it that because of the vast amount of inter connections between neurons as well as different sections of brain, synchronous behaviour always pops us?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27794" LastActivityDate="2021-02-05T16:43:06.483" Title="Neural oscillations and activity patterns" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26611" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26610" CreationDate="2021-02-05T16:30:01.030" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Frequency analysis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All time-varying signals can be decomposed into the frequency domain, e.g. using the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fourier transform&lt;/a&gt;. This is a common technique for analyzing brain signals, e.g. from EEG.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, doing this transform &lt;strong&gt;does not mean that the underlying signals are oscillatory in nature&lt;/strong&gt;. Even if we talk about power in some particular frequency band, that does not mean we are talking about an oscillation at that frequency. &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event-related_potential&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Event-related potentials&lt;/a&gt; are often analyzed in the time domain, but nothing would stop you from analyzing them in the frequency domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Packets vs oscillations&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you write &amp;quot;memory and thinking is associated with these neural oscillations&amp;quot;, this can be true of frequency analyses but yet not really related to oscillations. Artur Luczak and Ken Harris have argued for evidence of &amp;quot;packet-based&amp;quot; communication in neocortex (see for example their Luczak et al 2015 review). Effectively these are bursts of activity lasting on the order of 100-100s of milliseconds. They've shown that in anesthetized states these &amp;quot;packets&amp;quot; are revealed in a slow &amp;quot;oscillatory&amp;quot; power in the EEG/LFP, which makes sense: if you have a bunch of events that last 100-100s of milliseconds, you're going to find power in the low frequency bands. However, these are not oscillations. They are discrete events. In the wake state, the &lt;em&gt;same events happen&lt;/em&gt;, but because there are no gaps between them, you don't see an oscillation in the EEG.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, this is true of any events in frequency analysis. If you add a bunch of events lasting, say, 50 milliseconds to a white noise signal, you will see an increase in power in the vicinity of 10 Hz. They need not oscillate at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Separating oscillations from 'power law' power-frequency relationships&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some researchers have argued that we should be more aware of evidence for and against true &amp;quot;oscillations&amp;quot; when analyzing EEG. From Donoghue et al 2020:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Following historical traditions, the vast majority of the studies examining oscillations rely on canonical frequency bands, which are approximately defined as: infraslow (&amp;lt;0.1 Hz), delta (1–4 Hz), theta (4–8 Hz), alpha (8–12 Hz), beta (12–30 Hz), low gamma (30–60 Hz), high-frequency activity (60–250 Hz) and fast ripples (200–400 Hz). Although most of these bands are often described as oscillations, standard approaches fail to assess whether an oscillation—meaning rhythmic activity within a narrowband frequency range—is truly present (Fig. 1a,b).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They recommend analyzing frequency-domain signals in terms of the broadband power (dominated by the lowest frequencies), the exponent of power decay with frequency (neural signals are typically in the range of 1/f or 1/f^2, but this easily generalizes to 1/f^a), and then isolating evidence for actual oscillations that deviate from these parametric fits (linear in log-log space):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6L291m.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/6L291m.png&quot; alt=&quot;Fig1a Donoghue et al 2020&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this figure, you would only identify an oscillation in the alpha 8-12 Hz range. All of the rest of the power spectrum derives from non-oscillatory time-varying neuronal activity, which still has some detectable frequency structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Power-law brain activity, criticality, and chaos&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another area of emphasis in the analysis of brain signals is the idea of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_brain_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;criticality&lt;/a&gt;, in particular work by John Beggs. Criticality is the border between chaotic and organized (oscillatory) activity. A prediction of this theory is exactly the power-law decay with frequency (1/f^a) described above. This scheme refers to &amp;quot;neuronal avalanches&amp;quot; which are events of synchronized neural activity that share some features with the &amp;quot;packets&amp;quot; of Luczak and Harris. Waking brains tend to be near this critical point, whereas during sleep there is much more oscillatory organization and the brain is further from critical. Although criticality can be described as &amp;quot;near chaos&amp;quot;, I think it's important to recognize that it is &lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt; chaos, no matter how complicated it is. It's still quite organized, just organized in a way that optimizes information processing. Oscillations that are too organized have little capacity to transmit information (consider the information transmission limitations of radio bands that humans use for television, radio, and cell phones, for example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Beggs, J. M. (2008). The criticality hypothesis: how local cortical networks might optimize information processing. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 366(1864), 329-343.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Donoghue, T., Haller, M., Peterson, E. J., Varma, P., Sebastian, P., Gao, R., ... &amp;amp; Voytek, B. (2020). Parameterizing neural power spectra into periodic and aperiodic components. Nature neuroscience, 23(12), 1655-1665.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Luczak, A., McNaughton, B. L., &amp;amp; Harris, K. D. (2015). Packet-based communication in the cortex. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(12), 745-755.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2021-02-05T16:43:06.483" LastActivityDate="2021-02-05T16:43:06.483" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26613" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-06T05:02:35.360" Score="4" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any research or theories which can prove that exercising too much self control can lead to losing one's self-control regardless the work or activity a person engages into? From an &lt;a href=&quot;https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-25/edition-2/self-control-%E2%80%93-moral-muscle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article in The Psychologist&lt;/a&gt; I understand that self-control is a limited resource.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If there are self-control theories proving this fact, I'm specifically interested if it &lt;strong&gt;holds true for addicts especially when they are in the maintenance stage&lt;/strong&gt; where they decide that they want to leave drugs and take a path of sobriety and relapse again if they exercise too much too self-control and losing self-control?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27615" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-10T12:21:46.870" LastActivityDate="2021-02-10T12:21:46.870" Title="Losing self-control during drug rehab" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26616" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-06T21:42:40.140" Score="3" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was shocked to be unable to find any systematic reviews on the relevance of Jung and particulary his archetypes. In my search, I usually encountered criticism based on definitions too loose to be properly debunked but I think the concept of archetypes as &amp;quot;distinct universal personalities in our brain&amp;quot; is quite a falsifiable one.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I find &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/1116/what-form-might-jungian-archetypes-take-in-the-brain/1179#1179&quot;&gt;Tom Boardsman's SE answer&lt;/a&gt; to a theoretical question on the archetypes really interesting and I think it does provide an argument against the archetypes as Jung described them - as literal images - from what I've gathered, automatic visual detection is pretty rare in humans and can be found only in a few areas such as face recognition or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snake_detection_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;snake detection&lt;/a&gt;. Jung's idea of such images made a lot more sense to me when I found out it was likely influenced by &lt;a href=&quot;https://sci-hub.se/10.1177/000306519204000210&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;lamarckism&lt;/a&gt;. But - of course - my layman notion is far from a proof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I imagine Jung's archetypes could be best put to a test by a cross-cultural comparison of dreams. Sadly, I haven't found any study that would take this challenge seriously. A bit less exact way could be cross-cultural comparison of narratives for behavioral patterns. In that regard, I have only found &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10595468_The_Relevance_of_Jungian_Psychology_for_Cultural_Psychiatry&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mentions&lt;/a&gt; of criticism of the remarks on the very non-Western cultures that influenced Jung.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So are there any studies which would provide some basic evidence for or against the existence of Jungian archetypes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastEditorUserId="9165" LastEditDate="2021-02-11T22:49:20.817" LastActivityDate="2021-02-11T22:49:20.817" Title="Is there any evidence for/against the existence of Jungian archetypes?" Tags="&lt;evolution&gt;&lt;cross-cultural-psychology&gt;&lt;jung&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26617" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26599" CreationDate="2021-02-07T03:50:08.367" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia explains that there's not one theory of learned helplessness but several, some more encompassing than others with respect to what is learned:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research has found that a human's reaction to feeling a lack of control differs both between individuals and between situations, i.e. learned helplessness sometimes remains specific to one situation but at other times generalizes across situations.[7][9][10] Such variations are not explained by the original theory of learned helplessness, and an influential view is that such variations depend on an individual's attributional or explanatory style.[11] According to this view, how someone interprets or explains adverse events affects their likelihood of acquiring learned helplessness and subsequent depression.[12] For example, people with pessimistic explanatory style tend to see negative events as permanent (&amp;quot;it will never change&amp;quot;), personal (&amp;quot;it's my fault&amp;quot;), and pervasive (&amp;quot;I can't do anything correctly&amp;quot;), and are likely to suffer from learned helplessness and depression.[13]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Aside: contra to the somewhat one-sided way in which Wikipedia discusses this, the expanded theories were &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1988-26739-001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;not that easy&lt;/a&gt; to demonstrate reliably, at least not with a sizeable effect.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2021-02-07T04:08:31.673" LastActivityDate="2021-02-07T04:08:31.673" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26619" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-07T10:23:59.340" Score="1" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know the question is ambiguous, so let me elaborate: imagine that you're given a task (e.g., read a text) while subjected to a series of auditory stimuli, e.g., a train of noise bursts of the same length separated by the same amount of time as the length of an individual burst (for example, 30 s of noise, 30 s of silence, etc.).&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Would you be able to predict/anticipate (I'm not sure of the correct term here) an upcoming onset/offset of the noise and modify your behavior so that this is reflected in the task you were given?&#xA;Predicting this seems to be easy if the auditory stimuli are separated a fraction of a second and even perhaps seconds. But, if one keeps separating them (e.g., 30 s as in the previous example), how far can the auditory stimuli be separated so that a subject can still anticipate their onset/offset?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27817" LastEditorUserId="27817" LastEditDate="2021-02-08T21:43:39.050" LastActivityDate="2021-02-08T21:43:39.050" Title="How far into the future can humans accurately predict a periodic event?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26620" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-07T14:09:01.040" Score="0" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen this kind of situation a lot on movies, video games, comics and other media. Basically Alice and Bob are having a very serious, heated and hostile argument, involving a lot of shouting and even physical force. There are no hints that romantic and sexual activities could even take place. Then while they are in the middle of intense arguing, suddenly things get quiet for a few seconds. And after that Alice and Bob start kissing and making out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the psychological explanation for this kind of situation (or &amp;quot;trope&amp;quot;)? Why could an argument turn into a make out session? Does this happen in real life or it's just another writer's device?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/SlapSlapKiss&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This is an article that describes the &amp;quot;trope&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FIJhQeUr6C4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This is an example of this &amp;quot;trope&amp;quot; on a TV show&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YWL7MKfLQr4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Another example, involving slapping&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27818" LastEditorUserId="27818" LastEditDate="2021-02-08T12:10:38.593" LastActivityDate="2021-02-08T12:10:38.593" Title="Psychological explanation for the situations (in TV, movies, video games, etc.) in which a heated argument turns into a make out session" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="9" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26622" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-08T04:08:02.757" Score="1" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;Running a small experiment among my 3 children and their friends and their cousins ....&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When ever I ask a child what do they want to be when they grow up?  most will answer “rich and famous”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rich I can understand, but why famous?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then again, I am living in Los Angeles, which could explain why ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But there used to be some times when fame and money didn’t exactly coexist, Example: In the beginning of Hollywood, actors and actresses were well paid, but they were not “rich” by any mega standards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Plus why wouldn’t a child (generally) think that it be better to be rich and anonymous, rather than famous?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are more anonymous rich people by far than famous rich people&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Regardless to the fact that I live in LA, I am pretty sure that if you ask most kids whether they prefer to be famous than anonymous? , most will answer yes.  (Perhaps the same argument holds true for adults)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27806" LastEditorUserId="27806" LastEditDate="2021-02-08T05:07:35.397" LastActivityDate="2021-02-08T05:10:59.943" Title="Why is being “famous” the most desired profession among kids?" Tags="&lt;thought&gt;&lt;wandering-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2021-02-08T06:10:29.567" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26624" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-08T13:29:07.433" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am working on a study where I plan to conduct Structural Equation Modeling with the Big 5 factors affecting another variable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For Big 5 I am using a questionnaire that has earlier been used by others in the literature, and also using the same scoring system: basically, no change whatsoever.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do I still need to conduct an Exploratory Factor Analysis (given that I have strong reasons to assert that there ought to be 5 factors, both theoretically and on the basis of past literature) or can I proceed directly to a Confirmatory Factor Analysis of my data on Big 5?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And to justify my work (of either conducting EFA or skipping it) what are some good sources to cite in my defence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25148" LastActivityDate="2021-02-08T13:29:07.433" Title="Need to conduct Exploratory Factor Analysis when using already established questionnaire for Big 5" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26625" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-08T17:12:07.373" Score="5" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been fascinated by Pultchicks wheel of emotion and how it puts emotions into polar opposites and gives ways to combine emotions to derive others or break down a particular emotion to its constituent parts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know its been quite a while since it was introduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As someone who only dabbles with psychology as an interest, I want to know:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Is it considered an important framework in understanding emotion?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Are there more accurate / recent / biological research based similar models?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Plutchik&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Plutchik&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/atbdn.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/atbdn.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27825" LastEditorUserId="27825" LastEditDate="2021-02-08T21:58:44.180" LastActivityDate="2021-02-08T21:58:44.180" Title="What are Frameworks for emotions?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26626" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-08T22:46:52.170" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Not long ago I read M. Scott Peck's &lt;em&gt;The Road Less Travelled&lt;/em&gt;, which contains this excerpt on dreams and their interpretation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;When beginning to work with a new patient I will frequently draw a large circle. Then at the circumference I will draw a small niche. Pointing to the inside of the niche, I say, &amp;quot;That represents your conscious mind. All the rest of the circle, 95 per cent or more, represents your unconscious. &lt;strong&gt;If you work long enough and hard enough to understand yourself, you will come to discover that this vast part of your mind, of which you now have little awareness, contains riches beyond imagination&lt;/strong&gt;.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the ways, of course, that we know of the existence of this vast but hidden realm of the mind and the wealth it contains is through our dreams. A man of some prominence came to see me for a depression of many years' duration. He found no joy in his work, but had little idea why. Although his parents were relatively poor and unknown, a number of his father's forebears had been famous men. My patient made little mention of them. His depression was caused by many factors. Only after some months did we begin to consider the matter of his ambition. To the session following the one in which the subject of ambition was first raised he brought a dream from the night before, a fragment of which follows: 'We were in an apartment filled with huge, oppressive pieces of furniture. I was much younger than I am now. My father wanted me to sail across the bay to pick up a boat he had for some reason left on an island across the bay. I was eager to make this journey and asked him how I could find the boat. He took me to one side where there was this particularly huge and oppressive piece of furniture, an enormous chest, at least twelve feet long and extending all the way up to the ceiling, with maybe twenty or thirty gigantic drawers in it, and told me I could find the boat if I sighted along the edge of the chest.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Initially the meaning of the dream was unclear, so, as is customary, I asked him to associate to this huge chest of drawers. Immediately he said, For some reason - maybe because the piece seemed so oppressive - it makes me think of a sarcophagus.''What about the drawers?' I asked. Suddenly he grinned. 'Maybe I want to kill off all my ancestors,' he said. 'It makes me think of a family tomb or vault, each one of the drawers big enough to hold a body.' The meaning of the dream was then clear. He had indeed in his youth been given a sighting, a sighting for life, along the tombs of his famous dead paternal ancestors, and had been following this sighting toward fame. But he found it an oppressive force in his life and wished that he could psychologically kill off his ancestors so as to be free from this compulsive force.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anyone who has worked much with dreams will recognise this one to be typical. I would like to focus on its helpfulness as one of the respects in which it is typical. This man had started to work on a problem. Almost immediately his unconscious produced a drama that elucidated the cause of his problem, a cause of which he had previously been unaware. It did this through use of symbols in a manner as elegant as that of the most accomplished playwright. It is difficult to imagine that any other experience occurring at this point in his therapy could have been as eloquently edifying to him and me as this particular dream. His unconscious clearly seemed to want to assist him and our work together, and did so with consummate skill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It is precisely because they are so routinely helpful that psychotherapists generally make the analysis of dreams a significant part of their work.&lt;/strong&gt; I must confess that there are many dreams whose significance completely eludes me, and it is tempting to wish petulanty that the unconscious would often have the decency to speak to us in clearer language. However, on those occasions when we succeed in making the translation, the message always seems to be one designed to nurture our spiritual growth. &lt;strong&gt;In my experience dreams that can be interpreted invariably provide helpful information to the dreamer. This assistance comes in variety of forms: as warnings of personal pitfalls; as guides to the solution of problems we have been unable to solve: as proper indication that we are wrong when we think we are right, and as correct encouragement that we are right when we think we are probably wrong; as sources of necessary information about ourselves that we are lacking; as direction-finders when we feel lost; and as pointers to the way we need to go when we are floundering.&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What does the current literature say regarding Peck's claims about the efficacy of dreams and the interpretation of them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23875" LastActivityDate="2021-02-08T22:46:52.170" Title="What evidence is there for these claims about dream interpretation in The Road Less Travelled?" Tags="&lt;dreams&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2021-02-11T13:14:34.890" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26628" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-09T15:30:54.197" Score="0" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I started a project late, I had three weeks to work on it, and I ended up submitting it the day after the deadline. I lost a golden opportunity, and I really want to make sure I learn from this experience. Is there research showing how one should view a personal mistake to most effectively learn from it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Should I:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Think of the experience as terrible and completely my fault, for maximal pain for operant conditioning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Think of the experience as not a big deal&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Think of the experience as only forgivable if I learn from it&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;None of the above?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12897" LastActivityDate="2021-02-09T15:30:54.197" Title="How should one remember a mistake to maximize learning from it?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26629" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="13085" CreationDate="2021-02-09T16:29:24.610" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Migraine&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;tension-type headaches&lt;/strong&gt; are an important burden in many people's daily lives. This is not my direct research topic. But as far as I have read on the subject headache has been related to &lt;strong&gt;posture problems&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;vision problems&lt;/strong&gt;. Some studies point to an increase in headache complaints, related to increased hours of study online. But this can also be related to posture and vision (tired eyes or dry eyes). Of course, the occurrence of headaches can affect the quality of the study (and acquisition of new skills), but estimating the opposite apparently still lacks proof. I leave below some links of articles about the subject that may be of your interest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11606-020-06539-x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Behavioral Treatments for Headache&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-81497-w&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Headache vs musculoskeletal pain vs vision problems&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0883073820988417?casa_token=LdemXfF_El4AAAAA%3AmGFcn-Xm065VIJU4972tRwCX3FsslxgpXLXxETJlMwEZ5MTKpKzLcVWqx_dpStYI9Ie51JzovyA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Headach - clinical setting&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24910" LastActivityDate="2021-02-09T16:29:24.610" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26630" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-09T16:50:49.507" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;With the threat of COVID-19, many jobs became home office and in many universities the teaching had to be readjusted to the online universe. Advances have been achieved in terms of &lt;strong&gt;digital transformation&lt;/strong&gt;. Including the traditional psychological (or mental health) support services, which began to perform &lt;strong&gt;teletherapies&lt;/strong&gt;, for example. Other tools include the use of &lt;strong&gt;apps&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;gamification&lt;/strong&gt;, psychotherapy (or counseling) through &lt;strong&gt;social networks&lt;/strong&gt;, including conversations (exclusively) in text or telephone assistance (audiocalls).  Given this scenario, I would like to know about studies and evidence that indicate which of these modalities of therapeutic intervention has the best impact, for this specific target audience, university students.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24910" LastActivityDate="2021-02-09T16:50:49.507" Title="What is the best online therapeutic intervention, in psychological support in higher education?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;health-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26632" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26637" CreationDate="2021-02-10T09:14:38.040" Score="3" ViewCount="59" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, I have to say I am not a neuroscientist but I like to learn about neuroscience. I understand there are sets of neurons called &amp;quot;place cells&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;grid cells&amp;quot; which encode spatial information in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is simple: Is there a structure in the brain known to encode &lt;strong&gt;temporal&lt;/strong&gt; information analogous to place cells? Is anyone aware of some references or experiments on this subject?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27839" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-11T14:31:30.907" LastActivityDate="2021-02-12T16:24:48.993" Title="Are there &quot;place cells&quot; for temporal encoding?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;time&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26633" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-10T15:09:14.560" Score="1" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can anyone suggest good sources or papers to understand about experimental setup and procedure for measuring nerve conduction velocity for various types of neurons?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wish to learn how such experiments are done and get insight on how they were able to classify neurons based on conduction velocities as (alpha beta gamma) or I / II / III grade neurons especially for neurons that have small distances between axon and dendrites for it might be difficult to insert probes at cell body and measure signal at the synapse of that neuron to measure time elapsed in signal conduction or they measure for few neurons in chain and average out the time taken for conduction velocity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26209" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-11T13:14:08.893" LastActivityDate="2021-02-12T07:09:06.097" Title="How to determine nerve conduction velocity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26634" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-10T16:47:08.000" Score="0" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we dream while sleeping, our brain is still buzzing with neural activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, while my whole body sleeps and rest, what changes take place in cellular activity throughout my body? What are the effects of sleeping to a particular cell of my body? Do individual cells themselves take rest and be in a non-active state like us humans? (&lt;em&gt;Basically, do cells sleep?&lt;/em&gt;)&#xA;Also, how does thinking affect our cellular activities and cells in general? Is there a connection to thoughts (neurons firing)  and cells?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27794" LastEditorUserId="27794" LastEditDate="2021-02-10T17:14:01.703" LastActivityDate="2021-02-10T17:14:01.703" Title="Neuroscience of dreaming and thinking" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;dreams&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26636" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26633" CreationDate="2021-02-11T12:15:26.650" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think there are many ways to accomplish this in terms of technical detail, but they will all boil down to measuring the arrival of an action potential along the axon on at least two points with known distance from each other on the axon. From these two arrival times the latency can be deducted. Then, by dividing the distance between the elektrodes by the latency (i.e., the time it took the action potential from going from electrode 1 to number 2), the conduction speed can be estimated. In a paper by &lt;a href=&quot;https://bio-protocol.org/e2152#:%7E:text=Conduction%20velocity%20can%20be%20measured,through%20which%20the%20axon%20projects.&amp;amp;text=The%20ionic%20currents%20that%20flow,neuron%2C%20using%20extracellular%20recording%20electrodes.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DeMaegd &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2017)&lt;/a&gt; they use extracellular electrodes and the figure in their paper is quite informative (Fig.1 ).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7NLC5.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/7NLC5.png&quot; alt=&quot;conduction_velocity&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Measuring axon conduction velocity by recording action potentials. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://bio-protocol.org/e2152#:%7E:text=Conduction%20velocity%20can%20be%20measured,through%20which%20the%20axon%20projects.&amp;amp;text=The%20ionic%20currents%20that%20flow,neuron%2C%20using%20extracellular%20recording%20electrodes.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DeMaegd &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. (2017)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://bio-protocol.org/e2152#:%7E:text=Conduction%20velocity%20can%20be%20measured,through%20which%20the%20axon%20projects.&amp;amp;text=The%20ionic%20currents%20that%20flow,neuron%2C%20using%20extracellular%20recording%20electrodes.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DeMaegd &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Bio Protocol&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;7&lt;/strong&gt;(5)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-12T07:09:06.097" LastActivityDate="2021-02-12T07:09:06.097" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26637" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26632" CreationDate="2021-02-11T13:13:08.817" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems the topic of time perception is quite complicated. In contrast to the place and grid cells in the hippocampus &lt;a href=&quot;https://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/content/7/2/a021808.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Moser &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt;, the perception of time seems to be distributed across many places in the brain. A review by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4830363/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fontes &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2016)&lt;/a&gt; cites 158 papers written between 1980 to 2015 that describe a variety of brain structures relating to the perception of time, including areas in the &lt;strong&gt;frontal cortex, parietal cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum and hippocampus&lt;/strong&gt;. It indeed seems to be a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception#Neuroscientific_perspectives&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;highly distributed system&lt;/a&gt; in the brain. The proximity of time cells and place and grid cells in the hippocampus is interesting and is an &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ntnu.edu/how-your-brain-experiences-time#:%7E:text=Researchers%20at%20the%20Kavli%20Institute,experience%2C%20says%20Professor%20Edvard%20Moser.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;active area of research&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4830363/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fontes &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Neurol Int&lt;/em&gt; (2016); &lt;strong&gt;8&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 59392016&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/content/7/2/a021808.full&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Moser &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol (2015); &lt;strong&gt;7&lt;/strong&gt;: a021808&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-12T16:24:48.993" LastActivityDate="2021-02-12T16:24:48.993" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26640" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26641" CreationDate="2021-02-13T19:34:12.727" Score="2" ViewCount="68" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can we perceive, through some indications, if a person gives too much or too little importance to the education and intellectual formation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Discussing this with some colleagues who say that no because knowledge and its importance are not reflected in behavior. Still, I'm inclined to think that based on some evidenced characteristics, we can assess the value given to knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27848" LastEditorUserId="25135" LastEditDate="2021-02-13T22:41:29.340" LastActivityDate="2021-02-13T22:41:29.340" Title="Perceive person's importance to the education" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26641" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26640" CreationDate="2021-02-13T22:11:56.180" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think this issue touches on a number of aspects like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-worth_theory_of_motivation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-worth&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-image&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-image&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-concept&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-concept&lt;/a&gt; among others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Undoubtedly people can place a distorted or disproportionate value on self and others based on education. It's mostly a problem of reference, how exactly do you value education and knowledge correctly?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can we perceive, through some indications, if a person gives too much or too little importance to the education and intellectual formation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Certainly, if the value they place on education/formation does not correspond to real tangible values. For example the janitor who thinks himself overall more qualified than the brain surgeon. Or the brain surgeon who thinks himself necessarily superior to others in areas where he has no expertise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;knowledge and its importance are not reflected in behavior&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is objectively wrong, for example the study of morals and ethics enables a person to positively change their behavior (as can the knowledge of healthy eating help to change dietary habits.) However, there's no necessary causal relation between knowledge and behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25135" LastActivityDate="2021-02-13T22:11:56.180" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26642" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-14T12:36:24.760" Score="2" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;I came across an article written recently concerning the use of Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) to treat difficult-to-treat depression (DTD) and other mood disorders (&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33364761/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sackeim, et al. 2020&lt;/a&gt;). However, there is a conflict of interest with all the authors, as reported by &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33364761/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PubMed&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Professor Sackeim serves as a scientific adviser to the MECTA Corporation and Neuronetics Inc., as well as LivaNova PLC, which manufactures the Vagus Nerve Stimulation Therapy® System. He receives honoraria and royalties from Elsevier, Inc. and Oxford University Press&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr. Dibué is an employee of LivaNova PLC, manufacturer of vagus nerve stimulators and holds stock options.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr Bunker is a former employee and a current consultant of LivaNova USA PLC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Professor Rush has received consulting fees from Akili, Brain Resource Inc., Compass Inc., Curbstone Consultant LLC, Emmes Corp., Holmusk, Johnson and Johnson (Janssen), LivaNova USA PLC, Neurocrine Biosciences Inc., Otsuka-US, and Sunovion; speaking fees from LivaNova; and royalties from Guilford Press and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX (for the Inventory of Depressive Symptoms and its derivatives). He is also named coinventor on two patents: US Patent No 7,795,033: Methods to Predict the Outcome of Treatment with Antidepressant Medication, Inventors: McMahon FJ, Laje G, Manji H, Rush AJ, Paddock S, Wilson AS; and US Patent No 7,906,283: Methods to Identify Patients at Risk of Developing Adverse Events During Treatment with Antidepressant Medication, Inventors: McMahon FJ, Laje G, Manji H, Rush AJ, Paddock S.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looking at the &amp;quot;similar articles&amp;quot; at the bottom of &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33364761/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sackeim, et al. (2020)&lt;/a&gt;, the bottom one doesn't seem relevant to me, but except for the 4th suggestion, they all have team members in the originating article who have conflicts of interest, and with the 4th one (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2019.152156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bottomley, et al. 2020&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;J Bottomley, C LeReun, A Diamantopoulos and S Mitchell have received consultancy payments from LivaNova. B Gaynes has received consultation payments from LivaNova addressing models of treatment resistant depression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at Google Scholar,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the first 3 hits have Sackeim and/or Rush included&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;with the 4th hit (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707001924&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schlaepfer, et al. 2008&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the conduct of the study was partly funded by the manufacturer of the (VNS)TherapyTMSystem, Cyberonics Inc., Houston, TX, USA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the 5th hit includes Sackeim and Rush&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;with the 6th hit (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21103178&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;O'Reardon, et al. 2006&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dr. O'Reardon has received research support from and is on the speakers bureau for Cyberonics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the 7th hit includes Bunker, mentioned in &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33364761/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sackeim, et al. (2020)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the 8th hit includes Sackeim and Rush&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;My question&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there supporting research papers which are free from any conflicts of interest? What is the actual efficacy of VNS to treat depression?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am after some research which has not had the possibility of being influenced by funders who have &lt;strong&gt;anything&lt;/strong&gt; to do with the manufacture(s) of VNS equipment. All those I have seen so far have been funded wholly or in part by Cyberonics (now LivaNova) who manufacture the equipment used in the research. Basically it is like the &lt;a href=&quot;https://medicalsciences.stackexchange.com/q/10824/7951&quot;&gt;related question I have asked before in MedicalSciences.SE&lt;/a&gt; but more refined where I am looking at the possibility that there could be research funded independently from those who would have a financial gain from said research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bottomley, J. M., LeReun, C., Diamantopoulos, A., Mitchell, S., &amp;amp; Gaynes, B. N. (2020). Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy in patients with treatment resistant depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. &lt;em&gt;Comprehensive psychiatry, 98&lt;/em&gt;, 152156. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2019.152156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2019.152156&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;O'Reardon, J. P., Cristancho, P., &amp;amp; Peshek, A. D. (2006). Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) and treatment of depression: to the brainstem and beyond. &lt;em&gt;Psychiatry (Edgmont), 3&lt;/em&gt;(5), 54. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21103178&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21103178&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sackeim, H. A., Dibué, M., Bunker, M. T., &amp;amp; Rush, A. J. (2020). The Long and Winding Road of Vagus Nerve Stimulation: Challenges in Developing an Intervention for Difficult-to-Treat Mood Disorders. &lt;em&gt;Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment, 16&lt;/em&gt;, 3081-3093.&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33364761/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33364761/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S286977&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S286977&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schlaepfer, T. E., Frick, C., Zobel, A., Maier, W., Heuser, I., Bajbouj, M., ... &amp;amp; Hasdemir, M. (2008). Vagus nerve stimulation for depression: efficacy and safety in a European study. &lt;em&gt;Psychological medicine, 38&lt;/em&gt;(5), 651-61. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707001924&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707001924&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-02-16T14:38:11.433" LastActivityDate="2021-02-16T14:38:11.433" Title="Using Vagus Nerve Stimulation to treat Depression" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neural-network&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26643" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-14T21:06:54.650" Score="0" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the clinical name of fear of regrets? I'm thinking of something like arachnophobia or something ending with the prefix &amp;quot;-phobia&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;could it be something like apóleiafovía? (the literal greek translation of fear of loss)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27803" LastEditorUserId="27803" LastEditDate="2021-02-15T08:55:44.733" LastActivityDate="2021-03-17T15:07:20.810" Title="What is the fear of having regrets called?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26644" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26643" CreationDate="2021-02-15T01:27:51.357" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Arachnophobia = fear of spiders.&#xA;Neuroticism = condition to feer loss (but I won't diagnose conditions as I am not certified for this).&#xA;Atychiphobia = fear of failure&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27852" LastActivityDate="2021-02-15T01:27:51.357" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26646" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-15T10:51:43.820" Score="2" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;In behavioral economics and psychology, there are many experiments where participants receive variations of a piece of text depending on the experimental condition they are assigned to. For example, Beenen et al. [1] &amp;quot;used different messages in [an] invitation email to vary [an online community users'] perceptions of their uniqueness and who would benefit from their contributions.&#xA;... then tracked their contribution behavior following the invitation.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are the most important factors to consider when designing phrases for such experimental conditions?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We're planning to conduct an experiment on motivations to join an emerging online community. We have envisioned two types of incentives to join:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Engaging in high social activities, e.g., joining discussions or finding friends on Wikipedia Talk pages.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Engaging in low social activities, e.g., individually editing an article or creating a new article.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We've designed emails to send to a group of people inviting them to join the community. We've randomized people between the low and high social experimental conditions. Depending on their conditions, we randomly add one of the following phrases in their invitation email:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;High Social Activity Condition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Organize content with others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Collaboratively summarize content&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Collaboratively visualize complex content&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Study with others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Receive constructive feedback&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Build a reputation within a group&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Share your expertise&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Contribute skills to a group&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Supply knowledge to a group&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Collaboratively help others learn&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Get constructive feedback and collaboratively help others&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Build a reputation and share knowledge&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Low Social Activity Condition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Summarize content&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Organize and link knowledge&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Visualize complicated concepts&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Improve your learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Study/Acquire/Absorb new information&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Visualize and make new connections&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Contribute knowledge&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Make knowledge a public good&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Make knowledge easier to understand&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ideally these phrases should be the same in every aspect other than their meaning that should reflect the experimental condition. However, these phrases are currently different in the number of characters, number of words, number of syllables of words, how words sound, and shapes of characters. Each of these differences may confound our experiment design. Also, there may be other differences between these phrases that we are not aware of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please let us know of best practices/rules/studies about the design of phrases for experimental conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, I'd appreciate it if you inform us of other similar experimental studies about motivations to join communities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Ling, K., Beenen, G., Ludford, P., Wang, X., Chang, K., Li, X., ... &amp;amp; Kraut, R. (2005). Using social psychology to motivate contributions to online communities. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 10(4), 00-00.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11686" LastEditorUserId="11686" LastEditDate="2021-02-15T11:05:37.430" LastActivityDate="2021-02-15T11:05:37.430" Title="How to make phrases in experimental conditions as similar as possible?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26647" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26643" CreationDate="2021-02-15T14:10:20.197" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Although not a clinical diagnosis, in research on social media the term &lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;Fear of Missing Out&amp;quot; (FoMo)&lt;/strong&gt; is often used &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Przybylski et al., 2013)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Defined as a pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent, FoMO is characterized by the desire to stay continually connected with what others are doing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This sounds related, but perhaps more specific in that it focuses specifically on regret of not having experienced a rewarding experience online.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Przybylski, A. K., Murayama, K., DeHaan, C. R., &amp;amp; Gladwell, V. (2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Motivational, emotional, and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out.&lt;/a&gt; Computers in human behavior, 29(4), 1841-1848.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21" LastActivityDate="2021-02-15T14:10:20.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26648" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-15T14:25:35.090" Score="0" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’ve had multiple experiences lately where I didn’t look at my phone for a while and then right before I looked I made an approximation of the time and most of the time that approximation was right to 2-3 minutes precise, sometimes even exactly on the minute. Even after I took a nap midday I could still make a close prediction to what time it exactly was.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a part of the brain that unconsciously keeps on counting so that you have an idea of what time it is? Or did I just witness a series of lucky events?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27845" LastEditorUserId="27845" LastEditDate="2021-02-15T16:30:33.360" LastActivityDate="2021-02-15T16:30:33.360" Title="Does our brain unconsciously keeps track of time?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2021-03-12T19:37:41.750" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26654" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-17T03:05:19.143" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;When I go through &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Electroencephalography&lt;/a&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Band    Frequency (Hz)&#xA;Delta   &amp;lt; 4&#xA;Theta   ≥ 4 and &amp;lt; 8&#xA;Alpha   ≥ 8 and &amp;lt; 14&#xA;Beta    ≥ 14 &#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How much are wave length of brain wave?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks for  Bryan Krause's comment,&amp;quot;Brain waves&amp;quot; aren't EM waves,but mechanical wave has width as we known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And it's obvious brain wave is some kinds of wave, with &lt;a href=&quot;https://inbrain.tech/a-journey-into-the-nervous-system-brainwaves/1241/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frequency and scale&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When someone is awake, with his eyes closed, the EEG is dominated by the &lt;strong&gt;α (alpha) band&lt;/strong&gt;. This type of waves is characterized by a frequency of 8-13 Hz and a normal width &amp;lt;50 microvolts (µV).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the subject opens his eyes, α waves disappear and another wave type becomes evident: the &lt;strong&gt;β (beta) type&lt;/strong&gt;. These brainwaves have a higher frequency (30-35 Hz) and a width of 25-30 µV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then I still want to know &lt;strong&gt;Does brain wave has wave length?&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xKIAt.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xKIAt.png&quot; alt=&quot;representations of different brain wave bands&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21859" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-02-22T09:36:03.767" LastActivityDate="2021-02-22T09:36:03.767" Title="Does brain wave has wave length?" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="17" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2021-02-20T03:56:28.877" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26656" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-17T07:31:06.817" Score="1" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;People (especially in groups) act differently when they are aware that a superior is present. I am looking for a term that describes this phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similar but not quite what I mean:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne-Effekt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hawthorne effekt&lt;/a&gt; describes behavior change when people are aware that they are part of a study.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Henry_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Henry effect&lt;/a&gt; describes behavior change when people are aware that they are part of a study and in the controll group.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watching-eye_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;watching eye effekt&lt;/a&gt; describes behavior change when people feel watched (but doesn't take hierarchy into account, even drawn eyes work).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27869" LastActivityDate="2021-02-17T07:31:06.817" Title="Word for behavior change when a superior is around?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26657" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-17T12:58:55.253" Score="0" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;After human, which kind of mammals have highest degree of Synaptic pruning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27871" LastActivityDate="2021-02-17T12:58:55.253" Title="Mammals with highest synaptic pruning" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26658" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-17T15:12:25.273" Score="3" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would be grateful to anyone who takes some time to answer. Is there any up-to-date list of all psychological conditions, disorders and illnesses, in the strict neuro-psychiatric scientific definition?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would a list of such conditions, disorders and illnesses be different under the context of contemporary psychoanalysis (not of-course pure Freud based from the 1900s)? Or would they be included in the above-mentioned list? If not, is there the second list, &lt;em&gt;psychoanalytical oriented&lt;/em&gt;, but still based on scientific publications?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any form of such a list (or catalog), including &lt;em&gt;wikipedia, medpud or other major Journal publication or even a scientific book&lt;/em&gt;, would work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks and please do understand the &amp;quot;anonymous&amp;quot; posting&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27873" LastActivityDate="2021-02-20T14:32:48.850" Title="List of psychological conditions, disorders and illnesses" Tags="&lt;diagnosis&gt;&lt;publication&gt;&lt;disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26659" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26658" CreationDate="2021-02-17T15:33:48.047" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSM-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DSM-5&lt;/a&gt; is the current version of the diagnostic manual of the APA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's hard to say there is any such thing as a &amp;quot;strict neuro-psychiatric&amp;quot; definition; these definitions are by their nature not strict at all, but the DSM is probably the closest thing to some level of unified understanding in the field. That doesn't mean everyone agrees with it - they certainly don't - and you can infer from changes from edition to edition that it is all far from settled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-02-17T15:33:48.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26660" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25748" CreationDate="2021-02-17T17:46:22.513" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Chris' answer is very thorough and describes the theory of relatedness. However, in practice when psychiatrists use the term 'related' on the behavior section of the mental status exam, they are referring to the way a patient is relating to the physician or other provider in that conversation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this framework, a 'normally related' person would be having a conversation the way one would expect given cultural context. An 'oddly related' person would not. The term is extremely broad however and so needs specifics for clarification. For example, a person identified as oddly-related might be alternating between being engaged and totally disengaged from a conversation without obvious pattern. However any number of other 'oddities' in their engagement with the physician could also be classified this way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a relatively small component of the behavior section of mental status exam and will ideally be clarified where necessary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27874" LastActivityDate="2021-02-17T17:46:22.513" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26662" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-18T11:46:28.877" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been reading literature regarding Neuronal potential measurement. Conventionally, researchers use electrode-based method to measure action potential. However, as it's of high invasiveness and low throughput several optical methods such as Genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) and chemical methods such as Voltage-sensitive dyes (VSDs) are emerging. One fundamental question I came across was GEVIs indeed can be targeted to the site of interest however, there only a few chemical methods targeting specific cell type have been developed. One such recent literature is this one: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.0c00861&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.0c00861&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;I am wondering, are neuroscience researchers really interested in measuring neuronal potential at individual synapses (which is gradient) or only at the axon hillock (as it's the one which finally matters?). I mean does measuring gradient potential at a defined area is of any interest or is it just another piece of research making no use for neuroscience researchers? (I don't know whether it's useful to synapse plasticity research and all)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21474" LastEditorUserId="21474" LastEditDate="2021-02-19T02:17:06.323" LastActivityDate="2021-03-21T03:08:40.900" Title="Measuring postsynaptic potential vs action potential at axon hillock?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26663" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26662" CreationDate="2021-02-18T16:40:25.640" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Measuring voltage at a synapse gives you a measure of the &lt;em&gt;input&lt;/em&gt; to a cell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Measuring voltage at the axon hillock (for a typical neuron, practically the soma can substitute as well) gives you a measure of the &lt;em&gt;output&lt;/em&gt; of a cell: how near it is to threshold and/or if it has reached threshold and produced a spike.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Measuring voltage at intermediate sites in the dendritic tree can be a measure of spatial integration, which can be quite complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All of these measuring sites can be of interest, though there is a lot of variance in how difficult each will be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-02-18T16:40:25.640" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26664" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-19T02:58:44.613" Score="0" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we study the structure of the chemical synapse, by default we come across Axo-dendritic synapse consisting of various cell adhesion molecules/receptors etc. (like &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&amp;amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rndsystems.com%2Fresources%2Farticles%2Fsynaptic-proteins-and-receptors-schematic-rd-systems&amp;amp;psig=AOvVaw1vxnwMk4ZYuLg0L9yd0u-N&amp;amp;ust=1613789189625000&amp;amp;source=images&amp;amp;cd=vfe&amp;amp;ved=0CAYQjRxqFwoTCLCX7rP39O4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this&lt;/a&gt;). However, I was particularly interested in dendro-axonic synapses. Does the picture of synapse applies to every type of synapse or are we only aware of the axodendritic synapse? I mean, do the same cell adhesion or signalling molecules also present in dendro-axonic synapse? If yes, What could be their possible influence on passing action potential? I went through literature, but I couldn't find any focusing on subcellular structure and distribution at dendro-axonic synapses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21474" LastActivityDate="2021-02-19T02:58:44.613" Title="Structure of synapse" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26665" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-19T12:30:14.777" Score="0" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen this video :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=86x-u-tz0MA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Elizabeth Gilbert: Your elusive creative genius | TED Talk&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and based of this part of it that is trying to say that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They were always magnificent, because the dancers were professionals&#xA;and they were terrific, right? But every once in a while, very rarely,&#xA;something would happen, and one of these performers would actually&#xA;become transcendent. And I know you know what I'm talking about,&#xA;because I know you've all seen, at some point in your life, a&#xA;performance like this. It was like time would stop, and the dancer&#xA;would sort of step through some kind of portal and he wasn't doing&#xA;anything different than he had ever done, 1,000 nights before, but&#xA;everything would align. And all of a sudden, he would no longer appear&#xA;to be merely human. He would be lit from within, and lit from below&#xA;and all lit up on fire with divinity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And when this happened, back then, people knew it for what it was, you&#xA;know, they called it by its name. They would put their hands together&#xA;and they would start to chant, &amp;quot;Allah, Allah, Allah, God, God, God.&amp;quot;&#xA;That's God, you know. Curious historical footnote: when the Moors&#xA;invaded southern Spain, they took this custom with them and the&#xA;pronunciation changed over the centuries from &amp;quot;Allah, Allah, Allah,&amp;quot;&#xA;to &amp;quot;Olé, olé, olé,&amp;quot; which you still hear in bullfights and in flamenco&#xA;dances. In Spain, when a performer has done something impossible and&#xA;magic, &amp;quot;Allah, olé, olé, Allah, magnificent, bravo,&amp;quot; incomprehensible,&#xA;there it is -- a glimpse of God. Which is great, because we need that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess it must be some kind of connection via humans feeling or like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASMR&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ASMR technique&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or it Could, it is some kind of going to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathology&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;low level&lt;/a&gt; of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological defense mechanism&lt;/a&gt;, and swiping into different mechanism like &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Delusional projection&lt;/a&gt; at its &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_stage_theories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychoanalytical developmental level&lt;/a&gt;, as one mechanism to spread the psychological energy to others?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20869" LastActivityDate="2021-02-19T12:30:14.777" Title="About magical experience at dance (elusive creative genius)" Tags="&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26666" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-19T12:41:58.033" Score="3" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been reading about the Pygmalion effect. From what extracted, it means positive expectations positively influence performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now I'm curious to know this... does the Pygmalion effect also apply to negative expectations in addition to positive expectations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27888" LastEditorUserId="27848" LastEditDate="2021-02-20T19:40:24.677" LastActivityDate="2021-02-20T19:40:24.677" Title="Pygmalion effect and negative expectations" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;performance&gt;&lt;attitudes&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26669" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26548" CreationDate="2021-02-19T15:26:17.750" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've seen that movie, it's awesome!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd call that &amp;quot;subconscious knowledge&amp;quot; - because you know about something and it influences your behaviour, but your brain and reasoning aren't yet developed enough to understand what you know (and to link it to the behaviour).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27886" LastActivityDate="2021-02-19T15:26:17.750" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26672" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-19T21:33:47.780" Score="0" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that many teenagers suffer from chronic sleep-deprivation. This varies from country to country, but it is widely known that especially students suffer from this condition. Most have a mild form (averaging less than 7 hours of sleep a day), while some have a severe form (averaging less than 5 or 6 hours of sleep a day) of sleep-deprivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Temporary effects of sleep-deprivation might not seem as a surprise. However, which is more concerning is the permanent effects, especially on the brain. Do mild or severe forms of sleep-deprivation have a permanent effect on the cognitive performance of the brain through neuronal death? Maybe measurable by IQ. If so, would it be significant or insignificant and reversible through the restorative function of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27896" LastActivityDate="2021-02-19T21:33:47.780" Title="What is the permanent effect of sleep-deprivation on the brain and its cognitive function?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26673" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26677" CreationDate="2021-02-20T02:22:03.497" Score="-2" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;Both ELI5 explanations below are still too complicated. Please simplify? &lt;a href=&quot;https://old.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/8ozyln/eli5_when_glancing_at_a_clock_why_does_the_first/e07btq8/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Alfenhose&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An interesting phenomena, it is because the brain doesn't store what you saw during the time your eye spent moving, instead the brain fills in this time with what you saw when you stopped moving your eye.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wikipedia has an article on &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronostasis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;chronostasis and the stopped clock illusion&lt;/a&gt; if you want to read about it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://old.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/8ozyln/eli5_when_glancing_at_a_clock_why_does_the_first/e07c0fy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gnonthgol&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you move your eye or blink the images from your eyes are just blurry or dark and therefore quite useless for your brain to interpret. So the brain use the information from the view before and after the eye movement to fill in the blanks. So if you move your eye to the clock as the second hand is moving your brain does not see the second hand moving and interprets it as if it have been standing still during the entire time you moved your eye. So the first second looks longer because your brain makes the wrong assumption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27897" LastActivityDate="2021-02-21T04:44:00.517" Title="Explain like I'm 5 – After glancing at a clock, why does the first second sometimes feel longer than the rest?" Tags="&lt;time&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2021-02-21T19:38:54.443" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26674" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26666" CreationDate="2021-02-20T08:17:01.297" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Overall one can't deny the influence of expectations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After reading more about the matter, I'd say that &lt;strong&gt;Pygmalion effect&lt;/strong&gt; (or Rosenthal effect) only speaks of positive expectations others might have on us, so it doesn't apply to&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;negative expectations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;expectations we have for ourselves.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the negative expectations there's the &lt;strong&gt;Golem effect&lt;/strong&gt; and according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golem_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt; it is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a psychological phenomenon in which lower expectations placed upon individuals either by supervisors or the individual themselves lead to poorer performance by the individual.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case it's irrelevant who has the expectations (if they come from outside or from ourselves). Also, from &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-0663.74.4.459&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Babad, E. Y.; Inbar, J.; Rosenthal, R. (1982), &amp;quot;Pygmalion, Galatea, and the Golem: Investigations of biased and unbiased teachers&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;, the effect&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;represents the concerns of social scientists and educators, which are focused on the negative effects of self-fulfilling prophecies&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Notice that the German-born American psychologist Robert Rosenthal is behind both of these effects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Then, and according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychologenie.com/difference-between-galatea-effect-pygmalion-effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Psychologinie&lt;/a&gt;, there's the &lt;strong&gt;Galatea effect&lt;/strong&gt; which is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a phenomenon where people's own opinions about their ability and self-worth influence their performance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The following image (also from the same website) pretty much describes the difference between Galatea and Pygmalion effects&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DcguL.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/DcguL.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27848" LastActivityDate="2021-02-20T08:17:01.297" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26675" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26658" CreationDate="2021-02-20T14:32:48.850" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Apart from the DSM-5, the World Health Organisation maintains the International Classification of Diseases, currently on it's 11th revision (&lt;a href=&quot;https://icd.who.int/en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ICD-11&lt;/a&gt;). It contains far more than just psychological disorders, but these are included.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26684" LastActivityDate="2021-02-20T14:32:48.850" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26677" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26673" CreationDate="2021-02-21T01:48:10.050" Score="-3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The human visual system does not operate in a real-time, continuous way, but rather takes constant ‘snapshots’ of images the eye captures. The perception of dynamic world is based on the brain’s interpretation of these snapshots. Think about it as a ‘frame rate’ of eyes, in which there exist a maximum frame rate that eyes are able to capture. The real mechanism is much more complicated than that, of course, as human observers are able to learn to capture things with much higher ‘frame rate’. Another important thing is, the rate at which eyes capture things changes all the time. For example, when you rotate your eyes, or looking from one point to another (‘saccade’), the sensitivity of the visual system is greatly reduced, and all you see is a blurry image.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of the frame rate, the brain would assume the experience is continuous, and automatically fill ‘gaps’ between each frame. It’s like how cartoon works: you see a series of image of a running horse, although these are only still images, you can still kinda perceive continuous motion, and see the horse is running.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The clock illusion originated from the way brain establishes the frame-to-frame relationship from the blurry image captured by the rapid saccade movement. Your visual focus, as well as your eyes, would travel relatively grate distance to look up the clock, therefore there would be a rather large ‘blurry gap’ that needs to be filled in. The brain would trick you into believing what you see after fixing your eyes was kept the same during your whole eye movements. For example, the clock is hitting at 8s mark, and you took 2s to move your eyes from the floor to the clock hanging on the ceiling, and by the time you fixate your eyes at the clock, the clock is already ticking at 10s mark. Your brain would assume the clock was hitting 10s mark already, BEFORE you rotated your eye, and would also add up the 2s you’ve spent on rotating your eye. Therefore the actual 10s appeared to be much longer than it should be.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27903" LastEditorUserId="27903" LastEditDate="2021-02-21T04:44:00.517" LastActivityDate="2021-02-21T04:44:00.517" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26678" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-21T03:36:33.060" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm curious about the current research and literature on the effects of diet on learning. Cause myelin is supposed important for myelination, which is relevant for learning according to &amp;quot;The Talent Code&amp;quot; by Daniel Coyle and myelination requires a diet of fats, which I read somewhere once. So I was wondering what nutrients and diet help learning if any?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27905" LastActivityDate="2021-02-21T03:36:33.060" Title="Is there any relevance of diet on learning?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26679" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-21T09:59:42.057" Score="5" ViewCount="73" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do we know so far whether neuroticism declines with age?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found contradictory sources about the evolution of neuroticism across the life span.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691614544528&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Barlow et al. (2014) &amp;quot;The origins of neuroticism&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That is, after emerging in childhood, neuroticism remains relatively stable before showing gradual age-related decreases that continue into old age (Eaton, Krueger, &amp;amp; Oltmanns, 2011; Roberts &amp;amp; Mroczeck, 2008; Roberts, Walton, &amp;amp; Viechtbauer, 2006)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012897&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Donnellan &amp;amp; Lucas (2008) &amp;quot;Age Differences in the Big Five Across the Life Span&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The one exception was that Neuroticism was slightly negatively associated with age in the BHPS [British Household Panel Study] and slightly positively associated with age in the GSEOP [German Socio-Economic Panel Study].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Roberts et al. (2006) Patterns of Mean-Level Change in Personality Traits Across the Life Course&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is also this graph displaying the evolution of emotional stability across the life span&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eEr4C.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/eEr4C.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27906" LastEditorUserId="27906" LastEditDate="2021-02-24T19:40:04.190" LastActivityDate="2021-02-24T19:40:04.190" Title="Does neuroticism decline with age?" Tags="&lt;neuroticism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26680" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-21T10:59:42.927" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that there are two kinds of intelligence, and I had figured that out even without learning about it in Psychology. One that you pick-up or learn from your experiences and education etc...and one that coordinates how you pick up that experience and how it shapes your understanding. This is to mean, that an intrinsic intelligence inherited from ancestors guides what aspect of the experience of an event is picked-up and how we react to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, I also always believed that the distinction was not concrete. I always thought that it is not possible to tell them apart concretely. Both sort of diffuse into each other or to put it in another have a fuzzy or changing line that seperates the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recently, I've read that the two kinds of intelligence- Fluid and Crystallize - are there. Former is independent of experience and learning while latter is not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this something (the distinction) that can be established concretely ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How can we say that the problem solving, sort of intuitive skills are truly independent of experiences or learning?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27907" LastActivityDate="2021-02-21T10:59:42.927" Title="Fluid Intelligence vs Crystallized Intelligence" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26683" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26686" CreationDate="2021-02-22T10:20:31.863" Score="0" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/15223/7604&quot;&gt;excellent clear answer from @RobinKramer&lt;/a&gt; to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/15222/are-brain-waves-electromagnetic-waves&quot;&gt;Are brain waves electromagnetic waves?&lt;/a&gt; I have become very interested in the mechanisms behind the measurement techniques using EEG and MEG.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From the answer, I understand that an EEG measures the action potentials within a neuron from one end to the other and a MEG measures the magnetic field generated by the action potentials. What I am wondering is; generally speaking, will the waveform outputs from each measuring device mirror each other in frequency and µV scales or are they different?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2021-02-22T12:58:35.733" Title="Difference in MEG and EEG readings" Tags="&lt;eeg&gt;&lt;electrophysiology&gt;&lt;brain-waves&gt;&lt;meg&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26684" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26685" CreationDate="2021-02-22T11:11:38.330" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neurons can have up to 100,000 dendrites and typically only have a single axon. This means a neuron typically has a very large number of inputs while only having a single output. Surely you can see the math doesn't add up here. There are not enough axons to connect to all of the dendrites, so where are the dendrites getting their information from?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27911" LastActivityDate="2021-02-22T12:27:09.223" Title="How are neurons able to effectively communicate when there are way more dendrites than axons?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26685" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26684" CreationDate="2021-02-22T12:01:41.997" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I did a quick Google search and I found out the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although the &lt;a href=&quot;https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/what-neuron&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;University of Queensland, Australia&lt;/a&gt; states that the neuron has three main parts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A neuron has three main parts: dendrites, an axon, and a cell body or &lt;strong&gt;soma&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a part which is neglected to be mentioned, which answers your question, and that is the axon terminals (&lt;a href=&quot;https://biologydictionary.net/axon-terminal/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biology Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Dendrites&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are the receiving parts of the neuron. Dendrites receive synaptic inputs from axons, with the sum total of dendritic inputs determining whether the neuron will fire an action potential — a brain signal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Axons&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These are the long, thin structures in which action potentials are generated (the transmitting part of the neuron). After initiation, action potentials travel down axons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Axon Terminals&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(Also called synaptic boutons, terminal boutons, or end-feet) are distal terminations of the telodendria (branches) of an axon. An axon, also called a nerve fiber, is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that conducts electrical impulses called action potentials away from the neuron's cell body, or soma, in order to transmit those impulses to other neurons, muscle cells or glands.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon_terminal&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/REaVm.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/REaVm.png&quot; alt=&quot;Structure of a typical neuron&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Image courtesy of &lt;a href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neuron_Hand-tuned.svg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;WikiMedia Commons&lt;/a&gt; and licensed under the&lt;br&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported&lt;/a&gt; license.&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While there is one axon, there are many terminations from that axon. Synapses at the end of the axon terminals pass the action potential to either another neuron cell body to be passed to many more or to muscle cells or glands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Be aware though, that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neurons are not in direct contact with each other. There are extremely small spaces between each neuron known as synapses. Because there is not a direct connection, neurons must communicate with each other indirectly through the use of neurotransmitters. This communication is facilitated by the conversion of the electrical signals within the neuron to the chemical signals within the synapse.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://biologydictionary.net/axon-terminal/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Biology Dictionary&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-02-22T12:27:09.223" LastActivityDate="2021-02-22T12:27:09.223" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26686" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26683" CreationDate="2021-02-22T12:58:35.733" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems I misunderstood how the outputs may be viewed from an MEG.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a non-invasive test, which:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;measures the magnetic fields generated by electric currents in the brain. The magnetic field measurements are in the range of femto-tesla to pico-tesla. MEG provides a very accurate resolution of the timing of neuronal activity (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-2327.128676&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Singh, 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A copyrighted image of an MEG recording can be viewed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4001219/figure/F3/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Figure 3&lt;/a&gt; of Singh (2014) and looks very different to a normal EEG with a typical montage, which can be viewed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK390346/figure/f01/?report=objectonly&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Figure 1&lt;/a&gt; within &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK390346/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Louis, et al. (2016)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Louis, E. K. S., Frey, L. C., Britton, J. W., Hopp, J. L., Korb, P., Koubeissi, M. Z., ... &amp;amp; Pestana-Knight, E. M. (2016). The normal eeg. Electroencephalography (EEG): An Introductory Text and Atlas of Normal and Abnormal Findings in Adults, Children, and Infants [Internet]. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK390346/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK390346/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Singh S. P. (2014). Magnetoencephalography: Basic principles. &lt;em&gt;Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology, 17&lt;/em&gt;(Suppl 1), S107–S112. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-2327.128676&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-2327.128676&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2021-02-22T12:58:35.733" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26687" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-21T01:43:03.860" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can someone, after having anger to a large level or anxiety to a large level, develop mental retardation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In simple words, can someone being normal and mental sound, become mentally retarded in just a moment?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let me explain it more clearly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose someone is normal but suddenly he sees something, which makes him very anxious and tensed. He has developed anger and lost the happiness he was having.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The thing that I am trying to ask you is: can some psychological causes (thinking, anger, etc.) instantly lead to mental retardation?&#xA;By retardation, I mean the retarding of thinking ability, planning, cognitive behaviour, and all other parameters of a well-functioning brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I searched on Google &amp;amp; found in page 2 of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/intellectual-disability-mental-retardation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/intellectual-disability-mental-retardation&lt;/a&gt; that genetics, child birth/pregnancy problems, or head injuries are common causes, but with two-thirds of all children who have intellectual disability, the cause is unknown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Lots" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-02-22T16:22:56.873" LastActivityDate="2021-02-22T16:22:56.873" Title="Can someone get mentally retarded suddenly?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26689" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25600" CreationDate="2021-02-22T23:13:38.423" Score="-2" Body="&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There are a lot of assumptions you are making here. &amp;quot;Being traumatizable&amp;quot; isn't really a trait. We evolved a brain in a certain way, with an amygdala and hippocampus that work a certain way. Those components have been critical in our ability to form knowledge + interact socially with one another. Instances of malfunction in the face of trauma/PTSD are a side-effect of an imperfect biological system, BUT that doesn't render the whole system useless/detrimental in the evolutionary sense.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Secondly, you're assuming it does reduce biological fitness. I'm sure it makes it harder in indirect ways, but ultimately, PTSD symptoms actively mess with very few people's ability to have sex and pass on genes. PTSD does seem to have a strong, albeit complex genetic component. For as long as people with PTSD are reproducing (and most of them are) then there will be a genetic predisposition for developing PTSD in the gene pool.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Third, how is it designed? I am confused by this one. People have a tendency to wrongly assume that almost every trait is an adaptive trait. Maybe in this case it is and we just haven't found what the beneficial feature is BUT, it is highly more likely and logical that a) as stated above, it's just a by-product of another highly adaptive trait aka, our particular brain structure and function. They come in a 2-for-1 deal and as much as PTSD sucks or might reduce biological fitness, those are completely offset by the benefits and increase in fitness due to our brain circuitry.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;OR b) it's a neutral variation that doesn't significantly increase or decrease our fitness, therefore is maintained in the population because it has no reason to be selected out. Another reminder that our own negative human experience of suffering through PTSD doesn't inherently mean much in the eyes of evolution, as long as we can reproduce.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27920" LastActivityDate="2021-02-22T23:13:38.423" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26691" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25782" CreationDate="2021-02-23T00:16:04.427" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that the internalizing/externalizing dichotomy refers to the way symptoms are expressed, not the source/cause of the disorder. Internalizing disorders are those that mostly have an internal impact and tend to lead sufferers to withdraw or hide their affliction. Externalizing disorders tend to impact others more directly with outward-focused behaviors. Therefore, I don't think hypervigilance would be considered an &amp;quot;externalizing&amp;quot; feature even though it is directed at the outside world, because all that is directed outward is &lt;em&gt;attention&lt;/em&gt;; the primary impact on the individual is the internal mental stress that maintaining a hypervigilant state creates. Outbursts of violence clearly would be &amp;quot;externalizing&amp;quot;, however.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DSM-5 doesn't categorize by internalizing/externalizing, and puts PTSD in the category of &amp;quot;Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders&amp;quot;. The DSM-5 mentions specifically the combination of internalizing and externalizing symptoms in these disorders:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In some cases, symptoms can be well understood within an anxiety- or fear-based context. It is clear, however, that many individuals who have been exposed to a traumatic or stressful event exhibit a phenotype in which, rather than anxiety- or fear-based symptoms, the most prominent clinical characteristics are anhedonic and dysphoric symptoms, externalizing angry and aggressive symptoms, or dissociative symptoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the paper you refer to, the authors did group PTSD with the internalizing disorders. They've done this in reference to a &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25360393/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;previous paper&lt;/a&gt; which identified three factors, labeled Internalizing, Externalizing, and Thought Disorder, that together explained well the spectrum of conditions. However, PTSD is not really involved in this paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's unclear why they chose to include it as &amp;quot;internalizing&amp;quot; in the Caspi 2020 paper, except that their approach meant that if they included it at all it had to be placed in one of those three categories. Given the other items on the list, I think it's quite reasonable to group PTSD along with anxiety, phobias, and depression, rather than among substance dependence or schizophrenia, but I don't think this should be taken as anything but a choice of designation within the scope of this particular paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-02-23T00:16:04.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26693" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-23T04:35:34.033" Score="3" ViewCount="44" Body="&lt;p&gt;If anxiety is caused by overactive noradrenergic neurons, then why are SNRIs effective at mitigating and controlling the attacks? Shouldn't the extra norepinepherine, now sitting around in the synaptic cleft due to the inhibitor, exacerbate the symptoms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I found this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4780187/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;The noradrenergic paradox: implications in the management of depression and anxiety&quot;&gt;article on PubMed&lt;/a&gt;, which addresses the paradox, though from what I read, it fails to explain the why behind the phenomenon. ( I do have to admit that I didn't make it through the entire article.) The article analyzed several published studies and comes to the conclusion that there is no significant evidence to prove that SNRIs are anxiogenic. The studies actually show otherwise—that SNRIs effectively treat anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question still remains though, as to &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; SNRIs effectively reduce anxiety symptoms and fail to replicate those attacks when it is seemingly mimicking the biological mechanism behind anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27922" LastActivityDate="2021-02-23T04:35:34.033" Title="Why don't SNRIs cause anxiety?" Tags="&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26694" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-23T07:42:16.313" Score="0" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any difference between &amp;quot;nature&amp;quot;and &amp;quot;temperament&amp;quot;?&#xA;Although both appear to be same ,but former(nature) appears to be permanent while latter(temperament) isn't?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is my understanding valid?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="22007" LastActivityDate="2021-02-23T07:42:16.313" Title="Difference between temperament and nature?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;nature-nurture&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26697" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="15342" CreationDate="2021-02-23T20:03:54.790" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is this quote from a cognitive linguistics book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Evans &amp;amp; Green (2006) &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction&lt;/em&gt;. p. 102&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;we introduced the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: the idea that language might&#xA;play some role in determining non-linguistic thought, and that&#xA;speakers of different languages might therefore have different&#xA;conceptual systems. We concluded that, while the strong version of&#xA;this hypothesis is rejected by most linguists, there is some evidence&#xA;in favour of the weak version of the hypothesis. Although cognitive&#xA;linguistics makes the case for a common conceptualising capacity,&#xA;accounting for general cross-linguistic patterns, such a position is&#xA;nevertheless consistent with and even predicts substantial&#xA;cross-linguistic variation. Given that the linguistic system both&#xA;reflects the conceptualising capacity, and in turn influences the&#xA;nature of knowledge by virtue of the language-specific categories it&#xA;derives, cognitive linguistics is consistent with a weak version of&#xA;the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27906" LastActivityDate="2021-02-23T20:03:54.790" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26700" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-24T20:47:21.343" Score="3" ViewCount="100" Body="&lt;p&gt;In George Orwell's &lt;em&gt;1984&lt;/em&gt;, a great deal of space is devoted to explaining &amp;quot;Double-think,&amp;quot; part of The Party's method of &amp;quot;reality control.&amp;quot; Here's a particularly clear passage:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Doublethink means the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one's mind simultaneously, and accepting both of them. The Party intellectual knows in which direction his memories must be altered; he therefore knows that he is playing tricks with reality; but by the exercise of doublethink he also satisfies himself that reality is not violated. The process has to be conscious, or it would not be carried out with sufficient precision, but it also has to be unconscious, or it would bring with it a feeling of falsity and hence of guilt. Doublethink lies at the  very heart of Ingsoc, since the essential act of the Party is to use conscious deception while retaining the firmness of purpose that goes with complete honesty...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another really good passage describes the practice of doublethink. O'Brien, a member of the inner party, produces a photograph of some people who are supposed to have never existed. But then he destroys it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;It exists!&amp;quot; he [Winston, the protagonist] cried!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;No,&amp;quot; said O'Brien... &amp;quot;Ashes,&amp;quot; he said. &amp;quot;Not even identifiable ashes. Dust. It does not exist. It never existed.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;But it did exist! It does exist! It exists in memory. I remember it. You remember it.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;I do not remember it,&amp;quot; said O'Brien.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's interesting (and terrifying), but I suspect it isn't possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As I understand, in Freudian theory, repression is an unconscious process that happens to traumatic or unacceptable memories. That's clearly different from doublethink, even if it were possible (and there doesn't seem to be any evidence that it is.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is doublethink actually possible? Are there any documented examples of it? Is there anything similar to it, possible or otherwise?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27934" LastActivityDate="2021-02-28T15:22:28.053" Title="Is Orwellian Double-think Psychologically Possible?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26701" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-24T23:35:11.873" Score="0" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently we have seen many billionaires doing mass manipulation with the use of twitter.&#xA;Is there any line of research of the categories of manipulation these people are doing on twitter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27936" LastActivityDate="2021-02-24T23:35:11.873" Title="How does twitter allow certain people to perform mass manipulation?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;personality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26702" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-25T00:15:12.657" Score="0" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;With the appearance of covid-19 and the measures that many governments have took to decrease the infection rates of their governing populations loneliness has become more common.&#xA;I myself find it harder and harder to think clearly&#xA;Does prolonged loneliness effects intelligence adversely(or cognitive impairment is also common in undiagnosed covid-19) ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27936" LastActivityDate="2021-02-25T00:15:12.657" Title="How does loneliness impair intelligence?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26703" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-25T01:15:34.387" Score="0" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if this question makes sense, or if projective identification is the term, so let me explain further.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suspect that much of harassment (romantic, sexual) stems from the harasser wanting attention of any kind, even negative attention. I read in a psychological article that it is possible for the receiver to dampen the dynamic by accepting and metabolizing the feeling that the harassment evokes in them and attempting to understand why the other person has acted that way (given that both are influencing the dynamic in some manner).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is my theory sound? Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27658" LastActivityDate="2021-02-25T01:15:34.387" Title="Projective identification in attraction and attention seeking behaviors" Tags="&lt;attraction&gt;&lt;projection&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26704" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="24627" CreationDate="2021-02-25T02:18:09.843" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The problem with minimax algorithms is that they do not take into consideration long-term plans. Sometimes, taking short-term risks (by making moves that are not fully bullet-proof) can result in long-term positions that are far superior. Highly skilled players weigh these in their decision making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Similarly, making bold moves can also jeopardize the opponent's plans and thus, in the end can result in very good moves (that was Fisher's specialty).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As of the brain, it uses learning rules that are local (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00003356&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Page, 2000&lt;/a&gt;) and probably favors reinforcement (e.g., &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.stanford.edu/class/psych209/Readings/SuttonBartoIPRLBook2ndEd.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sutton &amp;amp; Barto, 2015&lt;/a&gt;). It might mimick minimax in some situations, but it can probably also mimick other optimization procedures based on internal settings, biases, and predisposition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We wished the brain was so &amp;quot;rationale&amp;quot; as to adopt a single, well-understood algorithm, but nop, no such luck!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10828" LastActivityDate="2021-02-25T02:18:09.843" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26705" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-25T14:01:08.187" Score="2" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been trying to search for a term or theory to explain adopting behaviors when bad / hurtful things happen to a person. For example, if a person is abused and ends up being an abuser because it happened to them, even if it is a maladaptation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So if this &lt;a href=&quot;https://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/parents-struggle-break-cycle-abuse/story?id=8549642&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ABC article&lt;/a&gt; that says 1/3 of people that are abused become abusers, what is the mechanism, or term, for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am asking because someone I know adopts bad behaviors when they happen to them once or twice, and justify it as 'that is how the world works'. I'm trying to understand why this happens so quickly for this person from clearly outlying events.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27941" LastActivityDate="2021-02-25T14:01:08.187" Title="What is the term or theory to explain adopting behaviors when hurt by someone else" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26710" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26711" CreationDate="2021-02-26T00:35:59.087" Score="1" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Serotonergic psychedelics&amp;quot; is apparently a sub-class of psychedelics. Now, I believed that the pharmacological definition of psychedelics is that they all agonise 5HT receptors, especially the 2A subtype. However, the existence of this serotonergic sub-class implies that perhaps some psychedelics don't operate on serotonin receptors. Unless, something else is meant by &amp;quot;serotonergic&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does &lt;em&gt;serotonergic&lt;/em&gt; in this case refer to what receptors they agonise, or, what chemical the substances imitate. If the latter, that means that some psychedelic substances are able to agonise 5HT receptors without imitating serotonin, whereas the serotonergic psychedelics do this while imitating serotonin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the former, then that means that not all psychedelics agonise the 5HT receptors, meaning that &amp;quot;agonises the 5HT serotonin receptors, especially the 2A subtype&amp;quot;, &lt;strong&gt;is not&lt;/strong&gt; the definition of psychedelics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27450" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-26T09:28:30.320" LastActivityDate="2021-02-26T09:28:30.320" Title="What is meant by &quot;serotonergic&quot; in &quot;serotonergic psychedelics&quot;" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;&lt;psychedelics&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26711" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26710" CreationDate="2021-02-26T08:25:32.320" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;It's messy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;The classical psychedelics (mescaline, DMT &lt;em&gt;etc.&lt;/em&gt;) are derived from plants (peyote, ayahuasca) and have a long history of use by shamans and originally often mainly served religious purposes, before being exploited by the New World peoples for recreational (and occasionally scientific) purposes. LSD is also considered to be classic yet it is a synthetic derivative, but readily made from lysergic acid derivatives extracted from the mold &lt;em&gt;Claviceps purpurea&lt;/em&gt;. These classic psychedelics are indeed all, primarily, 5HT2A agonists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having sad that, 'psychedelic' is a classical term meaning 'mind opening', and was first &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.etymonline.com/word/psychedelic&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;coined back in the 1950's&lt;/a&gt;. It's a broad, ill-defined term often associated with illicit drugs, hippies and alternative rock. The term serotinergic drug is more specific, while the term '5HT2A agonist' is yet even more specific. The former also includes MDMA, which is imo mind-opening, yet (generally) not hallucinogenic. The latter includes those drugs that produce profound hallucinations, i.e., the classic psychedelics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the reason I tend to move away from 'psychedelic' as often soft drugs like THC are also termed 'psychedelic'. Hallucinogenics are a more specific class of drugs and is the one I think you are referring to, i.e., those compounds producing &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hallucinations&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, sensations that are not there (a hallucination being 'a perception in the absence of external stimulus that has qualities of real perceptions').&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now what about non-serotinergic hallucinogens? Well, there are particularly potent hallucinogens that are primarily not serotinergic, but glutaminergic, particularly the &lt;a href=&quot;https://adf.org.au/drug-facts/dissociatives/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;dissociative anesthetics&lt;/a&gt;. These include &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/hallucinogens-dissociative-drugs/what-are-effects-common-dissociative-drugs-brain-body&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PCP and ketamine&lt;/a&gt; that are hallucinogenic as they&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;can produce visual and auditory distortions and a sense of floating and dissociation (feeling detached from reality)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, here again it comes down to a matter of definition; a 'true' hallucination is a percept in the absence of a stimulus; a distortion is more akin to an &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.britannica.com/topic/illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, namely&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;an instance of a wrong or misinterpreted perception of a sensory experience&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, most and perhaps all hallucinogens are 'dirty' drugs, in that they affect multiple neurotransmitter systems and therefore have broad effects. MDMA for instance is psychedelic because of its 5HT effects but definitely has stimulant, dopaminergic properties too (having the methamphetamine backbone this isn't surprising of course).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In all, not only is the scientific terminology messy, also the science behind it is messy, as 5HT2A agonists may still have effects on other neurotransmitter systems too. This can explain why every 5HT2A drug has slightly, or even grossly different actions than structurally related ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-02-26T09:04:36.807" LastActivityDate="2021-02-26T09:04:36.807" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26712" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-26T13:19:17.567" Score="0" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;This paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28093772/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;The Reciprocity of Prosocial Behavior and Positive Affect in Daily Life&amp;quot; (Snippe et al. 2018)&lt;/a&gt;, concludes that &amp;quot;The effect of prosocial behavior on positive affect was stronger for individuals high on Neuroticism.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder if we can infer that the inverse is also true: antisocial behaviors trigger stronger negative affects in highly neurotic individuals?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27906" LastActivityDate="2021-02-26T13:19:17.567" Title="Do antisocial behaviors trigger stronger negative affects in highly neurotic individuals?" Tags="&lt;neuroticism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26714" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26718" CreationDate="2021-02-27T15:17:21.663" Score="1" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am searching to find about the method of understanding the reason of being unconsciousness of the psychological defense mechanism, as described &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychoanalytic theory, a defence mechanism (American English:&#xA;defense mechanism), is an unconscious psychological mechanism that&#xA;reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful&#xA;stimuli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So  I have one question :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What would happen, if using the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanism&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychological defense mechanisms&lt;/a&gt; of the third level:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectualization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Intellectualization&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In finding the path of changes in the psychological defense mechanism, what effect will it have on our psychological defense system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Will this improve our understanding of the mental defense system?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or it will strengthen that mechanisms (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectualization&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Intellectualization&lt;/a&gt;) in the mental defense system and return to the second level mechanisms such as (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schizoid fantasy&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;passive aggression&lt;/a&gt;) and further transfer to the first level reactions (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;denial&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_distortion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Distortion&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24975" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-02-28T14:32:29.190" LastActivityDate="2021-02-28T15:34:17.743" Title="About Tracking the psychological defense mechanism" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;freud&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26715" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-27T15:26:53.963" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Famous psychologists have proven their theories on a few subjects (really small sample sizes, like n = 3). Yet, now, we are taught that to prove any psychological theory right, we need to gather data from many subjects (with tongue-in-cheek: above 30). But seriously... (here's the question I'm asking):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Q:&lt;/strong&gt; is it somehow unscientific or wrong to only show a psychological theory with so small sample size such as n = 1 (one person, but many measurements on him/her)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4874" LastActivityDate="2021-02-27T15:26:53.963" Title="Can you prove a psychological theory on a one-person research design?" Tags="&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26716" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-27T16:19:20.357" Score="3" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the cognitive bias called where you put an ethical boundary just above where you are?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's where people often say that something is morally acceptable to do something up to a certain point in which in then becomes immoral/unethical, however they come up with that boundary based on how immoral of a thing they are okay doing themselves and it doesn't have to be immoral, for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person who illegally downloads books says the only type of pirating that is acceptable is for books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person who smokes 10 packs of cigarettes a month says it's okay to smoke 10 packs of cigarettes a month and no more.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if this is an official bias but I remember watching a documentary and this came up, but I forgot what they referred to it as and what the documentary was called &lt;em&gt;facepalm&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27956" LastEditorUserId="27956" LastEditDate="2021-02-28T11:22:43.867" LastActivityDate="2021-02-28T11:22:43.867" Title="What is the cognitive bias called where you put an ethical boundary just above where you are?" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26717" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-27T17:57:15.673" Score="0" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to this &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5756147/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt;, agonism of the 5-HT&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$_{2A}$&lt;/span&gt; is necessary for hallucinogenesis. Now, not all hallucinogens are primarily serotonergic, but does there exist hallucinogens that aren't at all serotonergic? If so, that means there are hallucinogens that don't agonise the necessary receptors for hallucinogenesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would that mean that these non-serotonergic hallucinogens only produce visual distortions (illusions), and not &amp;quot;true&amp;quot; hallucinations? And do all serotonergic hallucinogens activate the 5-HT&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$_{2A}$&lt;/span&gt; receptors, or are there serotonergic hallucinogens that don't activate exactly this receptor, but still primarily or partially operates on all the other serotonergic receptors?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27450" LastActivityDate="2021-02-27T17:57:15.673" Title="Non-serotonergic hallucinogens" Tags="&lt;hallucinations&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;&lt;psychedelics&gt;&lt;cognitive-distortion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26718" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26714" CreationDate="2021-02-28T14:32:43.720" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The conscious and unconscious aspects of Sigmund Freud's ego-defence mechanisms refer to the awareness of the thought patterns and actions; and how they are affecting the person and those around them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, someone going through an intense traumatic experience can completely dissociate from the acts in play. There are examples of this in many areas of trauma. One example was discussed in &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19778/7604&quot;&gt;my answer to the question “Can calmness happen during the fight-flight response?”&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, here are differing levels of conscious awareness within &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychpage.com/learning/defenses.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the different defence mechanisms&lt;/a&gt;. Take a look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/15733/7604&quot;&gt;my answer to another question concerning dissociation&lt;/a&gt; as an example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this in mind, it doesn't make things so clear cut when talking about (un)conscious thought patterns and actions when referring to the defence mechanisms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When dissociation is at play in the first linked example, after the traumatic event, the person who has been traumatised can find themselves unable to remember everything that happened during the event. Some combat veterans have said that they cannot remember how they got out of some situations when others around them got killed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;They didn't consciously make the decision to dissociate from the trauma, but:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dissociation is a psychological defence mechanism (Cardeña, 1994) which helps the person to get through the situation with as little harm as possible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to your example of ego-defence mechanisms (Intellectualisation), in order to intellectualise the incident in question, you need to consciously think about alternative thought patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way of describing intellectualisation is by saying that it is creating some form of “justification” for the highly emotional and/or traumatic event (real or semi-real).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related to rationalization, intellectualization involves removing the emotion from emotional experiences, and discussing painful events in detached, uncaring, sterile ways. Someone who intellectualizes becomes very distant from their feelings, and when asked to describe their feelings may find it difficult. They may understand all the words that describe feelings, but have no idea what they really feel (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychpage.com/learning/defenses.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Niolon, 2004&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would add to that by saying that if you have no idea what you really feel, you will have no complete idea &lt;strong&gt;why&lt;/strong&gt; you feel that way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Glen O. Gabbard M.D. spoke about &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychpage.com/learning/defenses.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;defence mechanisms&lt;/a&gt;, including intellectualisation, in pages 31 and 32 of his book (Gabbard, 2004). He basically talked about the relevant defence mechanisms with regard to “the patient's level of personality organisation”.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Emphasis mine&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The psychodynamic clinician uses a combination of defense mechanisms,internal object relations, ego strengths or weaknesses, and an assessment of reflective function to determine the patient’s level of personality organization (Table 2–2). This assessment differs from one based on DSM-IV-TR categories (American Psychiatric Association 2000). &lt;strong&gt;It involves diagnostic understanding of the person, rather than a diagnostic label. Its value is primarily in the way it informs the psychotherapy&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[...]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Table 2-2&lt;/strong&gt; Level of organization&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;div class=&quot;s-table-container&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;table class=&quot;s-table&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;thead&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;th&gt;Neurotic level&lt;/th&gt;&#xA;&lt;th&gt;Borderline level&lt;/th&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;/thead&gt;&#xA;&lt;tbody&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;Superego well integrated but punitive&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;Superego integration minimal; capacity for concern and guilt fluctuating considerably&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;High-level defenses, including repression, reaction formation, intellectualization, doing and undoing, and displacement&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;Primitive defenses, including splitting, projective identification, idealization, and devaluation&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;Identity reasonably stable, and internal object relations characterized by ambivalently regarded whole objects and triangular conflict&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;Identity diffusion and object relations of a “partial” rather than “whole” nature—split into “all good” and “all bad” aspects&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;Notable ego strengths, including good impulse control, intact  judgment, consistent reality testing, and capacity for sustained work&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;Nonspecific ego weaknesses, including impulsivity, impaired judgment, brief compromises in reality testing, and difficulty sustaining work&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;Conflict-based pathology&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;Significant deficits existing alongside conflicts&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;Intact reflective function&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;Impaired reflective function&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tbody&gt;&#xA;&lt;/table&gt;&#xA;&lt;/div&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[...]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People who are neurotically organized experience a great deal of intrapsychic conflict, and they have intact reflective function so they can recognize that their representation of a person or event is not necessarily the same as the actual reality of the person or event. They also can understand that their behaviors are motivated by internal beliefs or feeling states. By contrast, people with a borderline level of organization often have substantial deficits in the self-structure alongside their conflicts and have poorly developed reflective function. They often experience things as just happening to them, rather than being motivated by internal states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Further reading&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For more on dissociation:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19948/term-for-trance-during-violent-episodes&quot;&gt;Term for Trance During Violent Episodes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;For other forms of defence mechanisms:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;My answer to &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/16230/when-are-dreams-created&quot;&gt;When are dreams created?&lt;/a&gt; covers repression and suppression&lt;br&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/23222/can-the-act-of-studying-more-be-a-defense-mechanism&quot;&gt;Can the act of studying more be a defense mechanism?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;(Loosely) &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/19023/due-to-gestalt-psychology-is-the-face-an-illusion&quot;&gt;Due to Gestalt Psychology, is the face an illusion?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cardeña, E. (1994) The domain of dissociation. In: &lt;em&gt;Dissociation: Clinical and theoretical aspects&lt;/em&gt;, Edited by: Lynn, S. J. and Rhue, J. W. 5–31. New York, NY: Guildford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kernberg, O. F. (1976). Technical considerations in the treatment of borderline personality organization. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 24(4), 795-829. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/000306517602400403&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/000306517602400403&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gabbard, G. O. (2004). &lt;em&gt;Long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy: A basic text&lt;/em&gt;. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing. Available from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.academia.edu/31570203/Glen_O_Gabbard_Long_Term_Psychodynamic_Psychotherapy_A_Basic_Text_Core_Competencies_in_Psychotherapy_2004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.academia.edu/31570203/Glen_O_Gabbard_Long_Term_Psychodynamic_Psychotherapy_A_Basic_Text_Core_Competencies_in_Psychotherapy_2004&lt;/a&gt;_&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Niolon, R. (2004) &lt;em&gt;Defences&lt;/em&gt;. PsychPage &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.psychpage.com/learning/defenses.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.psychpage.com/learning/defenses.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-02-28T15:34:17.743" LastActivityDate="2021-02-28T15:34:17.743" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26719" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26700" CreationDate="2021-02-28T15:22:28.053" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;When double-think is explained to mean&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one's mind simultaneously, and accepting both of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It can be seen to be the same as repression in a sense, whereby one version of events is known, but repressed in favour of an alternative version of events, but it isn't repression in the true sense of the word when referring to the Freudian theory of ego-defence mechanisms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you look at &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/26718/7604&quot;&gt;my other answer today regarding the defence mechanisms&lt;/a&gt;, I pointed out that they can involve both unconscious and conscious thought processes and actions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for repression, it is &lt;a href=&quot;http://changingminds.org/explanations/behaviors/coping/repression.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a powerful ego defence mechanism&lt;/a&gt; whereby it can prevent a thought or memory which can be psychologically damaging from reaching the conscious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When mentioning the interaction between O'Brien and Winston in your question, where O'Brien was trying to instil in Winton that some people didn't really exist when they did, I can see where the confusion lies when linking that to repression. The knowledge of these people's existence is trying to be altered by O'Brien and Winston was wanting to have nothing to do with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The key to the whole idea of repression is that it is a completely unconscious defence mechanism. When we deliberately and consciously try to push away thoughts, this is suppression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Although some claim that suppression is a psychoanalytical myth with no scientific support, fMRI data suggest otherwise. For more on that, you can read &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/neuroscience-meets-psychoanalysis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;Defense Mechanisms: Neuroscience Meets Psychoanalysis&lt;/em&gt; in Scientific American&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anderson, M. C., Ochsner, K. N., Kuhl, B., Cooper, J., Robertson, E., Gabrieli, S. W., ... &amp;amp; Gabrieli, J. D. (2004). Neural systems underlying the suppression of unwanted memories. Science, 303(5655), 232-235. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089504&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089504&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bailey R, Pico J. (2020) Defense Mechanisms. In: &lt;em&gt;StatPearls&lt;/em&gt;. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing. Available free from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2021-02-28T15:22:28.053" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26720" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-02-23T08:56:03.923" Score="2" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;In Parkinsons disorder the substanstia nigra pars compacta get affected and there is destruction of the dopaminergic neurons, which ultimately disturbs the direct and indirect pathways. Now we know indirect pathway is overall inhibitory to movement and direct pathway is overall stimulatory.&#xA;Now because both of these pathways are not working properly, can we consider this as a reason for both hypokinetic and hyperkinetic disorders seen in Parkinsons? Or there is some other explanation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Chloritone_360" LastActivityDate="2021-03-01T00:45:25.550" Title="Why both hypokinetic and hyperkinetic changes are seen in Parkinsons?" Tags="&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26721" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26720" CreationDate="2021-02-25T10:30:25.533" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The motor system has a LOT of paralell pathways. The model you state is very old and told in med school because it looks nice, but it just doesn't fit the reality. For example, there are a lot of papers trying to come up with models of tremor generation involving corticothalamic loops and beyond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I suggest reading Motor Control chapters of this book, which is very short and introductory, but beautiful. Neurophysiology: A Conceptual Approach by R. Carpenter, fifht edition. Or you could go with Gazzaniga and even better Kandels'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20443" OwnerDisplayName="Agus" LastActivityDate="2021-02-25T10:30:25.533" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26722" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26720" CreationDate="2021-02-28T17:24:26.767" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not highly proficient in neuroscience, but I managed to find the following  from &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536995/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sonne et al. (2020)&lt;/a&gt; which may help while you wait for a more proficient answer. (Emphasis mine)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While most forms of Parkinson disease are due to the insidious degeneration of the substantia nigra over a lifetime or during old age, &lt;strong&gt;the cause of that degeneration is unknown&lt;/strong&gt;. These forms of Parkinson disease are termed idiopathic due to their unknown cause. A great deal of research is being done to identify these causes, which can include peripheral inflammation,[15] metabolic insufficiency,[16] and various environmental toxins,[17][18][19] which have been shown to affect the substantia nigra. Several other neurological conditions exhibit parkinsonian-like signs and symptoms by affecting the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. These include drug-induced parkinsonism in which a patient is taking a pharmaceutical compound, such as antipsychotics and antihypertensive, that affects dopamine metabolism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol start=&quot;15&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Brydon L, Harrison NA, Walker C, Steptoe A, Critchley HD. Peripheral inflammation is associated with altered substantia nigra activity and psychomotor slowing in humans. Biol Psychiatry. 2008 Jun 01;63(11):1022-9. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2885493/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC free article&lt;/a&gt;] [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18242584&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PubMed&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Yang L, Wang H, Liu L, Xie A. The Role of Insulin/IGF-1/PI3K/Akt/GSK3β Signaling in Parkinson's Disease Dementia. Front Neurosci. 2018;12:73. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5826217/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC free article&lt;/a&gt;] [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29515352&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PubMed&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Langston JW, Irwin I, Langston EB, Forno LS. 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP+): identification of a metabolite of MPTP, a toxin selective to the substantia nigra. Neurosci Lett. 1984 Jul 13;48(1):87-92. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6332288&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PubMed&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Gash DM, Rutland K, Hudson NL, Sullivan PG, Bing G, Cass WA, Pandya JD, Liu M, Choi DY, Hunter RL, Gerhardt GA, Smith CD, Slevin JT, Prince TS. Trichloroethylene: Parkinsonism and complex 1 mitochondrial neurotoxicity. Ann Neurol. 2008 Feb;63(2):184-92. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18157908&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PubMed&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Tanner CM, Kamel F, Ross GW, Hoppin JA, Goldman SM, Korell M, Marras C, Bhudhikanok GS, Kasten M, Chade AR, Comyns K, Richards MB, Meng C, Priestley B, Fernandez HH, Cambi F, Umbach DM, Blair A, Sandler DP, Langston JW. Rotenone, paraquat, and Parkinson's disease. Environ Health Perspect. 2011 Jun;119(6):866-72. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3114824/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PMC free article&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21269927&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;PubMed&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Reference&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Sonne J, Reddy V, Beato MR. (2020) Neuroanatomy, Substantia Nigra. In: &lt;em&gt;StatPearls&lt;/em&gt;. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Available from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536995/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536995/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" OwnerDisplayName="Chris Rogers" LastActivityDate="2021-02-28T17:24:26.767" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26725" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-01T14:05:51.673" Score="2" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;How are emotions and thoughts connected?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;_Are certain emotions triggering certain types of thoughts?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;_How is the link between emotions and thoughts materialized in the brain and the body?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27906" LastActivityDate="2021-03-01T14:05:51.673" Title="How are emotions and thoughts connected?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26726" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-01T21:41:42.120" Score="6" ViewCount="91" Body="&lt;p&gt;Long term anxiety causes memory loss. Sources: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.calmclinic.com/anxiety/signs/memory-loss&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.calmclinic.com/anxiety/signs/memory-loss&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://now.uiowa.edu/2014/06/stress-hormone-linked-short-term-memory-loss-we-age&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://now.uiowa.edu/2014/06/stress-hormone-linked-short-term-memory-loss-we-age&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there theories about the biological purpose of this connection? Is there a benefit for humans to lose memory access when under elongated periods of stress?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27965" LastActivityDate="2021-03-27T07:39:37.220" Title="Is there a benefit for humans to lose memory access when under elongated periods of stress?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26728" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26729" CreationDate="2021-03-02T02:17:08.527" Score="2" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the paper proposing recurrent convolutional neural networks (RCNN), &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_cvpr_2015/papers/Liang_Recurrent_Convolutional_Neural_2015_CVPR_paper.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Recurrent Convolutional Neural Network for Object Recognition&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;, it is stated that &amp;quot;recurrent synapses typically outnumber feed-forward and top-down (or feedback) synapses&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Up to this point, my understanding was that top-down processing and recurrent connections refer to the same thing... What is the difference between the two?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26809" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-03-02T08:49:16.630" LastActivityDate="2021-03-02T13:07:07.880" Title="What is the difference between recurrent and feedback synapses?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26729" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26728" CreationDate="2021-03-02T08:49:02.820" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The different types of connections can be histologically identified and separated on the basis of their connectivity in the cortex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recurrent synapses in the cortex can be defined as &lt;a href=&quot;https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82111916.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Douglas &amp;amp; Martin, 1995)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...] connections between layer 2 and 3 pyramidal cells, in which a target neuron projects&#xA;back to its source neuron in a tight positive feedback loop&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feedforward and feedback neurons can be histologically defined as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3219532/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Berezovskii &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2011)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, feedforward (FF) projections originate in the superficial layers of the cortex and terminate in layer 4, while feedback (FB) connections originate in the superficial and deep layers, and their axon terminals tend to avoid layer 4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The cortical layers and their functions are schematically depicted in Fig. 1.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MKdRo.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MKdRo.png&quot; alt=&quot;cortex&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. Schematic of the cortex showing recurrent connections (rc) in layer 2/3 and feedforward and feedback connections that avoid layer 4. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/156785162.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rolls &amp;amp; Mills (2017)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3219532/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Berezovskii &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Comp Neurol&lt;/em&gt; (2011); &lt;strong&gt;519&lt;/strong&gt;(18): 3672–83&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/156785162.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Rolls &amp;amp; Mills, &lt;em&gt;Neurobiol Learn Mem&lt;/em&gt; (2017); &lt;strong&gt;145&lt;/strong&gt;: 205–21&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-03-02T13:07:07.880" LastActivityDate="2021-03-02T13:07:07.880" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26730" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-02T08:55:26.977" Score="3" ViewCount="75" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that anxiety leads to high blood pressure due to elevations of adrenaline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It also can also increase cortisol levels which as &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/stress/art-20046037&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the Mayo Clinic points out&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;curbs functions that would be nonessential or detrimental in a fight-or-flight situation&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;alters immune system responses&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;increases sugars (glucose) in the bloodstream and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;suppresses the digestive system, the reproductive system and growth processes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to Jayne Leonard in Medical News Today (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/327212&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2019&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;having long-term high blood pressure — which doctors refer to as hypertension — can cause people to feel anxious about their health and future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And, while interestingly she points out that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;some medications for anxiety can increase blood pressure&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am not talking about fears about health after being diagnosed with high blood pressure due to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/atherosclerosis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;arterial atherosclerosis&lt;/a&gt; for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;What I am referring to is the possibility of stress/anxiety being caused by the high blood pressure&lt;/strong&gt;, maybe creating an elevation of adrenaline or cortisol through some kind of neural connection with the heart and blood supply.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this possible?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anxiety can lead to &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/stress-anxiety-depression/controlling-anger/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;aggression&lt;/a&gt; and/or other behaviours — as an example (as @starckman pointed out in the comments) there is a study by Kouchaki &amp;amp; Desai (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037796&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2015&lt;/a&gt;) that showed a link between anxiety and unethical behavior in the workplace — and &lt;strong&gt;I was wondering if high blood pressure not caused by mental health problems could lead to those mental health problems and possibly elevate the blood pressure problems in a vicious cycle&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kouchaki, M., &amp;amp; Desai, S. D. (2015). Anxious, threatened, and also unethical: How anxiety makes individuals feel threatened and commit unethical acts. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Applied Psychology, 100&lt;/em&gt;(2), 360–375. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037796&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037796&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Leonard, J. (2019). What is the link between anxiety and high blood pressure? &lt;em&gt;Medical News Today&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/327212&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/327212&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-03-12T07:55:21.503" LastActivityDate="2021-04-11T08:02:05.210" Title="High blood pressure can lead to anxiety?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26732" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-02T09:51:58.330" Score="0" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the difference between self-confidence and self-esteem?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it that self-confidence is more about feeling secure concerning one's own capacity to address problems, while self-esteem is more about a global appreciation of one-self?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are they separate, and to what extent? Is it possible to have high self-esteem but low self-confidence, and low self-esteem but high-self-confidence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I guess that normally the two are correlated&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27906" LastEditorUserId="27906" LastEditDate="2021-03-02T15:44:09.137" LastActivityDate="2021-03-02T15:44:09.137" Title="How are related self-confidence and self-esteem?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26733" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26730" CreationDate="2021-03-02T11:17:33.423" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Neuroticism can lead to hostility:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.academia.edu/download/41438138/Neuroticism_and_agreeableness_differenti20160122-10012-16dfc06.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Egan &amp;amp; Lewis (2011): &amp;quot;Neuroticism and agreeableness differentiate emotional and narcissistic expressions of aggression&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A key finding in this study is the influence of N on a variety of&#xA;distress types; Suls and Martin (2005) have observed the ‘neurotic&#xA;cascade’ produced by N. Hyper-reactivity, differential exposure to&#xA;negative events because of the environments high-N persons select and&#xA;create for themselves, differential appraisal for events (e.g.,&#xA;perceiving experiences as more troubling than they really are),&#xA;negative emotional transfer, and problems changing maladaptive ways of&#xA;coping with distress and challenges &lt;strong&gt;all combine to upset a high-N&#xA;person, which may make them hostile&lt;/strong&gt;. However, high N does not drive&#xA;outwardly directed narcissistic aggression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I am not clear about the difference between anxiety and neuroticism, as well as between hostility and aggression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Egan, V., &amp;amp; Lewis, M. (2011). Neuroticism and agreeableness differentiate emotional and narcissistic expressions of aggression. &lt;em&gt;Personality and Individual Differences, 50&lt;/em&gt;(6), 845-850. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.007&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.007&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27906" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-03-12T08:00:27.870" LastActivityDate="2021-03-12T08:00:27.870" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26734" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26732" CreationDate="2021-03-02T11:36:27.460" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Technically, this is an English Language question really rather than about psychology or neuroscience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Esteem is about &lt;strong&gt;respect and admiration&lt;/strong&gt;. See &lt;a href=&quot;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/esteem&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/esteem&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, someone who has self-esteem respects themselves and admires their achievements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So to expand on that, if you have self-esteem, that helps to have self-confidence which leads to a sense of security in an emotional sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-03-02T11:48:48.860" LastActivityDate="2021-03-02T11:48:48.860" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26736" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-03T01:31:26.683" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the best strategies which are suitable for an autistic person?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Are there any online tests which could reveal learning styles for such a person ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27970" LastActivityDate="2021-03-03T01:31:26.683" Title="Online tests for autistic person to detect best suited learning style" Tags="&lt;autism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26738" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-03T09:03:56.490" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;I want to conduct a laboratory experiment with a cohort of students to assess the determinants of their willingness to adopt an environmentally friendly technology in farming. I want them to imagine they were not students but a farmer. I want to create a most realistic decision situation.&#xA;What is the name of this method/field of experimental design?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27972" LastActivityDate="2021-03-03T09:03:56.490" Title="Role play in laboratory experiments - literature hints?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;&lt;environmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26739" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-03T10:52:20.893" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;Topic background: How beliefs and personal values of a farmer influence his/her willingness to consider/adopt environmentally friendly innovations on-farm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to assess if relative &lt;strong&gt;preferences&lt;/strong&gt; for given attributes of a presented technology (as assesd in Discrete Choice Experiments - DCE) can be used/included into the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to assess the &lt;strong&gt;intention to adopt&lt;/strong&gt; a this technology. In other words: Can I combine DCEs with TPB?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27972" LastActivityDate="2021-03-03T10:52:20.893" Title="Combining Discrete Choice Experiments with Theory of Planned Behavior" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behavioral-economics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26741" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26744" CreationDate="2021-03-04T12:18:22.703" Score="5" ViewCount="196" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't really understand, why the inward current (for example, during depolarization the flow of Na+ inside the cell) is negative? In the textbooks, it is always depicted with minus values (see picture). Ion current is supposed to be positive in the direction of positive charge movement, Na+ is positive, then why is the inward current negative?&#xA;Thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UytNn.png&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/UytNn.png&quot; alt=&quot; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27978" LastActivityDate="2021-03-04T15:38:41.877" Title="Why is inward electrical current negative?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26742" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26493" CreationDate="2021-03-04T12:34:22.047" Score="3" Body="&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One synapse can have different types of receptors for the same neurotransmitter (NT) (example: Glutamate - most glutamatergic synapses have both AMPA and NMDA types of receptors). Synapses can also have receptors for different neurotransmitters (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10818/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;One neuron can also have different types of synapses which operate with different NT. An example of that would be shunting inhibition, when first comes excitatory synapse (NT - Glu), which depolarizes the membrane, but AP propagation is stopped by the inhibitory synapse (NT - GABA) which comes later. &lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ANKaI.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ANKaI.png&quot; alt=&quot;see picture&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope it helps, I am also just a beginner :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27978" LastActivityDate="2021-03-04T12:34:22.047" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26744" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26741" CreationDate="2021-03-04T15:22:39.960" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is just a chosen convention in biology. All that matters is we use a consistent convention. The one chosen is that outward positively charged ion movement is positive, inward positively charged current is negative; outward negatively charged current is negative, inward negatively charged current is positive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It would be valid to do everything the opposite way, just change some signs in relevant equations, but since this is the convention everyone uses it's best to stay consistent with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Importantly, there is not really a conflict with &amp;quot;current direction is the way positive charge would flow&amp;quot; convention in physics, it's just that you have to determine a reference point. We think of the inside of a cell as the reference, so when positive charge moves from the reference to outside the reference (outward current), we call this positive current. We plot positive currents moving in the opposite direction as negative, which makes sense, but rather than only calling these &amp;quot;negative current&amp;quot; we recognize that this means positive charge is moving inward so a synonym is &amp;quot;inward current&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This convention is also consistent with the convention chosen for voltage. We describe a &amp;quot;negative membrane potential&amp;quot; when the inside is negative relative to the outside. Current is given by:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I = V/R&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, when membrane voltage is negative we say the inside is more negative than outside, and we get a &amp;quot;negative current&amp;quot; if we open some sodium channels and let those positive ions move in. If we used the other current convention we'd have to use a non-standard equation like&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I = -V/R&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;or change the direction in which we describe voltage across the membrane to describe the potential of the outside rather than potential of the inside.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2021-03-04T15:38:41.877" LastActivityDate="2021-03-04T15:38:41.877" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26747" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17204" CreationDate="2021-03-05T07:10:33.330" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Intuition: my environment is totally uncorrelated with anything I am aware of but it still leads me to believe something is about to happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emotion: a state of mind evoked by physical sensations, particular memories, and expectations of the future.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Affect: the outward manifestation of my emotions which may or may not be deliberate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27985" LastActivityDate="2021-03-05T07:10:33.330" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26748" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-05T23:32:39.567" Score="1" ViewCount="76" Body="&lt;p&gt;Approximately how much &amp;quot;bandwidth&amp;quot;, in bits per second, can typical human visual perception process?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consider &amp;quot;The Matrix&amp;quot;, where we assume a near-perfect digital encoding that can reproduce any experience nearly perfectly, compressed with a digital intelligence beyond our own. Now they need to create a cable that plugs into our brainstem. How much bandwidth would that cable need to carry, in order to simulate full human visual experiences?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For auditory processing -- given all the effort in digital audio compression, it seems likely the answer is somewhere close to 256 kbps (256,000 bits per second), at least within an order of magnitude, give or take. But vision seems far more complex, and I can't find any study or near-approximation that seems plausible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Presumably the answer is &lt;em&gt;somewhere&lt;/em&gt; from 1 mbps (1,000,000 bits per second) to 1,000 times that amount. A naive approach would be what is the theoretical bandwidth to create any arbitrary video, to the fidelity where human perception could not distinguish differences. However, this is so grossly far from accurate that I suspect it is almost meaningless. I am relatively aware that our visual and auditory processing compress and transform the inputs we perceive, leading to optical illusions etc, which would suggest a much lower number than we might otherwise expect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27986" LastActivityDate="2021-03-08T18:39:32.070" Title="What is the bandwidth of visual perception?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;encoding&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26750" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-07T15:32:11.937" Score="1" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read some articles about &lt;a href=&quot;https://fs.blog/2021/02/feynman-learning-technique/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Feynman Learning Technique&lt;/a&gt; but I don't know why the fourth part, transmit, is optional?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;From my perspective, the implementation part should be more important because the practice and theory breed feedback that can be used to optimize the theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9140" LastActivityDate="2021-04-07T17:03:30.353" Title="Why is the last part(transmit) of the Feynman learning technique optional?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;reinforcement-learning&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26751" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26750" CreationDate="2021-03-08T16:08:48.383" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;From your source:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you really want to be sure of your understanding, run it past someone (ideally someone who knows little of the subject). The ultimate test of your knowledge is your capacity to convey it to another. You can read out directly what you’ve written. You can present the material like a lecture. You can ask your friends for a few minutes of their time while you’re buying them dinner. You can volunteer as a guest speaker in your child’s classroom or your parents’ retirement residence. All that really matters is that you attempt to transmit the material to at least one person who isn’t that familiar with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This step being &amp;quot;optional&amp;quot; in this particular write up (it isn't noted as such everywhere) is just a practical matter; the author does not want you to be discouraged and feel the technique cannot be applied when you &lt;strong&gt;don't have someone else to teach to&lt;/strong&gt; or don't feel comfortable doing this. It's suggesting that it's ideal to spread what you've learned as a final check on your knowledge, with some ideas here of how to accomplish that, but failing to do so doesn't make the other steps useless, it just makes it slightly incomplete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-03-08T16:08:48.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26754" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-09T13:07:54.163" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;QUESTION&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to know the industry term or phrase that's related to grouping similar concepts or identifying a concept that shares the least similarities amongst a list of concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;BACKGROUND&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to develop some exercises that help my students improve their ability to &amp;quot;group things&amp;quot;.  For example, I might give them questions like:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consider this list of items: apple, orange, banana, grape, quantitative easing.  Pick the item that does not belong in this list and explain why.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Consider this list of items: apple, orange, banana, quantitative easing, income tax, monetary policy, cancer, heart disease, arthritis.  Organize this list by placing each item from this list into three separate lists.  Give each of your three lists a name.  Explain the reason for the name you chose for each list.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to read more into this field of study so I can design better questions that accommodate each person's learning style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2486" LastActivityDate="2021-03-09T13:07:54.163" Title="industry term to describe ability to group similar concepts" Tags="&lt;educational-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26755" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-09T15:55:16.203" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some online simulations in physics and chemistry, nearly all fields of science can be simulated online. I wonder if psychology can be &amp;quot;simulated&amp;quot; too, and I wonder if there is something already being used to do that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9698" LastActivityDate="2021-03-09T15:55:16.203" Title="Is there a way to test psychological theories online?" Tags="&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2021-03-12T20:01:07.913" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26756" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="12416" CreationDate="2021-03-10T10:07:46.723" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Isn't this just an effect of the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Confirmation Bias&lt;/a&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27198" LastActivityDate="2021-03-10T10:07:46.723" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26757" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-10T12:12:51.500" Score="0" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the basis or sequence of events that leads to someone believing something is true. Is there a framework that can be used to understand how people develop belief? How do they go about doing it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Id imagine very few people who take human induced global warming to be fact would understand the underlying science to verify it for them selves. For most people global warming or Qanon is just someone telling them something. So how do they determine which is true.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11296" LastActivityDate="2021-03-25T02:28:28.953" Title="Why do people believe what they believe?" Tags="&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;belief&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26758" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26808" CreationDate="2021-03-10T17:18:56.170" Score="7" ViewCount="92" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is an often-cited quote by Virginia Satir, saying&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;“We need 4 hugs a day for survival.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;We need 8 hugs a day for maintenance.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;We need 12 hugs a day for growth.”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthline.com/health/hugging-benefits&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;has&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://bethrogerson.com/build-better-you-8-hugs/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;been&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://medium.com/@Bewith/why-we-need-8-hugs-a-day-548863867123&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;cited&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.forbes.com/sites/christinecomaford/2020/08/22/are-you-getting-enough-hugs/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;a lot&lt;/a&gt;, but I could not find a source for said quote. Furthermore, I tried to find scientific evidence that hugs or other signs of physical affection are required for &amp;quot;survival&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jstor.org/stable/23561474&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Traina, C. (2005). Touch on Trial: Power and the Right to Physical Affection. Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics&lt;/a&gt; states the following (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This essay's thesis is simple and seemingly quixotic: Affectionate, firm, apprpriate touch &lt;strong&gt;is a human need&lt;/strong&gt; and a moral right. Infants and children &lt;strong&gt;require&lt;/strong&gt; attentive, affetctionate, intimate touch from adults in order to thrive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic115&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Floyd, K. (2015). Affection Exchange Theory. In The International Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Communication (eds C.R. Berger, M.E. Roloff, S.R. Wilson, J.P. Dillard, J. Caughlin and D. Solomon).&lt;/a&gt; states (emphasis mine):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Affectionate communication is fundamental to the human relational experience. Across cultures, the expression of affection contributes to the formation, maintenance, and satisfaction level of close personal relationships. Floyd's affection exchange theory (AET) proposes that affectionate communication evolved among humans due to its contributions to the important &lt;strong&gt;goals of survival&lt;/strong&gt; and procreation. This article introduces and evaluates AET, and details empirical work identifying the benefits of affectionate behavior for relationships and individual physical and mental health.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This suggests that physical intimacy is a necessity for survival.  However, I was unable to find any studies that showed that there were clear, observable and repeatable adverse effects on human adults from a lack of physical affection. Are there any studies on that matter?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25383" LastActivityDate="2021-03-18T23:43:37.073" Title="Is there any scientific evidence that lack of physical affection has adverse effects in human adults?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26759" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26757" CreationDate="2021-03-11T06:42:04.420" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a good question, but keep in mind that when you ask a broad question, you typically get a broad answer - ie, I won't go into much detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;First Impressions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In general, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;belief&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;attitude&lt;/a&gt; formation is thought to be implicit, rather than explicit.  That is, when you ask someone for their belief or attitude, it may appear as though they simply look (introspect) into the part of their brain that encodes that belief or attitude, and then report on it.  However, in experimental setups, beliefs and attitudes often appear to form in the process of reporting about them.  A well known example of this is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introspection_illusion#Choice_blindness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;choice blindness&lt;/a&gt;, in which the initial act of explaining choices not actually made, forms subjects' subsequent attitudes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once formed, attitudes seem to persist through counterevidence.  For example, suppose a person is provided with evidence that a fact is true, followed by evidence that it is false.  If the evidence sources carry the same weight, then in total, the person ought to be ambivalent about the fact's truth.  However, in experimental conditions, the first piece of information carries more weight than the second - that is, more evidence is required to change an attitude than it does to form it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Well known examples of this effect include &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief_perseverance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;belief perseverance&lt;/a&gt;, in which the effect of initial evidence provided persists after being discredited; &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anchoring&lt;/a&gt; (and similar &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_(belief_revision)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;conservatism bias&lt;/a&gt;), in which the first piece of information provided disproportionately affects subsequent judgements; and the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_truth_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;illusory truth effect&lt;/a&gt; (and similar continued influence effect), in which even a single exposure to false claims is not undone by subsequent discrediting information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Second Impressions&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In real-life situations, beliefs and attitudes are often not formed in isolation as they are in a lab.  Thus, while a person being exposed to a new fact might form a new belief, they may instead relate it to a pre-existing belief.  For example, when choosing between a mainstream or conspiracy theory, a person may prefer the first piece of information they are exposed to, as in a lab, or they may have pre-existing reasons to prefer one view over another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The most common general framework for understanding the process of balancing new beliefs with pre-existing attitudes is that of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/cognitive-consistency-theories&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive consistency&lt;/a&gt;, which is a preference for our beliefs and attitudes to be congruent (not contradictory).  This framework encompasses several well-supported theories, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;cognitive dissonance&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-perception_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;self-perception theory&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;balance theory&lt;/a&gt;, each of which proposes a slightly different underlying mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In summary, as a rough guideline, attitude formation balances overly-weighted initial evidence with the need for consistency across all beliefs and attitudes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-03-25T02:28:28.953" LastActivityDate="2021-03-25T02:28:28.953" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26760" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-11T20:54:42.380" Score="9" ViewCount="90" Body="&lt;p&gt;When searching methods to reduce stress and discussing my problems with people I know, it was suggested to me that I journal thoughts, that is write down what worries me elaborately on paper.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I started doing it and I felt my mind having less 'noise' and clearing itself over time. However, I can't seem to understand why this worked and I can't find any good sources which explains why this worked in simple terms. Here is a website discussing &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentID=4552&amp;amp;ContentTypeID=1#:%7E:text=Journaling%20helps%20control%20your%20symptoms,and%20identifying%20negative%20thoughts%20and&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;journaling&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest analogy I can come to for how it feels to journal is how it feels to have a complicated thought relating to mathematics, in my head it is difficult to work out the algebra and see how it plays out but I can easily work my thoughts if I have a paper at hand (and a calculator handy).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hopefully someone can shed some light on what's going on here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27439" LastActivityDate="2021-04-17T13:42:09.630" Title="Why does journaling seem to reduce stress?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26761" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-12T06:02:23.763" Score="1" ViewCount="55" Body="&lt;p&gt;I understand that by definition,  the mean IQ is 100.&#xA;And that over time IQ tests are updated to ensure that mean remains 100.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But if IQ scores were not updated, what would mean IQ be now and how has IQ changed over time?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19420" LastEditorUserId="52" LastEditDate="2021-03-15T01:04:48.197" LastActivityDate="2021-03-15T03:30:11.890" Title="How have mean raw IQ scores changed over time (e.g., over the last 100 years)?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26763" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25456" CreationDate="2021-03-12T14:54:09.310" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just as a point of note, you said you are quoting from Wikipedia, but it is actually WikiWand you are linking to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The article cited &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Little, et al. (2018)&lt;/a&gt; which states that (&lt;strong&gt;emphasis mine&lt;/strong&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DBT is based on a biosocial theory of BPD, which posits that the core difficulties seen in this diagnosis stem from the relationship between two factors. Firstly, those diagnosed have a biological dysfunction of the emotion regulation system; and secondly, &lt;strong&gt;their environment is invalidating, inhibiting the use of positive behavioural skills and reinforcing the use of less helpful ones&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/09638230601182094&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Feigenbaum, 2007&lt;/a&gt;; Linehan &amp;amp; Kehrer, 1993)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feigenbaum (2007) states (again, &lt;strong&gt;emphasis mine&lt;/strong&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The DBT model assumes that: (i) individuals with BPD lack key interpersonal and self-regulation skills, and (ii) &lt;strong&gt;personal and environmental factors may frequently block and/or inhibit the use of behavioural skills or reinforce maladaptive actions&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology, when evaluating the client's environment, you need to look at things from the client's viewpoint, and reading those papers, it highlights that the term &lt;em&gt;maladaptive actions&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;maladaptive behaviours&lt;/em&gt; refers to the consensus that they are as &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.08.012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Anestis, et al. (2007)&lt;/a&gt; points out:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;actions for which cost outweighs benefit [and] is a defining feature of a host of psychological disorders, including depression, eating disorders, and substance abuse disorders (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2005.05.005&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bornovalova, Lejuez, Daughters, Rosenthal, &amp;amp; Lynch, 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.022&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Claes, Vandereycken, &amp;amp; Vertommen, 2005&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.18.3.269&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Fischer, Anderson, &amp;amp; Smith, 2004&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1004_1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Joiner, Metalsky, Katz, &amp;amp; Beach, 1999&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.154.3.313&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Keel &amp;amp; Mitchell, 1997&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The client believes that their environment backs up their notion that their behaviours are justified and therefore blocks any move towards more helpful behaviours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anestis, M. D., Selby, E. A., &amp;amp; Joiner, T. E. (2007). The role of urgency in maladaptive behaviors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(12), 3018–3029. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.08.012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.08.012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feigenbaum, J. (2007). Dialectical behaviour therapy: An increasing evidence base. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Mental Health, 16&lt;/em&gt;(1), 51-68. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/09638230601182094&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/09638230601182094&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Linehan, M. M., &amp;amp; Kehrer, C. A. (1993). Borderline personality disorder. In &lt;em&gt;D. H. Barlow (Ed.), Clinical handbook of psychological disorders&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 396–441). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Little, H., Tickle, A., &amp;amp; das Nair, R. (2018). Process and impact of dialectical behaviour therapy: A systematic review of perceptions of clients with a diagnosis of borderline personality disorder. &lt;em&gt;Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 91&lt;/em&gt;(3), 278-301. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12156&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12156&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2021-03-12T14:54:09.310" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26764" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26784" CreationDate="2021-03-12T15:20:52.770" Score="0" ViewCount="48" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sometimes when I'm about to fall asleep, or have slept but not fully awakened, I experience a weird phenomenon. I'll describe it with a recent example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had come home from school, and it was still light out. I was lying in bed, quite tiredly, and fell asleep with my clothes on. I think this is relevant, because it makes for an unnatural sleep, which I've heard it can produce things like sleep paralysis. My laptop was lying in front of my face, and when I started waking up, I had a moment of consciousness. I was still half-asleep, eyes closed, and in front of me, I could see the laptop. But not clearly; I was seeing its silhouette, like x-ray through my eyelids.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This has happened to me in other settings, where I've seen my bedroom through my eyelids. Sometimes, when I've fallen asleep at the school desk, I've &amp;quot;seen through&amp;quot; my eyelids and my desk, down at my feet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What could possibly cause this? The visual renderings are usually quite accurate. My question is, why would the brain conjure these images up? Why would it try to show me representation of my environment in these half-sleep states?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27450" LastActivityDate="2021-04-14T21:53:50.063" Title="Near-dream states producing closed-eye visual rendering of the environment" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;imagery&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26765" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26761" CreationDate="2021-03-12T17:53:18.793" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Until recently, when people took older tests, they tended to score higher.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn_effect&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Flynn effect is the substantial and long-sustained increase in&#xA;both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores that were&#xA;measured in many parts of the world over the 20th century.[1] When&#xA;intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are initially standardized using a&#xA;sample of test-takers, by convention the average of the test results&#xA;is set to 100 and their standard deviation is set to 15 or 16 IQ&#xA;points. When IQ tests are revised, they are again standardized using a&#xA;new sample of test-takers, usually born more recently than the first.&#xA;Again, the average result is set to 100. However, when the new test&#xA;subjects take the older tests, in almost every case their average&#xA;scores are significantly above 100.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The recent years saw a &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/feed-your-head/201809/people-are-becoming-less-smart-what-can-we-do-about-it&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reversal&lt;/a&gt; of the Flynn effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user16005" LastEditorDisplayName="user16005" LastEditDate="2021-03-15T03:30:11.890" LastActivityDate="2021-03-15T03:30:11.890" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26767" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-12T21:04:15.497" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;How effective is memory retention of [subliminal] information when specifically focusing your attention on a different focal point?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I.e... If I attempt to retain information from a lecture by playing it very low, almost subliminally, while simultaneously intentionally focusing my attention on another subject during work, will it be an effective method of memory retention for the information in the lecture while maintaining productivity in the subject I am focusing on? Or am I simply introducing another method of possible distraction that has the potential to divert the focus of my concentration away from my work, effectively decreasing my productivity?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25777" LastActivityDate="2021-03-12T21:04:15.497" Title="Memory Retention of [submininal] information" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26768" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-12T21:08:54.907" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Frequently I noticed this happening with people. When A dislikes B, A tends to think B is wrong all the time. And it seems to be persistent, even when B is proven correct multiple times, it doesn't change A's opinion about B. Conversely, when A likes B, A is more likely to think B is not wrong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="614" LastActivityDate="2021-03-12T21:08:54.907" Title="Is there a cognitive bias that makes people consider information coming from someone they don't like as more likely to be wrong?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26770" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-13T07:04:17.897" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;What's behind the natural increase of monoamine oxidase enzymes production with age?&#xA;And other than taking MAOI is there another way to reduce their activity, i.e reduce their endogenous production?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28017" LastActivityDate="2021-03-13T07:04:17.897" Title="Why do monoamine oxidase enzymes increase in the brain as we age?" Tags="&lt;depression&gt;&lt;serotonin&gt;&lt;medication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26774" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-13T21:19:32.270" Score="5" ViewCount="63" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've been preparing for a job as a customer service agent recently and there's a common topic called &amp;quot;delivering bad news&amp;quot;. A bad news can be a delay in order or a delayed payment on the customer's side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As an example, if I wanted to say that the order wasn't arriving tomorrow as scheduled, but would arrive 3 days later, I would say: &amp;quot;I'm terribly sorry to tell you that, but due to unexpectedly many orders in recent days, your order won't arrive tomorrow, it will arrive in 4 days&amp;quot;. But, surprisingly, the tutorials instruct to say: &amp;quot;Due to unexpectedly many orders in recent days, your order won't arrive tomorrow, it will arrive in 4 days&amp;quot;. What is more, in one video the speaker said explicitly that we shouldn't tell about being sorry at this point. We should apologise after it if it was company's fault. We shouldn't tell about being sorry at all if it wasn't company's fault; we should do it only after the customer has commented negatively (has shown anger or disappointment) on the bad news.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Surprisingly, I watched equivalents of these tutorials in the medical environment. The doctors should do exactly the same! They don't say &amp;quot;I'm very sorry, but we diagnosed lungs cancer&amp;quot;, they just say &amp;quot;We diagnosed lungs cancer&amp;quot;. It was a shock to me. Just like customer service agents, they show empathy only later, after the patient's reaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don't understand why taking care about the listener's emotions at the point of delivering a bad news is inadvisable. Could you help me understand it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21961" LastActivityDate="2021-03-14T10:12:56.313" Title="When delivering a bad news to someone, why shouldn't we show empathy at the beginning?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26775" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-14T04:23:04.983" Score="1" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am interested in any kind of summary research that links workplace policies, productivity and fatigues. For example, if someone has worked 10 hours one day, will they be as productive the next day? Can workplace policies such as time-off-in-lieu remediate it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/24102/mental-fatigue-and-recovery-schedule&quot;&gt;related question&lt;/a&gt;, but it seems to be unanswered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="1184" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-03-14T06:09:15.793" LastActivityDate="2021-03-14T06:09:15.793" Title="State of research in productivity, work fatigue and workplace policies" Tags="&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26776" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26774" CreationDate="2021-03-14T10:12:56.313" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;The short answer — TLDR&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The answer to this question within the field of psychology will depend on the psychological approach the answerer is affiliated to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short, while a certain amount of empathy is required in both the 2 main lines of thought — after-all, how are you going to be an effective therapist without it? — the way it is to be shown is down to opinion really, and that opinion will drive the policies regarding &amp;quot;I'm sorry...&amp;quot; responses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to your job as a customer service representative/agent, if you don't want to have problems with your superiors, you should follow the protocol laid down by your employers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you feel a different approach should be adopted, maybe you could approach your line-manager for consideration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to other situations, it is down to opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The full answer&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Note:&lt;/strong&gt; In my answer, there will be talk of therapists and clients. Where the &lt;em&gt;therapist&lt;/em&gt; is referenced, this applies to anyone in a position of trust such as a doctor, dentist, customer service representative/manager etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;There are 2 main approaches in psychology — Psychodynamic and Person-Centered&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The Psychodynamic Approach started by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sigmund Freud&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As pointed out by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/memberarticles/what-are-they-comparing-and-contrasting-the-three-main-counselling-approaches&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jane Holder (2013)&lt;/a&gt;, this approach to psychology involves analysis of resistance through &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ego-defence mechanisms&lt;/a&gt;, along with &lt;a href=&quot;https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/getfile/5154&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;transference and counter-transference&lt;/a&gt; as described by Stephanie Cobb for the British Psychological Society (&lt;a href=&quot;https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/getfile/5154&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BPS, 2015&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Transference has been defined as ‘the client’s experience of the therapist that is shaped by his or her own psychological structures and past’, often involving ‘displacement onto the therapist, of feelings, attitudes and behaviours belonging rightfully to earlier significant relationships’ (Gelso &amp;amp; Hayes, 1998, p.11). Countertransference describes the therapist’s reaction to the client in terms of both feelings and behaviour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A psychodynamic theorist will talk about psychological detachment requirements with regard to transference and counter-transference so will advocate total &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19301/7604&quot;&gt;compartmentalisation&lt;/a&gt; to separate the lived experiences of the client and the therapist from each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The bottom line with the psychodynamic approach is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;You must only relay the facts pertaining to the situation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The client's experience(s) are not yours to own to convey, and you should not be sharing your feelings about the situation with them either.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The downside of the psychodynamic approach&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This approach can be seen to be very cold and stand-offish leading to possible feelings of resentment towards the therapist, which can be unnoticed by the therapist due to the detachment with the client's &amp;quot;here and now&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The Person-centered approach started by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Carl Rogers&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/memberarticles/what-are-they-comparing-and-contrasting-the-three-main-counselling-approaches&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Jane Holder (2013)&lt;/a&gt; covers this:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The person-centred approach focuses on the belief that we are all born with an innate ability for psychological growth if external circumstances allow us to do so. Clients become out of touch with this self-actualising tendency by means of introjecting the evaluations of others and thereby treating them as if they were their own.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[In therapeutic environments] As well as being non-directive the counselling relationship is based on the core conditions of empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person-centered theorist will talk about the need for these core conditions, and therefore will advocate empathy and concern for the client's current well-being. This is sharing the fact that &lt;strong&gt;while you still don't pass &lt;em&gt;your&lt;/em&gt; feelings about their situation to the client as the experience is not your own, you pass on that you feel sorry for how &lt;em&gt;they&lt;/em&gt; are feeling&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The downside of the person-centered approach&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a therapist, you can be so invested in your client's here and now, that you can suffer from &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/21258/7604&quot;&gt;too much empathy&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;So what SHOULD you do?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In answer to your question with regard to your job, no matter whether your job is a customer service representative/agent or something else, if you don't want to have problems with your superiors, you should follow the protocol laid down by your employers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you feel a different approach should be adopted, maybe you could approach your line-manager for consideration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With regard to other situations, it is down to opinion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the fact that psychodynamic approach can be cold and the person-centered approach can lead to excessive empathy in play, a more balanced approach can be employed. That's where the integrative approach comes in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;The Integrative Approach&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An integrative theorist will be somewhere in between. As the name suggests, the integrative approach is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a combined approach to psychotherapy that brings together different elements of specific therapies. Integrative therapists take the view that there is no single approach that can treat each client in all situations. Rather, each person needs to be considered as a whole and counselling techniques must be tailored to their individual needs and personal circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Integrative counselling maintains the idea that there are many ways in which human psychology can be explored and understood - no one theory alone holds the answer. All theories are considered to have value, even if their foundational principles contradict each other - hence the need to integrate them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With an integrative approach, you can be more psychodynamic when dealing with trauma for example and more person-centered with news of a death in the family. This is so that you can separate yourself from the emotional and empathic elements of dealing with the trauma whilst still having empathy for the client in their current situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BPS. (2015). What passes between client and therapist? &lt;em&gt;The Psychologist 28&lt;/em&gt;(7) 600-603. &lt;a href=&quot;https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-28/july-2015/what-passes-between-client-and-therapist&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-28/july-2015/what-passes-between-client-and-therapist&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gelso, C. J. &amp;amp; Hayes, J. A. (1998). &lt;em&gt;The Psychotherapy Relationship: Theory, Research, and Practice&lt;/em&gt;. New York: Wiley. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wiley.com/en-gb/The+Psychotherapy+Relationship%3A+Theory%2C+Research%2C+and+Practice-p-9780471127208&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.wiley.com/en-gb/The+Psychotherapy+Relationship%3A+Theory%2C+Research%2C+and+Practice-p-9780471127208&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Holder, J. B. (2013). The main counselling approaches: What are they? &lt;em&gt;Counselling Directory&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/memberarticles/what-are-they-comparing-and-contrasting-the-three-main-counselling-approaches&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/memberarticles/what-are-they-comparing-and-contrasting-the-three-main-counselling-approaches&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2021-03-14T10:12:56.313" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26777" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-14T19:02:18.713" Score="0" ViewCount="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5591519/figure/Fig3/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Figure 3&lt;/a&gt; in &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5591519/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Protocol for the management of psychiatric patients with psychomotor agitation&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5aeB8.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/5aeB8.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I wonder what the meaning is of &lt;strong&gt;Specific restraint form record&lt;/strong&gt; - is it &amp;quot;record in a specific form&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;(leave a) specific record in a form&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are the doctors asked to &amp;quot;leave a record in a specific restraint form&amp;quot; or to &amp;quot;leave a record (in the patient's medical history) on the specific form of restraint used on the patient&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The more I try to understand this little phrase, the more confused I get.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4566" OwnerDisplayName="CopperKettle" LastActivityDate="2021-03-14T21:52:09.857" Title="Meaning of &quot;specific restraint form record&quot; in a paper about management of psychomotor agitation" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26779" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-15T00:29:25.810" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;After reading through a bunch of sources, I'm quite confused as to these three terms. Wikipedia suggests that a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funiculus_(neuroanatomy)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;funiculus&lt;/a&gt; is a bundle of axons, and a &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve_fascicle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;fasciculus&lt;/a&gt; can contain multiple funiculi. On the other hand, Wikipedia contradicts itself, by showing in the article about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nerves&lt;/a&gt; that a bundle of axons is called a fasciculus (not a funiculus).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which one is it? Also, is there a difference between a nerve and a fasciculus/funiculus (whichever is the bundle of bundles)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26809" LastActivityDate="2021-03-15T00:29:25.810" Title="Funiculus vs. fasciculus vs. nerve" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26781" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-15T08:33:28.867" Score="0" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was recently listening to Huberman's podcast where he said that disturbed REM sleep causes people to make odd connections and I was wondering if there is any relation between distorted REM sleep and unusual creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many creative people seem to suffer fom REM sleep problems that eventually cause to some of them brain illness(like lewy body dementia).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Like Robbin Williams(&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Williams&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Williams&lt;/a&gt;)&#xA;Kant(&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20451446/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20451446/&lt;/a&gt;) and Rob Floyd(&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_W._Floyd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_W._Floyd&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any paper investigating the relation between disturbed REM sleep and creativity or presents a statistical analysis or historical persons of unusual creativity and their sleep habits and disturbances?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23588" LastActivityDate="2021-03-15T08:33:28.867" Title="What's the relation between distorted(REM) sleep and creativity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26782" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-15T15:26:31.307" Score="0" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;It's pretty common nowadays to see people spending a long time on the toilet using their phones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This wasn't a normal behaviour for the human body and I reckon it'd have consequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, this got me wondering... Can the usage of the phone on the toilet during regular periods of time of longer than 15 min cause constipation? As a cause of the body not associating the toilet as a place to poop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27848" LastEditorUserId="27848" LastEditDate="2021-03-15T20:35:33.970" LastActivityDate="2021-03-15T20:35:33.970" Title="Relation between using the phone on the toilet and constipation" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;procedural-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26784" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26764" CreationDate="2021-03-15T19:46:27.620" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It would seem like what you are experiencing is eidetic memory (Eidetikos) and/or Hypnogogia. Reasons as to how and why this may occur are still being studied. Consider the following here:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1885948/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1885948/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Visual Cues for the Retrieval of Landmark Memories by Navigating Wood Ants&amp;quot; by&#xA;Robert A. Harris, Paul Graham, and Thomas S. Collett&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even on short routes, &lt;em&gt;ants can be guided by multiple visual memories&lt;/em&gt;. We investigate here the cues controlling memory retrieval as wood ants approach a one- or two-edged landmark to collect sucrose at a point along its base. In such tasks, ants store the desired retinal position of landmark edges at several points along their route. They guide subsequent trips by retrieving the appropriate memory and moving to bring the edges in the scene toward the stored positions.&amp;lt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some ants, having located a reliable source of food, shuttle back and forth along idiosyncratic, visually guided routes (e.g., [1–5]); the final stage of their route to a goal is guided by a stored local view or snapshot of the surroundings as seen from a vantage point close to the destination (review [6]). A view of a familiar object stored as a snapshot seems to be encoded in terms of a small set of distinct features, such as oriented edges, color, and retinal size [7–9]. In some experimental situations, ants and bees attend to high-contrast boundaries of objects and guide their path to their destination by moving so as to shift edges in the current retinal image toward their stored retinal positions in the snapshot [7, 9]. If the visual scene is manipulated so that some edges are missing and cannot be matched to the snapshot, the insects will steer as best they can with the remaining edges [7, 9].&amp;lt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What this seems to be like for us is what has been known as the &amp;quot;Method of Loci&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The method of loci is a strategy of memory enhancement which uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information. The method of loci is also known as the memory journey, memory palace, or mind palace technique. This method is a mnemonic device adopted in ancient Roman and Greek rhetorical treatises.&amp;lt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, in one sense the brain &lt;em&gt;may&lt;/em&gt; perform this operation for some purpose(s) of survival and navigation but these may not be the only reasons. Given that they emerge in these states as you describe makes it even more difficult to ascertain as you are presumably safe and are not in the process of moving about the room.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also something to consider which I have shared before is the following paper on Electromagnetic Field Theories of Mind: &lt;a href=&quot;https://philarchive.org/rec/JONETO?all_versions=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://philarchive.org/rec/JONETO?all_versions=1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hope this helps!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27996" LastActivityDate="2021-03-15T19:46:27.620" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26787" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-16T05:13:04.407" Score="2" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have studied that Gestalt Principles are principles/laws of human perception that describe how humans group similar elements, recognize patterns, and simplify complex images when we perceive objects. But can you give me real-life examples where this is applicable in day-to-day life not just looking at some patterns in the textbook.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28046" LastActivityDate="2021-03-16T05:13:04.407" Title="Gestalt Principles of Perception" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;cognitive-modeling&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26792" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-16T21:02:49.097" Score="-2" ViewCount="57" Body="&lt;p&gt;They used to think that the size of working memory was 7 items, on average.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Now, according to fMRI, it's believed to be only 4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Source: In &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UWKvpFZJwcE&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;his TED talk&lt;/a&gt;, around 5:20, Peter Doolittle says the estimate had to be revised:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We tend to remember about 4 things. It used to be 7. But with functional MRI, apparently, it's 4.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="user16005" LastEditorDisplayName="user16005" LastEditDate="2021-03-16T22:09:04.470" LastActivityDate="2021-03-16T22:27:05.567" Title="What caused psychologists to be so wrong about the size of working memory?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;working-memory&gt;&lt;short-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26793" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26792" CreationDate="2021-03-16T22:27:05.567" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the TED talk he's making a joke (&amp;quot;memory used to be X, now it's Y!&amp;quot;). Likely referencing the &amp;quot;good ol' days&amp;quot; trope where one talks about how things used to be different when the comedian/speaker/audience was younger, or more specifically the tendency of memory to decrease with age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &amp;quot;span&amp;quot; of working memory depends on the type of &amp;quot;object&amp;quot; being remembered, how exactly it is remembered, and what other distractions or tasks are interfering. The &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;original &amp;quot;7 +/- 2&amp;quot; paper&lt;/a&gt; is quite old, and although it did propose a limited working memory capacity with a particular span, I do not think it supports your claim that psychologists &amp;quot;used to think that the size of working memory was 7 items&amp;quot;. Rather, in &lt;em&gt;one experiment&lt;/em&gt; with &lt;em&gt;one type of object&lt;/em&gt; the average was 7 items. People had to do further experiments with other types of items to find out if the span was constant over all objects; once doing those experiments, they found that it was not, but consistently found that there was some capacity beyond which it was difficult to remember more objects without more elaborate strategies or training (such as the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;memory palace&amp;quot;/method of loci&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_span&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia has a pretty extensive article on memory span&lt;/a&gt; that is probably a good place to start if you're interested in the topic. Some of the characteristics listed on that page that influence the span include relatedness of the items, distractors, rhythm and rate of how objects are presented, modality (auditory, visual, etc), motor cost (longer words take more &amp;quot;space&amp;quot;), how exactly responses are scored (total recalled? number before error? how are adjacent/similar objects scored?), and other distractions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-03-16T22:27:05.567" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26794" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10551" CreationDate="2021-03-17T03:07:05.643" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;All we can say now is that machines have aspects of consciousness. This is according to Pagel (2017), who provides a summary of the various areas web-based browsers meet the criteria, or not:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mhG6C.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/mhG6C.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pagel reveals the computer science criteria by quoting Williams (2012)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;“We will refrain from trying to give a universal definition&#xA;of consciousness; for AI-development the definition does not have to be&#xA;universal, or applicable to humans for explanation of human consciousness…we define consciousness as the ability to ’rise above programming’.”&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;p. 293&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With this in mind, we can assume that machines have achieved consciousness when they are capable of going off script, so to speak. Which at the moment, I cannot think of a machine that can, or has, veered away from what it was programmed to do, excluding possible errors in programming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pagel, J. F. (2017). Internet Dreaming - Is the Web Conscious?.&#xA;In J. Gackenbach &amp;amp; J. Bown (Ed.), Boundaries of Self and Reality Online: &lt;em&gt;Implications of Digitally Constructed Realities&lt;/em&gt;. (1st ed., pp.279-295). Academic Press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24990" LastActivityDate="2021-03-17T03:07:05.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26795" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-17T08:19:10.003" Score="0" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have had people who ask for something and when I start to answer they shift their attention towards something else. I want to understand the common psychological motivation behind this kind of act.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could someone help me delineate this act?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26187" LastActivityDate="2021-03-17T08:19:10.003" Title="Shifting attention when we respond following a question" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26796" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26760" CreationDate="2021-03-17T08:27:25.377" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;As a person who has been journaling for more than twelve years ever since a very compassionate friend advised me to, I can attempt to answer why journaling seems to reduce stress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;AliceD mentioned that it's a way of writing down todos. That’s true. I also have Google Tasks for that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The friend of mine deals a lot in algebra. We had spent a lot of time together working out mathematical problems, playing the guitar as well. It was thoroughly enjoyable to see him logically work towards the right answer. He believes in working things out by deriving from first principles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We are quite religious so our journaling is quite spiritual in nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I didn't go into journaling knowing how good it would be, but looking back the benefits are invaluable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Absolutely anything can go into your journal. I love to draw diagrams too.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In life we all make mistakes. I write down the fool things that I have done so that I can correct myself. Very often we do not know why certain people are antagonistic or get angry with us. This is because we are not omniscient like God. We do not know what the other person is thinking. By writing events down we are working out problems in our interactions with our fellow human beings. It greatly simplifies our thought processes. We can solve problems much more efficiently. We can improve our relationships with people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also write down what I am grateful for :&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.oprah.com/spirit/oprahs-gratitude-journal-oprah-on-gratitude&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.oprah.com/spirit/oprahs-gratitude-journal-oprah-on-gratitude&lt;/a&gt; ;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I used to have a lot of ‘noise’ in my head. I would think about what people said in great detail. Often people tell me not to think too much. It’s those stressful experiences that get me thinking the most. By writing everything down, I’m offloading my thought processes into my journal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I sincerely want to help the person who posted this question as I feel so much affinity towards the points in Buraian’s question. I hope that my answer would also help the community and people who chance upon this question. I wasn’t expecting to write content targeted at scientific journals so please forgive my very informal first draft. I read the guidelines that personal experiences are valid answers so that’s why I decided to answer this question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deaver, S. P., &amp;amp; McAuliffe, G. (2009). Reflective visual journaling during art therapy and counselling internships: A qualitative study. Reflective Practice, 10(5), 615-632.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smyth, J. M., Stone, A. A., Hurewitz, A., &amp;amp; Kaell, A. (1999). Effects of writing about stressful experiences on symptom reduction in patients with asthma or rheumatoid arthritis: A randomized trial. Jama, 281(14), 1304-1309.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jamison, S. G. (2007). Online law school faculty perceptions of journaling as professional development: Influences, barriers and pitfalls (Doctoral dissertation, Capella University).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24342" LastEditorUserId="24342" LastEditDate="2021-03-18T12:27:26.707" LastActivityDate="2021-03-18T12:27:26.707" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26797" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="4439" CreationDate="2021-03-17T08:44:46.483" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Humans tend to evaluate things primarily based on similarity/proximity with thyself and their faiths both in terms of time, space. Their association tendency is directly proportional to the similarity and a feeling of self-worth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Associative memory and availability heuristics are classical examples.&#xA;Ref: Thinking fast and slow - Daniel Khneman&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For eg:&#xA;Nationalism is space associated. Most likely people identify themselves among a people of similar beliefs. In other words nationalism can be thought of as something like a religion (but based on different fundamental principles; likely to be termed as constitutions).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If some association can improve one's feeling of self-worth we humans tend to assume the association with that particular identity be it physical thing (leader, boss, celebrity) or conceptual thing (religion, 'isms, Philosophy). Association with a product is something of this kind. This is the principle behind shopping derived satisfaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;EDIT&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;The answer I posted has got its roots largely from &amp;quot;Thinking fast and slow&amp;quot; by Daniel Khneman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Self-worth and the feeling of &amp;quot;I&amp;quot; is Freudian based.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26187" LastEditorUserId="26187" LastEditDate="2021-03-18T00:34:12.390" LastActivityDate="2021-03-18T00:34:12.390" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26800" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26816" CreationDate="2021-03-18T06:03:50.910" Score="1" ViewCount="40" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've run across descriptions of this bias before, but cannot find it right now...  I checked Wikipedia's &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;list of cognitive biases&lt;/a&gt; to no avail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, people working in some domain and having expertise in it, naturally tend to notice the problems in that area, such as incompetence of other people working in their field, bad policies and poor management decision making, etc, resulting in a disproportionate distrust of their own field of expertise.  For example, healthcare workers are &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ebiom.2015.06.028&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;more likely to be vaccine hesitant&lt;/a&gt; because they distrust their own industry more than most due to personal experience with incompetence, mismanagement, politics, and corruption within their field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this distrust does not carry over to other domains.  So for example, watching a movie that portrays something you have domain knowledge in, you will quickly notice the inaccuracies and misrepresentation, but portrayals of domains outside your expertise will naturally be believable and perceived as accurate.  Similarly, reading news stories about topics that you have expertise in, you will notice inaccuracies and bias immediately, but fail to recognize that the same level of inaccuracy and bias must exist in domains outside your area of expertise, implicitly treating such news stories as accurately reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is this bias called?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-03-21T01:42:36.260" LastActivityDate="2021-03-21T01:42:36.260" Title="Bias distrusting area of expertise while implicitly trusting other domains?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;bias&gt;&lt;expertise&gt;&lt;trust&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26801" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26800" CreationDate="2021-03-18T08:48:12.173" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Anchoring bias&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;focalism&lt;/strong&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;a cognitive bias where an individual depends too heavily on an initial piece of information offered (considered to be the &amp;quot;anchor&amp;quot;) to make subsequent judgments during decision making. Once the value of this anchor is set, all future negotiations, arguments, estimates, etc. are discussed in relation to the anchor. Information that aligns with the anchor tends to be assimilated toward it, while information that is more dissonant or less related tends to be displaced. This bias occurs when interpreting future information using this anchor to gauge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The example initially given in the Wikipedia article uses an initial price for a car set as a starting point for negotiations. However, experience can come into play as anchor points for evaluation of situations and employment negotiations etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Early research found that experts (those with high knowledge, experience, or expertise in some field) were more resistant to the anchoring effect (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.125.4.387&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wilson, et al. 1996&lt;/a&gt;). Since then, however, numerous studies have demonstrated that while experience can sometimes reduce the effect, even experts are susceptible to anchoring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a study concerning the effects of anchoring on judicial decisions, researchers found that even experienced legal professionals were affected by anchoring. This remained true even when the anchors provided were arbitrary and unrelated to the case in question (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205282152&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Englich, et al. 2006&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, this relates to goal setting, where more experienced individuals will set goals based on their past experiences which consequently affects end results in negotiations (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pon.harvard.edu/daily/negotiation-skills-daily/the-drawbacks-of-goals/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Harvard Law, 2019&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An anchoring bias can also lead to a backfire effect, a name for the finding that given evidence against their beliefs, people can reject the evidence and believe even more strongly. The phrase was first coined by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Nyhan &amp;amp; Reifler (2010)&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Anchoring biases can be formed as a result of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_correlation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;illusory correlations&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, which are phenomena within Psychology where people have been known to perceive a relationship between variables (typically people, events, or behaviors) even when no such relationship exists. A false association may be formed because rare or novel occurrences are more salient and therefore tend to capture one's attention (Pelham &amp;amp; Blanton, 2013). This phenomenon is one way stereotypes form and endure (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1990.tb00883.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mullen &amp;amp; Johnson, 1990&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Englich, B., Mussweiler, T., &amp;amp; Strack, F. (2006). Playing Dice With Criminal Sentences: The Influence of Irrelevant Anchors on Experts' Judicial Decision Making. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 32 (2): 188–200. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205282152&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205282152&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Harvard Law (2019). The Anchoring Effect and How it Can Impact Your Negotiation. &lt;em&gt;PON - Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pon.harvard.edu/daily/negotiation-skills-daily/the-drawbacks-of-goals/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.pon.harvard.edu/daily/negotiation-skills-daily/the-drawbacks-of-goals/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mullen, B., &amp;amp; Johnson, C. (1990). Distinctiveness-based illusory correlations and stereotyping: A meta-analytic integration. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Social Psychology. 29&lt;/em&gt;(1): 11–28. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1990.tb00883.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1990.tb00883.x&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nyhan, B., &amp;amp; Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. &lt;em&gt;Political Behavior, 32&lt;/em&gt;(2), 303-330. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pelham, B. W. Blanton, H. (2012). Conducting Research in Psychology: measuring the weight of smoke (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. pp. 11–12.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wilson, Timothy D.; Houston, Christopher E.; Etling, Kathryn M.; Brekke, Nancy (1996). A new look at anchoring effects: Basic anchoring and its antecedents. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 125&lt;/em&gt;(4): 387–402. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.125.4.387&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.125.4.387&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2021-03-18T08:48:12.173" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26805" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-18T18:20:51.720" Score="2" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Numb acts as a negative regulator of the Notch pathway (discussed above), which keeps Notch pathway activity low in the GMC. Low Notch activity causes the de-repression of proneural genes, as well as the arrest of proliferation (after one more mitoses) of the GMC. By contrast, in the basal daughter cell, Notch pathway activity is kept high by proteins of the apical com- plex (Par-3, Insc), which promotes continued division of this cell&amp;quot; (&lt;em&gt;Fundamental Neuroscience&lt;/em&gt; by Larry Squire on page 316). This statement confused me for two reasons. First of all, they originally stated that the basal daughter cell was the GMC (ganglion mother cell), so the two statements would be contradicting because the Notch pathway cannot be low and high at the same time. In addition, (please correct me if I'm mistaken), doesn't a highly active Notch pathway obstruct cell division?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28063" LastEditorUserId="28063" LastEditDate="2021-03-25T17:04:38.650" LastActivityDate="2021-03-25T17:04:38.650" Title="Is the GMC (ganglion mother cell) in Drosphila the same thing as the basal daughter cell? Does a highly active Notch pathway obstruct cell division?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26808" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26758" CreationDate="2021-03-18T23:43:37.073" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: No, science-based sources (including &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthline.com/health/hugging-benefits#How-many-hugs-do-we-need?&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Healthline&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic115&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Floyd&lt;/a&gt;, if you read them carefully) don't claim that physical contact is necessary for survival.  Most of the literature on touch deprivation is focused on the &lt;em&gt;benefits&lt;/em&gt; of physical affection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Survival:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_isolation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;social isolation&lt;/a&gt; is often confounded by physical constraints (as in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solitary_confinement#Effects&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;solitary confinement&lt;/a&gt;) or mental health factors (as in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hikikomori&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hikikomori&lt;/a&gt;), there are also cases of voluntary isolation with positive outcomes, such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recluse#Notable_recluses&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recluses&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermit&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hermits&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchorite&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;anchorites&lt;/a&gt;.  Some notable cases of these involve little or no physical contact with others for many years, without apparent adverse effects.  There is a selection bias here - this lifestyle is more likely to be adopted by people who prefer less contact - that precludes conclusions about the general public, but it seems safe to say that &lt;strong&gt;physical affection is not strictly speaking necessary in adulthood&lt;/strong&gt; for survival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The situation in childhood, which is covered better in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/24789/7001&quot;&gt;other question&lt;/a&gt;, is more difficult to test.  One example is the case of &amp;quot;bubble boys&amp;quot; such as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Vetter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;David Vetter&lt;/a&gt;, who spent virtually his entire 12-year life from birth without any direct physical contact with others, though he received much non-physical affection, and appeared to &amp;quot;thrive&amp;quot; as best as can be expected under the circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Adversity:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reviews of affection deprivation (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2014.927071&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Floyd, 2014&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/r7dwu&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Floyd, 2020&lt;/a&gt;) mainly focus on the association between &lt;em&gt;perceived&lt;/em&gt; lack of physical affection and negative outcomes.  As these are mostly correlations, they are not very convincing with respect to causality.  Evidence that touch deprivation may have a &lt;em&gt;causal&lt;/em&gt; effect on mental and physical health, as reviewed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/15.3.153&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ardiel &amp;amp; Rankin (2010)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2011.01.001&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Field (2010)&lt;/a&gt;, is largely based on the remedial effects of handling or massage of children with developmental and behavioral issues.  However, such studies may also simply indicate that physical affection is an effective treatment, but not necessarily the cause, of underlying issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Historically, many children have been raised with high levels of emotional affection but little or no physical affection from their parents - notably in &lt;a href=&quot;https://schoolworkhelper.net/raising-children-in-the-victorian-times/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Victorian-era England&lt;/a&gt; - and this parenting style does not universally lead to adverse effects in adulthood.  For example, some &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0031220&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;traditional Asian parenting&lt;/a&gt; styles are described as &amp;quot;warm&amp;quot; but not physically affectionate, while leading to positive outcomes in adulthood.  Lack of controls in such studies preclude firm conclusions, as children may receive physical affection from others (eg, their nursemaids, siblings, or friends) in lieu of their parents.  Affectionate parenting styles are recommended for their potential benefits, but &lt;strong&gt;evidence for lack of physical affection (independent of emotional affection levels) being responsible for negative outcomes is weak&lt;/strong&gt; overall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2021-03-18T23:43:37.073" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26809" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-19T12:27:14.833" Score="0" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;Look at this picture:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ACoTv.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/ACoTv.png&quot; alt=&quot;[![enter image description here][2]][2]ook&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All squares are of equal size but when you look at the picture the horizontal and vertical bands they constitute seem to be curved. When you move the picture up and down the horizontal bands seem to get flexible. The same holds for the horizontal direction.&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Is this perception of flexibility related to the perception of curvature?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Maybe someone can make it move up and down instead of making it move up and down (or from the left to the right and vice-versa) by using the mouse or pad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastEditorUserId="11444" LastEditDate="2021-03-19T15:56:05.940" LastActivityDate="2021-03-19T15:56:05.940" Title="Is the perceived flexibility in this picture (when moving it) related to the perceived curvature when it's not moving?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26810" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-19T14:52:32.657" Score="0" ViewCount="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;Look at this picture (it's best to click on it so you have the picture isolated; enlarge it so you'll be able to move it to and fro horizontally):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yasNB.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/yasNB.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When I move my eyes to and fro horizontally the effect is very different than moving the image itself to and fro (horizontally).&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Why is this so? Can't my eyes make continuous movements like the continuous movements which are there when I actively make the image move?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastActivityDate="2021-03-19T14:52:32.657" Title="Why do I perceive this picture differently when actively moving it than passively moving my eyes over it?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2021-03-19T15:30:27.450" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26811" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-19T18:02:20.987" Score="3" ViewCount="39" Body="&lt;p&gt;My research focuses on measuring &lt;em&gt;the neural correlates&lt;/em&gt; (through resting-state EEG) pre-post an improvisational music therapy session (MT sessions) &lt;em&gt;in clients with substance misuse.&lt;/em&gt;&#xA;One of my variable of interest is the urge to consume the drug = namely, &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;craving&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25734247/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Volkow et al., 2015)&lt;/a&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was thinking to use some subjective measure of craving pre and post the MT sessions to associate this with the pre/post resting-state EEG measures.&#xA;I've been found in the scientific literature similar procedures in the work of &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21458537/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;De Ridder research group:&lt;/a&gt; the authors associated the subjective measures collected pre-post an experimental manipulation with the neural data (EEG)  collected pre-post an experimental manipulation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants will have to complete the following statement: &lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;quot;please, rate how strong your craving is right now by circling a number on the 10-point scale&amp;quot;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;...In which 0=not craving at all and 10=the most ever&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Since craving is a complex construct that has been related to addiction memories and can be triggered by environmental cues (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6306924/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Chen et al., 2018&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-18471-y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Huang et al., 2018&lt;/a&gt;) I am afraid to prompting them and induce a craving response during the MT session that wouldn't have happened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is that possible that using a self-report assessment of craving,&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;participants are required to reflect on their experiences entailing a&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;craving response that otherwise would have been absent?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="16144" LastEditorUserId="16144" LastEditDate="2021-03-25T11:21:09.667" LastActivityDate="2021-03-25T11:21:09.667" Title="Can the administration of self-report measures of craving prompt participants with addiction to experience craving during the experiment?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;neuroimaging&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26812" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26817" CreationDate="2021-03-20T11:49:44.867" Score="2" ViewCount="78" Body="&lt;p&gt;In metacognition literature, why is confidence, regardless of scale (Likert-type or continuous) and definition (e.g. decision confidence as a subjective probability of a decision being correct), mostly measured in binary decision tasks, such as 2AFC?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is it psychologically valid to obtain confidence in other types of choice tasks, such as multiple-alternatives or ordinal ones, in a similar way?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28078" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-04-06T18:28:29.870" LastActivityDate="2021-04-06T18:28:29.870" Title="How to measure confidence in non-binary (e.g. ordinal) choice tasks?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;&lt;confidence&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26813" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-20T18:58:33.943" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anecdotally, there seems to be overwhelming evidence that people become less curious as they age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there formal, systematic evidence for this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Further, are there any theories/mechanisms that explain why this is the case?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13243" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-03-21T15:32:38.557" LastActivityDate="2021-03-21T15:32:38.557" Title="Is there any formal documentation and explanation of why people tend to lose curiosity as they age?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;aging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26814" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-20T19:02:52.143" Score="-2" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;i am not well read in psychology, but when I dealt with Sigmund Freud and his Psychodynamic Theories, i couldnt answer a question by myself. Or maybe i dont understand it that much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is based on the definition of superego:&#xA;&amp;quot;Superego is one outcome of adaptation to the social environment, a product of continuing ego development.&amp;quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/superego&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/superego&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;what if i am a human being with no morals? I understand, that humans act according to therese 3 principles in Freuds theory. But imagine someone, who knows that he has no moral standards. Someono who doesnt bind himself to the social morals, rules and obligations. Who just doesnt give a ****. Who is being immoral (from the society perspective). Doing the things as he likes and wishes. So in that case, this person doesnt adapt himself to the social environment.&#xA;Does that mean, that this human being has no superego?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28080" LastActivityDate="2021-03-27T11:44:47.477" Title="Superego and Moral Standards" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;ethics&gt;&lt;freud&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26815" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26814" CreationDate="2021-03-20T20:26:11.397" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Superego is a fairly flimsy concept under empirical scrutiny and is typically measured only in clinical settings. Arlow (1982), notes that the way it is measured or appears is often unreliable and that the structure by no means has the same effect on everyone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When looking at issues that go against a societal or personal &amp;quot;superego&amp;quot;, one would probably do better to study guilt or shame as mechanisms that regulate moral behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a distinction between guilt and shame, with one being more internal and the other external, for the most part (Smith, 2014).&#xA;These are better indicators as to why someone would act without conscience, at least than using the concept of the superego.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&#xA;Arlow, J. A. (1982). Problems of the Superego Concept. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 37(1), 229–244. doi:10.1080/00797308.1982.11823365&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, R. (2014, June 2014). What is the difference between guilt and shame?&#xA;Retrieved from: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/joy-and-pain/201406/what-is-the-difference-between-guilt-and-shame&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/joy-and-pain/201406/what-is-the-difference-between-guilt-and-shame&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24990" LastActivityDate="2021-03-20T20:26:11.397" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26816" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26800" CreationDate="2021-03-21T01:42:08.510" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I found what I was looking for.  It's called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.epsilontheory.com/gell-mann-amnesia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Gell-Mann Amnesia&lt;/a&gt; effect:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... You open the newspaper to an article on some subject you know&#xA;well. ... you read with exasperation or amusement the multiple errors&#xA;in a story, and then turn the page to national or international&#xA;affairs, and read as if the rest of the newspaper was somehow more&#xA;accurate about Palestine than the baloney you just read. You turn the&#xA;page, and forget what you know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That quote is attributed to Michael Crichton, who named the effect after his physicist friend Murray Gell-Mann, who discovered it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This effect is not studied in psychology as far as I can tell, so it may not be real, but having a name for it helps learn at least that much.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2021-03-21T01:42:08.510" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26817" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26812" CreationDate="2021-03-21T05:12:46.867" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Non-binary choices complicate analysis unnecessarily, as most multiple alternative scenarios can be distilled into multiple binary choices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Outside of metacognitive literature, I have seen studies that assume the naive Bayesian approach for multi-choice decision confidence, for example, from &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijforecast.2013.09.009&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Satopää et al (2014)&lt;/a&gt; in forecasting:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For now, assume that the event can take exactly one of a total of M≥2&#xA;different outcomes. Under pure ignorance, the forecaster should assign&#xA;a probability of 1/M to each outcome. The more ignorant the forecaster&#xA;is, the more we would expect him to shrink his forecasts towards 1/M.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, this assumption may not hold in the uncalibrated confidence judgments of metacognitive tasks.  There is an interesting paper by &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15581-6&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Li &amp;amp; Ma (2020)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Experiments on confidence reports have almost exclusively focused on&#xA;two-alternative decision-making. ... Here, we test ... a&#xA;three-alternative visual categorization task. We found that confidence&#xA;reports are best explained by the difference between the posterior&#xA;probabilities of the best and the next-best options, rather than by&#xA;the posterior probability of the chosen (best) option alone, or by the&#xA;overall uncertainty (entropy) of the posterior distribution. Our&#xA;results upend the leading notion of decision confidence and instead&#xA;suggest that confidence reflects the observer’s subjective probability&#xA;that they made the best possible decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This would make even 4-choice tasks much more difficult to interpret.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-04-06T18:27:14.060" LastActivityDate="2021-04-06T18:27:14.060" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26819" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26820" CreationDate="2021-03-21T14:28:24.083" Score="3" ViewCount="33" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could someone explain to me what exactly is endogenous neural activity? I am reading a lot of research papers, and I want to understand things thoroughly. Thanks for the response in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is the current paper that I am reading: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/pr199992&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.nature.com/articles/pr199992&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28083" LastActivityDate="2021-03-21T18:44:51.370" Title="Endogenous Neural Activity" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26820" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26819" CreationDate="2021-03-21T18:44:51.370" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Quoting from the paper you refer to:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These connections form before the retina can respond to light, but at a time when retinal ganglion cells spontaneously generate highly correlated bursts of action potentials. Blockade of this endogenous activity&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By &amp;quot;endogenous&amp;quot; here they are referring to the spontaneous activity generated before sight begins mentioned in the previous sentence, which organizes the circuitry for vision. It's endogenous because it's not triggered by an external stimulus like light, it's internally generated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More generally, people tend to refer to &amp;quot;endogenous&amp;quot; activity that is not specifically related to stimulus-evoked activity that an experimenter can manipulate. Sometimes this is also called &amp;quot;noise&amp;quot; though there is debate about whether this term should be used (not that the people using it actually think it's truly noise).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-03-21T18:44:51.370" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26821" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-21T21:05:36.977" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’m trying to understand the underlying reason why &amp;quot;the ability to defer gratification&amp;quot; &lt;em&gt;seems&lt;/em&gt;, based purely on personal observation, to vary in direct proportion to the &amp;quot;strength of conscience&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Wherein by &amp;quot;strength of conscience&amp;quot; I am referring to the ability to restrain forward movement towards a desired goal due to care and concern for the wellbeing of those who may be harmed by such movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am uncertain as to why this specific case of &amp;quot;the ability to restrain movement in a particular circumstance&amp;quot; (care and concern for the wellbeing of others) seems to generalize to &amp;quot;the ability to restrain movement in other circumstances.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The thinking that I've done in trying to answer this question is as follows:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In trying to understand the behavior linked to a certain ability, it can help to look at those individuals who lack that ability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Narcissists and psychopaths are both regarded as lacking moral restraint &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/25146/8423&quot;&gt;for different reasons&lt;/a&gt;. They also seem to be both regarded as lacking &amp;quot;impulse control&amp;quot; in general. i.e. They lack &amp;quot;the ability to defer gratification&amp;quot; to a certain extent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is very curious because my understanding is the nature of the neurological anomaly for each of these is quite different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that narcissists lack the ability to experience affective empathy. My understanding is that this is the reason why a strong conscience capable of restraining unskillful behavior does not form within the narcissist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My understanding is that psychopaths lack the ability to experience strong pain signals. My understanding is that this is the reason why a strong conscience capable of restraining unskillful behavior does not form within the psychopath.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Upon reflection, it kind of makes sense that these two abilities are both prerequisites for the emergence of a conscience:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;1: The ability to experience pain signals of sufficient strength to induce rumination so that we might actually learn from our mistakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;2: The ability to experience affective empathy so that we might feel the pain that our unskillful moves create in others as if it were our own and be induced to ruminate upon and learn from the experience in a similar fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, it kind of makes sense that those who possess both (1) the ability experience strong pain signals and (2) high affective empathy will naturally develop a very strong conscience capable of restraining unskillful behavior which harms others by simply having life experiences and learning from them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Therefore, it kind of makes sense, that those who develop a strong conscience which functions to restrain movement will possess an above average ability to defer gratification in situations where such movements would cause harm to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I’ve also noticed, and this is again based purely on personal observation, that this ability to defer gratification seems to generalize beyond situations which might cause harm to others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, I’ve noticed that those people whom I perceive to possess a conscience of above average strength, seem to be, for example:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;less prone to avoidant behavior&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;less prone to remaining trapped in addiction&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;more open to considering new ideas even if they are uncomfortable&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;more open to abandoning views even if doing so is uncomfortable&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The common theme is &amp;quot;a greater ability to tolerate discomfort in exchange for a long term benefit&amp;quot;.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I’m not quite sure why this ability seems to generalize in this fashion. Perhaps it is as simple as developing a muscle in one situation which can then be applied to other situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am intensely curious about this question and would like to know if any research has been done on this issue which might help to increase the clarity of my understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8423" LastEditorUserId="8423" LastEditDate="2021-03-21T21:21:38.933" LastActivityDate="2021-03-21T21:21:38.933" Title="What is the nature of the association between “conscience” and “the ability to defer gratification”?" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26823" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-22T15:58:09.067" Score="0" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would be interested in a formal definition for this term, or at least a paper which describes this notion explicitly (instead of just using the term). Many papers seem to use it, but I haven't managed to find any explicit description of the term.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26809" LastActivityDate="2021-03-22T15:58:09.067" Title="Is there a formal definition for &quot;axon terminal field&quot;?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;connectionism&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26824" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26044" CreationDate="2021-03-22T21:08:06.267" Score="-2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This question actually can be answered rather with the interdisciplinary fields of neuroscience / philosophy, since it was already &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Platon&lt;/a&gt; around 400 B.C. with his &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Allegory of the cave&lt;/a&gt; asking what is the reality or what do we just perceive. This led to the question of what reality or existence of objects actually is.&#xA;This is true for every human being.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Later on, the German philosopher &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Schopenhauer&lt;/a&gt; explained that this is also true on an individual basis.&#xA;Even if the brain generally aims to perceive through the five senses in almost the same way as all people do, it might differ how we precicely conceive these impressions as he stated in his famous quote&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the same environment, everyone lives in a different world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(&amp;quot;Bei gleicher Umgebung lebt doch jeder in einer anderen Welt.&amp;quot; Schopenhauer: &amp;quot;Aphorismen zur Lebensweisheit&amp;quot;, 1851)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A modern and even more abstract way of defining perception is given by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_coding&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Predictive coding&lt;/a&gt; propesed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Friston&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Karl Friston&lt;/a&gt; which states that all impressions are processed in such a way that minimizes suprise, i.e. tries to infer from known to unknown or one could say using all prejudices. This theory can be described very mathematically and does not state how exactly it works physiologically. Simply put, the perception works in such a way that minimzes energy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28093" LastActivityDate="2021-03-22T21:08:06.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26825" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-22T21:59:47.383" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;How good is neuroscience at closing this &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutic_circle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Hermeneutic circle&lt;/a&gt; in the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Philosophy of science&lt;/a&gt;?&#xA;I am referring to the &lt;strong&gt;interplay of theory and experiment&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is depicted in the following figure:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;                 validate&#xA;                 -------&amp;gt;&#xA;theory (model)              experiment (analysis)&#xA;                  adapt&#xA;                  &amp;lt;----&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Normally, this circle has to be passed through many many times as &lt;em&gt;feedback&lt;/em&gt; from experiment is built into theory in order to recheck the theory to eventually obtain a powerful theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;theory&lt;/strong&gt; is based on a model, mostly derived from first principles or very few assumptions as per &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam%27s_razor&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Occam's razor&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KISS_principle&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;KISS principle&lt;/a&gt;. This shall be tested against the reality so that the theory can be either verified or falsified.&#xA;An &lt;strong&gt;experiment&lt;/strong&gt; is either built in such a way that it is suitable to check the theory, or alternatively it comes from the real nature and is a &lt;em&gt;complex system&lt;/em&gt; (like the &lt;em&gt;brain&lt;/em&gt; serving as the best example).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the one hand, we have the theoretical approach to neuroscience mostly by physicsits or even mathematicians who want to incooporate their &amp;quot;first principles&amp;quot; or even &amp;quot;axioms&amp;quot; into a Stimulus–response model and thus try to model the brain as a mathematical function or mapping in the sense of a dynamical system that evolves with time by input configuration states.&#xA;There is a paper &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tops.12453&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Dynamics of Neural Populations Capture the Laws of the Mind&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot; by Gregor Schöner in which he claims some hypotheses and cites Feynman for his conversation with his father about answering the &amp;quot;why&amp;quot; with just a more general physical reasoning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, there are people working with real data that comes from experiments. A lot of data-analysis is done there. This is mainly driven by biologist psychologists, and &amp;quot;data-scientists&amp;quot;.&#xA;They are also responsible for the setup on localizing where special neurons fire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are these persons I admire, popular as being &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2014/summary/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;nobel prize winner in 2014, O'Keefe and Moser&lt;/a&gt;.&#xA;They managed to cover a broad range from real-world experiment to theory. Actually they localized these place and grid cells individually and detected them on new locations (pattern completion and separation).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In how far is neuroscience in general able to &lt;em&gt;link theory and experiments&lt;/em&gt;, whereby with experiment I explicitly refer to those complex systems in real-world. And not the realization of a toy-model, which is built just in order to verify a theory. Actually in some part, this has to happen in order to isolate individual features of a model to verify, but still it is a difference of inventing an experiment to check a theory or to try to build a model to describe an experiment that is motivated from real-world behaviour.&#xA;Can we acheive a linkage or are these two fields (theoretical and experimental) still separated from each other heavily?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are other examples of &lt;em&gt;broad-range covering from a model to describing a real-world complex system&lt;/em&gt;? (i.e. having a powerful theory from which directly many consequences can be derived, and the above mentioned circle has not to walked with a high frequency)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this science, does it happen similar or same as in learning? Without initial knownledge, the human being adapts a model of its environment by simply being exposed (making experiments = experience) to it, i.e. passing through this above mentioned circle many times and obtaining much feedback to complement one's model of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28093" LastActivityDate="2021-03-22T21:59:47.383" Title="Neuroscience &amp; Epistemology - Feedback in Hermeneutic circle of Theory and Experiment" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26826" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-22T22:01:49.407" Score="0" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Pride, shame, hubris and ego being factors in whether a person is able to consider they may be wrong on a statement, claim or stance on a topic.  Not only consider wrongness, but accept or note their change of mind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28095" LastActivityDate="2021-03-22T22:46:05.797" Title="Is the inability for people to accept they may be wrong on a topic (and the rationales for that) something that psychology ever discusses in depth?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2021-03-23T04:52:07.583" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26827" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26826" CreationDate="2021-03-22T22:46:05.797" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This was discussed by &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Fromm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Erich Fromm&lt;/a&gt;, a German social psychologist. In his popular book &amp;quot;To Have or to Be?&amp;quot; he explains this mode of attached to one's own conviction as the modes of existence related to &amp;quot;Having&amp;quot; as if this was one's property that it is about to defend. On the other hand, people living in the mode of &amp;quot;Being&amp;quot; do not &amp;quot;posess&amp;quot; their ideas but are open to learn new things, the best what can happen in a conversation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28093" LastActivityDate="2021-03-22T22:46:05.797" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26828" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-23T02:49:51.000" Score="1" ViewCount="60" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that people with bipolar cycle between moods, say, roughly a few times a year, and I know that there's conditions like ultra-rapid cycling. But something I don't understand, particularly with bipolar 2, is if that person is always in a cycle or not? For example, do they have a depressed episode for, say, a month, and then a hypomanic episode for another month, and then life is normal until they have another episode? Or are they always somewhere in an episode?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28096" LastActivityDate="2021-03-23T19:05:48.450" Title="Are people with Bipolar Disorder always in a cycle?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26829" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26840" CreationDate="2021-03-23T06:57:44.737" Score="3" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;So, an online acquaintance of mine has mentioned that they're suffering from severe depression recently, and my natural response is to want to offer them support and encouragement - maybe suggest that they should see a psychologist and get some medication for the condition. However, I'm uncertain of how to do so, since I remember reading that depression can cause you to interpret things that people say to you in a negative light, and it's my understanding that the American health system is not the greatest, and thus they might not be able to afford medication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How should I approach this? Naturally, I don't want to do more harm than good, and cause them to start thinking things like &amp;quot;he's being smug about how his country's medical system is better than mine&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;I can't afford medication; I'm worthless because I'm poor&amp;quot;. Are there any general guidelines on how non-medically trained people should approach interactions with depressed people?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28097" LastActivityDate="2021-03-25T06:24:24.050" Title="How to offer support to an American acquaintance with depression?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;depression&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26830" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-23T15:22:05.797" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I learned in class recently that neuroreceptors can cause different chemical changes in the brain and nervous system. I was told that stimulants increase heart rate and awareness, which got me thinking how  different strengths of stimulants might interact with each other. I have been taking medicine for a while now, (methylphenidate), and I have noticed that whenever I drink coffee while the medicine is still in effect, I feel more tired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So now the question: Since the medicine I take is a stronger stimulant than the caffeine from the coffee, could the caffeine neuroreceptors be taking the place of my medicine (the stronger stimulant) and be making me more tired than I would be if I did not drink coffee, or could it be because of some other reason?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I just want to end this by saying that the knowledge I have of neurochemistry is baseline and I am in no way an expert, so I apologize if this question seems silly to someone who is more informed on this subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28100" LastActivityDate="2021-03-23T20:03:49.067" Title="Can some stimulants take the place of others?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26831" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-23T16:54:10.120" Score="2" ViewCount="124" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_stress&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;mental stress&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_trauma&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;trauma&lt;/a&gt; have a significant impact on IQ test performance relative to baseline, and if so, how much?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, if a person is affected by abuse, bullying, neglect, or some other stressor or trauma, then how much of an effect would that have on their test score?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="8573" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-04-03T07:19:48.020" LastActivityDate="2021-04-03T07:19:48.020" Title="How are IQ test scores affected by psychological stress or trauma?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;stress&gt;&lt;trauma&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26834" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-23T20:13:29.167" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find any correspondence between BA6 (Premotor cortex) and AAL, but there are no information about it. Is there any equivalence table for Brodmann areas and other related anatomic labels?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28104" LastActivityDate="2021-03-23T20:13:29.167" Title="Is there any maping between the AAL to Brodmann areas (BA)?" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26838" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26841" CreationDate="2021-03-24T00:28:18.277" Score="2" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently came across the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychohistory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychohistory theory&lt;/a&gt; of deMause. To best of my understanding,&#xA;it roughly tries to capture the common psychology of an era by analyzing the childbearing practices of that era. See the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd_deMause&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;summary&lt;/a&gt; below.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oqrff.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/oqrff.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd like to know how credible this theory is. Briefly, how is it viewed by academicians, what is the summary of some different opinions surrounding it etc.&#xA;The wiki is rather silent on such discussions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25391" LastEditorUserId="28115" LastEditDate="2021-03-25T09:02:14.360" LastActivityDate="2021-03-25T09:02:14.360" Title="How is psychohistory theory of deMause viewed in academia?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;history-of-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26840" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26829" CreationDate="2021-03-25T06:24:24.050" Score="1" Body="&lt;h2&gt;How untrained people should approach interactions with depressed people or any other mental health problem?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The main point to make is that you must not try to counsel them.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I believe you may have worked this out for yourself, and I don't want to sound patronising and &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;tell you how to suck eggs&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;, but to be clear &lt;strong&gt;being untrained, you can cause more harm than good if you try to counsel them.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;The only thing you can do is be a good listener and listen without judgement.&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The moment you start to judge that person on what they say, you start to be harmful to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;If faced with talk of suicide&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are faced with talk of suicide, while &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/a/340597/349643&quot;&gt;Rebecca's answer in meta.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt; mentioned in the comments by @BryanKrause suggests not to repeat &lt;em&gt;&amp;quot;canned comments about suicide hotlines&amp;quot;&lt;/em&gt;, you do need to bear in mind your own position in all this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h3&gt;Remember — trained or untrained, you cannot be there for that person 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. It will not be healthy for you or them.&lt;/h3&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a slightly different way to what is suggested in &lt;a href=&quot;https://meta.stackexchange.com/a/243701/349643&quot;&gt;MTL's answer to the same question in meta.stackexchange.com&lt;/a&gt; you can tell them:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am here to listen right now, but please bear in mind that I may not be here all the time. Any time I'm not around to talk to and you feel suicidal, there are helplines available for you to call too and a full list is available at &lt;a href=&quot;http://suicide.org/international-suicide-hotlines.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://suicide.org/international-suicide-hotlines.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When dealing with talk of suicide, Rebecca's answer is very good for pointers regarding worries you may have, so it may be beneficial for you to take some time to read through what she says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2021-03-25T06:24:24.050" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26841" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26838" CreationDate="2021-03-25T07:34:06.857" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;On the subject of criticism and how psychohistory is viewed by academicians, you stated that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The wiki is rather silent on such discussions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yet, the Wikipedia article outlines the criticism with plenty of citations.  The criticism in the article is laid out below, although I was not able to find url links for some of the journal articles referenced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Psychohistory remains a controversial field of study, facing criticism in the academic community (&lt;a href=&quot;https://search.proquest.com/docview/1305588616&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DeMause, 1988&lt;/a&gt;; Stannard, 1982; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/2504699&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pomper, 1973&lt;/a&gt;; Paul, 1982), with critics referring to it as a pseudoscience (Hunt, 2002). Psychohistory uses a plurality of methodologies, and it is difficult to determine which is appropriate to use in each circumstance.&#xA;In 1973, historian Hugh A. Trevor-Roper dismissed the field of psychohistory entirely in response to the publication of Walter Langer’s The Mind of Adolf Hitler. He contended that psychohistory’s methodology rested “on a defective philosophy” and was “vitiated by a defective method.” He also contended that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Instead of proceeding from demonstrable steps, from fact to interpretation, from evidence to conclusion, psycho-historians move in the opposite direction. They deduce their facts from their theories; and this means, in effect, that facts are at the mercy of theory, selected and valued according to their consistence with theory, even invented to support theory (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/014107687807100604&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Shepherd, 1978&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DeMause has received criticism on several levels. His formulations have been criticized for being insufficiently supported by credible research (Demos, 1986). He has also received criticism for being a strong proponent of the &amp;quot;black legend&amp;quot; view of childhood history (i.e. that the history of childhood was above all a history of progress, with children being far more often badly mistreated in the past) (Aries, 1975). Similarly, his work has been called a history of child abuse, not childhood (Heywood, 2001). The grim perspective of childhood history is known from other sources, e.g. Edward Shorter's The Making of the Modern Family and Lawrence Stone's The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800. However, deMause received criticism for his repeated, detailed descriptions on childhood atrocities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reader is doubtless already familiar with examples of these psychohistorical &amp;quot;abuses.&amp;quot; There is a significant difference, however, between the well-meaning and serious, if perhaps simplistic and reductionistic, attempt to understand the psychological in history and the psychohistorical expose that can at times verge on historical pornography. For examples of the more frivolous and distasteful sort of psychohistory, see Journal of Psychohistory. For more serious and scholarly attempts to understand the psychological dimension of the past, see The Psychohistory Review (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/1858137&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kohut, 1986&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent psychohistory has also been criticized for being overly-entangled with DeMause, whose theories are not representative of the entire field (&lt;a href=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20071130222935/http://cliopolitical.blogspot.com/2005/08/introduction-to-historical_112482482753969170.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Comtois,  2005&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Aries, P. (1975). De l'enfant roi a l'enfant martyr. &lt;em&gt;Revue Psychologie. 68&lt;/em&gt;, 6.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Comtois, M. (2005) &lt;em&gt;Introduction to Historical Method&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://web.archive.org/web/20071130222935/http://cliopolitical.blogspot.com/2005/08/introduction-to-historical_112482482753969170.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://web.archive.org/web/20071130222935/http://cliopolitical.blogspot.com/2005/08/introduction-to-historical_112482482753969170.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Updated 2010 at &lt;a href=&quot;http://cliopolitical.blogspot.com/2005/08/introduction-to-historical_112482482753969170.html?m=1&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://cliopolitical.blogspot.com/2005/08/introduction-to-historical_112482482753969170.html?m=1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;DeMause, L. (1988). On writing childhood history. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Psychohistory, 16&lt;/em&gt;(2), 135. &lt;a href=&quot;https://search.proquest.com/docview/1305588616&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://search.proquest.com/docview/1305588616&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Demos, J. P. (1986). Child Abuse in Context: An Historian's Perspective. In &lt;em&gt;Past, Present and Personal: The Family and The Life Course in American History&lt;/em&gt;. NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 68–91.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Heywood, Colin (2001). &lt;em&gt;A History of Childhood&lt;/em&gt;. Cambridge: Polity Press. p. 41.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Hunt, L. (2002). Psychology, Pschoanalysis and Historical Thought -The Misfortunes of Psychohistory. In Kramer Lloyd S. and Maza, Sarah C. (ed.). &lt;em&gt;A Companion to Western Historical Thought&lt;/em&gt;. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing. pp. 337–357.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kohut, Thomas A. (1986). &amp;quot;Psychohistory as History&amp;quot;. The American Historical Review. 91 (2): 336–354. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/1858137&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.2307/1858137&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Paul, R. A. (1982). Review of Lloyd deMause's Foundations of Psychohistory. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Psychoanalytic Anthropology, 5&lt;/em&gt;, 469.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Pomper, P. (1973). Problems of a Naturalistic Psychohistory. &lt;em&gt;History and Theory. 12&lt;/em&gt;(4): 367–388. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/2504699&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.2307/2504699&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Shepherd, Michael (1978). Clio and Psyche: the lessons of psychohistory. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 71&lt;/em&gt;(6): 406–412. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1177/014107687807100604&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/014107687807100604&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Stannard, D. E. (1982). &lt;em&gt;Shrinking History: On Freud and the Failure of Psychohistory&lt;/em&gt;. Oxford University Press, USA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastActivityDate="2021-03-25T07:34:06.857" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26842" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-25T15:26:30.410" Score="0" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been doing some research for my thesis and one of the subjects I am researching is motivation. Something that I've generally noticed is that if we do not find something relevant or needed for us, we tend to lose motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example:&#xA;In middle school we learn math. Lots of students question the need for math for their own reasons. When they hear an answer that not does not completely answer the question we lose motivation. An answer like: &amp;quot;you need it for your future&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;you just have to&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Other example:&#xA;Most people learn how to drive a car, because we understand that usually you need a car to get to work. Other people that work from home or live in walking distance from their work, could for that reason, not learn how to drive. If you would make the latter group learn how to drive, most would question the need and therefore lose motivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would like to know if there is a principle or theory about this. A name or a source would be of great help! Or if my presupposition is wrong, please share your thoughts!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27415" LastActivityDate="2021-04-24T16:02:50.240" Title="Why do we need to know why something is needed or relevant?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26843" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26842" CreationDate="2021-03-25T15:44:02.307" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term I think of that is most associated with this concept is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salience_(neuroscience)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;salience&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a &lt;strong&gt;massively&lt;/strong&gt; informative world out there. If you were to spend all your time focusing your attention on arbitrary objects or sensations from the environment you would never get anywhere. You might die of starvation or some other unmet physiological need or get eaten by a tiger while focused on something that isn't dangerous and doesn't help you reproduce - this circumstance is not evolutionarily favorable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Though salience is often focused on more immediate threats and benefits, more complex organisms including humans are able to plan ahead a bit and put effort into things now that have benefits in the future. Some things seem to be innately salient, others become salient with learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-03-25T15:44:02.307" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26845" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-25T18:36:45.833" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;When we were kids, even a fellow kid from next neighborhood seemed to be mysterious and awe inspiring to us, especially if we had some hunch that he or she was rich.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But as we grew up, we learnt so much about other humans through internet history, articles, basic psychology and other humanistic subjects (add to it our frequent travel and interactions) that we could roughly define limits into which, vast majority of humans could be confined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has this knowledge somehow made interaction with potential acquaintances mundane? Or are there still areas which we cant know, maybe some permutations of existing subjects, could yield new areas of human choices, personality and knowledge?&#xA;Or maybe interaction is so strong that mere knowledge couldn't tell us even half of what a person is all about because reading is far less impacting to our senses than experiencing?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27168" LastActivityDate="2021-03-25T18:36:45.833" Title="Can we comprehensively know other humans purely from internet and book?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;personality&gt;&lt;human-factors&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26846" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-25T20:38:27.013" Score="2" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm reading the PNAS paper &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pnas.org/content/104/14/6066&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neural encoding of the concept of nest in the mouse brain&lt;/a&gt; by Lin et al. 2007&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A certain 'nest cell' is described in the paper that fires only when the mouse approaches its nest.&#xA;My question is: can the same nest cell fire at other concepts or is it solely dedicated to 'nest'?&#xA;If it's only dedicated to one single concept, that seems like a limiting waste.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28121" LastActivityDate="2021-03-25T20:38:27.013" Title="Question about nest cell" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26847" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26849" CreationDate="2021-03-26T08:34:16.890" Score="3" ViewCount="573" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the scientific term for the tendency to see familiar patterns in things, that are actually something completely different?&#xA;One of the most common examples of this bias, is the perception of human faces in clouds, cars and all kinds of other objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I am looking for is a lower level misperception, which people are usually aware of on a higher, cognitive level. I.e., people either are, or can easily become aware of the fact that they are not actually seeing a face (or another familiar pattern).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27198" LastEditorUserId="27198" LastEditDate="2021-03-27T12:49:13.180" LastActivityDate="2021-03-27T12:49:13.180" Title="What is the scientific term for the tendency to see familiar patterns in things, that are actually something completely different?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26848" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-26T11:57:51.357" Score="1" ViewCount="41" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can Sexual orientation change in teen years as teenagers go through lots of challenges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And can a heterosexual teen become a homosexual teen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28125" LastEditorUserId="28125" LastEditDate="2021-03-26T15:18:47.437" LastActivityDate="2021-03-26T15:18:47.437" Title="Can sexual orientation change in teen years?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26849" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26847" CreationDate="2021-03-26T13:34:58.400" Score="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareidolia&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Pareidolia&lt;/a&gt; is the term you are looking for. It is often used for the specific case you mention of seeing faces in other objects, but it's actually a more general concept that covers other types of patterns and even other (non-visual) modalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A search of &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C50&amp;amp;q=pareidolia&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Google Scholar&lt;/a&gt; returns many relevant results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-03-26T13:34:58.400" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26850" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26726" CreationDate="2021-03-26T16:56:43.610" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Disclaimer : this answer isn't backed by any source, aside from personal experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit : found a source &lt;a href=&quot;https://health-clevelandclinic-org.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/health.clevelandclinic.org/what-happens-to-your-body-during-the-fight-or-flight-response/amp/?amp_js_v=a6&amp;amp;amp_gsa=1&amp;amp;usqp=mq331AQHKAFQArABIA%3D%3D#aoh=16167791861704&amp;amp;referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com&amp;amp;amp_tf=Source%C2%A0%3A%20%251%24s&amp;amp;ampshare=https%3A%2F%2Fhealth.clevelandclinic.org%2Fwhat-happens-to-your-body-during-the-fight-or-flight-response%2F&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://health-clevelandclinic-org.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/health.clevelandclinic.org/what-happens-to-your-body-during-the-fight-or-flight-response/amp/?amp_js_v=a6&amp;amp;amp_gsa=1&amp;amp;usqp=mq331AQHKAFQArABIA%3D%3D#aoh=16167791861704&amp;amp;referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com&amp;amp;amp_tf=Source%C2%A0%3A%20%251%24s&amp;amp;ampshare=https%3A%2F%2Fhealth.clevelandclinic.org%2Fwhat-happens-to-your-body-during-the-fight-or-flight-response%2F&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My psychiatrist explained to me that people with anxiety are often in &amp;quot;survival mode&amp;quot;. Not only when they are having a panick attack, but most of the time, because of the high stress levels. Imagine being constantly in danger. Thats' how we feel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When in danger, our bodies prioritize all other important organs (heart, lungs...), and our cognitive capacities become impaired. When in danger, the last thing our body wants to do is to remember what's happening. All it wants to do is to flee that situation, or to fight the danger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In addition, anxiety leads to exhaustion, which also impairs our cognitive capacities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Again, I don't know if my psychiatrist made this up or if it's scientifically proven, but I thought it was an interesting insight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also have a little theory about it. I know it sounds stupid, but from my personal experience, a lot of events can be traumatic for someone with anxiety. An event (or even a simple thought) that is stressful for a normal person can completely destroy me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I had a tendency as a child to block those memories so I won't remember them and trigger a panick attack. I remember whispering to myself &amp;quot;forget it&amp;quot; 3 times and move on with something else. It came to the point that I didn't even force myself to forget. I forgot the thing right after it happened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The point is that we probably don't remember things because we trained ourselves to forget. But that's just my theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Feel free to respond and tell me what you think. And if you have some sources to back up or refute what I just wrote, please share them :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit : found an article on training memory suppression &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-forget-something#how-to-forget&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-forget-something#how-to-forget&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27371" LastEditorUserId="27371" LastEditDate="2021-03-26T17:22:36.310" LastActivityDate="2021-03-26T17:22:36.310" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26851" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26858" CreationDate="2021-03-26T17:14:15.157" Score="0" ViewCount="115" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can sexual orientation change due to &lt;a href=&quot;https://centerforanxietydisorders.com/treatment-programs/obsessive-compulsive-disorder/hocd/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hocd (Homosexual OCD)&lt;/a&gt;. And if it can change, is it possible to reverse the change and bring the person back to his/her original orientation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[Change from heterosexual to homosexual]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28125" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-03-27T07:51:13.660" LastActivityDate="2021-03-28T07:17:06.660" Title="Can hocd change sexual orientation?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26855" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-27T11:28:00.197" Score="3" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there evidence that &amp;quot;over sensitivising&amp;quot; an indvidual (eg adolescent) makes them less resilient? So to explain, if we ask an individual repeatedly how they feel and if they have been mistreated, they might eventually feel more depressed or mistreated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example there might be a neurological reason by activating certain &amp;quot;fear centres&amp;quot; (amygdala) of the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could we be robbing people of self coping strategies, if we repeatedly analyse the issues for them?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please don't misinterpret this question in a political sense, I really mean from a psychological POV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26149" LastActivityDate="2021-03-27T11:28:00.197" Title="Can we over sensitise people" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26856" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26831" CreationDate="2021-03-27T11:37:48.560" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Stress will certainly affect your test performance and cognition, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/42357220/The_effects_of_stress_and_stress_hormone20160207-17857-1oizaoo.pdf?1454910197=&amp;amp;response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DThe_effects_of_stress_and_stress_hormone.pdf&amp;amp;Expires=1616848349&amp;amp;Signature=MhxGouNkwHD%7EQHynLyxMrkunLzSag879vUJfDfr-W0BrLWukLW8JjoNNM%7EvuCJtl69B4Xp%7EPFhCuWFo87t6R9fPeWoeKKSSruHQKxkNpzvJszVgwQOoJ6B40cbMMfQReEVQIy1-hgmQxU2DjM8htuCPGTfR25diZDJiB4fW3tfvA9rO-hD4PEtcY5ObVRiLpzmy7OKwIByAIfXSVgT5kPhKcEc2%7E4ycqv7eSSsrajgSEPg-ztkQi1%7E0n4vCoMbITvx9e1GiBmqIQYd0fVP2ZDK5ddAM1Dz0TkuJ0unIGxtZ8DPunN-qdqxqTgGeYmG3aSKpT7EhuYrjhm153A4ZD1g__&amp;amp;Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lupien 2007&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It might be a bit hard to measure this in an experiment, as the same individuals have to take the test with and without stress. But then you have to control for some learned effect, second time the test might be easier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26149" LastActivityDate="2021-03-27T11:37:48.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26857" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26814" CreationDate="2021-03-27T11:44:47.477" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Freudian theory, an individual with low morality should have a weak superego. The superego is the internalised rules of society (via your parents). This is learned cultural norms (eg don't kill).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Superego is not an empirical concept, as mentioned before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26149" LastActivityDate="2021-03-27T11:44:47.477" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26858" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26851" CreationDate="2021-03-27T12:19:42.143" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;First of all, it is important to note that the current version (5th Edition) of the DSM — Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychological Association (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA, 2013&lt;/a&gt;) — does not recognise homosexual obsessive-compulsive disorder (HOCD) as a mental health condition (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/hocd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Smith, 2021&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Homosexual obsessive-compulsive disorder (HOCD) is a type of sexual orientation-obsessive-compulsive disorder (SO-OCD). A person with SO-OCD may have fears and anxieties relating to their sexual orientation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A person with HOCD may have anxiety about experiencing same-sex attraction, even if they do not experience this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because HOCD is a type of SO-OCD, some people may use the term to refer to situations wherein people who are not heterosexual experience fears about their sexual orientation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading this article will explain in more detail what HOCD is reportedly all about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Can sexual orientation change due to HOCD?&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The overarching point to put across regarding any sexual orientation is that &lt;strong&gt;nothing and nobody can make you homosexual, bisexual or heterosexual&lt;/strong&gt;. There have been groups of therapists who tout that they can convert homosexuals into heterosexuals through conversion therapy, but:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;conversion therapy in relation to gender identity and sexual orientation (including asexuality) is unethical, potentially harmful and is not supported by evidence (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/ethics-and-standards/mou/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BACP, 2017&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For research on this, among many others there is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Drescher, J., Schwartz, A., Casoy, F., McIntosh, C. A., Hurley, B., Ashley, K., ... &amp;amp; Tompkins, D. A. (2016). The growing regulation of conversion therapy. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Medical Regulation, 102&lt;/em&gt;(2), 7-12. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.30770/2572-1852-102.2.7&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.30770/2572-1852-102.2.7&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assessments of the peer-reviewed literature from multiple professional organizations, including the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, and the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatrists, have found no evidence that conversion therapy treatments result in changes in sexual orientation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Haldeman, D. C. (1994). The practice and ethics of sexual orientation conversion therapy. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62&lt;/em&gt;(2), 221–227. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.62.2.221&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.62.2.221&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The literature in psychotherapeutic and religious conversion therapies is reviewed, showing no evidence indicating that such treatments are effective in their intended purpose&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Adelson, S. L., &amp;amp; of Child, T. A. A. (2012). Practice parameter on gay, lesbian, or bisexual sexual orientation, gender nonconformity, and gender discordance in children and adolescents. &lt;em&gt;Journal of the American academy of child &amp;amp; adolescent psychiatry, 51&lt;/em&gt;(9), 957-974. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.07.004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.07.004&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Principle 6&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Clinicians should be aware that there is no evidence that sexual orientation can be altered through therapy, and that attempts to do so may be harmful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This led to the Coalition Against Conversion Therapy (CACT), a coalition of leading psychological, psychotherapeutic, and counselling organisations committed to ending conversion therapy, who prepared a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on Conversion Therapy in the UK (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/policy-and-research/public-policy/conversion-therapy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;UKCP, 2017&lt;/a&gt;), and signed by many UK professional governing bodies, including (see the corresponding links) the National Counselling Society (&lt;a href=&quot;https://nationalcounsellingsociety.org/blog/posts/leading-uk-psychological-professions-and-stonewall-unite-against-conversion-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NCS&lt;/a&gt;), British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/ethics-and-standards/mou/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BACP&lt;/a&gt;), National Health Service (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.networks.nhs.uk/news/nhs-england-comes-out-against-conversion-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;NHS&lt;/a&gt;), The British Psychological Society (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bps.org.uk/news-and-policy/bps-among-leading-national-organisations-calling-end-conversion-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;BPS&lt;/a&gt;), and the Royal College of General Practitioners (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.rcgp.org.uk/about-us/news/2017/january/uk-organisations-unite-against-conversion-therapy.aspx&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;RCGP&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). &lt;em&gt;American Psychiatric Pub&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;BACP. (2017). &lt;em&gt;Memorandum of understanding on conversion therapy in the UK&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/ethics-and-standards/mou/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/ethics-and-standards/mou/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Smith, A. (2021). What is homosexual obsessive-compulsive disorder (HOCD)? &lt;em&gt;Medical News Today&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/hocd&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/hocd&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;UKCP (2017) &lt;em&gt;Conversion Therapy&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/policy-and-research/public-policy/conversion-therapy/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychotherapy.org.uk/policy-and-research/public-policy/conversion-therapy/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-03-28T07:17:06.660" LastActivityDate="2021-03-28T07:17:06.660" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26859" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26876" CreationDate="2021-03-27T13:57:47.200" Score="2" ViewCount="85" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems that consciousness can only be investigated through self-report, i.e. language/communication of some kind. Is it believed that consciousness could nonetheless exist without language?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Yes, it is assumed that non-human animals have varying degrees of consciousness - but this seems somewhat unverifiable without our capacity to ask them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Conversely, has there ever been a human being to grow up without language for years and then learn a language sufficiently well to be questioned regarding their subjective experience prior to learning the language?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28130" LastActivityDate="2021-03-30T23:05:05.710" Title="Consciousness without language" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;language&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26860" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26859" CreationDate="2021-03-27T14:52:28.620" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Language is a means of expression and communication. It serves as a medium of expression. Consciousness is independent of language. One (human or any animal) can be conscious however to report and verify, as you said, we need a language or any medium of communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Consciousness could safely considered an axiom in psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the second question, you have bumped on to one of the canonical pairs. How do we explain nothing? Ideally we cannot. The same is with consciousness. It is a fundamental thing. A formal verification might require a revisit to the fundamentals of philosophy and psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&#xA;Thought without language: Thought without awareness? - L.Weiskrantz&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26187" LastEditorUserId="26187" LastEditDate="2021-03-28T03:20:51.307" LastActivityDate="2021-03-28T03:20:51.307" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26863" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26865" CreationDate="2021-03-28T10:19:30.377" Score="3" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assume we're at the state where the potassium gates have closed. Inside the membrane should still be more negative relative to its resting potential. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oa6rvUJlg7o&amp;amp;ab_channel=HarvardExtensionSchool&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;This source&lt;/a&gt; claims that the sodium-potassium pump brings the membrane potential back up to the resting potential. However, as far as I understand, sodium-potassium pump creates a &lt;strong&gt;net negative&lt;/strong&gt; charge inside the cell by pumping out three Na+ molecules and bringing in two K+ molecules. How would the pump make the membrane potential more positive? Please let me know if I am misunderstanding something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28139" LastActivityDate="2021-03-28T16:12:49.677" Title="How does the neuron recover from hyperpolarizationn?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26865" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26863" CreationDate="2021-03-28T15:59:23.610" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The sodium potassium pump keeps ion concentrations consistently imbalanced with sodium higher outside and potassium higher inside the cell. The direct impacts it has on voltage are negligible, I'd recommend just ignoring them. If your source specifically says the pump returns the cell to rest after hyperpolarization, this is &lt;strong&gt;wrong&lt;/strong&gt;. A cell could fire several action potentials and return to rest without any pump required, because ion concentrations hardly change during the whole process. You only need the pump in the long term to maintain ion concentrations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is important for determining membrane potential is conductances to various ions and the weighted sum of their reversal potentials. Individual reversal potentials can be determined by the Nernst equation; the weighted sum can be determined by the Goldman equation. All the questions you have about what voltage a cell is moving towards are answered by these related equations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The reason a cell can become hyperpolarized after action potentials is because the weighted sum of ion reversal potentials at rest is less negative than that of potassium alone. If you have extra potassium channels open (voltage gated potassium channels), membrane potential will head closer to potassium reversal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Nothing special has to happen to return to rest, it's just that at rest the combined conductances of all ions through leak channels and other channels give an expected membrane potential that is not as negative as potassium alone. You can think of this as mostly due to modest resting conductances of sodium and chloride.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2021-03-28T16:12:49.677" LastActivityDate="2021-03-28T16:12:49.677" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26867" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-28T20:01:25.260" Score="0" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;I would like to monitor / measure my cognitive function in regular intervals (say every 6 monhts) to see whether it improves or deteriorates over time. We all know that our brains function less good the older we get but what is the best way to really measure it. For example, I do not want to do these classic IQ tests every few months, since most of them follow some kind of pattern and you get better at it over time (i.e. I was much better on the second IQ test I did not because my IQ got higher but simply because I got used to the kinds of questions they usually pose).&#xA;For a lack of a better word I would rather like to measure &amp;quot;raw cognitive power&amp;quot; as good as possible. I was thinking something along the lines like remembering long sequences of numbers or something similar.&#xA;Are there these types of tests that an individial can take over and over again to see how the brain function develops? I suppose there must be some literature and resources available but I do not know what to look for. Like when someone had an accident or has to take meds that affect the brain, there must be some ways doctors track that.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Your answers are really appreciated,&#xA;Neo&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Neo" LastActivityDate="2021-03-28T21:03:11.780" Title="Methods to measure your cognitive function" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26868" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26871" CreationDate="2021-03-28T21:19:59.050" Score="6" ViewCount="928" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can somebody help me find the following study:&#xA;&lt;em&gt;Effects of Low Doses of Caffeine on Mood, Physiology and Mental Function&lt;/em&gt;, listed under trial identifier &lt;em&gt;NCT00487227&lt;/em&gt; on &lt;a href=&quot;https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00487227&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ClinicalTrials.gov&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a very interesting study regarding the effect of very low doses of caffeine on cognitive variables. The study is listed as completed but I'm unable to find the study on google, google scholar or pubmed&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27151" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-03-29T07:05:07.100" LastActivityDate="2021-03-29T15:57:12.310" Title="Cannot find a journal paper on a study on caffeine, even though it is registered at clinicaltrials.gov" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26870" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26868" CreationDate="2021-03-29T07:04:13.910" Score="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ponderapharma.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/The-effects-of-l-theanine-caffeine-and-their-combination-on-cognition-and-mood.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Haskall &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., The effects of L-theanine, caffeine and their&#xA;combination on cognition and mood, &lt;em&gt;Biol Psych&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;77&lt;/strong&gt;: 113–22&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Here's some of the detective work I've done:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The principal investigator of this study is listed on your link on &lt;a href=&quot;https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00487227&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ClinicalTrials.gov&lt;/a&gt; as &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.andrewscholey.com/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Andrew Scholey of Northumbria University&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking on Google Scholar, and searching with the key terms &amp;quot;Andrew + Scholey + Caffeine&amp;quot; and looking for publications &lt;em&gt;after&lt;/em&gt; the study's '&lt;em&gt;actual completion date&lt;/em&gt;', as listed on &lt;a href=&quot;https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00487227&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;ClinicalTrials.gov&lt;/a&gt;, I found an article by Scholey &amp;amp; coworkers, namely:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ponderapharma.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/The-effects-of-l-theanine-caffeine-and-their-combination-on-cognition-and-mood.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;Haskall &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Biol Psych&lt;/em&gt; (2008); &lt;strong&gt;77&lt;/strong&gt;: 113–22&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The study doesn't mention 'ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00487227' explicitly, but given the study's senior author (Scholey), the publication date (2008) being a few years after the clinical study's completion date (2005), and the topic of the paper (cognitive effects of caffeine) that closely resembles the clinical trial's topic, I bet this is the article you're after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Otherwise, I should simply contact Scholey - most researchers appreciate an email enquiry about their work. More often than not they're eager to spread their work across the scientific community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-03-29T08:52:39.520" LastActivityDate="2021-03-29T08:52:39.520" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26871" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26868" CreationDate="2021-03-29T15:57:12.310" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;See &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666308000196&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Caffeine at levels found in decaffeinated beverages is behaviourally active&lt;/a&gt;  &lt;em&gt;Appetite&lt;/em&gt; Volume 50, Issues 2–3, March–May 2008, Page 559.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's just a conference abstract though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="19953" LastActivityDate="2021-03-29T15:57:12.310" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26872" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-29T18:14:29.550" Score="2" ViewCount="77" Body="&lt;p&gt;How do you programmatically in Python open and read segmentation data in an aparc+aseg.nii.gz file programmatically?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this correct?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;import numpy as np&#xA;from pathlib import Path&#xA;import torchio as tio&#xA;&#xA;dataset_dir_name = '/home/shared/projects/BrainSegNet3D/data'&#xA;dataset_dir = Path(dataset_dir_name)&#xA;labels_dir = dataset_dir / 'label'&#xA;label_paths = sorted(labels_dir.glob('*.nii.gz'))&#xA;label_path = label_paths[0]&#xA;abcd_free_surfer_labels = tio.LabelMap(label_path)&#xA;free_surfer_labels = abcd_free_surfer_labels.data[0].numpy()&#xA;np.unique(free_surfer_labels.astype('int'))&#xA;&#xA;array([   0,    2,    4,    5,    7,    8,   10,   11,   12,   13,   14,&#xA;         15,   16,   17,   18,   24,   26,   28,   30,   31,   41,   43,&#xA;         44,   46,   47,   49,   50,   51,   52,   53,   54,   58,   60,&#xA;         62,   63,   72,   77,   80,   85,  251,  252,  253,  254,  255,&#xA;       1000, 1001, 1002, 1003, 1005, 1006, 1007, 1008, 1009, 1010, 1011,&#xA;       1012, 1013, 1014, 1015, 1016, 1017, 1018, 1019, 1020, 1021, 1022,&#xA;       1023, 1024, 1025, 1026, 1027, 1028, 1029, 1030, 1031, 1032, 1033,&#xA;       1034, 1035, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009,&#xA;       2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020,&#xA;       2021, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026, 2027, 2028, 2029, 2030, 2031,&#xA;       2032, 2033, 2034, 2035])&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why are some of the numbers so large?  Does FreeSurfer really distinguish between over 2000 regions of the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28113" LastEditorUserId="28113" LastEditDate="2021-04-01T17:52:13.070" LastActivityDate="2021-04-01T17:52:45.047" Title="Opening an aparc+aseg.nii.gz file programmatically in Python" Tags="&lt;neuroimaging&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26876" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26859" CreationDate="2021-03-30T23:05:05.710" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Yes, as Ray Jackendoff reports in chapter 16 of &lt;em&gt;A User's Guide to Thought and Meaning&lt;/em&gt;, where he answers precisely this question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;A more promising source of evidence comes from congenitally deaf individuals  who  have  had  no  exposure  to  a  signed  language.  If  they  learn a signed language as adults, we can ask them what their thinking was  like  before.  In  a  BBC  documentary  on  the  relatively  new  signed  language  of  Nicaragua,  one  such  person  says  (in  the  English  transla-tion),  “I  didn’t  even  know  what  it  meant  to  think.  Thinking  meant  nothing  to  me.”  Of  course  he  must  have  been  able  to  think  before  he  learned to speak—after all, he wasn’t a robot or a zombie, he was func-tioning  in  society  at  least  to  some  degree.  But—as  predicted  by  the  Unconscious Meaning Hypothesis—he wasn’t aware of it.&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA; Another report presents the experience of a deaf individual who had never put together an English sentence until he was 9 or 10 years old, and was not exposed to sign language until college. He has memories of wondering how the world worked, but having no way to ask the questions. He recalls having a sense that other people could communicate with each other, but that he wasn’t able to. He describes saving up his questions until he had a way of asking them.&#xA; &#xA; For example, he reports having wondered at 5 or 6 years old how people communicated on the telephone. One day he wanted his mother to stop talking on the phone. He knew from observation that a hose could be crimped to stop the flow of water, so he applied this reason-ing  to  the  telephone  cord  and  tried  to  stop  the  sound  by  crimping  the  cord  (to  no  avail,  of  course).&#xA; &#xA; According to this report, then, this deaf boy had questions in his mind without having a language to think in. What’s more, his story about the telephone shows that he was able to use analogical reasoning without talking his way through the logic in his head. The  Unconscious  Meaning  Hypothesis  leads  us  to  ask:  In  what  form  did  he  experience  these  questions  and  this  reasoning?  Does  this  represent  some  form  of  “imageless  thought”?  From his description when asked about it, it sounds as though his experience was in terms of some kind of visual or kinesthetic imagery—the feel one has for “how things work”— accom-panied by a feeling of connection or of questioning a connection between observed actions. &#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28159" LastActivityDate="2021-03-30T23:05:05.710" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26878" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-31T15:52:53.693" Score="0" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any contemporary data for average IQ and income?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If IQ were perfectly correlated with income, you would expect e.g. everyone with an IQ of over 120 to be in the top 10% of income, so that the median - half of 1/10, 1/20 - IQ of the top 10% to be 125, and the mean slightly lower because of the nature of a normal distribution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But IQ has about a 0.4 correlation: so what is the mean and median IQ by income? Or by social class?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28166" LastActivityDate="2021-03-31T15:52:53.693" Title="Average IQ by income" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26879" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-03-31T21:01:28.013" Score="1" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is a claim from philosophy/logic intro textbook, but it is making factual statements about how people process conditionals when the premises contradict their beliefs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;‘It’s not the case that, if God exists, She answers malevolent prayers.’&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[Claim:] surely even an atheist can accept [the sentence above], without contradicting herself!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basically, the claim here seems to be that someone who doesn't believe the premise &amp;quot;God exists&amp;quot; is true (i.e. an atheist), automatically processes that statement as a counterfactual (rather than indicative) conditional. A [proper] counterfactual supposedly has to be stated as &amp;quot;[it's not the case that] if God exist&lt;em&gt;ed&lt;/em&gt;, She &lt;em&gt;would&lt;/em&gt; answer malevolent prayers.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Is there any empirical research if people actually engage in this kind of promotion-to-counterfactual when the premises seem false to them?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(There are a lot of papers in psychology &amp;amp; neuroscience on conditionals [&amp;amp; counterfactuals]... which actually makes it difficult to find if this particular issue has been studied empirically. Note however &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3610017/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;there is research&lt;/a&gt; indicating that [mere] hypothetical conditionals are processed differently than counterfactual ones in various measurable ways: fMRI correlates, what other statements subjects agree are entailed etc. So the question is basically not vacuous whether such promotion [from hypothetical to counterfactual] happens under some circumstances because there seem to be [at least] two different modes of thinking about conditionals, as observed empirically.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2021-03-31T21:08:02.380" LastActivityDate="2021-03-31T21:08:02.380" Title="Do people promote conditionals to counterfactuals if they disbelieve the premises?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26880" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="17997" CreationDate="2021-03-31T22:21:18.363" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is controversial, to say the least, and possibly false according to one interpretation on such experiments with monkeys. But note that there is a subtlety here: the way counterfactuals are usually &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4451179/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;tested&lt;/a&gt; with monkeys involves them having seen what a reward could have been, but had not received.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Recent studies on reinforcement learning in primates indicate that humans are not alone in&#xA;our ability to think about hypothetical outcomes. For example, Lee and colleagues (Abe &amp;amp; Lee&#xA;2011, Lee et al. 2005) presented rhesus monkeys with a computer-based version of the game rock-&#xA;paper-scissors. When they examined the strategies that the monkeys used over time, they found&#xA;that monkeys did not simply adjust their choices based on what they received on the previous trial.&#xA;Surprisingly, monkeys also adjusted their strategy to account for rewards they would have received&#xA;had they chosen a different option. Using a similar computer-based setup, Hayden and colleagues&#xA;(2009) presented rhesus monkeys with a risky decision-making task with eight possible choices.&#xA;Whereas seven of the options consistently provided small juice rewards, the final option was&#xA;variable: Sometimes it provided a much larger reward, and sometimes it provided a much smaller&#xA;reward. Critically, monkeys were given feedback about what the risky option would have provided&#xA;on every trial. In this way, monkeys could see how much juice they would have gotten from the&#xA;risky option, regardless of whether they had chosen it. As in the rock-paper-scissors task, modeling&#xA;of the monkeys’ behaviors showed that the monkeys adjusted their future strategies on the basis of&#xA;what they would have received. In cases where the risky option would have provided the high-value&#xA;outcome on one trial, monkeys were especially likely to seek this option out in future trials. In this&#xA;way, &lt;strong&gt;monkeys—like humans—change their future choices according to counterfactual situations&#xA;that could have (but did not) happen&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(There's subsequent para that discusses that monkeys, like us, seem to be driven by regret-like emotional responses in such matters.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;More &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027719300642&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;recent experiments&lt;/a&gt; indicate that monkeys intentionally explore the &amp;quot;counterfactual space&amp;quot;, i.e. try to find out what rewards they might have missed, even if they aren't just shown these potential rewards without them incurring an actual cost (in terms of missing other rewards, already known to them). Rather unsurprisingly, monkeys are willing to pay, in terms of missing certain rewards for finding out &amp;quot;what else is there&amp;quot;, i.e. they (&amp;quot;deliberately&amp;quot;) pay for information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think Chomsky isn't really talking about this though; actually he's not even using &amp;quot;counterfactual&amp;quot; in the para you cited but &amp;quot;minds capable of envisioning that the world could be otherwise than it is at this moment&amp;quot;. Basically: do the monkeys merely think of the world in a seen-potential-reward and seeking-information-about-unknown-rewards fashion, or do they &amp;quot;truly imagine&amp;quot; there could be rewards they didn't ever see? That's probably (very) difficult to test. Basically, his thesis/question isn't really about counterfactual thinking, but whether monkeys &amp;quot;have imagination&amp;quot; in some kind of &amp;quot;visual language&amp;quot; perhaps...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastActivityDate="2021-03-31T22:21:18.363" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26882" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26831" CreationDate="2021-04-01T07:09:41.837" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Short answer: The effect of stress and trauma on IQ varies significantly according to type and severity, but is overall fairly low relative to normal variation in scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;IQ test development is heavily concerned with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_(statistics)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;reliability&lt;/a&gt; (consistent scores) so while some variation is inevitable, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient#Reliability&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;IQ tests&lt;/a&gt; are designed to minimize the impact of stress:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... test-takers may have varying scores when taking the same test on&#xA;differing occasions, and may have varying scores when taking different&#xA;IQ tests at the same age. ... For modern tests, the confidence interval&#xA;can be approximately 10 points ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Additionally, particularly low or high IQ scores are less reliable than median scores.  Nonetheless:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Outside influences such as low motivation or high anxiety can&#xA;occasionally lower a person's IQ test score.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, up to approximately 10 IQ points difference in scores can be accounted for by measurement error and performance variability, but stressors can potentially result in larger differences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Despite the broad scope of the question, I was not able to find any recent dedicated literature reviews on the effects of any particular type of stress or trauma on IQ, so conclusions are based on a sample of recent available studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.4172/2375-4494.1000107&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Marcus Jenkins et al (2013)&lt;/a&gt; looked at the effects of family stress on child IQ:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... we identified four subconstructs that capture family stress:&#xA;Marital conflict, parenting stress, depressive symptoms and maternal&#xA;history of psychiatric disorders. ... None of the family stress&#xA;components mediated the effect of the SES components on child IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.156.3.280&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Delaney-Black et al (2002)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2006.0017&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ratner et al (2006)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579403000166&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Koenen et al (2003)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-006-9054-y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ybarra, Wilkens, &amp;amp; Lieberman (2007)&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-562&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ghazi et al (2012)&lt;/a&gt; looked at the effects of violence and trauma on child IQ:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... a child experiencing both violence exposure and trauma-related&#xA;distress at or above the 90th percentile would be expected to have a&#xA;7.5-point (SD, 0.5) decrement in IQ ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.23988&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Butler et al (2018)&lt;/a&gt; found similar effects on adolescent IQ.  However, &lt;a href=&quot;https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-843X.115.2.332&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Saigh et al (2006)&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.08.002&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DePrince, Weinzierl, &amp;amp; Combs (2009)&lt;/a&gt; also looked at the impact of violence and trauma on child IQ, but found no effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21809&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Viezel, Freer, &amp;amp; Castillo (2015)&lt;/a&gt; looked at the effect of abuse and neglect, and found an approximately 5-point decrement in child IQ, while &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-008-9212-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Doerfler, Toscano, &amp;amp; Connor (2008)&lt;/a&gt; looked at the effect of abuse on adolescent IQ:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For Performance IQ or Full Scale IQ scores, there were no significant&#xA;main effects for gender or abuse experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2012.633239&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kira et al (2012)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022121&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kira et al (2012)&lt;/a&gt;, and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2014.904463&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Kira et al (2014)&lt;/a&gt; looked at the effect of a variety of different stressors and traumas - including abuse, bullying, abandonment, and violence - on adolescent IQ in 2 vulnerable sub-groups:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Our findings support the hypothesis that different trauma types have&#xA;different influences, some positive and some negative. ... In&#xA;conclusion, trauma type differentially impacts IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the effect of stress on overall IQ was small (r&amp;lt;0.15).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Note that many studies found significant effects of stress and trauma on IQ sub-tests and sub-components, though overall IQ was often not significantly affected.  Note also that ethical conduct makes stress and trauma difficult to manipulate experimentally, so these studies are largely &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrospective_cohort_study&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;retrospective&lt;/a&gt;, or at best &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospective_cohort_study&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;prospective&lt;/a&gt;, but not &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;randomized controlled&lt;/a&gt; studies.  Thus, study quality is an issue, making conclusions tentative - in particular, the direction of causality is not always entirely clear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-04-03T07:10:40.157" LastActivityDate="2021-04-03T07:10:40.157" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26883" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-01T19:43:24.337" Score="0" ViewCount="51" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've previously studied spiking neural networks in the context of machine learning applications and I'm interested in gaining a better understanding of the biology of the brain. My goal is to investigate different models for learning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am looking for a book within training material that describes the low level bio-chemistry of neurons and how the learning process works. I'm not sure if that is a well understood topic yet; I would also be interested in papers discussing the topic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are a few questions which I'm interested in and hope to answer by reading said material:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Does the brain use local or global information for learning?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What brain functions are important to learning?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What are the advantages of having a neural gap?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Can neural transmitters produced by a synaptic cleft affect nearby neurons?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;How does myelination affect how babies learn?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="4189" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-04-09T09:53:53.530" LastActivityDate="2021-04-09T21:37:02.757" Title="What is &quot;required reading&quot; in training that describe mechanisms behind learning?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26884" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-01T23:05:57.870" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Assuming the test was not designed to be self administered, could bias be introduced in such a way as to make the results invalid? Would the results be biased upwards or downwards or simply impossible to know?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28180" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-04-02T07:20:10.937" LastActivityDate="2021-04-02T07:20:10.937" Title="Is a neurocongitive test invalid if self administered" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26887" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-04T00:31:38.997" Score="0" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was just learning how electrical signals travel down the neuron and learned that electrical signal flowing out through the membrane significantly hinders the voltage to move down the axon. This seems like a &amp;quot;bad&amp;quot; thing, in that it reduces the efficiency of neurons to pass information.&#xA;First of all, is this assumption true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Second, if it is true, then I was wondering if there are chemicals, whether produced internally or we take, that improves this process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28139" LastActivityDate="2021-04-04T00:31:38.997" Title="Is there a mechanism in neurons to temporarily increase membrane resistance?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26888" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-01T15:26:36.937" Score="5" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;It is &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/npp2017280&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;known&lt;/a&gt; that prolonged nicotine use alters the brain's connectivity. &lt;em&gt;Nicotine exerts its neurophysiologic action principally through the brain’s reward center&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.medscape.com/answers/287555-158502/what-is-the-pathophysiology-of-nicotine-addiction&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Neuroadaptation develops with repeated exposure to nicotine, resulting in tolerance to many of the effects of nicotine.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18342164/&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Recovery involves a major change in thoughts and feelings, and such changes require ongoing neural development or neuroplasticity.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/addicted-brains/201512/recovery-addiction-relies-neuroplasticity&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;4&lt;/a&gt; So quitting a long term addiction will involve rewiring in the brain. Which in turn is dependent on neural plasticity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Thus, age-related dysregulation of calcium signaling may underlie deficits in neural plasticity, and may ultimately be responsible for cognitive decline that occurs in the healthy, non-demented aging population.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124115965000149&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To summarize: quitting a long term addiction requires brain plasticity, which in turn is in deficit in older populations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So are the elderly neurologically just as capable of overcoming addictions as the young?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25804" OwnerDisplayName="Yogesch" LastActivityDate="2021-04-04T14:25:46.623" Title="Deaddiction and neural plasticity in case of the elderly" Tags="&lt;neurology&gt;&lt;addiction&gt;&lt;nicotine&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26890" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-04T15:53:04.787" Score="0" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;As far as I understand it, we find something engaging/interesting intrinsically(like arts, sport etc) because it is just a result of our genes/environment at a young age which are out of one's control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The second type of interest is when the activity is instrumental in attaining our other very desirable goal, for example some people will be motivated and engaged in learning engineering just to build their dream car even when they otherwise dislike engineering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What about some activity/topic a person finds boring, tedious, useless and not instrumental in any other desire/goal. Can one develop 'natural', genuine interest in it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I specifically contrast this with &lt;em&gt;discovering&lt;/em&gt; interest in something. I think its quite common to discover interest in something you once thought you hated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there even a distinction between &lt;em&gt;developing&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;discovering&lt;/em&gt; interest in something?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please correct me if I am misunderstanding/missing something. :)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. As I understand it, interest is an important predictor of academic and career success so it would be nice if people could choose to become interested in coding for example, when they are otherwise a creative writing person, it would make their careers and lifes easier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28192" LastActivityDate="2021-04-04T15:53:04.787" Title="Can people choose/change/influence what interests them?" Tags="&lt;learning&gt;&lt;motivation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2021-04-05T09:35:51.037" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26891" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-05T08:42:58.920" Score="5" ViewCount="58" Body="&lt;p&gt;Unifying brain theories of cortical function often describe the brain as a prediction machine, based on a generative model (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_model&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;given X, what's the probability of Y&lt;/a&gt;). In this context, from Bayesian perspective, our brain attempts to infer hidden causes about what is perceived through sensory organs (I see a ball about to hit me (X), who threw it (Y)).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A similar thought is presented in &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_coding&quot; rel=&quot;noreferrer&quot;&gt;predictive coding&lt;/a&gt;, where the brain would 'predict' what will happen in the future, or what happened in the past. ('I see a ball about to hit me (X), I predict it was thrown by Y')&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intuitively (and colloquially speaking), predictions and causes are orthogonal to me - but in this context they seem remarkably equivalent. &lt;em&gt;Are&lt;/em&gt; they different, and if so, &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28198" LastActivityDate="2021-05-09T22:22:24.380" Title="What is the conceptual difference between causal inference and 'prediction'" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;attention&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;&lt;bayesian&gt;&lt;temporal-context&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26892" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-06T21:08:54.600" Score="0" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;The anxiolytic buspirone causes insomnia in a small minority of patients.  What existent medication would theoretically (or in practice) best treat this insomnia? Buspirone from my understanding is an agonist of the 5-HT1A autoreceptors, has very weak antagonism of the D2 receptors. There is also evidence that one of buspirone's metabolites increases plasma norepinephrine and epinephrine levels. I'm trying to think of a medication that would best block the effects of whatever it is that causes the insomnia. Buspirone is a tad &amp;quot;dirty&amp;quot; in that it and its metabolites affect many things so it's hard to say what causes the insomnia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28207" LastActivityDate="2021-04-06T21:08:54.600" Title="What medication would best treat buspirone induced insomnia?" Tags="&lt;psychopharmacology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26893" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-08T08:15:17.007" Score="4" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm currently looking into &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustration%E2%80%93aggression_hypothesis&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;frustration-aggression theory&lt;/a&gt;. There is a lot of ancillary research on the displacement of the aggression generated via this theory, but I'm trying to find research on the displacement of frustration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In this case, frustration, as defined for the purposes of this theory, is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;an interference with the occurrence of an instigated goal-response at its proper time in the behavior sequence (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/10022-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dollard et. al 1939&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I'm specifically looking for is research that identifies a case where something else is identified with the frustration and/or misidentified as the frustration or in some way elicits the same response as the as initial frustration would under the frustration-aggression theory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This differs from displacement of aggression in that the aggression itself is not displaced, but appears to have been displaced since the cause of the aggression, the frustration, is displaced. Has this concept been explored?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., Mowrer, O. H., &amp;amp; Sears, R. R. (1939). &lt;em&gt;Frustration and aggression&lt;/em&gt;. Yale University Press. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/10022-000&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/10022-000&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28211" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-04-08T13:50:12.913" LastActivityDate="2021-04-08T13:50:12.913" Title="Is the displacement of frustration a studied phenomenon?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26894" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-08T10:03:03.800" Score="0" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;I stumbled upon this phenomenon in the 90s, when I was still a kid. I noticed that in the evening under indirect artificial lighting the red letters on a blue book cover (I think it was a Pink Panther book) seemed to wobble and dance around when you shook the book. At the time, none of the adults knew what it was called and many didn't believe me and refused to look at the book.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of related interests I've revisited the issue and managed to recreate the phenomenon on my laptop. The effect is considerably more convincing when it's done in the evening with the screen brightness turned down. As it turns out, the colour of the letters was irrelevant. To get an example of this effect, take any text, set the page colour to black and the text colour to some barely perceptible grey and put it on full screen (F11 in most applications). Now wait and give your eyes a moment, just until you can see the text clearly, and then shake the screen. The mouse cursor will appear to move in comparison to the text. For me it also works if I select one or two letters, in which case shaking the screen will appear to make the selected letters dance around with respect to the rest of the text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm convinced at this point that it's related to the Pulfrich effect in mechanism, but in this case no darkened glass is used and instead of depth motion, motion in the plane is created. Considering how easy it is to find, I assume it's been described before and I'd like to read about it, but I don't know what it's called – hence my question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Edit: I made a demonstration image; to be viewed in a dark environment with the monitor turned down so the background is just about visible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MGKzN.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/MGKzN.png&quot; alt=&quot;Demonstration image&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28214" LastEditorUserId="28214" LastEditDate="2021-04-10T16:42:54.443" LastActivityDate="2021-04-10T16:42:54.443" Title="When one wiggles a dark object with bright letters &amp;c on it, the letters appear to move, floating in the plane. What is this optical illusion called?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26895" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26891" CreationDate="2021-04-08T15:28:40.650" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Correct me if I'm wrong here, but after some more reading and thinking this is what I took away: both the term 'prediction' and 'cause' here refer to the maximum likelihood of a distribution (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Y$&lt;/span&gt;), meaning the probability of an event (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$X$&lt;/span&gt;), given sensory data (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Y_{1}$&lt;/span&gt;) and the likelihood given prior data (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$Y_{2}$&lt;/span&gt;) .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Even though maybe seemingly orthogonal to some (like me), the terms here would actually represent the same thing (i.e. &lt;em&gt;no difference&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Please post a better answer if this is partially or completely incorrect =)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28198" LastActivityDate="2021-04-08T15:28:40.650" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26896" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26904" CreationDate="2021-04-09T09:18:38.120" Score="3" ViewCount="64" Body="&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Schizophrenia : A disorder that affects a person's ability to think, feel and behave clearly.&#xA;The exact cause of schizophrenia isn't known, but a combination of genetics, environment and altered brain chemistry and structure may play a role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So basically you get hallucination in Schizophrenia. I watched a &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/EvN7R1oRuOI&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Video&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; about Schizophrenia and it say something like this .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;People who suffer from Schizophrenia have hallucination like&lt;/em&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fishes are swimming all around them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Books are melting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Strange voices are ordering them to to something.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;But can anyone have hallucination like&lt;/em&gt; :&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;a woman is loving them(sexually and romantically) .&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;They have many good friends&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;The voice in the head are telling them answers in an exam.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;So basically can anyone get hallucination that they will enjoy&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28125" LastEditorUserId="28125" LastEditDate="2021-04-09T10:56:12.850" LastActivityDate="2021-04-10T08:39:38.710" Title="Is it possible to get good hallucination while suffering from schizophrenia?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;schizophrenia&gt;&lt;hallucinations&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26897" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-09T15:11:22.073" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm trying to measure the DICE coefficient of brain segmentations by a &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/fepegar/highresnet&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;highresnet&lt;/a&gt; model.  For my ground truth, I'm using FreeSurfer segmentations.  There is some overlap between the regions used by each, but there are a lot of &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/mwaskom/PyROI/blob/master/data/Freesurfer/FreeSurferColorLUT.txt&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;FreeSurfer regions&lt;/a&gt; that are not contained in &lt;a href=&quot;https://github.com/fepegar/highresnet/blob/master/GIFNiftyNet.ctbl&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;GIFNiftyNet.ctbl&lt;/a&gt;.  That is, they don't have the exact same name.  I imagine that each of the FreeSurfer regions is a part of a region listed in GIFNiftyNet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Does anyone know of a mapping from FreeSurfer region numbers to GIFNiftyNet numbers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Also, has there been any attempt to standardize the numbering and names given to parts of the brain by various segmentation programs?  How are &lt;a href=&quot;https://paperswithcode.com/sota/brain-segmentation-on-brain-mri-segmentation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;DICE correlations for brain segmentations&lt;/a&gt; usually computed?  That is, what is used as the ground truth?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28113" LastActivityDate="2021-04-09T15:11:22.073" Title="Mapping FreeSurfer region numbers to GIFNiftyNet numbers" Tags="&lt;fmri&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26898" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-09T19:45:58.603" Score="3" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am with the University of Texas at Dallas and we are looking to put together a lab assessing the benefits that may be associated with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) transfusions in Alzheimer's disease mice. So far it looks like from &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11552002/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this paper&lt;/a&gt; there may have existed a device at one time that could have been modified for our purposes. I contacted Infors AG and the representative believes this device to be out of production. Does anyone here know of anyone who is doing work with CSF transfusions? We are very eager to begin, especially myself and would greatly appreciate any leads as to literature available on this technique or biotech companies that may be able to provide the tools we seek.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28087" LastActivityDate="2021-04-09T19:45:58.603" Title="Is anyone here familiar with techniques and/or equipment for performing cerebrospinal fluid transfusions?" Tags="&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26899" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26900" CreationDate="2021-04-09T20:22:26.120" Score="0" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can a heterosexual male that doesn't have any attraction towards male become gay without any attraction towards females.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or will he become bisexual because he was heterosexual before.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28125" LastActivityDate="2021-04-09T20:55:23.343" Title="How Sexual fluidity works?" Tags="&lt;sexuality&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26900" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26899" CreationDate="2021-04-09T20:55:23.343" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Sexuality is thought to be mostly fixed (and certainly does not respond to active interventions to change it), but sometimes self-descriptions shift. It's unclear to what extent these shifts are changes in sexuality itself versus changes in how people &lt;em&gt;identify&lt;/em&gt;. More broadly speaking, people aren't always good at describing their own wants/desires/feelings, and social and cultural factors can have a strong influence. Individuals may have experiences that make them rethink how they see themselves, or they may be more or less comfortable expressing a view that is outside perceived norms at different times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Savin-Williams et al 2012 studied a group of young adults longitudinally and compared self-reported sexual orientation during two study waves, one when participants were 18-24 and later when they were 24-34.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Out of 5204 men who reported being &amp;quot;100% heterosexual&amp;quot; in the first wave, the vast majority, 5064, said the same in the second wave. 105 said &amp;quot;mostly heterosexual&amp;quot;, 11 said &amp;quot;bisexual&amp;quot;, 24 said &amp;quot;homosexual&amp;quot;. Other categories were somewhat more fluid, as was sexuality among women, and you can see the whole study linked below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-012-9913-y&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Savin-Williams, R. C., Joyner, K., &amp;amp; Rieger, G. (2012). Prevalence and stability of self-reported sexual orientation identity during young adulthood. Archives of sexual behavior, 41(1), 103-110.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-04-09T20:55:23.343" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26901" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26883" CreationDate="2021-04-09T21:37:02.757" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;The questions you list are &lt;strong&gt;incredibly broad and diverse&lt;/strong&gt;. You will find basic textbooks that may touch on aspects of all of these, but otherwise will not find answers to them all in one book. Some may not be answerable at all at the textbook level; others like &amp;quot;How does myelination affect how babies learn?&amp;quot; I feel are not really well-posed questions but some background will help you understand why.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'd recommend starting with a broad undergraduate-level neuroscience textbook. These will assume you have some prior knowledge of the basics of molecular and cell biology, as well as physics (electricity and magnetism in particular; at least enough to be comfortable with basic circuits: voltage and current, resistors and capacitors, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The two I would recommend (pick just one or the other) are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Neuroscience, by Purves et al&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Principles of Neural Science, by Kandel et al&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-04-09T21:37:02.757" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26904" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26896" CreationDate="2021-04-10T03:05:12.570" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;The short answer appears to be yes, to a certain degree, though there seems to be a need for more research in this area of viewing hallucinations as a boon, rather than a curse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The positive symptoms of schizophrenia, in this case, hallucinations, often vary in how they appear to the subject. Some argue that one of the keys to how one might react to the manifestation of hallucinations has to do with their culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbu012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Larøi et al (2014)&lt;/a&gt;, shows that changing perspective on the hallucinations in a more positive direction might help cope or manage the symptoms, they emphasize that cultural background needs to be considered, as there may not be a need for an intervention or help if the individual's culture does not view the hallucinations as bizarre or abnormal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A great example would be the way people claim to be able to see or talk with a deity that has proliferated throughout the culture they inhabit. It becomes something that might be giving them those answers to an exam or that the hallucination is in love with them.&#xA;It should also be noted that not everybody who has hallucinations is going to show up in a clinical setting, so we still have do not have much data on how these symptoms manifest in different cultures. Something which Larøi et al mention in their article.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Larøi, F., Luhrmann, T. M., Bell, V., Christian Jr, W. A., Deshpande, S., Fernyhough, C., ... &amp;amp; Woods, A. (2014). Culture and hallucinations: overview and future directions. &lt;em&gt;Schizophrenia bulletin, 40&lt;/em&gt;(Suppl_4), S213-S220. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbu012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbu012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24990" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-04-10T08:39:38.710" LastActivityDate="2021-04-10T08:39:38.710" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26906" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-10T14:45:19.230" Score="0" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;When somebody smiles, most people find it easy to understand that the person is happy, they don't even have to think about it. However, in the example of a beggar on the street, most people can suppress their emotions. They do not automatically place themselves in the place of the beggar and use their imagination to understand their emotions. What is the mechanism or reason that humans have adopted such behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28163" LastActivityDate="2021-04-10T14:45:19.230" Title="Does empathy fail against complexity or is there a mechanism for suppressing imagination?" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;empathy&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26908" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-11T16:05:05.590" Score="1" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have been browsing the questions and answers here within the realm of psychoanalysis and I came across &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/3803/7604&quot;&gt;the Jocasta complex in an answer here&lt;/a&gt;, which I had not heard about before so I have been looking at this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is of course &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/9344/7604&quot;&gt;Freud and Jung's theory regarding child to parent attraction&lt;/a&gt; which is well known in Psychology. So, we have the male &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oedipus_complex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Oedipus complex&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (Freudian for the son's sexual desires for the mother) and we have the female &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electra_complex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Electra complex&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (Jungian for the daughter's sexual desires for the father).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have now found out that there is &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_de_Saussure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Raymond de Saussure&lt;/a&gt;'s and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.upi.com/Archives/1980/09/26/A-controversial-view-of-homosexuality/3805338788800/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;controversial&lt;/a&gt; psychiatrist, Alfred Ames Messer's theories, regarding parent to child attraction. We have the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jocasta_complex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Jocasta complex&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; [the mother's sexual desires for the son] (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=IZPA.006.0118A&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;De Saussure, 1920&lt;/a&gt;) and I have also just found out there is the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedra_complex&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Phaedra complex&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt; [the stepmother's sexual desires for the stepson] (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1969.01740200085012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Messer, 1969&lt;/a&gt;).  I must admit, I do have an issue with these two so-called complexes, but it made me wonder if there are comparators to these where the father has sexual desires for their daughter or stepfather for their stepdaughter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Combien de mère ne sont-elles pas amoureuses de leur fils? Combien de pères ne sont-ils par amoureux de leur fille?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[How many mothers are not in love with their son? How many fathers are not in love with their daughter?]&lt;br&gt;(&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=IZPA.006.0118A&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;De Saussure, 1920&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can't seem to find any male parent &amp;quot;complexes&amp;quot; when searching online but I can obviously find the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronophilia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;chronophilia&lt;/a&gt; terms paedophilia, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebephilia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hebephilia&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephebophilia&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;ephebophilia&lt;/a&gt; which to me equally define female sexual attraction to those under the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_consent&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;age of consent to sex&lt;/a&gt; (which differs worldwide).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;De Saussure, R. (1920). Le complexe de Jocaste. &lt;em&gt;Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse, 6&lt;/em&gt;(2), 118-122. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=IZPA.006.0118A&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=IZPA.006.0118A&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Messer, A. A. (1969). The phaedra complex. &lt;em&gt;Archives of general psychiatry, 21&lt;/em&gt;(2), 213-218. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1969.01740200085012&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1969.01740200085012&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-03T14:45:53.707" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T14:45:53.707" Title="If the comparator to the Oedipus complex is Electra complex, is there a comparator to Jocasta/Phaedra complex?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;sexuality&gt;&lt;psychoanalysis&gt;&lt;parenting&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26909" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-11T20:26:36.020" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;I see thousands of videos online where pets are getting scared of Snapchat filters applied to their owner’s face. &lt;a href=&quot;https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=Jto2peSOLac&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt;‘a an example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Interestingly, whenever a filter is starting to show, they look back and forth to see the real owner and their image in the phone. Moreover, they seem entirely nonplussed by their own images. Do the understand the concept of reflections? What does this say about their self-awareness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don’t have any sort of formal training in psychology and so apologise in advance if what I’m saying doesn’t make sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28237" LastActivityDate="2021-04-11T20:26:36.020" Title="Can cats / dogs pass the mirror test?" Tags="&lt;consciousness&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26910" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-11T22:01:04.270" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;Anecdotally, people are often more into rule-based reasoning. For instance, &amp;quot;honesty is always the right policy&amp;quot; is widely accepted throughout many cultures. It is less often for cultures to naturally adopt a more consequentialist view of morality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the English language, saying someone is &amp;quot;principled&amp;quot; is almost synonymous with saying that person is &amp;quot;moral&amp;quot;. The same thing is true in Chinese: (saying someone is 有原则的 is the same as saying that person is 好的，正直的，高尚的.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What are some psychological and cognitive reasons that make rule-based reasoning of morality more intuitive?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13243" LastActivityDate="2021-04-13T04:42:54.987" Title="What are some reasons that make rule-based reasoning about morality more intuitive than utilitarian reasoning?" Tags="&lt;moral-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26911" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-11T18:05:10.517" Score="1" ViewCount="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I keep finding trypophobia but it’s not that. That’s the fear of small clusters or repeated pattern of holes. For me, the thought of licking skin is horrible. Because I imagine the rough texture my tongue is going to feel and it makes me feel weird. Another example would be rubbing my hand against carpet or fabric. Hate it. The feeling of roughness is nauseating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="Annie" LastActivityDate="2021-04-11T22:51:57.793" Title="Is there a name for the fear of texture?" Tags="&lt;phobia&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26912" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-12T04:38:15.847" Score="0" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;Does anybody know of examples of dogs code-switching based on the context? I’m thinking of something like a dog responding to the same verbal command differently, depending on the person giving the command.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28237" LastActivityDate="2021-04-12T04:38:15.847" Title="Examples of code switching in dogs and other animals" Tags="&lt;animal-cognition&gt;&lt;linguistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26913" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-12T12:22:45.453" Score="4" ViewCount="65" Body="&lt;p&gt;Question:&#xA;If you go to see flowers and don't smell them, is it likely that you will forget the event easier than when you do smell them? assuming all the other factors are constant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's the story.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;These days, with my nose always covered by a mask (and only smelling my own breath all the time), I can hardly smell flowers. So, when I went to see flowers last weekend, I guessed that the event will be less memorable than those from previous years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm not in the bio/neuro field, so I wanted to check if my guess was right. After a few hours of search, I concluded that the guess wasn't a bad one.&#xA;What I learned from the quick search was that:&#xA;the olfactory system pathway is different from those of visual or auditory systems. For example, optic signals are relayed to the optic chiasm, which locates beneath the hypothalamus, then to the lateral thalamus, then to the visual cortex, which is near the back head. So, they just &amp;quot;pass by&amp;quot; the limbic system. Olfactory signals, on the other hand, are &lt;em&gt;directed to&lt;/em&gt; the limbic system, parts of which handle emotional memory(amygdala) and long-term memory(hippocampus). Except that I am not sure what that 'handle' exactly means, it seems sensible to me that electric signals directed closer to the part of the brain related to memory are more likely to stimulate memory than those signals that divert the part.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I was happy to learn something new and posted it somewhere. Sadly, one of my distant friends had to disagree with me. She has ph.D. in a somewhat related field (she may have a good reason for that) and she refused(!) to give me a further explanation :(&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What did I get wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28243" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-04-27T03:56:20.383" LastActivityDate="2021-04-27T17:24:54.400" Title="Is it generally accepted idea that a memory associated with strong olfactory stimuli will be kept longer?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;sensation&gt;&lt;encoding&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26914" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-12T21:01:47.783" Score="0" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;This questionnaire should be for assessing frustration tolerance, author should be &amp;quot; an Americam psychologist R. Beech&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My 13 y/o daughter´s civics teacher gave to all pupils in her class this questionnaire to fill and send it back to him. &lt;strong&gt;I could not find anything about this test on the internet.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is a 53 points questionnaire with Y/N answers. I am not a psychologist (I am MD, PhD.) but I am profoundly convinced that this questionnaire is highly inappropriate for young teenagers (nearly still kids) - for example&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;question No.17 (My sexual needs are overall fulfilled –Y/N),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No.21 (I have serious financial issues Y/N), No.26 (I have serious problems in intimate relationship Y/N),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No.35 ( I or my family members have been experiencing issues due to health problems Y/N),&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;No.47(Someone close to me has died recently Y/N).&#xA;And some questions about job/work.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not only because some guestions are really intimate and personal, but because the questionnaire is not filled anonymously (kids are supposed to send it to the teacher via email), I am confident that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the questionnaire itself is not designed for children and&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;the form of non-anonymous collecting of data is unethical and breaches GDPR.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can someone please tell me about this R. Beech's questionnaire? What age group was it developed for? (really for children?). Is evaluation meant to be performed anonymously in this case (as data from cohorts of people)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I can imagine I fill this questionnaire for myself or in a case of a patient and her/his psychotherapist /psychiatrist interaction.&#xA;Thanks a lot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28250" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-04-13T06:55:09.990" LastActivityDate="2021-04-13T06:55:09.990" Title="R. Beech's Frustration tolerance questionnaire - anyone knows it?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;stress&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26915" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26910" CreationDate="2021-04-13T04:42:54.987" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't know if this really answers your question, but at a high level, rule-based reasoning about anything is more intuitive. By this I mean, rules are heuristics-- and having heuristics makes for more efficient reaction formation, decision-making, action, etc. The time and energy to process a stimulus, including a morally relevant scenario, is reduced when applying a heuristic, like a rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Morality is not my area of expertise, But I will add that there's possibly also a component here of some discomfort associated with making moral evaluations. Moral judgements serve as functional guides of behavioral consequences and outcomes (having real impact in people's lives), and typically involve some degree of uncertainty. This may cause discomfort, whereas rule-based reasoning allows for avoidance of careful thought and therefore avoidance of that discomfort ..? Just a thought, no real evidence to back that&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28254" LastActivityDate="2021-04-13T04:42:54.987" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26917" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-13T18:18:53.270" Score="2" ViewCount="27" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read the article &lt;em&gt;Identify in bipolar disorder: self-worth and achievement&lt;/em&gt;; This paper opened my eyes about how people diagnosed with BD can set unrealistic or very hard to achieve goals. If the biology basis for this kind of behaviour is related to dopamine in the brain; can Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (to treat Borderline Personality Disorder) or The Life Goals Program or any other psychotherapy help?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24365" LastEditorUserId="24365" LastEditDate="2021-04-13T18:26:41.727" LastActivityDate="2021-04-13T18:26:41.727" Title="High goal setting and bipolar disorder (BD): How someone diagnosed with BD can mitigate the risk of setting unrealistic goals?" Tags="&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;&lt;goals&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26918" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="19602" CreationDate="2021-04-13T19:15:34.367" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;From &lt;a href=&quot;https://neurosciencenews.com/depression-bipolar-blood-test-18197/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://neurosciencenews.com/depression-bipolar-blood-test-18197/&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A new blood test can distinguish the severity of a person’s depression&#xA;and their risk for developing severe depression at a later point. The&#xA;test can also determine if a person is at risk for developing bipolar&#xA;disorder. Researchers say the blood test can also assist in tailoring&#xA;individual options for therapeutic interventions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24365" LastEditorUserId="7001" LastEditDate="2021-04-13T20:04:24.317" LastActivityDate="2021-04-13T20:04:24.317" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26920" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-14T13:07:07.740" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am a psychology student, just finished my BA. I like the subject psychology, but i just don't like interacting with people. I would prefer to work alone. I wouldn't mind once in a while interactions such as once a month but being around people everyday is too draining.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28266" LastActivityDate="2021-04-14T13:07:07.740" Title="what are some careers in psychology where you dont have to interact with people" Tags="&lt;psychology&gt;&lt;introversion&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26921" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-15T04:23:40.950" Score="0" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;We all have something in our lives that we are sentimental about, and even a glimpse of that object/idea can bring back happy memories. And nostalgia makes the remembrances of those experiences feel better than comparable experiences today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, my question is differentiating between the extent of happiness gathered through these different experiences:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Happiness received in those times by those experiences. (Playing Diablo 2 in 2001)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Happiness experiences by remembering those times,  today (aka nostalgia) (Reminiscing about Diablo 2 sessions today after seeing some images of Rogue Encampment)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Happiness by doing those same things today. (Playing Diablo 2 today)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Which of these is the strongest and why?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27168" LastEditorUserId="9512" LastEditDate="2021-04-23T17:02:42.103" LastActivityDate="2021-05-23T10:12:05.543" Title="Does nostalgia contribute to overrating past experiences?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;memory&gt;&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26922" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-15T15:26:18.027" Score="1" ViewCount="50" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there any difference between concentration and attention ?&#xA;&lt;br&gt;&#xA;The dictionary definition and some websites on psychology mention they are same. whereas many people say they are different. I am unable to figure it out&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28270" LastActivityDate="2021-05-21T01:02:45.270" Title="Difference between concentration and attention" Tags="&lt;attention&gt;&lt;concentration&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26923" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-15T16:30:30.230" Score="3" ViewCount="66" Body="&lt;p&gt;Are there real physical differences between a morning person vs a night person that can be measured and used to explain the difference?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or is it just an adapted preference randomly varying from person to person?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28271" LastActivityDate="2021-04-15T23:06:19.037" Title="Is being a morning person vs a night person actually a real thing or just a preference?" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26924" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26923" CreationDate="2021-04-15T23:06:19.037" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;(see also this Q&amp;amp;A over at Biology.SE: &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/93965/why-do-morning-people-have-shorter-biological-clocks/93966&quot;&gt;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/93965/why-do-morning-people-have-shorter-biological-clocks/93966&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a real thing, but that doesn't necessarily mean it's set in stone or that preferences can't be changed/learned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;At least some portion of these preferences seem to be genetic and related to regulation of &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;circadian rhythms&lt;/a&gt;. In brief: animals, including humans, have a system of molecular &amp;quot;clocks&amp;quot; that keep track of roughly the length of a day. These clocks most often run naturally slightly longer than 24 hours: if you keep someone (or, preferably, a lab animal) in constant darkness, they will still keep a daily sleep/wake cycle, but it will drift over time, corresponding to a &amp;gt;24 hour day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To actually follow the real cycle of day and night, &lt;em&gt;light&lt;/em&gt; is used to resynchronize the clock every day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If someone's &amp;quot;natural&amp;quot; clock (without light synchronization) runs a bit shorter (faster) than average, you'd expect that person would tend to feel like waking up a bit earlier as well as feeling tired a bit earlier in the evening - a morning person. If someone's natural clock runs a bit slower than an actual day, then morning will come a bit sooner than they prefer, and in the evening they won't quite feel tired yet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That said, like most traits of this nature, the biological underpinnings of these tendencies only explain part of it, and you would not expect to find people sorted neatly into &amp;quot;morning&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;night&amp;quot; but rather to follow something like a Gaussian distribution, with most people in the middle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here's a recent genome-wide association study and a review of some others on &amp;quot;chronotype&amp;quot; (the morning/night preference you ask about):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Jones, S. E., Lane, J. M., Wood, A. R., van Hees, V. T., Tyrrell, J., Beaumont, R. N., ... &amp;amp; Weedon, M. N. (2019). Genome-wide association analyses of chronotype in 697,828 individuals provides insights into circadian rhythms. Nature communications, 10(1), 1-11.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kalmbach, D. A., Schneider, L. D., Cheung, J., Bertrand, S. J., Kariharan, T., Pack, A. I., &amp;amp; Gehrman, P. R. (2017). Genetic basis of chronotype in humans: insights from three landmark GWAS. Sleep, 40(2).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-04-15T23:06:19.037" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26925" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-15T17:33:27.877" Score="0" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know there are some mental illnesses that make people unable to get along with anyone (antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, and paranoid personality disorder).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But, is there a real life mental illness that makes people have the delusion that everyone is their friend/lover, and patients sometimes go as far as to hug and kiss perfect strangers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If this disorder exist, I would call that haunted soft animal syndrome (or haunted stuffed animal syndrome) (or Winnie the Pooh syndrome) (haunted soft/stuffed animal is a metaphor with a real soft/stuffed animal that is used for hugging).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerDisplayName="mammifereviolet4694" LastEditorUserId="14337" LastEditDate="2021-04-19T03:52:39.330" LastActivityDate="2021-04-19T03:52:39.330" Title="Does haunted soft/stuffed animal syndrome/Winnie the Pooh complex exist?" Tags="&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2021-04-29T19:46:43.120" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26927" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-17T13:02:05.133" Score="0" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm curious if there are mental/neurological disorders where a symptom is over strategizing and planning for too many outcomes?  Or sometimes people say its &amp;quot;over-analyzing&amp;quot; a situation.  They seem to pay excessive attention to every single detail, then formulate strategies and plans for outcomes that have a negligible chance of occurring.  For example, an individual with such a symptom may express concerns for a typing mistake in a letter, and start planning on how to manage the reader's over reaction to such a letter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also find that people with the &amp;quot;over-strategizing&amp;quot; symptom tend to lack the ability to &amp;quot;think on their feet&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;fly by the seat of their pants&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;wing it&amp;quot;.   When you put these people in foreign situations, they either freeze up, or their natural reaction is opposite of &amp;quot;common sense&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Can anyone suggest personality disorders that exhibit these symptoms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="2486" LastActivityDate="2021-04-18T00:01:45.610" Title="Disorders where over strategizing/over planning is notable symptom?" Tags="&lt;personality-disorder&gt;&lt;disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26931" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-18T23:02:59.203" Score="0" ViewCount="20" Body="&lt;p&gt;What evidence is there for successful posthypnotic suggestion where a subject carries out an action that was suggested to them under hypnosis, not only upon the suggested trigger but also &lt;strong&gt;without consciously knowing, before they do it or at the moment they do it, why they are doing it&lt;/strong&gt;? For example they might do it&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;when somebody says something to them,&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;when they hear a specified non-verbal sound, such as a clap or a whistle, or&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;when a certain time of day is reached.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in the case when in the waking state they do not consciously decide to do the action, and when, in addition to this, it is not the kind of reflex or other action that they would have done normally had it not been for the hypnosis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This question is not about what goes through their mind after they have done the action, not even very soon after. Perhaps they &amp;quot;find&amp;quot; a rational reason for having done it that does not feature hypnosis, or they may be puzzled about why they did it, or they may reason right away that it must have been suggested to them during hypnosis, or perhaps they suddenly remember the actual making of the suggestion during the hypnotic session. Another possibility is that they don't recognise that they have done it. But that's not the question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25226" LastEditorUserId="25226" LastEditDate="2021-04-18T23:36:52.580" LastActivityDate="2021-04-18T23:36:52.580" Title="What evidence is there for successful posthypnotic suggestion where the subject carries out a suggested action upon a trigger without knowing why?" Tags="&lt;hypnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26932" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-19T00:05:27.383" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I know that traumatic stress as an infant can cause serious developmental problems down the line, especially regarding attachment styles and identity development. But I'm wondering if that extends to relatively brief periods of infant trauma, especially if they are followed by an otherwise normal childhood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, say a one-year-old baby is placed in daycare, where they become so distressed by the separation and the unfamiliar environment that they begin to show signs of psychological trauma. The parents eventually notice their baby is not doing well, and take them out of daycare after a month.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If their parents are loving and attentive, and they have a normal childhood from then on, is it reasonable to think their traumatic experience as an infant might still permanently affect their mental health beyond infancy (i.e. as a child, adolescent, or even adult)? Would they still be considered at risk for conditions related to developmental trauma, such as dissociative disorders?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28281" LastActivityDate="2021-04-19T00:05:27.383" Title="If an infant endures a short period of trauma, followed by a normal childhood, is it likely that trauma could still be developmentally damaging?" Tags="&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;&lt;trauma&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26933" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-19T06:14:59.837" Score="0" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Hello I work doing smalls gig with datasets and also sometimes I create for myself some infographics and data-visualizations of interesting topics for me. for example football, cryptos, virus, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I want to do a data visualization or infographic. Testing my curious hypothesis about how effective are the psycological test proposals in research/theory and his real aplications in job selecting. There are some research about that? Is really a scientific fact, can psychologics predict the future performance of a worker? Do you have datasets related to measure this variables in various workers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25053" LastEditorUserId="25053" LastEditDate="2021-04-19T18:34:42.463" LastActivityDate="2021-04-19T18:34:42.463" Title="How Really Effective are the Measures of Psychological Tests in Jobs Interviews and Worker Performance After Inside the Workplace" Tags="&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26934" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26942" CreationDate="2021-04-19T17:25:14.470" Score="2" ViewCount="79" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have noticed in my 50+ years of life that there are people who take joy (sometimes great joy) out of “getting under” another person’s skin.  Is there a clinical definition for this behavior?  Perhaps it is a personality disorder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;(There is a non-clinical way to describe such a person but civility restrains me).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have noticed that people who exhibit this behavior seem to be looking for a reaction.  And by seeing a reaction to what they say, they see their control over another person.&#xA;It may also be the only way the person knows how to impress others (possibly due to low self-esteem).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have searched the internet and all I have found so far is information on how to deal with such a person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11556" LastEditorUserId="11556" LastEditDate="2021-04-19T18:55:23.143" LastActivityDate="2021-04-23T15:25:55.437" Title="Is there a clinical definition for the psychological disorder/personality disorder for people who like to get under people’s skin?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="11" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26938" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26485" CreationDate="2021-04-20T11:32:55.813" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;As an Autistic person myself, and as a person knowing many autistic people, I can assure you we indeed are capable of language. Even very low functioning autistic individuals are at least somewhat capable of speech, this is not true in all cases, of course; but it is not, in the majority of cases, to the degree of them being incapable of language comprehension or acquisition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://medicalnewstoday.com/articles/325239&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://medicalnewstoday.com/articles/325239&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/stories.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/stories.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are some examples, and also, the reason you cannot find scientific papers on it is because there is no reason whatsoever to make a peer reviewed paper on the topic of Autistic people being able to understand language, as we all already know that to be the case, and already know why it is the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;That being, Autism is a Spectrum Disorder and can have various different intensities, and even than, like all Mental Disorders, it does not always manifest in the exact same manner. For example, look at the manner used for diagnoses in the DSM-V, (&lt;a href=&quot;https://asatonline.org/for-parents/diagnosis/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://asatonline.org/for-parents/diagnosis/&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Criterion A: social communication deficits, consisting of three items, all of which must be met to satisfy this criterion;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Criterion B: fixated interests and repetitive behaviours consisting of four items, of which at least two must be met to satisfy this criterion;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Criterion C: symptoms existing in early childhood;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Criterion D: symptoms impairing functioning; and&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Criterion E impairments are not better explained by intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder) or global developmental delay (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dsm5.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA, 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;CDC, 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;All five must be met, but they are all very wide in nature, and none of the criteria include impairment in general language comprehension ability, and, as the anecdotal evidence supports, one very much can have Autism and have high language ability&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;American Psychiatric Association [APA] (2011). &lt;em&gt;DSM-5&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.dsm5.org&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.dsm5.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Centers for Disease Control [CDC] (2014). &lt;em&gt;Diagnostic Criteria for 299.00 Autism Spectrum Disorder&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28291" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-04-20T12:12:42.180" LastActivityDate="2021-04-20T12:12:42.180" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26939" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="10259" CreationDate="2021-04-20T12:03:52.670" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The term used for something nice one says to somebody, often for positive psychological effect, is called a Compliment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/compliment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/compliment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compliment&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compliment&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One can also use Flattery (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/flattery&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/flattery&lt;/a&gt;) or Praise (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/praise&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/praise&lt;/a&gt;) or Commendation (&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/commendation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/commendation&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28291" LastActivityDate="2021-04-20T12:03:52.670" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26942" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26934" CreationDate="2021-04-21T00:29:24.833" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Taking joy in irritating others is unlikely to be classifiable as a personality disorder, however, the &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_triad&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Dark Triad&lt;/a&gt; describes individuals with disagreeable habits. In combination with other extremely adverse behaviours, it is perhaps classifiable as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Conduct disorder&lt;/a&gt; or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Narcissistic personality disorder&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2021-04-21T00:29:24.833" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26943" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26922" CreationDate="2021-04-21T00:36:21.730" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Concentration is focusing on a task (e.g. reading a book). Attention is focusing on a person (e.g. listening during a conversation). The verb, focus, is the same in both instances. The noun, task and person, is the point of differentiation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2021-04-21T00:36:21.730" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26949" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-23T11:20:39.743" Score="0" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;What is the name of the effect which causes one to skip information that feel familiar during learning due to the confusion of familiarity and knowledge?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T11:22:16.103" Title="Effect of having false confidence because of confusion of familiarity and knowledge" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;learning&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26953" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="16021" CreationDate="2021-04-24T09:42:28.323" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just heard a Facebook meme about this and it seems to be making another round of online. The population studies seems quite old following a cohort from 1994 to 2004. Rather than a genetic study, it seems to be more a correlational study&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.kidspot.com.au/parenting/child/child-development/childs-intelligence-comes-from-their-mums-science-says/news-story/273b4cffce35fb935e576c0afba0cf5e&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.kidspot.com.au/parenting/child/child-development/childs-intelligence-comes-from-their-mums-science-says/news-story/273b4cffce35fb935e576c0afba0cf5e&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23755" LastActivityDate="2021-04-24T09:42:28.323" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26954" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-24T13:32:34.600" Score="3" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read this article:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://news.mit.edu/2019/neurons-dendrite-role-computation-0606&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://news.mit.edu/2019/neurons-dendrite-role-computation-0606&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is about this: “One hypothesis is that dendritic activity will actually sharpen up for representing features of a task you taught the animals, and all the other dendritic activity, and all the other somatic activity, is going to get dampened down in the rest of the cortical cells that are not involved,” Harnett says.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How exactly are neurons that are involved in a task chosen and how exactly is it decided which neurons are then supposed to be dampened?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Probably not a question that can be easily answered, but I wanted to ask it anyway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28033" LastEditorUserId="9512" LastEditDate="2021-04-25T09:23:12.073" LastActivityDate="2021-05-28T07:01:15.113" Title="What is the role of dendrites in neural computation?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26956" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-24T17:13:30.277" Score="0" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;Personal example: Hofstadter, in &amp;quot;Fluid Concepts...&amp;quot;, throws the anagram &amp;quot;ucilgars&amp;quot; at me. (Note I'm a German, I would probably solve a comparable riddle fast if in my mother tongue, and I would solve it systematically and conscious.) I try a bit, give up and read on. About ten pages later, without me thinking about it for minutes: &amp;quot;surgical&amp;quot;! It pops into my conscious without warning. Later, same book: &amp;quot;tenjuk&amp;quot;. No luck, even after a day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The natural explanation, of course: Somewhere in my brain resides a dictionary of English and a permutation generator. (8! is not thaaat large a number.) It can easily find &amp;quot;surgical&amp;quot; but not &amp;quot;junket&amp;quot; as I never heard of the term before. (Even though this was the first term I googled, as it sounded like the most &amp;quot;natural&amp;quot; try.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, let's generalize to the title question: Has there been scientific work proving or disproving that the unconscious is capable of executing meaningful tasks, like the above example of browsing a directory? (I'm well aware that the methodological problems would be daunting.) This would also be relevant for the theme &amp;quot;creativity&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28345" LastActivityDate="2021-04-24T17:13:30.277" Title="Background and cron jobs running in the unconscious?" Tags="&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;unconscious&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2021-04-29T19:51:28.533" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26959" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26983" CreationDate="2021-04-25T18:10:53.033" Score="2" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trauma_focused_cognitive_behavioral_therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Trauma‐Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF CBT)&lt;/a&gt; be used for adults? I've been told that it is applicable to adults but the literature I've found is all focused on children. Has anyone found this used in connection with adults?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Deblinger, E., Mannarino, A.P., Cohen, J.A., Runyon, M.K. and Steer, R.A. (2011), Trauma‐focused cognitive behavioral therapy for children: impact of the trauma narrative and treatment length. Depress. Anxiety, 28: 67-75. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20744&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20744&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28353" LastEditorUserId="26113" LastEditDate="2021-04-25T23:06:31.237" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T14:33:40.203" Title="Is Trauma‐Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy applicable to adults?" Tags="&lt;cbt&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26960" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25574" CreationDate="2021-04-26T05:05:17.970" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Just for reference, I'm an undergrad but I'm doing an N400 study currently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for your latter questions, since I think the former have been answered really nicely(it is kinda a harder concept, data visualization has helped me a lot)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The process I used summarized is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;epoch data (i.e. take out time points you aren't interested in). I set my time window from -100 to 1200ms from  the point they perceived the stimuli.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;artifact detection, where you find trials where someone blinked or an electrode contact was off (aka impedance)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;compile this into a .csv file, data is saved per electrode cite. I only wrote 4 electrodes to .csv because it is a lot of data and we are more interested in the front left hemisphere in observing the N400 because that's where the largest neural activation is generally seen.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;After you have clean data to work with, you can average mean amplitude in a time window. I used 250 to 650ms. So you get one mean value to run statistical tests on. Or you can make a line plot with all the timepoints you want to see the classic N400 peak (hopefully). You usually need a pretty decent sample size for the ERP to show anything meaningful.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28348" LastActivityDate="2021-04-26T05:05:17.970" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26961" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-26T12:15:10.053" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to improve my performance in auditory backward retention tests.&#xA;The task consists in trying to repeat in the reverse order the longest possible series of digits after hearing a series of up to 30 digits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a good way to tackle this test?&#xA;More in general, is there a way to train working memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28358" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T20:07:16.170" Title="backward item retention" Tags="&lt;mnemonic&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26962" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-26T19:41:12.717" Score="2" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;What are the best methods (questionnaires/tests/etc) to measure ability to love?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So far I see those&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Light Triad&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://scottbarrykaufman.com/lighttriadscale/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Test&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/the-light-triad-vs-dark-triad-of-personality/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;described&lt;/a&gt; in Scientific American)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Big Five&lt;/strong&gt; personality traits (OCEAN model) - especially its &lt;em&gt;agreeableness&lt;/em&gt; subscale (friendly/compassionate vs. critical/rational)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;HEXACO &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HEXACO_model_of_personality_structure&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;model&lt;/a&gt; of personality structure - its  &lt;em&gt;agreeableness&lt;/em&gt; subscale + Honesty-Humility subscale&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I realize that &amp;quot;love&amp;quot; is a very broad term, which is poorely determined, but anyway let's give it a try! At least let's try to factor out some components of love (loving person) and try to measure these separate components.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;P.S. &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/9891/how-can-we-scientifically-measure-love&quot;&gt;This&lt;/a&gt; question is related, but does not provide any clear tests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28362" LastEditorUserId="28362" LastEditDate="2021-04-26T20:12:05.443" LastActivityDate="2021-04-26T20:12:05.443" Title="Best tests or questionnaires to measure person's ability to love" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;big-five&gt;&lt;love&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26963" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-27T02:40:59.717" Score="2" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am not a psychologist or neuroscientist. I am a mathematician wondering about how a person normally evaluate its own degree of belief in a given proposition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose a person X is given a question in the following format:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Assign your degree of belief in the proposition P.&#xA;(a) Certainly true.&#xA;(b) Probably true.&#xA;(c) I don't know.&#xA;(d) Probably false.&#xA;(e) Certainly false.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This person knows that he/she will gain a score S, for this question, defined by:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If X answered (a): S = +10 if P is true; S = -10 if P is false.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If X answered (b): S = +5 if P is true; S = -5 if P is false.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If X answered (c): S = 0 if P is true; S = 0 if P is false.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If X answered (d): S = -5 if P is true; S = +5 if P is false.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;If X answered (e): S = -10 if P is true; S = +10 if P is false.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Given that the expected value for the score S that X will gain is a known number E, I ask:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the probability of X to answer (a)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the probability of X to answer (b)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the probability of X to answer (c)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the probability of X to answer (d)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;What is the probability of X to answer (e)?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In short: Supposing that we know the expected value of the score S that X will gain, what is the best model (taking into account facts of human psychology) for the probability distribution of the random variable &amp;quot;degree of belief that the person X assigns to the proposition P&amp;quot;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28363" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-03T10:34:03.763" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T10:34:03.763" Title="Probability distribution for a random variable related to self-assignment of a person's degree of belief" Tags="&lt;decision-making&gt;&lt;belief&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26964" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26913" CreationDate="2021-04-27T03:54:36.523" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;In general, the answer is no - smell does not enhance memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But you are onto something with the proximity of the olfactory cortex to the limbic system: You are not the first to have noticed the special connection that smell might have with emotion and memory.  This idea is called the &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-29678-2_4852&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Proust Effect&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The best known example of the power of smell to evoke memories and&#xA;emotions is the “Proust effect,” ... The suddenness of the memory, and&#xA;the strong emotions attached to it, have become symbolic, in both the&#xA;realm of literary criticism and in sensory physiology, for the power&#xA;of human taste and smell. ... The olfactory pathway has privileged&#xA;direct access to [the prefrontal cortex and limbic system]; hence the&#xA;combination of intense emotion and intense cognitive effort&#xA;experienced ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To understand this effect, let's first consider &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-dependent_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;context-dependent memory&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology, context-dependent memory is the improved recall of&#xA;specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding&#xA;and retrieval are the same.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a well-known and highly robust effect: If you see and smell flowers, then exposure to the same smell (cue) can &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26932-0_42&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;significantly improve&lt;/a&gt; recall of the flowers (target) later.  However, smell does not have a privileged position in context-dependent memory - that is, any context information (such as the sounds, location, even the mood you were in) can be equally effective at cueing recall later (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb10643.x&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Herz, 1998&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/chemse/20.5.517&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Herz &amp;amp; Cupchik, 1995&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Most of the research looking at the effect of smell on memory is about the context-dependent memory effect.  In these studies, a no-odor control condition is sometimes used where some subjects are exposed to an odor during encoding (memorizing) but no odor is used at recall (remembering).  These studies consistently find that &lt;strong&gt;odor during encoding has no effect on memory&lt;/strong&gt; unless the same odor is also present at recall (eg, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0720(200103/04)15:2%3C159::AID-ACP694%3E3.0.CO;2-D&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Parker, Ngu, &amp;amp; Cassaday, 2001&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PDPuy.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/PDPuy.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the above image from &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211293&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Herz (1997)&lt;/a&gt; for example, scent must be present in both encoding (study) and recall (test) to have an effect; in other conditions, memory is no better than if no odor is present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;According to the Proust Effect however, when emotion is involved, then odor &lt;em&gt;can&lt;/em&gt; potentially enhance memory.  For example, if you see and smell flowers just as a car accident happens in front of you, AND you happen to come across the same smell later, then it can serve as a powerful recall cue of the event (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2011.555475&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Toffolo , Smeets, &amp;amp; van den Hout, 2011&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/1423407&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Herz, 1997&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2013.10.004&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wiemers, Sauvage, &amp;amp; Wolf, 2014&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In reality, the smell of flowers is pleasant, and thus you might linger around longer, resulting in improved recall not from the smell, but from paying more attention to your surroundings (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1509%2Fjmkr.40.1.10.19128&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Morrin &amp;amp; Ratneshwar, 2003&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1086/649909&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Krishna, Lwin, &amp;amp; Morrin, 2009&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.1368&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Lwin &amp;amp; Morrin, 2012&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-006-0056-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tortell et al, 2007&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7001" LastActivityDate="2021-04-27T03:54:36.523" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26966" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-27T20:36:23.663" Score="0" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;Could you recommend a good valid test to measure egoism / selfishness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28362" LastActivityDate="2021-04-27T20:36:23.663" Title="Good valid test to measure egoism / selfishness" Tags="&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26967" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26954" CreationDate="2021-04-28T07:00:43.840" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I think our best understanding of this (that I can think of) is Hebb's law: Neurons that fire together wire together. Basically, maybe you can think of it like a bit of information is saved in a physical space neurally. So one idea, like your grandmas face, is a combination of many of these bits being activated (This is in reference to the language of thought theory &lt;a href=&quot;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-thought/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-thought/&lt;/a&gt;). When trying to make sense of something, the more common connections will activate first and then less common ones, until an answer has been found or the task has been deemed not possible/unimportant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As for how neurons are chosen, I would say in relation to what is already there. And dendritic connections are dampened the longer they go without linking.&#xA;To the best of my knowledge, it's still contested exactly how we encode new information. There is a lot of evidence that certain tasks can be associated to general areas of the neocortex, from neural mapping experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28348" LastActivityDate="2021-04-28T07:00:43.840" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26968" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26973" CreationDate="2021-04-28T09:00:06.993" Score="1" ViewCount="62" Body="&lt;p&gt;Our thoughts are basically the result of the electro chemical activity which are happening in our neurons. The signals sent by different neurons to each other back and forth create a pattern which we register as thought/memory. The start of the electrochemical signal is generated by a potential gradient which is present outside the neuron cell membrane and is regulated by different voltage gates via the mechanism of action potential. My doubt is basically asking what comes first? Looking into it, it seems like thoughts result from these activities inside our brain but then how does this activity is brought about? For me, this question is like asking what comes first, the chicken or the egg. Do the electrical synapse somehow form and then we perceive them as thoughts? Then in this way, we shouldn't have control over what we think because the synapses are not voluntary. But we know this is not the case. Our thinking is under our control&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there an answer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27794" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-04-29T09:22:24.067" LastActivityDate="2021-04-29T09:26:41.383" Title="What comes first? Thought or electric activity?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26970" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-28T17:09:25.827" Score="2" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;A friend learned heard about a test while on a Myers Briggs course and described it to me.  I thought it was interesting, but I can't find anything about it since I don't know what to search for.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The instructor says 'tell me about this [object]'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One type of person will say a few factual observations&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's a red book&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another type will give you a firehose of information&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;People learn things from it, it's old so its probably had a few people read it, they probably really loved the book, ...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a well known test like this? Is there anything term I can google to learn more?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a discussion of it here too.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.thisamericanlife.org/731/what-lies-beneath/act-two-5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.thisamericanlife.org/731/what-lies-beneath/act-two-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28373" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T20:44:27.613" Title="'Describe this object to me' - To work out what type of thought process you have. What is this test called?" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;test&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26972" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-29T03:46:32.527" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems psychopathy people can be provoked by trifling events, such as someone doesn't obey their commands. This shows that they can feel angry feelings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, since psychopathy people lack the ability to empathize, they don't feel bad when others are insulted, some may feel satisfied when others are offended and show they're uncomfortable. I wonder whether this is because they don't have feelings when they are insulted, so they don't empathetically understand the cues (facial expressions, verbal expressions etc.) which mean others are insulted and don't know how bad others feel when being insulted?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28379" LastActivityDate="2021-04-29T03:46:32.527" Title="Can psychopathy people feel insulted or offended by others' verbal abuse?" Tags="&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26973" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26968" CreationDate="2021-04-29T09:13:01.713" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is ongoing electrical activity in the brain, there's even &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Understanding-Sleep&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;a lot of it when we are asleep&lt;/a&gt; when we are not 'thinking' at all, and also when we are unconscious and &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coma/#:%7E:text=Someone%20who%20is%20in%20a,be%20unresponsive%20to%20their%20environment.&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;even when in coma&lt;/a&gt;. When brain activity does cease, i.e., its &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_death&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;electrical activity becomes unmeasurable, there's a definite medical emergency&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thus, there is unceasing activity in the brain. This activity includes both random 'noise' like neuronal jitter &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8968838/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Freeman, 1996)&lt;/a&gt; or constitutively active neuronal populations like those in the auditory &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7046314/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Wang &amp;amp; Bergles, 2015)&lt;/a&gt; or optic nerves &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982296007555&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Sernagor &amp;amp; Grzywacz, 1996)&lt;/a&gt;, as well as voluntary activity. In turn, the occurrence of random or controlled 'thoughts' is not so strange, as there is ongoing activation of neuronal pathways and activation in one neuron will trigger activity in others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As a side note, and alluded to in the comments, thoughts are hardly voluntary; think psychotic patients who can experience their thoughts as intrusive or instructing them to do nasty things, people with OCD who have oppressing thoughts they have to do stuff, or folks suffering from PTSD who repeatedly experience flashbacks, nightmares and severe anxiety, as well as &lt;a href=&quot;http://Symptoms%20may%20include%20flashbacks,%20nightmares%20and%20severe%20anxiety,%20as%20well%20as%20uncontrollable%20thoughts%20about%20the%20event&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;uncontrollable thoughts about the event&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As you say, all brain activity eventually boils down to ion gradients in the brain. Every cell in our body needs ion gradients to function properly for that matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What comes first? Activity or thoughts? Activity, because even random thoughts need a trigger to occur. How do these impulses come into being? Pre-existing activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8968838/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Freeman, &lt;em&gt;Int J Neural Syst&lt;/em&gt; (1996); &lt;strong&gt;7&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 473-80&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982296007555&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Sernagor &amp;amp; Grzywacz, &lt;em&gt;Current Biology&lt;/em&gt; (1996); &lt;strong&gt;6&lt;/strong&gt;(11): 1503-8&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7046314/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wang &amp;amp; Bergles, Cell Tissue Res (2015); &lt;strong&gt;361&lt;/strong&gt;(1): 65–75&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-04-29T09:26:41.383" LastActivityDate="2021-04-29T09:26:41.383" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26974" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-04-30T12:12:04.720" Score="-1" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;If we measure all the synaptic weights in the brain, would it be normally distributed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any reference would be tremendously helpful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT: I assume if the synaptic weights are inversely related to distance, the distribution should be inverse-chi distribution. But I highly doubt that's the ground truth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28384" LastEditorUserId="28384" LastEditDate="2021-04-30T12:25:07.850" LastActivityDate="2021-04-30T12:25:07.850" Title="Are synaptic weights normally distributed?" Tags="&lt;theoretical-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26977" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26999" CreationDate="2021-05-01T19:40:07.950" Score="0" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;In an experimental task where the response time is an important variable to compare two groups with different conditions, and there are animated stimuli (movement), should the response be accepted during the movement and the animation time be included in the response time measurement?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For instance, suppose that I have a categorization-like task where there are two kinds of movements for the objects, and those movements are presented through a 500ms animation. If a participant manages to notice the expected answer before the animation ends and press the button in, like, 450ms, should I accept this response?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm worried that some participants might wait until it's finished to answer while some others might not, and that might add some noise which I'm not sure about the significance (maybe for lack of experience).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10881" LastEditorUserId="10881" LastEditDate="2021-05-02T14:14:51.397" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T13:48:40.090" Title="In an experiment with animated stimuli, should I accept answers during Animation Time and count it into the Response Time?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;methodology&gt;&lt;experimental-psychology&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;experimental-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="2" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26978" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-01T22:38:57.867" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;In humans, there is this concept of general intelligence, which says that if someone is smarter than you then they are smarter than you at all activities that rely on intelligences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Do other animals also have general intelligences? Or do their brains simply specialize in one area of intelligence. So for example, dogs are considered smarter than cats because they are better at being trained to do stuff. Does that mean that dogs are smarter than cats in all activities that require intelligences, or are dogs simply better at this one thing, which is following instructions from a human?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28271" LastEditorUserId="28271" LastEditDate="2021-05-02T05:34:04.753" LastActivityDate="2021-05-02T05:34:04.753" Title="In non-human animals, does general intelligence apply?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26979" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-02T19:48:53.990" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are some memories in my head which seems to have occured much more far away than it actually has happend, that is there is a feeling of disconnect between the actual timeline of events which has happend in my life vs my memories. Supposing that this happens to 'other' people too, why does this happen?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By the way , I have seen this &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/16583/why-do-some-memories-stick-out-more-than-others&quot;&gt;thread&lt;/a&gt; but it's more about the intensity of the memory rather than how the memories fit into the timeline of our mind vs the timeline of the realworld.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27439" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T02:09:47.077" Title="Why do some memories have a closer 'feeling' in time than others?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26980" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26979" CreationDate="2021-05-03T02:09:47.077" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've looked a bit into false memories/hearing, so my best answer to this would be that it has to do with emotional arousal and recency since the memory was last recalled. I don't think I've seen this exact question answered using neurological studies, but I have not really looked for a study addressing that specifically. So I'd say this could be a really interesting research project! I think the consensus is that emotional arousal leads to higher susceptibility to false memory because it would be more frequently recalled and therefore subject to alteration. Studying reported recall of dates and times would be really cool though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28348" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T02:09:47.077" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26981" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-03T04:36:43.390" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;People who can draw obviously can visualize space and objects in their mind. Therefore, people who can't draw obviously cannot. So does that mean that people who can't draw must have low spatial IQ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28271" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T14:13:21.137" Title="If you can't draw, is that an indication of low spatial IQ?" Tags="&lt;iq&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26982" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25542" CreationDate="2021-05-03T08:22:57.380" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;Possible interesting terms are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;distal attribution (externalization)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;body transfer illusion (rubber hand illusion)&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;embodiment&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;This is a very interesting, yet difficult question. I have come up with a few items that may (or may not) be of interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Firstly, there is &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://people.psych.ucsb.edu/loomis/jack/loomis_presence.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;distal attribution&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, also referred to as &lt;strong&gt;externalization&lt;/strong&gt;. It is defined by Loomis as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;...[the phenomenon] that most of our perceptual experience, though originating with stimulation of our sense organs, is referred to external space beyond the limits of the sensory organs&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;and by &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7384988_There_is_Something_out_There_Distal_Attribution_in_Sensory_Substitution_Twenty_Years_Later&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Auvrey &lt;em&gt;at al&lt;/em&gt;. (2006)&lt;/a&gt; as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[the] ability to attribute the cause of our proximal sensory stimulation to an exterior and distinct object&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Distal attribution occurs for instance in &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Sensory_substitution&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;sensory substitution&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;. Sensory substitution refers to the process of substituting one (dysfunctional) sense with another. A classic example being the guide cane. After training and prolonged use, blind people are reported to experience the information not by haptic feedback perceived in the hands &lt;em&gt;via&lt;/em&gt; the cane, but to experience the tactile feedback &lt;em&gt;at the tip of the cane&lt;/em&gt; instead. Thus they &lt;em&gt;externalize&lt;/em&gt;, or &lt;em&gt;distally attribute&lt;/em&gt; the tactile feedback in the hand as originating from the tip of the cane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another interesting phenomenon that may relate to your question is the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_transfer_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;body transfer illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;, or the &lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_transfer_illusion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;rubber hand illusion&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/25/45/10564.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Ehrsson &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2005)&lt;/a&gt;, from Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The [study participants] saw a lifelike rubber left hand in front of them. The experimenters stroked both the subjects hidden left hand and the visible rubber hand with a paintbrush. The experiment showed that if the two hands were stroked synchronously and in the same direction, the subjects began to experience the rubber hand as their own. When&#xA;asked to use their right hand to point to their left hand, most of the time they pointed toward the rubber hand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In other words, after some accommodation, the study participants attributed sensory input to their real hand to the fake arm in their visual field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thirdly, and lastly there is (prosthesis) &lt;strong&gt;embodiment&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-72470-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Engdahl &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2020)&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;,&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;the perception of a prosthesis as part of one’s body&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This refers to the phenomenon, akin to sensory substitution but in a physically more invasive context and not exclusively related to sensory perception, that  implanted prosthetics become experienced as a part of the body. It is a more complicated issue than externalization as discussed above, and is especially important during rehab where &lt;em&gt;acceptance&lt;/em&gt; is an important part of the process. Embodiment comprises at least two processes, namely:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An object may be implicitly embodied if some of its properties are processed in the same way as the properties of one’s own body [...]. Embodiment may also be experienced more explicitly, as evidenced by affective reactions towards the object, perceptions of ownership, and other subjective feelings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To conclude with a fourth term used in a more popular sense, it's often said from experienced car drivers that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258192332_The_%27System%27_of_Automobility&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Urry, 2004)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The car becomes an &lt;em&gt;extension&lt;/em&gt; of the driver's body&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So &lt;em&gt;extension&lt;/em&gt; may also be terminology that might be useful, yet it doesn't really harbor any mechanistical explanation as to the &lt;em&gt;why&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;how&lt;/em&gt; this happens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7384988_There_is_Something_out_There_Distal_Attribution_in_Sensory_Substitution_Twenty_Years_Later&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Auvrey &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Integr Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;4&lt;/strong&gt;(4): 505–21&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/25/45/10564.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ehrsson &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;J Neurosci&lt;/em&gt; (2005); &lt;strong&gt;25&lt;/strong&gt;(45): 10564 –73&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-72470-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Engdahl &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Sci Rep&lt;/em&gt; (2020); &lt;strong&gt;10&lt;/strong&gt;: 15471&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258192332_The_%27System%27_of_Automobility&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Urry, &lt;em&gt;Theory Culture Soc&lt;/em&gt; (2004); &lt;strong&gt;21&lt;/strong&gt;(4-5): 25-39&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-05-04T14:37:24.230" LastActivityDate="2021-05-04T14:37:24.230" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26983" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26959" CreationDate="2021-05-03T12:06:04.623" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;While there are major issues surrounding CBT in general, and the clinical studies (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17325/7604&quot;&gt;my answer to Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Limitations&lt;/a&gt;), the UK charity Mind, points out (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd-and-complex-ptsd/treatment/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Mind, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;) that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nice.org.uk/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)&lt;/a&gt; – the organisation that produces guidelines on best practice in health care – currently recommends [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg26&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;in guideline CG26&lt;/a&gt;] two types of talking treatment for PTSD [Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of them being trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy (TF-CBT):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) specifically adapted for PTSD. NICE recommends that you are offered 8–12 regular sessions of around 60–90 minutes, seeing the same therapist at least once a week.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For the studies on weekly therapy, see &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/19236/7604&quot;&gt;Why is almost all therapy done as one-hour sessions weekly?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The American Psychological Association (APA) has a write-up on how CBT can supposedly be used to treat PTSD (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/treatments/cognitive-behavioral-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;APA, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;) and they reference a book &lt;em&gt;CBT for anxiety disorders: A practitioner book&lt;/em&gt; with a section on the subject of TF-CBT (&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470975520.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Ehlers, 2013&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While a lot of studies on TF-CBT have been focused on supporting child sufferers of PTSD, it reportedly is effective for adults too (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00048670701449161&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Forbes et al., 2007&lt;/a&gt;) - &lt;a href=&quot;https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.529.2632&amp;amp;rep=rep1&amp;amp;type=pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Free PDF available&lt;/a&gt; from The Pennsylvania State University&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[W]hile psychoeducation, AM [Anxiety Management] and SIT [Stress Inoculation Training] were not as effective as trauma focused CBT or EMDR [Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing] as stand-alone interventions, elements of these interventions may well have a role as part of a broader trauma-focused treatment. While models of brief trauma-focused psychodynamic therapy have been developed, they have not been sufficiently tested in controlled studies to derive practice recommendations. Supportive counselling and hypnotherapy have not been found to be effective as stand-alone interventions when compared to trauma-focused CBT or EMDR.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;APA (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/treatments/cognitive-behavioral-therapy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/treatments/cognitive-behavioral-therapy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Ehlers, A. (2013). Trauma-focused cognitive behavior therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder. In Simos, G., &amp;amp; Hofmann, S. G. (eds). &lt;em&gt;CBT for anxiety disorders: A practitioner book&lt;/em&gt; (pp. 161-190). New York, NY: Wiley. &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470975520.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470975520.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Forbes, D., Creamer, M., Phelps, A., Bryant, R., McFarlane, A., Devilly, G. J., ... &amp;amp; Newton, S. (2007). Australian guidelines for the treatment of adults with acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. &lt;em&gt;Australian &amp;amp; New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41&lt;/em&gt;(8), 637-648. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00048670701449161&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00048670701449161&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Mind (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd-and-complex-ptsd/treatment/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd-and-complex-ptsd/treatment/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-03T14:33:40.203" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T14:33:40.203" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26984" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26970" CreationDate="2021-05-03T20:44:27.613" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;The test you seem to be talking about is often referred to by different names, but the name used by The Myers &amp;amp; Briggs Foundation[1] and most of the papers on the subject[2] is MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;PS:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;I did my best to identify it according to your description, but leave a comment if I'm wrong.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;It is important to add that this test is often regarded as pseudoscience and has several fundamental issues [3]&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[2] &lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;q=%22Myers-Briggs+Type+INdicator%22&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;q=%22Myers-Briggs+Type+INdicator%22&amp;amp;btnG=&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;[3] &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/give-and-take/201309/goodbye-mbti-the-fad-won-t-die&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/give-and-take/201309/goodbye-mbti-the-fad-won-t-die&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="10881" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T20:44:27.613" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26985" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="9875" CreationDate="2021-05-03T21:12:20.560" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;A novel procedure for linking flow and mindful states, quickly refutable with a good swift kick.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The ideal for any scientist with a great idea is to be able to explain it in a minute, and to confirm or falsify it as quickly. The world record for this arguably goes to the English philosopher Samuel Johnson, who rejected Archbishop Berkeley’s argument that material things only exist in one’s mind by striking his foot against a large stone while proclaiming, “I refute it thusly!”&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is a similarly novel and useful idea that can be confirmed or refuted with a proverbial large kick, and can also be easily explained through affective neuroscience (links below).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Basic Facts:&#xA;Endogenous opioids are induced when we eat, drink, have sex, and relax.  Their affective correlate, or how it ‘feels’, is a sense of pleasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fun Fact:&#xA;When we are concurrently perceiving some activity that has a variable and unexpected rate of reward while consuming something pleasurable, opioid activity increases and with it a higher sense of pleasure.  In other words, popcorn tastes better when we are watching an exciting movie than when we are watching paint dry. The same effect occurs when we are performing highly variable or meaningful activity (creating art, doing good deeds, doing productive work) while in a pleasurable relaxed state.  (Meaning would be defined as behavior that has branching novel positive implications). This is commonly referred to as ‘flow’ or ‘peak’ experience.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why does this occur?&#xA;Dopamine-Opioid interactions: or the fact that dopamine activity (elicited by positive novel events, and responsible for a state of arousal, but not pleasure) interacts with our pleasures (as reflected by mid brain opioid systems), and can actually stimulate opioid release, which is reflected in self-reports of greater pleasure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Proof (or kicking the stone):&#xA;Just get relaxed using a relaxation protocol such as mindfulness, and then follow it by exclusively attending to or performing meaningful activity, and avoiding all distraction. Keep it up and you will not only stay relaxed, but continue so with a greater sense of wellbeing or pleasure. (In other words, this is a procedural bridge between mindful and ‘flow’ experiences that are not unique psychological ‘states’, but merely represent special aspects of resting states.)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A Likely Explanation, as if you need one!&#xA;A more formal explanation from a neurologically based learning theory of this technique is provided on pp. 44-51 in a little open-source book on the psychology of rest linked below.  (The flow experience discussed on pp. 81-86.) The book is based on the work of the distinguished affective neuroscientist Kent Berridge, who was kind to review for accuracy and endorse the work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Implications for meditation and stress management:&#xA;The modulation of pleasurable affect induced by rest is not dependent upon a species of attention (focal meditation, mindfulness meditation), but is ‘schedule dependent’, or correlates with the variability of contingencies of reward and the discriminative aspects of incentives (i.e. their cognitive implications).&#xA;In other words, affect in resting is not static but dynamic, as the opioid systems activated by resting protocols are always modulated by dynamic or phasic changes in dopamine systems that are induced by concurrently perceived positive act-outcome discrepancies or expectancies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rauwolf, P., et al. (2021) Reward uncertainty - as a 'psychological salt'- can alter the sensory experience and consumption of high-value rewards in young healthy adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General (prepub)&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fxge0001029&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fxge0001029&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Psychology of Rest&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scribd.com/doc/284056765/The-Book-of-Rest-The-Odd-Psychology-of-Doing-Nothing&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.scribd.com/doc/284056765/The-Book-of-Rest-The-Odd-Psychology-of-Doing-Nothing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Psychology of Incentive Motivation&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scribd.com/document/495438436/A-Mouse-s-Tale-a-practical-explanation-and-handbook-of-motivation-from-the-perspective-of-a-humble-creature&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.scribd.com/document/495438436/A-Mouse-s-Tale-a-practical-explanation-and-handbook-of-motivation-from-the-perspective-of-a-humble-creature&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meditation and Rest, from International Journal of Stress Management, by this author&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scribd.com/doc/121345732/Relaxation-and-Muscular-Tension-A-bio-behavioristic-explanation&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.scribd.com/doc/121345732/Relaxation-and-Muscular-Tension-A-bio-behavioristic-explanation&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Berridge Lab, University of Michigan   &lt;a href=&quot;https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/berridge-lab/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/berridge-lab/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24350" LastActivityDate="2021-05-03T21:12:20.560" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26986" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26990" CreationDate="2021-05-04T13:19:52.710" Score="2" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;'With light poise and counter-poise, Nature oscillates within prescribed limits. Yet thus all arise the varieties and conditions of the phenomena which are present to us in space and time.' - Goethe&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The touchstone of Newton's theory was his famous experiment with the prism. A prism breaks a beam of white light into a rainbow of colors, spread across a whole visible spectrum. Then Newton realized that must be the elementary components that add up to create white.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While Newton used the standard prism, and passed white light through it, Goethe had also run a series of experiments, with a prism again, but by just looking through the prism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And he found everything uniform, but when his prism passed through the fold of a cloud behind the sun, he was met with a blast of color, where he stated that 'color is the interchange of light and shadow.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Goethe's ideas resemble a facile notion, popular among psychologists, but Feigenbaum argued that his (&lt;em&gt;i.e.&lt;/em&gt;, Goethe's) statement had true science in them which emphasized the repeatability of his experiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It was the perception of color, to both Goethe and Feigenbaum, that was universal and objective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So in that sense, what scientific evidence is there for the definable real world quality of redness independent our perception?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28409" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-05-05T07:55:47.580" LastActivityDate="2021-05-05T08:17:50.297" Title="What scientific evidence is there for the definable real world quality of redness independent our perception?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;perception&gt;&lt;philosophy-of-mind&gt;&lt;color&gt;&lt;sensory-perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26989" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-05T04:51:57.240" Score="1" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm working on a project proposal for a class on intergroup relations and thought this might be interesting to observe. Participants would be shown consistent stereotypical video clips (e.g. Asian's doing rubics cubes, white girl ordering a psl, etc.), neutral video clips (kid going to school????) and inconsistent (female car mechanic, male nurse). We would then observe the N400 component and recall accuracy after maybe a 48 hour time period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am hoping this would give more insight into how well people can retain inconsistent schemas, what the cognitive load of making sense of inconsistent schemas are in relation to other variable types of N400 stimulation (such as language), and how this impacts memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I would really appreciate feedback on the design. I honestly really like the idea and I haven't seen anything like it. If you have seen a similar study, or want to point out errors in the experimental design that would be great! Also, comment on study implications you can think of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you think it's just altogether a terrible idea, I will not be offended either! That is what scientific communities are for after all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28348" LastActivityDate="2021-05-05T04:51:57.240" Title="What could measuring the N400 response to stimuli of inconsistent stereotypes tell us?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;eeg&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26990" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26986" CreationDate="2021-05-05T07:55:08.883" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Short answer&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;None.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;First off, I am not familiar with the principles as laid out in your question posed by Goethe and Feigenbaum (I'll look into these people, thanks for the pointer!).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, I am familiar with Newton and with the interpretation of perception in general. Importantly, the late Neuroscientist &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wisconsinacademy.org/magazine/winter-2018/report/seeing-brain&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Paul Bach-y-Rita&lt;/a&gt;  famously stated that &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/S15327590IJHC1502_6?casa_token=1C0pHduY1tQAAAAA:ExIn7nEnxatbMig0c2ujY8B_1U9pWDyk0WMwRiTymviC48OHlZrMAlWGhhzsYoX8AzjTBJGv5LMy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(1972)&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;We see with the brain, not the eyes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What he meant by that is that the brain has the ability to consciously &lt;em&gt;perceive&lt;/em&gt; physical input. The eye serves to &lt;em&gt;sense&lt;/em&gt; light and convey an electrical signal to the brain that translates the sensations to perceptions. The retina is sensitive to different wavelengths and red light activates different photosensitive cells (cones) than green or blue cones. The perceptual analogue arises only after extensive processing in higher brain centers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In a series of experiments Bach-y-Rita showed that blind people are able to 'see with the skin' by converting camera images to tactile sensations on the body, a technique dubbed sensory substitution &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/221963a0.pdf?origin=ppub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Bach-y-Rita, 1969)&lt;/a&gt;. Later, he founded a company (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.wicab.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wicab&lt;/a&gt;) that developed a sensory-substitution device on this principle, namely the BrainPort V100 &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27633972/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2016)&lt;/a&gt; (Fig. 1) that converts camera images to electrical stimuli on the tongue via a grid of 240 electrodes (the tongue display unit, or TDU) &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26183014/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;(Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., 2015)&lt;/a&gt;. So a TDU allows people to '&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/device-lets-blind-see-with-tongues/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;taste the light&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;'. These experiments showed that visual perceptions can be elicited by tactile stimulations, later corroborated by functional brain imaging, and thus that we see with the brain, not the eyes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said all this it brings me back to your question...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[W]hat scientific evidence is there for the definable real world quality of redness independent our perception?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;... and my answer on it would be: none.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ziqwp.jpg&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/Ziqwp.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;V100&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;sup&gt;Fig. 1. BrainPort V100 wearer. source: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/tongue-device-helps-blind-soldier-see-1921704.html&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Independent&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/221963a0.pdf?origin=ppub&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bach-y-Rita, Nature (1969); &lt;strong&gt;221&lt;/strong&gt;: 963-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/S15327590IJHC1502_6?casa_token=1C0pHduY1tQAAAAA:ExIn7nEnxatbMig0c2ujY8B_1U9pWDyk0WMwRiTymviC48OHlZrMAlWGhhzsYoX8AzjTBJGv5LMy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bach-y-Rita &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Int J Human-Comp Interact&lt;/em&gt; (1972); &lt;strong&gt;15&lt;/strong&gt;(2): 285-95&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26183014/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;., &lt;em&gt;Brain Res&lt;/em&gt; (2015); &lt;strong&gt;1624&lt;/strong&gt;: 140-52&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27633972/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Stronks &lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;Exp Rev Med Dev&lt;/em&gt; (2016); &lt;strong&gt;13&lt;/strong&gt;(10): 919-31&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="6983" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-05-05T08:17:50.297" LastActivityDate="2021-05-05T08:17:50.297" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26991" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="21634" CreationDate="2021-05-05T09:06:40.480" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Space Repetition&lt;/a&gt; is an effective learning method for both &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;procedural&lt;/a&gt; and declarative learning. However it cannot replace practicing the skill in real life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some references:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/GS391/Ullmann%20%26%20Lovelett%202018%20declarative%20procedural.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Michael T Ullman, Jarrett T Lovelett Implications of the declarative/procedural model for improving second language learning: The role of memory enhancement techniques, 2018&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://super-memory.com/articles/grammar.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt; Adam Pliszka, 2010: &amp;quot;SuperMemo can be used in both declarative and procedural learning&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_practice&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Distributed practice - Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;: &amp;quot;Distributed practice is the most efficient method of procedural learning&amp;quot;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.unmc.edu/academicaffairs/_documents/connected/Love_TipSheet_SpacedPractice.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Linda M. Love, EdD; Enhancing Learning Using Spaced Practice&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://supermemo.guru/wiki/Procedural_learning&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://supermemo.guru/wiki/Procedural_learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jennifer Gehrt, &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.communiquepr.com/learning-something-new-consider-how-declarative-and-procedural-systems-both-play-a-role/16821/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Learning Something New? Consider How Declarative and Procedural Systems Both Play a Role; September 17, 2020&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Piotr A. Wozniak, &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.manfred-kremer.de/supermemo/german/ol.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Optimization of learning&lt;/a&gt;: Application of SuperMemo in procedural learning&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28426" LastActivityDate="2021-05-05T09:06:40.480" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26994" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="26996" CreationDate="2021-05-06T08:33:45.397" Score="-1" ViewCount="61" Body="&lt;p&gt;Tomboy's are girls who behave like man but most of them are not transgender and lesbian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But why there are no Tomgirl(boys who behave like girls but are not transgender and homosexual).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What is the the reason?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28125" LastActivityDate="2021-05-07T13:53:30.847" Title="Why there are tomboy but no Tomgirls?" Tags="&lt;boys&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26995" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-06T08:46:16.197" Score="0" ViewCount="25" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have always been quite sporty, and I tend to remain relatively calm and composed in emergency or high stress situations. From my personal experience, people who are quite sporty and have been in their youth tend to be more as well, and panic or freeze less fast than less sporty people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I could imagine that doing a lot of exercise, and perhaps competitive sports, could make your body more used to adrenaline or cortisol and thus teach your body and mind to be calmer in such situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Or course, personal experience means very little (and admittedly, I have not even been in all that many &amp;quot;emergency&amp;quot; situations), and I may be somewhat biased. So is there any research that shows (or refutes) a relation between regular exercise (and/or having done a lot of exercise in your youth, or competitive sports) and a person's reaction to emergency or high stress situations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28448" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T13:55:22.823" Title="Does being sporty affect a person's reaction to emergency situations?" Tags="&lt;stress&gt;&lt;exercise&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26996" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26994" CreationDate="2021-05-06T09:27:26.073" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;Who said there aren't? Tomgirl isn't the term used, but I am sure there are straight men who have feminine traits out there. I think this is called &lt;strong&gt;effeminacy&lt;/strong&gt;. Here's the Wikipedia link for that: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effeminacy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effeminacy&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28439" LastEditorUserId="6983" LastEditDate="2021-05-07T13:53:30.847" LastActivityDate="2021-05-07T13:53:30.847" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26997" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="25749" CreationDate="2021-05-06T11:04:00.600" Score="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;Survival instinct in neuroscience has also been called a &amp;quot;fight or flight&amp;quot; response (Cannon 1929). It refers to the natural instinct of animals (humans included) in response to fear. This response has a neuroscientific basis and involved several brain regions. When a threat is perceived it activates the amygdala (known to be responsible for emotions), autonomic nervous system (that control involuntary function such as heart rate and breath), and facilitates the release of cortisol (stress hormone) and adrenaline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This brain circuit is already present at birth and constitutes the first and impulsive response to threat. It is an evolutionary instinct developed by humans when predators threatened survival chances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, growing up, there are several other components to consider in &amp;quot;survival instinct response&amp;quot;. There is surely a learning component given by pain. Pain act as preservation, pushing us away from what is dangerous for us. An example can be fire. We were not born with the idea that fire is a threaten, however when we first touch it we feel pain. The feeling of pain at fire contact makes us learn that fire is bad for our survival, it is painful to touch. Therefore, in the future, we will have cortisol and adrenaline discharge when we are pushed towards fire sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;To conclude and answer the question:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;We are born with fight or flight instinct (mind that there is always an exception to the norm). This instinct is our primary response to possible threats to our life.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;There is a learning component involving pain that refines our instinct. Pain teaches us important lessons on what else it is important to add to our threat list. Furthermore, this instinct can be inhibited (with training or drugs).&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Milosevic, I., &amp;amp; McCabe, R. E. (Eds.). (2015). Phobias: The Psychology of Irrational Fear: The Psychology of Irrational Fear. ABC-CLIO.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Jansen, A. S., Van Nguyen, X., Karpitskiy, V., Mettenleiter, T. C., &amp;amp; Loewy, A. D. (1995). Central command neurons of the sympathetic nervous system: basis of the fight-or-flight response. Science, 270(5236), 644-646.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;McCarty, R. (2016). The fight-or-flight response: A cornerstone of stress research. In Stress: Concepts, cognition, emotion, and behavior (pp. 33-37). Academic Press.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Derakhshan, A., Mikaeili, M., Nasrabadi, A. M., &amp;amp; Gedeon, T. (2019). Network physiology of ‘fight or flight response in facial superficial blood vessels. Physiological measurement, 40(1), 014002.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28451" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T11:04:00.600" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26998" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26949" CreationDate="2021-05-06T11:22:16.103" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Change blindness: failure to notice large changes to the visual scene [1].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you are interested in familiarity change blindness I suggest &lt;a href=&quot;https://curve.carleton.ca/system/files/etd/f85c76cc-3b92-4830-b0cf-b379ef90dbc0/etd_pdf/5d205f7711491500575676969c138324/tovey-seeingchangeshowfamiliarityaltersourperception.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;this article&lt;/a&gt; [2].&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[1] Simons, D. J., &amp;amp; Levin, D. T. (1997). Change blindness. Trends in cognitive sciences, 1(7), 261-267.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[2] Tovey, M., &amp;amp; Herdman, C. M. (2014). Seeing changes: How familiarity alters our perception of change. Visual Cognition, 22(2), 214-238.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28451" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T11:22:16.103" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="26999" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26977" CreationDate="2021-05-06T13:48:40.090" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;You could solve this problem telling your participant that they have to answer as soon as they spot the right answer or if you do not want them to answer before the end of the stimuli you can disable answers before the end of the stimuli (normally you write what you expect in the experiment introduction screen).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you let (want) your participant to answer as soon as they spot the right answer then you should consider as time response the time they took to answer. In concrete:&#xA;if the stimuli are presented at time 0 and last 200ms and your participant answer at time 50ms you should record them as answer time 50ms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as I understood you are interested in seeing how long it takes for your participants to spot the right answer. So if you wait till the end of the stimuli for recording their answer you might just see how fast they are in pressing the bottom and not how fast they spot the right answer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28451" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T13:48:40.090" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27000" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26995" CreationDate="2021-05-06T13:55:22.823" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Check this out. Chapter 15 is what you are looking for. It is a study made in collaboration with the international federation of sport and medicine and talks about sport and fight or flight response (panic response). &lt;a href=&quot;https://stillmedab.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/IOC/Who-We-Are/Commissions/Medical-and-Scientific-Commission/Encyclopaedia/2005_Kraemer.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Click here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Kraemer, W. J., &amp;amp; Rogol, A. D. (Eds.). (2005). The endocrine system in sports and exercise. Blackwell Pub..&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28451" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T13:55:22.823" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27001" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26981" CreationDate="2021-05-06T14:13:21.137" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;Spatial IQ refers to the ability to perform navigation tasks, mental representation, and mental rotation of objects. Therefore, if you have a clear idea or 3D model in mind of what you want to draw but you are not able to reproduce it on paper, I would say does not mean you have a low spatial IQ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Simple answer:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No. Bad drawing does not mean low spatial IQ&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;However, the inability of drawing can depend on other factors. Check Neglect syndrome and clock-drawing test.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28451" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T14:13:21.137" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27002" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-06T14:23:49.843" Score="0" ViewCount="5" Body="&lt;p&gt;Reading the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/86/23/9574.full.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;paper&lt;/a&gt; &amp;quot;&lt;em&gt;A mechanism for the Hebb and the anti-Hebb processes underlying learning and memory&lt;/em&gt;&amp;quot; Lisman 1989, especially figure 2, it gives the impression that in the bidirectional calmoduline regulated depression and potentiation (CarD/P) there is a significant area in between the 2 stippled regions of the upper and lower panels where if I interpret the stippled regions as &amp;quot;regions of change&amp;quot;, no change should occur? Often though I encounter gradual or even more stepwise graphs like this without a plateau in between:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vMr00.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/vMr00.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Am I misinterpreting something or has other evidence been found surrounding CarD/P? Are there any particular examples of brain regions with/without or with stronger/weaker no-change plateaus?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23706" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T14:23:49.843" Title="Is there a no-change plateau in the bidirectional calmoduline regulated plasticity proposed by Lisman in 1989?" Tags="&lt;neurophysiology&gt;&lt;plasticity&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27004" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-06T15:02:33.337" Score="0" ViewCount="31" Body="&lt;p&gt;Solving the rubki's cube is bona fide spatial IQ challenge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Has there been studies done on the minimum spatial IQ score needed to solve it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;EDIT:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By solve, I mean to discover the algorithm by oneself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28271" LastEditorUserId="28271" LastEditDate="2021-05-06T23:27:42.330" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T23:27:42.330" Title="What is the minimum spatial IQ needed to solve the rubik's cube?" Tags="&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27005" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27004" CreationDate="2021-05-06T17:52:59.477" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;I don't think it's a matter of IQ, really. Here's why: The Rubik's cube can be solved easily following a simple algorithm. Anyone can follow this step-by-step process mindlessly and solve a Rubik's cube. Remembering the algorithm is a different thing altogether, maybe that depends on a person's IQ (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=does%20long%20term%20memory%20depend%20on%20iq&amp;amp;ei=xiuUYI_CNdW1rQG9nbmYBA&amp;amp;oq=does%20long%20term%20memory%20depend%20on%20iq&amp;amp;gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAM6BwgAEEcQsAM6BAghEApQm_oBWMaPAmCVkgJoA3ACeACAAc8BiAGJD5IBBjAuMTIuMZgBAKABAaoBB2d3cy13aXrIAQjAAQE&amp;amp;sclient=gws-wiz&amp;amp;ved=0ahUKEwiPve3HzrXwAhXVWisKHb1ODkMQ4dUDCA4&amp;amp;uact=5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;does memory depend on IQ?&lt;/a&gt;) There are many bots that can solve the Rubik's cube in a matter of seconds, just following this algorithm. So, it actually doesn't need much IQ I guess, but considering that the algorithm generally starts from the step after one side (usually black/white/yellow) is completed, a person should have enough IQ to be able to solve one face of the cube and remember the steps, so I am guessing that the IQ measure would be around the room temperature in Celsius scale!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28439" LastEditorUserId="28439" LastEditDate="2021-05-06T19:39:18.427" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T19:39:18.427" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27006" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26961" CreationDate="2021-05-06T18:44:08.760" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Working memory has a span length of 7 +- 2 (Miller, 1956) digit. So I will suggest you remember the numbers as a bigger one. E.g if you hear 3, 8, 9, 4 ... you can pair them in 38, 94. This will mean memorizing only two numbers, so you will not &amp;quot;waste&amp;quot; your memory span.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This should be the trick, not sure if it works in practice. In theory, it does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The brain is highly plastic. The more you train it the better will work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28451" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T18:44:08.760" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27008" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26961" CreationDate="2021-05-06T20:07:16.170" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;If it is a 30-digit number recited at once and you have to recall the longest range of subsequent digits you can recall in reverse order, it would be better to listen more carefully to the ones at the end, considering that it would much easier to recall a long string of numbers in reverse order from the end as you just heard it in comparison to the ones at the beginning which you are likely to forget by the time you reach the end of the thirty digit number. Now, you can increase the length of this string by grouping them together in packs of two or three, as @SerenaD mentioned. You can then reverse these numbers and answer accordingly. Another trick can be to find small patterns for every 3-4 digits, but this completely depends on how much time you get to analyze the numbers in this test, like at what speed do they read out the numbers and all. If it is slower, you will find it easier to form some correlations and remember these numbers better, if it is fast, the grouping strategy is your best hope. Practicing and playing memory games like finding the matching pair in cards and things like these can boost your memory, best of luck!!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28439" LastActivityDate="2021-05-06T20:07:16.170" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27009" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-07T01:00:50.777" Score="1" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;For example, we can assume that the average house cat is equally intelligent as the average tiger. The average tiger is about 100 times heavier than the average house cat. But its brain is also bigger than the house cat's brain. Since the tiger isn't any more intelligent than the average house cat, why does it need a bigger brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28271" LastActivityDate="2021-05-25T04:36:54.140" Title="Why do larger animals need bigger brains?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;animal-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27010" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-08T00:41:10.117" Score="0" ViewCount="19" Body="&lt;p&gt;If ruminating eventually leads to someone systematically being able to explain to him/herself (to a reasonable degree) how every scenario may turn out if the intrusive thought happens / is true to the point where one can explain to him/herself that in the worst case scenario things will be not be as apocalyptic as it seems, why is this not therapeutic? Can't this not have a long term reduction in stress and intrusive thoughts if a situation is finally &amp;quot;thought through&amp;quot; to a satisfactory degree? Why is accepting uncertainty (ERP) a better therapeutic response?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28469" LastActivityDate="2021-05-09T00:44:11.533" Title="Why is rumination bad for purely obsessional OCD?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;compulsive&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27011" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-08T01:13:43.423" Score="0" ViewCount="52" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_laughter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Holy laughter&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_drunkenness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;spiritual drunkenness&lt;/a&gt; are two very correlated experiences that have been reported many times in charismatic Christian congregations. Quoting Wikipedia:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Holy laughter&lt;/strong&gt; is a term used within charismatic Christianity that describes a religious behaviour in which individuals spontaneously laugh during church meetings. It has occurred in many revivals throughout church history, but it became normative in the early 1990s in Neo-charismatic churches and the Third Wave of the Holy Spirit. Many people claimed to experience this phenomenon at a large revival in Toronto, Ontario, Canada known as the Toronto Blessing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Spiritual drunkenness&lt;/strong&gt; refers to a phenomenon seen in some Christian denominations, particularly those associated with Pentecostalism and the Charismatic Movement, in which individuals who are said to be experiencing intense momentary visitations of—or even possession by—the Holy Spirit exhibit a range of behaviors resembling signs of moderate to severe alcoholic inebriation, including unsteadiness, &lt;strong&gt;uncontrollable laughter&lt;/strong&gt;, silly expressions or gestures, verbal or nonverbal shouting (not typically in the form of glossolalia), sudden intense fatigue, and temporary unconsciousness. The phenomenon typically occurs during Pentecostal and charismatic church services, usually at the prompting of a preacher or pastor, and most often involving multiple members of a congregation at a time, generally after having been &amp;quot;transferred&amp;quot; from one person to another via respiratory blowing or laying on of hands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon has been videotaped, and after some searching I managed to find quite a few illustrative examples. Here are some: &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/PE0Z58coIaU?t=39&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example 1&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/eMCyjrDLH00?t=194&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example 2&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/4CxNIPsL8pQ?t=75&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example 3&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/7IMQeoLn8os&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example 4&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/PsMqlhDXgcM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example 5&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/X2V7KbbfRHA?t=22&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example 6&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/BNgiVdatMDY?t=23&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example 7&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/_14n66_0bYI?t=23&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example 8&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/nB5F7zinzzY?t=455&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example 9&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/bDpioBePGaI?t=5&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example 10&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;https://youtu.be/KnUtGxQFnIQ?t=507&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;example 11&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question&lt;/strong&gt;: what is a psychological explanation for uncontrollable laughter and apparent symptoms of drunkenness in charismatic Christian congregations?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Possibly related question&lt;/strong&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/3848/can-a-person-be-hypnotized-to-act-drunk&quot;&gt;Can a person be hypnotized to act drunk?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Addendum&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;This is what I was able to find after spending some time on Google Scholar:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Global Pentecostalization of Christianity and its Ethical Consequences (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.academia.edu/download/50525749/The_Global_Pentecostalization_of_Christianity_and_Its_Ethical_Consequences.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;A Kobylinski - Chicago Studies, 2016 - academia.edu&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One of the phenomena typical for Pentecostal spirituality are psychosomatic symptoms, occurring during many prayer meetings in the form of convulsions, spasmodic laughter, or what is called resting in the Spirit. &lt;strong&gt;Andrzej Migda points out that, in the psychology of religion, such behaviours are classified as manifestations of “altered states of consciousness.”&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;He believes that the “Pentecostal psychosomatic phenomena occur due to the same psychic mechanisms that enable shaman trances, walking on hot coals, or dervish dancing.”&lt;/strong&gt; New members of charismatic communities are trained in achieving such ecstatic and mystical states.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I looked up Andrzej Migda, who is cited as the source of the claim, and found out that, according to &lt;a href=&quot;https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentekostalizm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentekostalizm&lt;/a&gt;, he appears to be one of several Polish researchers who have investigated the Pentecostal movement:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The leading researcher of the Pentecostal movement was Walter J. Hollenweger (1927–2016), called &amp;quot;the founding father of research on pentecostalism.&amp;quot; In his honor, in 2002 , the Center for Interdisciplinary Studies on Pentecostalism and Charismatic Movements was established at the Free University of Amsterdam . Hollenweger (Hollenweger Center for Interdisciplinary Studies of Pentecostalism and Charismatic Movements), which is a leading research center on this religious phenomenon [45] . In Poland, studies on pentecostalism are dealt with, among others, by prof. Zbigniew Pasek [46] , prof. Andrzej Siemieniewski , Dr. Edward Czajko , Dr. Leszek Jańczuk , Dr.Marek Kamiński , &lt;strong&gt;Dr. Andrzej Migda&lt;/strong&gt; , Dr. Henryk Ryszard Tomaszewski or Fr. dr hab. Andrzej Kobyliński.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I then tried to search for peer-reviewed publications by these authors, but couldn't find anything conclusive about &amp;quot;holy laughter&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;spiritual drunkenness&amp;quot;. To be honest, I am not aware of any peer-reviewed publication that has scientifically investigated the causes of these phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25376" LastEditorUserId="25376" LastEditDate="2021-05-23T05:07:32.853" LastActivityDate="2021-05-23T05:07:32.853" Title="Psychological explanation for uncontrollable laughter and apparent symptoms of drunkenness in charismatic Christian congregations?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;religion&gt;&lt;humour&gt;&lt;spirituality&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27012" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-08T13:32:51.033" Score="2" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is it possible to get rid of fear completely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By fear i do not mean phobias but all kinds of fear whether it is rational(like to fear of getting kill by a tiger) and irrational fear(like phobias).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28125" LastActivityDate="2021-05-08T13:32:51.033" Title="Is it possible to get rid of fear completely?" Tags="&lt;fear&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27015" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-09T04:21:54.897" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a person with Parkinson's disease is young at 20 years of age, what should he do to get rid of it and what are its causes?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28475" LastActivityDate="2021-05-09T04:21:54.897" Title="If a person with Parkinson's disease is young at 20 years of age" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2021-05-09T05:04:20.073" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27016" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-09T11:50:09.987" Score="1" ViewCount="15" Body="&lt;p&gt;I read somewhere (I think it was an article about promoting healthy life habits) the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one had knowledge about the benefits of a particular habit, then&#xA;the person is more likely to retain this habit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I think the main point is that the effect is &lt;em&gt;psychological&lt;/em&gt;. Many people know that smoking is bad for you, but they do it anyways. However, if they are better educated about the specifics of the harms of smoking, then they would be more likely to quit. Thus, being better educated about the benefits and harms of a particular habit helps us overcome irrational behavior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there a name for this phenomena?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28478" LastEditorUserId="28478" LastEditDate="2021-05-09T21:17:27.593" LastActivityDate="2021-05-09T21:17:27.593" Title="Name of phenomena that knowledge informs habits" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27017" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="27019" CreationDate="2021-05-09T19:45:15.417" Score="1" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm looking for a fairly large (250+ people) study that gives the raw mean and sd of the 5 different big 5 personality traits (using whatever scale they choose in that paper) or just gives the raw data that I can use to calculate those values. I don't mind if it's split up into men and women as I already have data for the differences but I can't find any about the underlying distributions for each of the personality traits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance, please ask if any clarifications are required&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28480" LastActivityDate="2021-05-10T10:33:09.250" Title="Big 5 personality traits means and SD" Tags="&lt;big-five&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27018" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26891" CreationDate="2021-05-09T22:22:24.380" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_inference&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Causal inference&lt;/a&gt; is about making inferences about how causes lead to effects. If you have a generative model of the world, you have made some inferences about what will result from some set of conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A &lt;em&gt;prediction&lt;/em&gt;, on the other hand, is a guess you make about the state of the world given some conditions. If your generative model makes predictions that match what you actually observe, you have a good model. However, if you have some prediction &lt;em&gt;error&lt;/em&gt;, you either need to update your estimate of the conditions (as part of a higher-order generative model), or you need to change your model parameters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Let's say you have a room with a light switch and a red light. You notice when the switch is flipped, the red light comes on. Causal inference would lead you to think that the switch causes the light to come on, so in the future when you see the switch flipped you make a prediction that the red light comes on.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If you want you can think about this in terms of a statistical model of the form:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Y = β * X&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;where X is the state of the world, Y is your prediction, and β are the weights in your generative model. Causal inference would be choosing the weights β. Prediction would be obtaining Y given X. If we think about this as a logistic model predicting the probability of red light on (Y) given X (state of switch), our causal inference would lead us to set a very high value for β, which in turn would lead us to predict Y is &amp;quot;on&amp;quot; when X is &amp;quot;switch active&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I do not think &amp;quot;I see a ball about to hit me (X), who threw it (Y)&amp;quot; is a good example of causal inference or predictive coding (if you've gotten this example from some reading I'd be happy to take a look and see if I should revise my thinking). Instead, this would be a case where you have already done causal inference to know that balls flying through the air come from some actor: you know your β, which sets the probability of an incoming ball to very high when X is Greg throws a ball. What you want to do if you don't already know X, though, is to find an X that minimizes your prediction error (Y - Y&lt;sub&gt;actual&lt;/sub&gt;). Your naïve prediction is probably that no balls are flying at you (Y = nothing incoming) given that your naïve X is probably no one is throwing any balls. Once you detect that a ball is coming at you, you have a prediction error (there is an unexpected ball coming at you), a model for the world (balls are thrown by someone), and possible prior states of the world X that produced the incoming ball. You can choose the optimal X by minimizing your prediction error, using your generative model (prediction). If you set X to &amp;quot;Greg throwing ball&amp;quot; and that results in a Y that matches your observation, you update the state of the world to say that Greg threw a ball in the recent past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-05-09T22:22:24.380" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27019" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27017" CreationDate="2021-05-10T10:33:09.250" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;Means and SDs are going to vary based on the specific personality measure, the measurement context, and the sample.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Many of the thousands of journal articles that measure Big 5 personality will report descriptive statistics for their measure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In terms of some available raw data for the Big Five.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here is some based on IPIP data:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://openpsychometrics.org/_rawdata/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://openpsychometrics.org/_rawdata/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are a bunch of repositories with Big 5 data:&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/4mruh/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/4mruh/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/4mruh/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/4mruh/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/62gs7/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/62gs7/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/cwbgv/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/cwbgv/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/daext/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/daext/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/qjd48/files&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/qjd48/files&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/qk4r9/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/qk4r9/&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://osf.io/qk4r9/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/qk4r9/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="52" LastActivityDate="2021-05-10T10:33:09.250" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27020" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-10T10:37:58.233" Score="1" ViewCount="28" Body="&lt;p&gt;Basically the title. Is it possible for a person to experience all or most of the symptoms of (mild) &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;drunkenness&lt;/a&gt;, such as &lt;em&gt;mild sedation and poor coordination&lt;/em&gt;, by purely psychological means and without substance consumption?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I ask this in an attempt to generalize a &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/27011/psychological-explanation-for-uncontrollable-laughter-and-apparent-symptoms-of-d&quot;&gt;previous question&lt;/a&gt; I asked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Related: &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/questions/3848/can-a-person-be-hypnotized-to-act-drunk&quot;&gt;Can a person be hypnotized to act drunk?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25376" LastActivityDate="2021-05-10T10:37:58.233" Title="Can drunkenness be induced without substance consumption?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;hypnosis&gt;&lt;alcohol&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27024" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-11T14:14:52.880" Score="1" ViewCount="17" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30623972/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Secretive eating is characterized by eating furtively and concealing the act and evidence of eating.&lt;/a&gt;&#xA;It is recommended to follow up what is eaten in order to prevent eating. However, people hide what they eat from others, not themselves. In this context, what methods can be applied against secretive eating?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28496" LastActivityDate="2021-05-11T14:14:52.880" Title="What can be done against secretive eating" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27025" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-11T19:40:13.810" Score="4" ViewCount="26" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've recently read this study &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/bdi.12453&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;An investigation of mental imagery in bipolar disorder: Exploring “the mind's eye”&#xA;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;One interesting thing in it is that &amp;quot;the BD group performed worse on the verbal fluency test&amp;quot;. This goes directly in opposition to the general belief of BD being related to good verbal skills. This is something I considered fact as BP seems to be fairly common in professional writers. I can't find the source but I remember I once read that about 20% of writers had BP. It seems like an exaggeration and something quite impossible to measure, but my point is that the myth is strong and sometimes even includes statistics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am under the impression that these verbal skills might come from a more visual approach in a BP mind. What we can tell for certain from this study and others is that a strong tendency towards mental imagery seems to have some relation to emotion. &amp;quot;Overall, our study indicates that mental imagery characteristics representing features of greater emotionality and intensity (e.g., greater intrusive imagery impact, vividness of negative images, and sense of realness of images) may represent a marker for general emotional psychopathology and general functioning&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am particularly interested in the way the whole cognition can be affected by this. Some people claim to be very visual, while others don't. I am thinking of, not only memory but also on-the-go conceptualization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What I wonder is how this relates to aphantasia. I believe they have it easier to overcome emotional distress. My question is pretty straight forward, though. Is it possible to have both BD and aphantasia? It would also be interesting to know how aphantasia relates to other disorders or even common phenomena such as anxiety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28337" LastActivityDate="2021-05-11T19:40:13.810" Title="Is it possible to have bipolar and aphantasia?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;visualization&gt;&lt;bipolar-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27026" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-12T04:01:50.317" Score="0" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;What nutrients are involved in the physical process of memory formation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another way of asking this might be: What nutrients can be removed from the diet without adversely affecting memory formation and/or recall?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11010" LastEditorUserId="11010" LastEditDate="2021-05-16T05:53:04.523" LastActivityDate="2021-05-16T05:53:04.523" Title="What nutrients are involved in memory formation?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27028" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-13T03:02:43.880" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Do people with sociopathy, neuroticism need medical attention? I thought people with dark traits don't need medication unless it causes them to have problem functioning in society like working with other people and getting along with their colleagues. Most DSM V definitions seem to suggest that they're not conditions that need medical attention unless it does cause them difficulty functioning. I am correct in saying this, how am I wrong if I am wrong?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28504" LastActivityDate="2021-05-13T03:02:43.880" Title="Do people with sociopathy, neuroticism need medical attention?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;&lt;psychiatry&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27029" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="27073" CreationDate="2021-05-13T04:47:05.120" Score="3" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;What prevents my brain from holding the same thought forever, like a frozen computer?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;How do neurons terminate a firing pattern and move onto the next?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28505" LastActivityDate="2021-05-22T07:25:07.503" Title="Neurologically, how does a thought terminate?" Tags="&lt;neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27032" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-13T11:58:07.960" Score="0" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;According to Merriam-Webster, the definition of &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/lose%20faith%20in&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Lose Faith In | Definition of Lose Faith In by Merriam-Webster&quot;&gt;Lose Faith In&lt;/a&gt; is:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;to no longer believe that (someone or something) can be trusted&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example: lost faith in government, in love, in humanity, in oneself, in life, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this the same with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Learned helplessness - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;Learned Helplessness&lt;/a&gt;? Or at least a type of it? Because learned helplessness can be classically conditioned, which &amp;quot;lose faith in&amp;quot; doesn't seem to imply. However, it seems that learned helplessness can also be occurred solely in one's belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If I don't believe that I can have any chance to become the president of the USA, am I having learned helplessness? If I think there is a small possibility, but it's just too small that it isn't worth my effort to try, so it's just simpler to say that I don't have any chance, am I having learned helplessness?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;Related:&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/26617/12937&quot;&gt;Does the “learned” in “learned helplessness” refer specifically to behaviorism's conditioning?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/19208/12937&quot;&gt;How does one escape learned helplessness?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&#xA;• &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/q/25863/12937&quot;&gt;What is the difference between conditioning and learning?&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastActivityDate="2021-05-13T11:58:07.960" Title="Is losing faith the same with learned helplessness?" Tags="&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;belief&gt;&lt;trust&gt;&lt;learned-helplessness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27034" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26567" CreationDate="2021-05-13T13:54:32.333" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There isn’t a new model, exactly, since as the poster stated, the brain doesn’t operate as a model and earlier versions of brain structures simply modify themselves to evolve— it’s one brain. Meaning, one’s “lizard brain” is actually just a mammalian brain now. The new model perhaps is The Human Brain? But given that the Triune model was most popularized by lawyers needing it for defense against emotional (irrational) behavior and psychologists adopted it for explanation of emotional dysregulation, then likely the best replacement is theory about emotion. Emotions are not well understood, and there are several theories about them, but the latest and most provocative development is the Theory of Constructed Emotion. See Barrett-Feldman et al.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28509" LastEditorUserId="28509" LastEditDate="2021-05-13T14:01:50.317" LastActivityDate="2021-05-13T14:01:50.317" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27035" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-13T14:08:01.683" Score="3" ViewCount="32" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am curious to know that what kind of psychological factors influence serial cheaters. Infidelity or adultery both are considered immoral in majority of civilized societies around the world. But it doesn't stop here In many societies its generally believed that cheaters don't change their behaviour easily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once a cheater always a cheater.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also did some research and know that cheaters have narcissistic personality disorders. They think that they are the most beautiful or important people around.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any other factors which may effect the behavior of serial cheaters?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm thinking of factors like oppression at home, overly strict parents, childhood trauma, etcetera.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What kind of kicks may change their behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="21856" LastActivityDate="2021-05-16T19:46:10.007" Title="Psychology of cheaters" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;personality-disorder&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27037" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-13T20:21:25.300" Score="1" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;I believe the game of Go is heavily dominated by spatial IQ. Not sure about chess. Can you explain why or why not?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28271" LastActivityDate="2021-05-13T20:21:25.300" Title="Is spatial IQ the main form of intelligence required to play board games like Chess and Go?" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;spatial-cognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27040" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-15T02:30:53.967" Score="2" ViewCount="46" Body="&lt;p&gt;Recently, I’ve been curious if there’s any relationship between someone committing war crimes and previously viewing them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;For example, the War in Afghanistan is considered asymmetrical warfare, where the enemy has no rule book in regards to international law, and the soldier has the international law as well as their own set of rules of engagements (RoE) to follow. As time goes on, many of their comrades are wounded or killed from seemingly preventable things if they didn’t have to follow a set of rules of engagement while the enemy were ignoring them (using children in wars, indiscriminate weapons, hiding in civilian crowds).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Considering this then, is there a link between longer exposure to ‘dirty’ war fighting (not following international law) and the ability to carry out said rules of engagements without emotional compromise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It seems logical that as you witness warcrimes committed against yourself or the people around you, that the chances of you breaking your own RoE to have a (relatively) fair playing field against the enemy starts to increase. Particularly for soldiers in sustained combat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I don’t really have any research on this from what I’ve tried to find. I’m a mechanical engineer by trade so probably way out of my depth, so if there are good places to look for this kind of material, I’d be happy to have it sent to me. Any thoughts on this would be appreciated too!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28517" LastEditorUserId="21" LastEditDate="2021-05-21T07:06:49.177" LastActivityDate="2021-05-21T07:06:49.177" Title="Is there a relationship between viewing and committing war crimes" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;behaviorism&gt;&lt;military-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="7" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27041" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27040" CreationDate="2021-05-15T13:59:38.040" Score="-1" Body="&lt;p&gt;It may have to do more with the group norms and what they deem as acceptable behavior, this might be what drives actions that go against established rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There was a very limited study from a few years ago that looked at how members of a paramilitary group in Columbia evaluated situations morally, the findings illuminate some cognitions in the group, that might provide some insight into breaking RoE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the study, &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0118&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Baez et al. (2017)&lt;/a&gt;, show that what might be driving cruel behaviors in this group is that their moral reasoning is skewed, where their cognition seems to gravitate towards an &amp;quot;ends justify the means&amp;quot; approach. The paramilitary members stood out from a comparison of criminals, in that the paramilitary members viewed accidental harm as more heinous than intentional harm. The intentional harm being quite cruel, with their actions meant to cleanse the streets of vulnerable people (drug addicts, homosexuals, prostitutes, and the homeless). The group's cognition seemingly dictated by their own moral norms which they then adapt to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A note on the study is only one particular paramilitary group was investigated, so the generalizability of the results is uncertain, the findings may only apply to this particular group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reference:&#xA;Baez, S., Herrera, E., García, A. M., Manes, F., Young, L., &amp;amp; Ibáñez, A. (2017). Outcome-oriented moral evaluation in terrorists. &lt;em&gt;Nature Human Behaviour, 1&lt;/em&gt;(6), 0118. doi:&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0118&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;10.1038/s41562-017-0118&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="24990" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-21T04:11:42.770" LastActivityDate="2021-05-21T04:11:42.770" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27042" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-16T08:32:24.507" Score="0" ViewCount="9" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have seen this paper about &lt;strong&gt;smelling a music&lt;/strong&gt; and become more curious to scrap internet data about music and smell and seen the below part of this post via &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.reddit.com/r/Synesthesia/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Synesthesia reddit forum&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I second this. Sometimes my ability to smell/visualize/taste sound&#xA;depends on how I’m feeling physically/emotionally. I could be walking&#xA;down the street and someone passing by me will say a word and I’ll&#xA;taste it, and other times I could be listening to my favorite music&#xA;all by myself and get nothing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8rU9W.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/8rU9W.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;based of my information and experiences I guess:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The &lt;strong&gt;smell part&lt;/strong&gt; and some &lt;strong&gt;other feeling&lt;/strong&gt; part of humans must have &lt;strong&gt;more neural network cells connection&lt;/strong&gt; at  the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-23051-9&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;brain functional system map connection&lt;/a&gt; ( or &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopfield_network&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;hopfield network&lt;/a&gt; connection at engineering brain simulation)&#xA;So, I tried to scrap the psychology data about unusual smell situation , by this tag:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.com/search?q=Can%20you%20smell%20music%3F%20schizophernia%5D&amp;amp;tbm=isch&amp;amp;ved=2ahUKEwiosLr92s3wAhUCYBoKHa4ZAVIQ2-cCegQIABAA&amp;amp;oq=Can%20you%20smell%20music%3F%20schizophernia%5D&amp;amp;gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1COk1lY1bpZYPK6WWgAcAB4AIABgwaIAd8YkgENMC44LjIuMC4xLjAuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&amp;amp;sclient=img&amp;amp;ei=Bs6gYKiVDoLAaa6zhJAF&amp;amp;bih=983&amp;amp;biw=1866&amp;amp;hl=fa#imgrc=gu-T0XjYP8lXLM&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Can you smell music? schizophrenia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But not found any clear data. So if possible i like to know about well known &lt;strong&gt;symptom&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;human disease&lt;/strong&gt; (like &lt;strong&gt;schizophrenia&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;deep depression&lt;/strong&gt; or ...) about &lt;strong&gt;huge felling&lt;/strong&gt; ( like smell) Vs &lt;strong&gt;music&lt;/strong&gt; and the situation with these phenomena happens ( like stress or ...), and some English tag to find some papers about this kind of brain functional connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="20869" LastActivityDate="2021-05-16T08:32:24.507" Title="About condition which music Smell (Synesthesia)" Tags="&lt;music&gt;&lt;biofeedback&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27043" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-16T12:22:25.520" Score="4" ViewCount="70" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm now doing some city management related research and wondering about the idea of high crime areas. Well, the above phrase is a bit extreme. Say, littering, will this kind of behavior occur more often in areas that is already dirty and has tons of rubbish which should not be there? I believe so, however I searched things like littering, wrong parking and etc. on the internet but mostly news or policy. I'm looking for a scientific theory behind the phenomena and thinking of environmental criminology which I konw nothing about.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any help will be appreciated. New to this site, if anything inapproporiate or unclear, please let me know.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28523" LastActivityDate="2021-05-17T05:43:25.267" Title="littering more often in dirty places?" Tags="&lt;behavior&gt;&lt;criminology&gt;" AnswerCount="2" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27044" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27043" CreationDate="2021-05-16T16:32:44.343" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Tragedy of the commons&lt;/a&gt; is an economic theory (specifically &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;game theory&lt;/a&gt;) that considers both &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/cico.12360&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;littering&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-011-9141-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;crime&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;See:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pires, S.F., Moreto, W.D. Preventing Wildlife Crimes: Solutions That Can Overcome the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’. Eur J Crim Policy Res 17, 101–123 (2011). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-011-9141-3&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-011-9141-3&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cataldi, J. (2019), The Commons: Separating Tragedy and Triumph at a City Park. City &amp;amp; Community, 18: 88-108. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/cico.12360&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/cico.12360&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastActivityDate="2021-05-16T16:32:44.343" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27047" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="27061" CreationDate="2021-05-16T20:19:49.620" Score="2" ViewCount="37" Body="&lt;p&gt;Often when I'm in a public place, I get the intuition that someone is looking at me even when I don't turn or look in that direction or move my eyes. I just have a strong feeling in my heart that someone is gazing at me. I immediately want to turn into that direction and many a times when I do , I do find a person gazing. Sometimes , I don't. Is it me overthinking or some kind of extra vigilant behavior?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28528" LastActivityDate="2021-05-19T00:43:26.697" Title="Why do I often feel that someone's eyes are at me from a far off distance?" Tags="&lt;vision&gt;&lt;eye-movement&gt;&lt;intuition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27048" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-16T23:03:12.907" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Test involves putting a paint mark on a subject of any species, and seeing if it tries to clean the mark when in front of a mirror as a mark of self-awareness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Except the reasoning behind this seems a little too convoluted. Cleaning up might mean having a visual image of the self and what does not belong, but we already have a plethora of receptors and senses dedicated to that. It does not seem to fit Occam's razor to prioritize a tiny bit of visual stimulus from the skin over hundreds of receptors located there as mapping into a construction of the self.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A better association seems to be with self-identity, where the emphasis on maintaining an image &lt;em&gt;others&lt;/em&gt; see. Which even better explains why an ant can pass the MSR test but not a cat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So why is the consensus associating it with self-awareness instead?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="23395" LastActivityDate="2021-05-16T23:03:12.907" Title="Why is the mirror self-recognition test associated with self-awareness?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;self&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27049" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27043" CreationDate="2021-05-17T05:43:25.267" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;After changing some keywords in searching engines, I find the terminology I look for: &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broken_windows_theory&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Broken windows theory&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28523" LastActivityDate="2021-05-17T05:43:25.267" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27050" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-17T16:08:54.897" Score="0" ViewCount="4" Body="&lt;p&gt;The learning rules given in the HeiDI model for Pavlovian learning describe not only the change over time of associations between the neutral/conditioned and unconditioned stimulus, but also the converse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is analyzing the latter useful? How would an association in this direction develop? Additionally, does backward pairing seek to measure association from the unconditioned stimulus toward to the conditioned stimulus, or are these two separate paradigms?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks in advance!&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;HeiDI Paper: &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32271046/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32271046/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25748" LastActivityDate="2021-05-17T16:08:54.897" Title="Understanding US-CS assocations in HeiDI | Backward pairing?" Tags="&lt;conditioning&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27051" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="27063" CreationDate="2021-05-17T16:33:18.493" Score="1" ViewCount="54" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a friend who got a BPD diagnosis by a psychologist. First, I did not believe that psychologist and I told my friend that that's a false diagnosis. He become directly happier. But now when I thinking of it, maybe it's true?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;First of all, he is a really good friend, a happy one. But he have his dark sides. And something tells me that he is a narcissist person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;He cheating on all test and trying to find a way to a successful life. But even if he try to cheat in school and lie in front of other teachers/test/principals, he still not pass the test and get involved in a education. He always fails. He have always dreamed about creating a carrier and become successful and rich. Once he get into an education, he drops out because he feel that it's &amp;quot;to difficult&amp;quot; and then he call the teachers &amp;quot;dumb assholes&amp;quot; for not passing him the test. He had failed school once and now his grades have very low value and there fore, he can only have &amp;quot;simple jobs&amp;quot;. Also he seems to be a person that won't have &amp;quot;advanced&amp;quot; jobs where he need to think and take responsibility.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Every girlfriend that have broke up with him, he curse in their name and blame everything on them for example that they are horrible girlfriends that only using him. Even if he still get a new gf, he still trash-talking his own ex for about 1-2 years. For some reason, he seems to be an expert to be non-single. I don't know why. He's longest record of being single is 6 months.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;He is afraid to be left alone, so he buying a lot of luxury stuffs to his current gf. She treating them like diamonds, but I think that this is the way for him to hold them to him. Giving them stuffs and luxury situations so they they get guilt feelings. Still, he isn't rich, but he have claimed that he are.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When he is single, he is like living with his friends. When he have a gf, he ignore his friends and lie to his other friends that they are ignoring him. He told me once that his other friends &amp;quot;Have not call him or trying to contact him&amp;quot;. I believed him, but then I talked to his other friends, they told me that that's not true. He haven't ignore me though.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;He taking medicine because he feeling paranoid. He like to joke about it and laugh how stupid it sounds, but when I really think of it, I think it's quite dangerous to ignore that the person himself have a diagnosis. He seems to be so much normal when I hanging out with him, but everyone else tells me that he have lack of power and sleeps to much.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;His gf told me that he drinks to much and she don't know why. She also said that he feel so sleepy all the time and have no power at all and according to him, it's his jobs fault. Then I got a flashback &amp;quot;He taking medicine&amp;quot;. I think that he haven't told her that he is on medicine.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;He lies a lot about his wage and social status. If I asking him about his wage, he don't tell me the truth. If he get a new job, he tells me about his job that he is a mini-boss and he control the area. But the real truth is that he is only a junior employee with bad employment contract. But he don't lie about everything. Most of the time, it's truth. But when it comes to wage and working situation, then he is lying about it. He said to me once that he was employed by a large and rich company, but it tends out that was not true at all, he only doing a favor to that company from a smaller poorer company.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;When he was younger, he saw him self as a shining diamond and he told me that he like to &amp;quot;play&amp;quot; girls. He was a real player, because he had a queue of female teenagers who wanted to date with him. That's true. But today, he feel that he have become the &amp;quot;ugly duck&amp;quot; and hide him self from the social life. Back then, he got large plans to become successful and a real professional and everyone who did not have the &amp;quot;style &amp;amp; class&amp;quot; else where addicts according to him.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;He HATES to be revealed and if some one else tells him to &amp;quot;shut up&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;sit down&amp;quot; in a very unpleasant way, he will explode after few hours. I remember it when it happens. Old man slammed him with words and called him an idiot and &amp;quot;worlds dumbest person ever&amp;quot;. My friend got a breakout later at the night. He could not live with it that an old man told him to &amp;quot;shut up&amp;quot; and humiliating him. Actually, it was my friend fault because this happen, not the old man. But my friend could not accept that he was making the mistake.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;He have sometimes lack of empathy for other people. I was working as a phone-sells-man and he said that if and old senile lady would call him to buy a phone, he would not doubt to sell her 5 phones + a TV. He have no problems with lying for other people. He feel so comfortable with it. I can see when he is lying. It not so much these days, but it can happen sometimes. It looks like him self believing on his own voice. I remember when we was young and he told me that we are going to skiing. I was going to ski with him + other friends, but when I was arrived, there was nobody there. Then he have done something else, without calling me. I called him (phone) and asked him where he was. He said &amp;quot;I don't feel to skiing today. I'm want to do something else&amp;quot;. That hurt my feelings back then because he was &amp;quot;dissing&amp;quot; me. Sure, I was like 13 years old then, but still, even when he was 18 years old, he still had the same behavior to romanticize people and ignore people.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;His gf seems to accept everything he does. He drinks a lot and seems not to take responsibility of his social life. I remember when he throws beer cans on the yard and said &amp;quot;My yard...my rules&amp;quot;. He was pretty drunk, but she seems to be so kind to him and stand up for him all the time. I feel sorry for her, she is an angel and so different from him, and I know that these kind of relationship won't last forever.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overall, when it comes to BPD-diagnosis, he don't fulfill all of the criterias, but here are things that I haven't told above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Impulsive, for example buying things or when he drinks to much.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Naive, for example thinking that the life is easy and everything is made by a push-button.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;He is not aggressive, at least not when I hanging out with him.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;He have tried to commit suicide once, when his ex broke up with him. I have never seen he so angry before. He said that everything was her fault. But I know that he is the one who screw it up, as always in his relationships.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;He is my funniest friend ever. I don't know, but he have a such charisma for doing new things and he seems to know what's fun and what's not fun. I really enjoy to hanging out with him. It feel like to haning out with a child sometimes, because I have known him since I was a child and therefore I get all these memories and flashback of good old times. :) The best thing he said to me once that he said that I was the most wisest and smartest friend he ever had. So even if he might perhaps be a narcissist, he still are kind and funny and a glad person.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So is this the case of a normal BPD-behaviour or does he not have BPD and he is only a narcissist? Or is he just a normal person that haven't grown up and never will?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28531" LastEditorUserId="28531" LastEditDate="2021-05-19T08:23:00.383" LastActivityDate="2021-05-23T14:22:27.960" Title="Are all BPD-people narcissist?" Tags="&lt;diagnosis&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" FavoriteCount="1" ClosedDate="2021-05-24T04:31:02.167" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27052" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-17T17:06:50.023" Score="0" ViewCount="43" Body="&lt;p&gt;IQ tests are quite popular, but they seem to be lacking a scientific proof confirming their accuracy of measuring ones intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;No matter how hard I've searched I haven't been able to find a scientific paper proving the result, all I could find was some questionable statistical studies but I am not interested in such, I am looking for a more fundamental proof, one that shows the relation of this test with the actual biological processes in the brain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My guess would be that the only thing IQ tests measure is how good someone is at IQ tests, since one can actually get a good score due to training.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another thing to keep in mind is that, people working in mathematics, physics and related sciences tend to get better scores and this can be explained by the fact that this is what they do, this is their job and they have spent a large amount of time studying patterns, but this however does not mean that they are necessarily smarter that others they are just trained at this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A mathematician for example, given a sequence 2,3,5,7,... can see that the next term is 11 since this is a familiar sequence to him, but to an artist it may not be familiar at all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Having said that, do IQ tests actually measure human intelligence?&#xA;Is there a strict proof that confirms this?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28534" LastEditorUserId="28534" LastEditDate="2021-05-17T20:16:53.340" LastActivityDate="2021-05-17T20:16:53.340" Title="Is there scientific evidence that IQ tests measure intelligence?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="5" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27053" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27052" CreationDate="2021-05-17T17:22:00.530" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;There is no universally accepted definition of &amp;quot;intelligence&amp;quot;, so there is no universally accepted measure of it. An IQ test can be argued to measure specific types of intelligence like pattern recognition, but may completely ignore other types of intelligence like creativity and social intelligence. IQ has been shown to be associated with many factors like income, educational attainment, job performance and incarceration rates, so IQ tests clearly measures something meaningful and associated with many aspects of one's life, but whether you call that &amp;quot;intelligence&amp;quot; is open to debate. It's reasonably well accepted that an IQ test can measure &lt;em&gt;specific kinds&lt;/em&gt; of intelligence, but there is no way to even define, much less quantify, intelligence in a general sense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13850" LastActivityDate="2021-05-17T17:22:00.530" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27054" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-17T17:48:09.067" Score="0" ViewCount="21" Body="&lt;p&gt;Can groups on Whatsapp, Telegram and Discord potentially addictive? They provide powerful social rewards like being constantly connected to a large number of people and endless streams of content. Also they provide fodder for repeated cue reward cycles when you're constantly checking for updates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28536" LastActivityDate="2021-05-17T17:48:09.067" Title="Can Telegram, Whatsapp and Discord groups be addictive?" Tags="&lt;addiction&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27055" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="27056" CreationDate="2021-05-17T22:22:04.873" Score="4" ViewCount="22" Body="&lt;p&gt;The &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6989(75)90196-0&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;article&lt;/a&gt; paramount for my research seems cryptic. It is for visual perception (psychology) and was written 45 years ago. There are a number of sentences hard to 'decypher'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ol&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;'reciprocal of neutral density value required arranged on an inverted scale' [p. 1391]; what does it mean at all? is it about neutral density of optical filters for the stroboscope or something?&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Figure 1 (and others) contains strange mathematical notation (a bar above floating point numbers); is it the old-fashioned way to typeset negative values? are these log relative luminance values? if yes, why isn't it explicitly stated in text and why lower negative values mean 'darker background'? if not, how can it be that higher values mean less contrast?&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xVtsF.png&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://i.stack.imgur.com/xVtsF.png&quot; alt=&quot;enter image description here&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ol&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26997" LastActivityDate="2021-05-17T23:45:33.820" Title="Meaning of a phrase '... reciprocal of neutral density value required arranged on an inverted scale'" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;&lt;recognition&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27056" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27055" CreationDate="2021-05-17T23:12:53.850" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;From earlier in the paper:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The intensity of the flash was controlled by Kodak neutral density filters in the path of the projection beam.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral-density_filter&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Neutral density filters&lt;/a&gt; are those that are intended to filter equally across the visible light spectrum. They're using them to control the light intensity (a lot more common back in the day when it wasn't as easy to control brightness electrically due to the light sources used, though I believe still commonly used in psychophysics experiments and certainly still used in microscopy where we still use some older types of light source). The &amp;quot;reciprocal of neutral density value required&amp;quot; is an effective luminance value, because &amp;quot;more neutral density (filter)&amp;quot; means &amp;quot;less light&amp;quot;, so 1/(neutral density filter) is increasing as light is increasing. It's a unit of convenience since the experimenter knows the strength of their filters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As far as the bars above the numbers, these are clearly to indicate negative numbers though I agree the notation is unusual, it may be a relic of an earlier day in typesetting. There is a more standard notation to indicate the first digit of a logarithm as negative with a bar (see &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overline#Negative&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;; see also &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Citations:vinculum#sense:_horizontal_overline_for_any_purpose&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;here where it is referred to as a &amp;quot;vinculum&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; but again only for some of the digits in a number rather than the whole thing) but that doesn't quite match the usage here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;are these log relative luminance values?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In the figure posted, these are log &lt;em&gt;absolute&lt;/em&gt; luminance values, measured in units of log(foot-Lamberts). Negative logarithms indicate luminance values less than 1 foot-Lambert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;how can it be that higher values mean less contrast?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If the background is brighter, and the stimulus to be detected is a flash of light, then the brighter the background the less the flash will stand out: less contrast between the flash and the background.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2021-05-17T23:45:33.820" LastActivityDate="2021-05-17T23:45:33.820" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27057" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-18T10:31:02.353" Score="0" ViewCount="36" Body="&lt;p&gt;Mark Manson from the article &lt;a href=&quot;https://markmanson.net/fuck-your-feelings&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Fuck Your Feelings&quot;&gt;Fuck Your Feelings&lt;/a&gt; introduces this table of what he calls &amp;quot;meta-feelings&amp;quot;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;div class=&quot;s-table-container&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;table class=&quot;s-table&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;thead&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&#xA;&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;/thead&gt;&#xA;&lt;tbody&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Feeling Bad About Feeling Bad (Self-Loathing)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Excessive self-criticism&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Anxious/Neurotic behavior&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Suppression of emotions&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Engage in a lot of fake niceness/politeness&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Feeling as though something is wrong with you&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Feeling Bad About Feeling Good (Guilt)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Chronic guilt and feeling as though you &lt;a href=&quot;https://markmanson.net/how-to-be-happy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;don’t deserve happiness&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Constant comparison of yourself to others&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Feeling as though something &lt;em&gt;should&lt;/em&gt; be wrong, even if everything is great&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Unnecessary criticism and negativity&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Feeling Good About Feeling Bad (Self-Righteousness)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Moral indignation&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Condescension towards others&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Feeling as though you deserve something others don’t&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Seeking out a constant sense of powerlessness and victimization&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Feeling Good About Feeling Good (Ego/Narcissism)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Self-congratulatory&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Chronically overestimate yourself; a delusionally-positive self-perception&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Unable to handle failure or rejection&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Avoids confrontation or discomfort&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Constant state of self-absorption&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tbody&gt;&#xA;&lt;/table&gt;&#xA;&lt;/div&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is this chart based on any theory? At first it seems like to be the same with &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-emotion&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Meta-emotion - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;meta-emotion&lt;/a&gt;, but reading that I feel like meta-emotion is more about parenting style, and focusing more on feeling bad about feelings (the top quadrants).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Here are the &lt;a href=&quot;https://advice.theshineapp.com/articles/how-to-deal-with-your-meta-emotions-aka-feeling-bad-about-your-feelings/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;How to Deal With Your ‘Meta-Emotions’—aka Feeling Bad About Your Feelings | Shine&quot;&gt;four types&lt;/a&gt; of meta-emotions¹:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Meta-emotions can be classified into four types: negative-negative (e.g., feeling embarrassed about feeling sad), negative-positive (e.g., feeling guilty about feeling happy), &lt;strong&gt;positive-positive (e.g., feeling hopeful about feeling relieved), and positive-negative (e.g., feeling pleased about feeling angry)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The positive-negative and positive-positive emotions in meta-emotion doesn't seem to match with the bottom row of the table (self-righteousness and ego/narcissism). The chart also reminds me more about &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_emotions&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Moral emotions - Wikipedia&quot;&gt;moral emotions&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;sub&gt;¹Quoted from Bailen, N. H., Wu, H., &amp;amp; Thompson, R. J. (2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Femo0000488&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot; title=&quot;Meta-emotions in daily life: Associations with emotional awareness and depression. - PsycNET&quot;&gt;Meta-emotions in daily life: Associations with emotional awareness and depression. - PsycNET&lt;/a&gt; Emotion, 19(5), 776–787.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="12937" LastEditorUserId="12937" LastEditDate="2021-05-26T10:14:03.400" LastActivityDate="2021-05-26T10:14:03.400" Title="Is Mark Manson's meta-feeling table based on any theory?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;metacognition&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27059" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-18T13:21:50.807" Score="1" ViewCount="35" Body="&lt;p&gt;It seems to me that there is a type of Cognitive Bias where someone continues to justify their suffering by claiming it was &amp;quot;meaningful&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;necessary&amp;quot; even in the face of clear evidence to the contrary. What is the name of this type of cognitive dissonance?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Examples could be:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Working long unpaid over time on a project that was completely miss spec'd and useless but insisting it was useful in spite of strong evidence to the contrary.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Justification of participation war in spite of evidence that the war was built on false pretences and had a net, very negative outcome.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Maybe also being a victim of abuse and maintaining that &amp;quot;you deserved it&amp;quot;, when quite clearly you didn't.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Donating to a charity that has been shown to embezzle funds and flatly denying that the funds are used for the good cause you intended.&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The closest I can get to explaining this is the sunk costs fallacy, but instead of investing more time or money, it is the continued investment of &amp;quot;mental energy&amp;quot; to maintain the incorrect position. The function of this is to prevent someone having to accept the truth, and process the trauma of the event.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27387" LastEditorUserId="27387" LastEditDate="2021-05-24T09:14:26.173" LastActivityDate="2021-05-24T09:14:26.173" Title="Type of Cognitive Bias where someone continues to justify their suffering" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="6" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27060" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-18T16:42:28.180" Score="2" ViewCount="29" Body="&lt;p&gt;If a person (say your boss) thinks you are on the same page but you are not. Basically, they believe that you agree with them but you don't. There is a gap between their ability to recognize a dissonance between your view and theirs. I was so sure there was a term to describe this (having never studied psychology). Is there?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Could this be in the area of gaslighting?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28540" LastEditorUserId="28540" LastEditDate="2021-05-20T17:55:08.357" LastActivityDate="2021-05-20T17:55:08.357" Title="What is the psychological explanation for misrepresented common understanding?" Tags="&lt;communication&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27061" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27047" CreationDate="2021-05-19T00:17:12.503" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's a history of being amazed at similar ability that has led to some extra-scientific theories about it (see for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychic_staring_effect&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;psychic staring effect&amp;quot;&lt;/a&gt; on Wikipedia).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A better explanation is that &lt;em&gt;gaze is very important to survival in the environment&lt;/em&gt;, and even more so for social species like humans. Even infants show sophisticated gaze detection behaviors (see Farroni et al 2002). Humans and other animals that are looking at you might be interested in eating you, fighting with you, or mating with you (see Emery, 2000). It's important to detect gaze from the entire visual field (including the edges of vision in the periphery) because you don't necessarily know where threats or opportunities may come from. You don't need to be seeking out gaze to notice it, just like you don't have to look for a brightly flashing light or an object moving towards your face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Gaze detection is pretty ubiquitous among animal species with sophisticated visual systems. A previous asker at Biology.SE asked this question: &lt;a href=&quot;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/95366/&quot;&gt;https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/95366/&lt;/a&gt; after noticing birds who were quite tolerant of others in their environment &lt;em&gt;until they were looked at&lt;/em&gt;, at which point they flew off.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;hr /&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Emery, N. J. (2000). The eyes have it: the neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze. Neuroscience &amp;amp; biobehavioral reviews, 24(6), 581-604.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Farroni, T., Csibra, G., Simion, F., &amp;amp; Johnson, M. H. (2002). Eye contact detection in humans from birth. Proceedings of the National academy of sciences, 99(14), 9602-9605.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastEditorUserId="14382" LastEditDate="2021-05-19T00:43:26.697" LastActivityDate="2021-05-19T00:43:26.697" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27062" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-19T11:30:31.680" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;In my field of work (Manufacturing), I've noticed this behavior quite often.&#xA;It doesn't matter how much resources they have, if they are under pressure, most people will try to solve a specific problem the fastest way possible, without taking the time to look for better alternatives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;While it might not apply to everyone, I've seen this pattern often enough to wonder if there's some studies around this particular subject ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any documents that could help me understand would be really appreciated !&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28545" LastEditorUserId="7854" LastEditDate="2021-05-19T17:51:48.797" LastActivityDate="2021-05-19T17:51:48.797" Title="Given a limited amount of time and an unlimited access to resources. Do the majority of people tend to solve a problem the &quot;quick and dirty&quot; way?" Tags="&lt;problem-solving&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ClosedDate="2021-05-20T06:50:34.423" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27063" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27051" CreationDate="2021-05-19T13:12:37.813" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;No, not all people with BPD are narcissist. However, BPD is linked to lowered empathy according to a scientific &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/08/150829123819.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;study in 2015&lt;/a&gt; from the University of Georgia, with &amp;quot;lowered brain activity in regions important for empathy in individuals &amp;quot;. This could explain some of your friend's behavior, especially the girlfriends breaking up with him since &amp;quot;those with borderline personality disorder, or BPD, a mental illness marked by unstable moods, often experience trouble maintaining interpersonal relationships.&amp;quot; according to the study.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It may be possible for someone with BPD to get treatment to be a better person, but that usually requires &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/borderline-personality-disorder/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20370242&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;psychotherapy and/or medication (though medication mostly treats behavioral systems like impulsiveness or aggression&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25157" LastEditorUserId="25157" LastEditDate="2021-05-23T14:22:27.960" LastActivityDate="2021-05-23T14:22:27.960" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27064" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-19T17:14:59.860" Score="0" ViewCount="12" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is there a word/phrase to describe instances when you meant to write one thing, but write another but when you read it back you interpret it as what you initially meant to write?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I often find that when writing reports there are times when I need to edit (and re-edit) things, however when reading back on the document my mind interprets the edited lines as what I had initially written...but in reality that's not always the case (it might not make full sense, or the meaning could be misconstrued).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A psychologist once informed me there was a term for this, but didn't tell me what it was.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If anyone knows this answer, I'd be ever so grateful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Best wishes,&#xA;Christian&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28548" LastActivityDate="2021-05-19T17:14:59.860" Title="Is there a word/phrase to describe instances when you meant to write one thing, but write another but read back as what you initially meant to write?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;terminology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;language-processing&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ClosedDate="2021-05-26T18:04:09.147" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27065" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-19T17:35:06.933" Score="1" ViewCount="30" Body="&lt;p&gt;I’m a pretty rational person. Maybe that’s why I don’t bet often (I can count my bets on one hand...)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;But whenever I have bet, I usually bet &lt;em&gt;against&lt;/em&gt; what I want to happen (e.g. my favourite football team winning), so I get some “compensation” for something I didn’t want to happen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have Googled this phenomenon quite a bit but not found any info (problem is, you mostly reach betting sites!)&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any psychological research into “betting against what you want, to gain “compensation””?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7854" LastActivityDate="2021-05-19T17:52:41.547" Title="Psychology of betting against a desired outcome as “compensation”" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;reward&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="4" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27066" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27065" CreationDate="2021-05-19T17:52:41.547" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;This is related to the concept of utility of outcomes, as well as the idea of &lt;em&gt;hedging&lt;/em&gt; in gambling. When you have a favorite sports team that you want to win, it's very similar to implicitly placing an emotional &amp;quot;bet&amp;quot; - if your team wins, you gain positive utility, while if they lose, you get negative utility. By betting against your desired outcome, you are &lt;em&gt;hedging the bet&lt;/em&gt;, which is a way of betting on &lt;em&gt;both&lt;/em&gt; outcomes such that you can guarantee a profit, or at least minimize your losses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By betting for your favorite team, you have an all-or-nothing outcome - you'll either be happy with the outcome and win cash (both good), or be unhappy with the outcome and lose cash (both bad). By betting against your favorite team and hedging your bet, you'll have a more moderate outcome no matter what - you'll either be unhappy but win cash, or be happy and lose cash. Whether hedging a bet is worthwhile will come down to your level of risk aversion, as well as the utility you assign to the cash, a win, or a loss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="13850" LastActivityDate="2021-05-19T17:52:41.547" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27067" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-19T21:12:19.827" Score="1" ViewCount="18" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am trying to find some academic paper or the internet posts about &lt;strong&gt;The effect of concentration and type of odor (irritating or relaxing) on the willingness of customers for buy&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So I searched the above terms on the Google scholar and found the below results:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=fa&amp;amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;amp;q=The+effect+of+concentration+and+type+of+odor+%28irritating+or+relaxing%29+on+the+willingness+of+customers+for+buy&amp;amp;btnG=&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The effect of concentration and type of odor (irritating or relaxing) on the willingness of customers for buy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, if possible, I am trying to find out, does the &lt;strong&gt;higher level of fragrance&lt;/strong&gt; (odor) on the shopping place, &lt;strong&gt;decrease the Buyer understands the price range&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Thanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25925" LastActivityDate="2021-05-19T21:12:19.827" Title="About the relation of the smell and costumers willing to buy (Neuromarketing Field)" Tags="&lt;correlation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27069" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-20T13:11:27.063" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;In a &lt;a href=&quot;https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF03395543&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;2006 paper&lt;/a&gt; on Strategic Management Simulation (SMS) it is stated that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;SMS performance data are collected via a simulated real-world equivalent&#xA;task where the participant is able to engage in various self-generated and&#xA;sequential actions across several hours to deal with an interrelated flow&#xA;of concurrent problems. Participants perceive the simulated setting as&#xA;quite realistic and meaningful. As often paralleled in real life, the simulated&#xA;task continues over a sustained period of time (for example, to allow for&#xA;sequencing, planning, development of strategy, etc.). In contrast to several&#xA;other assessment approaches, the SMS allows participants to respond in&#xA;relevant, creative, and/or diverse ways to specified contextual demands&#xA;and to more open-ended challenges that are provided by a computerpresented&#xA;scenario. Participation in SMS requires a 3- or 4-hour period.&#xA;Before starting the simulation, participants are given a manual about the&#xA;situation they are about to encounter. They view a video &amp;quot;newscast type&amp;quot;&#xA;presentation about current and prior relevant events in their task setting.&#xA;Maps and relevant props are provided. [...]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Participants can engage in any actions/decisions that they view as&#xA;relevant. They can initiate actions or continue action sequences at any&#xA;point in time. In contrast to many other research settings (for example&#xA;&amp;quot;microworlds&amp;quot; and most paper-and-pencil tests), a participant need not&#xA;wait for computer-provided information before engaging in an action, and&#xA;need not respond to each information item. Action/decision texts generated&#xA;by a participant are entered into the simulation computer (together with&#xA;received information that led to the action, if any, relevant prior participant&#xA;actions, and future plans, if any). Entered texts are translated into six digit&#xA;numerical computer codes that are later used by the system to calculate&#xA;performance scores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Performance is computer scored and calculated, eliminating potential&#xA;sources of bias that are often introduced in other (observer or participant&#xA;based) simulation measurement systems. The simulation generates&#xA;data indicating how a participant manages multiple and sequential task&#xA;components under normal (routine) conditions as well as in emergency&#xA;situations. Scores on nine measures of functioning allow performance&#xA;comparison between different simulation participants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Although the correlation of SMS-generated measures with other tests, including earlier and later WAIS intelligence test formats, are low (.27 or lower) predictions of real-world success [e.g., (a) income at age, (b) job level at age - both corrected for industry and location, (c) number of promotions over a fixed time period, (d) number of supervisees as well as (e) 360 degree success ratings (cf. Streufert et aI., 1988; Streufert &amp;amp; Swezey, 1986)] are four times as high as predictions of success via intelligence measures.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Those are pretty bold claims in the para I've highlighted. (They pretty much claim the golden goose for employment tests, among other things.) Also they claim high test-retest reliability for SMS of 0.92.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'll note that while this paper is fairly obscure (a handful of citations), and apparently so is an earlier one from [roughly] the same authors (SATISH, U. , STRUFERT, S., &amp;amp; ESLINGER, P. J. (1991). &amp;quot;Simulation-based cognitive rehabilitation following mild-moderate head injury&amp;quot;. Journal of the&#xA;International Neurological Society, 7,174-175.) some subsequent papers applying SMS to detect the effect of environmental effects [instead of head injury] on SMS performance have been fairly cited--like &amp;gt;600 citations for &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3548274/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;one on CO2&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I honestly hand't heard of SMS style tests until I ran into these [latter] bunch of papers, all from the same group (or at least Satish being a co-author).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I'm really intrigued by the fact that SMS has low correlation with WAIS though. So, do such style of management games/simulations &lt;em&gt;generally&lt;/em&gt; correlate poorly with WAIS, and even with [any of] its subscales? Do such management games correlate really not correlate well with any other cognitive tests? The quote essentially claims they are unique and basically &amp;quot;untestable&amp;quot; in any other [known] way... That kind of claim is repeated in more recent papers of Satish et al., &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6584569/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;e.g.&lt;/a&gt;  (2019):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The SMS is unique in that it assesses the process of adaptive decision-making (planning, execution, and monitoring), whereas other psychometric tests typically assess individual or more limited sets of executive functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Seldom does one find things/tests in psychology that don't correlate with anything else though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9769" LastEditorUserId="9769" LastEditDate="2021-05-20T13:50:27.007" LastActivityDate="2021-05-20T13:50:27.007" Title="Does performance in management simulation games (SMS-like) generally correlate poorly with WAIS? Does it correlate highly with any other tests?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;test&gt;&lt;io-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27070" PostTypeId="1" AcceptedAnswerId="27074" CreationDate="2021-05-21T19:30:10.323" Score="1" ViewCount="34" Body="&lt;p&gt;In the book &amp;quot;Healing the shame that binds you&amp;quot; by John Bradshaw (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Healing_the_Shame_that_Binds_You/eWijAgAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;amp;gbpv=1&amp;amp;dq=healing%20the%20shame%20that%20binds%20you&amp;amp;pg=PA10&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;link to Google Books sample pages&lt;/a&gt; - scroll to page 10), there is a section about healthy shame and it's described how healthy shame looks like for different age groups/how it progresses or advances with age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Shame as shyness&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Once basic trust has been established, the child's feeling of shame emerges.  The first appearance of the feeling of shame usually occurs at about six months. At that age, a child has become familiar with his or her mother's face. When a strange face (maybe a relative seeing the baby for the first time) appears, the infant experiences shame as shyness in looking at the strange face.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some children are temperamentally shy and withdrawn. But all of us experience some shyness in the presence of what is unfamiliar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It's written that in age of like 6 months, infant is accustomed to primary caregiver's face and experiences shame as shyness when somebody unknown looks at infant and he/she sees this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why does infant experiences shame when some unknown face looks at him/her?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;And why shyness is shame?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bradshaw, J. (2005). &lt;em&gt;Healing the Shame That Binds You (Expanded and Updated Edition): Recovery Classics Edition.&lt;/em&gt; Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, Inc. ISBN &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gettextbooks.com/isbn/9780757303234/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;978-0-7573-0323-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28563" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-22T06:56:47.917" LastActivityDate="2021-05-22T09:39:57.290" Title="Why infant experiences shame as shyness when some unknown face looks at him/her?" Tags="&lt;emotion&gt;&lt;developmental-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27073" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27029" CreationDate="2021-05-22T07:25:07.503" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm not sure if the neuroscientific community has reached a consensus on what a &amp;quot;thought&amp;quot; is, but it seems you're using it here as synonymous with a neuronal firing pattern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If one models this as an attractor in a dynamical system of a circuit or network of neurons, then I would look into Ichiro Tsuda's concept of &amp;quot;chaotic itinerancy&amp;quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Chaotic_itinerancy&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Chaotic_itinerancy&lt;/a&gt; which gives a formalization for how attractors transition to chaos then to [usually new] attractors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;An important intuitive notion is that attractors dissipate when they become unstable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If a sensory stimulus or a memory or imagination creates a stable pattern of neurons that fire in association with it, then what initiated the firing pattern in the first place seems like it should have something to do with how it destabilizes. There is a causal connection between stimulus and neuronal activity. I believe attention would affect what fires and for how long, and Karl Friston's &amp;quot;free energy principle&amp;quot; seems like a good formalization of how that happens, but I haven't fully studied it myself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There is a counterintuitive observation where neurons adjacent to those of the receptive fields of a sensory stimulus can keep firing for up to 3 hrs after the stimulus (cf. &amp;quot;Plasticity of Receptive Fields in Early Stages of the Adult Visual System&amp;quot; U.T. Eysel, in &amp;quot;Perceptual Learning&amp;quot;, M. Fahl &amp;amp; T. Poggio, eds), so maybe the neuronal substrate of thoughts last longer than they consciously appear to. My guess is they would only last forever if there was nothing else to think about&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27691" LastActivityDate="2021-05-22T07:25:07.503" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27074" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27070" CreationDate="2021-05-22T09:29:29.773" Score="3" Body="&lt;p&gt;When looking at the whole idea you pointed out, it sounded preposterous.  How would a 6 month old infant have any concept of shame? As @BryanKrause pointed out in the comments, there are a lot of self-help books out there which are not based in the sciences of Psychology, but there are some good ones out there, such as Laura Davis' &lt;em&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gettextbooks.com/isbn/978-0-7573-0323-4/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Courage to Heal Workbook&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/em&gt; and John Bradshaw pioneered the concept of the &amp;quot;Inner Child&amp;quot; and brought the term &amp;quot;dysfunctional family&amp;quot; into the mainstream (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gettextbooks.com/isbn/978-0-7499-1054-9/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bradshaw, 1990&lt;/a&gt;) so I thought I would look into this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John Bradshaw is a New York Times Bestselling Author and founding father of the self-help movement (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.johnbradshaw.com&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;John Bradshaw Media Group, n.d.&lt;/a&gt;).  Looking for his qualifications in Psychology, &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bradshaw_(author)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Wikipedia points out that&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;He earned a B.A. degree in Sacred Theology and an M.A. degree in philosophy from the University of Toronto in Canada. Six years after his 1963 graduation, Bradshaw returned to academia at Rice University in Houston, Texas, doing three years of graduate work in psychology and religion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at the sample pages linked, the idea pointed out is in the first section of the book, which is titled &lt;em&gt;The Healthy Faces of Shame (HDL Shame)&lt;/em&gt; with HDL liking the shame to the &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cdc.gov/cholesterol/ldl_hdl.htm&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;HDL (high-density lipoprotein) variety of cholesterol&lt;/a&gt;—the &amp;quot;Good&amp;quot; cholesterol.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;As the quote pointed out is referring to a 6 month old infant, this is in the &lt;em&gt;Interpersonal Bridge: Established Codependence&lt;/em&gt; stage of Bradshaw's Developmental Stages of Healthy (HDL) Shame (Page 9 of the book you linked).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;Bradshaw's Development Stages of Healthy (HDL) Shame&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;div class=&quot;s-table-container&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;table class=&quot;s-table&quot;&gt;&#xA;&lt;thead&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;th&gt;Stage&lt;/th&gt;&#xA;&lt;th&gt;Description&lt;/th&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;/thead&gt;&#xA;&lt;tbody&gt;&#xA;&lt;tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Interpersonal Bridge&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;Established Codependence&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;td&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;6 Months&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br&gt;Once securely attached—shame as &lt;strong&gt;SHYNESS&lt;/strong&gt; appears as a response to being exposed to strange faces&lt;/td&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tr&gt;&#xA;&lt;/tbody&gt;&#xA;&lt;/table&gt;&#xA;&lt;/div&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;When you look at the various models of development stages or &lt;em&gt;life stages&lt;/em&gt;, they can be a matter of opinion and &lt;a href=&quot;https://psychology.stackexchange.com/a/17211/7604&quot;&gt;there are 5 spectrum models of development which theorists – and people in general – often disagree&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gettextbooks.com/isbn/978-1-6062-3523-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Crozier (2010)&lt;/a&gt; points out that:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;page 43&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Research on shyness in the early years tends to draw upon observations of children's behaviour (e.g., Kagan, 2001), whereas studies in later childhood also draw upon self-report questionnaire and interview methods (e.g., Crozier &amp;amp; Burnham, 1990; Crozier, 1995).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;page 47&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;[T]he relations among shyness, shame, and embarrassment are little understood, and there is disagreement as to whether they are versions of the same underlying affect or emotion (Izard, 1977; Tomkins, 1963), or whether they constitute distinct emotional states (Keltner &amp;amp; Buswell, 1997).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Reading this book, and maybe reading the cited texts within, highlights the reason there is so much disagreement and gives a more balanced view on the research behind shame and shyness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Looking at 2 different theories of development of shyness pointed out in &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gettextbooks.com/isbn/978-1-6062-3523-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Crozier (2010)&lt;/a&gt;, one of which is&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;Buss A.H. (1986) &lt;em&gt;A Theory of Shyness&lt;/em&gt;. In: Jones W.H., Cheek J.M., Briggs S.R. (eds) Shyness. &lt;em&gt;Emotions, Personality, and Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;. Boston, MA: Springer. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0525-3_4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0525-3_4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;for the idea that a 6 month old hides in shame when they are shy, I don't have children myself, but when observing my step-grandchildren when they were infants, to me it is still preposterous. As &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0525-3_4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Buss (1986)&lt;/a&gt; points out, the shyness at this age is fearful shyness as they are fearful of someone who essentially is a stranger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Fearful shyness starts during the first year of life, usually during the latter half of the year. Sometimes called stranger anxiety, the reaction occurs mainly when unfamiliar people, usually adults, confront the infant. The typical response is wariness, retreat, and the seeking of comfort in the security of mother's arms; more intense reactions include a cry-face or the crying and shrinking back that characterize fear.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The sense of shame isn't developed until they are (depending on advancement etc.) around 18 months old to 3 years old.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;With the concept of &amp;quot;lockdown babies&amp;quot; (&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.childrenscommissioner.gov.uk/report/lockdown-babies/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;The Children's Commissioner, 2020&lt;/a&gt;), even though some parents may be introducing other members of family to their infants via Zoom, Skype etc. I would imagine that, along with other social issues, there will be more issues with fearful shyness with opening up outdoor spaces to everyone as the Covid crisis lessens.  Not just with strangers approaching, but also through exposure to so many people at once.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;h2&gt;References&lt;/h2&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bradshaw, J. (1990). &lt;em&gt;Home Coming: Reclaiming and Championing Your Inner Child&lt;/em&gt; New York, NY: Bantam Books ISBN: &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gettextbooks.com/isbn/978-0-5530-5793-5/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;978-0-5530-5793-5&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Bradshaw, J. (2005). Healing the Shame That Binds You (Expanded and Updated Edition): Recovery Classics Edition. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, Inc. ISBN &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gettextbooks.com/isbn/978-0-7573-0323-4/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;978-0-7573-0323-4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Buss A.H. (1986) &lt;em&gt;A Theory of Shyness&lt;/em&gt;. In: Jones W.H., Cheek J.M., Briggs S.R. (eds) Shyness. &lt;em&gt;Emotions, Personality, and Psychotherapy&lt;/em&gt;. Boston, MA: Springer. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0525-3_4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0525-3_4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Crozier, W. R. (2010). &lt;em&gt;Shyness and the development of embarrassment and the self-conscious emotions&lt;/em&gt;. In K. H. Rubin &amp;amp; R. J. Coplan (Eds.), &lt;em&gt;The development of shyness and social withdrawal&lt;/em&gt; (p. 42–63). New York, NY: The Guilford Press. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.gettextbooks.com/isbn/978-1-6062-3523-2/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;978-1-6062-3523-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;John Bradshaw Media Group. (n.d.). &lt;em&gt;John Bradshaw&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.johnbradshaw.com/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.johnbradshaw.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The Children's Commissioner (2020). &lt;em&gt;Lockdown babies: Children born during the coronavirus crisis&lt;/em&gt; &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.childrenscommissioner.gov.uk/report/lockdown-babies/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.childrenscommissioner.gov.uk/report/lockdown-babies/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="7604" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-22T09:39:57.290" LastActivityDate="2021-05-22T09:39:57.290" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27075" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-22T20:03:04.420" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I clearly remember a period in my youth where the world looked better, more colorful.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Cartoons and videogames, drawings and pictures seemed higher resolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Around the age of 15 I started noticing more details about the same things I was used to always see...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Some things I have seen for almost an entire decade at this point, so it is improbable that I was simply distracted, and I can clearly remember how things looked like to the smallest details...now they look different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have no idea how to research this, what do I google? What am I even supposed to search?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I only have two hypothesis, maybe my vision got better with age and now I can see the details or actually lack of details in cartoons and various pictures and I can notice the ugly details of the world, maybe this distracts me from the colours making everything look less intense.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I know for a fact that my vision did not get worse as my left eye is now 10/10 like always and my right eye went from 2/10 to 4.5/10. But this is a lazy eye condition and my brain never uses my right eye unless I close my left one. Basically I have always had monocular vision because the right side of my view is just fog therefore my brain ignores it and removes it from my vision. Even if I focused and really wanted it, I can't see with both eyes at once.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My other idea is that maybe as a child everything new just seemed more wonderful to me and my mind just imagined all that extra colour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Are there any sources regarding this situation?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28569" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-23T10:26:11.180" LastActivityDate="2021-05-23T10:26:11.180" Title="Does the way we see the world in vision change with age?" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;&lt;vision&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2021-05-24T04:43:10.213" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27076" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-22T20:14:42.003" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I've heard someone describe having what he calls &amp;quot;flashforwards&amp;quot;: Moments he lives through which he feels like he remembers from before - on some occasions in situations he definitely did not see before. Is there any hard evidence on this or a name for the phenomenon? Is this some elaborate kind of self-deception?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28570" LastActivityDate="2021-05-22T20:55:20.197" Title="Flashforward moments" Tags="&lt;perception&gt;" AnswerCount="1" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27077" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27076" CreationDate="2021-05-22T20:55:20.197" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9j%C3%A0_vu&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Déjà vu&lt;/a&gt; seems to match what you describe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;There are various possible explanations though they are a bit difficult to test since you can't readily activate the feeling in a lab setting. One of them is the idea that in the process of encoding a memory of the event it is simultaneously and erroneously &amp;quot;recalled&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="14382" LastActivityDate="2021-05-22T20:55:20.197" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27078" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-22T21:49:46.967" Score="1" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;The Raven's 2 Clinical Edition developed by Pearson features an item bank comprised of questions numbering in the hundreds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Because of this each test differs from the other with possible combinations of different questions numbering in the millions. This was developed for test security in as well as practice effect mitigation. A friend of mine has taken this test a multitude of times resulting in variable scores with a large spread. He knows he's not supposed to.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The scores of a three month long period are as follows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;code&gt;144, 133, 130, 150, 140, 140, 141, 130, 135&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In that order&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Why is there so much variability in scores?&#xA;Which score most accurately reflects this persons intelligence quotient?&#xA;Is this correctly measured within the confidence interval or margin of error of Raven's 2.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28571" LastActivityDate="2021-05-22T21:49:46.967" Title="What is the Reason Behind This Individuals Variability in Raven's 2 Clinical Edition Scores?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;&lt;iq&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27079" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27059" CreationDate="2021-05-22T22:12:42.867" Score="2" Body="&lt;p&gt;What you're talking about I believe is psychological rationalization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;In psychology and logic, rationalization or rationalization is a defense mechanism in which controversial behaviors or feelings are justified and explained in a seemingly rational or logical manner to avoid the true explanation, and are made consciously tolerable—or even admirable and superior—by plausible means.[1] It is also an informal fallacy of reasoning.[2]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rationalization happens in two steps:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;A decision, action, judgement is made for a given reason, or no (known) &amp;gt;reason at all.&#xA;A rationalization is performed, constructing a seemingly good or logical &amp;gt;reason, as an attempt to justify the act after the fact (for oneself or others).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Rationalization encourages irrational or unacceptable behavior, motives, or feelings and often involves ad hoc hypothesizing. This process ranges from fully conscious (e.g. to present an external defense against ridicule from others) to mostly unconscious (e.g. to create a block against internal feelings of guilt or shame). People rationalize for various reasons—sometimes when we think we know ourselves better than we do. Rationalization may differentiate the original deterministic explanation of the behavior or feeling in question.[3][4]&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;It is important to put emphasis on the notion that rationalization is &amp;gt;exclusively a defense mechanism; as such, it must be a denial of an &amp;gt;idea.[citation needed] Many conclusions individuals come to do not fall under the &amp;gt;definition of rationalization as the term is denoted above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28571" LastEditorUserId="28571" LastEditDate="2021-05-22T22:51:15.643" LastActivityDate="2021-05-22T22:51:15.643" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27081" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="26921" CreationDate="2021-05-23T05:05:30.757" Score="1" Body="&lt;p&gt;The answer to this is most definitely a broad one. This depends on the persons experiences and how they take it all in. The answer before made a good point about happiness is defined differently among everyone. It’s up to you what you connect that with. Most people have a sentimental feeling when thinking about their family some might be completely opposite, maybe it’s because their family aren’t good to them and they were abused before by them or some sort of behavior to leave them with negative memories.&#xA;Life is strange and so are people. We have plenty of studies to explain this and so far people still seem to be lost without direction in their life.&#xA;&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01133&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;great article you should take a look at&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;References&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;FioRito, T. A., &amp;amp; Routledge, C. (2020). Is Nostalgia a Past or Future-Oriented Experience? Affective, Behavioral, Social Cognitive, and Neuroscientific Evidence. &lt;em&gt;Frontiers in Psychology, 11&lt;/em&gt;(1113). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01133&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01133&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28567" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-23T10:12:05.543" LastActivityDate="2021-05-23T10:12:05.543" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27083" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-23T12:24:47.183" Score="2" ViewCount="10" Body="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I know I have included a lot of sub-questions. So any partial answer addressing only parts of the question is also appreciated.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;After seeing a recent post, I came to wonder the possible effects of putting up a social media post on some sad recent life event on the uploader's mental condition. As a non-psychology student, I realise my wording may be a bit vague, so I hope the following examples may help.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Suppose a guy has had a recent breakup in a romantic relationship, and puts up a social media post about it. Or for example, when someone's dear one has recently died, and then the person posts a paragraph/ picture expressing his grief on maybe Facebook or Instagram, or Tweets about it. Or maybe such a post is put up after a job loss.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Would this activity make the person feel better (compared to when people don't put up a post), however 'feeling better' is defined (I would be interested in knowing this too)?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My common sense understanding is that both sides of the argument can be defended. On the one hand, the social media post helps the person release the emotions and at least gives some sense that there is support. So it may help. On the other hand, repeated notifications of comments and reactions of people would only keep on reminding the person of the loss, and make it difficult to forget. So in this case it may hurt.&#xA;But I understand common sense is often not a good guide to psychology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am interested in empirical papers that address this issue. Do the effects differ from culture to culture, is it dependent on age, or class? Also, are there different ways of measuring mental wellbeing that yield different results? Also, if a person often posts on social media to feel better after sad events, will there be an effect on the person's ability to cope with sad events without the help of social media?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am comfortable with Statistics, Econometrics and also some Psychometric methods, so technical papers are also welcome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="25148" LastActivityDate="2021-05-23T12:24:47.183" Title="The effect of putting up a social media post of a sad event on the person's mental conditions" Tags="&lt;social-psychology&gt;&lt;reference-request&gt;&lt;therapy&gt;&lt;happiness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27084" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-23T20:07:31.650" Score="1" ViewCount="38" Body="&lt;p&gt;Is transcendental meditation pseudoscience or it is confirmed by official medical science?&#xA;Does students learn it at study and does it realy helps to cure depression,panic,fear,anexity,some diseases ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Em3XplqnoF4&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Em3XplqnoF4&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28577" LastEditorUserId="28577" LastEditDate="2021-05-24T19:21:06.813" LastActivityDate="2021-05-24T19:21:06.813" Title="Is transcendental meditation pseudoscience?" Tags="&lt;meditation&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27085" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-24T00:31:53.590" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have an early grandmother, over the age of eighty. After speaking to numerous family members that lived with her, my question is likely not from a condition caused by her age. It is also not a case of a hearing problem, vision problem, nor is there any factors involved (such as money) which might make somebody act strange - many conversations are benign in nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Examples of conversations:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Me: Gosh, this area has become so unsafe.&#xA;Grandmother: We have a security guard that walks around though, just on our street.&#xA;Me: Oh, what, really? I never knew. How comes I have not seen him after living here for years?!&#xA;Grandmother: Yep, keeps us well protected, walking along the flat streeet.&#xA;Me: Flat street, we live on a hill? Ohhh, you are talking about another house, in another area of London, where you do not even live.&#xA;Grandmother: -Goes into deadlock confusion state you cannot recover from where she fixates on the security guard despite there not actually being one-&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Another example&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;Me: I went through your emails to tidy them up like you asked, and it seems you have ignored me and sent your credit card number to a fraudster.&#xA;Grandmother: I lost that card though.&#xA;Me: What is the number for that card?&#xA;Grandmother: No idea, I lost it remember?&#xA;Me: So if you lost the card and do not remember the number, how did you give it to the scammer?&#xA;Grandmother: -Goes into deadlock ignorance state where she keeps claiming it was lost-&#xA;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The problem with the examples above, is in each case she convinces herself that this is actually the case, like that there is a security guard and that the card is lost so scammer cannot have it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also fear the occasions where she does this, yet I am unaware of the full picture to identify this weird thing she does.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Bizarre conclusions:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;It might be off topic, but she has a habit of jumping to bizarre conclusions and once again going into a deadlock state. For example, once I called a company to purchase something, and following on from this call my grandmother seemed to believe that from now on all correspondence would happen via telephone instead of receiving letters. I tried to explain, but she went into her deadlock state and said in an autocratic way that from now on all correspondence would happen by telephone. I did ask if she wanted me to call the company back to arrange this, but she was certain that a telephone call from a withheld private number, where I asked a generic question without providing any details meant we would only have telephone correspondence. Honestly, it is like she thinks her car will start to fly because the tires were changed?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Element of stupidity:&lt;/strong&gt;&#xA;There is also an element of stupidity. For example, she used to rant almost daily for several months that &amp;quot;the foxes keep knocking over a plant pot in my back garden&amp;quot;. However, even when I was outside with her, I could never get her to show me where, which plant pot, or how she even knew if it was a fox... After we got burgled, it turned out someone had been jumping our garden fence, picking up this large ceramic plant pot full of earth that I could not lift nor roll along the ground (so no fox or animal could ever manage this), about 4 meters, flipping it upside down, and then using it to climb onto a flat roof. I was even more disgusted that my grandmother was aware we had noticed smoked cigarettes on that roof, and had grown concern we might be dealing with burglars. She could not make the connection, nor even use her arm to point at a plant pot...&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;It gets worse.&lt;/strong&gt; She thinks it is only me that has trouble understanding her, however this is likely because she spends little time around others, and when she does communicate with others they likely do not realise the weird things she does as I explained earlier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Question:&lt;/strong&gt; I would be very interested to know whether there is a term for this weird thing she does, and any ways to help manage a relative that talks this way as it creates utter chaos and confusion. Unless I already know the topic inside out, when she does this it slips past me.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Sorry:&lt;/strong&gt; I was unsure what tags to use and I am new to this field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28580" LastEditorUserId="28580" LastEditDate="2021-05-24T00:41:42.040" LastActivityDate="2021-05-24T00:41:42.040" Title="Is there a term for this style of thinking?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;language&gt;&lt;iq&gt;&lt;speech&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="4" ClosedDate="2021-05-24T04:32:16.310" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27087" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-24T19:01:00.973" Score="1" ViewCount="11" Body="&lt;p&gt;I wasn't sure whether to post this here as it is psychology related, but maybe not in the way most topics here are?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am 22, male, with some anxiety but not to a level that it affects me too much during daily life. I also study Mathematics at Uni and have been surrounded mostly by Maths since I was 16. Unfortunately I cannot comment on how long this has gone on for as I have only noticed it consciously in the past 3-4 years: I often view what I want to say (especially more complicated stuff) as images in my mind, and when it comes to explaining the idea to someone else, I have to &amp;quot;decode&amp;quot; the image (although sometimes it feels like I have the &amp;quot;code&amp;quot; for the image without even having to &amp;quot;see&amp;quot; it) in order to explain my thought process. As well as this, I often have times where my brain just &amp;quot;stops&amp;quot; mid-sentence, and no matter how hard I try I cannot go any further with what I wanted to say because it's &amp;quot;gone&amp;quot;. It generally comes back soon after but I have to &amp;quot;backtrack&amp;quot; through my thoughts to realise where I got lost, and other times I know exactly what I want to say in my mind, but I just cannot formulate it into a sentence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also seem to make connections quickly, so I could for example make a joke to someone that indirectly implies an insult to them (as a joke), such as saying &amp;quot;does your husband do the cooking for you&amp;quot; to a guy to imply he is &amp;quot;girly&amp;quot; (because if I am asking about his husband, by probability he would think I confused him for the wife). Not a joke I make all the time but I needed an example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I also am not the most social person, I enjoy spending time with my girlfriend but apart from this I don't feel I need a lot of company. Also I often do not associate what I am saying with my idea, for example I said &amp;quot;see you later&amp;quot; to my lecturer during our last lecture even though I knew I would not see him again, but for me this was clear, I just wanted to say bye. I was not self conscious when I said this, I just didn't think it of much importance to care about the details.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there something &amp;quot;wrong&amp;quot; with me? I do not feel that I fit &amp;quot;the norm&amp;quot;, and even considered getting tested for Autism, as I believe even as a child (around 4) that I was not the most social person and had a lot of imagination, played on my own and was quite naive, although I didn't mind when someone asked me to play with them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Especially with reference to the first paragraph regarding issues with speech, as I do not see this as normal given how often it occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28583" LastActivityDate="2021-05-24T19:01:00.973" Title="I often visualise ideas and what I want to say as &quot;pictures&quot; in my mind but struggle to express them in a sentence" Tags="&lt;personality&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;behavioural-neuroscience&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2021-05-24T19:05:23.873" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27088" PostTypeId="2" ParentId="27009" CreationDate="2021-05-25T04:36:54.140" Score="0" Body="&lt;p&gt;Brain size isn't necessarily a determinant of intelligence. That notion was a  assumption of neuroscientists of the past, a speculation that lead to many problematic socio-psychological projections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;The size difference of brains might simply match the morphology of the species, but sometimes it doesn't scale so evenly, as with crocodiles, whose brains remain roughly the same size their whole lives even as their bodies grow. I personally wonder if this relates to the hypothesis that brains evolved to meet the need for movement (the &amp;quot;moving hypothesis&amp;quot;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Often larger animals have larger brains to fit their morphology, but they don't necessarily have more neurons. Having more neurons might be the reason for the greater intelligence (or, perhaps a better phrasing, greater cognitive flexibility) of species like &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens&lt;/em&gt;. This hypothesis is explained in detail in Suzana Herculano-Houzel's paper &amp;quot;Brains matter, bodies maybe not: The case for examining neuron numbers irrespective of body size&amp;quot; &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.suzanaherculanohouzel.com/herculano-houzel-2011-anyas/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;http://www.suzanaherculanohouzel.com/herculano-houzel-2011-anyas/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27691" LastActivityDate="2021-05-25T04:36:54.140" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27089" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-25T08:03:35.480" Score="1" ViewCount="7" Body="&lt;p&gt;Tau-equivalent reliability (&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$\rho$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;math-container&quot;&gt;$T$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;), also known as &lt;a href=&quot;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronbach%27s_alpha&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Cronbach's alpha&lt;/a&gt; is a widely used measure of reliability in psychological testing. I've not encountered Cronbach's alpha in other sectors. Does Cronbach's alpha have use-cases outside of psychology?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="26113" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-25T09:20:06.290" LastActivityDate="2021-05-25T09:20:06.290" Title="Is Cronbach's alpha used outside of psychology?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;statistics&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27090" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-25T14:00:44.040" Score="2" ViewCount="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;I am looking for any papers or analysis on the use of a carousel vs. a matrix layout for a likert-style study.  I have the broad impression a carousel is used for images or certain studies where each item is independent, and a question like how much the subject thinks/agrees on some topic. I am interested in understanding the use of this format for ratings of words (e.g. how well do you understand this topic 1-5).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Intuitively (perhaps wrongly), I suspect the carousel would be better than a matrix layout for avoiding influence from surrounding words when evaluating the answer choice.  It also seems easier (less cognitive load) than looking at a massive list of words (&amp;gt;50). It would be nice to have a source for these though.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, in the carousel view, some pilot I did received feedback that people felt their initial answers were off because they hadn't 'calibrated' themselves to understand the scope of what words there would be.  This sounds like a learning effect, but also one that is learning to be more accurate in the answers?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have not been able to find much on this topic, but it could also be the keywords I am using for search. I also searched simply for 'carousel' on this SE, and seemingly no results.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;e.g. I have found &lt;code&gt;Evidence-Based Survey Design: ...&lt;/code&gt; series by SY Chyung.  and &lt;code&gt;Likert-based vs. semantic differential-based scorings of positive psychological constructs: A psychometric comparison of two versions of a scale measuring resilience&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28588" LastActivityDate="2021-05-25T14:00:44.040" Title="How does cognitive load and learning effect compare in carousel vs. matrix views of a likert study?" Tags="&lt;measurement&gt;&lt;experiment-design&gt;&lt;survey&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27091" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-25T19:38:31.487" Score="2" ViewCount="23" Body="&lt;p&gt;I'm studying the phenomenon of acquired savant syndrome, and the literature I've read till now frames it as such (not a quote, just my understanding):&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Savant syndrome occurs when the left anterior temporal lobe (LATL), also known as the left frontotemporal lobe, is underdeveloped. A person may acquire savant syndrome by incurring brain damage or illness in the LATL, such as frontotemporal dementia (FTD) or a head trauma. The reason this can give people savant-like talents lies in the LATL's function. It suppresses details in order to grasp the bigger picture, or rather, the bigger picture relevant to survival. One's brain does notice all the minute details of an animal, but this minutia is not accessible to the conscious mind because the LATL suppresses it in order to efficiently inform the body and mind about whether the animal is dangerous or food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;By diminishing the LATL's ability to function, one diminishes its active suppression of details, allowing for a much more in-depth understanding. What's a bit paradoxical to me is that by suppressing the part of the brain that removes everything but the &amp;quot;big picture meaning&amp;quot; of auditory and visual stimuli, you're able to see the &amp;quot;big picture meaning&amp;quot;, only a different kind. You may be able to see the philosophical, mathematical or scientific big picture (i.e. the implications and position of the stimuli within these fields). Basically, the LATL is concerned with survival and focuses on the implications the stimuli has on this, not allowing for a more abstract perspective on the stimuli. With the LATL working 100%, music would just be a collection of sounds with different danger signalling, but with the LATL not working 100%, the sounds, and their composition, can be abstracted further into the land of non-survival related emotion and they can be abstracted into auditory representations of concepts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Not sure if my understanding is correct. Also, if I'm not mistaken, there is some discussion about whether the LATL sees the bigger picture in relation to survival, or if it sees the bigger picture in relation to social interaction (or both).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, given that this is the reason for acquired savant syndrome; why does OCD often come along with it, why is the communication between the frontal lobe and visual cortex strengthened by injury to the LATL (this is the mechanism which allows those with savant syndrome to visualize and visually remember memories at a greater level) and why is semantic memory devastated with those with FTD. It would make sense to me that injury to the LATL would strengthen semantic memory, given how pieces of semantic memory may gain more significance meaning-wise, since there no longer is a suppression of the nuances in said memory that don't pertain to survival and/or social interaction. Is the destruction of semantic memory only present in people with FTD, perhaps implying that this destruction of semantic memory happens for a different reason that damage to the LATL? Since the part of the brain that (at least potentially) processes the meaning of things relevant to social interaction, does this lower the EQ of people with acquired savant syndrome?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="27450" LastEditorUserId="27450" LastEditDate="2021-05-27T17:50:24.573" LastActivityDate="2021-05-27T17:50:24.573" Title="The full range of implications of LATL damage" Tags="&lt;brain-injury&gt;&lt;social-cognition&gt;&lt;semantic-memory&gt;&lt;savant-syndrome&gt;&lt;survival&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="2" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27093" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-26T15:00:30.103" Score="0" ViewCount="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;There's something that happened with me all over my life, but that became more serious over the past few years. Very oftenly, when I'm typing or handwriting, I end one word with the ending of the next one, the one that I'm thinking of at that moment, even when the typed word doesn't exist. It can happen in pretty much any way. For example, &amp;quot;Julio Alves&amp;quot; is a personal name that I had to type a lot of times lately, and MOST of the times I typed &amp;quot;JULIOS&amp;quot;, which is not a real name, at least not that I'm aware of.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Something similar also happens when I'm reading, I change lines, words; specially - in this case - when this confusion makes sense or when it's a common sequence of words.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28602" LastActivityDate="2021-05-26T15:00:30.103" Title="Is it normal to mix up words' starts and endings while typing / writing?" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;cognitive-neuroscience&gt;&lt;anxiety&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27094" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-26T15:49:31.587" Score="3" ViewCount="42" Body="&lt;p&gt;I was reading on the increased likelihood of mental disorders with high IQ. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bad-news-for-the-highly-intelligent/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Bad News for the Highly Intelligent&lt;/a&gt;.  I'm not sure I buy into the arguments completely but it does make me think that High IQ could be a disorder in itself.  Assuming an average IQ is the optimum operating condition for a healthy brain, any significant deviation from that would mean the brain is operating outside its &amp;quot;designed&amp;quot; parameters.  I imagine it's similar to a cpu running at an increased clock speed.  It will be beneficial for in the short term for the user but wear and tear will take its toll eventually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, I would think that brains working at either extremes low and high IQ would have similar predispositions toward mental illness and would differ only in the types of disorders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;My question is, in practice how does High IQ come into play when treating mental illness and diagnosis?  Some medication has a negative impact on cognition, does that also help in patients with High IQ?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28604" LastEditorUserId="28604" LastEditDate="2021-05-26T21:02:49.843" LastActivityDate="2021-05-26T21:02:49.843" Title="Is High IQ equivalently a disorder like Low IQ" Tags="&lt;intelligence&gt;&lt;mental-illness&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27096" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-26T15:58:35.567" Score="0" ViewCount="6" Body="&lt;p&gt;What I mean is a graph that would either feature:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a histogram of self-reflection distribution in the general population&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;li&gt;a curve reflecting the growth in self-reflection resulting from a therapy or a self-improvement effort&lt;/li&gt;&#xA;&lt;/ul&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I have a hypothesis such a curve should be exponential, as self-reflection &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-2645-8_14&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;allows&lt;/a&gt; one to suppress the self-serving defensive mechanisms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="9165" LastActivityDate="2021-05-26T15:58:35.567" Title="Looking for a study featuring a self-reflection growth/distribution curve" Tags="&lt;bias&gt;&lt;moral-psychology&gt;&lt;self&gt;&lt;self-control&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27098" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-26T17:39:43.677" Score="0" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;I need your help:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Is there any scientific phrase that describes the following situation:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;I am reading the following sentence: &amp;quot;Move A to B&amp;quot; and even that I read it 100 times I see:&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&amp;quot;Move A in B&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;it's because &amp;quot;in&amp;quot; is similar to &amp;quot;to&amp;quot; or it may be that I am used to read that sentence with &amp;quot;in&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28607" LastActivityDate="2021-05-26T17:39:43.677" Title="How you call this case in medicine (reading wrong words)?" Tags="&lt;reading&gt;&lt;optical-illusion&gt;&lt;writing&gt;&lt;similarirty&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="3" ClosedDate="2021-05-27T06:56:14.717" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27099" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-26T19:03:08.217" Score="1" ViewCount="13" Body="&lt;p&gt;Doing my research I found only the influence of social media on psychological behavior [&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.zeetarz.com/Jee/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Influence-of-Social-Media-on-Psychosocial-Behaviour-and-Academic-Performance-of-Secondary-School-Students.pdf&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;Umar2018Influence&lt;/a&gt;]. However, I'm curious about the other way, e.g. how cognitive science shaped social networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28606" LastActivityDate="2021-05-26T19:03:08.217" Title="Influence of social relations defined in the cognitive science on the development of social media" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;social-networks&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="0" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27101" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-27T14:40:08.303" Score="1" ViewCount="16" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose that someone normally sleeps 8 hours continuously once per the 24 hour day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;If they now sleep 4 hours from 12AM to 4AM and then sleep again from 12PM to 4PM, what effects will this have on their long term health?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28271" LastActivityDate="2021-05-27T14:40:08.303" Title="What is the effect to one's health, if any, to divide your total sleep hours into different parts of the 24 hour day" Tags="&lt;sleep&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2021-05-28T15:15:21.720" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27102" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-28T03:17:13.327" Score="-1" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;There are many times when we think that our brain is affected by some problems such as: COPD, physical injuries, sedation, neurotoxicity, etc.&#xA;In all of these we have our brain functioning reduced significantly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;So, is there any simple way to test if our brain is functioning normally after we encounter any of the above mentioned problems? In simple terms, is there any simple test to ensure that our brain is functioning the same way as it I were, before those things.(COPD, physical injuries, sedation, neurotoxicity, etc. )&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Any qestionnaire, or test that we can perform in our homes?, &lt;em&gt;without any medical professional consultation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I think&lt;/strong&gt; a suitable test would be to solve high school mathematical and science questions from school textbooks, which would test our logical, and analytical skills. (This is one such test I think can be helpful).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;If I've not been able to frame this question correctly, please edit it to make it fit for this site. I hope you understood the essence of this question.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28325" LastEditorUserId="28325" LastEditDate="2021-05-28T03:23:55.287" LastActivityDate="2021-05-28T03:23:55.287" Title="How to test if my logical, analytical and critical thinking are normal (and not reduced)?" Tags="&lt;abnormal-psychology&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;brain-development&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27103" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-28T18:53:15.960" Score="2" ViewCount="24" Body="&lt;p&gt;Since at least the late 80's, &lt;strong&gt;overtraining syndrome&lt;/strong&gt; has been extensively studied and discussed in the field of sport medicine. It is know considered as an established entity, yet its pathophysiology remains unclear according to many authors (see for example &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000027&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow noreferrer&quot;&gt;the following review&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;Overtraining syndrome essentialy consists in a decrease in mood and physical performance occurring when an ahtlete fails to cope with high training load, despite adequate rest. In this type of situations, athlete's performance may even decrease, compared with their pre-overtraining level. Decrease in the training load is central in the management of the syndrome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;What strikes me is how this description could also apply to the form of cognitive exhaustion that many students experience during their curriculum. Anyone who has engaged in demanding studies has already felt exhausted, cognitively impaired and depressed during the most difficult times of the year, despite taking enough rest.&#xA;This could suggest that there exists a form of &amp;quot;cognitive overtraining syndrome&amp;quot;, but I cannot find any material dealing with the subject.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Has &amp;quot;cognitive overtraining syndrome&amp;quot; ever been identified as such?&lt;/strong&gt; If so, how extensively has it been studied ?&lt;br&gt;&#xA;Many thanks in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28619" OwnerDisplayName="user47679" LastEditorUserId="7604" LastEditDate="2021-05-29T06:13:44.213" LastActivityDate="2021-05-29T06:13:44.213" Title="Cognitive overtraining syndrome" Tags="&lt;cognitive-psychology&gt;&lt;clinical-psychology&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="8" FavoriteCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27104" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-29T13:25:39.523" Score="-1" ViewCount="14" Body="&lt;p&gt;Suppose I do physical exercise with my left arm only. Say I paint a wall with my right (left) arm. will this reduce my mental abilities related to the right (left) side of my brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="11444" LastActivityDate="2021-05-29T13:25:39.523" Title="Will doing excercise on one side of my body reduce braing functions on the other side?" Tags="&lt;brain&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
  <row Id="27105" PostTypeId="1" CreationDate="2021-05-29T23:35:46.743" Score="-1" ViewCount="8" Body="&lt;p&gt;I have a lot of questions regarding memory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Does recalling a memory constantly weaken or strengthen it?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Are memories about similar things stored in the neural equivalent of their own file cabinet?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Why am I able to remember large amounts of intricate details about various events in my life?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Are forgotten memories “deleted” from the brain?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;•When recalling something specific like the memory of your dad using a hammer to put in a nail; is their a separate part of the brain for your father, the hammer and the wall he hammered in?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Is their a connection between memory and intelligence?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;&lt;p&gt;• Finally, if you lived to be 150; would you run out of space for memory?&lt;/p&gt;&#xA;" OwnerUserId="28624" LastEditorUserId="28624" LastEditDate="2021-05-29T23:41:48.707" LastActivityDate="2021-05-29T23:41:48.707" Title="Can someone explain how memories are stored and maintained?" Tags="&lt;memory&gt;&lt;brain&gt;&lt;long-term-memory&gt;" AnswerCount="0" CommentCount="1" ClosedDate="2021-05-30T02:44:31.593" ContentLicense="CC BY-SA 4.0" />
</posts>